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Emerson'S Philosophy Of Rhetoric

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Emerson'S Philosophy Of Rhetoric

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Content CLOER, R oberta Kay, 1943- EMERSON'S PHILOSOPHY O F RHETORIC. U n iv e r s ity o f Southern C a lifo r n ia , P h .D ., 1969 Speech University Microfilms. Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan © C o p y r ig h t, by R O B E R T A KAY C L O ER 1970 THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED EMERSON’S PHILOSOPHY OF RHETORIC by R oberta Kay Cloer A D i s s e r t a t i o n P re s e n te d to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t of the Requirem ents f o r the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Speech) August 1969 UNIVERSITY O F SO UTH ER N CALIFORNIA T H E G RAD U ATE S C H O O L U N IV ER SITY PARK LO S A N G E L E S, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by .........................JRjafefiKta. .Kay. C lo e r ............................ tinder the direction of h&x.... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y '.'Tn Dean Date. Aug.US,t....IS.6_9.. DISSERTATION COMMITTEE .................... s —\ . Chairmpjt TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... The Problem Methodology Review o f L i t e r a t u r e I I . FOUNDATIONS OF EMERSON'S PHILOSOPHY . . . . God and th e Soul Man's R e la tio n s h ip to God and Nature The Purpose of L ife and the R e la tio n s h ip among Men Em erson's Concept o f T ruth Sources o f Em erson's M etaphysics and Epistem ology Summary I I I . BASIC CONCEPTS IN EMERSON'S THEORY OF RHETORIC ............................................................................... The N ature o f R h e to ric o r Eloquence The F unction o f R h e to ric or Eloquence The Scope o f R h e to ric or Eloquence C o n s titu e n ts o f Eloquence Study and P r a c tic e v ersu s Genius and T a le n t The Teacher versus th e P rophet Id e a lism and P r a c t i c a l i t y in Em erson's View o f R h eto ric Summary IV. EMERSON'S CONCEPTS OF THE SUBSTANCE OF RHETORIC ............................................................................... S u b je c ts o f Most Concern to Emerson D is c o v e rin g , D eveloping, and A rranging S u b je c t M atter E v a lu a tin g Speeches A rgum entation and Debate Summary i i Page 1 19 67 136 Chapter V. EMERSON'S THEORY OF AUDIENCE ADAPTATION . . Audience Knowledge, B e l i e f s , and E x p e c ta tio n s L im ita tio n s o f Audiences A d ap tatio n o f D iscourses to th e S p e c if ic Audience The Speaker-A udience R e la tio n s h ip Summary VI. EMERSON'S THEORY OF LANGUAGE AND PRINCIPLES OF STYLE ............................................................................... Theory o f Language P r i n c i p l e s o f S ty le Summary V II. EMERSON'S THEORY OF ELOCUTION E lo c u tio n Defined E lo c u tio n as an A t t r i b u t e o f N ature E lo c u tio n and Speaker E f f e c tiv e n e s s Extemporaneous D eliv ery versu s Use o f M anuscript Heat Summary V III . SUM M ARY AND CONCLUSIONS .............................. Summary C onclusions BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 207 254 321 344 i i i CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Ralph Waldo Emerson was one o f the forem ost Ameri can i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . 1 S ch o lars have given c o n s id e ra b le r e c o g n itio n to Em erson's c o n t r i b u tio n s as a p h ilo s o p h e r , a man o f l e t t e r s , and a p o p u la r l e c t u r e r . A tkinson c a l l e d Emerson " th e f i r s t p h ilo s o p h e r 2 - o f th e American s p i r i t . " "No o n e ," s a i d F u l l e r t o n , "has so p ro fo u n d ly a f f e c t e d the th o u g h t l i f e o f America as Emer son . . . . Nothing t h a t he w rote is u n im p o rtan t . . . . E v a lu a tin g Em erson's c o n t r i b u t i o n , a n o th er s c h o la r "doubted w hether any o th e r man has been e q u a lly im p o rtan t in shaping the i d e a l s o f the more i n t e l l i g e n t c la s s e s in A m erica."^ McDowell s a id t h a t " in r e a l i t y Emerson was from the 1830's to the C iv il War the most urbane d e v is e r o f i n t e l l e c t u a l bom bshells in th e U nited S t a t e s . " Tremain McDowell, "Forew ord," The Complete Essays and O ther W rit ings of Ralph Waldo Em erson, ed. by Brooks A tkinson (New York: Modern L ib r a r y , 1950) , p. x. C ited h e r e a f t e r as Complete E s s a y s . ^I b i d . , p . x i . ^B radford Morton F u l l e r t o n , S e le c tiv e B ib lio g rap h y of American L i t e r a t u r e , 1775-1900 (New York: S ta f f o r d P r e s s , I n c . , 1932) , p . 96. ^Lewis W orthington Smith, " Ib s e n , Emerson, N i e t z sche; the I n d i v i d u a l i s t s , " P o p u lar S c ien ce, LXXVII (F ebru a ry , 1911), 154. ’’ 2 Although he was one o f the most i n f l u e n t i a l w r i t e r s o f the American R en a issa n c e,^ " i t was as a p u b lic l e c t u r e r t h a t Emerson found h is power, e arn ed h is l i v i n g , and won h is f i r s t fam e."^ B e lie v in g t h a t " h is c a l l i n g was the p r a c t i c e o f e lo q u e n c e ," Emerson became " b e s t known to h is 7 own g e n e r a tio n and th ro u g h o u t l i f e " as a l e c t u r e r . A f te r le av in g th e m i n i s t r y , Emerson " s a l l i e d f o r t h as a lyceum l e c t u r e r , perhaps the g r e a t e s t America has ev er known. Emerson was one o f the f i r s t Americans to make a c a r e e r of l e c t u r i n g , and he was "pro b ab ly lo n g e r b e fo re th e p u b lic in t h i s c a p a c ity o f p la tfo rm te a c h e r than any o f h is contempo- Q r a r i e s . " For n e a r ly one h a l f c e n tu r y , from 1833 to the ^Kenneth K u rtz, "Emerson and Cooper: American V er sio n s of the H e ro ic ," Emerson S o c ie ty Q u a r t e r l y , No. 42 (I Q u arter 1966), 2. 6llenry Van Dyke, ed. , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " S e le c t Essays of Ralph Waldo Emerson (New York: American Book Company, 1907), p. 2 0 . ^ F re d e ric Ives C a rp e n te r, Emerson Handbook (New York: H endricks House, I n c . , 1953), p . IF! Emerson n ev er doubted " t h a t h is ta sk in l i f e was to p r a c t i c e eloquence. That c a l l i n g was n e v er q u e s ti o n e d ." H e rb ert A. W ichelns, "Ralph Waldo Em erson," in A H is to ry and C r itic is m of Ameri can P u b lic A d d re ss , ed. by William-Norwood Brigance (3 v o l s . ; New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, I n c . , 1943- 1955) , I I , 502. ^W illiam Lyon P h e lp s, "Ralph Waldo Em erson's P h i lo so p h y ," Ladies Home J o u r n a l , A p r i l , 1923, p. 23. ^The Boston P o s t , A p ril 28, 1882 c i t e d by Kenneth W alter Cameron, e d . , Emerson, Thoreau and Concord in E arly Newspapers; B io g ra p h ic a l and H i s t o r i c a l Lore f o r th e S ch o lar and G eneral Reader (H a rtfo r d , C o n n .: T ranscenden t a l Books, 1958) , p. 299. 3 end o f h is a c ti v e l i f e , " l e c t u r i n g was Em erson's prim ary o c cu p a tio n , th e main source of h is earn ed income and the f i r s t form o f p u b lic e x p re ss io n o f h is i d e a s . " 1 0 Bode judged Emerson to be perhaps th e only sp ea k e r in the American lyceum movement "who could u n h e s i t a t i n g l y be c a l l e d g r e a t . The amazing th in g is t h a t he was a lso p o p u l a r ."11 Pomeroy agreed t h a t "Em erson's contem poraries g e n e r a lly c o n sid e re d him an o u ts ta n d in g s p e a k e r ."12 Cooke n o te d t h a t " in t h i s co untry Emerson was among th o se who f i r s t made p o p u la r the l e c t u r e as a means o f g e n e ra l c u l t u r e . "-1 -3 A nother of h is con tem p o raries judged Emerson to be "th e most s t e a d i l y a t t r a c t i v e l e c t u r e r in A m erica." A l e c t u r e r now f o r som ething l i k e a t h i r d o f a c e n tu r y , one o f the p io n e e rs o f the l e c t u r i n g system , the charm o f h is v o ic e , h is manner, and h is m a tte r has n e v er l o s t i t s power over h is e a r l i e r h e a r e r s , and c o n tin u a lly winds new ones in to i t s e n ch a n tin g meshes . . . . No doubt, Emerson, l i k e a l l o r i g i n a l men, has h is p e c u l i a r a u d ie n c e s, and y e t I know none t h a t can h o ld a p r o miscuous crowd in p le a s e d a t t e n t i o n so long as he. As in a l l o r i g i n a l men, th e r e is som ething f o r every l°S tep h e n E. Whicher and Robert E. S p i l l e r , e d s . , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " The E a rly L e c tu re s o f Ralph Waldo Emerson (2 v o l s . ; Cambridge: Belknap P ress o f H arvard U n iv e r s ity , 1964-1966), I , x i i i . C ite d h e r e a f t e r as L e c t u r e s . 11-Carl Bode, The American Lyceum, Town Meeting of the Mind (New York: Oxford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1956), p\ T21. l 2Ralph S ta n le y Pomeroy, "Ralph Waldo Emerson as a P u b lic Speaker" (u n p u b lish ed Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , S ta n fo rd U n i v e r s i t y , 1960), p. iv . 13Ge orge W . Cooke, Ralph Waldo Emerson: His L i f e , W ritin g s , and P hilosophy (Boston: Houghton M if f li n Com pany , 1881), p . 256. 4 p a l a t e . . . . For us th e whole l i f e o f a man is d i s t i l l e d in the c l e a r drop o f every s e n te n c e , and behind each word we d iv in e th e fo rce of a noble c h a r a c t e r , the w eight o f a la r g e c a p i t a l th in k in g and b e i n g . 14 Not only did Emerson p r a c t i c e th e a r t o f r h e t o r i c , b u t he was a lso a " c o n n o iss e u r o f e lo q u e n c e ." B a s k e r v ille named Emerson as "one o f A m erica's forem ost c r i t i c s o f o r a tory."-*-'’ Living in one o f th e g r e a t p e rio d s of American oratory,-*-^ Emerson took a keen i n t e r e s t in i t s p r a c t i c e , f r e q u e n tly a tte n d in g courtroom s, churches o f v a rio u s s e c t s , and m eeting p la c e s to h e ar speeches and sermons. Edward Waldo Emerson r e c a l l e d t h a t h is f a t h e r went o fte n to v i l lage m eetings and th e Lyceum to h e a r h is n e ig h b o rs speak and debate on v a rio u s c a u s e s , e s p e c i a l l y a n t i - s l a v e r y and l ^ The W ritin g s o f James R u s s e ll Lowell in Prose and P o etry (Boston: Houghton M if f li n Company, 189 7 ), p p . 349- 350. IS B arnet B a s k e r v i l l e , "Emerson as a C r i t i c of O ra t o r y , " Southern Speech J o u r n a l , XVIII (March, 1953), 150. 16"His [Em erson's] was a p e r io d o f o r a l elo q u en ce-- a high hour in the h i s t o r y o f American p u b lic address in which th e d e l i b e r a t i v e speaking o f C lay, W ebster, and Calhoun a f f e c t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y th e course o f th e n a t i o n 's h i s t o r y . From the p u l p i t th e message o f men such as Henry Ward Beecher and P h i l l i p s Brooks fla y e d th e rampant m a t e r i alism which in t h e i r l i f e t i m e s produced th e 'g i l d e d a g e .' The lyceum, A m erica's 'town m eeting of the m in d ,' brought the most b r i l l i a n t o r a to r s to n e a r ly every s e c t i o n of the c o u n try , thus c r e a t i n g f u r t h e r the in flu e n c e o f p u b lic a d d re ss. I t was in such an age of eloquence t h a t Ralph Waldo Emerson became n o t only a w idely re c o g n ize d sp eak er b u t a ls o one whose audience was both v a s t and r e s p o n s iv e ." John Henry Lawton, "A R h e to r ic a l A n aly sis o f R e p re s e n ta tiv e Ceremonial A ddresses of Ralph Waldo Emerson" (u n p u b lish ed Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , S ta te U n iv e r s ity o f Iowa, 1957), p. 2. 5 f r e e s t a t e movement. ^ Emerson "n o t only h e ard o th e r sp eak ers f r e q u e n t l y , b u t e n te r e d c r i t i c a l comments on t h e i r 1 O r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e s (and h is own) in h is j o u r n a l s . " In an e a r ly jo u r n a l e n t r y , Emerson s a i d t h a t " th e eloquence o f the s e n a te , b a r , o r p u l p i t , or in d eed o f any o ccasio n where one is a d d re ss in g a m u ltitu d e on an a f f a i r o f any im por tance as i t is in i t s e l f a b le to produce in the o r a t o r an agony of e x c it e m e n t[,] is a noble [s u b je c t] f o r the de- 1 9 s c r i p t i o n . " Emerson n ev er w rote a t r e a t i s e on th e a r t o f r h e t o r i c , but th e r e is ample testim o n y to h is i n t e r e s t in the o r a t o r 's a r t . Emerson gave two l e c t u r e s on "E loquence," which were l a t e r p u b lis h e d as e s s a ys , a nd s e v e r a l tim es l^Edward Waldo Emerson spoke o f h is f a t h e r ' s "love o f eloquence from boyhood up, h is eag e rn e ss to a v a i l him s e l f of any chance t h a t o f f e r e d to h e a r a m aster o f sp eech , and h is love o f anecdotes o f o r a t o r s . . . ." Edward Waldo Emerson, e d . , " N o te s," The Complete Works o f Ralph Waldo Emerson (12 v o l s . ; B o sto n : Houghton M if f li n Company, HT03- 1904), V I I I , 383. C ited h e r e a f t e r as Works. ^Pomeroy, p. 22. ■^The J o u rn a ls and M iscellan eo u s Notebooks o f Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. by W illiam H. Gilman and o th e rs (7 v o l s . ; Cambridge: Belknap P ress o f H arvard U n iv e r s ity , 1960-1968), I , 7. C ite a h e r e a f t e r as J o u r. S M is. The c a n c e l l a t i o n [<>] and i n s e r t i o n [t+] symbols in th e t e x t are p a r t of the o r i g i n a l m an u scrip t of Em erson's j o u r n a ls in c lu d e d by the e d i t o r s . The b ra c k e ts r e p r e s e n t i n s e r t i o n by th e e d i t o r s . 2^The f i r s t o f h is l e c t u r e s on "Eloquence" was de l i v e r e d in F ebruary, 1847 b e fo re th e Boston M e rca n tile L ib ra ry A s s o c ia tio n . The o th e r le c t u r e was f i r s t read a t Chicago in 1867. These l e c t u r e s were l a t e r p u b lis h e d as e s s a y s . Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes," Works, V II, 364 and V I I I , 383. 6 he e x p re sse d a d e s ir e to o b ta in a p r o f e s s o r s h ip o f r h e t o r i c . ^ 1 Numerous comments on p u b lic speaking s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t h is j o u r n a l s , l e t t e r s , l e c t u r e s , and essays a lso a t t e s t to h is i n t e r e s t in th e a r t . D i s s e r t a t i o n s have been w r i t t e n t h a t ex p lo re Emer s o n 's c o n tr ib u tio n s as a p h ilo s o p h e r , a man o f l e t t e r s , and a p o p u la r l e c t u r e r . However, no d o c to r a l study has been w r i t t e n which seeks to determ ine Em erson's c o n tr ib u tio n s to r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry and the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f h is g e n e ra l p h i losophy to h is concept of the o r a t o r in s o c i e t y . The Problem S tatem ent of th e Problem The purpose o f t h i s study was to determ ine Emerson's p h ilo so p h y o f r h e t o r i c . A complete p h ilo so p h y o f r h e t o r i c 21In h is j o u r n a l , Emerson asked: "Why has nev er the p o o re s t co untry c o lle g e o f f e r e d me a p r o f e s s o r s h ip of r h e t o r i c ? I th in k I could have ta u g h t an o r a t o r , though I am n o n e." The J o u rn a ls o f Ralph Waldo Em erson, ed. by Edward Waldo Emerson and Waldo Emerson Forbes (10 v o l s . ; Boston: Houghton M if f li n Company, 1909-1912), IX, 413. C ite d h e r e a f t e r as J o u r n a l s . Cabot r e c a l l e d two o c ca sio n s in which Emerson e x p re ssed a d e s i r e to be a p r o f e s s o r of r h e t o r i c . "Emerson t o l d Mr. Moncure Conway t h a t , when he g ra d u a te d , h is am bition was to be a p r o f e s s o r o f r h e t o r i c and e l o c u t i o n . " Cabot a lso n o te d t h a t "he [Emerson] s a id to P r o f e s s o r James B. Thayer in 1873, t h a t th e re was n ev er a time in which he would n o t have a cc e p ted a p r o f e s s o r s h ip o f r h e t o r i c a t Cam bridge." James E l l i o t Cabot, A Memoir of Ralph Waldo Emerson (2 v o l s . ; Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n Company, 1887), T! 72. "He [Emerson] t o l d me," r e c a l l e d Conway, " t h a t a f t e r g ra d u a tio n h is am bition had been to f i l l a c h a ir of r h e t o r i c . " Moncure D aniel Conway, A utobi- ography (2 v o l s . ; Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n Company^ 1904), 7 would in c lu d e p r i n c i p l e s of o r a l and w r i t t e n communication as w e ll as the m e ta p h y sic a l and e p is te m o lo g ic a l assum ptions on which th o se p r i n c i p l e s must be based. This stu d y sought to determ ine Em erson's p h ilo so p h y of r h e t o r i c by answering th e se q u e s tio n s : (1) On what p h ilo s o p h ic a l fo u n d a tio n was Em erson's r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry based? (2) What were the b a s ic concepts in Em erson's th eo ry of r h e t o r i c ? (3) What did Emerson say in re g a rd to the su b stan ce of r h e t o r i c ? (4) What was Em erson's th eo ry o f audience a d a p ta tio n ? (5) What th eo ry o f language and p r i n c i p l e s o f s t y l e would Em erson's r h e t o r i c a l th eo ry in c lu d e ? (6 ) What d id Emerson say in re g a rd to the p r e s e n t a t i o n o f a speech? Methodology Loren Reid has d em onstrated t h a t s c h o la rs can con s t r u c t a r h e t o r i c a l th eo ry out of the " s c a t t e r e d w r iti n g s " of a sp eak er who may have had n e i t h e r the time nor the i n c l i n a t i o n to w r ite out h is r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry . Reid argued t h a t C harles James F ox's "p h ilo so p h y o f r h e t o r i c , even though i t must be sn ip p ed and winnowed from co rresp o n d en ce, d i a r i e s , memoirs, new spapers, and the p a rlia m e n ta r y re c o rd i t s e l f , and even though i t is incom plete and frag m e n ta ry , should command our a t t e n t i o n . " From th e above s o u r c e s , Reid gleaned in fo rm a tio n on th ese to p ic s : (1) "Im portance o f Speaking"; (2) "Range o f Id e a s " ; (3) " P re p a r a tio n " ; (4) "Argument and A n a ly s is " ; (5) "O ther A spects o f Speaking" 22 o r m is c e lla n e o u s. The c r i t i c a l method was used in t h i s s tu d y . The stu d y follow ed th e p a t t e r n s e t by Reid. Em erson's j o u r n a ls , l e t t e r s , e s s a y s , serm ons, and l e c t u r e s were examined in o rd e r to determ ine th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l fo u n d atio n s upon which h is th e o ry o f r h e t o r i c r e s t e d as w e ll as th e s p e c i f i c r h e t o r i c a l p r e c e p ts t h a t he might have in c lu d e d in a work on r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry . Unlike C harles James Fox, Ralph Waldo Emerson l e f t to p o s t e r i t y an abundance o f w r i t t e n m a t e r ia ls o u t o f which a p h ilo so p h y o f r h e t o r i c could be c o n s tr u c te d . In a d d itio n to h is two l e c t u r e s on eloquence and h is c r i t i cisms o f contem porary s p e a k e rs , Emerson w rote on a number of to p ic s r e l a t e d to r h e t o r i c such as " A r t," " L i t e r a t u r e , " " N a tu r e ," and " P o l i t i c s . ” Review o f L i t e r a t u r e In 1962, E d ith W . Gregg r e p o r te d t h a t "by now every 2 3 word t h a t he [Emerson] w rote has been p u b lis h e d ," and more com plete and e x te n s iv e e d i t i o n s o f h is works have been been made a v a il a b le s in c e 1962. Em erson's jo u r n a ls have r e c e n t l y been made a v a i l a b l e in more complete form by the 22Loren Reid, "F o x 's Philosophy of Rhetoric," in Dimensions of Rhetorical Scholarship, ed. by Roger E. Nebergall [Norman: Dept. of Speech, University of Oklahoma, 1963) , pp. 19-20. ^ E d i t h W . Gregg, ed. , " P r e f a c e ," One F i r s t Love, th e L e t t e r s o f E lle n Louisa Tucker to Ralph Waldo Emerson [Cam bridge: H arvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1962) , p . v~. 9 th e Belknap P r e s s . In 1964, S l a t e r made a v a il a b le "a con s i d e r a b l e number o f l e t t e r s " t h a t were h i t h e r t o e i t h e r "u n known o r c a u ti o u s ly w i t h h e l d . " 2^ U n til about 1964, only a few o f th e hundreds o f l e c t u r e s t h a t e x i s t e d in whole or p a r t i a l m an u scrip ts had been p u b lis h e d . But by 1966, most o f Em erson's e a r l y l e c t u r e s had been made a v a i l a b l e by Whicher, S p i l l e r , and W illiam s. These e d i t o r s p u b lis h e d only th e e a r l y l e c t u r e s , s in c e th o se w r i t t e n by Emerson a f t e r 1847 are "alm o st im p o ssib le " to r e s t o r e . Even so, one can be r e l a t i v e l y c o n fid e n t t h a t n e a r ly every id e a Emerson e x p re ssed in th e se l a t e r l e c t u r e s is c o n ta in e d somewhere w ith in h is p r i n t e d works. Emerson drew upon h is jo u r n a ls in w r i t i n g h is l e c t u r e s and l a t e r tra n sfo rm e d 2 5 th e se l e c t u r e s i n to essay s f o r p u b l i c a t i o n . Sources In 1949, Rusk s t a t e d t h a t "no adequate d e s c r i p t i o n o f p r i n t e d books, p r i n t e d a r t i c l e s , and m an u scrip ts by o r ^ J o s e p h S l a t e r , e d . , " P r e f a c e ," The Correspondence o f Emerson and C a r ly le (New York: Columbia P r e s s , 1964J, p . v. 25"A la r g e p r o p o r tio n o f th e se o th e rs [the unpub l i s h e d m an u scrip ts o f Em erson's l e c t u r e s ] were drawn upon by him, by h is f r i e n d James E l l i o t Cabot, and by h is son, Edward Waldo Emerson f o r essay s and books, and o th e rs con t a i n p assag es which were taken alm ost v erb atim from the jo u r n a ls and have s in c e been p u b lis h e d in t h a t form. The rem ainder o f th e m a n u sc rip ts, alth o u g h c a r e f u l l y a rran g ed in the c o l l e c t i o n s o f th e Ralph Waldo Emerson Memorial As s o c i a t i o n in th e Houghton L ib ra ry o f Harvard U n iv e r s ity , have p r e s e n te d an e d i t o r i a l problem which no one up to now 10 about Emerson has y e t been compiled; b u t th e r e are some b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l a i d s , and a few o f them are im p o rtan t. Two im p o rtan t b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l aid s have been made a v a il a b le sin c e 1949. B ryer and R e e s's A C h e c k lis t o f Emerson C r i t i cism p ro v id e s a comprehensive b ib lio g r a p h y o f works about Emerson. I t in c lu d e s an Index o f Topics and covers books, a r t i c l e s , and d i s s e r t a t i o n s in E n g lish and fo re ig n l a n guages from 1 9 5 1 - 1 9 6 1 .^ For s tu d ie s done a f t e r 1961, the most u s e f u l source is the "C u rre n t B ib lio g rap h y on Ralph Waldo Emerson" p re p a re d by Cameron f o r the Emerson S o c ie ty Q u a rte rly about every two y e a r s . ^ 8 Emerson as a L e c tu re r Em erson's l e c t u r i n g c a r e e r has been the s u b je c t o f two r a t h e r r e c e n t d o c to ra l s tu d ie s in th e f i e l d o f speech. Lawton made "A R h e to ric a l A n aly sis o f R e p re s e n ta tiv e C ere monial A ddresses o f Ralph Waldo Emerson" a t th e S ta te U ni v e r s i t y o f Iowa in 1957. The purpose o f t h i s study was to has c ared to f a c e ." Whicher and S p i l l e r , " I n t r o d u c t i o n ," L e c t u r e s , p. x i i i . 26Ralph L. Rusk, The L ife o f Ralph Waldo Emerson (New York: C harles S c r i b n e r ' s Sons , 1949} , p . 553. 2 ^Jackson R. B ryer and.R obert A. Rees, A C h e c k lis t o f Emerson C r i t i c i s m , 1951-1961 (H a rtfo rd , Conn71 Tran- 7 s c e n d e n ta l Books, 1964. ^^Kenneth W alter Cameron, "C u rre n t B ib lio g rap h y of Ralph Waldo Emerson," Emerson S o c ie ty Q u a r te r ly , No. 37 (IV Q u a rte r 1964), 88-92; No. 43 ( I I Q u a rte r 1966), 145- 150); No. 50 (I Q u arter 1968), 38-42. 11 analyze seven r e p r e s e n t a t i v e speeches given on "cerem onial o c ca sio n s" between 1855 and 1875 in o rd e r to determ ine what methods Emerson used in h is e l e g i a c speaking and the e x te n t 29 to which he achieved h is purpose in sp eak in g . In 1960, Pomeroy made a study o f "Ralph Waldo Emer son as a P u b lic S p e a k er." He sought " to d is c o v e r Em erson's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c mode o f o r a l appeal and to a r r iv e a t an ap p r a i s a l o f h is speaking a b i l i t y . " The study a lso sought to determ ine "why Em erson's con tem p o raries c o n sid e re d him an o u ts ta n d in g s p e a k e r ." Pomeroy's stu d y p ro v id e d a b r i e f sk etc h o f Em erson's l i f e and r h e t o r i c a l t r a i n i n g and an a n a ly s is o f twenty s p ee c h es , in c lu d in g seven sermons, f iv e l e c t u r e s , and e ig h t o c c a s io n a l a d d re ss e s . Emerson was one o f th o se in c lu d e d in Ir v in g J . R e in 's d i s s e r t a t i o n on "The New England T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s : R h eto ric of P arad o x ." The aim o f the study was "to ex p lo re r h e t o r i c a l l y th e d is c o u r s e o f th e New England Transcenden- t a l i s t movement. Rein t r e a t e d th e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s as a kind of o rg a n iz e d movement or p a r t y , and in h is f i n a l e v a l u a t i o n , he found t h a t they f a i l e d to win co n v erts to t h e i r p h ilo so p h y o r persu ad e t h e i r a u d i t o r s . Z^Lawton, p. 17. •^Pomeroy, p. iv . 31-Max N elson, " A b s tr a c ts of D i s s e r t a t i o n s in the F ie ld o f Speech, 1966," Speech Monographs, XXXIV (August, 1967) , 258. 12 Emerson claim ed t h a t th e r e was "no such th in g as a tr a n s c e n d e n ta l p a r t y . . . ." F u rth erm o re, th e fin d in g s of th e p r e s e n t stu d y would i n d i c a t e t h a t Emerson d id n o t i n te n d to win co n v erts to h is p h ilo so p h y o r "p ersu ad e" in * 7 * 7 th e u s u a l sen s e . In f a c t , Emerson c r i t i c i z e d tra n s c e n - d e n t a l i s t s and a l l o th e rs who "dogm atize and r a i l " a t those who do n o t h o ld t h e i r b e l i e f s . ^ I f Em erson's methods o f d is c o u r s e d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from s ta n d a r d n in e te e n th c en tu ry w r i t e r s and sp eak ers (as Rein c la im e d ) , so d id h is aim in c r e a t i n g d is c o u r s e d i f f e r from t h e i r s . In 1947, A g g e rtt made a g e n e r a l study o f Em erson's p u b l i c sp eak in g . His m a s t e r 's t h e s i s was concerned w ith an a n a ly s is o f " th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f Em erson's p u b l i c sp ea k i n g ." A g g e rtt found t h a t audience r e a c t i o n to Em erson's speaking " v a r ie d g r e a t l y and f r e q u e n tly c o n f l i c t e d . " A l though th e audiences d id n o t always a cc e p t Em erson's id e a s , they were i n s p i r e d by him. "His p o p u l a r i t y mounted through more than f i f t y y e a rs o f p la tf o r m e lo q u en ce; h is audiences d id li k e him and wanted more."^*’ 32"The T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s ," W orks, I , 338. Madison s a i d in re g a rd to the t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s : "These i d e a l i s t s had no common b a s i c p h ilo so p h y and no d e f i n i t e program ." C harles A. Madison, "M argaret F u l l e r : T ran sc en d e n ta l R eb e l," A ntioch Review, XI (Septem ber, 1942), 429. 33see C hapter I I I . - ^ J o u r n a ls ^ 4 3 4 . ■^Otis A g g e rtt, J r . , "The P u b lic Speaking o f Ralph Waldo Emerson" (u n p u b lish e d M a s te r 's t h e s i s , U n iv e r s ity of I l l i n o i s , 1947), pp. 113-115. 13 H e rb e rt A. Wichelns wrote an essay on Emerson fo r th e second volume o f th e H is to ry and C r itic is m o f American P u b lic Address in 1 9 4 3 . ^ Wichelns d is c u s s e d Em erson's p u b lic speaking c a r e e r in terms of h is i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e l opment. This was e s s e n t i a l l y a b io g r a p h ic a l stu d y . While Wichelns d e s c rib e d Em erson's sermons and a d d resses in terms o f t h e i r c o n te n t and d e l i v e r y , he did n o t a tte m p t a com p l e t e a n a ly s is o f any one speech as did Pomeroy and Lawton. In The American Lyceum, C arl Bode p ro v id ed a b r i e f and s c a t t e r e d d is c u s s io n o f Em erson's l e c t u r i n g c a r e e r : where he spoke, what he e arn ed , and h is im portance in the lyceum movement.37 M cG iffert p ro v id e d some h e l p f u l i n s i g h t s i n t o Em erson's e a r l y p re a c h in g c a r e e r in h is " I n tr o d u c tio n " to Young Emerson S p eak s. 38 Study o f Emerson as a Speech C r i t i c B arn et B a s k e r v ille s tu d ie d "Emerson as a C r i t i c o f O ra to ry ." His purpose was " to s e t f o r t h Em erson's s t a n d ards o f judgm ent, to show how th e se s ta n d a rd s were a p p lie d to th e speaking o f W ebster and o t h e r s , and to su g g est some p re s e n t- d a y im p lic a tio n s o f such a c r i t i c a l p h ilo s o p h y ." •^W ichelns, pp. 501-525. 37Bode, pp. 221-223. •^ A rth u r Cushman M c G iffe rt, J r . , e d . , Young Emerson Speaks, U npublished D isco u rses on Many S u b je c ts by~Ralph Waldo Emerson (Boston: Houghton M if f lin Company, 1938J . 14 B a s k e r v ille n o te d t h a t Em erson's r e a c t i o n s to the sp ea k e rs he h e a rd "found in sc o re s o f e n t r i e s made over a p e r io d o f n e a r ly f i f t y y e a r s , c o n s t i t u t e an im p ressiv e body o f c r i t i c al comment and e s t a b l i s h him as one of A m erica's forem ost c r i t i c s o f o r a t o r y . " B a s k e r v ille found Em erson's "funda- m ental s ta n d a rd " to be "a moral o n e ." S tu d ie s o f Emerson as a k h e t o r i c a l T h e o r is t Two s c h o la r s have so ught to determ ine Em erson's r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith h is au d ien ce. R obert Alan M cG ill's 1959 d i s s e r t a t i o n c o n sid e re d Emerson "from th e p e r s p e c tiv e o f h is e x p erien c e w ith h is audiences as they c o n tr ib u te d to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f h is c a r e e r in the fo rm u la tiv e y ears from 1829 to 1847." The " c e n t r a l t h e s i s " o f M cG ill's stu d y was t h a t Emerson " f lin c h e d " from h is l e c t u r e audience " a t th e same time t h a t he admired i t s v ig o r , acknowledged i t s judgm ent, and sought i t s Fame [s i c ] . In 1966, John H. Sloan p u b lis h e d a b r i e f a r t i c l e on "'T he M iraculous U p l i f t i n g ': Em erson's R e la tio n s h ip w ith His A udience." Sloan n o te d t h a t Emerson had a th e o ry o f audience a d a p ta tio n t h a t was " d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t " from t h a t o f o th e r • ^ B a s k e r v i l l e , pp. 150-151. 40ROb e r t Alan M cG ill, "Emerson and His Audience" (u n p u b lish ed Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s ity o f P ennsylvania, 1959) , p . i i i . 15 r h e t o r i c i a n s and t h a t t h i s th e o ry "had n o t been th o ro u g h ly analyzed. Probably th e e a r l i e s t form al attem p t a t i n t e r p r e t ing Em erson's t h e o r i e s o f p u b lic speaking is to be found in Theodore S te n b e r g 's 1925 a r t i c l e on "Emerson and O ral D is co u rse. "42 This study i s im p o rta n t as one o f th e f i r s t attem p ts to l i s t some o f Em erson's sta te m e n ts on p u b lic speaking. A lthough S ten b erg d e riv e d about tw en ty -n in e p r e cep ts f o r th e sp eak er to follow from h is study o f Emerson, th e li m i t e d scope o f the study d id n o t make i t p o s s ib le fo r Stenberg to delve in to th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l b a s is f o r th e se p r e c e p t s . In h e r 1942 m a s t e r 's t h e s i s on "Em erson's T heories o f P u b lic S p eak in g ," Marie E lean o r B r i t t i n acknowledged S te n b e rg 's e a r l i e r essa y . She n o ted t h a t "S ten b erg p r e se n te d c e r t a i n o f Em erson's i d e a s , and approached an in v e s t i g a t i o n o f h is t h e o r i e s . " B r i t t i n argued t h a t h e r study " d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y from S t e n b e r g 's , f o r i t is more com p r e h e n s iv e , is based m ainly on newly d is c o v e re d m a t e r i a l s , as Em erson's l e t t e r s r e c e n t l y compiled by Ralph L. Rusk, 41john H. S lo an , "'T he M iraculous U p l i f t i n g ': Em erson's R e la tio n s h ip w ith His A udience," Q u a rte rly J o u r n a l o f S peech, LII (F eb ru ary , 1966), 10. 42Theodore S te n b e rg , "Emerson and O ral D is c o u r se ," S tu d ies in R h e to ric and P u b lic Speaking in Honor o f James A lb e r t W inans, ed. by P u p ils and C olleagues (new York: R u ss e ll and R u s s e l l , I n c . , 1962), pp. 153-181. 16 and p r e s e n ts an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the s i g n if ic a n c e of Emer s o n ’s speech p h ilo s o p h y ." The s p e c i f i c purpose o f B r i t t i n 's stu d y was " to c o l l e c t the opinions o f Emerson on s e l e c t e d a s p e c ts o f p u b lic speaking in o rd e r t h a t c e r t a i n g e n e ra l c o n clu sio n s may be reached as to the t h e o r ie s o f a famous c r i t i c and o r a t o r . " 4 ^ B r i t t i n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f Em erson's concept of speech o b je c t iv e s d i f f e r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y from the fin d in g s o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . B r i t t i n s t a t e d in h e r c o n clu sio n t h a t Emerson " firm ly b e lie v e d t h a t speech was designed as a means o f command, a fo rc e by which the s u p e r io r man should d i r e c t the masses o f p e o p l e . " 4 4 While such an i n t e r p r e t a tio n o f Em erson's concept of the r o le of the o r a t o r is p o s s i b l e from examining some of Emerson's s ta te m e n ts , i t is argued in th e p r e s e n t stu d y t h a t the v a s t m a jo r ity o f Emer s o n 's w r iti n g s and h is g e n e ra l ph ilo so p h y c a l l f o r an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t concept o f the f u n c tio n o f the o r a t o r . 4^ The B r i t t i n study concluded w ith the judgment t h a t "Emerson deserv es to rank w ith Channing, Adams, and Good r i c h as one o f th e o u ts ta n d in g r h e t o r i c i a n s o f the e a r ly 4^Marie E lean o r B r i t t i n , "Em erson's T heories of P u b lic Speaking, an A n a ly sis " (u n p u b lish ed M a s te r's t h e s i s , S ta te U n iv e rs ity o f Iowa, 1942) , pp. 10-13. 4 4 I b i d . , p. 158. 4^See C hapter I I I . 17 American p e r io d . However, th e re is n o th in g in the B r i t t i n t h e s i s to s u g g e s t t h a t Em erson's r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry had an y th in g unique about i t . In h is e ssay on "American C o n trib u tio n s to R h e t o r ic a l Theory and H o m i l e t i c s H o s h e r in c lu d e d a few p a ra g ra p h s on Emerson, acknowledging t h a t "Ralph Waldo Emerson sh o u ld be in c lu d e d in the l i s t o f Americans who c o n tr ib u te d to th e development o f r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry . In a 1957 a r t i c l e , Roland Lee e x p lo re d the s u b je c t o f "Emerson through K ierk eg aard : toward a D e f i n i t i o n of E m erson's Theory o f Communication." His t h e s i s was t h a t Emerson had a th e o ry of com m unication, " t h a t a c o n s i s t e n t r a t i o n a l f o r h is u n d e rs ta n d in g o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p between h im s e lf and h is audience can be found in the themes and forms o f h is key e s s a y s , and t h a t t h i s th e o r y , l a r g e l y im p l i c i t , can be expounded by re f e r e n c e to the works o f the Danish e x i s t e n t i a l i s t , Soren K ie rk e g a a rd ." Lee n o te d t h a t Em erson's th e o ry o f communication "has been s l i g h t e d , " n o t enough a t t e n t i o n has been given to "what is communicated ^ B r i t t i n , pp. 162-163. 4^John P. H osher, "American C o n trib u tio n s to Rhe t o r i c a l Theory and H o m ile tic s ," in H is to ry o f Speech Edu c a ti o n in A m erica, ed. by K arl R. W allace CNew York: A p p le to n - C e n tu r y - C r o f ts , I n c . , 1954), pp. 139-140. 18 and what kind o f r e l a t i o n e x i s t s between w r i t e r and r e a d e r . While many s tu d ie s have been done which d e al w ith Em erson's l e c t u r i n g c a r e e r or some a sp e c t of h is r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry , no complete study has been made o f h is th eo ry of r h e t o r i c (o r p u b lic speaking) and th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h a t th e o ry to h is g e n e ra l p h ilo so p h y , e s p e c i a l l y h is m eta p h y sic s and e p iste m o lo g y . This stu d y atte m p ted n o t only to r e c o n s t r u c t a k in d o f r h e t o r i c a l t r e a t i s e o u t o f Em erson's s c a t t e r e d comments on r h e t o r i c and p u b lic a d d re s s , b u t also to r e l a t e th e se comments to Em erson's p h ilo so p h y and h is a tte m p t to embody t h a t p h ilo so p h y in h is own way o f l i f e . 48Roland F. Lee, "Emerson through K ierkegaard: toward a D e f i n i t i o n o f Em erson's Theory o f Communication," J o u rn a l of E n g lish L i t e r a r y H is to r y , XXIV (Septem ber, 1957), 229. CHAPTER II FOUNDATIONS OF EMERSON'S PHILOSOPHY Ralph Waldo Emerson was p r i m a r i l y concerned w ith th e r e l a t i o n s o f th e in d iv id u a l man to God, n a t u r e , t r u t h , and o th e r men. His s o l u t i o n s f o r th ese problems comprise h is p h ilo so p h y and th e fo u n d a tio n upon which h is r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry i s based. This c h a p te r seeks to determ ine Em erson's concept o f the n a tu r e o f God and the s o u l; how he viewed the n a tu r e o f man and man's r e l a t i o n s h i p to God and n a tu r e ; how he viewed th e purpose o f l i f e and the r e l a t i o n s h i p between in d i v i d u a l man and h is fe llo w men; h is concept of t r u t h , and th e so u rces o f h is m etaphysics and e p iste m o lo g y . Any s ta te m e n t of Em erson's p h ilo so p h y is li m i t e d by th e f a c t t h a t he was n o t a s y s te m a tic philosopher."*' Ac c o rd in g to S i l v e r , ". . . Emerson f e l t no i n t e l l e c t u a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to fuse h is v a rio u s id e as in to one d e f t 1 "I need h a rd ly say to anyone a cq u a in te d w ith my tho u g h ts t h a t I have no sy stem ," w rote Emerson a t the age o f 36. J o u r n a l s , V, 326. Emerson co n fessed to "a l i t t l e d i s t r u s t o f t h a t com pleteness o f system which m e ta p h y si c ian s are a p t to a f f e c t , 'T is the g n at g ra sp in g the w o rld ." Ralph Waldo Emerson, "N a tu ra l H is to ry o f the I n t e l l e c t , " The Complete W ritin g s o f Ralph Waldo Emerson (4th e d . ; New Y ork: W m. H. Wise I Co. , 19 30), I I , 1250. 19 20 2 s y n t h e s i s . " Cooke s a i d o f Emerson t h a t "he does n o t see l i f e and i t s q u e s tio n s from a p u r e ly p h ilo s o p h ic o u tlo o k , 7 : and he is n o t a re a s o n e r or a d i a l e c t i c i a n . " A second l i m i t a t i o n fo r one w ishing to summarize Em erson's t h e o r i e s is found in h is s t y l e o f w r i t i n g , which r e f l e c t s h is d e p r e c ia tio n o f c o n s is te n c y .^ "When I w r ite a book on s p i r i t u a l t h i n g s , " d e c la re d Emerson, "I th in k I w i l l a d v e r t i s e th e re a d e r t h a t I am a very wicked man, § t h a t c o n sis te n c y is nowise to be ex p ected o f me."'’ N ever t h e l e s s , C ro th e rs i n s i s t e d t h a t "Em erson's r e a l p le a is f o r c o n s is te n c y . But we must be c o n s i s t e n t n o t w ith a form o f words which we have adopted b u t w ith a l i v i n g r e a l i t y which we en co u n te r day by d ay ."^ I t was n o t im p o rta n t to Emerson t h a t h is p u b lic s ta te m e n ts a l l be c o n s i s t e n t w ith one an o th e r as long as each sta te m e n t r e p r e s e n te d the t r u t h as he saw i t on the day i t was made. He s a id in h is jo u r n a l: ". . . I wish to say what I f e e l and th in k to -d a y , w ith the ^M ildred S i l v e r , "Emerson and th e Idea o f P ro g ress," American L i t e r a t u r e , XII (March, 1940), 3. ^Cooke, p. 269. ^George R. E l l i o t , "Em erson's 'G race' and 'S e l f - R e l i a n c e , '" in Humanism and Im ag in atio n (Chapel H i l l : U ni v e r s i t y o f N orth C a ro lin a PressV 1938), p. 161. Sj o u r . 5 M is. , V, 40. ^Samuel McChord C ro th e rs , Ralph Waldo Emerson, How to Know Him ( I n d ia n a p o lis : The B o b b s-M e rrill Company P u b l i s h e r s , 1921), pp. 32-33. 21 p ro v is o t h a t to-morrow perhaps I s h a l l c o n t r a d i c t i t a l l . n Freedom boundless I w is h ." When c o n tr a d ic t io n s are found in e i t h e r Em erson's p h ilo so p h y or h is r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry , they w i l l be n o ted and, when p o s s i b l e , an e x p la n a tio n w i l l be given. God and the Soul P robably th e most b a s i c p a r t o f Em erson's p h i l o s ophy i s h is concept of s o u l. Bishop n o ted t h a t "th e so u l in E n tir e A ction is the c e n t r a l drama o f a l l Emerson's work. Whatever e ls e may be th e immediate t o p i c , t h i s is h is r e a l s u b j e c t . " ^ Em erson's concept o f the soul s e ts the course fo r h is m etaphysics and e p iste m o lo g y . He used the terms " s o u l ," "O v er-S o u l," "God," and "Reason" to r e p r e s e n t b a s i c a l l y the same co n cep t. "Man," s a id Emerson, " is con s c io u s o f a u n i v e r s a l so u l w ith in or behind h is in d iv id u a l l i f e , w h erein , as in a firm am ent, the n a tu re s o f J u s t i c e , T ru th , Love, Freedom, a r i s e and s h in e . This u n iv e r s a l soul g he [man] c a l l s Reason . . . ." God, Reason, and the u n i v e r s a l soul are one and the same. "God is the a l l - f a i r . T ru th , and goodness, and b e a u ty , are b u t d i f f e r e n t faces o f ^J o u r n a l s , V, 252-253. 8Jo n ath an B ishop, Emerson on the Soul (Cambridge: H arvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1964] , p. IT! ^ "N a tu re ," Works, I , 27. 22 th e same a l l . " 1^ The rock upon which Emerson came to base h is l i f e was, acco rd in g to W hicher, " th e knowledge t h a t the so u l o f man does n o t m erely, as has long been ta u g h t, con t a i n a spark or drop or b r e a th or voice of God; i t is God. " 1 1 The soul e x i s t s f o r Emerson on two l e v e l s . There is th e g r e a t Over-Soul or God, and th e re are the in d iv id u a l e x p re ss io n s o f t h i s so u l in man. Emerson s a i d t h a t every man has w ith in him "th e so u l of the whole; the wise s ile n c e ; the u n iv e r s a l b e a u ty , to which every p a r t i c l e is e q u a lly r e l a t e d ; th e e t e r n a l o n e ." 1^ Emerson saw th e Over-Soul "as 13 a l i g h t which p o s s e ss e s and guides man." The so u l in man is n o t an org an , b u t anim ates and e x e r c is e s a l l the o rg an s; is n o t a f u n c tio n , l i k e the powers o f memory, o f c a l c u l a t i o n , of com parison, b u t uses th e se as hands and f e e t ; is n o t a f a c u l t y , b u t a l i g h t ; is n o t the i n t e l l e c t or the w i l l , b u t the m a ster o f the i n t e l l e c t and th e w i l l . . . .14 Bishop argues t h a t the term "Soul" o r " so u l" no lo n g e r means what i t once meant to Emerson. A p p a ren tly , 1 Ql b i d . , p. 24. 11Stephen E. W hicher, Freedom and F a te , an In n er L ife o f Ralph Emerson ( P h ila d e lp h ia : U n iv e rs ity o f Penn s y lv a n ia P r e s s , 1953), p. 21. ^ " O v e r - S o u l ," Complete E s s a y s , pp. 151-152. l^Mary Howard Heyburn, "M ysticism in Emerson" (un p u b lis h e d M a s te r’s t h e s i s , U n iv e r s ity o f Southern C a l i f o r n i a , 1939) , p. 74. 14"0ver-Soul," Complete E s s a y s , p. 263. 23 modern man does n o t b e lie v e th e r e is such a th in g . The fo llo w in g synonyms touch p a r t i a l l y on the meaning o f "so u l" as Emerson used th e term: " l i f e , en erg y , s e n s i b i l i t y , c r e a t i v i t y , courage, em otional r e a l i t y , lo v e , s e n tim e n t, c o n fid e n ce , c o n sc ie n ce , e ss e n c e , a u t h e n t i c i t y , i n t e g r i t y , i d e n t i t y , i n t e l l e c t , g e n iu s, the s p i r i t o f an a g e ." Usu a l l y " i t means th e p r i n c i p l e s of i n i t i a t i v e in l i f e , m orals, and m in d --th e im aginable s u b je c t o f adm irable a c t i o n ." Bishop i n t e r p r e t s Em erson's concept o f the so u l as " th e sense o f b ein g . The key to u n d e rs ta n d in g Em erson's m e ta p h y sic s, h is e p iste m o lo g y , and h is r h e t o r i c a l th eo ry is found in h is concept o f so u l. The so u l e x i s t s on two l e v e l s . There is one, g r e a t O ver-Soul, which Emerson c a l l s God, T ru th , Rea son, e t c . , and th e re are the in d iv id u a l e x p re s s io n s o f the Over-Soul in each man. The so u l in man is a pow erful fo rce t h a t can m aster both h is i n t e l l e c t and h is w i l l . Man's R e la tio n s h ip to God and N ature Emerson saw the u n iv e rse as "composed o f N ature and S o u l." T h e re fo re , " a l l t h a t is s e p a r a te from u s, a l l which Philosophy d i s t i n g u i s h e s as the Not Me, t h a t i s , b o th n a tu r e and a r t , a l l o th e r men and my own body, must be ranked under 1 SB ishop, p. 20. 24 t h i s name, N A T U R E . "16 N ature " is the o p p o s ite of the s o u l, answ ering to i t p a r t fo r p a r t . "17 F o s te r has attem p ted to r e p r e s e n t Em erson's m etaphysics in term s o f a t r i a n g l e in o rd e r to show the b a s ic r e l a t i o n s h i p o f God (or the "Over- Soul") , man (or the in d iv id u a l so u l) and N ature (th e m ate r i a l world) : The Emersonian m etaphysics in i t s s im p le s t terms may be r e p r e s e n te d by a t r i a n g l e the apex o f which i s the Over-Soul and the opposing leg s o f which are n a tu re and th e s o u l. Suppose the s id e s o f the t r i a n g l e to be o f g la s s so t h a t one m irro rs th e o t h e r , and suppose one s i d e , n a t u r e , to be l a r g e r and o f i n f e r i o r s u b s ta n c e , and you have a symbol of Em erson's p o e t i c b e l i e f . I t sh ould be n o te d t h a t as n a tu re and th e so u l meet in o r i g i n , th e O ver-Soul, so they are r e l a t e d by th e base l i n e o f th e t r i a n g l e , and t h i s base l i n e is in l i f e . 18 Em erson's concept o f n a tu r e is im p o rta n t to t h i s stu d y p r i m a r i l y because o f h is b e l i e f in the correspondence o f n a tu r e and Soul, o f th e m a te r ia l and th e s p i r i t u a l w o rld s. Emerson b e lie v e d every n a t u r a l f a c t to be a symbol o f some s p i r i t u a l f a c t . ^ "I b e l i e v e , " s a i d Emerson, " in the e x is te n c e o f the m a te r ia l w orld as th e e x p re s s io n of th e s p i r i t a u l o r the r e a l . . . ."20 N a tu re , or the m ate r i a l w o rld , " i s the p r o j e c t i o n of God. I t is the e x p o s it o r ■ ^"N atu re," Works, I , 4-5. 17"The American S c h o la r," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 27. •^ C h arles Howell F o s t e r , "Emerson as American S c r i p t u r e , " New England Q u a r t e r l y , XVI (March, 1943), 98. 1 0 "N atu re," Works, I , 25. - 20"Natural H is to ry o f I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 5. 25 21 o f the Divine M ind." Emerson saw th e w orld as "a temple whose w a lls are covered w ith emblems, p i c t u r e s and command- 7 7 ments o f the D eity . . . . The m a te r ia l w orld is n o t o f value in and of i t s e l f . I t is im p o rta n t to man i n s o f a r as 2 3 i t can b r in g him i n s i g h t i n to th e s p i r i t u a l w orld. Emerson r e f e r r e d to N ature as "th e v e h ic le o f t h o u g h t . T h e r e i s a " r a d i c a l correspondence between v i s i b l e th in g s and human th o u g h ts ." Man i s "an a n a l o g i s t . " He uses th e o u te r w orld to e x p la in th e in n e r w orld o f mind and s p i r i t . "Every appearance in n a tu r e co rresp o n d s to some s t a t e o f mind, and t h a t s t a t e o f mind can only be d e s c r ib e d by p r e s e n tin g t h a t n a t u r a l appearance as i t s p i c t u r e . Emerson p o in te d o u t t h a t "ev ery word which is used to ex p ress a moral or i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t , i f t r a c e d to i t s r o o t , i s found to be borrowed from some m a te r ia l ap p e a r a n c e . " ^ N ature p ro v id e s man w ith a language and ^ J o u r n a l s , IV, 76. ZZt'The P o e t," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 243. 7 ^ To Emerson "mind, n o t m a tte r , is o f prim e im por ta n c e . M atter is only a m a n if e s t a tio n o f th e m ind." S i l v e r , p. 16. 2 4 "N atu re," Works, I , 23. ZSj b i d . , pp. 26-29. 26For example, "Right means straight; wrong means twisted. Spirit primarily means wind; transgression, the crossing of a line; supercilious, the raising of the eye brow. " I b i d . , p. 23. 26 en ab les him to d eal w ith a b s t r a c t id e a s . I n d iv id u a l words are s ig n s of n a t u r a l f a c t s , and the e n t i r e w orld is a sig n o r m ir r o r of God.27 The r e l a t i o n s h i p between man and God was f o r Emerson very much l i k e the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a mountain stream and th e ocean. Man i s "a stream whose source is h id d en . That hidden source is God or th e " O v e r - S o u l . "29 J u s t as a l l the w aters o f th e e a r t h may be conceived as one u n i t y , t h a t O ver-S oul, w ith in which every man's p a r t i c u l a r being is c o n tain ed and made one w ith a l l o th e rs . . . ." 30 Man i s the in c a r n a ti o n of God. Emerson i n t e r p r e t e d the words o f C h r is t as having re f e r e n c e to a l l men. " ' I am d iv in e . Through me, God a c t s ; through me, speaks. Would 27"The w orld is em blem atic. P a r ts o f speech are m etaphors, because the whole o f n a tu r e is a metaphor o f the human mind. The laws o f m oral n a tu r e answer to those of m a tte r as face to face in a g l a s s . 'The v i s i b l e w orld and the r e l a t i o n o f i t s p a r t s , is th e d i a l p l a t e o f th e i n v i s i b l e . ' The axioms o f p h y sics t r a n s l a t e the laws o f e t h i c s . " I b i d . , p. 33. 2 ^"O ver-S oul," Complete E s s a y s , p. 262. 2^Man is "an i n l e t in to th e deeps o f Reason" [Rea son i s used as a synonym f o r God and O v e r-S o u l]. Man is "an i n f i n i t e Soul; . . . th e e a r t h and heavens are p a s s in g in to h is mind; . . . he is d rin k in g f o r e v e r the so u l of God." "An A d d re ss," Complete E s s a y s , pp. 70, 76. 30"An A d d ress," Complete E s s a y s , p. 72. "Of the U n iv e rsal Mind which we have c o n sid e re d each in d iv id u a l man is one more in c a r n a ti o n . A ll i t s p r o p e r t i e s c o n s i s t in him. To a l l i t s c i r c l e s o f p e r f e c t i o n s he has a c c e s s ." " I n t r o d u c tio n ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , p. 15. 27 you see God, see me; or see th e e , when thou a lso t h i n k e s t as I now t h i n k . ' To Em erson's way of th in k in g , th e re was only one m eaningful r e l i g i o u s q u e s tio n . That q u e s tio n concerned the r e l a t i o n s h i p "o f the in d iv id u a l v i s i b l e e x is te n c e in the m eaningless w orld of f a c t to the moral law w ith o u t and the moral n a tu re w i t h i n , " 0^ o r , in o th e r w ords, the r e l a t i o n sh ip between the p h y s ic a l w orld ( N a tu r e ) , the in d iv id u a l ( s o u l ) , and God (O v e r-S o u l). This r e l a t i o n s h i p may be e x p la in e d by the f ig u r e of a t r i a n g l e in which the "Over- Soul" i s the apex and the so u l o f man and N ature are the two opposing le g s . Both Nature and the in d iv id u a l so u ls have t h e i r source in the "O v er-S o u l." Man i s the in c a r n a t i o n o f God. To u n d e rstan d God, one must study n a tu re which is "th e e x p o s ito r of the Divine Mind." The Purpose of L ife and the R e la tio n s h ip among Men Emerson was concerned w ith the i n d i v i d u a l , n o t so- c i e t y . "I l i k e man, b u t n o t men," he s a i d . The purpose ^l"An A d d re ss," Complete E s s a y s , p. 72. •^W hicher, p. 3 9 . •^Emerson "was p r im a r i ly an i n t u i t i v e , i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , moral p h ilo s o p h e r ; m a tte rs p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l i n t e r e s t e d him m ainly as they a f f e c t e d the in d iv id u a l in h is a tte m p t to l i v e a d iv in e l i f e . " Raymer McQuiston, The R e la tio n o f Ralph Waldo Emerson to P u b lic A f f a i r s , B u l l e t i n of the U n iv e rs ity of Kansas Humanities S tu d i e s , CXI, No. 1 (Lawrence: U n iv e rs ity of Kansas P r e s s , 1923), 9. 28 of l i f e is n o t to a c q u a in t one man w ith a n o th er. "The p u r pose of l i f e seems to be to a c q u a in t a man w ith h im s e lf. The o b je c t of th e u n iv e rs e is n o t to b u i l d g r e a t s o c i e t i e s ; 3 3 i t " is the form atio n of c h a r a c t e r . " Emerson's " e a r ly a t t i t u d e toward p ro g re s s was an em phatic d e n ia l of any advance of s o c ie ty as a w h o le." Emerson o fte n used the term " p ro g re s s" in h is e ssay on the "O v er-S o u l," "b u t i t i s always used of a man's improvement in c h a r a c t e r , o f h is advance toward a more and more complete in c a r n a ti o n of the G reat S p i r i t , of h is a b so rp tio n of and i n to the Divine U n ity ."36 " C h a ra c te r" i s the m oral o rd e r "seen through, the medium o f an in d iv id u a l n a t u r e . "37 C h a ra c te r is a " re - 3 8 serv ed fo rc e " w ith in the i n d i v i d u a l . I t is " h ig h e r than i n t e l l e c t ,"3^ and i t "d en o tes h a b i t u a l s e l f - p o s s e s s i o n , 34r fhe H eart of Em erson's J o u r n a l s , ed. by B lis s P erry (B o sto n : Houghton M if f li n Company, 1937), p. 217. 3 5 " i n t e l l e c t ," Complete E s s a y s , p. 294. "His [Em erson's] stro n g in d iv id u a lis m caused him to have an a v e rsio n to those movements which aimed a t the re fo rm a tio n of the in d iv id u a l or the improvement of h is c o n d itio n by the re fo rm a tio n of s o c i e t y . " McQuiston, p. 10. 3 6 s i l v e r , p. 11. There is "no p ro g re s s to the r a c e . P ro g re ss belongs to the i n d iv id u a ls and c o n s is ts in becoming u n i v e r s a l . " " I n t r o d u c t o r y ," E a rly L e c tu re s , I , 13-14. 3 7 " C h a ra c te r," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 267. 5 8 I b i d . , p. 265. 39"The American S c h o la r ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 31. 29 h a b i t u a l re g a rd to i n t e r i o r and c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m otives . . . ."40 "The face which c h a r a c te r wears to me," w rote Emerson, " i s s e l f - su f f ic in g n e s s . At the age o f 24, Emerson c r i t i c i z e d th e v a n ity o f men who suppose t h a t God p la c e d them on e a r th f o r some g r e a t ta s k or "th e a d m in is tr a tio n o f e v e n t s ." P erhaps, Emerson was r i d i c u l i n g h is own am bition f o r fame when he s a id : I f you th in k you came in to being f o r the purpose o f ta k in g an im p o rtan t p a r t in the a d m in is tr a tio n o f e v e n ts , to guard a p ro v in ce o f th e moral c r e a tio n from r u i n , and t h a t i t s s a l v a t i o n hangs on the su ccess o f your s in g le arm, you have whooly m istaken your b u s i n e s s . Creep in to your g ra v e , th e u n iv e rs e h a th no need o f you. How f o o li s h ! For what h a s t thou which thou d i d s t n o t re c e iv e ? and cannot He who gave you t h i s power commit i t to a n o th e r , or use i t h i m s e lf ? 4 2 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t the u ltim a te end o f human l i f e is th e "fo rm a tio n o f c h a r a c t e r . " Men who th in k they have some s p e c i a l r o le to p la y in th e d e s tin y o f s o c ie ty are m issin g the r e a l p o in t o f l i f e . I t is n o t th e b u ild in g o f the s o c i e t y , b u t the b u ild in g o f your own in d iv id u a l c h a r a c te r t h a t co u n ts. C h a ra c te r is the in d iv id u a l e x p r e s sio n o f the moral o r d e r , o f the O ver-Soul. The only r e a l p ro g re s s a man can make is to move toward a more "com plete in c a r n a ti o n of th e G reat S p i r i t . " 4 0 " C h a ra c te r," Complete W r i t i n g s , XI, 977. 41l b i d . , I , 268. 4 2 j0u r n a l s , IX, 14. 30 Emerson’s Concept o f T ruth Em erson's th e o ry o f knowledge is e x p re sse d sim ply and e x p l i c i t l y in h is s ta te m e n t t h a t " th e so u l is th e p e r- 43 c e iv e r and r e v e a l e r o f t r u t h . " Y et, "we do n o t determ ine what we w i l l t h i n k . " In f a c t , "we have l i t t l e c o n tr o l over our th o u g h ts ." A ll men are " th e p r i s o n e r s o f id e a s . Our th in k in g is a pious r e c e p t i o n . " 4 4 Emerson e x p la in e d how tho u g h ts come to a man: As w ith e v e n ts , so i t is w ith th o u g h ts . When I watch t h a t flow ing r i v e r , w hich, o u t o f re g io n s I see n o t , pours f o r a season i t s stream s in to me, I see t h a t I am a p e n s io n e r; n o t a cause b u t a s u r p r i s e d s p e c t a t o r o f t h i s e t h e r e a l w a te r; t h a t I d e s i r e and look up and p u t m yself in th e a t t i t u d e o f r e c e p t i o n , b u t from some a l i e n energy the v is io n s come.45 In h is study o f Em erson's p h ilo s o p h y , Gray w rote t h a t "a b e l i e f in i n t u i t i o n was always a t th e very c e n te r o f h is [Em erson's] system . . . i d ea 0 f i n t u i t i o n seems to have been b a s i c to Em erson's r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p ts , and i t had an im p o rta n t in f lu e n c e on h is w r iti n g s and l e c t u r e s . Cabot e x p la in e d Em erson's concept o f i n t u i t i o n as "th e openness o f th e human mind to new i n f l u x o f l i g h t and 4^ "O v er-S o u l," Complete E s s a y s , p. 263. 4 4I b i d . , " I n t e l l e c t , " p. 294. 4^I b i d . , "O v er-S o u l," p. 262. 46Henry David Gray, Emerson, A S tatem en t of New England T ran sc en d e n ta lism as E xpressed in th e P hilosophy o f I t s C hief Exponent (Palo A lto , C a l i f . : S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1917J , p. E T 6 . 31 power from the D ivine M ind."4 ^ Emerson d e fin e d i n t u i t i o n th u s: "We denote t h i s prim ary wisdom as I n t u i t i o n , w h i l s t a l l l a t e r te a c h in g s are t u i t i o n s . In t h a t deep f o r c e , the l a s t f a c t behind which a n a ly s is cannot go, a l l th in g s f in d t h e i r common o r i g i n . " Emerson went on to say t h a t "we l i e in th e lap o f immense i n t e l l i g e n c e , which makes us r e c e iv e rs of i t s t r u t h and organs o f i t s a c t i v i t y . When we d is c e r n j u s t i c e , when we d is c e r n t r u t h , we do n o th in g of o u r s e lv e s , b u t allow a passag e to i t s beam s." Men must n o t ask "whence t h i s l i g h t comes," f o r " i t s p resen ce or i t s absence i s a l l we can a f f i r m . " 4 ® Emerson e x p la in e d t h a t i n t u i t i o n is "n o t the g i f t , b u t the p re s en c e of God. " 4 9 Gray gave the fo llo w in g d e s c r i p t i o n of th e union between th e D ivine Mind and the i n d iv id u a l mind which makes i n t u i t i o n p o s s i b l e : By t h i s " u n io n ," th e O ver-Soul n o t only f i l l s b u t is the in d i v i d u a l s o u l, j u s t as the ocean t i d e f i l l s and flo o d s f o r a time th e shallow brook flow ing i n t o i t , and becomes one w ith i t , and then r e t r e a t s , a g a in , le a v in g th e " b ro o k ," the i n d i v i d u a l mind, w ith only "a f a r - o f f memory. " ® 9 Emerson re c o g n iz e d two f a c u l t i e s of knowing. In a 4 ?Cabot, P* 252. ^ " S e l f - R e l i a n c e ," Complete E s s a y s , p. 156. 4 9 J o u r n a l s , IX, 14. ^9 Gray, p. 51. 32 l e t t e r to h is b r o th e r in 1834, he p r e s e n te d f o r the f i r s t time a c l e a r and c a r e f u l d i s t i n c t i o n between th e se two f a c u l t i e s : Philosophy a ffirm s t h a t the outward w orld is only phenomenal § the whole concern o f d in e rs o f t a i l o r s of gigs of b a l l s w hereof men make such account is a q u i t e r e l a t i v e 8 tem porary o n e--an i n t r i c a t e dream-- the e x h a la tio n o f the p r e s e n t s t a t e of the S o u l-- w herein the U nderstanding works i n c e s s a n t l y as i f i t were b u t the e t e r n a l Reason when now § then he is allow ed to speak d e c la re s i t i s an a c c id e n t a smoke nowise r e l a t e d to h is perm anent a t t r i b u t e s . Now t h a t I have used the w ords, l e t me ask you do you draw the d i s t i n c t i o n of M ilton C o lerid g e 8 the Germans between Reason 8 U n d erstan d in g . I th in k i t a ph ilo so p h y i t s e l f , 3 li k e a l l t r u t h very p r a c t i c a l . Reason is the h i g h e s t f a c u l t y of the s o u l--w h a t we mean o fte n by the so u l i t s e l f ; i t n ever r e a s o n s , never p ro v e s , i t sim ply p e r c e i v e s ; i t i s v i s i o n . The Under sta n d in g t o i l s a l l the tim e , compares, c o n t r i v e s , adds, a rg u e s , n e a r s ig h te d but s t r o n g - s i g h t e d , dw elling in the p r e s e n t th e e x p e d ie n t the c u sto m a ry .51 The Reason and the U nderstanding seek d i f f e r e n t ty p es of t r u t h through d i f f e r e n t m ethods. The U n d erstan d ing a id s a man in " d is c o v e rin g th e p r a c t i c a l t r u t h s of t h i s 52 w o rld ." I t "gives to man r u le s of custom and s e l f - 51-The L e t t e r s of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. by Ralph. L. Rusk (6 v o l s . ; New York: Columbia U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1939), I , 412-413. Emerson c a l l e d Reason "the Contempla t i v e Power" and U nderstanding " th e E xecutive f a c u l t y . " "Reason is the Eye, the U nderstanding the Hand of the mind. I t s [R eason’s] a t t r i b u t e s are e t e r n i t y and i n t u i t i o n . I t is the mind of the mind. W e belong to i t , n o t i t to u s. I t is in a l l men, even th e w o r s t, and c o n s t i t u t e s them men." " R e lig i o n ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 83. 5^Whicher and S p i l l e r , " I n t r o d u c t i o n ," E arly Lec tu r e s , I , x v i i i . 33 C 7 i n t e r e s t f o r th e care o f th e body and animal l i f e . . . The Reason, on the o th e r hand, is " th e f a c u l t y f o r p e r c e i v ing s p i r i t u a l t r u t h beyond e x p erien c e . . . ."54 -phe un- d e rs ta n d in g o p e ra te s by "a s y l l o g i s t i c or l o g i c a l p ro c e ss o f r e a s o n in g ," by "com paring, c o n t r i v i n g , adding, and a r g u in g ." The Reason " f u n c tio n s by r e v e a lin g o r p e r c e iv in g i n t u i t i v e l y . . . . " 55 Emerson saw t r u t h and i n t e l l e c t as th e same th in g . "The pure i n t e l l e c t is God. As i t e n te r s our lower sp h e re , we c a l l i t pure l i g h t , w h i l s t i t is n o t mixed w ith p a r t i c u l a r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , but is th e unmixed p e r c e p tio n o f t r u t h and J u s t i c e , - -R e aso n ." When t r u t h " e n t e r s in to the reg io n o f a p p ea ra n ce s, o f e f f e c t s , and converses w ith the r e l a tio n s o f th e a p p aren t w o rld ,--w e c a l l i t Common S e n se ." Each man has th e c a p a c ity to r e c e iv e the i n f l u x of the D ivine Mind o r i n t u i t i o n , b u t he a lso has "a c e r t a i n i n f e r i o r and p r i v a t e power o f a c tin g w ith in c e r t a i n l i m i t s from h im s e lf upon th o se p e r c e p t i o n s , com paring, re a s o n in g , con- r s t r u c t i n g , e t c . , which we c a l l U n d e rsta n d in g ." 53jvjerrell R. Davis, "Emerson's 'Reason' and the Scottish Philosophers," New England Quarterly, XVII (June, 1944), 210-211. 5/*Whicher and S p i l l e r , p. x v i i i . ^ D a v i s , pp. 2 1 0 - 2 1 1 . 56"The H ead," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 248. 34 In th e o ry , Emerson re c o g n ize d "two kinds o f t r u t h - - the i n t u i t i o n s o f f a i t h , a n d 'th e o th e r f a c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e . " ^ However, Gray found t h a t in Em erson's l a t e r works, he became le s s a s s e r t i v e and more i n q u i s i t i v e " concerning the d i s t i n c t i o n between reaso n and u n d e rs ta n d in g . Emerson may have come to b e l i e v e , as Gray a s s e r t e d , t h a t w hile "th e so u l could n o t p e rc e iv e f a l s e l y , y e t th e r e must be c e r t a i n c o n d itio n s which clog and h in d e r i t s p e r f e c t v i s i o n ; t h a t i t must n o t be s e p a r a te d too com pletely from the u n d e r s ta n d in g . . . . In a l e c t u r e on " R e lig i o n ," f i r s t d e liv e r e d in 1837, Emerson spoke o f " th e g r e a t f a c t which seems to l i e a t the fo u n d a tio n o f p h ilo so p h y ; th e Unity o f th e Mind; t h a t in a l l i n d i v i d u a l men th e r e is b u t one m i n d . " ^ The "Common Mind" is m entioned o f te n in b o th Em erson's jo u r n a ls and e s s a y s . "There is one mind common to a l l in d iv id u a l m e n ,"^ and t h i s mind "always a ffirm s a b so lu te t r u t h . Emerson s t a t e d t h a t " th e r e is one Mind, and a l l the powers and p r i v i l e g e s which l i e in any, l i e in a l l ; t h a t I as a man may claim and a p p r o p r ia te w hatever o f tru e o r f a i r o r good •^"The H ead,” E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 248. S^Gray, p . 58. ^ " R e l i g i o n , " E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 83. ^ J o u r n a l s , IV, 119. 6 1 " R e lig io n ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 84. 35 f s 9 or s tro n g has anywhere been e x h ib ite d . . . " Because th e r e is only one mind, "th e man o f genius a p p ra ise s us not so much o f h is w e alth as of the common w e a lth ." Thus, i f "h is tho u g h ts are p ro fo u n d , so much the le s s are they h i s , so much more the p r o p e rty o f a l l . " Emerson saw in a d eq u a c ies in t r u t h and knowledge based on a u t h o r i t y , lo g ic o r form al re a so n in g , and the em p i r i c a l methods of ex p erien ce or o b s e rv a tio n and experim en t a t i o n . He b e lie v e d t h a t no e x t e r i o r in flu e n c e could le a d a man's thoughts in the d i r e c t i o n of t r u t h b u t only the voice w ith in Emerson r i d i c u l e d the p r a c t i c e of q u o tin g g r e a t men as a u t h o r i t i e s . "Man is tim id and a p o lo g e tic ; he i s no lo n g er u p r ig h t ; he d ares n o t say 'I t h i n k , ' 'I am,' b u t quotes some s a i n t or s a g e . " ^ "I h a te q u o t a t i o n s ," w rote Emerson. " T e ll me what you k n o w . " ^ 5 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "books are only to i n s p i r e 6 ^Ralph Waldo Emerson, "Thoughts on Modern L i t e r a t u r e , " The D i a l , I (O ctober, 1840), 148. ^ J o u rn a ls t i v , 131. 64"An A d d re ss," Complete E s s a y s , p. 157. ^ H eart o f Em erson's J o u r n a l s , p. 245. Although Emerson claim ed to h ate q u o t a t i o n s , h is b io g ra p h e r s t a t e s t h a t he "quoted more f r e e l y , more v a r i o u s l y , and more ably than alm ost any w r i t e r o f h is time . . . ." Oscar W . F i r k i n s , Ralph Waldo Emerson (New York: R u sse ll 8 R u s s e ll, I n c . , 1965) , p . 228. 6 6 "American S c h o la r ," Complete E s s a y s , p. 50. 36 He fe a r e d t h a t they could become i n t e l l e c t u a l c r u t c h e s . ^ "Books are ap t to tu rn reason o u t of d o ors. You f in d men t a l k i n g everywhere from t h e i r memories, in s te a d of from 6 8 t h e i r u n d e r s ta n d in g ." No books, no a u t h o r i t y , was sa c re d to Emerson. "Nothing is a t l a s t sa c re d but the i n t e g r i t y o f your own m in d ."69 This was th e message of h is essay on " S e l f - R e l i a n c e ." He s t a t e d : . . . the h ig h e s t m e rit we a s c r ib e to Moses, P la to and M ilton is t h a t they s e t a t naught books and t r a d i t i o n and spoke n o t what men, b u t what they th o u g h t. A man should le a r n to d e t e c t and watch t h a t gleam of l i g h t t h a t f la s h e s acro ss h is mind from w i t h i n , more than the l u s t e r o f th e firmam ent of bards and s a g e s . 70 Along w ith h is f a i t h in " i n t u i t i o n " as a way of d is c o v e rin g t r u t h , Emerson seems to have r e j e c t e d to some e x te n t form al re a so n in g and l o g i c a l arg u m en tatio n . "His a t t i t u d e was, t h a t the t r u t h i s communicated to the mind from i t s u n ity w ith the U n iv e rsa l Mind, and cannot be a r gued about or added to by r e a s o n i n g . " ^ Emerson c a l l e d f o r 6 ?H eart o f Em erson's J o u r n a l s , p. 111. 6 8 I b i d . , p. 54. 6 9 " S e lf - R e lia n c e ," Complete E s s a y s , p . 145. Emerson went so f a r as to su g g est t h a t i t i s "p ro fan e" to seek r e l i g i o u s or moral t r u t h from o t h e r s . "We l i e in the lap o f immense i n t e l l i g e n c e , which makes us r e c e iv e r s o f i t s t r u t h and organs o f i t s a c t i v i t y . The r e l a t i o n s of the soul to th e d iv in e s p i r i t are so pure t h a t i t i s p ro fan e to seek to in te r p o s e h e l p s . " " I n t e l l e c t , " Works, I , 210-211. ^ ^ ''S e lf - R e lia n c e ," Complete E s s a y s , p. 145. ^ C o o k e , p. 76. 37 "th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f th e spontaneous or i n t u i t i v e p r i n c i p l e 72 over th e a r i t h m e t i c a l o r l o g i c a l . " Emerson claim ed t h a t he did n o t have a l o g i c a l mind. For example, he w rote in an e a r ly jo u r n a l: "My re a so n in g f a c u lty i s p r o p o r tio n a b ly weak, n o r can I e v er hope to 7 * 5 w r ite a B u t l e r 's Analogy or an essay on Hume." Some Emersonian s c h o la rs have a ccep ted t h i s s ta te m e n t. G a rn e tt, fo r example, s a i d t h a t "he [Emerson] could s e e , b u t he could n o t p ro v e; he could announce, b u t he could n o t argue. His i n t u i t i o n s were h is s o le g u id e; what they re v e a le d a p p e ared to him s e l f - e v i d e n t ; the o rd in a ry p a th s by which men a r r i v e a t c o n clu sio n s were c lo se d to h im ."74 F i r k i n s , on the o th e r hand, s t a t e d t h a t Emerson was " p e r f e c t l y capable o f u sin g th e s y llo g is m , the n u cleu s o f a l l d ed u ctiv e lo g i c , and o f w r i t i n g , when he chose, an arg u m en tativ e d is c o u r s e ." There i s evidence in h is works t h a t he could use lo g ic and argum entation: There is argument in good measure in the a n t i - s l a v e r y s p ee c h es, and th e "American C i v i l i z a t i o n " address in Washington . . . is alm ost unmixed argument. The second essay on " A r t," in "S o c ie ty and S o l i t u d e ," is a r a r e b u t p re g n a n t in s ta n c e o f the d e d ic a tio n o f an e ss a y to th e s u p p o rt o f a u n i f i e d t h e s i s . The le c t u r e on "The C o n serv ativ e" i s mainly occupied w ith an 7 2 " i n t e l l e c t ," Complete E s s a y s , p. 294. 73j o u r n a l s , I , 360-361. 74Richard G a r n e tt, L ife o f Ralph Waldo Emerson (New York: Thomas W h itta k e r, 1888J , p. 38 i m p a r t i a l and f o r c i b l e d e b ate . Even the essay s p ro p e r are n o t chary o f re a s o n s , and what is an argument b u t a reaso n under f i r e ? 75 Perhaps Em erson's r e j e c t i o n o f lo g ic and formal re a so n in g as s i g n i f i c a n t ways o f a r r i v i n g a t o r communi c a tin g t r u t h was due n o t so much to h is own i n a b i l i t y to handle th e se modes as to a g e n e ra l la ck o f i n t e r e s t in them. 7 f \ "Systems o f lo g ic were u n i n t e r e s t i n g to him . . . . " /D Emerson was " d i s i n c l i n e d to l o g ic " ; he did n o t want to be delayed o r b o r e d . ^7 Emerson may a ls o have b e lie v e d t h a t systems o f lo g ic were n o t u s e f u l in d e a lin g w ith th e kind of s u b je c ts t h a t i n t e r e s t e d him most. "Concepts such as the o v e r - s o u l, com pensation, r a d i c a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e and the oneness o f a l l th in g s do n o t le n d them selves to r a t i o n a l or l o g i c a l d e m o n s tra tio n ." These concepts are " a l o g i c a l o r u n v a r i f i a b l e ," and could n o t be " p re s e n te d e f f e c t i v e l y through the use o f the t r a d i t i o n a l essay w ith i t s l o g i c a l s te p - b y - s te p p r o g r e s s i o n . I t would be s e l f - d e f e a t i n g to attem p t to e x p la in a m y s tic a l id e a by means o f l o g i c a l argument or to advocate o r defend c o n t r a d i c t i o n by means 7 ft r a t i o n a l d e m o n s tra tio n ." Emerson n o te d t h a t " th e h ig h e s t ^5 F i r k i n s , pp. 300-301. ^ A n n ie R u s s e ll M arble, "Emerson as a P u b lic S p eak er," The D i a l , May 16, 1903, p. 329. 7 7 F ir k in s , p. 299. ^ R o n a ld Beck, "Em erson's O rganic S t r u c t u r e s , " Emerson S o c ie ty Q u a r t e r l y , No. 50 (I Q u a rte r 1968), 76. 39 form of re a so n in g upon d iv in e s u b je c ts is r a t h e r the f r u i t o f a s o r t o f m oral im a g in a tio n , than o f the 'Reasoning 79 M achines,' such as Locke and Clarke and David Hume." In h is e a r l i e s t p u b lis h e d work, " N a tu re ," Emerson reco g n ized h is " u t t e r impotence to t e s t the a u t h e n t i c i t y o f the r e p o r t of my s e n s e s , to know w hether the im p ressio n s they make on me co rresp o n d w ith th e o u tly in g o b je c ts . . . ."80 w hicher argued t h a t around 1840 Em erson's t r a n s ce n d e n talism began to give way to a b a s ic em piricism . Although Emerson s t i l l re c o g n ize d the " p e c u l i a r ex p erien ce of the S o u l," he n e v e r th e le s s " p ra g m a tic a lly " accep ted "the p r i o r i t y o f e x p erien c e over ' R e a l i t y . '"81 However, Emerson 82 s t i l l b e lie v e d t h a t the so u l " c o n t r a d i c t s a l l e x p erien ce." Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t a l l t r u t h u lt i m a t e l y r e s id e s in the O ver-Soul. There are two kinds o f knowledge t h a t men n eed , p r a c t i c a l knowledge t h a t en ab les them to su rv iv e ^ J o u r n a ls t I , 361. 8 0 "N atu re," Complete E s s a y s , p. 26. ^ W h ic h e r , p. 97. ^ " T h e so u l c irc u m sc rib e s a l l th in g s . As I have s a i d , i t c o n t r a d i c t s a l l e x p e rie n c e . In li k e manner i t a b o lis h e s time and sp ace. The in flu e n c e of the sen ses has in most men overpowered the mind to t h a t degree t h a t the w a lls o f time and space have come to look r e a l and i n s u r m ountable; and to speak w ith l e v i t y o f th e se l i m i t s i s , in the w o rld , the s ig n of i n s a n i t y . Yet time and space are b u t in v e rs e measures o f th e fo rc e o f the s o u l ." "Over- S o u l," Complete E s s a y s , p. 264. 40 on a day to day b a s is and a h ig h e r knowledge t h a t en ab les them to know how, why, and f o r what they should l i v e . The f i r s t kind of knowledge i s p ro v id e d by the f a c u l t y o f " u n d e r s ta n d in g ." The second f a c u l t y is the "R eason," the h ig h e s t f a c u l t y o f the mind. E x p e rie n c e, e x p e r im e n ta tio n , l o g i c , and form al rea so n in g are the methods o f the Under s ta n d in g , w hile the Reason r e l i e s on a "p io u s r e c e p tio n " o r i n t u i t i o n . I t is the Reason r a t h e r than the U nderstanding t h a t w i l l be th e most im p o rtan t to the o r a t o r . Em erson's o r a t o r must r e l y p r im a r i ly on h is i n t u i t i o n s to p ro v id e the h ig h e r t r u t h s which men seek. Em erson's system o f knowledge would cause two s e r io u s problems f o r th e o r a t o r . F i r s t , a man has l i t t l e r e a l c o n tr o l over the i n t u i t i o n s t h a t come to him from the O ver-Soul. Second, Emerson re c o g n ize d t h a t a man's i n t u i t i v e v i s io n could be b lu r r e d . Sources o f Em erson's M etaphysics and Epistem ology Emerson has been c a l l e d "th e g r e a t e s t exponent" o f New England T ran sc en d e n ta lism , and h is " D iv in ity School A ddress" is c o n sid e re d by some as " th e B ible o f t r a n s c e n d e n ta lism . "83 T ran sc en d e n ta lism was p r im a r i ly "a d o c tr in e ^ V e rn o n Louis P a r r in g to n , "Ralph Waldo Emerson, T ran sc en d e n ta l C r i t i c , " in Main C u rrents in American Thought 1800-1860 (2 v o l s . ; 2nd e d . ; New York: H a rc o u rt, Brace and Company, 1930), I I , 390. Emerson saw a d i f f e r - 41 concerning the mind, i t s ways o f a c tin g and methods o f O A g e t t i n g knowledge. " O H New England T ra n sc e n d e n ta lism , as ex p re sse d in Em erson's w orks, was an " e c l e c t i c d o c tr in e " which combined elem ents o f P l a t o , and the N e o - P l a t o n i s t s , o f th e i d e a l i s t i c German p h ilo s o p h e rs as i n t e r p r e t e d by C o lerid g e and C a r ly le , o f O r ie n ta l r e l i g i o n s and m y sticism , and o f Emanuel S w e d e n b o r g. Foster n o te d the la rg e number of in f lu e n c e s both a n c ie n t and modern, fo r e ig n and American t h a t went to make Em erson's own unique p h ilo so p h y : The in flu e n c e to be s u r e , t h a t s e t h is [Emerson's] powder o f f are m ainly f o r e ig n : German id e a lism from C oleridge and C a r ly le , rom antic d o c tr in e from Words w orth, and N eo-P latonism , b u t Em erson's p la y o f th ought and emotion was American by i n t e n t i o n . Having been l i b e r a t e d by U n ita ria n is m , having been aware o f m y s ti cism as a l i v i n g f a i t h by Quakerism, Emerson was ready to combine contem porary European tho u g h t w ith American p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s and to b le n d P lo tin u s and Thomas J e f f e r s o n in to a r a d i c a l d o c t r i n e . 86 P la to P l a t o 's W ritin g s had an e a r l y and profound i n f l u ence on Emerson. Cooke s t a t e d t h a t Emerson "pro b ab ly comes ence between h is own p h ilo so p h y and t h a t o f the tra n s c e n - d e n t a l i s t s . See Hayburn, p. 56. ^ H a r o l d Clarke Goddard, S tu d ies in New England T ran sc en d e n ta lism (New York: Columbia U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1908} , P. 4. ^ L i l l i a n H erlans H o rn s te in , ed. , The R ea d e r' s Companion to World L i t e r a t u r e (New York: Dryden P r e s s , 1956J , PP • 147-149. 8 6 F o s te r , p. 91. 42 n e a r e r to a c c e p tin g the whole o f P l a t o 's p h ilo so p h y than o 7 t h a t o f any o th e r t h i n k e r . " 0/ C arp en ter agreed t h a t P la to was "p ro b ab ly the g r e a t e s t s in g le in f lu e n c e " on Emerson's i n t e l l e c t u a l l i f e . " 8 8 Emerson s tr o n g ly p r a i s e d P la to : "A d i s c i p l i n e i t is [th e c o l l e c t e d works o f P la to ] in l o g i c , a r i t h m e t i c , t a s t e , symmetry, p o e t r y , language, r h e t o r i c , o n to lo g y , m orals or p r a c t i c a l wisdom." P la to had the g r e a t e s t range o f s p e c u la tio n : "Out o f P la to come a l l th in g s t h a t are s t i l l w r i t t e n and debated among men o f th o u g h t."89 Emerson follow ed the i d e a l i s t i c p h ilo so p h y o f P la to i n s o f a r as he a ccep ted P l a t o 's id e a o f a s p i r i t u a l world above and beyond the p h y s ic a l w orld t h a t our senses know. From P l a t o , Emerson a lso le a rn e d o f the correspondence o f th e p h y s ic a l and m a t e r ia l w o rld s, t h a t the p h y s ic a l or m a te r ia l w orld is only a r e f l e c t i o n o f th e s p i r i t u a l w orld. "As every pool r e f l e c t s the image o f th e sun, so every tho u g h t and th in g r e s t o r e s us an image and c r e a tu r e o f the 9 0 supreme Good." S^Cooke, pp. 272-273. ^ F r e d e r i c I. C a rp e n te r, ed. , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " Ralph Waldo Emerson, R e p r e s e n ta tiv e S e l e c t i o n s , w ith In tro d u c tio n , B ib lio g ra p h y , and Notes [New York: American Book Company, 1934), pp. x x iv -x x v i. 8 9 " p ia to ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 338. " i b i d . , p. 347. 43 Cooke saw P l a t o 's w r iti n g s as th e so u rce o f Emer s o n 's " s o u l - f a i t h . " Both Emerson and P la to b e lie v e d t h a t man could gain knowledge o f th e s u p e r s e n s ib le w orld by l i s t e n i n g to the voice w ith in . From P l a t o , Emerson a lso le a r n e d optim ism , " h is t r u s t in th e good, and h is c o n v ic ti o n t h a t e v i l is b u t a shadow. " ^ 1 Em erson's P latonism is a lso seen in h is " c h e ris h e d view t h a t every f a c t can be given i t s w id e st h o riz o n by 92 being r a i s e d from one le v e l to a n o th e r ." Thus Emerson s a id o f P la to t h a t "he r e p r e s e n ts th e p r i v i l e g e o f the i n t e l l e c t , the power, namely o f c a r ry in g up every f a c t to su c c e s s iv e p la tfo rm s and so d i s c l o s i n g in every f a c t a germ o f ex pansion. These expansions are in the essence o f th o u g h t." Emerson p r a i s e d P la to as a "more complete man" than most, because he was able to comprehend through h is U nderstanding the f a c t s o f n a tu r e and then to go beyond t h i s through h is Reason to see t h a t th e se f a c t s have a h ig h e r meaning, t h a t they le a d us i n to the s u p e r s e n s ib le w orld. These e x te n s io n s o r expansions o f f a c t s " c o n s i s t in c o n tin u in g the s p i r i t u a l s i g h t where th e h o riz o n f a l l s on our n a t u r a l v i s i o n , and by t h i s second s i g h t d is c o v e rin g 9 ^ the long l i n e s o f law which sh o o t in every dir e c ti o n . J 9iCooke, p. 272. ^ R o b e r t C. P o llo c k , "A R e a p p ra is a l o f Emerson," Thought, XXXII (S p rin g , 1957), 100. 9 3 " p iat o , " Complete W r i t i n g s , p. 351. 44 N eo-Platonism Emerson "ran g ed somewhat w idely f o r th e m a te r ia ls o f h is th o u g h t," however, h is " p h ilo s o p h ic a f f i n i t y " was w ith "a s p e c i a l and very l i m i t e d school o f t h i n k e r s . " W ritin g in th e 1 8 8 0 's , Cooke named Emerson as "th e l a t e s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e " o f a p e c u l i a r school o f t h in k e r s e x ten d in g from th e t h i r d cen tu ry N e o - P l a t o n i s t , P l o t i n u s , to the l a t e e ig h te e n th cen tu ry p o e t and c r i t i c , C o le rid g e , through a continuous s u c c e ss io n o f o th e r men, in c lu d in g P r o c l u s , E c k h a rt, Boehme, and S c h e llin g . What th e s e men had in common w ith Emerson were th e p h ilo s o p h ic d o c tr in e s o f i n t u i t i o n and i d e n t i t y . While o th e r men have acc e p ted th e se d o c tr in e s from time to tim e, they have n o t done so in the same " s p i r i t o f m y stic ism ." Although Emerson d id n o t agree com pletely w ith any o f the members o f t h i s school o f th o u g h t, he d id a c c e p t, to a la r g e e x t e n t , t h e i r p h i l o sophic s p i r i t , t h e i r d o c t r i n e s , and t h e i r r e l i g i o u s pecu- i • • 4 . • 94 l i a n t i e s . There grew up around P lo t in u s and h is p r e d e c e s s o r , Ammonius S a c c a s , a s p e c i a l school o f th o u g h t which ta u g h t th e i d e n t i t y o f mind and m a tte r and made i n t u i t i o n the method o f knowing t r u t h . P lo tin u s adopted " P l a t o 's th e o ry o f the c o - e t e r n i t y o f the s o u l w ith i t s i d e a s , and o f the 94Cooke, pp. 272-295. 45 sameness o f t h e i r su b stan ce and o r i g i n , and i n t e r p r e t e d i t as te a c h in g th e i d e n t i t y of n a tu r e and s o u l, th in g s and r e a s o n ." P lo tin u s d e p a rte d from many o f the fo llo w e rs of P la to by r e f u s in g to d i s t i n g u i s h between n a tu r e and re a so n . He i d e n t i f i e d them and ta u g h t t h a t man c r e a te s the m a t e r i a l w orld h im s e lf through h is " l u s t f o r the s e n s i b l e . " I f a man would subdue h is s e n s e s , he would " r e tu r n back towards God. The c h ie f means to t h i s r e t u r n is i n t u i t i o n , o r e c s t a s y , by which man r i s e s above the s e n s ib le w orld in to a d i r e c t knowing and see in g o f the s u p e r s e n s i b le and i t s t r u t h . " 9 5 Emerson saw n a tu r e as a k in d of language. This b e l i e f " t h a t every n a t u r a l o b je c t has a meaning which t r a n scends th e n a t u r a l w o rld , and t h a t the laws o f N ature apply to the w orld o f the so u l . . . . " i s the t e n e t o f Neo p la to n is m . "The N e o p la to n is ts h e ld t h a t N ature was m erely the m a te r ia l c o u n te r p a r t of the d iv in e o r d e r . " 9^ Although Emerson knew t h a t t h i s d o c tr in e o f the correspondence o f th e m a te r ia l and the s p i r i t u a l , o f n a tu r e and language could be found in P l o t i n u s , he came acro ss i t in many o th e r s o u rc e s . In f a c t , F o s te r s t a t e d t h a t the d o c tr in e o f id e n t i t y o r correspondence is " c e n t r a l to th e whole m y s tic a l 9 5 l b i d . , pp. 273-274. 9^ F re d e ric Ives C a r p e n te r, Emerson and A sia (Cam b rid g e : Harvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1930) , p . TIL 46 t r a d i t i o n o f th e w e s t." I t was fundam ental w ith th e C h r is tia n P l a t o n i s t s , Clement, O rig in , and D io n y siu s; i t was one o f th e main p r i n c i p l e s o f Swedenborg; i t was a l l b u t indigenous to r e l i g i o u s New England, so s tr o n g ly had the sev e n t e e n t h - c e n tu r y mind p e r s i s t e d in th e New World. That Emerson was in f lu e n c e d by th e d o c tr in e o f c o rre sp o n dence as he came on i t in h is read in g o f C a r ly le and C o lerid g e is u n d e n ia b le ; b u t he acc e p ted i t , as o th e rs in the p a s t had done, as a fundam ental p r i n c i p l e in a m y s tic a l o u tlo o k on l i f e . 97 The N e o p la to n is ts were a s i g n i f i c a n t source fo r Em erson's id e a o f an O ver-Soul as w e ll as h is t h e o r ie s of i n t u i t i o n and i d e n t i t y . C arp en te r s t a t e d t h a t Emerson's 9 8 concept o f th e O ver-Soul " p r a c t i c a l l y is N eoplatonism ." A lthough the term "O ver-Soul" must be d e c la re d o r i g i n a l w ith Emerson, 99 n e i t h e r the concept n o r th e metaphor used to e x p la in i t were o r i g i n a l w ith Emerson. The s i m i l a r i t y in th o u g h t and language can be seen from the fo llo w in g com p a r is o n between a p assage from P lo tin u s and a passage from Em erson's "O ver-Soul": That which s u b s i s t s above l i f e is the cause o f l i f e . . . . C onceive, th e n , a f o u n ta in p o s s e s s in g no ^ ^ F o s te r, p. 99. Cameron s t a t e d t h a t Emerson was in f lu e n c e d in h is b e l i e f in th e correspondence o f the o u t ward w orld to the inward w orld o f tho u g h t by Madame De S ta e l [a u th o r o f Germany] , C o le rid g e , Swedenborg, and Swedenborg's American d i s c i p l e s , n o ta b ly Sampson Reed. Kenneth W . Cameron, A Commentary on Em erson's E a rly Lec tu r e s (1833-1836) w ith an Index-Concordance [H artfo rd : T ran sc e n d e n ta l Books , 1961J, pp. 31-32. 9 ^ C arp en ter, Emerson and A s i a , p. 75. 99l b i d . , p. 77. 47 o th e r p r i n c i p l e , b u t im p a rtin g i t s e l f to a l l r i v e r s , w ith o u t b ein g e x h au ste d by any o f them, and ab id in g q u i e t l y in i t s e l f . 1 0 0 When I watch t h a t flow ing r i v e r , w hich, o u t o f re g io n s I see n o t , pours f o r a season i t s stream s i n t o me, I see t h a t I am a p e n s io n e r ; n o t a cause b u t a s u r p r i s e d s p e c t a t o r o f t h i s e t h e r e a l w a te r; t h a t I d e s i r e and look up and p u t m yself in the a t t i t u d e o f r e c e p t i o n , b u t from some a l i e n energy the v is io n s come. 1 0 1 Emerson sh ared w ith N e o - P la to n is t th in k e r s the p h ilo s o p h ic d o c tr in e s o f i n t u i t i o n and i d e n t i t y or c o r r e spondence. The concept o f an O ver-Soul, c e n t r a l to a l l Em erson's p h ilo s o p h y , is a ls o N e o p lato n ic. I d e a l i s t i c German P h ilo so p h ie s In h is l e c t u r e on "The T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t , " Emerson s a i d t h a t the id e a lis m o f h is day " a c q u ire d the name of T ra n sc e n d e n ta l from th e use o f t h a t term by Immanuel Kant o f K onigsberg, who r e p l i e d to the s k e p t i c a l p h ilo so p h y o f Locke, which i n s i s t e d t h a t th e re was n o th in g in th e i n t e l l e c t which was n o t p r e v io u s ly in th e e x p e rie n c e o f the s e n s e s , by showing t h a t th e re was a v ery im p o rta n t c la s s o f id e a s or im p e ra tiv e form s, which d id n o t come by e x p e r ie n c e , b u t through which e x p e rie n c e was a c q u ire d ; t h a t th e se were i n t u i t i o n s o f the mind i t s e l f ; and he denominated them T ra n s c e n d e n ta l f o r m s .102 A lthough th e term " tr a n s c e n d e n ta lis m " can be a p p l i e d to "any i d e a l i s t i c p h ilo so p h y p o s i t i n g th e immanence lOOThomas T a y lo r, Five Books o f P lo tin u s ( L o n d o n : E. J e f f r y , 1794) , p. 237. 101"over-Soul," Complete E s s a y s , p. 262. 2 i b i d . , "The T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t , " p. 93. 48 o f the i d e a l or s p i r i t u a l in sensuous e x p e r ie n c e ," th e term was o r i g i n a l l y used as a synonym fo r the " 't r a n s c e n d e n t a l 103 p h ilo s o p h y 1" of Immanuel Kant and p o s t-K a n tia n id e a lis m . "The name, tr a n s c e n d e n ta lis m , has in i t the c e n t r a l id e a of K a n t's sy ste m ." W ithin K a n t's system , th e term , " t r a n s c e n d e n ta lis m ," means " t h a t which tra n sc e n d s or r i s e s beyond ex p erim en tal knowledge, and is determ ined, a p r i o r i , w i t h o u t argument or p ro o f , in re g a rd to the p r i n c i p l e s and su b j e c t s of human know ledge." One o f the most b a s ic d o c tr in e s in K a n t's p h ilo so p h y is " t h a t a l l our knowledge is from w ith in , o u t; n o t from w ith o u t, in to our minds: and t h a t we know n o th in g c e r t a i n l y , e x c e p t our own c o n s c io u s n e s s - - t h a t i s , t h a t we a r e . " l ° 4 In C r itiq u e o f Pure R eason, Kant s a id t h a t h is p h i losophy would be concerned "not so much w ith o b je c t s as w ith the mode o f our knowledge o f o b je c ts in s o f a r as t h i s mode of knowledge is to be p o s s i b l e a p r i o r i . "105 j n j ^ s th e o ry o f knowledge Kant made n e a r ly the same d i s t i n c t i o n 103RUcLolf A l l e r s , " T ra n s c e n d e n ta lis m ," D ic tio n a ry o f P h ilo so p h y , ed. by Dagobert D. Runes (P a te rs o n , New J e r s e y : L i t t l e f i e l d , Adams § Co., 1961), p. 320. c. G e ik ie, Our New R e lig io n s , Ralph Waldo Emerson: His W ritin g s and O pinions: a L ectu re (Toronto: John C. G e ik ie , 1859), p. 5"T ” 1^5Immanuel Kant, C r itiq u e o f Pure R eason, t r a n s . by Norman Kemp Smith (London: Macmillan Co., 1929) , pp. 59-61. as Emerson between th e U nd erstan d in g and '" P u re R e a s o n ,1" o r " Im a g in a tio n ." A ccording to Kant, the f a c u l t y o f Under sta n d in g " f in d s i t s f i t m i n i s t r y in in d u c tiv e stu d y as of the p h y s ic a l s c ie n c e s . . . ," w hile Reason p ro v id e s "a p r i o r i s p e c u l a t i o n , which is to guide us i n t u i t i v e l y in to knowledge o f 'a b s o lu te t r u t h . 1" G eikie e la b o r a te d on the e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e in K a n t's two f a c u l t i e s o f knowing: U nderstanding watches and n o te s th e phenomena around u s; Pure Reason combines i t s judgm ents, and draws g e n e ra l c o n c lu s io n s . Our " c o n c e p tio n s" are d e riv e d im m ediately from e x p e r ie n c e , and may be tr a c e d back to some e x p e rim e n ta l r e a l i t y , and hence may be f i t l y used in the e l a b o r a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c knowledge. But the f a r h ig h e r o f f i c e of the Reason is to g e n e r a liz e i t s c o n clu s io n s and c r e a te " id e a s " which are the ap p o in ted means of r e g u l a t i n g th e U n d erstan d in g , which can n e v er by i t s e l f , conduct us to e s s e n t i a l t r u t h . 106 Kant saw Pure Reason as f u n c tio n in g only w ith in d e f i n i t e l i m i t s . He d i s t i n g u i s h e d between '" t r a n s c e n d e n t a l concepts which r e l a t e to th e s u b s t r u c t u r e o f e x p erien c e and th o se 't r a n s c e n d e n t ' concepts which have to do w ith a sphere of r e a l i t y t h a t is beyond e x p e r ie n c e ." God, Freedom and im m o rta lity were " 't r a n s c e n d e n t '" o b je c ts o f thought to be known through P r a c t i c a l Reason r a t h e r than Pure Reason. A lthough Kant warned a g a in s t the co n fu sio n o f th e se two f a c u l t i e s , many o f the p o s t-K a n tia n i d e a l i s t s f a i l e d to m a in ta in h is d i s t i n c t i o n between P r a c t i c a l Reason and Pure Reason. German i d e a l i s t s "so u g h t to 'u n i f y ' h is system 106ceikie, pp. 4-5. 50 by removing or blurring the distinction . . . and making a single 'self-determining spiritual principle-a unified 'Reason'--the common basis for their variously articulated systems of knowledge." The more prominent revisers of Kant include Fichte, Schelling, and Hegal.-^7 Coleridge and Carlyle were interpreters of German idealism for the New England Transcendentalists. "The most immediate force behind American transcendentalism was Coleridge, who gained many ardent readers in New England following the edition of Aid to Reflection . . . ."109 Drawing on Schelling's philosophy, Coleridge stressed "the introspective method, the distinction between Reason and Understanding, and an evolutionary theory of natural- spiritual 'correspondence' . . . ."HO Emerson "learned from Coleridge to call the 'reason of the Unitarians the understanding, and to reserve the term 'reason' for the religious sentiments." This is why he could "repudiate 107William R. Hutchison, The Transcendentalist Min isters , Church Reform in the New England Renaissance (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1959) , pp. 24-26. 108see Frank T. Thompson, "Emerson and C a r l y l e ," S tu d ie s in P h il o lo g y , XXIV ( A p r il, 1927), 438-453 and "Emerson' s In d eb ted n ess to C o le rid g e ," S tu d ie s in P h ilo lo g y , XXIII (J a n u ary , 1926), 155-176. 109prancis 0. Matthiessen, The American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman. (London: Oxford University Press, 1941), p. 6. H ^H utchi son, p. 26. 51 re a so n in the name of reason."'*'^'*' The p h ilo so p h y of th e German i d e a l i s t s was p a r a l l e l b u t s e p a r a te from t h a t of the New England T ra n sc e n d e n ta l- 1 1 2 i s t s . The two groups were a lik e in t h e i r o p p o s itio n to e ig h te e n th c en tu ry B r i t i s h em p iricism , s k e p tic is m , and m a te ria lis m . The American t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s , however, d id n o t sh are "th e s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Germans: t h e i r d i a l e c t i c a l method, t h e i r p re o c c u p a tio n w ith and s p e c i a l approach to the problem of knowledge, t h e i r p hilosophy 1 1 7 of h i s t o r y and o f the i n s t i t u t i o n a l l i f e o f m an.M J- Although New England T ran scen d en talism is sometimes c a l l e d "the American m a n if e s t a tio n of the thought of Kant, S c h e llin g , and H e g a l," t h i s is pro b ab ly n o t tr u e of Emerson. S c h e llin g was the only German i d e a l i s t t h a t Emerson read w id e ly , and he was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y e n t h u s i a s t i c over t h a t a u th o r. " i t i s not p ro b ab le t h a t Emerson was to any ^•■^Whicher, p. 21. 1 1 2 C a rp e n te r, p. 26. Also P a r r in g to n , I I , 381. 1-^Rene W ellek, "Emerson and German P h ilo s o p h y ,” New England Q u a r t e r l y , XVI (March, 1943), 61. H ^ c a r p e n t e r , PP • 95-96. In h is stu d y o f the c u r ricu lu m a t Harvard d u ring th e p e r io d in which Emerson s tu d ie d t h e r e , Todd found no tr a c e of Kant or o th e r p h i l o s ophers o f German id e a lis m . Edgeley Woodman Todd, " P h i l o s o p h ic a l Ideas a t H arvard, 1817-1837," New England Quar t e r l y , XVI (March, 1943), 63-90. I t seems t h a t Emerson was f i r s t in tro d u c e d to German id e a lis m by read in g Madame De S t a e l ' s Germany w hile a s e n io r a t H arvard. This book "encouraged Em erson's tendency toward s e l f - r e l i a n c e , 52 more than a li m i t e d e x te n t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d by S c h e llin g . . . However, th e r e are some d e f i n i t e p a r a l l e l s in th e th in k in g o f the two men. For example, both S c h e llin g and Emerson s t r e s s e d the i d e n t i t y o f s u b je c t and o b j e c t , mind and n a t u r e . Emerson was a lso in sympathy w ith S c h e l l i n g 's " id e a o f w o rld -s o u l" (Emerson spoke o f a common mind) and h is "co n c e p tio n o f n a tu r e as the a r t o f G o d ." * ^ Like Emerson, Kant made a d i s t i n c t i o n between two f a c u l t i e s o f knowing which he c a l l e d "U nderstanding" and '" P u r e R e a s o n .'" U nlike Emerson, Kant made a f u r t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n between P r a c t i c a l and Pure Reason. K a n t's f o l lo w ers, in c lu d in g F i c h t e , S c h e llin g , and H e g a l, f a i l e d to m a in ta in t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between two types o f reaso n . Drawing on S c h e l l i n g 's w r i t i n g s , C o lerid g e s t r e s s e d the d i s t i n c t i o n between Reason and U n d erstan d in g , the i n t r o s p e c tiv e method o f knowing, and the correspondence o f the n a t u r a l and the s p i r i t u a l . Emerson read both S c h e llin g and C o le rid g e , and from C olerid g e he d e riv e d the terms "Reason" h e ig h te n e d h is awareness o f the o c c u lt r e l a t i o n between man and n a t u r e , communicated h is f i r s t and s t r o n g e s t awareness o f K a n t's C a te g o ric a l Im p e ra tiv e , and urged the a sc e n t of man's so u l i n t o the id e a l w orld o f beau ty and g o odness." Cameron b e lie v e d t h a t " Germany was c h i e f l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r p re p a rin g Em erson's mind f o r th e k in d re d d o c tr in e s o f C o le rid g e , Swedenborg and C a r ly le , whom he embraced in the 1830' s . " Cameron, A Commentary, p. 9. ■^•'■^Cooke, p. 279 . 116Wellek, pp. 52-53. 53 and "U n d ersta n d in g ," alth o u g h he was f a m i l i a r w ith the id eas behind th e se terms b e fo re read in g C o le rid g e . New England T r a n s c e n d e n ta lis t s became f a m i l i a r w ith German id e a lism through C o lerid g e and C a r ly le . The p h i l o s ophy of the Germans was p a r a l l e l w ith and y e t s e p a r a te from t h a t of the New England T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s , in c lu d in g Emer son. Em erson's p h ilo so p h y p a r a l l e d t h a t of German id e a lism in the r e j e c t i o n of e ig h te e n th c en tu ry B r i t i s h em p iricism , s k e p tic is m , and m a te r ia lis m ; in the concept of a w o rld -so u l; in th e d i s t i n c t i o n between reaso n and u n d e rs ta n d in g ; in the emphasis on an i n t r o s p e c t i v e method of knowing; and in the i d e n t i t y o f n a tu r e and mind. S c o t t i s h School o f P h ilo so p h e rs While a s tu d e n t a t H arvard, Emerson s tu d ie d p h i l o s ophy under Levi Hedge and Levi F r i s b i e , who were p a r t i a l to the S c o t t i s h School of p h ilo s o p h y . " S c o ttis h School" is a "name a p p lie d to the c u r r e n t of thought o r i g i n a t e d by the S c o t t i s h t h i n k e r , Thomas Reid (1710-1796), and d isse m in a te d by h is fo llo w e rs as a r e a c t i o n a g a in s t the id e a lism of B erkeley and the em piricism and s k e p tic is m of Hume." The most prom inent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h i s school of tho u g h t is the d o c tr in e of common s e n s e , "a n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t by v i r t u e of which men are prompted to a ccep t c e r t a i n fundam ental ■*--^Davis , p. 227. 54 p r i n c i p l e s as p o s t u l a t e s w ith o u t g iv in g a reason f o r t h e i r t r u t h . " The S c o t t i s h School s u b o rd in a te d reason "to the r o le o f a s e r v a n t or able a s s i s t a n t o f common sense."-*--*-® In a c o lle g e e ssay on "The P r e s e n t S ta te o f E t h ic a l P h i l o s ophy," Emerson in d i c a t e d h is re g a rd f o r the S c o t t i s h School o f p h ilo s o p h e r s . He s a i d t h a t "th e f i r s t tr u e advance which i s made must go in the schools in which Reid and S tew art have la b o re d . P h ilo so p h e rs must agree in terms and d is c o v e r t h e i r own id e as w ith re g a rd to the moral s e n s e , o r , as o th e rs term i t , the d e c is io n s o f the u n d e rstan d - During h is l a s t u n d erg rad u ate y e a rs a t H arvard, Emerson re a d and s tu d ie d the S c o t t i s h r e a l i s t , Dugald Stewart.-*-^® Em erson's study o f S te w a r t's t e x t s , Elements j . R o lb ie c k i, " S c o t t i s h P h ilo so p h y ," in D ic tio n a ry o f P h ilo s o p h y , p. 287. 119"A D i s s e r t a t i o n on the P r e s e n t S ta te of E t h ic a l P h ilo s o p h y ," in Two U npublished Essays by Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. by Edward E . Hale (B o sto n : Lampson, Wolfe, and Co., 1896), pp. 76-77. 120pUgai c i S tew art was a p u p il o f Reid. S te w a r t's Elem ents o f the Philosophy o f th e Human Mind, a th re e volume work t h a t su p p o rts the S c o t t i s h School o f "common sen se" p h ilo s o p h y , was one of th e tex tb o o k s used to teach i n t e l l e c t u a l p h ilo so p h y a t Harvard from about 1820-1830. The o th e r t e x t was L ocke's Essay on th e Human U n d e rstan d in g . Todd, p. 64. A fte r le a v in g H arvard, Emerson e x p re ssed a la ck o f i n t e r e s t in both S tew art and Locke. He m ain ta in ed t h a t Locke had given him l i t t l e knowledge of any v a lu e . J o u r n a l s , III, 501. He s a i d o f S t e w a r t's works t h a t they were " a l l sp len d o u r and promise t i l l you e n t e r th e g a te , and then you look b e fo re and b e h in d --b u t only c o tta g e s and s h o p s ." J o u r n a l s , I I , 308. 55 o f th e Philosophy o f th e Human Mind and O u tlin e s o f Moral P h ilo so p h y , was an e a r l y and im p o rtan t source f o r h is t h e ory o f an i n t u i t i v e f a c u l t y o f knowing. From h is stu d y o f S te w a rt, Emerson became a cq u a in te d w ith "th e id e a o f an i n t u i t i v e moral f a c u l t y , 'c o e v a l w ith the f i r s t o p e ra tio n s 1 ?1 o f th e i n t e l l e c t ' . . . This n o tio n o f a "moral f a c u lty " or "moral s e n s e ," as Emerson c a l l e d i t , was i n t e r p r e t e d as meaning " t h a t conscience was n o t to be e x p la in e d n a t u r a l i s t i c a l l y . I t was, as r e l i g i o n ta u g h t, the voice of God in th e s o u l, te a c h in g us an u n q u e stio n a b le law o f con d u c t, t e s t i f y i n g to the r e a l i t y o f a d iv in e a u t h o r i t y , and 12 2 a s s u rin g us o f th e moral a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e universe." Em erson's u n d e rsta n d in g o f lo g ic was p ro b ab ly in flu e n c e d by h is exposure to the id e as of the S c o ttis h School. During h is sophomore y e ar a t H arvard, Emerson was 12 3 r e q u ir e d to study Levi Hedge's tex tb o o k on lo g i c . Hedge was a fo llo w e r of Reid and S te w a rt, who were im p o rtan t f ig u r e s in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry r e v o l t a g a in s t A r i s t o t e l i a n lo g i c . In f a c t , S tew art has been c a l l e d "th e g r e a t e s t B r i t i s h in d u c tiv e l o g i c i a n b e fo re John S t u a r t M i l l . " ^ '^ 1 2 1 D avis, p. 219. 1 2 2 W hicher, p. 14. ^•2 3 J o u r . § M is. , I , 246. •* -2^Wilbur Samuel Howell, "The Plough and th e F l a i l : the O rdeal o f E ig h te e n th -C e n tu ry L o g ic ," H untington L ib ra ry Q u a r t e r l y , XXVIII (1964), 76. 56 S te w a rt, and Reid b e fo re him, "wanted to d im in ish the im portance o f the d i s p u t a t i o n , to s u b s t i t u t e f o r i t o b s e r v a tio n and experim ent in the n a t u r a l s c ie n c e s , and to e l e v a te in d u c tio n to a p o s i t i o n above th e sy llo g is m as the u n iv e r s a l form o f r e a s o n i n g . " I 25 Through h is s tu d ie s a t H arvard, Emerson became a c q u a in te d w ith the id e a s o f th e S c o t t i s h School o f p h i l o s o p h e rs . His u n d e rsta n d in g o f the d o c tr in e o f "common sense," the i n t u i t i v e moral f a c u l t y , and l o g i c was in f lu e n c e d d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c t l y by t h i s sch o o l o f th o u g h t. While a t H arvard, Emerson p r a i s e d the S c o t t i s h S chool, b u t a few y ears l a t e r , he showed much l e s s enthusiasm . Swedenborgianism Emerson’s f i r s t p u b lis h e d work, N a tu r e , and h is d o c tr in e o f th e correspondence o f N ature and Soul can be tr a c e d to th e w r iti n g s o f Sampson Reed, an American d is - 1 o /r c ip le of Emanuel Swedenborg. Em erson's f i r s t i n t e r e s t in the id e as o f Swedenborg came through h is re a d in g of Sampson R eed's O b serv atio n s on th e Growth o f the Mind, 125I b i d . , p. 77. -* -2^Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772) was a Swedish s c i e n t i s t and p h ilo s o p h e r , who founded the Church o f J e r u salem or New Church. His d i s c i p l e , Sampson Reed, was an ap o th ecary in Boston and a contem porary of Emerson. 57 f i r s t p u b lis h e d in 1 8 2 6 . 1 ^ On September 10 , 1826, Emerson devoted n e a r ly a page o f h is J o u rn a l to p r a i s i n g R eed's new book. " I t has to my mind th e a s p e c t o f a r e v e l a t i o n , " w rote Emerson, "such is th e w e alth and such is th e n o v e lty of the u n ity i n t o which i t has re s o lv e d th e v a rio u s pow ers, f e e l i n g s and v o c a tio n s o f men, su g g e s tin g to the mind t h a t harmony, which i t has always a p r o p e n s ity to se e k , o r ac- • I n o t io n and d esign in the o r d e r o f Providence in th e w orld. ° There i s evidence t h a t Em erson's th in k in g had been in flu e n c e d by the Swedenborgian d o c tr in e o f correspondence 1 ? Q as e a r l y as 1831. Quoting the New Jeru salem Magazine f o r J u l y , "1832, Emerson s t a t e d t h a t "Swedenborg 'c o n s id e re d the v i s i b l e w orld and th e r e l a t i o n o f i t s p a r t s as the d i a l p l a t e o f the i n v i s i b l e one. For Swedenborg, "th e p h y s ic a l w orld was p u r e ly sym bolic o f th e s p i r i t u a l w orld, and th e correspondence between th o u g h ts and th in g s as p r o m ulgated by th e Swedish m y stic found a sy m p ath etic response l ^ C l a r e n c e Paul H otson, "Sampson Reed, a Teacher o f Emerson," New England Q u a r t e r l y , II ( A p r il, 1929), 249. 12 ^jo u r n a l s , I I , 116-117. 129jn a review w r i t t e n by Emerson and p u b lis h e d in the C h r is tia n Examiner in 1831, Cameron found evidence t h a t Em erson's s p e c u la tio n had been in f lu e n c e d by Swedenborg's d o c tr in e o f co rresp o n d en ce. Kenneth W . Cameron, "An E a rly Prose Work o f Em erson," American L i t e r a t u r e , XXII (May, 1950), 332-333. 150J o u r n a l s , I I , 500-501. 58 in Emerson . . . ."131 Cooke n o ted t h a t Em erson's concern f o r n a tu r e "as a symbol and r e v e l a t i o n o f s p i r i t u a l r e a l i - 132 t i e s " shows a resem blance to Swedenborg's te a c h in g s . In p u b lis h in g N a tu r e , "Emerson was f u l l y c o g n iza n t o f the measure in which he was sim ply re p h ra s in g the p o s i t i o n o f Sampson Reed, the Swedenborgian d r u g g i s t , "whose l i t t l e book had been p u b lis h e d te n y e a rs b e f o r e . ° The Swedenborgian in f lu e n c e on Emerson was s i g n i f i c a n t , because the d o c tr in e o f correspondence was "th e p a th of Em erson's approach to the p h ilo so p h y o f a r t and b e a u t y . "1^4 Emerson h e ld t h a t the m ystery behind p o e try and a l l language is to be found in th e d o c tr in e o f c o r r e spondence, in th e f a c t " t h a t we are able to f in d symbols o f our s en tim en ts and th o u g h ts in the o b je c ts o f n a t u r e , t h a t the whole o f n a tu re agrees w ith th e whole o f th o u g h t." Emerson went on to acknowledge t h a t Swedenborg had a ffirm e d t h i s d o c tr in e o f the correspondence o f mind and m a tte r in in both h is r e l i g i o u s and s c i e n t i f i c works, 131percy W . Brown, "Em erson's P hilosophy o f A es t h e t i c s , " J o u rn a l o f A e s th e tic s and A rt C r i t i c i s m , XV (March, 1957), 351. l ^ C o o k e , p. 42. ^ ^ M a t t h i e s s e n , pp. 12-13. ^ ^ B ro w n , p. 351. 135iiis]atural R e l i g i o n ," U n c o lle c te d L e c tu re s by- Ralph Waldo Emerson, R eports of~ L ectures on American L ife and N a tu ra l R e lig io n R e p rin te d from the Commonwealth, ed. by C larence Gohdes (New York: W illiam Edwin Rudge, 1932), p . 52. 59 Although Emerson had a "sy m p a th e tic re sp o n se " to Swedenborg’ s d o c tr in e o f c o rresp o n d en ce, he p a sse d over o th e r p a r t s of h is p h ilo so p h y w ith l i t t l e i n t e r e s t . Emerson could n o t a ccep t such a sp e c ts o f Swedenborgianism as a b e l i e f in heaven and o b je c t iv e d e v ils and a n g e l s . 137 In a l e t t e r to C a r ly le , Emerson e x p la in e d what he l i k e d and d i s l i k e d about Swedenborgianism: I am glad you l i k e Sampson Reed, § t h a t he has i n s p i r e d some c u r i o s i t y r e s p e c tin g h is Church. Swedenborgianism, i f you should be f o r tu n a te in your f i r s t m e etin g s, has many p o in ts o f a t t r a c t i o n f o r you: f o r i n s t a n c e , t h i s a r t i c l e , "The P o etry o f th e Old Church is th e R e a lity o f th e New," which is to be l i t e r a l l y u n d ersto o d f o r they esteem , in common w ith a l l th e T r i s m e g i s t i ,138 th e N a tu ra l World as s t r i c t l y th e symbol o r exponent o f the S p i r i t u a l , § p a r t fo r p a r t ; the anim als to be the i n c a r n a ti o n s o f c e r t a i n a f f e c t i o n s ; § s c a rc e a p o p u la r e x p re s s io n esteem ed f i g u r a t i v e , but they a f f ir m to be th e s im p le s t s t a t e ment o f f a c t . Then in t h e i r whole th e o ry o f s o c i a l 136Brown> p . 351. ■*-^7"In town I a ls o t a lk e d w ith Sampson Reed, o f Swedenborg, and the r e s t . ' I t is n o t so in your e x p e r i e n ce , b u t is so in the o th e r w o r l d . ' - - o t h e r world? I r e p l y , th e r e is no o th e r w orld; here o r nowhere is th e whole f a c t , a l l th e u n iv e rs e o v e r, th e re is b u t one t h i n g , - - t h i s o ld double, C r e a t o r - c r e a t u r e , m in d -m a tte r, r i g h t - wrong. He would have d e v i l s , o b je c t iv e d e v i l s . I r e p l i e d , t h a t pure m a lig n ity e x i s t s , is an absurd p r o p o s i t i o n . . . . in re g a rd to Swedenborg, I commend him as a grand p o e t. Reed w ished t h a t i f I admired th e p o e tr y , I should f e e l i t as a f a c t . I t o l d him, a l l my concern is w ith th e s u b j e c t i v e t r u t h o f J e s u s 's o r Swedenborg's or Homer's rem ark, n o t a t a l l w ith the o b j e c t . " J o u r n a l s , VI, 219- 2 2 0 . 138 Emerson gave th e fo llo w in g l i s t o f T r is m e g is ti: "Moses, Z o r o a s te r , P y th o g o ras, H e r a c l i t u s , S o c r a te s , Jesus, C o nfucius, S t. A u g u stin e, G iordiano Bruno, Spinoza, Swedenborg, S y n e siu s, P l o t i n u s . " J o u r n a l s , IV, 498. 60 r e l a t i o n s - - b o t h in 6 o u t o f th e body--m ost p h ilo s o p h i c a l , 5 though a t v a ria n c e w ith the p o p u la r th e o lo g y , s e l f e v i d e n t [s i c ] . I t is only when they come to t h e i r d r o l l e s t heaven, 6 to some a u t o c r a t i c n o t moral d e c re es o f God, t h a t th e mythos lo s e s me. In g e n e r a l, to o , th ey re c e iv e th e f a b le in s te a d of th e moral o f t h e i r Aesop. They are to me, however, deeply i n t e r e s t i n g , as a s e c t which I th in k must c o n tr ib u te more than a l l o th e r s e c t s to th e new f a i t h which must a r i s e from o u t of a l l . 139 A lthough he was in f lu e n c e d by Swedenborg's t e a c h in g s , "Emerson n e v e r w r e s t le d w ith Swedenborg as he a d v ised o th e r s to do, and c e r t a i n l y came nowhere n e a r e x h au stin g him ."'*'^ In 1834, Emerson e x p re ss e d an u n w illin g n e s s to read Swedenborg: I f Dr. Linberg would have me stu d y Swedenborg because I have r e s p e c t f o r h is d o c t r i n e s , I s h a l l hold i t s u f f i c i e n t answer t h a t the aura o f those books is n o t a g re e a b le to my i n t e l l e c t u a l s t a t e . I t is n o t f o r n o th in g t h a t one word makes such im p re ssio n , and the o th e r none; i t is n o t w ith o u t p r e e s t a b l i s h e d harmony, t h i s s c u lp t u r e of th e memory. . . . I w i l l n o t so f a r do v io le n c e to m y self as to re a d them a g a in s t i n c l i n a t i o n .141 Emerson g o t h is Swedenborgianism by a tte n d in g a Swedenborg chapel o c c a s io n a ll y and re a d in g the New Jeru sa le m M agazine, the Swedenborgian organ. 1 ^ However, Emerson pro b ab ly le a r n e d most o f h is Swedenborgianism from Reed. "To Emer s o n 's mind he r e p r e s e n te d , more than any o th e r man, both 139a l e t t e r from Emerson to C a rly le d a ted Novem b e r 20, 1834 in S l a t e r , p. 109. 140Hotson, p. 277. 141j p u r n a l s , I I I , 338. 142see J o u r n a l s , I I I , 266, 430; I I , 501. 61 Swedenborg and Sw edenborgianism ."143 Emerson’s b e l i e f in the correspondence o f the mind and n a t u r e , o f the m a te r ia l and the s p i r i t u a l in flu e n c e d h is p h ilo so p h y o f a r t and h is u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e n a tu r e and fu n c tio n o f language. That b e l i e f in correspondence was d e riv e d , in la r g e p a r t , from h is study o f Swedenbor gianism . Although Emerson n e v er made a c a r e f u l study o f Swedenborg's w orks, he read th e New Jeru sa le m M agazine, a tte n d e d the New Church o c c a s io n a ll y , and made h im s e lf w ell a cq u a in te d w ith th e te a c h in g s o f Swedenborg's d i s c i p l e , Sampson Reed. Although Emerson was n o t a Swedenborgian, and in f a c t r e j e c t e d many o f th e d o c tr in e s o f t h a t s e c t , he was n e v e r th e le s s s tr o n g ly in flu e n c e d by t h e i r d o c tr in e o f c o rre sp o n d e n c e . O rie n ta lis m Emerson was "p re o cc u p ie d w ith O r ie n ta l th o u g h t, and he possessed, c e r t a i n tem peram ental a f f i n i t i e s w ith i t . . . ."144 Although O r ie n ta l l i t e r a t u r e had a s tro n g i n flu e n c e on Emerson's, p h ilo so p h y , i t came l a t e , n o t u n t i l about the 1840's or s o . 145 Em erson's concept of the "Over- 14 3Hotson, p. 277. 144A rth u r C h r is ty , The O rie n t in American T ran scen d e n ta lis m , a Study o f Emerson, Thoreau, and A lc o tt (.New Y ork: Columbia U n iv e rs ity E r e s s , 1932J , p. 182. 1 4 5 c a r p e n te r , Emerson and A s i a , pp. 103-159. See a lso C h r is ty , pp. 60-184. 62 S o u l," f o r example, was f i r s t in flu e n c e d by N eo-Platonism and only l a t e r by O rie n ta lis m . O r ie n ta l tho u g h t had a pow erful in f lu e n c e on Em erson's concept o f God; The fo rce o f t h a t in flu e n c e was to c u t under th e l i n g e rin g anthropomorphism o f h is d e i t y , and the d e i t y 's too c lo se a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e supposed benevolence o f n a tu r e and to s u g g est i n s t e a d an unknown, unnamed One behind a p p e a ra n c e s, a su b stan ce o ld e r and deeper than mind and m a tte r , i n d i f f e r e n t to a l l human v a lu e s , the i d e n t i t y o f a l l th in g s y e t i d e n t i c a l w ith n o th in g From th e te a c h in g s o f A sia , Emerson le a r n e d of the 14 8 u n ity o f a l l th in g s in Brahma (or th e S o u l ) . From O r ie n ta l l i t e r a t u r e , Emerson a ls o a c q u ire d th e d o c tr in e o f i l l u s i o n s , which is p e r s o n i f i e d by Maia, the Hindu goddess, who "g iv es th e appearance o f v a r i e t y to th e w orld. Maia i s th e c r e a t r e s s o f th e in d iv id u a l so u l in man."-*-^ Emer s o n 's d o c tr in e o f i l l u s i o n s p ro b a b ly "owes as much to Hindu p h ilo so p h y as any o t h e r s in g le m ajor id e a o f h i s . " 1^ l ^ C a r p e n t e r , Emerson and A s i a , p. 122. S i l v e r n o te d t h a t "because t h i s term [Over-Soul] f o r the immanence o f God was an u n f a m ilia r one, the d o c tr in e is o f te n con s id e r e d p e c u l i a r l y Em ersonian, b u t i t goes back to the b eg in n in g s o f th e E a s te r n r e l i g i o n s and has found v a ry in g e x p re ss io n s in th e l i v e s o f th e m y stics from Buddha and S o c ra te s to members o f the Oxford Group." S i l v e r , p. 11. 147w hicher, p. 151. 148ibid. 1 4 9 c a r p e n te r> Emerson and A s i a , p. 122. ISOl b i d . , pp. 129-130. 63 The d o c tr in e o f th e u n ity o f a l l th in g s in Brahma and the concept o f i l l u s i o n s is e x p re ssed in Em erson's e ssay on " P la to " and in h is poem, "Brahma": I f the red s l a y e r th in k he s l a y s , Or i f the s l a i n th in k he is s l a i n , They know n o t w e ll the s u b t l e ways I keep, and p a s s , and tu rn ag ain . Far o r f o r g o t to me is n e a r ; Shadow and s u n l i g h t are th e same; The v a n ish e d gods to me appear; And one to me are shame and fame. They reckon i l l who leave me o u t; When me they f l y , I am th e wings I am the d o u b ter and the doubt, And I th e hymn the Brahmin s in g s . The s tr o n g gods p in e fo r my abode, And p in e in v a in the s a c re d Seven; But th o u , meek lo v e r o f the good! Find me, and tu rn thy back on heaven. C arp en te r s a id t h a t t h i s poem "p ro b ab ly e x p re sse s the c e n t r a l id e a o f Hindu p h ilo so p h y more c l e a r l y and c o n c is e ly than any o th e r w r i t i n g in the E n g lish lan g u ag e --p erh a p s b e t t e r than any w r i t i n g in Hindu l i t e r a t u r e i t s e l f . "152 Goddard n o te d t h a t " i t would be h a rd to imagine a more con densed summary o f O r ie n ta l pantheism than is c o n ta in e d in th e se s ix te e n s h o r t l i n e s . . . ."153 Although Emerson was undoubtedly in f lu e n c e d by 151"Br a hma," Complete W r i t i n g s , I I , 892. 1 5 2 c a r p e n te r , Emerson and A s i a , p. 111. -1 ^^God.d.a r d., p. 73. 64 O r ie n ta l p h ilo s o p h y , he n e v er com pletely adopted i t s id e a s . "He q u a l i f i e d h is e x tra v a g a n t a d m ira tio n f o r Hindu thought w ith a New England shrew dness. He n ev er t r u s t e d h im s e lf to become w holly a Brahmin. "154 Em erson's c o n cep tio n s of God and th e Over-Soul were m o d ified by h is stu d y o f O r ie n ta l th o u g h t, e s p e c i a l l y Hinduism. From th e O r ie n t, Emerson le a r n e d o f the u n ity of a l l th in g s in Brahma and o f th e d o c tr in e o f i l l u s i o n s . Em erson's w r iti n g s and poems show a keen u n d e rs ta n d in g o f and a p p r e c ia tio n fo r Hindu th o u g h t. N e v e r th e le s s , the i n flu e n c e o f the O rie n t came l a t e to Emerson and must be con s id e r e d l e s s im p o rta n t than the o th e r in flu e n c e s d is c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p te r. Summary The key to u n d e rsta n d in g Em erson's m e ta p h y sic s, h is e p is te m o lo g y , and h is r h e t o r i c a l th eo ry i s found in h is concept o f th e so u l and the O ver-Soul. The so u l e x i s t s on two l e v e l s . There is one, g r e a t O ver-S oul, which Emerson c a l l s God, T ru th , Reason, e t c . , and th e r e are th e i n d i v i d u a l e x p re ss io n s o f th e O ver-Soul in each man. Man is the " i n c a r n a tio n of God." He is "a stream whose source is h id d e n ." That hidden source i s God or the "O v er-S o u l." The so u l in man i s a pow erful fo rc e t h a t can m a ster both 1 5 4 c a r p e n te r , Emerson and A s i a , p. 155. 65 h is i n t e l l e c t and h is w i l l . The problem t h a t concerned Emerson most was the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f man to God and N atu re. Emerson found an answer ( a t l e a s t a p a r t i a l , t e n t a t i v e answer) to t h i s p ro b lem in th e d o c tr in e o f co rresp o n d en ce. He saw the m a te r ia l w orld as sym bolic o f the s p i r i t u a l w orld. Man stan d s b e tween th e se two w o rld s , and th u s , h is b a s i c n a tu r e is t h a t of an " a n a l o g i s t . " He reads n a tu re in o rd e r to u n d e rstan d the s p i r i t u a l w orld. When a man observes the m a te r ia l w orld to seek an u n d e rsta n d in g of the s p i r i t u a l , he is in a s t a t e of " c o n s c io u s n e s s ." Emerson was i n t e r e s t e d in problems o f an i n t u i t i v e , i n d i v i d u a l , moral n a t u r e . He was n o t i n t e r e s t e d in s o c i a l o r p o l i t i c a l is s u e s e x ce p t as they a f f e c t e d th e freedom of the in d i v i d u a l to develop h is own " c o n s c io u s n e s s ." The fu n c tio n o f l i f e , as Emerson saw i t , i s not' to b u ild g r e a t s o c i e t i e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s , b u t to develop th e c h a r a c te r of each i n d i v i d u a l , to move toward a more com plete in c a r n a ti o n o f God, a g r e a t e r co n scio u sn ess of oneness w ith the Over- Soul. The w orld e x i s t s f o r the mind o f man, t h a t he may r e a l i z e the i n f i n i t u d e o f h is own n a tu r e . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t a l l t r u t h u l t i m a t e l y r e s id e s in the O ver-Soul. There are two kinds o f knowledge t h a t men need, p r a c t i c a l knowledge t h a t en ab les them to su rv iv e on a day to day b a s i s and a h ig h e r knowledge t h a t en ab les 66 them to know how, why, and f o r what they sh o u ld l i v e . The f i r s t k in d of knowledge i s p ro v id e d by th e f a c u l t y of " U n d ersta n d in g ." The second f a c u l t y i s the "R eason." Ex p e r ie n c e , e x p e r im e n ta tio n , l o g i c , and form al re a so n in g are the methods o f th e U n d e rstan d in g , w h ile Reason r e l i e s on a "pious r e c e p tio n " o r i n t u i t i o n . I n t u i t i o n i s "th e openness o f th e human mind to new i n f l u x o f l i g h t and power from the Divine Mind." W ithin Em erson's p h ilo s o p h y , i t is th e Reason r a t h e r than the U nderstanding t h a t is th e most im p o rta n t source fo r the s p e a k e r 's id e a s ; because th e s u b je c ts t h a t were of most concern to Emerson, such as s e l f - r e l i a n c e and com pensation, are " a l o g i c a l and u n v e r i f i a b l e ." There are two s e r io u s problems in d e a lin g w ith th e Reason. F i r s t , a man has l i t t l e r e a l c o n tr o l over the i n t u i t i o n s t h a t come to him from th e O ver-Soul. Second, a man's i n t u i t i v e v i sio n can be blocked and b lu r r e d . CHAPTER I I I BASIC CONCEPTS IN EMERSON'S THEORY OF RHETORIC Since Emerson was an e s s a y i s t as w e ll as a l e c t u r e r , an exam ination o f h is th e o ry o f r h e t o r i c should in clu d e b o th o r a l and w r i t t e n d is c o u r s e , a lth o u g h the emphasis in t h i s stu d y w i l l be on th e form er. This c h a p te r seeks to determ ine the b a s i c co n cep ts in Em erson's th e o ry o f r h e t o r i c . R h e to r ic a l th e o r y , as used h e r e , w i l l r e f e r to o r a t i o n s , l e c t u r e s , serm ons, and e s s a y s . I t w i l l n o t in c lu d e v e r s e , n o v e ls , drama o r l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . Em erson's la c k o f c o n sis te n c y in term inology p r e s e n ts a problem fo r th o se who wish to determ ine th e n a tu r e , f u n c tio n s , and scope o f r h e t o r i c as e x p re sse d in h is w r i t in g s . This in c o n s i s te n c y is e s p e c i a l l y e v id e n t in h is use o f the term " r h e t o r i c . " Sometimes he used " r h e t o r i c " to mean s t y l e and arrangem ent (or the p h ilo so p h y o f s t y l e and arrangem ent) in o r a l and w r i t t e n d i s c o u r s e . ^ At o th e r l l n a jo u r n a l e n t r y , Emerson spoke o f " r h e t o r i c " as som ething s u p e r f i c i a l in a d is c o u r s e , something s e p a ra b le from c o n te n t and p u rp o se. " I t i s r h e t o r i c t h a t tak es up so much room. The r e s u l t o f th e book is very sm all and could be w r i t t e n down in a v ery few l i n e s . " J o u r n a l s , V, 482. E lsew h ere, Emerson spoke o f " r h e t o r i c " as only "th e form of 67 68 tim e s, he a ss ig n e d a much b ro a d e r meaning to the term , as when he spoke o f " t h a t s p e c ie s of a r c h i t e c t u r e which I stu d y and p r a c t i c e , nam ely, R h e to r ic , o r the B u ild in g o f D is c o u r se ." While Emerson used " r h e t o r i c " to mean th e a r t o f d is c o u r s e , when he w rote two e ssa y s on the a r t o f th e o r a t o r , he used the term "elo q u en ce" r a t h e r than " r h e t o r i c " o r o r a to r y . eloquence and p o e t r y ." " A r t," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 45. This same use o f the term " r h e t o r i c " is seen in Emerson’s e v a lu a tio n o f C a r l y l e 's w r i t i n g . " C a rly le i s w onderful fo r h is r h e t o r i c a l s k i l l . This t r i c k o f rhyme, burden, o r r e f r a i n , which he uses so w e ll . . . ." Jo u r. § M is. , I , x x i i i . In d e s c r ib in g Edward E v e r e t t 's s p ea k in g , Emerson c a l l e d i t "a trium ph o f R h e t o r ic ." Here Emerson was n o t p r a i s i n g th e man's a b i l i t y to communicate s i g n i f i c a n t id e as, b u t only h is b e a u t i f u l s t y l e and grace o f sp eak in g . Thus Emerson s a id o f E v e r e tt t h a t he " e x h i b ite d a l l th e ric h n e s s o f a r h e t o r i c which we have n e v e r seen r i v a l l e d in t h i s c o u n try . Wonderful how memorable were words made which were only p le a s in g p i c t u r e s , and covered no new or v a l i d th o u g h ts ." " L ife and L e t t e r s in New E n g lan d ," Complete W r i t i n g s , XI, 1045-1046. See a lso "Swedenborg," Complete W ritin g s , I , 267. Quoting F ra n c is B acon's Apothegms, Emerson r e f e r r e d to r h e t o r i c as mere adornment. "Nay, I 3o n o t know b u t I p r e f e r th e f i r s t d raught and to be p r e s e n t a t the s e c r e t o f c r e a t i o n b e fo re th e vamping 8 r h e t o r i c are used which are b u t 't h e b ru s h e rs of noblem en's c l o t h e s . ' " L e t t e r s , XI, 253. ^J o u r n a l s , IV, 336. 3The use o f the term "elo q u en ce" as a synonym f o r both o r a to r y and r h e t o r i c (in th e c l a s s i c a l sense o f the word) was n o t o r i g i n a l w ith Emerson o f c o u rse. His u n d e r s ta n d in g of t h i s word p ro b a b ly came, in p a r t a t l e a s t , from h is s tu d ie s under Edward T. Channing a t Harvard and h is re a d in g o f Hugh B l a i r ' s L e c tu re s on R h e to ric and B e lle s L e t t r e s . B l a i r ' s work was the t e x t used a t Harvard u n t i l 1832, and Emerson m entioned t h i s work in h is jo u r n a l . See J o u r n a l s , V, 353. Harding n o te d in h is i n tr o d u c tio n to B l a i r ' s L e c tu re s t h a t B l a i r used "eloquence" to mean "th e The N ature o f R h e to ric or Eloquence 69 Emerson c l a s s i f i e d the o r a t o r as an a r t i s t . ^ W ithin Em erson's system , "eloquence" b elongs to the genus o f " A r t." T h e re fo re , i f one is to know what Emerson meant by " e lo q u e n c e ," one must f i r s t know what he meant by " A r t." Em erson's concept o f a r t i s r e l a t e d to h is th eo ry o f the correspondence o f n a tu r e and s o u l, o f th e m a te r ia l and the s p i r i t u a l w o rld .-’ Emerson s a i d t h a t the world e x i s t s f o r the u ltim a te end o f s a t i s f y i n g the s o u l 's d e s ir e f o r b e a u ty .^ "The d o c tr in e o f A rt is t h a t th e human soul a r t o f p e r s u a s io n . I t is th e r e f o r e r h e t o i r c in C ic e r o 's s e n s e . But when B l a i r used the term ' r h e t o r i c ' he seems to have in mind w r i t t e n c o m p o sitio n ." H arold F. H arding, " E d i t o r 's I n t r o d u c t i o n , " in Hugh B l a i r , L e c tu re s on R h et o r i c and B e lle s L e t t r e s (2 v o l s . ; C arb o n d ale : Southern I l l i n o i s U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1965), I , x iv . " R h e to r ic ," a c cord in g to Channing, "was th e fundam ental a r t of communica t i o n , and i t s p r i n c i p l e s a p p lie d to b o th speech and to w r i t i n g . " Hosher, p. 133. Channing a ls o used th e term "eloquence" as a synonym f o r both o r a to r y and r h e t o r i c (in th e c l a s s i c a l s e n s e ). See Dorothy I . Anderson, "Edward T. C hanning's D e f in itio n o f R h e t o r i c ," Speech Monographs, XIV, (1947), 90. ^Emerson made s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s to th e o r a to r as an a r t i s t in h is two essay s on a r t . See " A r t," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 230 and "The P o e t," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , T50. • ’The d o c tr in e o f correspondence is d is c u s s e d more f u l l y in C hapter I I . ^Yet, "no re a so n can be asked o r given why th e soul seeks b e a u ty ." Ralph Waldo Emerson, N a tu r e , ed. by Kenneth W alter Cameron (New York: S c h o la rs ' F a c sim ile s 6 R e p r in ts , 1940), p. 30. 70 is p e r f e c t l y r e c e p t i v e o f th e e x t e r n a l U n iv erse, and every beam o f beauty which r a d i a t e s from n a tu r e fin d s a c o rre - 7 sponding i n l e t i n t o the s o u l ." The a r t i s t is one who can p e rc e iv e and e x p re ss the correspondence o f the m a te r ia l and th e s p i r i t u a l w o rld s. "Man s t a n d s ," according to Emerson, "on th e p o i n t b e tw ix t s p i r i t and m a tte r , and th e n a t i v e of b o th elem en ts; th e tr u e t h in k e r sees t h a t one r e p r e s e n ts the o t h e r , t h a t the w orld is the m ir ro r o f the s o u l, and O t h a t i t is h is o f f i c e to show t h i s b e a u t i f u l r e l a t i o n . " A rt e x i s t s because the human mind is c o n s ta n tly endeavoring "to i d e a l i z e the a c t u a l , 't o accommodate th e shows o f th in g s to th e d e s i r e s o f th e m in d .'" ^ Emerson s a id t h a t " a r t seeks n o t n a tu r e b u t the id e a l which n a tu re h e r s e l f s t r i v e s a f t e r . Emerson a p p r e c ia te d " th e r ic h e s o f n a t u r e , th e immense w e alth o f mind, the gran d eu r o f human l i f e which is over and under and w ith in us in s p i t e o f o u r s e lv e s , and he saw the supreme value o f a r t as a fo rce to educate use to a h e ig h t beyond i t s e l f , o r which i t r a r e l y r e a c h e s . " 1'1 ' A rt a c ts as a "complement to o r a ^"The Eye and E a r ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 266. 8C ab o t, XI, 716. ^J o u r n a l s , IV, 118-119. See a ls o "P o e try and Imag i n a t i o n , " Works, V I I I , 20. Emerson is q u o tin g F ran cis B acon's Of the Advancement o f L e a rn in g . 10J o u r . $ M i s . , V. 417. ^ B ro w n , p. 35 3. 71 " s u b s id ia r y " o f n a t u r e , 12 and i t o p e ra te s to a f f e c t man's p e r c e p tio n o f b e au ty . W e are immersed in b e a u ty , b u t our eyes have no c l e a r v i s i o n . " 1 3 Two q u e s tio n s a r i s e a t t h i s p o in t: (1) What d id Emerson mean by "beauty"? (2) How does a r t fu n c tio n to a f f e c t o n e 's p e r c e p tio n o f beauty? Emerson did n o t attem p t a form al d e f i n i t i o n of b e a u t y . 1^ "Beauty cannot be d e fin e d . Like T r u th , i t i s an u ltim a te aim of th e human b ein g . I t does n o t l i e w ith in the l i m i t s o f th e u n d e r s ta n d in g ." Men can e x p erien c e b eauty and c r e a te i t , b u t they cannot d e fin e i t . l ^ A l though he could n o t supply a form al d e f i n i t i o n o f the term , Emerson s a id t h a t " p e r f e c t beauty and p e r f e c t goodness are one . . . " and t h a t "what is most r e a l is most b e a u t i f u l . . . . "Beauty i s the mark t h a t God s e t s upon v i r - " A r t , " E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 44. l 3" A r t," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 230-231. am warned by th e i l l f a t e o f many p h ilo s o p h e rs n o t to a tte m p t a d e f i n i t i o n of B eau ty ." "B eau ty ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 608. 15"Michael A ngelo," Works, X II, 218. "This g r e a t Whole th e 'u n d e r s ta n d in g cannot embrace. Beauty may be f e l t . I t may be produced. But i t cannot be d e f in e d ." I b i d . Emerson s t a t e d t h a t "th e p e r c e p tio n o f Beauty is an o f f i c e o f the R eason." "The Eye and E a r ," E a rly L e c tu re s , XI, 267. For the d i s t i n c t i o n between Reason and U nderstanding see C hapter I I . 16"The Eye and E a r ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 267. Emerson s a i d t h a t " 'n o t h in g is b e a u t i f u l b u t what i s t r u e . '" "Michael A ngelo," Works, X II, 219. 72 1 7 t u e . " x/ I t i s the harmony and p e r f e c t i o n t h a t e x i s t s in nature.^-8 Beauty i s t r u t h , goodness, and in i t s h i g h e s t form i t is an e x p re s s io n o f God.-^ Thus b e au ty has a moral elem ent in i t . " I n to every b e a u t i f u l o b je c t th e r e e n te r s 2 0 somewhat immeasurable [s i c ] and d iv in e . . . How does a r t f u n c tio n to a f f e c t o n e 's p e r c e p tio n of beauty? In an essay on " N a tu re ," Emerson s a id t h a t the n a t u r a l w orld e x i s t s to s a t i s f y th e s o u l 's hunger f o r b e a u ty . "This love o f b eau ty i s T a s te . A rt fu n c tio n s "by th e e x h i b i t i o n o f s in g le t r a i t s , to a s s i s t and le a d the dormant t a s t e " o f m a n . ^ A rt concerns the s e p a r a t i o n o f 1 7 "N atu re," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 6. 18A11 works o f n a tu r e have one th in g in common. "What is common to them a l l , - - t h a t p e r f e c t n e s s and harmony, i s b e a u ty ." I b i d . , p. 7. 19"Beauty, in i t s l a r g e s t and p ro fo u n d e s t s e n s e , i s one e x p re ss io n f o r the u n iv e r s e . God is the a l l - f a i r . T ru th , and goodness, and b e a u ty , are b u t d i f f e r e n t fa c es of the same A l l . " I b i d . , p. 7. 20"A11 high b eau ty has a moral elem ent in i t , and I f i n d a n tiq u e s c u lp t u r e as e t h i c a l as Marcus A n to n iu s ; and th e beau ty e v e r in p r o p o r tio n to the depth o f th o u g h t." "B ea u ty ," Complete W ritin g s , I , 614. 21 " N a tu re ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 7. "A ll men are in some degree im pressed by th e face o f the w orld. Some men even to d e l i g h t . This love o f b eau ty i s T a ste . O thers have th e same love in such e x c e s s , t h a t , n o t c o n te n t w ith adm iring, they seek to embody i t in new forms. The c r e a tio n o f b e au ty is A r t ." N a tu r e , p . 29. 22i>Art," Complete W ritin g s , I , 230-231. 73 ? ^ t h i n g s . "The v i r t u e o f a r t l i e s in detachm ent, in s e q u e s te r in g one o b je c t from the e m b arrassin g v a r i e t y . U n til one th in g comes o u t from the c o n n ec tio n o f t h i n g s , th e re can be enjoym ent, c o n te m p la tio n , b u t no th o u g h t. Emerson found detachm ent and m a g n ific a tio n to be the essence or most b a s i c f u n c tio n o f a l l a r t s , e s p e c i a l l y r h e t o r i c and o r a to r y . " I t is th e h a b i t o f c e r t a i n minds to give an a l l - e x c l u d i n g f u l l n e s s to the o b j e c t , the th o u g h t, th e word they a l i g h t upon, and to make t h a t f o r the time the deputy o f th e w orld. These are th e a r t i s t s , th e o ra - 2 S t o r s , th e le a d e r s o f s o c i e t y . " The a r t i s t s "seek each to c o n c e n tra te t h i s ra d ia n c e o f the w orld on one p o in t . . . . " 26 po r example, " th e o r a t o r ' s problem is to make a p o o r, u n p o p u la r, down-looking c a u s e - - a t h i n , c o ld , down- lo o k in g assem bly--warm , b r i g h t , firm , h o n o ra b le , proud, ^ D e ta ch m e n t c o n s i s t s in se e in g a f a c t , an i n t u i t i o n , a s e n s a tio n or p e r c e p tio n "n o t under a p e rs o n a l b u t under a u n i v e r s a l l i g h t . " Detachment is " th e f i r s t p ro p e r t y o f th e i n t e l l e c t . " "A man is i n t e l l e c t u a l in p r o p o r tio n as he can make an o b j e c t o f every s e n s a t i o n , p e rc e p tio n and i n t u i t i o n ; so long as he has no engagement in any th o u g h t or f e e l i n g which can h in d e r him from looking a t i t as somewhat f o r e i g n . " " N a tu ra l H is to ry o f I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 38-29. 24 " A rt," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 230-231. 25I b i d . . p. 231. Here Emerson is d e s c rib in g what th e o r a t o r s and le a d e r s o f s o c i e t y do, n o t h is id e a l o f how the o r a t o r would fu n c tio n . Here we see Emerson as the p r a c t i c a l o b se rv e r r a t h e r than th e i d e a l i s t . 2^N a tu re , p. 30. 74 p o p u la r , j u b i l a n t - - t h e one g r e a t cause and assembly in the w o r l d . "27 The o r a t o r and a l l o th e r a r t i s t s use detachment and m a g n ific a tio n to make t h e i r work o f a r t "th e t y r a n t o f the h o u r." The power to d e tac h and to magnify by d e ta c h in g i s the essen ce of r h e t o r i c in th e hands o f the o r a t o r and the p o e t. This r h e t o r i c , or th e power to f i x the momentary eminency o f an o b j e c t , - - s o rem arkable in Burke, o r in C a r l y l e , - - the p a i n t e r and s c u lp t u r e e x h i b i t in c o lo r and s to n e . The power depends on the depth o f the a r t i s t ' s i n s i g h t o f t h a t o b je c t he co n tem p late s. For every o b je c t has i t s ro o ts in c e n t r a l n a t u r e , and may of course be so e x h i b i t e d to us as to r e p r e s e n t the w orld. T h erefo re each work o f genius i s the t y r a n t o f tim e, i t is the only th in g w orth naming to do t h a t , - - be i t a s o n n e t, an o p e ra , a la n d s c a p e , a s t a t u e , an o r a t i o n , the p la n o f a tem p le, o f a campaign, o r a voyage o f d i s c o v e r y .2 8 Mature a r t has fiv e im p o rta n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . (1) I t is p r a c t i c a l and m oral. (2) I t has an u p l i f t i n g message f o r the poor and u n c u l t i v a t e d . (3) I t stan d s in connection w ith the c o n s c ie n c e ." (4) I t awakens in the b e h o ld er "th e same sense of u n i v e r s a l r e l a t i o n and power 7 Q which the work ev in ced in the a r t i s t . " (5) I t c r e a te s 2 7 " T a b le -T a lk ," U n c o lle c te d L e c t u r e s , p. 32. 2 8 " A rt," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 231. "One more th ought is t h a t . . . 'th e A r t i s t c o n c e n tra te s th e lo o k , th e th o u g h t, the i n t e r e s t o f the { s p e c t a t o r ) b e h o ld e r, and he can th in k o f n o th in g w ith o u t, n o th in g n e a r , n o th in g e l s e ; as t r u l y a m a ste rp ie c e o f A rt should exclude § f o r the time {as i t w e re ) a n n i h i l a t e e v e ry th in g e l s e . " J o u r. § M is., V, 417. 29"The so u l i s l i k e a c i r c l e w ith in th e c i r c l e o f the w orld and f o r every p o in t of l i g h t on the o u t e r sphere is a p o in t of s i g h t on the in n e r . When t h i s correspondence o f the so u l to n a t u r e , of the I n d iv id u a l to th e A ll is 75 new a r t i s t s . ^ Emerson p u t "eloquence" in the genus o f a r t , b u t how did he d i s t i n g u i s h i t from o th e r members o f t h a t c la s s ? "A rt d iv id e s i t s e l f in to th e U seful and the Fine A r t s ." The Fine A rts in c lu d e m usic, a r c h i t e c t u r e , s c u l p t u r e , p a i n t i n g , p o e tr y , and eloquence. " A r c h ite c tu r e and e l o quence are mixed a r t s , whose end is sometimes b eauty and 31 sometimes use. One o f the b a s i c problems in any system o f r h e t o r i c i s to d i s t i n g u i s h between the r h e t o r i c a l and the p o e t i c , th e o r a t o r ' s a r t and the p o e t 's a r t . There was a tendency p e r f e c t , then the d iv in e lo v e lin e s s p a sse s i n to the Mind which way so ev er i t tu rn s and the a r t i s t n e v er r e s t s b u t t o i l s w ith enthusiasm to ex p ress t h a t which he b e h o ld s, to t r a n s f e r to some v i s i b l e or a u d ib le o b je c t th e p e r f e c t i o n he c o n te m p la te s ." "The Eye and E a r," E a rly L e c tu r e s , XI, 266. 30 " A rt," Complete E s s a y s , p. 312. 3l " A r t , " Complete W r itin g s , I , 634. Emerson may have g o tte n t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between f in e and u s e f u l a r t s from C hanning's l e c t u r e s . "But o r a t o r y , l i k e a r c h i t e c t u r e , was s i g n a l l y a u s e f u l as w e ll as e le g a n t and lu x u rio u s a r t . . . ." Edward T. Channing, "G eneral View o f R h e t o r ic ," L ectu res Read to the S en io rs in H arvard C o lle g e , ed. by Dorothy I. Anderson and Waldo W . Braden CCarbondale: Southern I l l i n o i s U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1968), p. 30. Channing c r e d i t e d t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n to Campbell. Campbell s a id : "The a r t s are f r e q u e n tly d iv id e d in to u s e f u l , and th e p o l i t e , f i n e , o r e le g a n t . . . ." He went on to say t h a t "Eloquence and a r c h i t e c t u r e . . . are to be c o n sid e re d as o f a mixed n a t u r e , w herein u t i l i t y and b eau ty have alm ost equal i n f l u e n c e ." George Campbell, " I n t r o d u c t i o n ," The P hilosophy o f R h e t o r i c , ed. by Lloyd F. B i t z e r (Carbondale: Southern I l l i n o i s U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1963), p. x l v i i . 76 in th e n in e te e n th cen tu ry to f a i l to d i s t i n g u i s h between o r a to r y and p o e try . In The American R e n a is s a n c e , M a tth ie s- sen s t a t e d t h a t Emerson t r i e d to b reak down th e " r e s t r i c t ing d iv is io n s " between p o e try and o ra to ry when he d e c la re d " t h a t th e b e s t p ro se becomes p o e t i c , t h a t the s u b lim e st speech i s a poem." Em erson's "tendency to l i n k p o e ts and o r a to r s whenever he l i s t e d th e v a rio u s a r t s " r e f l e c t e d "a common and w idespread b e l i e f o f h is tim e ." At t h a t time o r a to r y was "th e b a s i s f o r o th e r forms of w r i t i n g , and i t s 32 modes o f e x p re ss io n l e f t a mark on t h e i r s . " Thus Emerson r e f e r r e d to the p ro se w r i t e r as "an o r a t e u r manque" o r an 3 3 a b sen tee o r a t o r . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "th e o r a t o r must be to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t a p o e t." ^ ^ He saw th e i d e a l o r a t o r , the tr u e p r e a c h e r o r l e c t u r e r as a kind o f p o e t. "The p r e a c h e r was f o r Emerson the p o e t. He was th e s a y e r who might speak in p a i n t or g r a n ite o r music b u t most l u c i d l y and perm anently 35 in w o rd s." E a rly in h is l e c t u r i n g c a r e e r , Emerson w rote • ^ M a tth ie s s e n , p. 22. ^ R a l p h Waldo Emerson, "Index Major to My Manu s c r i p t s , " in Emerson1s Workshop, ed. by Kenneth W alter Cameron (2 v o l s . ; H a r tf o r d , Conn.: T ran sc en d e n ta l Books, 1964), XI, 50. ^ " E l o q u e n c e ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 6 4 8 ^ . The . i d e a l o r a t o r is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a v e r s i f i e r , b u t r a t h e r , one who r e p r e s e n ts s p i r i t u a l f a c t s by n a t u r a l symbols. " In tro d u c to r y L ecture on E n g lish L i t e r a t u r e , " E a rly L e c tu r e s , I , 221. ■^Foster, p. 95. 77 to h is fia n c e e d e s c r ib in g h is v o c a tio n as t h a t o f a p o e t. Emerson saw h im s e lf as a p o e t even though he communicated in p ro s e . His sermons and l e c t u r e s were p o e t i c i n s o f a r as they were concerned w ith i n t e r p r e t i n g n a t u r e , in d e riv in g the s p i r i t u a l from th e m a t e r i a l . He s a id : I am born a p o e t, o f a low c la s s w ith o u t doubt y e t a p o e t. This i s my n a tu r e and v o c a tio n . My s in g in g be su re i s very "husky" § is f o r the most p a r t in p ro s e . S t i l l th e harmonies t h a t are in the so u l § in m a t t e r , § s p e c i a l l y o f the correspondence between th e se § th o s e . A s u n s e t , a f o r e s t , a snow sto rm , a c e r t a i n r iv e r - v ie w , are more to me than f r ie n d s § do o r d i n a r i l y d iv id e my day w ith books. Wherever I go t h e r e f o r e I guard § study my ram bling p r o p e n s i t i e s w ith a care t h a t is r id i c u lo u s to p e o p le , b u t to me is the care o f my high c a l l i n g . 36 Although Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t o r a to r y and p o e try have much in common and t h a t the o r a t o r should be to some e x te n t a p o e t,^ ^ he d id make a p r a c t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e tween th e two a r t s as they e x i s t . The d if f e r e n c e seems to l i e p r im a r i ly in the f a c t t h a t o r a to r y or eloquence is b o th a f in e and u s e f u l a r t , w hile p o e tr y is only a fin e a r t . ■ ^ L e tte r to Lydia Jack so n , February 1 , 1835 in L e t t e r s , I , 435. "For Mr. Emerson when c a l l e d a p h ilo s o - ph er s a i d ’ I am in a l l my th e o ry , e t h i c s and p o l i t i c s a p o e t , " Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes," Works, I , 466. •^ " In th e y e ars between 1840 and 1850, Mr. Emer s o n ’s growing d e s i r e to ex p ress h im s e lf in p o e try began to be f u l f i l l e d . He gave a l e c t u r e in London in 1848 b e fo re th e Portman Square L i t e r a r y and S c i e n t i f i c I n s t i t u t i o n , in the exordium o f which he s a i d , 'I have v e n tu re d to name my t o p i c 'P o e try and E lo q u e n c e ,' though what I have to say is c h i e f l y on the l a s t th e r e is much t h a t is common in the tw o .' The b e s t p ro se should be p o e t i c , b u t the h ig h e s t eloquence should be a poem." Edward Waldo Emerson, "N o tes," Works, V II, 366. 78 Thus Emerson f e l t t h a t P l a t o ’s works were n o t p o e tr y , b e cause th ey had "an u l t e r i o r p u rp o s e ." He s a id : P la to i s c lo th e d w ith the powers o f a p o e t , stan d s upon th e h ig h e s t p la c e o f the p o e t, and (though I doubt he wanted the d e c is iv e g i f t o f l y r i c e x p r e s s i o n ) , mainly is n o t a p o e t because he chose to use the p o e t i c g i f t to an u l t e r i o r p u r p o s e . 38 When Emerson spoke o f th e p o e t, he seemed to do so on two l e v e l s . On a lower o r p r a c t i c a l l e v e l , Emerson d i s t i n g u i s h e d between the p o e t, who seeks b e a u ty , and the p h ilo s o p h e r or p r i e s t , who seeks t r u t h . H o w e v e r , on a h ig h e r or more i d e a l i s t i c l e v e l , Emerson saw T ruth and Beauty as one and the same, and th u s , the id e a l o r a t o r is a p o e t, a p h ilo s o p h e r , a p r i e s t , and a s c h o l a r . 40 "The tr u e p h ilo s o p h e r and the tr u e p o e t are one, and a b e au ty , which is t r u t h , and a t r u t h , which is b e a u ty , is the aim 41 o f b o th ." Emerson’ s i d e a l or tr u e p o e t is a p re a c h e r as 3^ " P l a to ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 339. ■^"W hilst thus the p o e t d e l i g h t s us by anim ating n a tu re l i k e a c r e a t o r , w ith h is own th o u g h ts , he d i f f e r s from th e p h ilo s o p h e r only h e r e i n , t h a t th e one proposes Beauty as h is main end; the o th e r t r u t h . " N a tu r e , p. 68. 40The i d e a l o r a t o r t h a t Emerson conceived o f and t r i e d to embody in h is own l i f e was a p o e t in the sense t h a t he a p p r e c ia te d the im portance o f language and was s e n s i t i v e to the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f n a tu r e and language. He was a p h ilo s o p h e r and p r i e s t in th e sense t h a t he was concerned w ith q u e s tio n s o f a m e ta p h y sic a l and s p i r i t u a l n a t u r e , and he was a s c h o la r in the sense t h a t he v alu ed every f a c t as somehow r e l a t e d to u ltim a te r e a l i t y . 4 l " I s n o t the charm o f one o f P l a t o 's o r A r i s t o t l e ' s d e f i n i t i o n s s t r i c t l y l i k e t h a t o f the Antigone of Sophocles? I t i s , in b o th c a s e s , t h a t a s p i r i t u a l l i f e has 79 w e ll as an a r t i s t : The Poet sh ould n o t only be able to use n a tu r e as h is h ie r o g ly p h ic , b u t he should have a s t i l l h ig h e r power, namely, an adequate message to communicate; a v i s io n f i t f o r such a f a c u l t y . T h e re fo re , when we speak o f Poet in th e g r e a t s e n s e , we seem to be d riv e n to such examples as E z e k ie l and S a in t John and Menu w ith t h e i r moral b u rd e n s; and a l l th o se we commonly c a l l ?Qets become rhym esters and p o e t a s t e r s by t h e i r s i d e , 42 When speaking of the a r t o f p u b lic speaking and p re a c h in g , Emerson u s u a ll y used th e term "e lo q u e n c e ." When speaking o f th o se p r i n c i p l e s b a s ic to b o th o r a l and w r i t t e n communication, he used the term " r h e t o r i c . " Eloquence f u n c tio n s , lik e a l l a r t , by a f f e c t i n g m an's p e r c e p tio n . I t s o f f i c e is to "ed u cate the p e r c e p tio n o f b e a u ty ," t h a t i s , th e p e r c e p tio n o f t r u t h , goodness, v i r t u e , and u ltim a te r e a l i t y . Through th e means o f detachm ent and m a g n ific a tio n , the o r a t o r and a l l a r t i s t s seek to a f f e c t man's p e r c e p tio n . The a r t i s t d etach es and m ag n ifies an id e a and makes i t fo r th e moment "th e deputy o f th e w o rld ." Eloquence o r o r a to r y d i f f e r s from o th e r a r t s in t h a t i t is b o th a Fine and a U seful a r t . Em erson's i d e a l was an a r t o f p u b lic speaking t h a t aims a t b o th b eau ty and t r u t h . been im p arted to n a t u r e ; t h a t the s o l i d seeming b la c k o f m a tte r has been pervaded and d is s o lv e d by a th o u g h t; t h a t t h i s f e e b le human b ein g has p e n e t r a t e d th e v a s t masses of n a tu r e w ith an inform ing s o u l , and re c o g n ize d i t s e l f in t h e i r harmony, t h a t is, s e iz e d t h e i r law ." N a tu r e , p. 69. 42J o u r n a l s , VI, 190-191. 80 The F unctions o f R h eto ric or Eloquence Emerson d e fin e d man as "an a n a l o g i s t . "Man stan d s on th e p o in t b e tw ix t inward s p i r i t § the outward m a tte r. He sees t h a t th e one e x p l a i n s , t r a n s l a t e s th e o th e r: t h a t th e w orld is the m ir r o r o f the s o u l. He is th e p r i e s t and i n t e r p r e t e r o f n a tu r e t h e r e b y . "44 When a man observes a n a lo g ie s between n a tu r e and s p i r i t , when he i s using the m a te r ia l w orld to seek an u n d e rsta n d in g o f the s p i r i t u a l w orld, he i s in a s t a t e o f " c o n s c io u s n e s s ." "The conscious s t a t e of man s e n s i t i z e s m a tte r , and in t h i s sense m a tte r becomes s p i r i t u a l i z e d . "45 The n a tu r e o f Em erson's own communicative e f f o r t s and h is p h ilo so p h y o f r h e t o r i c i s found in th e concept o f " c o n s c io u s n e s s ." F ir k in s s t a t e d t h a t "th e s e c r e t of Emer son may be conveyed in one word, the s u p e r l a t i v e , even the superhuman, value which he found in th e u n i t of e x p e r ie n c e , th e d i r e c t , momentary, in d iv id u a l a c t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s ."46 43"Man is an a n a l o g i s t , He cannot h e lp see in g e v e ry th in g under i t s r e l a t i o n s to o th e r th in g s and him-, s e l f . " J o u r n a l s , IV, 33. 44j o u r . 8 M is. , V, 103. ^Raymond G a rd e lla , "In Emerson C onsciousness Is K ing," Emerson S o c ie ty Q u a r te r ly , No. 50 (I Q u a rte r 1968), 8-9 . ■ ^F irkins , p. 297. 81 C onsciousness i s "th e p r im o r d ia l c o n d itio n , o r b a s ic pos- 4 7 ----------------------- t u r e o f th e human b e in g ." I t is man's awareness o f him- 4 8 s e l f and o f the d i v i n i t y w ith in him. Emerson s a i d o f man t h a t " 's o much o f n a tu re as he i s ig n o r a n t o f , so much o f h is mind does he n o t y e t pos- 49 s e s s . ' " The b u s in e s s o f th e p r e a c h e r - o r a t o r , according to Emerson, was " to h u n t o u t and to e x h i b i t the a n a lo g ie s between moral and m a t e r i a l n a tu r e in such manner as to have a b e a rin g upon p r a c t i c e ." * ’® In h is own w r i t i n g and sp ea k in g , Em erson's goal was "to r e s u s c i t a t e a p rim al s t a t e o f co n scio u sn ess in which man f e e l s h is c o n t i n u i t y w ith th e g r e a t w orld around him, e x p e rie n c in g a sense o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n and o f b a r r i e r s swept away, and in a d d i t i o n , a sense o f c o n ta c t w ith a s p i r i t u a l source o f t h i n g s . " 5^ Emerson ^ G a r d e l l a , p. 5. A Q "To a b s o lu te mind, a p e rso n is b u t a f a c t , b u t co n scio u sn ess is God." J o u r . 8 M is. , V, 466. ^®Pollock, p. 93. 5® Jo u rn als, I I , 241-242. Emerson f e l t t h a t a man was f r e e when he was guided in h is a c tio n s by h is con s c io u s n e s s , b u t w ith most men t h i s was a r a r e e v e n t. "A very sm all p a r t o f a m an's v o lu n ta ry a c ts are such as agree p e r f e c t l y w ith h is c o n v ic tio n § i t is only a t r a r e i n t e r v a ls t h a t he i s a p p ra is e d o f t h i s i n c o n g r u i t y - - ' so d i f f i c u l t is i t to re a d our own co n scio u sn ess w ith o u t m i s t a k e s .' Whose a c t is t h i s churchgoing? Whose t h i s p ray in g ? The man might as w e ll be gone so he leav es a M aelzel machine in h is p l a c e . " J o u r . 8 M is. , IV, 312. ^ P o l l o c k , p. 97. This i s both a p o e t i c and r e l i gious e x p e rie n c e . Emerson drew no c a r e f u l l i n e s between p o e tr y and r e l i g i o n . He s a i d t h a t "th e p re a c h e r should be 82 "wanted men to e v a lu a te p r o p e r ly th e m y sterio u s c o n g ru ity which s u b s i s t s between them and n a t u r e . For he was c e r t a i n t h a t when the f u l l im p lic a tio n s o f t h i s c o n g ru ity are g rasp ed , inward s p i r i t u a l l i f e and l i f e in n a tu r e would be 5 2 jo in e d to g e th e r . . . Emerson d id n o t see t r u t h as som ething t h a t can be grasp ed by the human mind, s e t down in a book, o r defended by systems o f l o g i c . T ru th , as opposed to th oughts and f a c t s , is n o t a s t a t i c e n t i t y t h a t men can s e t down in some form o f language and pass on from one man to a n o th e r , one g e n e r a tio n to a n o t h e r . 5" ^ T ru th , as man can know i t , is a p o et sm it w ith th e love o f th e harmonies o f moral n a tu re . . . ." J o u r n a l s , IV, 420. As B u ell n o te d , "Emerson's l i t e r a r y o b j e c t i v e ; th e n , was tw ofold: to u n ite ' s e e r ' and 's a y e r ' . . . , s p i r i t u a l su b stan ce and b e a u t i f u l e x p r e s s io n . The am bivalence is r e f l e c t e d by the image o f the p o e t - p r i e s t in 'The D iv in ity School A ddress' and pervades a l l o f Em erson's l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m . " Lawrence I. B u e ll, " U n ita r ia n A e s th e tic s and Em erson's P o e t - P r i e s t , " American Q u a r t e r l y , XX (S p rin g , 1968), 19. In h is " D iv in ity School A d d re ss," Emerson s a i d t h a t "always the s e e r is the s a y e r. Somehow h is dream is t o l d . . . ." This man is both " p r i e s t and p o e t . " "An A d d re ss," Works, I , 134. Hudson n o te d t h a t " r e l i g i o n perm eated e v e r y th in g Emerson e v er tho u g h t o r d id , i t was n o t a fu n c tio n o f h is s o u l , - - i t was h is so u l. Emerson was th e sage e s s a y i s t only as he was a r e l i g i o u s sag e, an o r a t o r only as he was a r e l i g i o u s o ra c le , a p h ilo s o p h e r only as he was a p r o p h e t, a p o e t only as he was a p r i e s t . " Jay W illiam Hudson, "The R e lig io n o f Emer so n ," Sewanee Review, XXVIII ( A p r il, 1920), 203. 5^ P o llo c k , p. 95. 5^"T ruth i s sim p le , and w i l l n o t be a n tiq u e ; is ev er p r e s e n t and i n s i s t s on being o f t h i s age and o f t h i s moment. Here i s th o u g h t and love and t r u t h and d u ty , new as on th e f i r s t day o f Adam and o f a n g e ls ." "The P reacher," Works, X, 237. 83 s u b je c tiv e r a t h e r than o b j e c t i v e . I t is n o t an o b j e c t , b u t a s t a t e o f mind, an a t t i t u d e o f sea rc h in g fo r and l i s t e n i n g to the voice w ith in , th e v o ice o f God. I t i s a s t a t e o f c o n sc io u sn ess. I t i s "a becoming, an inward a p p r o p r ia t i o n . " ^ Emerson s a i d t h a t '" T r u th n e v er i s ; always is a - b e i n g . ' Does n o t t h a t word s i g n i f y t h a t s t a t e in which a man fin d s h im s e lf conscious o f knowing n o th in g , b u t being j u s t now ready to b eg in to know? He f e e l s li k e one j u s t born. He is ready to ask the f i r s t q u e s tio n . For Emerson, l i f e was "a q u e s t o f th o u g h t, a p u r s u i t o f i n s p i r a t i o n . " ^ I t i s n o t the f in d i n g , b u t the seeking a f t e r t r u t h t h a t is im p o rta n t. " P e r s i s t only in seeking the t r u t h . P e r s i s t in saying you do n o t know what you do n o t know, and you do n o t care f o r what you do n o t 5 7 care . . . ." Emerson r e f e r r e d to h im s e lf as "an en d less see k e r w ith no P a s t a t my back": But l e s t I sh ould m islead any when I have my own head and obey my whims, l e t me remind the re a d e r t h a t I am only an e x p e rim e n te r. Do n o t s e t th e l e a s t v alu e on what I do, o r the l e a s t d i s c r e d i t on what I do n o t , as i f I p re te n d e d to s e t t l e a l l th in g s . No f a c t s are to 54Lee, pp. 229-249. •^ J o u r n a l s , XI, 481. Emerson is q u o tin g h is f r i e n d , Thomas C a r ly le , who i s q u o tin g S c h i l l e r . Jo u r. § M is. , IV, 18. ^ F i r k i n s , p. 298. 5^J o u r n a l s , XI, 379. 84 me s a c re d , none are p ro f a n e ; I sim ply ex p erim en t, an e n d le ss se e k e r w ith no P a s t a t my b a c k .5° Emerson re c o g n ize d a " l i m i t i n g i n s t i n c t " in man's n a t u r e . He no sooner f r e e s h im s e lf from one dogmatism than he walks in to a n o th e r. Even Swedenborgians and T ranscen- d e n t a l i s t s were g u i l t y in t h i s r e s p e c t.- ’® The human mind is a k in d of pendulum, as Emerson saw i t , v i b r a t i n g between two o b j e c t s , th e d e s i r e f o r t r u t h and th e d e s ir e f o r repose. "He in whom the love o f Repose p re d o m in a te s, w i l l accept th e f i r s t creed he m eets, A rianism , C alvinism , S ocinianism ; he g e ts r e s t 5 r e p u t a t i o n ; but he s h u ts the door of T ru th . He in whom the love o f T ruth predom inates w i l l keep h im s e lf a lo o f from a l l moorings 8 a f l o a t . " Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t a man should " a b s ta in from dogmatism § re c o g n ize a l l th e op p o s i t e n e g a tio n s between which as w a lls h is being i s swung. On th e one sid e he w i l l f e e l t h a t God is im p erso n al. On ^ ^ " C i r c l e s ," Works, I I , 318. 5®At the age o f 34, Emerson had a lre a d y come to a p p r e c ia te the s t i f l i n g in f lu e n c e o f a l l dogmas, even the most l i b e r a l . He re c o g n ize d t h a t "th e moment the mind by one bold leap (an im pulse from th e U n iv e rsal) has s e t i t s e l f f r e e from the o ld church and of a thousand y e ars o f dogma, and seen the l i g h t of moral n a t u r e , say w ith Sweden b o rg , --on the i n s t a n t the d e fin in g lockjaw sh u ts down h is f e t t e r s and cramps a l l round u s, and we must needs th in k in the genius and speak in the p h raseo lo g y of Swedenborg, and the l a s t s la v e r y i s even worse than the f i r s t . Even the d i s c i p l e s o f the new unnamed o r misnamed T ran scen d en talism t h a t now i s , v a in th e same, do a lre a d y dogmatize and r a i l a t such as h o ld i t n o t , and cannot see the worth of the antagonism a l s o . " J o u r n a l s , IV, 434. 85 th e o t h e r , t h a t the U niverse i s h is work."^® Those who d e s i r e t r u t h must subm it to th e "in co n v en ien ce o f suspense § im p e rfe c t o p in io n ," b u t they w i l l be c a n d id a te s f o r t r u t h £ 1 and w i l l be r e s p e c tin g " th e h ig h e s t law" o f t h e i r b ein g . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "Man n ev er p o sse sse d the t r u t h ; the t r u t h a t times m ight p o ssess him, b u t i t ebbed and flowed. For Emerson i t was a t e r r i f i c power t h a t could n o t be m an ip u lated a t w i l l , much l e s s b o t t l e d up in a sen- 6 2 tence o r a c r e e d ." T ruth i s "n o t to be s u rro u n d e d ." I t is expansive and " e l a s t i c . " I t is th e cu rio u s p ro p e rty o f t r u t h to be u n c o n ta in a b le and ev er e n l a r g i n g . For Emerson, "T ru th is a jew el w ith many f a c e t s , each o f which r e f l e c t s from a d i f f e r e n t a n g l e . "65 S p i r i tu a l f a c t s , r i g h t s , d u t i e s , th o u g h ts are "a thousand faces ^ J o u r . 8 M is., V, 112. See a lso " I n t e l l e c t , " Works, XI, 342. 6 1I b i d . , p. 113. 62Lee, p. 236. 63"M0n t a i g n e ," Works, IV, 185. 64"N atural H is to ry of the I n t e l l e c t , " Works, XII, 78. "T ruth indeed! W e t a l k as i f we had i t , o r sometimes s a i d i t , or knew any th in g about i t , - - t h a t t e r r i f i c r e ag en t. 'T is a gun w ith a r e c o i l which w i l l knock down the most nimble a r t i l l e r i s t s , and th e r e f o r e is n ev er f i r e d . The i d e a l i s as f a r ahead o f th e v i d e t t e s o f th e van as i t i s of the r e a r . And b e fo re th e good we aim a t , a l l h i s t o r y i s sym ptom atic, and only a good omen." I b i d . ^ H a r r i e t Rodgers Zink, Em erson's Use o f the B i b l e , U n iv e rs ity o f Nebraska S tu d ie s in Language, L i t e r a t u r e , and C r itic is m (L incoln: U n iv e r s ity o f Nebraska P r e s s , 1935) , XIV, 56. 86 o f one e s s e n c e ." This e ssen ce Emerson c a l l e d " T ru th ." "These f a c t s , t h i s essen ce are n o t new; they are old and e t e r n a l , b u t our see in g o f them is new. Having seen them we are no lo n g e r b r u te lumps w h irle d by F a te , b u t we pass in to the council-cham ber and government o f N ature. In s o fa r A ft as we see them we sh are t h e i r l i f e and s o v e r e ig n ty ." Although he s a id t h a t " i t is b e t t e r to h e ar than to 7 sp e a k ," Emerson re c o g n ize d a n e c e s s i t y in the human mind to embody and p u b lis h i t s t h o u g h t s . " T h e man n o t only t h i n k s , b u t speaks and a c t s . Every th o u g h t t h a t a r i s e s in the mind, in i t s r i s i n g aims to pass out o f the mind in to a c t; j u s t as every p l a n t in the moment o f g e rm in a tio n , s t r u g g le s up to l i g h t . I n the p ro c e ss o f p u b l i c a t i o n , however, th o u g h ts become "m odified and dwarfed by the im p u r i t y and u n tr u th w hich, in a l l our e x p e r ie n c e , in j u r e s 70 the w onderful medium through which i t p a s s e s ." The "Rea son" may re v e a l a f a c e t of t r u t h to a man, b u t to communi c ate t h a t t r u t h to a n o th e r is extrem ely d i f f i c u l t : 6 6 "N a tu ra l H is to ry o f the I n t e l l e c t , " Works, XII, 37-38. ^^J o u r n a l s , V, 391. 6 8 " A r t," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 42. 69"Art," Works, VII, 37-38. "An impulse as i r r e s i s t i b l e as in the acorn to germ inate i s in the so u l (to ) o f the p rophet to sp eak ." Jour. S M is. , IV, 91. 70 "A rt," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 42. 87 A man m e d ita te s in s o l i t u d e upon a t r u t h which seems to him so w eighty t h a t he proposes to im part i t to h is fellowmen. Im m ediately a s o c i e t y must be c o l l e c t e d and books c o n s u lte d , and much p ap er b l o t t e d in p r e p a r a t i o n f o r h is d is c o u r s e . A lie n c o n s id e r a tio n s come i n , p e rs o n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s - - a n d f i n a l l y when he d e l i v e r s h is d is c o u r s e , 'T is q u ite p o s s ib le i t does n o t c o n ta in th e o r i g i n a l m e ss a g e .71 In a l a t e r jo u r n a l e n t r y , Emerson complained t h a t i t was e a s i e r to see th e " t r u t h " than to t e l l i t : How h ard to w r ite th e t r u t h . "L et a man r e j o i c e in th e t r u t h , and n o t t h a t he has found i t , " s a i d my e a r l y o r a c l e ! 72 W ell, so soon as I have seen th e t r u t h I clap my hands and r e j o i c e , and go back to see i t and forw ard to t e l l men. I am so p le a s e d th e re w ith t h a t p r e s e n t l y i t v a n is h e s . Then am I s u b m iss, and i t appears "w ith o u t o b s e r v a t i o n ." I w r ite i t down, and i t i s gone. Yet is th e b e n e f i t o f o th e rs and t h e i r love o f r e c e iv in g t r u t h from me the reason of my i n t e r e s t and e f f o r t to o b ta in i t , and thus do I double and t r e b l e w ith God. The Reason r e f u s e s to p la y a t couples w ith th e U n d erstan d in g ; to subserve the p r i v a t e ends o f th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g .73 Emerson s a i d t h a t d iv in e laws " re fu s e to be ad e q u a te ly s t a t e d . They w i l l n o t be w r i t t e n out on p a p e r , o r spoken by th e tongue. "^4 A gain, he s a id t h a t "Words are 7 1 J o u r n a l s , I I I , 275-277. 7 7 '^There seems to be some d isagreem ent as to whom Emerson i s r e f e r r i n g . Edward Waldo Emerson and Waldo Emer son Forbes i d e n t i f i e d " th e e a r l y o r a c le " as Em erson's a u n t, Mary Moody Emerson. J o u r n a l s , IV, 74-75. In th e new e d i t i o n of the J o u r n a l s , th e e d i t o r s claim th a t Emerson was q u o tin g Sampson R eed's "O ra tio n on G en iu s." J o u r. 8 M is., V, 181. ^ J o u r n a l s , IV, 74-75. See a lso Jo u r. § M is., V, 181. ^4"An A d d re ss," Works, I , 121-122. Emerson s t a t e d elsew here t h a t "No sen ten ce w i l l h o ld the whole t r u t h . . . ." "N o m in alist and R e a l i s t , " Works, I I I, 245. 88 f i n i t e organs o f th e i n f i n i t e mind. They cannot cover the dim ensions o f what is in t r u t h . They b re a k , chop, and 75 im poverish i t . " I f words cannot c o n ta in t r u t h , i f i t cannot be w r i t t e n o r spoken, what is the purpose o f the p o e t, p r e a c h e r , o r o r a to r ? "The aim o f th e a u th o r is n o t to t e l l the t r u t h - - t h a t he cannot do, b u t to su g g e st i t . He has only approxim ated i t h im s e lf and hence h is cumbrous, em barrassed speech: he uses many w ords, hoping one, i f n o t a n o th e r, w i l l b r in g you as n e ar to the f a c t as he i s . " Language is "young and unformed. In heaven i t w i l l b e , as Sampson Reed s a i d , 'one w ith t h i n g s . ' Now, th e re are many th in g s t h a t r e f u s e to be r e c o r d e d ,- -p erhaps the l a r g e r h a l f 7 f \ The u n s a id p a r t is th e b e s t o f every d is c o u r s e . Emerson once s a i d t h a t i t seemed to him "an im p i e t y " t h a t men sh o u ld l i s t e n to one a n o th e r when the Soul could be h e ard . 77 ^.11 men have a so u l and, t h e r e f o r e , the same access to t r u t h . Yet Emerson re c o g n ize d t h a t " in 75"N atu re," Works, I , 44-45. ^6 J o u r n a l s , II I, 491-492. C ro th ers s a i d o f Emer son t h a t "He aimed to c h a lle n g e us r a t h e r than to secure d o c ile accep tan ce to h is id e a s . He d id n o t a tte m p t a t any one time to s t a t e th e whole t r u t h . He p r e f e r r e d to s t a t e a h a l f t r u t h in such a manner t h a t we should be ready to supply th e o th e r h a l f . I n s te a d o f avoiding extreme o p in io n s , he w ished to have them c o n fro n t each o th e r in th e same m ind." C r o th e r s , p. 12. ^^H eart o f Em erson's J o u r n a l, p. 269. 89 alm ost a l l men" th e so u l is " o b s t r u c t e d and y e t u n b o rn ." The "mind o f th e m u ltitu d e " i s " s lu g g is h and p e r v e r t e d ," 7 8 "slow to open to the in c u r s io n s o f Reason . . . . A ccording to Em erson's p h ilo so p h y , one man cannot communicate t r u t h to a n o th e r , sin c e t r u t h i s a s t a t e o f mind. "Do you th in k e c s ta s y i s e v er communicable?" he 79 asked. The only a id one man can give a n o th e r , i n s o f a r as t r u t h is co ncerned, i s " 'i n c i d e n t a l , l a t e r a l , sy m p ath etic . I f we are t r u e and b e n e v o le n t, we can r e in f o r c e each o th e r by every a c t o r word. Your power s tim u la te s mine, and your 80 l i g h t k in d le s m i n e .'" The communicator can serv e as a m idw ife, h e lp in g o te h rs to give b i r t h to t h e i r own thoughts. While r e f l e c t i n g on h is own l e c t u r i n g e x p e r ie n c e , Emerson saw a g r e a t o p p o r tu n ity to become " a g i t a t e d to 81 a g i t a t e . " "He had th o u g h ts to share w ith h is au d ien ce, id e a l s g a th e re d from re a d in g and m e d ita tio n ; such had i n s p i r e d him, and might become a 'd i v i n i n g - r o d to t h e i r ^ "A m e ric an S c h o la r ," Complete E s s a y s , p. 49. ^ J o u r n a l s , VII, 522. ^ S a n b o r n is q u o tin g a l e t t e r o f Em erson's. " F ra n k lin Benjamin S an b o rn 's 'Concord N o te b o o k ,'" in T ran s c e n d e n ta l E p ilo g u e } Prim ary M a te ria ls fo r R esearch in Emerson, Thoreau, L i t e r a r y New England, th e In flu e n c e o f German Theology, and H igher C r i t i c i s m , ed. by Kenneth W alter C a m e r o n ( 3 v o l s . ; H a r tf o r d , C onn.: T ran sc en d e n ta l Books, 1965) , I I I , 50. ^ H e a r t o f Em erson's J o u r n a l , p. 207. 90 o n deeper n a t u r e s . " 1 The mind in every man is very w is e , "co u ld i t be ro used i n t o a c t i o n . " But most men, f o r most of t h e i r l i f e , "walk about in a s le e p . Men "want awak en in g . "84 This i s th e f u n c tio n Emerson would a s s ig n to h is id e a l o r a t o r , p r e a c h e r , o r te a c h e r : Get the so u l out of bed, out of h er deep, h a b i t u a l s le e p out i n t o God's u n iv e r s e , to a p e r c e p tio n o f i t s beauty and h e a rin g of i t s c a l l , and your v u lg a r man, your p ro sy s e l f i s h s e n s u a l i s t awakes; a god, and is conscious o f fo rc e to shake the w o r l d . 85 Em erson's g r e a t o r a t o r , m i n i s t e r , p h ilo s o p h e r , te a c h e r , or s c h o la r would fu n c tio n as a g a d fly . In the " D iv in ity School A d d re ss ," Emerson e x p la in e d what was to him the h ig h e s t f u n c tio n of th e o r a t o r . The tru e m in is te r or te a c h e r does n o t i n s t r u c t . He a g i t a t e s . He provokes.®^ ^ M a r b l e , p. 328. ^ J o u r n a l s , I I I , 237. 8 4 l b i d . , p. 278. "The (human) g e n e r ic so u l in each in d iv id u a l is a g i a n t overcome w ith s le e p which locks up alm ost a l l h is s e n s e s , § only leav es a l i t t l e s u p e r f i c i a l anim ation. Once in an age a t h e a rin g some deeper v o ic e , he l i f t s h is ir o n l i d s , § h is eyes s t r a i g h t p i e r c e through a l l a p p ea ra n ce s, 5 h is tongue t e l l s what s h a l l be in the l a s t e s t tim es: then i s he obeyed li k e a God, but q u ic k ly th e l i d s f a l l , 5 s le e p r e t u r n s . " Jo u r. § Mis., I l l , 278. ^ J o u r n a l s , II I , 278. 8 6nporj i n d is c o u r s e w ith a f r i e n d , our th o u g h t, h i t h e r t o wrapped in our c o n sc io u s n e s s , detach es i t s e l f , and allow s i t s e l f to be seen as a th o u g h t, in a manner as new and e n t e r t a i n i n g to us as to our companions. For p ro v o c a t i o n of th o u g h t, we use o u rs e lv e s and use each o th e r . Some p e r c e p t i o n s - - I th in k the b e s t - - a r e g ra n te d to the s in g le s o u l; they come from th e depth and go to the depth and are th e perm anent and c o n t r o l l i n g o n e s." " I n s p i r a t i o n , " Works, VIII, 292. 91 Meantime, w h i l s t the doors o f the tem ple s ta n d open n i g h t and day, b e fo re every man, and the o r a c le s o f t h i s t r u t h cease n e v er; i t i s guarded by one s t e r n c o n d itio n ; t h i s namely; i t is an i n t u i t i o n . I t cannot be re c e iv e d a t second hand. T ruly sp eak in g , i t is n o t i n s t r u c t i o n , b u t p r o v o c a tio n , t h a t I can r e c e iv e from a n o th er s o u l . 8 ? Emerson s a i d o f th e a c t o f communication: "A ll t h a t we care f o r in a man is th e t i d i n g s he gives us o f our own f a c u l t y through the new c o n d itio n s under which he ex- 8 8 h i b i t s th e Common S o u l." The o r a t o r does n o t s t r i v e to win a d m ira tio n f o r h im s e lf o r to persu ad e h is audience o f OQ h is the [orato r's] t r u t h s , b u t r a t h e r , he seeks to give men confidence in them selves and to i n s p i r e them to seek t h e i r own t r u t h . "When I see a man of g e n iu s , he always i n s p i r e s me w ith a f e e l i n g o f boundless confidence in my own pow- 90 e r s . " In h is e ssay on "S u c c e s s," Emerson s a id : "I gain my p o i n t , I gain a l l p o i n t s , i f I can re a ch my companion ®^"An A d d re ss," Works, I , 126-127. " j o u r n a l s , IV, 13. 89M cG iffert remarked t h a t even as a young m i n i s t e r Emerson was "n o t so much i n t e r e s t e d in c o n v e rtin g them [his co n g reg atio n ] to h is p o i n t o f view as in e x h i b i t i n g to them h is views f o r them to adopt i f they see f i t . 'I wish your c r e d i t and c o n s id e r a tio n to t h i s d o c tr in e no w hit f a r t h e r than i t fo rc e s i t s e l f on your own c o n v i c t i o n , ' he d e c la re s in one sermon (No. 32); in a n o th e r he i t a l i c i z e s words as i f to emphasize th e f a c t t h a t , ' I t is only so f a r as you f in d C h r i s t i a n i t y w ith in your own so u l t h a t I recommend i t .' (No. 8 8 ) . " M cG iffert, J r . , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " Young Emerson S p eak s, p. x ix . " j o u r n a l s , IV, 119. 92 w ith any sta te m e n t which te ac h e s him h is own w orth. In " R e p re s e n ta tiv e Men," Emerson d e s c rib e d h is con c e p t o f the g r e a t man, who i s a lso an e lo q u e n t sp ea k e r. "The fu n c tio n o f g r e a t men is to c a ta ly z e us in to s p i r i t u a l a c t i v i t y so we may d is c o v e r our own h ig h e s t n a tu re and d e s t i n y . " These g r e a t men "do n o t b rin g r e v e l a t i o n s from God to man, f o r a l l p o s s ib le il l u m i n a t i o n r e s id e s w ith in each man even though th e l i g h t may n o t y e t be r e v e a le d . W e are Q 9 'en d o g e n o u s'; we grow from w i t h i n ." The o r a t o r , the te a c h e r , th e g r e a t man would "persuade men to l i s t e n to t h e i r i n t e r i o r c o n v i c t i o n s . " ^ The f u n c tio n o f th e o r a t o r is to provoke men to s e e , f e e l , and l i v e by t h a t t r u t h t h a t comes from the Over- Soul, t h a t l i e s w ith in them w a itin g to be anim ated. "Who e v e r s e p a r a te s f o r us a t r u t h from our unconscious re a so n , " S u c c e s s ,” Works, VII, 294. "Emerson t o l d th e fo llo w in g in c i d e n t to dem onstrate how a good sp eak er can give h is l i s t e n e r s co n fid en ce in t h e i r own a b i l i t i e s . "When Campbell h e ard Joseph G erald defend h im s e lf in C o u rt, a t E dinburgh, he s a i d to th e s t r a n g e r n e x t him, 'By Heaven, s i r , t h a t is a g r e a t m an.' 'Y es, s i r , ' he answered; 'he i s n o t only a g r e a t man h im s e lf , b u t he makes every o th e r man f e e l g r e a t who l i s t e n s to him ." J o u r n a l s , VIII, 148. ^ K u r t z , p. 7. In "Uses o f G reat Men," Emerson s a id : "Man i s t h a t noble endogenous p l a n t which grows, l i k e the palm, from w ith in outw ard." L a te r in the same e s s a y , he added: "Man is endogenous and e d u c a tio n is h is u n fo ld in g . The a id we g e t from o th e rs i s m echanical com p a re d w ith th e d is c o v e r ie s o f n a tu r e in u s ." Works, IV, 6 - 8 . ^ J o u r n a l s , I I I , 3 74. 93 and makes i t an o b j e c t o f c o n scio u sn ess , draws t h a t is to say a f a c t o u t o f our l i f e and makes i t an o p in io n , must o f course be to us a g r e a t man." The s e c r e t of the o r a t o r 's dominion over h is audience is " t h a t he speaks t h a t which they reco g n ize as p a r t o f them b u t which they were n o t y e t i .«Q 4 ready to s a y ." Emerson d e fin e d "eloquence" as " the power to tr a n s - l a t e a t r u t h i n t o language p e r f e c t l y i n t e l l i g i b l e to the 9 5 p erso n to whom you sp e a k . " The p h ilo s o p h e r , o r a t o r , or te a c h e r was f o r Emerson " 'o n l y a more or le s s awkward t r a n s l a t o r o f th in g s in your own c o n s c io u s n e s s .' I f he, or anyone e ls e f a i l s in 'r e n d e r i n g back to you your own con s c i o u s n e s s , ' he sh o u ld be d ism isse d in fa v o r o f a n o th e r who ^ " L i t e r a t u r e ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 57. ^ T h e i t a l i c s are E m erson's. Emerson went on to say t h a t "He who would convince th e worthy Mr. Dunderhead o f any t r u t h which Dunderhead does n o t s e e , must be a mas t e r o f h is a r t . D eclam ation is common; but such p o s s e s s io n o f thought as is h ere r e q u ir e d , such p r a c t i c a l ch em istry as the co n v ersio n o f a t r u t h w r i t t e n in God's lan g u ag e’ i n t o a t r u t h in D underhead's language, i s one o f the most b e a u t i f u l and cogent weapons t h a t are fo rg ed in the shop o f the D ivine A r t i f i c e r . " "E lo q u en ce," Works, VIII, 130. Emerson s a id n e a r ly the same th in g in a jo u r n a l e n tr y : "Who could convince X [a U n ita r ia n clergyman] o f any t r u t h which he does n o t see (and what t r u t h does he see?) must be a m aster o f h is a r t . And eloquence is the power to t r a n s l a t e a t r u t h i n to language p e r f e c t l y i n t e l l i g i b l e to the p ersons to whom you speak. Is t h i s a v u lg a r power? Declam ation is common; b u t such p o s s e s s io n o f th o u g h t as is here r e q u ir e d , such p r a c t i c a l ch em istry as th e c o n v ersio n o f a t r u t h w r i t te n in God's lan g u ag e, i n t o a t r u t h in X 's lan g u ag e, is one o f the most b e a u t i f u l and cogent weapons ev er fo rg ed in the shop o f th e Divine a r t i f i c e r . " J o u r n a l s , VIII, 313. 94 may prove more capable o f t h i s e s s e n t i a l s e r v i c e . " Thus "th e job o f the o r a c u la r w r i t e r [or speaker] is sim ply to make you aware of your own r i c h e s . " 9^ James R u s s e ll Lowell b e lie v e d t h a t Em erson's p u r pose as a w r i t e r and sp eak er was to pro v id e " i n s p i r i n g h i n t s , a d i v in in g - r o d to your deeper n a t u r e . " 9 'r Em erson's l e c t u r e s " s e t t h a t ferm ent of wholesome d is c o n t e n t a t work in u s ," r e c a l l e d L o w e ll.9* * Em erson's "aim was to keep h is mind open to new l i g h t and to spur men up to doing the l i k e . " 0 0 Em erson's o r a t o r is a " p h y s i c ia n ." "Whether he speaks in th e C a p ita l or on a c a r t , he is the b e n e f a c to r t h a t l i f t s men above th e m s e lv e s , and c r e a te s a h ig h e r appe t i t e than he s a t i s f i e s . " 1 9 0 The sp eak er "sh o u ld s ta n d among h is fe llo w men as 9 ^Bishop, pp. 152-153. "Do n o t s u r re n d e r a t mercy to a book o r a sounding n o m e n clatu re," warned Emerson. " I n s i s t t h a t th e Bacon, the S p in o sa, the Hume, th e S c h e ll- in g , the K ant, o r whoever propounds to you a p h ilo so p h y is only a more o r le s s aukward [s i c ] t r a n s l a t o r o f th in g s in your co n scio u sn ess which you have a lso your own way o f s e e in g , perhaps of denom inating. Say th e n , i n s t e a d of too tim id ly p o rin g i n t o h is obscure sen se , t h a t he has n o t s u c ceeded in re n d e rin g back to you your c o n s c io u s n e s s ." "H ead," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 260-261. 9 ^James R u s s e ll Lowell, "Emerson th e L e c tu r e r ," My Study Window (Boston: Houghton M if f li n Company, 1871) , pi 377. 9 8 Ib id . , p. 381. 99Cabot, XI, 328. 100"E iO q u e n ce ," Complete W r itin g s , XI, 761-762. 95 one co al . . . in the f i r e i t has k in d le d , r a d i a t i n g h e a t , b u t l o s t in th e g e n e ra l f la m e s . 1,101 Thus " in p e r f e c t e lo q u en c e , the h e a r e r would lo se the sense o f dualism , o f h e a r in g from a n o th e r; would cease to d i s t i n g u i s h between the o r a t o r and h im s e lf ; would have the sense only o f high a c t i v i t y and p r o g r e s s . " 10* ^ This " a c t i v i t y and p ro g r e s s " in the soul would presum balby le a d to a change in c o n v ic tio n s and h a b i t s . Em erson's id e a l o r a t o r would be n o t only a p o e t, b u t a lso "a s e e r , a p r o p h e t, g i f t e d w ith the power to tra n s fo rm the l i v e s o f men by the s h e e r magic o f h is e lo q u e n c e ."103 Thus the goal of the o r a t o r , the end of eloquence is " to a l t e r in a p a i r o f h o u rs, perhaps in a h a l f h o u r 's d is c o u r s e , the c o n v ic tio n s and h a b i t s o f y e a r s . " 1 0 4 1 0 1 J o u r n a l s , IV, 18. What a p p lie s to the o r a t o r in th e assembly a lso a p p lie s to th e p re a c h e r in h is church. "A p r e a c h e r should be a l i v e co al to k in d le a l l the church." I b i d . , p . 170. 1 0 ^J o u r n a l s , V, 21. 10^Conrad W right, "Emerson, B a r z e l l a i F r o s t , and the D iv in ity School A d d re ss," H arvard T h e o lo g ic a l Review, XLIX (J a n u a ry , 1956), 24. 1 0 4 "E lo q u en ce," Works, VII, 64. The " i d e a l " e f f e c t o f e lo q u e n t speaking would be an awakening o f the l i s t e n e r to th e r e a l i t y o f h is d iv in e n a t u r e . This awakening o r in c r e a s e d awareness would presum ably le a d o r cause th e l i s te n e r to " a l t e r " "th e c o n v ic tio n s and h a b i t s o f y e a r s . " The awakening would be a d i r e c t e f f e c t o f h e a r in g the s p e a k e r. The change in c o n v ic tio n s or h a b i t s would be an i n d i r e c t e f f e c t . 96 Emerson spoke o f "th e p e r f e c t trium ph of th e o r a t o r which c o n s is ts in the oneness of h is audience ."^05 Emerson saw the sp eak er and h is audience n o t as s e p a r a te e n t i t i e s b u t as a " s i n g le organism " t h a t could be u n ite d (te m p o ra r i l y a t l e a s t ) through t h e i r s h a rin g in the Common Mind: An audience is n o t a sim ple a d d itio n o f th e i n d i v id u a ls t h a t compose i t . T h e ir sympathy g iv es them a c e r t a i n s o c i a l organism , which f i l l s each member, in h is own d e g re e, and most o f a l l the o r a t o r , as a j a r in a b a t t e r y is charged w ith th e whole e l e c t r i c i t y o f the b a t t e r y . 107 Thus the sp eak er is a f f e c t e d by h is speech as much as the audience. Eloquence should l i f t both "him t h a t speaks and them t h a t h e a r , abouve th e d u st and smoke o f l i f e , s e a rc h in g out every noble p u rp o se , every sublim e hope t h a t lu rk s in the s o u l . " In the i d e a l s i t u a t i o n b o th "th e sp eak er and h e a r e r become th e p ip e s on which a h ig h e r power s p e a k e th ." ! ^ 105"Edmund B urke," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I , 198. l ^ F o r a d e f i n i t i o n and d is c u s s io n of "Common Mind" see Chapter I I . 107"EiOqUence," Works, VII, 63. 108"The l e a s t e f f e c t of the o r a tio n is on th e o r a t o r . Yet i t is som ething; a f a i n t r e c o i l ; a k ic k in g o f the gun." J o u r. 8 Mis., V, 362. 109"The C h r i s t i a n M in is te r : P a r t 1 ," Young Emerson S p eak s, p. 26. Emerson saw the a r t i s t , th e o r a t o r as "an organ through which the u n i v e r s a l mind a c t s . " " A r t," Complete W r i t i n g s . I , 635. 97 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t th e re was "one Mind common to a l l in d iv id u a l men; t h a t what is in d iv id u a l is le s s than what i s u n i v e r s a l . . . I n s o f a r as men are guided by t h e i r Reason, t h e i r moral judgments w i l l be in harmony. T h e ir disagreem ents are caused by p e r s o n a l, p a r e n t a l , and p a t r i o t i c p r e j u d i c e s . Thus the r o le of e d u c a tio n should be to " sin k what is in d iv id u a l or p e rs o n a l in us" and "to s w e ll the in d iv id u a l to the o u tlin e s o f t h i s U n iv e rsal Man and b r in g out h is o r i g i n a l and m a je s tic p r o p o r t i o n s . " 1'1 '® The g r e a t a r t i s t is the man who can, f o r the moment a t l e a s t , s in k some o f h is in d iv id u a lis m and l i s t e n to h is Reason. "He t h a t purges out of h is thought every v e s tig e o f p e rs o n a l l i m i t a t i o n and r e s p i r e s the a i r o f pure t r u t h w i l l speak o r w r ite or do what is d u ra b le , what i s i n t e l l i g ib le to a l l times and c o u n tr ie s . The works o f such minds are the m a ste rp ie c e s o f a r t and l i t e r a t u r e . " 1 1 1 This p r i n c ip le a ls o a p p lie s to the m a ste rp ie c e s of o r a to r y . " E lo quence is the power which one man in an age p o s se ss e s o f p i e r c i n g the s u p e r f i c i a l c r u s ts of c o n d itio n s which d i s c rim in a te man from man and a d d re ss in g the common so u l of them a l l . " 11^ The o r a t o r may a t f i r s t d i s t r u s t "th e f i t n ess o f h is fran k c o n f e s s io n s , h is want of knowledge o f the 1 : 1® " In tr o d u c to r y ," E a rly L ectu res , XI, 11-12. 111 Void. 1 1 ^ " S o c ie ty , " E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 109. 98 p erso n s he a d d r e s s e s ," b u t i f he p e r s i s t s , he w i l l fin d t h a t "he i s th e complement o f h is h e a r e r s t h a t they d rin k h is words because he f u l f i l l s f o r them t h e i r own n a tu r e ; the deeper he dives in to h is p r i v a t e s t , s e c r e t e s t p r e s e n t i ment, to h is wonder he fin d s t h i s is the most a c c e p ta b le , most p u b l i c , most u n i v e r s a l l y t r u e . " H 3 Another f u n c tio n of Em erson's r h e t o r i c would be to p ro v id e s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n and abandonment f o r the sp eak er. " i t i s the v ic e o f our p u b lic speaking t h a t i t has n o t abandonment. Somewhere, n o t only every o r a to r b u t every man should l e t out a l l the r e i n s ; sh ould f in d o r make a fran k and h e a r ty e x p re s s io n of what fo rce and meaning is in him."-1 -1^ Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "th e p a i n t e r , the s c u l p t o r , the composer, the e p ic r h a p s o d i s t , th e o r a t o r , a l l p a rta k e one d e s i r e , namely to ex p ress them selves sy m m etrically and a b u n d an tly , n o t d w a rfis h ly and f r a g m e n t a r i l y . o r a t o r achieves tr u e s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n through abandonment, by allo w in g a h ig h e r mind and w i l l to o p e ra te through him. As Emerson s a id : There i s a p r i n c i p l e which i s the b a s is o f t h i n g s , which a l l speech aims to say , and a l l a c tio n to ev o lv e, a sim p le, q u i e t , u n d e sc rib e d , u n d e sc rib a b le p re s e n c e , 113"The American S c h o la r ," Works, I , 103. ■'■•^"Spiritual Laws," Complete W r itin g s , I , 168. Emerson s a i d t h a t " th e r e can be no g re a tn e s s w ith o u t aban donment." "Works and Days," I b i d . , p. 676. 115"The P o e t," I b i d . , p. 250. 99 dw elling very p e a c e fu lly in us our r i g h t f u l lo rd : we are not to do, but to l e t do; not to work, but to be worked upon; and to th i s homage th e re is a consent of a l l th o u g h tfu l and j u s t men in a l l ages and condi tio n s . 116 As a r t i s t s "we aim to hin d er our in d iv id u a lity from a c tin g . So much as we can shove aside our egotism , our p re ju d ic e and w i l l , and b rin g the omniscience of reason 117 upon the s u b je c t before us, so p e r f e c t is the work." For "the u n iv e rs a l soul is alone c re a to r of the u se fu l and the b e a u t i f u l; th e re fo re to make anything u se fu l or b e a u t i f u l, the in d iv id u a l must be subm itted to the u n iv e rsa l m in d ."H ^ This is e s p e c ia lly tru e of eloquence which aims at both use and beauty In eloquence, the g re a t triumphs of the a r t a re , when the o r a to r is l i f t e d above h im self; when con s c io u s ly he makes h im self the mere tongue of the H 6"W orship," Complete W ritin g s, I , 584-586. 117"A rt," Early L e c tu re s , XI, 49. ^ •^ I b i d . , p . 44. 119,,Eloquence is the u n iv e rsa l speech. Bad stam mering, vulgar t a l k , is the issu e of s e l f in the in d iv id u al. As f a s t as h is n a tu re r i s e s , and tr u th appears, and good is sought, so f a s t he loses mal-eloquence in eloquence. For ' t i s n o tic e d th a t a l l eloquence is uniform, one. Every thing bad is in d iv id u a l, id io s y n c r a tic . Everything good is u n iv e rsa l n a tu re . Wrong is p a r t i c u l a r . Right is u n iv e r s a l . " J o u r n a ls , XI, 324. "Every tru e work of a r t is a m a n ife sta tio n of the one Reason, the one mind." "A rt," Complete W ritin g s, I , 635. "He t h a t speaks the t r u t h executes no p r iv a te func tio n o f a sle n d e r in d iv id u a l w i l l , but the world u t t e r s a sound by h is l i p s . " " R e lig io n ," E arly L e c tu re s , XI, 86. 100 o cca sio n and the h o u r, and says what cannot b u t be s a i d . Hence the French p h ra se 1 * abandon, to d e sc rib e the s e l f - s u r r e n d e r o f the orator"! Not h is w i l l , b u t the p r i n c i p l e on which he i s h o r s e d , the g r e a t con nexion and c r i s i s of e v en ts th under in the e a r o f the crowd. 12 0 Emerson wanted "b o u n d less" freedom f o r h im s e lf and o t h e r s . Man i s f r e e only when he a c ts out o f c o n s c io u s ness , when h is a c tio n s are guided by h is i n t u i t i o n s . L ife sh o u ld be a c o n tin u a l q u e s t f o r t r u t h , a seek in g o f con s c io u s n e s s , o f oneness w ith God. However, most men, fo r most of t h e i r l i f e , wander about in an u n c o n sc io u sn ess, s le e p in g s t a t e . Emerson saw a l i m i t i n g i n s t i n c t in men t h a t causes them to a c c e p t the f i r s t dogma t h a t comes along. They o f te n p r e f e r rep o se to freedom. Emerson was opposed to a l l dogmatisms. He wanted men to r e a l i z e the d i v i n i t y w ith in them, to awaken and l i s t e n to t h e i r own s o u ls . Men need awakening. This sh o u ld be th e fu n c tio n o f the p re a c h e r and the o r a t o r . Em erson's i d e a l r h e t o r i c has two b a s i c fu n c tio n s . F i r s t , the eloquence o f th e o r a t o r 's words should serv e as a kind o f c a t a l y s t to awaken s p i r i t u a l " a c t i v i t y and p ro g r e s s " in the so u l of th e l i s t e n e r . S t a r t i n g from th e prem is e t h a t men can only d is c o v e r s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s from w ith in , Emerson concluded t h a t the r o le of the o r a t o r is n o t to give t r u t h s to men, b u t r a t h e r , to b rin g the t r u t h s t h a t 12 0 "A rt," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 49. See also J o u r n a ls , IV, 56. 101 e x i s t on an unconscious le v e l to th e l e v e l o f con scio u sn ess. Second, th e r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n sh o u ld p ro v id e an o p p o r t u n i t y fo r th e sp eak er to achieve s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n and aban donment. The Scope o f R h e to ric or Eloquence As a speech c r i t i c , Emerson commented f r e e l y on a l l types o f sp e a k in g , in c lu d in g p o l i t i c a l and f o r e n s i c sp ea k ing as w e ll as p re a c h in g ar l e c t u r i n g . However, th e p r a c t i c e o f th e f i r s t th r e e types sp eak in g would n o t come under h is concept o f r h e to r ic ■ p ro v o c a tio n . Em erson's i d e a l o r a t o r would be a s e l f l i a n t man. He must be f r e e 171 from p le d g es to p o l i t i c a l pai ; or r e l i g i o u s s e c t . The p o l i t i c i a n and the p r e a c h e r owe t h e i r f i r s t a lle g ia n c e to t h e i r p a r t y o r s e c t i f th ey are to rem ain in b u s in e s s . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t one's f i r s t a lle g ia n c e must be to t r u t h , n o t th e t r u t h as some group sees i t , n o t th e t r u t h as th e sp e a k e r saw i t y e s te r d a y , b u t th e t r u t h as he sees -*-^l"0 n ly th o se can h elp in counsel o r conduct who d id n o t make a p a r t y p led g e to defend t h i s o r t h a t , b u t who were a p p o in te d by God Almighty b e fo re they came in to the w orld, to s ta n d f o r t h i s which they u p h o ld ." "Wor s h i p , " Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 586. The a r t i s t "must d i s i n - d i v i d u a l i z e h im s e lf , and be a man o f no p a r t y , and no manner, and no age, b u t one through whom th e so u l o f a l l men c i r c u l a t e s , as th e common a i r through h is l u n g s ." " A r t," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 48-49. 102 i t to d a y. ^ 22 "I h a te p r e a c h in g ," wrote Emerson, "w hether in p u l p i t s or in t e a c h e r s ' m e etin g s. Preaching i s a pledge, and I w ish to say what I f e e l and th in k to - d a y , w ith the p ro v is o t h a t to-morrow perhaps I s h a l l c o n t r a d i c t i t a l l . Freedom boundless I w is h . " ^ - 2 3 Emerson c o n sid e re d a p re a c h e r to be no more than a r e t a i n e d a tto r n e y : I f I know your s e c t I a n t i c i p a t e your argument. I h e ar a p re a c h e r announce f o r h is t e x t and to p ic th e e x p e d i ency o f one of the i n s t i t u t i o n s of h is church. Do I n o t know b e fo reh an d t h a t n o t p o s s ib ly can he say a new l 22Emerson sa w " t h a t n o th in g stan d s s t i l l in N ature b u t d eath ; t h a t th e c r e a t i o n is on w h e els, in t r a n s i t , a l ways p a s s in g i n t o som ething e l s e . . . ." "P o e try and Im a g in a tio n ," Works, VIII, 4. T h e re fo re , "God, the moral elem en t, must e v er be new, an e l e c t r i c sp ark ; then i t a g i t a t e s and d e i f i e s us. The i n s t a n t when i t i s fix e d and made c h ro n ic , i t is hollow ness and c a n t. I t is th e d i f f e r ence between p o e ts and p r e a c h e r s ." J o u r n a l s , IV, 509. Such r a d ic a lis m as t h i s was bound to b rin g down c o n s i d e r able c r i t i c i s m on Emerson. Foremost among those who ob j e c t e d to Em erson's r a d i c a l id e a s was Andrews N orton. O b je ctin g to Em erson's p o s i t i o n , Norton s a id : "B efore he [the p re a c h e r] in c u l c a t e s any p e c u l i a r o p in io n s , he should have tho ro u g h ly s tu d ie d them, have c l e a r l y d e fin e d them to h i s own mind, have tr a c e d out t h e i r r e l a t i o n s , and have b e come p ersu ad ed t h a t f u tu r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l n o t le a d him to change them ." In the same d is c o u r s e , Norton went on to say t h a t "Judging from the p r a c t i c e of the day [re fe re n c e to Emerson and tra n s c e n d e n ta lism ], the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of which I speak is n o t g r e a t l y reg a rd ed ; and we may conclude from the language which is f r e e l y u sed , t h a t i t is n o t gen e r a l l y u n d e rsto o d . Men throw o u t t h e i r opinions r a s h ly , r e s e r v in g to them selves the l i b e r t y o f c o r r e c t in g them i f they are wrong. I f you would know fo r what d o c tr in e s they h o ld them selves r e s p o n s i b l e , you must look to t h e i r l a s t p u b l i c a t i o n . I t d eserv es p r a i s e we are t o l d , f o r one to confess h im s e lf to have been in e r r o r . " Andrews N orton, A D iscourse on th e L a s t e s t Form o f I n f i d e l i t y (Cambridge, Mass . : J . Owen, 1839] , p . 123J o u r n a l s , V, 252-253. 103 and spontaneous word? Do I not know th a t w ith a l l t h is o s t e n t a t i o n o f exam ining the grounds o f the i n s t i t u t i o n he w i l l do no such th in g? Do I not know th a t he i s p led g ed to h im s e lf n ot to look but at one s i d e , the p e r m itte d s i d e , not as a man, but as a p a r is h m in is te r ? He i s a r e ta in e d a t t o r n e y , and th e se a ir s o f the bench are the e m p tie s t a f f e c t a t i o n .124 Emerson's ep iste m o lo g y would tend to exclu de f o r e n s i c speaking from the scope o f h is i d e a l r h e t o r i c a l th eo ry . The l e g a l p r o f e s s io n demands "a l o g i c a l mode o f th in k in g and sp ea k in g ," fo r which Emerson had l i t t l e p a t i e n c e . 1^5 A ls o , Emerson had l i t t l e i n t e r e s t in the kinds o f q u e s tio n s w ith which f o r e n s i c sp eak ers d e a l t . Law i s concerned w ith the o rd erin g and r e g u la tin g o f s o c i e t y and the p r o t e c t in g o f p r o p e r ty . Although Emerson adm itted the n e c e s s i t y o f 19 f\ law in the m a t e r i a l, "apparent," or common sen se w orld, 1 2 4 " S e lf - R e lia n c e ," Complete E s s a y s , p. 150. 125"Now the p r o f e s s i o n o f law demands a good deal o f p e r so n a l a d d r e ss, an im pregnable con fid en ce in o n e 's own pow ers, upon a l l o c c a s io n s e x p ecte d and u n exp ected , and a l o g i c a l mode o f th in k in g and sp ea k in g --w h ic h I do not p o s s e s s and may n o t hope to o b ta in ." Heart o f Emerson's J o u r n a ls , p. 18. See a ls o Chapter II o f t h i s paper fo r Emer s o n 's o p in io n s o f l o g i c a l p r o o f and argum entation. 126Emerson n ever co m p letely abandoned the p r a c t i c a l or Yankee s id e o f h is n a tu r e . " It i s i n t e r e s t i n g to see Mr. Emerson's a p p r e c ia tio n o f firm ground under f o o t b e fo r e he takes h is f l i g h t , and h is r e s p e c t fo r the 'sa v in g common s e n s e ' as a needed fo u n d a tio n fo r uncommon s e n s e ." Edward Waldo Emerson, " N otes," Works, V II, 358. Common sen se i s the p e r c e p tio n o f "the r e l a t i o n s o f the outward or apparent w orld ." " E nglish L it e r a t u r e ," E arly L e c t u r e s , I , 300. Common sen se i s "the p e r c e p tio n o f m a tter," and " poverty, f r o s t , fam ine, d i s e a s e , d e b t, are the b e a d le s and guardsmen th a t h old us to common s e n s e ." "Poetry and Im agin ation ," Works, VIII, 3. 104 he m a in ta in ed t h a t the s p i r i t u a l developm ent of the i n d i v id u a l was more im p o rta n t than th e o rd e rin g of s o c i e t y . Lawyers and p o l i t i c i a n s u s u a ll y d e a l w ith q u e s tio n s o f a t r a n s i t o r y n a t u r e , q u e s tio n s "founded on low n a t u r e . " Emerson was concerned w ith perm anent q u e s tio n s o f a s p i r i t u a l n a tu r e . N othing in the u n iv e rs e had permanence o r " r e a l " s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r Emerson e x cep t the developm ent of the so u l and the r e a l i z a t i o n o f s p i r i t u a l laws.-*-^ The only " r e a l i t y " is th e c o n tin u a l "becoming " of the s o u l, y e t men h ate to admit t h i s fact, for in a d m ittin g t h i s f a c t, they degrade the " a p p a re n t" w orld to which they f e e l so a tta c h e d : This h i n t [ t h a t we are n o t to s ta y h e r e , t h a t e v e r y th in g is in t r a n s i t ] , however conveyed, u p s e ts our p o l i t i c s , m a rria g e s , nay, th e common sense sid e o f r e l i g i o n and l i t e r a t u r e , which are a l l founded on low n a t u r e , - - o n the c l e a r e s t and most econom ical mode of a d m in is te r in g the m a t e r ia l w o rld , c o n sid e re d as f i n a l . The ad m issio n , n e v er so c o v e r t l y , t h a t t h i s i s a m a k e s h ift, s e t s th e d u l l e s t b r a i n in ferm ent . . . . Emerson found l e c t u r i n g to be the mode o f speaking most a d a p ta b le to the needs o f h is p h ilo s o p h y , because i t allow ed the most freedom on the p a r t o f the sp ea k e r. A f te r 127nThin or s o l i d , e v e r y th in g is in f l i g h t . . . n o th in g f a s t b u t those i n v i s i b l e cords which we c a l l law s, on which a l l is s t r u n g . " "P o e try and Im a g in a tio n ," Works, VIII, 5. 128"This one f a c t th e w orld h a te s ; t h a t the so u l becom es; f o r t h a t f o r e v e r degrades . . . ." " S e lf - R e l ia n c e ," Works, XI, 69. 129"p0e t r y and I m a g in a tio n ," Works, VIII, 5-6. 105 p re a c h in g s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r th re e y ears in B oston, Emerson r e s ig n e d from the m in is tr y in 1832 to become a "lay 130 p re a c h e r and lyceum l e c t u r e r . " About t h i s tim e, he wrote in h is j o u r n a l : ". . . Cursed is p r e a c h i n g t h e b e t t e r i t i s , the w orse. A p re a c h e r is a b u lly : I who have p reach ed so m uch,--by the h e lp o f God w i l l n ev er 1 71 p re a ch m ore." As C arp en ter p o in te d o u t, Emerson d id n o t give up h is dream o f b ein g a r e l i g i o u s te a c h e r and o r a t o r when he re s ig n e d from the m in is tr y . R a th e r, "he m erely r e d e fin e d th e r e l i g i o u s te a c h e r more b ro a d ly as th e American s c h o l a r , and spoke w ith eloquence from the l e c t u r e p la tfo rm ISOEmerson l e f t the p u l p i t in 1832, b u t he con tin u e d to p re a ch in v a rio u s p u l p i t s when i n v i t e d to do so u n t i l about 1847. "In f a c t he was always a p r e a c h e r , though o f a s i n g u l a r and independent o rd e r. His chosen ta sk in the w orld was to b e f r ie n d and guide the in n e r l i f e o f man." Van Dyke, " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " S e le c t E s s a y s , p. 15. "Emerson has always c o n tin u e d a p r e a c h e r ," w rote Cooke. "He has n e v er l e c t u r e d to amuse, o r to i n t e r e s t , o r fo r money a lo n e . Nor has he le c t u r e d sim ply to i n s t r u c t , b u t to im prove, i n s p i r e , and reform . His aim has always been t h a t of the p r e a c h e r , d i f f e r i n g only in the manner of tre a tm e n t and in the range of m a tte r. He has been a p re a c h e r of r e l i g i o n as e x p re sse d in the garb o f th e p u r e s t m o r a lity . A p r e a c h e r w ith o u t a p u l p i t , he s u r e ly has been; b u t a l l th e more in flu e n c e has he w ie ld ed , because p e r f e c t l y f r e e to obey h is own conscience and to speak what has seemed to him th e t r u t h . " Cooke, p. 263. J o u rn a ls , VI, 363. N e v e r th e le s s , Emerson was ab le to say"] h ' Among p ro v o c a tio n s the n e x t b e s t th in g to good p re a c h in g is bad p re a c h in g . I have even more tho u g h ts d u rin g o r e n d u rin g i t than a t o th e r t i m e s . '" Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o te s ," Works, I , 428. 106 132 in s te a d o f the p u l p i t . " Emerson s a id : "I look upon the Lecture-room as th e tr u e church o f today and as the home o f a r i c h e r eloquence than F an eu il H all or the C a p ita l every knew."1^ Emerson was p le a s e d and e x c it e d by the p o t e n t i a l of the le c t u r e p la tf o r m and the freedom i t o f f e r e d the speaker: Lyceum.- -Here is a l l the tru e o r a t o r w i l l ask , f o r h e re is a c o n v e r tib le a u d ien ce, and h e re are no s t i f f c onventions t h a t p r e s c r i b e a method, a s t y l e , a li m i t e d q u o ta tio n o f books and an e x a c t r e s p e c t to c e r t a i n books, p e rso n s or o p in io n s . No, here e v e r y th in g is a d m is s ib le , p h ilo s o p h y , e t h i c s , d i v i n i t y , c r i t i c i s m , p o e tr y , humor, fun, m im icry, a n e c d o te s, jo k e s , v en t r i l o q u i s m , a l l the b re a d th and v e r s a t i l i t y o f the most l i b e r a l c o n v e r s a tio n ; h i g h e s t , lo w e st, p e r s o n a l, l o c a l t o p i c s , a l l are p e r m itte d , and a l l may be com b in e d in th e one s p e e c h ; - - i t i s a panharm onicon, - - every note on the lo n g e s t gamut, from the e x p lo sio n o f cannon, to the t i n k l e o f a g u i t a r . 134 The l e c t u r e p la tf o r m would p ro v id e "a p u l p i t t h a t makes o th e r p u l p i t s tame and i n e f f e c t u a l . . . ." Here on the le c t u r e p la tf o r m the sp eak er "may lay h im s e lf out u t t e r l y , l a r g e , enormous, p r o d i g a l , on the s u b je c t o f the -'-^ C a rp e n te r, Emerson Handbook, p. 15. Emerson d e c la re d t h a t he could "n o t p re a ch more e x ce p t from the Lyceum." L e t t e r s , XI, 120. ^ •^ J o u r n a l s . V, 298. Emerson "saw t h a t the a rg u ment 'p re a c h in g sh ould be as v a rio u s as our n a t u r e ' could be used to s u p p o rt the claim t h a t the tr u e p u l p i t is n o t in a s e c t a r i a n church a t a l l b u t in a le c t u r e room." B u e ll, p . 1 0 . •^ •^ Jo u rn als, V, 280. 107 hour. Here he may dare hope f o r e c s ta s y and e lo q u e n c e ."135 In a c o n v e r s a tio n w ith George Moore on A p ril 8 , 1836, Emer son p r a i s e d the " f l e x i b i l i t y " o f the new Lyceum system . Emerson t o l d Moore t h a t : . . . our Lyceum System may become th e grand o b j e c t o f p u b lic a t t e n t i o n , and the g r e a t organ by which to con vey i n s t r u c t i o n - - i t can be made as f l e x i b l e an I n s t i t u t i o n , as any t h a t ev er e x i s t e d , fo r conveying i n s t r u c tio n of any and every k in d . Here any man may come f o r t h , and broach any new o p in io n s - -may l e c t u r e upon any s u b j e c t from 'g ra v e to gay--from l i v e l y to s e v e r e 1 - - t h i s Lyceum System seems to be forming a new c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f our age. Two hundred y e a rs ago, the p u l p i t was the o r a c le from which went f o r t h decrees to the p e o p le . But t h i s i s now changed--and may n o t the le c tu re - ro o m be about to take th e p la c e in a degree of th e p u lp it? 1 3 6 Three y ears l a t e r , Emerson was s t i l l e x p re s s in g high e x p e c ta tio n s f o r t h i s new type o f s p ea k in g , t h i s new l i t e r a t u r e : A le c t u r e is a new l i t e r a t u r e , which leav es a sid e a l l t r a d i t i o n , tim e , p l a c e , c irc u m sta n c e , and a d d re sses an assembly as mere human b e in g s , no more. I t has n e v e r y e t been done w e ll. I t is an organ o f sublim e power, a panharmonicon f o r v a r i e t y o f n o te . But only th en is Ibid., p. 283. "A nother to p ic of th e t a l k was t h a t L yceum s,--so long as p eo p le w i l l l e t you say what you t h i n k - - a r e as good as any o t h e r . " J o u r. § Mis., V, 109. -*-^Moore i s q u o tin g a c o n v e rsa tio n w ith Emerson on A p ril 8 , 1836. "D iary o f George Moore, F rien d o f Em erson," in T ra n s c e n d e n ta l E p ilo g u e , I , 184. "I have sometimes th o u g h t," s a i d Emerson, " t h a t in o rd e r to be a good m in is t e r i t was n e c e s s a ry to leave the m in is tr y . The p r o f e s s i o n i s a n tiq u a te d . In an a l t e r e d age, we w orship in th e dead forms of our f o r e f a t h e r s . Were n o t a S o c r a tic paganism b e t t e r than an e f f e t e su p eran n u a te d C h r i s t i a n i t y . " J o u r. 8 Mis. , IV, p. 27. 108 th e o r a t o r s u c c e s s f u l when he is h im s e lf a g i t a t e d , and is as much a h e a r e r as any o f the assem bly. In t h a t o f f i c e you may and s h a l l (p le a se God!) y e t see th e e l e c t r i c i t y p a r t from the cloud and shine from one p a r t of heaven to the o t h e r . 137 By about 1840, however, Em erson's enthusiasm was dampened. Emerson was d is a p p o in te d in th e course o f l e c t u r e s he had j u s t com pleted: A new t h e a t r e , a new art, I s a i d , is mine. Let us see i f p h ilo s o p h y , i f e t h i c s , i f chirom ancy, i f the d i s covery of th e d iv in e in the house and th e b a rn , in a l l works and a l l p l a y s , cannot make the cheek b lu s h , the l i p q u iv e r , and the t e a r s t a r t . I will n o t waste my self. On the s t r e n g t h of th in g s I w i l l be b o rn e , and t r y i f F o ll y , Custom, C onvention, and Phlegm cannot be made to h e a r our sharp a r t i l l e r y . Alas! a la s ! I have n o t the r e c o l l e c t i o n of one s tro n g moment. A cold m echanical p r e p a r a t i o n f o r a d e liv e r y as d e c o r o u s ,-- f in e t h i n g s , p r e t t y t h i n g s , wise t h i n g s , - - b u t no arrows, no axes, no n e c t a r , no g ro w lin g , no t r a n s p i e r c i n g , no lo v in g , no e n c h a n t i n g .138 In a l e t t e r to h is o ld e r b r o t h e r , W illiam , Emerson again e x p re sse d h is sense of d is ap p o in tm en t w ith h im s e lf as a l e c t u r e r . He had com pleted a s e r i e s of l e c t u r e s , b u t he has f a l l e n s h o r t o f h is own s ta n d a rd s f o r e lo q u e n t speaking: -*-^J o u r n a l s , V, 234. Em erson's son n o ted t h a t h is f a t h e r looked on the l e c t u r e p la tf o r m as " h is fr e e p u l p i t . " "He took a h e a r ty i n t e r e s t i n , and had g r e a t hopes f o r the in f lu e n c e of t h a t a c ti v e focus o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l and s p i r i t u a l l i f e o f th e v i l l a g e f o r n e a r l y f i f t y y e a r s . This i n s t i t u t i o n was th e n new in New England. Concord was one o f the e a r l i e s t towns t h a t had formed such an a s s o c i a t i o n , o nly f i v e y e ars b e fo re Mr. Emerson came th e r e to l i v e . " Edward Waldo Emerson, Emerson in Concord, p. 73. Emerson o f te n se rv e d as C u rato r o f the Lyceum a t Concord, and he u s u a ll y a tte n d e d the m eetings o f th e Lyceum when in Concord. I b id . , pp. 373-374. 1^ J o u r n a l s , V. , 373-374. 109 I c lo se d my l e c t u r e s duly a week ago l a s t Wednesday Evening. I cannot say much f o r them in any r e s p e c t . I p le a s e d m yself b e fo re I began w ith s a y i n g , - - I w i l l t r y t h i s th in g once more because I have n o t y e t done what I would w ith i t . I w i l l a g i t a t e men being a g i t a t e d m yself. I who r a i l a t th e decorum § h arn ess of s o c ie ty why should I n o t speak very t r u t h , u n lim ite d , o v e r powering? But now u n h ap p ily the l e c t u r e s are e n d e d -- ten decorous speeches £ ? n o t one e x ta c y , n o t one r a p tu re , n o t one th u n d e r b o lt. Eloquence th e r e f o r e th e r e was n o n e .139 And why t h i s f a i l u r e ? Even th e l e c t u r e p la tf o r m has i t s p r a c t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s . A weekly s e r i e s o f l e c t u r e s d id n o t leav e enough time f o r adequate stu d y and p r e p a r a t i o n of each l e c t u r e , as Emerson e x p la in e d : I seem to la ck c o n s t i t u t i o n a l v ig o r to attem p t each t o p ic as I ought. I ought to seek to lay m y self out u t t e r l y , - - l a r g e , enormous, p r o d i g a l , upon th e s u b je c t o f the week. But a h a t e f u l e x p erien c e has ta u g h t me t h a t I can only expend, s a y , tw enty-one hours on each l e c t u r e , i f I would a lso be ready and able fo r the n e x t. Of c o u rs e , I spend m y self p r u d e n tly ; I econo mize; I cheapen; w hereof n o th in g grand e v er grew. Could I spend s i x t y hours on each, o r what is b e t t e r , had I such energy t h a t I could r a l l y th e l i g h t s and m ights o f s i x t y hours i n t o tw enty, I should h a te m yself l e s s , I should help my f r i e n d . Em erson's req u irem en ts fo r t r u e (or id e a l ) e l o quence would exclude most p re a c h in g as w e ll as most p o l i t i c a l and f o r e n s ic o r a to r y . Emerson r e q u ir e d t h a t the aim and methods o f the sp eak er be c o n s i s t e n t w ith the h ig h e s t moral law s. Em erson's i d e a l o r a t o r would be concerned w ith s p i r i t u a l q u e s tio n s o f a perm anent n a t u r e ; he would 139L e t t e r s , XI, 255. See a lso C abot, XI, 399. J o u rn a ls , V, 374. 110 reco g n ize t h a t th e only " r e a l i t y " is th e c o n tin u a l " b e coming" o f the s o u l. Most im p o r ta n t, Emerson r e q u ir e d t h a t the o r a t o r be an independent t h i n k e r , f r e e from p led g es to p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o r r e l i g i o u s s e c t . In h is own e x p e r ie n c e , Emerson found l e c t u r i n g to be th e mode of speaking most a d ap ta b le to the needs o f h is p h ilo so p h y because o f the freedom i t allow ed him. C o n s titu e n ts of Eloquence From h is study o f h i s t o r y and h is o b s e r v a tio n of the o r a to r s o f h is day, Emerson observed th r e e fundam ental req u irem en ts f o r " g r e a t e lo q u e n c e ." G reat eloquence can only come from ( 1 ) a sp e a k e r w ith s p e c i a l moral q u a l i t i e s , i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s , and n a t u r a l t a l e n t s ; ( 2 ) when g r e a t id e as or is s u e s are a t s ta k e ; and (3) in c e r t a i n p e rio d s o f h i s t o r y when the s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c lim a te is conducive to p u b lic speaking and the f r e e exchange of id e a s . Q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f th e O ra to r Although Emerson d id n o t use th e term eth o s or " e t h i c a l p r o o f ," he o fte n s t r e s s e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a s p e a k e r 's c h a r a c te r and h is a b i l i t y to e x e r t in flu e n c e on an audience. In fact, the most im p o rtan t q u a l i t y or r e quirem ent f o r Em erson's id e a l o r a t o r is p u r i t y and s t r e n g t h o f c h a r a c te r . In e v a lu a tin g b o th sp eak ers and sp ee c h es, I l l "Em erson's fundam ental s ta n d a rd is a moral o n e . "141 This i s seen in h is d e f i n i t i o n o f eloquence as " th e b e s t speech o f the b e s t s o u l . " ! ^ Emerson b e lie v e d , m oreover, t h a t the t a l e n t and a b i l i t y of an o r a t o r is dependent on h is c h a r a c t e r . "There is an in tim a te in te rd e p en d e n c e o f i n t e l l e c t and m o ra ls ." In fact, " t a l e n t un ifo rm ly s in k s w ith c h a r a c t e r . "143 Genius^^^ w i l l only grow when o n e 's eye i s on the e t e r n a l : The moral must be the measure of h e a l t h . I f your eye i s on the e t e r n a l , your i n t e l l e c t w i l l grow, and your o p in io n s and a c tio n s w i l l have a beau ty which no le a r n in g o r combined advantages o f o th e r men can r i v a l . The moment of your lo ss o f f a i t h and acceptance of th e l u c r a t i v e s ta n d a rd w i l l be marked in th e pause or s o l s t i c e of g e n iu s, th e seq u en t r e t r o g r e s s i o n , and the i n e v i t a b l e lo s s of a t t r a c t i o n to o th e r minds. The v u lg a r are s e n s ib le of the change in you, and o f your 1 4 l B a s k e r v i l l e , p. 151. 142Mg^0qUence} ii Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 639. 143tt^o r s j13_p ^ it Complete W ritin g s , I , 586. e lie v e d t h a t Emerson used the word "g en iu s" to mean i n t u i t i o n and the " se n tim e n t of v i r t u e . " G e ik ie , p. 6 . Genius f o r Emerson was "th e a f f ir m a ti o n o f superabundant p e rs o n a l fo rc e " and " r e c e p t i o n , the openness o f man to h is d eep est im pulse, th e maximum i n f l u x o f the d iv in e mind in to h is own." M a tth ie s s e n , p. 26. Cabot, summarizing Em erson's view s, s a i d t h a t "g en iu s is a s e n s i b i l i t y to a l l the im p ressio n s o f th e o u te r w o rld . I t is th e o rg a n ic motion of th e s o u l . " C abot, XI, 793. "Who is the man o f g e n iu s ? ," asked Emerson. "The man who h a th access to h is Mind [th e U n iv e rs a l Mind] and w orships i t , r e c e iv in g i t s i n f l u x w ith joy and obeying i t , becoming p a s s iv e to i t fo r love of i t . " Emerson went on to say t h a t "Genius i s n e v er anomalous. The g r e a t e s t genius is he in whom o th e r men own th e p re sen c e of a l a r g e r p o r t i o n o f t h e i r common n a tu re than is in them ." " S o c ie ty ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , XI, 99. 112 d e s c e n t, though they clap you on the back and c o n g ra t u l a t e you on your in c r e a s e d common-sense.145 The man of c h a r a c t e r makes the g r e a t e s t im pression on h is a u d i e n c e . L i k e w i s e , "a pause in the s p e a k e r 's own c h a r a c te r is very p r o p e r ly a lo ss of a t t r a c t i o n [to h is audience] . "447 ^he man Gf c h a r a c te r is " th e medium of the h ig h e s t in flu e n c e to a l l who are n o t on the same l e v e l . " Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t th e r e was a kind o f law o f g r a v i t a t io n t h a t a f f e c t s or c o n tro ls the in flu e n c e one man may have over a n o th e r. A ll men sta n d in a s c a le according to the p u r i t y of t h e i r c h a r a c t e r . "The w i l l of the pure runs down from a h ig h e r to a lower v e s s e l. This n a t u r a l fo rce 1 A 8 is no more to be w ith s to o d than any o th e r n a t u r a l f o r c e . " ^ ^ 0 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t the power or fo rc e t h a t an o r a t o r d e riv e d from h is c h a r a c te r was cu m u lativ e. T h ere fore, every p a s t a c tio n and e x p erien c e adds o r d e t r a c t s from the s p e a k e r 's in flu e n c e over h is audience a t any given moment. I t was the accum ulated fo rc e of c h a r a c te r which p u t "th u n d er in to Chatham's v o ic e . "149 " C h a ra c te r b rin g s 145"ty0r s h i p ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 586. l ^ T h u s Emerson a t t r i b u t e d F a th e r T a y lo r 's power over an audience to th e c h a r a c t e r and m anliness of the man. See Edward Waldo Emerson, "N o tes," Works, VIII, 384. 147nEi0quence ^it \Vorks_, VII, 94. 1 4 8 " c h a r a c te r ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 267. 1 4 9 " S e lf - R e lia n c e ," Complete E s s a y s , p. 156. 113 to w hatever i t does a g r e a t s u p e r f l u i t y of s tr e n g th . . . For example, when W ebster argued a ju r y case he im ported " a l l th e e x p erien c e o f S e n a te, and the s t a t e , and the man of th e w orld in to the county c o u r t . G r e a t o r a to r s must have s t r e n g t h of c h a r a c te r . "The power o f Chatham, o f P e r i c l e s , of L u th e r, r e s t e d on t h i s s t r e n g t h o f c h a r a c t e r , w hich, because i t d id n o t and could n o t f e a r anybody, made n o th in g of t h e i r a n t a g o n i s t s , and became sometimes exqui- 151 s i t e l y provoking and sometimes t e r r i f i c to th e s e ." G reat eloquence is r a r e because o f the t a l e n t s and powers i t r e q u i r e s . G reat o r a to r y i s "an example of p e r so n al a s c e n d e n c y a t o t a l and r e s u l t a n t power, r a r e , b e cause i t r e q u ir e s a r i c h co in cid en ce o f pow ers, i n t e l l e c t , w il l, sympathy, organs and, o v e r a l l , good fo rtu n e in the 15? c a u s e ." The s p e c i a l in g r e d ie n ts t h a t make a f o r c e f u l sp eak er are " c l e a r p e r c e p tio n s ; memory; power o f s ta te m e n t; lo g ic ; im a g in a tio n ; o r the s k i l l to c lo th e your th o u g h ts in •^Qj o u r n a l s , VI, 507. 51 "Eloquence ," Works , VII, 94-95. 152Emerson W e n t on to say t h a t " t h i s [eloquence] is a power o f many degrees and r e q u i r i n g in th e o r a t o r a g r e a t range o f f a c u l t y and e x p e rie n c e , r e q u ir in g a la r g e com p o s i t e man, such as N ature r a r e l y o rg a n iz e s ; so t h a t in our e x p erien c e we are fo rc e d to g a th e r up th e fig u r e in f r a g m ents, h e re one t a l e n t and th e re a n o th e r ." "E loquence," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 644. 114 n a t u r a l images . . . ."153 However, " h e a t" i s th e most e s s e n t i a l th in g f o r the o r a t o r . 1-54 G reat eloquence demands " a n t h r a c i t e c o a l. Coldness is the most f a t a l q u a l i t y . " 1 5 5 " T ra n sc e n d e n ta l eloquence does n o t appear u n t i l t h e r e is high te m p eratu re some w h e re ." 1 -5^ Heat comes from s i n c e r i t y . I t comes when you "speak what you do know and b e l i e v e ; and are answ erable f o r 15 7 every w ord." Heat comes of s i n c e r i t y , en th u siasm , cour- 1 C O age, high p r i n c i p l e s , and s o l i d f a c t s . Deep c o n v ic tio n s give an o r a t o r the power o f " p e r sonal ascen d en cy ." "The e lo q u e n t man is no b e a u t i f u l s p e a k e r, b u t one who is inw ardly and d e s p e r a te ly drunk w ith a c e r t a i n b e l i e f . . . ."159 j - j- as a man's c o n v ic tio n s and 15 3"E i0 qU ence," Complete W r i t i n g s , XI, 763. 1 5 4 "E lo q u en ce," Works, VIII, 129-130. 1 5 5 J o u r n a l s , VII, 152-153. "The s c h o la r wants n o t only time b u t warm tim e , good a n t h r a c i t e or canned coal to make every minute in the hour a v a i l . " J o u r n a l s , X, 303. 15^"Index Major to My M a n u s c rip ts ," in Em erson1s Workshop, I I , 51. 1 -5 7"E ioquence," Works , VIII, 129-130. 158"i t h a t W ebster and E v e r e tt and a ls o th e young p o l i t i c a l a s p i r a n t s o f M assach u setts sh o u ld h e a r Wendell P h i l l i p s sp ea k , were i t only f o r th e c a p i t a l le sso n in eloquence they m ight le a r n o f him. T h is, nam ely, t h a t the f i r s t and second and t h i r d p a r t o f th e a r t i s , to keep your f e e t always firm on a f a c t . " H eart o f Em erson's J o u r n a l s , p. 209. l 59J o u r n a l s , V II, 105. 115 the th ought f o r which he sta n d s t h a t give him a u t h o r i t y w ith an audience. Thus Emerson admonished th e sp eak er to "Let t h a t b e l i e f which you hold a lo n e , have f r e e c o u rs e ." Emerson a tte n d e d many speeches in h is l i f e t i m e and always he was le d to the same co n clu sio n : I have observed t h a t in a l l p u b lic sp ea k in g , th e ru le of the o r a t o r begins , n o t in th e a rra y o f h is f a c t s , b u t when h is deep c o n v ic tio n s , and the r i g h t and n e c e s s i t y he f e e l s to convey t h a t c o n v ic tio n to h is a u d ie n c e , - -when th e se sh in e and burn in h is a d d re ss; when the th ought which he stan d s f o r gives i t s own a u t h o r i t y to him, adds to him a g ran d er p e r s o n a l i t y , gives him v a l o r , b re a d th and new i n t e l l e c t u a l power, so t h a t n o t he, b u t mankind, seems to speak through h is l i p s . There i s a c e r t a i n t r a n s f i g u r a t i o n ; a l l g r e a t o r a to r s have i t , and men who wish to be o r a to r s sim u la te i t . 160 A s in c e r e b e l i e f in and a t o t a l commitment to o n e 's cause is the key to eloquence as Emerson saw i t . "Nothing can compensate f o r want o f b e l i e f ; no accom plishm ents, no t a l e n t s . " 1^* In f a c t , Emerson went so f a r as to say t h a t "every man who gives h im s e lf w holly up to a j u s t sen tim en t 162 which he l i v e s to i n c u l c a t e , w i l l be e lo q u e n t." Emerson s t a t e d t h a t "no man can e x e r t a l l h is 1 6 0 " G r e a tn e s s ," Works, VIII, 308-309. • ^ I j o u r n a l s , III, 375. "The most p ro d ig io u s g en iu s, a s e r a p h 's elo q u en ce, w i l l sham efully d e f e a t i t s own end, i f i t has n o t f i r s t won th e h e a r t o f the d efen d er to the cause he d e fe n d s." H eart o f Em erson's J o u r n a l , p. 20. 162'iThe C h r i s t i a n M in is te r : P a rt 1 ," Young Emerson S p e a k s, p. 20. 116 1 ^ 7 s t r e n g t h u n le ss he i s in e a r n e s t . " Emerson even re c o g n iz e d th e v alu e o f a c e r t a i n amount o f f a n a tic is m f o r the p e rfo rm e r. He found h is own " c a t h o l i c i t y o f mind" was n o t conducive to s u c c e s s f u l p re a c h in g . Thus he s t a t e d : 'T here i s no s tro n g perform ance w ith o u t a l i t t l e f a n a t icism in th e p e r f o r m e r ; ' and nowhere is i t more needed than in one who would c o n v ert men to b e t t e r ways of th in k in g about r e l i g i o n by d is c o u rse from the p u l p i t . A ll presum ptions are a g a in s t him, and they can be d i s lodged only by c r e a t i n g in the minds o f h is h e a r e r s a new s e t o f images making them see th e o b je c ts o f worship as he sees them; and f o r t h i s purpose th e re must be a s in g le n e s s of view t h a t p re e m p to rily excludes a l l o th e r v ie w s .164 Courage is a n o th e r e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t y fo r Em erson's i d e a l o r a t o r . " W e reckon th e b a r , the s e n a te , j o u r n a l ism and th e p u l p i t , p e a c e fu l p r o f e s s i o n s ; but you cannot escape th e demand f o r courage in th e s e , and c e r t a i n l y th e re i s no tr u e o r a t o r who is n o t a hero."-*-^ The o r a t o r must have the courage to t r u s t h is own c o n v ic t io n s , f o r " s e l f t r u s t is the essence o f h e ro is m ." "Herosim works in con t r a d i c t i o n to the voice of mankind, and in c o n t r a d i c t i o n , f o r a tim e , to the voice o f th e g r e a t and good. Heroism is 1 6 3 " L ite r a t u r e ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , 60. 164C abot, I , 326. 165Emerson, "Index Major to My M a n u s c rip ts ," in Em erson's Workshop, p. 50, Courage is a lso a req u irem en t f o r th e s c h o la r . For " th e r e can be no s c h o la r w ith o u t the h e r o ic m ind." "American S c h o la r ," Works, I I , 94. 166n£^0qU e n c e Complete W ritin g s , I I , 762 . 117 an obedience to a s e c r e t im pulse o f an i n d i v i d u a l 's c h a r a c t e r . "-*-67 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t i t was n e c e s sa ry "to liv e p u re ly " in o rd e r to make "your testim o n y i r r e s i s t i b l e ."168 Speaking to h im s e lf , he s a id : "Do b e lie v e so f a r in your d o c tr in e o f Compensation as to t r u s t t h a t g re a tn e s s cannot be cheaply p ro c u re d . S e l f d e n i a l § p e r s i s t i n g s e l f r e s p e c t [s i c ] can alone . . . sec u re t h e i r p ro p e r f r u i t s . " I f you want your words to be w orth som ething, you must always r e s p e c t y o u r s e l f and fo llo w the d i c t a t e s o f the v o ice w ith in : Act n a t u r a l l y , a c t from w i t h i n , n o t once or tw ic e , b u t from month to month, w ith o u t m is g iv in g , w ith o u t d e v ia t i o n , from y e a r to y e a r , § you s h a l l reap th e c o s tl y advantages o f moral accom plishm ents. Make h a ste to re c o n c ile you to y o u r s e l f 5 th e whole w orld s h a l l leap § run to be o f your o p in io n . Im prison t h a t stammering tongue w ith in i t s w h ite fence u n t i l you have a n e c e s s a ry sen tim en t o r a u s e f u l f a c t to u t t e r , § t h a t s a i d , be dumb ag ain . Then y our words w i l l weigh som ething, --two to n s , l i k e S t. J o h n ' s . 169 While Emerson made " s t r e n g t h o f c h a r a c te r " th e p r i mary req u irem en t f o r h is i d e a l o r a t o r , he d id n o t f a i l to 167"Heroism," E arly L e c t u r e s , I I , 331. Emerson n oted the d i f f e r e n t im p ressio n made by A lexander E v e r e tt and James Savage when they ad dressed an a u d ien ce. E v e r e tt was "very accom p lished," but he in s p ir e d no c o n fid en ce; " f o r he is n o t much of a man; the o t h e r , " t o l e r a b l y w ell eq u ip p ed , b u t is h im s e lf an u p r i g h t , s i n g l e - h e a r t e d man, p u rs u in g h is p a th by h i s own l i g h t s and in c ap a b le o f f e a r o r f a v o r ." J o u r n a l s , I I I , 375. 168»»i-t were w e ll to li v e p u r e l y , to make your word worth som ething. Deny y o u r s e l f cake 5 a le to make your <^witness^> testim o n y i r r e s i s t i b l e . " J o u r . § M is. , IV, 266. !69i b i d . , V, 38. 118 see th e im portance o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y . Emerson's i d e a l o r a t o r was a man capable o f u n d e rstan d in g and commu n i c a t i n g b o th th e f a c t s and the p r i n c i p l e s in v o lv ed in any i s s u e . Emerson admired t h a t kind of o r a to r y which "aims to e le v a te the s u b j e c t to i t s h ig h e s t p i t c h " and a t the same time " s t r i v e s to p u t the s u b je c t in to harmony w ith a l l p a r- 170 t i c u l a r and g e n e r a l views . . . ." Using P l a t o 's image of th e c h a r i o t e e r , Emerson s a id t h a t a speech must c o n ta in both high p r i n c i p l e s and down to e a r th f a c t s . Emerson seems to say t h a t th e speaker must s a t i s f y both the s p i r i t u a l and p r a c t i c a l (o r common-sense) sid e o f men: P h r a e d u s - h o r s e s , one winged, one n o t;1 7 1 th e re must be b o th . Burke had the high p r i n c i p l e s (in Chatham never a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n ) . Burke dragged them down to f a c t s which he n e v er lo se s s i g h t o f: he had a m ania, and y e t l ^ A n o r a t o r o f t h i s kind w i l l draw "arguments and i l l u s t r a t i o n s from a l l re g io n s of n a tu r e and a r t as i f to show t h a t a l l n a tu re and a l l s o c ie ty are in unison w ith the view t h a t is p r e s e n te d . . . ." "Edmund B urke," E a rly Lec tu r e s , I , 200. Emerson found B urke's eloquence to be ‘‘s u p e r io r to Demosthenes sin ce h is o r a to r y has th e narrow and comprehensive view t o g e t h e r - - b e s i d e s th e f a r s ig h te d n e s s which en ab les him to f o r e c a s t the course o f the French Rev o lu tio n - -he has th e a b i l i t y to see th e p r i n c i p l e s behind th e immediate problem , indeed he 'b ro u g h t p r i n c i p l e s to b e a r upon th e p u b lic b u s in e s s o f E ngland." Edmund G. B erry , Em erson's Pl u t a r c h (Cambridge: Harvard U n iv e rs ity P r e s s , 1961) , pp. 260-261. Emerson i s h ere r e f e r r i n g to P l a t o 's d e s c r i p t i o n of the soul under th e image o f two winged h o rse s and a c h a r i o t e e r in the " P h a ed ru s." One horse r e p r e s e n ts the so u l and honor, the o th e r horse r e p r e s e n ts the body and the p a ss io n s o r a p p e t i t e . "P h a ed ru s," The Works o f P l a t o , ed. by Ir v in g Edman (New York: Tudor P u b lish in g Company, 1934) , p. 275. 119 a ls o gives Mosaic acc o u n ts. You must speak always from h ig h e r ground. W ebster d o e s . 172 Emerson’s id e a l o r a t o r had n o t only " s t r e n g t h of c h a r a c te r " and s tro n g i n t e l l e c t u a l pow ers, b u t a lso a deep commitment to the se a rc h f o r t r u t h . The d isco v e ry o f t r u t h must be more im p o rta n t to the sp eak er than the w r iti n g or d e l i v e r i n g of sp eech es. He must be d e d ic a te d f i r s t to 1 7 7 t r u t h and only second to h is a r t . ' Emerson s t a t e d as a r u le o f d is c o u r s e t h a t t r u t h must always be "th e end and a im ."174 T his f s s e en in h is comment t h a t "L ectu res are a few re a so n a b le words to keep us in mind of t r u t h amidst 172J o u r n a l s , V I I I , 152-153. M atth iessen saw in Em erson's own w r iti n g s an e f f o r t to r e c o n c ile two d i f f e r e n t a s p e c ts o f h is n a t u r e - - "untram m elled s p e c u la tio n " and "Yankee p r a c t i c a l i t y . " M a tth ie s s e n , p. 15. A pparently Emerson looked f o r t h i s same com bination in o th e r w r i t e r s and s p e a k e rs. 173"i am a£r a i(i t h a t the b r i l l i a n t w r i t e r s very r a r e l y f e e l th e d e ep e st i n t e r e s t in t r u t h i t s e l f . Even my noble Scotchman [ C a r ly le ] , I fa n c y , f e e l s so s tr o n g ly h is v o c a tio n to p ro d u ce, t h a t he would n o t l i s t e n w ith h a l f the u n fe ig n e d joy to a sim ple o r a c le in th e woods t h a t Hosmer o r Hunt [Emerson's n eig h b o rs in Concord] would fin d . He is c e r t a i n l y d e d ic a te d to h is book to th e communication and the form o f t h a t he knows. Yet he ought to f e e l more cu rio u s to know the t r u t h than anxious to e x h i b i t what he knows. Yet what i s any man’s book compared w ith the un- d is c o v e ra b le A ll? " J o u r n a l s , IV, 66. 174Mwhen th e r e f o r e in argument you convince your opponent remember t h a t i t is t r u t h and n o t you t h a t w ins, and so be n o t e l a t e , b u t g r a t e f u l t h a t th e a tta in m e n t of i t i s given to you. But when you are overcome by f a i r a rg u ment and f in d your re a so n in g s f a l s e and v ain then i f you keep your humour i t is you t h a t w in s ." " C o n v e rs a tio n ," Young Emerson Speaks, p. 65. 120 175 our n o n se n se ." The man who speaks the t r u t h w i l l be " i n v i n c i b l e . Emerson had f a i t h in the c a p a c ity o f most men to d i s t i n g u i s h between t r u t h and fa lse h o o d . T a le n t alone may e n t e r t a i n and p le a s e an au d ien ce, b u t i t w i l l n o t con vince them. Men cannot speak w ith a u t h o r i t y w ith o u t " t r u t h s o f a u t h o r i t y . " Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t " t r u t h always co n v in ces, and people always know w hether they have been convinced o r n o t. There is t h e r e f o r e no a r t i f i c e p o s s ib le in d e a lin g w ith t r u t h . He t h a t h ath i t in h im s e lf w i l l 17 7 move you. He w i l l speak w ith a u t h o r i t y ."■*•' Emerson e x p re ssed h is disagreem ent w ith te a c h e r s who say t h a t the m u ltitu d e cannot d i s t i n g u i s h between "good manner and good m a t t e r " : There is n e v e r th e le s s a f o o l i s h b e l i e f among te a c h e rs t h a t the m u ltitu d e are n o t wise enough to d is c e r n b e tween good manner and good m a tte r , and t h a t voice and r h e t o r i c w i l l s ta n d , in s te a d o f t r u t h . They can t e l l w e ll enough w hether they have been convinced o r no. The m u ltitu d e suppose o f te n t h a t g r e a t t a l e n t s are n e c e s sa ry to produce th e e la b o r a te harangues which th ey h e a r w ith o u t emotion o r consequence, and so they s a y , What a fin e sp e a k e r, What a good d is c o u r s e ; b u t they w i l l n o t leave any a g re ea b le employment to go a g a in , and n ev er w i l l do a s in g le th in g in consequence -*-^5J o u r n a l s , V II, 82. man is i n v i n c i b l e , be h is cause g r e a t o r sm a ll, an a b s t r a c t p r i n c i p l e , o r a p e t t y f a c t , whenever he e x p re sse s the sim ple t r u t h . This makes th e cogency o f th e t a l k o f common p e o p le ." J o u r n a l s , I I , 311. 177"The A u th o rity o f J e s u s ," Young Emerson S p eak s, p . 95. 121 of having h eard the d is c o u r s e . But l e t them h e ar one o f th e se G od-taught te a c h e rs and they s u r re n d e r to him. They leav e t h e i r work to come a g ain ; they go home and th in k and t a l k and a c t as he s a id . Men know t r u t h as q u ick as they see i t . 178 This passage was re c o rd ed in Em erson's jo u r n a l in 1830. Seven y e a rs l a t e r , in B oston, Emerson d e liv e r e d a l e c t u r e on "The P r e s e n t Age" in which he appears to have c o n tr a d ic t e d h is e a r l i e r p o s i t i o n on th e judgment of the m u ltitu d e . Emerson accused both the sp eak ers and audiences of h is day o f being more concerned w ith p r o p r i e t y and deco rum than w ith t r u t h . Emerson d e s c rib e d h is time as an age of decorum when " f l u e n t speech" and " p r o p r ie ty " could su p ersed e " p l a i n d e a lin g and high th i n k i n g ." He gave th e fo llo w in g d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s o r a to r y o f decorum: The r e p o r t e r s say in the newspapers t h a t t h i s and t h a t g r e a t s e n a to r in th e h e a t of debate screamed w ith p a ss io n a t the o u trag e o f f e r e d to the laws. They did n o t th in k so when they w rote i t , and nobody b e lie v e s i t was a n y th in g e l s e than a f i n e , w ise , o r a t o r i c a l scream. The l i t e r a r y , th e p h i l a n t h r o p i c , even the r e l i g i o u s a s s o c ia ti o n s are i n f e c t e d w ith th e g e n e ra l g e n tle n e s s . The em inent p r o p r i e t y o f the s p e a k e r 's manner answers to the audience th e same purpose as i f he s a i d somewhat. A ll p eople agree i t i s a good speech. I f the a c to r s are w ith o u t p u rp o se , i f the t a l k e r s are w ith o u t method, i f th e re a so n e rs are w ith o u t an id e a , Decorum is a cloak t h a t covers a l l . You s h a l l hear in d eb ates where a gentlem an s h a l l speak and make as i f he was in e a r n e s t w ith p a t h e t i c tones and g e s tu r e s and th e most approved e x p re s s io n s and a l l about n o th in g ; and he s h a l l be answered by o th e rs w ith equal ap p aren t e a r n e s tn e s s and s t i l l i t is a l l n o th in g . There s h a l l be g r e a t a p p aratu s o f c h a r i t y and no id e a a t th e fo u n d a tio n o f t h e i r z e a l. The b u ild in g seems to grudge i t s 178J o u r n a l s , I I , 296-297. 122 r e n t i f th e assembly do n o t t h e i r tim e. The q u e s tio n w ith us i s who is th e most decorous man and no longer who speaks th e t r u t h . 179 With age and e x p e r ie n c e , Emerson a p p a r e n tly became le s s c o n fid e n t in th e judgment o f the m u ltit u d e , b u t he never changed h is mind about the n e c e s s i t y o f high p r i n c i p l e s and s o l i d f a c t s in every speech. Emerson re c o g n iz e d t h a t sp eak ers o f te n win p u b lic acclaim w ith a showy speech t h a t ig n o re s sound id e as and f a c t s . There are always sp eak ers "who im p art t h e i r c o n v ic tio n s as i f by h e a r t to t h e i r audiences and n o t by the mind; whom every body d e l i g h t s to h e a r by whom every body is i n s ta n ta n e o u s ly p ersu ad ed . . . ." The p e r s u a s io n , however, is only tem porary. The sp eak er used n e i t h e r f a c t s nor arguments "and when th e h e a r e r r e tu r n s home i n t o x i c a t e d 179"The P r e s e n t Age," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , 162-163. Emerson o b served t h a t "g en u in en ess" i s a r a r e q u a l i t y among most p u b l i c s p e a k e r s . "Landor w r ite s t h a t 'no man ever argued so f a i r l y as he might have d o n e .' And in a r e f l e c t i n g h ig h ly c u l t i v a t e d s o c ie ty i t seems as i f no man could ever be in a p a s s io n , o r a c t w ith a n e g l i g e n t s e l f - f o r g e t t i n g g r e a t n e s s . Can W ebster in the American Senate f o r {onep any c o n ce iv a b le p u b l i c o u tr a g e , scream w ith r e a l p a ss io n ? The r e p o r t e r s say he d id the o th e r day. They did n o t th in k so when they wrote i t , § nobody b e lie v e s i t was any th in g e l s e than a f in e wise o r a t o r i c a l scream ." J o u r . § M is. , V, 21. I t is much e a s i e r f o r the farm er to be s in c e r e and genuine than i t is f o r the p re a c h e r or p u b lic sp eak er. "To be genuine. Goethe they say was w holly so. The d i f f i c u l t y in c r e a s e s w ith the g i f t s o f the in d i v i d u a l . A ploughboy can b e, b u t a m i n i s t e r , an o r a t o r , an in g e n io u s t h i n k e r , how h a rd ly ! George Fox was. "What I am in w o rd s ,' he s a i d , 'I am the same in l i f e . ' Swedenborg was. 'My w r iti n g s w i l l be fo u n d ,' he s a i d , 'a n o th e r s e l f . ' " J o u r. § M is. , IV, 37-38. 123 w ith e x citem e n t and v e n tin g h im s e lf in s u p e r l a t i v e s , he cannot r e c a l l a r e a s o n , a s ta t e m e n t, s c a rc e a sen tim en t even f o r the c u r i o s i t y of i n q u i r e r s . " 180 Emerson warned a g a in s t t h i s kind o f " sh a llo w n e ss" which can le ad to c o r r u p tio n of both the sp ea k e r and h is audience. True a r t and tr u e o r a to r y w i l l come only from s in c e r e c o n v ic tio n s and a concern w ith t r u t h : Our people have f a l s e d e l i g h t in t a l e n t , in a showy sp eech , a lawyer who can c a r r y h is p o i n t , in W ebster, C hoate, B u t l e r , Banks, in M acaulay, and in innum erable Goughs and D unlaps, w ith o u t c o n sid e rin g t h e i r soundness or t r u t h . But the measure in a r t and in i n t e l l e c t is one; To what end? Is i t yours to do? Are you bound by c h a r a c t e r and c o n v ic tio n to t h a t p a r t you take? The very d e f i n i t i o n o f a r t i s , th e i n s p i r a t i o n of a j u s t d esign working through a l l th e d e t a i l s . But the fo r s a k in g [s i c ] the d esign to produce e f f e c t by showy d e t a i l s is the ru in of any work. Then begins sh allo w n ess of e f f e c t ; i n t e l l e c t u a l b ankruptcy o f the a r t i s t . A ll goes wrong; a r t i s t and p u b lic a lik e c o r r u p t each o th e r . Now th e p u b lic are always c h ild r e n The m a jo rity are young and i g n o r a n t, unable to d i s t i n guish t i n s e l from g o ld , ornament from b e au ty . But the s c h o la r must keep f a i t h w ith h im s e lf. His s h e e t-a n c h o r is s i n c e r i t y , and when he lo s e s t h i s , he lo s e s r e a l l y th e t a l e n t of h is t a l e n t . 181 The o r a t o r can address h im s e lf to th e low est common denom inator or the h i g h e s t i n s t i n c t s in h is au d ien ce. I f 180 1 1^d.mUnd. B urke," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I , 199. "I see the young men lik e to speak a t p u b lic m eetings j u s t as they would take e x h i l a r a t i n g gas ' t i s so p r e t t y an i n t o x i c a t i o n . 0 fo r th e days o f th e L ocrian h a l t e r s a g a in ." J o u r. 5 M is. V, 60. Emerson c a l l e d f o r a "S p artan " s t y l e of d is c o u r s e . "The S p artan i s r e s p e c ta b le § s tr o n g who speaks what must be spoken; b u t th e se gay A thenians t h a t go up § down the w orld making a l l t a l k a R e c i t a t i i o n , ta l k i n g fo r d i s p l a y , d i s g u s t . " J o u r. 5 M is. , V, 114. 181J o u r n a l s , IX, 527-528. 124 the m a jo r ity of men are "unable to d i s t i n g u i s h t i n s e l from g o ld ," then th e o r a t o r can g e t away w ith s a c r i f i c i n g p r i n c ip le s f o r e f f e c t , b u t i f he does t h i s , he lo s e s power h is au d ien ce. When he v i o l a t e s the t r u t h to p le a s e them, they take command o f him.-1 - ^ on the o t h e r hand, the o r a t o r who w ishes to address th e h ig h e s t i n s t i n c t o f the audience w i l l f i n d t h a t they have a " c a p a c ity f o r v i r t u e " and a r e a d in e s s f o r h is message: There is a lso som ething e x c e l l e n t in every a u d ie n c e ,-- th e c a p a c ity o f v i r t u e . They are ready to be b e a u t i f i e d . They know so much more than the o r a t o r , - - a n d are so j u s t ! There i s a t a b l e t th e r e f o r every li n e he can i n s c r i b e , though he sh ould mount to the h ig h e s t l e v e l s . Humble p erso n s are conscious o f new i l l u m i n a t i o n ; narrow brows expand w ith e n la r g e d a f f e c t i o n s ; - - d e l i c a t e s p i r i t s , long unknown to th e m se lv e s, masked and m u ffled in c o a r s e s t f o r t u n e s , who now h e a r t h e i r own n a tiv e language f o r the f i r s t tim e, and leap to h e a r i t . 183 The g re a tn e s s o f a speech w i l l co rresp o n d to the g r e a tn e s s o f th e s p e a k e r. Emerson saw c h a r a c t e r as the most im p o rta n t req u irem en t f o r the o r a t o r . S i n c e r i t y , e n th u sia sm , a sense of the r i g h t n e s s and t r u t h f u l n e s s o f o n e 's c au se , and the courage to say what should be s a i d - - th e se were the q u a l i t i e s t h a t Emerson admired in p u b lic sp eak ers and r e q u ir e d f o r h is " i d e a l " o r a t o r . He admired 1 8 2 " it is a r u le of elo q u en c e , t h a t the moment the o r a t o r lo s e s command of h is a u d ie n c e , th e audience commands h im ." "P o etry and Im a g in a tio n ," Complete W ritin g s , I I , 736. 183i'Eioquence ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 640-641. 125 th e se q u a l i t i e s , b u t he d id n o t n e c e s s a r i l y e x p ec t to f in d them in th e p o l i t i c a l , f o r e n s i c , and r e l i g i o u s sp eak ers o f t h i s p r a c t i c a l w orld. G reat Ideas and Im p o rtan t Issu e s A g r e a t i d e a l can make an o r a t o r . "I have seen the ado p tio n o f a p r i n c i p l e tra n s fo rm a p r o s e r in to an o r a t o r . "184 Emerson i n s i s t e d t h a t only a " g r e a t p r i n c i p l e " or a " l o f t y se n tim e n t" could awaken tr u e eloquence: What i s i t t h a t b rin g s th e blo o d in an i n s t a n t to a thousand faces? Not appeals to mean p a s s io n s ; n o t the prom ise o f p lu n d e r o r any p r e s e n t advantage; f o r i f t h i s g r a t i f i e d one i t would rouse th e in d ig n a tio n of a n o th e r. N o--but th e announcing o f a g r e a t and generous p r i n c i p l e ; the u t t e r a n c e s o f a l o f t y s e n t i ment; th e d e te r m in a tio n to be f r e e ; th e d e te r m in a tio n to abide by the r i g h t - - t h i s k n i t s i n t o one a l l the d is c o r d a n t p a r t s o f t h a t l i v i n g mass, in a b r e a t h l e s s s i l e n c e , o r a th u n d er of a cc la m atio n . An assembly o f men i s sea rc h ed by p r i n c i p l e s as an assembly o f angels might be. A p r i n c i p l e seems to sw e ll to a s o r t of om nipotence, so s le n d e r a c r e a tu r e as m an.185 S o c ia l and P o l i t i c a l Clim ate Conducive to G reat Eloquence' Emerson s a id t h a t " th e p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l c o n d i tio n s f o r eloquence always e x i s t . I t is always dying out o f famous p la c e s and a p p earin g in c o r n e r s ." E loquent o r a t o r s w i l l appear "w herever the p o l a r i t i e s m eet, w herever the f r e s h moral s e n tim e n t, the i n s t i n c t o f freedom and 184J o u rn a ls , I I I , 515-51-6. 185Mg0C^e ^.y ,n E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , 109-110. 126 d u ty , come in d i r e c t o p p o s itio n to f o s s i l co n se rv a tism and th e t h i r s t o f gain . . . ." Emerson re c o g n iz e d the opposi- 186 t io n o f s la v e r y as "a f r u i t f u l n u rs e ry o f o r a t o r s . " His son, Edward Waldo, r e c a l l e d t h a t "Mr. Emerson used to say la u g h in g ly , ’Eloquence is dog-cheap a t an A n ti-S la v e ry m eeting, 18 8 Although e v ery man is a p o t e n t i a l o r a t o r , ° g r e a t o r a to r s appear only in those p e rio d s when " g r e a t sentim ents" are deeply f e l t and when men have the freedom to express 1 8Q th o se s e n tim e n ts . There are g r e a t e ra s of p a i n t i n g and e ra s of g r e a t o r a to ry : The h i s t o r i a n P a te r c u lu s says o f C ic ero , t h a t only in C ic e r o 's l i f e t i m e was any g r e a t eloquence in Rome; so i t was s a i d t h a t no member o f e i t h e r house o f th e B r i t i s h P a rlia m e n t w i l l be ranked among the o r a t o r s , whom Lord North d id n o t see or who d id n o t see Lord N orth. But I sh ould r a t h e r say t h a t when a g r e a t s e n tim e n t, as r e l i g i o n o r l i b e r t y , makes i t s e l f deeply f e l t in any age or c o u n try , th en g r e a t o r a to r s appear. As the Andes and A lle g h a n ie s i n d i c a t e th e l i n e o f the f i s s u r e in th e c r u s t of th e e a r t h along which th ey were l i f t e d , so g r e a t id e a s t h a t suddenly expand a t any moment th e mind of mankind, i n d i c a t e them selves by o r a t o r s .190 The appearance of g r e a t o r a to r s is an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t th e re 186"E lo q u en ce," Works, V II, 95. IS^Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes," I b i d . , p. 372. ^ ■ 88"E lo q u en ce," Complete W r i t i n g s , I I , 639. 109gmerson s a id 0 £ elo q u en c e , " I t i s em in en tly the a r t which only f l u r i s h e s in f r e e c o u n t r i e s . " I b i d . , p . 761. 19° I b i d . , p. 768. 127 are g r e a t id eas ferm en tin g w ith in t h e i r s o c i e t y . For only g r e a t id e as and a n o b le cause can awaken the so u l and allow men to speak from t h e i r Reason. Study and P r a c tic e versus Genius and T alen t One of the o ld q u e s tio n s t h a t r h e t o r i c i a n s have o fte n pondered i s w hether g r e a t speakers are the r e s u l t o f in n a te genius and t a l e n t or of study and p r a c t i c e . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t a l l men were p o t e n t i a l o r a t o r s . Eloquence, l i k e swimming, is "an a r t which a l l men might l e a r n , though so few do."-*-^1 Like swimming, eloquence depends p r im a r i ly on p r a c t i c e . " P r a c tic e is n i n e - t e n t h s . A course o f mobs is good p r a c t i c e f o r o r a t o r s . - ^ 3 A ll the g r e a t sp ea k e rs were bad sp eak ers a t f i r s t . Stumping i t through Eng la n d f o r seven y e ars made Cobden a consummate d e b a te r. 191"Eioquence," Works, V I I I , 119. l ^ W h i l e a s tu d e n t a t H arvard, Emerson w rote to h is b r o t h e r , Edward, about an o r a t o r i c a l e x h i b i t i o n given by a Mr. O g ilv ie . " A fte r the boys had spoken," w rote Emerson, "Mr. O g ilv ie s a id a l i t t l e de o r a t o r e --h e t o l d u s , t h a t i t was as easy to teach youth dancing by diagram s as Eloquence by l e c t u r i n g ; b u t t h a t i t was to be l e a r n t by c o n s ta n t p r a c t i c e . . . ." L e t t e r s , I I , 32. 193"3e f ore h e [Emerson] le a rn e d from h is e x p erien c e in cou n try lyceums how to i n t e r e s t and quicken u n c u l t i v a t e d h e a r e r s w ith o u t low ering th e th o u g h t, an acq u a in ta n ce p r e s c r ib e d f o r him ’a course of mobs to c o r r e c t my q u a in tn e ss and tr a n s c e n d e n ta lis m . And I might have found i t as good from me as a w a te r -c u r e fo r p a ra ly z e d s to m a c h s .'" Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o te s ," Works, V II, 365. 128 Stumping i t through New England f o r tw ice seven t r a i n e d Wendell P h i l l i p s . " 194 Although " p r a c t i c e i s n i n e t e n t h s " o f th e a r t of r h e t o r i c , i t is n o t e v e r y th in g . The g r e a t e s t a r t r e q u ir e s g e n iu s, and genius can compensate f o r many f a u l t s in a s p e a k e r : Bad a i r , u n f r ie n d ly a u d ie n c e s, f a i n t h e a r t and v acan t th o u g h t in th e o r a t o r are th in g s o f c o u rs e , and i n c i d e n t to Demosthenes, to Chatham, to W ebster, as i n e v i t a b l y as to th e gentlem en who ad d ress th e s t i f l i n g Concord V estry t h i s week. But h e re and th e r e f e l l th e b o l t o f g e n iu s, a sto u n d in g and d a z z lin g , o u t o f t h i s very fog and s te n c h , burned them a l l up, m elted away bad a i r , rowdy mob, c o ld n e s s , a v e r s io n , p a r t i s a n s h i p , s t e r i l i t y , in one b la z e of wonder, sympathy, and d e l i g h t , and th e t o t a l consumption o f a l l t h i s f u e l is th e p ro o f o f e lo q u e n c e . 19^ The T eacher v e rsu s th e P ro p h et M cG iffert drew a d i s t i n c t i o n between two types o f l e a d e r s - - t h e te a c h e r and the p ro p h e t. The p ro p h e t " s e t s f o r t h h is p la tf o r m , o u t l i n e s h is g o als and proceeds to move in t h e i r d i r e c t i o n a t h is own p a c e , r e g a r d le s s o f fo llo w e rs or o f t h e i r c a p a c ity to keep up w ith him. I f they can f o l low, l e t them ." The te a c h e r , on the o th e r hand, " is j u s t as su re o f h is o b je c t iv e and c o n fid e n t in h is c o n v ic t io n s , 194"p0w e r," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 543. Emerson made th e fo llo w in g comment in h is j o u r n a l : " L e c tu rin g . Experimentum in corpore v i l i . Cobden and P h i l l i p s le a r n e d t h e i r a r t a t th e expense o f many a poor v i l l a g e Lyceum and country c h u rc h ." J o u r n a l s , V I I I , 205. 195Journals_, V III , 170. b u t he d e c lin e s to move ahead so f a s t t h a t those who fo llo w lo se s i g h t o f him. He slows down h is pace to s u i t t h e i r stum bling f e e t . He a d ju s t s h is message to t h e i r u n d e r s ta n d i n g ." Emerson was a p r o p h e t, n o t a t e a c h e r . 196 Emer son re c o g n ize d th e c o n d itio n s of te a c h in g , b u t he re fu s e d to slow down f o r an au d ien ce. In an u n p u b lish ed fragm ent o f h is jo u r n a l are l i s t e d the c o n d itio n s f o r te a c h in g : "1. That none can te ac h more than he knows. 2. That none can te ac h f a s t e r than th e s c h o la r can le a r n . Two c o n d itio n s more: 1. He must say t h a t they can u n d e r s ta n d . 2. But he must say t h a t which i s given to him . I t i s tr u e undoubtedly t h a t every p re a c h e r should s t r i v e to pay h is debt to h is fellowmen by making h is communication i n t e l l i g i b l e to th e common c a p a c ity . I t i s no le s s t r u e t h a t unto every mind is given one word to say and he should s a c r e d ly s t r i v e to u t t e r t h a t word and n o t a n o th e r man's word; h is own, w ith o u t a d d itio n or a b ate m e n t."197 I f Emerson was a p ro p h e t in s t e a d o f a t e a c h e r , i t was because h is f i r s t o b l i g a t i o n was to h is own se a rc h f o r t r u t h . His second o b l i g a t i o n was to ex p ress t h a t t r u t h through h is a r t . He wanted to arouse men, to encourage them to be see k e rs a ls o , but t h i s was n ev er h is f i r s t con s i d e r a t i o n . Id e a lism and P r a c t i c a l i t y in Em erson's View o f R h e to ric Most o f Em erson's w r iti n g s te n d to agree w ith , 1 9 6 ^ jcG iffert, J r . , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " Young Emerson S p eak s, p . 205. 197cited in I b i d . , pp. x x xix-xl. 130 s u p p o r t, o r expand upon th e concept o f r h e t o r i c as "p ro v o c a t i o n . " Not a l l of Em erson's comments r e l e v a n t to r h e t o r i c and p u b l i c a d d re s s , however, are c o n s i s t e n t w ith t h i s co n cep t. Many o f Em erson's comments on p u b lic speaking seem to apply more a p p r o p r i a t e l y to th e t r a d i t i o n a l view o f r h e t o r i c as th e " a r t o f p e r s u a s i o n ." From an exam ination o f Em erson's e s s a y s , e x ta n t l e c t u r e s , serm ons, and j o u r n a l s , one i s le d to the c o n c lu s io n t h a t w ith in Em erson's mind, o r a t o r y , o r th e a r t o f r h e t o r i c , e x i s t e d on two s e p a r a te and r a t h e r d i s t i n c t l e v e l s . Em erson's p e r s o n a l i t y has sometimes been d e s c rib e d as a b len d o f two opposing t r a i t s : Yankee or New England p r a c t i c a l i t y and shrew dness, on th e one hand, and id e a lism 19 8 and m ysticism on th e o th e r . This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Em erson's p e r s o n a l i t y p a r a l l e l s , to some e x t e n t , h is d i s cu ssio n o f r h e t o r i c . There seems to be a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tween th e two dominant tre n d s in Em erson's p e r s o n a l i t y and the two le v e l s on which he th e o r i z e s about th e o r a t o r and h is a r t , between th e two c o n f l i c t i n g elem ents in Em erson's l ^ W i l l i a m P h e lp s , f o r exam ple, c a l l e d Emerson "our g r e a t p r a c t i c a l m y stic . . . ." P h e lp s , p. 23. M a tth ie s- sen saw in Em erson's w r i t i n g s an e f f o r t to r e c o n c ile two d i f f e r e n t a s p e c ts o f h is n a tu re --" u n tra m m e lle d s p e c u la tio n " and "yankee p r a c t i c a l i t y . " M a tth ie s s e n , p. 15. H e rb ert Wichelns s a i d t h a t " th e o ft-re m a rk e d m ixture in Emerson of m ysticism and shrew dness, o f p o e t and Yankee was n o t a l to g e t h e r in b o rn . The t r a v e l e n fo rc e d by h is p r o f e s s i o n k e p t h is f e e t on the ground and h is eyes open to th e d a ily l i f e o f A m erica." W ichelns, p. 521. p e r s o n a l i t y and c e r t a i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and in c o n s i s t e n c i e s in h is remarks co ncerning the n a t u r e , f u n c tio n s , and scope o f r h e t o r i c . While Em erson's concept of a " r h e t o r i c o f p ro v o c a t i o n " arose n a t u r a l l y from h is b a s ic p h ilo so p h y , e s p e c i a l l y h is m etaphysics and h is e p iste m o lo g y , h is view of r h e t o r i c as "th e a r t o f p e rs u a s io n " a ro s e , p ro b a b ly , as a r e s u l t o f h is t r a i n i n g in c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c a t H arvard, h is stu d y of n in e te e n th c en tu ry r h e t o r i c a l w orks, and h is o b s e r v a tio n of th e g r e a t sp eak ers of h is day. Emerson took g r e a t i n t e r e s t in the o r a to r s o f h is day: in the p o l i t i c a l and f o r e n s ic sp eak ers lik e D aniel W ebster, in the a b o l i t i o n i s t s li k e Wendell P h i l l i p s and W illiam Lloyd G a rris o n , p re a c h e rs li k e Edward E v e r e t t , W illiam E l l e r y Channing, and Edward T a y lo r, and in th e o rd in a ry c i t i z e n s who spoke in town m eetin g s. Here were r h e t o r i c i a n s and speakers who s t r e s s e d th e t r a d i t i o n a l aims o f r h e t o r i c - - t o inform , convince, p e rs u a d e , and e n t e r t a i n . Here were men concerned w ith the p r a c t i c a l b u s in e s s o f winning c o u rt c a s e s , g e t t i n g laws p a s s e d , and winning c o n v erts to d o c tr in e s and movements. Emerson some tim es c i t e d th e se r h e t o r i c i a n s and o fte n commented on the speaking o f th e se o r a t o r s . He reco g n ized t h e i r purpose as p e r s u a s io n . When in " S o c ia l Aims," he s a i d t h a t "Speech i s power: speech i s to p e rs u a d e , to c o n v e rt, to compel ,"199 199" S o c ia l Aims," Works, V I I I , 92. 132 he was d e f in in g the t r a d i t i o n a l and p r a c t i c a l aim o f r h e t o r i c , n o t h is i d e a l co n cep tio n of i t . This c h a p te r sought to ex p lo re the n a t u r e , fu n c t i o n s , and scope of r h e t o r i c . The emphasis was on Emerson's concept o f a " r h e t o r i c o f p ro v o c a tio n " as d e riv e d from h is p h ilo so p h y and ev id en ced in h is own c a r e e r as a l e c t u r e r and e s s a y i s t . Although a " r h e t o r i c o f p ro v o c a tio n " is more c o n s i s t e n t w ith Em erson's p h ilo so p h y and more i n d i c a t i v e of h is own p r a c t i c e th an a r h e t o r i c o f p e r s u a s io n , most s c h o l a r s , d e a lin g w ith h is p u b lic speaking c a r e e r or h is r h e t o r i c , have tended to emphasize the id e a o f p e rs u a s io n and ig n o re the concept of p ro v o c a tio n . Summary Emerson d e fin e d r h e t o r i c or eloquence as an a r t . His concept o f a r t i s r e l a t e d to h is th eo ry o f th e c o r r e spondence o f th e m a t e r ia l and s p i r i t u a l w o rld s, o f n a tu re 2®®In a r e c e n t study o f the New England T ranscen- d e n t a l i s t s (Emerson i n c l u d e d ) , Rein concluded t h a t t h e i r r h e t o r i c a l e f f o r t s were u n s u c c e s s f u l; they f a i l e d to p e r suade audiences and c o n v ert new members to t h e i r faith"! I r v in g J . R ein, "The New England T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t s : P hilosophy and R h e t o r i c ," Philosophy 5 R h e t o r i c , I (S p rin g , 1968), 115. O ther s t u d i e s , such as Marie B r i t t i n ' s , a s c rib e to Emerson the s ta n d a rd o b je c t iv e s of p e r s u a s io n , c o n v ersio n , i n s t r u c t i o n , e t c . B r i t t i n , pp. 157-158. W ich e ln 's essay on Emerson does n o t mention th e term " p ro v o c a tio n " ; however, i t does s u g g es t t h a t Emerson d id n o t have the u su al goals (o r s ta n d a rd o b je c t iv e s ) o f most p ub l i c s p e a k e rs. In e x p la in in g the " ro c k e t- m a k e r1s d esign" in E m erson's d is c o u r s e s , Wichelns s a i d t h a t " i t was n o t a good method f o r producing a c l e a r c o n v ic tio n , but i t was admi ra b le f o r k in d lin g im a g in a tio n ." W ichelns, p. 516. 133 and s o u l. Em erson's i d e a l o r a t o r i s an a r t i s t who can p e r ceive and ex p ress the correspondence o f the m a te r ia l and s p i r i t u a l w o rld s. "Man s t a n d s , " acco rd in g to Emerson, "on the p o in t b e tw ix t s p i r i t and m a tte r , and the n a tiv e o f both e lem en ts; the tr u e t h i n k e r sees t h a t one r e p r e s e n ts the o t h e r , t h a t the w orld i s th e m ir ro r o f the s o u l, and t h a t i t i s h is o f f i c e to show t h i s b e a u t i f u l r e l a t i o n . " A rt e x i s t s , because the human mind is c o n s ta n tly endeavoring to i d e a l i z e the a c t u a l , 't o accommodate th e shows o f th in g s to th e d e s i r e s o f th e mind. 1 1 1 Emerson s a id t h a t "A rt seeks n o t n a tu r e b u t the i d e a l which n a tu r e h e r s e l f s t r i v e s a f t e r . " A rt a c ts as a "complement" to or a " s u b s id ia r y " o f n a t u r e , and i t o p e ra te s to a f f e c t man's p e r c e p tio n o f b e a u ty . Beauty is the " u ltim a te aim o f the human b e in g ," and " i t does n o t l i e w ith in the l i m i t s o f the u n d e rs ta n d in g ." I t i s th e harmony and p e r f e c t i o n t h a t e x i s t s in n a t u r e . Emerson d e fin e d "eloquence" as "th e power to t r a n s l a t e a t r u t h i n t o language p e r f e c t l y i n t e l l i g i b l e to the p erso n to whom you sp e a k ." The p h ilo s o p h e r , o r a t o r , o r te a c h e r was f o r Emerson "only a more o r le s s awkward t r a n s l a t o r of th in g s in your own c o n s c io u s n e s s ." An o r a t o r is only s u c c e s s f u l i n s o f a r as he can " re n d e r back to you your own c o n s c io u s n e s s ." Thus the job o f the id e a l o r a t o r is sim ply to make you aware o f the w e alth o f wisdom a lre a d y 134 w ith in you. The o r a t o r is a " d iv in in g - r o d to your deeper n a t u r e . " He l i f t s men above them selves and c r e a te s w ith in them an a p p e t i t e f o r t r u t h . Emerson d id n o t see T ruth as something t h a t can be encompassed by the human mind, s e t down in a book, or d e fended by l o g i c . I t is n o t an o b j e c t , b u t a s t a t e of mind, an a t t i t u d e o f s e a rc h in g f o r and l i s t e n i n g to the voice w ith in , the voice o f God. I t is a s t a t e of c o n sc io u sn ess. The p r e a c h e r - o r a t o r cannot communicate t r u t h d i r e c t l y to o th e r men, b u t he can provoke them in to s e a rc h in g fo r t r u t h on t h e i r own. He can awaken them to a s t a t e o f c o n sc io u s ness . As a speech c r i t i c , Emerson commented f r e e l y on a l l types of speaking in c lu d in g p o l i t i c a l and f o r e n s ic speaking as w e ll as p re a c h in g and l e c t u r i n g . However, th e p r a c t i c e o f the f i r s t th re e types of speaking would be h ig h ly lim i t e d by th e req u irem en ts o f h is p h ilo so p h y . Emerson i n s i s t e d t h a t the o r a t o r be a s e l f - r e l i a n t man. He must be fr e e from p led g es to p o l i t i c a l p a r ty o r r e l i g i o u s s e c t . The p o l i t i c i a n , th e p r e a c h e r , and the a tto rn e y own t h e i r f i r s t a lle g ia n c e to t h e i r p a r t y , c l i e n t s , or r e l i g i o u s s e c t . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t o n e 's f i r s t a lle g ia n c e must be to t r u t h , n o t the t r u t h as some group sees i t , n o t the t r u t h as th e sp ea k e r saw i t y e s te rd a y b u t th e t r u t h as he sees i t to d ay . Emerson abandoned p re a c h in g , because i t d id n o t p ro v id e him w ith the freedom he d e s ir e d . He found 135 l e c t u r i n g to be th e mode o f speaking most a d a p ta b le to the needs o f h is p h ilo s o p h y , s in c e i t allow ed f o r the most freedom on th e p a r t of th e sp eak er. Emerson’s i d e a l o r a t o r would depend on h is i n s p i r a t i o n coming from a h ig h e r mind than h is own, through i n t u i t i o n . He must b lo c k , to some e x t e n t , h is own w i l l and p e r s o n a l i t y and abandon h im s e lf to a h ig h e r mind. The g r e a t o r a t o r w i l l make h im s e lf "an organ through which the u n i v e r s a l mind a c t s . " Em erson's id e a l r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n occurs when th e l i s t e n e r lo s e s any sense o f "dualism " b e tween h im s e lf and the sp ea k e r. He has only a sense of "high a c t i v i t y " and p ro g re s s in h is own s o u l. Emerson re c o g n ize d t h a t most sp eak ers f e l l s h o r t o f h is i d e a l , and he a ls o knew t h a t audiences are o f te n q u ite s a t i s f i e d w ith a shallow and showy speech. N e v e r th e le s s , he re f u s e d to compromise. His o r a t o r must p la c e s i n c e r i t y and t r u t h f i r s t , because the whole fu n c tio n o f e a r t h l y l i f e i s to develop each man's c h a r a c t e r . The whole aim o f r h e t o r i c , the whole purpose o f l i f e , i s to e n la rg e man's p e r c e p tio n of t r u t h and b e a u ty . The o r a t o r must s t r i v e fo r boundless freedom; he must have the courage to speak what h is Reason (or i n t u i t i o n ) t e l l s him is t r u e , even i f i t means c o n t r a d i c t i n g what he s a i d y e s te r d a y . His aim must always be "to keep h is mind open to new l i g h t and to spur men up to doing th e l i k e . " CHAPTER IV EMERSON'S CONCEPTS OF THE SUBSTANCE OF RHETORIC Em erson's w r iti n g s r e f l e c t an e x tr a o r d in a r y f a i t h in the p o t e n t i a l g re a tn e s s of every human b e in g . B eliev in g as he d id t h a t every man is an in c a r n a ti o n o f God and has w ith in him a d i r e c t access to T ru th , Emerson was opposed to a l l forms o f dogmatism and a l l s e c t s . Having e n te r e d a d u lt l i f e as a U n ita r ia n m i n i s t e r , Emerson soon found even th e U n ita r ia n church too c o n fin in g . A f te r le a v in g the p u l p i t , he chose to speak to men f r e e from the r e s t r i c t i o n s o f s e c t s , p a r t i e s , d o c t r i n e s , and dogmas. Although s e v e r a l s t u d i e s have been done which d eal w ith some a sp e c t o f Em erson's r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry o r h is c a r e e r as a p u b lic sp eak er,^ - they tend to overlo o k the f a c t t h a t both Em erson's p r e a c h i n g - l e c t u r i n g c a r e e r and h is gen e r a l p h ilo so p h y s ta n d in d i r e c t o p p o s itio n to c o n v e n tio n a l concepts o f th e f u n c tio n o f the o r a t o r . Em erson's aim was n o t to c o n v e rt o r p ersu ad e men, b u t r a t h e r , to awaken in them a sense o f t h e i r own p o t e n t i a l , to provoke them in to ■^See "Review o f L i t e r a t u r e . " 136 137 9 se a rc h in g f o r t r u t h , to l i b e r a t e them from dogma. Emer s o n 's f i r s t p u b lic d e c l a r a t i o n of the fu n c tio n of th e o r a t o r came in h is " D iv in ity School Address" o f J u ly 15, 1838: Meantime, w h i l s t th e doors o f the temple sta n d open, n i g h t and day, b e fo re every man, and the o r a c le s of t h i s t r u t h cease n e v e r, i t is guarded by one s t e r n c o n d itio n ; t h i s namely; i t is an i n t u i t i o n . I t cannot be re c e iv e d a t second hand. T ruly sp ea k in g , i t is n o t i n s t r u c t i o n , b u t p r o v o c a tio n , t h a t I can re c e iv e from a n o th e r s o u l . 3 "A storm o f p r o t e s t " follow ed t h i s speech, and Emerson was "branded in some c i r c l e s as dangerous and a t h e i s t i c a l . One o f those p a r t i c u l a r l y o ffended by Em erson's speech was Andrews N orton, P r o f e s s o r o f Sacred L i t e r a t u r e a t H a rv a r d .3 In an address to the alumni o f th e Cambridge D iv in ity S chool, Norton r e f e r r e d to Em erson's " D iv in ity School Address" as "The L a s t e s t Form of I n f i d e l i t y . " Con t r a d i c t i n g Em erson's s ta te m e n t of the f u n c tio n of the p r e a c h e r , Norton t o l d th e se m i n i s t e r s : "Your o f f i c e is to 2M argaret F u l l e r s a i d o f Emerson, the l e c t u r e r , t h a t "he im prisons h is h e a r e r only to fr e e him again as a ' l i b e r a t i n g God' . . . ." M argaret F u l l e r O s s o li, "Emer s o n 's E s s a y s ," in L ife W ithout and L ife W ithin; o r, Re view s, N a r r a t i v e s ,~ E s s a y s , and Poems, ed. by A rth u r B. F u l l e r (B o sto n : R oberts B r o th e r s , 1884), pp. 193-194. 3"An A d d ress," Works, I , 126-127. ^ S y lv ia Simpson Caney, "The E d u c a tio n a l Philosophy o f Ralph Waldo Emerson" (u n p u b lish ed M a s te r's t h e s i s , Uni v e r s i t y o f Southern C a l i f o r n i a , 1940), p. 25. 3A f te r g ra d u a tin g from H arvard, Emerson a tte n d e d l e c t u r e s a t the D iv in ity S chool, h e a rin g P r o fe s s o r N o rto n 's l e c t u r e s "w ith much p r o f i t and i n t e r e s t . " Cooke, p. 24. 138 defend, e x p l a i n , and e n fo rc e the t r u t h s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . " 6 Before embarking on h is own p re a ch in g and l e c t u r i n g c a r e e r , Emerson became a c q u a in te d , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , w ith most o f th e m ajor r h e t o r i c a l works and most o f th e m ajor r h e t o r i c i a n s of both the c l a s s i c a l and p o s t- R enaissance p e r io d s . However, h is co n cep tio n o f the fu n c t i o n of the o r a t o r does n o t appear to r e f l e c t t h i s e a r ly s tu d y . The r h e t o r i c i a n who may be e x p ected to have had the g r e a t e s t in f lu e n c e on Emerson was Edward T. Channing, the B oyleston P r o f e s s o r o f R h e to ric and O rato ry a t H arvard. However, th e f u n c tio n t h a t Channing a ssig n e d to th e o r a t o r shows l i t t l e r e l a t i o n to Em erson's id e a o f " p ro v o c a tio n ." Channing ta u g h t Emerson and h is o th e r s tu d e n ts t h a t the o b je c t o f eloquence was " to b r in g men, by w hatever modes of a d d re s s , to our way o f th in k in g , and thus making them a c t ^N orton, p. 4. ^Emerson re a d P l a t o 's "G orgias" and "P h a ed ru s." See " P l a t o , " Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 344-347. He was a c q u a in te d w ith I s o c r a t e s , a t l e a s t i n d i r e c t l y through P lu t a r c h . See J o u r . § M is. , IV, 429 and B erry , p. 196. Emer son read many o f C ic e r o 's works (see J o u r. § M is. , I , 172- 173 and 232), and he was p ro h a b ly , a t l e a s t i n d i r e c t l y , a c q u a in te d w ith C ic e r o 's r h e t o r i c a l works through Channing and B l a i r . Emerson a p p a r e n tly read Q u i n t i l i a n , s in c e he quoted a p assage from I n s t i t u t i o O r a t o r i a . See J o u r . § M is. , IV, 429. S t. A ugustine was one o f Em erson's f a v o r i t e au th o rs when he was a young man. Cooke, p. 22. While a t H arvard, Emerson was r e q u ir e d to re a d John W alk er's Rhe t o r i c a l Grammer and Hugh B l a i r ' s L ectu res on R h e to ric and B e lle s L e t t r e s . Lawton, p. 66. 139 O according to our w is h e s ." One o f the tex tb o o k s t h a t Emerson was re q u ir e d to study a t Harvard was Hugh B l a i r ' s L e c tu re s on R h e to ric and B e lle s L e t t r e s .^ B l a i r saw th re e p o s s ib le fu n c tio n s f o r th e o r a t o r or th re e "degrees of e lo q u e n c e ." F i r s t , the o r a t o r 's aim may be m erely to p le a s e h is audience. Second, h is aim may be to inform , i n s t r u c t , o r convince h is a u d i ence. F i n a l l y , the o r a to r may arouse the p a ss io n s o f the audience and cause them to th in k and a c t as he d i c t a t e s . 1^ 1 This a lso is q u ite d i f f e r e n t from Em erson's concept of " p r o v o c a ti o n ." This c h a p te r seeks to o u t l i n e p r e c e p ts and p r i n c ip le s f o r d is c o v e r in g , d e v e lo p in g , and t e s t i n g id e a s , which are c o n s i s t e n t w ith a r h e t o r i c o f " p r o v o c a tio n ." The aim, w herever p o s s i b l e , i s to show the s i m i l a r i t i e s and d if f e r e n c e s between th ese p r e c e p ts and p r i n c i p l e s and those o f the r h e t o r i c i a n s w ith whom Emerson was a cq u a in te d . Em erson's p r a c t i c e s in w r i t i n g l e c t u r e s and h is s c a t t e r e d remarks on the a r t o f eloquence w ere examined to determ ine n o t only what p r i n c i p l e s and p ro ced u res the o r a t o r should follow in s e l e c t i n g speech t o p i c s , b u t a lso what p re c e p ts o r p r i n c i p l e s should guide the sp eak er in d is c o v e rin g , ^Channing, p. 13. ^Rusk, p. 75. lO B la ir, I I , 5-6. 140 d e v elo p in g , and a rra n g in g h is s u b je c t m a tte r . In a d d itio n , th i s study seeks to determ ine how the sp eak er can e v a lu a te h is i d e a s , and the ro le of argu m en tatio n and debate w ith in Em erson's th e o ry of p u b lic speaking. S u b je c ts of Most Concern to Emerson Since Emerson never s p e c i f i e d what to p ic s an o r a to r should speak on, one may tu rn to h is p re a ch in g and l e c t u r ing f o r examples of the type of problems or s u b je c ts most s u i t a b l e f o r a r h e t o r i c of p ro v o c a tio n . The most obvious th in g about Em erson's l e c t u r e s is the wide range of to p ic s they covered. His l e c t u r e s were un u su al in t h a t they "ranged on a f i e l d so w ide, t h a t they might be s a id to p r o duce the p h ilo so p h y of l i f e on e a r t h . 'E x is te n c e ' was the broad theme which he d isco v e re d in p a r t s ; as a w hole, h is works are a commentary on the m ental and moral c o n d itio n s of m a n ." H Speaking of the scope of h is l e c t u r e s , Emerson made the remark t h a t he was tr y i n g to p u t "a g i r d l e round the w orld" in f i f t y m in u te s : In th e se l e c t u r e s which from week to week, I re a d , each on a to p ic which is a main i n t e r e s t of amn, and may be made an o b je c t of e x c lu s iv e i n t e r e s t , I seem to v ie w ith the brag of P u c k ; - - 'I can p u t a g i r d l e round the w orld in f o r ty m in u te s .' I take f i f t y . 12 HThe Boston P o s t, A p ril 28, 1882; in c lu d e d in Emerson, Thoreau, and Concord in E a rly N ewspapers, ed. by Cameron, p. 299. 1 2 jp u r n a ls , IV, 189. 141 The range and v a r i e t y o f Em erson's l e c t u r e s i s r a t h e r rem arkable. There were l e c t u r e s on n a t u r a l p h i l o s o phy o r s c ie n c e , such as "The Uses o f N a tu ra l H is to r y ," "On the R e la tio n of Man to the G lobe," " N a t u r a l i s t , " and "W ater." Among h is b io g r a p h ic a l l e c t u r e s were " P l a t o ," "M ich elan g elo ," "C h au cer," "M artin L u th e r ," " M ilto n ," "George Fox," "Lord Bacon," " S h a k es p e are," "Swedenborg," "M ontaigne," "N apoleon," "Abraham L in c o ln ," and "John Brown." Emerson le c t u r e d on p la c e s and c o u n trie s such as " I t a l y , " "E ngland," "France o r U r b a n ity ," and h is fiv e l e c tu r e s on "New E n g lan d ." Many l e c t u r e s were concerned w ith th e c u ltu r e o f the mind, in c lu d in g "The Head," "G en iu s," "Memory," "N atu ral Method o f M ental P h ilo so p h y ," "Powers o f the Mind," and " S e l f - P o s s e s s i o n ." He gave l e c t u r e s on a r t and l i t e r a t u r e : "E lo q u en ce," "Comedy," "T ragedy," " L i t e r a r y E t h i c s , " " P o e try and C r i t i c i s m , " "On the B est Mode o f I n s p i r i n g a C o rre c t T aste in E n g lish L i t e r a t u r e , " and " T a b le -T a lk ." Some o f the l e c t u r e s were concerned w ith contem porary p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l e v e n ts . These in c lu d e "The Fortune o f the R e p u b lic ," "Address a t the Women's R ights C onvention," "The A s s a u lt upon Mr. Sumner," "Speech a t th e Kansas R e l i e f M eeting in Cam bridge," "The Seventh o f M arch," "Address on E m ancipation in th e B r i t i s h West I n d i e s , " and h is "Address to th e Temperance S o c ie ty a t H arvard, M a s s a c h u s e tts ." Emerson a ls o l e c t u r e d on such 142 g e n e ra l to p ic s as " R e lig i o n ," " P o l i t i c s , " " A r t," " C u ltu r e ," " S u c c e s s," " I m m o r ta lity ," "The P re s e n t Age," "Home," "S c h o o l," " H e a lth ," "Love," "War," "M anners," " E t h i c s ," and " T r u t h . " Although Em erson's l e c t u r e s covered a la r g e range of t o p i c s , th e r e i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , a c e r t a i n u n ity u n d e r ly in g them a l l . M argaret F u l l e r saw only one aim behind Em erson's l e c t u r e s and e s s a y s , "th e d iscernm ent and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the s p i r i t u a l laws by which we l i v e , and move and have our b ein g . . . ."13 n j n an my l e c t u r e s , " d e c la r e d Emerson, "I have ta u g h t one d o c t r i n e , namely, the i n f i n i t u d e o f the p r i v a t e m a n . " ^ H a rris saw "th e r e v e l a tio n o f th e so u l in man and n a tu r e " as the one id e a t h a t formed th e u n ity o f a l l t h a t Emerson ever w r o t e . ^ Pomeroy saw in Em erson's p re a c h in g a " v a r i e t y o f approaches" to one main theme; " 't h e w orth of the in d i v i d u a l s o u l, i t s i n f i n i tu d e , i t s c a p a c ity and v i r t u e . "'16 I f one were to p r a c t i c e the a r t o f r h e t o r i c , w hile a tte m p tin g to remain c o n s i s t e n t w ith Em erson's p h ilo so p h y , l 30 s s o l i , p. 193. 14j o u r n a l s , V, 380. 1 % . T. H a r r i s , " D i a l e c t i c U nity in Em erson's P r o s e ," J o u rn a l o f S p e c u la tiv e P h ilo so p h y , XVIII CApril, 1884), 201. 16pomeroy, p. 96. 143 one would f i n d an u n lim ite d number o f s u b je c ts a v a il a b le to. him, b u t h is approach to th e se s u b je c ts would be some what l i m i t e d . For example, one could speak on any a sp e c t o f r e l i g i o n , b u t n o t as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a p a r t i c u l a r s e c t , tr y i n g to c o n v e rt man to a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f doc t r i n e s . He may d is c u s s p o l i t i c s , b u t n o t as one tr y i n g to win v o te s or g ain s u p p o rt f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p ie c e o f l e g i s l a t u r e . Em erson's own l e c t u r e s d e a l t w ith "th e h ig h e s t le s s o n s o f r e l i g i o n , c u l t u r e , and m o rals, untram m elled by i 7 p a r t y , s e c t , or p l a c e . " Emerson was s t r o n g l y opposed to any p a r t y , s e c t , or movement t h a t might le a d men to f u n c tio n as a group or mob i n s t e a d o f as i n d i v i d u a l s . He c a l l e d o r g a n iz a tio n s " 't h e graves of th e s p i r i t . '"1® Man's g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t he does n o t th in k enough o f h im s e lf. Men "do n o t c o n s id e r what they are s a c r i f i c i n g when they fo llo w in a h e rd , or when they c a t e r f o r t h e i r e s ta b lis h m e n t. They know n o t how d iv in e is a Man. I know you say such a man th in k s too much o f h i m s e l f . - - A l a s ! he is w holly ig n o r a n t. He y e t wanders in the o u te r darkness in th e s k i r t s § shadows of h im s e lf § has n o t seen h is in n e r l i g h t . " 19 Although Emerson was e a r n e s t l y opposed to s la v e r y l^Cooke, p. 267. l ^ J o u r . § M is. , V, 168. 19I b i d . , IV, 49. 144 7 n and spoke in o p p o s itio n to i t , u he had e a r l i e r re c o g n ize d th e danger of becoming in v o lv e d w ith the a b o l i t i o n movement or in th e p o l i t i c s o f h is day. He fe a re d t h a t such i n volvement m ight d e s tr o y h is own freedom. " S e t t l e i t in your m ind," he s a i d , t h a t you must choose between your own s u ffra g e fj o th e r p e o p l e 's . I used to th in k a l l men u se[d ] to th in k t h a t you can have b o th , b u t you cannot. Secure your own, § tyou s h a l l l be a ss u re d o f o t h e r s , twenty y e a rs h en ce, b u t you must p a r t w ith them so long. Before t h i s Reason w ith b r i g h t e t e r n a l e y e s , even the m e rits t h a t seem pure § s a i n t l i k e compared w ith p r a c t i c e s § r e p u ta tio n s o f the mob , ^_b v u lg a r § v i l e . 21 A lthough Emerson, lik e any i n t e l l i g e n t and s e n s i t i v e p e rs o n , could n o t help b u t be concerned w ith the p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l c o n d itio n s o f h is day, he had a stro n g d i s t r u s t o f f a n a t i c a l re f o r m e r s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and s o c i e t i e s o f a l l k in d s , even th o se supposedly d e d ic a te d to h u m a n ita ria n co n cern s. He wanted the s c h o l a r , p r e a c h e r , 20See Rusk, pp. 366-369; 306, 260. “ ^ J o u r . § M is., V, 22. In 1852 Emerson w rote: "I waked a t n i g h t and bemoaned m y self, because I had n o t thrown m yself i n t o t h i s d e p lo ra b le q u e s tio n o f S la v e ry , which seems to want n o th in g so much as a few a ssu re d v o ic e s . But th e n , in hours o f s a n i t y , I re c o v e r m y self, and s a y , 'God must govern h is own w o rld , and knows h is way o ut o f t h i s p i t , w ith o u t my d e s e r t i o n o f my p o s t , which has none to guard i t b u t me. I have q u ite o th e r s la v e s to fr e e than those n e g ro e s, to w i t , im prisoned s p i r i t s , im prisoned th o u g h ts , f a r back in th e b r a in of m a n ,- - f a r r e t i r e d in the heaven o f in v e n tio n , and w hich, im p o rta n t to th e r e p u b lic o f Man, have no watchman, o r l o v e r , or d e fe n d e r, b u t I . " J o u r n a l s , V I I I , 316. e> are seen to be 145 and the o r a t o r to be f r e e from th e se l i m i t a t i o n s . T h e re f o r e , in o rd e r to be c o n s i s t e n t w ith Em erson's p h ilo so p h y , one could le c t u r e on any and a l l s u b je c ts as long as one m a in ta in s an independence from p a r t i e s and s e c t s . From Em erson's w r iti n g s one can d e riv e f iv e p r i n c ip le s f o r th e o r a t o r to fo llo w in s e l e c t i n g speech t o p i c s . F i r s t , the s u b je c t must have " n a t u r a l prom inence" f o r the speaker: I f your s u b je c t do [s ic ] n o t appear to you th e flow er o f the w orld a t t h i s moment, you have n o t r i g h t l y chosen i t . No m a tte r what i t i s , grand o r gay, n a t i o n a l o r p r i v a t e , i f i t has a n a t u r a l prominence to you, work away u n t i l you come to the h e a r t o f i t : then i t w i l l , though i t were a sparrow or a sp id er-w eb , as f u l l y r e p r e s e n t th e c e n t r a l law and draw a l l t r a g i c or jo y f u l i l l u s t r a t i o n s , as i f i t were th e book of Genesis or th e book o f Doom. The s u b je c t--w e must so o f te n say i t - - i s i n d i f f e r e n t . Any word, every word in language, every c irc u m sta n c e , becomes p o e t i c in th e hands o f a h ig h e r t h o u g h t . 22 Second, " t h a t s ta te m e n t only i s f i t to be made p u b lic which you got a t in a tte m p tin g to s a t i s f y your c u r i- 2 ^ o s i t y . " The sp eak er w i l l n o t look f o r a speech t o p i c to s u i t the audience and o c c a s io n , b u t r a t h e r , he w i l l l e t the o c ca sio n be an o p p o rtu n ity to d is c u s s a s u b j e c t o f concern to him. Emerson s a i d t h a t "when you come to w r ite Lyceum L e c tu re s , remember t h a t you are n o t to say , What must be s a i d in a Lyceum? b u t , What d is c o v e r ie s or s tim u la tin g 22"po et r y and Im a g in a tio n ," Complete W r itin g s , I I , 737. 2 3 jo u r n a ls , I I , 523-524. 146 th o u g h ts have I to im part to a thousand p erso n s? n o t what they e x p ec t to h e a r , b u t what is f i t f o r me to s a y . " ^ I f you s e l e c t th e s u b j e c t to s u i t the o c c a s io n , i t is a lo s s to you and to your au d ien ce. E a rly in h is own l e c t u r i n g c a r e e r , Emerson vowed to speak only on "th o se th in g s which I have m e d ita te d fo r t h e i r own s a k e ." H en cefo rth I d esig n n o t to u t t e r any sp eech , poem, or book t h a t is n o t e n t i r e l y and p e c u l i a r l y my work. I w i l l say a t p u b l i c l e c t u r e s and the l i k e , those th in g s which I have m e d ita te d f o r t h e i r own sak e, and n o t f o r the f i r s t time w ith a view to t h a t o c ca sio n . I f o th e rw is e , you s e l e c t a s u b je c t and la b o r to make a good appearance on th e a p p o in te d day, i t i s so much l o s t time to you and to your h e a r e r . I t is a p a r e n t h e s i s in your genuine l i f e . You are your own dupe, and f o r the sake of c o n c i l i a t i n g your audience you have f a i l e d to e d if y them, and winning t h e i r e a r , you have r e a l l y l o s t t h e i r love and g r a t i t u d e . 25 T h ird , the sp ea k e r w i l l s e l e c t a to p i c which w i l l allow him to say "what has n o t been s a id t h a t is y e t tru e Not only sh ould the s u b j e c t be o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t to the s p e a k e r, b u t i t sh o u ld a ls o be somewhat o r i g i n a l and a su b j e c t which the time and th e age c a l l s f o r t h . In a co n v er s a t i o n w ith George Moore, Emerson n o te d t h a t " th e r e is too much m anufacturing--m en w r i t e L e c tu r e s , in o rd e r to c o n t r i b u te t h e i r s h are towards c a r ry in g on the Lyceum. The co n se quence is t h a t they take t h a t s u b je c t upon which they th in k 24j o u r . § M is. , IV, 372. 25j o u r n a l s , I I I , 361. 26j 0u r . § M is. , V, 25. 147 they can w r ite the e a s ie s t- - N o w , men, in o rd e r to w r ite l e c t u r e s , o r any th in g e l s e , which s h a l l r e t a i n a perm anent v a lu e , must w r ite upon such a s u b je c t t h a t th e tim e, th e age, c a l l s f o r th - - u p o n a s u b j e c t which has n o t been w r i t t e n ? 7 upon b e f o r e , o r e ls e they must t r e a t i t in a new way. 7 F o u rth , th e s p e a k e r 's to p ic w i l l be " p e r t i n e n t " i f i t i s "always tr u e to moral p o r t r a i t . " 2 * * The sp eak er must be s i n c e r e l y i n t e r e s t e d in h is s u b j e c t and t h i s i n t e r e s t must be based on moral grounds. The h ig h e s t eloquence is b ased on " g r e a t se n tim e n ts " and " to p ic s o f e t e r n a l i n t e r e s t . " 2® Emerson admonished the o r a t o r : "Speak what you know and b e l i e v e ; and are p e r s o n a lly in i t ; and are answer- able f o r every w ord." Emerson would ask the o r a t o r : Is your cause " re - *Z1 a l l y h o n e s t," and "how came you on t h a t s id e ? " Emerson a p p lie d th ese q u e s tio n s to D aniel W eb ste r's "Seventh o f March" speech. "Nobody doubts t h a t th e re were good and ^ G e o rg e Moore is p a ra p h ra s in g a s ta te m e n t t h a t Emerson made to him. "D iary o f George Moore, F rie n d o f Emerson," in T ran sc e n d e n ta l E p ilo g u e, ed. by Cameron, I , 184. ^^J o u r n a l s , I I , 289. 29"The C h r is tia n M in is te r : P a r t 1 ," Young Emerson S p e a k s, p. 26. "Eloquence is b e s t in s p i r e d by an I n f i n i t e C ause." J o u r. 8 M is. , I I , 319. •^"E lo q u en ce," Complete W r i t i n g s , I I , 767-768. • ^ I b i d . , p . 76 8. 148 p l a u s i b l e th in g s to be s a i d on the p a r t of the South. But t h i s is n o t a q u e s tio n o f in g e n u ity , n o t a q u e s tio n o f s y l- 32 lo g ism s, b u t of s i d e s . Mow came he t h e r e ?" Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t h i s t o r y would condemn W ebster, because he did n o t take " th e s id e o f g r e a t p r i n c i p l e s . " H is to ry w i l l ask o f W ebster and a l l s p e a k e rs: "In the f i n a l h o u r, when he was fo rc e d by th e preem ptory n e c e s s i t y o f c lo s in g arm ies to take a s i d e , - - d i d he take the p a r t o f g r e a t p r i n c i p l e s , the sid e o f humanity and j u s t i c e , or the sid e o f abuse and 7 7 o p p re ssio n and chaos?" The f i f t h and f i n a l p r i n c i p l e is t h a t the o r a to r must t r u s t h is i n s t i n c t s to le a d him to th e r i g h t to p ic . "In an unknown wood the t r a v e l l e r gives th e r e in s to h is h o r s e , seeks h is s a f e t y in the i n s t i n c t s of the a n im a l." Thus, as a c r e a t i v e a r t i s t , one should " t r u s t something to your i n s t i n c t s f a r more t r u s t w o r t h y ." "As th e re i s always a s u b je c t fo r l i f e , so th e r e is always a s u b j e c t f o r each h o u r, i f only a man has w it enough to fin d what t h a t i s . 32"The F u g itiv e Slave Law," Complete W ritin g s , I I , 1161. ^^"The F u g itiv e Slave Law," Works, X I f 225-226. Emerson had always admired W e b ste r's speaking (see Jo u rn a ls, I , 1 6 -1 7 ), b u t Emerson disavowed him a f t e r h is "Seventh o f March" speech in Congress in 185 0 when he abandoned the Wilmot P ro v iso a g a in s t the encroachment o f s la v e r y and d e fended the F u g itiv e Slave Law. Emerson and many o th e rs c o n sid e re d t h i s a c t as W e b ste r's d o w n fall. Edward Waldo Emerson and Waldo Emerson F o rb es, " N o tes," J o u r n a l s . V I I I , 447-448. 149 I s i t F rid ay n i g h t , " s a id Emerson, "and n o te the f i r s t th o u g h t t h a t r i s e s . P r e s e n tly a n o th e r , p r e s e n t l y f iv e or s i x , - - o f a l l th e se I take th e mean, as the s u b je c t fo r S a tu r d a y 's s e r m o n . " ^ D is c o v e rin g , D eveloping, and A rranging S u b je c t M atter Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t the most im p o rtan t id e as o f 35 the o r a t o r must come from w ith in . I t i s from w ith in t h a t he must f i n d answers to th e moral and s p i r i t u a l q u e stio n s of l i f e , b u t n o t a l l the in fo rm a tio n he w i l l use in a speech w i l l be d e riv e d from i n t u i t i o n s . Emerson spoke o f "th e secondary m e r its o f a sp eech , nam ely, i t s l o g i c , i t s 3 6 i l l u s t r a t i o n s , i t s p o i n t s , e t c . . . . " He compared the o r a t o r a d d re ss in g an assembly to an army marching in to b a t t l e . The means by which th e army g ain s i t s b a t t l e s are canons, m uskets, and c a v a lry . The o r a t o r ' s means are "th e f a c t s , th e re a s o n s , the l o g i c , - -above a l l the flame o f 3 7 p a s s io n and c o n tin u o u s energy o f w i l l . . . ." •^ J o u r n a l s , I I , 426-427. •^"Where then b u t in O u rse lv e s, where b u t in t h a t thought through which we communicate w ith a b so lu te n a t u r e , . . . where b u t in th e i n t u i t i o n s which are vouchsafed us from w ith in , s h a l l we le a r n th e Truth? "L ectu re on th e T im es," Works, I , 288. 36"The F u g itiv e Slave Law," Works, XI, 225 . ■ ^"E loquence," Complete W r i t i n g s , I I , 761. ISO Emerson re c o g n ize d t h a t the o r a t o r would use f a c t s , exam ples, i l l u s t r a t i o n s , and lo g ic in h is speeches. "When we go to F an eu il H a ll, we look f o r im p o rtan t e v e n ts : f a c t s , th o u g h ts and the p e rs u a s io n s t h a t b e a r upon th e m ."^ 8 The sp ea k e r w i l l use both th e f a c u l t y o f u n d e rstan d in g and the f a c u l t y o f reaso n . The u n d e rsta n d in g a id s a man in " d i s c o v erin g the p r a c t i c a l t r u t h s of t h i s w o rld ." I t o p e ra te s by "a s y l l o g i s t i c o r l o g i c a l p ro c e ss o f r e a s o n in g ," by com paring, c o n t r i v i n g , adding, and a rg u in g ." The re a so n , •ZQ on th e o th e r hand, o p e ra te s by i n t u i t i v e p e r c e p tio n . J Emerson n o te d t h a t the mind is made up of b o th u n d e rs ta n d ing and re a so n ; "and f a c t s and e x p erien c e may be u t i l i z e d f o r e x p re s s in g e i t h e r th e im p ressio n s of s e n s e , o r s p i r i t u a l t r u t h , or once more, b o t h . "40 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "much o f what we l e a r n , and to th e h ig h e s t purpose is caught in moments and r a t h e r by a sublim e i n s t i n c t than by modes which can be e x p la in e d in d e t a i l . " 4 1 The s p e a k e r 's b e s t i d e a s , the ones t h a t r e p r e s e n t some kind o f genuine t r u t h , w i l l come to him through 38J o u r n a l s , IX, 37. •^w hicher and S p i l l e r , e d s . , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " E a rly L e c t u r e s , I , x v i i i . For the source o f Em erson's n o tio n o f "Reason" as i n t u i t i v e p e r c e p tio n see C hapter I I . 40j o u r n a l s , V, 29. 4 1 j p u r n a l s , I I , 170. 151 i n t u i t i o n , from a source w ith in h im s e lf. "Whatever I say t h a t is good on Sundays, I speak w ith fe r v o r and a u t h o r i t y - - s u r e l y n o t f e e l i n g t h a t i t r e s t s on my word, or has only th e w a rra n t o f my f a u l t y c h a r a c t e r , b u t t h a t I got i t from a deep er and common s o u rc e , and i t is as much a d d re ssed to me as to th o se I speak t o . " ^ W ithin Em erson's p h ilo so p h y "th e c r e a t i v e a r t i s t as w e ll as th e p h ilo s o p h e r d e riv e s h is motive power from m y s tic a l e x p e r ie n c e , from th e 1l e a p i n g - l i g h t n i n g ' which the 'h o rs e -p o w e r' o f th e u n d e rsta n d in g cannot m easure. Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "n o th in g g r e a t and l a s t i n g can be done ex cep t by i n s p i r a t i o n , by le a n in g on the s e c r e t au gury ." The man's i n s i g h t and power are i n t e r r u p t e d and o c c a s i o n a l ; he can see and do t h i s or t h a t cheap t a s k , a t w i l l , b u t i t s te a d s him n o t beyond. He is f a i n to make the u l t e r i o r s te p by m echanical means. I t cannot so be done. The u l t e r i o r s te p i s to be a lso by i n s p i r a t i o n . . . .44 The b e s t id e as o f th e o r a t o r come from "th e g e n e ra l mind o f man?" Emerson s a i d t h a t " i t is n o t an in d iv id u a l b u t the g e n e ra l mind o f man t h a t speaks from time to time q u i t e c a r e l e s s § q u i t e f o r g e t f u l o f what mouth or mouths i t makes use ( o f ) ■ Go to th e . . . bard o r o r a t o r t h a t has 42j p u r n a l s , I I , 515. 4 3 y iv ian C. H opkins, S p ire s o f Form, a Study of E m erson's A e s th e tic Theory (Cam bridge: Harvard U n iv e rs ity P ress , 1951) , p . 18. ^ " I n s p i r a t i o n , " Complete W r i t i n g s , I I , 808-809. 152 spoken § ask him i f what he s a i d were h is own? No. He got i t he knows n o t where, but i t is none o f h i s . " 45 Emerson saw W e b ste r's "Reply to Hayne" as an example of an i n s p i r e d s p e a k e r. "W ebster is in a g a lv a n iz e d s t a t e when he makes the Hayne sp eech , § ' t i s as easy to say g i g a n t i c th in g s to in tro d u c e from God on th e World 't r u t h s which r i s e b u t n e v e r s e t ' as a t a n o th e r hour to t a l k nonsense. He is caught up in th e s p i r i t § made to u t t e r th in g s n o t h is own."46 N e ith e r the o r a t o r n o r any o th e r c r e a t i v e a r t i s t can r e a l l y c o n tr o l th e fo rc e c a l l e d " i n s p i r a t i o n . " 4 ^ Thoughts are " t y r a n n i c a l c u r r e n ts " over which men have l i t t l e c o n t r o l . "My tho u g h ts tame me," s a i d Emerson. "Proud may th e b a rd be among h is fe llo w men, b u t when he s i t s w a itin g h is i n s p i r a t i o n , he i s a c h i l d , humble, r e v e r e n t , w atching f o r th e th oughts as they flow to him from t h e i r unknown so u rc e . The moment o f i n s p i r a t i o n I am i t s r e v e r e n t s la v e . I watch § watch § h a i l i t s A urora from a f a r . "48 There are v e in s of r i c h ore w ith in each i n d i v i d u a l , 45J o u r . § M is. , IV, 312. 46I b i d . , V, 103. 4 7 " p io tin u s says of th e i n t u i t i v e knowledge t h a t ' i t is n o t law fu l to in q u ir e whence i t sprang as i f i t were a th in g s u b j e c t to p la c e motion f o r i t n e i t h e r approached h i t h e r n o r again d e p a rts from hence, to some o th e r p la c e , b u t i t e i t h e r appears to u s , o r i t does n o t a p p e a r . '" Ibid. 4 8 j0u r . § M is. , V, 13. b u t how to draw i t o u t is a p ro b le m .49 "We are always on th e b r in k o f an ocean o f tho u g h t in to which we . . . do n o t y e t swim. W e are poor lo r d s - - h a v e immense powers which we are h in d e re d from u s in g ." T ruth is our h e r i t a g e b u t some how we seldom have access to i t . "I am kept out o f my h e r i t a g e , " d e c la re d Emerson. "I t a l k o f th e se powers o f p e r c e iv in g § communicating t r u t h , as my powers. I look fo r r e s p e c t as the p o s s e s s o r o f them, § y e t , . . . a f t e r e x e r c is i n g them f o r s h o r t § i r r e g u l a r p e r io d s , I move about w ith o u t th e m --q u ite under t h e i r sphere - - q u ite u n c lo th e d ." Only a " th in v e i l " h id e s the t r u t h from man, b u t seldom is t h a t v e i l l i f t e d : " 'T i s the most d i f f i c u l t o f ta sk s to keep H e ig h ts-- which the so u l i s com petent to g a in ." A p ro p h e t w a i t ing f o r th e word o f th e Lord. I t is the p r o p h e t ’s f a u l t t h a t he w a its in vain? Yet how m y sterio u s § p a i n f u l th e se law s. Always in the p r e c i n c t s - -never ad m itted ; always p r e p a r i n g , - - v a s t m a ch in ery --p la n s o f l i f e - - t r a v e l l i n g - - s t u d i e s - - the c o u n t r y - - s o l i t u d e -- suddenly in any p l a c e , in the s t r e e t , in the chamber w i l l th e heaven open § th e re g io n s o f boundless knowl edge be re v e a le d ; as i f to show you how th in th e v e i l , how n u l l the c irc u m sta n c e s . The hours o f tru e thought in a l i f e t i m e how f e w ! 50 W e have no knowledge o f th e "modus o f i n s p i r a t i o n , " "b u t in th e e x p e rie n c e o f m e d ita tiv e men th e re i s a c e r t a i n agreement as to th e c o n d itio n s o f r e c e p t i o n ." From P l a t o ’ s 49"What can be t r u e r than the d o c tr in e o f i n s p i r a tio n ? o f f o r t u n a t e hours? Things s a i l dim 3 g r e a t through my head. Veins o f r i c h ore are in me, could I only g et o u t l e t § p ip e to draw them o u t ." J o u r . § M is. , V, 100. 5°J o u r . § M i s . , IV, 274. 154 sev en th E p i s t l e , we l e a r n t h a t "th e p e r c e p tio n is only- accom plished by long f a m i l i a r i t y w ith th e o b je c ts o f the i n t e l l e c t , and a l i f e acc o rd in g to th e th in g s them selves. 'Then a l i g h t as i f le a p in g from th e f i r e , w i l l on a sudden be e n k in d le d in the s o u l , and w i l l then i t s e l f n o u ris h i t s e l f . " ’51 In o rd e r to e n t e r t h i s s t a t e o f i n s p i r a t i o n , the o r a t o r must subm it h is w i l l to a h ig h e r power. Quoting P l a t o 's F h a e d ru s , Emerson s a id : "'T he man who is h is own m a ster knocks in v a in a t the doors o f p o e t r y . ' The a r t i s t s must be s a c r i f i c e d to t h e i r a r t . Like b e e s , they must p u t t h e i r l i v e s in to th e s t i n g they g i v e ." What is a man good f o r w ith o u t enthusiasm ? and what i s enthusiasm b u t t h i s d a rin g o f r u in f o r i t s o b je c t? There are th o u g h ts beyond th e reach es o f our s o u ls ; we are n o t th e le s s drawn to them. The moth f l i e s in to the flame o f th e lamp; and Swedenborg must so lv e th e problem s t h a t h au n t him, though he be crazed or k i l l e d . 52 In h is e ssa y on " I n s p i r a t i o n " and e lse w h e re, Emer son su g g este d some " so u rce s of i n s p i r a t i o n " f o r the c r e a t i v e a r t i s t . These so u rces in c lu d e c h a r a c t e r , h e a l t h , books, good company, s o l i t u d e , communion w ith n a t u r e , and fo rce of w i l l . 53 " C h a ra c te r is th e f i r s t r e q u i s i t e , e s p e c i a l l y th e t r a i t s of love and p a t i e n c e , which n o t only ^ " I n s p i r a t i o n ," Works, V I I I , 274. 52i b i d . , pp. 274-275. 53I b i d . , pp. 269-297. 155 h e lp s the a r t i s t to w a it f o r i n s p i r a t i o n , b u t re n d e rs him f i t to e x p re ss the i n t u i t i o n s when he r e c e iv e s them. Next comes th e need f o r a ' f r o l i c h e a l t h . ' " Having e x p e rie n c e d "a sagging of th e mind" in p e rio d s o f i l l n e s s , Emerson a p p r e c ia te d th e im portance o f h e a l t h and s t r e n g t h f o r th e a r t i s t . 54 "i honor h e a l t h as the f i r s t muse, and s le e p as the c o n d itio n o f h e a l t h . " 55 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "w ith c h a r a c te r and h e a l t h , th e mind a t t a i n s e q u i l i b r i u m . " ^ Books can be an a id to i n s p i r a t i o n . "Our s o u ls are n o t s e l f - f e d , b u t do e a t and d rin k o f chem ical w a ter and wheat. Let us n o t f o r g e t the g e n ia l m iraculous fo rc e we 5 7 have known to p ro ceed from a book." Any book i s o f value which " s e t s th e re a d e r in a working mood," b u t "th e deep book, no m a tte r how remote th e s u b j e c t , h elp s us b e s t . " 5* * " S o l i t a r y converse w ith N a tu r e ," was one o f the most v i t a l sources o f i n s p i r a t i o n fo r Emerson. He b e lie v e d t h a t in converse w ith N ature one could h e ar "sw eet and d re a d fu l words n e v er u t t e r e d in l i b r a r i e s , " 5^ ^Hopkins, p. 22. 55" I n s p i r a t i o n , " Works, V I I I , 280. 56Hopkins, p. 22. ^ E m e rso n , "Thoughts on Modern L i t e r a t u r e , " The D i a l , p. 140. 55" I n s p i r a t i o n , " Complete W r i t i n g s , I I , 817. 5^H eart o f Em erson's J o u r n a l s , p . 291. 156 S o litu d e is a n o th e r source o f i n s p i r a t i o n . "Alone i s wisdom. Alone i s h a p p in e s s . S o c ie ty nowadays makes us low s p i r i t e d , h o p e le s s . Alone is h e a v e n . " ^ In " S o c ie ty and S o l i t u d e ," Emerson spoke o f " t h a t n e c e s s i t y o f i s o l a t i o n which genius f e e l s . " Each must s ta n d on h is g la s s t r i p o d i f he would keep h i s e l e c t r i c i t y . Even Swedenborg, whose th e o ry o f the u n iv e rs e is based on a f f e c t i o n , and who r e p r o b a te s to w e arin ess th e danger and v ic e o f pure i n t e l l e c t , is c o n s tr a in e d to make an e x tr a o r d in a r y e x c e p tio n : 'There a re a lso an g els who do n o t l i v e c o n s o c ia te d , b u t s e p a r a t e , house and house; th e se dwell in the m id st of heaven, because they are the b e s t o f a n g e l s . '61 N e v e r t h e le s s , the o r a t o r must be exposed to s o c i e t y and as many e x p e rie n c e s as p o s s i b l e . "I do n o t s e e ," s a i d Emerson, "how any man can a f f o r d , f o r the sake o f h is n erv es and h is nap, to sp are any a c tio n in which he can p a r t a k e . " A ctio n i s " p e a r ls and r u b ie s " f o r a d is c o u r s e . "D rudgery, c a la m ity , e x a s p e r a t io n , w ant, are i n s t r u c t o r s in eloquence and wisdom. The tr u e s c h o la r grudges every o p p o r tu n ity o f a c tio n p a s t by, as a lo s s o f power. I t is th e raw m a te r ia l o u t o f which th e i n t e l l e c t molds h e r s p le n d id p r o d u c ts . " I f you would le a r n to w r i t e , " s a id ^ J o u r . $ Mis . , V, 24. ^ " S o c i e t y and S o l i t u d e , " Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 624; Em erson's q u e s t f o r i n s p i r a t i o n caused him to seek s o l i t u d e in a h o t e l . "I have found my advantage in going to a h o te l w ith a ta s k which I could n o t p r o s p e r a t home. I sec u re d so a more a b s o lu te s o l i t u d e . " J o u r n a l s , X, 43. 62"The American S c h o la r ," Works, I , 95-96. 157 Emerson, " ' t i s in th e s t r e e t s you must le a r n i t . Both fo r th e v e h ic le and f o r th e aim of f in e a r t s you must fr e q u e n t th e p u b lic sq u a re . The p e o p le , and n o t the c o lle g e , i s the w r i t e r ' s home. A s c h o la r is a candle which the love and d e s i r e o f men w i l l l i g h t . Good c o n v e r s a tio n can a lso s tim u la te the c r e a t i v e a r t i s t . " 'T i s h ard to mesmerize o u rs e lv e s to whip our own to p ; b u t through sympathy we are capable o f energy and endurance. C oncert f i r e s people to a c e r t a i n fu ry of p e r formance they can r a r e l y reach alo n e. The b e s t c o n v er s a t i o n is "a s e r i e s of i n t o x i c a t i o n s . " ^ "For in d is c o u rse w ith a f r i e n d , our th o u g h t h i t h e r t o wrapped in our con s c io u s n e s s , detaches i t s e l f , and allow s i t s e l f to be seen as a thought . . . . For p ro v o c a tio n of th o u g h t, we use o u rs e lv e s and use each o th e r . I t is n o t how much, but w ith whom t h a t c o u n ts. "Here i s th e use o f s o c ie ty : i t is so easy w ith the g r e a t to be g r e a t; so easy to come up to an e x i s t i n g s ta n d a rd . . . ."67 ^he would-be o r a t o r should ^ " S o c i e t y and S o l i t u d e ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 625. 6 4Ib id . ^ " I n s p i r a t i o n , " Complete W r itin g s , I , 815. ^ I b i d . , pp. 815-816. "I am c o n v in ce d ," w rote Emerson " t h a t we are very much in d e b te d to each o th e r fo r s tim u lu s , 8 f o r such c o n firm a tio n to our thoughts t h a t we v e n tu re to t r y them in p r a c t i c e , a s te p we should have long p o s t-p o n e d b u t f o r t h a t s e c o n d in g ." Jo u r. 8 M is. , V, 46. ^ " S o c i e t y and S o l i t u d e , " Complete W ritin g s , I , 625. 158 s t r i v e f o r a b alan ce between s o c ie ty and s o l i t u d e . Here a g ain , as so o f t e n , n a tu r e d e lig h ts to p u t us between extreme antagonism s, and our s a f e t y i s in the s k i l l w ith which we keep th e d ia g o n al l i n e . S o litu d e is i m p r a c tic a b le , and s o c ie ty f a t a l . W e must keep our head in th e one and our hands in th e o th e r . The con d i t i o n s are met i f we keep our independence, y e t do n o t lo se our sym pathy.68 In h is l e c t u r e on "The Head," Emerson atte m p ted to answer th e q u e s tio n of how a man can a id h is i n t u i t i v e p ro c e ss e s or develop h is i n t e l l e c t . "The main th in g we can do fo r i t , " he s a i d , " i s to s ta n d o u t o f the way, to t r u s t i t s d iv in e f o r c e , to b e lie v e t h a t God i s in i t , and only disencum ber and watch i t s w orkings. A ll g e n e ra l r u le s r e s p e c tin g i n t e l l e c t u a l c u ltu r e must be based on t h i s n e g a t i v e p r i n c i p l e ."69 Emerson gave th r e e more p r i n c i p l e s f o r the development o f th e i n t e l l e c t : (1) "He who would make h im s e lf worthy o f i n t e l l e c t u a l g i f t s must seek them w ith a r e l i g i o u s r e s p e c t , " f o r "th e whole r u le of i n t e l l e c t u a l duty" is p a r a l l e l ' t o " th e r u le of moral d u t y ; " 7® (2) You 71 must be w i l l i n g to forego a l l th in g s f o r t r u t h , and (3) You must keep y o u r s e l f " a l o o f from a l l moorings and a f l o a t " 6 8I b i d . , p. 626. 69"The Head," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , 255. 7QI b i d . , pp. 256-257. 71l b i d . , p. 255. Emerson spoke of "th e war t h a t goes on in every man between t r u t h and a p p e t i t e . " I b i d . , p. 9. Again he s a id t h a t "no man has a r i g h t p e r c e p tio n of any t r u t h who has n o t been r e a c te d on by i t so as to be ready to be i t s m a r ty r ." " F a t e ," Works, VI, 29. 159 " a b s t a i n from dogmatism and re c o g n ize a l l th e o p p o site 72 n e g a tio n s between which as w a lls " your being is swung." Emerson admonished men to "keep the h a b it of the o b s e r v e r ," "break o f f your a s s o c i a t i o n w ith your p e r s o n a l i t y § i d e n t i f y y o u r s e l f w ith the U n iv e rs e ." A man should be a " f o o t b a l l to tim e § chance, th e more k ick s the b e t t e r so t h a t you in s p e c t th e whole game § know i t s u tte rm o s t 7 law ." For Emerson, th in k in g meant the detachm ent of o n e s e lf from th e w o r l d . 74 "a man is i n t e l l e c t u a l in p r o p o r t i o n as he can make an o b je c t o f every s e n s a tio n , p e r c e p tio n and i n t u i t i o n ; so long as he has no engagement in any th o u g h t or f e e l i n g which can h in d e r him from looking a t 7C i t as somewhat f o r e i g n ." Emerson reco g n ize d t h a t h a rd work i s a n e c e ssa ry a d ju n c t to c r e a t i v i t y . He asked, "'C an you s a i l a sh ip through th e Narrows by minding the helm when you happen to th in k o f i t . . . o r accom plish any th in g good or pow erful in t h i s manner? That you th in k [th e s c h o la r] can w r ite a t odd m inutes only shows what your knowledge o f w r i t i n g i s . 1 He s a id t h a t i f the s c h o la r f e e l s rep ro ach when he reads 72"The H ead," E a rly L e c t u r e s ," I I , 255-256. 73j o u r . § M is. , V, 39. ^ B i s h o p , p. 47. ^ " N a t u r a l H is to ry o f I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 38- 39. 160 the t a l e of the extrem e t o i l and endurance o f the A r c t i c e x p lo r e r , he i s n o t working as he sh o u ld , and he h im s e lf through a l l h is l i f e worked w ith constancy and c o n c e n tra t io n . Emerson a d v ise d the sp ea k e r to p re p a re long in ad vance o f any p a r t i c u l a r speaking engagement by g a th e r in g s e n tim e n ts , f a c t s , i l l u s t r a t i o n s and saving them f o r f u tu r e use. Emerson o f f e r e d two im p o rtan t maxims to a id the o r a t o r in th e d is c o v e ry and development of h is id e a . "One i s , s i t alo n e. In your arrangem ents f o r re s id e n c e see t h a t you have a chamber to y o u r s e l f , though you s e l l your c o at and wear a b la n k e t . The o th e r i s , keep a jo u r n a l . Pay so much honor to the v i s i t s of t r u t h to your mind as to reco rd 7 7 those thoughts t h a t have shone t h e r e i n . " At the age of se v e n te e n , Emerson began keeping a j o u r n a l , a p r a c t i c e which he was to f a i t h f u l l y continue 7 ft through h i s l a t e y e a r s . These j o u r n a ls were n o t reco rd s ^ E d w ard Waldo Emerson, Emerson in Concord, p. 213. Emerson made th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n t in reg ard to h a rd work in h is jo u r n a l of 1851: "'T o every rep ro ach I know b u t one answer, namely, to go again to my own work. 'B ut you n e g l e c t your r e l a t i o n s . ' Yes, to o t r u e ; then I w i l l work the h a r d e r . 'But you have no v i r t u e s . ' Yes, then I w i l l work th e h a rd e r. 'B ut you have detach ed y o u r s e l f and a cq u ired th e a v e rs io n o f a l l d e ce n t p eo p le: you must r e g a in some p o s i t i o n and r e l a t i o n . ' Yes, I w i l l work the h a r d e r ." I b i d . , pp. 213-214. 77"The Head," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , 261 78"Emerson a p p aren tly began keeping r e g u la r j o u r n a ls in January, 1820 . . . ." W illiam H. Gilman and 161 of e v e n ts , b u t r a t h e r , p la c e s "w herein to n o te the tho u g h ts t h a t were given him, h is t r i a l s a t v e r s i f y i n g , a q u o ta tio n t h a t charmed, or an anecdote t h a t p le a s e h im ." 7^ "Mr. Emerson’ s j o u r n a ls were m ainly re c o rd s of the o r a c le s which came to h is l i s t e n i n g e a r in h is wood w alk s, and thoughts which th e events and c o n v e rsa tio n of the day had s u g g e ste d , b u t the outward circu m stan ces u s u a lly have to be i n f e r r e d . Q I The o r a t o r must w a it on i n s p i r a t i o n , x b u t when i t comes he w i l l p o s t h is o b s e r v a tio n s . Emerson d e s c rib e d h is "method" th u s: I w r ite M etap h y sics, b u t my method is p u re ly e x p e c t a n t . I t is n o t even t e n t a t i v e . Much le s s aim I o t h e r s , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , Emerson in His J o u r n a l s , " J o u r . § M is. , I , x iv . In h is jo u r n a l e n tr y fo r January 2T~, 1820, Emerson announced th e purpose o f th e se j o u r n a l s . "These pages are in te n d e d a t t h i s t h e i r commencement to c o n ta in a re c o rd o f new thoughts (when they o c c u r ) ; f o r a r e c e p ta c le of a l l the old id e as t h a t p a r t i a l b u t p e c u l i a r peepings a t a n t i q u i t y can f u r n is h or f u r b i s h ; f o r t a b l e t to save wear § t e a r of weak Memory § in s h o r t f o r a l l the v a rio u s purposes § u t i l i t y r e a l or im aginary which are u s u a lly comprehended under t h a t comprehensive t i t l e Common Place Book. Jo u r. § M is. , I , 3-4. 79 Edward Waldo Emerson, !,B io g ra p h ic a l Sketch , M Works, I , x v i - x v i i . ^E d w ard Waldo Emerson, "N o te s," Works, V I I I , 431. ^ l" S e t o u t to study a p a r t i c u l a r t r u t h . Read upon i t . Walk to th in k upon i t . Talk o f i t . W rite about i t . The th in g i t s e l f w i l l n o t much m a n ife st i t s e l f , a t l e a s t n o t much in accommodation to your stu d y in g arrangem ents. The gleams you do g e t, o u t th ey w i l l f l a s h , as l i k e l y a t d in n e r, o r in the r o a r o f F an eu il H a ll, as in your p a in - f u l l e s t a b s t r a c t i o n s . " J o u r . § M is. , IV, 277. 162 in g en io u s in i n s t i t u t i n g e x p erim en ta crus is to e x t o r t th e s e c r e t and la y bare th e r e l u c t a n t lu rk in g law. T h is, o f c o u rs e , i s a c o r o l l a r y o f the d o c trin e of I n s p i r a t i o n . But th e s c h o l a r may have th e m echanical advantage o f p o s tin g the o b s e r v a tio n s , and so d i s c o v e r ing Neptune by th r e e reco rd s in h is d a y b o o k . 82 The method o f the o r a t o r then is to re c o rd in a jo u r n a l a l l the th o u g h ts , f a c t s , and i l l u s t r a t i o n s t h a t come to him through the f a c u l t y of U nderstanding o r the f a c u l t y o f Reason. These p o s te d th o u g h ts can l a t e r be d e veloped i n to p ara g rap h s and whole d is c o u r s e s . In h is j o u r n a l o f 1837, Emerson w rote: " 'T h is book i s my sav in g s bank. I grow r i c h e r because I have somewhere to d e p o s it my e a r n in g s ; f r a c t i o n s are w orth more to me because c o r r e sponding f r a c t i o n s are w a itin g h e re t h a t s h a l l be made i n te g e r s by t h e i r a d d itio n . The th o u g h ts which one c o l l e c t s in a jo u r n a l w i l l tend to "b eg et more, and the a r t i f i c i a l l y combined i n d iv id u a ls have in a d d itio n to t h e i r own 84 a q u ite new c o l l e c t i v e pow er." Emerson saw th e a r t o f "co m p o sitio n " or " s y n th e s is " as e s s e n t i a l f o r the p o e t , the p la y w r ig h t, and th e o r a t o r . 82J o u r n a l s , V I I I , 124. 8^Edward Waldo Emerson, " B io g ra p h ic a l S k e tc h ," Works, I , x v - x v ii. ^ E m erso n went on to say t h a t "th e main is made up o f many i s l a n d s , th e s t a t e o f many men. The poem of many tho u g h ts each o f which, in i t s t u r n , f i l l e d the whole sky o f the p o e t was day and Being to him ." J o u r . § M is. , V, 39-40. 163 Quoting from the second Aphorism of the Novum Organum of F ran c is Bacon, Emerson s a i d t h a t " n e i t h e r the hand n o r the mind of man can accom plish much w ith o u t t o o l s . . . Here l i e s the defense o f w r i t t e n or p re m e d ita te d p re a c h in g , of th e w r i t t e n book, of the composed p o e m ." ^ Emerson n o ted t h a t " a l l good w r i t i n g might be c a l l e d O ccasional Poems, as i t is only a com position o f many v is io n s in the O A w r i t e r ' s p r i v a t e e x p e r i e n c e . " 00 Every g r e a t work o f a r t , be i t a p la y , a poem o r an o r a t i o n , is "th e union o f many p a r t s each o f which came s o l i t a r y and slow ly i n t o the mind and did n o t a t f i r s t a t t a i n i t s f u l l ex p an sio n . This i n deed is a law t h a t l i e s a t th e fo u n d a tio n of l i t e r a t u r e and i s w e ll e x p re ssed by the Word C om position, i . e . p u t t i n g to g e th e r . Emerson r e a l i z e d t h a t "No human w it unaided is equal to the p ro d u c tio n a t one time o f such a r e s u l t as the Hamlet o r L ear, b u t by a m u ltitu d e o f t r i a l s § a thousand r e j e c t i o n s . . . u sin g and p e ru s in g o f what was a lre a d y SSjour. § M is., V, 39. E lsew here, Emerson s t a t e d t h a t " i t i s as law ful and as becoming f o r th e p o e t to s e iz e upon f e l i c i t o u s e x p re ss io n s § la y them up f o r use as f o r Michel Angelo to s t o r e h is . . . sk etch -b o o k w ith hands, arms, t r i g l y p h s , 5 c a p i t a l s to e n r ic h h is f u tu r e Composi t i o n s . The wary a r t i s t in b o th kinds w i l l t e a r down the s c a f f o l d i n g when the Work i s f i n i s h e d § h im s e lf supply no clew to th e c u r i o s i t y t h a t would know how he d id the won d e r ." J o u r. § M is. , V, 363. ^ J o u r n a l s , I I I , 467. ^ " S h a k e s p e a r e ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I , 317. 164 w r i t t e n , one of those t r a g e d ie s i s a t l a s t c o m p leted --a poem made t h a t s h a l l t h r i l l the w orld by the mere j u x t a p o s i t i o n § i n t e r - a c t i o n o f lin e § sen ten ces t h a t s in g ly would have been of l i t t l e worth § s h o r t d a t e . "88 Composi t i o n or s y n th e s is is as n e c e s sa ry f o r the o r a t o r as i t is f o r the p la y w rig h t. "The o r a t o r is nowise e q u al to the evoking on a new s u b j e c t o f t h i s b r i l l i a n t chain o f s e n t i m ents, f a c t s , i l l u s t r a t i o n s whereby he now f i r e s h im s e lf § you. Every l i n k in t h i s li v i n g chain he found in h is f a t h e r ' s house or a t school when a boy; some o f them by h is l o s s e s ; some of them by h is s i c k n e s s , some by h is s i n s . " For example, "The W ebster w ith whom you t a l k admires the o r a t i o n alm ost as much as you do, § knows h im s e lf to be nowise e q u a l, unarmed, t h a t i s , w ith o u t t h i s to o l o f Syn t h e s i s to th e s p le n d id e f f e c t which he is y e t w e ll p le a s e d 89 you should impute to him ." Emerson observed how o th e r speakers had made use o f the " in s tru m e n t of s y n th e s is " o r com position in t h e i r sp eech es. "B u rk e's o r a tio n s are b u t th e com bination o f the Annual R e g i s t e r , which he e d i t e d , w ith the 'I n q u i r y on the Sublime and B e a u t i f u l , ' which he wrote a t th e same tim e."90 88j o u r . 5 M is., V, 39. ^ ^ Ib id . See a ls o , "S h a k esp e are," Ea r l y L e c t u r e s , I , 318. ^ J o u r n a l s , I I I , 467. He saw t h a t E v e r e t t 's g r e a t e s t a s s e t as a s p eak er c o n s is te d o f "a g r e a t t a l e n t f o r c o l l e c t i n g f a c t s and f o r b r in g in g those he had to b e a r w ith in g e n io u s f e l i c i t y upon the to p ic 91 o f th e moment." W ebster a lso r e l i e d on com position or s y n t h e s i s . "A W e b ste r's speech is a marvel u n t i l we have le a r n e d t h a t a p a r t o f i t he has c a r r i e d in h is head f o r y e a r s , § a p a r t o f i t was c o l l e c t e d f o r him by young law y e rs § t h a t Mr. A ppleton fu r n is h e d the f a c t s , 5 . . . a 9 2 l e t t e r from Mr. Swain tu rn e d th e p a ra g ra p h ." Em erson's jo u r n a l s p la y ed an im p o rtan t p a r t in h is own speech p r e p a r a t i o n . They e n ab led him to s t o r e th o u g h ts, q u o t a t i o n s , exam ples, i n s i g h t s t h a t could l a t e r be syn th e- 9 3 s iz e d and made in to a speech. Em erson's method of sy n t h e s i s i s seen in Pomeroy's d e s c r i p t i o n of Em erson's method of sermon p r e p a r a t io n : Emerson u s u a lly began p re p a r in g h is sermons by choosing a s u b je c t or theme on F rid a y n i g h t . From h is j o u r n a ls and " B lo ttin g Books," which he had begun to keep some time b e fo re 1820, he g a th e re d s e v e r a l id e as o r s e v e r a l e x p re ss io n s o f a s i n g l e id e a . "C om position" was th e 9 -*-"Life and L e t t e r s in New E ngland," Works, X, 331. 92J o u r . g M is. , IV, 284. 9 3 Lawton reminds us t h a t Emerson "made many c lo s e ly r e l a t e d uses o f h is j o u r n a l s , b u t h is p r a c t i c e s o f s t o r i n g m a t e r ia ls f o r u n s p e c if ie d f u tu r e t a s k s , o f g a th e r in g d ata f o r immediate co m p o sitio n al n e e d s , and o f p e r f e c t i n g p a s sages f o r s p e c i f i c l i t e r a r y assignm ents were of p a r t i c u l a r im portance to h is methods of speech p r e p a r a t i o n . " Lawton, p. 104. 166 term he gave to h is n e x t s te p : th e p r a c t i c e o f group ing th re e o r more j o u r n a l e n t r i e s o f d i f f e r e n t d ates to g e th e r in one sermon. From th e se he took what he c a l l e d the "mean" f o r h is theme. Many of th e rough d r a f t s of h is sermons show e x te n s iv e borrowings from the j o u r n a l s : i t had long been Em erson's p r a c t i c e to d e p o s it in h is "Savings Bank" w hatever id e a s , q u o ta t i o n s , and i l l u s t r a t i o n s he in te n d e d f o r f u tu r e o r a l e x p r e s s i o n .94 Emerson used th e term s, arrangem ent, d i s p o s i t i o n , management, and method to r e f e r to th e r e l a t i n g of th o u g h ts, f a c t s , and id e as w ith in a p a ra g rap h or w ith in a whole com p o s i t i o n . Emerson saw arrangem ent as synonymous w ith w r i t in g . "The a r t of w r i t i n g ^ c o n s is ts in p u t t i n g two th in g s to g e th e r t h a t are u n lik e and t h a t belong t o g e th e r , l i k e a horse and a c a r t . Then have we somewhat f a r more goodly 9 6 and e f f i c i e n t than e i t h e r . " Method, o r th e power to arran g e f a c t s , was one o f Em erson's req u irem en ts f o r th e o r a t o r . "Next to the knowl edge o f th e f a c t and i t s law is method, which c o n s t i t u t e s the genius and e f f i c i e n c y o f a l l rem arkable men."^? Again Emerson s a i d t h a t "the mark o f genius i s t h a t i t has n o t Pomeroy, p. 49. Edward W . Emerson p o in te d o u t in th e " I n tr o d u c tio n " to th e p u b lis h e d jo u r n a ls t h a t some p a s sages were w r i t t e n so c a r e f u l l y t h a t Emerson was able to t r a n s f e r them to a speech o r essay " o f te n w ith l i t t l e or no change in form ." J o u r n a l s , I , x v i i i . ^ E m erso n was in th e h a b i t o f w r i t i n g out in f u l l h i s speeches b e fo re d e l i v e r i n g them. ^ J o u r n a l s , IV, 483. ^ " E l o q u e n c e ," Complete W ritin g s , I , 648. 167 only th o u g h ts , b u t the copula t h a t jo in s them i s a ls o a t h o u g h t ."98 When men go to h e ar a s p e a k e r, they are lo o k ing n o t only f o r f a c t s , b u t f o r a method t h a t w i l l make the f a c t s th ey a lre a d y have more m eaningful: A crowd o f men go up to F an eu il H a ll; they are a l l p r e t t y w ell a c q u a in te d w ith th e o b je c t o f th e m eeting; they have a l l read th e f a c t s in th e same new spapers. The o r a t o r p o s se s s e s no new in fo rm a tio n which h is h e a r e r s have n o t , y e t he teach es them to see th e th in g w ith h is ey es. By the new p l a c i n g , the circu m stan ces acq u ire new s o l i d i t y and w orth. Every f a c t gains con sequence by h is naming i t , and t r i f l e s become im por t a n t . His e x p re ss io n s f i x them selves in men's memo r i e s , and f l y from mouth to mouth. His mind has some new p r i n c i p l e s o f o rd e r. Where he lo o k s , a l l th in g s f l y in to t h e i r p l a c e s . What w i l l he say n e x t? Let t h i s man speak, and t h i s man o nly. By ap p ly in g the h a b i t s o f a h ig h e r s t y l e o f tho u g h t to th e common a f f a i r s o f t h i s w o rld , he in tr o d u c e s b e au ty and magni fic e n c e w herever he goes. Such a power was B u rk e's and o f t h i s genius we have some b r i l l i a n t examples in our own p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l m en.99 Emerson saw a n a t u r a l tendency to o rd e r and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n in the human mind and a "c o rre sp o n d e n t Order a c t u a l l y s u b s i s t i n g in N a tu r e ."100 " i t i s the c o n s ta n t t e n dency o f the m ind," he s a i d , " to Unify a l l i t b e h o ld s, o r to reduce the ^ w id e s t) f a c t s to a s in g le law. Hence a l l endeavors a t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . "101 in h is e ssa y on the ^^J o u r n a l s , IX, 67. 99"E loquence," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 648. J o u r . $ Mis . , V, 168. •^J-I b i d . » P- 221. "O bserve," s a i d Emerson, " t h i s i n v i n c i b l e tendency of th e mind to u n ify . I t i s a law o f our c o n s t i t u t i o n t h a t we sh ould n o t contem plate th in g s a p a r t w ith o u t th e e f f o r t to arran g e them in o rd e r w ith 168 "Humanity o f S c ie n c e ," Emerson n o te d t h a t " C l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s one o f th e main a c tio n s of the i n t e l l e c t . A man o f g r e a t s a g a c ity d i v i d e s , d i s t r i b u t e s , w ith every word he sp eak s. And we are always a t the mercy o f a b e t t e r c l a s s i f i e r th an o u r s e l v e s ."102 Emerson spoke o f " th e impotence o f the human mind in th e p resen ce o f a m u ltitu d e of f a c t s , and the energy w ith which i t aims to fin d some mark on them acco rd in g to i n which they can a l l be s e t in some o r d e r ." Emerson n o ted t h a t "any s in g le f a c t c o n sid e re d by i t s e l f confounds, m is le ad s u s . "104 Only when f a c t s are jo in e d to g e th e r in c o r r e c t o rd e r do th ey le ad us in th e d i r e c t i o n of t r u t h , b u t the o rd e rin g o f our th oughts i s n o t easy . "We have th o u g h ts ," s a i d Emerson, "b u t we don’t know what to do w ith them, m a t e r i a l s , t h a t we c a n 't manage o r d is p o se . W e can n o t g e t high enough above them to see t h e i r o rd e r in r e a son. W e cannot g e t warn enough to have them e x e r t t h e i r n a t u r a l a f f i n i t i e s 8 throw them selves in to c r y s t a l . " Emer son gave, as an example, members o f a s e c t "devoted to a known f a c t s § a s c r ib e them to th e same law ." I b i d . , p. 219. 102"Humanity o f S c ie n c e ," E arly L e c t u r e s , I I , 24- 25. 103Ib id . IQ4j0u rria l s , V, 79. 169 c e r t a i n i d e a . " They do n o t "embrace o r command" id e a s , b u t r a t h e r , th e id eas "p o sse ss" them .105 Emerson was opposed to what he c a l l e d " a r t i f i c i a l a rra n g em en t." In s te a d , he c a l l e d f o r a " d iv in e o rd e r" o r " n a t u r a l o rd e r" in o n e 's th o u g h ts . "Shun m an u factu re, or th e in tr o d u c in g o f a r t i f i c i a l arrangem ent in your tho u g h ts - - i t w i l l s u r e ly crack and come to n o t h i n g ."106 ^ man should " d e c lin e being an a r t i s t under any greenhorn n o tio n o f in te rm e d d lin g w ith sa c re d th o u g h t. I t is s u r e ly f o o l i s h to adhere r i g i d l y to the o rd e r o f time in p u t t i n g down o n e 's th o u g h ts , and to n e g l e c t the o rd e r o f th o u g h t. I p u t l i k e th in g s t o g e t h e r , " s a i d Emerson. 1^7 N a tu ra l o rd e r is d iv in e o r d e r , and " i f a n a t u r a l o rd e r is o b e d ie n tly f o l lowed, th e com position w i l l have an a b id in g charm to y o u r s e l f as w e ll as to o th e r s ; you w i l l see t h a t you were the s c r ib e o f a h ig h e r wisdom than your own, and i t w i l l remain to you, li k e one o f N a tu r e 's works, p le a s a n t and wholesome ."108 Emerson gave the fo llo w in g e x p la n a tio n o f " n a t u r a l o rd e r" as he p r a c t i c e d i t : 105j o u r . 6 M is. , IV, 49. IQOj o u r n a l s , I I I , 550. 107journals_, 246. 1 0 8I b i d . , p. 337. 170 There i s a p ro c e ss in th e mind very analogous to c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n in the m in eral kingdom. I th in k o f a p a r t i c u l a r f a c t o f s i n g u l a r beau ty 5 i n t e r e s t . In th in k in g o f i t I am le d to many more thoughts which show them selves . . . f i r s t p a r t i a l l y and a fte rw ard s more f u l l y . But in th e m u ltitu d e o f them I see no o rd e r. When I would p r e s e n t them to o th e rs they have no b e g in n in g . There is no method. Leave them now, § r e t u r n to them ag ain . D om esticate them in your mind, do n o t fo rce them in to arrangem ent too h a s t i l y § p r e s e n t l y you s h a l l f in d they w i l l take t h e i r own o r d e r. And th e o rd e r they assume i s d iv in e . I t is God's a r c h i t e c t u r e .109 Emerson t e l l s us t h a t s p i r i t u a l f a c t s , r i g h t s , d u t i e s , and th o u g h ts are "a thousand fa c es o f one e sse n ce . W e c a l l the essen ce T ru th ; the p a r t i c u l a r a sp e c ts o f i t we c a l l th o u g h ts . "H O Thus a l l th o u g h ts and f a c t s are r e l a t e d in one s t r u c t u r e , one h ig h e r id e a , which is T ru th . "Every f a c t s tu d ie d by the U nderstanding is n o t only s o l i t a r y b u t d e s e r t [s i c ] . But i f the iro n l i d s of R eason's eye can be once r a i s e d , the f a c t is c l a s s i f i e d im m ediately 5 - seen to be r e l a t e d to our ^school^ n u r s e r y re a d in g 5 our profound- e s t S c ie n c e ."111 A1though we have many f a c t s and th o u g h ts , i t i s n o t easy f o r men to a rra n g e and c l a s s i f y them. W e see v a rio u s f a c e t s o f t r u t h . "But our geometry cannot span th ese ex treme p o in ts and r e c o n c ile them. What to do? By obeying 1 °9J o u r . § M is. , I I I , 316. H 0 " N a t u r a l H is to ry o f I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 37. H l jou r. § M is. , V, 85. "A thought comes sin g le lik e a fo reig n t r a v e l l e r but i f you can fin d out i t s name you s h a ll fin d i t r e la te d to a powerful § numerous fam ily." I b i d ., p . 81. 171 each th o u g h t f r a n k l y , by h a r p in g , o r , i f you w i l l , pounding on each s t r i n g , we le a r n a t l a s t i t s power. By the same obedience to o th e r th o u g h ts we le a r n t h e i r s , and then comes the re a so n a b le hope o f harm onizing them: W e are su re t h a t , though we know n o t how, n e c e s s i t y does comport w ith l i b e r t y , th e in d iv id u a l w ith the w o rld , my p o l a r i t y w ith the s p i r i t o f th e tim e s. The r i d d l e o f the age has f o r each a p r i v a t e s o l u t i o n . I f one would stu d y h is own tim e , i t must be by t h i s method o f ta k in g up in tu r n each o f the le a d in g to p ic s which belong to our scheme o f human l i f e , and by fir m ly s t a t i n g a l l t h a t is a g re e a b le to e x p erien c e on one, and doing the same j u s t i c e to th e opposing f a c t s in the o t h e r s , th e tr u e l i m i t a t i o n s w i l l appear. Any excess o f emphasis on one p a r t would be c o r r e c t e d , and a j u s t b alan ce would be m a d e .l l 2 Emerson n o te d t h a t "each new s te p we tak e in th o u g h t r e c o n c ile s tw enty seem ingly d is c o r d a n t f a c t s , as e x p re s s io n s o f one law ." For example, P la to and A r i s t o t l e are c o n sid e re d th e le a d e r s o f two d i f f e r e n t sch o o ls o f th o u g h t, b u t the w ise re a d e r w i l l see t h a t A r i s t o t l e p la - to n i z e s . "By going one s te p f a r t h e r back in th o u g h t, d i s c o rd a n t o p in io n s are r e c o n c ile d by being seen to be two extrem es of one p r i n c i p l e , and we can n e v e r go so f a r back as to p re c lu d e a s t i l l h ig h e r v i s i o n . "113 Emerson a ls o o b served in h is stu d y o f P la to t h a t the Greek p h ilo s o p h e r was in th e h a b i t o f arguing on both s id e s o f a q u e s ti o n , so t h a t "th e a c u te s t German, the 112" F a t e ," Works, VI, 4-5. 113" C i r c l e s , " Works, I I , 3-8. 172 lo v in g e s t d i s c i p l e , could n e v er t e l l what P lato n ism was; in d e ed , adm irable t e x t s can be quoted on both s id e s o f every g r e a t q u e s tio n from h i m . " ^ ^ A p p a ren tly , Emerson fo llo w ed P l a t o 's example in h is own l e c t u r e s . " I t was Mr. Em erson's own h a b i t in h is l e c t u r e s , a f t e r p r e s e n tin g s tr o n g ly one sid e o f h is theme, suddenly to show the o th e r a s p e c t o f i t , alm ost ig n o re d b e f o r e . This m ight be done in a n o th er l e c t u r e o f th e c o u rse, b u t o fte n in th e same one."-'-^ M argaret F u l l e r s a id o f Emerson t h a t "he r e a l l y seemed to b e lie v e th e r e were two s id e s to every s u b j e c t , and even to in tim a te h ig h e r ground, from which each m ight be seen to have an i n f i n i t e number o f s id e s o r b e a rin g s . . . ."116 Cooke a lso n o t i c e d how Em erson's l e c t u r e s and 117 e ssa y s were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by th e use o f a n t i t h e s i s . " Holmes s a i d o f Emerson t h a t " 'h e had n e i t h e r the p a tie n c e nor the method o f the in d u c tiv e re a so n e r; he p a ss e d from one th o u g h t to a n o th e r n o t by l o g i c a l s te p s b u t by a i r y f l i g h t s , which l e f t no f o o t p r i n t s . ' " H ® Emerson co n fessed to an i n a b i l i t y to use " t h a t s y s te m a tic form which i s reckoned e s s e n t i a l in t r e a t i n g the scie n c e o f the 1 1 4 " p ia to ," Works, IV, 78. •^ '’Cooke, p. 264. 1 1 6 " p ia to ," Works, IV, 78. H^Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o te s," Works, I I , 436. H^Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes," Works, V I I I , 361-362. --------- 173 m in d ." 119 However, Emerson su g g e ste d " t h a t he who contends h im s e lf w ith d o t t i n g a frag m en tary cu rv e, re c o rd in g only what f a c t s he has o b serv ed , w ith o u t a tte m p tin g to arran g e them w ith in one o u t l i n e , follow s a system a l s o , - - a system as any o t h e r , though he does n o t i n t e r f e r e w ith i t s v a s t curves by p re m a tu re ly fo r c in g them in to a c i r c l e or e l l i p s e , b u t only draws t h a t a rc which he c l e a r l y s e e s , or perhaps a t a l a t e r o b s e r v a tio n o r remote curve o f th e same o r b i t , and w a its a new o p p o r t u n i t y , w e ll a s s u re d t h a t th e se observed a rc s w i l l c o n s i s t w ith each o t h e r . 120 A p p a re n tly , Emerson had l i t t l e i n t e r e s t in the l o g i c a l arrangem ent o f id e a s . "I want n o t th e l o g i c , b u t the power, i f any, which i t b rin g s i n t o s c ie n c e and l i t e r a tu r e ; th e man who can humanize t h i s l o g i c , th e se s y l l o gism s, and give me the r e s u l t s . " Emerson re c o g n ize d t h a t many people "v alu e only the pure geom etry, th e a e r i a l b rid g e ascending from e a r t h to heaven w ith arches and a b u t ments o f p u re re a so n . I am f u l l y c o n te n te d ," he s a i d , " i f 121 you t e l l me where are th e two t e r m i n i . " Cooke observed t h a t Emerson "does n o t th in k c o n tin u o u s ly ; he does n o t in c o n v e rsa tio n follow a s u b je c t th ro u g h , b u t h e s i t a t e s , s k ip s in te r v e n in g i d e a s , is u n a b le , a p p a r e n tly , to hold h is mind 119"Natural H is to ry o f the I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 11 - 1 2 . ■^^Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o te s ," Works, X II, 438- 439. 1^1"N a tu ra l H is to r y of th e I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 13. 174 to a l l th e lin k s o f th o u g h t. I t is n o t n a t u r a l to him to do s o ." Emerson thought " i n t u i t i v e l y " r a t h e r than " l o g i c a l l y . " Cooke b e lie v e d t h a t Emerson could see " in bold g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s " b u t was "unable to follow and arrange the 122 in te r v e n in g s te p s from prem ise to c o n c lu s io n ." M argaret F u l l e r n o te d t h a t some o f Emerson's h e a r e r s were " d is c o n te n te d " w ith h is l e c t u r e s , because "th ey were accustomed to an a r t i f i c i a l method, whose s c a f f o ld in g could e a s i l y be r e t r a c e d , and d e s ir e d an obvious sequence o f l o g i c a l i n f e r e n c e s ." Some l i s t e n e r s " i n s i s t e d t h a t th e r e was n o th in g in what they had h e a r d , because they could n o t give a c l e a r account of i t s course and purpose. They d id n o t see t h a t P i n d a r 's odes might be very w e ll a r ranged f o r t h e i r own p u rp o se , and y e t n o t b e ar t r a n s l a t i n g in to the methods of Mr. L ocke."123 Emerson c a l l e d f o r an " o rd e r o f w onder." " I f you d e s ir e to a r r e s t a t t e n t i o n , to s u r p r i s e , do n o t give me f a c t s in o rd e r o f cause and e f f e c t , b u t drop one o r two lin k s in th e c h a in , and give me w ith a cau se, an e f f e c t two or th re e tim es removed. Edward Waldo Emerson n o te d t h a t " t h i s was Mr. Em erson's own method in l e c t u r e s , to keep a t t e n t i o n on th e s t r e t c h , and give the h e a r e r the 122c00icej p. 264. 1 2 3 o s s o li, pp. 193-194. 124j 0u r n a ls , V, 63-64. 175 ] OC c r e a t i v e p le a s u r e o f su p p ly in g the l i n k . " J Emerson n o te d t h a t " P lo tin u s d id n o t h a s t i l y d i s c lo se to every one th e s y l l o g i s t i c n e c e s s i t i e s which were 126 l a t e n t in h is d i s c o u r s e ." Emerson t r i e d to follow the same p r a c t i c e in h is own l e c t u r e s and e s s a y s . "He allow ed i n t e r v a l s f o r the e l e c t r i c sp ark to pass and t h r i l l the r e a d e r ." He a d v ised a young f r i e n d , " 'T ry and leave a l i t t l e th in k in g f o r him [the r e a d e r ] ; t h a t w i l l be b e t t e r f o r b o th . The tr o u b le o f most w r i t e r s is t h a t they sp read too t h i n . The re a d e r is as q u ick as th e y , has got th e re b e f o r e , and i s ready and w a itin g . . . . I f you can see how the h arn ess f i t s , he can. But be sure t h a t you see i t . " ,;L27 There is no "p arad in g o f s y l l o g i s t i c re a so n in g in Em erson's e s s a y s , and no r a t i o c i n a t i o n . " He was " c a r e f u l to avoid the show o f r a t i o c i n a t i o n and the parade o f p ro o f- making. The o b je c t o f h is w r iti n g was to p r e s e n t t r u t h , 19 Q and to produce i n s i g h t and n o t to make p r o s e l y t e s . " A lthough h is e ssay on N ature and "The American S ch o lar" " s t i l l make use o f the form al l o g i c a l d i v is io n s o f h is -* -2^Edward Waldo Emerson and Waldo Emerson F orbes, " N o tes," J o u r n a l s , V, 64. 126J o u r n a l s , V I I I , 451. l 2?Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes ," Works, X II, 438- 439. ■ ^^H arris, pp. 195-196. 176 e a r l y serm ons," form al arrangem ent and l o g i c a l d i v i s i o n s 1 2 Q become ever le s s a p p aren t in h is l a t e r w r i t i n g s . " I t has o fte n been s a i d , " as H a rris n o te d , " t h a t th e r e i s no u n ity in Em erson's p ro se e s s a y s , and t h a t they c o n s is t o f a v a s t number o f b r i l l i a n t s ta te m e n ts , lo o s e ly connected and bound i n t o p a ra g ra p h s , w ith only such u n ity as i s given by th e l i d s o f th e v o lu m e."13® Emerson "com p la in e d to C a rly le o f th e se ' i n f i n i t e l y r e p e l l a n t p a r t i c l e s ' 131 which he was s t r i v i n g to u n ite i n t o a w h o le." M argaret F u l l e r s a i d t h a t Emerson n ev er w rote a good work, " i f such a work be one where the whole commands more a t t e n t i o n than the p a r t s , or i f such a one be produced only w here, a f t e r an accum ulation of m a t e r i a l s , f i r e enough be a p p lie d to 1 37 fuse the whole i n t o one new s u b s ta n c e ." I f one examines Em erson's own w r iti n g s to d e riv e p r i n c i p l e s of o rd e r o r arran g em en t, one fin d s t h a t the i n d iv id u a l sen te n c e i s th e most im p o rtan t u n i t . "Mr. Emersonb method o f l i s t e n i n g f o r th e th ought and re c o rd in g i t in i t s p u r i t y , and h is f e a r o f 'a m b itio u s i n t e r f e r e n c e which we m is c a ll A r t , ' as he once e x p re ss e d h im s e lf , n a t u r a l l y 1 2 9 M atth iess en , p. 6 . 1 3 0 H a r r i s , p. 195. l-SlEdward Waldo Emerson, " N o te s ," Works, X II, 438- 439. 13^ O s so li, p. 196. 177 r e s u l t e d in th e s e n te n c e - - o r p a r a g r a p h - - b e i n g , f o r him, the n a t u r a l l i m i t o f e x p re s s io n . . . ."133 M argaret F u l l e r observed t h a t in Em erson's w r iti n g s " s i n g le p assag es and sen ten ces engage our a t t e n t i o n too much in p r o p o r tio n W ithin the p a ra g ra p h , "redundancy" is "a u su al p r i n c i p l e o f o r d e r ." W e f in d t h a t Em erson's s e p a r a te s e n ten ces "are o f te n more o r le s s synonymous ways o f say in g 't h e same t h i n g . ' " The Emersonian p arag rap h " tends to f u r n is h s e v e r a l i l l u s t r a t i o n s or s e v e r a l re s ta te m e n ts o f one la w ."135 For example, H a rris n o te d t h a t in th e "O ver-S oul," " i t would seem as i f each p ara g rap h s t a t e d th e id e a o f the whole, and then ag ain t h a t each sen te n c e in each p arag rap h r e f l e c t e d e n t i r e th e same i d e a . " ! ^ "S e t men upon t h in k in g , and you have been to them a god," wrote Em erson.137 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t the o r a t o r should encourage an audience to expand t h e i r v i s i o n , should provoke them i n t o a s t a t e of g r e a t e r "co n sc io u sn e ss" of t h e i r own p o t e n t i a l . What method does one use to encourage 133Edward Waldo Emerson, "N o tes," Works, X II, 438- 439. 1 3 ^ 0 s s o li, p. 196. 1 3 5 p irk in s , p. 236. 1 3 6 H a rris , p . 199. 137journals > IV, 7-8. 178 a g r e a t e r "co n s c io u sn e s s" in o n e 's l i s t e n e r s . An answer is s u g g e ste d in Em erson's s ta te m e n t t h a t "E verything in the u n iv e rs e goes by i n d i r e c t i o n . There are n o t s t r a i g h t l i n e s . "128 -p^g o r a t o r ' s method o f o rd e rin g h is id e as in a d is c o u r s e sh ould a lso be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n d i r e c t i o n . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "more is u n d e rsto o d than is ex p re ssed in the most d i f f u s e d i s c o u r s e ," f o r " i t i s the u n said p a r t o f every l e c t u r e t h a t does th e most g o o d ."^ 0^ E v a lu a tin g Speeches From Em erson's w r iti n g s one can d e riv e a t l e a s t f iv e p r i n c i p l e s by which the sp ea k e r can e v a lu a te h is speech as a whole o r the id e as and in fo rm a tio n w ith in i t . F i r s t , th e speech must be f a c t u a l , the in fo rm a tio n a cc u ra te . Emerson spoke o f " t h a t m a ster r u le o f R h e to ric , t h a t th in g s go by number and w e ig h t, and pass f o r what they be, n o t by seeming. "140 man i n v i n c i b l e ," s a id Emerson, "be h is cause g r e a t o r s m a ll, an a b s t r a c t p r i n c i p l e , or a p e t t y f a c t , whenever he e x p re ss e s the sim ple t r u t h . "141 iiy0 p reach w e l l , " s a id Emerson, "you must speak th e t r u t h . "142 138n^o r ]cs an<i Days," Complete W r itin g s , I , 676. 1 5 9 J o u r. § M is. , I I I , 315. 140j o u r n a l s , IV, 31. 14l j p u r n a l s , I I , 311. 1 4 2 Jo u r. S M i s . , IV, 159. 179 In a sermon on "The A u th o rity o f J e s u s ," Emerson s a i d t h a t a tone of a u t h o r i t y cannot be tak en w ith o u t t r u t h s o f a u t h o r i t y . I t is im p o ssib le to mimick i t . I t p r o ceeds d i r e c t l y form the p e r c e p tio n of g r e a t p r i n c i p l e s . I t is pow erful because t r u t h always co n v in ces, and p eople always know w hether they have been convinced or n o t. There is t h e r e f o r e no a r t i f i c e p o s s ib le in d e a lin g w ith t r u t h . He t h a t has i t in h im s e lf w i l l move you. He w i l l speak w ith a u t h o r i t y . He t h a t h a th i t n o t w i l l la b o r w ith h is r h e t o r i c and h is le a r n in g in v a i n . 143 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "eloquence must be grounded on the p l a i n e s t n a r r a t i v e , " and t h i s n a r r a t i v e "must be a t bottom a b i b l i c a l s ta te m e n t of f a c t . The o r a t o r is th ereb y an o r a t o r t h a t he keeps h is f e e t e v e r on a f a c t . " ^ ^ Thus Emerson p r a i s e d W ebster f o r the way he "hugged h is f a c t " in h is "Bunker H i l l A d d re ss. " ^ 5 Again he s a i d , I wish t h a t W ebster and E v e r e t t and a ls o th e young p o l i t i c a l a s p ir a n ts o f M assach u setts should h e a r Wendell P h i l l i p s speak, were i t only f o r th e c a p i t a l le sso n in eloquence they might le a r n o f him. T h is, namely, t h a t the f i r s t and the second and t h i r d p a r t o f the a r t i s , to keep your f e e t always firm on a f a c t . " - ^ 6 Emerson s a i d t h a t in W e b ste r's speeches "th e f a c t s la y l i k e th e s t r a t a o f a clo u d , or l i k e the 14311-p^e A u th o rity o f J e s u s , " Young Emerson S p eak s, p . 95. 1 4 4 " E l o q u e n c e ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 649. 145"The F u g itiv e Slave Law," Works, XI, 222. 1 4 6 n eart o f Em erson's J o u r n a l s , p. 209. 180 la y e rs of the c r u s t of the glo b e. He saw th in g s as they w ere, and he s t a t e d them so."-*-^ Emerson compared the man w ith the f a c t s to a guide t h a t one h i r e s to le ad a p a r ty up a mountain or through p r im itiv e c o u n try . Although t h i s man w ith the f a c t s may n o t be as courageous, w e ll b re d , o r i n t e l l i g e n t as the r e s t of the p a r t y , "he is much more im p o rtan t to the p r e s e n t need than any o f them. That is what we go to the c o u r t house f o r , - - t h e sta te m e n t of th e f a c t , and a g e n e ra l f a c t , the r e a l r e l a t i o n of a l l the p a r t i e s ; i n d i f f e r e n t l y in any a f f a i r t h a t is w e ll h a n d led , the t r u t h s t a r e s us in the face through a l l th e d is g u is e s t h a t are p u t upon i t , - - a p ie ce of the well-known human l i f e , - - t h a t makes the i n t e r - 148 e s t of a court-room to th e i n t e l l i g e n t s p e c t a t o r . " A second p r i n c i p l e to be used in e v a lu a tin g a speech is t h a t i t must be n o t only f a c t u a l , b u t a lso m o rally c o r r e c t and j u s t , fo r Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t " t r u t h and v i r t u e teach the same t h i n g . "149 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t n a tu re would a s s i s t the sp eak er whose m otives are good. "W hilst a man seeks good e n d s , he is s tro n g by the whole s t r e n g t h of n a tu r e . I n s o f a r as he roves from th e se ends he 147”The F u g itiv e Slave Law," Works, XI, 202. 148"Ei0qU encef” Works, V II, 8 6 . 149joU r. § M is. , IV, 41. 181 bereav es h im s e lf o f power or a u x i l i a r i e s . . . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t a s tro n g argument could be p r e s e n te d f o r e i t h e r s id e of any i s s u e . "There are always te x t s and thoughts and argum ents. But i t is the genius and temper of th e man which decides w hether he w i l l sta n d f o r r i g h t or f o r m ight. Who doubts the power of any f l u e n t d e b a te r to defend e i t h e r o f our p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , o r any c l i e n t in our co u rts?"1 5 1 T h e re fo re , in e v a lu a tin g a speech, Emerson would look n o t only to the o r a t o r 's s k i l l in m ustering arguments and su p p o rtin g h is id e as w ith f a c t s , b u t a lso to the m otives and v alu es t h a t u n d e r lie h is speaking e f f o r t . As a t h i r d p r i n c i p l e , Emerson re q u ir e d t h a t a speech be based on common s e n s e , 152 t h a t i s , on p r i n c i p l e s a ttu n e d to the Common Mind. For exam ple, Emerson would judge a f o r e n s i c sp eak er on h is a b i l i t y to s t a t e the law n o t in a " t e c h n i c a l " manner, b u t to p r e s e n t "some p ie c e of common s e n s e , a l i k e i n t e r e s t i n g to laymen as to c l e r k s . " Emerson saw "th e r e s t r a i n i n g grace o f common sen se" as "the 150"An A d d re ss," Works, I , 124. 151"The F u g itiv e Slave Law," Works, XI, 225. 152Emerson "shows h is l i k i n g f o r the word 'common- s e n s e , ' in i t s l a r g e r s e n s e , b ein g alm ost an e q u iv a le n t fo r the 'u n i v e r s a l mind' found everywhere in h is w r i t i n g . " Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes," Works, V II, 370. 182 1 C7 mark o f a l l v a l i d m inds." He h e ld Lord M an sfield in g r e a t esteem , because he had t h i s " m e rit of common s e n s e . "154 Emerson "honored Lord M an sfield f o r h is d e c i sio n in th e case o f Somerset th e s l a v e , and c o n tr a s te d him in h is jo u r n a ls w ith the Boston judges who gave th e d e c i sio n under the F u g itiv e Slave Law r e tu r n in g Sims and Burns to b o n d ag e."155 Emerson reco g n ize d t h a t " th e r e was the same law in England fo r J e f f r i e s and T albot and Yorke to read s la v e r y o u t o f , and f o r Lord M an sfield to read f r e e dom. And in t h i s cou n try one sees t h a t th e re is always margin enough in th e s t a t u t e f o r a l i b e r a l judge to read one way and a s e r v i l e judge a n o t h e r . "156 A fo u r th way in which Emerson would e v a lu a te a speech is by asking w hether or n o t the s p e a k e r 's id eas would ten d to s ta g n a te in th e mind of the au d ien ce. "I cannot conceive any good in a th o u g h t which c o n fin e s and s t a g n a t e s , " wrote Em erson.157 Emerson would judge a s p e a k e r 's id e as by t h e i r " p r o d u c t i v i t y , " fo r " i t i s th e p r o p e r ty of th e <true> d iv in e to be p r o d u c tiv e . The 153"po e try and Im agin ation ," Works, V I I I , 3. 154"Eloquence," Works, V II, 88. l^ E d w a r d Waldo Emerson, " N o te s ," Works, V II, 370. 156"The F u g itiv e Slave Law," Works, X II, 225. 157"Natural H isto r y o f the I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 59. 183 h a r v e s t i s seed . The good sermon becomes a t e x t in the h e a r e r 's m ind."^^^ Emerson saw a l l of N ature as being opposed to s t a g n a t i o n , thus h is d i s l i k e o f c o n s is te n c y , d o c t r i n e s , and men of one id e a . He saw t h a t "n o th in g sta n d s s t i l l in n a tu re b u t death . . . . Emerson conceived of the u n iv e rs e as e x i s t i n g "only in t r a n s i t . " The u n iv e rse is c o n tin u a lly "sh o o tin g th e g u lf from th e p a s t to th e f u t u r e . W e are p a s s in g in to new heavens in f a c t by th e movement of our s o l a r system , and in th o u g h t by our b e t t e r knowledge. T ran s i t i o n is the a t t i t u d e o f power. A f a c t is only a fulcrum of th e s p i r i t . I t is th e term inus o f a p a s t th o u g h t, b u t only a means now to new s a l l i e s o f the im a g in a tio n and new p ro g re s s of wisdom ."160 Like a n o th e r famous New E n g lan d er, Emerson h a ted w a l l s , and he knew t h a t " th e r e is no w a ll li k e an i d e a , ISBj o u r . 8 M is. , V, 186. E lsew here, he say s: "What i s good i s e f f e c t i v e , g e n e r a tiv e . . . . A sound apple produces seed . . . ." Emerson, "Uses o f G reat Men," Works, IV, 7. 159"po e t r y and I m a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 4. 160tijvja-tUral H is to ry o f I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 59. Elsewhere, Emerson s a i d , "A f a c t i s only a fulcrum o f the s p i r i t . I t i s th e term inus of a p a s t th o u g h t b u t only a means now to new s a l l i e s o f the im a g in a tio n 8 new p ro g re s s o f wisdom." J o u r . 8 M is. , V, 177. 161j o u r . § M is. , V, 102. "A man t h i n k s , " s a id Emerson, "he n o t only t h i n k s , b u t he l i v e s on th o u g h ts; he i s th e p r i s o n e r o f th o u g h ts; i d e a s , which in words he r e j e c t s , ty r a n n iz e over him, and d i c t a t e o r modify every word 184 R e a liz in g t h i s , Emerson was very d i s t r u s t f u l o f what he c a l l e d "men of one i d e a . " "The excess o f in d iv id u a lis m , when i t is n o t c o r r e c t e d o r su b o rd in a te d to the Supreme Reason, makes t h a t v ic e which we s tig m a tiz e as monotones, men o f one id e a . . . . Every man has h is th e o ry , t r u e , b u t r i d i c u l o u s l y o v e r s t a t e d . "162 ^ g o r a t o r must n o t be a man o f one id e a . " B u t," s a id Emerson, "you must t r e a t the men and women o f one id e a , the A b o l i t i o n i s t , th e P h ren o lo g i s t , th e Sw edenborgian, as in san e p erso n s w ith a c o n tin u a l te n d e rn e ss and s p e c i a l re f e r e n c e in every remark and a c tio n to t h e i r known s t a t e , which re f e r e n c e p r e s e n t l y becomes 1 7 e m b arrassin g and t e d i o u s . " " T r u th ," s a i d Emerson, " i s our elem ent § l i f e , y e t i f a man f a s te n s h is a t t e n t i o n upon a s i n g l e a s p e c t o f t r u t h , § apply h im s e lf to t h a t alone fo r a long tim e, th e t r u t h i t s e l f becomes d i s t o r t e d , §, as i t w ere, f a l s e . " Emerson compared a s in g le t r u t h w ith "th e a i r which is our n a t u r a l elem ent § b r e a th o f the n o s t r i l s , b u t i f a stream of a i r be d i r e c t e d upon th e body f o r a time of h is mouth, every a c t o f h is hand. There are no w a lls li k e the i n v i s i b l e ones of an id e a . A g ain st th e se no p u r pose can p ro s p e r or so much as be formed. R e b e llio n a g a in s t th e tho u g h t which r u l e s me is a b s u r d ity . For I cannot s e p a r a te between me and i t . " "E n g lish L i t e r a t u r e : I n t r o d u c t o r y ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I , 218. 162iijV [a t u r a ^ H is to ry of the I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 50. 163J o u r n a l s , IV, 491. 185 i t causes c o ld , f e v e r , and even d e ath . The l i e o f one I d e a . " 164 The o r a t o r must n o t be a " s y s te m g r in d e r ," f o r "a sy ste m g rin d e r h a te s th e t r u t h . "165 po r example, Emerson c r i t i c i z e d Mr. T u rn er, who had got in to h is head th e n o tio n " t h a t the Mosaic h i s t o r y is a good h i s t o r y o f the w o rld , r e c o n c ila b le w ith geology Sc. Very w e l l , " s a i d Emerson, "You see a t once th e le n g th 8 b re a d th o f what you may e x p e c t , " and you lo se a l l a p p e t i t e to read f u r t h e r . 1*^ Emerson had f a i t h t h a t as long as a s p e a k e r 's id eas were n o t p a r t o f a system , b u t tru e i n t u i t i o n s , a l l men 1 f \ 7 would agree w ith him. In a s e n s e , t h i s has to be the u ltim a te t e s t o f a s p e a k e r 's id e a s . Late in h is c a r e e r Emerson s t a t e d : "I am so p u r e ly a s p e c t a t o r t h a t I have a b so lu te co n fid en ce t h a t a l l pure s p e c t a t o r s w i l l agree w ith me, whenever I make a c a r e f u l r e p o r t . I t o l d A lc o tt t h a t every one o f my e x p re s s io n s concerning 'G od,' or the ' s o u l , ' e t c . , i s e n t i t l e d to a t t e n t i o n as te stim o n y , b e cause i t is in d e p e n d e n t, n o t c a l c u l a t e d , n o t p a r t o f any 1 6 4 J o u r . 8 M is. , V, 446. 1 6 5 I b i d . , p. 75. 1 6 6 I b i d . . p. 106. 167"xr u th i s f i t f o r every s o u l. The v alu e o f i t i s t e s t e d by the u n i v e r s a l i t y § v u l g a r i t y o f i t s a p p l i c a t i o n . A ll t h a t is t r u t h which a l l admit when i t is spoken, d e s p ite system s. Men t h a t are n o t f i t to f in d t r u t h , are f i t to judge w hether t h a t be t r u t h which is spoken." J o u r. § M is. , I I I , 186. 186 system , b u t sp o n tan eo u s, and th e n e a r e s t word I could f in d to th e th in g . As a f i f t h p r i n c i p l e f o r e v a lu a tin g id eas in a sp eech , Emerson m a in ta in ed t h a t t r u t h s o f the Reason, the id e a s t h a t come through i n t u i t i o n , can only be t e s t e d on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s . The only r e a l t e s t of your id eas is t h a t 16 9 they have an inw ardness in your n a tu r e . You must t r u s t y o u r s e l f . "R espect y o u r s e l f . You have f i r s t an i n s t i n c t , then an o p in io n , then a knowledge, as the p l a n t has ro o t, bud, 8 f r u i t . T r u s t the i n s t i n c t to the end, though you cannot t e l l why or see why. I t is v a in to h u rry i t . By t r u s t i n g i t , " s a i d Emerson, " ^by 8 by) i t s h a l l rip e n in to i 70 th ought 8 t r u t h 8 you s h a l l know why you b e l i e v e . " "A ll th e m istak es I make a r i s e from fo re s a k in g my own s t a t i o n 8 tr y i n g to see th e o b je c t from a n o th er p e r s o n 's p o i n t of view," n o ted Emerson. He was convinced of "th e r ic h e s o f wisdom t h a t e v er belong to the man who u t t e r s h is own th ought w ith a d iv in e confidence t h a t i t ^J o u rn a ls , X, 191. 169"The only tr u e economy o f time is to r e l y w i t h o ut i n t e r v a l on your own judgm ent. Keep the eye 8 e a r ^ a lw a y s^ open to a l l im p r e s s i o n s , b u t deepen no im pression by e f f o r t , b u t take the o p in io n o f the Genius w ith in , what ought to be r e t a i n e d by our 8 what r e j e c t e d by you. Keep, t h a t i s , the u p r ig h t p o s i t i o n . Resign y o u r s e l f to your th o u g h ts , 8 then every o b je c t w i l l make the mark, t h a t m o d if ic a tio n of your c h a r a c t e r which i t o u g h t." Jo u r. 8 M is. , V, 6-7. 170i b i d . V, 186. 187 171 must be tru e i f he h eard i t t h e r e . " "Good i t i s , " s a id Emerson, " to grow f a m i l i a r w ith your own th oughts § n o t shun to speak t h e m . " - * - 7 ^ The t e s t of a speech i s t h a t i t i s a p a r t o f one s e l f . "What we say < jnust^ however t r i f l i n g must have i t s ro o ts in o u rs e lv e s o r i t w i l l n o t move o th e r s . No speech should be s e p a r a te from our being li k e a plume or a nosegay, b u t li k e a l e a f or a flow er o r a bud though th e topmost § re m o te s t, y e t jo in e d by a continuous l i n e of l i f e to the tru n k £ j ^root) the s e e d . " 1 7 3 Only the th o u g h ts t h a t are inmost in our n a tu r e w i l l move an au d ien c e , because only th o se thoughts are u n i v e r s a l , t h a t i s , of the Common Mind. "The h ig h e r the s u b je c ts a re , which occupy your th o u g h ts, the more they ta x y o u r s e l f ; and th e same th oughts have the l e a s t to do w ith your i n d i v i d u a l i t y , b u t have equal i n t e r e s t f o r a l l men. Things moreover a re perm anent in p r o p o r t i o n to t h e i r inw ardness in your n a t u r e . " 1 7 4 A major e r r o r o f many o r perhaps most p h ilo s o p h e rs and p re a c h e rs i s , as Emerson saw i t , t h a t they attem p t to use the methods of the U n d e rstan d in g - - l o g i c and argum enta t i o n - - t o prove the t r u t h s o f the Reason. In h is " D iv in ity 171j 0u r . 8 M is. , IV, 274. 1 7 2 I b i d . , IV, 46. 1 7 3 i b i d . , iv, 36-37. 1 7 4 I b i d . , IV, 18. 188 School A d d ress," Emerson t o l d h is audience th a t " th e re is no d o c tr in e o f the Reason which w i l l b ear to be ta u g h t by th e U n d e rsta n d in g . 5 E lsew here, he spoke of "th e common e r r o r o f the f i r s t p h i l o s o p h e r s , t h a t of a tte m p tin g to f i g h t f o r Reason w ith the Weapons of the U n d e rstan d in g ." Emerson r e f e r r e d to l o g i c , logomachy, p o le m ic s, s y llo g is m s , and d e f i n i t i o n s as "so much w a ste p a p e r."176 Emerson c r i t i c i z e d C h r is tia n p re a c h e rs f o r a tte m p t ing to "prove" moral t r u t h s by the a u t h o r i t y of J e s u s , when th ey should be s e l f - e v i d e n t . ^ 7 "Every te a c h e r , when once he fin d s h im s e lf i n s i s t i n g w ith a l l h is might upon a g r e a t t r u t h , tu rn s up the ends o f i t a t l a s t w ith a c au tio u s showing how i t is a g re e a b le to the l i f e and te ac h in g s o f J e s u s , as i f t h a t was any recommendation, as i f the b le ss e d n e s s of J e s u s ' l i f e and te a c h in g were not because they were a g re ea b le to the t r u t h . " The p re a c h e r should r e a l i z e t h a t " t h i s c r ip p le s h is t e a c h in g ," and " i t bereav es th e t r u t h he in c u lc a te s o f more than h a l f i t s f o r c e , by r e p r e s e n tin g i t as som ething secondary t h a t c a n 't s ta n d alo n e. The t r u t h o f t r u t h c o n s is ts in t h i s , " s a id Emerson, " t h a t i t i s s e l f - e v i d e n t , s e l f - s u b s i s t e n t . I t is l i g h t . 175"An A d d ress," Works, I , 129. l ? 6 j o u r . 8 M is. , V, 57. 177Emerson n o te d t h a t " a l l s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s are s e l f - e v i d e n t . " Jo u r. § M is. , IV, 364. 189 You d o n 't g e t a candle to see the sun ris e ."-* -^ From Em erson's w r i t i n g s one can d e riv e about fiv e p r i n c i p l e s to a id one in e v a lu a tin g the id e as in a speech. F i r s t , the speech must be f a c t u a l . Second, e t h i c a l v alu es and m otives must u n d e r l i e the speech. T h ird , th e s p e a k e r 's id eas must be c o n s i s t e n t w ith common s e n s e , t h a t i s , a t tuned to the Common Mind. F o u rth , th e s p e a k e r 's id eas sh ould ten d to produce more id eas in the mind of the a u d i ence r a t h e r than s ta g n a te or narrow the a u d ie n c e 's v i s i o n . F i f t h , the only r e a l t e s t of i d e a s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t u i t i v e i d e a s , is t h e i r inw ardness in your n a t u r e . A rgum entation and Debate Although he had been a member of a d e b a tin g club in c o l l e g e ,179 Emerson had a s tro n g d i s t a s t e f o r arg u m en tatio n , 178"in s -tead of making C h r i s t i a n i t y a v e h ic le of t r u t h , you make the t r u t h only a h o rse f o r C h r i s t i a n i t y . I t is a very operose way o f making p eople good. You must be humble because C h r is t s a y s , 'Be h u m b le.' 'But why must I obey C h r i s t ? ' 'Because God s e n t h im .' But how do I know God s e n t him? Because y our own h e a r t te ac h e s the same th in g he ta u g h t. Why then s h a l l I n o t go to my own h e a r t a t f i r s t . " J o u r n a l s , I I , 516-517. L a te r , Emerson s a id t h a t a man' s co n scien ce should be the only judge of r e l i gious t r u t h . "The tr u e d o c tr in e r e s p e c tin g forms is t h i s i s i t not? t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y aims to form in a man a c r i t - c a l c o n sc ie n c e , § t h a t being formed he is c o n s t i t u t e d a ju d g e , the only 5 a b s o lu te judge o f every p a r t i c u l a r form t h a t the e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g i o n p r e s e n ts to him. The d i s c r e t i o n he e x e r c is e s i s l i k e the d i s c r e t i o n of the bench which has n o th in g a r b i t r a r y . " J o u r . § M is. , IV, 40. 179Rusk, p # 7 3 ^ 190 ion d e b a te , o r d is p u te s o f any k in d . "'He who ta k e t h the sword s h a l l p e r i s h by the sword' was a r u le t h a t Mr. Emer son h e ld to w ith re g a rd to argum ent, w hether as a weapon o f f e n s iv e or d e f e n s i v e ."181 nj th in k we cannot s a f e ly a rg u e ," s a i d Emerson. "I th in k i t needs a s a i n t to d i s - 182 p u t e . " ^ Emerson "n ev e r arg u ed , a se re n e sm ile was a l l t h a t an opponent as a r u l e got from him in r e p l y . "183 R e lig io n was th e g e n e r a l to p ic on which Emerson spoke most o f t e n , and he th o u g h t t h a t argument in the sphere made h y p o c r ite s o f p e o p le . "What low, p o o r, p a l t r y , h y p o c r i t i c a l people an argument on r e l i g i o n w i l l make of the pure and chosen s o u ls ! They w i l l s h u f f l e and crow, crook and h id e , fe ig n to co n fess h e r e , only t h a t they may brag and conquer t h e r e , and n o t a thought has e n ric h e d e i t h e r p a r t y , and n o t an em otion of b r a v e r y , m odesty, or h o p e ." You sh o u ld n o t " p u t y o u r s e l f in a f a l s e p o s i t i o n w ith your co n tem p o raries by in d u lg in g in a v e in of hos- 18 4. t i l i t y and b i t t e r n e s s . " ISOcooke de s c r ib e d Emerson as "a s t u d e n t , a p o e t, a s e e r , th e s p i r i t u a l i n t e r p r e t e r o f our tim e s , w ith no c a p a c ity f o r jo in in g in th e c o n f l i c t s o f men . . . ." Cooke, p. 143. l^ E d w a r d Waldo Emerson, " N o te s," Works, I I , 420. 182j o u r n a l s , IV, 484. 183john Churton C o l l i n s , "Em erson," in The P o s t humous Essays o f John Churton C o l l i n s , ed. by L“ (T ! C o llin s (.London: J. M "i Dent and Sons, L t d . , 1912), p. 143. 184"pr u d e n c e ," Works, I I , 239. 191 Emerson saw r e l i g i o n as "th e inward a t t r a c t i o n of th e so u l f o r the U n iv e rs a l S p i r i t , a lik e a motive and a law o f l i f e , an im pulse towards t r u t h , a temper and a s p i r i t of t r u s t and o b e d ie n c e ." R e lig io n i s "a m otive, and n o t a c re ed ; an a t t r a c t i o n f o r t r u t h , and n o t a church. I t s a t t r a c t i o n s and i t s t r u t h s are too v a s t fo r a b so lu te s t a t e - 1 or m ent; i t is a l i f e , and n o t a dogma." ° Emerson s a id t h a t moral laws " w i l l n o t be w r i t t e n out on p ap er or spoken by the t o n g u e . "1^6 Emerson d is c u s s e d moral laws and attem p ted to e x p lo re r e l i g i o u s t r u t h s in h is l e c t u r e s , b u t he spoke "o u t of the s o u l 's d e p th , d i r e c t to the h e a r t and mind o f o th e r men." He made no a tte m p t " to j u s t i f y th e se t r u t h s ; no l o g i c , argum ent, r e a s o n s ." He announced moral laws "as the s c i e n t i s t does th e laws of n a t u r e , d e c la r in g they prove them selves tr u e in the e x p erien c e of each s o u l, and o f a l l m ankind."187 Emerson s t a t e d as a " r u le o f r h e t o r i c " t h a t both the sp ea k e r and w r i t e r should "om it a l l n e g a tiv e p r o p o s i t i o n s ." '* '^ The s p e a k e r "sh o u ld e l e c t r i f y us by p e r p e tu a l 185cooke, p. 360. 186"An A d d ress," Works, I , 121. •*-^Cooke, p. 360. 188j0u r n a l s , IX, 85. "He [Emerson] c o u n se lle d young w r i t e r s , 'Omit a l l n e g a tiv e p r o p o s i t i o n s ; i t w i l l save n in e ty - n in e one hundredths of your la b o r and in c re a s e the v alu e o f your work in th e same m e a s u r e .'" Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes," Works, X II, 440. 192 a f f i r m a t i o n , u n e x p la i n e d ."189 Emerson s a i d o f Swedenborg in a d m ira tio n t h a t "he abounds in a s s e r t i o n s ."190 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t " the good mind is known by the choice o f what i s p o s i t i v e , o f what i s advancing. W e must embrace th e a f f i r m a t i v e . " Emerson, h im s e lf , was an a f f ir m e r . "The a f f i r m a t i v e was h is c o n s ta n t and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c mode 19 2 o f e x p r e s s io n ." "Hence he d id n o t a t t a c k o t h e r s ' b e l i e f , su re t h a t the good when r i g h t l y shown, w ith o u t i r r i t a t i n g argument or r i d i c u l e , would d is p la c e the e v i l . "193 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t by assuming th e a u d ie n c e 's a s s e n t , th e sp ea k e r may succeed where he would o th erw ise have f a i l e d . "And though I observe the deafn ess to counsel among men," remarked Emerson, " y e t th e power o f sympathy is always g r e a t ; and a f f i r m a t i v e d is c o u r s e , presuming a s s e n t , w i l l o f te n o b ta in i t when arguments would f a i l . " There i s g r e a t power in a good tem per. "G reat sw eetness of temper n e u t r a l i z e s such v a s t amounts of a c id ! " Emerson c a l l e d on the o r a t o r to "speak th e a f f i r m a t i v e ; emphasize your choice 189jo u r n a ls t i x , 85. 190"Swedenborg ," Works , I I , 304. 191"N atural H is to ry of I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 61. 192sherman P au l, Emerson's Angle o f V is io n : Man and Nature in American E xperience CCambridge: Harvard U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1952), p. •'■^Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes," Works, I , 425. 193 by u t t e r ig n o rin g o f a l l t h a t you r e j e c t ; seein g t h a t op in io n s are tem porary, b u t c o n v ic tio n s uniform and e t e r n a l , - - s e e i n g t h a t a se n tim e n t n e v e r lo se s i t s p ath o s or i t s 194 p e r s u a s io n , b u t i s y o u th fu l a f t e r a thousand y e a r s ." The sp e a k e r who comes b e fo re an audience "only w ith axe and crowbar" w i l l win no a d h eren ts to h is cause, fo r "we love w hatever a f f i r m s , c o n n e c ts , p r e s e r v e s ; and d i s l i k e what s c a t t e r s or p u l l s down." Emerson n o te d th a t "th e non c o n fo rm ist and th e re b e l say a l l manner of unansw erable th in g s a g a in s t the e x i s t i n g r e p u b l i c , b u t d is c o v e r to our sense no p lan of house o r s t a t e o f t h e i r own. T h e re fo re , though the town and s t a t e and way o f l i v i n g , which our c o u n s e llo r co n tem p lated , m ight be a very modest or musty p r o s p e r i t y , y e t men r i g h t l y go fo r him, and r e j e c t the r e form er so long as he comes only w ith axe and c ro w b a r."195 I n s te a d o f w astin g h im s e lf in r e j e c t i o n , the o r a t o r should "chant the beau ty of th e good."'*'^ When going b e fo re a h o s t i l e au d ien ce, the sp ea k e r should "never re c o g n iz e th e d iv id in g l i n e s , b u t meet on what common ground rem ains . . . ." Even though your views are " in s t r a i g h t 194"The P r e a c h e r ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I I , 1016. ■^•’"M ontaigne; or The S k e p tic ," Works, IV, 171. 196"d0 n o t waste y o u r s e l f in r e j e c t i o n ; do n o t bark a g a in s t th e bad, b u t Chant th e beau ty o f the good. H eart of Em erson's J o u r n a l s , p. 162. In "The Trans c e n d e n t a l i s t s ," Emerson warned a g a in s t w astin g a l l o n e 's s tr e n g th in d e n ia l. Works , 1 , 356. 194 antagonism " to th o se o f your au d ien c e , Emerson a d v ised the sp ea k e r to "assume an i d e n t i t y of s e n tim e n t, assume t h a t you are say in g p r e c i s e l y t h a t which a l l th in k , and in the flow of w it and love r o l l out your paradoxes in s o l i d c o l umn, w ith n o t th e i n f i r m i t y of a doubt. So a t l e a s t s h a l l you g et an adequate d e l i v e r a n c e . 7 Emerson c a l l e d debate "a f o o l i s h game." This a t t i tude r e s t e d on h is b e l i e f t h a t men are " i n c o n v e r t i b l e ."198 In m a tte rs o f r e l i g i o n , fo r example, "men seem to be con s t i t u t i o n a l l y b e l i e v e r s § u n b e l i e v e r s ." W ritin g in 1833, Emerson remarked t h a t " th e r e is no b rid g e t h a t can c ro ss from a mind in one s t a t e to a mind in the o th e r . A ll my o p in io n s , a f f e c t i o n s , w him sies, are tin g e d w ith b e l i e f , -- i n c l i n e to t h a t s i d e . " "B u t," co n fe ssed Emerson, " l cannot give reasons to a p erson of a d i f f e r e n t p e rs u a s io n t h a t are a t a l l adequate to the fo rc e of my c o n v ic tio n . Yet when I 199 f a i l to f in d the re a so n , . . . my f a i t h i s n o t l e s s . " 19^ "P ru d en ce," Works, I I , 238-239. Emerson b e li e v e d t h a t b a s i c a l l y men had too much in common to w aste time in arg u in g . Cooke s a i d o f Emerson: "He sees so much t r u t h in which a l l men can u n i t e , he would have a l l which d iv id e s them f o r g o t t e n . As i t i s , in h is o p in io n , the non- e s s e n t i a l , th e mere outward form, which d iv id e s them, he would have a l l emphasis removed from i t . " Cooke, p. 360. 198”One seems in debate to p la y a f o o l i s h game fo r m a stery , so i n c o n v e r t i b l e men are . . . . There is a form ula w e ll known to c h ild r e n , 'Did,* ' D i d n ' t , ' 'D i d ,' ' D i d n ' t , ' e t c . " J o u r n a l s , V I, 220. 199j p u r . § M is. , IV, 88. 195 When Reverend Henry Ware, J r . c r i t i c i z e d the "D i v i n i t y School A ddress" in two l e t t e r s to Emerson and in a sermon, r e q u e s tin g to know "by what arguments" one of Emer s o n 's d o c tr in e s was j u s t i f i e d , Emerson r e p l i e d t h a t he could give no argum ents: I could n o t give account o f m y self, i f c h a lle n g e d . I could n o t p o s s ib ly give you one of the "argum ents" you c r u e l l y h i n t a t , on which any d o c tr in e o f mine s ta n d s . For I do n o t know what arguments mean in r e fe re n c e to any e x p re s s io n o f a th o u g h t. I d e l i g h t in t e l l i n g what I t h i n k , b u t i f you ask how I dare say so , or why i t is so , I am th e most h e lp le s s o f m o rtal men. I do n o t even see t h a t e i t h e r o f th e se q u e stio n s admit of an answer. So t h a t , in the p r e s e n t d r o l l p o s tu re o f my a f f a i r s , when I see m yself suddenly r a i s e d in to the im portance of a h e r e t i c , I am very uneasy when I a d v e r t to th e supposed d u tie s o f such a p e rso n ag e , who is ex p ec te d to make good h is t h e s i s a g a in s t a l l com ers. 2 0 1 Emerson seemed to f e a r t h a t argu m en tatio n and d e b a te ten d to d i s t o r t the t r u t h . "The n a t u r a l motions of th e Soul are so much b e t t e r than the v o lu n ta ry ones t h a t you w i l l n e v er do y o u r s e l f j u s t i c e in d i s p u t e , " s a id Emer son. "The th o u g h t is n o t th en taken hold o f by th e ' r i g h t h a n d l e ,' does n o t show i t s e l f p r o p o r tio n e d and in i t s tr u e b e a r in g s . I t b ears e x t o r t e d , h o arse and h a l f w itn e s s ." Again, Emerson ad v ised the p o s i t i v e approach. "But assume a c o n sen t and i t s h a l l p r e s e n t l y be g ra n te d , s in c e r e a l l y and u n d ern eath t h e i r e x t e r n a l d i v e r s i t i e s , a l l men are o f 2 0 0 Cabot, I I , 688-690. 2 01"To the Reverend Henry Ware, J r . , " R e p r e s e n ta tiv e S e l e c t i o n s , pp. x x iv -x x v i. 196 2 0? one h e a r t and m ind." Again, Emerson s a id t h a t " th e ab s t i n e n t , ^humble) meek, b e n e v o le n t, i n d u s t r i o u s man i s in a b e t t e r s t a t e f o r the f i n a l in f lu e n c e s of th e u n iv e rs e to a c t upon him than the c o ld , i d l e , e a t i n g , d i s p u t a n t . " 2(^^ Emerson d id n o t l i k e to ex p ress any deep c o n v ic tio n in company where i t might be c o n te s te d . " T r u th ," he s a i d , "has a lre a d y ceased to be t r u e , i f p o le m ic a lly s a i d ; and i f the soul would u t t e r o r a c l e s , as every so u l s h o u ld , i t must l i v e f o r i t s e l f , observe w ith awe i t s own law . . . . " 2°4 we are t o l d t h a t "Emerson had no genius fo r e x h o r t a t i o n , n o r had he any d e s ir e to en fo rce h is p re c e p ts upon u n w illin g m in d s."205 Cabot n o te d t h a t "Emerson could ? n f\ n ev er take the p o le m ic al tone . . . Cooke s a id of Emerson t h a t "no r e l i g i o u s w r i t e r dogm atizes l e s s , o r has le s s of d e f i n i t i o n . " 2^ A p p a re n tly , "he la ck e d the fe r v o r ono o f the tru e e v a n g e l i s t . . . . He wanted no d i s c i p l e s , 202'iprudence," Complete W r itin g s , I , 199. See a lso J o u r n a l s , IV, 415-416. 2 0 3 Jo u r. 6 M is. , IV, 8 8 . 2 04"FrarLk i i n Benjamin S an b o rn 's 'Concord N ote b o o k s ,'" in T ran sc e n d e n ta l E p ilo g u e , I I I , 50. 2 ®3 C ro th e rs , p. 116. 2 0 6 Cabot, I I , 397. 207cooke, p. 359. 20 8 c r o t h e r s , p. 116. 197 and he n e v e r condescended to ask to be b e l i e v e d ," as Gay has e x p la in e d : His m is s io n a r ie s were a l l s e lf -n o m in a te d . He l e c tu r e d f o r y e a r s , b u t n e v e r condescended to ask to be b e lie v e d . His " p la tfo rm manner" was t h a t o f a man who speaks what appears to him tr u e a t th e moment, b u t whose id e a s are always p r e s e n te d a t t h e i r own w o rth , unaccompanied by th e u n c tio n o f the p r e a c h e r o r the i n t i m i d a t i o n o f th e d o g m a tist. Upon what he s a i d a t d i f f e r e n t tim es the h e a r e r could b u i l d up alm ost any b e l i e f , and he would have approved, because the very essence o f h is p h ilo so p h y was t h a t each man must soon or l a t e make h is own r e l i g i o n , and even h is own G o d . 209 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t th o se who e n te r e d i n t o a d is c o u r s e on an arg u m en tativ e le v e l are more i n t e r e s t e d in p e rs o n a l d is p la y than they are w ith l e a r n in g . When the t a l k is arg u m en tativ e and d e f e n s iv e , th e p a r t i e s "are n o t th in k in g < t h a t ) how they may le a r n som ething, b u t how they may come o f f well."^-*-^ E a r l i e r , i t was n o te d t h a t Emerson opposed s t a g n a t i o n of any k in d . Emerson may have thought t h a t debate had a s ta g n a tin g in f lu e n c e ’ on the mind: In d e b a te , th e l a s t sp ea k e r always c a r r i e s w ith him such a p r e v a i l i n g a i r t h a t a l l seems to be over and the q u e s ti o n s e t t l e d when he co n clu d es; so t h a t , i f a new man a r i s e s and s t a t e s w ith nonchalance a new and o p p o s ite view, we draw our b r e a th f r e e l y and h ear w ith a marked s u r p r i s e t h i s su sp e n sio n o f f a t e . 2 11 209Robe r t m. Gay, Emerson, a Study o f th e P oet as S eer (Garden C ity , New York! Doubleday, Doran and Company, I n c . , 1928), pp. 13-14. ZlQ jour. § M i s . , V, 23. 2 H j o u r n a l s , V, 78. 198 Although he had been a m i n i s t e r , Emerson decided t h a t argument from s c r i p t u r e was n o t v a l i d . "U n p alatab le 212 must always be the argument based upon t e x t . . . ." The p re a c h e r sh o u ld "assume t h a t man is the r e v e l a t i o n 8 t h a t i f he w i l l r e f l e c t he s h a l l . . . f in d h is h e a r t o v e r flow ing w ith a d iv in e l i g h t , 8 . . . the b i b l e . . . s h a l l be a m irro r g iv in g back to him the re fu lg e n c e o f h is own m i n d . "213 j n h i s s e rmon on "The L o rd 's S u p p er," Emerson had quoted s c r i p t u r e to prove h is arg u m en ts,214 b u t l a t e r he denied the v a l i d i t y o f p re a c h in g from t r a d i t i o n or from s c r i p t u r a l t e x t . 213 gy 1838, th e y e a r o f the " D iv in ity 2 12J o u r . 8 Mis . , IV, 8 8 . 215 ib±d.. , V, 102. 214"The L o r d 's S u p p er," Complete W ritin g s , I I , 1099-1105. 213Emerson s a i d t h a t a course in p h ilo so p h y should te ac h a s tu d e n t t h a t " in s e e in g and in no t r a d i t i o n he must f in d what t r u t h i s . . . ." " N a tu ra l H is to ry o f I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 6 . I t appears t h a t "th e whole tre n d o f h is th o u g h t, once he s e t about b u ild in g h is p e r s o n a l philosophy, was to c u t lo o se from th e p a s t in o rd e r to emphasize th e tim e le s s p r e s e n t . In th e u s u a l meaning o f the term as in any sense d e a lin g w ith th e c h ro n o lo g ic a l p a s t , Em erson's i n i t i a l p h ilo so p h y o f h i s t o r y was a n t i - h i s t o r i c a l . From the long l e t t e r o f 1826 to h is aunt Mary, in which he p r o t e s t e d t h a t ' i t i s wrong to re g a rd o u rs e lv e s so much in a h i s t o r i c a l l i g h t as we do, p u t t i n g time between God 8 us ' ( L ,I , 174), to h is f r o n t a l a t t a c k on h i s t o r i c a l C h r i s t i a n i t y in th e D i v in ity School Address o f 1838, 't h e c h ie f motive and o b j e c t i v e o f [h is ] t h o u g h t ,' as R obert C aponigri has summed i t up, was 't h e r e l e a s e o f man's s p i r i t u a l and moral l i f e from h i s t o r y ' and the re d u c tio n o f e x p erien c e to a s e l f - c o n t a i n e d p r e s e n t , 'o r i e n t e d toward the a b s o lu t e ' a lo n e ." Whicher and O th e rs , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " E a rly Lec t u r e s , I I , 2 . 199 School A d d re ss," he had decid ed t h a t i n t u i t i o n and e x p e r i ence were more v a l i d ways of knowing r e l i g i o u s t r u t h than t r a d i t i o n , s c r i p t u r a l a u t h o r i t y , or form al lo g ic . P r o fe s s o rs a t the Harvard D iv in ity School b e lie v e d t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y was a d iv in e ly i n s p i r e d r e l i g i o n and t h a t i t could be proven by the m ira c le s which C h r is t perform ed. They saw the B ible as the only source o f C h r is tia n t r u t h s , "as d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t r u t h s o f n a t u r a l r e l i g i o n which may be d eterm in ed by th e use of reaso n alo n e. Hence B i b l i c a l c r i t i c i s m - - N o y e s , R osem uller, S c h le u sn e r, N orton--w as r e garded a t Cambridge as th e c e n t r a l core o f m i n i s t e r i a l t r a i n i n g . . . ."216 W right n o ted t h a t "Emerson had been t r a i n e d in th ese very same p r i n c i p l e s , and had once a c cep te d them; b u t, by 1837,217 he had com pletely d is c a rd e d them: In 1831, he could s t i l l p r e a c h - - though n o t w ith o u t u n c e r t a i n t y and fu m b lin g --a sermon which r e s t a t e d the t r a d i t i o n a l d o c tr in e o f m ir a c le s . By 1833, he had d is c o v e re d t h a t the d i s t i n c t i o n between the Reason and th e U nderstanding was "a p h ilo so p h y i t s e l f . " In J a n u a ry , 1837, he made an extended a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s new p h ilo so p h y in the le c t u r e on r e l i g i o n which was one o f the s e r i e s he gave t h a t w in te r in Boston. I f every man p o s se ss e s t h i s tr a n s c e n d e n ta l Reason, i f i n t u i t i o n o f th e a b so lu te is p o s s ib le f o r a l l , then th e h i s t o r i c a l argument fo r a p a r t i c u l a r r e v e l a t i o n a t t e s t e d by m ir a c le s s h r i v e l s i n t o t r i v i a l i t y .218 216w righ t, p. 2 6 . ^•^T his W as one y e a r b e fo re Emerson d e liv e r e d h is " D iv in ity School A d d ress." 218W rig h t, p. 26. 200 Em erson's d eveloping a t t i t u d e toward a rg u m en tatio n , d e b a te , l o g i c , and the a u t h o r i t y of s c r i p t u r e and t r a d i t i o n was n o t a c c e p ta b le to th e U n ita r ia n e s ta b lis h m e n t. Andrews N orton, in answer to Em erson's " D iv in ity School A d d re ss," i n s i s t e d t h a t " t h e r e can be no i n t u i t i o n , no d i r e c t p e r c e p t i o n , o f the t r u t h o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . . . ."219 "There i s , th e n ," s a id N orton, "no o th e r mode o f e s t a b l i s h i n g r e l i gious b e l i e f , b u t by the e x e r c is e o f r e a s o n , 2 2 0 by i n v e s t i g a tio n , by forming a p ro b a b le judgment upon fa c ts."^ -* - By " f a c t s " Norton meant th e a u t h o r i t y o f t r a d i t i o n and s c r i p t u r e s . "This r e l i a n c e on th e knowledge o f o th e rs may be c a l l e d b e l i e f on t r u s t , o r b e l i e f on a u t h o r i t y ; b u t perhaps a more p ro p e r name f o r i t would be b e l i e f on te s tim o n y , the testim o n y o f th o se who have examined a s u b je c t to t h e i r c o n v ic tio n o f th e t r u t h o f c e r t a i n f a c t s . The r e a s o n a b le n ess o f such b e l i e f i s c o n s ta n tly i m p l i e d . "222 Unlike Emerson, Norton b e lie v e d t h a t " th e g e n e r a l i t y o f men can be no w is e r than t h e i r i n s t r u c t o r s ."223 Even " th e r a d i c a l r e l i g i o u s c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s t , " Theodore P a r k e r , c r i t i c i z e d Emerson f o r h is " la c k o f p ro p e r 219uorton, pp. 32-33. 2 2 0 j3y " r eason" Norton is r e f e r r i n g to what Emerson c a l l e d " u n d e r s ta n d in g ." 2 2lN orton, p. 53. 222i b j d . , p. 58. ^ ^ I b i d . , p. 60. 201 esteem f o r the l o g i c a l , d e m o n stra tiv e , and h i s t o r i c a l un d e rs ta n d in g and c o n seq u en tly too much dependence on i n t u i t i o n , too much i n c l i n a t i o n to be the complete m y s tic ." P a rk e r f e l t t h a t Emerson " d isco u ra g e d h ard and continuous th o u g h t, conscious argum ent, and d i s c i p l i n e . . . ." A l though P a rk e r r a i s e d Emerson to "th e h ig h e s t p la c e among w r i t e r s o f E n g lish s in c e the time o f M ilto n ," "he was un r e l e n t i n g in h i s a t t a c k on th e want of l o g i c o f which Emer- 2 2 4 son was c e r t a i n l y g u i l t y . " Em erson's views on arg u m en tatio n and debate appa r e n t l y were as a t y p i c a l as h is d e f i n i t i o n o f the fu n c tio n of the p re a c h e r and th e o r a t o r . His fe llo w U n ita r ia n m in i s t e r s did n o t sh are h is views on argum entation and d e b a te , nor is th e re any th in g in h is r h e t o r i c a l t r a i n i n g to e x p la in h is a v e rsio n to lo g i c a l argum entation and d eb ate. Channing, f o r example, s t a t e d in h is le c t u r e s b e fo re Emerson and o th e r Harvard s tu d e n ts t h a t the p r i n c i p a l o f f i c e o f rh e to - 225 r i c should be to te ac h men to develop good arguments r e g a r d le s s o f w hether one is to preach a sermon or debate in the S enate: A nother o f f i c e of r h e t o r i c is , to i n s t r u c t a man in fin d in g and a rra n g in g argum ents, th e re a s o n s , the 224rus]^j p. 386. 225By "argum ent" Channing meant "th e m u sterin g and m a rs h a llin g o f p r o p o s i t i o n s , - -which is the b u s in e s s of r h e t o r i c , - -and re a so n in g from them, which belongs to l o g i c , . . . . Channing, p. 37. 202 p ro o fs by which he i s to m a in ta in h is g r e a t le ad in g p r o p o s i t i o n . I f we could make people b e lie v e w ith Dr. W hately, t h a t r h e t o r i c , p ro p e rly so c a l l e d , was p r i n c i p a l l y concerned w ith t h i s b u s in e s s , t h a t i t s p e c u l i a r v o c a tio n was to f u r n is h p ro o fs and work con v i c t i o n , p ro b ab ly th e g e n e ra l i l l o p inion o f the a r t , b e fo re a llu d e d t o , would be l e s s e n e d . 226 Em erson's o p p o s itio n to argum entation and debate was p ro b a b ly the r e s u l t o f two f a c t o r s : a p e rs o n a l a v e r sio n to c o n f l i c t s or d is p u te s o f any kind and a g en eral p h ilo so p h y t h a t was in c o m p a tib le w ith methods of argum enta t io n and d e b ate. A rgum entation and debate r e l y on the methods o f the U n d erstan d in g , an i n f e r i o r f a c u l t y , which is n o t cap ab le of comprehending moral and s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s . Emerson may have f e l t t h a t argum entation and d e b a te , e s p e c i a l l y when a p p lie d to q u e s tio n s o f r e l i g i o n , was o fte n used to defend dogmas, to in tim i d a te the ig n o r a n t, to hold tho u g h t in check and s ta g n a te the mind. A rgum entation and debate are used to prove p r o p o s i t i o n s . Emerson did n o t want to prove a n y th in g ; he wanted to p ro v o k e . More than a n y th in g e l s e , Emerson wanted men to be fr e e to e x p lo re the world o f id e a s . Summary Although Em erson's l e c t u r e s covered a wide v a r i e t y of s u b j e c t s , th e r e was, n e v e r t h e l e s s , a c e r t a i n u n ity under- 226i b i d . , pp. 35-36. Channing went on to say t h a t " r h e t o r i c d e als as much w ith arguments as w ith any o th e r m a t e r ia ls of d is c o u rse . . . ." I b i d . , p. 36. 203 ly in g them a l l . They a l l ta u g h t the " i n f i n i t u d e o f the p r i v a t e man." The main tr o u b le w ith s o c i e t y , as Emerson viewed i t , is t h a t the in d i v i d u a l man does n o t r e a l i z e h is own d iv in e n a tu r e and r e s p e c t h is own i n t u i t i o n s . Emerson was s tr o n g ly opposed to any p a r t y , s e c t , or movement t h a t might le a d men to f u n c tio n as a group or mob i n s t e a d o f i n d i v i d u a l s . He c a l l e d o r g a n iz a tio n s " 't h e graves o f the s p i r i t . " ' Em erson's i d e a l o r a t o r could l e c t u r e on any and a l l s u b j e c t s , b u t he must m a in ta in an independence from p a r t i s a n s o f a l l k in d s . His speeches would be d esig n ed to l i b e r a t e men r a t h e r than co n v ert them to some given p ro p o s i t i o n or p o i n t o f view. Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t a man could only be an e l o quent o r a t o r i f he chose to speak on th e r i g h t s u b j e c t s , those in v o lv in g g r e a t p r i n c i p l e s and l o f t y s e n tim e n ts . "A good and g r e a t cause" i s the only f r i e n d t h a t can persuade the soul to speak. From Em erson's w r i t i n g s , one can d e riv e some p r i n c i p l e s to guide the sp eak er in s e l e c t i n g th e r i g h t to p ic f o r h is sp eech es. F i r s t , the to p i c must have a " n a t u r a l prominence" f o r the o r a t o r . Second, the s u b je c t should r e f l e c t th e s p e a k e r 's own c u r i o s i t y . T h ird , the to p i c must be somewhat o r i g i n a l and a s u b je c t which th e time and the age c a l l s f o r t h . F o u rth , the s p e a k e r 's i n t e r e s t in th e s u b je c t must be based on moral grounds. The f i f t h and f i n a l s u g g e s tio n t h a t Emerson o f f e r e d was th a t 204 the o r a t o r sh ould t r u s t h is i n s t i n c t to le ad him to th e r i g h t to p ic . F a c ts , i l l u s t r a t i o n s and examples are e s s e n t i a l i n g r e d ie n ts in most sp ee c h es, b u t th e se elem ents are n o t the most s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of a speech. Emerson r e a l i z e d t h a t many of th o se who come to h e a r a l e c t u r e o r sermon sh are the same f a c t s as the s p eak er. What they look f o r from a sp eak er is a p r i n c i p l e t h a t w i l l c l a s s i f y and e x p la in the f a c t s and e x p erien c e s they a lre a d y p o s s e s s . F a c ts , i l l u s t r a t i o n s and examples can be c o l l e c t e d from re a d in g , con v e r s a t i o n , and day to day e x p e r ie n c e s , b u t i n s i g h t in to the p r i n c i p l e s t h a t u n ite and e x p la in th e se f a c t s can only come through the "re aso n " or i n t u i t i o n . Emerson r e a l i z e d t h a t men have only a lim it e d amount of c o n tr o l over the fo rce c a ll e d " i n s p i r a t i o n " ; how e v e r , Emerson o f f e r e d s e v e r a l su g g e s tio n s as to how one might a id the i n t u i t i v e f a c u l t y . The so u rces o f i n s p i r a t i o n in c lu d e c h a r a c t e r , h e a l t h , books, good company, s o l i tu d e , communion w ith n a t u r e , and fo rce of w i l l . Above a l l , one must be w i l l i n g to forego a l l th in g s f o r t r u t h , to keep h im s e lf " a l o o f from a l l moorings and a f l o a t , " and " a b s ta in from dogmatism and reco g n ize a l l the o p p o site n e g a tio n s between which as w a lls " o n e 's being i s swung. Emerson saw a danger in over-em phasizing any one f a c e t of t r u t h , f o r the more a man c o n c e n tra te s on one 205 a s p e c t, one f a c e t o f t r u t h , the le s s he sees o f the t o t a l s t r u c t u r e , th e more narrow and dogm atic he becomes. Emer son wanted to f r e e men from dogmatism and expand t h e i r v i s i o n . "S e t men upon t h in k in g , and you have been to them a god," he w ro te. Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t th e o r a t o r should encourage an audience to expand t h e i r v i s i o n , sh ould p r o voke them in to a s t a t e of g r e a t e r " c o n sc io u sn e ss" o f t h e i r own p o t e n t i a l . What method does one use to encourage a g r e a t e r "co n sc io u sn e ss" in o n e 's l i s t e n e r s ? An answer i s su g g e ste d in Em erson's s ta te m e n t t h a t " e v e ry th in g in the u n iv e rs e goes by i n d i r e c t i o n . There are no s t r a i g h t l i n e s The o r a t o r ' s method o f o rd e r in g h is id e as in a d is c o u rs e sh o u ld a ls o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n d i r e c t i o n . From Em erson's w r i t i n g s , one can d e riv e about fiv e p r i n c i p l e s to a id one in e v a lu a tin g the id e as in a speech. F i r s t , the speech must be f a c t u a l . Second, e t h i c a l values and m otives must u n d e r lie the sp eech . T h ird , the s p e a k e r' id e a s must be c o n s i s t e n t w ith common s e n s e , t h a t i s , a t tuned to the Common Mind. F o u rth , the s p e a k e r 's id eas sh o u ld tend to produce more id e as in th e mind of the a u d i ence r a t h e r than s ta g n a te or narrow the a u d ie n c e 's v i s io n . F i f t h , th e only r e a l t e s t o f i d e a s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t u i t i v e i d e a s , is t h e i r inw ardness in your n a tu r e . Emerson e x p re ss e d a s tr o n g o p p o s itio n to argumenta t i o n and d e b a te . Em erson's i d e a l o r a t o r would d e a l w ith 206 q u e s tio n s of a s p i r i t u a l n a t u r e , the kinds o f q u e s tio n s f o r which argu m en tatio n and debate have l i t t l e a p p l i c a b i l i t y , as Emerson b e lie v e d . A rgum entation and debate r e l y on th e methods o f the U n d e rstan d in g , an i n f e r i o r f a c u l t y , which is n o t capable o f comprehending moral and s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s . Emerson saw t h a t arg u m en tatio n and d e b a te , e s p e c i a l l y when a p p lie d to q u e s tio n s o f r e l i g i o n , was o f te n used to defend dogmas, to in tim i d a te the i g n o r a n t, to h o ld thought in check and s ta g n a te th e mind. Em erson's i d e a l o r a t o r would p r a c t i c e " a f f i r m a t i v e d i s c o u r s e ," assuming a s s e n t and i g n o rin g a l l t h a t he r e j e c t s . CHAPTER V EMERSON'S THEORY OF AUDIENCE ADAPTATION By audience a d a p ta tio n i s meant t h a t p ro c e ss by which a sp eak er a d ju s t s h is id e as (and a l l th e elem ents in the d is c o u rse ) f o r a p a r t i c u l a r audience in o rd e r to i n c rease the p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e i r being u nderstood and a c cep ted . In t h i s c h a p te r , Emerson’s w r itin g s are examined to determ ine h is th e o ry o f audience a d a p ta tio n and the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h i s th eo ry to h is concept of the o r a t o r as one who provokes an audience i n to a g r e a t e r awareness of i t s own p o t e n t i a l . S p e c if ic p r i n c i p l e s of audience a d a p ta t io n can be d e riv e d from Em erson's j o u r n a l s , l e c t u r e s , and e s s a y s . Audience Knowledge, B e l i e f s , and E x p e c tatio n s The o r a to r must speak to man's inmost and u n iv e r s a l n a tu r e . Emerson's th eo ry o f audience a d a p ta tio n is b e s t e x p re ssed by h is sta te m e n t t h a t "eloquence is the power which one man in an age p o sse ss e s o f p ie r c in g the s u p e r f i c i a l c r u s ts of c o n d itio n s which d is c r im in a te man from man and a d d re ssin g the common so u l of them all."-*- His theory ^-"Society," E a rly L ectu res , I I , 109. 207 208 of audience a d a p ta tio n is based on th e b e l i e f t h a t " u n d e r n e a th t h e i r e x t e r n a l d i v e r s i t i e s a l l men are of one h e a r t and m ind. " 2 In a d d re ss in g h is tow nfolk in the lyceum, Emerson "h eld to th e f a i t h t h a t a l l 'd i f f e r e n c e s are s u p e r f i c i a l , t h a t they a l l have one fundam ental n a t u r e , ' which 7 i t was fo r him to f in d and a w a k e n . O n the s u r f a c e , men o fte n appear s e l f i s h , narrow minded, ig n o ra n t and d i v i s i v e , b u t w ith in each o f them i s a core of d iv in e wisdom and n o b i l i t y which they share w ith a l l o th e r men. I t is to t h a t p a r t of men t h a t the o r a t o r should always speak. Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t man's "inm ost n a t u r e , " the core o f d i v i n i t y w ith in him, was a lso h is "U n iv e rsa l na- 4 t u r e , " th e one q u a l i t y t h a t he sh a re s w ith a l l o th e r men. "There i s , " s a id Emerson, "a c e r t a i n wisdom o f humanity which is common to the g r e a t e s t men w ith th e low est . . . ."5 i t i s to t h i s " U n iv e rsa l" and "inm ost" n a tu r e t h a t the o r a t o r speaks when he a d d resses h is audience: Books are ( n e v e r ) -t-notl w r i t in the s t y l e of con v e r s a t i o n . One m ight say th ey are n o t ad d ressed to the same beings as g o ssip § c h ea t in the s t r e e t . N e ith e r are sp ee c h es, o r a t i o n s , sermons, academic d i s courses on the same key o f thought or a d d ressed to th e same b e in g s . The man t h a t j u s t now c h a tte d a t your 2 "P ru d en ce," Complete W r i t i n g s , I, 199. 7 Edward Waldo Emerson, Emerson in Concord, p. 147. ^J o u r . § M is. , V, 53. 5"The Over-Soul," Works, I I , 277-278. 209 s i d e , of t r i f l e s , r i s e s in th e assembly to sp eak , § speaks to them c o l l e c t i v e l y in a tone § w ith a s e r i e s of thought he would nev er th in k o f assuming to any one o f them alo n e. Because m an's U n iv e rsa l n a tu r e is h is inmost n a tu r e . "In the p u l p i t a t Waltham," w rote Emerson in 1836, "I f e l t t h a t the com position o f h is audience was n o t o f im portance to him who p o s se ss e d tru e elo q u en ce; smooth or rugged, g o o d -n atu red o r i l l - n a t u r e d , r e l i g i o u s or s c o f f e r s , - - h e ta k e s them a l l as they come, he proceeds in th e f a i t h t h a t a l l d i f f e r e n c e s are s u p e r f i c i a l , t h a t they have one fundam ental n a tu re which he knows how to a d d r e s s ." The e lo q u e n t o r a t o r i s he who has the s k i l l to speak to the "pervading s o u l" of the a u d i e n c e . ^ Holmes a t t r i b u t e d Em erson's own su ccess as a l e c t u r e r to h is f a i t h in "The U n iv e rsa l M i n d . " 8 and McGill found t h a t Em erson's " a s s e r tio n s of the common mind grew b o ld e r as he e n co u n te re d h is Q v ary in g a u d ie n c e s ." The o r a to r must t r e a t a l l men as gods , " S h a ll I ^J o u r . § M is. , V, 53. ^J o u r n a l s , IV, 420-421. ^Because he adhered to a sim ple " f i a t h in 'The U n iv e rsa l M ind,' Mr. Emerson, as Holmes s a i d , 'c o u ld go anywhere and f in d w i l l i n g l i s t e n e r s among those f a r t h e s t in t h e i r b e l i e f from the views he h e ld . Such was th e sim p l i c i t y of h is speech and manner, such h is t r a n s p a r e n t s i n c e r i t y , t h a t i t was n e x t to im p o ssib le to q u a r r e l w ith the g e n tle im a g e -b re a k e r. ' " Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes," Works, I I , 420-421. . 9McGill, p. 35. 210 n o t t r e a t a l l men as g o d s?," Emerson asked h i m s e l f . 10 O liv e r n o te d t h a t "th e p r i n c i p a l im pact of h is [Emerson’s] speaking was to make h is h e a r e rs f e e l t h a t they them selves were b e t t e r than they had dared to b e l i e v e . " 1 1 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t " to re a s o n , to e x p la i n , to persu ad e was con d e sc e n sio n , and im p lied s u p e r i o r i t y . As you appeal to them such you w i l l f in d them. His d o c tr in e of i n t u i t i o n s led him to address men as i f they would respond i n t u i t i v e l y to the t r u t h ; and he spoke to them always from a l o f t y g ro u n d ." 1^ Albee s a i d t h a t "no books take so much fo r 1 0 J o u r n a l s , IV, 59. 11Robert T. O liv e r , "The Sage o f Concord," in His - to ry o f P u b lic Speaking in America (Boston: A llyn and Bacon, I n c . , 1965), p . 128. The fo llo w in g s t o r y d em o n strates Em erson's e f f e c t on some p e o p le . "But I must a lso t e l l Mrs. S to r e r r e l a t e s to h e r m other, Madam Hoar, s e e in g Ma'am Bemis, a n eig h b o r who came in to work f o r h e r d ry in g h e r hands and r o l l i n g down h e r s le e v e s one a fte rn o o n somewhat e a r l i e r than u s u a l, asked h e r i f she was going so soon: 'Y es, I 'v e got to go now. I'm going to Mr. Em erson's l e c t u r e . ' 'Do you u n d e r s ta n d Mr. Emerson?' "Not a word, b u t I l i k e to go and see him s ta n d up th e r e and look as i f he thought every one was as good as he w a s . ’" Edward Waldo Emerson, Emerson in Concord, pp. 147-148. •^John A lbee, "Emerson as E s s a y i s t , " Remembrances of Emerson (New York: Robert G rie r Cooke, 1901) , p . 121. In h i s essay on " S o c ia l Aims," however, Emerson su g g este d t h a t th e re were some people t h a t the o r a t o r could n o t hope to re a ch . He s a id " th e r e are people who- cannot be c u l t i v a t e d , - -people on whom speech makes no im p ressio n ; sw anish, morose p e o p le , who must be k e p t down and q u ie te d as you would those who are a l i t t l e t i p s y . . . ." There are o th e rs "who are n o t only sw anish, b u t are prompt to take o ath t h a t sw anishness i s the only c u ltu r e . . . ." " S o c ia l Aims," Works, V I I I , 97. 211 g ra n te d in men, show such in g e n io u s c o n fid in g o f inm ost th o u g h t and assume t h a t they are open to a l l th a t is g r e a t and b e a u t i f u l as E m erson's. I t was a m a g n ific e n t co m p li ment; i t was the manner o f kings and p rin c e s to each o t h e r . "13 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t th e p re a c h e r and th e o r a t o r should speak in the " f a i t h t h a t we a l l h is h e a r e r s , are urns o f the godhead, § w i l l s u r e ly know i f any word o f our own language i s u t t e r e d to u s , § w i l l accep t i t b u t t h a t a l l o f us which i s d iv in e must remain f o r e v e r im p a ssib le to anything e l s e . "14 "Nothing i s more m elancholy th an to t r e a t men as pawns and n i n e p i n s , " w rote Emerson. But i f the o r a t o r w i l l "speak to the s o u l , " "always the so u l w i l l r e p l y . "13 Emerson admired Edward T ay lo r who could " t r a n s form a l l those w h isk ered , shaggy, u n trim t a r p a u l i n s in to sons o f l i g h t and hope, by s e e in g th e man w ith in the s a i l o r , se e in g them to be so n s, l o v e r s , b r o t h e r s , h u s b a n d s ." l^ 1 3 I b i d . , pp. 1 2 1 - 1 2 2 . 14j p u r . § M is. , V, 102. 13j p u r n a l s , IV, 172. Elsew here he s a id : "T re a t men as pawns and n in e p in s and you s h a l l s u f f e r as w e ll as th e y . I f you leav e o u t t h e i r h e a r t you s h a l l lo se your own. The b l i n d e s t and w o r s t, him whom v ic e and d i s a s t e r have undone, the w retch s h a l l be no w retch when h is Reason is a d d re sse d . Let th e s o u l speak to h im ,- -a n d from w ith in him, th e so u l s h a l l r e p l y . " " S o c ie ty ," E a rly L e c tu re s , I I , 107. ^ J o u r n a l s , IV, 172. 212 Emerson t o l d p re a c h e rs t h a t God's r e v e l a t i o n to man was n o t to be found in a book, b u t in the so u l of each man. "The p r e a c h e r , th o u g h t I in ch u rch , must assume t h a t man i s the r e v e l a t i o n § i f he w i l l r e f l e c t he s h a l l . . . f in d h is h e a r e r s o v erflo w in g w ith a d iv in e l i g h t § . . . the b ib le . . . s h a l l be a m irro r g iv in g back to him th e re fu lg e n c e of h is own m in d ." 1^ A gain, Emerson s a i d t h a t i f a man of competent moral and m ental powers sh o u ld "preach d iv in e t r u t h " to any au d ien c e , w hether in a p a la c e or a p r i s o n , "he s h a l l f in d the h a r d e s t § h i g h e s t p r i n c i p l e s o f r e l i g i o n l a t e n t in th e mind o f th e most p ro fa n e § s k e p t i c a l § coming f o r t h a t h is command. P reach in g i s only an e x p o s itio n o f our human n a tu re § i f h a b i t or p a s s io n has o b s tr u c te d i t you must use pow erful means to g e t access b u t d o n 't d is - 1 ft t r u s t th e s t r e n g t h of t r u t h . " The o r a to r must not u n derestim ate the common capac i t y o f the mass o f men. In ad ap tin g h is message to an au d ien c e , th e sp eak er must n o t u n d e re stim a te th e common c a p a c ity of the mass o f men. For ". . . Em erson's view o f men was t h a t th ey were w is e r than they knew; t h a t i t was 17jour. 5 Mis•> V, 1 0 2. • ^ I b i d . , I I I , 197. Emerson saw F a th e r T aylor as one who i l l u s t r a t e d t h i s k in d o f p re a c h in g . "And so he went on, t h i s P oet o f the S a i l o r § Ann s t r e e t - - F u s i n g a l l th e rude h e a r t s o f h is a u d ito r y w ith the h e a t of h is own love § making the a b s t r a c t i o n s o f p h ilo s p h e r s a c c e s s ib le § e f f e c t u a l to them a l s o . " I b i d . , V, 4-5. 213 n o t n e c e s s a ry to feed them f o r e v e r on m ilk and keep them in p rim er and p u p ila g e ." ^ Edward Waldo Emerson s a i d t h a t h is f a t h e r , when speaking to h is tow nsfolk in the Lyceum, "never w rote down to them, b u t f e l t them e n t i t l e d to h is b e s t th o u g h ts . " 2 0 Emerson was always made to f e e l uneasy when the c o n v e rsa tio n tu rn e d in h is p re sen c e to th e s u b je c t of "pop u l a r ig n o ran ce" and "th e duty o f a d ap tin g our p u b lic h a rangues and w r iti n g s to th e mind o f the p e o p le ." To Emer s o n 's way of t h in k in g , t h i s k in d o f t a l k was " a l l p endantry and ig n o ra n c e . "21 "D o n 't deceive y o u r s e l f , say I , the g r e a t mass u n d e rs ta n d w h a t's w hat, as w ell as th e l i t t l e m a ss."22 "The p e o p le ," he argued, "know as much and reason as w e ll as we do. None so quick as they to d is c e r n b r i l l i a n t genius or s o l i d p a r t s . And I observe t h a t a l l those who use t h i s c a n t most are such as do n o t r i s e above m edi o c r i t y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g ."23 In 1836, Emerson e x p re ss e d h is d i s l i k e of "th e p a tr o n iz in g tone in which th e s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t young men of the day t a l k o f m i n is te r s 'a d a p tin g t h e i r p re a ch in g to the 1 9 A lbee, p. 121. 2^Edward Waldo Emerson, Emerson in Concord, p. 147. ? 1 xH eart o f Em erson's J o u r n a l s , pp. 39-40. ^2J o u r n a l s , IV, 143. 23Heart o f Em erson's J o u r n a l s , pp. 39-40. 214 g r e a t m a s s .’ Was th e sermon good? '0 y e s , good f o r you and me, b u t n o t u n d e rsto o d by the g r e a t m a s s .'" Emerson s a id t h a t "th e s e l f - c o n c e i t of t h i s tone i s more provoking than the profound ignorance i t argues i s p i t i a b l e . " The p ro p e r a t t i t u d e f o r a man " is humble wonder and g r a t i t u d e , a meek w atching of th e m arvels of the c r e a t i o n , to the end t h a t he may know and do what is f i t . " Some " p e r t g e n t l e men," however, "assume t h a t the whole o b je c t is to manage 't h e g r e a t mass' and th e y , f o r s o o th , are behind the c u r t a i n w ith the D eity and mean to h elp manage. They know a l l , and w i l l now smirk and manoeuvre and condescendingly y i e l d the 2 4 droppings o f t h e i r wisdom to the poor p e o p le ." L im ita tio n s o f Audiences Emerson had g r e a t r e s p e c t f o r the in d iv id u a l man r e g a r d le s s of how humble h is s t a t i o n in l i f e or li m i t e d h is e d u c a tio n . He r e s p e c te d every man f o r the core of d i v i n i t y w ith in him, b u t he saw t h a t when men u n ite in a mob, they u s u a ll y submerge t h e i r b e s t q u a l i t i e s and a c t out of p a s sio n and i n f e r i o r m o tiv es. Although Emerson warned a g a in s t u n d e re s tim a tin g the common c a p a c ity of the m a jo r ity of men, h e , n e v e r t h e l e s s , h e ld g r e a t contempt f o r men when they a c t , n o t as i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t as one mass or mob. Em erson's own speaking was designed to appeal to men as i n d i v i d u a l s , ^ J o u r n a l s , IV, 143-144. n o t as a group or a mass. "For our forem ost American i n d i v i d u a l i s t , " n o te d P h e lp s, "always spoke to th e i n d i v i d u a l , n ev er to man in the mass; thus everyone who reads him r e c e p ti v e ly f e e l s t h a t the s tim u la tin g word is ad d re ssed to him alo n e. "The mob ought to be t r e a t e d only w ith contem pt," s a id Emerson. "P hocion, even Jesu s cannot o th erw ise re g a rd i t i n s o f a r as i t is mob. I t is mere b e a s t [;] [s i c ] of them t h a t compose i t t h e i r so u l is absent from i t . I t is to c o n sid e r i t too much to r e s p e c t i t . . . ." Emerson saw mobs as "mere animal § m echanical a g e n ts ." The mob has no 2 6 w i l l of i t s own. Emerson d e fin e d a mob as "a s o c ie ty of bodies v o l u n t a r i l y b e re a v in g them selves of Reason and t r a v e r s i n g i t s work. The Mob is man v o l u n t a r i l y r e tu r n in g to the n a tu r e of the B e a s t." I t s f i t hour of a c t i v i t y is N ight. I t s a c tio n s are in san e li k e i t s whole c o n s t i t u t i o n . I t p e r s e c u te s a p r i n c i p l e . I t would whip a r i g h t . I t would t a r and f e a t h e r j u s t i c e by i n f l i c t i n g the f i r e and outrag e upon the houses and p erso n s of th o se who have th e s e . But i t resem bles th e prank o f the boys who sought l a s t n ig h t to p u t out the f i r e e n g in e s , the ruddy A urora, stream in g to th e s t a r s . 27 The mob " is a s o c ie ty which when i t sta n d s in the way of a good man should e x c i t e n o th in g b u t contem pt. I f ^ P h e l p s , p. 23. ^ J o u r . 5 M is. , V, 101. ^ " S o c i e t y , " Early L e c tu r e s , I I , 109. 216 i t honor him l e t him n o t t r u s t i t , i f i t curse him l e t him n o t f e a r i t . " Men sh ould defy mobs a t any p r i c e . "There is a l i m i t to th e love o f l i f e , and where the mob r u le s no man can walk in clean n ess and peace who has n o t made up h is 2 R mind to defy i t . " In th e fo llo w in g poem, Emerson e x p r e s s e d h is o p in io n o f the mob: Look danger in the e y e - - i t v a n ish e s : Anatomize the ro a r in g p o p u la ce , Big, d ir e and overwhelming they seem Piecem eal ' t i s n o th in g . Some o f them b u t scream , F earin g the o t h e r s ; some are lo o k e rs -o n ; One o f them h e c t i c day by day consumes, And one w i l l d ie tomorrow of the flu x . One o f them a lre a d y changes h is mind, And f a l l s out w ith the r i n g l e a d e r s , and one Has seen h is c r e d i t o r s am idst the crowd and f l i e s . And th e r e are heavy eyes T hat miss t h e i r s le e p and m e d ita te r e t r e a t . A few m a lig n an t heads leap up th e d in , the r e s t are i d l e b o y s .29 H illb r u n e r saw a b a s i c c o n t r a d i c t i o n in Emerson’s w r iti n g s between h is r e s p e c t f o r the u n iv e r s a l mind w ith in each in d iv id u a l and h is d i s t r u s t of mobs, crowds, and ma j o r i t y r u le : Thus Emerson was p u l l e d by opposing fo rc e s when c o n fro n te d w ith e g a l i t a r i a n i s m . Applauded by many as th e g r e a t dem ocrat, he d id b e lie v e t h a t every man had the in n a te q u a l i t y o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l i v i n g by re a so n , and in th e l a s t a n a l y s i s , t h i s was th e kind of ^^I b i d . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t Emerson r e f e r r e d to an audience a t F a n e u il H a ll as a "mob." He s a i d t h a t the cry o f th e fo u r o r f iv e thousand men in th e a u d i ence was a voice t h a t "might w e ll predom inate over b ru te b e a s t s . " J o u r . 5 M is. , IV, 428-429. 29J o u r n a l s , V, 30-31. 217 e q u a l i t y t h a t came o u t o f h is tra n s c e n d e n ta lis m . But, d e s p ite th e se d i s p o s i t i o n s f o r e q u a l i t y he was a g a in s t m a jo r ity r u l e , f e e l i n g t h a t the m in o rity was more capable o f g o v ern in g , and he th e r e f o r e denied the f a c t t h a t the r e s u l t o f each i n d i v i d u a l 's c o g i t a t i o n s could be implemented in to a governm ental p o l i c y . 30 P a rr in g to n s a id t h a t "by the very compulsion o f h is tr a n s c e n d e n ta l p h ilo s o p h y , Emerson was d riv en to a cc e p t the a b s t r a c t p r i n c i p l e of democracy. He u n d ersto o d w e ll what hopes fo r human b e tte rm e n t were awakened by the p r i n c i p l e 7 “ I o f m a jo rity r u l e . " x This s ta te m e n t seems to c o n t r a d i c t H i l l b r u n e r 's o p inion t h a t Emerson was n o t a dem ocratic e g a l i t a r i a n and some of Em erson's own s ta te m e n ts . For e x ample, Emerson asked: " S h a ll we judge the country by the m a jo rity or by the m in o rity ? C e r ta i n ly , by the m in o r ity . The mass are anim al, in s t a t e o f p u p ila g e , and n e a r e r the 32 chim panzee." This ap p aren t c o n tr a d ic t io n may be e x p l a i n e d , p e rh a p s, by the f a c t t h a t Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t the m a jo rity o f men, w h ile p o t e n t i a l l y as wise as anyone, d id n o t o fte n seek to f in d t r u t h fo r them selves. Caney s a id t h a t Emerson b e lie v e d in democracy " in th e sense t h a t he was n e v er s u r p r is e d by the advent o f genius and v i r t u e from the most unexpected q u a r t e r s ; " however, "he y e t p r i z e d •^Anthony H i l l b r u n e r , "Emerson: Democratic E g a l i t a r i a n ? , " C e n tra l S ta te s Speech J o u r n a l, X (W inter, 1959), 29. ■ ^ P a rrin g to n , I I , 391-392. 52J o u r n a l s , V III , 456. 218 a l l c la s s e s only as they y ie ld e d those high q u a l i t i e s . Emerson saw t h a t few men e v er e n t e r the "sphere of I n t e l l e c t , " " b u t a l l men belong t h e r e . W e are b u t "b ru te atoms, u n t i l we th in k . Then we i n s t a n t l y use s e l f - c o n t r o l , 7 . C and c o n tr o l o t h e r s . " Emerson, a p p a r e n tly , had l i t t l e re g a rd fo r p u b lic o p i n i o n . ^6 " I t i s s a i d p u b lic o p in io n w i l l n o t b ear i t . R eally? P u b lic o p in io n , I am s o r r y to sa y , w i l l b ear a g r e a t d e al o f n onsense. There i s sc a rc e any a b s u r d ity so g ro s s , w hether in r e l i g i o n , p o l i t i c s , s c ie n c e , o r manners, which i t w i l l n o t b e a r ." For example, " i t w i l l b e ar the amazing conference o f New Lebanon. I t w i l l b ear Andrew Jackson f o r P r e s id e n t. I t w i l l b e ar the c o n v icted ig n o rance of C aptain Symmes. I t w i l l b e a r the o b s c e n itie s of the Boston T h e a tr e ." Emerson agreed w ith Lord Bacon's sta te m e n t t h a t " ' t h e r e ' s more of the fo o l in th e w orld than ■^Caney, p. 48. J o u r . § M is. , V, 447. •^ J o u r n a l s , V I I I , 456. 36ln one l e c t u r e , Emerson p u t " p u b lic o p in io n " on the same le v e l as a "mob." To y i e l d to p u b lic o p in io n , is to degrade o n e s e lf , " S o c ie ty ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , 107. However, Emerson d id n o t mean fo r men to com pletely ignore the opin io n s o f o t h e r s . "Opinion i s our secondary or outward c o n s c ie n c e , - -v ery unworthy to be compared w ith the p rim a ry , b u t when t h a t is se a re d t h i s becomes o f g r e a t im portance. A man whose legs are sound may p la y w ith h is cane o r throw i t away, b u t i f h is legs are gouty he must lean on h is c an e ." J o u r . § M is. , V, 451. 219 the wise . ' The o r a to r should recogn ize th a t men have a n a tu ra l t h i r s t f o r both tr u th and eloquence. Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t 3 8 "th e hunger o f the p eople f o r t r u t h is immense," and th e re i s a lso "an in e x tin g u is h a b l e t h i r s t f o r eloquence" in every man. ^ 9 Thus, "how much s tr o n g e r is t r u t h when i t is recommended by e lo q u e n c e . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t people want to h e a r e lo q u e n t speakers e x p re ss in g g r e a t id e a s . " I t is a m istake to suppose t h a t only < th e ^ v ic io u s g r a t i f i c a t io n can r a i s e s u f f i c i e n t ex citem en t to draw men to g e th e r 41 around a s t a g e . " Albee n o te d t h a t e lo q u en t speaking u s u a ll y r e q u ir e s a g r e a t o c c a s io n , "when b odies of men are a lre a d y e x c it e d and f e e l e lo q u e n tly and c r e a te h a l f the power o f th e o r a t o r h i m s e l f ." You cannot m anufacture t h i s kind o f s i t u a t i o n ; "you cannot a r i s e b e fo re an audience and e x c i t e the p re - 37journals_, V I I I , 228-229. 38"Yet remember t h a t the hunger o f the people f o r t r u t h i s immense. The reaso n why they yawn, is because you have i t n o t . " J o u r . § M is. , V, 450. 5 9 I b i d . , I I , 9. ^ " C o n v e r s a t i o n , " Young Emerson S p eak s, p. 63. 4 l? o r exam ple, " I t i s h i s t o r i c a l f a c t ; t h a t when Demosthenes was about to p le a d a cause, m u ltitu d e s flo c k e d from the re m o te st c o rn ers o f Greece to the Forum a t A thens. I t is n a t u r a l t h a t we p a n t to f e e l those t h r i l l i n g s e n s a ti o n s o f a most a g re ea b le c h a r a c te r which p a s s io n a te § pow erful d eclam atio n n e v er f a i l s to move." J o u r . § M is. , I I , 9. p o s s e s s io n s n e c e s sa ry to re sp o n siv e f e e l i n g . But the moral n a tu re in men and in a le s s degree the i n t e l l e c t u a l , are always a p re p a re d au d ien ce. To t h i s audience Emerson ad d re s se d h im s e lf; and he a t le n g th sec u re d i t s a t t e n t i o n . " 4 2 He o f f e r e d h is audience " m a tte r w hich, a f t e r having been i llu m i n a te d by h is v o ic e and l i t e r a r y s t y l e , was o f t h a t fo rce and beau ty to i n s t r u c t and d e l i g h t as much when read as when h eard . " 4 ^ A d a p tatio n of D isco u rses to a S p e c i f i c Audience "One must th in k w ith h is audience in mind, so as to keep th e p e r s p e c tiv e and symmetry o f the o r a t i o n , " n o ted Emerson. 4 4 The p r e a c h e r , e s p e c i a l l y , should w r ite h is s e r mons so t h a t they w i l l re a ch every in d i v i d u a l in th e a u d i ence in a p e rs o n a l way. '"T ak e c a r e , ' " s a i d Emerson, " ' t h a t your sermon i s n o t a r e c i t a t i o n ; t h a t is a sermon 45 to Mr. A and Mr. B and Mr. C . M I The p re a c h e r (or any o r a to r ) w i l l "avoid empty g e n e r a l i t i e s , " i f he remembers A fl t h a t he i s speaking to human b e in g s. "The p re a c h e r en u m erates h is c la s s e s of men," s a i d Emerson, " and I do n o t 4 2 A lbee, pp. 117-118. 4 3 I b id . 4 4 J o u r n a l s , V, 361. 43Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes," Works, V II, 371- 372. 46J o u rn a ls, V, 200-201. 221 f i n d my p la c e t h e r e i n . I s u s p e c t t h a t no man does. Every th in g i s my c o u sin , and when he speaks t h i n g s , I immedi a t e l y f e e l he i s to u ch in g some o f my r e l a t i o n s § I am made uneasy, b u t w h i l s t . . . he d e als in words I can ^ s a f e l y ^ 4 7 tslumber-t- and s l e e p . " A f te r a tte n d in g church one morning, Emerson c r i t i c iz e d th e sermon in h is j o u r n a l . The p r e a c h e r , in Emerson’s e s ti m a ti o n , had f a i l e d to r e l a t e h is sermon to th e i n d i v id u a l needs o f h is c o n g re g a tio n . The " o f f i c e " o f the p r e a c h e r is " to reform and r e l i e v e , " and t h i s can n ev er be accom plished by u sin g empty g e n e r a l i t i e s : At church to d ay , I f e l t how unequal is t h i s match of words a g a in s t t h i n g s . C ease, 0 thou u n a u th o riz e d t a l k e r , to p r a t e o f c o n s o la tio n , and r e s i g n a t i o n , and s p i r i t u a l jo y s , in n e a t and b alan ced s e n te n c e s . For I know th e se men who s i t below , and on h e a rin g o f th e se words look up. Hush, q u ic k ly : f o r care and c ala m ity are th in g s to them. There is Mr. T - - , the shoemaker, whose d au g h ter is gone mad, and he i s lo oking up through h is s p e c t a c l e s to h ear what you can o f f e r f o r h i s case. Here is my f r i e n d , whose s c h o la r s are a l l le a v in g him, and he knows n o t what to tu rn h is hand t o , n e x t. Here is my w if e , who has come to church in hope o f b ein g so o th ed and s tre n g th e n e d a f t e r being wounded by th e sharp tongue o f a s l u t in h e r house. Here is the s t a g e - d r i v e r who has the ja u n d ic e , and cannot g e t w e ll. Here is B ., who f a i l e d l a s t week, and he is loo k in g up. 0 speak t h i n g s , th e n , or h o ld they to n g u e .48 ^ J o u r . S M is. , V, 361. 4 8 J o u r n a l s , V, 200-201. 222 The Speaker-Audien.ce R e la tio n s h ip The o r a t o r should see h im s e lf as "th e mere tongue" o f h is au d ien ce. The o r a t o r should be "no in d iv id u a l b u t a u n i v e r s a l man, l e t him leav e h is n a t i o n , h is p a r t y , h is s e c t , h is town connexion even h is v a n ity § s e l f l o v e a t home § come h i t h e r to say what were e q u a lly f i t a t P a r i s , a t Canton, and a t Thebes. " 4 9 Emerson d e c la re d t h a t "when a man speaks from deeper c o n v ic tio n s than any p a r t y f a i t h , when he d e c la r e s the sim ple t r u t h , he fin d s h is r e l a t i o n s to the C a l v i n i s t or M eth o d ist or I n f i d e l a t once changed in th e most a g re e a b le manner. He is o f t h e i r f a i t h , says e a c h . " ^ T h is, Emerson b e lie v e d , was th e reason fo r the fa v o ra b le r e a c t i o n to h is own p r e a c h in g . ^ 1 The t r u l y e lo q u e n t sp eak er " p o sse sse s th e power of s u b o rd in a tin g h is p e rs o n a l n a tu re to h is h ig h e r f a c u l t i e s ; he knows how to s ta n d a sid e and l e t t r u t h and reason speak f o r him, w e ll knowing t h a t the power of th e se is a l l p i e r c i n g and i r r e s i s t i b l e . " I f the o r a t o r speaks from h is deepest, inm ost c o n v ic t io n s , he w i l l be more l i k e l y to reach h is a u d ie n c e , to awaken in them a sense o f t h e i r own g r e a t- 4 9 Jo u r. § M is. , V, 102. 5 9 J o u r n a l s , I I I , 426. 51"For the fa v o ra b le r e a c tio n s to h is own p r e a c h in g , he c r e d i t e d h is speaking from 'd e e p e r c o n v ic tio n s than p a r t y f a i t h ' f o r h is r e c e p tio n by 't h e C a l v i n i s t o r Meth o d i s t or I n f i d e l . ' " M cG ill, p. 34. 223 n e s s . " I f out o f the h e a r t i t came, i n t o the h e a r t i t w i l l go. By a few sharp and s k i l l f u l s ta te m e n ts he u n ite s h is v a rio u s audience [s i c ] and w h i l s t th ey s ta n d mute and a s to n is h e d , he touches t h e i r h e a r t s as h a r p s t r i n g s u n t i l in the p re sen c e of the aroused Reason, Good and F a ir become p r a c t i c a b l e and th e g r a v e s t m a t e r ia l o b s ta c le s are swept c o away as the morning c lo u d ." The sp e a k e r, a cco rd in g to Em erson's p h ilo so p h y , would seek to reach h is audience by sounding th e "common m ind." Bishop r e f e r r e d to Em erson's concept o f the common mind when he s a i d t h a t "th e Soul a c ts only in s i t u a t i o n s where a sp eak er v e n t r i l o q u i z e s the liv e sense o f the meet- C 7 . i n g ." J The sp eak er should t r u s t h is own n a tu re and the Common Mind: T r u s t your n a t u r e , the common mind; f e a r n o t to sound i t s d e p th s , to e j a c u l a t e i t s g ran d er em otions. Fear n o t how men s h a l l tak e i t . See you n o t they are fo llo w in g your th ought and emotion because i t leads them d eep er in to t h e i r own? I see w ith jo y I am speaking t h e i r word, f u l f i l l i n g t h e i r n a t u r e , when I tho u g h t the word and n a tu r e most my o w n . 54 The o r a to r should speak as a p r o p h e t ^ ^5 always j u s t ahead o f his audience. The o r a t o r s " a t t i t u d e in the 5 2 " S o c ie ty ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , 110. ^ B i s h o p , p. 160. ^ J o u rn a ls f i y , 211. ^ B e r r y m a n n o te d t h a t "A rt and prophecy are o fte n combined in th e l i t e r a t u r e o f the American t r a n s c e n d e n t a l - i s t s . Emerson and Thoreau i n h e r i t the t r a d i t i o n from the E n g lish rom antic p o e t s . " C harles Berryman, "The A r t i s t P ro p h et: Emerson and T h o reau ," Emerson S o c ie ty Q u a r te r ly , No. 45 ( I I Q u a rte r 1966), 81. 224 ro stru m , on the p la tf o r m , r e q u ir e s t h a t he c o u n terb alan ce h is a u d ito r y . He is c h a l l e n g e r , and must answer a l l comers. The o r a t o r must e v e r s ta n d w ith forw ard f o o t , in the a t t i tude of a d v an c in g ." The o r a t o r ' s speech "must be j u s t ahead o f the assem bly, ahead o f th e whole human r a c e , or i t i s s u p e r f l u o u s . " ^ Where an audience ex p ects only the r e p e t i t i o n o f o ld i d e a s , a sp ea k e r can gain h is v i c t o r y by prophecy: You go to a tow n-m eeting where th e people are c a ll e d to some d is a g r e e a b le d u ty , such as, f o r example, o fte n o c c u rre d d u rin g the w ar, a t the o ccasio n of a new d r a f t . They come u n w illin g ly ; they have s p e n t t h e i r money once o r tw ice very f r e e l y . They have s e n t t h e i r b e s t men; th e young and a r d e n t, th o se o f a m a r tia l tem per, went a t the f i r s t d r a f t or the second, and i t i s n o t easy to see who e l s e can be s p ared or can be induced to go. The s i l e n c e and co ld n ess a f t e r the m eeting is opened and th e purpose o f i t s t a t e d , are n o t en co u rag in g . When a good man r i s e s in th e cold and m a lic io u s assem bly, you t h in k , W ell, s i r , i t would be more p ru d e n t to be s i l e n t ; why n o t r e s t , s i r , on y our good reco rd ? Nobody doubts your t a l e n t and power, b u t f o r th e p r e s e n t b u s in e s s , we know a l l about i t , and are t i r e d o f b ein g pushed in to p a t r i o t i s m by people who s ta y a t home. But h e, ta k in g no counsel of f e e l in g , s u r p r i s e s them w ith h i s t i d i n g s , w ith h is b e t t e r knowledge, h is l a r g e r view, h is ste a d y gaze a t the new and f u tu r e e v en ts w hereof they had n o t th o u g h t, and they are i n t e r e s t e d l i k e so many c h i l d r e n , and c a r r i e d o f f o u t o f a l l r e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e i r m a lig n an t c o n s id e r a t i o n s , and he gains h is v i c t o r y by p rophecy, where th ey e x p ected r e p e t i t i o n . He knew very w e ll b eforehand t h a t they were lo oking beh in d and t h a t he was looking ahead, and th e r e f o r e i t was wise to speak. Then the o b s e rv e r s a y s , What a godsend is t h i s manner o f man to a tow n!5 7 5 6 " E l o q u e n c e ," Works , V I I I , 115. 5 7 I b i d . , V I I I , 116-117. 225 The o r a to r should s t r i v e to bring out the b e s t in h is au dien ce. Emerson s a i d t h a t "th e audience is a con s t a n t m eter o f the o r a t o r . There are many audiences in every p u b l i c assem bly, each of which r u le s in t u r n . " For example, " i f a n y th in g comic o r coarse i s spoken, you s h a l l see the emergence of the boys and ro w d ies, so loud and v iv a c io u s t h a t you might th in k the house was f i l l e d w ith them ." However, " i f new to p ic s are s t a r t e d , g ra v e r and h i g h e r ,t h e s e r o i s t e r s re c ed e ; a more c h aste and wise a t t e n ti o n ta k es p la c e . You would th in k the boys s l e p t , and t h a t the men have any degree of p ro fo u n d n ess. I f the sp eak er u t t e r s a noble s e n tim e n t, the a t t e n t i o n deepens, a new and h ig h e s t audience now l i s t e n s , and the audiences o f the fun and o f f a c t s and o f the u n d e rstan d in g are a l l s ile n c e d and C O awed." The sp eak er has n o t aroused d i f f e r e n t i n d iv id u a ls in th e au d ien c e , b u t r a t h e r , d i f f e r e n t f e e lin g s or motives in th e same i n d i v i d u a l s .^ ^ Emerson saw every audience as "ready to be b e a t i f i e d . They know so much more than the o r a t o r , - - a n d are so j u s t ! There is a t a b l e t th e re f o r every l i n e he can in - 58"Eloquence ," Works, V II, 6 6 . •^"B ut a l l th e se s e v e r a l a u d ie n c e s , each above eac h , which s u c c e s s iv e ly appear to g r e e t the v a r i e t y o f s t y l e and t o p i c , are r e a l l y composed o u t of the same p e r so n s; nay , sometimes the same in d iv id u a l w i l l take an a c ti v e p a r t in them a l l , in t u r n . " I b i d . , p. 67. 226 s c r i b e , though he should mount to th e h ig h e s t l e v e l s . " Emerson gave th e fo llo w in g d e s c r i p t i o n o f what can happen when an a u d ie n c e •h e a rs a sp eak er speak t h e i r own language, speak from the common mind: Humble p erso n s are conscious o f new i l l u m i n a t i o n ; n a r row brows expand w ith e n la r g e d a f f e c t i o n ; - - d e l i c a t e s p i r i t s , long unknown to th e m selv e s, masked and m uffled in c o a r s e s t f o r t u n e s , who now h e a r t h e i r own n a tiv e language f o r the f i r s t tim e, and leap to h e ar i t . 60 The o r a to r should speak to his audience as a man conversing with f r i e n d s and equals', f o r i f the sp eak er t r e a t s h is audience as c h ild r e n , they w i l l t r e a t him as a 1 c h i l d a ls o . Emerson s a id t h a t "when th e re is any d i f f e r ence of le v e l f e l t in the fo o t board o f th e p u l p i t 3 the f l o o r of the p a r l o r , you have n o t s a id t h a t which you should s a y ." Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "th e b e s t sermon would be a q u ite c o n v e r s a tio n a l a n a ly s is o f th ese f e l t d i f f i c u l t i e s , d is c o r d s : to show the chain under the l e a t h e r ; to show th e tru e w ith in the supposed advantages o f C h r is tia n i n s t i t u t i o n s . " Emerson c r i t i c i z e d p re a c h e rs who preach more lik e policem en than f r i e n d s . "There are s e v e r a l wor thy p e o p le ," he s a i d , "making them selves le s s because they would a c t th e p o lic e o f f i c e r , § keep the f a c to r y people a t 60"E loquence," Works, V II, 66-67. 61"I h eard to -d ay a p r e a c h e r who made me th in k t h a t the s t e r n Compensations work them selves out in p u l p i t s to o , s i n c e , i f a p re a c h e r t r e a t s the people as c h i l d r e n , they too w i l l t r e a t him as a c h i l d . " J o u r n a l s , IV, 55. 227 6 2 church. I say Be g e n u in e ." The o r a to r should approach h is a u d ien ce, n o t as one who is going to t e l l them what is tru e or f a l s e , r i g h t o r wrong, what should be done o r what sh o u ld n o t, b u t r a t h e r , as one who w i l l provoke them i n to loo k in g w ith in t h e i r own conscience f o r a l l th e answers /"* *7 and fo llo w in g t h a t guide. Though you may accomodate your speech to the a u di en ce , you cannot teach more than they are ready to learn. "The w is e s t T e a c h e r ^ 4 can im part no more th an h is d i s c i p l e can r e c e iv e . The ra p id f la s h e s o f c e l e s t i a l tho u g h t must w a it the ta r d y expansion o f the w o rld ly mind. No te a c h e r can te ac h w ith o u t the h e a r ty c o o p e ra tio n of th e s c h o la r." * 3* ’ For example, " C h r is t t e l l s them t h a t they are n o t now f i t to h e a r what he is ready to announce, b u t t h a t they s h a l l h e r e a f t e r be re a d y , and th e f u tu r e Teacher s h a l l t e l l them more and g r e a t e r th in g s than he. He a ffirm s the f a c t t h a t the e s s e n t i a l c o n d itio n of te a c h in g i s a r ip e p u p i l . " 6 6 62J o u r . g M is. , IV, 294. ^ E m erso n b e lie v e d t h a t "knowledge t r a n s f e r s the c en so rsh ip from the s ta te h o u s e to the reason o f every c i t i zen . . . ." The goal of th e sp eak er should be to give a man only t h a t knowledge, or t h a t d e s ir e to f in d the knowl edge, which w i l l compel him " to mount guard over h im s e lf § p u ts shame 5 remorse f o r s e r g e a n ts § m aces." J o u r. § M is., IV, 376. ^ C h r i s t . ^ " R e l i g i o n and S o c ie ty ," Young Emerson Speaks, p. 197. 66Ib id . The speaker should tr y to make his message i n t e l l i g ib l e to the common c a p a c ity w ith o u t lowering his thoughts or compromising his b e l i e f s . Sloan n o te d t h a t Emerson r e j e c t e d the id e a t h a t a s p eak er should "adapt by 'lo w e rin g h is th o u g h t' to the le v e l o f the audience . . . ."67 n jn t h i s c o u n try ," s a i d Emerson, "no man b u t is r e l a t e d to t h a t middle c l a s s . Everyone knows and values t h a t r e l a t i o n . W e cleave to i t . Every sane man must keep h is communication p e r f e c t w ith th e g r e a t body of hum anity. For example, " ' I t is tr u e u n d o u b te d ly ,'" s a id Emerson, " ' t h a t every p re a c h e r should s t r i v e to pay h is debt to h is fellowmen by making h is communication i n t e l l i g i b l e to the common cap a c i t y . I t is no le s s tru e t h a t unto every mind is given one word to say and t h a t he sh ould s a c r e d ly s t r i v e to u t t e r t h a t word and n o t a n o th e r man's word; h is own, w ith o u t ad d i t i o n or ab ate m e n t. ' M cG iffert s a i d t h a t "Emerson is here v o ic in g the d e e p e st t r u t h o f h i s own temperament. He must and w i l l be fr e e o f a l l r e s t r a i n t , even th e r e s t r a i n t o f having to adapt h im s e lf to th o se whom he is anxious to e n lig h te n w ith h is t r u t h and to e n l i s t in the cause o f 67 sio an , p. 1 2 . 6 8 "T a b le -T a lk ," U n c o lle c te d L e c t u r e s , p. 38. 6 9 c ite d in M cG iffert, J r . , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " Young Emerson S p eak s, p. x l . 229 70 t r u t h he holds d e a r ." In h is own l e c t u r i n g , Emerson " re s o lv e d to give h is 71 b e s t th oughts to a l l c la s s e s o f h e a r e rs . . . ." "Emer son m ingles no w a te r in h is w in e ," s a i d A lbee. "His g r e a t soul n ev er condescended to q u a l i f y , to concede, to w r ite 7 7 down." "This was h is own r u l e - - n e v e r to ' t a l k down' to o th e r s . " 7^ Quoting h is f a t h e r , Edward Waldo Emerson s a id t h a t a man should u t t e r h is thoughts " 'a s i f thou w ert to speak to sages and demigods, and be no w hit ashamed i f n o t one, y e s , n o t one in th e assem bly, should give sig n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . Is i t n o t p l e a s a n t to y o u --u n ex p ected wisdom? depth o f se n tim e n t in middle l i f e , p erso n s t h a t in th e th ic k o f the crowd are tru e kings and gentlemen w ith o u t the h arn ess and envy of the thro n e? "'7-4 Em erson's a t t i t u d e toward audience a d a p ta tio n d i f fe re d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h a t o f h is f r i e n d s , Wendell Holmes and Henry Thoreau. Holmes d id n o t u n d e rstan d how Emerson could combine "p o p u la r e f f e c t s " w ith th e e x h i b i t i o n o f t r u t h s . Em erson's am bition was always to w r ite some 7 0 I b i d . 7^-Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o te s," Works, V II, 367. ^ A l b e e , p. 132. 7^Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o te s ," Works, IV, 305. 7 4 I b i d . , IV, 306; V II, 307. 230 th in g of value t h a t everyone could u n d e rs ta n d , b u t Thoreau b e lie v e d t h a t an y th in g t h a t "succeeded w ith an audience" had to be bad. Emerson re c o rd ed the d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e s o f h is f r ie n d s in h is j o u r n a l : Wendell Holmes, when I o f f e r e d to go to h is le c t u r e on Wordsworth, s a i d , "I e n t r e a t you n o t to g o . I am fo rced to stu d y e f f e c t s . You and o th e r s may be able to combine p o p u la r e f f e c t w ith th e e x h i b i t i o n o f t r u t h s . I cannot. I am com pelled to study e f f e c t s . " The o th e r day, Henry Thoreau was speaking to me about my le c t u r e on th e Anglo-American, and r e g r e t t i n g t h a t w hatever was w r i t t e n f o r a l e c t u r e , o r w hatever succeeded w ith the audience was bad, e t c . I s a i d , I am am bitious to w rite something which a l l can re a d , li k e Robinson C ru so e. And when I have w r i t t e n a p a p e r or a book, I see w ith r e g r e t t h a t i t is n o t s o l i d , w ith a r i g h t m a t e r i a l i s t i c tr e a tm e n t, which d e l i g h t s everybody. Henry o b je c te d , of c o u rse, and vaunted the b e t t e r l e c t u r e s which only reached a few p e r s o n s . 75 The o r a to r must not think and speak only "for the m ark etp la ce. " "In my dream ," s a i d Emerson, "I saw a man read in g in the l i b r a r y a t Cambridge, and one who s to o d by s a id 'He re a d e th a d v e r t i s e m e n t s ,' meaning t h a t he read f o r the m arket o n ly , and n o t f o r t r u t h . Then I s a id ,- -D o I 7 f \ read a d v e rtise m e n ts? " When you w r ite l e c t u r e s f o r the m a rk e tp la ce , you pay a h ig h p r i c e . ^ "The man o f t a l e n t who b rin g s h is ^g en iu s^ p o e tr y § eloquence to m a rk e t," s a i d ^ J o u r n a l s , V I I I , 424. 7 6 c ite d in Edward Waldo Emerson, Emerson in Con cord, pp. 218-219. 77"'T is very c o s t l y , t h i s th in k in g f o r the m a rk e t p la ce in books or l e c t u r e s , ' " Edward Waldo Emerson, q u o tin g h is f a t h e r , Emerson in Concord, p. 218. 231 Emerson, " i s l i k e th e hawk which I have seen w heeling up to heaven in the face o f noon--§ a l l to have a b e t t e r view o f mice § moles § c h ic k e n s. "7** Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "th e v i r t u e o f the i n t e l l e c t c o n s i s t s in p r e f e r r i n g work to t r a d e . Brougham, Channing, E v e r e t t , ^ tu r n ^ t c o n v e r t l t h e i r genius i n t o a shop, § tu r n every f a c u l t y u p sid e down t h a t they may s e l l w e l l . "79 O liv e r n o te d t h a t Emerson d id n o t belong "to th e c la s s o f l e c t u r e r s - f o r - h i r e . His c o n c e n tra tio n always was upon having something to say and upon s a y ing what he thought he sh o u ld , n o t what he f e l t would draw 80 more p r o f i t a b l e a u d ie n c e s ." The o r a to r should w r i t e his d is c o u r s e to p le a se h im s e l f , to meet his own standards o f tr u th and a r t. "W rite always to y o u r s e l f , " s a i d Emerson, "§ you w r ite to an e t e r n a l p u b lic ," * * 1 "Make h a s te to r e c o n c ile you to 7**J o u r . g M is. , V, 191. "The s p e c u la tiv e a b i l i t y o f the time f e e l s th e b r ib e o f w e alth and men of genius are tem pted to b e tr a y t h e i r h ig h p r ie s th o o d and q u i t th e duty o f w atching and im p a rtin g t h e i r own word f o r the more g a i n f u l o f f i c e o f g r a t i f y i n g the p o p u la r t a s t e s . So have I seen in th e f i e l d s a hawk w heeling up to heaven in th e su n l i g h t a t every c i r c l e , r i s i n g h ig h e r t i l l he became a lu m i nous p o i n t . What could be more in unison w ith a l l noble and b e a u t i f u l o b je c t s ? Yet i s th e c r e a tu r e an u n c lea n , greedy e a t e r and a l l h is see in g from t h a t grand o b s e rv a to ry i s a w atching o f m oles, c h ic k e n s , and f i e l d m ic e ." "The P r e s e n t a g e ," E a rly L e c tu r e s , I I , 161. 79j o u r . § M is. , V, 22. ^ O l i v e r , p . 125. 81J o u r . g M i s ., IV, 430. 232 y o u r s e l f § the whole w orld s h a l l leap § run to be of your 82 o p in io n ." As an o r a t o r , you sh ould only speak "what is O T p r i v a t e and y o u r s ." Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t the o r a t o r could b e s t adapt h is speech to h is audience by t r u s t i n g in h is own judgm ent, by looking w ith in f o r h is id e as and n o t O A to p u b lic o p in io n , f o r the "more f a i t h f u l each one i s to O C h is re a so n , the more p e r f e c t sympathy he fin d s in a l l . " This " s e l f - t r u s t " t h a t Emerson r e q u ir e d f o r the o r a t o r is "not a f a i t h in a man's own whim or c o n c e it as i f he were q u ite sev ered from a l l o th e r beings and a cte d on h is own p r i v a t e a cc o u n t, but a p e r c e p tio n t h a t the mind common to the U niverse i s d is c lo s e d to the in d iv id u a l through h is own n a t u r e . "^6 i f y 0U speak from th e s o u l, you w i l l be S^I b i d . t v, 38. " S tic k by y o u r s e l f and mankind s h a l l leap and run to be of your o p in io n . Speak your p r i v a t e s t thought and i t s h a l l be the u n i v e r s a l sen tim en t f o r always the inm ost becomes the outm ost, and our f i r s t thought the Last Judgm ent." " E t h i c s ," E a rly L e c tu r e s , I I , 151. 83"i wi l l buy th e su p p re ssed p a r t of the a u t h o r 's mind: you are welcome to a l l he p u b l i s h e d ." C ite d in Edward Waldo Emerson, Emerson in Concord, pp. 218-219. 8 4 " i t i s lo s in g time to in q u ir e a n x io u sly r e s p e c t ing the o p in io n s o f a n o th e r s p e c u l a t o r . The way h is opin io n s have any value i s by h is fo r e b e a r in g to in q u ir e 8 m erely o b s e r v in g ." J o u r. S M is. , IV, 327. ^ " S o c i e t y , " E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , 99. 86" E t h i c s ," E arly L e c t u r e s , I I , 151. Emerson went on to say: "Ascend a m ile where you w i l l and the barom eter i n d i c a t e s th e same l e v i t y of a i r . R ise to a c e r t a i n h e ig h t of th o u g h t and you behold and p r e d i c t t h a t which is tru e f o r a l l men in a l l tim e s ." I b id . 233 sp eak in g th e language of a l l men in your audience. The speaker must b e l i e v e i f he hopes to make his audience b e l i e v e . Emerson spoke o f a "la w ," "whereby a work o f a r t of w hatever k in d s e t s us in the same s t a t e of o 7 mind as th e a r t i s t was in when he made i t . " Emerson O O agreed w ith Mr. Hoar, who s a id t h a t "he would n o t give one cen t f o r th e e f f e c t upon a ju r y of a lawyer who does n o t b e lie v e in h is h e a r t t h a t h is c l i e n t ought to have a v e r d i c t . I f he does n o t b e lie v e i t , (th e) h is b e l i e f w i l l on appear to the ju ry § become t h e i r b e l i e f . " I f o r a to r s would th in k b o l d l y , they would have no d i f f i c u l t y c a r ry in g the mind of any mixed au d ien ce. "As soon as you become y o u r s e l f d i l a t e d w ith a th o u g h t, you c a rry men w ith you as by m iraculous u p l i f t i n g ; you lo se them by your own want of th o u g h t, o f which impotence they become i n s t a n t l y aware; sim ply as long as th e re is magne tism they are a t t r a c t e d . . . when th e re is no magnetism they are n o t . " ^ "One can see h e r e ," s a i d S lo an , "the 87J o u r . 3 M is. , V, 396-397. 88P ro b ab ly , Samuel Hoar, a lawyer and congressman from M a s s a c h u s e tte s . 89j o u r . § M is. , V, 396-397. Emerson a lso agreed w ith Swedenborg who s a id t h a t " in th e s p i r i t u a l w orld no p erso n can pronounce a word which he does n o t b e lie v e though he t r y n ever so h a rd § f o ld h is l i p s to in d ig n a tio n ." Ib id . See a ls o " S p i r i t u a l Laws," Works, I I , 156-157; 152- 153. ^ J o u r . § Mis . , V, 447. 234 f i r s t s ta g e s o f Em erson's d o c tr in e : the sp ea k e r does n o t c o n sc io u s ly a d ju s t h is id e as and language to h is h e a r e r s , 91 b u t c a r r i e s them w ith him ." The o r a to r , e s p e c i a l l y the prea ch er, must speak from "within the v e i l , " from f i r s t - h a n d knowledge. Emerson d i s t i n g u i s h e d between two types of l i t e r a r y men, p o e t s , o r p h ilo s o p h e r s : . . one c la s s speak ab i n t r a , and th e o th e r c l a s s , ab_ e x t r a . I t i s o f no use to p re a ch to me ab e x t r a . I can do t h a t m y s e lf," s a i d Emerson. "Jesus p reach es always ab i n t r a , and so i n f i n i t e l y d i s t i n g u i s h e s 9 2 h im s e lf from a l l o t h e r s . " "There i s , " s a i d Emerson, "a wide d i f f e r e n c e between the power o f two te a c h e rs o r d in a r ily c la s s e d under the same name and u n d e rsto o d to te ac h the same f a i t h . The reaso n is t h a t in one h is d o c tr in e is to h im s e lf l i v i n g t r u t h , and he speaks i t as he sees i t ; and in the o t h e r , i t i s dead t r u t h , i t i s p a s s i v e l y taken and ^-l-Sloan, p. 12. ^ J o u r n a l s , V, 143. "The g r e a t d i s t i n c t i o n between te a c h e r s s a c re d o r l i t e r a r y , - -between p o e ts li k e H e rb e rt, and p o e ts li k e P ope, - -between p h ilo s o p h e rs l i k e Spinoza, Kant and C o le rid g e , and p h ilo s o p e r s l i k e Locke, P a le y , M ackintosh and S te w a rt,-- b e tw e e n men of the w orld who are reckoned accom plished t a l k e r s , and here and th e re a f e r v e n t m y s tic , p ro p h esy in g h a l f in san e under the i n f i n i t u d e o f h is t h o u g h t , - - i s t h a t one c la s s speak from w i t h i n , o r from e x p e r ie n c e , as p a r t i e s and p o s s e s s o rs o f the f a c t ; and the o th e r c la s s from w i t h o u t , as s p e c t a t o r s m erely , o r perhaps as a cq u a in te d w ith the f a c t on th e evidence o f t h i r d p e r so n s. I t is of no use to preach to me from w ith o u t. I can do t h a t too e a s i l y m y s e lf." Emerson s a i d t h a t " i f a man do n o t speak from w ith in the v e i l , where th e word is one w ith t h a t i t t e l l s o f , l e t him lowly confess i t . " "O v er-S o u l," Works, I I , 287. 235 93 ta u g h t a t second hand . . . Although Emerson warned a g a in s t u n d e re s tim a tin g the common c a p a c ity o f men, he came to r e a l i z e t h a t the g re a t speaker must expect to be misunderstood, by many p eople. 94 "To be g r e a t , " s a id Emerson, " is to be m isu n d e rsto o d ." Em erson's id e a l s p e a k e r, as Wichelns n o te d , was n o t " f a r removed in th o u g h t from those he l e d . " Yet, "th e course of h is [Em erson's] thought had d ep riv ed him o f common ground w ith any la rg e s e c t i o n o f h is fe llo w c i t i z e n s . Hence, seeking o u t l e t f o r h is undoubted g i f t o f e x p r e s s io n , he was g ra d u a lly b u t i n e v i t a b l y d riv e n to deny h is own i d e a l . " 9* ’ "Emerson re c o g n ize d the f a c t , " s a id Cooke, " t h a t many people do n o t enjoy h is l e c t u r e s . Some y e ars ago, when i n v i t e d to Ann A rbor, he [Emerson] in q u ir e d , 'Are th e r e any people th e r e who have th o u g h ts? "'96 Em erson's i d e a l sp eak er would be a s c h o la r , a g e n iu s, a man of Reason, y e t Emerson reco g n ized t h a t most men are n o t s c h o la rs and r e l y more on t h e i r U nderstanding 93"ihe A u th o rity of J e s u s , " Young Emerson S p eak s, pp. 92-93. 94"pythagoras was m isu n d ersto o d , and S o c r a te s , and J e s u s , and L u th e r, and C opernicus, and G a lile o , and Newton, and every pure and wise s p i r i t t h a t e v er took f l e s h . To be g r e a t i s to be m isu n d e rsto o d ." " S e l f - R e l i a n c e ," Complete E s s a y s , p. 152. " tV ic h e ln s , p. 502. 96Cooke, pp. 258-259. 236 than t h e i r Reason. He s a i d , fo r example, t h a t the s c h o la r " i s g r a v e lle d in every d isc o u rse w ith common p e o p l e , " " and "th e man of U nderstanding always a c ts u n fa v o ra b ly upon the Man o f Reason, d i s c o n c e r t s , and makes him le s s than he • m9 8 is ." The s p e a k e r must m a i n t a in h i s freedom and i n d e p e n dence when a d d r e s s i n g an a u d i e n c e . " I t is a r u le in e l o q u e n ce ," s a i d Emerson, " t h a t the moment the o r a t o r lo s e s 9 9 command of h is a u d ien ce, the audience commands him ." I f you p la c e y o u r s e l f in a p o s i t i o n o f in d eb ted n ess to your audience by seek in g an o f f i c e or a tte m p tin g to found a s e c t , you a u to m a tic a lly s u r re n d e r some of your freedom. But i f a sp eak er is a " tr u e s c h o la r " and a c ts only as a r e p o r t e r and n o n - p a r t i s a n , he can have " p e r f e c t freedom" in h is r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith h is a u d ie n c e . The o r a t o r sh o u ld n o t be d isco u rag ed by ap p aren t f a i l u r e s o r u n fa v o ra b le r e a c tio n s to h is id e a s . "I p i t i e d J [?] f o r h is i l l s p ea k in g , u n t i l I found, him n o t a t a l l d is h e a r te n e d , n o t a t a l l cu rio u s concerning th e e f f e c t of h is sp eech , b u t eag e r to speak a g a in , and speak b e t t e r on " j o u r . § M is. , V, 117. 9 8 I b i d . , IV, 331. " " P o e t r y and Im a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 30. 100J o u r n a l s , V, 30-31. a new m a t t e r ." "Then," s a id Emerson, "I see him d e s tin e d to move s o c i e t y . "101 Emerson n o te d t h a t h is own success as a w r i t e r and sp ea k e r was "composed w holly o f p a r t i c u l a r f a i l u r e s e v e r y p u b lic work of mine o f the l e a s t im por ta n c e , having been (p ro b ab ly w ith o u t ex cep tio n ) n o te d a t the time as a f a i l u r e . . . I w i l l tak e Mrs. B a rb a u ld 's lin e f o r my m otto: 'And the more f a l l s I g e t, move f a s t e r on. ' 1,102 . " I t i s a maxim w orthy of a l l a c c e p ta ti o n [s i c ] ," s a i d Emerson, " t h a t a man may have t h a t allowance which he ta k e s . Take th e p la c e and a t t i t u d e to which you see your u n q u e stio n a b le r i g h t and a l l men a c q u ie s c e ." "Who are th e se murmurers, th e se h a t e r s , th ese r e v i l e r s ? , " asked Emerson. "Men of no knowledge, and t h e r e f o r e no s t a b i l i t y . The s c h o l a r , on th e c o n tr a r y , is su re o f h is p o i n t , is f a s t - r o o t e d , and can s e c u r e ly p r e d i c t the hour when a l l t h i s ro a rin g m u ltitu d e s h a l l ro a r f o r him ." I f th e sp eak er w i l l "an aly ze the c h id in g o p p o s itio n ," he w i l l fin d t h a t " i t i s made up of such t i m i d i t i e s , u n c e r t a i n t i e s and no o p in io n s , t h a t i t is w orth d i s p e r s i n g . " 1 0 3 A p p a re n tly , Emerson was ab le to m a in ta in c o n s id e r- 1 0 1 J o u r . M is. , V, 141; J o u r n a l s , IV, 25. 1 0 2j o u r n a l s , I I I , 334. 1 0 3 I b i d . , p. 345. See a lso " S p i r i t u a l Laws,” Works, I I , 151. 238 a b le independence from h is audience. "He announced t r u t h s , and was so su re of them i t was i n d i f f e r e n t to him w hether they were accep ted or n o t . " 1^ W ichelns n o te d t h a t Emerson "found h is tr u e c a l l i n g and h is r i g h t r e l a t i o n to h is h e a r e r s by making h im se lf th o ro u g h ly in dependent of th e m ."1^5 Cooke s a i d t h a t "on the l e c t u r e - p l a t f o r m Emerson seems to be unconscious o f h is au d ien ce, i s n o t d i s tu r b e d by i n t e r r u p t i o n s of any k in d , by h i s s e s , or by th e d e p a rtu re of d is a p p o in te d l i s t e n e r s ."106 Em erson's b e h a v io r, fo llo w in g h is " D iv in ity School A d d re ss," d em onstrates h is concept of the o r a t o r ' s in d e pendence from the a u d ie n c e . On Sunday evening J u ly 15, 1838, Emerson d e liv e r e d an address b e fo re the g ra d u a tin g c la s s in D iv in ity C o lle g e, Cambridge.1^ What Emerson s a i d in t h a t speech "was so a b h o rre n t to many people in Boston and Cambridge t h a t n e a r ly t h i r t y y e a rs went by b efo re 104phelps, pp. 23,25. "He had l i t t l e of the s p i r i t o f propaganda in him, knowing t h a t the t r u t h would u l t i m ately p r e v a i l . " I b i d . lO S w ich eln s, p. 502. 106coo]C e ) pp # 258-259 . "He had s te a d in e s s under f i r e , too. Remoteness from the audiences meant in d ep en dence of them. D epartures of d is p le a s e d a u d ito r s l e f t Emerson u n tro u b le d . Once a t Cambridge, in the time of the F u g itiv e Slave A ct, th e re were h is s e s and c a t c a l l s from Harvard S o u th e rn e rs . Emerson only looked over the tu r b u l e n t crowd calm ly, c u r io u s ly , as a t a new phenomenon." W ichelns, p. 518. ■^7Edward Waldo Emerson, "Notes," Works, I , 420. 239 Harvard U n iv e r s ity f e l t t h a t he was a sa fe man to have around a g a i n . "108 s torm o f p r o t e s t " follow ed th e speech, and Emerson was "branded in some c i r c l e s as dangerous and atheistical. A month a f t e r th e a d d re s s , in th e m idst o f p r o t e s t , Emerson re c o rd ed h is r e a c t i o n to the u n fa v o r ab le r e a c t i o n h is speech had re c e iv e d : I am convinced t h a t i f a man w i l l be a tr u e s c h o la r , he s h a l l have p e r f e c t freedom. The young people and the mature h i n t a t odium, and a v e r s io n of faces to be p r e s e n t l y e n co u n te re d in s o c i e t y . I s a y , No: I f e a r i t n o t. No s c h o la r need f e a r i t . For i f i t be tru e t h a t he is m erely an o b s e r v e r, a d is p a s s io n a t e r e p o r t e r , no p a r t i s a n , a s i n g e r m erely f o r th e love o f m usic, h is is in a p o s i t i o n of p e r f e c t immunity: to him no d is g u s ts can a tt a c h : he is in v u ln e r a b le . The v u lg a r th in k he would found a s e c t , and would be i n s t a l l e d and made much o f. He knows b e t t e r and much p r e f e r s melons and h is woods. S o c ie ty has no b rib e f o r me, n e i t h e r in p o l i t i c s , nor church, nor c o lle g e , nor c i t y . HO The s p e a k e r must be p r e p a r e d f o r th e f a c t t h a t p e o p le o f t e n h e a r what th e y want to h e a r and may i n t e r p r e t th e s p e a k e r ' s words to f i t t h e i r own p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s . "The m o st o r i g i n a l s e r m o n ," s a i d E m erso n , " i s a d a p t e d by e a c h h e a r e r ' s s e l f l o v e as h i s o l d o r t h o d o x o r U n i t a r i a n or q u a k e r p r e a c h i n g . " H I T h a t i s why " o r d i n a r i l y men do n o t 1 ®^Atkinson, " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " Complete E s s a y s , p . x l . !®®Caney, p. 26. HQj o u r n a ls , V, 30-31. H l j o u r . § Mis. , IV, 279. 240 exchange th oughts 5 converse in m ethod[;] t h a t i s , advanc in g . One goes e a s t , the o th e r w e s t." For example, "the p re a c h e r goes among h is p e o p le , th e p r o f e s s o r among h is s c h o la rs and fin d s a u n i v e r s a l a d m ira tio n of h is sermons or le sso n s b u t the f i r s t word they speak on the g e n e ra l su b j e c t shows him t h a t th e se d is c o u rse s n ev er p e n e tr a te d f a r t h e r than the e a r s . " While the audience may "have a s o r t o f i n s t i n c t i v e r e s p e c t" f o r the s p e a k e r 's " t r a i n of thought § the p r o f e s s i o n which belongs to i t , " "they li v e in a n o th e r t r a i n o f thought t h a t in p a r t i c u l a r s f l a t l y con t r a d i c t s h i s . And when he th in k s a p e r f e c t u n d e rstan d in g is o b ta in e d he fin d s the whole b a t t l e remains to be fo u g h t. Did you e v e r take p a r t in a c o n v e rsa tio n which advanced?" Most c o n v e r s a tio n s are "merely p a stim e. They c i r c u l a t e round p o i n t - n o - p o i n t . Each remains f a s t in h is own aura § n o t once do they communicate. " H 2 A lth o u g h t r u t h must be the aim and end o f a l l 1 1 7 s p e e c h , th e s p e a k e r must r e c o g n i z e t h a t a u d ie n c e s are o f t e n i m p r e s s e d more by p r o p r i e t y , decorum , and a showy s p e e c h than t h e y are by t r u t h and wisdom. " I t is the l e v i t y o f t h i s c o u n try ," s a i d Emerson, " to fo rg iv e e v e ry th in g to t a l e n t . I f a man show c le v e r n e s s , r h e t o r i c a l 1 1 2 I b i d . , V, 23. 113"Le -t i t be remembered t h a t in a l l our t a l k , t r u t h is th e end and aim ." " C o n v e rs a tio n ," Young Emerson S p eak s, p . 65. 241 s k i l l , bold f r o n t in th e forum o r s e n a te , people clap t h e i r hands w ith o u t asking more. W e have a j u v e n ile love of sm a rtn e ss, o f showy s p e e c h ."114 po r example, a f t e r a t t e n d ing a Sunday sch o o l m eetin g , Emerson n o te d t h a t "Mr. Loth- rop spoke § the eminent p r o p r i e t y o f h is manner answered to the audience th e same purpose as i f he had s a id som ething. A ll people agreed i t was a good speech. Yet is n o t n a tu re c h e a te d , fo r th e se men accom plish n o th in g . T h e ir e f f e c t is as m erely phenomenal as t h e i r works. On a n o th e r o c c a s io n , a t F an eu il H all Emerson h eard s e v e r a l p o l i t i c a l o r a t o r s . "The speaking was s lo v e n ly , s m a ll, § tire s o m e , b u t the crowd e x c i t i n g § the sound of the ch ee rin g e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y f i n e . " 1 1 ^ Both N ature and human n a t u r e work a g a i n s t the s p e a k e r who t r i e s to d e c e i v e h i s a u d ie n c e . There i s a s tro n g s t r a i n of optimism in Em erson's w r i t i n g s , a f a i t h t h a t most men w i l l sooner or l a t e r reco g n ize what is r i g h t and t r u e . Emerson was c o n fid e n t t h a t e v e n tu a lly both N ature and human n a tu r e would work a g a in s t the sp eak er who 114"Na tu r a l H isto r y o f I n t e l l e c t , " Works, X II, 57. l l ^ J o u r . 5 M is. , V, 45. H ^T hese sp eak ers in c lu d e d D aniel W ebster, John B ell of T ennessee, W illiam J . Graves and Joseph R. Under wood of Kentucky, and J o s ia h 0. Hoffman of New York. I b i d . , p . 42 8 . i ^ i b i d . 242 t r i e s to d eceiv e h is au d ien ce. "An o r a t o r may have h is fa lse h o o d which ig n o r a n tly o r w i l l f u l l y he w ishes to uphold and make the worse appear the b e t t e r cause; b u t s te p by s te p as he leav es th e r i g h t , h is i n s p i r a t i o n leav es him. Every fa lseh o o d he adopts is j u s t so much d ed u ctio n from h is w eight w ith th e good and wise who always in the long run lead m ankind." The o r a t o r who stan d s in a f a l s e p o s i - ti o n w i l l n o t only lo se h is in flu e n c e w ith the "good and w ise" b u t w ith a l l h is a u d i t o r s . "B efo re, he le d the whole man; now he le ad s only th e p a s s io n s ; and the sublim e sense of r i g h t which was w ith him i s l e f t behind. And could he 118 e n t i r e l y q u i t the t r u t h he would u t t e r l y lo s e h i s pow er." Emerson saw t h a t " th e r e are l i m i t a t i o n s s e t in the n a tu re o f man beyond which the f o l l y or am bition of g o v e r n o rs cannot go. I t i s t r u e s o c i e t y c o n s is ts of a v a s t p r o p o r tio n of f o o l i s h , i g n o r a n t, § young p ersons capable o f being d e c ie v e d ." The o ld men "who have seen through the h y p o c risy of c o u rts § s ta te s m e n , die § leave no wisdom to t h e i r so n s. They b e lie v e t h e i r own newspaper as t h e i r f a t h e r d id a t t h e i r age. Always too a f r e s h swarm is ^coming) a l i g h t i n g in the p la c e o f power to such suddenly a l l i t s s w e e ts ." A lthough "th e young men would d is c a r d even the w ise , § run r i o t , " " th in g s re fu s e to be i l l admin i s t e r e d . Nothing s a t i s f i e s a l l men b u t j u s t i c e , and H ^ ' S o c i e t y ," Early Lectures , I I , 111. 243 e s p e c i a l l y when time § debate have a c c u r a te ly a s c e r ta in e d what j u s t i c e is in r e s p e c t to any m easure." Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "th e i n t e r e s t s of a l l c la s s e s are so in tim a te ly u n ite d t h a t alth o u g h the r i v a l r y in which they are o f te n s e t , may p le a s e one f o r a s h o r t time w ith the d i s t r e s s o f a n o th e r , y e t very q u ic k ly th ey w i l l make common cause a g a in s t any o f f e n s e . The l i e o f te n t o l d makes the l i a r n o t to be b e lie v e d . V irtu e is c o n tin u a lly reproduced in th e young § th e s e l f i s h statesm a n has som e."11^ The o r a t o r s h o u l d n e v e r t r y to i n f l u e n c e h i s a u d i ence by a p p e a l i n g to unworthy m o t i v e s . "Never l e t a man be a d d ressed by any motive t h a t is unworthy of a man," s a id Emerson. "How much so ev er we seem to gain th e re is always a lo s s whenever man is moved by any o th e r than the h ig h e s t c o n s id e r a tio n s ." '* '^ Emerson seemed to th in k t h a t l o f t y p r i n c i p l e s would arouse men f a s t e r than mean ones. "What i s i t t h a t b rin g s the blood in an i n s t a n t to a thousand fa c es? Not appeals to mean p a s s io n s ; n o t the prom ise o f a p lu n d e r or any p r e s e n t advantage; f o r i f t h i s g r a t i f i e d one i t would rouse th e in d ig a n tio n of a n o th e r ." However, "th e announcing of a g r e a t and generous p r i n c i p l e ; the u tte r a n c e of a l o f t y s e n tim e n t; the d e te rm in a tio n to be f r e e ; the 1 1 9 J o u r. 8 M is. , V, 280-281 120nso ci e t y E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , 107. 244 d e te rm in a tio n to abide by the r i g h t - - t h i s k n i t s in to one a l l the d is c o r d a n t p a r t s o f t h a t l i v i n g mass, in a b r e a th - 171 le s s s i l e n c e , o r a th u n d er o f a c c la m a tio n ." The o r a t o r ' s g o a t must be to speak "what no o t h e r 122 can u t t e r , and what a l l must r e c e i v e . " Emerson s a id t h a t "men have more h e a r t than m ind," and f o r t h i s re a so n , the "very e x c e lle n c e " o f a speech may s ta n d in the way o f i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s . Wisdom, w i t , and masses of in fo rm a tio n 1 07 f a tig u e "th e f a c u l t i e s o f o rd in a ry man. " - 1 -'1'3 For example, Edmund Burke "w ith a l l h is in e x h a u s tib le r ic h e s o f l e a r n in g , o f w i t , o f fan cy , and o f p r a c t i c a l in fo rm a tio n was l i s t e n e d to w ith im p a tie n c e , w ith w e a rin e s s , and sometimes was coughed down and h in d e re d from a d d re ssin g th e House." "This f a c t , " s a i d Emerson, " w h ils t i t r e f l e c t s i n f i n i t e d i s c r e d i t upon th e assembly is y e t one t h a t could never b e f a l [s i c ] a p e r f e c t o r a t o r . "-*-2 4 The o r a t o r c annot lo o k to work " d i r e c t l y " on men b u t " o b l i q u e l y . " "Few men b rin g more than one or two p o in ts i n t o c o n ta c t w ith s o c i e t y a t once, they must be -* - 2 1 "An assembly o f men i s sea rc h e d by p r i n c i p l e s as an assembly of angels m ight be. A p r i n c i p l e seems to sw ell to a s o r t o f om nipotence, so s le n d e r a c r e a tu r e as man." I b i d ., p . 110. J o u r n a ls , I I I , 345. •^■^"Edmund B urke," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I , 200. 124I b i d . , p. 199. 245 co n ten t to in f lu e n c e th ereb y . "125 o ra tor can ex p ect to have on ly an i n d i r e c t e f f e c t on h is a u d ien ce, fo r "we see t h a t man s e r v e s man on ly to acq uaint him w ith h i m s e l f , but in t o th a t h igh sa n c tu a r y , no person can e n t e r . Lover and 126 f r ie n d are as remote from i t as en em ies." The o r a to r must remember t h a t "persons are supplementary to the p r i mary te a c h in g o f the so u l." -1 - ^ Emerson b e l i e v e d th a t " a l l j u s t o b serv a tio n " would te a c h one f a c t - - " t h e a b s o lu te s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y o f the mind. The laws o f th e mind tra n scen d a l l p o s i t i v e r u le s and take e f f e c t th e m se lv e s . The mind wants n o th in g but to be aroused from s l e e p . I t s checks are com plete. Wake the mind and i t w i l l be v o c a t io n , e a r , ju d g e, a p ology, guard, 1 2 8 p h y s ic ia n , p r o p h e t, p a r a d ise unto i t s e l f . " Emerson saw th a t "Truth i s always p r e s e n t: i t on ly needs to l i f t the 129 ir o n l i d s o f th e m ind's eye to read i t s o r a c l e s ." Men do n ot need our d o c t r in e s . They on ly need to be awakened. -*-^J o u r . § M is. , V, 26. 1 2 6 " S o c ie t y ," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , 105. 127"The O v e r-S o u l," Works, I I , 277. 1 2 8 " E th ics," E arly L e c t u r e s , I I , 147. "The Mind i s very w ise could i t be roused in to a c t io n . But the l i f e o f most men i s a p t ly s i g n i f i e d by the p o e t ' s p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n 'Death in l i f e . ' We walk about in a s l e e p . " J o u r . 5 Mis., V, 274. 129iiQUotat i o n and O r i g i n a l i t y , " Works, V I I I , 193. W e sh ould n o t t r y to communicate t r u t h d i r e c t l y . T ruth cannot be communicated d i r e c t l y to an audience or r e a d e r s . " I f we sh o u ld speak th e d i r e c t , s o lv in g word, i t 1 7(] would so lv e us too . . . ." Emerson s a i d t h a t the " h ig h e s t t r u t h " on r e l i g i o u s q u e stio n s "rem ains u n s aid ; p ro b ab ly cannot be s a i d ; f o r a l l t h a t we say i s th e f a r - o f f 1 71 remembering of the i n t u i t i o n . " Emerson d e c la re d : " ’ I have been w r iti n g and speaking what were once c a l l e d n o v e l t i e s f o r tw e n ty -fiv e o r t h i r t y y e ars and have n o t one new d i s c i p l e . ' The would be d i s c i p l e s must go, he h e ld , to the fo u n ta in which he had p o in te d o u t, f o r th em selv es, and might w e ll g e t a deeper i n s i g h t than h e ." "E v ery th in g in the U niverse goes by i n d i r e c t i o n , " s a id Emerson. "There are no s t r a i g h t l i n e s . " I -53 The law o f i n d i r e c t i o n a p p lie s e q u a lly to communication, e s p e c i a l l y the communication o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h . "In good s o c i e t y , -- say among the angels in H e a v e n ,- - is n o t e v e ry th in g spoken 1 5 0 J o u r n a l s , V II, 91. •^•*-"Self-R eliance," Works , I I , 6 8 . 132Edward Waldo Emerson, q u o tin g Emerson, Emerson in C oncord, p. 177. Emerson i n s i s t e d t h a t "A man must te ac h h im s e lf because t h a t which each can do b e s t , none b u t h is Maker can te ac h him ." J o u r n a l s , I I , 521. 133'i^oj.^ ancj Days, " Works, V II, 181. 247 by i n d i r e c t i o n and n o th in g q u i t e s t r a i g h t as i t b e f e l [ s i c ] ? " 1-^ "The gods lik e i n d i r e c t names and d i s l i k e to be named d i r e c t l y ."135 ^ i s son m entioned Emerson's p r a c t i c e o f i n d i r e c t communication o f r e l i g i o u s f a i t h : But when th e young v i s i t o r asked o f God o r of Heaven as he would about th e P r e s id e n t or the m arket, and clu m sily h an d led the g r e a t m y ste rie s of L ife and Death as i f they were by-law s o f a c lu b , he re c e iv e d n e v er a d i r e c t answ er, b u t one t h a t threw a s id e l i g h t on the q u e s ti o n , showed i t s awful and v a s t p r o p o r tio n s , s e t him th in k in g about i t f o r h im s e lf w ith a new f e e l ing o f what he was d e a lin g w i t h . 136 Emerson d i s t i n g u i s h e d between two ways o f communi c a tin g t r u t h o r knowledge: the d i d a c t i c way, which makes use of the t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n , and the i n d i r e c t o r p o e t i c way: The p h ilo s o p h e r has a good d e al o f knowledge which cannot be a b s t r a c t l y im p a rte d , which needs the combina t i o n and com plexity of s o c i a l a c tio n to p a i n t i t o u t, as many emotions in th e s o u l o f Handel and Mozart are th o u san d -v o ice d or u t t e r l y in c a p a b le o f being t o l d in a s im p le r a i r on a l u t e , b u t must r id e on th e m ingling w hirlw inds and r i v e r s and storm s o f sound and the g r e a t o r c h e s t r a of o rg a n , p ip e , s a c k b u t, d u lc im e r, and a l l kinds o f m usic. As th e m u sician a v a il s h im s e lf o f the c o n c e r t, so th e p h ilo s o p h e r a v a i l s h im s e lf o f the drama, the e p ic , the n o v e l, and becomes a p o e t; fo r th e se com p le x forms allow o f th e u tte r a n c e o f h is knowledge o f l i f e by i n d i r e c t i o n s as w e ll as in th e d i d a c t i c way, and can th e r e f o r e e x p re ss th e f lu x i o n a l q u a n t i t i e s and ^ ^ J o u r n a l s , VI, 77. 135E(iwarci Waldo Emerson, q u o tin g Emerson, Emerson in Concord, p. 176. 136i b i d . , pp. 176-177. 248 v alu es which the t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n could n ev er g iv e . There i s th e courage o f th e c a b in e t as o f the f i e l d . There is the courage o f p a i n t i n g and o f p o e tr y as w e ll as s ieg e and s t a k e . 137 Lee n o te d t h a t f o r both Emerson and K ierk eg aard " t r u t h " i s "a becom ing," "an inward a p p r o p r i a t i o n ," and " i t can b e s t be aro u sed , n o t by a dogm atic, b u t by an i n d i r e c t 138 ap p ro ach ." Lee found t h a t " i t i s p o s s ib le from a clo se read in g o f Emerson to a r r i v e a t i n d i r e c t i o n as a p r i n c i p l e o f communication . . . ."139 Lee f ound th a t " a t l e a s t two i n d i r e c t te ch n iq u es were d e l i b e r a t e on Em erson's p a r t : h is avoidance o f a c o n s i s t e n t term inology and h is c o n s i s t e n t l y a f f ir m a ti v e t o n e . " - ^ 9 Em erson's l e c t u r e s and essays were designed to " j o l t " h is h e a r e r o r re a d e r " in to an o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to N a tu re , to make him see God w ith h is own e y e s ." Emerson "was t r y i n g to awaken th e b a s i c i n d i v i d u alism o f the r e l i g i o u s l i f e , th e how of the p e rs o n a l 137j o u rn axs f v, 189. 1 3 8 Lee, p. 235. 1 3 9 I b i d . , p. 240. 140itgy c o n c e n tr a tin g upon the spontaneous word which was 'one w ith the t h i n g , ' he in s u re d the li k e l i h o o d o f i t s being a d i f f e r e n t word each tim e. Thus, th e r e a d e r , p re v e n te d from f r e e z in g o r f i x a t i n g upon any te rm -- a p r a c t i c e which o b je c t iv e d is c o u r s e always encourages - -would be fo rce d to l e t a s e r i e s o f terms s u g g e st r a t h e r than denote an unsayable r e a l i t y . He would ' by i n d i r e c t i o n s f i n d d i r e c t i o n s o u t . ' By a d o p tin g th e r o le of c o n tin u a l a f f i r m e r , Emerson a p p a re n tly f e l t t h a t he could b e t t e r arouse the a f f ir m a ti v e a t t i t u d e o f f a i t h , 't h e u n i v e r s a l impulse to b e l i e v e ' which u n d erlay every p a r t i c u l a r b e l i e f . " I b i d . , p. 241. For a d is c u s s io n o f Em erson's in c o n s is te n c y in term inology see C hapter I I . For h is emphasis on th e a f f i r m ative see C hapter IV. 249 a p p r o p r ia tio n . To t h i s end, he abandoned r e l i g i o u s dogma, ig n o red p h ilo s o p h ic a l system , and very e f f e c t u a l l y p r e v en ted d i s c i p l e s h i p . " l ^ l Emerson o fte n used the term "awaken" to d e s c rib e the k in d o f e f f e c t t h a t an o r a t o r should have on h is a u d i ence. Less o f t e n , he r e f e r r e d to t h i s e f f e c t as an "up l i f t i n g , " o r a " p u r i f y i n g ," o f the audience. Thus he s a id t h a t "th e o r a t o r is the p h y s ic ia n . Whether he speaks in the C a p ita l or on a c a r t , he is th e b e n e f a c to r t h a t l i f t s men above th em selv es, and c r e a te s a h ig h e r a p p e t i t e than he s a t i s f i e s . " '* ' ^ The o r a t o r should p u r if y us-^-43 ancj acq u a in t us w ith our own n a tu r e . "The genius o f the dram atic as of the c i v i c or p u l p i t o r a t o r opens a se n tim e n t out of the deep so u l and as by th e li g h t n i n g m elts in s ta n ta n e o u s ly the l a r g e s t assembly i n t o a p e r f e c t fu s io n and every h e a r t goes away r e j o i c i n g fo r i t has been sea rc h ed and made a cq u a in te d w ith th e abysses of i t s own n a t u r e . "144 14-1-Lee, p. 246. "Why should n o t we a lso enjoy an o r i g i n a l r e l a t i o n to the u n iv e rse ? Why sh o u ld n o t we have a p o e try and p h ilo so p h y o f i n s i g h t and n o t of t r a d i t i o n , and a r e l i g i o n by r e v e l a t i o n to u s , and n o t th e h i s t o r y of t h e i r s ? " " N a tu re ," Works, I , 3. 142"Eloquence," Works, V I I I , 113. 1 4 3 " iA ris to s a id t h a t n e i t h e r a b a th nor a le c t u r e d id s i g n i f y a n y th in g u n le s s they scoured and made men c l e a n . " ' J o u r n a l s , VI, 362. 144"soci et y , " Early L e c tu r e s , I I , 111. 250 "We do n o t love th e man who gives us tho u g h ts in c o n v e r s a tio n ," s a i d Emerson. We do n o t love t h a t a c t , " b u t "we li k e th e company of him whose manners o f unconscious t a l k s e t our own minds in a c t i o n , and we tak e o ccasio n s o f r i c h o p in io n s from him, as we ta k e apples o f f a t r e e , w ith o u t any th a n k s. How seldom we meet a man who gives us tho u g h ts d i r e c t l y . " Men want to th in k f o r th em selv es. They are h a p p ie r to f in d a p a th o f thought on t h e i r own than to be le d down t h a t same p a th by a n o th e r. "But we f e e l towards a person who gives us b e fo reh an d what should be one of our th o u g h ts , as we do to one who i n s i s t s on t e l l i n g us a conundrum we had a l l b u t guessed; he has d e frau d ed us o f a p le a s a n t la b o r and a j u s t h o n o r ."145 "The man may t e a c h by d o i n g , and n o t o t h e r w i s e . I f he can communicate h i m s e l f he can t e a c h , b u t n o t by words. "146 j n a c c o rd w ith Em erson’s concept o f in d ir e c tio n , he b e lie v e d t h a t th e te a c h e r , p r e a c h e r , o r sp eak er can b e s t communicate id eas or f a i t h by p e rs o n a l example. The id e a is n o t to communicate p r i n c i p l e s o r d o c tr in e s d i r e c t l y , b u t r a t h e r , to arouse in th e audience a s t a t e o f mind s i m i l a r to y o u rs, a s t a t e of co n scio u sn ess in which one becomes aware of o n e 's own n a t u r e . "He teach es who g i v e s ," s a i d Emerson, "and he le a r n s who r e c e i v e s . There i s no te a c h in g 145J o u r n a l s , i v , 307. •* -^ "S p iritu a l Laws," W orks, I I , 152. 251 u n t i l th e p u p il is b ro u g h t in to th e same s t a t e or p r i n c i p l e in which you a re ; a t r a n s f u s i o n ta k es p la c e ; he is you and you are he; then is a te a c h in g , and by no u n f r ie n d ly chance or bad company can he e v e r q u ite lo se the b e n e f i t . " How e v e r , i f you a tte m p t to p ersuade your audience o f d o c tr in e s or id e a s , "your p r o p o s itio n s run out o f one e a r as they ran in a t the o t h e r . "147 The t y p i c a l " p u b lic o r a tio n " " i s an e scap ad e, a n o n -co m m ittal, an apology, a gag, and n o t a communication, n o t a speech, n o t a man." For example, "we see i t a d v e r t i s e d t h a t Mr. Grand w i l l d e l i v e r an o r a tio n on th e Fourth o f J u ly , and Mr. Hand b e fo re th e M echanics' A s s o c ia tio n , and we do n o t go t h i t h e r , because we know t h a t th ese gentlemen w i l l n o t communicate t h e i r own c h a r a c te r and e x p e rie n c e to the company." Emerson f e l t t h a t men would "go through a l l inconvenience and o p p o s itio n " to h e ar a man who speaks s i n c e r e l y , who communicates h is c h a r a c te r and ex p e rie n c e . Summary S c a tte r e d th ro u g h o u t Em erson's jo u r n a ls and essay s are v a rio u s sta te m e n ts on the s p e a k e r 's r e l a t i o n s h i p to h is audience and the a u t h o r 's r e l a t i o n s h i p to h is re a d e r which can be developed in to a th e o ry o f audience a d a p ta tio n . 147l b i d . , p. 152. 148i b i d . 252 U nderlying t h i s th e o ry o f a d a p ta tio n i s Em erson's b e l i e f t h a t "u n d ern ea th t h e i r e x t e r n a l d i v e r s i t i e s , a l l men are of one h e a r t and m ind." He t o l d the sp eak er to assume t h a t " a l l d i f f e r e n c e s [among men] are s u p e r f i c i a l " and t h a t a l l men have "one fundam ental n a t u r e . " Emerson recommended t h a t th e sp eak er d i r e c t h is message to a s p e c i f i c audience and t h a t he make i t as " i n t e l l i g i b l e to the common cap acity " as p o s s i b l e . N e v e r th e le s s , Emerson was p a r t i c u l a r l y con cerned t h a t the sp ea k e r sh ould n o t u n d e re stim a te the cap ac i t y o f h is audience and, above a l l , t h a t he should n o t compromise the i n t e g r i t y o f h is id e a s . The sp e a k e r should aim always to b rin g o u t th e b e s t q u a l i t i e s in h is audience by t r e a t i n g each p erso n as an in d i v i d u a l and n o t j u s t one o f the mass and by ap p ea lin g always to worthy m o tiv es. W ithin Em erson's p h ilo so p h y the sp ea k e r "cannot look to work d i r e c t l y on men b u t o b liq u e ly ." To work d i r e c t l y on men, is to give them id e a s , d o c tr in e s and p h ilo s o p h ie s to b e lie v e and to fo llo w . That was n o t Em erson's way. He wanted the o r a t o r , th e te a c h e r , the p r e a c h e r to a c t as a p u r i f y i n g , u p l i f t i n g , p r o v o c a tiv e , awakening fo rce t h a t c r e a te s a d e s i r e , an a p p e t i t e in men to r e a l i z e t h e i r own d iv in e n a tu r e and to d is c o v e r t r u t h f o r th em selv es. Taking t h i s i n d i r e c t ro a d , th e a u d ito r w i l l e v e n tu a lly a r r i v e a t th e same s t a t e as the sp eak er s in c e th e r e is one Common Mind and man's inmost n a tu r e is 253 a lso h is u n i v e r s a l n a tu r e . Some o f Emerson’s s ta te m e n ts appear i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith each o th e r . At one p l a c e , Emerson warned a g a in s t u n d e re s tim a tin g th e c a p a c ity of men and in a n o th e r p l a c e , he s a i d t h a t the mass of men are ig n o ra n t and im pressed more by a showy speech th a n by t r u t h . P erh ap s, th e s e i n c o n s is te n c i e s may be e x p la in e d by the f a c t t h a t Emerson sometimes spoke o f what sh o u ld be and a t o t h e r tim e s , of what Is a c t u a l l y happening. This would a lso account f o r the f a c t t h a t some o f Em erson's s ta te m e n ts (as when he s a id t h a t men have an "immense" hunger f o r t r u t h o r t h a t one must t r e a t .a ll men as gods) seem r a t h e r i d e a l i s t i c , w hile o th e r s r e f l e c t th e shrewd and p r a c t i c a l judgment o f one who made a study o f many d i f f e r e n t audiences from th e view point o f both th e s p e a k e r 's p la tf o r m and the g a l l e r y . Emerson was an i d e a l i s t . He was more concerned w ith the s p i r i t u a l than th e m a t e r i a l . To him the i d e a l was more r e a l than a c t u a l i t y i t s e l f . Thus, i t i s n o t s u r p r i s ing to f in d t h a t Em erson's th eo ry o f audience a d a p ta tio n is more i d e a l i s t i c th an p r a c t i c a l , more concerned w ith what ought to be than what i s . CHAPTER VI EMERSON'S THEORY OF LANGUAGE AND PRINCIPLES OF STYLE One's concept of the n a tu re and fu n c tio n s o f l a n guage p la y s a p e rv a siv e r o le in th e development of o n e 's p h ilo so p h y o f r h e t o r i c and o r a to r y . While Emerson n ever developed a complete and s y ste m a tic th eo ry o f language, he had some r a t h e r d e f i n i t e and unique ideas about th e o r i g i n , n a t u r e , and fu n c tio n s of language. In a d d i t i o n , he o f f e r e d some s p e c i f i c p re c e p ts and p r i n c i p l e s to guide b o th the w r i t e r and the o r a t o r in t h e i r use o f language. Em erson's th e o ry o f language is b e s t e x p re ssed in h is l i t t l e book on N ature and h is essay s on "P o etry and Im agination" and "The P o e t ." Em erson's w r iti n g s are examined in t h i s c h a p te r to d eterm ine h is concept o f the fu n c tio n of lan g u ag e, and how language is r e l a t e d to N atu re; the n a tu r e o f p o e try and the e x te n t to which th e o r a t o r ' s language should be p o e t i c ; the f u n c tio n and r e l a t i v e im portance o f w ords, s e n te n c e s , and p arag rap h s w ith in a d is c o u r s e ; Em erson's d e f i n i t i o n o f s t y l e ; what f a c t o r s in flu e n c e o n e 's use of lan g u ag e, and how one can acq u ire an e f f e c t i v e s t y l e ; s p e c i f i c p r i n c i p l e s 254 255 s ta n d a rd s f o r e f f e c t i v e s t y l e , and the e x te n t to which Emerson d i s t i n g u i s h e d between o r a l and w r i t t e n s t y l e . Theory o f Language Language and N ature Em erson's th e o ry o f language is based on h is b e l i e f in th e correspondence o f th e m a te r ia l and the s p i r i t u a l w o rld , o f n a tu r e and soul.'*' Emerson saw "a p e r f e c t p a r a l - le lis m between th e laws o f N ature and the laws o f thought." The r e l a t i o n s h i p between man and n a tu re is such t h a t "what- 3 e v e r is in m a tte r is in m ind." "There is n o t a passage o f th e human s o u l, perhaps n o t a shade o f th o u g h t, b u t has i t s emblem in n a t u r e . " ^ Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "th e h ig h e r use o f the m a t e r ia l w orld is to f u r n is h us types or p i c t u r e s to e x p re ss th e th o u g h ts o f the mind . . . . "** Nature is "an i n t e r p r e t e r , by whose means man converses w ith h is fe llo w men. Emerson observed t h a t " a l l th in g s in N a tu re , the iT h is d o c tr in e o f correspondence is d is c u s s e d in C hapter I I . 2 "P o etry and Im a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 8 . ^J o u r . § M is. , V, 22. 4J o u r n a l s , I I I , 226. ‘’"P o e try and Im a g in a tio n ," Works, V III , 14. ^N a tu r e , p. 37. 256 an im als, th e m ountain, th e r i v e r , th e se a s o n s, wood, i r o n , s to n e , v a p o r, have a m y sterio u s r e l a t i o n to th o u g h ts and l i f e . . . ." Man's words and th o u g h ts are framed by the h elp o f o b je c ts in n a t u r e . "Every noun is an im age." N ature gives man "a copy o f every humor and shade in h is c h a r a c t e r and mind. The w orld is an immense p ic tu r e - b o o k o f every passage in human l i f e . Every o b je c t he beholds is 7 th e mask o f a man." N ature serv es man as a v e h ic le o f tho u g h t in th re e s p e c i f i c ways: (1) "Words are s ig n s o f n a t u r a l f a c t s . " (2) " P a r t i c u l a r n a t u r a l f a c t s are symbols o f p a r t i c u l a r s p i r i t u a l f a c t s . " O (3) "N ature i s th e symbol o f s p i r i t . " One purpose o f th e m a te r ia l w orld i s " to give us language f o r th e b ein g s and changes o f the inward c re a tio n ." Those words which men use to ex p ress moral or i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t s had t h e i r o r i g i n in some m a t e r ia l appearance: R ight means s t r a i g h t ; wrong means t w i s t e d . S p i r i t p r i m a rily wind; t r a n s g r e s s i o n , the c ro s s in g o f a l i n e ; s u p e r c i l i o u s , th e r a i s i n g o f th e eyebrow. W e say the h e a r t to ex p ress em otion, tEe head to denote th o u g h t; and th o u g h t and emotion are words borrowed from s e n s i b l e t h in g s , and now a p p r o p r ia te d to s p i r i t u a l n a t u r e . Most o f the p ro c e ss by which t h i s tra n s f o r m a tio n is made, i s hidden from us in th e remote time when ^"P oetry and I m a g in a tio n ,” Works, V I I I , 9. ^ "N a tu re ," Works, I , 2o. 257 language was framed; b u t the same tendency may be d a ily observed in c h ild r e n . C h ild ren and savages use only nouns o r names o f t h i n g s , which they co n v ert in to v e rb s , and apply to analogous m ental a c t s . 9 Things can be used as sym bols, because N ature i t s e l f is a symbol. ^ " I t is n o t only words t h a t are emblem a t i c , " s a i d Emerson. "Every n a t u r a l f a c t is a symbol of some s p i r i t u a l f a c t . Every appearance in n a tu r e c o r r e sponds to some s t a t e o f m ind," and t h a t s t a t e o f mind can only be p i c t u r e d and communicated by comparison w ith some n a t u r a l o b je c t o r anim al. - * - • * - Thus, "an enraged man is a l i o n , a cunning man is a fo x , a firm man is a ro c k , a le a r n e d man is a to r c h . A lamb i s innocence; a snake is s u b t l e s p i t e ; flow ers ex p ress to us the d e l i c a t e a f f e c t i o n s . L ig h t and darkness are our f a m i l i a r e x p re s s io n s fo r knowl- i o edge and ig n o ra n c e; and h e a t f o r lo v e ." Emerson saw n a tu r e as more than the source o f l a n guage. N ature is "a s c r i p t u r e which c o n ta in s th e whole t r u t h . " "I wish to l e a r n the lan g u ag e ," s a i d Emerson, "not t h a t I may know a new s e t o f nouns § verbs b u t t h a t I may 1 T re a d th e g r e a t book which is w r i t t e n in t h a t to n g u e ." God communicates to men in an i n d i r e c t manner, through ^ " N a tu re ," Works, I , 25-26. ' 10"The P o e t," Works, I I I , 13. ■ ^"N ature," Works, I , 26. ^ I b i d . 13Jour. § M i s . , I I I , 95. 258 n a t u r e . "God h im s e lf does n o t speak p r o s e , b u t communi c a te s w ith us by h i n t s , omens, in f e r e n c e s and dark resem b la n ce s in o b je c ts ly in g a l l around u s . "14 The purpose o f l i f e , as Emerson viewed i t , was to l e a r n metonymy."I** Man is "an a n a l o g i s t " who " s t u d i e s r e l a t i o n s in a l l o b j e c t s . " "He i s p la c e d in th e c e n te r o f b e in g s , and a ray o f r e l a t i o n p a sse s from every o th e r being to him. And n e i t h e r can man be u n d ersto o d w ith o u t th e se o b j e c t s , n o r th e se o b je c ts w ith o u t m a n . "16 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t th e r e was a n e c e s s i t y " in s p i r i t to m a n ife st i t s e l f in m a te r ia l forms . . . ." A ll the o b je c ts o f n a tu r e " p r e e x i s t in n e c e s sa ry Ideas in the mind o f God, and are what they are by v i r t u e o f p re c e d in g a f f e c t a t i o n s , in th e w orld o f s p i r i t . " When our eyes are purged "we may come to know the p r i m itiv e sense o f the p e r manent o b je c ts o f n a t u r e , so t h a t th e w orld s h a l l be to us an open book, and every form s i g n i f i c a n t o f i t s hidden l i f e and f i n a l cause. Language and A rt Emerson s a i d t h a t "th e o r a t o r must b e, to a c e r t a i n 14"p0e t r y and I m a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 12. 1 5 I b i d . 1 6 " N a tu r e ," Works, I , 27-28. l ? N a tu r e > PP • 44-45. 259 18 e x t e n t , a p o e t , " f o r men "a re such im a g in a tiv e c r e a tu r e s t h a t n o th in g so works on the human mind, b arb aro u s or 19 c i v i l , as a t r o p e . " I f the o r a t o r w i l l "condense some ? n d a ily e x p erien c e i n t o a glowing sym bol," th e audience w i l l be " e l e c t r i f i e d . " "They f e e l as i f they a lre a d y p o s s e s se d some new r i g h t and power over a f a c t which th ey can d e ta c h , and so com pletely m a ster in th o u g h t. I t is a w onderful a id to the memory, which c a r r i e s away the image 2 1 and n e v er lo s e s i t . " Although Emerson s a i d t h a t th e o r a t o r sh ould be a p o e t, he d id n o t mean t h a t a l l o r a to r s should w r ite v e r s e , • ’ -^Emerson lik e d to r e f e r to Edward T a y lo r, the M eth o d ist p r e a c h e r , as "th e p o e t o f th e s a i l o r and f i s h e r man." See "E lo q u en ce," Works, V I I I , 114. •^Emerson d id n o t give a form al d e f i n i t i o n of the term " t r o p e . " Em erson's c o lle g e t e x t gave the fo llo w in g d e f i n i t i o n : " F ig u r e s , in g e n e r a l, may be d e s c rib e d to be t h a t Language, which is prompted e i t h e r by th e im a g in a tio n , o r by th e p a s s io n s . The j u s t n e s s o f t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n w i l l a p p ea r, from th e more p a r t i c u l a r account I am a fte rw a rd s to give o f them. R h e to ric ia n s commonly d iv id e them in to two g r e a t c l a s s e s ; F ig u res o f Words, and F ig u res o f Thought. The fo rm er, F ig u res o f Words, are commonly c a l l e d T ropes, and c o n s i s t in a w o rd 's being employed to s i g n i f y som ething t h a t i s d i f f e r e n t from i t s o r i g i n a l and p r i m i t i v e meaning; so t h a t i f you a l t e r the word, you d e s tr o y th e F ig u r e ." B l a i r , p. 275. ^ E m e r s o n 's concept o f "glowing symbols" and t h e i r power over an audience may be compared to George C am pbell's id e a o f " l i v e l y and glowing i d e a s . " Campbell ta u g h t t h a t th e o r a t o r can " e x c i t e some d e s ir e o r p a s s io n in th e h e a r e r s " by "communicating l i v e l y and glowing id e a s o f the o b j e c t . " Cam pbell, pp. 77-78. ^^-"Eloquence ," Works , V II, 90. 260 b u t r a t h e r , t h a t they sh o u ld have s p e c i a l s k i l l in the use 7 7 o f language. Emerson s a id t h a t th e re are p ro se p o e ts . The p o e t is one who is very s e n s i t i v e and a ttu n e d to the correspondence o f the m a te r ia l and the s p i r i t u a l . 2 3 Emer son d i s t i n g u i s h e d between "men of p o e t i c a l t a l e n t s , o r o f in d u s tr y and s k i l l in m etre" and "th e tr u e p o e t . " 2^ The p o e t i s " r e p r e s e n t a t i v e man. " 2 5 Every man is a p o e t i n s o f a r as he is " s u s c e p t i b l e o f th e se enchantm ents of n a t u r e . " Every man sh ould i d e a l l y be an a r t i s t , t h a t i s , he should be ab le to communicate B eauty, the correspondence o f th e m a te r ia l and s p i r i t u a l . "Y et, in our e x p e rie n c e , th e rays or ap p u lses have s u f f i c i e n t fo rc e to a r r i v e a t the s e n s e s , b u t n o t enough to reach th e q uick and compel the re p ro d u c tio n o f them selves in speech. The p o e t is th e p e r son in whom th e se powers are in b a lan c e . . . ." He is " th e man w ith o u t im pedim ent, who sees and han d les t h a t which o th e r s dream o f , t r a v e r s e s the whole s c a le o f e x p e r i en ce, and is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f man, in v i r t u e o f being the 22"P o e try and Im a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 50. "Thomas Moore had the magnanimity to s a y , ' I f Burke and Bacon were n o t p o ets (measured l i n e s n o t being n e c e s sa ry to c o n s t i t u t e o n e ), he d id n o t know what p o e try m eant. ' And every good re a d e r w i l l e a s i l y r e c a l l e x p re s s io n s or passages in works o f pure sc ie n c e which have given him the same p l e a sure which he seeks in p r o f e s s e d p o e t s . " I b i d . 2 ^N a tu r e , pp. 10-11. 24"The P o e t," Works, I I I , 9. 2^i b i d . , p . 5. 261 O £ l a r g e s t power to r e c e iv e and to im p a r t." Emerson seems to have eq u ated th e p o e t w ith the m e ta p h y s ic ia n . ^ 7 The p 0e t " a f firm s the a p p l i c a b i l i t y of th e id e a l law to t h i s moment and th e p r e s e n t knot o f a f f a i r s . 1,28 P o etry is th e v e h ic le o f th e R ea so n .^9 " P o e try , i f p e r f e c t e d , is the only v e r i t y ; is the speech o f man 30 a f t e r th e r e a l , and n o t a f t e r the a p p a r e n t." Emerson d e fin e d p o e try as "th e p e r p e tu a l endeavor to ex p ress the s p i r i t o f the th in g , to p ass th e b r u te body and se a rc h the l i f e and reason which causes i t to e x i s t ; - - t o see t h a t the o b je c t i s always flow ing away, w h i l s t the s p i r i t or n eces- 7 1 s i t y which causes i t s u b s i s t s . " The o r a t o r , p r e a c h e r , and p o e t can serve men as " l i b e r a t i n g g o d s." "N ature is made to c o n sp ire w ith s p i r i t to em ancipate u s . " 32 I t was n o te d e a r l i e r t h a t th e func- 26lbid. , p . 6 . 2 7"poetry and I m a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 10. 2 8 I b i d . , p. 31. 29"Poetry p reced ed p ro se as the form o f s u s t a i n e d th o u g h t, as Reason, whose v e h ic le p o e try i s , p reced es the U n d erstan d in g . When you assume th e <music> rhythm of v e rs e § the analogy o f n a tu r e i t i s making p ro c la m a tio n 'I am now f r e e d from the trammels o f the A pparent; I speak from th e Mind." J o u r. § M is. , V, 51. 30"Poetry and I m a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 20. 3 1 I b i d . , p. 27. ^ Nature t p. 63. 262 t i o n o f Em erson's id e a l o r a t o r is p ro v o c a tio n . He is n o t to give men t r u t h s , b u t r a t h e r , to s tim u la te and provoke them in to s e a rc h in g f o r t r u t h on t h e i r own. The o r a to r achieves t h i s e f f e c t through th e use o f sym bols, by ex p r e s s in g a b s t r a c t thoughts in th e c o rresp o n d in g m a te r ia l 3 3 symbols. "The use o f symbols has a c e r t a i n power of em ancipation and e x h i l a r a t i o n fo r a l l m e n . "34 Emerson gave the fo llo w in g d e s c r i p t i o n of p o e t i c language: W e seem to be touched by a want which makes us dance and run about h a p p ily , l i k e c h ild r e n . W e are l i k e persons who come out o f a cave or c e l l a r in to th e open a i r . This is the e f f e c t on us o f t r o p e s , f a b l e s , o r a c l e s , and a l l p o e t i c forms. Poets are thus l i b e r a t i n g g o d s .35 " I t i s re m a rk a b le ," s a id Emerson, " t h a t a l l p o e ts , o r a t o r s , § p h ilo s o p h e r s , have been those who could most s h a rp ly see § most h a p p ily p r e s e n t (these) emblems, p a r a b le s , f i g u r e s . Good w r i t i n g § b r i l l i a n t c o n v e rsa tio n are 33nj wi s h , " s a id Emerson, " to fin d in my p re a c h e r t h a t power to i llu m i n a te and warm and p u r i f y , which I know in the f i e r y s o u ls which have cheered and l i f t e d my l i f e , and, i f p o s s i b l e , t h a t power to c lo th e every s e c r e t and a b s t r a c t tho u g h t in i t s c o rresp o n d in g m a te r ia l symbol. Seas and m ountains, tim ber and m e ta ls , diamonds and f o s s i l s , i n t e r e s t the eye, b u t i t is only w ith some p r e p a r a to ry or p r e d i c t i n g charm; t h e i r r e a l v alu es come only when I h e a r t h e i r meaning made p l a i n in the s p i r i t u a l t r u t h they c o v e r ." J o u r n a l s , X, 214. 34"The P o e t," Works, I I I , 30. 35i b i d . Em erson's son i n t e r p r e t e d h is sta te m e n t th u s : "Since th e p o e t sees th e permanent t r u t h sym bolized by each t r a n s i e n t app earan ce, t h i s is a n o th er v e rs io n of th e words of the E v a n g e lis t, 'The t r u t h s h a l l make you f r e e . ' " Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes ," Works, I I I , 299-300. 263 T fi p e r p e tu a l a l l e g o r i e s . " Emerson p r a is e d the p o e try in W eb ste r's sp eech es. "W ebster is such a p o e t in every speech. 'You cannot keep o u t o f p o l i t i c s more than you can keep o u t o f f r o s t , ' he s a i d to C l i f f o r d . " 3 '7 " P o e tr y ," s a id Emerson, " i s the c o n s o la tio n o f mor t a l men. They l i v e cab in ed , c rib b e d , co n fin ed in a narrow and t r i v i a l l o t , - - i n w an ts, p a i n s , a n x i e t i e s and s u p e r s t i t i o n s , in p r o f l i g a t e p o l i t i c s , in p e rs o n a l a n im o s itie s , in mean em ploym ents, - -and v ic tim s o f th e se . . . ." A ll men p o sse ss noble pow ers, b u t in most men they remain u n t r i e d and unknown. Emerson dreamed o f the o r a t o r , p r e a c h e r , s c h o l a r , o r p o e t, who would " l i f t the v e i l " from men's eyes and give them "glim pses o f th e laws o f the u n i v e r s e . " 3* * He i s able to awaken men, because "a symbol always s tim u l a t e s the i n t e l l e c t . . . , " 3^ and he is a m a ster o f the a r t o f u sin g symbols.^® 3 6 j o u r . § M is. , V, 63. See a lso "E n g lish L i t e r a t u r e : I n tr o d u c to r y " and "S h a k esp e are," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I , 222,290. See a ls o " N a tu r e ," Works, I , 3lTi 3 ^J o u r . § M is. , V, 63-64. 3 * * I b i d . , pp. 37-38. 3^ "P o e try and Im a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 20. Emerson went on to say t h a t " t h i s power is in th e image because t h i s power i s in N ature . . . ." I b i d . 40"A11 p o e t s , o r a t o r s , and p h ilo s o p h e rs have been th o se who could most s h a r p ly see and most h a p p ily p r e s e n t emblems, p a r a b l e s , and f i g u r e s . " " I n tr o d u c to r y L ectu res on E n g lish L i t e r a t u r e , " E a rly L e c t u r e s , I , 221-222. 264 "The p o e t, f o r Emerson, was the l i b e r a t o r ; and in t h a t s e n s e , he was a g r e a t p o e t . " 4 - 1 - This is th e judgment o f Lewis Mumford and o th e r c r i t i c s as w e ll. M argaret F u l l e r remarked t h a t Emerson’s l e c t u r e s "seemed n o t so much A 2 l e c t u r e s as grave d i d a c t i c poems . . . ." Albee a ls o d e s c r i b e d Em erson's p ro se works as " p o e t i c . " "Em erson's p ro se is much lik e p o e tr y ; i t wants b u t the wide margins and c a p i t a l l e t t e r s . I t has a l l the s u r p r i s e s o f good v e rs e ; i t is rh y th m ic a l, e p i s o d i c a l , sometimes a u s t e r e , 43 again homely, o r g r a c e f u l and n e a r ly always s u g g e s tiv e ." Emerson saw n a tu r e as th e symbol o f s p i r i t , the book o f God. Men use n a t u r a l f a c t s as symbols o f s p i r i t u a l f a c t s . To u n d e rs ta n d th e " r e a l " one must study ap p aren t r e a l i t y . I d e a l l y , a l l men sh ould be a ttu n e d to th e c o r respondence o f s p i r i t and n a t u r e . They sh o u ld seek s p i r i t u a l knowledge from f i r s t hand a cq u a in ta n ce w ith the book o f God, b u t in most men th e s p i r i t u a l v i s i o n i s weak. Most men are e n sla v e d by d o c tr in e s and in tim i d a te d by the o p in ions o f o t h e r s . The o r a t o r , as Emerson i d e a l l y conceived of him, is h ig h ly a ttu n e d to the correspondence o f th e m a te r ia l and ^ L e w is Mumford, The Golden Day (New York: Boni and L i v e r i g h t , 1926), p. lOS. 4 ^ 0 s s o l i , p. 195. 43Albee, p. 51. 265 th e s p i r i t u a l . He g e ts h is knowledge a t f i r s t hand, and he is thus able to serv e h is fellowman as a " l i b e r a t i n g god." In s o f a r as he i s h ig h ly a ttu n e d to n a t u r e , th e o r a t o r is p a r t p o e t. Emerson looked f o r a sp eak er w ith " t h a t power to c lo th e every s e c r e t and a b s t r a c t thought in i t s c o r r e sponding m a te r ia l symbol. The o r a t o r can awaken man, i f he is m a ster o f the a r t o f u sin g sym bols, because symbols always s tim u la te th e i n t e l l e c t . Language Components Emerson p la c e d g r e a t emphasis on th e fu n c tio n of in d iv id u a l w ords, sym bols, and images w ith in a d is c o u r s e . He noted t h a t words and images can have a pow erful i n f l u ence on an audience; o f t e n , they o u tv a lu e argum ents. Emer son s a id t h a t "th e low est c l a s s i f y i n g words o u tv a lu e a rg u ments; a s, u p s t a r t , dab, cockney, p r i g , granny, lu b b e r, puppy, p e ac o c k --'A c o c k t a i l House o f Co mmo n s . ' Wo r d s and names have a power o f t h e i r o w n . ^ For example, "What argument, what elo q u en ceo f the w orld can a v a il a g a in s t th e power o f t h a t one word n i g g e r s ? The man of the w orld ^ N a tu r e , p. 63. ^ " A r t and C r i t i c i s m , " Works, X II, 287. " C l a s s i fy in g words o u tv a lu e many argum ents; u p s t a r t , cockney, granny, p e d a n t, p r i g , p r e c i s i o n , rowdy, n i g g e r s . " J o u r n a ls , VI, 514. 46"No o r a t o r can measure in e f f e c t w ith him who can give good n ick n am es." " P l a t o , " Complete W r i t i n g s , I , 344. 266 a n n i h i l a t e s th e whole combined fo rce o f a l l th e a n t i - s la v e r y s o c i e t i e s of th e w orld by pronouncing i t . " ^ Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "a good symbol is the b e s t A O argum ent" and "a m is sio n a ry to persu ad e th o u s a n d s ." "A p o p u la r assem bly, l i k e th e House o f Commons, or th e French Chamber, o r th e American C ongress, is commanded by th e se two p o w e r s f i r s t by a f a c t , then by s k i l l o f s ta t e m e n t." I f th e o r a t o r can p u t h is argument " i n t o a c o n crete shape, in to an im age,--som e h a rd p h r a s e , round and s o l i d as a b a l l , which they can see and handle and c a r ry home w ith 49 them ," h is cause i s " h a l f won." The o r a t o r must s t r i v e f o r " im a g in a tiv e e x p r e s s i o n s . " "A f i g u r a t i v e s ta te m e n t a r r e s t s a t t e n t i o n , and i s remembered and r e p e a t e d . " 5 0 Audiences d e l i g h t in im a g e s.5'1 ' "There i s no more welcome g i f t to men than a new symbol. That s a t i a t e s , t r a n s p o r t s , c o n v erts them. They a s s i m i l a t e them selves to i t , d e a l w ith i t in a l l ways, and i t w i l l 47jo u r n a l s , H I , 567. 48iipo e t r y anc| im a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 13. 49"E loquence," Works, V II, 90. 50"P o e try and Im a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 12. 5 I"Mark th e d e l i g h t o f an audience in an image. When some f a m i l i a r t r u t h o r f a c t appears in a new d r e s s , mounted as on a fin e h o r s e , equipped w ith a grand p a i r o f b a llo o n in g w ings, we cannot enough t e s t i f y our s u r p r i s e and p l e a s u r e . " I b i d . , pp. 12-13. 267 l a s t a hundred y e a r s . " Emerson gave the fo llo w in g examples of th e k in d o f images the o r a t o r should t r y to c r e a te : To th e P a rliam e n t d eb atin g how to ta x America, Burke ex claim ed , 'S h e ar the w o l f . ' Our K entuckian o r a t o r s a i d o f h is d i s s e n t from h i s companion, 'I showed him th e back o f my h a n d . ' And our pro v erb o f th e co u rteo u s s o l d i e r re a d s: 'An iro n hand in a v e lv e t g l o v e . '52 Once, a f t e r h e a r in g a sermon, Emerson observed t h a t an audience may go away from a speech, c a r ry in g w ith them |>nly one s e n te n c e . ^ P erh ap s, Em erson's th e o ry and p r a c t i c e o f c o n s tr u c ti n g d is c o u r s e s was in f lu e n c e d by t h i s n o tio n , f o r he p la c e d h is prim ary emphasis on th e i n d i v i d u a l sen ten ce in w r i t i n g l e c t u r e s and e s s a y s . I t was th e in d i v i d u a l sen ten ce r a t h e r than the p ara g rap h t h a t Emerson v alu ed most in h is l e c t u r e s and e s s a y s . ^4 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t the sen ten ce should be able to s ta n d alone on i t s own m e rits w ith o u t th e e x p la n a tio n or l o g i c a l s u p p o rt o f o th e r s e n t e n c e s . " T h e sen ten ce must a lso c o n ta in i t s own S^I b i d . t pp. 13-14. ^ J o u r n a l s , IV, 169-170. 5 4 " i t was th e sen ten ce more than th e p ara g rap h in th e e ssa y t h a t he v a lu ed , hence he s tr o v e to make every s y l l a b l e t e l l . " Edward Waldo Emerson, "N o tes," Works, I I , 406. 55"£v e r y com position in p ro se or v e rse should con t a i n in i t s e l f th e reaso n o f i t s appearnce. So should every s e n te n c e . I t sh ould be born a l i v e - - a l i v e l y o r a c le t h a t w i l l p re s e rv e i t s own memory in th e w orld u n t i l a c ti o n s e x p re ss i t b e t t e r . " J o u r. 5 M is. , IV, 432. 268 apology f o r being sp o k en ," he s a i d . ^ Em erson's emphasis on the in d iv id u a l sen ten ce p la c e s h is l e c t u r e s and e ssay s in th e t r a d i t i o n of Wisdom L i t e r a t u r e . "They are gnomic, t h a t is to s a y , they c o n s i s t o f p reg n an t s e n te n c e s . T h e ir arrangem ent i s a m a tte r 5 7 l a r g e l y o f a c c i d e n t ." Van Dyke n o ted t h a t most o f Emer s o n 's s en te n c es are " s h o r t and c l e a r . I t is the p arag rap h 5 8 t h a t is sometimes c lo u d y ." F o e r s te r agreed t h a t Emerson's essay s "are badly o rg a n iz e d , the p a r t s having no d e f i n i t e r e l a t i o n to each o th e r and th e wholes w anting t h a t u n ity which we fin d in th e organisms o f n a tu r e . R arely does he give us even a b e g in n in g , m iddle, and end, which i s the very l e a s t t h a t we ex p ect . . . ."59 Emerson g r e a t l y admired P lu ta r c h and found him "a b e t t e r te a c h e r o f r h e t o r i c than any m o d e r n ." ^ Emerson admired P l u t a r c h 's " r a p id and crowded s t y l e , as i f he had such s t o r e of anecdotes o f h is h ero es t h a t he i s fo rc e d to su p p ress more than he re c o u n ts , in o rd e r to keep up w ith ^ " S p i r i t u a l Laws," Works , I I , 153. ■^C rothers, p. 9. S^Van Dyke, " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " S e le c t E s s a y s , p. 28. •^Norman F o e r s t e r , "Emerson and the O rganic P r i n c ip le in A r t ," P u b lic a tio n s o f the Modern Language A sso c ia t i o n , XLI (March"] 19263 , 195. 60npiutarch," Works, X, 301. 269 th e h a s ti n g h i s t o r y . " ^ 1 Like P lu t a r c h , Emerson had l i t t l e f\ 9 re g a rd f o r "smooth t r a n s i t i o n s and c o n n e c tio n s ." Com menting on Em erson's s t y l e , Buckley n o te d t h a t " h is s e n ten ces are h e ld to g e th e r about as so many p e a r l s a re h e ld t o g e th e r by a th r e a d , y e t in inward u n ity w i t h a l . Emer s o n 's w r iti n g s proceed "by a s e r i e s o f m ental s a l t a t i o n s . " The co n n ectin g lin k s o f which most w r i t e r s are s tu d io u s and c a r e f u l , he has the appearance of n e g l e c t i n g . The c o n s tr u c ti o n i s a s y n d e tic ; the sen te n c e s approach b u t they do n o t to u ch . Commonplace and padding are om itted. One needs to take long b re a th in g s in read in g the Essays, and make a f r e s h s t a r t a t every new c h a p te r. These thoughts are p re c io u s p e a r l s of t r a n s l u c e n t , s e l f - c o n tain ed l i g h t . In te rm e d ia te id eas are l e f t o u t - - l e f t f o r the re a d e r to d is c o v e r . . . .64 Because o f t h i s " a s y n d e tic c o n s t r u c t i o n ," one tends to r e c a l l one or more sen te n c es o r p h rases t h a t caught the fancy r a t h e r than a c e n t r a l id e a or an argument a f t e r re a d in g one of Em erson's e s s a y s . Defending Em erson's p e c u l i a r manner o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , Holmes s a id : "We must n o t f in d f a u l t w ith h is sem i-d etach ed s en te n c es u n t i l we q u a r r e l w ith Solomon 61l b i d . E lsew here, Emerson s a i d o f P lu t a r c h : "No p o e t could i l l u s t r a t e h is tho u g h t w ith more novel or s t r i k ing s im ile s or h a p p ie r a n ec d o te s. His s t y l e is r e a l i s t i c , p ic tu r e s q u e and v a r ie d ; h is sharp o b je c t iv e eye seein g e v e ry th in g t h a t moves, sh in e s or th r e a te n s in n a tu r e o r a r t , or thought or dream s." I b i d . , p. 300. ^2 B erry , p. 241. ^ G e o rg e W right Buckley, C a rly le and Emerson: A C o n tra s t (2d e d . ; B a t tle Creek, M ichigan: E l l i s P u b lish in g Company, 1901), p. 5. 64Albee, pp. 120-121. 270 and c r i t i c i z e the Sermon on the Mount. The 'p o i n t and s u r p r i s e ' which he speaks o f as c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the s t y l e of P lu ta r c h belongs e m in en tly to h is o w n ." ^ One problem in d e a lin g w ith Emerson's r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry i s t h a t w hile making numerous comments on o r a to r y , he seldom , i f e v e r , d i s tin g u is h e d between t r a d i t i o n a l r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e a p p ro p ria te to the t r a d i t i o n a l purposes o f the r e l i g i o u s , p o l i t i c a l , and le g a l s p e a k e r s - - t o inform , convince, and p e r s u a d e - - and th e r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e a p p ro p r i a t e to a r h e t o r i c o f p ro v o c a tio n . Em erson's f a i l u r e to make t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n lead s to many a p p a re n t c o n tr a d ic t io n s in h is v a rio u s s ta te m e n ts and sometimes between h is th e o ry and p r a c t i c e . For example, as j u s t n o te d , Em erson's works have been c o n s i s t e n t l y c r i t i c i z e d f o r t h e i r d isco n n e c ted s t y l e , t h e i r lack of system or method. However, Emerson s t a t e d more than once the im portance of method o r c a r e f u l arrangem ent in a d is c o u r s e . The fo llo w in g p arag rap h from h is j o u r n a ls i s a good i l l u s t r a t i o n : I see th e se t r u t h s c h i e f l y in t h a t sp e c ie s o f a r c h i t e c t u r e which I study and p r a c t i c e , namely, R h e to ric , or the B u ild in g o f D isco u rse. P ro fo u n d est th o u g h ts , sublim e im ages, d a z z lin g f ig u r e s are squandered and l o s t in an im m ethodical harangue. W e are f a tig u e d , and glad when i t is done. W e say of the w r i t e r , Nobody u n d ersto o d him: he does n o t u n d e rstan d h im s e lf. But l e t the same number o f thoughts be d e a l t w ith by a n a t u r a l r h e t o r i c , l e t the q u e s tio n be asked--W hat is ^ O l i v e r Wendell Holmes, Ralph Waldo Emerson (Bos ton: Houghton, M if f li n and Company, 1889J , p. 405. 271 s aid ? How many th in g s ? Which are they? Count and number them: p u t to g e th e r th o se t h a t belong to g e th e r . Now say what your s u b j e c t i s , f o r now f i r s t you know: and now s t a t e your in fe re n c e or p e r o r a t i o n in what calm o r inflam m atory temper you m ust, and behold! o u t of the q u a rry you have e r e c te d a tem ple, s o a rin g in due g r a d a tio n , t u r r e t over tow er, to heaven, c h e e rfu l w ith t h o r o u g h - l i g h t s , m a je s tic w ith s t r e n g t h , d e s ir e d o f a l l ey es. You w i l l f in d the m a tte r le s s cumbersome, - - i t even seems le s s when p u t in o r d e r ,- - a n d the d is c o u rse as f r e s h and a g re e a b le a t the co n clu sio n as a t the com mencement . 6 6 Em erson's s t y l e , which one c r i t i c a p tly d e s c rib e d as " d is c o n n e c te d s i m p l i c i t y ,"® ^7 r e s u l t e d from the unique way h is mind worked, h is d is r e g a r d f o r l o g i c , and h is method o f c o n s tr u c ti n g d is c o u r s e s by f i t t i n g to g e th e r s c a t te r e d s en te n c es and p arag rap h s in v a rio u s jo u r n a l e n t r i e s . The q u o ta tio n above, recommending l o g i c a l o rd e r and c a r e f u l c o n s tr u c ti o n , does n o t r e f l e c t Em erson's own p r a c t i c e . In ®®Journals, IV, 335-337. Also Jo u r. § M is., V, 409. Emerson c i t e d Edward T a y lo r, the M ethodist p r e a c h e r , as an example of a man who was an accom plished o r a t o r in many ways, but h is power was li m i t e d by h is la ck o f method: "Edward T aylor came over l a s t n ig h t and gave us in th e o ld church a L ectu re on Temperance. A w onderful man; I had alm ost s a i d , a p e r f e c t o r a t o r . The u t t e r want and lo s s of a l l method, the r i d i c u l e o f a l l method, th e b r i g h t chaos come again of h is b e w ild e rin g o r a t o r y , c e r t a i n l y bereav es i t of power . . . ." J o u r n a l s , IV, 191. ®^Phelps, p. 55. In Em erson's e s s a y s , as Phelps n o te d , "We are c o n tin u a lly s tim u la te d by a s u c c e ss io n of epigram s, b u t a t th e end i t is n o t always easy to s t a t e the g e n e ra l p u r p o r t. I t seems alm ost as i f some o f h is essays would read as w e ll backwards as forw ards; or one might b e gin in the middle and re a d e i t h e r way. The im p o rtan t th in g is t h a t no m a tte r where you began, you would f in d something o r i g i n a l and s t r i k i n g , some sharp ch allen g e to th o u g h t." Ib id . 272 both th e o ry and p r a c t i c e , Emerson tended to p la c e more emphasis on th e in d iv id u a l components w ith in a d is c o u rse (words, symbols, im ages, f ig u r e s o f sp eech , p h r a s e s , and se n te n c e s) than on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p of those components to each o t h e r . He was more concerned w ith the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e sen te n c es w ith in th e p ara g rap h o r the p arag rap h s w ith in th e t o t a l d is c o u r s e . This emphasis on th e i n d i v i d u a l com ponents w ith in the d is c o u rs e and th e lack o f concern w ith the r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e v a rio u s components was n o t in 6 8 accord w ith t r a d i t i o n a l p r e c e p t s , n o r was i t a p p ro p ria te fo r arg u m en tativ e d is c o u r s e s where one is tr y i n g to follow a c a r e f u l chain of re a so n in g o r show the l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n sh ip o f c e r t a i n id e a s . However, Em erson's " d isc o n n e c te d s i m p l i c i t y " was e m in en tly s u i t e d to h is own communicative purpose: to a r r e s t a t t e n t i o n , s tim u la te th o u g h t, and p r o voke in q u ir y . P r i n c i p l e s o f S ty le D e f in itio n o f S ty le Emerson o f f e r e d no form al d e f i n i t i o n o f s t y l e . In one e s s a y , he r e f e r r e d to s t y l e as th e "mode o f p h r a s e o l ogy . " ^ 9 E lsew here, he s a id t h a t s t y l e is th e use of ^®"The s t y l e of Emerson was c a p t i v a t i n g ; o r was i t s t y l e ? I ask because some denied to him s t y l e and s a id t h a t to c a l l i t so was to f o r g e t a l l p re c e p ts and p r e c e d e n t s ." A lbee, p. 120. ^ 9"A rt and C r i t i c i s m , " Works, X II, 284. 273 7 n language "to i l l u s t r a t e and embody our p e r c e p t i o n s ." A lthough Emerson d i s t i n g u i s h e d between thoughts or p ercep - 71 ti o n s and the form in which th ey are e x p re ss e d , he did n o t e n t i r e l y s e p a r a te th ought from form, the id e a from the images o r words used to ex p re ss i t . Thus he s a i d t h a t " th e re is a r i g h t word, and every o th e r word i s wrong. Again, he s a id t h a t "no man can w r ite w e ll who th in k s th e re 73 i s any choice o f words fo r him ." S ty le as R e f le c tio n of C h a ra c te r and I n t e l l i g e n c e The form and s t y l e of a d is c o u rse i s n o t e n t i r e l y under th e s p e a k e r 's c o n tr o l. Emerson b e lie v e d in "th e i n s t a n t dependence o f form upon s o u l , ^ ancj he s a i d th a t " ac c o rd in g to the e l e v a t i o n of the so u l w i l l the power over ^ " T h e American S c h o la r ," Works, I , 97-98. 71-Emerson s a i d t h a t "th e th ought and th e form are equal in th e o rd e r o f tim e, b u t in th e o rd e r o f g e n esis th e thought i s p r i o r to th e fo rm ." "The P o e t," Works, I I I , 9- 10. F o e r s te r showed t h a t Emerson conceived o f '‘the i n s e p a ra b le n e s s o f c o n te n t and v e h i c l e . " However, Emerson was n o t c o n s i s t e n t , because he "was w e ll p le a s e d w ith t r a n s l a t i o n s . " F o e r s te r m a in ta in ed t h a t "w ith t h i s abatem ent [ t h a t i s , Em erson's defense o f t r a n s l a t i o n s ] , Emerson s e t f o r t h c l e a r l y th e i n a l i e n a b l e u n ity o f thought and word, tho u g h t and m usic, th o u g h t and c o lo r , and the consequent law t h a t the degree o f i n s p i r a t i o n may be measured by the w ork's approxim ation to t h i s u n i t y . " F o e r s t e r , pp. 198-199. 2 2 J o u r n a l s , I I , 401. ^ I b i d . 74"The P o e t," Complete W r itin g s , I, 239. 274 7 ^ language always be . . . . S ty le can only be as e l e v a te d as the man who uses i t . S ty le i s the " i n t e l l e c t u a l v o ic e" o f a man, and i t i s "only in p a r t under h is c o n tro u l [s i c ] . I t has i t s own p ro p e r tone and manner, which when he i s n o t th in k in g o f i t , i t w511 always assume. He can mimic the v o ices of o t h e r s , he can modulate i t w ith the o cca sio n and th e p a s s io n , b u t i t has i t s own in d iv id u a l n a t u r e . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t a man's power to communicate e f f e c t i v e l y was dependent on both h is c h a r a c te r and h is i n t e l l i g e n c e . "A man's power to connect h is thought w ith i t s p ro p e r symbol, and so to u t t e r i t , depends on the s im p lic ity o f h is c h a r a c t e r , t h a t i s , upon h is love of t r u t h and h is d e s ir e to communicate i t w ith o u t l o s s . " The c o rru p tio n o f a man i s follow ed by th e c o r r u p tio n of h is language. For t h i s re a s o n , th e r e is "some presum ption in fa v o r o f the argument which is couched in a manly § r i c h e x p r e s s io n ." Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "th e b e s t p a t r i o t s in Congress are the b e s t s p e a k e r s . " 7 8 7 8 J o u r n a l s , I I , 416. 7 ^ I b i d . , I I , 97. Emerson r e p e a te d n e a r ly th e same sen tim en t in a much l a t e r jo u r n a l e n tr y . "A man's s t y l e i s h is m in d 's v o ic e . Wooden minds, wooden v o ic e s . T ruth is s h r i l l as a f i f e , v a rio u s as a panharmonium." J o u r n a l s , X, 457. Also see J o u r. § M is. , IV, 433. 7 7 " N a tu r e ," Works, I , 29. 78Jour. S Mis. , IV, 433. 275 Emerson saw o n e 's "manner o f u sin g language" as "th e most d e c is iv e t e s t o f i n t e l l e c t u a l pow er." "People sometimes wonder t h a t p erso n s w holly uneducated to w r i t e , y e t em inent in some o th e r s o r t o f a b i l i t y sh ould be able to w r ite language w ith so much p u r i t y § f o r c e . But i t is n o t w o n d e rfu l," f o r i f a man has " i n t e l l e c t u a l fo rce o f any k in d ," i t w i l l be re v e a le d in h is use o f language. For language i s " th e f i r s t and s im p le s t v e h ic le o f mind, is o f a l l th in g s n e x t to mind . . . ."79 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t " s tro n g th in k in g makes s tro n g language; c o r r e c t th in k in g on c o r r e c t s p e e c h ." The o r a t o r ' s s t y l e , or the way in which he uses language to ex p ress h is i d e a s , is a lso r e l a t e d to h is knowledge o f what he is t a l k i n g a b o u t, h is s i n c e r i t y , and h is depth o f f e e l i n g . "A happy symbol is a s o r t o f e v i- Q * | dence t h a t your thought is j u s t . " By a man's s t y l e we " d e t e c t a t once" w hether he "has a firm grasp on h is f a c t or th o u g h t, - - e x i s t s a t th e moment f o r t h a t a lo n e , or w hether he has one eye a p o lo g iz in g , d e p re c a to ry , tu rn e d on h is r e a d e r . S i n c e r i t y c r e a te s h e a t , ^ and h e a t gives a 7 9 I b i d . , p. 434. 8 9 I b i d . , p. 51. ^ " P o e t r y and Im a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 13. ^ " P o e t r y and Im a g in a tio n , Complete W ritin g s , I I , 737. ^ " F o r the e s s e n t i a l th in g is h e a t , and h e a t comes o f s i n c e r i t y . Speak what you know and b e l i e v e ; and are i j 276 man power over language. Thus Emerson s a id o f a f r i e n d t h a t " h is thought has t h a t h e a t as a c t u a l l y to fuse th e words, so t h a t language is w holly f l e x i b l e in h is hands and h is rhyme n ev er s to p s th e p ro g re s s o f the s e n s e . " 8^ "Nothing so marks a man," s a id Emerson, "as im ag i n a tiv e expressions."® *’ " V iv a c ity o f e x p re ss io n " is a sig n t h a t a man is g i f t e d , even when h is thought is "o f no g r e a t scope. " 8^ In f a c t , Emerson eq u ated the term "g en iu s" w ith " im a g in atio n " and s k i l l in the use o f symbols and f ig u r e s of speech. "A deep i n s i g h t w i l l always li k e N a tu re , u l t i mate i t s thought in a th in g . As soon as a man m asters a p r i n c i p l e and sees h is f a c t s in r e l a t i o n to i t , f i e l d s , w a te r s , s k i e s , o f f e r to c lo th e h is th oughts in images. o 7 Then a l l men u n d e rstan d him ." p e r s o n a lly in i t ; and are answ erable f o r every w ord." "E lo q u en ce," Complete W r i t i n g s , I I , 767-768. ®4j o u r n a l s , I I , 416. ^ " P o e t r y and Im a g in a tio n ," Works, V I I I , 12. 8 6 I b i d . , p. 13. ® ^ Ib id ., p. 17. A ll people are a t t r a c t e d to and in flu e n c e d by sym bolic language. People love p o e tr y , a l though they do n o t u s u a ll y reco g n ize i t as such. Emerson n o te d how p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s make use o f emblems to win s u p p o r t : " In our p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , compute the power o f badges and emblems. See the g r e a t b a l l which they r o l l from B altim ore to Bunker H i l l ! In th e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s i o n s , Lowell goes in a loom, and Lynn in a shoe, and Salem in a s h ip . W itness th e c i d e r - b a r r e l , the lo g - c a b in , th e h i c k o r y - s t i c k , th e p a lm e tto , and a l l the cognizances o f p a r t y . See the power o f n a t i o n a l emblems. Some s t a r s , l i l i e s , le o p a r d s , a c r e s c e n t , a l i o n , an e a g le , or o th e r 277 S p o n ta n e ity versu s Rules o f Style" The o r a t o r and th e w r i t e r w i l l produce t h e i r b e s t work when they are e m o tio n a lly in v o lv e d and deeply com m itte d to t h e i r s u b je c ts and when they t r u s t t h e i r i n s t i n c t s w ith o u t too much conscious e f f o r t to f in d the r i g h t word or to fo llo w th e p ro p e r r u l e s o f good usage. "One is daunted by every one o f a m u ltitu d e o f r u le s which he reads in books of c r i t i c i s m b u t when we speak or w r ite uncon s c i o u s l y , we are c a r r i e d through them a l l s a f e l y , w ith o u t O O o ffe n d in g o r p e r c e iv in g o n e ." Again, he s a id : " I t is no m a tte r how f in e is your r h e t o r i c , o r how s tro n g i s your u n d e rs ta n d in g , no book i s good which is n o t w r i t t e n by the I n s t i n c t s . A f a t a l f r o s t makes c h e e r le s s and u n d e s ir a b le every house where animal h e a t is n o t. Cold a lle g o r y makes us yawn, w hatever eleg an ce i t may h ave."89 I f a n^n is s u f f i c i e n t l y e x c it e d and in v o lv ed in h is id e a s , the images w i l l a r i s e sp o n tan eo u sly to express h is th o u g h ts : The moment our d is c o u rse r i s e s above th e ground li n e o f f a m i l i a r f a c t s , and is in flam ed w ith p a ss io n f ig u r e which came i n to c r e d i t God knows how, on an o ld rag o f b u n tin g , blowing in th e winds on a f o r t a t the ends of th e e a r t h , s h a l l make the blood t i n g l e under the r u d e s t or most c o n v e n tio n a l e x t e r i o r . The people fancy th ey h a te p o e tr y , and they are a l l p o e ts and m y s tic s ! " "The P o e t," Works, I I I , 16-17. 8 8 J o u r . § M is. , IV, 434. 89j o u r n a l s , V III, 40. 278 or e x a l t e d by th o u g h t, i t c lo th e s i t s e l f in images. A man c o n v ersin g in e a r n e s t , i f he watch h is i n t e l l e c t u a l p r o c e s s e s , w i l l f in d t h a t always a m a te r ia l image, more o r le s s lum inous, a r i s e s in h is mind, contemporaneous w ith every th o u g h t, which f u r n is h e s th e vestm ent o f the th o u g h t. Hence, good w r i t i n g and b r i l l i a n t d isc o u rse are p e r p e tu a l a l l e g o r i e s . This imagery i s spontaneous. I t i s the b le n d in g o f e x p erien c e w ith th e p r e s e n t a c t i o n of the mind. I t is p ro p e r c r e a t i o n . I t i s the working o f th e O r ig in a l Cause through th e in stru m en ts he has a lre a d y m ade.90 E x cellen ce and E f f e c tiv e n e s s in Style' 1. The sp ea k e r sh ould s t r i v e f o r a d i r e c t and sim ple s t y l e . 9 1 This r u le is found in both Em erson's th e - Q ? ory and p r a c t i c e . "Language should aim to d e s c rib e f a c t . " N a t u r e , p. 39. Emerson s a i d t h a t h is own s t y l e was spontaneous r a t h e r th a n s tu d ie d . " C e rta in moods of mind a r i s e in me which le a d me a t once to my pen § p a p e r , b u t which are q u i t e in d e s c r i b a b l e ; and th e se a tte n d me through every se n te n c e of my w r i t i n g , 8 determ ine th e form o f every c la u s e , y e t are th e se muses q u ite too s u b tle 8 e v an escen t to s i t f o r t h e i r p o r t r a i t s . " J o u r . § M is., IV, 435. On le a v in g the le c tu re -ro o m on one o c c a s io n , Emerson spoke w ith a law yer who p r a i s e d him, because he " 'n e v e r le a r n e d to w r ite from a b o o k .'" Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes," Works, VIII, 386. 91Emerson had "a p o e t 's p r e fe re n c e f o r simple r a t h e r than p e d a n ti c w o rd s." Edward Waldo Emerson, "N otes" Works, XII, 464. "The s im p le s t u t t e r a n c e s are w o r th ie s t to be w r i t t e n . . . ." One sh ould c a s t asid e a l l t r a p p in g s , s a id Emerson, and d e al "man to man in naked t r u t h , p l a i n c o n fe ssio n and o m n isc ien t a f f i r m a t i o n . " "O v er-S o u l," Works, I I , 291. 92Emerson's own s t y l e was c h a r a c te r iz e d by d i r e c t n ess and s i m p l i c i t y . Thus i s h is speaking d e s c rib e d by a contem porary: . . he always t a lk e d as one q u ite sure t h a t th e p l a i n e s t sp eech , th e most d i r e c t way o f 'p u t t i n g t h i n g s , " was b e s t , and he thus c o n s ta n tly awakened in one the f e e l i n g t h a t he n e v e r could be offen d ed by th e s h a r p e s t 279 Q * 5 I t i s n o t enough to s u g g est and m ag n ify ." Emerson p r a i s e d the "power of p l a i n s ta te m e n t" : The f i r s t v a lu a b le power in a re a so n a b le mind, one would say was th e power o f p l a i n s ta te m e n t, o r the power to r e c e iv e th in g s as they b e f a l l , and to t r a n s f e r the p i c t u r e o f them to a n o th e r mind u n a lte r e d . 'T is a good r u l e o f r h e t o r i c which S c h le g el g i v e s , -- " in Good p r o s e , every word i s u n d e rsco re d "; w hich, I suppose, means Never I t a l i c i z e . 94 In d e s c r ib in g a sermon by Channing, Emerson s a id t h a t th e s p e a k e r 's language should be "a t r a n s p a r e n t me dium, conveying w ith th e utm ost d i s t i n c t n e s s th e p i c t u r e s in h is mind to th e mind o f the h e a r e r s . " 9'’ Emerson c r i t i c iz e d C a r l y l e 's s t y l e , because i t lacked t h i s q u a l i t y . "0 C a r ly le , the m e rit of g la ss is n o t to be seen b u t to be seen through; b u t e v ery c r y s t a l and lam ina o f the C a rly le g la s s is v i s i b l e . " 9 ^ antagonism o f a s in c e r e man. This c h i l d l i k e s i m p l i c i t y , t h i s 'b e li e v in g and th e r e f o r e s p e a k in g ,' was o f i t s e l f a l i f e - l o n g power, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g n o t only th e c asu a l o r p r i v a te t a l k , b u t a lso th e s e t p u b lic a d d r e s s ." W illiam Hague, Ralph Waldo Emerson, A Paper Read b e fo re th e New York G en eao lo g ical and B io g ra p h ic a l S o c ie ty (.New York: G. P. Putnam 's Sons, 1884)7 P- ^ 9^"The S u p e r l a t i v e , " Complete W r itin g s , I I , 996. 9 ^ I b j d . . p. 997. "Glad to re a d in my o ld Gossip Montaigne some ro b u s t r u le s o f r h e t o r i c : I w i l l have a c h a p te r in my book. I would Thomas C a rly le sh ould read them. 'I n good p ro se Csaid S c h le g el (? )) every word should be u n d e r s c o r e d .' I t s p la c e in th e sen ten ce should make i t s em phasis. W rite s o l i d sen te n c es § you can even spare punc t u a t i o n . Jo u r. S M is. , IV, 273. 95J o u r n a l s , I , 291. 96I b i d . , V I I , 216. 280 2. The sp eak er should avoid e x tra v a g a n t language. Emerson c r i t i c i z e d "th e language o f the p u l p i t " fo r being " la b o r io u s § e x tr a v a g a n t; too s tro n g f o r th e id e as i t is designed to convey 6 a p p ea lin g to em otions w ith which they have no sym pathy , " 9 7 Emerson o fte n used the term " p o s i t i v e degree" to r e f e r to the p l a i n s t y l e he admired in sp eak ers and w r i t e r s . He used the term " s u p e r l a t i v e " to c h a r a c t e r iz e the gran d , f l o r i d , e x tr a v a g a n t, or e x a g g e ra te d s t y l e which he d isap p ro v ed o f in w r i t e r s . Thus, he t o l d a f r i e n d t h a t "th e p o s i t i v e degree is th e sinew of speech, th e s u p e r l a t i v e i s th e f a t . 'S u re ly a l l t h a t is sim ple is s u f- n o f i c i e n t f o r a l l t h a t is g o o d ,' s a i d Madame de S t a e l . ' " The b e s t w r i t e r s and sp ea k e rs "are c o n te n t w ith t r u t h . " "They use th e p o s i t i v e d eg ree. They seem f r i g i d and p h le g m atic to th o se who have been sp ic e d w ith th e f r a n t i c p a s sio n and v i o l e n t c o lo rin g o f i n f e r i o r b u t p o p u la r w r i t e r s . " 99 Emerson c r i t i c i z e d Rufus C h o ate's f o r e n s i c speaking, because i t had "to o much f i r e fo r the o ccasio n . . . ." Choate "uses th e s u p e r l a t i v e d eg ree, and speaks o f a f f a i r s a l t o g e t h e r too r h e t o r i c a l l y . " His speech has "no p e rs p e c - 9 7 J o u r. § M is. , I I I , 9. 9 ^J o u r n a l s , I , 162-163. 9 9 " 0 v e r - S o u l," Works, I I , 288-289. 281 tiv e ." - ^ ® W ebster, on th e o th e r hand, " is so tho ro u g h ly sim ple and wise in h is r h e t o r i c . U nderstanding language and th e use o f the p o s i t i v e d e g re e, a l l h is words t e l l , and h is r h e t o r i c is p e r f e c t , so homely, so f i t , so s t r o n g ." W ebster "hugs h is f a c t so c lo s e , and w i l l n o t l e t i t go, and n ev er in d u lg e s in a weal f l o u r i s h . . . . What is s m a ll, he shows as s m a ll, and makes th e g r e a t , g r e a t . " 1 0 1 Emerson admired M ontaigne's use o f the p o s i t i v e d eg ree. He "never s h r i e k s , or p r o t e s t s , o r p ra y s : no w eakness, no c o n v u lsio n , no s u p e r l a t i v e : does n o t wish to jump o u t o f h is s k in , or p la y any a n t i c s , or a n n i h i l a t e space or tim e, b u t is s t o u t and s o l i d . . . ." Montaigne "keeps the p l a i n , he r a r e l y mounts or s in k s ; l i k e s to f e e l s o l i d ground and the sto n es u n d e rn e ath . His w r i t i n g has no e n th u sia sm s, no a s p i r a t i o n ; c o n te n te d , s e l f - r e s p e c t i n g and keeping the middle o f th e r o a d . " - * - ^ 2 i n c o n t r a s t to M ontaigne, was Miss Peabody, who spoke always in extrem es iQOj o u r n a l s , VI, 432. In a l a t e r jo u r n a l e n t r y , Emerson again commented on C h o ate's use o f the s u p e r l a t i v e d eg ree: " C h o ate' s T h o u s a n d - f o r - o n e - s ty le . Choate is a locom otive t h a t runs so r e a d i l y back and forward t h a t th e re is p e r p e tu a l need to s c o tc h th e w heels. With so much s a i l the c r a f t should mind h e r helm w e ll. The grimace i s a p a r t o f th e s u p e r l a t i v e , and very bad p a r t . A man fullg ro w n should n o t cry in a p u b lic p la c e a lo n e ." J o u r n a l s , X II, 69. •^^-J o u r n a l s , VI, 430. ■'■^"Montaigne, o r, The S k e p tic ," Works, IV, 168- 169. 282 and n e v er k ep t to th e middle o f th e road: I have been making war a g a in s t the s u p e r l a t i v e degree in th e r h e t o r i c o f my f a i r v i s i t o r . She has no p o s i t i v e degree in h e r d e s c r i p t i o n of c h a r a c te r s § sc e n e s. You would th in k she had dw elt in a museum where a l l th in g s were extrem es 5 e x tr a o r d in a r y . Her good people are very good, h e r naughty so naughty t h a t they cannot be e a te n . But b e sid e th e s u p e r l a t i v e o f h e r mind she has a s u p e r l a t i v e of grammar which is s u i c i d a l § d e f e a ts i t s end. Her minds are "most p e r f e c t " "most e x q u i s i t e " § "most m a s c u lin e ."103 One's use o f the p o s i t i v e degree r e f l e c t s o n e 's i n t e l l i g e n c e and th e b re a d th o f o n e 's v i s i o n . "There is no g ra d a tio n in fe e b le minds: they 'la u g h e d so t h a t they th o u g h t they should have d i e d , ' § fiv e m inutes a f t e r they have a r e g r e t or a v e x a tio n which they are su re 'w i l l k i l l th e m ." ' But "th e g r e a t mind fin d s ample s p a c e s, v a s t p l a i n s , yea populous c o n t i n e n t s , § a c ti v e worlds moving f r e e l y w ith in th e se e l a s t i c l i m i t s § indeed n ever approach the term inus on e i t h e r s i d e . " ^ 4 3. The o r a t o r sh ould p r a c t i c e th e "sc ie n c e o f o m i t t i n g ." "The French have a n e a t p h r a s e , t h a t the s e c r e t o f b o rin g you is t h a t of t e l l i n g a l l , - - ' L e S e c re t d 'en n u y e r e s t c e lu i de t o u t d i r e ; ' which we t r a n s l a t e s h o r t , 'to u c h and g o .' The s i l e n c e s , p a u se s , o f an o r a t o r are as t e l l i n g 10 3 jo u r. § M is., V, 262. Also J o u r n a l s , IV, 162- 163. Em erson's " v i s i t o r " was p ro b ab ly E liz a b e th Palmer Peabody. 104Jour. S M is ., V, 89. 2 83 as h is w o rd s . " 1 0 5 Emerson would advise the o r a t o r "to omit th e u n n ecessary word and say the g r e a t e s t th in g s in the sim p le s t w a y ." 10^ Emerson gave t h i s d e f i n i t i o n of "a good s t y l e " : "Nothing can be added to i t n e i t h e r can anything be taken from i t . " 1 ®7 O ra to ry , li k e a l l a r t , aims, in p a r t a t l e a s t , a t b e au ty . "Art is the C re atio n of Beauty. But n o th in g is i n s u l a t e d in b e a u ty ." Beauty "depends fo r e v e r on the n e c e ssa ry 8 the u s e f u l ." "Beauty r e s t s on n e c e s s i t i e s . The li n e o f b eau ty is the r e s u l t of p e r f e c t eco n omy. " 1 1 0 "In r h e t o r i c , t h i s a r t of om ission is the c h ie f s e c r e t of power, and, in g e n e r a l, i t is p ro o f of high c u l tu r e to say the g r e a t e s t m a tte rs in the s im p le s t way. " 1 1 1 The o r a t o r should p r a c t i c e " r e s o l u t e b l o t t i n g . " "As soon as you read a lo u d , you w i l l f in d what s en te n c es drag. 'T is li k e a pebble i n s e r t e d in a m osaic. R eso lu te b l o t t i n g r id s you of a l l th o se p h ra ses t h a t sound l i k e som ething and 105"Art and C r i t i c i s m , " Works, X II, 290. "C u ltu re te ac h e s us to omit the u n n ecessary word and to say the g r e a t e s t th in g s in the s im p le s t way. ’Le s e c r e t d ' ennuyer e s t c e lu i de t o u t d i r e . 1" J o u r n a l s , V I I I , 449. 1 0 6 J o u r n a l s , V I I I , 449. 1 Q7J o u r. § M is., V, 364. 108See Chapter I I I . •^^J o u r. 8 M is. , V, 206. H 0 ,fBe aut y ," Works, VI, 294. "The b e a u t i f u l r e s t s on the fo u n d atio n s of the n e c e s s a r y ." "The P o e t," Works, I I I , 13. l l l n Beauty ," Works, VI, 294. 284 mean n o th in g . . . . " I 12 B lo ttin g is im p o rtan t f o r both th e sp eak er and w r i t e r . "The a r t of the w r i t e r i s to speak h is f a c t and have done. Let the re a d e r f in d t h a t he cannot a f f o r d to omit any l i n e o f your w r i t i n g , because you 1 I 7 have o m itte d every word t h a t he can s p a r e ." Emerson c r i t i c i z e d th e Brook Farm re fo rm e rs , b e cause they d id n o t s i f t t h e i r th o u g h ts . " H 4 "A ll w r iti n g should be s e l e c t i o n in o rd e r to drop every dead word. Why do you n o t save out o f your speech or th in k in g only th e v i t a l th in g s . . . ?" Emerson went on to say t h a t " i f a man would le a r n to read h is own m anuscript s e v e r e l y , - -be - coming r e a l l y a t h i r d p e rs o n , and sea rc h only fo r what i n t e r e s t e d him, he would b l o t to p u rp o s e , - -and how every page would gain! Then a l l the words would be s p r i g h t l y , and every sen ten ce a s u r p r i s e ."115 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t many o f the p re a c h e rs o f h is day needed a le s s o n in b l o t t i n g . The p re a c h e r should be "a sim p le, a b so lu te man," b u t t h i s was n o t the case w ith most 112itArt and C r i t i c i s m , " Works, X II, 291. •^•^J o u r n a l s , IX, 436. H ^ i b j d . , VI, 475 . "The refo rm ers w rote very i l l . They made i t a r u le n o t to b o l t t h e i r f l o u r , and u n f o r t u n a t e l y n e g le c te d a lso to s i f t t h e i r th o u g h ts. But H e sio d 's g r e a t d isco v e ry . . . is t r u e s t in w r i t i n g , where h a l f i s a g r e a t d eal more than th e whole. Give us only th e eminent e x p e r ie n c e s ." I b i d . 115I b i d . , X, 302-303. 285 p r e a c h e r s . "But the m i n i s t e r in th e se days,--how l i t t l e he says! Who is the most decorous man? and no lo n g e r, who speaks th e t r u t h ? Look a t the o r a tio n s of Demosthenes and Burke, and how many i r r e l e v a n t t h i n g s , s e n te n c e s , words, l e t t e r s , are th e re ? Not on e." However, i f you "go in to one o f our cool c h u r c h e s , and begin to count the words t h a t might be s p a r e d ," you w i l l f in d t h a t " in most p la c e s the e n t i r e sermon w i l l g o ." "One sen ten ce k e p t a n o th er in countenance, b u t n o t one by i t s own w eight could have j u s t i f i e d the say in g o f i t . "Tis the age o f P a r e n th e s is . You might p u t a l l we say in b r a c k e ts and i t would n o t be m issed. " H 6 Emerson was p le a s e d when th e C h ap lain , Reverend P h i l l i p s Brooks " o f f e r e d a p r a y e r , in ivhich n o t a word was s u p e r f lu o u s , and every r i g h t th in g was s a i d . " H 7 " 'T i s i n ex cu sab le in a man who has messages to men, who has t r u t h s to im p a rt, to s c r i b b l e f l o u r i s h e s , " s a i d Emerson. A man sh ould w r ite and speak only " t h a t which cannot be o m itte d ." He should make "ev ery sen te n c e a cube, s ta n d in g on i t s b o t- 1 I O tom l i k e a d i e , e s s e n t i a l and im m o rtal." Emerson admired E zra R i p le y 's sp eak in g , because "he had the f o r e s i g h t , when he opened h is mouth, o f a l l t h a t he i l 6 I b i d . , I I I , 549 H 7 l b i d . , X, 333. H 8 l b i d , IX, 423. 286 would say , and he marched s t r a i g h t to the c o n c lu s io n . In d e b a te , in the v e s t r y or the Lyceum, th e s t r u c t u r e o f h is sen te n c es was adm irable; so n e a t , so n a t u r a l , so t e r s e , h is words f e l l l i k e s to n e s ; and o f t e n , though q u ite unconscious of i t , h is speech was a s a t i r e on the lo o s e , volum inous, d r a g g l e - t a i l p e rio d s o f o th e r s p e a k e r s ." R ipley " s a t down when he had d o n e ." 11^ A p p a ren tly , Em erson's concept o f com pression was in flu e n c e d by h is acq u ain tan ce w ith E n g lish l i t e r a t u r e . Buckley s a i d t h a t no w r i t e r more f a i t h f u l l y a p p lie d C a r l y l e 's " su g g e s tio n concerning a u th o rs h ip : 'The tru e 1 ? f) value i s determ ined by what we do n o t w r i t e . ' " Emerson c r e d i t e d the Greek mind w ith having l i f t e d th e E nglishm an's sta n d a rd o f t a s t e . "The g r e a t s i l e n t crowd of thoroughbred G recians always known to be around him, th e E n g lish w r i t e r cannot ig n o re . They prune h is o r a tio n s and p o i n t h is p e n . " 121- While Emerson s t r e s s e d the im portance o f compres sio n and economy f o r both th e o r a t o r and th e w r i t e r , he ten d ed to prune h is essay s much more than h is l e c t u r e s . 119"E zra R ip le y , D. D .," Works, X, 391-392. "Im p r is o n t h a t stammering tongue w ith in i t s w hite fence u n t i l you have a n e c e s sa ry se n tim e n t o r a u s e f u l f a c t to u t t e r , § t h a t s a i d , be dumb a g a in . Then your words w i l l weigh som ething--tw o to n s , l i k e S t. J o h n 's . " J o u r . § M is. , V, 38. 129Buckley, p. 5. 121"English T r a i t s , " Works, V, 207. 287 Em erson's c o r r e c t io n o f l e c t u r e s fo r p u b l i c a t i o n appears to have c o n s is te d m ainly o f p ru n in g , o f e lim in a tin g s u p e r flu o u s words and p a r a g r a p h s .122 Emerson s e v e re ly pruned and r e f i n e d h is l e c t u r e s , "which, as d e l i v e r e d , had much m a tte r to hold th e a t t e n t i o n o f Lyceum audiences in th e cou n try a t l a r g e . Mrs. Emerson re m o n s tra te d , m issing good anecdotes and l i g h t e r to u c h es, b u t h e r husband answ ered, 12 3 ’No, we must p u t on t h e i r Greek ja c k e ts f o r the b o o k .'" By u sin g "a m eticu lo u s s i f t i n g and pruning p r o c e s s , Emerson sought to e lim in a te many o f th e anecdotes and i l l u s t r a t i o n s w hich, he f e l t , p r o p e r ly belonged to th e l e c t u r e room r a t h e r than th e p r i n t e d p a g e ." 12^ In c o n v e rtin g h is l e c tu r e s i n t o e s s a y s , " th e concise and c lo se s ta te m e n t was made more concise and c lo s e ; in ad eq u ate word or p h rase gave p la c e to th e o p p o s ite . C o n ju n c tio n s, a d j e c t i v e s and a d verbs d is a p p e a re d . The metaphor was made s im p le r and 122Edward Waldo Emerson, "B io g ra p h ic a l S k e tc h ," Works, I , xxxv-xxxvi. 12^Edward Waldo Emerson and Waldo Emerson F o rb es, "N o tes ," J o u r n a l s , I'X, 287. "In w r iti n g any c o m p o sitio n ," s a i d Emerson, "put in only what you have to say, only the th in g s ; leav e th e words and leav e th e c o n s id e r a tio n o f the Greeks and Romans and th e U n iv e rsa l H isto ry q u i t e o u t . " "The H ead," E a rly L e c t u r e s , p. x v i i i . 124Edward Waldo Emerson, Emerson in Concord, p. 64. "Emerson trimmed and pared h is s e n te n c e s to the l a s t l i m i t ; and he l e f t to the reader the p le a s a n t ta sk o f su p p ly in g j o i n t s and h in g es and o f fin d in g or making m o r tise s fo r h is n i c e l y a r t i c u l a t e d te n o n s." A lb ee, p. 99. 288 1 o r s tr o n g e r . The c o n d en satio n was e x tre m e." 4. The o r a t o r should " speak w ith the v u lg a r , th in k w ith th e w i s e . "-^6 f o r "th e language of the s t r e e t is a l ways s t r o n g . "-*-2 7 There are " p o in ts in which th e mob has th e advantage o f the academy, and a l l able men have known how to im port th e p e tu la n c e o f the s t r e e t i n t o c o r r e c t d i s course . "-*-2 8 T h e re fo re , "Ought n o t the s c h o la r to convey h i s meaning in terms as s h o r t and stro n g as th e sm ith and drover use t o convey t h e i r s ? " ! 2^ Emerson looked fo r a m ixture o f the common and the I 7 A tr a n s c e n d e n ta l in p ro s e . E a rly in h is p re a c h in g c a r e e r , Emerson defended "th e want o f s a n c t i t y " in h is own s t y l e and i l l u s t r a t i o n s by rem inding h is co n g re g atio n t h a t th e images o f the S c r ip t u r e "belonged once to what was low and f a m i l i a r ; t h a t our Lord in h is d is c o u r s e s condescended to 1 2 5I b i d . , pp. 98-99. 126"Art and C r i t i c i s m , " Works, X II, 286. The i t a l i c s are mine. By " v u lg a r" Emerson p ro b ab ly meant "of the common p eo p le" r a t h e r than " c r u d e ." Emerson p ro b ab ly got the p h rase from P lu ta r c h who a t t r i b u t e d i t to C icero . B erry , p. 228. 127"Art and C r i t i c i s m , " Works, X II, 286. ^2^Ibid_. , p. 287. For a d is c u s s io n o f the s t r e e t as a school f o r th e o r a t o r see "E lo q u en ce," Works, V I I I , 124-125. 129"Art and C r itic is m ," Works, XII, 285. 130I b i d . , p. 294. 289 e x p la in h im s e lf by a l l u s i o n s to every homely f a c t . . . . " 131 Emerson n o te d t h a t P la to was ab le to combine th e common w ith the tr a n s c e n d e n ta l so w e ll " t h a t Jove, i f he descended was to speak in h is s t y l e . In to the e x q u is i te re fin e m e n t o f h is Academy, he in tr o d u c e s th e low-born Soc r a t e s , r e l i e v i n g the p u rp le d i c t i o n by h is p e rv e rs e t a l k , h is g a l l i p o t s , and cook, and tr e n c h e r , and c a r t - w h e e l s - - and s t e a d i l y k e p t t h i s c o arse n ess to f l a v o r a d ish e ls e to l u s c i o u s ."1^2 "There i s , in every n a t i o n , " s a id Emerson, "a s t y l e which n ev er becomes o b s o l e t e , a c e r t a i n mode o f ph raseo lo g y so consonate and c o n g en ial to the analogy and p r i n c i p l e s of i t s r e s p e c tiv e language as to remain s e t t l e d and u n a lte re d ." This s t y l e , t h i s le v e l o f p h raseo lo g y i s to be found "in th e common i n te r c o u r s e o f l i f e , among th o se who speak only to be u n d e rsto o d , w ith o u t am bition or e le g a n c e ," and i t is th e le v e l of s t y l e most a p p r o p r ia te f o r the o r a t o r . "The 131"The C h r is tia n M in is te r : P a r t 1 ," Young Emerson S p eak s, p . 29. 132"Art and C r i t i c i s m , " Works, X II, 287. "When P la to "made tr a n s c e n d e n ta l d i s t i n c t i o n s , he f o r t i f i e d him s e l f by drawing a l l h is i l l u s t r a t i o n s from so u rces d i s dained by o r a to r s and p o l i t e c o n v e rse rs ; from mares and p u p p ies; from p i t c h e r s and s o u p - la d le s ; from cooks and fishm ongers. He cannot fo rg iv e in h im s e lf a p a r t i a l i t y , b u t is re s o lv e d t h a t the two p o le s of tho u g h t s h a l l appear in h is s ta te m e n t. His argument and h is sen te n c e are s e l f - p o is e d and s p h e r i c a l . The two p o le s ap p ear; y e s , and b e come two hands, to grasp and a p p r o p r ia te t h e i r own." " P l a t o , " Works, IV, 55. t 290 p o l i t e are always c a tc h in g modish in n o v a tio n s , and they d e p a r t from e s t a b l i s h e d forms o f sp eech , in hope o f fin d in g o r making b e t t e r ; those who w ish fo r d i s t i n c t i o n fo resak e th e v u lg a r , when th e v u lg a r is r i g h t . . . ."133 The man who would be a pow erful and e f f e c t i v e sp eak er "must command the whole s c a le o f language, from the most e l e g a n t to the most low and v i l e , "134 and he must have "th e g i f t of f a m i l i a r i t y ."135 Emerson co n fessed to "some p le a s u r e from the s t i n g i n g r h e t o r i c of a r a t t l i n g o ath in the mouth o f truckmen and te a m s te rs . . . . Cut th ese words and they b le e d ; they are v a s c u la r and a l i v e ; they walk and r u n . "136 Why, asked Emerson, "Cannot the s tin g in g d i a l e c t o f th e s a i l o r s be dom esticated ? I t is the b e s t r h e t o r i c , and f o r a hundred o c ca sio n s those fo rb id d en words are th e only good o n e s . "1^7 Emerson p r a i s e d w r i t e r s l i k e H e rric k and Montaigne f o r t h e i r "low s t y l e . " H e rric k was "a rem arkable example o f the low s t y l e . He found h is s u b je c t where he sto o d , 133n^r t an(j c r i t i c i s m , " Works, X II, 284. ^ " E l o q u e n c e ," Complete W r i t i n g s , I I , 766. 135**H e who would be pow erful must have the t e r r i b l e g i f t o f f a m i l i a r i t y , - -M irabeau, Chatham, Fox, Burke, O’Con n e l l , P a t r i c k Henry; and among w r i t e r s , S w ift, De Foe and C a r l y l e ." "A rt and C r i t i c i s m , " Works, X II, 286. 136j o u r n a l s , V, 418-420. 137i b i d . , p . 484. 291 between h is f e e t , in h is h o u se, p a n tr y , b a rn , p o u l t r y - y a r d , in h is v i l l a g e , n e ig h b o r 's g o ssip and s c a n d a l ."138 Emerson a p p r e c ia te d M ontaigne, because he gave to l i t e r a t u r e " t h a t which we l i s t e n fo r in barroom s, the low sp e e c h , - -words and p h ra ses t h a t no s c h o la r coined; s t r e e t - c r i e s and w a r - c r i e s ; words o f th e boatman, the farm er and the lo rd ; t h a t have n e a tn e s s and n e c e s s i t y , through t h e i r use in the v o cabulary of word and a p p e t i t e , lik e the p eb b les which the in c e s s a n t a t t r i t i o n of the sea has ro u n d e d ."139 In both h is p re a ch in g and le c t u r i n g c a r e e r s , Emer son spoke p r im a r i ly to middle c la s s p e o p le , "audiences from farm and sh o p ." Emerson did n o t t a l k down to th ese a u d i e n ce s, b u t r a t h e r , he t r i e d " to give them h is b e s t th o u g h ts in v ig o ro u s , sim ple w ords, w ith homely i l l u s t r a t i o n or c l a s s i c a n e c d o te ."140 When Emerson ad v ised " w r itin g down" 138"Art and C r i t i c i s m , " Works, X II, 295-296. 1 3 9I b i d . , p. 296. In h is essay on "M ontaigne," Emerson s a i d t h a t "th e s i n c e r i t y and marrow of the man reaches to h is s e n t e n c e s . I know n o t anywhere the book t h a t seems le s s w r i t t e n . I t i s th e language o f c o n v ersa t i o n t r a n s f e r r e d to a book. Cut th e se words, and they would b le e d ; they are v a s c u la r and a l i v e . One has th e same p le a s u r e in i t t h a t he f e e l s l i s t e n i n g to th e n e c e ssa ry speech o f men about t h e i r work, when any unusual circu m sta n c e gives momentary im portance to the speech; i t is a shower o f b u l l e t s . I t i s the Cambridge men who c o r r e c t them selves and b egin again a t every h a l f s e n te n c e , and, m oreover, w i l l pun, and r e f i n e too much, and swerve from the m a tte r to the e x p r e s s io n ." "M ontaigne, o r , The Skep t i c , " Works, IV, 168. 140E<jwar (j Waldo Emerson, "Notes," Works , XII, 463. 292 to o n e 's au d ien ce, he meant t h a t one should s t r i v e f o r a "sim ple s u b je c t and s t y l e , n o t d e l i b e r a t e low ering o f th o u g h t to th e supposed s ta n d a rd o f o t h e r s . "141 j n f a c t , Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "when any o r a to r a t th e b a r o r in th e Senate r i s e s in h is h e ig h t o f thought or of p a s s io n he comes down to a language le v e l w ith the e a r o f h is a u d i e n c e ." This was "th e m e rit o f John Brown and o f Abraham L in co ln --o n e a t C harlestow n, one a t G e tty s b u r g - - in th e two b e s t specimens o f eloquence we have had in t h i s coun t r y . "1^2 Profound id e as may be e x p ressed in sim ple words. "In P a rlia m e n t, in p u l p i t s , in t h e a t r e s , when th e speakers r i s e in thought and p a s s io n , th e language becomes idiom atic; the people in th e s t r e e t b e s t u n d e rstan d th e b e s t w o r d s, "143 Emerson c a l l e d upon the sp eak er to "Give me i n i t i a t i v e , sp e rm a tic , p ro p h e sy in g , man-making w o rd s ."144 Books alone cannot p ro v id e t h i s kind o f v o cab u lary . "L ife is our d i c t i o n a r y . Years are w e ll sp en t in cou n try la b o r s ; in towns; in th e i n s i g h t i n t o tr a d e s and m an u factu res; in fran k in te r c o u r s e w ith many men and women; in s c ie n c e ; in 141l b i d . , p. 296. 142»Eloquence," Works, V II I , 125. l ^ 3"E n g lish T r a i t s , " Works, V, 100. Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t "th e idioms o f a l l languages approach each o th e r in p assag es o f the g r e a t e s t eloquence and p o w er.” I b i d . 144J o u r n a l s , VI, 133. 293 a r t ; to the one end o f m a ste rin g in a l l t h e i r f a c t s a l a n guage by which to i l l u s t r a t e and embody our p e r c e p t i o n ." One can t e l l from th e o r a t o r ' s lan g u ag e, "through the pov e r t y o r sp len d o r o f h is speech" how much o f l i f e he has e x p e rie n c e d . " L ife l i e s behind us as the q u a rry from whence we g et t i l e s and copestones fo r th e masonry o f t o day. This is the way to le a r n grammar. C olleges and books only copy th e language which th e f i e l d and th e w ork-yard m ade."^48 " I f i t were only f o r a v o c a b u la ry ," s a i d Emerson, "th e s c h o la r would be covetous o f a c t i o n . "146 Emerson found W e b ste r's imagery to be s u p e r io r to B u rk e 's , because B u rk e 's came from books, w hile W eb ster's came from l i f e . "B u rk e's imagery i s , much o f i t , got from books, and so is secondary fo rm atio n . W eb ste r's i s a l l p r im a r y ."148 W ebster "knows what is done in shops, and remembers and uses i t in the S e n a te. He saw i t in th e shop w ith an eye to th e s u p e r ta b e r n a l and s u p e r s e n a t o r i a l , o r i t would n o t have ste a d e d . He is a ship t h a t fin d s the th in g where i t i s cheap, and c a r r i e s i t where i t is dear."-*-48 The o r a to r must g e t o u t in the s t r e e t s and out in n a t u r e , f o r language i s d e riv e d from n a tu r e . "Language is 145nThe American S c h o la r ," Works, I , 9 7-98, •*-4^I b i d . 147jo u rn a ls t I I I , 567. 148I b i d . , VII, 233. 294 made up of the s p o i l s of a l l a c t i o n s , t r a d e s , a r t s , games o f men. Every word is a metaphor borrowed from some n a t u r a l or m ech an ical, a g r i c u l t u r a l or n a u t i c a l p r o c e s s . "149 To b u i l d th e r i c h e s t v o c a b u la ry , "L et a man make th e woods and f i e l d s h is books; th en a t the hour of p a s s io n h is th o u g h ts w i l l in v e s t them selves sp o n tan e o u sly w ith n a t u r a l i m a g e r y . E m e r s o n b e lie v e d t h a t an in tim a te a c q u a in t ance w ith n a tu r e would give a man g r e a t e r powers o f e x p r e s s io n , because o f the dependence of language upon n a tu r e . "This c o n v ersio n o f an outward phenomenon in to a type somewhat in human l i f e , n ever lo s e s i t s power to a f f e c t us. I t i s t h i s which gives th e piquancy to th e c o n v e r s a tio n of a s tr o n g - n a tu r e d farm er or backwoodsman, which a l l men r e l i s h . "151 p^g p 0et or o r a t o r "bred in the woods" has a p o t e n t i a l f o r e lo q u en t speaking: The p o e t, th e o r a t o r , b red in th e woods, whose sen se s have been n o u ris h e d by t h e i r f a i r and appeasing 1 4 9 p b id ., y , 213. There was a d e f i n i t e p r i n c i p l e beh in d Em erson's concern f o r coarse term s. "He b e lie v e d t h a t a l l f a c t s , in c lu d in g r e p u ls iv e f a c t s , were p a r t of the vo cab u lary fu r n is h e d us by N a tu re , and t h a t a b stin e n c e from th ese words would have d ep riv ed l i c e and f l e a s and t a p e worms and g a s t r i c n o is e s o f one of t h e i r c h ie f reaso n s fo r e x i s t e n c e . " F i r k i n s , p. 274. 15QJ o u r n a l s , I I I , 5677 Emerson m entioned an o r a to r who in speaking r e l i e d on "th e le sso n s ta u g h t him in e a r l i e r days by the t o r r e n t in th e gloom o f the pinewoods, when he was the companion o f the m ountain c a t t l e , o f jays and fo x e s , and a h u n te r o f th e b e a r ." "E lo q u en ce," Works, V I I I , 114. ■^■^•"Nature," Works, I , 29. 295 changes, y e a r a f t e r y e a r , w ith o u t design and w ith o u t h e e d , - - s h a l l n o t lo s e t h e i r le sso n s a l t o g e t h e r , in the ro a r o f c i t i e s o r the b r o i l o f p o l i t i c s . Long h e r e a f t e r , adm idst a g i t a t i o n and t e r r o r in n a t i o n a l coun c i l s , - - i n th e hour of r e v o l u t i o n , - - th ese solemn images s h a l l reap p ear in t h e i r morning l u s t r e , as f i t symbols and words of the th o u g h ts which th e p a ssin g events s h a l l awaken. At the c a l l of a noble s e n tim e n t, again the woods wave, th e p in e s murmur, the r i v e r r o l l s and s h i n e s , and th e c a t t l e low upon th e m o u n ta in s, as he saw and h eard then in h is in fa n c y . And w ith th e se form s, the s p e l l s of p e r s u a s io n , the keys o f power are p u t in h is h a n d s .152 5. The o r a t o r should s t r i v e to p u t a b s t r a c t ideas in co n crete form. In h is own l e c t u r i n g and w r i t i n g , Emer son is "nev er s a t i s f i e d u n le ss he a tta c h e s th e co n crete to th e most profound a b s t r a c t i o n s ; u n t i l lik e the dreams of th e gods h is v is io n s and id e a l s are made r e a l by some n a t- u r a l image, some a c tu a l exam ple." Emerson knew t h a t mere a b s t r a c t i o n s w i l l bore an au d ien ce. To add i n t e r e s t to a speech, the sp ea k e r should in c lu d e h i s t o r i c a l f a c t s , b io g r a p h ic a l names, " s h a rp ly o b je c t iv e i l l u s t r a t i o n s " when e v er p o s s i b l e . " P r i n c i p l e s sh o u ld be v e r f i e d by adducing o f f a c t s and sen tim en ts in c o r p o r a te d by t h e i r a p p ro p ria te imagery. Only in p u re ly s c i e n t i f i c com position, which by i t s te x ts and s t r u c t u r e a d d re sse s i t s e l f to p h ilo s o p h e r s , is a w r i t e r a t l i b e r t y to use mere a b s t r a c t i o n s ."154 152"Nat u r e ," Works, I , 31-32. IS^Albee, pp. 99-100. 154J o u r n a l s , IV, 169-170. 296 Emerson n o te d t h a t a few c o n crete examples may be a l l t h a t an audience c a r r i e s away w ith them from a speech. Emerson found t h i s to be e s p e c i a l l y tru e of many sermons he h eard : I cannot h e a r a sermon w ith o u t being s tr u c k by the f a c t t h a t amid drowsy s e r i e s o f sen te n c es what a s e n s a t i o n a h i s t o r i c a l f a c t , a b io g r a p h ic a l name, a s h a r p ly o b je c t iv e i l l u s t r a t i o n makes! Why w i l l n o t the p re a c h e r heed the adm onition of the momentary s i l e n c e of h is c o n g re g atio n and (o fte n what i s shown him) t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r sen te n c e is a l l they c arry aw ay.1^5 An audience may a ls o be bored by "a g e n e ra l manner and a g e n e ra l la n g u a g e ." The e f f e c t i v e sp eak er w i l l t r y to develop h is own, i n d i v i d u a l s t y l e . Once a g a in , Emerson gave an example from the p u l p i t : When I a tte n d e d church, and the man in the p u l p i t was a l l clay and n o t tu n a b le m e ta l, I thought t h a t i f men would avoid t h a t g e n e r a l language and g e n e ra l man n e r in which they s t r i v e to hide a l l t h a t is p e c u l i a r , and would say only what i s uppermost in t h e i r minds, a f t e r t h e i r own in d iv id u a l manner, every man would be i n t e r e s t i n g .156 1 5 5 I b i d . 15^H eart o f Em erson's J o u r n a l s , p. 39. A f te r a t te n d in g church one Sunday, Emerson c r i t i c i z e d the sermon because o f the p r e a c h e r 's im personal and g e n eral s t y l e , g iv in g no i n d i c a t i o n t h a t the man had liv e d and e x p erien c e d l i f e d eep ly : "At Church a l l day b u t alm ost tempted to go no more. Men go where they are wont to go e ls e had no soul gone t h i s a fte rn o o n . The snowstorm was r e a l , th e p re a c h e r m erely s p e c t r a l [the p re a c h e r was Reverend B a r z i l l a i F r o s t , Dr. R ip le y 's a s s i s t a n t in C o rc o rd ]. V ast c o n t r a s t to look a t him § then out of the window. Yet no f a u l t in th e good man. E v id e n tly he thought h im s e lf a f a i t h f u l se a rc h in g p r e a c h e r , m entioned t h a t he tho u g h t so s e v e r a l tim es; 6 seemed to be one o f t h a t la rg e c l a s s , s in c e r e p erso n s based on sham s; s in c e r e p erso n s who are bred § do liv e in sham s. 6 . The o r a t o r must be very c a r e f u l in h is s e l e c t i o n o f words, f o r " 'a c c u r a c y is e s s e n t i a l to b e au ty . "'157 Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t " th e r e i s a r i g h t word, and every o th e r word is wrong. The e f f e c t of a f a n c i f u l word m is p la c e d is li k e t h a t o f a horn o f e x q u i s i t e p o l i s h growing on a human head."-*--’* * I f the id e a i s r i g h t , the word w i l l p ro b ab ly be r i g h t . "There is no choice o f words f o r him who sees c l e a r l y th e t r u t h . That p ro v id e s him w ith th e b e s t w o r d . " ^ ^ The laws o f com position are very s t r i c t . Thus, "No man can w r ite w ell who th in k s th e r e is any choice o f words f o r him. The laws o f com position are as s t r i c t as th o se o f s c u lp t u r e and a r c h i t e c t u r e . There i s always one l i n e t h a t ought to be drawn, or one p r o p o r tio n t h a t should be k e p t, and every o th e r li n e o r p r o p o r tio n i s wrong, and so f a r wrong as i t d e v ia te s from t h i s . " ^ ^ For example, " in your R h e to ric n o tic e t h a t only once o r twice in h i s t o r y can th e He had liv e d in v a in . He had no word in tim a tin g t h a t ev er he had laughed o r w ept, was m arried or enamoured, had been c h ea te d , or voted f o r , o r c h ag rin ed . I f he had e v er liv e d ^ a c te d we were none th e w is e r f o r i t . " J o u r. § M is., V, 463. 1 5 7 I b i d . , I I I , 12. 158j ourrLa;L s t i i , 401 159'ipoetry and Im a g in a tio n ," Complete W r itin g s , I I , 737. J o u r n a l s , I I , 410. 298 words ' d i r e ' § 'trem en d o u s' fit." * ® ^ Emerson re c o g n ize d t h a t no one can e v er give a com pletely a c c u ra te d e s c r i p t i o n o f th o u g h ts o r f a c t s , t h a t accuracy of s ta te m e n t i s only a r e l a t i v e m a tte r . "As Boscovich ta u g h t t h a t the two p a r t i c l e s of m a tte r n ever touch, so i t seems tr u e t h a t n o th in g can be d e s c rib e d as i t i s . The most a c c u ra te p i c t u r e is only symbols and su g g e s tio n s o f the t h in g , b u t from th e n a tu r e o f language a l l re m o te."162 j n a d d itio n to the l i m i t a t i o n s in h e r e n t in language i t s e l f , th e accuracy o f most speaking o r w r iti n g i s li m i t e d by the f a c t t h a t "few people have a c c u ra te p e r c e p ti o n s , o r see th e im portance o f e x a c t n e s s . N ever t h e l e s s , one sh o u ld s t r i v e f o r th e most a c c u ra te e x p re ss io n o f id e as t h a t is p o s s i b l e . One way to in c r e a s e th e a cc u racy o f e x p re s s io n is to keep an eye to th e prim ary sense of th e words you use."'*-(^ I S l J o u r. S M is. , V, 44. 162J o u r n a l s , IV, 266. Emerson spoke o f language as a " f l a t t e r i n g a r t " t h a t d eceiv es us w ith each new word. "We fancy we gain somewhat. W e g ain n o th in g . I t seemed to men t h a t words come n e a r e r to the th in g ; d e s c rib e d the f a c t ; were th e f a c t . They le a r n l a t e r t h a t they only su g g e s t i t . I t i s an o p ero se, c i r c u i t o u s way o f p u t t i n g us in mind o f the t h i n g , - - o f f l a g e l l a t i n g our a t t e n t i o n . " J o u r n a l s , VI, 274-275. 1 ^ 3 Cabot, I I , 785. The q u o ta tio n is from C ab o t's a b s t r a c t s o f some o f Em erson's u n p u b lish ed d is c o u r s e s in Appendix F. 1 6 4 " it j s a r u le o f R h e to r ic , always to have an eye to th e p rim ary sense of th e words we u s e ." J o u r n a l s , IV, 23. 299 Emerson su g g este d t h a t the o r a t o r 's language should be sp o n tan eo u s, n o t s t u d i e d , and he a d v ised the s c h o la r to w r ite u n c o n sc io u sly w ith o u t too much re g a rd f o r r u l e s . N e v e r th e le s s , Emerson, h im s e lf , gave s e v e r a l r u l e s , or s ta n d a r d s , to guide the w r i t e r and sp eak er in th e im prove ment o f t h e i r s t y l e . These r u le s in c lu d e : (1) The sp eak er should s t r i v e f o r a d i r e c t and sim ple s t y l e ; (2) The sp ea k e r sh ould avoid e x tra v a g a n t language; (3) The o r a t o r should p r a c t i c e th e " sc ie n c e of o m ittin g " ; (4) The o r a t o r should "speak w ith the v u lg a r , th in k w ith th e w ise; (5) The o r a t o r should s t r i v e to p u t a b s t r a c t id e as .in co n crete form; ( 6 ) The o r a t o r must be very c a r e f u l in h is s e l e c t i o n o f words, f o r '" a c c u r a c y i s e s s e n t i a l to b e a u t y . '" O ral and W ritte n S ty le Van Dyke o b served t h a t w ith th e e x ce p tio n o f N atu re, " th e works of Emerson, th e p ro se w r i t e r , are alm ost en t i r e l y a r e p o r t o f Emerson, the l e c t u r e r . His books were c o l l e c t e d and a rra n g e d , one a f t e r a n o th e r from th e manu s c r i p t s o f h is le c t u r e s and a d d r e s s e s . " 1 ^ 5 This being th e c a s e , one may examine the d i f f e r e n c e s between Em erson's le c t u r e s and e ssay s in o rd e r to determ ine h is co n cep tio n of the d if f e r e n c e in s t y l e s a p p r o p r ia te to a li v e audience and a r e a d e r . 165yan Dyke, " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " S e l e c t Ess ays , p. 24. 300 Emerson p u t a g r e a t amount o f la b o r i n t o the p r e p a r a t i o n o f h is l e c t u r e s f o r p u b l i c a t i o n as e s s a y s . The e d i t o r s o f h is e a r l y l e c t u r e s n o ted t h a t Emerson was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y "im proving h is s t y l e " when he p re p a re d h is l e c t u r e s f o r p u b l i c a t i o n . I t would be more a c c u ra te to say t h a t he was moving from one s t y l e to a n o th e r--fro m t h a t of th e p u l p i t or l e c t u r e p la tfo rm where th e immediacy o f the audience em phasized p e rs u a s io n and the rhythms o f spoken l a n guage to t h a t o f w r i t t e n (and read) p ro se where a more d i s t a n t audience could respond b e t t e r to an i n t e l l e c t u a l and tig h te n e d c o n s t r u c t i o n . 167 When c o n v e rtin g h is le c t u r e s i n to e s s a y s , Emerson "ten d ed to tig h t e n sen ten ce s t r u c t u r e , e lim in a te o r modify im ages, sharpen th e p a ra d o x ic a l w it o f h is p h r a s e s , and g e n e r a lly appeal more to the mind than to the em otions o f h is re a d e rs , now t h a t they were no lo n g er h e a r e r s . The s t y l e thus 'im proved* in p r o p o r tio n as th e audience reced ed . The e a r l y l e c t u r e s d i f f e r from th e essay s on the same s u b je c ts in t h a t Em erson's "heavy tr a n s c e n d e n ta l p h i losophy i s h e r e in subdued or d e a l t w ith o b liq u e ly and 166po r example, on August 21, 1838, Emerson w rote: "The Address to the D iv in ity School is p u b lis h e d and they are p r i n t i n g the Dartmouth O ra tio n . The c o r r e c t i o n o f th e se two p ie c e s f o r the p r e s s has c o st me no sm all la b o r , now n e a r ly ended. There goes a g r e a t deal o f work in to a c o r r e c t l i t e r a r y p a p e r , though o f few p a g e s ." J o u r n a l s , V, 21. •^^Whicher and O th e rs , ed. , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , x i i i . •*-68i b i d . , p . x iv . d i f f u s e d l y . " Also the s t y l e tends to be more "flo w in g " and l e s s "com pressed" in the l e c t u r e s . Many c r i t i c s have com p la in e d of the n e g le c t of c a r e f u l arrangem ent in Em erson's e s s a y s , b u t in h is l e c t u r e s , "th e id eas are connected by c l e a r t r a n s i t i o n s , because they are d i r e c t e d to h e a r e rs r a t h e r than r e a d e r s . The s t r u c t u r e i s f a i r l y o b v io u s." In the l e c t u r e s , th e re is a g r e a t e r sense o f "in tim a c y " b e tween Emerson and those to whom he was com m unicating. In b o th th eo ry and p r a c t i c e , Emerson d i s tin g u is h e d between o r a l and w r i t t e n s t y l e . Like C harles James Fox, Emerson was s u s p ic io u s o f a speech t h a t read w e ll. '" T i s the worse p r a i s e you can give a speech t h a t i t is as i f w r i t t e n ."170 i r o n i c a l l y , t h i s very p r a i s e was a p p lie d to Emerson's works. "Em erson's E s s a y s ," s a i d A lb e e , "are the alm ost unexampled in s ta n c e o f m a tte r p re p a re d f o r o r a l d e l i v e r y t h a t has a p la c e in perm anent and v i t a l l i t e r a t u r e . I know of no o th e r com positions save h is which have sto o d the t e s t of re a d in g in p r i v a t e e q u a lly w e ll w ith the e f f e c t o f p u b lic d e l i v e r y . " Most speeches do n o t s ta n d the t e s t o f p r i v a t e re a d in g because o f t h e i r "contem porary o r o c ca s i o n a l t o p i c . " H ere, Emerson was d is tin g u is h e d from o th e r s p e a k e rs , because " h is to p ic s were seldom t r a n s i e n t . . . ." 169camerori} A Commentary, p. 7. and C r i t i c i s m , " Complete W ritin g s , I I , 1337. 302 "He p e n e t r a t e s to th e essen ce o f th in g s and lay s b are the s e c r e t o p e ra tio n s of mind and m a t t e r ." The themes which Emerson d is c u s s e d "are n e i t h e r g ild e d by th e momentary e n thusiasm s accorded to th e o r a t o r , nor can they be s t r i p p e d o f t h e i r im p e ris h a b le q u a l i t i e s when re a d in p r i n t . "171 Summary Emerson saw n a tu r e as the symbol o f s p i r i t , the book o f God. Men use n a t u r a l f a c t s as symbols o f s p i r i t u a l f a c t s . To u n d e rstan d the " r e a l , " one must study ap p aren t r e a l i t y . I d e a l l y , a l l men sh o u ld be a ttu n e d to the c o r r e spondence o f s p i r i t and n a t u r e . They sh o u ld seek s p i r i t u a l knowledge from f i r s t hand a cq u a in ta n ce w ith th e book o f God, b u t in most men th e s p i r i t u a l v i s i o n is weak. Most men are e n sla v e d by d o c tr in e s and in tim i d a te d by the o p in ions o f o th e r s . The o r a t o r , as Emerson i d e a l l y conceived of him, is h ig h ly a ttu n e d to th e correspondence o f the m a te r ia l and the s p i r i t u a l , he g ets h is knowledge a t f i r s t hand, and he i s thus a b le to serv e h is fellowman as a " l i b e r a t i n g god." I n s o f a r as he is h ig h ly a ttu n e d to n a t u r e , the o r a t o r is p a r t p o e t. Emerson s a i d t h a t the o r a t o r must be, to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , a p o e t. Emerson d id n o t re q u ir e t h a t the o r a t o r w r ite v e r s e , b u t r a t h e r , he looked f o r a speaker 1 ^ A lb e e , pp. 97-98. a 303 w ith " t h a t power to c lo th e every s e c r e t and a b s t r a c t thought in i t s c o rresp o n d in g m a t e r i a l sym bol." The o r a to r can awaken men i f he is a m aster o f th e a r t o f u sin g sym b o ls , because symbols always s tim u la te the i n t e l l e c t . In c o n s tr u c ti o n o f d i s c o u r s e s , Emerson p la c e d p r i mary emphasis on th e in d iv id u a l sen ten ce r a t h e r than the p a ra g rap h . The emphasis on the i n d i v i d u a l sen te n c e was r e l a t e d to Em erson's n e g l e c t o f c a r e f u l s t r u c t u r e in h is d i s c o u rs e s . Em erson's s t y l e and h is d is r e g a r d f o r "smooth t r a n s i t i o n s and c o n n ectio n s was, a p p a r e n tly , in f lu e n c e d by h is stu d y o f P lu t a r c h . While Em erson's l e c t u r e s and essay s have been c r i t i c i z e d f o r t h e i r fr e q u e n t v i o l a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s and p r e c e p ts o f s t y l e and s t r u c t u r e , they were em inently s u i t e d to h is concept o f a r h e t o r i c of p ro v o c a tio n . A t i g h t , w ell o rd e re d , l o g i c a l development o f a s u b je c t is. im p o rtan t i f o n e 's aim is p e rs u a s io n and con v i c t i o n , b u t i t i s n o t n e c e s s a ry i f you only wish to a r r e s t a t t e n t i o n and s tim u la te th o u g h t. Emerson conceived o f s t y l e as th e " i n t e l l e c t u a l voice o f a man." I t i s dependent on and r e f l e c t i v e o f o n e 's i n t e l l e c t and c h a r a c t e r . Emerson su g g ested t h a t the o r a t o r ' s language sh ould be sp o n tan eo u s, n o t s tu d ie d . I f one i s deeply committed to and e m o tio n a lly in v o lv e d in what one i s s a y in g , the r i g h t words and images w i l l come to mind w ith o u t conscious e f f o r t . One should w r ite u n co n sc io u sly 304 w ith o u t too much re g a rd f o r r u l e s . N e v e r th e le s s , Emerson, h im s e lf , gave s e v e r a l r u l e s , or s ta n d a r d s , to guide both the o r a t o r and w r i t e r in t h e i r e f f o r t to achieve e x c e lle n c e and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s t y l e . The fo llo w in g r u l e s can be d e riv e d from Em erson's w r i t i n g s : (1) The sp eak er should s t r i v e f o r a d i r e c t and sim ple s t y l e ; (2) The sp eak er should avoid e x tr a v a g a n t language; (3) The sp eak er should p r a c t i c e th e " s c ie n c e of o m ittin g " ; (4) The sp eak er should "speak w ith th e v u lg a r , th in k w ith the w ise; (5) The sp eak er sh ould s t r i v e to p u t a b s t r a c t id eas in c o n crete form; ( 6 ) The s p ea k e r must be very c a r e f u l in h is s e l e c t i o n o f words, f o r " 'a c c u r a c y i s e s s e n t i a l to b e a u t y . " 1 Since most o f Em erson's p u b lis h e d works were ad ap ted from h is l e c t u r e s , one may examine th e d i f f e r e n c e s between h is l e c t u r e s and e ssa y s in o rd e r to determ ine h is c o n cep tio n o f th e d if f e r e n c e in s t y l e s a p p ro p ria te to a li v e audience and a r e a d e r . The l e c t u r e s d i f f e r e d from the essay s on th e same s u b je c ts in t h a t they were more "flo w ing" and le s s com pressed. The heavy tr a n s c e n d e n ta l p h i l o s ophy was more subdued, and th e re was g r e a t e r emphasis on c l e a r t r a n s i t i o n s and more obvious s t r u c t u r e . CHAPTER VII EMERSON'S THEORY OF ELOCUTION No th eo ry o f p u b lic speaking would be complete w ith o u t a d is c u s s io n of d e l i v e r y , or " e l o c u t i o n , " as Emer son c a l l e d i t . While Emerson commented le s s on e lo c u tio n than any o th e r a s p e c t of o r a t o r y , he acknowledged i t s im p o rta n c e to th e t o t a l e f f e c t o f a speech. This c h a p te r c o n sid e rs Em erson's d e f i n i t i o n o f " e l o c u tio n " ; w hether he conceived e lo c u t io n as an a r t o r an a t t r i b u t e of n a tu r e ; h is e s tim a te o f the in flu e n c e of e lo c u t io n on sp eak er e f f e c t i v e n e s s ; h is n o tio n o f the r e l a t i v e m e rits o f extempo raneous and m an u scrip t d e l i v e r y , and h is concept of "h eat" and i t s f u n c tio n in o r a to r y . E lo c u tio n D efined Emerson used the term " e l o c u t i o n ," r a t h e r than d e l i v e r y , to r e f e r to th o se a sp e c ts o f the p u b lic speaking s i t u a t i o n which in v o lv e th e use (both co n scio u s and uncon s c io u s ) of v o ice and body to r e i n f o r c e or modify th e ideas which the s p e a k e r 's words convey to an audience. Among th o se f a c t o r s o r a sp e c ts o f the speech s i t u a t i o n t h a t p e r t a i n to e l o c u t i o n , Emerson in c lu d e d : voice ( a r t i c u l a t i o n , 305 306 p r o n u n c ia tio n , a c c e n t, volume, and to n e ); appearance ( e s p e c i a l l y th e look or e x p re ss io n of face and e y e s ) ; a t t i t u d e , and manner.-*- Commenting on D aniel W e b ste r's s p ea k in g , Emerson p r a i s e d "th e p e r f e c t i o n o f h is e l o c u t i o n . " "His w onderful o r g a n iz a ti o n , the p e r f e c t i o n o f h is e l o c u t io n , and a l l t h a t th e r e to b e lo n g s , - - v o i c e , a c c e n t, in t o n a t i o n , a t t i t u d e , m a n n e r,--a re such as one cannot hope to see again 2 in a c en tu ry . . . ." Emerson n o te d the im portance o f d e liv e r y to the t o t a l e f f e c t o f a speech. However, he added t h a t th e d e l i v e r y is n e v er as im p o rtan t as th e c o n te n t o f th e speech. "These are ascending s t a i r s , - - a good v o ic e , w inning manners, p l a i n sp eech , c h a ste n e d , however by th e sch o o ls i n t o c o r r e c t n e s s , b u t we must come to the main m a tte r , o f power o f s t a t e m e n t , - -know your f a c t ; hug your f a c t . " ^ While Emerson ^While Emerson d id n o t d e fin e the term "m anner," he was a cq u a in te d w ith Hugh B l a i r ' s L ectu res on R h e to ric and B e lle s L e t t r e s , and B l a i r p ro v id e d an e x p la n a tio n o f the term as i t a p p lie s to p u b lic sp eak in g . "Of P ro n u n c ia tio n and D e liv e ry , I am h e r e a f t e r to t r e a t a p a r t . I t i s s u f f i c i e n t now to o b serv e, t h a t in speaking to mixt A ssem blies, the b e s t manner o f d e liv e r y is th e firm and determ ined. An a r r o g a n t and o v e rb e arin g manner is indeed always d i s a g r e e a b le ; and th e l e a s t appearance o f i t ought to be shunned: even by a modest man, who is th o ro u g h ly p ersu ad e d o f the se n tim e n ts he u t t e r s ; and which is th e b e s t c a l c u l a t e d f o r making a g e n e ra l im p ressio n . A fe e b le and h e s i t a t i n g man n e r bespeaks always some d i s t r u s t o f a man's own o p in io n ; which i s , by no means, a fa v o ra b le circum stance f o r h is i n ducing o th e rs to embrace i t . " B l a i r , I I , 60. 2 J o u r n a l s , VI, 222. ^ "E lo q u en ce," Complete W r i t i n g s , I I , 767-768. 307 could a p p r e c ia te a good speaking voice and an im p ressiv e countenance in an o r a t o r , h is prim ary concern was w ith the s p e a k e r 's id e as and h is s i n c e r i t y . E lo c u tio n as an A t t r i b u t e of N ature Emerson s a id t h a t in a l l works o f a r t , even the fin e a r t s , the "power o f n a tu r e predom inates over the human w i l l . " Thus, N ature "speaks th e b e s t p a r t of the o ra tio n ." ^ A p p a ren tly , what Emerson meant was t h a t the s p e a k e r 's voice and body ( e s p e c i a l l y h is eyes) communicate a good deal of in fo rm a tio n a p a r t from t h a t communicated by the words of the o r a t i o n . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t the tone o f the v o ic e , the eyes or the g e n e ra l appearance of a sp ea k e r can b e tra y h is tr u e f e e lin g s to an a u d ien ce, and th e se are n o t f a c to r s t h a t th e o r a t o r can fa k e . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t e f f e c t i v e e lo c u t io n depends more on s i n c e r i t y than on s k i l l , and, to t h i s e x t e n t , e lo c u t io n i s an a t t r i b u t e o f N ature r a t h e r than a r t . While Emerson c o n sid e re d e lo c u tio n a f a c t o r which m o d ifies th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f the sp e a k e r, i t i s n o t an a r t in i t s e l f b u t an a t t r i b u t e o f n a tu r e . "Eloquence, so f a r as i t is a f in e a r t , is m o d ified how much [s i c ] by th e m a t e r ia l o r g a n iz a ti o n o f th e o r a t o r , th e tone o f v o ic e , the p h y s ic a l s t r e n g t h , th e p la y o f the eye and the c o u n te nan ce!" However, "A ll t h i s i s sc much ded u ctio n from the ^ " A rt," E a rly L e c t u r e s , I I , 48. 308 m e rit o f A r t, and is th e a t t r i b u t e o f N a tu re ."^ E lo c u tio n and Speaker E f f e c tiv e n e s s E lo c u tio n in flu e n c e s th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a speech i n s o f a r as the s p e a k e r ’s voice and countenance r e v e a l h is c h a r a c te r and tr u e f e e l i n g s which may or may n o t be c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e words t h a t he speaks. Thus, Emerson de s c r ib e d eloquence as "a war o f p o s t s . " W h a t is s a id is the l e a s t p a r t o f th e o r a t i o n . I t is the a t t i t u d e ta k e n , the unm istak ab le s ig n , n e v er so c a s u a lly g iv en , in tone of v o ic e , manner, o r word, t h a t a g r e a t e r s p i r i t speaks from you than is spoken to in him . " 7 Emerson s a i d very l i t t l e about te ch n iq u es o f e l o c u t i o n , about t r a i n i n g the speaking voice o r using g e s tu r e s . He b e lie v e d t h a t s k i l l or tech n iq u e could nev er compensate f o r a la c k o f s i n c e r i t y . Emerson s a i d t h a t men m ight l i e , b u t t h e i r faces w i l l n o t. "D readful l i m i t s are s e t in n a tu r e to the powers o f d is s im u la ti o n . T ruth ty r a n n iz e s over the u n w illin g members o f the body. Faces n ev er l i e , i t is s a i d . No man need be d eceiv ed who w i l l study th e changes o f e x p r e s s io n ." Emerson observed t h a t "when a man speaks the t r u t h in the s p i r i t o f t r u t h , h is eye i s as c l e a r as ^ I b i d . , p . 46. ^ "E lo q u en ce," Works, V I I I , 130-131. 7 I b id . 309 the heavens. When he has base ends and speaks f a l s e l y , the O eye is muddy and sometimes a s q u i n t . " Emerson n o te d t h a t "th e eyes o f men converse as much as t h e i r to n g u es, w ith th e advantage t h a t th e o c u la r d i a l e c t needs no d i c t i o n a r y , b u t is u n d ersto o d a l l th e g world o v e r ." Emerson o b served t h a t w hile th e eyes say one th in g , the tongue o fte n says a n o th e r. "A p r a c t i c e d man r e l i e s always on th e language o f the f i r s t as i t is very hard to c o u n t e r f e i t . " 1 0 I t i s h ard to " c o u n t e r f e i t " the language o f th e e y es, because i t is the r e s u l t o f n a tu re n o t a r t . 11 S p i r i t u a l Laws," Works, I I , 156. "A t a l k in the morning concerning eyes § t h e i r s p i r i t u a l 6 i n c o r r u p t i b l e te stim o n y . When a man speaks the t r u t h in the s p i r i t of t r u t h God a id s him by g iv in g him an eye as c l e a r as h is own heavens. When he has base ends h is eye is as muddy as a horse pond. When you th in k o f a ^ c h a r a c te r ) f r i e n d 's c h a r a c t e r you th in k of h is eyes r a t h e r than o f form or mouth. W eston's s t o r y o f th e boy t h a t was c ro ss eyed whenever he l i e d , <when) b u t <to> th e axes o f the eyes p a r a l l e l when he spoke th e t r u t h . " J o u r. § M is. , V, 101-102. ^Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o te s ," Works, V I I I , 378. IQj o u r . S M is. , V, 426. H 'T h e organs of the s k u l l o r the face d id n o t make the c h a r a c t e r b u t th e c h a r a c t e r made them. B e a u tif u l sh in es a s p i r i t thro u g h a l l the toughness o f m a tte r , The adamant stream s i n t o s o f t e s t b u t s h a r p e s t form b e fo re i t . The s p i r i t seeks § u t t e r s t r u t h § the eye becomes c l e a r as heaven. The animal c o n trav en es the s p i r i t u a l law § u t t e r s a l i e § the eye is muddy 5 a s q u i n t . " J o u r . § M is. , V, 217. "A man p a sse s f o r t h a t he is w orth. What he is e n graves i t s e l f on h is f a c e , on h is form, on h is f o r t u n e s , in l e t t e r s o f l i g h t . Concealment a v a il s him n o th in g , b o a s tin g n o th in g . There i s c o n fe ss io n in th e glances o f our ey es, in our s m ile s , in s a l u t a t i o n s , and th e grasp o f hands. His I 310 The tone and q u a l i t y o f a sp e a k e r 's v o ic e can r e v ea l something n o t in the words. The v o ic e i s "a d e l i c a t e index o f the s t a t e o f mind" o f the s p e a k e r .12 Emerson observed th a t "every shade o f thought" has i t s own tone "so 1 ^ t h a t wooden v o ic e s denote wooden minds."-LJ Thus, "in mo ments o f c l e a r e r thought or deeper sympathy, th e v o ic e w i l l a t t a i n a music and p e n e t r a t io n which s u r p r is e s the speaker as much as th e a u d ito r ; he i s a lso a sh arer o f the h igh er wind th a t blows over h is s t r i n g s . "14 Emerson a p p r e c ia te d the importance o f a good v o ic e fo r the p u b l ic sp ea k er, e s p e c i a l l y the p r e a c h e r .15 in s i n bedaubs him, mars a l l th e good im p re ssio n . Men know n o t why th e y do n o t t r u s t him, b u t they do n o t t r u s t him. His v ic e g la s s e s h is ey e, c u ts l i n e s o f mean e x p re s s io n in h is cheek, p in ch es h is n o se, s e t s th e mark o f the b e a s t on th e back o f th e head, and w r ite s 0 fo o l! fo o l! on the fo reh e ad o f a k in g ." " S p i r i t u a l Laws," Works, I I , 159. " F a c e s , - -A dom estic w arning we have a g a in s t d e g ra d a tio n in th e face of a man w h i l s t he speaks h is b a s e s t s e n tim e n t. Now, u t t e r i n g h is genuine l i f e , he i s s tro n g as th e w o rld , and h is face is manly, b u t i n s t a n t l y , on h is e x p re s s io n of a mean th o u g h t, h is countenance is changed to a p i t i f u l , rid d e n , b e s t i a l p o r t r a i t . " J o u r n a l s , V, 79. 12"E loquence," Works, VIII, 120. "I have heard an eminent preacher say t h a t he le a rn s from th e f i r s t tones o f h is v o ic e on a Sunday morning whether he i s to have a s u c c e s s f u l day." I b i d . IS j o u r . § M is. , IV, 27. 14-Eloquence ," Works , V I I I , 121. l^Emerson admired Edward E v e r e t t 's speaking voice t h a t had " r i c h to n e s" and "such p r e c i s e and p e r f e c t u t t e r ance, t h a t , alth o u g h s l i g h t l y n a s a l , i t was the most mellow and b e a u t i f u l and c o r r e c t o f a l l the in s tru m e n ts o f th e tim e ." "L ife and L e t t e r s in New E ngland," Works, X, 331. 311 re a d in g P lu t a r c h , he was im pressed by the Greek o r a t o r s , " t h e i r e x c e l l e n t v o ic e s , and th e p a in s bestow ed by some of them in t r a i n i n g t h e s e . "16 Emerson o f f e r e d a few o b se rv a t io n s concerning a s p e c ts o f c o ice : (1) P ro p er p ro n u n c ia t i o n i s very im p o rta n t f o r the p re a c h e r and p u b lic s p e a k e r . 1 '7 (2) Although a r t i c u l a t e speaking is r a r e , a l l sp eak ers should s t r i v e to achieve i t . 1® (3) "He weakens who means to confirm h is speech by vehemence, fem inine vehemence. " 19 (4) "The lower tone you ta k e , the more f l e x i b l e your voice i s . " ^ 9 (5) The g i f t s o f s in g in g and o ra- 2 1 to ry do n o t go to g e th e r . Emerson n o te d t h a t a good v o ic e can make any words seem " g l o r i o u s . " "A s in g e r cares l i t t l e f o r the words o f the song; he w i l l make any words g l o r i o u s . " The same ru le holds tr u e f o r the re a d e r . "In church I c a l l him only a good r e a d e r who can read sense and p o e tr y in to any hymn in the hymn-book." "E lo q u en ce," Works, V II, 120-121. See a ls o Edward Waldo Emerson, Emerson in Concord, p. 147. ■^"Eloquence ," Works , V I I I , 120-121. 1 7 J o u r. g M is. , IV, 434-435. 1 8 "But why do I blame the p re a c h e rs ? What i s so ra re among men may be r a r e among p r e a c h e r s : A ll men are bound to a r t i c u l a t e speaking as w e ll as th e y ." J o u r. § M is. , V, 464. 1 9 I b i d . , V, 44. 2 0 J o u r n a l s , I I I , 303. 21"He [Emerson] took th e g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t in our r e c i t a t i o n of p o e t r y , and p le a s e d h im s e lf t h a t no one of us could s in g , f o r he s a i d he tho u g h t t h a t he had observed t h a t the two g i f t s o f s in g in g and o r a to r y did n o t go t o g e t h e r . " Edward Waldo Emerson, Emerson in Concord, p. 173. 312 Extemporaneous D e liv ery v ersu s Use o f M anuscript Emerson found value in b o th extem poraneous and m a n u sc rip t d e l i v e r y , depending on th e t a l e n t s of the sp ea k e r in v o lv e d . He s a i d t h a t "extem poraneous speaking can be good, and w r i t t e n d is c o u r s e can be good. A t e n t is a good t h i n g , b u t so i s a c a t h e d r a l . 1,22 He b e lie v e d t h a t a w r i t t e n com position "can su rp a ss any u n w ritte n e f f u s io n s o f however profound g e n iu s , f o r what i s w r i t i s a fo u n d a t i o n of a new s u p e r s t r u c t u r e § a guide to th e eye f o r new f o u n d a tio n , so t h a t th e work r i s e s tower upon tower w ith ever new § t o t a l s t r e n g t h o f b u i l d e r . " 2^ Emerson observed t h a t "every f i r s t - r a t e s p ea k e r" w rote h is speeches out b e fo re they were d e liv e re d : And the t h i r d crime he [C harles Sumner] stan d s charged w ith , i s , t h a t h is speeches were w r i t t e n b e fo re they were spoken, which, of c o u rs e , must be tr u e in Sumner's c a s e , as i t was tr u e of W ebster, o f Adams, o f Calhoun, o f Burke, o f Chatham, o f Demosthenes; o f every f i r s t - r a t e sp eak er t h a t e v e r l i v e d . I t is th e h ig h e s t com p lim e n t he pays to the i n t e l l i g e n c e o f the Senate and of the c o u n try . When the same rep ro ach was c a s t on the f i r s t o r a t o r o f a n c ie n t tim es by some c a v i l l e r of h is day, he s a i d , "I should be ashamed to come w ith one u n c o n sid e re d word b e fo re such an a s s e m b l y . "24 22Jo u rn a ls , V, 236. 2 3 Jo u r. § M is., V, 198. E lsew here, Emerson s a i d t h a t " t h i s f a c t " [ t h a t w r i t t e n com position can su rp ass any u n w ritte n e f f u s io n s ] "shows th e t r u t h r e s p e c tin g an o f t - a g i t a t e d q u e s ti o n , the p r o p r i e t y of w r i t t e n com position in p u l p i t o r academ ical e lo q u e n c e ." " L i t e r a t u r e , " E a rly Lec tu r e s , I I , 64. 2^M The A s s a u lt upon Mr. Sumner," Works, XI, 250-251. 313 Emerson a ls o p r a i s e d th e spontaneous word, th e a b i l i t y to th in k on o n e ’s f e e t . '"A tremendous f a c u l t y , t h a t o f th in k in g on o n e 's l e g s ' - - i s a newspaper d e s c r i p t i o n o f eloquence; and t h i s is a t o l e r a b l e use o f th e word no- 2 ^ t i c e d above." M iracles o f eloquence can only occur when you are th in k in g on your f e e t . "There i s a l i m i t to the e f f e c t o f w r i t t e n elo q u en ce. I t may do much, b u t th e m ir a c le s o f eloquence can only be ex p ected from th e man who th in k s on h is l e g s . He who th in k s may th u n d e r; on him the 7 f\ Holy Ghost may f a l l , and from him p a s s . " L a te r on, how e v e r , in th e same jo u r n a l e n t r y , Emerson s a i d t h a t i t is " t r i f l i n g to i n s i s t on extempore sp eech , o r spontaneous 2 7 c o n v e r s a tio n. ' Emerson l a t e r quoted N a th a n ie l Mather on th e s u b j e c t o f extem poraneous d e liv e r y o f sermons: Of extempore s p e a k in g . When n in e te e n y e ars o f age, Cotton Mather re c e iv e d advice from h is uncle N a th a n ie l. "By any means, g e t to p re a ch w ith o u t any use or help by your n o te s . When I was in New England, no man t h a t I remember used them e x c e p t one, and he because o f a s p e c i a l i n f i r m i t y , th e v e r t i g o , as I tak e i t , o r some ZSj p u r . § M is. , V, 44. Also J o u r n a l s , I I I , 484-485. 2 6 j o u r n a l s » V, 6 . 27"How t r i f l i n g to i n s i s t on extempore speech, or spontaneous c o n v e r s a tio n , and decry th e w r i t t e n poem or d i s s e r t a t i o n , or th e d e b a tin g c lu b . A m an's deep c o n v ic ti o n l i e s too f a r down in n a tu r e to be much a f f e c t e d by th e se t r i f l e s . Do what we can, your genius w i l l speak from you, and mine from me." J o u r n a l s , V, 257-258. 314 sp e c ie o f i t . N e ith e r o f your g ra n d fa th e rs used any, n o r d id your uncle CSamuel) here (in D u b lin ), n o r do I , though we b o th o f us w r ite g e n e r a lly th e m a te r ia ls o f our serm o n s."28 Emerson d id n o t fo llo w M ath e r's advice when d e l i v e r in g h is own sermons and l e c t u r e s . Em erson's son n o ted t h a t "extem poraneous speech was always very d i f f i c u l t f o r h im ."29 As a young p r e a c h e r , he always wrote h is sermons o u t in f u l l and re a d them to h is c o n g re g a tio n . He follow ed t h i s same p r a c t i c e th ro u g h o u t h is l e c t u r i n g c a r e e r , n ev er 30 t r u s t i n g h im s e lf to speak extem poraneously. "At town- m eetings and o th e r p u b lic g a th e r in g s Mr. Emerson seldom spoke u n le s s th e c a l l was u rg e n t. He f e l t h is u n f it n e s s f o r debate or extempore speech; b u t he l i s t e n e d and watched 31 the d is p u ta n ts w ith g r e a t i n t e r e s t and o fte n a d m ira tio n ." Lawton n o ted t h a t "Em erson's l i f e l o n g p r a c t i c e was to compose f u l l speech t e x t s f o r h is v a rio u s p la tfo rm e n gagements and f o r h is sermons. Moreover, he made th e most obvious use of h is speech t e x t , s in c e he n e a r ly always read h is remarks to h is a u d ien ce, seldom a tte m p tin g the extempo- ^ J o u r n a l s , ix , 5 8 . Z^Edward Waldo Emerson, "N o tes," Works, I , 432. •^ M c G iffe rt, J r . , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " Young Emerson S p eak s, p. x v i i . "In h is own p r a c t i c e Emerson always re a d h is d is c o u r s e s and could n o t t r u s t h im s e lf to extempore s p e e c h ." Edward Waldo Emerson, " N o tes," Works, V I I I , 383. •^Edward Waldo Emerson, "N o te s," Works, VII, 266. 315 raneous o r impromptu mode o f s p e a k in g ."^2 A lthough Emerson always used n o te s f o r h is l e c t u r e s , he was sometimes ab le to give th e im p ressio n t h a t h is remarks were extemporaneous by a c a r e f u l use o f th e p au se. "And how a r t f u l l y (fo r Emerson is a lo n g - s tu d ie d a r t i s t in th e se th in g s ) does the d e l i b e r a t e u t t e r a n c e , t h a t seems w a itin g f o r the f i t word, seem to admit us p a r t n e r s in th e la b o r o f tho u g h t and make us f e e l as i f the glance o f humor were a sudden s u g g e s tio n , as i f the p e r f e c t p h ra se ly in g w r i t t e n th e re on th e desk were as unexpected to him as to u s ! " ^ Albee agreed t h a t when Emerson was on th e s p e a k e r 's p la tf o r m , he "seemed to be se a rc h in g f o r the r i g h t word or id e a , alm ost a d m ittin g the h e a r e r to h is m ental p ro c e ss e s . . . . Cooke s a i d t h a t the " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f extem poraneousness" marked Em erson's l e c t u r e s "even in the d e liv e r y o f h is a d d resses t h a t were re a d word f o r word. His seeming a tte m p t to c atc h f i t words to ex p ress h is th ought has given a s in g u la r charm • ^ H o w e v e r , as Lawton n o te d , th e re were s e v e r a l o c casio n s d u rin g h is l e c t u r i n g c a r e e r in which Emerson was r e q u ir e d to a d j u s t h is remarks and extem porize to some e x t e n t a t the l a s t moment. "For example, th e r e is evidence to in d i c a t e t h a t on a t l e a s t one e l e g i a c speech o c c a sio n , he r e c a s t th e e n t i r e d i s p o s i t i o n o f h is rem arks, adding compliments n o t found in the t e x t . In a second i n s ta n c e , he was fo r c e d by circu m stan ces to im provise e x t e n s i v e l y ." Lawton, pp. 83-84. S ^ L o w e l l , My Study Window, p. 383. ^^Albee, p. 149. 316 7 C to h is m anner." Emerson l i s t e d "memory" among th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r the o ra to r,^ ® b u t he d id n o t th in k t h a t the o r a t o r should memorize h is speech. "To t a l k from memory is to t a l k o f d is p la y § you im p ress, you s h in e , § you lo se a l l your tim e, f o r you have n o t had a th o u g h t, you have been p la y in g a t r i c k . " Emerson admonished th e o r a t o r to " t a l k from the moment § do n o t sh in e b u t l i e low in th e L o rd 's power, and w a it § fo llo w w ith endeavoring th o u g h ts the i n c id e n ts o f th e c o n v e r s a tio n , § you s h a l l come away w is e r than you went. You s h a l l be u p l i f t e d in to new p e r c e p tio n s . " 3^ Although he co n fin e d h im s e lf to re a d in g a manu s c r i p t , Emerson o f f e r e d some advice to the extemporaneous sp ea k e r. He compared extem poraneous speaking to throw ing a s to n e . "When you throw a s to n e , the way to h i t th e mark i s 35cooke, p. 262. The e d i t o r s o f h is j o u r n a ls n o te d t h a t Emerson always used n o t e s , b u t he was sometimes ab le to give the im p ressio n t h a t h is remarks were extemporaneous. For example, "on th e t w e n t y - f i f t h o f t h a t month [Jan u ary , 1859] , the h undredth a n n iv ersa y o f th e b i r t h o f Robert Burns was c e l e b r a t e d in B oston, and Mr. Emerson was one o f th e s p e a k e rs. He n e v e r dared to t r u s t h im s e lf w ith o u t w r i t t e n n o te s , and used them on t h i s o c c a s io n , b u t the a t mosphere o f the f e s t i v a l was so g e n i a l , and he so fav o red in h is d e l i v e r y , t h a t many o f h is d e lig h te d h e a r e r s were su re t h a t h is words were th e i n s p i r a t i o n o f th e moment." Edward Waldo Emerson and Waldo Emerson F orbes, "N o tes," J o u r n a l s , IX, 167. ^ " E l o q u e n c e , " Complete W r i t i n g s , I I , 763. 3 7 j0ur. § M is., V, 426-427. See a lso "The H eart," E arly L e c t u r e s , I I , 292-293. 317 to look a t th e mark § n o t c o n s id e r <what} how you swing your arm. When you speak extempore < th e way to') you must c a r r y your thought to th e p erso n o p p o site § n e v er th in k o f th e m a n n e r ." ^ Heat Emerson spoke o f " h e a t as a re q u ire m e n t f o r the o r a t o r , e s p e c i a l l y fo r th e sp ea k e r who r e l i e s on an extem poraneous mode o f sp eak in g . Emerson l i s t e d " h e a t” as one o f th e " s p e c i a l i n g r e d i e n t s " t h a t make a sp eak er e lo q u e n t. T Q He eq u ated h e a t w ith p a s s io n . I t is a k in d o f em otional ex citem e n t and involvem ent in o n e 's id e a s t h a t e n ab le s one to overcome c e r t a i n i n h i b i t i o n s and s e lf - c o n s c io u s n e s s t h a t o f te n plague a sp ea k e r. Emerson n o ted t h a t "deep i n t e r e s t or sympathy thaws th e i c e , lo o sen s th e to n g u e, and w i l l c a rry th e cold and f e a r f u l p r e s e n t l y i n t o s e l f - p o s s e s s i o n and p o s s e s s io n of th e a u d ie n c e ."40 Emerson observed t h a t men ten d "to say d a rin g and e x t r a o r d in a r y th in g s " only when t h e i r "blood is u p ."41 The e f f e c t of " h e a t" on p u b lic speaking and debate can be seen in an assembly on th e eve o f a c r i s i s : 5 8 Jo u r. 5 M is. , I I I , 314. •^ "E lo q u en c e ," Works, V I I I , 117. Emerson spoke o f " p a s s io n , which is h e a t . . . ." I b i d . 4 QI b i d . , p. 118. ^^-Journals , V, 256. 318 Go i n t o an assembly w e ll e x c i t e d , some angry p o l i t i c a l m eeting on th e eve o f a c r i s i s . Then i t appears t h a t eloquence i s as n a t u r a l as s w i m m i n g - a n a r t which a l l men might l e a r n , though so few do. I t only needs t h a t they sh ould be once w e ll pushed o f f i n t o the w a te r , o verhead, w ith o u t c o rk s , and, a f t e r a mad s tr u g g le or two they f i n d t h e i r p o is e and th e use o f t h e i r arm s, and hence forw ard they p o sse ss t h i s new and w onderful e le m e n t.42 Emerson observed t h a t "men d i f f e r so much in con t r o l o f t h e i r f a c u l t i e s , " b u t a t th e same tim e , th e r e is "a c e r t a i n fundam ental e q u a l i t y . " Fundam entally a l l f e e l a lik e and th in k a l i k e , and a t a g r e a t h e a t they can a l l 43 ex p re ss them selves w ith an alm ost equal f o r c e . " However, "our te m p e ratu res d i f f e r in c a p a c ity o f h e a t , or we b o i l a t d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s ." One man is b ro u g h t to th e b o i l i n g - p o i n t by th e e x c i t e ment o f c o n v e r s a tio n in th e p a r l o r . The w a te r s , o f course, are n o t very deep. He has a tw o-inch e n th u siasm , a p a tty - p a n e b u l l i t i o n . Another r e q u ir e s th e a d d i t i o n a l c a l o r i c o f a m u ltitu d e and a p u b lic d eb ate; a t h i r d needs an a n t a g o n i s t , or a h o t in d ig n a tio n ; a f o u r th needs a r e v o lu tio n ; and a f i f t h , n o th in g le s s than the grandeur o f a b s o lu te i d e a s , th e s p len d o rs and shades of Heaven and H e l l . 44 Emerson n o te d t h a t even a man of " re s e rv e d h a b i t s " can a r i s e in an assembly and speak e lo q u e n tly w ith o u t manu s c r i p t o r n o te s when he is s u f f i c i e n t l y aro u sed by th e s u b j e c t upon which he is speaking: 42-Eloquence," Works, V I I I , 118-119. 4 3 I b i d . , p . 126. 44-Eloquence," Works, V II, 61. 319 Observe the phenomenon o f extempore d e b ate. A man of c u l t i v a t e d mind b u t re s e rv e d h a b i t s , s i t t i n g s i l e n t , admires the m ira c le o f f r e e , im passioned, p ic tu r e s q u e sp eech , in th e man a d d re ss in g an a ss e m b ly ;--a s t a t e o f b ein g and power how u n lik e h is own! P r e s e n tly h is own em otion r i s e s to h is l i p s , and overflow s in sp eech . He must a ls o r i s e and say somewhat. Once embarked, once having overcome th e n o v e lty o f the s i t u a t i o n , he fin d s i t j u s t as easy and n a t u r a l to s p e a k ,- - t o speak w ith th o u g h ts , w ith p i c t u r e s , w ith rh y th m ica l b a lan ce o f s e n t e n c e s , - -as i t was to s i t s i l e n t ; f o r i t needs n o t to do, b u t to s u f f e r ; h e .only a d ju s t s h im s e lf to th e fr e e s p i r i t which g la d ly u t t e r s i t s e l f through him; and motion is as easy as r e s t . 45 The man w ith s u f f i c i e n t " h e a t , " th e g r e a t and e a r n e s t o r a t o r need "tak e no th o u g h t f o r ’th e g r e a t m a ss,' and 't h e e v i l of b eing m is u n d e rsto o d , 1 e t c . , and ’what and how ye s h a l l s a y . ' In t h a t hour i t s h a l l be given you what ye s h a l l s a y ." Emerson admonished th e o r a t o r to "propose no m ethods, prepave no w ords, s e l e c t no t r a d i t i o n s , b u t f i x your eye on the a u d ien ce, and th e f i t word w i l l u t t e r i t s e l f , a s, when the eye seeks th e p erson in th e remote c o rn e r o f the house, the v o ice accommodates i t s e l f to the a re a to be f i l l e d . "46 4 5 " L ite ra ry E t h i c s , " Works, I, 166. At the age o f t w e n t y - t h r e e , Emerson com plained of h is own lack o f " h e a t ." "N ext, i t seems I am c o ld , and when s h a l l I k in d le ? I was born c o ld . My body h a b i t i s c o ld . I s h iv e r in and o u t; d o n 't h e a t to th e good purposes c a l l e d enthusiasm a q u a r te r so q u ick and k in d ly as my n e ig h b o u rs. Y et, so depraved is s e l f - c o n c e i t , t h a t I sometimes im agined t h i s very seed o f w rath to be one o f my g i f t s , though n o t g ra c e s . 'P oor m o rta ls do them selves b e g u i l e . '" J o u r n a l s , I I , 123. 320 Summary A lthough Emerson acknowledged the im portance of good d e liv e r y to the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a speech, he w rote r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e on the s u b j e c t . He admired a f i n e , ex p r e s s iv e v o ice or g r a c e f u l manner in the sp eak ers he h e a rd , b u t he always c o n sid e re d th e se as secondary m a tte r s . The main i n g r e d ie n ts f o r a s u c c e s s f u l sp eak er are a knowledge of what he is t a lk in g about and s in c e r e c o n v i c t i o n s , f o r i f a man is s i n c e r e , h is v o ice and f a c i a l f e a tu r e s s u b s ta n t i a t e h is s i n c e r i t y w ith o u t conscious e f f o r t on h is p a r t . A deep and s in c e r e involvem ent in o n e 's id eas is a lso n e c e s s a ry to c r e a te t h a t " h e a t" which w i l l d is s o lv e a l l fe a r s and conscious i n h i b i t i o n s and make i t p o s s ib le f o r one to speak e lo q u e n tly from the depths of h is s o u l. CHAPTER V I I I SUMM ARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary The key to u n d e rs ta n d in g Em erson's m e ta p h y sic s, h is e p iste m o lo g y , and h is r h e t o r i c a l th eo ry i s found in h is concept o f th e so u l and the O ver-Soul. The so u l e x i s t s on two l e v e l s . There is one g r e a t O ver-S oul, which Emerson c a l l s God, T ru th , Reason, e t c . , and th e re are th e i n d i v i d u a l e x p re s s io n s o f th e O ver-Soul in each man. Man is th e " i n c a r n a t i o n of God." He is "a stream whose source is h i d d en ." T hat hidden source i s God or the "O v er-S o u l." The so u l in man is a pow erful fo rce t h a t can m a ster b o th h is i n t e l l e c t and h is w i l l . The problem t h a t concerned Emerson most was the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f man to God and N atu re. He found an answer ( a t l e a s t a p a r t i a l , t e n t a t i v e answer) to t h i s problem in the d o c tr in e o f co rresp o n d en ce. He saw th e m a t e r ia l w orld as sym bolic o f the s p i r i t u a l w orld. Man s tan d s between th e se two w o rld s , and th u s , h is b a s i c n a tu re is t h a t o f an " a n a l o g i s t . " He reads n a tu r e in o rd e r to u n d e rsta n d the s p i r i t u a l w o rld . When a man ob serv es th e m a te r ia l w orld to 321 322 seek an u n d e rstan d in g o f the s p i r i t u a l , he i s in a s t a t e of " c o n s c io u s n e s s ." Emerson was i n t e r e s t e d in problems o f an i n t u i t i v e , in d iv id u a l m oral n a t u r e . He was n o t i n t e r e s t e d in s o c i a l or p o l i t i c a l is s u e s e x ce p t as they a f f e c t e d the freedom o f the in d iv id u a l to develop h is own " c o n s c io u s n e s s ." The fu n c tio n o f l i f e , as Emerson saw i t , is n o t to b u i l d g r e a t s o c i e t i e s and i n s t i t u t i o n s , b u t to develop the c h a r a c te r o f each i n d i v i d u a l , to move toward a more complete in c a r n a ti o n o f God, a g r e a t e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e O ver-Soul. Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t a l l t r u t h u l t i m a t e l y r e s id e s in the O ver-Soul. There a re two kinds o f knowledge t h a t men need, p r a c t i c a l knowledge t h a t en ab les them to su rv iv e on a day to day b a s is and a h ig h e r knowledge t h a t en ab les them to know how, why, and f o r what they sh ould l i v e . The f i r s t k in d o f knowledge i s p ro v id e d by th e f a c u l t y o f "U n d erstan d in g ." The second f a c u l t y is the "R eason." Ex p e r ie n c e , e x p e r im e n ta tio n , l o g i c , and form al re a so n in g are th e methods o f the U n d e rstan d in g , w hile Reason r e l i e s on a "pious r e c e p tio n " o r i n t u i t i o n . I n t u i t i o n is "th e openness o f th e human mind to new i n f l u x of l i g h t and power from the Divine Mind." W ithin Em erson's p h ilo so p h y , i t i s th e Reason r a t h e r than th e U nderstanding t h a t i s the most im p o rtan t source fo r the s p e a k e r 's id e as because th e s u b je c ts t h a t 323 were o f most concern to him, such as s e l f - r e l i a n c e and com p e n s a tio n , a re " a l o g i c a l and u n v e r i f i a b l e ." There are two s e r io u s problems in d e a lin g w ith th e Reason. F i r s t , a man has l i t t l e r e a l c o n tr o l over the i n t u i t i o n s t h a t come to him from the O ver-Soul. Second, a man's i n t u i t i v e v is io n can be b lo ck ed and b lu r r e d . Emerson conceived o f r h e t o r i c or eloquence as an a r t . Thus th e i d e a l o r a t o r is an a r t i s t who p e rc e iv e s and ex p re sse s the correspondence o f th e m a te r ia l and s p i r i t u a l w o rld s. "Man s t a n d s , " according to Emerson, "on the p o in t b e tw ix t s p i r i t and m a tte r , and the n a tiv e of both elem ents; the tr u e t h in k e r sees t h a t one r e p r e s e n ts the o th e r , t h a t the w orld i s the m ir r o r o f the s o u l, and t h a t i t i s h is o f f i c e to show t h i s b e a u t i f u l r e l a t i o n . " A rt e x i s t s because the human mind is c o n s ta n tly endeavoring to i d e a l i z e the a c t u a l , ' " t o accommodate the shows o f th in g s to th e d e s ir e s o f th e m in d .'" Emerson s a id t h a t " a r t seeks n o t n a tu re b u t th e id e a l which n a tu re h e r s e l f s t r i v e s a f t e r . " A rt a c ts as a "complement" to or a " s u b s id ia r y " o f n a t u r e , and i t o p e ra te s to a f f e c t man's p e r c e p tio n of b e au ty . Beauty is th e " u ltim a te aim o f the u n d e r s ta n d in g ." I t is the harmony and p e r f e c t i o n t h a t e x i s t s in n a tu r e . Emerson d e fin e d "eloquence" as "th e power to t r a n s l a t e a t r u t h i n t o language p e r f e c t l y i n t e l l i g i b l e to the 324 p e rso n to whom you s p e a k ." The p h ilo s o p h e r , o r a t o r , or te a c h e r was f o r Emerson "only a more or le s s awkward t r a n s l a t o r " o f id e as a lre a d y i n th e c o n scio u sn ess o f h is a u d i ence. An o r a t o r is only s u c c e s s f u l i n s o f a r as he can " r e n der back to you your own c o n s c io u s n e s s ." The fu n c tio n of th e i d e a l o r a t o r i s sim ply to make you aware o f th e w e alth o f wisdom a lre a d y w ith in you. The o r a t o r i s a " d iv in in g -ro d to your deeper n a t u r e . " He l i f t s men above them selves and c r e a te s w ith in them an a p p e t i t e f o r t r u t h . Emerson d id n o t see T ruth as som ething t h a t can be encompassed by th e human mind, s e t down in a book, or d e fended by lo g ic . I t i s n o t an o b je c t b u t a s t a t e o f mind, an a t t i t u d e o f s e a rc h in g f o r and l i s t e n i n g to th e voice w ith in , the v o ice of God. The p r e a c h e r - o r a t o r cannot com m unicate t r u t h d i r e c t l y to o th e r men; he can only provoke them in to s e a rc h in g f o r i t on t h e i r own. Em erson's th eo ry o f p u b lic address may be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a r h e t o r i c of p r o v o c a t i o n . As a speech c r i t i c , Emerson commented f r e e l y on a l l types o f speaking in c lu d in g p o l i t i c a l and f o r e n s i c speaking as w ell as p re a c h in g and l e c t u r i n g . However, the p r a c t i c e o f th e f i r s t th r e e ty p es o f speaking would be h ig h ly lim i t e d by the req u irem en ts o f Em erson's p h ilo so p h y . Emerson i n s i s t e d t h a t the o r a t o r be a se I f - .r e lia n t man. He must be f r e e from p led g es to p o l i t i c a l p a r t y or r e l i g i o u s s e c t . The p o l i t i c i a n , th e a t to r n e y , and th e p re a c h e r owe t h e i r 325 f i r s t a lle g ia n c e to t h e i r p a r t y , c l i e n t s , o r r e l i g i o u s sec t. Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t o n e 's f i r s t a lle g ia n c e must be to t r u t h , n o t th e t r u t h as some group sees i t , n o t th e t r u t h as th e sp ea k e r saw i t y e s te r d a y , b u t the t r u t h as he sees i t today. Emerson abandoned p re a ch in g because i t d id n o t p ro v id e him w ith the freedom he d e s ir e d . He found l e c t u r ing to be the mode o f speaking most a d a p ta b le to the needs of h is p h ilo so p h y s in c e i t allow ed f o r th e most freedom on the p a r t o f th e sp ea k e r. Em erson's id e a l o r a t o r would depend on h is i n s p i r a t i o n coming from a h ig h e r mind than h is own, through i n t u i t i o n . He must b lo c k , to some e x t e n t , h is own w i l l and p e r s o n a l i t y and abandon h im s e lf to a h ig h e r mind. The g r e a t o r a t o r w i l l make h im s e lf "an organ through which th e u n i v e r s a l mind a c t s . " Em erson's id e a l r h e t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n occurs when th e l i s t e n e r lo s e s any sense o f "dualism " b e tween h im s e lf and the s p e a k e r. He has only a sense of "high a c t i v i t y " and " p ro g re ss in h is own s o u l . " Emerson re c o g n ize d t h a t most speakers f e l l s h o r t o f h is i d e a l , and he a lso knew t h a t audiences are o f te n q u ite s a t i s f i e d w ith a shallow and showy speech. N e v e r th e le s s , he re fu s e d to compromise. His o r a t o r must p la c e s i n c e r i t y and t r u t h f i r s t because the whole f u n c tio n o f e a r t h l y l i f e is to develop each man's c h a r a c t e r . The whole aim o f r h e t o r i c , th e whole purpose o f l i f e , i s to e n la rg e man's p e r 326 c e p tio n of t r u t h and b e a u ty . The o r a t o r must s t r i v e f o r boundless freedom; he must have th e courage to speak what h is Reason (or i n t u i t i o n ) t e l l s him i s t r u e , even i f i t means c o n t r a d i c t i n g what he s a i d y e s te r d a y . His aim must always be " to keep h is mind open to new l i g h t and to spur men up to doing the l i k e . " Although Em erson's l e c t u r e s covered a wide v a r i e t y o f s u b j e c t s , th e re was, n e v e r t h e l e s s , a c e r t a i n u n ity u n d e rly in g them a l l . They a l l ta u g h t th e " i n f i n i t u d e o f the p r i v a t e man." The main tr o u b le w ith s o c i e t y , as Emerson viewed i t , i s t h a t th e in d iv id u a l man does n o t r e a l i z e h is own d iv in e n a tu re and r e s p e c t h is own i n t u i t i o n s . Emerson was s tr o n g ly opposed to any p a r t y , s e c t , or movement t h a t might le a d men to fu n c tio n as a group or mob i n s t e a d of i n d i v i d u a l s . He c a l l e d o r g a n iz a tio n s " 't h e graves o f th e s p i r i t . ' " Em erson's id e a l o r a t o r could le c t u r e on any and a l l s u b j e c t s , b u t he must m a in ta in an independence from p a r t i s a n s o f a l l k in d s. His speeches would be designed to l i b e r a t e men r a t h e r than c o n v ert them to some given p ro p o s i t i o n or p o i n t o f view. Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t a man could only be an e l o q u en t o r a t o r i f he chose to speak on th e r i g h t s u b j e c t s , th o se in v o lv in g g r e a t p r i n c i p l e s and l o f t y s e n tim e n ts . "A good and g r e a t cause" is th e only f r i e n d t h a t can persuade the so u l to speak. From Em erson's w r i t i n g s , one can d e riv e 327 some p r i n c i p l e s to guide the sp eak er in s e l e c t i n g the r i g h t to p ic f o r h is s p ee c h es. F i r s t , the to p i c must have a " n a t u r a l prom inence" f o r the o r a t o r . Second, the s u b je c t should r e f l e c t the s p e a k e r 's own c u r i o s i t y . T h ird , the to p ic must be somewhat o r i g i n a l and a s u b j e c t which the time and the age c a l l s f o r t h . F o u rth , the s p e a k e r 's i n t e r e s t in the s u b je c t must be based on moral grounds. The f i f t h and f i n a l s u g g e s tio n t h a t Emerson o f f e r e d was t h a t the o r a t o r t r u s t h is i n s t i n c t s to le a d him to the r i g h t to p ic . F a c ts , i l l u s t r a t i o n s , and examples are e s s e n t i a l in g r e d ie n ts in most sp ee c h es, b u t th e se elem ents are n o t the most s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of a speech. Emerson r e a l i z e d t h a t many of th o se who come to h e a r a l e c t u r e or sermon sh are the same f a c t s as the s p e a k e r. What they look f o r from a sp eak er i s a p r i n c i p l e t h a t w i l l c l a s s i f y and e x p l a i n the f a c t s and e x p e rie n c e s they a lre a d y p o s s e s s . F a c ts , i l l u s t r a t i o n s , and examples can be c o l l e c t e d from r e a d in g , c o n v e r s a tio n , and day to day e x p e r ie n c e s , b u t i n s i g h t in to the p r i n c i p l e s t h a t u n ite and e x p la in th ese f a c t s can only come through the "reaso n " o r i n t u i t i o n . Emerson r e a l i z e d t h a t men have only a lim it e d amount of c o n tr o l over the fo rce c a l l e d " i n s p i r a t i o n " ; how e v e r , Emerson o f f e r e d s e v e r a l s u g g e s tio n s as to how one might a id the i n t u i t i v e f a c u l t y . The so u rces of i n s p i r a - 328 t i o n in c lu d e c h a r a c t e r , h e a l t h , books, good company, s o l i tu d e , communion w ith n a t u r e , and fo rce o f w i l l . Above a l l , one must be w i l l i n g to forego a l l th in g s fo r t r u t h , to keep h im s e lf " a lo o f from a l l moorings and a f l o a t , " and " a b s ta in from dogmatism and re c o g n ize a l l the o p p o site n e g a tio n s between which as w a lls " o n e ’ s being i s swung. Emerson saw a danger in o v er-em phasizing any one f a c e t of t r u t h , f o r th e more a man c o n c e n tra te s on one a s p e c t , one f a c e t of t r u t h , th e le s s he sees o f the t o t a l s t r u c t u r e , and th e more narrow and dogmatic he becomes. Emerson wanted to f r e e men from dogmatism and expand t h e i r v i s i o n . "S e t men upon t h in k in g , and you have been to them a god," he w ro te . Emerson b e lie v e d t h a t th e o r a t o r should encourage an audience to expand t h e i r v i s i o n , sh ould p r o voke them in to a s t a t e o f g r e a t e r "co n sc io u sn e s s" o f t h e i r own p o t e n t i a l . What method does one use to encourage a g r e a t e r "co n sc io u sn e ss" in o n e 's l i s t e n e r s ? An answer is su g g este d in Em erson's s ta te m e n t t h a t "e v e ry th in g in the u n iv e rs e goes by i n d i r e c t i o n . There are no s t r a i g h t lin e s ." The o r a t o r 's method of o rd e rin g h is id e as in a d is c o u rse sh ould a lso be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n d i r e c t i o n . From Em erson's w r i t i n g s , one can d e riv e about fiv e p r i n c i p l e s to a id one in e v a lu a tin g the id eas in a speech. F i r s t , th e speech must be f a c t u a l . Second, e t h i c a l values and m otives must u n d e r lie th e speech. T h ird , the s p e a k e r 's 329 id e as must be c o n s i s t e n t w ith common s e n s e , t h a t i s , a t tuned to the Common Mind. F o u rth , the s p e a k e r 's id eas should tend to produce more id eas in th e mind o f the a u d i ence r a t h e r than s ta g n a te or narrow th e a u d ie n c e 's v i s i o n . F i f t h , th e only r e a l t e s t o f id e a s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t u i t i v e id e a s , i s t h e i r inw ardness in your n a tu r e . Emerson e x p re ss e d a s tro n g o p p o s itio n to argum enta t i o n and d e b a te . Em erson's i d e a l o r a to r would d e a l w ith q u e stio n s o f a s p i r i t u a l n a t u r e , the kinds o f q u e s tio n s fo r which a rg u m en tatio n and debate have l i t t l e a p p l i c a b i l i t y , as Emerson b e lie v e d . A rgum entation and debate r e l y on th e methods o f the U n d erstan d in g , an i n f e r i o r f a c u l t y , which is n o t capable o f comprehending moral and s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s . Emerson saw t h a t arg u m en tatio n and d e b a te , e s p e c i a l l y when a p p lie d to q u e s tio n s o f r e l i g i o n , was o fte n used to defend dogmas, to i n tim i d a te th e i g n o r a n t, to h o ld tho u g h t in check and s ta g n a te the mind. Em erson's i d e a l o r a t o r would p r a c t i c e " a f f i r m a t i v e d i s c o u r s e ," assuming a s s e n t and i g n o rin g a l l t h a t he r e j e c t s . S c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t Em erson's jo u r n a ls and essays are v a rio u s s ta te m e n ts on the s p e a k e r 's r e l a t i o n s h i p to h is audience and the a u t h o r 's r e l a t i o n s h i p to h is r e a d e r which can be developed i n t o a th e o ry o f audience a d a p ta tio n . U nderlying t h i s th e o ry o f a d a p ta tio n is Em erson's b e l i e f t h a t "u n d ern eath t h e i r e x t e r n a l d i v e r s i t i e s , a l l men are of 330 one h e a r t and m ind." He t o l d the sp e a k e r to assume t h a t " a l l d if f e r e n c e s [among men] are s u p e r f i c i a l " and t h a t a l l men have "one fundam ental n a t u r e . " Emerson recommended t h a t the sp ea k e r d i r e c t h is message to a s p e c i f i c audience and t h a t he make i t as " i n t e l l i g i b l e to th e common c ap a c i t y " as p o s s i b l e . N e v e r th e le s s , Emerson was p a r t i c u l a r l y concerned t h a t th e sp e a k e r sh ould n o t u n d e re stim a te the c a p a c ity o f h is audience and, above a l l , t h a t he sh o u ld n o t compromise th e i n t e g r i t y o f h i s id e a s . The sp e a k e r sh o u ld aim always to b rin g o u t th e b e s t q u a l i t i e s in h is audience by t r e a t i n g each p erso n as an in d iv id u a l and n o t j u s t one o f th e mass and by a p p e a lin g always to worthy m o tiv es. W ithin Em erson's p h ilo so p h y , the speaker "can n o t look to work d i r e c t l y on men b u t o b liq u e ly ." To work d i r e c t l y on men is to give them i d e a s , d o c tr in e s and p h ilo s o p h ie s to b e lie v e and to fo llo w . That was n o t Em erson's way. He wanted the o r a t o r , t e a c h e r , o r p r e a c h e r to a c t as a p u r i f y i n g , u p l i f t i n g , p r o v o c a tiv e , awakening fo rce t h a t c r e a te s a d e s i r e , an a p p e t i t e in men to r e a l i z e t h e i r own d iv in e n a tu r e and to d is c o v e r t r u t h f o r them s e lv e s . Taking t h i s i n d i r e c t ro a d , the a u d i t o r w i l l e v e n t u a l l y a r r i v e a t the same s t a t e as the s p e a k e r s in c e th e r e i s one Common Mind, and man's inm ost n a tu r e i s a lso h is u n iv e r s a l n a tu r e . Emerson was an i d e a l i s t . He was more concerned with 331 th e s p i r i t u a l than th e m a t e r i a l . To him th e id e a l was more r e a l than a c t u a l i t y i t s e l f . Thus, i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g to f in d t h a t Em erson's th e o ry o f audience a d a p ta tio n i s more i d e a l i s t i c than p r a c t i c a l , more concerned w ith what ought to be than what i s . Some o f Em erson's s ta te m e n ts appear i n c o n s i s t e n t . At one p l a c e , Emerson warned a g a in s t u n d e re s tim a tin g the c a p a c ity of men, and in a n o th e r , he s a i d t h a t th e mass of men are ig n o ra n t and im pressed more by a showy speech than by t r u t h . P e rh a p s, th e s e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s may be e x p la in e d by th e f a c t the Emerson sometimes spoke o f what should be and, a t o th e r tim e s , o f what a c t u a l l y i s happening. This would a lso account fo r th e f a c t t h a t some o f Em erson's s ta te m e n ts (as when he s a i d t h a t men have an "immense" hun ger fo r t r u t h or t h a t one must t r e a t a l l men as gods) seem r a t h e r i d e a l i s t i c , w hile o th e r s r e f l e c t th e shrewd and p r a c t i c a l judgment o f one who made a study o f many d i f f e r e n t audiences from the v ie w p o in t o f both th e s p e a k e r 's p la tfo rm and th e g a l l e r y . The o r a t o r , as Emerson i d e a l l y conceived o f him, i s h ig h ly a ttu n e d to the correspondence o f the m a te r ia l and the s p i r i t u a l . He g e ts h i s knowledge a t f i r s t hand, and he i s thus able to serv e h is fellowmen as a " l i b e r a t i n g god." I n s o f a r as he is h ig h ly a ttu n e d to n a t u r e , th e o r a t o r is p a r t p o e t. Emerson d id n o t r e q u ir e t h a t the o r a t o r w rite 332 v e r s e , b u t r a t h e r , he looked f o r a sp e a k e r w ith " t h a t power to c lo th e every s e c r e t and a b s t r a c t th o u g h t in i t s c o r r e sponding m a te r ia l sym bol." The o r a t o r can awaken men i f he is a m aster o f the a r t o f using sym bols, because symbols always s tim u la te the i n t e l l e c t . In c o n s tr u c ti o n o f d i s c o u r s e s , Emerson p la c e d p r i mary emphasis on th e in d iv id u a l sen te n c e r a t h e r than th e p a ra g ra p h . The emphasis on th e i n d i v i d u a l sen ten ce was r e l a t e d to Em erson's n e g l e c t of c a r e f u l s t r u c t u r e in h is d is c o u r s e s . His s t y l e and h is d i s r e g a r d f o r "smooth t r a n s i t i o n s and c o n n ec tio n s" was, a p p a r e n tly , in f lu e n c e d by h is stu d y o f P lu t a r c h . While Em erson's l e c t u r e s and essay s have been c r i t i c i z e d f o r t h e i r f r e q u e n t v i o l a t i o n o f t r a d i t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s and p r e c e p ts o f s t y l e and s t r u c t u r e , they were em in en tly s u i t e d to h is concept of a r h e t o r i c o f p r o v o c a tio n . A t i g h t , w e ll o rd e re d , l o g i c a l developm ent o f a s u b j e c t i s im p o rtan t i f o n e 's aim i s p e r s u a s io n and c o n v ic t i o n , b u t i t is n o t n e c e s s a ry i f you only wish to a r r e s t a t t e n t i o n and s tim u la te th o u g h t. Emerson conceived o f s t y l e as th e " i n t e l l e c t u a l voice of a man," dependent on and r e f l e c t i v e o f o n e 's i n t e l l e c t and c h a r a c t e r . Emerson su g g e ste d t h a t th e o r a t o r ' s language sh ould be sp o n tan eo u s, n o t s tu d ie d . I f one i s deeply committed to and e m o tio n a lly in v o lv e d in what one i s sa y in g , the r i g h t words and images w i l l come to mind w ith - 333 o ut conscious e f f o r t . One sh o u ld w r ite u n c o n sc io u sly w i t h out too much re g a rd f o r r u l e s . N e v e r th e le s s , Emerson, him s e l f , gave s e v e r a l r u l e s , o r s ta n d a r d s , to guide both th e o r a t o r and w r i t e r in t h e i r e f f o r t to achieve e x c e lle n c e and e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s t y l e . The fo llo w in g r u le s can be d e riv e d from Em erson's w r iti n g s : (1) The sp e a k e r sh ould s t r i v e f o r a d i r e c t and sim ple s t y l e ; (2) The sp e a k e r should avoid e x tra v a g a n t language; (3) The sp eak er sh ould p r a c t i c e the " sc ie n c e o f o m ittin g " ; (4) The sp eak er sh o u ld "speak w ith the v u lg a r , th in k w ith th e w ise " ; (5) The sp ea k e r should s t r i v e to p u t a b s t r a c t id e as in c o n crete form; ( 6 ) The sp eak er must be very c a r e f u l in h is s e l e c t i o n of w ords, fo r '" a c c u r a c y i s e s s e n t i a l to b e a u t y . '" Since most o f Em erson's p u b lis h e d works were adapted from h is l e c t u r e s , one may examine th e d if f e r e n c e s between h is l e c t u r e s and essay s in o rd e r to determ ine h is co n cep tio n o f th e d if f e r e n c e in s t y l e s a p p r o p r ia te to a liv e audience and a r e a d e r. The l e c t u r e s d i f f e r e d from the essay s on the same s u b je c ts in t h a t they were more " flo w ing" and le s s compressed. The heavy t r a n s c e n d e n ta l p h i l o s ophy was more subdued, and th e re was g r e a t e r emphasis on c l e a r t r a n s i t i o n s and more obvious s t r u c t u r e . Although Emerson acknowledged th e im portance of good d e liv e r y to th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a speech, he w rote r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e on the s u b j e c t . He admired a f i n e , e x p r e s s iv e voice or g r a c e f u l manner in the sp eak ers he h e a rd , 334 b u t he always c o n sid e re d th e s e as secondary m a tte r s . The main re q u ire m e n ts f o r a s u c c e s s f u l sp e a k e r are a knowledge o f h is s u b j e c t and s in c e r e c o n v ic t io n s , f o r i f a man is s i n c e r e , h is v o ic e and f a c i a l f e a t u r e s s u b s t a n t i a t e h is s i n c e r i t y w ith o u t conscious e f f o r t on h is p a r t . A deep and s in c e r e involvem ent in o n e 's id e a s is a lso n e c e s s a ry to c r e a te t h a t " h e a t" which w i l l d is s o lv e a l l f e a r s and con sc io u s i n h i b i t i o n s and make i t p o s s i b l e f o r one to speak e lo q u e n tly from the depths o f h is s o u l. Conclus ions Id e a lis m and m ysticism perm eate Em erson's p h i l o s o phy. He fo cu sed on the s p i r i t u a l r a t h e r than th e m a t e r i a l ; he was more concerned w ith what ought to be than what i s . The r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry t h a t sprang from t h i s b a s ic p h i l o s o phy is a d m itte d ly geared to m a tte rs o f a s p i r i t u a l n a tu r e and is n o t p r a c t i c a l f o r th e w o rld o f th e courtroom law yer or p o l i t i c a l cam paigner. N e v e r t h e le s s , Em erson's own c a r e e r sta n d s as evidence t h a t h is r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry i s s i g n i f i c a n t , w o rk ab le, and r e l e v a n t f o r to d a y 's w orld. Emer son was able to achieve g r e a t p o p u l a r i t y and in f lu e n c e as a l e c t u r e r and e s s a y i s t w hile m a in ta in in g a s u r p r i s i n g degree o f c o n s is te n c y between h is p h ilo so p h y o f r h e t o r i c and h is own r h e t o r i c a l p r a c t i c e . He was a man who p r a c t i c e d what he p re a c h e d , and i t worked f o r him. P erh ap s, th e b e s t example o f the u n i t y between 335 Em erson's p h ilo so p h y o f r h e t o r i c and h is l e c t u r i n g c a r e e r i s to be found in h is " D iv in ity School A d d re ss." This a d d ress embodies th e concept o f a r h e t o r i c o f p ro v o c a tio n in two ways: i t d em o n strates Em erson's th e o ry t h a t r e l i g i o u s t r u t h s cannot be communicated d i r e c t l y from one p erso n to a n o th e r b u t must be d is c o v e re d i n t u i t i v e l y , and i t e x e m p li f i e s Em erson's r e j e c t i o n o f a rg u m en tatio n and debate and h is r e l i a n c e on un su p p o rted a s s e r t i o n s . Emerson saw r e l i g i o u s and m oral t r u t h s , th e " d iv in e la w s ," as som ething t h a t one f e e l s and e x p e rie n c e s ( e s p e c i a l l y in th e p re sen c e of n a tu r e ) b u t which one can n e v er communicate n o r re c o rd in a book. "These laws r e f u s e to be a d eq u a te ly s t a t e d . They w i l l n o t be w r i t t e n o u t on p a p e r , o r spoken by th e to n g u e ." ^ Thus, he b e lie v e d t h a t one can encourage a man to t r u s t in h is own i n t u i t i o n s , one can provoke him i n t o s e a rc h in g f o r t r u t h , b u t one can n e v er tr a n s m it t r u t h d i r e c t l y to him. In a d d re ssin g the young g ra d u a tes o f th e H arvard D iv in ity S chool, Emerson d e c la r e d t h a t the tru e o f f i c e o f the p re a c h e r i s n o t to i n s t r u c t men in church dogma b u t to in s p i r e them to look w ith in t h e i r own s o u ls f o r r e l i g i o u s t r u t h s . He t o l d them to p re a ch from t h e i r own s o u ls r a t h e r than t h e i r memories. A p re a c h e r sh ould give h i s c o n g reg a t i o n n o t the "co rp se - cold" d o c tr in e s o f U n ita ria n is m b u t ^"An A d d re ss ," Complete E s s a y s , p. 68. 336 the example o f a man d e d ic a te d to a continuous s e a rc h fo r the t r u e , th e good, and th e b e a u t i f u l . Emerson saw Jesu s as th e i d e a l p r e a c h e r - o r a t o r . He was one of th o se h o ly bards who r a d i a t e d "noble p ro v o c a t i o n s . " Emerson p r a i s e d J e s u s , n o t as a superhuman being who took p i t y on man, b u t as " th e only so u l in h i s t o r y who has a p p r e c ia te d th e worth o f man": Jesu s C h r i s t belonged to th e tr u e race o f p ro p h e ts . He saw w ith open eye the m ystery o f the s o u l. Drawn by i t s s e v e re harmony, r a v is h e d w ith i t s b e a u ty , he li v e d in i t , and had h is b ein g t h e r e . Alone in h i s t o r y he e s tim a te d th e g re a tn e s s o f man. One man was tr u e to what is in you and me. He saw t h a t God in c a r n a te s h im s e lf in man, and evermore goes f o r t h anew to tak e p o s s e s s io n o f h is W o r l d . 2 Em erson's p h ilo so p h y was based on the b e l i e f in i n t u i t i o n as the p rim ary means o f d eterm in in g r e l i g i o u s t r u t h . I f a l l men can f in d God and T ruth th ro u g h i n t u i t i o n , and i f , as Emerson belieAred, t h i s i s th e only way th ey can f in d True R e lig io n , what is th e r o le o f th e m i n i s t e r to be? What was E m erson's r o l e in sp eak in g to th o se young c l e r g y men in 1838? Emerson gave the answer in h is speech. Meantime, w h i l s t the door o f the temple sta n d s open, n i g h t and day, b e fo re every man, and the o r a c le s o f t h i s t r u t h cease n e v e r, i t is guarded by one s t e r n c o n d itio n ; t h i s namely; i t is an i n t u i t i o n . I t cannot be re c e iv e d a t second hand. T ru ely sp e a k in g , i t is n o t i n s t r u c t i o n , b u t p r o v o c a tio n t h a t I can re c e iv e from a n o th e r s o u l . 2 ^I b i d . , p . 72. ^Whicher, p. 73. 337 " P ro v o c a tio n " i s th e key word. The motive i s to g e t men to t u r n away from th e d o c tr in e s and dogmas o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , th e a u t h o r i t y o f s c r i p t u r e and look f o r t r u t h i n t u i t i v e l y . Eecause T ruth i s to be d is c o v e re d i n t u i t i v e l y by each man, th e m i n i s t e r i s n o t to give T ru th through i n s t r u c t i o n o r i n d o c t r i n a t i o n b u t to c a l l i t f o r t h from men's s o u l s , f o r each man is a source o f T ru th . The " D iv in ity School Ad d re s s " was an a c t o f p r o v o c a tio n w ith Emerson a ro u sin g and s t i r r i n g up th e audience in o rd e r t h a t he might c a l l f o r t h th e T ruth w ith in them. He wanted to awaken men to an awareness n o t o f h is t r u t h s b u t t h e i r own. The b a s i c assum ptions in Em erson's " D iv in ity School A d d re ss" - - t h a t n e i t h e r C h r is t n o r the B ible had s u p e r n a tu r a l o r i g i n s and t h a t a l l men can f in d r e l i g i o u s t r u t h th ro u g h i n t u i t i o n - - w e r e in o p p o s itio n to U n ita r ia n d o c t r i n e s o f th e l a t e 1830' s . 4 Emerson was ad v o catin g a change in C h r i s t i a n d o c tr in e and in th e method o f p re a c h in g C h r i s t i a n i t y , because he f e l t t h a t they were in e r r o r . ^W riting o f U n ita ria n is m in the 1830' s , H utchison s a i d t h a t " i n d i v i d u a l U n ita r ia n p re a c h e rs . . . were p r a c t i c a l l y unanimous in t h e i r accep tan ce o f such p o sitiv e , d o c tr in e s as th e s u p e r n a tu r a l o r ig i n s o f C h r i s t i a n i t y and th e e s s e n t i a l i n f a l l i b i l i t y o f the S c r ip t u r e s . . . ." H u tc h iso n , p. 2. U n ita r ia n s g e n e r a lly b e lie v e d a t t h i s time t h a t " C h r is t was . . . an in te rm e d ia te d iv in e b e in g , a m essenger, s u p e r n a t u r a l l y and u n iq u e ly endowed and s e n t as a s p e c i a l , in d is p e n s a b le r e v e l a t i o n to man." I b i d . , p . 4. H utchison n o te d t h a t " U n ita ria n ism was a c o n sc io u sly and v o c if e r o u s ly B i b l i c a l f a i t h . " I b i d . , p. 5. 338 A lthough th e burden o f p r o o f was on Emerson, he made no a tte m p t to prove h is b a s i c a ssu m p tio n s. I f he had been t r y i n g to p ersu ad e h is a u d ie n c e , he would have p r e s e n te d some kind o f l o g i c a l argument o r p r o o f r a t h e r than unsup p o r te d a s s e r t i o n s , b u t t h i s was n o t a speech to p ersu ad e in th e u su al sense o f th e co n cep t. Emerson was t r y i n g to arouse men, n o t to c o n v e rt them, and so he s t a t e d h is id e a s in sim ple a s s e r t i o n s as i f th e re were a b s o lu t e ly no q u e s tio n s as to t h e i r t r u t h f u l n e s s . Such an approach was bound to arouse and provoke an audience t h a t , in g e n e r a l, h e ld th e o p p o s ite id e a s . Not only were Em erson's id e a s in o p p o s itio n to U ni t a r i a n i s m b u t a lso h is methods o f a r r i v i n g a t th o se id e a s . As Frothingham rem arked, " th e U n ita r ia n s as a c la s s belonged to the sch o o l o f Locke, which d is c a rd e d the d o c tr in e o f in n a te id e a s . . . U n ita r ia n l e a d e r s , who "were d i s tin g u is h e d by p r a c t i c a l wisdom . . . t h a t weighed o p in io n s in th e s c a le o f ev id en ce and a r g u m e n t , could h a rd ly be e x p ec te d to a p p r e c ia te a system o f ep istem o lo y based on i n d iv id u a l i n t u i t i o n . A speech based on i n t u i t i v e t r u t h s would n o t p ersu ad e them, b u t i t would d i s t u r b them, and, ■ ’O ctavius Brooks F rothingham , T ran sc e n d e n ta lism in New England, A H is to ry (2d e d . ; New Y ork: H arper and B ro th e rs P u b l i s h e r s , 1959), p . 109. ^I b i d . , p . 1 1 0 . 339 p e rh a p s , by d i s t u r b i n g them, i t would make them se a rc h f o r t h e i r own i n t u i t i o n s . Emerson made no e f f o r t in t h i s speech to argue h is id e a s . He could n o t argue h is i d e a s , f o r he d id n o t know "what argument means in re fe re n c e to any e x p re s s io n o f a t h o u g h t . " ' 7 F urth erm o re, to p r e s e n t some k in d o f argument or p r o o f , such as argument from a u t h o r i t y , would in v o lv e a c o n t r a d i c t i o n of h is whole th eo ry t h a t t r u t h is known only thro u g h i n t u i t i o n . Emerson p r a c t i c e d and b e lie v e d what he t o l d th e young m i n is te r s on t h a t evening in J u ly : Let me admonish you, f i r s t o f a l l , to go a lo n e; to r e f u s e th e good m odels, even th o se which are s a c re d in th e im a g in a tio n o f men, and dare to love God w ith o u t m ed iato r or v e i l . Y o u rs e lf a newborn b a rd o f th e Holy Ghost, c a s t behind you a l l c o n fo rm ity , and a c q u a in t men a t f i r s t hand w ith D e ity . Look to i t f i r s t and o n ly , t h a t f a s h io n , custom, a u t h o r i t y , p l e a s u r e , and money, are n o th in g to y o u -- a re n o t bandages over your e y e s , t h a t you cannot s e e - - b u t l i v e w ith th e p r i v i l e g e o f th e immeasurable m i n d . 8 The " D iv in ity School A ddress" met w ith s tro n g oppo s i t i o n from the U n ita r ia n e s t a b l i s h m e n t , ^ i n d i c a t i n g t h a t 7"To th e Reverend Henry Ware, J r . , " R e p r e s e n ta tiv e S e l e c t i o n s , pp. x x x i i i - x x x v i i i . 8 "An A d d re ss ," Complete E s s a y s , p. 81. 9"The C h r is tia n E xam iner, one o f the le a d in g p e r i o d ic a l s o f th e U n ita r ia n Church, " re p u d ia te d " th e d o c tr in e s expounded in th e " D iv in ity School A d d re ss." C a rp e n te r, Emerson Handbook, p. 15. Emerson was now "a man s u s p e c t ." I b i d . , ~pT IC7 C arp en te r n o te d t h a t "when Emerson d e liv e r e d the address a t the D iv in ity School g r a d u a tio n , c o n s te r n a t i o n tu rn e d to w ra th . The man was dangerous, a h e r e t i c , an i n f i d e l . " Ib id . 340 Em erson's r h e t o r i c a l th e o ry and h is b a s i c p h ilo so p h y were f a r too r a d i c a l f o r f u n c tio n in g w ith in th e realm o f e s t a b l i s h e d r e l i g i o n . Emerson saw t h i s when he re s ig n e d as a m i n i s t e r and chose to p re a ch from the l e c t u r e p la tfo rm r a t h e r th a n the p u l p i t . Although Emerson was accused o f h e re sy by th e more c o n s e rv a tiv e members o f the U n ita ria n church and d en ied i n v i t a t i o n to speak a t Harvard fo r the n e x t t h i r t y y e a r s , 10 t h i s does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t the speech was u n s u c c e s s f u l. On the c o n tr a r y , many were i n s p i r e d by Em erson's message and i t s in f lu e n c e has e x tended f a r beyond h is own tim e. For more than a c e n tu ry , c o u n tle s s p eople the w orld over have read th e " D iv in ity School A d d re ss," and i t is g e n e r a lly c o n sid e re d as one of the c l a s s i c s o f American l i t e r a t u r e . What was th e r e about the " D iv in ity School A ddress" and Em erson's o th e r l e c t u r e s t h a t a t t r a c t e d l e c t u r e a u d i ences in h is day and s t i l l a t t r a c t s the read in g p u b lic today? Many of th o se who e n co u n tered Emerson e i t h e r as a l e c t u r e r or a u th o r u n d e rsto o d l i t t l e of what he s a id ; some u n d ersto o d n o th in g . His id e a s were o fte n vague and b a f f l i n g ; h is p ro se dry and r e p e t i t i v e . His id e a s , l i k e c o rre spondence and i d e n t i t y , were n e i t h e r o r i g i n a l nor c l e a r l y and s y s t e m a t i c a l l y developed. N e v e rth e le s s , Emerson s t i l l lO A tkinson, " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " Complete E s s a y s , p. x i . 341 ranks as one o f the most o u ts ta n d in g and p o p u la r l e c t u r e r s and w r i t e r s t h a t t h i s c o u n try has p roduced, because h is le c t u r e s were p r o v o c a tiv e . Those who e n co u n te re d Em erson's le c t u r e s and essay s found som ething th e re t h a t made them aware o f the d ig n ity and w orth o f t h e i r own n a tu r e . To Emerson, every man is a god w ith u n lim it e d c a p a c i t y fo r r e a l i z i n g t r u t h , b e a u ty , and goodness. But lik e Prom etheus, men are gods in c h a in s . E nslaved by dogmas and d o c t r i n e s , devoured by f e a r and g u i l t , men c rin g e and crawl through l i f e f u l l o f s e l f - h a t r e d . Soon s e l f - h a t r e d tu rn s to h a tr e d and f e a r o f o t h e r s - - j e a l o u s y , b i g o t r y , and p r e j u d ic e . Members of one r e l i g i o n p e r s e c u te those o f a n o th e r, one race e n sla v e s a n o th e r , one c o u n try wages war a g a in s t a n o th e r , and d i s i l l u s i o n e d s o u ls say t h a t men are only anim als and deserve t h e i r w retch ed f a t e . T r a d i t i o n a l r h e t o r i c a l t h e o r ie s and th e p h ilo so p h y on which they are based assume t h a t man is a c r e a tu r e to be m a n ip u la ted , o rd e re d and c o n t r o l l e d . Whether i t was A r i s t o t l e t e l l i n g A thenians how to m anipulate j u r i e s and p o l i t i c a l assem b lies in o rd e r to achieve power and fame; S t. A ugustine t e l l i n g p re a c h e rs how to win c o n v erts f o r th e Church; o r modern a u th o rs o f speech t e x t s t e l l i n g s tu d e n ts how to r e i n f o r c e b e l i e f s o r change audience a t t i t u d e s - - the emphasis is always th e same. I t is assumed t h a t the sp ea k e r o r a u th o r w i l l t r y to le ad men's th o u g h ts and 342 d i r e c t t h e i r a c tio n s in the way t h a t h£ sees b e s t . Em erson's r h e t o r i c a l th eo ry i s unique and s i g n i f i c a n t, because i t is based on th e assum ption t h a t man is n o t an anim al to be m an ip u lated b u t a god to be f r e e d . Emerson d id n o t t r y to in fo rm , co n v in ce, o r p ersu ad e men to accept h is id e a s , b u t r a t h e r , he aimed to provoke men i n t o b r e a k ing th e chains of f e a r and dogma, so t h a t they m ight walk l i k e gods through th e w orld of id e a s . Emerson's p o p u l a r i t y as a l e c t u r e r and w r i t e r was due n o t to a dynamic p la tfo rm p e r s o n a l i t y , d e b atin g s k i l l , s e l e c t i o n of tim ely i s s u e s , b e a u t i f u l language, or even th e b u ild in g of a com pelling image. W ithout in any way low ering h is own d i g n i t y , Emer son made men f e e l t h a t they were j u s t as good as he was, as good as any man. Here was a f r i e n d and an e q u a l, a d d r e s s ing n o t the country fa rm e r, sh o p k eep er, or humble s e r v a n t woman b u t the s le e p in g god w ith in us a l l . The sim ple id e a of h is r h e t o r i c was to make men aware of t h e i r own worth and b e au ty . What g r e a t e r id e a could th e r e be? B I B L I O G R A P H Y 343 BIBLIOGRAPHY Prim ary Sources Books Emerson, Ralph Waldo. N a tu r e . E d ite d by Kenneth W alter Cameron. New Y ork: S c h o la r 's F a c sim ile s § R e p r in ts , 1940. _________ . Ralph Waldo Emerson, R e p r e s e n ta tiv e S e le c tio n s w ith I n tr o d u c t i o n , B ib lio g ra p h y , and N o te s . E d ite d by F r e d e r ic I . C a rp e n te r. New York: American Book . Company, 19 34. _________ . S e le c t Essays o f Ralph Waldo Emerson. E d ite d by Henry Van Dyke. New York: American Book Company, 1907. _________ . The Complete Essays and O ther W ritin g s of Ralph Waldo Emerson. E d ite d by Brooks A tk in so n . New Y ork: Modern L ib ra r y , 1950. _________ . The Complete Works o f Ralph Waldo Emerson. E d ite d by Edward Waldo Emerson. 12 vo1s . B o sto n : Houghton M if f li n Company, 1904-1904. __________. The Complete W ritin g s o f Ralph Waldo Emerson. 2 v o l s . 4th ed. New York: W m. H. Wise § C o ., 1930. _________ . The E a rly L e c tu re s of Ralph Waldo Emerson. E d ite d by Stephen E. Whicher, R obert E. S p i l l e r , and W allace E. W illiam s. 2 v o ls . Cambridge: Belknap P ress o f Harvard U n iv e r s ity , 1964-1966. _________ . The H eart of Em erson's J o u r n a l s . E d ite d by B lis s P e rry . B o sto n : Houghton M i f f l i n Company, 1937. _________ . The J o u rn a ls and M iscellan eo u s Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson^ E d ite d by W illiam H. Gilman and O th e r s . 7 v o ls . Cambridge: Belknap P ress o f H arvard U n iv e r s ity , 1960-1968. 344 345 Emerson, Ralph Waldo. The J o u rn a ls o f Ralph Waldo Emerson E d ite d by Edward Waldo Emerson and Waldo Emerson Forbes. 10 v o ls . Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n Com pany, 1909-1912. _________ . The L e t t e r s o f Ralph Waldo Emerson. E d ite d by Ralph L. Rusk. 6 v o ls . New York: Columbia U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1939. _________ . Two U npublished Essays by Ralph Waldo Emerson. E d ite d by Edward E. H ale, Bos t o n : Lampson, Wolfe and Co. , 1896. _________ . 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Creator Cloer, Roberta Kay (author)

Core Title Emerson'S Philosophy Of Rhetoric

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Speech

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Speech Communication

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Fisher, Walter R. (committee chair), McBath, James H. (committee member), Miller, Howard S. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-396700

Unique identifier UC11361380

Identifier 7013651.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-396700 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7013651.pdf

Dmrecord 396700

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Cloer, Roberta Kay

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA