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Multi-Channel, Multi-Image Teaching Of Synthesis Skills In Eleventh-Grade United States History

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Multi-Channel, Multi-Image Teaching Of Synthesis Skills In Eleventh-Grade United States History

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Content This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 70-356 LOMBARD, Emanuel Sphardi, 1925- MULTI-CHANNEL, MULTI-IMAGE TEACHING OF SYNTHESIS SKILLS IN ELEVENTH GRADE UNITED STATES HISTORY. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1969 Education, theory and practice University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan MULTI CHANNEL, MULTI-IMAGE TEACHING OF SYNTHESIS SKILLS IN ELEVENTH GRADE UNITED STATES HISTORY by Emanuel Sphardi Lombard A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) June 1969 UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA T H E G RA D U A TE SCH O O L. U N IV ER SIT Y PA RK L O S A N G E L E S, C A L IFO R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by under the direction of h.J^ei. Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Dean Date ----- DISSERTATION COMMITTEE, I Chairman C^rOULKjij^, n ' O J L U ^ TABLE OF CONTENTS Page i I. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................ lj I A. The p ro b lem ............................................................................................ 2| B. T erm s.......................................................................................................... 2\ C. Importance of the S tu d y ........................................................................ 3 'j i E. LITERATURE S U R V E Y ............................................................................... 4i i Historical Causality ....................................................................................... 4i Synthesis.............................................................................................................. 6 History Through F i l m .................................................................................. 7 Single and Multiple Channel Capacity....................................................... 8 Single and Multiple Screen Presentations................................................... 12 Message D e s ig n ................................ 14 Experimentation................................................................................................ 21 1. Content — History................................................................................... 21 2. Process — S y n th e sis............................................................................. 23 3. Format — Single and Multiple Channel L earn in g......................... 24 Summary.............................................................................................................. 27 III. PLAN OF THE EX PER IM EN T................................................................. 28 A. Experimental D e sig n ............................................................................... 29 B. Experimental C o n tr o ls.......................................................................... 31 IV. PREPARATION OF THE STIMULUS........................................................ 37 V. MEASURING IN STRU M EN T...................................................................... 46 i VI. CONDUCTING THE EX PER IM E N T...................................................... 58 A. Procedures F o llo w ed ................................ ..58 B. Preparation of the Data ................................................... 60 C. Statistical Analyses................................................................................... 61 |VII. FINDINGS ........................................................................................ 63 i 1 A. Description of Test R esu lts................................................................. 63 ■ B. Analysis of Test R e s u lts ...................................................................... 63 f i ;Vm. INTERPRETATION........................................................................................ 70 j I ; A. Summary.............................................. 70 [ t I _________ ii---------------: ---------------------------------------------- Page B. Conclusions................................................................................................. 76 C. D iscu ssio n ................................................................................................. 79 D. Recom mendations.................................................................................... 86 R E FER EN C E S......................................... 90 APPENDICES I : ......................................................................................................... 95 a iii LIST OF TABLES Table Page ■ 1 Chronology of Multiple Screen and Wide Screen Techniques . * . 15 i 2 A Validity Table (Fairfax High S c h o o l)..................................... 51 1 3 A Validity Table (Westchester High S c h o o l)........................... . . . 52 i 4 One-way Analysis of Variance....................................................... . . . 64 5 Analysis of Variance: Three Groups of Boys for STEP, SCAT, and S Y N th e sis..................................................................... . . . 66 6 Analysis of Variance: Three Groups of Girls for STEP, SCAT, and S Y N th e sis..................................................................... i i . . . . 66 7 F-ratios: Three-screen and Control Girls..................................... . . . . 67 8 Covariate Analysis of G r o u p s ....................................................... . . . . 68 9 Analysis of Covariance Among Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 10 F-ratio One-Screen and Control: SY N thesis............................ . . . . 73 11 F-ratio Three-Screen and Control: S Y N th e sis....................... . . . . 74 12 F-ratio Three-Screen and Control: S T E P ................................ . . . . 74 13 F-ratio Three-Screen and Control Girls: SYNthesis . . . . . . . . 74 14 F-ratio Three-Screen and Control Girls: S T E P ....................... . . . . 75 15 Analysis of Variance, Variable: STEP. . ................................. 16 Analysis of Variance, Variable: S Y N th esis..................................... . . . 76 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 Experimental Variables 2 Treatment of Groups . CHAPTER I j INTRODUCTION | ! An instructional technologist, attempting to design a large group instructional program using media, may choose to develop a multi-screen presenta tion. Because elaborate visual formats are commonly employed at conventions, fairs, lightshows, and theatricals, it is reasonable that the technologist, also, could ! i utilize these effective techniques. Although the multi-screen presentation has the appeal of novelty, its effectiveness could be open to question. Teachers and administrators ask ■whether the increased cost, beyond providing pleasure, results in more effective and efficient learning. Furthermore, according to Saettler (1968) the answer to this question and guidelines to the well-designed - presentation do not appear in the technologist’s literature: . . .Instructional design is still an unexplored theoretical and re search frontier, and at this stage in the-history of instructional technology the function of an “educational designer” has yet to be clarified, let alone implemented in instructional practice beyond the most rudimentary beginnings. There are no texts or guide- , lines appropriate for use in designing instructional media-messages, ; nor do we possess a sufficient body of experimental knowledge | which can provide a basis for such design. (P. 115) j | Rather than operate purely on the assumption that three-screen pre- i j sentations are better, let the technologist, by testing his learners and the mate* j rials, gain in sensitivity to the delicate relationships of some of the variables in . learners and in message design. As a simple beginning, the instructional technol- | ogist may choose to construct single and three-screen versions of the same materials, show the presentations to students, and measure the effects on their motivation and their learning. Once sensitized and alerted to the variables involved, he should be; a more effective instructional technologist and the people he serves better teachers and learners. A. The Problem The study was conducted in order to determine if a simultaneous three-screen visual presentation of ideas was a more effective format than a serial, single-screen presentation for teaching a complex intellectual operation. The inde pendent variable was non-linearity compared with linearity as a presentation format: the visuals and the verbal content remained approximately the same; only the sim ultaneous versus serial feature in the presentation was different. Measurement was made for the effect of this variable upon learning by measuring the increased skill in relating historical events by causal connection. The measurement was made chiefly at Bloom’s (1956) cognitive level: synthesis, and occurred the day following presentation of the stimulus materials. In order ; to isolate the effects of the experimental variable from intra-group variabilities, descriptive data from STEP and SCAT scores were collected on each subject. ; B. Terms j Linear or single-screen. “A form of film presentation in which images were presented separately on the screen, each image disappeared as the suc- ; ceeding image appeared.” (Allen and Cooney, 1963) Non-linear or multi-screen. i ' ! A form of film, presentation in which images are presented cumulat- ! ively and simultaneously on the screen . . . In this form of film ’ presentation cp.ch succeeding image appearing on the screen remains | visible while other images appear next to it. This accumulation is__________ 3 varied in rate of change and number of images throughout the length of the film. (Allen and Cooney, 1963.) 1 Multi-media. Combined and simultaneous use of more than one | medium or item of audio-visual equipment in presentation. In this instance, one j I or several slide projectors and a tape-recorder were used. Causal relation of historic events. “An existential dependence between events which are contemporaneous but which are not necessarily coterm inous in time.” (Mandelbaum, 1938) C. Importance of the Study There are increasing uses of multi-screen and multi-media presenta tions in business, industry, the military, and educational circles. It is unlikely that affective and cognitive learning, or any of the subdivisions within each of them, car ■ be isolated; nonetheless, the objective in this study was to determine whether or not learning at the synthesis level may be improved through use of multi-screen techniques. ! CHAPTER n LITERATURE SURVEY Chapter II reports research relevant to this study and includes mate rial on: historical causality, synthesis, history through film, single and multiple channel capacity, single and multiple-screen presentations, and message design. Historical Causality The curricular content of this study was history, more precisely the period in American history from 1860 to 1910; agrarianism to industrialism. Although history provided the knowledge base (Bloom, 1956), the instructional objective for this study was to teach the learner to see the “cause and effect” ' relationships of events within that knowledge base. * Historians, however, have not agreed as to what is meant by “cause and effect.” Teggart (1962) reflected a somewhat pervasive attitude when he defined causation as having a temporal nature and being “distinguishable fromoorder in time.” Causation,.then, appeared by his definition, to be linear or sequential. I [White (1965) expressed another point of view when he wrote: i j Since our main concern is with historical causation, it is imperative | to point out that even if one is sometimes able to state the whole i Millian cause of a physical or chemical event, it is rare for an his torian to be able to state it in the case of an event like the Ameri- | can Civil War, the English Civil War, the French Revolution, or the j New Deal. . . The fact is that ordinary men and historians. . . often call an item the cause of an event even when they know that it is | not the only factor contributing to the event. (Pp. 112-118) jBury (Mandelbaum, 1938) explained the collapse of Roman power as the conse- ! jquences of a “series of contingent events." Although Bury stated that causes may be either states or events, his view of causation remained serial. j Other definitions appeared less precise, for some historians believed j i \ that the concept of causality is infinitely complex, with causes overlapping effect, j j Thus the cause may be occurring simultaneously or non-linearly with the effect. j Herbert Spenser reflected a more contemporary philosophy which finds causation no longer requiring either a single or a final cause. With this turn to puralism, causality becomes multidimensional and dynamic. Lerner (1965) explained that the scientific treatment of causality views the cause of the events as the set of conditions which determines the event, ' and he found, further, that these conditions are contemporary with the effect. The cause of the disease, for example, is not antecedent to the appearance of the disease, if by antecedent we mean it produced the disease and then ceased to determine it. (P. 226) The causal relation is one of existential dependence between events which are cotemporaneous but which are not necessarily cotermi nous in time. (Pp. 2B1-2B2) Once one recognizes that technical historical understanding has its roots in - the common soil of everyday experience, the arbitrary dis tinction between historical analysis and historical synthesis must disappear. (P. 272) Mandelbaum (1938) felt this point of view was desirable and that it would be | helpful in eliminating the relativists’ contention that historical synthesis introduced i J valuational viewpoints. I It may be that the concept of cause and effect can be taught most efficiently and effectively only in relation to its assigned definition. In this study, Mandelbaum’ s definition of historical synthesis is held throughout. It shaped the design of the presentation, the choice of items, the design of the test instrument, and the scoring of the t e s t . __________________________________________________ 6 | I Synthesis j Bloom (1956) commented on the educational significance of cuitivat- | ! I ing skills in synthesis when he asserted: f Typically, they emphasize personal expression as against passive participation, and independence of thought and action as against j dependence. Personal expression is viewed as an end in itself: j it is living at its best and fullest. Independence of thought and j action are defended largely on social grounds: a democratic j society thrives best when its citizens are able to arrive at their own decisions rather than when someone in authority does the thinking for them. (P. 166) In a study of tests and final examinations in social studies subjects collected from 63 high schools in Southern California, Cox and Unks (1967) reported: 4562 items from 74 randomly selected tests were classified accord ing to the Taxonomy subcategories. The data were analyzed with respect to fuur subject fields: Geography, American History, World History and U.S. Government. Resultant data indicate (1) approx imately 98% of the items were classified in category 1.00, Knowl edge; and 75% of the total items fell in one subcategory of Knowl edge: Knowledge of Specific Facts, (2) The 2.3% of the items which fell above category 1.00 were classified in only two of the upper five categories: 2.00, Comprehension (2.0%) and 3.00, Appli cation (0.3%). (P. 16) Synthesis represents the fifth level, which is relatively high in the Taxonomy hierarchy, with Kropp (1966) believing it may be even higher; thus it I is not likely to receive much attention in the classroom. McLuhan (1964) wrote at great length regarding the place of the ! ] I synthesis process. He stated that combinations of media created a synthesis that | permitted a freedom of the senses. Lowenfeld (1962) explained that the creative i . . process is stimulated through the meaningful combination of several elements to something new. He called it synthesis. i . _ _ 7 Berlyne (1965) commented about the number of those concerned j with directed thinking who have distinguished the process of analysis which pre- j I | ceded synthesis and noted particularly Pavlov’ s contention that analysis and synthe- j • j sis were the two main functions of the cerebral cortex. He added, “processes j I that contribute directly to the composition of a solution chain clearly belong to j j j the synthetic phase.” In spite of this concern, research is needed that will estab- i Iish the optimal time and format for presenting the student with help by giving him easier, subsidiary problems in which is attention may be drawn to the princi ple necessary for solving the main problem. i History Through Film Although history, per se, was not of central importance to this study, the combination of history, synthesis, and film was with history as the sub ject matter and synthesis as a cognitive process in instructional film presentations. During the twenties, several studies were done in the United States by McCIusky (1932), Knowlton and Tilton (1929) and Wood and Freeman (1929). An extensive study by Consitt (1931) was done in England under the auspices of ; the Historical Association with the Aid of Carnegie .United Kingdom Trustees. Out- i comes of these studies showed that films increased learning in causal relationships j j (Knowlton, 1929) and in social and economic relationships (Wise, 1939). Today, social studies films form the backbone of many educational j film libraries. The Los Angeles County Superintendent of Schools Office, Educar t tional Media Division, listed more than 1,000 social studies films in its 1967 j secondary and college catalogue which contained approximately 2,600 titles. (Film I Catalog for Secondary Schools and Colleges, 1967.) No doubt film will continue to be an important dimensiomof history instruction at many cognitive and affect ive levels. This study is intended to find another and more effective filmic means j i for teaching the synthesis of historical ideas. j Single and Multiple Channel Capacity i Research that investigated the effect of single and multiple channels has been considerable. Representative, perhaps, of the two ends of the “channel capacity continuum” are Travers (1964) and McLuhan (1964), the former exchew- ! ing channel overload and interference, the latter encouraging a flooding of the sen- sorium. Broadbent (1958), Attneave (1959), Travers (1964), and Cherry (1966) contended that human perception permitted individuals to attent through a single channel at a time. Accordingly, the individual, in perceiving a simultaneous aural- ; visual message, switches, alternating from listening to looking. It was felt that, during the switching no learning took place and that switching depressed learning. ! On the other hand, McLuhan (1964) held that the entire sensorium came into play when presented with some stimuli such as the “cool” medium of “low definition” television. Hartman (1961) stated that there was a need for controlled experi- . mental variation of the cognitive relationships under multiple channel stimulus con- i ditions. He believed that until this was done, it would be impossible to go beyonc ! the generalizations that information in both channels either facilitates or interferes. [ Heinich (1966) believed that, by making information available sim- j | ultaneously, problems of channel capacity, information storage, and information i processing might be overcome. Postman and Bruner (1949) took the position that J ] the dimension of perceptual multiplicity, itself, must have more quantitative and 9 qualitative investigation. Until that is done, they held that the concept of set would remain a nebulous category and perception theory inadequate. 1 i Allen and Cooney (1968) observed that in the search for novelty i and greater efficiency for message delivery, it was found that humans can accom- ; modate great quantities of information at relatively high speeds. Bruner (1949) said it this way: Perception is a form of adaptive behavior. . . .perception involves a selection of the organism of a relatively small fraction of the multiplicity of potential stimuli to which it is exposed at any moment in time. (P. 300) In the selection process, individuals responded to that part of the environment that was relatively rich in information in preference to one that was relatively poor (Berlyne, 1958). He cautioned, however, that too little complexity means insipid ity and too much means bewilderment. Cognitive scanning and searching opera tions involved something more than simply a search for component letters and something less than a full appreciation of the whole (Neisser, 1964). Hartman (1961) found that the most difficult information, pictorial, i was the least affected by interference when information was also coming over ; another channel. Heinich (1966) suggested further that a compelling visual may ; block the reception of auditory information; Arnheim reflected that the thematic i structure of the image provided the organizing principle (Allen and Cooney, 1963). j McLuhan (1964) emphasized relevancy as the prime selection factor. He felt that I | prior assumptions of teachers often filtered out information that had relevancy for j students. i The instructional materials used in this study (a single-screen slide- j | tape and a three-screen slide-tape presentation) represented a multiple channel 10 I format in that they required both aural and visual capacities of the viewer. It i should be noted that the. single-screen presentation could become single channel, 1 j merely by removing either the narration or the visuals. It was considerably less i i clear if the three-screen presentation would, in the same sense, become a single j channel message by eliminating the sound. The central issue in the present study was message design for chan- | nel capacity. If the sound was the same in the alternative presentations and the i visuals were the same, varying only in the number of visuals provided simultaneous ly, then the variable in the presentations was the capacity of the visual channel, the amount of visual information that could be processed without interference from the aural channel. Moles (1966) suggested that such displays as Cinerama be called “polydimensional messages.” He observed that dance, movies, and animated car toons had spatial characteristics as compared with the temporal messages conveyed by speech and music. According to Arnheim (1954), message perception was related to the individual’s capacity for complexity. In other words, inasmuch as each student has his own limited ability to process complex stimuli, it is imperative that the message be designed accordingly. He also stated that visuals must explain the sub ject, not merely expose the student to it. In analyzing visual education and the j statements of propostions through visual language, he wrote: i . . . a comparison is made by means of visible similarity and par- j allelism. A sequence is shown by continuity. Cause and effect pre- ! suppose an observable proximity in time or space or both. Change | is no change if it is only talked about, not seen. (P. 20) It is fairly axiomatic in programmed instruction, that learning pro gresses from what is known to what is unknown, from what is easy to what is difficult. Various strategies are available for this purpose. The difficulty level of vocabulary can be manipulated. Familiar ver- j bal examples can be used to explicate what is new and abstract. To | facilitate ease of response, the mode chosen for response practice can : be varied. In the REP style of programming, for example, Gropper I requires production responses and these, in turn, only after recogni tion responses. As in the case of these various strategies, the use of visuals in early stages of learning can similarly serve to make responses less difficult. (P. 60) Newman (1962) believed that the capacity for complexity could be increased. He found that the individual attended to stimuli more complex by some increment than his preferred level. According to Allen and Cooney (1963), he proposed the use of “pacer stimuli” that would force the subject’s preference to higher levels o f complexity. Postman and Bruner (1949) reported that multiple sets impaired the efficiency of perceptual selectivity and caused slower recognition of the stimulus and a disruption of the normal course of perceptual learning. Hartman (1961) found that, when multiple channels were required for presenting simultaneous information, interference would occur when the infor mation in the various channels was unrelated or when the cognitive difficulty or rate of presentation was such that successful alternation among channels was not possible. In discussing the effect of information complexity on perception, he dis covered that, as information became more difficult or complex, the individual became less successful in alternating between channels and finally abandoned one of the competing channels. Reed’ s (1946) findings showed that correct concept formation decreased very rapidly as the complexity of the stimuli increased. There was also 12 a shift to illogical thinking with selection being influenced by primary frequency j and sensory similarity of contiguous stimuli. ! Although there has been much agreement that, in a narrated visual, i | one channel reinforces the message of the other, Hartman (1961) suggested that I j the problem area might be: The general expectation is that multiple presentations do not produce increases in* learning over single channel presentations unless the situa- j tion in which the learning is elicited also contains the additional cues. Under conditions of channel interference, because learning is divided, optimal learning is not possible in any of the channels. . .The assump tion that adding units increases communication effectiveness is a very dangerous one. The case where a learned association exists between pictorial and verbal stimuli is a common one and deserves considerable experimentation. . .the interference or facilitation depending on the nature of the association, (P. 41) Single and Multiple Screen Presentations Traditionally, instructional films have been projected on a single screen, whereby the images were presented sequentially or linearly to the viewer. Numerous studies . have been made which indicate that films can teach subject matter (Allen, I960). The investigator undertook the present study with the assumption that films can teach “knowledge” as described by Bloom (1956). The purpose of the study was to find out if a tape-slide program presented non-linearly was more effective in teaching the complex skill of synthesis than a tape-slide program presented in the ' traditional linear format. I Investigation showed that the creative use of film has led to exper- i indentation with multiple screen projection. Initially entertainment and commercial | enterprises were the first to use this format. Allen and Cooney (1963) have reported the following historical uses of multiple screen projection. IB 1. In the mid-twenties Abel Gance separated the screen into three divisions for the film, “Napolean.” 2. Eastman Kodak introduced a-three-screen display, “Vitorama,” at the 1939 World’s Fair. 3. In 1947, Life magazine developed a multi-image followed soon after by a Seagram Distiller’s Corporation production that used five 15 x 40 screens and “live” drama to illustrate merchandis ing concepts. 4. By 1958, international interest in multi-image film was evident at the Brussels Exhibition at which Mosby reported widespread use of such film presentations in nearly every pavilion. 5. The fifties also saw Disney Studio designing “Circarama” which used eleven screens arranged in a circle with 16 mm film pro jected synchronously. 6. Eventually, applications of the multiple screen format were made to meet training and educational needs. The five screen “Tele- mation” technique developed by the Teleprompter Corporation in the fifties was being used in ninety military and government installations as well as at the university level. 7. Kenneth Isaccs, Illinois Institute of Technology, projected the “Matrix,” a twelve foot cube with four images being projected on each of the interior six surfaces. In evaluating this insti tutional technique, subject matter specialists agreed that because. . .lectures, books, and movies are constructed linearly and must rely on flashbacks for establishing relationships, they have instructional limitations. Matrix, on the other hand, through the dimension of simultaneity, produces a communica tion of greater fidelity. (Pp. 9-12) During the present decade, multi-screen installations have become more , common for large group presentations. California State College at Hayward, University j of Southern California, University of Wisconsin, Indiana State University, and the North Division of Niles Township Community High Schools, Skokie, Illinois, are just a few of t \ the many educational institutions with such installations. Douglas Space Center at Hunt- | ington Beach, California, has at least two multiple rear-screen facilities installed in brief- j ing rooms.______________________________________________________________________ Perrin (1969) has investigated the following events and cited the addi tional developments in the chronology of multiple screen and wide screen techniques. | Perrin’s study explained and described the developments listed in Table 1. i Message Design : The following considerations had implications for the effective design of audio-visual messages for instructional purposes: Gropper (1966) recommended that visual stimuli, because of their physi cal attributes, required manipulation so that viewers responded to their relevant rather I than their irrelevant dimensions. He found that instruction could be enhanced when it combined aural and visual messages if the language described concretely rather than I explained what was occurring visually, Gropper also felt that elements of redundancy should be removed, a process, he stated, that involved no loss of information. In addition, ' aspects of transmission that provided the least information should be discarded. Conway’s (1967) investigation of prior “single channel” versus “multiple : channel” research found that experimental conclusions gave a slight edge to results indica ting the instructional efficacy of two channels over one channel in communicating infor mation. Saettler (1968) found the entire area of instructional design to be an unexplored theoretical and research frontier. He pointed out that a sufficient body of experimental j knowledge which could provide a basis for such a design does not exist. A complex visual that contains irrelevant information, even though it can j be described as “realistic,” may not be as instructionally appropriate as an abstract linear I i i visual that is much less realistic. (Dwyer, 1967) Allen and Cooney (1963), on the other hand, argued that: Film whose signals, signs, and symbols have high degrees of similarity to the objects and situations which they represent will be more Table 1. Chronology of Multiple {Screen and Wide Screen Techniques Date Process Inventor Country No. Screens Configuration pre 1900 Eidoloscope Latham 1 wide Prestwich 1 wide Mutograph 1 wide Friese Green England 1 wide 1900 Photorama Lumiere France 1 wide Cinorama France 360° 1910 Natural-Vision U.S.A. 1 wide 1927 Polyvision Abel Gance France 3 horizontal 1927 hypergonar Claude France 3 horizontal-small side screens Grandeur Fox Studios U.S.A. 1 wide 1929 An amorphic Chretien France 1 wide 1930 Anamorphot Newcomber U.S.A. 1 wide 1937 VITARAMA Waller U.S.A. 5 cruciform I ™ * tn Date Process Inventor Country No. Screens Configuration 1937 Palace of Light France 2 panoramic .1939 Vitarama Eastman Kodak U.S.A. 3 horizontal 1940 Gunner Trainer Waller U.S.A. 5 cruciform 1947 Picturama Life Magazine U.SA. 1948 Vitarama Seagrams U.S.A. 5 1952 Cinerama Waller U.S.A. 3 square 1953 Cinemascope Fox Studios U.S.A. 1 side-by-side an amorphic 1955 Dynamic Frame Alvey England 1 variable 1955 Circarama Ralke/Disney U.SA. 11 masks — 360° 1956 Cinemascope 55 Todd-AO M GM Camera 65 Fox Studios Todd M GM U.S.A. U.S.A. U.S.A. 1 1 1 wide wide wide 1956 Panorama Russia 3 square side by side 1957 Cinemiracle National Theatre U.S.A. 3 square side-by-side 1957 Polycran Radok Radok Sloboda Czechoslovakia 8 plus live three levels 2-4-2 ^ O'! Date Process Inventor Country No. Screens Configuration 1958 Aviorama Moretti Italy 3 three levels 1958 Lanteme Magique Radok, Alfred Czechoslovakia 1 plus live 1958 Space Theatre Cohen U.S.A. various light show 1959 Septorama Eames U.S.A. 7 3 above 1959 Kin op anaram a Russia 22 11 360° 11 4 below 1959 Smith-Camey Smith & Carney U.SA. 3 45°-90°-45° 1961 Circarama Ralke/Disney U.SA. 9 one projector, 360° (Prev. 11 screens) 1962 Eames U.S.A. 6 three above three below 1962 Circlerama U.SA. 1 360° dome 1964 Polyvision Wurgler Switzerland 57 360° dome 1964 New York State Pavilion Dupont Pavilion IBM Pavilion Eames U.SA. 1964 Circlerama Novres U.SA. 1 360° dome 1965 Scenery Projection Nagy U.SA. 3 to 7 opera stage 1967 Labyrinth Kalaedoscope Circlevision 360 Diapolyecran Diavision Kino-Automat Polyvision Variable Cinema Pressure Vessel Polar Life British Pavilion, Canada Pavilion, etc., EXPO included more than twenty-five presentations 18 effective for most instructional purposes than signs, symbols, and sig nals having low degrees of similarity. (P. 9) | Research attention has also been given to such factors as minimum length j of a series and the placement of details within a structural pattern (Allen and Cooney, 1963); fading from a concrete example to an abstract representation (Miller, 1963); and the ambiguity of some pictures (Hartman, 1961). The topic of prior information is of great interest to statistical informa- 1 tion theorists (Shannon and Weaver, 1948) as well as others (Moles, 1966) concerned with communication in the arts. It seems that even when a receiver does not know exactly what messages may be coming to him, he is not in complete ignorance. As Cherry (1966) pointed out, we have no trouble in reading: BEST WISHES FOR VERY HAPPP BIRFDAY ; Previous experience with a predictable sequence provides the individual with prior infor mation. If the sequence is wholly predictable, it is probable that no information is received. In this experimental study, the stimulus materials contained a restricted amount of new information. What new information was present, however, was in the : message design. Redundancy was the design dimension used to provide an important i source of information. Through use of redundancy and repetition, too, a schema was i | produced which should assist in processing the information (Vernon, 1955). i i Vernon’s research indicated that a schema could interfere as well as faci litate recognition of stimuli. She felt that Bartlett’s definition of a schema could be usefully applied: .. .an active organization of past reactions or past experiences, which must always be supposed to be operating in any well-adapted organic response. That is, whenever there is any order or regularity of behavior,__________ 19 a particular response is possible only because it is related to other sim ilar responses which have been serially organized, yet which operate, not simply as individual members coming one after another, but as a unitary mass. (P. 181) \ i Vernon also found that schemata had value when subjects were given pre- i liminary instruction on technical details, and when they understood it, their subsequent performance was better than the uninstructed. Vernon felt that individual selection in the perceptual environment was, in part, determined schematically but indicated that many j experiments in perception did not allow existing schemata to operate. Also advocating the use of some kind of “cognitive map” was Brook (Reeves, 1965) who described the value of simultaneous use of three screens: . . .now every possible permutation is open to you. For the first time a device exists which does break the inner consistency of each frame. You can have Hamlet and the battlements of Elsinore, he can be on the right hand screen, while the other two show a rampart and the sea. Or to go back to Glouster.. .if you like you can give' one of your screens over to a caption, a subtitle. The realistic action could be in colour, the other in black and white, with a caption on the third screen. You could have a statistic or a cartoon parodying the photographic action. (P. 70) Of course, a schema can be depicted visually both linearly and non-linearly, and here Brook, as one of the leading British theatrical and film directors, specified some of the advantages he saw in the non-linear approach. Of interest to message designers is the effect of audience variability. According to Allen and Cooney (1963): When individuals gather into audiences, their collective variability may be assessed by conducting profile analyses. Profiles of the responses to the same message by several audiences were said to show “surprising concur rence.” (P. 9) Moles (1966) seemed to be in agreement when he stated that: Artistic multiple messages are generally collective messages transmitted from a collective micro-group to a larger group of receiving subjects situated in a field of common influence. The preceding condition* of 20 intelligibility is more imperative here than for the single messages addressed to a mass of isolated individuals. (P. 189) j •Establishing subordination schemes for the repertoire of symbols j and their respective content prepares the way for programming digital computers functioning statistically, to realize models of the perception of sensory messages. (P. 189) j 1 One criticism often leveled againt media research is that the data i 3 j comes from paper and pencil test results. Hartman (1961) pointed out that repro- ] I duclion or recall is frequently used in measuring learning but that because repro- i i duction of visual information is difficult, recognition was a more satisfactory cri terion. The stimulus generalization-iconicity-theory postulated that learning of pre sented information increased as the testing situation becomes more similar to the presentation situation. Hartman seemed to have serious doubts about the results of experimental evidence that tested the learning of pictorial information by means of verbal descriptions approximate to it. He also stated: The experimental models which are the bases of our conceptualiza tion of the multiple channel learning process lack the richness of detail and the complexity of organization of real life communica tion. The difference between model and reality make‘the extrap olation of experimental results difficult. (P. 253) The present investigator considered a pictorial test mode, but felt that since students were not accustomed to the three-screen format, an independent ; variable in the study, a pictorial test mode might introduce yet another indepen dent variable. For this reason, a traditional paper-pencil test was used. i j Allen and Cooney (1963) concluded that there were times when a I non-linear format was best for teaching a mixture of facts and concepts and that a i ! linear format was best for conveying facts. Experimentation No experimentation was located that combined as many as two of | the variables being examined by this study. Since the variables did not appear in j combination, the alternative was to examine the research corresponding to each of | the variables separately. Experiments have been done on all of the following var iables: 1. Using Film to Teach History J E l s 2. Synthesis as an Intellectual Skill 3. Single and Multiple Channel Learning 4. Characteristics of Message Design for Instructional Purposes 5. Linearity and Non-linearity in Film Instruction 1 These topics will be reported in three categories: 1. Content (history) 2. Process (synthesis) 3. Format (single and multiple channel learning, characteristics of message design for instructional purposes, and linearity and non-linearity in film instruction) I. Content— History | In 1924, Freeman reported the results of McClusky’s fourteen exper- | i iments which compared the effectiveness of various methods of visual instruction. I A total of 649 pupils in grades four to eight acted as subjects. Fifteen out of twenty of McClusky’ s conclusions based on the fourteen experiments stated that | i | when verbid explanations were added to the visual presentation, learning was sup- ! erior to the silent film presentation, per se. " ' ' 22 i The 1929 experiments of Rnowlton and Tilton measured the con- j i tribution of motion pictures to enrichment, to retention, and to the creation of j interest in history. Five hundred and twenty-one seventh grade pupils were sub- | jects. Results were determined by a series of four tests which called for specific ! j information regarding time, historical geography and people as well as questions ' which elicited knowledge of the interaction of events or causal relationships; and j I interrelationships other than time. Knowlton found the experimental group using ! r film gain exceeded the control group (no film) gain by 19 per cent. The greater gain of the experimental group consisted of learning about, in descending order, causal relationships, persons, and places. The experimental group gained less of worthwhile time knowledge, but gained twice as many worthwhile causal relation ships not frequently known by history teachers. (P. 87) The 1929 studies of Wood and Freeman^ measuring the value of motion pictures as a regular part of classroom instruction, involved nearly 11,000 ; children in grades four to nine. About 7,500 of these students were in geography classes. Pupils were given tests consisting of 100 multiple choice items, and the results showed the experimental group excelled the control group by a “substantial and significant margin.” “It appears that in geography, 72 per cent of the exper- | imental group gained more than the average gain of the control group.” | Similar studies were being conducted outside of the United States as : well. In England, under the auspices of the Historical Association with the Aid of | the Carnegie United Kingdom Trustees, Consitt (1931) conducted experiments to [ j determine the value of films in teaching history. Five hundred and four subjects I | ten to fourteen years of age, participated. Based on test results, Consitt concluded that: 23 The film, rightly used, gives no facile impression of history. It is \ a stepping-stone to the exploration of manifold problems. It awakens \ intellectual curiosity and so kindles interest that it predisposes the | child willingly to attack questions the solution of which trains his j judgment and develops his critical faculty. And, after seeing the film, the child feels so conversant with the facts that he has greater I confidence in making his first tentative judgments upon men and j their acts. (P. 201) j Ten years later, another American study which examined the effects of teaching history aided by motion pictures was made by Wise (1939). After ! testing nearly 1,000 eleventh graders in their American history classes, Wise found j a significant gain was..made by the experimental group as measured by tests con structed for the study. The greatest difference in gain was made on the third part of the tests which indicated that film contributed most to those phases of history that were concerned with people, causal relationships, and social and economic relations. 2. Process — Synthesis The intellectual process with which this study concerned itself was that of synthesis. Bloom (1956) was instrumental in developing the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain in which synthesis was dis- \ cussed and defined. The book included illustrative items for testing synthesis. • Bloom used the professional evaluation of a large group of college and secondary school teachers, administrators, curriculum directors, and educational research spe cialists in evaluating the Taxonomy and the appropriateness of the illustrative items. | Research on the validity of the Taxonomy was practically non existent until the Kropp and Stoker study of 1966. In an attempt to establish the validity of the Bloom hierarchy of objectives, Kropp and Stoker constructed I test items for each of the six categories. About 1,600 students at each grade_____ level from nine through twelve participated in this study. In preparing the tests, the investigators reported that the project j staff had much difficulty in writing and classifying both evaluation and synthesis | items when using a multiple choice format. The staff felt that the quality of the j synthesis items could have been improved if more time had been available for try ing different techniques for writing this kind of item. Kropp found!!that the test results generally supported the predicted order except for a systematic reversal of means on the synthesis and evaluation subtests. B. Format — Single and Multiple Channel Learning Hartman’ s study (1961) involving 1,184 university freshman, was designed to test recognition learning under multiple channel presentation and test ing conditions. The experiments presented information in the audio, pictorial, and print channels simultaneously and were then tested on- the same variations of com binations of three channels. Information was intended to be redundant between the audio and print channels and positively related between the verbal and pic- : torial channels. Hartman found that: 1. Multiple channel presentations do not produce increases in learning over single channel presentations unless the testing situation also contains the necessary additional cues. 2. Redundant information in the audio and print channels is more effective in producing learning than the same information in either channel alone. 3. When there is interference between! the pictorial and verbal information, the most difficult information. . .(pictorial) is least affected. (P. 42) | Research related to sensory modes has supplied useful information i j for this study. McCormick (1957) condensed the following findings from 25 Henneman’s experiment of 1950: 1. Auditory stimuli are essentially temporal in nature. . . Visual stimuli, however, are characteristically spatial. 2. Auditory stimuli typically arrive sequentially in time, whereas visual stimuli may be presented either sequen tially or simultaneously. 3. . . .auditory stimuli. . .have poor ‘referability,’ meaning that they usually cannot be kept continuously before the observer, although they can be repeated periodi cally. Visual stimuli offer good referability, because the information usually can be ‘stored’ in the display. 4. The ‘selectivity’ of messages in speech offers a time advantage since the pertinent information is already selected for the receiver. With visual stimuli, how ever, searching for information may be necessary, as in looking for information from charts, tables, maps. 5. The rate of transmission of speech is limited to the speaking rate, whereas visual presentations can be faster. (P. 427) It may be argued that visuals appearing on three screens simultaneously produce a more complex stimulus than a visual appearing on a single screen. In 1945, Reed experimented to discover the extent to which the formation and retention of con cepts was a function of the stimuli from which they were derived. He used a : total of ninety junior college students enrolled in psychology courses who worked ; with nonsense syllables. Test results indicated that the amount of effort to learn ; increases in almost a straight line manner as the complexity increases. Further, as | the complexity of the stimuli increased, the quality of the subjects’ learning ! | switched from logical to illogical with subjects using such factors as primacy, fre- i | quency, and sensory similarity of contiguous stimuli (Reed, 1946) The stimulus { materials in the present experiment have been : kept at an almost irreducible level ! I | of simplicity so that the demands of the three-screen presentation will not detract 26 | | from formation or retention of the concept of historical synthesis. | Concern for lack of information regarding the effects of perceptual j behavior of variation in one dimension of set: multiplicity, led Postman and Bruner to their 1948 experiment with twenty undergraduate students. There were two parts to the experiment. In the single set series, a tachistoscope presented two words from which the subject was to identify a color word. In the multiple i set series, two words were presented in the same way, but this time contained ■ both a color and a food word. The subjects were to identify either one as j 1 ! quickly as possible. Results of the test showed that: (1) the multiplicity of set impairs the efficiency of perceptual selectivity, (2) subjects fail to benefit from practice, (3) multiple set slows down subjects’ attempts at meaningful interpreta- ; tion of stimuli, (4) multiple set produces a more diffuse orientation toward stimuli. In 1947, Vernon carried out an experiment with a number of airmen in which she presented, tachistoscopically, a series of bizarre pictures concluding with a simple picture of an airman in a cockpit. Vernon found that several of the men failed to recognize the last picture, and she attributed it to a “set” or “schema” they had developed. She then hypothesized that if the experiment had ; been repeated often enough, the men might have developed an appropriate schema I related to this situation. This experiment suggested why Bruner had difficulty in i ! identifying the Harvard bicycle rack he used almost daily when it was presented to him on a motion picture screen: Although the beginning footage was badly out of focus and was finally brought into sharp focus, Bruner commented on how the early set produced by an ambiguous stimuli was scarcely dislodgeable, even when 27 the ambiguity was removed. i Allen and Cooney (1963) condensed some research carried out by i i Claude Malandin which is reproduced here because of its relevancy for this study: j He investigated children’s ability to interpret a series of graphic images. Each of the two hundred children in four primary classes saw three short, silent, filmstrips, after which each child was asked to explain what he had seen. Then he has an oppor tunity to see and comment upon each frame separately. It was found that the younger children could not relate the successive images logically one to another. Therefore in conclusion Malandin (no date) wrote: It would seem desirable to divide a story into two or three essential stages. The images relating to each of these stages could be regrouped onto a single slide and projected simultaneously before being analyzed success ively. The child could thus read the images at his own rhythm, take more time on the more difficult images, and go back. The disposition of the images side by side could help the child to establish logical links among the images. (P. 16) Summary A large body of relevant information was reviewed in order to determine which theories and trends as well as experimentation might assist in the design of the present experiment. Historical causality was seen as contemporan- i eous events linked non-linearly; synthesis was seen as relationships newly recognized i by the student; the effectiveness of film as a vehicle of history instruction has i * been supported by extensive research for more than forty years; there is much research suggesting some of the dimensions of both intra and inter-channel capacity j j and interference. Multiple-screen film presentations have had a long history result- ! j ing in technological capabilities that have yet to be fully exploited. Message design I research and principles suggest that learners are highly variable in how and at what | ! . rate they decode messages.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- CHAPTER III : J PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENT j The experiment was designed to provide data that would help to j i clarify the scanty and inconclusive research that has been reported on the instruc- I tional effectiveness of three-screen presentations. The subject matter or content of the presentations involved the years 1860 to 1910 in United States history often i described as agrarianism to industrialism. The experimental subjects were eleventh grade history students. Instructional objectives were specified and criterion items were developed and validated. Two tape-slide presentations on the subject matter, agrarianism to industrialism, were designed and shown to each of two groups who were then tested. A third group received only the test and acted as the control group. Data on the students in the two presentation groups and the control group were compared statistically so as to identify any significant differences in the effects of the presentations. It was hypothesized that there would be no dif- ; ferences. The effects of each presentation on learning were measured by test- ; ing for student gains in comprehension and in synthesis as defined by Bloom i (1956). The data on the comprehension test indicated that the groups of students i | came to the experiment with the same average comprehension of the information i i j contained in the presentations and the synthesis test. This made the groups com- parable in basic knowledge and comprehension and equal in the average group’s ability to recognize relationships. The test population consisted of three intact classes of United States history students who had been randomly assigned to their classes by the counsel ing office. The viewing and the testing situations were uniformly poor with respect to such environmental variables as light, noise, and temperature levels. Extra-experimental information such as introductions and instructions were kept uniform with a test being given on the day following the film-slide presentation. ! The data were compared by an analysis of variance. A. Experimental Design This study utilized a 3 x 2 design studying several combinations in the same experiment. The distribution of the experimental variables studies is shown in Figure 1. LINEAR (L) NON-LINEAR (NL) CONTROL (c) Figure 1. Experimental Variables Format Variables (L:NL). Linear (L) and non-linear (NL) variations i ; in format were differences principally in the manner of presenting a series of pro- i Ijected images. i I The single-screen or linear (L) presentation format consisted of a i ( ! | series of ninety-five 35 mm slides with an accompanying taped, fourteen-minute i i I r ___________________________ __________________________________ BOYS & GIRLS BOYS GIRLS narrative. The information was concerned with multiple, causal relationships in j United States history. Although ninety-five frames were used, there were only twenty-eight different visuals repeated within die sequences. Seven of the twenty- j eight reappeared seven times; another eleven appeared twice each; and others j appeared fewer times. (See Appendix G) The linear format presented single images serially so that any accum- i ulation occurred only in the memories of each experimental subject. The tape- slide presentation in the non-linear (multi-screen) format | | I presented the same twenty-eight visuals as multiple images cumulative and simul taneously on three screens. However, the outside screens held their images while the center screen presented a series of changing images. Students could thus re- 1 scan, relate, and reassociate visual patterns with the developing informational struc ture of the film whose information load was also concerned with multiple causal ' relationships. Thus, visual content was “bunched;” that is, images accumulated to fill the screens. Outside screens held fixed images while the center screen images changed until a given sequence or schema was completed; then each sequence was : separated from each succeeding sequence by a brief rest period of imageless, dar- kened screen, whereupon a new sequence repeated the schema. Early sequences in leach tape-slide presentation presented images at a slower rate of succession or i accumulation than sequences later in the tape-slide presentation. In this way, oppor tunity was given each student to learn to manage what might be unfamiliar units, schema, and mode of presentation. The sound track was very similar to that of the linear presentation; however, the non-linear format contained more lengthy comments or questions and took two minutes longer than the linear presentation. Dependent Variable. The dependent variable in the study was learning. In order j I to enhance the generality of the study, the measures of learning were based upon ; Bloom’s (1956) categories within the cognitive domain. Specifically, students were I [ asked to give evidence of their learning by synthesizing a number of seemingly discrete events. They were charged •with meeting Bloom’s fifth cognitive level: [ 5.30 Derivation of a set of abstract relations: In this sub-category we include objectives that require the student to produce, or derive, a set of abstract relations. There seem to be two somewhat different kinds of tasks here: (I) those in which the student begins with: concrete data or phenomena and which he must somehow either classify or explain . . . The first of these types of tasks may take the form of classifying certain phenomena. In effect, the student is to study the phenom ena, or facts based upon them, and them come up with a logically consistent scheme for classifying or organizing them. The scheme should adequately account for the relations existing among the range of phenomena. (P. 171) Synthesis was measured by the test instrument given to a control group and to treatment groups, the scores of the former being subtracted from those of the latter. B. Experimental Controls Controls applied in the study included the collection of data i | descriptive of the selected populations of the groups, verification of the compara- i ! bility of the populations of the groups, collection of data descriptive of the environment, and establishment of the comparability of equipment, and facilities during presentation. j Criteria for Selecting the Experimental Population I In order to increase the generalizability of results, it was desirable 32 to obtain subject groups that did not present extremes on the continua of eco-: I nomic status, cultural background, or intelligence as indicated by I.Q. scores. j Although this might have been done better by sampling responses of subjects in a \ variety of schools and school districts, for practical purposes of this study, a j i single school district and a single school within that district was chosen as repre- i sentative of the norm. Required was a sufficient number of appropriate classes of j students and suitable facilities for conducting the experiment. j I j Representativeness. Because it might prove difficult to find a com munity in the Los Angeles vicinity that could be generally recognized as typical, it was determined that any community that met the following criteria, for purposes of this experiment, would be considered representative: the community was not largely a bed-room community, not chiefly an industrial town, but included both light and heavy industry, included service and manufacturing enterprises, included | diverse social, cultural and ethnic groups, and represented the economic and social middle class heavily. Results of earlier attempts to validate the instruments and -procedures strongly suggested that the experimenter avoid disproportionately large representation of any ethnic or economic group that might skew the final results. Facilities and Controls. The facilities for visual and audio aspects of : ,the two presentations and for testing the students in the three groups had to be icomparable. The requirements that identical stimulus environments be provided i j jfor the presentation necessitated the movement of one group, the single-screen I group, from its regular classroom fifty feet away. Testing took place in the reg ularly assigned rooms, all very similar rooms, in the same wing of the school. 33 Access. The objectives of the experiment could be pursued only with the willingness of supervisory staff and teachers to grant the experimenter access to the groups on two successive days. Despite the limited instructional j j time available, the supervisory staff acknowledged the potential value of the exper- j iment to the district and provided the researcher with access to data on students, namely STEP and SCAT scores. Size. Three groups of students were needed for the experiment with a minimum of thirty-five students per group so that attrition and missing data would permit the acquisition of completed experimental data on at least : thirty students per group to provide enough degrees of freedom for a t-comparison or z distribution. Characteristics of the Population. The Inglewood School District of Los Angeles County, California, was selected as the suitable experimental school | system. It met all the criteria listed previously in this chapter. In addition, it ; was convenient geographically; and importantly, the supervisory staff members were keenly interested in the study and offered willing cooperation in meeting the ; requirements for access and control. A total of 447 students participated in the experiment, eighty-five I of whom were from the Inglewood School District. To establish procedures, test | the presentation, and develop the measurement instrument, the presentation was ! given to two large groups of eleventh graders at a high school in Los Aneeles City. i | One group contained 143 students, the other 129 students. The completed pre- j sentations and test instruments were given to ninety students in another Los | Angeles high school to test for reliability and validity. Only the data gathered at Inglewood School District was employed for the final results of this study. i Distribution of Population Among Films. Inasmuch as the students had been randomly assigned to their classes, the three classes were treated as equal j and interchangeable. The determining factor as to which class received which J treatment and which was to be the control hinged on the extensive logistical requirements for setting up the necessary equipment for a multi-screen presentation. Characteristics of the Film Groups. Data descriptive of the popula tion were analyzed to verify the randomness of student assignment and to deter mine whether there were any major deviations among the groups. The data included students’ mean scores by group provided by the high school counselor’s offices on computer print-out sheets. Test data included were for STEP and for SCAT. The STEP, Sequential Test of Educational Pro gress, provides scores in six different fields, among them is social studies. This last score is based on student success in reading and interpreting of maps, charts, graphs, cartoons, pictures, and diagrams also seeing relationships among basic facts, terms, trends, and concepts learned. The SCAT, School and College Ability Test, measures academic apti tude to predict success in college. It measures verbal understanding chiefly. In Figure 2, Groups 1, 2, and 3 are intact experimental and control groups of boys and girls; groups 4, 5, and 6 are the boys only from each of the groups 1,2, and 3 respectively; groups 7, 8, and 9 are the girls only from each of the groups 1, 2, and 3 respectively. Group 1 (composed of Group 4 [boys] and Group 7 [girls]) saw the single-screen tape-slide presentation; Group 2, composed of Group 5 [boys] and Group Day 1 Day 2 1 boys and girls one-screen Treatment Synthesis Test 4 boys 4 * 1 1 7 girls 4 9 1 4 2 boys and girls three-screen treatment 4 9 5 boys 9 4 4 4 8 girls 4 4 9 4 3 boys and girls no treatment 1 4 6 boys 1 9 9 9 9 girls 1 9 1 9 Figure 2. Treatment of Groups Group 8 [girls] saw the three-screen tape-slide presentation; Group 3, composed of Group 6 [boys] and Group 9 [girls] saw no presentation but took the written , synthesis test, and, as a control group, provided test scores to be compared with the post-presentation test scores to be compared with the post-presentation test, scores of Groups 1 and 2. j Control Group. The first of the two days of the experiment, the ; control group (Group 3) attended class and saw no presentation; Groups 1 and 2 j saw tape-slide presentations. On the second of the two days, all groups took the j same synthesis test. The scores that Group 3 obtained were to be compared with i those that Groups 1 and 2 obtained. Group 1, single-screen, turned out to be i I ' ' ; much smaller than had been requested, but it was the only other comparable group available at the school meeting during the morning hours. The comparison of the data provided in the synthesis test was to serve as a relational index of the effect on learning produced by a single-screen presentation or by a three-screen presenta tion with respect to the test given. Environment Although controls over the environment were desirable, the physical ! situation allowed for very little control. All that can be said for environmental control is that conditions were fairly uniform in all groups involved in the experi ment with respect to space, light, sound, inside temperature, and outside weather. Presentation The controls exercised in the presentation of the one and the three- screen tape-slide offerings were a standardization of the basic projection system, the size of screen and images, and sound level. In order to gain information regarding the comparative instructional effectiveness of the single (linear) and the three-screen (non-linear) presentation, two such tape-slide programs were developed to teach representative and equivalent groups of eleventh grade students to interrelate historical events. The presentation and testing sessions were controlled for equivalent features of physical setting; the dependent variable, learning, was measured by a pencil and paper test. 37 CHAPTER IV PREPARATION OF THE STIMULUS | The stimulus materials consisted of alternative tape-slide prescnta- j tions — one, single screen, employing a linear format in which one image replaced j another; the other, three screen, employing a non-linear or cumulative-simultaneous I ! presentation of as many as three visuals at one time. The visuals were for the ■ most part black and white photographs, charts, and cartoons copied chiefly from j textbooks. A 35mm sin^e lens reflex camera using Kodachrome II type A film was used to make the 35mm slide transparencies. All of the visuals employed in the single screen presentation also appeared in the multi-screen presentation plus an additional six. The narrations were taped and pulsed to advance the slides auto matically. Both presentations were developed so that they were similar in all respects except in format: the use of the single and three screens. The narra tions were different only insofar as retaining three images on the three screens provided a sufficiently stable cognitive map for the subject so that some addi tional verbal information could be included in the script. Cinematic, musical, aesthetic, and all other manner of affective appeals were eschewed scrupulously in order to better isolate the independent variable, single-screen versus three-screen cognitive learning of synthesis skills. Selection of Subject Matter j i Several members of the social studies department at Fairfax High School in Los Angeles were interviewed. The teachers were asked which concept j 38 was the most difficult for students to learn. It appeared that the period in United States history from 1860 to 1910 or 1914 presented particular problems to many of these students at Fairfax despite their academic powers. The problem was how did the U.S., essentially an agrarian society at the beginning of the Civil I i War, become a highly industrialized society by 1914? How did this transforma tion occur? What caused this change? Answering this question became the con- i tent of the presentations and one of the problems of the research study. I I Several historical works that covered this issue were studied and j some of the contributing elements were isolated. Also investigated were several of the standard high school tests on U.S. history published by the major U.S. text book publishers. (See Appendix D.) It became clear that the one large change . i | consisted of no less than seven interrelated changes. It was hypothesized that the aspect of complex interrelationships caused the students the most difficulty and that in order for them to understand this concept in U.S. history, those interrela tionships would have to be clarified. Such interrelationships are in the nature of | synthesis as described by Benjamin Bloom et al (1956) in the Taxonomy of i i i Educational Objectives; Cognitive Domain and represent a rather high order of intellectual management of information. If the relative instructional effectiveness of one and three-screens was at issue, it was hypothesized that this kind of exper- i ! imental situation would support the use of three-screens in the characterization of complex and abstract relationships. i The independent variable, learning, would be measured by the ; students’ pairing causally related events occurring within the historical period , described in the presentation. The events chosen are those presented in the ; 39 standard eleventh grade United States history textbooks published by the major 1 I j textbook publishers. The central concept of the presentation, however — the causal inter- | relationship of the changes and events of the period — was not clearly developed j in any of the texts consulted. | The specified objective, that the students be able to identify those j j historical events that had a causal relationship, dictated that all other didactic ! information and all affective and incidental materials be removed from the script. | The conceptual and visual content were tried out on several student groups over ' an extended period of time until they were simplified and reduced to the essen- t tial message and visuals presented in the Appendix C. The visuals were so simple i S and were repeated so often in new configurations that they became more symbolic j than representational, and by design, the new configurations assumed a redundant j character. Preparation of the scripts ! ’ ! The objective of the presentation was to teach the cognitive skill of historical synthesis as it applied to seven major changes of the period 1860-1910 | that together constituted the change from agrarianism to industrialism. These were: “population,” “business,” “agriculture,” “city,” “transportation,” “communication,” ; and “the U.S. becomes a world power.” Because a cognitive process was to be measured, it was necessary to teach a cognitive process and to remove affective appeals as much as possible. Two presentations were developed: one, single ' screen, the other, three screen. 40 More than sixty books were examined for useful visuals and script ideas. More than 300 35mm slide transparencies were made and a series of seven 814 by 10 overhead projectuals were prepared. The concept of interrelated change was outlined in loose script form. The slides were arranged on a large light board which permitted examination, j ; arrangement, and rearrangement of the slides as might best inform the student. A i detailed narrative was written and typed as a film script. The slides, reproduced i ' as 35mm black and white contact prints, were mounted alongside the narrative | script and shown to two professors at the University of Southern California, specialists in U.S. history: Doyce B. Nunis, Jr., and Joseph Boskin. They were | kind enough to review and to offer their general approval of the content and i approach employed. | Five copies of the above-mentioned, verbal-visual script were made up for selected student use with an accompanying check sheet that would allow ; i them to indicate which slides or groups of slides confused them. Also developed \ were questionnaires intended for all the students to indicate their feelings about i the lesson and the particular items that they failed to understand. The informa- j tion was used to clarify the concepts and to develop a more effective presenta tion of those concepts as words and visuals. It took much discussion with I classes and much thought before the presentation could be simplified. j Reference to Appendix C will show that there were a few slides to typify each of several aspects of agrarianism and industrialism. There was a series ! of three slides that showed a Chinese wooden puzzle intact, half apart, and entirely apart intended to represent interrelated parts examined as comprising a 41 whole, selected parts removed, and the whole disassembled. There were seven interrelated changes; each change was characterized by two photograph1 ) represent ing the before and after of each change, one representing the condition before ! the change in 1860 and the other representing the condition after the change in i J 1910; each change was also introduced by a chart. Altogether there were 30 dif- | ferent visuals in each of the experimental presentations. i Each of the seven sequences began with the same pattern: (1) photo of change before, (2) photo of change after, (3) chart or graph; then followed an j “after” photo for each of the other six changes. A dark screen signaled the end I of one sequence and the beginning of the next. Each of the subsequent sequences i | repeated the identical pattern, introducing in turn each of the other six changes. i | The presentation had opened, and now it closed with slides of the Chinese wooden J j puzzle in three different stages of assembly: open, closing, and closed. These | represented the separate but interrelated changes that together, closed, constituted [ the larger change of agrarianism to industrialism, 1860 — 1910. Both the one and the three screen presentations were similar in con- j ceptual organization, in visual pattern and in script. They shared the identical visuals except that the three-screen form used many more duplicates than did the i 1 one-screen. j The single screen presentation required that several of the 30 slides i had to be duplicated because they reappeared as many as seven times so that the completed one-screen presentation consisted of 86 slides transparencies and 9 blanks. The three-screen presentation consisted of the same 30 different slides ! which when duplicated totalled 102 slides and 16 blanks. I 42 Each of the seven historical changes was represented in two visuals: one-suggestive of and representing a particular changes such as in cities in the year 1860 and the other suggestive of and representing that change in the year 1910. In the! three-screen presentation, such before (1860) and after (1910) visuals were held on the outside screens while all the other six changes were suc cessively reviewed on the center screen, compared, and related to the visuals of changes on the outside screens. This resulted in what is referred to as a non linear or cumulative format, one that permitted an accumulated impression to be made. In the single-screen presentation, the before and after visuals were used j only when each of the seven specific changes was introduced. The changes and their relationships were referred to in a linear or sequential format that did not | permit an accumulated impression to be made. It had been’ hypothesized that I i I | the non-linear, three-screen format would provide a significant teaching advantage j over the same conceptual and organizational structure taking place linearly on a i single screen. The Narrative The narrative provided the minimum information necessary to make i the patterns of visuals instructive. (See Appendix A.) The student was encour- i aged to build his own cognitive map. At first, the narrative was developed slowly and explicitly. At the end of each of the seven sequences of change with the screen dark, a question was posed. With each succeeding modified repetition of the pattern, the narrative became brief in the expectation that the student was 43 increasingly able to see the relationships for himself and reply to the questions at the close of each of the seven sequences. The student was encouraged to build his own cognitive map of the central concept of interrelationships. In the presentation, the interrelationships were both largely explicit; in the test, they were only implicit and the student would have to identify explicit relationships that he had not been taught or known before. The task would be one of syn thesizing events with which he was familiar but had never before seen as being causally connected. The narrations were very similar in both presentations. Preparing the Media Materials for Presentation The media and accessories employed consisted of am Ampex two- track stereo tape-deck with two amplifier-speakers, three Carousel AV900 35 mm slide projectors with zoom lenses, and a multi-Medex Programmer. Three match ing eight foot radiant screens were used for the 3-screen presentation, one for the single-screen presentation. See Appendix E for diagram of set-up. Preparing the Film-Slides Inasmuch as the one-screen presentation consisted of 95 slides and blanks and a Carousel tray has a capacity of only 80 slides, two trays and pro jectors had to be set up for the single-screen presentation. Slides 1 to 80 would be projected from the first projector whereupon automatically the second projec tor would follow up with slides 81 to 95. The three-screen presentation was set up in three Carousel trays on three Carousel projectors. Preparing the Audiotape — Track One Music and narration were recorded on track one. The Carousel 44, T t projectors were set up with screens outside a sound booth featuring a glass wall. In order to eliminate the undesirable recording of the sounds of the slide projec tor motors and slide advance, tape recording was done inside the sound booth while the investigator read the narration and advanced the Carousel slide projector by remote control. The music at the start and close of both presentations — Vivaldi’s The Seasons — was used to indicate the sound level to the technician on the occasion of the experiment. Its purpose was also to prepare students for the onset of their experimental treatments. Preparing the Audiotape — Track Two All the equipment was set up: projectors, tape recorder, control box. All the materials were ready as well: slides, magnetic tape, and plastic punch tape. The punch tape had been punched beforehand to conform to the slide changes required. As the audiotape music and narrative played on track one, a pulse was put on the second track by pressing the pulse button on the control box. This procedure advanced the slides, as previously punch taped, to the end of the program. The presentation was run through several times to establish that every thing was correctly synchronized and would operate as programmed. Summary The stimulus materials, 35 mm slides made from textbooks illustra tions and audio-tape narratives, were arranged to teach students to interrelate events in United States history of the period 1860-1910. The learning task was specified and the presentations were reviewed by subject matter experts at the 45 high school and university levels. Once set, the materials were processed into automated tape-slide presentations in single and three-screen formats. 46 | CHAPTER V | MEASURING INSTRUMENT j In keeping with some of the current media design theory (Briggs, 1967), instructional objectives and criterion test items were developed before the ! instructional presentation was designed. The objectives had been validated with classroom teachers, subject matter specialists at the university level, and literature in the subject area of history. The criterion test items were validated and revised after use with 230 students. The presentation was evaluated, criticized, and revised in two cycles before it was finally used. The test instrument contained two parts; the first was designed to ; measure student comprehension; the second, student skill in synthesis. To estab lish the validity of the test assumed the validity of Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy which is supported substantially by Kropp and Stoker (1966) and Cox and Unks (1967) in a series of studies and in a bibliography on this very point. Inasmuch as each level in the hierarchy of the Taxonomy is usually assumed to include the : levels below, comprehension includes knowledge; synthesis includes analysis, applica- ; tion, comprehension, and knowledge. \ The first test was intended to assess the students’ knowledge of the historical events of the period that appeared in the second test, on synthesis. I Students’ comprehension of the significance of those historical events was verified i j by their performance of a task that required them to classify the events by sev- I i j eral categories. Demonstration of this learning required performances that included i j “knowledge” specified as: 47 1.23 — Knowledge of Classifications and Categories Knowledge of the classes, sets, divisions, and arrangements which are regarded as fundamental or useful for a given subject field, purpose, argument, or problem. — As a subject field, problem, or topic becomes well developed, individuals working on it find it useful to develop classifications and categories which help to struc ture and systematize the phenomena. These classifications and cate gories are likely to have an arbitrary and artificial flavor to the student, although the specialist finds them useful and even funda mental for his work. The individual student is expected to know j these classifications and to know when they are appropriate. ! (P. 71) It was assumed that each student would need knowledge in order i ' to comprehend and would need to comprehend in order to apply, to analyze, and i i I to synthesize. ! The first, short instrument was designed to test the first two kinds | of learning in the Bloom hierarchy, knowledge and comprehension. Of the three j categories of comprehension listed by Bloom, “Translation” seems most appropriate I j to the learning and test tasks of the first instrument: , For such thinking, a given term in a communication must symbolize for the individual a general concept or even an aggre gate of relevant ideas. An abstract idea may need to be trans formed to concrete or everyday terms to be useful in further thinking about some problem presented by the communication. Sometimes an extended part of a communication may need to be translated into briefer, or even more abstract, terms or symbols, to facilitate thinking. This type of translation may carry over into more complex behavior, such as analysis, synthesis or appli cation, when previous instruction has not made such translation explicit. On the other hand, when instruction has emphasized the particular points involved, the translation may be more akin to simple recall of knowledge. (P. 91) The second and principal test instrument for measuring synthesis skills of students required some elements of application, the third level of the tax onomy, particularly those aspects of application which call for: 48 C) taking a new alant on situations which to the group being tested are common and mundane. In highly technical areas, “common” problems may appear very uncommon to an outsider. Some fourth level, analysis skills, are called for in performing some of the learning and test tasks particularly in the analysis of relationships: Having identified the different elements within a communication, the reader still has the task of determining some of the major relationships among the elements as well as the relationships among the various parts of the communication. . . .Analysis would also include the relationships among the different kinds of evidence presented. At a more difficult level is likely to be the analysis of a communication into the parts which are essential to or which form the main thesis as contrasted with those parts or elements which may help to expand, develop, or support this thesis. Much of analysis of relationships may deal with the consistency of part to part, or element to element; or the relevance of elements or parts to the central idea or thesis in the communication. (P. 146) Some illustrative Educational Objectives included: Skill in comprehending the interrelationships among the ideas in a passage. Ability to distinguish cause-and-effect relationships from other sequen tial relationships. Ability to recognize the causal relations and the important and unim portant details in an historical account. Finally, the highest objective in the hierarchical scheme of cognition for purposes of this experiment is-synthesis, particularly: In the third sub-category, one may view the product of synthesis as primarily a set of abstract relations. The set of relations may be derived from an analysis of certain observed phenomena, in which case they may be considered possible relations, or hypoth eses to be tested; or they may be derived from an analysis of relations among propositions or other symbolic representations, in which case they may be considered necessary relations, or deduc tions. The distinguishing feature of this sub-category is thus the 49 attempt to derive abstract relations from a detailed analysis. The relations themselves are not explicit from the start; they must be discovered or deduced. (Bloom, p. 164.) Validity The content validity of the test developed by using the content of the textbooks employed in 11th grade U.S. history. The concept of the change from agrarianism to industrialism was posed as a critical teaching problem by the teachers themselves; the concept of the seven changes involved in the shift from agrarianism^ to industrialism was observed in several standard U.S. history texts; the events and personalities of the period were selected from the chapter sections and subheadings of those standard history books. (Appendix D.) In all these respects the concepts and content of the test was assumed to be valid. The validity of the test with respect to the events and personalities was further examined by having each of the 20 items categorized as representing one of the seven kinds of change. Among the twenty items, three were included that acted as a con trol on guessing. The three items were those that were obscure enough or inap propriate enough to be considered incorrect. Forty-nine items, events, and personalities from the period 1860 to 1910, were selected from standard textbooks. Six additional ones were selected that might be considered incorrect. Seventeen items were randomly selected from the forty-nine relevant items and], three from the six irrelevant items. The titles of the items in some cases were adjusted to be more generally recognizable and to fit the format of the test with respect to the number of .words. '....................... 50 At various stages of development of the synthesis test, the comprehen sion test was given to students. Of the twenty items, the three incorrect items [were seldom responded to and when responses were made, they were almost always i plearly incorrect. It was the occasional as well as poor student who had less than I [ten of the seventeen correct. For the most part, students1 scores ranged from thir teen to fifteen. It is probably sufficient to say, for purposes of content validity, that the test items were important enough to be treated in detail in all the United States history books consulted. Each student was required to prove that the items on the comprehension test were familiar to him before he performed on the syn- | thesis test which included the same twenty historical events. | Ordinarily, students have as a part of their formal instruction in his tory the concept of historical cause rendered typically as “What were the causes of jthe Civil War?” Causal connections are generally not well developed at levels beyond jsause and effect. Cause and effect are usually not regarded as contemporary with each other, but as cause preceding and terminating before or as effect follows i(Mandelbaum, 1938). This may be seen as limiting the validity of the test inasmuch i ps nowhere can this view of causal relation be said to be taught with any consis- i tency. However, the presentation to the treatment groups do attempt to teach i interrelatedness of the changes that propelled the United States from agrarianism to industrialism. The highest possible score in the test for synthesis was 272 with one j student at Fairfax High School, in the test validation phase, achieving this maximum score. Several others achieved scores above 190. None of the Inglewood experi- I iental subjects achieved a score higher than 115. There are several possible explan-1 tions for the Inglewood groups, failure to achieve scores comparable with those at 51 Fairfax. These are discussed later. The significant aspect here is that the presen tations do attempt to teach the interrelatedness of events and the hypothesis was j that there would be a difference in scores between treatment groups solely because of the difference in effect of the linear (single-screen) and non-linear (three-screen) presentations on the subjects. Concurrent validity Several tests of groups were conducted to establish the concurrent validity of the test instrument prior to the experiment recorded here. Marks that teachers assigned students for their work in U.S. history related very closely in most cases to the scores students achieved on ■ the pre-test and even more closely to scores achieved on the post-test. In the experiment itself, there appeared to be a high degree of relationship between scores achieved on the synthesis test and those achieved on the STEP. Data collected from 17 subjects (at Fairfax High School) to examine the concurrent validity of the test instrument included students in 11th grade U.S. history, pre-test, and post-test scores: Table 2. A Validity Table (Fairfax High School) A 50-272* A 45-65 A 37-48 M 40-66 A 31-54 B 47-40 B 35-80 B 31-54 M 2 8 4 6 B 27-37 B 16-39 B 12-25 C 324:0 • C 29-29 C 18-22 M 23-18 C 13-26 52 Table 2. A Validity Table (Fairfax High School, Continued) D 19-22 D: 12-24 M 13-18 D 8-16 F 13-10 | In almost all cases there was improvement. *The top score on post test was not given full weight lest it misrepresent the probable mean improvement i for all A students. The emphasis was on the experimental 3-screen presentation rather than the test instrument and the number of subjects involved in the validation of jhe test instrument was only 17, but the range of scores and means on the pre and post-tests bore a clear relationship to the marks given the students in U.S. history. I I Another group of 39 students from Westchester High School provided lata on the pret-test only: Table 3. A Validity Table j ___________________ (Westchester High School), Continued ! A (M 42.6) 27, 31, 32, 32, 32, 34, 38, 41, 43, 46, 49, 50, 53, 59, 72. i B (M 38.7) 23, 23, 29, 32, 34, 37, 37, 42, 43, 52, 75. p (M 37) 22, 31, 32, 35, 38, 38, 41, 45, 52. D (M 23.1) 18, 21, 22,__32._____________ ; Again there appeared to be a clear relationship between student U.S. history mark and scores on pre-test. j Reliability j Tried out on over 450 students, all the 20 items were generally jecognized by most of the students. Successful recognition by students appeared to be related to their U.S. history scores and or social studies records. Conversely, 53 j those students who did very well on the comprehension test did well on the syn- ! thesis test and had good grades in social studies. There were no inconsistencies at the extremes that is, no very poor students did very well on the synthesis test, nor were there very good students who did poorly on the synthesis test. ! ! A correlation coefficient developed from data on 30 students from I f j Fairfax High School based on two test sessions using the same test before expos- i ; ure to a presentation resulted in r, Pearson product-moment correlation, of .96. i • Development j Formulation — Both presentations, single and three screens, attempted 1 to identify seven lands of changes and to show the interrelationship of these ; changes that occurred in the United States between 1860 and 1910. The changes f | included: population growth, business growth, agricultural growth, transportation | development, communications growth, city growth, the growth of the U.S. as a | world power. The subject matter is standard to the U.S. history textbooks com- ! monly used in the senior high schools (Appendix D), but the interrelationship of i j these changes is not commonly developed in these texts. The presentation was 1 f designed to suggest a causal interrelationship of these changes that together they constituted the change from agrarianism. This observation is made repeatedly in both the single and three-screen presentations. The presentation was intended to i i {stimulate the students to interrelate these changes. To test them by inquiring i whether the changes were interrelated would not have measured their increased skill in synthesis, but rather their factual knowledge at level one of Bloom’ s Taxonomy. Instead the students were provided with two test instruments calcu lated to measure, in the first case, levels one and two of the taxonomy, namely 54 knowledge and comprehension and, in the second case, three, four and chiefly five of die taxonomy namely application, analysis, and synthesis. Several of the standard history texts were examined and from those 1 i chapters dealing with the changes of the period 1860 to 1910, bold face topic i | headings relating to events of the period were copied down. Obscme events or | events that did not illustrate well the interrelationship of events or the possible | interrelationship might require a depth of knowledge unlikely for high school t ■ students were sifted off so that twenty suitable test items remained. | The subjects were to (1) identify each of these events as falling ' within each of the seven categories of change. The students’ knowledge or identi- i _ fication of the event was often essential to their ascertaining what its nature was and their comprehension of its significance was attested to by the change they thought the event most or best represented. Then the subjects were to (2) consider the second part of the test which consisted of the 20 events listed in a grid with the same 20 events listed ! both vertically down the left side and listed again in the same order across the i top. Subjects were to identify those events that could in any sense be said to have a causal relationship with each other. In this part of the test students were to put an x in each intersecting box o f the two events. The underlying assump- j i tion in the test was that all the events had some causal connection and that the : highest student achievement on this test would be to circle every letter in every square. Later, in order to guard against students’ guessing that all the items were \ ! related, three events were chosen in which the interrelationships were highly improbable, improbable because only the most careful of research and the most 55 tenuous of arguments could justify any kind of relationship between these events. The sample tests are to be found in Appendix F. Tryout evaluation I The tests were tried on approximately 300 students, data were | | gathered and examined but, with a poor return rate by teachers of the post-test, i | the results had little statistical significance. Moreover, the pre-test probably taught I the students by directing their attention to the purposes of the stimulus presenta- i . tion and therefore affected learning. It was decided to use a control group receiv- j ing no presentation in order to get norms on the test instrument for pre-test only. | Further, it was decided to include among the events, several that might serve as an indicator of student guessing. These events were of such nature that causal rela tionships were so limited that if students claimed to see a relationship, they could | be said to have guessed. | j Because the pre-test might be a teaching factor for the post-test by ! alerting students to what they should learn from the presentation, it was determined that the pre-test norms should be gathered from a control group that would not j see either presentation. This would perhaps be a better way of measuring gains in ■ score. After the revision, the test was tried out again with a class of 11th grade U.S. history students. ! Their U.S. history grades ranged from A’s through F’s, Their syn thesis test scores ranged from 25 to 92 with a mean of 55. I It should be noted that the groups used in the validation evaluation \ j j came from economically-advantaged communities. 56 Publication. The test was altered further only with respect to layout and typog raphy. In all other respects it remained the same. It was typed, pasted, photo- | graphed on an Itek and mimeographed on 11 x 17 inch white sheets of paper. | (Appendix F.) The large size sheet was chosen in order that crowding of the writ- k ■ten material would not result in reading difficulties for the students. The compre- ! jhension test was arranged in a vertical format; the synthesis test in a horizontal. 1 1 Instructions ! The investigator read the same set of instructions to all three groups ! jin order to reduce the possibility of any variable occurring from the use of dif- jferent test administrators. (See Appendix C for instructions.) ! j All scoring of the tests was performed by the investigator. Two plastic overlays which matched the grids on the tests were laid over each test. Where a student response was not desired, a transluscent colored ink mark covered the square; where a student response was desired, the square was clear. To mark the comprehension test, the plastic overlay was set over the student paper. Where the overlay was clear, all student marks were counted and totalled and constituted the student score. The synthesis test contains 20 squares running diagonally down and across the test sheet where letters intersected with each other: e.g., AA, BB, CC, etc., to TT. Response or lack of response in these squares was not credited or noted. All letters that were circled and that the plasfic overlay revealed clearly were totalled and became the score on the synthesis test. Those letters that students circled and appeared under the overlay colored squares were also 57 counted. Totalled, these represented a score of unaccepted responses. For the most part, they were not clearly wrong; they were selected for inclusion as examples of unsatisfactory and unlikely responses. It can be argued, in several instances, that some of the responses that the investigator had chosen to reject were indeed acceptable, e.g., E, H, K, Q. In most cases students responded in j such a way as to validate the assumption that E, H, K, and Q responses, the i j checks against guessing, were unlikely and unaccepted. Of the four hundred squares in the twenty by twenty grid there | were two hundred and seventy-six possible acceptable responses, twenty responses that are ignored because they intersect with themselves, and one hundred and four unacceptable responses. j The measuring instrument was designed to detect changes in synthesis skills of subjects after receiving alternate forms of stimulus materials. With two levels of measurement, at comprehension and at synthesis levels, adequate provision was made to ascertain whether the subjects understood the underlying meaning of the events whose implications they had to relate. The content of the tests and the presentations was validated with popular textbooks, as well as several high school and university instructors. Tryouts followed which led to changes in the procedures and in the test itself. Revision ! of instructions and publication of test completed preparation of the measuring instrument. 58 CHAPTER VI CONDUCTING THE EXPERIMENT The procedural details which were followed in conducting the exper iment are reviewed in this section. It includes the procedures, the preparation of i : the data, and the statistical analyses. t ; A. Procedures Followed i Many elements of the experiment have been discussed development- j ally in previous sections. These discussions were restricted necessarily to particular ] elements of the experimental structure and were left inadequately related to that j continuous and coherent series of events, the experiment. These events are j reviewed in two phases: pre-stimulus phase and stimulus and test phase. ! Pre-stimulus Phase i Arrangements. Before the tape-slide presentations were shown to the I j subjects, a variety of administrative, technical, and logical matters were planned and ■ i I confirmed. The intent and procedural requirements of the experiment were reviewed by the Director of Special Services of the Inglewood School District and approval for access and provision for facilities and time were granted by the Assistant-Principal for Instruction. i . - ... Duplicate sets of equipment were arranged for with Southwest j Regional Laboratory and the Audio-Visual Services section of the Department of Cinema, University of Southern California. Check-lists were drawn up to be used i in the final review of preparedness before moving to the site of the presentations j testings. j 59 Preparations on Site. The arranged schedule called for arrival at the: school one hour in advance of the first slide-tape presentation. Upon arrival, contact was made with the Vice-Principal for Instruction. The power cart was sent to the park- i f ' i jing area to pick up all the equipment related to the presentations. During the ] | hour, the projection equipment was set up as planned and light and sound levels | were checked carefully. i j Students arrived and took their assigned seats or, in some cases, made j adjustments in order to see the presentation better. The second presentation stu- j dents came into the presentation room with their teacher after roll was taken in I i I their regular classroom less than fifty feet away. They took whatever seats they p chose. When the presentation was completed, the students returned to their regu lar classroom. The number of students present for the tape-slide presentation was -sufficient for purposes of the experiment as requested. Stimulus and Test Phase These two aspects of the experiment proper included the tape-slide showings and a test given the day following the showing. Tape-Slide Showings. Each showing was preceded by identical instructions read by the same individual. The room lights were turned off, the tape recorder and (programmer were turned on and the presentation began. The sound amplifier and i j projector focuses had been preset. Immediately following the tape-slide presenta tion, the room lights were turned on again, and the students either resumed their activities in the classroom or returned to their regular classroom to resume their activities. 6° Teat Administration. Students were tested in their regularly assigned classroom in the small outside wing of the school. They were all tested on the same morn ing. Tests were distributed with instructions to keep tests face down and pencils down. Test instructions were read orally, test papers were turned face up, test instruction reading was completed and pencils were picked up. j < | Part one of the test was collected after five minutes and part two j jwas distributed face down. Further instructions were read orally to the class, pen- ! 'cils were picked up and the test begun. Twenty-two minutes later, pencils were j requested put down and tests face down. Tests were collected and students were i ! quiet until the end of the class hour, usually two or three minutes. B. Preparation of the Data Recording the Test Scores | The tests were kept together by group. There were three groups with 23, 31, and 30 test papers respectively. Each test paper had two parts: |(a) Comprehension warm-up test, (2) Synthesis test. All tests were scored by the investigator. A plastic overlay grid was prepared indicating unacceptable responses with transluscent marks made with a red ink felt marker. The comprehension tests were scored to make certain that students had the required minimum understanding of the events to be able to identify the interrelationships that constituted synthesis and therefore perform adequately the !operations required by the experiment and the synthesis test. All scores of number’ of acceptable and number of unacceptable responses were tabulated. i After scoring was completed, tests were selected at random and j rescored. The marking procedure was simple enough and proved reliably easy to ] 61 correct without error. Scores were later stated in terms 0 1 the number correct in Part I (in which, although there was room for 2 0 -responses, 17 positive responses consti tuted the top score inasmuch as the remaining 3 responses were checks against guessing) and the number correct in Part II (in which, although there was room E | for 400 responses, only 276 could be considered acceptable responses). | Recording Student Data. Descriptive data collected for each student included their sex, STEP, and SCAT scores as well as percentile scores on STEP and SCAT. jln those three instances where students’ STEP and SCAT scores were missing, the ! counselor involved was asked to extrapolate scores from the data at her disposal. In each case, the assigned scores were close to the mean for the groups to which I they belonged. | C. Statistical Analysis Most of the statistical analyses undertaken in this study, analysis of variance and covariance, could have been performei by hand. However, inasmuch as the services of the University of Southern California Computer Center were avail able for student use, it was determined to have this work computer performed. A library of suitable programs has been developed and used by hundreds of research j study statistical computations. All prepared programs are, of course, available for ! ; the inspection of all those interested in the reliability of the programs. i Analysis of variance as performed is described in'Wert, Neidt, and Ahman (1952). A mathematical description of the model used in this analysis may be found in Kempthome (1952). The analysis was used to establish the statistical differences among the experimental variables. The computer program that was used was developed by Hayward (1961). 62 To adjust the test scores for differences among the groups in STEP and SCAT scores, analysis of covariance was conducted using a BIMED program, BMD05V General linear hypothesis program, the February 4, 1966 version. ! Summary | Procedurally, arrangements were made with a school district for I | student subjects, for space, and for time. Other arrangements were made for j equipment and backup equipment; the site of the experiment was prepared and I i ' • adapted to the needs of the study. ; The presentations were given and the tests were given and scored. Student data were recorded and an analysis of variance was applied to the test and i student data. 63 CHAPTER VII FINDINGS j The results of the experiment follow: i j A- Description of Test Results j * Part I of the test, a comprehension test, Appendix F, consisted of a series of twenty items that were to be correctly labelled as being exemplary of one 1 or more of several changes. These data are reported for each of the three experi- i mental groups. The comprehension test results correlated loosely with STEP (social Studies achievement) scores which suggested that the twenty events were sufficiently familiar to the subjects for them to undertake the synthesis test leaving comprehen- Mon a dependent variable. Also included is Part II of the test, Appendix F, the synthesis con sisting of a series of twenty items running vertically on the x axis and intersect- jng with the same twenty items running horizontally on the y axis. The synthe sis test results showed the single-screen group performed somewhat better than the < j;ontrol and that the three-screen group performed significantly better than the con trol despite the fact that the subjects in the three-screen group fell significantly jelow the control and single-screen groups in STEP scores. This would indicate that to the .05 level of significance the three-screen group began with a disadvantage in : ts knowledge of the subject matter when compared with the control group and the >ne-screen group was at a disadvantage in STEP to the .10 level of significance. 3. Analysis of Test Results A BIMED program, BMD05V General linear hypothesis program, the 64 February 4, 1966 version was employed to process the data. Data from the three groups were analyzed as groups of boys and girls considered together and as sub groups of boys and girls separately. Included are means, s.d.’s and F-ratios for | each variable: STEP, SCAT, and SYNthesis test. Following this is a series of i | one-way variance analyses between individual groups as well as sub-groups; differ- i | ences were found that met the test of significance: the STEP and SYNthesis I j scores between groups 2 and 3 (combined boys and girls in three-screen and con- j i trol groups) and also STEP and SYNthesis scores between sub-groups 8 and 9 : (girls in three-screen and control groups). Table 4. One-way Analysis of Variance Variables Group 1 (N = 24) One-Screen Group 2 (N = 30) Three-Screen Group 3 (N = 31) Control X S.D. X S.D. X S.D. I' Ratios STEP (Soc. Stud) 281.6 13.6 281.0 12.0 287.5 10.3 2.7 3.11 2.37 SCAT (Verbal) 277.5 10.0 277.2 10.3 281.0 11.9 1.1 3.11 2.37 SYNthesis Test 57.3 32.2 62.2 25.6 46.6 21.9 2.8 3.11 2.37 Boys’ Grp 4 Group 5 Group 6 <N = = 11) (N = 18) (N = 12) F Ratios STEP (Soc. Stud) 278.6 13.8 282.8 12.5 286.9 7.2 1.4 3.25 2.45 SCAT (Verbal) 277.0 9.0 277.3 12.4 285.4 10.8 2.2 3.25 2.45 SYNthesis Test 62.5 32.2 62.5 25.8 52.5 22.5 .6 3.25 2.45 Girls’ Grp 7 Group 8 Group 9 (N==13) (N = 12) (N = 19) STEP (Soc. Stud) 284.0 13.3 278.2 10.9 287.8 12.0 2.3 3.23 2.44 SCAT (Verbal) 277.2 11.0 276.8 6.2 278.1 11.9 .6 3.23 2.44 SYNthesis Test 52.8 32.8 61.7 26.3 42.7 21.0 1.9 3.23 2.44 Examination of groups 1, 2, and 3 for STEP, social studies score, suggested that although an F-ratio of only 2.698 was achieved, not meeting the 3.11 required for .05 level of significance, the F-ratio did meet the .10 level of significance. This suggested that there was some difference among the three 65 groups that worked to the advantage of the control group. Groups 1, 2 and 3 were also different with respect to verbal scores, but in this case not even to the .10 level of significance. Differences among the groups again appeared to work to the slight advantage of the control i | group. j A further one-way analysis of variance using groups 1, 2 and 3 sug- j j gested a difference among the groups with respect to the independent variable, | ' synthesis test scores as an expression of learning. The F-ratio for synthesis scores i is 2.782 with a requirement of 3.11 at the .05 levels and 2.37 at the .10 level. j Differences among the groups were apparent when the two treat- I j ment groups were compared individually with the control group. Both treatment I t j groups were inferior to the control group in STEP at the .10 level. Between the j two treatment groups, there were no differences with respect to STEP or SCAT i scores. But when compared with the control group, both treatment groups are at 1 a possible disadvantage, at least at the .10 level: the boys in the one-screen group with respect to both STEP and SCAT; the boys in the three-screen group with respect to SCAT. A comparison of synthesis scores between the two treat- i ment groups reveals no difference. When comparing the three groups of boys and the three groups of | girls, the boys were different with respect to STEP scores, although not signifi- i cantly different, and not at all with respect to SCAT or SYNthesis. The F- ratios STEP, SCAT, and SYNthesis for the three groups of boys in the analysis of variance are shown in Table 5. 66 Table 5. Analysis of Variance: Three Groups of Boys for STEP, SCAT, and SYNthesis F-ratio .05 level of significance .10 level of significance STEP 1.446 3.25 2.45 SCAT 2.258 3.25 2.45 SYN .585 3.25 2.45 j The girls were different with respect to STEP scores and SYNthesis ; but not SCAT. In no case was the difference among the three groups significant i ‘ when the comparison was made with all three groups simultaneously. The F- ratios for STEP, SCAT, and SYNthesis for the three groups i 1 of girls in the analysis of variance are shown in Table 6. Table 6. Analysis of Variance: Three Groups of Girls for STEP, SCAT, and SYNthesis STEP 2.381 3.23 2.44 SCAT .060 3.23 2.44 SYN 1.937 3.23 2.44 Comparing individual treatment groups of boys with those of girls, I such as “one-screen boys” with “one-screen girls” and “three-screen boys” with “three-screen girls,” no differences appeared in the variables of STEP, SCAT or SYNthesis. Between control groups of boys and girls, the only discernible differ ence was in SCAT and this at the .10 level: ' 2.915 4.18 2.89 i Significant differences do not appear in any of the variables between1 the two treatment groups although one would expect according to the hypothesis j i that differences would appear here* j 67 Comparisons of the girls’ three-screen group and the girls’ control group show significant differences in both STEP and SYNthesis. The STEP super- | iority was in favor of the control group; the SYNthesis in favor of the three- ! i | screen group. ! A comparison of the three-screen girls and the control girls provides l F-ratios as shown in Table 7. | Table 7. F-ratios: Three-Screen and Control, Girls F-ratio .05 level of significance .10 level of significance STEP 4.977 4.18 2.89 SCAT .125 4.18 2.89 SYN 4.876 4.18 2.89 The F-ratio for the STEP score represented a variance in the means j of 278.250 for the three-screen girls and 287.842 for the control girls. The F- i ratio for the SYNthesis score represented a variance in the means of 61.750 for the three-screen girls and 42.789 for the control girls. This served to isolate the source of difference that appears in the F-ratios for the combined three groups of i | boys and girls or from separate groups of boys and girls compared with other j | individual groups expressed at the .10 level of significance. STEP and SYNthesis i I j significance were strong, at .05 level, in comparisons between three-screen group S and the control group, and grow even stronger when just the girls in these groups ! I are compared as above. ! It was noted as above that there were some differences between the control and treatment groups that had been assumed to be equivalent groups. S An effort was made to determine whether or not such differences might defeat 1 any fair comparison among the three groups by performing an analysis of 68 covariance on the STEP and SCAT data as it might relate to the SYNthesis scores. Five variables were assumed and tested holding each one as indepen dent in order to -test their effects on each other. With 2/80 degrees of freedom, a 2.647 score was achieved although a 3.11 score was necessary to meet the test \ j of significance at the .05 level. j Only with all the variables operating could anything approaching sig- i i nificance be identified and suggest that the control and treatment groups were not I precisely comparable. However, statistically, the differences among the groups were not significant. Table 8. Covariate Analysis of Groups No. of reps Mean Y Means of Covariates STD. Dev. Y y : ^ 24 57.29167 32.23754 281.58333 277.45833 30 62.23333 25.61207 281.03333 277.16667 31 46.58065 21.92377 287.49387 280.96774 j Removal of each of the two covariates separately resulted in f i scores of .08564 and .39575 — scarcely the 3.96 required for significance at the I .05 level. df 82 82 81 81 f 2.64542 .20212 .08564 .39575 .05f 3.11 3.11 3.96 3.96 .10f 2.37 However, together the variables’ f of 2.64542 did more than meet ; i the requirement of 2.37 at the .10 level of significance. I Although ostensibly randomly assigned to equivalent groups, girls in \ the three-screen group appeared to be significantly different from< g£rls in other ! 69 groups in STEP, social studies knowledge. Despite this potential handicap, the girls in the three-screen group achieved significantly higher scores than the girls in the control group; the girls in the single-screen group did not show a significant gain over the control group. All groups of boys were equivalent in STEP, and single vs. three- screen groups of boys achieved almost identical mean scores on the SYNthesis test. This suggests that there was no difference among the boys in the effect of the three-screen presentation when compared with the one-screen presentation. 70 CHAPTER Vm INTERPRETATION This section presents a summary of the study, states specific conclu sions that may be drawn from the data, discusses the exploratory implications of these data and conclusions, and makes recommendations for further study. A. Summary Objectives This was an exploratory study that used controlled experimentation to examine the non-linear relationship between humans and their informational environments. The first major problem of the study was to measure the relative effects upon learning of (1) visual images presented linearly, that is sequentially; and (2) visual images presented non-linearly, that is cumulatively or simultaneously. These explorations were conducted at only one grade level and included consideration of related variables such as sex, verbal ability, and social studies achievement. Effects were measured on two levels of learning: compre hension and synthesis. Materials Stimulus films. Two filmslide-tape presentations were developed. One presentation was produced in a non-linear format: the images were developed cumulatively or simultaneously, scene by scene. The other presentation was pro duced in a linear format: the same images were displayed sequentially, one after another. The content of both presentations was almost identical in the visuals used and the narrative was similar in most respects. 71 The interrelatedness of changes within an historical period was the subject of the tape-slide film presentations. The scripts were developed according to specifications of a U.S. history teaching team at the 11th grade level and con- j structed particularly to prompt synthesis responses. i | Measuring Instrument f _ " - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - | Two tests were designed that would measure the effects of the stim- I i ulus presentations on two levels of learning: comprehension and synthesis. The tests were given to several groups, revised, and tested for reliability and validity. i Procedures I -------------- 1 A school with appropriate experimental subjects was selected for its representativeness and its availability of subjects. Subjects had been assigned at I | random by the administration of the school to the three groups used in the j experiments. Although facilities, environment, and testing procedures were poor, they were consistently poor throughout the experiment and for all groups. All the tests were scored with an overlay key; data was key-punched and verified all | by one and the same person, the investigator. Data were collected on the verbal skills and social studies achievement scores of the subjects. Analysis of variance was conducted between and among groups as well as subgroups of boys and girls, i Findings ! Differences among the mean scores of'the groups with respect to STEP, SCAT, and SYNthesis scores were small and, while not statistically sig- j nificantrat the .05 level, they were significant at the .10 level. i i 72 i | When one treatment group was compared with the other, there was | no significant difference; however, when each treatment group was compared with i | the control group, some significant difference in STEP and SYNthesis appeared at the .05 level. | When the three groups were statistically divided into boys and girls | j and compared, no significant difference appeared in either combination in any of | the variables. When the sex-divided treatment groups, one- and three-screen, were : 1 compared with each other, there was no significant difference; however, when each sex divided treatment group was compared with the control group, there was sig- [ I nificant difference in STEP and SYNthesis at the .05 level only between the three-: | screen girls and the control girls. j The hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the effects i | of one of three-screen presentations on historical synthesis learning may be rejected for girls at the .05 level, for boys at the .10 level and for combined groups of boys and girls at the .10 level. Clearly the only difference that deserves our attention is that of the three-screen girls; this will be examined more carefully later in this chapter. These findings should be further qualified. The hypothesis called for a comparison between the effects of the one and three-screen presentations on synthesis skills. The findings mentioned above are not limited to one-way analy ses of variance among groups but between groups. The data have been separated and rearranged to find significance. When analysis of variance was done among groups, the two treat ment and control (1, 2 and 3) groups, significant difference at the .10 level in 73 synthesis scores was revealed, see Table 9 » Table 9. Analysis of Covariance Among Groups Synthesis Scores F-ratio Groups 1, 2, 2 .05 level of significance .10 level of significance 2.782 3.11 2.37 j This of course does not meet the standard .01 or .05 levels of sig- i ' nificance usually used in research; however, it should be observed that the groups, which were allegedly randomly assigned, were different in the most important ; dependent variables: social studies scores (STEP) and verbal skills scores (SCAT) ! in some instances at the .05 level and others at the .10 level. ! I I | Moreover, further comparisons were made between treatment groups and also between treatment and control groups by the variable of sex which served to isolate the effects of treatment on the independent variable “learning” | in the cases of girls with significantly lower STEP scores. The following are the t figures that were found significant at either .05 or .10 levels and that led to the conclusions found in the next section. A comparison of the one-screen and con trol group for SYNthesis appears in Table 10. Table 10. F-ratio One-screen and Control: SYNthesis Synthesis One-screen and control F-ratio .05 level .10 level 2.146 4.02 2.80 whereas a comparison of the three-screen group and the control group for SYN thesis, as in Table 11, 74 Table 11. F-ratio Three-screen and Control: SYNthesis F-ratio .01 level . .05 level .10 level 6.590 7.08 4.00 2.79 showed significance at least at the .05 level and close to the .01 level. This despite a significant disadvantage in subject knowledge as expressed in STEP scores, see Table 12 Table 12. F-ratio Three-screen and Control: STEP F-ratio .05 level .10 level 5.083 4.00 2.79 However, a direct comparison made between the two treatment groups, central to this study’s hypothesis, showed no significant difference. A direct comparison made between the two treatment groups by sex revealed no significant difference at any level; the same was true when each treatment group of boys was com pared with the control group. However, significant differences began to appear when data on the girls were compared. Comparison was made between girls in the two treatment groups resulting in no significant differences in any variable. This was hypothesized at the inception of the study and this null hypothesis was accepted. A similar consequence followed from a comparison between the one- screen group and the control; however, when the three-screen group was com pared with the control, significant differences appeared, as shown in Table 13. Table 13. F-ratio Three-screen and Control Girls’: SYNthesis F-ratio .05 4.876 4.18 75 indicating that the SYNthesis score met the .05 level of significance and also, as in Table 14: Table 14. F-ratio Three-screen and Control Girls’: STEP F-ratio .05 level 4.977 4.18 indicating that there was a significant difference in inter-group scores for STEP or | social studies score. The STEP scores of the control group were substantially ! higher than those of the three-screen group, an indication that the controls : brought more information and skill in social studies to the synthesis test than did | j the three-screen group. It is on these data that the hypothesis of no difference is rejected. Table 15. Analysis of Variance, Variable: STEP Variable STEP number mean s.d. minimum maximum 12 278.250 10,955 258.000 293.000 19 287.842 12.070 268.000 315.000 Analysis of variance sum of squares d. freedom mean square F-ratio between means 676.708 1.000 676.708 4.977 within groups 3942.776 29.000 135.958 total 4619.484 30.000 Table 16. Analysis of Variance, Variable: SYNthesis Variable SYNthesis number mean s.d. minimum maximum 12 61.750 26.824 21.000 110.00 19 42.789 21.217 15.000 107.000 Table 16. Analysis of Variance, Variable: SYNthesis Analysis of variance sum of squares d. freedom mean square F-ratio between means within groups total 2644.076 15725.408 1.000 29.000 30. 2644.076 542.255 4.876 i Again, 4.18 is what is required for .05 significance; in both cases, STEP and SYN- I i I thesis, this has been met. j The data may be interpreted as saying that when girls in the two I treatment groups were compared with the girls in the control group, it appeared j that the one-screen girls made no statistically significant gain in learning over the i j control group, but the girls in the three-screen group did achieve significant gain f i over the girls in the control group. I 3 | This gain of the girls in the three-screen group occurred despite the fact they were initially at a significant disadvantage with respect to STEP, social studies knowledge, when compared with the girls in both the control and one- screen groups. I B. Conclusions Results for the two groups, single and three-screen, as compared with the control group support the following conclusions: j 1. Girls are poorer at historical synthesis than are boys. ! 2. There was no significant difference in the effect on males between a one-screen and a three-screen presentation on com plex synthesis relationships in U.S. history. 8. Low achieving social studies girls instructed with three-screen presentation excelled average and high social studies boys and girls instructed with single screen presentation. 4. Through the use of three-screen presentational technique,- ! females with low social studies scores learn complex synthesis 77 relationships equally well as high verbal males and females. 5. High social studies scores are not good predictors of student success with either single or multiple screen instructional presentation. The tests for comprehension and synthesis in themselves tend to structure and teach, thereby contaminating somewhat the effect of L 'n e presenta tion. Even among the controls, the tests shape student behavior and so structure the concept that the non-treatment score is an approximate one. Among the treatment groups, the tests also shape student behavior and structure the concept. In addition, the presentation teaches only how clusters of changes are related to one another, whereas the synthesis test measures the specific events that are caus ally related leading therefore to some loss of validity as a consequence. There might have been some advantage to the results of the study in getting much larger samples of subjects that were carefully randomized. This might have offset the necessity of correcting for differences statistically, a process which necessarily tends to provide a very conservative interpretation of the data. The top score consisted of 216 points and yet no student achieved more than 115. This can be'construed in a variety of ways. One interpretation can be that full learning did not take place; another that this difficult concept was not easily taught by a device such as single screen, but perhaps could be taught more effectively and successfully by 3-screen technique. After all, a single screen allows little variation in technique of sequence and juxtaposition, whereas the 3-screen format, conserving cumulated images, might have been used far more effectively in achieving the teaching objective. Testing that occurred after treatment tended to structure what had i I been seen in the presentation. Difficult to reckon, is what student scores would j have been had there been no treatment and no test. The synthesis test structured! the ideas for students in all groups. There were many students who showed surprising reversals and j whose social studies grades or scores were not accurate predictors of synthesis scores. There are several possible explanations for this: synthesis may require several intellectual skills not generally given emphasis, elicited or measured in the standard United States history instruction. The comprehension test means by groups of 12.5, 11.5, and 12.0 were similar enough to assume that the presentations did not teach differences here, but that the groups had roughly equivalent knowledge and comprehension. It is possible that the comprehension test should have required that all students recognize all the items at 100 per cent if we wished to measure syn thesis improvement; but then again 100 per cent comprehension according to the test might not have measured the differences in other aspects of comprehension that might still exist and that might contribute to higher or lower synthesis ; achievement regardless of the kind of presentation. The synthesis test may have been too long and exhausting for their t I I patience. A computerized check might have been run on whether A and F is | | also marked F and A by students on their individual tests and whether they saw j I that these relationships were conversely true. This might have assisted the researcher’s efforts and double checked their understanding. These reversible relationships by cause run throughout the test. C. Discussion I ’ I ! This study was conducted to explore a single concept, non-linearity j in the presentation of certain historical material and to relate the results of this i exploration to the design and utilization of composite messages. Discussion of j i I these relationships will be presented (1) with regard to measurement procedures j and (2) with regard to message design implications that grow from this study. Administration, Measurement, and Analysis | As specified earlier, reasonable care was exercised in preparation of materials, selection of subjects, presentation of stimulus materials, measurement of responses, and analysis of data. These steps were taken in hopes of isolating the variable central to this study — linearity versus non-linearity of format in the pre sentation of ideas at the synthesis level. It may be reasonably suspected that the stimulus materials lacked somewhat in precision of design as instruments of communication and that the test instruments were constructed to measure at best indirectly the effects of the presentations. However, it would be far beyond the available research and hard knowledge regarding message design to produce presentations that taught with any- | thing approximating maximum effectiveness. As a consequence, any testing based > on such an audio-visual presentation, particularly when it is a paper and pencil j test, can scarcely be any more valid or reliable than the content of the presenta- | | tion itself, j Message Design i Verbal elements. The difference between treatment groups was sig- ! nificant but only to the .05 level. Inasmuch as the verbal element, the narration, 80 was not very different in the two presentations, it is probable that the statistical difference must have been the effect of the use of the non-linear format. The i verbal elements were different chiefly with respect to the inclusion of lengthier ! i questions. Although there was no effort to keep the scripts identical, the teach- ! ing objectives and the visuals dictated the wording. The final scripts for the two presentations are very similar. They both have the same characteristics of care fully placed pauses, vocal stress, and timing that allowed the visuals to be per ceived and scanned before the narrative proceeded. There was a variety of means available to achieve verbal impact, but the self-same means were utilized in both presentations and both were narrated at the same tape-recording session. Even the music, Vivaldi’s “The Seasons,” was used in the same way at the same points in both presentations. Visual elements. An important assumption in conducting the study ! was that presenting several related visuals simultaneously would provide viewers with | an opportunity of finding relationships among the visuals displayed thereby improv- : ing learning as evidenced by success on the test for synthesis. Allen and Cooney’s review of the literature reports that Reed (1950) , found — when comparing serial (linear) and simultaneous (non-linear) presentations | — that the latter enabled “subjects to search for meaning among the stimuli. . .” i | Also reported was Miller (1957) who stated: j j When cues from different modalities (or different cues within the | same modality) are used simultaneously, they may either facilitate or interfere with each other. When the cues elicit the same responses simultaneously, or different responses in the proper succession, they should summate to yield increased effectiveness. When the cues elicit incompatible responses, they should produce conflict and inter ference. (P. 109-110) Severin (1967) develops this point further particularly as it applies to cues ! I j within the same modality or channel: j j Whether between-channel redundancy has any value and, if | so, under what conditions is still an open question. Within-channel (message) redundancy is supposed to increase the efficiency of reten tion and the transfer of information. It is necessary when informa- I tion is passed through a noisy channel. On the other hand excess redundancy may generate boredom and fatigue owing to lack of new information, and will add to the cost of the communication and waste time for both communicator and the receiver. It prevents the flow of new information by decreasing channel capacity. (P7 24'2J Feedback from students in pre-experiment tryouts led to the elim ination of almost half of the visuals, among them many charts. This was done to reduce interference and facilitate summation. The visuals in the present study were taken from a variety of ! sources and varied considerably in iconicity; there were cartoons, drawings, and photographs almost all of which were black and white. Allen and Cooney cited Carpenter (1953) as having, in his “sign similarity hypothesis,” suggested that the greater the iconicity of visuals, the more suitable they were for instructional pur poses. The visuals that remained in the present study after intensive and extensive interviews with ten students were those deemed clear and satisfactory. j Had time and expense been no consideration, even more satisfactory visuals might j have been provided. f Verbal and visual combined. The combination of the two channels, | audio and visual, receiving information results in somewhat different message design i ; consideration. Hartman (1961) examined interchannel interference observing that if I | unrelated information iB provided to the receiving channels, there will be serious 82 interference; if the information is not sufficiently demanding, alternation will occur in favor of the channel providing the suitably challenging information. The most s I satisfactory arrangement is to keep the level of. difficulty at just that level of sim- ! plicity permitting comfortable alternation between channels. ! Although there is promise of practical means of measuring attention of test subjects, the stimulus materials of the present study were designed without benefit of such mechanical devices; rather the investigator used his judgment based on experience in teaching and design of instructional presentations. Tryouts, questionnaires, in-depth interviews, and visual-verbal scripts , provided useful information for improved message design. The three-screen technique requires a grammar which writer and per- ceiver can both appreciate, code and decode, and requires conventions and princi- ' pies. It is clear that the message designer must encode in such a way that his message will be decoded with accuracy; therefore, certain conventions must be used ! and interpreted similarly. As multiple image presentations are more widely used | such conventions will evolve into usages that may constitute a grammar of multiple- image projection. Such a grammar will include the rationalized use of multiple images on multiple or wide screen to indicate comparison and contrast, conflict or ■ collision, etc., by dynamic masquage, montage as linkage, attention-getting devices, ; j enlargement and reduction, etc. However, one cannot hope to design instructional messages using some of these newer projected visual techniques unless the viewer is familiar with the techniques and their implications. The boys were not randomly assigned and in equivalent groups if | STEP and SCAT scores are compared. No differences occurred as a consequence of the treatments. This may have been the result of the differences in STEP and j SCAT, the treatment groups being at a disadvantage. It is assumed that knowledge of social studies was essential to subjects’ ability to profit from either treatment. Any deficiencies in STEP or SCAT are between the control and treatment, not between treatment groups. The advantage here is with the controls. Therefore again, the treatment groups are without significant difference with respect to STEP or SCAT and SYNthesis; the control group of boys equivalent to the treatment 1 j groups of boys. The implication is that all three groups of boys were the same j i with respect to synthesis skills whether given either treatment or no treatment at ! all: as suggested by the Mean SYNthesis scores by groups: one-screen: 62.545 three-screen: 62.556 control: 52.583 A one-way analysis provided an F-ratio of .585 whereas even to meet the test of significance at the .10 level, a score of 2.45 would have been needed. On one hand, it can be conjectured that the boys have these syn thesis skills regardless of whether or not they receive either kind of treatment or none at all. On the other hauu, the requirements of knowledge of social studies to perform the synthesis tasks suggest that deficiencies in STEP scores in the treat ment groups have left the treatment groups inadequately prepared for the synthesis task. It is possible, however, that treatments, whether one or three-screen, may have remedied these deficiencies and resulted in equivalence of all the groups of males. A comparison of the three groups of boys showed no significance; 84 comparing either the one-screen boys with the control boys or the three-screen boys with the control boys still provides no evidence of significance. One may ; i speculate that a tape-slide treatment on U.S. history might compensate for the i deficiencies in U.S. history as specified by STEP scores. I I The girls too would appear to have not been randomly assigned to j ! equivalent groups if STEP scores are considered. In an analysis of variance com- | i J parison of all three groups for STEP, the F-ratio of 2.381 does not meet the .05 j level of significance in which an F-ratio of 3.23 is required. However, compari son between the girls’ three screen group and the girls’ control group showed an .05 significant advantage in STEP for the control group of girls. This would indi cate that the girls in the three-screen group were at a disadvantage in their social studies preparation but nonetheless achieved significant success when SYNthesis ; scores were compared between separate groups. In sum, these data suggest that girls with a significant deficiency in ! social studies preparation were able to. surpass significantly other groups in SYN- : thesis scores. The groups were randomly assigned; nonetheless a significant differ- : ence did appear. This may have research significance. ; Obviously, further investigation would be required to validate the ] above observations and the hypotheses they suggest; however, what evidence is S available at this point would suggest that, despite the fact that it is probable that the test teaches thereby putting even the controls at an unapparent advantage, the three-screen girls did better on the test than did the control girls or the girls in the one-screen group. This success is only the more noteworthy inasmuch as the j girls in the three-screen group were significantly inferior in social studies information. Further investigation would clarify whether or not a richer set of visuals can compensate for girls who are lower than average achfevers in social studies. Indeed, these results are in keeping with other studies (Gropper, 1966). It would suggest that the variable of information aisu the variable of IQ might be investigated with three-screen presentations to determine whether a richer visual field can compensate for poorer verbal-skill as suggested further by Gropper. The evidence suggests that below-average students were better able to acquire the concepts taught in both studies by means of pictorial presentations and pictorial responses than by means of counterpart verbal material. Far from possessing any special visual aptitudes, below-average students can respond to visual examples because, it is suggested, along with their brighter counterparts, they have consider able prior experience in responding to the concrete attributes of kmany physical, objects and events. Such examples are therefore cap ab le, with high probability, of eliciting appropriate responses. (P. 59) Grouper elsewhere that low verbal students will often achieve better results whfiii they > V esPond to visual stimulus-instructional materials with a visual examina tion than a i\rbal. These findings from Study No. 2 showing an interaction \ between IQ ant&mode of response parallel the findings of Study No. 1 showing \ an interaction between IQ and mode of stimulus presentation. Together they sug- gest that learning oi^abstract concepts in science (even when it is measured by verbal below-average students when it is based on iconcrete visual stimulus Hmterials and on concrete visual responses to visual presentations. This suggests that were low-achieving or low-verbal students, particu larly girls, taught and tested via the visual modes, improved learning might occur. 86 These conjectures deserve to be examined with rigor. D. Recommendations There has been, for many years, the thought that much of educa tional research would be better served if there were greater continuity among research studies concerned with specific problems. It has been recommended that comprehensive studies be done by large cooperative teams carrying out all aspects i of a study or that broadly planned series of studies be carried out by individual j researchers. This study has been concerned with the problem of linearity versus j non-linearity as a presentation format as was Allen and Cooney’s; whereas they measured the value of non-linearity for learning at the first three levels of Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning, the present study was concerned with 'the fifth level, synthesis. At many points in this study, Allen and Cooney’s study on non- linearity has been used. Their study, however, employed motion picture film rather than-slides. Although the present study including the original and revised presentations as well as the test instrument and indeed the study proposal were conceived and prepared before this investigator’s encountering Allen and Cooney’s study; once discovered, the procedures, results, and insights were consulted, used, land referred to in this study repeatedly. The recommendations that proceed from the present study are of ■necessity related and in some cases identical to those of Allen and Cooney’s work I on non-linearity. However, there are additional recommendations included here among the following observations. 87 The Design Process. The message design process deserves scrupulous j examination from the determination of objectives, selection of media, structuring of! i message, and design of messages as a communication event system. j Design Structure. For a message to be designed with precision, con- j trol must be maintained over the key elements: attention of viewers, interference j and complexity of message, structural development, and flexibility of message util- | ization. Attention Studies should be conducted to classify and rate the means I I i of gaining, retaining, or shifting viewer attention through several channels. The pos sibility is seen even of extending attention span through the understanding of the nature of attention earning techniques and developing an appropriate grammar. Interference and Complexity. Interaction of images might well be studied so as to determine which variants of the multi-imaged formats are instruc- tionally most advantageous and which factors affect individual tolerance for com plexity. Travers and multiple channels are not the issue here if the material is patterned, chunkable (Miller, 1956), and carefully related, ft may be far more a function of information load or new informationas Moles (1966) specifies than chan-t i nels. Patterning makes minimal increases in information load. I Allen and Cooney suggested that there might be some question as to ! i whether the effect of the design is redundant or repetitive: I that is, are the visuals redundant because every time the same visual | reappears, it says something slightly different, or are they repetitive i because every the same visual reappears, it says the very same thing ■ again? 88 | They suggest further that an attempt should be made to use striking, fresh, bold | [ tempos and juxtapositions of non-linear visuals. 1 Development. We must learn what the role of structure is in devel- ! f oping message components so that they relate to the needs of the learner and con-j ceivably shorten messages particularly through the use of appropriate media. It is desirable, according to Postman and Bruner that we learn to - I place and arrange cues that are relevant in message design so as “to shift the emo- j i J tional and logical frames of reference of the learner.” (Allen and Cooney, 1963) In order to accommodate to composite messages, audiences in their almost infinite variety must be studied and messages' must be designed to suit individual rates of information processing. A future follow-up study might permit the same three-screen presenta tion to be pushed to new experimental limits — using drawings; colored photos, etc., using a musical rhythm which would suggest the pulse of the changing com binations on the screen and the pauses for recapitulation and questions. This was consciously and deliberately not attempted here. Flexibility. Individual differences in rates and kinds of information processing may be accommodated by permitting the viewer to design his own pre sentation by his selecting fitting mediated information particularly through computer- ! ■ controlled access and delivery of information. i i Although the independent variable started out to be three-screens, non-linearity, over single-screenness, linearity, this was perhaps lost by the equalized effect in all but the FEMales. The question becomes, if the FEMales had indeed been equivalent to the controls in STEP would there have been a differential 8? effect of non-linearity? Perhaps we should study boys and girls, particularly girls, of high STEP and low STEP to see if this is the crucial factor in usefulness of three-screens. Did the Hawthorne effect work best in these cases? Should we analyze successful girls for low STEP, pattern recognition, aesthetic personality, or other relevant learner characteristics? We must deal directly or indirectly with the adequacy of initial per ceptions as a basis for the formulation of implicit perceptual and symbolic responses i i ! j i i I R E F E R E N C E S i ( 90 91 REFERENCES Allen, William H., “Audio-Visual Communication,” Encyclopedia of Educational Research. (3d ed.), ed. by Chester W . Harris. "New York: The Macmillan' Co. (1930), 115-137. | Allen, William H. and Cooney, Stuart M., A Study of Non-Linearity Variable in i Filmic Presentation. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, | Research Division, Department of Cinema (1963). Arnheim, Rudolf, Art and Visual Perception; A Psychology of the Creative Eye. ! .Berkeley: University of California Press (1954). jAttneave, Fred, Applications of Information Theory to Psychology. New York: Henry Holt and Company (1959). Berlyne, D.E., “The Influence of Complexity and Novelty in Visual Stimuli on j Orienting Responses,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, LV(L958). ! 289-296. I j Structure and Direction in Thinking; New York: John Wiley and Sons, | Inc7 (1965). ! (Bloom, Benjamin S. ed., et al., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Cortipany,Inc. (1956). Briggs, Leslie, et al., Instructional Media: A Procedure for the Design of Multi- ! Media Instruction, A Critical Review of the Literature, and Suggestions ; ior further Research. Pittsburgh: American Institute for Research (1967). iBroadbent, D.E., Perception and Communication. New York: Pergamon Press (1958). Bruner, Jerome and Postman, L., “Tension and Tension Release as Organizing Fac- j tors in Perception,” Journal of Personality, XV (1947), 300-308. Carpenter, C.R., “A Theoretical Orientation for Instructional Film Research,” Audio-Visual Communication Review, I, No. 1 ( Winter, 1953), 38-52. I Cherry, Colin, On Human Communication. (2d ed.) Cambridge: The Technology Press of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1966). Consitt, Frances, The Value of Films in History Teaching. London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.(1931). Conway, Jerome K., “Multiple-Sensory Modality Communication and the Problem of Sign Types,” Audio-Visual Communication Review, XV No. 4.( Winter, 1967), 371-383. 92 Cox, Richard C. and Unks, Nancy Jordan, A Selected and Annotated B ib lio g ra p h y of Studies Concerning The Taxonomy of feducational Objectives. Pitts- burgh: University of Pittsburgh, Learning Research and Development Center (1967). Crow, Edwin L. et al.. Statistics Manual. China Lake, California: U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Station.(1955). ! ] Dwyer, Francis M., “Adapting Visual Illustrations for Effective Learning,” Harvard | Educational Review, XXXVII, No. 2-( Spring, 1967), 250-263. i ! ; Film Catalog for Secondary Schools and Colleges. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County : Superintendent of Schools Office, LACO No. 102 (March, 1967). i Freeman, Frank, et al., Visual Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (1924). i 'Gropper, George L., “Learning From Visuals: Some Behavioral Considerations,” | Audio-Visual Communication Review, XIV, No. 1( Spring, 1966), 36-69. I Hartman, Frank R., “Recognition Learning Under Multiple Channel Presentation,” Audio-Visual Communication Review, IX, No. 1 (January-February, 1961), i w. I i ‘Single and Multiple Channel Communication: A Review of Research and a Proposed Model,” Audio-Visual Communication Review, IX, No. 6 ( November-December, 1961), 235-262. Heinich, Robert, “Multiple Channel Presentations as Viewed From Aspects of Infor mation Theory,” Unpublished paper, University of Southern California, 1966. jHoban, Charles F., Jr., and van Ormer, Edward B., Instructional Film Research, 1918-1950. New York: Port Washington, Long Island, Special Devices Center, Report 269-7-19 (1950). Knowlton, D.C. and Tilton, J.W., Motion Pictures in History Teaching. New Haven: Yale University Press (1929). Kropp, Russell P. and Stoker, Howard W., The Construction and Validation of i Tests of the Cognitive Processes as Described in the Taxonomy of Educa tional Objectives. Florida: Florida State University, Institute of Human Learning and Department of Educational Research and Testing ( February, 1966). Lemer, Daniel (ed.), Cause and Effect. New York: Free Press.(1965). j Lowenfeld, Viktor, “Creativity: Education's; Stepchild,” A Source Book for Creative ! Thinking, ed. by E.M. iBarnes.i;nNew York: -Scribners (1962). [ Mandelbaum, Maurice H., The Problem of Historical Knowledge. New York: Liveright 0.928). ! i jMcClusky, Frederick Dean, Visual Instruction: Its Values arid Its Needs. New York: i Mancall Publishing Company (1932). ! McCormick, Ernest Jones, Human Engineering New York: Mc-Graw-HillBook Co:(1957). jMcLuhan, Marshall, Understanding Media; The Extensions of Man. New York: McGraw-HiU. (1964). I I Miller, George A., “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information,” Psychological Review, LXIH ,0963). ----------------------------- I I ‘Moles, Abraham, Information Theory and Esthetic Perception. Urbana: University of j Illinois PreBS. (1966). I Neisser, Ulric, “Visual Search,” Scientific American, CX, No. 6. ( June, 1964) 94-102. Newman, J, Robert, Some Considerations of Human Data Utilization in Diagnostic Decision Making. Santa Monica: System Development Corporation, SP-978 i November, (1962). jPerrin, Donald, “The Use and Development of Simultaneous Projected Images in Educational Communication,” Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. University of ; ; Southern California (1969). Postman, Leo and Bruner, Jerome, “Multiplicity of Set as a Determinant of Percep tual Behavior,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, XXXIX (1949) ■ Reed, H.B., “The Learning and Retention of Concepts: IV, Influence of Complexity of Stimuli,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, XXXVI (1946) 252-261. ; “The Learning and Retention of Concepts: V, The Influence of Form of Presentation,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, XXXX. (I95ty 504-511. •Reeves, Geoffrey, “Shakespeare on Three Screens,” Sight and Sound London: XXXIV, No. 2. (spring, 1965) 66-70. Saettler, Paul, “Design and Selection Factors,” Review of Educational Research, x x x v m , No. 2 , (Vpril, 1968)1,-115.128. ; ; Severin, Werner, “The Effectiveness of Relevant Pictures in Multiple-Channel Com munications,” Audio-Visual Communication Review, XV, No. 4 (Winter, 1967), 386-401. Shannon, C.E. and Weaver, E., The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Urbana: University of Illinois Press (194&). Teggart, Frederick John, Theory of History. Berkeley: University of California Press (1962). Travers, Robert M. (ed.), Research and Theory Related to Audio-Visual Information Transmission. Utah: University of Utah, Bureau of Educational Research (1964). Twyford, Loran C., “Profile Techniques For Program Analysis,” Audio-Visual Com munication Review. II, No. 4 (Spring, 1954), 243-262. Vernon, M.D., “The Function of Schemata in Perceiving,” Psychological Review, LxH (1955), 180-192. White, Morton Gabriel, Foundations of Historical Knowledge. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers (1965). Wise, Harry A., Motion Pictures as An Aid in Teaching American History. New Haven: Yale University Press (1939). Wood, Ben D. and Freeman, Frank N., Motion Pictures in the Classroom. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company (1929). i F \ \ A P P E N D I C E S . 05. APPENDIX A SINGLE-SCREEN PRESENTATION photo wooden puzzle photo half-opened wooden puzzle photo opened wooden : puzzle BLANK ; photo dead soldier photo AEF going aboard ship Title: 50 years photo horse and plow automobile mass production BLANK bar graph j bar pictograph | bar pictograph ] I bar graph ! bar pictograph diagram i i This is a block! It has many parts. . . | And they can be examined one by one. We will talk about parts like these and how they are related to each other. . . As we talk about a period in U.S. history: The Civil War. . . to World War I, a block of time: 50 years; a block of change. . . from agrarianism. . . to industrialism; but this 50 year block of change was made up of many parts, made up of many smaller changes. It consisted of many changes, among them: population growth, business growth agricultural growth city growth transportation changes and growth communication development and consolidation, merging map and bar graph BLANK photo horse and plow auto mass production BLANK newspaper cartoon of American agent in Europe 1910 photo of immigrant family chart of growth cartoon of Morgan photo steam-driven tractor photo of skyscraper photo modern railroad tracks boys with crystal set 1910 battleshipl BLANK j I i painting of cotton brokerage 97 growth of the U.S. as a major world power. I In 50 years, together all of these changes took the U.S. from. . . j an agrarian society. . . L to an industrial society. . . i Let’s look at these changes one at a time: j The population change began with American j business persuading European labor to emigrate. I And 50 years later, 20 million immigrants had had arrived. . . and resulted in this population growth: Population changes caused business changes. The work force grew, bought more, and caused business to grow and prosper. Population changed, required more food pro duction, and caused agriculture to change Population changed and caused cities to change. . . . caused transportation to change. . . Eventually, increased population needed and caused changes in communications. Population changes helped the U.S. to become a world power. We are looking at the dramatic change in the U.S. between 1860 and 1910, which made an agricultural country into an industrial country. These changes that caused the U.S. to change into an industrial country were so interrelated that they affected each other, indeed changed each other, made each other change. Here is another change that brought the U.S. from agrarianism to industrialism: business changed from the mere sale of raw materials to: cartoon of M organ bar pictograph 1910 photo of immigrant family photo steam-driven tractor ■ photo o f skyscraper ; photo o f modem railroad : tracks photo o f boys with ; crystal set 1910 battleship ! BLANK photo horse and plow I i ! photo steam-driven tractor j i bar pictograph 1910 photo of immigrant I family 98 the development of vast, corporate, capitalist j empires. . . \ which increased tremendously the productivity ! of American business in those 50 years. j | The changes in business changed the population I of the U.S. Jobs and prosperity in the U.S. attracted millions of immigrants: Changed business needs for food canning and for export changed agriculture and made it more efficient Changed business changed the face and charac ter o f cities: and changed transportation, and changed communication changed business changed the status of the U.S. as a world power. If business'had not grown and changed, would the population have grown so? What would have happened to agriculture, to the size of cities, to transportation and to communications if business had not grown as it did? Agriculture changed from a family enterprise that tied 85 per cent of the U.S. population to farms to. . . agriculture as big business. . .by which only 35 per cent of Americans could produce food enough for jdl Americans and millions of people abroad. changes changes in agriculture caused changes in popula- lation. . .attracted millions of people who wanted an abundance of cheap land. cartoon of Morgan photo of skyscraper photo of modern railroad tracks photo of boys with crystal set photo 1910 battleship : BLANK etching New York street 1860 chart : 1910 photo of immigrant family cartoon of Morgan | photo 1910 steam-driven | tractor i j photo of modern railroad j tracks i I photo of boys with i crystal set ! photo of 1910 battleship 99 Changes in agriculture allowed business to use the extra manpower in factories. Changes in agriculture let the extra manpower move to the cities and change the cities. | Changes in agriculture put new demands upon i transportation j Changes in agriculture caused changes in com munications for orders, shipments, quicker deliv eries. Changes in agriculture changed the U.S.’ status j as a major world power, with food surpluses to sell the world. j If agriculture had remained the same as it was in 1860, could the U.S. have become an indus trial nation? The city changed from an 1860 New York City scene like this Changes in the population of American cities from 1860 to 1900: places under 100,000 persons grew from 385 to 1699; 6 medium size cities become 35; and no really large cities become 3 in number by 1900. As cities grew, they attracted thousands of im migrants who wished to enjoy the economic and cultural advantages of the big city. The large cities made possible the growth of business and industry. Large cities depended on the developments and changes in agriculture. The growth of cities caused changes in trans portation, in communications, in U.S. status as a world power. BLANK photo of old time iron railroad tracks photo of modem railroad tracks pictograph of travel time 1910 photo of immigrant family cartoon of Morgan : photo of 1910 steam-driven 1 tractor ; photo of skyscraper ! photo of boys with ! crystal set photo of 1910 battleship i BLANK ! i ; etching of pony express photo of boys with crystal set diagram of mergers cartoon of Morgan 100 In all these ways, the growth of cities helped shift the U.S. from an agrarian to an indus- ‘ trial society. | ! Transportation changed: old iron rails which ! wore out quickly could support only small loads, j But when they changed to long lasting steel rails, carrying heavy loads. . . it shortened travel time and costs. Changes in transportation, such as the expansion of the railroad, the sale of railroad lands. . . caused great population changes, great growth in business and industrial empires, better transportation encouraged shipping of farm produce to far off places. changes in transportation made the growth of cities possible Changes in transportation required changes in communication to signal fast trains instantly Changes in transportation allowed the U.S. to ship goods and soldiers to far-off places and become a major world power. Could the U.S, have become an industrial nation without advanced transportation developments? Changes in communications from pony express to early telegraph to telephone and early radio, required the pull ing together of hundreds of small, local telephone and radio services into national and international com panies Great growth in business and industrial empires. 1910 steam tractor photo of skyscraper photo of boys with crystal set photo 1910 battleship BLANK etching pony express boys with crystal set diagram of mergers 1910 photo of immigrant family ; cartoon of Morgan ; photo of steam-driven > tractor | photo of skyscraper r ; photo modern steel railroad tracks and bed photo 1910 battleship 101 Better transportation encouraged shipping of farm produce to far off places. Changes in transportation made the growth of | cities possible. t Changes in transportation required changes in communication to signal fast trains instantly. Changes in transportation allowed the U.S. to ship goods and soldiers to far-off places and become a major world power. i Could the U.S. have become an industrial nation without advanced transportation develop ment? Changes in communications from pony express to early telegraph. . . to telephone and early radio. . .required the pulling together. . . of hundreds of small, local telephone and radio services into national and international com panies. It permitted millions of immigrants to leave their homes in Europe knowing that they could communicate quickly with loved ones they left behind. It affected the growth of the U.S. population. Advances in communication helped business and the stock market grow. Better communications caused growth of agri cultural orders and deliveries. Changes in eommunication helped cities grow. Changes in communication made faster trans portation possible. Changes in communication helped make the U.S. a major world power capable of shipping men and guns around the world quickly. BLANK political cartoon of Great Britain and U.S. photo 1910 battleship world map-graph 1910 photo immigrant family cartoon of Morgan photo of 1910 steam-driven tractor of skyscraper of modern steel railroad of boys with crystal 50 years of horse and plow automobile mass pro- | duction : photo of wooden puzzle in ; many pieces | photo of wooden puzzle half ; open ] photo of wooden puzzle closed photo photo tracks ; p h o t O set title: ' photo ; photo 102 Could the U.S. have become such a great indus-f trial power without such advances' in communi cations? i The U.S. changed from a minor world power at the start of the Civil War i to a major world power by the start of World W ar I. The tremendous American investments abroad suggest how far-reaching American power had become. American power attracted increased population, made business grow and prosper, encouraged the growth of agriculture, and of cities. American power needed a vast and efficient transportation network and. . . speedy communications. It took the U.S. 50 years to move from agrarianism to industrialism We have seen each of the changes separately. We have also seen them interacting and inter mingling, but together these smaller changes made the big change of agrarianism to industrialism. wooden puzzle closed 99 »» dead soldier 19 horse & plow 19 ft 9 9 APPENDIX A THREE-SCREENS BLANK BLANK wooden puzzle half BLANK assembled ” wooden puzzle apart BLANK soldiers embarking title: 50 years ” BLANK BLANK auto mass-production title: 50 years ” graph population ” pictograph business ” pictograph agriculture ” This is a block. It has parts many related parts Here is a period in C l . S . history Civil W ar to World W ar I, a block of time; 50 years, a block of change Agrarianism to industrialism, A block of change, a block of time, both made up of many smaller parts. Smaller changes: Changes in population Business growth Agricultural growth horse & plow 1 * 1 4 »S photo (a) westward photo (a) factory horse & plow 1J BLANK Cartoon travel agent chart cities pictograph transportation diagram of mergers tele-!- graph map-graph photo (b) westward photo (b) factory BLANK BLANK bar graph population Cartoon of Morgan auto mass-production photo (c) westward photo (c) factory BLANK auto mass-production BLANK photo 1910 immigrants Change in size of cities Change in transportation Change in communications networks: expanding, consolidating, merging. Growth in the U.S. as a major world power. Together this block of changes took the U.S. from agrarianism to indus trialism. But like our block and its many parts, All the pieces are needed; only to gether can all the smaller changes make the big block of change. The change in population came mostly from immigration; see how it grew. For business to grow, it needed more workers and more customers; Ameri can business persuaded European labor to emigrate. . .the population grew and helped business grow. Cartoon travel agent 1910 tractor 1 ) 1 1 11 BLANK skyscraper 1910 RR tracks crystal set 1910 battleship BLANK 1860 cotton broker- business pictograph age photo 1910 immigrants The population changes, re quired more food production and caused agriculture to 11 11 BLANK Cartoon Morgan Population changed and caused cities to change. caused transportation to change. eventually, increased population needed and caused changes in communications. a growing population helped make the U.S. a major power. We are looking at the dramatic change in the U.S. between 1860 and 1910, which made an agricultural country into an industrial country were so in terrelated that they affected each other. . .indeed changed each other or. . .made each other change. Business itself changed from merchants just buying and sell ing raw materials to might, in dustrial empires. . .manufac turing, inventing, growing into monopolies. 1860 cotton brokerage 1910 immigrants Cartoon Morgan ” 1910 tractor ” ” 1910 skyscraper ” 1910 RR tracks ” 1910 crystal radio Cartoon Morgan 1910 battleship BLANK BLANK BLANK 1860 horse & plow pictograph agricul tural mechanization 1910 tractor The changes in business changed the population of the U.S. Jobs and Pros perity in the U.S. attracted millions of immigrants. Changed business needs for food canning and for export changed agriculture and made it more efficient. Changed business, changed the face and character of cities. and changed transportation. . . advanced communications Big business changed the status of the U.S. as a world power. If business had not grown and changed, would the population have grown so? What would have happened to agricul ture, to the size of cities, to transpor tation and to communications if busi ness had not grown as it did? Agriculture changed from a family enter prise that tied 85% of the U.S. popula tion to farms. . .to agriculture as big business by which only 35% of Ameri cans could produce food enough for all Americans. . .and millions of people abroad 1860 horse and plow 1910 immigrant family 1910 tractor ” Cartoon Morgan ” ” skyscraper 1910 tractor 1910 RK tracks ” crystal radio ” 1910 battleship BLANK BLANK BLANK Changes in agriculture caused changes in population, attracted millions of people who wanted an abundance of cheap land. Changes in agriculture allowed business to use the extra manpower in factor ies. . .and business to grow and change. Changes in agriculture let the extra man power move to the cities and change the character of the cities. But when the farmers increased wheat and cattle production, they needed bet ter, faster transportation to ship their product to market. . . .which also meant that they needed better, faster communications for mar kets, orders, farm and weather informa tion. Great surpluses of farm goods were shipped abroad and helped make the U.S. influen tial as a major world power. If agriculture had remained the same as it was in 1860, could the U.S. have be come an industrial nation? 1860 N.Y. Street city chart skyscraper ” 1910 immigrant family ” “ Cartoon Morgan ” ” 1910 tractor ” ” 1910 RR tracks ” ” crystal radio ” ” 1910 battleship ” BLANK BLANK BLANK Between 1860 and 1910, as the rush from agrarianism to industrialism took place, the city changed. As cities grew, they attracted thousands of immigrants who wished to enjoy the economic and cultural advantages of the big city. The large cities were a better place for business to grow in. Large cities depended on the develop ments and changes in agriculture. Because the city changed and grew, it depended on places far away. . .so transportation had to . change. Because the city grew, communications had to change. Because the city grew in power, in wealth and influence, so too the U.S. grew in importance as a major power. Small towns became large, influential cities and the other changes. . .in agri culture, transportation. . .were speeded up and even shaped by these changes in the cities. 1860 iron RR tracks transportation picto- . 1910 steel RR graph tracks 1910 immigrant family ” Cartoon Morgan ” 1910 tractor ” skyscraper ” crystal radio ” 1910 battleship 1910 steel RR tracks BLANK BLANK BLANK It shortened travel time and costs. Changes in transportation, such as the expansion of the railroad, the sale of railroad lands. . . caused great population changes. Transportation changed and caused busi ness change. Better transportation encouraged shipping of farm produce to far off places. . . .made the growth of cities possible. Changes in transportation required changes in communication to signal fast trains instantly. Changes in transportation allowed the U.S. to ship goods and soldiers to far-off places and become a major world power. Can you imagine a major world power without efficient transportation? All these changes shaped each other; each change was shaped by the demands made by the other changes. 109 1860 Pony Express chart of mergers crystal radio 1910 immigrant fam ily Cartoon Morgan 1910 tractor Skyscraper Communication changed. There were new inventions: telegraph, telephone, ticker tape, rotary printing press, photog raphy, motion pictures, radio. . .gradually hundreds of small companies were merged into a few large, powerful companies. People from Europe could leave their families and come to the U.S. They knew they could keep in easy commun ication with their family. Would so many people have left Europe if com munications were poor? Communications changed and business changed swiftly: more buying and more selling. Could the stock market or American business have grown as it did without speedier communications? Communications changed and agriculture changed. Fanners planted, produced, and delivered only what was in demand . . .to the places it was needed. Communications changed and the city could grow. We can say that com munications determined just how large a city could be. 1860 pony express 1910 steel RR tracks BLANK Cartoon G.B. & U.S., 1860 1910 battleship BLANK world mapgraph 1910 immigrant Cartoon Morgan crystal radio BLANK 1910 battleship Communications changed. . .and trans portation changed. Transportation had to deliver with speed millions of orders that faster communications made neces sary. Communications changed and the U.S. as a major world power changed. In stantly, the U.S. could assign troops to troubled areas and make decisions that were known immediately all over the world. Could the U.S. have become such a great industrial power without such ad vances in communications? Instead of an agrarian, weak country. . . in those 50 years. . .the U.S. became an industrial major power. . .a rich country with billions of dollars invested all over the world. This gave the U.S. tremen dous power and importance. This attracted immigrants and changed the population. A major power could encourage business growth. Cartoon G.B. & 1910 tractor U.S., 1860 ” skyscraper 1910 steel RR tracks ” crystal radio BLANK BLANK 1860 horse & plow Title: 50 years wooden puzzle apart BLANK * 1910 battleship 11 11 11 BLANK automobile mass production BLANK A major power needed efficient agricul ture to help feed the world. A major power encouraged the growth of great rich cities. A major power demanded the best in transportation. A major power demanded the speediest of communication systems. Could a major power be a major power without such changes in agriculture? In cities? In transportation? In communi cations? As it became a major power, it demanded changes and depended on * these changes to rise as a major power. The U.S. had been an agrarian, largely rural nation. It became an industrial nation living largely in cities. In 50 years, it had moved from agrarianism to industrialism. It depended on each of these changes. They caused each other to change. We have looked at each of these changes separately. . . BLANK wooden puzzle BLANK half assembled BLANK BLANK closed puzzle But we must think of them as inter related changes that shaped each other that worked together. . . . . .that made the big change: agrar ianism to industrialism. 114 APPENDIX B ! INSTRUCTIONS TO TEST SUBJECTS j I Statement read to each treatment group by the same person before presentation of I i tape-slide materials: I This is an experiment. We are going to look at some film j slides and listen to a sound tape about how the United States j changed from an agricultural country into an industrial country. j Tomorrow, you will have a quiz on what you saw today. It does not count on your school grade. Statement read to each group by the same person before each I’d like to read the following to you: Today I shall give you a quiz, actually two quizzes on the changes in the United States that took the nation from an agricultural society to an industrial society. The scores you get on these quizzes will be important, but if will not be reported to the school or to your teacher; however, you will be competing against several other classes in this school and another school in a nearby city. I shall now pass out one quiz. When I tell you to stop work ing on the first sheet, please put your pencils down. (After tests are passed out to students.) Please note that on this quiz you are to mark only one change for each event. Only one best answer is what is required. However, if you feel that there is no one best answer, you may select a sec ond change that describes the event. There are a few events in this list that cannot be described by any of the changes. Leave those events blank. To summarize, here (pointing to sample test) are a series of events down the side; here are a series of changes across the top. These events down the side may be described by only one kind of change — or at most by two — but some of the events have been chosen to trick you; do not label them with any change at all. Put your name and your teacher’s name, also your period number, in the proper places. You have 10 minutes; then I will collect your papers._____________________________________ Here is the second part of your test. Write your name, your teacher’s name, and the period. Read the instruc tions. You have only 22 minutes. If you finish before I tell you to stop, please review your answers. You will want to be careful because some answers are wrong and some answers are right. You are now going to see a tape-slide presentation. I want you to watch and listen to it. Tomorrow, I shall give you a test. You may take notes today, but it will not help you to do better on the test. There may be some mechanical breakdowns; please be patient with us in case we have to stop for a moment. Thank you. 116 APPENDIX C i Major Patterns of Visuals in Three-Screen Presentation Left Screen Center Screen Right Screen A l. . .Early agriculture (held) B2 A2. . .Industry Factory (held) 99 C2 99 99 D2 99 t l E2 91 » F2 99 19 G2 19 99 H2 19 B2. . .Travel agent (held) A2 B2. . .Arrival of immi grants 9) C2 91 99 D2 91 99 E2 91 99 F2 91 91 G2 99 11 H2 99 C l. . .Mercantile Capitalism. . A2 C2. . .Morgan cartoon Cotton brokerage (held) (held) 19 B2 19 11 D2 11 19 E2 19 99 F2 91 11 G2 11 99 H2 99 D l. . .Early agriculture (held) A2 D2. . .1914 tractor • (held) 91 B2 19 11 C2 1* 91 E2 11 91 F2 19 99 G2 19 99 H2 19 E l. . .1860 N.Y. street (held) A2 E2. . .Skyscraper (held) 99 B2 19 99 C2 11 19 D2 91 19 F2 11 11 G2 91 19 H2 99 117 APPENDIX C (Continued) Left Screen Center Screen FI. . .1860 Iron tracks (held) 99 99 >9 99 99 99 A2 B2 C2 D2 E2 G2 H2 F2. . .1910 steel tracks (held) 99 99 99 99 99 99 G l. . .1860 pony express (held) A2 G2. . .Crystal radio (held) 99 B2 99 99 C2 99 99 D2 99 99 •,E2 99 99 F2 99 99 H2 99 HI. . .Cartoon-Little U.S. vs. Big England (held) A2 H2. . .U.S. battleship flotilla (held) 99 B2 99 99 C2 99 99 D2 99 99 E2 99 99 F2 99 99 G2 99 LEFT CENTER RIGHT Right Screen 70 slides 14 changes 4 same slide 64 slides 63 changes 18 different slides 66 slides 14 changes 1 appears 3x PATTERN: 2 appear lx 8 appear 2x 1 appears 3x 7 appear 7x Pattern is repeated 118 APPENDIX D ANALYSIS OF SELECTED U.S. HISTORY TOPICS FOUND IN STANDARD ELEVENTH GRADE HISTORY TEXTBOOKS 0 — given 2-7 page coverage X — given extensive treatment HISTORY TOPICS TEXTBOOKS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Agricultural X X 0 X X 0 X X Population and Immigration X 0 0 X X 0 X X Growth of cities and cultural life X X 0 X X 0 X X Growth of transporta tion 0 0 0 0 0 0 X X Communications X X X X X X X X Business expansion X X X X X X X X U.S. becomes a major power X X X X X X X X 1. The United States — Steinberg, Samuel (Boston: AUyn and Bacon, Inc., 1963). 2. History: USA — Allen, Jack and John L. Betts (New York: American Book Company, 1967). 3. Our American Republic — Muzzey, David S. and Arthur S. Link (Boston: Ginn & Company, 1963). 4. Rise of the American Nation — Todd, Lewis Paul and Merle Curti (New York: Harcourt Brace and World, Inc., 1966). 5. United States History — Gavian, Ruth W. and William A. Hamm (Boston: D.C. Heath and Company, 1965), 5. Our Free Nation — McGuire, Edna and Thomas B. Portwood (New York: Macmillan Company, 1961). 7. Our Nation from Its Creation — Platt, Nathaniel and Muriel Jean Drummond (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1966). L The American Achievement — Brown, Richard C., William C. Lang, and Mary A. Wheeler (Morristown, N.J.: Silver Burdett Company, 1966). APPENDIX E PROJECTION EQUIPMENT ARRANGEMENT FOR EXPERIMENT u U O m * > o 1 Equipment: 3 Carousel 35 mm slide projector 1 audio tape recorder 1 automated tape control box Please Print jN A M E :_______________________. - • ._________________________ _ ________________ Last First Teacher's Name . . Below are seven major changes (1 to 7) that took place in the U#S. from 186i to 1910. These changes shifted the U.S. from an agrarian or farming societ; into an industrial society. Below, there are also several events ( A to T); that took place in the U.S.. from 1860 to 1910. Match the change that descr each event. Put a circle around the "change" number (or numbers) on each line that best describe the event. i / * / 4 / £ / & / $ / > / sr / / * ‘ / / « / ^ / £ / A / ^ / ^ ■ £ ' / & / f / * ./ o / ^ / ^ / ® / ■ tr / / / Jb / ■0- / ’■ / J s / f *f / / / / & / ' / / / < ¥ / * > - / / ‘ ^ / v / / V / . to ■ / / xT / ;-v / / < / & / / & / * / / £ \ / $ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / j / * / * / e / & / & / / A. Immigration / 3 ¥ s c 7 \ i , B. Extremes of proverty 1 and wealth ........ / 2 3 ¥ S c > C. Civil War demand for food and war supplies /. 2 3 i ¥ S ' £ 7 D. Farm crop specialization / J Z, 3 ¥ S C , 7 E. Whiskey Ring Fraud / 2 3 ¥ S ' c 7 F. Power-driven machines / 2 3 ¥ s c 7 G. Rise of Boss Tweed ■ / 2 3 ¥ £ > ~ c 7 Please Print * — ---- Last First Teacher's Name nr are seven major changes (1 to 7) that took place in the U0S* from 1860 ,910. These changes shifted the U.S. from an agrarian or farming society > an industrial society. Below, there are also several events ( A to T) : took place in the U.S. from 1860 to 1910. Match the change that describes i event. Put a circle around the ''change" number (or numbers) on each : that best describe the event. < ? A. Itnmigratioh / 3 ¥ S £ 7 B. Extremes of proverty and wealth ........ / Z 3 ¥ 3 c 7 C. Civil War demand for food and war supplies / 3 ¥ S c , 7 D. Farm crop specialization A 3 ¥ s £ 7 E. Whiskey Ring Fraud / 7 L 3 ¥ * S ' £ 7 F. Power-driven machines / 3 3 ¥ s c 7 G, Rise of Boss Tweed / 3 3 ¥ s £ 7 H. American shipping tonnage shrank . . . / 3 3 ¥ s ~ £ 7 I. Westward expansion / 3, 3 ¥ , s~ 7 J. Growth of monoplies / 3 3 ¥ S ' C p 7 K. Woman-Suffrage movement / Z 3 ¥ S ' £ 7 L. Growth of newspapers and magazines .... / 3 3 ¥ S ' C 7 M . U.S. Imperialism . . . / 3 3 ¥ S' C 7 N. U.S. captures European markets......... I X 3 ¥ S ' C 7 0. Steel rails I 3 3 ¥ s~ £ 7 P. Barbed wire fencing / X 3 ¥ s £ 7 Q. Dependents' Pension Act / 3 3 ¥ ■ s ~ £ > 7 R. Federal aid to railroads / 3 3 ¥ S' £ 7 S. Seward acts against Napoleon III / 3 3 '¥ s ~ £ 7 T. Use of fertilizers / 3 3 ¥ s ~ £ 7 r a . east; r i n a Last First Teacher's Name Below are several events (A to T) . You will see that the events listed down the side and across the top are the same. Find all those events that you think may have caused the other events to take place. Put a circle around the letter where the events come together; this means that the events are related to each other. Circle as many letters as you think show that the events are related. You don't have to be absolutely sure. A. Immigration B. Extremes of proverty and wealth.......... C. Civil War demand for food and war supplies D. Farm crop specialization E. Whiskey Ring Fraud F. Power-driven machines G. Rise of Boss Tweed H. American shipping tonnage shrank. . . I. Westward expansion J. Growth of monoplies K. Woman-Suffrage movement L. Growth of newspapers and magazines. . . M. U.S. Imperialism N. U.S. captures European markets ........... 0. Steel rails P. Barbed wire fencing Q. Dependents' Pension Act R. Federal aid to railroads S. Seward acts against Napoleon III a C l a a a a. a C L a . C L C l Ol 6. T. Use of fer t i If zetis,_ C L b b b b b b b b J l b b 121 APPENDIX F SYNTHESIS TEST I / / 7 i * 1 I i / / a / - t / < 5 / / f U p i ' I / / / A / A / $ h * -l ^ / , £ : ■ § $ / $ / £ 7 ? / j / / . < $ = ■ > 7 7 4 ° / / - ? 7 ^ / * / V v £ * / / / / c C / A * % * / & § * £ & $ / * s / * v / / / / / * / * / V / w / / o ' / X * / f f l ' V / ^ & f * 1 / \ / 7 > / f c y - / ^ „ • / x / . £ > / # < ? / . ^ 7 / ° / ■ £ / 4 / 0 / £ $ / £ / £ i M IP V . * ' ■ > / • < ? A ? 1 9 I $ ! S § / £ / £ I iS / in tj f • ' v 0 / O f / * r ~ / f c \ ! w / & £ ? / * 9 / J* / i / / **§/ $ / * / £ / £ / A f / if / I / / / i^ > I / O ’ / / / r y / / / * * / £ / 4 / Is j L I& / . C ' / . C ' / a r / / Q . / F * I O j / . ' V / ^ / O . / / / 5 V / • ' V / ^ V A s * ' ' / i P / ? / c / o g J $ / * . / S / $ / J ? / k > /& ° > / / to / / / / ^ / t , . - ? / ^ A t /to /g / P / * / / £ / § i s f i h A / J o / > / I ? / x ? , ^ ^ / ° s / s h / § / £ fj $ / / g / *>'/<*’£ / # A / « ? A * a / £ / * ' / * • £ * h / * / / ^ / • r * * » / ° f * * A " / * * / V j V / V t / V / A : * / > • / A " / o ’ /°* r 5 ^ a b c 4 e [ 1 f 9 b 1 d k 7 m n p < ? r 5 » a . b c 4 e { b i 1 y K / M h p 9 r < s . a b c 4 e f . 9 b i d a / m h £ ? * p 9 r < o n a b c 4 e - f 6 ’ h i J K / ft} h X ? p r < a b c 4 e f . 9 I n ■ f i J K / ftl h 0 p -Q- r 5 a b G 4 e f b i t J K / to h r > p r a b C 4 e * ' ci b i t J K / to h o p Q r < a b G 4 e f 9 b i J K / to h 0 p 9 r i a b C d e f 9 h i J K / to h o p r i a b C d e f 9 b i i J t< i to h o p r < t a b C 4 e ■ f 9 b 4 I J K i to h o p Q . r _ < C L b c d e ' f 9 f i 1 d K / to b o p C l r , . J I a b c 4 e f 9 b I J k f to / ? o p r I u r. d e f < ? j b I J k / to 0 o p a r 121 APPENDIX F SYNTHESIS TEST / Q Q J ther's Name isted down that you e around nts are that the V proverty tmand for supplies pecialization Fraud a machines Lpping ink* . noplies ge movement lism s European Pension Act to railroads 1 jT arj! w K ‘ O ' m f t ! ft?

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Asset Metadata

Creator Lombard, Emanuel Sphardi (author)

Core Title Multi-Channel, Multi-Image Teaching Of Synthesis Skills In Eleventh-Grade United States History

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, curriculum and instruction,Education, Social Sciences,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Finn, James D. (committee chair), Allen, William H. (committee member), Wilbur, Leslie (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-378170

Unique identifier UC11361134

Identifier 7000356.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-378170 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7000356.pdf

Dmrecord 378170

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Lombard, Emanuel Sphardi

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA