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The Development And Pilot Study Of A College Curriculum Unit Which Emphasizes Structure And Inquiry For Instruction On Constitutional Rights

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The Development And Pilot Study Of A College Curriculum Unit Which Emphasizes Structure And Inquiry For Instruction On Constitutional Rights

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Content 70 - 23,195
YOUNG, Dwiglit Judson, 1924-
THE DEVELOPMENT AND PILOT STUDY OF A COLLEGE
CURRICULUM UNIT WHICH EMPHASIZES' STRUCTURE AND
INQUIRY FOR INSTRUCTION ON CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1970
Education, theory and practice
University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan
© Copyright by
D W IG H T JUDSON Y O U N G
1970
T H E D EV ELO PM EN T A N D PILOT STUDY O F A C O L L E G E C U R R IC U LU M
UNIT W H IC H EMPHASIZES STR U C TU R E A N D INQUIRY FOR
INSTRUCTION O N CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS
by
Dwight Judson Young
A D is s e r ta tio n Presented to th e
FACULTY O F T H E G R A D U A T E SC H O O L
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t o f th e
Requirements for th e Degree
D O C T O R O F PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
June 1970
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOO L
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
Dwight Judson Young
under the direction of Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
TABLE O F C O N T E N T S
Page
LIST O F T A B L E S...................................................... iv
Chapter
I . INTRODUCTION T O T H E PROBLEM..................................... 1
The~=Problem
Scope o f th e Study
Importance o f th e Problem
D e fin itio n s o f Terms
I I . SURVEY O F TH E LITERATURE.............................................. 26
Concepts o f C iv il Structure
R esearch on C itize n sh ip Education
Summary and C onclusions
I I I . PR O C ED U R A L DESIGN O F TH E STUDY................................ 54
C onstruction o f th e Experim ental U nit
Procedures o f th e In v e stig a tio n
School D is t r ic t and Personnel C ooperation
The P ilo t Study
D e sc r ip tio n o f th e Research Study
S t a t i s t i c a l A spects o f D esign
Summary
IV. FINDINGS O F TH E S T U D Y .................................................. 75
The Student Handbooks
The C ooperating P rofessors
The Program A ppraisal Q uestionnaires
The "A ttitude toward the Law" S c a le
P o s s ib le O rigin s o f Changed A ttitu d e s
R e li a b il it y o f the S cale
Summary
Chapter Page
V. SU M M A R Y , CONCLUSIONS, A N D R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S . . 104
Summary o f th e Problem and Research
Procedures
Summary o f th e Findings
Rec ommendat ion s
Recommendations fo r Further Study
APPENDICES............................................................................................. 120
A. The Student H andbooks........................................................ 121
B. Aids to In str u c tio n and E v a l u a t i o n ........................ 230
1. Film s and Recordings
2. Q uestions fo r C o lla te r a l E xp loration
3. Case Response Form
4 . Student Inform ation Q uestionnaire
5. Program A ppraisal Q uestionnaire
6. "A ttitu de toward the Law" S c a le ,
Form A and Form B
7. " A ttitu d es toward Law and J u s tic e " S ca le
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................... 247
i i i
LIST O F TABLES
Table Page
1. Summary o f Student R eaction s to U nit M aterials
(Program A ppraisal Q u e s t io n n a ir e ) ........................ 88
2 . Student Responses to th e Case S tu d ies R e la tiv e
to Their Value fo r U nit A n a l y s i s ........................ 91
3 . Net Changes in A ttitu d e s by C ontrol and E xp eri
m ental Group Students from Katz P r e te st
Form A to P o s tte s t Form B .......................................... 96
iv
C H A P T E R I
INTRODUCTION T O T H E PR O BLEM
Although p r o v isio n s fo r th e stu d y o f government
have been a part o f the sch o o l curriculum sin c e our b eg in
n in g s as a n a tio n , in the e a r ly years such p r o v isio n s were
sm a ll and th e a tte n tio n th ey were g iv en was in c id e n ta l to
th e p u r su it o f other o b je c t iv e s .
The Committee on S o c ia l S tu d ies d ecla red in 1916
th a t "the co n scio u s and co n sta n t purpose" o f th e s o c ia l
2
s tu d ie s should be "the c u lt iv a t io n o f good c i t i z e n s h i p .1 1
I t was another decade, however, b e fo r e tr a in in g for
c itiz e n s h ip came to be reco g n ized as th e primary o b je c tiv e
C arl A. P e tte r s c h , "The Teaching o f Government in
th e U nited S ta te s , w ith S p e c ia l R eference to Secondary
S ch ools from 1861-1930" (unpublished Ph.D. d is s e r t a t io n ,
Columbia U n iv e r s ity , New York, 1 9 5 3 ). In Chapter I he
d escrib ed some e a r ly (p rio r to 1861) sou rces o f in s tr u c tio n
in c it iz e n s h ip , c e r ta in e x e r c is e s in th e primary sch o o l
rea d ers and geography b ooks, and a ls o from secondary
cou rses in "moral p h ilo so p h y ."
o
I . James Q u ille n , "The S o c ia l S tu d ies Program
in th e Secondary School in th e T w entieth C entury," in
G. W esley Sowards ( e d .) , The S o c ia l S tu d ie s: Curriculum
P rop osals fo r th e Future (Palo A lt o , C a l i f .: S c o tt,
Foresman and C o., 1 9 6 3 ), p . 85.
1
2
o f c i v ic s in s tr u c tio n , much le s s th e e n tir e s o c ia l stu d ie s
3
program.
Although th e r e la t iv e recen cy o f the term " c itiz e n
sh ip education" should not be con stru ed as meaning th a t
r e c o g n itio n o f th e need i s r e c e n t, i t i s tru e th a t American
sc h o o ls have p laced th e ir c h ie f r e lia n c e fo r s a t is f y in g
th a t need upon " . . . knowledge to be gained by studying
h is to r y and some form o f governm ent, w ith more or le s s
preachm ent, r i t u a l , and ceremony added to appeal to th e
em otions and ' i n s t i l l p a t r io t is m ." 1 ^
An a d d itio n a l fa c e t o f c it iz e n s h ip ed u cation i s
th a t h is t o r i c a l l y and c u r r e n tly i t has v a ried from sch o o l
d i s t r i c t to sch o o l d i s t r i c t b oth in th e s e le c t io n and in
th e o rg a n iza tio n o f i t s co n ten t and i t s le a rn in g
a c t i v i t i e s .^
A major problem o f c it iz e n s h ip ed u cation has been
th e s ta tin g by tea ch ers o f th e ir u n it o b je c tiv e s in terms
w hich are e x c e s s iv e ly vague and a b s tr a c t. To c i t e
" a p p recia tio n o f th e American way o f l i f e " as an o b je c tiv e ,
3
P e tte r sc h , op. c _ it., p . 63.
^W illiam S . V incent e t a l . , B u ild in g B etter
Programs in C itiz e n sh ip (New York: Columbia U n iv e r sity
P r e s s , 195 6 ), p. 2 6 7 . K
^Robert A. T aft I n s t it u t e o f Government, C itiz e n
sh ip Education (New York: The Robert A. T aft I n s t it u t e o f
Government, 196 3 ). The rep o rt co n ta in ed an unbound ta b le
(in s e r te d ) o f c itiz e n s h ip requirem ents o f th e s t a t e s ,
id e n tify in g th e p r a c tic e and th e year o f mandate.
w ith ou t sp e c ify in g th e intended b eh aviors (or perform ance)
in terms o f which i t s attain m en t m ight be re co g n ize d , i s to
make th e p r e c is e e v a lu a tio n o f tea ch in g and lea rn in g an
u n lik e ly ev e n t. Sowards observed th a t "some se e c i t i z e n
sh ip ed u cation as synonymous w ith th e s o c ia l s t u d ie s ,
o th ers se e c itiz e n s h ip ed u cation as embracing a good d ea l
more. . . . "^ With r e s p e c t to th e adequacy o f r e sea r ch ,
P a tr ick remarks: "A few p e r tin e n t stu d ie s were made during
the p erio d 1900-1955, but m ost s ig n if ic a n t resea r ch in t h is
O
f i e l d has been done in th e p a st few y e a r s. 1 1
Taking th e decade 1955-65 as a m easure, what does
th e lit e r a t u r e su ggest?
In 1955 th e U nited S ta te s Department o f D efen se
concluded a form al in v e s tig a tio n o f th e 7,190 American
s o ld ie r s who were captured and h eld as p riso n ers o f war
during th e Korean c o n f l i c t . In a r e p o r t, Eugene Kinkead
commented upon th e m ed ica l, p s y c h o lo g ic a l, le g a l, and
g
Robert F. Mager, Preparing O b jectives fo r
Programmed In str u c tio n (San F ra n cisco : Fearon P u b lish e r s,
1961); s e e P reface fo r a humorous y e t fo r c e fu l i l l u s t r a
tio n ; a ls o David R. Krathwohl, Benjamin S. Bloom, and
Bertram B. M asia, Taxonomy o f E d u cation al O b jectiv es
(New York: David McKay C o ., I n c ., 1 9 6 4 ), Part I , "Intro-
d u ctio n and E x p la n a tio n ," e s p e c ia lly pp. 3 , 13, 2 3 .
^See G. W esley Sowards ( e d .) , "An In tro d u ctio n ,"
The S o c ia l S tu d ie s , p. 11; a ls o T aft I n s t it u t e , op. c i t . ,
pp. 5 -6 .
o
John T. P a tr ic k , P o l i t i c a l S o c ia liz a tio n o f
American Youth (Bloom ington, In d .: High School Curriculum
Center in Government, 1 9 6 7 ), p . 4 .
4
g
p ro p a g a n d istic a sp ec ts o f th e ir b eh a v io r.
Kinkead concluded th a t most s o ld ie r s were w o e fu lly
uninformed about American h is to r y , governm ent, and
10
v a lu e s . He a ls o in d ic a te d th a t they were g e n e r a lly
u n d is c ip lin e d , c a llo u s , and irresp o n sib le--so m etim e s
b r u t a l- - in th e ir in te r p e r so n a l r e la tio n s h ip s . This moral
d e fic ie n c y was v i s i b l e in another way. Although th e ir
ca p to rs accorded them g e n e r a lly humane treatm ent and c a r e ,
th ey were unable to a d ju st to th e p r im itiv e c o n d itio n s .
They "lacked th e o ld Yankee r e s o u r c e fu ln e s s ." Their
m o r ta lity r a te in c a p t iv it y (38 per c e n t) was th e h ig h e s t
fo r any American w ar. ^ "Poor m orale" and "ignorance" or
" ca llo u sn ess" were th e p r in c ip a l ex p la n a tio n s o ffe r e d by
th e U nited S ta te s Department o f D efen se.
During the 1 9 5 0 's , th e Purdue Opinion Panel
conducted su rveys o f th e op in ion s o f American te e n a g e r s.
12
Remmers and a s s o c ia t e s rep orted the fin d in g s . For
^Eugene K inkead, "The Study o f Something New in
H isto r y ," The New Y orker. October 2 6 , 1957, pp. 114-179.
T his account has been expanded in to two books (by same
a u th o r ), o f which In Every War But One (New York: W. W .
Norton and C o ., I n c ., 1959) seemed the more r e le v a n t.
■^These c o n c lu sio n s were found to be confirm ed
by o th e r s; s e e J . A. C. Brown, Techniques o f P ersu asion
(B altim ore: Penguin Books, I n c ., 1 9 6 3 ), p. 258.
• ^ I b i d . , pp. 255, 267.
12
H. H. Remmers ( e d .) , A nti-D em ocratic A ttitu d e s in
American S ch ools (E vanston, I llT : N orthw estern U n iv e r s ity
P r e ss, 1 9 6 3 ). The r e p o r ts o f Roy E. H orton, "American
Freedom and V alues o f Y outh," pp. 1 8 -6 0 , and H. H. Remmers
5
exam ple, a m a jo r ity o f th e se high sch o o l stu d en ts s a id th a t
p eop le a re n o t cap ab le o f d ecid in g what i s b e s t fo r them
s e lv e s , th a t w ir e tapping should be le g a l, and th a t
p o l i t ic i a n s are a "dirty" and "unscrupulous" group.
A m a jo r ity a ls o exp ressed th e ir approval o f the u se o f the
"third d egree" in p o lic e in te r r o g a tio n . Most a ls o agreed
th a t p o lic e should be perm itted to censor books and ra d io
or t e l e v i s i o n programs. In a d d itio n , about o n e -th ir d
exp ressed s e r io u s m isg iv in g s about freedom o f sp eech , and
o n e-fo u r th approved o f search and s e iz u r e by p o lic e , w ith
out w arran t. About o n e - f if t h exp ressed t h e ir disagreem ent
13
w ith th e freedom s guaranteed by th e B i l l o f R ig h ts.
By 1958 th e C itiz e n sh ip E ducation P ro ject had been
under way fo r n e a r ly ten y ea r s. The in tr o d u ctio n to a
com prehensive rep o rt on th e p r o je c t began as fo llo w s :
"Today, th in k in g Americans are s o r e ly p erp lexed and
tro u b led b y what appears to be a la ck o f understanding on
th e p art o f many o f our c itiz e n s o f th e esse n c e o f
freedom .
In 1959 Edgar Friedenberg com pleted a stud y o f
American yo u th . In a ch ap ter e n t it le d "The Impact o f th e
and R ichard E. F r a n k lin , "Sweet Land o f L ib e r ty ," pp. 61-
72, w ere e s p e c ia lly p e r tin e n t.
13I b id . . pp. 5 7 , 63-65, 6 9 .
^ V in c en t, op. c i t . , p. ix .
6
S ch o o l'1 he d isc u sse d th e s o c ia l p ro cesses o f a t y p ic a l
American sc h o o l. Of th e "A m ericanization" p r o c e s s , which
he h o ld s f i r s t in im portance, he w rote: "The sc h o o l i s
where you le a r n to be an American. . . . There i s p le n ty o f
n a t io n a lis t propaganda in our tex tb o o k s, but th ere i s n ot
15
much ev id en ce th a t i t in flu e n c e s th e stu d e n ts." Ju st a
year e a r lie r V incent sta te d th a t "the most in f lu e n t ia l
c it iz e n s h ip ed u cation in the U nited S ta te s has alw ays gone
1 6
on o u tsid e th e s c h o o ls ."
On October 10, 1963, th e C a lifo r n ia S ta te Board o f
E ducation adopted a statem ent o f p o lic y . In p a r t, i t read:
"The s it u a t io n in some communities in d ic a te s th a t too many
Americans have never understood th e ' B i l l o f R ig h ts ,' and
th e p resen t c i v i l r ig h ts c r i s i s r e v e a ls how sk etch y has
been our ed u ca tio n in t h is f i e l d . " ^
In 1964 th e C o n s titu tio n a l R ights Foundation issu e d
an announcement w hich con tained th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n t:
"N ational su rveys have rev ea led rep ea ted ly th a t stu d en ts
and a d u lts n e ith e r know, understand, nor v a lu e th e p r in c i
p le s embodied in th e U nited S ta te s C o n stitu tio n and B i l l o f
R ig h ts."
^ E dgar Z. F riedenberg, The V anishing A d olescen t
(New York: D e ll P u b lish in g C o ., I n c ., 1 9 5 9 ), p . 7 2 .
■^V incent, op. c i t . , p . 267.
17
Los A ngeles Tim es. " E d ito r ia ls and Columns,"
Part I I o f an e d it o r ia l q u otin g, in p a r t, from a statem en t
o f p o lic y issu e d by th e C a lifo r n ia S ta te Board o f Educa
t io n , O ctober 11, 1963._________________________________________
7
Although c itiz e n s h ip ed u ca tio n has been v a r io u sly
approached and co n ceiv ed , and th e s ig n if ic a n t resea rch i s
o f v ery re ce n t o r ig in , th ere i s s u b s ta n tia l agreement th a t
th e product le a v e s much to be d e s ir e d . I t s curriculum
program s, w ith th o se in s o c ia l s c ie n c e , a re h eld to be
18
among th e p o o rest taught and lo w est esteem ed . I . James
Q u illen quotes Terry F errer who w rote in th e New York
H erald T ribune: "Some ed u cators say th a t th e s o c ia l
s tu d ie s are n o t an academic area but a d is a s t e r area.
G ranting t h is i s tr u e , m assive and e f f e c t i v e h elp has been
„19
slow in a r r iv in g .
. The Problem
Teaching and lea rn in g in A m erica's s o c ia l sc ien ce
c la s s e s a t high sch ool and ju n io r c o lle g e l e v e l have been
s e v e r e ly c r i t i c i z e d fo r many years and fo r a v a r ie ty of
r e a so n s. Taba b e lie v e d th a t an inadequate th eory fo r
curriculum development undergirds tea ch in g about th e U nited
S ta te s C o n stitu tio n in p a r tic u la r and American h is to r y in
20
g e n e r a l. S ig e l, as rep orted by P a tr ic k , sta te d th a t
18
Ralph T y ler, "An A ssessm ent: The Edge o f th e
F u tu re," in G. Wesley Sowards ( e d .) , The S o c ia l S tu d ie s .
pp. 121, 125.
^ Q u ille n , op. c i t . , p . 80.
20
H ilda Taba, Curriculum Developm ent: Theory and
P r a c tic e (New York: H arcourt, Brace and C o ., 1962) , p . 7.
8
th ere i s no adequate, encom passing model fo r p o l i t i c a l
s o c ia liz a tio n resea rch . No e x i s t in g con cep tu al stru ctu re
d e fin e s and in te r r e la te s th e p e r tin e n t v a r ia b le s w ith in
21
th e s o c ia l sc ien ce d i s c i p li n e s .
C o n stitu tio n a l law p r o fe s s o r T r e s o lin i has observed
th a t an in creasin g "large number o f American stu d en ts do
n o t understand or f u l l y a p p r e c ia te th e b a sic p r in c ip le s o f
American government, . . . th e im portance o f th e B i l l o f
R ig h ts, . . . [nor p r o v is io n s ] fo r our fundam ental
22
freedom s." R ecognizing th a t secondary and c o lle g ia t e
c u r r ic u la have undergone major changes in r e c e n t y ea rs, he
n o n eth ele ss concluded th a t "the f i e l d o f c i v i l lib e r t ie s
23
and c itiz e n s h ip has been v i r t u a l l y ig n o red ." S im ila r ly ,
a n oted philosopher has p r o fe sse d th a t "some ignorance"
e x i s t s concerning knowledge o f American in s t it u t io n s and
id e a ls , "greater ignorance" o f how th e y came about and have
ev o lv ed , and " s t i l l g r e a te r ig n o ra n ce o f t h e ir j u s t i f i c a -
t io n ." 24
21
P a trick , 0 £ . c i t . , pp. 1 1 -1 7 .
22
Rocco J. T r e s o lin i, T hese L ib e r t ie s : Case
S tu d ies in C iv il R ights (New York: J . B. L ip p in co tt C o.,
1 9 6 8 ), p . v i i .
23I b id .
O f
Robert C. W hittem ore, Makers o f th e American
M nd: Three C enturies o f American Thought and Thinkers
(New York: W illiam Morrow and C o ., 196 4 ), p . x i .
9
B ella ck has c h a r a c te r iz e d c it iz e n s h ip ed u cation as
th e " d isp la y of a m iscella n eo u s c o l le c t io n o f f a c t s about
25
governm ent."
Much o f th e problem has stemmed from ill - d e f in e d
o b je c tiv e s o f s o c ia l stu d ie s in s t r u c t io n . T yler has
rep orted th a t th ere i s g rea t co n fu sio n and d iffe r e n c e o f
26
o p in io n as to what th ey should b e .
Concerning c it iz e n s h ip as a g o a l i t s e l f , "the p o s i
tio n w id ely accepted by ed u cators i s th a t th ere i s l i t t l e
p o in t in s e ttin g up [such] b road , vague g o a ls ." To provide
a p lan fo r le a rn in g , th ey must b e d efin ed in b e h a v io r a lly -
27
ach ieved term s, T ravers has avowed.
Compounding th e problem in c it iz e n s h ip ed u cation
through 1968 was the lack o f a c a s e book and te x t d ea lin g
w ith im portant c i v i l l i b e r t i e s 1 q u e stio n s th a t c o lle g e
freshm en might handle a d eq u a tely . T r e s o lin i sta te d the
s it u a t io n thus: "The lack o f good te a ch in g m a te ria ls has
been one o f the most form idable o b s ta c le s on th e road to a
28
b e tte r understanding o f our b a s ic freedom s." He
25
Amo B e lla c k , " S tru cture in th e S o c ia l S cien ces
and Im p lica tio n s fo r th e S o c ia l S tu d ies Program," in
G. W esley Sowards ( e d .) , The S o c ia l S tu d ie s , p. 96.
26
T y ler, op. c i t . , p . 125.
27
Robert M. W. T ra v ers, E s s e n tia ls o f L earning:
An Overview for Students o f Education (New York: The
Macmillan C o ., 1 9 6 3 ), p. 5 0 9 .
28
T reso lin i, op. c i t . , p . v i i i .
10
acknowledged th e r e c e n t flo o d o f new m a te ria ls but c r i t i
c iz e d them on th ree b a se s: (a) t h e ir o v e r ly sc h o la r ly
approach; (b) th e ir a c c e p t a b ilit y to mature stu d en ts on ly;
and (c) th e ir overem phasis on Negro r ig h ts "to the e x c lu -
29
siori o f oth er c r u c ia l areas o f American freedom s." He
concluded h is p o s it io n w ith a d e c la r a tio n o f th e need fo r
30
an in q u iry approach based on a c a se stud y a n a ly s is .
Another f a c e t o f th e problem i s th e fa c t th a t our
d ev ic es are inadequate fo r e v a lu a tin g stu d en t growth in
c itiz e n s h ip ed u ca tio n . In v e n to r ie s , fo r exam ple, are
commonly used in cu rren t resea rch e f f o r t s . Weaknesses o f
such in v e n to r ie s in clu d e (a) t h e ir use o f " forced -ch oice"
q u e stio n s, d isa llo w in g unusual resp o n ses; (b) th e tendency
fo r respondents to g iv e answers which th ey b e lie v e th e
t e s t e r d e s ir e s ; and (c ) th e d is p a r ity between sim ulated
31
t e s t c o n d itio n s and th e r e a l w orld o u tsid e th e classroom .
Purposes o f th e Study
The in te n t o f t h is stu d y , th en , was to develop and
carry out a s m a ll-s c a le r e sea r ch d esig n th a t might serve as
a model fo r sy stem a tic r e o r ie n ta tio n o f teach in g in the
s o c ia l sc ie n c e s a t h ig h sc h o o l or ju n io r c o lle g e l e v e l.
2 9 I b id .
30-r, . j
I b id . . p. x i .
“ ^ P a trick , o£. c i t . , pp. 2-11.
11
E x p lic it ly , i t s purposes were as fo llo w s:
1. To c r e a te and tea ch a ju n io r c o lle g e p o l i t i c a l
s c ie n c e u n it o f study which exem p lified
B runer's concept o f s tr u c tu r e , Mager’s fo cu s on
b e h a v io r a lly -d e fin e d o b je c t iv e s , and Taba's
t h e o r e t ic a l requirem ents fo r and m ethodology in
such u n its fo r classroom u se .
2 . To e v a lu a te stu d en t le a rn in g s in c o n tr o l and
exp erim en tal groups by a f f e c t iv e q u estio n s as
co n ta in ed in the K atz-Thurstone "A ttitude
toward th e Law," Forms A and B.
3 . To u se v a r io u s s t a t i s t i c a l measures in a s c e r
ta in in g the a f f e c t iv e change o f stu d en ts in
b o th groups p a r tic ip a tin g in th e stud y.
4 . To e v a lu a te th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f th e m a te r ia ls
e s p e c ia lly ch osen fo r in c lu s io n in th e e x p e r i
m ental u n it o f stu d y .
5 . To t e s t th e fo llo w in g h y p o th esis: That no
s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e in a ttitu d e would occur
betw een th e p re- and post-K atz-T hurstone t e s t s
w ith in e ith e r th e experim ental or c o n tr o l
groups as a consequence o f the study u n it on
th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l.
F ollow in g c o n s u lta tio n s w ith p o l i t i c a l sc ie n c e
p ro fe sso r s and a f t e r c o n sid er a b le a d d itio n a l in v e s t ig a t io n ,
th e concept o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l was s e le c te d as th e
12
focu s fo r th e new u n it o f stu d y . E s s e n t ia lly , t h is concept
d ea ls w ith an A m erican's in h eren t w orth, backed up by law
and our co u rt sy stem , as a v a lu a b le human being in a demo
c r a tic s o c ie t y . The c a s e -stu d y tech n iqu e was s e le c te d as
b ein g p a r t ic u la r ly ap p rop riate in tea ch in g t h is u n it .
Too o fte n tea ch ers and p r o fe sso r s have been con
cerned on ly w ith th e c o g n itiv e a sp e c ts o f th e ir stu d en ts'
lea rn in g in c la s s to th e e x c lu sio n o f a f f e c t iv e change in
a ttitu d e s or b eh a v io r . In p a r t, t h is stud y attem pted to
a s s e s s stu d en t a t t it u d in a l changes as a consequence o f
th e ir classroom ex p erien ces and o u tsid e read in g.
Some y ea rs ago, Taba developed a th e o r e tic a l con
s tr u c t fo r u se in d e v isin g c u r r ic u la r u n its o f stu d y . Her
o ft-a c c la im e d work has n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y led to th e needed
reform in c l a s s e s embodying th e s o c ia l sc ie n c e d is c i p li n e s .
The re sea rch d e sig n h er e in was one attem pt a t im plem enting
her m odel.
S p e c ific Areas o f Inquiry
In t h i s stu d y , answers were sought to th e fo llo w in g
q u estio n s:
1. Could a u n it o f stu d y be developed on th e con
c e p t o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l fo r a ju n io r
c o l le g e co u rse in p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e , a u n it
th a t would have p o s it iv e in flu e n c e on th e
a f f e c t iv e a rea s o f stu d en t learn ing?
13
2 . What d iffe r e n c e s in a f f e c t iv e growth would
occur between th o se stu d en ts u sin g th e
exp erim en tal m a te r ia ls and th ose having a
co n v en tio n a l cou rse u n it?
3 . Was a three-w eek p eriod o f tim e too sh ort to
e f f e c t changes in the em otional a ttitu d e s o f
stu d en ts toward the c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l?
4 . Was th e s e le c t io n o f m a te ria ls a r e le v a n t one
fo r in c lu s io n in th e new u n it o f study? Which
s e le c t io n s m ight w e ll have been d e le te d or
r e v ise d ?
5 . In what a sp ec ts o f th e new u n it did stu d en ts
ex p erien ce the most d if f ic u lt y ?
6 . What d id th e resea rch in d ic a te r e la t iv e to th e
n atu re o f th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l or the
c it iz e n s h ip bond, as i t i s comm o n ly r e fe r r e d
to?
E s s e n t ia lly , th e r e were s i x b a sic phases in
ca rry in g out t h is in v e s t ig a t io n . The f i r s t e n ta ile d a
com prehensive read in g o f a v a ila b le research s tu d ie s on
(a) curriculum th eo ry and p r a c tic e w ith emphasis on th e
s o c ia l s c ie n c e s , and on (b) th e in h eren t d ig n ity and w orth
o f th e in d iv id u a l as backed up by law and our co u rt sy stem ,
a co n cep t h erein r e fe r r e d to as th e c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l.
A second phase was th e s e le c t io n of a cou rse u n it
th a t m ight be d eveloped to i l l u s t r a t e Bruner fs con cept o f
14
s tr u c tu r e , th a t had o b je c tiv e s which might be b e h a v io r a lly
d e fin e d , and th a t m ight be evaluated a f f e c t iv e ly w ith in the
Bloom and Rrathwohl c o n te x t. An area of study badly needed
but n o t c u r r e n tly handled in p o l i t i c a l sc ien ce c l a s s e s —
th a t o f n a tio n a liz e d p r o te c tio n s fo r American c it iz e n s
reco g n ized by c o n s t it u t io n a l law --w as s e le c te d fo r d ev elo p
ment. A th ir d p art focu sed on secu rin g a ju n io r c o l l e g e ’s
p erm ission to ca rry out th e stu d y , making a v a ila b le two o f
i t s tenured p r o fe sso r s in the p o l i t i c a l sc ien ce f i e l d .
A fo u r th a sp ect o f th e study was th e f i e l d t e s t in g
o f th e new u n it and the a s s e s s in g o f the e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f
th e p r e- and p o s t - t e s t e v a lu a tiv e d e v ic e s. A fter ap p rop ri
a te changes were made, th e f i f t h phase of th e d esig n was
im plem ented: th e tea ch in g o f th e new u n it on th e c i t i z e n
ship in t e g r a l.
The s ix t h phase focu sed on a s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is
o f th e t e s t d ata and an a n a ly s is o f teacher and stu d en t
r e a c tio n s to th e exp erim en tal u n it .
B asic Assumptions
I m p lic it in t h is study were the fo llo w in g b a sic
assu m p tion s:
1 . B e h a v io r a lly -d e fin e d course o b je c tiv e s are
b e tte r than th o se one commonly fin d s as th e
d e sir e d outcomes fo r u n its of stu d y .
2. The c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l, as d efin ed and
d eveloped h e r e in , i s an example o f B run er's
c u r r ic u la r concept o f str u c tu r e .
3. T aba's t h e o r e t ic a l model fo r curriculum
developm ent i s a v a lid one to im plem ent,
p a r t ic u la r ly w ith refe ren ce to th e c a s e -s tu d y
method in areas such as c itiz e n s h ip ed u ca tio n .
4 . P o s it iv e c o g n itiv e change in stu d en ts i s
i n s u f f ic i e n t u n le ss accompanied by a s im ila r
change in th e ir a f f e c t iv e a ttitu d e s toward th e
m a te r ia l stu d ie d .
5 . A n a ly sis o f a f f e c t iv e changes, as measured by
th e stan d ard ized K atz-Thurstone "A ttitude
toward th e Law," would be th e primary fo cu s
h e r e in .
6. An in d iv id u a l's a ttitu d e toward the law (and,
more s p e c i f i c a l l y , toward th e c itiz e n s h ip
in t e g r a l) cou ld change as a consequence o f a
th ree-w eek u n it o f study in a ju n io r c o lle g e
p o l i t i c a l sc ie n c e c l a s s .
16
Scope o f th e Study
L im ita tio n s
Among the more s ig n if ic a n t lim ita tio n s upon th e
in v e s t ig a t io n were the fo llo w in g :
1 . The v a l i d it y o f a f f e c t iv e e v a lu a tiv e d e v ic e s .
Instrum ents o r ig in a lly developed for t h is in v e s t ig a t io n
lacked form al v a lid a t io n . Hence, the K atz-Thurstone
stan d ard ized in stru m en t, e n t it le d "A ttitude toward th e
Law," was used in s te a d . L ik ew ise, i t s v a l id it y has been
32
q u estion ed e x te n s iv e ly by Shaw and W right. They
co n clu d e, n o n e th e le s s , th a t i t i s a b e tte r measure than
O sgood's sem antic d if f e r e n t i a l "when th e a t tit u d e in
q u e stio n was p a r tic u la r ly s a lie n t for th e resp o n d en ts," as
33
was th e c a s e in the p resen t stu d y. When th e la t t e r
c o n d itio n i s n o t r e le v a n t, Osgood-type measures tend to
c o r r e la te .7 1 -.7 6 w ith K atz-Thurstone m odels. When
s a lie n c y to resp on d en ts i s im portant, c o r r e la tio n s u s u a lly
drop to .2 9 - .3 9 w ith K atz-T hurstone. Shaw and W right have
summarized t h e ir p o s it io n th u s: ". . . Few o f th e a ttitu d e
s c a le s p resen ted in t h is book are adequate fo r th e a s s e s s
ment o f in d iv id u a l a t t it u d e , although most are adequate fo r
^ M . E. Shaw and J . M. W right, S ca le s fo r th e
Measurement o f A ttitu d e s (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. ,
1 9 6 7 ), pp. 5 5 9 -5 6 9 .
^ I b i d . , p . 568.
17
n34
r e se a r c h p u rp o ses."
T heir ca u tio n on u se of th e Osgood sem antics
d i f f e r e n t i a l was concluded thus:
. . . The s e t o f b ip o la r s c a le s which i s
a p p ro p ria te fo r the measurement o f a t tit u d e may be
exp ected to vary w ith th e a ttitu d e o b je c t. T his
ren d ers th e sem antic d if f e r e n t ia l le s s g e n e r a lly
u s e fu l than i t appears to be a t f i r s t th o u g h t.35
H ence, th e u n a v a ila b ility of v a lid a t t it u d in a l
m easu res, in clu d in g the K atz-Thurstone t e s t used in t h is
stu d y , imposed a sev ere lim ita tio n upon th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f
th e s tu d y 's fin d in g s .
2 . Problems in th e ev a lu a tio n o f a t t it u d e . I f i t
were accep ted th a t an a ttitu d e i s a com plex v a r ia b le
c o n s is tin g o f c o g n it iv e , a f f e c t iv e , and a c tio n com ponents,
then the r e l a t iv e c o n tr ib u tio n o f the components t o th e
measured outcome cou ld n ot be known through a t t it u d e stud y
a lo n e .
Furtherm ore, c o g n itiv e study by stu d en ts in a
form al sc h o o l s e t t in g o fte n produces u n sta b le and u n clea r
lo n g -ra n g e ch an ges, e ith e r p o s it iv e or n e g a tiv e , in th e
a f f e c t iv e a t tit u d e s o f th e se same stu d e n ts. D e s p ite th e
freq u en t u n p r e d ic ta b ility and i n s t a b i l i t y o f such ch an ges,
i t needs to be m easured.
3 . Inform ation fo r com parative stu d y . S in ce th e
ex p erim en ta l u n it c o n s titu te d o n ly a sm a ll p art o f th e
3 4 I b id ., p . 561. 35I b id . . p . 5 6 9 .
18
t o t a l c it iz e n s h ip curriculum —much le s s th e e n t ir e
A m erican ization p r o c e ss—th e support or r e s is t a n c e w hich i t
r e c e iv e d from o th er learn in g was unknown. The v er y n o v e lty
o f th e u n it was i t s e l f r e s t r i c t i v e o f e v a lu a tio n . For
a n o th er, th e s u i t a b i l i t y o f " stru ctu ra l" c it iz e n s h ip
programs fo r stu d en ts o f d iffe r e n t in t e r e s t s and le v e ls o f
a b i l i t y had not. been stu d ie d . A lso lim itin g th e in v e s t ig a
t io n was th e la c k o f in form ation concerning th e s p e c if ic
k in d s and amounts o f prep aration and rein fo rcem en t w hich
would be most h e lp fu l fo r lea rn in g and r e te n tio n in t h is
a r e a .
4 . The Bruner concept o f s tr u c tu r e . A lthough
Bruner has w r itte n e x te n s iv e ly about h is n o tio n o f s tr u c
t u r e , th e concept as ap plied to th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s la ck s
s u f f i c i e n t l y in p r e c isio n and c l a r i t y to q u e stio n th e
approach o f t h i s in v e s tig a tio n as b ein g r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f
h is th in k in g .
5 . In flu e n ce o f th e two ju n io r c o lle g e p r o fe s s o r s .
A lthough one i s now a c o lle g e dean and th e o th er a d ep a rt
ment chairm an, t h e ir p erso n a l, a f f e c t iv e in flu e n c e upon th e
stu d e n ts may have skewed th e r e s u lt s in ways n o t su b je c t to
m easurem ent. The one openly attem pted to change stu d en t
a t t it u d e s v ia c o g n itiv e stud y whereas th e o th er made l i t t l e
attem p t to induce changed a ttitu d e s beyond what happens in
m ost co n v e n tio n a l classroom stu d y .
19
6 . Student v a r ia b le s . The resea rch d esig n was n ot
form ulated so as to match stu d en ts according to i n t e l l i -
g en ce , high sc h o o l g ra d es, or p e r s o n a lit ie s .
7. In n ovative n atu re o f the stu d y . Both the
e x te n t and the q u a lity o f ev a lu a tio n conducted h e r e in were
lim ite d becau se o f th e in n o v a tiv e o r ie n ta tio n o f th e stu d y .
D e lim ita tio n s
I t was decided th a t the f i e l d stud y should be
r e s t r ic t e d :
1 . In o b je c t iv e , p rim a rily to th e e v a lu a tio n o f
th e outcomes o f in s tr u c tio n fo r a t tit u d e toward
law .
2 . To in s tr u c tio n a l method which emphasized
"inq uiry and d isco v ery " as opposed to "affirm a
t io n and p r o o f."
3 . To a id s fo r tea ch in g and lea rn in g w hich
in v o lv ed a c tu a l problem s, which were approached
in the manner o f a j u d ic ia l la b o ra to r y , and
which provided e p is o d e s -fo r -le a r n in g th a t m ight
f a c i l i t a t e the developm ent o f knowledge and
a b i l i t y to u se the co n cep tu a l str u c tu r e o f th e
s u b j e c t .
4 . To s t a f f who were v o lu n ta ry p a r t ic ip a n ts , whose
p r in c ip a l assignm ent was in p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e ,
and whose employment s ta tu s was perm anent.
20
5 . To stu d en ts who p a r tic ip a te d in the experim ent
by reason o f th e ir attend ance a t San D iego C ity
C o lle g e and th e ir en rollm ent in P o l i t i c a l
S cien ce 2 , "Government o f th e U nited S ta t e s ,"
during the sp rin g sem ester o f 1967.
6 . In curriculum c o n te n t, to th e n a tio n a l (both
s t a t e and fe d e r a l) r ig h ts o f c it iz e n s h ip , to
th e landmark d e c is io n s o f th e h ig h co u rt which
o r ig in a lly d efin ed and lln a tio n a liz e d " them; and
to a con cep tu al s tr u c tu r e , th e " c itiz e n s h ip
in te g r a l," w hich had been h y p o th esized to
embrace them. The p r in c ip a l C o n s titu tio n a l
source o f th e co n ten t was A r t ic le s I , IV-VI,
and V III o f th e B i l l o f R ig h ts, along w ith
A r t ic le XIV, S e c tio n I , th e n a tio n a liz in g
a g e n t.
7 . In tim e, to changes in stu d en t a ttitu d e s which
were p resen t a t th e end o f the u n it as opposed
to s i x months or a year l a t e r .
21
Importance o f the Problem
To paraphrase an o ld sayin g about th e w ea th er,
"Everyone ta lk s about the im portance o f tea ch in g str u c tu r e
and e v a lu a tin g th e a f f e c t iv e in flu e n c e o f c o g n itiv e stu d y ,
b u t no one does anything about them ." C orrectin g th e
p r o p en sity to id e n t if y what should be done r e l a t i v e to
s p e c if i c stu d y in th e s o c ia l sc ie n c e s and n ot to ca rry
through was th e h ea rt o f t h is in v e s t ig a t io n . For some tim e
now s o c ia l s c ie n c e ed u cation has been lo u d ly condemned as
ir r e le v a n t and a u s e le s s bore in th e cu rricu lu m . Some
persons have s a id th a t the c h ie f outcome o f such co u rses
has been ennui and n au sea, not improved b eh avior or
h e a lth ie r a t tit u d e s on th e stu d e n t's p a r t. The c a s e fo r
changing th e d id a c t ic , r e g u r g ita tiv e fo cu s o f ju n io r
c o lle g e c la s s e s in th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s has been g la r in g .
The m llange o f co u rt d e c is io n s on th e r ig h t s o f
in d iv id u a ls in our s o c ie t y has led to in crea se d co n fu sio n
about o n e 's guarantees as a c i t iz e n o f a s t a t e and as a
c i t i z e n o f our n a tio n . How, s p e c i f i c a l l y , do th e s e
in te r tw in e in C a lifo rn ia ? How m ight a stu d en t be made
b e tte r aware o f t h is dual nature to h is c itiz e n s h ip ? How
can we a s s i s t ju n io r c o lle g e youth and a d u lts in d ev elo p in g
a h e a lth y tinderstanding o f and a p p r e c ia tio n fo r t h is
d u a lity o f r o le ? A lso , what le g a l r ig h t s do we p o sse s s as
22
c i t i z e n s in a s o c ie t y th a t i s -undergoing ra p id m oral and
te c h n o lo g ic a l change?
No one stu d y could b eg in to answer th e q u e stio n s
posed h e r e . However, a stron g need does e x i s t to implement
cu rren t t h e o r e t ic a l models fo r curriculum developm ent even
i f to d isp ro v e th e ir v a l i d it y as ed u ca tio n a l g u id e lin e s .
F u rth er, we need to a s s e s s more than stu d en t c o g n itiv e
growth in the s o c ia l sc ie n c e s as i s our wont c u r r e n tly .
U n less a ttitu d e s a re changed as a consequence o f c o g n itiv e
stu d y , one has reason to q u estio n th e v a l i d i t y o f stu d yin g
a t a l l . Thus, a fo cu s h e re in was to a s s e s s in w hat, i f
any, ways a t tit u d e s had been in flu e n c e d as a consequence o f
a ju n io r c o lle g e s tr u c tu r a l le a rn in g u n it on th e c i t i z e n
sh ip in te g r a l.
D e fin itio n s o f Terms
Because o f th e s p e c ia l way in w hich th ey are used
h e r e , some terms need to be d e fin e d .
American c i t iz e n s h ip . As d efin ed fo r th e purposes
o f t h i s r e sea r ch , th e term d en otes th a t p o r tio n o f th e
f i f t y com binations o f U nited S ta te s and S ta te c itiz e n s h ip
w hich i s common to a l l o f them. (See "dual c i t i z e n s h i p ,1 1
in f r a . ) T his common c i v i l s t a t u s , or shared c o n d itio n , i s
s p e c i f i c a l l y d efin e d by th o se r ig h ts and l i b e r t i e s which
th e h ig h co u rt has h eld " im p lic it in th e con cep t o f ordered
23
lib e r t y . . . d ic ta te d by a stud y and a p p r ec ia tio n o f th e
m eaning, the e s s e n t ia l im p lic a tio n s , o f lib e r t y i t s e l f . '
C itiz e n s h ip . "A c i t i z e n o f a s t a t e i s a person who
i s e ith e r bora w ith in th e s t a t e , or born o f p aren ts who are
c i t i z e n s , or one who has acquired th e s t a tu s o f c i t i z e n by
. . . n a tu r a liz a tio n . . . . Of r e ce n t years th e term
'n a tio n a l1 has come in to use in p la ce o f ' c i t i z e n ' . .
C itiz e n sh ip ed u ca tio n . The t o t a l s o c ia l p r o c e ss,
both form al and in fo rm a l, by means o f w hich persons lea rn
how to become an American ( s o c ia l e d u c a tio n ). Synonyms:
"A m ericanization" ( s o c io lo g y ) ; " p o lit ic a l s o c ia liz a t io n "
00
( p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e ).
C itiz e n sh ip in t e g r a l. The name g iv e n in t h is
re se a r ch to a h y p o th esis concerning th e n a tu re o f th e
American c it iz e n s h ip bond: an a c t iv e , govern m en t-related
s e t o f id e a s , i d e a l s , and ways d ea lin g w ith "resp ect fo r
Q f i
Supreme Court R ep orts, Palko v . C o n n ec ticu t.
302 U .S . 319 (1 9 3 7 ). Mr. J u s tic e Cardozo d e liv e r e d th e
o p in io n (s e e P a lk o . Appendix A, fo r a b r ie f o f th e c a s e ) .
37
Joseph Dunner (e d . ) , The D ic tio n a r y o f P o l i t i c a l
S cien ce (New York: The P h ilo so p h ic a l L ib rary, 1 9 6 4 ),
pp. 9 5 -9 6 .
38
For " c itiz e n s h ip ed u ca tio n ," se e T aft I n s t it u t e ,
op. c i t . , pp. 3 -1 4 ; fo r " A m ericanization," se e F ried en b erg,
op . c i t . . p. 72; and fo r " p o lit ic a l s o c ia liz a t io n ," see
P a tr ic k , op. c i t . . pp. 1 -4 .
24
on
th e in h eren t worth and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l men."
Dual c it iz e n s h ip * The C o n s titu tio n s p e c if ie s th a t
persons who are c it iz e n s o f th e U nited S ta te s and who are
a ls o r e s id e n ts o f one o f th e c o n s titu e n t S ta te s are
c i t i z e n s o f b o th . As North has ex p la in ed i t , w ith th e
passage o f th e F ourteenth Amendment (1868) :
. . . For th e f i r s t tim e the C o n s titu tio n spoke o f
the o r ig in o f n a tio n a l c it iz e n s h ip , ap p aren tly
g iv in g i t p r io r ity over S ta te c it iz e n s h ip . B efore
then . . . i t had been the commonly accep ted
d o ctrin e . . . th a t S ta te c i t iz e n s h ip , i f any other
e x is t e d , was th e a ll-im p o r ta n t c it iz e n s h ip . . . .
T his amendment c le a r ly and c o n s t it u t io n a lly re co g
n ize d th e two c itiz e n s h ip s and d efin ed U nited S ta te s
c it iz e n s h ip as b ir th in or n a tu r a liz a tio n by the
U nited S t a t e s .40
S tru ctu re (o f know ledge). As used by Jerome Bruner
i t i s th e n atu re o f th e coh eren ce, th e u n ita r y c h a r a c te r ,
o f th e b a sic concepts and p r in c ip le s w hich are c h a r a c te r is
t i c o f th e s c h o la r ly or s c i e n t i f i c knowledge o f a su b je c t
or d is c i p li n e . As Bruner has ex p ressed i t , th e str u c tu r e
o f our knowledge o f a su b je c t i s
. • . i t s connectedness and i t s d e r iv a tio n s th a t
make one id ea fo llo w another . . . th e g re a t
on
The quoted e x p r e ssio n , h eld to c o n s t it u t e an
elem ent o f American c i v i l s tr u c tu r e , d eriv ed h ere in from
th e "Survey o f the L itera tu re" (s e e "Summary and Conclu
sio n s" to Chapter I I ) , appears as such in each ca se stud y
fo r stu d en t e x e r c is e .
^ A rth u r A. N orth, S . J . , The Supreme C ourt:
J u d ic ia l P rocess and J u d ic ia l P o l i t i c s (New York:
A p p leton -C en tu ry-C rofts, I n c ., 1 9 6 6 ), pp. 6 4 -6 5 .
25
co n cep tu a l in v en tio n s th a t " g iv e” order to th e
co n g er ies o f d isco n n ected o b se r v a tio n s, th a t g iv e s
meaning to what we may lea rn and makes p o s s ib le
th e opening up o f new realm s o f e x p e r i e n c e . 41
# «j
B e lla c k , quoting Jerome Bruner, op. c i t . , p . 96.
B e lla c k d escrib ed i t ( ib i d .) as "the l o g i c a l order in h eren t
in knowledge i t s e l f . "
CHAPTER I I
SURVEY O F TH E LITERATURE
Because o f th e e x te n s iv e re se a r ch in s o c ia l sc ie n c e
e d u ca tio n , i t was decided to d e lim it th e lit e r a t u r e survey
p rim a rily to components o f th e s tr u c tu r a l concept embodied
in the t r i a l u n it , nam ely, th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l,
d efin e d h erein as th a t govern m en t-related s e t o f id e a s ,
id e a ls , and ways d e a lin g w ith an A m erican's in h eren t worth
and sen se o f eq u al v a lu e . T h is f i r s t s e c t io n o f th e survey
has been su b d ivid ed in to sta tem en ts made by American
p h ilo so p h e r s, b eh a v io ra l s c i e n t i s t s , h is t o r ia n s , c o n s t it u
t io n a l sc h o la r s (in c lu d in g Supreme Court j u s t ic e s and
p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s ) , and s e le c te d fo r e ig n o b ser v ers. The
second o f th e two areas o f th e survey was developed to
provide a review o f th e re sea r c h in to s o c ia l s c ie n c e and
c it iz e n s h ip ed u ca tio n .
C oncepts o f C iv il S tru ctu re
American P h ilosop h ers
A lthough s e le c t io n was made from th e works o f
Robert Beck, Sidney Hook, Abraham K aplan, Ralph P erry,
Roscoe Pound, and John W ild, t h is elim in a te d c o n sid e r a tio n
26
27
h e r e in o f comments by oth er authors such as G a b riel,
1
S ch n eid er, W erkm eister, and W hittem ore.
Beck d ecla red th a t sc h o o ls should t r e a t the to p ic
o f Americanism in an in t e r d is c ip lin a r y fa sh io n :
. . . Americanism can be and ought to be tr e a te d
by many d i s c i p l i n e s : econom ics, h is t o r y , s o c io lo g y ,
th e o lo g y , p h ilo so p h y . For th e problem o f American
ism does indeed cu t a cr o ss th e u su a l lin e s between
academic departm ents. The t o o ls and knowledge o f
a l l th e se d is c ip lin e s can be brought to bear on th a t
problem.^
He b e lie v e d th a t th e la s t in g appeal o f th e D ec la ra tio n o f
Independence la y in i t s ex p r e ssio n o f a governm ental
p h ilosop h y h e a r t ily endorsed by Am ericans, commonly
r e fe r r e d to as th e p h ilo so p h y o f n a tu r a l r ig h t s . Among i t s
id e a ls , he ob served , i s th a t o f e q u a lity , o f which th e "one
perhaps b a sic to a l l o th ers i s e q u a lity o f d ig n ity or o f
v a lu e .1,3
As to th e sou rce o f n a tu r a l r i g h t s , Beck m aintained
th a t "While th e D e c la r a tio n h o ld s n a tu r a l r ig h t s to be
Ralph G a b riel, The Course o f American Dem ocratic
Thought (New York: The Ronald P ress C o ., 1956); H erbert W .
S ch n eid er, A H isto r y o f American P h ilosop h y (New York:
Columbia U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1946); W illiam H. W erkm eister,
H isto ry o f P h ilo so p h ic a l Ideas in America (New York: The
Ronald P ress C o ., 19 4 9 ); and Robert C. W hittem ore, Makers
o f th e American Mind: Three C en tu ries o f American Thought
and Thinkers (New York: W illiam Morrow and C o ., 196 4 ).
0
Robert tf. Beck, The Meaning o f Americanism: An
E ssay on th e R e lig io u s and P h ilo so p h ic B a sis o f th e
American Mind (New York: P h ilo s o p h ic a l L ib rary, I n c . ,
1 9 5 6 ), p . 9 .
3Ib id ., p. 22.
28
d erived from t h e ir C rea to r, th e h is to r ia n m ight . . . see
Americans as endowed w ith in a lie n a b le r ig h ts by th e ir
E n glish fo r e b e a r s . Beck a ls o based h is ca se on the
fo llo w in g p o in t:
The id ea o f n a tu r a l r ig h t s has been the
dominant p r in c ip le in A m erica's attem pts to s o lv e
the r id d le o f p o l i t i c a l l i f e . Indeed, i t must be
in volved in c a se o f ap peal a g a in st th e e x is tin g
le g a l ord er. . . . The n a tu r a l r ig h ts d o c tr in e i s
r e la te d to th e m oral p erso n a lism o f th e D eclara
tio n : persons have r i g h t s , r ig h ts which fo llo w
from th e n atu re o f th e p e r s o n a lity i t s e l f .5
Having d ecla red m oral p erso n a lism —h is theory of
Americanism— to be th e e t h i c a l b a s is o f p o l i t i c a l
democracy, Beck quoted E rn est Barker in support o f h is
p o s itio n :
The fou n d ation s o f e t h i c s , and th e sou rce of
a l l e t h ic a l p r in c ip le s , i s th e v a lu e and w orth o f
in d iv id u a l p e r s o n a lity . . . . The in t r in s ic v a lu e
o f each p e r s o n a lity i s th e b a s is o f p o l i t i c a l
thought j u s t as (§nd j u s t b ecau se) i t i s th e b a s is
o f m oral th o u g h t.°
Summing up B eck 's p o s it io n was h is comment on the
le g a l or c o n s t it u t io n a l r ig h t s o f th e in d iv id u a l:
A r ig h t may be d e fin e d as a cla im o f one person
a g a in st a n o th er, su ch th a t th e oth er s h a ll do or
s h a ll n ot do a g iv e n a c t . A le g a l r ig h t i s such a
claim w hich i s l e g a l l y en fo rce a b le . . . i t i s in
the in d iv id u a l a sp e c t th a t r i g h t s , as c la im s, e x is t
b efo re p o s it iv e law . . . . The f i r s t le g a l r ig h t i s
^ Ib id . , p. 47.
~ * I b id . , p . 46.
^ I b id ., p . 62 (from E rnest B arker, P r in c ip le s of
S o c ia l and P o l i t i c a l T h eory, p . 1 2 3 ).
29
th a t o f human d ig n it y , o f treatm ent and co n sid era
t io n as a m oral a g e n t.7
B u ild in g on the th in k in g o f John Locke, another
American p h ilosop h er averred th a t " in so fa r as th e s t a te
r e s t s upon c o n se n t, in d iv id u a l persons m orally and c o l l e c
t i v e l y are . . . as much i t s m aster as th ey are any other
in str u m e n ta lity o f th e ir w ill." ®
A d iff e r e n t p h ilo so p h er c it e d American government
as b ein g one on w hich "there can be agreement on p o lic y
w ith ou t agreement on what i s c a lle d th e 'u nd erlyin g
p h ilo so p h y .'" ^ Concerning the fou n d ation s o f American
v a lu e s , Kaplan fu r th er observed th a t "an in te rco n n ectio n
o f m orals and p o l i t i c s has ch a r a c te r iz e d e t h ic a l theory
from th e outset." ^ ®
W hile disavow ing "that u ltim a te a b su r d ity , an
' o f f i c i a l 1 p h ilosop h y o f dem ocracy," Kaplan did n o t fin d
p o l i t i c a l p h ilosop h y reduced to proclam ations o f f u t i l i t y .
He d escrib ed i t as ", . . f u t i l e o n ly as a body o f u ltim a te
tr u th s from w hich v a lu e s are to be deduced; in d isp en sa b le
7I b id . . p . 132.
o
Sidney Hook, P o l i t i c a l Power and P ersonal
Freedom: C r it ic a l S tu d ies in Democracy, Communism, and
C iv il R ights (C o llie r Books e d itio n : New York: C r ite r io n
Books, I n c ., The M acmillan C o ., 1 9 6 9 ), p . 33.
g
Abraham K aplan, American E th ics and P ublic
P o lic y , a Galaxy Book (New York: Oxford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s ,
1 9 6 3 ), p . 5 .
10Ibid. , p. 8.
30
as a . . . te x tu r e o f p e r s p e c tiv e s w ith in which a c tio n
11
fin d s m eaning, b oth as s ig n ific a n c e and as w orth. . .
From a th eo ry o f n a tu ra l law , Kaplan in d ica ted th a t
c e r ta in r ig h t s are " n a tu ra l1 1 and cap ab le o f em p irica l
in te r p r e ta tio n . Kaplan has d efin ed a n a tu ra l r ig h t to mean
one th a t i s independent o f human v o l it io n but th a t i s b a sic
to a l l o th er r ig h t s . Such a r ig h t i s exp ressed by any law
12
which i s b a sic to s o c ia l liv i n g .
Kaplan a ls o observed th a t th e p a r tic u la r cla im o f
our democracy i s i t s d e f in it io n o f th e aim o f th e s t a t e as
13
th e h app in ess o f i t s in d iv id u a l c i t i z e n s . In such a
v ie w , p o l i t i c a l im p era tiv es e v o lv e from th e moral norms o f
a dem ocratic n a tio n and become c e r t i f i a b l e o n ly in terms
o f em p irica l knowledge con cern in g the co n d itio n s and
14
consequences o f t h e ir e x e c u tio n .
Perry has a ls o re v er te d to th e D ec la ra tio n o f
Independence in d ev elo p in g a n a tu r a l r ig h ts p h ilo so p h y .
I t was h is view th a t t h is document co n ta in s
(1) a p o l i t i c a l p h ilo so p h y , s e t t in g fo r th th e
reason s th a t j u s t i f y th e a u th o r ity o f th e s t a t e and
d e fin e th e fundam ental r ig h t s w hich u n d e r lie th e
p o s it iv e law , (2 ) an e t h i c s , which s e ts up th e
a ggregate h appiness o f in d iv id u a ls as th e supreme
11I b id . . p . 10.
^ I b i d . , pp. 1 8 -2 4 .
^ I b i d . , p . 22.
14Ib id .
31
end; and (3) a t h e i s t i c and c r e a t io n is t d o c tr in e o f
the o r ig in s o f n a tu r e and man. 15
Further commenting on th e con cep t o f th e n a tu ra l
r ig h t s o f man, Perry s ta te d :
. . . But w hether they were termed " n atu ral,"
as became u su al a f t e r 1760: or were re fe r r e d to as
"fundamental" or " a n c ie n t, or "custom ary," as "the
laws o f God," or as "the r ig h t s o f Englishm en," in
any ca se th ere w ere re co g n ized b a s ic p r in c ip le s
which m ight be invoked a g a in s t th e powers o f any
human governm ent, and which found t h e ir sa n ctio n
in rea so n , c o n s c ie n c e , and p i e t y . 16
Another p h ilo so p h er to comment on th e n o tio n o f
n a tu ra l r ig h ts was R oscoe Pound. The p eren n ia l courtroom
str u g g le over th e se r i g h t s , taken to g eth er w ith th e govern
m ental power men have d eriv ed from th e C o n s titu tio n , have
borne w itn e ss to "how th orou gh ly th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l le g a l
th in k in g o f th e p a st i s a fo r c e in th e a d m in istra tio n o f
17
j u s t ic e o f th e p r e s e n t."
John Wild has a t t e s t e d th a t ev ery American i n s t i t u
tio n "should be judged by th e degree to w hich i t n urtu res
18
and supports [r e s p o n s ib le ] p erso n a l freed o m ."
1 C
Ralph B arton P erry , "The D e c la ra tio n o f Independ
en c e ," in E arl Latham ( e d .) , The D e c la r a tio n o f Independ
ence and th e C o n s titu tio n , from P uritanism and Democracy
(New York: The Vanguard P r e s s , 1 9 5 4 ), p . 3 .
17
Roscoe Pound, An In tro d u ctio n to th e P hilosophy
o f Law (r e v ise d e d it io n ; New Haven: Y ale U n iv e r s ity P r e ss,
1 9 5 4 ), from P reface to t h e .F i r s t E d itio n .
18
John W ild, E x iste n c e and th e World o f Freedom
(Englewood C l i f f s , N .J .: P r e n tic e -H a ll, I n c ., 1 9 6 3 ),
p. 225.
32
American H isto r ia n s
One h is to r ia n has summarized th e th in k in g o f Thomas
J e ffe r s o n on th e c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l as b ein g th e r e la
tio n s h ip between th e a b s tr a c t p r in c ip le s and co n crete
r e a l i t i e s o f s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l l i f e in Am erica. S p e c if
i c a l l y , Boyd a ttr ib u te s th e fo llo w in g n o tio n to J e ffe r s o n :
. . . Wherever la w s, in s t it u t io n s and custom s m ight
be d iscard ed by one g en era tio n a f te r an oth er—th e re
was in r e a l i t y "nothing . . . unchangeable but th e
in h eren t and u n a lie n a b le r ig h t s o f man."
This was J e f f e r s o n 's o n ly a b s o lu te , th e o v er
arching m oral and p o l i t i c a l p r in c ip le by which a l l
in d iv id u a l and s o c ia l a c tio n s were to be t e s t e d . 19
Henry S t e e le Commager has a ls o stu d ie d the le g a l
im p lic a tio n s o f th e con cep t o f n a tu r a l r i g h t s . Concerning
th e l a t t e r , he has observed:
T h is i s another way o f sayin g th a t i t i s con
cerned w ith what must d eep ly concern a l l o f u s— th e
d ig n ity o f man. I t i s from t h is b a s ic p h ilo s o p h ic a l
p r in c ip le th a t th e n a tu r a l r ig h t s argument d er iv es
much o f i t s s tr e n g th . For i t i s becoming in c r e a s
in g ly c le a r th a t i t i s r e sp e c t fo r th e d ig n ity o f
th e in d iv id u a l th a t m ost sh arp ly d if f e r e n t ia t e s
dem ocratic from t o t a li t a r ia n sy stem s. Granted t h is
b a sic p r in c ip le , i t fo llo w s th a t any conduct o f th e
s t a t e th a t im pairs th e d ig n ity o f man i s dangerous.
And any argument fo r con form ity th a t fin d s i t s
u ltim a te sa n c tio n in fo r c e ra th er than in reason
J u lia n P. Boyd, "Most Quoted American—The
M isquotable Thomas J e ffe r s o n ," Los A ngeles Tim es,
"O pinion," S e c tio n G, November 16, 1967, p . 3 . This
a r t i c l e was ex cerp ted from th e in tr o d u c tio n to a new
e d itio n o f "The J e ffe r s o n ia n C y clo p ed ia ," e d ite d by John P.
F o le y , p u b lish ed by R u s s e ll and R u s s e ll, a d iv is io n o f
Atheneum P u b lis h e r s. J u lia n P. Boyd, e d ito r o f "The
J e ffe r s o n P ap ers," w rote th e a r t i c l e fo r th e W ashington
P o st.
33
s t r ik e s a t th e in t e g r it y o f the in d iv id u a l and thus
at th e b a s ic p r in c ip le o f democracy. . . .20
Another h is t o r ia n , Andrew Hacker, has in d ic a te d
th a t th e absence o f a c o h e siv e and co n tin u in g m a jo rity and
o f a c o l l e c t i v e 'W ill" demanding le g is la t io n " is o n ly
another way o f sa y in g th a t America i s not r e a lly a ' p o l i t
i c a l ' n a tio n ." H is im p lic a tio n was th a t ours i s a s o c ia l
ra th er than a p o l i t i c a l system . He concluded thus:
I t has meant th a t a g re a te r number o f Americans
have been a b le to ascend to a le v e l o f m a te r ia l
s e c u r ity and a co n scio u sn ess o f p erso n a l worth th a t
in oth er c o u n tr ie s remain th e p r iv ile g e o £ e x c lu s iv e
m in o r it ie s .21
F o rr est McDonald ex p la in ed th e form ation o f our
re p u b lic as a tra n sfo rm a tio n w hich depended fo r i t s
co n crete developm ent upon th e in flu e n c e o f C h r is tia n ity and
th e H ebrew -C hristian con cep t o f man. He fu rth er in d ic a te d
th a t th o se o f th e f i r s t g ro u p --th e R epublicans—tr u ste d
man, b e lie v e d in n a tu r a l r i g h t s , and were m o stly born and
bred in B r it is h North America. I t was th ey who in th e
tim e o f c o n s t it u t io n a l r a t i f ic a t i o n were th e most a c t iv e
proponents o f th e B i l l o f R ig h ts.
20
Henry S t e e le Commager, "The Pragmatic N e c e s s ity
fo r Freedom," in The Range o f P hilosophy: In trodu ctory
Readings (New Yorkl American Book Co. ,1 9 6 4 ) , p . 3 5 2 .
( I t a l i c s m in e.)
^Andrew H acker, "ideas and B e lie f s That Have
Shaped A m erica's C h aracter," The New York Times (W estern
E d itio n ), December 13, 1963, p . 9 . ( I t a l i c s m in e.)
34
In e x p la in in g th e g rea t a tte n tio n given to p h ilo
so p h ic a l is s u e s a t th e tim e o f th e development o f our
C o n s titu tio n , McDonald observed:
Americans p aid s u p e r s titio u s , alm ost r e l ig i o u s ,
homage to c e r ta in id e o lo g ic a l " given s." Accord
in g ly , though th e esta b lish m en t of th e C o n stitu tio n
was fa r from a p h ilo s o p h ic a l m atter, the is s u e had
to be argued as i f i t w e r e . 22
Andrew C. McLaughlin concluded a s e r ie s o f le c tu r e s
in 1932 on p o l i t i c a l p h ilosop h y and c o n s titu tio n a l d e v e lo p
ment w ith th e comment th a t
. . . a n a tio n , i f i t be a n a tio n , must have in i t s
p o s s e s s io n c e r ta in common b e lie f s and p r in c ip le s .
. . . The co m p ellin g , c e n tr a l thought . . . i s t h i s :
th e n a tio n i s h eld to g eth er as a liv in g th in g n o t
by c o u r ts or arm ies or co n g resse s, b u t by an e t h ic a l
p r in c ip le o f j u s t i c e . W ithout i t th e n a tio n , th e
American n a tio n a t l e a s t , would be w ith ou t th e v ery
e s se n c e o f n a tio n a lis m .23
American C o n s titu tio n a l S ch olars
Supreme Court J u s t i c e s . In Calder v . B u ll (1 7 9 8 ),
J u s t ic e I r e d e l l, in ren d erin g the opinion o f th e C ourt,
d e cla red th a t "courts w ere n o t to appeal to n a tu ra l r i g h t s
and th e s o c i a l compact as fu rn ish in g a b a s is fo r C o n s titu
t io n a l d e c is io n s . . . . " I t was n oted, however, th a t t h i s
22
F o r r e st McDonald, E Pluribus Unum: The Form ation
o f th e American R ep u b lic. 1776-1790 (Boston: Houghton
M if f lin Co. , 1 9 6 5 ), p . 1 .
23
Andrew C. M cLaughlin, Foundations o f American
C o n s titu tio n a lis m . w ith an in tro d u ctio n by Henry S t e e le
Commager (G reenwich, Conn.: Faw cett P u b lic a tio n s , I n c .,
1 9 6 1 ), p . 1 5 6 . ( I t a l i c s m in e.)
35
" ten et . . . was d isregard ed a t one tim e or another by a l l
th e le a d in g jud ges and advocates o f th e i n i t i a l p eriod o f
our C o n s titu tio n a l h is t o r y , an era which c lo s e s about
1 8 3 0 ."24
In Adamson (1 9 4 7 ), J u s tic e Black d e liv e r e d a
d is s e n tin g o p in io n whereby he ob jected to th e th eory
. . . th a t t h i s cou rt i s endowed by th e C o n stitu
t io n w ith b ou n d less power under "natural law"
p e r io d ic a lly to expand and co n tra ct C o n s titu tio n a l
stand ard s to conform to th e c o u r t's co n cep tio n o f
what a t a p a r tic u la r tim e c o n s titu te s " c iv iliz e d
decency" and "fundamental p r in c ip le s o f lib e r t y
and j u s t i c e . "25
A lso in Adamson. J u s tic e Frankfurter ex p ressed an
o b je c tio n to th e con tinu ed r e s o r t o f th e Court to "n atural
law" i n d e c is io n . N a tio n a liz a tio n of th e B i l l o f R igh ts
was n o t in d isp e n sa b le to th e d ig n ity and h app in ess o f f r e e
men. He sta te d th a t such a c r it e r io n was " su b jectiv e" and
th a t " 'n a tu r a l law ' has a much longer and much b e t t e r -
26
founded meaning and j u s t i f i c a t i o n ." H is d e c is io n
27
su g g ested an in h ere n t w orth d o c tr in e .
Edw ard S. Corwin, L ib erty A gain st Government:
The R is e , F low erin g and D ec lin e o f a Famous J u d ic ia l
Concept (Baton Rouge. L a.: S ta te U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1 9 4 8 ),
p . 6 6 .
25
W illiam B. L ockhart, Yale Kamisar, and J e s s e H.
Choper, The American C o n stitu tio n : Cases and M a te r ia ls .
Erwin N. G risw old , g e n er a l e d ito r (S t. P au l, M inn.: West
P u b lish in g C o ., 1 9 6 4 ), p . 2 .
26I b id . . p . 432.
2 ^ Ibid. , p. 433.
36
P o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s . A lthough th e D e c la r a tio n o f
Independence was th e f i r s t o f f i c i a l American document and
althou gh i t i s n e ith e r le g a lly e n fo r c e a b le nor has e s ta b
lis h e d any le g a l r ig h ts or d u t ie s , Corwin and P e lta so n
d ecla red th a t i t
. . . has had a d e c is iv e impact on th e developm ent
o f our governm ental system . . . .
I t s e ts fo r th th e id e a ls and r e f l e c t s th e
standards o f what m ight be c a lle d th e American
C reed. T his C reed, w ith i t s s t r e s s on th e r ig h t s
o f men, e q u a lity under th e law , lim ite d govern
m ent, and government by co n sen t o f th e govern ed ,
in fu s e s th e str u c tu r e s and p r a c tic e s o f th e
C o n stitu tio n " The D ec la ra tio n rem ains th e
American c o n s c ie n c e .28
These p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t s have m aintained th a t th e
American p h ilosop h y o f government was s u c c in c tly s ta te d in
29
th e D e c la r a tio n in i t s s e c tio n on " s e lf-e v id e n t" t r u th s .
Concerning the n atu re o f r ig h t s , Corwin and
P e lta so n observed th a t in 1776 p eo p le spoke o f " u n a lien
a b le or n a tu r a l r ig h t s ," whereas today we speak o f "human
r i g h t s , th e r ig h ts th a t d is tin g u is h men from th e o th er
cr e a tu r e s th a t in h a b it the e a r th , th e r ig h t s th a t make fo r
th e 'humanness' o f human b e in g s ."
28
Edward S . Corwin and Jack S . P e lta s o n , Under
sta n d in g th e C o n stitu tio n (3rd e d .; New York: H o lt ,
R inehart and W inston, I n c ., 1 9 6 4 ), P r e fa c e , p . v i .
( I t a l i c s m in e.)
^ I b id . . pp. 2-3.
37
To some, th e d ig n ity o f each in d iv id u a l and h is
in h eren t worth grow out o f” th e b e l i e f th a t a l l men
are th e sons o f God and are crea ted in h is im age.
To o th e r s , the equal r ig h t o f a l l men to be tr e a te d
as u n iq u e, in v io la b le b ein g s i s b ased on hum anistic
grounds. But fo r whatever r e a so n . th e s e tru th s th a t
were s e lf - e v id e n t to th e men o f 1776 u n d e r lie the
c u ltu r e and c i v i l i z a t i o n o f th e fr e e w o rld . 30
With r e sp e c t to th e j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r governm ent,
Corwin and P elta so n r e je c te d the b e l i e f th a t i t o r ig in a te d
through s o c ia l compact. They d e c la r e d , how ever, th a t t h is
r e j e c t io n
. . . does not in v a lid a te th e b e l i e f th a t men are
prim ary and government secondary, and thu s th a t
governm ents d eriv e th e ir c o e r c iv e a u th o r ity from
th e co n sen t o f th e governed. The m oral primacy o f
th e in d iv id u a l rem ains. I t i s from th e p h ilo so p h
i c a l and e t h ic a l, ra th er than h i s t o r i c a l , con cep t
o f p r io r it y o f men over governments th a t Americans
b ase th e ir in s is te n c e th a t governm ents are to be
ev a lu a ted by how th ey improve th e w e ll-b e in g and
p r o te c t the r ig h ts o f th e in d iv id u a ls .31
In d isc u ssin g the d e c is io n s in th r e e landmark
Supreme Court c a s e s , Alan P. Grimes s a id :
B ecause o f th e d i f f i c u l t y o f a r r iv in g a t a
s a t is f a c t o r y standard fo r d isc r im in a tin g between
p eo p le whose claim ed freedoms were in c o n f l i c t ,
th e measure o f e q u a lity has taken on e v e r -in c r e a s in g
s ig n if ic a n c e as a le g itim a te s o lu tio n to th e prob
lem . E q u a lity has thus provided a standard fo r
s e t t l i n g d isp u tes over freedom . . . .32
^0
I b id . . p. 4 . ( I t a l i c s m in e.)
3 1I b id . . p. 6 .
32
Alan P. Grimes, E q u a lity in America: R e lig io n .
R ace, and th e Urban M ajority (New York: Oxford U n iv e r sity
P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 ), pp. v i i - v i i i .
38
A fter d e sc r ib in g the h is to r y o f c o n s titu tio n a lis m
and i t s e s s e n t ia l id e a , lim ite d governm ent, H ir s c h fie ld
examined one form o f lim ita tio n : th a t r e s u ltin g from th e
d e f in it io n o f r ig h t s and from the p r o te c tio n o f th e ir
gu aran tees to th e governed. He then observed:
In the Anglo-American t r a d itio n —p a r tic u la r ly
as expounded by John Locke and Thomas J e ffe r s o n —
. . . r ig h ts . . . are con ceived to be s e l f -
e v id e n tly n ecessa ry to th e p r e se r v a tio n o f an
in d iv id u a l's d ig n ity and to the developm ent o f h is
p e r s o n a lity . Inherent in a l l p e r so n s, th e se r ig h ts
are in v io la b le and in a lie n a b le , and i t i s th e u l t i
mate purpose o f th e C o n stitu tio n to guarantee them
a g a in st government encroachm ent.33
I t was H ir s c h fie ld 1s c o n v ic tio n th a t th e procedural
and su b sta n tiv e r ig h t s guaranteed in th e C o n stitu tio n
. . . embody th e fundam ental id ea and id e a l o f
c o n s titu tio n a lis m i t s e l f : th e p r o te c tio n o f in d i
v id u a l lib e r t y through th e lim ita tio n o f governm ental
a u th o r ity . Thus th e B i l l o f R igh ts r e f l e c t s th e
u ltim a te v a lu e s o f th e American p o l i t i c a l system and
i s th e crowning g lo ry o f the C o n s titu tio n . 34
H ir s c h fie ld exp ressed th e b e l i e f , in c o n c lu sio n ,
th a t becau se th e era was one o f p ro tra cted c r i s i s , "the
g r e a t ta sk o f th e Supreme Court in our tim e must be the
d efen se o f c o n s titu tio n a lis m i t s e l f — th e p r o te c tio n o f
33
Robert S. H ir s c h fie ld , The C o n stitu tio n and the
Court: The Development o f th e BalTic Law Through J u d ic ia l
In te r p r e ta tio n (New York: Random H ouse, 1 9 6 2 ), pp. 3 -4 .
T his p r in c ip le , although assumed to be in h eren t in th e
o r ig in a l C o n s titu tio n , was n o t e x p r e ssly in clu d ed th e r e in
b u t was added in 1791 in th e B i l l o f R ig h ts. ( I t a l i c s
m in e.)
^ I b i d . , p . 8 . ( I t a l i c s m in e.)
39
in d iv id u a l lib e r t y and human d ig n ity under th e "rule o f
law ." 35
P r it c h e t t con ceived o f th e C o n stitu tio n as "the
instrum ent and symbol" o f our dem ocratic governm ent, and
he a sse r te d th a t the e sse n c e o f c o n s titu tio n a lis m i s th e
m aintenance o f a b alan ce between governm ental power and
in d iv id u a l r i g h t s .3 ^
F oreign O bservers
Some noted fo r e ig n sc h o la r s have analyzed a t len g th
th e American dem ocratic s tr u c tu r e . Commentaries by f i v e on
th e con cept o f the c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l were s e le c te d fo r
in c lu s io n h e re .
A r ie li has a sse r te d th a t th e str u c tu r e o f what he
c a lle d American n a tio n a l co n sc io u sn ess has a con cep tu al
framework a t i t s b a se. S in ce American s o c ie t y had no
homogeneous community o f t r a d it io n s , A r ie li b e lie v e d i t s
co h esio n emanated from communal v a lu e s , b e l i e f s , and id e a s .
The con cept o f democracy, sa id T o c q u e v ille and A r ie li
a l i k e , gen erated the co h esio n which developed among th e
37
American e le c t o r a t e .
33I b id . , p. 191. ( I t a l i c s m in e.)
O g
C. Herman P r it c h e t t , The American C o n s titu tio n a l
System (New York: McGraw-Hill Book C o ., 1 9 6 3 ), p . 3 .
37
Yehoshua A r ie li, In d iv id u a lism and N ation alism in
American Id eo lo g y (B altim ore: Penguin Books, I n c ., by
arrangement w ith Harvard U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 1 -4 .
40
In d evelop in g h is t h e s i s , A r ie li sa id :
Democracy rep resen ted in America at one and the
same tim e th e p r in c ip le s o f n a tio n a l, s o c ia l and
p o l i t i c a l o r g a n iz a tio n s; n a tio n a l co n sc io u sn e ss thus
r e fe r r e d a ls o to s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l id e a ls . The
o r ig in a lit y o f t h i s in te r p r e ta tio n c o n s is te d in th e
fu n c tio n a l r e la tio n s h ip T o c q u e v ille e s ta b lis h e d
between the p o l i t i c a l , s o c ia l and n a tio n a l spheres
o f a c tio n and o r ie n ta tio n , a r e la tio n s h ip determ ined
by the e q u a lity o f c o n d itio n s . H is t h e s is was th a t
s o c ia l and p o l i t i c a l id e a ls determ ined American
n a tio n a l co n scio u sn ess .38
The n o tio n s o f e q u a lity and in d iv id u a lism were
fundam ental to th e American p a tte r n o f n a tio n a l id e n t if ic a
t io n , A r ie li averred . T his p a tte r n proved uniq u e, when
compared w ith th e means by w hich ev ery oth er n a tio n o f the
w orld had achieved i t s n a tio n a l id e n t it y . T his id e n tity
grew out o f the in te r p la y o f s o c io lo g ic a l and p o l i t i c a l
f a c e t s o f our s o c ie t y . The American way o f l i f e , he main
ta in e d , was in a c t u a lit y a p a tte r n o f n a tio n a l b eh avior,
b e l i e f s and v a lu e s .39
Commenting on th e in te r tw in in g n o tio n s o f c i t i z e n
sh ip and n a tio n a l lo y a lt y , A r i e l i s ta te d :
C itize n sh ip was th e o n ly c r it e r io n which made
th e in d iv id u a l a member o f th e n a tio n a l community
and n a tio n a l lo y a lt y means lo y a lt y to th e C o n sti
t u t io n . The form ative fo r c e o f American n a tio n a l
u n ity , th en , has been th e id e a o f c i t iz e n s h ip :
through t h is con cept th e in te r p r e ta tio n o f s ta te
and s o c ie t y in to a n a tio n has been a c h i e v e d . 40
38I b i d ., p . 1 9 .
39I b id ., pp. 1 9 -2 1 .
^ I b i d . , p . 2 2 . ( I t a l i c s m in e.)
4 1
A r ie li added th a t th e unique c o n fig u r a tio n o f
American n a tio n a lism r e s u lt s from i t s e x c lu s iv e re feren ce
to p a ttern s o f s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l v a lu e s , to norms o f thought
and a c tio n , and n o t to n a tu r a l or h is t o r ic f a c t o r s . He
concluded by c h a r a c te r iz in g American n a tio n a lism thus:
In no other n a tio n have th e s e v a lu e s become th e
e x c lu s iv e co n n o ta tio n o f n a t io n a lit y or th e
e x c lu s iv e framework o f n a tio n a l id e n t i f ic a t i o n .
T his co in cid en ce o f th e p o l i t i c a l and n a tio n a l
R evolu tion through th e a p p lic a tio n o £ th e same s e t
o f p r in c ip le s i s th e fundam ental datum o f American
n a tio n a lit y ancT~of th e str u c tu r e o f i t s c o n sc io u s
n e s s . 41
In comparing th e European co n cep ts o f c i v i l and
n a tu ra l r ig h ts w ith th o se in th e U nited S t a t e s , A r ie li
in s is t e d th a t the two id e a s were n ever fu sed here but
remained d is t in c t i v e and o p p o site as permanent fa c to r s o f
one system .
A r ie li went on t o sa y th a t th e "chords o f a f f e c
tio n " w hich bound th e American p eo p le were crea ted m ostly
out o f th e ir m utual demand fo r n a tu r a l r ig h t s , th e ir common
p o sse s sio n o f c e r ta in s o c i a l p r in c ip le s , and th e ir mutual
e x p e c ta tio n o f w e ll-b e in g and h a p p in ess. He remarked th a t
i t was a "paradoxical k in d o f n a t i o n a l i t y ," one r e s t r ic t e d
to secu rin g r ig h ts fo r members who w ere " eq u ally fr e e and
independent."
^ I b i d . . p . 2 3 . ( I t a l i c s in th e o r ig in a l.)
42
The common bonds c o n s is te d . . . o f a common f r e e
dom; and p o l i t i c a l u n ity was su sta in ed by the lo v e
fo r in d iv id u a l independence. . . . Only i f th e
s t a t e cou ld co m p letely s a t i s f y th e id ea . . o f
self-govern m en t would i t be tr u ly n a tio n a l. . . .
Only through the Amer ic an iz a t io n o f th e proposed
C o n s titu tio n through th e a d d itio n o f the B i l l o f
R igh ts . T did i t become acceptable742
He observed th a t a sen se o f n a tio n a l co n scio u sn ess met th e
need fo r a r a tio n a le fo r our c h a r a c te r is tic a t t it u d e s ,
id e a ls and b eh a v io rs; fo r a p e r s p e c tiv e o f u n ity and prog
r e s s in our p a st and fo r our fu tu r e ; fo r an ex p la n a tio n fo r
an e x p r e ssio n , above a l l , o f u n iv e r sa lism and id e a lism .
A ttem pts to r e d e fin e American n a tio n a lism have been
f a i l u r e s , A r ie li m a in ta in ed , and any su ccess would req u ir e
th e p r e se r v a tio n o f our unique and d is tin g u is h in g n a tio n a l
p a tte r n . " I ts cla im to r e p r e se n t a s o c ia l order in w hich
lib e r t y , e q u a lity and s o c i a l j u s t ic e were r e c o n c ile d in th e
ii43
framework o f a p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e .1 1 ^
From th e Preamble to th e American C o n s titu tio n ,
Brogan e x tr a c te d two c h a r a c te r is tic American e x p e c ta tio n s:
a regard fo r th e "Laws o f Nature and o f N atu re's God" and a
decent r e s p e c t fo r th e o p in io n s o f mankind.44
Bryce used the term " e q u a lity o f estim a tio n " as th e
id ea men throughout th e w orld have o f oth ers in com parison
4^ I b id ., p . 8 6 . ( I t a l i c s m in e.)
4 ^ Ib id . , p . 343.
4V W. Brogan, The American C haracter (New York:
V intage B ooks, 1 9 5 9 ), p . 161.
43
w ith th e m se lv e s. He sta te d th a t " it i s in t h is th a t th e
r e a l se n se o f e q u a lity comes o u t. In America men h old
ii45
o th ers to be a t bottom e x a c tly the same as th em selves." ^
Of th e q u a lity o f American l i f e , Bryce made the
o b serv a tio n th a t American s o c ie t y i s permeated by th e f e e l
in g "that each o n e's duty i s not on ly to accep t e q u a lity
..A A
b u t a ls o to r e l i s h e q u a lity .
Another fo r e ig n o b serv er, Myrdal, has claim ed th a t
th e American Creed i s a fu n c tio n , on ly in p a r t, o f th e
n a tio n 's p o l i t i c a l and j u d ic ia l order:
T h is body o f id e a ls i s more w id ely understood
and a p p recia ted than sim ila r id e a ls are anywhere
e l s e . . . . America compared to ev ery oth er cou n try
in W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n , la rg e or sm a ll, has th e
m ost e x p l i c i t l y exp ressed system o f g en era l id ea s
in r e fe r e n c e to human in t e r r e la t io n s .47
Myrdal commented th a t "Americans are accustom ed to
<48
in s c r ib in g t h e ir id e a ls in law s. He a ls o d escrib ed th e
James B ryce, R e fle c tio n s on American I n s t it u
t io n s : S e le c tio n s from The American Commonwealth, w ith an
in tr o d u c tio n by Henry S te e le Commager (Greenwich, Conn.:
F aw cett P u b lic a tio n s , I n c ., 1 9 6 1 ), p . 65.
46 I b id . . p . 215.
4 ^Gurmar Myrdal, a s s is t e d by Richard S tern er and
Arnold R ose, "R acial In e q u a lity and th e American C reed,"
from An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and American
Democracy, 2 v o l s . (New York: Harper and B r o th er s, 1 9 4 4 ),
I , x l i - x l i i , 3 - 4 , 1 3 -1 4 , 1 7 -1 9 , 21-23; I I , 1021-1022,
e d it e d , ab rid ged , and rearranged by p erm issio n o f th e
author in The S ta te o f th e Union: Commentaries on American
Democracy by Robert B. Dishman (New York: C harles
S crib n er s Sons, 1 9 6 5 ), p . 406.
48
I b id . , p . 408. This was a ls o th e p o s it io n o f
N orth, T o c q u e v ille , T r e s o lin i, e t a l .__________________________
44
id e a ls o f th e American Creed as th ose "of th e e s s e n t ia l
d ig n ity o f th e in d iv id u a l human b ein g , o f th e fundam ental
e q u a lity o f a l l men, and o f c e r ta in in a lie n a b le r ig h t s .
n49
. . . Adding to t h i s , he in d ic a te d th a t Americans have
a p r o p e n sity fo r in co rp o ra tin g th e ir id e a ls in to law.
Thus,
The id e a ls o f th e American Creed have . . . become
the h ig h e st law o f the land. The Supreme Court
pays i t s reveren ce to th e se g en era l p r in c ip le s
when i t d e c la r e s what i s c o n s t it u t io n a l and what
i s n o t .50
Commenting on th e d em ocratization p ro cess which has
tak en p la c e in th e U nited S ta t e s , Myrdal observed:
Americans o f a l l n a tio n a l o r ig in s , c l a s s e s , r e g io n s ,
c r e e d s, and c o lo r s have som ething in common, a
s o c ia l e t h o s . a p o l i t i c a l cr ee d . I t is. d i f f i c u l t
to avoid th e judgment th a t th is "American Creed'T r"is
H ie cement in the stru ctu r e o f t h i s g r e a t and
d isp a r a te n a tio n .5 l
Myrdal noted th a t many Americans adhere to th e
Creed as th e f a it h o f th e ir a n c e s to r s. D isadvantaged and
unpopular groups adhere to i t p rim a rily b ecau se i t c o n s t i
t u t e s th e system o f p o l i t i c a l id e a ls m ost fa v o ra b le to th e
52
in t e r e s t s o f t h e ir s t a t u s .
Myrdal agreed w ith th e many American a u th o r itie s
p r e v io u s ly c it e d th a t the U nited S t a t e s 1 b a s ic id e o lo g y i s
53
one o f n a tu ra l law .
AQ
I b id . ( I t a l i c s m ine.)
50I b id . . p . 407. 5 1I b id .
5 2 I b id . . p . 408. 53I b id . . p . 409.
45
R esearch on C itiz e n sh ip Education
L i t t l e resea r ch in to c it iz e n s h ip ed u cation occurred
in th e U nited S ta te s u n t il th e 1 9 3 0 's, th e fo cu s p rio r to
then b ein g on the tea ch in g o f h is t o r y . The E d u cational
P o lic ie s Commission sen t an in v e s tig a tin g team to v a rio u s
secondary sch o o ls noted fo r t h e ir e x c e lle n c e in c it iz e n s h ip
ed u ca tio n . F iv e components o f stron g programs were i d e n t i
f ie d : (1) co u rses w herein th e n atu re o f democracy i s
tau gh t; (2) tea ch in g methods th a t enhance th e lea rn in g o f
dem ocratic p r o c e sse s; (3) e x tr a -c u r r ic u la r programs which
provid e ex p erien ces in c itiz e n s h ip ed u ca tio n ; (4) p a r t i c i
p atory ex p erien ces by stu d en ts in community a f f a i r s ; and
(5 ) r o le s o f youth in determ ining sch o o l a d m in istr a tiv e
p o l i c i e s . T his a n a ly s is o f b e s t p r a c tic e s in th e n a tio n 's
sc h o o ls confirm ed th e trend th a t good c itiz e n s h ip ed u cation
programs went w e ll beyond s tu d e n ts ' classroom ex p erien ces
a lo n e .
In 1951, th e N ation al C oun cil fo r th e S o c ia l
S tu d ies form ulated a d e f in it io n o f sound dem ocratic c i t i
zen sh ip by p o o lin g c h a r a c te r is tic s proposed by ex p erts in
t h is f i e l d . A r e p r e s e n ta tiv e group o f over 300 prominent
c i t iz e n s then rea cted to th e c r i t e r i a developed by th e
■^N ational Education A s s o c ia tio n , E d u cation al
P o lic ie s Commission, Learning th e Wavs o f Democracy
(W ashington, D .C .: N a tio n a l E ducation A s s o c ia tio n , 1 9 4 0 ),
pp. 3 -1 7 .
46
ed u ca to rs, r e s u ltin g in a com posite d e f in it io n co n ta in in g
tw enty-fou r major (and many m inor) q u a lific a tio n s o f a good
c i t i z e n . Crary, e d ito r o f th e r e p o r t, concluded th a t
c itiz e n s h ip ed u cation needed a double fo cu s: (1) on behav
io r a l c h a r a c te r is tic s w hich i l l u s t r a t e an understanding o f
our dem ocratic str u c tu r e and fu n c tio n in g , and (2) on th e
55
s k i l l s needed to p a r tic ip a te e f f e c t i v e l y in a democracy.
Although no sy stem a tic v a lid a tio n was ever made o f
th e T u fts U n iv e r s ity C iv ic E ducation P r o je c t, i t appears to
have developed b e tte r cou rse m a te r ia ls fo r u se by non-
academic stu d en ts during the 1 9 5 0 's than most programs a t
th a t tim e. The p r o je c t encompassed n ot o n ly m a te ria ls in
th e p o l i t i c a l dim ension o f c it iz e n s h ip ed u cation but a ls o
s o c ia l and economic as well."*^
Perhaps th e b e s t known stud y o f th e 1 9 5 0 's was th e
C itiz e n sh ip E ducation P r o je c t a t Teachers C o lle g e , Columbia
U n iv e r s ity . The m a te r ia ls w hich eventu ated from t h is
in v e s tig a tio n cen tered on (1) understanding th e fundamen
t a l s o f freedom , (2) s k i l l in a c tin g as a good c i t i z e n , and
(3) th e c i v i c s n e c e s s it y fo r b ein g a know ledgeable c i t i z e n .
■^Ryland W . C rary, Education fo r Dem ocratic
C itiz e n s h ip . Tw enty-second Yearbook (W ashington, D .C .:
N a tio n a l C ouncil fo r th e S o c ia l S tu d ie s , 1 9 5 1 ), pp. 154-
160.
“ ^ C iv ic E ducation P r o je c t, To S u sta in and
Strengthen Democracy: The Program o f th e C iv ic E ducation
P r o ie c t (Medford. M ass.: T u fts U n iv e r s ity , 1 9 5 1 ), pp. 3-
7 F .
47
Approxim ately 100 b a s ic p r in c ip le s o f c itiz e n s h ip were
com piled from such sou rces as th e D ecla ra tio n o f Independ
en ce, the C o n s titu tio n , Supreme Court d e c is io n s , and
co n g re ssio n a l en actm en ts. On c o g n itiv e measures in c i v i c s ,
in clu d in g a t e s t on knowledge learn ed from the above-named
so u rc es, CEP stu d e n ts did b e tte r than th ose who used
co n v en tio n a l classroom m a te r ia ls . A d d itio n a lly , th e former
had developed b e tte r a ttitu d e s toward p o l i t i c s and p o l i t i
c ia n s and a stro n g er awareness fo r th e in d iv id u a l's
r e s p o n s ib ilit y in p u b lic a f f a ir s than th o se stu d en ts not
57
having CEP e x p e r ie n c e s.
P r o fe sso r s from Wayne S ta te U n iv e r sity worked w ith
stu d en ts and tea c h e r s o f th e D e tr o it P u b lic S ch ools in
d e fin in g c it iz e n s h ip problems o f in d iv id u a l sch o o ls and in
d evelop in g s t r a t e g ie s fo r th e ir s o lu tio n . Pre- and p o s t
t e s t s were ad m in istered to the s tu d e n ts , q u e stio n n a ires
were used n ot o n ly w ith tea ch er s and stu d en ts but a ls o w ith
p a r e n ts, and lo g s were k ep t by v a rio u s s t a f f members. Two
fin d in g s o f t h is p r o je c t were germane to t h is study: (1)
sch o o ls tea ch dem ocratic id e a ls e f f e c t i v e l y but understand
ing what i t means to a c t and p a r tic ip a te as an American
c i t iz e n i s o n ly lo o s e ly p erceiv ed by youth; and (2) p erson -
to -p erso n r e la t io n s improved in th e sc h o o l s e tt in g s w ith o u t
57
C itiz e n s h ip E ducation P r o je c t, When Men Are Free
(Boston: Houghton M if f lin C o., 1 9 5 5 ), pp. 105-152.
48
5 8
m a te r ia lly a f fe c t in g stu d en t c o g n itiv e grow th.
D efin in g b e h a v io r a lly th e o b je c tiv e s o f a c i t i z e n
ship ed u ca tio n program was one f a c e t o f a p r o je c t c o o r d i
nated by W heeler in co n ju n ctio n w ith tw e n ty -fiv e h igh
sch o o ls in th e s t a t e o f Kansas. Although th e data showed
stu d en t c o g n it iv e growth in knowledge about American
government and th e stu d en ts' lo c a l com m unities, th e y showed
no a p p recia b le g a in in c r i t i c a l th in k in g or change in
59
c itiz e n s h ip a t t it u d e s .
S tu d ie s conducted by Q u illen and Hanna have shown
th a t p ro b lem -so lv in g approaches by classroom te a c h e r s are
more e f f e c t i v e than th e more co n v en tio n a l to p ic a l stu d y o f
American governm ent. However, th e r e s u lt s o f a problem s
60
approach v e r su s a c h r o n o lo g ic a l one were in c o n c lu s iv e .
More r e c e n t ly , an " u n fin ish ed problem s to r ie s " approach was
used by S h a fte l in com bination w ith socio-dram as in th e
classroom r e s u ltin g in good e f f e c t s when tea ch ers w ere
o r ien te d toward such a m ethodology. Outcomes were p oor,
S ta n le y E. Dimond, S ch ools and the Developm ent o f
Good C itiz e n s (D e tr o it : Wayne S ta te U n iv e r s ity , 1 9 5 3 ),
pp. 192-204.
59
Eldon G. W heeler, An E valu ation o f C itiz e n sh ip
Education in th e High School (Manhattan: Kansas S ta te
C o lle g e , 195O j, pp. 3 -3 8 .
60
James I . Q u illen and Lavone A. Hanna, E ducation
fo r S o c ia l Competence (Chicago: S c o tt, Foresman and C o .,
1948), pp. 17 6 -1 7 9 .
49
61
however, when tea ch ers were n ot so o r ie n te d .
The most fa v o ra b le o f a l l r e se a r c h fin d in g s are
th o se from a six-w eek summer camp under Columbia U n iv e r s ity
sp o n so rsh ip . Roughly 100 youths from d iv e r s e backgrounds
a cr o ss th e n a tio n liv e d to g e th e r , heard le c t u r e s , had sm all
group d is c u s s io n s , and went on f i e l d t r i p s . C onclusions
from th e t e s t b a tt e r ie s in d ic a te d in p a rt th a t th e se youth
". . . became more aware o f t r a d it io n a l c i v i l l i b e r t i e s ,
more to le r a n t o f freedom fo r n o n co n fo rm ists, stron ger in
d efen se o f c i v i l r ig h ts fo r m in o r it ie s , and more o p tim is tic
62
about so lv in g s o c ia l problem s." N ine y ea rs l a t e r , th e ir
to le r a n c e and a ttitu d e s toward c i v i l l i b e r t i e s showed no
6o
a p p recia b le d ecr ea se .
S ig e l, as rep orted by P a tr ic k , has sa id th a t th e re
i s no adequate, encompassing model fo r p o l i t i c a l s o c ia l i z a
t io n r e se a r c h . No e x is t in g co n cep tu a l str u c tu r e d e fin e s
and in t e r r e la t e s th e p e r tin e n t v a r ia b le s or in t e r r e la t e s
61
Fannie R. S h a fte l, Role P la y in g in th e Teaching
o f American Id e a ls (Palo A lto , C a l i f .: S tan ford U niver
s i t y , 1 9 4 9 ), pp. 173-180.
^ H e rb er t H. Hyman and C harles R. W right, Youth in
T r a n sitio n (New York: Columbia U n iv e r s ity , 1 9 5 6 ), as
quoted in E ncyclopedia o f E d u cation al R esea rch , ed . C hester
W . H arris (3rd e d . ; New York: The M acm illan Co. , 1 9 6 0 ),
p. 210.
63Ibid.
50
p o l i t i c a l s o c ia liz a t io n , g en er a l s o c ia liz a t i o n , and a c c u l
t u r a t io n .^
In her work on cu rricu lu m developm ent in the s o c ia l
s t u d ie s , Taba noted th r ee k in d s o f gaps: (1) key compo
n en ts are o fte n m issin g ; (2) o fte n t h e ir in te r r e la tio n s h ip s
are u n c le a r ly d efin ed ; and (3 ) p r o v is io n s fo r moving from
6S
one part to another are not made. She has a ls o sta te d
th a t sources o f th e re ce n t c o n fu sio n in curriculum making
were in th e o r ie s as to "the n a tu re o f th e in d iv id u a l, th e
g o a ls o f our c u ltu r e , and th e r o le o f th e in d iv id u a l in
66
th a t c u ltu r e ." She has fu r th e r c it e d th e need fo r an
e f f o r t to c o n so lid a te s o c ia l s c i e n t i f i c knowledge and to
67
observe i t s im p lic a tio n s fo r in s t r u c t io n .
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , Parker and Edonouply have w r it
ten o f th e need to ,fbridge th e gap betw een th e p r in c ip le s
o f th e B i l l o f R ights and th e p r a c t ic e s in th e lo c a l
68
communxty.
gA
John T. P a tr ic k . P o l i t i c a l S o c ia liz a t io n o f
American Youth: A Review o f R esearch w ith Im p lica tio n s fo r
Secondary School S o c ia l S tu d ie s (Bloom ington: Indiana
U n iv e r s ity , 1967), pp. 1 1 -1 7 .
6S
H ilda Taba, Curriculum Developm ent: Theory and
P r a c tic e (New York: H arcourt, Brace and C o ., 196 2 ),
p . 4 1 6 .
66I b id . . p . 7.
^ I b i d . . p . 6 .
68
Donald Parker and N ich o la s Edonouply, "Teaching
C iv il L ib e r tie s by the Case M ethod." S o c ia l E ducation. 25
(O ctober, 1961), 284-285.
51
S covel surveyed th e knowledge and a ttitu d e s o f high
sch o o l stu d en ts and o f a d u lts , most o f whom had attended
c o lle g e , r e la t iv e to th e B i l l o f R ig h ts, Amendments I
through VI. O n item s w hich c o n s titu te d a v io la t io n o f an
American c i t i z e n ' s g u a ra n te es, 39 per cen t o f the stu d en ts
69
and 46 per c e n t o f the a d u lts did not o b je c t.
Concerning e v a lu a tio n o f stu d en t le a r n in g , V incent
has w r itte n o f th e p erp lex ed and trou b led resp on se by
Americans "to what appears to be a la ck o f understanding on
th e p art of many o f our c i t i z e n s about th e essen ce o f
freed o m ." ^
As r e c e n tly as 1968, th e p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t
T r e s o lin i d ecried th e f a c t th a t a d e f in i t iv e study in
71
c itiz e n s h ip ed u cation has y e t to be made.
^D onald A. S c o v e l, "The B i l l o f R igh ts in Iowa,"
S o c ia l E d u cation . 27 (December, 1 9 6 2 ), 448-451.
^ W illia m S . V incent e t a l . , B u ild in g B etter
Programs in C itiz e n sh ip : A.Guide fo r T each ers, A dm inistra
to r s and C o lleg e In str u c to r s (New York: Columbia U niver
s i t y P re ss, 1 9 5 8 ), p . 2 1 .
^ R occo J . T r e s o lin i, American C o n stitu tio n a l Law
(New York: The M acmillan Co. , 1 9 5 9 ), p . x i i .
52
Summary and C onclusions
The rev iew o f th e lit e r a t u r e re v ea le d s u b s ta n tia l
agreem ent among b oth fo r e ig n and dom estic ob servers th a t an
American c i t i z e n has a d is t i n c t i v e , id e n t if ia b le , n a tio n a l
id e n t it y w hich i s grounded in b oth n a tu r a l r ig h t s and c i v i l
law . T his id e n t it y emanated from th e D ec la ra tio n o f
Independence and th e C o n s titu tio n , in clu d in g th e Preamble.
The lit e r a t u r e rev iew showed th a t a u th o r itie s have charac
te r iz e d th e n a tio n a liz a tio n o f an Am erican's r ig h t s w ith in
th e fo llo w in g schem atic:
(1 ) A s e t o f id ea s which em phasizes r e s p e c t fo r
th e in h eren t worth and equal v a lu e o f in d i
v id u a l men;
(2) A s e t o f id e a ls which em phasizes r e a liz a t io n
o f th e id e a s; and
(3 ) A v a r ie t y o f ways w hich, guided by le g a l
e x p r e ssio n o f th e id ea s and id e a ls , em phasizes
l e g a l i t y and r e s o r t to th e Court fo r r e s o lu tio n
o f v ir t u a lly a l l s ig n if ic a n t n a tio n a l ques
t io n s .
The rev iew o f th e lit e r a t u r e a ls o supported th e
uniqueness o f th e p r in c ip le o f c itiz e n s h ip u n d erlyin g th e
con cep t o f n a tio n a l id e n t it y , a b a s is not commonly found on
th e European c o n tin e n t. The lit e r a t u r e fu r th er provided
grounds fo r a s s e r tin g th a t th e c o g n itiv e su b stan ce o f
53
n a tio n a l id e n t it y was c i v i l , a con cep tu al str u c tu r e h erein
named as th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l.
The review o f the lit e r a t u r e v in d ic a te d a p r in c ip a l
s u b s ta n tiv e t h e s is fo r curriculum developm ent: th ere i s an
id e n t i f ia b le co n ce p t, th e c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l, w hich can
be th e b a s is fo r sch o o l stu d y .
CHAPTER I I I
PR O C ED U R A L DESIGN O F TH E STUDY
The f i r s t chapter o f t h is stud y d isc u sse d the
f e a s i b i l i t y o f co n str u c tin g and tea ch in g a str u c tu r a l u n it
o f governm ental study based on a h y p o th e tic a l c o n s tr u c t, a
con cept c a lle d th e " c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l." F ollow in g t h is
was a review o f p e r tin e n t lit e r a t u r e r e la t iv e to th e nature
o f t h is in n o v a tiv e t o p ic . The cu rren t chapter d e sc r ib e s
th e procedures fo llo w ed in d e sig n in g and im plem enting th e
new u n it p lu s th e m easuring in stru m en ts and tech n iq u es
employed in carryin g out th e stu d y .
C onstruction o f th e E xperim ental U nit
F ollow in g th e in te n s iv e lit e r a t u r e su rv ey , an
exp erim en tal u n it was developed around th e concept o f th e
c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l. T his co n cep t was th e major fo cu s o f
th e stu d y , and the in s t r u c t io n a l m a te r ia ls , d esign ed as a
consequence o f th e su rv ey , c o n s t it u t e th e some one-hundred
pages d esig n a ted as Appendix A. B runer's n o tio n o f s tr u c
tu re and Taba's model fo r u n it c o n str u c tio n were used as
g u id e lin e s . The ca se stud y approach became th e c u r r ic u la r
54
55
v e h ic le through w hich th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l was to be
a ssim ila te d by stu d en ts in th e experim ental group.
To a s c e r ta in stu d en t a ttitu d e s toward law and about
le g a l co n c e p ts, an a f f e c t iv e s c a le was developed and f i e l d
t e s t e d . Because o f problem s in v o lv in g v a l i d i t y , i t s
r e s u lt s are not an alyzed h e r e in . In ste a d , th e K atz-
Thurstone "A ttitu de toward th e Law," Forms A and B, were
used as p re- and p o s t - t e s t e v a lu a tiv e d ev ic es r e s p e c t iv e ly .
In th a t c o g n itiv e le a r n in g s were not the fo cu s o f th e
stu d y , n e ith e r teacher-m ade nor standardized measures w ere
used to a sse ss such growth as a consequence o f c la s s work
on th e new u n it .
S in ce th e f i e l d in v e s t ig a t io n depended upon th e
p rio r com pletion o f a h ig h ly com plex, in n o v a tiv e c u r r ic u la r
u n it , both th e ex p erim en ta l d esig n as w e ll as the f i e l d
in v e s tig a tio n were a cc o rd in g ly r e s t r ic t e d in scop e. An
in form al p ilo t stu d y was conducted, n o n e th e le s s , p rio r to
th e f i e l d stud y i t s e l f .
Procedures o f th e In v e s tig a tio n
The p roced u ral d e sig n was made to be c o n s is te n t
w ith such g en era l req u irem en ts as th e s ta tu s , th e n a tu r e ,
and th e emphasis o f th e in v e s t ig a t io n . I t was a lso
c o n s is te n t w ith th e p o s it io n o f Taba th a t in n o v a tiv e
c u r r ic u la r u n its t y p i c a l ly n e c e s s it a t e th e u se o f in fo rm a l
56
and som etim es l e s s v a lid d ia g n o stic tech n iq u es and
d e v ic e s .
The Nature o f th e R esearch
Junior c o lle g e stu d en ts o fte n seem u n clea r in th e ir
knowledge and a p p r ecia tio n fo r th e o r ig in s and n a tu re o f
t h e ir fundam ental r ig h t s as American c i t i z e n s . T y p ica l
in s t r u c t io n a l tech n iq u es and u n its o f stu d y— e x p o sito r y
le c t u r e s and rea d in g m a te r ia ls which are g e n e r a liz e d
summaries o f s p e c i a l i s t s or e x p e r ts—do not seem to r e s u lt
in th e a p p r e c ia tio n s fo r our h e r ita g e th a t s o c ia l s c ie n c e
in s tr u c to r s have hoped f o r . Bruner has h y p o th esized th a t
grasp o f a str u c tu r e o f a su b ject d is c ip lin e may le a d to
enhanced c o g n it iv e and a f f e c t iv e outcomes o f form al sc h o o l
stu d y .
Hence, i t was d ecid ed to d evelop a new u n it o f
ju n io r c o lle g e in s tr u c tio n fo r use in p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e
c l a s s e s , a u n it w hich attem pted to implement th e s tr u c tu r a l
n o tio n o f Bruner. The in te n t o f th e u n it was to e f f e c t
changes in stu d en t a ttitu d e s toward th e "law o f th e la n d ,"
p a r t ic u la r ly w ith regard to man's fundam ental r ig h t s in a
1
Lee Cronbach appears to agree w ith Taba in h is
o b se r v a tio n th a t in form al d ev ices and "halfway" s tu d ie s are
n ot o n ly " accep tab le" but are recommended in the c a s e o f
cu rricu lu m improvement p r o j e c t s . See Lee Cronbach,
" E valu ation fo r Course Improvement," in Robert W. Heath
( e d . ) , New C u rricu la (New York: Harper and Row, P u b lish
e r s , 1 9 6 4 ), p . 236.
57
dem ocratic s o c ie t y . The tech n iq u es to be employed in
tea ch in g the u n it were to vary from th e le c tu r e approach
commonly employed a t the ju n io r c o lle g e l e v e l . R ather, a
heavy em phasis on c a se study a n a ly s is was to be th e new
f o c u s . Students were to sim u la te th e le g a l c o n d itio n s
w herein Supreme Court j u s t ic e s attem pt to d ecid e c a se s p re
sen ted to them fo r rev iew . The p r in c ip le s and p reced en ts
fo r judgment were to be sought and a r a tio n a le was to be
developed fo r stu d en t concurrence w ith th o se d e c is io n s
w hich th ey f e l t v a lid . R ote m em orization o f m a te r ia ls ,
h en ce, was dropped as an in ten d ed outcome o f c la s s e x p e r i
e n c e s , and an in v e s t ig a t iv e m in d -set was encouraged.
E v a lu a tio n w as, th en , based on th e measurement o f changes
in a t tit u d e toward the su b ject under in v e s t ig a t io n ra th er
than upon form al, c o g n itiv e procedures and the accum ulation
o f know ledge.
The c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l was d eveloped from c o n s t i
t u t io n a l m a te r ia ls , cou rt c a s e s , and ex p ert o p in io n
r e l a t i v e to an Am erican's n a tu r a l and governm ent-affirm ed
c it iz e n s h ip r ig h t s . The con cep t d id n o t e x i s t as a form al,
o rg a n izin g p r in c ip le fo r classroom stu d y a t th e tim e o f th e
in v e s t ig a t io n . The ca se s tu d ie s w ere c o lle c t e d from many
so u r c e s, and were w r itte n so as to become a b a s is fo r th e
in d u c tiv e developm ent o f t h is co n cep t in stu d e n ts' m inds.
I t was fu rth er h y p o th esized th a t th e c it iz e n s h ip
in te g r a l was i l l u s t r a t i v e o f B ru n er's n o tio n o f s tr u c tu r e ,
58
and th a t i t was a con cep t w hich m ight lend i t s e l f to
e f f e c t in g changes in a t t it u d e .
In th e developm ent o f a u n it o f stud y on the c i t i
zen sh ip in t e g r a l, i t became n ece ssa r y to in v e s tig a te
thoroughly th e lit e r a t u r e on t h is t o p ic . This in v e s t ig a
tio n was th e su b je c t o f Chapter I I . Not re p o r te d , but
e s s e n t i a l a ls o , was th e need to be thorough ly conversant
w ith B runer's th in k in g on " str u c tu r e ," w ith T aba's method
o lo g y fo r u n it developm ent, and w ith K rathw ohl's review o f
r e sea r c h in to c o g n itiv e c la s s stu d y .
An exp erim en tal group o f two ju n io r c o lle g e p o l i t
i c a l sc ie n c e c la s s e s stu d ie d th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l,
le a n in g h e a v ily on th e c a se stu d y , in d u c tiv e tech n iq u e.
They a ls o read two co n v en tio n a l ch a p ters in a t e x t organ
iz e d around d ed u ctiv e m a te r ia ls on th e in d iv id u a l, and
eq u a l, r ig h ts o f man in th e U nited S ta t e s .
A c o n tr o l group o f two c la s s e s stu d ie d th e same
t e x tu a l m a te r ia ls and heard co n v en tio n a l le c tu r e s on th e
r ig h t s o f American c i t i z e n s . N eith er th e c a se stud y
m a te r ia ls nor th e in d u c tiv e p ro ce sse s were u t i l i z e d during
t h e ir c la s s work.
No attem pt was made to a s s e s s th e d e g r e e -o f-
permanence o f change in stu d en t a t tit u d e s as a consequence
o f th e exp erim en tal u n it , nor was any attem pt made to
e v a lu a te a delayed developm ent in a t t it u d in a l ch an ges. I t
59
was assumed th a t i t i s p o s s ib le to promote such ch an ges,
however, as a consequence o f form al c la s s stu d y a t th e
ju n io r c o lle g e l e v e l .
The procedures fo r th e s e le c t io n o f stu d e n ts, fo r
th e s e le c t io n o f a sch o o l d i s t r i c t and i t s te a c h e r s, and
fo r th e s e le c t io n and a p p lic a tio n o f m easuring d e v ic e s ,
in clu d in g th o se s t a t i s t i c a l d e v ic es a p p lied to th e re sea r ch
fin d in g s , are examined in th e rem aining d iv is io n s o f t h is
s e c t io n .
S chool D is t r ic t and P ersonnel C ooperation
In th e f i r s t p h a se, th e co o p era tio n o f a ju n io r
c o lle g e d i s t r i c t was secu red , w ith p erm ission b ein g granted
to u se two ex p erien ced , tenured p o l i t i c a l sc ie n c e p r o fe s
so rs and fo u r c la s s e s o f secon d-sem ester stu d e n ts as
p a r tic ip a n ts in ca rry in g out th e experim ental u n it o f
stu d y .
S e le c tio n o f S tu dents
From among stu d en ts who were e n r o lle d in th e second
sem ester o f an e l e c t iv e cou rse in p o l i t i c a l sc ie n c e
e n t it le d "Government o f th e U nited S ta te s" a t Sari D iego
C ity C o lle g e , two groups were s e le c t e d , one exp erim en tal
and one c o n tr o l. Each group was com prised o f two c la s s
s e c t io n s , and each had roughly 75 per cen t m ales.
60
S in ce th e in te n t was to a s s e s s changes in a ttitu d e
as a consequence o f classroom stu d y , no m atching o f
stu d en ts was done r e la t iv e to in t e llig e n c e or p reviou s
academic r e c o r d s. Because o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s in o b ta in in g
a ccu ra te m easurem ents, no assessm en ts were made o f p erson
a l i t y te n d e n c ie s toward r i g i d i t y or op en n ess. D iffe r e n c e s
in age betw een groups were con sid ered in s ig n if ic a n t , upon
exam ination o f th e demographic d a ta , w ith o n e -h a lf o f th e
stu d en ts b ein g 18 to 24 years o ld .
S e le c t io n o f Teachers
Of th e two p r o fe sso r s s e le c te d fo r im plem enting th e
r e se a r c h d e s ig n , one taught both s e c tio n s com prising th e
exp erim en tal group p lu s one o f th e two s e c tio n s o f th e
c o n tr o l group. The oth er p ro fesso r tau gh t o n ly th e second
c o n tr o l group.
Both p r o fe sso r s were tenured in t h e ir p o s it io n s ,
and b oth had tau gh t p r e v io u sly th e c o n v e n tio n a l, d ed u ctiv e
u n it on th e c itiz e n s h ip r ig h t s o f Am ericans. In lin e w ith
a d m in istr a tiv e p o lic y a t San D iego C ity C o lle g e , b oth
p r o fe s s o r s h eld a m a ster's degree in th e p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e
f i e l d .
61
The Course
P o l i t i c a l S cien ce 2 , "Government o f th e U nited
S ta t e s ," was th e cou rse in w hich th e resea rch d esig n was
im plem ented. I t s s e le c t io n was due in p art to th e s t a b i l
i t y o f i t s enrollm ent as th e second o f a tw o-cou rse
seq u en ce. S tu dents o fte n e l e c t i t to s a t i s f y th e s t a te
requirem ent in "American in s t it u t io n s " in order to q u a lify
fo r th e A sso c ia te in A rts d eg ree. T y p ic a lly , however,
more stu d en ts a t San D iego C ity C o lle g e ta k e th e comparable
sequence o ffe r e d by th e H isto ry Departm ent.
I n s tr u c tio n a l Procedures
Both experim ental and c o n tr o l groups r e ce iv ed
in s tr u c tio n on th e to p ic o f p erso n a l r ig h t s and l ib e r t i e s
a t th e same tim e in th e sem ester and fo r equal p eriods o f
classroom tim e . I t was decided th a t th e same, b a sic
t e x t u a l m a te r ia ls were to be used by stu d en ts in both
groups.
The c la s s e s in th e c o n tr o l group r e c e iv e d th e u su a l
le c tu r e s and textbook a ssig n m en ts. The stu d en ts in th e
exp erim en tal group, a sid e from an in tr o d u cto ry le c t u r e ,
devoted t h e ir classroom tim e to d is c u s s io n and to in q u iry
in to th e approxim ately one-hundred pages o f s p e c ia l
in s t r u c t io n a l m a te r ia l—m ostly c a se s t u d ie s —which had been
s p e c ia lly c o lle c t e d , adapted, and reproduced fo r u se in th e
re sea r c h d e sig n . Each stu d en t in th e exp erim en tal c la s s e s
62
was issu e d a copy o f each o f th e two newly-produced
b o o k le ts .
In order to m ain tain ap p rop riate lia i s o n between
th e in v e s tig a to r and th e p o l i t i c a l sc ie n c e p r o fe s s o r s ,
th ere were form al m eetin gs o f th e se p ersons b e fo r e , d u rin g ,
and a t the c o n c lu sio n o f in s tr u c tio n on th e u n it .
S e le c tio n o f Case S tu d ie s
Case s tu d ie s w ere s e le c te d fo r classroom u se from
lea d in g d e c is io n s o f th e Supreme Court on q u estio n s o f
c i v i l r ig h t s and l i b e r t i e s c a s e s w hich o r ig in a te d in the
laws and cou rt d e c is io n s o f th e s e v e r a l s t a t e s . Each ca se
provided an o p p o rtu n ity fo r stu d yin g one or more r a m ific a
t io n s o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. D isp a ra te sources were
used in th e s y n th e s is o f th e s e m a te r ia ls .
F ollow in g are fo u r summarized examples o f c a se
s tu d ie s which stu d en ts in th e exp erim en tal c la s s s e c tio n s
examined and from w hich th ey h y p o th esized th e ir own
co n clu sio n so
Evidence o f th e co n n ectio n between th e c a ses and
th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l was to be seen by comparing th e
d e c is io n o f th e Court w ith th e requirem ents o f th e
in t e g r a l. There w ere two requ irem en ts: Did th e d e c is io n
dem onstrate r e s p e c t fo r ( 1 ) th e in h eren t w orth and a ls o
(2 ) th e eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l men?
63
1 . A M innesota law perm itted the su p p re ssio n , v ia
cou rt in ju n c tio n , o f p e r io d ic a ls deemed scandalous and
defam atory upon subm ission o f evid en ce deemed adequate to
th e county c o u r t. The h ig h cou rt f e l t th a t th e law
v io la te d an in d iv id u a l's freedom o f speech and p ress
because th e la w 's e f f e c t was one o f cen sorin g and su p p res
s in g p u b lic a tio n o f m a te r ia ls in advance, as opposed to
p un ish in g an o ffen d er a fte r th e f a c t .
The co n n ectio n o f t h is ca se w ith th e c it iz e n s h ip
in te g r a l was in i t s q u estio n ed lack o f re sp e c t fo r th e
in h eren t w orth and eq u al d ig n ity o f the in d iv id u a l.
2 . An Ohio woman was co n v icted o f a s t a t e crim e on
th e b a s is o f ev id en ce e v e n tu a lly adjudged as having been
i l l e g a l l y o b ta in ed ; th a t i s , a search was performed w ith o u t
a warrant when one m ight have been secured and should have
b een .
A p e r so n 's r ig h t to p rivacy was the elem ent in t h is
c a se i l l u s t r a t i v e o f th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l and, h en ce,
i t s in c lu s io n in th e stu d e n ts' stud y m a te r ia ls .
3 . A C a lifo r n ia man was sen t to p riso n fo r b ein g a
n a r c o tic s a d d ic t and was re fu se d p erm ission to go in s te a d
to a c i v i l h o s p ita l fo r treatm en t o f h is s ic k n e s s .
The p o in t in v o lv e d , r e la t iv e to the c it iz e n s h ip
in t e g r a l, was w hether or not th e in h eren t worth or eq u al
d ig n ity o f a p erson i s v io la t e d when a p a r tic u la r k in d o f
64
sic k n e ss i s trea te d by sending a person to j a i l ra th er than
to a h o s p ita l.
4 . An in d ig e n t man, charged w ith a fe lo n y , was
d en ied th e appointment o f an a tto rn ey to a s s i s t in h is
d e fe n se , thus v io la t in g th e S ix th Amendment to th e C o n sti
t u t io n . I f a person i s poor (or old and i l l i t e r a t e , t o o ),
i s h is l i f e and lib e r t y o f le s s v a lu e and d eserv in g o f le s s
p r o te c tio n ?
A gain, an a sp ec t o f th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l was
in v o lv e d , stemming from th e v io la t io n o f a p e r so n 's
in h eren t w orth and equal d ig n ity , ir r e s p e c t iv e o f h is
i l l i t e r a c y , advanced age, and p o v erty .
E v a lu a tio n Procedures
As a measure o f th e outcomes fo r le a r n in g , an
a t tit u d e in v en to ry was adm inistered to b oth groups. The
in v e n to r y , th e " A ttitude toward th e Law" s c a le by K atz-
T hurstone, was a tw o-form , tw en ty-item s c a le . Of th e two
forms o f th e s c a le , Form A was ad m inistered to a l l c la s s e s
a t th e end.^
2
The s e le c t io n o f t h is s c a le r e s u lt e d , in la r g e
p a r t, from stu d y o f th e r e ce n t and e x te n s iv e treatm en t o f
a t tit u d e s c a le s by M. E. Shaw and J . M. W right, S ca le s fo r
th e Measurement o f A ttitu d e s (New York: McGraw-Hill Book
Co., 1967), pp. 559-569.
65
The P ilo t Study
To determ ine th e q u a lit a t iv e worth and p r a c t ic a b il
i t y o f th e experim ental u n it on th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l,
a p i l o t study was conducted by the co o p era tin g p r o fe s s o r s .
About one year p rior to th e f i e l d stud y th ey began to
p a r tic ip a te in d evelop in g th e p la n s fo r th e f i e l d study
and ev a lu a tin g th e in s t r u c t io n a l m a te r ia ls which had been
p r e v io u sly roughed o u t.
The scope and n a tu re o f th a t p a r tic ip a tio n v a ried
w ith th e tim e and m a te r ia ls . I t in clu d ed lis t e n in g ,
read in g m anuscripts, c o n fe r r in g , a d v is in g , and f i n a l l y , a
few months b efo re th e form al f i e l d stu d y , in fo rm a lly u sin g
and ap p raisin g c e r ta in m a te r ia ls (m ostly c a se s tu d ie s ) in
ap p rop riate p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e c l a s s e s . In a d d itio n , one o f
th e p ro fesso r s subm itted s e le c te d s e c tio n s to stu d en ts in
another academic a rea .
The r e s u lt s w ere as fo llo w s :
1 . D ecisio n s as to th e le n g th and number o f ca se
stu d ie s were r e -a s s e s s e d , s e v e r a l b ein g dropped
e n t ir e ly and s e v e r a l undergoing co n sid era b le
change in word d i f f i c u l t y .
2 . Some prepared p o r tio n s o f t h e .o r ig in a l te x t o f
th e u n it w ere ex clu d ed .
3 . R elo ca tio n o f m a te r ia l in th e u n it ( e . g . , from
6 6
"Summary and C onclu sion s" to the Survey) was
e f f e c t e d .
4 . The g e n e r a l o rg a n iz a tio n o f con ten t and the
b in d in g o f u n it m a te r ia ls in to two handbooks
was im plem ented.
5 . F urther s im p lif ic a t io n o f th e language was
attem p ted .
6 . The d e c is io n was made to r e s t r i c t the e x te n t o f
in q u ir y and d isco v ery to the l a s t s e c tio n o f
th e s ix - p a r t form at.
7 . I t was d ecid ed n ot to u se s e le c te d quotes from
th e Survey as a b a s is fo r experim enting to
d isc o v e r th e a b i l i t y o f stu d en ts to in d u c tiv e ly
a r r iv e a t th e c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l.
D e s c r ip tio n o f th e R esearch Study
The re se a r c h stu d y u sin g th e r e fin e d exp erim en tal
curriculum u n it was conducted during May and e a r ly June o f
1968. Four San D iego C ity C o lleg e c la s s e s in p o l i t i c a l
sc ie n c e were in v o lv e d . Classroom in s tr u c tio n was as
f o llo w s :
1. The ex p erim en ta l group. There were two c la s s e s
in t h is group; both were in str u c te d by
P ro fesso r A. One met on Monday, Wednesday and
F rid ay a ftern o o n s and th e other on Tuesday and
Thursday m ornings.
2 . The c o n tr o l group. A gain, th e group c o n s is te d
o f two c l a s s e s , one o f which met Wednesday
a ftern o o n s under the in s tr u c tio n o f P ro fesso r
A, and th e o th er o f which met Monday, Wednesday
and F rid ay mornings under th e in s tr u c tio n o f
P ro fesso r B.
The procedures fo r in s tr u c tio n and e v a lu a tio n were
arranged such th a t a l l c la s s e s were:
1 . A ssigned to th e same u n it o f stu d y .
2 . In stru cted in th a t u n it fo r th e same p erio d o f
tim e .
3 . A dm inistered Form A i n i t i a l l y and Form B
f i n a l l y o f th e same a ttitu d e s c a le - - t h e K atz-
T hurstone "A ttitu de toward th e Law" s c a le .
4 . A dm inistered th e same form—tw ic e , i n i t i a l l y
and f i n a l l y — o f th e in v e s tig a to r -c o n s tr u c te d
" A ttitu de toward Law and J u s tic e " s c a le .
5 . A dm inistered th e same in v en to r y , th e "Personal
Inform ation Q u estio n n a ire."
Those ways in w hich th e c o n tr o l and exp erim en tal
groups r e c e iv e d d if f e r e n t treatm ent fo llo w .
1 . The stu d en ts in th e c o n tr o l group:
a . R eceived th e u su a l assignm ent o f two
ch ap ters in th e tex tb o o k .
b . Were g iv en th e le c tu r e s custom ary fo r th e
68
two p ro fesso r s in co n n ectio n w ith t h is u n it
o f stu d y .
2 . The stu d en ts in th e exp erim en tal group:
a . Were issu e d p erso n a l c o p ie s o f two b o o k le ts
com prising the s p e c ia l stu d y m a te r ia ls o f
th e u n it . These b o o k le ts , Handbook I and
Handbook I I , t o t a lle d some one-hundred
p a g e s.
b . R eceived e ith e r one le c tu r e ( i f a Tuesday-
Thursday c la s s ) or two le c tu r e s ( i f a
Monday-Wednesday-Friday c l a s s ) , p rim a rily
on th e ''mechanics" o f th e ju d ic ia r y
( j u d ic ia l appointm ent, a d m in istr a tio n ,
and o th e r s ); and some background on th e
(h yp oth esized ) n atu re o f th e American
c it iz e n s h ip bond, or th e " c itiz e n s h ip
in te g r a l" as c a lle d h e r e in .
c . Completed an open-ended term in a l q u e stio n
n a ir e on th e exp erim en tal program (th e
q
"Program A pp raisal Q u estio n n a ire" ).
d. Were a ssig n ed to read th e handbooks, to
com plete the w r itte n assignm ent a t th e end
o f each c a se stu d y (" A p p lica tio n o f th e
3
Appendix B co n ta in s a l l m a te r ia ls e s p e c ia lly
cr ea ted fo r t h is stu d y .
69
C itiz e n sh ip I n te g r a l," th e minimum req u ir e
ment in c a se a n a ly s is ) , and to w r ite in to
th e handbooks any q u estio n s or s ig n if ic a n t
resp o n ses occurrin g to them during th e ir
read in g and stu d y .
S t a t i s t i c a l A sp ects o f D esign
The s t a t i s t i c a l p lan s fo r th e c o lle c t io n and in t e r
p r e ta tio n o f data were th o se o f (a) a s in g le - f a c t o r ,
repeated-m easure d e sig n , and (b) a tw o -fa cto r, rep ea ted -
measure d e sig n fo r le v e ls o f v a lu e o f an a ttitu d e
v a r ia b le
G arrett supports th e u se o f F - t e s t s in resea rch
d esig n s th u s:
W hile th e v a r i a b il it y w ith in a s e t o f sc o res i s
o r d in a r ily g iv en by th e standard d e v ia tio n or a ,
v a r i a b i l i t y may a ls o be exp ressed by the 'V ariance"
o f o^. A v er y co n sid er a b le advantage o f v a ria n ces
over standard d e v ia tio n s i s the f a c t th a t v a ria n ces
are o fte n a d d itiv e and th e sums o f sq u a res, upon
w hich v a ria n c es are b a sed , always a r e .5
B. J . W iner, S t a t i s t i c a l P r in c ip le s and Experimen
t a l D esign (New York: McGraw-Hill Book C o ., 1 9 6 2 ), pp.
3 0 2 -3 1 8 . The plan was e x p r e ssiv e o f th e assum ption th a t
N = 78 (39 S 's in each grou p ).
^Henry E. G a r rett, S t a t i s t i c s in P sychology and
E ducation (5 th e d .; New York: Longmans, Green and C o .,
I n c ., 1 9 5 8 ), p . 277.
70
B lockout Plan
Source d . f . S 2
F - t e s t s
Between S 's (2x)39=78
Exper iment a 1
v . C on trol 1 s2
Sw Groups
(err o r ) (2x)38=s 76
s2
e r r o r 1
SG
F = - 7-
Se '
( 1 )
With S 's 78
I n i t i a l
v . F in a l 1
S2
T
s2
F - Y
V'
(2 )
Group X I-F 1 S2
G T
s2
p - V
V'
(3)
SwG X I-F (e r r o r ) 78
< ? 2
error"
F - t e s t s
T est (1 ) T e st fo r o v e r a ll d iffe r e n c e s between experim en
t a l and c o n tr o l groups.
T est (2) T e st fo r o v e r a ll d iffe r e n c e s between i n i t i a l
f i n a l t e s t perform ances.
and
T est (3 ) T e st fo r th e in te r a c tio n between groups and
i n i t i a l - f i n a l t e s t f a c t o r .
the
S in c e s ig n if ic a n t in te r a c tio n would have been
in c o n s is te n t w ith th e im p lic a tio n s o f th e
prim ary h y p o th e sis, t h is c o n s titu te d th e primary
t e s t fo r th a t h y p o th e s is .«
£
The s ig n if ic a n c e o f in te r a c tio n was to be accep ted
a t th e .05 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e .
! . . . [V ariance] . . . i s more con ven ien t and
| u s e fu l than . . . standard d e v ia tio n s , sin c e i t
; perm its th e d iv is io n o f t o t a l v a r i a b il it y , a
1 com posite s c o r e , . . . in to i t s independent compo
n en ts [w hich] cannot be r e a d ily done w ith standard
d e v ia tio n s.•
jHe adds th a t: "The v a lu e o f a n a ly s is o f v a ria n ce in t e s t -
jing exp erim en tal h ypotheses i s m ost s tr ik in g ly dem onstrated
jin th o se problem s in which th e s ig n ific a n c e o f the d i f f e r
en ces among s e v e r a l means i s desired."®
G arrett fu r th e r a s s e r ts th a t th e F -r a tio t e s t s the
assum ption o f n o rm a lity in th e sample p o p u la tio n , to g eth er
w ith th e assum ption o f equal v a ria n c e s between resea rch
j sam p les. ^
R elated to th e p r e - t e s t - p o s t - t e s t p a ttern in v o lv in g
K atz-T hurstone*s " A ttitu d e toward the Law" used in t h is
stud y i s G a r r e tt's fo llo w in g p o in t: "When a t e s t i s g iv en
|and then re p e a te d , a n a ly s is o f v a ria n ce may then be used to
! determ ine w hether th e mean change i s s ig n if ic a n t ." ^
The u se o f in f e r e n t ia l s t a t i s t i c s in the resea rch
was to estim a te and an alyze the e x te n t o f resem blance
jbetween th e measured sam ples and the g en era l p o p u la tio n (s)
from which th ey were taken. In an a ly zin g the v a ria n ce
i ^ G arrett, op. c i t . , pp. 277-278.
| 8 I b i d . , p . 279.
^ I b id ., p. 286.
10I b id ., p. 291.
72
(measured d iff e r e n c e s ) , th e aim was to e s ta b lis h , a t some
le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e , whether th a t v a ria n ce was a ttr ib u ta b le
to chance. I f i t was n o t, th e n u ll h y p o th esis was r e j e c t -
a b le .
In th e a n a ly s is , th e r e le v a n t d iffe r e n c e s were
th o se o f erro r and su b je c t v a ria n c e : between th e su b je c ts
o f two groups and w ith in th e su b je c ts o f th o se groups in a
t e s t - r e t e s t le a r n in g s it u a t io n .
With th e th ree F - t e s t s o f t h is r e se a r c h , th e pur
pose was to t e s t fo r th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f measured d if f e r -
en ces ( r a t io s ln th r e e areas:
F ^ : th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e su b je c t v a ria n ce
between exp erim en tal and c o n tr o l groups
(d esig n a te d 'W in e f f e c t o f 'A1”) .
F ^ ) i s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e su b je c t v a ria n ce
w ith in th e groups on t e s t - r e t e s t (d esig n a ted
"main e f f e c t o f 'B '" ).
F ^ g ): th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f in te r a c tio n between th e
'W ithin" fa c to r (th e v a ria n ce o f su b je c ts
w ith in groups on t e s t - r e t e s t ) and th e
"between" fa c to r (th e su b je c t v a r ia n c e ,
exp erim en tal to c o n tr o l g ro u p s). T e stin g
th e com bination o f main e f f e c t s o f A and B
made ^ ( 3 ) a le g itim a te m easuring d ev ic e
h e r e in .
73
Summary
In summary, t h is re sea rch d esig n and study con
s is t e d e s s e n t i a l ly o f th e fo llo w in g elem ents and p r o c e s s e s :
1. C o n stru ctio n o f th e exp erim en tal u n it , in clu d
in g th e s e le c t io n o f c a se s tu d ie s and r e la te d
m a te r ia ls b e s t i l l u s t r a t i v e o f the h yp oth esized
s tr u c tu r a l con cep t c a lle d th e c itiz e n s h ip
in t e g r a l, w ith emphasis on ca ses th a t le n t
th em selv es to m eaningful classroom a n a ly s is a t
th e ju n io r c o lle g e l e v e l .
2 . The co o p er a tio n o f a ju n io r c o lle g e and th e
s e le c t io n o f com petent in s tr u c to r s in th e
p o l i t i c a l sc ie n c e f i e l d a t th a t c o lle g e .
3 . The tea ch in g o f th e exp erim en tal u n it in a
p i l o t stu d y and subsequent refinem ent o f the
m a te r ia ls .
4 . A d m in istra tio n o f p re- and p o s t - t e s t a t t it u d i-
n a l s c a l e s , b oth stan d ard ized and in n o v a tiv e ,
to c o n tr o l and re sea r ch groups.
5 . The te a c h in g o f th e u n it in th e resea rch stud y
i t s e l f .
6 . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is o f th e r e s u lt s from th e
a t t it u d in a l s c a le s and from stu d en t comments on
th e exp erim en tal m a te r ia ls .
74
7. A n a ly sis o f r e a c tio n s to th e u n it by the
co o p era tin g p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e in s tr u c to r s .
The f i r s t two ch ap ters d e lin e a te d the problem
r e la t iv e to c o n str u c tin g a new u n it o f study on the
c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l and analyzed th e resea rch r e la t iv e to
p r in c ip a l a sp e c ts o f t h is co n cep t.
The cu rren t ch ap ter d escrib ed the procedures used
in im plem enting th e s m a ll-s c a le r e se a r c h d esig n on th e
in n o v a tiv e m a te r ia ls .
Chapter IV p re se n ts th e fin d in g s o f th e resea rch
f a c e t o f th e stu d y .
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS O F TH E STUDY
The p rocedu ral d esig n which was u t il iz e d fo r the
f i e l d study o f the exp erim en tal u n it was d escrib ed in th e
preceding ch a p te r. The purpose o f t h is chapter i s to
rep o rt th e fin d in g s o f th a t stu d y . The data out o f which
they developed were gathered from s e v e r a l so u r c e s, but
p r in c ip a lly th e fo llo w in g :
1 . The retu rn ed stu d en t handbooks, s in c e stu d en ts
had been encouraged to mark them and to w r ite
in them as f r e e ly as th ey w ish ed .
2 . The co o p era tin g p o l i t i c a l sc ie n c e p r o fe s s o r s ,
p rim a rily th e in s tr u c to r o f the experim ental
u n it .
3 . The s tu d e n ts 1 resp o n ses to s e v e r a l inform al
in v e n to r ie s , p r in c ip a lly to th e "Program
A p p raisal Q u estio n n a ire," but a ls o to th e
"Personal In form ation al Q u estio n n a ire," and to
a term in a l o r a l question-and-answ er s e s s io n
w ith th e r e se a r c h e r .
75
76
4 . The p r e t e s t - p o s t t e s t s t a t i s t i c a l measurements
o f stu d en t a t tit u d e which were produced by
a d m in istr a tio n o f th e K atz-Thurstone "A ttitude
toward th e Law" s c a le , Forms A and B.
Whereas th e last-nam ed sou rce was u t i l i z e d to
gather d ata con cern in g th e p o s s ib le e f f e c t s o f in s tr u c tio n
on th e stu d e n ts , th e former sou rces were u t iliz e d to o b ta in
inform ation about th e p ro c e sse s o f in s tr u c tio n and to make
improvements in th e cou rse o f in s tr u c tio n .
The Student Handbooks
At th e c o n c lu sio n o f th e u n it , th e coop eratin g
p r o fe sso r s c o lle c t e d th e two b o o k le ts o f ca se study and
r e la te d m a te r ia ls w hich had been iss u e d p r ev io u sly to th e
stu d en ts (se e Appendix A) . Each b o o k le t was then in sp ected
fo r evid en ce w hich m ight a id in e v a lu a tin g th e q u a lity o f
th e m a te r ia ls . For exam ple, th e b o o k le t in sp e c tio n was
designed to :
1 . L ocate th e s p e c if ic p la c e or p la ces where
e x p la n a tio n was f a u lt y .
2 . I d e n tify any p a ssages in which th e language was
hard t o u nd erstan d .
3 . P in p o in t where stu d en ts q u estion ed th e reason
in g an d /or d e c is io n s o f th e v a rio u s cou rt
j u s t i c e s .
77
Handbook I c o n s is te d m ainly o f a foreword to th e
stu d en t, some in tro d u cto ry e x p la n a tio n s, and a le g a l
g lo s s a r y . S tu dents in th e exp erim en tal c la s s e s were to
read th e se m a te r ia ls p rio r to h earin g th e c e n tr a l le c tu r e s
on th e n a tu re o f th e American c it iz e n s h ip bond, h ere in
la b e le d "the c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l."
Handbook I I con tain ed approxim ately sev en ty pages
o f r e le v a n t co u rt d e c is io n s on th e c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l,
and a b r ie f " P ostview ."
The t h ir ty - n in e stu d en ts in th e exp erim en tal group
had been encouraged to j o t down in th e handbooks any
comments which m ight be o f v a lu e to th em selv es, in clu d in g
q u e stio n s th ey m ight have wanted to r a is e during v a rio u s
c la s s d is c u s s io n s . An a n a ly s is o f th e se handbooks showed
th e fo llo w in g :
1. No w r itin g or marks o f any s o r t were observed in
th e m a jo r ity o f th e handbooks. Comments were
found in e ig h t c o p ie s o f Handbook I and in f iv e o f
Handbook I I .
a . The b u lk o f th e n o ta tio n s in Handbook I
cen tered on a laym an's m o d ific a tio n o f le g a l
term s co n ta in ed in th e g lo s s a r y . A few
appeared to be c l a r if ic a t io n s o f th e p r o fe s
s o r 's in s tr u c tio n s as to how th e m a te ria ls were
to be u sed .
78
b . Of th e comments found in Handbook I I , th e
m a jo rity seemed to p in p o in t th e j u d ic ia l
d e c is io n s th a t were handed down by th e c o u r ts .
A few u n d er lin in g s o f j u d ic i a l reason in g were
a ls o ap paren t, in clu d in g th e reason in g o f
d is s e n tin g ju d g es. S ev era l n o ta tio n s c le a r ly
r e fe r r e d to key elem ents o f th e c itiz e n s h ip
in te g r a l as i t cou ld be in fe r r e d from th e
d e t a ils o f s p e c if ic co u rt c a s e s .
2 . In g e n e r a l, comments in th e handbooks d id n ot
evid en ce c le a r - c u t trends r e la t iv e to th e v a lu e or
s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e m a te r ia ls in enhancing stu d en t
u nderstanding o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l.
The C ooperating P ro fesso rs
I n -c la s s r e a c tio n s to th e in n o v a tiv e m a te ria ls were
rep orted as e x c e p tio n a lly good by th e coop eratin g p r o fe s
s o r . I n te r e s t in th e u n it was co n sid er a b ly h igher than i t
had been in p reviou s y e a r s . ( I t i s to be remembered th a t
th e se stu d en ts had approxim ately 1 0 0 more pages o f co g n i
t iv e in form ation to stud y than th o se in th e co n v en tio n a l
p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e c l a s s e s .)
f
79
The Program A p p raisal Q u estion naires
The anonymously w r itte n e v a lu a tio n s subm itted by
stu d en ts a t th e end o f th e u n it bore out th e in form al,
praisew orthy comments rep o rted by th e p r o fe s s o r s . The
e v a lu a tio n s were w r itte n on a form e n t it le d "Program
A p p raisal Q u estion n aire" w hich was d esign ed along lin e s
su ggested by Taba. She d e lin e a te d th e fo llo w in g four
areas fo r e v a lu a tin g in n o v a tiv e classroom m a te r ia ls :
(1) Aim and Focus; (2 ) O rganization; (3) Scope; and (4)
L e a r n a b ility .
The format o f th e q u e stio n n a ire was as fo llo w s:
1. Aim and F o cu s: (a) A ssignm ents—u se fu l?
s ig n if ic a n t ? adequate in str u c tio n s ?
(b) Emphasis—c le a r ? proper? m aintained
throughout?
2 . O rg a n iza tio n : Good rhythm and balance? Smooth
flo w and sequence? P ro g ressiv e development?
3 . S cop e: C ontent or m a te r ia ls — too much or too
l i t t l e ?
4 . L e a r n a b ility : (a) A c t i v i t i e s — s u f f ic ie n t l y
v a ried ? (b) B asic id e a s —c le a r ly expressed?
■hlilda Taba, Curriculum Developm ent: Theory and
P r a c tic e (New York: H arcou rt, Brace and C o ., 1 9 6 2 ),
ch ap ters 1 7 , 18, and 2 0 , e s p e c ia lly p . 324 ( f iv e elem ents
o f an e v a lu a tio n program) and pp. 345-379 (th e e ig h t-s te p
p a tter n fo r o rg a n izin g a te a c h in g -le a r n in g u n i t ) .
80
" relevan t" and in te r e s tin g ? s u f f ic ie n t
op p ortu n ity fo r developm ent?
The fin d in g s h erew ith a re rep orted se p a r a te ly by
stu d en t r e a c tio n s to each s e c tio n o f th e two handbooks in
Appendix A.
Handbook I
The Foreword. R e la tiv e to aim and focu s o f th e
forew ord, th e th ir ty -n in e stu d en ts in th e exp erim en tal
s e c tio n s were asked to comment on (a) th e u t i l i t y , s i g n i f i
ca n ce, and adequacy o f in s tr u c tio n s in str u c tu r in g a s s ig n
ments and on (b) th e c l a r i t y and ap p rop riaten ess o f th e
emphasis m aintained throughout th e u n it o f in s tr u c tio n .
T h ir ty -fiv e exp ressed support fo r th e u n it 's aim and focu s
through comments such as " c le a r ," " u se fu l," "properly
m ain tain ed ," " s ig n if ic a n t ," "much-needed," or " w ell-
p resented" whereas fo u r stu d e n ts found th e aim and focu s
to be "vague" or "not u s e f u l."
R e la tiv e to o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e forew ord, stu d en ts
were asked to a s s e s s i t s rhythm, b a la n c e, flo w , sequence,
and p r o g r e ssiv e developm ent. T h ir ty -fo u r responded w ith
such a ffir m a tiv e r e a c tio n s as good rhythm and b a la n ce,
smooth seq u en ce, w e ll-o r g a n iz e d , and l o g i c a l . F iv e found
th e m a te r ia ls to be u n c le a r , underdeveloped, somewhat
co n fu sin g , or jerk y in t h e ir flo w .
81
R e la tiv e to th e scope o f th e forew ord, stu d en ts
were to respond to th e amount o f co n ten t m a te r ia ls .
Tw enty-nine exp ressed support by u se o f comments such as
" ju st r ig h t ," "good," "adequate," or " fin e" whereas e ig h t
f e l t th ere was too much m a te r ia l and two b e lie v e d th e re was
n o t enough.
R e la tiv e to th e le a r n a b ilit y o f m a te r ia ls in th e
forew ord, stu d en ts were to comment on (a) th e v a r ie t y o f
a c t i v i t i e s and (b) th e c l a r i t y , r e le v a n c y , and op portu nity
fo r developm ent o f th e b a s ic id e a s . T w enty-six exp ressed
support fo r th e le a r n a b ilit y o f th e in n o v a tiv e m a te ria ls
through such r e a c tio n s as " c le a r ly ex p re sse d ," " s u f f ic ie n t
op p ortu n ity fo r d evelopm ent," " relevan t and in t e r e s t in g ,"
"easy to le a r n ," and "good." E leven exp ressed concern
through comments such as ’V ague," "not r e a l c le a r ," "poor,"
" d if f i c u lt ," "too w ordy," "hard to g ra sp ," or " in s u f fic ie n t
op p ortu n ity fo r developm ent."
The In tr o d u c tio n . As to th e second s e c tio n o f
Handbook I , d e a lin g w ith in tro d u cto ry m a te ria ls to th e
u n it , e ig h te e n stu d e n ts responded a ffir m a tiv e ly on th e
f i r s t e v a lu a tiv e c r it e r io n o f aim and fo c u s . Condensed,
th e stu d e n ts' comments s ta te d t h is s e c tio n was c le a r ,
s ig n if ic a n t , u s e f u l, v e r y good, w e ll- a r t ic u la t e d , and
ad eq uate. Ten found t h i s s e c t io n to be u n c le a r , in a d e
q u ate, hard to tinderstand, or fu z z y . Eleven stu d en ts did
82
n ot r e a c t .
As to th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e in tro d u cto ry m ateri
a ls , s ix te e n o f tw enty-one resp on d en ts found them to be
v ery sm ooth, good, c le a r , or p r e c is e . F iv e found them
u n c le a r , in a d eq u a te, or hard to understand. Seventeen made
no comments.
With r e s p e c t to th e scop e o f th e " in tro d u ctio n ,"
ten found i t to be a d eq u ate, s u f f i c i e n t , good, or j u s t
r ig h t . Of te n who d isa g r e e d , seven f e l t i t encompassed too
much whereas th ree f e l t i t needed to be expanded. N in eteen
did n o t respond.
As fo r th e le a r n a b ilit y o f th e in tro d u cto ry m a teri
a l s , fo u r te e n found them to be to o hard, le n g th y , u n c lea r ,
or wordy whereas t h ir te e n s ta te d th ey were c le a r ly
ex p ressed , r e le v a n t , and in t e r e s t in g . Twelve did n o t
respond.
S in ce t h is s e c t io n d e a lt w ith th e a b s tr a c t, hypoth
e s iz e d concept o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l, th e p r o fesso r s
recogn ized th a t stu d en ts would have d i f f i c u l t y comprehend
in g i t . T h erefo re, prepared classroom le c tu r e s had been
su b s titu te d fo r m ost o f th e o r ig in a l m a te r ia ls on th e
co n cep t, as su g g ested by stu d en ts in th e p i l o t stu d y . In
th e q u e stio n n a ir e , how ever, stu d en ts responded on ly to th e
w r itte n m a te r ia ls .
83
Handbook I I
The J u d ic ia l L aboratory. Handbook I I in clu d ed
background n o tes on th e C ourt, some p refa to ry comments
about th e ca se stu d ie s i l l u s t r a t i n g th e c it iz e n s h ip
in te g r a l, p lu s " b riefs" o f th e th ir te e n c a s e s , each th ree
to f iv e pages lo n g . Out o f t h ir ty - n in e stu d e n ts , t h ir t y -
one responded, and tw en ty -sev en o f th e se were h ig h ly
p o s it iv e in th e ir r e a c tio n s to th e m a te r ia ls 1 aim and
fo c u s . Two stu d en ts s ta te d th e se were th e most r e le v a n t
o f th e e n tir e u n it , whereas o th ers used such ex p re ssio n s
as thou ght-provokin g, u s e f u l , c le a r , good, s ig n if ic a n t ,
and in t e r e s t in g . The fou r n e g a tiv e resp o n ses dw elled on
u n clearn ess o f th e purpose.
R e la tiv e to th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e c a se s tu d ie s
and accompanying background, tw enty o f th e tw e n ty -fiv e
respondents rea cted fa v o r a b ly , u sin g such ex p re ssio n s as
good p r o g re ssiv e developm ent, smooth flo w , w e ll-o r g a n iz e d ,
w e ll-d e v e lo p e d , o r d e r ly , and l o g i c a l . The f iv e d is s e n te r s
found th e m a te ria ls u n clea r in p urpose, a l i t t l e ram bling,
or d i f f i c u l t to u nderstand.
As to sco p e, sev en teen o f tw en ty -th ree respondents
found th e c a se stu d y m a te r ia ls to be adequate, j u s t r ig h t ,
good, or s u f f i c i e n t . Two who d isa g reed f e l t th ere was too
much m a te r ia l, whereas th r e e b e lie v e d th e re to be too
l i t t l e .
84
On th e le a r n a b ilit y o f th e con cepts w ith in the ca se
s tu d ie s and accompanying background, eig h tee n o f th e
tw e n ty -fiv e who commented d id so a ffir m a tiv e ly , s ta tin g
th a t th e con cep ts were c o n s is te n t w ith the sco p e, c le a r ,
in t e r e s t in g , s a t is f a c t o r y , or good. The d is s id e n ts found
th e m a te r ia ls v ery d eep , ambiguous, c o n fu sin g , or u n clear
on t h e ir r e la tio n s h ip to th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l.
P o stv iew . The l a s t s e c tio n o f Handbook I I was a
"Postview" o f th e u n it —p r in c ip a lly , o f th e h yp oth esized
c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l and th e r e la t io n o f th e c a se s tu d ie s
to i t . Twenty-nine o f th e t h ir ty - n in e p a r tic ip a n ts
responded and a l l but one was commendatory. T his in d iv id
u a l f e l t th a t too much was assumed in the c o n c lu sio n . The
p o s it iv e comments ranged from f a ir and s a t is f a c t o r y to more
h e lp fu l than the in tro d u cto ry m a te r ia ls . Other a d je c tiv e s
in clu d ed u s e f u l, good, s ig n if ic a n t , c le a r , and proper.
Of th e tw e n ty -fiv e stu d en ts who commented on th e
o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e " P o stv ie w ,1 1 a l l but two were p o s it iv e .
The d is s e n te r s found th e q u o ta tio n s from d is t r a c t s to b e
to o long and the le n g th o f t h i s s e c tio n too sh o rt r e sp e c
t i v e l y . The p raisew orth y comments ranged from "O K " and
f a ir t o smooth flow and seq u en ce, w ell-d ev e lo p e d p rogres
s io n , good, f in e , and e a s i l y understood.
Of th e t h ir ty - n in e stu d en ts u sin g th e exp erim en tal
m a te r ia ls , tw enty commented on th e scope o f th e " P o stv iew .1 1
85
F ifte e n responded a f f ir m a t iv e ly , c a llin g i t s a t is f a c t o r y ,
f a i r , adequate, c le a r , j u s t r ig h t in le n g th , and good. Two
f e l t th a t th e scope was to o l i t t l e and one too much.
Another b e lie v e d i t would ta k e a sem ester to lea rn th e
con cep ts in v o lv ed .
Only two o f th e tw e n ty -fiv e resp ond en ts on the
le a r n a b ilit y o f th e "Postview" m a te r ia ls were n e g a tiv e , one
la b e lin g i t poor and th e o th er sa y in g more tim e was needed
to study i t . P o s it iv e comments c a lle d i t r e le v a n t, c le a r ,
u nd erstan d able, v a lu a b le , w e ll-r e c a p p e d , in t e r e s t in g , f a i r ,
good, g r e a t, the b e s t s e c t io n o f a l l , and e a s i l y read.
The U nit as a Whole
The la s t s e c t io n o f th e stu d en t q u estio n n a ire asked
fo r an e v a lu a tio n o f th e u n it-a s -a -w h o le . Two o f th e
stu d en ts who w rote comments on th e u n it 's aim and focus
f e l t th a t th ey were u n c lea r ; a th ir d s ta te d th a t the u n it
did n ot cover as much as th e aim in ten d ed ; and a fou rth
person q u estion ed th e u n i t ' s v a lu e . A f i f t h f e l t th e aim
was good but th e fo cu s needed co n sid er a b le sharpening.
The oth er tw enty resp on d en ts w ere g e n e r a lly very
su p p ortive o f the aim and fo c u s . One c a lle d th e u n it "an
ou tstan d in g attem pt to c r e a te inform ed c it iz e n s " w h ile
another s t a t e d , " It i s th e f i r s t tim e I 'v e ever given any
thought to what American c it iz e n s h ip i s . " Others c a lle d i t
"more d ir e c t . . . than f i r s t r e a liz e d ," " c le a r ly
86
p ic tu r e d ," and emphasis "properly m ain tain ed ." In le s s
glow ing term s, some stu d e n ts c a lle d th e u n it 's aim and
focu s s ig n if ic a n t , u s e f u l, good, s a t is f a c t o r y , and c le a r .
As to th e o v e r - a ll o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e exp erim en tal
p o l i t i c a l sc ie n c e u n it , e ig h te e n o f tw en ty -th ree respond
en ts answered p o s it iv e ly . They w rote about i t s good
b a la n c e, smooth flo w , and c le a r seq u en ce. F iv e thought i t
was je r k y , u n c le a r , or s p o tty and d is jo in te d in i t s flo w .
R e la tiv e to th e o v e r - a ll scope o f th e u n it , elev en
o f tw enty-one resp ond en ts were c r i t i c a l . E ighteen p a r t i c i
pants made no comment. S ix f e l t th e scope to be to o broad
and one too narrow. Another q u estion ed th e sh o rtn ess o f
tim e fo r what was to be accom p lish ed . The te n who sup
ported th e u n it 's scope f e l t i t to be s u f f i c i e n t , p roper,
j u s t r ig h t , or good.
Of th e tw e n ty -eig h t who answered r e la t iv e to th e
o v e r -a ll le a r n a b ilit y o f th e u n it , n in e te e n commented
fa v o ra b ly . They c h a r a c te r iz e d i t as good, in t e r e s t in g ,
easy to understand, c le a r ly e x p re sse d , r e le v a n t, in t e r e s t
in g , n o t too d i f f i c u l t , accom plished th e a u th o r's purpose,
and v ery e f f e c t iv e once th e c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l was
grasped. The c r i t i c a l r e a c tio n s focu sed on th e sh o rtn ess
o f tim e, on th e need fo r g r e a te r s p e c i f i c i t y , on th e
d i f f i c u l t y and vagueness o f some o f th e m a te r ia ls . There
were g e n e r a lly r e a c tio n s by a few who f e l t th e u n it sim ply
to be a poor one.
87
A d d itio n a l Comments
The la s t s e c tio n o f th e q u e stio n n a ire asked
stu d en ts fo r any other r e a c tio n s to th e u n it . Of t h ir t y -
four r e sp o n se s, th ir ty -o n e la r g e ly praisew orthy but did
in clu d e su g g e stio n s fo r im proving th e m a te r ia ls . F iv e f e l t
th a t th e language o f th e j u s t ic e s was too d i f f i c u l t fo r la y
p ersons to in te r p r e t, four b e lie v e d th a t th e ex p la n a tio n o f
th e c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l was to o im p recise and v agu e, and
th ree m entioned th a t more tim e was needed to m ean in gfu lly
absorb th e major con cep ts o f th e u n it .
On th e p o s it iv e s id e , s e v e r a l in d ic a te d th a t the
c a s e stu d y approach had been a p a r tic u la r ly good techniqu e
fo r them in in c r e a sin g th e ir knowledge and a p p r e c ia tio n fo r
c itiz e n s h ip r i g h t s . Many termed the u n it in t e r e s t in g ,
good, s ig n if ic a n t , and/or r e le v a n t.
Table 1 summarizes stu d en t r e a c tio n s to th e u n it
m a te r ia ls . Of tw en ty-fou r resp o n ses to th e Q u estion n aire
r e la t iv e to th e aim and fo cu s on th e 'T’orew ord ," 8 2 .6 per
cen t cou ld be c l a s s i f i e d as b a s ic a lly su p p o rtiv e o f th e
m a te r ia ls , whereas 1 7 .4 per c e n t in d ic a te d th e need fo r
major ch an ges. Of tw en ty -sev en c l a s s i f i a b l e stu d en t
resp o n ses to th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e u n it m a te r ia ls , 8 5 .2
per c e n t were su p p o rtiv e and 1 4 .8 per ce n t su g g ested
88
TABLE 1
S U M M A R Y O F STUDENT REACTIONS T O UNIT M ATERIALS
(PR O G R A M APPRAISAL QUESTIONNAIRE)
S ectio n
Number o f
Respondents
%
Supportive
%
Needs Major
Changes
I . ’^Foreword"
Aim-Focus 24 8 2 .6 1 7 .4
O rganization 27 8 5 .2 1 4 .8
Scope 28 6 7 .8 2 2 . 2
L e a r n a b ility 27 8 5 .2 1 4 .8
I I . " in trod u ction "
Aim-Focus 26 7 3 .0 . 2 7 .0
O rganization 27 7 7 .8 2 2 . 2
Scope 27 6 1 .6 3 8 .4
L e a r n a b ility 26 6 9 .3 3 0 .7
I I I . "The J u d ic ia l
lab oratory"
Aim-Focus 25 9 2 .0 8 . 0
O rganization 24 9 1 .7 8 .3
Scope 26 8 0 .8 1 9 .2
L e a r n a b ility 24 8 2 .6 1 7 .4
IV. "Postview"
Aim-Focus 24 9 5 .7 4 .3
O rganization 24 1 0 0 . 0
-
Scope 23 7 8 .3 2 1 .7
L e a r n a b ility 23 9 1 .3 8 .7
V. U nit as a Whole
Aim-Focus 25 8 8 . 0 1 2 . 0
O rganization 26 8 0 .0 2 0 . 0
Scope 24 5 8 .3 4 1 .3
L e a r n a b ility 26 6 9 .3 3 0 .7
R e la tiv e to S e c tio n I I I , "The J u d ic ia l Laboratory"
(th e t e x t o f w hich ran alm ost 100 p a g e s ), Table 1 r e p o r ts
th e stu d en t r a tin g s o f th e in tr o d u cto ry p o rtio n o n ly . The
r a tin g s o f th e c a se s tu d ie s have been tr e a te d se p a r a te ly
in Table 2 .
89
2
s u b s ta n tia l changes were n e c e ssa r y .
N egative stu d en t r e a c tio n s to th e u n it were c l a s s i
f i e d accord in g to whether th e y were c r i t i c a l o f ( 1 ) th e
c o u r t lan guage, (2) th e accompanying e x p la n a tio n s, (3) th e
o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e m a te r ia ls , (4) th e tim e or scope o f
th e u n it , and (5) m iscella n eo u s o b je c tio n s n o t r e a d ily
c a te g o r iz e d . Of 176 n e g a tiv e r e a c tio n s to p o rtio n s o f th e
u n i t , th ey were c l a s s i f i e d thu s:
1 . The tim e-scop e c a te g o r y , th e la r g e s t , in clu d ed
31 per c e n t, or 55 o f th e 176 n e g a tiv e
comments.
2 . W eaknesses in ex p la n a tio n accounted fo r 25 per
c e n t, or 43 o f th e 176 n e g a tiv e comments, th e
bulk ce n terin g on th e a b str u se n atu re o f th e
c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l.
3 . W eaknesses in co u rt language in clu d ed 20 per
c e n t , or 36 o f th e 176 comments.
4 . O rgan ization al w ea k n esses, l e a s t fr e q u e n tly
c it e d by s tu d e n ts , accoun ted fo r 1 0 per c e n t o f
th e n e g a tiv e r e sp o n se s.
5 . M iscellan eou s comments com prised 15 per cen t o f
th e n e g a tiv e r e a c tio n s .
2
S lig h t v a r ia tio n s betw een T able 1 and th e
d e s c r ip t iv e a n a ly s is occurred when stu d e n ts responded, fo r
exam ple, to a s e c t io n by sa y in g , "R elevant but needs
sh arp er fo c u s . 1 1
90
The Case S tu d ies
Another s e c tio n o f the "Program A p p raisal Q u estion
n a ir e " asked stu d en ts to l i s t the th ree most v a lu a b le and
th ree le a s t v a lu a b le o f th e th ir te e n c a se s t u d ie s . E ight
d iff e r e n t c a se s r e c e iv e d p o s it iv e support from f i v e or more
s tu d e n ts, w ith Mapp b ein g named th e most v a lu a b le by
tw e lv e . G it low was so ra ted by ten stu d e n ts, w h ile n in e
each l i s t e d De Jon ge. Gideon, and N ear. F iv e each named
F e in e r , P alk o, and R ideau.
Of th e le a s t v a lu a b le c a se s t u d ie s , ten stu d en ts
named G itlo w . Thus, i t re c e iv e d as much p o s it iv e support
as i t r e c e iv e d n e g a tiv e . The C antw ell and Robinson c a se s
were d iscla im ed s i x tim es each, w ith n e ith e r r e c e iv in g
a p p recia b le p o s it iv e r e a c tio n s . Four stu d en ts l i s t e d
F ein er as one o f th e th ree le a s t v a lu a b le c a s e s , w hereas
f iv e c a lle d i t one o f th e th ree b e s t . A s c a tte r in g o f
oth er c a s e s r e c e iv e d lim ite d support as most v a lu a b le , and
s e v e r a l o f le a s t v a lu a b le in th e stu d e n ts' judgm ents.
Table 2 summarizes th e se d a ta .
TABLE 2
STUDENT RESPONSES T O THE CASE STUDIES RELATIVE T O
THEIR V A L U E FO R UNIT ANALYSIS
Most V aluable L east V aluable
Case N Case N
Mapp 12 C antw ell 6
De Jonge 9 G itlow 10
F ein er 5 Robinson 6
Gideon 9 Yamashita 4
G itlow 10 Palko 3
Near 9 M alloy 3
Palko 5 F ein er 4
Rideau 5 Rideau 3
De Jonge 3
N = » number o f stu d en ts
92
The "A ttitude toward th e Law1 1 S ca le
The ca se stu d ie s in th e exp erim en tal p o l i t i c a l
s c ie n c e u n it were s e le c te d because th ey c o n s titu te d most o f
th e b a sic d e c is io n s in which the American cou rt system had
upheld and n a tio n a liz e d some o f th e gu aran tees co n ta in ed in
th e B i l l o f R igh ts o f the fe d e r a l C o n s titu tio n . A ll o f
them were assumed to provide support fo r th e c it iz e n s h ip
in t e g r a l- - t o p r o te c t th e in h eren t v a lu e and equal d ig n ity
o f in d iv id u a l men. The fin d in g s fo r a t t i t u d e s , as measured
by (a ) f u l l and (b) p a r t ia l s c a le s , were stu d ie d b o th w ays.
F in d in gs fo r th e P a r tia l S ca le
The most r e l i a b l e , stand ard ized s c a le ak in to th e
purposes o f t h is resea r ch study was developed by K atz-
T hurstone, a s c a le d escrib ed as u s e fu l fo r a g en er a l
measurement o f a p er so n 's a ttitu d e toward en acted law .
A n a ly sis o f th e s c a le showed th a t on ly a minor fr a c tio n o f
th e sc a le d v a lu e item s were p r e c is e ly r e le v a n t to th e
a t t it u d in a l o b je c tiv e s o f th e exp erim en tal u n it . To
p reven t th e s c a le v a lu es o f th e ir r e le v a n t item s from
co n c e a lin g any measurement su g g e stiv e o f p o s it iv e r e s u lt s
fo r th e t r i a l u n it , a s p e c ia l study was made o f stu d en t
re sp o n ses to th e four item s on Form A and th e seven on
Form B w hich had been deemed germane fo r t h i s a n a ly s is
b eca u se o f th e ir resem blance to th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l.
On th e se ite m s, stu d en t resp on ses on th e p r e t e s t (Form A)
93
and on th e p o s t - t e s t (Form B) were compared on th ree b a ses:
* > •
th o se who agreed w ith a statem ent ( y e s ) , d isa g reed w ith i t
( n o ) , or were undecided (0 ) .
The item s adjudged r e le v a n t were as f o llo w s :
Form A Form B
Item 3 Items 7 , 10, 15
19 10, 12
12 16
12 5
More item s on Form B appeared to focu s on elem ents
o f the c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l in an overlap pin g p a tter n w ith
item s on Form A, le a d in g to an a n a ly s is o f seven o f th e
form er w ith four o f th e l a t t e r .
When stu d en t resp o n ses to Item 3 o f Form A were
compared w ith th o se fo r Item 7 o f Form B, i t was found th a t
th r ee members o f th e exp erim en tal group showed enhanced
a p p r e c ia tio n fo r an elem ent o f th e c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l,
w h ereas, fo r th e c o n tr o l group, one stu d en t showed le s s
support fo r man's in h eren t r ig h ts as su sta in ed by our
c o u r ts . The com parison o f Item 3 , Form A, w ith p o s t t e s t
Item 1 0 , Form B, showed four experim ental-group stu d en ts
changed in th e d ir e c tio n su p p ortive o f th e c it iz e n s h ip
in t e g r a l, whereas no change had taken p la ce in c o n tr o l-
group a t t it u d e s . On Item 3 , Form A, w ith Item 15 o f p o s t
t e s t Form B, one experim ental-group stu d en t changed h is
94
o p in io n in favor o f a c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l con cep t whereas
two co n tro l-g ro u p stu d en ts sw itched away from an a p p recia
t io n o f a fundam ental r ig h t . Hence, on a l l th ree com pari
son s o f Item 3 , Form A, w ith item s having p a r a lle l id ea s on
Form B, s li g h t ten d en cies were ev id e n t which favored th e
3
exp erim en tal group.
A com parison o f stu d en t resp on ses on Item 19,
Form A w ith Item 10, Form B showed th a t f iv e exp erim en tal-
group stu d en ts evinced a more p o s it iv e support fo r th e
c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l on the p o s tt e s t than on th e p r e t e s t .
On th e oth er hand, on ly one con trol-grou p stu d en t changed
in th e p o s it iv e d ir e c t io n . On Item 1 9 , Form A w ith Item
12, Form B, th e com parison showed th ree exp erim en tal
s tu d e n ts , to j u s t one con trol-grou p stu d en t changing in
support o f the c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l.
F iv e exp erim en tal- and two co n tro l-g ro u p stu d e n ts
showed h eigh ten ed support fo r th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l when
resp o n ses on p r e te s t Item 12 were compared w ith p o s t t e s t
Item 16. F in a lly , s ix exp erim en tal- and two co n tro l-g ro u p
stu d en ts changed p o s it iv e ly from p r e te s t Item 12 to p o s t
t e s t Item 5 .
Although none o f th e se changes was la rg e enough to
be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t a t th e .01 or .05 le v e ls o f
3
See Appendix B fo r s c a le v a lu es and sta tem en t o f
th e s e ite m s .
95
co n fid en ce fo r th e group, a l l changes in support o f th e
v a rio u s f a c e t s o f th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l were g re a ter
among exp erim en tal-grou p stu d en ts than c o n tr o l group.
T able 3 summarizes th e se changes in stud en t a t tit u d e s .
P o s s ib le O rigin s o f Changed A ttitu d es
The changes in a ttitu d e by f iv e experim ental-group
stu d en ts on Item 16 o f Form B and by s ix o f them on Item 5
o f Form B may have stemmed from a c a se stud y d iscu ssed
e x t e n s iv e ly in c l a s s , one in v o lv in g th e equal o b lig a tio n
o f p o lic e o f f i c i a l s to abide by th e law th ey en force
(Mapp) . The a t t it u d in a l change on Item 10 o f Form B by
f iv e exp erim en tal stu d en ts may be a ttr ib u ta b le to th e stud y
o f a c a se in v o lv in g a s t a t e law , su b seq u en tly found uncon
s t i t u t i o n a l , w hich p erm itted p u b lic o f f i c i a l s to deny
freedom o f e x p r e ssio n to c i t i z e n s who w ished to accuse
th e se same p u b lic o f f i c i a l s o f se r io u s crim es and to
p u b lish th e ev id en ce in lo c a l new spapers.
F in d in gs fo r th e F u ll S c a le :
The A n a ly sis o f V ariance
A stud y was made to e s t a b lis h what p rop ortion o f
th e com p osite ( t o t a l ) v a ria n c e in th e d is tr ib u tio n o f th e
mean a t tit u d e sc o r e s m ight be a ttr ib u te d to the v a ria n ce
between su b ject-g ro u p s (A ), what m ight be a ttr ib u te d to
v a ria n c e w ith in su b ject-g ro u p s (B ), and what might be
96
TABLE 3
NET C H A N G E S IN ATTITUDES BY C O N T R O L A N D EXPERIM ENTAL G R O U P
STUDENTS F R O M K A TZ PRETEST FO R M A T O POSTTEST F O R M B
C ontrol
Group
E xperi
m ental
Group
Item 3 o f Form A w ith Item 7 o f Form B - 1 +3
Item 3 o f Form A w ith Item 10 o f Form B 0 +4
Item 3 o f Form A w ith Item 15 o f Form B - 2 + 1
Item 19 o f Form A w ith Item 10 o f Form B + 1 +5
Item 19 o f Form A w ith Item 12 o f Form B + 1 +3
Item 12 o f Form A w ith Item 16 o f Form B +2 +5
Item 12 o f Form A w ith Item 5 o f Form B + 2 + 6
N = * 39 in c o n tr o l and exp erim en tal groups.
97
a ttr ib u te d to th e combined e f f e c t o f in te r a c tio n (AB) o f
th o se f a c t o r s . L a ter , fo llo w in g e v a lu a tio n o f th e r e s u lt s
o f the f i r s t a n a ly s is , a th ir d fa c to r was s e le c te d fo r
second a n a ly s is o f th e a ttitu d e sco re v a r ia n c e .
From a cu rso ry e v a lu a tio n o f th e data concerning
oth er known v a r i a b l e s - - e .g ., s e x , a g e, a s p ir a tio n l e v e l ,
academic h is t o r y , socioeconom ic in d ex , o u tsid e employment,
e t a l . —age was s e le c te d as p o s s ib ly th e most prom ising
th ir d fa c to r fo r d i f f e r e n t i a l a n a ly s is .^ In t h is a n a ly s is
o f v a ria n ce th e r e d u c tio n o f N (to N ^ 38) r e s u lte d from
th e absence o f one age [from a s u b je c t in Group I (e x p e r i
m e n ta l)]. N 's were eq u a lize d by dropping, by random
number, one su b je c t from Group I I ( c o n tr o l). The r e s u lt
was two sub-groups fo r each, M d (median age) = * 23.5 y e a r s,
w ith 19 stu d en ts in each o f the 4 c la s s e s - - t h o s e SS < 24
v ersu s th o se SS - 24 y e a r s . This procedure p erm itted the
in tercom p arison o f A -^ (exp erim en tal) and A2 (c o n tr o l) w ith
C -^ (Form A, i n i t i a l ) and C 2 (Form B, f i n a l ) t e s t fa c to r s
and w ith B -^ (< 24 y ea rs) and B2 (- 24 y e a r s )— i . e . , to
compare and to t e s t th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e v a ria n ce
between (A) e x p er im e n ta l-c o n tro l and (B) a g e -su b je c t groups
^The age d is t r ib u t io n o f th e exp erim en tal group
ranged from 18 to 67, w ith a median o f 25 y e a r s. For th e
c o n tr o l group th e range was 30 y e a r s. The fem ale com posi
tio n o f th e exp erim en tal group numbered 1 1 , w ith an age
range from 18 to 47 and a median o f 2 2 . Nine fem a les, aged
2 1 to 4 5 , were in th e c o n tr o l group, w ith a median o f 28
y e a r s .
98
and (C) w ith in th e s u b je c ts o f th e groups. This required
seven F - t e s t s : 3 fo r s ig n if ic a n c e in th e v arian ce o f th e
"between" fa c to r [A, B, and AB ( in t e r a c t io n )] and fo r the
w ith in fa c to r [C, A C ( in t e r a c t io n ) , B C ( in t e r a c t io n ), and
A BC ( in t e r a c t io n ) ] .
In conducting th e a n a ly s is w ith th e th ird (age)
f a c t o r , the p r in c ip a l aim was to d isco v e r whether any
p rop ortion o f th e v a ria n ce a ttr ib u ta b le to age was la rg e
enough to render the n u ll h y p o th esis u n ten a b le— to r e je c t
th e p r o b a b ility (P ^ .0 5 ) th a t th e v a ria n ce in a ttitu d e
sco re a ttr ib u te d to age r e s u lte d from ch an ce, h ence, not a
tru e d iffe r e n c e in th e means.^ ( I . e . , i f H0 r e je c te d , i t
would be accep ted th a t th e d iffe r e n c e s in a ttitu d e score
fo r th e two age groups were n ot th e r e s u lt o f ch an ce.)
The C onclusions fo r A n a ly sis
1. No s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e s e x is te d between th e
exp erim en tal group and th e c o n tr o l group on th e dependent
m easure, i . e . , sc o r e s on th e K atz-T hurstone "A ttitude
toward th e Law" s c a le (A ).
2. No s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e s e x is te d between th e
two age groups (under 24 v er su s 24 and over) on th e
dependent measure (B ).
5
Henry E. G a r r e tt, S t a t i s t i c s in Psychology and
Education (5 th e d .; New York: Longmans, Green and C o.,
I n c ., 1 9 5 8 ), p. 2 9 .
99
3 . No s ig n if ic a n t in te r a c tio n e x is te d between age
and th e ex p e r im en ta l-c o n tro l m anip u lation (AB).
4 . No s ig n if ic a n t e f f e c t s were due to th e varian ce
w ith in su b je c ts (C ).
5 . No s ig n if ic a n t in te r a c tio n e x is te d between
su b jec ts and e x p e r im e n ta l-c o n tr o l m anip u lation (AC).
6 . No s ig n if ic a n t in te r a c tio n e x is te d between
s u b je c ts -v a r ia b le and age (BC).
7. No s ig n if ic a n t in te r a c tio n e x is te d cu m u la tiv ely
between the exp erim en tal group on th e one hand and the
c o n tr o l group, the age o f any p a r tic ip a n ts , and sc o res on
th e a ttitu d e s c a le on th e o th er hand.
R e l i a b i l i t y o f th e S ca le
The t o t a l sc o re v a lu e s o f c o n tr o l and exp erim en tal
stu d en ts on Form A c o r r e la te d .530 w ith t h e ir sc o res on
Form B. As measured by t h is stu d y , th e in d ic a te d degree o f
r e la tio n s h ip i s c o n s is te n t w ith a p relim in ary estim a te o f
6
r e l i a b i l i t y rep orted by Shaw and W right. Hence, t h is
s c a le was judged a m oderately r e lia b le instrum ent to u se
fo r a t e s t - r e t e s t in th e manner a p p lied h e r e in .
^M. E. Shaw and J . M. W right, S c a le s fo r th e
Measurement o f A ttitu d e s (New York: McGraw-Hill Book C o .,
196 7 ), p . 561.
100
T o ta l Score Comparisons o f Experim ental
and C ontrol Groups on T e st-R e te st
The mean sco re was 6.26 fo r th e c o n tr o l group on
Form A o f th e K atz-Thurstone "A ttitu de toward th e Law"
s c a le , whereas i t was 6 .2 1 fo r th e exp erim en tal group. The
standard d e v ia tio n s o f th e d is t r ib u t io n o f sco res fo r th e
two groups were 1.05 and 1 .2 6 , r e s p e c t iv e ly .
On Form B, th e mean score fo r th e c o n tr o l group was
6.0 8 and fo r the experim ental group, 6 .1 0 . The standard
d e v ia tio n s were sm aller fo r t h is form: .48 fo r the former
and .84 fo r th e l a t t e r .
Thus, in comparing th ese m easures, the d iffe r e n c e s
in d ic a te a tendency fo r g rea ter v a ria n c e in th e d is tr ib u
tio n o f score fo r the exp erim en tal group on r e t e s t than fo r
th e c o n tr o l group. This d iv er g en t tendency may be la r g e
enough to su g g est a lea rn in g e f f e c t : th a t experim ental
stu d en ts have learned some d iffe r e n c e in a ttitu d e as a
r e s u lt o f exp erim en tal u n it in s tr u c tio n and a d iffe r e n c e —
more o fte n fa v o ra b le than n o t—in a ttitu d e toward th e law .
A n a ly sis o f th e "Undecided" Responses on
Forms A and B o f th e A ttitu d e S ca le
The K atz-Thurstone s c a le , " A ttitu d e toward th e
Law," p erm itted th e respondent to answer "Yes," "No," or
"Undecided." On th e p r e te s t (Form A ), four exp erim en tal
stu d en ts marked answers in th e "Undecided" colum n, but none
did so on th e p o s t t e s t . A f i f t h person in t h is group
101
marked four item s "Undecided1 1 on Form B, but none on
Form A. No experim ental stu d en t used th e "Undecided"
column on b oth t e s t s .
Experim ental stu d en ts who gave "undecided"
resp on ses were found to be below the mean in age and to
have ob tain ed lower a ttitu d e sc o r e s than th e mean o f th e ir
group, a ls o . That i s , th e se stu d en ts have a t tit u d e s toward
th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l which m ight be c l a s s i f i e d as le s s
c le a r ly p o s it iv e than th o se o f th e ir exp erim en tal group
p e e r s .
T h irteen co n tro l-g ro u p stu d en ts marked one or more
item s "Undecided" on Form A, w ith j u s t th r ee o f th e same
stu d en ts doing so on Form B. In th e se s ix t e e n in s ta n c e s ,
ele v e n had a ttitu d e sc o res below th e mean o f t h e ir group,
in clu d in g a l l o f th e th r ee on Form B. With r e fe r e n c e to
th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l, th e se co n tro l-g ro u p stu d en ts
appeared to have le s s p o s it iv e a ttitu d e s toward the
c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l than th e ir exp erim en tal-grou p
c o lle a g u e s , and the in cid en ce o f t h i s r e s p o n s e -t r a it was
more than th ree tim es as g r e a t (16 to 5 ) fo r th e c o n tr o l
group as fo r th e o th e r s .
102
A n a ly sis o f "Yes'* Responses
on Forms A and B
A lthough th e median number o f "Yes" resp on ses fo r
b oth exp erim en tal and c o n tr o l groups dropped by one f u l l
q u e stio n from p r e te s t to p o s t t e s t , th e range in th e number
o f th e s e resp o n ses in th e c o n tr o l group remained la r g e (1 1 )
on Form B. The range o f resp on se fo r th e exp erim en tal
group in t h is f a c t o r , however, dropped from tw elv e on
Form A to s i x on Form B, a r e s u lt which i s c o n s is te n t w ith
th e in crea sed number o f "No" resp on ses on Form B th a t i s
a s s o c ia te d w ith in crea sed acceptance o f the c itiz e n s h ip
in t e g r a l co n cep t.
Summary
T his ch ap ter analyzed four b a sic su b d iv isio n s o f
th e fin d in g s o f th e stud y: (1 ) stu d en t comments w r itte n
in to th e one-hundred pages o f s p e c ia lly prepared m a te r ia ls
on th e c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l; (2 ) r e a c tio n s o f th e co o p era t
in g p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e p r o fe sso r s; (3) stu d en t resp o n ses to
th e "Program A p p ra isa l Q uestionnaire" concerning th e
e f f ic a c y o f th e u n it m a te r ia ls ; and (4) th e p r e te s t and
p o s t t e s t s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly ses o f stu d en t resp on ses to th e
K atz-T hurstone " A ttitu de toward the Law" s c a le , Forms A
and B.
G en era lly sp eak in g, th e stu d en t comments in t h e ir
handbooks were lim ite d to u n d erlin in g or to r e a c tin g to th e
103
t e x t s o f d e c is io n s o f the c o u r ts , and to providing a
laym an's in te r p r e ta tio n o f v a rio u s le g a l term in ology. The
r e a c tio n s o f th e co o p era tin g p r o fe sso r s were fa v o r a b le ,
ex cep t fo r th e ir in d ic a tio n o f a need to augment the w r it
ten m a te r ia ls in clu d ed p r e v io u sly on th e c itiz e n s h ip
in te g r a l and/or w ith b r ie f classroom le c tu r e s to improve
the e x p lic a tio n o f t h is new co n cep t. C ertain ca se stu d ie s
a ls o needed c l a r i f i c a t i o n v ia c la s s d is c u s s io n s .
Other than r e g is t e r in g th e ir o b je c tio n to th e scope
o f th e u n it —th ree weeks was too l i t t l e tim e—stu d en t
r e a c tio n s were h e a v ily fa v o ra b le to th e in n o v a tiv e u n it o f
stu d y , p a r tic u la r ly to th e c a se study approach and to the
co u rt c a ses s e le c te d fo r a n a ly s is . The "Postview" r e ce iv e d
more p o s it iv e stu d en t r e a c tio n than th e "Introduction" to
th e u n it .
Four item s on th e K atz-T hurstone p r e te s t and seven
on th e p o s t t e s t were deemed p a r tic u la r ly germane to the
con cep t and, h en ce, fo r m easuring a ttitu d e s toward the
c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. A lthough sm all sam ples and th e u se
o f a p a r t ia l item s c a le fo r measurement prevented form al
in fe r e n c e , i t was n oted th a t changes in a ttitu d e s toward
th e h y p o th esized con cep t favored th e exp erim en tal group in
a l l r e le v a n t in s ta n c e s .
Chapter V, th e f i n a l on e, w i l l p resen t co n clu sio n s
based on th e fin d in g s and w i l l recommend f a c e t s fo r fu rth er
in v e s t ig a t io n .
C H A P T E R V
SU M M A R Y , CONCLUSIONS, A N D R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
T his chapter i s a rdsumd o f th e stu d y , in clu d in g a
summary o f the fin d in g s and a review o f th e resea rch
d e sig n . The l a s t two s e c tio n s d e a l w ith recommendations
based on t h is in v e s t ig a t io n p lu s su g g estio n s fo r fu rth er
resea rch stu d y .
Summary o f th e Problem and
R esearch Procedures
Statem ent o f th e Problem
T his stu d y had s e v e r a l b a s ic f a c e t s . One was the
developm ent o f a curriculum u n it fo r u se in a ju n io r
c o lle g e c la s s in p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e . The u n it was to i l l u s
tr a t e B runer's con cep t o f str u c tu r e and was to be taught
in d u c tiv e ly , em ploying th e c a s e -stu d y m ethodology as
su ggested in th e works o f Taba and T r e s o lin i.
U ndergirding th e se r e se a r c h d e c is io n s was th e
b e l i e f th a t knowledge o f a s tr u c tu r a l con cep t lea d s to
b e tte r understanding o f and a p p r ecia tio n fo r i t s component
elem en ts. I t was fu r th er b e lie v e d th a t in d u c tiv e p ro ce sse s
104
105
w hich lea d stu d en ts to draw th e g e n e r a liz a tio n s them selves
are su p erio r to d ed u ctive p ro ce sse s fo r attem p tin g to
change a ttitu d e s about a g iv en t o p ic .
An h ypothesized co n cep t, h erein c a lle d th e " c i t i
zen sh ip in te g r a l," was s e le c te d as the b a s is fo r th e new
c u r r ic u la r u n it . This n o tio n d e a ls w ith th o se government-
r e la te d id e a s , id e a ls , and v a lu es which have seemed to be
th e b a s is and r a tio n a le fo r th e p o l i t i c a l r ig h t s o f
American c i t i z e n s . The review o f th e lit e r a t u r e showed
th a t th ere are a sp ects o f c itiz e n s h ip w hich m ight be so
id e n t i f ie d , and th a t th ere i s no such u n it c u r r e n tly b ein g
taught in ju n io r c o lle g e p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e c l a s s e s . The
survey a ls o in d ic a te d co n sid er a b le d is c o n te n t w ith s o c ia l
s c ie n c e ed u cation and w ith the co n v en tio n a l m ethodology
employed by tea ch ers in t h is f i e l d . A need fo r som ething
d if f e r e n t , rath er than more o f th e same, seemed im p lied by
th e lit e r a t u r e . Hence, in n o v a tio n ra th er than ren o v a tio n
ch a ra c te riz ed t h is resea rch d e sig n .
A fter the co o p era tio n o f a ju n io r c o lle g e adm inis
tr a tio n had been secu red , two ten u red , p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e
p r o fe sso r s w ere s e le c te d to p a r tic ip a te in th e stu d y . One
o f th e p r o fesso r s evalu ated the new m a te r ia ls in a p i l o t
program, so th a t th e e f f ic a c y o f v a rio u s c a s e s tu d ie s and
r e la te d m a te r ia ls could be a s s e s s e d . F o llo w in g ap p rop riate
r e v is io n s , th e experim ental u n it was ta u g h t in two c l a s s e s ,
w h ile two o th e r , comparable c la s s e s stu d ie d c o n v e n tio n a l,
106
d id a c tic in fo rm a tio n .
In order to e v a lu a te stu d en t a ttitu d e s concerning
th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l, two p re- and p o s t - t e s t s were
ad m in istered ; one was a measure which was d esign ed
e s p e c ia lly fo r t h is re sea r ch stu d y , and th e other was th e
K atz-T hurstone stan d ard ized "A ttitude toward th e Law”
s c a le . Because o f v a l i d i t y and norming problem s, th e
former was dropped from form al in c lu s io n in th e stu d y . The
measurement o f c o g n itiv e le a rn in g s d id n ot c o n s t it u t e a
fo c u s w ith in . Hence, th e major f a c e ts o f the stud y were
( 1 ) developm ent o f a s tr u c tu r a l u n it on th e c itiz e n s h ip
in t e g r a l, (2 ) th e tea ch in g o f the new u n it , v ia th e c a s e -
stu d y approach, in two ju n io r c o lle g e p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e
c l a s s e s , (3 ) th e measurement o f a t t it u d in a l changes by
stu d en ts as a consequence o f stu d yin g th e new m a te r ia ls ,
and (4 ) a com parison o f a t t it u d in a l changes in th e se
stu d en ts w ith th o se o f a group stu d yin g sim ila r to p ic s by
co n v en tio n a l m ethodology. Of th e se f a c e t s , th e first-n a m ed
req u ired and r e c e iv e d th e g r e a te s t a tte n tio n in the
im plem entation o f th e re se a r ch d e sig n .
107
Summary o f th e F in din gs
Included in th e Appendices are a l l o f th e m a te r ia ls
fo r th e developed u n it o f stud y on th e c itiz e n s h ip in te g r a l.
The fo llo w in g i s a summary o f th e stu d y 's fin d in g s .
F in d in gs through A n a ly sis
o f Student Handbooks
From th e lim ite d number o f markings and m arginal
n o te s made by the stu d en ts in th e ir two handbooks, no c le a r
in d ic a tio n was apparent as to th e ir v a lu e fo r enhancing
stu d en t understanding o f th e c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l.
F in d in gs through A n a ly sis o f Student
Responses to th e "Program
A p p ra isa l Q u estio n n a ire"
T his stu d y in clu d ed a d e ta ile d in v en to ry o f stu d en t
r e a c tio n s to th e in n o v a tiv e p o l i t i c a l sc ie n c e u n it , u sin g
e v a lu a tiv e g u id e lin e s developed by Taba.
1 . In comments about th e "Foreword to th e U n it,"
approxim ately tw o -th ir d s or more o f th e stu d en ts found i t s
aim , fo c u s , o r g a n iz a tio n , sc o p e, and le a m a b ilit y to be
"adequate," " in te r e s tin g ," " r e le v a n t," or " c le a r ." About
o n e-fo u rth o f th e p a r tic ip a n ts found th e foreword to be
e x c e s s iv e ly hard in le a r n a b ilit y .
2 . R eaction s were v a r ie d to "The In tr o d u c tio n ,"
from w hich th e w r itte n m a te r ia ls d e sc r ib in g th e c it iz e n s h ip
in te g r a l and d e fin in g i t s scope and a p p lic a tio n had been
108
la r g e ly d e le te d . A pproxim ately h a lf o f th e respondents
q u estion ed the scope and le a r n a b ilit y o f th e se m a te r ia ls .
On th e oth er hand, stu d en ts supported them in aim, fo c u s ,
and o r g a n iz a tio n . About o n e-fo u rth o f th e stu d en ts did not
rep o rt any r e a c tio n on t h is p o r tio n o f th e q u e stio n n a ir e .
3 . As fo r "The J u d ic ia l L aboratory, 1 1 com prising
roughly 70 o f th e 1 0 0 pages o f sp ec ia lly -p r e p a re d m a te r i
a ls , stu d en t comments r e la t iv e to th e p refa to ry m a te ria ls
and th e c a se s tu d ie s on th e c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l were
str o n g ly su p p o rtiv e o f i t s aim , f o c u s . o r g a n iz a tio n . sc o p e,
and le a r n a b ilit y . Roughly o n e-th ird made no w r itte n
r e sp o n se s, how ever.
4 . Student comments on th e "Postview , 1 1 the l a s t
p a rt o f Handbook XI, were s tr o n g ly su p p o rtiv e by a l l f i v e
e v a lu a tiv e c r i t e r i a . S ev era l ch a ra c te riz ed t h is s e c t io n as
th e most le a rn a b le f a c e t o f th e e n tir e u n it . A gain,
however, about o n e -th ir d d id n o t make w r itte n comments.
5 . R eactin g to th e u n it as a w hole, o n e -th ird o f
th o se in th e exp erim en tal c la s s e s q u estion ed i t s scope and
th e sh o rtn ess o f tim e a llo t t e d fo r form al c la s s stu d y . O n
th e oth er hand, o n e -th ir d were su p p o rtiv e in th e ir
r e sp o n se s, whereas o n e -th ir d made no w r itte n comments. The
aim , fo c u s , and o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e u n it were commended by
a stron g m a jo r ity . About o n e -h a lf found th e u n it v ery
le a r n a b le , o n e-fo u rth thought i t was too a b str a c t or
com plex, and o n e-fo u rth d id n o t comment.
109
6 . Another s e c tio n o f th e q u e stio n n a ire asked fo r
any a d d itio n a l r e a c tio n s o f th e stu d en ts n ot r e a d ily
c l a s s i f i a b l e e lse w h e r e . About 80 per cen t w ere p r a is e
worthy in th e ir comments, 1 0 per cen t uncom plim entary, and
10 per c e n t w rote no r e a c t io n s . A la r g e v a r ie ty o f
su g g e stio n s was made r e la t iv e to ways fo r c o n c r e tiz in g th e
teach in g o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l.
7 . The l a s t s e c tio n o f th e q u e stio n n a ir e asked fo r
r e a c tio n s to th e th ir te e n c a se s tu d ie s s e le c te d to i l l u s
tr a te v a rio u s a sp e c ts o f th e c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. The
Mapp c a se was commended most str o n g ly , w ith th e G itlow ca se
r e c e iv in g the n ex t h e a v ie s t su pp ort. However, G itlow was
eq u a lly c it e d by o th e r s , as among th e th ree le a s t v a lu a b le
ca ses o f th e th ir te e n stu d ie d . The o th er ca ses r e c e iv e d
e ith e r modest support or r e j e c t io n by sm aller numbers o f
c la s s members.
S t a t i s t i c a l F in d in g s o f th e S tu d yfs
Experim ental and C on trol Groups
R e la tiv e to th e K atz-T hurstone a ttitu d e s c a le ,
seven item s on Form B, th e p o s t t e s t , were found to be
p a r a lle l in n a tu re to four item s on Form A, th e p r e t e s t .
Although the fin d in g s from th e a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e fo r th e
f u l l - s c a l e sc o r e s were n ot s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t a t the
.01 or .05 le v e ls o f c o n fid e n c e , a l l o f th e p a r t ia l s c a le
com parisons were fa v o r a b le , in varyin g d e g r e e s, to th e
110
exp erim en tal group. That i s , sy stem a tic c la s s exposure to
th e con cept o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l r e s u lte d in some
evid en ce th a t th e exp erim en tal group developed h eigh tened
a p p r ecia tio n fo r an A m erican's p ro fesse d r ig h t s as a
c i t i z e n and fo r th e ir support in p r a c tic e by d e c isio n s o f
th e v a rio u s co u rts o f th e la n d .
The median age o f th e members o f th e experim ental
group was 2 5 , as compared to 23 fo r th e c o n tr o l group. The
median age fo r th e fem ale members o f th e experim ental
group, however, was 2 8 , or s i x years g r e a te r than the
median age o f th e women in th e c o n tr o l group. These
d if f e r e n c e s , although n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t in th e
o v e r a ll a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e , tended to support th e hypoth
e s i s th a t a ttitu d e s toward th e law may be changed as a
consequence o f form al c la s s stu d y ir r e s p e c t iv e o f a
p er so n 's a g e.
Two p iv o ta l c a se s tu d ie s m ight w e ll have produced
most o f th e a t t it u d in a l change observed to occur among the
exp erim en tal stu d e n ts. The fin d in g s tend to support th e
co n ten tio n th a t a th o u g h tfu l s e le c t io n o f co n ten t may
indeed r e s u lt in a f f e c t iv e changes w ith in stu d e n ts.
However, when an a n a ly s is was made o f th e v a ria n ce
in a t tit u d e toward "the law" and "the laws" as measured by
K atz-Thurstone sco res on a stan d ard ized s c a le ,' no s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t d iffe r e n c e s w ere found. Based upon th e
measurements o f th a t s c a le , no p o r tio n o f th e t o t a l
I l l
v a ria n ce was a ttr ib u ta b le to th e d iffe r e n c e s in group (2 )
and age ( 1 ) , or any com bination th e r e o f, a t o t a l o f seven
d iffe r e n c e s as t e s t e d .
Recommendations
W ithin th e framework o f t h i s stu d y , ju n io r c o lle g e
tea ch ers need a s s is ta n c e in s e v e r a l a sp e c ts o f u n it
c o n str u c tio n and e v a lu a tio n . Those areas o f need in clu d e
th e fo llo w in g :
1 . Models o f s tr u c tu r a l u n its fo r classroom u se
should be developed to a s s i s t stu d en ts in grasping
fundam ental id ea s w hich undergird th e v a rio u s su b je c t
d is c i p li n e s . From such models th e ju n io r c o lle g e p r o fe s
so r s may b e tte r d e lin e a te what co n cep ts are o f most w orth
fo r classroom fo cu s and may then d evelop a d d itio n a l u n its
fo r th e ir own o p e r a tio n a l u s e .
2 . Junior c o lle g e p r o fe sso r s need to g iv e
in crea sed a tte n tio n to th e a f f e c t i v e outcomes o f th e
c o g n itiv e ex p erien ces which th ey p rovid e t h e ir stu d e n ts .
I t would appear th a t to o many assum ptions concerning
p o s it iv e a f f e c t iv e r e a c tio n s o f stu d e n ts to form al c la s s
stu d y are b ein g made by in s tr u c to r s a t probably a l l le v e ls
o f th e ed u ca tio n a l e n te r p r is e .
3 . An in s p e c tio n o f o f f i c e - f i l e c o p ie s o f th e
cou rse o u tlin e s a t v a r io u s ju n io r c o lle g e s re v ea le d no
112
in sta n c e in w hich the l i s t e d o b je c tiv e s o f th e co u rses had
been exp ressed in b eh a v io ra l term s. The need fo r p rovid in g
in -s e r v ic e tr a in in g in th e form u lation o f such o b je c tiv e s
i s apparent. The in -s e r v ic e tr a in in g , how ever, must a ls o
in clu d e in s tr u c tio n on B runer's s tr u c tu r a l c o n c e p ts, Bloom
and K rathw ohl's theory fo r the s p e c if ic a t io n and m easure
ment o f a f f e c t iv e ed u ca tio n a l outcom es, and T aba's th e o r ie s
fo r curriculum developm ent.
4 . Junior c o lle g e p r o fe sso r s have appeared to g iv e
to o l i t t l e a tte n tio n to th e e v a lu a tio n o f curricu lu m . I t
would seem th a t t h is d e fic ie n c y m ight be la r g e ly co rre cted
i f th ey would tak e th e b r ie f tim e req u ired to ad m in ister
such a r e lia b le and in ex p en siv e d e v ic e as Remmers and
E l l i o t t ' s "The Purdue R ating S ca le fo r I n s tr u c tio n ."
5 . C onstant e v a lu a tio n o f th e exp erim en tal u n it
developed h erein seems needed, so th a t th e c a s e s tu d ie s are
as r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f cu rren t in t e r e s t and o f th e l a t e s t
r e le v a n t co u rt d e c is io n s as i s p o s s ib le . For exam ple, th e
C o n s titu tio n a l p r o te c tio n a g a in st "double jeopardy" was
f i n a l l y n a tio n a liz e d in a l i t t l e p u b lic iz e d d e c is io n o f th e
co u rt in 1968.
6 . C ontinuing e f f o r t must be made to maximize th e
sen se o f re lev a n ce crea te d by th e t h ir te e n c a s e statem en ts
in clu d ed in th e new p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e u n it . S tu dents o fte n
exp ress a d e s ir e fo r hum anistic s tu d ie s to d a y , and a d d i
t io n a l re sea r ch probably should be conducted t o uncover
113
more m a te r ia ls fo r t h is purpose: p ic tu r e s , q u o ta tio n s, o ld
newspaper s t o r ie s and a r t i c l e s , and fo llo w -u p s to th e
d e c is io n s p resen ted in Handbook I I . These cou ld be p laced
e ith e r in the t e x t or in the appendix, as judgment
d ic t a t e s .
7 . I t appears th a t a u th en tic and r e le v a n t au d io
v is u a l m a te r ia ls are sca rce fo r u se in p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e
c l a s s e s . The need i s g re a t fo r a d d itio n a l, r e a l i s t i c
c o lo r - f ilm s , perhaps lik e th o se b ein g developed under the
sp on sorsh ip o f th e C a lifo r n ia C o n s titu tio n a l R igh ts
F oundation.
8 . R esearch in to d e v ic es fo r m easuring and in to
procedures fo r a tta in in g a f f e c t iv e , classroom o b je c tiv e s i s
str o n g ly n eeded, an exam ination o f th e lit e r a t u r e showed.
F u rth er, educators have y e t to id e n t if y r e lia b ly th o se
classroom a c t i v i t i e s w hich do in fa c t m odify stu d en t
a ttitu d e s and b eh avior, p a r tic u la r ly a t th e ju n io r c o lle g e
l e v e l . Another fa c e t o f t h is problem i s th a t l i t t l e i s
known con cern in g the e f f e c t o f c o g n itiv e ex p erien ces upon
stu d en t a t t it u d e . These areas o f resea rch should r e c e iv e
th e p r in c ip a l a tte n tio n o f ed u ca to rs.
9 . I t would appear th a t the p r o fe s s io n a l s t a f f o f
ju n io r c o lle g e s stands in need o f g rea ter knowledge and
understanding concerning the s c h o la s tic and p erso n a l
a ttr ib u te s o f th e ju n io r c o lle g e stu d en t and o f th e im p li
c a tio n s o f th o se c h a r a c te r is tic s fo r in s t r u c t io n . I t has
114
been rep orted th a t C a lifo r n ia ju n io r c o lle g e stu d e n ts, in
com parison to th o se in fo u r -y ea r c o l le g e s , e x h ib it (1) le s s
academic a b i l i t y , (2) g r e a te r v a r ie ty in "academic t a le n t ,"
(3) le s s non-academ ic accom plishm ent, excep t in a r t , (4)
le s s v a r ie t y in th e ir c o lle g e a c t i v i t i e s , and (5) more
pragm atic and v o c a tio n a lly o rien te d a ttitu d e s toward th e ir
ed u ca tio n a l o p p o r tu n itie s . In t h is l i g h t , and among th e
needs i t im p lie s , would seem to be th e se:
a . B runer's h y p o th esis th a t emphasis on str u c tu r e
*
i s even b e tte r fo r th e le s s a b le than fo r th e
more a b le stu d en ts must be t e s t e d .
b . There i s a need to a s c e r ta in whether se v e r a l
d iff e r e n t c it iz e n s h ip c u r r ic u la m ight be
a d v isa b le fo r ju n io r c o lle g e p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e
s tu d e n ts . There are broad h in ts th a t t h is
m ight be th e c a se in th e d isp a r a te and some
tim es c o n tr a d ic to r y stu d en t r e a c tio n s to th e
exp erim en tal u n it developed h e r e in . I t would
seem a d v is a b le , th e r e fo r e , to study whether a
s a t is f a c t o r y s in g le v e r s io n o f th e new u n it can
be. developed or whether more than one may be
needed (as th e ASSCS group found in th e c a se o f
h ig h sc h o o l b io lo g y ) .
^■"The C a lifo r n ia P r o fe ss o r ," C a lifo r n ia Teachers
A sso c ia tio n B u lle tin (B urlingam e), 2 , No. £ (November,
1 9 6 7 ), 2 .
115
c . There i s need fo r much more resea rch in to th e
p sy c h o lo g ic a l make-up o f th e ju n io r c o lle g e
stu d en t and fo r th e a p p lic a tio n o f such
resea rch to th e c o n str u c tio n o f c u rr icu la r
u n its fo r cla ssro o m stu d y .
10. Educators need to a s s e s s th e e f f e c t iv e n e s s o f
B i l l o f R ig h ts' u n it s upon h ig h sc h o o l s tu d e n ts , in order
to provide a sound b a s is fo r r e s tr u c tu r in g fu rth er c l a s s
room study in t h is realm a t th e ju n io r c o lle g e le v e l.
11. I t may be th a t e d u c a tio n a l measurement at th e
ju n io r c o lle g e le v e l co u ld b e n e f it from th e u se o f new
ev a lu a tio n in stru m en ts, d e v ic e s oth er than paper-and-
p e n c il instrum ents fo r th e assessm en t o f a t t it u d in a l
changes w ith in stu d e n ts .
Recommendations fo r Further Study
Because o f (1 ) th e ex p lo r a to r y n atu re o f t h is
in v e s tig a tio n and (2) th e la c k o f com parable s t u d ie s ,
r e p lic a tio n s o f th e r e se a r c h h e r e in are needed, w ith
c e r ta in m o d ific a tio n s .
1. V alid ated a t t it u d in a l m easures which are th e
r e s u lt o f extended ex p erim en ta tio n m ight w e ll be developed
so as to more a c c u r a te ly a s s e s s th e a f f e c t iv e changes in
stu d en ts w hich are a consequence o f form al classroom
e x p e r ie n c e s. T heir developm ent by major t e s t in g bureaus
116
w i l l m a te r ia lly a s s i s t te a c h e r s , but th e la t t e r w i l l , o f
n e c e s s it y , need to p ool t h e ir t a le n t s and a ls o to d e v ise
th e ir own m easures.
2 . The c a se -stu d y tech n iq u e needs more e x te n s iv e
exp erim en tation in ju n io r c o lle g e c la s s e s so as to a sc e r
t a in i t s c o n trib u tio n to stu d en t c o g n itiv e and a f f e c t iv e
grow th. The approach m ight w e ll be extended to su b je c t
f i e l d s oth er than p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e .
3 . The tim e a llo t t e d fo r stud y o f th e in n o v a tiv e
u n it h erein m ight w e ll have been expanded by a week or tw o,
thereby perhaps s t a b i liz i n g c e r t a in ten d en cies toward
a t t it u d in a l change among th e stu d en t p a r tic ip a n ts .
4 . A com parison o f stu d e n ts' a t t it u d in a l changes
w ith th e ir r e s u lt s on c o g n it iv e t e s t s modeled a t le v e ls two
through s i x o f Bloom 's Taxonomy o f E d u cational O b jectiv es
m ight be made, based on co n v en tio n a l v ersu s c a se -stu d y
approaches to classroom in s tr u c tio n in c o l le g e - le v e l
in tro d u cto ry p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e c l a s s e s .
5 . The r e la t iv e s t a b i l i t y o f a t t it u d in a l changes
in stu d en ts m ight p r o fita b ly be measured s i x months and/or
one year fo llo w in g th e stu d y o f a comparable in n o v a tiv e
u n it .
6 . The degree o f "halo e f f e c t " upon stu d e n ts—
v ersu s genuine a t t it u d in a l change w ith in in d iv id u a ls —needs
to b e more c a r e f u lly measured in s im ila r r e se a r c h d e s ig n s .
As d i f f i c u l t as th e assessm en t may b e , ed u ca tio n a l resea rch
117
w i l l o fte n lea d to q u e stio n a b le and sp u riou s change, under
assessm ent modes w hich n e g le c t I t .
7. S in ce curriculum developm ent was th e major
focu s o f t h is stu d y , a companion d esig n m ight h ig h lig h t
more s tr o n g ly th e assessm en t f a c e t s o f th e u n it crea ted
t*
h e r e in .
8 . The means whereby a t tit u d e s are changed o u tsid e
o f form al classroom s it u a t io n s need to be s tu d ie d , in order
to provide stro n g er g u id e lin e s fo r r e str u c tu r in g th e
in - c la s s a c t i v i t i e s .
9 . The v a rio u s f a c e t s o f in d u ctio n w ith in the
c a se -stu d y approach need to be id e n t if ie d so th a t a
s e q u e n tia l exposure o f id ea s m ight be developed fo r more
e f f ic a c io u s classroom le a r n in g .
10. The va ry in g a b i l i t y o f stu d en ts to employ
in d u c tiv e lea rn in g p r o ce sse s in form al sc h o o l s e tt in g s
needs to be analyzed to more a c c u r a te ly a s s e s s th e outcomes
o f c u r r ic u la r u n its such as th e in n o v a tiv e one developed
h e r e in .
11. A re sea r c h d esig n m ight w e ll be developed
around th e same c a se s t u d ie s , b u t, fo r v a r io u s exp erim en tal
r e a so n s, to stud y stu d en t p reju d ic e more a cc u r a te ly ; fo r
exam ple, (a) change th e surnames o f th e p r in c ip a ls to
Mexican or oth er m in o r ity groups and/or (b) d e sc r ib e th e
accused persons in b ia se d terms ( e . g . , d iv o rc e; dope
a d d ict; son o f a prom inent m ovie s ta r ; b r i l l i a n t , lon g
118
haired c o lle g e s t u d e n t ) .
12. There i s n eed fo r th e a llo c a tio n o f p u b lic
funds fo r in te n s iv e r e se a r c h in to th e tea ch in g -lea r n in g
process a t th e ju n io r c o lle g e l e v e l .
13. Further stu d y i s needed in to the r e la tio n s h ip
between a s tu d e n t's a t tit u d e toward the c itiz e n s h ip
in te g r a l and such demographic fa c to r s as h is in t e llig e n c e ,
socio-econom ic background, g ra d e-p o in t average in high
sch o o l and c o lle g e , a g e , o ccu p a tio n a l g o a l, e t c .
14. Ju nior c o lle g e p r o fe sso r s need more guidance
fo r d ecid in g upon th e m ost fa v o ra b le com bination o f induc
t iv e and d ed u ctiv e te a c h in g p r o c e s s e s , as w e ll as fo r
tim ing th e ir u se during v a rio u s form al u n its o f classroom
stu d y . The r e l a t i v e p o ten cy o f such input components as
th e te a c h e r 's p e r s o n a lity , th e c o g n itiv e and/or a f f e c t iv e
nature o f the c o n te n t, and th e tim e needed fo r m odifying
behavior or a ttitu d e s a ls o should be to p ic s fo r in v e s t ig a
t io n .
15. Newer, more v a lid and r e lia b le a t t it u d in a l
measures than th e K atz-T hurstone instrum ent used h ere in are
d e sir a b le in order to improve th e assessm en t o f a f f e c t iv e
changes in stu d e n ts.
T his was th e f i n a l chapter o f a stu d y w hich encom
passed the developm ent and f i e l d t e s t in g o f an in n o v a tiv e
ju n io r c o lle g e u n it on a s tr u c tu r a l con cep t h erein c a lle d
th e c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. I t p resen ted a statem en t o f th e
problem , a d e sc r ip tio n o f the procedures used in carryin g
out th e stu d y , a summary o f th e fin d in g s , a statem ent o f
th e c o n c lu sio n s, and a l i s t o f th e recommendations for
fu rth er in v e s t ig a t io n .
The stud y c lo s e s w ith th e A ppendices, w hich co n ta in
d e ta ile d m a te ria ls d eveloped fo r u se by stu d en ts in th e
exp erim en tal c l a s s e s , and a B ib lio g ra p h y .
120
APPENDIX A
TH E STUDENT H A N D B O O K S
121
T H E ST U D E N T H A N D B O O K S
The stu d en t handbooks c o n sis te d o f w r itte n m a teri
a ls ap p a ren tly o r ig in a tin g , fo r th e most p a r t, w ith t h is
in v e s t ig a t io n .* S p ir it d u p lic a tio n was used fo r reproduc
t io n , th e pages were sta p le d in to b o o k le ts , and numbered
p e rso n a l c o p ie s were issu e d to each stu d en t in th e c la s s e s
in th e exp erim en tal group.
In th e pages w hich fo llo w , th e fa c s im ile o f each
b o o k le t cover i s succeeded by a ta b le o f c o n te n ts , and in
turn by th e t e x t o f each . (No such ta b le s o f co n ten t were
o r ig in a lly in c lu d e d .) The l a s t page, "C orrections and
A d d itio n s," was a handout sh e e t which was d is tr ib u te d a t
th e same tim e as th e b o o k le ts .
The d iffe r e n c e s between th e se b o o k le ts and the
o r ig in a l c o n ten t and o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e u n it m a te r ia ls
were th e r e s u lt o f d e c is io n s reached in preparatory
co n feren c es betw een the in v e s tig a to r and th e co o p era tin g
p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e p r o fe s s o r s .
122
the A merican' c it iz e n :
H is C o n s titu tio n a l R igh ts and L ib e r tie s
by
Dwight Young
w ith
Donald E stes (e d .)
An exp erim en tal u n it d eveloped fo r
u se in P o l i t i c a l S cien ce 2 a t
San D iego C ity C o lle g e
Handbook I: Foreword, In tro d u ctio n to th e
Study, American Man, The
J u d ic ia l L aboratory, and
E xcerpts from th e C o n s titu tio n .
A ll r ig h t s r e se r v e d . For P o l i t i c a l S cien ce 2 ,
E stes c la s s e s o n ly . Any u se or p u b lic a tio n
w ith ou t th e w r itte n p erm ission o f Dwight Young
i s e x p r e ssly fo rb id d en .
123
H A N D B O O K I
C ontents and Sources
1 . "Foreword," pp. 1-4 o f Handbook I , i s "Foreword
to th e S tu d en t," pp. 125-130.
2 . " Introd uction to th e S tu d y," pp. 5 -7 , i s
pp. 130-133.
3 . "American Man as Seen by th e S c h o la r s," pp. 8 -9 ,
i s "Summary and C o n clu sio n s," pp. 133-134.
This m a te ria l i s ex cerp ted from th e "Survey o f
th e L itera tu re" (su p ra , pp. 5 2 -5 3 ).
4 . "The J u d ic ia l L aboratory," pp. 1 0 -1 8 , i s "The
J u d ic ia l L aboratory," pp. 135-140, and "Case
E x e rc ise s in Freedom," pp. 140-145.
5 . "Excerpts from th e C o n s titu tio n ," pp. 19-21,
i s lfE xcerpts from th e C o n s titu tio n ," from
Appendix A, pp. 145-147.
124
1* Foreword
N a tio n a l surveys have r e v e a le d r e p e a te d ly th a t
stu d en ts and a d u lts n e ith e r know, understand, nor
v a lu e th e p r in c ip le s embodied in th e U nited S ta te s
C o n stitu tio n and B i l l o f R ig h ts.
T his statem ent in a 1964 announcement by th e
C o n s titu tio n a l R ights Foundation has been confirm ed in
substance many tim es over by th e r e sea r ch o f th e w r ite r .
I n v e s tig a tio n r e v e a ls th a t th e American sc h o o ls have p laced
t h e ir c h ie f r e lia n c e fo r c it iz e n s h ip ed u cation upon knowl
edge which i s to be gain ed from th e stud y o f h is to r y and
some form o f governm ent, alon g w ith c e r ta in ex h o rta tio n s
and cerem onies which a re d esig n ed to appeal to th e em otions
and i n s t i l l p a tr io tism .
Some o b serv a tio n s by sc h o la r s on th e tr a d itio n a l
h is to r y and government c u r r ic u la are n o t r e a ssu r in g . They
have d escrib ed them as r e c i t a l and d isp la y : h is to r y as th e
r e c i t a l o f "one damned th in g a f te r another" (Arnold
Toynbee); and c i v i c s , th e d is p la y o f "a c o lle c t io n o f
m iscella n eo u s in form ation about government" (Amo
Be H ack)
■''A rno B e lla c k , " S tru cture in th e S o c ia l S cien ces
and Im p lica tio n s fo r th e S o c ia l S tu d ies Program," in
G. W esley Sowards ( e d .) , The S o c ia l S tu d ies (P alo A lto ,
C a lif .: S c o t t, Foresman and C o ., 1 9 6 3 ), p . 9 6 .
125
126
America i s "the land o f th e f r e e ," and i t i s a ls o
th e land o f th e most h ig h ly and w id ely educated p eop le on
th e fa ce o f th e e a r th . I t i s b oth ir o n ic and d istu r b in g
th a t i t should embrace a g r e a t, v ir t u a lly coterm inous
is la n d o f c i v i c i l l i t e r a c y w ith in .
A fter having conducted a survey o f th e lit e r a t u r e
b earin g upon th e problem , and a f te r having given thought to
i t s in d ic a tio n s fo r th e cu rricu lu m , th e w r ite r developed
t h is teach in g u n it fo r t r i a l usage in p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e .
Of co u r se , the C o n s titu tio n a l r ig h t s and li b e r t i e s o f
in d iv id u a ls , th e area s e le c te d fo r t h is " b u ild in g ," does
not occupy the e n tir e ground o f c it iz e n s h ip ed u ca tio n .
But i t has turned out to be a s t r a t e g ic h i l l which domi
n a tes th e e n tir e t e r r a in , so i t has become th e f i r s t
developm ent.
The recommendations o f many s p e c i a l i s t s have been
u t i l iz e d in p lan n in g th e u n it . T heir c o n tr ib u tio n s are to
be seen in th e m ethodology o f developm ent, in th e s e le c t io n
and o rg a n iza tio n o f c o n ten t (th e " lo g ic a l" n e e d s), in th e
s e le c t io n and o r g a n iz a tio n o f lea rn in g o p p o r tu n itie s (th e
" p sy ch o lo g ica l" n e e d s ), and in th e a s c e r ta in in g o f d e v ic e s
and procedures fo r e v a lu a tio n —e s p e c ia lly im portant w ith
experim ental program s.
I t has been about a decade s in c e the f i r s t sm a ll
com m unities o f in n o v a tiv e ex p erts assem bled th e ir v a r io u s
127
knowledges and s k i l l s to produce th e now w ell-known "new"
s c ie n c e and m athem atics program s.
The i n i t i a l r e s is t a n c e to th e ir u se has d im in ish ed .
This r e s is t a n c e w as, in p a r t, p a ra d o x ica l—a f a ilu r e o f
th e ir s u c c e s s . By c o n s t it u t in g th e d esired in n o v a tio n ,
th e ir v er y n o v e lty became a handicap. To be store, th ere
were th e a n tic ip a te d shortcom ings o f i n i t i a l p ro d u ctio n s.
But th e se were compounded by shortcom ings in th e tea ch ers
who were exp ected to tea ch them as w e ll as in oth er p u b lic s
who were exp ected to le a r n , understand, and support them.
At p r e s e n t, programs in th e "new" d esig n are w id ely
u sed , and th e d esig n has been extended to curriculum d e v e l
opment in oth er a r e a s. The p resen t u n it i s an in sta n c e o f
th a t e x te n s io n .
The "founding fa th e r s" o f th e 'View" programs made
two statem en ts w hich are e s p e c ia lly r e le v a n t to p resen t
p u rp oses. They d ecla red the new d esig n " equally a p p li-
o
ca b le" to th e s o c ia l s c ie n c e s and th ey pronounced th e aim
o f American ed u ca tio n to be th a t o f " tra in in g w ell-b a la n ced
c i t i z e n s fo r a dem ocracy."
S in ce the need fo r improving c itiz e n s h ip ed u cation
i s n a tio n a lly r e c o g n iz e d , s in c e ed u cation fo r dem ocratic
2
Jerome Bruner, The P rocess o f Education (New York:
Random House and A lfred A. Knopf, I n c ., 1963), p . 23.
3 I b id . . p . 1 .
128
c itiz e n s h ip i s g e n e r a lly a ccep ted as a g o a l o f a l l in s tr u c
t io n , and s in c e ex p erts b e lie v e th e new d esig n eq u a lly
a p p lica b le to curriculum developm ent in th e s o c ia l sc ie n c e s,
where are th e new c itiz e n s h ip programs?
Various com m ittees, c o u n c ils , p r o je c ts , curriculum
c e n t e r s , and is o la te d sc h o la r s have been working to develop
them. Perhaps a tr u ly f in e program l i e s unrecognized and
unesteemed among e x is tin g p ro d u c ts. But in th e judgment o f
th e w r ite r , based upon, an e x te n s iv e review and ev a lu a tio n
o f th e lit e r a t u r e , the "Copem ican r e v o lu tio n " in American
c itiz e n s h ip education has n o t y e t begun. The sem inal
program has y e t to become known. No c o o lin g a ir o f c u r r ic
ulum i s in dem onstrable p ro sp ect fo r our n ex t "long, hot
summer" o f c i v i l d isc o n te n t.
I t has been observed th a t Hamlet cou ld n o t have
been w r itte n by a com m ittee. But th ere i s s u b s ta n tia l
agreement among many a u th o r itie s as to what i s req u ired i f
the Hamlet-o f- c it iz e n s h ip - e d u c a tio n i s to be w r itte n . The
1959 Wood's Hole Conference^ on th e "new" programs and th e
1963 Cubberley Conference^ on th e s o c i a l stu d ie s are
exam ples.
4
Bruner, op. c i t .
" *G . W esley Sowards ( e d .) , The S o c ia l S tu d ie s :
Curriculum P roposals fo r th e F u tu r e . Papers p resen ted a t
th e 1463 Cubberley C onference, S ch ool o f E d u cation,
Stanford U n iv e r sity (P alo A lto , C a l i f .: S c o t t, Foresman
and C o ., 1963).
129
But som ething more than stud y and d is c u s s io n i s
n eeded. The p resen t undertaking r e f l e c t s agreement w ith a
remark a ttr ib u te d to Freud. "There comes a tim e when you
ought to stop c le a n in g your g la s s e s and take a look through
them.
American c it iz e n s h ip ed u cation in th e 'hew look" i s
produced by look in g through " g la sses" having th e same
p r e s c r ip tio n as th o se which produced th e "new" sc ie n c e and
m athem atics c o u r s e s .
This has r e s u lte d in a u n it fo r study w hich i s
h u m a n istic, and which u t i l i z e s a j u d ic i a l la b o ra to ry
approach. The c e n tr a l fo cu s o f in s tr u c tio n i s upon a
s in g le u n ify in g p r in c ip le and a s e le c t io n o f i t s d e fin in g
c o n c e p ts. A ll m a te r ia ls are a u th e n tic : in each in s ta n c e ,
th e s e le c t io n and o rg a n iz a tio n o f c o n ten t and lea rn in g
o p p o r tu n itie s i s a u th o r ita tiv e ly endorsed. However, th e
sy n th e s is which has been achieved appears to rep resen t a
unique c o n tr ib u tio n .
Although t r i a l w i l l undoubtedly in d ic a te some need
fo r m o d ific a tio n o f th e e p is o d e s -fo r -le a r n in g , th e e sse n
t i a l thought o f th e view s w hich are exp ressed i s th a t o f
ou tstan d in g sc h o la r s . The view o f th e u n it i s a view o f
American c i v i l freedom which d eriv es i t s power from
stan d in g upon th e ir sh o u ld e rs.
g
P eter Odegard, "The S o c ia l S cie n c es in th e
T w entieth C entury, in G. W esley Sowards ( e d .) , The S o c ia l
S tu d ie s , p . 27.___________________________________________
130
In order to b rin g th e prim ary documents in to lin e
w ith p resen t p u rp oses, in order to enhance in t e r e s t and
improve com m unication, and in order to square th e m a te r ia ls
w ith th e tim e which i s a v a ila b le , some e d it o r ia l l i b e r t i e s
have been ta k en . At th e same tim e, every e f f o r t has been
made to m aintain fa c tu a l h o n esty .
I t has been sa id th a t changing a curriculum i s l i k e
moving a cem etery. S in ce t h is p r o je c t aims to p la c e a new
and b e tte r u n it w ith in an e x is tin g program --to in v ig o r a te
th e liv in g ra th er than r e su r r e c t th e d ead--perhaps i t w i l l
be more a c c e p ta b le .
2 . In tro d u ctio n to th e Study
E n ligh ten ed and a r t ic u la t e c i t iz e n s are made, n o t
born. Among th e ir c h a r a c te r is tic s i s th a t o f know ledgeable
acq u aintan ce w ith our C o n s titu tio n a l guarantees o f f r e e
dom—our c i v i l r ig h t s and l i b e r t i e s .
The le g a l approach to lib e r t y w hich we a re about to
b eg in i s no happenstance. L ib erty and law are so in te r d e
pendent and h i s t o r i c a l l y in tertw in ed th a t th e em inent
R oscoe Pound, then dean o f Harvard Law S ch o o l, d ecla r ed on
th e f i r s t Law Day, May 1 , 1957: "The law i s th e h ig h e s t
in h e r ita n c e a S overeign p eop le h a s , fo r w ith o u t th e law
131
th e r e would be no so v ereig n p eop le and no in h e rita n ce." ^
Abraham L incoln i s one o f s e v e r a l who have observed
th a t th e problems d if f e r but th e b a sic q u estio n co n tin u es
i t s c h a lle n g e : how to p r o te c t the r ig h ts o f m in o r itie s as
sm a ll as one w h ile a t th e same tim e safegu ard in g the r ig h t s
o f s o c ie t y .
W e need to know n ot on ly th e g en era l co n cep ts and
th e s p e c if i c f a c t s o f C o n s titu tio n a l gu aran tee, but a ls o
th e fundam ental p r in c ip le s . These enable us to dom inate
th e id ea s producing co n certed and sy stem a tic th ou gh t,
e n lig h te n e d d ia lo g u e , and informed c i v i l a c tio n .
Freedom w ith order? Ordered lib e r ty ? L ib erty
under la w --w ith order? W e cannot have i t — or i f we have
i t , we cannot keep i t —u n le ss we know what i t i s and how
to m aintain i t .
S in ce good c it iz e n s h ip i s n o t in n a te , i t must be
le a rn ed . L ib erty depends on i t . I t i s too im portant to
le a v e th e le a rn in g to ch an ce, and the "old" c it iz e n s h ip
co u rses seem in gly were n o t o n ly in e f f e c t iv e agen ts o f
in s t r u c t io n , but d r e a d fu lly d u ll as w e ll. W e do n ot know
a l l th a t th ey im parted, but the thought i s alarm ing.
"New c itiz e n s h ip " appears needed along w ith new
s c ie n c e , m athem atics, E n g lish , and o th e r s. T his program i s
^Quoting Roscoe Pound in " S ociety and th e P ro te c
t io n o f th e Law,1 1 an e d i t o r i a l , Los A ngeles Tim es. May 1 ,
1967, p . 4 .
132
such an a ttem p t, and i s co n triv ed to provide th a t which th e
"old" did n o t - - in t e r e s t and s c h o la r ly knowledge.
T h is means th a t fundam ental, American p r in c ip le s o f
human freedom and th e ir C o n s titu tio n a l embodiment are th e
c e n tr a l fo c u s . They and the con cep ts o f lib e r t y under
(C o n s titu tio n a l) law are presen ted in th e ir n a tu r a l,
dram atic form , one w hich needs no em bellishm ent. The c a se
stu d ie s are h u m a n istic, in h e r e n tly e x c it in g , and p ortray a
str u g g le so im portant to a l l th a t in te n se a b so rp tio n seems
u n a v o id a b le.
The stu d y u n it c o n s is t s o f th r ee s e c t io n s . The
f i r s t i s an in form al e s sa y on th e id e n t it y o f th e American
c i t iz e n and the n atu re o f American c i v i l s o c ie t y , "The
Nature o f th e American C iv il Bond."
T h is i s fo llo w ed by a b r ie f s e c tio n d esign ed to
stim u la te in t e r e s t and to in v it e th e stu d en t to p a r tic ip a te
in a guided e x e r c is e o f h is power to d isc o v e r and to
form ulate an ex p re ssio n o f h is d isco v e r y — "The C itiz e n sh ip
I n t e g r a l.1 1
The n ex t s e c tio n c o n s is ts o f a s e le c t io n o f Supreme
Court c a s e s , each a d e c is io n in v o lv in g th e B i l l o f R ig h ts,
and each a landmark d e c is io n on freedom . Each has been
paraphrased and r e c o n s titu te d (w ith fa c tu a l honesty
sc ru p u lo u sly p r e s e r v e d ), so as to produce a communication
o f human ton e a t a c o lle g e freshman le v e l o f d isc o u r s e .
These appear in th e "Case E x e rcises in Freedom."
133
The Summary Is a cu lm in atin g sta tem en t. I t n ot
o n ly review s th e main thought o f the u n it but a ls o in t e r
r e la t e s i t w ith some o f th e m a te r ia ls u su a lly presen ted
w ith t h is t o p ic .
3 . American Man as Seen by the Scholars
W hile n o t f u l l y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e , a survey r e v e a ls
s u b s ta n tia l agreem ent among b oth fo re ig n and dom estic
ob servers th a t American man has had a d is t in c t iv e n a tio n a l
id e n t it y .
In w hole or in p a r t, and w ith recu rren t r e g u la r it y ,
accep ted a u th o r itie s have ch a ra cte rized American s o c ia l
str u c tu r e as c o n s is tin g c h ie f ly o f th e fo llo w in g :
(1) Ideas which em phasize re sp e ct fo r th e in h eren t
w orth and equal v a lu e o f in d iv id u a l men;
(2) Id e a ls which em phasize th e r e a liz a tio n o f th e s e
"ideas" ; and
(3) Wavs w hich, guided by le g a l ex p ressio n o f th e s e
id ea s and id e a ls , em phasize l e g a l i t y and r e s o r t
to th e Court fo r r e s o lu tio n o f v ir t u a lly a l l
s ig n if ic a n t n a tio n a l q u e stio n s.
Survey has supported th e id e n t if ic a t io n and
c o n tin u ity o f th e s e u n ifo r m itie s , and th a t th ey are ex p res
s iv e o f American n a tio n a l id e n t it y . I t supports n a tio n a l
id e n t it y as th a t o f th e p r in c ip le o f c it iz e n s h ip , n o t o f
134
c u ltu r a l t r a d it io n s . I t p rovid es grounds fo r a s s e r tin g
th a t the c o g n itiv e su b stan ce o f n a tio n a l id e n tity i s c i v i l
(a concept named th e C itiz e n sh ip I n te g r a l) .
The review o f th e lit e r a t u r e v in d ic a te s th e p r in
c ip a l su b s ta n tiv e t h e s is o f th e d is s e r ta tio n : th a t the
focu s o f American c it iz e n s h ip ed u cation should be upon the
n atu re o f th e c i v i l bond. I t a ls o v in d ic a te s th e p r in c ip a l
procedural t h e s is : th a t in s tr u c tio n should con cen trate
upon j u d ic i a l p r o c e sse s in co n crete d e c isio n s o f th e C ourt.
C on sid erin g th a t most o f th e elem en tal id ea s o f
t h is con cep t have s e p a r a te ly and in d iv id u a lly re ce iv ed
w idespread s c h o la r ly a t te n t io n , th e w r ite r i s asto n ish ed
th a t i t has n o t made a p rev io u s appearance in c itiz e n s h ip
ed u ca tio n . Some ex p la n a tio n may be found in th e fa c t th at
th e '’ n a t io n a liz a t io n 1 1 o f r ig h ts i s r e la t iv e ly new, th a t th e
wide v is io n o f p h ilo so p h y i s n o t th a t o f th e sch o la rs who
s p e c ia liz e in t h e ir sep a ra te d is c i p li n e s , th a t in t e r d is c i
p lin a ry com m unication has been in com p lete, or th a t i t
sim ply has b een o v erlo o k ed .
135
4 . The J u d ic ia l Laboratory
In tro d u ctio n
W e have p r e v io u sly examined q u e stio n s o f th e r e a l
i t y , th e m eaning, and th e American d o c tr in e o f freedom .
As Lord Acton has s a id , "L iberty i s a term o f two
hundred d e f in it io n s ." I t s v ery p o t e n t ia lit y and fo rm less
n e ss make i t e lu s iv e . F o r tu n a te ly , as J u s tic e Jackson and
o th ers have ob served , our ta sk i s by no means one o f
d ea lin g w ith a problem so vaporous: "I th in k we are g iv en
th e rough o u tlin e s o f a f r e e s o c ie t y by our B i l l o f R ights
. . . [fo r ] lib e r t y . . . i s ach ieved by r u le o f law ."
Some reason has been su g g ested fo r d ea lin g w ith our
fr e e s o c ie t y in terms o f th e B i l l o f R ig h ts. But why
should we concern o u r se lv e s w ith th e C itiz e n sh ip In te g ra l?
I t s com prehensiveness, i t s h is t o r ic a l c o n tin u ity ,
and i t s p r a c tic a l and broad a p p lic a tio n have been c o n sid
e r e d . But th ere are a d d itio n a l r e a so n s. W e need to tr y i t
ou t and se e th e manner o f i t s w orking. W e need to p r a c tic e
u sin g i t , in c r e a sin g our s k i l l and deepening our under
sta n d in g . W e need to d isc o v e r i t s p erso n a l r e le v a n c e , i t s
humane im p lic a tio n s , and i t s power fo r c la r if y in g and
r e s o lv in g many q u estio n s about American thou ght.
Henry S t e e le Commager ex p resses some o f th e concep
tio n o f th e C itiz e n sh ip I n te g r a l. He w r ite s th a t v in d ic a t
in g the claim s o f freedom i s concerned w ith
136
. . . what must d eep ly concern a l l o f u s --th e
d ig n ity o f man. I t i s from t h is b a sic p h ilo so p h ic a l
p r in c ip le th a t th e n a tu ra l r ig h t s argument d eriv es
much or i t s s tr e n g th . I t i s becoming in c r e a s in g ly
c le a r th a t i t i s r e sp e c t fo r th e d ig n ity o f the
in d iv id u a l th a t most sh arp ly d if f e r e n t ia t e s demo
c r a t ic from t o t a li t a r ia n system s.
The em inent American h is to r ia n i s one among many
a u th o r itie s who co n tin u e to d isc e r n th a t th e Hebrew-
C h r istia n con cep tion o f man as a r a t io n a l, m oral, fr e e
b ein g o f d iv in e o r ig in has been th e h i s t o r i c a l b a s is fo r
a s s e r tin g and defending human r ig h t s and l i b e r t i e s , c i v i l
or o th e r w ise . M od ified , i t rem ains a cogen t argument.
Another q u e stio n a r i s e s . Why i s the courtroom th e
b e s t p la ce to se e America? For over a cen tu ry Americans
and Europeans have n o tic e d t h i s . Two spokesmen fo r th e
"courtroom view" are co n sid er e d , b o th p r o fe sso r s o f c o n s t i
tu tio n a l law .
Of r ig h ts and the C ourt, Rocco T r e s o lin i observes
th a t th e U nited S ta te s Supreme Court i s th e 'V o ice o f th e
en lig h ten ed c o n sc ien ce o f th e American p e o p le ." I t i s h is
p o s itio n th a t "in the p a st few years i t has done more than
any other organ o f government to remind us o f our funda
m ental freedom s. " ®
Arthur A. North ob serves th a t a French v i s i t o r o f
th e l a s t cen tu ry , th e a s tu te A le x is de T o c q u e v ille , noted
Q
Rocco T r e s o lin i, J u s tic e and th e Supreme Court
(New York: J . B. L ip p in co tt C o ., 1 9 6 3 ), p . v .
137
"that th e re was h ardly any p o l i t i c a l q u e s tio n , and he could
have added any moral or r e lig io u s on e, th a t i s n ot sooner
or la t e r reso lv ed in to a j u d ic ia l q u e stio n and ushered in to
Q
th e Supreme Court fo r f in a l d e c is io n ."
In th e same passage North in c lu d e s th e o b serv a tio n
o f J u s tic e Stone th a t "the Court d e a lt w ith th e g rea t
p u b lic q u estio n s o f th e day." He a ls o c i t e s th e b e l i e f o f
P ro fesso r Leo P fe ff e r , a d is tin g u is h e d w r ite r and e x p e r i
enced c o n s titu tio n a l law yer, th a t th e Supreme Court i s a
co u rt o f law and o f p o l i t i c s , "a co u rt which h ears and
determ ines the im portant dom estic is s u e s —p o l i t i c a l ,
10
s o c i a l , and m oral. . . . "
Granting th a t th ere i s advantage in th e view from
th e C ourt, how may i t be shared? A s e le c t io n o f panoramic
"study p r in ts " —landmark c a s e s —have been assem bled fo r
th a t purpose.
These ca ses are "landmark" in s e v e r a l w ays. They
are landmark o p p o rtu n ities fo r comparing n a tio n a l p r o fe s
s io n w ith n a tio n a l p r a c tic e . They are landmark moments in
le g a l h is to r y —tr a n s itio n a l--o c c a s io n s o f e s p e c ia lly deep,
j u d ic i a l pondering and ex p la n a tio n . B eing o cca sio n s when
th e wisdom o f d e c is io n was ex p lo red , th ey are landmark
9
Arthur A. North, S . J . , The Supreme C ourt;
J u d ic ia l Process and J u d ic ia l P o l i t i c s (New York:
A p p leton -C en tu ry-C rofts, I n c . , 1 9 6 6 ) , p . 193.
138
o p p o r tu n itie s fo r stud yin g the b a sic p r in c ip le s and
p r o ce sses o f law . They are a ls o landmark d e c is io n s on
in te r p r e ta tio n , b in d in g upon a l l th e co u rts o f th e la n d .
And th ey are landmark moments in a d m in istr a tio n , e n fo rce
a b le by th e power o f th e most pow erful n a tio n in h is t o r y .
R espect fo r th e in h eren t and eq u al w orth and d ig n ity
o f m an--the C itiz e n sh ip I n te g r a l— im p lies th a t enforcem ent
s h a ll proceed a t r e s p e c t f u l speed— " d e lib e r a te ," as th e
11
Court sa id in Brown, on sch o o l d ese g reg a tio n . I t lea d s
u s to exp ect e v o lu tio n ra th er than r e v o lu tio n in e n fo r c e
ment p r a c t ic e s , p la c in g a "speed lim it" on r e a liz a t io n .
T his i s more d isa p p o in tin g to th e w ish es o f th e moment than
th e id e a ls and c o n v ic tio n s o f th e hour. O peration o f th e
p r in c ip le o f r e s p e c t lea d s proponents to cry "too slow" and
opponents to cry "too f a s t ."
Sometimes th e com plaint i s th a t th e cr im in a l i s
"coddled." I t i s our n a tio n a l p r o fe s s io n th a t a l l persons
s h a ll r e c e iv e th e p r o te c tio n o f th e law . E xcep tion by
reason o f d is lik e fo r a p a r tic u la r m in o rity or i t s v iew s i s
n o t l e g a l ly a u th o rized .
By v ir tu e o f our stand th a t "no person s h a ll be
deprived o f l i f e , lib e r t y , or p rop erty w ith ou t due p ro cess
11
Brown v . Board o f E ducation o f Topeka, tw in
d e c is io n s , 1954-55; se e Robert F . Cushman, Leading C o n sti
t u tio n a l D e c isio n s (New York: A p p leton -C en tu ry-C rofts,
I n c ., 196 6 ), p . 253.
139
o f law ," C o n s titu tio n a l r ig h ts are seen as a code o f f a ir
p la y which we are bound as good sp o rts to o b ser v e. I f we
are o fte n in d iffe r e n t or even downright h o s t i l e to th e
is s u e s o f lib e r t y , i t i s perhaps b ecau se th e Supreme Court
most o fte n i s concerned w ith th e r ig h t s o f such m in o r itie s
as N egroes, Communists or fe llo w t r a v e le r s , c r im in a ls ,
smut p e d d le r s, F a s c is t s , a t h e i s t s , dem onstrators— th e other
12
and u n d esira b le fe llo w s !
The c a ses b efo re th e Court in v o lv e a parade o f
p ersons which o fte n look s lik e th e resp o n se to an appeal
embodying the in s c r ip tio n on th e S tatu e o f L ib e r ty . I t i s
a l i s t o f persons who by reason o f th e j u d ic i a l rev iew o f
th e ir c a se s have a tta in e d a p o s itio n o f le g a l eminence
which i s a s tr ik in g c o n tr a st to t h e ir s t a tio n in any other
fr a m e -o f-r e fe r e n c e .
The c o n tr o v e r sie s p ro d u ctiv e o f th e d e c is io n s
a ffirm in g n a tio n a l r ig h ts in v o lv e a cu rio u s assortm ent o f
p eop le and sord id e p iso d e s . They in clu d e a r e v o lu tio n a r y
s o c i a l i s t from New York, th e cru sad in g p u b lish e r o f a sm all
M innesota p e r io d ic a l, a C onn ecticu t m urderer, a communist
from Oregon, a d e fia n t C onn ecticu t e v a n g e lis t , an uncooper
a t iv e su sp ect from O hio, a C a lifo r n ia n a r c o tic s u s e r , a
murdering bank robber from L o u isia n a , an in d ig e n t b urglar
from F lo r id a , a C onnecticut gam bler, and a Texas rob b er.
12
Suggested by the commentary o f J u s tic e D ouglas;
Cushman, op. c i t . . p . 61.
140
Rounding out th e tone o f the stu d y i s a ca se
in v o lv in g a d esp ised and d efea ted enemy g en era l and another
in v o lv in g an agry stu d en t from Syracuse U n iv e r s ity .
Let us now then en ter th e la b o ra to ry , stud y th e
e x h ib it s and perform th e e x e r c is e s . The e x te n t o f perform
an ce—o f c a se a n a ly s is —w i l l be e s ta b lis h e d by your
in s t r u c t o r .
Case E x e r c ise s in Freedom
The era from th e 1890's to th e 1920's was one o f
c r i s i s in w hich the e x te r n a l c r i s i s o f World War I ex a cer
bated th e co n tin u in g in te r n a l one.
P ro fesso r North ob serves th a t in such tim es th e
C o n s titu tio n a l freedoms o f th e F ir s t Amendment undergo
r e a p p r a is a l, one w hich r a is e s th e L in coln ian dilemma:
"Must a government o f n e c e s s it y be too stron g fo r th e
l i b e r t i e s o f i t s p e o p le , or too weak to m aintain i t s own
ex iste n c e ? "
The answer? North says th a t "to an American, . . .
whose t r a d itio n i s d eep ly rooted in th e common and n a tu r a l
la w s, th e r e i s no sim p le, m echanical answer. The answer
which i s g iv en i s g e n e r a lly determ ined a f te r th e f a c t in a
l i t i g a t e d c a s e by th e Supreme Court o f th e U nited S t a t e s ."
These "answers" have r e s u lte d in the p a r t ia l n a tio n a liz a
tio n o f th e B i l l o f R ights by " s e le c tiv e in c o r p o r a tio n ."
141
T his p rocess had i t s o r ig in in th e "extraordinary"
o b ite r dictum o f J u s tic e Sanford in G itlow (1925) in which
he s ta te d th a t freedom o f speech and p ress were taken to
be "among th e fundam ental p erson al r ig h t s and l i b e r t i e s
p ro te c te d by the Due P rocess C lause o f th e F ourteenth
Amendment from impairment by th e s t a t e ."
(In s e r t G itlow )
F u ll accep tan ce by the Court o f th e "assumption" in
G itlow had to w a it u n t il 1931. In th a t year C hief J u s tic e
Hughes d ecla red th a t th e M innesota s ta tu te which brought
about th e c o n v ic tio n o f Mr. Near was "a v io la t io n o f f r e e
dom o f th e p r e s s , p r o tected a g a in st s t a t e a c tio n by th e
F ou rteen th Amendment."
(I n s e r t Near)
In th e 1937 c a se o f De Jonge v . Oregon, th e Court
h eld th a t the r ig h t o f p eaceab le assem bly guaranteed in the
F ir s t Amendment i s one "of th o se fundamental p r in c ip le s o f
l ib e r t y and j u s t i c e . . . which th e F ourteenth Amendment
embodies in th e g en er a l terms o f i t s Due P rocess C la u se."
(I n s e r t De Jonge)
The Palko c a s e (1937) has been d eclared "the
c o n s t it u t io n a l w atershed o f th e s e le c t iv e in co rp o ra tio n
p r o c e s s ." J u s tic e Cordoza in d e liv e r in g th e o p in io n o f th e
Court d ecla red th a t " r e fle c tio n and a n a ly sis" r e v e a l a
" r a tio n a liz in g p r in c ip le " fo r s e le c t iv e in co rp o ra tio n :
o n ly th o se r ig h t s are incorporated or absorbed under the
142
F ou rteen th Amendment which are o f "the essen ce o f a scheme
o f ordered lib e r t y ." The j u s t if ic a t io n ? I f th ey were
d en ied , '^neither lib e r t y nor j u s t ic e would e x i s t . . . . "
(I n s e r t P alko)
A lthough th e p r in c ip le exp ressed in Palko found i t s
str o n g e s t j u s t i f i c a t i o n in th e f i e l d o f su b sta n tiv e
r i g h t s , th e co u rt between 1947 and 1965 a p p lied i t
alm ost e x c lu s iv e ly to th e procedural guarantees o f
th e B i l l o f R ig h ts.
A n tic ip a ted by d ic ta in Hamilton v . Board o f
R egents o f C a lifo r n ia (1 9 3 4 ), th e Court brought th e Free
E x e rc ise C lause o f th e F ir s t Amendment under th e p r o te c tio n
o f th e F ou rteen th Amendment in C antw ell (1 9 4 0 ).
(I n s e r t C antw ell)
The Court recogn ized th e in te rc o n n ec tio n o f th e
Fourth and F if t h Amendments in Boyd (1 8 8 6 ), r u lin g th a t
ev id en ce ob tain ed from i l l e g a l search and se iz u r e cou ld n ot
b e used in fe d e r a l p ro secu tio n (because o f F ifth Amendment
p r o te c tio n from coerced s e lf - in c r im in a t io n ) . I t h eld in
Weeks (1914) th a t such evid en ce would be barred in fe d e r a l
p ro se cu tio n s becau se o f th e Fourth Amendment i t s e l f .
Doubt over whether th e " exclu sion ary ru le " re p r e
sen ted a c o n s t it u t io n a l guarantee or m erely an a d m in istra
t i v e r u le was f i n a l l y r e so lv e d in 1961 in Mapp in w hich th e
Court made th e e x c lu sio n a ry r u le binding upon th e s t a t e
c o u r ts by reason o f th e F ourteen th Amendment.
(I n s e r t Mapp)
143
In 1947 in F ran cis th e q u estio n o f "cruel and
unusual punishment" in a s t a t e c o n v ic tio n came b efo re th e
c o u r t; In th a t c a se th e co u rt did n o t d ecid e th e C o n stitu
t io n a l q u e stio n o f whether th e E ighth Amendment had been
in corp orated by th e F ou rteen th . However, in 1962 in
Robinson th e co u rt decided th a t i t had.
(I n s e r t Robinson)
The r ig h t o f the defendant to th e a s s is ta n c e o f
co u n se l in s t a t e cr im in a l p ro secu tio n s was th e b a s is o f a
Court d e c is io n in th e famous "Scottsboro" (P ow ell) c a se o f
1932. A gain, ten years l a t e r , in B e t t s . Although the
co u rt had h eld in 1938 th a t in d ig e n t defendants were
e n t it l e d to c o u n sel in a l l c a se s o f fe d e r a l c r im in a l p ro se
c u tio n s , th e same was n ot e s ta b lis h e d in s t a te c r im in a l
p r o se c u tio n , by rea so n o f th e F ourteen th Amendment, u n t i l
G ideon. 1963.
(I n s e r t Gideon)
The r ig h t o f a crim in a l defendant to f a ir t r i a l - - t o
th e guarantee o f th e S ix th Amendment fo r t r i a l b efo r e "an
im p a r tia l ju ry " --w a s n a tio n a liz e d in R ideau. 1963.
(I n s e r t R ideau)
The r a t io n a le which th e co u rt had adopted in
Twining (1908) and Adamson (1947) over in co rp o ra tio n o f th e
B i l l o f R ig h ts was le s s than f u l l y s a t is f a c t o r y . Three
c a s e s , in p a r tic u la r , s t ir r e d th e Court during th e 1 9 5 0 's:
Rochin (1 9 5 2 ), Ir v in e (1954) and Breithaup (1 9 5 7 ). A ll
144
in v o lv ed in v o lu n ta ry s e lf-in c r im in a tio n in s t a t e crim in a l
p r o ce ed in g s.
With th e Mapp d e c is io n (1961) having h eld th a t
"evidence ob tain ed by an i l l e g a l sea rch and se iz u r e " was in
v io la t io n o f th e Fourth Amendment and a p p lic a b le to the
s t a t e s by th e F ourteen th Amendment, "the Court prepared th e
way to make th e F if t h Amendment's p r o h ib itio n a g a in st
com pelled testim o n y a ls o a p p lic a b le to s t a t e crim in a l
procedures by th e F ou rteen th Amendment." T his i t did in
M alloy. 1964.
(I n s e r t M alloy)
As e a r ly as 1899 in Kirby th e Court had h eld th a t
co n fr o n ta tio n betw een th e accused and th e w itn e ss was
fundam ental to a f a ir t r i a l . However, in 1904, in West th e
cou rt h eld th a t th e " S ixth Amendment does n o t apply to
p roceed in gs in s t a t e c r im in a l c o u r ts ."
In 1965 th e Court affirm ed in P o in te r . and i t s
accompanying d e c is io n in D ou glas, "the r ig h t o f an accused
to be co n fro n ted by an opposing w itn e s s , a p p lic a b le a g a in s t
th e fe d e r a l government by v ir tu e o f th e S ix th Amendment,
. . . now made a p p lic a b le a g a in st th e s t a t e by th e Four
te e n th . . . . "
(I n s e r t P o in te r)
145
5 . E xcerpts from th e C o n stitu tio n o f
--------------------
th e U nited S ta te s
A r t ic le 1, S e c tio n 9 :
Paragraph 2—The P r iv ile g e o f th e Writ o f Habeas Corpus
s h a ll not be suspended, u n le ss when in Cases o f R eb el
lio n or In vasion th e p u b lic s a fe ty may req u ire i t .
Paragraph 3—No B i l l o f A tta in d er o f ex p o st fa c to Law
s h a ll be p a ssed .
A r t ic le 3 . S e c tio n 2 :
Paragraph 3—The T r ia l o f a l l Crim es, excep t in Cases
o f impeachment, s h a ll b e by Jury; and such T r ia l s h a ll
be h eld in th e S ta te where th e s a id Crimes s h a ll have
been com m itted; but when n ot committed w ith in any
S ta t e , th e T r ia l s h a ll be a t such P lace or P la ces as
th e Congress may by Law have d ir e c te d .
A r t ic le 6 . S e c tio n 3 :
The S en ators and R ep resen ta tiv es b efo re m entioned, and
th e Members o f th e s e v e r a l S ta te L e g is la tu r e s , and a l l
e x e c u tiv e and j u d ic i a l O f f ic e r s , both o f th e U nited
S ta te s and o f th e s e v e r a l S t a t e s , s h a ll be bound by
Oath or A ffir m a tio n , to support t h is C o n stitu tio n ; but
no r e lig io u s T est s h a ll ever be requ ired as a Q u a lif i
c a tio n to any"O ffice or P u b lic T rust under th e U nited
S t a t e s . (S in ce 1962, Torcaso v . W atkins, th e Court has
h eld the u n d erlin ed p o rtio n to apply to both fe d e r a l
and s t a t e o f f i c e s . )
F ir s t Amendment
Congress s h a ll make no law r e sp e c tin g an esta b lish m en t
o f r e lig i o n , or p r o h ib itin g th e fr e e e x e r c is e th e r e o f;
or ab rid gin g th e freedom o f sp eech , or o f th e p r e s s; or
th e r ig h t o f th e p eo p le p eaceab ly to assem b le, and to
p e t it io n th e Government fo r a re d r ess o f g r ie v a n c e s .
Second Amendment
A w e ll r e g u la te d M i lit ia , b ein g n ecessa ry to th e se c u r
i t y o f a fr e e S ta t e , th e r ig h t o f th e p eop le t o keep
and bear Arms, s h a ll n ot be in fr in g e d .
13
U nderlined headings precede guarantees w ith w hich
th e tea ch in g u n it i s e x p l i c i t l y o ccu p ied ._______________
146
Third Amendment
No S o ld ie r s h a l l , in tim e o f p ea ce, be quartered in any
h o u se, w ith o u t th e con sen t o f th e Owner, nor in tim e o f
w ar, but in a manner to be p rescrib ed by law .
Fourth Amendment
The r ig h t o f th e p eop le to be secu re in th e ir p erso n s,
h o u se s, p a p ers, and e f f e c t s , a g a in st unreasonable
search es and s e iz u r e s , s h a ll n ot be v io la t e d , and no
W arrants s h a ll is s u e , but upon probable ca u se ,
supported by Oath or a ffir m a tio n , and p a r tic u la r ly
d e sc r ib in g th e p la c e to be search ed , and th e p ersons
or th in g s to be s e iz e d .
F if t h Amendment
No person s h a ll be h eld to answer fo r a c a p it a l, or
o th erw ise infam ous crim e, u n le ss on a presentm ent or
in d ictm en t o f a Grand Jury, excep t in ca ses a r is in g in
th e land or n a v a l f o r c e s , or in the M i lit ia , when in
a c tu a l s e r v ic e in tim e o f War or p u b lic danger; nor
s h a ll any person be su b je c t fo r the same o ffe n c e t o be
tw ice put in jeopardy o f l i f e or lim b; nor s h a ll be
com pelled in any crim in a l ca se to be a w itn e ss a g a in st
h im se lf; nor be deprived o f l i f e , lib e r t y , or p ro p erty ,
w ith o u t due p ro cess o f law; nor s h a ll p r iv a te p rop erty
be taken fo r p u b lic u s e , w ith ou t ju s t com pensation.
S ix th Amendment
In a l l c r im in a l p ro secu tio n s th e accused s h a ll en joy
th e r ig h t to a speedy and p u b lic t r i a l , by an im p a r tia l
ju ry o f th e S ta te and d i s t r i c t w herein the crim e s h a ll
nave been com m itted, which d i s t r i c t s h a ll have been
p r e v io u sly a sc e r ta in e d by law , and to be informed o f
th e n atu re and cau se o f th e a ccu sa tio n ; to be
con fron ted w ith th e w itn e sse s a g a in st him; to have
com pulsory p ro cess fo r o b ta in in g w itn e sse s in h is
fa v o r , and to have th e A ssista n c e o f Counsel fo r h is
d e fe n c e .
Seventh Amendment
In s u it s a t common law , where th e v a lu e in co n tro v ersy
s h a ll exceed tw enty d o lla r s , th e r ig h t o f t r i a l by ju ry
s h a ll be p reserv ed , and no f a c t tr ie d by a ju ry s h a ll
be o th erw ise re-exam ined in any Court o f the U nited
S t a t e s , than accord in g to th e r u le s o f th e common law .
147
E ighth Amendment
E x c e ssiv e b a i l s h a ll not be req u ired , nor e x c e s s iv e
f in e s im posed, nor c r u e l and unusual punishments
i n f l i c t e d .
T h irteen th Amendment, S e c tio n 1:
N eith er s la v e r y nor in v o lu n ta ry s e r v itu d e , ex cep t as a
punishm ent fo r crim e w hereof th e p arty s h a ll have been
d u ly c o n v ic te d , s h a ll e x i s t w ith in th e U nited S t a t e s ,
or any p la c e su b je c t to th e ir j u r is d ic t io n .
F ou rteen th Amendment. S e c tio n 1 :
A ll p erson s bora or n a tu r a liz e d in th e U nited S t a t e s ,
and s u b je c t to the j u r is d ic t io n th e r e o f, are c i t iz e n s
o f th e U nited S ta te s and o f the S ta te w herein th ey
r e s id e . No S ta te s h a ll make or en force any law w hich
s h a ll ab rid ge th e p r iv ile g e s or im m unities o f c i t i z e n s
o f th e U nited S ta te s ; nor s h a ll any S ta te d ep rive any
person o f l i f e , lib e r t y , or p rop erty, w ithou t due
p ro cess o f law; nor deny to any person w ith in i t s
j u r is d ic t io n th e equal p r o te c tio n o f th e law s.
F ifte e n th Amendment, S e c tio n 1:
The r ig h t o f c i t i z e n s o f th e U nited S ta te s to v o te
s h a ll n ot be denied or abridged by th e U nited S ta te s or
by any S ta te on account o f r a c e , c o lo r , or p reviou s
c o n d itio n o f s e r v itu d e .
N in eteen th Amendment, S e c tio n 1:
The r ig h t o f c i t iz e n s o f th e U nited S ta te s to v o te
s h a ll n ot be d en ied or abridged by th e U nited S ta te s
or by any S ta te on account o f s e x .
T w enty-fourth Amendment, S e c tio n 1:
The r ig h t o f c i t iz e n s o f th e U nited S ta te s to v o te in
any prim ary or other e le c t io n fo r P resid en t or V ice
P r e s id e n t, fo r e le c t o r s fo r P resid en t or V ice P r e s i
d e n t, or fo r Senator or R ep resen ta tiv e in C ongress,
s h a ll n o t be d en ied or abridged by th e U nited S ta te s
or any S ta te by reason o f f a ilu r e to pay any p o ll ta x
or oth er ta x .
T H E AM ERICAN CITIZEN:
H is C o n s titu tio n a l R igh ts and L ib e r tie s
by
Dwight Young
w ith
Donald E stes (e d .)
An exp erim en tal u n it developed fo r
u se in P o l i t i c a l S cien ce 2 at
San D iego C ity C o lleg e
Handbook I I : C ases, P o stv iew , and
G lo ssa ry , pages 22-98
A ll r ig h ts r e se r v e d . For P o l i t i c a l S cien ce 2 ,
E stes c la s s e s o n ly . Any u se or p u b lic a tio n
w ith ou t th e w r itte n p erm ission o f Dwight Young
i s e x p r e s s ly fo rb id d en .
148
H A N D B O O K I I
C ontents and Sources
1. "The C ases>1 1 pp. 2 2 -9 1 , i s "The C ases,"
pp. 150-223.
2 . " P ostview ," pp. 92-94a, i s "P ostview ,"
pp. 220-223.
3 . " G lossary," pp. 9 5 -9 8 , i s th e "G lossary"
from Appendix B, pp. 224-227.
1 . The Cases
CASE I
N a tio n a l R ig h ts—Their Red Beginning
(G itlow v » New York. 268 U .S . 652. 1925)
F acts o f th e Case
The tim e , e a r ly in th e Roaring T w enties; the p la c e ,
New York C ity .
Benjamin G itlow was a member o f th e N ation al
C ouncil o f th e L e ft Wing S ectio n o f th e S o c ia li s t Party o f
Am erica. In i t s o f f i c i a l organ, The R evolu tionary Age, th e
N a tio n a l C ouncil p u b lish ed a p o s itio n paper, "The L eft Wing
M a n ifesto ." The M an ifesto condemned "moderate S ocialism "
fo r i t s dem ocratic and p arliam en tary p roced u res, and i t
%
d ecla red th e n e c e s s it y o f accom plishing the "Communist
R ev o lu tio n by c la s s s tr u g g le and m o b ilizin g th e power o f
th e p r o le ta r ia t in a c tio n through mass in d u s tr ia l r e v o lts
d evelop in g in to mass p o l i t i c a l s t r ik e s and re v o lu tio n a ry
mass a c tio n ." I t urged the d e str u c tio n o f th e e x is tin g
p arliam en tary s t a t e and th e esta b lish m en t in i t s p la ce o f a
" rev o lu tio n a ry d ic ta to r s h ip o f th e p r o le ta r ia t," th e system
o f com m unistic s o c ia lis m . Mr. G itlow arranged fo r the
p r in tin g o f 16,000 c o p ie s o f th e M an ifesto, fo r i t s being
150
151
ca r rie d in The R evolu tion ary A ge, and fo r i t s d is tr ib u tio n
by means w hich in clu d ed th e u se o f th e U nited S ta te s m a ils .
Mr. G itlow was p rosecu ted and co n v icted under
p r o v isio n s o f th e New York C rim inal Anarchy Act which
p r o h ib ited th e "advocacy, a d v isin g or tea ch in g th e duty,
n e c e s s it y or p r o p r ie ty o f overthrow ing or overturning
organized government by fo r c e or v io le n c e ."
O pinion o f th e Court
(Mr. J u s tic e Sanford d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n .)
The Q uestion
Does th e s t a t e s t a t u t e v io la t e "the lib e r t y
p ro tected by the F ou rteen th Amendment, w hich in clu d es
lib e r t y o f speech and th e p r e s s ," and w hich, w h ile not
a b s o lu te , can o n ly be r e s t r ic t e d "in circum stances where
i t s e x e r c is e b ears a c a u sa l r e la t io n w ith some su b sta n tiv e
e v i l consummated or attem pted?"
The Answer
No. (" C onviction under th e New York 'crim in a l
anarchy' s ta tu te " i s s u s ta in e d .)
The Reasons
In support o f th e d e c is io n . The Court emphasized
th a t th e New York S ta te S ta tu te was a l e g i s l a t i v e ex p res
s io n o f th e p r in c ip le "that u tter a n c es ad vocatin g the
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overthrow o f organized government by f o r c e , v io le n c e and
u n law fu l means, are so in im ic a l to th e g en er a l w elfa re and
in v o lv e such danger o f su b s ta n tiv e e v i l th a t they may be
p en a lized in the e x e r c is e o f i t s p o lic e pow ers." I t h eld
th a t such "presumption" must be g iv en "great w eig h t," and
i s e n t it le d to fa v o ra b le p la c e . I t view ed th e s t a t e
s t a tu t e "in th e lig h t o f th e p r in c ip le th a t th e S ta te i s
p rim a rily th e judge o f r e g u la tio n s req u ired in th e in t e r e s t
o f p u b lic s a fe ty and w e lfa r e ."
The Court h eld th a t p o lic e s t a tu t e s may be d eclared
" u n co n stitu tio n a l" o n ly where th ey are " arb itrary or unrea
so n a b le attem pts to e x e r c is e a u th o r ity in v e ste d in the
S ta te in th e p u b lic in t e r e s t ." I t h eld th a t "utterances
in c it in g to th e overthrow o f organized government by unlaw
f u l means, p resen t a s u f f i c i e n t danger o f su b sta n tiv e e v i l
to b rin g t h e ir punishment w ith in th e range o f l e g i s l a t i v e
d is c r e t io n ." F u rth er, th a t the s t a t e s t a tu t e p rop erly
opposed such u tte r a n c e s , and th a t the immediate danger
which th ey th reaten ed " is n o n e -th e -le s s r e a l and su bstan
t i a l , b ecau se th e e f f e c t o f th e g iv en u tter a n ce cannot be
a c c u r a te ly fo r e s e e n ."
The Court m aintained th a t s t a t e cannot be exp ected
to measure th e danger o f each u tte r a n c e "in th e n ic e b a l
ance o f a je w e le r 's s c a le . A s in g le re v o lu tio n a ry spark
may k in d le th e f i r e t h a t , sm oldering fo r a tim e, may b u rst
in to a sw eeping and d e s tr u c tiv e c o n fla g r a tio n ." I t fu rth er
153
h eld th a t s t a t e a c tio n cannot be deemed a r b itr a r y or
unreasonable
. • . when in th e e x e r c is e o f i t s judgment as to the
measures n ec e ssa r y to p r o te c t th e p u b lic peace and
s a fe ty , i t seek s to e x tin g u is h th e spark w ith o u t
w a itin g u n t i l i t had k in d led th e flam e or b la z e in to
th e c o n fla g r a tio n . . . . I t may, in th e e x e r c is e o f
i t s judgment, suppress th e th reaten ed danger in i t s
in c ip ie n c y .
W hile r e s t in g th e d e c is io n upon th e s t a t e ' s con
s tr u c tio n o f th e s t a t u t e , and w h ile n o t rea ch in g th e
s p e c if ic C o n s titu tio n a l q u e stio n , J u s tic e Sanford in clu d ed
a statem ent in th e m a jo rity o p in io n w hich was n ot e s s e n t ia l
to th e C ourt's d e c is io n (an o b ite r dictum ) :
For p resen t purposes we may and do assume th a t
freedom o f sp eech and o f th e p r e s s , w hich are pro
te c te d by th e F ir s t Amendment from abridgment by
C ongress, are among th e fundam ental p erso n a l r ig h ts
and li b e r t i e s p r o tected by th e Due P rocess c la u s e
o f th e F ou rteen th Amendment fo r impairment by th e
s t a t e s .
In d is s e n t from th e d e c is io n . In disagreem ent
J u s tic e Holmes, jo in e d by J u s tic e B ran d eis, a sse r te d th a t
"the g en era l p r in c ip le o f fr e e sp eech . . . must be taken
to be included in th e F ou rteen th Amendment, in v iew o f th e
scope th a t has been g iv en to th e word 'lib e r t y ' as they are
u sed ." To them, th e c o r r e c t t e s t , " clear and p resen t
danger," was th e c r it e r io n sa n ctio n ed by th e f u l l Court in
th e Schenck c a se (1 9 1 9 ). They denied m a n ife sta tio n o f
"present danger o f an attem pt to overthrow th e government
by force" on th e p art o f th e "adm ittedly sm all m in ority"
154
who shared Mr. G itlow *s v iew . They d isa g reed th a t th e
M an ifesto was more than theory or th a t i t was an " in c ite
ment":
Every id ea i s an in c ite m e n t. I t o f fe r s i t s e l f
fo r b e l i e f and i f b e lie v e d i t i s a cted on u n le s s
some other b e l i e f outw eighs i t or some f a ilu r e o f
energy s t i f l e s th e movement a t i t s b ir t h . The on ly
d iffe r e n c e . . . i s th e sp ea k er's enthusiasm . . . .
Eloquence may s e t f i r e to re a so n . . . . The on ly
meaning o f fr e e speech i s th a t id e a s should be g iv en
th e ir chance and have th e ir way.
In c o n c lu sio n , th e d is s e n tin g j u s t ic e s reasoned
th a t i f the p u b lic a tio n had in tend ed immediate u p r is in g ,
th e c a se would have been d if f e r e n t , "but th e in dictm ent
a lle g e s . . . p u b lic a tio n and n oth in g m ore."
A pp raisal and E xplanation
A p p raisal
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c is io n . In assuming th a t th e
guarantees o f freedom o f sp eech and p ress a re b in d in g upon
th e s t a t e s , th e Court s e t the s ta g e fo r th e ensuing s e le c
t i v e n a tio n a liz a tio n o f th e B i l l o f R ig h ts.
E xplanation
A p p lic a tio n o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
reason s fo r th in k in g th a t " resp ect fo r th e in h eren t worth
and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein g s" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l i s s u e .]
155
C A SE II
The Case o f th e Padlocked P ress
(Near v . M innesota. 283 U .S . 697. 1931)
F acts o f th e Case
During 1927 in the c i t y o f M in n eap olis, M innesota,
a s e r ie s o f a r t ic l e s appeared in a p e r io d ic a l known as The
Saturday P r e ss. The p u b lish er and s o le owner was a Mr.
Near.
At th e tim e s t a t e law provided fo r th e su p p ressio n ,
as a p u b lic n u isa n ce, o f any 1 'm a licio u s, sca n d a lo u s, and
defam atory newspaper, m agazine, or oth er p e r io d ic a l." I t
provided fo r th e county a tto rn e y s to subm it evid en ce to
th e co u rts o f th e ir c o u n tie s , and fo r th e co u rts to is s u e
in ju n c tio n s r e s tr a in in g fu rth er p u b lic a tio n upon th e
su bm ission o f "such evid en ce as th e Court s h a ll deem s u f f i
c ie n t ." I t empowered th e Courts to punish d iso b ed ien ce o f
in ju n c tio n by " fin e o f n o t more than one thousand d o lla r s
or by imprisonment in the county j a i l fo r n o t more than
tw elv e m onths."
A cting under th e p r o v isio n s o f th a t s t a t u t e , th e
county a tto r n e y took a c tio n a g a in st The Saturday P r e s s .
A temporary in ju n c tio n a g a in st p u b lic a tio n was issu e d and,
a f t e r t r i a l , th e in ju n ctio n was made perm anent. This
a c tio n was su sta in e d by the S ta te Supreme C ourt.
In su b sta n ce, th e a r t ic l e s accused many p u b lic
156
a g en cies and th e ir o f f ic e r s o f se r io u s o f f e n s e s . The most
se r io u s a c c u sa tio n s were d ir e c te d a g a in st th e c h ie f o f
p o lic e : he was charged n o t on ly w ith b ein g g e n e r a lly
n e g le c t f u l o f th e d u tie s o f h is o f f ic e but a ls o w ith having
i l l e g a l r e la tio n s h ip s w ith g a n g sters and o f p a r tic ip a tin g
in g r a f t . I t was charged th a t a "Jewish gan gster"
c o n tr o lle d th e gam bling, b o o tle g g in g , and ra c k e te e r in g in
M in n eap olis, and th a t the o f f ic e o f the county a tto r n e y
knew about th e se co n d itio n s but f a ile d to take adequate
a c tio n a g a in st them. Among other ch a rg e s, th e mayor was
accused o f in e f f ic ie n c y and n e g lig e n c e , and a member o f th e
county grand ju ry was d eclared "sym pathetic" w ith th e
g a n g ster elem en ts. One o f th e a r t ic le s c a lle d fo r th e
c r e a tio n o f a s p e c ia l grand ju ry and th e appointm ent o f a
s p e c ia l p rosecu tor n o t on ly to d ea l w ith th e g en er a l prob
lems o f th e county but a ls o to in v e s t ig a t e an attem pt made
upon th e l i f e o f one o f the o r ig in a l d efen d a n ts, G u ilfo rd ,
who was sh o t by g a n g sters a fte r th e appearance o f th e f i r s t
is s u e o f th e p e r io d ic a l.
Opinion o f the Court
(Mr. C hief J u s tic e Hughes d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n .)
The Q uestion
Does th e s t a tu t e v i o l a t e th e e s s e n t i a l a ttr ib u te s
o f li b e r t y — lib e r t y o f p ress and sp eech —as guaranteed by
th e F ir s t Amendment and safeguarded by th e Due P rocess
157
c la u s e o f th e F ourteen th Amendment from in frin gem en t by
s t a t e a ctio n ? Has the S ta te o f M innesota, in th e p assage
o f t h i s s t a t u t e , exceeded i t s a u th o r ity to pass law s fo r
th e prom otion o f th e h e a lth , s a f e t y , m orals and g en er a l
w e lfa r e o f th e c it iz e n s ?
The Answer
Y es. (The judgment o f th e M innesota Court was
r e v e r s e d .)
The Reasons
The Court observed th a t in p a ssin g upon th e C o n sti
tu t io n a l q u e stio n o f th e ca se i t was concerned w ith the
su b stan ce and n o t the mere form o f th e s t a t e s t a t u t e . "The
s t a t u t e in q u e stio n i s to be te s te d by i t s o p e ra tio n and
e f f e c t and n ot by erro rs o f th e t r i a l c o u r t, i f th e r e were
s u c h ."
Having e s ta b lish e d the terms o f i t s i n t e r e s t , th e
Court en tered in to an a n a ly sis o f th e M innesota s t a t u t e .
I t n oted th a t i t was d ir e c te d n o t toward th e c o r r e c tio n o f
in d iv id u a l or p r iv a te w rongs, th e rem edies fo r l i b e l
rem aining a v a ila b le and u n a ffe c te d , but ra th er a t an e x i s t
ing b u sin e ss w hich was engaged in the d is t r ib u t io n o f
m atter deemed "detrim ental to p u b lic m orals and t o th e
g e n er a l w e lf a r e .1 1
The Court observed th a t Judgment in th e c a s e had
stemmed from th e mere proof o f p u b lic a tio n , th e M innesota
158
Court having h eld th a t "there i s no C o n s titu tio n a l r ig h t
to p u b lish a f a c t m erely because i t i s tr u e ." The Supreme
Court fu r th er observed th a t th e s ta tu te had n o t been
d ir e c te d sim p ly a g a in st th e c ir c u la tio n o f defam atory
sta tem en ts in v o lv in g p r iv a te in d iv id u a ls , but ra th er a t the
su p p ressio n o f scandalous charges made a g a in s t p u b lic
o f f i c i a l s . The Court commented th a t th e o b je c t o f th e
s t a t u t e was n o t to punish an offen d er but o n ly to suppress
a p e r io d ic a l by means o f p u ttin g the p u b lish er under
e f f e c t i v e ce n so rsh ip .
The Court saw i t s c e n tr a l ta sk as th a t o f determ in
in g w hether th e M innesota s t a tu t e in fr in g e d upon lib e r t y o f
th e p ress as guaranteed by th e F ourteenth Amendment, and
most p a r t ic u la r ly upon i t s placem ent o f p r io r r e s t r a in t
upon p u b lic a tio n .
The Court d ecla red th a t the s t a t u t e co u ld n o t be
j u s t i f i e d on th e grounds th a t i t allow ed a p u b lish er to
show, b e fo r e in ju n c tio n i s is s u e d , th a t m a te r ia l to be
p u b lish ed i s tr u e , and i s to be p u b lish ed from good m otives
and fo r j u s t i f i a b l e en d s. The Court h eld t h is argument fo r
th e im p o sitio n o f p rio r r e s t r a in t —fo r r e q u ir in g p roof o f
tr u th p rio r to pub l i e a t io n --u n a v a ilin g . I t a ls o found
" u n availin g" th e argument th a t the s t a t u t e was "designed to
p rev en t th e c ir c u la t io n o f scand al which ten ds to d istu r b
th e p u b lic peace and to provoke a s s a u lts and th e com m ission
o f c rim e." A w orthy aim , o f i t s e l f , does n o t make a law
159
j u s t .
In co n c lu sio n th e Court d eclared th a t i t s d e c is io n
did n o t r e s t upon any q u e stio n as to th e tr u th o f th e
ch arges con tain ed in th e p e r io d ic a l in q u e s tio n , b u t rath er
upon "the o p era tio n and e f f e c t " o f th e s t a t u t e .
A p p raisal and E xplanation
A p p ra isa l
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c is io n . The p resen t c a s e i s
th e f i r s t Court d e c is io n in which a s t a t e s t a t u t e was h e ld ,
b ecau se o f i t s g e n er a l ch a r a c te r , to d ep rive p ersons o f
lib e r t y w ith o u t due p rocess o f law b ecau se i t imposed an
u nreason able r e s t r ic t io n on speech and p r e s s . I t p laced
freedom o f sp eech and p ress under th e p r o te c tio n o f th e
F ed eral co u rts a g a in st b oth F ederal as w e ll as s t a t e
in frin g em en t. In 1931 freedom o f sp eech and p ress w ere a t
lo n g l a s t 'V ia tio n a liz e d ."
E xp lan ation
A p p lic a tio n o f the c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
rea so n s fo r th in k in g th a t " respect fo r th e in h eren t worth
and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein g s" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l i s s u e .]
160
CASE I I I
Seven Years on an Unmade Charge
(De Jonee v . Oregon. 299 U;S. 353. 1937)
F acts o f th e Case
D irk De Jonge and two co-d efen d an ts were in d ic te d
in Multnomah County, Oregon, fo r v io la t io n o f th e C rim inal
S y n d ica lism Law o f th e s t a t e . The a ct d efin ed "crim in al
sy n d ica lism " as "the d o ctrin e which advocates crim e, syn -
d ic a l v io le n c e , sa b o ta g e, or any unlaw ful a c ts or methods
as a means o f accom plishing or e f f e c t in g in d u s t r ia l or
p o l i t i c a l change or r e v o lu tio n ." I t d escrib ed a number o f
o ffe n s e s w hich, d eclared f e lo n ie s , were made p u n ish a b le by
"imprisonment fo r n o t le s s than one year nor more than ten
y e a r s , or a f in e o f n ot more than $ 1 ,0 0 0 .0 0 , or by b o th ."
Mr. De Jonge*s o ffe n se -a s-c h a rg e d was th a t on J u ly
2 7 , 1934, he " a s s is te d in the conduct o f a m eetin g w hich
was c a lle d under th e a u sp ices o f th e Communist P a r ty , an
o r g a n iz a tio n ad vocating crim in a l sy n d ica lism ."
At t h is t r i a l the d efen se argued th a t th e m eeting
was p u b lic and o rd er ly and was h eld fo r a la w fu l purpose;
t h a t , w h ile i t was h eld under th e a u sp ices o f th e Communist
P a r ty , n e ith e r c r im in a l sy n d ica lism nor any u n law fu l
conduct was tau gh t or advocated a t the m eetin g , e it h e r by
him or by o th e r s . The d efen se moved fo r a d ir e c te d v e r d ic t
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o f a c q u it t a l, contending th a t
. . . th e s ta tu te as a p p lied to him, fo r m erely
a s s is t in g a t a m eeting c a lle d by th e Communist Party
a t w hich n o th in g unlaw ful was done or ad vocated ,
v io la t e d the Due P rocess C lause o f th e F ourteen th
Amendment o f The C o n stitu tio n o f th e U nited S ta t e s .
T his move was d en ied . D irk De Jonge waS found
g u ilt y as charged and was sen ten ced to seven years
im prisonm ent. The judgment o f th e t r i a l co u rt was la te r
affirm ed by th e Oregon Supreme Court which "considered the
C o n s titu tio n a l q u estio n and su sta in e d the s t a t u t e as thus
a p p lie d ."
Opinion o f th e Court
(Mr. C h ief J u s tic e Hughes d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n .)
The Q uestion
Is "the Oregon s ta tu te as a p p lied to th e p a r tic u la r
charge d efin e d by th e s t a t e cou rt . . . repugnant to th e
Due P ro cess C lause o f th e F ou rteen th Amendment"?
The Answer
Y es. ("The judgment o f c o n v ic tio n i s rev ersed and
th e cau se i s remanded fo r fu r th er p roceed in gs n o t in con
s i s t e n t w ith t h is o p in io n ." )
Reasons
The Court review ed the h is to r y o f th e c a s e , from
th e th e o ry o f th e in d ictm en t, through th e sequence o f le g a l
a c t io n s , and to th e d e n ia l o f th e appeal by th e Oregon_____
162
Supreme C ourt. The Court noted th a t the co n ten tio n o f th e
d e fe n s e , th a t ev id en ce was in s u f f ic ie n t to warrant c o n v ic
t io n , had been s e t a sid e by the h ig h e st s t a te co u rt when i t
ru le d th a t
. . . th e in d ictm en t did n ot charge th a t cr im in a l
sy n d ic a lism or sab otage was advocated a t the m eeting
d escrib ed in th e e v id e n c e , e ith e r by defendant or by
anyone e l s e . The words o f th e in d ictm en t . . .
r e fe r r e d n ot to th e m eeting in q u e stio n , or to any
th in g then and th e re sa id or done by defendant or
o t h e r s , but to th e advocacy o f crim in a l sy n d ica lism
and sa b o ta g e by the Communist Party in Multnomah
County.
The Court observed th a t by lim itin g th e charge to
th e d efen d an t*s p a r tic ip a tio n in a m eeting which was c a lle d
by th e Communist P a rty , th e "lack o f s u f f ic ie n t ev id en ce as
to i l l e g a l advocacy or a c tio n a t th e m eeting became immate
r i a l . . . . The S ta te Court su sta in e d th e c o n v ic tio n upon
th a t b a s is r e g a r d le s s o f what was sa id or done a t th e
m e e tin g ."
The Court took th e view th a t " co n v ictio n upon a
charge n o t made" would be sh eer d e n ia l o f due p r o c e s s . The
Court thu s concluded th a t whereas Mr. De Jonge was a member
o f th e Communist P a rty , "he was n ot in d ic te d fo r p a r t i c i
p a tin g in i t s o r g a n iz a tio n , or fo r jo in in g i t , or fo r
s o l i c i t i n g members, or fo r d is tr ib u tin g i t s lit e r a t u r e ."
He was n ot charged w ith "any u nlaw ful a c t s , e ith e r a t th e
m eeting or e lsew h ere ."
The Court h eld th a t th e f a u lt o f "the broad reach
o f th e s t a tu t e as thus a p p lied i s p la in . . ." :______________
163
However innocuous th e o b je c t o f th e m eetin g, however
la w fu l th e s u b je c ts and ten or o f th e a d d r esse s, how
ever rea so n a b le and tim e ly the d is c u s s io n , a l l th o se
a s s i s t i n g in th e conduct o f the m eeting would be
su b je c t to im prisonment as fe lo n s i f the m eeting
were h eld by th e Communist P arty.
The Court co n sid ered some illu s t r a t io n s o f p u b lic
m eetin gs w hich m ight take p la ce under th e a u sp ices o f th e
Communist P arty but which m ight be ''held fo r th e d is c u s s io n
o f p o l i t i c a l is s u e s or to adopt p r o te s t and pass r e s o lu
tio n s o f an e n t ir e ly in n ocen t and proper ch a r a c te r." I t
n oted th a t "every speaker who a s s is te d in the conduct o f
the m eeting would be e q u a lly g u ilt y w ith the defendant in
t h is c a s e , upon th e charge as here d efin ed and s u s ta in e d ."
The Court allow ed th a t althou gh the s t a t e s are c l e a r l y
" e n title d to p r o te c t them selves from th e abuse o f th e
p r iv ile g e s o f our in s t it u t io n s ," no d e c is io n s o f th e Court
have gone to th e le n g th o f su sta in in g a s ta tu te w hich
" in d e f in ite ly extended" th e r e s t r ic t io n o f th e r ig h t o f
fr e e sp eech and assem bly as was th e c a se w ith th e Oregon
s t a t u t e .
The Court h eld th a t "the r ig h t o f p eaceab le assem
b ly i s a r ig h t cogn ate to fr e e speech and fr e e p ress and i s
e q u a lly fu n d am en tal." I t agreed w ith th e reason in g in th e
Cruikshank c a s e th a t "the v ery id ea o f a governm ent, repub
lic a n in form , im p lies a r ig h t on th e p a rt o f i t s c i t i z e n s ,
to m eet p ea cea b ly fo r c o n s u lta tio n in r e sp e c t to p u b lic
a f f a ir s and to p e t it io n fo r a red r ess o f g r ie v a n c e s." I t
164
a s s e r te d th a t
. . . th e r ig h t i s one th a t cannot be denied w ith ou t
v io la t in g th e fundam ental p r in c ip le s o f lib e r t y and
j u s t i c e w hich l i e a t the b ase o f a l l c i v i l and
p o l i t i c a l i n s t it u t i o n s — p r in c ip le s which th e Four
te e n th Amendment embodies in th e g en era l terms o f
i t s Due P rocess C lau se.
The Court reco g n ized th a t fundam ental r ig h ts may be
abused, as in th e ir u se fo r in citem en t to v io le n c e and to
crim e, and th a t l e g i s l a t i v e in te r v e n tio n i s C o n s titu tio n
a l l y j u s t i f i e d in d e a lin g w ith such a b u ses. But "the
r ig h t s th em selves must n o t be c u r t a ile d ." The Court h eld
th a t th e g r e a te r th e th r e a t to th e community o f th e o v er
throw o f in s t it u t io n s by v io le n t means, th e g r e a te r th e
need fo r safegu ard in g fundam ental C o n s titu tio n a l r ig h t s and
th e more im portant th a t safegu ard in g becom es. I t main
ta in e d th a t i f th e fundam ental r ig h ts o f fr e e sp eech and
p ea cea b le assem bly are to be su sta in e d , th e q u e stio n i s n ot
o f
. . . th e a u sp ices under which th e m eeting i s h eld
but as to i t s purpose; n ot as to th e r e la t io n s o f
th e sp ea k er s, b u t whether th e ir u tter a n c es tran scend
th e bounds o f th e freedom o f speech which th e
C o n s titu tio n p r o t e c t s . I f th e persons assem bled
have com m itted crim es elsew h ere, i f th ey have formed
or are engaged in a co n sp ira cy a g a in st th e peace and
o rd er, th ey may be p rosecu ted fo r th e ir co n sp ira cy
or oth er v io la t io n s o f v a lid la w s. But i t i s a
d if f e r e n t m atter when th e s t a t e in ste a d o f p r o se c u t
in g them fo r such o f fe n s e , s e iz e s upon mere p a r t i c i
p a tio n in a p eaceab le assem bly and a la w fu l p u b lic
d is c u s s io n as th e b a s is fo r crim in a l ch arge.
The Court n o te d , in c lo s in g i t s o p in io n , th a t i t
had n o t s a t in rev iew o f th e o b je c tiv e s o f th e Communist
P a rty , and th a t i t had n o t been c a lle d upon to review th e
165
fin d in g s o f th e s t a t e co u rt as to th o se o b je c t iv e s .
A p p raisal and E xplanation
A p p raisal
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c is io n . The r ig h t o f th e
F ir s t Amendment fo r p eaceab le assem bly was n a tio n a liz e d
(1 9 3 7 ).
E xp lan ation
A p p lic a tio n o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
rea so n s fo r th in k in g th a t " resp ect fo r th e in h eren t w orth
and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein g s" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l i s s u e .]
166
CASE IV
The Watershed Murder Case
(Palko v . C o n n ecticu t. 302 U .S. 319. 1937)
F a cts of the Case
A r e s id e n t o f th e S ta te o f C o n n ecticu t, Mr. P alk o,
was a r r e s te d , in d ic te d , and tr ie d fo r f ir s t - d e g r e e murder.
In th e t r i a l w hich fo llo w ed , a ju ry found him g u i l t y o f
secon d -d egree murder and he was sentenced to l i f e im p rison
m ent.
A s t a tu t e o f th e S ta te o f C onnecticut a u th o riz ed
th e S t a t e , w ith th e p erm ission o f th e p r e sid in g ju d g e , to
appeal any le g a l p o in ts concerning the r u lin g s and d e c i
s io n s o f th e cr im in a l co u rts to th e Supreme Court o f
E rro rs. The s t a tu t e provided that such appeal would fo llo w
th e same cou rse and have the same e f f e c t as i f i t w ere
i n i t i a t e d by th e accused person.
In t h is c a s e th e Court o f Errors a cted upon such an
ap peal and found th a t th ere had been a p r e ju d ic ia l er ro r o f
law in th e p roceed in gs o f the t r i a l c o u r t. I t th e r e fo r e
re v er sed th e judgment and ordered a new t r i a l .
Mr. Palko was again brought b efo re th e c o u r t on th e
charge o f f ir s t - d e g r e e murder. Both b efo re a ju r y was
im paneled as w e ll as a t la te r sta g es during h is t r i a l , th e
d efen se o b jected to th e p roceed in gs. The o b je c tio n s were
o v erru led by the c o u r t, and th e ju ry returned a v e r d i c t .
167
T h is tim e th ey found him g u ilt y as charged, and i t was th e
se n te n c e o f th e cou rt th at he be execu ted .
Opinion o f th e Court
(Mr. J u s tic e Cardozo d e liv e r e d the o p in io n .)
The Q u estion
Was Mr. Palko deprived o f c e r ta in p r iv ile g e s or
im m unities by th e s t a t e which were h is r ig h ts as a c i t i z e n
o f th e U nited S ta te s? Would th e ex ecu tio n o f h is sen ten ce
d ep riv e him o f l i f e w ith o u t "due p rocess o f law" as assu red
by th e F ou rteen th Amendment? Is whatever th a t i s forb id d en
to th e fe d e r a l government by th e F if t h Amendment a ls o
fo rb id d en to th e s t a t e s by th e Fourteenth? Even though
r e t r i a l was based upon th e o r ig in a l in d ictm en t, d id the
s t a t e v i o la t e th e p r o te c tio n o f th e F if t h Amendment a g a in st
d ou b le jeopardy?
The Answer
No. (The judgment o f th e C onnecticut Court was
u p h eld in an 8 -1 d e c is io n .)
Reasons
The Court h eld th a t th e F ourteenth Amendment d id
n o t embody a l l p r o v isio n s o f th e o r ig in a l B i l l o f R ig h ts .
A lthough i t had ru led some o f th o se r ig h ts so in c lu d e d , i t
had n ever e s ta b lis h e d a g en era l r u le . A fter summarizing
th e p r o v is io n s which had been embodied in to th e F o u rteen th
168
Amendment and th o se which had n o t, J u s tic e Cardozo c o n sid
ered th e ir d iff e r e n c e . Those p r iv ile g e s and im m unities
which both S ta te as w e ll as F ed eral Government i s under
o b lig a tio n to provide th e c i t iz e n s are th o se which are
" im p lic it in th e con cep t o f ordered lib e r t y , . . . o f th e
very essen ce o f i t s [scheme] . . . d ic ta te d by a stu d y and
a p p r e c ia tio n o f th e m eaning, th e e s s e n t ia l im p lic a tio n s ,
o f lib e r t y i t s e l f . "
As to th e ir "absorption" in to th e F ou rteen th
Amendment, i t fo llo w s from a
. . . p r in c ip le o f j u s t ic e so rooted in th e t r a d i
tio n s and co n sc ien ce o f our p eo p le as to be ranked
as fundam ental, . . . [which h a s] i t s sou rce in
th e b e l i e f th a t n e ith e r lib e r t y nor j u s t i c e would
e x i s t i f th ey were s a c r if ic e d . . . . T his i s tr u e ,
fo r i l l u s t r a t i o n , o f freedom o f thought and sp eech .
In th e lig h t o f t h is p r in c ip le th e Court ru le d th a t
th e double jeopardy in which the S ta tu te o f th e S ta te o f
C onn ecticu t p laced th e defendant was n ot so "acute and
shocking" th a t i t cannot be endured, and th a t i t d id n o t
v io la t e th o se "fundamental p r in c ip le s o f lib e r t y and
j u s t ic e w hich l i e a t th e base o f a l l our c i v i l and p o l i t
i c a l in s t it u t io n s ."
169
A p p raisal and E xplanation
A p p ra isa l
The s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e c a s e . I t g iv e s an o f f i c i a l
summary to 1937 o f th o se p r o v isio n s o f th e B i l l o f R igh ts
w hich th e Court had h eld e s s e n t i a l to due p ro cess o f law
and th u s b in d in g upon the S ta te s through th e o p era tio n o f
th e F ou rteen th Amendment. F u rth er, and most im portant, i t
s t a t e s th e p r in c ip le s , sometimes re fe r r e d to as th e
Cordozonian d o c tr in e , whicli have a s s is te d th e Court in
d is tin g u is h in g between e s s e n t i a l and n o n -e s s e n tia l r ig h t s
from th a t tim e to now.
As o f th a t tim e, th e Court had h eld on ly th e guar
a n te es o f th e F ir s t Amendment and th e r ig h t to co u n sel o f
th e S ix th " e s s e n t ia l." The r ig h t to c o u n se l, however, had
been h eld b in d in g upon the s t a t e s on ly in c a p it a l c a s e s .
E xp lan ation
A p p lic a tio n o f th e c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. fC ite
rea so n s fo r th in k in g th a t " resp ect fo r th e in h eren t w orth
and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein gs" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l is s u e .]
170
CASE V
Must a W itness Get a L icen se?
(C an tw ell v . C o n n ecticu t. 310 U .S. 296. 1940)
F acts o f th e Case
I t was l a t e in th e 1930fs in New Haven, C onnecticut.
The C a n tw e lls, Newton and h is two so n s, were goin g from
house to h ouse in a predom inantly Roman C a th o lic r e s id e n
t i a l d i s t r i c t . The fa m ily were members o f a r e lig io u s
s e c t , th e Jeh ovah 's W itn esses, and th ey had been s o l i c i t i n g
money and s e l l i n g su b sc r ip tio n s and books in con n ection
w ith a c o n tin u in g r e lig io u s campaign. They were equipped
w ith a reco rd w hich d escrib ed th e books, and th ey played
th e record fo r each householder who granted them p erm ission
to do s o . During th e cou rse o f one o f th e se h o u se-to -h o u se
c a n v a sse s, th e y were a rr e ste d and charged w ith f i v e cou n ts
o f s ta tu to r y and common law o f f e n s e s .
A ll o f them were co n v icted o f v io la t in g a s t a t e
s t a t u t e d e c la r in g th a t no person cou ld s o l i c i t money fo r
r e lig io u s purposes from someone n o t o f h is s e c t u n le ss he
f i r s t secu red a perm it ( " c e r t if ic a t e o f approval") from th e
S ecr eta ry o f th e P u b lic W elfare C oun cil. No p erm its were
issu e d w ith o u t th e approval o f th e S ecr eta ry .
The C antw ells s ta te d th ey had not sought to o b ta in
th e re q u ir ed perm it because th ey were engaged in r e lig io u s
171
a c t i v i t i e s w hich did n o t f a l l w ith in th e p r o v isio n s o f th e
s t a t u t e .
They were a ls o co n v icted on th e charge " in c itin g
o th e rs to breach o f th e p ea ce," because th e phonograph
record which th ey p layed con tain ed a v io le n t a tta c k upon
Roman C a th o licism .
The S ta te Supreme Court review ed th e c o n v ic tio n s .
I t affirm ed th e c o n v ic tio n s o f a l l th r ee fo r f a ilu r e to
o b ta in a p erm it, but i t affirm ed th e c o n v ic tio n o f on ly one
on th e count o f in citem en t o f breach o f p ea ce.
The C a n tw ells, on a p p ea l, took t h e ir c a se to th e
U nited S ta te s Supreme C ourt. The Court agreed to review
th e ir c o n v ic tio n s on b oth co u n ts.
Opinion o f th e Court
(Mr. J u s t ic e R oberts d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n o f th e C ou rt.)
The Q uestion
Does th e s ta tu t e re q u irin g perm it d ep rive th e
C antw ells o f t h e ir lib e r t y and freedom o f r e lig io n in
v io la t io n o f th e F ir s t Amendment as guaranteed in S ta te
a c tio n by th e F ourteen th Amendment? Does th e C antw ell
communication (th e r e c o r d ), co n sid ered in th e lig h t o f
C o n s titu tio n a l g u a ra n tees, r a is e such a c le a r and p resen t
menace to p u b lic peace and order as to render them l i a b l e
to c o n v ic tio n fo r "breach o f th e peace"?
172
The Answer
Y es, th e s t a tu t e "deprives them o f th e ir lib e r t y
w ith o u t due p ro cess o f law in co n tra v en tio n o f th e
F ou rteen th Amendment."
No, th e record played by C antw ell "did n o t amount
to a breach o f th e p ea ce ."
("The judgment a ffirm in g th e c o n v ic tio n s on [both]
cou n ts i s r e v e r se d , and th e cause i s remanded fo r fu rth er
p ro ceed in g s n o t in c o n s is te n t w ith t h i s o p in io n ." )
Reasons
The Court h eld th a t
. . . th e fundam ental concept o f lib e r t y embodied
in th e F ourteen th Amendment embraces th e l i b e r t i e s
guaranteed by the F ir s t Amendment. The F ir s t
Amendment d e c la r e s th a t Congress s h a ll make no law
r e sp e c tin g an esta b lish m en t o f r e lig io n or p r o h ib it
in g th e fr e e e x e r c is e th e r e o f. And th e F ou rteen th
Amendment has rendered the le g is la t u r e s o f th e
s t a t e s as incom petent as Congress to en act such
law s.
The Court n oted th a t C o n s titu tio n a l r e s t r i c t i o n on
r e lig io u s le g i s l a t i o n has two a sp e c ts:
On th e one hand, i t f o r e s t a l l s com pulsion by law o f
th e accep tan ce o f any creed or th e p r a c tic e o f any
form o f w orsh ip . . . . On th e other hand, i t s a f e
guards th e fr e e e x e r c is e o f th e chosen form o f
r e l i g i o n . Thus th e Amendment embraces two c o n c e p ts—
freedom to b e lie v e and freedom to a c t . The f i r s t
i s a b s o lu te , b u t, in th e nature o f th in g s , th e second
cannot b e. Conduct rem ains su b jec t to r e g u la tio n fo r
th e p r o te c tio n o f s o c ie t y . In every c a se th e power
to r e g u la te must be so e x e rc ised as n o t, in a t t a in
in g a p e r m iss ib le end, unduly to in fr in g e th e
p r o te c te d freedom .
173
The Court h eld th a t the s ta tu te req u irin g perm it
c o n s t it u t e d , in e f f e c t , “cen sorsh ip o f r e lig io n as th e
means o f determ ining i t s r ig h t to su r v iv e . . .
In resp on se to th e a s s e r tio n o f th e s t a t e th a t th e
s t a t u t e provided j u d ic i a l remedy fo r any a d m in istr a tiv e
e r r o r , th e Court d ecla red th a t:
A s t a t u t e a u th o riz in g p reviou s r e s tr a in t upon th e
e x e r c is e o f th e guaranteed freedom by j u d ic ia l
d e c is io n a fte r t r i a l i s as obnoxious to th e Con
s t i t u t i o n as one provid in g fo r lik e r e s t r a in t by
a d m in istr a tiv e a c tio n .
The Court made c le a r th a t i t was not q u e stio n in g
th e r ig h t o f th e s t a t e to p ro te c t i t s c it iz e n s from
“fra u d u len t s o l i c i t a t i o n ," and th a t i t recogn ized th e
freedom o f th e S ta te to r e g u la te th e tim e, p la ce and manner
o f s o l i c i t a t i o n g e n e r a lly .
The Court turned to the other charge—th a t th e
p la y in g o f th e record c o n s titu te d a “breach o f th e p e a c e ."
W hile a llo w in g th a t s t a t e s are empowered to pass r e s t r i c
t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n , th e Court h eld th a t the C onn ecticu t
s t a t u t e had fa r to o sw eeping, g e n e r a l, and in d e f in it e a
c h a r a c te r iz a tio n . The Court con sid ered th e m atter o f
C a n tw e ll's record and i t s e f f e c t upon th e li s t e n e r s . I t
n oted t h a t alth ou gh "the hearers were in fa c t h ig h ly
o ffe n d e d ," in a l l c a se s o f such o ffe n s e th ere had been no
b reach o f th e p ea ce. The testim ony o f a l l offended p erson s
in d ic a te d t h a t , upon n o tic e o f having given o ffe n s e ,
C an tw ell im m ediately l e f t .
174
In exam ining p rev io u s d e c is io n s in which i t had
h eld p ro v o ca tiv e language to amount to "a breach o f th e
p ea ce," th e Court n oted th a t "in most o f th e ca ses th e
language in q u estio n c o n s is te d o f p rofan e, in d e c e n t, or
a b u sive remarks d ir e c te d to the person o f th e h ea re r."
The Court h eld th a t th e record o f th e ca se b efo re
i t
. . . gave ev id en ce o f no a s s a u lt or th rea ten in g o f
b o d ily harm, no tr u c u le n t b e a rin g , no in te n tio n a l
d is c o u r te s y , no p erso n a l abuse. O n th e co n tra ry ,
we fin d o n ly an e f f o r t to persuade a w illin g
lis t e n e r to buy a book or to c o n tr ib u te money in th e
in t e r e s t o f what C an tw ell, however m isguided o th ers
may th in k him, co n ceiv ed to be tru e r e lig io n .
The Court d ecla red th a t th o se lib e r t i e s which
r e c e iv e C o n s titu tio n a l p r o te c tio n have
. . . th e e s s e n t ia l c h a r a c te r is tic . . . th a t under
t h e ir s h ie ld many ty p es o f l i f e , ch a ra c te r , o p in io n ,
and b e l i e f can d evelop unm olested and u n ob stru cted .
Nowhere i s th e s h ie ld more n e ce ssa r y than in our
own cou n try fo r p eo p le composed o f many ra ces and
c r e e d s .
The Court m aintained th a t lim ita tio n upon th e ex e r
c i s e o f C o n s titu tio n a l l i b e r t i e s d erived from th e need fo r
such order as w i l l guarantee th e equal r ig h ts o f a l l to th e
e x e r c is e o f th e ir l i b e r t i e s .
175
A ppraisal and E xplanation
A p p raisal
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c is io n . The guarantee o f th e
F ir s t Amendment fo r freedom o f r e lig io n , th e r ig h t o f fr e e
e x e r c is e , was n a tio n a liz e d (1 9 4 0 ).
E xplanation
A p p lic a tio n o f th e c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
reason s fo r th in k in g th a t " resp ect fo r th e in h eren t w orth
and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein gs" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l is s u e .]
176
CASE VI
Two Wrongs Which Made a R ight
(Mapp v . O hio. 367 U .S . 643. 1961)
F a cts o f th e Case
In May o f 1957 th r ee c i t y p o lic e o f f ic e r s went to
th e home o f M iss D o llr e e Mapp in C leveland, Ohio. The
house c a l l r e s u lte d from inform ation th a t M a person [was]
h id in g out in th e home who was wanted for q u e stio n in g in
co n n ectio n w ith a r e c e n t bombing, and th at th ere was a
la rg e amount o f p o lic y [gam bling] paraphernalia hidden in
the home. . . . "
Miss Mapp liv e d w ith her daughter by a p reviou s
m arriage on th e upper f lo o r o f a duplex. When th e p o lic e
men knocked a t her door, Miss Mapp to ld them to w a it. She
c a lle d her a tto r n e y and on h is ad vice she refu sed to l e t
them in to her house w ith ou t a search w arrant.
The policem en p laced th e house under s u r v e illa n c e
and n o t if ie d headquarters o f developm ents. Three hours
la t e r , a d d itio n a l o f f ic e r s a rriv ed to supplement th e fo r c e
o f th ree who were a lrea d y p r e s e n t.
Again th ey knocked, and n ot r e c e iv in g any im mediate
answer, th ey broke in . " it appears th a t M iss Mapp was
h a lf-w a y down th e s t a ir s from th e upper f lo o r to th e fr o n t
door when th e o f f ic e r s . . . broke in to th e h a ll." When
she demanded to se e th e ir w arrant, one o f th e policem en
177
produced a " p iece o f paper" which she snatched from h is
hands. She "placed i t in her bosom." During the str u g g le
fo r i t s reco v ery she was handcuffed because she had been
" b e llig e r e n t" in r e s is t in g o f f i c i a l s in th e ir reco v ery o f
th e "warrant." During th e s c u f f le th e a r r e stin g o f f ic e r
i s a lle g e d to have "grabbed" her and "tw isted" her hand,
and she was rep orted to have " yelled " and "pleaded w ith
him" b ecau se " it was h u r tin g ." The str u g g le continued
u n t i l the p o lic e g o t th e paper back.
The "paper" was never produced in c o u r t, and i t i s
d o u b tfu l whether th ere ever was a proper search w arrant.
None was produced by th e p ro secu tio n a t th e t r i a l nor was
th e f a ilu r e to produce one ex p la in ed or accounted f o r .
M iss Mapp was p laced in handcuffs and f o r c ib ly
taken u p s t a ir s . The p o lic e searched a c l o s e t , a c h e s t o f
draw ers, some s u it c a s e s and a d r e s s e r . Among oth er e f f e c t s
"they a ls o looked in to a photo album and through p erso n a l
p a p ers." Not fin d in g what th ey w anted, th e y extended th e ir
search to oth er p a r ts o f th e r e s id e n c e . The search o f th e
second f lo o r was extended to th e " c h ild 's bedroom, th e
liv in g room, th e k itc h e n , and a d in e tt e ." F in a lly , in th e
basem ent, th e p o lic e d isco v ered a trunk w hich co n ta in ed a
number o f "lewd and la s c iv io u s b ooks, p ic tu r e s and photo
grap h s."
M iss Mapp was t r ie d and co n v icted fo r p o s s e s s io n o f
"lewd and la s c iv io u s " m a te r ia ls and was sen ten ced to serv e
178
from one to seven years in th e s t a te p r iso n . The S ta te
Supreme Court su sta in ed her c o n v ic tio n although conceding
th a t i t was "based p rim a rily upon th e in tr o d u c tio n in
ev id en ce o f lewd and la s c iv io u s books and p ic t u r e s , unlaw
f u l l y s e iz e d during an unlaw ful search o f d efen d a n t's
hom e."
O pinion o f th e Court
(Me. J u s tic e Clark d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n .)
The Q uestion
In a p ro secu tio n in a s t a t e cou rt fo r a s t a t e
crim e, does th e F ourteen th Amendment fo rb id th e adm ission
o f ev id en ce ob tain ed by unreasonable search and se iz u r e ?
("The h o ld in g o f th e Court in the c a se o f Wolf v . P eop le o f
th e S ta te o f Colorado i s u rg en tly appealed fo r re v ie w ." )
The Answer
Y es. ("The judgment o f th e Supreme Court o f Ohio
i s re v ersed and th e cau se remanded fo r fu r th er p roceed in gs
n o t in c o n s is te n t w ith t h is o p in io n ." )
In Support o f the D ecisio n
The Reasons
The Court review ed th e f a c t s o f th e p resen t c a se as
w e ll as i t s d e c is io n s in such r e la te d c a se s as W eeks, Boyd,
and E lk in s .
179
S in ce the Fourth Amendment's R ight o f P riv a cy
has been d eclared en fo rcea b le a g a in st th e S ta te s
through th e Due P rocess Clause o f th e F ou rteen th ,
i t i s en fo rcea b le a g a in st them by th e same san c
tio n o f e x c lu sio n as i s used a g a in st the F ed eral
Government. Were i t o th erw ise, then . . . th e
a ssu ran ce a g a in st unreasonable F ed eral search es
and s e iz u r e s would be "a form o f words" v a lu e le s s
and u nd eservin g o f m ention in th e p erp etu a l c h a rter
o f in e stim a b le human l i b e r t i e s . S o, to o , w ith ou t
th a t r u le th e freedom from S ta te in v a sio n s o f
p r iv a c y . . . .
The Court d ecla red th a t t h is " righ t o f p riv a cy "
m erits p r o te c tio n o f Due P rocess to a l l C o n s titu tio n a lly
u nreasonable se a r c h e s, whether s t a te or f e d e r a l, th a t i t
lik e w is e was n ecessa ry to invoke the r u le a g a in st i l l e g a l
evid en ce (th e e x c lu sio n a ry r u le ) along w ith th e e x c lu s io n
d o c tr in e ,
. . . an e s s e n t ia l in g r e d ie n t o f th e r ig h t [o f
p r iv a c y ] new ly recogn ized by the W olf c a s e . In
s h o r t, th e adm ission o f the new C o n s titu tio n a l r ig h t
by W olf cou ld n ot c o n s is te n t ly t o le r a t e d e n ia l o f
i t s m ost im portant C o n s titu tio n a l p r iv ile g e , nam ely,
th e e x c lu sio n o f th e evid en ce which an accused had
been fo rced to g iv e by reason of th e unlaw ful
s e iz u r e . To h old oth erw ise i s to gran t th e r i g h t ,
but in r e a l i t y to w ith h old i t s p r iv ile g e and e n jo y
m ent.
Our h o ld in g th a t th e ex c lu sio n a ry r u le i s an
e s s e n t i a l p art o f b oth the Fourth and F ourteen th
Amendments i s n o t o n ly th e lo g ic a l d ic t a te o f p r io r
c a s e s , but i t a ls o makes v ery good se n se . There i s
no war betw een th e C o n stitu tio n and common s e n se .
P r e s e n tly , a fe d e r a l prosecutor may make no u se o f
ev id en ce i l l e g a l l y s e iz e d , but a S t a t e 's a tto r n e y
a cr o ss th e s t r e e t may. . . . The S ta t e , by a d m ittin g
ev id en ce u n la w fu lly s e iz e d , serv es to encourage
d iso b ed ien ce to th e F ed eral C o n stitu tio n w hich i t i s
bound to uphold.
180
The Court con sid ered two in te r p r e ta tio n s o f th e
e x c lu sio n a r y d o ctrin e and r u le : on th e one hand, i t says
th a t "the cr im in a l i s to go fr e e because the c o n sta b le has
blundered"; on th e oth er hand, i t says "the cr im in a l goes
fr e e i f he m ust, but i t i s the law th a t s e ts him f r e e ."
The Court a lig n ed i t s e l f w ith th e la t t e r p o s itio n (from
E lk in s ), and d ecla red : "Nothing can d estro y a government
more q u ic k ly than i t s f a ilu r e to observe i t s own la w s,
or w o rse, th e d isreg a rd o f the ch a rter o f i t s own e x i s t
en ce. . . . "
The Court exp ressed i t s o p p o sitio n to "the ig n o b le
sh o rt cu t to c o n v ic tio n l e f t open to the S ta te" and sta te d
th a t h avin g d ecla red th e "right to privacy" t o be "C onsti
tu t io n a l in o r ig in , we can no lon ger perm it th a t r ig h t to
remain an empty prom ise . . . revocab le a t th e whim o f any
p o lic e o f f i c e r , who, in th e name o f law enforcem ent i t s e l f ,
ch ooses to suspend i t s enjoym ent."
The (m a jo rity ) op inion concluded w ith a r in g in g
summation:
Our d e c is io n , founded on reason and p r o o f, g iv e s
t o th e in d iv id u a l no more than th a t w hich th e
C o n s titu tio n guarantees him, to the p o lic e o f f ic e r
no le s s than th a t which h o n est law i s e n t it l e d , and,
t o th e c o u r ts , th a t j u d ic ia l in t e g r it y so n e c e ssa r y
in th e tru e a d m in istra tio n o f j u s t i c e .
In p a r t ia l con cu rren ce. Mr. J u s tic e Black sta te d
h is r e s e r v a tio n th a t th e Fourth Amendment, stan d in g a lo n e ,
was s u f f i c i e n t ground fo r th e e x c lu sio n o f " tain ted " ________
181
e v id e n c e. He agreed w ith th e Court th a t th e " sh ock -th e-
co n scien ce" standard o f th e Wolf c a se should be s e t a sid e
in favor o f th e " p r e c ise , i n t e l l i g i b l e and more p r e d ic ta b le
C o n s titu tio n a l d o ctrin e en u nciated in the Boyd c a s e . . .
one r e c o g n iz in g "the c lo s e in te r r e la tio n s h ip between th e
Fourth and F if t h Amendments, as th ey apply to t h is problem .
. . ." He s ta te d th a t r e f le c t io n upon r e c e n t c a se s
. . . has le d me to conclude th a t when the Fourth
Amendment's ban a g a in st unreasonable sea rch es and
s e iz u r e s i s con sid ered to g eth er w ith th e F if t h
Amendment's ban a g a in st com pelled s e lf-in c r im in a
t io n , a C o n s titu tio n a l b a s is emerges w hich n o t on ly
j u s t i f i e s but a c tu a lly re q u ires th e e x c lu sio n a ry
r u le .
Mr. J u s tic e Stew art in clu d ed a memorandum, w hich,
w h ile a g reein g w ith the d e c is io n fo r r e v e r s a l, found
a u th o r ity fo r i t in the p r o v isio n s o f th e Ohio s t a t u t e . He
d ecla red th e s t a tu t e n o t " c o n s iste n t w ith th e r ig h ts o f
fr e e thought and e x p re ssio n assured a g a in st S ta te a c tio n by
th e F ou rteen th Amendment."
In d is s e n t from th e d e c is io n . To J u s tic e Harlan
th e C ourt, in o v erru lin g W olf, had fo r g o tte n "the se n se o f
j u d ic i a l r e s t r a in t" w hich, along w ith r e s p e c t fo r p rece
d e n t, should en ter in to th e judgment o f whether a p a st
d e c is io n o f th e Court should be o v erru led . He d ecla red
th a t a s y llo g is m la y a t th e h eart o f th e m a jo r ity o p in io n ,
and th a t i t s reason in g u ltim a te ly r e s te d
. . . on th e unsound prem ise th a t b ecau se W olf
c a r r ie d in to th e S t a t e s , as p art o f "the con cep t o f
182
ordered lib e r ty " embodied in th e F ourteen th Amend
m ent, th e p r in c ip le o f "privacy" u n d erlyin g the
Fourth Amendment, i t must fo llo w th a t whatever
c o n fig u r a tio n s o f th e Fourth Amendment have been
developed in th e p a r tic u la r iz in g fe d e r a l p reced en ts
are lik e w is e to be deemed a part o f "ordered
lib e r t y ," and as such are en fo rcea b le a g a in st th e
S t a t e s .
He s ta te d th a t what was b ein g review ed by th e Court
was n o t whether
. . . what th e S ta te p o lic e did was C o n s titu tio n a lly
p e r m iss ib le [s in c e th e S ta te Court q u ite e v id e n tly
assumed th a t i t was n o t ] , but a d eterm in ation th a t
a p p e lla n t was p rop erly found g u ilt y o f conduct
w h ich , fo r p resen t p urposes, i t i s to be assumed th e
S ta te cou ld C o n s titu tio n a lly p un ish .
What i s c r u c ia l and what does fo llo w from th e
p roced u ral r ig h t to a f a ir t r i a l , i s th e r ig h t o f th e
accused to f u l l p r o te c tio n from "coerced c o n f e s s io n ." I t
i s " t h is , and n o t th e d is c ip lin in g o f th e p o lic e , as w ith
i l l e g a l l y se iz e d e v id e n c e , [th a t] i s su r e ly th e tr u e b a s is
fo r ex clu d in g a statem ent o f the accused which was uncon
s t i t u t i o n a l l y o b ta in ed ."
A p p raisal and E xplanation
A p p ra isa l
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c is io n . The procedural r ig h t
o f th e Fourth Amendment, freedom from unreasonable sea rch
and s e iz u r e , was n a tio n a liz e d . Evidence so ob tain ed was
d ecla red in a d m issib le in e ith e r s t a t e or fe d e r a l co u rts
(1 9 6 1 ).
183
E xplanation
A p p lic a tio n o f th e c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
reason s fo r th in k in g th a t "respect fo r th e in herent worth
and equal d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein g s" i s the
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l is s u e .]
184
C A SE VII
The Case o f th e Misdemeanor I lln e s s
(Robinson v . C a lifo r n ia . 370 U .S . 660. 1962)
F a cts o f th e Case
A few years ago a young man was w alking down a
s t r e e t in th e C ity o f Los A n g eles. A p o lic e o f f ic e r
stopped him. The o f f ic e r la t e r t e s t i f i e d th a t he had no
reason to su sp ect the young man o f any wrongdoing.
In te r r o g a tio n o f t h is young man, a Mr. Robinson, le d to
exam ination o f h is arm, an in sp e c tio n which re v e a le d the
p resence o f sc a b s, marks, and d is c o lo r a tio n . The o f f ic e r
then p laced him under a r r e s t . Im m ediately fo llo w in g a r r e st
he was examined by m ed ical ex p erts who determ ined th a t th e
scabs on h is arm were s e v e r a l days o ld .
Mr. Robinson was charged w ith v io la t io n o f a
p ro v isio n o f th e C a lifo r n ia H ealth and S a fe ty Code s t a tin g
'ho person s h a ll u se or be under th e in flu e n c e o f or be
ad d icted to th e u se o f n a r c o t ic s , 1 1 ex cep t under lic e n s e d
m ed ical a u th o r ity . S en ten ce, upon c o n v ic tio n fo r v io la t io n
o f th e a d d ic tio n c la u se o f th e s t a t u t e , was a m andatory,
minimum o f n in e ty days in th e county j a i l . The law fu r th er
d ir e c te d th a t th e p erio d o f imprisonment be u t i l i z e d fo r
m ed ical trea tm en t.
During h is ju ry t r i a l , Mr. Robinson d en ied th e u se
o f n a r c o tic s and sta te d th a t th e marks on h is arm were th e
185
r e s u lt s o f in j e c t io n s r e c e iv e d in the Army fo r an a lle r g ic
c o n d itio n . The t r i a l produced 'ho p ersu a siv e evidence"
th a t he had used n a r c o tic s in th e S ta te o f C a lifo r n ia .
F ollow in g c o n v ic tio n "of b ein g ad d icted to th e u se o f
n a r c o tic s ," he was senten ced to n in e ty days in th e county
j a i l .
No r e l i e f was granted by the Supreme Court o f the
S ta te o f C a lifo r n ia . I t in te r p r e te d "the a d d ic tio n cla u se "
as r e fe r r in g to "a co n tin u in g and a somewhat unique co n d i
tio n [which] s u b je c ts th e o ffen d er to an a r r e s t a t any tim e
b efo re h is reform ."
O pinion o f th e Court
(Mr. J u s tic e Stew art d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n .)
The Q uestion
I s th e C a lifo r n ia s ta tu te which makes i t a m isde
meanor fo r a p erson to "be ad d icted to th e u se o f n a r c o tic s"
in v io la t io n o f th e p r o te c tio n o f th e E ighth Amendment
a g a in st c r u e l and unusual punishment as made binding upon
th e S ta te s by th e F ourteen th Amendment?
The Answer
Y es. ('toe h old th a t a S ta te law which im prisons a
person th u s a f f l i c t e d as a crim in a l . . . i n f l i c t s a c r u e l
and unusual punishment in v io la t io n o f th e F ourteen th
Amendment." )
186
Reasons
In support o f th e d e c is io n . The Court agreed w ith
th e S ta te o f C a lifo r n ia th a t th e n a r c o tic s problem i s a
se r io u s on e, y e t , i t ru le d th a t th e s t a t e p o ssessed
adequate and le g itim a t e powers fo r tr e a tin g the problem
a sid e from the s t a t u t e in q u e stio n .
The Court o b je cted to th e im p lic a tio n th a t
. . . a p erson can b e c o n tin u o u sly g u ilt y o f t h is
o ffe n s e , w hether or n o t he had ever used or
p o ssessed any n a r c o tic s w ith in th e s t a t e , and
whether or n o t he has been g u ilt y o f any a n ti
s o c ia l b eh avior th e r e .
J u s tic e S tew art p la ce d the s t a tu t e in the same
ca teg o ry as one w hich would make i t a. c r im in a l o ffe n s e "for
a person t o be m en ta lly i l l , or a le p e r , or to be a f f l i c t e d
w ith a v e n e r e a l d is e a s e ."
The Court d ecla red th a t i t i s n o t th e a b str a ct
"imprisonment fo r n in e ty days" which determ ines th e p un ish
ment to be c r u e l or u n u su a l. I t cannot be con sid ered
p rop erly in th e a b s tr a c t. "Even one day in p riso n would be
a c r u e l and unusual punishment fo r th e 'crim e' o f having a
common c o ld ."
S ep arate and con cu rrin g o p in io n s . J u s tic e Douglas
d eclared th e im p ro p riety o f th e C a lifo r n ia s t a tu t e to
r e s u lt from i t s purpose "not to cure,' but to p e n a liz e ." He
m aintained th a t cr im in a l p r o se cu tio n and confinem ent
"cannot be j u s t i f i e d as a means o f p r o te c tin g s o c ie t y ,
187
where a c i v i l commitment would do as w e ll,"
J u s tic e Harlan o b jected to the in s tr u c tio n s to th e
ju ry in th a t th ey were to ld to fin d the defendant g u ilt y on
no more grounds than th e b e l i e f th a t he was in C a lifo r n ia
w h ile he was a d d icted to n a r c o t ic s . He d ecla red th a t the
e f f e c t o f such in s tr u c tio n was "to a u th o rize crim in a l
punishment fo r a bare d e s ir e to commit a crim in a l a c t ."
Some d is s a t is f a c t io n was exp ressed w ith the C ourt's
im p o sitio n upon th e S ta te o f C a lifo r n ia o f " its own n o tio n s
o f ordered lib e r ty " and i t s "expert understanding" o f "how
b e s t to handle th e n a r c o tic s problem ," Further d i s s a t i s
fa c tio n was s ta te d w ith th e f a ilu r e o f the (m ajority)
op in ion to s t r ik e a d is t in c t io n between "addiction" on the
one hand and "purchase, p o s s e s s io n or use" on th e o th e r .
A p p ra isa l and E xplanation
A p p raisal
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c is io n . The procedural r ig h t
o f th e E ighth Amendment, freedom from c r u e l and unusual
punishm ent, was n a tio n a liz e d (1 9 6 2 ).
E xplanation
A p p lic a tio n o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
reason s fo r th in k in g th a t " resp ect fo r the in h eren t w orth
and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein gs" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l is s u e .] ______________
C A SE VIII
The C onvict W ho B e lie v e d H is F orefath ers
188
(Gideon v . W ainw rieht. 372 U .S . 335. 1963)
F a cts o f th e Case
Someone broke in to a p o o l room in Panama C ity ,
F lo rid a in 1961. Under F lo rid a law , when an i l l e g a l en try
i s compounded by in te n t to commit a misdemeanor, the
o ffe n s e c o n s t it u t e s a fe lo n y . A man named C larence Gideon
was a rr ested fo r th e aforem entioned a c t and charged w ith
fe lo n io u s e n tr y . S in ce he lacked th e funds to h ir e an
a tto r n e y , he appeared in cou rt and req u ested th a t one be
appointed fo r him. The fo llo w in g exchange then occurred:
The Court: Mr. G ideon, I am so r ry , but I cannot
ap poin t C ounsel to re p rese n t you in t h is c a s e .
Under th e law s o f th e S ta te o f F lo r id a , th e on ly
tim e th e Court can ap poin t C ounsel to rep resen t a
D efendant i s when th a t person i s charged w ith a
c a p it a l o f fe n s e . I am so r r y , but I w i l l have to
deny your re q u est to ap poin t C ounsel to defend you
in t h is c a s e .
The D efen d an t: The U nited S ta te s Supreme Court
says I am e n t it l e d to be rep resen ted by C ounsel.
When h is c a se went to t r i a l b efo re a ju r y , Mr.
Gideon conducted h is d efen se "about as w e ll as a layman
cou ld be exp ected to d o ." He made an opening statem ent to
th e ju r y , he cross-exam in ed th e w itn e sse s fo r th e s t a t e ,
he p resen ted w itn e s s e s in h is own d e fe n se , and he d eclin e d
to t e s t i f y as a w itn e s s . He concluded h is d efen se w ith a
sh ort argument "em phasizing h is innocence to th e charge
189
contained in the in form ation f i l e d in t h is c a s e ."
The ju ry found him g u ilt y . F ollow ing c o n v ic tio n he
was senten ced to se rv e f iv e years in the F lo rid a S ta te
P e n ite n tia r y . D uring h is imprisonment he f i l e d a p e t it io n
w ith th e F lo r id a Supreme Court fo r a w r it o f habeas corpus
in w hich he m aintained th a t the r e fu s a l o f the t r i a l cou rt
to appoint c o u n sel fo r him denied r ig h ts "guaranteed him by
the C o n stitu tio n and th e B i l l o f R ights o f the U nited
S ta te s Government." The S ta te Supreme Court receiv ed h is
p e t it io n and "upon c o n sid e r a tio n th ereo f" but w ithou t
is s u in g an o p in io n --d e n ie d a l l r e l i e f .
C larence Gideon then composed another " p e titio n ."
In h is own hand and on ru led notebook paper he w rote, " I,
C larence G ideon, c la im th a t I was denied the R igh ts o f th e
4 th , 5 th , and 14th amendments o f th e B i l l o f R ig h ts." He
m ailed i t to "the U nited S ta te s Supreme C ourt, W ashington."
O pinion o f th e Court
(Mr. J u s t ic e B lack d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n .)
The Q uestion
Has Gideon been denied th e r ig h t o f th e S ix th
Amendment to th e a s s is ta n c e o f C ounsel in v io la t io n o f th e
Due P rocess C lause o f th e F ourteenth Amendment?
190
The Answer
Y es. ("The judgment i s rev ersed and th e cau se i s
remanded to th e Supreme Court o f F lo r id a fo r fu rth er a c tio n
n o t in c o n s is te n t w ith t h is o p in io n ." The d e c isio n was
unanimous.)
The Reasons
The Court observed th a t s in c e i t s (d iv id ed ) d e c i
sio n in th e 1942 B e tts c a s e ,
. . . th e problem o f a d efen d a n t's C o n s titu tio n a l
r ig h t to co u n sel in a s t a t e co u rt has been a
co n tin u in g sou rce o f co n tro v ersy and l i t i g a t i o n in
both s t a t e and fe d e r a l c o u r ts . To g iv e t h is prob
lem another review h e r e , we granted c e r t io r a r i.
(Gideon b ein g w ith ou t funds fo r c o u n se l, th e Court
appointed one to re p r ese n t h im .)
In comparing B e tts w ith th e p resen t c a s e , th e Court
n oted th a t "the f a c t s and circu m stan ces o f th e two ca ses
are so n e a r ly in d is tin g u is h a b le " th a t i f th e h o ld in g in
B e tts were l e f t stan d in g i t "would be cause to r e j e c t
G ideon's cla im th a t th e C o n s titu tio n guarantees him th e
a s s is ta n c e o f C ou n sel." I t fu r th e r observed th a t i f th e
Court in B e tts had n ot tr e a te d due p ro cess as "a concept
l e s s r ig id and more f lu id than th o se en v isio n ed in other
s p e c if ic and p a r tic u la r p r o v isio n s o f th e B i l l o f R ig h ts,"
i f i t had d ecid ed th a t an in d ig e n t crim in a l defendant had a
r ig h t to th e appointm ent o f co u n sel because such was "a
fundam ental r i g h t , e s s e n t ia l to a f a ir t r i a l , " i t would
191
have d ecid ed th a t "the F ourteenth Amendment re q u ir e s
appointm ent o f co u n sel in a s t a te c o u r t, ju s t as th e S ix th
Amendment r e q u ir e s in a fe d e r a l c o u r t."
The Court h eld th a t in B e tts (1942) as w e ll as in
P ow ell (1932) i t
. . . had ample p recedent fo r acknowledging th a t
th o se gu aran tees o f th e B i l l o f R igh ts which are
fundam ental safegu ard s o f lib e r ty and immune from
fe d e r a l abridgem ent are eq u a lly p ro te cted a g a in st
s t a t e in v a sio n by th e due p rocess c la u s e o f th e
F ou rteen th Amendment.
The Court noted th a t where th ere had been r e fu s a l
to make a fe d e r a l r ig h t binding upon a s t a t e c o u r t, as in
th e (1937) Palko c a s e , i t had been c a r e fu l to em phasize
th a t "im m unities th a t are v a lid as a g a in st th e F ed eral
Government by fo r c e o f th e s p e c if ic p led g es o f p a r tic u la r
amendments have been found to be im p lic it in th e con cep t o f
ordered lib e r t y , and th u s, through th e F ourteen th Amendment
by a p ro cess o f a b so rp tio n ."
The Court concluded th a t the 'Vioble id ea" o f " fa ir
t r i a l s b e fo r e im p a r tia l tr ib u n a ls in w hich eveiy defendant
sta n d s eq u al b efo re th e law" has been h i s t o r i c a l l y accep ted
in th e U nited S ta te s and has been j u d ic i a lly re co g n ized by
means o f em phasis upon procedural and su b s ta n tiv e s a f e
gu ard s. I t "cannot be r e a liz e d i f th e poor man charged
w ith crim e has to fa c e h is accu sers w ith o u t a law yer to
a s s i s t him ."
192
In sep a ra te con cu rren ce. A se p a r a te but concurring
op in io n by J u s tic e Douglas emphasized h is disagreem ent w ith
th e v iew o f J u s tic e H arlan, "that a gu aran tee o f th e B i l l
o f R igh ts made a p p lic a b le to th e S ta te by rea so n o f th e
F o u rteen th Amendment i s a le s s e r v e r sio n o f th a t same
gu aran tee as a p p lied to th e F ed eral Government."
In sep a ra te con cu rren ce. In another concurring
o p in io n , J u s tic e Clark s tr e s s e d th a t "the F o u rteen th Amend
ment r e q u ir e s Due P rocess o f Law fo r th e d e p r iv a l o f
'li b e r t y ' j u s t as fo r d ep riv a l o f ' l i f e , ' and th e re cannot
c o n s t it u t io n a lly be a d iffe r e n c e in th e q u a lity o f th e
p ro cess based m erely upon a supposed d iffe r e n c e in th e
sa n c tio n in v o lv e d ."
In sep arate con cu rren ce. In s t i l l another concur
r in g o p in io n , J u s tic e Harlan agreed th a t th e d e c is io n in
th e B e tts c a se should be o v erru led , "but co n sid ered [ i t ]
e n t it l e d to a more r e s p e c tfu l b u r ia l than has been
a ccord ed ." He sta te d th a t
. . . th e s p e c ia l circu m stan ces r u le has been
fo rm a lly abandoned in c a p it a l c a s e s , and th e tim e
has now come when i t should be s im ila r ly abandoned
in n o n -c a p ita l c a s e s , a t le a s t as to o ffe n s e s
w hich, as th e one in v o lv ed h ere, c a r r ie d a p o s s i
b i l i t y o f a s u b s ta n tia l p riso n s e n te n c e .
When we hold a r ig h t o f immunity, v a li d a g a in st
th e fe d e r a l governm ent, to be " im p lic it in th e con
c e p t o f ordered lib e r ty " and th u s v a lid a g a in st th e
s t a t e , I do not read our p a st d e c is io n s to su g g est
193
th a t by so h o ld in g , we a u to m a tic a lly carry over an
e n tir e body o f fe d e r a l law and apply i t in f u l l
sweep to th e s t a t e .
J u s tic e Harlan m aintained th a t th e p r in c ip le s la id
down in Palko do not req u ire the f u l l " incorp oration" o f
th e B i l l o f R igh ts as su ch . To do s o , he reason ed , would
be to d isreg a rd th e le g itim a te d iffe r e n c e s o f in t e r e s t
betw een s t a t e and fe d e r a l governm ents.
A ppraisal and E xp lan ation
A pp raisal
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c is io n . The p rocedu ral r ig h t
to co u n sel o f th e S ix th Amendment was n a tio n a liz e d (1 9 6 3 ).
E xplanation
A p p lica tio n o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
rea so n s fo r th in k in g th a t " resp ect fo r th e in h eren t w orth
and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein g s" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l i s s u e .]
194
C ASE IX
The Murderer W ho O bjected to T e le v is io n
(Rideau v . L o u isia n a . 373 U .S . 723. 1963)
F a c ts o f th e Case
I t was th e even in g o f February 16, 1961 in Lake
C h a rles, L o u isia n a . A gunman en tered a bank, h eld the bank
manager and two women t e l l e r s a t gu n p oin t, and com pelled
them to s t u f f $14,000 in to a b ag. In order to e f f e c t h is
esc a p e , he kidnapped th e th ree em ployees and fo rce d them to
accompany him in. a car w hich was owned by one o f them, Mrs.
J u lia Ferguson. The gunman sh o t a l l th r ee em ployees b efo re
le a v in g them. One o f them, Mrs. F erguson, d ied o f her
wounds.
W ilbert Rideau was apprehended by th e p o lic e
s e v e r a l hours la t e r and was p laced in th e P a rish j a i l in
Lake C h a rles. That n ig h t he made d e ta ile d o r a l and w r itte n
c o n fe s s io n s to th e crim es.
The fo llo w in g m orning, some t e le v is io n newsmen from
th e Lake C harles s t a t io n w ent to th e j a i l . W hile th ere
th e y made "a moving p ic tu r e f ilm w ith a sound track " o f an
"in terview " w hich to o k p la c e in th e j a i l between Mr. Rideau
and th e p a rish s h e r i f f . The "in terview " la s te d about
tw enty m in u tes.
C o n sistin g o f th e in te r r o g a tio n by th e s h e r if f and
o f adm issions by Mr. R ideau to th e p e r p e tr a tio n o f bank
195
rob b ery, kidnapping, and murder, th e film was t e le v is e d
la t e r th a t day over a Lake C harles t e le v is io n s t a tio n .
That b road cast and th o se o f th e two su cceed in g days c a r r ie d
to a community audience estim a ted as 2 4 ,0 0 0 on the f i r s t
d ay, 5 3 ,0 0 0 on th e second d ay, and 2 0 ,0 0 0 on th e th ir d day.
S in ce th e p o p u la tio n o f th e p a r ish was 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 , th e e s t i
mated audience c o n s is te d o f more than tw o -th ird s o f the
t o t a l p op u lation o f th e p a r is h .
At h is arraignm ent, some two weeks la t e r , Mr.
Rideau was charged w ith "armed rob b ery, kidnapping, and
m urder," and two law yers were appointed to rep resen t him.
H is a tto rn ey s prom ptly f i l e d a m otion fo r change o f venue
on th e grounds th a t t r i a l w ith in th e p a r ish , because o f
t e le v is io n b road casts o f h is " in terview " w ith the s h e r i f f ,
would d ep rive Mr. Rideau "of r ig h ts guaranteed to him by
th e U nited S ta te s C o n s titu tio n ." F ollow in g a h ea rin g , th e
m otion fo r changing th e p la c e o f t r i a l was d en ied . Mr.
Rideau was co n v ic te d in a p a r ish t r i a l co u rt on the charge
o f murder and was sen ten ced t o d ea th . H is attorn eys
appealed the c o n v ic tio n .
E v e n tu a lly , th e ap p eal came b e fo r e th e Supreme
Court o f L ou isiana where h is a tto r n e y s argued th a t the
t e le v is io n showings had d ep rived th e ir c l i e n t o f "due
p ro cess o f law" a s req u ired o f th e s t a t e s by th e F ourteenth
Amendment. They observed th a t althou gh th e t e le v is io n film
had n ot been shown to th e t r i a l ju r y , th ree o f th e tw elve
196
ju ro rs in th e o r ig in a l t r i a l adm itted to having seen i t
elsew h ere. They n oted th a t two members o f th e t r i a l ju ry
were deputy s h e r i f f s in th e p a rish and o b jected th a t th e se
men had n ot been excused "for c a u se ." However, th ey
appealed th e c o n v ic tio n p rim a rily on th e grounds th a t th e
t e le v is io n b ro a d ca sts had made f a ir t r i a l im p o ssib le. They
argued th a t th e t e le c a s t s had such p r e ju d ic ia l e f f e c t th e
ju ry could n o t have co n sid ered th e defendant "innocent
■until proven g u il t y ."
In r e b u t t a l, th e a tto rn e y s fo r th e s t a t e argued
th a t none o f th e ju ro rs " f e l t th a t th e t e le v is io n film had
a ffe c te d t h e ir d e c is io n e ith e r w ay." They contended th a t
the t r i a l cou ld n o t have been more n e a r ly f a ir in any oth er
p la c e .
The judgment o f c o n v ic tio n was affirm ed by the
Supreme Court o f L o u isia n a .
O pinion o f th e Court
(Mr. J u s t ic e Stew art d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n .)
The Q uestion
Was Mr. Rideau denied h is C o n s titu tio n a l guarantee
o f due p ro cess o f law , o f w hich th e " rig h t to a t r i a l
b efo re a f a i r and im p a r tia l tr ib u n a l" i s a b a sic r e q u ir e
ment? Was f a i r t r i a l denied?
197
The Answer
Y es. (H is c o n v ic tio n was "set a sid e " and h is c a se
was remanded to th e c o u r ts o f th e S ta te o f L ou isian a "for
a c tio n n o t in c o n s is te n t w ith h is d e c is io n ." )
The Reasons
In support o f th e d e c is io n . The Court review ed the
f a c t s o f th e c a s e and th e background o f th e t r i a l as w e ll
as i t s own p rev io u s d e c is io n s in r e la te d c a s e s .
The film used in th e t e le v is io n b road cast in th e
c a se was e x h ib ite d to th e Court which commented:
What th e p eo p le o f C a lca sie u P a rish saw on t h e ir
t e le v is io n s e t s was Rideau in j a i l , fla n k ed by th e
s h e r if f and two s t a t e tr o o p e r s, a d m ittin g in d e t a il
th e com m ission o f th e rob b ery, kidnapping, and
murder, in re sp o n se to lea d in g q u e stio n s by th e
s h e r i f f .
The record f a i l s to show whose id e a i t was to
make th e sound f ilm , and broadcast i t over th e lo c a l
t e l e v i s io n s t a t io n . . . . W e know from th e conceded
circu m stan ces th a t th e p la n was c a r r ie d out w ith th e
a c t iv e co o p er a tio n and p a r tic ip a tio n o f th e law
enforcem ent o f f i c e r s . . . . C e r ta in ly no one has
su g g ested i t was R id eau 's id e a , or even th a t he was
aware o f what was g o in g on when the sound f ilm was
b ein g made.
The Court d ecla red th a t the r e s p o n s ib ilit y fo r
having i n it ia t e d th e t e le v is e d in te rv ie w was "a b a s ic a lly
ir r e le v a n t d e t a i l ," s in c e
. . . i t was a d e n ia l o f due p rocess o f law to r e fu s e
th e re q u est fo r a change o f venue, a f t e r th e p eo p le
o f C a lca sieu P a rish had been exposed r e p e a te d ly and
in depth t o th e s p e c ta c le o f Rideau p e r s o n a lly
198
c o n fe s s in g in d e t a il to th e crim es w ith w hich he was
la t e r to be charged.
For anyone who has ever watched t e l e v i s i o n , th e
c o n c lu sio n cannot be avoided th a t t h is s p e c ta c le
. . . in a v ery r e a l sen se was [R id ea u 'sj t r i a l ,
. . . a t which he pleaded g u ilt y to murder. Any
subsequent cou rt p roceed in gs in a community so
p e r v a s iv e ly exposed to such a s p e c ta c le cou ld be
but a h o llo w fo r m a lity .
The Court observed th a t accused p erso n s are 'Vouch
sa fe d b a s ic minimum r ig h ts " by th e C o n s titu tio n a l guarantee
o f due p ro ce ss:
Among th e se are th e r ig h t to c o u n s e l, th e r ig h t
to p lead n o t g u ilt y , and th e r ig h t to be t r ie d in a
courtroom p resid ed over by a ju d ge. Yet in t h is
c a se th e p eop le o f C a lca sieu P arish saw and h eard ,
not once but th ree tim e s, a " tr ia l" o f R ideau in a
j a i l , p resid ed over by a s h e r i f f , where th e r e was no
lawyer to a d v ise Rideau o f h is r ig h t to stan d m ute.
A fter n o tin g th a t p a rish record s co n ta in ed no
ev id en ce o f any other such t r i a l , and a f t e r n o tin g th a t i t
d id n o t know whether any oth er such t r i a l had occurred
else w h e r e , th e Court concluded w ith th e sta te m e n t, "W e do
n o t h e s it a t e to h old . . . th a t due p ro cess o f law in t h is
c a s e req u ired a t r i a l b e fo r e a ju ry drawn from a community
o f p eo p le who had not seen and heard R id eau fs t e le v is e d
'in te r v ie w . ‘ 1 1
In d is s e n t from th e d e c is io n . J u s t ic e C lark,
jo in e d by J u s tic e H arlan, agreed th a t i f th e Rideau ca se
had a r is e n in fe d e r a l co u rt th ey would have v o te d to
r e v e r s e th e judgm ent. And th ey " fu lly agreed" th a t an
199
accused person has been deprived o f due p ro cess o f law when
th e environm ent o f h is t r i a l i s perm eated w ith p r e ju d ic ia l
h o s t i l i t y .
The d is s e n tin g j u s t ic e s d id n o t a g re e, however,
th a t p a r t ia lit y had been shown. They f e l t th a t th e Court
rendered i t s d e c is io n "without e s ta b lis h in g any s u b s ta n tia l
nexus betw een the t e le v is e d 'in te r v ie w ' and p e t it io n e r 's
t r i a l which occurred alm ost two months la t e r ." W hile
a g reein g th a t " im p a rtia lity " i s a b a s ic req u irem en t, they
h eld th a t i t s d eterm in ation i s "w ithin th e p ro v in ce o f th e
t r i a l ju d g e." They argued th a t m erely to prove th e e x i s t
ence o f some preconceived n o tio n o f d e c is io n i s n ot grounds
fo r d isp ro v in g
. . . th e presum ption o f a p r o s p e c tiv e ju r o r 's
im p a r tia lity . . . . The record shows th a t i t was th e
b e l i e f o f th e ju r o r s , accep ted by th e t r i a l ju d g e,
th a t th e defendant would be accorded presum ption o f
in n o cen ce, d e c is io n based s o l e l y upon th e e v id e n c e ,
and a p p lic a tio n o f th e law as d ir e c te d by th e t r i a l
c o u r t.
The d is s e n tin g op in ion concluded w ith th e a s s e r tio n
th a t excep t under "unusually com p ellin g" circu m sta n ces—
and th o se o f th e p resen t c a se were n o t— " it i s n o t ask in g
to o much th a t th e burden o f showing e s s e n t i a l u n fa ir n e ss be
su sta in e d by him who claim s such in j u s t i c e and seek s to
have th e r e s u lt s e t a s id e ."
200
A p p raisal and E xp lan ation
A p p raisal
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c is io n . The p rocedu ral r ig h t
o f f a ir t r i a l , due p ro cess in clu d in g th e guarantee o f th e
S ix th Amendment fo r im p a r tia l ju r y , was n a tio n a liz e d
(1 9 6 3 ).
E xp lan ation
A p p lic a tio n o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
re a so n s fo r th in k in g th a t " resp ect fo r th e in h eren t worth
and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein g s" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l i s s u e .]
201
CASE X
The Gambler Who R efused to Show H is Cards
(M alloy v . Hogan. 378 U .S . 1 . 1964)
F a cts o f th e Case
The p o lic e o f H a rtfo rd , C on n ecticu t staged a
gambling r a id in 1959. A Mr. M alloy was among th o se who
were a r r e s te d . He p lead ed g u ilt y to a misdemeanor charge
o f " p o o l- s e llin g .1 1 S u b seq u en tly, he was sen ten ced to one
year in j a i l and fin e d $ 5 0 0 .0 0 .
Some s ix t e e n months l a t e r , Mr. M alloy was ordered
to appear b efo re th e Superior Court o f H artford County and
to g iv e testim o n y in co n n ectio n w ith an in q u ir y in to
a lle g e d gam bling and o th er cr im in a l a c t i v i t i e s o f th e
cou n ty.
He was asked th e fo llo w in g q u e stio n s: (1) W ho was
h is employer on September 11, 1959 (th e day o f h is a r r e s t)?
(2) W ho provided and p aid fo r h is attorn ey? (3) W ho
s e le c te d and p aid h is b a i l bondsman? (4 ) W ho paid h is
fin e ? (5 ) What was th e name o f th e ten an t in whose ap art
ment he was a rrested ? (6 ) Did he know John B ergoti? He
d eclin e d to answer any o f th e q u e stio n s "on th e grounds i t
would tend t o in cr im in a te him ."
For h is r e fu s a l t o answ er, he was judged in con
tempt o f co u rt and committed to p r iso n u n t i l such tim e as
he m ight become w illi n g t o t e s t i f y . Subsequent a p p lic a tio n
202
fo r a w r it o f habeas corpus was r e je c te d by th e su p erior
court as w e ll as by th e (C on n ecticu t) Supreme Court o f
E rrors. The Court o f Errors d ecla red t h a t , except fo r th e
la s t q u e stio n , h is resp o n ses cou ld n ot have in crim inated
him, because he was p ro tec te d by th e s ta tu te o f lim ita tio n s
on misdemeanors a s w e ll as by th e guarantee a g a in st double
jeop ard y. As to th e l a s t q u e stio n , th e C onnecticut cou rt
f e l t th a t h is f a i l u r e to e x p la in how th e nature o f h is
r e la tio n s h ip w ith B e r g o ti cou ld in crim in a te him, d estroyed
h is cla im to immunity from s e lf-in c r im in a tio n under s t a t e
law.
O pinion o f th e Court
(Mr. J u s t ic e Brennan d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n .)
The Q uestion
The s t a t e Court o f Errors had h eld th a t th e p r i v i
le g e a g a in st s e lf- in c r im in a t io n had been c o r r e c tly denied
to Mr. M alloy b eca u se th e F if t h Amendment does not apply to
s t a t e c o u r ts , b eca u se th e F ourteen th Amendment does n ot
extend th a t p r o te c tio n o f th e F if t h Amendment to s t a t e
c o u r ts, and b eca u se he had n o t p rop erly claim ed h is p r i v i
le g e a g a in st s e lf- in c r im in a t io n under C onnecticut law .
The Supreme Court r e s t r ic t e d i t s a tte n tio n to th e
second reason o n ly . Does th e F ourteenth Amendment p reven t
the s t a t e s from in fr in g in g upon th e p r iv ile g e a g a in st s e l f -
in cr im inat ion ?
203
The Answer
Y es. (The judgment o f th e C onn ecticu t co u rt was
r e v e r s e d .)
The Reasons
In support o f th e d e c is io n . The Court em phasized
i t had h eld p r e v io u sly th a t c o n fe ssio n must be
. . . fr e e and v o lu n ta ry . . . must not be e x tr a c te d
by any s o r t o f th r e a ts or v io le n c e , nor ob tain ed by
any d ir e c t or im p lied p rom ises, however s l i g h t , nor
by th e e x e r tio n o f any improper in flu e n c e .
I t n oted th a t th e "marked s h if t to the F ederal
standard" began w ith th e review o f a C a lifo r n ia cou rt
d e c is io n in which i t h eld th a t th e s t a t e should have
granted th e defendant "free ch o ic e to adm it, deny, or to
r e fu s e to answ er." The Court r e fe rr ed to t h is p r iv ile g e
as one o f th e " p r in c ip le s o f a fr e e governm ent," as "an
unchangeable p r in c ip le o f u n iv e r sa l j u s t i c e ," and as a
guarantee " f o r t if ie d by d e c is io n s made in c a s e s in v o lv in g
r e la te d r ig h t s ." I t took n ote o f th e fa c t th a t th e Fourth
and F if th Amendments have been taken to run "almost in to
each other" and th a t the co n ju n ctio n o f th e Fourth and
F if t h on one hand, and th e Fourth and F ou rteen th on the
oth er hand, supports the argument in t h is o p in io n th a t th e
F ifth and th e F ourteenth are " c o n jo in t."
In d is s e n t from th e d e c is io n . W hile d is s e n t in g ,
J u s tic e H arlan agreed w ith th e p r o p o sitio n th a t th e Due
204
P ro cess C lause o f th e F ourteenth Amendment may lea d the
sen se o f j u s t ic e o f th e community to expand the p r o te c tio n s
w hich i t p r o v id e s. He d isa g re e d , however, w ith any lo g ic
o f "expansion" w hich requ ired d ir e c t in co rp o ra tio n o f th e
F ed era l sta n d a rd s. He h eld th a t such u n c r it ic a l " in cor
p o ra tio n " ig n o res r e le v a n t d iffe r e n c e s which e x i s t between
s t a t e and fe d e r a l governments in law enforcem ent.
On th e o th er hand, he agreed th a t th e Fourth and
F if t h Amendments in clu d e " p r in c ip le s o f humanity and c i v i l
l i b e r t y ," and th a t the due p ro cess requirem ent i s "old as
p r in c ip le o f c i v i l i z e d governm ent." He a sse r te d th a t some
in d iv id u a l r ig h t s are "of th e v ery e sse n c e o f a scheme o f
ordered lib e r t y ," and th a t th o se r ig h t s have been
"absorbed" in to th e F ourteenth Amendment by reason o f th e
f a c t th a t " n eith er lib e r t y nor j u s t ic e would e x i s t i f they
w ere s a c r if ic e d ."
In d is s e n t from the d e c is io n . The d is s e n t o f
J u s t ic e W hite exp ressed h is d is s a t is f a c t io n w ith th e
a p p lic a tio n o f th e "Federal standard" to th e p a r tic u la r
s t a t e c a s e b efo r e th e Court. He thought a b e t te r c a se
should have been chosen as th e o cc a sio n fo r tr a n sfe r r in g
th e fe d e r a l standard to th e s t a t e c o u r ts .
205
A pp raisal and E xp lan ation
A p p raisal
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c is io n . The p rocedural r ig h t
o f th e F if t h Amendment fo r freedom from com pulsory s e l f
in cr im in a tio n was n a tio n a liz e d (1 9 6 4 ).
E xplanation
A p p lica tio n o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
rea so n s fo r th in k in g th a t "resp ect fo r th e in h eren t worth
and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein g s" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l i s s u e .]
206
C A SE XI
The Robber W ho Wanted a W itness
(P o in ter v . T exas, 380 U .S . 400. 1965)
F acts o f th e Case
Mr. P o in ter and a companion named D illa r d were
a rr e ste d and taken b efo re a Texas judge fo r p relim in a ry
h earin g on the charge o f having robbed a Mr. P h i llip s o f
$375.00 "by a s s a u lt , or v io le n c e , or by p u ttin g in fe a r o f
l i f e or b o d ily in ju r y ."
At the p relim in ary h e a r in g , where n e ith e r o f th e
d efen d an ts was rep resen ted by c o u n s e l, an a s s is t a n t
d i s t r i c t a tto rn ey d ir e c te d th e p ro se cu tio n and examined
w itn e s s e s . The c h ie f w itn e ss fo r th e p r o se c u tio n , Mr.
P h i l l i p s , d escrib ed the a lle g e d robbery and id e n t if ie d Mr.
P o in ter as th e man who had robbed him a t gu n p oin t.
A lthough Mr. P o in ter i s rep o rted to have t r ie d a t t h is
h ea rin g to cross-exam in e some o f th e w itn e s s e s fo r th e
s t a t e , he ap p aren tly did n o t tr y to exam ine Mr. P h i llip s .
Mr. P o in ter was su b seq u en tly in d ic te d on th e
robbery ch arge. But b efo re he was brought to t r i a l , Mr.
P h i l l i p s , who was th e c h ie f w itn e ss a g a in s t him, moved to
C a lifo r n ia .
At th e t r i a l the p r o se c u tio n , a f te r su b m ittin g
evid en ce th a t Mr. P h illip s d id n o t in ten d to re tu rn to
T exas, subm itted a tr a n s c r ip t o f h is testim o n y a t th e
207
p relim in a ry h ea rin g . Mr. P o in te r 's a tto rn ey im m ediately
o b jected to th e in tr o d u c tio n o f a tr a n s c r ip t o f p reviou s
testim o n y , s t a t in g , "Your Honor, we w i l l o b je ct to th a t ,
as i t i s a d e n ia l o f th e confrontm ent o f th e w itn e sse s
a g a in st th e d efen d an t."
This and subsequent o b je c tio n s were overru led by
th e t r i a l judge on th e grounds th a t th e defendant had been
p resen t a t th e p relim in a ry h earin g when testim on y had been
g iv e n , and although n o t rep resen ted by c o u n se l, had been
"accorded th e op p ortu n ity o f cross-exam in in g th e w itn e sse s
th e re a g a in st him."
He was c o n v ic te d . S u b seq u en tly, th e d e c is io n was
appealed and the c o n v ic tio n affirm ed by th e h ig h e st s t a t e
c o u r t, th e Texas S ta te Court o f C rim inal A ppeals.
Opinion o f th e Court
(Mr. J u s tic e B lack d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n .)
The Q uestion
Does the gu aran tee o f th e S ix th Amendment th a t a
defendant has th e r ig h t to be con fron ted w ith th e w itn e sse s
a g a in st him—which in clu d e s th e r ig h t o f th e defendant to
cross-exam in e th o se w itn e s s e s a g a in s t him—apply to s t a t e
crim in a l cou rt p roceed in gs by rea so n o f th e F ourteenth
Amendment ?
208
The Answer
Yes. (In a unanimous d e c is io n th e c o n v ic tio n was
r e v e r s e d .)
The Reasons
The Court observed th a t as fa r back as th e O liver
c a se (1 9 4 8 ), i t had taken th e p o s it io n th a t a person has
th e r ig h t n ot o n ly to rea so n a b le n o tic e o f th e charges
a g a in st him but a ls o to be heard in h is own d e fe n se . The
Court d eclared th e r ig h ts o f th e accused "basic in our
system o f ju risp ru d en ce; and th e s e r ig h t s in c lu d e , as a
minimum, a r ig h t to examine th e w itn e s s e s a g a in st him ."
I t noted th a t p reviou s d e c is io n s had f a ile d to h old a l l
p r o v isio n s o f th e S ix th Amendment b in d in g upon s t a t e
c r im in a l cou rt a c tio n s . The Court ob served , however, th a t
v a rio u s p r o v isio n s o f the B i l l o f R igh ts had been h eld
a p p lic a b le to th e s t a t e s by v ir t u e o f th e F ourteenth
Amendment. I t agreed th a t Mr. P o in te r "was e n t it le d to be
t r ie d in accordance w ith th e p r o te c tio n o f th e co n fro n ta
tio n guarantee o f th e S ix th Amendment" which i s to be h eld
en fo rce a b le upon th e s t a t e s accord in g to th e 'fe d e r a l
sta n d a r d ."
Although th e Court agreed w ith o u t d is s e n t upon th e
d e c is io n , th e j u s t ic e s d isa g reed as to "the th eory by which
th e F ourteen th Amendment p r o te c ts th e fundam ental l i b e r t i e s
o f in d iv id u a l c i t i z e n s ." They v a r io u s ly h eld th e r ig h t to
209
co n fr o n ta tio n to be o b lig a to r y upon th e s t a t e s by " in cor
p o ra tio n ," by guarantee o f "due p r o c e s s ," by a p ro cess o f
" a b so rp tio n ," or " s e le c tiv e in co r p o r a tio n ," and by "the
requirem ents o f fundam ental fa ir n e s s im p lic it in th e
con cep t o f ordered lib e r t y ."
A pp raisal and E xplanation
A p p raisal
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c is io n . The p rocedu ral r ig h t
o f th e S ix th Amendment to c o n fro n ta tio n by a ccu sin g
w itn e s s e s was n a tio n a liz e d (1 9 6 5 ).
E xplanation
A p p lic a tio n o f th e c itiz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
rea so n s fo r th in k in g th a t "resp ect fo r th e in h eren t worth
and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein g s" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l i s s u e .]
210
CASE X II
The Great W rit—Even fo r Him
(In re Yam ashita. 327 U .S. 1. 1946)
F a cts o f th e Case
During World War I I , th e m ilit a r y Governor o f th e
P h ilip p in e Isla n d s and Commander o f th e F ourteen th Army
Group o f th e Im perial Japanese Army s ta tio n e d th ere was
G eneral Yam ashita.
F ollow in g the c e s s a tio n o f h o s t i l i t i e s in th e
P a c if ic , t h is d efea ted and dishonored enemy g en er a l was
p laced under m ilita r y a r r e s t . He was charged w ith v i o l a
t io n o f "the law o f war" in th a t he
. . . f a ile d to d isch arge h is d u ty as commander to
c o n tr o l th e o p era tio n s o f th e members o f h is
command, p erm ittin g them to commit b r u ta l a t r o c i t ie s
and oth er h igh crim es a g a in s t th e p eo p le o f th e
U nited S ta te s and i t s a l l i e s .
G eneral Yamashita was p la ced on t r i a l b e fo r e a
m ilita r y com m ission o f f iv e Army o f f ic e r s who found him
g u ilt y as charged and who sen ten ced him to d ea th . Subse
q u e n tly , h is co u n sel f i l e d a p e t it io n fo r habeas corp u s.
The p e t it io n a lle g e d th a t h is
. . . d e te n tio n fo r th e purpose o f th e t r i a l was
in v a lid in th a t no m ilita r y com m ission co u ld tr y
him fo r v io la t io n o f th e law o f war a f t e r th e
c e s s a tio n o f h o s t i l i t i e s betw een America and
Japan; th e charge d id n o t amount to a v io la t io n
o f th e law o f war; th e procedures governing th e
m ilita r y t r i a l v io la te d th e A r t ic le s o f w ar,
th e Geneva C onvention, and th e F if t h Amendment
due p r o c e s s .
211
O pinion o f th e Court
(Mr. J u s tic e Stone d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n .)
The Q uestion
S h a ll th e c o n te n tio n s made in th e habeas corpus
p e t it io n o f G eneral Yamashita be affirm ed? Was h is
d e te n tio n "invalid" ? Was th e charge made a g a in st him
unwarranted? Were th e p rocedures o f h is t r i a l improper?
The Answer
No. (A ll c o n te n tio n s were r e j e c t e d , 6 -2 .)
The Reasons
In support o f th e d e c is io n . The Court noted that
th e r e was nothing about m ilit a r y tr ib u n a ls --o n e o f which
conducted th e t r i a l in q u e stio n — to w arrant fo r e c lo su r e o f
"the r ig h t o f an enemy a lie n to contend th a t the C o n stitu
t io n or th e law s o f th e U nited S ta te s w ith h o ld a u th o rity
to proceed w ith th e t r i a l . "
As i t had done in th e Q uirin c a s e , th e Court again
h eld th a t
. . . an im portant in c id e n t to th e conduct o f war
i s th e adoption o f m easures by th e m ilita r y
commander, n o t o n ly to r e p e l and d e fe a t th e enemy,
b ut to s e iz e and su b je c t to d is c ip lin a r y measures
th o se enem ies who, in t h e ir attem pt to thw art or
impede our m ilita r y e f f o r t , have v io la t e d the law
o f war.
The Court observed th a t under th e war power, from
w hich th e m ilita r y com m ission d e r iv e d , power i s not lim ite d
212
m erely to v ic t o r ie s in th e f i e l d but a ls o w arrants such
a c tio n as guards " a g a in st th e immediate renew al o f th e
c o n f l i c t , and to remedy, a t le a s t in ways Congress has
reco g n ized , the e v i l s w hich the m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s have
produced."
The Court reason ed th a t i t was n o t e n t it le d to r u le
th a t m ilita r y com m issions convened a fte r th e c e s s a tio n of
h o s t i l i t i e s have no a u th o r ity to tr y v io la t io n s which took
p la ce b efo re th a t c e s s a t io n occu rred . In f a c t , i t noted
th a t in most in sta n c e s tou ch in g upon th e p r a c t ic a l adm inis
tr a tio n o f m ilita r y j u s t i c e , th e system o f a d m in istra tio n
. . . under th e law o f war would f a i l i f such
a u th o rity were th ou gh t to end w ith th e c e s s a tio n
o f h o s t i l i t i e s . For o n ly a f te r th e c e s s a tio n
cou ld the g re a te r number o f o ffe n d er s and th e
p r in c ip a l ones be apprehended and su b jected to
t r i a l .
The Court took n o t ic e o f th e f a c t th a t Congress d id
n o t con fer any power o f j u d ic i a l review over m ilita r y
tr ib u n a ls excep t fo r th e power to gran t a w r it o f habeas
corpus fo r th e purpose o f in q u ir in g in to j u r is d ic t io n .
I t fu r th e r noted th a t "such com m issions are n ot bound to
observe due p r o c e ss," in th e manner o f c i v i l i a n c o u r ts .
I t ru led th a t th e A r t ic le s o f War ap ply o n ly to members o f
American Armed F o rces, n o t to t r i a l s o f enemy com batants
which are conducted by m ilit a r y com m issions.
In c o n c lu sio n , th e Court d ecla red th a t A r t ic le 63
o f th e Geneva C onvention o f 1929 provided no r e l i e f fo r
213
G eneral Yam ashita, s in c e i t r e f e r s to sen ten ce "pronounced
a g a in st a p riso n er o f war and [fo r an o ffe n s e committed
w h ile a p r is o n e r ,] n o t fo r a v io la t io n o f th e law o f war
committed w h ile a com batant." I t d ecla red th a t the charges
in q u e stio n , ch arges a r is in g ou t o f a c tio n a g a in st the
c i v i l i a n p o p u la tio n o f an occu p ied cou n try and p riso n ers o f
w ar, are c le a r ly reco g n ized under In te r n a tio n a l Law as
v io la t io n s o f th e Laws o f War. I t h eld th e g u ilt o f th e
accused as in no way reduced by th e f a c t th a t he d id n o t
p e r so n a lly commit them nor e x p l i c i t l y d ir e c t th e ir commis
s io n . "The Laws o f War p resuppose th a t th e ir v io la t io n i s
to be avoided through the c o n tr o l o f commanders who are
r e s p o n s ib le to t h e ir su b o r d in a te s."
In d is s e n t from th e d e c is io n . J u s tic e Murphy
sh arp ly d is s e n te d . He s ta te d th a t a u th o r ity fo r th e a c tio n
o f th e American M ilita r y Commission in tr y in g General
Yamashita r e s te d upon th e C o n s titu tio n a l p ro v isio n in
A r t ic le I fo r C ongress to " d efin e and punish . . . o ffe n s e s
a g a in st th e Law o f N a tio n s. . . . " H is rea so n in g , a t one
p o in t, le d him to conclude th a t
. . . th e grave is s u e r a is e d by t h is ca se i s whether
a m ilita r y com m ission so e s ta b lis h e d and so author
iz e d may d isr e g a rd th e p roced u ral r ig h t s o f an
accused p erson as guaranteed by th e C o n s titu tio n ,
e s p e c ia lly by th e Due P rocess C lause o f th e F ifth
Amendment.
J u s tic e Murphy m aintained th a t th e guarantee o f Due
P rocess in th e F if t h Amendment a p p lie s to "any person" who
214
stan d s accused o f a crim e by th e F ed eral Government or i t s
in s t r u m e n t a lit ie s . No e x c e p tio n i s made fo r someone who
has
. . . th e s ta tu s o f an enemy b e llig e r e n t . Indeed,
such an e x c e p tio n would be co n tra ry to th e whole
p h ilo so p h y o f human r ig h t s w hich makes the C on sti
tu tio n th e g r e a t liv in g document th a t i t i s . The
immutable r ig h t s o f th e in d iv id u a l . . . b elon g n o t
a lo n e to th e members o f th o se n a tio n s th a t e x c e ll
on th e b a t t l e f i e l d or th a t su b scrib e to th e demo
c r a t ic id e o lo g y . They b elo n g to ev ery person in
th e w o rld , v ic t o r or van q u ish ed , w hatever may be
h is r a c e , c o lo r , or b e l i e f s . They r i s e above any
s ta tu s o f b e llig e r e n c y or ou tlaw ry. They su rv iv e
any popular p a s s io n or fren zy o f th e moment.
C ontinuing h is d is s e n t , th e j u s t ic e m aintained th a t
th e r e had been n o th in g , n e ith e r d e fic ie n c y o f power and
a u th o r ity nor em ergent circu m sta n ce, to j u s t i f y th e d e n ia l
o f p rocedu ral safegu ard s to th e a ccu sed , a lie n g e n e r a l.
Yet he was n o t accorded them. As fo r th e charge th a t th e
G eneral "committed a re co g n ized v io la t io n o f th e Laws o f
War, . . . i t was sim p ly a lle g e d th a t he u n la w fu lly d is r e
garded and f a i l e d to d isch a rg e h is duty as Commander to
c o n tr o l . . . h is command. . . . " N eith er th e record nor
th e e s ta b lis h e d p r in c ip le s o f in te r n a tio n a l law provide
"the s l i g h t e s t p reced en t fo r such a ch a rg e."
215
A pp raisal and E xp lan ation
A pp raisal
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c i s io n . I t p ro v id es evidence
th a t th e b asic p rocedu ral r i g h t , th e "Great W rit" (habeas
corpus) i s a human r ig h t undenied even to a d esp ised and
d efea ted enemy g en era l in th e u n cooled afterm ath o f a g rea t
war (1 9 4 6 ).
E xplanation
A p p lica tio n o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
reason s for th in k in g th a t " resp ect fo r th e in h eren t worth
and eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein g s" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l i s s u e .]
216
CASE X III
The Case o f th e A rrested Speech
(F einer v . New York. 340 U .S . 315. 1951)
F a cts o f th e Case
I t was j u s t growing dark on a day in eary March o f
1949. In a predom inantly Negro r e s id e n t i a l s e c tio n o f
S yracu se, New York, a mixed crowd o f some sev en ty to e ig h ty
p eop le gathered around a u n iv e r s ity stu d en t who spoke to
them from th e top o f a la r g e wooden b ox.
The stu d e n t, Irv in g F e in e r , spoke to th e crowd over
a loud speaker system mounted on a nearby c a r . He was
p u b lic iz in g a m eeting o f th e Young P r o g r essiv e s o f America"
w hich was to be h eld th a t evening in a lo c a l h o t e l. In th e
cou rse o f h is speech he p r o te ste d th e r e v o c a tio n o f a
perm it which would have e n t it l e d th e o r g a n iz a tio n to hold
i t s m eeting in a p u b lic sc h o o l au ditorium . H is in d ig n a tio n
mounted as he spoke, and in th e la t e r co u rse o f h is remarks
h e r e fe r r e d to P resid en t Truman as a "bum," to th e Mayor o f
Syracuse as a "cham pagne-sipping bum" who "does n ot speak
fo r th e Negro p e o p le ," and to th e American Legion as a
"Nazi G estapo." To th e Negroes who were p resen t he e x c it
e d ly d ecla red : "Negroes d o n 't have eq u al r ig h t s ; th ey
should r i s e up in arms and f ig h t fo r them ."
Two p o lic e o f f ic e r s who a rr iv ed on th e scen e a few
m inutes a f te r Mr. F ein er began to speak rep orted th a t th e
217
crowd was b lo ck in g th e sid ew alk and th a t some were standing
in the s t r e e t . They t e s t i f i e d th a t the crowd was "pushing,
sh o v in g , and m illin g around." A lso , th a t one man who was
th ere w ith h is w ife and two c h ild r e n th reaten ed th a t i f the
p o lic e did n ot remove th a t "S.O .B." from th e stand he would
do so h im s e lf. At t h is p o in t , althou gh th e r e was no a c tu a l
d istu rb a n ce, th e a r r e s tin g o f f i c e r rep o rted th a t he
"stepped in to p reven t i t from r e s u ltin g in a f ig h t ."
A fter he tw ic e ign ored th e re q u est o f th e p o lic e
o f f ic e r to q u it sp ea k in g , Mr. F ein er was p laced under
a r r e s t . He was f i r s t charged w ith "unlawful assem bly," but
t h is was la t e r changed to " d iso r d e rly co n d u ct," th e charge
upon w hich he was c o n v ic te d and fo r w hich he was sentenced
to t h ir t y days in th e cou n ty j a i l .
The t r i a l judge deemed th e a r r e st proper to
p reven tin g a breach o f th e p e a ce . The New York Court o f
Appeals affirm ed th e c o n v ic tio n and sta te d th a t Mr. F ein er
. . . w ith in te n t to provoke a breach o f th e peace
and w ith knowledge o f th e con seq u en ces, so inflam ed
and a g ita te d a mixed audience o f sym pathizers and
opponents t h a t , in th e judgment o f th e p o lic e
o f f ic e r s p r e s e n t, a c le a r danger o f d iso rd er and
v io le n c e was th r ea te n ed .
O pinion o f th e Court
(Mr. C hief J u s t ic e V inson d e liv e r e d th e o p in io n .)
The Q uestion
Had p o lic e a c tio n been co n tra ry to th e guarantees
o f th e F ir s t Amendment fo r freedom o f speech and o f th e
218
F ourteenth fo r immunity from d e n ia l o f lib e r ty excep t by
due p rocess?
The Answer
No. (In a 6 -3 d e c is io n , th e c o n v ic tio n was
a ffir m e d .)
The Reasons
In support o f th e d e c is io n . The Court d eclared
th a t Mr. F ein er was q u ite w ith in h is C o n stitu tio n a l r ig h ts
in both th e co n te n t as w e ll as th e d e liv e r y o f h is sp eech —
taken by th em selv es. However, h is a r r e s t and c o n v ic tio n
were found proper on th e grounds th a t th ey were m otivated
by concern fo r th e p r e s e r v a tio n o f order and th e p r o te c tio n
o f th e g en er a l w e lfa r e . I t found no evidence to lend
credence to th e c la im th a t th e p o lic e acted c le a r ly to
suppress Mr. F e in e r 's v iew s and o p in io n s and h is ex p ressio n
o f them.
In d is s e n t from the d e c is io n . D isse n tin g op inion
d iscou n ted th e a lle g e d "imminent th r e a t" o f r i o t or uncon
t r o lla b le c o n d itio n s . I t em phasized th e f a ilu r e o f th e
a r r e s tin g o f f ic e r to n o t if y th e speaker o f la w fu l reason
why he should sto p speaking and the f a ilu r e o f both
o f f ic e r s to have t r ie d to f u l f i l l t h e ir o b lig a tio n to
p r o te c t Mr. F e in e r 's r ig h t to speak. I t m aintained th a t
th e p o lic e o f f i c e r s should have made every reason ab le
219
e f f o r t to p reserv e p e a c e fu l and o rd er ly c o n d itio n s fo r th e
speech b efo re a r r e s tin g th e sp eak er.
The tr a n s c r ip t o f th e t r i a l was examined. T e s t i
mony was c it e d w hich in d ic a te d th a t th e policem an did n o t
attem pt to t r y to p r o te c t th e sp ea k er, attem pt to q u ie t th e
r e s t le s s n e s s o f th e crowd, attem pt to c le a r a path through
th e crowd on th e sid ew a lk , or attem pt to d iscou rage the man
who had th reaten ed th e sp eak er.
The d is s e n tin g o p in io n was h ig h ly c r i t i c a l o f th e
p o lic e fo r tak in g f o r c e f u l and e f f e c t i v e a c tio n o n ly to
h a lt the sp eech .
A p p ra isa l and E xp lan ation
A ppraisal
S ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c is io n . I t -provides evid en ce
th a t such su b sta n tiv e r ig h t s as f r e e speech are r e la t iv e
ra th er than a b s o lu te . In t h i s c a s e th e Court t e s t o f
" clear and p resen t danger^_!'„established Mr. F e in e r 's sp eech
as o u tsid e th e p r o te c tio n o f th e Court (1 9 5 1 ).
E xplanation
A p p lic a tio n o f th e c it iz e n s h ip in t e g r a l. [C ite
reason s fo r th in k in g th a t " resp ect fo r th e in h eren t worth
and eq ual d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l human b ein g s" i s th e
r e s o lv in g p r in c ip le in a C o n s titu tio n a l is s u e .]
220
2 . P ostview
S in ce American freedom i s p op u larly equated w ith
th e B i l l o f R ig h ts , th e B i l l has been th e c e n tr a l fo cu s o f
our in q u ir y . T h is accoun ts fo r th e apparent n e g le c t o f
p o l i t i c a l r ig h t s and c i v i l r ig h t s le g is la t io n w hich,
although h ig h ly s ig n i f i c a n t , are p rim a rily outgrow ths o f
th e a p p lic a tio n o f o th er c la u s e s (eq ual p r o te c tio n and
commerce) or a r t i c l e s (X III, XV, XIX, XXIV, and o th e r s ).
W e have seen th a t th e le g a l agent o f n a tio n a liz a
tio n i s th e F ou rteen th Amendment (1868)-, a product o f th e
C iv il War. I t was ou t o f concern fo r Negro r i g h t s , becau se
of th e " sla v e r a c e ," th a t th e le g a l apparatus fo r th e
n a tio n a liz a tio n o f th e B i l l o f R ights o r ig in a te d .
A d d itio n a l le g a l p ro cess has broadened th e a p p lic a
tio n and extended th e g i f t s o f th e ir freedom to o th e r s .
The agency, l i t t l e understood and perhaps even l e s s appre
c ia t e d , has been th e U nited S ta te s Supreme C ourt.
The c o n tr ib u tio n o f common and even d esp ise d m inor
i t i e s to th e l e g i s l a t i o n and a c tu a liz a tio n o f freedom and
j u s t ic e in America i s sim p ly enormous. Our e f f o r t in t h e ir
b e h a lf has b e n e fitte d th e n a tio n a l c o n sc ie n c e . Never in
our h is to r y has n a tio n a l p r a c tic e more c l o s e ly approximated
n a tio n a l p r o fe s s io n . What more ap propriate tim e m ight
th ere be fo r t h i s c o o lin g tr u th to en ter th e h eated
d ia lo g u es o f th e la n d .
221
The d is a s t e r c o n d itio n s in some o f our c i t i e s are
p a r a lle le d by d is a s t e r c o n d itio n s in c itiz e n s h ip e d u c a tio n .
Many Americans n e ith e r know nor understand th e ir B i l l o f
R ig h ts.
C ertain in fo rm a tio n , deemed p iv o ta l to r a tio n a l
d ia lo g u e , has b een seen to b e commonly a b sen t--o r a t b e s t ,
only dim ly p r e s e n t— in in s tr u c tio n . I t i s b e lie v e d th a t
the absence or in e p t usage o f a v in d ic a tin g and r a t io n a l i z
in g p r in c ip le fo r th e claim s o f freedom has dim inished th e
s ig n if ic a n c e and i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y of in s tr u c tio n . The
C itiz e n sh ip I n te g r a l has been added to meet th a t n eed .
Among th e oth er f a c t o r s , commonly u n r e a liz e d and
u n tau gh t, are s e v e r a l which have led th e w r ite r t o con clu d e
th a t i t i s sm a ll wonder th a t c itiz e n s h ip ed u cation has b een
poor:
1 . N a tio n a l c it iz e n s h ip was secondary to s t a t e
c i t i z e n s h i p - - i f i t had any s ta tu s at a l l —u n t il 1868.
2 . N a tio n a liz a tio n o f r ig h t s , th e e x te n sio n o f th e
guaran tees o f th e fe d e r a l B i l l o f R ights to th e s t a t e s , d id
n ot even b eg in u n t i l 1925. Even then the p r o te c tio n was
on ly m entioned in an o f f i c i a l " a sid e." And when th e f i r s t
d e c is io n fo r n a tio n a l enforcem ent occurred, 1931, i t
a p p lied o n ly to th e gu aran tees o f th e F ir s t Amendment fo r
freedom o f sp eech and p r e s s . The guarantees o f th e f e d e r a l
c o n s t it u t io n o th er than th o se o f the F ir s t Amendment were
n o t extended to th e s t a t e s u n t i l the p resen t decade— and
222
14
s t i l l , n o t a l l o f them.
3 . The embracing d o c tr in e o f n a tu ra l law and
n a tu r a l r ig h t was w id e ly espoused and known from our
e a r l i e s t d a y s. But le g a l r e c o g n itio n o f th e con cep tu al
in te r c o n n e c tio n —th e s tr u c tu r e --o f th e C o n s titu tio n a l
gu aran tees o f freedom did not b egin u n t i l Boyd, 1883. The
Cardozonian d o c tr in e , th e p r in c ip le which has been u t i l i z e d
by the Court fo r n a tio n a liz a tio n —fo r in co rp o ra tin g c e r ta in
gu aran tees in to th e meaning o f th e F ou rteen th , th e re fo re
b in d in g upon th e s t a t e s , to o —d a te s o n ly from P alk o, 1937.
I t i s sm a ll wonder, th en , th a t we have n ot known,
v a lu e d , or b een taught th e b a sic con cep ts and p r in c ip le s o f
American c i t iz e n s h ip .
In a d d itio n , th e id ea o f freedom i s e lu s iv e and
d i f f i c u l t t o apprehend— p a r tic u la r ly s o , to th e "pragmatic
temper" o f a p eo p le b en t upon p r a c t ic e . The id e a l o f f r e e
dom makes d is c u s s io n e q u a lly d i f f i c u l t : i t means th a t we
do n o t have m erely som ething to t a lk about; r a th e r , we have
alm ost e v e r y th in g . And th a t i s hard to say.
Even in th e le g a l area th ere has been l i t t l e w hich
has a p p lied to a l l and has extended over th e e n tir e span o f
our n a tio n a l l i f e . W e have n ot had n a tio n a l c it iz e n s h ip ,
^ F o r summaries o f n a tio n a liz e d r i g h t s , se e
George W. S p ic e r , The Supreme Court and Fundamental
Freedoms (2d e d .; New York: A p p leton -C en tu ry-C rofts, I n c . ,
1 9 6 7 ), p . 12 e t s e q .: N orth, oj>. c i t . , pp. 110-133.
223
n a tio n a l r ig h t s , a n a tio n a liz in g le g a l a g en t, or even a
r a t io n a liz in g p r in c ip le fo r n a tio n a liz a tio n during the
e n tir e co u rse o f our h is t o r y .
The fr e e mind i s in h e r e n tly open to everyth in g but
i t s c lo s u r e , and we have been engaged in so prosperous a
p r a c tic e o f freedom —fo r most and fo r most o f our tim e—
th a t we have had l i t t l e o cc a sio n to g iv e i t th ou gh t. When
we have done s o , s c ie n c e , our a l l y throughout h is t o r y , has
discou raged our making valu e-ju d gm ents o f i t . In d iv id u a l
ism , p l u r a l i s t i c and d is d a in fu l o f c o l l e c t i v e thou ght, has
agreed w ith s c ie n c e and d iscou raged th e o b je c tiv e ev a lu a
t io n o f freedom .
Our union? I t has been one o f th e many fo r th e
p r e se r v a tio n o f m any-ness. Our government? "Popular,"
d em ocratic—o f , f o r , and by th e p eo p le.
I t has been h y p o th esized th a t th e se and other
in s t it u t io n a l e x p r e ssio n s o f America are e x p r e ssiv e o f
" resp ect fo r th e in h e re n t w orth and eq u al d ig n ity o f
in d iv id u a l p e r so n s," th e C itiz e n sh ip I n te g r a l.
I f i t i s , i t should be v i s i b l e in our j u d ic ia l
p r a c t ic e . The j u d i c i a l la b o ra to ry w o rk --th e c a se e x e r c is e s
in freedom —have provid ed o p p o rtu n ity fo r se e in g th a t our
p r a c tic e approxim ates our p r o fe s s io n and th a t the C itiz e n
sh ip I n te g r a l i s u s e f u lly d e s c r ip tiv e .
224
3 . G lossary
A lle g a tio n . In th e p lea d in g o f a c a s e , the statem ent o f
cla im or d e fe n se .
A p p ella n t. The person making an appeal fo r r e v e r s a l or
m o d ific a tio n o f a p rev io u s t r i a l court d e c is io n ; a
p l a i n t i f f in a p p ea l.
A p p ellee. The p a rty seek in g to su sta in the p rior d e c is io n
o f th e c o u r t; th e defendant in appeal; th e resp on d en t.
Arraignm ent. In c r im in a l a c tio n , the p o in t a t which th e
defendant h ears form al a cc u sa tio n and i s d ir e c te d to
p lead " g u ilty " or 'h o t g u ilt y ."
A tta in d e r, B i l l o f . A l e g i s l a t i v e a c tio n whereby th e
p r o ce sses o f th e co u rt are circum vented and c o n v ic tio n
i s e f f e c t e d by p assage o f a law. (P roh ib ited by U .S .
C o n s titu tio n .)
B r ie f . Most o f te n , a w r itte n argument subm itted to a co u rt
o f a p p ea l.
C e r t if ic a t io n . A r e q u e st made to a higher cou rt fo r c l a r i
f ic a t io n o f c e r ta in p o in ts o f law.
C e r tio r a r i, W rit o f . An order to a lower cou rt to send th e
e n tir e record o f a c a s e to th e higher cou rt fo r re v iew .
In th e c a s e o f th e Supreme Court a review on such w r it
i s n o t a m atter o f r ig h t but one o f j u d ic ia l d is c r e
t io n .
C ita tio n . The in fo rm a tio n fo llo w in g th e t i t l e o f th e c a s e ;
th e le g a l r e fe r e n c e (s ) w herein the ca se may be found.
Common Law. In custom ary u sa g e, th e law made by judges
w h ile in th e p r o c e sse s o f d ecid in g c a se s; in a more
p r e c is e s e n s e , th e system o f le g a l wisdom a r is in g from
t r a d it io n a l u sage and p reced en t, rath er than c o d ifie d
w r itte n law .
Concurrent J u r is d ic t io n . The s itu a tio n in which more than
one co u rt has a u th o r ity to d e a l w ith a given c a s e .
D e fa u lt Judgment. The e n tr y made by th e court in c i v i l
c a ses in w hich th e defendant does n o t c o n te s t th e c a s e
made a g a in s t him. In th e absence o f c o n te s t, th e c a se
i s won by th e p l a i n t i f f .
225
D irected V e r d ic t. A d e c is io n o f th e ju d ge, as fo r a c q u it
t a l , based on th e b e l i e f th a t th e ev id en ce o f th e ca se
i s so c le a r ly in d ic a t iv e o f th e outcome th a t i t s
su bm ission to a ju ry i s unwarranted.
D is t r ic t C ourt. In system s o f s t a t e c o u r ts , i t i s th e
t r i a l c o u r t, th e a u th o r ity o f which v a r ie s from s t a t e
to s t a t e ; in th e fe d e r a l co u rt system , i t i s th e s in g le
type o f t r i a l c o u r t.
D ocket. The l i s t o f ca ses a w a itin g t r i a l .
E x c lu siv e J u r is d ic t io n . The s it u a t io n in which one cou rt
i s g iv en th e s o le a u th o r ity to handle a given c la s s o f
c a s e s .
Ex p a rte (from one p o in t or s i d e ) . In c a se c i t a t io n , i t
in d ic a te s th a t le g a l p roceeding was undertaken w ith ou t
n o tic e to o th er p a rty or p a r t ie s .
Ex p o st f a c to (la w ). A law which would make c e r ta in a c ts
com m itted p r io r to i t s p assage i l l e g a l . (P ro h ib ited by
th e U .S . C o n s titu tio n .)
Ex r e l (ex r e la t io n e : a t th e in form ation o f , or by th e
r e la t io n o f ) . In c a se c i t a t io n i t in d ic a te s th a t th e
C om plainant's i n t e r e s t , under e x is t in g le g a l procedure,
can o n ly be "brought" by an o f f ic e r o f th e s t a t e .
E x tr a d itio n . An arrangement whereby persons who have f le d
from one j u r is d ic t io n to another to esca p e p ro secu tio n
fo r a lle g e d crim es may be f o r c ib ly returned to fa c e
t r i a l .
F elo n y . A crim e, more se r io u s than a misdemeanor, g en er
a l l y p u n ish a b le by imprisonment in a s t a t e p e n ite n tia r y
fo r a p erio d o f more than one y ea r.
Grand Ju ry. A group o f c i t iz e n s convened by th e co u rt to
h ear evid en ce o f crim es and to d ecid e whether and whom
to p r o se c u te .
Habeas Corpus, W rit o f . A co u rt order r e q u ir in g th e
cu sto d ia n o f a p riso n er to appear and show cause o f
d e te n tio n .
H olding. The answer o f a co u rt to th e q u estio n b efo re i t .
In d ictm en t. An a c c u s a tio n o f crim e issu e d by a grand ju r y .
226
In form ation . An a c c u sa tio n o f crim e issu e d by a d i s t r i c t
a tto r n e y .
In r e (In ca se c i t a t i o n ) . In th e m atter o f , or co n cern in g .
Judgment. The document w hich s t a t e s th e r e s u lt o f t r i a l .
J u r is d ic tio n . The a u th o r ity o f a cou rt to handle a c a s e .
L itig a n t . A p arty to a law s u i t . In c i v i l a c tio n b oth th e
p l a i n t i f f and th e defendant are c a lle d l i t i g a n t s .
M a g istr a te . The judge o f a lower c o u r t. H is a u th o rity
exten d s to tr y in g minor c i v i l and cr im in a l c a se s and to
con d uctin g the p relim in a ry in q u ir y in to c a s e s o f a more
se r io u s crim in a l n a tu r e .
Misdemeanor. A crim e l e s s s e r io u s than a fe lo n y , the
p e n a lty fo r w hich v a r ie s g r e a tly , but g e n e r a lly does
n o t exceed im prisonm ent fo r more than one y ea r.
M unicipal C ourt. A lthough th e re i s co n sid er a b le v a r ia tio n
in i t s j u r is d ic t io n (from c i t y to c i t y and s t a t e to
s t a t e ) , i t i s g e n e r a lly au th orized to tr y minor c a s e s .
O biter dictum . A j u d ic i a l o p in io n —o ffe r e d b u t n o t b in d in g
on th e c a se in w hich i t ap pears.
O pinion. The ch a in or rea so n in g w hich led th e co u rt to i t s
h o ld in g . The m a jo rity o p in io n i s a w r itte n statem en t
by one o f th e (a p p e lla te ) judges e x p r e ssiv e o f th e
m a jo r ity p o s itio n and i t s h o ld in g . Other judges are
e n t it l e d to o f fe r se p a r a te o p in io n s which may be e it h e r
d is s e n tin g or con cu rrin g w ith th a t o f th e m a jo r ity .
P e t it io n . A w r itte n r e q u e st to the co u rt fo r a c tio n upon a
s p e c if i c m a tter.
P le a . The i n i t i a l resp o n se o ffe r e d by the defendant to th e
a c c u sa tio n lodged a g a in s t him . U su a lly i t i s fo r
" g u ilty " or 'h o t g u ilt y " but i t may in clu d e q u a lif ic a
tio n s .
P reced en t. The guidance g iv en to th e cou rt in a p resen t
c a s e by a p rev io u s co u rt d e c is io n b earin g upon th e same
q u e s tio n . O ccasion fo r su ch r e fe r e n c e i s g iv en by the
r u le o f s ta r e d e c i s i s ( l e t th e d e c is io n s t a n d ) .
P relim in ary h ea rin g . The a c tio n o f a crim in a l co u rt w hich
i s d esign ed to determ ine th e s u ff ic ie n c y o f evid en ce
fo r h o ld in g th e accused fo r t r i a l .
227
P rocedural law . That p o rtio n o f th e law which s p e c if ie s
th e p r o c e sse s whereby a law s u it i s i n it ia t e d ,
con d u cted , and brought to a d eterm in a tio n .
S u b sta n tiv e law . That p o rtio n o f th e law which i s
concerned n ot w ith th e form or p rocedure, but ra th er
w ith th e co n ten t o f r ig h t s and r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s : i t
su p p lie s d e f i n i t i o n s ; i t su p p lie s th e su bstan ce o f
j u s t i c e , n ot i t s form .
Summary judgm ent. A p a r a lle l in c i v i l law to th e d ir e c te d
v e r d ic t o f c r im in a l law; th e d is p o s itio n o f a c a se
w ith ou t t r i a l based upon th e d eterm in ation th a t th e
ev id en c e i s so com p ellin g th a t reason ab le men would
fin d no b a s is fo r d is s e n t over what th e outcome should
b e .
Summons. Any le g a l n o t ic e to a person w hich com p ells h is
appearance in c o u r t— as w itn e s s , as ju r o r , as p a rty to
an a c t io n , e t c .
T o rt. A c i v i l in j u s t ic e committed by one person upon
another and w hich th e co u rt re c o g n ize s as j u s t if y in g an
award o f damages. In clu d es wrongs o f o m issio n , but n o t
th o se o f breach o f c o n tr a c t.
T rib u n a l. An a d m in istr a tiv e or j u d ic i a l agency which
d ec id e s q u e stio n s o f f a c t , o f law , or o f b o th .
Venue. The p la c e where t r i a l i s to be h e ld .
Waver. The v o lu n ta r y relin q u ish m en t o f a r ig h t , a p r iv i
le g e , or an advantage; a ls o , th e instrum ent th a t g iv e s
ev id en ce o f such re lin q u ish m en t.
W arrant. An order o f th e co u rt which a u th o rizes e ith e r th e
a r r e s t o f a p erson or th e sea rch or se iz u r e o f h is
p ro p e rty .
228
C o rr ectio n s and A d d ition s
1. Between pp. 4 and 5 : number th e page "4A."
2 . Page 4 , s ix t h l i n e from bottom : p la ce comma a fte r
" id e a s."
3 . Page 6 , l a s t paragraphs: th e t o p ic s , "The Nature of
the American C iv il Bond" and "The C itiz e n sh ip
I n te g r a l," w i l l be handled in le c t u r e .
4 . Page 8 : a sid e from some m is s p e llin g s (" id e n tity ,"
lin e .3 e t a l « » and " c u ltu r a l, lin e 17, e . g . ) : "the
Survey ,'n_lin e 1 , i s th e survey o f th e lit e r a t u r e ;
lin e 8 , c r o s s out "(2 )" ; u n d er lin e "ways," lin e 1 0 ;
and th e " d is s e r ta tio n ," lin e 2 1 , i s th e stud y on which
t h is u n it i s b a sed .
5 . Page 9: " syn op tic v is io n . . . " r e fe r s to a "broad"
or " in te r d is c ip lin a r y " v iew o f th e su b je c t-m a tte r .
6 . Page 10: th e " C itizen sh ip I n te g r a l," lin e 13, r e fe r s
to th e c o n c lu sio n s (" id e a s," e t c . ) l i s t e d on page 8 .
7 . Page 11, lin e 4 o f th e q u o ta tio n , top o f page: i t
should read " d erives (add) much o f i t s str e n g th . I t i s
becoming in c r e a s in g ly . . ’
Page 11, l in e 1 3 , should read: ". . . why th e co u rt
room i s th e . . . "
Page 11, l in e 1 6 , should have comma a fte r " considered."
8 . Page 14, l in e 13: c r o ss out "32," end o f sen ten ce.
9 . Add th e fo llo w in g c a se c it a t io n s :
Page 12 Brown v . Board o f E d u cation, 347 U .S. 483
H 9 5 S ) . --------------------------------
Page 15 Boyd v . U nited S t a t e s . 116 U .S . 616 (1 8 8 6 ).
Page 16 Weeks v . U nited S t a t e s . 232 U .S . 383 (1 9 1 4 ).
Page 17 F ra n cis v . R esw eber. 329 U .S . 459 (1 9 4 7 ).
P ow ell v . Alabama, 287 U .S . 45 (1 9 3 2 ).
B e tts v . Brady. 316 U .S . 455 (1 9 4 2 ).
229
Page 18 Twining v . New J e r s e y . 211 U .S . 78 (1 9 0 8 ).
Adamson v . C a lifo r n ia . 332 U .S . 46 (1 9 4 7 ).
Rochin v . C a lifo r n ia . 342 U .S . 165 (1 9 5 2 ).
Ir v in e v . C a lifo r n ia . 347 U .S . 128 (1 9 5 4 ).
Breithaup v . Abram. 352 U .S . 432 (1 9 5 7 ).
Kirby v . U nited S t a t e s . 714 U .S . 47 (1 8 9 9 ).
West v . L o u isia n a . 194 U .S. 258 (1 9 0 4 ).
Douglas v . Alabama. 380 U .S. 415 (1 9 6 5 ).
10. Ignore pp. 8 6 -9 1 , an in a d v e rten t r e p e t it io n o f Gideon
(pp. 5 7 -6 2 ).
APPENDIX B
AIDS T O INSTRUCTION A N D EVALUATION
1 . F ilm s and R ecordings
2 . Q uestions fo r C o lla te r a l E xp loration
3 . Case Response Form
4 . Student Inform ation Q u estion n aire
5 . Program A p p raisal Q u estion n aire
6 . " A ttitu d e toward th e Law" S c a le ,
Form A and Form B
7. " A ttitu d es toward Law and J u s tic e " S ca le
230
*
1 . Film s and R ecordings
1. A ll m a te r ia ls l i s t e d below are r a ted C o lleg e (C ), Adult
(A) or Secondary and Adult (S-A) in th e (San D iego C ity
S ch ool) D is t r ic t A udio-V isual C a ta lo g .
2 . Except when oth erw ise n o te d , a l l t i t l e s r e fe r to Black
and W hite.
T i t l e
Countdown fo r Tomorrow. Four Dreams o f Man
(A reco rd in g o f D r. John F orb ray.)
D efin in g Democracy
(A community i s ra ted on a dem ocracy-despotism
s c a le . 1956)
American Freedom Based on Law
(W right, 5 -1 4 -6 1 ; and)
R e lig io u s and S p ir itu a l A spects o f American Freedom
(Kennedy., 3 -2 1 -6 1 . Tape reco rd in g )
Conduct o f C ongressional I n v e s tig a tio n s
(A Harvard seminar w ith c o n s t it u t io n a l law yers.
1956)
D ate w ith L iberty
(Among th e examined is s u e s a re a s s e n t and
d is s e n t , freedom o f th e p r e s s , f a ir t r i a l ,
and impeachment. 1949)
F if t h Amendment and S e lf-I n c r im in a tio n
(P r o fe sso r s debate u se , ab use, and in t e r -
p r e ta tio n o f the F if th Amendment. 1956)
Running
Time
(m in u tes)
15
26
20
27
H e rita g e—c o lo r
(An animated cartoon on n a tu r a l r ig h t s and
t h e ir m aintenance.)
*S in ce a l l l i s t i n g s had n o t been view ed and e v a lu
a te d , th ey were advanced as su g g ested a id s - t o - in s t r u c t io n .
231
232
T it le
Running
Time
(m inutes)
N a tio n a l S e c u r ity v . In d iv id u a l R igh ts
(Edward R. Murrow examines th e R adulovich
c a s e . 1956)
27
The C o n s titu tio n and C ensorship
(The is s u e o f p rio r r e s t r a in t i s exam ined.
1957)
29
P ric e o f Freedom
(A j o u r n a lis t co n sid ers th e dangers o f
p a tern a lism . 1949)
23
Are You a C itiz e n ?
(The n a tu r a liz a tio n p r o c e s s - -s tr e s s e s
r ig h t s and d u t ie s . 1959)
30
C o n s titu tio n and the Right to Vote
(The str u g g le fo r a Negro s u ffr a g e . 1957)
29
New Americans
(C on trib u tion s o f r e fu g e e s . In clu d es comments
by A lb ert E in ste in and Thomas Mann. 1957)
19
U nderstanding the Law
(Equal J u s tic e fo r A ll. Due P rocess as i t i s
re v e a le d by crim in a l t r i a l . 1953)
1 2
B i l l o f R igh ts o f th e U nited S ta te s
(The s tr u g g le and th e reason s fo r in corp ora
t io n o f th e B i l l o f R ig h ts. 1956)
19
One N ation
(Part I ; Part I I ) The d r a ftin g (I ) and th e
ad op tion ( I I ) o f the C o n s titu tio n . Narra
t io n by Joseph Welch in th e a c tu a l words
o f th e men. 1956)
30
(each p a rt)
What Our Founding F athers Did Not F o resee
(Concerned w ith th o se p o r tio n s o f th e C o n sti
tu tio n w hich have g iv en i t continued str e n g th
and power fo r s u r v iv a l. 1961)
29
With L ib erty and J u s tic e fo r A ll
(Part I; Part I I —Part I , C iv ilia n T r ia l,
r a c ia l e q u a lity and in d iv id u a l b e l i e f ;
Part I I , f a ir t r i a l and r e lig io u s b e l i e f ,
30
(each p a rt)
T i t le
in d iv id u a ls and Supreme Court c a s e s .
N arration in th e words o f th e a c tu a l p eo p le
by Joseph W elch, 1956)
L iving C o n stitu tio n o f th e U .S .
(A r e c o r d in g .)
Supreme Court
(Copy C--The h is to r y and fu n c tio n o f th e .
U nited S ta te s Supreme C ou rt.)
P r e s id e n t's Power C ontested
(The 1952 s t e e l s e iz u r e and th e a s s o c ia te d
Supreme Court a c tio n . 1961)
A m erica's Unique Governmental Freedom
(Cannon, 2 -2 8 -6 1 ; and)
Our American C u ltu ral H erita g e
(Benson, 3 -7 -6 1 . A tape r e c o r d in g .)
Our S ch ools Have Kept Us F ree—c o lo r
(Examines th e manner in w hich th e American
sc h o o l system has produced a n a tio n a l
id e n t it y —u n ity w ith d iv e r s it y —from th e
M assachusetts Bay Colony to to d a y .)
S ta tu e o f L ib erty - -c o lo r
(A to u r . In clu d es th e h is to r y and th e
con cep ts rep resen ted by th e s t a t u e .)
233
Running
Time
(m in u tes)
18
29
30
14
234
2 . Q uestions for C o lla te r a l E x p lo ra tio n *
1. Myth? R ea lity ? How would you d is t in g u is h th e myth
i i from th e r e a lit y o f c i v i l lib e r ty ?
2. What k in d (s) and d e g r e e (s) o f le a d e r sh ip i s c o n s is te n t
w ith a fr e e so c ie ty ?
3 . I f freedom is e ith e r "in th e h ea rt and minds" o f th e
c it iz e n s or e l s e i t i s nowhere, what i s th e r o le o f
th e law?
4 . There i s a d iffe r e n c e between freedom from and freedom
f o r . What is the s ig n ific a n c e o f t h i s d is t in c t io n fo r
understandIng c i v i l lib e r t ie s ?
5 . The C o n stitu tio n s o f both th e U .S .A . and th e U .S .S .R .
guarantee many o f the same r ig h t s . For exam ple,
freedom o f sp eech , p r e s s, and assem b ly. What does
t h is suggest?
6 . I s th ere c o n f lic t between th e d o c tr in e s o f lib e r t y and
e q u a lity ?
7. How does th e D ecla ra tio n o f Independence j u s t i f y c i v i l
lib e r t ie s ?
8 . What are some o f the p resen t th r e a ts to c i v i l lib e r t y
in th e U nited S ta tes?
9. In what way i s war a menace to c i v i l lib e r ty ?
10. Why do so few people have knowledge and understanding
o f th e ir C o n stitu tio n a l r ig h ts ?
11. Do c i v i l r ig h ts and l i b e r t i e s p o s s e s s some in h eren t
prop erty which h ind ers th e ir f u l l r e a liz a tio n ?
12. What are th e stren g th s as w e ll as th e w eaknesses o f a
government which proposes to e s t a b lis h th e maximum
lib e r t y fo r i t s c itiz e n s ?
13. What i s the r o le o f ed u cation in a f r e e s o c ie ty ? Can
freedom be taught?
*These were intended t o se rv e as a r e s e r v o ir fo r
e x e r c is e s c o lla t e r a l to th e c e n tr a l c o g n itiv e q u e stio n s o f
th e u n it . They m ight be u t i l i z e d fo r a n a ly s is , d is c u s s io n ,
resea rch p ap ers, e t a l .
235
1 4 . I f lib e r t y i s both a r ig h t and a b le s s in g , why has i t
been rare?
15. Does th e d o ctrin e o f " sep aration o f power" promote or
o b str u c t th e cau se o f c i v i l lib e r t i e s ?
1 6 . Do th e con cep ts o f r ig h t , lib e r t y , and freedom need to
be d istin g u ish e d from t h e ir p a r tic u la r s o c ia l, le g a l,
p o l i t i c a l , and c i v i l forms and ex p ressio n s?
1 7 . I s th e d e n ia l o f c i v i l lib e r ty to su b v ersiv es c o n s is t
en t w ith dem ocratic p r in c ip le s ?
18. I f "the few always r u le ," how can government by the
p eop le ever e x is t?
19. I f government aims to provide th e " g rea test good fo r
th e g r e a te s t number," then what can m in o r itie s have?
2 0 . Are c i v i l r ig h ts and c i v i l r e s p o n s i b il it i e s two s id e s
o f th e same c o in — in h e r e n tly connected?
2 1 . B earing in mind th e C o n s titu tio n a l requirem ent fo r
se p a ra tio n o f church and s t a t e , how do you e x p la in th e
appearance o f th e w ords, "in God we t r u s t ," on our
money, and the appearance o f "under God" in th e Pledge
o f A lleg ia n ce?
2 2 . What are th e r e s p o n s i b il it ie s o f th e c i t iz e n fo r th e
m aintenance o f c i v i l l i b e r t i e s in th e U nited S ta te s?
2 3 . What c o n d itio n s are e s s e n t i a l to th e enjoyment o f th e
" B lessin g s o f Liberty"?
2 4 . Among American c i t iz e n s th ere are obvious in e q u a li
t i e s . Does t h is mean we have abandoned "the p r in c ip le
o f eq u a lity " in America? That i t i s and alw ays has
been m eaningless?
2 5 . S in ce j u d ic ia l review i s th e p r a c tic e o f an e l i t e
group o f ju d g e s, i s i t undem ocratic?
2 6 . Do c i v i l li b e r t i e s have a d iff e r e n t meaning fo r
d if f e r e n t socioeconom ic c la s s e s ? No meaning to some?
A d if f e r e n t a p p lic a tio n fo r p e o p le (s ) d if f e r in g in
e r a , c l a s s , or p lace?
2 7 . How i s th e u se o f co e rcio n j u s t i f i e d in fr e e
s o c ie t ie s ?
236
2 8 . Does th e " fed era l p r in c ip le " o f government o p era te so
as to p reserv e and defend c i v i l lib e r t i e s ?
2 9 . I f lib e r t y re q u ir es th e "rule o f law" ra th er than th e
"rule o f men, how can i t be argued th a t lib e r t y i s
e ith e r in the h ea rts and minds o f men or e l s e i t i s
nowhere?
30. I t has been sa id t h a t. democracy r e q u ir es th e t o l e r
ance— i f n ot th e accep tan ce—o f in e f f i c ie n c y , e v i l and
fa lse h o o d . Does t h is mean th a t democracy i s in h e r
e n tly immoral?
3 1 . I f th e tech n iq u es o f p ersu a sio n have become as e f f e c
t iv e as th o se o f c o e r c io n , are th ey n ot as g r e a t an
e v il?
3 2 . What i s th e "moral" j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r c i v i l lib e r t i e s ?
Does th e q u e stio n have p o l i t i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c
meaning?
3 3 . The American R evolu tion has been in te r p r e te d in
d iff e r e n t ways by d iffe r e n t h is t o r ia n s . Does t h is
mean th a t the p resence o f c i v i l r ig h t s in our C o n sti
tu tio n i s n o t su b ject to s a t is f a c t o r y ex p la n a tio n ?
Are m u ltip le ex p la n a tio n s " sa tisfa c to r y " ?
3 4 . The h is to r y o f lib e r ta r ia n thought i s a long on e. W ho
are some o f th e th in k ers? What a re some o f t h e ir
w r itin g s? What are some o f th e " c la s s ic " arguments
fo r lib e r ty ?
237
3 . Case Response Form*
I . FACTS:
[Student i s to paraphrase and condense a statem en t o f
th e le g a lly r e le v a n t p o in ts from !,F acts o f th e Case."]
I I . QUESTIONS BEFO RE TH E CO URT:
[Student i s to paraphrase the C o n s titu tio n a l is s u e
b efo r e th e C ou rt.]
I I I . A N SW E R O F TH E COURT:
[From knowledge o f lfFacts" and "Q uestion," stu d en t i s
to "p redict" th e "Answer."]
IV. REASONS O F TH E C O U R T (Arguments):
[From paraphrased and quoted te x t o f th e "Reasons" o f
th e C ourt, stu d en t i s to crea te a statem en t ex p res
sin g h is grasp o f th e " r a tio n a liz in g p r in c ip le fo r
th e d e c is io n . T his may in clu d e, as a p p ro p r ia te, a
statem en t o f the r a tio n a le fo r d is s e n tin g o p in io n .]
V. SIGNIFICANCE O F TH E DECISION:
[Student i s to d esc rib e the s ig n ific a n c e o f th e d e c i
s io n , fo r th e n a tio n a liz a tio n o f th e B i l l o f R ig h ts.
(Yamashita and F ein er are supplem entary, r e v e la to r y
o f bond but n o t n a tio n a liz a tio n .) ]
V I. APPLICATION O F TH E CITIZENSHIP INTEGRAL:
J u s t if y or e x p la in th e d e c is io n .
[Student i s to d e sc rib e the c o n siste n c y o f th e
d e c is io n o f th e Court (th e " e ffe c t" ) w ith th e hypoth
e s iz e d n atu re o f th e American c itiz e n s h ip bond, th e
c it iz e n s h ip in te g r a l (the "cause"). Or th e stu d en t
may d esc r ib e the in c o m p a tib ility o f th e r e v e r s e
d e c is io n w ith "resp ect fo r th e in h eren t w orth and
eq u al d ig n ity o f in d iv id u a l men."]
JL
Adapted from th e recommendations o f H ir s c h fie ld ,
T r e s o lin i, and Bartholomew ( la t t e r by example) as a form at
fo r c a se a n a ly s is . Topic VI i s an e x p lic it m andate: th e
o th e r s , on a d is c r e tio n a r y b a s is , c o n s is te n t w ith tim e,
ev id en ce o f n eed , e t c .
238
4 . Student Inform ation Q u estion naire
P le a se check ( / ) or com plete as re q u ested . None o f t h is
in form ation w i l l be "graded" or made p u b lic .
I . P erso n a l in fo rm a tio n .
I d e n t if ic a t io n No. Age Sex
I I . E d u cation al in fo rm a tio n .
A. High S ch o o l. Graduate? Yes No. Maior?
B. C o lle g e .
1 . U n its com pleted?
0 31-45
1-15 46-60
16-30 61-
2 . Completed where?
C ity c o lle g e
Other iu n io r c o lle g e
F our-year c o lle g e or u n iv e r s ity
3 . U n its in p ro cess? ___ 1-3; ___ 4 -6 ; ___ 7-9 ;
___ 10-12; ___ 13-15; ___ 16-?
4 . Major? ( I f u n d eclared , p le a s e d esc rib e
su b je c t or area o f major i n t e r e s t .)
5 . Estim ated stan d in g in p reviou s cou rses?
High S ch ool C o lleg e
Above average Above average
Average Average
___ Below average ___ Below average
X II.
‘
239
V o ca tio n a l in fo rm a tio n .
A. S tu d e n t's v o c a tio n a l o b je c t iv e s .
1 . Immediate g oal?__________________________________
2 . Long-range g o a l ( i f d iff e r e n t) ? ________________
3 . P resen t employment? None; P a rt-tim e;
F u ll-tim e .
B. F a th e r 's v o c a tio n .
P le a se d e sc r ib e h is type o f work (used car
salesm an) and the le v e l o f h is o cc u p a tio n a l
r e s p o n s ib ilit y (salesm an , a s s is t a n t s a le s
m anager, s a le s manager, g en era l manager,
ow ner). I f r e t ir e d , p le a s e d esc rib e typ e and
l e v e l o f former employment. I f unemployed,
p le a s e d esc rib e type and l e v e l o f u su a l
employment. I f "unknown" p le a s e d esc r ib e
employment o f person who i s th e major sou rce
o f fa m ily 's incom e.
Type o f employment?_________ . ____________________
L evel o f employment?_____________________________
240
I d e n tific a tio n Number____
5 . Program A p p raisal Q u estion n aire
(1) Aim and F ocu s: A ssig n m en ts--u sefu l? s ig n ific a n t?
adequate in s tr u c tio n s ? E m p h asis--clear? proper?
m aintained throughout?
(2) O rgan ization : Good rhythm and b alance? Smooth flow
and sequence? P ro g r essiv e developm ent?
(3) S cop e: Content or m a te r ia ls --to o much or to o l i t t l e ?
(4) L e a r n a b ilitv : A c t i v i t i e s — s u f f i c i e n t l y v a ried ? B asic
id e a s —c le a r ly exp ressed? " relevan t" and in te r e s tin g ?
s u f f ic ie n t op p ortu n ity fo r developm ent?
These are among th e q u estio n s b ein g asked about the u n it
you have j u s t com p leted . * P lea se respond h o n e stly and
th o u g h tfu lly . Response i s n o t b ein g graded and w i l l not
be in d iv id u a lly re p o rte d .
I . 'forew ord to th e S tu d en t."
Aim -Focus:__________________________________________________
O rgan ization :______________________________________________
Scope:______________________________________________________
L e a m a b ility :______________________________________________
I I . " In trod u ction to the U n it."
Aim -Focus:__________________________________________________
O rgan ization :______________________________________________
Scope:______________________________________________________
L e a r n a b ility :______________________________________________
JL
Q uestions I-IV r e fe r to s e c tio n s o f th e t o t a l u n it;
Q uestion V to th e u n it as a w h o le.
^,-'V o
241
I I I . (A) "The J u d ic ia l Laboratory: Case E x e rc ises in
Freedom."
Aim-Focus:_____________________________________________
O rgan ization :__________________________________________
Scope:__________________________________________________
L e a rn a b ility :__________________________________________
(B) 1 . Which th ree (3) c a s e s tu d ie s did you lik e
b e s t or f e e l to b e most v a lu a b le to you as an
American c it iz e n ?
(a)
(b>__________ ; ___________ ; __________________________
(c ) _______________________
Why? (Any rea so n i s a good reason )___________
2 . Which th ree (3 ) c a s e s tu d ie s did you lik e
le a s t or f e e l to b e le a s t v a lu a b le to you as
an American c it iz e n ?
(a )________________________________ _______________
(b) _______________________________
( c ) _____________________________ ___________________ ____________
Why? (A gain, any reason i s a good reason )
IV. "P ostview ."
Aim-Focus:___
O rganization:
S c o p e _____
L ea rn a b ility :
242
V. U nit as a w hole (o v e r a ll im p r essio n ).
Aim-Focus:_________________________________________________
O rgan ization :_________________________________________'
S cop e:______________________________________________________
L e a r n a b ility :______________________________________________
VI. Anything e ls e ? (Most lik e d ? L east lik ed ? More of?
Less of? S u g g estio n s fo r improvement? . . . , ? )
243
I d e n tific a tio n Number____
6 . A ttitu d e toward th e Law*
This q u e stio n n a ire i s b ein g used to measure th e a ttitu d e s
o f c e r ta in G R O U PS o f stu d en ts toward ''law1 ' and "the la w s."
In d iv id u a l resp o n ses w i l l n o t be rep o rted and w i l l n ot have
any b ea rin g on cou rse g ra d es.
P le a se in d ic a te your own p erso n a l f e e lin g s about th e se
sta tem en ts by p la c in g :
A p lu s (+) to th e l e f t o f th e number i f you A G R E E
A zero (0) to the l e f t o f th e number i f you DISAGREE.
F O R M A
1. W e have to o many la w s.
2 . Law i s th e g r e a te s t o f our in s t it u t io n s .
3 . The law i s j u s t another name fo r tyranny.
4 . In d iv id u a l laws a re fr e q u e n tly harm ful but th e law as
a w hole i s sound.
5 . In th e long run law and j u s t ic e are synonymous.
6 . I b e lie v e in th e u se o f fo r c e to overthrow th e law.
7 . W e should have com plete freedom o f speech even fo r
th o se who c r i t i c i z e th e law .
8 . Between a s o c ie t y co m p letely bound by law and a s t a t e
o f anarchy th e r e i s a happy medium.
9 . The law i s more than th e enactm ents o f C ongress, i t
i s a sacred i n s t i t u t i o n .
10. The law r e p r e se n ts th e wisdom o f th e a g e s.
1 1 . Men are n ot a l l eq u al b e fo r e th e law .
12. W e sh ould obey th e law even though we c r i t i c i z e i t .
13. A fter a l l , th e law i s m erely what peop le do.
14. The s a n c t it y o f th e law should be taugh t in a l l
s c h o o ls .
15 . The law i s made in resp o n se to th e p ressu re o f lo b b ies
in W ashington.
16. Some laws command our r e s p e c t w h ile o th ers are mere
r e g u la tio n s .
17 . The law i s o fte n th e re fu g e o f th e sco u n d rel.
18. I t i s n o t ju d ges who p un ish c r im in a ls , i t i s th e law .
19 . Law i s th e enemy o f freedom .
2 0 . The law p rev en ts w h o le sa le crim e and murder.
R eprinted by p erm issio n o f Thelma G. T hurstone,
D ir e c to r , D iv is io n o f S p e c ia l E d u cation , School o f
E d u cation, Chapel H i l l , N.C.
© o
244
I d e n tific a tio n Number______
A ttitu d e toward th e Law*
This q u estio n n a ire i s b ein g used to measure th e a ttitu d e s
o f c e r ta in G R O U PS o f stu d en ts toward "law" and "the la w s."
In d iv id u a l resp on ses w i l l n o t be rep orted and w i l l not have
any bearing on cou rse g ra d es.
P lea se in d ic a te your own p erso n a l f e e lin g s about th e se
statem ents by p la cin g :
A one (1 ) to th e l e f t o f th e number i f you AGREE.
A zero (0) to th e l e f t o f th e number i f you DISAGREE.
FO R M B
1. In d iv id u a l laws are fr e q u e n tly u n ju s t.
2 . The law should take i t s cou rse no m atter how in d iv id
u a ls may s u ff e r .
3 . Some p a rts o f th e law a re bad.
4 . The law i s fundam entally sound in s p it e o f m istakes by
Congress and cotarts.
5 . Though i t i s our duty to obey a l l la w s, we can tr y to
have them changed.
6 . The in d iv id u a l who r e fu s e s to obey th e law i s a menace
to c i v i l i z a t i o n .
7 . The law i s fo r th e poor to obey, and fo r th e r ic h to
ig n o r e .
8 . D isob ed ien ce o f th e law lea d s to anarchy.
9 . A ll law should be overthrow n.
10. The law i s a means o f e n sla v in g th e mass o f humanity
fo r th e b e n e fit o f a sm a ll m in o r ity .
11. S in ce law i s made by man, i t may b e e ith e r good or
bad.
12. In d iv id u a l lib e r t y and le g a l r e s t r ic t io n s are e q u a lly
im portant fa c to r s in s o c ie t y .
13. The law i s su p erio r to in d iv id u a l codes o f conduct.
14. No man can v io la t e th e law and be my fr ie n d .
15. The law does n ot b e n e f it th e common man.
16. Though we obey th e law , we can s t i l l c r i t i c i z e i t .
17. W e would be b e tte r o f f w ith o u t any laws a t a l l .
18. The law i s the tru e embodiment o f e te r n a l j u s t i c e .
19. The law i s r o tte n to th e c o r e .
20 . The l e s s one tampers w ith th e law , th e b e t t e r .
J L
R eprinted by p erm issio n o f Thelma G. T hurstone,
D ir e c to r , D iv is io n o f S p e c ia l E d u cation, School o f
E ducation, Chapel H i l l , N.C.
245
I d e n tific a tio n Number
7 . A ttitu d e s toward Law and J u s tic e
Most people w i l l agree w ith some sta tem en ts and d isa g re e
w ith oth ers in th e l i s t which fo llo w s . Space has been
provided in the margin to th e l e f t o f them fo r your own
p erson al r e sp o n se s. Would you p le a s e in d ic a te your a g ree
ment or disagreem ent as fo llo w s :
(+3) Complete Agreement (-1 ) Complete disagreem ent
(+2} M ostly agree (-2 } M ostly d isa g ree
(+1) D o u b tfu l, b u t agree (-1 ) D o u b tfu l, but d isa g re e
more than d isa g r e e more than agree
(0) Com pletely unable to -
d ecid e
Example: (+1) W e are governed n o t by law but
by la w y ers.
P lea se answer c a r e f u lly and h o n e s tly . Responses w i l l N O T
be graded and w i l l N O T be in d iv id u a lly r e p o r te d .
1 . What i s in th e "hearts and minds" o f th e p eop le does
more to " e s ta b lis h j u s t ic e " than a l l th e co u rts and
laws put to g e th e r .
* 2 . In re ce n t years th e Supreme Court has become a m ajor
i t y o f f iv e o ld men, r e s p o n s ib le to no one, who
change the law when th ey f e e l th e urge to do so .
3 . I t i s r ig h t fo r an accused person to be r e le a se d
whenever th e p o lic e conduct an i l l e g a l search and
se iz u r e to "get th e goods" on him.
4 . I t i s human b eh avior w hich may be p u n ish a b le, but
never th e human b ein g h im s e lf.
* 5 . C ertain hardened c r im in a ls and oth er r i f f r a f f have
no r ig h t to "demand" th a t a co u rt make prompt d e te r
m ination o f th e la w fu ln ess o f th e ir la t e s t d e te n tio n .
* 6 . The law should provide th a t newsmen be req u ired to
prove scand alou s charges in co u rt b efo re th ey be
allow ed to p r in t them.
*Means th a t t h is statem en t i s u n favorab le to th e
a t tit u d e in q u e stio n . Value i s re v ersed fo r sc o r in g .
246
*7 . Some problems are such a th rea t th a t s o c ie t y cannot
a ffo rd to observe th e u su a l guarantee a g a in st "cruel
and unusual punishm ent."
8 . The p ress must be "muzzled" i f d efen d an ts are to
r e c e iv e f a ir t r i a l .
* 9 . The s t a t e should have as much r ig h t to re q u ir e a
lic e n s e fo r th e p r a c tic e o f r e lig io n as i t has fo r
th e p r a c tic e o f any oth er p r o fe s s io n .
*10. Except when c o n v ic tio n m ight mean d ea th , a defendant
should n o t be e n t it l e d to a lawyer u n le ss he can pay
fo r one.
11. No cou rt should be allow ed to deny an accused person
th e op p ortu n ity to co n fro n t h is a c c u s e r s .
12. The h igher the co u rt th e g re a te r i t s concern fo r th e
r ig h t s o f th e common man.
*13. What we r e a lly mean by " J u stice" i s m ostly what
happens to p eop le who have th e money, s o c ia l s t a t u s ,
or p o l i t i c a l in flu e n c e to g e t i t .
14. Accused and d esp ised m in o r itie s should r e c e iv e th e
same le g a l p r o te c tio n as persons who are more
fa v o red .
1 5 . The U .S . Supreme Court has shown c o n s is t e n t ly more
r e s p e c t fo r th e in h eren t worth and eq u al d ig n ity o f
in d iv id u a l men than any oth er p u b lic agen cy.
*16. The mere f a c t o f p a r tic ip a tio n in an assem bly o f a
d is lo y a l group should be a p u n ish ab le o ffe n s e .
17. J u s tic e i s as much a m atter o f "due p ro cess" o f law
as o f ju s t laws th e m selv es.
*18. W itnesses who know th e tr u th should have no r ig h t to
avoid t e l l i n g i t by "taking th e F if t h ."
*19. S o c ie ty as a w hole would be b e tte r o f f i f th e Supreme
Court would spend more tim e h elp in g th e p o lic e and
le s s tim e h elp in g th e c r im in a ls .
2 0 . P r a c tic e should alw ays be su b je c t to le g a l q u e stio n —
but never b e l i e f i t s e l f .
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Creator Young, Dwight Judson (author)

Core Title The Development And Pilot Study Of A College Curriculum Unit Which Emphasizes Structure And Inquiry For Instruction On Constitutional Rights

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, general,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Georgiades, William (committee chair), Brackenbury, Robert L. (committee member), Robb, J. Wesley (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-421149

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Legacy Identifier 7023195.pdf

Dmrecord 421149

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Rights Young, Dwight Judson

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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