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Realism In Spanish Chivalresque Fiction Before 1500

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Realism In Spanish Chivalresque Fiction Before 1500

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Content \ \ JONES, Cameron Davis, 1924- REALISM IN SPANISH CHIVALRESQUE FICTION BEFORE 1500. [Portions of Text in Provenjal, Castilian, Catalan and Valencian], University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1970 Language and Literature, modern University Microfilms, A X ERO X Com pany, Ann Arbor, M ichigan THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED REALISM IN SPANISH CHIVALRESQUE FICTION BEFORE 1500 by Cameron Davis Jones A D is s e r ta tio n P resented t o th e FACULTY O F THE G RADUATE SC H O O L UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r tia l F u lfillm e n t o f th e Requirem ents fo r th e Degree D O C T O R OF PHILOSOPHY (S p an ish ) June 1970 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by under the direction of h.i.S... Dissertation C o m mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The G radu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean Date £ “n. l . i 970 DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chairman f-*.... TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Ihge I . INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1 I I . JAUFRE.......................................................................................... 22 I I I . C I F A R .......................................................................................... 81 IV. CURIAL E GOELFA................................................................... 1 0 7 V. TIRANT L O B L A N C ................................................................... 1 4 8 V I. SU M M A R Y AND CONCLUSIONS................................................. 1 9 8 APPENDIX A. J a u fr e ’ s A dventure in th e Garden o f Moribrun C a s t l e ........................................... 216 APPENDIX B. Lo Somni Que Plaerdem avida Feu . . . . 228 APPENDIX C. Ramon L l u l l f s Libro de la Qrden de C a b a lle r ia . Eart V ................................. 236 BIBLIOGRAPHY..................................... 241 ii CHAPTER X INTRODUCTION The purpose o f t h i s d is s e r t a t io n i s to show how Spanish c h iv a lr e sq u e lit e r a t u r e became p r o g r e s s iv e ly more r e a l i s t i c betw een 1200 and 1500 u n t i l i t s resem blance to th e French poems o f th e tw e lfth and th ir te e n th c e n tu r ie s was v ery s l i g h t . D iffe r e n c e s betw een c h iv a lr e sq u e works w i l l be shown by com parative a n a ly s is w ith p a r tic u la r a t t e n t io n to r e a lism as i t Is found in t e x t s w r itte n between 1200 and 1500. The exam ples p resen ted and d is c u s s e d w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o show how and why th e au th ors o f Spanish c h iv a l resque f i c t i o n b e fo re 1500 in co rp o ra ted r e a lis m in to t h e ir w orks. Four n o v e l-le n g th t e x t s have su rv iv ed from th e p eriod betw een 1200 and 1500. They are a roman in Proven- $ a l v e r s e , Jaufr£. w r itte n about 1200; C ifa r. w r itte n about 1300 In C a s tilia n ; C urial e G Uelfa. w r itte n about 1430 1 2 in C atalan; and T iran t Lo B lanc, w r itte n in V alen cian about 1460. The stu d y w i l l be d eveloped around th e s e fou r w orks. S ev era l works which a re p a r tic u la r ly s u it a b le fo r com parison w i l l be examined to e s t a b lis h t h e ir r e la t io n s h ip to th e fo u r f i c t io n s m entioned above. One i s th e French roman. Gui de Warewic. w r itte n in th e th ir te e n th cen tu ry , which was adapted fo r th e f i r s t th ir d o f T ir a n t. A nother, T ablante de Rjcamonte. w r itte n about 1500, i s a lib r o de c a b a lle r la s adapted from th e roman. Jau fr£. and demon s t r a t e s v e r y w e ll th e changes w hich occu rred in c h iv a l resque f i c t i o n a c r o ss th e th r e e -c e n tu r y p erio d . Other works w hich had c o n sid er a b le in flu e n c e on th e authors o f th e f i c t i o n t o be stu d ie d , or which b ear s t r i k in g resem b lances t o p arts o f th e works, w i l l be p resen ted fo r com parison. These in c lu d e th e c h r o n ic le s o f Muntaner and D lez de Games. A number o f w ell-know n romans w i l l a ls o be used fo r com parison. The p eriod covered by th e stu d y in c lu d e s th e th r e e c e n tu r ie s betw een th e gold en age o f th e romances o f c h iv a lr y in France in th e t w e lf t h cen tu ry and t h e ir r e v iv a l in Spain during th e s ix t e e n t h ce n tu ry . 3 The e a r ly romances , o r romans c o u r t o ls . were poems w hich i l l u s t r a t e d a k n ig h tly v ir t u e li k e lo y a lt y , moder a t io n , or d e d ic a tio n . I d e a ls o f c o u r te s y and w om an -service had b een added to th e l i s t o f k n ig h tly q u a l i t i e s by th e m iddle o f th e t w e lfth c e n tu ry and became im portant them es 1 in much o f th e p o etry o f th e tim e s . C hrdtien de T royes w rote fo u r poems betw een 1160 and 1172 w h ich , a cco rd in g t o W . W . Comfort, " to g eth er form th e m ost com p lete e x p r e s s io n we p o s s e s s from a s in g le 2 au th or o f th e id e a ls o f French c h iv a lr y ." From h is tim e t o th e p r e s e n t, t h i s p o et has b een c o n sid e r e d a m odel o f e x c e lle n c e , and th e e a r l i e s t romance w r it t e n in Spain, J a u fr 6 ( c . 1 1 7 0 -1 2 0 0 ), c o n ta in s r e fe r e n c e s t o h is poems. T h erefo re, Chr6 t i e n de Troyes* poems seem a good c h o ic e fo r an e a r ly sta n d a rd w ith w hich t o compare Spanish rom ances. The romances o f th e Spanish r e v iv a l, or lib r o s de c a b a l l e r i a s . w ere p ro se rom ances w h ich s t r e s s e d popular them es, dram atic a c t io n , and sim p le la n g u a g e. Amadia de i C h retien de T royes, A rth u ria n Romances, ed . W . W . Comfort (Everyman, 6 9 8 ) (London: Dent, 1 9 6 8 ), p . v i . 9 I b id . Comfort r e f e r s t o E rec. W a in . C lig 6 s . and T-m incel n t . ................................. ............ " .......................................................................... 4 Gaula. p u b lish ed in 1508 by G arci Rodriguez de M ontalvo, c a lle d G arci Ord6 flez in subsequent e d it io n s , was th e f i r s t book o f t h i s kind t o r e c e iv e g rea t popular a ccla im , and i t i s one o f th e b e st o f th e lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s by to d a y ’ s sta n d a rd s. No o th e r romance had such a deep and la s t in g e f f e c t on th e p eop le o f Spain during th e s ix te e n th cen - tu r y . Amadls seems th e b e st c h o ic e fo r a la t e r standard w ith which t o compare th e romances o f th e f if t e e n t h cen tu r y . N early every c h iv a lr e sq u e f i c t i o n i l l u s t r a t e s one or more o f th e id e a ls o f k n ig h tly c o n d u c t: f a it h f u ln e s s in lo v e , s k i l l a t arms, c o u r te sy , and se n se o f honor. Each author in te r p r e ts th e s e id e a ls accord in g to h is c r i t e r i a . Changes in c r i t e r i a can be observed when two trea tm en ts o f one id e a l a re compared. The changes r e v e a l th e w r it e r ’ s a t t it u d e toward th e id e a l. The environm ent in w hich th e i ll u s t r a t i o n s a re p resen ted may change. R e a lis t ic or f a n t a s t ic elem en ts in th e s e t t in g s , environm ents, o r s o c i e t i e s in w hich th e 3 Henry Thomas, Spanish and Portuguese Romances o f C h ivalry (Cambridge: The U n iv e r s ity P ress, 1920), pp. 78- 83, 147-179. ............ 5 i l l u s t r a t i o n s are p resen ted may bo is o la t e d during a n a ly s is and compared in order t o e stim a te r e l a t iv e r e a lis m in a d e s c r ip tiv e s e n s e . For exam ple, a f a n t a s t ic e p iso d e may in clu d e many p r a c t ic a l d e t a ils in th e d e s c r ip tio n . The a n a ly s is sh ou ld be lim ite d to th e p r e se n ta tio n and in te r p r e ta tio n o f id e a lis m and d e s c r ip tiv e or p ic tu r esque r e a lism . A g en era l e s t h e t ic a n a ly s is sh ould be avoid ed so th a t th e c o n c lu sio n s w i l l not be w eig h ted more than n ecessa ry by q u a lity judgm ents. The e a r ly and la t e standards a re co n sid ered t o be works o f high a r t i s t i c m erit and th e m a te r ia l t o be stu d ie d may not be com parable in b eau ty. The in fo rm a tio n d e sir e d i s in a se n se e s t h e t i c a l , however; so a l i s t i n g method such as m ight be used fo r a sem antic or l i n g u i s t i c a n a ly s is would not be s u f f i c i e n t l y r e v e a lin g . Helmut A. H a tzfeld in " E sth e tic C r itic is m A pplied t o M edieval Romance L ite r a tu r e ," ^ dem onstrated how modern s t y l i s t i c in te r p r e ta tio n s o f m ed ieval t e x t s som etim es stim u la te d v i t a l in t e r e s t in th e s e t e x t s w hich an in v e n to r y - ty p e a n a ly s is o f s t y l i s t i c or l i n g u i s t i c d e v ic e s g e n e r a lly ^Romance H iilo lo e v . I (1 9 4 7 -4 8 ), 3 0 5 -3 3 0 . " 6 f a i l e d t o do. He f e l t th a t th e in t e r p r e t a t iv e a n a ly s is gave an in s ig h t, i f not an e x p la n a tio n , o f th e s p i r i t o f a work. An in t e r p r e t a t iv e a n a ly s is o f t h is body o f l i t e r a tu r e should e x p la in or c l a r i f y th e changes in c h iv a lr e sq u e id e a lism in Spanish lit e r a t u r e a t th e end o f th e Middle A ges. The method t o be a p p lie d , as was p r e v io u sly men tio n e d , w i l l be t o s e l e c t from each b a sic work p assages w hich e x h ib it r e a lis m . The r e a lis m may be found in a p r a c t ic a l approach t o a problem a s compared t o an id e a l i s t i c treatm en t o f th e same s it u a t io n : fo r exam ple, th e u se o f tr e a c h e r y t o e lim in a te a co m p etito r r a th e r than a d u e l. Or i t may be found in en vironm en tal d e t a il not n e cessa ry fo r th e i l l u s t r a t i o n o f a c h iv a lr e s q u e id e a l: fo r exam ple, gory d e s c r ip tio n s o f b a t t l e f i e l d dead or d e t a ile d o b serv a t io n s about p eo p le, d r e s s , or equipm ent. I t may a ls o be found in n a tu r a l re sp o n ses t o s it u a t io n s fo r which th e r e i s a t r a d it io n a l id e a liz e d r e sp o n se : fo r exam ple, a hero k n igh t who r e fu s e s t o f ig h t a v i l l a in o u s c h a lle n g e r . L ite r a r y t r a d it io n ten d s t o eq u a te popular w ith r e a l i s t i c 5Ibid. 7 and a r i s t o c r a t ic w ith i d e a l i s t i c , so p assages c o n ta in in g popular language or exam ples o f popular v a lu e s e x h ib it r e a lism in t h e ir s tr u c tu r e even i f th e y i l l u s t r a t e an id e a l. The s e le c t io n o f p assages fo r a n a ly s is w i l l not in c lu d e a l l p a ssages o f p o s s ib le im portance t o th e stu d y . Some w i l l be ex clu d ed because th e y i l l u s t r a t e a ty p e o f r e a lism more c le a r ly dem onstrated w ith some o th er p assage, o th e rs b ecau se th e d em onstration w ould be weak w ith o u t a burdensome amount o f background t o put th e p a ssa g e in to c o n te x t. When a s u f f i c i e n t amount o f m a te r ia l from each work has been p resen ted , t h e r e a l i s t i c elem en ts w i l l be examined t o se e what c o n c lu sio n s can be reach ed reg a rd in g th e r e la t io n o f th e work as a w hole t o e a r l i e r and la t e r c h iv a l resq ue lit e r a t u r e . C hivalresqu e lit e r a t u r e has lon g a t tr a c t e d l i t e r a ry s c h o la r s . They have c o n tr ib u te d t o a v a s t and s t i l l growing b ib lio g ra p h y on t h i s s u b je c t s in c e G eoffrey o f Monmouth put th e a lr e a d y o ld A rthurian legen d s on paper ( c . 113 7 ). The a c t i v i t y o f th e s e s c h o la r s o f c h iv a lr e sq u e lit e r a t u r e was e s p e c ia lly pronounced in th e l a s t q u a rter 8 o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y and th e f i r s t q u a r te r o f th e tw e n tie th vrtien B d d ier, Men^ndez y Ralayo, Mil& y F o n te n a ls, B ohigas B alagu er, M ich afilis de V a sco n ce lo s, W . J . Ent- w i s t l e , and J . D. B ruce, t o name a few , w ere p u b lish in g e d it io n s , s t u d ie s , and h i s t o r i e s o f m ed iev a l and r e n a is sa n ce t e x t s . The Modern language Q u a rterly p u b lish e d a " B ib lio g ra p h y o f C r it ic a l A rth u rian lit e r a t u r e " w hich appeared a n n u a lly u n t i l 1964 and th e B u lle t in B ib lio - grap h iqu e de la S o cid td I n te r n a tio n a le A rth u rien n e has p u b lish ed an an nu al b ib lio g r a p h y s in c e 1949. Most o f th e e x ta n t t e x t s o f Spanish books o f c h iv a lr y have b een e x h a u s tiv e ly exam ined fo r a u th o r sh ip , s t y l e , lan gu age, s o u r c e s , and e d i t o r i a l h is t o r y . S e v e r a l h i s t o r i e s have been w r it t e n c o v e r in g some a s p e c ts o f th e lit e r a t u r e such as E n tw istle * s The A rthu rian leg en d in th e Spanish fe n in s u la . Thomas1 Spanish and B ortuguese Romances o f C hiv a lr y . J u s tin a Ruiz de C onde's E l amor v e l m atrim onio s e c r e t o en lo s lib r o s de c a b a lle r l a s . and M artin de R iq u er's l a leven d a d e l g r a a l v tem as 6 p jc o s m e d ie v a le s . A number o f g e n e r a l s t u d ie s w hich in c lu d e s t y l i s t i c a n a ly s e s o f th e t e x t s , a s w e l l as l i n g u i s t i c o r so u rce s t u d ie s , e x i s t fo r ea ch o f th e works o f in t e r e s t t o t h i s stu d y . Some o f th e s e 9 a r e in c lu d e d w ith in g e n e r a l s t u d ie s such a s O rlgenes de la n o v ela by Men6 ndez y Ftelayo w h ich in c lu d e s , in C hapter V o f th e in tr o d u c tio n , an ex a m in a tio n o f C ifa r and a d e s c r ip t i o n o f T ira n t lo Blanc w hich com plim ent th e work done h e r e . No stu d y , o f s in g le or m u ltip le w ork s, has been found d u rin g r e se a r c h fo r t h i s stu d y w hich d e a ls e x c lu s i v e l y w ith t h e r e a lis m in t h e s e c h iv a lr e s q u e n o v e ls n or any w h ich a tte m p ts t o e x p la in any tr e n d by com paring r e a lis m in t h e v a r io u s w ork s. Two sta te m e n ts by prom inent s c h o la r s su g g e ste d th a t such a stu d y m ight prove rew ard in g. The f i r s t o f t h e s e was by Menendez y Itelayo who summarized th e e n t ir e h is t o r y o f th e romance o f c h iv a lr y from 1200 t o 1500 in t h e s e w ords: tJh id e a l cornun de v id a g u errera b r i l l d en m edio de l a s t i n i e b l a s de la Edad M edia. E sta gran p o e s ia n a r r a tiv a tu v o por prim er in stru m en to la forma m £ tr ic a , ason antad a a l p r in c ip io y rim ada despairs; pero en lo s tiem p os de su d eca d en cia , d esd e la segunda m ita d d e l s i g l o X I I I , y mucho m£s en e l XIV y en e l XV, cuando e l i n s t i n t o crea d o r h ab la h uld o de lo s j u g la r e s , cuando la a m p lific a c id n v er b o sa y la m ala r e t 6 r ic a habian su p la n ta d o k la p o e s ia , cuando la s n a r r a c io n e s no s e com ponlan ya para s e r co n ta d a s s in o para s e r le ld a s , cuando s e h a b la agrandado en dem asla e l p u b lic o s i n m ejo ra rse la c a lid a d de 6 1 , y 6 la v e z que la a r is t o c r a c ia m i l i t a r , avezada ya k lo s r e fin a m ie n to s c o r te s a n o s y k lo s a r t i f i c i o s d e l lir is m o tr o v a d o r e sc o y de la s e s c u e la s a le g 6 r ic a s , v o lv l a desdefiosam ente la esp a ld a k g e s ta s n a c io n a le s , comenzaba la b u rg u esla k a p o d era rse de lo s a n tig u o s 10 r e la t o s , im prim iendose un s e l l o v u lg a r y p e d e str e ; la Musa de la Epopeya s e v i o fo rza d a £ d escen d er de su tr o n o , c a l z 6 e l hum ilde zu eco de la p rosa, y en to n c es n a c ie r o n lo s lib r o s de c a b a H e r la s propiam ente d ic h o s . ^ Marla Rosa LLda de M a lk ie l s t a t e d th e p ro ce ss more d i r e c t l y . She w rote th a t from th e l a t e t w e lf t h t o th e e a r ly fo u r te e n th c e n tu r y A rth u rian li t e r a t u r e to o k r o o t in t h e c o u r t ly m ilie u a lo n e , and t h a t t h e t r a n s la t io n s o f th e A rth u ria n t e x t s b elo n g ed t o a more r e c e n t p e r io d . " T h e se," sh e c o n tin u e d , **were ab sorb ed a t a l a t e r d a te in t o th e v e r n a c u la r l i t e r a t u r e and ad ap ted t o th e t a s t e and tem per o f th e p eo p le; m y stic ism was m inim ized and a c t io n empha s iz e d . Thus a c c lim a tiz e d , th e y s tim u la te d t h e c r e a t io n o f o r ig in a l w o r k s." ' I t seem ed t h a t a stu d y o f th e t e x t s o f th e p e r io d w hich co u ld d em onstrate th e ch an ges in c h iv a lr e s q u e f i c t i o n during t h e p erio d w ould c l a r i f y t h e p ro ce ss o f change and c o n tr ib u te t o a b e t t e r u n d ersta n d in g o f Span ish l i t e r a t u r e a t th e end o f th e M iddle A ges. ^O rlgenes de la n o v ela (Nueva B ib lio t e c a de A u tores E sp a flo les) (M adrid: B a i lly B a i l l i e r e , 1 9 0 5 ), I , c x x v i i. 7 "A rthurian L ite r a tu r e in Spain and B ortu gal, " A rth u ria n L ite r a tu r e i n th e M iddle A ges, e d . R. S. Loomis (O xford: C larendon, 1 9 5 9 ), pp. 4 1 7 -4 1 8 . 11 There was f r e e In terch a n g e o f h e r o ic lite r a r y - m a te r ia l betw een France and Spain from th e t w e lf t h c e n tu r y . The Pseudo-T urpin was w r it t e n in Spain, p rob ably a t San t ia g o de Com postela by French monks s h o r t ly b e fo r e 1140. These monks u t i l i z e d Spanish f o lk l o r e and l o c a l c h r o n ic le s a lo n g w ith o th e r so u r c e s o f Charlemagne leg en d t o f i l l out t h e ir f a l s e c h r o n ic le . The Pseudo-T urpin, w h ich Men6 ndez y B elayo s a id was w ith o u t doubt th e f i r s t p ro se book o f o c h iv a lr y , in s p ir e d numerous h e r o ic n a r r a tiv e s in p rose and q in v e r s e a l l over Europe. The M atiere de B retagne c ir c u la t e d In S pain n e a r ly as soon a s i t appeared In th e c o u r ts o f France and England, ju d g in g from th e appearance o f a llu s io n s t o w ell-k n ow n 1 0 works among th e poems o f Spanish tro u b a d o u rs. I t does n ot seem t o have in s p ir e d much im it a tio n or t r a n s la t io n , how ever. Even th e a llu s io n s t o c h iv a lr e s q u e li t e r a t u r e g Men£ndez y R alayo, O rigenes de la n o v e la . pp. c x x v ii-c x x x v . ^Andr£ de Mandach, N a issa n ce e t Developpem ent de la Chanson de G este e n Europe ( R ib lic a tio n s Romanes e t F r a n s a is e s ) (Gen&ve: Broz, 196 1 ), pp. 7 7 -1 3 9 . 1 0 W . F. E n tw is tle , The A rth u rian Legend i n th e L ite r a ttir e o f th e S pan ish Ih n in su la (London: D ent, 1 9 2 5 ), pp. 1 1 - 1 2 . 12 appear t o be t o th e o r i g in a l poems o r t h e i r p ro se v e r s io n s and not t o any d o m estic c r e a tio n s o r a d a p ta tio n s . C a ro lin a M icha& lis de V a sc o n c e lo s, a f t e r an e x h a u s tiv e se a r c h fo r e v id e n c e t o th e c o n tr a r y , r e lu c t a n t ly con clu d ed th a t v e r y l i t t l e was done in Spain w ith th e French romans o r rom ances u n t i l th e fo u r te e n th c e n tu r y . She w ro te: Quando o A r c ip r e s te de F ita e s c r e v ia (era 1343) os v e r s o s ca nunca fu e ta n l e a l B la n c a flo r a a F lo r e s n in e s agora T r is ta n con to d o s su s am ores, . . . a n o v e lla e r a n ovidad e em H ispanha. As r e fe r e n - c ia s e a H u so e s a T r is ta n , I s e u , A rtur e Merlira, a n te r io r e s a 1330 (p . e x . nas obras de A lfo n so X ), sao meros r e f l e x e s da p o e s ia p ro v en q a l. As p o s te - r io r e s refere m se a T r is ta n C a stelh a n o . She went on t o sa y : Nao duvido que o A r c ip r e s te l e s s e urn li v r o c a s te lh a n o r e c e n tis s im o , porque exactam en te no tempo de A lfo n so XI, o c a s te lh a n is s im o , a l i t t e r a t u r a h esp an h ola con - se g u iu lib e r t a r s e da suprem acia ly r ic o -r o m a n tic s do N o rd o este. . . . pero e s s o no im p lie s n e ce ssa r la m e n te a n a o - e x is t e n c ia de um T r is ta n e Amadis g a lle g o - portugu 6 s a n t e r io r . Men£ndez y Relayo th ou gh t th a t th e s c a r c i t y o f t r a n s la t io n s and n a tiv e o r ig in a ls in Spain in d ic a te d th a t 11 C ancionero da A iuda. e d . M ich a S lis de V a sco n celo s (R ep rin t; T orin o: B o tteg a d*Erasmo, 1966), p . 5 1 5 . 12Ibid. 13 th e French c r e a tio n had not been so fa sh io n a b le in Spain as in oth er p a rts o f Europe. In h is o p in io n , th e M atlere de Bretagne had a p ern icio u s e f f e c t on h ero ic lit e r a t u r e which r e s u lte d in a fr iv o lo u s c o u r tly lit e r a t u r e . These ch iv a lresq u e f i c t i o n s , w ith t h e ir v e s t ig e s o f C e ltic p as sio n a te m ysticism and t h e ir unhealthy d r e ssin g o f Proven9 a l im m orality, he f e l t , were d is p le a s in g to th e Spanish p eo p le. He observed: Una r e a c c i 6 n d e l g en io hispano, en carnind ose en su h ij o mis p re c la ro , mat6 y e n te r r 6 para siem pre tan enorme balumba de fib u la s ; la misma f a c ilid a d con que d esap arecieron y e l profundo o lv id o que cay 6 sobre e l l a s in d ica n que no eran verdaderam ente p opu lares, que no hablan penetrado en la c o n c ie n c ia d e l v u lg o . The deeds c e le b r a te d in th e M atiere de Bretagne were a degenerate departure from th o se o f e p ic lit e r a t u r e which s tr e s s e d p a t r io t ic and r e lig io u s m o tiv a tio n , a cco rd ing t o Menindez y B elayo. About A rthurian h ero es, he sa id : Los m otivos que gulan & lo s c a b a lle r o s de la ta b la redonda son, por lo g en era l, a r b itr a r io s y f f i t i l e s ; su a c tiv id a d se e j e r c it a 6 mis b ien s e consume y d is ip a e n tr e la s quimeras de un sueno; e l in s t in t o de la v id a aven turera, de la aventura por s i misma, lo s a tra e con i r r e s i s t i b l e se n u e lo . . . . Los nuevos h iro es 13 Menindez y Belayo, Origenes de la n o v ela . p. c x x v i. 14 d ife r la n ta n to de lo s hdroes £ p ic o s cpmo en la b ls t o r ia d ifie r e n e l Cid y Suero de Q uinones. ^ S ev era l c r i t i c s were d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith Menindez y Itelayo's e x p la n a tio n fo r th e s c a r c it y o f o r ig in a l works and t r a n s la t io n s p r io r t o th e s ix t e e n t h ce n tu ry . W illiam J. E n tw istle agreed w ith him in part when he w ro te: F oreign th e y in d isp u ta b ly a r e , and th e y rep r esen t modes o f thought w hich c o n f l i c t w ith th e s in c e r e p r a c t ic a lit y o f th e ca n ta res de g e s ta and even , as may be conceded, w ith th e p r in c ip le o f r e a lism th a t su p p o rts and in forms th e most s u c c e s s f u l and c h a r a c t e r is t ic produc t io n s o f th e C a s tilia n g e n iu s, in a r t s or p o l i t i c s or l i t e r a t u r e . ^ But th e n h e co n tin u ed : The q u e s tio n has b een fogged by th e elem en tary f a lla c y o f im posing th e y e llo w and g reen o f a modern p o l i t i c a l map on th e lit e r a t u r e o f an e a r l i e r a g e . 6 R cofessor E n tw istle argued th a t th e lit e r a r y la n guages o f Spain may not have been w e l l enough d evelop ed t o produce a r t i s t i c im ita tio n s or t r a n s la t io n s o f th e French c r e a t io n s . T hese, h e b e lie v e d , w ere e n t h u s ia s t ic a lly a ccep ted in a l l th e Ib er ia n co u r ts b ecau se th e r e a re many r e fe r e n c e s and a llu s io n s t o them in a r t and lit e r a t u r e . ^ I b i d . . p. c l x v . 15 The A rthurian leg en d , p. 232. I 6 I b id . . p. 234. 15 R ita L ejeune, In a tte m p tin g t o e x p la in th e s c a r c i t y o f o r ig in a l works or t r a n s la t io n s in lan gue d 'o c . b e lie v e d th a t t e x t s s u r e ly e x is t e d w hich have b een l o s t . She r e j e c t e d th e th e o r y th a t th e lan gue d 'o c was not s u it a b le 17 f ° r romans and rom ances and argued th a t A rth u ria n l i t e r a tu r e may have b een c ir c u la t e d in lan gu e d 'o c b e fo r e any a r r iv e d in lan gu e d ' o i l . She w ro te: Perhaps most s t r ik in g i s t h e e v id e n c e th a t Arthur was known in P o ito u when G eo ffrey o f Monmouth was f in is h in g h is opus a t Oxford, and th a t by 1170, t h e d a te o f C h r e tie n 's E rec. t h e M atter o f B r it a in had conquered C a t a l o n ia .^ I t i s a fa c t th a t th e r e e x i s t v e r y few t e x t s o f c h iv a lr e s q u e f i c t i o n w r it t e n in Spain b e fo r e 1500. T hese e x h ib it many o f th e d e f e c t s w h ich Mendndez y Ralayo a t tr ib u t e d t o th e M a tiere de B retagne in g e n e r a l but th e y 17 There h ave b een argum ents s in c e th e M iddle Ages as t o w h eth er one Romance d ia le c t was b e t t e r s u it e d th a n an oth er f o r s p e c i f i c k in d s o f l i t e r a t u r e . Rairaon V id a l de Besaudun d e c la r e d e a r ly in t h e t h ir t e e n t h c e n tu r y th a t French was b e t t e r fo r rom ances, r o tr o u e n g e s, and p a sto u r - e l l e s w h ile th e so u th e r n d i a l e c t s w ere b e t t e r fo r poems, so n g s, and s ir v e n t e s . See C. A ppel, P ro v e n z a lisc h e C hrestom ath ie (L e ip z ig : R eisla n d , 1 8 9 5 ), p . 196. 1 R R. L ejeune, "The T rou b ad ou rs," A rth u rian L ite r a tu r e in th e M iddle A ges, e d . R. S. Loomis (O xford: C laren don, 1 9 5 9 ), p. 3 9 7 . 16 a ls o show th a t th e authors wore fa m ilia r w ith th e French poems and prose rom ances. I t i s lo g ic a l t o conclude th a t th e French t e x t s were a v a ila b le in a l l p arts o f C h ristia n Spain and th a t p e r io d ic a lly , at le a s t , th ey in sp ired im ita tio n s . E vid en tly none o f th e n a tiv e o r ig in a ls a ttr a c te d enough a tte n tio n t o m erit tr a n s c r ip tio n o f more than a few co p ies or more o f them would have su rv iv ed . The French roman was a long n a r r a tiv e in v e r s e . The term o r ig in a lly meant in Roman, or v ern acu lar Romance a s opposed t o L atin, and e v e n tu a lly came t o d esig n a te th e n o v e l. The roman was w r itte n t o be read alou d, a t f i r s t t o c o u r tly g a th e rin g s, but la t e r a t f a ir s and r e lig io u s c e le b r a tio n s t o more popular a u d ien ces. By 1250 many o f th e romans had been r e v ise d in to prose v e r sio n s fo r p r iv a te rea d in g . Many o f th e more p o e tic q u a lit ie s were s a c r i f ic e d as th e read in g p u b lic became le s s r e fin e d and as th e p rose s t y le succeeded b e tte r a t p ortrayin g e x c it in g a c tio n than a t ex p ressin g s p ir i t u a l v a lu e s . A number o f sc h o la r s lik e to c a l l th e s e prose v e r s io n s "romances o f c h iv a lr y ." The lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s was a new breed o f th e romances o f c h iv a lr y and i s co n sid ered by many a u th o r itie s 17 t o have q u a li t i e s w hich d is t in g u is h i t from e a r l i e r rom ances. I t seems u s e fu l t o r e f e r t o Spanish romances p u b lish ed a f t e r 1500 by th e Spanish term . The new era i s co n sid ered t o have opened w ith Mon t a l v o ’ s Amadls de Gaula. th e au th or o f w hich, a cco rd in g to Men6 ndez y Belayo: H izo a lg o va& a que un lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s k lm it a c l 6 n de lo s poemas d e l c l c l o b r e t 6 n: e s c r i b i 6 la prlmera n o v ela i d e a l i s t s moderns, la epopeya de la f id e lid a d am orosa, e l c 6 d igo d e l honor y de la c o r t e s la , que d i s c i p l i n 6 k muchas g e n e r a c io n e s. 9 Henry Thomas ex p la in ed : Amadls o f Gaul c r e a te s a h ig h er c h iv a lr y , r e ta in in g th e t h e a t r ic a l s id e o f th e o ld er c h iv a lr y , i t s r u le s and i t s f o r m a lit ie s , but tran sform in g and en n o b lin g i t s s p i r i t . The e lim in a tio n o f co a rsen ess in word and deed which i s th e c h ie f c o n tr ib u tio n o f c o u r tly in flu e n c e s t o th e c h iv a lr o u s id e a l i s com plete in Amadls. These sta tem en ts a p p ly in a g e n e r a l way t o most o f th e lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s p u b lish ed a f t e r Amadls. C h ivalresq u e lit e r a t u r e i s i d e a l i s t i c lit e r a t u r e . In th e b eg in n in g much o f i t was w r itte n by c l e r i c s w ith th e ex p ress purpose o f e x t o lli n g th e id e a ls o f c h iv a lr y in th e ^Men6 ndez y B elayo, O rleenes de la n o v e la . p. c x x v i. 20 Spanish and Bortueuese Romances, pp. 4 8 -4 9 . 18 hope o f curbing th o rap aciou s te n d e n c ie s o f th e p r o fe s s io n a l m ilit a r y n o b le w hich made him trou blesom e in tim es o f p ea ce. It was a ls o part o f th e campaign to r e c r u it him t o crusade fo r th o church and r e sp e c t i t s p o sse s sio n s and p erso n n el. As tim e went on lo y a lt y t o th o so v e r e ig n was s t r e s s e d and by th e tim e th a t th e e p ic poems had ev o lv e d in to romans, c o u r tly conduct was promoted a s one o f th e n ece ssa r y q u a lit ie s o f a proux c h e v a lie r . Some manuals on c h iv a lr y were w r itte n or preached. For exam ple, S t, Bernard w rote a manual fo r th e Order o f th e Knights Templar and d e liv e r e d a e u lo g y in p r a is e o f th e Templars 21 about 1128 in T royes. C h retien de T royes may have had knowledge o f t h e s e . Most o f th e in s t r u c t io n , however, was in clu d ed in f i c t i o n , w hich was th e main j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r h avin g f i c t i o n . Thus, romans lik e Iferceval and Jaufrd were in ten d ed t o promote th e q u a l i t i e s o f C h r istia n k n ig h t hood: s k i l l a t arms, lo y a lt y t o church and so v e r e ig n , pro t e c t io n o f th e weak, and g e n t le b eh a v io r or good manners around th e l a d i e s . 21 For S t. B ernard's eu lo g y and th e vows o f th e Order o f K nights Templar, s e e : Michaud, H is to ir e des C roisad es (R a ris: Fum e, 1 8 5 7 ), I , 4 9 2 -4 9 5 . 19 The c l e r i c s who w rote th e se f ic t i o n s o fte n had o p in io n s about th e way some o f th e i n s t it u t io n s o f c h iv a lr y w ere used and th e y cou ld not alw ays overlo o k th e p e c u lia r i t i e s o f human n a tu re , so a h in t o f iro n y or s a t ir e or even mockery appears in th e romans from tim e t o tim e . These a re r e a l i s t i c elem en ts. When th e c h iv a lr e sq u e f ic t i o n s w ere r e v iv e d in Spain in th e s ix te e n th cen tu ry , th e s e e l e m ents were purged from th e o ld rom ances. M agical occu r re n c es, w hich th e o ld c l e r i c s o fte n r e la te d w ith tongue in cheek, were e it h e r e lim in a te d or r e to ld w ith com plete candor. Exemplary conduct cou ld h ard ly be ex p ected o f a k nigh t on cru sad e or on th e f r o n tie r in Spain around 1200, so th e e a r ly romances in clu d ed some good k n ig h ts who had ch a ra c te r d e fe c ts or had com m itted some s in w hich blem ished t h e ir v ir t u e . Even a p e r fe c t k n igh t co u ld have moments o f w eak ness. T his i s ra re in th e lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s where problems u s u a lly come from w ith o u t: from g ia n ts and en c h a n te r s. I n sa n ity , momentary d e sp a ir , lo s s o f f a it h or s e l f co n fid e n c e a re n ot problems w hich con fron t th e s ix te e n th -c e n tu r y k n igh t o f Spanish f i c t i o n . On th e o th e r hand, th e r e i s a r e a l i s t i c q u a lit y in th e new s t y l e w hich m ight be c a l le d popular r e a lism . 20 T h is c o n s is t s o f a t te n t io n t o everyday d e t a i l . I t m ight be m entioned th a t th e h ero had pork chops and sp in ach fo r supper, th a t th e r e were s h e e ts on th e bed, th a t h is wounds were washed w ith w h ite w ine or th a t he removed h is hose b efo re r e t i r in g . Such d e t a i l was seldom in clu d ed in th e romans and was le s s pronounced in th e e a r ly rom ances. T r iv ia l e v e n ts, appearances, or sta tem en ts are o fte n e x p la in e d . T his s o r t o f p e d e str ia n r e a lism i s e s p e c i a l l y apparent in T ab lan te and provoked Don Q u ijo te 's comment: " iB ien haya m il v e c e s e l a u to r de T ablante de Ricam onte. y a q u e l d e l o tr o lib r o donde s e cuentan lo s hechos d e l Conde T om illas y con qu£ p un tu alid ad lo d e s c r i- 22 ben to d o !" In th e s ix te e n th cen tu ry , t h i s may have pro duced an e f f e c t s im ila r t o th a t o f "magic realism " in to d a y 's f i c t i o n . I t may have added v e r is im ilit u d e to th e superhuman q u a l i t i e s o f th e hero t o lo a d th e n a r r a tiv e w ith commonplace d e t a i l and sim p le e x p la n a tio n . However, th e abundance o f d e t a i l and e x p la n a tio n g iv e s th e se s t o r ie s th e p r a t tlin g to n e o fte n a s s o c ia te d w ith f a ir y t a l e s fo r c h ild r e n . 22 M iguel de C ervan tes, El in g e n io so h id a lg o Don O u iio te de la Mancha (M exico: Porrua, 196 6 ), p. 69. 21 T ablante de Ricam onte. th e s ix te e n th cen tu ry progeny o f th e roman. Ja u fr£ . w i l l be a n a ly zed in th e n ext ch a p ter t o show 'tdiat Spanish c h iv a lr e sq u e f i c t i o n was l i k e a t th e end o f th e p erio d t o be s tu d ie d . Jaufrd w i l l be exam ined t o i l l u s t r a t e what kind o f c h iv a lr e sq u e lit e r a t u r e was produced in Spain a t th e b eg in n in g o f th e p erio d . Subsequent ch a p ters w i l l exam ine th e changes w hich occurred during th e p erio d from about 1200 t o 1500. CHAPTER IX JAUFRE The g o ld en age o f th e French romans o f c h iv a lr y and p rose romances d eriv ed from them was betw een 1150 and 1250. One roman. Jaufr&. was w r itte n in Spain about 1170, a lth o u g h th e e x i s t i n g v e r s io n seems t o have been r e v is e d about 1200. Jaufrd i s o f p a r tic u la r in t e r e s t to t h i s stu d y b ecau se i t in s p ir e d a lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s , T ab lan te de Ricamonte v J o fr e . h i i o d e l conde Donason. f i r s t p u b lish ed in 1 5 1 3 .1 In t h i s ch a p ter, Jaufr& w i l l be compared w ith i t s French con tem poraries t o a s c e r t a in in what ways i t d if f e r s from them . Then i t w i l l be compared t o i t s s ix t e e n t h - cen tu ry o ffs p r in g t o s e e how i t was changed or r a th e r how th e t a s t e o f th e p u b lic fo r whom th e y w ere w r itte n changed. Jau fr£. Roman A rtu rien du X IIIe S ie c le en Vers Erovencaux. e d . C lo v is B runei (S o c i£ t 6 des A nciens T ex tes F r a n s a is ) (R a ris: 1943), I , l i . 22 23 2 JaufrA was w r itte n in Praven9 a l v e r s e , th e l i t e r ary language o f th e day in Aragon and C a ta lo n ia . During th e t w e lf th century, n o r th e a ste r n Spain was a tta c h e d t o ftrovence by c u ltu r e , language, p o l i t i c s , and econom ic i n t e r e s t s . C atalans governed or a d m in istered ftrovence 3 u n t i l 1249, and th e in flu e n c e o f th e King o f Aragon and C atalon ia was in d isp u te th e r e u n t i l 1259 when boundaries w ere e s ta b lis h e d w ith Prance a f t e r th e T reaty o f C o r b e il.^ C a s tile and G a lic ia w ere s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y is o la t e d from th e a c t i v i t i e s o f sou th ern Europe, but l i n g u i s t i c and c u lt u r a l d iffe r e n c e s w ere not v e r y pronounced in any o f th e Spanish kingdoms.^ ftrovenyal was th e fa sh io n a b le language fo r p oetry in C a s t ile and in G a lic ia , as w e ll a s in Aragon and 2 S ev era l s c h o la r s have con clud ed from th e language and on om astics o f JaufrA th a t t h e author was a C atalan. See M artin de R iquer’ s rev iew o f th e B runei e d it io n in R ev ista de F ilo lo g ia Espanola. XXXI (1 9 4 7 ), 2 4 5 -2 4 7 . 3 Raoul Bousquet, "C atalans e t Praven9 a u x ," R e c u e il de Travaux O ffert h . M . C lo v is B runei (S o cietA de l fE cole des C h artes) ( B a r is : 1955), I, 2 2 8 -2 3 3 . ^A. de B o fa r u ll, H is to r ia de Catalunya (B ib lio te c a C la s s ic s C a ta la n s) (B arcelon a: 1907), V III, 7 7 -7 9 . ^Amado A lon so, " Ih r tic iA n de la s lenguas ro m in i- c a s , " M isce1 • la n ia Fabra. ed . Joan Coromines (Buenos A ir e s : Coni, 1 9 4 3 ), p . 87. 24 C atalon ia where th e d iffe r e n c e betw een Proven9 a l and th e £ lo c a l v ern a cu la r was s l i g h t . JaufrA was e v id e n tly w e ll known in Aragon and C a ta lo n ia . The s to r y o f JaufrA was p a in ted on th e w a lls o f th e M oorish room in th e A lj a f e r la o f Zaragoza a cco rd in g to a r o y a l r e fu r b is h in g order d a ted 1352.^ Ramon Muntaner (1265-1336) a llu d e d t o th e poem when h e p r a ise d th e k n ig h ts which P rince James to o k w ith him in to C alab ria: Que cen t e n tr e r ic h s homens e c a u a lle r s de Cat ha - la n s e de A ragonesos hach en a q u e lla c a sa , que ca scu de le s p ro eses e c a u a lle r ia s pogra hom fe r m ajor romans, que no e s a q u e ll de I a u fr e . The s to r y h as a ls o endured w e ll, b ecau se i t was made in to a lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s , T ab lan te de Ricamonte v J o fr e. h i i o d e l conde Donason. w hich co n tin u ed t o be £ Most a u th o r it ie s a g ree th a t lit e r a r y C atalan and Provenpal w ere th e same language during th e tw e lf th cen tu ry and th e f i r s t h a lf o f th e t h ir t e e n t h c e n tu r y . See W . F. E ntw ist le , The A rthu rian Legend in th e L ite r a tu r e o f th e Spanish Bfeninsula (London: Dent, 1925), pp. 78-7 9 . Some a u th o r itie s d eb ate w hether C atalan was d eriv ed from Provenpal or Provenpal from C a ta la n . For exam ple, se e A lonso, " P a r tic i 6 n de la s len gu as rotn in icas, " pp. 8 3 -8 8 . ^A. Rubi6 y Lluch, Documents per ^ H is t o r ia de la Cultura C atalana M ie-E val ( I n s t it u t dfE stu d is C a ta la n s) (B arcelona: 1 9 0 8 -2 1 ), I , No. 160. Q Chronik des Edlen En Ramon Muntaner (L ite r a r is c h e n V erein s, V II) (S tu ttg a r t: 1844), p. 214. 25 popular through th e c e n tu r ie s when th a t ty p e o f lit e r a t u r e was in g e n e r a l d is fa v o r . I t was t r a n s la t e d in to Tagalog v e r s e in 1902, th e o n ly lib r o de c a b a lle r £ a s so honored.^ JaufrA was p u b lish ed in n in e te e n th -c e n tu r y French and E n g lish t r a n s la t io n s and a g a in in more modem t r a n s la - 10 tio n s in t h e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y . I t seems v ery l i k e l y th a t t h i s romance ap p ealed t o th e p u b lic , and has co n tin u ed t o do so , b ecau se i t i s a sim p le, u ncom p licated a d ven tu re s to r y compared t o th e more p s y c h o lo g ic a l romans o f C h retien de T royes or th e lo n g er and more in v o lv e d lib r o s de c a b a lle r la s p a ttern ed a f t e r Amadis de G aula. The roman. JaufrA . was w r it t e n in 1169 or 1170, but th e e x ta n t m anu scrip ts a re c o p ie s from a r e v is io n made a f t e r 1200. The r e v is o r t r i e d t o b rin g th e poem up t o date by in c lu d in g a llu s io n s t o e p iso d e s from w ell-know n A rthurian romans. The e a r l i e s t d a te fo r th e r e v is io n Q The Tagalog v e r s io n i s d esc rib ed in d e t a i l by S. F a n sler, " M etrical Romances in th e R iilip p in e s , " The Journal o f American F o lk -lo r e . XXIX (1 9 1 6 ), 2 1 7 -2 2 2 . I t i s e v id e n t from th e d e s c r ip tio n th a t i t i s an a d a p ta tio n o f T a b la n te. 10JaufrA. I , l i - l i i i . 26 has b een f ix e d by th e l a t e s t d a te fo r t h e F ir s t C ontinua t i o n o f P ercev a l, w r it t e n betw een 1190 and 1210, b ecau se th e r e i s a c le a r a l l u s io n in Jau frd t o an e p iso d e in th a t 11 rom ance. The r e v is o r a p p a r e n tly did not t r y t o m odernize any a r c h a ic elem en ts w h ich would have d istu r b e d e i t h e r th e s to r y o r th e v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e o r i g in a l . For exam ple, th e name o f A r th u r 's Queen, G u ilalm er, m ight h ave been changed t o th e b e t t e r known G uenievre or an e q u iv a le n t l i k e G inebra o r G eniure, but th e change w ould have d istu r b e d th e v e r s i f i c a t i o n . The f e lo n k n ig h t o f J a u fr e. T a u la t de Rogimon, i s m entioned among th e good k n ig h ts o f t h e Round T able in most o f t h e French rom ances b e g in n in g w ith Erec about 1170: G i l f l e z , l i f i l z Do, e t T a u la t. q u i onques d'arm es ne fu la s.* -2 C a lle d T a u la s de Rogemont in th e F ir s t C o n tin u a tio n o f B a rcev a l. he i s one o f th e k n ig h ts who g o es ou t t o ^ S la r tln de R iquer, "Los problem as d e l roman p ro- v e n z a l de Jau fr£, " R e c u e il de Travaux O ffe r t a M. C lo v is B runei (S o c i£ t6 de l'E c o le des C h a rtes) (E a r is: 1 9 5 5 ), I I , 4 5 0 -4 5 3 . 12 l e s Romans de C h retien de T roves. I. Erec e t E nide. e d . Mario Roques ( l e s C la ssiq u e s F ran pais du Moyen A ge) (Ifetris: Champion, 1 9 6 6 ), 11. 1697-1698. 27 r e sc u e G ir fle z (Jau frA ) who i s a p r iso n e r in th e C h a stel O r g u e lle u s. The r e v is o r m ight have changed th e name and th e v e r s i f i c a t i o n , o r he m ight have changed th e s t o r y a s d id th e au th o r o f T a b la n te de Ricam onte tow ard th e end o f th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y . The in s e r t io n o f a llu s io n s w hich c o u ld o n ly have been made around 1200, co n fu se d d a tin g o f th e roman fo r many y ea r s b eca u se th e d e d ic a tio n t o th e King a t th e b e g in n in g o f JaufrA does n ot f i t e i t h e r Rater I I (1 1 9 8 -1 2 1 3 ), James I (1 2 1 3 -1 2 7 6 ), or R ater I I I ( 1 2 7 6 -1 2 8 5 ).13 The poem i s d e d ic a te d t o th e young King o f Aragon who d e fe a te d en em ies o f God in h is f i r s t b a t t l e . This d e s c r ip tio n f i t s A lfo n so I I (1 1 6 2 -1 1 9 6 ) b e t t e r th an any o f h i s s u c c e s s o r s . The p a ssa g e i s e s s e n t i a l l y a s f o llo w s . I have a g r e a t s t o r y t o t e l l you . I t I s about brave deeds and c o u r te s y , b a t t l e s and a d v e n tu r e s, a t a l e about King A rth u r's Court a t w hich s o many g r e a t deeds o f v a lo r w ere perform ed th a t i t s fame w i l l n ev er d ie . 13 For a h is t o r y o f th e c o n tr o v e r sy o v er th e d a te s , s e e t h e l a t e s t a r t i c l e by R ita Lejeune on th e s u b je c t, ,1Ie Roman de J a u fr6 , so u r c e de C h retien de Troyes?" Revue B e ig e . XXXI (1 9 5 3 ), 7 1 7 -7 4 7 . For th e l a s t word s e e M artin de R iquer, "Los problem as de J a u fr A ." pp. 4 3 7 -4 4 7 . 28 A lthough I n ever saw King A rth u r’ s C ourt, I heard about i t a t th e co u rt o f th e m ost n o b le k in g by a l l com p a r is o n s , th e King o f Aragon. F ath er o f Worth, son o f G e n e r o sity , m aster o f Good F ortun e, humble and l o y a l, he lo v e s God, f e a r s him, b e lie v e s in him and m a in ta in s th e f a i t h l o y a ll y , w ith peace and j u s t i c e so th a t God w i l l lo v e him and keep him. He i s th e new champion o f God who f ig h t s God’s enem ies and in h is v e r y f i r s t b a t t l e he d e fe a te d t h o s e whom God d e s p is e s . T h e r e fo r e , God honors him and has endowed him w ith b ravery, good s e n s e , and a g r e a t h e a r t. N ever has so young a IC L ng been so w e ll d isp o se d t o g iv e g e n e r o u sly t o k n ig h ts and m in s tr e ls and th a t i s why th e y a l l come t o h is c o u r t. Thus i t was th a t from a f o r e ig n k n ig h t, a r e l a t i v e o f A rthur and Gawain, I lea rn ed about an a d ven tu re w hich once b e f e l l A rthur, who was h o ld in g c o u r t on W h itsu n d a y .^ Much o f t h i s p a ssa g e m ight be r o u tin e , cerem onious f l a t t e r y by a jo n g le u r fo r h is p atron , but th e fo llo w in g l i n e s can o n ly a p p ly t o A lfo n so XI: Anc D ieus no tr o b e t en e l f a i l a , Ans a la prim era b a t a ila ^ J a u fr6 . 11. 5 7-91. .... ......... " ............................ ' 29 F a ita per e l , e l a v cn cu tz C el per qe Deu e s d e s c r e s u tz , And: Anc en tan joven coronat Nu as tan bo a lb a j u s t a t , They do not a p p ly t o P eter XIX, who fought Sara cen s in h is f i r s t campaign and won (1277), b ecau se he was t h i r t y - f i v e years o ld when he was crowned. Nor do th ey f i t Heter I I who was crowned at n in e te e n but who d id not f ig h t anybody u n t i l he was tw e n ty -e ig h t years o ld . Then he fought A lb ig en se s to capture th e c a s t l e o f Escura (1 2 0 6 ). James I was crowned a t th e age o f s i x and fought h is f i r s t b a t t l e a t f i f t e e n , but he fought one o f h is own v a s s a ls and, in th e end, th e campaign f a i l e d (1 2 2 3 ). In 1225 he moved a g a in s t th e Moors and a g a in abandoned th e campaign a f t e r a f r u i t l e s s s i e g e . F in a lly in 1229 he conquered M a j o r c a . A lfo n so I I was crowned when he was about te n years o ld . When he was about se v en te en , he fought a s u c c e s s f u l campaign a g a in s t th e Moors w hich brought se v e n te en or e ig h te e n towns and c i t i e s in to h is kingdom (1 1 6 9 ). I f JaufrA was d ed ica ted t o A lfo n so I I , a llu s io n s t o a romance w r itte n n ear or a f t e r 1200 must have been added 30 t o an e a r lie r v e r s io n . T his i s th e p o s itio n defended by M artin de R iquer. He s u b s ta n tia te s h is v iew s w ith examples o f oth er works which were r e v ise d or m odernized w ithout changing t h e ir b a sic str u c tu r e or a r t i s t i c m e r it. He c i t e s among h is examples s e v e r a l o f th e co n tin u a tio n s o f th e 15 Iferceval. S everal sc h o la r s have observed what appear t o be c le a r a llu s io n s t o th e roman o f Jaufrd in th e poems o f s e v e r a l troubadours who were known t o frequent th e court o f A lfon so X X and in th e poems o f o th ers who cou ld have been fa m ilia r s a t th e court o f "ho r e is d ’Aragon, aq u el que 16 tr o b e t, s i ac nom Amfos." It seems c e r ta in from th e se a llu s io n s th a t a v e r s io n v er y s im ila r t o th e one ex ta n t was known around 1170. From th e s tu d ie s t o determ ine th e date o f JaufrA. i t can be concluded th a t an e a r ly v e r s io n was r e v is e d or r e w r itte n around 1200, and th a t some changes were made in d e c o r a tiv e d e t a ils surrounding th e ev en ts o f th e s to r y but not in th e c h a r a c te r iz a tio n or th e s to r y s tr u c tu r e . i. • - 15 M artin de Riquer, "Los problemas de Jau frA ." p. 440. 16Ib id .. p. 446. ~ ......... 31 The n a rra tiv e i s a s e r ie s o f r e la t iv e ly ordinary ep iso d es so lo o s e ly con n ected th a t ep iso d es may bo added, su b tra cted , or rearranged w ithout a f fe c t in g th e s to r y . The sto r y i s a p retex t to connect th e ad ven tu res. The p ro ta g o n ist does not d evelop in ch a ra cter or s k i l l os a r e s u lt o f h is exp erien ces* He m erely dem onstrates how a p a r tic u la r model ty p e might rea ct to each s it u a t io n . The minor ch a ra cters are c o lo r f u l in th a t th ey are c a r ic a tu r e s or c le a r ly d e lin e a te d ty p e s . The a r t is t r y , th e e n te r ta in - ment in Jaufrd. may be found in th e iron y w ith w hich some s itu a tio n s are handled and in th e ly r ic a l treatm ent o f o th e r s . The sequence o f ev en ts i s as f o llo w s : a f t e r a prologue th e roman b eg in s w ith an adventure at th e Court o f King A rthur. A ccording t o tr a d itio n , th e Court can not d in e u n t i l som ething unusual occurs or news a r r iv e s a t th e Court. This tim e a f a n t a s t ic b ea st cau ses g rea t excitem en t among th e Knights o f th e Round T able. A fterw ards, w h ile a l l are d in in g , a handsome sq u ir e a r r iv e s t o be k n igh ted . He i s Jaufr£, son o f Doson. Then a fe lo n k n ig h t, Taulat o f Rogimon, a r r iv e s and sc a n d a liz e s th e Court. Jaufrd s e ts out t o red ress an in s u lt t o th e Queen, but Kay, th e sen e s c h a l, has in s u lte d him w ith a s c o r n fu l remark. Kay's 32 sco rn s o torm en ts JaufrA th a t oach prow ess w hich ho p er forms In th e name o f th e r o y a l la d y I s a ls o a reproach to th e s e n e s c h a l f o r u n d er e stim a tin g h is v a lo r . Some f l f t e o n days p ass b e fo r e JaufrA d e fe a ts T au lat a t Roglmon during w hich h e has many a d v en tu res and sen d s many a conquered k n igh t and lib e r a t e d p r is o n e r t o th e Court t o r e l a t e h is p row esses t o th e Queen. At th e g r e a t c a s t l e o f Monbrun, where he t r i e s t o r e s t one n ig h t, h e m eets B ru n issen , th e b e a u t if u l orphan c a s t e l l a n , and th e y f a l l d eep ly in lo v e . When JaufrA te r m in a te s h is q u e st by d e fe a tin g th e arro g a n t T a u la t, th e lo v e r s arran ge t o be m arried a t A rth u r's C ourt. A fte r t h e w edding, w h ile th e g u e s ts a r e f e a s t in g , an ad ven tu r e o c c u r s. A f a n t a s t ic b ir d ca u ses g r e a t a n x ie ty among th e K nights o f th e Round T a b le. A fte r t h i s ad ven tu re JaufrA and B ru n issen r e t i r e t o Monbrun where th e y p ass th e r e s t o f t h e i r d a y s. There a r e a number o f p a r a lle ls betw een JaufrA and C h rA tien 's Erec w hich w i l l s e r v e t o dem onstrate some o f th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een them . Both poems b e g in w ith A rthur and h is K nights o f th e Round T ab le g o in g out to h u n t. In th e c a s e o f E rec. i t i s during th e hunt th a t th e Queen i s in s u lt e d by a str a n g e k n ig h t w ith an o v erb ea rin g p r id e . 33 In JaufrA th e hunt i s a d isco n n ected ad ven tu re, alm ost a comic p refa ce to th e ad ven tu res w hich fo llo w . JaufrA i s not even p r e se n t. However, during th e fe a s t w hich fo llo w s , he a r r iv e s at th e Court and begs th e King t o k nigh t him. He i s b ig , handsome, g r a c e fu l, and w e ll mannered. The King a g rees to k night him on th e sp o t and o f fe r s t o grant him a w ish . At t h is moment an im posing fe lo n k n igh t r id e s in to th e h a l l , murders a g u est a t th e f e e t o f th e Queen and sh ou ts a c h a lle n g e . "Bad K in g,1 1 he c r ie s , "I d id th a t to shame you. I am T aulat o f Rogimon and as lon g as I l i v e I w i l l retu rn each year on t h is day and shame you in th e same way." Then he d ep a rts. JaufrA ask s as h is boon t o be a llow ed t o r e d r ess th e i n s u lt . Kay remarks th a t he might be brave enough i f he were drunk and su g g e sts th a t he s i t down and e a t . The sq u ir e d e c la r e s th a t he w i l l have revenge fo r Kay's in s u lt one day and vows th a t he w i l l not ea t o r drink fo r p lea su re u n t il he has punished T a u la t. Then he a sk s fo r equipm ent. Arthur has him armed and th en k n ig h ts him. The new k nigh t t e l l s th e Court th a t he i s JaufrA, th e son o f Doson. Arthur r e c a ll s th a t Count Doson was a dear comrade who was k il l e d in h is s e r v ic e by a crossbow q u a r rel in Normandy. A ch arger i s brought fo r 34 JaufrA who bounces in to th e sa d d le w ith ou t tou ch in g a s tir r u p , ta k es h is lan ce and s h ie ld from a sq u ire, and r id e s away* t o catch T au lat. In ChrAtien’s poem, Erec, b ein g unarmed, fo llo w s th e o ffen d in g knight so as not t o lo s e s ig h t o f him u n t i l he can fin d someone who w i l l loan him some armor. He fin d s armor; m eets a maiden, Enide, whom he d ecid es t o marry; d e fe a ts th e fe lo n k nigh t in a tournam ent; and r e tu rn s t o A rthur’s Court w ith th e p r iz e o f th e tournam ent, a hawk, and Enide. O n orders from Erec, th e fe lo n knight has a rriv ed beforehand to a p o lo g iz e to th e Queen. Erec and Enide are m arried soon a f t e r and th e r e a l b u sin ess o f th e poem b eg in s. The s e r ie s o f adventures w hich fo llo w a re a l l c a lc u la te d t o show what m ight happen t o a young m arried cou p le as a r e s u lt of c e r ta in a d ven tu res. The ad ven tu res, e x c it in g enough in th em selv es, are not so im portant as th e development o f lo v e between Erec and Enide. JaufrA, on th e o th e r hand, i s alm ost a knight e r r a n t. He f ig h t s f ie r c e v i l l a i n s in m agic armor, m eets dw arfs, w itc h e s, le p e r s, f a i r i e s , and dam sels in d is t r e s s b efo re reach in g h is g o a l. A fter a number o f th e se encoun t e r s , th e rea d er understands what a g rea t hero i s JaufrA; 35 he has proven h im s e lf. When he m eets B runissen and f a l l s in lo v e near th e m iddle o f th e poem, some so r t o f in sp ir e d conduct, an e x tr a -h e r o ic q u a lity w hich dem onstrates th e power o f lo v e , might he exp ected o f JaufrA, but th e r e i s no n o tic e a b le change in h is ch a ra cter or a b i l i t y . Many o f th e adventures w hich occur a f t e r t h e ir m eeting co u ld have tra n sp ired a s w e ll b efo re th e y m et. Many o f th e adventures cou ld be in terchan ged because th e h ero does not d evelop in ch a ra cter or s k i l l nor are any o f th e adventures c o n se quences o f preceding o n es. JaufrA sim p ly i l l u s t r a t e s how a good knight should behave in d iffe r e n t s it u a t io n s . Other p a r a lle ls t o C h retien 's works may be n oted . Eterceval, a ls o a young and unproven k n igh t, le a v e s A rthu r's Court in p u rsu it o f a fe lo n knight who h as ch a llen g ed th e Court and in s u lte d th e Queen. Eterceval a ls o le a v e s bearing a grudge a g a in st I<ay. Both Eterceval and JaufrA h u m ilia te Kay b efo re retu rn in g t o th e Court. Eterceval—a ls o b ig , handsome, and p h y s ic a lly g r a c e f u l- - is so ignorant a s t o seem demented to th e people he m eets. He, to o , i s th e son o f a v a lia n t knight who d ied o f wounds when h is son was v er y young, but he h as been r a is e d l ik e a r u s t ic in th e G aste F orest by a mother wiio hoped t o s h e lt e r him from 36 t h e dangers o f a c h iv a lr o u s s o c ie t y . J a u fr£ a r r iv e s a t Court f in is h e d and read y t o dem onstrate h is e d u c a tio n and prove h is w o rth . R arceval a c q u ir e s h is e d u c a tio n in th e c o u r s e o f h i s t r i a l s . When R arceval a r r iv e s a t A r th u r's Court he a sk s f o r th e a m o r o f th e V erm ilio n Knight b eca u se i t seem s b e a u t if u l t o him in a p u r e ly ornam ental s e n s e . Kay g iv e s him a f i t t i n g answ er, but th e w is e A rthur rep ro a ch es th e s e n e s c h a l. Here i s th e exchan ge: — "Foi que j e d o i a l C reatour, F a it l i v a l l d s , b ia x s i r e r o i s , Ne s e r a i c h e v a lie r s de m o is, Se c h e v a lie r s verm eus ne s u i . Donez m oi l e s armes c e l u i Qui v o s t r e c o lp e d 'o r em p o r te , Que j 'e n c o n t r a i devant la p o r t . u L i sen esch a x , q u i fu b l e c i e z , De che q u ' i l o t e s t c o r r e c ie z , Et d i s t : "Amis, v o s a v ez d r o i t . A lez l u i t o l i r o r e n d ro it le s arm es, c a r e l e s so n t v o s . Ne f e i s t e s m ie que so s Quant v o s por ch e v e n is t e s ch a ." L i r o is l f o t , s i s* en co r r e c h a , Et d is t a Keu: "Grant t o r t a v ez Qui l e v a l l e t c h i ram prosnez; A preudome e s t [c h e ] tr o p gran s v i s c e s . Rsr ch e, s e l i v a l l d s e s t n ic h e s , S 'e s t i l , puet c ' e s t r e , g e n t ix hom, Que i l l i v ie n t d 'a p r is io n , Q u 'il a e s t d a m a lv a is m estre; Encore puet p reu s v a s s a x e s t r e . C h retien de T ro y es, l e Roman de f e r c e v a l ou le Conte du G raal. e d . W illia m Roach (T ex ts L L tt£ r a ir e s F ran p a i s ) (2nd e d it io n ; G eneve: 1 9 5 9 ), 1 1 . 9 9 5 -1 0 1 6 . 37 Many sc h o la r s have d isc o v e r e d sym bolism in Bareeva1 ran gin g from C e ltic m y ste r ie s t o contem porary p o l i t i c a l 18 c o u n se l, but assum ing a more p e d e str ia n d id a c tic purpose fo r th e poem, C hrdtien does show how a young man who i s fundam entally pure and sound can become a f in e k n ig h t. I f th e rea d er does n ot ta k e th e a i r o f m ystery w hich p er v a d es th e roman to o s e r io u s ly and does not t r y t o f i t ev e ry th in g in to some a lle g o r y , th e f i r s t two le s s o n s seem p e r f e c t ly p r a c t ic a l. Yvonds shows Bareeva1 how t o put on and ta k e o f f h is new arm or. Then th e v a v a so r, Gornemans de Gorhaut, g iv e s him some ls s s o n s w ith la n ce and sword. The read er may f e e l r e lie v e d t o know th a t th e boy i s no lo n g er r id in g around in f in e equipm ent w hich he th in k s i s m erely d e c o r a tiv e . H is m other r a is e d th e q u e s tio n o f t h i s danger e a r l i e r when sh e ask ed : S i l i d ir d s q u ’armes v o s d o in s t. De c o n tr e d it n * i ara p o in t, Q u*il l e s v o s donra, b ie n l e s a i . Mais quant c e vennre a l ' e s s a i Dfarmes p o r te r , coment e r t donques? Ce que v o s ne f e i s t e s onques, 1 8 M artin de R iquer, La leven d a d e l G raal v tem as d n ic o s m ed iev a les (E l S oto, 6 ) (Madrid: Espaftola, 1968), pp. 3 5 -1 3 3 . 38 Ne a u tr u i n e l v e £ s te s f a ir e , _ Cotnent en sa r ez a c h ie f t r a ir e ? JaufrA b egin s in a c a r e fr e e jo c u la r atm osphere; a n o ta b le c o n tr a st t o th e fo r lo r n and brooding atm osphere which Eferceval fin d s a t Arthur*s Court where th e k n ig h ts are n ursin g wounds from a recen t b a t t le and a re bad humored a t having t o a ccep t th e in s u lt s o f fe lo n k n ig h ts. The roman b eg in s w ith a sp o o f on magic and enchantm ents. King Arthur and th e Knights o f th e Round T able can not s i t down t o Sunday dinner u n t i l an adventure occurs or news a r r iv e s . They have been w a itin g s in c e r ig h t a f t e r mass and i t i s now n e a r ly th r ee o 'c lo c k . Arthur ord ers th e men t o arm and th e sq u ir e s t o sa d d le up and th e y a l l r id e in to th e fo r e s t t o fin d an adventure. Arthur hears a f a in t cry fo r h elp , orders h is men t o rem ain behind, and r id e s o f f . He fin d s a m ill and a woman who i s u p set b ecau se a stra n g e and f e a r f u l b e a st is e a tin g h er w heat. Arthur fin d s a cr ea tu r e b ig g er than an ox, w ith a v e r y long neck and g rea t horns. He whacks i t on th e rear w ith th e f l a t o f h is sword. Ihe anim al does not r e a c t. Arthur fa c e s i t and th r e a te n s t o s t r ik e i t ^ C h r d tie n de T royes, Eferceval, 11. 512-520. 39 w ith h is sword, but i t d oes not seem t o se e him. He drops sword and s h i e l d and g ra sp s th e b ea st by th e h orn s. He fin d s th a t he cannot l e t g o , and th e b e a st l i f t s i t s head and t r o t s o f f w ith Arthur dangling above th e ground. Gawain, T r is ta n , and la u n c e lo t se e th e b e a st and ch arge toward i t w ith lan ces low ered but th e King p lead s w ith them t o s ta y back s o th a t he w i l l not be k i l l e d . The b e a st meantime has clim bed up on a crag and i s d an glin g A rthur o v er th e v o id . Q uickly A rth u r's k n ig h ts and s q u ir e s ta k e o f f every s t i t c h o f c lo th in g and make a mound below th e crag to c u sh io n Arthur sh o u ld he f a l l . The b e a st th e n ru sh es in to th e crowd o f men, puts down th e King, and tu rn s in t o a handsome and p opu lar f lig h t o f th e Round T a b le. He c o n fe s s e s t h a t he knows some enchantm ents fo r th e amusement o f h is f r ie n d s . Naked k n ig h ts and s q u ir e s unscram ble th e m ess o f garm ents ly in g on th e ground below th e cra g , d r e s s, and retu rn t o th e c a s t le t o d in e . JaufrA a r r iv e s a t Court during t h e f e a s t in g w hich fo llo w s t h i s Whitsunday a d v en tu re. The Court i s d e sc r ib e d p r e t t i l y or de bona m a n eira : Grans fo la c o r t e r ic a e bona e ac mota r i c a persona De r e i s , de corates e de d u cz. E m oseiner G a lv a in l'a s t r u c z 40 E Y'/ans lo ben e n s e in a t z Aduseron e n tr e lu r b ra s la r e in a a gran le z e r , Qe v en c d e j u s t a l r e i s e z e r , E G alvain s e c daus l' a u t r a p a r t, E Tfoans am lo co r g a la r t El s ' e s lo n e la r e in a a c i s . Puis ant a s a t z gabat e r l s De l ' e s q e m qe l* e n c a n ta d o r A f a i t l o j o m a lu r s e in o r . E la r e in a G ilalm er El baro e l i c a v a le r Qe d e fo ra s no son a v u t, Can auson con e s a v en g u t, Tenon se mout p er e s c a r a it Car t u i t no l* a n v i s t n i a u z it , E an mot r l s e mot g a b a t. Ab ta n Qecs lu r a a p o r ta t lo premer sen esca u sim en Devan lo r e i , mot ricam en , . . . ® The d e s c r ip tio n ends w ith a lo n g l i s t o f fa b u lo u s d is h e s . The charm o f th e d e s c r ip t io n i s u n d en ia b le b u t, l i k e many o th e r d e s c r ip t iv e p a ssa g es in th e roman, i t i s ornam ental and in no way a f f e c t s th e s t o r y . The p assage in w hich Kay i n s u l t s Jau fr£ i s w it t y and am using, n ot grim and m oving l i k e th e one in P e r c e v a l. When Jau fr£ r e q u e s ts p er m issio n t o r id e a f t e r T a u la t, Kay s a y s : 2 0 JaufrA . 11. 4 8 5 -5 0 8 . 41 Amix, raaia a u r e tz de v e r tu t Quant v o s s e r t z e n a b r ia tz , Anatz s e z e r , s i a v o s p la tz , Cant au ret un pauc begut raais E m ie ls en s o f r l r e t z lo f a i s , Tornatz s e z e r , qeus en d lr a l C'ap a i t a l s armas q 'e u o s a l S ab retz m le ls c a v a lie r a b a tre C'ap esp asa tren ch a n co n b a tre. When th e King s c o ld s Kay and a sk s : Nous podon e l v e n tr e cab er Los enuecs don es ta n £ a r s it2 , N ils m alvas gabs n i l s v i l a s d it z ? 1 JaufrA sa y s : * " l a i s a s l i d ir , qe no m 'es greu Ren q e l r ic s om fa sa n i d iga Q'eu s a l q 'e s sa len g a m endiga. 1 Such p a ssa g es su g g est th a t th e in te n t io n o£ t h i s poet was to amuse w ith p le a s in g v e r s e s and uncom plicated e p iso d e s w hich i l l u s t r a t e id e a l c o u r tly l i f e . In JaufrA th e r e i s a b e a u t if u l young man who con d ucts h im s e lf c o r r e c t l y through a number o f am using ad ven tu res and p a r t i c i p a tes in id e a l f e a s t s and cerem o n ies. ChrAtien de Troyes u se s th e ad ven tu res o f R erceval t o I l l u s t r a t e th e le s s o n s w hich tran sform th e h ero in to an id e a l k n ig h t. There a r e many in c id e n ts in JaufrA w hich resem b le some in c id e n ts from th e works o f ChrAtien, but th e purpose 2 1Ib id . . 11. 604-630. ....................... ~ .................... .......... ' ....... 42 o f th e com parison here has been t o show t h a t , in s p it e o f s i m i l a r i t i e s , th e roman in Provencal seems w r itte n more fo r popular d iv e r s io n than fo r co n tem p la tiv e stu d y . A touch o f popular r e a lism i s in trod u ced w ith th e adventure o f King Arthur and th e stra n g e b e a s t, d escrib ed above. T his parody on magic in th e Matl&re de Bretagne i s lu d ic r o u s , v u lg a r , and to u ch in g p a r tly because o f th e c o n tr a s t between th e t r a d it io n a l rom antic d ig n ity o f th e p a r tic ip a n ts and th e r id ic u lo u s s it u a t io n in w hich th e poet p la c e s them. Im agine th e famous Knights o f th e Round T a b le— Gawain, L au n celot, T r is ta n , Yvain, Kay, Eferceval, Calogrem anes, C lig 6 s , C oedis, th e BeIs D esconoguts, C araduis, and many o th e r s, th e te x t t e l l s u s --s ta n d in g naked around a mound o f c lo th in g , w h ile an amused g i r a f f e lik e c r e a tu r e d an gles th e King over th e mound from th e to p o f a c l i f f t Then im agine th e co n fu sio n a s each k n igh t and sq u ir e look s fo r h is garm ents among th e scram bled mess o f drawers and capes ly in g on th e ground, w h ile A rthur and th e handsome, r ic h ly d ressed k n igh t en ch an ter look on sm ilin g ! T his sc en e i s b alan ced by a s im ila r e p iso d e a t th e end o f th e roman. At A rthur*s Court, a g rea t crowd o f g u e sts who ........ 43 have come fo r JaufrA*s wedding a re w atching dancers and jo n g le u r s when a t e r r i f i e d sq u ire b u r sts in to th e h a l l sh o u tin g : Ad armas7 s e in o r s , v ia , sue? E pen de defendre cascuns Son co re, per sa v id * a sa lv a r ! He t e l l s how he b a r e ly escap ed b ein g c a r r ie d o f f by a g rea t b ir d who swooped down a t him. The King arms and goes out a lo n e on fo o t to tak e care o f t h i s ad ven tu re. He fin d s th e b ird q u ie t ly s i t t i n g on th e lawn in fr o n t o f th e c a s t l e and approaches i t c a u tio u s ly w ith s h ie ld and sword h e ld ready. The b ird opens i t s w ings and lu n ges m enacingly w ith i t s beak. The King cu ts a t i t w ith h is sword but th e b ird dodges and pounces on him. As th e b ir d r i s e s w ith th e King in i t s t a lo n s , i t grasps h is hand w ith i t s beak and th e King drops h is sword. The Court and th e g u e sts ru sh around panic s tr ic k e n by th e p lig h t o f t h e ir King. JaufrA t o s s e s a s id e h is u s e le s s arms in f r u s t r a t io n . The b ir d clim b s h ig h over th e crowd and drops th e King. The crowd ru sh es t o th e sp o t where h e w i l l l i k e l y land and reach es up as though t o ca tch him. However, th e b ir d ca tc h es Arthur in m id air and th en f l i e s around in c i r c l e s . To tempt th e b ir d w ith food , f i v e oxen a re sla u g h te r e d , 44 fla y e d , and l e f t on th e f i e l d . The b ird f l i e s t o a tower a s though i t would p r efer to eat th e King. A fter a tim e, however, i t f l i e s away w ith Arthur over a dense wood. The ^dw li ru sh es- in t o ’th e "wood^-where c lo th in g i s soon t o r o - to ribbons and people a re scra tch ed and b lood y. The b ird c i r c l e s and e n ters th e c a s t l e where i t d e p o sits Arthur unharmed and turns in to th e e x c e lle n t knight who knows about enchantm ents. King Arthur pardons him w ithout ran cor and orders th a t everyone be given new c lo th in g . Many t a i l o r s , sea m stresses, and c lo th merchants are employed fo r th e ta sk and when i t i s fin is h e d i t i s a sp len d id s ig h t to se e so much fin e raim ent. The h e lp le s s d esp a ir and panicky a c tio n s o f Arthur*s su b je c ts during t h i s ep isod e must have been amus ing t o popular a s w e ll as c o u r tly au diences and were su r e ly good m a te r ia l fo r a jo n g le u r w ith a good sen se o f th e tr a g ic o m ic a l g e s tu r e . These p arod ies on th e m ysteriou s elem ents o f th e M atiere de Bretagne are somewhat to u ch in g because s e l f le s s concern fo r another in d iv id u a l has been added. In t h e ir sin c e r e a n x ie ty fo r Arthur no one minds th a t he c u ts a r id ic u lo u s fig u r e or i s scra tch ed bloody by bushes and 45 bram bles. The poet has s t ir r e d complex em otions in th e s e e p iso d e s by c o n tr a s tin g th e most u n r ea l elem en ts o f th e i d e a l i s t i c c o u r tly lit e r a t u r e w ith th e r e a lism o f spon tan eou s human em otions lik e panic, a n g u ish , fr u s tr a te d ra g e, and s e l f l e s s con cern . The tech n iq u e seems q u ite modern and th e r e have been c r i t i c s who were reminded o f C ervantes and o th e r H ispanic authors when th e y read JaufrA . ^ There i s a d iff e r e n t so r t o f humor in o th e r e p i s o d e s . As Chapter V II b e g in s , JaufrA has had s e v e r a l ad ven tu res and has tak en n e ith e r fo o d nor r e s t fo r th r e e d a y s. As h e r id e s alon g drooping w ith f a tig u e , th e sun s e t s and n ig h t f a l l s calm and b e a u t if u l. His h o rse b rin g s him t o a lo v e ly grove f i l l e d w ith b ir d s and e n c lo se d by a m arble w a ll. The grove b elo n g s to th e r ic h p a la c e o f Mon brun, th e abode o f th e b e a u t if u l orphan maiden, Br u n is se n , and h er b r i l l i a n t c o u r t. For seven y ea r s a t e r r i b l e sorrow has w eighed upon B ru n issen and her s u b j e c ts . They c r y out in la m en ta tio n fo u r tim es during th e day and th r e e tim es a t n ig h t. B run issen i s so o th ed by th e songs o f th e b ird s who l i v e in th e grove and o fte n opens a window o f her ^ Jaufr£. p. v i i i . 46 chamber and l i s t e n s to them. JaufrA tu rn s h is h orse lo o s e in th e grove and l i e s down on h is s h ie ld . He f a l l s in to a deep s le e p . When B run issen opens h er window t o l i s t e n t o th e b ir d s , th e y do not s in g b ecau se o f J a u fr 6 's p resen ce. The stextfard, se n t to fin d out what d istu r b s th e b ir d s, fin d s th e k nigh t a s le e p . Awakened, JaufrA c h a lle n g e s th e stew ard, who prom ises t o l e t him s le e p i f Jaufr6 w ins th e c o n t e s t . The stew ard i s d e fe a te d and Jaufr6 goes back t o s le e p . Another knight i s se n t to b rin g him to B ru n issen . T his knight awakens him rou gh ly w ith th e b u tt o f h is la n c e . Jau fr6 i s angry becau se he th in k s th e stew ard has broken h is prom ise. The knight i s unhorsed and prom ises at sword p o in t t o le t him s le e p . A th ir d k nigh t i s sen t and JaufrA d is a b le s him. B run issen a n g r ily sends a crowd o f k n ig h ts who ta k e Jau fr£ in h is s le e p and ca rry him in to th e p a la c e . Brought b e fo r e th e ir a t e la d y , he responds w ith f in e c o u r te sy to h er h o r r ib le t h r e a t s . He f a l l s in lo v e w ith h er and d e c la r e s th a t he w ould be happy t o have h er do t o him w hatever m ight p le a s e h e r . B ru n issen f a l l s in lo v e w ith him. He a sk s fo r a boon. He ask s th a t he be a llo w ed t o s le e p h is f i l l b efo re h e i s pun ish ed . B ru n issen i s 47 s e c r e t ly p lea sed t o grant h is re q u e st. A bed i s brought in to th e room and Jaufr£ goes t o s le e p on i t f u l l y armed. The reader may be reminded o f a passage from Le Conte du Graal in w hich R srceval i s lo s t in th e contem pla t io n o f th r ee drops o f b lood on th e snow which remind him o f th e com plexion o f B la n ch eflo r, h is lo v e . The King’ s v a le t s report a knight who seems t o be dozing on h is charger near th e K ing's camp. Sagramor, th e u n ru ly, t r i e s t o b rin g Perceval back by fo rce and i s h u m ilia tin g ly un h orsed. Kay i s sent o u t. He, to o , t r i e s fo rce and r e c e iv e s a broken arm and a d is lo c a te d shoulder fo r h is d isc o u r te s y . Gawain, th e co u rteo u s, t r i e s ta c t and retu rn s 23 w ith P erceval in a most fr ie n d ly frame o f mind. The d iffe r e n c e in treatm ent o f t h is s l i g h t l y sim i la r ep iso d e i s another exam ple o f th e d iffe r e n c e between th e anonymous jo n g le u r 's In te n tio n t o e n te r ta in w ith a l i v e l y and unusual ep iso d e and th e purpose o f C hretien de Troyes who d e liv e r s a m essage in an a r t i s t i c manner. The jo n g leu r d ea ls w ith ordinary human needs t o produce a com ical but dram atic s it u a t io n . C h retien e x t o lls th e 23 Chr&tien de T royes, P erceval. 11. 4164-4602. 48 im portance o f r e s p e c t f o r an in d iv id u a l’ s l i f e and th e v a lu e o f t a c t even when one i s armed and fo r m id a b le . There i s some crude r e a lis m in J a u fr£ w hich th e jo n g le u r e v id e n t ly in tr o d u ce d fo r dram atic e f f e c t . As m en tion ed ab ove, th e romans w ere i d e a l i s t i c f i c t i o n s fo r d id a c t ic p u rp o ses, and J a u fr 6 i s a d em o n stra tio n o f how a w e ll-p r e p a r e d new k n ig h t sh o u ld a c t under a v a r i e t y o f c o n d it io n s . Among th e c o n d itio n s in c lu d e d a r e th o s e in w h ich th e h ero d e a ls w ith fr ig h te n in g in d iv id u a ls . These c h a r a c te r s a r e not su p e r n a tu r a l m on sters but th e m on sters o f n a tu re w h ich t h e rea d er o r a u d ito r m ight v i s u a l i z e from e x p e r ie n c e . The f i r s t such c r e a tu r e i s a dwarf who s t e p s from b eh in d a t r e e in C hapter IV. T h is i s th e d e s c r ip tio n . Sm all and u g ly , h e w as, sh o r t and b lo a te d w ith a b ig head and la n k h a ir w hich hung down h is back . H is e y e la s h e s seem ed t o sw allow up h is e y e s ; th e y w ere so lo n g , and h is n o se was so f l a t and deform ed th a t he c o u ld put both thumbs up h is n o s t r i l s w ith o u t any d i f f i c u l t y . He had f a t l i p s and g r e a t lo n g t e e t h . H is m ustache came down o v er h is mouth and h is b eard hung down below h is w a is t . W ith le g s s o sh o r t th a t from th e h e e l t o th e c r o tc h he m easured 49 b a rely a palm; h ard ly any neck, i t was so sh o rt and th ic k ; and arms so sh ort th a t he cou ld not j o in h is hands behind 9 / h is back; he seemed more lik e a toad than anything e l s e . Dwarfs are common in th e romans but are not u s u a lly 2S d escrib ed so e x t e n s iv e ly . The d e s c r ip tio n i s p r e c is e , o b je c tiv e ; i t does not provoke m irth or com passion. The jo n g leu r has used a tech n iq u e o f th e popular n arrator, th e d e ft sk etch in g o f a scen e which suspends a lis t e n e r in th e h ero ’s s it u a tio n fo r an in sta n t b efo re th e n a rra tiv e con - t in u e s . The poet a ls o d esc rib es a g ig a n tic hag whom he m eets in th e woods. The d e s c r ip tio n i s long and v ery de t a i l e d . The hag does not p lay an a c t iv e r o le in th e roman. but th e ep iso d e w hich fo llo w s h er d e s c r ip tio n co n ta in s th e on ly m agical adversary which Jaufr£ en co u n ters, a shadowy e lu s iv e Black Knight whom she has produced by necromancy t o defend h e r. P o ssib ly th e poet sought to make th e magic defender seem le s s r e a l by c o n tr a st w ith th e c le a r r e a l i s t i c image o f h is c r e a to r . 24J a u fr£ . 11. 1385-1405. 25 Vernon J . Harward, The Dwarfs o f A rthurian Romance and C e ltic T ra d itio n (L eiden: B r i ll , 1958), pp. 2 6 -3 2 . 50 G rotesque d e s c r ip tio n s occu r in C h retien to o , and some o f them a re r a th e r s im ila r t o th o s e in J a u fr £ . Com pare th e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e hag, g iv e n b elow , t o th e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e dam sel w ith th e w hip in Iferceval w hich f o llo w s . Jau fr6 i s r id in g a lo n g a t r a i l in t o a dense f o r e s t . Garde e v i en sun cam i Una v e i l a d e so tz un p i, Qe ja c e e s t e t a co u tra d a , E fo p e lo s a e ruada, Magra, e s e c pus qe le in a . E can v i J a u fr e , s o l no d ein a Moure, mas q e d r e is e t sun cap Qe ac m ajor, se n e s t o t gap, C'una dorca de dos c e s t e r s , E ls o i l s ta n paucs can us d in e r s , Ia g a in o s e e s g r a p e la tz E t o t e n to m b la u s e m acatz, E la s s i l a s grans e creg u d a s, E la u r a s g r o s sa s e morudas, E lo n g a s e am plas la s d en s, A ita n r o sa s can aurpim ens, Qe l ' e i s u n d efo ra s . i i j . d e tz , E ac en la barba p e le t z , E lo s g r in o s lo n c s e ca n u tz , E ls b r a se s pus s e c s qe p endutz, Las mas pus n egras qe carb o, E l m ursol e l fr o n e l m ento Negre e ru a t e f r u n s it , El v e n tr e e n f la t e f a r s i t , E sp a lla s corbas e agudas, la s c u e is a s c e c a s e menudas Qe no ac mas la p e l e l ' o s , E ls g e n o ls r e g a in a tz e g r o s, E la s cambas s e c a s e lo n g a s, E ls pes e n f la t z e gran s la s o n g la s, S i qe n o i pot p o rta r s a b a ta . ° 26 J a u fr i, 11. 5 1 9 1 -5 2 2 1 . 51 There a r e a dozen more l i n e s d e s c r ib in g h er c l o t h in g . Three days a f t e r Iterceval r e tu r n s t o C a rlio n w ith A rthur and h is s u i t e , th e y s e e : line d a m o isele q u i v in t Sor une f a lv e m ule, e t t i n t En s a main d e s tr e une c o r g ie . la d a m o isele fu t r e c h ie A deus tr e c h e s t o r t e s e t n o ir e s ; Et s e l e s p a r o le s son t v o ir e s T e ls come l i l i v r e s le s d e v is e , Onques r ie n s i la id e a d e v is e Ne fu n£es dedans e n f e r . A inc ne v e ^ s te s s i n o ir f e r Come e l e ot l e c o l e t l e s m ains, Et s * e s t u t c e en cor d e l m ains A l ’a u tr e la id e c e q u 'e le o t , Que s i o e i l e s t o ie n t d u i c l o t , I te tit a u s i com o e i l de r a t . Ses n ez fu de s in g e ou de c h a t, Et s e s le v r e s d fasn e ou de b u ef; S i dent sa m b lo ien t m io l d ’ o e f, De c o lo r ta n t e s t o ie n t ro u s, Et s i o t barb come b ou s. D evers l* e s c h in e sa m b lo it croch e; Et s ro t le s r a in s e t l e s e s p a u lle s Trop b ie n f a i t e s por m ener b a u lle s , S’ ot boche e l dos e t hanches t o r t e s Qui v o n t a u s i com deus r o o r te s , Trop b ie n f a i t e s por mener dance. 7 W ithout doubt th e m ost r e a l i s t i c e p iso d e i n J a u fr6 i s th e h e r o ’ s ad ven tu re w ith some le p e r s . Here i s a sum mary o f i t . J a u fr£ m eets a sq u ir e who inform s him t h a t 2 7 C h r etien de T ro y es, E b rceval. 11. 4 6 1 1 -4 6 3 7 . 52 a f e a r f u l man has k i l l e d h is m aster and c a r r ie d o f f th e young la d y th e y w ere e s c o r t in g . J u st th e n , a r e p u ls iv e le p e r p a sses ca r ry in g an in fa n t . The c h i l d ’ s m other, who fo llo w s w eepin g, im p lo res th e k n ig h t t o sa v e h er baby. Ja u f r e ord ers th e le p e r t o sto p but h e answ ers w ith o b scen e g e s tu r e s and e n te r s a h ou se n earb y. J a u fr£ le a v e s h is h o rse and la n c e in th e ca r e o f th e w eep in g m other and e n te r s th e h o u se. There h e fin d s a d is g u s tin g lep ro u s g ia n t r a v is h in g a b e a u t if u l dam sel. A m essy f ig h t e n su e s but Jau fr6 w in s and b e g in s lo o k in g f o r th e le p e r w ith th e c h ild . He d is c o v e r s t h a t he cannot g e t o u t o f th e h ou se and w eeps b i t t e r t e a r s b eca u se God has ch o sen t o l e t him d ie in an enchanted le p e r asylum in s t e a d o f in h on orab le com bat. Then he h e a rs c h ild r e n ’s v o ic e s s h r ie k in g , "God sa v e u s!" He t r a c e s th e sound t o a sm a ll door w hich he b reak s down. He fin d s a le p e r b u tc h e r in g c h ild r e n w ith a b ig k n if e . There a re t w e n t y - fiv e t o t h i r t y c h ild r e n in th e room; a l l a re c r y in g p i t i f u l l y . The le p e r has c u t th e th r o a ts o f e i g h t . J a u fre lo p s o f f th e l e p e r ’ s hand fo r making ob scene g estv ires e a r l i e r in th e e p is o d e and p rep ares t o k i l l him fo r m urdering c h ild r e n . However, th e le p e r b eg s f o r h is l i f e e x p la in in g th a t h is m a ster was t o ta k e 53 a bath in c h i l d ' s blood t o cu re h im se lf o f le p r o sy and th a t h e was o n ly fo llo w in g o r d e r s . Jaufr£ a sk s th e le p e r i f he knows how t o g e t out o f th e h o u se . The le p e r o f fe r s to show Jaufr4 how to break th e enchantment in exchange fo r h is l i f e . Jau fr£ i s t o ld t o break a b u st w hich he w i l l f in d on a window s i l l . He d oes t h is and th e house f a l l s i n ru in s about him in th e c o u r se o f a t e r r i b l e storm . The le p e r , th e g i r l , th e m other, and th e c h ild r e n are sen t to C arduil t o t e l l Arthur about t h e ir a d v en tu re s. The g i r l t e l l s th e co u rt o f her e x p e r ie n c e s b e fo r e and a f t e r m eetin g JaufrA . She i s th e daughter o f a count o f Normandy and i s th e young woman taken from th e sq u ir e and h is m aster a t th e b egin n in g o f th e e p is o d e . The d e s c r ip tio n o f th e leprous g ia n t i s a d e s c r ip t i v e break in th e n a r r a tiv e w hich i s rem arkable fo r i t s c o ld o b je c tiv e accu racy. The cr ea tu r e i s a s t a l l as a la n ce and i s two arm- le n g th s a c r o s s . He has enormous arms, sw o lle n hands, lon g curved t e e th w ith badly ex p o sed r o o ts, and d rea d fu l g rea t b o i l s a l l o v e r h is fa c e . He h as no e y e la s h e s and th e e y e l i d s are s w o lle n and hard. The eyes a re g la s s y , opaque, and red around th e o u ts id e . H is gums a r e reced ed , 54 u lc e r o u s , s w o lle n , and th e t e e t h a re la r g e , red in c o lo r , p o iso n o u s, and f e t i d . The c o lo r in g and in flam m ation In th e mouth resem b le a s e v e r e burn. H is n ose Is m is s in g . He w h eezes and h is v o ic e Is so h o a rse th a t he can b a r e ly , 28 sp eak . Haul Remy h as w r it t e n an e x h a u s tiv e stu d y o f t h i s p a ssa g e from w hich I t ap pears c e r t a in th a t th e au th o r o f J a u fre was e i t h e r th o r o u g h ly f a m ilia r w ith th e m a n ife s ta t io n s o f le p r o s y o r c o n s u lte d t h e b e s t m ed ica l t r e a t i s e s o f 29 h is day. The d e s c r ip tio n o f th e le p e r i s a c c u r a te . The p r e c is io n o f t h e s e d e s c r ip tio n s h as le d some c r i t i c s t o s p e c u la te th a t th e a u th o r must have b een a c l e r i c and th a t 30 he in c lu d e d t h i s s o r t o f r e a lis m fo r d id a c tic p u rp o ses. The le p e r sc e n e i s a ls o u sed t o t i t i l l a t e , how ever. The p lig h t o f th e l o v e ly fr e s h m aiden in th e bed o f th e p e s t i l e n t le p e r was a p opu lar B eauty and th e B east theme in th e M iddle A ges. I t i s u sed by B eroul in h is T r ista n 2 8 J a u fr6 . 1 1 . 2 3 1 4 -2 3 3 3 . 29 Raul Remy, "Le le p r e , theme l i t t e r a i r e au Moyen £ g e , ” Le Moyen Age. XLII (1 9 4 6 ), 1 9 5 -2 4 2 . 30 A. Stim m ing, "Uber den V e r fa ss e r d es Roman de J a u f r e ,” Z e it s c h r if t ftir rom anische F h ilo lo e ie . X II (1 8 8 8 ), 3 2 3 -3 4 7 . 55 31 a s a f a t e w orse than d eath fo r Y seu t. The scen e w hich g r e e ts Jaufr£ a s he e n te r s th e house Is th e h a lf-n u d e maiden in th e arms o f th e le p e r . Here i s th e t e x t : Ab ta n e s s 'e n la S s in t r a t z , li*espasa e l man, l ' e s c u t e l b r a tz . E la m aisun fo b e la e gran s, E us m ezels fe r s e e s tr a in s J a i en un l e i t , e te n c lunc se Una p iu s e la , qe nun er e Qe e l mun n 'a ja b e la s o r , Car puc ac fr e s c a la c o lo r Qe ro sa , cant e s ades nada, E fu sa g o n ela esq u in ta d a Tro a v a l d esos la t e t in a Qe ac pus b lan ca que fa r in a . The au th or le a v e s her th e r e w h ile he d e sc r ib e s th e lo a th som eness o f h er a g g r e sso r . L ater in th e ep iso d e th e rea d er, o r l i s t e n e r , fin d s th a t Jau fr6 was much im pressed by t h i s m onster. Jaufr£ d e a ls him a m ortal blow but i s h im s e lf knocked u n co n scio u s. The g i r l pours w ater in Jau fr4*s fa c e ■^Beroul, T r ista n , e d . A. Ewrert (O xford: B la ck w ell, 1939), 11. 1192-1198. V eez, j fa i c i conpaignons c e n t : Yseut nos done, s * e r t commune. Eaior f i n dame n*ot m ais une. S ir e , en nos a s i gran t ardor Soz c i e l n*a dame q u i un jo r BeUst s o u f r ir n o s tr e c o n v e r s : Li drap nos son t au co rs a e r s . 32Jau fr6. 11. 2295-2306. 56 and he r e g a in s c o n sc io u s n e ss u n c o n tr o lla b ly t e r r i f i e d . Ills conduct under th e cir c u m sta n ce s seem s q u it e n a tu r a l and human but n ot k n ig h tly . He c lo u t s her on th e e a r and th en cow ers b en ea th h is s h ie l d behind a p i l l a r . Es e l le v a su s per poder, E c u je t I 'e s p a s a t e n e r , E a donat a la d o n zela T al un c o lp a p res de 1 'a u r e ila , Qe, s i te n g e s I 'e s p a s a nua, Agra la ben per m ig fendua, Tan la f e r i de gran a3£r, Mas non c u je t e l l a f e r l r , Quel m ezel s e c u je t que f o s , Tant e s de son c o lp tem eros C 'a is i e s t o t z e ix a b o s it z , C a d e s cu ja e s s e r f e r l t z , E f u ig per la s a la coren A is i con um qe non a se n Ni au n l v e n i sa p un s ' e s . E e s s e t r a s un p il a r mes E e s t e t a q i a p i l a t z , E te n c so n e s c u t en sun b r a tz , E met lo denan per c u b r lr , C a d e s c u ja c'om l ' a n f e r l r . The poet has a llo w e d Jau fr£ a moment o f w ea k n ess. He, a ls o , a llo w s him t o weep b i t t e r l y when he fin d s h im s e lf tra p p ed in th e h o u se . In th e p a ssa g e q u oted below th e rea d er fin d s th a t Jau fr£ i s so o n h im s e lf a g a in fo r he lo p s th e hand o f f th e o th e r le p e r f o r making a f i g a t him and 3 3 I b id >. 1 1 . 2 4 6 1 -2 4 8 0 . 57 i s h a rd ly moved by th e s ig h t o£ e ig h t b u tch ered c h ild r e n . What co u ld be c o n sid er e d c a llo u s n e s s on th e part o f Ja u fr6 in t h is scen e i s more l i k e l y a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e r e a l i t i e s o f th e tim e s . Those were days when k n ig h ts punished d i s re sp ect b r u ta lly and when i t was a common b e l i e f th a t a o / bath in c h ild 's b lo o d cured le p r o sy . Jau fr6 , se a rch in g fo r a way out o f th e enchanted house, fin d s a sm a ll door. El f e r e dona e so c o t Tan e n tr o que t o t a l ' a c f r a ix a , Puis s a i l la f n s , esp a sa t r a ix a , E a l a i tr o b a t lo m ezel Qe t e n ia un gran c o u t e l, Qe a v ia m ortz . v i i j . e n fa n s, E ac n ' i de paucs e de grans De .x x .e .v . en tr o a .x x x ., Qe ca scu s p lora e gaim enta. E Ja u fre ac ne p ie t a t , E a t a l a l m ezel donat Del pe, q 'e n t e r r a l f a i v e n ir E p u is v o le l'a u t r a v e s f e r i r . E e l a crudat sun s e in o r , E t u t z trem ola de paor. "Efer Deu, n 'e n f l a t , m ezel p u tn a is," Dis J a u fr e , "nul v e i r e t z o im a is, Car m ortz e s veramen de p la n , E v o s p erd retz ades la man, A qela ab qem fe z e s la f lg a , Qe m ais no m 'en f a r e t z v o s m in gu a.’' E a l t a l c o lp e l man donat C 'a l prim er c o lp l ' e n a p o r ta t. ■^Rdmy, M Le le p r e , theme l i t t e r a i r e au Moyen &ge," pp. 2 4 0 -2 4 2 . 58 El m ozol o s o l s o l c a s u tz , E p u ls lo v a t u t z esp ord u tz E g o ta s ' n l pos do Jau fre, E e s c r ld a : " S ein er, morco! A ls i o s to t Dous on la c r o s , Qo Dous ajn morco do v o s! Francs c a v a lie r s , no m 'a u c la tz , Quo mut s o r la grans p ec a tz, Qf ir a tz o f o r s a t z o m aritz A l a q o stz . v i i j . onfans d o l i t z , E do t o t z d ev la a l t a l Far, Qol sane mo f a z la a jo s ta r M o s e in e r s a in s , m algrat mou, E nous mant, £o qo d olg a Deu, Iter so qo b a in a r so d ovia^ r Bar g a r lr de la m e z e lia ." I t i s in t e r e s t in g t o n ote th a t Jaufrd u ses form al and c o u r tly d ia lo g u e when d e a lin g w ith k n ig h ts and la d ie s even under th e most tr y in g circu m sta n ces, but h is language i s rough when he i s d e a lin g w ith p le b e ia n m on sters. The poet u ses an o th er t r ic k from th e bag o f th e popular s t o r y t e l l e r t o arou se f e e lin g s s im ila r to th o se stim u la ted by th e Beauty and th e Beast sc e n e . The fe lo n k n ig h ts each th r e a te n t o k i l l Jaufr£ and g iv e h is g i r l to t h e ir sq u ir e s t o p la y w ith . This tech n iq u e adds a d esp er a te urgency t o th e combat w hich i s ab sen t when th e fe lo n i s sim p ly a w orthy c h a lle n g e r o r, a t w o r s t, w ants t o marry th e lad y a g a in s t her w i l l . Such a k n ig h t i s Clamadeus 35J a u fr£ . 11. 26 7 4 -2 7 1 2 . 59 fo r c o v a l. There a re two Xechoroua count a in Eroc but th ey o f f e r Enide lo v e , com fort, and s e c u r it y . The d e grading s it u a t io n s w hich fa c e th e women whom Jau fr6 d efen d s, c r e a te double in c e n tiv e s fo r w in nin g in combat and perhaps added to th e a p p eal o f th e poem fo r popular a u d ie n c e s. The author o f J a u fr6 was w e ll tr a in e d in th e a r t o f Proven9 a l ly r ic p o etry . His v e r s e i s w it t y and b rig h t so th a t s e v e r a l o f th e m onologues and d ia lo g u e s in clu d ed in th e n a r r a tiv e are e n te r ta in in g l y r i c a l p a ssa g e s. More to th e p oin t o f t h is stu d y , i s th a t a number o f th e s e l y r i c a l passages advance co n cep ts o f lo v e and m arriage w hich are more pragm atic than p a s s io n a te . Approved forms o f lo v e are e x t o lle d r a th er than some o f th e more e x o t ic co n cep ts o f c o u r tly lo v e , such as p u rely s p i r i t u a l lo v e or "mixed lo v e ." D ec la ra tio n s o f lo v e and th e a n a ly s is o f em otions resem ble troubadouresque ly r ic p o etry , but th e m oral a sp e c ts a r e tr e a te d w ith ex p ed ien t p ie t y . An H isp a n ist might p o in t t o th e m oral to n e o f th e e n t ir e poem a s p o s i t i v e ev id e n ce o f H ispan ic m o r a lity in t h i s roman. In th e passage below , B ru n issen d eb ates on w hether she sh ou ld ta k e a b rave, co u rteo u s, poor knight a s a 60 husband. The passage i s s im ila r t o Sordamors* s o lilo q u y in C ljg 6 s w hich i s a ls o quoted below fo r com parison. The read er may d e te c t a r e l a t i v e l y r a t io n a l to n e in B r u n isse n 's sp eech . I t would seem th a t th e poet was more in te r e s te d in th e e t h ic s o f lo v e than in th e p sych ology o f women in lo v e . B ru n issen , having f a l l e n in lo v e , has insom nia and spends th e n ig h t th in k in g about Jau frd . E e l e s b e Is e ben form atz, Jen p a rla n e ben e n s e in a tz . Non a i qe fa r de la r ic o r , Ja no v o i l a q e sta la u so r C'om d ig a q 'e u am per r iq e s a , Mais lo v o i l amar per p resa , Car t a l s e s r i c s qe no v a l ren E a ls pros v o l t o t a je n ben, E t a l s e s r i c s qe s 'e n peilra E pros c r e is ades e m elura, E t a l s e s r i c s qe v iu a u n itz El pros e s t o t z ten p s e n a n tit z , T als e s r i c s qe no e s saubutz El pros e s per t o t z m entagutz, E t a l s e s r i c s q 'e s pauc p reza tz E l pros e s s e r v it z e am atz, E t a l s e s r i c s q es v o l mermar El prox v o l ades e x a ls a r , E t a l s e s r i c s q 'e s tem eros E l pros e s ades c o r a jo s , T als e s r i c s q 'e s d 'a v o l p a r a tje El pros e x a ls a sun c o r a t j e , T als e s r i c s q 'e s v o l p i l s proatz El pros e s tem utz e d u p ta tz, E t a l s e s r i c s q 'e s d 'a v o l g is a , Iter q e l pros v a l en sa cam isa . x l . r i c s d 'a v o l m aneira. Done m alaventura la f e i r a 61 Tot a domna qe don s'am or A n u l m alvatz per sa r ic o r , Car no o f a m ais per a v er , Mais a q e la q es v o l te n e r Ab lo s p ro s, ama lia ln ie n t E ab la u so r de t o t a j e n t , Bar qe ja d*aqest num p a r tr a i, Qe sen s t o t dupte l'a r a a r a i.^ Sordamors has A lexandre on her mind and, in con t r a s t t o th e calm rea so n a b le B ru n issen , has been th r a sh in g about in h er bed a l l n ig h t; by tu rn s c u r sin g , s ig h in g , sob bing, and yawning. Tot son panser que e l e a f e t . Lors recomance un a u tre p le t Et d it : " F oie! q u 'a i j e a f e i r e , Se c i s t v a s le z e s t de bon e i r e Et sa g e s e t c o r to is e t preuz? Tot c e l i e s t en ors e t p reu z. E de sa b ia u t6 moi que chaut ? Sa b ia u te z avuec l u i s 'a n a u t! S i fe r a e l e maugrA m ien, Ja ne l* a n v u e l j e t o l i r r i e n . — T o lir ? Non v o ir ! ce ne fa z mon. S ' i l a v o it l e san Salemon, Et s e N ature an l u i e u st Tant m is q u 'e le p lu s ne s e u s t De biautA m etre an co r s humain, S i m 'eust Des m is an la main le p o o ir de t o t d e p e c ie r : Ne l* a n q u e r r o ie c o r r e c ie r ; Mes v o la n t ie r s , s e j e p o o ie , Plus sa g e e t p lu s b e l l e f e r o i e . Ehr f o i l done ne l e he j e m ie. E s u i j e done por c e s ’am ie? 3 6 I b id ., 11. 3 7 68-3804. 62 N en il, ne q u ’a un a u tr e s u i. Et por q u o! pans j e p lu s a l u i , Se p lu s d*un a u tr e ne m *agree? Ne s a i , t o t e an s u i e sg a r e e ; E v e n tu a lly Jaufr£ o f f e r s h i s lo v e u n c o n d itio n a lly and c o n v in c in g ly t o B run issen who answ ers th a t sh e w i l l be h is lo v e and h is w ife b ecau se o n ly a s a w ife can he r e a lly p o sse s s h er a t h is e a s e . Her rea so n in g i s q u ite s e n s ib le . Here i s th e p assage: --A ix iu s t e n r a i ie u per araic," Dis B ru n issen s, "et per s e in o r , E e n a is i a u ret m'amor. E v eu lo c o v in en t c a l s e r : Qe v o i l quem pren gatz a raoler, E p u is p o ir e tz p lu s lia lm e n t De me fa r a v o s t r e t a l e n t , E raiels v e n ir e m ie ls aim ar, Senz t o t r e p te de m a le sta r De la u z e n g ie r s c o n tr a r io s Que v e s Amor son e n v e jo s E fan mutas p a r tir a t o r t , Mais aq u esta nun par sen z m ort, Qu’e n a is s i l ' a Deus estab lid a*^ Eferque non deu e s s e r p a r tid a . In a day when m arriages w ere o fte n arranged fo r p o l i t i c a l p u rp oses, t o fin d lo v e in m arriage was co n sid er ed id e a l but tin l i k e l y . C ourtly lo v e d ev elo p ed as a kind o f 37 C h retien de T royes, C lig 6 s . ed . W endelin F o e r ste r (H a lle : N iem eyer, 1921), 11. 8 9 5 -9 2 0 . 3 8 Jau fr£. 11. 7902-7916. e x tr a -m a r ita l f u lf illm e n t and th e lo v e s o f m arried women were a p r in c ip a l theme o f c o u r tly p o e tr y . The author o f Jaufrd does not dabble w ith any o f th e compromises w ith ch u rch -sa n ctio n ed lo v e and has h is lo v e r s co n sid e r m arriage th e o n ly p o s s ib le s o lu t io n . He r e s i s t s a fa sh io n in th e c o u r tly lit e r a t u r e o f h is day and su p p o rts th e v iew th a t an id e a l lo v e i s p o s s ib le w ith in lim it s o f p r a c t ic a l and m oral r e a l i t y . The s e n s ib le to n e and u n e x o tic m oral a t t it u d e o f th e lo v e s to r y in Jau fr6 probably made th e roman l e s s in t e r e s t in g in th e c o u r tly m ilie u than th o s e o f C h retien but more a c c e p ta b le t o l e s s r e fin e d a u d ie n c e s. La c r 6 n ic a de lo s n o b le s c a v a lle r o s T ablante de Ricamonte v de J o fre h i i o d e l conde Donason was f i r s t pub lis h e d in 1513. The h is t o r y o f th e t r a n s it io n from th e roman. J a u fr£ . t o th e lib r o de c a b a lle r la s i s v er y un c e r t a in . The e d it o r o f th e 1599 e d it io n s t a te d th a t th e n o v e l was ta k en from a French s to r y by F e lip e Camus who i s known t o have t r a n s la te d o th e r s around 1500. Because th e r e i s no e v id e n c e th a t any French v e r s io n e x is t e d a t th a t tim e , i t has been su g g e ste d th a t Camus* name was used t o len d p r e s tig e t o th e e d it io n . There was a French p rose 64 v e r s io n p u b lish ed around 1520, however. In th e p rologu e, th e e d it o r r e la t e s th a t i t was adapted from a v er y o ld Spanish poem by a c e r t a in Claude P la tin . C lo v is B ru n ei's commentary on th e t r a n s la t o r in clu d ed t h i s sta tem en t: Ce Claude P la tin q u i, comme i l e s t a r r iv £ a d 'a u tr e s , ne d is tin g u e pas l'a n c ie n p r o v en fa l, m£me s ' i l peut l e comprendre su ffisam m en t, e t le confond avec l'a n c ie n esp a g n o l, nous e s t connu a u s s i pour a v o ir tr a d u it d ' i t a l i e n en fr a n y a is un Debat de l'homme e t de 1 'a r gen t . ™ P la t in 's p rose v e r s io n i s f a i t h f u l t o th e o r ig in a l in many d e t a ils w hich w ere changed in th e lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s so i t seems c e r t a in th a t P lat in d id not have some e a r li e r v e r s io n o f T ab lan te b e fo r e him . The r e fe r e n c e t o Jau fr6 by Ramon Muntaner, c it e d e a r l i e r in t h i s ch a p ter, may have cau sed some s c h o la r s to suppose th e e x is te n c e o f a t r a n s la t i o n in C atalan .^ 1 ® Even in th e e a r ly fo u r te e n th cen tu ry when C atalan and P rovencal had become more n a tio n a liz e d , a C atalan v e r s io n o f JaufrA w ould have been a m odernized v e r s io n o f th e poem. A p rose v e r s io n , w hich would q u a lif y as a t r a n s la t io n , m ight have e x is t e d , but th e r e does n ot ^ J a u f . I , 1. ^ I b id . . p. l i . 65 seem t o be any ev id en ce th a t i t d id . I t i s l o g i c a l t o suppose th a t th e roman was s a t is f a c t o r y in Provenpal v e r s e u n t il th e f if t e e n t h or s ix t e e n t h cen tu ry when i t was r e w r itte n t o produce a n e a r ly o r ig in a l work: d iff e r e n t in in te n t , s t y l e , and c o n te n t. The b a s ic s to r y , o r ig in a lly popular in to n e as was shown e a r l i e r in t h is c h a p ter, was f i t t e d t o th e l a t e s t popular demands. Gayangos, w r itin g around 1850, r e fe r r e d t o i t a s: Una obra o r ig in a l e sp a n o la , muy p reciad a d e l v u lg o , p u esto que sig u e aun hoy d la reim prim i^ndose para su uso; y e s la C ronica de T ab lan te de Ricamonte v J o fr e . h ijo d e l conde don A sson. que en e d ic io n e s m odem as y v i e ia das e s llam ado J o fre Donas on y don Nason: la c u a l se d ic e com puesta por tin t a l Nuno de Garay. ^ '■ L The p lo t s , w hich a re v er y t h in , a re p r a c t ic a lly th e same in b o th th e roman and th e lib r o de c a b a lle r l a s . In Jau fr6 a sq u ir e came t o A rth u r's Court t o be k n igh ted and th e King co m p lies. A f e lo n k n igh t r id e s in to th e h a ll and in s u lt s th e Queen. The new k n igh t ask s as a boon to pursue th e a g g r e sso r and avenge th e i n s u l t . Re q u est g ra n ted , th e new k n igh t g iv e s h is name, Jau fr£ son o f Dos on, and d e p a rts. Bn r o u te he has stra n g e a d v en tu res. ^ L ib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s . e d . Eascual de Gayangos (B ib lio te c a de A utores E sp an oles, XL)(Madrid: 1874), p. xv. 66 Daring one o£ them he f a l l s In lo v e w ith B ru n issen , a w ea lth y orphan. Having avenged th e in s u lt t o th e Queen, he seek s out B ru n issen and a sk s fo r h er hand in m a rria g e. The two a r e m arried a t King A rth u r's C ourt, re tu rn t o B ru n issen *s c a s t l e , and l i v e h a p p ily fo r e v e r a f t e r . Many o f th e a d v en tu res co u ld be rearran ged in n e a r ly any ord er w ith ou t a f f e c t i n g th e p l o t . N othing i s perm anently changed fo r th e h ero by any ad ven tu re b e fo r e h is m a rria g e. The a u th o r o f T a b la n te reo rd ered th e e p is o d e s , added some, o m itted o th e r s , and expanded or c o n tr a c te d th o s e w h ich h e r e ta in e d . T ab lan te comes t o A rth u r’ s Court and c h a lle n g e s th e K nights o f th e Round T a b le . Only one i s th e r e , M ilia n , and he a c c e p ts , i s b e a te n , and ta k en t o Ricamonte a p r is o n e r . A s q u ir e o f th e Court o b ta in s p er m issio n t o lib e r a t e M ilia n . On th e way he h a s a d v e n tu r e s. During one o f t h e s e h e m eets B ru n iesen . A fte r fr e e in g MLlian he m a rries B ru n iesen and th e y l i v e h a p p ily fo r e v e r a f t e r in B ru n iesen * s c a s t l e . A lthough th e b a s ic p lo t s o f Jaufrd and T a b la n te a re s im ila r , th e au th or o f th e l a t t e r made one im portant change. He changed th e c h a r a c te r o f th e f e lo n k n ig h t. The c h a r a c te r iz a tio n o f T au lat de Rogimon in J a u fr6 67 i s in a s e n s e b e t t e r d ev elo p ed th a n th a t o f th e h e r o . J au fr£ i s an id e a l k n igh t and th e r e fo r e p a r t i a l l y dehuman iz e d . He h as few r e a c t io n s t o h is environm ent w hich a r e not d ic t a t e d by a cod e o f m odel co n d u ct. T a u la t, a s t h e v i l l a i n , i s th e a n t i t h e s i s o f J a u fr 6 and t h e r e f o r e h as a l l th e human d e f e c t s w hich th e code o f c h iv a lr o u s conduct i n h ib i t s in th e h ero : c r u e lt y , v a n ity , p r id e , co w a rd ice, e t c . T h ese r e a l i s t i c q u a l i t i e s a r e w e ll i l l u s t r a t e d by T au lat and c o n tr a s t w ith th e i d e a l i s t i c q u a l i t i e s o f J a u fr e . They add t o th e humor and ir o n y in th e roman. T a b la n te de Ricam onte i s th e eq u a l o f J o fr e in s tr e n g th and s k i l l . He w ould b e a good k n ig h t ex c ep t th a t h e c h a lle n g e s A rth u r’ s C ourt. He a c t s d is c o u r te o u s ly and c r u e lly b eca u se i t i s a good way t o provoke an in t e r e s t in g f i g h t . To make th e c o n tr a s t s t i l l l e s s , th e r e i s n o th in g v e r y id e a l about J o fr e . He i s a m odel o f th e b o ld and d ash in g h ero , b rave and s k i l l f u l a t f e a t s o f arms but n ot governed by any s p i r i t u a l i d e a l s . He i s p o rtra y ed a s even tem pered and r e s t r a in e d but not g i f t e d w ith c o u r t ly t a c t o r p o e tic sp e e c h . The re a d er may su sp e c t th a t he i s s u c c e s s f u l m o stly b eca u se he i s b ig and s tr o n g . The e p is o d e s in w hich t h e h ero es d e fe a t T a u la t and T a b la n te i l l u s t r a t e th e d if f e r e n c e s in th e c h a r a c t e r iz a t io n 68 in th e two w orks. In b oth v e r s io n s th e h ero c h a lle n g e s th e k n ig h t who has o ffen d ed th e s o v e r e ig n , d e fe a ts him, and lib e r a t e s p r is o n e r s . In J a u fv 6 . th e s i n f u l k n ig h t i s d e fe a te d by h is own s e l f e ste e m . T h is i s dem onstrated in part d u rin g d ia lo g u e s betw een th e a d v e r s a r ie s . Jaufr£ responds t o T a u la t’ s th r e a ts w ith q u ie t c o u r te s y . The l a t t e r i s i r r i t a t e d by th e p o l i t e u nperturbed manner o f th e young k n ig h t. He b e g in s t o b o a st; J a u fr6 i s u nim p ressed . He b e g in s to r a n t; Jaufr4 s u g g e s ts t h a t h e a c t more and t a lk l e s s . T au lat becomes r a sh w ith ra g e and i n s i s t s on f ig h t in g Jaufrd w ith o u t w earin g h is arm or. He i s th en d e fe a te d in th e f i r s t en co u n te r, b a d ly wounded, and dread f u l l y h u m ilia te d . Ja u fr6 le c t u r e s th e f a l l e n T au lat about p rid e and e x c e s s . In th e lib r o de c a b a lle r i a s . T ablante i s p resen te d a s a b o ld and d a sh in g k n igh t who has com m itted an o f fe n s e by c h a lle n g in g th e Round T ab le fo r w hich he i s punished by God. That i s , J o fr e i s not a b le t o d e fe a t him u n t i l a s s i s t e d by an a c c id e n t b ecau se th e tw o a re p e r f e c t ly m atched. T a b la n te begs f o r g iv e n e s s and i s r e s to r e d to grace w ith o u t p h y s ic a l or m oral l o s s . In th e roman, one o f th e p r is o n e r s who had been f ie n d i s h l y to r tu r e d during se v e n y ea rs o f c a p t i v i t y r e fu s e s 69 t o pardon T au lat and a sk s fo r a judgment by a co u rt o f p e e r s . The cou rt g r a n ts th e v ic t im th e r ig h t t o i n f l i c t a s much, but not m ore, to r t u r e upon h is a g g r e sso r a s he had r e c e iv e d from him . In th e lib r o de c a b a lle r i a s . T ab lan te i s such a good f e llo w th a t ev ery o n e, in c lu d in g th e to r tu r e d k n ig h t, i s a n x io u s t o f o r g iv e him w ith o u t fu s s or d e la y so th a t th e s t o r y can g e t on. The n a r r a tiv e form em p h asizes th e d if f e r e n c e s in c h a r a c te r and to n e betw een th e two v e r s io n s o f t h i s s t o r y . Compare th e p a ssa g es g iv e n below w hich i l l u s t r a t e th e co n t r a s t . J a u fr6 answ ers T a u la t's th r e a ts t o g iv e h is g i r l t o th e s q u ir e s . — S e in e r ," d is J a u fr e, "no e r j e s , Car fo r t me s e r ia raal p res S 'era a l s e sc u d e r s liu r a d a , Ans s e r a ma for<?a mermada, Qe no p o r a i d e l bran f e r i r , Qu'eu l a l a i s fo r s a r n i a u n ir . --E con? E v o l s t'a m me corabatre? — 0 , a n tz qem l a i s a u n ir n i b a tr e N i e s t a p iu s e la fo r s a r . —Ara v o l s t u t ’a n ta d o b la r ," D is T a u la t, "car, s e Deus m 'a ju t, Ptis a u r a i a l c o l mun e s c u t , Non e sca p a ra s ab la v id a . —Mouta menasa a i a u sid a Ab a q e s ta ," so d is J a u fr e s , "Mas, p er mun ca p , s i g reu v o s e s , lo c a v a le r v o s e r a rren d re, E cug v o s ben l'a n t a ca r ven d re 70 C a l r e i A rtus £ e s c s 1 'n u tr o r , Qe l ’a u s ie s un c a v a le r , C a r a s a l ou ben veramon Qe m ais d * e r g u il e de n osen A en v o s que no aug r e t r a i r e . E no o p od etz s e la r g a ir e , Qe mot m’a v e t f o r t m en a ssa t, E eu a i o t o t e s c o u ta t E s u f e r t ta n can v o lg e s d ir , C * a is i pot om f o l e n f o l i r , Car on om pus f o r t s 'u m ilia , Ades 11 c r e is m ais sa f o l i a E ad es s ' e n e r g u e la p lu s ." T h is s o r t o f exchange c o n tin u e s u n t i l T au lat i s b lu s te r in g and s p u t t e r in g w ith r a g e . F in a lly , he arms him s e l f w ith o n ly a s h ie ld and la n c e , a d d r e sse s h is p r is o n e r s w ith h e r o ic r h e t o r ic , and sp u rs h is h o r se tow ard JaufrA . E a e s c r i d a t : "Ve m orir, V ila n , t u qe s a i e s v e n g u tz !" The a tta c k u n se a ts JaufrA and wounds him in th e c h e s t but h is la n c e runs c le a r through T a u la t. The crowd o f p r i s on ers s h o u t s : "V erges, dona, sa n ta M aria, A b a isa tz h u i en a q u est d ia 1a f e I o n ia de T au lat E l ’e r g u i l , ca r tr o p a d u ra t!" JaufrA jumps t o h is f e e t and runs tow ard T aulat sword in hand. E e s s ’en v e s T au lat v en g u tz Qe ja c e l s o l t o t z e s te n d u tz E esp a n d a tz coma g ra p a u t. E c r id a ta n can p o t, en a u t : 71 "Cavalor, par amor de Deu, No m uoira, qe mot in 'est a greu! Valam D o u b e santa Marla, , Qo mort sun per ma gran f o lia ! " Taulat begs fo r h is d o cto r, but Jaufrd le c tu r e s him on prid e and e x a c ts co n cessio n s concerning th e r e le a s e o f p riso n ers b efo re a llo w in g th e d o cto r to look a t h is wounds. When J o fre a r r iv e s a t Ricamonte look in g fo r T ablante, th e la t t e r i s su rp rised because k n ig h ts do not u s u a lly come look in g fo r him: he u s u a lly has to go out in sea rch o f opponents. Jofre has borrowed an o ld -fa sh io n ed s h ie ld and T ablante supposes th a t he i s some o ld knight; one o f th o se who, from tim e t o tim e, come out o f retirem en t to tr y th em selves a g a in st the famous k n igh ts o f th e day. T h erefore, he r e c e iv e s Jofre warmly and e n te r ta in s him w ith h onors. He t e l l s him th a t sin c e i t is . th e day b efore E a ster, he i s in v ite d t o postpone combat fo r a few days and be h is gu est in th e in terim . J o fre a cc ep ts th e h o s p i t a l i t y . When T ablante d isco v e rs th a t t h is knight i s on ly a boy, he i s to o w e ll mannered t o withdraw h is o f f e r and con tin u es t o e n te r ta in him g r a c io u s ly . They hunt, r id e , and f e a s t to g e th e r and become g re a t fr ie n d s . Tablante 4 2 Jaufr^. 11. 5907-6070. 72 t r i e s to persuade J o fre to abandon h is quest because he does not went to hurt h is new fr ie n d whom he lo v es lik e a younger b roth er. J o fre i n s i s t s on fig h tin g to r e le a s e M ilian from h is degrading c a p t iv it y and T ablente f in a lly agrees to do b a t t le . When th e p rep aration s a re com pleted, Tab le n te sa y s to J o fre: "C auallero, catad que no e sta y s ya en tiem po, s in o que cada vno tra b a je por su honra, y ayude Dios a l que quiera ayu d ar." The two k n ig h ts meet at a f u l l g a llo p and s h a tte r t h e ir la n c e s. Both draw swords and s la s h a t one another u n t il Jofre damages th e b r id le on T ablante*s h o rse, J o fre th en su g g ests th a t th ey f in is h th e combat on f o o t. A fter dism ounting, th e two con tinu e f ig h tin g u n t il both are covered w ith wounds and t h e ir armor i s hacked to p ie c e s . Jofre b eg in s to wonder i f he w i l l w in. Y a co rd o sele cuyo h i jo e r a , y cuyo c a u a lle r o era; y embra9 0 su escudo, y tomo e l espada con ambas tnanos; y como era 111090, d io vn s a lt o muy cerca de T ablante, y d io le vn tan gran g o lp e enciraa d e l yelm o, que se lo a b o llo y m etio dentro; ta n to que e l g o lp e l e h izo to ca r en lo s caxos de la cabe 9 a con e l yelm o y a to r - d e s c io s e lo , y T ablante cayo, y J o fre s a l t o sobre e l y t i r o l e e l yelmo, y d ix o le : "Que buena h au ia sid o la co n d icio n , que, s i no la h u u iera, b ien pudiera m atarlo, y que se o to rg a sse por su preso"; y T ablante d ixo que se otorgaua como lo hauia jurado, y que e l daua por 73 lib r e s y q u ito s aX conde y a to d o s lo s o tr o s t r e z ie n t o s c a u a lle r o s que a l i i e sta u a n . V en to n c e s J o fre le ayudo a le v a n ta r , y d ix o : "Senor T ab lan te, agora podeys v o s sab er mi nombre: que e s J o fr e , h ij o d e l conde Donason, c a u a lle r o de mi senora la reyna G in e b r a ." ^ In r e v is in g th e roman, some e p iso d e s were s im p li f ie d to make th e n a r r a tiv e move f a s te r and in o th ers th e i n t e l l e c t u a l or r e a l i s t i c m a te r ia l was e lim in a te d to make th e n a r ra tio n flo w sm ooth ly. The author a p p lie d h im s e lf t o producing a v e r s io n o f th e roman fo r p u r e ly pastim e enjoym ent. The le p e r e p is o d e , fo r exam ple, which must have seemed to o im portant to om it, was reduced t o a b r ie f f i g h t w ith an u g ly g ia n t . The r e v o lt in g but a c c u r a te d e s c r ip tio n o f th e le p e r in Jaufr£ was reduced t o a s in g le c la u s e . The g ia n t i s d e sc r ib e d p a t h e t ic a lly w a itin g fo r h is th e r a p e u ti c a l b a th . He i s not goin g t o touch h is cap tu red maiden u n t i l he has b een cured. The two humorous in te r lu d e s in J a u fr 6 . th e s a t i r e s on enchantm ents, were o m itted e n t ir e ly from T ab lan te. T h is ty p e o f en terta in m en t c o n f lic t e d w ith th e id e a l o f c h iv a l- resq ue environm ent a f t e r th e t w e lf th c e n tu r y . However, ^ lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s . ed . B o n illa y San M artin (Nueva B ib lio te c a de A utores E spafloles, V I) (Madrid: B a i lly B a illie r e , 1 9 0 7 ), I , 494. 74 a long ch ap ter co n ta in in g sp o rtin g c o n te sts by groups o f k n igh ts was added. Chapter VIX in T ablante co n ta in s a d e ta ile d d e s c r ip tio n o f a fifte e n th -c e n tu r y tournament com p le te w ith h era ld ry , p agean try, combats by k n ig h ts in c o g n ito , rom antic in tr ig u e s , and grand m ele es. Such tournam ents are in clu d ed in a number o f th e f if t e e n t h - cen tu ry romances lik e C urial e G tlelfa. Le Morte d*Arthur, and T irant Lo Blanch r e f le c t in g th e p o p u la rity and impor- 44 ta n ce o f tourneys a t th e tim e. The in c lu s io n o f a ch iv a lresq u e sp o r tin g event in Tablante in lie u o f th e merry d iv e r sio n s w ith Arthur and h is Court, a s found in Jau frd . a ls o p o in ts t o a fundam ental change in th e p e r s o n a lity o f th e young k n ig h t. J o fre in Libros de c a b a lle r ia s esn a n o les. e d . F e lic id a d Buendla (Madrid: A g u ila r, 1954), p. 1054. "Ya sabemos que la c a b a lle r la andantesca se habia c o n s titu id o en una r e a lid a d en lo s u ltim o s tiem pos de la Edad Media. Sabemos tambidn que contribuyd a e l l o un c la r o in f lu j o de la l i t e r a tu r e . Se querla s e g u ir e l ejem plo de lo s m ls tic o s L an celot, Jaufrd, e t c . , y ta n to s o tro s c a b a lle r o s de la s n o v ela s b reto n a s. Los to m e o s , d e s a flo s y o tr o s hechos de armas, que hoy nos parecen producto de una acalorada fa n ta s ia , fueron a c to s e f e c t i v o s . A s! vemos e l d e s a fio e n tr e e l monarca aragonds Bedro I I I contra C arlos de Anjou, en Burdeos; e l to m e o celeb ra d o en la ciudad de Bins en obsequio d e l prim ogdnito d e l emperador Carlos I y e l efectu a d o en F ran cia, pocos afios despuds, en la c u a l, de r e su lta d o s d el mismo, ha 116 la muerte e l rey Enrique II." 75 T ablante. w h ile on a q u est fo r h is so v ereig n , ta k es tim e t o p a r tic ip a te in r e c r e a tio n s . He reco g n izes th a t he should be s t ic k in g t o h is q u e st, which i s why he en ters th e tournament in d is g u is e . He does not want Arthur and Gwinever to fin d out th a t he i s d ila to r y . T h is d e t a il, along w ith h is in c lin a t io n t o become lo s t fo r s e v e r a l weeks a f te r each adventure, em phasizes th e sch o o l-b o y ir r e s p o n s i b i l i t y p e c u lia r t o many o f th e k n igh ts o f lib r o s de caba- l l e r i a s who are lu red from adventure to adventure by th e i r r e s i s t i b l e a t tr a c t io n o f t h e ir c u r io s it y and im agin ation . Jaufrd vowed not to r e s t or ta k e food u n t il h is m issio n was accom plished. J o fre seems t o have taken s e v e r a l months in T ablante t o reach th e c a s t le o f h is adversary, a fe a t w hich Jaufrd accom plished in one week. The com parison between Jaufrd and T ablante shows th a t th e la t t e r m ight have been produced from th e former by a p rocess s im ila r t o th a t a p p lie d in rece n t tim es fo r co n v ertin g c l a s s i c s in to ju v e n ile lit e r a t u r e and popular cinema. A llu sio n s t o s e x u a lity , th e psychology o f b e h a v io r, and m ental s tr u g g le w ith m oral or m y s tic a l problems are e lim in a te d . Episodes w hich r e fe r t o a d u lt ex p erien ces or re q u ire a depth o f knowledge o f human n a tu re, as i s 76 th e c a se w ith ir o n y or s a t i r e , a re o m itted . Any crude or sh ock in g r e a lis m i s removed a lo n g w ith any a llu s io n s \d iic h re q u ir e ed u ca tio n or e r u d itio n t o be m ean in gfu l. For exam ple, a s in most lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s . th e u se o f r e c o g n iz a b le geography, names o f r e a l p eop le or p la c e s , and ex a ct ch ron ology i s a v o id ed . E a r lie r romances some tim es u se th e s e t o g iv e an i l l u s i o n o f v e r is im ilit u d e t o th e n a r r a tiv e . The language and n a r r a tiv e s t y l e i s g r e a t ly s im p lif ie d . Along w ith a sim p ler n a r r a tiv e s t y l e comes a sim p ler h ero w ith a sim p le id e a lis m u ncom plicated by th e in c o n s is t e n c ie s o f an a d u lt s o c ie t y . In T ab lan te th e h ero i s a b e a u t if u l youth w ith a m a g n ific en t p h ysiq u e. Pow erful and str a ig h tfo r w a r d in combat, he has th e p u e r ile m oral c o n v ic tio n s s u it a b le fo r a sim p le , in v a r ia b le f i c t i o n w orld . Here i s a man o f few needs and few doubts who goes from ex citem en t t o ex citem en t w ith charming e a g e r n e ss. T his i s an esca p e h ero fo r a young rea d er o r fo r a read er who h as had enough o f s o c ie t y , human n a tu re, and in te r n a l d eb a te. Jaufrd i s te n s e ; he i s proving h im s e lf in v a lo r and in lo v e . He w o rr ies about h is d u t ie s , h is f e e l in g s , and what p eo p le w i l l th in k o r s a y . He li v e s in h is m ed iev a l w o rld . In T ab lan te. J o fr e l i v e s in a rom antic 77 w orld where th e reader can escap e from th e r e a l i t y o f th e tim es in to a rom antic era o f sim ple v a lu e s v a g u ely id e n t i f ie d w ith th e p a st. T ablante i s le s s than o n e -te n th th e volume o f Amadis de Gaula so th a t th e s t o r ie s a re h ard ly com parable. The Amadis in v o lv ed many readers o f th e s ix te e n th cen tu ry in th e li v e s o f i t s c h a r a c te r s, p a r tly because o f i t s a r t i s t i c m erit and p a r tly because o f i t s le n g th . T ablante has n e ith e r th e p o e tic depth t o make a la s t in g im pression nor th e volume n ecessa ry t o in v o lv e through th e ex p erien ce o f a len gth y a s s o c ia tio n . Based on a com parison o f n a r r a tiv e s t y l e , T ablante co u ld have been a m p lifie d or extended w ith ex tra e p iso d e s , rom antic d e s c r ip tio n s , r h e t o r ic a l d ia lo g u es, l e t t e r s , and background s t o r ie s in s e r te d in to ep iso d e s to produce a t y p ic a l lib r o de c a b a lle r la s from an o ld poem. The author d id add a few ep iso d e s and expanded some o th ers but he a ls o om itted much o f th e o r ig in a l m a te r ia l. Some o f th e sp eech es have been lengthened but o th ers have been r e duced or om itted so th a t th e r e s u ltin g t a l e o f c h iv a lr y resem bles th e o r ig in a l poem in m atter o f le n g th . The prose in T ablante i s sim p le, v erb o se, and c le a r w hich g iv e s i t th e candid q u a lity o f ju v e n ile lit e r a t u r e 78 and some e a r l i e r p rose rom ances. The m elo d ic, s l i g h t l y r h e to r ic a 1 to n e o f th e prose in Amadis i s ab sen t in T ablante w hich seems d ir e c t and dry by com parison. The purpose o f th e d is c u s s io n th u s fa r has been t o show th a t compared t o th e romans o f C hrdtien de T royes, th e r e i s le s s m ystery, le s s m agic, le s s m y sticism , and p er haps le s s lo v e making in J a u frd . There seems t o be more em phasis on p r a c t ic a l r e a lism in Jaufrd. and most o f th e e p iso d e s co u ld be c la s s e d as popular en terta in m en t ra th er than as s o p h is tic a te d or r e fin e d en te rta in m e n t. The d id a c tic purposes o f t h is roman seem le s s s u b tle and more b a s ic th a n th o se o f French romans, d e a lin g w ith conduct ra th er th a n w ith th e m ental p r o c e sse s a s s o c ia te d w ith b e h a v io r . The o v e r a ll to n e o f Jaufrd i s l e s s s e r io u s , l e s s d eep ly p o e t ic , more th e to n e o f lig h t o r popular e n t e r t a in ment th an th e romans o f C h retien de T royes. The d i s t i n c t io n s a re n ot sharp, however, because w ith th e e x c e p tio n s o f th e two fa r c e s on m agic, w hich a re somewhat out o f k eep in g w ith th e A rthurian t r a d it io n as view ed through C hrdtien, th e ty p e o f humor and iro n y w hich a re o u tsta n d in g q u a l i t i e s in Jaufrd can be found in C h rd tien . R ealism in C hrdtien i s perhaps not a s c l i n i c a l as in th e le p e r ep iso d e 79 ° f J a u frd . but m ost d e s c r ip tio n s o f wounds, grotesq u e p ersonages and en vironm en tal s it u a t io n s a r e com parable. The language and v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f Jaufrd i s s im ila r t o th a t o f th e romans o f Chr6 t i e n de T royes in a g e n e r a l way; th a t i s , th e y have many c h a r a c t e r is t ic s in consnon and g e n e r a lly re p r e se n t th e s t a t e o f th e a r t in th e l a s t q u a rter o f th e t w e lf t h cen tu ry . The com parison o f Jau frd w ith i t s s ix te e n th -c e n tu r y progeny, T ablante de Ricamonte was t o show th a t th e b a s ic s tr u c tu r e was p reserv ed but th a t th e roman was c o n sid e r a b ly p o p u la rized . The n a r r a tiv e was used to produce escap e f i c t i o n w r itte n in sim p le, r a th e r dry p r o se . It was a l s o m entioned t h a t , compared to Amadis de G aula. T ablante i s v e r y b r i e f and u n com p licated . There are no in v o lv ed fa m ily in t r ig u e s , no d e c e iv in g s o r c e r e r s o r v e n g e fu l dam sels, no p iou s in s t r u c t io n s or e x o t ic d e s c r ip tio n s , and th e lan gu age i s n ot v e r y im a g in a tiv e . The a c t io n moves r a p id ly and sim p ly alon g th e road to ad ven tu re which term in a te s in a happy m arriage. From t h e s e o b ser v a tio n s about J a u fr 6 and T a b la n te. i t w ould seem proper t o con clu d e th a t b o th works a re m odels o f t h e i r ty p e o f c h iv a lr e sq u e f i c t i o n , t e c h n ic a lly i f n ot 80 e s t h e t i c a l l y t y p ic a l o f th e roman de c h e v a le r ie and th e lib r o de c a b a lle r i a s . CHAPTER I I I C IFA R By 1250, th e famous French romances were w e ll known in Spanish c o u r ts, jud gin g by th e a llu s io n s t o them in p o etry , l e t t e r s , and docum ents. The f i r s t t r a n s la t io n s and I m ita tio n s o f w hich th e re i s co n v in cin g docum entation, d a te from around 1300. It seems c e r ta in , however, th a t some e x is t e d e a r lie r in G a licia n -P o rtu g u ese and p o s s ib ly in C a s t ilia n or in a m ixture o f th e two Romance d i a l e c t s . A number o f la y s in G a lic ia n -P o r tu g u ese e x i s t w hich resem b le p oetry in clu d ed in th e French p rose rom ances. Some a r e t r a n s la t io n s from known v e r s io n s o f th e s e , o th e rs a re e it h e r im ita tio n s or t r a n s la t io n s from unknown v e r s io n s . C arolina M icha& lis de V a sco n celo s b u ild s a stro n g c a s e f o r d a tin g them in th e l a s t q u a rter o f th e t h ir t e e n t h ce n tu ry , but ad m its th a t th e r e i s no p ro o f th a t th e y a re not o f th e f i r s t q u a rter o f th e fo u r te e n th . S ev era l p o ets who w ro te la y s, w ro te betw een 1250 and th e e a r ly t h ir t e e n 81 - - 8 2 hundreds* A c e r ta in Lobeira w rote th e w ell-know n v e r se s which were in clu d ed by Montalvo in h is six te e n th -c e n tu r y r e v is io n o f Amadis. Leonoreta f i n r o se ta , b e la sobre toda fr o r , f i n r o se ta , non me met a en t a l c o ita voss*am or, lo b e ir a * s l i f e i s w e ll documented from 1258 t o 1285 and he was a t le a s t tw e n ty -fiv e years o ld in 1258, accord ing t o h is c i v i l s t a t u s . By 1300, th en , he would have been s ix ty -s e v e n years o ld or more, an u n lik e ly age to b egin w r itin g lo v e p o etry . M ichaSlis de V asconcelos* co n clu sio n s about th e b egin n in gs o f th e prose romance in Spain are as f o llo w s : Com r e s p e ito i. idade dos l a i s e da n ovela em prosa a que pertencem , eu ad optaria de boa mente a data prim eiros d ecenn ios do s e c . XIV. i s t o 6 o tempo em que o Conde de B a r c e llo s, o A r c ip r e ste , o In fan te D. Joao Manoel, Est£vam da Guarda (v iv o em 1347) e o desconhecido jo g r a l Fernan d*Esquio conviveram . Bern d e se ja r ia co n sid erA -lo s como rem ate da dpoca g a lla S c o - portugufisa, tra n si^ a o para o p eriodo dos romances de c a v a lle r ia , e p ilo g o (e nao fa I s o preambulo) dos can- c io n e ir o s tr o v a d o r e sc o s. Sdmente a ca n tlg u in h a de Amadis. obra de um Lobeira, op p3e-se a e s t a concepsao, tornando q u a si c e r ta a hypothese que e s p ir it o s avan- ead os, in flu e n c ia d o s p elo co n ta cto d ir e c to com a u cto res fr a n c e s e s, prepararam antecipadam ente, no 83 roinado do Bolonhfis o do Sabio, o advento do novo g o sto por n o v e lla s em prosa.*- The Gran conciulsta de Ultramar was probably tr a n s la te d in to C a s tilia n from French around 1300 or sh o r tly a f t e r th e appearance o f th e French book which was fin is h e d in 1295. A m ention o f th e d is s o lu t io n o f th e Order o f Knights Templar by th e Rape in 1310, in d ic a te s th a t date as 2 a l i k e l y term inus pro quern. O sten sib ly a h is to r y o f th e Crusades, th e book i s a m ixture o f h is t o r ic a l and f i c t i o n a l elem ents in clu d in g a com plete romance o f c h iv a lr y , El c a b a lle r o d e l c is n e . which i s s t i l l one o f th e most en jo y a b le romances in th e Spanish language. Extant t e x t s co n ta in many c o p y ists* er ro r s and some c a r e le s s m o d ern iza tio n s. In h is c r i t i c a l e d it io n , H neterio M azorriaga attem pted to produce a te x t as much lik e th e o r ig in a l as p o s s ib le and th e reader w i l l fin d th a t th e prose in h is copy compares v er y w e ll w ith such lib r o s de c a b a lle r ta s as T ab lan te. alth ou gh i t appears ^ • Cancionero da A1uda. ed . M ichaSlis de V ascon celos (Max Niemeyer, 1904) (T orino: B ottega d*Erasmo, 1966), I I , 516. 2 la eran co n a u ista de Ultram ar, ed . Ih scu a l de Gayangos (B ib lio te c a de A utores E spanoles, XLIV) (Madrid: Rivadeneyra, 1858), pp. v i - v i i . 84 u n s o p h is tic a te d b e s id e Amadis. A com parison betw een two p a ssa g es w hich d e a l w ith th e e a r th y m ir a c le o f th e c h ild su c k le d by w ild b e a s t s , i l l u s t r a t e s th e n a iv e charm o f th e e a r ly p ro se and a l s o shows th a t th e sim p le treatm en t o f th e theme in Amadis g r e a tly resem b les th e e a r ly rom ance. They a r e a s f o l l o w s : The newborn son s o f Iso n b e r ta and E u sta clo have been l e f t in th e f o r e s t t o d ie : p art o f a tr e a c h e r o u s p lo t by E u s ta c io 's m other t o d e s tr o y h er d a u g h te r -in -la w . la s c r ia n p a s y a zien d o en e l d is e r t o commo e s d ic h o , D io s, que nunca desanpara ninguna co sa de la s que El fa z e , e s e paga de lle u a r su s fe c h o s , e non p erezca n por fa ls e d a d , e n v io a l i i a a q u e llo s n in n o s do y a z ie n , vn a p ieru a con le c h e , que l e s d ie s e la s t e t a s e lo s g o v ern a se e lo s c r ia s e . E e l l o s y a zien d o a l l y , v in o la p ierv a a e l l o s , e v e n ia y dos v e z e s cada d ia , e fin c a u a lo s y n o jo s p erca d e llo s e d iu a le s a mamar, en manera que lo s c r i 6 a sy v n tie n p o ; e desque lo s t e n ia f a r t o s la m ia lo s e ly n p ia u a lo s d e l l i x o . E a cabo de d ia s , a c a e s p i6 por y vn h erm itano, que a v ia nombre G a l l i e l : e e r a omne de sa n ta v id a e a v ia en a q u e l d e s y e r to vna h erm ita en que m oraua. E andando en e s a montanna e v en ien d o por a l l y , 6 u o se de en c o n tra r con a q u e lla s c r ia tu r a s ; e quando la s v i 6 , m a r a v ill6 se mucho, commo a q u e l que nunca o tr a t a l c o sa v ie r a e n a q u e l lu g a r , n in avn en o tr o ; e coraen9 6 se a s a n tig u a r mucho, cuydando que era n pecados que l e q u eria n e n - g a n a r. Pero to d a v ia y v a lo s £ l ca ta n d o , e l l e g 6 s e m is a e l l o s ; e desque s e l e s l l e g 6 b ie n de p erca , puso la mano en e l l o s vno a vn o, e e n te n d i6 que eran c r ia t u r a s e c o s a c a r n a l.3 3 La lev en d a d e l C a u a ller o d e l C isn e. e d . B n e te r io M azorriaga (M adrid: S u ir ez , 1 9 1 4 ), 1, 2 7 -2 8 . 85 The newborn E sp lan d ian , abandoned in th e f o r e s t a t n ig h t n ear th e abode o f a h erm it, i s found by a lio n e s s who c a r r ie s th e baby o f f t o fe e d t o h er cu b s. . . . mas a q u e l Seffor d e l mundo, p ia d o so con a q u e llo s que m ise r a c o r d ia le demandan, y con lo s in o c e n te s que edad n i s e n tid o para la demandar no t ie n e n , a c o r r i6 le en e s t a g u i s a : que h abiend o a q u e l sa n to N ascian o can - ta d o m isa a l a lb a d e l d ia , d ydndose d la fu e n te por f o lg a r h i, que la noche h a b la s id o muy c a lu r o s a , v i6 c6mo la leo n a lle v a b a e l n in o en su b oca, e l c u a l llo r a b a con f la c a v o z , como desa noche n a c id o , y cono- c id s e r c r ia tu r a ; de lo c u a l fud muy esp an tad o adonde tornado lo h a b la , d lu e g o a lz 6 la mano d s a n tig u 6 lo , d d ij o d la le o n a : "V ete, b e s t ia m ala, y d eja la c r i a tu r a de D ios; que la no h iz o para t u g o b ie m o ." E la le o n a , blandeando la s o r e j a s , como que fa la g a b a , se v in o d d l muy mansa d puso e l nirio a su s p id s , d lu eg o s e fud; y N ascian o f i z o so b re d l la s e n a l de la v e r a - cru z, y despuds tom dlo en su s b r a zo s, d fu d se con d l d la e r m ita , d pasando cabe la cueva donde la leona c r ia b a su s f i j o s , v i d l a que l e s daba la t e t a , d d i j o l e : "Yo t e mando de p a r te de D io s, en cuyo poder so n to d a s la s c o s a s , que q u ita n d o la s t e t a s d tu s f i j o s , la s dds d e s t e n ifio , y como d e l l o s , lo gu ard es de to d o m al." la leo n a s e fud a ech a r d su s p id s , y e l hombre bueno p eso e l n in o d la s t e t a s , y ech d n d ole de la le c h e en la b oca, l e h iz o tom ar la t e t a d mamd, y de a111 a d e- la n te v e n ia con mucha mansedad d l e dar d mamar to d a s v e c e s que era m en ester.^ 1 The C a b a llero d e l C isn e i s a p p r e c ia te d to d a y b e- j ca u se i t r e ta in s much o f th e m y stery , rom ance, and drama o f th e rom ans, th e French rom ances in v e r s e . The t r a n s la t o r LLbros de c a b a lle r i a s . ed . B o n illa y San M artin (Nueva B ib lio te c a de A utores E sp a n o les, I ) (M adrid: B a illy B a i l l i e r e , 1 9 0 7 ), p . 3 6 6 . 86 d id not tr y t o make a dow n-to-earth C a s tilia n n a rra tiv e out o f t h is t a l e f u l l o f m ira cles and m agic. The e a r ly romance resem bles th e six te e n th -c e n tu r y Amadis because th e la t t e r recap tu red th o se p o e tic and ro m a n tic a lly i d e a l i s t i c q u a lit ie s which were dominant in th e C aballero d e l Cisne and which were a tten u a ted in th e Spanish romances which were w r itte n during th e in te rv e n in g y e a r s . The C aballero C ifa r. th e f i r s t ex ta n t ch iv a lresq u e f i c t io n w r itte n in Spain, i s o f th e era in w hich th e Caba lle r o d e l C isne was tr a n s la te d from th e French. Data con ta in e d in th e prologue in d ic a te th a t th e n o v e l was w r itte n between 1310 and 1350. The author d e sc r ib e s a number o f e c c l e s i a s t i c a l ev e n ts in T oledo. A r e fe r e n c e t o a papal b u ll o f B oniface VXII issu e d in 1306 and d e ta ile d inform a tio n about 1310 in d ic a te d th a t th e author was probably a c le r ic and th a t he must have w r itte n th e C ifa r a fte r 1310 but b efo re 1350 when th e p r o v isio n s o f th e papal b u ll 5 m entioned in h is prologue were changed. A llu sio n s and re fe r e n c e s to th e n o v el are few but su g g est th a t i t c ir c u la te d w id ely and was perhaps 5 Charles H iilip Wagner, "The Sources o f El Cava- lle r o C ifa r, ” Revue H ispanioue. X (1903), 5 . 87 w e ll known a t le a s t in Spain. C ifa r was m entioned, a lo n g w ith Amadis and T r ista n , as an exemplary k n ig h t by Johan £ L Garcia de Cast o r g e r iz around 1345. In 1361 Bere IV o f Aragon ordered Eximeno de Monreal t o produce th e copy o f C ifa r. "librum m i l i t i s v o c a ti S if f a r , " w hich h e had been ordered t o tr a n s c r ib e .^ The n ovel c o n s is t s o f th r e e p a r ts : th e f i r s t i s a ch iv a lr esq u e a d a p ta tio n o f th e l i f e o f S ain t E u stath iu s; th e second i s a book o f ad vice w ith i l l u s t r a t i v e a n ecd otes and fa b le s ; th e t h ir d con tain s an A rthurian romance o f c h iv a lr y . Here i s th e syn op sis o f th e sto r y . C ifa r i s a knight o f ro y a l b lo o d and an e x c e lle n t w a r r io r . However, h is h o rse always d ie s a fte r he has owned i t fo r ten d ays. For t h i s d efect and th e m achinations o f th o s e je a lo u s o f him, he lo s e s fa v o r a t court and d ecides t o le a v e h is co u n try . With h is w if e and two young son s, C ifa r a r r iv e s ^ Fou lch6 - De Ibos c , ’'La p lu s ancienne m ention dtAmadis. ” Revue H is panic ue. XV (1908), 815. ^Documents per l T H is to r ia de la C ultura Catalana M ie-ev a l. ed. A nton i Rubio y Lluch ( I n s t it u t D 'E studis C a ta la n s) (B arcelona: 1898), I, No. 199. 88 a t th e c it y o f G alapia which i s about t o be a tta c k e d . He lib e r a te s th e c i t y and arranges a m arriage between th e lad y o f Galapia and th e son o f th e count who has a tta ck ed h e r. A fter a tim e C ifar and fam ily con tin u e to th e land o f F alac. As th e y are n ea rin g a c i t y by th e se a , a lio n e s s c a r r ie s o f f th e o ld er son. They go in to th e c i t y and th e younger c h ild i s lo s t in th e s t r e e t s . C ifa r and h is w ife prepare to le a v e th e c it y on a boat but th e s a ilo r s ta k e th e w ife fo r t h e ir p leasu re and le a v e C ifa r on sh ore. C ifar, r id in g h is w if e 's p a lfr e y , tr a v e ls fo r te n d a y s. The h o rse d ie s th en , a s i s u su a l w ith C ifa r 's h o r se s, but he reach es a h erm itage. He does not know th a t h is son has been rescued from th e lio n e s s by a burger. The b urger's w if e , in the meantime, has taken in th e younger son whom sh e found wandering lo s t in th e town. The burger and h is w ife , b ein g c h ild le s s , adopt th e b oys. C ifa r 's w ife , m eanwhile, has been aid ed by God. The s e a men, fig h tin g t o se e who s h a ll have her f i r s t , have k i l l e d each other and l e f t her a lo n e in a boat f u l l o f tr e a s u r e . The C h r ist-c h ild gu id es th e boat to land w here, u t i l i z i n g th e tr e a su r e , C ifa r 's w ife b u ild s a g rea t con ven t. 89 At th e h erm itage C ifar i s in trod u ced t o th e g a r ru lo u s but shrewd se rv a n t o f a fisherm an who o fte n v i s i t s th e herm it because he i s a good l i s t e n e r . T his low p erson, a r ib a ld o . prods C ifa r in a m ocking way but in th e end i s much im pressed by C if a r ’s p h ilo s o p h ic a l s a i n t l i n e s s . How e v e r , he i s a p p a lled a t C ifa r ’ s la c k o f am b ition , which he c o n sid e r s a s i n f u l w a ste o f n a tu r a l a b i l i t i e s . The r ib a ld o o f f e r s h im s e lf as a serv a n t t o h e lp C ifa r improve h im s e lf and a t th e same tim e ren d er s e r v ic e t o God and man. C ifa r a c c e p ts th e r ib a ld o as g u id e and a d v iso r and th ey s e t out t o lib e r a t e th e King o f Menton who i s b e sie g e d by th e King o f E ster in th e c i t y o f G rades. The r ib a ld o p rovid es p r a c t ic a l s o lu t io n s and popu la r sa y in g s fo r a l l th e d a ily problem s w hich th e two en co u n ter on th e way. He s t e a l s , p oach es, or b a rg a in s fo r fo o d , s le e p s w ith one ey e open fo r t h ie v e s and a p p lie s h is p r a c t ic a l knowledge a g a in s t an a tta c k by w o lv e s . However, on one o c c a sio n C ifa r sa v es th e r ib a ld o from b ein g hanged. Approaching G rades, th e r ib a ld o d e v is e s a p lan t o g e t C ifa r p ast th e b e s ie g e r s and in to th e c i t y . The two exchange c lo th in g . Then d ressed in th e r ib a ld o * s rags w ith a s t i c k fo r a s c e p te r and a crown o f grape le a v e s , 90 C ifa r p a sse s among th e b e s ie g in g fo r c e s jum ping and sh o u t in g l i k e a madman. He approaches th e w a lls a s though t o throw s to n e s a t th e w atch above th e g a te . When he i s c lo s e enough, he drops th e d is g u is e , e x p la in s t h e r u se and i s a d m itted in t o th e c i t y . I n s id e , he i s se n t t o th e K in g's stew ard who arms and eq u ip s him . The King o f Menton has p roclaim ed t h a t w hoever s h a l l l i f t th e s ie g e w i l l r e c e iv e h is d augh ter in m arriage and w i l l become h is h e ir . When C ifa r w in s s e v e r a l en g a g e m en ts, th e Ring a sk s h is d augh ter how sh e w ould l i k e t o be m arried t o C ifa r . She an sw ers, " B etter a k n ig h t w ith good s e n s e and k n ig h tly v a lo r who can d efen d us th a n a p r in c e or some o th e r h ig h -b o r n p erson who m ight n ot be a b le t o defen d me or even h i m s e l f .1 1 B ecause C ifa r seem s t o be a g i f t from God t o th e b e s ie g e d c i t y , he i s c a l l e d th e C a b a llero de D io s. C ifa r lib e r a t e s th e c i t y , m arries th e P rin cess and a sh o r t tim e la t e r becom es King. In c a s e h is f i r s t w if e i s s t i l l a l i v e , he t e l l s h is new w if e th a t h e h a s ta k e n an o a th o f c h a s t it y a s penance fo r a s i n a g a in s t God. The f i r s t w if e comes t o th e c i t y and C ifa r r e c o g n iz e s h er but does n o t acknow ledge th a t he knows h e r . 91 T h eir so n s a r e se n t t o th e c i t y by t h e i r f o s t e r p aren ts to become pages and a re r e u n ite d w ith t h e i r m other. The Queen d ie s and th e w hole fa m ily i s brought t o g e th e r . The s t o r y c o n tin u e s w ith th e m ain fo cu s on th e two s o n s . The r ib a ld o . who has b een g iv e n la n d s , r ic h e s , and t r a in in g by C ifa r , has become a n o b le and proven k n ig h t. Loyal and b rave, he i s a ls o sa g a c io u s and p ru d en t. He c o n tin u e s t o speak in p opu lar s a y in g s and d u rin g cam paigns con d u cts h im s e lf l i k e a p r o f e s s io n a l s o ld ie r up from th e ran k s. When he i s in tro d u ced by h is new t i t l e o f C a b a llero Amigo, h is f i r s t ta s k i s t o r e s t r a in C if a r 's rom antic and e n e r g e t ic so n s from a tta c k in g th e enemy u n t i l he can d e t e r m ine th e s i z e o f th e enemy fo r c e and i t s d is p o s it io n in th e f i e l d . W ith th e good c o u n s e l and e sp io n a g e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e C a b a ller o Amigo and th e v a lo r o f C if a r 's so n s, s e v e r a l u p r is in g s w ith in th e kingdom a r e put down and peace i s fir m ly e s t a b lis h e d . The younger son d e c la r e s h is w ish t o become a k n ig h t er ra n t and make h is mark in th e w orld b e fo r e s e t t l i n g down as a v a s s a l o f h is o ld e r b r o th e r . C ifa r g iv e s h is son s some sound a d v ic e and sen d s Roboan w ith th e C a b a llero Amigo on h is way t o a d v en tu re. 92 The adventures o f Roboan do not become A rthurian at th e o u ts e t, however. He b eg in s h is knight erra n try in f u l l c o n ta ct w ith r e a l i t y as he goes in th e company o f th ree hundred k n igh ts and ta k es one hundred pack anim als laden w ith g o ld and s i l v e r . He jo in s fo r c e s w ith a p r in c e ss whose domains a re b ein g ravaged by her n eig h b o rs. The C aballero Amigo i s sen t on a number o f d e lic a te m issio n s which he accom p lishes w ith t a c t . He d isc u sse s unashamedly th e fe a r which he s u ffe r s when he has to d efy some king on b e h a lf o f Roboan. Ebace and s e c u r it y are arranged and th e g r a te fu l P rin cess, w ith th e h ea rty support o f her n o b le s, would lik e Roboan t o sta y on as her husband. He lon gs fo r more adventure so he prom ises t o retu rn to her in one y ea r. S e ttin g out w ith h is fo r c e s he tr a v e ls to T rig id a where he i s welcomed by th e Enperor and becomes a great fa v o r ite a t court fo r h is good company and wisdom. The Enperor o f T rigid a n ever lau gh s. What Roboan does not know i s th a t anyone who ask s th e Emperor why he does not laugh i s im m ediately put to death. Some cour t i e r s , je a lo u s o f Roboan, su g g est th a t he ask th e q u e s tio n . This he d oes, but th e Emperor, because o f h is am ity fo r Roboan, puts him on a magic boat and sends him out t o se a 93 in ste a d o f having him k i l l e d . The boat docks at an en - chanted isla n d where two lo v e ly maidens a re ex p ectin g him w ith a saddled p a lfr e y . As th ey lead him a lo n g th e way t o th e p a la ce, crowds h a il him as th e ir new K ing. W hen Roboan meets th e lo v e ly F a iry Queen, he i s d e lig h te d w ith her and th ey a re m arried a t on ce. Soon a f t e r he is sep a ra ted from h is companions w h ile on a hunt and meets th e d e v il in the g u is e o f a tem pting female who persuades him t o break h is vows o f f i d e l i t y to th e Queen by prom ising to t e l l him a s e c r e t a f t e r he has s a t is f ie d her d e s ir e s . He learn s th a t th e F airy Queen has a magic f a lc o n and i f he ask s fo r i t she must g iv e i t t o him. The f a lc o n lead s t o another encounter w ith th e lic e n tio u s demon and again Roboan s a t i s f i e s her d e s ir e s in exchange f o r inform ation about a magic h unting dog which th e Queen must g iv e him i f he a sk s. The Queen warns Roboan th at i f t h i s so r t o f th in g co n tin u es he w i l l lo s e her and h is w onderful happy kingdom. The dog lea d s him t o th e d e v il again and t h i s tim e he lea rn s about a w onderful h o r se . The Queen t r i e s by ev e ry fem inine means t o keep Roboan o f f th e h o rse , in clu d in g ap p eals fo r t h e ir unborn c h ild , but he cannot r e s i s t . The h orse ta k es him back to th e boat which d e p o s its him in 94 T rig id a where th e Ehiperor ia e x p e c tin g him. The Qnperor sa y s, "Now, you se e why I do not lau gh ." Roboan retu rn s to th e P r in c e ss. They marry and Q l i v e v ir tu o u s ly fo r e v e r a f t e r . S ev era l o f th e an ecd otes in s e r te d are popular and r e a l i s t i c i f not s t r i c t l y p ica r esq u e . For exam ple, th ere i s th e fa th e r who a sk s h is daughter about women who have many lo v e r s . Her answ ers are d is c o n c e r tin g ly d e t a ile d and fran k . The fa th e r a sk s, "Where does a young woman lea rn about such sh ock in g th in g s? " H is daughter an sw ers, "In b adly guarded co n v en ts. Then th e re i s th e s to r y o f th e most f o o lis h man in th e realm . The son o f a famous a lc h em ist s e t s out t o seek fo rtu n e and ad ven tu re. A c e r t a in M oorish king t r i e s to fo r c e him in to making g o ld . To esca p e t h is s it u a t io n , th e young man co n v erts th e la s t o f h is tr a v e lin g money, tw enty doubloons, in to g o ld o x id e, powders i t and g iv e s th e powder D For a com plete d e s c r ip tio n o f th e t e x t s e e Wag n e r ^ a r t i c l e and h is c r i t i c a l e d it io n , C harles P h ilip Wagner, El C avaH ero C ifa r (Ann Arbor, M ichigan: 1929). ^Libros de c a b a lle r ia s esn a fio le s. ed . F e lic id a d Buendla (Madrid: A g u ila r, 1 9 5 4 ), pp. 159-161. 95 to a sto r e k e e p e r w ith th e fo llo w in g I n s t r u c t io n s : ho i s t o t e l l anyone lo o k in g fo r A lexan d rik y Powders th a t ho d id have s e v e r a l sa ck s f u l l but th a t th e y w ere s o ld r e c e n tly ; th en he i s t o look through h is c h e s ts t o s e e i f he has any l e f t ; f i n a l l y ho i s t o d is c o v e r th e sm a ll q u a n tity l e f t by th e young man and s e l l i t fo r te n d ou b loon s. When th e King a sk s him t o s t a r t p rod u cin g, th e young man ask s fo r A lexan d rik y Powders, w hich he e x p la in s i s a m a te r ia l v e r y common in h is n a tiv e land and u s u a lly a v a ila b le elsew h e re a t s p ic e shops or from m erchants d e a lin g in pow ders. A fte r a d ilig e n t se a r c h , th e K in g 's a g en ts fin d th e packet o f powder p la n ted w ith th e sto r e k e e p e r and buy i t fo r t e n d ou b loon s. The young man adds th e powder t o m olten le a d , throw s on some s p ic e t o make smoke and produces tw en ty doubloons w orth o f f in e g o ld . The King i s d e lig h t e d . The young man t e l l s him t o sen d someone fo r more A lexan d rik y Powder. The King i n s i s t s th a t th e young man i s th e one fo r th e jo b and must go a t o n ce. He g iv e s him t e n cam els load ed w ith s i l v e r w ith w hich t o purchase th e powder in h is nat iv e la n d . One n ig h t th e King i s eavesd rop p in g on a d is c u s s io n among some o f h is s u b je c ts and h ea rs one s a y , "In my 96 o p in io n th o King i s th e most f o o lis h mnn in th o realm ." In th e m orning tho man i s dragged b efo r e th o King and asked to e x p la in , "I p laced you f i r s t in th o book o f th e stu p id b ecau se you gave tho a lch em ist s i l v e r and cam els and sen t him to an oth er c o u n tr y ," ho t e l l s him. "And i f ho r e tu rn s ?" a sk s th e King. "Then wo*11 c r o ss you o f f and put h is name f i r s t , " answ ers th e m a n .^ E v id en tly C ifa r i s a hybrid work as w e ll as a t r a n s it io n a l book o f c h iv a lr y . The purpose i s d id a c tic , but s e v e r a l d id a c tic s t y l e s a re u sed . There i s a romance o f c h iv a lr y in C ifar but th e r e i s a ls o a s o r t o f code o f c h iv a lr y , a book o f maxims and a number o f sh o rt s t o r ie s and f a b l e s . The p lo t o f th e romance o ccu p ies about h a lf th e book. Some space i s occup ied by s e n te n tio u s m o r a liz in g , most o f i t i s taken up w ith fa b le s and a n ecd o tes which are in s e r te d a s m oral le s s o n s or exam ples. The sh o rt s t o r i e s , f a b le s , and an ecd o tes depend fo r t h e ir en terta in m en t v a lu e on p e n e tr a tin g o b ser v a tio n s o f human n a tu re, th a t i s th e y show how man i s as an argument fo r why he sh o u ld be 10 ~ Libros de c a b a lle r ta s e sp a n o lea . ed . Buendia, pp. 2 5 9 -2 6 2 . 97 o th e r w is e . A tr u e romance o f c h iv a lr y ten d s t o show how men m ight be* Both ty p o s o f l i t e r a t u r e e x t o l h ig h id e a ls but th e form er i s r e a l i s t i c b eca u se i t p r e se n ts a r e a l i s t i c s o c ie t y i d iil e th e l a t t e r i s i d e a l i s t i c b ecau se i t i l l u s t r a t e s th e id e a l h ero . Some s c h o la r s con ten d th a t th e fe a tu r e w hich d is t in g u is h e s C a s t ilia n romances i s th a t th e h ero may be id e a l but he fu n c tio n s in a r e a l w orld where th e r e i s a r e a l s o c i e t y . F o lic id a d Buendia sa y s in a stu d y o f lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s : nEl alma esp a flo la s e estrem ece e n tr e lo s dos p o lo s o p u esto s de m is tic is m o y r e a lia m o . E l Cid, Don Q u ijo te , van continuam ente empujados por e le v a d o s id e a le s , pero obran con a r r e g lo a la r e a lid a d que lo s 11 r o d ea ." R e a lity surrounds C ifa r and h is son Roboan, t o o , so i f xte can c a l l C ifa r a romance o f c h iv a lr y a t a l l , we must sa y th a t i t i s a v e r y Spanish on e. Some o f th e r e a lis m in w hich th e i d e a l i s t i c h ero es o f C ifa r fu n c tio n i s p rovid ed by th e a n e c d o te s, f a b le s , maxims, and p roverbs in th e m se lv e s , but p art o f i t comes from th e in c lu s io n o f a r e a l i s t i c h ero , th e r ib a ld o . The s i m i la r i t y betw een C ervantes* Sancho and th e U Ibid.. p. 31. 98 12 r ib a ld o has been noted tn s e v e r a l s t u d io s . Hero i s a p r a c t ic a l companion fo r a m y s tic a l co n tem p la tiv e k n ig h t. The r ib n ld o speaks in p arab les and proverbs and p r o te c ts h is fr ie n d from such ord in ary dangers as s ta r v a tio n , w o lv es, and m urdering t h ie v e s . He d e v is e s s t r a t e g ie s , h u m ilia tin g but e f f e c t i v e . As th e C ab allero Amigo, th e r ib a ld o r e c o n n o ite r s so th a t th e v a lo ro u s and e n t h u s ia s t ic k n ig h ts w i l l r id e to v ic to r y and not in to ambush. The c h a r a c te r iz a tio n i s not co n sta n t in C ifa r and both C ifa r and Roboan have d ia lo g u e s in w hich th ey seem w o r ld ly -w is e . Nor i s th e r ib a ld o th e o n ly ch a ra c te r whose speech c o n ta in s popular sa y in g s; co u n ts, p r in c e s , and C ifa r h im s e lf u ses them fr e q u e n tly . Another su re in d ic a tio n o f a lea n in g toward r e a l i s t i c lit e r a t u r e in t h i s b a s ic a lly c h iv a lr e sq u e work i s th e in c lu s io n o f two e p iso d e s or in te r lu d e s w hich are c l e a r ly p ica resq u e. These e p iso d e s ta k e p la ce w h ile C ifa r and th e r ib a ld o a re on th e road t o Grades where th e y hope t o d e liv e r th e c i t y from s ie g e and w in th e daughter o f th e 12 M arcelino Man6ndez y Helayo, O rleenes de la n o v ela (Nueva B ib lio te c a de A utores E sp a n o les) (Madrid: B a illy B a illie r e 6 H ijo s, 1 9 0 5 ), I, c x x v ii- c x x ix . 99 King o f Menton. In one th e read er le a rn s how C ifar fr e e d th e 13 r ib a ld o who was about t o be hanged. One a ftern o o n C ifar and th e r ib a ld o reach a town and d ecid e t o spend th e n ig h t th e r e . A fter th e y fin d s h e lt e r , th e r ib a ld o goes t o th e market t o buy som ething fo r d in n er. He has j u s t purchased a pheasant when a man by h is s id e s a y s , "Say, w i l l you h old t h i s bag w h ile I sa d d le t h i s p a lfrey ? " The r ib a ld o ta k e s th e bag not knowing th a t th e man i s a t h i e f whom th e p o lic e a re about to c a tc h . The p o lic e se e th e r ib a ld o sta n d in g w ith th e bag in one hand, a pheasant in th e o th e r and s e iz e him. The t h i e f s l i p s away In th e crowd. The n ext morning th e r ib a ld o Is tak en t o be judged by th e o f f i c i a l s o f th e town. The judges do not d is b e lie v e h is s to r y and show him many l i k e l y su sp e c ts but th e t h i e f s ta y s out o f s ig h t so th a t he w i l l n ot be id e n t i f ie d . F in a lly , th e r ib a ld o I s sen ten ced t o be hanged. The judges d e c la r e t h a t , a lth o u g h he i s not g u ilt y o f th e t h e f t , he i s g u i l t y o f r e c e iv in g goods fo r sa fek ee p in g from someone he d id not know and he i s g u ilt y because he d id not look 13 w h ib ros de c a b a lle r la s e s p a n o le s . ed . Buendia, pp. 108-109. 100 to s e e what i t was he r e c e iv e d . "Anyone who i s w i l l i n g t o r e c e iv e som ething from an oth er f o r s a f e k e e p in g ," th e y s a id , "should v e r i f y th r e e t h i n g s : th e f i r s t , who i t i s who en t r u s t s i t t o him; th e second, what i t i s w h ich h e g iv e s him; th e t h ir d , w h eth er h e can keep i t s a f e . O therw ise, i t can happen th a t some bad man m ight g iv e i t t o him and th a t he w ould g iv e i t t o him fo r d ish o n e st rea so n s and th en he w ould not be a b le t o k eep i t . Thus d id i t happen t o t h i s man. No man sh ould ta k e a n y th in g i n d e p o s it w hich he c a n 't keep b eca u se h e m ight b e sued fo r lo s in g i t . " The r ib a ld o i s mounted on an a s s and le d out t o a g a llo w s in a f i e l d n ea r-b y . The rope around h is neck i s th e n a tta c h e d t o t h e limb and t h e crowd w h ich has g a th ered w a its f o r th e a s s t o be moved. C ifa r th in k s th a t th e r ib a ld o h as run o f f w ith t h e money fo r t h e p heasant and has s e t out on t h e road a lo n e . He comes t o th e p la c e where t h e r e i s a crowd around a g a llo w s and r e c o g n iz e s th e r ib a ld o . C ifa r o f f e r s t o go and t a l k t o th e ju d g es about t h e c a s e . The r ib a ld o sa y s, "There1 s no tim e fo r th a t , one ’a r r e ’ and I ’m hanged." The a s s moves o f f and th e r ib a ld o h an gs. C ifa r draws h is sword and c u ts th e r o p e . X01 Both men a r e s e iz e d and ta k en b e fo r e th e town ju d g es who ask C ifa r why he w ould do such a t h in g . C ifa r answ ers th a t he i s co n v in ced o f th e r ib a ld o *s in n o cen ce and would f ig h t a cc o r d in g t o th e custom s o f c h iv a lr y t o prove i t . I t does not seem l i k e l y t h a t th e ju d g es w i l l a c c e p t t h is e x c u s e . M eanw hile, th e t h i e f , co n v in ced th a t th e r ib a ld o i s dead and can no lo n g e r i d e n t i f y him, has come out o f h id in g . The r ib a ld o s e e s him and th e p o lic e s e i z e th e t h i e f . The v en d o r o f th e pheasant co n firm s th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and th e t h i e f i s hanged in s te a d o f th e r ib a ld o . In a n oth er e p is o d e , th e rea d er le a r n s how th e r ib a ld o excused h im s e lf when th e owner o f a v e g e ta b le 14 garden found him p u ttin g tu r n ip s in a sa c k . Going a lo n g one day th e y came t o a sm a ll v i l l a g e a few m ile s from th e main r o u te . As th e y were approaching th e v i l l a g e , C ifa r saw a v e g e ta b le gard en in a p r e t t y v a l l e y . There was a la r g e tu r n ip p a tch and C ifa r s a id , "Oh, w ould I e n jo y some o f t h o s e tu r n ip s i f th e r e w ere someone who c o u ld f i x them fo r m e!" " S ir ,” s a id th e r ib a ld o . " ju st le a v e i t t o m e." P r e se n tly th e y a r r iv e d a t an in n w here th e r ib a ld o 14I b id . . pp. 112-113. 102 l e f t C ifa r and w ent back t o t h e v e g e ta b le garden w ith a sa c k . F in d in g th e door lo ck ed he clim bed up on th e w a ll, jumped down in s id e , and b egan p u llin g up t u r n ip s . The b e s t o f t h e s e he put in th e sa c k . W hile he was d oin g t h i s , th e owner o f th e garden came in . When he saw th e r ib a ld o he w ent o v er t o him and s a id , " B e lie v e me, you w ick ed t h i e f , y o u 'r e g o in g w ith me t o s e e th e m a g is tr a te and h e ' l l s e e th a t y o u 'r e p u n ish ed as you d ese rv e fo r e n te r in g o v er w a lls and s t e a li n g t u r n ip s ." "Oh s i r ! " s a id th e r ib a ld o . "God fo r b id th a t you do such a th in g b eca u se I was fo rce d t o come in h e r e ." "And how w ere you forced ?" ask ed th e owner o f th e g ard en . "X d o n 't s e e any e v id e n c e t h a t you w ere fo r c e d t o e n te r h ere u n le s s i t was your e v i l g e n iu s w hich d id i t ." " S ir ," s a id th e r ib a ld o . "as I was g o in g a lo n g th e road o v er th e r e a w h irlw in d caught me and i t was s o s tr o n g th a t i t l i f t e d me c l e a r o f f th e ground and c a s t me h e r e in t h i s g a rd en ." "W ell th e n , who p u lle d up a l l t h e s e tu r n ip s? " ask ed th e owner o f th e gard en . "W ell, S ir ," s a id th e r ib a ld o . "the w ind was s t i l l s o str o n g th a t i t was d raggin g me a lo n g th e ground and fo r fe a r t h a t i t w ould throw me down in some w orse p la c e , I c lu tc h e d a t th e tu r n ip s and many o f them came u p ." "Then who put th e 103 tu r n ip s in t h i s sack?" s a id th e owner o f th e garden. "You know, S ir , th a t amazes me t o o ," s a id th e r ib a ld o . "Well s in c e you, to o , a re w ondering about i t , " sa id th e owner o f th e garden, " it would appear th a t you had n oth in g to do w ith i t . I fm g oin g t o fo r g iv e you t h i s tim e ." "But, S ir ," s a id th e r ib a ld o . '*what need i s th e r e t o fo r g iv e someone who i s g u i l t l e s s ? C er ta in ly you would do b e tte r t o g iv e me th e se tu r n ip s f o r a l l s u ffe r in g I went through in p u llin g them up, q u ite a g a in st my w i l l , o f co u r se , th e wind b ein g so b e a s t ly stro n g and a l l . " " lh a t 's f in e by me," s a id th e owner o f th e garden, " sin ce you have defended y o u r s e lf so w e ll w ith your amusing l i e s , ta k e th e tu r n ip s and g et on your way. Don't l e t i t happen a g a in , though, or y o u ' ll pay fo r i t . " C ifa r en joyed a good supper o f tu r n ip s , but th e r ib a ld o d ecid ed th a t th e fe a r w hich he s u ffe r e d in th e adventure was to o h ig h a p r ic e t o pay fo r th e b e n e f it s o f a r t i s t i c ly in g and th a t in th e fu tu r e he would alw ays p r e fe r "un d in ero que s e r a r te r o ." C ifar i s an i d e a l i s t i c work, a c h iv a lr e sq u e work and was in s p ir e d t o a c o n sid e r a b le e x te n t by A rthurian l it e r a t u r e . As has been shown i t c o n ta in s many popular 104 and r e a l i s t i c e le m e n ts. Furtherm ore, i t i s n o t a t y p ic a l romance o f c h iv a lr y in th a t i t does n o t p rovid e a m odel fo r k n ig h tly conduct in c o u r t, in th e f i e l d , and in m ila d y 's chamber, but r a th e r a model o f v ig o r o u s p ie t y w hich m ight s e r v e a b urger o r a farm er a s w e l l . C ifa r i s not ev en a k n ig h t er ra n t by c h o ic e . He i s a n o b le and p iou s vagabond and he m ight n ev er h ave b een more w ith o u t th e prodding o f th e e n t e r p r is in g r ib a ld o . Roboan i s a k n igh t er ra n t but he does n ot e x e m p lify any o f th e t r a i t s w ith vdiich th e e a r l i e r romances endowed su ch h ero e s a s Gawain, L a n ce lo t, T r is ta n , o r Jau fr6; a b s o lu te lo y a lt y , l i f e - l o n g f i d e l i t y , t o t a l d e d ic a tio n , d eterm in ed s e n s e o f duty, and s o fo r th . Roboan i s j u s t a r ic h , p erso n a b le young man who has i n t e r e s t in g a d v e n tu r e s. C ifa r i s not a v u lg a r o r p op u lar work l i k e some o f th e s ix te e n th -c e n tu r y lib r o s de c a b a lle r l a s . nor i s i t a r i s t o c r a t i c in th e way o f some o f th e French and Eroven9 a l rom ances. I t h a s a p r a c t ic a l d id a c tic to n e su ch a s i s found in contem porary works in o th e r g e n r e s, f o r exam ple, in some o f th e w r it in g s o f Ramon L lu ll o r Don Juan M anuel. A llu s io n s t o th e Lalls o f M arie de F rance, and th e s im i l a r i t y o f a number o f e p is o d e s t o o th e r M atiere de 105 B retagne, In d ic a te th a t th e author was fa m ilia r w ith French ch iv a lr esq u e lit e r a t u r e . N ev e r th e less, he chose t o combine p iou s, popular, c l a s s i c a l , and t r a d it io n a l elem en ts w ith th e c h iv a lr e sq u e m a te r ia l t o produce a hybrid work. It would seem th a t h e hoped t o reach a p u b lic which in clu d ed burghers, c le r k s , and th e le s s r e fin e d o f th e m ilita r y n o b ilit y : th e p u b lic which was not im pressed by th e French romances. Compared t o th e Spanish t r a n s la t io n o f a French romance, C aballero d e l C isn e. w hich r e ta in s a l l th e un r e a l i s t i c elem en ts and rom antic charm o f th e o r ig in a l, C aballero C ifa r. w r itte n in Spain a t alm ost th e same tim e, i s r e a l i s t i c and p ed estria n . The many d iv e r tin g e p iso d e s, popular r e fr a in s , and amusing s it u a tio n s w hich a re con ta in e d in C ifa r . a re so d ilu te d w ith p ious and p r a c tic a l in s tr u c tio n th a t fo r th e modem reader th e n o v e l i s not com parable a s entertainm ent t o C aballero d e l C isne or to th e French p rose romances w hich a r e known t o have been c ir c u la t in g in Spain around 1313. The evid en ce th a t i t was w e ll known and th e fa c t th a t i t has su rv iv ed su ggest th a t i t su ite d th e t a s t e o f a c o n sid e r a b le p u b lic over th e y ea rs. I f t h i s i s so, C ifa r i s ev id en ce o f a movement 106 away from th e French romances o f c h iv a lr y toward a r e a l i s t i c , n a tiv e ch iv a lresq u e lit e r a t u r e . CHAPTER IV CURIAL E GOELFA Curia 1 e G tlelfa. w r it t e n by an unknown au th or around 1440, I s a h y b rid t r a n s i t i o n a l n o v e l composed o f elem en ts from many m ed ieval so u r c e s w ith c o n sid e r a b le m a te r ia l from I t a l i a n R en aissan ce so u r c e s. Works o f Dante a re c i t e d f iv e tim e s , B o cca ccio * s G uiscard i Guismonda i s c i t e d s e v e r a l tim e s , and works o f o th e r s a re m en tion ed . 1 R en a issa n ce, as used in t h i s paper, r e f e r s t o th e p er io d betw een 1300 and 1600 In I t a l y as d e sc r ib e d by Jacob Burckhardt in The C iv ili z a t io n o f th e R en aissan ce in I t a l y . B ecause o f th e p a r t ic ip a t io n o f A ragonese and C atalans in I t a l i a n a f f a i r s d u rin g t h is p e r io d , th e r e was o p p o r tu n ity fo r I t a l i a n s c h o la r s and p o e ts t o im press and in flu e n c e them . A lfo n so th e Great o f Aragon was c o n sid e r e d a most gen erou s and e n t h u s ia s t ic p a tro n o f th e h um anists in I t a l y . During th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y , th e en th u sia sm fo r a n t i q u i t i e s , r h e t o r ic , in d iv id u a lis m , and o b j e c t iv e ob s e r v a t io n s on n a tu re and s o c i e t y , w hich i s c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f th e R en aissan ce i n I t a ly , som etim es appears in C atalan l i t e r a t u r e . The I t a l i a n in flu e n c e i s so e v id e n t In C u ria l e G tielfa th a t some lit e r a r y h is t o r ia n s have argued th a t th e a u th o r m ight h ave been I t a l i a n . A nother e x p la n a tio n i s th a t C atalans and Aragonese who liv e d or tr a v e le d in I t a l y may have sh a re d th e R en a issa n ce w ith th e I t a l i a n s . 107 108' M a te r ia l has a ls o been adapted from c l a s s i c a l and p seu do- c l a s s i c a l w r it e r s . The in flu e n c e o f French lit e r a t u r e o f c h iv a lr y i s not a s ob viou s a s th e in flu e n c e o f li t e r a t u r e w hich i s quoted o r m entioned, such as th e works o f Dante, Guido d e lle C olonne, and S a in t G regory, but t h e ir in flu e n c e i s e v id e n t by a ll u s i o n . Anfos Rar o b serv ed : . . . la in f lu e n c ia fra n cesa e s preponderante; lo veyem perfetam en t e n te r a t de t o t a la lit e r a t u r e fr a n c e sa c a v a lle r e s c a de son tem ps; la m ajor p art de l ' a c c i 6 de desnua a Fran9 a (Melu, B a ris, e t c . ) , q u a si t o t s lo s p erso n a tg es secu n d a ria (S a n g lie r , Lemengre, B ociq u an t, Bon Banser, Duch d 'O lea n s, Comte de P o y tie r s , e t c . ) , quant no son a ragon esos p ertan yen a d ita n a c i6 , y no s ' e s t a pas d 'a d u h ir c i t e s en fr a n e e s .^ The p lo t o f C u ria l i s a lo v e s t o r y w hich in c o r p o r a t e s them es from I t a lia n n o v e1 l e and i s d evelop ed e s s e n t i a l l y a s f o llo w s : A b e a u t if u l m ale c h ild i s born t o a poor but h o n o ra b le gentlem an and h is w if e when th e y a re advanced in age and o th e r w ise c h i l d l e s s . They name th e c h ild C u r ia l. When th e o ld gentlem an d ie s , C u r ia l begs th e Mar q u is o f M ontferrat t o ta k e him in t o h is h o u seh o ld . He soon ^Anfos Bar, “C u ria l e G U elfa." N otes lin g u is t iq u e s v d * e s t i l ( B ib lio t e c a L in g u is t ic s de l ’ O fic in a R om anics) (B a rcelo n a : Balm es, 1928), p . 66. - - ^ becomes th e Marquis' personal v a le t because o£ h is ex tr a ordinary good looks and g e n tle manner. The Marquis m arries one day and becomes so in volved w ith h is w ife th at he no longer u t i l i z e s C urial. The v a le t , l e f t to h im self, devotes h is tim e to stud y. H e soon m asters grammar, lo g ic , r h e to r ic , and philosophy and i s g e n e r a lly admired as a fin e poet and a knowledgeable young man. The widowed s i s t e r o f th e Marquis, GUelfa, Duchess o f Milan, comes to liv e w ith her brother at M ontferrat. She is im pressed by C urial and arranges s e c r e tly to sponsor and guide him so th at he can win r e c o g n itio n in th e w orld. With u n lim ited funds at h is d isp o sa l, C urial en hances h is n a tu ra l beauty and grace w ith th e most eleg a n t fin e r y : ric h c lo th in g , jew elry , th e b est h o rses, and r ic h ly liv e r ie d se rv a n ts. H e a ls o becomes more accom plished day by day as a fen cer, horseman, jo u ste r , dancer, sin g e r , m usician, and troubadour. One day Gtlelfa r e v e a ls t o C urial that she i s in love w ith him. She ex p la in s th a t she does not in ten d to become h is m istr e s s, but because w ealth w ithout lo v e w i l l not r a is e a poor man to high degree overnight she hopes th a t th e knowledge th a t she lo v es him w i l l in sp ir e him 110 to prove h is worth and r a is e h im s e lf in th e w orld more e n e r g e t ic a lly . C u ria l d e c la r e s th a t ho i s h im s e lf com p le t e ly In lo v e w ith G U elfa. She reminds him th a t i f he ev er r e v e a ls t h e ir r e la t io n t o anyone, h is funding w i l l be stopped a t once. Two o ld gentlem en in G U elfa's r e tin u e su sp ect th a t C u rial i s en jo y in g ex tr a o r d in a ry fa v o r w ith t h e ir lad y and are e n v io u s. They denounce th e cou p le to th e Marquis who l e t s th e in c id e n t pass w ith a w arning to C u r ia l. At t h is tim e GUelfa en cou rages C u ria l t o go to Hungary t o defend th e honor o f th e Duchess o f A u stria who has been accused o f a d u lte r y and w i l l be burned a t th e sta k e i f a champion does not come to save h e r . He i s n o ta b ly s u c c e s s f u l, though he i s n e a r ly seduced in to marry in g th e d u ch ess1 lo v e ly younger s i s t e r , L aquesis, whose dowry would in clu d e th e Duchy o f Bavaria and enormous w e a lth . C u ria l re tu rn s t o M ontferrat and w ins r e c o g n itio n in a b a t t l e where h e i s on th e s id e o f a group o f C atalan k n ig h ts. GUelfa d ecid e s to send him out in t o th e w orld as a k nigh t erra n t to make a name fo r h im s e lf a t arm s. So th a t he w i l l n ot be tem pted a g a in by la q u e s is , sh e has one o f her dam sels accompany him. I l l C urial has many ad ven tu res and w ins sp e c ta c u la r v i c t o r i e s over many form idab le a d v e r s a r ie s . One day Lady Luck tu rn s a g a in st him. The je a lo u s o ld gentlem en su cceed in d is c r e d it in g him w ith GUelfa who makes a vow to th e V irg in Mary th a t sh e w i l l n ever fo r g iv e him u n t il a t th e Court o f N ostra Dona d e l R iig th e King and Queen o f France ask her to pardon him and a l l th e lo v e r s who are th e r e beg mercy fo r him a t th e same moment. C u rial fin d s h im s e lf in d is fa v o r everyw here, so he s e l l s h is je w e ls and embarks f o r th e Holy Land. On th e retu rn voyage, he i s shipw recked on th e Barbary c o a s t, cap tu red , and s o ld as a s la v e . A fte r many t r i a l s which in clu d e stren u ou s e f f o r t s t o remain f a i t h f u l to G U elfa, he re tu rn s t o Europe. Fortune tu r n s in h is fa v o r and h e p a sses from trium ph t o trium ph w inning b a t t le s a g a in st th e Turks in th e f i e l d and p r iz e s in tournam ents a t th e f in e s t co u rts o f th e day. He e v e n tu a lly becomes th e Prince o f Orange. A fte r a tournament a t th e Court o f N ostra Dona d e l R iig, th e King and Queen ask GUelfa t o fo r g iv e C u rial who has won th e p r iz e o f th e tournam ent. C u ria l th en r e c i t e s a poem composed by him w hich makes a l l th e lo v e r s p resen t 112 sh ou t, "Mercy!" Soon a f t e r , C urial and GUelfa are m arried in E hris, t o th e g rea t r e l i e f o f a l l t h e ir fr ie n d s . When Anfos Ehr commented th a t i t was obvious th a t th e author o f C urial was p e r fe c tly fa m ilia r w ith a l l th e French ch iv a lresq u e lit e r a t u r e o f h is tim e, he was th in k in g o f th e fo u r te en th - and fifte e n th -c e n tu r y ch iv a lresq u e c h r o n ic le s as w e ll a s th e tw e lfth - and th ir te e n th -c e n tu r y romans and prose romances, because th e re a re as many a l l u sio n s to r e a l French k n ig h ts o f th e day as th e re are to f ic t i o n a l ones o f a n tiq u ity . The lo v e s to r y u n fold s in th e environment o f fifte e n th -c e n tu r y k n igh ts and la d ie s and i s , th e r e fo r e , a r e a l i s t i c ch iv a lresq u e n o v e l. To a p p r ecia te th e r e a lism in t h is work o f f i c t i o n , i t i s im portant to understand th a t th e e a r ly French c h iv a l resque lit e r a t u r e , th e romans and prose romances, had a pow erful in flu e n c e on th e c h iv a lr y o f th e f if t e e n t h cen tu r y . Most o f th e French romances o f c h iv a lr y were tr a n s la te d in to C a s tilia n and Portuguese during th e fo u rte en th cen tu ry and in to C atalan at th e end o f th e fo u rteen th and beginning o f th e f if t e e n t h . They were a v a ila b le on th e Spanish p en in su la in th e o r ig in a l French v e r s io n alm ost 113 as so o n a s th e y w ere w r it t e n and from th e t h ir t e e n t h to th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y th e k n ig h ts o f th e Ib e r ia n Eteninsula became s te e p e d in t h i s l i t e r a t u r e . The c o n v e r s a tio n , c o r resp on d en ce, and p o etry o f th e m ilit a r y n o b i l i t y o f th e p erio d w ere sa tu r a te d w ith a llu s io n s t o c h iv a lr e s q u e lit e r a t u r e o f French o r ig in or in s p ir a t io n . The e a r ly c h r o n ic le s c o n ta in e d a llu s io n s t o c h iv a l resq u e f i c t i o n and o f t e n in c lu d ed e p is o d e s from f i c t i o n w ith h i s t o r i c a l d a ta . For exam ple, th e Gran c o n q u ista de U ltram ar, o s t e n s ib ly a h is t o r y o f th e c r u sa d e s, in c lu d e d th e romance^ El C a b a ller o d e l C isn e . In th e c h r o n ic le s o f th e secon d h a l f o f th e fo u r te e n th cen tu ry th e r e a re e p i so d es from h is t o r y w hich resem b le t a l e s o f c h iv a lr y . For exam ple, Muntaner d e sc r ib e d King Ifeter o f A ragon's adven tu r e s when he s e t o u t t o f ig h t C h arles o f Angou in s in g le combat a t Bordeau. E v id e n tly th a t g e s tu r e seem ed a s rem arkable t o th e c h r o n ic le r a s th e K ing's cam paign in S i c i l y . For th e k n ig h ts who read c h r o n ic le s , th e e x p lo it s o f in d iv id u a ls p rob ab ly w ere more s i g n i f i c a n t and more e x c it in g th an th e r e s u l t s o f cam paigns w hich o f t e n had l i t t l e e f f e c t on th e p r o f e s s io n a l s o l d i e r . T h e ir im agin a t io n s c o n d itio n e d by l i t e r a t u r e , t h e y dreamed o f perform ing 1X4 brave deeds and admired oth er men who succeeded In perform ing f e a t s which seemed t o resem ble a c ts o f In d iv id u a l v a lo r by legen dary and f i c t i o n a l h ero es. Some o f th e c h r o n ic le r s, lik e Muntaner, C a r r illo de Huete, and Diez de Games, were a ls o k n ig h ts, and perhaps in te r p r e te d th e fe a t s o f con tem poraries in term s o f th e French romances. D£ez de Games in clu d ed ch iv a lr e sq u e anecdotes and legends between s t r i c t l y h is t o r ic a l e p iso d e s, w hich might in d ic a te a ten d ency t o in te r p r e t Bero Nino*s a c ts in t h is way. Most o f th e in flu e n c e ev id e n t in th e c h r o n ic le s , however, was d ir e c t : k nigh ts thought o f th em selves as storybook k nigh ts and c o n sc io u s ly a c te d out ch iv a lr esq u e r o le s . Many o f them had names t o l i v e up t o ; Galaor M osqueira, la n ce lo t de Bardaxl, Iterceval de B e lle fo r ie r e , T r ista n Nino, and Galvany T olsa, fo r exam ple. J o u stin g , tournam ents, and th e pas d*armes a s w e ll as p r o v in c ia l w ars, f r o n tie r con f l i c t s w ith Moors or Turks, and urban or r u r a l r e b e llio n s gave them many o p p o r tu n itie s t o prove t h e ir w orth. M ilit a r ily , h e a v ily armored c h iv a lr y d im inished in im portance throughout th e fo u rte en th cen tu ry as in fa n tr y , a rch ers, and a r t i l l e r y were used more e f f e c t i v e l y . le a d e r sh ip was th e most im portant c o n tr ib u tio n o f th e m ilita r y 115 n o b ilit y during th e s e years and th e rom antic e x e r c is e o f c h iv a lr y , w hich was fo s te r e d by th e romances, a s s is t e d in d evelop in g th e q u a lit ie s which produced v a lia n t and d ed i ca ted ca p ta in s as w e ll a s b old a d ven tu rers. Of co u rse, th e b u sin ess o f war was m ercenary but th e id e a lism o f c h iv a lr y did not v a n ish a lto g e th e r . I f k n igh ts w ere greedy and lech ero u s, a s Henri Firenne su g g e sts, many s t i l l admired th e t r a d it io n a l id e a ls because many examples o f fin e g a lla n tr y and sen se o f honor were recorded in th e c h r o n ic le s o f th e fo u rteen th and f if t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s . It i s tru e th a t th e sim ple m oral codes o f th e L lib re de l t Orde de C a v a lleria and th e id e a ls o f th e French romans d id not adapt e a s i l y t o th e s o c ie t y o f th e p eriod which FLrenne c a l l s th e "European C r isis" when th e w hole s o c ie t y , "from th e depths to th e su rfa ce , was as though in a s t a t e o f ferm en ta tio n . 1,4 The l e g a l i s t i c com p lexity o f procedure and ceremony which accompanied any kind o f c o n te st o f arms during th e p eriod , w hether i t was th e fr ie n d ly breaking o f a la n ce or a bloody d uel t o th e death, in d ic a te s th a t honor H isto ry o f Europe (New York: Doubleday, 1958), I I , 109-111. 4 Ib id . . p. 95. 116 was a commodity in Spain th a t was o fte n s t o le n , b artered , and bestow ed d is h o n e s tly . The expense o f tim e, w ea lth , and manpower a s s o c i a ted w ith an exchange a t arms during th e fo u r te en th and f if t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s seems t o t a l l y absurd to d a y . F ir s t , th e re was form alized correspondence between th e c o n te sta n ts t o e s t a b lis h th e grounds and c o n d itio n s fo r a b a t t l e . This sometimes la s te d y e a r s. Once arranged, th e c o n d itio n s o f th e combat and th e s e le c t io n s o f p la c e , ju d g e, w itn e s s e s , n o ta r ie s , f i e l d guards, secon ds, e t c . were made p u b lic . There were o fte n s e v e r a l days o f ela b o r a te ceremony b efo re combat began. The b a t t le was o fte n b r ie f but sometimes th e com batants fought u n t il both c o lla p se d from ex h a u stio n . When th e c o n te st was over, th e r e fo llo w ed more cerem onies w hich in clu d ed th e p u b lic a tio n o f th e ju d g efs v e r d ic t and th e e x e c u tio n o f r e p r is a ls , w hich were som etim es com p li ca ted and cerem onious. E vid en tly th e s e ev en ts and th e fo r m a litie s a s s o c i a ted w ith them were o f co n sid era b le in te r e s t a t th e tim e and drew a la r g e p u b lic from th e whole o f s o c ie t y because both th e c h r o n ic le s and th e f i c t i o n o f th e day d evote con s id e r a b le space t o d e ta ile d accoun ts o f them. From th e 117 d e sc r ip tio n s in th e c h r o n ic le s , th e modern reader can understand how th e s e ev en ts were e n te r ta in in g to a large p o rtio n o f s o c ie t y because th e y were c o lo r f u l and dram atic, but i t i s not as ea sy to accep t th a t th e se b a t t le s were con sid ered t e s t s o f manly v a lo r more amazing and w orthy o f adm iration than th e great combats o f a n cien t tim e s. The author o f C u rial. a f te r d esc rib in g th e g rea t f e a t s o f c h iv a lr y performed by A lexander, Caesar, Hannibal, Pyrrhus, S cip io , Jason, H ector, and A c h ille s , remarked: Bnperb no he l e g i t , sab u t, ne o y t, que e l l en algun d e ls desus d i t s , en tra s en lli ^ a o camp c lo s ( le s cirim o n ies d e l qual s 6 n esp a v en ta b les e tem edores), ab algun c a v a lie r semblant d * e ll m ateix, ab eg u a ls armes, a x i o fe n s iv e s com d e fe n siv e s e que, e n tr a t, d ' a l l l e x ir no pogu^s s in 6 mort o ven cedor. Ifens yo ara que aq u ests nomenats, e encara m olts a lt r e s d * a q u ell tem ps, q u i nomenar se p orien , v e n in t a e l l s lo cas que sens l l i 9 a fin a r n o .s pogu£s, lo que hagueren accep t a t . During th e th ir te e n th and fo u r te en th c e n tu r ie s some fa m ilie s enjoyed tr a c in g t h e ir lin e a g e back to a n cien t h ero e s. The h lv ro s de lin h a g en s and N o b iliA rio s o f th e day appear to have been w r itte n t o f a c i l i t a t e t h is pastim e in some c a s e s. The la rg e amounts o f h e r a ld ic d e t a il, th e C urial e GUelfa. 3 v o l s . (E ls N ostres C la s s ic s ) (B arcelona: B arcino, 1930-1933), I I I , 14-15. 118 lon g d e s c r ip tio n s o f pagean try, th e len g th y l i s t s o f s p e c t a t o r s and a c to r s w hich a re found in both h i s t o r i c a l and f i c t i o n a l acco u n ts o f th e d if f e r e n t c o n te s ts o f arms in th e f if t e e n t h cen tu ry , may have been in clu d ed t o p le a s e rea d ers who sought t o r e la t e th em selv es to p a r tic ip a n ts in th e s e h is t o r i c a l and f i c t i o n a l e v e n ts . The c h r o n ic le s a ls o show th a t th e tech n iq u es o f th e tournament or pas d*armes were becoming le s s r e la t e d t o th e a r t o f w ar. The h ero es o f a tta c k s on c a s t l e s , s h ip s , and towns d id not wear th e co m p lica ted armor worn a t s p o r t in g e v e n ts . In accou n ts o f war, th e c a v a lr y i s s t i l l a m easure o f s tr e n g th in th e f i e l d but many sp e c ta c u la r f e a t s by groups o f men on fo o t a re reco rd ed . Iteter th e Cruel o f C a s tile i s d escrib ed w ith ad m iration a s an e x c e lle n t c r o s s bowman p ick in g d efen d ers o f f th e ram parts o f a c a s t le w h ile g h is a id e load s h is f a v o r it e bows. In e a r ly c h iv a lr e sq u e lit e r a t u r e p r o j e c t ile s a re u n k n ig h tly weapons u sed by D£ez de Games, E l V ic t o r ia l. ed . J. de Mata C arriazo (C o le c c i6 n de C ronicas E sp an oles, I ) (Madrid: E spasa-C alpe, 1940), p. 5 7. M E1 re y don Bedro hera rauy puntero de v a l l e s t a , e tir a b a a l t in o de la p a la b ra , e de a l i i f e r i a a muchos. Hera a l i i con S i Juan N ino, padre de Itero Nino, que l e armava muy r e c ia s v a l l e s t a s , que hera su d o n z e l." 119 i n f i d e l s or common fo lk , f o r exam ple, Gormont in Gormont e t Isem bart and th e serg en t in Jaufr£ a tta c k w ith j a v e lin s . These a re not among th e sym bolic weapons o f th e k n igh t as 7 d esc rib ed in codes o f c h iv a lr y . The t r a d it io n a l weapons, i t seem s, are becoming gen tlem a n 's weapons fo r use in gen tlem an ly c o n t e s t s . To earn th e r e s p e c t o f h is fo llo w e r s , a m ilit a r y man needs t o dem onstrate s k i l l w ith th e p r a c t i c a l weapons o f war a s w e ll a s w ith la n c e and sword. Though weapons o f war a re le s s c h iv a lr e sq u e , th e concept o f honor c o n tin u e s t o e x i s t t o a c o n sid e r a b le e x te n t among gentlem en in th e f i e l d as w e ll as in th e l i s t s . A gentlem an p riso n er i s o fte n r e le a s e d on h is word th a t he w i l l pay h is ransom or r e tu rn to c a p t iv it y a f t e r a s e t tim e . The id e a l o f k n ig h tly v a lo r a l s o remains im portant t o men in d o c tr in a te d by French romans and romances o f c h iv a lr y . The K nights o f th e Round Table a re regarded by many f ift e e n t h -c e n tu r y k n ig h ts as exam ples o f b ra v ery , d arin g, and endurance a l though m ilit a r y tech n o lo g y h a s changed and th e deeds o f th e o ld h eroes o f f i c t i o n a re n o t com parable in a p h y s ic a l 7 A t r a n s la t io n o f Ramon L l u ll 's ch a p ter on th e meaning o f each p ie c e o f a k n ig h t's equipm ent i s co n ta in ed in Appendix C. 120 s e n s e . FernSo Lopes reco rd ed a sc e n e In th e Cr6 n ic a de Pom Joao X which i l l u s t r a t e s how k n ig h ts compared them s e lv e s t o lit e r a r y p e r s o n a li t ie s . The King was heard grum bling in h is te n t b eca u se some o f h is k n ig h ts had r e fu sed t o a tta c k th e w a lls o f th e town o f C oira w h ich he was tr y in g t o ta k e . He was heard t o remark w ith j o v i a l iro n y : Grfio mimguoa n os f lz e r a o o j e s t e d ia aquy os c a v a le ir o s da T avola Redomda, ca ^ertam ente s e e l l e s aquy fo r a o nos tomaramos e s t e lo g a r . To w hich M S R oiz de Vas^oracelos co u ld n ot r e s i s t r e p ly in g : Senhor, nao f iz e r a o aquy mimgoa os c a v a le ir o s da T avola Redomda, ca quy e s t a Martim Vasqu&z da Cunha que he tam bo como do G alaz, e Go^alo Vasques Coutinho que he tam bo como do T r is ta o , e ex aquy Joao F em Sdez Rachequo que he tam bo como lam parote! (E a sy doutros que v i o e s t a r a ^ e r c a .) E exme e u aquy que v a lh o tam to como do Quequa; a s y que na8 f iz e r S aquy mimgoa e s e s c a v a le ir o s que v o s d i z e i s . Mas fa z nos a nos aquy grao mimguoa o boo Rey A rtur, sen h o r d e le s , que con - hegiia os boos s e r v id o r e s , fazem do lh e s m u itas m erses, per que a v ia o d e s e jo de o bem s e r v ir ! And th e King s e e in g th a t he had been ta k e n s e r i o u sly answ ered: Nem eu e s e nao t ir a v a a fo r a , ca a s y era com panheiro da T avola Redomda, como cada huu dos o u tr o s.® ®Fernao Lopes, Cr6 n ic a de Pom Joao I. e d . Lopes de Alm eida e t a l . ( B ib lio t e c a H is tb r ic a ) (P o rto : C iv iliz a ^ a o , 1 9 4 9 ), I I , 1 8 7 -1 8 8 . 121 FornSo Lopes l e f t a n o th er exam ple o f a l i f e - l i t e r a tu r e com parison when he reco rd ed how Martim Vasquez da Cunha and s e v e n te e n o th e r s r e s i s t e d o v er fo u r hundred C a s t ilia n s fo r perhaps an hour. When h e lp came, th e Cas t i l i a n s w ithd rew . As th e y d ep arted th e y w ere heard t o sa y : Doje m ais naom compre q ue s e lea&o as p ro eza s de T r is ta S e la n p a r o te , mas falem os no e s f o r s o de Martim Vasquez da Cunha, que com d e z a s e te homes darmas se defem deo a q u a tro cem tas lampas que eram os, per taraanho e s p a fo , en tam fraquo l u g u a r . 9 The c h r o n ic le s o f th e fo u r te e n th and f i f t e e n t h ce n t u r ie s c o n ta in e d a cc o u n ts o f c h iv a lr e s q u e c o n t e s t s a s w e ll as a cc o u n ts o f b a t t l e s and o th e r o ccu rre n ces d u rin g th e r e ig n o f a monarch and e p is o d e s from th e s e som etim es i n sp ir e d e p iso d e s in f i c t i o n . During th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y , p e r s o n a liz e d c h r o n ic le s , w hich reco rd ed th e e v e n ts in one m an's l i f e , w ere w r it t e n in a d d itio n t o t h e g e n e r a l ch ron i c l e s . Some o f t h e s e , l i k e th e Cr6 n ic a de Don Bsro Kino or V ic t o r i a l. a r e h i s t o r i c a l a cco u n ts o f r e a l - l i f e k n ig h ts e r r a n t. At t h e same tim e , some w r it e r s o f f i c t i o n produced im agin ary c h r o n ic le s w hich so resem b le t h e h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n ts th a t th e rea d er must be w e ll inform ed about t h e ^Ibid. . p. 242. 122 h is to r y o f th e tiroa and p lace to d o to ct which i s f ic t io n and which i s h is to r y . A w r ite r o f f i c t i o n can hove de sc rib ed an event which he h im se lf w itn essed and converted t o f i c t io n by rearranging th e names, p la c e s, or d a te s . The samo event may a ls o bo Included in an h is t o r ic a l account. Both accounts cou ld bo m istaken fo r f i c t i o n or both might be accepted as f a c t . In a d isc u ssio n o f t h is phenomenon, M artin do Riquer w rote: Lo que en re a lid a d ocurre e s quo la n ovela Caba lle r o s ca--Jehan^jde^Soj^tj^ Jehan de R arls. C urial. 'fir a n t—r e f le j a una a u t6 n tic a r e a lid a d s o c ia l, s in d ls fig u r a r la n i ex a g era rla , y quo la s c r 6 n ic a s par t i c u l a r s d e l s ig l o XV— lib r o s de B ou cicot, de Ia la in g , El v i c t o r i a l —narran lo s hechos h i s t 6 r ic o s que lle v a r o n a tdrmino c a b a lle r o s que luego fueron modelos v iv o s para n o v e lis t a s . Fbro e s to s c a b a lle r o s r e a le s e h i s t 6 r ic o s estab an , a su v e z , in to x ica d o s de lite r a tu r a y actuaban de acuerdo con lo que liablan le id o en lo s lib r o s de c a b a lle r la s . The environm ental re a lism in C urial e GHelfa l i e s in th e accuracy w ith which th e author d escrib ed th e c h iv a l- resque l i f e o f h is own tim e, although he placed th e ev en ts 11 in th e previous cen tu ry . He e v id e n tly hoped t o in crea se ■^Martin de Riquer, C aballeros andantes esp afioles (A u stra l, 1397) (Madrid: Espasa-C alpe, 1967), p. 12. 11 A p r in c ip a l p e r s o n a lity in Book I I o f C u rial i s Iteter th e Great o f Aragon (1 2 7 6 -1 2 8 5 ). Other ch a r a c te r s, however, are contemporary such as Johan Le Meingre who d ied in 1421. 123 th e v e r is im ilitu d e o f th e n a rra tio n by providing a fa m ilia r environment fo r th e reader o f h is day. To a modem reader such an environm ent may seem as f a n t a s t ic as th a t o f a m isty isla n d in an e a r lie r romance or in a la te r lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s . but i t was an accu ra te d e sc r ip tio n o f one s e c to r o f th e s o c ie t y in th e a u th o r's tim e . Some p o rtio n s o f C urial which were e x tr a c te d from v a rio u s c h r o n ic le s can be id e n t if ie d w ith co n fid en ce. There are a ls o many d e s c r ip t i v e p a ssa g es, c l o s e ly resem bling m a te r ia l in c h r o n ic le s , which may be fir s t-h a n d d e s c r ip tio n s , th e resem blances b ein g c o in c id e n ta l. There i s a s im ila r it y in th e co n ten t o f C urial and some o f th e c h r o n ic le s w hich su g g e sts th a t one may have serv ed as a model or perhaps as an o u tlin e fo r th e n o v el; th e V ic to r ia l. fo r exam ple. Juan de Mata C arriazo d efin ed th e su b stan ce o f th e Cr6 n ica de Itero Nino as a d o ctrin e o f c h iv a lr y , a book o f exam ples from th e liv e s o f great k n ig h ts, and a l i f e o f Itero Nifio. 1 2 The author o f C u rial in clu d ed d o c tr in e , exam ples, and adventures but he a ls o composed a complex and con tiguou s p lo t w hich in no way 12D£ez Gamest El V ic t o r ia l. p. x ix . 124 resem bles a c h r o n ic le o f c h iv a lr y . The author o f C urial did not attem pt to w r ite a f i c t i o n a l c h r o n ic le ; h is purpose was t o w r ite a r e a l i s t i c modern n avel fo r th e reader o f h is day. There are a llu s io n s and re fe re n c es to c h r o n ic le s in C u rial but many o f th e s i m ila r it ie s e x is t because th e n o v e lis t , lik e th e c h r o n ic le r s , was d e sc rib in g th e s o c ie t y in which he liv e d . His p resen ta tio n o f fifte e n th -c e n tu r y c h iv a lr y i s g e n e r a lly more a r t i s t i c than th a t o f th e chron i c l e r s . The n a rra tiv e s t y le i s alw ays c le a r , smooth flo w ing, and p leasan t w h ile th e c h iv a lr o u s ev en ts d escrib ed in th e f i c t i o n seem l e s s extraord in ary than in many h i s t o r i c a l acco u n ts. D esc rip tio n s o f tournam ents and d u els a re e s s e n t i a l l y th e same in C urial as in a c h r o n ic le such as th e V ic to r ia l excep t th a t th e n o v e lis t expands and prolongs th e a c tio n t o b u ild su sp en se. Combat scen es co n ta in c o n sid e r a b ly more r e a l i s t i c d e t a il in th e f ic t io n than in th e c h r o n ic le . The im agin ative d e ta ilin g o f th e fig h tin g in C urial su g g ests th a t th e author had observed a number o f such b a t t le s w ith in te r e s t and was h im se lf tr a in e d in th e p r a c tic e o f arms. A com parison o f th e b a t t le between C urial and a knight known as th e s a n g lie r w ith fragm ents from c h r o n ic le s 125 w i l l h e lp t o i l l u s t r a t e how th e au th or o f th e f i c t i o n n o v e liz e d th e c h iv a lr e sq u e r e a l i t y o f h is day. C u rial and fche s a n e li e r b e g in h o s t i l i t i e s w ith an exchange o f c o r r e spondence through th e o f f i c e s o f h e r a ld s , and th e d e t a i l s o f th e b a t t l e a r e arranged a s f o llo w s : R assat a q u e ll j o m , t a n t o s t lo S a n g lie r , per un h a ra u t, tram es a C u ria l una l e t r a , per la q u a l l i d e v isa v a l e s armes en a q u e sta form a: prim eram ent, que c a s c 6 s e poqu^s armar a sa v o lu n ta t e p la e r , ab a m e s comu de g u erra , e que no p ogu essen dur ra h o r s, pun- 9 0 n s, c o n ju r s, pedres ne a l t r e s c o s e s , e que h a g u essen h a tx e s , sp a se s e dagues e g u a ls , s i g n i f i c a n t - l i la lo n g u esa de cada una d ’a q u e s te s arm es. A xl m a teix l i tram es la le t r a d e l r e y , per la q u a l lo s manava que fo s s e n en R arls lo d ia de sa n t J o r d i. p r e s ts per e n tr a r en la 1 1 9 a e f e r la b a t a lla .1 3 The fo llo w in g i s p art o f a l e t t e r from Johan and Itere Fabre sig n e d in L isbon on th e s i x t h o f September o f 1434 and se n t t o Suero de Quinones and Lope de E stA niga. Requerim v o s a lt r e s a t o t a n o s tr a r e q u e s ts , n o s tr e s p erso n es co n tra l e s v o s t r e s , corabatre*us a u ltr a n 9 a , peu a t e r r a , ab a tx a , sp a sa e daga d funa e g u a lt a t , e l e s armes d e f f e n s iv e s c a sc u a sa v o lu n t a t , sen s nengun m al e n g in i, h o f f e r in t - v o s p er j u t g e lo com te de V iana, a lm ira n t de B o rto g a l, guovernador de C epta, lo q u a l per E brtogal, r e y d*arm es, n os As c e r t i f i c a t que*ns te n r a la p la 9 a s e g u r a .^ 13 C u ria l e G U elfa. e d . E ls N o stres C la s s ic s , XI, 192. 14 * M artin de R iquer, C a b a llero s a n d a n te s, p. 89. 126 The r e a l and th e f i c t i o n a l correspondence are n ea rly id e n t ic a l. The d u el having been arranged, th e n o v e lis t de s c r ib e s th e e f f o r t s o f I a q u e sis, who i s in lo v e w ith C urial, t o have th e King fo r b id th e d u el and th e e f f o r t s of C urial*s enem ies t o have th e d u el made more dangerous fo r him. He adds a chapter t e l l i n g how C urial*s second has h im s e lf s e le c te d by th e King o f Aragon. Another chap t e r t e l l s how G tielfa, in I t a ly , hears o f th e b a t t le and sends p resen ts and encouragem ent, j u s t as Jean n ette de B ellen gu es sen t p resen ts and b est w ish es t o her lo v e r , Jtero Nino, when he was preparing fo r a b a t t le in th e l i s t s a t f e r i s . ^ The day b efo re th e b a t t le , th e combatants present t h e ir arms t o th e King fo r in s p e c tio n , a procedure o fte n recorded in d e t a il in th e c h r o n ic le s . For exam ple, when Joao de Merlo fought w ith P ierre de Beauffremont a t Arras ■^Diez de Games, El V ic t o r ia l. pp. 244-245. "Estonze l e e n v i6 madama de X irafontayna vn c a v a llo e vn yelmo, con vn su p a r ie n te , e vna c a r ta en que le enviava mucho a r e q u er ir e a rogar por su amor que s i non a b la aun tornado cargo de aq uel campo, que lo non tom ase, e que le fa r ia grand p la z e r . Hero que s i a l i i yva mucho su honrra, e non podia A l s e r que le d ix e se la s co sa s que le fa z ia n m enester e t c . ” 127 in August o f 1435, th e frie n d s o f th e l a t t e r p ro tested to the King because Merlo p resen ted a falcon -b eak axe in ste a d o f a reg u la r str a ig h t-b la d e d a x e . ^ The fo llo w in g day C urial and th e s a n g lie r e n te r th e l i s t s fo llo w e d by g lo r io u s r e tin u e s , but th e author does not ela b o r a te upon th e pageantry. He w r ite s on ly : Los duchs e grans se n y o rs, ca sc6 *s t r e b a lla en fa v o r ir lo s se u s, e ab la major pompa e ufana que pogueren lo s menaren a la p la fa . ' The c h r o n ic le r o f John I I o f C a s tile d escrib ed th e entrance o f Suero de Quinones in to th e l i s t s in d e t a il as fo llo w s : Suero de Quinones s a l i 6 en un c a v a llo fu e r te , con paramentos a z u le s bordados de la d ev isa e f ie r r o de su famosa empresa, y encima de cada d ev isa esta v a n bordadas unas le tr a s que d ezla n : I I fa u t d e liv e r e r . Y £ l lle v a v a v e s tid o un fa ls o p e to de a zey tu n i v e llu d v e llo ta d o a z u l. Sus c a l 9 as eran de grana, it a lia n a s , y una caperuca a I ta de gran, con esp u ela s de ro d ete it a lia n a s , r ic a s doradas, en la mano una espada de armas desnuda dorada. Llevava en e l bra$o derecho, cerca de lo s m o r z illo s , su erapresa de oro, ricam ente obrada, ta n ancha cotno dos dedos, con le tr a s a z u le s a lred ed o r, que d ezlan : S i a vous ne p la is t de ouyr me sure, c e r te s , j e dy que j e suy sans v e n tu r e . 1 fi M artin de Riquer, C ab alleros andantes, p. 114. “ ^ C urial e G tlelfa. ed . E ls N ostres C la s s ic s , II, 224. 128 Y t e n ia tam bidn unos b o l l o n c i l l o s redondos a l d erred o r de la mesma em presa. L levava su arnbs de p ie r n a s y bra9 a le s con muy ferm osa c o n tin e n c ia . His numerous r e tin u e w ere a l s o d e sc r ib e d in d e ta il* C u ria l c o n t in u e s : Lo r e y , donant p r i c i p i a l e s c ir im o n ie s que*s acostum en f e r en t a l e s jo m a d e s , tram es tr a c ta d o r s de co n co r d ia e pau; mas l o S a n g lie r , a l q u a l primerament an aren , spumh e d ix que n * ls p od ia donar pau, s i n 6 la m ort. E, fin a lm e n t, lo s uns ne lo s a lt r e s no h a v ien d e s ig s i n 6 de menar l e s mans; p er qub to m a r e n a l rey ab la r e s p o s ta . T a n to st lo r e y lo s fbu pendre ju r a - m ent, so b re la c r eu e lo s E v a n g e lis, que no t e n ie n co n ju rs ne a l t r e s argum ents o a d j u t o r is a lg u n s , s i n 6 solam en t le s armes d estis d i t e s . E m entre en a 9 0 e s ta v e n , un fr a r e menor, l o q u a l d ie n que er a home de m olt sa n ta v id a e de la c a s a r e a l de Fran9 a , com fo s en Angers e oys p a r la r d ’a q u e sta b a t a l l a , co rrech e v en ch a H aris, en a q u e il ca s que ja lo s c a v a lie r s d ev ie n e x i r d e ls t e n d e llo n s p er com- b a tr e ; e , ab co r im p a cien t, a gra n s c r i t s , d ix a l r e y : --E s t i n f e l o que e s 9 0 que f a s ? Her q u e* t c o n s t it u e ix enem ich de Dbu, v e n in t co n tra la su a le y , la q u a l p r o h ib e ix a q u e ste s f o l l i e s ? ■ * ■ * The dram atic in te r v e n t io n o f t h e f r ia r may have been in s p ir e d by th e custom ary but l e s s em phatic in te r v e n t io n o f f r i a r s su ch a s i s d e sc r ib e d in th e C ronica do conde don Rsdro de M aneses. MosS F rancees D esvalhe and Mos£ 1 ft Crbnica de Juan IX. q uoted from M artin de R iquer, C a b a ller o s a n d a n tes, p . 71. C u ria l e G ilelfa . e d . E ls N o str e s C la s s ic s , I I , 2 2 5 -2 2 6 . 129 Joham de Boxadores h avin g a r r iv e d in Ceuta t o do b a t t l e w ith each o th e r, th e c h r o n ic le r w ro te: 0 Conde Ih es fe z m uita honra a g a sa lh a n d o -o s p r i- m eiro muy bem, mandando-os req u er er per c a v a l le i r o s e d e p o is per fr a d e s o n e s to s , que le ix a sse m a q u e lla c o n te n d s, e e s t o per duas v e z e s . ^ O C u r ia l's d u e l w ith th e s a n e lie r i s drawn out t o produce ex citem en t and su sp en se but none o f th e moves or blow s a re in th e l e a s t u n r e a l i s t i c . For exam ple: Lo S an gler t r e b a lla v a ta n t que no ds en d ir , e ab d iv e r s e s m aneres e t e r r i b l e t r e b a l l s e e sfo r ^ a v a , ab in c r e d ib le ard im en t, v e n ir a l dusGs de C u r ia l. Empero lo gran t r e b a l l que menava, e la a sp re sa que tro b a v a en l ’a l t r a p a rt, l i procuraven cansam ent; c a r e l l desmoderadament e ab t o t a la sua f o r 9 a, s e e s f o r 9 ava a f e r i r , e C u r ia l l i empatxava lo s co lp s p a r a n t - li o t o r b a n t - lo en lo s bra9 o s , . . . In a n oth er d u e l, C u r ia l w ins by th e same tech n iq u e w hich Fernando de Guevara u sed t o d e fe a t George Vourapag a t V ienna in 1436. Below i s th e p a ssa g e from th e Cr6 n ic a de Juan I I : Las armas fu ero n de p ie ; e com oquiera que e l cab a- l l e r o alem&n e r a s in com paraci6 n mucho m&s v a l i e n t e Eanes de Zurara, C ronica do conde don Badro de M eneses. quoted from M artin de R iquer, C a b a llero s a n d a n tes. p. 10 7. 2 ^C u ria l e G tlelfa. e d . E ls N o stres C la s s ic s , I I , 2 3 0 . 130 que don Fernando de Guevara, don Fernando s e hubo ta n b ie n e ta n v a lie n te m e n te que lo f i r i 6 de la hacha en ambas a dos la s m anes, en t a l manera q u e * l alem&n se Iba retra y en d o aunque sab iam en te, como c a b a lle r o que sa b la b ie n lo que h a c la . El Duque en e s t o ec h 6 e l b a s t6 n, e s a c 6 lo s de la s l l z a s . ^ A g a in st G u illa lra es d e l C haste11 a t London, C u r ia l a p p lie s h is s k i l l in th e same way as Don Fernando, w hich i s as f o l l o w s : C u ria l, b£ que fo s m olt f o r t s ans f o r t ls s im , ab 3 9 0 ensems h a v ia un s a b e r : que com portava m olt la sua persona e lo se u a l e , e sa b ia conbxer I'a v a n ta g e de la b a t a ll a , e com v ey a la sua no la le x a v a p erd re. L * a Itre, p rod ich e f o i l , ab in c r e d ib le ardim ent d e s - p en ia t o t a la sua f o r 9 a , e com mfis anava, m 6 s s e e s - forqava e ca n sa v a . C u r ia l lo f e r i a per lo s braqos e per le s mans, en ta n t que lo b r e t6 comenpa a flu x a r , e , c o s t r e t per lo cansam ent, torn a q u a tre o c in c h p a sso s a tr& s.2 3 A fte r C u ria l* s v i c t o r y in Hungary, th e Einperor sen d s him e x tr a o r d in a r y g i f t s w hich a re d e sc r ib e d a s f o l low s : Una c o r r e ja g r o ssa d 'o r ab m o lte s p e r le s de compte e m o lte s p ed res p r e c io s e s , la q u a l v a l i a m olt gran preu; un c o l la r d*or ab p e r le s ta n g r o s s e s que per v e n tu r e sem b lan ts no e r e n sta d e s v i s t e s , e m o lts d ia - m antes e r u b in s . 4 59 C ronica de Juan XI. quoted from M artin de R iquer, C a b a llero s a n d a n te s, p. 125. ^ C u r ia l e G U elfa. ed . E ls N o stres C la s s ic s , I I I , 1 9 0 -1 9 1 . 2 4 I b id . . I , 9 2 . 131 C u ria l a ls o r e c e iv e s b ejew ele d garm ents, g o ld en ta b le w a r e , and s i x f in e h o r s e s . The g i f t seems fa b u lo u s, but i t was custom ary t o g iv e fo r e ig n k n ig h ts g i f t s a f t e r a c o n te s t o f arm s. For exam ple, when Fernando de Guevara d e fe a te d George Vourapag a t Vienna, th e Duke o f A u str ia se n t him a je w e l w orth f i v e hundred crowns and two v e r y 25 f in e h o r s e s . In a d d itio n t o th e many s it u a t io n s fo r w hich th e r e a r e n e a r ly i d e n t i c a l exam ples in th e c h r o n ic le s o f th e f i f te e n th ce n tu ry , th e r e a r e r e a l p eo p le in r e a l p la c e s in p u r ely f i c t i o n a l e p is o d e s . T hese r e a l p eo p le a re known t o th e m odem rea d er through th e c h r o n ic le s but may have been fa m ilia r t o th e re a d in g p u b lic o f th a t tim e by r e p u ta tio n or even by s i g h t . W hether th e names and p la c e s seem ed m erely f a m ilia r or w ere w e l l known, th e y added v e r i s i m i l i tu d e t o th e n a r r a tio n and, th e r e fo r e , seem p roof th a t th e w r it e r worked t o make h i s n o v e l r e a l i s t i c . An exam ple o f t h i s w eaving f a c t in t o f i c t i o n i s th e m ention o f a number o f famous k n ig h ts when C u r ia l s to p s a t a con ven t on h is way t o a tournam ent a t Melun. The C ronica de Juan I I . q u oted in M artin de R iquer, C a b a ller o s a n d a n tes, p . 125. 132 P rioress in trod u ces h e r s e lf as Yoland le Mengre and remarks th a t she has two b roth ers who are famous k n ig h ts, Johan le Mengre, c a lle d Bociquaut, and another Rubin le Mengre. Jean le Meingro was a great French knight o f th e day, h is 2 fi name was s u r e ly known to many readers in Spain. The oth er s i s t e r s o f th e convent a ls o have names w hich must have been fa m ilia r to many Spaniards, such as Johanina de Borb6 , G ile ta de B erri, V io len t de la Sparra, Ysabel de Bar, Blanca de Bretanya, C aterina d*O rleans, Matta d'A r- manyach, and B eatriu de F oix. When C urial le a v es th e con ven t, he m eets a knight who c h a lle n g e s him, according to th e r u le s o f c h iv a lr y , to win th e damsel who accompanies him. A fter th e en cou n ter, 26 Martin de Riquer, C aballeros andantes, p. 36. "El alm iran te de Francia Jean le M eingre, llamado Boucicot (nacido h a cia 1364 y muerto en 1421), fu e un gran j e f e de tropas que in te r v in o en numerosas guerras y gobernador fran cos de Genova; . . . B oucicot en v a r ia s o ca sio n es estu v o en r e la c i6 n con lo s rey es de Arag6 n, sobre todo por lo que a fe c ta a problemas r e fe r e n te s a Genova. Anadamos que en 1399 Dalmau de Darnius, escudero de mesa de M artin e l Humano, q u iso in corp orarse a la esquadra de B oucicot que ib a a so co rrer C onstan tinop le . . . y que e l 11 de ju n io de 1415 Fernando I, e l de A ntequera, firmd en V alen cia un salvocond u cto para que 'Johannes le Meingre, d lc tu s B o u siq u a u t,* raariscal de F rancia, pudiera i r en p e r e g r i- n a c i6 n a Santiago de C om postela." ................. 133 th e P r io r e ss in form s C u ria l th a t th e knight he has d e fe a te d i s B ertran d e l C h a ste11, th e most v a lia n t k n igh t in th e realm . She remarks th a t a l l th e men o f h is fa m ily a re form id ab le k n ig h ts . G uillaum e du C h a stel was a famous k n igh t from B r itta n y and may have been w e ll known in S pain . I t i s known th a t he was sch ed u led t o do b a t t le w ith th e C atalan k n ig h t, Here de C e r v e ll6 , in S egovia on th e f i f t e e n t h o f September o f 1401 and th a t he ask ed fo r a s a f e conduct t o b rin g two hundred fo llo w e r s and two hundred h o rse s in t o 2 7 Spain fo r th e e v e n t. During h is li f e t i m e he won famous b a t t l e s in th e l i s t s , a t s e a , and in th e f i e l d . He was k i l l e d w h ile disem barking in C ornw all in 1404. D iez de Games d e sc r ib e d him in th e Cr6 n ic a de Bsro Nino a s f o llo w s : Mos6 n G u ill6 n fu e n a tu r a l de Bren6 n . Hera b r e t 6 n b r e to n a n te . Llaman B reton an te a l que e s b r e t 6 n que non es m ezclado de o tr a na9 io n , n i leg u a ; e llam an b r e t 6 n g a lo n por lo s que so n a l cauo de Bretafia m ez- c la d o s con F ran sia; e £ s t o s non lo s an por ta n puros b r e to n e s , n i ta n f id a lg o s . A n si que hera de lo s m ejo res lin a x e s de B retafta. Hera se n o r de vna grand b a ro n la , que llam an Cast e l . Hera honbre muy a l t o de querpo, e de grand fu e rz a , e muy ferm oso de su p reso n a . Hera muy b a lie n t e : e n tr o en canpo muchas v e z e s , ta n to s por t a n t o s , a n s i en armas s e c r e t a s , como a to d o 2 7I b id . . p. 40. 134 tr a n z e . Tan b a lio n te hern, qunndo hera on lo s canpoo armado, o can llg o r o andnbn, corno s i non tr u x e se armas nlngunas. Tanto so a tro b la on su b a le n tla , quo muchas vozos on lo s canpos acom etla a l quo lo caya on suorco do lo tomar a manos* ® I t Is near th e beginning o f Book I I o f C u r i a l chat th e p ro ta g o n ist d e fe a ts Bertran d o l C h a s te ll. In Book III , G uillalraes d e l C h a s te ll, a knight from B ritta n y , and the most form idable and v a lia n t knight th a t could be found in 29 a l l o f France and In England, c h a lle n g e s C u ria l. H e in ten d s t o v in d ic a te h is b ro th er’s honor by d e fe a tin g C u ria l. The b a t t le ta k es p lace in London b efore th e King o f England and Guillaume de Chaste11 i s k ille d . Martin de Riquer, having c a lle d a tte n tio n t o t h is s im ila r it y between th e h i s t o r ic a l and f i c t i o n a l Guillaume du C hastel, w r o te : Aquel v a le r o s o Guillaume du C h astel, que ta n buen recuerdo d ej6 y que m uri6 en un a rriesg a d o desembarco Oo Diez de Games, El V ic t o r ia l. p. 195. 29 C u rial. ed . Els N ostres C la s s ic s , I I I , 185-186. "En aquest temps m ateix h avia en Londres un c a v a lie r de Bretanya, m olt v a le n t , a p e lla t G u illalm es d e l C h a s te ll, e no gosava e s ta r en lo regne de Fran9 a per alguna co sa que h au rie fe t a con tra lo p la e r d el rey, e havia m olts anys que v iv ia en A n glaterra. Aquest c a v a lie r , per faraa, e encara de f e t , era lo pus fo r t e lo pus v a le n t c a v a lie r que en t o t lo reyalm e de Fran9 a s e tr o b a s, e encara en A nglaterra no h avia par ne e g u a l.” ............... ' 135 on la s c o s ta s in g le s a s , como ya hcmos v i s t o quo c o lo - braba elo g io sa m en te El v i c t o r i a l do Raro Nino, aparoco on o l C urial o GOelfa. con su p rop io nombro y su c o n d ic io n do bretAn y su p r o s t ig io on F rancia e In g la - te r r a , y aunque fu o r to y v a lo r o s o , so da como cnomigo d e l p r o ta g o n is ts do la acciA n, q u ion lo vonce y lo mat a procisam onto on Londros. Anotamos, a s i , un nuevo ca so do in g ero n cia do elom ontos r o a lo s on la n o v ela , aunque conveniontcm onto d e sfig u r a d o s, s in duda con una in t e n c i6 n que s e nos esca p e, pues e l anAnimo n utor d e l C u ria l e G dclfa e s d i f i c i l de s it u a r en un am biente c o n c r e to . Ya verem os mAs a d e la n te quo un hermano de Guilaume du C h a ste l, pero que no se llamaba BertrAn s in o Tanneguy, p a rticip A en un famoso hecho de armas celeb ra d o en V a len cia en 1407.^0 I t was m entioned in th e in tr o d u c to r y ch a p ter th a t th e a u th o rs o f th e romans o f c h iv a lr y in th e t w e lf t h cen tu ry som etim es a llu d e d to r e a l i t i e s o f th e age e it h e r in c r it ic is m o f customs o r in d e s c r ip tio n s o f environm ent. The hero n e v e r th e le s s le d an id e a l e x is te n c e and h is en vironm ent was u s u a lly vague in term s o f tim e and p la c e . As has b een shown, th e au th or o f C u r ia l was a t p ain s to make tim e and p la ce a s s p e c if i c a s p o s s ib le w ith o u t making them conform t o h i s t o r i c a l f a c t . The purpose i s n ot to expose a w eakness o f th e s o c ie t y such a s s u p e r s t it io u s b e l i e f in magic nor i s i t to remind th e au d ien ce o f a com mon r e a l i t y , a s when th e jo n g leu r in JaufrA d e s c r ib e s a 30 C ab alleros a n d a n tes, p. 4 1 . 136 le p e r w ith g ro a t r e a lism ; i t i s j u s t t o make th e f i c t i o n seem t o be a tr u e s t o r y . C u ria l i s not a romance o f c h iv a lr y , but a lo v e s t o r y in a r e a l i s t i c c h iv a lr e s q u e en viron m en t. The roman. Flam enca. w r it t e n a f t e r 1250 in a n o rth ern langue d*oc d i a l e c t , i s an e a r l i e r exam ple o f t h i s ty p e o f c h iv a lr e s q u e lo v e s t o r y . Composed about th e same tim e a s th e French p ro se rom ances, Flamenca i s th e a n t i t h e s i s o f th e s e c h iv a l resq u e f i c t i o n s . With u n a ffe c te d ir r e v e r e n c e , th e tro u b a dour t e l l s how an a cco m p lish ed young k n ig h t c o n tr iv e s t o have se x u a l r e la t io n s w ith th e young w if e o f a n o b le and v a lia n t S ire de Bourbon under th e v e r y n o se o f th e je a lo u s husband. The n a r r a tio n shows how th e f o r m a lit ie s o f th e Church and th e Court a re e x p lo it e d in a cc o m p lish in g th e e n t e r p r is e . As in C u r ia l. th e environm ent i s c h iv a lr e s q u e and corresp on d s t o th e tim e o f c o m p o sitio n . There a re tournam ents in Flamenca w h ich ta k e p la c e in r e a l p la c e s and p a r tic ip a n ts have names o f r e a l p e o p le . The d is f ig u r a t io n o f tim e s , p la c e s , and names i s so s l i g h t th a t a number o f l i t e r a r y h is t o r ia n s have b een co n fu sed a s t o th e e x a c t d a te 31 o f c o m p o sitio n . ^ ^"Charles Grimm, fetude su r l e Roman de Flamenca (E a r is : Droz, 1 9 3 0 ), pp. 8 5 -9 0 . 137 A nother s t r ik in g s i m i l a r it y betw een C u ria l and Flamenca i s t h a t n e ith e r seem s t o have been a p p r e c ia te d by th e p u b lic fo r xdiich i t was w r it t e n . Very few c o p ie s w ere made o f e i t h e r and few i f any a llu s i o n s have been found in o th e r w r it in g s t o in d ic a te th a t th e y w ere w e ll known. Probably b oth C u r ia l and Flamenca w ere to o modern f o r t h e i r day, but th e p o in t t o be made h ere i s t h a t th e p u b lic a p p a r e n tly d id not a p p r e c ia te t h i s kind o f r e a l i s t i c c h iv a lr e s q u e f i c t i o n e it h e r e a r ly o r l a t e , w h ile th e e s s e n t i a l l y i d e a l i s t i c , A rthu rian romances rem ained r e l a t i v e l y p op u lar th rou gh ou t th e p e rio d from 1 2 0 0 t o 1500. P roverbs, n oted a s ele m en ts o f p op u lar r e a lis m in C ifa r . a r e a l s o p rev a len t i n C u r ia l. They a re s e l e c t exam ples o f c l e v e r popular lan gu age and a re e a r th y , r e a l i s t i c elem en ts d is t r ib u t e d th rou gh a g e n e r a lly candorous n a r r a tiv e . Here a r e exam ples : The d e v ic e worn by C u ria l* s h e r a ld , V enjanca, read , "No puges ta n t que t e ’ n en d en ys, n e*t baxes ta n t que v a l l e s roenys.1 '3* --E s i e l l s no*us le x e n anar avan t se n s bat a 1 1 a -- d ix lo n a n --, que f a r e t s ? — . Respos C u r ia l:--A r a no ho s£ ; qiian v indrA lo c a s . v in d r a lo c o n s e l l .--^ ^ 32 C u ria l e G tlelfa. e d . E ls N o str e s C la s s ic s , I I , 73. 3 3 a i d . , p . 75. 138 jAy, e com le s conegu6 a g u e ll gran p h ilosop h a p e lla t Plat 6 , quant d ix que lo senv de le s dones _t_ot e s ta en la b e lle s a , e . per c o n tr a r i. la b e lle s a d els hbmens en lo s e n v ? 34 En aquest a tnanera fonch enganat lo c a v a lie r de le s sp a se s, car e l no s e n t ! l'en gan ; s in 6 poguera £ sse r que abans q u e* l t o m e ig se fo s a ca b a t, lo q u i h avia l e g i t lo t e s t haguera fe t a la g lo sa . e * 1 haguera d e c la r a t. E la reyna, que n o .s veya s o d o lla de f e s t e j a r - la e de lo a r -la e d ir b6 d ’e l l a , en ta n t que no sa b ia acabar de p a rla r lo a n t-la b e lle s a , d e str e sa , g ra c ia e a lt r e s v i r t u t s , sobre quantes n ’a v ia v i s t e s f in s a q u e ll j o m , crech que l i ’n nrenia a x i com a l s fra res menors. q u i no saben on s e posen a san t Francesch lo d ia de la sua f e s t a . com prevquen.-^ Toma M elchior, e d ix , "C urial, pren ets huy comiat solam ent d e l emperador e p a r t its d ’a c i, car h o ste s e p eix a t r e s d ie s puden. E com v os v e sse n e s t a r a c l musant, v o s tr a honor ne v a ld r ia menys."^^ The goddess Diana r e fu se s to h elp Fortune d estroy C u ria l. A fter a len gth y statem ent o f o b je c tio n , \tfiich in clu d es a q u o ta tio n in I t a lia n from Dante and another from A r is t o t le ’s E th ics, she co n clu d es: E s i 3 9 0 no*t p lau , a p e lla Mars en ta ajud a, lo q ual 6 s b a t a lle r , e le x a l'araor, la pau e la concordia que s 6 n yo, que a t a l s f e t s com s 6 n lo s que*m a p e lle s no*t p o rie p r o fita r , ca r q u i guerra v o l. no deu portar cimbre d * o liv a .38 3 4 I b id . . p. 128. 3 5 I b id . . p. 135. 36Ib id . . p. 150. 3 7I b id . . I , 117. 3 8 I b id ., I I I , 70. 139 The m oral conduct o f th e lo v e r s i s irrep ro a ch a b le C u r ia l. There i s not one e r o t ic passage in th e n o v e l. When C u ria l and GUelfa a re wedded, th e au th or r e fe r s th e rea d er t o Guido d e lle Colonne as f o llo w s : . . . ne p a rla r£ d e l d e sig que lo s n u v is h avien de anar a l l i t (a q u e lls q u i ho v o ld ra n sa b er, lig e n m aestre Guido de Columpnis a l i a on t r a c t a d e l dorm ir de Jason e de Medea, s i b£ t o t a com paraci6 e s d e s ig u a l, car a l l b vench en un punt e a 9 o fonch d e s ij a t per m o lts anys; mas perque m aestre Guido se ds t r a b a lla t m olt en fe r t a l s d e s c r ip c io n s , a e l l ho r e c o m a n ) . The au th or does not co m p letely a v o id th e su b je c t o f s e x u a l r e la t io n s , however. When C urial and F e sta , th e dam sel who accom panies him t o th e tournam ent a t Melun, sto p a t a co n v en t, th e r e i s l i v e l y jo k in g among th e nuns about F e s ta 1s maidenhood. T his popular and r e a l i s t i c p assage i s a s f o llo w s : Respos F esta : --E com! £Ara e s cosa nova c a v a lie r erra n t menar d o n z e lla en so n con d u yt?--D igu eren e l l e s :—No ds nova co sa ; mas, encara que hagen nom d o n z e lle s , son d o n e s --. --E n nom de D4u— d ix F e s ta — , no son t o t e s , ne yo ho se r£ per e l l , s i a Deus p la u — . Lladonchs d ix la p r io r a :—No ds rnester que t o t s lo s hbmens s ie n mal n o d r it s - - . U n*altra comen9 a a r iu r e , e , p a rla n t b a ix , cuydant que F esta no ho o y s, d ix : — C ertes, v o s d ir e t s 9 0 que*us p lau ra, mas yo no creurd huy ne dema que no f a 9 a m 6 s ju n te s ab v 6 s que ab lo s c a v a lie r s e r r a n t s - - . --N o mefn m a r a v e ll--d ix un’a l t r a - - , que menys p e r i l l h i ha— . ^ 3 9 I b id . . p. 2 5 5 . 40I b id . . I I , 40. 140 In h is "B relim inary O b ser v a tio n s’1 on th e f i r s t p r in te d e d it io n o f C u ria l e G tielfa in 1901, Rubi6 y Lluch w r o te : A p esa r de ta n abundosa i n f u s i 6 d ’elem en ts f o r a s t e r , a la q u a l s e deu a f e x ir l a d e l Renaxement que ho omplena t o t , y que m e r e x e se r la p er s i s o la un e s p e c i a l e s tu d i--d o n a n t un ca y en t p ed an tesch y candor6 s ensem ps A t o t a la n o v e la , y m olt p a rticu la rm en t a l l l i b r e I I I , lo mes r e t 6 r ic h de t o t s — lo que en e l l a c r id a mes la a t e n c i6 y la d is t in g e ix de t o t s l e s ob res con sem b lan ts de la Apoca, e s so n c a r a c te r r e a l i s t a y humAA1 The r e a lis m c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f R en aissan ce l i t e r a tu r e c i r c u la t in g when C u ria l was w r it t e n d id not f in d i t s way in t o th e r e v is io n s o f c h iv a lr e s q u e rom ances w hich began t o appear a f t e r 1500, but i t d id f la v o r th e c h iv a lr e s q u e n o v e ls w hich w ere o r i g in a l c r e a tio n s a t t h i s tim e in th e same way t h a t th e s p i r i t o f th e M iddle Ages fla v o r e d th e t w e lf th -c e n tu r y and t h ir te e n th - c e n t u r y w ork s. As was p o in te d out in Chapter I I in th e a n a ly s is o f JaufrA and o th e r romans o f c h iv a lr y , th e environm ent in w hich th e i d e a l h ero moved, though vagu e and u n d efin ed in e x a c t term s o f p la c e and tim e , d id corresp on d t o th e r e a l i t y o f th e t w e lf t h and t h ir t e e n t h c e n t u r ie s ; th a t i s , th e r e was ^ C u r ia l v G tielfa. e d . A n ton i Rubi6 y Lluch (R eal Academia de Buenas l e t r a s ) (B a rcelo n a : 1 9 0 1 ), p. x i i . 141 n o th in g in th e environm ent w hich c o u ld n ot be v is u a l i z e d in term s o f th e day. Barons d id l i v e in c a s t l e s and k n ig h ts d id f ig h t w ith la n c e and sw ord. The environm ent was n o t, fo r exam ple, th a t o f a f a i r y t a l e or an Arabian N igh ts f i c t i o n . I f i t was v agu e, t h a t was b eca u se th e poet saw no p o in t in em p hasizin g i t . R ather h e p r e fe r r e d to em phasize th e exem plary conduct and c h a r a c te r o f h is id e a l k n ig h ts . The au th or o f th e roman. Flam enca. d id d e sc r ib e th e c h iv a lr e s q u e environm ent but he was con cern ed w ith d ev elo p in g a scan d alou s t a l e and was n ot a t a l l concerned w ith prom oting th e id e a ls o f c h iv a lr y . C u ria l. l i k e Flam enca. e n v e lo p e s a lo v e s to r y in a r e a l i s t i c e n v ir o n m ent, but a ls o i l l u s t r a t e s c h iv a lr e s q u e id e a ls . The humanism and r e a lis m in C u ria l r e f l e c t th e in f lu e n c e o f th e I t a lia n R en a issa n ce, but a s a c h iv a lr e s q u e f i c t i o n i t is not a s g r e a t a d ep artu re from th e romans c o u r to is or romans de c h e v a le r ie a s was Flam enca. In f a c t i t i s p r e c is e ly an u p -to -d a te v e r s io n o f t h e roman o f c h iv a lr y . Compared t o JaufrA. fo r exam ple, b oth k n ig h ts a r e m odels o f m a scu lin e b eau ty and s tr e n g th . Both a re e x c e p t io n a lly s k i l l f u l a t arms and a t c o u r t l i n e s s . Both you th s b eg in t h e i r k n ig h t hood w ith n o th in g but good lo o k s and n ic e manners and, 142 a f t e r a s e r i e s o f erran t a d v en tu res w h ich d em onstrate t h e i r n a tu r a l s u p e r io r it y , th e y marry b e a u t if u l and w ea lth y women who a re fa r ab ove them in s t a t i o n . In t h i s way b oth f i c t i o n s show how k n ig h tly v ir t u e s d is t in g u is h th e w orth y man, ra th e r th a n t i t l e s and r ic h e s . The e x tr a o r d in a r y q u a l i t i e s o f th e p r o ta g o n is ts a re i d e n t i c a l and th e i d e a l conduct o f t h e i r lo v e a f f a i r s i s n e a r ly t h e same. J a u fr£ i s m arried by King A rthur, C u ria l i s m arried a t th e m ost p r e s tig io u s co u rt o f h is d ay, th e Court o f th e King o f France a t R a ris. When J a u fr£ was w r it t e n , A rth u r's Court a t Camelot was n o t tr e a te d a s b ein g le g e n d a r y . The r e a d e r w i l l remember t h a t in th e p ro lo g u e t o JaufrA th e jo n g le u r ad m its th a t he has never s e e n A rth u r's Court but th a t a r e l a t i v e o f S ir Gawain has t o l d him about i t . The c h a r a c te r iz a tio n i s a ls o s im ila r in th e two f i c t i o n s . Both o f th e i d e a l k n ig h ts h ave sh a llo w p erso n a l i t i e s , compared t o th e v i l l a i n s , and t h e id e a l la d ie s a r e s te r e o ty p e s o f women in lo v e . Minor ch a r a c te r s in b oth a re more a p p e a lin g as humans. A u g ie r 's d au gh ter in J a u fr 6 i s not n e a r ly a s w e ll d ev elo p ed a c h a r a c te r a s F esta in C u r ia l. but b o th a r e more m oving th an t h e main fem ale f ig u r e s . The v i l l a i n s , T au lat and th e san g H e r , a r e w e l l c h a r a c te r iz e d and s im ila r ly to u c h in g b eca u se in d e fe a t th e y 143 re v ea l n a tu r a l human w eaknesses w hich th e h eroes do not have. The g r e a te s t d iffe r e n c e between th e two n a r r a tiv e s i s th e environment in which th ey ta k e p lace which a f f e c t s even th e q u a lity o f th e t r i a l s t o which th e h eroes are sub je c te d . As has been shown in t h is ch ap ter, C urial moves in a w orld which was fa m ilia r t o th e reader at th e tim e th e n a rra tiv e was composed. Conforming t o th e a u th o r’ s l i t e r ary t a s t e and th e lit e r a r y tren d a t th e tim e, th e fa m ilia r environment was supposed t o make th e sto r y seem r e a l. Iau ncelot and T rista n had r e c e n tly been tr a n s la te d in to Catalan and were popular, jud gin g by th e number o f r e f e r ences to them in C u r ia l. ^ However, most o f th e remarks ^ C urial e G tielfa. ed . Els N ostres C la s s ic s , XI, 7. The su p p o sitio n , a ccep ted by s e v e r a l lit e r a r y h is to r ia n s , th a t th e French romances were not tr a n s la te d in to C atalan u n t il th e la t e fo u rteen th or e a r ly f if t e e n t h cen tu ry i s based on th e fo llo w in g paragraph: "En aquest lib r e s e fa mencio de c a v a lie r s er ra n ts, j a t s i a que 6 s mal d it *e r r a n ts, 1 ca r deu horn d ir 'cam in ants.* ’ E rre’ 6 s v o ca b le fra n ces, e v o l d ir *camf, * e ’ erra r, * v o l d ir ’cam inar.* Etapero yo v u l l se g u ir la manera d 'a q u e lls ca th a la n s q u i tr a sla d a r e n lo s lib r e s de T rista n y e de la n p a lo t, e to rn a - ren lo s de lengua fra n cesa en lengua cath alan a, e t o t s temps d igu eren ’c a v a lie r s e r r a n t s ,* car aquest v o ca b le ’e r ra n ts, * que v o l d ir * caminant s , * n u lls temps lo v o l- gueren mudar, ans lo lex a ren a x l, no se la rah6 per que. E a x l, d ir 6 yo ’e r r a r ,* per ’cam inar, * seg u in t la costuma d e ls a n tic h s , j a t s i a que p arlar6 im propri e se r 6 algu n poch digne de r e p r e n s io ." 144 about them are c r i t i c a l o f t h e ir lack o f r e a lism . In a group o f Aragonese Knights en rou te t o Melun, one remarks: D 'a ltre s c a v a lie r s d'Arag6 , q u i cavalquen com a c a v a lie r s e r r a n ts , he oydes grans m a ra v elles, en tant que tothom creu que T rista n y ne Ian9 a lo t , q u i, en lo s temps p a ssa ts, hagueren fama d e ls m illo r s c a v a lie r s d el mon, no provaren aq u esta n aclo; s in 6 , per ven tu re lo s a cto rs q u i d ' e l l s s c r iv ir e n hagueren mesa mesura en lu rs plomes o tothom haguera cregu t que m£s v o lu n ta t que rah6 lo s hagu£s moguts a s c r iu r e 9 0 que cascun jorn legim en a q u e lls l i b r e s . ^ The author o f C urial. lik e many o f th e c h r o n ic le r s , ap p aren tly co n sid ered th a t th e documented deeds o f r e a l k n ig h ts proved th a t contemporary heroes were as remarkable as legendary o n es. For some fifte e n th -c e n tu r y rea d ers, a f i c t i o n a l knight d id not need f a n t a s t ic or superhuman q u a l i t i e s . Some ex a g g era tio n o f normal prowess was s u f f i c i e n t to make him seem as amazing as th e r e a l k n igh ts erra n t o f th e day lik e Jo§o de Merlo, G utierre Q uijada, Suero de Quinones, or Itedro Vasquez de Saavedra. A modem f ic t io n fo r a reading p u b lic who read ch iv a lresq u e c h r o n ic le s - - r e a l k n ig h ts, r e a l sq u ir e s , and persons a s s o c ia te d w ith th e m ilita r y n o b ility --n e e d e d to be accu ra te and r e a l i s t i c about any c h iv a lr y w hich was 43Ib id . . p. 101. 145 in clu d ed . C urial e GUelfa probably s a t i s f i e d such read ers, but lik e many modem n o v e ls which a c c u r a te ly d ep ict an environment fa m ilia r to th e contemporary reader, t h is f i c tio n may have lo s t some o f i t s appeal as tim es changed and th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f many d e t a ils became ir r e le v a n t. The su rv iv in g m anuscript i s a copy which in d ic a te s th a t the work did c ir c u la t e . The lack o f m ention in documents o f th e day seems t o in d ic a te a lim ite d p o p u la rity . The purpose o f Chapter IV has been to show th a t the in flu e n c e o f French ch iv a lr esq u e lit e r a tu r e on Spanish c h iv a lr y was great and th a t t h is a ffe c te d Spanish le t t e r s because many n o ta b le w r ite r s o f fo u r te e n th - and f if t e e n t h - cen tu ry Spain were members o f th e m ilita r y n o b ilit y or c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith i t . M ilita r y and ch iv a lresq u e accom plishm ents were view ed in terms o f th e prow esses o f such heroes as T r ista n , la n c e lo t, and Jaufr6 . The men who performed brave deeds o f c h iv a lr y em ulated th e legendary French h e r o e s. The w r ite r s who recorded the ev en ts com pared th e r e a l h eroes to th e legendary on es. The c h r o n ic le s o f r e a l heroes read lik e c h iv a l resque adventure n o v els as a r e s u lt o f th e in flu e n c e o f French ch iv a lr esq u e lit e r a t u r e on both th e heroes and 146 t h e ir c h r o n ic le r s , but f i c t io n a l works are im ita tio n s o f th e c h r o n ic le s and not o f th e French romances; th e f ic t io n s are in t h is se n se a b s o lu te ly r e a l i s t i c . Id ealism e x is t s in ch iv a lr esq u e f ic t io n s as th e r e s id u a l in flu e n c e o f th e French romans in th e same way as i t e x i s t s in th e chron i c l e s and e x is te d among th e members o f th e m ilita r y no b i l i t y . The e a r lie s t Spanish f i c t i o n o f t h is type i s C urial e Gtielfa which i s a n o v el s e t in a contemporary c h iv a l resq u e environm ent. This f i c t i o n shows evid en ce o f th e in flu e n c e o f th e French ch iv a lr esq u e lit e r a tu r e on th e s o c ie t y portrayed; fo r example, in a llu s io n s by th e charac t e r s who lik e n th em selves t o la Cote Male T a il£ , Breuse Sans P it i 6 , L ancelot, or T r ista n . It a ls o shows th a t th e author was h im s e lf w e ll inform ed about t h is kind o f l i t e r a tu r e becau se he comments on th e ch o ic e o f words used by tr a n s la to r s and adapts phrases from th e o r ig in a ls t o h is own u se . The stro n g est d ir e c t lit e r a r y in flu e n c e , however, i s from th e I t a lia n R en aissan ce. C urial e Gtielfa i s , as a r e s u lt , not an im ita tio n o f a French romance o f c h iv a lr y but ra th er a R enaissance ty p e n o v el in a contemporary s e t t in g . As a work o f C atalan lit e r a t u r e i t i s h ig h ly 147 a r t i s t i c and has boon c a lle d th e " In st c l a s s i c . " ^ As a c h iv a lr o sq u o f i c t i o n i t d id not ea rn enough r e c o g n itio n t o be p u b lish ed a lo n g w ith T jrant lo H lanc, T a b la n to . Amqdls. and th e r e s t in th e s ix t e e n t h c e n tu r y . C u r ia l e G tlolfa was not th e o n ly attem p t t o com bine R en aissan ce s p i r i t and in flu e n c e s w ith c l a s s i c a l and co n tem porary c h iv a lr y . Jolianot Mart ore 11 a t about th e same tim e , o r a t most a few y ea rs l a t e r , w rote T ira n t lo Blanc in w hich he com bined th e same elem en ts more e m p h a tic a lly and w ith g r e a te r s u c c e s s . Bar, "C u r ia l e G tielfa. M N otes lin g U ^ stiq u e s v d * e s t i l . p . 76. "C u r ia l no p odia t e n i r m e llo r lle n g u a tg e : c r ec h que deu £ s s e r c o n sid e r a t com a c l a s s i c h : t £ la honor, anch que s i a t r i s t a , d '^ s s e r lo d a rrer c l a s s i c h c a t a l a . " C H APTER V TI R A N T L O B L A N C W ritten soon a f t e r C urial. T lran t lo Blanc Is markedly more r e a l i s t i c in d escrib in g s o c ie t y and le s s tr a - d itio n a l in th e kind o f ch iv a lro u s adventures n a rra ted . The n ovel i s a ls o more com plex, c o n ta in in g elem ents from so u rces as w id e ly sep arated in tim e a s th e th ir te e n th - cen tu ry roman. Gui de Warewic. and r e c e n t fifte e n th -c e n tu r y h is t o r y . The s t y le i s l e s s uniform, accord in g t o Bar, d ia le c t a l d ia lo g u es b ein g su p erio r t o th o s e in C u ria l w h ile th e pedantic and r h e to r ic a l passages a re in fe r io r . T irant lo Blanc, lik e C urial. i s narrated In a r e a l i s t i c contemporary s e t t i n g . Famous names, p la c e s , and ev e n ts which make th e n a rr a tio n seem v a g u ely h i s t o r i c a l are introduced in to both n o v e ls in much th e same way. ^Anfos Bar, “C u ria l e G ttelfa," Notes lin e ttfs tjq u e y d * e s t il (B ib lio te c a l i n g u i s t i c s de l* O fic in a Romanics) (B arcelona: Balmes, 1928), pp. 87-88. 148 149 T lra n t lo Blanc was w r itte n around 1460 in V a len cia by Joanot M a r to r e ll, a k n ig h t o f th a t c i t y . V a le n c ia flo u r is h e d i n th e f i f t e e n t h ce n tu ry . The Court r e s id e d th e r e and t h e c i t y grew in w ea lth , p o p u la tio n , and c u lt u r e . M a rto rell t r a v e le d w id e ly and r e s id e d in England betw een 2 1435 and 1 438. He was known t o k in g s and p r in c e s and issu e d c h a lle n g e s to o th e r n o b les on m a tter s o f h on or. His l e t t e r s o f c h a lle n g e h a v e been p reserv ed and c l o s e l y 3 resem ble some which a re in clu d ed in T jg a n t. The r u le s fo r p r iv a te w ars, th e cod es o f h on or, had become com plex, cerem on iou s, and l e g a l i s t i c during th e fo u r te e n th c e n tu r y so t h a t th e p re p a ra tio n s p reced in g a b a t t le and t h e f o r m a lit ie s and cerem o n ies on th e f i e l d o f b a t t le red u ced th e b a t t l e i t s e l f t o a r e l a t i v e l y u n e sse n t i a l f e a t u r e . One tim e , M a r to r e ll, l i k e Rater th e Great o f Aragon, won an im portant p o in t o f honor by m erely com ing on to th e f i e l d , s in c e h i s a d v ersa ry d id not ap p ear. Other a d v e r s a r ie s a g reed to a r b it r a t io n b e fo r e any b a t t l e co u ld 2 Joan ot M a r to r e ll, T iran t l o B lanc, ed . M artin de Riquer (B a rcelo n a : S e le c t a , 1947), I n t r o ., pp. 1 7 -2 3 . ^I b id . . pp. 2 7 -6 0 . 150 b e arran ged or e l s e a p p lie d in flu e n c e t o r e s o lv e m a tters w ith o u t com bat. The r e co r d s o f M a r to r e ll's c h a lle n g e s in d ic a t e th a t he was a firm b e lie v e r in c h iv a lr y and th e co d es o f honor and t r i e d t o p r a c tic e them in th e forms in w hich th e y e x is t e d in h is tim e . T ira n t d e s c r ib e s l i f e and ad ven tu re su ch as M a r to r e ll m ight h ave dreamed o f li v i n g h im s e lf . I t i s e v id e n t th a t he was f a m ilia r w ith c l a s s i c w orks, t r a d it i o n a l rom ances o f c h iv a lr y , and th e c h r o n ic le s o f e a r l i e r tim e s, but th e k ind o f c h iv a lr y w hich he d e s c r ib e s in T ira n t i s th a t w hich he had e x p e r ie n c e d . M artin de R iquer sa y s in a stu d y o f th e a u th o r: Joanot M a r to r e ll so n 6 s e r un T ira n t l o B lan c, s in c o n s e g u ir lo por cu lp a d e l e s p i r i t u poco b e lic o s o de su s en em igos. . . . Es que lo s tiem p o s ib an cambiando a p esa r de Suero de Quinones y de su p a sso h o n ro so . ^ 1 As was m ention ed b e fo r e , M a r to r e ll was n ot r e lu c ta n t t o f ig h t a d u el t o v in d ic a t e t h e fa m ily honor and he i n i t i a t e d s e v e r a l during h is l i f e t i m e . H is f a m il ia r i t y w ith d u e lin g c o d e s, h e r a ld r y , and arms i s p a r t ic u la r ly apparent in th e f i r s t p art o f th e n o v e l where young T ira n t p roves h im s e lf a t t h e Court o f th e King o f Big la n d . The d e t a i l s o f p agean try and ceremony, w h ich may seem e x c e s s iv e ^I b id . . pp. 2 6 -2 7 151 to d a y , were part o f th e t r a in in g and d a ily l i f e o f a m i l i t a r y n o b le l i k e M a r to r e ll. They were no doubt im portant t o him and h is read ers would have ex p ected him t o be accu r a t e . W hile in England, T ira n t f ig h t s a number o f b a t t le s o f th e ty p e o f te n recorded in f ifte e n th -c e n tu r y c h r o n ic le s and th e r e fo r e o f th e ty p e g e n e r a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith f ift e e n t h -c e n tu r y c h iv a lr y . He a ls o f ig h t s a c la n d e s tin e d u e l, a r e a l i t y o f th e tim es seldom d is c u s s e d in h is t o r y o r f i c t i o n . The in c lu s io n o f t h i s e p iso d e by M a rto rell r e v e a ls th e changes o ccu rrin g in th e c h iv a lr y o f th e day. The procedures fo r t h i s d u el a r e p r a c t ic a lly th e same as th o s e p rescr ib e d in modem cod es o f honor. D uels o f t h i s ty p e w ere in fa c t th e o n ly p r iv a te w ars a tta in a b le fo r most gentlem en o f th e day. A combat in a secu red l i s t w ith an a u th o r it a t iv e ju d ge was a lr e a d y o b s o le te a s a means fo r s e t t l i n g d isp u te s betw een k n ig h ts . The t r a d it io n a l k n ig h tly combat had become ex trem ely c o s t l y , fo r one th in g . F ir s t th e r e was th e correspon d en ce, c a r r ie d by h e r a ld s, som etim es from co u n try t o co u n try , a t th e c h a lle n g e r ’ s ex p en se. Then th e r e was th e tr a n sp o r ta t i o n and o th e r exp en ses o f th e w itn e s s e s , fr ie n d s , 152 arm orers, minor h e r a ld ic o f f i c i a l s , h o r se s, and equipment which both c h a lle n g e r and ch a llen g ed had to pay when a king or duke in some fo r e ig n land f i n a l ly agreed to o f f i c i a t e a t th e duel and provide a p la c e . For exam ple, M a rto rell appeared armed and w ith h is secon d s, w itn e s s e s , e t c . , on th e f i e l d in England, though h is opponent never a r r iv e d . The tim e consumed in arrangem ents, o fte n s e v e r a l y ea rs, was enough to make t h i s form o f p riv a te war u n s a tis fa c to r y fo r h ot-b lood ed young men se ek in g s a t is f a c t io n fo r an o ffe n s iv e word. M a rto rell h im se lf had d isco v ered to h is sorrow th a t a cowardly o ffen d er co u ld defend h im s e lf fo r years by s t a l l i n g th e p rep aration s w h ile a t th e same tim e mocking h is c h a lle n g e r in th e exchanges o f correspondence. The b a t t le which ta k e s p la ce betw een T irant and h is opponent during th e c la n d e s tin e d u el in M a r to r e ll's n o v el i s w ith k n ives and, as fa r a s s k i l l or tech n iq u e i s con cern ed , cou ld have been fought by two fisherm en over th e sm ile o f a lo c a l f is h w if e . I t i s th e d e s c r ip tio n o f d u el ing e t iq u e tt e w hich accom panies th e ep iso d e w hich makes i t a t a l e o f c h iv a lr y . The order o f procedure and th e ob se r v a tio n s on d is c r e tio n , p ro p r ie ty , and l e g a l it y a re pre se n ted in g rea t d e t a il so th a t th e passage i s e f f e c t i v e l y 153 an I l l u s t r a t e d d u e lin g code fo r th e d ay. S im ila r in s p i r i t t o th e cod es o f c h iv a lr y i l l u s t r a t e d in th e t w e lf th -c e n tu r y romans, t h i s d u e lin g cod e shows th a t th e c h iv a lr e s q u e co n c e p t o f honor endured o v er th e y ea rs a lth o u g h changes in th e s o c i a l o rd er made p e r io d ic r e v is io n s o f combat pro cedu re n ecessa ry * T ira n t was f in is h e d fo r p u b lic a tio n around 1490 by M arti Joan de Galba who p rob ab ly added th e to u c h in g f i n a l c h a p te r s and a few l e s s im portant p a s s a g e s . The f i r s t e d it io n appeared i n 1490, th e f i r s t book o f c h iv a lr y to be p r in te d in S pain , and a seco n d e d it io n was p r in te d in 1497. A t h ir d e d i t i o n d id n ot appear u n t i l around 1900. In s p i t e o f th e e u lo g y w hich C ervantes gave th e n o v e l, i t appears t o have b een l i t t l e a p p r e c ia te d in i t s day and i t became a r a r e book so t h a t e a r ly C ervantes s c h o la r s w ere u n ab le t o 5 exam ine i t . 5 I b id . . p . 196. The sta tem e n t by C ervantes w hich h as s tim u la te d much in t e r e s t i n T ira n t o v er th e y ea rs i s found in Book I o f Don O u ilo t e . The Barber and t h e Cura a r e s o r t in g Don Q u ijo te 's books t o s e e w hich sh o u ld be burned in t h e c o u r t yard . When t h e Cura d is c o v e r s th a t T ir a n te e l B lanco i s among them, he e x c la im s : " iQue a q u l e s t £ T ir a n te e l B lanco! Dadmele ac&, compadre; que hago cu en ta que he h a lla d o en £ l un t e s o r o de c o n te n to y una mina de p a sa ttem p o s. Aqul e s t £ don Q u i r i e l e i s 6 n de M ontalban, v a le r o s o c a b a lle r o , y 154 In I t a ly a t r a n s la t io n was p u b lish e d in 1538 and was r e p u b lish e d i n 1566 and in 1611. The n ovel was t r a n s la t e d in to French around 1737 and was r e p u b lish e d in 1775. The C a s t ilia n t r a n s la t io n , w hich was p u b lish e d in 1 5 1 1 , was n ot r e p u b lish e d u n t i l 1 947. Only one copy o f t h e 1511 e d it io n e x i s t s tod ay.® T ira n t l o Blanc i s n e a r ly as lo n g a s Amadis w ith a p p ro x im a tely 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 w ords. M a te r ia ls from many s o u r c e s a re a s s im ila t e d in such a way th a t th e y produce a f a i r l y co n tig u o u s n a r r a tio n . The d e d ic a tio n i s fo llo w e d by an a d a p ta tio n o f a French roman. Gui de W arewic. w hich M a r to r e ll a p p a r e n tly read d uring a s t a y in England. In M a r to r e ll1 s v e r s io n , th e Count, G u illem de V aroic, h avin g r e c e iv e d many b le s s in g s su hermano Tomas de Montalb&n, y e l c a b a lle r o F onseca, con la b a t a lla que e l v a l ie n t e de T ira n te h iz o con e l a la n o y la agudezas de la donee1 1 a P la cerd em iv id a , con lo s am ores y em bustes de la v iu d a R eposada, y la sefiora E n p era triz, enamorada de Hip6 l i t o su e s c u d e r o . D lgoos verdad, se n o r compadre, que, por su e s t i l o , e s d s te e l tnejor lib r o d e l mundo; a q u l comen lo s c a b a lle r o s , y duermen y raueren en su s camas, y h acen testa m e n to a n te s de s u m uerte, con o tr a s c o sa s de que to d o s lo s demfis lib r o s d e s t e gdnero c a r e c e n .1 ' M iguel de C ervan tes, El in g e n io s o h id a lg o Don Q u iio te de la Mancha (M exico: Bsrrua, 1 9 6 6 ), p. 3 5 . ^ M a rto rell, T ir a n t. p . 180. 155 from God: s u c c e s s In w ar and In f e a t s o f arms, fo r exam ple, d ecid e s t o become a h e r m it. He le a v e s on a p ilg rim a g e t o th e Holy la n d le a v in g h i s w ife and s m a ll son w ith h is e s t a t e s and r e t a in e r s , l a t e r he sen d s word th a t he has d ied , r e tu r n s t o h is c o u n tr y , and ta k e s up l i f e as a h e r m it . He i s n o t re c o g n iz e d even by h is w if e who on o c c a s io n g iv e s him a lm s. I n f id e ls invade th e lan d and th e young King i s u n a b le t o r e s i s t them . G u illem de V&roic comes t o h is a id and sa v e s England by h is know ledge o f m ilit a r y te ch n o lo g y , h is s k i l l a s a m ilit a r y le a d e r , and h is p er s i s t e n t d e d ic a tio n to t h e ca u se . A fte r a sh o rt reu n io n w ith h is fa m ily , he r e t i r e s t o a w oodland herm itage t o resume h is s o l i t a r y l i f e o f penance and co n tem p la tio n . One day, a s q u ir e on h is way t o London t o be k n ig h ted a t t h e Court o f t h e King f a l l s a s le e p on h is h o r se . The h o r se wanders u n t i l i t a r r iv e s a t a sp r in g b e s id e w h ich a herm it, G u illem de V a r o ic , i s rea d in g a book. The s q u ir e awakens and th e h erm it e x p la in s t h e mean in g o f c h iv a lr y and k n ig h th o o d to him . T h is p assage i s an a d a p ta tio n o f Ramon L l u l l ’ s L lib re de l*O rde de C a v a lle r ia . The herm it r e a d s some c h a p te r s from h i s book, Arbre de Bat a l i e s , and d is c u s s e s them w ith th e s q u ir e who i s T ira n t lo Blanc from B rittany* 156 T ir a n t a r r iv e s a t th e c o u rt and i s k n ig h ted . The o c c a sio n f o r T ir a n t’s v i s i t t o England Is th e R ing’s mar r ia g e to a p r in c e s s o f F rance. The w edding c e le b r a t io n l a s t s a y e a r during w hich T ira n t d is t in g u is h e s h im s e lf in combat w ith many a d v e r s a r ie s in c lu d in g k in g s in c o g n ito , a g ia n t, and a dog. He i s judged th e b e st k n ig h t o f th e tournam ent and i s i n i t i a t e d in t o th e Order o f th e K nights o f th e G arter, w hich does not appear t o have been d e sc r ib e d in w r itin g by anyone b e fo r e M a r to r e ll. 7 T ira n t re tu rn s t o th e c o n tin e n t w here he le a r n s t h a t th e G enoese have jo in e d fo r c e s w ith t h e Turks t o ta k e th e I sla n d o f Rhodes from th e Order o f S a in t John o f Jeru sa lem . The Grand M aster o f th e Order has s e n t a p p ea ls t o a l l th e c o u r ts o f Europe t o come and break th e s ie g e b e fo r e th e Order i s sta r v e d ou t o f th e c a s t l e . T ira n t p rep ares a la r g e s h ip and in th e company o f t h e younger son o f th e King o f F rance s e t s ou t t o r e l i e v e Rhodes. S top p in g a t S i c i l y t o r e p a ir damages in cu rred in s e a b a t t l e s w ith M oorish and G enoese p ir a t e s , T ira n t o b ta in s th e a s s is t a n c e o f th e Ring o f S i c i l y and a rra n g es t o marry I h i l i p , th e 7I b id . . p. 128. 157 French P rin ce, t o th e P rin cess Rlcomana o f S i c i l y . T iran t r e lie v e s th e c a s t le a t Rhodes by a u d a c io u sly running th e blockade and beaching h is sh ip in th e s h e lt e r o f th e c a s t le guns. The s u p p lie s brought on th e sh ip p rovid e th e de** fen d ers so th a t T iran t has ample tim e to plan and e x e cu te some d em oralizin g sneak a tta c k s on th e Genoese f l e e t and th e S u lta n 's army. The S ultan soon r a is e s th e s ie g e and le a v e s . T iran t i n f l i c t s t e r r i b l e lo s s e s on th e r e t ir in g r ea r guard. T iran t and h is company v i s i t J a ffa , B e ir u t, Jeru salem , and A lexan d ria where he buys th e freedom o f fo u r hundred and s ix t y - t h r e e C h r istia n c a p t iv e s . T iran t re tu r n s t o S i c i l y . A fter th e m arriage o f P h ilip t o Ricomana, th e King o f S i c i l y d ecid e s t o j o in th e King o f France in an e x p e d itio n a g a in s t th e Moors. T iran t accom panies th e e x p e d itio n , d is tin g u is h e s h im s e lf in b a t t l e s , and retu rn s t o B r itta n y t o v i s i t h is p a r e n ts. T iran t go es t o th e Court o f th e King o f S i c i l y . A few days l a t e r , an em bassy from th e Emperor o f Constan t in o p le a r r iv e s t o req u est T ira n t* s s e r v ic e s in d e fe n se o f th e Empire a g a in st th e S u ltan and th e Grand Turk who have conquered a l l but C o n sta n tin o p le and one or two o th e r 158 c i t i e s . T ira n t g o es t o h is a s s is t a n c e w ith e le v e n s h ip s f u l l o f f ig h t in g men and h o r s e s . W ell r e c e iv e d by th e Etaperor, he soon w in s v i c t o r i e s a g a in s t th e Turks. How e v e r , h avin g f a l l e n in lo v e w ith th e P r in c e ss Carm esina, he i s a s u nlu ck y in lo v e a s he i s fo r tu n a te in w ar. A fte r a number o f amorous m isa d v en tu re s, T ira n t i s shipw recked on th e Barbary C o a st. A c a p tiv e o f th e p o w erfu l C a b d illo o f th e Cab- d i l l o s , T iran t so o n d em on strates h is w orth o s a m ilit a r y le a d e r and o v er a p e r io d o f y ea r s con q uers a l l o f Barbary and c o n v e r ts i t t o C h r is t ia n it y . T iran t r e tu r n s t o C o n sta n tin o p le a t th e head o f a form id ab le fo r c e o f co n v er te d A fr ic a n s , S p a n ia rd s, G enoese, V e n e tia n s, PLsans, and w ith many s h ip s . His f l e e t s u r p r is e s th e T u rk ish f l e e t in th e harbor and ca p tu r es i t . la n d in g h is tr o o p s in a s t r a t e g i c p la c e , he c u ts o f f th e S u lta n ’ s army from th e rem ain in g su p p ly r o u t e . The S u lta n and th e Grand Turk su rr en d e r. T ira n t v i s i t s th e P rin ce ss and p o s s e s s e s h e r . A sh o r t tim e l a t e r T ira n t i s made C aesar o f th e U npire and i s esp o u sed t o th e P r in c e s s . B efore th e m arriage can be c e le b r a te d , how ever, T ira n t d ie s o f pneumonia. The Einperor d ie s o f g r i e f and soon " 159 th e P rin cess d ie s , to o . T ir a n t’ s page H ip fclit, who Is th e E n p ress's lo v e r , m arries th e Empress and becomes a good, w ise , and s u c c e s s fu l Emperor. T ir a n t's embalmed co rp se, alon g w ith th a t o f th e P rin cess, i s tran sp orted to B ritta n y □ where th e two are entombed to g e th e r . T iran t i s a lib r o de c a b a lle r la s in th a t i t in clu d es th e adventures o f a c a b a lle r o who t r i e s t o l i v e l i f e according t o a code o f c h iv a lr y . Like C urial. th e n o v el i s r e a l i s t i c and th e c h iv a lr y i s o f th e ty p e found in c h r o n ic le s . The n o v el i s more v e r is im ila r than th e chron i c l e s o f Muntaner and D e sc lo t, w hich in ton e i t most resem b les, because M a rto rell was c a r e fu l to fin d some l o g i c a l ex p la n a tio n fo r any ex tra o rd in a ry e v e n t. The chron i c l e r s o f th e fo u rteen th cen tu ry o n ly recorded what th ey co n sid ered were f a c t s . They d id not look fo r e x p la n a tio n s. M a rto rell a ls o used oth er tech n iq u es to lend Q For a more com plete sunmary o f th e n o v e l, a sy n o p sis, in E n glish , i s con tain ed in J. A. Vaeth, T irant lo Blanc (New York: Columbia, 1918), pp. 7 - 6 8 . Another may be found in C a s tilia n in th e in tr o d u c tio n to M artin de R iq u er's e d itio n o f T irant on pages 61 through 87. The "Els N ostres C la ssic s" e d it io n o f T irant i s an abridged e d it io n in V alen cian w hich om its many o f th e p ed an tic and r h e t o r ic a l passages so th a t th e n o v el i s reduced about one th ir d w ith ou t damaging th e c o n tin u ity or o m ittin g any o f th e b e tte r p a ssa g es. 160 v e r is im ilit u d e t o h is f i c t i o n : he made n a r r a tiv e s o f a c tio n resem ble e p iso d e s from f ift e e n t h -c e n tu r y c h r o n ic le s ; he in clu d ed names o f r e a l p eop le and r e a l p la c e s; and he d escrib ed in d e t a i l equipm ent, p r o v is io n s , and d r e s s . The au th ors o f s ix te e n th -c e n tu r y lib r o a de c a b a lle r ia s sought t o c r e a te a fa n ta s y w orld where dreams were th e r e a l i t y . M a rto rell wanted ev e ry th in g dreamed to seem p o s s ib le in th e r e a l i t y in w hich he liv e d , so he a r r e s te d th e n a r r a tiv e p e r io d ic a lly t o su p p ly l o g i c a l e x p la n a tio n s and in fo rm a tio n w hich would g iv e th e f i c t i o n th e w ide-awake r e a lis m o f everyday l i f e . The f i r s t exam ples o f th e s e guards a g a in st t o t a l fa n ta sy come a s e x p la n a tio n s found fo r e v e n ts in a th ir te e n th -c e n tu r y roman. In th e roman o f Gui de Warewic. th e in v a d e rs, Danes, o f f e r t o le a v e i f an E n g lish champion can d e fe a t t h e i r s , th e g ia n t C oleb ran t. Gui k i l l s th e g ia n t in s in g le combat and th e Danes keep t h e ir prom ise and le a v e England. Prom th e c h r o n ic le s o f th r e e c e n tu r ie s o f s t r i f e w ith i n f i d e l in v a d e rs, f i r s t in Spain and th e n in th e M editerranean, cu lm in atin g in th e f a l l o f C o n sta n ti n o p le in 1453, M a rto r ell knew th a t in v a d in g arm ies d id not obey th e r u le s o f c h iv a lr y even though th e le a d e r s m ight 161 be n ob le and honorable k n ig h ts a s In d iv id u a ls. T herefore, he r e v is e d th e n a r r a tiv e t o conform to c h iv a lr y and war as he understood them t o be in a c t u a lit y . In Gui de Warewic th e combat between Gui and Colebrant i s an e x c itin g part o f th e poem which ta k e s about 183 lin e s o f v e r se to n ar r a te .^ In m odernizing th e s in g le combat o f th e roman. M a rto rell made i t l e s s su sp e n se fu l, le s s dram atic, and more r e a l i s t i c by making i t le s s ex tra o rd in a ry , sh o rter , and b lo o d ie r . F ir s t, th e champion whom G uillem must fig h t i s th e M oorish King, an ordinary human. The d e s c r ip tio n o f equipment a t th e b eg in n in g o f th e ep iso d e i s sh o rter but more p r e c is e . The Moor f ig h t s w ith a bow. His f i r s t arrow s t r ik e s G uillem in th e s h ie ld and p a sses rig h t through i t and h is arm. The Moor Im m ediately sh oots another which lod ges In G uillem ’ s th ig h making i t d i f f i c u lt fo r him to w alk. N e v e r th e le ss, he i s c lo s e enough t o throw h is lan ce w hich th e Moor p a rries e a s i l y w ith h is bow. G uillem draws h is sword and rushes th e Moor b efo re he can r e le a s e another arrow . The Moor p a rries th e sword str o k e s d e x tero u sly w ith h is bow. Then G uillem la n d s a p a r tic u la r ly 9 „ Gui de Warewic. Roman du X III6 S ie c le . ed . A lfred Ewert (Les C la ssiq u es F ran sais du Moyen Age, 74-75) ( I h r is : 1933), I, 133-138. 162 h eavy blow w hich c u ts o f f t h e Moor's a m and s l i c e s in t o h is s id e . The Moor f a l l s , G u illem beheads him, p la c e s th e head on th e p o in t o f h is la n c e and w alks back in to th e c i t y . A s ix t e e n t h -c e n tu r y a u th o r in c o n v e r tin g Gui de Warewic in to a lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s w ould have done e x a c t l y th e o p p o s ite . He would have removed some r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l s from t h e roman and em phasized th e f a n t a s t ic by a d d in g m agic or en ch an tm en t. He m ight have o m itte d th e crude s te p s o f th e combat betw een Gui and C oleb ran t so th a t when th e hero s tr u c k a magic sword from th e g i a n t ' s hand, an enchantm ent w ould be broken. Then th e g ia n t , retu rn ed t o h is o r ig in a l form , perhaps t h a t o f a dw arf, would ta k e t h e army, now c o n v e r te d , say, t o yapping d o g s, away in to th e dark f o r e s t . The Moors do not r e t r e a t as prom ised in M a r to r e ll's v e r s io n o f t h e roman. A fte r a l l , th e King who made t h e prom ise i s dead and th e new King r e c o g n iz e s th a t h is m i l i ta r y p o s it io n i s to o good t o abandon. G u illem s e t s o u t t o d e a l th e Moors a d em o ra lizin g d e fe a t. I n s te a d o f m agic a s an e x p la n a tio n fo r a v i c t o r y o v er a g r e a t ly su p e r io r f o r c e , M a r to r ell s u b s t it u t e s p la n n in g , p r e p a r a tio n , and m i l i t a r y te c h n o lo g y . He has G u illem 163 u se th e c l a s s i c a l device o f having armored la d ie s seen on th e ramparts t o g iv e th e im pression o f numerous d efen d ers. He has G uillem order th e same troop s t o appear in s e v e r a l p la c e s to seem l i k e s e v e r a l b od ies o f com batants. He has G uillam dig p i t f a l l s , tu n n e ls, and tren ch es and u se in cen d iary gren ad es, c a ltr o p s , s p ie s , and sa b o teu rs. By th e s e d ev ices he in cr ea se s th e c r e d ib ilit y o f th e m ilita r y su c c e sse s o f h is h ero. B esid es th e p sy c h o lo g ic a l p lo y o f d ressin g women t o appear lik e d efen d ers, G uillem a ls o g iv e s p r a c tic a l ad vice on th e p sychology o f m ilita r y m oral. He t e l l s th e young King o f England t o sto p lo o k in g w orried and pretend t o be g a y and c o n fid e n t. Respos lo Rei: — Rare r e v er en t, puix me feu ta n ta g r a c ia , j o us promet, a f e de r e i , que no passar£ un punt l* o r d i- n a c i6 v o s tr a . —Ara, sen yor—d ix l* e r m ita — , com se r a s de fo r a , en la gran s a la , m ostra a ls c a v a lie r s e a t o t lo poble la tua cara a le g r e e m olt co n ten ta , e ab gran a f a b i l i - t a t p a rla ra s a t o t s , e a l dinar menja b£ e dona*t p laer, e m ostra molt m£s a le g r ia de la que acostum at h a v ies, p er 9 0 que t o t s a q u e lls q u i ten en l fesperan 9 a perduda la puguen recobrar; car lo senyor o lo c a p ita , per gran a d v e r s ita t que l i v in g a , no deu m ostrar la sua cara t r i s t a per no esraaiar la sua gent.^® ■^M artorell, T ira n t. pp. 26-27 164 l a t e r G uillem , a s a c t in g King, d em on strates th e d u t ie s o f a good m ilit a r y le a d e r and in s p ir e s h is fo llo w e r s by b ein g t h e f i r s t t o ca r ry out a l l u n p lea sa n t o rd ers l i k e d ig g in g d itc h e s and e n te r in g str o n g h o ld s through tu n n e ls . He a ls o r e fu s e s th e o f f e r o f a h o rse when he i s wounded in th e le g s and c o n tin u e s t o h ob b le about w ith th e r e s t o f th e wounded. I t i s e v id e n t everyw here in T ira n t th a t M a r to r e ll c o n s id e r s t h a t a v a lia n t k n ig h t sh o u ld be a good le a d e r . A s ix t e e n t h -c e n tu r y w r it e r o f lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s in r e v is in g Gui de Warewic w ould have d e m ilit a r iz e d th e roman t o remove such unroraantic and u n i d e a l i s t i c d e v ic e s a s th o s e m en tion ed above, and w ould have in d iv id u a liz e d con f l i c t s so a s to a v o id c o n s id e r a tio n s o f group p sy ch o lo g y and le a d e r s h ip . The e p iso d e o f t h e r e l i e f o f Rhodes c o n ta in s o th e r exam ples o f t e c h n ic a l r e a lis m used t o em phasize t h e v e r i s im ilit u d e o f th e f i c t i o n . Rhodes was b e s ie g e d in 1444 by fo r c e s from Egypt. M a r to r e ll im agined how h e w ould have r e lie v e d th e Grand M aster o f th e Order had he b een T ira n t lo B la n c. He had T ira n t u se th e t r i c k w hich Roger de F lo r had used t o 165 r e lie v e M essina accord in g t o Ramon Muntaner*s c h r o n ic le . T irant w a its o u tsid e th e port u n t il th e t id e and th e wind a re stron g and on sh o re. Then he s a i l s h is sh ip r ig h t onto th e beach below th e c a s t l e . The blockading f l e e t , by th e tim e i t r e co g n iz e s th a t th e sh ip i s not one o f t h e ir s , i s unable t o g e t up headway a g a in st th e wind and current t o cut i t o f f . Once on th e beach, th e guns and o th er de fe n se s o f th e c a s t le s h e lt e r th e unloading o f th e v e s s e l . Compare th e fo llo w in g passage from Muntaner w ith th e one from T irant w hich f o llo w s : la c iu t a t esta u a molt d e str e y ta . E fr a r e Roger q u i sa b ia apo, hauia VI g a le e s a paragopa, compran quatre quen hauia e n tr e Ralerm e Trapena de Genouesos, e a x i hach deu g a le e s , e carrega le s a Xacca de fo r - ment, e venchsen a paragopa, e esp era ques m etes fortuna de xaloch o de mig jo r n . E com la fortuna fo , que era ta n t gran, que t o ta la mar nanaua en sanch, que n u l horn no so gosara pensar, q u i no fo s a x i bon m ariner, com e l l , ana a fe r v e la de paragopa, com hach donada part a la nuyt, e a la lb a e l l fo en bocha de Far; e en bocha de Far es la major m arauella d e l mon, com res h i ha durada, com fortun a de xaloch o de mig jo rn h i ha, que le s co r re n ts h i son ta n t gran s, e la mar h i caua ta n t f o r t , que r e s mo h i ha durada: e e l l ab la sua g a lea primera pensa dentrar ab lo s a r t imons b o rts en que hauia f o r a t s . E com l e s g a le e s d e l duch l e s v a eren , t o t e s comensaren a c h iu la r , que v o lg r e n lle u a r lo s fe r r e s , e no pogren. E a x i le s deu g a le e s ab fra re Roger en tra ren a Macina saluament e segura; mas no h i hach n u l horn q u i hagues sobre s i f i l e x u t. E ta n to s t com fo a Macina, feu c r id a r lo forment a X X X ta r in s la salm a, que costau a a e l l mes de IX ta r in s ab le s m essio n s, e pogral vendre a X unces la salm a, s i s v o lg u e s : e a x i Macina 166 fo resta u ra d a , e lenderaa lo duch lle u a s d e l s e ig e , e to m a se n a C a th a n ia .H Hagueren lo ven t m olt prosper, que en quatre d ie s passaren lo g o lf de Vendcia e foren en v i s t a de Rodes, e anaren a l c a s t e l l de Sant Rare e aq ul su rg iren per esp era r ven t que fo s un poc fo r tu n a l. E T ira n t, a c o n s e ll de dos m ariners que de sa te r r a h avia p o r ta ts, q u i amaven m olt la honor su a, com v eren lo v en t l l a r - guer e bo, en la n it donaren v e la , e de m atl, apuntant l* a lb a , e l l s fo ren en v i s t a de Rodes, m olt prop. Com le s naus de genovesos v eren a q u e lla nau v e n ir , pensaren que era una de dues que h avien tram eses per p ortar v i t u a l le s per a l camp, e v e ie n de lle v a n t (e ) no podien pensar que neguna a lt r a nau tin g u £ s a t r e v i- ment de v e n ir en mig de ta n te s naus com en lo port e sta v e n . Ia nau s 'a c o s ta , e com fo n prop d 'e ll e s carrega de ta n te s v e le s com podia portar; en 3 9 0 conegueren lo s gen ovesos, e en lo g a lip de la nau, que no era de le s s u e s , (e ) p osaren -se en orde d e l que pogueren. Qnpero la nau lo s fon ta n prop que neguna nau no pogu£ a l 9 ar v e la , e aquesta a v e le s p len es passa per mig de t o t e s le s naus a l llu r d e s p it; empero e l l s fo ren ben s e r v it s de lla n c e s e de passadors e de m olts c o lp s de borabardes e de t o t lo que en la mar s 'u s a . E T irant mana a l tiraoner e a l nauxer que no v o lt a s s e n la nau, s in 6 que donassen la proa en te r r a en dret de la c iu t a t en un a ren a l que h i ha pegat ab la m u ralla. E a v e le s p len es donaren alii.. The two p assages a re s im ila r ex cep t th a t Brother R oger's te n sh ip s co u ld bring enough su p p lie s to d iscou rage th e s ie g e r s , w h ile T ir a n t's sh ip cou ld o n ly buy a d ela y . ^Ramon Munteiner, Chronik des Edlen en Ramon Mun- ta n e r (L L terarischen V erein s, V II) (S tu ttg a r t: 1844), p. 353. 12 M a rto rell, T ira n t. ed . M artin de Riquer, p. 248. 167 T ira n t u se s th e d e la y t o d em o ra lize th e b e s ie g e r s w ith a sneaky a tta c k so t h a t , c o n fr o n te d by h is m ilit a r y w iza rd ry and th e com ing o f w in te r , th e y d e c id e t o w ithdraw . He burns th e f la g s h ip o f th e Genoese f l e e t m y s te r io u s ly in th e dead o f n i g h t . He has a swimmer p ass a rope through one o f th e r in g s in th e rudder below th e w a t e r lin e . The d ou b le l in e i s th e n c a r r ie d t o sh o r e . A b arge f u l l o f p itc h and k in d lin g i s a tta c h e d t o one end o f th e lin e and drawn fla m in g a g a in s t th e s t e r n o f th e f la g s h ip . The s h ip burns and th e rop e i s r e co v e red s o th a t th e m arin ers in th e h a r b or do n ot u nd erstan d how th e s h ip was s e t on f i r e . la t e r , T ira n t a tta c k s a company o f r e t r e a t in g Moors w ith a c r o s s bow and p o iso n ed a rrow s. The Moors a re on fo o t and T ira n t i s m ounted. A fte r each sh o t h e r id e s away, r e lo a d s h is crossbow and r id e s back fo r a n o th er s h o t. Thus he k i l l s Moors u n t i l he runs out o f p o iso n ed arrow s. T r ic k e r y , in g e n u ity , and in tr ig u e a r e p l e n t i f u l in t h i s e p is o d e . B efore T ira n t a r r iv e s on th e is la n d , some G enoese members o f th e Order r e p la c e a l l th e p r o j e c t i l e s in th e armory w ith in g e n io u s c o p ie s made o f c h e e se or so a p . A member o f th e Order le a r n s o f th e G enoese p lo t when a lad y o f th e town i n v it e s him t o h er h ouse fo r some amorous p le a s u r e and 168 rep ea ts what a Genoese adm irer has to ld h er. This ep iso d e i s not t y p ic a l o f an adventure from a lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s . but i t i s a c a b a lle r ia sin c e T ira n t, a Knight o f th e G arter, comes to th e rescu e o f th e Knights o f th e Order o f Saint John o f Jerusalem . T his i s c h iv a lr y in th e s e r v ic e o f th e church and in a id o f th e needy and op p ressed . The d iffe r e n c e i s th a t i t i s a r e a l i s t i c adventure o f c h iv a lr y s in c e th e Order had in tr u th been a tta ch ed o n ly a decade b e fo r e th e f i c t i o n was w r itte n , th e s t r a t e g ie s imagined to s o lv e th e problem had been used s u c c e s s f u lly in s im ila r s it u a t io n s , and th e s o c ia l e n v ir o n ment in which th e ev en ts ta k e p lace corresponds to th e fa sh io n in contemporary lit e r a t u r e to p ortray s o c ie t y h u m a n istic a lly . T iran t*s v ic t o r ie s a r e not a l l m ilit a r y or n a v a l. During th e p eriod in which th e new knight proves h im se lf and e s ta b lis h e s h is r e p u ta tio n a t the Court o f th e King o f England, he f ig h t s a g ia n t, a b e a s t, and a number o f e q u a lly form idable but le s s s e n s a tio n a l opponents. The g ia n t, Tomas de Muntalba, i s not a m agical g ia n t, ju s t a b ig man. T iran t reaches t o h is w a is t. Tomas g iv e s T irant a f r ig h t f u l drubbing because o f h is su p erio r 169 str e n g th but T irant su cceed s in d ragging th e b a t t le out u n t i l th e g ia n t ' s wind f a l l s . T ira n t* s major e x c e lle n c e i s th a t he has stam ina and endurance. In th e fo llo w in g passage we s e e how T ira n t f i n a l l y brought th e b a t t l e to a c o n c lu sio n ; Com lo c a v a lie r hagui cobrat s e s armes, torn aren a la b a t a lla , m olt m 6 s brava que no era e s ta d a , e d aven -se lo s c o lp s m olt fe r s sen s p ie t a t a lg u n a . E T irant t 6 aq u esta v i r t u t , que no e s pot perdre jam6 s per al& , que 1 1 dura ta n t com v o l; e l ' a l t r e c a v a lie r , a i x l com era gran e g r o s , te n ia m olt poc a le e m o ltes v o lt e s 1 1 f a l l i a ; e re p o sa v a 's so b re l'a t x a per r e - cobrar a l e . T iran t conegud lo d e f a lt que l ' a l t r e te n ia e no e l d eixava reposar perqu& e s ca n sa s, e l ' a l t r a , perque e s desagn&s, t e n i a ' 1 a noves, una v o lta a c o s ta n t-s e m olt a e l l , a lt r a s e n 'a p a r ta v a , en ta n t que lo pobre de c a v a lie r f e l a son gran esfo r ^ de dar grans c o lp s ta n m ortals com podia; empero a la f i , per la sang que perduda havia e per d e fa llim e n t de l*al& , que no 1 1 ajudava, vengu 6 en punt que le s cames no e l p odlen s o s t e n ir . . . . prestam ent T iran t 11 fon d essfts. AI9 & -H la c a r e ts d e l b a c in e t e posa - 1 1 lo punyal en l ' u l l per raatar-lo, . . . ^ T h is i s not a p o e t ic a lly rom antic v ic t o r y su ch as m ight be ex p ec ted o f a lib r o de c a b a lle r la s . but I t i s th e p r a c t ic a l k in d o f v ic t o r y which a rom antic young k n igh t m ight dream o f w in n in g. The dreamer o f th e s e r e a l i s t i c combats a ls o co n sid e r s th e consequences o f wounds. The ^ M a r to r e ll, T ir a n t. ed . M artin de R iquer, p. 198. 170 knigh ts o f th e lib r o s do c a b a lle r la s o fte n recover from a c r ip p lin g array o f n ea rly f a t a l wounds w ith in a sen ten ce or two. T irant i s u su a lly t e r r ib ly s ic k w ith h is . Once w h ile a t th e Court o f th e King o f Ehgland, he and th e Senhor de V ileserm es had a fig h t w ith butcher knives over a la d y 's tok en . Doth k n igh ts c o lla p s e d from lo s s o f b lo o d . V ileserm es died on th e spot and T irant was thought to be dead. Timely f i r s t - a i d by th e lad y in q u es tio n and p e r s is te n t and s k i l l f u l care fo r th e f i r s t few days saved him, however, so th a t a year la t e r he was up and around. In th e fo llo w in g passage th e B e lla Agn&s ta k es charge a t th e s i t e o f th e b a t t le : . . . C a v a liers, lo s q u i amau a T ira n t, ie ta n poc e s fo r 9 m ostrau devers lo v o s tr e bon amic e parent, que a i x i e l d eixau passar d 'e s ta v id a per cu lp a de v o s a lt r e s ? A ix i morr&, que jau en la te r r a fred a e to t s e dessagna. S i m ija hora e s ta , no l i r e sta r a sang a l c o s. — Senyora, que v o le u que fapam? - - d ix un cava l i e r — . Que lo Rei ha manat, s o t s pena de m ort, no s ia negtft q u i lo s gos to c a r n i lle v a r - lo s d ' a l l i . —A i raesquina! —d ix la b e lla Agn&s— . N ostre Senyor no v o l la mort d el pecador, e v o lr a - la lo R ei? F e u -li p ortar un H i t en que e s t ig a la sua persona e posem -lo a l i i f in s a ta n t que lo R ei haja tin g u t con c o n s e ll, ca r lo v en t l i en tra per le s n a fres e f a - l i m olt gran dan. D esp u lla 's le s robes que v e s t i a , q u i era de v e l lu t a t blanc forrad es de m arts g e b e lin s , e £6 u - le s posar en te r r a , e f£u posar a T irant sobra la ropa 171 e pregA a m o lte s do lo s su os d o n z e llc s so d o s p u lla s s e n lo s rob os o l e s p o sa sso n sobro T ir a n t. Com T irant s e n t l la c a lo r do la roba trobA gran rem ol o o b r l lo s u l l s . . . . 1 4 The amount o£ sp a ce g iv e n t o wounds, I l l n e s s e s , and s u r g ic a l o r m e d ica l rem ed ies in T ira n t i s fu r th e r e v id e n c e th a t M a r to r e ll w anted h is dream romance t o o ccu r in a r e a l i s t i c w o rld . That he d id n ot d e s c r ib e b eggars or le p e r s , in d ic a t e s w hich a s p e c ts o f r e a l i t y im pressed him a s n e c e ssa r y t o make h is w orld v e r is im il a r . The r e a lis m o f T lr a n t's b a t t l e w ith a b e a st seem s alm ost a parody on th e u s u a l combat w ith str a n g e and f e a r some a n im a ls. The P rin ce o f W ales, an a rd en t huntsman, h as a r r iv e d w ith a number o f g ia n t m a s t i f f s . One o f th e se a tta c k s T ira n t as he p a s s e s th e P r in c e 's t e n t s . When T ira n t dism ounts and draws h is sw ord, th e dog r e t r e a t s . As soon a s T ira n t m ounts th e dog a tta c k s a g a in . The ftrince i s amused and o rd ers t h a t no one I n t e r f e r e . T ira n t r e a l iz e s th a t th e dog fe a r s h is sword, so he t o s s e s i t a s id e . The dog a tta c k s him . Both man and dog f ig h t w ith t h e ir t e e t h . T iran t i s v e r y b a d ly b it t e n on th e arms and le g s and i s knocked down th r e e tim es by t h e h eavy m a s t if f , but ^4 I b id . . pp. 1 4 3 -1 4 4 . 172 ho f i n a l l y su cceed s in b it in g i t in th o th ro a t w hich h i l l s i t . The Princo ia no lo n g er amused and T iran t has made a pow erful enemy. As T iran t i s b ein g d octored th e r e i s t h i s ex ch a n g e: --B a r la mia f e - - d ix lo p rln cep do G a le s --, j o no v o lg u e r a , c a v a lie r , per la m illo r v i l a d*A n glaterra, v 6 s hagudsseu mort lo meu alh, - - Senyor - - d ix T ir a n t - - , a i x l D < 5 u me d e ix c g u a rir d 'a q u e ste s n a fr e s que t i n e , per la m ita t d e l v o s tr o h e r e ta tg e no v o lr ia e s t a r en lo punt quo e s t i c . 5 T iran t i s q u ite b i t t e r about th e a f f a i r but th e f i e l d ju d g es, who have w atched th e combat, r u le th a t s in c e T iran t abandoned h is sword and fought th e dog w ith eq u a l arms, he sh ou ld r e c e iv e a s g rea t an honor as though he had d e fe a te d a k n igh t in th e l i s t s . C onsequently, h era ld s are se n t to spread th e news o f T ira n t* s g lo r io u s achievem ent throughout th e c i t y and h is fame i s g r e a t ly enhanced. I f T ira n t* s s in g le combats a re co m p a ra tiv ely human iz e d and r e a l i s t i c , some o f h is m ilit a r y accom plishm ents are in deed f a n t a s t ic a l l y d a z z lin g . Odds a re som etim es a hundred t o one and y et T iran t w ins a v ic t o r y . M a rto r ell* s m ilit a r y f a n t a s ie s r e v e a l h is f a s c in a t io n w ith th e m ilit a r y h is t o r ie s w hich w ere th e pabulum o f th e fo u r te e n th - and 15I b id . . p. 150. 173 fifte o n th -c o n tu r y m ilita r y n o b le s. H is to r ie s o f rccon t m ilita r y su c c e sse s wore a v a ila b le in ch ro n iclo o and many o f th oso wore fir s t-h a n d a cc o u n ts. The r e v iv a l o f in to r o s t in c l a s s i c a l lit e r a t u r e during th e f if t e e n t h centu ry brought c l a s s i c a l m ilita r y h is t o r y to th e a tte n tio n o f th e amateur. Tho parsonages o f th e Matloro do Bretagne aro mentioned freq u en tly in T ir a n t. but not in r e la t io n to any fe a t o f arms. They aro u s u a lly m entioned because o f t h e ir fame as lo v e r s . A lexander, Hannibal, S c ip io , Caesar, Pdmpey, e t c . are m entioned in co n n ectio n w ith some m ilita r y o p era tio n : a v ic to r y or a d is a s t e r . M a rto ro ll’ s adm iration o f th e g reat m ilita r y lea d ers o f a n tiq u ity and o f th o fe a ts o f th e Aragonese and C atalans recorded over th e previous two hundred years, may have convinced him th a t in war m ira cles d id indeed happen; th a t th e o n ly m iraculous knights were th o se who a ch iev ed great and unexpected m ili ta r y or n aval v i c t o r i e s . However, w h ile adapting some w e ll-r eco r d e d recen t o p era tio n s, he f e l t o b lig ed t o make th e h is to r y seem more c r e d ib le by fin d in g a lo g ic a l ex p la n a tio n fo r improbable v i c t o r i e s . In some in sta n c e s he in s e r ts o b serv a tio n s on d isc r e p a n c ie s o f armor or eq u ip ment. U su ally he r e la t e s how some t r ic k , which succeeded 174 In c o n fu sin g or d em o ra lizin g a c r i t i c a l enemy fo r c e , tu rn ed th e t id e o f b a t t l e . O ften s u r p r is e i s g iv e n c r e d it fo r u p s e ttin g a g r e a t ly s u p e r io r army. He se ek s t o overcom e in t h i s way th e e x a g g e r a tio n in numbers o f enemy tr o o p s reco rd ed in th e c h r o n ic le s . S e v e r a l s t u d ie s have been made o f th e t h ir t e e n t h - and fo u r te e n th -c e n tu r y c h r o n ic le s t o d eterm in e how many com batants w ere a c t u a lly engaged in th e b a t t le s d e s c r ib e d . A ll e s tim a te s in d ic a t e th a t th e number o f enemy tr o o p s w ere u s u a lly g r e a t ly e x a g g e ra ted . How e v e r , had M a r to r e ll sim p ly reduced op p osin g arm ies t o re a so n a b le p r o p o r tio n s , T ir a n t's v i c t o r i e s m ight have seem ed t r i f l i n g t o a p u b lic c o n d itio n e d by e x a g g e r a tio n . Not a l l o f th e engagem ents seem f a n t a s t i c . The n a v a l b a t t l e in w hich th e Grand Caramani i s cap tu red seem s q u it e m odem in i t s o b se r v a tio n o f d e t a i l and o b je c t iv e to n e . T ira n t c a p tu r e s se v en G enoese s h ip s u n load in g su p p l i e s fo r th e Turks in a n ear-b y s e a p o r t. W hile r e tu r n in g t o C o n sta n tin o p le w ith th e p r iz e , a T urkish p r iso n e r ■^Ferran S o ld e v ila , Jaume I . fe r e E l Gran, e l s gra n s r e i s d e l s e g le X I I ! (B a rcelo n a : T e id e, 1955), p. 125. 175 e x p la in s th a t ev ery o n e in th e sea p ort was e x p e c tin g th e a r r iv a l o f th e Grand Caramani and th e Ring o f S o v ereig n In d ia w ith a g r e a t f l e e t . T ira n t fs s h ip s w ere m ista k en fo r s h ip s o f t h i s f l e e t and t h a t i s why th e y w ere a b le t o e n te r th e port u n r e s is t e d . The Grand Caramani i s b r in g in g h is d augh ter t o be wed t o th e S u lta n and he i s c a r r y in g a g r e a t tr e a s u r e in w edding f in e r y . He a ls o i s accom panied by many o th e r b r id e s w ith t h e i r r ic h e s who a re t o be wed t o o f f i c e r s o f th e S u lta n in a g r e a t w edding c e le b r a t io n . The Grand Caramani i s coming w ith a la r g e armada b ecau se he has heard th a t a d e v il o f a Frenchman i s about who h as won a l l k in d s o f b a t t l e s a g a in s t th e Turks and p la n s t o im preg n a te th e P r in ce ss and th e Empress and k i l l th e Emperor, a s i s th e custom w ith Frenchmen. "Oh, su ch bad in d iv id u a ls I" sa y s th e Turk. " I f we Turks and C h r istia n s l e t him l i v e any lo n g e r he w i l l make h im s e lf E nperor." When th e Turk d is c o v e r s th a t i t i s T ira n t t o whom he h as been t a lk in g , he f a l l s on h is k n ees e x p e c tin g in s ta n t e x e c u tio n but T ira n t la u g h s h e a r t i ly , pardons him , and g iv e s him a g i f t sa y in g , "Donar a l s m als perque d ig u en b£, donar a l bons perque no d ig u en m a l." l a t e r when T ira n t and h is m arin ers a r e lo o k in g fo r a way t o ca p tu re th e 176 Grand Caramani, th e Turk reminds T iran t th a t th e Turkish f l e e t has an alm ost s u p e r s t it io u s fe a r o f him and m ight panic e a s i l y . T his su g g e sts a plan to T ir a n t. A lookout sh ip sta n d in g o f f sh ore s ig n a ls when th e T urkish f l e e t appears and T ir a n t's f l e e t makes ready. Near dusk, th e seven captured Genoese v e s s e ls and T ir a n t's f i v e b ig sh ip s s a i l out one a f t e r th e o th e r , th e la s t coming out ju s t a t dark. In th e dark, a l l th e f is h in g b oats and sm a lle r v e s s e l s in th e harbor fo llo w th e sh ip s m a in ta in in g th e same sp a cin g and order as th e la r g e r v e s s e l s . Each c a r r ie s a la n te r n on a p o le or a mast a t about th e same h eig h t as th e lig h t s o f th e s h ip s . The s ig h t o f th e tw e lv e sh ip s does not im press th e armada w hich reform s t o ca p tu re them, but when th e y se e what appears t o be th e lig h t s o f some se v e n ty -fo u r s h ip s , th e armada tu rn s about and d i s p e r s e s, each sh ip running fo r a fr ie n d ly p o r t. T irant fo llo w s th e sh ip o f th e Grand Caramani and in th e morning i t i s th e o n ly s h ip in s ig h t . He c lo s e s w ith th e T urkish sh ip and th e y b e g in h o s t i l i t i e s . The fo llo w in g p assage i s a t r a n s la t io n o f th e n a r r a tiv e o f th e b a t t l e . The f ig h t in g was a s to n is h in g ly f i e r c e . The Turks h u rled so many s to n e s th a t i t was d i f f i c u l t t o g et around 177 on deck and any man h it by one o f th e se was a man down, however w e ll armed he might b e. T irant c a r r ie d many un p ro tected crossbowmen which in th e f i r s t a s s a u lt were wounded or k i l l e d . I cannot im agine how any boat would dare come along s id e such a sh ip , but th ey d id and both v e s s e ls put down boarding planks and locked th em selves s e c u r e ly to g eth e r so th a t now th e y cou ld not lea v e i f th e y w ish ed . T ir a n t's sh ip had one im portant advantage. Almost a l l th e r e s t o f th e company wore armor—m a il, b r e a s tp la te s , and h elm ets—and as soon as one o f them was k ille d or wounded, he was undressed and someone e l s e was put in to h is armor. They d id p len ty o f damage by la n c in g heavy ir o n rods from th e m asthead. A fter th e f i r s t a s s a u lt th ey a l l took th e space o f about a h a lf-h o u r t o r e s t . Then having r e fr esh ed th e com b a ta n ts, th ey retu rn ed t o b a t t le fe r o c io u s ly w ith each o th e r . The Turks threw lim e dust t o b lin d th e o th e r s, th en th ey threw b o ilin g o i l on them. Both s id e s threw b o ilin g p itc h and th e b a t t le con tinu ed w ith ou t pause n igh t and day. There was no r e s t a t a l l , ju s t co n tin u a l f ig h t in g . Many d ied on both sh ip s and th e re were so many broken la n c e s , s h ie ld s , arrow s, j a v e lin s , q u a r r e ls, and b o lts f lo a tin g 178 on th e w ater th a t when dead b o d ies were thrown over th e s id e th e y d id not sin k but remained high and dry. Now le t us lea v e th e se people f ig h tin g and se e what the oth er k n ig h ts are d oin g. The o th er e le v e n sh ip s lo s t sig h t o f th e Captain because he ordered th e lig h t put out on h is sh ip , but th ey cou ld se e t e n Turkish sh ip s a t about a cannon-shot d is ta n c e , so each picked out one and attack ed i t . H ip o lit chose not t o approach any o f them but stood by w atching th e b a t t le . He n o tic e d th a t B an tanela's sh ip was in se r io u s tr o u b le and th a t many Turks were a lrea d y on board and had th e upper hand. H ip o lit came a lo n g sid e th e enemy sh ip and, because most o f th e Turks had boarded th e o th e r sh ip and had captured a l l but th e poop, he and h is men got on board p r a c t ic a lly unopposed. There th e y sla u g h tered a l l th e Turks and Genoese th e y found and threw them in to th e s e a . Then he went t o th e a s s is ta n c e o f th e Senyor de la Ranta- n ela and h is h elp was ju s t th e r ig h t m edicine; i t r e sto r e d courage, r e v iv ed th e fig h tin g s p i r i t , and made th e fa in t o f h ea rt brave a g a in . I t was agreed by everyone t o have been v er y tim e ly a c tio n . Q uickly he retu rn ed t o h is own sh ip and went on t o h elp whoever had most need o f him. 179 The Senyor de R antanela, when he saw t h a t th e r e w ere no Turks l e f t on th e T u rk ish v e s s e l , d iv id e d h is com pany betw een th e two s h ip s . Then he s e t s a i l a f t e r th e s h ip s w hich w ere t r y in g t o esca p e and c a tc h in g up w ith one a tta c k e d i t . W hile th e y w ere f ig h t in g th e ca p tu red s h ip caught up and came a lo n g s id e . Itm nediately th e Turk s u r ren d ered so th a t R antanela now had th r e e s h ip s . In t h i s manner w ith e le v e n s h ip s and two b o a ts th e y ca p tu red fo u r t e e n s h ip s and w recked tw o o th e r s w h ich th e y ca u sed t o run aground. The r e s t o f th e armada e sc a p e d . Now l e t us s e e how T iran t i s d o in g w ith th o s e whom h e i s f i g h t i n g . B egin n in g a t m idday, th e y fou gh t a l l t h a t n ig h t and t i l l su n se t th e n ex t d ay. T w enty-seven a s s a u lt s w ere d e liv e r e d . T ir a n t, u n a s s is t e d , d e liv e r e d t e r r i b l e b lo w s, h avin g put a l l c a u tio n a s id e . "I d o n 't c a r e what happens t o me now," h e s a id . " I ’m g o in g t o ta k e th a t s h ip o r d ie t r y in g ." During th e f ig h t in g T ira n t was wounded in th e arm by a crossb ow q u a r r e l and l a t e r , when he t r i e d t o go from th e s t e r n t o th e bow, th e y h it him in th e th ig h w ith an arrow . The Turks in d e sp e r a tio n t r i e d t o jump o n to th e f o r e c a s t l e deck, but a s f a s t a s th e y came on board th e y 180 w ere t o s s e d In to th e s e a . When th e Grand Caramani saw th a t h i s p eo p le w ere w eakening, he had h is tr e a s u r e c h e s t w ith a l l th e money, j e w e ls , and r ic h c lo th in g brought up. N ext, he had h is daughter put on a gown a l l brocaded in g o ld . A rope made o f s i l k and g o ld was t i e d around her neck and th e o th e r end was t i e d t o th e c h e s t f u l l o f je w e ls and a l l th e o th e r r ic h e s . Then he threw them to g e th e r in t o t h e s e a . A fte r t h a t , he threw overboard a l l th e o th e r la d ie s and dam sels who w ere on th e s h ip and w ith th e King o f S o v ereig n In d ia went b elow . In th e room w here th e d augh ter had sta y e d , th e y covered t h e i r heads and la y down on h er bed t o w a it fo r d e a t h .^ Our humane T ira n t n e a r ly k i l l s h is p r iso n e r s w ith k in d n e ss. He i n s i s t s th a t th e y p a r t ic ip a t e w ith honors a t h is v ic t o r y c e le b r a t io n . Some e p is o d e s in th e n o v e l, su ch a s th e one j u s t d e sc r ib e d , resem b le e p is o d e s from some c h r o n ic le more th a n t a l e s o f c h iv a lr y , but th e y a r e t a l e s o f c h iv a lr y , cab a- H e r l a s . in t h a t th e y i l l u s t r a t e how a good k n ig h t sh o u ld 17 'W r ite r’ s t r a n s la t io n o f M a r to r e ll, T ir a n t. e d . M artin de R iquer, pp. 5 3 4 -5 3 7 . 181 conduct h im self in war ju s t as oth er romances i l l u s t r a t e ch iv a lro u s conduct in tournam ents, in cou rt, and in th e company o f la d ie s . The exem plary v a lu e o f M a r to r e ll’ s d id a c tic s o fte n draws c r it ic is m when he i l l u s t r a t e s conduct in a la d y ’ s bedroom. Men6 ndez y Be layo, who g e n e r a lly con sid ered T iran t su p erio r to o th er books o f c h iv a lr y , had t h i s to say about th e love sc e n es: No o6 lo m o d ifie s e l se n tld o d e l herolsm o, y en e s to merece alabanza, sin o que catnbia rad icalm ente e l con cept o d e l amor, y aq ul resb a la de lle n o en la m£s baja e s p e c ie de sen su allsm o. Tambi£n 61 ha q uerido hacer de T iran te y Cannesina una pareja modelo de le a le s enamorados, pero la s s itu a c io n e s en que lo s co lo ca no son mds que un p retex to para cuadros la s c iv o s . . . . A dvidrtase que M a rto rell d escrib e tod as e s ta s escen a s s in c o r r e c tiv o algu no, an tes b ie n con e s p e c ia l f r u i c i6 n. ° Jos6 Maria C apdevila w r itin g , around 1924, and r e fe r r in g t o th e lo v e s to r y o f T irant and Carraesina sa y s: A quell f e s t e i g 6a una tnescla d 'e s p e r it de c a v a lle r ia i d'indec& ncia. No 6 s g a ir e m illo r n i g a ir e p it j o r B occaccio. En e l Decamerone e l se n t i t m oral d e ls p erson atges gairebd mai no fa cap r e sist& n c ia ; en Eti M a rto rell h i ha una mena d '& tica c a v a lle r e s c a en la f i d e l i t a t d e ls dos promesos: orabra d ’fetica que no ^ to r c e lin o Men6 ndez y Balayo, O rleenes de la n o v ela (Nueva B ib lio te c a de Autores E sp an oles) (Madrid: B a ille y B a i llie r e , 1905), I, 400. 182 s a lv a ros d in e la r e fin a d a im m oralltat da la c o r e , on la p n sst6 I I ’ i n s t i n t o 'o n tr a to n a n an f a n t a s ie s llb ld ln o s o e quo tra sp u o n en lo s e ltu a c lo n a 1 on lo s c o n v e r s e s • Sota aquost a sp o c to 6 s mds Immoral a q u o sta part d o l T iran t l o Plane quo o l D ocnmorono i . . . 1 9 M artin do R iquer w r it in g In 1947 s a y s : Xbro qulzA no so ha i n s l s t l d o b a sta n to on c io r t o a sp o c to do la ob scon id ad d o l T ira n t que no h ab rla quo o lv id a r : q u ie r o d e c lr quo dotorm inadas oscon as lib id in o s a s quo ta n crudamonto aparocon on la n o v e la , parecon obodocer a un o s p l r l t u , mds quo p erv o rso , b rom lsta y a lo g r e . Observemos quo dotorm inados mo- m entos do su b id a inm oralIdad van acompaffados de lo s d o n a ires y agu d ezas de Plaerdem avida, quo lo s da un acentu ado to n o h u m o r is tic o . ^ I f M a r to r e ll i s t o bo co n sld o ro d a member o f th o m i l i t a r y n o b i l it y , perhaps ho w ro te th o k in d o f n o v e l w h ich he thou ght k n ig h ts o f th e day w ould l i k e t o rea d . At l e a s t , he w ro te what he th ou gh t e n t e r t a in in g . The k n ig h t erra n t o f th e fo u r te e n th and f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s was a p r o f e s s io n a l s o l d i e r , an e x p e r t c a p ta in , who en jo y ed fame but fo u g h t fo r m oney. Du G u e sc lin and Roger de F lo r w ere b o th f i n e exam ples o f t h i s t y p e . The form er le d th e Grandes Comnagnies t o Spain t o keep them from ravagin g ^ M a r to r e ll, T ir a n t. e d . E ls N o stres C la s s ic s , I n t r o ., p. 15. " ^ M a rto rell, Tir a n t . e d . M artin de R iquer, I n t r o ., p. 9 7 . 183 th e c o u n tr y s id e , th e l a t t e r to o k h is alm ogavors t o Con s t a n t in o p le from S i c i l y fo r th e same re a so n . H enri P irenne s a y s : The lit e r a t u r e o f th e ch an sons de g e s te came to an end or was r e w r it te n . What men o f t h i s c l a s s read was n a r r a tiv e s o f cam paigns, fo u g h t fo r no m a tter what or whom, but y ie ld in g handsome p r o f i t s , and th e r e must be f e a s t in g and women, a s d e sc r ib e d by F r o is s a r t . * • Both Du G u e sc lin and Roger de F lo r w ere rom anti c iz e d by la t e r g e n e r a tio n s , but from th e c h r o n ic le s i t appears th a t t h e i r e x p lo it s accom p lish ed ta s k s fo r w hich th e y w ere h ir e d . A p e r u sa l o f F r o is s a r t or Muntaner does r e v e a l th a t by th e fo u r te e n th c e n tu r y C h r is tia n id e a lism 22 had l i t t l e in flu e n c e on e x p lo it s o f c h iv a lr y . In r e v is in g or r o m a n tic iz in g th e c h r o n ic le s , Mar t o r e l l in tro d u ce d id e o lo g ic a l in s t r u c t io n w h erever p os s i b l e , u s u a lly in th e form o f serm ons or m oral d ia lo g u e s ^ •* ~ A H isto r y o f Europe (New York: D oubleday, 1 9 5 8 ), I I , 110. 22 In Muntaner, Ch. 2 2 8 , t h e read er le a r n s th a t b oth Greeks and C atalan s u sed T u rk ish tr o o p s t o f ig h t each o th e r . M untaner, Chronik des E dlen. pp. 4 0 4 -4 0 5 . In F r o is s a r t , F ir s t Book, Ch. 497, Innocent VI r e c r u ite d k n ig h ts t o cru sa d e a g a in s t th e Companies, b u t when th e s e k n ig h ts le a r n ed t h a t th e y w ere t o be p aid in a b s o lu tio n s , many jo in e d t h e Com panies. J . F r o is s a r t , C hronioues (S o c iltA de I 'H is t o ir e de F ra n ce) ( I h r is : Renouard, 1 8 7 6 ), VI, 7 3 -7 4 . 184 in w hich th o id e a ls o f c h iv a lr y a re a ffir m e d , e x p la in e d , or i l l u s t r a t e d . He ch o se t o om it th e r e l i g i o u s m ir a c le s reco u n ted by Muntaner, p o s s ib ly b eca u se th e y w ere c o n tr a r y t o h is d e s ir e t o have th e n a r r a tiv e seem l o g i c a l as w e ll as f a c t u a l. He added, in s p ir e d by R en aissan ce so u rc e s l i k e B o c c a c c io , some humorous e a r th y e p is o d e s w hich he b e lie v e d w ould make th e n o v el more n a tu r a l, e n t e r t a in in g , and c r e d ib le . Were i t not fo r th e s e piquant p a ssa g e s , th e n o v e l w ould n ot have en jo y ed a s much a t t e n t io n a s i t has r e c e iv e d from th e n o n - s p e c ia lis t p u b lic o v er th e y e a r s , b ecau se n e a r ly h a lf th e n o v el c o n s is t s o f f if t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r h e to r ic and d e s c r ip tio n s o f f if t e e n t h - c e n t u r y cerem ony w hich th e a v era g e r e a d e r w ould n ot fin d e n t e r t a in in g . W ithout th e som etim es t i t i l l a t i n g and u s u a lly humorous lo v e e p is o d e s , th e o th e r a d v en tu res o f th e h ero a re perhaps le s s e x c it in g , l e s s d ra m a tic, l e s s packed w ith a c t io n th a n th e c h r o n ic le s o r a d ven tu re n o v e ls w hich in s p ir e d them . A sumnary o f th e lo v e s t o r y , w ith i t s m ix tu re o f c h iv a lr o u s e t i q u e t t e and o b s c e n ity , w i l l i l l u s t r a t e how i t adds humor and r e a lis m w hich c o n tr a s t sh a r p ly w ith th e e x tr a o r d in a r y a b i l i t y o f th e h e r o and th e s e n te n tio u s id e a lis m o f some p a s s a g e s . 185 When T ira n t m eets Carm esina, th e d a u g h ter o f th e Enperor o f C o n sta n tin o p le , he i s wounded by lo v e ' s arrow . That i s , he cannot s le e p o r e a t , s ig h s day and n ig h t , i s f e v e r is h , dreamy, o r ab sen t-m in d ed . He som etim es has alarm in g f i t s o f d e s p a ir or sin k s in t o a deep d e p r e s s io n . The P rin ce ss Carmesina i s a ls o p a s s io n a te ly in lo v e w ith T ira n t and p in e s fo r him, f a in t s a t th e m en tion o f h is name, o r e l s e b lu s h e s sh a m e fu lly . She, how ever, c o n sid e r s th a t th e p r e s e r v a tio n o f h er v i r g i n i t y i s h er most impor ta n t d u ty t o h er f a th e r , t o th e Empire, t o h er fu tu r e husband, and sh e d efen d s her p o s it io n w ith e r u d it e a p p e a ls , t e a r s , t h r e a t s , and s c r e e c h e s . T ir a n t, as o f te n a s p o s s i b l e , begs h er t o g iv e him peace and p rom ises t o do her b id d in g fo r e v e r fo r a l i t t l e c o n s o la t io n and r e p o s e . Each tim e th e P rin ce ss g iv e s him some hope and sen d s him o f f t o w in back some o f th e Empire from th e T urks. When T ira n t r e tu r n s e x t r a o r d in a r ily s u c c e s s f u l from t h e s e cam paigns, th e P rin ce ss r e c e iv e s him warm ly, w h ets h is a p p e t it e , o f f e r s hope o f e v e r g r e a te r d e lig h t s , and sen d s him o f f t o war a g a in . The P r in c e s s ' m a id s -in -w a itin g , E s te fa n ia and Plaerdem vida, c o n tr iv e t o h e lp T ir a n t sed u ce h e r , o s te n s i b l y out o f com p assion f o r t h i s w retch ed , n a iv e , lo v e s ic k 186 m ale. Four tim es one or th e o th er arranges fo r T irant to v i s i t Carmesina la t e a t n ig h t. The f i r s t tim e he i s checked in h is p ro ject by h er arguments which appeal t o h is ch iv a lr o u s sen se o f honor and r e s p e c t. The piquancy o f th e scen e d eriv es from th e c o n tr a st between th e scen e and th e sp ee ch es. On th e second o cc a sio n , Carmesina i s le s s s u c c e s s fu l w ith reason in g and r e s o r ts to te a r s and p i t i f u l lam en tation . The th ir d tim e, having been coached by Flaerdemavida, T irant i s d eaf t o a l l e n tr e a ty , but a sc ree ch from th e P rin cess awakens her nurse who pounds on th e door and a le r t s th e Emperor. T irant i s o b lig ed t o go out a window and breaks h is le g . F in a lly , s e v e r a l years la t e r , when he has g lo r io u s ly saved th e Empire from immi nent d is a s te r and as a consequence has been named Caesar o f th e Empire and B etrothed o f th e P rin cess, Plaerdemavida g e ts him in to bed w ith Carmesina once more. This tim e, in s p it e o f argum ents, te a r s , and o th er r e s is t a n c e , he su cceed s in " enterin g th e c a s t le ," as M a rto rell puts i t . In a l l th e s e scen es T ira n t, th e v a lia n t and cour teo u s ca p ta in , i s a r id ic u lo u s and p a th e tic m ale; p a ssio n co n fu ses h is n oble id e a lism and d estro y s h is b a t t l e f i e l d cunning. Plaerdemavida i s a w it t y p rankster who encourages 187 n a u g h tin e ss In o th e r s w h ile rem ainin g w is e and v ir tu o u s h e r s e l f . Berhaps t h e most memorable c h a r a c te r in th e n o v e l, Plaerdem avida p la y s a sm a ll part a s id e from th e d is a s tr o u s lo v e s c e n e s . A fte r T ir a n t's f i r s t n o c tu r n a l v i s i t , sh e d e s c r ib e s th e e v e n ts o f th e amorous en co u n ter in g r e a t d e t a i l t o th e P rin cess and E s te fa n ia , who was w ith th e P r in c e ss a t th e tim e . She p reten d s th a t sh e i s r e c o u n tin g a dream w hich sh e had d u rin g th e n ig h t . The p a ssa g e i s load ed w ith d ou b le and t r i p l e m eaning and c o u ld e a s i l y have provoked C erv a n tes' com plim ent on th e "agudezas de la don- c e l l a P la cerd em iv id a . During t h i s same e p is o d e , C arm esina's m a id -in w a itin g , E s te fa n ia , d id n ot r e s i s t T ir a n t's f r ie n d , D ia fe - b u s, and has had a v ig o r o u s n ig h t o f lo v e-m a k in g . When Plaerdem avida e n te r s th e bedroom in th e m orning, sh e a sk s E s te fa n ia why sh e i s s o s le e p y eyed and E s te fa n ia answ ers th a t sh e i s i l l . Plaerdem avida, who knows p e r f e c t ly w e ll what has o ccu rred , d ia g n o ses E s te fa n ia * s in d i s p o s it i o n 23 "Lo sorani que Plaerdem avida fdu" i s in c lu d e d in th e V a len c ia n and C a s t ilia n v e r s io n s in Appendix B. 188 a s f o llo w s : E a q u e sta m a la I tia no e t p en ses que v in g a s o v in t , seg o n s d iu lo gran f i l o s o f G alibn , m etge m olt s u b t i l , que no v e s i n 6 una vegad a en v id a , e p er b£ que s i a m al in c u r a b le no 6a m o r ta l, mas h a -h i m o lts rem eis q u i a ju d a r s e ' n v o l . A questa m ia e p l s t o l a 6a bona e v erd a d era , e p er 9 0 no deus h aver a d m ira ci6 de mi s i co n ec l e s m a la it ie s , que s i em m o str es la lle n g u a j o e t sab r£ d ir lo m al que t e n s . E s te fa n ia l i tra g u £ la lle n g u a . Cora Plaerdem avida l*hagu£ v i s t a , d i x - l i : — Jo r e n e g a r ia de t o t quant sa b e r mon pare me m ostra e s t a n t j o en son poder, s i t u no has perduda sang a q u esta n i t . Respos p restam en t E s te fa n ia : — V e r ita t d iu s , que d e l nas m 'ds e ix id a . - - J o no sd s i 6 s d e l nas o d e l t a l 6 - - d i x Plaerdem a v id a — , mas san g haveu perduda, e p er 9 0 poreu ara dar f e de mi e de l a mia c ie n c ia , que lo que j o d ir £ se r a v e r i t a t . ^ There i s a n o th er e p is o d e \d iic h i l l u s t r a t e s Mar- t o r e l l ’ s r e a l i s t i c s e n s e o f humor and th e r e c u r r e n t theme th a t women have made p a th e t ic f o o ls o f many a p ow erfu l and v a lia n t w a r r io r . T h is e p is o d e , an a d a p ta tio n o f C hapters I I I and IV o f The T r a v e ls o f S ir John M a n d ev ille . i s th e o n ly e p is o d e w hich c o n ta in s m agic. A t a l e o f enchantm ent seem s s o out o f p la c e in a n o v e l w hich t h e a u th o r o b v io u s ly sought t o make v e r is i m i l a r , th a t many s c h o la r s have t r i e d t o e x p la in i t s in c lu s io n . Some have su g g e ste d th a t M arti n » M a r to r e ll, T ir a n t. e d . M artin de R iquer, p. 520 * ------------------------------------------------------------------ 189 Joan de Galba in s e r te d th e e p is o d e . Martin de Riquer p resen ts ev id en ce th a t M a rto rell was indeed th e author but e x p la in s th e in c lu s io n by s t a t in g th a t in M artorell*s day th e legen d, as found in The T ra v els o f S ir John M an d eville. was co n sid ered tr u e and concludes th a t, " e l au tor d e l T irant lo tinico que hace es in v en ta r se un c a b a lle r o que 25 sea capaz de acabar feliz m e n te la empresa." The legend r e la t e s th a t th e r e i s a f e a r f u l dragon liv in g on a c e r ta in isla n d who w i l l become a b e a u tifu l and w ea lth y p rin ce ss i f th e re i s e v e r a man who can overcome h is fe a r and r e v u ls io n and k is s th e dragon on th e mouth. E sp erciu s, a k nigh t whom Tirant has sen t out w ith a mes sa g e, i s shipwrecked on th e is la n d o f Lango and hears th e legen d o f th e dragon from a shepherd. He vows t o attem pt th e adventure and s e t s out a lo n e e a r ly in th e morning. A rriv in g a t th e cave o f th e dragon, he e n te r s and g iv e s a shout to awaken th e dragon. Im m ediately th e dragon b eg in s t o move about making a great d e a l o f n o ise somewhere in th e depths o f th e c a v e . The k n ig h t, h earin g th e f r ig h t f u l sounds, f a l l s to h is knees and b eg in s t o pray. The dragon 25 M a rto rell, T iran t. I n t r o ., p. 134. 190 comes c lo s e r end c l o s e r . When t h e k n igh t s e e s th e lo a t h some fa c e o f th e m on ster, he c l o s e s h is e y e s and rem ains k n e e lin g , fr o z e n w ith f e a r . The dragon, n o t ic in g th a t he d oes not move, approaches and k i s s e s him on th e month. E sp erciu s f a i n t s dead away. An hour l a t e r , E sp erciu s r e g a in s c o n s c io u s n e s s t o f in d a most b e a u t if u l g i r l k is s in g him and rubbing h is arms t o r e v iv e him . At th e s ig h t o f so lo v e ly a dam sel, h is s tr e n g th r e tu r n s q u ic k ly . He r i s e s and w ith a str o n g and p e r s u a siv e v o ic e begs th e dam sel fo r h e r lo v e . She a c c e p ts and ta k in g him by th e hand shows him a v e r y n ic e bedroom in s id e t h e ca v e. E sp e rciu s th an k s h er g r a c io u s ly fo r th e o f f e r h uggin g and k is s in g her a number o f tim e s . Then not w ish in g t o w aste any more tim e on w ords, he ta k e s h e r in h is arm s, p la c e s h er on th e bed, "and th e r e th e y 26 le a r n e d th e u ltim a te term o f a l l e x p r e s s io n s o f lo v e ." M a r to r e ll* s c o n c lu s io n o f th e le g e n d i s s u r e ly a parody on t a l e s o f m agic and enchantm ent. I t seems str a n g e t h a t anyone w ould r e la t e t h i s e p is o d e t o t h e ad ven tu res w ith dragons t h a t a r e found in romances o f c h iv a lr y o r 26 M a r to r e ll, T ira n t. e d . M artin de R iquer, pp. 1076-1077. 191 lib r o s de c a b a l l e r l a s . The humor w hich r e s u l t s from co n t r a s t in g th e em o tio n a l re sp o n se s t o loathsom e r e p t i l e s and lo v e ly a f f e c t io n a t e women seem s much c l o s e r t o th e s p i r i t o f R en a issa n ce humanism th a n t o rom an tic fa n ta s y . I f th e r e i s l i t t l e \d iic h m ight be c a l le d rom an tic fa n ta s y in T ir a n t. th e r e i s c o n s id e r a b le t e c h n o lo g ic a l fa n ta s y : a s o r t o f R en aissan ce s c i e n c e - f i c t i o n . The en vironm en t o f th e n o v e l i s contem porary and r e a l i s t i c in th e se n se t h a t e v e r y th in g p ortrayed i s p o s s ib le , b ut M a r to r e ll f a n t a s iz e d f r e e l y w ith e x i s t i n g c o n d itio n s ; im a g in in g more e la b o r a te ce rem o n ies, more pompous p a g ea n try , and g r e a te r d is p la y s o f r ic h e s th a n w ere common in h is day. H is f a n t a s ie s w ere p r o je c tio n s o f s c e n e s w hich he had w itn e s s e d or rea d about in th e c h r o n ic le s o f th e d ay. He g la m o rized contem porary e v e n ts t o g iv e h is f i c t i o n an atm osphere o f th e e x tr a o r d in a r y s im ila r t o th a t w hich th e rea d er se n se d in t h ir te e n th - c e n t u r y French rom ances o f c h iv a lr y . N ever t h e l e s s , h is f i c t i o n rem ained contem porary and o r i g in a l , n ot an im it a tio n o f th e Mati&re de B r eta g n e. The o s t e n ta t io n o f w e a lth , d e t a ile d d e s c r ip tio n s o f c lo t h in g and je w e lr y must have a p p ea led t o r ea d ers o f c h iv a lr e s q u e f i c t i o n throughout t h e M iddle Ages b eca u se 192 such d e s c r ip tio n s a r e found in th e romans and som etim es in th e chansons de g e s t e s . but in C u ria1. T ir a n t. and in some c h r o n ic le s o f th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y th e y occupy a s much sp a ce a s d e s c r ip tio n s o f a c t io n . The a u th o r o f C u ria l gave h is d e s c r ip tio n s o f lu xury and p agean try a p p ro x im a tely th e same em phasis th e y r e c e iv e d from th e c h r o n ic le r s . M a r to r e ll made h is e x o t i c . An exam ple o f M artore1 1 *s e x o t ic dream ing i s in h is d e s c r ip tio n o f a w edding c e le b r a t io n a t London fo r a p r in c e s s o f France and th e King o f England. E arly in th e w edding f e s t i v i t i e s , th e g u e s ts a r e le d by th e King and Queen t o a g re a t rock w ith a p r e t t y c a s t l e on to p o f i t w hich h as b een b u il t v e r y in g e n io u s ly out o f wood in th e m id d le o f a b e a u t if u l p la in . For th e p le a su r e o f th e com pany a mock a tta c k i s made on t h e c a s t l e w hich i s d efended w ith le a th e r sandbags cu n n in g ly d esig n e d s o th a t th e y appear t o be sto n e and m eta l p r o j e c t i l e s . The King and h is r e t in u e approach th e c a s t l e and th e King c a l l s out a sk in g who i s m aster o f th e s tr o n g h o ld . He i s inform ed th a t th e Goddess o f Love i s m a ster t h e r e . A fte r an appro p r ia t e s u p p lic a tio n t o Love by t h e Queen, a door opens in th e rock w ith a thu nd erous sound and a l l t h e company 193 p a sse s through in t o a g r e a t p a tio . The p a tio has a c o i l i n g o f b lu e c lo th and m u sicia n s d ressed as a n g e ls a re p la y in g in stru m en ts in v a r io u s p a rts o f t h i s a r t i f i c i a l sh y . The Goddess o f Love d e liv e r s a sp eech and a s s ig n s c e r t a in r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o th e Queen. Then th e p a n els o f c lo t h b eg in t o move and s h o r t ly th e e n t ir e sc e n e i s changed in to th r e e lu x u rio u s lo d g in g s; one fo r th e King and h is s u i t e , one f o r th e Queen and h er countrym en, and th e o th er f o r a l l th e f o r e ig n d ig n it a r ie s who have come fo r th e w edding. In th e K ing’ s lo d g in g th e r e i s a l i f e - s i z e s i l v e r s t a tu e o f a m atron in th e a t t it u d e o f m ilk in g h e r s e lf w hich sh o o ts stream s o f c o o l w a ter in t o a c r y s t a l foun t fo r d r in k in g . The n a r ra to r e x p la in s t h a t th e w a ter i s brought by s i l v e r tu b in g from th e r i v e r . In a n o th er room a g ild e d s ta tu e o f a m aiden h o ld s a g la s s b a sin below h er w hich sh e f i l l s w it h w h ite w in e . E lsew here a s t a tu e o f a b ish o p s p i r i t s o i l from h is m ite r in to a fo u n t o f j a s p e r . In th e m iddle o f th e p a tio , b e fo r e th e th r e e lo d g in g s , i s a g o ld en s ta tu e o f a b a d ly deform ed dwarf w hich s q u ir t s red w in e from th e n a v e l in t o a s i l v e r b o w l. N ear-by i s a s i l v e r s ta tu e o f an o ld hunchback. F resh bread is s u e s from th e b o ss on th e s t a t u e ’ s b ack . The n a r r a to r comments th a t 194 none o f th e se m ira cles are performed by enchantment or b la ck m agic, but by a r t i f i c e . E vid en tly, M artorell dreamed about th e g rea t m ira cles o f luxury and en tertain m ent which g r e a te r human in g en u ity would produce. M a r to r ellts in v en tio n s fo r th e amazement, e n te r tainm en t, and su sten an ce o f th e p u b lic were probably su g g e ste d by en tertain m ent p r a c tic e s o f th e day. Henry o f C a s tile arranged a c e le b r a tio n in V a lla d o lid on Tuesday, th e e ig h te e n th o f May, 1428, accord in g to C a r r illo de Huete, fo r w hich he had an ela b o r a te c a s t le b u ilt o f wood and 2 7 can vas. There was a b e l l tow er w ith a b e l l in i t and tw elv e low er tow ers in each o f which th e r e was a w e ll- ap poin ted la d y . A t i l t i n g f i e l d was en clo sed b efo re th e c a s t l e and two tow ers and an arch sto o d a t th e en tran ce t o th e f i e l d o p p o site th e c a s t l e . On th e arch were le t t e r s w hich read, "Este e s e l arco d e l p asaje p e lig r o s o de la fu e r te v en tu ra ." The c h r o n ic le r a ssu res th e reader th a t th e fo r t and tow ers looked e x a c tly as though th e y were made o f sto n e and m ortar. 2 7 Ifedro C a r r illo de H uete, Cr6nica d e l H alconero de Juan I I . ed . Juan de Mata C arriazo (C o lecci6 n de C ronicas E spaholes, V III) (Madrid: Espasa-C alpe, 1946), pp. 2 0 -2 1 . ...........’ ' "195 There was abundant meat and drink a t th e c a s t l e once th e g u e s ts w ere through th e "arch o f th e dangerous passage" but th e r e i s no m ention o f d isp e n sin g m achines such a s M a rto rell d e sc r ib ed . Like th e o th er c h iv a lr e sq u e f i c t i o n s stu d ie d in t h i s paper, T irant lo Blanc was in sp ir e d by t w e lf t h - or th ir te e n th -c e n tu r y French c h iv a lr e sq u e f i c t i o n s but was w r itte n in im ita tio n o f contem porary f i c t i o n or oth er gen res o f contem porary lit e r a t u r e . The n o v e l i s not an im ita tio n or even an a d a p ta tio n o f e a r lie r rom ances, a l though p o r tio n s o f Gui de Warewic w ere in co rp o ra ted in th e f i r s t part o f th e n o v e l and th e p lo t s tr u c tu r e may have been su g g ested by th e roman. Much o f th e n a r r a tiv e seems d eriv ed from o th er so u rces such as I t a lia n n o v e lle . chron i c l e s , e d ify in g work o f R en aissan ce w r it e r s , and th e a u th o r ’ s p erso n a l e x p e r ie n c e . The n o v e l i s a romance o f c h iv a lr y in a contempo ra ry environm ent r a th e r than a f i c t i o n in a c h iv a lr e sq u e s e t t in g , b ecau se i t i s an ad ven tu re s to r y in vrtiich th e h ero i s a k n igh t who perform s deeds w orthy o f an exem plary k n ig h t. By th e contem porary stand ard s o f c h iv a lr e sq u e e x c e lle n c e , T irant i s a model k n ig h t. ............................................ 196 Tho ch iv a lresq u e Id ea lism lias changed from th a t o f th e Matifera de Bretagne in th a t i t em phasizes th e m ilita r y man's id e a ls : a good knight i s s k i l l f u l , b rave, lo y a l, p ersev er in g , e t c . The id e a liz a t io n o f lo v e , th e ad o ra tio n o f woman, Is deform ed. Mart o re 11* s concept o f love, w hich seems t o be p u rely carn al, may be p erson al. However, h is c h a r a c te r iz a tio n o f such fig u r e s as Plaerdemavida and Reposada is hum anistic and in accord w ith th e lit e r a r y tren d o f the day. In c o n c lu sio n , T irant lo Blanc i s a ch iv a lresq u e n o v el w ith c e r ta in o f th e p r in c ip a l q u a li t ie s o f a romance o f c h iv a lr y . I t i s about ad ven tu res by k n ig h ts . Many o f th e ep iso d es i l l u s t r a t e model k n ig h tly perform ance or con t a in p eroration s about ch iv a lr esq u e id e a ls . At the same tim e i t lacks th e m ystery, fa n ta sy , and id e a liz e d lo v e w hich are t y p ic a l o f th e French romances and th e lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s o f th e six te e n th cen tu ry . The r e a lism o f th e d e sc r ip tio n s o f c h iv a lr y and some o f th e m ilit a r y and n a v a l a c tio n s perhaps appealed t o th e reader o f th e day for t h e i r accuracy. However, th e y la c k th e dramatic o r rom antic ap p eal w hich made the th ir te e n th -c e n tu r y French romances popular over th e 197 c e n tu r ie s end w hich was la r g e ly r e s p o n s ib le fo r th e s u c c e s s o f th e lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s such as Amadis de G aula. The r h e t o r ic a l or p ed a n tic p a ssa g es and th e se n su ous trea tm en t o f lo v e , p a ttern ed a f t e r fa s h io n a b le I t a lia n l i t e r a t u r e , may have been adm ired when th e n o v e l was w r i t te n but must have b een l i t t l e a p p r e c ia te d a f t e r 1500 b eca u se no e d it io n s seem t o have b een p r in te d in Spain a f t e r th e C a s t ilia n t r a n s la t io n p u b lish ed in 1511. CHAPTER VI SU M M A R Y AND CONCLUSIONS The c h iv a lr e s q u e f i c t i o n s w r it t e n in Spain betw een about 1200 and 1500 and a n a ly ze d in t h i s stu d y have a t le a s t one c h a r a c t e r is t ic in common. Each was a c o n s c ie n t io u s attem p t t o produce b e t t e r c h iv a lr e s q u e f i c t i o n . Not one i s a s e r v i l e im it a t io n o f e x i s t i n g m a te r ia l in t h e g e n r e . Each one c o n ta in s in n o v a tio n s som etim es adapted from w orks in o th e r g en re s but alw a y s in c lu d e d w ith t h e i n t e n t io n o f e n r ic h in g t h e c h iv a lr e s q u e f i c t i o n in some way. A rev iew o f t h e o u tsta n d in g f e a t tires o f each w i l l make t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s and s i m i l a r i t i e s m ore e v id e n t. The e a r l i e s t work exam ined was t h e roman. J a u fr6 . an A rth u ria n romance in v e r s e s im ila r i n many ways t o t h e works o f C h r6tien de T ro y es. The h e r o ’ s q u e st in th e s e r v ic e o f th e Queen i s a b a s ic c h a r a c t e r is t ic o f A rth u ria n li t e r a t u r e . The i d e a l i z a t i o n o f women w as a fe a tu r e o f t h e M atiere de B retagne o f t e n r e p r e se n te d by t h e d e d ic a te d 198 199 s e r v ic e o f a knight fo r some highborn lady. The m ysterious atmosphere in which th e hero pursues h is q uest i s a ls o ty p ic a l o f A rthurian lit e r a t u r e . Jau fre m eets adventure in dark f o r e s t s at n ig h t. Hideous dwarfs, u g ly hags, and fe a r fu l g ia n ts make sudden appearances on lo n e ly roads through ta n g le d woods. A c h i l l i n g cry echoes a cro ss th e co u n try sid e a t in te r v a ls through much o f th e n a r ra tiv e and cau ses madness among th e people whom JaufrA en cou n ters on th e road and produces s t u p if ic a t io n in th e hero h im se lf. A rthurian t r a d itio n i s a ls o ev id en t in th e personages o f A rthur's Court. There i s th e d isco u rteo u s Kay, th e g a lla n t Gawain, and many o th ers are m entioned though th e y do not a c t u a lly ta k e part in JaufrA 's ad ven tu res. There are some elem ents w hich d is tin g u is h Jaufr£ from most o f th e French romans. There are two ep iso d es which in v o lv e enchantm ents but in a mocking and humorous way not t y p ic a l o f A rthurian lit e r a t u r e o f th e p erio d . There are a ls o some ep iso d es which in clu d e b r u ta l a c tio n , u n co u rtly d ia lo g u e, and r e a l i s t i c d e s c r ip tio n . S everal sch o la rs have c a lle d a tte n tio n to th e tendency in French romances o f c h iv a lr y t o n e u tr a liz e some o f th e u nreal q u a lit ie s o f grotesq u e personages, who were absorbed in to 200 th e M atiere de Bretagne from C e ltic legen d s, by d esc rib in g them in term s o f deformed h u m a n s F o r exam ple, gnomes, w itc h e s, and g ia n ts tended t o be d escrib ed a s dwarfs, o ld women, and b ig p ea sa n ts. The r e a lism in J a u fre. however, i s alm ost c l i n i c a l and makes th e poem seem more popular in ton e than th o se o f C h rltien de T royes. The em otional q u a lity w hich th e C e ltic fa n ta sy im parts t o th e M atiere de Bretagne i s much a tten u a ted in Ja u fr£ . I t can not be proved th a t Jaufr6 i s not contempo rary t o th e poems o f C hretien de Troyes and th e r e fo r e u n in flu en ced by them. It seems c e r ta in , however, th a t th e o r ig in a l Ja u fr£ . w r itte n around 1170, was r e v is e d or fin is h e d around 1200 by a poet thorough ly fa m ilia r w ith th e work o f C h retien . Whether C hretien in flu e n c e d th e work or n ot, Jaufr6 i s a more r e a l i s t i c , le s s p sy c h o lo g ic a l poem. I t i s w r itte n in an e n te r ta in in g s t y l e perhaps w ith th e in te n tio n o f ap p ealin g t o a la r g e , d iv e r s if ie d p u b lic ra th er than a r e fin e d e l i t e . The M atiere de Bretagne was known in Spain alm ost 1 Vernon J. Harward, The IWarfs o f A rthurian Romance and C e ltic T ra d itio n (Leiden: B r i l l , 1958), pp. 2 8 -3 2 . 201 as soon as I t c ir c u la te d in France. The e x is te n c e o f JaufrA proves th a t th e French works stim u la te d enough in te r e s t in Spain t o j u s t i f y o r ig in a l c r e a tiv e e f f o r t s by competent n a tiv e p o e ts . French v e r s io n s o f th e A rthurian prose romances c ir c u la te d in a l l th e kingdoms o f Spain during th e t h i r te e n th centu ry, and th e re i s evid en ce th a t o r ig in a l Ib erian romances and tr a n s la tio n s o f French romances a ls o e x is t e d . Around 1310 th e e a r l ie s t ex ta n t Spanish o r ig in a l was w r itte n , El c a b a lle r o C ifa r. and about th e same tim e El c a b a lle r o d e l C isne was tr a n s la te d from French. El c a b a lle r o d e l C isne. taken as an example o f th e kind o f French romance co n sid ered im portant enough t o t r a n s la te a t th e tim e, i s a f in e example o f a th ir te e n th -c e n tu r y prose romance o f c h iv a lr y . The sto r y i s not A rthurian in th e sen se th a t i t i s a s to r y o f one o f A rthur*s k n ig h ts. How e v e r , th e re i s an a i r o f m ystery about i t ; th e p r o te c tio n and s e r v ic e o f women i s a p r in c ip a l ch iv a lr esq u e theme; and th e r e are m agical and m y s tic a l phenomena: so El caba l le r o d e l Cisne i s in e sse n c e an A rthurian ty p e o f c h iv a l resque f i c t i o n . lik e oth er French prose romances and Spanish six te e n th -c e n tu r y lib r o s de c a b a lle r la s . th e a c tio n 202 and th e language flow r a p id ly and sim p ly . There I s no g re a t p s y c h o lo g ic a l depth in th e c h a r a c te r iz a tio n s nor much co m p lex ity in th e problem s w hich th e ch a ra c te rs en co u n ter. The s to r y flo w s sm oothly through a s e r ie s o f e p iso d e s which a re o n ly s e q u e n tia lly co n n ected . El c a b a lle r o C ifa r i s v e r y d iff e r e n t from El caba l l e r o d e l C isn e . A lthough th e au th or was fa m ilia r w ith th e M atiere de B retagne and in co rp o ra ted a number o f ep iso d e s and circu m stan ces from A rthurian lit e r a t u r e , he a ls o com b in ed elem en ts from many o th e r l i t e r a r y so u rces a v a ila b le t o him. The m agical and f a n t a s t ic e p iso d e s w hich a re part o f C ifa r do not g iv e th e work th e a i r o f m ystery and fa n ta s y a s s o c ia te d w ith th e M atiere de B retagne b ecau se o f th e popular and d id a c tic m a te r ia l w hich i s a ls o in clu d ed . E d ited o f th e d id a c tic and popular e lem en ts, th e s to r y o f C ifa r w ould, lik e El c a b a lle r o d e l C isn e. be a sim p le, p le a s in g n a r r a tio n . The a d d itio n o f popular and r e a l i s t i c elem en ts d e tr a c ts from th e atm osphere o f m agic and en ch an t ment by in t e r f e r in g w ith th e can d id to n e o f th e n a r r a tiv e s t y l e . The c r e a tio n o f a p r a c t ic a l hero who b eg in s a s a fish erm a n 's h e lp e r , p a sses through s e v e r a l p ica resq u e 203 a d v en tu re s, and e v e n t u a lly becom es a r e s p e c te d k n igh t I s c l e a r l y an In n o v a tio n and adds t o t h e popular and r e a l i s t i c c h a r a c te r o f C ifa r . T h is o r i g in a l work was n o t unknown and a p p a ren tly p le a se d some S pan ish rea d ers d u rin g th e fo u r te e n th , f i f te e n th , and s ix t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s b eca u se i t i s m entioned in c o n ju n c tio n w ith Amadis and T r is t a n around 1345 and Hater th e IV o f Aragon o rd ered a copy in 1361. The fa c t th a t C ifa r was p u b lish e d in 1512 i s p ro o f th a t t h e work was n o t fo r g o tte n o v er th e c e n t u r ie s . C u r ia l e G U elfa. on th e o th e r hand, was n ever pub lis h e d . I t was a p p a r e n tly f o r g o t te n during t h e t h ir t y or f o r t y y ea rs w hich la p se d betw een t h e tim e i t was w r itte n and p r in tin g w ith m ovable ty p e began in S p ain . A s k i l l f u l and c u ltu r e d w r it e r , th e a u th o r o f C u ria l e v id e n t ly a ttem p ted t o w r it e a modern romance o f c h iv a lr y \rtiich r e ta in e d such f e a t u r e s o f t h e t r a d it i o n a l A rthu rian rom ances a s id e a liz e d lo v e , k n igh t e r r a n tr y , and c o u r t ly co n d u ct. By m od ern izin g t h e s e t t in g , by u sin g th e l a t e s t te c h n iq u e s o f I t a lia n a u th o r s o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l lo v e s t o r i e s , and by ad din g a fa s h io n a b le d r e s s in g o f r h e t o r i c a l d is p la y in t h e form o f la m en ts, l e t t e r s , lea rn ed 204 d ia lo g u e s , and serm ons he produced a modern work o f r e a l a r t i s t i c m erit in th e n a r r a tiv e s t y l e o f a romance o f c h iv a lr y . The s t o r y i s w e ll t o ld and th e c h iv a lr e s q u e s o c ie t y o f th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y i s a c c u r a te ly p o rtra y ed . The r e a lis m o f th e en v iro n m en ta l d e s c r ip tio n i s n ot fo r any c r i t i c a l o b se r v a tio n o f th e s o c ie t y , how ever, but r a th e r t o in c r e a s e th e v e r is im il it u d e o f th e s t o r y . Names o f r e a l p eo p le and p la c e s a r e in s e r te d in th e n a r r a tiv e t o add t o th e atm osphere o f contem porary r e a l i t y w h ich th e au th or hoped w ould make t h e s to r y c r e d ib le . One e x p la n a tio n fo r th e lim it e d p o p u la r ity o f t h is n o v e l may be t h a t i t was to o fa s h io n a b le and d id n o t have any o u tsta n d in g f e a t tires th a t e x c it e d th e im a g in a tio n when rea d e rs were no lo n g e r in t e r e s t e d in th e cerem o n ies, d r e s s , and f e s t i v i t i e s o f th e f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r y . Perhaps t h i s ty p e o f n o v e l s tim u la te d no in t e r e s t a t a l l when th e re a d in g p u b lic no lo n g e r remembered th e names o f famous k n ig h ts o f t h e tu r n o f t h e c e n tu r y , and when th e e v e n ts o f th e fo u r te e n th and f i f t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s no lo n g e r seem ed mar v e lo u s when compared t o th e e x p lo it s o f th e P ortuguese and S p a n ish \rtio w ere e x p lo r in g th e I n d ie s . 205 Henry Thomas e x p la in e d t h e t a s t e fo r th e f a n t a s t ic a d v en tu res o f th e lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s as a phenomenon o f th e e x p lo r a tio n s . He w rote: The v a g u e, in a c c u r a te and ex a g g e ra ted r e p o r ts o f ad ven tu r e s as m a rv ello u s a s th o s e o f th e e x i s t i n g rom ances o f c h iv a lr y stim u la te d and q u ick en ed th e im a g in a tio n — o f Spaniards and P ortuguese e s p e c i a l l y — r a th e r th an a p p ea led t o th e i n t e l l e c t . The e a r ly maps, s c i e n t i f i c r e p o s it o r ie s o f th e new ly a cq u ire d know ledge, fr in g e d a s th e y o f te n a re w ith u n d isco v ered c o u n tr ie s in h a b ite d by str a n g e sh apes o f men and b e a s t s , h e lp t o e x p la in th e vagu e geography and th e fa b u lo u s m onsters o f th e s ix t e e n t h ce n tu ry rom ances.^ T ira n t lo B lanc, l i k e C u r ia l. was s e t in a f if t e e n t h - c e n t u r y environm ent but t h i s work was n ot f o r g o tte n a t once p rob ably b eca u se i t does c o n ta in o u tsta n d in g p a ssa g es and e p is o d e s o f more in t e r e s t t o su bseq uent g en er - a t io n s . In h is c r it iq u e o f lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s . C ervantes p r a ise d T ira n t above a l l th e o t h e r s . When th e Cura and th e Barber w ere d e str o y in g Don Q u ij o te 's c o l l e c t i o n , Amadis de Gaula and Palmerim de Ing la t e r r a w ere sp a red from th e fla m es w ith f a in t p r a is e . Of T ira n t C ervantes w ro te, in th e words o f th e Cura: 2 Henry Thomas, Spanish and P ortuguese Romances o f C h iv a lry (Cam bridge: U n iv e r s ity P ress, 1 9 2 0 ), pp. 3 0 -3 1 . 206 por su e s t i l o , e s 6 s t e e l m ejor llb r o d e l mundo; a q u l comen lo s c a b a lle r o s , y duermen y mueren en su e camas, y h acen t e s t ament o a n te s de su m uerte, con o tr a s c o s a s de que to d o s lo s demds lib r o s d e s te g&nero c a r e c e n . In a d d itio n t o t h e r e a lis m w hich p le a s e d C ervan tes, M a r to r e ll in c lu d e d an a c c u r a te p ic tu r e o f th e s o c ie t y o f h is day. There a r e d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e p h y s ic a l s o c ie t y , a s in d e s c r ip tio n s o f cerem o n ies, b a t t l e s , and f e s t i v i t i e s , and th e r e a r e d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e human s o c i e t y in th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f m odel conduct by t h e v a lia n t c a p ta in and t y p i c a l con d uct by th e h o t-b lo o d e d lo v e r o f t h e day. The d ia lo g u e s betw een p e o p le o f d if f e r e n t l e v e l s o f s o c ie t y a r e r e a l i s t i c and some c h a r a c te r iz a tio n s a r e e s p e c i a l l y w e l l hum anized. Henry Thomas remarked: The c r e a to r o f t h e dam sel Flaerdem avida and th e widow Reposada i s in an ob viou s l i t e r a r y c o n c a te n a tio n w ith th e A r c h p rie st o f H ita, who gave us T rotacon ven tos and o t h e r s . The o r ig in a t o r s o f C e le s tin a , o f l a z a r i l l o de Tormes, and o f R in con ete and C o r ta d illo , a r e h is n a tu r a l s u c c e s s o r s .^ Though in t h e o p in io n o f C ervantes and o th e r c r i t i c s T ira n t i s t h e b e s t book, th e p u b lic p r e fe r r e d Am adls. 3 M iguel de C erv a n tes, E l in g e n io s o h id a lg o Don Q u iio te de la Mancha (M exico: Forrua, 1 9 6 6 ), p . 3 5 . ^Thomas, Spanish and B ortu eu ese Romances, p. 3 8 . 207 T iran t was th e f i r s t c h iv a lr e s q u e n o v e l p u b lish ed in Spain, but a number o f t r a n s la t io n s o f French p rose romances w ere p u b lish e d s h o r t ly a fterw a rd s w hich may i n d i c a te a grow ing market fo r t h i s ty p e o f li t e r a t u r e and c e r t a in ly i l l u s t r a t e s i t s p e r s is t e n t p o p u la r ity . The co n tin u ed p o p u la r ity o f Amadis. r e g a r d le s s o f th e m e r its o f T ir a n t. i s e v id e n t from th e number o f e d i t io n s p r in te d in Spain in th e s ix t e e n t h cen tu ry ; o v er t h i r t y e d it io n s o f Amadis had b een p u b lish ed by 1588 com pared t o th e th r e e p r in tin g s o f T iran t w hich con clu d ed w ith th e C a s t ilia n e d i t i o n o f 1511. C ervantes e v id e n t ly read Amadis w ith c o n s id e r a b le a t t e n t io n b ecau se in Don Q u iio te he r e f e r s to many m inor d e t a i l s o f th e s t o r y . Etero Lopez de A yala read i t a v id ly over a hundred y ea rs b e fo r e i t was 5 p r in te d . Both t h e s e men, se rio u s-m in d ed w r it e r s , e x p r e ss In h is ’'Rimado de R a la cio , * ’ Haro Lopez de A yala w r o te : Fl6gome o t r o s i oyr muchas v eg a d a s, L ibros de deuaneos e m en tira s probadas, Amadis, la n z a lo t e e b u r la s a sa c a d a s, En que p e r d i mi ttem po a muy m alas jo m a d a s . Boetas c a s t i l l a n o s a n te r lo r e s a l s i e l o XV. e d . F. Janer ( B ib lio t e c a de A u tores E sp a n o les, LVII) (M adrid: R iva- d en eyra, 1 8 6 4 ), p. 4 3 0 . 208 some r e g r e t a t th e tim e spent on such read in g but t h e ir a llu s io n s to Amadis a ls o r e f l e c t th e a t t r a c t io n o f th e book fo r read ers o f t h e ir day. Can i t be concluded th a t th e romances o f c h iv a lr y b efo re 1500 and th e lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s afterw ard s were e n te r ta in in g to much o f th e rea d in g p u b lic but were con s id e r e d unworthy o f im ita tio n by s e r io u s w r ite r s ? From th e M iddle Ages t o Cervantes* tim e , th e a ccep ted g o a l o f th e w r ite r o f f i c t i o n was t o e n te r ta in and in s t r u c t . C ervantes ex p re sse d th e id ea in th e words o f th e Can6nigo de T oled o, who sp eak in g t o th e Cura about lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s . sa y s: Y segun a mi me p arece, e s t e g£nero de e s c r itu r a y com posici6n cae debajo de a q u el de la s fA bulas que llam an m ile s ia s , que son cu en tos d isp a ra ta d o s, que a tie n d e n solam en te a d e le it a r , y no a en seh ar; a l c o n tr a r io de lo que hacen la s fA bulas a p 6 lo g a s, que d e le i t an y ensetian ju n t ament e . Y p u esto que e l p rin c ip a l in te n to de sem ejan tes lib r o s se a e l d e le it a r , no s£ yo c6mo puedan c o n s e g u ir le , yendo lle n o s de ta n to s y ta n d esaforad os d isp a r a te s; que e l d e l e it e que en e l alma s e co n cib e ha de s e r de la hermosura y con cordan cia que v e e o contem pla en la s c o sa s que la v i s t a o la im agin aci6n le ponen d e la n te ; . . . The Cura p o in ts out t o th e Can6nigo th e g re a t p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s fo r a w r ite r who w ants to i l l u s t r a t e th e v ir t u e s o f a model gentlem an and ^C ervantes, Don Q u iio te . I , 2 3 8 -2 3 9 . 209 c o n c lu d e s: Y sie n d o e s t o hecho con a p a c ib ilid a d de e s t l l o y con In g en lo sa irrvenci6n, qua t i r e lo m6s que fu e r e p o s lb le a la v erd ad , s in duda compondrla una t e la de v a r lo s y hermosos l i z o s t e j i d a , que despu&s de acabada, t a l p e r fe c c l6 n y hermosura m uestre, que con sign e l f i n m ejor que se pretende en lo s e s c r i t o s , que e s en sen ar y d e le it a r juntam ente como ya te n g o d ich o. Borque la e s c r itu r a desatada d e s to s lib r o s da lugar a que e l au tor pueda m ostrarse d p ico , l i r i c o , tr 6 g ic o , c6m ico, con to d a s a q u e lla s p a r te s que en cierr a n en s i la s d u lc isim a s y a g ra d a b les c le n c ia s de la p o e sla y de la o r a to r la ; que la 6 p ic a tarabi^n puede e s c r e b ir s e en prosa como en v e r s o .' The author o f C ifa r appears t o have attem p ted to add in s t r u c t iv e or e d if y in g m a te r ia l t o a c h iv a lr e sq u e type n a r r a tiv e p a ttern ed a f t e r th e l i f e o f Saint E u sta th iu s. The in te n tio n seems to have been e x a c t ly what C ervantes* Cura had in mind when he commented on th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s as a l i t e r a r y v e h ic le fo r a c r e a tiv e n o v e l is t . The Cura t o ld t h e Can6nigo de T oledo: . . . que con todo cu a n to raal h a b ia d ich o de t a l e s lib r o s , h a lla b a en e l l o s una c o sa buena; que e r a e l s u je to que o fr e c la n para que un buen en ten d im ien to p u d iese m ostrarse en e l l o s , porque daban la r g o y e s p a c io s o carapo por donde s in empacho alguno p u d iese co r re r la pluma d escu b rien d o n a u fr a g io s, to rm en ta s, ren cu en tro s y bat a l i a s , pintando un ca p itd n v a le r o s o con to d a s la s p a rtes que para s e r t a l se r e q u ie r e n . 7I b id . 8 I b id . . p. 238. 210 C ifa r was n ot g e n e r a lly a ccep ted as an improvement on Amadis. however, fo r r e fe r e n c e s and a llu s io n s t o th e l a t t e r a r e more common in th e documents o f th e fo u r te e n th and f if t e e n t h c e n tu r ie s w hich seem s to in d ic a te th a t th e read in g p u b lic alw ays p referred Amadis. C u rial e G ttelfa was a n o th er am b itiou s attem pt t o produce a su p e rio r c h iv a lr e sq u e f i c t i o n . The author a p p lie d h is a r t i s t i c r e s o u r c e fu ln e s s t o e x p lo it th e e n te r tainm ent v a lu e o f th e romance o f c h iv a lr y w h ile a t th e same tim e in c lu d in g a l l t h e a r t i s t i c tech n iq u es d evelop ed by R en aissan ce w r it e r s . He added a d r e ssin g o f e d ify in g i ll u s t r a t io n s and sam ples o f th e l a t e s t r h e t o r ic . The r e s u lt w as, in e f f e c t , am using, a r t i s t i c , and in s t r u c t iv e but appears to have a ttr a c te d l i t t l e a t t e n t io n . T irant lo B lan c, which C ervan tes' Cura c a lle d "un te s o r o de co n ten to y una mina de pasat iem pos," d id not p le a se th e m a jo r ity o f th e re a d in g p u b lic n e a r ly as much as Amadis de Gaula and o th er lib r o s de c a b a lle r ia s . y e t T irant c o n ta in s s o many o f th e elem en ts w hich C ervantes* Cura sa y s cou ld be in clu d ed in a lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s th a t i t w ould not be s u r p r is in g t o le a r n th a t C ervantes was th in k in g o f T iran t when he l i s t e d them. 211 An e a r ly c r i t i c o f fe r s a p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n fo r th e co m p a ra tiv ely poor su c c e ss o f T iran t lo B lan c. N ic o la s F rdret s a id in th e Avert issem en t o f th e 1737 e d it io n in F ren ch : Quant au s t y l e de ce roman, quoique C ervantes l'a p p e ll e a c e t dgard l e m e ille u r l i v r e du monde. c e t 6 lo g e ne s e d o it en ten d re que par com paraison aux a u tr e s ouvrages du m£me g en re . I I a su r eux a la v e r it d l ’avantage d 'e t r e £ c r it dans un s t y l e tr e s -s im p le e t t r e s - n a t u r e l, au l i e u que le s a u tr e s romans esp a g n o ls son t d*un s t y l e a ffe c t^ e t fig u rd jusqu*a l' e n f l u r e , q u e lq u e fo is m£me jusqu*a 1*ex tra v a g a n ce. Mais i l tombe p e u t-£ tr e dans l'e x c e s oppos^, e t i l n 'e s t pas exemt des d £ fa u ts q u i accompagnent ordinairem ent une tr o p grande s im p lic it y . Quoique le fonds du s t y l e s o i t a s s e z g a i, e t quoique le s p la is a n t e r ie s s o ie n t en g e n e r a l d 'a s s e z bon goGt, eu £gard au terns, on tro u v e quelque f o i s des e x p r e s s io n s e t des d e t a ils tr o p b a s, e t peu s£ans aux p er- sonnages que l'a u te u r in tr o d u it . . . . An im portant reason fo r th e in c r e a s e in p o p u la r ity o f t r a d it i o n a l romances o f c h iv a lr y during th e la s t q u a r ter o f th e f if t e e n t h cen tu ry was th e com m ercial p o t e n t ia l o f t h is m a te r ia l w ith th e esta b lish m en t o f p r in tin g in Spain. The romances o f c h iv a lr y co u ld be adapted t o th e t a s t e s o f th e u n s o p h is tic a te d p u b lic , in c lu d in g women and c h ild r e n , and p u b lish ed in la r g e p r in tin g s . A number o f t r a n s la t io n s ^ N icolas F r£ret quoted from M artore11, T ir a n t. ed . M artin de R iquer, I n t r o ., pp. 199-200. 212 and p o s s ib ly an e d it io n o f Amadis w ere p u b lish e d b efo r e 1500. The p r o c e ss o f r e w r itin g e x i s t i n g romances f o r th e u n s o p h is tic a te d r ea d er i s w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d in T ab lan te de Ricam onte v J o fr e h i i o d e l conde Donason w hich i s an adap t a t i o n o f th e roman. Jau fr£. fo r re a d ers o f v e r y sim p le ad ven tu re f i c t i o n . The b r e v it y o f T ab lan te s u g g e s ts th a t i t i s a p rose v e r s io n o f th e roman r a th e r th a n an ad ap ta t io n o f an e a r l i e r p rose v e r s io n . E a r lie r p rose v e r s io n s o f th e romans w ere o f te n a m p lifie d o r com bined w ith o th e r f i c t i o n s t o produce lo n g er n a r r a t iv e s . In any c a s e th e roman and th e lib r o de c a b a lle r ia s can be compared e p iso d e by e p is o d e and t h e com parison r e v e a ls a c o n s c ie n tio u s rem oval o f a l l r e a l i s t i c o r i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s tim u la tin g m a te r ia l from t h e roman. T a b la n te i s e sca p e l i t e r a t u r e w hich c l o s e l y resem b les a modern a d a p ta tio n f o r th e ju v e n i l e lit e r a t u r e m arket; a s o r t o f " ju v e n ile c l a s s i c . ” What has happened d u rin g th e th r e e c e n tu r ie s from 1200 t o 1500 i s t h a t p e r io d ic a lly some se rio u s-m in d ed w r it e r has t r i e d t o w r ite a r e a l l y w o rth w h ile book o f c h iv a lr y . Im pressed, l ik e C ervan tes, w ith th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e n a r r a tiv e s t y l e d ev elo p ed in th e e a r ly French 213 romances, th e y t r ie d t o r e ta in th e e n te r ta in in g fe a tu r e s w h ile adding beauty and in s tr u c tio n . None o f th e se attem pts made a la s t in g im p ression on th e p u b lic . The t r a d it io n a l rom ances, having ev o lv ed from romans t o prose romances, remained popular. I f th e re a re few ex ta n t t e x t s from th e th ir te e n th , fo u r te en th , and f i f teen th c e n tu r ie s , th e continued p o p u la rity o f th e se c h iv a l resque f i c t i o n s i s ev id e n t in th e many a llu s io n s to them which are found in th e a r t , lit e r a t u r e , documents, and accoun ts o f cerem onies, sp o rtin g e v e n ts, and m ilita r y a c tio n s during th e p erio d . When p r in tin g became e s ta b lis h e d in Spain, th e alw ays-pop u lar romances o f c h iv a lr y were v u lg a r iz e d . They were s im p lif ie d , p o lish e d , and im ita te d and th e new v e r sio n s flo u r is h e d . When Don Q u iio te was p u b lish ed , however, t h e ir p o p u la rity was a lrea d y d im in ish in g . The authors o f Spanish ch iv a lr esq u e f i c t i o n b efore 1500 t r ie d t o e x p lo it th e g reat p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f th e ch iv a lr esq u e n a r r a tiv e as a form in w hich t o c r e a te s e r io u s lit e r a t u r e , "a la rg o y e sp a c io so campo por donde s in em- pacho algu no p ud iese co rrer la p lu m a ." ^ They t r ie d to i n C ervantes, Don Q u iio te . I , 238. 214 make t h e ir ch iv a lresq u e f ic t io n s more th an pastim e e n te r tainm ent by c r e a tin g r e a l i s t i c environm ents in which t h e ir i d e a l i s t i c heroes co u ld pursue w orthw hile g o a ls . However, th e s e f ic t io n s did not ap peal t o th e p u b lic as much as th e pastim e romances w hich were tr a n s la tio n s and im ita tio n s o f French prose romances, nor were th ey as popular as th e c h r o n ic le s o f r e a l - l i f e c h iv a lr y . With th e advent o f p r in tin g , th e romance o f c h iv a lr y became enorm ously popular because i t could be r e v is e d to make com m ercial pastim e lit e r a t u r e and i t was t h i s popular lit e r a t u r e th a t kept ch iv a lr esq u e f i c t i o n a liv e through th e s ix te e n th cen tu ry . I n te r e s t in Jaufr6. C ifar. C u rial. and T irant seems t o have been so s lig h t by 1500 th a t th ey might not have been preserved i f enthusiasm fo r ch iv a lr esq u e lit e r a t u r e had not been renewed by th e su c c e ss o f Amadis de Gaula and i t s s u c c e s s o r s . APPENDICES APPENDIX A JAUFRE'S ADVENTURE IN THE G A R D E N O F M O N B R U N CASTLE E puis in t r a s s 'e n B ru n issen s En sa cambra privadamens Ab c e la s q e l devon s e r v ir , E c u je t lo s a u s e ls a u s ir , A ix i cun cada n u lt s o l f a r , Qe cantavon a sun c o lg a r , E n u l au, de q 'e s mot ir a d a E d ix qe b e s t ia es in tr a d a Ifer a t r a sa Ig en sun v e r g e r , 0 ca lq e e s t r a in c a v a lie r , Iter son en u ig e per so m a l. E fa son ar lo se n e sc a l A una p lu c e la co ren t, E e l e s v en g u tz mantenent E demandal: "C’a v etz a u s it ? — Fort r a a l," d ix e la , "m'a s e r v it Cel q*es e mun v erg er in t r a t z , Qe a Is a u s e ls esp a v en ta tz N ils a f a i t z g iq ir de c a n ta r , Qe greu p o ir a i huim ais p au sar. E an atz v e s e r q i l a i e s . S i e s om, s i a raort o p r e s . — Domna," d ix e l , "mut v o le n t e r s ." E a sonat . i j . escu d ers E cascu s p res un gran brandon E van s fen t o s t l a i d 'e sp e r o n . E cant sun e l v erg er i n t r a t , An Jau fre la I n s atrob at Dorraen, a sun cap sun e s c u t . El s e n e s c a l per gran v e r tu t 216 Sona J a u fr e c 'a n aus co ren , Mais ©1 no au ren n i e n te n . Es e l lo bursa ©1 s o c o t : " A tra sa ig ne le v a r e s t o t ," Dix l o s e n e s c a l, "car m ores." Ab ta n s e r e sId a J a u fr e s, E e s s e le v a t z en s c z e n s , E resp o n d et c o r te sa m e n s: "Francs c a v a le r , per Deu, no s la Vala ml t a c a v a la r la , Tun p res e tu n enseInam ent 7 Laisam dorm ir a mun t a l e n t ." El d l s : "Qe n u i d orm iretz p lu s , Ans ne v e n r e tz ab ml s a l su s Denant ma domna, s i beus p esa . Tro q 'e n a ja v en ja n sa p resa De tu , no aura a le g r e r , Car anc e n tr e a t en sun v e r g e r Her su s a u s e ls e sp a v e n ta r , E l* a s to u t dorm ir e p a u sa r." Ja d is J a u fr e : "Se Deus me v a l l a No lam menaras se n s b a t a ila , Ho t r o qe a ja pro d orrait." El s e n e s c a l, can ac a u s it Qe b a t a ila q er e demands, A un d e ls esc u d e r s comanda Qel fa su n sa s armas v e n lr . E Jau fre e s to r n a tz dorm ir, E durmi ta n t r o l* e sc u d e r Ac a p o r ta t a l c a v a le r Armas, e adus sun c a v a l. H iis e s c r ld a : "Vai s u s , v a s a l! Qe c a v a le r a s a tr o b a t." E J a u fre no a mut so n a t, A is i dorm a p relsa d a m en t. E e l l o so c u t e I ’e n p e in t Tan e n tr o qe r e s id a t l ' a . E can t e l v i qe nu g a ra , Respon, e v e l v o s su s l e v a t : "C abaler," d is e l , "gran p ecat As de me, ca r num v o ls la ix a r Durmir, c ' a penas pusc durar, T al so n a i e ta n s u l m acatz. E pos v e l qe t a v o lu n ta tz 218 Ea qot v o ls ta n ab ml com batre, S it puosc da tu n c a v a l a b a tr o , L alxar m 'as p u o is d u rm lr? --0 i o u , " So d it z lo c o n o sc n l, "por Deu! Qo do mo no a ja s p oor." E Jnufro v o s sun c a v a l co r E mas lu fr o , pula a l s o n g la t, E v o l v o s mantonont p o jn t, E oa v en g u tz do t a l randon Vos lo s o n o s c a l, l a i un fo n . El so n o a ca l do gran a i r Vonc v o s o l o v a l lo f o r i r , Mala no l* a c r o t l a t n i m ogut. E Jau fro fo r lo por v o r tu t T al c o lp qo on t e r r a l*n moa. "Huimaia, " d is o l , " s o l qo nous pea, M o lo is a r o t z dorm ir, s o c r o , Car covon ges a bona f o . - - 0 io u , ca r a s s a t z n * a l r a s u n ." E p u is to r n o t s*on d ’o sp cro n , Tot v e r g o in o s o fo r t ir n t z . E can fo o l c a s t o l ln t r a t z , Troba sa domna Brunlaaon Qol Demanda: "Venotz v o s on . Qo a v o tz e l v e r g o r tr o b a t? --Domna, un c a v a le r arm at, Qo Ja m olor nun c a l q o ro r, E durmia do t a l poder C'a penas lo puac r e s ld a r . - -E cun l* a v e tz l a l s a t anar? Bar q e n u l m 'a v etz amenat ? Ja p er s o nu l* a j a t z l a i x a t , Qe ja t r o q e l v e j a pendut Nu m an jaral, s i Deus m 'a ju t." E e l resp on 11: "Bar ma f e , Domna, no v o l v e n ir p er me, N il pusc de sun dorm ir le v a r ." E e l a d i s : " F a itz mi son ar A la g a it a mos c a v a le r s . --Domna," d is e l , "mot v o le n t e r s ." E fa a la g a lx a so n a r Los c a v a le r s e a j u s t a r , Qe v en g u tz n ' l a be .v . cen s E m p e t i t d 'o ra t o t z c o r e n s, Qe sun g a r n itz , o inoig la s a la . E B runissens irada o mala Dis lu r : "Baros, us c a v a lie r s Mals g o rg o lu s e so b r ie r s S'en e s e mun v erg er in tr a tz , Qe a le a u so ls osp aven tatz ^ r mun en u ig o por mon mal, E nun v o l per mo s e n e s c a l V enir a me, ta n t a d 'e r g u il, E s * lu la t e s t a no l* en t u i l E n o l fa s m orir a d o lo r, Jamais nu v o i l ten er onor." Ab ta n t us c a v a lie r s rep os, Com ape la Simon lo Ros, B els e f o r t z , e mals e so b re r s, E m eravllos c a v a le r s : "Domna, ” d is e l , "eu l a i ir a i , Sius v o le t z , e adur lou s a i, S il pusc tro b a r, o v iu o m ort. --S e in e r ," d is e la , " s i v o i l f o r t . Dis lo s e n e s c a l: "Eter mun cap, Simon, nous o tin g a tz a gap. Mot sap ben defendre sa capa, B el ten c per pros q i l a i arapa." E Simon e s ab ta n p o ja tz E e s s 'e n e l v er g er in tr a tz , On a Jau fre tro b a t durrnen, E e s c r id a mot autamen: "Sus! c a v a le r s , le v a t d 'a q u i!" E Jau fre nos mou, qe durmi Tan fo r t qe ren no au, q i l sona. El c a v a le r gran c o lp l i dona De I 'a r e s t o l sus e l c o s t a t . Ab tan veu s Jaufre r e s id a t, E d i s : "Cavaler, gran t o r t m 'as, Car f e r i t n i r e sid a t m 'as, Pus m 'avias a seg u ra t, Rauc a ta fia n sa durat, Mot as f a it a gran v ila n ia , Laisam dormir, per Deu t e s ia , Qe ja v e s t u non pusc durar, T al son a i, n i em pes e s t a r . — Ja, " D is Simon, "noi dorm iras Oimais, s e ades tu no v a s Ab ben a ma dona p a rla r. Mai g rat te u la t fa r a l anar." E Jaufre ab a lta n r e s p o s : "Ana er v i s t de mi o de v os C als e r pus fo r tz n i pus s o b r ie s , Pos no pusc escapar e s t e r s ." Ab ta n e s e l ca v a l p o ja tz E es s e v e s Simun g ir a tz . E Simun de gran v o lu n ta t Venc v e s e l , e a l t a l donat Qe la lansa f r a is en l* e s c u t. E Jaufre fe r lo per v e r tu t S i qe nul pot a rso s te n er, E v a i de t a l g is a ca se r C a p un pauc no 8*68 d e g o la t. E Jaufre venc t o t z a b riv a tz S o b r 'e l, q e l v o le anar f e r ir , Mais Simon, can lo v i v e n ir , Li c r id a : 'C avaler, merce! No muira! c 'a is im rent a t e . --E s i t'a s e g u r de m o r ir ," Dis J a u fre, " la ix a r m'as durmir? --H oc, t o t a v o s tr a v o lu n ta t, Qe nous v o lg r a aver to c a t Iter a ita n cun eu pusc donar." E Jau fre a l la ix a t e s ta r E decen, p uls e s se c o lg a tz Aqui dun s i era le v a tz , E a q i e i s e s s'a d o rm itz. E Simon torn a s 'e n m aritz, Sun cap c l i e t o t z vergunus, E fo d e r e ir e t o t z te r o s , E venc e l p a la is t o t sttau, Qe no f e s la m eita t d 'e s c la u Qe a v ia f a i t a 1 ' i s i r . El s e n e s c a l q i l v i v e n ir Comenset un pau a sum rire, E pres a B run issen s a d ire "Domna, fu ig s 'e n v o s tr e g e r e r , Qe veu s vengut lo c a v a le r E non l ' a minga amenat, Eu e r e q ' e l l ' a a seg u ra t." Respon B r u n issen s: "Ja, per Deu, V ostre aseguramen n i l seu 221 Nol ten ra pro q 'e u n u l d e sfsssa Enans qe ja manje n i ja s s a ." Ab ta n resp o s us c a v a le r s Qe fu un d 'a q e ls . v i i j . p o rters Qe a .m. c a v a le r s so t s e : "Domna, s iu s v o le t z , per ma £ e , " Dis e l , "eu I'a d u r a i a d es. Non e s ta n mal n i ta n engres Qe m algrat seu n o l v o s aduga, S ol Deus v o ila qe n o ss'e n fu ga. — S ein er, ja no s 'e n f u g ir a ," D is Simun, "ans v o s aten dra, Qe s 'a g e s ta la n de fu g ir , Ja no fora to r n a tz dorm ir. E no l'a d u g a tz lajam ent Ni n u l fa s s a tz descausim ent, Qe mot e s pros e e n s e in a tz , E mot s e r ia grans p e c a tz ." Ab ta n respon lo s e n e s c a l: "Aisim defends Deus de mal Cun e l se defendra de v o s! E no es d'anar ta n co tx o s Qe t o t d 'a pas nous en t o m e t z ." El c a v a lie r t o t esdem etz E e s s 'e n e l v e r g ie r in tr a tz , E a i s i cun venc a b r iv a tz , A tro b a t Jau fre qe dormi, E e s c r id a : "Leva d 'a q u i, C avalier, o aras moras, S i denant ma domna no v a s ." E Jaufre no a mot so n a t. "Tot ir e t z su s, mal v o s t r e g r a t ," 50 d is lo c a v a lie r , "per me, E t o t v en r e tz a sa raerce Denant ma domna, no e s m als, Qeja Simon n i l s e n e s c a ls , 51 t o t v o s ant a seg u ra t, Nous i v a lr a n , " e a l donat T al c o lp , qe t o t lo f a i frem ir. E Jau fre, can s i sen f e r i r , Leva t r a s t o t z e ix a b o s itz . "Deus!" d is e l , "cun sun e s c a r n itz , Car anc l a i s e i a q est anar C*aisim f e r em ven r e sid a r ! 2 2 2 E l a gran d r e it e eu a i t o r t Car anc n 'e s c a p e t m eins de m ort, Rjs doas v e s ra*a e s c a r n lt Ni de f la n s a m'a m e n tit." El c a v a l ie r a aut c r l d a t : "Sus i r e t z , en v i l a n e n f la t , E npatxat, p le n de desm esura, Qe per v o s t r a m alaven tu ra S al i n t r e s , qe v o s e s venguda, Qe ma domna s fe s ir a sc u d a , Qe d e ls mentbres v o s d e sfa r a . — S e in e r ," d is J a u fr e , "no fa r a . E p o ir ia t z o d ir p lu s j e n t , Qe q u i par la v ila n a m en t A qi tin no a n u l l poder, Nozer 11 pot e no v a l e r . Es eu a i ne mot a v o l g ra t Car v o s a i doas v e s la ix a t Anar, qem v e n ia t f e r i r , E ben m’ en deu a l s o v e n ir . E pus v e i qe ta n gran t a le n t N 'a v e tz , nous en p erra ta n j e n t E sta t e r s a , s i Deus m, a j u t ." Puis p ren sa la n sa e sun e s c u t, E e s d esliu ra m en p o ja tz E v e s lo c a v a le r g i r a t z . E l c a v a lie r q e l v i v e n ir Venc v e s e l e v a i lu f e r i r , S i qe t o t a s a la n sa b r ls a . E J a u fre f e r e l de t a l g is a Qe 1*e s c u t e l b ras l* a p a s s a t, E l* a u sb e rc rumput e f a l s a t , S i qe la la n sa met e l c o r s , Qe m ais d ’ un palm en p ares f o r s , E an et e n t e r r a c a s e r . E J a u fre t i r a per poder Sa la n s a , s i q e la n 'a t r a ix a , Qe no e s fenduda n i fr a tx a , R iis v en c l i su s de s a l t a l e n t . E can v i q e t a ma lam ent Es n a fr a tz q e g reu pot g a r ir : "Huimais me l a i s a r e t z dorm ir, Bar mun c a p ," d is e l , "raal g r a t t e u , C 'a is i cun s i t t o l g e s to n f i e u 223 0 t* a g e s r e q is t o raubat M *avias . i i j . v e s r e s id a t , Mas huiraais no m i fa ra s n au sa, Ans c u ig qe d o rm ira i en p ausa, Qe no m*en c a l p er t e g iq ir ." Puis d eix en e to r n a dorm ir. El c a v a le r e s rem asutz N a fr a t, e ja c t o t z e ste n d u tz E l s o l , e l s e s c u d ie r s amdos Vengrun curen ab lu r s brandos Can lo v ir o n a i x i ca d t, E an mes en su n e s c u t , E p u is an l * e l p a la is p ort a t On su n l i c a v a l i e r arm at. E B ru n issen s q u i l v i v e n ir : "A iso no fa j e s bon s u f r i r , " D is e l a , "ans o fa fo r t g reu , C a v a lers, e d ie v o s , per Deu, Se d 'a q u est non p ren etz v e n ja n sa , Neguns non e s e n ma fia n s a , Car l* a n ta qe a q e s t m*a f a i t a M 'er to stem s m ais a mal r e t r a i t a Sfa i s i m*escapa n i s 'e n v a ." D is l o s e n e s c a l: "No se r a , Domna, qe v e n ja n sa n*er p r e sa , Mais a q e st e s d ' a i t a l p roesa E a ta n fe r c o r e s o b r ie r Qe j a s o l per un c a v a lie r No e r p res, f e q e d e l a v o s , Car me e p u is Simon lo Ros D eroq et, ens f e s c o v e n ir Q el la is a se m a s a t z dorm ir, E a q e s t a n a tr a t, s o e r e . Ber qeus c o s s e i l p er bona f e Qe nu l a i n ' e v i e s t z s u l un, Qe de t o t z a q e ls de Munbrun, De t o t z v o s f a r i a a i t a l . " Ela resp o n a l s e n e s c a l : "Ben su n g a m id a d 'a v o l j e n t , Anun n * i .1 . o c e n t , 0 m a is, s i m ais m ester m *i a n t . Tot v e i r a i s i l m*en ad u ran t. E q i de me v o l r e n te n e r Ni e m*amor v o l remaner, 224 An l a i a d e s, e t a n t no fu ja N is rescu n da qe n u l m’a d u ja ." E ls c a v a lie r s , can an a u s lt C 'a is i o d i t z , t u i t a un c r i t Sun de la s a la d escen du t E sun s ’en e l v e r g ie r v en gu t On an J a u fr e durmen t r o b a t, E nu I 1an a I r e demandat, Mais q u i pot a v e n ir prem ers Q el pren, e aqo v o l e n t e r s . Q il pren p er carabas, q i p er b r a tz , Qi per c u e is a s , q i p er c o s t a t z , Qi p er e s p a t la s , q i p er t e s t a . E Jau fre no s ' o te n c a f e s t a Can s e r e s id a e s se n p r e s : "Deus!" d is e l , "so q u in a je n s e s ? Ber v o s mi clam , sa n ta M aria! "B aros," d is e l , "per Eeu, n o s s ia ! E d ig a tz me q in a gens e s , On mi p o r ta tz n i qe q e r e s , C * a isi mfa v e tz p res suptam ent? Es a v e r s ie r s ? Hoc veram ent, So e r e , o d e ls e n g la s ia t z , Pus d 'a q e s ta sa su n a n a tz . Bar Deu e per sa v e r g e m aire, Anatz, " d is e l , "a v o s tr * a f a ir e , E l a i s a t z mi t o m a r dorm ir. —Ans, " fa n t i l , ’V os e r a v e n ir Denant ma domna a n ca ra n u ig , Qeus ven d ra caramens I ’en u ig Qe l* a v e tz f a i t , e l ’ e s v a s id a , Qe ja no l a i i r e t z ab v id a ." E e n a i s i an I 'e n p o ja t Sus en la s a la , t o t arm at, On a trob ad a B ru n issen s Q’ e s vengda v e s e l c o r e n s, Can lo v i a i s i a p o r ta r , E a lo f a i t a q u i p a u sa r. E J a u fre e s en pes le v a t z , E fu gran s e ben f a is o n a t z , E d*ausberc ricam en v e s t i t z , Qe fo b e I s e c la r s e f o r b it z Sun elm e, c la r s e r e sp la n d e n s. E e s t e denant B ru n issen s 225 En p es, e a l mut f o r t g a r a t, E p u is a p res a l dem andat: "Es v o s a q e l qe ta n t d*enuig E ta n de m al m a'a f a i t anuig?" J a u fre resp o n : "Domna, nun j e s . Anc no f u i Qe m al v o s f e z e s , Enuig nous f i s n i f a r a i j a , Ans v o s d ie q e s i om lo u s f a , Qeus d e fe n d r a i a mun p od er. —A qi non d iz e t z j e s de v e r . Non in t r e s v o s e mun v e r g e r , E nu m 'a v etz un c a v a le r S i n a fr a t q e p res e s de mort ? — Domna, v e r s e s , m ais e l n*ac t o r t , Qera le v a v a de mun durm ir, Domna em v en c . i i j . v e s f e r i r De sa la n sa su s e l c o s t a t , E s i m' a v ia a seg u r a t E sob re sa f e co v en g u t, PUs t o t l* a ic . i j . v e t z a b a tu t, Qe num r e s id e s nim m oges, N i m al n i en u ig num f e z e s , Mais s ’eu sau b es qe v o s t r e f o s , S i fo s . i j . ta n s pus en oj os E pus m al e pus d e s c a u z itz , Ja per me no fo r a f e r i t z . " Ab a it a n B ru n issen s resp o n : "Iter t o t z lo s san s q u i sun e l mun," D is e l a , "can m’ e s c a p a r e tz Jam ais mun en u ig nom f a r e t z . E d ie v o s q e , s e Deus m 'a ju t, F ort aura en v o s b e l pendut, 0 b e l orp , o b e l e s c a s a , Qe ja enans no e r dema Tro qe s i a de v o s v e n ja d a ." E J a u fre conoc q *es ir a d a Can l ' a u s i e n a i s i p a r la r , E p res mot f o r t a e sg a r a r Sun fro n e su n c o l e sa ca ra , Qe fo fr e s c a e b la n ca e c la r a , Sa boca e su s o i l s p la s e n s , C lars e amoros e r is e n s , Q el sun in s e l c o r d e v a la tz . A i s i fo le u enam oratz. 226 Cun p lus la v e , ades l'a g e n sa E ades a meins de temensa De la s nienassas q ' e l l'a u d ir , E un p lu s la v e a f o r t ir , Ades l ' a m elor v o lu n ta t. E B runissens a comandat C'om ades mantenen lo prenda, E q e l d e sfa ssa o q e l penda, ” 0 lum f a i t z a t a l mort m orir Q*en pusca mun cor e s c la r s ir ." E Jau fre repon m antenent: "Domna, t o t a v o s tr e t a le n t Bodetz fa r , e a v o s tr a g u isa , De me, ca r en v o str a cam isa, Senetz t o t z a u tres garnim ens, M *auriatz con q u ist pus corens Qe .x . c a v a lie r t u i t armat, Tan v o s a i bona v o lu n ta t. E seus a i f a i t per nusaber Mal n i en u ig n i d esp la ser, Vos m eseisa prenet v en ja n sa , Q*escut n i esp asa n i lan sa Non p en rai per v o s a con ten dre, Ni per v o s tr e p la se r d efen d re." E B ru n issen s, can l*au p a rla r Tan je n t n i ta n fo r t rasunar, Es de sa ir a refren ad a, Car Amors l* a a l co r nafrada De sun d a rt, s i qe mantenent ferdonera sun mal t a le n t A Jau fre, s e l fo s bon a fa r , Mais, per paor de mal p a rla r, Non ausa sun cor d escu b rlr, E manda c*om l'a n d esgarn ir E qe m alas obras ne fa s s a , Mais pero, s i t o t 11 m enassa, No v o l sun dan pus qe de s e , Iter so q 'e n e l co n o is e v e . E Jau fre d i s : "Domna, per Deu, Datz me un don, nou s ia g reu ." Dis e ls " "Si Deus mi perdon, No a u retz de mi a u tre don Mais qe s e r e tz j u s t i s i a t z . — Domna, s i donaretz, s iu s p la tz , 227 Qe nous q ie r r e p ie g de m orir, Mais s o l qem l a i s e t z pro dormir, R iis f a i t z de mi v o s tr e p la se r , Q*eu non a i sobre v o s poder, " A ic i respon lo s e n e s c a l: "Domna, a ls o nous pot a mal Tornar, e laisem lo dormir, Qe n o l fa r ia bo a u sir Tro c'om sapcha q u i es n i don, Car moutz homes van per lo mun Qeren gera e aventura Qe sun r ic e de gran n a tu re." E B runissens £es sp arer Qel fo s m al, mais a gran p la se r S'o te n q u 'e l d it z qe no I 'a u s is a , Mais ja negus en nula g u isa Nol c o s s e l qe l* en l a i s a n a r: "Baros, s e l mi v o le t z garar Sobre tu t can te n e tz de me, Lous l a i s a r a i . . . . ^Jaufrd. Roman A rtu rien du X IIIe S ie c le en v e r s Provencaux. ed . C lo v is Brunei (S o c id t6 des Anciens T exts F ran ^ ais) (B a ris: 1943), 11. 3190-3680. APPENDIX B L O SO M NI Q U E PLAERDEMAVIM FEU Chapter CLXIII from T lrant lo Blanc 1490 E d ition A la m ajestat v o str a d ir 6 to t lo que he so m ia t. Com jo dormia en una cambra de parament en companyia de quarte d o n z e lle s , e que E stefa n ia v en ia ab un e s ta d a l en ces, per no portar m olta Hum, e v en ia a l n o str e l l i t e mirava s i dormiem, e v 6 u-nos t o t e s dormir, j o esta v a a l i e - nada que no s 6 s i dormia o s i v e t lla v a ; e v iu en somni com E stefa n ia o b rl la porta de la cambra molt suaument perque no f e s remor, e trob a mon senyor T irant e lo C onestable que ja esta v en e sp e ra n t. E v e n ie n en g ip o n s, ab mantos i e sp a se s, e ca lfa v e n petlcs de lia n a perque no fe s s e n remor a l p a sseja r; e a l fe n tra r que e l l s feren , e l l a apaga la Hum e p o s t's primera, lo C onestable a la sua ma; apr£s v en ia lo v ir tu e s , i e l l a semblava en a q u e ll cas mosso de cego, e p o s a 'ls d ins la v o str a cambra. E v o s tr a a lt e s a esta v a ben perfumada e a lg a lia d a , e no mal a b illa d a , v e s - tid a e no d esp u lla d a . T irant v o s te n ia en lo s seus bra9 os e p ortava-u s per la cambra b esan t m olt s o v in t, e v o str a a lt e s a que d eia : nDeixa*m, T ira n t, deixa*ra!H E e l l v o s posava sobre lo H i t de rep os. — E Plaerdemavida s 'a c o s ta a l l l i t , e d ix : ”A i en l l i t ! iE q u i us ha v i s t e q u i us veu ara, que esta u s o l , desacompanyat, sens p r o fit neg6 ! £0n 6 s a q u e ll q ui a c i esta v a com jo somiava?" E paregu6 *m d e l l l i t llevar-m e en cam isa, e v en g u i en a q u e ll fo ra t de la p orta, e que m irava t o t v o s tr e f e t . Dix la P rin ce sa : —Has m 6 s som iat ? Ab m oltes r la l i e s e ab gran p laer que lo h i d e ia . — s f , Santa Maria! — d ix Plaerdemavida— . Jo us ho acabar6 t o t de r e c it a r . Vos, senyora, p ren ieu unes 228 ~ 229 bores e ddieu: "T irant, jo t 'h e l le ix a t v e n ir a c i per d a r -te un poc de repb s, per Xa gran amor que t* h e ." E T irant dubtava de f e r lo que 1 'a lt e s a v o s tr a l i d e ia . E v 6 s d&ieu: "Si tu antes a mi, per res no deus e s ta r d'assegurar-m e d e ls dubtes esd ev en id o r s. E aquest c&rrec que jo he pres per amor de tu no ds convinent a d o n z ella de ta n gran a u c to r lta t com jo s 6 . No em denegues lo que e t deman, car la mia c a ste d a t, en la q ual j o he v is c u t , q u lt ia de t o t crim , ds llo a d o ra ; mas per p recs d *E stefan ia has ob tesa aquesta amorosa gr& cia, deixant-m e cremada per digna amor. Bar qud e t prec t e v u lle s co n ten ta r de la g r lc ia quo has aconseguida en gran c&rrec e culpa d 'E s te - fa n ia ." "Iter l'ex trem a e desaforada con goixa, d eia T ira n t, que v e ig passar a la m ajestat v o s tr a , que preneu armes contra v d s, q u i us ofenen, en se r e u condemnsda per t o t s a q u e lls q u i d'amor se n ten . Haro, ab t o t , no v u l l que d e s- c o n fie u que jo f a l l i s a ma v e r i t a t . E ab gran c o n f ia ^ a c r e ia vos a co rd a rleu a mon v o le r no tement lo s esd ev en id o rs p e r i l l s . PUix a v o s tr a a lt e s a no plau e em v o le u ta n t f a tig a r , jo s 6 con ten t de fe r t o t lo que a la m ajestat v o s tr a ser& p la s e n t." "C alla, T ira n t, d eia 1 'a lt e s a v o s tr a , e no e t co n g o ix es de r e s , car la mia noblea ja u s o t s la tua amor." E l i f e ie u fe r sagrament que sens v o le r v o s tr e no us en u ja r ia de r e s : "E posat cas que ho v o l- g u esses com etre, no s e r ia poc lo dan e con goixa que t u era d a rie s; e s e r ia ta n ta que en t o t s lo s d ie s de ma v id a de tu me laraentaria, car com la v ir g in i t a t ds perduda no 6a re p a r a b le." E t o t e s aq u estes c o s e s he soraiades que v 6 s a e l l e e l l a v 6 s d&ieu. Aprds en v i s i 6 v iu com e l l v o s besava m olt s o v in t, e d esfd u -vos la c lo tx e ta d e ls p it s e que us besava a gran p ressa le s raaraelles. E com vos hagud ben besada, v o lia - u s posar la rok d a v a ll la fa ld a per c e r c a r -v o s le s p u ces. E v 6 s , la mia bona senyora, no ho v o lie u c o n se n tir ; ca r dubte em fa que s i ho hagudsseu c o n s e n tit, que lo sagrament no p e r i l l a s . E v o str a a lt e s a l i d e ia : "Temps vendrd que lo que ta n t d e s ig e s e sta r a en l l i b e r t a t tu a , e la mia v i r g i n i t a t conservada serA per a tu ." Aprds posd la sua cara so b re la v o s tr a , e te n in t lo s bra9 ©s sobre lo v o s tr e c o l l , e lo s v o s tr e s en lo seu l l i g a t s com le s sarm ents en lo s a rb res, p ren ia de v 6 s amorosos b e sa r s. Aprds v iu som itant que E stefa n ia e s ta v a sobre a q u e ll l l i t ab le s cames que a l parer meu l i v e ia b lan q u ejar, e d eia s o v in t: " jA i, senyor, que mal me fe u ! ^ D oleu-vos un poc do mi e no cm v u lla u d e l Cot m atar." E T irant quo 11 d e ia : "Germane E stefa n ia , £per qui v o le u incrim inar la v o s tr a honor ab ta n ts grans c r lt s ? No sabeu que m oltes v o lt e s le s p o rets tenon o r e lle s ? " E e l l a prenia lo l l e n 9 o l e p o s a v a 'l-s c a la boca, e ab le s den ts e s t r e n y ia 'l fo r t per no c r id a r . E no e s pogui o s ta r , a p r is un poc e s p a i, que no donas un c r i t : "T rista, q u i f a r i? Dolor me fo r 9 a de c r id a r , e sogons v e ig , d o lib e r a t te n iu de m atar-m e." L lavors lo C onestable l i ta n c i la boca. E la raia anima com s e n t ia a q u e ll sa b o r is p la n t, complanyia'm de ma desaventura com jo no era la te r c e r a ab lo meu H i p i l i t . Encara que jo s ia g ro sso ra en amar, conegui lo meu e s p e r it que lo termo d ’amor aquf. d evia f i n i r . La mia inlm a hagui algu n s sen tim en ts d'amor que ignorava, e d o b li'm la p a s s i i d e l meu H ip ilit com no prenia part d e ls b esa r s a ix l com T iran t de la P rin cess, e lo C onestable d 'E ste fa n ia . E com mis h i pensava mis d o lo r s s e n tia , e paregui'm que p ren gu i un poc d 'a ig u a e que em la v i lo cor, lo s p its e lo v e n tr e per rem elar la d o lo r mia. E m irant lo meu e s p e r it p er lo fo r a t, a p r is un poc in s ta n t E stefa n ia e s t i s lo s seus b ra 9 os abandonant-se e r e te n t le s armes, empero d ix : "Vis t e ' n , c r u e l ab poca amor, que no has p ie ta t n i m iser ico rd ia de le s d o n z e lle s fin s que e l s has v io la d a la c a s te d a t. Oh sen s fe ! £De qulna pena se r a s digne s i jo no et v u l l perdonar? E complanyent-me de tu , mes f o r t t'am e. $0 n i s la fe , per tu a mi rompuda? On i s la tua m k dreta a ju sta d a ab la m ia? £0n s in lo s sa n ts q u i fa cen testlm o n l, lo s q uals a h ir per la tu a f a ls a boca foren nom enats, que em promet i s t que no em f a r ie s mal n i per tu no s e r ia decebuda? Gran ardim ent has f e t , que ab pens a d elib erad a h ages volguda rob ar la d esp u lla de la mia v i r g i n i t a t , per tu i s s e r home de ta n gran a u c to r i- t a t ; e perque la que re 1 1 a mia mis verdaderament s ia co n e- guda . . . ," c r id a la R rincesa e a T irant e ra o stra 'ls la cam isa e d ix : "Aquesta sang mia ha fo r 9 a de reparar amor." E t o t 0 9 0 d e ia ab le s llA grem es a Is u l l s . Apris d ix : "iQ ui haura g r a t de mi, n i q u i fia r a de m i, que no he sabuda guardar a mi m ateixa? ^Com ser^ p er mi guardada a lt r a d o n zella que acomanada em s ia ? No t in e conhort s i n i d'una cosa : que no he res f e t que p erjudique la honor de mon m arit s i n i que he com plida sa v o lim ta t a mal g ra t meu. En le s m ies bodes no h i so n ven gu ts lo s c o r te sa n s, n i cap ellA no s ' i s v e s t i t a d ir la m issa; no h i i s venguda ...... '231 ma mare n i mas p a rcn tes; no han hagut t r o b a ll do d e s p u lla r - me lo s robos e v o stirm e la cam isa n u p cia l; no mfhan pujada a l l i l t par fo r $ a , ca r jo m 'h i sd sabuda pujar; no han hagut t r o b a ll lo s m in is tr e s do sonar n i do ca n ta r, n i lo s co r te sa n s c a v a lie r s de dansar, que bodes sord es adn e s t a - d es. Bnpero t o t lo que he f e t r e s ta en g ra t do mon m e r it." D 'e ste s c o s e s d e ia E ste fa n ia m o lte s. Aprds de t o t 0 9 6 , que lo j o m s* a c o sta v a , la m a jesta t v o s tr a c T irant la conhortaveu lo in illo r que p od lcu . Aprds bon e s p a i, que lo s g a lls to rn a ren a c a n ta r , e l ' a l t e s a v o s tr a pregava humilment a T iran t se*n v o lg u e ss e n anar perqud no fo s s e n v is t a per negd d e l c a s t e l l . E T irant su p lic a v a l ' a l t e s a v o s tr a que l i fd ss e u grA cia de s o l t a r - l i lo sagrament per- quA poguds o b te n ir lo v ic t o r id s triu m fo que d e sija v a , a i x l com son c o s l; e la c e l s i t u d v o s tr a no volgu d , s in d que restA s g lo r io s a de la b a t a lla . E com e l l s s e 'n fo ren a n a ts, d esp erti/ra e no v iu r e s , n i a H ip o lit n i a negd. Fui posada en gran pensament; perque em t r o b l lo s p it s e lo v e n tr e banyat de l'a ig u a , v e n ia a cr e u r e que d ev ia d sser v e r i t a t . La d o lo r m'aumenta en ta n ta quant i t a t que donava to rn s per lo l l i t com fa lo m a la lt q u i e a t A a l pas de m orir e no tro b a lo caml; per quA d e lib e r d d'araar H ip d lit ab co r v erd a d er, [e ] passard ma penada v id a a i x l com E stefa n ia f a . ^Estard ab lo s u l l s t a n c a ts , e negd no em darA rem ei? Amor m’ha ta n t to r b a ts lo s se n tim en ts, que raorta sd s i H ip o lit no m 'ajuda. iAlmenys que p a sses ma v id a en dorment! Iter c e r t , fo r t d o lo r ds a l d esp erta r q u i bon somni som ia. ^T iran t lo B lanc. e d . M artin de Riquer (B arcelon a: Iterenne, 1 9 4 7 ), pp. 5 2 1 -5 2 4 . EL SUENO QUE PLA C ER DE MI VIDA HIZO Chapter LXI from th e C a s t ilia n T r a n sla tio n o f T iran t lo Blanc R ib lish ed in 1511 --Y o dirA a V uestra M ajestad to d o lo que he sofiado. A mi me p a rec la que yo dormia en una cAmara de param entos, en companla de cu a tro d o n c e lla s , y que E ste fa n ia v e n ia con un lib r i c o de cera en cen d id o, por no tr a e r mucha lu z , a n u e stra cama y miraba s i dormiamos, y v i 6 que to d a s dor- raiamos; yo e sta b a arropada, que no s e s i dormia o v e la b a , y v i en suefios como E ste fa n ia a b r i6 la p uerta a ml sen o r T ira n te y a l c o n d e sta b le , que ya esta b a n esp eran d o. Y v e n ia n en jubones con capas y esp a d a s, y t r a ia n ca lza d o s p e a le s de la n a , porque no fu esen s e n tid o s a l pasar; y como e l l o s en tra ro n , e l l a mat6 la ca n d ela y pusose priraera tomando a l c o n d e sta b le por la mano, y e l v ir tu o s o T ir a n te , que lo s s e g u ia , y en a q u e l ca so e l l a p a recla mozo de c ie g o , y m e ti6 lo s d en tro de v u e s tr a cAmara. Y V uestra A lte z a e sta b a b ie n perfumada y a lg a lia d a y no mal a ta v ia d a , v e s - tid a y no desnuda. T ir a n te os tom6 en a q u e llo s su s v a r o - n i l e s b ra zo s, y t r a la o s por la cAmara besAndoos muy a raenudo. Y V uestra A lte z a d e c ia : "DAjarae, T ira n t, dAjarae." Y 61 os ponla sob re a q u e lla cama de rep o so . Y P lacer de mi Vida s e l l e g 6 a la cama y d ijo : --[A y , cama, q u ien os v i 6 y q u ien os v e ! [Que e s tA is s o la y desacompafiada, s in ningAn provecho! ^Qu6 s e h iz o a q u e l que a q u i e sta b a cuando yo sonaba? Y p a r e c i6 me que me le v a n t 6 de la cama en cam isa, y que v in e a m irar por a q u el a g u jero de la p u erta, y que v e ia to d o lo que h a c i a i s . Y en to n ces la p r in c e sa , rien d o con rnucho p la c e r , l e d ijo : — Has sonado, mas dlm elo to d o . 232 233 — S i, Santa M arla--dije> P lacer de mi V ida— ; yo os lo acabar6 de r e c it a r . Vos, seSfiBa, tom abais unas horas y d e c i a i s : ’’T ira n te , yo t e h e dejadb v e n ir a q u l por t e dar un poco de rep o so por e l mucho amor que t e te n g o ." Y T ira n te dudaba de hacer lo que VtaesCra A lte z a l e dec la , y v o s d e c ia is : "S i t 6 me amas, por nif*guna c o sa debes d eja r de asegurarrae de lo s dudosos tem ores que de t i te n g o . Y e s t e cargo que so b re ml he tornado por tu amor, no e s co n v e n ie n t e a d o n c e lla de ta n gran at& oridad como yo so y . No me n ieg u es lo que t e demando, que la c a s tid a d mia, en la c u a l yo he v iv id o q u ite de to d o crim en, e s load ora; mas por ruegos de E ste fa n ia has alcan zad o e s ta amorosa g r a c ia , dejdndome quemada por verd ad ero amor. Forque t e rue go t e q u ie r a s c o n te n ta r de la g r a c ia que has a lca n za d o en gran ca rg o y cu lp a de E s te fa n ia ." Eespondi6 T ir a n te : "Extrema y desaforad a con goja v eo p a sa r a la M ajestad V uestra, tomando armas co n tra v o s, que os ofenden, y s e r a is con d e- nada por to d o s a q u el lo s que de amor s ie n t e n . Itero con to d o , no q u ie ro que d e s c o n fid is que yo f a l t a s e a mi verd ad . Y con mucha co n fia n za c r e la que os co n fo rra a rla is con mi v o lu n ta d , no tem iendo lo s v e n id e r o s p e lig r o s . Ries que a V uestra A lte z a no p la c e , y me q u e r£ is ta n to f a t ig a r , yo so y co n ten to de h acer to d o lo que a V uestra A lte z a p la - c e r £ ." "C alla, T ir a n te — d e c la V uestra A lte z a — , y no t e a co n g o jes de nada, que to d a mi n ob leza est& debajo de t u amor." Y h a c l a i s l e hacer sacram ento que s i n v u e str a v o lu n ta d no os e n o ja r la en nada. "Y p u esto c a so que lo q u i s i e s e i s com eter, no s e r ia poco e l dafio y con goja que t& me c a u s a r ia s , y s e r ia ta n ta que en to d o s lo s d la s de ml v id a me q u e ja r la de t i , que como la v ir g in id a d e s perdida no s e puede re co b ra r ." Todas e s t a s c o sa s he sonado que v o s a 61 y d l a v o s os d e c i a i s . Despuds v i en v i s i 6 n c 6 mo d l o s besaba a menudo, y d esa to o s a mucha p r is a lo s c o r - dones de lo s pechos y besdbaos la s t e t a s . Y como b ie n os hubo besad o, q u lso o s m eter la mano debajo de la s fa Id a s para os b u scar la s p u lgas; y v o s , mi buena sen o ra , no lo q u i s i s t e i s c o n s e n tir , que yo me dudo que s i lo c o n sin - t l e r e i s que e l juram ento no p e lig r a s e . Y V uestra A ltez a l e d e c ia : "Tiempo vendrd que lo que ahora ta n to d eseas lo ten d rd s a t u lib e r ta d , y mi v ir g in id a d se r a para t i co n serv a d a ." Despuds puso su ca ra sob re la v u e s tr a te n ie n d o lo s b razos sob re v u e s tr o c u e llo , y lo s v u e s tr o s e n e l suyo, que p a recla n a lo s sarm ien tos e n t r e t e j id o s 234 en e l d rb o l, tomaba de v o s am eroses b e s e s . Baapu&s v i sonando que E stefa n ia esta b a sob re a q u a lla costa, y a mi p arescer l e v e ia blanquear la s p ie m a s , y a tnenudo d e c ia : " |Ay sen or, que hac£ism e mal! BolfiOS im poco de mi, y no me q u erd is d el todo m atar." Y Tiraafie l e d e c ia : "Hermana E stefa n ia , por qu& q u erd is poner aseeh an sas a v u e str a honra con ta n grandes v o c e s? ^No sab&is qua mochas v e c e s la s paredes tie n e n o r e ja s? Y e l l a tomaba la manga de la cam isa y m e tia se la en la boca y apretaba fuB rte con lo s d ie n te s porque no fu e se se n tId a . Y dende a un poco no se pudo s u f r ir que no d le s e un g r it o d icien d o : " jT rista ! Dolor me fu erza dar v o c e s, y segtin v eo , d elib erad o te n n is de matarme." Entonces e l co n d esta b le con la mano l e ta p 6 la boca. Y como yo s e n t i aq u el sabroso lla n t o , mi £nima se com plania c 6 mo por mi desventura no era yo la te r c e r a con e l mi Hip6 l i t o . Y aunque no sea g rosera en araar, c o n o ci6 e l mi e s p ir it u que e l tdrm ino de amor aq ul debia fe n e c e r . Ni Aniraa hubo algunos se n tim ien to s de amor que ignoraba, y dobl6 seme la p a s i6 n de mi H ip o lito porque no tomaba en mi p a rte de lo s b esos a s i como T iran te de la p rin cesa y e l co n d esta b le de E ste fa n ia . Y como m & S en e l l o pensaba, mayores y mas d o lo res s e n tia , y a mi p arecer tom& un poco de agua y que me lavd e l co ra z 6 n, lo s pechos y e l v ie n t r e por rem ediar alguna p a rte de mi dolor* Y mirando mi e s p ir it u por e l agu jero, v i dende a poco c 6 mo E stefa n ia e x te n d i6 lo s brazos y r in d io la s armas; empero esforzA ndose d ijo : "Vete, c r u e l de poco amor, que no has piedad n i m ise r ic o r d ia de la s d o n c e lla s h a sta que le s has v io la d o la c a s tid a d . iOh, s in f e ! $Y de cu&nta pena e r e s digno, s i yo no t e q u iero perdonar, y dolidndome de t i raucho mas t e amo? jDonde e s t i la f e que t 6 me has quebrantado? jDonde e s t £ tu mano derecha que con la mia j u n ta ste? ^Donde estA n lo s sa n to s que t r a j i s t e en te stim o n io , lo s cu a le s por tu f a ls a boca a y er nombraste, cuando me prome- t i s t e que no me h a ria s m al n i s e r ia por t i enganada? Gran osad ia has com etido, que con d elib era d o pensam iento has querido robar e l despojo de mi v ir g in id a d ; y porque t u eres hombre de ta n ta au torid ad y porque mi q u e r e lla mas verdaderam ente sea conocida . . . " Llamfi a la p rin cesa y a T ira n te y m o stro les la cam isa, y d ij o l e s : "Esta mi sangre e s fu erza que la repare amor." Y to d o e s t o d ecia con muchas lagrim as en lo s o jo s . Despu6 s d ijo : "^Quidn tendrd contentam iento de m i, n i quidn fia r d de m i, que no he 235 sa b id o guardar a m l misma? Ettas gc&eo sard guardada por ml o tr a donee 1 1 a que me se a emeostandada ? S9o me co n o rto s in o con una c o s a , que no he h eeh o nada qua s e a p e r j u ic io de mi m arido, s in o que he cumplid© su v o lu n ta d a m al de mi grad o. A m is bodas no han v e n id o l o s c o r te s a n o s , n i c ld r ig o s e ha v e s t id o para nos d e c ir la m isa; no e s v e n id a mi madre n i m is par le n t e s , n i han h a b id o tr a b a jo en d esn u - darme la s ropas y v e s tir m e la cam isa; no me han su b id o por fu e r z a a la cama, que yo me supe s u b ir ; lo s m i n i s t r i l e s no han habido tr a b a jo en ta h e r y c a n ta r , n i lo s c a b a lie r o s y c o r te sa n o s en danzar, que bodas so r d a s han s id o . Enpero to d o lo que he hecho ha s id o v o lu n ta d de mi m arido . 1 1 Y de e s t a s y t a l e s c o s a s d e c ia muchas E s te fa n ia . Despuds de to d o e s t o , que e l d la s e lle g a b a , la M ajestad V uestra y T ira n te la con ortab an lo m ejor que p o d la n . Y d esd e a r a to lo s g a llo s to m a r o n a c a n ta r , y V u estra A lte z a rogaba muy hum ildem ente a T ira n te que s e q u i s i e s e i r porque de ninguno d e l c a s t i l l o no fu e s e n v i s t o s . Y T ir a n te su p lic a b a a V uestra A lte z a l e q u i s i e s e h a cer g r a c ia de s o l t a r l e e l juram ento porque p u d ie se a lc a n z a r e l v i c t o r i o s o t r iu n f o que d eseab a, a s l como su prim o. Y l a c e l s i t u d v u e s tr a no q u is o s in o quedar v i c t o r i o s a de la b a t a l l a . Y como e l l o s s e fu ero n id o s , d esp er td y no v i nada, n i a H ip o lito n i a n in gu n o. F ul p u e sta en gran pen sam ien to, y como me h a lid lo s pechos y e l v ie n t r e mo j ados de agua, v in e a c r e e r que deb la s e r verd ad ; y en to n c e s e l d o lo r me aumentd en ta n t a manera que daba v u e lt a s por la cama como h ace e l enferm o que basquea con la m uerte y no h a lla e l cam ino; por lo c u a l d e lib e r d amar a H ip o lito de v erd a d ero corazd n, y pasard mi v id a penada a s l como h ace E ste fa n ia * £Yo e s t a r e con lo s o jo s cerr a d o s y ninguno no me dard rem edio? Y d ig o que amor me ha turbad o ta n to lo s se n t id o s que so y m uerta s i H ip o lito no me s o c o r r e , s iq u ie r a que p a sa se mi v id a dur- m iendo; que s in duda e s gran d o lo r d e sp e r ta r a q u ien buen sueno su eh a . o T ira n te e l Blanco* e d . I fe lic id a d Buendla (M adrid: A g u ila r , 1 9 5 4 ), pp. 1 3 5 6 -1 3 5 8 . a ppe n d ix c R A M O N LLULL*S LIBRO DE X A O RDEN DE CABALLERIA PART V De la S i g n i f i c a c i 6 n de la s Armas d e l C a b a llero 1. Todo lo que v i s t e e l s a c e r d o te para d e c ir m isa, t i e n e algu n a s i g n if i c a c io n co n v e n ie n ta con su o f i c i o . Y porque e l o f i c i o de c ld r ig o y de c a b a lle r o co n v ie n e n e n tr e s i , por e s t o r e q u ie r e la Orden de C a b a lle r ia que to d o lo que ha m en ester e l c a b a lle r o para u sa r de su o f i c i o ten g a a lg u n a s i g n i f i c a c i 6 n que r n a n ifie s te la n o b le za de la Orden de C a b a lle r ia . 2 . A l c a b a lle r o s e da esp ad a, que e s t £ formada a sem ejanza de una cru z, para s i g n i f i e s ? que, a i s i como n u e str o Senor J e s u c r is t o en la cru z v e n c i 6 la m uerte en que habiamos in c u r r id o por e l pecado de n u e s tr o padre AdAn, a s i e l c a b a lle r o con la espada debe v e n e e r y d e s t r u ir lo s enem igos de la c r u z . Y porque la espada e s de dos c o r t e s , y la C a b a lle r ia e s para m antener la j u s t i c i a , la c u a l con - s i s t e en d ar a cada uno su d erech o, por e s t o la espada s i g n i f i c a que e l c a b a lle r o con e l l a deba m antener la Caba l l e r i a y la j u s t i c i a . 3 . Lanza s e da a l c a b a lle r o para s i g n i f i c a r la v erd a d ; porque la verd a d e s una c o sa d srech a y no s e tu e r c e , y a n te ced e a la fa ls e d a d ; y e l a c e r o de la lan za s i g n i f i c a la fu e r z a que t i e n e la verdad so b r e la fa ls e d a d ; y a s t a denota que la verd ad s e m an ifiesta a to d o s s in m iedo de la fa ls e d a d n i en gan o. Y la verdad e s e l apoyo 236 237 de la esperanza; y otras c o sa s tods p a ste n e c le n te s a la verdad estd n s ig n ific a d a s por la lan sa d e l c a b a lle r o . 4 . Se da a l c a b a lle r o yefcoo para s ig n if ic a r la vergtienza, porque c a b a lle r o s in vergGsnsa no puede se r o b ed ien te a la Orden de C a b a lle r ia . Y a s i como la v e r - gtfenza hace avergonzar e l hombre y m & rar a l su elo , a s l e l yelmo d efien d e e l hombre de la s cosas a l t a s , y mlra la t ie r r a , y e s un medio que e s td en tre la s c o sa s a lta s y b a ja s . Y a s l como e l yelmo d efien d e la eab eza, que e s e l mds a lt o y p r in c ip a l miembro d e l hombre, a s l la vergtlenza im pide a l c a b a lle r o (cuyo o f i c i o , daspu&s d e l de c l l r i g o , e s e l m£s a l t o ) que no s e in c lin e a hechos v i l e s , y no ab ata la nobleza de su co ra z 6 n a la ffialdad, engano o algu na m ala cria n za . 5 . Ia coraza s i g n if ic a c a s t i l l o y m uralla co n tra lo s v ic io s y fa lim ie n to s ; porque, a s l como e l c a s t i l l o y la m uralla e st£ n alred ed or cerrados para que nadie pueda e n tr a r en e l l o s , a s l la coraza e s td por to d a s partes cerrada y a ju sta d a , para s ig n if ic a r a l n o b le coraz6 n d e l c a b a lle r o , que no ha de poder en tra r en 4 l t r a i c i 6 n, o r g u llo , d e s le a lta d n i o tro v i c i o . 6 . C alzas de h ier ro s e dan a l c a b a lle r o para la segu rid ad de su s p ie s y p ie m a s , para s ig n if i c a r le que con su espada, lan za, maza y su s deads armas debe hacer que e st4 n seguros lo s cam inos. 7. E spuelas c a lz a e l c a b a lle r o para s ig n if ic a r la d ilig e n c ia , c a u te la y ans ia qua le incumben, para poder te n e r honrada su Orden. Borque, a s i como e l c a b a lle r o con la esp u ela p ica su c a b a llo para que ande a p r is a y corra lo mds a celera d o que pueda, a s l la d ilig e n c ia hace a c e le r a r lo que con vien e, la c a u te la guarda e l hombre de se r s o r - prendido, y la a n sia hace procurer e l a m d s y gas to n e c e - s a r io a l honor de la C a b a ller ia . 8 . Xa g o la se da a l c a b a lle r o en s ig n if ic a c id n de la ob ed ien cia; porque e l c a b a lle r o que no e s ob ed ien te a su sen or n i a la Orden de C a b a ller ia , deshonra su sen or y s a le de su Orden. Bar ende, a s i como la g o la rodea e l c u e llo d e l c a b a lle r o para que e s t £ d efen did o de h eridas 233 y g o lp e s , a s l la o b e d le n c ia l o haee e sta r tSQi^iro le s man-* dam ientos de su serlor o mayor, y den&ro la Ortien de C a b a lle r ia , para que la t r a i c i 6 n, o r g u llo , in j u r ia u o tr o v i c l o no corrompan e l juram ento hech© a Su Sefior y a la C a b a lle r ia . 9 . Maza s e da a l c a b a lle r o en S & g n lfic a c i6 n de la fo r ta le z a de su co r a z 6 n; porque, as£ costo la maza v a le co n tra to d a s la s dem£s armas y da y ilie r e por to d a s p a r te s , a s l la f o r t a le z a de c o r a z 6 n d e fie n d e a l c a b a lle r o de to d o s lo s v i c i o s y f o r t i f l e a la s v ir tu d e s y buenas costum bres con que m an tien e e l honor de la C a b a lle r ia . 1 0 . Dase a l c a b a lle r o m is e r ic o r d ia ( e s t o e s , h ach a), y s i e s td ta n c e r c a de su ertemigo que no l e pueda h e r ir con la n z a n i espada n i maza, l e de g o lp e con e l hacha. For e s t o s i g n i f i c a e s t a arma que e l c a b a lle r o no s e debe f i a r de su s armas n i de su fu e r s a , s in o que debe a c e r c a r se ta n to a D ios por la esp e ra n sa , que con D ios y su esp eran za combata su s enem igos y lo s c o n tr a r io s de la C a b a lle r ia . 11. E l escu d o s e da a l c a b a lle r o para s i g n i f i c a r l e su o f ic io ; porque, a s i como e l escu d o s e m ete e n tr e e l c a b a lle r o y su enem igo, a s l e l c a b a lle r o e s e l m edio e n tr e e l rey y su p u e b lo . Y a s l como e l g o lp e prim ero da en e l escu d o que en e l cu erpo, a s l e l c a b a lle r o debe exp on er su cuerpo d e la n te de su se n o r, s i a ca so q u ls ie r a algu n o p ren d erle o h e r i r l e . 12. La s i l l a en que ca b a lg a e l c a b a lle r o s i g n i f i c a la seg u rid a d de corazon y la carga de la C a b a lle r ia ; por que, a s l como por la s i l l a e l c a b a lle r o estd seg u ro so b re su c a b a llo , a s l la firm eza de co r a z 6 n le h ace e s t a r de fr e n te en la bat a 1 1 a, por lo que l e a c a e c e la v en tu r a amiga de la C a b a lle r ia . For la misma se g u r id a d s e d e s - p re c ia n muchas cob ard es j a c t a n c ia s y vanos amagos, y se re fr e n a n muchos hombres que no s e atreven a em prender c o sa a lg u n a , donde un n o b le c o r a je h ace e sta r se g u ro e l ca b a lle r o ; y e s ta n grande la ca rg a de la C aballeria, que no s e deben mover lo s c a b a lle r o s para cosas lig e r a s . 13. A l c a b a lle r o s e da c a b a llo e n s i g p i f i c a c i o n de la n ob leza de £nim o, y para que a c a b a llo est& m&s e le v a d o - 239 que lo s dem£s hombres, sea v l s t o de lojGS, tCSga t n & 0 cosas debajo de s i y sea e l prim ero de todOS OB 2a s Sufteiones p e r te n e c le n te s a l honor de la C a b a lle r ia . 14. A l c a b a llo s e pone fren o , y sus rien d a s la s torna en su s manos e l c a b a lle r o , para s i g n i f i c a r l e , por e l fren o, que r e fr e n e su boca de h a b la r p a la b ra s fe a s y f a l - sa s; su s manos de dar ta n to , que despuds it e e e s it e de p ed ir; y su a rd lm len to , para no s e r ta n a tr e v id o que proceda s in cordura; y por la s rien d a s en tien d a que S O d e je lle v a r a cu a lq u lera p a rte donde lo q u ie r a em plaar © e n v ia r la Orden de C a b a lle r ia . Y, cuando ser£ m en ester, a la r g u e su s manos, g a s te y dd segun corresponde a su honor; se a a n i- moso y no tema su s enem lgos, y, cuando dudara de h e r lr , d eje la fla q u ez a de corazd n. Porque, s i h ace lo c o n tr a r io , su c a b a llo , que e s b e s t ia y no usa de rasdn, s lg u e m ejor que 6 l la r e g ia y o f i c i o de C ab alleria* 15. T estera s e pone a l c a b a llo para s i g n i f i c a r que n in g 6 n c a b a lle r o debe u sar de la s armas s i n ra z 6 n; porque, a s l como la cabeza d e l c a b a llo v e prim ero y d e la n te d e l c a b a lle r o , a s l e l c a b a lle r o en todo l o que hace debe lle v a r d e la n te la razdn; pues la obra qua s e hace s i n razon t ie n e ta n ta v i l e z a en s i , que no debe paresenciarla e l c a b a lle r o . Bor e s t o , a s l como la t e s t e r a guarda y d e fie n d e la cabeza d e l c a b a llo , a s i la ra sd n guarda y de fie n d e e l c a b a lle r o de v it u p e r io y vergfion sa. 16. la s g u a m ic io n e s d e l c a b a llo lo d efien d en , y por e l l a s s e s i g n i f i c a a l c a b a lle r o , que debe guardar y co n serv a r su s b ie n e s y r iq u e z a s, para que l e puedan b a sta r a l o f i c i o de C a b a lle r ia . Porque, a s l como e l c a b a llo s in la s g u a m ic io n e s no p odrla e s t a r d efen d id o de g o lp e s y h e r id a s, a s i e l c a b a lle r o s in e s t o s bienes tem p orales no podrla m antener e l honor de la C a b a lle r ia n i s e p odrla defender de pensam ientos m alvados, porque la pobreza hace pensar en enganos y t r a ic io n e s . 17. El perpunte da s ig n if ic a c io n a l c a b a lle r o de lo s grandes tr a b a jo s que ha de s u f r ir para honrar la Orden de C a b a lle r ia . Porque, a s l como e l perpunte e s td so b re lo s demds a d ere zo s, ex p u esto a l s o l, l l u v i a y v ie n t o , r e c ib e e l g o lp e prim ero que la co ra za y por to d a s p a r te s '"'240 e s com batido y h e r id o , a s l e l c a b a lle r o e a td e le g id o pa®a m ayores tr a b a jo s que c u a lq u le r ot&o k©rfbf©. l&JgqtiQ COdSB lo s que e s t l n d eb a jo de su nob le a s y guagda, dobon ajeotsfrlr a l l , y debe d efen d er lo s a to d o s; y prim es© dofeo e e s h e r id o , lla g a d o o m uerto que lo s hJEanfeses q u e l e est& n en** comandados. S ien d o, pues, e s t o a s i , gran d e 0 0 ^ ea r g a de la C a b a lle r ia ; y por e s t o lo s p r ln e ip e s y a I t 09 fearsaes e s t l n p u esto s an ta n grande tr a b a jo para s e g i r y d e fe n d e r su s t i e r r a s y p u e b lo s. 18. la s armas en e l escu d o , o i l la y pGrpus&e, se dan a l c a b a lle r o para s e r a la b a d o do lo o a r d 3m ioa£ © 3 quo cmprenda y de lo s g o lp e s que da e n la b a ta lia . 7, s i O S cob ard e, f la c o o in o b e d ie n te , s e l e da so&al pare quo sea v itu p e r a d o y r e prebend id o . Y , porque e sta s asnas se dan a l c a b a lle r o para que s e con ozca s i e s amigo © ettemig© do la C a b a lle r ia , cada uno debe honrar sus etn as, para guat“ d a rse d e l v it u p e r io , que a l c a b a lle r o lo echa de la 6?den de C a b a lle r ia . 19. E l r e y , p r ln c ip e o se u o r do c a b a l lo r o s t i e n e e s ta n d a r te , en s i g n i f i c a c i l n de q ue lo s c a b a llo r o s dobsn m antener e l honor de su sen o r y de s u s e s ta d e s ; porque por e l honor d e l r e in o o p rin cip a d o de su se S o r so n m is h o n ra - dos por la s g e n te s , y por e l deshonor de s u t i e r r a y d e su se n o r son mas v itu p e r a d o s que lo s o tr o s hem bres. Baes, a s l como por d ich o honor deben s e r m is a la b a d o s, porque m is l e s to c a a e l l o s e l honor que a lo s o tr o s hsmferes, a s l por e l deshonor deben s e r m is v itu p e r a d o s que e l l o s , porque por la fla q u e z a o t r a i c i l n de e l l o s , m is que por la de c u a le s - q u ie r a o tr o s que no so n c a b a lle r o s , so n d e sp o se ld o s de su s e s ta d o s lo s r e y e s , p r ln c ip e s y a l t o s b a r o n e s, y s e p ie r d e n lo s r e in o s , condados y o tr a s t i e r r a s . Ram 6 n L lu ll, Obras l i t e r a r i a s ( B ib lio t e c a de A u tores C r is tia n o s ) (Madrid: C a td lic a , 1 9 4 8 ), pp. 1 2 9 -1 3 3 . BIBLIOGRAPHY 241 BIBLIOGRAPHY Appal, Garl Ludwig E rn est. ferovenza 11scbo Cfcug^&amathiie. I s lp a ig : R eislau d , 1Q95. Bdroul. T r is ta n . In tro d u ctio n and n o te s by A. Ewert* Oxford: B lack w ell, 1939. B o fa r u ll, A ntoni de. I lia to r ia de CataJnnvra. V o ls. 7 and 8 (B ib lio te c a C lS sslca C a ta la n s) . Barcelona: 1907. B&uehsfcfleke des P eovangalischen Veraromans fflamaaea. E dited by Kurt Lewent (Sammlung Romanischer O bungstexte, V ol. 8 ). H a lle : Niemeyer, 1926. Burckhardt, Jacob. The C iv ilis a t io n o£ th e R enaissance in I t a l y . T ran slated by S. G. C. Middlemore w ith In tro d u ctio n and n o te s by Iren e Gordon (Mentor C la s s ic ) . New York: The New American Library o f World L ite ra tu r e , 1961. E l Cava H e r o C ifa r . 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Creator Jones, Cameron Davis (author)

Core Title Realism In Spanish Chivalresque Fiction Before 1500

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Spanish

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, Modern,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Curtis, Robert E. (committee chair), Berkey, Max Leslie, Jr. (committee member), Sender, Ramon (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-427456

Unique identifier UC11361364

Identifier 7025041.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-427456 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7025041.pdf

Dmrecord 427456

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Jones, Cameron Davis

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA