University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Nonhistorical Works Of Rafael Altamira

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The Nonhistorical Works Of Rafael Altamira

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Content This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received 6 7 -3 9 8
CURTIS, Robert Elmer, 1916-
THE NONHISTORICAL WORKS OF RAFAEL ALTAMIRA.
U niversity of Southern California, Ph.D., 1966
Language and Literature, modern
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
© Copyright by
Robert Elmer Curtis
1967
THE NONHISTORICAL W O RK S OF RAFAEL ALT A M IRA
by
R o b ert Elmer C u r tis
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P re s e n te d to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e
R equirem ents f o r th e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(S p a n ish )
Septem ber 1966
UNIVERSITY O F SO U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
T H E G R A D U A T E SC H O O L
U N IV E R SIT Y PA RK
L O S A N G E L E S, C A L IF O R N IA S 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
.................... .J K p h e r.t..S lm s P ...Q ]g ir.tia ........................
under the direction of h.%$...Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
Dean
D ate S .e .p .£ .e m fo a r ....l9 .6 .6 ............
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
...lr£j£Ur£Ju4~
| Chairman
......
....
TABLE O F C O N TEN TS
C h ap ter Page
PART I . INTRODUCTION
I . INTRODUCTION............................................................................ 2
PART I I . BIOGRAPHY A N D W O R K S
I I . ALTAMIRA - THE MAN.............................................................. 9
I I I . ALTAMIRA - THE W R IT E R .................................................... 26
PART I I I . STRUCTURE, THEMES,
IDEAS A N D STYLE
IV. THE N O V E L ................................................... 37
Summary o f th e P lo t
S tr u c tu r e o f th e N ovel
P lo t
C h a r a c te r iz a tio n
S e ttin g
Themes, Id eas and S ty le
Themes
Id e a s
S ty le
V. THE SHORT S T O R Y .................................................................. 106
E l T erruno
Summary o f th e P lo t
S tr u c tu r e o f th e S to ry
P lo t
i i
C h a r a c te r iz a tio n
S e ttin g
Themes
Id eas
S ty le
A fanes
Summary o f th e S to ry
S tr u c tu r e o f th e S to ry
C h a ra c te riz a tio n
E l m u e rte c ito
Summary o f th e S to ry
S tr u c tu r e o f th e S to ry
S e ttin g
P a is a ie
Summary o f th e S to ry
S tr u c tu r e o f th e S to ry
S e ttin g
V I. THE E S S A Y ............................................................................... 163
La d e f i n i t i o n d e L it e r a tu r e
Summary o f th e E ssay
A n a ly s is o f th e E ssay
Los o r ig in a le s
Summary o f th e Essay
A n a ly s is o f th e E ssay
Los i n t e l e c t u a l e s
Summary o f th e Essay
A n a ly s is o f th e E ssay
La l i t e r a t u r a d e l ren o so
Summary o f th e E ssay
A n a ly sis o f th e E ssay
V II. CRITICISM .......................................................................... 213
G aldos v l a H is to r ia d e Espana
Summary o f th e C r itic is m
A n a ly s is o f th e C r itic is m
B lasco Ib an ez , n o v e l i s t s
Summary o f th e C r itic is m
A n a ly s is o f th e C r itic is m
i i i
Una n o v e la d e "A ndre C o rth is "
Summary o f th e C r itic is m
A n a ly sis o f th e C r itic is m
V I I I . S U M M A R Y A N D CONCLUSIONS.............................................. 256
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................ 268
A PPEN D IX ................................................................................................. 275
iv
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
The w r i t e r w ish es to acknow ledge h is g r a t i t u d e to
D r. D orothy McMahon f o r th e encouragem ent and c o u n s e l so
g e n e ro u s ly and p a t i e n t l y g iv e n d u rin g th e p r e p a r a tio n o f
t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . The w r i t e r w ish es to th an k D r. E v e re tt
W . H esse and D r. Rene F . B e lle f o r t h e i r h e lp f u l su g g e s
tio n s and a s s is ta n c e . S p e c ia l acknow ledgm ent i s made to
Dr. L a u re lin o Moreno f o r in fo rm a tio n h e c o n trib u te d co n
c e rn in g R a fa e l A lta m ira .
v
PART I
INTRODUCTION
CH A PTER I
INTRODUCTION
The m ain p u rp o se o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s to p r e s e n t
a stu d y o f th e n o n h is t o r ic a l w orks o f R a fa e l A lta m ira y
C rev ea. H is renown a s th e le a d in g S p an ish h i s t o r i a n o f th e
tw e n tie th c e n tu ry h as o b scu red a l i t e r a r y t a l e n t o f m e r it.
An a n a ly s is o f th e id e a s , them es and p ro se s t y l e in t h i s
a r e a r e v e a ls an a r t w hich p la c e s him a lo n g s id e th e men o f
l e t t e r s o f th e G e n e ra tio n o f 1898. A man o f v a s t e r u d itio n
and g r e a t p r o d u c tiv ity , h i s w r itin g s em brace a v a r i e t y o f
g e n re s and s u b je c ts .
The f o u r works s e le c te d f o r t h i s stu d y r e p r e s e n t
th e p o p u la r p ro s e ty p e s o f h i s g e n e ra tio n and th o s e w ith
w hich A lta m ira was m ost f a m il ia r : th e n o v e l, th e s h o r t
s to r y , th e e s s a y and c r i t i c i s m . The s p e c if ic w orks to be
• I * 2
a n a ly z e d a r e : Renoso. C uentos de mi t i e r r a . P s ic o lo e ia
^"Rafael A lta m ira , Reposo (B arce lo n a, 1903).
9
R a fa e l A lta m ira , C uentos de mi t i e r r a (M adrid,
192 5 ).
3 4
v l i t e r a t u r a , and A rte v r e a l i d a d . The p r e f e r e n c e f o r
th e s e s p e c i f i c l i t e r a r y ty p e s i s u n d e rs ta n d a b le i f one
k eeps in mind th e s i t u a t i o n p r e v a i lin g in S p ain a t th e tu r n
o f th e c e n tu r y .
The d e f e a t o f th e S p an ish f o r c e s in 1898, th e f i n a l
and h u m ilia tin g c h a p te r in th e lo n g h i s t o r y o f a once
m ig h ty w o rld pow er, se rv e d to r a l l y th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f
th e day in common c a u s e . The G e n e ra tio n o f 98, a s i t i s
term ed , was t r a i n e d , f o r th e m ost p a r t , u n d er men l i k e
G in er d e lo s R io s, who b e lie v e d t h a t th e answ er to th e
c o u n tr y 's many p e rp le x in g problem s la y p r im a r ily in th e
e d u c a tio n o r r e - e d u c a tio n o f th e S p an ish p e o p le . E d u ca to rs
l i k e M ig u el d e Unamuno, re c o g n iz e d le a d e r o f th e g ro u p , n o t
o n ly u se d th e c la ssro o m to in c u lc a te t h e i r id e a s b u t th e y
a l s o so u g h t a w id e r forum f o r t h i s p u rp o se . Unamuno e x
p la in s h i s modus o p e ra n d i i n th e p ro lo g u e to C. 0 . B u n g e's
La e d u c a c io n :
Tengo m i c a te d r a , p ro c u ro en e l l a , no s o lo e n s e n a r
l a m a te r ia q u e me e s t a encom endada, s in o d i s c i p l i n a r
y a v iv a r l a m ente d e m is alum nos, o b ra r s o b re c a d a uno
^ R a fa e l A lta m ira , P s ic o lo g £ a v l i t e r a t u r a (B a rc e
lo n a , n . d . ) .
4
R a fa e l A lta m ira , A rte v r e a l id a d (B a rc e lo n a ,
1921).
de e l l o s , h a c e r o b ra p ed a g o g ica ; p ero no d e s p e r d ic io
o c a s io n d e h a c e r la dem agogica, de d ir ig ir m e , ya p o r l a
plum a, ya d e p a la b r a a m uchedum bres, de p r e d ic a r , que
es p a ra lo que a c a so s ie n to mas v o c a c io n y mas h onda.
S in ce m ost o f th e g roup w ere n o t p r o f e s s io n a l e d u c a to rs ,
th e y a tte m p te d to in f lu e n c e p u b lic o p in io n th ro u g h t h e i r
w r i tin g s . They d is c a rd e d t r a d i t i o n a l n o tio n s a b o u t l i t e r a
tu r e w hich d id n o t s u i t t h e i r p u rp o se . They a d o p te d ,
g e n e r a lly , a sim p le , more d i r e c t s t y l e o f w r i t i n g .
Inasm uch as t h e i r p rim a ry aim was to re s h a p e
n a t i o n a l th in k in g , p ro s e r a t h e r th a n p o e try was th e m ore
f e a s i b l e means o f com m unication. T here w ere p o e ts among
th e g ro u p , o f c o u rs e , b u t p o e try was se c o n d a ry . In t h i s
c o n n e c tio n , one m ust d i s t i n g u i s h betw een r e g e n e r a tio n
l i t e r a t u r e and m odernism .
An e x a m in a tio n o f th e p ro s e ty p e s d u rin g t h i s
p e rio d r e v e a ls th e n o v e l, th e s h o r t s to r y , th e e s s a y and
c r i t i c i s m a s th e p red o m in an t l i t e r a r y fo rm s. The G ener
a t i o n o f 1898 f r e e l y a l t e r e d th e s e form s to com ply w ith
t h e i r a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s . The n o v e l, th e y b e lie v e d ,
sh o u ld more t r u l y r e f l e c t th e o f te n a im le s s n a t u r e o f
e x is te n c e . The t y p i c a l h e ro o f t h e i r n o v e ls i s a p a s s iv e
^M iguel de Unamuno, La d ie n id a d humana (Buenos
A ir e s , 1944), p . 9 2 .
in d iv id u a l who i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e s b u t seldom r e s o lv e s h i s
p ro b lem s. The h e r o 1s in a c ti o n i s o f te n th e s in g l e t r a g i c
n o te in th e n o v e l. The s h o r t s to r y was f r e q u e n tly b e r e f t
o f d ra m a tic p l o t , d e p ic tin g m e re ly c o l o r f u l la n d sc a p e s and
r e g io n a l cu sto m s. D u ring t h i s p e rio d th e e s sa y becam e a
p o p u la r g e n re . ^ In i t , th e G e n e ra tio n o f 98 found th e
n e a r ly p e r f e c t v e h i c le f o r th e d is s e m in a tio n o f t h e i r
v ie w s. C r itic is m i s s t i l l a n o th e r f i e l d w hich a t t r a c t e d
them . Inasm uch a s th e y had r e j e c t e d th e l i t e r a r y te n e ts o f
th e p re v io u s g e n e r a tio n s , i t i s l o g i c a l t h a t th e y w ould u s e
t h i s means o f d e f in in g t h e i r own.
In a d is c u s s io n o f th e G e n e ra tio n o f 98, p e rh a p s
th e m ost b a s ic p ro b lem i s to d e te rm in e , o d d ly enough, w hat
w r i t e r s a c t u a l l y c o m p rise t h i s g ro u p . The names m ost
commonly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e G e n e ra tio n o f 98 a r e : V a lle -
In c la n , A zor£n, B a ro ja , Unamuno, M aeztu and B en av en te, th e
p o p u la rly -te rm e d V A B U M B g ro u p . Y e t, th e c r i t i c s and l i t e r
a r y h i s t o r i a n s a r e i n d isa g re e m e n t a b o u t th e s e nam es.
A ngel V albuena P ra t^ o m its V a lle I n c la n and B enavente and
^A ngel d e l R io and M. J . B e n a rd e te , E l c o n c e p to
contem poraneo d e E snana (Buenos A ir e s , 194 6 ), p . 13.
^A ngel V albuena P r a t, H i s t o r i a d e l a l i t e r a t u r a
e s p a n o la ( 4 th e d .; B a rc e lo n a , 1 9 5 3 ), I I I , 470.
Q
in c lu d e s A ntonio Machado. P a tt and N ozick in c lu d e V a lle -
In c la n and B enavente and add A ntonio Machado. G u illerm o
D £ az -P laja^ om its B enavente from h is l i s t and in c lu d e s
Ruben D arfo . A ngel d e l r£o and M. J . Benardete'*'® s u g g e st
a v a r i e t y o f names b u t th e n p ro ceed to ex c lu d e th o s e who
a r e n o t " i n t e l e c t u a l e s p u ro s, m e d ita d o re s y l £ r i c o s ," a l
though th e y f a i l to d e f in e th e s e term s p r e c is e ly . N o rth u p ' s
l i s t i s much m ore e x t e n s i v e . ^ The b a s is o f h is s e le c tio n
i s e s s e n t i a l l y c h ro n o lo g ic a l. A nderson Im bert su b m its a
m ore re a s o n a b le c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . He m a in ta in s th e r e a re
a c t u a l l y two g ro u p s. The f i r s t i s a group o f:
. . . e s c r i t o r e s c a s t i z o s , a h in cad o s en la s c ir c u n s ta n -
c ia s h i s t o r i c a s y g e o g ra fic a s d e l p a£ s, a u s te r o s ,
ensim ism ados, con s e n tid o m o ral y p o l£ tic o . ^2
In t h i s c a te g o ry he p la c e s Unamuno, B a ro ja , Azor£n, A ntonio
g
B e a tric e P. P a tt and M a rtin N ozick, The G e n e ra tio n
o f 1898 and A fte r (New York, 1964), p . 4 .
^G u illerm o D £ a z -P la ja , s £ n te s is de l a l i t e r a t u r a
e s n a n o la (B arce lo n a, 1953), p . 301.
^ D e l R£o and B e n ard ete , o p. c i t . . pp. 2 5 -2 9 .
^ G e o rg e T y le r N orthup, An In tro d u c tio n to S p an ish
L i t e r a t u r e (C hicago, 1938), pp. 415-447.
12
E nrique A nderson Im b ert, E l c u e n to e sp a n o l (Buenos
A ire s , 1959), p. 19*
Machado and P erez de A y ala. The second i s a group o f:
. . . e s c r i t o r e s c o s m o p o lita s , a r i s t o c r a t i c o s , e s t e t i -
c i s t a s , que ren u ev an e l e s t i l o con e l ejem plo de la s
c o r r ie n te s p o e tle a s de moda en e l r e s t o de Europa y
en Hispanoamerica.
T h is group, w hich he c a l l s m o d e rn is ts , in c lu d e B enavente,
V a lle In c la n , Eduardo M arquina, Juan Ramon Jim en ez, G a b rie l
M iro, G reg o rio M a rtin e z S ie r r a and F ra n c is c o V illa e s p e s a .
R a fa e l A lta m ira 1s name seldom f ig u r e s in c r i t i c a l
w orks ab o u t th e G e n e ra tio n o f 1898, e x c e p t as a h i s t o r i a n ^
o r a s a w r i t e r u n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f ^ th is g e n e ra tio n . ^ The
r a t i o n a l e o f th e c r i t i c s in t h i s r e s p e c t i s o b sc u re in v iew
o f A lta m ir a 's c o n tr ib u tio n s to l i t e r a t u r e and h i s im p o rta n t
r o l e in th e r e g e n e r a tio n movement. An a tte m p t w i l l be made
in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n to e v a lu a te A lta m ira 1 s p o s it io n as a
p ro s e w r i t e r o f h is g e n e ra tio n th ro u g h an o b je c tiv e a n a ly
s i s o f h is n o n h i s t o r i c a l w orks.
13I b i d . . pp. 19-20.
^ N o rth u p , o p . c i t . , p . 443.
■^Del r £ o and B e n a rd e te , o p . c i t . . p. 26.
PART I I
BIOGRAPHY A N D W O RK S
CH APTER I I
ALTAMIRA - THE M A N
R a fa e l A lta m ira y C revea was b o m in A lic a n te ,
Spain? on F eb ru ary 10, 1866. He re c e iv e d h i s e lem e n ta ry
e d u c a tio n a t th e C o leg io de San Ju a n , lo c a te d in A lic a n te ,
and com pleted h i s p r e - u n iv e r s ity tr a i n i n g a t th e I n s t i t u t o
de San Ju a n . He o b ta in e d a m a s te r 's d e g re e in law from th e
U n iv e rs ity o f V a le n c ia in 1886. T hese c a r e f r e e y e a rs s p e n t
i n f a m il ia r s u rro u n d in g s w ere some o f th e h a p p ie s t o f h i s
l i f e . The warm, sunny A lic a n te o f h is y o u th was th e lo c a le
o f many o f h i s s t o r i e s , " re c u e rd o s de p a i s a j e s , f ig u r a s y
e sc e n a s de mi p a t r i a c h i c a , " as h e term s them .^ He l e f t
A lic a n te f o r M adrid and by 1887 h e had re c e iv e d a d o c t o r 's
d e g re e in law from th e U n iv e r s ity o f M ad rid . The t i t l e o f
h i s d o c to r a l t h e s i s was La h i s t o r i a de l a n ro p ie d a d comu-
n a l . w hich he p u b lis h e d two y e a rs l a t e r in book form .
^ R afael A lta m ira , C uentos de mi t i e r r a (M adrid,
1925), p . 13.
9
10
A lta m ira * s u n iq u e a b i l i t i e s w ere q u ic k ly re c o g n iz e d
by h is p r o f e s s o r s , in c lu d in g th e fam ous e d u c a to r G in er d e
lo s R io s. The in f lu e n c e o f G in er on young A lta m ir a 's
2
th in k in g was c o n s id e r a b le . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s in g , t h e r e
f o r e , t h a t upon g r a d u a tio n A lta m ira became in v o lv e d in th e
p e d a g o g ic a l re fo rm movement th e n underw ay i n S p a in . In
1888 h e o b ta in e d th e p o s it i o n o f seco n d s e c r e ta r y a t th e
Museo P ed ag o g ico N a c io n a l d e M adrid, w here h e a c q u ire d h i s
f i r s t e x p e rie n c e in te a c h in g . D uring t h i s p e rio d h e a l s o
a s s i s t e d G in er d e lo s r£os a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f M adrid in
3
a p r o f e s s o r i a l c a p a c ity .
W hile A lta m ira was a t th e Museo h e becam e known
i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y th ro u g h th e p u b lic a t io n o f th e R e v is ta
C r £ tic a d e H i s t o r i a v L i t e r a t u r a . o f w hich h e was b o th
fo u n d e r and e d i t o r . Some o f th e m ost im p o rta n t l i t e r a r y
f ig u r e s o f S p ain c o n tr ib u te d to th e re v ie w , in c lu d in g
M enendez y P ela y o , M enendez P id a l and Unamuno. The re v ie w
q u ic k ly a t t r a c t e d th e a t t e n t i o n o f f o r e ig n l i t e r a r y
2
R a fa e l A lta m ira , G in er d e lo s r£qs (V a le n c ia ,
191 5 ), p . 4 1 .
B ib lio g r a f £ a v B io e r a f f a d e R a fa e l A lta m ira v
C rev ea (M exico, 1 9 4 6 ), p . 5 5 . ( H e r e in a f te r a b b re v ia te d to
B ib lio e r a f £ a i n th e f o o tn o te s •)
11
s p e c i a l i s t s . Among th e c o n t r ib u t o r s from ab ro a d w ere
C a ro lin a M ic h a e lis d e V asco n celo s and A dolfo C oelho o f
P o rtu g a l; B e n ed etto C roce and A rtu ro F a r i n e l l i o f I t a l y ;
and A lfre d o M orel F a tio o f F ra n c e .^ The a r t i c l e s w hich
A lta m ira h im s e lf w ro te r e v e a l him a s an in d e p e n d e n t and
l i b e r a l th in k e r . A lta m ira e v e n tu a lly tu rn e d o v e r th e
re v ie w to E lia s de M o lin s, who had a s s i s t e d him in i t s p ub-
5
l i c a t i o n from 1899 to 1902.
In 1897 A lta m ira , a f t e r th e r e q u ir e d c o m p e titiv e
e x a m in a tio n , was aw arded th e C h a ir o f H is to ry o f S p an ish
Law a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f O viedo, S p ain * s second m ost im por-
£
t a n t i n t e l l e c t u a l c e n t e r . D uring h i s tw e lv e y e a rs a t t h i s
s c h o o l, h e w orked a c t i v e l y to i n s t i t u t e th e e d u c a tio n a l
re fo rm s ad v o c a te d by G in er d e lo s R fo s.
T r a d i ti o n a l l y th e r e had e x i s te d a rem o te n ess in th e
r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p r o f e s s o r and s tu d e n t. A lta m ira and
some o f h i s c o lle a g u e s now so u g h t to in v o lv e b o th more
4
T ,N otas s o b re l a v id a y o b ra s de R a fa e l A lta m ira y
C re v e a ," H is p a n ia , XI (November 192 8 ), 400. ( H e r e in a f te r
a b b re v ia te d to N otas in th e f o o t n o t e s .)
5 I b i d . . pp. 4 0 0 -4 0 1 .
^G eorge T y le r N orthup, An I n tr o d u c tio n to S p an ish
L i t e r a t u r e (C hicago, 193 8 ), p . 443.
12
in tim a te ly in th e e d u c a tio n a l p ro c e s s th ro u g h sem in ar d i s
c u s s io n s and f a c u l t y - s t u d e n t t r i p s and e x c u rs io n s , uncommon
in S p ain u n t i l th e n .
A lta m ira was a l s o in s tr u m e n ta l in s e t t i n g up a
program o f u n i v e r s i t y e x te n s io n c o u rs e s f o r th e b e n e f i t o f
th e w orking p e o p le o f A s tu r ia s and S a n ta n d e r. C la s s e s w ere
h e ld in sm a ll tow ns and c i t i e s o f th e re g io n . O fte n , u n i
v e r s i t y s tu d e n ts a s s i s t e d th e p r o f e s s o r s in te a c h in g th e
e d u c a tio n a lly d e p riv e d , a n t i c i p a t i n g a need we re c o g n iz e
l o c a l l y to d a y . T h is u n d e rta k in g to e x te n d e d u c a tio n a l
o p p o r tu n itie s to a b ro a d e r segm ent o f th e S p a n ish p o p u la
t i o n proved s u c c e s s f u l d u rin g A lta m ira 1s te n u r e a t th e
s c h o o l, and th e id e a soon sp re a d to o th e r S p an ish u n iv e r
s i t i e s . ^
The rem o v al o f A lta m ira to O viedo m arks n o t o n ly
one im p o rta n t tu r n in g p o in t in h i s l i f e b u t a n o th e r much
c l o s e r to h i s h e a r t . On Ju n e 19, 1899, two y e a rs a f t e r
a c c e p tin g h i s new p o s t, h e m a rrie d dona P i l a r Redondo, h is
c o n s ta n t and d ev o ted com panion d u rin g th e re m a in in g y e a rs
o f h i s l i f e . To t h i s happy u n io n w ere b o m t h r e e c h ild r e n ;
^Biblioeraf£a. p. 56.
13
a so n , R a fa e l; and two d a u g h te rs , N ela and P i l a r .
A lthough c o n te n t w ith h i s new c a r e e r and h is m ar
r ia g e , R a fa e l A lta m ira was d e e p ly co n cern ed ab o u t th e
c o n d itio n o f h is c o u n try . A fte r th e d e f e a t o f 1898 and th e
lo s s o f th e l a s t rem a in in g im p o rta n t o v e rse a s c o lo n ie s , th e
S p an ish p e o p le f e l l in to a deep pessim ism . F o re se e in g
th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l d an g e rs in h e re n t in t h i s a t t i t u d e , A lta
m ira launched alm o st im m ed iately h i s program to r e - e d u c a te
th e S p an ish p e o p le . In an a d d re s s to th e U n iv e rs ity o f
O viedo in O cto b er, 1898, e n t i t l e d E l p a trio tis m o v l a u n i -
v e r s id a d . he so u g h t to r e a s s u r e th e n a tio n . He e x to lle d
th e n a t io n a l q u a l i t i e s w hich had made p o s s ib le th e g r e a t
accom plishm ents o f th e p a s t. T h is d is c o u rs e was l a t e r to
form a p a r t o f a l a r g e r e f f o r t in w hich he a tte m p te d to
e x p la in th e S p an ish p e o p le to th em selv es and to c o u n te r a c t
g
th e p o stw ar p e s s i m i s m . T o make c l e a r to th e y outh o f
S p ain th e m eaning o f t r u e p a tr io tis m , A lta m ira u n d erto o k
th e t r a n s l a t i o n o f F ic h t e ’ s Reden an d ie d e u tsc h e N atio n .
d isav o w in g , how ever, in a p ro lo g u e th e i m p e r i a l i s t i c
g
R a fa e l A lta m ira , P s ic o lo g ia d e l p u eb lo e sp a n o l
(B a rc e lo n a , n . d . ) , pp. 7-340.
14
9
n a tio n a lis m o f th e German p h ilo s o p h e r.
A lta m ira 1 s p a t r i o t i s m was a r d e n t, b u t i t was n o t
in s i n c e r e o r c h a u v in i s t i c . In f a c t , h e b e lie v e d f irm ly in
a f r e e exchange o f id e a s among p e o p le and p e a c e fu l c o o p e r
a tio n among n a tio n s . In s t i l l a n o th e r in n o v a tio n a t th e
U n iv e r s ity o f O viedo, he in a u g u ra te d , in 1909, a te a c h e r
exchange program b etw een t h a t s c h o o l and th e U n iv e r s ity o f
B ordeaux in F ra n c e . He had recommended such a program some
y e a rs e a r l i e r a s one o f s e v e r a l ways to im prove th e i n t e l
l e c t u a l c lim a te o f h i s c o u n try , p o in tin g a g a in to th e p a s t:
En c u a n to a l a Edad M edia, s a b id a es l a c o n s ta n te
e in te n s a co m u n icacio n d e n u e s tr o rnundo i n t e l e c t u a l
con lo s c e n tr o s d o c e n te s d e I t a l i a , F ra n c ia y o tr o s
p a f s e s , adonde ib a n lo s e s p a n o le s p a r a a p re n d e r y p a ra
e n s e n a r como c a t e d r a t i c o s . *0
The y e a r 1909 was a u s p ic io u s f o r A lta m ira . The
exchange program was b ro ad en ed t o in c lu d e th e n a tio n s o f
th e New W orld. A l t amir a was s e n t by th e U n iv e r s ity a s i t s
p e r s o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e to r e e s t a b l i s h i n t e l l e c t u a l t i e s
w ith th e L a tin A m erican c o u n t r ie s . A lta m ira had f o r many
y e a rs a d v is e d c l o s e r c o o p e ra tio n b etw een th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s
o
N o ta s. p . 402.
^ A lta m ir a , P s ic o lo e f a d e l p u e b lo e s p a n o l. p . 257.
15
o f h is c o u n try and th e A m ericas:
. . . comence en 1895, y su s p ru eb as docum entales
h a lla n s e en la s p a g in a s de l a R e v is ta C r£ tic a d e H is -
t o r i a v L i t e r a t u r a e s p a n o la s , p o rtu g u e s a s e h is p a n o -
a m e ric a n a s, a cuya c o la b o ra c io n p ro c u re a t r a e r e l
mayor numero p o s ib le d e e s c r i t o r e s de H ispano-A m erica.
The need f o r c l o s e r t i e s was a g a in s t r e s s e d in h is famous
a d d re s s to th e U n iv e rs ity o f Oviedo in 1898:
. . . m o stre l a n e c e s id a d de e s ta b le c e r r e la c to n e s in -
te l e c t u a l e s perm anentes e n t r e lo s c e n tr o s de en sen an za
s u p e r io r e s p a n o le s y lo s ig u a le s d e A m erica, y en que
p o r p rim e ra v ez s e s e n a la b a a l p ro fe s o ra d o y a l a
ju v e n tu d e l d e b e r d e i r a A m erica y d e e s t u d i a r p e r
so n a l y d ire c ta m e n te su v id a a c t u a l .
In th e s p rin g o f 1909 A lta m ira l e f t f o r A m erica
w ith w hat m ust have b een c o n s id e r a b le p e rs o n a l g r a t i f i c a
t i o n . Not o n ly was h is lo n g -c h e ris h e d dream c l o s e r to
r e a l i z a t i o n , b u t he h im s e lf was to b e spokesman f o r h is
n a tio n . H is a r r i v a l was a n t ic ip a te d w ith i n t e r e s t . C a p is
tr a n o d e A breu, n o te d B r a z ilia n h i s t o r i a n , in a l e t t e r
d a te d Ju n e 17, 1909, to J o s e V e rfssim o , a member o f th e
Academia B r a s i l e i r a de L e tr a s , m entioned th e ap p ro ach in g
v i s i t :
" ^ R a fa e l A lta m ira , Espana en A m erica (V a le n c ia ,
1908), p . v .
12 ^
Ib id .
16
Mas o fim d e s ta c a r t a e ch am ar-lh e a a te n ^ a o p a ra a
passagem do A lta m ira , que a£ vem d e passagem no Avon.
Voce conhece os t r e s volum es d a H is to r ia . s e nao o
q u a rto que j a d ev e e s t a r p u b lie a d o . E screv a algum a
c o is a e a g i t e a Academ ia.
A lta m ira v i s i t e d e ig h t c o u n trie s on h is to u r and
d e liv e r e d an e s tim a te d th r e e hundred l e c tu r e s . H is l e c
tu r e s co v ered s u b je c ts w hich v a r ie d from S h a k e s p e a re 's
Midsummer N ig h t's Dream and I b s e n 's P eer Gvnt to o th e rs
t i t l e d E d u catio n in Law f o r th e P ro f e s s io n a l M ilita r y Man
and The S o c ia l F u n c tio n o f th e E n g in eer and th e A r c h ite c t.
He a ls o in a u g u ra te d a s h o r t c o u rse in h i s t o r i c a l m ethod
ology a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f La P l a t a . ^ At y e a r 's end he
was in New York C ity , w here he had b een in v ite d to a tte n d
m e etin g s o f th e A m erican H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c ia tio n . The s to r y
o f h i s t r i p i s to ld in Mi v i a i e a A m erica.
Many o f th e a s s o c ia tio n s form ed d u rin g h is s o jo u rn
w ere l a s t i n g and m u tu a lly rew ard in g . A lta m ira had g o tte n
to know th e A m ericans f i r s t- h a n d and th e y had le a rn e d
ab o u t S p ain from an e a r n e s t and s in c e r e spokesm an, whose
13
Jo ao C a p is tra n o de A breu, C o rresp o n d en cia (Rio
d e J a n e ir o , 1954), I , 193.
^ B ib lio e r a f£ a . p. 57.
17
r e p u ta tio n as an a u th o r ity had a lre a d y been w e ll e s ta b -
15
lis h e d . The seed s o f h i s e f f o r t s to r e e s t a b l i s h t i e s
betw een S p ain and th e New World b o re f r u i t . Am erican
s c h o la r s so u g h t h is a d v ic e and c o u n s e l, and d e s p ite h is
many a c t i v i t i e s , h e was alw ays re a d y to h e l p . S H is
g en u in e i n t e r e s t in f o s te r in g c o o p e ra tio n among th e n a tio n s
i s o f te n re -e x p re s s e d in th e p ro lo g u e s he w ro te f o r young
A m erican a u t h o r s : Jo se E nrique R o d o ,^ B a u tis ta S aav ed ra‘ S
IQ
and C h a rle s E. Chapman. 7 A lta m ira became th e le a d in g
a d v o c a te o f Ibero-A m erican c o o p e ra tio n in S p ain . In h is
l e c t u r e s , h i s w r itin g s and h is sp e e c h e s, h e u rg ed c o l
le a g u e s and s tu d e n ts to become a c t i v e l y in v o lv e d . The
c o n tr ib u tio n in t h i s a r e a o f D r. L au d elin o M oreno, a s t u
d e n t and f r ie n d o f A lta m ira , was e s p e c ia lly g r a t i f y i n g , as
h e s t a t e s in h i s p ro lo g u e to D r. M oreno*s work:
S C h a r l e s e . Chapman, A H is to ry o f S p ain (New York,
1938), pp. v i i i - i x .
S ^ R a f a e l A lta m ira ," A m erican H i s t o r i c a l Review.
LVII (O cto b er 1 9 5 1 -Ju ly 1952), 587.
S j o s e E nrique Rodo, A r ie l (3 rd e d .; B a rc e lo n a ,
1926), pp. 5 -1 1 .
18
B a u tis ta S aav ed ra, El a v l lu (2nd r e v . e d .;
S a n tia g o , C h ile , 1938), pp. 7 -12.
^C hapm an, o p. c i t . . pp. x i i - x v .
18
Dada l a m anera como yo s ie n to y p r a c t ic o l a e n -
se n a n za , e s una buena s u e r t e p a ra m£ que e s t a C o lecc io n
d e M onograffas s e in a u g u re con un volum en e s c r i t o p o r
un d is c ip u lo m£o y com puesto, c a s i paso a p aso , d e n tro
d e l s is te m a d e m i c a te d r a u n i v e r s i t a r i a . . . He p r o -
cu ra d o , ju n ta m e n te , fo rm a r a m is d is c f p u lo s segun l a
misma d o c t r in a d i d a c t i c a que yo v iv o ; y en lo que e l l o s
hagan h e b asad o y s ig o b asan d o m i e s p e ra n z a de mej o re s
tie m p o s.2 0
H is la b o rs f o r c l o s e r c o o p e ra tio n and i n t e l l e c t u a l
exchange betw een h i s c o u n try and th e n a tio n s o f th e New
W orld c o n tin u e d u n a b a te d . In th e y e a rs t h a t fo llo w e d , o n ly
th e sco p e o f h i s program w ould b e b ro a d e n e d . R e c o g n itio n
and rew ard f o r h i s e f f o r t s w ould b r in g s ig n a l honor t o him
s e l f and to S p a i n . ^
Upon A lta m ir a 's r e t u r n to S p ain in 1910, th e Span
i s h Governm ent a p p o in te d him D ir e c to r G en e ra l o f E lem en tary
E d u c a tio n . He h e ld t h a t p o s t f o r th r e e y e a r s . D e s p ite h is
o p in io n s , w hich o f te n r e v e a le d r e p u b lic a n le a n in g s , h e was
allo w ed a f r e e hand in r e o r g a n iz in g th e e d u c a tio n a l sy ste m .
He was in s tr u m e n ta l in r a i s i n g te a c h e rs * s a l a r i e s , c r e a t i n g
a d e p a rtm e n t o f sc h o o l in s p e c to r s , p ro v id in g a d u l t e d u c a
t i o n f o r women, e s t a b l i s h i n g th e f i r s t s c h o o l l i b r a r i e s ,
L a u d e lin o M oreno, H is to r ia d e la s r e la c io n e s
i n t e r e s t a t u a l e s (M adrid, 1 9 2 8 ), p p . 7 -9 .
2 ^-Reference t o A lta m ir a 's e l e c t i o n t o th e P erm anent
C o u rt o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l J u s t i c e .
19
and fo u n d in g o p e n -a ir s c h o o ls , one o f w hich, in A lic a n te ,
22
b e a rs h i s name. These refo rm s w ere a d m itte d ly r a d i c a l
f o r th e S pain o f h is d ay . He e x p re sse d h i s p h ilo so p h y in
t h i s re g a rd as fo llo w s :
. . . j e n ’a i ja m ais e t e un r e v o lu tio n n a ir e dan s l e sen s
o r d in a ir e du m ot; m ais j ' a i e te e t j e r e s t e , un r a d i c a l
en m a tie re d*en seig n em en t, p a rc e que j e m ets en l u i
1 ‘axe de to u te p o l i t i q u e n a tio n a le e t p a rc e que j e veux
q u 'o n y a p p o rte l e se n tim e n t l e p lu s e le v e p o s s ib le
d 'in d e p e n d a n c e s p i r i t u e l l e e t de s o l i d a r i t e h u m a i n e . 2 3
A lta m ira was n o t c o n te n t to e f f e c t r e o r g a n iz a tio n
in name o n ly b u t p a r t ic i p a t e d a c tiv e ly , in th e f i e l d , w ith
fre q u e n t on th e s p o t in s p e c tio n to u r s . H is e d u c a tio n a l
program was o u tlin e d in an a c c e p ta n c e sp eech t i t l e d P ro b le -
mas u ra e n te s de l a en sen an za p rim a ria en Esnana on th e
o c c a sio n o f h i s e l e c t io n to th e R eal Academia d e C ie n c ia s
M orales y P o lf t ic a s in 1912, and d e liv e r e d in th e p re se n c e
o f King A lphonse X III and g o v ern m en tal d i g n i t a r i e s . ^
B ecause o f h i s a c tiv e r o l e in e d u c a tio n a l refo rm d u rin g
t h i s p e rio d , he became som ething o f a symbol o f m odem
pedagogy among th e young e d u c a to rs .
22
N o tas, p. 403.
23 %
R a fa e l A lta m ira , Problem es m odem es d 'e n s e ie n e -
ment ( P a r is , 1932), p . v i i .
24
N otas. p. 404.
20
C o n cu rren t w ith h i s d u tie s a s D ir e c to r G en eral o f
E lem entary E d u catio n , he perform ed o th e r assig n m en ts f o r
h is governm ent b o th a t home and ab ro ad . He re p re s e n te d
S pain a t a number o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n fe re n c e s in London
and B ru s s e ls . I t was a t a c o n g re ss in th e l a t t e r c i t y t h a t
a t h i s u rg in g S p an ish was ad o p ted as a language o f com
m u n ic atio n a t i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c m e e tin g s .2^ D uring
t h i s same p e rio d he was in v ite d to le c t u r e a t H arvard,
Colum bia, Johns H opkins, A n n ap o lis N aval Academy and R ice
I n s t i t u t e . These l e c t u r e s , d e a lin g p r in c i p a l ly w ith h i s
to r y and c i v i l i z a t i o n , w ere p u b lis h e d l a t e r in E n g lish and
S p a n is h .26
Soon a f t e r A lta m ira l e f t h i s p o s t as D ire c to r
G en eral o f E lem entary E d u catio n in 1913, he was a p p o in te d
to a p r o f e s s o r s h ip a t th e I n s t i t u t o D ip lo m atico y C o n su lar,
w hich had been s e t up by th e M in is try o f S ta te . H ere, he
ta u g h t c o u rs e s in m odem c o lo n ia l h i s t o r y . H is su b seq u en t
ap p o in tm en t as p r o f e s s o r o f h i s t o r y a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f
M adrid m arks th e h ig h p o in t in h i s te a c h in g c a r e e r . He
r e ta in e d t h i s p o s it io n u n t i l h e was r e t i r e d in 1936.
26Ib id .
21
In 1915 he re c e iv e d a second i n v i t a t i o n from th e
American H is to r ic a l A s s o c ia tio n to v i s i t th e U nited S ta te s .
R a fa e l A lta m ira 's name was alm o st th e f i r s t agreed upon by
a s p e c ia l com m ittee o f t h a t o rg a n iz a tio n when i t d ecid ed
to r e tu r n to th e custom o f e le c tin g fo reig n : h o norary mem-
27
b e r s .
The e v e n ts o f th e n e x t few y ea rs w ere e s p e c ia lly
g rie v o u s to A lta m ira . He had lo n g espoused th e c a u se of
peace and in te r n a tio n a l c o o p e ra tio n . The n a tio n s o f Europe
w ere a t lo g g erh ead s in d ead ly com bat. W ithout abandoning
h is p a c i f i s t p o in t o f view , he f e l t com pelled to s id e w ith
th e A l lie s , a s d id h is countrym an, B la sc o -Ib a n e z . H is t i e s
w ith F ran ce had been c lo s e . Y ears b e fo re , he had inaugu
r a te d th e S p an ish I n s t i t u t e a t th e Sorbonne, w hich was
u n d er th e d ir e c tio n o f P ro fe s s o r E rn e sto M artin en ch e.
A lb e rto M o re l-F a tio had been a c o n tr ib u to r to h is R e v ista
C r f tic a . F ren ch a u th o rs had fig u re d in many o f h is essay s
and c r i t i c a l w r itin g s . He had le c tu r e d a t th e Sorbonne and
th e C o lleg e o f F ran ce. I t i s n o t s u r p r is in g , th e re fo re ,
th a t he was one o f th e fo u n d ers o f th e Committee f o r
27
"R afael A lta m ira ," American H is to r ic a l Review.
LVII (O ctober 1 9 5 1 -Ju ly 1952), 587.
22
F ra n co -S p a n ish C o o p e ra tio n , w hich s e n t m a te r ia l h e lp to
28
F ran ce d u rin g th e c r i t i c a l m onths o f w ar.
When h o s t i l i t i e s ended, A lta m ira was c a lle d upon
to r e p r e s e n t h is governm ent on an i n t e r n a t i o n a l com m ission
f o r th e a r b i t r a t i o n o f a d is p u te in M orocco. In 1920 he
was a p p o in te d to s e rv e on a com m ittee o f j u r i s t s commis
sio n e d by th e League o f N atio n s to draw up p la n s f o r an
i n t e r n a ti o n a l c o u r t o f j u s t i c e . The d e l ib e r a ti o n s o f th e
com m ittee and th e f i n a l p la n s f o r th e c o u r t a re d e s c rib e d
in a book w r i tte n by A lta m ira and p u b lis h e d by th e Ib e ro -
29
A m erican I n s t i t u t e o f C om parative Law. A lta m ira co n
tin u e d h i s e f f o r t s to f o s t e r good w i l l and u n d e rsta n d in g
among th e n a tio n s . He c o o p e ra te d in th e d r iv e to c o l l e c t
S p an ish books f o r th e l i b r a r y a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f L ouvain,
w hich had been d e s tro y e d d u rin g th e w ar. He worked in
c o lla b o r a tio n w ith th e D utch A s s o c ia tio n f o r H olland Abroad
30
to e s t a b l i s h a D utch Week in S p ain .
In 1921 h ig h honor came to A lta m ira and h is coun
t r y . The Assembly and C o u n cil o f th e League o f N atio n s
e le c te d him a ju d g e o f th e Perm anent C ourt o f I n te r n a ti o n a l
no
N otas, p. 405.
29Ibid. 30Ibid.
23
J u s t i c e . He assumed h is d u tie s in Ja n u ary , 1922, and he
serv ed in t h a t c a p a c ity u n t i l A p ril, 1940, a f t e r having
been e le c te d to a second term . H is d is tin g u is h e d perform *
ance as a member o f th e c o u r t i s a m a tte r o f re c o rd . In
1936 A lta m ir a 's name was p la ced in nom ination f o r th e Nobel
Peace P riz e by Dr. L au d elin o Moreno and o th e rs , in re c o g n i
tio n o f h is v a s t and u n s e lf is h c o n trib u tio n s to th e cau se
o f in te r n a tio n a l p eace.
S ince perm anent re s id e n c e a t The Hague was n o t r e
q u ire d o f th e ju d g e s, A lta m ira a f t e r each s e s s io n re tu rn e d
to M adrid to resum e h is p r o f e s s o r ia l d u tie s and to d ir e c t
th e Ibero-A m erican I n s t i t u t e o f C om parative Law. In a d d i
tio n , he le c tu r e d f re q u e n tly a t O xford, Cambridge and th e
Royal S o c ie ty o f L ite r a tu r e o f London, on h is t o r y , l i t e r a
tu r e and law . He c o n tin u e d to w r ite a r t i c l e s f o r S panish
and fo re ig n p u b lic a tio n s . H is r e tire m e n t a t th e age o f
se v e n ty as p r o fe s s o r a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f M adrid c o in c id e d
w ith th e o u tb re a k o f th e S p an ish C iv il War.
U n til 1940 A lta m ira rem ained a t The Hague busy w ith
c o u rt d u tie s and w r itin g . From t h a t y e a r u n t i l 1944, he
liv e d incom unicado in so u th e rn F ran ce ex c ep t f o r o c c a s io n a l
com m unications allow ed by th e German occupying fo rc e s .
24
The y e a rs a t Bayonne w ere d i f f i c u l t , b u t th e ro b u s t A lta
m ira b o re up w e ll under th e p h y s ic a l and s p i r i t u a l h a rd
sh ip s he had to endure* He tu rn ed t h is p e rio d o f is o l a ti o n
to good ad v an tag e by d e d ic a tin g h is f u l l tim e to w ritin g
and stu d y .
I t i s n o t easy f o r a man o f s e v e n ty -e ig h t to p u ll
up r o o ts from a lan d and c o n tin e n t he has known f o r so
lo n g . In 1944 A lta m ira and h is fam ily moved to M exico.
The welcome o f th e M exican p eo p le was warm and f r ie n d ly ,
and he was g re e te d by a few o ld f r ie n d s who l i k e him had
found t h e i r way to th e new la n d . He soon resumed a l i f e o f
a c t i v i t y . He ta u g h t a c o u rse a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f M exico,
gave le c tu r e s and co n tin u e d w ritin g a r t i c l e s and books.
Advanced in y e a rs , A lta m ira seemed in d e f a tig a b le .
There was so much t h a t rem ained undone. Though th e s p i r i t
was w illin g , th e body was n o t. A fte r s e v e r a l months o f
f a i l i n g h e a lth , on Ju n e 1, 1951, a t fo u r in th e a fte rn o o n ,
th e v e n e ra b le A lta m ira e m itte d h is l a s t b r e a th . At h is
b e d sid e was h is d ev o ted d a u g h te r N ela, who had been h is
s e c r e ta r y , and d u rin g th e months o f i l l n e s s , h is n u rs e .
In a n earb y room s a t h is beloved w ife P i l a r and o th e r
31
members o f th e fa m ily .
25
^The in fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g A ltam ira* s d e a th was
o b ta in e d from an a r t i c l e t i t l e d ’’R a fa e l A lta m ira T ran s-
f ig u r a d o ," w r itte n by Iso B ran te Schweide and p u b lish ed in
a M exico C ity new spaper. The name o f th e new spaper and th e
d a te o f p u b lic a tio n a r e unknown. The a r t i c l e p robably
ap p eared s h o r tly a f t e r A lta m ir a 's d e a th .
CH APTER I I I
ALTAMIRA - THE WRITER
T
The p re p a ra tio n o f a com plete b ib lio g ra p h y o f A lta
m ir a 's works would be a fo rm id a b le , i f n o t im p o ssib le ,
u n d e rta k in g . He w ro te volum inously and he p u b lish e d much
o f w hat he w ro te . Many o f th e s e p u b lic a tio n s have been
long o u t o f p r i n t ; o f o th e rs h e k e p t no record.'*' His
c a re e r as an a u th o r ex ten d s o v er a p e rio d o f s ix ty y e a rs ,
and i f one in c lu d e s h is y o u th fu l l i t e r a r y e f f o r t s , n e a r ly
se v e n ty . H is i n t e r e s t s covered alm o st~ th e w hole panorama
o f human endeavor. He was know ledgeable in a v a r ie ty o f
f i e l d s and an a u th o r ity in s e v e r a l. He l e f t a w r itte n
re c o rd o f id e a s and o p in io n s w hich encom passes alm ost ev ery
im p o rta n t s c i e n t i f i c and b e l l e t r i s t i c ty p e o f p ro se .
A ltam ira was a tr u e po ly g rap h and, in o u tlo o k and accom
p lish m en t, approaches a modem uomo u n iv e r s a le . A d e s c r ip
t i v e summary o f h is m ain works i s p re se n te d in t h i s c h a p te r.
^ B ib lio g ra ffa . pp. 7-8, 37.
26
27
A lta m ir a 's f i r s t s e r io u s a tte m p t a t w r itin g was
made a t th e age o f s ix te e n , s h o r tly a f t e r h e e n te re d th e
2 /
u n iv e r s i ty . He c a lle d i t Ensavo d e una in tro d u c e io n a l .
e s tu d io de l a h i s t o r i a de l a hum anidad. The t i t l e r e v e a ls
th e e x te n t o f h i s i n t e r e s t s even a t t h a t e a r ly a g e . He
com pleted f i f t e e n c h a p te r s , w hich w ere n e v e r p u b lis h e d .
W hile s t i l l a t th e u n iv e r s i t y , h e p lan n ed a n o th e r work to
b e t i t l e d H is to r ia de l a n o v e la , w hich lik e w is e d id n o t
re a c h p u b lic a tio n . H is i n t e r e s t in c r e a t i v e w r itin g d a te s
3
from t h i s p e r io d . He p u b lis h e d h i s f i r s t im p o rta n t w ork,
E l re a lis m o v l a l i t e r a t u r a contem noranea. in 1886. The
book won him th e a c c la im o f Leopoldo A la s, A s tu ria n n o v e l
i s t and c r i t i c . They w ere l a t e r c o lle a g u e s f o r a s h o r t
p e rio d a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f O v ied o .^
A lta m ir a 's im p o rta n t b e l l e t r i s t i c w r itin g c o n tin u e d
f o r tw enty y e a r s . In 1907 he r e g r e t f u l l y bade f a r e w e ll to
l i t e r a t u r e in th e s e w ords:
. . . en 1907 y en mi l i b r o de F a n ta s ia s v R ecuerdos.
me d e s p e d i d e l a llam ad a l i t e r a t u r a amena (mas
2Ib id . . p. 9 . 3 Ib id .
^ R a fa e l A lta m ira , Esnana en A m erica (V a le n c ia ,
1908), pp. 359, 366.
28
co n cretam en te de l a que d ic e n " c re a d o ra " , corno s i to d a
o b ra e s p i r i t u a l no lo f u e s e ) . . . . ^
H is r e lu c ta n c e in t h i s d e p a rtu re i s e x p re sse d m ovingly in
th e s e f u r t h e r w ords:
. . . me r e s e rv e un r in c o n c ito , u ltim o r e f u g io de lo s
v ie jo s amores l i t e r a r i o s . Ese r in c o n c ito fu e e l de l a
c r f t i c a , que s ig u io re p re s e n ta n d o p a ra m{ e l s u s t i t u -
tiv o de l a p ro d u ccio n en que c e sa b a , " l a v a lv u la p o r
donde puede e s c a p a r, de v ez en cuando, en l a contempla**
c io n de la p oes£a que o tr o s e x p re sa n , a lg o de l a que
s ig u e can tan d o en e l fondo de mi alm a".®
Had n o t a w id er c a l l i n g beckoned a t t h i s t:ime, nam ely,
s e r v ic e to h is n a tio n a s te a c h e r, good w i l l am bassador and,
l a t e r , i n t e r n a t i o n a l ju d g e , p erh ap s a r i c h e r l i t e r a r y
le g a c y would have r e s u l t e d . As i t w as, h e p u b lis h e d d u rin g
t h i s p e rio d s ix n o v e l i s t i c w orks; fo u r books o f s h o r t
s t o r i e s ; s e v e r a l books o f c r i t i c i s m , e s sa y s and t r a v e l
l i t e r a t u r e ; new spaper and m agazine a r t i c l e s ; and a number
o f t r a n s l a t i o n s o f P o rtu g u e se, German and C a ta lo n ia n w orks.
H is l i t e r a r y p r o d u c tiv ity d id n o t c e a s e e n t i r e l y in 1907,
how ever; h e c o n tin u e d , o v er th e y e a rs , to p u b lis h c r i t i c a l
e s s a y s , b io g rap h y and l i t e r a r y a r t i c l e s . L i t e r a t u r e , a l s o ,
was fre q u e n tly th e to p ic o f h is le c tu r e s and sp e e c h e s.
^ R afael A lta m ira , A rte v r e a lid a d (B arcelo n a,
1921), p . 7.
6Ibid.
29
The t i t l e s o f th e a fo rem e n tio n ed w orks ap p e ar in th e Appen
d ix o f t h i s s tu d y , and s e v e r a l o f th e works w i l l be d i s
c u ssed f u r t h e r in su b se q u en t c h a p te r s .
The c r i t i c a l p o in t i n A lta m ira * s l i f e as a w r i t e r
and, in d eed , in t h a t o f h i s c o n te m p o ra rie s i s th e f a t e f u l
y e a r 1898. In an e f f o r t to c l e a r th e a i r , th e y reexam ine
h is t o r y and r e a s s e s s a n c ie n t v i r t u e s and v a lu e s . A lta
m ir a 's ad m o n itio n to th e S p an ish p eo p le iri h i s book P s i -
c o lo g fa d e l p u eb lo e sn a n o l. w hich was co n ceiv ed ab o u t t h i s
tim e , reac h ed th e p re s s in 1902. H is i n i t i a l a d d re s s in
1898 to th e U n iv e r s ity o f Oviedo on th e s u b je c t o f p a t r i o t
ism , m entioned p r e v io u s ly ,^ form s th e b a s is o f C h ap ter I o f
h is w ork. He d e s c r ib e s h i s own p a t r io t is m in t h i s fa s h io n :
Mi p a trio tis m o puede, adem as, l l e v a r p o r lerna
(y en eso s e d is tin g u e b ie n d e o tr o s p a trio tis m o s
a g re s iv o s ) la s co n o cId as p a la b ra s de T a c ito : S ine
i r a e t s t u d i o . °
T h is i s th e g e n e ra l p h ilo so p h y a ls o o f A lta m ir a 's contem po
r a r i e s Unamuno, B a ro ja and A zo rln , who p u rsu e a conmon g o a l
though o f te n a lo n g d iv e rg e n t p a th s . A lta m ira was drawn
in e x o ra b ly to h is to r io g r a p h y by re a s o n o f h i s p r e p a r a tio n
7
C h ap ter I I , p . 13.
o
R a fa e l A lta m ira , P s ic o lo g fa d e l p u eb lo e sn a n o l
(B a rc e lo n a, n . d . ) , p . 25.
!
30
a t th e u n iv e r s i ty and th e e v e n ts o f 1898* T his c r i s i s
p erh ap s overshadow ed m ore p e rs o n a l c o n s id e r a tio n s in A lta
m ira ’ s c a s e . In h is p ro lo g u e to E l a v l lu h e in tim a te s a s
much:
En l a co m p leja tram a de l a v id a de un p u e b lo , e l
v e rd a d e ro p a t r i o t a no puede dec i r nunc a como y en que
e s f e r a s e r v i r a m e jo r a l suyo. . . .
The f i r s t volum es o f A lta m ir a 's m onum ental H i s t o r i a
de Espana v l a c i v i l i z a c i o n e s n a n o la w ere p u b lis h e d in
1900, th e f o u r th and f i n a l volum e a p p e a rin g in 1911. The
work won im m ediate r e c o g n itio n and w orld ac c la im , b e in g
d e s c rib e d in th e A m erican H i s t o r i c a l Review in 1952 as a
h is t o r y w hich " s t i l l to w ers o v er any o th e r work i n i t s
10
f i e l d . " He had in te n d e d to w r ite a compendium o f S p an ish
h i s t o r y f o r u se in th e e le m e n ta ry sc h o o ls b u t was u n a b le to
c a r r y o u t h is p la n , s in c e , as h e e x p la in s i t :
O cupaciones o f i c i a l e s y p riv a d a s que d esd e 1911
v a r ia r o n m uchisim o l a d ir e c c io n de m i v id a i n t e l e c t u a l ,
y que l a sig u e n m anteniendo d e s v ia d a , en p a r te , d e l
cau ce a n tig u o , me im p id ie ro n a q u e l p ro p o s ito .
Q
^ B a u tis ta S aav ed ra, El a v l l u (2nd re v . e d .; San
tia g o , C h ile , 1938), p . 8.
^ " R a f a e l A lta m ira ," A m erican H i s t o r i c a l Review.
LVII (O cto b er 1 9 5 1 -Ju ly 1952), 587.
1 1
R a fa e l A lta m ira , M anual de h i s t o r i a de Espana
(2nd e n l. e d .; Buenos A ire s , 1946), p . 11.
31
From 1900 to 1911 A lta m ira a u th o re d some f i f t e e n
h i s t o r i c a l works in th e form o f books, a r t i c l e s and
s c h o la r ly p a p e rs . T h is f ig u r e does n o t in c lu d e p u b lic a
tio n s in th e h i s t o r y o f S p an ish and i n t e r n a t i o n a l law,
econom ics and s o c io lo g y . A lthough h i s a t t e n t i o n , a f t e r
1911, was tu rn e d to o th e r f i e l d s , h e d id n o t abandon h i s -
12
to r y c o m p le te ly .
A nother m ile s to n e in th e l i f e and c a r e e r o f A lta
m ira was u n d o u b ted ly h is t r i p to th e A m ericas in 1909.
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to o b se rv e t h a t fo llo w in g alm o st each
m a jo r e v e n t in h i s l i f e , A lta m ira s e t down in w r itin g w hat
h e had e x p e rie n c e d --th e h is t o r ia n * s aw areness o f th e im
p o rta n c e o f th e w r i t t e n r e c o r d . Mi v i a i e . in w hich he
re c o u n ts h i s im p re ssio n s o f th e New W orld, was p u b lis h e d
i n 1910. H is i n t e r e s t in th e A m ericas a n te d a te d t h i s t r i p ,
how ever, by many y e a rs , a s ev id en ced by two im p o rta n t
e a r l i e r p u b lic a tio n s : C u e stio n e s h isp a n o a m e ric a n a s. in
1900; and Espana en A m erica, in 1908. H is m ain t h e s is in
th e s e books i s an e x p re s s io n o f th e need f o r an i n t e l l e c
t u a l rapprochem ent betw een S pain and th e fo rm er c o lo n ie s ,
12
To w it: th e M anual o f f o o tn o te 11, above.
and h i s p u rp o se in w r itin g them was to c r e a te :
. . . una c o r r i e n t e d e o p in io n fa v o ra b le a t r a d u c i r en
l a p r a c t ic e lo s a n h e lo s de m utuas r e la c io n e s i n t e -
le c t u a l e s , so b re l a b a s e - -p o r lo que r e s p e c ta a lo s
h isp a n o a m e ric a n o s—de una r e c t i f i c a c i o n de su s r e c e lo s
to c a n te a l a Espana i n t e l e c t u a l de n u e s tro s d ia s y un
re c o n o c im ie n to de l a comun c o n v e n ie n c ia de cam b iar,
e n tr e e l l o s y n o s o tr o s , lo s f r u to s d e l e s p £ r it u y lo s
a n h e lo s en que venim os a c o i n c i d i r . . . .
In th e y e a rs fo llo w in g Mi v i a i e , h is la b o rs in th e Ameri
c a n is t f i e l d w ere g r e a t ly i n t e n s i f i e d and c o n tin u e d so
u n t i l he assum ed h is p o s t on th e Perm anent C ourt o f I n t e r
n a tio n a l J u s t i c e in 1922. D uring t h i s p e rio d th e r e i s a
re c o rd o f some f i f t e e n w orks d e a lin g w ith v a rio u s a s p e c ts
o f Am erican l i f e .
The s u c c e s s o f h i s e d u c a tio n a l program a t th e U n i
v e r s i t y o f O viedo, h is ap p o in tm en t as D ir e c to r G e n e ra l o f
E lem entary E d u ca tio n and su b s e q u e n tly to a c h a ir a t th e
U n iv e rs ity o f M adrid and th e e x c e lle n t r e c e p tio n o f h is
le c tu r e s and c o u rs e s a t A m erican and E uropean u n i v e r s i t i e s
h ig h lig h t th e p e rio d from 1909 to 1922. C o in c id in g w ith
th e p u b lic a tio n o f th e afo re m e n tio n ed A m e ric a n ist w orks,
a r e a number o f p e d a g o g ic a l w r itin g s w hich d e a l w ith edu
c a tio n from th e p rim ary to th e u n iv e r s i ty le v e l, many
13 7
A lta m ira , E spana en A m erica, p p . v i i i - i x .
33
p u b lis h e d in F ren ch , German and E n g lis h .
The tr a g e d ie s v i s i t e d upon Europe and o th e r p a r ts
o f th e w o rld d u rin g World War I and th e w id esp read s u f f e r
in g w hich ensued in i t s a fte rm a th a f f e c te d A lta m ira d e e p ly .
H is p a c i f i c t c o n v ic tio n s w ere s tre n g th e n e d by th e m ise ry
and n e e d le s s d e s tr u c tio n cau sed by th e w ar. In a s h o r t
work p u b lis h e d in 1921, t i t l e d La nueva l i t e r a t u r a P a c i
f i s t s . he d is c u s s e s th e is s u e o f w ar and p ea ce as i t
f ig u r e s i n Remain R o lla n d ’ s n o v e l, C le ra m b a u lt. C leram -
b a u l t i s th e c e n t r a l c h a r a c te r in th e s to r y , an i n t e l l e c
t u a l who:
. . . v o u la i t s e p e rs u a d e r q u 'i l p o u v a it a c c e p te r l e
f a i t d e l a g u e rre e t y p a r t i c i p e r san s r e n i e r son
p a c ifis m e d 'h i e r , son h u m an itarism e d 'a v a n t - h i e r , e t
son optim ism e de to u jo u r s . ^
The o r i g i n a l work o f 1921 was in c o rp o ra te d a s a c h a p te r in
Problem es m odem es d 'e n se ig n e m e n t. p u b lis h e d in 1 9 3 2 .^
A lta m ira b e lie v e d t h a t th e p a c i f i s t ap p ro ach to
s o lv in g w orld problem s sh o u ld be tw o fo ld : th ro u g h a w orld
body s e rv in g as a forum f o r th e d is c u s s io n o f th o se
* | /
R a fa e l A lta m ira , Problem es m odem es d * e n s e ie n e -
m ent ( P a r is , 1932), p . 244.
15Ib id . . p. 236.
34
problem s and th ro u g h th e e d u c a tio n o f th e p eo p le to an
aw areness o f th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f p e a c e . Rem inding th o s e
charged w ith th e l a t t e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , he s t a t e s :
. . . to u t bon p a t r i o t e d o it £ t r e , en m&ne tem ps, un
p a c i f i s t e , s , em ployant a f o r t i f i e r e t a re p a n d re d es
s e n tim e n ts e t des id e e s q u i c o n tr ib u e n t a d e t r u i r e
l e s p re ju g e s e n tr e n a tio n s , a m o n tre r 1 1av an tag e p o s i-
t i f de l a p a ix , a r e s p e c te r l e d r o i t d * a u tru i e t a
so n g e r, lo rs q u e le s p a s s io n s nous i n c i t e n t a l a
v io le n c e , nous p o u rrio n s re e lle m e n t g a g n e r e t p e rd re . 6
A lta m ira la b o re d in th e c a u se o f peace f o r tw en ty
y e a rs guided by t h i s d ic tu m . H is works in i n t e r n a t i o n a l
law, Ib ero -A m erican r e l a t i o n s , h i s t o r y , e d u c a tio n , h is pub
l i c and u n iv e r s i ty l e c t u r e s , and h i s lo n g s e rv ic e on th e
I n te r n a tio n a l C o u rt b e a r am ple te s tim o n y .
F o llo w in g h is r e tir e m e n t a s p r o fe s s o r a t th e U n i
v e r s i t y o f M adrid in 1936, A lta m ira p lan n ed to assem b le h is
w r itin g s o f th e p re v io u s f i f t y y e a rs , r e v i s e some o f them
and p u b lis h h i s Com plete W orks. The S p an ish C iv il War
and W orld War I I ham pered h is a c t i v i t i e s g r e a t ly . Only
f i f t e e n volum es o f h is Obras C om pletas w ere a c tu a l ly pub-
17
lis h e d and th e y a r e now o u t o f p r i n t .
16I b id . . p . 65.
• ^ B i b lio e r a f £ a . p . 47
35
D uring h i s asylum in M exico, th e o c to g e n a ria n
A lta m ira resum ed h i s c a r e e r as j o u r n a l i s t and l e c t u r e r .
He was b u s ily engaged u n t i l s h o r tly b e fo re h i s d e a th in
r e s e a r c h and in c a ta lo g u in g n o te s f o r a number o f books
w hich he p lan n ed to w r i te , in c lu d in g a n o v e l t i t l e d
* 18
T ra n s ic io n .
18Ib id . . p. 49
PART I I I
STRUCTURE, THEMES, IDEAS
A N D STYLE
CHAPTER IV
THE NOVEL
A rev ie w o f th e im p o rta n t l i t e r a t u r e w r i tte n by
A lta m ir a 's g e n e ra tio n , and in p a r t i c u l a r by th o s e " e s c r i -
to r e s c a s t iz o s , ah in cad o s en la s c ir c u n s ta n c ia s h i s t o r i c a s
y g e o g ra fic a s d e l p a l s , ” r e v e a ls th e n o v e l, th e s h o rt
s to r y , th e e s s a y and c r i t i c i s m a s th e p r e f e r r e d form s o f
e x p re s s io n . Among th e s e , th e n o v e l w ith o u t a doubt i s th e
p reem in en t ty p e . The h i s t o r y o f i t s developm ent from th e
s h o r te r , more p r im itiv e n a r r a t i v e form s o f m ed iev al tim e s
to th e h ig h ly com plex ty p e s o f to d a y i s w e ll known and need
n o t b e d is c u s s e d h e r e . One h i s t o r i c a l n o te i s w orthy o f
m en tio n , how ever, and t h a t i s th e etym ology o f th e word
n o v el i t s e l f . The r e n a is s a n c e n o v e l, o r n o v e lla , d en o te d
a s h o r t n a r r a t i v e p ro s e form c h a r a c te r iz e d by th e new ness
o r n o v e lty o f i t s them e. I m p lic it in i t s name, i t would
seem, i s an i n v i t a t i o n to e x p e rim en t, to se e k new avenues
o f e x p re s s io n . The n o v e l, l i k e few o th e r l i t e r a r y g e n re s ,
37
has been m olded I n to v a r ie g a te d p a tte r n s s in c e th e tim e o f
i t s in c e p tio n . In th e hands o f th e n o v e l i s t s o f A lta m ir a 's
g e n e ra tio n t h i s p ro c e s s c o n tin u e d . The v e r s a t i l i t y o f th e
n o v e l and th e n a tu r e o f th e s to r y o r m essage th e y w ished
to t e l l w ere d e te rm in in g f a c t o r s in i t s c h o ic e a s th e most
d e s ir a b le v e h ic le .
R a fa e l A lta m ira a t th ir ty - s e v e n y e a rs o f a g e had
a lre a d y had a g r e a t d e a l o f e x p e rie n c e i n n o v e l i s t i c
w r itin g when Renoso ap p eared in 1903. T h is novel r e p r e
s e n ts , p o s s ib ly , h is m ost a m b itio u s l i t e r a r y e f f o r t . Yet
th e r e i s no a v a ila b le e v id e n c e o f any s e r io u s c r i t i c a l
stu d y h av in g b ee n made o r o f a re v ie w o f th e work, ex c ep t
f o r a p a s s in g m en tio n , in a few r e f e r e n c e w orks, o f th is
s id e o f A lta m ir a 's ta le n t.'* ’
An a tte m p t w i l l b e made in t h i s c h a p te r to a n a ly z e
th e com ponents o f th e n o v e l Renoso as th e y r e l a t e to th e
them es, id e a s and s t y l e o f A lta m ira found in h is o th e r
^ "A lta m ira , R a f a e l," E n c ic lo p e d ia I t a l i a n a d i
S c ie n z e . L e tt e r e ed A r t i . I I , 680: T ,La su a a t t i v i t a d i
s c r i t t o r e e v a s ta e co m p lessa. Che, d a u n a p a r te 1 'A lta
m ira e s c r i t t o r e d i n o v e lle e rom anzi (ric o rd ia m o : C uentos
de L e v a n te . F a ta lid a d , Renoso. N o v e lita s v c u e n to s . i s a g g i
c r i t i c i De h i s t o r i a v a r t e , i n f i n e tr a d u z io n i d i T rin id a d e
C oelho e N a rc iso O i l e r ) . . . . "
39
w orks and to com pare Renoso w ith r e p r e s e n ta ti v e n o v e ls o f
th e p e rio d . W hile no a s p ir a tio n s a r e e n te r ta in e d to accom
p l i s h w hat Madre H. D e rre a l succeed ed in d o in g f o r S a in t
2
P ie r r e F o u rn ie r, i t i s hoped t h a t a g r e a t e r a p p r e c ia tio n
o f t h i s f a c e t o f A lta m ira ’ s a u th o rs h ip w i l l r e s u l t .
Renoso ap p eared a t ab o u t th e same tim e a s B a ro ja ’ s
Camino d e o e rfe c c io n (1902) and A z o rfn 's La v o lu n ta d (1902)
and A ntonio A zorln (1 9 0 3 ). L ik e th e s e , and to a c e r t a i n
e x te n t Unamuno’ s N ie b la (1 9 1 4 ), Renoso i s e s s e n t i a l l y an
i n t e l l e c t u a l o r p h ilo s o p h ic a l n o v e l, in w hich a c tio n i s
m inim ized and c h a r a c te r s a r e u t i l i z e d to e x p re s s a p o in t o f
view .
Summary o f th e P lo t
The s to r y co n c ern s Ju an U ceda, a man in h i s t h i r
t i e s , who has l e f t M adrid to spend some tim e w ith r e l a t i v e s
in a s m a ll town in th e L ev an te on th e M e d ite rra n e a n c o a s t.
Y ears o f s tr u g g le and f r u s t r a t i o n in th e c a p i t a l have
^Helmut H a tz fe ld , B i b lio g r a f ia c r i t i c a d e l a nueva
e s t i l i s t i c a . t r a n s . E m ilio L orenzo C riad o (M adrid, 1955),
p . 105: "La a u to ra c o n s ig u e , g r a c ia s a s u a n a l i s i s e s t i -
l f s t i c o , s i t u a r a e s t a f ig u r a c a s i d esc o n o c id a d e la s
l e t r a s fra n c e s a s en un lu g a r d is tin g u id o d e l a h i s t o r i a
l i t e r a r i a . "
40
underm ined h i s h e a lth ; h is i l l n e s s i s l e s s p h y s ic a l th an
o f th e s p i r i t . As th e t r a i n moves e a stw a rd , h i s te n s io n s
and f a t ig u e seem ingly le s s e n a s he r e la x e s in s e m i- re v e r ie ,
a n t ic i p a t in g th e re p o s e and calm th a t h i s new su rro u n d in g s
w i l l p ro v id e .
Ju an i s g re e te d a t th e s t a t i o n by h is u n c le , Don
V ic e n te , a r e t i r e d m e d ic a l d o c to r . Not h av in g se en h is
nephew f o r tw en ty y e a r s , Don V ic e n te i s s u r p r is e d a t h is
ro b u s tn e s s and y o u th fu l a p p e aran c e, e s p e c i a lly s in c e he h a s
ta k e n th e t r i p b e c au se o f p o o r h e a lth . When h i s u n c le
d ia g n o se s th e i l l n e s s a s n e u r a s th e n ia , Ju an in c lin e s to
a g re e . The re a s o n , h e a s s u re s h i s u n c le , i s n o t overw ork,
b u t :
jLa lu c h a , l a lu c h a co n lo s hom bres, e l ro zam ien to
c o n tin u o con l a b r u ta lid a d huxnana, con l a ig n o ra n c ia ,
con l a m aldad, con l a r u t i n a , con la s m is e riu c a s to d a s
d e l v i v i r , eso e s lo que m ata! E sto y can sad o ; me
r in d o , y abandono e l com bate. Busco rep o so en e l
a is la m ie n to y en l a n a tu r a le z a .3
A c a r r ia g e ta k e s th e men to R onesa, th e c o u n try
home o f th e G a lv is fa m ily , n e a r th e v i l l a g e o f V illa m a r.
The a f f e c t i o n a t e welcome o f h is~ 'a u n t M ic a e la and h is
3
R a fa e l A lta m ira , Renoso (B arce lo n a, 1903),
pp. 11-12. ( H e re in a f te r a b b re v ia te d to Renoso in th e
f o o tn o te s . )
41
c o u s in s E ugenia and C r is to b a l g lad d en s th e tro u b le d nephew.
In t h i s f r ie n d l y and re la x e d atm o sp h ere, Ju an e x p e rie n c e s
a freedom he h a s n o t known f o r y e a rs . He spends h o u rs
re m in is c in g a b o u t h is c h ild h o o d and h i s fa m ily . S in ce h is
p a r e n t s 1 d e a th , Dona M ic a e la , h i s m o th e r1 s s i s t e r , has
co rresp o n d e d w ith him , th e o n ly lin k w ith an e a r l i e r ,
h a p p ie r tim e i n h is l i f e .
The G a lv is do e v e ry th in g p o s s ib le to make Juan com
f o r t a b l e . He i s g iv e n a la r g e bedroom on th e ground f l o o r
n e a r th e l i b r a r y and o p p o s ite t h e g a rd e n . They a n t i c i p a t e
h i s ev e ry w a n t. Aware o f h is need f o r q u ie t and r e s t , th e y
do n o t, how ever, im pose upon h i s p riv a c y . Only when h e
a p p e a rs b o red o r r e s t l e s s do th e y t r y t o d i s t r a c t him.
Don V ic e n te and C r is to b a l accompany him on w alks o r r id e s
th ro u g h th e c o u n try s id e . F re q u e n tly , Ju a n w anders o f f by
h im s e lf, in s p e c tin g th e s e a s h o re and th e h i l l s o f th e
re g io n o r o b se rv in g th e ways o f th e p e o p le . Slow ly he
f in d s t r a n q u i l i t y and a q u ie t h a p p in e ss a t R onesa:
Me s ie n to tr a n q u ilo , e q u ilib r a d a s la s f u e r z a s , y
h a llo p l a c e r en m il co sas d e e s ta e x i s te n c ia c a m p e stre ,
s e n c i l l a , que a n te s me h u b ie ra n f a s t i d i a d o q u iz a y
ah o ra me h a b la n u n le n g u a je ap a c ig u a d o r y a t r a c t i v o .
4I b id . . p. 109
42
He allo w s n o th in g to th r e a te n h i s peace o f m ind. The m a il
from M adrid, w hich m ight u p s e t him , rem ains unopened. He
re a d s o c c a s io n a lly b u t o n ly books t h a t e n t e r ta in . So
a t t r a c t i v e does he f in d p r o v in c ia l l i f e , t h a t he i s u n
c e r t a i n w h eth er he w i l l e v e r r e tu r n to M adrid.
As he s t r o l l s th ro u g h th e c o u n try s id e , h e g e ts to
know th e p e o p le . He i s in tr ig u e d by th e t r a d i t i o n a l c u s
toms o f th e re g io n . He i s im pressed by th e in d u s try and
o p en h e arted n ess o f th e humble p e a s a n ts . He i s moved by
t h e i r im poverishm ent, t h e i r lo n g - s u f fe rin g p a tie n c e w ith a
l i f e t h a t h o ld s l i t t l e p rom ise. He i s angered by th e u n
j u s t e x p lo ita tio n o f th e farm er by u n scru p u lo u s d e a le r s in
w a te r, a p re c io u s commodity in t h a t re g io n . When h e co n
f r o n ts th e town le a d e r s w ith a p la n to change th e a n t i
q u ated system o f i r r i g a t i o n , th ey show o n ly in d if f e r e n c e
o r re se n tm e n t. The o ld f e e lin g s o f d is illu s io n m e n t and
f r u s t r a t i o n r e tu r n .
Don V ice n te and h i s w ife , hoping to d iv e r t him from
th e s e new p re o c c u p a tio n s, a rra n g e a number o f p a r t ie s and
s o c ia l g a th e rin g s . Ju an fin d s l i t t l e in common w ith th e
p eo p le who a tte n d th e s e f u n c tio n s . M ost p o sse ss th e same
d e f e c ts and shortcom ings as th o s e whom h e d is lik e d in
M adrid:
43
D e ja ria d e s e r l a humanidad lo que e s , s i v a r ia s e
a t a l p u n to . Que M adrid te n g a v ic io s p ro p io s , enferm e-
dades s o c ia le s e x c lu s iv a s , d e riv a d a s d e sus c o n d i-
c io n e s , q u iz a es c i e r t o . Pero' lo fundam ental de la s
p a sio n e s humanas es id e n tic o en to d o s la d o s. D if ie r e
l a c a n tid a d ; l a c a lid a d , n o .^
A side from h is r e l a t i v e s , th e o n ly k in d re d so u ls in a l l o f
V illa m a r a r e I s o lin a , th e m atu re, u n d e rsta n d in g f r ie n d o f
th e fa m ily ; Don C iro , th e g e n tle , k in d lo v e r o f n a tu r e ; and
Don F e lip e , th e s e l f - s a c r i f i c i n g v i l l a g e p r i e s t .
The s to r y re a c h e s i t s clim ax a t one o f th e p a r t i e s
when A ndrea, an unexpected g u e s t, a p p e a rs. She i s an
a t t r a c t i v e A ragonese woman to whom Ju an had been engaged
many y e a rs b e fo re . He had broken th e engagem ent w ith o u t
e x p la n a tio n . H is i n t e l l e c t u a l and p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s ,
he th o u g h t, would je o p a rd iz e th e m a rria g e and ca u se Andrea
u n h ap p in ess. Many tim es s in c e , he had r e g r e tte d h i s m is
ta k e . Now, in d e s p e ra tio n , he seek s a l a s t chance to amend
th e w rong. In p erh ap s th e one p o s itiv e a c tio n o f h i s l i f e ,
he p le a d s f o r fo rg iv e n es's and a resu m p tio n o f t h e i r r e l a
tio n s h ip . A ndrea, more r e a l i s t i c th a n Ju an , r e j e c t s h is
p le a :
5Ib id .. p. 295.
44
Nada hay capaz de ce rrarm e l a h e r id a p o r donde se
h a ido to d a la c re d u lid a d , to d a l a p o e s ia d e mi alm a.
Es una h e r id a ya v i e j a , in c u ra b le . Ha e s ta d o a b i e r t a
dem asiados afios. Ni puedo q u e r e r te , n i puedo e s t i -
m a r te .. . Y aunque t e q u is i e r a , aunque yo tam bien
h ic ie s e un s a c r i f i c i o , no p o r t i , p o r l a i l u s io n de
lo pas ado, que v a l e mas que tu , aunque ahogase p o r
com pleto l a voz d e mi d e s c o n fia n z a , no podrfam os ya
s e r f e l i c e s , porq u e hemos v iv id o a le ja d o s dem asiado
tiem po, d u ra n te e l c u a l c a d a uno d e n o s o tro s ha se**
guido camino d i s t i n t o q u iz a en to d o , y ; q u ie n sabe
h a s ta donde s e r an d iv e rg e n te s n u e s tro s modos de v e r
la v id a .
A lthough Ju an t r i e s to c o n c e a l th e e p iso d e from h is
a u n t and u n c le , h is deep d e p re s s io n c a u s e s s u s p ic io n . The
s e c r e t i s soon uncovered by I s o lin a , who h u r r ie s to t e l l
them . . The G a lv is, o n ce ag a in se ek in g t o r e s to r e Ju a n ’ s
p eace o f m ind, p la n new d iv e rs io n s , b u t Juan h a s , in a
se n se , a t ta in e d r e a l m a tu rity . D e sp ite th e p r o te s ta ti o n s
o f Don V ic e n te , he d e c id e s to r e tu r n t o M adrid. H is d e p a r t
in g rem ark re v e a ls h i s changed a t t i t u d e :
T al v ez, p a ra lo s que son como yo, l a v id a es l a
lu ch a y e l d escan so la i l u s i o n d e lo s in s ta n te s de
d e s f a lle c im ie n to .?
The th re e b a s ic c o n s titu e n ts in th e s tr u c t u r in g o f
a n o v e l, and th o se w hich a r e u s u a lly d e a l t w ith in co n
s id e r a b le d e t a i l in any a n a ly s is , a r e p l o t , c h a r a c te r i z a
t i o n and s e t t i n g . They a re , i n f a c t , e s s e n t i a l elem en ts
6Ib id .. p. 252. 7Ib id . , p. 320.
45
o f a l l n o v e l is ti c w r itin g ; w ith o u t them th e g en re would
lo s e i t s i d e n t i t y . Y et, th e im portance th e n o v e l is t p la c e s
on th e s e elem en ts, s in g ly o r c o l le c ti v e l y , and th e te c h
n iq u e s h e employs in t h e i r e la b o r a tio n v a ry g r e a tly . The
n o v e ls o f D ickens, T hackeray and Perez G aldos, f o r in s ta n c e ,
h av e i n t r i c a t e p lo ts and, o f te n , s u b p lo ts .
D e ta ile d and p r e c is e c h a r a c te r iz a tio n o f m ajor p e r
sonages i s ty p ic a l o f th e s e same n o v e l is ts , th e d e s c r ip tio n
o f te n ex te n d in g o v er a page o r more, as in P erez Galdos*
Q
Dona P e r f e c ta . In some in s ta n c e s , th e p o r tr a y a l i s so
v iv id and s k i l l f u l l y done t h a t th e c h a ra c te r becomes a
p e r s o n a lity ty p e . U riah Heep, F ag in , Becky S harpe and
Dona P e rfe c ta a r e exam ples o f such c h a r a c te r iz a tio n , a l
though, a d m itte d ly , th e a c tio n and i n te r a c ti o n o f th e s to r y
a r e f a c to r s in a d d itio n to s t r i c t d e lin e a tio n .
In more r e c e n t n o v e liz a tio n , in w hich sy m b o list and
s tre a m -o f-c o n s c io u s n e s s te c h n iq u e s a re u sed , th e t r a d i
t i o n a l p a t te r n o f p l o t becomes d is a rra n g e d . P lo t and even
c h a r a c te r iz a tio n a r e made su b o rd in a te to mood. T here a r e
few m emorable, fle s h -a n d -b lo o d c h a ra c te rs in a V a lle In c la n
8 _
Pepe Rey, f o r exam ple.
46
n o v el, b u t one does r e c a l l v iv id l y th e atm osphere th e
au th o r h as evoked.
What is i t , th en , t h a t d eterm in es th e r e l a t i v e em
p h asis p la c e d on th e s e n o v e l i s ti c e s s e n tia ls ? L ite r a r y
c r iti c is m p re s e n ts a v a r ie ty o f e x p la n a tio n s . The m ost
p la u s ib le e x p la n a tio n , i t w ould seem, i s th e Z e it g e is t
th e o ry , i . e . , th e m o ral and i n t e l l e c t u a l c lim a te o f th e
tim es d eterm in es t o a g re a t e x te n t th e form and c o n te n t o f
l i t e r a t u r e . A lthough th e a u t h o r 's in d iv id u a l a e s th e tic
in c lin a tio n s a re im p o rta n t, Z e it g e is t i s th e predom inant
f a c to r . I t is q u e s tio n a b le w hether th e p e c u lia r a r t i s t r y
and charm o f works lik e C andide. G u lliv e r 's T ra v e ls and
th o se o f c e r t a in S panish b aro q u e w r ite r s would b e th e same
i f they h ad been conceived a t an o th er tim e and under
c irc u m sta n ces d i f f e r e n t from th o s e w hich p re v a ile d . The
Z e itg e is t o f S pain a t th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry i s r e f le c te d
in Reposo and o th e r contem porary w orks.
S tru c tu re o f th e N ovel
The s to r y i s reco u n ted in a sim p le , s tr a ig h tfo r w a r d ,
and y e t a r t i s t i c m anner. W ith in a fram ework o f f o r ty - e i g h t
c h a p te rs and an e p ilo g u e , A lta m ira r e l a t e s th e c r i t i c a l
47
p e rio d in th e l i f e o f a young i n t e l l e c t u a l . In k eep in g
w ith th e to n e o f harmony and re p o s e w hich p erv ad es th e
work, A lta m ira has u t i l i z e d synm etry to p ro v id e a b alan ce d
n a r r a t i v e . The s to ry b e g in s w ith J u a n ’ s a r r i v a l in Levan-
t i n a and ends w ith h is d e p a rtu re from th e c i t y . A lta m ir a 's
c o n sc io u s u se o f t h is a s a s t r u c t u r a l d e v ic e i s ev id en ced
in J u a n ’ s f i n a l th o u g h ts as th e t r a i n d e p a r ts :
Vio r e p e t i r s e en e l h o r iz o n te que s e a le ja b a la s
mismas iraagenes que hab£a id o d e sc u b rie n d o a l a c e r c a rs e
a L e v a n tin a . . . Todo v o lv fa a r e p e t i r s e , p ero en se n -
t id o c o n t r a r io , con s ig n i f ic a c io n b ie n d i f e r e n t e .^
In a d d itio n , th e a r r i v a l and d e p a rtu re a r e sym bolic o f
Ju a n ’ s s t a t e o f mind. I t i s known th a t he re a c h e s Levan-
10
t i n a in th e s p r in g and b e fo re h e r e tu r n s to M adrid i t i s
l a t e f a l l , ^ s p r in g sy m b o lizin g h i s hope f o r a renew ed
l i f e ; and f a l l , h is more m atu re o u tlo o k .
The t r a n s i t i o n a l p assag es betw een c h a p te rs a r e w e ll
c o n triv e d and i n acco rd w ith th e mood th e a u th o r w ish e s to
m a in ta in . A lta m ira em ploys a v a r i e t y o f te c h n iq u e s f o r
t h i s purpose-
^Renoso. p. 320.
10I b id . , p. 13. 1 1Ib id . . p. 268.
48
The i n i t i a l c h a p te r s end in a dream , s le e p o r
m e d ita tio n . Ju an ca n n o t d ism iss th o u g h ts o£ M adrid £rom
h is mind and d is c o v e rs t h a t th e r e c u p e r a tiv e p ro c e s s i s n o t
a u to m a tic :
E l insom nio vago la rg o so b re su ca b ez a s o n o lie n ta .
(C h ap ter IV)
E l sueno fu e acen tu an d o su s lln e a s y c o n v irtie n d o s e
en p e s a d i l l a abrum adora. (C h ap ter V)
El re c u e rd o de to d a s sus lu c h as p asad as re n a c io
nuevam ente y l e sum io en una m e d ita c io n lle n a d e m elan -
c o l i a . (C h ap ter X)
The en d in g s o f th e n e x t few c h a p te rs in d ic a te t h a t
Juan h as re g a in e d p eace o f m ind:
Una s e re n id a d p ro fu n d a l e r e f r e s c o e l alm a y le
renovo la s f u e r z a s . (C h ap ter X I)
—iQue tie n e mi t£ o que sab e l l e v a r l a paz donde
q u ie r a que in te rv ie n e ? $Que pod er ca lm a n te hay en su
v o z, en su g e s to , en su s o n r is a ? (C h ap ter X II)
La c a r a de p ascu a d e e s t e daba a e n te n d e r que h a b fa
v e n c id o . (C h ap ter X III)
S e v e ra l c h a p te rs t h a t fo llo w end on a h a p p ie r n o te .
T here i s le s s m e d ita tio n and s e lf - a b s o r p ti o n ; Ju an becomes
aw are o f th e p e o p le ab o u t him:
E ugenia y su herm ano h a b ia n d e s a p a re c id o momentos
a n te s , y s e o£a y a l a a lg a z a r a con que l a g e n te jo v e n
s a lu d a b a s u p r e s e n c ia . (C h ap ter XIV)
I s o li n a la n z o una c a rc a ja d a ta n so n o ra , que to d o s
lo s que e s ta b a n en e l s a lo n v o lv ie ro n l a ca b ez a s o r -
p re n d id o s . (C h ap ter XV)
49
Nuevos h o riz o n te s se ab r£ an a n te su s o jo s so n a-
d o re s , y l a im ag in acio n , e sp o le a d a p o r e l a£an, comenzo
a d a r form a y c o lo r a la s im agenes d e un p o rv e n ir lle n o
de lu z y de a le g r£ a . (C hapter XVII)
As Ju an becomes more In v o lv ed w ith th e p e o p le o f
V illa m a r and t h e i r problem s, h is o ld p re o c c u p a tio n s r e tu r n :
Los cam pesinos no sab£an b ie n s in o que ten £ an que
p ag ar c a ra e l agua, muchas v e c e s . P ero Juan no se
c o n te n to con e s to . Quiso v e r un m ereado, y p id io a su
t£ o que le p ro c u ra se o ca sio n p a ra e l l o . (C hapter
X X III)
Se r e t i r o d e l b a lc o n , buscando en l a sombra y s o le -
dad d e l c u a rto un a l i v i o p a ra e l a tu rd im ie n to que
empezaba a o s c u re c e rle l a v i s t a . (C h ap ter XXIV)
A puntaba en su alma una d e a q u e lla s amargUras que,
en o tr o tiem po, produc£an en e l la s i n j u s t i c i a s y la s
d u rez a s d e l a v id a y que l e e x c ita b a n a grandes c o le r a s .
(C hapter XXVI)
Y echo a an d ar cad a vez mas co n fu so , lle v a n d o en
e l alm a una in q u ie tu d in d e f in ib le , que tro c a b a en t r i s -
te z a l a a le g r£ a y e l c o n te n to de a n te s . (C h ap ter XXIX)
The m eeting w ith Andrea awakens hope in Ju an and
th e new p re o c c u p a tio n s a r e te m p o ra rily f o r g o tte n . When
A ndrea r e j e c t s him, Ju an becomes more d espondent th a n e v e r:
. . . a m edida que avanzaban la s h o ra s, ib a s in tie n d o
que se le v a n ta b a mas f u e r te y a v a s a lla d o ra l a poes£a
de a q u e l amor, que p arec£ a r e s u c i t a r en su alma con
l a en erg £ a de a n te s . (C h ap ter XXXV)
De nuevo experim ento Ju an a q u e lla se n sa c io n de
ap lan am ien to y re n d ic io n in v e n c ib le s que apocaron su
e s p £ r itu y le h ic ie r o n re n e g a r de l a a c c io n . . . .
(C h ap ter XXXIX)
50
. . . y as i experim ento Juan l a in q u ie tu d que d e r iv a de
l a m e d ita c io n a s o la s , s in nuevos e x c ita n te s e x te r io r e s
que l a ex p liq u en , p o r p ro p ia id io s in c r a s i a d e l e s -
p l r i t u . (C h ap ter XL)
A nother e n d -o f“th e -c h a p te r d e v ic e A lta m ira em ploys,
in te r s p e r s e d betw een J u a n 1s v a ry in g moods, i s th e sounding
o£ b e l l s , w hich seems to sym bolize renewed hope and th e
h e ra ld in g o f b e t t e r tim e s:
En l a espadana d e l a i g l e s i a , una campana comenzo
a d a r to q u es acom pasados, llam ando a l a p rim era m isa.
(C h ap ter V I)
Una ra fa g a de v ie n to , mas f u e r te que la s a n te -
r i o r e s , se co lo p o r l a canada con m urm ullo h a la g a d o r,
a g ita n d o lo s a rb o le s y lo s ju n c o s, y t r a j o co n sig o e l
suave t i n t i n e o de la s e s q u ila s de un ganado, que p a c fa
en alg u n a hondonada proxim a. (C hapter IX)
La d ia fa n id a d d e l a i r e d e ja b a l l e g a r con p u reza
e x tr a o r d in a r ia e l tim b re de la s cam panas, que v o lte a b a n
a leg rem e n te. (C h ap ter XXX)
T odavla perm anecio Juan unos m inutos a b s o rto , con
la v i s t a p e rd id a , escuchando e l t i n t i n e o de lo s casca~
b e le s que sonaban y a l e j o s , en l a c a r r e t e r a . (C hapter
XXXVI)
By th e end o f th e s to r y , J u a n 's gamut o f em otions
h as come f u l l c i r c l e . I f th e framework o f Renoso i s
viewed as a w hole, one can se e t h a t A lta m ira has g iv en
a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s ig n to i t s o u te r form .
51
P lo t
The p lo t o f Reposo i s d i s t i n c t i v e b ecau se i t i s
u n c o m p lic a te d ; a c tio n , i n th e u s u a l sen se, i s m inim al. I t
i s e s s e n t i a l l y an i n t e l l e c t u a l o r p h ilo s o p h ic a l n o v e l, in
w hich a good p a r t o f th e e x p o s itio n i s d e v o te d to th e
r e v e r i e s , r e f l e c t i o n s and m e d ita tio n s o f th e h ero . Y et,
th e n o v el p o sse sse s th e n e c e s s a ry in g r e d ie n ts o f p l o t .
P re p a ra to ry to th e i n i t i a l a c tio n o f th e p l o t , A lta m ira
f ix e s th e g e n e ra l s e t t i n g o f th e s to r y , d e p ic te d p r i o r to
J u a n 's a r r i v a l a t L e v a n tin a . He view s th e c o u n try s id e
th ro u g h th e t r a i n window:
E l p a is a je h a b fa cam biado. H acia e l E ste, l a f a j a
o s c u ra d e l mar c e r r a b a e l h o r iz o n te como una b a r r e r a
y d esd e e l c o rr£ a , en d ir e c c io n N o rte, a l t a c a d en a de
m ontanas, d e forma p ira m id a l en su m ayor£a, que l l e -
gaba, form ando un s e m ic frc u lo , h a s ta c e r c a de l a
lla n u r a ab a rra n c a d a p o r donde c o rrx a e l tr e n . A1 Sur,
l a l i n e a d e l mar c o n tin u a b a , in te rru m p id a por alg u n o s
c e rr o s y, de p ro n to , in te m a b a s e en l a t i e r r a , form ando
p ro fu n d a b a h fa que un cabo la rg u is im o c e rra b a en u ltim o
te rm in o . La lla n u r a a r id a , p o lv o r ie n ta , m o strab a p la n -
ta c io n e s muy c la r e a d a s de alxnendros d e h o ja p a l i d a y
tro n c o ru g o so , so b re p u ja d a s a q u f y a l i a p o r a lg u n a p a l-
m era d e g ra c io so y o n d u la n te penacho. ^
A sta te m e n t o f J u a n 's p roblem a p p e a rs in a c o n v e r
s a t io n w ith h is u n cle s h o r tly a f t e r he a r r i v e s :
12Ibid.. pp. 7-8.
52
E stoy can sad o ; me rin d o , y abandono e l corabate,
Busco rep o so en e l a is la m ie n to y en l a n a tu ra le z a .
The s to r y ev o lv es slow ly th ro u g h J u a n 's re c u p e ra
t i v e p e rio d . I t re a c h e s a tu r n in g - p o in t when Ju an comes in
c o n ta c t w ith th e tow nspeople o f V illa m a r f o r th e f i r s t tim e
a t a t e r t u l i a :
En l a d is p o s ic io n de e s p f r i t u en que Juan se h a-
lla b a , a q u e l e s p e c ta c u lo le h a b fa d e s e r a g ra d a b le y
se d isp u so a p a r t i c i p a r de e l , tomando a s ie n to a l lado
de su t f o . ^
From t h i s p o in t on Juan becomes in v o lv ed g ra d u a lly
in th e a f f a i r s and problem s o f V illa m a r. Had he rem ained
in s e c lu s io n a t Ronesa and a lo o f from th e p e o p le , th e s to r y
co u ld , c o n c e iv a b ly , have ta k en a n o th e r d i r e c t i o n . The
clim ax i s reach ed when A ndrea r e f u s e s J u a n 's p le a f o r
r e c o n c ilia tio n and le a v e s h is l i f e fo re v e r:
Se d e tu v o , in d e c is a . P a re c fa q u e re r s e g u ir h a-
b lando p a ra a c e n tu a r su pensam iento, p a ra p i n t a r todo
e l h o rro r que a su co razo n ca u sab a a q u e l pasado d e s -
co n o cid o , en que l a co n d u cta d e Juan p a ra con e l l a
a u to riz a b a to d o s lo s su p u e sto s que mas h ie re n e l amor
p ro p io y l a d e lic a d e z a de una m ujer p u ra . Sus la b io s
se m ovieron como s i murmurasen a lg o . P ero, d e p ro n to ,
r e tr o c e d io y huyo locam ente en d e re c h u ra a l a p u e rta
d e l ja rd fn .^ -5
13
Ibid.. p. 12.
15
Ibid.. p. 253.
14
Ibid.. p. 73
53
The rem ain d er o f th e n o v el is an extended denoue
m ent, in c lu d in g what i s term ed a p e rip e ty , a llo w in g th e
h ero to fin d h im s e lf and th e re b y d is c o v e r h is t r u e purpose
in l i f e . Ju a n , a t f i r s t , i s enveloped in deep d e je c tio n
fo llo w in g h is c o n fro n ta tio n w ith Andrea:
P arecxa como s i su v id a re c u la s e , r e p itie n d o , t r a s
la s d ic h a s am orosas, la s m is e ria s de lo s d£as t r i s t e s ,
que a r r a s tr a r o n co n sig o to d as la s e s p e ra n z a s. Los
re c u e rd o s , que no h ab ia n podido p ro y e c ta rs e en nuevas
c re a c io n e s r e a le s cuando le s anim aba e l so p lo d e l a
p o e s ia , c o n v e rtia n s e ah o ra en l a e f e c tiv id a d de un
s u frim ie n to doblem ente d o lo ro so , porque en e l se ju n -
tab an e l desengano p re s e n te con la s t r i s t e z a s p re -
t e r i t a s , r e d iv iv a s . °
He emerges from h is d e p re s s io n w ith th e c o u n s e lin g and h e lp
o f th e G a lv is . Dona M icae la d ism isse s h i s r e c e n t e x p e ri
ence as a le s s o n he had to le a rn :
— iBueno, b u en o !—d ijo l a a n c ia n a , p a ra c o n c lu ir .
—Esa e r a una c u e n ta d e tu pasado que te n £ a s p o r l i q u i -
d a r y que mas v a le hayas liq u id a d o de una v e z . S i no
iq u ie n sab e cu a n to tiem po t e h u b ie se e s ta d o p reo cu -
pando, p a ra d a r te a l f i n , c u a lq u ie r d£a, un d is g u s to
mayor que e l de ah o ra! Ya h as v i s t o la s c o sa s como son
y no v o lv e ra s a p e n sa r en e l l a s y a f a b r ic a r c a s t i l l o s
en e l a i r e . - ^
Don V ic e n te , who has been h is c o n fid a n t and g u id e th ro u g h
o u t, ex ten d s h e lp once m ore:
—E n tre g a te p o r unos d £ as, en a b s o lu to , a mi d ir e c -
c io n . P re sc in d e y a £ s la te d e to d o . D eja que yo te
16Ibid.. p. 258. 17Ibid.. p. 267.
54
g o b ie m e y t e som eta a un p la n s o s te n id o . S i fra c a s o ,
te d e v o lv ere t u l ib e r t a d y h a ra s lo que t e p a re z c a
m ejo r.
Don V ic e n te ’s p la n does n o t su cceed . Ju an r e a l i z e s , a t
l a s t , th a t he m ust fa c e up to r e a l i t y , t h a t a d riv in g fo rc e
w ith in com pels him to resum e h is o ld l i f e . N o tw ith stan d in g
Don V ic e n te ’ s f e r v e n t e n t r e a t i e s , Juan r e tu r n s to M adrid:
--T e enganas, t e en g an as—afirm o e l an c ia n o .
—Haces m al en p r e c i p i t a r t e . La N a tu ra le z a es in f a -
l i b l e . Acaba p o r c u r a r sie m p re. Es c u e s tio n de
tierapo, de c o n s ta n c ia .. .
--P a ra lo s que lle v a n en e l fondo de su e s p £ r itu
e l germen d e l re p o so , s £ —c o n te s to Ju a n . - -P a ra lo s
in q u ie to s como yo, n o . La mas le v e c o sa tu r b a r a
siem pre n u e s tro s o s ie g o .1^
The d ia lo g u e , th e d e s c r ip tiv e and th e e x p o s ito ry
p o rtio n s o f Reposo a r e w e ll b a la n c e d . A lta m ira does n o t
overem phasize d ia lo g u e , as does Unamuno in N ie b la . f o r
in s ta n c e .
A lta m ira o fte n employs d ia lo g u e in d ev e lo p in g th e
p l o t . J u a n ’ s c o n v e rs a tio n w ith h i s u n c le a t th e b eg in n in g
o f th e s to r y r e v e a ls h i s re a so n s f o r coming to Ronesa and
som ething o f h is e a r l i e r e x p e rie n c e s in M adrid. The co n
v e r s a tio n s a t th e t e r t u l i a s show th e a t t i t u d e o f th e Levan
t i n e c i t i z e n r y tow ard lo c a l is s u e s and p ic tu r e th e o fte n
18Ibid., p. 297. 19Ibid.. p. 320.
in c o n s e q u e n tia l n a tu re o f t h e i r d is c u s s io n s , w hich m o tiv a te
Ju an to p u rsu e th e i r r i g a t i o n is s u e on h is own. J u a n 's
d ram a tic c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith A ndrea, d u rin g w hich h is form er
fia n c e e s p e l l s o u t h e r g rie v a n c e s and d is illu s io n m e n t w ith
J u a n 's sh o rtco m in g s, se rv e s t o c le a r h is mind o f i l l -
founded, s e n tim e n ta l n o tio n s , th e re b y le a d in g him to a more
r e a l i s t i c c o u rse o f a c tio n and h is su b seq u en t r e tu r n to
M adrid.
The speech o f Juan, th e G alv is fam ily and t h e i r
f r ie n d s r e f l e c t s u p p er m id d le -c la s s u s a g e —in fo rm a l, f o r
th e m ost p a r t , b u t c o r r e c t. The sim p le speech, f o r i n
s ta n c e , o f Nardo, a fish erm an , and l a L lo ro n a, a p a t ie n t
o f Don V ic e n te 's , f i l l e d w ith c o llo q u ia lis m s , le n d s a u th e n
t i c i t y to t h e i r u tte r a n c e s .
A lthough Renoso c o n ta in s th e e s s e n t i a l s o f th e con
v e n tio n a l p l o t , t h i s framework i s used m ain ly as a d ev ice
f o r th e p ro ta g o n is t to r e f l e c t and comment on a v a r ie ty o f
human problem s, p a r t i c u l a r l y th o se o f h i s own tim e . In
t h i s r e s p e c t, Reposo i s ty p i c a l o f th e n o v els w r i tte n in
th e same p e r io d . The s to r y u n fo ld s in a n a tu r a l and,
a p p a re n tly , random m anner. T here a re few e x c itin g o r
h ig h ly d ra m a tic e v e n ts . The r e a l drama o r c o n f l i c t occurs
56
20
in th e mind o f th e h e ro . Juan U ceda, Fernando O sso rio ,
21 / 2 2
A ntonio A zo rln , and A ugusto P erez a re f ig u r e s c u t from
th e same c l o t h .
C h a r a c te r iz a tio n
A lta m ira* s m ethods o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n v ary l i t t l e
from th o se o f h is c o n te m p o ra rie s. The p h y s ic a l d e s c r ip tio n
o f th e p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c te r s i s s k e tc h y . The o n ly r e f e r e n c e
to Juan*s a p p e aran c e o c c u rs in an exchange o f g r e e tin g s
betw een u n c le and nephew, and t h i s i s accom plished in some
w hat c o n v e rse fa s h io n :
—Hace v e in te anos que no t e veo y, co n fra n q u e z a ,
no p en sab a e n c o n tr a r te ta n g ru e s o , ta n a l t o y . . . t a n
jo v e n .. .
--Vam os, us te d c r e f a que i b a a v e r un m a d rile h o
como e so s que p i n t a l a ley en d a p ro v in c ia n a : p a lid o ,
d elg ad o , c a lv o , s i n p iz c a de s a n g re en l a s v en as, un
v ie jo p rem atu ro , p ro d u c to de l a s g ran d es p o b la c io n e s .
I t i s a p p a re n t t h a t Ju a n i s in good p h y s ic a l h e a lth . He i s
v ig o ro u s enough to en d u re long w alk s d u rin g th e h e a t o f
20 /
Hero o f B a ro ja 1 s Camino d e p e r f e c c io n .
A I
Hero o f A z o r ln 's l a v o lu n ta d .
22
Hero o f Unamuno's N ie b la .
^ Reposo. p. 11.
57
th e d ay . He m ust be an a t t r a c t i v e man, f o r :
. . . mas d e u n a, tam b ien , s i n t i o d eseo s d e a t r a e r l o ,
d e re a n im a rle l a v id a a f e c t i v a , d e so n d e ar un co raz o n
q u e, p a ra o tr a s c o s a s , e r a ta n g ran d e y ta n g en e-
ro s o . ^
A lta m ir a 's c h a r a c te r i z a t io n , how ever, i s m ost
e f f e c t i v e in th o s e p a ssa g e s t h a t d e s c r ib e J u a n 's a t t i t u d e
tow ard l i f e , h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p to s o c ie ty and h is s ta n d a rd s
o f r i g h t and w rong. In t r u t h , th e h ero i s v o ic in g th e
se n tim e n ts and o p in io n s o f th e a u th o r. The p u p p e t-lik e
p r o ta g o n is t i s c re a te d s o le ly f o r t h i s p u rp o se . A ugusto
P e re z ' d e f ia n c e o f Unamuno seems j u s t i f i e d when h e q u e s
tio n s th e a u t h o r 's r i g h t to d e a l so c a v a l i e r l y w ith a
c h a r a c te r h e h a s c r e a te d .
The second m ost im p o rta n t c h a r a c te r o f th e n o v e l i s
Don V ic e n te . An in tr o d u c to r y d e s c r ip tio n r e v e a ls n o th in g
o f h i s p h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
El t i o V ic e n te , d e tro n c o genuinam ente le v a n tin o ,
hab £ a e s ta d o e je r c ie n d o su p r o fe s io n d e m edico d u ra n te
muchos a n o s, en l a c a p i t a l . Hornbre m odesto, d e pocas
n e c e s id a d e s , m eto d ico , a q u ie n no s e l e co n o cran v ic io s
y que h abxa hecho una f o r t u n i t a v is ita n d o en ferm o s,
cuando s e can so d e l t ra g in d e su v id a p r o f e s io n a l y
l a tu v o p o r in n e c e s a r ia p a ra h a c e r f r e n t e a l a s co n -
tin g e n c ia s d e l p o r v e n ir , c re y o lle g a d o e l momento de
24Ibid., p. 75.
58
r e a l i z a r su sueno d o rad o , que e r a v i v i r en l a a ld e a
donde h a b ia n a c id o y a l a c u a l l e lig a b a n lo s re c u e rd o s
mas g r a to s de su n i n e z .2^
A sid e from an o c c a s io n a l r e f e r e n c e to him a s a n c ia n o , one
le a r n s n o th in g e l s e ab o u t h i s p e rs o n a l ap p e aran c e. The
developm ent o f t h i s c h a r a c te r i s ach iev ed by means o f h is
r e a c tio n s to J u a n 's a t t i t u d e s and h is e s tim a tio n o f o th e r
c h a r a c te r s in th e s t o r y . When ca u g h t o f f g u ard , h e r e v e a ls
h is t r a d i t i o n a l i s t and p r o v in c ia l o u tlo o k :
--jA h ! p ero yo soy un hombre san o ; yo no e s to y
h e rid o como tu p o r ese v ir u s de la s c iu d a d e s , p o r e s a
" f i e b r e am ericana" de l a v id a m odem a; en mi s e em botan
l a s te n ta c io n e s d e rom per l a tr a n q u ilid a d de mi co n -
d u c ta --re p u s o don V ic e n te con tan a rd o r que no se d io
c u e n ta de l a im p o rta n c ia d e lo que c o n fe s a b a .®
He i s a t h e a r t an i d e a l i s t and a ro m a n tic :
Don V ic e n te s e p aseab a p o r l a h a b ita c io n , v i s i b l e -
m ente a g ita d o , c o n tr a to d a su co stu m b re. Las ra z o n e s
de Ju an d e s c o n c e rta b a n su s id e a s mas firm e s . P ara e l
to d o s lo s hom bres e ra n ig u a le s , to d o s lo s e s p i r i t u s
ca p ac es d e l l e g a r a id e n tic o s e s ta d o s , una v ez some-
tid o s a l i n f l u j o d e l mismo m edio, de l a N a tu ra le z a
s a lv a d o r a .2^
Ju a n se e s in h is u n c le th e w e ll- in te n tio n e d , b u t im p r a c ti
c a l S p an iard o f an o ld e r g e n e ra tio n , s a t i s f i e d w ith th e
s t a t u s quo and co n v in ced t h a t a l l i l l s e v e n tu a lly r i g h t
th e m s e lv e s .
25Ibid., p. 17.
27Ibid.. p. 295.
26Ibid., p. 294.
59
Of Dona M icae la, we know o n ly t h a t h e r c h a ra c te r
i s " s e n tim e n ta l y d u lc e ." The d e s c r ip tio n o f Andrea i s
s c a r c e ly lo n g e r:
. . . una se n o ra jo v e n que, in s tin tiv a m e n te , m iro h a c ia
la s v e n ta n a s . Su r o s tr o aninado y g ra c io s o ,
s io n un poco d u ra y m ira r hondo y se v e ro . . . .
The seco n d ary c h a ra c te rs o f th e n o v e l a r e d e s c rib e d
in somewhat more d e t a i l . These a r e p eo p le, in th e m ain,
who fre q u e n t th e t e r t u l i a s and p a r t ie s t h a t Juan a tte n d s .
I s o lin a i s th e m ost im p o rta n t s in c e she fu n c tio n s as a
c a t a l y s t in th e p l o t . Don V ice n te d e s c rib e s h e r to Juan
p r io r to h e r a r r i v a l a t Ronesa:
—Tu d ir a s que q u ien es I s o lin a , $no es eso? Pues
una am iga a n tig u a d e tu t£ a , una s o lte r o n a a d in e ra d a ,
cuya c a s a d e campo es e l p r in c ip a l c e n tro de re u n io n
d e lo s v e ra n e a n te s en dos le g u as a l a red o n d a. . . . 29
F u rth e r d e s c r ip tio n o f h e r i s su p p lie d as sh e a l i g h t s from
th e c a r r ia g e , p reced ed by h e r coachman:
T ras e l lle g o una se n o ra a l t a , g ru e sa , e n v u e lta en
am plisim a b a ta o sc u ra , de c o l a . 3®
Ju a n ’ s r e a c tio n a t t h e i r in tr o d u c tio n r e v e a ls f u r t h e r i n
fo rm a tio n :
dg ex p re-
28Ibid.. p. 206
30Ibid.. p. 90.
29Ibid.. p. 86.
60
Le te n d io una mano con a i r e t a l d e fra n q u e z a de
c a r in o s a a c o g id a , que Ju a n no pudo menos d e e s t r e -
c h a r s e la con r e p e t in a e f u s i o n .^ l
A d d itio n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a re d is c lo s e d when Don V ic e n te ,
l a t e r , e l i c i t s J u a n 's im p re ssio n s o f h e r:
— ^Has v i s t o c o s a ig u a l? —p reg u n to don V ic e n te a
su s o b rin o . — Es una n in a , con sus c in c u e n ta la rg o s
d e t a l l e . Algo s in s u s ta n c ia ; p ero a su la d o no es
p o s ib le e s t a r t r i s t e . E je rc e l a c a rid a d d e l buen
h u m o r... ;y ti e n e una g r a c ia p a ra b u r la r s e d e la s
g e n te s ! Ya h a b ra s n o ta d o alg u n o s de lo s apodos con
que d e s ig n a a su s am ig as.32
O ther tow nspeople o f V illa m a r a r e i n t e r e s t i n g l y
p o rtra y e d . W hile th e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e s e l e s s e r c h a ra c
t e r s , in th e o p in io n o f some c r i t i c s , does n o t c o n s t i t u t e
c h a r a c te r i z a t io n in i t s s t r i c t e s t se n se and m ig h t p o s s ib ly
come u n d er some o th e r h e a d in g , i t i s , in A lta m ira * s f i c
t i o n a l w r itin g s , an im p o rta n t, i f n o t th e m ost im p o rta n t,
elem ent o f c h a r a c te r i z a t i o n . The common p e o p le , en m asse,
o r as r e p r e s e n ta ti v e ty p e s , b ro a d ly sk e tc h e d , h av e a p u r
p o s e fu l fu n c tio n o r r o l e in th e s to r y . Among th e s e i s th e
su rg eo n , who, in r e a l i t y , i s th e town b a r b e r :
E ra un v e j e t e a l t o , d elg ad £ sim o , con a i r e s d e p e r
so n a f i n a . H ablaba rauy b ie n , con c i e r t o to n o d o c to r a l
en c u a n to s e t r a t a s e d e c u e s tio n e s r e la c io n a d a s con su
p ro fe s io n ; f u e r a d e e s to , con g ran s e n c i l l e z y con
v en a in a g o ta b le d e m e n tira s , que c o n s titu £ a n en e l
31 Ib id . ibid.. p. 91.
61
v ic lo in c o r r e g ib le . Usaba a n t ip a r r a s con arm azon de
ac e ro y, t r a s e l l a s , sus o j i l l o s in q u ie to s y p e n e tra n -
te s p a re c ia n m edir e l fondo d e c re d u lid a d de lo s oyen-
te s p a ra g ra d u a r e l a lc a n c e de su s invenciones. 3
T h ere i s an elem ent o f humorous s a t i r e in th e d e s c r ip tio n
o f a n o th e r t e r t u l i a n o . th e s c h o o lte a c h e r:
El m aestro e r a jo v e n , a lg o p e d a n te , p ero c o r r e c to
y cu id ad o so de su e s c u e la . Ib a b ie n v e s tid o , aunque
s u c io , con l a d e n ta d u ra te rr ib le m e n te d e sc u id a d a y la s
unas de lu to p e rp e tu o . ^
A lta m ira r e s e rv e s h is m ost th o ro u g h d e lin e a tio n f o r
th e p e r ip h e r a l c h a r a c te r s o f th e n o v e l. Some a r e th e
humble tow nspeople who come to Don V ic e n te fo r m e d ica l
tre a tm e n t o r f o r a d v ic e on p e rs o n a l m a tte rs . Two women who
seek Don V ic e n te 's a s s is ta n c e a re d e s c rib e d in c o n s id e ra b le
d e t a i l :
Era l a una v ie jx s im a , de c a r a arru g ad a h a s t a lo
in v e ro s im il, o jo s hundidos p ero in q u ie to s , t a l l a c o r ta
y cu erp o m agro. V est f a una f a ld a que d eb io s e r , cuando
nueva, a z u l, con f l o r e s estam padas d e ig u a l c o lo r, mas
in te n s o , y j u s t i l l o d e l a misma t e l a . Sobre lo s hom-
b ro s , y con la s p u n ta s a ta d a s p o r d e la n te , lle v a b a un
p a n u e lito de se d a , rauy a ja d o , c o lo r de c a f e . Con la s
manos, la r g a s , d e lg a d a s , quemadas p o r e l s o l, s u je ta b a
so b re e l reg az o un m anton d e la n a , cuyo s o lo a s p e c to
h a c fa su d a r. La o t r a e r a jo v e n , una de e s a s cam pesinas
d e L ev an te a l t a s , f u e r t e s , de c a m e a p re ta d a y m orena,
o jo s p ard o s que a v e c e s b r i l l a b a n con c i e r t a p ic a r d fa ,
la b io s g ru eso s y s e n s u a le s y d ie n te s blanqu£simas.35
33Ibid.. p. 74.
35Ibid.. p. 56.
34Ibid.. p. 76.
62
The m ale ty p e s who ap p ear in Don V ic e n te 's o f f i c e a r e as
c o lo r f u l as th e women:
Eran de tip o s com pletam ente d if e r e n te s . Uno de
e l l o s a l t o , c o rp u le n to , cuadrado de hom bros, c a ra r o ja
y a f e ita d a : h u b ie ra podido tom arse por e l sfm bolo de
l a fu e rz a b r u ta , a no s e r por l a m irada tfm id a de sus
o jo s a z u le s y l a s o n r is a bonachona que c o n tr a ia sus
la b io s . VestJta como lo s m a rin e ro s: cam isa de f r a n e la
g r i s , s in c h a le c o n i ch aq u eta, p a n ta lo n de t e l a a z u l
s u je to p o r ton c in tu ro n de cu e ro , y b o in a . El o tr o e ra
de muy poca e s t a t u r a , se co , a v e lla n a d o , de c a ra e n e r-
g ic a , d u ra , y m ira r in q u ie to y a tre v id o . Se q u ito , a l
e n t r a r , e l ancho sorabreron que l e c u b rfa la cabeza
p e rfe c ta m e n te ra p a d a , m ie n tra s e l m arin ero perm anecia
con l a b o in a p u e s ta so b re tin bosque de c a b e llo s s in
p e in a r.^ 6
The same c a r e f u l d e lin e a tio n i s acco rd ed to in d iv id u a ls who.
a re m erely observed as Juan s t r o l l s through th e c o u n try
s id e . On one o c c a sio n , C r is to b a l p o in ts o u t th re e i r r i g a
tio n a tte n d a n ts , who seem ingly ty p if y t h e i r c la s s :
A unos c ie n m e tro s, t r e s hom bres, se n ta d o s so b re
e l rib a z o , a l a sombra de un a lg a rro b o , fumaban con
a i r e in d if e r e n te , s in h a b la r p a la b ra . Iban lo s t r e s
en mangas de cam isa, m o de e l l o s s in c h a le c o y o tro
en z a ra g iie lle s b la n co s y d e s c a lz o . Los t r e s e x p re s a -
ban en su s c a ra s tr a n q u ila s , p e re z o s a s , un su p in o
d e s p re c io d e l tiem po; d ejab an c o r r e r l a v id a s in a fa n
p o r e l m inuto v e n id e ro , s in t r i s t e z a p o r e l que
p asab a. E ran l a re p re s e n ta c io n g en u in a de una ra z a
im p e rtu rb a b le , a lo menos en l a a p a rie n c ia , que no
tie n e nunca p r i s a , como s i e s p e ra s e que cada c o sa se
h a de cu m p lir cuando conviene que se cum pla. '
36Ibid.. pp. 60-61. 3^Ibid.. pp. 44-45.
63
A lta m ira has u t i l i z e d c h a r a c te r i z a t i o n as i t r e
l a t e s to p l o t in a u n iq u e way. The f u lln e s s o f a c h a ra c
t e r ' s d e s c r ip tio n , in t h i s n o v e l th e d e l in e a tio n o f th e
p e a s a n t, i s in in v e rs e p r o p o rtio n to h is p a r t i c i p a t i o n in
th e c e n t r a l a c tio n o f th e p l o t . The a u t h o r 's h a n d lin g o f
c h a r a c te r i z a t io n in t h i s m anner r e f l e c t s h i s f r e q u e n tly -
u tte r e d b e l i e f t h a t th e common p e o p le , th e o f te n i n a r t i c u
l a t e and t h e m ost ig n o red segm ent o f s o c ie ty , form th e
t r u e s t , m ost firm and d u ra b le fo u n d a tio n o f any governm ent.
The r e s u l t i s an a r c h ite c to n ic f e a t u r e t h a t enhances th e
o v e r - a ll s t r u c t u r e o f th e n o v e l.
S e ttin g
A lta m ira s e le c te d A lic a n te a s th e lo c a le o f h is
n o v e l, th e re g io n in w hich he was b o m , w hich he knew b e s t
and w hich h e lo v ed d e a r ly . L ik e m ost o f th e G e n e ra tio n
o f 1898, h e to o k p r id e i n h is n a t r i a c h i c a . He d isa p p ro v e d
o f th e o f te n ro m a n tic , r a t h e r n eb u lo u s c o n c e p tio n s ab o u t
th e p a t r i a r e g i o n a l :
Hay que amar l a t e r r e t a ; hay que h a c e r que e l
pueblo l a ame y a d q u ie ra c o n c ie n c ia d e e se amor y lo
funde en alg o p o s itiv o , en a lg o que te n g a v id a , en
vez d e c e n i r lo a la s f lu c tu a c io n e s d e un i n s t i n t o
d e s ig u a l, de un s e n tim ie n to p r im itiv o a lim e n ta d o p o r
64
vagos re c u e rd o s , p o r so n id o s de v o ces m il v ec es r e p e -
t i d a s , p ero cuyo s e n tid o r e a l s e ignora.^8
In Reposo he re c o rd s r e a l i s t i c a l l y th e la n d sc a p e , th e c u s
toms and th e p e o p le o f A lic a n te . He d e s c rib e s in d e t a i l a
c e n tu r ie s - o ld d an ce o f th e r e g io n . The in s tru m e n ts , th e
t r a d i t i o n a l costum es and th e g r a c e f u l d a n c e rs a r e v iv id l y
p o r tr a y e d :
E l b a i l e h a b ia empezado. Sonaban la s c a s ta n u e la s
acom pasadam ente, rim ando lo s g o lp e s d e l tam bor so b re
lo s c u a le s se e le v a b a l a tr a n q u il a m elodxa de l a
d u lz a in a , que s o lo en alg u n o s com pases a d q u ir ia c i e r t a
anim acion d e n tro de su mismo ritm o . Las p a re j a s mo-
v ia n s e con c i e r t a g r a c ia s e re n a , s i n descom ponerse
nunca, n i aun cuando hacxan uno d e lo s p aso s ra p id o s ,
li g e r o s , que lo s e s p e c ta d o re s ja le a b a n con g r i t o s .
E ib a n pasan d o , una t r a s o t r a , com binandose dos a dos
en c i e r t o s momentos, f a n t a s t i c a s y v ag as a l a lu z
i n c i e r t a y m ovible d e la s a n to rc h a s d e e s p a r to y b re a
que s e consum fan rauy d e p r is a , a rro ja n d o c h is p a s b r i -
l l a n t e s a cad a sa c u d id a d e lo s m uchachos. Una d e la s
p a r e ja s ib a v e s t i d a con e l t r a j e c l a s ic o ; e l d e p a n ta
lo n c o r to , n e g ro , c h a le c o crem a bordado en c o lo re s y
c h a q u e t i l l a con b o to n a d u ra d e p l a t a ; e l l a , de f a ld a de
sed a ram eada, d e l a n ta l f in is im o , j u s t i l l o v is to s o ,
g ran d es a rra c a d a s y a l t a p e in e ta , que b r i l l a b a so b re
e l mono a l t o , d e un n e g ro i n t e n s o .’ ^
A lta m ira * s d e p ic tio n o f r e a l i t y i s le s s m onotonously d e
t a i l e d th a n A z o r in 's b u t m ore s t a t i c th a n t h a t o f B a ro ja .
38
R a fa e l A lta m ira , C uentos d e mi t i e r r a (M adrid,
1925), p p . 10-11.
^ Reposo, pp. 232-233.
65
H is d e p ic tio n o f s e t t i n g fre q u e n tly approaches costum -
b rism o . He has s k i l l f u l l y p o rtra y e d c h a r a c te r s , f o r th e
m ost p a r t ro m an tic , w ith in a r e a l i s t i c s e t t i n g .
Ju an re a c h e s M adrid as a u n iv e r s ity s tu d e n t,
,fescaso de a n o s ," d u rin g th e l a t t e r days o f th e R e v o lu tio n
o f 1868. He w itn e s s e s th e s h o r t- liv e d R epublic e s ta b lis h e d
in 1873 and th e R e v o lu tio n o f 1874. He a r r iv e s in V illa m a r
some tw enty y e a rs l a t e r , w hich f ix e s th e tim e o f th e s to r y
in th e 1890*s . The t o t a l p e rio d spanned by th e n o v e l i s
n o t more th a n from s ix to e ig h t m onths. Except f o r i n f r e
q u en t fla s h b a c k s to M adrid o r Aragon, th e e n t i r e s to r y i s
lo c a liz e d in A lic a n te .
A lta m ira n a r r a te s th e s to r y in th e t h i r d p e rso n .
Had he allo w ed Juan to be n a r r a to r , th e s to r y p erh ap s would
have appeared more a u th e n tic , s in c e a s to r y to ld in th e
f i r s t p e rso n , as a r u le , g iv e s an e f f e c t o f n a tu ra ln e s s and
c r e d i b i l i t y . A lta m ira , how ever, saw f i t to make Juan A ra
gonese. H is re a s o n in g u n d o u b ted ly was t h a t Ju a n would fin d
l i t t l e n o v e lty in a p la c e h e a lre a d y knew. F u rth erm o re,
th e custom s and t r a d i t i o n s o f A lic a n te , w hich f ig u r e
la r g e ly in th e n o v e l, would need no e x p la n a tio n . The
h e r o ’s re a c q u a in tin g h im s e lf w ith a lre a d y f a m ilia r scen es
66
would make th e s to r y monotonous and d e t r a c t from i t s f r e s h
n e ss and v e r is i m ili tu d e . B a r o ja 's Camino d e n e rfe c c io n ,
and A z o rin 's La v o lu n ta d and Unamuno's N ie b la . e x c e p t f o r
th e f i n a l few p ag es, a r e a ls o n a r r a te d in th e t h i r d p e rso n .
S e ttin g p la y s a c o n s id e ra b le p a r t in R enoso.
N ature o r la n d sca p e v i r t u a l l y becomes one o f th e c h a ra c
t e r s . I t com m unicates to Ju an som ething o f i t s en d u rin g
s tr e n g th and a f e e l in g o f re p o s e :
La v id a de l a N a tu ra le z a tra d u c fa s e en so n id o s;
pero apagados, d is c r e to s , s in b u l l a , con una calm a
m a je stu o sa que re v e la b a l a p le n itu d de fu e rz a s , l a
c o n fia n z a in a l t e r a b l e en su poder y en su e t e r n i -
dad. 0
Ju an r e a c ts more p o s it iv e l y to h is p h y s ic a l environm ent
th a n to th e human c h a r a c te r s who w ish h i s w e ll-b e in g . He
i s awed by th e g ra n d e u r, th e i n f i n i t e v a r i e t y and th e
perm anence o f n a tu r e . He se e s in i t an e n d le ss so u rc e o f
life -re n e w in g en erg y . Man, by com parison, i s i n s i g n i f i c a n t
and h is p e tty s tr u g g le s seem f u t i l e :
La id e a d e l a c o n tin g e n c ia in d iv id u a l y d e l a p e r -
m anencia d e l a m asa, l e p a re c io a Ju an que e s ta b a
e s c r i t a con c a r a c te r e s v i s i b l e s aun p a ra e l mas c ie g o ,
en a q u e l tro z o d e N a tu ra le z a que v a r ia b a s in c e s a r ,
in a l t e r a b l e p o r l a m u erte, de que v o lv fa a s a c a r nueva
v id a . Y Ju an crey o v e r , p o r p rim e ra vez d esd e que l e
^ I b id . , p. 68.
67
preocupaban e s ta s c u e s tio n e s , l a in u t i l i d a d de la s
lu c h as humanas, lo effm ero y d e s p re c ia b le de lo s in -
te r e s e s in d iv id u a le s , y e l profundo e r r o r , a n te cuya
a r a h a b ia consum ido su ju v e n tu d e n te r a , d e a q u e llo s
empenos que l e a rr e b a ta r o n e l rep o so d e su e s p i r i t u . ^
One o f A lta m ir a 's p u rp o ses in w r itin g Reposo was to
c r e a te an e n jo y a b le , a r t i s t i c work and, a t th e same tim e,
r e v e a l th e b ea u ty and charm o f h is n a tiv e A lic a n te . Land
scap e, lo c a l custom s and t r a d i t i o n s a r e a prom inent p a r t
o f th e n o v e l. A lta m ira f e l t th a t lo c a l d if f e r e n c e s were
b e in g o b l i t e r a t e d :
La ra,sa n te n iv e la d o ra y u n if o rm is ta d e l a c i v i l i -
z a c io n a c tu a l, d i r i g i d a to rp em en te, es e l mayor enemigo
de lo s c a r a c te r e s lo c a le s . Se com place en b o r r a r la s
d if e r e n c ia s , en f u n d ir la s t i n t a s , en ig u a la r lo s u so s,
en poner l i b r e a s a n e ja n te a to d o s su s v a s a llo s , m atando
lo s sa g rad o s re c u e rd o s d e l a y e r s in lo s c u a le s no h u -
b ie ra n lle g a d o la s c iu d a d e s g rie g a s a l a cim a d e l
p o d e rlo , n i Roma h u b ie s e co n q u ista d o e l m u n d o .^
He b e lie v e d , as d id . h is c o n te m p o ra rie s, t h a t i t was th e
w r i t e r 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to r e - e d u c a te th e S p an ish p eo p le to
an a p p r e c ia tio n o f th e lo c a l sc e n e :
Y como a l f i n y a l cabo l a ed u cacio n s o c i a l es un
hecho p o s ib le , lo mismo en l a a c tiv id a d esp o n tan ea de
l a v id a que en e l p ro p o s ito r e f le x iv o de lo s que p re -
ten d en d i r i g i r a lo s p u eb lo s, ya que lo mas im p o rta n te
p a ra cad a c u a l es amar a su t i e r r a ; porque d e l amor
4 1I b i d . . pp. 68-69.
A lta m ira, C uentos d e mi t i e r r a . p . 11.
68
vivam ente s e n tid o nacen l a s e n e rg ia s po d ero sas d e l
tr a b a jo que t r a e l a re g e n e ra c io n , eduquemonos d e tana
v ez p a ra e s ta o b ra , re s u c ita n d o la s m odalidades lo c a le s
p renadas d e re c u e rd o s , p in ta n d o l a o r ig ln a lid a d d e sus
p a ls a je s y e s c e n a s , d ev o lv ien d o a l a t e r r e t a su sa b o r
p ro p io , y aproveehando p a ra e s to (en lo que quepa)
to d a s la s o c a sio n e s v erd ad eram en te p o p u la re s, en que
se a g i ta y como s e a b re a l s o l d e l a s em ociones e l
alm a de l a p a t r l a . ^
The co n scio u s u se o f p a i s a ie f o r th i s p u rp o se i s a ls o e v i
d e n t in naming d e p e rfe c c io n and La v o lu n ta d .
A lta m ira f s d e s c r ip tio n o fte n h as more th a n p i c
t o r i a l s ig n if ic a n c e . In th e i n i t i a l sc e n e , as th e t r a i n
le a v e s th e p la te a u and ap p ro ach es th e c o a s ta l a re a , i t
em erges from a c lo u d -c o v e re d "sky in to b r ig h t, warm su n
s h in e . S y m b o lically , Juan le a v e s b eh in d th e d a rk n e ss o f
c o n fu sio n and d e s p a ir to e n te r a w orld o f q u ie t and p e a c e
f u l c o n te m p la tio n :
. No e r a p re c isa m e n te a q u e lla h o ra l a d e l am anecer,
p ero h a c ia su s v e c e s con ex ceso . Las nubes que h a s ta
en to n c es, en l a e s te p a manchega que a l a e s p a ld a q u e-
daba, o c u lta ro n e l c i e l o , h a b ia n s e d is ip a d o , y e l s o l
esp len d o ro so d e l M ediodia llam eab a tr i u n f a n t e , anun-
cian d o tin d£a d e c a l o r . ^ *
These opening l i n e s , a ls o , su g g e st th e g e n e ra l to n e o f th e
n o v e l.
Don V ic e n te and Ju an p ass th ro u g h th e c i t y on t h e i r
way to Ronesa. The a u th o r d e p ic ts th e s a l i e n t f e a tu r e s o f
43Ibid., pp. 12-13.
44 „
Reposo. p . 5.
69
th e p o r t town in a v iv id , y e t c o n c is e m anner. The s h ip s
in th e h a rb o r, t h e i r t a l l m asth ead s and th e smoke r i s i n g
from t h e i r s ta c k s a r e sym bolic o f th e freedom f o r w hich
Ju an y e a r n s :
E l c a se rx o a le g r e y lu jo s o , rev o cad o d e m il c o lo
r e s , b o rd eab a e l la d o iz q u ie rd o , en la rg u is im a f i l a ;
y a c ad a paso avanzaba so b re l a a c e ra e l to ld o d e un
c a fe , c o b ija d o r de m esas y s i l l a s d e s i e r t a s a a q u e lla
h o ra , e n v u e lta s en e l vaho de agua que d e l reg ad o p is o
ib a ev ap o ran d o se ra p id a m e n te . A1 o tr o la d o , e l p aseo
d e p alm eras o f r e c ia e n e rg ic o s c o n t r a s te s de s o l y
som bra, re c o rta d o s s o b re l a g ra v a d e lo s andenes; y
p o r e n t r e lo s tro n c o s y la s cu rv ad as ram as, v e£ an se
lo s b a rc o s a n c la d o s , la s chim eneas d e lo s v ap o res
co ro n ad as d e humo, lo s a l t o s m a s tile s d e lo s b e rg a n -
t i n e s suecos que d e sc a rg a b a n m adera. ^
A s t i l l m ore i n v i t i n g scen e a w a its Ju an a t R onesa.
The a u th o r h as ch o sen an ev e n in g s e t t i n g to d e s c rib e th e
t r a n q u i l i t y and q u ie t charm o f th e G a lv is e s t a t e , \tfiich i s
t o be J u a n ’ s home f o r many m onths. A lta m ira ap p e als to th e
se n se s o f s m e ll, h e a rin g and s i g h t to evoke a p ic tu r e o f
i d y l l i c b e a u ty :
En sen d as m ecedoras, que a l m overse h a c ia n r e c h in a r
l a a re n a d e l a estplanada f r o n t e r i z a a l ja r d f n , e n t r e
l a c a s a y e l s e to d e r o s a le s e x u b e ra n te s de f l o r e s . . .
A p arte e l so n id o d e su s v o c e s, apenas s i tu rb ab a n e l
s i l e n c i o d e lo s campos e l c h i r r i d o m e ta lic o de a lg u n
g r i l l o , e l m a u llid o t r i s t e de un m ochuelo que r e v o lo -
te a b a en lo s a r b o le s proxim os y, de v ez en cuando, e l
45Ibid.. p. 10.
70
la d rid o d e un p e rro , a g ran d is t a n c i a . Del zaguan
irunediato, ir r a d la b a l a c la r id a d r o j i z a de una lam para
de p e tro le o , que alum braba d eb ilm e n te e l c o rro d e l a
t e r t u l i a . Mas a l i a , la s sombras se esp esab an , con-
fundiendo lo s te rm in o s; y en lo a l t o , b r illa b a n v iy a -
m ente m ile s de e s t r e l l a s , con parpadeo in c e s a n te . 1 °
Juan ta k e s fre q u e n t e x c u rsio n s in to th e c o u n try
s id e . A lta m ira makes u se o f th e s e to p re s e n t to th e re a d e r
a v a r ie ty o f i n t e r e s t i n g and p ic tu re s q u e ta b le a u x . On one
o c c a sio n , Juan view s th e town and th e se a beyond from a
h i l l t o p . The' e f f e c t i s alm o st p h o to g ra p h ic :
V efase d esd e a l l f to d a l a lla n u r a , que l a p e rs p e c -
t i v a h a c fa a p a re c e r como un bosque in in te rru m p id o , de
cuya s u p e r f ic i e v e rd o sa em ergfan rem ates d e c a sa s
b la n e a s , te ja d o s r o jo s y l a espadaha d e l a i g l e s i a ,
con su s dos a rc o s . La lim p id e z d e l am biente y l a
fu e rz a d e l s o l, p e rm itfa n a p r e c ia r menudos d e t a l l e s
a g ran d i s t a n c i a . E l m ar, d e un a z u l in te n s o , ten d f a
a l Sur su ancha f a j a , en que no se a d v e rtfa m ovim iento
alguno.^7
On a t r i p in la n d tow ard th e n o rth w e st, Ju an sees
s t i l l a n o th e r s id e o f A lic a n te . The b le a k scene t h a t A lta -
raira p a in ts i s in s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t to th e u s u a l p ic tu r e
o f th e A lic a n tin e la n d sca p e and s e rv e s to h e ig h te n th e
e f f e c t o f h is g e n e ra l d e s c r ip tio n o f th e a re a :
Fasado e l v e n to rro , l a c a r r e t e r a comenzaba a b a j a r
en c u e s ta ra p id a h a c ia e l r f o , fran q u ead o p o r un p u en te
de p ie d ra : r f o se co , d e ancho cau ce ped reg o so , lle n o
46Ibid.. pp. 22-23. 47Ibid.. p. 48.
71
de enormes c a n to s rodados que acusaban l a v io le n c la de
la s a v e n id a s, en d£as d e te m p o ra l. Mas a l i a d e l
p u en te, e l te rr e n o v o lv £ a a s u b lr en b a n c a le s p o b re s,
m ezcla d e a re n a s y p le d ra s en que a rra ig a b a n alg u n o s
a rb o le s m is e ra b le s , c o n tra s ta n d o con e l m igajon enorme
de t i e r r a la b r a n ti a que form aba l a p ared d e re c h a d e l
r £ o .5B
The a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f A lic a n te i s v a r ie d . The se a
i s as im p o rta n t to th e p eo p le o f th e re g io n a s th e la n d .
“ A
A lta m ira d e s c r ib e s w ith movement and c o lo r a ty p ic a l s e a
s id e scen e:
Mas a l i a aun, e x te n d ia s e l a bah£a inm ensa, cuyos
dos cabos d e L evante y d e S u d o este ten £ an c o lo ra c io n e s
a m a r illa s y g r i s e s . In u n d ab ala e l s o l, c a b r ille a n d o
con c h is p a s d e o ro so b re la s aguas que l a b r i s a a lb o ro -
ta b a d e v ez en cuando, a rro ja n d o la s so b re l a e s c o lle r a ,
coronada d e espuma.
A ltam ira* s d e s c r ip tio n o f i n t e r i o r s i s in fre q u e n t
and b r i e f . In one in s ta n c e , i t s e rv e s to em phasize th e
a f f e c t io n a te co n c ern o f th e G alv is f o r Ju a n :
H ab£anle alojjado en l a p la n ta b a ja , en una inm ensa
a lc o b a , l a mas proxim a a l ja rd £ n e in m e d ia ta a l a
b i b l i o t e c a , la rg u fs im a s a la cuyos muros c u b rla n , h a s ta
e l te c h o , andanas de m adera d e p in o s in p in ta r , h en -
c h id a s d e lib r o s d e v i a j e s , de g eo g raf£ a, de a r t e s
p l a s t i c a s y de n o v e la s : una b i b l i o t e c a de puro re c re o ,
e sc o g id a p a ra s o la z a r y no p a ra e x c i t a r e l e s p £ r it u .^ °
Juan o f te n accom panies h i s u n c le on h is v i s i t s to th e homes
48
Ibid., p. 89•
50rbid., p. 24.
49Ibid., p. 158.
72
o f th e in d ig e n t and th e i l l . T hese poor p eo p le r e l y on
Don V icen te* s g e n e ro s ity f o r m e d ic a l and f i n a n c ia l a s s i s t
an ce. Juan f e e l s p it y and com passion f o r them. A lta m ira
d e s c rib e s p o ig n a n tly th e m is e ra b le abode o f a b lin d la d y :
A p arte de l a c o c in a , so b re l a que hab£a v a r io s
c a c h a rro s v ie jo s , v e£ ase p o r todo m u eb laje una s i l l a
b a ja de c o r d e l i l l o , un c a n ta ro d e b a rro y una m e s ita
pequena, con c a jo n , muy s u c ia y d e s v e n c ija d a . La im-
p re s io n g e n e ra l e r a de m is e r ia , confirm ando l a que se
ex p erim en tab a a l v e r a I s a b e l en a q u e l je rg o n echado
en e l s u e lo .- ^
The i n t e r i o r o f a s im ila r d w e llin g i s su g g ested alm o st sym
b o l i c a l l y by th e o m issio n o f any d e s c r ip tio n :
La p u e r ta , a b i e r t a de p a r en p a r , d ej aba v e r tan
tro z o d e l a c o c in a , que p o r c o n t r a s te con e l e x t e r i o r
p a re c £ a una mancha n e g ra .^ 2
The s e tt i n g s change in k a le id o s c o p ic fa s h io n from
an o p e n -a ir m arket to an e a r ly m orning r o n d a l l a ^ a t
C /
Ronesa, o r from a tu n a f is h e r y to a m a rta v a . In each
o f th e s e sc e n e s, re m in is c e n t o f th e cu ad ro s de costum bres
o f an e a r l i e r tim e, A lta m ira p re s e n ts a v iv id p ic tu r e o f
A lic a n tin e l i f e .
51 I b i d . . p . 118. 52I b i d . . p . 44.
53
A se re n a d e , s im ila r to a s h iv a re e .
C/
A p la c e w here farm ers g a th e r to b id f o r i r r i g a
t i o n w a te r.
73
Themes, Id eas and S ty le
The G en e ra tio n o f 1898 i s , w ith o u t a d o u b t, th e
m ost s i g n i f i c a n t movement in m odem S panish l e t t e r s . I t s
b a s ic te n e ts a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y S panish and ro o te d in
s in c e r e p a tr io tis m ; i t s m ain p u rp o se, th e re g e n e ra tio n o f
S panish l i f e . Rom anticism , re a lis m , n a tu ra lis m and o th e r
l i t e r a r y movements o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry h av e t h e i r
b e g in n in g s else w h e re . T here a r e in flu e n c e s in th e G ener
a tio n o f 1898 from ab ro ad , o f c o u rse , b u t th e m o tiv a tio n s
a re p r im a r ily n a tio n a l. I t s d o c tr in e s a r e n o t e n t i r e l y
o r ig in a l, f o r i t borrow s f r e e l y from e a r l i e r g e n e ra tio n s .
I t s u n iq u en ess stem s from th e manner i n w hich i t approaches
l i t e r a t u r e . I t i s e x p lo ra to ry , in v e n tiv e and e s s e n t i a l l y
d id a c ti c .
A lta m ira and h is co n tem p o raries w ere men w ith p o s i
ti v e id e a s on how to d e a l w ith th e problem s o f t h e i r tim e .
The le a d e r s o f S pain, th e y b e lie v e d , had f a i l e d th e c o u n try
w ith in e p t and u n im a g in a tiv e p o l i c i e s . S ince id e a s a re
th e s u b sta n c e on w hich p ro g re s s fe e d s , th e men o f 1898 f e l t
com pelled to p a ss on to th e p eo p le t h e i r own th o u g h ts on
n a t io n a l is s u e s . These id e a s a r e re p e a te d ly woven in to
th e them es o f t h e i r n o v e ls , s h o r t s t o r i e s , e ssa y s and
74
c r i t i c a l w r itin g s ; th e l i t e r a r y ty p es b e s t s u ite d to t h e i r
p u rp o se. The d id a c tic n a tu re o f t h e i r w r itin g d e te rm in e s,
to a c o n s id e ra b le e x te n t, th e l i t e r a r y s t y l e th e y u s e .
Themes
Many w r ite r s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e G e n e ra tio n o f
1898, s tr a n g e ly enough, disavow m em bership in i t . Y et, an
ex am in atio n o f th e n o v els produced in th e p o s t-S p a n is h -
American War p e rio d r e v e a ls a s t r i k i n g s i m i l a r i t y in p lo t
and them e, as i f th e w r i te r s had jo in e d in common e f f o r t
to t e l l th e same s to r y w ith v a r ia tio n s o f t h e i r own.
The m ajo r theme in Renoso i s s ta te d e a r ly in th e
n o v e l: Ju an ad m its to h i s u n c le t h a t h e i s t i r e d , has
g iv en up th e s tr u g g le and seek s o n ly re p o se in q u ie t and
in n a tu r e . L ik e Fernando in B a r o ja 's Camino d e n e rfe c c io n .
he s u f f e r s from n e u ra sth e n ia * L ike A ntonio A zorfn in La
v o lu n ta d . Juan w anders th ro u g h th e c o u n try s id e communing
w ith n a tu re . L ik e A ugusto in N ie b la . h e se a rc h e s in
a g o n iz in g s e l f - a p p r a i s a l f o r th e re a so n f o r h i s f a i l u r e s .
These h ero es r e f l e c t th e w eaknesses o f t h e i r g e n e ra tio n ,
as Azor£n s t a t e s in h is n o v e l:
A zorfn es c a s i un sfm bolo; sus p e r p le jid a d e s , sus
a n s ia s , su s d esco n su elo s b ie n pueden r e p r e s e n ta r to d a
75..
tana g en e ra cio n s i n v o lu n ta d , s in e n e rg ia , in d e c is a ,
i r r e s o l u t a , una g e n e ra c io n que no tie n e n i l a a u d a c ia
de la g e n e ra c io n ro m a n tic a , n i l a £e d e a firm a r de l a
g e n e ra c io n n a t u r a l i s t a .
B a ro ja 's h e ro , Fernando, e x h ib its th e s e same d e f e c ts :
Como no t e n i a d e se o s, n i v o lu n ta d , n i fu e rz a p a ra
nada, s e d ejo l l e v a r p o r l a c o r r ie n te .^ 6
B ecause o f h i s p a s s iv ity and i r r e s o l u t i o n , th e h ero
seldom w ins th e a f f e c t i o n o f th e woman he lo v e s . A lta -
m ira* s Ju a n , en g ro ssed in w ork and stu d y , a llo w s lo v e to
p a s s him b y :
Pero e l se e s c u r r ia , h u rta b a e l cu erp o , no p o r s i s -
tema, n i por h o r r o r a l a m u jer, s in o a r r a s tr a d o p o r l a
o b se sio n de sus lu c h a s, d e sus tr a b a jo s . com prendiendo
que no te n ia tiem po p a ra o t r a c o s a . . .
Y ears l a t e r , when th e l a s t o p p o rtu n ity to m eet A ndrea p r e
s e n ts i t s e l f , Juan i s s t i l l in d e c is iv e :
Lucho Juan c o n sig o mismo, v a c i l o . Una y o t r a vez
h izo e l ademan d e s a l i r y se c o n tu v o .^ 8
T h ere i s a vagueness and in c o n s is te n c y ab o u t th e G en e ra tio n
o f 9 8 's h e r o 's a f f e c t io n . H is lo v e i s more o f th e mind
J o s e M a rtin e z R u iz, La v o lu n ta d (M adrid, 1913),
p . 201. ( H e re in a f te r a b b re v ia te d to V oluntad in th e f o o t
n o te s . )
58P io B a ro ja , Camino d e p e rfe c c io n (M adrid, 1913),
p . 30. (H e re in a f te r a b b re v ia te d to Camino in th e f o o t
n o te s .)
^Reposo, p. 95. ^8Ibid., p. 220.
76
th a n o f th e h e a r t:
^Q uiere A zorfn a J u s tin a ? Se puede a s e g u ra r que
s£ ; p ero e s a lg o a m anera d e un amor I n t e l e c t u a l ; d e
un a f e c to vago y m is te r io s o , d e tm a n s ia que lle g a a
tem poradas y a tem poradas s e m archa. *
Unamuno's h e ro , to o , i s u n su re ab o u t h is lo v e f o r E ugenia.
When Augusto a sk s a f r i e n d 's o p in io n , th e re sp o n se i s :
. . . to d o tu enam oram iento no es s in o c e r e b r a l, o como
s u e le d e c ir s e , de ca b ez a. ®
One i s n o t a s to n is h e d t h a t in th e end few o f th e s e h e ro e s
win th e g i r l .
The h ero i s p e s s im is tic . H is f a i l u r e in lo v e
le a v e s him e m b itte re d :
Pero en a q u e lla la r g a p e re g rin a c io n a l tr a v e s de
l a d e s g ra c ia y e l pesim ism o, Juan hab£a id o p erd ie n d o
lo mas d u lc e y ju g o so d e su alm a, l a poes£a d e l s e n ti-
m ie n to . ^
He ca n n o t cope w ith th e problem s o f l i f e in th e b ig c i t y :
A zorfn, a ra £ z d e l a m u erte d e J u s t in a , abandono
e l p ueblo y v in o a M adrid. En M adrid su pesim ism o
i n s t i n t i v o se h a c o n s o lid a d o ; su v o lu n ta d ha acabado
de d is g r e g a rs e en e s te e s p e c ta c u lo d e v a n id ad es y
m is e r ia s .
V oluntad. p . 62.
^ S lig u e l d e Unamuno, N ie b la (M adrid, 1914), p . 93.
(H e re in a fte r a b b re v ia te d to N ie b la in th e f o o tn o te s .)
^Renoso, p. 215. ^ ^Voluntad. p. 143.
77
He fin d s in th e n a t u r a l b e a u ty o f th e c o u n try s id e a so u rce
o f h a p p in e ss and s e r e n ity . L ike F ray L u is de Leon, th e
a r e c u r r e n t theme in h is s h o r t s t o r i e s and i s th e s u b je c t
o f one o f h is e s s a y s , w hich w i l l b e d is c u s s e d in C h ap ters
V and V I.
o f th e o ld e r g e n e ra tio n . Don V ic e n te , who s e rv e s a s a f o i l
to Ju an , r e p r e s e n ts th e th in k in g o f t h i s g ro u p . J u a n 's
a tte m p t a t refo rm in g th e i r r i g a t i o n system o f V illa m a r d i s
tu rb s th e o ld man:
—Y de l a noche a l a manana v as a d a r a l t r a s t e con
to d a s a d q u is ic io n e s , que son tu sa lu d y t u f e lic id a d
p a ra m ie n tra s v iv a s , p o r e l empeno de r e s o lv e r d e g o lp e
y p o rra z o una c u e s tio n que d u ra n te s ig lo s ha d iv id id o
a l a s g e n te s d e e s te p a is y que p re c isa m e n te a h o ra ,
Hi me lo e x p lie o ,
On one o c c a sio n , Ju an w itn e s s e s th e d e b a rk a tio n o f hundreds
o f farm hands who have re tu rn e d from O ran. S in ce th e y ca n
n o t fin d employment a t home, th ey m ust work in N orth
A fr ic a . When Ju an q u e s tio n s th e i n j u s t i c e o f t h e i r h av in g
63
h ero seek s s o la c e in n a tu re .
Repose, a l e i t m o t i f th ro u g h o u t A lta m ira 's n o v e l, i s
An im p o rta n t theme in Reposo i s th e in tr a n s ig e n c e
^ Reposo, p . 199; V o lu n tad , p . 78.
^ Reposo, p . 291.
78
to rem ain away from fa m ily and home f o r m onths, even y e a rs ,
Don V icen te* s re sp o n se i s :
—No s e . iS ie n te n d e una m anera ta n d i s t i n t a a
n o s o tr o s !
B a ro ja c r i t i c i z e s in somewhat s im ila r fa s h io n th e S p an iard
who has l o s t th o se q u a l i t i e s th a t once c o n trib u te d to th e
g re a tn e s s o f S pain. Fernando w anders in to a sm a ll town and
e n te r s a c a fe . From h is ta b l e he o b se rv e s:
A un la d o , en o t r a mesa habxa una t e r t u l i a de g e n te
t r i s t e , v ie jo s con c a ra s m e la n c o lic a s y e x p re s io n a p a -
gada echando e l cu erp o h a c ia a d e la n te apoyados en lo s
b a s to n e s ... En a q u e llo s tip o s s e comprendxa l a enorme
d e c a d e n c ia d e una r a z a que no g u ard ab a d e su a n tig u a
e n e rg la mas que g e s to s y adem anes, e l c a sc a ro n d e l a
g a lla r d x a y de l a f u e r z a .
A nother r e c u r r e n t th a n e in Renoso i s hum anity, th e
hum ble p e a sa n t and la b o r e r . Juan f in d s h im s e lf more a t
e a s e among th e po o r:
. . . q u iz a e l summum d e l a tr a n q u ilid a d que yo busco s e
h a l l e en e l t r a t o con lo s p obres y lo s ig n o ra n te s , que
han s id o siem pre lo s com paheros d e lo s g ran d es hum ildes
de l a h i s t o r i a , cuya v id a se d e s liz o a p a c ib le v s e re n a ,
l i b r e de la s tem p estad es que a g ita n e l mundo. '
He adm ires t h e i r s im p lic ity and in d u s try . T h e ir way o f
l i v i n g i s more n a t u r a l . At tim es h e h im s e lf jo in s in
65Ibid.. p. 169.
67
Reposo, p. 67.
^ Camino. p. 88.
79
t h e i r la b o r:
Mas de una v ez tuvo e l c a p ric h o de m an ejar e l
azadon y ay u d ar a lo s jo m a le r o s ; y no o b s ta n te su
im p e ric ia y l a b u r la d isira u la d a d e lo s cam pesinos
a n te e l a rd o r y l a poca g r a c ia con que "don Juan"
hac£ a a q u e lla s c o s a s , siem p re s a l i a d e e s to s ensayos
mas a le g r e , mas anim oso, con c i e r t a s a tis f a c c io n de
u s a r lo s punos en tr a b a jo s ta n d if e r e n te s d e lo s
suyos u s u a le s . °
T his i s a theme in A zorfn*s work a ls o . I t i s th e sim p le
p e a sa n t who i s happy:
Ya en l a le ja n £ a , apenas se p e rc ib e , a r e ta z o s , l a
s u p lic a fe rv o ro s a de lo s la b rie g o s , de lo s hombres
s e n c i l l o s , d e lo s hombres f e l i c e s . . . ®
Unamuno e x p re s se s a lo v e o f hum anity and a co n cern f o r i t s
m a te r ia l w e ll-b e in g .^ ®
The men o f 1898 b e lie v e th a t th e lan d and th e com
mon p eo p le a r e th e m ain stay o f th e c o u n try . One m ust
r e tu r n to th e la n d , r o l l up h i s s le e v e s and engage in h ard
p h y s ic a l w ork. T here i s a n o te o f p a tr io tis m in A ltam ira* s
a p p e a l f o r a r e t u r n to th e s o i l :
Asx corno no ama l a t i e r r a s in o q u ien l a tr a b a j a ,
q u ien s u f r e p o r e l l a y p o r e l l a s ie n te banado su cu erp o
en sudor y p o r e l l a s e ahoga en zo zo b ras y en m iedos
y tie n e a l te rru n o lig a d a su v id a e n te r a en to d o s sus
®®Ibid.. p. 268. ^ Voluntad, p. 127.
70
George T y le r N orthup, An In tro d u c tio n to S panish
L ite r a tu r e (C hicago, 1938), p . 442.
80
a c to s , asx no ama, no puede amar p ro p iam en te a su
p a t r i a q u ie n v iv e en e l l a a modo d e cosm opolitan como
p u d ie ra v i v i r en o tr o lu g a r, s in nada p ro p io , genuino,
que e n la c e y tr a b e p a ra siem p re su im ag in acio n y su
a c tiv id a d a l r in c o n c ito d e l mundo en que n a c io y a l a
v id a que l e r o d e a .'
A zo rx n 's co n cern i s t h a t th e S p an iard i s tr a d in g th e w hole
someness -of c o u n try l i f e f o r th e u n c e r ta in co m fo rts o f th e
c i t y . Y uste p o in ts o u t to A ntonio th e g r e a t n a tio n a l lo s s
th a t r e s u l t s :
Yo no s e . . . c u a l s e ra e l p o rv e n ir de to d a e s ta
c l a s e la b ra d o ra , que es e l s o s te n d e l E stado, y ha
s id o , en r e a lid a d , l a b ase de l a c i v i l i z a c i o n o c c id e n
t a l , de v e in te s ig l o s d e c i v i l i z a c i o n c r i s t i a n a . . .
N ota, A zo rin , que l a em ig racio n d e l campo a l a ciu d ad
es cad a v e z mayor: l a ciu d ad s e n os lle v a to d o lo mas
san o , lo mas f u e r t e , lo mas i n t e l i g e n t e d e l campo.
Todos q u ie re n s e r a r te s a n o s , to d o s q u ie re n d e ja r s e e l
u rbano b ig o te , s£m bolo, a l p a re c e r, d e un mas d e lic a d o
i n t e l e c t o .^2
F ern an d o ’ s p re o c c u p a tio n s d is a p p e a r when he comes in co n
t a c t w ith th e la n d :
For la s m ananas, Fernando se le v a n ta b a tem prano,
subxa a lo s m ontes d e lo s a lre d e d o re s y se ten d x a
d e b a jo d e alg u n p in o . . . Todo lo que se hab£a e x c ita d o
en M adrid y T oledo ib a re m itie n d o en M a risp a rz a . Al
p o n erse en c o n ta c to con l a t i e r r a , e s t a l e hacxa e n t r a r
en l a r e a lid a d .? 3
A th e m a tic f e a tu r e o f A lta m ira 1 s n o v e l and th o s e o f
71
A lta m ira , C uentos d e mi t i e r r a . p . 11.
^ V o lu n ta d . p . 121. ^ Camino. p. 190.
81
h i s co n tem p o raries i s p a i s a i e . One m ust ex clu d e Unamuno,
f o r a lth o u g h h e i s a p a i s a i i s t a . he does n o t in c o rp o r a te
p a i s a ie in to h is n o v e ls b u t w r ite s ab o u t i t s e p a r a t e l y . ^
D e s c rip tio n s o f la n d sca p e abound in Reposo. La v o lu n ta d and
Camino de p e r f e c c io n . Only th e lo c a le and th e p a r t i c u l a r
tre a tm e n t o f th e a u th o rs d if f e r * The scen es th e y d e p ic t
a r e n o t in c id e n ta l b u t a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e p l o t .
A lta m ira w r ite s ab o u t A lic a n te . A zorxn, an A lic a n tin o ,
d e s c rib e s th e b ea u ty o f C a s t i l e . B a ro ja has two p a t r i a s
c h i c a s :
Tengo dos pequenas p a t r i a s r e g io n a le s : V asconia y
C a s t i l l a , co n sid eran d o C a s t i l l a , C a s t i l l a l a V i e j a . ^ 5
T h e ir p u rp o se in u s in g la n d sc a p e so e x te n s iv e ly i s n o t
a e s th e tic a lo n e ; i t i s p a r t o f t h e i r re g e n e ra tio n p la n .
The them es d is c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p te r i l l u s t r a t e th e
deep co n cern o f th e men o f 1898 f o r t h e i r c o u n try . They
w ro te f o r S p ain , a s Azor£n s t a t e s in M ad rid :
De n u e s tro amor a Espana responden n u e s tro s
l i b r o s . 76
7 < ^ A ngel V albuena P ra t, H is to r ia de l a l i t e r a t u r a
e sp a n o la (4 th e d .; B arcelo n a, 1953), I I I , 467.
75P£o B a ro ja , Ju v e n tu d . e e o la tr £ a (M adrid, n . d . ) ,
p. 75.
7fi /
L u is S. G ra n je l, Panorama d e l a G eneracion d e l 98
(M adrid, 1959), p . 253.
A lta m ira and th e n o v e lis ts o f h is g e n e ra tio n a r e h i s t o r y -
co n scio u s in a way t h a t t h e i r p re d e c e s s o rs a re n o t. They
mold th e n o v e l to s u i t t h e i r d id a c tic p u rp o se s.
Id eas
The men o f 1898 a re n o ta b le b ecau se o f t h e i r id e a s .
They re s o lv e to b r in g to th e p e o p le o f S pain t h e i r th in k in g
on a v a r ie ty o f problem s. The n o v e l i s one o f th e l i t e r a r y
form s th e y used f o r t h i s p u rp o se.
C r i t i c s a g re e th a t id e a s a re an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f
th e n o v e l o f t h i s p e rio d . Aubrey B e ll d e s c rib e s B a r o ja 's
n o v e ls as " s h o t th ro u g h w ith o r i g i n a l th o u g h ts .1 1 ^ Una
muno’ s N ie b la c o n ta in s " o r ig in a l id e a s ," a c c o rd in g to
78
George T y le r N orthup. G onzalo T o rre n te B a lle s te r i s
somewhat more e x p l i c i t re g a rd in g A zo rx n 's n o v e ls :
. . . A ntonio A zorxn. La v o lu n ta d —ap arecen mas como
in stru m e n to s p a ra l a e x p re s io n d e unas id e a s que como
n o v e la s p ropiam ente d ic h a s . . . . ^
^ A u b rey F. G. B e ll, C ontem porary S p an ish L i t e r a
tu r e (New York, 1925), p . 108.
^ N o rth u p , o p . c i t . . p . 441.
^ G o n z a lo T o rre n te B a lle s te r , L i t e r a t u r a e s p a n o la
contem poranea (M adrid, n . d . ) , p . 262.
83
In th e o p in io n o f Rene W elleck, id e a s should b e c o n s t i t u
t i v e , woven in to th e f a b r ic o f l i t e r a t u r e , i f such l i t e r a -
80
t u r e i s to b e c o n sid e re d a tr u e work o f a r t . The
G e n e ra tio n o f 1898 a tte m p t to do p r e c is e ly t h a t .
A lta m ira, l i k e h is c o n te m p o ra rie s, in c o rp o ra te s
in to h is n o v e l a number o f id e a s . He r e a l i z e s th ey a r e a
p o w erfu l in stru m e n t i n sh ap in g man’s c h a r a c te r :
Es co sa c u rio s ls im a , en v e rd a d , la f u e rz a de su g e s-
tio n que tie n e n la s id e a s dom inantes so b re e l c a r a c te r
de l a mayorxa d e lo s hom bres. . . . ®
A lta m ira re c o g n iz e s th e im p o rta n t r o l e o f l i t e r a t u r e in th e
d is p e r s io n o f id e a s . L ite r a tu r e , u n f o r tu n a te ly , i s f i l l e d
w ith t i r e d , outmoded id e a s , h e a s s e r t s :
Ahora b ie n ; es in d u d a b le que l a l i t e r a t u r a amena—
q u iz a mas que n in g u n o tr o genero d e l i t e r a t u r a —e s t a
n u tr id a p rin c ip a lm e n te p o r id e a s v i e j a s , d e la s que
forman e l p r e c ip ita d o d e l a c i v i l i z a c i o n , de la s que
quedan en l a in f r a e s t r u e t u r a de l a v id a m en tal y a l i i
p erd u ran o c u lta s p o r l a cap a e x t e r i o r que c o n s titu y e n
Q A
Rene W ellek and A u stin W arren, Theory o f L i t e r a
t u r e (New York, 1956), p . 112: " . . . th e l i t e r a r y s tu d e n t
sh o u ld tu r n h is a t t e n t i o n to th e c o n c re te problem n o t y e t
so lv e d o r even a d e q u a te ly d is c u s s e d : th e q u e s tio n o f how
id e a s a c tu a l ly e n te r in to l i t e r a t u r e . I t i s o b v io u sly n o t
a q u e s tio n o f id e a s in a w ork o f l i t e r a t u r e a s long as
th e s e id e a s rem ain m ere raw m a te r ia l, mere in fo rm a tio n ."
^ R a f a e l A lta m ira , Cosas d e l d£a (V a le n c ia , 1907),
p. 60.
84
la s que e l em puje de lo s tiem pos v a a c a rre a n d o , p ero
d is p u e s ta s siem pre a p e r f o r a r e s a capa v a r e a p a re c e r
en l a s u p e r f ic i e , dom inandola d e nuevo.8^
These anachronous id e a s m ust be shed "como p i e l v i e j a " and
go
re p la c e d w ith o th e rs t h a t s tim u la te th in k in g . In Reposo,
A lta m ira p re s e n ts id e a s on s e v e r a l m a tte rs w hich i n t e r e s t
him p ro fo u n d ly : th e p e a s a n t, th e i r r i g a t i o n problem , n a tu r e
and la n d sc a p e , and p a tr io tis m .
The P e asan t
A lta m ira shows an a b id in g co n cern f o r th e hum ble
p eo p le o f S p ain . He w r ite s o f th e d e p riv a tio n s and i n j u s
t i c e s th e y s u f f e r a t th e hands o f le a d e rs i n s e n s i t i v e to
t h e i r s o c i a l and economic n ee d s. The a u t h o r 's tr a i n i n g as
a h i s t o r i a n p e rm its him a p e r s p e c tiv e in t h i s re g a rd t h a t
m ost o f h is g e n e ra tio n do n o t have.
The h e ro i s p la c e d in a s e t t i n g w e ll known to A lta
m ira, h i s n a tiv e A lic a n te . Juan i s a s e n s i t i v e , o fte n tim e s
co n fu sed , b u t alw ays c u rio u s in d iv id u a l:
Ju a n ib a a d q u irie n d o le n tam en te una im p resio n p e r
s o n a l, r i c a en porm enores, d e l a s itu a c io n econom ica,
de la s costum bres y d e la s q u e ja s de lo s campesinos.8^
82Ibid., p. 210.
8^Reposo, p. 150.
83Ibid., p. 212.
85
He d is c o v e rs t h a t th e p e a s a n t i s a b le to make a liv in g o n ly
b ecau se o f h is f r u g a l i t y and p a t i e n t endurance:
Las p a r te s d e t i e r r a d e lo s mas eran in s u f ic ie n t e s
p a ra la s n e c e sid a d e s e le m e n ta le s ; y so lo vivX an lo s
v illa m a rin o s merced a una so b rie d a d extrem ada y a l a
ayuda de tr a b a jo s su p le m e n ta rio s , como e l d e l a tom iza
y e l j o m a l en t i e r r a s a je n a s ; y aun e l p rim ero ib a
rin d ie n d o menos cad a dxa y h a c ie n d o se mas d if x c il.® ^
I t seems in c r e d ib le to Ju an t h a t th e s e p eo p le, hardw orking
f o r th e m ost p a r t , and liv i n g in an a g r i c u l t u r a l a re a , m ust
e x i s t on such m eager f a r e :
Pero lo que mas choco a Ju an fu e l a so b rie d a d de
lo s la b r ie g o s , cuya b a s e de a lim e n ta c io n e ra n la s
h o r t a l i z a s en c ru d o , s o la s o d is p u e s ta s como e n s a la d a ,
l a s sa la z o n e s b a r a ta s y e l p escad o , s i no e s ta b a a g ran
p r e c io . Comida c a l i e n t e no solX an h a c e r mas de u n a a l
d x a, por l a noche, y re d u c fa s e a un g u isad o d e p a ta ta s
o un a r r o z . C am e, rarX sim a v e z , y en alg u n as c a s a s ,
n u n ca. Las aves d e c o r r a l la s c ria b a n p a ra l a v e n ta ,
y lo s c o n e jo s d o m e stic o s, ab u n d an tes, eran p la to d e
r e g a lo en o c a sio n e s so le m n e s.°°
The town p r i e s t liv e s in c irc u m sta n c e s j u s t as poor:
Es un d e s g ra c ia d o . V ive s o lo , s in ama. Come m al,
c a s i p o r c a rid a d d e alg u n o s v e c in o s , de lo s pocos <^ue
s e compadecen de e l . Duerme so b re un je rg o n de maxz
que e l mismo m u lle . . . 87
Don V ic e n te e x p la in s to Ju an t h a t th e p e a sa n t does n o t
u n d e rsta n d th e w r itte n law and becomes en tra p p ed in
85Ibid. 86Ibid., p. 151.
87Ibid.. p. 83.
86
im p o ssib le s it u a ti o n s b ecau se o f h i s ig n o ran c e and n e g l i
gence:
E x p lico e l caso con to d o s su s porm enores, uno de
e so s caso s co m p lejo s, en red ad isim o s, en que l a in c u r ia
y l a ig n o ra n c ia d e lo s la b ra d o re s com plican l a r e a lid a d
y l a enm aranan h a c ie n d o la mas d e b il a n te l a p e n e tra c io n
te n ta c u la r de l a le y e s c r ita .® ^
I m p lic it in th e s e rem arks i s A ltam ira* s condem nation o f a
system w hich, on th e one hand, p ro v id e s few e d u c a tio n a l
o p p o r tu n itie s f o r th e p e a sa n t c l a s s , and on th e o th e r,
w hich i s run ac c o rd in g to an a n tiq u a te d , u n im a g in a tiv e and
cumbersome s e t o f law s. A lta m ira was a c tiv e as a re fo rm e r
in b o th a r e a s .
Ju an , a t f i r s t , w avers in h is co n cern f o r th e f a r
m er. He i s m isle d by th e a p p a re n t b en ev o len ce o f Don
V ic e n te 's a c tio n s :
. . . y d e cad a vez com prendla m ejo r, no s o lo l a u t i l i d a d
de l a a c c io n que su t£ o e j e re f a so b re a q u e lla g e n te ,
s in o e l tono p a t r i a r c a l y c o n c ilia d o r que l a c a r a c t e r i -
z a b a .89
At lo n g l a s t , Juan r e a l i z e s t h a t , alth o u g h Don V ic e n te i s
a s in c e r e ly k in d man and a Godsend to th e community o f
V illa m a r, h is p r o v in c ia l o u tlo o k p re v e n ts him from g ra sp in g
th e b ro a d e r im p lic a tio n s o f th e fa r m e r 's problem s and
88Ibid.. p. 59. 89Ibid.. p. 151.
87
makes him p ro n e to s e t t l e f o r th e s ta tu s quo.
The I r r i g a t i o n Problem
A r e l a t e d m a tte r, w hich A lta m ira d is c u s s e s in
s e v e r a l p la c e s in th e n o v e l, i s th e problem o f i r r i g a t i o n .
An e n t i r e c h a p te r i s d ev o ted to tr a c in g th e h is t o r y o f
i r r i g a t i o n in th e A lic a n tin e a r e a . Ju an spends h o u rs in
th e li b r a r y a t Ronesa re s e a r c h in g th e o r ig in o f th e lo c a l
sy stem o f i r r i g a t i o n . He d is c o v e rs t h a t th e farm er f o r c e n
t u r i e s has had to depend on s p e c u la to r s f o r th e w a te r h e
n e e d s :
El agua v i e j a fu e a l p r in c ip io h i j a de l a c o d ic ia
de unos pocos, que com enzaron a c o n s id e ra r e l d erech o
d e rie g o como in d e p e n d ie n te d e l a t i e r r a y a u s a r lo
como m ereanc£a que en lo s momentos c r i t i c o s lo g ra b a
p re c io s a l t o s . 9®
Ju a n v i s i t s a w a te r m ark et w here h e s e e s a poor woman
c h e a te d by a s p e c u la to r . He ap p ro ach es th e town le a d e rs
w ith a p la n to im prove th e sy stem . They a r e , how ever,
r e l u c t a n t to ta k e c o r r e c tiv e m easu res:
£ Q uien nos d e f e n d e ria y como nos defenderfam os en
l a c iu d a d y en M adrid? En cu a n to em pezaran la s in s t a n -
c ia s y lo s p a p e le s , jf ig u r e s e la d e recom endaciones que
h a ria n ju g a r lo s o tr o s ! Nos d ar£ an c ie n v u e lta s . . . ^
90Ibid., p. 178. 91Ibid.. p. 193.
88
Ju an c h id e s them f o r t h e i r tim id ity , r e c a l l i n g t h a t e a r l i e r
g e n e ra tio n s a c te d w ith more r e s o lv e :
; Pues s i e s a e s l a h i s t o r i a e t e m a de e s to s campos,
l a lu c h a e n tr e p o b res y r i c o s , e n t r e c u ltiv a d o re s y no
c u ltiv a d o r e s , d esd e tiem po inm em orial! Solo que a n te s
habxa em puje, habxa alm a p a ra l a p e le a y a h o ra lo s
hombres no se mueven aunque le s v ay a en e l l o e l pan d a
cad a d £ a. E l la b ra d o r se h a c o n v e rtid o en un b o rre g o .
Don V ic e n te , f e a r f u l o f th e re se n tm en t h i s nephew 's a t t i
tu d e w i l l c r e a te in V illa m a r, p ersu ad es Juan to accompany
him f o r a few days on a v i s i t to an o u tly in g farm . Ju an ,
by c o in c id e n c e , e n c o u n te rs th e same problem h e r e . Don
Jaim e, th e owner o f th e farm , com plains th a t th e town
a u t h o r i t i e s have schemed to d e p riv e him o f needed w a te r :
N e c e sito mas agua d e l a que ten g o p ara d e s a r r o l l a r
m is p la n e s d e c u l tiv o . Ademas, como ya in d iq u e e l
o tr o d x a, e l A yuntam iento de B en id acar va t r a s q u itarm e
p a r te , q u iz a to d o e l m a n a n tia l que ah o ra d i s f r u t o . Una
i n j u s t i c i a , s e h o r; p ero l a e s ta n u rd ien d o muy f i n a -
m ente. 9“ *
F ollow ing t h i s in c id e n t, Juan d e c id e s t o abandon
V illa m a r and r e tu r n to M adrid. He has come fa c e to fa c e
w ith th e r e a l i t y o f r u r a l l i f e . H is s e n tim e n ta l n o tio n s
have v a n ish e d and h e now u n d e rsta n d s h i s tr u e c a l l i n g . He
w i l l r e tu r n to th e C a p ita l and resume h i s s tr u g g le .
92Ibid., p. 192. 93Ibid., p. 315.
89
A lta m ira was w e ll inform ed on th e i r r i g a t i o n q u e s
ti o n . He had s tu d ie d c o n su e tu d in a ry law f o r many y e a rs ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h a t r e l a t i n g to th e d i s t r i b u t i o n and s a l e o f
w a te r f o r i r r i g a t i o n p u rp o ses in A l i c a n t e . ^ H is fin d in g s
ap p ear in D erecho c o n s u e tu d in a rio v economfa p o p u la r d e l a
p ro v in c ia d e A lic a n te , p u b lis h e d in 1905 and awarded a
p r iz e by th e Academia d e C ie n c ia s M orales y P o l f t i c a s . ^
W hereas A ltam ira* s co n tem p o raries a t t r i b u t e S p a in 's d e c lin e
m ainly to p e rs o n a l d e f e c ts , he tr a c e s i t to economic m is
m an ag em en t.^
97
N ature and L andscape7
The men o f 1898 em phasize lan d scap e in t h e i r w orks,
alm o st to th e e x c lu sio n o f p lo t and c h a r a c te r iz a tio n . The
id e a o f p a is a i e in th e n o v e l i s c e r t a i n l y n o t o r ig in a l ,
f o r i t fig u re s im p o rta n tly in th e l i t e r a t u r e o f p re v io u s
^ N o t a s . p . 406. ^ B i b l i o e r a f f a . p . 15.
^^ R a fael A lta m ira, P s ic o lo e ia d e l p u eb lo e sp an o l
(B arcelo n a, n . d . ) , p . 153.
^ W e lle k and W arren, op. c i t . , p . 105: W ellek
s t a t e s : "Sometimes th e id e o lo g ic a l in te rm in g le s w ith th e
p u re ly e m o tio n a l." He b e lie v e s t h a t man i n h i s a t t i t u d e
to n a tu re can b e in flu e n c e d by a e s t h e t i c and even p h y s io
lo g ic a l c o n s id e r a tio n s . He in c lu d e s "la n d sc a p e f e e lin g "
among th e s e .
90
g e n e ra tio n s . The d if f e r e n c e i s one o f a t t i t u d e and p u r
pose. The G en e ratio n o f 1898 eschews th e s e n tim e n ta l
n o tio n s o f th e ro m an tics w ith re g a rd to la n d sca p e, a t th e
same re c o g n iz in g i t s v a lu e in r e g e n e ra tiv e l i t e r a t u r e . The
S panish people m ust r e f a m ilia r iz e th em selv es w ith th e
beauty o f t h e i r c o u n try .
The r e c u p e ra tiv e powers o f n a tu re a r e u n d ersco red
r e p e a te d ly in R eposo. Don V ic e n te i s th e spokesman f o r
t h is p o in t o f view :
La in f lu e n c ia d e l campo y d e l a v id a sosegada es
s e ^ u ra . El e s p l r i t u tie n e a e l l a por p ro p ia in c l i n a -
c io n ; y e sa s n e u r a s te n ia s , e so s c a n sa n c io s t e r r i b l e s
que consumen rap id am en te a lo s hombres m odem os, son
e l c a s tig o lo g ic o de c o n tra v e n ir una le y n a t u r a l . 9 °
When Ju a n q u e s tio n s th e e f f ic a c y o f t h i s m ethod o f t r e a t
ment i n h is own c a s e , Don V ice n te i s adam ant:
—Pero en to n ces, ^de que s e r v i r l a e l campo, l a v id a
so seg ad a, e l r e t i r o d e l mundo? ^Acaso l a h i s t o r i a y l a
e x p e rie n c ia de hoy no dan te s tim o n io d e que muchas
g e n te s se h an salv ad o acudiendo a e se remedio?99
A lthough A lta m ira uses la n d sc a p e to d e p ic t th e b e a u ty and
many ad v an tag es o f n a tu re , he f e e l s th a t i t i s u n r e a l i s t i c
to ig n o re hum anity in th e p ro c e s s :
. . . e ra p r e c is o l l e g a r a l a a c c io n p ro p ia en a q u e l
mundo, a v i v i r , no s o lo con l a s fu e rz a s n a tu r a le s ,
98
Reposo, p. 163. " ibid.. p. 296.
91
sin o tam bien con la s humanas que a l l f esco n d fan su
m is e ria y su ig n o ra n c la ; e r a n e c e s a rlo co rap leta r l a
o b ra tr a n q u lllz a d o r a d e l m edio con l a p ro fu n d a paz
d e l b ie n r e a liz a d o seren am en te, en form a de b ie n , s in
lu ch as con lo s demas h o m b res.^ ®
A lta m ira ’s c o n tem p o raries t r e a t la n d sca p e in much
th e same m anner. A zorfn, fo rem o st among th e p a i s a i i s t a s
o f h i s g e n e ra tio n , u s e s la n d sca p e f o r o th e r th a n a e s th e tic
p u rp o ses a c c o rd in g to T o rre n te :
E l p a i s a j i s t a "A zorfn", amen d e sus d e lic a d e z a s
l i t e r a r i a s , s i g n i f i c a e l d e sc u b rim ie n to d e l p a is a je
esp a n o l en sus a s p e c to s in e d ito s , a s£ como un nuevo
modo d e s e n t i r l a h i s t o r i a , e l hombre y e l p o rv e n ir de
Espana.
Unamuno c o n s id e rs la n d sca p e a form o f a r t th a t e x i s t s f o r
man, and th e hum blest man i s w o rth much more th a n th e
1 C\0
g r e a t e s t work o f a r t . L ike A lta m ira and A zorfn, he i s
in te r e s te d n o t only in evoking a b e a u tif u l image, b u t in
e l i c i t i n g an i n t e l l e c t u a l re sp o n se . T o rre n te c a l l s a t t e n
t i o n to t h i s a s p e c t o f Unamuno’ s m ethod:
D esc rib e lo que v e, d e m anera esp o n tan e a , con su s
c a r a c t e r f s t i c a s d e form a, d e c o lo r , de s itu a c io n ;
p ero , s i n d e te n e rs e en l a sim p le d e s c r ip c io n , s a l t a
100I b i d . . p. 111.
^■ ^T o rren te, op. c i t . , p . 263.
• ^ B e l l , op. c i t .. p . 235.
92
inm ediatam ente a lo id e o lo g ic o —h i s t o r i c o , s o c ia l o
m o ral; a v e c e s, tam bien p o l i t i c o .
F ern an d o ’ s a t t i t u d e tow ard la n d sc a p e i s p erh ap s r e v e la to r y
o f B aro ja* s view :
E l id e a l d e su v id a e ra un p a is a je i n t e l e c t u a l ,
f r f o , lim p io , p u ro , siem pre c r i s t a l i n o , con una c l a r i -
dad b la n c a . . . . ^ *
P a tr io tis m
A nother q u e s tio n t h a t p re o c c u p ie s A lta m ira i s th e
m isguided p a tr io tis m o f many S p a n ia rd s. I n s u la r in o u tlo o k
and bound by t r a d i t i o n , th e y c l in g to an outmoded co n c ep t
o f p a tr io tis m . In Renoso. A lta m ira in tro d u c e s a c h a r a c te r ,
Nardo, who t y p i f i e s th e z e a lo u s p a t r i o t . He u n r e a l i s t i -
c a l l y la y s th e blam e fo r S p a in 's d e f e a t on th e tre a so n o u s
a c ts o f o th e r s :
C asi to d o s e s to s e s tu v ie r o n a l l f : mi h i j o mas
pequeno, que es e se , dos s o b rin o s m fos, que son eso s
rubios.^ Y s e r f e n de (jue yo me en fad e de a q u e lla
t r a i c i o n ; porque lo fu e , s e n o r ito . Yo e s tu v e en e l
C a lla o y se lo que son e sa s c o s a s . La m arin a esp an o la
no l a vence n a d ie , ;r e d io s ! s i com bate d e v e r a s .
Nardo b e r a te s th e younger g e n e ra tio n f o r h av in g re tu rn e d
from th e Cuban c o n f l i c t w ith o u t a s in g le wound. Ju an i s
1 0 3 T o rren te, on. c i t . . p . 211.
•^ ^ Camino, p . 34. ^ ^ Renoso. p. 126.
93
moved by th e s i n c e r i t y o f th e o ld m an's im passioned speech
and a c c e p ts h is a t t i t u d e as a n a t u r a l r e a c tio n to S p a in 's
d e f e a t. T here i s im p lied c r i t i c i s m , how ever, o f S panish
p o lic y . S in ce i t was b ased on a f a l s e id e a o f p a tr io tis m ,
n a tio n a l d i s a s t e r was in e v ita b le :
. . . aunque e l [Juan] no e ra p a t r i o t e r o n i m i l i t a r i s t s ,
s i n t i o un e s c a lo f r io s in g u la r , un m a le s ta r an alo g o a l
que sentim os cuando, con una o b je c c io n im p re v is ta o
con una b ru s c a n eg acio n de hecho, nos d e s b a ra ta n to d a
l a s e r i e d e id e a s tr a d ic io n a l e s que crefam os i n d i s -
c u t i b l e s . . . . 106
On th e same s u b je c t, B a ro ja e x p re sse s th e u l t r a -
m o n ta n ista view s o f th e G e n e ra tio n o f 1898 in h is w i l l i n g
n ess to a c c e p t new id e a s , w h atev er th e so u rc e :
Yo p arezco poco p a t r i o t a ; s in em bargo, lo so y . Yo
no puedo h a c e r que mi c a lid a d de e sp a n o l o d e v asco
se an la s u n ic a s c a te g o r ia s p a ra m ira r e l mundo, y s i
c re o que un co n cep to nuevo se puede a d q u i r ir c o lo c a n -
d o se en una a c tit u d i n t e m a c io n a l i s t a , no ten g o in c o n -
v e n ie n te en d e ja r momentaneamente de se n tirm e e sp a n o l
y v a sc o . -^7
A zorin e x p re sse s o p in io n s s im ila r to A lta m ir a 's .
He d e s c rib e s th e jo u rn e y o f an o ld man, sym bolic p erh ap s o f
t r u t h , who t r a v e ls a c ro s s S pain in tim e and sp a ce. He
a r r iv e s , a t l a s t , a t th e to p o f a m ountain. B efo re him
106I b id . , p . 128.
■ ^ B a ro ja , Ju v e n tu d . e e o la tr x a . p . 73.
94
e x te n d s a v a s t a re a o f S p an ish c o u n try s id e , a r e p l i c a o f
Spain in m in ia tu r e . As h i s eyes scan th e la n d , h e se e s two
S p a in s :
"E spana: d is c u r s o s , to r o s , g u e rra , f i e s t a s , p ro -
t e s t a s d e p a tr io tis m o , e x a lta c io n e s l l r i c a s " . . .
"E spana: muchedumbre de la b rie g o s re s ig n a d o s y buen o s,
e raig ra cio n , h o g ares s in pan y lum bre, t i e r r a s e s q u ilm a -
d as y s e c a s , a n h e lo n o b le en unos pocos e s p l r i t u s de
una v id a de p az, d e tr a b a jo y j u s t i c i a " .
A zo rfn , in e f f e c t , h as summed up th e id e o lo g y o f th e G ener
a tio n o f 1898.
S ty le
No s tu d y has y e t been made o f R a fa e l A lta m ir a 's
s t y l e o f w r i tin g . The o n ly in fo rm a tio n a v a ila b le , even
re m o te ly r e l a t e d to s t y l e , p e r ta in s to h i s n o n f ic ti o n a l
w o rk s. Aubrey B e ll, com m enting b r i e f l y on h is h i s t o r i c a l
m ethod, s t a t e s :
Senor A lta m ira . . . com bines com prehensive com
p le te n e s s w ith a c c u ra c y and m in u ten e ss o f d e t a i l ; h is
m ethod i s c o ld , im p e rso n a l and s c i e n t i f i c , b u t, a l
though h e does n o t c a r r y th e r e a d e r away by th e fo rc e
o f en th u siasm , he co n v in c e s him by h i s c le a r n e s s and
s i n c e r i t y . -* -0 9
•^ ^ J o s e M a rtin e z R uiz, Los v a lo r e s l i t e r a r i o s
(M adrid, 1913), p. 310.
■^Bell, op. cit.. pp. 277-278.
95
A nother so u rc e , a g a in r e f e r r i n g to h i s h i s t o r i c a l w r itin g s ,
g iv e s s u b s t a n tia lly th e same o p in io n :
H is h i s t o r i c a l m ethod i s based on extrem e c a u tio n
in g e n e r a liz a tio n s and on an o b je c ti v ity p ro p e rly
lim ite d by th e u s e o f docum entary ev id en ce . ^
T hese s ta te m e n ts , la u d a to ry in most r e s p e c ts , re v e a l l i t t l e
ab o u t A lta m ira ’s a r t as a w r i t e r o f f i c t i o n .
S ty le i s a term o f b ro ad i n t e r p r e t a ti o n . C r i t i c s
h av e been u n ab le to produce an e x a c t, c o n c is e d e f i n i t i o n o f
th e term . F. L. L ucas, who a tte m p ts to do so , p r e s e n ts a
b r i e f , b u t r a th e r vague d e f i n i t i o n . He term s i t "a good
1 1 1
way o f w ritin g ," as opposed to m erely " a way o f w r i t i n g .1 ’
He c i t e s w r i te r s l i k e Southey and H a z l i t t , who deny h av in g
a s t y l e . F . W . B ateson c la im s th a t th e s t y l e o f a g iv e n
p e rio d i s more s i g n i f i c a n t th a n th a t o f an in d iv i d u a l
112
a u th o r. T his stu d y w i l l exam ine, f i r s t , th e p ro se s t y l e
o f th e G en eratio n o f 1898 and th en r e l a t e A lta m ira 's s t y l e
t o th a t o f in d iv id u a l a u th o rs o f th e p e rio d .
T here i s much to b e s a id f o r V o s s le r ’ s th e o ry t h a t
110mait am ira y C revea, R a f a e l,” Columbia D ic tio n a ry
o f Modem European L ite r a tu r e , p. 18.
■^^F. L. Lucas, S ty le (New Y ork, 1962), p. 18.
112Ibid.. p. 163.
96
s t y l e r e f l e c t s " e l e s p x r itu d e una epoca y de l a m e n ta lid a d
de tana n a c i o n . " '^ T his th e o ry seems e s p e c ia lly a p p lic a b le
to th e p ro se w r itte n by th e G en e ra tio n o f 1898. W e have
seen t h a t t h e i r prim ary p u rp o se, a t l e a s t in th e y e a rs
im m ediately fo llo w in g 1898, was to e d u c a te . T h is p u rp o se
d e te rm in e s, to a c o n s id e ra b le e x te n t, th e s t y l e o f th e
p e r io d .
The w r ite r s o f 1898 liv e d in a p e rio d o f n a t io n a l
c r i s i s . They w ere ea g er to c a s t a s id e o ld l i t e r a r y n o tio n s
w hich d id n o t s u i t th e new ag e. They b e lie v e d t h a t good
w r itin g c o n s is ts in s im p lic ity and e x a c tn e ss o f e x p re s s io n .
In s t y l e , th e y a re c lo s e r to th e re n a is s a n c e and c l a s s i c a l
w r i te r s th a n to any o th e r group. They shun w hat Schopen
h a u e r term s l e s t v l e em oese. a pompous, p r o lix , and cum ber
some manner o f w r itin g . One can, i n f a c t , f in d in
S chopenhauer’ s e ssa y On S tv le th e g e n e ra l p r in c ip le s o f
t h e i r p h ilo so p h y o f w r itin g .
B a ro ja , who claim s no i n t e r e s t in th e s u b je c t, h a s
a c tu a l ly w r i tte n a g r e a t d e a l ab o u t s t y l e . C la r ity and
■ ^ H a tz fe ld , o p. c i t .. p . 110.
^ A r th u r Schopenhauer, "On S ty le ," Com plete E ssavs
o f Schopenhauer, tr a n s . T. B a ile y Saunders (New York, 1942),
p. 16.
97
e x a c tn e ss should alw ays ta k e p reced en ce o v er e le g a n c e . He
p r e f e r s sim p le, r e a d i ly u n d ersto o d e x p re s s io n s :
M O tro punto no r e s u e lto r e f e r e n te a l le x ic o es e l
de s i s e deben em plear p a la b ra s e s p e c ia le s , p o p u la re s
o s a b ia s , que p a ra mucha p a r te d e l p u b lic o no son
c la r a s a p rim era in te n c io n . Yo, a l menos, no la s em-
p le o , porque, aunque s e a un in d i v i d u a l i s ta , no puedo
e s c r i b i r p a ra m i s o l o . " I 1- *
He m a in ta in s th a t e x te n s iv e c o r r e c tio n and rew orking o f
w hat one h a s w r itte n has l i t t l e to do w ith r e a l s t y l e . His
o p in io n i s re m in is c e n t o f Ju a n d e V aldes* sta te m e n t re g a rd
in g s ty l e :
"Yo e s c rib o como h a b lo ; no ten g o mas cuidado que
em plear la s p a la b ra s que s ig n i f ic a n b ie n lo que yo
q u ie ro d e c ir , y lo d ig o lo mas s e n c illa m e n te p o s ib le ;
l a a f e c ta c io n n o co n v ien e en n in g u n a le n g u a.
I f t h i s , in d eed , was a ls o B a ro ja 's p ro c e d u re , i t d o es n o t
mean t h a t h e was l e s s c a r e f u l ; h e p ro b ab ly th o u g h t o u t w e ll
w hat he w ished to sa y b e fo re s e t t i n g i t down in w r itin g .
A z o rin 's th o u g h ts on s t y l e a r e much th e same as
B a r o ja 's . The em phasis i s alw ays on s im p lic ity and co n
c is e n e s s :
■^■^Torrente, op. c i t . , p . 242.
•^■^Emest M erimee, Compendio d e h i s t o r i a d e l a
l i t e r a t u r a e s p a n o la . tr a n s . F ra n c is c o Gamoneda (2nd e d .;
M exico, 1948), p . 196.
98
11 7
. . . se debe e s c r i b i r en forma e s c u e ta y monda. . . . x/
He condemns th e u se o f h y p e rb o lic , h ig h ly r h e t o r i c a l la n
guage. The G en era tio n o f 1898, he i n s i s t s :
. . . te n fa que e s c r i b i r c la r o y p re c is o . La h ip e rb o le ,
so b re todo, nos desazonaba. No s e podia ju z g a r d e l
hecho h is t o r ic o n i t r a n s c r i b i r un p a is a je , sublim andolo
con l a h ip e rb o le . 8
The e x c e ssiv e u se o f a d je c tiv e s should be avoided s in c e i t
d e t r a c ts from th e f e e lin g o f re a lis m th e w r ite r w ishes to
convey. T h is, to o , i s an o b se rv a tio n th a t can be found in
119
SchopenhauerT s On S tv le .
Unamuno's s t y l e i s c o n v e rs a tio n a l, p e rs o n a l and
li v e l y . He c r i t i c i z e s th e w r ite r s o f h is day who a re
o v e rly s ty le -c o n s c io u s :
Su lu c h a no es por b u sc a r pensam ientos c la r o s u
hondos o su g e re n te s , s in o por b u sc a r una len g u a nueva,
o r ig in a l y p re c io s a . No p ie n san en lo que e s c rib e n ,
sin o que p ie n sa n en como han d e e s c r i b i r l o , y c la r o
e s ta , l a co sa le s r e s u l t a a rt£ s tic a m e n te d e t e s t a b l e . ^ 0
One m ust n o t im ita te t h i s p ro sa a c e ita d a . as he term s i t ,
b u t r a th e r th e spoken word:
^ ^ T o r r e n te , op. c i t .. p. 258.
■^®Granjel, op. c i t . , p. 268.
■ ^S ch o p en h au er, op. c i t .. p . 22.
^M iguel de Unamuno, C ontra e s to v a q u e llo
(M adrid, 1912), p . 251.
Cuando me d ic e n d e un hombre que h a b la como un
l i b r o , c o n te s to siem pre que p r e f ie r o lo s lib r o s que
h a b la n como hom bres.121-
A lthough th e w r i te r s o f 1898 a re in n o v a to rs , se e k
in g alw ays new approaches to l i t e r a t u r e , th e y r e s p e c t th e
g r e a t a u th o rs o f e a r l i e r tim e s. T h e ir lan g u ag e, A lta m ira
b e lie v e s , should se rv e as a model o f good u sa g e:
. . . ^quien duda que e l uso de n u e s tro romance s e e n r i-
quece y remoza m ed ian te e l t r a t o con lo s a u to re s a n t i -
guos, que e s , a l p ro p io tiem po, l a m ejo r d e fe n sa c o n tra
la s deform aciones m odem as que a ta c a n l a in d o le misma
d e l idiom a y0l e hacen p e rd e r alg u n as d e su s b e l l a s
c u a lid a d e s ?^22
A stu d y o f how th e men o f th e c l a s s i c a l p e rio d re s o lv e d
problem s o f d ic tio n would h e lp any w r i te r in te r e s te d in
p re s e rv in g " e l buen d e c ir c a s t e l la n o ." F or A lta m ira , sim
p l i c i t y , g ra c e and harmony a r e th e e s s e n t i a l s o f good
1 oo
w r itin g . He f e e l s t h a t many s c h o la s tic w orks c o n ta in
w o rth w h ile id e a s b u t a r e p assed o v er b ecau se th e lan g u ag e
i s so u n re a d a b le . W ith re g a rd to such w orks, he su g g e sts
th a t:
121I b id . , p . 252.
■ ^ 2 2 R a fa e l A lta m ira , A rte v r e a lid a d (B arcelo n a,
1921), p . 33.
123Ibid.
100
. . . a lg u ie n se en c a rg a se d e lim p ia r la s de to d o a q u el
andam iaje s ilo g x s tic o y a q u e lla can sad a s u b d iv is io n
de c u e s tio n e s que hacen im p e n e tra b le la l e c tu r a . . . . ^
The p r e d ile c tio n o f th e G en e ra tio n o f 1898 fo r sim
p l i c i t y , c l a r i t y and e x a c tn e ss i s e v id e n t in t h e i r n o v e ls .
They avoid r h e t o r i c a l e x c e ss e s, f o r , as B aroja ex p re sse s
" . . . p rim ero , lo que s e n e c e s i ta es e x a c titu d y c l a r i -
dad; d e sp u e s, s i se puede, e le g a n c ia , pero lo prim ero
e x a c t i t u d ."125
They a re a b le , none th e l e s s , to evoke images o f p i c t o r i a l
charm . T h e ir te c h n iq u e s a r e s t r i k i n g l y s im ila r in d e
s c r ib in g a s u n s e t. B a ro ja 's d e s c r ip tio n e x h ib its d e lic a c y
b u t i s n o t o v e rly o rn a te :
A lo l e j o s , p o r d e tr a s de una f i l a de a l t o s chopos
d e l Hipodromo, s e o c u lta b a e l s o l , echando su s u ltim o s
re s p la n d o re s a n a ra n ja d o s so b re l a s copas v e rd e s d e lo s
a r b o le s , so b re lo s c e rr o s proxim os, desnudos, a re n o so s,
a lo s que daba un c o lo r c o b riz o y de oro p a lid o .- ^ o
In Unamuno's d e s c r ip tio n th e r e i s m o tio n and economy o f
s t y l e :
A l a p u e s ta d e l s o l a p a re c io e s te e n tr e nubes y l e
saludam os e sp e ra n z a d o s. Por d e la n te d e l r o jo in c e n d io
124Ibid.
125
T o rre n te , o p . c i t . . p . 141.
^2^Camino, p . 121.
101
d e l ocaso c o r r fa n nubes c e n ic ie n ta s , y o tr a s de c o lo r
de ro s a v o la b a n so b re n u e s tra s c a b e z a s .^ 7
T here i s a n o te o f m elancholy and m y stery in A z o rfn 's p o r
tr a y a l :
En e s te r o jo an o ch ecer de A gosto e l c i e l o p a re c e
in fla m a rs e con la s p a sio n e s de l a ciu d ad e n a rd e c id a .
L entam ente lo s re s p la n d o re s se am o rtig u an . O culto e l
s o l, la s som bras van cu b rie n d o l a an ch u ro sa v eg a. Las
d iv e rs a s to n a lid a d e s de lo s v e rd e s se funden en una
inm ensa y u niform e mancha de a z u l b o rro so ; lo s t e r -
m inos p rim ero s su e ld a n se a lo s le ja n o s ; lo s c la r o s
s a lie n t e s de la s lomas s e esfuman m is te r io s o s .
A lta m ira p a in ts h i s scene in more subdued to n e s in k eep in g
w ith J u a n ’s d e p re sse d s t a t e o f mind a t t h i s p o in t in th e
s to r y :
La lu z d e l c re p u s c u lo d ec re e£ a rap id am en te. Las
f ig u r a s humanas, lo s a rb o le s mas ce rc an o s y a l t o s ,
d ib u ja b a n se en negro so b re e l p a lid o fondo d e l P o n ien -
t e ; y l a noche cayo a l f i n so b re l a t i e r r a , b o rran d o
lf n e a s y c o lo r e s , s in que su s i l e n c i o m a jestu o so , que
i n v i t a d escan so , t r a j e r a ningun co n su e lo a l que s u f r i a ,
con l a p o e tic a s u g e s tio n de sus m is te r io s y l a g ran d eza
de su d o s e l v io la c e o , tachonado de e s t r e l l a s de oro.-*-29
A stu d y o f th e a u th o r s ’ d i c tio n in th e s e p assag es
su g g e sts c e r t a i n i n t e r e s ti n g p s y c h o lo g ic a l t r a i t s . The
c o lo r Unamuno u se s to d e s c r ib e h is s u n s e t su g g e sts a p a s
s io n a te , p o e tic and d ram a tic p e r s o n a lity (r o jo in c e n d io ) .
19 7
M iguel d e Unamuno, Por t i e r r a s d e P o rtu g a l v d e
Espana (5 th e d . ; M adrid, 1960), p . 131.
^ ^Voluntad. p. 70. Reposo. p. 132.
102
w hereas B a ro ja 's orange to n e s (a n a ra n ia d o s , c o b riz o , oro
p a lid o ) in d ic a te a more p ro s a ic o u tlo o k . W hile A zo rx n 's
d e s c r ip tio n c o n ta in s re d , t h i s c o lo r d is s o lv e s in to i n d i s
t i n c t hues (a z u l b o rro s o ) . r e p r e s e n tin g an i n i t i a l e n th u
siasm w hich i s g ra d u a lly d is s ip a te d . The c o lo rs t h a t
p red o m in ate in A ltam ira* s d e s c r ip tio n (n eg ro , v io la c e o )
in d ic a te re a lis m and o b j e c t i v i t y . Unamuno's c h o ic e o f a
s il h o u e t t e (nubes) a g a in su g g e sts th e e th e r e a l and th e
p o e tic , c o n tra s te d w ith th e more c o n v e n tio n a l tr e e to p s o f
B a ro ja and A lta m ira . In a d d itio n , B aro ja in c lu d e s moun
ta in s as p a r t o f h is s ilh o u e tt e , su g g e stin g s ta rk n e s s ,
b lu n tn e s s (d esn u d o s, a re n o s o s ), as opposed to th e more
rounded lomas o f A zo rln . A lta m ira in c lu d e s human f ig u r e s in
h is s il h o u e tt e ( h is co n sc io u sn e ss o f h u m an ity ). A zo rx n 's
im p ressio n ism and p a s s iv e n a tu re a r e evidenced in h i s
c h o ic e o f v erb s (s e am ortiguan. se funden. s u e ld a n s e . se
esfum an) . in c o n tr a s t w ith th o s e o f Unamuno, s u g g e s tiv e o f
a c tio n , d ir e c tn e s s ( c o r r la n . v o la b a n ).
F ig u r a tiv e language i s u sed s p a rin g ly by th e men
o f 1898. B a ro ja m a in ta in s t h a t "d e to d o s lo s g en e ro s,
l a n o v e la es e l que menos se p r e s t a p a ra lo s e j e r c i c i o s
103
1 - O A
de e s t i l o . " A zorin c o n s id e rs m etaphors and s im ile s
131
a r t i f i c i a l s u p e r f l u i t i e s . A s im ila r o p in io n i s v o ic ed
by S i r H e rb ert Read in E n g lish P ro se S t v l e . R e fe rrin g
s p e c i f i c a l l y to th e u se o f th e m etaphor in p ro se , he
s t a t e s :
As p ro s e i s e s s e n t i a l l y th e a r t o f a n a ly ti c a l
d e s c r ip tio n , i t would seem t h a t m etaphor i s o f no p a r
t i c u l a r re le v a n c e to i t ; f o r p o e try i t is p erh ap s a
m ore n e c e s s a ry mode o f e x p re s s io n . . . . But w h atev er
we may say o f i t , and however g re a t and in c lu s iv e th e
fu n c tio n we a s s ig n to i t , e s s e n t i a l l y i t b elo n g s to th e
sp h e re o f p o e try . P o etry a lo n e i s c r e a tiv e . The a r t
o f P ^ | e * -s n o t c r e a t i v e , b u t c o n s tr u c tiv e o r lo g i -
N o tw ith ste n d in g th e s e c r i t i c a l o p in io n s , th e m etaphor, i t
would seem, i s an u n a v o id a b le f ig u r e in any n o v e l.
A lta m ira makes u se o f th e m etaphor in R enoso. He
r e f e r s to J u a n 's p re o c c u p a tio n s a s "e se v ir u s de la s g ra n -
des c iu d a d e s" o r " e sa f ie b r e am ericana d e l a v id a mo-
133 /
d e m a .” A young la d y i s a " f l o r liv i a n a cuyos p e ta lo s
m a r c h ita n ." ^ ^ The s p i n s t e r , I s o lin a , " e s una n ih a."'* ’33
T o rre n te , op. c i t . . p . 243.
^■ ^B ell, op. c i t . , p . 247.
1 ^9
L ucas, o p . c i t .. p . 185.
^^Renoso. p. 294. ^ ^Ibid.. p. 56.
135Ibid.. p. 91.
104
I Q / -
A d o le f u l old woman i s th e "Jerem fas de V illa m a r." A
few c h a ra c te rs o f th e n o v e l a re n am eless; A lta m ira a p p lie s
o n ly e p ith e ts : Las T res G ra c ia s. Dona A n tig u a, l a L lo ro n a .
A ltam ira makes u se o f a number o f f i t t i n g s im ile s
in th e n o v el. As Juan r e tu r n s from a s o c ia l g a th e rin g
w here h e has se en an a t t r a c t i v e young b r u n e tte , he w i s t
f u l l y r e c a l l s more amorous d ay s. The s im ile i s p erhaps
sym bolic:
Se d etu v o p a ra co n tem p lar una m ata d e c la v e le s que
echaba sus f lo r e s r o i a s , como g o ta s d e sa n g re , so b re
e l b o rd e d e l c a m i n o . 1 3 7
A nother s im ile evokes a f e e lin g o f d is q u ie tu d e :
Y en l a c o n q u is ta d a se re n id a d de su animo, v e ia
fo rm arse un n u cleo d e a g ita c io n que l a empanaba, como
l a b r i s a empana l a s u p e r f ic i e c r i s t a l i n a de una lag u n a
con lo s r iz o s que le v a n ta a l p a s a r . - * “ * 8
T here i s movement and g ra c e in h i s com parison o f s a ilb o a ts
w ith th e f l i g h t o f m arin e b ir d s :
P arecfan gran d es aves m a rin a s, de a la s in m acu lad as,
que p a tin a b a n so b re e l mar p a ra z a m b u llirs e de p ro n to ,
b o rran d o l a mancha b r i l l a n t e d e sus plum as ilu m in ad as
fu e rte m e n te p o r e l sol.'*-™
H is p ic tu r e o f a s h ip a t se a has p e r s p e c tiv e :
136Ibid., p. 56.
138Ibid., p. 131.
137Ibid.. p. 103.
139Ibid.. p. 164.
105
Un vapor d e c a b o ta je d ib u ja b a s e en e l h o rlz o n te
como una ra in ia tu ra , coronado de humo n e g ro . ^
He com bines m etaphor w ith p e r s o n if ic a tio n in a d e s c r ip tio n
o f a se a sc a p e :
E l c o n ju n to , inundado por e l t o r r e n t e de lu z de
a q u e lla manana e s t i v a l , de c i e l o lim p io y p ro f undo,
p a re c £ a sumido en una m odorra p esad a, como s i d u rm iera
so fo cad o p o r e l c a lo r cad a v ez mas in te n s o . ...1 4 1
A ccording to Desmond M cCarthy, M th e u n fo rg iv a b le
a r t i s t i c f a u l t in a n o v e l is t i s f a i l u r e to m a in ta in con
s is te n c y o f to n e ." ^ 4^ I f t h i s i s an im p o rta n t c r i t e r i o n ,
A lta m ira , in t h i s r e s p e c t, h as succeeded in h is n o v e l i s t i c
e f f o r t . T hroughout Renoso. he ad h ere s c o n s ta n tly to a to n e
o f s e r e n ity , harmony and t r a n q u i l i t y - - i n c h a r a c te r iz a tio n ,
in s e t t i n g , in p l o t , and in u se o f language i t s e l f .
140 I b id . . p . 48. 141I b id .
k ^ W e lle k and W arren, op. c i t . . p . 203.
CHAPTER V
THE SHORT STORY
The l i t e r a r y ty p e w hich m ost c lo s e ly resem b les th e
n o v e l i s th e s h o r t s to r y . I t h as, g e n e ra lly , th e same
s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p l o t , c h a r a c te r iz a tio n and
s e t t i n g . P o in t o f view and to n e a r e a ls o e s s e n t i a l f e a
tu r e s . The p rim ary d if f e r e n c e betw een th e two form s i s one
o f le n g th , some c r i t i c s s u g g e s tin g a minimum o f 50,000
words f o r th e n o v e l and from 2 ,0 0 0 to 30,000 words f o r th e
s h o r t s to r y .^ A s t i l l f u r th e r d i s t i n c t i o n i s made betw een
th e s h o r t s to r y and th e s h o r t s h o r t s to r y , th e l a t t e r com-
o
p r is in g n o t more th a n 1,500 w ords. A nother c r i t e r i o n i s
3
t h a t th e s h o r t s to r y sh o u ld ta k e o n ly one s i t t i n g to re a d .
^E nrique A nderson Im b ert, E l cu e n to e sp a n o l (Buenos
A ire s , 1959), p . 7.
2
Thomas E. B yrnes, " E s s e n tia ls o f th e S h o rt S h o rt
S to ry ," W ritin g th e S h o rt S h o rt S to ry . S y lv ia E. Kamerman,
e d i t o r (B oston, 1946), p . 3 .
3
A nderson Im b ert, op. c i t . . p. 7.
106
107
A lthough s im ila r to th e n o v el in s tr u c t u r e , th e
s h o r t s to r y m u st, o f n e c e s s ity , be tr e a te d d i f f e r e n t l y
b ecau se o f i t s b r e v ity . Being b u i l t around a m inim al num
b e r o f in c id e n ts , th e p l o t o f th e s h o rt s to r y , as a r u le ,
i s u n co m p licated . C h a ra c te riz a tio n i s lim ite d to a s in g le
c h a r a c te r o r p a i r o f c h a r a c te r s , m inor c h a r a c te r s s e rv in g
m ain ly to h ig h lig h t th e c e n t r a l f ig u r e . S e ttin g i s im por
ta n t n o t o n ly f o r th e p u rp o se o f p ro v id in g p h y s ic a l b ac k
ground, b u t a ls o as a means o f re v e a lin g c h a r a c te r and
4
e s ta b lis h in g mood. The e s s e n t i a l elem en ts o f th e s h o r t
s to r y , b ecau se o f th e c o n c ise n e ss o f th e g en re, m ust be
h an d led in as econom ical a m anner as p o s s ib le . The a r t o f
th e s h o r t s to r y w r ite r d e riv e s from h i s a b i l i t y to com bine
th e v a rio u s p a r t s in to a com pact, y e t u n if ie d and h a r
m onious w hole.
The s h o r t s to r y i s a much o ld e r form th a n th e
n o v e l. I t s h i s t o r y d a te s back some s ix thousand y e a rs ,
when E gyptian t a l e s o f ad v e n tu re w ere re c o rd e d on papyrus
sheets.** The P a n c h a ta n tra . a c o l l e c t i o n o f In d ia n apologues
^John T. F re d e ric k , A Handbook o f S h o rt S to ry
W ritin g (New York, 1930), pp. 57“58.
^ J. B erg Esenw ein, S tudying th e S h o rt-S to rv (New
York, 1912), p . xv.
108
from th e p r e - C h r is tia n e r a , was th e in s p i r a tio n f o r many
s t o r i e s w r itte n d u rin g th e M iddle Ages. The m e d iev al s h o r t
s to r y was m o r a lis tic and d id a c ti c , and w as, u s u a lly , a r e
w orking o f some e a r l i e r w ork. The m ost r e p r e s e n ta ti v e
c o lle c tio n o f s t o r i e s from e a r ly S panish l i t e r a t u r e i s Ju a n
M an u el's El l ib r o de lo s enxiem plos d e l conde L ucanor e t
de P a tro n io . w hich a n te d a te s B o c c a c c io 's Decameron by some
tw enty y e a rs . E l p a tra n u e lo . th e b e s t c o l l e c t i o n o f
s t o r i e s o f th e S panish r e n a is s a n c e p e rio d , was w r i tte n by
Juan de Timoneda; th e s e s t o r i e s , how ever, were r e a d a p ta
tio n s o f p re v io u s l i t e r a t u r e . ^ M iguel d e C e rv a n te s '
N ovelas eie m p la re s re p re s e n te d th e f i r s t S panish e f f o r t to
produce e x c lu s iv e ly o r i g i n a l s t o r i e s , ac c o rd in g to th e
a u th o r :
A e s to s e a p lic o mi in g e n io , p o r aq u i me lle v a mi
in c lin a c io n , y mas que me doy a e n te n d e r (y es a s i)
que yo soy e l p rim ero que h e n o v elad o en le n g u a c a s te -
lla n a ; que la s muchas n o v ela s que en e l l a andan im-
p re s a s to d a s son tra d u c id a s d e len g u as e x tr a n je r a s ; y
e s ta s son m ias p ro p ia s , no im ita d a s n i h u rta d a s : mi
in g e n io la s engendro y la s p a r io mi pluma y v an c r e -
cien d o en b ra z o s d e l a e s ta m p a .'
^M ariano Baquero Goyanes, E l c u e n to e s p a n o l en e l
s ig lo XIX (M adrid, 1949), P* 155.
^M iguel d e C erv an tes S aav ed ra, N ovelas e ie m p la re s .
C la s ic o s c a s t e l l a n o s . V II (Buenos A ire s , 1946), p . 31.
109
The s h o r t s to r y , a lo n g w ith th e n o v el, reach ed i t s
h ig h e s t developm ent d u rin g th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . The
r i s i n g m id d le c l a s s , w ith g r e a te r l e i s u r e a t i t s d is p o s a l,
p ro v id ed an expanded m arket f o r l i t e r a t u r e , and th e s h o r t
s to r y and th e n o v el w ere th e m ost p o p u la r g e n re s . One h as
m erely to r e c a l l th e p o p u la rity o f Edgar A lle n Poe and
W ashington Irv in g in th e U n ited S ta te s , P ro sp e r Merimee and
Guy de M aupassant in F ran ce, E. T. A. Hoffman and Theodor
Storm in Germany, and E m ilia Pardo Bazan and Leopoldo A las
in S p ain ; a l l o f whom e x c e lle d in th e s h o r t n a r r a tiv e .
Of a l l f i c t i o n a l ty p e s, th e s h o r t s to r y allo w s th e
w r i t e r th e g r e a te s t freedom in th e c h o ic e o f form and co n
t e n t . I t i s u n su rp asse d by any o th e r g en re in v a r i e ty o f
s u b je c t m a tte r. A number o f names h av e been a s sig n e d to
th e s h o r t n a r r a tiv e , th ro u g h o u t i t s lo n g h is t o r y , to d i f
f e r e n t i a t e th e d iv e r s e ty p e s : ap o lo g u e, an e cd o te , t a l e ,
le g en d , f a b le and s h o r t s to r y . W ithout g oing in to a d i s
c u s s io n o f th e p r e c is e d i s t i n c t i o n betw een th e v a rio u s
k in d s o f s h o r t n a r r a t i v e , s u f f i c e i t to say t h a t s h o rt
s to r y i s th e m ost common d e s ig n a tio n g iv e n to t h i s form
to d a y , a lth o u g h i t o f te n em braces f e a tu r e s o f th e o th e r
ty p e s : th e leg en d , t a l e , f a b le , e t c .
110
In S panish l i t e r a t u r e , a ls o , th e s h o rt n a r r a tiv e
h a s re c e iv e d a v a r i e t y of d e s ig n a tio n s : enxiem plo.
p a tr a n a , r e l a c io n , ley en d a. t r a d i c i o n , e t c . , th e s e forms
o f te n having common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Even th e d i s t i n c t i o n
betw een th e n o v e la c o r ta and th e cu e n to i s v ag u e. A lthough
th e d e s ig n a tio n n o v e la s c o r ta s ap p e ars on th e t i t l e page o f
Unamuno’s E l e sp e io de la m u e rte . A nderson Im bert c a l l s
Q
t h i s c o l le c tio n o f s t o r i e s c u e n to s . R e fe rrin g to th e
c u e n to , th e S panish term c u r r e n tly a p p lie d to th e s h o rt
s to r y , he s t a t e s :
En v e rd a d , aun hoy e l nombre d e "c u e n to '1 , aunque
predom inante, no es e l u n ic o . Es que la s d e s ig n a c io n e s
que se dan a e s e genero d e l i t e r a t u r a son m eras p a l a
b ra s . No v a le l a pena, p u es, e n tr e te n e r s e en la s i g -
n if ic a c io n de la s p a la b ra s , sin o en e l a n a l i s i s y l a
h i s t o r i a d e l genero mismo.9
The men o f 1898 w ere c u e n t i s t a s . as w e ll as n o v e l
i s t s . G e n e ra lly , th e same l i t e r a r y lic e n s e th e y took in
n o v e l i s t i c w ritin g i s e v id e n t in t h e i r s h o rt s t o r i e s . In
many o f t h e i r c u e n to s , p lo t i s p r a c t i c a l l y n o n e x is te n t,
c h a r a c te r i z a t io n i s m inim ized and d ia lo g u e i s alm o st n o
w here to b e found. Unamuno’ s s t o r i e s a re p erh ap s th e m ost
8Ibid.. p. 32. 9Ibid.. p. 7.
I l l
c o n v e n tio n a l.^ A z o rln ’ s c u e n to s. th e m a jo rity o f w hich
w ere w r itte n a f t e r 1929, r e f l e c t th e p o e tic te n d e n c ie s o f
11
h is m atu re y e a rs . A lta m ira and, to a l e s s e r e x te n t,
12
B a ro ja rem ain t r u e to th e d id a c tic p urpose shown in t h e i r
n o v e ls .
A lta m ira ’ s Cuentos d e mi t i e r r a has been s e le c te d
f o r d is c u s s io n s in c e i t r e v e a ls th e c o n s is te n c y o f h is
approach to th e problem o f r e g e n e ra tio n , b e s t e x e m p lifie s
th e k in d s o f s h o r t s t o r i e s he w ro te, and d em o n stra te s to
good ad v an tag e h is a r t i s t i c c a p a b i l i t i e s in th e g e n re . H is
p u rp o se in w ritin g th e s t o r i e s i s c l e a r l y s ta te d in th e
p ro lo g u e :
In s p ira d o en e se amor a l a t i e r r a he e s c r i t o yo
e s to s CUENTOS, que son re c u e rd o s d e p a is a je s , f ig u r a s
y escen as de mi p a t r i a c h ic a , aunque a v e c e s se u n a
a t a l e s elem en to s p la s tic o s c i e r t a in te n c io n i d e a l que
de e l lo s tr a s c ie n d e . ^
The c o l le c tio n in c lu d e s s t o r i e s w r i tte n o v er a p e rio d o f
* * ■ '^M iguel d e Unamuno, El e s p e io de l a m uerte
(M adrid, n . d . ) .
1 1
Jo se M a rtin ez R uiz, B lanco en a z u l (M adrid,
1929).
1 n
Pio B a ro ja , V idas som brias (M adrid, n . d . ) .
R afael A lta m ira , Cuentos d e mi t i e r r a (M adrid,
1925), p . 13. ( H e r e in a f te r a b b re v ia te d to C uentos in th e
f o o tn o te s .)
112
t h i r t y y e a rs , from 1894 to 1925, on th e s u b je c t o f h is
t e r r e t a :
Todo e l l o v a ordenado cro n o lo g ic am e n te, d esd e lo
p rim ero de e s t a c l a s e que e s c r ib £ , to d av £ a mozo, a
lo mas m oderao. ^
Four r e p r e s e n ta tiv e ty p e s have been chosen f o r d e ta ile d
a n a ly s is : E l T erru n o . i l l u s t r a t i v e o f A lta m ira ’ s re p o se
l i t e r a t u r e ; A fan es. an exam ple o f ty p e c h a r a c te r iz a tio n ;
El m u e rte c ito . a stu d y in th e custom s o f th e re g io n ; and
15
P a is a je , an e v o c a tio n o f th e A lic a n tin e la n d sc a p e .
The s e t t i n g f o r a l l tw en ty -o n e s e le c tio n s in Cuen
to s d e mi t i e r r a i s th e A lic a n tin e c o u n try s id e . M ariano
Baquero Goyanes c l a s s i f i e s t h i s ty p e o f s to r y a s a cu en to
r u r a l . He c o n s id e rs i t th e m ost c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c la s s o f
s h o r t s to r y w r itte n in S pain d u rin g th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry :
S i e x i s te un tip o d e c u e n to e s e n c ia lm e n te d e c i-
m ononico, e s te es e l r u r a l . Aun hoy d £ a, a l l e e r
n a rra c io n e s contem poraneas d e am biente cam pesino, no
podemos p o r menos d e r e m i t i r l a s a l g u sto d e l a p asad a
c e n tu r ia y c o n s id e r a r la s c o n se c u e n c ia de e l . °
Baquero m a in ta in s t h a t th e b u c o lic them e, one o f th e m ost
I b id . , p . 7 •
"^A com plete l i s t o f th e s t o r i e s o f t h i s c o l le c tio n
ap p ears in th e A ppendix.
^Baquero, op. cit.. p. 349*
113
common in S panish l i t e r a t u r e , i s d eep ly ro o te d in th e p sy
chology o f th e p eo p le:
El tema d e l B eatus i l l e . . . es uno d e lo s mas
fecundos en l a l i t e r a t u r a n a c io n a l, y h a a rra ig a d o
fu e rte m e n te en n u e s tr a s e n s ib ilid a d , t a l vez porque
e l pueblo e sp a n o l se a mas cam pesino que urbano y
v ea r e f le ja d o en lo s v e rs o s h o ra c ia n o s su ex a cto
s e n t i r .
S panish w r i te r s , alm o st from th e b eg in n in g o f th e n a t io n a l
l i t e r a t u r e , have found t h i s a f a v o r ite theme:
H ito s d e c is iv o s en l a e v o lu c io n d e l tem a son: E l
M arques de S a n tilla n a , G a rc ila s o , Fray L uis de Leon,
F ray A ntonio de G uevara, Gongora . . . , e t c .
A ccording to Baquero, r u r a l l i f e i s a t t r a c t i v e to th e
S p an iard b ecau se in th a t m ilie u he f in d s th e "so led ad
(in d iv id u a lis m o )" he se e k s:
Tenemos, p u es, que e l ru ra lis m o c o n g e n ito de un
la d o , y un g u s ta r d e l a so led ad p o r o tr o , fa v o re c ie ro n
l a e n ra iz a c io n d e l m otivo h o ra c ia n o en n u e s tr a l i t e r a
tu r a , e x p re s io n de n u e s tr a l i t e r a t u r a , e x p re sio n de
n u e s tr a m e n ta lid a d . 19
In A lta m ir a 's C uentos de mi t i e r r a . t h i s t r a d i
t i o n a l theme re a p p e a rs .
18Ibid.. p. 350.
19Ibid.
114
E l T erruno
20
E l T erru n o . one o f A lta m ira* s e a r l i e s t s h o r t
s to r y e f f o r t s , p reced es h is n o v e l Reposo by some te n y e a rs .
The s h o r te r work i s s im ila r to th e n o v el in p lo t and theme:
th e p r o ta g o n is t le a v e s M adrid and fin d s t r a n q u i l i t y and
rep o se in th e te r r u n o .
Summary o f th e P lo t
M aria Pepa, a d o m estic in a M adrid household f o r
n in e y e a rs , r e tu r n s to A lic a n te to v i s i t h e r a u n t F ra n c is c a
and h e r c o u s in s . Her a u n t had r a is e d h e r a f t e r she was
orphaned a t an e a rly ag e. E ager to im prove h e r l o t and n o t
w ish in g to burd en th e fa m ily f u r t h e r , sh e had found employ
m ent in th e house o f th e lo c a l ju d g e . S u b seq u en tly , on a
t r i p to M adrid, she had been a t t r a c t e d by th e re fin e m e n ts
o f liv in g in th e b ig c i t y and had d e c id ed to rem ain th e r e
to seek h e r f o rtu n e . At th e in s i s te n c e o f T ia F ra n c is c a ,
she had re tu rn e d to v i s i t h e r home town.
Accustomed to th e co n v en ien ces o f c i t y l i f e , Mar£a
P e p a 's f i r s t r e a c tio n i s one o f d isa p p o in tm e n t. A lthough
^ C u e n to s . pp. 3 1 -5 4 . (N ote: A lta m ira c a p i t a l i z e s
T erruno in th e t i t l e . )
115
h e r au n t h a s g iv en h e r th e b e s t room in th e house, i t is
sm a ll and u n b earab ly h o t; m oreover, th e s p r in g le s s m a ttre s s
i s u n co m fo rtab le. The odor o f v e g e ta b le s hanging from th e
r a f t e r s o f h e r room i s o f fe n s iv e to h e r f in e c i t y n o s t r i l s .
She th in k s of h e r w e ll-f u rn is h e d , o rd e rly m a id 's room in
town, w ith i t s own w ardrobe and b a th in g f a c i l i t i e s , and she
i s d is c o n s o la te .
The u n p le a sa n tn e ss o f c o u n try liv in g i s f o rg o tte n
when she b u s ie s h e r s e l f w ith household c h o re s , kneading
dough in th e k itc h e n f o r h e r a u n t, o r fe e d in g th e farm
anim als f o r her c o u s in s . She is m o tiv a te d , a t f i r s t , by
c u r i o s i t y and a d e s i r e to r e l i v e o ld tim e s, b u t g ra d u a lly
sh e f in d s g re a t jo y in p erfo rm in g th e s e ta s k s . Her s ta n d
o f f is h a t t i t u d e d is a p p e a rs as she works c lo s e ly w ith T ia
F ra n c is c a and h e r fo u r c o u s in s .
The o ld e s t c o u s in , Juan Pedro, is m arried and liv e s
away from home. The second son i s F ra n c is c o , a handsome
man o f t h i r t y y e a rs . He and M arfa Pepa had been ch ild h o o d
s w e e th e a rts . She i s a g a in a t t r a c t e d to him . She fin d s h is
manners m ore c u l tiv a te d th a n th o s e o f th e r e s t o f th e
fam ily , in c lu d in g th o s e o f h is two younger tw in b r o th e r s .
M arfa Pepa ta k e s renewed d e l ig h t in th e sim p le
p astim es o f r u r a l l i v i n g . C ountry food, a t f i r s t h a rd ly
116
p a la ta b le , i s a g a in p le a s a n t to h e r t a s t e . The d a y 's
a c t i v i t i e s , however sim p le o r i n s i g n i f i c a n t , g iv e h e r
p le a s u r e . She ponders th e b e n e f its o f l i f e in th e te r r u n o .
L iv in g in M adrid has i t s a d v a n tag e s, b u t th e way o f l i f e in
th e c o u n try , a lth o u g h arduous and r o u tin e , i s more w hole
some and s e c u re .
The fam ily le a v e s e a r ly one m orning on a t r i p to
a d i s t a n t th re s h in g s i t e . M arfa Pepa, awakened by th e
n o is y p re p a ra tio n s f o r th e d a y -lo n g so jo u rn , d e c id e s to go
a lo n g . She p a r t i c i p a t e s r e a d i ly in th e women's ta s k s
a tta c h e d to th e th re s h in g o f w heat. I t i s on t h i s day t h a t
she makes up h e r mind d e f i n i t e l y to rem ain in A lic a n te .
A v a ilin g h e r s e l f o f ev ery o p p o rtu n ity to be n e a r F ra n c isc o
and u sin g a l l th e c o q u e ttis h t r i c k s a t h e r command, she
e l i c i t s from th e b a s h fu l y o u th a c o n fe s s io n o f lo v e . At
th e end o f th e day, w h ile th e o th e rs a r e r e s t i n g from t h e i r
w earisom e a c t i v i t i e s , M arfa Pepa and F ra n c isc o a r e m aking
p la n s f o r th e f u tu r e .
S tru c tu r e o f th e S to ry
£1 T erruno i s a tw e n ty -fo u r-p a g e s h o r t s to r y in
fo u r p a r t s . P a rt I d e s c rib e s th e h e r o in e 's e a r ly l i f e in
h e r home community, h e r e x p e rie n c e s in M adrid and h e r f i r s t
117
im p ressio n s upon r e tu r n in g to A lic a n te . P a rt I I re c o u n ts
h e r abandonment o f f a l s e p r id e and g ra d u a l involvem ent in
th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e fa m ily . In P a rt I I I , M arfa Pepa, now
f u l l y in te g r a te d in to th e r u r a l mode o f liv in g , w eighs th e
ad v an tag es o f c o u n try o v er c i t y . P a r t IV d e s c r ib e s , in a
c lim a c tic scen e on th r e s h in g d ay , M arfa P e p a 's f i n a l
re s o lv e to rem ain in th e te rru n o . h e r a g g re s s iv e p u r s u it
o f F ra n c isc o and, f i n a l l y , th e l a t t e r * s ad m issio n o f h is
lo v e f o r h e r .
The s to r y i s to ld in th e t h i r d p e rso n , w ith p r a c t i
c a l l y no d ia lo g u e . The s in g le c o n v e rs a tio n in th e s to r y i s
betw een au n t and n ie c e . The to n e o f e x c ite m e n t and ex
p e c ta tio n i s s e t a t th e v e ry b e g in n in g :
A la s t r e s d e l a manana, aun e s ta b a d e s p ie r ta M arfa
Pepa. Ni e l c a n sa n c io d e l v i a j e , n i e l deseo s a t i s -
fech o de i r a l a f i e s t a d e l p u eb lo d espues de muchos
anos d e f a l t a r a e l l a , b a s ta ro n ju n to s p a ra h a c e r la
d o rm ir. ^
P lo t
The p l o t o f E l T erru n o . l i k e t h a t o f m ost o f th e
s t o r i e s in C uentos d e mi t i e r r a . i s b u i l t around a s in g le
c e n t r a l in c id e n t. M arfa Pepa r e tu r n s to th e te rru n o and
21
Cuentos. p. 31.
118
re d is c o v e r s th e jo y s o f r u r a l l i f e .
I t i s th r e e o 'c lo c k in th e m orning a s th e s to r y
o p en s. The h e ro in e , a f t e r a t i r i n g t r i p , l i e s in bed
r e f l e c t i n g upon th e co m fo rts o f l i f e i n M adrid, com paring
them w ith th e few co n v e n ien c es o f th e farm house w here sh e
i s s ta y in g . She w i l l p ro b a b ly n o t rem ain f o r lo n g . M ore
o v e r, th e p e o p le have changed:
Las am igas, c a s i to d a s c a sa d a s y con h i j o s ; l a
t£ a , v i e j a y a c h a c o s a ;^ lo s prim os hechos unos hom bres,
a l t o s , m orenos y tam bien s u c i o s . ^
The c o u n try , how ever, r e p r e s e n ts m ore th a n p e o p le ; th e r e i s
n a tu r e , and n a tu r e i s a p o w erfu l f o r c e . M arfa P e p a 's
s p i r i t i s re b o rn as sh e comes in c o n ta c t w ith th e o u td o o rs:
E l s e n tim ie n to d e l campo re n a c io en a q u e l e s p f r i t u
amamantado e n tr e a r b o le s , n id o s y sem brados. Gozo d e
v e ra s y r e s p ir o a pulmon lle n o . ...23
I t i s th ro u g h c h ild r e n , th e p r im itiv e s o f th e human
r a c e , t h a t sh e i s draw n c l o s e r to th e fa m ily . Ju an P e d ro 's
c h ild r e n show an im m ediate l i k i n g f o r M arfa Pepa:
. . . dos c h i q u il l o s m edio desnudos que siem p re e s ta b a n
jugando y re v o lc a n d o se en e l p o lv o de l a c a r r e t e r a ,
se a f ic io n a r o n 3 ,1 a t f a y s e p eg aro n a e l l a d esd e e l
p rim e r momento.
22Ibid.. p. 33.
24Ibid.. p. 38.
2^Ibid.. p. 34.
119
She r e c ip r o c a te s t h e i r a f f e c tio n , p erh ap s rem em bering h e r
own y o u th :
. . . Mar£a Pepa, h a b ia a r r a s tr a d o por e l polvo d e lo s
campos sus p ie c e c ito s desnudos, nada tem erosos d e
e s p in a s n i d e in s e c to s . . . . ■ *
On one o cc asio n sh e a tte m p ts to wash th e d u s t from t h e i r
b o d ie s , b u t th e y evade h e r . Her e le g a n t, b i g - c i t y m anners
a r e f o rg o tte n as she jumps in to th e a c e q u ia in p u r s u it o f
them . T h is sim p le g e s tu re g iv es h e r much p le a s u re :
S in tio una im p resio n ta n g r a ta de f re s c u r a , que
perm anecio a l i i , e stre m e c ie n d o se de p la c e r cad a vez
que, a l in c lin a r s e , su b fa e l agua un punto mas.^®
P or M ar£a Pepa, t h i s p h y s ic a l c o n ta c t w ith n a tu re has been
a jo y f u l e x p e rie n c e :
. . . lo s d e jo i r , y s o n r ie n te , a le g r e como nunca, se
co g io a unas m atas y aupo p a ra s u b ir a l m argen.27
Upon clim b in g up th e bank o f th e i r r i g a t i o n d itc h , h e r
e x h ila r a tio n i s i n t e n s i f i e d as sh e e n c o u n te rs F ra n c isc o :
V olvio l a c a ra , y a l v e r a F ra n c isc o que v en£a a
e l l a , todo mojado y lle n o de lo d o , s o lt o la s ro p a s y
se ru b o riz o v iv am en te. F ra n c isc o tam bien se puso r o jo
y l a m iro con a n s ia d e v o ra d o ra . A M ar£a Pepa l e p a re -
c io su prim o mas sim p a tic o y h a s ta mas herm oso que
nunca. 8
25
Ibid.. p. 32.
26
Ibid.. pp. 39-40.
27Ibid.. p. 40. 28Ibid.
120
M arfa Pepa’ s th o u g h ts from t h i s p o in t on a re ab o u t
F ra n c is c o . The developm ent o f th e s to ry from t h i s in c id e n t
co n cern s M arfa Pepa’ s g ra d u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e
p eo p le o f th e te rru n o and th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f h e r tr u e r o le
in l i f e , c u lm in a tin g in h e r d e c is io n to rem ain in th e
te rru n o w ith F ra n c is c o .
C h a ra c te riz a tio n
The re a d e r i s su p p lie d w ith few d e t a i l s ab o u t th e
p h y s ic a l ap p earan ce o f th e p r in c ip a l c h a r a c te r . I t i s
known th a t M arfa Pepa i s tw e n ty -fiv e y e a rs o ld , inasm uch
as F ra n c isc o i s now a "m oceton de t r e i n t a anos" and i s h e r
s e n io r by f iv e y e a r s .29 I t i s ex p la in e d t h a t "so b rab an a
M arfa Pepa herm osura e in g e n io ." 3® The o n ly a d d itio n a l
in fo rm a tio n r e f e r s to th e s n u g - f i tt i n g sto c k in g s she w ears,
w hich:
. . . ta n a ju stad a m en te a p re ta b a n , d esd e e l p ie ancho y
du ro , a l m uslo lle n o , suave y le c h o so . ...31
Much more s i g n i f i c a n t to th e s to ry i s th e h e r o in e ’ s
ch an g in g a t t i t u d e to h e r s u rro u n d in g s . She i s somewhat
29Ibid.. p. 37.
31Ibid., p. 32.
3QIbid.. p. 38.
121
v a in upon f i r s t a r r iv in g in th e community. The fa m ily ’ s
in v it a ti o n :
. . . c o n s ig u io d e s p e r ta r en e l l a o t r a vez lo s d eseo s
de v e r e l p u eb lo , a lo s que, ju s t o es d e c ir lo , se u n io
en g ran p a r te e l o r g u l l i t o d e l u c i r su s lu jo s de s i r -
v ie n ta de c a s a h o lg ad a y f in a . ^
She i s co n scio u s o f h e r more e le g a n t c lo th in g :
. . . notando en un rin c o n una c am is a morena y b a s ta que
su t£ a hab£a o lv id a d o , a p a rto p o r un m ovim iento espon-
ta n eo l a sabana p a ra co n tem p lar l a f in u r a y lo s adom os
d e su cam isa d e s c o ta d a .33
A lthough she soon f e e l s a t home in h e r new su rro u n d in g s,
she rem ains a lo o f from th e p eo p le o f th e town:
A lo s dos d £ as, ya e s ta b a Marxa Pepa como s i nunca
h u b ie se s a lid o d e l p u eb lo . B ien en te n d id o , n i depuso
sus a i r e s de s e n o r it a p a ra con la s am igas, n i se d e jo
brom ear raucho p o r lo s m ozos.34
G ra d u a lly , h e r f i n i c a l a i r s d is a p p e a r as she in v o lv e s h e r
s e l f in c o u n try l i f e :
Remontaron l a a c e q u ia lo s c h i q u illo s p o r e l lad o
c o n tr a r io , d e modo que no e ra p o s ib le a lc a n z a r lo s desde
l a o r i l l a . M ar£a Pepa titu b e o im momento, p ero a l
cabo, d e sa ta n d o se la s a lp a r g a ta s y su b ien d o se l a enagua
h a s ta mas a r r i b a d e l a r o d i l l a , e n tro en e l agua y se
apodero d e lo s c h ic o s . ^
Her a t t i r e no lo n g e r h o ld s th e same im portance:
32Ibid.. p. 33.
34Ibid.. p. 36.
33Ibid.. p. 35.
35Ibid.. p. 39.
122
En vez d e c o rs e , se a ju s to e l cu erp o con una
c h a q u e ti lla a b a lle n a d a y s e re c o g io e l p e lo con h o r-
q u i l l a s . 3^
T here i s f i n a l , com plete abandonment o f fem ale d a in tin e s s
a t th e end o f th e s to r y when sh e d e c id e s to r id e a to p a
w agonload o f w heat sa c k s:
Se encaram o en lo mas a l t o , b alan ce an d o se a l compas
de l a m archa; y cuando lle g a ro n a un tro z o d e l camino
lle n o d e b a c h e s, se a g a rro a su prim o, tem ero sa de
c a e r , y s i n t i o b a jo su mano l a p i e l a rd o ro sa d e l jo v e n ,
empapada en su d o r, d u ra y r e l l e n a . 37
A lta m ir a 's c lo s in g se n te n c e i s a p p r o p r ia te : ” E1 te rru n o
h a b fa v en cid o a l a c iu d a d ." 38 The tra n s fo rm a tio n in M arfa
Pepa o cc u rs b ecau se sh e has p a r tic ip a t e d i n t e n t l y , in
common endeavor, w ith o th e r s . From t h i s grows a tr u e
a p p r e c ia tio n o f th e te r r u n o . A lta m ira m a in ta in s t h a t one
can lo v e h i s p a t r i a c h ic a o n ly i f he in v o lv e s h im s e lf
a c tiv e ly in th e l i f e o f th e re g io n :
As£ como no ama l a t i e r r a s in o q u ie n l a tr a b a ja ,
q u ie n s u f r e p o r e l l a y p o r e l l a s ie n te banado su cuerpo
en su d o r y p o r e l l a se ahoga en zo zo b ras y en m iedos
y tie n e a l te rru n o lig a d a su v id a e n te r a en to d o s sus
a c to s , as£ no ama, no puede amar p ro p iam en te a su
p a t r i a q u ie n v iv e en e l l a a modo d e c o sm o p o lita , como
p u d ie ra v i v i r en o tr o lu g a r, s in nada p ro p io , genuino,
que e n la c e y tr a b e p a ra siem pre su im ag in acio n y su
^Ibid., p. 45.
38Ibid., p. 54.
37Ibid.. p. 53.
123
a c tiv id a d a l r in c o n c ito d e l mundo en que n a c io y a l a
v id a que le r o d e a .39
F ra n c isc o i s th e o n ly o th e r c h a ra c te r whose p h y s i
c a l ap p earan ce i s d e s c rib e d . He i s " g a rrid o y b ian co todo
cu a n to e l s o l p e rm it£ a ." 4 ® M aria Pepa p r e f e r s h is com
pany to th a t o f th e o th e rs b ec au se sh e fin d s him "mas fin o ,
s e n o rito y mas lim p io que sus herm an o s."4 ^ She i s
a t t r a c t e d , to o , by " la f u e r te m u sc u la tu ra d e l mozo, acu sad a
42
en e l pecho y en lo s b ra z o s ." We le a r n som ething o f h is
c h a ra c te r, as M arla Pepa w eighs h is q u a l i t i e s a g a in s t th o s e
o f th e men she h as known in th e c i t y :
E n c o n tra b a lo --y e r a a s £ —buen mozo, guapo, f u e r te ,
tr a b a ja d o r y cu id ad o so de su s b ie n e s ; p o r lo que to c a
a o tro s o rd en es, p a r e c la yehem ente y am oroso, y no se
co n o c la v ic io a p r e c ia b le . 3
Compared w ith h e r s u it o r s in th e C a p ita l, F ra n c isc o i s "mas
n o b le , mas fra n c o , s in n in g u n a d e la s m is e ria s c a r a c te -
t 44
r i s t i c a s de la s c iu d a d e s . . . .
A lta m ira ’ s h a n d lin g o f c h a r a c te r iz a tio n i s in
acco rd w ith good s h o r t s to r y te c h n iq u e . He h as lim ite d
39Ibid.. p. 11.
41Ibid., p. 38.
43Ibid., p. 42.
40
Ibid., p. 37.
42Ibid.
44 Ibid.
124
p e rs o n a l d e s c r ip tio n to th e two p r in c ip a l c h a r a c te r s . He
ad h eres to o th e r im p o rta n t r u le s o f c h a r a c te r iz a tio n ,
ac co rd in g to John T. F re d e ric k :
The e a r l i e s t in tr o d u c tio n o f a c h a r a c te r should
g iv e g e n e ra l su g g e stio n o f ag e, sex , and s t a t u r e , t o
g e th e r w ith one o r two o f such s p e c if ic d e t a i l s as
would n o rm ally be n o te d a t f i r s t g l a n c e . ^
A lta m ira d i s t r i b u t e s d e s c r ip tiv e d e t a i l s th ro u g h o u t th e
s to r y ; h e does n o t mass them, w hich i s a n o th e r recommended
46
p re c e p t.
S e ttin g
S e ttin g i s u n d o u b ted ly th e m ost im p o rta n t elem ent
in El T erru n o . as i t i s in n e a rly a l l o f th e s t o r i e s w hich
com prise C uentos de mi t i e r r a . In h is p re lim in a ry rem arks,
A lta m ira s t a t e s t h a t th e s t o r i e s w ere in s p ir e d by:
. . . e l amor a l a t i e r r a en que e l a u to r n a c io y la
o b se rv a cio n d e sus tip o s , costum bres y p a i s a j e s . ^ '
A lta m ira ’ s s t o r i e s r e p r e s e n t h is e f f o r t to r e v e a l th e charm
and g ra c e o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l ways o f A lic a n tin e l i f e ,
w hich, he fe a re d , w ere b e in g l o s t to th e c o u n try :
45
Frederick, op. cit., p. 44.
^ Ibid. ^ Ibid., p. 7.
125
. . . b ie n podemos s e n t i r e l o lv id o en que van cayendo,
d e d fa en d f a , la s co stu m b res, la s f i e s t a s , lo s ca n to s
y h a s ta la s fa b u la s que im prim fan c a r a c te r a un pueblo
(porque en e l l a s ponen la s c o le c tiv id a d e s to d a su alm a,
d andoles a s f una r e p r e s e n ta c io n p s ic o lo g ic a que es e l
mas seguro la z o de p a t r io t is m o ) ; e ig u alm en te se o lv i-
dan o se desconocen lo s a s p e c to s p la s tic o s de l a n a tu -
r a le z a x d e la s co stu m b res, ta n r ic o s d e c a r a c te r
lo c a l.
Esenwein c a l l s th e ty p e o f n a r r a tiv e in w hich s e t t i n g p r e
dom inates a s to r y o f s e t t i n g , p o in tin g o u t th a t t h i s i n
v o lv e s more th a n m erely d e s c r ib in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a tu r e s
o f lan d scap e and cu sto m s:
To be c l a s s i f i e d p ro p e rly as a s to r y o f s e tt i n g ,
a n a r r a tiv e roust b e more th a n m erely r i c h in lo c a l
c o lo r —as th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c environm ent o f a c e r t a in
d i s t r i c t , a s s e t f o r t h in f i c t i o n , i s o fte n c a lle d .
The tr u e s to r y o f s e t t i n g i s one in w hich th e s e t ti n g
h as a v i t a l b e a rin g on th e n a tu re s o r th e d e s tin ie s o f
th e c h a r a c te r s . 9
A lta m ira ’s A lic a n tin e s t o r i e s , and in p a r t i c u l a r E l T erruno,
a r e e s s e n t i a l l y s t o r i e s o f s e t t i n g .
The e f f e c t o f s e t t i n g on th e p r in c ip a l c h a r a c te r o f
E l T erruno i s e v id e n t i n th e i n i t i a l sc en e. The odors o f
th e v e g e ta b le s hanging from th e r a f t e r s o f h e r room a re
u n p le a sa n t to M arfa Pepa:
48I b i d . , p. 12.
4^Esenw ein, op. c i t ., p. 253.
126
Entonces pudo l a moza c o n ta r lo s m elones, la s e s p i-
gas de ma£z y lo s p im e n to s p ic a n te s co lg ad o s d e la s
v ig a s , y d i s c e r n i r a q u e l co n ju n to de o lo r e s - - e x tra n o s
ya a sus n a r ic e s d e ciu d a d a n a --q u e l e h a b ia atorm en-
ta d o , co n trib u y e n d o a l insomnio.5®
The e f f e c t o f environm ent i s a p p a re n t in a sub seq u en t
scen e. The jo y ex p e rie n ce d in h e r c o n ta c t w ith th e o u t
d o o rs p r e v a ils o v er th e d i s t a s t e f u l a s p e c ts o f c o u n try
l i f e :
Y con e s te gozo, no h iz o a l t o en l a cen a, s o b r ia y
p o b risim a ; en a q u e l f r i t o d e p im ien to s y tom ates mez-
c la d o de s a la z o n b a r a ta , y a q u e lla s c e b o lla s b la n c a s ,
o ro n d as, tu r g e n te s , que c a s i S erv ian de pan.
By th e tim e th e fam ily s e ts o u t on th e th re s h in g e x p e d i
tio n , M aria P epa’s a t t i t u d e has changed m arkedly:
El d ia d e t r i l l a es e x tr a o r d in a r io p a ra lo s la b r a -
d o re s : en l a e r a alm uerzan y comen, tra s la d a n d o su
c a s a b a jo d e ton a lg a rro b o o de un o liv o . . . M aria Pepa
e s ta b a dominada p o r una a l e g r i a inm ensa. Todo l e daba
p la c e r ; en to d o l e e r a nuevo y l e p a r e c ia hermoso.52
As she jo in s th e fa m ily in t h e i r sim p le r e p a s t, a com plete
m etam orphosis has ta k e n p la c e :
Todos lo s re c u e rd o s y lo s re fin a m ie n to s de su v id a
ciu d ad an a se b o rra ro n de g o lp e , y se s i n t i o h i j a d e l
campo, la b ra d o ra como su f a m ilia y p ro n ta a a n e g a rse en
to d a s la s v o lu p tu o s id a d e s fra n c a s y d ir e c ta s de l a
m ujer de su c la s e .5 3
•^Cuentos, p. 32.
52Ibid.. p. 46.
51Ibid., p. 34.
53Ibid.. p. 52.
127
A lta m ira p a in ts a v iv id and charm ing p ic tu r e of
r u s t i c l i f e . He d e s c rib e s th e sim p le a t t i r e o f an A lic a n -
ti n e c o u n try woman, f o r w hich M arla Pepa has g iv e n up h e r
more e le g a n t c i t y c lo th in g :
V is tio M arla Pepa su f a ld a mas pobre, s in mas <^ue
p o n erse d eb ajo una enagua l i g e r a y c o r ta . Se cru zo p o r
e l pecho un p anuelo de se d a, arrem ango lo s b ra z o s y
h a s ta s e compro unas a lp a r g a ta s de la rg o s co rd o n es,
q u ita n d o se la s m edias p a ra no e s tr o p e a r la s m u c h o . 5 4
The a u th o r d e p ic ts th e cru d e s to ra g e f a c i l i t i e s f o r c l o t h
in g in th e farm house:
M iro l a muchacha su s ro p a s, co lg ad as p a r te en c l a -
v o s, de l a p ared , y en p a r te am ontonadas so b re un arco n
de p in o a l lad o d e l a cama. ...55
T here i s a d e t a il e d d e s c r ip tio n o f th e s p e c ia l food
enjoyed on f e a s t d ays:
Comio con a fa n l a c a m e de o v e ja , lo s g arbanzos
to s ta d o s , la s t o r t a s de m alz, se cas y d e lg a d a s , la s
ch u fas orondas y ju g o sa s y e l tu r ro n f o r a s te r o , d u lc e
y su av e. . . . 56
T h is s p e c ia l, a l b e i t sim p le, f a r e c o n tr a s ts w ith th e m eager
and r a th e r s tra n g e b r e a k f a s t o f th e men on a workday:
~^Ibid.. p. 36-
56Ibid., p. 41.
55ibid., pp. 34-35.
5^Ibid.. p. 47.
128
A lta m ira r e v e a ls th e arduous w orking c o n d itio n s o f
th e p e a s a n t:
. . . lo s mozos se pasaban de s o l a s o l en e l campo; y
so lo a l an o ch ecer, cuando v o lv fa n , h a b fa su r a t i t o de
c h a r la m ie n tra s se desem parejaban lo s m ulos, se d e s -
carg ab a l a m ies o l a h ie r b a . ...58
He d e s c rib e s th e p r im itiv e m ethods o f a g r ic u ltu r e s t i l l
u sed by th e A lic a n tin e farm er:
Sobre l a e r a , lo s c u a tro herm anos, p u e sto s en f i l a
uno tr a s o tr o , term in ab an de v o lv e r lo s h aces con
g ran d es t r i d e n t e s de m adera, p a ra que e l t r i l l o a le a n -
z a se a to d o s y se p a ra se b ie n e l grano de l a p a ja . ...59
D esp ite th e burdensome ta s k s o f th e farm er, a song accom
p a n ie s h is c h o re s:
. . . Juan P edro, b ie n hundido e l som brero de palm a y
r e s ta lla n d o l a f u s ta , en to n ab a una de e s a s can cio n es
c a r a c t e r l s t i c a s de lo s t r i l l a d o r e s , en que la s n o ta s
f i n a l e s , s o s te n id a s larg am en te, producen un d u lc e
so p o r, lle n o de in e x p lic a b le d e l i c i a . ”®
At d a y ’s end, a f t e r long h o u rs o f t o i l , th e farm er and h is
fa m ily en jo y t h e i r m eal in th e t r a n q u i l i t y o f th e A lic a n
tin e c o u n try s id e :
Se ceno a l a i r e l i b r e , en m edio d e l rep o so de una
de e sa s noches lum inosas de v eran o que en n in g u n a p a r te
son mas GUras y m ejo r gozadas que en l a t i e r r a de
L ev an te. °
58Ibid., p. 38.
6QIbid., p. 47.
59Ibid.. p. 51.
6lIbid.. p. 54.
129
On s p e c ia l o c c a sio n s, th e farm er can r e la x more f u l l y .
A lta m ira d e s c rib e s th e a c t i v i t i e s o f a h o lid a y , as c e l e
b ra te d in th e A lic a n tin e re g io n :
Faso l a f i e s t a , que e r a d e l Carmen, con s u : m isa y
sermon d e mas d e t r e s h o ra s ; p ro c e s io n lu c id a y de
larguxsim o r e c o r r id o p o r medio d e lo s campos; to ro s de
cu e rd a ; n u tr id o s c o h e te s que h i r i e r o n a mas de un e s -
p e c ta d o r, s in lo c u a l nunca lo s tu v ie ro n p o r buenos, y
b a i l e a l son de l a d u lz a in a y e l ta m b o ril.^ 2
Themes
El T erruno p a r a l l e l s A lta m ir a 's lo n g e r work,
Renoso. in th e m atic c o n te n t. M arfa Pepa (El T erru n o ) and
Juan (Reposo) le a v e th e w earisom e l i f e o f M adrid f o r A li
c a n te . S in ce th e p a re n ts o f b o th M arfa Pepa and Ju an a r e
d ecea sed , th e y a r e b e frie n d e d by r e l a t i v e s , an a u n t (T fa
F ra n c is c a ) o r au n t and u n c le (Dona M icae la and Don V ic e n te ).
Both p r o ta g o n is ts s u f f e r from insom nia; as th ey l i e
awake in bed, th e y r e f l e c t upon t h e i r e a r l i e r l i f e :
La im ag in acio n v o lo en pos d e lo s re c u e rd o s , evo-
cando lo s d fa s d e l a n in e z . . ..^3 (E l T erru n o )
Pero e l c a n sa n c io l e p e rs e g u fa , cuando mas seguro
e s ta b a de h a b e rlo v e n c id o ; y con la s form as a b u lta -
d as d e l sueno, doblem ente d o lo ro s a s , se renovaba a t o r -
m entandolo con l a v is io n d e to d o s sus tr a m ite s y l a
62Ibid., pp. 40-41. ^ Cuentos. p. 32.
130
c l a r a c o n c le n c ia de to d o s lo s e r r o r e s com etidos.*
(Reposo)
The s p i r i t o f h e ro in e and h e ro i s becalm ed by th e
so o th in g q u ie t o f n a tu re , in alm o st i d e n t i c a l p a ssa g e s:
E l se d a n te y d e lic io s o s il e n c i o de lo s campos lo
envolv£a to d o , y Mar£a Pepa concluyo p o r h a l l a r s e b ie n
y c e r r a r lo s o jo s a d o r m i l a d a . (El T erru n o )
E l s il e n c i o e r a en to n ces abrum ador, p ero se d a n te .
Ni v o ces de hom bres, n i c a n to s d e p a ja ro s , n i rum or
de in s e c to s . ^ (Reposo)
They fin d in n a tu re renewed hope, a re a so n f o r t h e i r e x i s
te n c e :
V encida p o r to d as a q u e lla s im p re sio n e s, notando que
de cad a vez l e p e n e tra b a mas e l s e n tim ie n to d e l cam po--
de a q u e l campo suyo, c o s te r o , que un£a lo s a rd o re s de
un s o l a f r ic a n o a la s b r i s a s suaves d e un mar c a s i
siem pre t r a n q u i l o ,- - s e abandono Mar£a Pepa a la s mas
d u lc e s e s p e ra n z a s. D ejo se m ecer p o r lo s ru£dos de l a
e ra , a p a r te de lo s c u a le s todo e r a s il e n c i o , se em-
b ria g o con e l o lo r d e l a t i e r r a c a l i e n t e . y c e rr o lo s
o jo s , h e rid o s p o r l a lu z dem asiado v iv a . ' ( El T erru n o )
Repasando la s im p resio n es r e c ib id a s d esd e su l l e -
gada a V illa m a r, l e p a re c io que cad a una d e e l l a s hab£a
sid o como una p re p a ra c io n p a ra que com prendiese e l
sag rad o m is te r io , l a voz a u g u sta de l a r e a lid a d que le
llam aba a nueva e x is te n c ia : l a s se n sa c io n e s de re p o so ,
de p la c id e z , d e suave poes£a que habfan id o acum ulan-
do se en su alm a, se f o r ta le c ie r o n mas y mas y se com-
p le ta r o n con un nuevo s e n tid o d e l v a lo r de la s c o s a s . 8
(Reposo)
Reposo, p . 34.
^ Reposo, p . 46.
^^Reposo, p. 70.
^ C uentos. p . 35.
^^C uentos, p . 50.
131
A lta m ira d e s c r ib e s , in b o th w orks, th e p e c u lia r
s i t t i n g p o s tu re th e A lic a n tin e woman o f te n assum es, a
custom in h e r ite d from th e A rabs:
S in p o d er dom in arse, M arfa Pepa se fu e t r a s e l , y
buscando l a sombra de uno de lo s g ran d es m ontones d e
p a ja , se se n to en e l s u e lo , encogiendo la s p ie m a s a
l a m anera a ra b e , h ered ad a en a q u e lla t i e r r a le v a n -
t i n a . ^ (E l T erruno)
S entada en e l s u e lo , con la s p ie m a s re c o g id a s a
u san za a ra b e , una m u jer, cuyos o jo s , ra sg a d o s, lle n o s
de lu z , e ra n l a u n ic a n o ta v iv a en l a c a ra dem acrada
e in te n sam en te m orena, r e t o r c f a f ib r a s de e s p a rto e n tr e
la s manos p a ra f a b r ic a r c o r d e l i l l o . ( Reposo)
The a c e o u ia . o r i r r i g a t i o n d itc h , f ig u r e s im por
t a n t l y in th e s h o r t s to r y and th e n o v e l.
Id eas
An in t e r e s t i n g id e a e x p re sse d in Reposo^ a ls o
ap p ears in E l T erru n o . M arfa Pepa, a f t e r many y e a rs away
from home, r e tu r n s to fin d fa m ily and f r ie n d s g r e a tly
changed. The t r e e s and th e m ountains a lo n e rem ain th e
same. P eople v i s - a - v i s n a tu r e r e p r e s e n t w hat i s t r a n s i t o r y
in l i f e ; o n ly n a tu r e h as perm anence:
^ Cuentos. p. 49. ^ Reposo, p. 44.
^Ibid., pp. 68-69. (See footnote 41, Chapter IV.)
132
Todo lo p e rs o n a l habxa cam biado: Solo la N atu ra-
le z a perm anecia como a n te s . La mlsma palm era d elg ad a
y e lev ad isim a , a l a p u e rta d e l a c a s a ; e l mismo o llv a r
a l a d erech a; lo s mismos alm endros y a lg a rro b o s a l
f r e n te y la s m ontanas a z u le s y desnudas a l a e s p a l d a . ^ 2
A nother id e a o f A lta m ir a 's , ex p ressed in th e p ro -
73
lo g u e to Cuentos de mi t i e r r a . i s th a t one who rem ains a
mere o b se rv e r and does n o t in v o lv e h im s e lf a c tiv e ly in i t s
a f f a i r s does n o t r e a l l y love h is t e r r e t a . T his i s th e ex
p e rie n c e o f Ju an in Reposo. ^ Marxa Pepa, to o , i s e v e n tu
a l l y drawn in to fam ily and community endeavor:
S a lto d e l c a rr o a n te s que n a d ie y ayudo a desengan-
c h a r l a m ula, m ie n tra s Juan Pedro, con sus herm anos,
comenzaba a e x te n d e r lo s h aces so b re e l s u e l o . ^
One m ust w eigh, A ltam ira b e lie v e s , th e advantages
o f l i f e in th e te rru n o a g a in s t th o s e o f th e c i t y . M aria
Pepa r e a l iz e s how u n c e rta in l i f e in th e C a p ita l a c tu a lly
i s :
Por p rim era vez penso en to n ces que e s to e r a even
t u a l ; que sus s e n o rito s podrxan m o rirse o d e s p e d irla
y e l l a i r rodando de aqu£ E fra a l i a , s in descanso
seguro n i tr a b a jo g u s to s o .^ ”
C uentos, pp. 33-34.
^ Ibid. . p. 11. (See fo o tn o te 39, t h i s c h a p te r .)
^ R e p o so . p. 268. (See fo o tn o te 68, C hapter IV.)
^ C uentos. p . 46. ^ I b id . , p . 43.
133
She com pares th e s e u n c e r ta in ti e s w ith th e d ig n ity and th e
r e l a t i v e independence o f farm l i f e :
Comparo e s ta in c e rtid u m b re con e l hecho de s e r
duena de su c a s a , p r o p ie ta r i a d e t i e r r a s que, aunque
no muchas, daban p a ra v i v i r ju n ta n d o sus p ro d u cto s a l
de la s fa e n a s en t i e r r a a je n a , y le p a re c io e s to mas
firm e y a p e tito s o .^ 7
S ty le
Good s t y l e in s h o r t s to r y w r itin g , ac c o rd in g to
F re d e ric k , c o n s is ts in m a in ta in in g a harm onious r e l a t i o n
s h ip betw een mode o f e x p re s sio n and th e p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i
ence b e in g n a r r a te d :
The o b je c tiv e i s a d a p ta tio n o f th e sound elem ent in
th e medium to th e i n t e l l e c t u a l and em o tio n al e lem e n ts.
The b e s t n a r r a t i v e s t y l e i s by no means t h a t w hich i s
th e m ost m e llif lu o u s o r b e a u ti f u l i n t r i n s i c a l l y , b u t
t h a t w hich i s th e m ost p e r f e c t a s an a u d ito ry medium
f o r th e g iv en e m o tio n al e x p e rie n c e .
A lta m ir a 's s t y l e i s c o n s is te n t w ith th e r u s t i c
s e t t i n g he d e p i c ts . The c h a r a c te r s in h is A lic a n tin e
s t o r i e s a r e sim p le r u r a l p e o p le . T h e ir o fte n tim e s cru d e
manner o f sp eech and th o u g h t i s r e f l e c t e d in A ltam ira* s
lan g u ag e. A p p ro p ria te , f o r in s ta n c e , i s h i s d e s c r ip tio n
77Ibid.
78
Frederick, op. cit., pp. 65-66.
134
o f M arfa P e p a 's deep in ta k e o f a i r :
/ 79
. . . a p iq u e d e h a c e r s a l t a r lo s cordones d e l c o r s e .
P rim itiv e em otions a r e aro u sed when M arfa Pepa, f e a r f u l o f
f a l l i n g from th e wagon, g ra sp s F ra n c isc o :
. . . s e a g a rro a su prim o, tem erosa de c a e r, y s i n t i o
b a jo su mano l a p i e l a rd o ro sa d e l jo v e n , empapada en
su d o r, d u ra y r e l l e n a .
In a n o th e r scen e, m ild in to x ic a tio n g iv e s r i s e to in n o c e n t
v u l g a r i t y :
Juan Pedro b eb io mas de lo ju s t o y comenzo a c o n ta r
h i s t o r i e t a s p ic a n te s . ...^1
D e sp ite th e b r e v ity o f th e work, th e r e i s ample
ev id en ce in El T erruno o f th e a u th o r ’ s s t y l i s t i c s k i l l .
A lta m ira i s a b le to evoke e f f e c t i v e l y a p ic tu r e o f th e h e a t
and in te n s e s t i l l n e s s o f an A lic a n tin e sumner day:
E l s o l, b a s ta n te a l t o , inundaba d e lu z la e r a ,
h acien d o b r i l l a r la s h e rra d u ra s de l a raula, su s c rin e s
empapadas en su d o r y la s len g u as d e l t r i l l o , a f ila d a s
y lim p ia s . Un poco mas a l i a , l a b a ls a p a re c fa d e
fu eg o , y la s c o lin a s que fa ld e a n l a s i e r r a d e sta c a b a n
to d o s sus c o n to m o s fu e rte m e n te som breadas, que in d i-
caban la s p a r te s hondas, lo s v a l l e c i t o s y lo s r e p l i e -
g u e s. Ni e l mas le v e so p lo d e a i r e : m irando h a c ia
a b a jo , de e s p a ld a s a l a raontana, podfa v e rs e e l mar,
b ia n c o e in m o v il. . . . 82
79
Cuentos, p. 34.
8^Ibid., p. 54.
8QIbid., p. 53.
82Ibid.. p. 49.
135
The sounds o f n a tu re a r e ex p ressed in m u sical and f ig u r a
t i v e language:
A fortunadam ente, aq u el e r a dxa de r ie g o , y l a a c e -
q u ia re b o sa b a de agua tr a n s p a re n te y frx a , que a l ro z a r
con la s h ie rb a s d e l margen s u s u rra b a en n o ta s d elg ad as
y a l t a s . 83
T here i s s e n s o r ia l a p p e a l in A lta m ira 1 s d e s c r ip tio n o f a
sunny a fte rn o o n :
Todo fu lg u ra b a h e rid o p o r lo s ray o s d e l s o l, que
en un c i e l o purxsim o, de a z u l in te n s o , p re s id x a a q u e lla
f i e s t a d e l v eran o , cegando con su lu z , que v e la b a c a s i
e l c o n to m o de la s i e r r a . No ya una, s in o dos c i -
g a r r a s , c h ir r ia b a n con f u r i a , y la s g o lo n d rin a s pasaban
v e lo c e s , rozando con sus a la s e l su e lo de l a e r a . ^ 4
The a u th o r d e p ic ts th e slow and monotonous tempo o f th e
r u r a l scen e:
. . . pero no o b s ta n te la tu rb a c io n que e s to l a [le]
d ab a, a te n d x a mas b ie n a l ro d a r de l a rnula y d e l
t r i l l o , cuyos g o lp es c o rta b a n l a p a ja l i g e r a con ru id o
c o n tin u o y sordo, que se a le ja b a y v o lv x a s in c e s a r . ^5
A lta m ira p ic tu r e s in subdued to n e s a ty p ic a l A lic a n tin e
e v e n in g :
Los p u n to s mas a l to s d e l a s i e r r a cu b rx an se de
nubes y s e a g ig a n ta b a n , sacando p o r encim a de e l l a s
lo s p ic o s d e la cim a. C a lla b an la s c ig a r r a s y erapeza-
ban lo s g r i l l o s . Todo e ra calm a y h a s ta e l v ie n to
habxa ce sad o , so p lan d o so lo a in te r v a lo s con lig e r a s
bocanadas r e f r e s c a n te s y humedas.®
83Ibid., p. 39-
85Ibid., p. 48.
84Ibid., p. 51.
86Ibid.. p. 53.
136
In an extended s im ile , A lta m ira d e s c r ib e s th e
s e n s a tio n s f e l t by M aria Pepa as she o b se rv e s F ra n c isc o
work:
B landio e l l a t i g o , h a c ie n d o lo e s t a l l a r ru id o s a -
m ente, y con voz c l a r a y entonada echo a l a i r e ca n cio n
t r a s ca n c io n , siem pre con a q u e l a la rg a m ie n to p erez o so
en la s n o ta s , que a M aria Pepa se le f ig u ra b a una
c a r i c i a suave y d e te n id a que le ib a rozando la s c a rn e s
y se l e m e tfa en e l alm a. '
A lta m ira u se s o th e r s im ile s w hich a r e e x p re s s iv e and
n a t u r a l . He d e s c rib e s th e f a v o r i t e p a stim e o f Ju a n Pedro*s
boys:
. . . lo s s e n o r ito s v o lv ie ro n a l a c a r r e t e r a y nadaron
en e l polvo como q u ie n n ad a en e l mar en d ia de
verano.**8
H is com parison o f th e se a to a b a r r i e r e n c lo s in g th e h o r i
zon i s a p t:
. . . m irando h a c ia a b a jo , de e s p a ld a s a l a m ontana,
p o d ia v e rs e e l m ar, b ia n c o e in m o v il, como una b a r r e r a
que c e rra b a e l h o riz o n te .® ^
T here i s a q u a lity o f d e lic a c y in h is lik e n in g th e s a i l o f
a d i s t a n t b o a t to a ja sm in e l e a f :
. . . le jo s de l a c o s ta , una v e la que p a r e c ia una h o j i l i a
de jazm in flo ta n d o en e l a i r e . ®
87
Ibid.. p. 49.
89
Ibid.. p. 49.
88Ibid., p. 38,
90Ibid.
137
A lta m ir a 's m etap h o ric f ig u r e s a r e a ls o im a g in a tiv e ly drawn:
F ra n c isc o e s ta b a a l i i , moviendo a g ilm e n te su aven-
ta d o ra y d ejan d o c a e r d e a l t o l a l l u v i a de p a ja y
g ran o , que form aba lum inosa n ie b la .9 1
A jo y o u s, c l e a r summer day i s a " f i e s t a d e l v e r a n o ." 92 In
a d e l i g h t f u l f ig u r e o f sp eech , A lta m ira p e r s o n if ie s th e
sound o f w a te r as i t moves th ro u g h th e ac eq u ia :
. . . l a a c e q u ia re b o sa b a de agua tr a n s p a re n te y f r x a ,
que a l r o z a r con la s h ie rb a s d e l m argen s u s u rra b a en
n o ta s d e lg a d a s y a l t a s . 93
A fanes
94
A fanes i s e s s e n t i a l l y a stu d y o f c h a r a c te r . The
b a r e s t o f p lo ts i s c o n triv e d as a fram ework to d e s c r ib e a
common ty p e found among A lic a n tin e fa rm e rs. T here a r e
th r e e such c h a r a c te r iz a tio n s in C uentos d e mi t i e r r a :
A fanes i l l u s t r a t e s b e s t th e s in g u la r q u a l i t i e s o f th e A li
c a n tin e p e a s a n t. A lta m ira e x p la in s t h a t th e p e a sa n t o f
A lic a n te i s more th a n a m ere farm er:
El lu c e n tin o es un s e r xnuy com plejo, en q u ie n
su e le n ju n t a r s e a p titu d e s y fu n c io n e s muy v a r ia d a s ,
m itad la b ra d o r y m itad m a rin e ro la s mas de la s v e c e s,
91Ibid.. p. 51.
93Ibid.. p. 39.
92Ibid.
9^Cuentos. pp. 165-178.
138
d o tad o d e asom brosa m o v ilid ad que ta n p ro n to lo tie n e
pegado a su te rru n o como sudando l a g o ta g o rd a en lo s
campos a r g e lin o s o en la s m esetas c a s t e l i a n a s . 95
H is o c c u p a tio n a l v e r s a t i l i t y i s b o rn o f n e c e s s ity ; th e
s h o rta g e o f w a te r and th e n a tu re o f a g r ic u ltu r e in th e A li-
c a n tin e re g io n o f te n f o r c e th e p e a s a n t to seek h i s l i v e l i
hood e lse w h e re . A lta m ira s t a t e s e x p l i c i t l y h is p u rp o se in
w r itin g th e s to r y :
E l t i p o g en u in e d e l la b ra d o r enamorado d e l a
t i e r r a , c o d ic io s o d e tr a b a jo y g a n a n c ia , i d o l a t r a d e l
r ie g o y d e l a p ro p ie d a d , s u e le p r e s e n ta r s e con g ran
p u rez a a lo s o jo s d e l o b se rv a d o r; y p re c isa m e n te de
uno d e e l l o s q u i s i e r a h a b la r te , l e c t o r q u e rid o , aunque
s o lo se a p a ra q u e, com parandolo con o tro s que tu cono-
c e s , adm ires l a v a rie d a d riq u x sim a d e e je m p lare s
humanos que c r i a n u e s tr a t i e r r a . 96
Summary o f th e S to ry
A fanes i s a man who has d e d ic a te d a lif e t im e to
h ard w ork. H is n e ig h b o rs a p p ly t h i s a p t s o u b riq u e t to him
when he i s s t i l l a y o u th . H is e x c e s s iv e th in n e s s and v e ry
d a rk s k in a r e a t t r i b u t e d to th e long h o u rs o f la b o r h e h a s
s p e n t in th e h o t su n . He le a r n s th e v a lu e o f t h r i f t a t an
e a r ly ag e, o f te n d en y in g h im s e lf th e n e c e s s i ti e s o f l i f e
in o rd e r to save f o r th e f u tu r e . H is o n ly e d u c a tio n i s
^ Ibid.. pp. 165-166. 96Ibid.. p. 166.
t h a t d e riv e d from h is e x p e rie n c e on th e jo b in d i f f e r e n t
p a r ts o f th e c o u n try .
A fa n es* f i r s t work o u ts id e th e te rru n o i s in th e
v in e y a rd s o f a w ealth y landow ner o f J e r e z . T hese a re th e
m ost e n jo y a b le y e a rs o f h is l i f e . He e a ts w e ll, le a rn s a
g r e a t d e a l and, fo r th e f i r s t tim e, se e s th in g s n ev er
dream ed o f in h is home com nunity. He r e tu r n s to th e
te r r u n o w ith a s iz a b le n e s t egg.
His i n s t i n c t i v e f e a r o f p o v e rty allo w s him no r e s t .
He s ig n s up w ith a gro u p o f h a r v e s te r s who le a v e a n n u a lly
to work in Old C a s tile and stir ro u n d in g a r e a s . He i s soon
re c o g n iz e d f o r h is in d u s try and c o o p e ra tiv e s p i r i t . D edi
c a te d to th e ta s k a t hand and r e s p e c tf u l o f h is s u p e r io r s ,
h e i s alw ays among th e f i r s t to be in v ite d back to work.
A fan es1 p e r ip a t e t i c l i f e c o n tin u e s f o r y e a rs .
B ecause o f th e demand f o r w orkers in A lg ie rs , h e tr a v e ls
th e r e , w here th e rew ard s a r e b e t t e r . He does n o t rem ain
in N orth A fric a as many o f h is countrym en do, f o r h e dream s
o f owning a p lo t o f la n d in h is te r r u n o . H is f r u g a l i t y
becomes an o b se ssio n a s th e y e a rs p a s s .
When Afanes f i n a l l y d e c id e s to s e t t l e down in A li
c a n te , he buys a d ila p id a te d house n e a r th e m ountains and
140
th re e ta h u lla s o f land (a t o t a l o f a p p ro x im a tely one th o u
sand sq u a re f e e t ) , p la n te d w ith a few almond and caro b
tr e e s . In a s h o r t tim e, th e d i l i g e n t farm er h as r e h a b i l i
ta te d and b e a u tif ie d h is h o ld in g s . When th e r e i s n o t
enough work on h i s own s m a ll p lo t, h e seeks employment as
a day la b o re r e lsew h ere. I f th is ty p e o f work i s u n a v a il
a b le , h e spends h i s tim e m aking co rd and ro p e from e s p a r to
g ra s s , w hich he e i th e r s e l l s o r exchanges f o r household
n e e d s.
A fanes1 l i f e i s n o t w ith o u t rom ance. S e ttle d
perm anently in h i s new abode, he m a rrie s . H is m o tiv es,
however, a re q u e s tio n a b le , f o r h i s w ife , a s id e from th e
u su a l h o u sek eep in g d u tie s , m ust w ork from dawn to d a rk ,
p ic k in g and p re p a rin g e s p a r to g r a s s . The p o o r woman does
n o t even have th e c o n s o la tio n o f good food, s in c e A fanes
is as econom ical in t h a t r e s p e c t as h e i s in o th e r m a tte r s .
F in a lly , th e w retched woman, consumed by e x c e s s iv e work
and many d e p r iv a tio n s , d i e s .
Afanes i s n a t u r a l l y g rie v e d , as co n v e n tio n dem ands,
b u t th e n ex t day he v i s i t s th e v i l l a g e p r i e s t , se ek in g
ad v ice about a new u n io n . When th e p r i e s t inform s him i t
is n o t h is fu n c tio n to f in d w ives f o r h is p a r is h io n e r s ,
141
A fanes e x p la in s t h a t h e has a lre a d y chosen one and w ish es
o n ly th e p r i e s t 's n u p tia l b e n e d ic tio n .
The new w ife b e a rs him two so n s. D uring t h is tim e ,
A fanes i s more le n ie n t, b u t e v e n tu a lly th e o ld regim en i s
im posed. I f a n y th in g , th e farm er becomes more t i g h t - f i s t e d
th a n e v e r. When h is second w ife d ie s , he m a rrie s a t h i r d
tim e . A fanes now has th r e e to h e lp w ith th e w ork; h is
so n s, a lth o u g h s t i l l b o y s, m ust t o i l in th e f i e l d s . H is
la n d s a r e th e envy o f th e community. F e a r f u l o f p o ac h ers,
A fanes spends n ig h t a f t e r n ig h t in th e damp, c o ld a i r ,
w atch in g h is m elon p a tc h .
One n ig h t a n eig h b o r fin d s h is body n e a r th e m elon
p a tc h . The man h as no d i f f i c u l t y in c a rr y in g Afanes to
th e house, s in c e h is body w eighs "menos que un p a j a r o .”
At home, a c o f f e r i s found, f i l l e d w ith money.
S tru c tu r e o f th e S to ry
In t h i s th ir te e n - p a g e s to r y , A lta m ira re c o u n ts th e
h is t o r y o f an in d iv id u a l o b se ssed w ith f r u g a l i t y . P lo t and
s e t t i n g , in th e u s u a l se n se , a r e v i r t u a l l y n o n e x is te n t.
D ialo g u e i s reduced to a s h o r t c o n v e rs a tio n betw een A fanes
and th e v i l l a g e p r i e s t . C h a r a c te r iz a tio n i s r e s t r i c t e d
142
to th e p r o ta g o n is t. T h is ty p e o f s t r u c t u r e i s more c h a ra c
t e r i s t i c o f th e t a l e th a n th e s h o r t s to r y , a c c o rd in g to
E senw ein:
The t a l e i s a ls o a p h o to g rap h , b u t in s te a d o f b ein g
a s in g le s ta tio n a r y p ic tu r e , i t i s a m o v in g -p ic tu re ,
d e lin e a tin g c h a r a c te r by a c h a in o f in c id e n ts w hich
a llo w u s to se e what th e c h a r a c te r s a r e by w hat th e y
do. T rue to th e ty p e o f t a l e , i t does n o t d e a l w ith
c h a r a c te r c r i s i s , b u t m erely r e v e a ls c h a r a c te r in a
s e r ie s o f illu m in a tin g d eed s.
W hile th e S panish t e r n cu e n to u s u a lly i s eq u ated w ith s h o rt
s to r y , by d e r iv a tio n i t i s , o f c o u rs e , a t a l e . Be th a t as
i t may, A lta m ira p re s e n ts a p e n e tr a tin g stu d y o f c h a r a c te r .
C h aract e r i z a t io n
A lta m ira chose a s h is s u b je c t a c h a r a c te r - ty p e
o f te n met w ith among th e p e a s a n ts o f h is p a t r i a c h i c a .
The p oor, to s u rv iv e , m ust be f r u g a l. Baquero c i t e s f r u
g a l i t y as a t r a i t commonly a llu d e d to in r u r a l l i t e r a t u r e :
Anadamos a h o ra que en e l e lo g io d e l a v id a r e t i -
ra d a ib a c o n te n id o im p lic ita m e n te e l e lo g io de lo
f r u g a l. . . . 98
A lta m ira a tte m p ts to show how a man, o v e rly p reo ccu p ied by
economic in s e c u r ity , lo s e s h is se n se o f e q u ilib riu m , to
97
Esenw ein, op. c i t . , p . 355.
^^B aquero, o p . c i t . . p . 350.
143
th e d e trim e n t o f h is fam ily and, f i n a l l y , d is a s tr o u s f o r
him a l s o .
The a u th o r p ro v id e s am ple d e s c r ip tio n o f A fan es1
p h y s ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
. . . e r a un h o m b re c illo de menos que m ediana e s ta tu r a ,
n e rv io s o , seco y duro como un r o b le , chupado d e c a ra
y ta n to s ta d o de p i e l , que muy a d u ras penas s e le
p o d ia c l a s i f i c a r de p rim e ra in te n c io n como p e rte n e -
c i e n t e a l a r a z a b la n c a .^ 9
On h is r e tu r n from N orth A fric a , he i s hum orously d e s c rib e d
as a M oroccan re fu g e e :
Cuando v o lv ia de a l i a con su som brero de palm a,
s in a f e i t a r e l r o s tr o , despechugado, a r r a s tr a n d o a lp a r -
g a ta s de to m iza, en l a mano l a nudosa cayada y a tr a v e -
sad a en l a f a j a l a hoz m edio consum ida de ta n to uso,
p a r e c ia un escapado d e la s c a b ila s m arro q u ies, p ro n to
a c a e r de r o d i l l a s en e l polvo b ia n co d e la c a r r e t e r a
p a ra r e z a r su s o ra c io n e s musulmanas v u e lto h a c ia
O r ie n te .100
In l a t e r y e a rs , h i s p h y s ic a l s tr e n g th i s s t i l l u n im p aired :
C u a lq u ie ra o tr o h u b ie ra rauerto a lo s pocos m eses;
p ero e l t£ o A fanes e r a d u ro como una ro c a .
F in a lly , th e y e a rs b e g in to ta k e t h e i r t o l l :
. . . se le p re s e n ta ro n unos d o lo re s d e reuma que le
h a c fa n s u f r i r mucho a lg u n as tem poradas, y lo s ahos l e
en co rv aro n e l cu erp o , cad a d£a mas e n ju to y re q u e -
mado. . . .
^^Cuentos, p. 166.
101Ibid.. p. 177.
100Ibid.. p. 172.
144
A fa n e s’ p e rs o n a l q u a l i t i e s a r e a d m ira b le . He i s
h a rd -w o rk in g , r e s p o n s ib le and f a i r . When th e s e q u a l i t i e s
a r e la c k in g in h is fe llo w w o rk e rs, h e i s t o l e r a n t o f them ,
i f th e re a s o n s a r e j u s t i f i e d :
La f u e r t e s o lid a r id a d y l a in d is p e n s a b le c o n d ic io n
d e h o n rad ez en l a s r e la c io n e s d e l tr a b a jo . . . le l l e v a -
ban a s e r ta n c a r i t a t i v o con lo s que s in c u lp a se
i n u ti liz a b a n , como r ig id o con lo s que m a lic io sa m e n te
e lu d fa n l a c a rg a .
He shows r e s p e c t f o r h is em ployers and s u p e r io r s :
Has su b o rd in ad o re s p e c to d e lo s c a p o ra le s , no lo
hubo nunca, n i mas c e lo s o tam poco d e l m an ten im ien to d e
l a d i s c i p l i n a s o c i a l . ® 4
He i s c o o p e ra tiv e in d e a lin g w ith o th e r s and m o d erate in
food and d r in k :
Jamas se l e v io arm ar p en d e n cia n i e x c e d e rse en l a
b e b id a , que no p ro b ab a mas que a la s h o ra s d e c o m e r . ^-^5
D uring h i s y o u th , h e i s s o c ia b le and good-hum ored:
Cuando te rm in a b a e l tr a b a jo y lle g a b a l a h o ra d e
l a com ida, A fanes d i s t i n g u ia s e tam bien p o r su s c o n o c i-
m ien to s c u l in a r i o s , re c o g id o s en l a epoca je r e z a n a ; y
e n tr e bocado y bocado, s i l e acompanaba e l humor,
e n t r e t e n i a a lo s com paneros con c u e n to s que s a b ia
r e f e r i r con e s p e c ia l g r a c i a . ^ ^
U n fo rtu n a te ly , A fanes p o s s e s s e s one d e f e c t, w hich,
103
Ibid., p. 169.
105Ibid.
104Ibid.
1Q6Ibid.. p. 170.
145
as i t becomes more a c c e n tu a te d , s u b v e rts h is good quali**
t i e s . As a young man, A fanes shows sig n s o f g r e a t t h r i f t ,
w hich, in i t s e l f , i s a v i r t u e :
. . . como ya b ro ta b a n en e l e s p x r itu de n u e s tro mozo
la s sa n as te n d e n c ia s d e l a h o rro , t r a j o s e p a ra c a s a
algunos c u a r te jo s con que p ro v e e r a nuevas carg as
d o m esticas con que ya empezaba a s o n a r .^07
H is p ro p e n s ity to econom ize i s e v id e n t to h i s fe llo w
w o rk ers, who n o tic e :
. . . l a e sc a sa e sp o n tan e id ad que re v e la b a en c o n v id a r
a lo s am igos o en ex c ed e rse con g a s to s s u p e rflu o s d e
ta b e m a y o tr a s d iv e r s io n e s . ^ 8
Upon r e tu r n in g from N orth A fric a , A fanes i s no lo n g e r
m erely econom ical, b u t i s ex c e e d in g ly f r u g a l:
Y su c e d io que con ta n ta p riv a c io n s u f r id a y ta n
d u ra e x p e rie n c ia d e lo que c u e s ta g an ar lo s ochavos
p ara c o n s e g u ir l a a p e te c id a p ro p ied a d , fu e ro n c re c ie n d o
en e l lo s p rim itiv o s i n s t i n t o s d e ah o rro y aum entando
la so b rie d a d y m is e r ia d e l a v id a ; a l p aso que e l an -
tig u o p r in c ip io econom ico de l a n e c e s a r ia c o rre sp o n -
d e n c ia e n tr e e l tr a b a jo y e l d erech o a l a a lim e n ta c io n ,
tomaba en e l c a r a c te r e s d e dogma i n f l e x i b l e , cuyas
co n secu e n cias d o m e stic as lle g a r o n a s e r in s o p o r ta -
b l e s . W
F r u g a lity la p s e s in to o u tr ig h t s tin g in e s s when he d e n ie s
h im s e lf and h is h ard -w o rk in g w ife an a d e q u a te d i e t:
107Ibid.. p. 168.
109Ibid.. p. 172.
108Ibid.. p. 170.
146
D esayunabase, aunque no to d o s lo s d x a s, n i mucho
menos, con una ta z a d e c a fe o d e alg o que lle v a b a e se
nombre. A la s doce tomaba una c e b o lla y un tom ate,
o un pedazo de b o n ito , con m edia l i b r a d e pan y unos
tra g o s d e l v in o de l a t i e r r a . Por la n oche hacxa un
sim u lacro d e comida fo rm a l, con a lg o de a rro z o m a s
sopas de a jo . La c a m e jam as e n tra b a en a q u e lla c a s a ;
lo s huevos que daba e l c o r r a l s e vendxan a lo s p u d ie n -
t e s , y e l pescado s o lo se probaba cuando ib a a p re c io
xnfim o. . ..-^ O
H is s tin g in e s s d e g e n e ra te s in to n ig g a r d lin e s s , as th e p u rse
s tr i n g s a re tig h te n e d f o r even th e b a s ic n e c e s s i t i e s o f
l i f e :
Conviene d e c ir que jamas h iz o Afanes d e c la ra c io n
e x p re sa d e su s p r in c ip io s econom icos; p ero u sab a de un
in g e n io so p ro c ed im ie n to que in f a lib le m e n te daba e l
mismo r e s u lta d o . Siem pre que e n tre g a b a a su m ujer
d in e ro p a ra com pras, h ac£ alo en c a n tid a d ta n ta s a d a
que so lo podxa s e r v i r p a ra la s n e c e sid a d e s de una p e r
so n a.
The u ltim a te and in e v ita b le consequence o f A fan es1 o b se s
s io n i s m is e r lin e s s . A lthough h e i s now advanced in y e a rs
and f in a n c i a l l y w e ll s i t u a t e d , he begrudges b o th h im s e lf
and h is fam ily a d ec en t e x is te n c e , p r e f e r r in g , in s te a d , to
f i l l h is c o f f e r . In so d o in g , he f i l l s b o th c o f f e r and
c o f f in :
De s is te m a a lim e n tic io no cam bio, p o r mas que l a
v e je z p id i e r a m ejores c u id a d o s. P a re c fa mas b ie n que
se l e aum entaba l a so b rie d a d de dxa en dxa.
•^•^Ibid.. p. 174. 11:LIbid.. p. 176.
147
C ie r ta n oche lo h a lla r o n rauerto ju n to a l m elo-
n a r . . . En e l a re a , e n c o n tra ro n le un s a q u ito con onzas
y d u r o s .
E l m u e rte c ito
113
E l m u e rte c ito i s re m in is c e n t o f th e cu ad ro s de
co stu m b res. a l i t e r a r y form p o p u la r in S pain d u rin g th e
e a r ly n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . A lta m ira d e s c rib e s th e custom s
a tte n d a n t to th e f u n e r a l o f a sm a ll c h ild . A ll c h a ra c te rs
a r e anonymous. E l m u e rte c ito . u n lik e a cu ad ro de costum
b r e s , re c o u n ts a s p e c if ic in c id e n t, i n w hich tim e and p la c e
a r e im p o rta n t c o n d itio n s .
Summary o f th e S to ry
A t t h r e e - t h i r t y in th e m orning, th e c e n t r a l c h a ra c
t e r o f th e s to r y , r e f e r r e d to o n ly as s e n o r ito , i s awakened
by heavy r a i n and g u s ts o f w ind. He rem ains awake, th in k
in g ab o u t th e p o s s ib le damage to th e c o m c ro p . He f i n a l l y
dozes o f f b u t i s reaw akened su d d en ly by loud knocks on
th e o u te r p a tio d o o r below . He h e a rs th e f o o ts te p s o f
112I b id . . pp. 177-178.
^■•^C u en to s„ pp. 195-201.
148
th e m aid, h u rry in g to answ er. S in ce i t i s a lre a d y g e ttin g
l i g h t , he d e c id e s to g e t up.
As h e opens h i s bedroom window, h e n o tic e s a man
in th e c o u r t below and in q u ire s h is b u s in e s s . The man has
come to t e l l him t h a t a c h ild h as d ie d . I t i s , in f a c t ,
th e tw o -y e a r-o ld c h ild o f one o f h is te n a n t fa n n e rs and h is
own g o d c h ild . He had v i s i t e d th e y o u n g ste r, who was s u f
f e r in g from an i n t e s t i n a l i l l n e s s , j u s t th r e e days b e fo re .
A t t h a t tim e, th e c h ild seemed to b e re c o v e rin g .
As g o d fa th e r, he has c e r t a i n o b lig a tio n s w ith r e
s p e c t to th e b u r i a l . At f iv e in th e a fte rn o o n , th e em is
s a ry r e tu r n s to in fo rm th e g o d fa th e r t h a t th e b u r i a l
s e rv ic e s a r e about to b e g in . S in ce t h i s i s h is f i r s t ex
p e rie n c e a t such a ceremony in th e v i l l a g e , he i s uneasy,
a f r a i d t h a t he w i l l ap p ear to o glum in th e p re se n c e o f th e
a lre a d y g rie v in g p a r e n ts , f o r he i s d eep ly moved by th e
y o u n g s te r’ s d e a th .
As h e e n te rs th e com nadre’ s house, a crowd o f women
and c h ild re n o b s tr u c t h is p a s sa g e . The sm a ll house w ith
i t s low c e ili n g s i s u n b ea ra b ly h o t. The m other, s i t t i n g
in a c o rn e r o f th e k itc h e n , weeps u n c o n tro lla b ly , lam en tin g
th e d e a th o f h e r b elo v ed o f f s p r in g . The c h ild , d re sse d in
149
p in k , l i e s in a c a s k e t, w hich has been p la ced on a ta b le .
The g o d fa th e r, h o ld in g back h i s t e a r s , moves to a n o th e r
p a r t o f th e room.
In a few m in u tes, th e p r i e s t and a l t a r boys a r r iv e
f o r th e cerem ony. A fte r a s h o r t p ra y e r i s r e c i te d , th e
c a s k e t, b o rn e by fo u r boys, i s c a r r ie d to th e ch u rch . The
m ourners fo llo w in a long p ro c e s s io n . D uring a second
cerem ony, in th e ch u rch , th e g o d fa th e r co n tem p lates th e
unhappy sc e n e , w ondering how he would r e a c t i f i t were h i s
so n . He i s overcome w ith f e a r ab o u t th e s u f f e r in g and p a in
t h a t th e f u tu r e may h o ld .
F a th e r, g ra n d fa th e r and g o d fa th e r sta n d in th e
doorway, w atching th e c a s k e t b ein g c a r r ie d down th e s t r e e t
to th e cem etery . The sim ple rem ark o f th e c h i l d ’ s r e l a
tiv e s i s : "jS ea en h o rab u en a! ” ” iSea en h o rab u en a!" in d eed ,
th e g o d fa th e r th in k s :
T a l vez a c ie r ta n mas d ic ie n d o eso , que n o s o tro s
llo ra n d o ta n to a n u e s tro s n in o s . ^No es una fo rtu n a
m o rir a n te s d e h ab er conocido la s am arguras de l a
v id a ? La enhorabuena es p a ra e l , que duerme ya e l
sueho e te m o . jAy de lo s que quedan! ■ '- ■ ‘ - 4
114Ibid.. p. 201.
150
S tru c tu re o f th e S to rv
T h is sim p le sto ry o f a c h i l d ’ s fu n e ra l i s to ld in
s ix p a g e s. El m u e rte c ito i s one o f th r e e s t o r i e s in th e
c o l le c tio n , n a r r a te d in th e f i r s t p e rs o n , s in g u la r . In
th is s to r y of mood and cu sto m s, p lo t and c h a r a c te r iz a tio n
a re seco n d ary .
S e ttin g
The i n i t i a l scene o f E l m u e rte c ito i s th e bedroom
o f th e p r in c ip a l c h a r a c te r . S ev eral o f A lta m ira 's s t o r i e s
b eg in i n th is same fa sh io n . The p r o ta g o n is t i s awakened
by a n o is e a t ap p ro x im a te ly th e same tim e o r ca n n o t s le e p
b ecau se o f insom nia:
H acia la s t r e s de l a m adrugada, me d e s p e rto e l
r u id o de l a l l u v i a . . . . 1 5 (E l m u e rte c ito )
A poco d e h aber cen ad o , se a c o s to L uis p a ra g a n a r
h o ra s de su en o ; pero durm io rauy m al, d e s p e rta n d o se a
menudo s o b re s a lta d o y te m e r o s o ... A la s t r e s y m edia
re so n a ro n g o lp e s en l a v e n ta n a , y L uis d e s p e rto b ru s c a -
m ente. ( En la s i e r r a )
A la s t r e s de la m anana, aun e s ta b a d e s p ie r ta M aria
P e p a .-^ 7 (E l T erruno)
115Ibid.. p. 195.
117Ibid.. p. 31.
116Ibid.. p. 89.
151
A s im ila r sc en e ap p e ars in R eposo, e a r ly in th e n o v e l,
d u rin g J u a n 's f i r s t n ig h t a t Ronesa. The p o s itio n o f th e
moon e s ta b lis h e s th e tim e as ap p ro x im ately th a t o f th e
afo rem en tio n ed sc en es:
A lo s pocos m inutos d e re p o s a r l a cab eza en la s
alraohadas, se durm io; pero aq u el sueno fu e muy b re v e .
Por un r e s to de e x c ita c io n , d e s p e rto b ruscam ente a l a
m edia h o ra . A brio lo s o jo s , asom brado. El re c ta n g u lo
de l a v e n ta n a a p a re c fa ilum inado p o r una lu z am ari-
l l e n t a y d e b i l. Levanto l a cab eza y pudo v e r , a l t r a -
ves d e l a c o r tin a y so b re lo s a rb o le s mas a l to s d e l
ja rd £ n , que se d e sta c a b a n ah o ra so b re un fondo lum i-
noso, l a hoz d e n te lla d a d e l a lu n a m enguante, que
p a re c ra proximo a e x t i n g u i r s e . ( Reposo. C h ap ter IV)
A lta m ira f re q u e n tly u ses t h i s d e v ic e as an o c c a sio n f o r th e
p r o ta g o n is t to r e f l e c t on h is problem s. In each in s ta n c e ,
t h e bedroom window fig u re s im p o rta n tly in th e scen e, a llo w -
in g th e l i g h t , sounds o r fra g ra n c e s o f n a tu re to p e n e tr a te
th e room. The f re q u e n t u se o f t h i s s e t t i n g su g g e sts th a t
A lta m ira may h im s e lf have had a l i k e e x p e rie n c e , im p re ssiv e
enough to b e re c o rd e d r e p e a te d ly in h is w ritin g s .
The e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e a p p ro p ria te mood i s im por
t a n t to a s to r y such as El m u e r te c ito . A lta m ira s e t s th e
to n e a t th e o u ts e t:
A in te r v a lo s , e l agua a r r e c ia b a con f u e r te s g g lp e s
de v ie n to que mov£an fu rio sa m e n te lo s a rb o le s . . .
• * - ^Reposo. p. 26. ^^Cuentos. p. 195.
152
This mood i s c o n s is te n tly m a in ta in e d th ro u g h o u t th e s to r y .
The sto rm fo reb o d es no good. The p r o ta g o n is t i s p r e
occupied about h i s h a r v e s t o f c o rn :
En se g u id a me v in o a l a memoria e l ma£z que te n f a -
mos p la n ta d o en e l h u e rto , muy c re c id o , p ero poco
ro b u s to . "Van a tro n c h a rs e muchas c a n a s ," —d i i e p a ra
m£.120
The d e s tr u c tio n o f h is c ro p i s p erh ap s a p o r te n t o f th e
tra g e d y about w hich he i s to h e a r:
--V en£a a d e c i r l e que e l c h ic o se h a m u e rto .X ^ X
The r a i n has sto p p e d , b u t th e sky rem ains o v e rc a s t and th e
a i r i s damp:
No llo v £ a , en e f e c to ; p ero aun e s ta b a muy n u b lad o ,
y c o rr£ a un v i e n t e c i l l o humedo. ...*-22
The o n ly c o l o r f u l n o te in th e d ism a l p ic tu r e i s th e dead
c h ild * s d r e s s :
. . . y p o r un momento tu v e l a ilu s io n de que, acabado
e l c a n to , e l n in o ib a a le v a n ta r s e , a c o r r e r p o r la
i g l e s i a con su v e s t i d i t o c o lo r de r o s a , que l e daba
un a i r e d e f i e s t a , a p e s a r d e todo.-**23
The c o lo r o f th e d r e s s , u n d o u b ted ly , sym bolizes th e
f a t h e r 's f e e lin g about th e c h i l d 's d e a th :
120I b i d . X21I b id . . p. 196.
122Ibid. 123Ibid., p. 200.
153
— iSea e n h o ra b u e n a !--ib a n d ic ie n d o lo s hom bres,
f u e r te s en l a c re e n c ia d e que lo s n in o s m uertos son
un a n g e l mas en e l c i e l o y tin e s c a lo n p a ra l a g lo r ia
d e sus p a d r e s .1-24
E l m u e rte c ito * s d i s t in c t iv e n e s s owes to i t s d e p ic
tio n o f n a tiv e cu sto m s. A lta m ira d e s c r ib e s in c o n s id e ra b le
d e t a i l th e f o r m a litie s in v o lv e d in th e b u r ia l o f a sm all
c h ild . As th e a u th o r s t a t e s in th e p ro lo g u e, many o f th e s e
t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c tic e s a re d is a p p e a rin g ; he u ses El m u e rte
c i t o as a v e h ic le to re c o rd some o f them .
The g o d fa th e r o f th e s to r y , a p p a re n tly u n fa m ilia r
w ith lo c a l p ro c e d u re , i s rem inded t h a t i t i s th e p a d rin o f s
o b lig a tio n to p ro v id e th e shroud f o r th e d eceased :
costum ^r e es 3ue l ° s p a d rin o s hagan l a m or-
t a j a .
S in ce he i s ex p ected to be p re s e n t a t th e f u n e r a l cerem ony,
h e h u r r ie s to th e house o f th e b ereav ed p a r e n ts . The dead
c h ild has been p ro v id ed w ith th e b e s t th e fam ily can
a f f o r d :
E l m u e rte c ito , co lo cad o d e n tro d e l a ta u d fo rra d o
de t e l a a z u l, y a c ia so b re una m esa c u b ie r ta con am p lia
sab an a euya p u n t i l l a , ancha y lu jo s a , b a r r i a e l
s u e lo . * -2°
l24Ibid.
126Ibid.. p. 198.
125Ibid., p. 197.
154
A c u rio u s custom i s n o te d as th e g o d fa th e r o b serv es th e men
in a tte n d a n c e :
Some p eo p le approach th e c a s k e t and k is s th e dead c h i ld .
The g o d fa th e r h e s i t a t e s to do so , b u t he does perform
a n o th e r custom ary a c t:
No me a t r e v i a b e s a r lo , p ero lo b e n d ije , como es
uso en lo s padrinos. . . . ^-28
A fte r th e r e lig i o u s ceremony a t th e house, a f i n a l custom
i s o b serv ed :
L lego e l c u ra con lo s m o n ag u illo s y c a n to e l r e s -
ponso, ro c ia n d o e l atau d con agua b e n d ita . Solo
en to n ces se q u ita ro n e l som brero lo s hom bres. -^9
What i s m ost im p re s siv e , p e rh a p s, i s th e s e r e n ity o f th e
o n lo o k e rs. Except f o r th e m other, a l l ap p ear calm in s p i t e
o f th e t r a g ic c irc u m s ta n c e s :
A rrim ado a l a p a re d , s in h a b la r n ad a, e s p e re , l a
m irad a f i j a en e l su e lo , m a ra v illa d o de l a se re n id a d
que to d o s, exceptuando la m adre, te n la n en aq u el
tr a n c e d o lo ro so . ^ 0
A su lad o e s ta b a e l p a d re , de p ie , con e l som brero
p u e s to , como to d o s lo s hom bres. 2 '
128I b id . . p . 199.
m ate
131
In P a is a ie , A lta m ira p re s e n ts s t i l l a n o th e r ty p e
o f s h o r t s to r y . The s to r y i s a p tly t i t l e d , f o r in i t th e
a u th o r d e s c r ib e s , alm o st to th e e x c lu s io n o f o th e r s t r u c
t u r a l elem en ts, th e v a rie g a te d a s p e c ts o f th e A lic a n tin e
lan d sca p e d u rin g th e c o u rs e o f a day and th e moods w hich
th e s e scenes evoke in th e main c h a r a c te r . Esenwein c l a s s i
f i e s t h i s ty p e o f s to r y as im p r e s s io n is tic , e x p la in in g
th a t:
Im pressionism i s c o n sc io u s a r t , a r t p rep en se,
and . . . s u b o rd in a te s e v e ry th in g to to n a l e f f e c t ;
in o th e r w ords, th e im p r e s s io n is tic s to r y sym bolizes
in human a c tio n some human mood o r c o n d itio n .-^2
Summary o f th e S to ry
The p r in c ip a l c h a r a c te r , ad d ressed only a s s e h o r ito .
h is c o u s in Leopoldo and M anuel, th e c a r e ta k e r o f th e farm ,
have j u s t re tu rn e d from an u n s u c c e s s fu l h u n tin g t r i p .
Heavy r a in s h av e fo rc e d them to abandon th e h u n t. A warm
f i r e and a bow l o f h o t soup e n liv e n th e s p i r i t o f a l l b u t
•^Cuentos, pp. 241-249.
132
Esenwein, op. cit., p. 297.
156
th e s e h o r i t o . He i s d e p re sse d by th e c o n tin u in g r a i n , th e
g ray sky and th e muddied ap p earan ce o f th e n earb y s e a .
A fte r a w h ile , he becomes r e s t l e s s and le a v e s th e h o u se a
number o f tim es to see w h eth er th e r a i n h as su b sid e d . When
th e r a in f i n a l l y en d s, he rem ains o u t-o f-d o o rs to view th e
la n d sc a p e . He is im pressed by th e fre s h n e s s and sharpened
o u tlin e s o f th e c o l o r f u l la n d sc a p e fo llo w in g th e r a i n .
As th e sun b re a k s th ro u g h th e c lo u d s, a wagon i s
h e a rd ap p ro ach in g th e farm . I t i s M anuel’ s w ife , Rosa, and
t h e i r two so n s, who a r e r e tu r n in g from a d i s t a n t c o r n f ie ld .
The woman, drenched by th e r a i n , i s em barrassed by h e r
u n tid y ap p earan ce, b u t M anuel rem inds h e r t h a t th e s e h o rito
h as seen h e r b e fo re in b e t t e r c irc u m s ta n c e s --in h e r Sunday
b e s t.
The fa m ily o f th e c a r e ta k e r , Leopoldo and th e
s e h o r ito . to g e th e r , unload th e wagon o f c o rn . The l a t t e r
su g g e sts a c o m r o a s t in th e open a i r . As Rosa i s p r e
p a rin g th e e a rs o f c o m , th e men b u ild a b o n f ir e . In a
s h o r t tim e, th e group i s e n jo y in g th e t a s t y r e p a s t. The
in e v ita b le ju g o f w ine i s b ro u g h t o u t, and soon, o n ly th e
d u lc e t and p le a s a n t to n es o f th e r e g io n a l d i a l e c t can be
h e a rd . The s e h o rito tu r n s away to o b serv e th e moon as
157
i t ap p ears o v er th e calm w a te rs o f th e s e a . As h e view s
t h i s im p re ssiv e scen e and h e a rs b eh in d him th e c h e e ry ,
e n th u s ia s tic v o ic e s o f Leopoldo and th e o th e rs , he f e e l s
a t peace in th e te r r u n o . Only th e r e can th e s p i r i t be
renew ed.
S tru c tu r e o f th e S to ry
A lta m ira d iv id e s th e n in e -p a g e s to r y , w hich i s n a r
r a te d in th e f i r s t p e rso n , s in g u la r , in to th r e e p a r t s .
P a r t I d e a ls w ith th e r e tu r n o f th e h u n te rs to th e farm ,
th e d e p re sse d mood o f th e p r in c ip a l c h a r a c te r and th e
r a l l y i n g o f h is s p i r i t when th e w eath er c l e a r s . In P a rt I I ,
th e s to r y i s e n liv e n e d by th e a r r i v a l o f Rosa and th e c h i l
d re n , th e common ta s k o f u n lo a d in g th e wagon and p re p a ra
tio n s f o r th e o u td o o r m eal. In P a r t I I I , th e group, a f t e r
a m eal o f r o a s t c o m and w ine, s i t around th e f i r e , e x
changing jo k e s and s t o r i e s . The anim ated c o n v e rs a tio n
c o n tin u e s u n t i l l a t e in th e ev en in g . The d ia lo g u e , w hich
o cc u rs o n ly in P a rt I I , i s sim p le and b r i e f , b u t ad eq u ate
f o r t h i s ty p e o f s to r y , in w hich p lo t i s a m inor elem ent
and th e a c tio n i s m inim al. These a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
th e im p r e s s io n is tic s to r y , a c c o rd in g to Esenw ein:
158
The n a t u r a l tendency f o r th e im p r e s s io n is tic w r ite r
i s to s u b o rd in a te in c id e n t and p lo t to to n e —in a word,
t o em phasize a p ic tu r e , w hether i n te r n a l o r e x te r n a l,
r a th e r th a n a s e t o f h ap p en in g s, w hich in d e a lin g w ith
f i c t i o n we c a l l a c t i o n . 33
C h a ra c te riz a tio n , i f i t may b e so c a lle d , i s r e s t r i c t e d to
th e r e la tio n s h ip betw een th e m ain c h a ra c te r and h is e n
v iro n m en t. S e ttin g i s th e predom inant p a r t o f th e s t r u c
tu r e .
S e ttin g
In a s e r ie s o f v a r ic o lo re d , s h i f t i n g sc e n es, A lta
m ira d e p ic ts th e p ic tu re s q u e A lic a n tin e la n d sc a p e under
v a ry in g atm o sp h eric c o n d itio n s .
I t i s r a in in g as th e sto ry , opens. The p e r s i s t e n t
r a i n , a t lo n g l a s t , ends. The c o u n try s id e comes a l i v e , i t s
c o lo rs v ib r a n t and s h a rp ly d e fin e d :
El campo p a r e c ia r e v i v i r . Los c o lo re s d e lo s a rb o
le s y d e la s f l o r e s , e l dorado de lo s r a s t r o j o s , e l
v e rd e de l a grama que c u b r ia Pa££g de 3 -a v e c in a e r a ,
todo lu c £ a con nuevo e s p le n d o r.
The sun ap p e a rs th ro u g h th e c lo u d s and n a tu re i s a t once
g a ily re s p le n d e n t:
1 ^
Esenwein, op. c i t . . p. 296.
^^^C u en to s, p . 242•
159
De p ro n to s a l i o e l s o l, y su s ray o s h ic ie r o n b r i -
l l a r en l a raontana, con m il d e s te ll o s p la te a d o s , la s
f u e n t e c i l l a s , lo s h i l i l l o s de agua que b ro ta b a n y
c o rrfa n aun p o r to d a s p a r te s , u ltim o v e s t i g i o de l a
l l u v i a , que a le g ra b a asx e l fondo g r i s az u lad o d e l a
s i e r r a . 133
At s u n s e t, as th e s o f t se a b re e z e s move in , a c o o l l i g h t i s
c a s t o v er th e la n d , and th e c o u n try s id e i s g ra d u a lly en
v elo p ed in an a u ra o f s il e n c e and re p o se :
El s o l e s ta b a c e rc a d e l o caso , y a poco lo c u b rio
p o r com pleto l a nube. La lu z s e h iz o nuevam ente f r i a ,
y e l re p o so , e l s il e n c io d e l campo p a re c io au m en tarse.
E l mar e n tra b a en calm a, y apenas s i de vez en cuando
lle g a b a d e e l un g o lp e de v ie n to fre s c o y su av e. 3°
I t i s a lre a d y g e t tin g d a rk when th e b o n f ire i s lig h te d .
I t s flam es g iv e a re d d is h c o lo r a tio n to th e su rro u n d in g
o b j e c t s :
Iba c e rra n d o l a noche mas p ro n to que o tr a s v e c e s,
p o r c u b r ir e l nublado g ran p a r te d e l c i e l o ; y en la s
somibras, ca d a vez m ayores, tomaba fu e rz a e l re s p la n d o r
d e l fuego, r e f le ja n d o s e en lo s ch a rc o s d e l a l l u v i a y
enviando c o lo ra c io n e s r o j iz a s a lo s o b je to s p r o x i-
mos. 3 ^
Even th e d a rk n e ss o f n ig h t i s d is p e lle d as th e moon r i s e s
above th e clo u d s and b a th e s th e c o u n try s id e in b r i l l i a n t
l i g h t :
135Ibid., p. 243.
137Ibid.. p. 247.
136Ibid., pp. 243-244.
160
De p ro n to d ib u jo s e e n t r e l a b a r r a n e g ra de nubes
una lu z vaga, in d e c is a , d e tono r o jo , que p a re c fa una
ilu s io n 7 no alum braba n ad a la s t i n i e b l a s . Poco a
poco fu e aum entando, 7 un suave ru b o r encendio la s
aguas. A m edida que aum entaba e l c o lo r r o jo , ib a s u -
b ien d o , su b ien d o , h a s ta q u e por encim a d e l n u blado, en
un e s p a c io l i b r e , apunto u n a c la r ld a d b la n e a que em-
p a lld e c io la s e s t r e l l a s p ro x iraas. A1 cabo m o stro se la
lu n a, b r l l l o con fu e rz a , 7 e l h o rlz o n te 7 l a bah£a se
h ic ie r o n lu m in o so s.
The te c h n iq u e o f p re s e n tin g th e A lic a n tin e la n d
scape in a s u c c e s s io n o f d i f f e r e n t l 7 “illu m in a te d ta b le a u x
g iv e s an alm o st t h e a t r i c a l e f f e c t to th e work. The
a u th o r 's p u rp o se, how ever, i s more th a n a e s t h e ti c . In
alm ost e v e r 7 scene, A lta m ira p o r tr a 7 S l i g h t as overcom ing
d a rk n ess, STmbolic o f l i f e a r i s i n g anew from th e shadows
o f d e s p a ir:
£ 1 alma de mi ra z a c re c x a d e n tro de m£, 7 como s i
b u sc a ra alg o , m ire afan o so a l h o riz o n te d e l mar,
o b scu ro , negro en a q u e l i n s t a n t e como e l p re s e n te d e
mi t i e r r a , p ero d e C U 7 0 sen o profundo su rg en de tiem po
en tiem p o , nuevo re s p la n d o r 7 nueva v i d a .
The mood o f th e m ain c h a r a c te r changes w ith th e
v a r 7 ing a s p e c ts o f th e la n d sc a p e . He f a l l s in to a deep
m elanchol7 a s th e r a i n c o n tin u e s :
Yo c a i en honda m e la n c o lia . . . lo que me e n t r i s t e -
c£a e r a e l n u b lad o , l a f a l t a de lu z , e l c i e l o g r i s , e l
mar d e c o lo r s u c io , in d e fin id o .
138Ibid,, p. 249.
140Ibid.. p. 242.
139Ibid.. pp. 248-249.
161
The ap p earan ce o f th e sun, a f t e r th e r a in , u p l i f t s h is
s p i r i t . The absence o f th e sun d is h e a r te n s th e p eo p le o f
th e L evante:
El s o l es p a ra n o s o tro s , lo s de L evante, l a v id a
e n te ra , y en cu an tg nos f a l t a , nos achicam os, nos
e n tris te c e m o s . . . . *4 - * -
At dusk, a se re n e calm s e t t l e s over th e la n d sca p e, com
m u n icatin g i t s e l f to th e o n lo o k er:
persona^ 6n sueno mj. ^ui.i^ jua• • • •
At d a y ’ s end, as he p e e rs i n t e n t l y in to th e d ark n ess tow ard
th e se a , a b r i l l i a n t moon ap p ears o v e r th e h o riz o n . He i s
c o n te n t in th e knowledge t h a t from th e penumbra o f d e s p a ir ,
a re s p le n d e n t new l i f e w ill emerge f o r th e te rru n o and i t s
p e o p le .
ev id en ce o f A lta m ira ’s com petence in h a n d lin g th e s h o rt
n a r r a ti v e . They exem plify th e G en eratio n o f 1898’ s d i s
re g a rd f o r t r a d i t i o n a l s h o r t s to ry form , m inim izing as th e y
do, p lo t and o fte n c h a r a c te r iz a tio n . The r e c u r r e n t them es
o f re p o se , th e i r r i g a t i o n problem and th e im poverished
Me s e n tf dominado p o r la s c o s a s , y mi m e lan c o lfa
tro c o s e en d u lc e
The s h o rt s t o r i e s d is c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p te r g iv e
142Ibid., p. 244.
162
c o n d itio n o f th e p e a sa n t a t t e s t to A lta m ir a 's a b id in g
i n t e r e s t in n a tio n a l problem s; h is em phasis on p a is a ie .
lo v e f o r th e p a t r i a c h ic a and d e p ic tio n o f th e custom s and
t r a d i t i o n s o f th e p eo p le lin k s him w ith th e o th e r men o f
1898. The d e s c r ip tio n o f lan d sca p e and p e o p le in th e
s t o r i e s d is p la y s A lta m ira 's im p re ssiv e command o f lan g u ag e
and a s t y l i s t i c q u a l ity and a r t i s t r y o f h ig h o rd e r.
CHAPTER VI
THE ESSAY
The e ssa y i s a l i t e r a r y form w hich, alo n g w ith th e
n o v el and s h o r t s to r y , a tta in e d g r e a t p o p u la rity in th e
n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . A p r e c is e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e g e n re i s
d i f f i c u l t s in c e th e term e ssay h as been a p p lie d to a w ide
v a r ie ty o f w r itin g , c o v e rin g th e b ro a d e s t ran g e o f them es.
I t p o s s e s s e s no d i s t i n c t i v e s t r u c t u r a l p a tte r n , as do th e
n o v el and th e s h o r t s to r y . R. D. O 'L eary, who h as w r itte n
a com prehensive c r i t i c a l stu d y on th e s u b je c t, o f f e r s a
c o n v e n ie n tly b r i e f d e f i n i t i o n , d e s c r ib in g th e e ssa y a s :
. . . a s h o r t p ie c e o f p ro s e , a g re e a b ly w r i tte n , and
c o n ta in in g more o r le s s o f comment and r e f l e c t i o n .
L ik e th e s h o r t s to r y , i t s o n ly li m i ta t i o n a p p e ars to be
t h a t o f b r e v ity . The e ssa y , how ever, a p p e a ls to a more
r e s t r i c t e d , o r, a t l e a s t , a d i f f e r e n t , au d ie n ce th a n t h a t
*R. D. O 'L eary, The E ssay (New York, 1928), p . 29*
163
164
o f th e s h o r t s to r y :
The s h o r t s to r y c e r t a in l y a p p e a ls to a w id er ran g e
o f t a s t e th a n does th e e s s a y . . . . The a p p e a l o f th e
e s sa y , i f n o t e x c lu s iv e ly to re a d e rs o f c o n s id e ra b le
c u l t i v a t i o n and r a t h e r c r i t i c a l t a s t e , i s v e ry n e a rly
so .
0*L eary view s th e e ssay as a p ro se ty p e w hich seek s to
e n t e r ta in :
A f u r t h e r and v ery im p o rta n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f i t
i s t h a t i t has f o r i t s obvious p rim ary p u rp o se, n o t
th e i n s t r u c t i o n o f th e r e a d e r, b u t h is amusement, o r
a t l e a s t h i s e n te r ta in m e n t.3
A lthough t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c can be a p p lie d to a v a s t num
b e r o f e s s a y s , i t i s , by no means, a u n iv e r s a l c h a r a c te r
i s t i c . The g e n re , ac c o rd in g to a n o th e r d e f i n i t i o n , i s
h ig h ly f l e x i b l e ; i t s p u rp o se, to p ersu ad e th e re a d e r:
The e ssa y i s th e m ost f l e x i b l e and in c lu s iv e o f
l i t e r a r y form s. I t can b e d e s c rib e d a s any r e l a t i v e l y
b r i e f co m p o sitio n in p ro se w hich u n d e rta k e s to d is c u s s
a p o in t, o r to p ersu ad e us to a c c e p t a th e s i s , on any
s u b je c t w h a ts o e v e r.^
The a r t i c l e , th e t r e a t i s e and th e sk e tc h resem b le th e
e s s a y . W hile a l l a r e , l i k e th e e ssa y , b r i e f p ro se form s,
th e y d i f f e r from i t in t h e i r tre a tm e n t o f th e to p ic d i s
c u s se d . The a r t i c l e d e a ls w ith a s u b je c t in a s p e c if i c ,
2Ibid.. p. 31. 3Ibid.. p. 23.
S i. H. Abrams, A G lo ssa ry o f L ite r a r y Terms (New
York, 1958), pp. 32-33.
165
r a t h e r than a g e n e ra l way; th e t r e a t i s e i s e x c lu s iv e ly
d i d a c t i c ; and th e sk e tc h , a s a r u l e , does n o t c o n ta in th e
e x p l i c i t l y - s t a t e d p e rso n a l o b s e rv a tio n s o f th e a u th o r,
w hich a r e found i n th e e s s a y .
The f a t h e r o f th e essay and, in f a c t , th e o r i g i
n a to r o f th e te rm was M ich el de M ontaigne, who liv e d in th e
s ix te e n th c e n tu ry . M ontaigne used th e word e s s a i to i n d i
c a te an attem p t a t e x p la in in g , in p ro b a to ry and random
fa s h io n , h is v iew s on a v a r i e t y o f s u b je c ts . His m anner
i s h ig h ly p e rs o n a l and i n tr o s p e c ti v e , as th e a u th o r, him
s e l f , makes c l e a r in h is e ssa y De l a p raesu m n tio n :
Le monde re g a rd e to u s jo u rs v is a v i s ; moy, j e
r e p l i e ma v e u e au d ed a n s, j e l a p la n te , j e 1 'amuse la .
Chacun re g a rd e d ev an t soy; moy, j e re g a rd e dedans moy:
j e n 'a y a f f a i r e qu’a moy, j e me c o n s id e re sans c e s s e ,
j e me c o n tr e r o lle , j e me g o u s te . Les a u tr e s v o n t
to u s jo u rs a i l l e u r s , s ' i l s y p e n se n t b ie n ; i l s v o n t
to u s jo u rs a v a n t, . . . moy j e me r o u lle en moy mesme.^
T h is p e rso n a l p o in t of v iew i s one o f th e c h i e f c h a r a c te r
i s t i c s o f what h a s been term ed th e in fo rm a l essa y .
A nother im p o rta n t f ig u re i n th e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e lo p
m ent o f th e e s s a y is th e E n g lish p h ilo s o p h e r, F ra n c is
Bacon, whose e s s a y s ap p eared some tw enty y e a rs a f t e r
^M ichel d e M ontaigne, O euvres co m p letes (B ru s s e ls ,
1962), p . 641.
166
M o n ta ig n e 's . Bacon, in f a c t , borrow ed th e t i t l e o f h i s
book, E ssa y s. from M ontaigne. W hile th e w r itin g s o f b o th
men a r e m o r a l i s ti c , B aco n 's s t y l e d i f f e r s from t h a t o f th e
F ren ch a u th o r :
F o r a s re g a rd s d e t a i l s o f s t y l e , and as re g a rd s
s p i r i t , Bacon i s alw ays fo rm a l, n e v e r e a sy , f a m il ia r ,
in tim a te , p e rso n a l.®
The B aconian ty p e o f e s s a y i s u s u a lly r e f e r r e d to a s th e
fo rm a l e s s a y .
M ontaigne and Bacon d i f f e r in y e t a n o th e r r e s p e c t.
M o n ta ig n e 's w r itin g i s d is c u r s iv e , f r e q u e n tly d r i f t i n g from
th e announced to p ic , w andering from one p o in t to a n o th e r
w ith o u t re g a rd f o r th e r u l e s o f l o g i c a l developm ent.
Bacon, on th e o th e r hand, p r e f e r s a b r i e f and d i r e c t
ap p ro ach to h i s s u b je c t:
Bacon ab h o rs p ad d in g , and d is d a in s to w a ste a w ord;
he o f f e r s us i n f i n i t e r ic h e s i n a l i t t l e p h ra s e ; each
o f th e s e e s sa y s g iv e s in a p ag e o r two th e d i s t i l l e d
s u b tle ty o f a m a s te r mind on a m ajo r is s u e o f l i f e .®
By th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , th e e ssa y had ev o lv ed
i n t o an a r t i s t i c and c a re fu lly -w ro u g h t l i t e r a r y form .
g
O 'L eary , o p. c i t ., p. 135.
7I b i d . . p . 42.
^ i l l D u ran t, The S to rv o f P h ilo so p h y (London,
1 9 2 6 ), p . 124.
167
In England, C h a rles Lamb and R o b ert L ouis S tevenson sta n d
o u t a s exponents o f th e in fo rm a l e s s a y ; T. B. M acaulay and
Thomas De Q uincey, o f th e fo rm al e s s a y . In th e U n ited
S ta te s , R alph Waldo Emerson i s p erh ap s th e b e s t exam ple o f
th e w r ite r s who e x c e lle d in th e e s sa y .
The e ssa y , in S p ain , becomes an im p o rta n t l i t e r a r y
form o n ly a t th e v e ry end o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . A l
though M ariano J o s e de L a r r a 's c r i t i c a l w ritin g s o f th e
e a r ly 1800*s resem b le th e e s sa y in c e r t a i n r e s p e c ts and
s e rv e as an in s p i r a tio n f o r th e e s s a y is ts who su b se q u e n tly
a p p e a r, th e tr u e e ssa y makes i t s ap p e aran c e w ith th e G ener
a tio n o f 1898, a c c o rd in g to d e l Rfo and B en ard ete:
Es p o s ib le que e l fenomeno no se a e x c lu s iv o d e
n u e s tr a epoca, ya que en todo momento hay un la z o
comun—un tema d e l tiem p o —e n t r e la s p reo cu p acio n es
d e l a r t i s t a , d e l p o l i t i c o , d e l hombre de pensam iento,
p ero en l a l i t e r a t u r a contem poranea e sp a n o la s e mues-
t r a con ra sg o s p e c u lia re s que dan a l ensayo una f i -
sionom ia, una v a rie d a d y una im p o rta n c ia que no h ab fa
te n id o a n te s , y unos lx m ite s c ro n o lo g ic o s p re c is o s
cuyo p r in c ip io c o in c id e con l a sa c u d id a d e l 98.
I t i s e a s ily u n d ersto o d why th e e s sa y a p p e aled to th e men
o f 1898. F i r s t o f a l l , i t allow ed them th e w id e st l a t i t u d e
^Angel d e l r£o and M. J . B en ard ete , E l co n cen to
contem poraneo d e Esnafla (Buenos A ire s , 1946), pp. 30-31.
168
in th e c h o ic e o f to p ic s on w hich to expound. Inasmuch as
th e y had som ething to say on a v a r ie t y o f s u b je c ts , th e y
found th e e s sa y an id e a l v e h ic le b ec au se o f i t s b r e v ity and
in f o rm a lity . The s im p lic ity o f form , m oreover, was a t t r a c
t i v e to th e n , s in c e t h i s f e a t u r e was in acco rd w ith t h e i r
g e n e ra l a e s t h e t i c p r i n c i p l e s .
D el Rio and B e m a rd e te p la c e th e S p an ish essa y s o f
th e contem porary p e rio d in to th r e e broad c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s :
th e ensavo p u ro . th e ensayo p o e tic o - d e s c r ip tiv o and th e
ensavo c r £ t i c o - e r u d i t o .^ ^ M ost o f th e e ssa y s w r itte n by
Unamuno, A zorin and B a ro ja a r e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e ensavo
p uro. w hich in c lu d e s th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l, h i s t o r i c a l and
l i t e r a r y ty p e s o f e s s a y . The ensayo p o e tic o - d e s c r ip tiv o
d e a ls w ith la n d sc a p e , p e o p le , c i t i e s and c h a r a c te r ty p es
and i s s im ila r to ro m an tic costum brism o. A zorin i s th e
c h i e f exponent o f t h i s ty p e ; Unamuno c u l t i v a t e s i t to a
l e s s e r e x te n t. The ensayo c r i t i c o - e r u d i t o i s u s u a lly a
more profound stu d y , o f te n b o o k -le n g th in sco p e. T his ty p e
o f e s sa y i s b ased on s c i e n t i f i c in v e s tig a tio n and i s p r i
m a rily th e work o f s c h o la r s . Rey P a s to r, Menendez P id a l
1QIbid., pp. 31-32.
169
and Americo C a stro a re c i t e d as w r i te r s o f th e ensavo
c r i t i c o - e r u d i t o . ^ The d e l Rio and B en ard ete re f e r e n c e to
th e ensavo c r i t i c o as " b o o k -le n g th in scope” would ap p ear
to b e a c o n tr a d ic tio n in term s. A frtn io C outinho, th e
n o te d B r a z ilia n c r i t i c , p o in ts o u t th e co n fu sio n t h a t
e x i s ts w ith re g a rd to th e p r e c is e term in o lo g y in t h i s co n
n e c tio n :
A p a la v r a " e n s a io ” h o je era d ia v a i sendo em pregada
em n o ssa te rm in o lo g ia l i t e r a r i a corao sinSnim o de ” e s tu -
d o ", pepa lo n g a de p e s q u isa , a n a lis e , c o n c lu sa o . A
origem d e s s a d e riv a $ a o s e m tn tic a deve t e r sid o f r a n -
c e s a , p o is e n tr e os e s c r i to r e s fra n e e s e s e l a e c o rre n -
t e . T o d av ia, ao usarm os h o je o t§rmo " e n s a io ” no
s e n tid o de " e stu d o ” lo ngo, d e se n v o lv id o , esquecemos
que a p a la v ra , etm ologicam ente [e tirao lo g ica m en te],
q u e ria d iz e r o c o n tr a r io : e r a uma pequena d ig re s s a o ,
de c a r a t e r p e s s o a l, l i g e i r a , nao c o n c lu d e n te , p o is
apenas te n t a ou e n s a ia , d e s p re te n s io s a , co m en tario
a la c r e e e s p ir itu o s o em t$ m o d e homens, f a to s e c o i -
s a s . F o i e s s e o s e n tid o que lh e im prim iu M ontaigne no
se u faraoso l i v r o d e e n s a io s . E e s s e o s ig n ific a d o que
p o s s u i o tSrm o e n tr e os in g le s e s , que o conservaram
no s e n tid o p r im itiv o . Se tomarmos q u a lq u e r das inum e-
r a s a n to lo g ia s de e n s a io s era lin g u a in g l& sa o que en -
contram os s3o pe$as d e s s a n a tu re z a , ab so lu tam en te
ig u a is as n o ssa s " c rS n ic a s ” . Se, no e n ta n to , exam inar-
mos a a n to lo g ia fra n c e s a de e n s a io s da Kra, verem os que
a i o que a p a re c e como e n s a io s sao e s tu d o s , a m a io ria
de c r x t i c a l i t e r a r i a . Sao e n s a io s c r i t i c o s . ^
11Ibid.
1 f\
A frS nio C outinho, Da C r i t i c a e d a Nova C r i t i c a
(R io d e J a n e ir o , 1957), p . 171.
170
A c a r e f u l stu d y o f c r i t i c i s m on th e e s sa y in d ic a te s
some d isa g reem en t a s to w hat c o n s t i t u t e s a tr u e e s sa y . The
main c o n tro v e rsy re v o lv e s around th e in fo rm a l and th e f o r
mal e s s a y , some c r i t i c s q u e s tio n in g th e in c lu s io n o f th e
l a t t e r a s a l i t e r a r y ty p e . Bruno B erg er, in h i s r e c e n t
c r i t i c a l work on th e e ssa y , i s p e rp le x e d by th e same p ro b
lem, d e v o tin g some s ix te e n p ag e s, a lo n e , to d e fin in g th e
g e n re . He co n clu d es th a t th e modem e s sa y i s e c l e c t i c in
n a tu r e , a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p ro se form in which v a rio u s
p o in ts o f view o f th e a u th o r on some a s p e c t o f l i f e a r e
f e l i c i t o u s l y jo in e d , h i s s t y l e marked by s c i e n t i f i c c l a r i t y
and a r t i s t i c i n t u i t i v e n e s s . B erger*s d e f i n i t i o n , su c
c i n c t l y s ta te d , i s :
The id e a l e s sa y p r e s e n ts , in a r t i s t i c and s t y l i s t i
c a l l y consummate form , th e w r i t e r 's view s on a s u b je c t
i n w hich he i s w e ll v e rs e d and in w hich h i s i n t e l l e c
t u a l , s p i r i t u a l and e t h i c a l p o in ts o f view fin d e q u a l
e x p re s sio n .
13
Bruno B e rg e r, P e r E ssav (B ern, 1964), p . 29:
"V orlM ufig wMre demnach zu fo rm u lie re n : Essav n en n t man
nach a llg e m e in e r tfb e re in k u n ft e in e n i c h t a l lz u um fangreiche
F ro sa , d ie in s t i l i s t i s c h v o lle n d e te r , dem K U n stle risch en
n a h e r A usdrucksform ung r e a l e , g e i s t i g e , s e e lis c h e F ak ten
in an sch ein en d s u b je k tiv e r W eise d a r s t e l l t und in g ro s s e
BezUge o der Zusammehh&nge s t e l l t ; d ie Wahl d es Themas und
d ie Auswahl d e r begrilndenden o d er i l l u s t r i e r e n d e n M otive,
d ie d en E s s a y is te n a l s B e h e rrsc h e r d e s Themas erw eisen ,
v e rb in d e n s ic h m it d e r HiJhe d es g e is tig e n , s e e lis c h e n und
171
In h is stu d y o f th e e s sa y , O’L eary su g g e sts a
method f o r a n a ly z in g th e g e n re . The e ssa y , he s t a t e s , i s
14
"a com plex o f v a rio u s a s p e c ts ” ; h e h e s i t a t e s , a p p a re n tly ,
to u se th e te rm component p a r ts s in c e th e s e a r e n o t alw ays
d i s t i n c t , a n a ly z a b le e n t i t i e s :
When one u se s che term , " a s p e c ts o f a p ie c e o f
l i t e r a t u r e , ” one i s em ploying language t h a t in e v ita b ly
la c k s p e r f e c t p r e c is io n . F o r a s p e c ts c ro s s one a n o th e r
and i n t e r c r o s s , and th e term in o lo g y by w hich we id e n
t i f y them i s more o r le s s s h i f t i n g and u n c e r t a i n . *
The s e v e r a l a s p e c ts o f th e e ssa y , a c co rd in g to O’L eary,
16
a r e : su b sta n c e , s t r u c t u r e , to n e and s t y l e .
The su b sta n c e o f an e s sa y c o n s is ts o f e x p o s ito ry
d is c o u rs e on any to p ic w hich th e a u th o r deems w orthy o f
d is c u s s io n . The ra n g e o f s u b je c ts from w hich h e can choose
i s alm o st w ith o u t l i m i t . N ovelty need n o t b e a c o n s id e r
a tio n , y e t th e s u b sta n c e o f th e e ssa y sh o u ld e x h ib it
17
" f r e s h n e s s ." F in a lly , th e e ssa y sh o u ld c o n ta in am ple
e th is c h e n S tan d p u n k tes zu e in e r (iberzeugenden A ussage, d ie
W isse n sc h a ft und K unst au f e in e d r i t t e gemeinsame Ebene
h e b t. H ierd u rch e n t s t e h t d ie l i t e r a r i s c h e K unstform d es
E ssay s, d ie aus w is s e n s c h a f tlic h e r K la r h e it und kilns t i e r -
is c h e r I n t u i t i o n e in e n B e itra g z u r L eb e n s-E rk en n tn is
l e i s t e t . "
^ O ’L eary, o p . c i t . . p. 82.
15Ibid.. p. 83. 16Ibid.. p. 90.
17Ibid., p. 100.
172
18
b u t n o t e x c e ss iv e i l l u s t r a t i v e m a te r ia l.
S in ce th e e s s a y i s t need fo llo w no fo rm a liz e d p a t
te r n in h is co m p o sitio n , th e s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
th e e s sa y can v a ry g r e a t ly . The p rim ary c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a r e s im p lic ity and n a tu r a ln e s s :
The s t r u c t u r e o f th e e ssa y i s in g e n e ra l an ex ceed
in g ly sim p le and i n a r t i f i c i a l th in g . I t may alm o st b e
s a id t h a t any one who can w r ite c o h e re n tly , and can
make h im s e lf s to p when h e i s c l e a r l y th ro u g h , needs no
f u r t h e r le s s o n s u n d er t h i s h e a d . *
A common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f one ty p e o f e ssa y i s d is c u r s iv e
n e s s , o r ram b lin g from one p o in t to a n o th e r, such as i s
o f te n done in norm al c o n v e rs a tio n . M o n ta ig n e 's e s s a y s , in
g e n e ra l, a r e an exam ple o f t h i s m ethod. I f th e e s s a y is t
who seek s t h i s e f f e c t w anders to o f a r from th e announced
to p ic , th e e ssay may ap p ear in c o h e re n t. The t r a i t o f s t i l l
a n o th e r ty p e o f e ssa y i s l o g ic a l developm ent. The lo g ic ,
how ever, sh o u ld b e as u n o b tru s iv e as p o s s ib le . B aco n 's
e ssa y s d is p la y t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c :
T here i s , in f a c t , in th e m a jo rity o f B acon's
e s s a y s , no su g g e s tio n o f s t r u c t u r e w h atev er, th e e ssa y
as a w hole b e in g c o n s id e re d ; though c o n s id e ra b le p o r
tio n s may ru n a lo n g w ith r i g i d l o g i c a l c o n s e c u tiv e
n e s s . ®
18Ibid., p. 119.
20Ibid.. p. 133.
19Ibid.. p. 125.
173
The e s s a y , c o n s id e re d from s t i l l a n o th e r v ie w p o in t, can b e
d iv id e d in to two g e n e ra l ty p e s ; one, in w hich th e c e n t r a l
id e a i s developed in a sim p le m anner; and th e o th e r, in
w hich th e c e n t r a l id e a i s compound. The l a t t e r ty p e , in
e f f e c t , c o n s is ts o f a s e r i e s o f su b -e ssa y s w hich a r e used
t o e la b o r a te on th e m ain them e. The e ssa y s o f Emerson
ex em p lify t h i s ty p e :
However, th e e ssa y s o f Emerson, w hich i f looked a t
a s w holes seem somewhat random, b ecau se th e y do n o t
have a sim p le c e n t r a l id e a , o r fo llo w any e v id e n t o rd e r
in th e arrangem ent o f p a r t s , and b ecau se a ls o o f c e r
t a i n p e c u l i a r i t i e s in h i s se n te n c e s tr u c t u r e , w i l l y e t
u s u a lly be found on c lo s e ex am in atio n to b e f a i r l y _
a n a ly z a b le i n t o a number o f t o le r a b ly c o h e re n t su b -
e s s a y s , so to speak, each w ith i t s c e n t r a l i d e a .21
Tone i s a ls o an im p o rta n t a s p e c t o f th e e s s a y . The
s e t t i n g o f th e to n e , a c c o rd in g to O’L eary , sh o u ld b e accom
p lis h e d a t th e v e ry b e g in n in g o f th e e s s a y ; th e f a i l u r e o f
th e e s s a y is t to do so d e t r a c t s from th e e ssa y and i s u n f a ir
to th e r e a d e r .22 The to n e o f th e e s sa y sh o u ld be co n
s i s t e n t w ith th e s u b je c t m a tte r and, g e n e ra lly , sh o u ld b e
m a in ta in e d th ro u g h o u t. A la c k o f u n ity o f to n e i s e s p e
c i a l l y n o tic e a b le in th e e ssa y :
21Ibid.. p. 158. 22Ibid.. p. 184.
174
Such u n ity i s o b v io u sly d e s ir a b le in l i t e r a t u r e o f
any ty p e . S t i l l , i t s ab sen ce i s d i s t i n c t l y more
s e rio u s in th e c a s e o f th e essay th a n in t h a t o f am pler
form s, such as th e n o v e l, f o r i t i s more n e a r ly c e r t a i n
to number among i t s re a d e rs v ery few who a r e n o t some
w hat e x a c tin g in t h e i r t a s t e , q u ic k to se e a f a u l t and
to b e i r r i t a t e d by i t , and in d isp o se d to fo rg iv e an
elem e n tary f a u l t . . . . 23
S ty le , th e f i n a l a s p e c t w hich 0*L eary d is c u s s e s ,
f ig u r e s im p o rta n tly in good essay w r itin g . S ty le , o f
c o u rs e , sh o u ld b e f i t th e n a tu r e o f th e s u b je c t d is c u s s e d
and b e c o n s is te n t w ith th e e s s a y is t* s a t t i t u d e tow ard th e
s u b je c t. W hile 0*L eary i s an ad v o c ate o f th e c o n v e rs a
t i o n a l s t y l e in e s sa y w r itin g , he i s c r i t i c a l o f th e u se o f
24
c o llo q u ia lis m s in th e e s sa y . The lan g u ag e o f th e e ssa y ,
in f a c t , sh o u ld b e r e s tr a i n e d ; i t can b e e x p re s s iv e , b u t
n e v e r e x tra v a g a n t o r b o m b astic:
I t i s to b e rem em bered, to o , t h a t elo q u en ce i s by
no means a fre q u e n t f e a tu r e o f th e e s s a y . P la c id ity
r a t h e r th a n g r e a t em o tio n al e x a lta tio n i s th e norm al
mood o f th e e ssa y , p ro d u ct as i t i s o f c o n te m p la tio n
and r e f l e c t i o n . . . .25
In 0*L eary*s o p in io n , th e su c c e ss o f th e e s s a y i s t depends
to a la r g e e x te n t on good s t y l e .
Mr. 0*L eary h as done a yeoman*s jo b in h is a tte m p t
23Ibid.. p. 181.
25Ibid.. p. 149.
24Ibid.. p. 190.
26Ibid.. p. 186.
175
to d e s c r ib e th e n a tu r e o f th e e s s a y and to d eterm in e i t s
m ain c o n s titu e n ts . I f h e , h im s e lf, i s somewhat d is c u r s iv e
and, a t tim e s , in c o n s is te n t, e s p e c ia lly w ith re g a rd to th e
p u rp o se o f th e essay , h e has p ro v id ed a u s e f u l g u id e f o r
d e a lin g w ith an alm o st unw ieldy form o f c r i t i c i s m .
Among th e men o f 1898, M iguel d e Unamuno i s th e
e s s a y i s t p a r e x c e lle n c e . Some c r i t i c s m a in ta in t h a t t h i s
i s th e o n ly p a r t o f h i s w r itin g t h a t i s o u ts ta n d in g . Ramon
Sender s t a t e s th a t Unamuno’s n o v e ls , p o e try and th e a te r
27
have been o v e rra te d . Unamuno’ s e s s a y s , on th e o th e r
h an d , p o s s e s s m e rit:
Donde Unamuno s e a c e rc a mas a l v a lo r que e l mismo
se a t r i b u f a es en e l e n s a y o .2®
Unamuno’ s essa y s a re in fo rm a l, p e rs o n a l and d is c u r s iv e .
A zorfn i s a t h is b e s t in th e ensavo p o e t ic o - d e s c r i p tiv o :
Lo raejor de A zo rln es e l ensayo r a p s o d ic o .29
H is m ajor f a i l i n g as an e s s a y is t i s h is fre q u e n t d is r e g a rd
30
f o r e x a c tn e s s , a c c o rd in g to S en d er. B a r o ja 's e ssa y s a r e
27
Ramon J . S en d er, Los N oventavochos (New York,
1961), p . 10.
28Ibid.. p. 14. 29Ibid.. p. 224.
30Ibid.. p. 225.
176
s h o r t, o f te n b lu n t and I c o n o c la s tic ; h i s m ethod, reminis**
c e n t o f t h a t used in h i s n o v e ls :
Sus ensayos son, en lo fundam ental, id e n tic o s a
su s n o v e la s s in mas d if e r e n c ia que s e r e l a u to r q u ie n
h a b la en lu g a r d e sus p e rs o n a je s . Su form a s u e le s e r
l a d e c o n fe re n c ia o c o n fe s io n y su tono e l d e c o n f i-
d e n c ia d e s h ilv a n a d a . . ..S *
Many o f th e them es d is c u s s e d in th e n o v e ls and s h o r t
s t o r i e s o f th e G e n e ra tio n o f 1898 ap p ear in t h e i r e s s a y s .
R a fa e l A lta m ira was a volum inous w r i t e r o f e s s a y s .
Many o f h is e s sa y s appeared s e p a r a te ly in m agazines and
new spapers, and, l a t e r , w ere assem bled and p u b lis h e d in
book form . He e x p la in s h is re a so n f o r d o in g t h i s in th e
p ro lo g u e to Cosas d e l d £ a :
E l campo d e a c c io n n a t u r a l de un e s c r i t o r m odem o,
e s t a en l a r e v i s t a y en e l d i a r i o — A lgunos a s u n to s
p ie rd e n , s in duda, con e s te modo d e s e r tr a ta d o s , p a r te
d e l r i g o r y d e l a d e te n id a se re n id a d que re q u ie re n .
O tro s, p o r e l c o n tr a r io , ganan en v iv a c id a d y en r e a l -
ism o. A e s t a c l a s e p e rte n e c e n lo s a s u n to s d e l i t e r a -
t u r a y de a r t e : y p o r c r e e r l o a s£ , me d e c id o una vez
mas a r e u n ir en volumen unos c u a n to s d e m is a r t£ c u lo s
y e s tu d io s . 2
In t h i s c o n n e c tio n , d e l r£o and B en ard ete p o in t o u t th e
im petus jo u rn a lis m h as g iv e n to e ssa y w r itin g :
o * 1
Angel del r£o and M. J. Benardete, op. cit..
p. 203.
^ R a f a e l A lta m ira , Cosas d e l d£a (V a le n c ia , 1907),
177
A1 d e s a r r o llo d e l ensayo moderno c o n trib u y e en
mayor m edida q u iz a que n ln g u n a o t r a c o r r ie n te e l g ran
c re c im ie n to d e l p erlo d ism o . . . En r i g o r c a s i to d o s
lo s e s c r i t o r e s que ap a recen en e s ta A n to lo e ia han
r e a liz a d o g ra n p a r te d e su la b o r l i t e r a r i a en l a r e -
v i s t a o en e l p e rio d ic o s in e x c lu ir n i aun a lo s d e
mayor rango como Unamuno y O rteg a y G a s s e t.33
A lta m ira* s Los elem en to s d e l a c i v i l i z a c i o n v d e l c a r a c te r
e s n a n o le s . a lth o u g h i t i s b o o k -le n g th and has th e u s u a l
t e x tu a l arran g em en t, i s , in f a c t , a s e r ie s o f e ssa y s on a
v a r i e t y o f to p ic s , a l l r e la te d to th e g e n e ra l s u b je c t
s ta te d in th e t i t l e . A lta m ira ’ s e ssa y s co v er a ran g e o f
s u b je c ts more e x te n s iv e th an th o s e o f any o f h is contem po
r a r i e s : psychology, h is t o r y , a r t , m usic, so c io lo g y , ed u
c a tio n , law , econom ics, l i t e r a t u r e , and o th e r s .
The e ssa y s c o n ta in e d in A lta m ira ’ s P sic o lo g £ a v
l i t e r a t u r a have been s e le c te d f o r d is c u s s io n s in c e th e y
r e v e a l th e a u th o r ’ s keen i n t e r e s t in l i t e r a t u r e and h i s
35
profound know ledge o f i t s i n t r i n s i c n a tu r e . Of th e
s e v e r a l e ssa y s i n th e book, fo u r have b een chosen f o r
OO
D el Rio and B en ard ete, o p. c i t . . p. 32.
^ R a f a e l A lta m ira , Los elem entos d e l a c i v i l i z a c i o n
v d e l c a r a c te r e so a n o le s (Buenos A ire s , 1956).
35
A co m p lete l i s t o f th e e ssa y s in t h i s book
ap p e ars in th e A ppendix.
178
* 36
a n a l y s is : La d e f in ic io n d e L i te r a t u r a . Los o r i g i n a l e s .
Los i n t e l e c t u a l e s . and La l i t e r a t u r a d e l re n o so . a l l d e a l
in g w ith l i t e r a r y a r t o r c lo s e ly r e l a t e d to p ic s .
T h is i s th e ty p e o f e ssa y w hich O 'L eary c l a s s i f i e s
38
a s a "p ro lo n g ed d e f i n i t i o n o f a te rm ." I t sh o u ld n o t b e
in f e r r e d from th e t i t l e , how ever, t h a t A lta m ira i s co n
cern e d w ith f u rn is h in g a fo rm a l, d ic tio n a r y d e f i n i t i o n o f
l i t e r a t u r e . H is d is c u s s io n d e a ls m ain ly w ith th e v ag u en ess
su rro u n d in g th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f one a s p e c t o f l i t e r a t u r e ,
c u r r e n t a t th e tim e he w ro te h i s e s s a y .
The fo llo w in g summary, as w e ll as su b seq u en t sum
m a rie s o f e s s a y s in t h i s c h a p te r, sh o u ld n o t b e c o n s tru e d
to r e p r e s e n t e i t h e r an e x a c t re p ro d u c tio n o f th e t e x t o r a
m irro rin g o f th e a u t h o r 's s t y l e ; i t s e rv e s m erely to p r e
s e n t th e m ain p o in ts co v ered in th e e s s a y .
^ A lta m ir a c a p i t a l i z e s L i t e r a t u r a in th e t i t l e .
a “7
R a fa e l A lta m ira , P s ic o lo e ia v l i t e r a t u r a .
pp. 123-128.
^O'Leary, op. cit.. p. 212.
Sxnunarv o f th e E ssav
179
One o f th e m ost c o n s e rv a tiv e e n t i t i e s in th e w orld
i s th e w ord. K en 's id e a s change, i n s t i t u t i o n s and custom s
a r e a l t e r e d ; and in th e m id st o f much t h a t i s new, words
and p h ra s e s , w hich have long l o s t t h e i r o r i g in a l im p o rt,
rem ain as th e y w ere. They a r e lik e empty h u sk s, from w hich
th e k e r n e l o f tr u e m eaning h as d is a p p e a re d . T his i s e s p e
c i a l l y e v id e n t in l i t e r a t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y in p o e try , w here
a m u ltitu d e o f p h ra s e s , im ages and co m p ariso n s, in h e r ite d
from th e c l a s s i c a l w r ite r s o f a n t iq u ity , a r e s t i l l u se d .
They no lo n g e r s e rv e th e p u rp o se o f modem p o e try ; n e v e r
t h e le s s , th e y a re tr a n s m itte d from g e n e ra tio n to g e n e r
a tio n , and in a l l lik e lih o o d w i l l p e rd u re .
What i s t r u e o f th e word a p p lie s a ls o to d e f i n i
t i o n s . A d e f i n i t i o n i s soon c o n v e rte d in to a ready-m ade
p h ra se , w hich, n o tw ith s ta n d in g any c la im to o r i g i n a l i t y i t
may h av e, p asses from hand to hand and i s re p e a te d , i n d i f
f e r e n t l y , w ith o u t re g a rd f o r i t s a c tu a l m eaning. Such i s
th e c a s e w ith th e d e f i n i t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e . M ost r e f e r e n c e
books, r e f e r r i n g to l i t e r a t u r e , d e f in e i t , m u ta tis m utan
d i s . as " th e a r t o f e x p re s s in g b e a u ty by means o f th e
w o rd .” I f t h i s fo rm u la w ere fo llo w ed by an a m p lif ic a tio n
180
o f th e m eaning, th e d e f i n i t i o n would be a c c e p ta b le , w ith in
th e l i m i t s o f sem iapproxim ation t o m eaning th a t d e f i n i t i o n s
u s u a lly p ro v id e .
C r i t i c s , when d is c u s s in g a l i t e r a r y work, a r e
u s u a lly concerned w ith th e word b eau ty and go to g r e a t
le n g th s to d e fin e th e term . The v i t a l q u e s tio n , i t seems
to me, i s n o t one o f d e f in in g b e a u ty (w hich i s som ething
t h a t sh o u ld b e s tu d ie d a p a r t s in c e i t em braces much more
th a n j u s t l i t e r a r y a r t ) , b u t r a t h e r th e k in d o f b e a u ty
w hich t h a t a r t e x p re s se s by means o f th e word.
The q u e s tio n w hich I r a i s e sh o u ld seem n a t u r a l to
anyone who h as read n o v e ls , p la y s and p o e try . B eauty, a s
i t h as been ex p re sse d , t r a d i t i o n a l l y , in l i t e r a t u r e , i s
n o th in g more th an r e a l i t y ; e i t h e r t h a t o f th e in n e r w orld
o f th e w r i t e r (th o u g h ts , f e e l in g s ) , o r t h a t o f th e o u te r
w o rld . But th e re im m ediately comes to m ind: And what
ab o u t u g lin e s s ? T h e o r e tic a lly , u g lin e s s as a theme b elo n g s
to th e ro m an tics and form s a p a r t o f t h e i r a e s t h e t i c s .
T here i s , o f c o u rse , th e c l a s s i c a l exam ple o f V ic to r Hugo’ s
Quasimodo, p h y s ic a lly u g ly , y e t m o rally b e a u t i f u l . N ovel
i s t s , p la y w rig h ts and p o e ts a r e c o n tin u a lly d e p ic tin g p e r
sons and th in g s w hich a r e in n o w ise b e a u t i f u l ; d e s p ite
181
th e re c rim in a tio n s o f th e p a r tis a n s o f a r t i s t i c i d e a l i z a
tio n , th e f a c t rem ains t h a t ad m ira b le l i t e r a r y works have
been c r e a te d w hich have t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e u n
p le a s a n t o r th e u g ly .
I have th o u g h t ab o u t t h i s q u e s tio n more th a n once
w h ile re a d in g Los te ie d o r e s by Hauptmann, one o f th e m odem
works w hich b e s t e x e m p lifie s th e o b j e c t i v i t y and im person
a l i t y o f th e a u th o r. What, p o s s ib ly , can b e b e a u tif u l
ab o u t t h a t p ic tu r e o f th e m isery and sa d n ess o f S ile s ia n
w orkers? A ccording to w hat, o r d in a r ily , i s u n d e rsto o d as
b e a u ty , n o th in g . And y e t, th e em otion w hich th e dram a
s t i r s in b o th s p e c ta to r and re a d e r i s o f th e k in d t h a t i s
d e fin e d in th e A e s th e tic s . The same c o u ld b e s a id o f
T o ls to y 's E l p o d er de la s t i n i e b l a s . in w hich N ik ita ’ s
spontaneous c o n fe s s io n o f g u i l t i s h a rd ly a d e m o n stra tio n
o f b e a u ty ; o f many o f Z o la 's n o v e ls ; o f many o f d e M aupas
s a n t 's s t o r i e s , e t c . What i s th e o r ig in o f t h a t em otion?
From w here does th e u n q u e s tio n a b le b e a u ty o f th o s e works
come; on w hat i s i t based? N ot, c e r t a i n l y , from th e
o b je c t, n o r even from form in i t s c l a s s i c a l se n se , b u t
r a th e r from th e e x p re s s iv e power o f th e w orks, from th e
im p ressio n o f l i f e t h a t em anates from them .
182
One can co n clu d e t h a t th e w r i t e r does n o t alw ays
propose to e x p re ss b e a u ty , and t h a t th e a e s t h e t i c e f f e c t
h is w orks pro d u ce, d e r iv e s , a c c o rd in g to th e p a r t i c u l a r
c a s e , from q u ite d i f f e r e n t e le m e n ts: e i t h e r from th e i n
t r i n s i c b e a u ty o f w hat i s e x p re sse d ; o r from th e b e a u ty o f
th e language; o r from w hat Menendez y P elayo c a lle d , sp e a k
in g o f P erez G aldos, f u e r z a : o r, f i n a l l y , from a sympa
t h e t i c re sp o n se w hich has been evoked in th e mind and h e a r t
o f th e re a d e r by w hat h e h as re a d .
T here i s n o th in g n o v e l ab o u t my o b s e rv a tio n s ; an y
one who d e v o te s tim e to re a d in g h a s p ro b ab ly made s im ila r
o b s e rv a tio n s ; and i f th e u n l e t t e r e d —who a ls o s h a re in th e
enjoym ent o f l i t e r a t u r e —do n o t do so , b ecau se th e y la c k
th e c u l tu r e to r e f l e c t upon such m a tte rs , th e y , a t l e a s t ,
f e e l them. What i s m ost s tr a n g e ab o u t th e m a tte r, n o tw ith
s ta n d in g th e a d m itte d ly com plex n a tu r e o f th e phenomenon,
i s th a t o v e rs im p lifie d and vague fo rm u las p e r s i s t , as in
th e c a s e o f th e d e f i n i t i o n to w hich X have j u s t r e f e r r e d .
A n a ly sis o f th e Essav
La d e f in ic io n de L i t e r a t u r a m e ets, w ith o u t q u e s
tio n , th e fundam ental c r i t e r i a o f th e e s s a y . I t i s a s h o r t
183
co m p o sitio n , o f s l i g h t l y few er th a n s ix p a g e s. I t s m ain
them e, b ea u ty , i s one t h a t has been d is c u s s e d a g a in and
a g a in by e s s a y is ts and p h ilo s o p h e rs : Bacon, S pinoza, K ant,
Schopenhauer, Emerson. A lta m ira ad m its t h a t th e r e i s
n o th in g n o v el ab o u t h is o b s e rv a tio n s ; h e t r e a t s o f an o ld
them e, r e l a t i n g i t to th e l i t e r a t u r e o f h is tim e. O r ig i
n a l i t y o f th a n e , in f a c t , i s n o t a re q u ire m e n t o f th e
e s sa y ; th e e s s a y is t need o n ly p r e s e n t some u n fa m ilia r o r
contem porary a s p e c t o f th e s u b je c t, a c c o rd in g to O’L eary:
The good th in g s o f l i t e r a t u r e can n ev e r have to o
much c u rre n c y in th e w o rld ; and i t i s th e liv i n g modern
a u th o r f a r more th a n th e dead a n c ie n t o n e, who can g iv e
cu rre n c y to th e good th in g s t h a t i t i s p erh ap s d e fe n
s i b l e to say a re th e p ro p e rty o f th e r a c e r a t h e r th a tr
any p a r t i c u l a r w r i t e r.™
The s t r u c t u r e o f th e e s sa y i s r e l a t i v e l y sim p le.
A lta m ira d ev elo p s h is t h e s i s in e a sy b u t lo g ic a l fa s h io n .
In h i s d is c u s s io n o f d e f i n i t i o n s , h e moves, in s u c c e s s iv e
p a ra g ra p h s, from th e w ord, to th e p h ra se , to a s p e c if ic
p h ra se , and f i n a l l y to th e c r i t i c s * f a i l u r e to i n t e r p r e t
r i g h t l y a p o r tio n o f t h a t p h ra s e . He th e n p re s e n ts th e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f a d i f f e r e n t o r b ro a d e r in t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e
m eaning, fo llo w in g t h i s w ith s e v e r a l i l l u s t r a t i o n s to
30
O’Leary, on. cit., p. 103.
184
su p p o rt th e new d e f i n i t i o n , and, f i n a l l y , g iv in g , in a
c o n c lu s io n , fo u r ways i n w hich th e b ro a d e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
m a n ife s ts i t s e l f in l i t e r a t u r e .
H is i l l u s t r a t i v e m a te r ia l, d e a lin g m ainly w ith
fo re ig n l i t e r a r y w orks, i s a p t and r e v e a ls A lta m ira 1 s broad
c u l t u r a l background.
The c e n t r a l id e a o f th e e ssa y i s t h a t b ea u ty in
l i t e r a t u r e assum es many form s, o r, a t l e a s t , d e riv e s from
an e x p re s s iv e q u a l ity , o f te n a n t i t h e t i c a l to th e u s u a l co n
c e p t o f b e a u ty . A lthough th e b r e v ity o f th e essay p r e
c lu d e s th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f what O’L eary term s th e compound
c e n t r a l id e a , more t y p i c a l o f th e long e ssa y , A lta m ira
in tro d u c e s a n o th e r id e a , w hich, i f n o t o r ig in a l , i s an
i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e rv a tio n . He s t a t e s t h a t words and p h ra s e s ,
w ith th e p a s s in g o f tim e , o fte n lo s e t h e i r o r i g i n a l mean
in g . He lik e n s them to h ollow s h e l l s . None th e l e s s , one
c o n tin u e s to u se them w ith o u t re g a rd to p r e c is e m eaning.
Amado A lonso, some f i f t y y e a rs l a t e r , d e a ls w ith t h i s same
l i n g u i s t i c q u e s tio n in h i s E stu d io s L in g ttls tic o s . in co n
n e c tio n w ith A m ericanism s.^®
Amado A lonso, E stu d io s L in g tils tic o s (M adrid,
1953), pp. 73-78.
185
The to n e of t h e essay m ight b e s t b e d e s c rib e d as
one o f g o o d -n atu red ad m o n itio n . A lta m ira m a in ta in s th is
to n e th ro u g h o u t th e e s s a y , u s in g e x p re s s io n s l i k e c a s c a ra s
v a c ia s , setn i-ap ro x im acio n , and form ulas sim p lic{ sim as y
v a g a s .
The a u th o r 's s t y l e i s c l e a r , p r e c is e and n e ith e r
in fo rm a l n o r overly fo rm a l, i n keeping w ith th e n a tu r e o f
th e s u b je c t h e d is c u s s e s .
A lta m ira has succeeded in p ro d u cin g a re a d a b le and
i n s t r u c t i v e essay , p a rta k in g o f n e ith e r th e rig o ro u s ly
m e th o d ic a l c h a ra c te r o f th e t r e a t i s e n o r th e im perm anent
q u a l ity o f th e a r t i c l e . His o b s e rv a tio n s on th e s h if tin g
s ig n if ic a n c e o f w ords and p h ra s e s , and h i s comments on an
a s p e c t o f b eau ty in l i t e r a t u r e seldom d e a l t w ith , a re
v a lu a b le .
Los o r i g i n a l e s ^ is p a r t o f a lo n g essay t i t l e d
P sic o lo g £ a l i t e r a r i a . In t h i s s e c tio n o f th e e s s a y , A lta
m ira d e a ls w ith a s u b je c t t h a t has in tr ig u e d w r i t e r s
^Altamira, Psicolog£a v literatura. pp. 27-31.
186
th ro u g h o u t th e c e n tu r ie s , m ost c e r t a i n l y s in c e th e tim e o f
B occaccio: o r i g i n a l i t y . He p o in ts o u t th e m isco n cep tio n
many a u th o rs have re g a rd in g th e term and th e m istak e n way
they a tte m p t to e x h ib it i t in t h e i r w r itin g s .
Summary o f th e E ssav
T here i s th e s to r y o f a w r i te r , now d ecea sed , among
whose v i r t u e s , m odesty, c e r t a i n l y , was n o t co n sp icu o u s.
Upon h e a rin g h i s works p r a is e d by some f r ie n d o r ad m ire r,
he w ould add to t h e i r w ell-know n ex c lam atio n s o f " b e a u ti
f u l ! ” "a d m ira b le !" " c o lo s s a l! " e t c . , h i s own, w hich is s u e d
f o r th from th e in n erm o st w e lls o f h i s s o u l: "And, above
a l l , v e ry new!"
For many p e o p le , in f a c t , th e f i r s t c o n s id e r a tio n
in a r t i s to b e o r i g i n a l . The t r u t h i s t h a t t h i s word,
upon c lo s e s c r u tin y , lo s e s som ething o f th e a b s o lu te v a lu e
t h a t i t commonly i s w ont to h o ld . The r e s u l t o f th e u n to ld
d is c u s s io n s on p la g ia ris m and o r i g i n a l i t y , w hich o fte n have
e n te r ta in e d and even e x c ite d w r i t e r s , h as shown th a t
q u a l ity to b e e x tr a o r d in a r i ly r e l a t i v e , and in i t s p u r e s t
form , m ost r a r e in t h i s w o rld . The stu d y o f co m p arativ e
l i t e r a t u r e co n firm s t h i s p ro p o s itio n , g iv in g ev id en ce o f
187
th e many b o rro w in g s ( i f th e y may be so c a lle d ) w hich th e
g r e a t e s t o f w r i te r s (S h ak esp eare and C e rv a n tes, f o r
exam ple) made from o th e r more hum ble a u th o rs . T here e x i s t s ,
in s h o r t, no human endeavor, e i t h e r in d iv id u a l o r c o l l e c
t i v e , w hich i s n o t th e amalgam o f a m ost com plex s e r ie s o f
in flu e n c e s and e x te r n a l e lem e n ts.
T h is does n o t mean, o f c o u rs e , t h a t a work o f a r t
i s w ith o u t in d iv i d u a lity , t h a t th e a u th o r does n o t endow
h is w r itin g s w ith a q u a l i t y a l l h is own, o r th a t an ab y ss
s e p a r a te s th e tr u e a r t i s t from th e sim p le im ita to r o r
o rd in a ry c o p y is t. The g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r e x te n t to w hich
in d iv i d u a li ty and p e r s o n a lity e n te r in to th e w ork, a
q u a l ity Z o la c a lle d '’tem peram ent," d e term in es th e b a s is o f
th e w r ite r * s p o s itio n in th e h ie ra rc h y o f a r t . The r e a l i t y
w hich th e w r i t e r b e h o ld s i s som etim es overw helm ing. I t
im poses i t s e l f to such an e x te n t t h a t h e i s c a r r ie d alo n g
by i t w ith o u t, o f te n , r e a l i z i n g th e f a c t . In t h i s co n n ec
tio n , F la u b e rt* s maxim, "Hay que m ira r la s c o sa s d u ra n te
la rg o r a to y con a te n c io n s u f ic i e n te , h a s ta d e s c u b r ir en
e l l a s un a s p e c to que n a d ie haya v i s t o , que n a d ie h ay a d e s -
c r i t o a n t e s ," i s e x c e lle n t f o r th o s e who can make such
d is c o v e r ie s ; inasm uch a s " l a o b se rv a c io n e x a c ta , m in u cio sa
188
y d e te n id a no ha hecho a n a d ie , n u n ca, p o e ta n i e s c r i t o r . "
F o r t h i s re a so n , h e m ust c u l t i v a t e h is in d iv i d u a li ty , and,
even more th a n c u l t i v a t e i t , d efen d i t a g a in s t th e i n t r u
s io n o f o t h e r s 1 id e a s , a g a in s t th e d e p re s s in g , common
in flu e n c e o f th e m u ltitu d e , a g a in s t c o n fo rm ity , in g e n e ra l.
But l e t us n o t exceed th e l i m i t s o f common s e n s e .
T here a r e two problem s w ith re g a rd t o o r i g i n a l i t y and p e r
s o n a lity w hich we should n o t o v e rlo o k . One h as to do w ith
th e r a t i o n a l i t y o f s u b je c tiv e p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s , w hich e x
c lu d e s from th e f i e l d o f a r t , e x tra v ag an c e s o f any s o r t ,
though th e s e , a t tim e s, a re d o u b tle s s ly v e ry o r i g i n a l .
The o th e r i s t r u t h . From th e moment a w r i t e r makes o r i g i
n a l i t y th e g o a l o f h is w ork, h e i s l o s t to w hat m a tte rs
m ost in l i f e . He a s s u re d ly w i l l s a c r i f i c e e v e ry th in g to
th e d e s ir e to ap p ear new, to c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o th e s in g u la r
q u a lity o f h is id e a s , h is rem ark s, h is s t y l e . In s te a d o f
c o n c e rn in g h im s e lf w ith th e r e a l i t y o f th in g s , he w i l l
l i s t e n to w hat o th e rs sa y , in o rd e r to say th e o p p o s ite ,
in a d i f f e r e n t way, w h atev er i t m ig h t b e . He w i l l w a it f o r
th e p r o p itio u s moment to e p a te r l e b o u rg e o is w ith some u n
ex p e cted w ittic is m , w hich common p e o p le w i l l b e lie v e i s th e
f r u i t o f th e m ost ad m irab le s p o n ta n e ity . He w i l l s a c r i f i c e
189
s i n c e r i t y in h is a tte m p t to d efen d , n o t what i s tr u e , b u t
w hat he b e lie v e s i s more e y e -c a tc h in g . He w i l l c u l t i v a t e
c le v e r n e s s , p la c in g i t above any o th e r q u a lity o f th e m ind,
and by d i n t o f h is in v e n tiv e n e s s w i l l triu m p h in th e
o p in io n o f many, b u t o fte n d iv o rc in g h im s e lf from th e t r u t h
o f th in g s .
T h is i s , in d eed , a p re s e n t-d a y d an g e r. I t i s one
o f th e form s o f a rriv is m o . o f th e s tr u g g le f o r n o to r ie ty ,
th r e a te n in g th o s e m inds p reo cc u p ied w ith g lo ry , as an end
u n to i t s e l f , o r concerned w ith m a te r ia l g a in a t any c o s t.
In s te a d o f w orking q u ie tly , day by day, p u ttin g t h e i r
h e a r ts co m p letely in to th e ta s k a t hand, in th e knowledge
t h a t su c c e s s w i l l come slo w ly b u t s u r e ly , th e r e a r e many
in d iv id u a ls —and among them n o t a few o f e x c e p tio n a l
a b ility - - w h o b u m t h e i r w ings in th e f i r e o f im p a tie n ce and
v a n ity . F or them, o r i g i n a l i t y i s th e m ost dang ero u s o f
e n tic e m e n ts .
Every tim e I se e a young man o f t a l e n t o b sessed by
t h i s n o tio n , I f e e l l i k e c ry in g o u t: "D eath to o r i g i
n a l i t y ! " T his o u tc ry may seem p a ra d o x ic a l, b u t my re a d e rs
w i l l n o t deny t h a t p arad o x es o f te n c o n ta in g r e a t t r u t h s ,
f o r j u s t a s A lfre d o C alderon i n s i s t e d in h is D iscu rso
c o n tra l a e lo c u e n c ia . I , to o , ca n allow m y se lf th e o r i g i
n a l i t y o f c ry in g o u t a g a in s t th o s e who a r e o r i g i n a l . I t
a l l depends on how we v iew th in g s . Most c e r t a i n l y , th e re
i s " o r i g i n a l i t y " and " o r i g i n a l i t y . "
A n a ly sis o f th e Essav
A lta m ira d is c u s s e s in t h i s essay th e s u b je c t o f
o r i g i n a l i t y , a b a s ic c o n s id e r a tio n in a l l c r e a tiv e w r itin g .
He a tte m p ts to show t h a t o r i g i n a l i t y , in e f f e c t , i s a r e l a
t i v e r a t h e r th an an a b s o lu te q u a l i t y . He a tte m p ts , f u r -
> *
th e r , to d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een o r i g i n a l i t y and w hat m ight
b e term ed e y e -c a tc h in g n o v e lty i n l i t e r a t u r e .
The c e n tr a l id e a o f th e e ssay i s compound, th e
a u th o r, f i r s t , e x p la in in g h is c o n c e p tio n o f o r i g i n a l i t y , in
o rd e r, l a t e r , to d e s c r ib e what i t does n o t c o n s t i t u t e . H is
argum ent, o r th e s i s , i s develo p ed in b o th in s ta n c e s n a tu
r a l l y and lo g ic a l ly . Much o f th e i l l u s t r a t i v e m a te r ia l in
th e e s sa y i s , ag a in , from a f o r e ig n s o u rc e .
The a u th o r h as adopted a to n e o f mock h y p erb o le ,
in te n d e d to r e f l e c t h i s m ild ly c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e tow ard
th o s e who em brace th e f a l s e o r i g i n a l i t y . The to n e i s s e t
by th e u s e o f e x p re s s io n s such a s Y so b re to d o . muv nuevo!.
191
e p a te r l e b o u rg e o is, a rriv is m o . M uera l a o r ig in a lid a d ! .
g r i t a r c o n t r a , e t c .
A lthough th e e ssa y , f o r th e m ost p a r t , i s d e
v elo p ed lo g ic a lly and o b je c tiv e ly , th e p e rs o n a l n o te i s
a c c e n tu a te d and th e s t y l e i s v iv id and le s s m a tte r - o f - f a c t.
T his somewhat more em o tio n a l a t t i t u d e o f A lta m ira 's su g
g e s ts t h a t he m ig h t b e r e a c tin g to c r i t i c i s m d ir e c te d
tow ard h i s own k in d o f w r itin g , o r , m erely , in d ic a te s h is
o b je c tio n to flam boyancy in l i t e r a t u r e .
A lta m ir a 's h y p o th e sis th a t o r i g i n a l i t y i s a r e l a
t i v e q u a lity i s su p p o rted by th e o b s e rv a tio n s o f o th e rs who
have c o n s id e re d th e m a tte r. M ontaigne, f o r in s ta n c e ,
claim s t h a t h is "im a g in a tio n s" a r e w holly h i s , y e t he c a r e
f u l l y adds to h is s ta te m e n t t h a t th e s e have been " f o r t i f i e d
by th e a u th o r ity o f o th e rs and by th e sound exam ples o f th e
a n c ie n t s " :
C e tte c a p a c ite de t r i e r l e v ra y , q u e lle q u 'e l l e
s o i t en raoy, e t c e tt'h u m e u r l i b r e de n 'a s s u b j e c t i r
aisem e n t ma c re a n c e , j e l a d o is p rin c ip a le m e n t a moy:
c a r le s p lu s ferm es im a g in a tio n s que j 'a y e , e t
g e n e r a lle s , s o n t c e l l e s q u i, p a r m an iere d e d i r e ,
n a s q u ire n t avec moy. E lie s s o n t n a t u r e l l e s e t to u te s
m iennes. J e le s p ro d u is is c ru e s e t sim p le s, d 'u n e
p ro d u c tio n h a r d ie e t f o r t e , m ais un peu tr o u b le e t
im p a rfa ic te ; d e p u is j e le s ay e s t a b l i e s e t f o r t i -
f i e e s p a r l 'a u t h o r i t e d 'a u tr u y , e t p a r le s s a in s d i s
c o u rs des a n c ie n s , a u sq u e ls j e me s u is r e c o n tr e co n -
form e en jugem ent: c e u x -la m 'en o n t a s s u re l a p r in s e ,
192
e t m 'en o n t donne l a jo u y ssan ce e t p o sse ssio n p lu s
e n t ie r e . ^
T here e x i s ts th e p o s s i b i l i t y , o f c o u rse , th a t an a u th o r 's
th o u g h ts c o in c id e w ith some e a r l i e r u tte ra n c e ; i t i s n o t
alw ays easy to prove a co n n e c tio n between th e two. I f one
com pares A lta m ira 's co n c ep tio n o f b eau ty w ith th a t e x
p re sse d by Bacon in h is e ssa y , Of B eauty, th e s i m i l a r i t y
o f v iew p o in t i s s t r i k i n g :
In b e a u ty , th a t o f fav o u r i s more th an th a t o f
c o lo u r; and t h a t o f d e c e n t and g ra c io u s m otion more
th a n th a t o f fa v o u r. That i s th e b e s t p a r t o f b eau ty ,
w hich a p ic tu r e can n o t e x p re s s; no n o r th e f i r s t s ig h t
o f l i f e . There i s no e x c e lle n t b eau ty th a t h a th n o t
some stra n g e n e ss in th e p r o p o r t i o n .^ (Bacon)
^De donde v ie n e , en que e s t r i b a l a b e lle z a in d u -
d a b le de e sa s o b ras? No, seguram ente, d e l o b je to , n i
s iq u ie r a de l a form a e n te n d id a a l a m anera c l a s i c a ,
s in o de su poder e x p re siv o . d e l a im presion d e v id a
que de e l l a s emanaT2 * 2* - (A ltam ira)
A s im ila r e x p re ssio n o f t h i s a s p e c t o f b ea u ty can b e found
in E m erson's e ssa y , B eauty, a lth o u g h s ta te d in a somewhat
d i f f e r e n t m anner:
W e lo v e any form s, however u g ly , from w hich g re a t
q u a l i t i e s s h in e . I f command, eloquence, a r t , o r
^Montaigne, op. cit.. pp. 641-642.
^ F r a n c i s Bacon, The Com plete Essays o f F ra n c is
Bacon (New York, 1963), p . 113.
^Altamira, Psicolog£a v literatura. p. 127.
193
in v e n tio n e x i s t in th e m ost deform ed p e rso n , a l l th e
a c c id e n ts t h a t u s u a lly d is p le a s e , p le a s e , and r a i s e
esteem and wonder h i g h e r . ^
A lta m ir a 's c o n tem p o raries, Unamuno and B aro ja, a ls o
d e a l w ith th e s u b je c t o f o r i g i n a l i t y . Unamuno, in h is
u s u a l d is c u r s iv e and h ig h ly p e rs o n a l m anner, d is c u s s e s
o r i g i n a l i t y , in a d d itio n to a v a r ie t y o f o th e r s u b je c ts ,
i n h is e s s a y C onversacion I . In d is c u s s in g b o rro w in g s.
w hich A lta m ira m entions in h i s e s s a y , and answ ering h i s
in te r lo c u to r * s c o n te n tio n t h a t such th in g s a r e l i t e r a r y
p ira c y , Unamuno s t a t e s :
—No, hom bre, no, es d e fe n d e r l a o r i g i n a l i d a d . La
o r ig in a lid a d es e so . No acu h ar moneda, s in o s a b e r
u s a r l a . ^Y q u ie n l e h a d ich o a us te d que no pueda uno
e n te n d e r y u s a r una id e a m ejor que a q u e l a q u ien p r i -
mero se l e o c u rrio ? ^Es que c r e e u s te d que M auser, e l
in v e n to r d e l f u s i l que l l e v a su nombre, s e a q u ien m ejor
lo manej a? Ademas no e s p r e c is o e n te n d e r una id e a como
l a e n tie n d e su p r o g e n ito r . H a sta e l e n te n d e r m al una
c o sa s u e le s e r fu e n te d e g ran d es pensam ientos.^®
Thoughts such a s t h i s a r e strew n th ro u g h o u t Unamuno* s
e s s a y s ; w h ile th e y a r e e n t e r ta in i n g ly p re s e n te d , th e y , a t
tim e s, la c k lo g ic . H is i l l u s t r a t i o n in th e afo rem e n tio n ed
^ R a lp h Waldo Emerson, E ssays and Poems o f Oners on
(New York, 1921), p p . 282-283.
^^M iguel d e Unamuno, S o lilo q u io s v c o n v e rsa c io n e s
(3 rd e d . ; Buenos A ire s , 1947), p . 10.
194
p assag e i s le s s th an a p t; h is com parison i s n o t betw een
in v e n to rs o f g u n s, b u t r a th e r betw een in v e n to r and u s e r.
A nother c r i t i c i s m o f Unamunof s method i s h is c o n s ta n t
p o sin g o f q u e s tio n s w ith o u t a tte m p tin g to p ro v id e ad e q u ate
a n sw e rs:
En l a mayor p a r te de su o b ra Unamuno se li m i t a a
h a c e r p re g u n ta s que no c o n te s ta y o f r e c e r c o sas que
no lle g a a d a r . C asi to d a su o b ra es d iv a g a c io n amena
y en cen d id a y sus ensayos mas am biciosos a lc a n z a n uni**
v e r s a lid a d p o r l a m anera d e e l u d i r lo s g ran d es p ro b le -
mas y no p o r su m anera d e a f r o n t a r l o s . La v erd ad es
que eso s problem as d e lo a b s o lu to nunca se re s o lv e ra n
s in o en form a de nuevas in te rr o g a c io n e s , p ero en lo s
demas p ian o s d e l p e n sa m ie n to --e n lo e s te tic o y en lo
m o ra l--h a c e lo mismo. '
B a ro ja d ev e lo p s h is e s s a y s much more s y s te m a ti
c a l l y ; h is o b s e rv a tio n s a re e x c e e d in g ly c o n c ise , even
t e r s e . H is v ie w p o in t i s s im ila r to A lta m ir a 's :
Una in v e n c io n l i t e r a r i a tie n e que p ro c e d e r de una
le c t u r a , d e una o b se rv a c io n , de una in te r p r e ta c io n .
G en eracio n esp o n tan e a no hay n i en l a n a tu r a le z a n i en
l a i n te l i g e n c i a d e l hombre.2^
4 9
Los in te le c tu a le s
T his e s sa y i s , in p a r t, a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e
/ *7
Sender, op. cit., p. 13.
^ G o n z a lo T o rre n te B a l le s t e r , L ite r a tu r a e sp a n o la
contem poranea (M adrid, n . d . ) , p . 244.
^^Altamira, Psicoloela v literatura. pp. 75-81.
d is illu s io n m e n t w ith th e le a d e r s h ip in Spain fo llo w in g th e
Spanish-A m erican War. The le a d e r s , i t was f e l t , had f a i l e d
th e n a tio n on many f r o n ts . The e s sa y i s c r i t i c a l o f th e
s e l f - c o n s t i t u t e d i n t e l l i g e n t s i a , who, a c c o rd in g to A lta -
m ira, je a lo u s ly guarded t h e i r p r iv ile g e d p o s itio n s ; and o f
a s t r a t i f i e d s o c ie ty , w hich p re v e n te d p ro m isin g young
peo p le o f t a l e n t from assum ing im p o rta n t r o le s i n th e i n
t e l l e c t u a l l i f e o f th e c o u n try . I t i s an e x h o rta tio n to
allo w th e s e in d iv id u a ls to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e a f f a i r s o f
th e n a tio n .
Summary o f th e E ssay
T here i s a tendency, which m ig h t be c a l l e d i n t u i
ti v e , among th e p r o f e s s io n a l p eo p le o f s c ie n c e and l i t e r a
tu r e to c o n s id e r th a t th e y , a lo n e , form th e i n t e l l e c t u a l
body o f th e n a tio n . Some a r e in flu e n c e d by t h e i r i d o la tr y
o f th e d e g re e ; o th e rs , by t h e i r b e l i e f th a t o n ly he who
produces f o r th e p u b lic o r conveys h i s know ledge to i t , in
more o r le s s e le v a te d f a s h io n , i s an a r t i s t . T here a r e
th o se who deny com petence i n anyone n o t b e lo n g in g to th e
"F a c u lta d " o r n o t having a governm ent p o s itio n , th o se who
r a i s e t h e i r v o ic e s a g a in s t in tr u d e r s who have th e a u d a c ity
196
t o stu d y w ith o u t f i r s t a s k in g t h e i r o f f i c i a l p erm issio n .
S t i l l o th e rs b e lie v e t h a t o n ly th o s e who w r ite o r d e l iv e r
speeches can be c o n sid e re d " i n t e l l e c t u a l s . " As a r e s u l t ,
th e sm all c u ltu r e d m in o rity o f a c o u n try l i k e o u rs ap p ears
even s m a lle r, red u ced as i t i s to t h a t G en eral S ta f f , to
w hich many b elo n g by re a s o n o f s e lf-n o m in a tio n . L et us
h a s te n to say th a t a g rav e i n j u s t i c e i s com m itted by th e
lim ita tio n w hich h as been im posed, a consequence, to a
c e r t a i n e x te n t, o f th a t t r a d i t i o n a l l y m istak e n view w hich
h o ld s t h a t o n ly " h e ro e s ” and " le a d e rs " to o k an a c tiv e r o l e
in o u r h is t o r y .
T h ere a re many a c tiv e , unknown " i n t e l l e c t u a l s " in
th e n a tio n . W ithout r e s o r tin g to th e ro m an tic th e o ry o f
h id d en g e n iu s , we m ust re c o g n iz e t h a t th e r e e x i s ts a v a s t
number o f m odest w orking p e o p le , th e fo ra m in ife ra o f th e
g r e a t human i n t e l l e c t u a l s tr u c t u r e , th e l i n e s o ld ie r s who
do n o t f ig u r e in th e command, who, b e c au se o f th e q u a l ity
o f t h e i r w ork, t h e i r r e t i r i n g n a tu re , and, a t tim e s, a ls o ,
b ecau se th e y do n o t l i v e in th e b ig c a p i t a l s o r a p p e a r in
th e d a ily o r p r o f e s s io n a l p r e s s , p a s s u n n o tic e d .
J u s t as one can p o sse ss an in n e r, u n ex p ressed
a r t i s t r y , a s V isc h e r has shown, so can one be " i n t e l l e c
tu a l" w ith o u t b e in g a w r i te r , an o r a to r o r a te a c h e r.
On t r i p s th ro u g h th e towns o f t h i s and o th e r p ro v in c e s ,
I have seen p eo p le o f t r u e c u l tu r e , s tu d e n ts o f a c e r t a i n
b ra n ch o f know ledge, a ssid u o u s re a d e rs o f n o ta b le books.
A ll o f t h i s , i t seems to me, c o n s t it u t e s w hat we c a l l
" i n t e l l e c t u a l i s m ." I h av e met an unassum ing m a n u fa ctu rer
o f f lo u r , in whose l i b r a r y th e r e a re numerous p u b lic a tio n s
on th e m ech an ical a r t s , w hich h e re a d s w ith p le a s u r e ; on
a n o th e r o c c a sio n , a c l o t h i e r who re a d s C a rly le in E n g lish ;
a g ra p e h a r v e s te r who s tu d ie s H egel and K rause; a n o ta ry
who re a d s Hauptmann; a b u s in e s s man who en jo y s Wager and
B eethoven. Upon se e in g th e s e th in g s , I was b o th s u rp ris e d
and f i l l e d w ith g r e a t h o p e.
I t sh o u ld b e n o te d t h a t th e g r e a t d if f e r e n c e
betw een n a tio n s o f s u p e rio r c u l tu r e and backw ard n a tio n s
i s n o t th e r e s u l t o f t h e i r h av in g o r n o t h av in g an e r u d ite
m in o rity , b u t r a t h e r , w h eth er th e r e e x i s t s o r do es n o t
e x i s t a b ro ad b a s e o f inform ed c i t i z e n s who a r e co n scio u s
o f th e v a lu e o f know ledge and who fin d g r e a t jo y in
a c q u irin g i t . T hese new i n t e l l e c t u a l s sh o u ld come from
a l l w alks o f l i f e . H o p efu lly , th e y w i l l n o t y ie ld to th e
te m p ta tio n o f p la y in g a t i n t e l l e c t u a li s m and th e re b y tu r n
in to a p e d a n tic f lo c k o f graphom aniacs and c h a r la ta n s .
198
L et u s r e s p e c t th e s e anonymous i n t e l l e c t u a l s and
l e t us ex ten d to them o u r c o r d ia l welcome. L et us work so
t h a t t h e i r number in c r e a s e s . L et us r e j o i c e i f n o t a l l who
p a ss th ro u g h th e classro o m a r e w r i te r s , s c i e n t i s t s , p ro
f e s s o r s . L et us p e rm it them to r e tu r n to th e towns and
v i l l a g e s whence th e y came, t h a t th ey may d is a p p e a r in to
anonym ity. They w i l l c a rr y w ith them e n lig h te n m en t w here
i t i s m ost n eed ed . A fte r them , p e rh a p s, o th e rs w i l l f o l
low . W hether th e y b e th e p ro d u c ts o f o u r sc h o o l o r be
s e l f - t a u g h t , l e t us n o t abandon them . Above a l l , l e t us
m a in ta in c o n ta c t w ith them , so th a t t h e i r m inds may be
in c r e a s in g ly e n ric h e d and th e y may n o t lo s e h e a r t in t h e i r
en d eav o r. I t seems to me t h a t t h i s i s one o f th e m ost
im p o rta n t o b lig a tio n s o f th e p r o f e s s io n a l group to d a y .
A n a ly sis o f th e E ssav
At th e tim e t h i s e s sa y was p u b lis h e d , A lta m ira was
a p r o fe s s o r a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f O viedo. W hile a t t h a t
u n iv e r s i ty , h e s e t up a program o f e x te n s io n c o u rs e s f o r
th e b e n e f i t o f th e e d u c a tio n a lly -d e p riv e d p e o p le o f t h a t
a r e a . A lta m ira was alw ays a s tro n g ad v o c ate o f a demo
c r a t i c e d u c a tio n a l system , f o r , as h e s t a t e s in t h i s e s s a y ,
199
a n a tio n can p ro s p e r, c u l t u r a l l y o r o th e rw ise , o n ly w ith
a w e ll-in fo rm e d p o p u lace.
The f a i l u r e o f th e n a tio n to u t i l i z e th e t a l e n t s
o f i t s p eo p le i s th e c e n t r a l id e a o f th e e s s a y . He ex
p la in s , f i r s t , why th e s e p e o p le a r e ig n o red , blam ing i t on
th e s h o rts ig h te d n e s s and s e lf - s e e k in g o f a v a in e l i t e
m in o rity ; he d e s c r ib e s , w ith exam ples from h i s p e rs o n a l
e x p e rie n c e , th e w e lls o f untapped human s k i l l s and t a l e n t s
th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try ; and, f i n a l l y , h e u rg e s h is c o l
le ag u es to welcome th e s e unacknow ledged i n t e l l e c t u a l s to
t h e i r c i r c l e and to p re p a re them f o r th e le a d e rs h ip th e y
m ust assum e in th e f u tu r e .
The to n e o f th e e ssay i s e a r n e s t, e x h o r ta tiv e and
firm . A lta m ira a d d re s se s th e re a d e r m ost o f te n as we
r a t h e r th a n I. H is s t y l e e x p re s se s t h i s q u a l ity o r id e a
o f th e m u ltitu d e r a th e r th a n th e in d iv id u a l, in such ex
p re s s io n s a s : so ld ad o s d e f i l a . g e n te s . l a masa. reb an o .
f o ra m in lf e r o s . d irfa m o s , re sp e te m o s. alegrem onos. s u g g e s t
in g t h a t t h i s i s a q u e s tio n o f n a tio n a l im portance and a
co n c ern o f th e many.
B a ro ja d e a ls w ith th e i n t e l l e c t u a l in an essay
t i t l e d E l co n cep to de i n t e l e c t u a l en E snana. L ike A lta
m ira , h e m a in ta in s t h a t th e tr u e m eaning o f i n t e l l e c t u a l
200
i s m isu n d ersto o d :
La b u rg u e s la de la s c a p i t a l e s , y con e l l a lo s
p e r io d is ta s y s a in e te r o s , a d u la d o re s d e l p r e ju ic io ,
no com prendieron e l s e n tid o de l a p a la b ra i n t e l e c -
t u a l . . . . 50 (B aro ja)
. . . p a ra lo s o tr o s , so lo so n " in t e le c tu a le s " lo s que
e s c r ib e n y d is c u rs e a n y l o s que c o n e s to s b u lle n a
g u is a de a d o ra d o re s, aunque no "p ro n u n c ie n " .
(A lta m ira )
Both w r i te r s c la im t h a t th e ra n k and f i l e , o f te n , a re m ore
c a p a b le th a n th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s :
iQue duda c a b e que h a y o b rero s m anuales, In d u s-
t r i a l e s y g e n te s de n e g o c io s que so n mucho mas in -
t e l i g e n t e s que lo s i n t e l e c t u a l e s ! ^2 (B aro ja )
— hay una m asa num erosa d e tr a b a j adores m odestos, . . .
q u ie n e s , ya p o r l a c u a lid a d de su tr a b a j o, y a por r e -
tr a im ie n to n a t u r a l de s u e s p l r i t u . . . pasan in a d v e r ti-
d o s . . . . 53 (A ltam ira)
F in a lly , B a ro ja and A ltam ira p o in t o u t th e d i f f i c u l t y o f
th e o u ts id e r , how ever e n lig h te n e d he may be, to p e n e tr a te
th e o f f i c i a l in n e r c i r c l e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s :
He h ab lad o d e e s te co n cep to d e i n t e l e c t u a l en
n u e s tr a b u rg u e s la para q u e se v ea coma e l l a h a e sta d o
5 0 p£o B a ro ja , D iv aaacto n es ap a sio n a d as (M adrid,
1927), p . 21.
•^ A lta m ira , P s ic o lo a la v l i t e r a t u r a . p . 73.
^2B a ro ja, o p . c i t . . p . 22.
^Altamira, op. cit.. p. 76.
201
siem pre may a l u n fsono con l a p o lx tic a e sp a n o la y con
l a m e n ta lid a d de n u e s tro s p o l i t i c o s . ^ (B aro ja)
Los u n o s, n le g a n com petencia a lo s que no son de
l a " F a c u lta d " o c a r r e r a g a r a n tid a p o r e l E stad o , y
clam an c o n tra lo s in tr u s o s que han te n ld o l a a le v o s£ a
de e s tu d la r la s c o sa s s in p e d i r le sa n e io n a l p ro fe -
so rad o o f i c i a l . . . . “ (A ltam ira )
L a . j ^ e r a t u r a d e l re p o so 56
A lta m ira , in t h i s e ssa y , d is c u s s e s a theme w hich
ap p e ars in b o th h is n o v e l and h i s s h o r t s t o r i e s . He e x
p la in s t h a t th e id e a o f re p o se i s n o t new to l i t e r a t u r e ,
showing how i t h as been i n te r p r e t e d from c l a s s i c a l tim es up
to th e p r e s e n t.
Summary o f th e Essav
One o f th e m ost marked c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f contem po
r a r y l i t e r a t u r e i s th e a n x ie ty , th e s p i r i t u a l d is q u ie tu d e
d is p la y e d in i t s p ag e s. There i s c r e a te d , as a n a t u r a l
consequence, an in te n s e , f e v e r is h lo n g in g f o r re p o se , f o r
s e r e n ity , f o r s o o th in g and r e s t o r a t i v e calm . The same
54
B a ro ja , o p . c i t . . pp. 23-24.
55
A lta m ira , o p . c i t . . p . 75.
•^Altamira, Psicologfa v literatura. pp. 49-61.
202
phenomenon can be o b serv ed in contem porary m usic. A young
c r i t i c , H. B o u rg erel, r e c e n tly made t h i s comment: "O r, ce
q u i ren d l 1oeuvre de B eethoven s i p o ig n a n te , c ’e s t que l a
s e r e n ite en e s t to u jo u rs tr o u b le e p a r le r e g r e t de c e t t e
s e r e n ite m£me."
The g rav e m oral c r is e s w hich shake th e w orld to d ay ,
th e in c r e a s in g ly a c c e le r a te d pace o f m odem liv in g , th e
in v a s io n everyw here o f th e s o - c a lle d "Am erican f e v e r ,"
w hich produce such s tra n g e nervous r e a c tio n s , q u ick en in
th e grow ing i n t e l l e c t u a l m in o rity th e d e s ir e f o r peace, f o r
calm , f o r w ith d ra w a l.
Like C a rly le , b u t in a somewhat d i f f e r e n t se n se ,
p re s e n t-d a y w r i te r s h unger f o r and g l o r if y q u ie tu d e : n o t
f o r th e s o u l, n e c e s s a r ily , b u t f o r th e w orld t h a t su rro u n d s
them . T h is a s p ir a tio n , however, i s som ething q u ite o ld in
l i t e r a t u r e . S ince a n t iq u ity , e v e ry th in k in g , s u p e rio r
i n t e l l i g e n c e , d is tu rb e d by th e s o c i a l s tr u g g le , has sought
re p o s e , peace o f m ind. But i t i s no le s s c e r t a i n t h a t th e
m odem movement d is p la y s i t s own c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . To
d e term in e in w hat ways to d a y 's a s p ir a tio n f o r re p o se and
t h a t o f form er tim es a re s im ila r , would be a t r u l y i n t e r
e s tin g stu d y ; and to compare th e r o u te s by w hich th o se
203
uneasy s o u ls have sought q u ie tu d e , today and in tim es p a s t,
would b e an u n d e rta k in g o f g r e a t im p o rtan ce and even o f
p r a c t i c a l v a lu e f o r th e b e t t e r o rd e rin g o f o u r l i v e s . I t
i s s tra n g e , however, t h a t such a stu d y has n o t been
attem p ted by c r i t i c s , who d e d ic a te th em selv es to f e r r e t i n g
o u t c e r t a i n p s y c h o lo g ic a l t r a i t s o r p e c u l i a r i t i e s , now
exam ining l i t e r a r y c h a r a c te r s o r ty p e s ( th e woman, th e
c h ild , d e lin q u e n ts , e t c . ) , now th e f e e lin g s and id e a s ex
p re sse d in l i t e r a t u r e (lo v e , p ie ty , b e l i e f s , e t c . ) . Such
s tu d ie s , lim ite d in g r e a t p a r t to m odem l i t e r a r y w orks,
a lth o u g h c e r t a in l y some m ed iev al and c l a s s i c a l f ig u r e s have
undergone t h e i r s c r u tin y (D ante and S hakespeare, f o r i n
s ta n c e , have re c e iv e d am ple tre a tm e n t in t h i s r e g a r d ) , w i l l
perhaps some day be ex ten d ed to w hat co u ld become an im por
t a n t b ran ch o f co m p arativ e l i t e r a t u r e ; nam ely, a stu d y o f
a n c ie n t w r i t e r s , r e l a t i n g t h e i r psychology to th a t o f co n
tem porary a u th o rs and p r e s e n tin g them as men o f f l e s h and
blo o d and n o t as m odels o f more o r le s s academ ic r h e to r ic
o r as exam ples o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a rc h a e o lo g y . The th a n e o f
re p o se h as been th e m ost d is c u s s e d th ro u g h o u t th e a g e s,
w ith th e p o s s ib le e x c e p tio n o f th e lo v e them e. T h is f a c t
can be e a s i l y e x p la in e d .
204
I n t e l l e c t u a l s a r e by n a tu re and by t h e i r s p e c ia l
iz e d ty p e o f work s e n s i t i v e b e in g s , in whom th e s l i g h t e s t
i r r i t a t i o n i s tran sfo rm ed in to th e r u d e s t shock; th e m ost
s u p e r f i c i a l o f s c r a tc h e s , in to a s e rio u s wound. The
nervous a t t r i t i o n o ccasio n ed by t h e i r c o n ta c t w ith a w orld
o f c o a rs e n e s s and v u lg a r it y c a u se s them to w ithdraw from
s o c ie ty . Com plete w ith d raw al i s n o t alw ays p o s s ib le s in c e
th e same s o c ie ty from w hich th e y f l e e , in e x o ra b ly draws
them to i t .
I f one s tu d ie s th e p o e ts o f re p o s e , b eg in n in g w ith
th o se m ost removed from o u r tim e s, one w i l l n o te a common
r e a c tio n : f l i g h t . S in ce th e w orld o f f e r s o n ly d is q u ie tu d e ,
th e y seek t r a n q u i l i t y away from th e w o rld , in s e c lu s io n o r
r e t r e a t . And th e p o e t, d iv e s tin g h im s e lf o f th e c a re s o f
c i t y l i f e , h u r r ie s to th e c o u n try , a sk in g o f n a tu re o n ly
c o m fo rtin g re p o se .
An exam ple o f t h i s d e s ir e in i t s m ost e le m e n ta l
form i s H orace. The L a tin p o e t r e j e c t s lu x u ry , m i l i t a r y
g lo ry , th e v a in p u r s u its o f c i t y l i f e , th e tem p tin g advan
ta g e s o f commerce, n o t b ecau se th e s e th in g s in them selves
a r e u n a t t r a c t i v e , b u t r a t h e r , b ecau se o f th e c a re s th ey
p ro d u ce, th e peace o f mind th ey ta k e away. A gain and a g a in
205
h e a d v ise s h is frie n d s to fo rsa k e th e s e i l l u s i v e ad v an tag es
and in v it e s them to h i s p e a c e fu l T uscan r e t r e a t :
Cuanto mas v a crec ien d o
La riq u e z a , e l cuidado d e j u n t a l l a
T anto mas v a subiendo,
Y l a sed in s a c ia b le d e a u m e n ta lla .
Por eso huyo medroso,
M ecenas, e l s e r r ic o y p o d ero so .
No e n tie n d e e l poderoso,
Senor que manda e l A fr ic a m arin a,
Que e sta d o mas dichoso
Que e l suyo me da e l ag u a c r i s t a l i n a
De mi lim p io a rro y u e lo ,
Mi f e r t i l m onte y campo p eq u en u elo . '
H orace, i t m ust be p o in te d o u t, d o es n o t g iv e up th e " r i -
q u ezas a fa n o sa s" o f th e c i t y fo r a l i f e o f p o v e rty ; h e
en jo y s a c o m fo rta b le l i f e on h is farm in S a b in a . The s e l f -
in d u lg e n t t r a n q u i l i t y o f th e L a tin p o e t b rin g s to mind th e
f a b le o f th e c i t y mouse and th e c o u n try mouse.
Fray L u is de Leon, th e g r e a t e s t o f th e p o ets who
s o a r to th e h e ig h ts o f id e a lism , f r e e o f H o ra tia n s y b a r i t
ism , i s p erh ap s th e m ost in tim a te o f th e S p an ish p o e ts .
He, to o , f l e e s th e d an g ero u s v a n i t i e s o f th e w orld, th e
w e a lth o f th o s e "que d e un f a ls o le n o se co n f£ an "; b u t
57 /
T ra n s la te d from th e L a tin by F ray L uis de Leon,
ac c o rd in g to A lta m ira . (E lis io n s i n th e p o e try q u o ta tio n s
are Altamira* s.)
206
he does n o t exchange t h i s f o r a r e t r e a t o f H o ra tia n p le a
s u r e s . The peace t h a t he seek s i s p u re r.
Un no rom pido sueho,
Un d ia p u ro , a le g r e , l i b r e q u i e r o ...
V iv ir q u ie ro conm igo,
Gozar q u ie ro d e l b ie n que debo a l c i e l o ,
A s o la s , s i n t e s t i g o ,
L ib re de amor, de c e lo ,
De o d io , d e e s p e ra n z a s, de r e c e lo .
R io ja , somewhat ta in te d by th e L a tin egoism , f re e s
h im s e lf from i t , in p a r t , when he ends h is poem A l a t r a n -
q u ilid a d , sa y in g :
Que ya en se g u ra paz y en d escu id ad o
Ocio a le g r e , d e s p re c io
E l d iv e rs o s e n t i r d e l v u lg o n e c io ,
S in e sp e ra n z a alg u n a
De mas b la n d a f o r tu n a ;
Y aguardo sosegado e l d fa p o s t r e r o .. .
A nother p o e t o f th e " q u ie tu d d e l an im o ," D. N ico las
F ernandez d e H o ra tfn g lo s s e s a re p e a te d axiom o f p o p u la r
wisdom, denying t h a t in th e r ic h e s o f t h i s w orld i s found:
D escanso, e l b ie n mas g ran d e de e s t a v id a ,
Que no b a s ta a co m p rarle e l g ran te s o r o .
But none o f th e p o e ts m entioned, n o r any who m ight
b e c i t e d up to th e p re s e n t tim e , have covered in i t s f u l l
n e s s th e theme o f re p o s e .
No one speaks o f t h a t d is q u ie tu d e and s p i r i t u a l
d is c o n te n t w hich form th e r i c h e s t and p u r e s t su b stra tu m
207
o f th e ro m an tic w r i t e r s , stemming from th e d e e p e s t and
in n erm o st p re o c c u p a tio n s, from th e m ost s e rio u s o f problem s
w ith in th e s o u l i t s e l f . The a u th o r o f F a u st, a lo n e , has
tr e a te d o f t h i s problem . H is h ero a s p ir e s to a "momento de
re p o s o ," to a moment in l i f e w hich w i l l le a v e him s a t i s
f ie d , u n re s e rv e d ly and w ith o u t d o u b t. F a u st was a b le to
f in d t h a t "momento herm oso, que ra p id o tr a n s c u r r e " ; b u t th e
men o f today s t i l l seek i t w ith o u t fin d in g i t .
The w r ite r s p r io r to t h i s c e n tu ry b e lie v e d t h a t
re p o se co u ld be found in r e t r e a t , in w ith d raw al from th e
w o rld , in s o litu d e . The fo llo w e rs o f Rousseau looked f o r
i t in th o s e " a p a rta m ie n to s en hum ilde choza":
B en d ito s a q u e llo s que con e l azada
Sub s t e n t an sus v id a s y quedan c o n t e n to s ...
B en d ito s a q u e llo s que sig u e n la s f i e r a s
Con la s g ru e sa s re d e s y c a n e s a r d id o s . . .
E te r n a l i l l u s i o n o f d is i l lu s i o n e d s p i r i t s ! They
f i x th e ca u se o f t h e i r u n r e s t in th e o u te r w o rld , in w hat
i s o u ts id e o f them, in o th e r s . They b e lie v e t h e i r l iv e s
can b e im proved by le a v in g t h e i r p re o c c u p a tio n s b eh in d ,
c lo s in g t h e i r eyes to th e problem s t h a t b e s e t them, f le e in g
from s o c ia l commitment!
R io ja i s th e only one who a p p e a rs to have seen th e
f u t i l i t y o f t h i s p ro ced u re:
No huyas; que aunque huyas a l abism o
no h u ir a s de t i mismo,
y to d o s lo s p e s a re s
que en l a t i e r r a t u v i s t e
tam bien t e han de s e g u ir p o r a l t o s m ares.
Modem w r i te r s a re b e g in n in g to u n d e rsta n d more
f u l l y th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e problem . Who knows w h eth er
t h i s w i l l le a d to a more r a t i o n a l co n cep t o f a p s y c h o lo g i
c a l problem posed many c e n tu r ie s ago, to a more d i s i n t e r
e s te d and humane a p p r e c ia tio n o f th e in d iv id u a l* s p eace o f
mind in r e l a t i o n to th e g r e a te r i n t e r e s t s o f hum anity? Who
knows w h eth er th e p o e ts o f tomorrow w i l l n o t d is c o v e r t h a t
re p o s e i s a sim p le lo n g in g o f th e s p i r i t in moments o f
f a tig u e , a r e s t o r a t i v e f o r th e s tr e n g th needed f o r renew ed
s tr u g g le ? Who knows, f i n a l l y , w h eth er th e y w i l l say t h a t
f o r th o se o f n o b le h e a r t, i n te r e s te d in e v e ry th in g around
them, co n scio u s o f th e a l t r u i s t i c m is sio n o f th e i n d i
v id u a l, re p o se , q u ie tu d e and calm a r e v a in ch im eras, and
t h a t d is q u ie tu d e , r e s t l e s s n e s s and em o tio n al ex c ite m en t a re
m a n ife s ta tio n s o f a p o w erfu l and v i t a l f o r c e t h a t e n ric h e s
l i f e and c a r r i e s i t fo rw ard , am id st co m p la in t and d i s
illu s io n m e n t!
209
A n aly sis o f th e E ssav
The s u b je c t o£ re p o s e seems alm o st to have been an
o b s e s s io n w ith A lta m ira . I t i s th e c e n tr a l theme o f h is
n o v e l, Reposo. a s w e ll as a r e c u r r e n t theme in s e v e r a l o f
h is s h o r t s t o r i e s . I t i s o n ly in th e n o v e l, how ever, th a t
th e a u th o r fs id e a o f re p o se i s re v e a le d f u l l y . Ju an , th e
hero o f Reposo. d o e s, in d e e d , fin d t r a n q u i l i t y and p eace in
n a tu re , b u t he d is c o v e rs , a s he fa c e s up to r e a l i t y , t h a t
is o l a t i o n from th e w orld w i l l n o t s o lv e h is problem s. At
th e end o f th e n o v e l, w ith s p i r i t and body r e s to r e d , h e
r e tu r n s to resum e th e s tr u g g le in M adrid.
In h is e s s a y , A lta m ira tr a c e s th e developm ent o f
th e re p o s e theme i n l i t e r a t u r e from th e tim e o f H orace up
to th e p re s e n t, showing th e v a rio u s in t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f
re p o se , as they a r e re v e a le d in p o e try . The c e n t r a l id e a
i s th e b a s ic f a ll a c y o f th e p o e ts ' th in k in g w ith re g a rd to
th e u ltim a te p u rp o se o f re p o s e . He d ev elo p s a d i f f i c u l t
th e s is w ith c o n s id e ra b le c l a r i t y and lo g ic . H is q u o ta tio n s
from a v a r ie ty o f p o e ts and h is commentary a r e r e v e la to r y
o f A lta m ira ' s in tim a te a c q u a in ta n c e s h ip , n o t o n ly w ith
Spanish l i t e r a t u r e , b u t f o re ig n w orks as w e ll. The to n e
and s t y l e o f th e e ssa y a r e c o n s is te n t w ith th e theme o f
210
re p o se and th e p o e tic s o f w hich he t r e a t s : I lu s io n e te m a
d e lo s e s p i r i t u s d ese n ea n a d o s!. T odavia suenan muchos en
h a l l a r e l so sie g o en l a n a tu ra le z a , l a f e b r i l e x c ita tio n d e
su alm a. E sta d e sc o n so la d o ra c o n c lu s io n .
Unamuno d e a lt w ith th e q u e s tio n o f re p o s e in an
essa y t i t l e d Soledad. p u b lis h e d in 1905, th e same y ea r t h a t
A ltam ira* s La l i t e r a t u r a d e l reposo ap p e ared . W hile Una
muno and A lta m ira s h a re a s im ila r v ie w p o in t on th e s u b je c t,
th e Basque w r i te r assum es h is ty p ic a l , p a ra d o x ic a l a t t i
tu d e:
Dejame, p u es, que huya de l a so cied ad y me r e f u g ie
en e l s o sie g o d e l campo, buscando en medio d | fle l y
d e n tro d e mi alm a l a com pania d e l a s g e n te s . 8
In language t h a t i s rem ark ab ly s im ila r , A lta m ira and Una
muno d e s c r ib e th e e f f e c t s o f modern l i v i n g on th e s e n s it i v e
s p i r i t :
Los i n t e l e c t u a le s son, por n a tu r a le z a y por o b ra^
de l a e s p e c ia lid a d d e su tr a b a jo , hombres d e co n d ic io n
p a rtic u la rm e n te e x c ita b le , p ara q u ie n es to d o ro zam ien to
c o n v ie rte s e en rudo choque, c u a lq u ie r a l f i l e r a z o en
t e r r i b l e h e r id a . E l d e s g a s te n e rv io s o que e s to le s
o c a sio n a , p ro d u c e le s c i e r t o tem or a la s c a u s a s de que
p ro ced e. y o r ig in s en e llo s un p r in c ip io d e r e t r a i -
m ie n to . -> 9 (A lta m ira )
■*®Miguel de Unamuno, Soledad (3 rd e d . ; M adrid,
1957), p . 31.
-^Altamira, Psicologla v literatura. p. 51.
211
Pero lo t r l s t e e s que, s i nos atenem os a l a ex -
p e r ie n c ia h a s ta hoy en d£a, eso s ro c e s y choques
m utuos, l e j o s de rom per la s c o s tr a s , la s endurecen,
y engrosan, y a c re c ie n ta n . Son como lo s c a l l o s , que
con e l ro c e se hacen m ayores y mas f u e r t e s . Aunque
t a l vez s e a que lo s choques no son lo b a s ta n te v io -
le n to s . Y en todo c a so , choque y no r o c e . . . Y, p a ra
p re p g ra rs e a e s ta la b o r, no hay m ejo r que l a s o le
d ad . (Unamuno)
The s ta te m e n ts o f b o th w r i te r s , w ith g r e a te r o r l e s s e r em
p h a s is , recommend re p o se o r s o li tu d e as a means to r e s to r e
o n eT s s tr e n g th f o r th e s tr u g g le o f l i f e . T h e ir view s
su g g e st th e g e n e ra l co n cern o f th e G e n e ra tio n o f 1898 r e
g a rd in g a common p s y c h o lo g ic a l problem o f th e tim e s.
The essa y s d is c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p te r a r e o n ly fo u r
o f hundreds t h a t A lta m ira w ro te on a v a r i e t y o f s u b je c ts
d u rin g h is l if e t im e . T h is sm all sam pling g iv e s ev id en ce,
how ever, o f h i s com petence in th e f i e l d . The n a tu re o f th e
g e n re makes i t more d i f f i c u l t to an a ly ze th a n th e f i c t i o n a l
fo rm s. An e f f o r t has been made, none th e l e s s , to show,
b o th in th e summ aries and th e a n a ly s e s , A lta m ira 1 s method
and s t y l e o f e ssa y w r itin g . T hese e ssa y s show him to be
know ledgeable in th e s u b je c ts he d is c u s s e s , more l o g ic a l
and to th e p o in t th a n d is c u r s iv e , y e t n o t im p erso n al o r
^Unamuno, op. cit.. p. 40.
212
u n p le a s a n t to r e a d . They d e m o n stra te h is s k i l l in a d a p tin g
th e p ro p e r to n e and s t y l e to th e s u b je c t tinder d is c u s s io n .
They r e v e a l, f u r t h e r , a c o n s is te n c y o f p u rp o se in h i s
tre a tm e n t o f th e r e g e n e ra tio n problem .
C H A PTER V II
CRITICISM
The r o l e o f th e c r i t i c in modern s o c ie ty becomes
in c re a s in g ly im p o rta n t. In a w orld in w hich th e k ey n o te i s
p r o l i f e r a t i o n on ev ery s id e , th e in d iv id u a l m ust cope w ith
a m u ltitu d e o f com plex s i t u a t i o n s , a r is i n g from th e p u re
number o f th in g s , undreamed o f by e a r l i e r g e n e ra tio n s .
S in ce h e ca n n o t b e a s p e c i a l i s t in ev ery d ep artm en t o f
liv in g , h e r e l i e s more and more on th e judgm ent o f e x p e rts .
He depends on news a n a ly s ts , p o l i t i c a l com m entators, m ark et
r e s e a r c h e r s , and a h o s t o f o th e r a u t h o r i t i e s to a s s i s t him
in th e d a ily d e c is io n s he m ust make. T his problem ex ten d s
a l s o to l i t e r a t u r e . The re a d e r, c o n fro n te d by th e l i t e r
a l l y th o u san d s o f new p u b lic a tio n s w hich ap p e ar each y e a r,
f in d s i t a p h y s ic a l im p o s s ib ility to p e ru se even th o se
w ith in th e n arro w er l i m i t s o f h is own f i e l d o f i n t e r e s t .
C o n seq u en tly , he tu rn s to th e c r i t i c f o r in fo rm a tio n . The
m odem c r i t i c i s th e exponent o f an a r t t h a t d a te s back
213
214
to a n t iq u ity .
C r itic is m , in i t s b ro a d e s t se n se , i s an a c t i v i t y
as o ld a s man. The a n c ie n t governm ents o f C hina, f o r i n
s ta n c e , p ro v id ed f o r , in a d d itio n to th e u s u a l ad m in is
t r a t i v e , l e g i s l a t i v e and j u d i c i a l b ra n c h e s, a d ep artm en t o f
c e n s o rs , as i t was c a lle d , w hich examined and re p o rte d on
th e o th e r b ra n c h e s; i t s f u n c tio n , in s h o r t, to c r i t i c i z e
th e s e a g e n c ie s , th e reb y in s u r in g more e f f i c i e n t and b e t t e r
governm ent. The c r i t i c h as o f te n serv ed i n a s im ila r
c a p a c ity w ith re g a rd to l i t e r a t u r e , h e lp in g to e s t a b l i s h
s ta n d a rd s o f c o r r e c tn e s s and to c o n tr o l th e ab u ses and
e x c e sse s o f th e in d is c r im in a te w r i t e r . A lta m ira p o in ts o u t
t h i s a s p e c t o f c r i t i c i s m in h is s tu d y , La c r £ t i c a l i t e -
r a r i a :
Por u ltim o , es erro n e o e l su p u e sto d e que l a c r £ -
t i c a , cuando c e n su ra , no s i r v e p a ra n ad a . A lo s c o r r e -
g ib le s , lo s enm ienda; a lo s au d aces, lo s c o n tie n e . La
h i s t o r i a l i t e r a r i a d e to d o s lo s tiem pos d em u estra que,
cuando no hay un la tig o --a u n q u e e s te no sacuda muy
f u e r t e - - , to d a s la s n u lid a d e s s a le n d e su s a g u je ro s e
in f e s ta n l a v id a i n t e l e c t u a l . Es l a h i s t o r i a e t e m a
d e l g a to y lo s r a to n e s . Hace f a l t a e l g a to . 1
The f i r s t ev id en ce o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m d a te s from
th e Greek c l a s s i c a l p e r io d . S o c ra te s , q u e s tio n in g th e
■^Rafael Altamira, Cosas del d£a (Valencia, 1907),
p. 222.
215
p o e ts o£ h i s tim e , d is c o v e re d th e y co u ld t e l l him l i t t l e
ab o u t th e form and s ig n if ic a n c e o f t h e i r p o e tr y , w hereas
t h e i r f r ie n d s and ad m ire rs c o u ld expound a t g r e a t le n g th
ab o u t th e q u a l it y o f th e w orks. T h is i s t h e f i r s t in d ic a
tio n o f c r i t i c a l th in k in g a s a d i s t i n c t l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y ,
a c c o rd in g to A bercrom bie:
What makes S o c r a te s ' "A pology" th e f i r s t m ile s to n e
in th e h i s t o r y o f c r i t i c i s m i s sim ply t h i s : t h a t th e re
S o c ra te s f o r th e f i r s t tim e c l e a r l y p o in te d o u t t h a t
c r i t i c i s m i s a d i s t i n c t s p e c ie s o f l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y ,
and a l s o why i t i s d i s t i n c t .
A nderson Xmbert e x p la in s S o c r a te s ' method:
S o c r a te s , en su A p o lo g ia , co n to como, p a ra m ed ir
su p ro p ia s a p ie n c ia , fu e a h a b la r con lo s p o e ta s . "Les
m o s tr e - - d ic e — lo s p a s a ^ e s mas e la b o ra d o s de su s p ro p io s
e s c r i t o s y l e s p re g u n te que s ig n if ic a b a n , c o n fia n d o en
que me e n s e n a ria n a lg o . . . me d i c u e n ta que lo s p o e ta s
e s c r ib e n su p o e s ia , no con l a c o n c ie n c ia de un s a b io ,
sin o con l a in s p i r a c io n de un g e n io . Son como eso s
a d iv in o s e ilu m in ad o s que ex p re sa n herm osas c o s a s p ero
s in com prender su p le n o s e n tid o " .^
B oth P la to and A r i s t o t l e w ro te on c r i t i c i s m . A r i s t o t l e 's
P o e tic s h a s s e rv e d , in f a c t , as a model f o r a l l su b se q u en t
l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . The th r e e u n i t i e s , th e elem en ts o f
p l o t and th e c a t h a r s i s e f f e c t o f dram a h av e t h e i r o r i g i n
2
L a s c e lle s A bercrom bie, P r in c ip le s o f L ite r a r y
C r itic is m (London, 1932), p . 9 .
^ E n riq u e A nderson Im b ert, La c r i t i c a l i t e r a r i a
contem poranea (Buenos A ir e s , 195 7 ), pp. 3 1 -3 2 .
216
in A ris to tle * s w ork. The o u ts ta n d in g L a tin c r i t i c was
H orace, whose A rt o f P o e try . w r itte n in v e rs e , c o n trib u te d
to th e lan g u ag e o f c r i t i c i s m . The im p o rta n t c r i t i c a l work
o f th e M iddle Ages, w hich ap p eared o n ly a t th e end o f t h a t
p e rio d , i s D ante*s De v u lg a r i e lo q u e n tia . T his t r e a t i s e ,
w r itte n in L a tin , d e a ls w ith th e v a rio u s d i a l e c t s o f I t a l y ,
p o in ts o u t th e s u p e r io r ity o f th e Tuscan d i a l e c t as a
l i t e r a r y lan g u ag e, and o f f e r s a c r i t i c i s m o f th e d o Ic e s t i l
nuovo. ^ From th e tim e o f th e g r e a t F lo r e n tin e up to th e
p r e s e n t, th e names t h a t f ig u r e im p o rta n tly in l i t e r a r y
c r i t i c i s m have been le g io n : Du B e lla y , M alherbe, B o ile a u ;
Dryden, Pope, Johnson; L e ssin g ; C o le rid g e , Lamb, H a z l i t t ;
S ain te-B eu v e; Poe, Jam es; C roce, S p itz e r , A nderson Im b ert,
W e lle k --ea ch c o n tr ib u tin g som ething to a b e t t e r i n t e r p r e t a
tio n and a p p r e c ia tio n o f l i t e r a t u r e .
The l i t e r a r y c r i t i c h as been a much m aligned i n d i
v id u a l. I t i s s a id t h a t h e tu rn s to c r i t i c i s m b ec a u se h e
p o s s e s s e s no c r e a t i v e t a l e n t o f h is own. On th e s u rfa c e
t h i s may ap p ear to b e so , y e t in e v e ry c r i t i c o f any m e rit
th e c r e a t i v e t a l e n t may b e l a t e n t and f o r some re a so n
^G iyseppe M a la g o li, Da D ante a l P a s c o li (F ire n z e ,
1928), p . 5.
217
unexpressed* T h is a b i l i t y o f te n r e v e a ls i t s e l f in h is
c r i t i c i s m :
. . . es f re c u e n te e l caso d e c r f t i c o s que mas que an a-
l i z a r o b je tiv a m e n te una o b ra a je n a se ponen a r e v e l a r
su p ro p io lirism o .-*
The fu n c tio n o f th e c r i t i c , th e a t t r i b u t e s t h a t
make f o r a good c r i t i c , and th e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e term
c r i t i c , i t s e l f , have been in te r p r e te d v a r io u s ly by th o s e
who w rite ab o u t c r i t i c i s m . A d is c u s s io n o f th e d i f f e r e n t
p ro c e s s e s o f c r i t i c i s m can become r a t h e r in v o lv e d in a d i s
s e r t a t i o n w hich en d eav o rs to d e a l c r i t i c a l l y w ith c r i t i c s
who, in tu r n , a r e d is c u s s in g s t i l l o th e r c r i t i c s . An
a tte m p t w i l l b e made, th e r e f o r e , to p re s e n t th e v a rio u s
v ie w p o in ts in a s sim p le and d i r e c t a manner a s p o s s ib le ,
c o n s is te n t w ith c l a r i t y .
A c o n c is e d e f i n i t i o n o f c r i t i c , w hich has u n iv e r s a l
a p p lic a tio n , a p p e a rs in an E n g lish stu d y by W . B a s il Wors-
f o ld :
. . . th e c r i t i c i s a p erso n who i s p o sse sse d o f th e
know ledge n e c e s s a ry to e n a b le him to pronounce r i g h t
judgm ents upon th e m e rit o r w o rth o f such works a s come
w ith in h is p ro v in c e .
5
Anderson Imbert, op. cit.. p. 9-
£
W . B a s il W orsfold, Judgm ent in L ite r a tu r e (London,
1951), p. 1.
218
By r i g h t judgm ents. Mr. W orsfold und o u b ted ly means s e rio u s
c r i t i c i s m . One m ust e x c lu d e, i t would seem, from any such
d e f i n i t i o n th e p u re ly c a n ta n k e ro u s, f a u lt- f in d in g i n d i
v id u a l, one whose c r i t i c i s m i s s u p e r f i c i a l , o r one whose
p u rp o se in exam ining a l i t e r a r y work i s som ething l e s s than
c o n s tr u c tiv e .
A bercrom bie view s th e c r i t i c as one who u se s " i n
t e l l i g i b l e m ethods o f c r iti c is m " and p o s s e s s e s :
I n s ig h t, sym pathy, im a g in a tiv e re sp o n se , common
se n se , o r mere power to e x p re ss d is c rim in a tin g
g u s to . . . J
G ustave R u d le r 's recom m endations to th e a s p ir in g c r i t i c a re
o f a p r a c t i c a l n a tu re :
I I s 'a g i t a v a n t to u t de com prendre l a n e c e s s ite e t
d ’a c q u e r ir l e g o u t du s a v o ir, de c o n tr a c te r un c e r t a i n
b e s o in d e p r e c is io n e t de rig u e u r , de s e p l i e r a une
d i s c i p l i n e e x a c te , de p re n d re une h a b itu d e , une d i
r e c t io n d 'a c t i v i t e . Le r e s t e v ie n t p a r l e t r a v a i l e t
p a r 1*u sag e.
A nderson Im bert makes no a tte m p t to d e fin e th e term c r i t i c
in a few w ords, a lth o u g h h e s t a t e s th a t th e fu n c tio n o f
c r i t i c i s m , and th e r e f o r e th e c r i t i c * s fu n c tio n , i s :
^Abercrombie, op. cit., p. 121.
O
G ustave R u d ler, Les te c h n iq u e s d e l a c r i t i q u e e t
de l th i s t o i r e l i t t e r a i r e s (O xford, 1923), p. 201.
2X9
9
. . . d i s c e m i r s i una o b ra es o no l i t e r a t u r a .
W ith re g a rd to th e p r e c is e fu n c tio n s o f c r i ti c i s m ,
A bercrom bie and A nderson Im bert s h a re s im ila r v iew s. A ber
crom bie c i t e s A lessan d ro M anzoni’ s fo rm u la a s th e m ost
p e r f e c t ly b a la n c e d summation o f c r i t i c i s m . In d is c u s s in g
a w ork, th e c r i t i c m ust:
D isco v er th e p u rp o se; judge i t s w o rth ; c r i t i c i z e th e
te c h n iq u e . ®
A nderson Im b ert, lik e w is e , in d ic a te s t h a t th e re a r e th r e e
b a s ic f u n c tio n s :
. . . una fu n c io n re p ro d u c to ra , p o r l a c u a l e l c r i t i c o
resp o n d e in d iv id u a lm e n te a l a o b ra que le e , l a g u s ta ,
l a v iv e y l a h ace su y a (aunque se a p a ra luego re c h a -
z a r l a ) ; una fu n c io n i n t e r p r e t a t i v a , m ed ian te l a c u a l
e l c r i t i c o le v a n ta s u an d am iaje, c o n s tru y e su a u la y
e x p lic a l a o b ra a l p u b lic o ; y una fu n c io n v a l o r a tiv a ,
que hace d e l c r i t i c o un ju e z .
W orsfold p r e s e n ts a s u c c in c t e x p la n a tio n :
C r itic is m i s th e e x e rc is e o f judgm ent in th e p ro v
in c e o f a r t and l i t e r a t u r e . . . .
o
7 A nderson Im b ert, o p. c i t . . p . 29.
•^A bercrom bie, o p . c i t . . p . 153; A lessan d ro M anzoni,
T ra g e d ie . in n i s a c r i ed o d i (T o rin o , 1937), p . 6: " O ltr e -
d ic h e , o g n i componimento p re s e n ta a c h i v o g lia esa m in a rlo
g l i e le m e n ti n e c e s s a r i a re g o la m e un g iu d iz io ; e a mio
a w i s o sono q u e s ti: q u a le s i a 1* in te n to d e l l 'a u t o r e ; se
q u e s to in te n to s i a ra g io n e v o le ; s e l* a u to re l* a b b ia co n se-
g u ito ."
11
A nderson Im b ert, op. c i t . . p. 37.
^worsfold, op. cit.. p. 1.
220
R u d ler o f f e r s a b r i e f d e f i n i t i o n o f c r i t i c i s m , r e f e r r i n g
to i t s g e n e ra l a s p e c ts :
La d e f i n i t i o n d es t a l e n t s , des o eu v res, des
system es e t des form es, to u t c e q u i e s t a f f a i r e d e
goOt e t d e p en see, r e s t e l 'o b j e t p ro p re d e l a c r i
tiq u e . ^
A ccording to Abrams, th e r e a r e fo u r com ponents o f c r i t i
cism :
C r itic is m i s co n cern ed w ith th e e x p o s itio n ,
a n a ly s is , com parison, and e v a lu a tio n o f w orks o f
l i t e r a t u r e . ^
Abrams d iv id e s c r i t i c i s m in to two broad c a te g o r ie s : th e o
r e t i c a l c r i t i c i s m and p r a c t i c a l c r itic is m :
T h e o r e tic a l c r i t i c i s m u n d e rta k e s to e s t a b l i s h , on
th e b a s is o f g e n e ra l p r in c ip l e s , th e d i s t i n c t i o n s and
c a te g o r ie s to b e a p p lie d to l i t e r a t u r e , and th e g e n e ra l
c r i t e r i a , o r " s ta n d a r d s ," by w hich i t i s to be judged
a s good o r b ad . P r a c t i c a l c r it i c i s m , o r " a p p lie d
c r i t i c i s m , " b rin g s th e s e elem en ts to b e a r in th e d i s
c u s s io n o f p a r t i c u l a r w o r k s .^
He makes a f u r t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n betw een two ty p e s o f p r a c t i
c a l c r i t i c i s m , one w hich i s im p r e s s io n is tic and a n o th e r
w hich he term s j u d i c i a l , ad d in g , however, t h a t th e d iv is io n
i s seldom d i s t i n c t in a c tu a l p r a c t ic e :
13
Rudler, on. cit., p. 14.
“ m . H- Abrams, A G lo ssa ry o f L ite r a r y Terms (New
York, 1958), p . 20.
15Ibid.. pp. 21-22.
221
The im p r e s s io n is tic c r i t i c a tte m p ts to r e p r e s e n t
in words th e f e l t q u a l i t i e s o f an in d iv id u a l work o f
a r t and to e x p re ss th e em o tio n al resp o n se s w hich th e
work evokes from him a s an in d iv id u a l. . . . J u d i c i a l
c ritic is m * on th e o th e r hand* a tte m p ts to c l a s s i f y
l i t e r a r y works* to a n a ly z e a w ork in to i t s p a r ts and
t h e i r in te r r e la tio n s * to e x p la in th e c a u se s o f emo
t i o n a l e ffe c ts * and to b a se in d iv id u a l judgm ents on
g e n e ra l c r i t e r i a . R a re ly a re th e two inodes o f c r i t i
cism s h a rp ly d i s t i n c t in p r a c t ic e . . . .
Anderson Im b ert p re s e n ts a f u r th e r breakdown o f
c r i t i c a l m ethodology, b a s in g h is a n a ly s is on a th r e e - f o ld
co n c ep t o f th e l i t e r a r y p ro c e s s :
Hay* pues* en ese p ro ceso lin g ii£ s tic o que llamamos
l i t e r a t u r a ,
A) u n a a c tiv id a d c re a d o ra ;
B) u n a obra c re a d a ; y
C) u n a r e - c r e a c io n d e p a r te d e l l e c t o r .
A bercrom bie, a ls o , view s t h i s d iv is io n as th r e e - f o ld :
W e may say* then* t h a t th e realm o f l i t e r a t u r e i s
o ccu p ied by th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th r e e d i s t i n c t pow ers:
th e power to c r e a te , th e power to en jo y , and th e power
to c r i t i z e . 18
A nderson Im bert groups u n d er th e h ead in g o f a c tiv id a d c r e a
d o r a : m etodo h i s t o r i c o . metodo s o c io lo g ic o . metodo p s i -
c o lo g ic o ; under o b ra c r e a d a : m etodo te m a tic o . metodo
16Ibid.. p. 22.
■^Anderson Im b ert, o p. c i t . . p. 60.
18
Abercrombie* op. cit.. p. 9.
222
f o r m a lis ta . m etodo e s t i l £ s t i c o : and u n d er r e - c r e a c io n d e l
l e c t o r : metodo dogm atico. m etodo im p r e s io n is ta . metodo
r e v i s i o n i s t a . ^
G ustave R u d ler p r e s e n ts a s im ila r s e t o f m ethods,
w hich, h e b e lie v e s , sh o u ld s e rv e a s te c h n iq u e s f o r a n a ly
s i s . The m ost im p o rta n t o f th e s e a r e :
C r itiq u e g e n e ra le , c r i t i q u e d * a t tr i b u tio n , c r i t i q u e
de r e s t i t u t i o n , c r i t i q u e d e s o u rc e s , c r i t i q u e d e
g en ese, c r i t i q u e d f in f lu e n c e , c r i t i q u e s o c io lo g iq u e ,
and c r i t i q u e p sy c h o lo g iq u e .20
The G e n e ra tio n o f 1898 was a v e r s a t i l e group o f
w r i t e r s . To t h e i r t a l e n t in th e f i e l d o f th e n o v e l, th e
s h o r t s to r y and th e e ssa y m ust b e added t h a t o f c r i t i c i s m .
The le a d in g c r i t i c o f h i s tim e was A zo rfn . Much o f h is
c r i t i c i s m ap p eared f i r s t in th e form o f c r o n ic a s . U n lik e
some o f h is co n te m p o ra rie s (A lta m ira and Unamuno w ere p ro
f e s s o r s ) , A zo rln depended on th e income from h i s a r t i c l e s
f o r h is liv e lih o o d . Ramon Sender p o in ts o u t t h a t th e
w r itin g p ro fe s s io n i s somewhat m ore lu c r a t i v e in S pain th an
one m ight b e lie v e :
. . . ^se puede v i v i r f u e r a d e Espana con dos c ro n ic a s
sem anales d e amena e ru d ic io n como v iv f a A zorfn en
1 9
A nderson Im b ert, o p. c i t . . p . 154.
20
Rudler, op. cit.. pp. ix-xi.
223
M adrid? Es mas que dudoso . . . Con to d o e s to q u ie ro
d e c ir que l a v id a l i t e r a r i a no es en Espana ta n s o rd id a
como alg u n o s p r e te n d e n .2 *
Azorln s h a re s w ith V a lle In c la n th e d i s t i n c t i o n o f b ein g
an e x c e lle n t p ro se s t y l i s t . The s t y l i s t , how ever, o f te n
i n t e r f e r e s w ith th e c r i t i c , a c c o rd in g to T o rre n te :
En r e a lid a d , l a c r £ t i c a d e "A zo rln ” se a t ie n e a
dos u n ic e s co o rd en ad as: e l g u sto y e l c a p ric h o .
Cuando su buen g u s to a c i e r t a , nos r e g a la con i n t u i -
c io n e s e x a c ta s so b re un a u to r y una o b ra ; cuando e n tr e
e l c r i t i c a d o y e l c r i t i c o e x i s t e a lg u n g en ero d e a f i n i -
dad ( t r a t a s e de L a rra o de G ra c ia n ), e l r e s u lta d o
s u e le s e r v a lio s o . Pero n ad a m as. E l p ro ced im ien to
t l p i c o es l a ev o cac io n . e s d e c i r , l a c re a c io n puram ente
l i t e r a r i a d e un am bito, h i s t o r i c o o p s ic o lo g ic o , en e l
que se e n c a ja arm oniosam ente e l a u to r o l a o b ra , e s -
p e c ie d e h is to r ic is m o esq u em atico en e l que "A zo rln ” no
pudo p ro fu n d iz a r p o r c a r e n c ia d e instrumentos.22
Sender makes a s t e r n e r e v a lu a tio n o f A z o rln 's a b i l i t y a s a
c r i t i c :
A zo rln es a l f i n a l de su e x i s te n c ia e l e s c r i t o r
d e l pequeno cu id ad o p r o l i j o , d e l a a te n c io n p o r lo
n im io y d e lic a d o , d e l a se n s u a lid a d le v a n tin a c o l o r i s t a
p e ro ponderada y d e l a f r u i c i o n mas que de l a agudeza
en e l a n a l i s i s d e su s l e c t u r e s . A s! su c r l t i c a no es
c r l t i c a s in o ra p s o d ia y g l o s a .23
21 /
Ramon J . S ender, Los N oventavochos (New York,
1961), p . 208.
9 9
Gonzalo T o rre n te B a lle s te r , L it e r a tu r e e sn a n o la
contem poranea (M adrid, n . d . ) , p . 260.
2^Sender, op. cit.. p. 209.
224
In d e fe n s e o f A zo rin , i t c a n be p o in te d o u t t h a t th e G ener
a tio n o f 1898 was a g e n e ra tio n o f w r i te r s who so u g h t new
inodes o f e x p re s s io n , who d id n o t o b se rv e , alw ay s, th e l i n e s
w hich d is tin g u is h th e v a rio u s g e n re s , n o r th e t r a d i t i o n a l
r u le s t h a t ap p ly . A nderson Im bert c l a s s i f i e s th e A zorfn
ty p e o f c r i t i c i s m a s im p r e s s io n is tic , p o in tin g o u t t h a t
Andre G ide employs a s im ila r method in a c o l le c tio n o f h is
c r i t i c a l w r itin g s , t i t l e d P r e te x te s :
£1 c r i t i c o , p o r lo v i s t o , s e pone a c o n tin u a r l a
o b ra , como s i no e s tu v ie s e acabada y p e r f e c t s . C ree
que una o b ra e x i s t e en e l l e c t o r , y que p o r lo ta n to
c re c e cuando e s e l e c t o r , elo cu en tem en te, ap ro v ech a un
te x to a je n o p a ra e x p re s a rs e . Con e s ta a c t it u d , que
no se r in d e a l e x t a s is a n te l a b e lle z a , s in o que q u ie re
s e g u ir h acien d o l i t e r a t u r a , A zo rfn , por ejem plo, s u e le
e s c r i b i r p ag in as in s p ira d a s p ero no p e rs p ic a c e s . . .
En e s to s c a so s, lo s te x to s de un e s c r i t o r son p r e te x to s
p a ra que o tr o e s c r i b a . ^
T his im p r e s s io n is tic method i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
some o f Unamuno's c r i t i c a l w r itin g s . Unamuno d efen d s h i s
m ethod in re sp o n se to c r i t i c a l comments on h is h a n d lin g o f
V ida de Don Q u iio te v Sancho:
C o nstantem ente, a l com entar e l Q u iio te . d e jo a C er
v a n te s fu e ra y no me in t e r e s a n i poco n i mucho lo que
e s te buen h id a lg o p e n sa ra a l e s c r i b i r su o b ra , n i lo
^Anderson Imbert, op. cit.. pp. 108-109.
225
que q u iso d e c ir en e l l a , s i es que q u iso d e c ir a lg o
mas dfi^lo ^ue a ^as c ^a r a s y a p rim e ra v i s t a s e le e
a l l £ *
Unamuno was in te r e s te d in S panish-A m erican l e t t e r s and a
good p o r tio n o f h is c r i t i c i s m d e a ls w ith New World l i t e r a
t u r e , a s , f o r exam ple, A lgunas c o n s id e ra c io n e s s o b re l a
l i t e r a t u r a h is n a n o -a m e ric a n a ^ and P o esfa v o r a t o r i a ,
th e l a t t e r work c o n c ern in g th e U ruguayan p o e t, Ju an
Z o r r i l l a d e San M art£n. In Sobre l a e ru d ic io n v l a c r£ -
t i c a , he d is c u s s e s , among o th e r th in g s , th e t h e o r e t i c a l
a s p e c ts o f c r i t i c i s m . One sta te m e n t i s re m in is c e n t o f th e
o b s e rv a tio n made by S o c ra te s w ith r e s p e c t to th e p o e t 's
i n a b i l i t y to a n a ly z e h is own work:
Porque un p o e ta en to n a un c a n to como lo e n to n a un
r u is e n o r , p ero s u e le s e r ta n in c a p a z d e e x p lic a r s e l a
g e n e s is y e l s e n tid o d e e se c a n to Xosu s ig n if ic a c io n
en l a v id a como e l r u is e n o r mismo.
In an e n te r ta in in g and in fo rm a tiv e volume o f c r i t i
cism , E l e s c r i t o r seeun e l v seeun lo s c r £ tic o s . B a ro ja
2^M iguel d e Unamuno, S oledad (3 rd e d .; M adrid,
1957), p. 61.
2^M iguel de Unamuno, A lgunas c o n s id e ra c io n e s so b re
l a l i t e r a t u r a h isn a n o -a m e ric an a (Buenos A ire s, 1947),
pp. 71-150.
2 ^Unamuno, Soledad. pp. 77-88.
28Ibid.. p. 72.
a tte m p ts to do w hat Unamuno says c a n n o t b e done, nam ely,
to e x p la in and p ass judgm ent on o n e 's own w orks. B aro ja
fin d s t h i s ta s k e n t e r ta in i n g , as h e s t a t e s in h i s f i r s t
c h a p te r :
E l h a b la r y ra z o n a r a c e rc a d e mi v id a y de m is
l i b r o s a m£ me d i v i e r t e . . . . *
H is te c h n iq u e i s to in tro d u c e th e c r i t i c a l o p in io n s o f
o th e rs on a s p e c if ic work o f h is and th e n p re s e n t h is own
r e a c tio n to t h e i r o b s e rv a tio n s . In th e p ro c e s s , he r e v e a ls
th e l i t e r a r y p r in c ip le s by w hich h e i s g u id ed , as w e ll as
h is own c r i t i c a l m ethod. In a n o th e r book, La in tu ic io n v
30
e l e s t i l o . w hich ap p ro ach es w hat Abrams d e s c rib e s as
t h e o r e t i c a l c r i ti c i s m , B a ro ja p r e s e n ts h i s view s on a num
b e r o f l i t e r a r y to p ic s , in c lu d in g n o v e l i s t i c te c h n iq u e ,
r e a lis m and s t y l e .
A lta m ira had a s p e c ia l fo n d n ess f o r c r i t i c i s m , th e
'’u ltim o re fu g io d e lo s v ie jo s amores l i t e r a r i o s , " as h e
31
d e s c rib e s i t in th e p ro lo g u e to A rte v r e a l i d a d . He
29p£o B a ro ja , El e s c r i t o r seeun e l v seeun lo s
c r l t i c o s (M adrid, 1952), p . 31.
^ P £ o B a ro ja , La in tu ic io n v e l e s t i l o (M adrid,
1948).
■^R afael A lta m ira , A rte v r e a lid a d (B arcelo n a,
1921), p . 7. ( H e re in a f te r a b b re v ia te d to A rte in th e
f o o tn o te s .)
in
c o n tin u e d to w r ite c r i t i c i s m lo n g a f t e r he abandoned h is
o th e r b e l l e t r i s t i c en d e a v o rs. C r itic is m now p ro v id ed th e
o n ly o u t l e t f o r h is a r t i s t i c e x p re s s io n :
E ste es e l d u lc e y amoroso rem anso en que se d e s -
q u i t a l a o t r a p a r te d e l alm a, mas d e seo sa d e rep o so y
d e b e l le z a cu a n to mas l a a g ita n e l e stru e n d o d e la s
lu c h a
mana.
The n o te o f re p o s e , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to o b se rv e , p e r s i s t s
alm o st tw enty y e a rs a f t e r th e ap p earan ce o f h is n o v e l,
s h o r t s t o r i e s and e ssa y on th e s u b je c t.
A lta m ira* s m e rit a s a c r i t i c was re c o g n iz e d e a r ly
in h is w r itin g c a r e e r . In 1898, The Athenaeum, a l i t e r a r y
rev iew p u b lis h e d in London, in v ite d A lta m ira to c o n tr ib u te
a r t i c l e s on S panish l i t e r a t u r e , a r t and h is t o r y . He was
th e S p an ish r e p r e s e n ta ti v e f o r th e rev iew from 1898 u n t i l
33
1907. Some fo u rte e n European c o u n trie s w ere re p re s e n te d
among th e c o n t r ib u t o r s . Each r e p r e s e n ta tiv e su b m itte d an
an n u a l resum e o f th e im p o rta n t works p u b lish e d in h is
c o u n try ; th e resum e ap p eared in a s p e c ia l e d i tio n o f The
Athenaeum once a y e a r .34 I t w i l l b e r e c a lle d t h a t a t t h i s
; d e l mundo y la s fe a ld a d e s d e l a c o n d u c ts h u -
12
3^Ibid., p. 10.
34Ibid., p. 177.
33Ibid.. p. 9.
228
tim e A lta m ira was e d itin g h is own p u b lic a tio n , R e v is ta
C r£ tic a d e H is to r ia v L i t e r a t u r a . ^
M ariano Baquero Goyanes in E l cu e n to e sp a n o l en e l
s i e l o XIX r e f e r s to A lta m ira as " e l i n t e l i g e n t e c r i t i c o
36
d e f in a le s d e s i g l o ," and c i t e s h i s c r i t i c a l o p in io n no
few er th a n tw elv e tim e s .
Much o f A lta m ira 1s c r i t i c i s m ap p eared f i r s t in th e
form o f a r t i c l e s f o r new spapers and re v ie w s. S in ce some o f
th e s e a r t i c l e s w ere o f an "ephem eral" n a tu re , h e was s e l e c
t i v e when p re p a rin g a c o lle c tio n o f them f o r p u b lic a tio n :
. . . no to d o lo que se e s c r ib e en l a h o ja v o la n d e ra d e l
p e rio d ic o y en l a muy fa c ilm e n te o lv id a d a de l a Re
v i s t a , s e puede c o le c c io n a r y re p r o d u c ir .^ ^
A lta m ira *s c o n tr ib u tio n s in th e f i e l d o f l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m
have been s u b s t a n t i a l, a s th e a u th o r, h im s e lf, p o in ts o u t,
a lth o u g h h e m o d estly re s e rv e s any o p in io n a s to t h e i r
v a l u e :
C reo, s in in m o d e stia , que cuando m is le c to r e s pue-
dan v e r re u n id a to d a mi la b o r l i t e r a r i a , ah o ra e s p a r-
c id a en v a r io s li b r o s o esco n d id a , e s tim a ra n cjue, m ejor
o p eo r (eso yo no h e d e d e c i r l o ) , mi a p o rta c io n a l a
•^ S ee C h ap ter I I , p . 10.
^^M ariano Baquero Goyanes, E l c u e n to e sn a n o l en e l
s i e l o XIX (M adrid, 1949), p . 387.
• ^Arte, pp. 8-9.
229
c r l t i c a y a l e s tu d io d e lo s tem as e s t e t i c o s ( l i t e r a r i o s
o n o ), h a s id o mas c u a n tio s a d e lo que t a l v ez c re e n
a lg u n o s, a m s i n c o n s id e ra r lo s mas hum ildes h ijo s d e
mi plum a: la s n o v e la s y lo s c u e n to s . °
3 9
A rte v r e a lid a d h a s b een chosen f o r d is c u s s io n
s in c e i t c o n ta in s a b ro ad ra n g e o f A lta m ira ’ s c r i t i c a l
w r itin g s , d e a lin g w ith w orks o f S p an ish c l a s s i c a l l i t e r a
t u r e , n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry and contem porary a u th o rs , as w e ll
a s fo re ig n w orks. T hree p ie c e s o f c r i t i c i s m among th e s e
have b een s e le c te d f o r a n a ly s is : G aldos v l a H is to r ia d e
E snana. w hich d e a ls w ith h is t o r y , as i t r e l a t e s to B en ito
P erez G aldos, th e le a d in g S p an ish n o v e l i s t o f th e n in e
te e n th c e n tu ry and a s o u rc e o f i n s p i r a t i o n f o r thfe G ener
a t io n o f 1898; B lasco Ib an ez, n o v e lis ta , w hich re v e a ls
A lta m ira ’ s c r i t i c a l acumen c o n c e rn in g th e works o f a co n
tem p o rary , who was to a t t a i n immense p o p u la rity a t home and
ab ro ad ; and Una n o v e la d e "Andre C o r th is ." ex em p lify in g
A lta m ira ’ s i n t e r e s t in f o re ig n l i t e r a t u r e , and, o f c o u rs e ,
h i s c r i t i c i s m o f f o re ig n w orks.
S e v e ra l o f th e s e le c tio n s in A rte v r e a lid a d ap
p eared o r i g i n a l l y in The Athenaeum a lth o u g h A lta m ira does
38 I b id ., p . 9 .
39
J7 A com plete l i s t o f th e a r t i c l e s o f t h i s c o l l e c
tio n a p p e a rs in th e A ppendix.
230
n o t in d ic a te w hich w ere p u b lis h e d in th a t rev ie w :
Pongo, p o r ejem plo, la s r e v i s t a s l i t e r a r i a s e s p a -
no la s que d u ra n te alg u n o s anos (de 1897 a 1906 [) ]
p u b liq u e en l a r e v i s t a lo n d in e n se The Athenaeum y q u e ,
re u n id a s , form an una b re v e h i s t o r i a d e d ie z anos de
n u e s tr a p ro d u ceio n i n t e l e c t u a l , t a l v ez u t i l p ara
muchos le c to r e s .^ 0
B en ito P erez G aldos was th e le a d in g S panish n o v e l
i s t o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , y e t h e n e v e r re c e iv e d th e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l re c o g n itio n h e m e rite d . H is c a s e i s r e m in is
c e n t o f th e im p o rta n t B r a z ilia n n o v e l i s t , Machado de A s s is ,
a contem porary o f P erez G aldos, whose n o v e l i s t i c m a ste r
p ie c e s w ent u n n o tic e d by fo re ig n c r i t i c s u n t i l f a i r l y
r e c e n tly . T his i s one o f many c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s A lta m ira
w ro te in p r a is e o f Galdos* l i t e r a r y t a l e n t s . T his s p e c if ic
a r t i c l e d e a ls w ith Galdos* m a stery o f th e h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l
and h is a r t i s t r y in b ein g a b le to evoke th e p a s t as few
w r i te r s have been a b le to do.
The fo llo w in g summary, a s w e ll as su b seq u en t sum
m a rie s o f A ltam ira* s a r t i c l e s , does n o t r e p r e s e n t an e x a c t
re p ro d u c tio n o f th e te x t.
^°Arte. p. 9.
Summary o f th e C r itic is m
The p re s s u re o f tim e and th e deep g r i e f w hich I
f e e l a t th e d e a th o f o u r g r e a t n o v e l is t re n d e r i t im pos
s i b l e f o r me to w r ite an y th in g new ab o u t G aldos. I need a
calm er mind and m ust r e f l e c t f u r t h e r on th e abundant and
v a rie d im p ressio n s w hich, o v er th e y e a rs , th e monumental
c o n tr ib u tio n s o f th e f a v o r i t e a u th o r o f my y o u th have l e f t
w ith me. Many o f th e s e im p re ssio n s a r e s c a tte r e d th ro u g h
o u t th e a r t i c l e s I have w r i tte n ab o u t th e n o v e ls , th e
p la y s , th e fem in in e ty p e s o f G ald o sian l i t e r a t u r e , and
o th e r them es r e l a te d to h is w orks. Much more rem ains to b e
s a id ab o u t h is l i t e r a r y a r t , w hich I one day w i l l u n d e rta k e
to do. Today X can o n ly c o n tr ib u te to th e homage b ein g
p a id to th e m a ste r whose p a s s in g we lam en t, by d is c u s s in g
a theme o f w hich I have tr e a t e d on a n o th e r o c c a sio n . Only
by tr e a d in g f a m ilia r ground can I move m y self t o w r ite and
to overcome th e sad n ess I f e e l .
The w r itin g o f h i s t o r i c a l n o v e ls i s a r e l a t i v e l y
sim p le m a tte r, b u t to w r ite them in such a way as to evoke
th e l i f e o f a p eo p le, to p e n e tr a te d e e p ly th e m ost c h a ra c
t e r i s t i c p a r t o f th e psychology o f men who once liv e d , i s
a t a l e n t p o sse sse d o n ly by a r t i s t s o f th e c a l ib e r o f
232
W alter S c o tt. In o rd e r to a t t a i n such a r t , th e n o v e l i s t
m ust p o sse ss c e r t a i n fundam ental q u a l i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
o f th e h i s t o r i a n . The n o v e l i s t 's a b i l i t y to evoke th e p a s t
j
e n t a i l s more th a n m erely p re s e n tin g h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s o r
in v e n tin g d e t a i l s o f p lo t and h ap p en in g s. Few w r ite r s have
been a b le to r e c r e a t e h is t o r y , n o tw ith s ta n d in g th e r e a lis m
o f t h e i r s e t t i n g s , t h e i r keen o b s e rv a tio n , o r th e a p p a re n t
o b j e c t i v i t y w ith w hich th e y have co n ceiv ed and c a r r ie d o u t
t h e i r w orks.
G aldos b elo n g s to th e few who p o sse ss th e q u a l i t i e s
o f th e h i s t o r i a n , o r, a t l e a s t , one o f th e q u a l i t i e s h i s
to r ia n s need to view th e p a s t and to r e c o n s tr u c t i t on a
b a se , c o n s is tin g o f th e fra g m en ta ry r e p o r ts and in c o n c lu
s iv e d a ta w hich re a c h p o s t e r i t y . G ald o s1 c r e a t i v e im ag in a
t i o n —an im a g in a tio n , a t once p l a s t i c , c o n c re te and d i s
c r e e t , c a p a b le o f evoking, w ith rig o ro u s p r e c is io n , a
v a r i e t y o f im ages w hich have c a p tu re d th e e s s e n t i a l and
o fte n o b sc u re q u a l ity o f th in g s in a m ost n a t u r a l m anner—
p ro v id ed him w ith a f a c u lty f o r c o n s tr u c tin g , f o r r e c r e
a tin g w hole w o rld s, such a s Mommsen was a b le to do.
What i s i n t e r e s t i n g i s t h a t G aldos was aw are o f
t h i s a p titu d e , c u l tiv a te d i t c a r e f u l ly , p e rse v e re d in
233
r e f in in g i t , and e v e n tu a lly tu rn e d i t to ad v an tag e. T h is
a p titu d e w as, in f a c t , so in g ra in e d in him t h a t n o t o n ly
d id h e trium ph w ith h is E p iso d io s. b u t was doubly s u c c e s s
f u l w ith h is N ovelas C ontem poraneas. w hich r e p r e s e n t h i s
second p e r io d .
F or t h i s re a s o n , th e l i t e r a t u r e o f G aldos i s e s s e n
t i a l re a d in g f o r th e p erso n who w ishes to u n d ersta n d th e
psychology o f th e S panish p eo p le o f o u r tim e s. O ther
n o v e lis ts have a tte m p te d , o f te n w ith g r e a t e f f o r t b u t w ith
le s s s p o n ta n e ity , to em u late G aldos, b u t th e y do n o t
ap p ro ach th e m a s te r. Only th e books o f B a ro ja a r e com
p a ra b le , b u t to d ay i s n o t th e day to mix nam es.
A n a ly sis o f th e C r itic is m
G aldos v l a H is to r ia d e Espana i s one o f s ix c r i t i
c a l a r t i c l e s ab o u t G aldos, a p p e a rin g in A rte v r e a l i d a d .
In i t , A lta m ira e u lo g iz e s th e p a s s in g o f a man whom he
g r e a t ly ad m ired . Y et, th e m ain s u b je c t o f th e a r t i c l e
d e a ls w ith a p o in t o f c r i t i c i s m w hich A lta m ira , by re a s o n
o f h is p o s itio n a s S p a in 1s le a d in g h i s t o r i a n and, a ls o ,
h is e x p e rie n c e in th e b e l l e t r i s t i c f i e l d , was q u a l if i e d to
comment on: th e h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l.
234
The a r t i c l e , d a te d Ja n u a ry 4, 1920, i s a r e l a t i v e l y
s h o r t p ie c e o£ c r i t i c i s m o f th e ty p e Abrams c l a s s i f i e s as
t h e o r e t i c a l . A lta m ira does n o t m ention w here th e a r t i c l e
was p u b lis h e d o r i g i n a l l y .
A ltam ira* s c r i t i c i s m d e a ls w ith one a s p e c t o f novel-
i s t i c w r itin g . The m ere en u m eratio n o f a c c u ra te h i s t o r i c a l
f a c t s w ith in a w e ll-c o n s tr u c te d p lo t does n o t, n e c e s s a r ily ,
c o n s t i t u t e a good h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l. The w r i te r m ust
p o sse ss c r e a tiv e im a g in a tio n , a s m ust, in f a c t , th e s k i l l e d
h i s t o r i a n . S ince G aldos p o sse sse d t h i s e s s e n t i a l q u a lity ,
he was a b le to evoke th e p a s t a s few w r i te r s have succeeded
in d o in g . A lta m ira p o in ts o u t th a t o n ly B a ro ja , among h is
c o n te m p o ra rie s, ap p ro ach es G aldos in t h i s r e s p e c t.
A lta m ira do es n o t a tte m p t an a n a ly s is o f a s p e c if ic
work in h i s c r i t i c i s m . He u s e s h is e x p e rie n c e and v a n ta g e
p o in t a s a h i s t o r i a n to e x p la in h is th e o ry , d is p e n s in g w ith
any s u p p o rtin g , o r c o n c re te , m a te r ia l, o th e r th a n c i t i n g
S c o tt, Mommsen, B a ro ja , and Galdos* w orks, o f c o u rs e . P e r
haps th e b e s t exam ple in S panish-A m erican l i t e r a t u r e o f a
n o v e l i s t w ith th e q u a l ity A lta m ira m en tio n s i s E nrique
L a r r e ta whose La g l o r i a de don Ramiro, an e v o c a tio n o f
s ix te e n th - c e n tu r y S p ain , i s a modem l i t e r a r y m a s te rp ie c e .
235
P erez G aldos has been th e s u b je c t o f a number of
c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s w r itte n by A lta m ira . El T e a tro de Perez
G ald o s, a c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is o f G ald o s' R ealid ad and La lo c a
de l a c a s a , ap p e ars in A lta m ir a 's De h i s t o r i a y a r t e . 4^
In Cosas d e l d£a, A lta m ira d is c u s s e s th e fem ale c h a ra c te rs
o f s e v e r a l G ald o sian n o v e ls, in a stu d y t i t l e d La m uier en
la s n o v e la s de P erez G ald o s. 4 ^
A zorfn a ls o w rite s ab o u t G aldos and h is p o s itio n in
S p an ish l e t t e r s . In La e e n e ra c io n de 1898, he c i t e s Galdos
as one o f th r e e w r ite r s who in flu e n c e d h i s g e n e ra tio n :
E n tre n o s o tro s , en e l p erfo d o c ita d o , t r e s a r t i s -
ta s l i t e r a r i o s han d eterm in ad o una
s e n tim e n ta l: Campoamor, E chegaray,
I t was G ald o s' d e p ic tio n o f r e a l i t y th a t im p ressed th e
G en e ra tio n o f 1898:
G aldos ib a paso a paso dandonos sus l i b r o s re p le to s
de menuda r e a lid a d ; la s nuevas g e n e ra c io n e s fuim os
acercan d o n o s, s o lid a riz a n d o n o s , com penetrandonos con
l a r e a l i d a d .4^
4 ^ R afa el A lta m ira , De h i s t o r i a y a r t e (M adrid,
1898), pp. 275-314.
4 ^A ltam ira, Cosas d e l d ia . pp. 9 -1 6 .
Jo se M a rtin ez R u iz, C la sic o s v m odem os (5 th e d . ;
Buenos A ire s , 1959), p. 178.
44Ibid.. p. 180.
236
Galdos i s th e s u b je c t o f a n o th e r Azorxn a r t i c l e , En San
O uint£n con e l m aestro G ald o s. ^ U sing w hat A nderson
*
Im bert c a l l s th e im p r e s s io n is tic m ethod, h e d e s c rib e s in
m inute d e t a i l th e n o v e l i s t 's fam ily and p la c e o f re s id e n c e .
In La n o v e la h i s t o r i c a , A zorln u n d e rsc o re s in somewhat
s im ila r fa s h io n to A lta m ira, th e p i t f a l l s o f th e w ould-be
w r ite r o f h i s t o r i c a l n o v e ls:
Y aqux tenemos uno de lo s e s c o llo s c a p ita le s de l a
n o v e la h i s t o r i c a ; p o d re is r e c o n s tr u ir p ac ien tem e n te,
m inuciosam ente, con to d a c la s e de d e t a l l e s , e l v i v i r
de un s ig lo p asad o —un ta n to rem oto— ; p o d re is h a c e m o s
v e r lo s t r a j e s , la s c a l l e s , la s c a s a s , lo s e s p e c ta c u -
lo s , e t c . Pero iy l a p s ic o lo g la de lo s p e rs o n a je s ?
e s a m a te ria ta n s u t i l , ta n e flm e ra , ta n a la d a , que
c o n s titu y e e l c a r a c t e r ? ^ ”
In g e n e ra l, th e em phasis on h is to r y looms la r g e in th e
l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m o f th e men o f 1898. Unamuno's H is to r ia
v N ovela, a lth o u g h i t does n o t d e a l s p e c i f i c a l l y w ith th e
h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l, p o in ts up th e h is to ry -c o n s c io u s a t t i t u d e
o f h is g e n e ra tio n :
Tambien la s n o v e la s in flu y e n , s in duda, p ero por
lo comun, mas que im pulsando a l a a c c io n y a l a v id a
p u b lie a d isu a d ie n d o de e l l a . As£ como en e l jo v e n ,
^ J o s e M artfn ez R uiz, Los c la s ic o s r e d iv iv o s . lo s
c la s ic o s fu tu ro s (2nd e d . ; Buenos A ire s , 1950), pp. 104-
107.
^^M artin ez R uiz, C la sic o s v m odem os. pp. 141-142.
237
que se la n z a a l a v ld a p u b lie a , que a n h e la h a c e r alg o
p o r su p a t r i a , que suena en au m en ta rle l a g lo r ia ,
v e r e is a menudo tin fa n a tiz a d o p o r l a h i s t o r i a , a s i en
e l jo v en m isan tro p o , d e s p re c ia d o r d e lo s honibres, p re -
d ic a d o r d e l [ s i c ] vanidad de v an id a d es y de l a i n u t i l i -
dad de todo e s fu e rz o , e n c o n tra re is con fre c u e n c ia a l
d ev o rad o r de n o v e l a s . ^ ?
V ice n te B lasco Ib an ez, d u rin g h is li f e t i m e , r e
c e iv e d w orldw ide re c o g n itio n as a n o v e l i s t in a way G aldos
d id n o t. In 1899, when A lta m ira w ro te t h i s a r t i c l e , B lasco
Ibanez had w r i tte n only two n o v els and a book o f s h o rt
s t o r i e s ; a t h i r d n o v e l, La b a rra c a . was ab o u t to be pub
lis h e d . L ite r a r y fame had n o t y e t come to B lasco . A lta
m ira d is c u s s e s th e s e works and B la sc o f s c a p a b i l i ty as a
w r i t e r . A lthough B lasco Ibanez i s a contem porary o f th e
men o f 1898, he d i f f e r s from them in tem peram ent and
a c tio n s .
Summary o f th e C r itic is m
Any r e a d e r, w h atev er h is p h ilo s o p h ic a l o r p o l i t i c a l
o p in io n s , who en jo y s good l i t e r a t u r e and has re a d th e
^ M ig u e l d e Unamuno, C o n tra e s to v a q u e llo (M adrid,
1912), p. 236.
238
n o v els and s h o r t s t o r i e s o f B lasco Ib an ez, m ust adm it th a t
he i s one o f th e b e s t o f o u r m odem S p an ish w r i t e r s , w orthy
o f a p la c e a lo n g s id e Ochoa.
A lthough B lasco Ib an ez i s known by m ost p e o p le o n ly
as a f ig h tin g p o l i t i c a l f ig u r e , a f i e r y p ro p a g a n d is t, h is
m ost o r i g i n a l , w o rth w h ile and en d u rin g q u a lity i s th a t o f
a l i t e r a r y a r t i s t .
The n o v e l h as alw ays a t t r a c t e d B lasco Ib an ez.
W hile s t i l l a freshm an a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f V a le n c ia , he
began to o u tli n e h is own " e p is o d io s n a c io n a le s ” (G aldos was
th e i d o l o f a l l young w r i t e r s ) o r ro m an tic n a r r a t i v e s .
Y ears l a t e r , h is c r e a tiv e s p i r i t , r e in f o rc e d by e x te n s iv e
re a d in g and t r a v e l abroad (o fte n in v o lu n ta ry ), p r e v a ile d ;
he s o a rs to g r e a t h e ig h ts o f e x p re s s io n in h is f i r s t s to r y
o f V a le n c ia n custom s, t i t l e d A rroz v t a r t a n a .
For t h i s s to r y , B lasco a v a ile d h im s e lf o f w hat no
o th e r w r i t e r had used b e fo re : th e w e a lth o f m a te r ia l to b e
found in th e L ev an te, a so u rc e o f dram a and p o e try f o r a l l
who w itn e s s t h a t re g io n . From th e com plex V a le n cia n s e t
tin g , th e a u th o r ch o se as h is s u b je c t th e psychology o f th e
b o u rg e o is m erchant c l a s s , th e tr u e moneyed a r is to c r a c y ,
w hich i s v e ry c lo s e in h a b its and c u l tu r e to th e low er
239
c la s s e s from w hich i t stem s. B la sc o 1s o b s e rv a tio n s a re
e x p re s s iv e , and he d e p ic ts r e a l i s t i c a l l y th e s p e c ia l,
p e c u lia r w orld o f th e V alen cian and th e shopkeepers o f th e
m arket p la c e , a m ix tu re o f th e in d ig en o u s elem ent and th e
A ragonese. H is work, th e r e f o r e , does n o t resem b le th o se
n o v e ls ( f o r exam ple, La fe b re d*or o f O ile r) w hich co n fu se
th e p sy chology o f th e modem m erchant w ith t h a t o f h is
a n c ie n t c o u n te r p a r t.
In h i s second n o v e l, F lo r de Mayo. B lasco p u ts
a s id e th e custom s o f th e m id d le c la s s o f th e c a p i t a l and
tu r n s to th e s e a s id e town o f Grao; in t h i s new m ilie u , he
produces a n o v e l much s u p e r io r to i t s p re d e c e s s o r. I t i s
a good n o v e l b ecau se th e w r i t e r h as d em o n strated g r e a te r
s k i l l in th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f p lo t, and i t i s e x c e p tio n a l,
in my o p in io n , b ecau se th e p l o t , i t s e l f , i s su b o rd in a te d to
th e d e p ic tio n o f custom s and c h a r a c te r ty p e s .
The a c tio n o f th e s to r y , in e ssen c e , i s sim ply th e
e t e r n a l dram a o f a d u lte r y , ta k in g p la c e , in t h i s in s ta n c e ,
in a s o c ia l s i t u a t i o n q u ite d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f th e
b o u rg e o is ie , som ething q u ite n o v el in l i t e r a t u r e . I t i s
obvious t h a t what i n t e r e s t s th e n o v e l is t i s n o t th e drama
o r p l o t , b u t r a th e r th e r e l a t i n g o f m a ritim e custom s:
240
th e f i s h m ark ets, th e c o n s tru c tio n o f s h ip s , co n trab an d
a c t i v i t i e s , th e s tr u g g le w ith th e s e a . B lasco has c a p tu re d
th e b e a u ty and p o e try o f th e L ev an te, d e p ic tin g c o l o r f u l
se a sc a p e s , f a i t h f u l l y and w ith g r e a t d e s c r ip tiv e power:
th e t r i p to Oran, th e d e p a rtu re o f th e f is h in g b o a ts , a
L ev a n tin e storm .
H is C uentos v a le n c ia n o s . p u b lish e d su b se q u e n tly ,
r e t a i n s th e p r o v in c ia l and r e a l i s t i c f la v o r o f A rroz v
ta r t a n a and F lo r d e Mayo and e x h ib its th e same a r t i s t i c
method o f h i s n o v e ls . His d e s c r ip tio n o f c h a r a c te r ty p e s
and custom s i s v iv id and tr u e to l i f e ; th e n a r r a t i v e i s
sm o o th -flo w in g , c l e a r and g r a c e f u l, harm onizing w ith th e
c h a r a c te r iz a tio n and th e d e s c r ip tiv e elem en ts o f th e
s t o r i e s . I t i s a p p a re n t th a t a V ale n cia n h as w r i tte n th e s e
C u en to s♦ A lthough t h i s d e t r a c t s somewhat from th e o b je c
t i v e q u a l ity o f th e s t o r i e s , i t i s more th a n com pensated
f o r by th e p e rs o n a l and f a m ilia r to n e in them, w hich i s
a c tu a l ly a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e cu en to as i t was o r i g i
n a l l y co n c eiv e d .
I t i s w e ll known t h a t th e cu e n to has undergone an
even more r a d i c a l change th a n th e n o v el in modem l i t e r a
tu r e . I t h as g ra d u a lly changed in form from th e humorous
241
s to r y (th e m ost p o p u la r ty p e ) and th e b r i e f n a r r a tiv e , in
w hich a c tio n and d ia lo g u e p red o m in ate, to w hat th e F rench
c a l l th e n o u v e lle . I t h as been expanded to in c lu d e d e
s c r ip t io n and p s y c h o lo g ic a l stu d y a t th e expense o f ex
t e r n a l a c tio n . The common r e a c tio n to t h i s change, o fte n
e x p re sse d , i s : "These m odem s t o r i e s have no p l o t . " But
in a r t a l l form s a re le g itim a te . The new s h o r t s to r y has
made i t s m ark; th e re i s no f u r t h e r need to d is c u s s i t , o r
even what d e s ig n a tio n , o th e r th a n c u e n to . i t m ig h t be
g iv e n .
B lasco*s C uentos v a le n c ia n o s a r e n o t a l l m odem in
t h i s se n se . Some do have p l o ts ; o th e r s , p erh ap s th e ma
j o r i t y , a r e tr u e esc e n a s d e co stu ro b res. Of th e n in e t h a t
make up th e c o l l e c t i o n , th e r e i s one, t i t l e d La C aperuza,
w hich i s n o t V ale n c ia n , b u t a s to r y o f g e n e ra l human p sy
ch o lo g y ; a n o th e r, La c o rre c c io n , a te n d e n tio u s s to r y , i s
re m in is c e n t o f Pardo B azan’ s E l in d u lt o ; and a t h i r d , La
lev en d a d e l e s p a r r e llo . i s an am using and e x p re s s iv e f o lk -
l o r i c s to r y . Of th e rem ain in g s t o r i e s , E l F em ater i s
s l i g h t l y ro m a n tic , w ith an in c o n s is te n c y in n a r r a t i v e th a t
rem inds one o f sk e tc h e s done from memory o r from h e a rs a y .
On th e o th e r hand, ; Cosas d e hom bres! and Guaoeza
242
v a le n c ia n a a re s p a rk lin g s t o r i e s o f V alen cian l i f e ; and
La c e n c e rra d a and Dimoni d e p ic t th e e x tr a o r d in a r ily a n i
m ated and c o l o r f u l r u r a l sc en e.
The l a s t s to r y o f th e volume r e l a t e s , in seven
c h a p te r s , a t r i p to A lg ie rs ( E l p a ls d e B a rb a rro ia ) and
c o n s t i t u t e s , i f n o t an im provem ent o v er F lo r d e Mayo, a t
l e a s t , a new a f f ir m a tio n o f B lasco Ib a n e z * a r t i s t i c a b i l i
t i e s .
As f o r La b a r r a c a , w hich i s s h o r tly to b e pub
lis h e d , I have, as y e t, l i t t l e to sa y . In my o p in io n , even
i f t h i s l a t e s t e f f o r t o f B lasco does n o t su rp a ss some o f
th e a d m ira b le c h a p te rs o f F lo r d e Mayo, i t w i l l s t i l l b e
an e x c e lle n t work.
A n aly sis o f th e C r itic is m
B lasco Ib an ez, Unamuno, B a ro ja , A zorfn and A lta m ira
w ere o f th e same g e n e ra tio n , few er th a n te n y e a rs se p a
r a t i n g t h e i r d a te s o f b i r t h . A lthough B lasco Ibanez*
w r itin g c a r e e r c o in c id e s w ith t h a t o f th e afo rem en tio n ed
w r i t e r s , h e i s seldom grouped w ith them . He i s a f ire b ra n d
and r e v o lu tio n a r y , a D io n y siac f ig u r e o f th e ty p e B a ro ja
w ro te ab o u t b u t d id n o t, p e r s o n a lly , em u late; th e G ener
a tio n o f 1898, in f a c t , w ere a re s e rv e d , i f n o t tim id l o t .
243
Even Unamuno's b l u s t e r i s d is g u is e d sh y n e ss, a c c o rd in g to
S en d er. ^
A lta m ira d is c u s s e s , in t h i s fiv e -p a g e a r t i c l e , some
o f th e works o f B la s c o 's e a rly p e rio d . T h is p e rio d i s p e r
haps th e b e s t , a r t i s t i c a l l y , o f h i s c a r e e r . The lo c a le o f
h is two n o v e ls and h i s s h o rt s t o r i e s i s th e L ev an te. A lta -
m ir a 's o v e r - a l l view o f B la s c o 's work and h is e c l e c t i c
method o f a n a ly s is , em bracing th e ty p e s l i s t e d u n d er
A nderson Im b e rt's a c tiv id a d c re a d o ra and o b ra c re a d a . su g
g e s t t h a t th e a r t i c l e , w hich b e a rs th e d a te 1899, appeared
in The Athenaeum. One o f th e re a s o n s f o r p u b lic a tio n in
th e London rev iew was to expose th e w orks o f r e p r e s e n ta tiv e
S p an ish a u th o rs . A lta m ira , how ever, does n o t in d ic a te th e
p la c e o f p u b lic a tio n .
The e c le c tic is m o f A lta m ira 1 s a n a ly s is i s ev idenced
in h i s s e v e r a l comments on th e v a rio u s w orks. These r e
m arks a r e n e c e s s a r ily b r i e f s in c e th e e n t i r e c r i t i c i s m
c o v e rs o n ly a few p ag es. In h is d is c u s s io n o f A rroz v t a r -
ta n a , h e m entions t h a t many w r i te r s (n o t B lasco ) co n fu se
th e m e n ta lity o f th e m odem m erchant and h i s c o u n te r p a r t o f
e a r l i e r tim e s:
^Sender, op. cit.. p. 42.
244
. . . han q u e rid o p i n t a r lo s e fe c to s d e la v an id ad c a p i-
t a l i s t a a l a m odepia en e l e s p i r i t u d e lo s co m e rc ia n tes
a l a a n tig u a . (metodo h is t o r ic o - n s ic o l o g ic o )
A lta m ira d e s c r ib e s th e s o c ia l c l a s s around w hich th e n o v el
c e n t e r s :
E scogio e l a u to r como a s u n to , en e l com plejo cuadro
v a le n tin o , l a p s ic o lo g f a d e l a c la s e m edia c o m e rc ia l,
v e rd a d e ra a r i s t o c r a c i a d e l d in e ro , aunque lin d a n te y
c a s i co n fu n d id a p o r lo s h a b ito s y l a c u l tu r a con la s
c la s e s b a ja s , de que p ro ced e d ire c ta ra e n te . Y como
B lasco hiz'o en v iv o su s o b se rv a c io n e s, e stu d ia n d o e l
mundo e s p e c ia l, p ro p io d e V a le n c ia , d e lo s te n d e ro s
d e l m ercado, m ezcla de elem entos in d fg e n a s y d e ap o r-
ta c io n e s a ra g o n e sa s . . ..^0 (metodo s o c io lo g ic o ^
In h i s a n a ly s is o f F lo r d e Mayo, A lta m ira employs
s t i l l o th e r m ethods. He comments on B lasco * s u se o f a
f a m ilia r n o v e l i s t i c theme:
. . . no es mas que e l e te m o drama d e l a d u l te r io . . . . ^
(m etodo te m a tic o )
He p o in ts o u t t h a t t h i s n o v e l i s more sim p ly , y e t b e t t e r
c o n s tru c te d th a n th e p re v io u s one:
D ebese e s t a s u p e rio rid a d , de u n a p a r te , a l a mayor
d e s tr e z a que a d q u ie re e l a r t i s t a con l a r e p e tic io n d e l
e s fu e rz o c re a d o r; de o t r a , a l a m ayor e s p e c ia lid a d d e l
a su n to y a l a s im p lic id a d y c o n c re c io n de lo <^ue pode-
mos s e g u ir llam ando e l '’argum ento'*. . . . ” (metodo
f o r m a lis ta )
49A rte , p. 116. 50I b i d .
51I b i d . . p . 117. 52I b i d . . pp. 116-117.
245
A lta m ira em phasizes th e p o e tic q u a lity o f B la s c o 's n o v e l: -
. . . B lasco ha lle g a d o a g ra n d es a c ie r to s y b e lle z a s
en l a e je c u c io n , y en l a p o e s ia d e l r e l a t o . . . Son de
n o ta r e l v ig o r d e s c r ip tiv o , l a f id e lid a d y riq u e z a de
c o lo r de rauchas escen as m a rftim a s. . ..*’ (metodo
e s t i l f s t i c o )
In A lta m ira 's o p in io n , th e m ost s t r i k i n g , th e m ost
w o rth w h ile p a r t o f th e n o v e l, su p e rse d in g even th e p lo t,
i s B la s c o 's d e s c r ip tio n o f lo c a l custom s:
Pero b a s ta una l e c tu r a de l a n o v e la p a ra a d v e r t i r
que lo que a tr a e e i n t e r e s a a l n o v e l is ta no e s - - a
p e s a r de escen as muy d e s a r r o lla d a s en e s te s e n tid o - -
e l drama que s ir v e de argum ento, s in o que su s p re -
f e r e n c ia s (tam bien la s d e l l e c t o r ) , van h a c ia e l
r e l a t o de la s costum bres m a rin e ra s : l a v e n ta d e l p e s -
cad o , l a c o n s tru c c io n de b a rc a s , l a s ex p e d icio n es
c o n tra b a n d is ta s , l a lu ch a con e l m ar. . . . ^
A lta m ira 's o b s e rv a tio n th a t th e a u th o r ta k e s s p e c ia l d e
l i g h t in d e s c rib in g th e custom s o f h is p ro v in c e i s s i g n i
f i c a n t . In l a t e r n o v e ls , when B lasco moves th e lo c a le to
o th e r, le s s f a m ilia r a r e a s , h e i s le s s s u c c e s s fu l, a r t i s
t i c a l l y .
The Cuentos v a le n c ia n o s . a c c o rd in g to A lta m ira ,
r e v e a l th e same em phasis on lo c a l c o lo r and cu sto m s:
El volumen d e C uentos v a le n c ia n o s que p u b lic o mas
ta r d e , m an tien e l a n o ta l o c a l y r e a l i s t a d e la s n o v e la s
53Ibid., p. 117.
246
A rroz v ta r ta n a y F lo r de Mavo, y sig u e lo s mismos
p ro ced im ien to s a r t i s t i c o s que e s ta s o b ra s. La p in tu r a
de j«j|P0S y costum bres es ig u alm e n te e x a c ta y v iv a .
• • •
I t i s a p p a re n t th a t A lta m ira was im pressed by t h i s a s p e c t
o f B lasco*s w r itin g . L ocal c o lo r and custom s, i t w i l l be
r e c a lle d , ap p e ar p ro m in en tly in A ltam ira* s own w orks.
In d is c u s s in g th e l i b e r t i e s B lasco ta k e s w ith
re g a rd to th e form o f th e c u e n to , A lta m ira r e v e a ls h is
l i t e r a r y p h ilo so p h y and th a t o f th e G en eratio n o f 1898,
in g e n e ra l:
As £ d ic e e l v u lg o de muchos cu en to s m odernos—p r e -
c io s o s a veces como o b ras l i t e r a r i a s —"que no tie n e n
argum ento"; p ero como en a r t e to d a s la s form as son
le g ftim a s , e l c u e n to nuevo se h a im puesto y no hay
p ara que d i s c u t i r l e n i aun e l t i t u l o . ^ 6
^a_nwel§_dg_Ji |^^re_C orthis: l,
A ltam ira* s c r i t i c i s m in th i s a r t i c l e d e a ls w ith th e
n o v e l of a F rench a u th o re s s . P r io r to h is a n a ly s is o f th e
n o v e l, he d is c u s s e s th e re a so n s why F rance has produced so
many f in e w r ite r s , th e p re fe re n c e o f many women f o r mas
c u lin e pseudonyms, and Andre C o rth is , th e H is p a n o p h ile .
55Ibid.. pp. 117-118. 56Ibid.. p. 118.
i
247
He c o n tr a s ts t h i s u n p r e te n tio u s , te n d e r, y e t tr a g ic n o v el
w ith v a rio u s k in d s o f n o v e l, p o p u la r a t th e tim e.
Summary o f th e C r itic is m
D uring th o se p e rio d s o f h is to r y in w hich F ran ce
ca n n o t c la im a w r i te r o f i n t e r n a ti o n a l renown, i t s t i l l
produces many f in e w r i t e r s , in c lu d in g n o v e l is ts o f ex cep
t i o n a l m e r it. I t i s w e ll known, g e n e ra lly , t h a t th e F rench
s tu d e n t who h as gone th ro u g h h ig h sc h o o l ( lic e o ) h a s a good
command o f h i s language and a more th a n ad eq u ate c u l t u r a l
background. T his d e riv e s in no sm a ll m easure from a stu d y
o f th e c l a s s i c a l works o f th e n a tio n , w hich, as we u n d e r
s ta n d , form th e b a s is o f seco n d ary e d u c a tio n , c o n tra ry to
w hat o ccu rs in o u r c o u n try . But t h a t i s n o t what I w ish to
sp eak about to d a y .
I r e i t e r a t e t h a t F ran ce i s c o n s ta n tly p ro d u cin g
f i n e w r i t e r s , i n t e r e s t i n g n o v e l i s t s . Among th e s e a u th o rs ,
a s in England, many a r e women, and l i k e t h e i r E n g lish
c o u n te r p a r ts , th ey en jo y a w ide re a d in g p u b lic . We a r e
rem inded o f th e la d y , r e c e n tly d eceased , who sig n ed h e r
n o v e ls w ith th e pseudonym " P ie r r e de C o u le v a in ." One o f
h e r w orks, "Eva v i c t o r i o s a , " has been p u b lis h e d by N elson,
248
and th e o th e r , "S u r l a b ra n c h e ," d e s e rv e s to b e re a d and
enjoyed by a l l re a d e rs o f d is c rim in a tin g t a s t e .
Among th e contem porary women n o v e l is ts o f F ran ce,
th e r e i s one who m e rits th e a t t e n t i o n o f th e S panish pub
l i c . A s h o r t tim e ago sh e was s e n t to M adrid by th e "Revue
d es deux mondes" on a s p e c ia l assig n m en t, w hich was a m ost
p le a s a n t e x p e rie n c e f o r u s . I r e f e r to th e w r ite r who i s
known to th e l i t e r a r y w orld by th e m a scu lin e pseudonym o f
"Andre C o r th is ."
I have alw ays found i t somewhat d i f f i c u l t to u n d e r
sta n d why many (by no m eans, a l l ) o f th e women who become
w r i t e r s , and among th e s e many who g a in s u b s t a n t ia l l i t e r a r y
r e c o g n itio n , ad o p t m a scu lin e pseudonyms. I f th e y b e lie v e
t h a t re a d e rs a r e p re ju d ic e d a g a in s t them, th ey a r e m is
ta k e n . Perhaps th a t"w as t r u e e a r ly in th e n in e te e n th
c e n tu ry , b u t i t i s n o t so to d a y . Or p erh ap s th e y a r e i n
flu e n c e d by th e t r a d i t i o n e s ta b lis h e d by e a r l i e r women
w r i t e r s . W hatever th e c a se , th e y have t h e i r re a s o n s .
As I m entioned b e fo re , "Andre C o rth is " i s w orthy o f
o u r a t t e n t i o n , f o r a number o f re a s o n s . In th e f i r s t
p la c e , she i s a H is p a n is t, n o t in th e se n se o f e r u d ite
w r i t e r , a m eaning commonly a s sig n e d to t h a t term , b u t
249
r a t h e r a lo v e r o f e v e ry th in g S p an ish . "A ndre C o rth is ” has
become a H is p a n is t, n o t th ro u g h re a d in g about us in books,
b u t b ecau se she h as liv e d w ith us f o r a long tim e . She
sp eak s our n a t io n a l lan g u ag e, C a s til ia n , v e ry w e ll and
u n d e rsta n d s o u r way o f l i f e and th e S panish s o u l as few
o th e r v i s i t o r s do, p r in c ip a lly b ecau se sh e h as n o t r e
s t r i c t e d h e r s e l f to l i t e r a r y c i r c l e s b u t h as moved o u t
among th e p e o p le .
Her l a t e s t book i s a n o v e l t i t l e d "P our moi s e u l e .”
I t i s a n o v e l, t a s t e f u l l y w r i tte n , and in sh a rp c o n tr a s t
w ith th e w orrisom e w orld o f m odem man. But th e s p i r i t
n e e d s, and e v e r se e k s, com p en satio n . Whenever th e w orld i s
sh ak en , as i t i s now, by momentous, tr a g ic e v e n ts , f r i v o
lo u s men lo o k f o r c o n t r a s t o r com pensation in s i l l y and
s u p e r f i c i a l amusement ( th e r e i s am ple p ro o f o f t h i s d u rin g
p e rio d s o f r e v o lu tio n ) ; s e r io u s men fin d i t in se re n e ,
h eart-w arm in g books; q u ie t, n o n v io le n t dram a. "Andre
C o rth is* " n o v e l e x h ib its much o f t h i s q u ie t charm .
I t i s one o f th o s e in n e r dram as o f lo v e , p lay ed o u t
in th e mind o f th e h e ro in e . C ru e l m is ta k e s , l i k e th e
h e ro in e * s , a r e com m itted fre q u e n tly in t h i s l i f e . At th e
moment th e h e ro in e * s t r a g i c e x p e rie n c e i s re v e a le d in th e
250
n o v e l, my th o u g h ts im m ediately tu rn e d to a s im ila r s i t u
a tio n in de M aupassant’ s s to ry a b o u t th e p e a r l n e c k la c e ,
one o f th e m ost p o w erfu l and p o ig n a n t o f h i s s t o r i e s .
In "Andre C o r th is ’” n o v e l, th e p r o ta g o n is t endures
a l i f e o f d e p riv a tio n b ecau se o f h e r h ig h ly s e n s itiv e and
d e l i c a t e n a tu r e . She i s g u id ed , alw ays, by th e n o b le s t
m o tiv es ( t h i s a t t r i b u t e i s p o in te d out m ore th an once by
th e a u th o r) ; a s a consequence, sh e i s s u b je c te d to th e
a sto u n d in g v u l g a r i t i e s and u n r e le n tin g egoism o f th o s e w ith
whom she m ust d e a l. She e x p e rie n c e s, to o , a p e c u lia r , v e ry
human, kind o f rem orse, b ecau se she h as l e t a moment o f
p e rs o n a l h a p p in ess p a ss by, a lth o u g h to h av e g rasp ed f o r i t
would have m eant com prom ising h e r m oral p r i n c i p l e s . T h is
i s th e m ost d ram a tic p a r t o f th e n o v e l- - th e p r o ta g o n is t’ s
lo y a lty and n o b i l i t y o f so u l, a l i f e s a c r if i c e d to i l l u s i o n
and m isu n d e rsta n d in g . The r e a d e r i s l e f t w ith a f e e lin g
o f b i t t e r n e s s , o f m elancholy, and an im p e llin g d e s ir e to
p r o t e s t th e in e q u itie s and i n j u s t i c e s o f t h i s w o rld .
A side from th e drama in th e n o v e l, "Andre C o rth is "
has used la n d sc a p e and a d e s c r ip tio n o f th e p r o v in c ia l
s o c ia l m ilie u e f f e c t i v e l y . U n lik e some a u th o rs who seek
to r e c r e a te lo c a l c o lo r by r e s o r t i n g to d e t a il e d and
251
r e p e t i t i o u s d e s c r ip tio n , sh e d e p ic ts l i f e in c o n tr a s tin g ,
liv e ly , y e t m o d erate to n e s . Those re a d e rs who a r e a t t r a c t e d
by th e tr a n s c e n d e n ta l o r t h e s i s n o v e l o r who en jo y th e
m ystery o r d e te c tiv e s to r y may fin d l i t t l e to i n t e r e s t them
in th is sim p le, m o v in g ly -to ld t a l e . O ther r e a d e r s —and,
f o r tu n a te ly , th e r e a re s t i l l many o f th e s e —w i l l fin d "Pour
moi s e u le " a charm ing s to r y .
A n aly sis o f th e C r itic is m
In t h is fiv e -p a g e com m entary, A ltam ira d is c u s s e s
th e F ren ch a u th o re s s , Andre C o rth is , and h e r n o v e l, Pour
moi s e u l e . The o r i g i n a l d a te o f th e a r t i c l e 1s p u b lic a tio n
i s n o t g iv e n .
A lta m ira* s method in t h i s a r t i c l e , o f th e ty p e
Abrams d e s c rib e s a s p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m , d em o n strate s th e
e s s e n t i a l d if f e r e n c e s betw een l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m and a book
rev iew . Almost h a l f o f th e a r t i c l e i s d ev o ted to a d i s
c u s sio n o f s e v e r a l to p ic s r e l a t e d t o , b u t n o t a c tu a l ly a
p a r t o f , th e a n a ly s is i t s e l f : th e e x c e lle n c e o f th e l a n
guage program in F rench seco n d ary s c h o o ls , th e r o l e o f
women in l i t e r a t u r e , and th e q u e s tio n o f t h e i r p re fe re n c e
fo r m a scu lin e pseudonym s. The book re v ie w e r, g e n e ra lly ,
252
would c o n s id e r such m a te r ia l e x tra n e o u s . As A frS nio
C outihho p o in ts o u t in h is stu d y , C r£ tic a e " re v ie w ,"
q u o tin g G. W est, th e book rev iew becomes c r i t i c i s m only
when i t c o n ta in s more th a n p u re in fo rm a tio n :
"P a ra se to r n a r c r f t i c a , o *review ' d e v e ria
e le v a r - s e acim a de se u p ro p o s ito im ed iato " (a in f o r -
masao p u ra e s i m p l e s ^
A ltam ira* s l e i s u r e l y , somewhat d e t a il e d p r e s e n ta tio n o f
t h i s in tr o d u c to ry m a te r ia l su g g e s ts th e a r t i c l e was i n
tended f o r a s c h o la r ly au d ien ce r a th e r th a n f o r re a d e rs who
m erely se e k f a c t u a l in fo rm a tio n ab o u t a book. A ccording to
C outihho, t h i s i s a n o th e r d is tin g u is h in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c :
A c r f t i c a e p a ra " s c h o la r s " , i n t e l e c t u a i s ; o
"rev iew " e p a ra consumo p o p u la r e p o r is s o deve s e r
le g f v e l e in fo rm a tiv e .
The m ain body o f th e a r t i c l e , o f c o u rs e , d e a ls w ith
th e n o v e l. A lta m ira does n o t p r e s e n t a p o in t- b y - p o in t
d e s c r ip tio n o f th e p lo t and c h a r a c te r s o f th e s to r y , b u t
d is c u s s e s , m ain ly , th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l im p lic a tio n s o f th e
h e ro in e * s c o n d u c t:
. . . l a p r o ta g o n is ta s e som ete a p riv a c io n e s d e m is e r ia
econom ica p o r una d e lic a d e z a e s p i r i t u a l que l a h o n ra;
■^Afr&nio C outihho, Da C r f tic a e d a Nova C r f tic a
(Rio de J a n e ir o , 1957), p . 75.
58Ibid., p. 83.
253
p ero ig u alraen te, p o r o b ed ecer a " lo m e jo r” d e su
alm a . . . , s e condena a una i r r e d u c t i b l e m is e r ia s e n
tim e n ta l, a una v id a lle n a de t r i s t e z a s , de v u l g a r i -
dades a p la s ta n te s , de egoism os a je n o s , y tam bien de
ese s in g u la r y may humano rem ordim iento d e h a b e r
d e s p e rd ic ia d o e l momento de l a f e lic id a d p ro p ia , aun-
que p a ra a lc a n z a r la se h u b ie se d e f a l t a r a M lo m ejo r”
que hay en n o s o tro s mismos. °
He p h ilo s o p h iz e s , a ls o , ab o u t re a d e rs and t h e i r l i t e r a r y
p re fe re n c e s , as th e s e r e l a t e to Pour moi s e u le :
P e rte n e c e a una e s p e c ie de l i t e r a t u r a a que p a re c e
v o lv e r e l g u sto d e la s g e n te s , y que r e p r e s e n ta un
c o n tr a s te muy v iv o con la s p reo cu p acio n es g ra v e s que
dominan hoy a lo s hom bres. Pero e l e s p i r i t u n e c e s i ta
y b u sc a siem pre la s com pensaciones. Segun se an lo s
in d iv id u o s , a s f s e ra n e l l a s . Cuando, como a h o ra , e l
mundo se a g i t a con lo s e stre m e c im ie n to s d e problem as
g ran d es y tr a g ic o s , e l c o n tr a s te , l a com pensacion
e s ta , p a ra lo s hombres f r£ v o lo s , en la s d iv e rs io n e s
lo c a s y s u p e r f ic i a le s . . . ; p a ra lo s s e r io s , en l a
le c tu r a de lo s l i b r o s in tim o s y s e re n o s , d e lo s d r a
mas s ile n c io s o s y s in v io le n c ia s , en e l r e f u g io d e l
h o g a r. . . . 60
T h is p en ch an t to p h ilo s o p h iz e i s more ty p ic a l o f th e c r i t i c
th a n th e book re v ie w e r, C outinho s t a t e s , q u o tin g A rth u r
Symons:
” . . . 0 c r r t i c o e um f i l o s o f o , o ’re v ie w e r' um homem
com uma b a la n ? a nas maos” . 61
In t h i s a r t i c l e , ev id en ced a g a in i s A lta m ir a 's i n
t e r e s t in p a i s a ie and p r o v in c ia l l i f e :
^ Arte. p. 195. ^Ibid., p. 194.
61
Coutinho, op. cit., p. 74.
254
A p a rte e l dram a, l a n o v e la de ”Andre C o rth is " tie n e
e l p a i s a j e y e l m edio s o c i a l p ro v in c ia n o en que a q u e l
se p ro d u ce. Creo que, lite r a r ia m e n te , una y o t r a co sa
son d e lo m ejor que e l l i b r o ofrece.^2
Women, b o th a s w r ite r s and as f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c te r s ,
a re d is c u s s e d fre q u e n tly in A ltam ira* s c r i t i c i s m . A ppear
in g in A rte v r e a lid a d , in a d d itio n to th e Andre C o rth is
a r t i c l e , i s a n o th e r s e le c tio n w hich d e a ls w ith a F rench
C O
a u th o r e s s : P ie r r e d e C o u lev ain y lo s r e c u e rd o s . In La
m uier en la s n o v elas d e Perez G aldos, A lta m ira com pares th e
v a rio u s fem in in e ty p e s c r e a te d by Perez G ald o s. ^ In
a n o th e r a r t i c l e , C lem encia I s a u r a . he d is c u s s e s th e legend
C C
o f th e la d y o f T oulouse. G ra n je l s t a t e s th a t t h i s co n
c e rn f o r women, ac c o rd in g to B a ro ja , i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
th e men o f 1898:
" . . . o t r a de la s m a n ife sta c io n e s d e l a m e n talid ad de
l a epoca es l a p reo cu p a cio n p o r l a m u jer, p reo cu p acio n
e x c e s iv a , pero lo g ic a , p a r a quien no v e su id e a l en l a
v id a p u b lic a . La m ujer y e l amp? son una o b se sio n
p a ra e l hornbre d e e s te tie m p o ." ° °
62A rte , p. 196. 63I b i d . . pp. 187-191.
A lta m ira , Cosas d e l d£a. pp. 9 ” 16.
65I b i d . . pp. 130-133.
f i f i *
L u is S. G ra n je l, Panorama d e l a G eneracion d e l 98
(Madrid, 1959), p. 277.
255
In 1907, A lta m ira bade f a r e w e ll to w hat he c a lle d
l i t e r a t u r a amena. He c o n tin u e d , how ever, to w r ite c r i t i
cism , w hich f o r him was " l a v a lv u la p o r donde puede e s c a -
p a r, de v ez en cuando, en l a co n tem p lacio n de l a p o e s ia
que o tr o s ex p resan , alg o de l a que s ig u e cantando en e l
fondo d e mi a lm a .” ^
A lta m ira, e a rly in h is w r itin g c a re e r , was re c o g
n iz e d as a com petent c r i t i c , b o th as e d ito r o f h is own
review and as a c o n tr ib u to r to n a t io n a l and fo re ig n
p e r io d ic a ls . The a r t i c l e s d is c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p te r r e v e a l
A lta m ira* s c r i t i c a l know ledge in a v a r ie ty o f d is c ip li n e s
and h is f a m i l i a r i t y w ith f o re ig n , a s w e ll as S p an ish ,
l i t e r a t u r e .
The re a p p e a ra n c e o f themes d e a lin g w ith p a is a ie .
custom s, e d u c a tio n and so c io lo g y in A lta m ira 's c r i t i c i s m
d e m o n strate s once more h i s p re o c c u p a tio n w ith re g e n e ra tio n
problem s. H is coranents on th e h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l and on
l i t e r a r y form , in g e n e ra l, and th e prom inence o f th e
fem in in e f a c t o r i n h is c r i t i c i s m a s s o c ia te A lta m ira w ith
o th e r w r i te r s o f th e G e n e ra tio n o f 1898.
6^Arte. p. 7.
CHAPTER VIII
S U M M A R Y A N D CONCLUSIONS
R a fael A lta m ira i s w id ely known as S p a in 's le a d in g
h i s t o r i a n o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . H is prom inence in th e
h i s t o r i c a l f i e l d has o b scu red h is im p o rta n t c o n trib u tio n s
to b e l l e s t r i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e . An a tte m p t has been made in
t h is stu d y to r e v e a l h is a b i l i t y as a man o f l e t t e r s
th ro u g h an o b je c tiv e a n a ly s is o f h is n o n h is to r ic a l w r itin g s ,
to p o in t o u t th e s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een h is l i t e r a r y a r t and
th a t o f h is c o n te m p o ra rie s, and to show t h a t A lta m ira, by
reaso n o f h is p r e d ile c ti o n f o r c e r t a i n perm anent them es,
h is id e o lo g y and h is s t y l i s t i c p re fe re n c e s , i s in d e lib ly
a s s o c ia te d w ith th e l i t e r a r y f ig u r e s o f 1898.
A p re lim in a ry and seem ingly fundam ental c o n s id e r
a tio n was to d e te rm in e w hich w r i te r s a c tu a lly c o n s t i tu t e
th e G en e ra tio n o f 1898. An in v e s tig a tio n o f t h i s p o in t
re v e a le d a w ide d i s p a r i t y o f o p in io n among c r i t i c s . The
m ost common b a s is fo r s e le c tin g th e w r i te r s o f t h i s group
256
257
was ch ro n o lo g y . A lthough A lta m ira c e r t a i n l y b elo n g s,
c h ro n o lo g ic a lly , to th e G e n e ra tio n o f 1898, f u r t h e r e v i
dence was deemed n e c e s s a ry to j u s t i f y h is in c lu s io n among
th e l i t e r a r y men o f h is tim e . The c r i t e r i a proposed by
A nderson Im bert ap p eared to be th e m ost re a s o n a b le —nam ely,
th a t th e men o f 1898 w ere a group o f h is to ry - c o n s c io u s ,
tra d itio n -m in d e d , s e rio u s w r i te r s o f s im ila r m oral and
p o l i t i c a l s u a s io n . T h is group, m oreover, was composed
m ain ly o f p ro se w r i t e r s .
A c a r e f u l stu d y o f A lta m ira* s l i f e , h is c a r e e r as
a p r o fe s s o r o f h i s t o r y , h i s a c t i v i t i e s in th e f i e l d o f co n
s u e tu d in a ry law , h i s prom otion o f th e u n iv e r s ity e x te n s io n
program a t O viedo, h is p o s itio n a s D ir e c to r G en eral o f
E lem entary E d u catio n , h i s e l e c t io n to th e Perm anent C ourt
o f I n te r n a ti o n a l J u s t i c e by th e League o f N atio n s, a s w e ll
as h is many w r itin g s w hich d e a l w ith th e s e v a rio u s f i e l d s ,
g iv e s am ple p ro o f th a t he p o sse sse d th e t r a i t s a t t r i b u t e d
to th e G e n e ra tio n o f 1898.
A lta m ira has made a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n tr ib u tio n to
S p an ish l i t e r a t u r e . H is l i t e r a r y p ro se a ls o r e f l e c t s
noventavochesco t r a i t s . Four o f h is w orks, r e p r e s e n tin g
th e p o p u la r p ro s e ty p e s o f h is p e rio d and th o s e w ith w hich
258
A lta m ira was m ost f a m il ia r , w ere s e le c te d f o r d is c u s s io n :
th e n o v e l, th e s h o r t s to r y , th e e s sa y and c r i t i c i s m . S ince
Unamuno, A zorfn and B a ro ja , a l l r e p r e s e n ta tiv e a u th o rs o f
th e G e n e ra tio n o f 1898, a l s o produced th e s e l i t e r a r y ty p e s ,
t h e i r works w ere chosen a s a b a s is f o r com parison. The
s p e c if ic works o f A lta m ira w hich w ere an aly ze d in t h i s
stu d y a r e : Reposo, C uentos de mi t i e r r a . P s ic o lo g fa y
l i t e r a t u r a . and A rte v r e a l i d a d .
A lta m ira 1s n o v e l, Reposo. ap p eared ab o u t th e same
tim e a s B a r o j a ^ Camino d e p e rfe c c io n and A z o rfn 's La
v o lu n ta d and A ntonio A z o rin . T hese n o v e ls , and to a c e r
t a i n e x te n t, Unamuno^ N ie b la , p u b lish e d some te n y e a rs
l a t e r , a're e s s e n t i a l l y i n t e l l e c t u a l o r p h ilo s o p h ic a l
n o v e ls , in w hich a c tio n i s m inim ized and c h a r a c te r s a re
u t i l i z e d to e x p re s s a p o in t o f view .
A lta m ira has d em o n strated c o n s id e ra b le s k i l l a s a
l i t e r a r y c ra ftsm a n in R eposo. The w e ll-c o n triv e d p assag e s
betw een th e c h a p te rs o f th e n o v e l, d e p ic tin g th e f u l l
c i r c l e t h a t th e h ero h as gone in h is em o tio n a l a t t i t u d e s ,
g iv e th e im p re ssio n o f s t r u c t u r a l d e s ig n . A nother a r c h i
te c to n ic f e a tu r e i s e v id e n t in A lta m ira f s h a n d lin g o f
c h a r a c te r iz a tio n , as i t r e l a t e s to p l o t. The f u lln e s s o f
259
a c h a r a c te r ’ s d e s c r ip tio n i s in in v e rs e p ro p o rtio n to h is
p a r t i c i p a t io n in th e c e n t r a l a c tio n o f th e p l o t . The com
mon p e o p le , in A lta m ira ’ s o p in io n , c o n s ti t u t e th e s tr o n g e s t
and m ost se c u re fo u n d a tio n f o r good governm ent: a firm
b a s e i s th e m ost e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f any d u ra b le s t r u c t u r e .
One o f A lta m ira ’ s p u rp o ses in w r itin g Renoso was
t o c r e a te an e n jo y a b le , a r t i s t i c work and, a t th e same
tim e, r e v e a l th e b eau ty and charm o f h is n a tiv e A lic a n te .
L andscape, lo c a l custom s and t r a d i t i o n s a r e a prom inent
p a r t o f th e n o v e l. S e ttin g , how ever, o fte n h as more th a n
p i c t o r i a l s ig n if ic a n c e . N atu re, o r la n d sc a p e , v i r t u a l l y
becomes one o f th e c h a ra c te rs o f th e n o v e l, com m unicating
to Ju a n , th e n e u ra s th e n ic h ero o f A lta m ira ’ s s to r y , some
th in g o f i t s en d u rin g s tr e n g th and a f e e lin g o f re p o s e .
He r e a c t s more p o s it iv e l y to h i s p h y s ic a l environm ent th an
to th e human c h a r a c te r s who w ish h is w e ll-b e in g . Only a t
th e end o f th e n o v e l, a f t e r a s e r i e s o f d i s i l l u s i o n i n g
e x p e rie n c e s , does he r e a l i z e , fa c in g up to r e a l i t y , th a t
is o l a t i o n from th e w orld w i l l n o t so lv e h i s problem s.
Repose i s a r e c u r r e n t theme in A lta m ira ’ s w r itin g s .
The n o v e ls o f B a ro ja , A zo rin and Unamuno, a p p e arin g
a f t e r th e Spanish-A m erican War, a r e s t r i k i n g l y s im ila r to
260
Reposo i n p lo t and them e. The h e ro e s o f th e s e n o v e ls a re
p a s s iv e in d iv id u a ls who i n t e l l e c t u a l i z e b u t seldom s o lv e
t h e i r problem s. L ike Ju a n , Fernando in B a ro ja ’ s Camino de
p e rfe c c io n s u f f e r s from n e u r a s th e n ia . L ike Juan, A ntonio
A zorin in La v o lu n ta d w anders th ro u g h th e c o u n try s id e
communing w ith n a tu re . L ik e Ju an , Augusto i n Unamuno*s
N ie b la se a rc h e s in a g o n iz in g s e l f - a p p r a i s a l th e re a so n f o r
h i s f a i l u r e s . They a re p e s s im is tic , i r r e s o l u t e and moody--
f ig u r e s c u t from th e same c lo th .
The s e v e r a l n o v e ls a re s im ila r in th e m atic c o n te n t.
The in tr a n s ig e n c e o f th e o ld e r g e n e ra tio n i s d e p ic te d in
A ltam ira* s n o v e l, as w e ll as B a r o ja 's . The s im p lic ity and
in d u s try o f th e humble p e a sa n t and th e la b o r e r a r e p ra is e d
in th e n o v e ls o f A lta m ira and A zor£n. The men o f 1898
b e lie v e th a t th e land and th e common p eo p le a r e th e m ain
s ta y o f th e c o u n try . A lta m ira , A zo rin and B aro ja g iv e
e x p re s sio n to t h i s b e l i e f in t h e i r n o v e ls . A nother th e
m atic f e a tu r e i s p a i s a i e . D e s c rip tio n s o f lan d sca p e abound
in A ltam ira* s Reposo, A zo rin * s, La v o lu n ta d and B aro ja* s
Camino de p e r f e c c io n . T h e ir p u rp o se in u s in g la n d sca p e so
e x te n s iv e ly i s n o t a e s th e tic a lo n e ; i t i s p a r t o f t h e i r
re g e n e ra tio n p la n . The p eo p le, th e y f e e l , m ust re d is c o v e r
261
th e n a t u r a l b ea u ty o f t h e i r c o u n try . T his and o th e r themes
i l l u s t r a t e th e deep co n cern o f th e men o f 1898 fo r t h e i r
n a tio n . A lta m ira and th e n o v e lis ts o f h is g e n e ra tio n a re
h is to r y “co n scio u s in a way th a t t h e i r p re d e c e sso rs a r e n o t.
They mold th e n o v e l to s u i t t h e i r d id a c tic p u rp o se.
The w r ite r s o f 1898 b e lie v e t h a t good w ritin g co n
s i s t s in s im p lic ity and e x a c tn e ss o f e x p re s s io n . They shun
what Schopenhauer term s l e s t y l e empese, a pompous, p r o lix
and cumbersome m anner o f w r itin g . F o r A lta m ira, who sh a re s
t h is view , s im p lic ity , g ra c e and harmony a r e th e e s s e n ti a ls
o f good w r itin g . A lthough A ltam ira* s n o v el and th o s e o f
Unamuno, B aro ja and Azor£n r e f l e c t th e G en eratio n o f 1898’s
p r e d ile c tio n f o r s im p lic ity , c l a r i t y and e x a c tn e s s , th e s e
n o v e lis ts a re a b le to evoke images o f p i c t o r i a l charm in
t h e i r w orks. T h e ir d e s c r ip tiv e te c h n iq u e s a r e o fte n r e
m arkably s im ila r . A lthough f i g u r a t i v e language, in g e n e ra l,
i s used s p a rin g ly by th e men o f 1898, th e u s e o f th e s im ile
and m etaphor i s n o t uncommon. A ltam ira* s f ig u r e s i n Reposo
a re e x p re s s iv e and n a t u r a l; th e to n e o f s e r e n ity , harmony
and t r a n q u i l i t y — in c h a r a c te r iz a tio n , in s e t t i n g , in p lo t,
and in u s e o f la n g u ag e—i s c o n s is te n t th ro u g h o u t h is n o v e l.
The men o f 1898 w ere c u e n tis t a s . a s w e ll as n o v e l
i s t s . G e n e ra lly , th e same l i t e r a r y lic e n s e th ey to o k in
262
n c rv e lis tic w r itin g i s e v id e n t in t h e i r s h o r t s t o r i e s . In
many o f t h e i r c u e n to s . p lo t i s p r a c t i c a l l y n o n e x is te n t,
c h a r a c te r iz a t io n i s m inim ized and d ia lo g u e i s alm o st n o
w here to b e found.
A ltam ira* s C uentos de mi t i e r r a was s e le c te d f o r
d is c u s s io n s in c e i t r e v e a ls th e c o n s is te n c y o f h is approach
t o th e problem o f r e g e n e ra tio n , b e s t e x e m p lifie s th e k in d s
o f s h o r t s t o r i e s he w ro te and d e m o n strate s to good advan
ta g e h is a r t i s t i c c a p a b i l i t i e s in th e g e n re . F our r e p r e
s e n ta ti v e ty p e s w ere chosen f o r d e t a il e d a n a ly s is : El
T erru n o . i l l u s t r a t i v e o f A ltam ira* s re p o se l i t e r a t u r e ;
A fa n e s. an example o f ty p e c h a r a c te r i z a t io n ; E l m u e rte c ito .
a stu d y o f r e g io n a l custom s; and P a is a ie . an e v o c a tio n o f
th e A lic a n tin e la n d sc a p e . T hese s t o r i e s g iv e ev id en ce o f
A lta m ira* s com petence in h a n d lin g th e s h o rt n a r r a tiv e .
They ex em p lify th e G en eratio n o f 1898*s d is r e g a rd f o r t r a
d i t i o n a l s h o r t s to r y form , m in im izin g as th e y do, p lo t and
o f te n c h a r a c te r i z a t io n . The r e c u r r e n t them es o f re p o se ,
th e i r r i g a t i o n problem and th e im poverished c o n d itio n s o f
th e p e a s a n t a t t e s t to A ltam ira* s a b id in g i n t e r e s t in
n a t io n a l problem s; h i s em phasis on p a i s a ie . lo v e f o r th e
p a t r i a c h ic a and d e p ic tio n o f th e custom s and t r a d i t i o n s
263
o f th e p eo p le lin k s him w ith th e o th e r men o f 1898. The
p ic tu re s q u e d e s c r ip tio n o f la n d sca p e and p e o p le in th e
s t o r i e s r e v e a ls A ltam ira* s im p re ssiv e command o f language
and a s t y l i s t i c q u a lity and a r t i s t r y o f h ig h o rd e r.
The e s sa y i s a l i t e r a r y form w hich a tta in e d g r e a t
p o p u la rity in S pain e a rly in t h i s c e n tu ry and was a f a v o r
i t e g e n re o f th e men o f 1898. A lta m ira was a volum inous
w r i t e r o f e s s a y s , co v e rin g a ra n g e o f s u b je c ts more e x te n
s iv e th a n th o s e o f any o f h is c o n te m p o ra rie s: psychology,
h i s t o r y , a r t , m usic, so c io lo g y , e d u c a tio n , law econom ics,
l i t e r a t u r e .
The e ssa y s c o n ta in e d in A ltam ira* s P sic o lo g £ a v
l i t e r a t u r a w ere s e le c te d f o r d is c u s s io n s in c e th ey r e v e a l
th e a u th o r ’ s keen i n t e r e s t in l i t e r a t u r e and h i s profound
know ledge o f i t s i n t r i n s i c n a tu r e . Of th e s e v e r a l e ssa y s
in th e book, fo u r w ere chosen f o r a n a ly s is : La d e f in ic io n
de L i t e r a t u r a , Los o r ie in a l e s . Los i n t e l e c t u a l e s . and La
l i t e r a t u r a d e l rep o so . a l l d e a lin g w ith l i t e r a r y a r t o r
c lo s e ly r e la t e d to p ic s .
An ex am in atio n o f A lta m ira ’ s method r e v e a ls h i s
m a stery o f th e g e n re . He i s more o f te n lo g i c a l and to th e
p o in t th an d is c u r s iv e , y e t n o t im p erso n al o r u n p le a s a n t
264
to re a d . A lta m ir a 's essay s d em o n strate h is s k i l l in a d a p t
in g th e p ro p e r to n e to th e s u b je c t u n d er d is c u s s io n and
e x h ib it a s t y l i s t i c q u a lity com parable to t h a t o f h is f i c
ti o n a l w orks. They in d ic a te , f u r th e r , a c o n s is te n c y o f
purpose in h is tre a tm e n t o f th e r e g e n e ra tio n problem and
show v ie w p o in ts h e ld in common w ith o th e r w r i te r s o f 1898.
The G en e ra tio n o f 1898 were c r i t i c s , as w e ll as
f i c t i o n w r ite r s and e s s a y i s t s . A lta m ira in d ic a te d a s p e
c i a l fo n d n ess f o r c r i t i c i s m and c o n tin u e d to w r ite c r i t i
cism long a f t e r h e abandoned h is o th e r b e l l e t r i s t i c
en d eav o rs. His c o n tr ib u tio n s in th e f i e l d o f l i t e r a r y
c r i t i c i s m a r e s u b s t a n t i a l .
A rte v r e a lid a d was chosen f o r d is c u s s io n s in c e i t
c o n ta in s a broad ran g e o f A lta m ir a 's c r i t i c a l w r itin g s ,
d e a lin g w ith works from S p an ish c l a s s i c a l l i t e r a t u r e ,
n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry and contem porary a u th o rs , as w e ll as
fo re ig n w orks. T h ree p ie c e s o f c r i t i c i s m among th e se w ere
s e le c te d f o r a n a ly s is : G aldos v l a H is to r ia de Esnana.
w hich d e a ls w ith th e s u b je c t o f h i s t o r y , as i t r e l a t e s to
B en ito P erez G aldos, th e le a d in g n o v e l i s t o f th e n in e te e n th
c e n tu ry and a so u rc e o f in s p i r a t i o n f o r th e G en e ratio n o f
1898; B lasco Ib an ez, n o v e lis ta . w hich r e v e a ls A lta m ira 's
265
c r i t i c a l acumen c o n c e rn in g th e works o f a co ntem porary
w r i t e r , who was l a t e r to a t t a i n immense p o p u la r ity b o th a t
home and ab ro ad ; and Una n o v e la de ”Andre C o r t h i s ,1 1 w hich
e x e m p lifie s A lta m ira* s i n t e r e s t in f o re ig n l i t e r a t u r e , and,
o f c o u rs e , h is c r i t i c i s m o f fo re ig n w orks.
T hese a r t i c l e s r e v e a l A ltam ira* s c r i t i c a l know ledge
in a v a r i e t y o f d i s c i p l i n e s and h i s f a m i l i a r i t y w ith f o r
e ig n , as w e ll as S p an ish , l i t e r a t u r e . The re a p p e a ra n c e o f
them es d e a lin g w ith p a i s a ie . custom s, e d u c a tio n and s o c i
o logy in A lta m ira * s c r i t i c i s m d e m o n stra te s once more h i s
p re o c c u p a tio n w ith r e g e n e ra tio n p ro b lem s. H is comments on
th e h i s t o r i c a l n o v e l and l i t e r a r y form , in g e n e ra l, and th e
prom inence o f th e fem in in e f a c t o r in h i s c r i t i c i s m a s s o c i
a t e him w ith o th e r w r i te r s o f th e G e n e ra tio n o f 1898.
The p r i n c i p a l p u rp o se o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n h a s been
to b r in g to l i g h t a n o th e r s id e o f R a fa e l A lta m ira* s w r itin g
t a l e n t . H is d is tin g u is h e d c a r e e r as e d u c a to r and j u r i s t
and h is renown as S p a in ’s le a d in g h i s t o r i a n o f t h i s c e n tu ry
have o b scu red h is im p o rta n t c o n tr ib u tio n s to l i t e r a t u r e .
T h is s tu d y , i t i s hoped, h a s re v e a le d in some m easure h is
v e r s a t i l e and c r e a tiv e accom plishm ents as a man o f l e t t e r s .
Inasm uch as 1966 m arks th e 100th a n n iv e rs a ry o f A lta m ira* s
266
b i r t h , t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n s e rv e s to honor in a m odest way
a man o f many h o n o rs.
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Moreno, L a u d e lin o . H is to r ia d e la s r e la c io n e s i n t e r e s t a -
tu a le s de C en tro am eric al M adrid: cia. Ibero-A m ericana
de P u b lic a c io n e s , S .A ., 1928.
N orthup, George T y le r. An In tro d u c tio n t o S panish L i t e r a
t u r e . C hicago: U n iv e rs ity o f C hicago P re ss, 1938.
"N otas so b re l a v id a y o b ras de R a fa e l A lta m ira y C re v e a ,1 1
H isn a n ia , XI (November 1928), 400-406.
O 'L eary, R. D. The E ssay . New York: C ro w ell, 1928.
P a tt, B e a tr ic e P ., and N ozick, M a rtin . The G e n e ra tio n o f
1898 and A f t e r . New York and T o ro n to : Dodd, Mead and
Company, 1964.
" R a fa e l A lta m ir a ," A m erican H is to r i c a l Review. LVII
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1946.
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C e rv a n te s, 1926.
R u d ler, G ustave. Les te c h n iq u e s de l a c r i t i q u e e t de
I 'h i s t o i r e l i t t e r a i r e s . O xford: Im p rim erie d e
l 'U n i v e r s i t e , 1923.
S aavedra, B a u tis ta . El a v l l u . 2nd r e v . ed. S a n tia g o ,
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APPENDIX
APPENDIX
A lta m ira* s im p o rta n t b e l l e t r i s t i c p e rio d ex ten d s
from 1885 to 1907. The fo llo w in g l i s t o f h i s l i t e r a r y
works i s n o t in te n d e d as a com plete c a ta lo g u e , n o r does i t
in c lu d e , o f c o u rs e , h is many e ssa y s and c r i t i c a l w r itin g s
in th e f i e l d s o f e d u c a tio n , law , h is t o r y , econom ics, and
so c io lo g y ; th e l i s t i s p re s e n te d m erely to show th e e x te n t
o f A lta m ira* s l i t e r a r y en d e av o rs. P e r io d ic a l l i t e r a t u r e i s
in d ic a te d by a p re fix e d a s t e r i s k .
M ost o f th e s e p u b lic a tio n s have b een long o u t o f
p r i n t . A lta m ira , fo llo w in g h is r e tir e m e n t a s a p r o fe s s o r
in 1936, p lan n ed to assem ble h i s w ritin g s o f th e p re v io u s
f i f t y y e a rs and p u b lis h them as h is Obras c o m p le ta s; h e was
u n ab le to c a rr y o u t h is p la n owing to th e u n s e ttle d c o n d i
tio n s w hich p r e v a ile d in b o th h is own c o u n try and Europe
a t th e tim e .
275
276
Novels
El t i o A c u stin . 1885. ( s h o rt n o v e l)
Un bohem io. 1886. ( s h o r t n o v e l)
N o v e lita s v c u e n to s . 1893.
F a ta lid a d . 1894. ( s h o rt n o v e l)
N o v elas. 1894. (in c lu d in g s h o r t n o v e ls by Ju an Ochoa
and Tomas C a rre te ro )
R enoso. 1903.
Short S to r ie s
C uentos de L ev an te. 1895.
Cuadros le v a n tin o s . 1897.
F a n ta s ia s v re c u e rd o s . 1910.
C uentos de m i t i e r r a . 1925.
Essays
De h i s t o r i a v a r te . 1898.
P s ic o lo g ia v l i t e r a t u r a . 1905.
C r itic is m
*M uieres de l a n o v e la contem noranea. 1886.
*M uieres de D audet. 1887.
Mi p rim er a cam nana. 1892. (in c lu d in g some s h o rt
s t o r i e s )
277
*Zorrilla. 1893.
*S pain, 1897-1906.
*La l i t e r a t u r a d u ra n te l a r e e e n c ia . 1902.
Cosas d e l d £ a , 1907.
*The P re s e n t T endencies o f S p an ish L i t e r a t u r e . 1916.
A rte v r e a lid a d . 1921.
*The S p an ish Drama a s an Elem ent o f M oral E ducation.
1925.
*From entin v su Doming ue. 1937.
*E1 n o v e l is ta P ereda v su tiem po. 1939.
*Heine r e d iv iv o . 1945.
B io g ra p h ies
Ju an Ochoa. 1900.
G in er de lo s r£o s. ed u cad o r. 1915.
^Andrew C arn eg ie v su p rim er c e n te n a rio . 1930.
*Mis re c u e rd o s p e rs o n a le s d e P o in c a re v B arthou. 1935.
Ensavo so b re F e lip e I I . 1950.
T ra n s la tio n s
E l esgana p o b res. 1897. (T ran s, from P o rtu g u ese o f
T rin id a d e C oelho’s s h o r t s t o r i e s )
Mis am ores, 1899. (T ran s, from C a ta lo n ia n o f a n o v e l
by N arciso O ile r)
278
D isc u rso s a l a n a c io n alem ana. 1902? (T ran s, from
German o f Johann G o ttlie b F i c h t e 's Reden an d ie
d e u tsc h e N a tio n ! )
T ra v e l
*V iaies p o r Esnana. 1896.
* L ibros d e v i a i e s n o rte a m e ric a n o s r e f e r e n te s a Espana.
1896.
Mi v i a i e a A m erica. 1911.
L ec tu re s
L e c tu ra s e x p lic a d a s d e Homero. 1903.
Peer Gvnt de Ib se n , m u sica d e G rieg . 1909•
El sueno de una noche d e v e ra n o de S h ak esp eare, con
l a m usica de M endelssohn. 1909*
D isc u rso v le c tu r a s l i t e r a r i a s . 1910.
La l i t e r a t u r a como fu e n te de l a h i s t o r i a de Espana.
1910.
M iscellan e o u s
*Cosas d e I t a l i a . 1903.
L ib ro d e maximas y r e f le x io n e s . 1919.
279
F o llo w in g i s a com plete l i s t o f th e s e le c tio n s
ap p e a rin g in th r e e o f A lta m ira* s works d is c u s s e d in t h i s
stu d y : C uentos de mi t i e r r a . P sicologjfa y l i t e r a t u r e , and
A rte v r e a l i d a d .
Cuentos d e mi t i e r r a
M arina
El T erruno
La f i e s t a d e l aeua
De co n trab an d o
Bn l a s i e r r a
La en v iad a
Himeneo v Pomona
Noche de San Juan
A fanes
El tx o Prim
E l m u e rte c ito
E l t£ o Pene M isas
P ascua le v a n tin a
M elones
B oceto
P a is a i e
;A1 aeu a, p a to s l
E l b razo d erech o
Los c ig a r r o s de C ucala
Recuerdos
E l alm acen
P sico lo g x a v l i t e r a t u r a
De la b e n e v o le n c ia en l i t e r a t u r a
La propaganda de lo f a c i l
Ps ic o lo g x a l i t e r a r i a
I . Los le c to r e s
I I . Los o r ig in a le s
I I I . C a rta s de amor
IV. Lo qtie no s e e s c r ib e
G orki v e l rom anticism o
La l i t e r a t u r a d e l ren o so
La l i t e r a t u r a d e l d o lo r
La lev en d a de la s id e a s
Los i n t e l e c t u a l e s
El sa b e r a ien o
P sic o lo g x a de l a iu v en tu d
T ra d ic io n e s esn an o la s
La e x n e rie n c ia v l a in v e n c io n en l i t e r a t u r a
Absurdos de n r e c e n tiv a
281
Los n o v e le ro s
La d e f in ic io n d e L ite r a tu r a
Verdad v b e lle z a
La l i t e r a t u r a esp an o la d u ra n te l a R egencia
I . E x p lic acio n es
I I . C a ra c te re s g e n e ra le s
I I I . La n o v e la
IV. El t e a t r o
V. La p o e s ia
V I. E l p erio d ism o y la s p u b lic a c io n e s
c l a s ic a s
Campoamor
G aldos y l a h i s t o r i a de Espana
El t e a t r o o b re ro en Espana
El t e a t r o de Hauptmann
Info rm acio n es
P o esia s de l a s c a te d r a le s g o tic a s
A rte v r e a lid a d
L e tra s c l a s ic a s
El a lc a ld e d e Zalamea
L ib ro s de c a b a l l e r i a s v lev en d as w agnerianas
La n o v e la e sp a n o la
El s a in e te e sp an o l
Galdos
G aldos v M a ria n e la
La e s ta tu a d e Galdos
Un dram a d e G aldos
G aldos v l a H is to r ia de Espana
Hablemos de Galdos
La r e s u r r e c c io n t e a t r a l d e G aldos
A lv arez Q u in tero
A sf se e s c r ib e l a H is to r ia
Espana ro m a n tica
Un drama p a t r i o t i c o
V a ria e sp a n o la
Echegaray
P a la c io V aldes
B lasco Ib an ez , n o v e l is ta
Una n o v e la so b re l a g u e rra
Los tr a b a io s d e l i n f a t i g a b l e c re a d o r P io Cid
E l t e a t r o C a ta la n
Don M anuel F ernandez v G onzalez
T e a tro p r im itiv o
Las com edias de m agia v e l p u b lic o
B able v v a le n c ia n o
Dos h is p a n is ta s
A utores e x tra n o s
L i t e r a t u r a eu ro n ea
P ie r r e d e C o u lev ain y lo s rec u e rd o s
Una n o v e la de "A ndre C o r th is "
La le c c io n de la s A n to lo g ias
La c a s a d e K eats v l a c a s a de C erv an tes
Los p a is a je s y la s u rb e s
Los p a is a ie s
E l n a i s a i e . monumento n a c io n a l
Los p a is a ie s pequenos
E l n a i s a ie d e A s tu ria s -L a C o sta
E l s i l e n c i o d e l mar
B ru ia s. l a ru id o s a
E l ano nuevo en Nueva York

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Creator Curtis, Robert Elmer (author)

Core Title The Nonhistorical Works Of Rafael Altamira

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Spanish

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Advisor McMahon, Dorothy Elizabeth (committee chair), Belle, Rene F. (committee member), Hesse, Everett W. (committee member)

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