University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Middle Class Educator And Minority-Poverty Youth: An Analysis Of The Reactions Of The Educators To Selected Experiences In The Cultural Milieuof Disadvantaged Youth

(USC Thesis Other)

The Middle Class Educator And Minority-Poverty Youth: An Analysis Of The Reactions Of The Educators To Selected Experiences In The Cultural Milieuof Disadvantaged Youth

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Content 'l
70-16,876
McKINSTRY, John A rth u r, 1935-
THE MIDDLE CLASS EDUCATOR A N D MINORITY-
POVERTY YOUTH: A N ANALYSIS OF THE REACTIONS
OF EDUCATORS TO SELECTED EXPERIENCES IN THE
CULTURAL MILIEU OF DISADVANTAGED YOUTH.
U n iv e rs ity o f S o u th ern C a l if o r n ia , P h .D ., 1970
E d u c a tio n , so c io lo g y
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
THE MIDDLE CLASS EDUCATOR AND MINORITY-POVERTY YOUTH
AN ANALYSIS OF THE REACTIONS OF EDUCATORS TO
SELECTED EXPERIENCES IN THE CULTURAL MILIEU
OF DISADVANTAGED YOUTH
by
.. ■ > -
John M cKinstry
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d to th e
FACULTY OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t of the
R equirem ents f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(E d u catio n )
J a n u a ry 1970
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
John M cK instry
under the direction of h.T.f... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R O F P I-IIL O S O P H Y
Dean
j J a n u a ry 1970
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE / + \
/ A / y a J^n a n
PREFACE
The s o c i a l atm osphere o f th e s c h o o l s e t t i n g and the
dynamics o f human r e l a t i o n s in i t are p i v o t a l f a c t o r s in
what s tu d e n t s l e a r n . I t may be t h a t th e s e f a c t o r s are more
im p o r ta n t th a n w hat th e sch o o l e x p l i c i t l y a tte m p ts to teach.
C e r t a i n l y w hat sch o o ls t r y t o d o --p a s s on th e i n h e r i t a n c e
o f a c i v i l i z a t i o n - - i s n e a r l y im p o s s ib le u n le s s t h i s s o c i a l
atm osphere can be used to th e advantage o f te a c h in g and
l e a r n i n g , o r a t l e a s t , n e u t r a l i z e d as a f a c t o r . F a i l i n g to
g rasp th e p o te n cy o f th e s e phenomena, i t i s very l i k e l y
t h a t sch o o ls o f te n rep ro d u ce th e v ery d i v i s i v e f o r c e s and
t r a d i t i o n s which in i t s co n scio u s te a c h in g i t t r i e s to
remedy.
The fo llo w in g s tu d y i s a humble a tte m p t to s c r a t c h
th e s u r f a c e o f th e complex problem o f c u l t u r a l d iv e rg e n ce
in s c h o o ls . I t i s d e d ic a te d to a l l th o se many tho u san d s
o f young men and women who have s u f f e r e d h u m i l i a t i o n and
d e f e a t i n s c h o o ls each y e a r f o r j u s t b e in g th e m s elv e s .
This w r i t i n g , and th e program o f s t u d i e s which i t
c a p s , c o u ld by no means have m a t e r i a l i z e d e x c e p t f o r th e
h e lp o f o th e r s e x ten d e d a t some v e ry s t r a t e g i c moments in
th e l i f e o f th e w r i t e r . I thank Dr. David W. M a rtin o f th e
U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a f o r h i s model o f p r o f e s
s i o n a l competence which made th e program seem w o rth w h ile .
Thanks to Dr. R ic h a rd T h ie l o f San Fernando V a lle y S t a t e
C ollege f o r im p o r ta n t a s s i s t a n c e in r e - d i r e c t i n g my e n e r
g ie s and t a l e n t s , and thanks to Dr. Malcom G arber o f th e
U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a f o r i n s i s t i n g t h a t I make th e n e c e s
s a r y s a c r i f i c e s to u n d e rta k e th e program . Thanks are due
to my w ife f o r h e r n e a r l y l i m i t l e s s p a t i e n c e , and to a l l my
fa m ily and f r i e n d s who h e lp e d me th ro u g h some t h i n tim e s .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
P R E F A C E .......................................................................................................... i i
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................'. . v i
C hapter
I . INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1
G eneral Remarks
The Concept of C u ltu re C o n f l i c t in
E d u catio n
M in o rity C u ltu re v e rsu s M in o rity M ystique
The C u l t u r a l C ontext o f Schools in th e
U n ite d S ta te s
E d u catio n P e rso n n e l and th e C u l t u r a l l y
D i f f e r e n t
I I . THE NATURE OF THE S T U D Y .................................... 19
G enearl Remarks
The S tr a t e g y o f th e Study
H ypotheses
L im ita tio n s
I I I . SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . 45
G eneral Remarks
S u b - C u ltu ra l D if f e r e n c e s as They A f f e c t
E ducation
The T eacher as C u ltu re C a r r i e r
IV. THE SUMMER INSTITUTES FOR TEACHERS AND
ADMINISTRATORS OF DISADVANTAGED AT
THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA . . 60
P h ilo so p h y
Im p lem en tatio n
S t a f f P e rso n n e l
i v
C hapter Page
V. MEASURING DEVICES ............................................................ 79
The Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l Device
The Rokeach D Scale
The Q u e s tio n n a ire
The C u ltu re D istan c e S c a les
VI. FINDINGS ....................................................... . . . . . . 109
G eneral Remarks
P ro v in g th e Hypotheses
V II. CONCLUSIONS................................................. 135
G eneral Remarks
S e r e n d i p i t i e s
S u g g e stio n s f o r F u r th e r Study
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................. . . . . . . . . . . 15Q
APPENDIX ...................................................................... . . . . . . . 159
v
LIST OF TABLES
T able Page
I . Raw Score I n d i c a t i o n f o r the Rokeach D -Scale
T e s t ........................................................................................... 113
I I . D ata R eturn f o r V a ria b le s 1 and m ........................... 120
I I I . M atrix o f C o r r e l a t i o n s .................................................... 128
v i
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
G en eral Remarks
In th e l a t e 1 9 6 0 's t h e r e has emerged a f e e l i n g in
many p re d o m in a n tly Negro communities t h a t e d u c a tio n in
th e s e communities sh o u ld b e , in a s e n s e , " tu r n e d over" to
an autonomous o r p a r t l y autonomous b la c k o r i e n t e d l e a d e r
s h ip and d i r e c t i o n . Americans have t r a d i t i o n a l l y f e l t t h a t
p u b l i c s c h o o ls sh o u ld be s u b j e c t t o a h ig h degree o f l o c a l
c o n t r o l . The b la c k community, in d e v elo p in g t h i s f e e l i n g
- - i t i s d i f f i c u l t to d eterm in e j u s t how w id e sp rea d such
s e n tim e n ts a r e - - h a s seemed to t i e i t t o g e t h e r w ith th e goal
o f e x te n d in g e t h n i c - b a s e d power and autonomy o v e r many a s
p e c t s o f community l i f e where th e y p red o m in ate in numbers.
T his has been an e n co u rag in g developm ent f o r th o se
who contend t h a t th e a c q u i s i t i o n of r e a l power i s th e
n e c e s s a r y f i r s t s te p tow ard a p o s i t i o n o f e q u a l i t y in th e
s o c i e t y . I t has been d is c o u r a g in g f o r th o se who i n s i s t
t h a t d i r e c t p r o j e c t i o n outw ard tow ard th e l a r g e r s o c i e t y - -
b o th p h y s i c a l l y and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y - - i s th e only ro u te to
s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a s o c i e t y o f which th e y are a
r i g h t f u l p a r t .
2
There has n o t b e e n , a t t h i s w r i t i n g , q u i t e th e same
developm ent in th e M exican-Am erican communities o f th e
American S o u th w est, b u t th e cry f o r more M exican-American
te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i s c e r t a i n l y h e a r d , and t h i s
may be a d i f f e r e n t way o f e x p r e s s in g a s i m i l a r c o n v ic t io n .
The c o n v ic tio n c e n te r s around th e i d e a t h a t p u b l i c p rim ary
and seco n d ary e d u c a tio n has n o t s e r v e d th e s e p e o p le i n a
r e a l i s t i c and b e n e f i c i a l way, and t h a t t h i s i s so b ecause
sc h o o ls do n o t u n d e rs ta n d th e problem s o f th e community.
There i s th e f u r t h e r f e e l i n g t h a t th e above i s t r u e b ecau se
p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n n e l o f th e s c h o o ls are n o t " o f" th e com
m u n ity , and even when th e y a r e , th e c u l t u r a l a l l e g i a n c e
te n d s to g r a v i t a t e to th e dominant s o c i e t y .
This stu d y w i l l n o t ta k e a s ta n d on th e s e i s s u e s ,
and in no way w i l l i t a tte m p t to v a l i d a t e or d is c o u n t such
c o n v ic t io n s . The f a c t t h a t such a s i t u a t i o n has d ev elo p ed
in our tim e s , how ever, draws i n t o sh arp focus s t u d e n t -
te a c h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s in environm ents where th e s e r e l a t i o n
s h ip s c ro s s e t h n i c , r a c i a l , c l a s s and o t h e r b o u n d a rie s
which may in v o lv e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s .
Today q u e s ti o n s are b e in g asked c o n ce rn in g th e s e
problem s in e d u c a tio n . I t w i l l n o t be h e a l t h y sim p ly to
ig n o re th e q u e s t i o n s . A m ajor problem i s t h a t b o th th e
p o s in g o f th e q u e s ti o n s and c u r r e n t a tte m p ts a t answers
have been ro o te d in p u r e ly i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . I t
may be t h a t , g iv en th e c lim a te o f th e tim e s , i d e o l o g i c a l
c o n s id e r a tio n s are most im p o r ta n t. But t h i s very f a c t
makes some s c i e n t i f i c u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e s o c i a l dynamics
o f such c o n tro v e rs y more s i g n i f i c a n t th a n e v e r .
E m p iric a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e n a t u r e o f c u l t u r e
d i f f e r e n c e s in e d u c a tio n betw een s tu d e n t s and t e a c h e r s ,
and s tu d e n t s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , rem ains und ev elo p ed . The
q u e s tio n s o f j u s t what k in d s of c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s th e r e
a r e , how much th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n h i b i t com m unication, how
d i f f i c u l t to h u rd le we can e x p e c t th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s to b e ,
what k in d o f te a c h e r s circum vent th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s b e s t - -
th e s e q u e s tio n s rem ain unansw ered, in d eed l a r g e l y unap
p ro ach ed . The stu d y p r e s e n te d h e re c e r t a i n l y does n o t an
swer such q u e s t i o n s , n o r does i t even p ro p o se to e x p lo re
them in any th o ro u g h s e n s e . What is p r e s e n te d h e re is the
t e s t i n g o f some g u id e lin e s f o r th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the
q u e s t i o n s .
The Concept o f C u ltu re
C o n f l i c t in E d u catio n
I f e d u c a tio n were sim p ly th e " s e l f - c o n s c i o u s mode
o f the e n c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s , " a d e f i n i t i o n g iv en in c la s s
a few y e a rs ago by a p r o f e s s o r o f a n th ro p o lo g y , i t would be
so s a t u r a t e d i n t o i t s own c u l t u r a l backdrop t h a t th e re
would be no need to c o n s id e r a n y th in g l i k e th e c u l t u r a l
dynamics o f e d u c a tio n as s e p a r a t e phenomena. There are
s o c i e t i e s , even la r g e complex o n e s, in which such a d e f i n i
t i o n o f e d u c a tio n can re a so n a b ly apply. Indeed such a view
c o n tin u e d u n t i l very r e c e n t l y as a p a r t o f th e s u p e r s t r u c
t u r e o f th e p h ilo s o p h y o f p rim ary and secondary e d u c a tio n
in the U n ite d S t a t e s .
H a p p ily , p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to rs in our tim e have
slo w ly begun to comprehend t h a t f o r a complex o f reaso n s
such a sim ple and c o n v e n ie n t d e f i n i t i o n o f e d u c a tio n , even
a t i t s c o r e , i s n o t only i n a p p r o p r i a t e , b u t e n t i r e l y m is
le a d in g in th e c o n te x t o f American s o c i e t y . Because o f th e
trem endous e x p an sio n o f e d u c a tio n in th e U n ited S t a t e s ,
and, even more s i g n i f i c a n t , because o f the expansion o f
what has come to be d e fin e d as American S o c i e t y , i t i s
c l e a r t h a t e d u c a tio n does n o t always f i t c o m fo rtab ly t o
g e th e r w ith th e r e s t o f the e n c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s , b u t may
a c t u a l l y compete w ith i t .
Though such th in g s are n o t easy to d e l i n e a t e , we
are coming to face th e r e a l i t y t h a t t h e r e e x i s t , and p e r
s i s t , s e p a r a te c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s w ith in our l a r g e r s o c i e t y .
And as an e x te n s io n o f t h i s c o n d itio n , we can see t h a t
e d u c a tio n has n o t sprung from th e lo c a l c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s
o f a l l segments o f th e l a r g e r s o c i e t y , b u t has been p r o
j e c t e d from one g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l o r i e n t a t i o n onto o th e r s .
In t h i s way, e d u c a tio n in th e U n ited S ta te s in v o lv e s c u l
t u r e c o n f r o n t a t i o n .
C u ltu re c o n f r o n t a t i o n , o f c o u rs e , i s a m ajor p r e
o c c u p a tio n o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry a n th ro p o lo g y . A sm all
m ountain o f l i t e r a t u r e slow ly accum ulates d e a lin g w ith the
phenomenon, and r e s u l t a n t p ro b lem s, o f c u l t u r e c o n ta c t and
c r o s s - c u l t u r a l r e l a t i o n s . However, w ith th e e x c e p tio n of
S p i n d l e r , L andis and a few o th e r s who are s p e c i a l i s t s in
th e s p e c i f i c a r e a o f the an th ro p o lo g y o f e d u c a tio n , a more
g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c concern w ith th e c ro ss c u l t u r a l s i t u a
t i o n in American e d u c a tio n has re c e iv e d co m p arativ ely
l i t t l e , and only v ery r e c e n t , a t t e n t i o n . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g
to n o te a p a ssa g e in an i n t r o d u c t o r y t e x t in c u l t u r a l an
th ro p o lo g y p u b lis h e d in th e same month o f t h i s w r i t i n g :
W holesale a p p l i c a t i o n of any s k i l l , method, te ch n iq u e
o r v alu e to a t o t a l s o c i a l group such as "A m erica," o r
" C a l i f o r n i a , " i s b ased upon an e rro n e o u s .assumption o f
hom ogeniety. This type o f a p p l i c a t i o n must be foregone
in fa v o r o f endeavor b a se d upon a r e c o g n i t i o n o f h e t e r -
o g e n ie ty o f b e h a v io r and o f v a lu e s w i t h i n and among
each subgroup in th e s o c i e t y . (69:494)
E d u c a tio n as a whole has ig n o re d th e s i g n i f i c a n c e
o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s , and i t i s n o t suddenly p r e p a r e d to
absorb th e im pact o f t h i s r e a l i z a t i o n . The im p lic a tio n s
f o r t h i s growing aw areness can h a r d ly be e x a g g e ra te d . At
l e a s t e x c e p t where e d u c a tio n does n o t seem to any e x t e n t to
c ro ss c u l t u r e b o u n d a r ie s - - s u c h s i t u a t i o n s are r a r e - - t h e
co n cep t o f c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n c e in v o lv e s e v ery assu m p tio n ,
e v ery a c t i v i t y , e v ery type o f a s s o c i a t i o n , e v e r y th in g t h a t
has to do w ith e d u c a tio n . I t i s n o t enough m erely to be
6
aware o f th e " d i f f e r e n t backgrounds" o f s t u d e n t s . As
S p in d le r p o in te d o u t more than a decade ago, e d u c a tio n c a n
n o t sim ply change a c u l t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c around to some
" d e s i r a b l e " form. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , th e s t y l e , th e p e r
s o n a l i t y modes, th e dominant a t t i t u d e s , th e s e th in g s cannot
sim ply be l i f t e d o u t o f t h e i r c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g and a l t e r e d
(7 0 :1 7 ). I f change i s d e s i r e d by th e dom inant c u l t u r e ,
e d u c a tio n alone can n o t accom plish t h i s . I f i n t e r - c u l t u r a l
f r i c t i o n i s to be re d u c e d , a d ju stm en ts w i l l have to be made
on b o th s i d e s .
M in o rity C u ltu re v e rs u s
M in o rity M ystique
J u s t what c o n s i t u t e s c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n c e in t h i s
la r g e s o c ie ty ? By p r e v io u s im p l i c a t i o n such a q u e s t i o n
cannot r e a l l y be answ ered. No p r e c i s e answer w i l l be a t
tem pted in t h i s w r i t i n g . Because c u l t u r e encompasses so
much, i t i s n o t easy to d e f in e even in th e a b s t r a c t . G reat
minds l i k e Kluchkohn and K roeber have w r e s t l e d w ith th e
problem o f d e f i n i t i o n s and have only come up w ith p a r t l y
s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u l t s . What c o n s t i t u t e s a s u b - c u l t u r e ? The
problem o f d e f in in g s u b - c u l t u r e s and s u b - c u l t u r a l c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s is even more d i f f i c u l t . Can c e r t a i n common l i f e
s t y l e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p o v e r ty be c o n sid e re d s u b - c u l t u r a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ? Does a s i m i l a r o r i e n t a t i o n tow ard tim e
between p oor w h ite s o u th e r n e r s and s o u th e rn r u r a l Negroes
7
i n d i c a t e a common sub-'C ulture ru n n in g a c ro ss ra c e bounda
r i e s i n t h i s area? S in c e , as Bogardus long s in c e p o in te d
o u t , m iddle c l a s s Americans te n d to a c t i n a g e n e r a l i z e d
way tow ard a l l n o n -w h ite , non-m iddle c la s s r e s i d e n t Am eri
c a n s, does t h i s mean t h a t we sh o u ld c o n s id e r c u l t u r e f r i c
t i o n in t h i s s o c i e t y as a c o n f r o n t a t i o n betw een th e w hite
m iddle c la s s and a l l o th e r s ? How much o f a s u b - c u l t u r e
c a r r i e r i s a h ig h ly a c c u l t u r a t e d M exican-American?
For th e p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y , s u b - c u l t u r e bound
a r i e s w i l l n o t be an im p o r ta n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n ; we w i l l n o t
be c o n cern ed so much h e re w ith th e a f f i l i a t i o n a l a s p e c ts o f
c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s , b u t w ith th e d i f f e r e n c e s th e m se lv e s.
C u ltu re d i f f e r e n c e betw een p r o f e s s i o n a l sch o o l p e rs o n n e l
and members o f th e community, e s p e c i a l l y s t u d e n t s , w i l l
mean th e s i t u a t i o n in which p a r t o f th e b ro a d spectrum o f
p e r s o n a l t r a i t s - - t i m e o r i e n t a t i o n , a t t i t u d e s tow ard a d u l t
a u t h o r i t y , ty p e s and i n t e n s i t y o f v e r b a l - s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ,
a t t i t u d e tow ard s e x , a t t i t u d e tow ard p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y ,
p la y and r e c r e a t i o n a l them es, degree of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith
th e c u l t u r e o f th e s c h o o l- - c a u s e m is u n d e rs ta n d in g , m i s t r u s t
and n e g a ti v e d e f i n i t i o n s on e i t h e r s i d e ,
Most o f th e s e item s can be o b se rv e d , and sometimes
even m easured, w ith some degree o f a cc u ra cy . However, in
th e case o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e c u l t u r e o f th e sch o o l
Cthat i s to s a y , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e l a r g e r , dominant
c u l t u r e o f th e s o c i e t y ) , we n o t only have a problem i d e n t i
fy in g and m easuring t h i s f a c t o r , b u t b ecau se o f c u r r e n t l y
e v o lv in g a t t i t u d e s w i t h i n m in o r ity com m unities, we soon
come to re c o g n iz e t h a t th e f a c t o r te n d s to confuse th e e n
t i r e s u b j e c t o f c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n th e s o c i e t y as
a w hole.
For re a so n s e x p la i n e d below th e stu d y w i l l concen
t r a t e on d i f f e r e n c e s betw een sch o o l c u l t u r e and s e l e c t e d
c u l t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f low economic index com m unities
o f m o stly Negro urb an and suburban p o p u l a t i o n - - l i k e the
g e n e r a l a r e a o f s o u th e r n Los A n g e le s --a n d low economic
in d e x communities o f m o stly M exican-American urb an and su b
urban p o p u l a t i o n - - l i k e E a s t Los A n g e le s - - o r communities
where th e two groups t o g e t h e r make up a m a j o r i t y o f r e s i
d e n ts . Now t r y i n g to d e l i n e a t e and u n d e r s ta n d c u l t u r a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e s e com m unities, th e m selv e s h ig h ly
dynamic and h e tero g en e o u s s o c i e t i e s , i s im p o s sib le e x ce p t
in a v e ry g e n e r a l way. In th e 1 9 6 0 's , such an u n d e r ta k in g
i s made even more c o m p lic a te d by what s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s can
only d e s c r ib e as a m ystique which has d ev elo p ed around c e r
t a i n ty p e s o f e t h n i c and r a c i a l i d e n t i t y . This w r i t e r is
n o t c a s t i n g shadows on r e s o l u t e b la c k i d e n t i t y as a s o c i o
p o l i t i c a l d ev ice in p r e s s u r i n g f o r s o c i a l change. Such
developm ents have o b v io u s ly had g r e a t t h e r a p e u t i c v a lu e on
th e m orale o f Negroes and o th e r m in o r ity p e o p l e s , and may
be som ething long overdue i n th e m a tu ra tio n o f American
s o c i e t y .
What i s im p lie d i s t h a t such i d e n t i t y o f t e n ob
s c u r e s th e p u r e ly c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s betw een such groups
and th e core c u l t u r e . The f e e l i n g o f s e p a r a t e n e s s , th e
aw areness o f a Unique h i s t o r i c a l and c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y ,
t h i s i s i t s e l f an a u t h e n t i c p a r t o f a unique c u l t u r a l e n
t i t y . Race p r i d e , s e p a r a t i s m , sim ple h o s t i l i t y , which have
become a p a r t o f t h i s developm ent i n our s o c i e t y do n o t by
th e m s e lv e s , how ever, n e c e s s a r i l y m i r r o r th e e x t e n t , o r th e
n a t u r e o f c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s .
By em ploying th e term m y s tiq u e , th e w r i t e r i s n o t
im plying t h a t s e n tim e n ts in v o lv e d in such i d e n t i t y are
b a s e l e s s . C e r t a i n l y t h e r e are e x p e r ie n c e s i n our s o c i e t y
which are p u r e l y r a c i a l and e t h n i c in n a t u r e . The S p an ish -
American a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e p re -A n g lo , o r in th e case o f
more r e c e n t im m ig ran ts, th e non-Anglo a s p e c ts o f N orth
American h i s t o r y i s a c u l t u r a l l y s h a r e d a s p e c t o f Mexican
American l i f e . The r e a c t i o n o f w h ite America to th e Amer
ic a n Negro i n g e n e r a l , r e g a r d l e s s o f h is c u l t u r a l a t t r i
b u t e s , g iv e s a l l Negroes an a r e a o f s h a r e d r e a l i t y . B ut,
in f a c t , t h e r e are c u l t u r a l g r a d i e n t s among p e o p le c l a s s i
f i e d p o p u la r ly as Negro o r M exican-A m erican, and th e d i f f e r
ences are a t l e a s t as s i g n i f i c a n t as th e s i m i l a r i t i e s . I f
i d e n t i t y and c u l t u r e were th e same t h i n g , th e i d e n t i t y as
10
" I r i s h " o f t h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n Americans o f I r i s h d e s c e n t
would be a l e g i t i m a t e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f I r i s h c u l t u r e ; the
i d e n t i t y o f Yemini Jews would make a c c u l t u r a t i o n in I s r a e l
e asy ; and th e c u l t u r a l " b ro th e rh o o d " betw een A n a to lia n
Turks and th e Turkoman o f C e n tr a l A sia would n o t be th e
l i n g u i s t i c and h i s t o r i c a l d e c e p tio n i t i s .
This i d e n t i t y m ystique i s a f a s c i n a t i n g s u b j e c t o f
i n q u i r y ; p a r t l y so becau se i t runs so c o u n te r to so much o
th e American p h ilo s o p h y o f th e co m p o sitio n and o r i e n t a t i o n
o f th e p e r f e c t s o c i e t y . The m ystique i s r e a l l y s e v e r a l
d i f f e r e n t th i n g s : I t i s to some e x t e n t th e i n e v i t a b l e r e
s u l t o f o v e r - g e n e r a l i z e d lumping t o g e t h e r o f the group
i d e n t i t y o f " o t h e r s " by th e dom inant, core segment o f Amer
ic a n s o c i e t y . F ollow ing t h i s , i t has become a t a c t i c in
th e s t r u g g l e by m in o r ity p e o p le f o r d i g n i t y and r i g h t s .
Mixed up i n a l l t h i s as w e l l , i s a n o s t a l g i c r e f e r e n c e to
th e c u l t u r e s o f o n e 's b i o l o g i c a l p r e d e c e s s o r s .
The m ystique i n h e r e n t i n th e term s b la c k and l a
Raza may be h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t f o c i f o r i d e n t i t y and power
f u l s t i m u l i f o r c o n c e rte d a c t i o n . We must keep in mind
t h a t th e s e are i d e n t i t y o r i e n t a t i o n s , and th ey may be in-'
c i d e n t a l , o r even c o m p le tely u n r e l a t e d to s i g n i f i c a n t
a re a s o f s h a r e d c u l t u r e .
11
The C u l t u r a l C ontext o f Schools
in th e U n ite d S t a t e J
In O scar H a n d lin 's r e c e n t book The U p ro o te d , he
d e s c r ib e s th e e x p e rie n c e s of th e t h i r t y o r so m i l l i o n im
m ig ran ts who came to th e e a s t e r n U n ite d S t a t e s from th e
m iddle 1 8 0 0 's th ro u g h th e e a r l y p a r t o f t h i s c e n tu r y . He
p o in ts o u t th e s t r a t e g i c r o l e o f American s c h o o ls in th e
e v e n tu a l a b s o r p tio n o f th e o f f s p r i n g o f t h i s v a s t army o f
im m igrants w ith am azingly l i t t l e e f f e c t on th e b a s i c n a tu r e
o f th e s u rro u n d in g s o c i e t y . Under such c irc u m s ta n c e s ,
American p rim ary and secondary sch o o ls were to be f a r more
th an an a s p e c t o f th e e n c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s ; they had to
b e , as th e y e n c o u n te re d th e s e p e o p le , th e p r o s e l y t i z i n g
ag en t and c h i e f d e fe n d e r o f p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e norms o f th e
e s t a b l i s h e d s o c i e t y .
The s u c c e ss o f American e d u c a tio n in p u l l i n g o f f
t h i s g r e a t f e a t i s a m a tte r o f re c o r d . I t was p o s s i b l e
because (a) th e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s were r e l a t i v e l y s u p e r
f i c i a l ; (b) th e n a t u r a l s c r e e n in g p ro c e s s o f sev e ra n ce and
p assag e s e l e c t e d a h ig h ly m o tiv a te d group o f p e o p le as im
m ig r a n ts ; and (c) a lth o u g h e x c lu s io n and avoidance were
e x p e r ie n c e d , th e s i t u a t i o n was n o t c o m p lic a te d to any g r e a t
degree by d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Such an e x
p e r ie n c e c o n t r i b u t e d l a r g e l y to an American e d u c a tio n w ith
a m e ss io n ic z e a l f o r a c c u l t u r a t i o n . When c o n fro n te d w ith
som ething which does n o t conform w ith th e main themes o f
12
th e c e n t r a l Anglo-American c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g , i t i s seen as
a wrong which must be made r i g h t . M ilto n Gordon, w h ile
o b s e rv in g t h a t a t t i t u d e s tow ard c u l t u r a l s ta n d a rd s in t h i s
s o c i e t y have been ambiguous, p o i n t s o u t t h a t ,
"A n g lo -co n fo rm ity " in i t s more m oderate forms has b e en ,
however e x p l i c i t i t s f o r m u la t io n , th e most p r e v a l e n t
id e o lo g y o f a s s i m i l a t i o n in America th ro u g h o u t the
n a t i o n ' s h i s t o r y . (30 : 89)
The c u l t u r a l s ta n d a r d s o f p rim ary and seco n d ary
e d u c a tio n , on th e o th e r han d , have been le s s ambiguous.
The symptoms o f th e se s ta n d a r d s can be e a s i l y re c o g n iz e d
and are o f t e n f a r from s u b t l e . In h i s a n a ly s is o f p rim ary
sch o o l te x tb o o k s , K le in b e rg c l e a r l y d e m o n strates t h a t
s c h o o ls have p r o j e c t e d th e c u l t u r e o f th e w h ite m iddle
c la s s as th e l e g i t i m a t e American s ta n d a r d . C u ltu re s e t
t i n g s i n th e s e t e x t s were i d e a l i z e d v e r s io n s o f w h ite
m iddle c la s s s e t t i n g s - - s u b u r b a n o r sm all town en v iro n m en t,
w h ite c o l l a r o c c u p a tio n o f f a t h e r , r e l a t i v e l y s m all fa m i
l i e s , two s t o r y houses w ith y a r d , g e n e r a l a f f l u e n t l i f e
s t y l e . What happened i n th e s e s t o r i e s was no l e s s c u l t u r e
b o u n d - - f a t h e r r e s o lv e d p e t t y d o m estic c o n f l i c t s upon r e
tu r n i n g home; s t o r i e s had endings in which m a t e r i a l d e s i r e s
were g r a t i f i e d ; i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s were warm and r e
la x e d w ith l i t t l e e x p r e s s io n o f s tr o n g e m o tio n s; p e r s o n a l
f e e l i n g s o f c h ild r e n were s e r i o u s l y c o n s id e re d in making
d e c is io n (4 4 :p a s sim ). The f a c t t h a t e f f o r t s have been made
in th e p a s t th r e e y e a r s to c o r r e c t th e s p e c i f i c problem o f
c u l t u r a l l y i r r e l e v a n t te x tb o o k s i s e n c o u ra g in g , b u t t h i s
s o r t of th in g works on only a s i n g l e symptom o f a much
l a r g e r problem o f i n s e n s i t i v i t y to c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s .
Now i t would be u n re a s o n a b le to c r i t i c i z e a s o c i e t y
f o r en co u rag in g c u l t u r a l a d ju stm en t in th e d i r e c t i o n o f
im p o r ta n t assum ptions u n d e rly in g b a s i c i n s t i t u t i o n s . C e r
t a i n l y th e r e i s n o th in g i n s i d i o u s in u s in g e d u c a tio n as an
a c c u l t u r a t i o n a g e n t. The p o i n t i s t h a t s ch o o ls in econom i
c a l l y d e p riv e d communities o f h ig h c o n c e n tr a tio n o f Negro
a n d /o r M exican-American p o p u la tio n have n o t s e r v e d as
a g en ts of a c c u l t u r a t i o n , and i t i s p r e c i s e l y when sch o o ls
a re n o t a g en ts o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n , f o r w h a tev e r r e a s o n s , t h a t
th e p r o j e c t i o n of u n a t t a i n a b l e c u l t u r a l s ta n d a rd s becomes
i n s i d i o u s . The th r e e c o n d itio n s l i s t e d above having to do
w ith th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n o f European im m igrants sim ply do n o t
e x i s t w ith th e se two p e o p le s .
I t has been d i f f i c u l t f o r th e s ch o o ls in Negro and
M exican-American communities to s e rv e as access r o u te s to
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e l a r g e r s o c i e t y . On th e one hand,
s c h o o ls are n o t c u l t u r a l l y n e u t r a l enough to encompass the
f o c i o f l o c a l i n t e r e s t and u t i l i z e l o c a l l y d ev elo p ed s k i l l s .
On th e o t h e r hand, y o u th f u l members o f th e community have
come to f e e l t h a t even i f th e y make th e u n co m fo rtab le move
tow ard se v e ra n ce from l o c a l c u l t u r e , th e chances o f b ein g
a b le to move i n t o s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e l a r g e r
14
s o c i e t y are f a r from good.
In th e Negro g h e t t o , f o r i n s t a n c e , v e r b a l a l a c r i t y
in term s o f l o c a l themes and l o c a l l i n g u i s t i c p a t t e r n s i s a
h ig h ly v a lu e d s k i l l . Kochman d is c u s s e d th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
th e v e r b a l barb or "p u t down" in th e g h e t t o , g iv in g s e v e r a l
e x c e l l e n t examples l i k e th e fo llo w in g :
A man coming from th e bathroom f o r g o t to zip h is p a n t s .
An u n e s c o r te d p a r t y o f women k e p t w a tch in g him and
la u g h in g among th e m s e lv e s . The m an's f r i e n d s " h ip "
(inform ) him to w h a t 's going on. He approaches one
woman--"Hey bab y , d id you see t h a t b ig b la c k C a d i lla c
w ith f u l l t i r e s ready to r o l l i n t o a c ti o n j u s t f o r
y o u ." She answ ers--"N o m other f u c k e r , b u t I saw a
l i t t l e gray Volkswagen w ith two f l a t t i r e s . " Everybody
la u g h s. His rap (comment) was "capped" ( e x c e l l e d ,
topped) . (45 : 27)
Classroom communication cannot e a s i l y encompass such a
v a lu e d s k i l l . Communication in th e classro o m i s b a se d on a
s ta n d a r d in which g h e tto you th are u s u a l l y u n ab le to apply
to v e r b a l a p t i t u d e , even though such a p t i t u d e may be h ig h ly
d eveloped. What we im ply h e re i s n o t o n ly a c u l t u r e gap,
b u t a s e l f - d e f e a t i n g c u l t u r a l i n f l e x i b i l i t y on th e p a r t o f
th e s c h o o l.
E d u c a tio n P e rs o n n e l and th e
C u l t u r a l l y D i f f e r e n t
S tu d ie s by Lloyd Warner p u b lis h e d as f a r back as
th e days o f World War I I have made a s o c i o l o g i c a l p o s t u l a t e
o f th e f a c t t h a t p rim ary and seco n d ary te a c h e r s i n American
sc h o o ls have come overwhemingly from th e m iddle c l a s s . I t
was r e p o r te d th e n t h a t th e u p p e r and low er m iddle c l a s s e s
15
a cco u n ted f o r 94 p e r c e n t o f American t e a c h e r s on th e p r i
mary and sec o n d a ry l e v e l ( 7 8 :1 7 ) . The same stu d y p o in te d
o u t t h a t 60 p e r c e n t o f th e p u p i l s and s t u d e n t s up th ro u g h
h ig h sch o o l c o u ld be i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e two bottom c la s s
l e v e l s in th e Warner s i x - p a r t sch em e--u p p er low er and lower
low er ( 7 8 :2 3 ) . W ithout even to u c h in g on th e co n cep t o f
r a c i a l and e t h n i c s u b c u l t u r e s , t h i s c o n d itio n alone e s t a b
l i s h e s t h a t l i f e s t y l e and v alu e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een
t e a c h e r and s t u d e n t s i s a w id e sp rea d r e a l i t y . The f a c t
t h a t as we move up th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l i n e tow ard the
b o ards o f e d u c a tio n we i n c r e a s e th e l i f e s t y l e d i f f e r e n c e s
between s tu d e n t s and e d u c a tio n p e rs o n n e l i s so obvious t h a t
to c i t e l i t e r a t u r e would be s u p e r f lu o u s .
R ecent w r i t i n g s have shown t h a t t h i s e x a g g e ra te d
circ u m stan c e i s changing in t h a t b e g in n in g te a c h e r s today
a re a more h e tero g en e o u s l o t ( e . g . , 7 3 :p a ssim ). This does
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t a change in v alu e and l i f e s t y l e
c o n f r o n t a t i o n p a t t e r n s . The p o i n t i s t h a t t e a c h e r and
a d m i n i s t r a t o r are m iddle c l a s s r o l e s r e g a r d l e s s o f th e
s o c i a l background o f p e rs o n s in v o lv e d . This i s t r u e f o r a t
l e a s t th r e e re a s o n s :
1. The v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n o f sch o o ls i s b ased on a
complex o f m iddle c l a s s r e f e r e n c e s . S o c ia l system s - - l i k e
sch o o ls - -must e s t a b l i s h and m a in ta in r o le models which i n
t e g r a t e p e r s o n n e l i n t o th e v a lu e p a t t e r n o f th e s p e c i f i c
system .
16
2. As p r e s e n t l y e s t a b l i s h e d , th e ro u te o f p e r s o n a l
h i s t o r y r e q u i r e d to become a te a c h e r o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r i n
v o lv e s a deep em ersion in m iddle c la s s r i t u a l p a t t e r n s ,
i . e . , th e c u l t u r e o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .
3. R esearch ( i . e . , 9 5:passim ) s t r o n g l y i n d i c a t e s
t h a t th e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t tendency f o r p e rs o n s who choose
e d u c a tio n as a p r o f e s s i o n on the p rim ary and secondary
l e v e l s to have s t r o n g l y i d e n t i f i e d w ith te a c h e r s d u rin g
t h e i r p rim ary and seco n d ary s ch o o l y e a r s . This im p lie s
t h a t even where th e g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g d e v ia t e s from
th e m iddle c l a s s , i t ten d s to be th o se whom most a p p r o x i
mate m iddle c l a s s models who are r e c r u i t e d i n t o th e r o le s
o f te a c h e r and a d m i n i s t r a t o r .
Of c o u r s e , th e r e i s g r e a t d i v e r s i t y i n t e a c h e r a t
t i t u d e s and b e h a v io r . U ndoubtedly t h e r e are s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s betw een te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s c o n cern in g
t h e i r a b i l i t y to cope w ith c u l t u r a l v a r i e t y . The f a c t r e
mains t h a t th e average i n d i v i d u a l in any s o c i e t y has a
q u i t e l i m i t e d im pact on th e r o le p a t t e r n s a v a i l a b l e to him.
So we can e x p e c t t h a t an im p o rta n t p a r t o f th e problem s in
American seco n d ary e d u c a tio n caused by c u l t u r e c o n f r o n t a
t i o n i s p u t th e r e by th e r o l e models a v a i l a b l e to p r o f e s
s i o n a l p e r s o n n e l.
There may be some u s e f u ln e s s in th e e x a g g e ra te d
analogy o f s ch o o ls in m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities as a
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type o f c o l o n i a l e s ta b lis h m e n t s e r v in g th e dom inant p o s i
t i o n o f m iddle c l a s s c u l t u r e . To fo llo w th e a n alo g y , we
must th en view e d u c a tio n p e rs o n n e l as c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a
t o r s . Such a r e f e r e n c e b reak s down when c a r r i e d v ery f a r ,
b u t i t may be h e l p f u l to draw t h i s analogy f o r a moment in
c o n s id e r in g th e problem s o f urban e d u c a tio n in th e U n ite d
S t a t e s , b ecause o f th e c l a r i t y , th e tr a u m a tic c l a r i t y , o f
le s s o n s l e a r n e d from European c o lo n ia lis m in s i t u a t i o n s
which may n o t be so f a r removed from our problem a t hand.
F i r s t o f f , l e t us r e c a l l how i r r e l e v a n t to l o c a l
c u l t u r e were many o f the a t t i t u d e s c a r r i e d in w ith th e
c o l o n i a l b u r e a u c r a t s . S econdly, need we rem ind anyone j u s t
how l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p th e r e was betw een i n t e n t i o n s - - a n d
many a d m i n i s t r a t o r s were u n q u e s tio n a b ly d ev o ted to t h e i r
c h a r g e s - - a n d a b i l i t y to e f f e c t i v e l y h e lp th e l o c a l p e o p le .
F i n a l l y , as long as th e c o n d itio n o f c o lo n ia lis m e x i s t e d in
an a r e a , as long as power was e x e r t e d by and on th e term s
o f one c u l t u r e c e n t e r o v er a n o th e r , no amount o f good w i l l
o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , no amount o f s w e e tly s t a t e d r a t i o n a l i z a
ti o n s could h id e th e b l u n t f a c t t h a t th e l o c a l c u l t u r e was
e x p l o i t e d by and f o r th e b e n e f i t o f o u t s i d e r s .
T eachers and o t h e r sch o o l p e r s o n n e l are n o t r e a l l y
c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . E d u c a tio n p e r s o n n e l p r o j e c t
c u l t u r a l dominance n o t because o f a co n scio u s p la n o f e x
p l o i t a t i o n , b u t b ecause American s o c i e t y has n o t y e t
18
l e a r n e d to g ra p p le w ith th e problem o f c u l t u r a l d i v e r s i t y
in s c h o o ls . The problem i s n o t th e same; we hope th e o u t
come w i l l n o t be s i m i l a r .
CHAPTER I I
THE NATURE OF THE STUDY
G eneral Remarks
I t may w e ll be t h a t f u t u r e o b s e rv e rs o f t h i s p e r io d
o f h i s t o r y w i l l conclude t h a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e g ra d u a l
p o p u l a r i z a t i o n o f th e im pact of c u l t u r e on human b e h a v io r
was as im p o r ta n t a b re a k th ro u g h in m an's s e a r c h to u n d e r
s ta n d h im s e lf as was F r e u d 's d is c o v e ry o f th e su b c o n sc io u s.
C e r t a i n l y th e developm ent o f c u l t u r a l aw areness has been
le s s s p e c t a c u l a r th a n th e l a t t e r . I t has r a r e l y c o n tr a c te d
th e e x c i t i n g c o n tro v e rs y which F r e u d 's id e a s p r e s e n t e d to
th e i n t e l l e c t u a l community f o r s e v e r a l d ecad es; n o r was i t
a s s o c i a t e d w ith such a s i n g l e , a l t o g e t h e r c o l o r f u l , p e r
s o n a l i t y .
The im portance o f th e d is c o v e ry o f c u l t u r e i s easy
to miss b ecause th e stu d y o f c u l t u r e , u n lik e F reu d ia n p s y
c hology, has n o t developed a g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d t r a d i t i o n
f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g s p e c i f i c p e r s o n a l b e h a v io r . As one a c
c e p ts th e p r i n c i p l e s o f Freud and h i s s u c c e s s o r s in t r y i n g
to u n ra v e l any a s p e c t o f b e h a v io r , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to avoid
th e l o g i c a l e x te n s io n o f th e s e p r i n c i p l e s to o n e 's own mo
t i v a t i o n s and b e h a v io r , and t h e r e f o r e a c c e p tin g th e se
19
20
p r i n c i p l e s in a d eep ly p e r s o n a l way. I t seems to be much
e a s i e r , how ever, f o r even h ig h ly e d u c a te d p e o p le to com
p l e t e l y a c c e p t th e co n cep t o f c u l t u r a l d e term in ism , y e t
rem ain so r e l u c t a n t Cor a t l e a s t so unaccustom ed) to p r o
j e c t t h i s co n cep t over o n e 's own b e h a v io r dynamics.
C u l t u r a l dynamics have been p u t in th e l i g h t o f
g e n e r a l i z e d human a c ti o n m o tif s u n d e rly in g la r g e s o c i a l
a g g r e g a te s . In o th e r w ords, th e e d u ca te d p o p u la tio n has
come to see th e w orkings o f c u l t u r a l dynamics in term s o f
in d e p en d e n t c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s l i k e th e R u ssian s o r th e
C h in e se . The p r i n c i p l e s o f c u l t u r a l c o n d itio n in g have u n
d o u b te d ly t h e i r g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n to make when i t is
g e n e r a l l y u n d e rs to o d t h a t th e s y s te m a tic stu d y o f c u l t u r e
does n o t end w ith c a ta lo g in g th e h a b i t s and a r t i f a c t s o f
autonomous b o d ie s w ith re c o g n iz a b le b o u n d a r ie s , a unique
language and a n a t i o n a l d r e s s .
The use o f th e term s o c io - p s y c h o lo g ic a l ( l a r g e l y by
p s y c h o l o g i s t s ) d u rin g th e p a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s , r e p r e s e n t s a
tendency tow ard i n t e g r a t i n g th e p r i n c i p l e s o f c u l t u r a l
d e term in ism i n t o more s p e c i f i c a s p e c ts o f th e b ro a d s tu d y
o f human b e h a v io r . One m ight say i t r e p r e s e n t s a tendency
tow ard a more " p r a c t i c a l employment o f the concept o f
c u l t u r e . " As w e l l , th e e v o lu tio n o f th e s tu d y o f s o c i a l
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n in American s o c i e t y from th e l a t e 1 9 3 0 's i s
a move tow ard u s in g th e p r i n c i p l e s o f c u l t u r a l d e term in ism
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i n a n a l y s i s o f man in contem porary, complex s o c i e t i e s .
These developm ents n o tw ith s ta n d in g , i t can be n o t h
in g le s s th a n d is c o u r a g in g to o bserve how l i t t l e p ro g r e s s
has been made to d ate in th e developm ent o f s y s te m a tic
te c h n iq u e s f o r s tu d y in g c u l t u r a l dynamics in s p e c i f i c s i t
u a tio n s in our s o c i e t y - - s i t u a t i o n s l i k e e d u c a tio n .
In f a c t , c u l t u r a l c r o s s - c u r r e n t s in American s o c i
e ty c r e a t e problem s f o r e d u c a tio n . The job i s to u n d e r
s ta n d th e se c r o s s - c u r r e n t s , and th e urgency o f t h a t job is
h a r d ly a p o i n t o f argum ent. The t o o l s w ith which to do th e
jo b , however, a re sim ply n o t now a v a i l a b l e . U n til s ta n d a rd ,
p roven t o o l s a re p ro v id e d w ith which to a n aly ze th e c u l
t u r a l dynamics o f American e d u c a tio n , we have to grope w ith
im p ro v ise d m ethods. This s tu d y i s p a r t o f t h a t g ro p in g .
The S tr a t e g y o f th e Study
In b ro a d te rm s, t h i s was a stu d y o f c o n f r o n ta tio n
betw een two s u b c u l t u r a l o r i e n t a t i o n s w ith in American s o c i
e t y . Prim ary and seco n d ary e d u c a tio n in t h i s s o c i e t y , f o r
re a so n s a lr e a d y d i s c u s s e d , in v o lv e s c u l t u r e c o n f r o n t a t i o n .
As th e f a c e t s o f c u l t u r e focus o f e d u c a to rs encompasses
d e v i a t i o n from th e norms o f m id d le - c la s s c u l t u r e , th e seeds
o f c u l t u r a l m is u n d e rs ta n d in g are im p lan ted .
P a r t i c u l a r l y , t h i s was a s tu d y o f th e r e a c t i o n o f
te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s to e x p e rie n c e s i n m in o r ity -
p o v e rty communities o f Los A n g e les, C a l i f o r n i a in th e
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Summer o f 1968. During an e i g h t week p e r i o d o f t h a t summer,
t h i r t y te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , s e l e c t e d from o v er 200
a p p l i c a n t s , p a r t i c i p a t e d in a summer i n s t i t u t e f o r te a c h e r s
and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s in some way p r e s e n t l y s e r v in g m in o r ity -
p o v e rty com m unities, conducted by th e School o f E d u catio n
of th e U n iv e r s ity o f S outhern C a l i f o r n i a . The fo llo w in g
s e c t i o n d e s c r ib e s th e i n s t i t u t e in d e t a i l ; a few b a s i c
f e a t u r e s must be p r e s e n te d h e r e , however, i n o r d e r to e x
p l a i n the s tu d y .
The c o n te n tio n o f th e p la n n e r s o f th e i n s t i t u t e was
t h a t sc h o o l-a g e you th o f a community are th e p ro d u c t o f
s p e c i f i c c u l t u r a l c o n d itio n in g , and t h a t th e c h a r a c t e r i s
t i c s and d i r e c t i o n s o f change o f th e c u l t u r a l m a tr ix o f a
community are n o t n e c e s s a r i l y u n d e rs to o d th ro u g h p r o f e s
s i o n a l s e r v i c e in sch o o ls s e r v in g th e community. The m eth
ods o f the i n s t i t u t e in c lu d e d guid ed exposure to m in o r ity -
p o v e rty communities in th e G re a te r Los Angeles a r e a in as
n a t u r a l a way as was p o s s i b l e w i t h i n th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f
tim e and s a f e t y , and most im p o r ta n tl y , w ith em phasis on
a s p e c ts o f such communities as th e y r e l a t e to contem porary
y o u th who li v e t h e r e .
Each o f t h i r t y te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s worked
in a team o f th r e e i n s t i t u t e members each. In a d d i t i o n to
th e s e th r e e p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to r s , each team c o n ta in e d a
seco n d ary sch o o l-a g e young man o f th e community o f s tu d y .
23
These young men were s e l e c t e d to r e p r e s e n t th e average
you th o f th e community in term s o f l i f e s t y l e and v alu e
system ; th e y a c te d as a k in d o f guide to w orking i n th e
community, and o th e rw is e s e r v e d as members o f th e team.
Teams were ta s k o r i e n t e d . The t a s k was th e c r e a
ti o n o f an a u d i o - v i s u a l p r o d u c tio n , t o be p r e s e n t e d to the
e n t i r e i n s t i t u t e (and th e p u b lic ) a t th e c o n c lu s io n o f the
e i g h t weeks. The p r o d u c tio n was to grow o u t o f and r e f l e c t
th e e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e team i n p ro b in g th e community, and,
in a s e n s e , to document th e te a m 's p r o g r e s s tow ard u n d e r
s ta n d i n g th e f e a t u r e s o f th e community. An e l a b o r a t e
amount o f eq u ip m en t, and a good d e a l o f p r o f e s s i o n a l i n
s t r u c t i o n and c o u n s e l, was b ro u g h t to b e a r in p la n n in g and
e x e c u tin g th e p r o d u c tio n .
There were f iv e ty p es o f e x p e r ie n c e s f o r members o f
th e i n s t i t u t e :
1. I n c u r s io n s i n t o m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y communities
as d e s c r ib e d above. F ive teams were guid ed by
Mexican-American young men; f i v e by Negro young
men. The teams c o n c e n tr a te d on th e n e ig h b o r
hood b e s t known to th e g u id e s .
2. P la n n in g , c r e a t i n g and p r e s e n t a t i o n of th e team
p r o d u c t i o n .
3. Morning s e m i n a r s , a c t u a l l y h i g h l y in f o r m a l , and
e v e n t u a l l y v e ry f r a n k , d i s c u s s i o n s o f th e gen-
24
e r a l problem s o f Negroes and M exican-Am ericans
as th e y r e l a t e to e d u c a tio n .
4. P r e s e n t a t i o n to th e i n s t i t u t e o f m a t e r i a l
(m ostly re c o rd e d ) h a v in g to do w ith th e g e n e r a l
problem s o f American m in o r ity r e l a t i o n s .
5. In fo rm a l s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s f o r th e e n t i r e
i n s t i t u t e and s t a f f .
In a d d i t i o n t o th e s e e x p e r ie n c e s , t h e r e was a v a i l a b l e to
th e members a sm all l i b r a r y o f th e b e s t o f c u r r e n t l i t e r a
t u r e in th e a r e a o f m in o r ity r e l a t i o n s , c o n c e n tr a te d m ainly
on th e problem s o f Negroes and M exican-A m ericans.
The i n s t i t u t e was d e sig n e d p r i m a r i l y as an a id in
th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th o se who s e r v e p r o f e s s i o n a l l y in
s c h o o l encom passing e x c l u s i v e l y , o r in p a r t , r e s i d e n t s o f
m in o r ity - p o v e r ty com m unities. A ll t h i r t y members s e l e c t e d
f o r th e i n s t i t u t e had had some e x p e r ie n c e in te a c h in g o r
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n in such s c h o o ls . A side from t h a t , th e group
was a h e tero g e n o u s one p u r p o s e ly s e l e c t e d f o r b a la n c e w ith
r e g a r d to s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . F o u rte e n o f th o se s e
l e c t e d were w h ite C a u c a sia n s ; e le v e n were N egroes; f iv e
were M exican-A m ericans. Twelve members were from s ch o o ls
o u t s i d e th e G r e a te r Los A ngeles a r e a ; seven came from o u t
o f s t a t e . E leven had c u r r e n t a ssig n m en ts m ainly as admin
i s t r a t o r s , th e rem ain d er were t e a c h e r s . A ll te a c h e r s
ta u g h t g ra d e s 10 th ro u g h 12 p r i m a r i l y , a lth o u g h two had
25
p a r t i a l assig n m en ts w ith low er g ra d e s . H a lf o f th e members
worked in s i t u a t i o n s in which Negroes made up th e most s i g
n i f i c a n t n o n -w h ite m iddle c la s s segment o f th e sch o o l pop u
l a t i o n ; tw elve r e l a t e d in th e same way to M exican-American
y o u th ; two worked in sch o o ls in which th e two groups were
more o r l e s s e v en ly d iv id e d ; one member worked p r e s e n t l y
in a sch o o l which c u r r e n t l y had v ery few of e i t h e r group.
Ages v a r i e d from m iddle tw e n tie s to m iddle f i f t i e s . Sex
was n e a r l y b a la n c e d ; some had j u s t begun in th e l a s t y e a r
or two to work in s c h o o ls in which c r o s s - c u l t u r e c o n f r o n t a
t i o n was a f a c t o r ; some had been w orking in such s ch o o ls
f o r more than f i f t e e n y e a r s .
The m o tiv a tio n f o r ap p ly in g f o r membership in th e
i n s t i t u t e v a r i e d w id e ly : Some had r e c e n t l y been a s s ig n e d
to work on "human r e l a t i o n s ” * com m ittees, some were r e
f e r r e d , f o r w h atev er r e a s o n s , by s u p e r v i s o r s , some m erely
a c te d out o f p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t a f t e r s e e in g th e p r i n t e d i n
v i t a t i o n to a p p l i c a t i o n s e n t o u t to urb an sc h o o l d i s t r i c t s
in s e v e r a l a re a s o f th e n a t i o n d u rin g th e p re c e d in g w i n t e r .
At any r a t e , a lth o u g h c e r t a i n l y n o t randomly s e l e c t e d , t h i s
w r i t e r approached th e g ro u p , f o r p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y ,
as a sample o f te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f y o u th o f
*For th o se o u ts id e the f i e l d of e d u c a tio n , i t
sh o u ld be e x p la in e d t h a t t h i s has come to be a code term
f o r p e rs o n n e l a s s ig n e d to n e g o t i a t e g rie v a n c e s stemming
from r a c i a l ( i . e . , c u l t u r a l ) t e n s i o n s .
26
m in o r ity - p o v e r ty com m unities. Only f u r t h e r stu d y can l e
g i tim i z e such an assu m p tio n .
A f u r t h e r assu m p tio n , as a lr e a d y s u g g e s te d , was
t h a t th e team g u id e s , h e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d to as Community
C o o r d in a to r s , were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f average y o u th i n t h e i r
r e s p e c t i v e com m unities. The C o o rd in a to rs were h a n d -p ic k ed
f o r t h e i r a b i l i t y to a r t i c u l a t e c u l t u r a l r e a l i t y to th e
te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and f o r t h e i r a b i l i t y to be
r e s p e c te d by th e y o u th c u l t u r e o f t h e i r com m unities. C are,
however, was ta k en to g e t young men n o t f a r removed from
th e a t t i t u d e s and l i f e e x p e r ie n c e s o f " t y p i c a l " m in o r ity -
p o v e r ty y o u th . In a l l cases th e C o o rd in a to rs sh a re d ex p e
r i e n c e s r e l a t e d to sch o o l which c o u ld be c o n sid e re d as
stemming from i n t e r - c u l t u r a l m is u n d e rs ta n d in g . This was
n o t so much b ecau se o f th e s u b - c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s betw een
m in o r ity com m unities and th e w h ite Anglo m iddle c l a s s , b u t
b ecause y o u th c u l t u r e in m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities has
e v o lv e d , and i s e v o lv in g , c u l t u r a l themes which may n o t be
w e ll comprehended by a d u l t members o f even th e m in o r ity
c o m m u n ities.
The Community C o o rd in a to rs were a more homogeneous
group th a n th e e d u c a to r s . In a s e n s e , th e y r e p r e s e n te d
p a r t o f a dependent v a r i a b l e " t r e a t m e n t , " and th e e d u c a to r s ,
w ith t h e i r v a r i e d b ack g ro u n d s, r e p r e s e n t e d th e d i f f e r e n t i a l
r e a c t i o n to th e t r e a tm e n t. A ll b u t one o f th e C o o rd in a to rs
27
had s e v e r a l tim es run a f o u l o f th e a u t h o r i t y system o f
s c h o o ls . About h a l f o f them would have been c o n s id e re d to
have more o r l e s s s e r io u s " a d ju stm e n t problem s" by a d m in is
t r a t o r s . In no case were th e C o o rd in a to rs co m p le tely em
b i t t e r e d w ith o r r e s ig n e d from th e sch o o l system . A ll a p
p e a r e d to be making p r o g r e s s tow ard g r a d u a tio n ; in d e e d , two
had a lr e a d y g ra d u a te d and had been a c c e p te d by c o l l e g e s .
Two o f th e C o o rd in a to rs had p o l i c e r e c o r d s ; i t i s d o u b tfu l
w h eth er any c o u ld be c l a s s i f i e d as j u v e n i l e d e l i n q u e n t s .
A ll th e C o o rd in a to rs had dubious a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e r e l e
vancy o f s c h o o ls s e r v in g m in o r ity - p o v e r ty com m unities. A ll
moved w ith com plete ease in th e m ilie u o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l l y
d i s a f f e c t e d m in o r ity y o u th c u l t u r e .
An i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t o f th e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c tio n
o f th e s e teams was t h a t i t n e u t r a l i z e d most o f th e r o l e -
p la y in g which e d u c a to rs are accustom ed to in r e l a t i n g to
t h e i r s t u d e n t s . In a n o th e r s e n s e , the teams r e v e r s e d th e
r o l e s o f t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t . In th e c la ss ro o m , i t i s th e
t e a c h e r - - t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e c o re , m id d le - c la s s
s o c ie ty --w h o fu n c tio n s in a s e t o f o p e r a tio n s which are
easy and f a m i l i a r to him , b u t which may be u n f a m i l i a r and
d i f f i c u l t to h is s t u d e n t s . Working in th e m in o r ity - p o v e r ty
community in a r a t h e r n a t u r a l w a y - - th a t i s , w ith o u t th e
facad e of i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n t e x t - - i t was th e C o o rd in a to r who
was f a m i l i a r w ith what was going on, and th e e d u c a to rs who
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were in v a ry in g d eg rees c u l t u r a l l y u n a d j u s t e d .
Such a s i t u a t i o n , i t was th o u g h t, would p ro v id e a
unique o p p o r tu n i ty to examine th e d i f f e r e n t i a l r e a c t i o n o f
e d u c a to rs to a "b eh in d th e sce n e s" c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith p a r t
o f the c u l t u r e o f y o u th o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty com m unities.
In o r d e r to ta k e advantage o f th e s i t u a t i o n , to p r o f i t from
th e stu d y o f th e se e x p e r ie n c e s , i t was n e c e s s a r y to a r b i
t r a r i l y d eterm in e s e v e r a l th in g s :
1. What c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e e d u c a to rs could
most f e a s i b l y be measured?
2. Of th e s e m easurable q u a l i t i e s , which had th e
most p o t e n t i a l e f f e c t in c r o s s - c u l t u r a l commu
n i c a t i o n in urban e d u c a tio n ?
3. How b e s t , under th e c irc u m s ta n c e s , could r e
a c t i o n to c r o s s - c u l t u r a l e x p e r ie n c e s be
d eterm ined?
There were s e v e r a l s o u rc e s and p o s s i b i l i t i e s of so u rc es f o r
d a ta : A p p lic a t io n t o th e i n s t i t u t e in c lu d e d an amount o f
p e r s o n a l in f o r m a t io n , and in fo r m a tio n c o n cern in g th e sch o o l
o f p r e s e n t assig n m en t. A p p lic a tio n forms a lso r e q u e s te d a
s ta te m e n t as to why th e a p p l i c a n t w ished to p a r t i c i p a t e in
th e i n s t i t u t e . S econdly, a re a s o n a b le amount o f t e s t r e
tu r n d a ta c o u ld be g a th e r e d . A p a r t i c i p a n t - o b s e r v e r ap
p ro ach c o u ld be u sed to analyze v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f th e i n
s t i t u t e as i t p r o g r e s s e d . The morning sem inar s e s s i o n s were
re c o rd e d on ta p e and were a v a i l a b l e as d a ta . The i n s t i t u t e
29
p r e s e r v e d c o p ies o f t h e te a m p r o j e c t s , o f c o u r s e , and th e s e
w ere, to an e x t e n t , re c o rd s o f team e x p e r ie n c e s . There
were v a rio u s ways in which th e p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a f f c o u ld be
u sed t o e v a lu a te r e a c t i o n o f members; and f i n a l l y , s u b j e c
t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f e x p e r ie n c e s by th e i n s t i t u t e members
th e m selv e s was c e r t a i n l y a p o s s i b i l i t y .
The id e a o f sim p le p r e - and p o s t - t e s t i n g to measure
th e e f f e c t s o f i n s t i t u t e e x p e r ie n c e s on a t t i t u d e was r u l e d
o u t from th e b e g in n in g . The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h i s i n s t i t u t e
c e n te r e d around adding to th e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f e d u c a to rs
c o n ce rn in g th e c u l t u r a l m i l i e u o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th .
In th e o p in io n o f t h i s w r i t e r , th e i n s t i t u t e was a s u c c e s s ,
in t h a t a l l who p a r t i c i p a t e d g a in e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y in u n d e r
s t a n d i n g . The d i r e c t m easurem ent o f such changes o r g a i n s ,
on th e o th e r hand, i s n e a r l y im p o s s ib le to i n d i c a t e in a
way t h a t r e a l l y shows a n y th in g . The l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s ts
t h a t d i r e c t measurement o f a t t i t u d e change a f t e r i n t e n s e ,
s h o r t - t e r m e x p e r ie n c e s i s f r e q u e n t l y i l l u s o r y . The s u b t l e
dynamics o f in c r e a s e d aw areness are f a r too d i f f i c u l t to
m easure; and c o n v e r s e ly , i t i s p ro b a b ly too easy to measure
open re sp o n se s to d i r e c t q u e s ti o n s a tte m p tin g to gage t h i s
f a c t o r . A nother d isco u rag e m e n t o f th e p r e - and p o s t - t e s t
method i s the foggy a r e a o f r e t e n t i o n o f i n f l u e n c e from
such s h o r t - t e r m e x p e r ie n c e s . A f t e r a l l , when c o n s id e re d as
an e d u c a t i o n a l program , i t is n o t what is l e a r n e d a f t e r
30
e i g h t w eeks, b u t what is r e t a i n e d and m a n ife s te d thro u g h
th e y e a r s t h a t r e a l l y m a t t e r s .
I t must be k e p t in m ind, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t i t was n o t
th e i n s t i t u t e i t s e l f - - t h a t i s , th e o v e r a l l e f f e c t s o f th e
i n s t i t u t e as an e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m - - th a t was th e s u b j e c t
o f t h i s s tu d y . This was a s tu d y d e sig n e d to examine r e
a c ti o n by e d u c a to rs to th e o n -g o in g c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g o f
m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th o f s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n s . As su ch , i t
was d e c id e d t h a t th e fo llo w in g p ro c e d u re would be fo llo w e d :
1. Determ ine th e s e f a c t o r s f o r th e e d u c a to r s :
s e x , age, le n g th o f tim e in th e p r o f e s s i o n , le n g th o f time
te a c h in g in th e community o f th e d is a d v a n ta g e d , e t h n i c or
r a c i a l a f f i l i a t i o n , e t h n i c o r r a c i a l a f f i l i a t i o n o f s i g n i f
i c a n t n o n -w h ite m iddle c l a s s s tu d e n t s in sch o o l o f a s s i g n
ment.
2. D eterm ine th ro u g h a s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t an i n d i
c a t i o n o f th e p a t t e r n o f a t t i t u d e s o f i n d i v i d u a l e d u c a to rs
tow ard th e c u l t u r e o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th .
3. D eterm ine th ro u g h a s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t an i n d i
c a t i o n o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y p r o f i l e o f i n d i v i d u a l e d u c a to r s .
4. Determ ine th e s e l f - i n d i c a t e d c u l t u r e d is ta n c e
o f e d u c a to rs from th e c u l t u r e o f th e segment o f m in o r ity -
p o v e r ty y o u th most p ro m in en t in th e community o f assignm ent.
5. Measure th e " a c c e p ta n c e " o f the c u l t u r e ( e s p e
c i a l l y y o u th c u l t u r e ) o f s tu d y th ro u g h an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
31
how much a t ease e d u c a to rs f u n c tio n e d in th e community
jud g ed by b o th team C o o rd in a to rs and o t h e r team members.
6. Measure th e e x t e n t to which e d u c a to rs were ab le
to f u n c tio n in teams in th e community o f stu d y w ith o u t the
b e n e f i t o f a s p e c i a l e d u c a to r r o l e . This f a c t o r to be d e
te rm in e d by i n t r a t e a m r e l a t i o n s as ju d g ed by b o th team Co
o r d i n a t o r s and o th e r team members.
7. Measure th e e x t e n t to which e d u c a to rs g a in e d in
u n d e r s ta n d in g th ro u g h work in th e community o f s tu d y as
jud g ed by b o th C o o rd in a to rs and o t h e r team members.
8. D eterm ine how in d e p en d e n t v a r i a b l e s in p a r a
graphs 1, 2, 3, 4 c o r r e l a t e w ith dependent v a r i a b l e s in
p a ra g ra p h s 5, 6, and 7.
A b a s i c assum ption of th e s tu d y was t h a t e x p e r i
ences o f th e e d u c a to rs in th e communities r e p r e s e n t e d s i g
n i f i c a n t a c c e ss to c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s o f a segment o f
m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th c u l t u r e . S in ce i t i s d i f f i c u l t to
co n ceiv e o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to r i n a p u b l i c secondary
s ch o o l as b e in g a p a r t o f such a c u l t u r e , a f u r t h e r assump
t i o n was t h a t t h i s e x p e r ie n c e r e p r e s e n t e d c r o s s - c u l t u r a l
c o n f r o n t a t i o n in v a ry in g d eg rees f o r a l l e d u c a to rs in the
i n s t i t u t e . Again assuming t h a t th e range o f e d u c a to rs in
th e i n s t i t u t e were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f o th e r s w ith s i m i l a r
p r o f i l e s - - t h a t i s to s a y , t h a t th e r e were no h ig h ly u n u su al
com binations o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in i n d i v i d u a l s - - a n exam ina
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t i o n t o th e r e a c t i o n to th e se e d u c a to rs sh o u ld shed some
l i g h t on what k in d s o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in e d u c a to rs te n d
to accompany th e a b i l i t y t o a c c e p t and a d j u s t to c r o s s -
c u l t u r a l r e a l i t y .
The s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s were th e s e : Are
age and sex s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s in c r o s s - c u l t u r a l a cc e p
ta n ce ? Is te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e a p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d
f a c t o r in c ro ss - c u l t u r e accep tan ce? Is e t h n i c o r r a c i a l
a f f i l i a t i o n a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r in d e a lin g w ith th e c u l
t u r e o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty you th ? Does s e l f - c o n c e i v e d c u l
t u r e d i s t a n c e c o r r e l a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y w ith c r o s s - c u l t u r e
a cc e p tan c e and a b i l i t y to work " s u c c e s s f u l l y " w ith r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e s o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th c u ltu r e ? Do c e r t a i n
p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s te n d to r e a c t n e g a t i v e l y to y o u th , c u l
t u r a l l y d i s t a n t from th e s u b j e c t ' s own s o c i a l o r i g i n s . Is
i t p o s s i b l e to d eterm in e th e amount o f ex p ec te d c r o s s -
c u l t u r a l m isu n d e rsta n d in g in te a c h e r s by m easuring a n x ie ty
r e a c t i o n to s e l e c t i o n symbols o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty youth
c u l t u r e ? What s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l be i n d i c a t e d
betw een e v a lu a tio n s o f e d u c a t o r s ' "perform ance" by fe llo w
e d u c a to rs and by team C o o rd in a to rs?
H ypotheses were drawn up on th e b a s i s o f e x p e c te d
c o r r e l a t i o n s and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e s betw een means
w ith r e g a r d to t h i r t e e n m easured v a r i a b l e s . In re a d in g
th e h y p o th e se s i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y to r e f e r to th e fo llo w -
33
ing code l a b e l s :
V a ria b le a . T est r e t u r n f o r an a l t e r e d form o f the Osgood
Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l te c h n iq u e . The dev ice was d esig n e d
to i n d i c a t e th e amount o f a n x ie ty f e l t tow ard s t e r o t y p i c
item s a s s o c i a t e d b o th w ith you th c u l t u r e in g e n e r a l , and
y outh c u l t u r e of m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities in p a r t i c u l a r .
V a ria b le b . T e st r e t u r n f o r th e Rokeach D -Scale t e s t .
This dev ice i s d esig n ed to measure p e r s o n a l i t y f l e x i b i l i t y
and tendency toward c lo se -m in d ed , a r b i t r a r y r e a c t i o n to
s o c i a l phenomena.
V a ria b le c . Age o f s u b j e c t .
V a ria b le d . T o tal y e a rs i n s e r v i c e as a p r o f e s s i o n a l
e d u c a to r f o r s u b j e c t .
V a r ia b le e . Number o f y e a rs in s e r v ic e as p r o f e s s i o n a l
e d u c a to r in s i t u a t i o n s d e fin e d as c r o s s - c u l t u r a l f o r t h i s
s t u d y .
V a ria b le f . E v a lu a tio n o f s u b j e c t 's r e l a t i v e p e r s o n a l
awkwardness in f u n c tio n in g in th e m in o r ity - p o v e r ty commu
n i t y as s c o r e d on a q u e s t i o n n a i r e by o t h e r e d u c a to rs in
s u b j e c t ' s team.
V a r ia b le g . E v a lu a tio n o f s u b j e c t 's r e l a t i v e p e r s o n a l
awkwardness in f u n c tio n in g in th e m in o r ity - p o v e r ty commu
n i t y as s c o re d on a q u e s t i o n n a i r e by s u b j e c t 's Community
C o o rd in a to r.
V a ria b le h. E v a lu a tio n o f s u b j e c t 's degree o f g a in in
34
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f c u l t u r a l dynamics o f a s p e c i f i c m in o r ity -
p o v e r ty community as s c o r e d on a q u e s t i o n n a i r e by o t h e r
e d u c a to rs in s u b j e c t ' s team.
V a r ia b le i . E v a lu a tio n o f s u b j e c t ' s degree o f g a in in
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f c u l t u r a l dynamics o f a s p e c i f i c m in o r ity -
p o v e rty community as s c o re d on a q u e s t i o n n a i r e by s u b j e c t ' s
Community C o o rd in a to r.
V a r ia b le j . E v a lu a tio n o f degree to which s u b j e c t worked
t o g e t h e r sm oothly w ith o t h e r team members ( in c lu d in g Co
o r d i n a t o r ) as s c o r e d on a q u e s t i o n n a i r e by o t h e r e d u c a to rs
in s u b j e c t ' s team.
V a r ia b le k . E v a lu a tio n o f degree to which s u b j e c t worked
t o g e t h e r sm oothly w ith o t h e r team members ( in c lu d in g Co
o r d i n a t o r ) as s c o r e d on a q u e s t i o n n a i r e by s u b j e c t ' s Com
munity C o o rd in a to r.
V a r ia b le 1 . D e te rm in a tio n o f r e l a t i v e c u l t u r a l d is ta n c e
betw een s u b j e c t ' s own c irc u m stan c es from b i r t h th ro u g h
a d o lesc en c e and th e m ilie u o f non-m iddle c l a s s s tu d e n t s in
p r o f e s s i o n a l assig n m en t.
V a r ia b le m. S u b j e c t 's s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n o f r e l a t i v e c u l t u r a l
d i s t a n c e betw een h i s / h e r p r e s e n t " i d e n t i t y " and m i l i e u o f
non-m iddle c l a s s s tu d e n t s in p r o f e s s i o n a l a ssig n m e n t.
A side from the f i r s t f i v e , th e f a c t o r s m easured f o r the
stu d y were n o t o b v io u s , s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y ite m s . I t w i l l be
n e c e s s a r y to r e f e r to c h a p te r "M easuring D evices" to i n t e r -
p r e t term s such as " e v a l u a t i o n , " " g a in i n u n d e r s ta n d in g ,"
and " i d e n t i t y . "
Sex and e t h n i c i t y were added to th e s e t h i r t e e n c o r
r e l a t e s , and on th e b a s i s o f th e th e n f i f t e e n f a c t o r s , a
l i s t o f h y p o th e se s was c r e a t e d . In some cases th e r e s e a r c h
h y p o th e s is and n u l l h y p o th e s is are in th e same mode; t h a t
i s , b o th a re s t a t e d i n term s o f no s i g n i f i c a n t v a r ia n c e .
The f i r s t th r e e h y p o th e s e s , l i s t e d below , were d e sig n e d to
t e s t th e p o s t u l a t e t h a t s u b c u lt u r e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between
m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th and e d u c a to r s p roduces s i g n i f i c a n t
v a r ia n c e in p e r c e p t i o n of d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f s o c i a l i n t e r
a c t i o n . The n e x t s i x h y p o th e se s a n t i c i p a t e c o r r e l a t i o n
betw een th e two t e s t r e t u r n s and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . The r e
m aining h y p o th e se s a n t i c i p a t e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een th e v a r
io u s f a c t o r s c o n s id e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t in d e te rm in in g r e a c t i o n
to c r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n .
Hypotheses
H y p o th esis 1 . The e v a l u a t i o n o f r e a c t i o n o f p r o
f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to rs to e x p e r ie n c e s i n u rban m in o r ity -
p o v e r ty communities by sec o n d a ry s c h o o l age young men o f
th e community i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o o r e r th an e v a l u a t i o n o f
r e a c t i o n s by f e llo w e d u c a to r s .
H y p o th esis 2 . The e v a l u a t i o n o f degree o f g a in in
u n d e r s ta n d in g by p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to rs fo llo w in g e x p e r i
ences in urb an m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty communities by seco n d ary
s c h o o l-a g e young men o f th e community i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y le s s
th a n s i m i l a r e v a l u a t i o n s by f e llo w e d u c a to r s .
Hx : JTj > M h . Hq : < _ M h ; P < _ .0 5 .
H y p o th e sis 3 . The e v a l u a t i o n o f sm oothness o f
i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to rs w ith
groups in c lu d in g seco n d ary s c h o o l-a g e young men o f urban
m in o r ity communities i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y low er when ju d g e d by
th e young men th a n when jud g ed by fe llo w e d u c a to rs o f th e
gro u p s.
H, : M , > M.. H : M < M.; P < .05.
- 1 & J u k J
H y p o th esis 4 . There i s s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e c o r
r e l a t i o n betw een a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l educar,
t o r s to s e l e c t e d c u l t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s o f youth i n m in o r ity -
p o v e r ty communities and e v a l u a t i o n o f awkwardness in urban
m in o r ity com m unities as jud g ed by seco n d ary s c h o o l-a g e
young men o f such communities ( i . e . , th e h ig h e r th e a n x iety ,
th e more awkwardness p e r c e i v e d ) .
37
H y p o th esis 5 . There i s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n
betw een r e l a t i v e r i g i d i t y and i n f l e x i b i l i t y o f p e r s o n a l i
t i e s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to r s and e v a l u a t i o n o f r e a c t i o n
to e x p e r ie n c e s in urban m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y com m unities as
ju d g ed by seco n d ary s c h o o l- a g e young men o f such communi
t i e s .
Hi: r, > 0 . H_: r, < 0; P < .05.
J- bg 0 bg - -
H y p o th e sis 6 . There i s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n
betw een a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to rs to
s e l e c t e d c u l t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s o f y o u th in urb an m in o r ity -
p o v e r ty com m unities and th e e d u c a t o r s ' c o n c e p tio n o f t h e i r
p e r s o n a l c u l t u r a l d i s t a n c e from such com m unities.
Hl : Fam " °- H0 : r am < 0; P < .05.
H y p o th e sis 7 . There i s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n
betw een r e l a t i v e r i g i d i t y and i n f l e x i b i l i t y o f p e r s o n a l i t y
and degree o f g a in in u n d e r s ta n d in g by p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a
t o r s fo llo w in g e x p e r ie n c e s in u rban m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y com
m u n itie s as ju d g e d by seco n d ary s c h o o l-a g e young men from
such co m m u n ities.
H, : r , . > 0. H : r. . < 0; P < .05.
1 b i 0 b i — -
H y p o th esis 8 . E d u c a to rs w ith p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r i
ence in m in o r i t y - p o v e r t y communities who te n d tow ard
a n x i e t y r e a c t i o n to s e l e c t e d c u l t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s o f you th
38
in u rban m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities a ls o te n d tow ard
r i g i d and i n f l e x i b l e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
H : r > 0. H„: r , < 0; P < .01.
1 ab 0 ab — —
H ypothesis 9 . There i s a s i g n i f i c a n t tendency f o r
younger e d u c a to rs to be e v a lu a te d h ig h e r th a n o l d e r e d u c a
t o r s as t o a b i l i t y to f u n c tio n w ith o u t awkwardness in ta s k
o r i e n t e d s i t u a t i o n s in urban m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities
as ju d g e d by seco n d ary sch o o l-a g e young men o f such commu
n i t i e s .
H -i : r > 0 . Hn : r__ < 0; P < .05.
1 eg 0 eg - -
H y p o th esis 1 0 . There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n
betw een e d u c a t o r s ’ c o n c e p tio n o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l c u l t u r a l
d i s t a n c e from s p e c i f i c urban m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities
and a b i l i t y to f u n c tio n w ith o u t awkwardness in t a s k o r i
e n te d s i t u a t i o n s in s i m i l a r m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities
as ju d g ed by seco n d ary s c h o o l-a g e young men o f such commu
n i t i e s .
H -. : r > 0 . Hn : r < 0; P < .01.
I mg 0 mg — —
H y p o th e sis 11. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n
betw een e d u c a t o r s ' c o n c e p tio n o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l c u l t u r a l
d i s t a n c e from s p e c i f i c urb an m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities
and sm oothness o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s o f e d u c a to rs in
sm all ta s k o r i e n t e d groups c o n ta in in g seco n d ary sch o o l-a g e
39
young men from th e communities as judged by th e young men.
Hn : r • , = 0. Hrt: r . < 0; P < .05.
1 mk 0 mk — —
H y p o th esis 1 2 . There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n
betw een le n g th o f time o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e rie n c e o f e d u c a
t o r s in urban m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities and a b i l i t y to
f u n c tio n w ith o u t awkwardness in t a s k o r i e n t e d s i t u a t i o n s in
such communities as ju d g ed e i t h e r by secondary s ch o o l-a g e
young men o f th e communities o r by fe llo w e d u c a to r s .
Hi: r = 0 . H_: r < 0 ; P < . 0 5 .
1 eg 0 eg - -
H -. : r x = 0. Hn : r _ < 0; P < .05.
1 e f 0 e f — —
H y p o th esis 1 3 . There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n
betw een com parative y o u th o f e d u c a to rs and a b i l i t y to funcr
t i o n w ith o u t awkwardness in t a s k o r i e n t e d s i t u a t i o n s in
m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty communities as ju d g ed by fe llo w e d u c a to r s .
H -. : r _ = 0. H : r < 0 ; P < . 0 5 .
1 c f 0 c f “ “
H y p o th esis 14. Negro e d u c a to rs do n o t r a t e s i g n i f
i c a n t l y s u p e r i o r to "w h ite" e d u c a to rs in a b i l i t y to fu n c
t i o n w ith o u t awkwardness in ta s k o r i e n t e d s i t u a t i o n s in
low-income Negro communities as jud g ed by seco n d ary sch o o l-
age young men o f such com m unities.
H, : M , — M /m - > = 0 •
1 g (N eg ro /w h ite) g(Negro/Negro)
40
H • M / t . • M ^ , , < 0; P < .05.
0 g (N e g ro /w h ite ) g(N egro/N egro) “ ~
H y p o th esis 1 5 . M exican-Am erican e d u c a to rs do n o t
r a t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y s u p e r i o r to A nglo-Am erican ( in c lu d in g
Negro) e d u c a to rs in a b i l i t y to f u n c tio n w ith o u t awkwardness
in ta s k o r i e n t e d s i t u a t i o n s in low-income M exican-American
communities as jud g ed by seco n d ary s c h o o l- a g e young men o f
such com m unities.
Hi : M f . -M „ , N = 0.
A g(M ex.-Am./Anglo) g(Mex.-Am./Anglo)
H. : M . , ,-M < 0; P < .05.
0 g(M ex.-Am./Anglo) g (Mex.-Am./Anglo) “
H y p o th esis 1 6 . There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
betw een th e a b i l i t y o f male and fem ale e d u c a to rs w ith r e
g ard to degree o f awkwardness in t a s k o r i e n t e d s i t u a t i o n s
i n m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities as ju d g ed by seco n d ary
sc h o o l-a g e young men o f th e com m unities.
H-i : M „ - M = 0 .
g (fe m a le s) g(m ales)
Hn : M cc n . - M t . '< 0; P < .0 5 .
0 g (fe m a le s) g (m ales) — —
L i m ita tio n s
T his s tu d y was o p p o r t u n i s t i c in t h a t i t to o k advan
ta g e o f a s i t u a t i o n which was beyond th e range o f p r i v a t e l y
fin a n c e d and i n d i v i d u a l l y a rra n g e d e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n .
The b e s t q u a l i t i e s o f th e i n s t i t u t e p ro g ra m --th e a u th en -
41 i
t i c i t y o f th e n a t u r e o f f i e l d e x p e r ie n c e s ; r e l a t i v e freedom!
from r o l e s t e r e o t y p e s ; access to o t h e r th a n m iddle c l a s s
p o i n t s o f v iew --w ere th e r e s u l t o f c a r e f u l p la n n in g by
t a l e n t e d and e x p e r ie n c e d p r o f e s s i o n a l s in th e f i e l d s of
s o c io lo g y and media p r o d u c tio n . I t is most u n l i k e l y t h a t
any ex p erim en t i n v e s t i g a t i n g c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s o f an a s
p e c t o f in n e r - u r b a n e d u c a tio n d e sig n e d and i n s t i g a t e d
s o l e l y th ro u g h th e r e s o u r c e s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h e r c o u ld have
approached th e p o t e n t i a l o f t h i s s tu d y .
There a re a p t to b e , how ever, some s e r io u s d i s a d
v a n ta g e s to t h i s k in d o f o p p o r t u n i s t i c r e s e a r c h . The s e
quence and c h a r a c t e r o f e v e n ts i s , und er such c irc u m sta n c e s,
o f t e n co m p letely e x t e r i o r to th e r e s e a r c h e r ’s s t r a t e g y . He
must ta k e th in g s as th e y come, and more s i g n i f i c a n t l y , when
th ey come. In c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s th e summer i n s t i t u t e d e
s c r i b e d h e re caught th e w r i t e r n o t t o t a l l y p r e p a r e d o r to
use an i n d e l i c a t e a l l e g o r y , w ith h is p a n ts down.
The Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l device and th e Rokeach D
S c a le , however s u r p r i s i n g th e d a ta r e t u r n , seem, even s e v
e r a l months a f t e r th e s tu d y , to have been good c h o ic e s .
These were used to measure only th e in d e p en d e n t v a r i a b l e s
o f p e r s o n a l i t y and a t t i t u d e s e t ; and as su ch , were r e a l l y
n o t as c r u c i a l to th e s tu d y as th e m easurements o f r e a c t i o n
to e x p e r ie n c e s . The c u l t u r e d is ta n c e s c a l e , a r b i t r a r y and
s u b j e c t i v e as i t w as, a ls o seems to have been a f a i r l y
42
" s o l i d " m easurem ent. The e v a l u a t i o n q u e s t i o n n a i r e (txsed to
m easure v a r i a b l e s £, g, h , i , j , and k) a t th e v e ry b e s t ,
was an in a d e q u a te in s tr u m e n t w ith which to m easure such im
p o r t a n t f a c t o r s . I t i s d is c o u r a g in g to have b a se d so much
o f th e im p o r ta n t a s p e c ts o f th e stu d y on a d ev ice so u t
t e r l y v u ln e r a b le to c r i t i c i s m .
There were s e v e r a l t h in g s wrong w ith th e q u e s t i o n
n a i r e : The e v a l u a t i o n o f th e C o o rd in a to rs as a s e p a r a te
(and th e most im p o r ta n t) r e t u r n cannot be defended as a
s ta n d a r d measurem ent in s p i t e o f s e v e r a l h ours o f c a r e f u l
e x p la n a tio n to th e assem bled C o o rd in a to rs c o n ce rn in g s c o r
in g c r i t e r i a . Yet th e d a ta was a n aly z e d as i f th e s e e v a l u
a t i o n s were in d e e d s t a n d a r d and e q u a ll y b a se d m easurem ents.
The C o o rd in a to rs were autonomous i n d i v i d u a l s w ith s e p a r a te
p e r s o n a l i t i e s . They c o u ld n o t be e x p e c te d to see e v e r y
th in g in p r e c i s e l y th e same l i g h t . The r e l a t i v e l y h ig h
p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een v a r i a b l e s o f i n t r a t e a m r a p p o r t
and e v a l u a t i o n s o f f i e l d awkwardness ( j - g , k - g , j - f , k - f )
s u g g e s ts t h a t m atching o f p e r s o n a l i t i e s may have had a
b i a s i n g e f f e c t on e v a l u a t i o n .
A nother weakness o f the q u e s t i o n n a i r e d ev ice was
th e v ery s m a ll number o f ite m s . In a l a r g e r d e v ic e , i n d i
v id u a l o u t - o f - p a t t e r n s p o r a d ic re s p o n se s may n o t a l t e r
s i g n i f i c a n t l y th e i n d i c a t i o n o f th e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n . With
t h i s d e v ic e , however, th e s l i g h t e s t im pulse in any item to
43
o t h e r th a n a t r u l y i n d i c i t a t e re sp o n se may have co m p letely
i n v a l i d a t e d th e re sp o n se p r o f i l e . Even c o n s id e r in g th e
c a re in C o o rd in a to r s e l e c t i o n and i n d o c t r i n a t i o n , a g r e a t
w e ig h t o f s o p h i s t i c a t e d judgm ent is p r o j e c t e d on th e momen
t a r y e v a l u a t i o n o f a s i n g l e , r e l a t i v e l y in e x p e r ie n c e d , and
v ery young i n d i v i d u a l .
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was a d m in is te r e d a t what was
p ro b a b ly th e w o rst o f a l l p o s s i b l e tim e s - - d u r i n g th e f i n a l
s t a g e s o f p r e p a r a t i o n f o r p u b l i c showing o f p r o d u c t i o n s ,
when teamwork was a t i t s h e i g h t , and e x p e r ie n c e s in th e
f i e l d were a t maximum p s y c h o lo g i c a l d i s t a n c e . There was so
much b u s in e s s a t hand, b u s in e s s w ith c o n s id e r a b le ego i d e n
t i f i c a t i o n , t h a t an atm osphere o f i n t e n s e e v a l u a t i v e r e
f l e c t i o n in re s p o n d e n ts was d i f f i c u l t t o en g en d er.
This s tu d y r e l i e d h e a v i l y on th e c o n te n tio n t h a t
some l i g h t c o u ld be shed on f a c t o r s o f c u l t u r e c o n f r o n t a
t i o n in e d u c a tio n th ro u g h s tu d y o f r e a c t i o n s to e x p e r ie n c e s
in th e summer i n s t i t u t e d e s c r ib e d . U n i v e r s a l i z a t i o n o f
f in d i n g s in such a s tu d y to c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s in e d u c a tio n
may be r i s k y . E d u c a to rs n o rm a lly f u n c tio n in an atm osphere
s t r o n g l y s u g g e s tiv e o f th e c o r r e c t n e s s o f c o re , m iddle-
c l a s s c u l t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s . In th e i n s t i t u t e , on th e o th e r
han d , t h i s p a t t e r n o f assu m p tio n s was weakened by much o f
th e d i s c u s s i o n in th e s e m in a rs , and u n d o u b ted ly as w e l l ,
by a t t i t u d e s communicated in v a r io u s ways by th e s t a f f . I t
44
i s l i k e l y t h a t a t l e a s t some i n s t i t u t e members came to be
"read y " to a c c e p t c u l t u r a l d iv erg en ce by sim ply b e in g moved
along by an unspoken theme o f th e i n s t i t u t e program . I t is
a d i s t u r b i n g p o s s i b i l i t y , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t th e stu d y does
n o t r e l a t e in any s i g n i f i c a n t way to c u l t u r a l a cc e p tan c e in
th e classroom .
In the e a r l y s ta g e s o f a n a l y s i s , th e arrangem ent of
v a r i a b l e s seemed w e ll s u i t e d to a s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n a l y s i s o f
v a ria n c e tr e a tm e n t. The d a ta r e t u r n showed u n e x p e c te d ly
low c o r r e l a t i o n s in e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n . This f a c t , coupled
w ith i n c o n s i s t e n t l e v e l o f com plexity o f m easuring d e v ic e s ,
and th e t o t a l la ck o f g u id e lin e s in th e g e n e r a l s tu d y a r e a ,
prom pted th e s t u d e n t to conclude t h a t only a sim ple
v a r i a b l e - b y - v a r i a b l e c o r r e l a t i o n match was j u s t i f i e d .
CHAPTER I I I
SURVEY OF THE LITERATURE
G eneral Remarks
P la c in g t h i s s tu d y in c o n te x t th ro u g h a d i s c u s s io n
o f p e r t i n e n t l i t e r a t u r e is a t once a c o m p a ra tiv e ly sim ple
and im p o s sib le t a s k . The g e n e r a l s u b j e c t a re a o f t h i s
p a p e r , problem s o f c u l t u r e c o n f r o n t a t i o n in th e classro o m ,
a lth o u g h n o t always couched in th e s p e c i f i c ja rg o n o f the
s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , has become a f a v o r i t e t o p i c o f e d u c a tio n
w r i t i n g . Every j o u r n a l in th e f i e l d of e d u c a tio n w ith in
th e l a s t t h i r t y months has f e a t u r e d a r t i c l e s c o v erin g t h i s
g e n e r a l problem . E n t i r e e d i t i o n s o f m ajor j o u r n a l s have
been d ev o ted to t h i s s u b j e c t . (Prom inent examples would
in c lu d e th e F a l l , 1967 e d i t i o n of The H arvard E d u c a tio n a l
Review and the F a l l , 1967 e d i t i o n of T eacher E d u c a tio n .)
S e v e ra l books have r e c e n t l y been p u b lis h e d d i r e c t l y con
c ern ed w ith t h i s problem , i n c lu d in g b o th th o se in te n d e d f o r
th e l i m i t e d p o p u la tio n of p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to r s , and books
aimed a t a w id e r m ark et. P e rs o n n e l handbooks p u b lis h e d by
some m e tr o p o lit a n sch o o l d i s t r i c t s in c lu d e s e c t i o n s d i s
c u ss in g t h i s problem a r e a , and th e p o p u la r p r e s s has g o tte n
i n t o th e a c t , o c c a s io n a ll y w ith rem arkable i n s i g h t , as in
45
46
th e e ssay in th e New York Times a r t i c l e o f J a n u a ry 16, 1966.
W ritin g on t h i s problem i s b o th abundant and a v a i l
a b le . By u s in g no o t h e r so u rc e th a n a p u b l i c l i b r a r y , one
c o u ld accum ulate a b i b l i o g r a p h y o f two to th r e e hundred
item s e x p lo r in g in one way o r a n o th e r v a rio u s a s p e c ts o f
th e t o p i c a r e a w ith no g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y .
The common f e a t u r e o f v i r t u a l l y a l l t h i s w r i t i n g ,
r e g a r d l e s s o f th e s o u r c e , i s i t s essay q u a l i t y . The p r o b
lem o f th e d i f f e r e n t i a l assu m p tio n s o f th o s e who meet and
a re e x p e c te d to f u n c tio n in our m e tr o p o lit a n classro o m s is
coming to be re c o g n iz e d as an a u t h e n t i c s o c i a l problem .
And such a problem c e r t a i n l y d e se rv e s th e a t t e n t i o n o f much
e ssa y w r i t i n g . A l i m i t a t i o n o f a l l t h i s commentary i s t h a t
i t in c r e a s e s a w a re n e s s , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g ,
o f th e dynamics o f th e problem .
With p r e v i o u s l y re c o g n iz e d problem s o f e d u c a tio n ,
say th e problem o f r e t e n t i o n o r p a s s in g on to h ig h e r grade
l e v e l s in cases o f u n s a t i s f a c t o r y sch o o l p e rfo rm a n c e , some
e m p i r i c a l l y d e r iv e d u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e dynamics of th e
problem o f te n p r e c e d e d , sometimes by s e v e r a l y e a r s , g e n e r a l
aw areness o f th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e problem . With th e
phenomenon o f c u l t u r e - s e t d i f f e r e n t i a l s in e d u c a tio n , the
s i t u a t i o n i s re v e r s e d : A g e n e r a l aw areness o f th e problem
has p re c e d e d s y s te m a tic i n v e s t i g a t i o n . L i t e r a t u r e growing
from s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y i n t o th e v a rio u s dynamics of
47 ;
c u l t u r e c o n f r o n t a t i o n and accommodation in s e t t i n g s where j
sc h o o ls o p e ra te in u rban m in o r ity communities has y e t to b e :
com piled. Such l i t e r a t u r e t h e r e f o r e cannot be " s u rv e y e d ."
T his c h a p te r th e n , s in c e i t cannot b r in g the re a d e r
acco u n ts o f p r e c e d in g r e s e a r c h , c o n s i s t s o f th e d e s c r i p t i o n
of th e b e s t o f background w r i t i n g co v erin g th e g e n e r a l
t o p i c a r e a . I t i s d iv id e d i n t o s e c t i o n s fo llo w in g the
fo rm at o f th e f i r s t t h r e e s e c t i o n s o f the I n t r o d u c t i o n .
The f i r s t s e c t i o n d e a ls w ith g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s of c u l t u r e
d i f f e r e n t i a l s in s c h o o l - l i k e s e t t i n g s . The second s e c t i o n
d e a ls w ith more s p e c i f i c a s p e c ts o f urban s ch o o ls in the
U n ite d S t a t e s as aren as o f c u l t u r e c o n f r o n t a t i o n . The
t h i r d s e c t i o n d e a ls w ith s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r and s tu d e n t -
a d m i n i s t r a t o r r e l a t i o n s as m a n if e s t a tio n s o f c u l t u r e d i f
f e r e n t i a t i o n .
|
S u b - C u ltu r a l D if f e r e n c e s as I
They A f f e c t E d u c a tio n '
One o f the most e f f e c t i v e d is c u s s io n s of th e gen
e r a l problem a r e a p r e s e n te d in th e I n t r o d u c t i o n i s n o t a
work about e d u c a tio n a t a l l . I t i s a b o o k -le n g th manual
a d d re ss e d to p r o s p e c t i v e p e rs o n n e l o f t e c h n i c a l f o r e ig n a id
program s w r i t t e n by th e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t Goodenough. Since
th e book was w r i t t e n f o r somewhat d i f f e r e n t p u rp o ses th an
th o se d i r e c t l y co n cern in g us h e r e , th e r e are some l i m i t a
t i o n s to i t s a p p l i c a t i o n to problem s o f urban s c h o o ls .
48
Some o f th e s e l i m i t a t i o n s are t h a t ,
1. Goodenough c o n s id e rs s i t u a t i o n s i n which the
l i n e s o f c u l t u r e d em arcatio n between what he c a l l s " d e v e l
o p e rs " and l o c a l s o c i e t y are d i s t i n c t . The problem s o f
c u l t u r e v a r ia n c e in u rban s c h o o ls is c o m p lic ate d becau se of
th e la r g e degree of s h a r e d c u l t u r e between a l l groups in
th e sc h o o l.
2. A nother l i m i t a t i o n i s the l i g h t emphasis given
to a c t u a l c u l t u r e c o n f l i c t . C lash in g v a lu es and th e e n
su in g d i f f i c u l t i e s is a m ajor emphasis o f th e book, b u t th e
c u l t u r e c la s h i s d is c u s s e d only as a b y -p ro d u c t o f i n t e r
a c ti o n in th e t e c h n i c a l l e v e l . In e d u c a tio n i t i s o f te n
v a lu e s and assum ption which a re th e reaso n d * e tr e o f com
m u n ic a tio n . I t i s n o t enough m erely to u n d e rs ta n d th e
assum ptions on b o th s id e s so t h a t th o se in v o lv e d can " g e t
on w ith i t , " as Goodenough seems to s u g g e s t. Schools have
to do som ething much more d i f f i c u l t . A ll p a r t i e s have to
d e f in e where th e d iv e r g e n t system s are to re a ch a p o i n t of
c o m p a t i b i l i t y , and to what e x t e n t accommodation o r compro
mise must be a p p lie d and encouraged.
In g e n e r a l , how ever, th e book i s ex trem ely p e r t i
n e n t to our d i s c u s s i o n h e r e . The w r i t e r has o b v io u sly
pondered over th e problem o f i n t e r - c u l t u r a l communication
a t le n g th and has a r r i v e d a t some ex trem ely u s e f u l c o n c lu
s i o n s . The q u a l i t y o f Goodenough*s p r e s e n t a t i o n which i s
49
most v a lu a b le to urban e d u c a tio n i s th e way in which he
b r in g s th e re a d e r to comprehend h is own c u l t u r e s e t , and
how t h i s s e t o f p a t t e r n e d re sp o n se s a f f e c t s b e h a v io r and
l i m i t s o b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f s i t u a t i o n s in which he is
t r y i n g to f u n c tio n . I t i s so easy f o r e d u c a tio n p e r s o n n e l,
when th e y p e r c e iv e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s , to th in k always of
th e d i f f e r e n c e s o f th e o t h e r gro u p , u n c o n s c io u s ly p r o j e c t
ing t h e i r own b e h a v io r and a t t i t u d e s o u ts id e th e re a c h o f
th e e f f e c t o f mundane c u l t u r a l c o n d itio n in g .
At one p o i n t Goodenough s p in s a p a r a b le in which
th e ta b l e s are tu rn e d in a t y p i c a l give and ta k e i n t e r -
c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n , p a r t o f w hich r e a d s ,
Suppose t h a t one hundred y e a rs ago Turkey was a p r o
g r e s s iv e and p o w erfu l n a t i o n . Suppose t h a t by m odify
ing and d e v elo p in g th e A ra b ic t r a d i t i o n of m edicine i t
had th en a ch iev ed a s t a t e o f m ed ical s o p h i s t i c a t i o n
com parable to t h a t in which Americans p r i d e them selves
to d a y . Suppose, m oreover, t h a t a group o f fo rw ard-
lo o k in g men in th e U n ite d S t a t e s government i n v i t e d
Turkey to send a m edical m is sio n to t h i s co u n try to
give us th e b e n e f i t o f i t s know-how. And, f i n a l l y ,
suppose t h a t a T u rk ish m issio n and our government
agreed t h a t a p r e s s i n g h e a l t h problem and one in which
d ra m a tic r e s u l t s c o u ld be shown was th e high d e ath r a t e
in c h i l d b i r t h , and t h a t th e T u rk ish m issio n sh o u ld
u n d e rta k e to s u p e r v is e th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f modern
m a te r n ity h o s p i t a l s and c l i n i c s and to t r a i n American
p r a c t i t i o n e r s to o p e ra te them.
What would have been th e p ro b a b le r e a c t i o n o f ex-^
p e c t a n t m others in 1850 t o going to a h o s p i t a l to have
b a b ie s ? What would husbands have th o u g h t about i t ?
How would church a u t h o r i t i e s have view ed th e m a tte r?
What would have been th e e d i t o r i a l r e a c t i o n in the
newspaper? Would such a p r o j e c t have any chance of
s u c c e s s , no m a tte r how s o ld m e d ic a lly , i f i t s p la n n e r s
f a i l e d to ask th em selv es th e se q u e s tio n s (and many
more l i k e th e m ), to work o u t t h e i r a n sw e rs, and to
develop ways o f coping w ith th e problem s t h a t the
50
answers p r e s e n te d ? What would th e p la n n e r s and e x e
c u to r s o f t h i s p r o j e c t have had to know about Am eri
c a n s, t h e i r custom s, v a l u e s , and h a b i t s o f th o u g h t
b e f o r e th e y c o u ld answer th e se q u e s tio n s ? I t i s n o t
u n re a so n a b le to suppose t h a t th e s u c c e ss o f th e m issio n
would have r e q u i r e d as c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n to problem s o f
t h i s s o r t as to th o s e o f a s t r i c t l y m ed ical n a t u r e .
( 21 - 22 )
A s i m i l a r p a r a b le comes to mind which m ight communicate the
im pact o f i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e th e s c h o o ls in m in o r ity - p o v e r ty
u rb an communities in a com prehensible way to p eo p le o u ts id e
th e s e com m unities.
Goodenough o u t l i n e s a s e t o f c o n d itio n s f o r su ccess
f u l i n t e r c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a tio n .
1. Development p r o p o s a ls and p ro c e d u re s sh o u ld be
m u tu a lly c o n s i s t e n t .
2. Development ag en ts must have a thorough know l
edge o f th e main v a lu e s and p r i n c i p a l f e a t u r e s
o f th e c l i e n t community's c u l t u r e .
3. Development must tak e the whole community i n t o
a c c o u n t.
4. The g o a ls o f developm ent must be s t a t e d in
term s t h a t have p o s i t i v e v a lu e to th e community
members.
5. The community must be an a c t i v e p a r t n e r in th e
developm ent p r o c e s s .
6. Agents s h o u ld s t a r t w ith what th e community has
in th e way o f m a t e r i a l , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and
le a d e r s h i p r e s o u r c e s .
51
7. The agent must e a rn th e r e s p e c t o f th o se in
community w ith whom he w orks.
While th e s e t e n e t s ap p ear somewhat o v e r - s i m p l i f i e d as we
c o n s id e r ways th e y m ight apply to e d u c a tio n p e r s o n n e l-
community r e l a t i o n s in urban m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y com m unities,
more o f t h i s approach i s needed in a s i t u a t i o n which t h i s
w r i t e r f ir m ly b e l i e v e s i s more hampered w ith c u l t u r e con
f l i c t th a n i s u s u a l l y a d m itte d . Such an approach m ight
v ery w e ll reduce th e p re m a tu re r e j e c t i o n on b o th s id e s o f
r e s p e c t i v e m o tiv a tio n and r e s p e c t i v e w o rth .
L a n d is , Judson e t a l . r e c e n t l y p u b lis h e d an e x p l o r
a t i o n o f th e v a r i a b l e o f c u l t u r e d is ta n c e in c o n ta c t s i t u
a tio n s which p ro v id e some i n t e r e s t i n g d a ta from an approach
to th e complex o v e rla p p in g o f i d e n t i t y and c u l t u r e c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s . The stu d y a tte m p te d to d is c o v e r to what e x t e n t
th e a s s i m i l a t i o n t h e o r i e s o f M ilto n Gordon a p p lie d to
N eg ro -w h ite c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s . A
sim p le q u e s t i o n n a i r e was d e v is e d and p r e s e n t e d to Negroes
and w h ite s to d eterm in e v a r ia n c e betw een v a r i a b l e s : f i n a n
c i a l s t a t u s , s e x , " l i f e s t y l e , " ag e, and e d u c a tio n . The
f in d i n g s c o r r o b o r a te d Gordon’s view t h a t s o c i a l c la s s a f
f i l i a t i o n i s more im p o r ta n t th a n e t h n i c a f f i l i a t i o n in
d e te rm in in g c u l t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s .
The r e s e a r c h e r s in t h i s stu d y made no a tte m p t to
d is c o u n t th e e x i s t e n c e o f Negro c u l t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s ru n n in g
52
a c ro s s c l a s s l i n e s . The stu d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t r e c e n t l y
m obile Negores c a r r i e d w ith them a s p e c ts o f form er l i f e
s t y l e s and t h a t th e r e was s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s c u l t u r e d i s
ta n ce betw een m id d le - c la s s Negroes and low income Negroes
th a n betw een w h ite s (mean s c o r e s ) and low income N egroes.
A nother i n t e r e s t i n g f in d i n g f o r c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e was s i g
n i f i c a n t l y l e s s d is ta n c e betw een m ales o f b o th ra c e s in a l l
s t r a t a th a n between males and fem ales a c r o ss r a c i a l l i n e s
o r betw een fem ales a c ro ss r a c i a l l i n e s . In o th e r w o rd s,
a lth o u g h c o n tr a r y to w id e ly h e ld p o p u la r n o t i o n s , th e r e is
ev id en ce t h a t m id d le - c la s s w h ite men r e l a t e b e t t e r to men
o f th e Negro g h e tto th a n do m id d le - c la s s w h ite women to
women o f th e Negro g h e tto .
Jones in a p a p e r re a d a t th e most r e c e n t c o n v en tio n
o f th e American E d u c a tio n R esearch A s s o c ia tio n d e s c r ib e d a
s tu d y w ith a la r g e N (1706) u s in g 84 v a r i a b l e s to e x p lo re
c lassro o m m orale in 62 g h e tto sch o o l c la s sro o m s. T eachers
were N egro, w h ite and M exican-A rnerican, and v a r i a b l e s i n
c lu d e d , te a c h e r a t t i t u d e s about th e s c h o o l, t e a c h e r a t t i
tu d es about c u l t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s o f th e s t u d e n t s ( th e s e were
sec o n d a ry s c h o o l s ) , te a c h e r r a c e , te a c h e r e x p e r ie n c e (le n g th
and ty p e o f e x p e r i e n c e ) , t e a c h e r ag e, t e a c h e r p e r s o n a l i t y
i n v e n to r y , s tu d e n t a t t i t u d e tow ard t e a c h e r e t h n i c i t y , s t u
d e n t p e r s o n a l i t y in v e n to r y .
There were very few s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s
between v a r i a b l e s . T eacher r a c e , s tu d e n t a t t i t u d e tow ard
t e a c h e r e t h n i c i t y , te a c h e r e x p e r ie n c e , te a c h e r a t t i t u d e s
(both m entioned a b o v e), a l l f a i l e d to c o r r e l a t e s i g n i f i
c a n t l y w ith classro o m m o ra le . The h i g h e s t c o r r e l a t i o n b e
tween v a r i a b l e s and m orale was w ith a v a r i a b l e Jones c a l l e d
" t e a c h e r s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith g h e tto a s s ig n m e n t." This h ig h
c o r r e l a t i o n h e ld c o n s ta n t r e g a r d l e s s o f e t h n i c i t y o f
t e a c h e r . A p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g , a c t u a l l y a
s e r e n d i p i t y , was t h a t t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e c o r
r e l a t i o n betw een classro o m m orale and p e r c e n ta g e o f Negro
s t u d e n t s in th e classro o m . This seems to s u g g e s t t h a t c u l
t u r e c o n f l i c t i s a t l e a s t as im p o rta n t a f a c t o r in e d u c a
t i o n problem s as c u l t u r e d is ta n c e betw een te a c h e r and
s t u d e n t s .
P h i l l i p s i n an a r t i c l e o f s e v e r a l y e a r s ago a t
tem pted to e s t a b l i s h th e f a c t o r s o f m iddle c l a s s m o r a lity
p r o j e c t e d as c r i t e r i a in u rb an c la s sro o m s. A lthough i n t e r
e s t i n g and w o rth w h ile , th e a r t i c l e d r i f t s tow ard m eta
p h y s ic s and red u ces to an e ssa y on a s p e c ts o f m iddle c l a s s
m o r a l i t y as u n co n scio u s v e h ic l e f o r m aintenance o f a s u p e
r i o r power p o s i t i o n by th e m iddle c l a s s . P h i l l i p s argued
t h a t c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e i s r e a l l y used as a d e fe n se a g a i n s t
m o d if ic a tio n o f r e l a t i o n s betw een haves and h a v e - n o ts .
D e fin in g any degree of c u l t u r e d i s ta n c e from th e m iddle
c l a s s as i l l e g i t i m a t e d ev ian ce h e lp s to keep b u r e a u c r a t i c
54
power c e n t r a l i z e d and in th e hands o f t h e m iddle c l a s s .
P r i o r to P h i l l i p ’s a r t i c l e , Musgrove d is c u s s e d c u l
tu r e v a r i a b l e s in te a c h in g in c r o s s - c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n w ith
American te a c h e r s in A f r i c a . As w ith th e Goodenough book,
i t i s s u r p r i s i n g how much th e c e n t r a l p o i n t s o f t h i s s h o r t
a r t i c l e apply to m id d le - c la s s e d u c a tio n p e rs o n n e l and
t h e i r d e a lin g w ith v a r i a n t s u b - c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s w ith in
t h i s s o c i e t y . Musgrove makes th e p o i n t t h a t when c u l t u r e
d i f f e r e n t i a l i s n o t c l e a r l y u n d e rs to o d , te a c h e r s te n d to
s t a r t out w ith i n s t r u c t i o n in t h e i r own v a l u e s , assuming
t h a t th e v a lu e s t r u c t u r e o f the t e a c h e r i s a n e c e s s a r y
fo u n d a tio n f o r b e g in n in g to le a r n a n y th in g . He s u g g e s te d
t h a t even in c e r t a i n t e c h n i c a l a re a where c u l t u r a l t r a d i
t i o n s may make such an assum ption p a r t l y t r u e , t h e r e are
b e t t e r ways o f ap p ro ach in g th e problem than th e h o p e le s s
a tte m p t to c o u n te r a c t y e a r s o f c u l t u r e c o n d itio n in g th ro u g h
th e l i m i t e d t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p .
Forbes d is c u s s e d th e d is a d v a n ta g e s o f what he c a l l s
"th e m o n o -c u ltu r a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f sch o o ls in th e U n ite d
S t a t e s , " in a r e c e n t a r t i c l e . He argued t h a t th e v e ry con
c e p t o f c u l t u r a l l y d is a d v a n ta g e d p r o j e c t s a m o n o -c u ltu r a l
c r i t e r i a . Forbes p r e f e r s th e term c u l t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t and
su p p o rts th e p r e f e r e n c e w ith e l a b o r a t e , and c o n v in c in g ,
re a s o n in g .
No more than b r i e f m ention need be made o f the
55
s e v e r a l o th e r e ssa y s c o n cern in g s u b - c u l t u r a l c o n f l i c t in
American e d u c a tio n : Cohen made a very i n t e r e s t i n g e x p l o r a
t i o n i n t o sem an tic d i f f e r e n c e s between s u b - c u l t u r e s , most
o f which has re le v a n c e to e d u c a tio n . Arnez d is c u s s e d th e
tendency in American e d u c a tio n to always em phasize th e
n e g a tiv e a sp e c t o f c u l t u r a l v a r i e t y in s tu d e n t b o d ies in
American e d u c a tio n . Howard Becker has w r i t t e n two a r t i c l e s
co n cern in g the u n f o r tu n a te re c e n t h i s t o r i c a l developm ent o f
th e image o f sch o o l to young people in m in o r ity communities.
The T eacher as C u ltu re C a r r i e r
This s o c i e t y i s n o t accustomed to c o n ce iv in g
te a c h e r s and o t h e r sch o o l o f f i c i a l s as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
c u l t u r a l l y c o n d itio n e d b i a s . T eachers th em selv es are n o t
accustom ed to t h i s . The b e s t d e m o n stratio n o f such a
r e a l i t y to th e knowledge o f the w r i t e r was an experim ent
r e p o r te d by K irk en d ale in 1966. The ex p erim en t was q u i t e
sim p le: Twelve M exican-American young men from an urban
h ig h s ch o o l were b ro u g h t t o g e th e r on s u c c e s s iv e S atu rd ay s
f o r s e v e r a l weeks w ith a group o f te a c h e r s from d i f f e r e n t
b u t n e a r -b y s c h o o ls . The young men were hand p ic k e d f o r
t h e i r a b i l i t y to d is c u s s in b lu n t manner problem s t h i s
w r i t e r r e f e r s to as a r i s i n g from c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e , the
te a c h e r s were randomly s e l e c t e d and p a id th e e q u iv a l e n t o f
a d a y 's te a c h in g s a l a r y p e r s e s s i o n .
The form at was group d is c u s s io n about sch o o l p r o b
56
lems w ith em phasis on co m p letely e q u al tr e a tm e n t f o r a l l
p a r t i c i p a n t s . In th e e a r l y m eetin g s th e d is c u s s io n moved
to s e x u a l e x p e r ie n c e s and th e young men began r e l a t i n g some
t y p i c a l se x u a l e p is o d e s . At t h i s p o i n t some o f th e t e a c h
e r s could n o t c o n ta in t h e i r d is a p p r o v a l and began to draw
a c l e a r - c u t m oral d i s t i n c t i o n between th em selv es and th e
young men. T his in t u r n prom pted th e young men to a t t a c k
p e r c e iv e d i n c o n s i s te n c y o f th e t e a c h e r s ' se x u a l s ta n d a r d s .
Communication broke down when te a c h e r s became e x tre m ely
d e fe n s iv e as t h e i r s e x u a l v a lu e s were c h a lle n g e d , i n s i s t i n g
t h a t t h e i r own s e x u a l problem s - - th e way, f o r exam ple, s e x
u a l f r u s t r a t i o n o f t h e i r s o c i a l group i s b l a t a n t l y e x
p l o i t e d thro u g h a d v e r t i s i n g - - h a d no re le v a n c y to th e d i s
c u s s io n .
F ollow ing t h i s some o f th e te a c h e r s began to openly
d e c la r e re s e n tm e n t tow ard th e m eetings and te a c h e r a t t e n
dance began to f a l l o f f , even though t e a c h e r s were n o t p a id
u n le s s th e y showed up. These t e a c h e r s were w i l l i n g to d i s
cuss problem s b ro u g h t on by c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s , as long
as th e d is c u s s io n d id n o t a d d re ss i n any s e r io u s way th e
b i a s e s o f t h e i r own c u l t u r e . Most o f th e t e a c h e r s were
A nglo, b u t th e few M exican-American t e a c h e r s showed no
n o t i c e a b l y d i s t i n c t r e a c t i o n from th e o t h e r s .
H i l l i a r d d is c u s s e d the dynamics o f th e s e l e c t i o n
o f te a c h in g as a p r o f e s s i o n and how th e y may a c t u a l l y work
57
to p roduce th e l e a s t l i k e l y p e rs o n to f u n c tio n in c r o s s -
c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s . A ccording to H i l l i a r d , th e id e a o f
g iv e - a n d - ta k e betw een s tu d e n t s and t e a c h e r s i s seen by
t e a c h e r t r a i n e e s only in th e most s u p e r f i c i a l way, and a t
l e a s t u n t i l v ery r e c e n t l y , s tr o n g commitment to m iddle
c l a s s v a lu e s was an alm ost e c c e n t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e
g e n e r a l t r e n d o f s tu d e n t s in te a c h e r t r a i n i n g program s.
The em phasis on academ ic p re p a re d n e s s in t e a c h e r - r o l e m ain
te n a n c e t e n d s , H i l l i a r d b e l i e v e s , to produce te a c h e r s who,
. . . a re e m b arra ssed to be in a s i t u a t i o n where th ey
a re c a s t in th e r o l e o f c o - l e a r n e r s . Some wear t h e i r
e x p e r t i s e as a c o a t o f armor; th ey are a b le to d e al
w ith members o f a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e only w ith th e p r o
t e c t i o n o f t h i s arm or. (34)
L ev erso n , in a r e c e n t book, concludes t h a t to o much
em phasis in p r e p a r in g t e a c h e r s f o r in n e r c i t y classro o m s i s
p la c e d on a t t i t u d e . He i n s i s t s t h a t te a c h in g in any c r o s s -
c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g r e q u i r e s s p e c i f i c knowledge and s p e c i f i c
te c h n i q u e s . I t i s a p p a r e n tly assumed by some t h a t r a p p o r t
and e f f e c t i v e n e s s in t h i s k in d o f s i t u a t i o n w i l l blossom
s p o n ta n e o u s ly in t e a c h e r s w ith commitment and good i n t e n
t i o n s .
L everson c i t e s a s tu d y o f a program sp o n so re d by
Case W estern R eserve U n i v e r s i t y which took r e t u r n i n g Peace
Corps v o l u n t e e r s to te a c h in i n n e r c i t y s c h o o ls . The f i n d
in g s i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e form er corpsmen were a b le to r e l a t e
to i n n e r - c i t y s tu d e n t s s l i g h t l y b e t t e r th a n t e a c h e r s on th e
w hole, b u t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found betw een
58 j
s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r r a p p o r t w ith th e form er corpsmen and
s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r r a p p o r t w ith a c o n t r o l group o f young
te a c h e r s f r e s h o u t o f c o lle g e te a c h in g in s i m i l a r s e t t i n g s .
The form er corpsmen were v o lu n te e r s f o r the program and
were h ig h ly m o tiv a te d ; presum ably many young te a c h e r s in
th e c o n t r o l group were te a c h in g in th e i n n e r - c i t y sim ply
b ecau se th e y could n o t la n d jo b s e ls e w h e re .
W right and T uska, s tu d y in g re a so n s f o r choosing
te a c h in g as a p r o f e s s i o n , found t h a t th e g e n e r a liz e d image
o f th e r o l e o f t e a c h e r was more im p o r ta n t th an th e a c t u a l
f u n c tio n s o f te a c h in g as m o tiv a tio n f a c t o r s in c a r e e r
s e l e c t i o n . The r e s e a r c h e r s s e l e c t e d 508 p r o s p e c tiv e
t e a c h e r s a t tw en ty -o n e t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , and
as in s tru m e n ts u sed a sem a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l d e v ice and an
a d d i t i o n a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e . They d is c o v e re d a tendency f o r
p r o s p e c t i v e t e a c h e r s , and e s p e c i a l l y th o se aiming tow ard
seco n d ary sc h o o l t e a c h in g , to have had romance a s s o c i a t i o n
tow ard th e t e a c h e r - r o l e - - a n d tow ard s p e c i f i c t e a c h e r s - - i n
ch ild h o o d . The f in d i n g s seemed to im ply t h a t th o se in a l l
s u b - c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s who most s u c c e s s f u l l y i d e n t i f y w ith
a m iddle c l a s s r o l e model are most a t t r a c t e d to te a c h in g .
I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t to u n d e rs ta n d th e i n e v i t a b l e te n s io n s
a r i s i n g when i n d i v i d u a l s , u n c o n sc io u s ly r e c a l l i n g te a c h e r
f u n c tio n as a k in d of remote and i d e a l i z e d s u p e r p a r e n t ,
59
fa c e th e j a r r i n g r e a l i t i e s o f sch o o ls i n c u l t u r a l l y d i s t a n t
co m m u n ities.
There a re a number o f a r t i c l e s and books d i r e c t e d
tow ard th e use o f c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s a g a i n s t s tu d e n t s and
p u p i l s . Among th e b e s t o f th e s e a re H ic k e r s o n 's s h o r t book
and an a r t i c l e by Kozol sum m arizing h i s book Death a t an
E a rly Age. Both th e s e w r i t e r s s t r e s s e d th e p r e v a le n c e of
an i n s i d i o u s e f f o r t on th e p a r t o f e d u c a tio n system s to
convince c u l t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t y o u th t h a t t h e r e is som ething
wrong w ith them. Both argue c o n v in c in g ly t h a t in an age in
which e d u c a tio n i s becoming th e s o le ro u te o f economic
s e c u r i t y , c u l t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are o f t e n u sed to d i s
q u a l i f y p e o p le from t h i s access r o u t e . As H ick erso n s t a t e s
A ll human b e in g s b r in g t h e i r v alu e commitments to t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith o t h e r s . How one p e r c e iv e s a n o th e r
i s o f t e n d e term in e d by o n e 's own v a lu e s and b e h a v io r .
The t e a c h e r i s no e x c e p tio n . How she views th e c h i l d
may have a s e r io u s e f f e c t upon how t h i s c h i l d f e e l s
tow ard th e s c h o o l. I f a t e a c h e r does n o t u n d e rs ta n d
th e s p e c i f i c k in d s o f b e h a v io r o f c e r t a i n c h i l d r e n ,
she w i l l make t h i s f e e l i n g known to th e c h i l d , even
though she may n o t i n t e n d to .
. . . t e a c h e r s are g u a rd ia n s and d is s e m in a to r s o f
th e e x i s t i n g m ores. Our m oral p r e c e p ts and p r a c t i c e s
are made an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e c u rric u lu m p ro c e s s
in our p u b l i c s c h o o ls . (41-42)
CHAPTER IV
THE SUMMER INSTITUTES FOR TEACHERS AND
ADMINISTRATORS OF DISADVANTAGED AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
P h ilo so p h y
In 1966, and ag ain in 1967, p r o p o s a ls were s u b
m i t t e d to th e U.S. O ffic e o f E d u catio n f o r advanced study
i n s t i t u t e s to be conducted by th e School o f E d u c a tio n ,
U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a under th e t i t l e "D isad
v a n tag e d Youth: T h e ir S o c io - C u ltu r a l M i l i e u ." These ad
vanced stu d y i n s t i t u t e s were s c h e d u le d f o r an e ig h t-w e ek
p e r i o d from l a t e June through l a t e A ugust. S e v e ra l p eo p le
p a r t i c i p a t e d in th e p la n n in g o f th e i n s t i t u t e s which were
o f f i c i a l l y sp o n so re d by two departm ents w ith in th e School
o f E d u catio n a t U .S .C .: S o c ia l and P h il o s o p h ic a l Founda
t i o n o f E d u c a tio n , and I n s t r u c t i o n a l Technology. Co
d i r e c t o r s o f th e programs were P r o f e s s o r o f E d u catio n David
W. M a r tin , a s o c i o l o g i s t w ith a decade o f e x p e rie n c e in
problem s o f urban e d u c a tio n , and A s s i s t a n t P r o f e s s o r o f
E d u c a tio n , Donald G. P e r r i n , an e x p e r t in documentary film
p r o d u c tio n . A ll connected w ith th e program would agree
t h a t P r o f e s s o r M artin was th e c e n t r a l f i g u r e g u id in g th e
60
61
i n s t i t u t e s from in c e p t i o n th ro u g h co m p letio n .
The g e n e r a l aims and b a s i c assum ptions o f th e i n
s t i t u t e program s i s p u t f o r t h r a t h e r c l e a r l y in th e p r o
p o s a l f o r th e 1967 summer i n s t i t u t e . The p r o p o s a l i n d i
c a te s t h a t th e o b j e c t o f th e i n s t i t u t e s was t o ad d ress
th r e e p e r c e iv e d problem s:
1. L im ited u n d e rs ta n d in g by many te a c h e r s and
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f r e c e n t developm ents i n th e
s o c i o - c u l t u r a l m ilie u o f th e d is a d v a n ta g e d .
2. The form al and o f f i c i a l a s s o c i a t i o n p a t t e r n s
o f te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w ith th e commu
n i t y o f th e d isa d v a n ta g e d ten d s t o d isco u rag e
can d id in te rc h a n g e o f f e e l i n g s and i d e a s .
3. D i f f i c u l t y , a t th e sch o o l l e v e l , to e x p lo re
new methods in d e a lin g w ith s p e c i a l problem s
o f th e c u l t u r a l l y d is a d v a n ta g e d .
A p rim ary f u n c tio n o f th e i n s t i t u t e s was to give te a c h e r s
and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a view o f the community thro u g h th e eyes
o f a young r e s i d e n t , a r e c e n t p ro d u c t o f th e community.
The id e a was to open up some new avenues o f aw areness o f
communities where te a c h e r s work every day and have s u p e r f i
c i a l and o f t e n s t e r e o t y p e d images o f what th ey see around
them.
The s i x s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e s o f th e i n s t i t u t e s i n d i
c a te what some o f th e s e new avenues were:
62
1. To a s s i s t te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s to u n d e rs ta n d
b o th in th e c o g n itiv e and a f f e c t i v e domains th e
s o c i a l m i l i e u o f e d u c a t i o n a l l y d is a d v a n ta g e d c h i l
dren in a d e p re s s e d urban a r e a . P a r t i c u l a r l y where
s o c i a l c l a s s combined w ith r a c i a l (Negro) and e t h
n i c (Mexican d e sc e n t) o p e ra te to c r e a t e c o n d itio n s
m i t i g a t i n g a g a i n s t s u b s t a n t i a l e d u c a tio n a l p ro g re s s .
2. To p la c e t e a c h e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and young p eo p le
in d ig e n o u s to th e d e p re ss e d a re a s t o g e t h e r in a
m ean in g fu l ta s k o r i e n t e d s i t u a t i o n , so t h a t from
t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , th e m ost conducive to a t t i t u -
d i n a l change, each w i l l emerge w ith a g r e a t e r
u n d e rs ta n d in g and a p p r e c i a t i o n o f th e o t h e r ' s r o l e
and s i g n i f i c a n c e as a human b e in g .
3. To s u g g e s t to te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s how
camera and tap e r e c o r d e r can a s s i s t b o th i n s h a r p
ening c o g n itio n and a l t e r i n g a f f e c t .
4. To a c q u a in t te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w ith com
m unity r e s o u rc e s such as community h o u se s; fa m ily
a id s e r v i c e s ; p u b l i c h e a l t h f a c i l i t i e s ; economic
and y o u th o p p o r tu n i ty agency p r o j e c t s l i k e te e n
p o s t s ; c h i l d day c a re c e n t e r s , e t c . For i n s t i t u t e
p e r s o n n e l from th e S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a a r e a t h i s
f a m i l i a r i t y w i l l prove u s e f u l f o r r e f e r r a l p u r
p o s e s ; f o r o th e r s from o t h e r urban a re a s t h i s may
s e rv e to in tr o d u c e them to new id e a s v a lu a b l e in
t h e i r home com m unities.
5. To a n aly z e a l l o f th e m a t e r i a l s and e x p e r ie n c e s in
th e i n s t i t u t e and to develop b o ld , im a g in a tiv e
approaches to be u sed in th e e d u c a tio n o f d is a d v a n
ta g e d y o u th .
6 . To have the p a r t i c i p a n t s develop m a t e r i a l s to d i s
sem in ate th e outcomes o f th e i n s t i t u t e more e f f e c
t i v e l y th a n th e c o n v e n tio n a l o r a l and w r i t t e n
fo rm s.
The p r o p o s a l acknowledged th e f a c t p r e p a r a t i o n f o r
te a c h in g in most i n s t i t u t i o n s today in c lu d e s s p e c i a l m ate
r i a l o r i e n t i n g p r o s p e c t i v e t e a c h e r s t o e d u c a tio n problem s
in d e p re s s e d a r e a s . N early e v ery c o lle g e and u n i v e r s i t y
e i t h e r d i r e c t l y p r e p a r e s te a c h e r s to work in d e p re s s e d
63
a r e a s c h o o l s , o r has g e a re d p a r t o f th e c u rric u lu m to such
an em phasis. New te a c h e r s coming o u t o f such programs have
a t l e a s t some s o p h i s t i c a t i o n w ith r e g a r d to th e s e p ro b lem s.
The p r o p o s a l p o i n t s o u t , on th e o t h e r h an d , many te a c h e r s
and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s c u r r e n t l y s e r v in g in d e p re ss e d a re a s
have n o t had th e b e n e f i t o f such t r a i n i n g . I t i s n o t
enough t h a t th e y have s e r v e d in d e p re ss e d a r e a s c h o o ls f o r
a number o f y e a r s . The s o c i a l dynamics o f an environm ent
d i f f e r e n t from o n e 's own background are n o t n e c e s s a r i l y
communicated th ro u g h c o n t a c t o r p r o f e s s i o n a l i n t e r a c t i o n
w ith a p a r t o f t h a t en v iro n m en t. A p e r i o d o f s e r v i c e in
d e p re s s e d a re a s c h o o ls may even i n s t i l l in such te a c h e r s
and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a f a l s e sen se o f u n d e rs ta n d in g th e y outh
th e y t e a c h , and th e m i l i e u in which th e y l i v e .
I t was n o t im agined t h a t a program such as t h i s
would have a m ajor im pact on th e above s i t u a t i o n . What was
p r e s e n t e d by th e i n s t i t u t e s was a methodology in w hich,
th ro u g h th e use o f i n t e n s i v e and s o p h i s t i c a t e d te c h n i q u e s ,
te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s could come to have i n c r e a s e d
u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e c u l t u r e o f th e d is a d v a n ta g e d in a
r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t tim e. An assum ption o f th e program p l a n
n e r s was t h a t changes can be made to ta k e p la c e in th e con^
c e p tu a l and a f f e c t i v e l e v e l s which make i t p o s s i b l e f o r
te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f th e d is a d v a n ta g e d to r e l a t e
more s i g n i f i c a n t l y to t h e i r s t u d e n t s .
64
The p r o p o s a l p o i n t e d o u t t h a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f
S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a was e x c e p t i o n a l l y w e ll s i t u a t e d to
o f f e r such a program w ith maximum p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t . To
q u o te from th e p r o p o s a l , "T his u n i v e r s i t y i s lo c a t e d w ith in
th e 1966 r i o t zone, c lo s e to th e W atts a r e a , and n e a r th e
l a r g e s t community o f Mexican d e sc e n d a n ts in th e U n ite d
S t a t e s . Burning and l o o t i n g took p la c e w i t h i n a b lo c k o f
t h i s o f f i c e , and N a tio n a l Guard tro o p s were q u a r t e r e d on
our campus."
Much o f th e u s u a l i n - s e r v i c e t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g f a r e
r e q u i r e s o n ly a p a s s i v e invo lv em en t ( a s , in d e e d , i s th e
case w ith much o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in g e n e r a l ) . I t is
l i k e l y t h a t , in s p i t e o f s u r f a c e a t t i t u d e s , a good d e a l o f
p s y c h o lo g i c a l r e s i s t a n c e to classro o m message ty p e o f p r e
s e n t a t i o n dev elo p s in h ig h ly e d u c a te d p e r s o n s . The p r o
p o s a l p u t i t w e ll in s t a t i n g t h a t most i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g
was " fo c u s e d on c o g n i t i o n , " and as such gave in fo r m a tio n
b u t d id n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e u n d e r s ta n d in g . What was
n eed ed was " . . . an e x p e r ie n c e in depth and b r e a d th where
t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s were a b le to immerse them selves
in th e c u l t u r a l m i l i e u in which t h e i r s t u d e n t s l i v e , . . .
[and can be] p r o v id e d ad eq u ate c o g n itio n and a f f e c t i v e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f b o th t h i s m i l i e u and t h e i r r e a c t i o n s to
i t , . . [and can be] shown how th e s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s can
be a f f e c t i v e l y t r a n s l a t e d i n t o s u b s t a n t i v e m o d if ic a tio n o f
65
e d u c a tio n a l p r o c e d u r e s ." In o t h e r w ords, th e program was
p la n n e d t o be an e x p e rie n c e l e s s v i c a r i o u s , and more r e a l ,
th a n o th e r s o f i t s k in d .
The team approach was c e n t r a l to th e aims and t e c h
n iq u e s o f th e program . What was p ro p o se d was t h a t th e i n
s t i t u t e s would c o n s i s t o f e x p e r ie n c e d te a c h e r s o f th e d i s
a d v an ta g e d , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and in d ig e n o u s school-com m unity
members. I t was f e l t t h a t t h i s was a m ix tu re most n a t u r a l
to th e sc h o o l s e t t i n g . This m ix tu re b r in g s t o g e t h e r th e
th r e e elem en ts in th e form al e d u c a tio n p ro c e s s w ith t h e i r
unique o r i e n t a t i o n s , and t h e i r tendency to l e s s th a n com
p l e t e l y u n d e rs ta n d th e problem s and dilemmas o f th e o th e r
two g ro u p s. In p u t t i n g members o f each o f th e s e groups in
team s, each becomes a p a r t n e r in e x p e r ie n c in g th e problem s
o f th e d is a d v a n ta g e d community, o p p o r tu n i ty i s thus pre-.
s e n te d f o r s e e in g th e s e problem s from o t h e r p o i n t s o f view.
Each team t h e r e f o r e was to c o n s i s t o f one a d m i n i s t r a t o r ,
two t e a c h e r s and one in d ig e n o u s school-com m unity member
a c t i n g as a re s o u rc e p e rs o n . The f u n c tio n o f th e so c a l l e d
Community C o o rd in a to r (in d ig en o u s member) was d is c u s s e d in
an e a r l i e r s e c t i o n .
A need was f e l t f o r th e i n f u s i o n o f p eo p le o f s i m i
l a r problem s b u t somewhat d i f f e r i n g c o n d itio n s i n t o an
e x p l o r a t o r y s i t u a t i o n ; t h a t a l l would p r o f i t from th e p e r
s p e c t i v e o f f e r e d by such a m ix tu r e . T h e re fo re tw o - th i r d s
66
o f th e p e r s o n n e l was to come from th e d e p re ss e d a re as o f
S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a , and one t h i r d from o t h e r n a t i o n a l u r
ban a r e a s . Each team was to in c lu d e one member from o u t
s id e S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a . Each team was to focus on one
census t r a c t c o n s i s t i n g o f a p p ro x im a te ly 5,000 p eo p le from
th e h e a r t o f a s e l e c t e d d e p re ss e d a r e a . Five o f th e t r a c t s
were in th e W atts a r e a , p re d o m in a n tly N egro, f i v e were in
th e Avalon a r e a , p re d o m in a n tly M exican-Am erican.
The use o f cameras and tap e r e c o r d e r s to document
e x p e r ie n c e s was c o n sid e re d an im p o r ta n t p a r t o f th e program
s t r a t e g y . The r a t i o n a l e f o r em phasis on t h i s type o f media
u t i l i z a t i o n was s t a t e d in th e se term s:
Recorded images and sounds p e r m it time com pression so
t h a t h i g h l i g h t s o f a day, a month, o r even a y e a r can
be p r e s e n t e d in a m a tte r o f m in u te s. Not only do they
b r in g c o n c r e te e x p e r ie n c e s i n t o th e classro o m , but
th e y make i t p o s s i b l e to see c o n te x t and r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,
to compare one s i t u a t i o n w ith a n o th e r , and to changes
o v e r a p e r io d o f tim e. I t i s p o s s i b l e f o r th e complex
e x p r e s s io n s o f human em otion to be c a p tu r e d w ith
a c u i t y . A v i s u a l document, by re p ro d u c in g the o r i g i n a l
s i t u a t i o n in d e t a i l , sh o u ld be a t l e a s t as im p o rta n t as
a v e r b a l d e s c r i p t i o n f o r communication and r e f e r e n c e
p u r p o s e s .
Im p lem en tatio n
The b a s i c fo rm at o f the i n s t i t u t e has been o u t l i n e d
e a r l i e r . A s l i g h t l y s h o r t e r summary o f i n s t i t u t e a c t i v i
t i e s was c o n ta in e d i n th e i n t r o d u c t i o n s e c t i o n o f th e p r o
p o s a l : [ I n s t i t u t e members a re to ] . . .
1. Study th e d e p re ss e d urban a r e a i n team s.
67
2. Document t h e i r o b s e r v a tio n w ith ta p e r e c o r d e r
and camera.
3. I n t e r p r e t th e environm ent o f d is a d v a n ta g e d
y o u th b o th d i r e c t l y and th ro u g h an a n a l y s i s o f
th e re c o rd e d m a t e r i a l s .
4. U t i l i z e th e re c o rd e d documents to show how the
i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r p r e t s th e e n v iro n m e n t, to
d e t e c t b ia s and p o i n t o f view , and to o b j e c t i f y
th e d a ta .
5. R e la te th e problem s to te a c h in g d is a d v a n ta g e d
y o u t h .
6 . To g e n e r a te p r e s e n t a t i o n s and d is s e m in a te th e
outcomes o f th e i n s t i t u t e more e f f e c t i v e l y
th a n th e c o n v e n tio n a l o r a l and w r i t t e n form s.
Each o f th e t h r e e ty p es o f a c t i v i t i e s - - f i e l d work,
la b o r a t o r y i n s t r u c t i o n , s e m in a rs -- c o rr e s p o n d e d to c o u rses
in th e d ep artm en ts o f S o c ia l and P h i l o s o p h i c a l F oundations
o f E d u catio n and I n s t r u c t i o n a l Technology w i t h i n th e School
o f E d u c a tio n . I n s t i t u t e members c o u ld e l e c t to f u l l aca-
demic c r e d i t f o r th e s e c o u r s e s , r e c e i v i n g a r e g u l a r grade
and e a r n in g an e n t r y on th e o f f i c i a l t r a n s c r i p t . The
sem inars c o rre sp o n d e d to a course t i t l e d "S o cio lo g y o f
E d u c a tio n ," EdSP 508. I t was o f f i c i a l l y s t a f f e d by P r o
f e s s o r M artin and Dr. C h arles T. M. Hadwin, n o rm a lly on
th e s t a f f o f a Canadian i n s t i t u t i o n , and a s p e c i a l i s t in
68
race r e l a t i o n s . A ccording to th e p r o p o s a l , th e sem inars
were to be d i r e c t e d tow ard s e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s .
a. What i s th e r o l e o f c u l t u r e in sh ap in g th e
b e h a v io r o f p eo p le?
b. What do we know about th e p r o c e s s e s o f s o c i a l
i z a t i o n ?
c . What are th e r o l e s o f fa m ily , s c h o o l, p e e r
g roup, mass m ed ia, econom ics, econom ical and
p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ?
d. What are our c u l t u r e h e ro e s and i d e n t i f c a t i o n a l
m odels; how a re th e y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o o u r l i v e s ?
e . How does th e s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n system in
s o c i e t y e f f e c t our b e h a v io r : What i s th e r o l e
o f s o c i a l c l a s s , p r e s t i g e and power in th e
s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s ; What a re th e dim ensions
o f d i f f e r e n t i a l a s p i r a t i o n s , and m o tiv a tio n s in
our s o c ie ty ?
f . How do a l l th e s e t h in g s a f f e c t our sc h o o ls ?
g. What i s th e r o l e o f v a rio u s r a c i a l and e t h n i c
s u b - c u l t u r e s w i t h i n our s o c i e t y : The Negroes
and S panish s p ea k in g p e o p le s in p a r t i c u l a r ?
h. What i s th e n a t u r e o f th e a d o le s c e n t w o rld .
i . How s e r io u s i s th e s ch o o l d ro p o u t problem ; what
can be done about i t ?
j . How does j u v e n i l e d e lin q u e n cy a f f e c t our
69
sch o o ls?
The approach in th e s e sem inars was to be a n a l y t i c a l , u t i l
i z i n g as much as p o s s i b l e in fo r m a tio n c o l l e c t e d by p a r t i c i
p a n ts .
The course c o rre sp o n d in g to f i e l d work was e n t i t l e d
" F i e l d Work in School S o c io lo g y ," EdSp 609. I t was o f f i
c i a l l y s t a f f e d by th e s u p e r v is o r s o f th e Community C o o rd i
n a t o r s . A gencies in th e communities to be used as r e
s o u rc e s d u rin g th e i n s t i t u t e , "were c o n ta c te d and t h e i r
s u p p o rt a s s u r e d ." I t sh o u ld be n o te d t h a t members o f th e
i n s t i t u t e s t a f f , in p a r t i c u l a r P r o f e s s o r M a r tin , had wide
c o n t a c t and r e l a t i o n s w ith many o f th e s e a g e n c ie s .
The course c o rre sp o n d in g to l a b o r a t o r y work was
e n t i t l e d " S p e c ia l S tu d ie s in I n s t r u c t i o n a l T echnology,"
EdIT 690. I t was o f f i c i a l l y s t a f f e d by th e C o -D ire c to r
Donald G. P e r r i n , and two o t h e r documentary f il m makers
i n c lu d in g th e r e l a t i v e l y w ell-know n J a r v i s C o u llia r d . The
l a b o r a t o r y s e s s i o n s were to c o n c e n tr a te in th e f i r s t week
o r so on p h y s i c a l o p e r a t i o n o f th e equipm ent, and l a t e r th e
em phasis was to s h i f t to what p i c t u r e s communicate and
v a r io u s s u b t l e t i e s o f p ro d u c in g f il m and ta p e docum entation.
As m entioned e a r l i e r , i n th e l a t t e r s ta g e s o f th e program
teams were to p u t t o g e t h e r modest media p ro d u c tio n s w ith
th e m a t e r i a l g a th e r e d , in o r d e r to give some k in d o f body
to f i n d i n g s . Those w ith s p e c i a l m e r it to be made a v a i l a b l e
70
to a l l members o f th e i n s t i t u t e to tak e away w ith them.
In th e s e l e c t i o n of members f o r th e two summer i n
s t i t u t e s , th e r e were th r e e g e n e r a l c r i t e r i a u sed : I n d i v i d
u a ls must have been (a) c u r r e n t l y employed as te a c h e r s o r
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s in d is a d v a n ta g e d a r e a s , o r (b) have a
s ta te m e n t o f i n t e n t from a r e s p o n s i b l e o f f i c i a l o f a sch o o l
d i s t r i c t t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l would be so employed f o r th e
fo llo w in g y e a r , and (c) be a d m is sib le to th e School o f
E d u c a tio n , U n i v e r s i t y of S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a f o r g ra d u a te
work. P r e f e r e n c e was given to p r o s p e c t i v e s tu d e n t s who
had (a) a s tr o n g recommendation from th e sch o o l o f f i c i a l
f o r whom th e c a n d id a te was w orking; (b) e v id en ce o f some
l e a d e r s h i p c a p a c ity w ith in t h e i r sch o o l such as d ep artm en t
h e a d , com m ittee c h airm a n sh ip , o r a c t i v i t y in t e a c h e r s ’
o r g a n i z a t i o n s ; (c) a p a t t e r n o f e d u c a t i o n a l and e x p e r i e n
t i a l background to s u g g e s t d e f i c i e n c i e s o f th e s o r t t h i s
i n s t i t u t e was d e sig n e d to c o r r e c t . Such d e f i c i e n c i e s w ere:
1. No co u rses in s o c io lo g y o r s o c io lo g y o f
e d u c a tio n .
2. C e r t i f i c a t i o n p r i o r to 1955 and l i t t l e g ra d u a te
work s u b s e q u e n tly .
3. L i t t l e o r no work e x p e r ie n c e a t any time o u t
s id e o f te a c h in g .
4. A community o f o r i e n t a t i o n w hich was r u r a l o r
sm all town.
71
The s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s f o r th e Community C o o rd in a
t o r s was o u t l i n e d as fo llo w s : School p e r s o n n e l in th e
t a r g e t communities were c o n ta c te d and t o l d o f th e c r i t e r i a
f o r s e l e c t i o n and encouraged to info rm l i k e l y c a n d id a te s .
A p r e lim in a r y s c r e e n in g in t e r v i e w as sch e d u le d f o r p e rs o n s
e x p r e s s in g i n t e r e s t , and f o r th o se s e l e c t e d as a c c e p ta b le
by th e s c r e e n in g in te r v ie w a f o l d e r was e s t a b l i s h e d . The
c a n d id a te was re q u e s te d to su p p ly th e fo llo w in g :
a. A s h o r t a u to b io g ra p h y o u t l i n i n g h is knowledge
o f th e community.
b. S e v e ra l l e t t e r s o f recommendation from r e s p o n
s i b l e in d ig en o u s community members i n d i c a t i n g
h is knowledge o f and involvem ent in th e commu
n i t y .
A f t e r a l l ev id en ce had been g a th e r e d , a committee o f t h r e e
p r o f e s s o r s a s s o c i a t e d w ith i n s t i t u t e e v a lu a te d i t and e x
te n d ed th e i n v i t a t i o n . As s t a t e d e a r l i e r , th e i n s t i t u t e
d i r e c t o r s were p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d in r e c r u i t i n g h ig h
sch o o l s e n io r s w ith a t l e a s t fo u r y e a rs r e s id e n c y i n th e
a r e a , w ith a more or l e s s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e background p r o f i l e ,
w ith a c l e a r - c u t p a t t e r n o f knowledge o f and involvem ent
in th e community. I t has a lr e a d y been p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
i n s t i t u t e members r e c e iv e d t r a v e l allow ance p lu s a s t i p e n d
f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n d u rin g th e e i g h t weeks. C o o rd in a to rs
r e c e iv e d a sm all s a l a r y .
72
I n s t i t u t e r o u t i n e can be f a i r l y w e ll o u t l i n e d by
sim p ly p r e s e n t i n g a t y p i c a l w eekly sch e d u le as i s done b e
low. The sch e d u le i s a c t u a l l y f o r Week Two o f th e 1967
i n s t i t u t e ; i t i s f a i r l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f o r a l l weeks f o r
b o th i n s t i t u t e s .
S t a f f P e rso n n e l
A lthough th e D epartm ent o f S o c ia l and P h il o s o p h ic a l
F o undations in th e School o f E d u c a tio n a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f
S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a p u rsu e s a m ajor em phasis in th e e d u c a
t i o n a l problem s o f d is a d v a n ta g e d urb an a r e a s , th e s t a f f i n g
f o r th e s e i n s t i t u t e s was n o t l i m i t e d to f u l l - t i m e p e r s o n n e l
o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r u n i v e r s i t y . In f a c t , o f th e e ig h te e n
p e o p le who c o u ld be c o n s id e re d in one way o r a n o th e r as
i n s t i t u t e s t a f f f o r th e se p ro g ram s, only f i v e were f u l l
tim e employees o f th e U n i v e r s i t y d u rin g th e norm al sch o o l
y e a r . The fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n o f th e r o l e o f th e v a rio u s
p e r s o n n e l w i l l make no f u r t h e r m ention o f i n d i v i d u a l p e r
s o n a l i t i e s o t h e r th an th o se a lr e a d y in tr o d u c e d .
A p a r t i c u l a r s t r e n g t h o f t h i s program was t h a t i t
b ro u g h t t o g e t h e r s e p a r a t e a p p lie d academ ic d i s c i p l i n e s in
a way t h a t b ro ad en ed and r e i n f o r c e d th e p o t e n t i a l v a lu e o f
b o th . One does n o t u s u a l l y t h i n k o f I n s t r u c t i o n a l Tech
nology as a v e h i c l e f o r a p p lie d s o c io lo g y . I n s t r u c t i o n a l
T echnology, as u t i l i z e d h e r e , em phasized methods o f p e r c e p -
t i o n , and n o t th e more f a m i l i a r d i s p la y o f i n f o r m a t i o n .
M ONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY
8:30
8:45
9:00
9:15
9:30
9:45
Sociology
o f
E ducation
Sociology
o f
E d u catio n
Sociology
o f
E d u catio n
Sociology
o f
E d u catio n
Sociology
o f
E ducation
1 0 :0 0 Break Break Break Break Break
10:15
10:30
10:45
1 1 :0 0
11:15
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I n t e g r a t i v e
Seminar
A n a ly sis and
E v a lu a tio n
Seminar
A n a ly sis and
E v a lu a tio n
Seminar
A n a ly sis and
E v a lu a tio n
Seminar
A n a ly sis and
E v a lu a tio n
Seminar
12 :00 Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch Lunch
1 :0 0
1:15
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S p e c ia l
S tu d ie s in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Technology
EdIT 690 - 8mm
S p e c ia l
S tu d ie s in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Technology
EdIT 690
S p e c ia l
S tu d ie s in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Technology
EdIT 690
S p e c ia l
S tu d ie s in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Technology
EdIT 690
S p e c ia l
S tu d ie s in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Technology
EdIT 690
M ONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY
2 :0 0 Team P lan n in g Team P lan n in g Team P lan n in g Team P lan n in g
Documentary-
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F i e l d Work F i e l d Work F i e l d Work F i e l d Work
Viewing
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f o r Weekend
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•v j
75
When u t i l i z e d t h i s way te ch n o lo g y o f e l e c t r o n i c media can
have a g e rm in a tin g i n f l u e n c e on th e p ro c e s s o f s o c i o l o g i c a l
d is c o v e r y . This i s im p o r ta n t to p o i n t out b ecause i t i s
easy to see th e s e i n s t i t u t e s as l o o s e l y o rg a n iz e d co u rses
in urban s o c io lo g y w ith a few e l e c t r o n i c a c c e s s o r i e s , and
to c o n s id e r th e s t a f f a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e e l e c t r o n i c media
a s p e c t o f th e program as p la y in g only a s u p p o r tiv e r o l e .
I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s id e r th e s t a f f s o f each segment o f
th e program (media te ch n o lo g y and a p p lie d s o c io lo g y ) s e p a
r a t e l y , b u t t h e r e was n o t much o f a d em arcatio n betw een th e
two as th e i n s t i t u t e s u n fo ld e d . This i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g
when we c o n s id e r how d eep ly em b ro ile d P r o f e s s o r M artin has
been in th e w o rld o f e l e c t r o n i c media in th e S outhern
C a l i f o r n i a a r e a f o r a number o f y e a r s .
There were n in e i n d i v i d u a l s on th e s t a f f o f th e
i n s t i t u t e s in w hat i s term ed above a p p lie d s o c io lo g y .
There were a c t u a l l y t h r e e s e p a r a te f u n c tio n s in th e a p p lie d
s o c io lo g y a s p e c t o f th e program . F i r s t th e r e was f u n c tio n
o f o r g a n iz in g and d i r e c t i n g th e s o c i o l o g i c a l themes o f th e
program . A side from p r e - i n s t i t u t e p la n n in g , t h i s f u n c tio n
was u s u a l l y m a n if e s te d in th e s e m in a rs . The d i r e c t i o n o f
sem in ars o f t h i s many i n d i v i d u a l s tow ard d e s i r e d o b j e c t i v e s
i s no jo b f o r a m ateu rs. I f p r e s s e d tow ard p re d e te r m in e d
o u t l i n e o f s u b j e c t m a t t e r to o h a r d , th e group can r e c o i l
and r e s i s t th e d i r e c t i o n o f d i s c u s s i o n , and end by p r o
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j e c t i n g re sen tm e n t o f t h i s k in d o f e x p e rie n c e to th e e n t i r e
program . I f allow ed to develop w ith o u t enough d i r e c t i o n ,
such a group can be c o m p letely dom inated by a few s tr o n g
p e r s o n a l i t i e s who may move d is c u s s io n tow ard i r r e l e v a n c y .
Since a prim e o b j e c t i v e o f th e program was to s e t
a s id e r o l e c a t e g o r i e s and r o l e props in o rd e r to e x p e rie n c e
e d u c a tio n problem s from d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s , an i n d i v i d
u a l le a d e r o f th e sem inar was n o t always easy to r e c o g n iz e .
The b e s t sem inars were t r u e exchanges in which t e a c h e r s ,
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , s t a f f and h ig h s ch o o l-ag e y o u th a l l v o ic ed
t h e i r p o i n t s o f view. There was s t a f f , on th e o th e r hand,
which were more o r le s s s p e c i f i c a l l y charged by v i r t u e o f
t r a i n i n g a n d /o r i n t e r e s t to give the sem inars d i r e c t i o n ,
e s p e c i a l l y as each s e s s i o n took shape i n th e opening min
u t e s . B esides P r o f e s s o r s M artin and Hadwin m entioned p r e
v io u s ly (b o th w ith much e x p e rie n c e w ith sem inar t e a c h i n g ) ,
th e r e were two o t h e r s t a f f p e rso n s f u l f i l l i n g t h i s fu n c tio n .
One o f th e s e i n d i v i d u a l s was th e e d u c a tio n and program con
s u l t a n t f o r th e P a c i f i c Southwest Region o f th e A n ti-
Defam ation League o f B 'n a i B ; r i t h . The o th e r was an a c t i v e
community l e a d e r in M exican-American communities o f c e n t r a l
C a l i f o r n i a . A s t a f f e x p e r t on s u b - c u l t u r a l language c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c s a lso se rv e d to h e lp sem inar d i s c u s s i o n s , b e
s id e s h i s s p e c i a l t y p r e s e n t a t i o n s to th e g ro u p .
The rem aining fo u r p e rso n s in v o lv e d in t h i s phase
77
o f th e i n s t i t u t e ( a p p lie d so c io lo g y ) f u l f i l l e d th e fu n c
t i o n s o f s u p e r v i s i n g th e two groups o f f i v e Community
C o o rd in a to rs from M exican-American and Negro a re a s o f
S outhern C a l i f o r n i a s t u d i e s . These were s e p a r a te f u n c tio n s
and had s e p a r a t e s t a f f s o f two p e rs o n s each. These p a r t i c
u l a r s t a f f members worked over th e d e t a i l s o f pro p o sed
f i e l d p la n n in g w ith C o o rd in a to rs and were p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n
s i b l e f o r C o o rd in a to r o r i e n t a t i o n b o th b e fo re th e i n s t i t u t e
began and d u rin g th e f i r s t weeks.
Of th e seven s t a f f members a s s o c i a t e d in th e media
a s p e c t o f th e program , two ( P r o f e s s o r s P e r r i n and C o u llia r d
m entioned above) were in v o lv e d m ainly in o r i e n t i n g the
group to th e p h ilo s o p h y and te c h n iq u e s o f th e use o f v a r
io u s e l e c t r o n i c m edia. A side from sim ple o p e r a tio n o f
m otion p i c t u r e and s t i l l cameras and ta p e r e c o r d e r s , i n s t i
t u t e members had to know som ething o f th e fundam entals o f
c o m p o sitio n , o r g a n i z a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l , s p o n ta n e ity o f s i t
u a t i o n s , and, v ery im p o r ta n t, o f th e p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s o f
f i e l d docum entary. There were two g ra d u a te s tu d e n t s in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Technology a s s i s t i n g th e program in th e day-
to -d a y m a tte r s in v o lv in g e l e c t r o n i c s . Taking e v e r y th in g
i n t o a c c o u n t, e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r th e f i r s t two w eeks, th e se
two men were th e most in d is p e n s a b le two s t a f f members in
th e s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a tio n o f th e program . A p a r t i a l l i s t o f
d u t i e s in c lu d e d :
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s e t up and m ain ten an ce o f equipm ent f o r r e c o r d in g
s e m i n a r s ;
o p e r a t i o n o f equipm ent f o r view ing f i e l d m a t e r i a l ;
guidance in p u t t i n g p r o d u c tio n s t o g e t h e r ;
m inor equipm ent r e p a i r ;
r e p r o d u c tio n o f team media p r e s e n t a t i o n .
In a d d i t i o n to th e two g ra d u a te s t u d e n t s , a commer
c i a l a r t i s t worked p a r t - t i m e w ith th e program to a s s i s t in
th e media p r o d u c tio n . One c l e r k was h i r e d to h a n d le and
keep t r a c k o f e l e c t r o n i c g e a r . The rem ain in g two s t a f f
members c o n s i s t e d o f two s e c r e t a r i e s who n o rm a lly s e rv e as
th e s e c r e t a r i a l s t a f f o f th e D epartm ent o f S o c ia l and
P h i l o s o p h i c a l F o u n d atio n o f E d u c a tio n , h a n d lin g b o th a s
signm ents d u rin g th e e ig h t-w e e k p e r i o d .
CHAPTER V
MEASURING DEVICES
I t was m entioned in th e s e c t i o n " L i m i t a t i o n s " in
C h ap ter I t h a t one o f th e shortcom ings o f t h i s stu d y was
th e crude n a t u r e o f some o f th e m easuring d e v ic e s . Not
o n ly was t h e r e a m ix tu re o f w id e ly r e s p e c t e d s t a n d a r d i z e d
t e s t s and te c h n iq u e s m atched f o r c o r r e l a t i o n w ith make
s h i f t d e v ic e s p u t t o g e t h e r in a few d ay s, b u t , given th e
b a s i c im petus f o r th e s tu d y , i t was th e s t a n d a r d i z e d m eth
ods which were l e a s t im p o r ta n t, and th e c r u d e s t d e v ice s
which were a p p lie d to th e most s t r a t e g i c a r e a s o f th e study.
The s c h e d u lin g o f th e i n s t i t u t e was a f a c t w hich c o u ld n o t
be m a n ip u la te d . By th e tim e n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r s tu d y in g th e
i n s t i t u t e re a c h e d th e commitment s t a g e , th e r e were about
th r e e weeks l e f t in which to develop and f i n a l i z e a s t r a t
egy f o r th e s tu d y . Two k in d s o f m easuring d e v ice s had to
be r e a d ie d :
1. D evices to h e lp d eterm in e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
i n s t i t u t e members; to m easure some o f th e in -
t
d ependent v a r i a b l e s which may f i g u r e in d i f f e r
e n t i a l re sp o n se to c r o s s - c u l t u r a l c o n f ro n ta tio n .
79
80
2. D evices to i n d i c a t e r e a c t i o n to c r o s s - c u l t u r a l
e x p e r ie n c e ; to measure re s p o n s e s .
For th e f i r s t c a te g o ry th e r e were s e v e r a l s ta n d a r d
t e s t s from which to choose. C o n s id e ra tio n was given to th e
M innesota M u ltip h a s ic P e r s o n a l i t y I n v e n to r y , th e M innesota
T eacher A t t i t u d e I n v e n to r y , th e C a l i f o r n i a E S cale t e s t
f o r e th n o c e n tr is m , th e Rokeach D S c a le t e s t f o r r i g i d i t y
and c lo s e - m in d e d n e s s , th e Osgood Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l
te c h n iq u e . The f i r s t t h r e e were d e c id e d a g a i n s t f o r s e v
e r a l r e a s o n s : In th e case o f th e MMPI and th e MTAI, p r i o r
s t u d i e s had n o t shown s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s between
s c o r e s and v a r io u s c u l t u r e d is ta n c e f a c t o r s m easured by
r a p p o r t s c a l e s and p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n , as w i l l be r e
c a l l e d from Survey o f th e L i t e r a t u r e . The C a l i f o r n i a E
S cale can be o b ta in e d o n ly by p u rc h a se from th e p u b l i s h e r ,
and i t was f a r from c e r t a i n t h a t m a t e r i a l n e c e s s a r y to
a d m in is te r th e t e s t could be r e c e iv e d by th e tim e th e i n
s t i t u t e began.
The Rokeach D S c a le i s p u b lis h e d in a book by i t s
d e v e lo p e r (1960) ; th e a u th o r w aives th e form al and time
consuming p e rm is s io n p ro c e d u re s f o r l i m i t e d use in academic
r e s e a r c h . O sgood's Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l te c h n iq u e i s n o t
a s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t , b u t a s t a n d a r d i z e d method o f m easuring
th e meaning o f words and p h ra s e s to d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s ,
and can e a s i l y be a d ap te d to s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h p ro b lem s.
81
R ea c tio n f a c t o r s were m easured w ith a s i n g l e q u e s
t i o n n a i r e . A side from th e fra n k r e a l i t y o f l i m i t e d p r e p a
r a t i o n tim e , th e s i m p l i c i t y o f t h i s d ev ice was s u g g e s te d
by a n o th e r f u n c t i o n - - t h e advantage o f p o sin g a minimum o f
a t t e n t i o n on th e i n s t i t u t e as a r e s e a r c h v e h i c l e ; som ething
which was n o t m entioned in p r e - i n s t i t u t e l i t e r a t u r e , and
som ething which c o u ld have e a s i l y become a so u rce o f i r r i
t a t i o n to i n s t i t u t e p a r t i c i p a n t s . The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was
d e sig n e d to m easure s e p a r a te ty p es o f r e a c t i o n and w i l l be
d is c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r th r e e d i f f e r e n t
i n d i c e s .
The Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l Device
The Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l device.vemployed i n t h i s
s tu d y r e p r e s e n t e d a s i g n i f i c a n t d e p a r tu r e from th e sem an tic
d i f f e r e n t i a l model d eveloped by Osgood. This w i l l be e x
p l a i n e d below; f i r s t th e th e o ry and d e s c r i p t i o n o f O sgood's
te c h n iq u e sh o u ld be e x p la in e d .
The b a s i c assum ption u n d e rly in g t h i s te c h n iq u e is
t h a t m e a n i n g - - th a t i s to s a y , th e system o f complex o v e r t
and c o v e r t re sp o n se s to c o n v e n tio n a lly c a t e g o r i z e d s t i m u l i
— i s a th r e e d im e n sio n al p s y c h o lo g ic a l f u n c tio n . These are
an e v a l u a t i v e d im en sio n , a p o te n cy dim ension, and an a c
t i v i t y dim ension. A f u r t h e r assum ption i s t h a t t h i s f u n c
t i o n can be r e v e a le d in th e case o f s p e c i f i c sem a n tic p h e
nomena th ro u g h a p r o f i l e o f m easurements o f th e phenomena
82
by a s e r i e s o f p o l a r i z e d a d j e c t i v e s . Osgood adm its t h a t
th e s e t h r e e dim ensions do n o t r e p r e s e n t th e t o t a l i t y o f
what he c a l l s "se m a n tic s p a c e ," o r th e e n t i r e range o f
resp o n se to s em a n tic s t i m u l i , b u t t h a t th ey a re r e p r e s e n t a
t i v e enough so t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t i n d i c a t i o n can be g ain ed
o f , n o t what th in g s mean, b u t "how" th e y mean. That i s to
sa y , measurement o f th e se th r e e dim ensions can i n d i c a t e the
n a tu r e of re sp o n se to words and p h r a s e s .
In d e v elo p in g th e d e v ic e , Osgood was a tte m p tin g to
h e lp move th e stu d y o f meaning away from s u b j e c t i v e a n a ly
s i s and tow ard o b j e c t i v e measurement by e s t a b l i s h i n g mea
s u r a b le f a c t o r s which prove re a so n a b ly c o n s i s t e n t . B en o it
does an e x c e l l e n t and e x h a u s tiv e job o f e x p o sin g th e p r e
lim in a r y t h e o r e t i c a l work done by o th e r s on which Osgood
b a se d h i s a ssu m p tio n s. The p s y c h o lo g i c a l t h e o r i e s o f how
s t i m u l u s - s i g n s g e t a tta c h e d to s t i m u l u s - o b j e c t s , and how
th e form er comes to e l i c i t th e l a t t e r in m ental p ro c e s s e s
o f c a t e g o r i z a t i o n and r e a c t i o n was summarized by B enoit
from a much lo n g e r d is c u s s io n o f Osgood in th e s e term s:
[Take th e ] . . . concept Negro. A c h i l d g r a d u a lly
le a r n s t h a t p eo p le who have dark s k in s are c a l l e d
"N egro." However, he soon le a r n s t h a t a good su n tan
does n o t make a Negro. There are o t h e r dim ensions
in v o lv e d , such as f a c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , h a i r p r o p
e r t i e s , and so f o r t h . In t h i s c a s e , a c h i l d would
have a co n cep t o f "N egro," b u t a cc o rd in g to R h in e 's
d e f i n i t i o n o f a t t i t u d e , no a t t i t u d e toward N egroes.
An a t t i t u d e in v o lv e s an e v a l u a t i v e d im en sio n , b u t as
s t a t e d so f a r , th e concept "Negro" has no e v a lu a tiv e
dim ension.
Suppose th e c h i l d has an u n p le a s a n t e x p e rie n c e
83
w ith N egroes, o r h e a rs a d v erse in fo r m a tio n about them.
Now, h i s concept may c o n s i s t o f:
dark s k in
kinky h a i r
t h i c k l i p s
d r a w l, and
bad
With th e e v a l u a t i v e dim ension in c lu d e d in th e con
c e p t , he now has an a t t i t u d e . I t can be e a s i l y seen
t h a t th e sem a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l i s w e ll s u i t e d to
measure a t t i t u d e s as d e f in e d in t h i s manner.
(105-106)
I t can be seen from such d is c u s s io n s t h a t Osgood's
te c h n iq u e is a c t u a l l y more o f an a t t i t u d e s c a l e th a n a
m easuring dev ice o f meaning. Because i t goes beyond con
s c io u s aw areness in e l i c i t i n g r e s p o n s e , how ever, i t mea
s u re s more than what is u s u a l l y d e fin e d as " a t t i t u d e , " and
th e te c h n iq u e has one im p o r ta n t advantage over o th e r a t t i
tude i n d i c a t o r s : In most a t t i t u d e s c a l e s i t i s c o m p le tely
obvious to th e re s p o n d e n t th e n a tu r e o f a t t i t u d e s b e in g
i n d i c a t e d . In s i t u a t i o n s where c e r t a i n re sp o n se s may be
d isa p p ro v e d o f o r d i s a p p o i n t i n g to a u t h o r i t i e s doing t e s t
in g , i t i s a sim ple m a tte r w ith th e s e s c a l e s to c o n tr iv e
i n s i n c e r e re s p o n s e s . With th e Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l t e c h
n iq u e , u n le s s th e re s p o n d e n t has had e x p e rie n c e in a d m in is
t e r i n g o r s c o r in g th e t e s t , i t i s n o t a t a l l obvious in
what way s p e c i f i c re sp o n se s i n d i c a t e a t t i t u d e o r th e e v a l u
a t i o n o f c o n c e p ts . B en o it c i t e s s e v e r a l s t u d i e s in which
th e te c h n iq u e was s e l e c t e d because i t was seen as d i f f i c u l t
to "se e thro u g h " (8 0 -8 1 ).
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Osgood g iv e s s e v e r a l examples o f how i n d i v i d u a l
t e s t s can be c o n s t r u c t e d in h is m ajor work. For each o f
th e th r e e dim ensions Osgood l i s t s groups o f p o l a r i z e d ad
j e c t i v e s which have been f a c t o r a n aly z e d f o r c o n s is te n c y .
In o t h e r w rods, d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f a d j e c t i v e s are to be used
from e s t a b l i s h e d l i s t s to measure the s e p a r a t e dim ensions
in re sp o n se to each c o n ce p t. He recommends te n s e t s o f
a d j e c t i v e s f o r each c o n c e p t, and as many c o n cep ts can be
in c lu d e d in a t e s t as d e s i r e d , b u t s in c e each co n cep t must
be e v a lu a te d a g a i n s t so many s e t s , i f th e number o f con
c e p ts i s more th a n te n to f i f t e e n , a ru s h in g e f f e c t may s e t
in to i n v a l i d a t e r e s u l t s .
To re sp o n d , one m erely i n d i c a t e s how c lo s e to each
end o f p o l a r i z e d f a c t o r s he r a t e s a c o n cep t by p l a c i n g a
mark in one o f seven s p a c e s . The s c a l e i s u s u a l l y d e sig n e d
in th e fo llo w in g fo rm at:
SCHOOL
Happy______ :______ :______ :______ :_______ :______:Sad
Hard________:______ :______ :______:_______:______:S o f t
Slow________:______ :______ :______ :_______:______: F a s t
The p r o f i l e o f arran g em en t o f th e s e marks th e n i s an i n d i
c a t i o n o f th e way th e t h r e e dim ensions o f sem a n tic meaning
i s o rg a n iz e d in th e mind o f th e r e s p o n d e n t. Such a
85
measurem ent o f resp o n se to se m a n tic phenomena has r e a l l y
two p r o p e r t i e s :
1. A d i r e c t i o n o f r e s p o n s e , and,
2 . an i n t e n s i t y o f re sp o n se in t h a t d i r e c t i o n .
The S em antic D i f f e r e n t i a l method o f m easuring re s p o n se th e n
m easures c o n n o ta tiv e m eaning, o r what Osgood c a l l s "p sy c h o
l o g i c a l m ean in g ," r a t h e r th an l i n g u i s t i c meaning.
The Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l d ev ice used f o r t h i s
s tu d y c o n s i s t e d o f f i f t e e n c o n c e p ts , s i x o f which were used
as "d e c o y s” to g iv e p e r s p e c t i v e to th e re s p o n se to the
m easured item s so t h a t a rh y th m ic b la n k e t re sp o n se p a t t e r n
c o u ld be av o id ed . (Osgood does n o t d is c u s s t h i s p r a c t i c e
and a p p a r e n tly does n o t th in k i t i s n e c e s s a r y ; th e r e
s e a r c h e r c o n s id e r e d decoys to be im p o rta n t in t h i s p a r t i c u
l a r s i t u a t i o n . ) The m easured item s were:
1. "TEENAGERS." This was s e l e c t e d in o r d e r to
m easure th e way seco n d ary sc h o o l s tu d e n t s are seen by r e
sp o n d en ts w ith r a c i a l and e t h n i c f a c t o r s h e ld c o n s t a n t ; to
b u i l d i n t o th e re sp o n se p r o f i l e an i n d i c a t i o n o f uncon
s c io u s a n x ie ty tow ard young p e o p le in g e n e r a l . A lthough
th e co n cep ts were n o t f a c t o r a n a ly z e d f o r stu d y in d e p e n
d e n t l y , th e a d d i t i o n a l w e ig h t o f t h i s re sp o n se p a t t e r n
( i . e . , to " t e e n a g e r s " in g e n e r a l) was seen as a l e g i t i m a t e
c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e and h e l p f u l in u n d e rs ta n d in g problem s o f
s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r r a p p o r t in m in o r ity - p o v e r ty s c h o o ls .
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2. THE "NATURAL" HAIR STYLE FOR NEGRO WOMEN. Even
f i v e months a f t e r th e d e sig n o f th e d e v ic e , th e use o f t h i s
co n cep t as a measurement o f a n x ie ty tow ard th e a s s e r t i o n o f
Negro c u l t u r a l s e p a r a te n e s s i s d i f f i c u l t to j u s t i f y . At
th e time o f th e d e sig n o f the d e v ice i t seemed t h a t th e
" n a t u r a l " h a i r s t y l e f o r Negroes r e p r e s e n t e d to a s i g n i f i
c a n t p e rc e n ta g e o f w h ite s a k in d o f impudent s ta te m e n t o f
t h e i r c u l t u r a l sem i-autonom y. In s i t u a t i o n s where c u l t u r e
d is ta n c e was a f a c t o r in communication betw een young
n e g ro e s o f low income f a m i l i e s and sch o o l p e r s o n n e l , w h ite
and N egro, i t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t an a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n
m ight be r e f l e c t e d to t h i s co n cep t in th e d e v ic e . I t may
have been a sound d e c is io n a t th e tim e , b u t in th e mean
tim e , " n a t u r a l " h a i r s t y l i n g has been ad o p ted by r e s p e c te d
p u b l i c p e r s o n a l i t i e s , and m id d le - c la s s Negro y o u th have
ad o p ted the p r a c t i c e as much, o r even more, th a n more c u l
t u r a l l y d i s t a n t (from th e m iddle c l a s s ) g h e tto d w e lle r s .
I f t h i s co n cep t i s to make any sen s e as a m easurement o f
s u b - c u l t u r a l m is u n d e r s ta n d in g , th e h i s t o r i c a l c o n te x t o f
Summer, 196 8 must be k e p t in mind.
3. "ROCK AND ROLL" MUSIC. A d m itte d ly t h i s con
c e p t does n o t f i t i n t o th e p a t t e r n o f s u b - c u l t u r a l d i f f e r -
ences in any u n ifo rm way. The term i s n o t always conceived
as a p a r t i c u l a r l y Negro e n te r ta i n m e n t form; b o th E lv is
P r e s l e y and th e B e a tle s were once a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h i s
87
term . The f a c t t h a t t h i s term has g r a d u a lly s h i f t e d to a
la b e l o f re c o rd e d music aimed p r i m a r i l y a t Negro youth i s
l o s t on many a d u lts u n f a m i l i a r w ith and u n i n t e r e s t e d i n ,
th e e v o lu tio n o f th e music o f y outh in th e U n ited S t a t e s .
I t was f e l t t h a t even where t h i s was th e c a s e , c o n te x t
c r e a te d by th e o th e r item s would i n d i c a t e to most i n s t i t u t e
members what k in d o f music was r e f e r r e d t o . Even in cases
o f com plete u n f a m i l i a r i t y w ith you th m usic, th e term was
ip so f a c to re c o g n iz e d as c u l t u r a l l y d i s t a n t from th e r e
sp ondent.
4. ACADEMIC STANDARDS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF DIS
ADVANTAGED COMMUNITIES. No e x p la n a tio n accompanied t h i s
item as to w h eth er i t r e f e r r e d to academic s ta n d a rd s e x h ib
i t e d by s tu d e n t s in secondary s ch o o ls in m in o r ity - p o v e r ty
com m unities, o r th e p r o j e c t i o n o f m id d le - c la s s o r i e n t e d
academic s ta n d a r d s i n t o such s e t t i n g s . I t was f e l t t h a t
th e am biguity was, f o r r e s e a r c h p u r p o s e s , t o l e r a b l e , s i n c e ,
e i t h e r way, th e measurement was th e amount o f empathy f e l t
f o r th e m in o r ity - p o v e r ty s tu d e n t in a m id d le - c la s s o r i e n t e d
s c h o o l .
5. TEENAGE GANGS. This item was s e l e c t e d to i n d i
c a te r e a c t i o n to th e in fo rm a l power s t r u c t u r e o f some s e g
ments o f th e young male p o p u la tio n o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty com
m u n itie s . Lack o f u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e dynamics o f the
s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f a s u b - c u l t u r e may be a f u n c tio n o f the
88
m o n o -c u ltu r a l s ta n d a r d s o f American s c h o o ls . I f th e im
p e tu s f o r gang fo rm a tio n i s n o t u n d e rs to o d by e d u c a tio n
p e r s o n n e l , th e n a sample o f such i n d i v i d u a l s s h o u ld te n d to
show a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n to t h i s co n cep t.
6 . COMMUNITY AROUND M Y SCHOOL (OF ASSIGNMENT).
The s e n s a t i o n o f s tr a n g e n e s s and incom prehension o f c u l
t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a community m ight be r e f l e c t e d in
th e amount o f a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n to such a community as mea
s u re d by th e Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l te c h n iq u e . This sh o u ld
h o ld t r u e f o r b o th th o s e who have had no o p p o r tu n ity to
comprehend l o c a l c u l t u r a l r e a l i t y , and f o r th o se to whom
such r e a l i t y r e p r e s e n t s som ething th e y h a v e, in a c u l t u r a l
s e n s e , moved from , and are t r y i n g to p u t b eh in d them. The
s ta te m e n t t h a t one " i d e n t i f i e s w ith th e community," l i k e
any s ta t e m e n t, may w e ll be m o tiv a te d more by i d e o l o g i c a l
f a s h io n th an by any r e a l c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y .
7. THE SPEECH HABITS OF DISADVANTAGED YOUTH. This
i s one o f th e most i n t e r e s t i n g a re a s o f c u l t u r a l in co m p at
i b i l i t y betw een r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f d iv e r g e n t s u b - c u l t u r e s
in American e d u c a tio n . Nowhere a re th e m o n o -c u ltu r a l s t a n
dards more b l a t a n t l y conspicuous th an in th e r e a c t i o n o f
e d u c a tio n p e r s o n n e l , e s p e c i a l l y th o s e whose backgrounds are
fir m ly ro o te d in th e m i d d l e - c l a s s , to speech h a b i t s o f
m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th . This w r i t e r i s n o t r e f e r r i n g
m erely to " i n c o r r e c t " o r n o n - s ta n d a r d E n g l is h , b u t to th e
89
methods o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , co n cep ts o f c a u s a l i t y , and a
whole range o f s o c i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s r e f l e c t e d in speech
which a re q u i t e d i s t i n c t from c o r e - c u l t u r e p a t t e r n s o f e x
p e c t a t i o n . The problem h e re is t h a t resp o n se to th e con
c e p t o f speech h a b i t s is n o t th e same th in g as resp o n se to
th e speech h a b i t s th e m s e lv e s . The form er may o r may n o t
s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e f l e c t th e l a t t e r .
8 . DRESS STANDARDS FOR STUDENTS. I t was a p p a re n t
to th e r e s e a r c h e r a f t e r d is c u s s in g th e Sem antic D i f f e r e n
t i a l d e v ice used in t h i s s tu d y w ith r e s p o n d e n ts , t h a t some
o f th e re s p o n d e n ts m is re a d the c o n cep t as DRESS STANDARDS
OF STUDENTS. What was in te n d e d was a resp o n se to th e id e a
o f e d u c a tio n p e rs o n n e l m a in ta in in g a s e t o f d re s s r e g u l a
ti o n s f o r seco n d ary sch o o l s t u d e n t s , and more s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
how c o m fo rta b le th ey f e l t in doing so . The th e o ry b e h in d
t h i s ite m was t h a t i f c u l t u r a l l y i n f l u e n c e d d re ss-n o rm d i f
fe r e n c e s betw een e d u c a to rs and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e com
m unity were seen as some k in d o f d e r e l i c t i o n in th e l a t t e r ,
a f e e l i n g o f d e f e n s iv e n e s s , and t h e r e f o r e a n x ie t y , c o n c e rn
ing p r o j e c t e d d re s s s ta n d a r d s would be i n d i c a t e d in th e
d e v ic e . The m is u n d e rs ta n d in g which tu r n e d up may o r may
n o t have i n v a l i d a t e d th e item .
9. THE AVERAGE PARENT IN THE COMMUNITY OF M Y
SCHOOL (OF ASSIGNMENT). This item was added to b o l s t e r th e
measurement o f i n d i v i d u a l educator-com m unity r a p p o r t . The
90
community, as u t i l i z e d i n ite m No. 6 can be q u i t e remote as
a c o n c e p t, and p e rh a p s e a s i e r to i d e a l i z e th an f a c e - t o - f a c e
e n c o u n te rs w ith community r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .
The s i x "decoy" item s were s e l e c t e d so as to b reak
th e c h ain o f a t t e n t i o n t o th e community o f a ssig n m e n t, and
o f f e r some item s o f com parison to encourage re sp o n d e n ts to
be more th o u g h tf u l in r e a c t i n g to s i t u a t i o n s in s p e c i f i c
c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s . They were:
1. THE COMMUNITY WHERE I W AS RAISED.
2. PUNCTUALITY.
3. STUDENT PROTESTS AGAINST SCHOOL POLICY.
4. UNSTRUCTURED APPROACH TO GROUP LEARNING.
5. M Y ADOLESCENT RELATIVES AND ADOLESCENT CHILDREN
OF GOOD FRIENDS.
6 . CRITICISM OF M E BY STUDENTS.
The a d j e c t i v e s s e l e c t e d from O sgood's l i s t p u r p o r te d to
measure th e e v a l u a t i v e dim ension w ere,
p l e a s a n t -- d i s t a s t e f u l ,
v a lu a b le -- w o r t h l e s s ,
f a i r -- u n f a i r .
For th e p o te n cy dim en sio n , th o se s e l e c t e d w ere,
s tr o n g --w eak,
deep -- s h a llo w ,
harmonious -- d i s s o n a n t ,
and f o r th e a c t i v i t y d im en sio n , th o se s e l e c t e d w e re,
91
a c t i v e -- p a s s i v e ,
h o t c o ld ,
r e la x e d -- t e n s e ,
calm ing -- e x c i t i n g .
The d ev ice was accompanied by a s e t o f i n s t r u c t i o n s
m o d ifie d from Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l i n s t r u c t i o n s a p p e a rin g
in D e lb e r t C. M i l l e r ' s Handbook o f R esearch Design (David
McKay Company, I n c . , New York, 1964). This d e v ice and the
Rokeach t e s t d e s c r ib e d below were g iv e n on th e second day
o f th e i n s t i t u t e , about one h o u r a p a r t .
S c o rin g a Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l type t e s t i s a
s im p le , i f b u lk y , m a tte r o f adding up number w e ig h ts given
to each o f th e seven p la c e s betw een th e two a d j e c t i v e s .
For each o f th e th r e e d im e n sio n s, th e n , th e r e i s a w e ig h t
f o r each o f th e a d j e c t i v e p a i r s o f t h a t dim ension f o r each
o f th e c o n cep ts m easured. The numbers i n th e s c a l e can
run e i t h e r way. In t h i s d e v ic e , f o r exam ple, most o f th e
t e n a d j e c t i v e s s e t s ran from l e f t to r i g h t .
p l e a s a n t 1 : 2 : 5 : 4 : 5 : 6 : 7 d i s t a s t e f u l
However, so t h a t i n t e n s i t y o f the re sp o n se was s c o r e d con
s i s t e n t l y i n th e same n u m e ric a l d i r e c t i o n , t h r e e o f the
s e t s were s o c r e d by co u n tin g w e ig h ts from th e o p p o s ite side,
a c t i v e 7 : 6 : 5 : 4 : 3: 2 : 1 p a s s i v e .
92
As th e d a ta began to be e x t r a c t e d from th e t e s t
s h e e t s , a sh o rtco m in g i n th e device as a p p lie d to t h i s
s tu d y became a p p a r e n t. The device i n d i c a t e s how th e th r e e
dim ensions o f r e a c t i o n to concepts b a la n c e and c o u n te r one
a n o th e r to produce a p r o f i l e of r e a c t i o n . This stu d y a t
tem pted to use th e d ev ice to i n d i c a t e , i n r e l a t i v e te rm s ,
how p a s s iv e o r anxious i n s t i t u t e members f e l t about item s
a s s o c i a t e d w ith y o u th c u l t u r e in m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communi
t i e s o f American c i t i e s . The p o te n cy and a c t i v i t y dimen
s io n s showed i n t e r e s t i n g v a r i a n c e , and seemed to be r e t u r n
in g th e i n d i c a t i o n s s o u g h t; th e e v a l u a t i v e dim en sio n , how
e v e r , f i l l i n g i n th e rem ain d er o f th e m easu rab le sem a n tic
s p a c e , te n d ed to n e u t r a l i z e th e v a r ia n c e of th e o th e r two:
As th e p o te n cy and a c t i v i t y dim ensions i n c r e a s e d , th e e v a l
u a t i v e dim ension te n d e d to d e c r e a s e . This s i t u a t i o n was
c o r r e c t e d by sim ply o m itti n g th e e v a l u a t i v e dim ension from
f i n a l t a b u l a t i o n , and s c o r in g th e d ev ice as th e t o t a l
w e ig h t o f i n t e n s i t y o f resp o n se to th e item s m easured in
term s o f th e p o te n c y and a c t i v i t y d im en sio n s. This may
have d i s q u a l f i e d th e d e v ice as a t r u e Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l ,
b u t th e m o d if ic a tio n was c o n s id e re d n e c e s s a ry f o r t h i s
p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . This l e f t seven s e t s o f a d j e c t i v e s
t a b u l a t e d , so t h a t i f an i n d i v i d u a l i n d i c a t e d e x a c t l y in
th e c e n t e r o f th e s e t s f o r a l l item s th e t o t a l w e ig h t f o r
t h a t i n d i v i d u a l would be " 4 n f o r each o f th e seven s e t s f o r
93
each o f th e n in e m easured ite m s ; a w e ig h t o f tw e n ty - e ig h t
f o r each ite m , and a t o t a l w eig h t o f 252 in th e d e v ic e .
(The r e t u r n e d a r i t h m e t i c mean was 2 73.)
The Rokeach D S cale
M ilto n Rokeach, p s y c h o lo g i s t a t M ichigan S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y , has been c o n d u ctin g s y s te m a tic stu d y f o r n e a r l y
two decades in th e a r e a o f how man a c c e p ts and o rg a n iz e s in
h i s mind i d e o l o g i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l m a t e r i a l . Rokeach
began h i s stu d y p ro b in g i n t o what appeared to be c o n s i s t e n t
a s p e c ts o f th e phenomena o f p r e j u d i c e and dogmatism.
S t a r t i n g w ith e c c e n t r i c m a n if e s t a tio n s o f p r e j u d i c e and
d o g m a tism --rec o rd s from th e Nazi e r a in Germany, s ta te m e n ts
by members o f e x t r e m i s t groups in th e U n ite d S t a t e s --
Rokeach d eveloped s e v e r a l v e r s io n s o f a t e s t which he con
te n d s can measure much l e s s i n t e n s e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f th e se
phenomena which may be e x h i b i t e d by "a v e ra g e " p e o p le .
In h i s m ajor work (68) , Rokeach does n o t pay much
a t t e n t i o n to h i s t o r i c a l t r a d i t i o n , changing economic p r e s
s u r e s , o r o t h e r , b ro a d ly s p e a k in g , s o c i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s i n
th e phenomena o f p r e j u d i c e and dogmatism. As f a r as
Rokeach i s co n ce rn e d , th e s e s o c i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s may be
im p o rta n t in u n d e rs ta n d in g how p r e j u d i c e and dogmatism
o p e r a te in a s o c i e t y , b u t th e im p e tu s, th e r e a l so u rce o f
th e phenomena, i s to be found in th e p s y c h o lo g i c a l make-up
o f i n d i v i d u a l s . A ccording to t h i s th e o r y , th e s o c i o l o g i c a l
94
m a tr ix o f p r e j u d i c e and dogmatism m erely g u id es te n d e n c ie s
which are d ev elo p ed , n o t so much by th e c o n d itio n o f s o c i a l
i z a t i o n , b u t by th e i n d i v i d u a l resp o n se to th e c o n d itio n s
o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n . T his w r i t e r has n o t had e n th u sia sm f o r
some o f Rokeach1s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the developm ent o f
n e g a ti v e and c lo se-m in d ed n ess in i n d i v i d u a l s . On th e o th e r
hand, i f t h i s man has c r e a t e d a m easuring d e v ice f o r dog
m a tic te n d e n c ie s w ith d e m o n strated v a l i d i t y , i t may m a tte r
l i t t l e w h eth er o r n o t we ag ree w ith a l l o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l
t e n e t s in v o lv e d .
The f i r s t b a s i c assum ption u n d e r ly in g th e d e v e lo p
ment o f th e t e s t was t h a t when an i n d i v i d u a l r e a c t s i n a
c lo se -m in d ed and dogm atic way to any c irc u m sta n c e s o r i d e a s ,
i t r a r e l y i s an i s o l a t e d o r , so to s a y , e n c a p s u le d r e a c t i o n ,
b u t r a t h e r the p la y in g o u t o f a c o n s i s t e n t tendency to r e
a c t d o g m a tic a lly to s i t u a t i o n s and i d e a s . In th e s im p le s t
o f te rm s: in th e w o rld th e r e are dogm atic p e o p le , and n o t-
so -d o g m a tic p e o p le .
A second assu m p tio n , and t h i s r e c a l l s some o f Os
g o o d 's t h i n k i n g , i s t h a t dogmatism (a term Rokeach uses
b ro a d ly to encompass s e v e r a l k in d s o f n e g a ti v e and p r e j u d i
c i a l a t t i t u d e p a t t e r n s ) i s a p s y c h o lo g i c a l mechanism com
po sed o f a f i n i t e number o f d im e n sio n s, some o f which can
be m easured th ro u g h re sp o n se to sem a n tic s t i m u l i .
Rokeach co n ten d s t h a t i t i s n o t " n a t u r a l " to be
95
dogm atic. T hat i s to s a y , man i s imbued w ith a n a t u r a l
c u r i o s i t y to d is c o v e r what i s . Dogmatism e n t e r s th e p i c
tu r e when t h r e a t s to th e ego o r t h r e a t s to th e sen se o f
a d ju stm e n t o r w e ll b e in g , come about in l i f e s i t u a t i o n s .
Then t h i s c u r i o s i t y t o d is c o v e r what i s i s a r t i f i c i a l l y
th w a rte d . As he p u ts i t ,
To th e e x t e n t t h a t th e c o g n itiv e need to know i s p re ^
dominant and the need to ward o f f t h r e a t a b s e n t , open
system s ( i . e . , f r e e o f dogmatism) s h o u ld r e s u l t . In
th e s e r v i c e o f th e c o g n itiv e need to know, e x t e r n a l
p r e s s u r e s and i r r a t i o n a l i n t e r n a l d r iv e s w i l l o f te n
be pu sh ed a s i d e , so t h a t in fo r m a tio n r e c e iv e d from
o u t s i d e w i l l be d i s c r i m i n a t e d , a s s e s s e d , and a c te d on
a c c o rd in g to th e o b j e c t i v e re q u ire m e n ts o f th e s i t u a
t i o n . But as th e need to ward o f f t h r e a t becomes
s t r o n g e r , th e c o g n itiv e need to know s h o u ld become
w eaker, r e s u l t i n g in more c lo s e d b e l i e f sy stem s.
(68-69)
At one p o i n t , Rokeach f e l t t h a t he had p in n e d down
a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n o f the dim ensions o f dogmatism and
co u ld e s t a b l i s h t h e i r d e f in in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The D
S cale t e s t i s sim ply a d ev ice d e sig n e d to ta p th e se c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s i n t o a l i s t o f s t a t e m e n ts . Each s ta t e m e n t c o r r e
sponds to one o f th e dim ensions o f dogmatism as Rokeach saw
them. The re sp o n d en t has th e o p tio n o f a g re e in g or d is^
a g re e in g w ith th e s ta te m e n t w ith g ra d u a te d l e v e l s o f in^
t e n s i t y ; th e assum ption b e in g t h a t i f a p e rs o n ag rees
s t r o n g l y w ith such s ta te m e n ts i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t he p o s
s e s s e s one extrem e o f th e p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e in g
ta p p e d , and i f he s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e s , t h a t he p o s s e s s e s the
o p p o s ite ex trem e. A lthough t h i s w r i t e r has found no one
96
who does n o t r e a c t w ith puzzlem ent a t some o f th e s t a t e
ments (see Appendix f o r a sample of th e s t a t e m e n t s ) ,
Rokeach a p p a r e n tly s p e n t much time and e f f o r t in f a c t o r i n g
o u t what he c o n s id e re d j u s t th e r i g h t s ta t e m e n ts . As he
e x p l a i n s ,
The p rim ary purp o se o f t h i s s c a l e i s to m easure in d i^
v id u a l d i f f e r e n c e s in openness o r c lo s e d n e ss o f b e l i e f
sy stem s. Because o f th e way we have d e fin e d open and
c lo s e d , th e s c a l e sh o u ld a l s o s e rv e to measure g e n e ra l
a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m and g e n e r a l i n t o l e r a n c e . I n s o f a r as
p o s s i b l e , we looked f o r s ta te m e n ts t h a t ex p re ss id e a s
f a m i l i a r to th e average p e rso n in h i s everyday l i f e .
Some o f th e s ta te m e n ts a p p e a rin g in th e D S cale were
i n s p i r e d by spontaneous remarks we o v e rh e ard b e in g made
by p e rs o n s we th o u g h t i n t u i t i v e l y to be closed-m inded
Above a l l , each s ta te m e n t in th e s c a l e had to be d e
s ig n e d to tr a n s c e n d s p e c i f i c i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s in
o r d e r to p e n e t r a t e to th e form al and s t r u c t u r a l c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c s o f a l l p o s i t i o n s . (72)
The s c a l e went th ro u g h f iv e r e v i s i o n s , each de
s ig n e d to in c r e a s e r e l i a b i l i t y . The v e r s io n used in t h i s
stu d y was th e f i f t h , o r Ford D, as i t i s known. Response
i s in term s o f a s i x p a r t s c a l e l a b e l e d ,
+1 I AGREE A LITTLE
+2 I AGREE ON THE W HOLE
+3 I AGREE VERY MUCH
-1 I DISAGREE A LITTLE
-2 I DISAGREE ON THE W HOLE
-3 I DISAGREE VERY MUCH
S co rin g i s done by a r ra n g in g the s c a l e in term s o f
w eight from one ( i . e . , -3) to s i x ( i . e . , + 3 ), and s c o r in g
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th e w e ig h ts f o r a l l item s f o r each i n d i v i d u a l .
There are 66 item s in Form D which measure th e
t h r e e dim ensions term ed by Rokeach, th e B e l i e f - D i s b e l i e f
Dim ension, th e C e n t r a l - P e r i p h e r a l Dimension and th e Time-
P e r s p e c tiv e Dimension. Each o f th e se dim ensions i s s u b
d iv id e d by c a t e g o r i e s in th e fo llo w in g way: (R a tio n a le f o r
each dim ension i s q u o te d from Rokeach.)
A. BELIEF-DISBELIEF DIMENSION
This r e f e r s to th e degree o f s e g r e g a tio n o r la c k o f
in te rc o m m u n ic atio n between n e ig h b o rin g re g io n s o r
s u b r e g io n s . I t i s assumed t h a t th e more c lo s e d the
system , th e g r e a t e r the i s o l a t i o n betw een and w ith in
the b e l i e f and d i s b e l i e f system s.
1. A c c e n tu a tio n o f d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e
d i s b e l i e f sy stem s. Item s 1 thro u g h 3.
2. The p e r c e p t i o n o f i r r e l e v a n c e . Item 4.
3. The c o e x is te n c e o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w ith in th e
b e l i e f system . Items 5 th ro u g h 8.
4. R e l a tiv e amount o f knowledge p o s s e s s e d [s i c ] .
Item s 9 and 10.
B. CENTRAL-PERIPHERAL DIMENSION
The c e n t r a l re g io n o f b e l i e f system s i s composed o f a
c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f " p r e - i d e o l o g i c a l p r i m i t i v e b e l i e f s ,
f o r th e most p a r t u n v e r b a liz e d , t h a t h i s t o r i c a l l y are
p r i o r to th e r e s t o f the b e l i e f s in th e system . These
p r i m i t i v e b e l i e f s a re concerned w ith w h e th er th e w o rld
we l i v e in i s f r i e n d l y o r h o s t i l e , what th e f u t u r e has
in s t o r e f o r u s , th e adequacy o f th e s e l f , and what
must be done to a l l e v i a t e f e e l i n g s o f in ad eq u acy . I t
i s assumed t h a t th e more c lo s e d th e sy stem , th e more
w i l l th e c o n te n t o f such b e l i e f s be to e f f e c t t h a t we
l i v e a lo n e , i s o l a t e d and h e l p l e s s in a f r i e n d l e s s
98
w o rld ; t h a t we l i v e in a w o rld w h erein th e f u t u r e i s
u n c e r t a i n ; t h a t th e s e l f i s fu n d a m e n tally unworthy and
in a d e q u a te to cope w ith t h i s f r i e n d l e s s w o rld ; and
t h a t th e way to overcome such f e e l i n g s i s by a s e l f -
a g g ra n d iz in g and s e l f - r i g h t e o u s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith a
c a u s e , a concern w ith power and s t a t u s , and by a com
p u l s i v e s e l f - p r o s e l y t i z a t i o n about th e j u s t n e s s o f
such a cau se. (75)
1. B e l i e f s r e g a rd in g th e a lo n e n e s s , i s o l a t i o n , and
h e l p l e s s n e s s o f man. Item s 11 th ro u g h 14.
2. B e l i e f s r e g a rd in g th e u n c e r t a i n t y o f th e
f u t u r e . Items 15 th ro u g h 20.
3. B e l i e f s about s e lf - a d e q u a c y and in ad eq u acy .
Item s 21 th ro u g h 24.
4. S e lf- a g g r a n d iz e m e n t as a d efen se a g a i n s t s e l f - ’
in ad eq u acy . Item s 25 th ro u g h 28,
5. P a ra n o id o u tlo o k on l i f e . Item s 30 th ro u g h 34.
6 . A u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m - - B e l i e f s in p o s i t i v e and
n e g a ti v e a u t h o r i t y . Item s 35 th ro u g h 36.
7. A u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m - - B e l i e f s in th e cau se.
Item s 37 th ro u g h 44.
8 . I n to le ra n c e - -T o w a rd th e re n eg ad e. Item s 45
thro u g h 47.
9. In to le ra n c e - -T o w a rd th e d i s b e l i e v e r . Item s 48
th ro u g h 52.
10. Tendency to make a p a r t y - l i n e change ( r e f e r r i n g
to a change in p e r i p h e r a l b e l i e f s fo llo w in g a
change in i n te r m e d ia te b e l i e f s ) . Item s 53 and
54.
99
11. N arrow ing ( r e f e r r i n g to th e s e l e c t i v e avoidance
o f c o n ta c t w ith f a c t s , e v e n t s , e t c . , incon^
g ru e n t w ith o n e 's b e l i e f - d i s b e l i e f s y ste m ).
Item s 5 5 th ro u g h 57.
C. TIME-PERSPECTIVE DIMENSION
I t i s assumed t h a t th e more c lo s e d th e b e l i e f - ^ d i s b e l i e f
system th e more w i l l i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n be f u t u r e - o r -
p a s t - o r i e n t e d , and th e more w i l l th e p r e s e n t be r e
j e c t e d as im p o r ta n t in i t s own r i g h t . E x p re s s io n s of
such a tim e p e r s p e c t i v e a re to be found in o n e 's a t t i
tude tow ard th e p a s t , p r e s e n t and f u t u r e , i n th e e x t e n t
to which one f e e l s a b le t o a p p r a is e a c c u r a t e l y o r to
u n d e rs ta n d th e f u t u r e , and in o n e 's a t t i t u d e tow ard th e
use o f f o r c e as a way o f r e v i s i n g th e p r e s e n t . (79)
1. A t t i t u d e tow ard th e p a s t , p r e s e n t and f u t u r e .
Item s 5 8 th ro u g h 60.
2. Knowing th e f u t u r e . Item s 61 th ro u g h 65.
3. B e l i e f in fo r c e as a way to r e v i s e th e p r e s e n t .
Item 66.
The t e s t was g iven w ith th e i n s t r u c t i o n s recom-'
mended by Rokeach which are v ery s i m i l a r to th e i n s t r u c
ti o n s accompanying th e C a l i f o r n i a E S c a le t e s t . This t e s t
and th e Osgood d e v ice were g iv en on th e same m orning, th e
f i r s t f u l l day o f th e i n s t i t u t e . Members f o r th e most p a r t
d id n o t know each o t h e r , n o r were th ey f a m i l i a r w ith th e
s t a f f o r th e s p e c i f i c g o als o f th e i n s t i t u t e . Under th e s e
c irc u m sta n c e s i t was c o n s id e re d h e l p f u l to p r e s e n t th e two
in s tr u m e n ts as s t r i c t l y anonymous e x e r c i s e s ; only s o c i a l
s e c u r i t y numbers were asked f o r in o rd e r to m atch r e s u l t s
w ith " o t h e r t e s t s to be given l a t e r . "
Now in th e sen se o f r e s e a r c h anonym ity, th e r e was
no b re a c h o f t h i s u n d e r s ta n d in g . Only t h i s w r i t e r has
a c c e s s to b o th d a ta and i d e n t i f y i n g code, and in no way,
e i t h e r th ro u g h t h i s w r i t i n g o r any o t h e r a v a i l a b l e m a te r ia l,
c o u ld anyone d is c o v e r th e n a tu r e o f i n d i v i d u a l resp o n se to
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s or t e s t s . As r a p p o r t d eveloped between
s t a f f and members, how ever, th e members were given to u n
d e r s ta n d t h a t c e r t a i n f a c t o r s in t h e i r backgrounds would be
compared w ith t e s t and q u e s t i o n n a i r e d a t a , im p ly in g t h a t a t
l e a s t one p e rs o n would be aware o f th e i d e n t i t y o f r e s p o n
d e n ts . There was no p r o t e s t o f t h i s a rran g em en t.
The Q u e s tio n n a ir e
During th e l a s t two days o f th e i n s t i t u t e , as f i n a l
p r e p a r a t i o n f o r th e team p r e s e n t a t i o n s were c o n c lu d in g ,
each i n s t i t u t e member was approached i n d i v i d u a l l y and asked
to t h o u g h t f u l l y resp o n d to an e v a l u a t i o n q u e s t i o n n a i r e con
c e r n in g th e o t h e r members in th e team . In a l l cases t h i s
was done in th e p re s e n c e o f th e r e s e a r c h e r , and in no case
was c o n s u l t a t i o n with, team members e v id e n c e d . This was an
im p o r ta n t c o n d itio n in t h a t i t p a r t l y com pensated f o r th e
extrem e s i m p l i c i t y o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e v ic e . Each r e
sp o n d en t was i n s t r u c t e d in d e t a i l as t o th e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f
a l l a l t e r n a t i v e s in each ite m . With v e ry m inor e x c e p tio n s ,
re s p o n d e n ts e x e r c i s e d e v a l u a t i o n w ith s o b e r r e f l e c t i o n and
101
com plete s i n c e r i t y .
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n ta in e d s i x item s d e sig n e d to
r e t u r n in d ic e s o f t h r e e d i s t i n c t modes o f e v a l u a t i o n ; two
item s f o r each mode, each item c o n ta in in g fo u r a l t e r n a
t i v e s . The e v a l u a t i o n modes w ere:
a. An index o f "sm oothness o f p e r s o n a l f u n c t i o n
in g " in th e m in o r ity p o v e rty community. Mem-
b e r s e v a lu a te d each o t h e r (w ith in teams) in
term s o f what m ight be c a l l e d m a n ife s te d c u l
t u r a l d i s t a n c e . The r a t i o n a l e b e h in d th e s e
item s was t h a t where i n d i v i d u a l s were u n a c c e p t-
in g o f more o r le s s t y p i c a l s i t u a t i o n s o f a
s p e c i f i c s u b - c u l t u r e , th e y would r e a c t w ith
n o t i c e a b l e awkwardness and s t r a i n as they
c o n f r o n te d th e s e s i t u a t i o n s . The two item s in
t h i s index ap p eared as fo llo w s :
R e s p e c ti v e ly , my team members
(a) seemed c o m p le tely a t ease in th e community
o f stu d y
(b) seemed to be more o r l e s s r e la x e d in the
community o f stu d y
(c) a t tim es seemed to f e e l s l i g h t l y te n se in
th e community o f stu d y
(d) seemed to f e e l q u i t e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s and
awkward in th e community o f s tu d y .
R e s p e c ti v e ly , th e p a t t e r n o f r e a c t i o n to f i e l d
s i t u a t i o n s o f my team members was
(a) open m inded, a p p a r e n tly a c c e p tin g w ith o u t
d is a p p r o v a l o f what was seen and h e a rd .
(b) i n t e r e s t e d and somewhat n e u t r a l a t t i t u d e
tow ards what was seen and h e a rd .
(c) i n t e r e s t e d and o c c a s io n a ll y d is a p p ro v in g
102
a t t i t u d e tow ards what was seen and h e ard
(d) f r e q u e n t and v ery obvious d is a p p r o v a l of
much o f what was seen and h e ard .
b . An in d ex o f grow th in u n d e rs ta n d in g o f the c u l
t u r e o f th e m in o r ity - p o v e r ty community. Mem
b e rs e v a lu a te d each o t h e r in term s of how much
i n s i g h t they seemed to g a in from th e t o t a l i n
s t i t u t e e x p e r ie n c e . These item s were in c lu d e d
to b a la n c e th e d i f f e r e n t i a l f a m i l i a r i t y w ith
s u b - c u l t u r e s in q u e s t i o n , o f f e r i n g an i n d i c a
t i o n o f a b i l i t y to a cc e p t s u b - c u l t u r a l d i f f e r
ences in s p i t e of r e l a t i v e ig n o ran ce o f su b
c u l t u r a l them es. These two item s ap p eared as
fo llo w s :
R e s p e c ti v e ly , my team members r e a c te d to the
i n s t i t u t e e x p e rie n c e s w ith
(a) a g r e a t d e a l o f g ain in i n s i g h t and u s e f u l
u n d e rs ta n d in g
(b) some s i g n i f i c a n t g ain in i n s i g h t and u s e f u l
u n d e rs ta n d in g
(c) a sm all amount of g ain in i n s i g h t and u s e
f u l u n d e rs ta n d in g in s p e c i f i c a re as
(d) a p p a r e n tly no g ain a t a l l o f i n s i g h t and
u s e f u l u n d e rs ta n d in g
In my o p in io n , a f t e r e x p e r ie n c in g t h i s i n s t i
t u t e , each o f th e s e p e rso n s w i l l
(a) be much more e f f e c t i v e in d e a lin g w ith
p e o p le from th e k in d s o f communities
s t u d i e d
(b) p ro b a b ly be more e f f e c t i v e i n d e a lin g w ith
p eo p le from th e k in d s o f communities
s t u d i e d
(c) p erhaps be s l i g h t l y more e f f e c t i v e in d e a l
in g w ith p e o p le from th e kinds o f communi
t i e s s t u d i e d in c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s
(d) no more e f f e c t i v e th a n b e f o r e in d e a lin g
w ith p eo p le from th e k in d s o f communities
s tu d ie d .
103
c. An index o f how members "g o t a lo n g 1 1 and worked
t o g e t h e r as a team . Members e v a lu a te d each
o t h e r as p a r t n e r s in th e p ro c e ss o f c a r r y in g
o u t th e v a rio u s a c t i v i t i e s o f th e i n s t i t u t e .
I t was th o u g h t t h a t i n te r te a m r e l a t i o n s was an
im p o rta n t f a c t o r in m easuring r e a c t i o n to th e
i n s t i t u t e ; f i r s t , because th e teams th em selv es
were " i n t e r c u l t u r a l a n d second, b ecau se th e
team was th e v e h ic l e f o r th e most im p o rta n t
p a r t o f th e i n s t i t u t e e x p e r ie n c e , th e f i e l d
exposure to d iv e r g e n t s u b - c u l t u r e . These two
item s ap p eared as fo llo w s :
Working in th e community th e s e members were
(a) always c o o p e r a tiv e and u n d e rs ta n d in g
(b) u s u a l l y c o o p e r a tiv e and u n d e rs ta n d in g
(c) sometimes c o o p e r a tiv e and sometimes u n
c o o p e r a tiv e
(d) u s u a l l y arg u m e n tativ e and u s u a l l y u n
c o o p e r a tiv e
I would
(a) very much l i k e to work w ith h im /h e r a g ain
(b) w ith o u t r e s e r v a t i o n Work w ith h im /h e r a g ain
(c) n o t r e f u s e to work w ith h im /h e r a g ain
(d) r e f u s e to work w ith h im /h e r a g ain
The te c h n iq u e o f s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n was n o t e l e c t e d
f o r any p a r t o f th e se measurements in o r d e r to avoid th e
b i a s i n g f a c t o r s o f i d e n t i t y and id e o lo g y d is c u s s e d e a r l y i n
th e I n t r o d u c t i o n . S c o rin g th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was a sim ple
m a tte r o f a s s ig n in g numbers to each a l t e r n a t i v e and th e n
t o t a l l i n g th e s c o re f o r each in d e x . As th e form al hypoth-
104
e se s f o r t h i s s tu d y im p ly , th e r e were a c t u a l l y two m easu re
ments in each in d ex ta k en f o r each i n d i v i d u a l from the
q u e s t i o n n a i r e d a ta : (1) th e s c o r e f o r each p r o f e s s i o n a l
team member by th e Community C o o rd in a to r o f h i s o r h e r
team , and (2) th e mean sco re f o r each p r o f e s s i o n a l team
member by th e o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l members. From th e o u t s e t
th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e had two i n h e r e n t w eak n esses:
1. The sm all number o f item s p la c e d g r e a t w eig h t
on a few momentary s e l f - c o n s c i o u s r e s p o n s e s . The m ild i n
t e l l e c t u a l f a t i g u e e x p e r ie n c e d i n long t e s t s and q u e s t i o n
n a i r e s te n d s to work i n fa v o r o f v a l i d i t y .
2. Such item f a c t o r s come u n co m fo rtab ly c lo s e to
e v a l u a t i n g th e w o rth o f i n d i v i d u a l s . This may b e g in to
in v o lv e some o f th e p s y c h o lo g i c a l i n h i b i t i o n s most p e rso n s
e x p e r ie n c e when fo r m a lly a s s e s s i n g human w o rth . To a d d re ss
th e s e w e ak n e sse s, each member was a d m in is te r e d th e q u e s
t i o n n a i r e i n d i v i d u a l l y ; i n s t r u c t i o n s were g iv en v e r b a l l y
and s t r e s s e d th e need f o r t h o u g h tf u l and fra n k re sp o n se s
in o r d e r to a llo w th e s t a f f and th e r e s e a r c h e r to b e n e f i t
as much as p o s s i b l e from th e e v a l u a t i o n . S p o n ta n e ity was
n o t c o n s id e r e d as im p o rta n t as o b j e c t i v i t y , and re sp o n d e n ts
were enco u rag ed to change s c o r e s i f f u r t h e r th in k in g p r o
voked them to do so.
A ssum ptions u n d e r ly in g th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e in c lu d e d :
1. Due to th e i n d o c t r i n a t i o n g iven t o Community
105
C o o rd in a to rs b e f o r e th e i n s t i t u t e b eg an , d u rin g th e i n s t i
t u t e , and a t th e time o f s c o r in g th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , r e a s o n
a b ly o b j e c t i v e in f o r m a tio n co n cern in g th e a b i l i t y o f pro^
f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to rs to f u n c tio n w ith o t h e r s in m in o r ity -
p o v e r ty com m unities c o u ld be o b ta in e d th ro u g h a sim ple
re sp o n se d e v ic e . This in f o r m a tio n would be from th e p o i n t
o f view o f seco n d ary s c h o o l- a g e young men w ith more o r l e s s
t y p i c a l s o c i o l o g i c a l p r o f i l e . Such in f o r m a tio n may o r may
n o t be c o n s id e r e d " a c c u r a t e , ” b u t may be g e n e r a l i z e d to th e
e v a l u a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e p o t e n t i a l r a p p o r t , o f average
y o u th o f th e type o f m in o rity -c o m m u n itie s in q u e s ti o n .
2. The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a to r s o f
how f e llo w e d u c a to r s f u n c t i o n , g a in in i n s i g h t , and work
t o g e t h e r w ith o th e r s in o u t - o f - s c h o o l e x p e r ie n c e s in s p e c
i f i c m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty communities can be g a in e d th ro u g h a
sim ple re sp o n se d e v ic e .
The C u ltu re D ista n c e S c a le s
An a d d i t i o n a l te c h n iq u e was u t i l i z e d to e s t a b l i s h
th e im p o r ta n t v a r i a b l e o f p e r s o n a l c u l t u r e d is ta n c e o f
e d u c a to r s from th e s p e c i f i c m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty community o f
concern d u rin g th e i n s t i t u t e . A lthough in v o lv in g a c r u
c i a l v a r i a b l e , and e x e c u te d w ith s e r io u s n e s s and c a r e , th e
te c h n iq u e had no fo rm a l, s ta n d a r d p r o c e d u r e s . Two s c a l e s
from one to te n were made f o r th e two v a r i a b l e s :
106
1. R e sp o n d e n t's own view o f h i s p e r s o n a l c u l t u r e
d i s t a n c e from th e community o f c o n c e n tr a tio n d u rin g th e i n
s t i t u t e in term s o f h i s o r h e r l i f e s t y l e and c irc u m sta n c e s
s in c e a d u lth o o d .
2. R e s p o n d e n t's own view o f h i s p e r s o n a l c u l t u r e
d i s ta n c e from the community o f c o n c e n tr a tio n d u rin g th e i n
s t i t u t e in term s o f c u l t u r a l c irc u m s ta n c e s from b i r t h
th ro u g h a d o le s c e n c e .
The r a t i o n a l e o f t h i s s c a l e was t h a t each member
o f th e i n s t i t u t e , in d e e d a l l e d u c a tio n p e r s o n n e l w orking in
v a ry in g deg rees o f c r o s s - c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n s , have a f a i r l y
c o n s i s t e n t id e a o f where t h e i r own p o i n t s o f c u l t u r a l i d e n
t i f i c a t i o n lay in term s o f th e spectrum from th e c o m p letely
m id d le - c la s s core c u l t u r e , to th e extrem es o f s p e c i f i c s u b
c u l t u r a l d iv e rg e n c e . In a l l b u t th r e e c a s e s , members
worked in th e same e t h n i c and r a c i a l communities d u rin g th e
i n s t i t u t e as in th e m ajor c r o s s - c u l t u r a l framework o f t h e i r
jo b . In o t h e r w o rd s, a w h ite a d m i n i s t r a t o r from a sch o o l
o f over 50 p e r c e n t Mexican s t u d e n t s , worked in th e E a s t
Los A ngeles M exican-Am erican community.
I t was i m p o r ta n t, th e n , to e s t a b l i s h j u s t how f a r
from th e c u l t u r e of stu d y (and v o c a tio n ) th e s e e d u c a to rs
p la c e d th e m s e lv e s , and to compare t h i s d a ta w ith more ob
j e c t i v e d a ta from th e o t h e r s o u r c e s . For th o se o f th e same
e t h n i c and r a c i a l i d e n t i t y as th e community, th e s c a l e s
107
m easured th e degree to which m iddle c l a s s r o l e s and s t y l e s
were s e e n - - o r n o t s e e n - - a s f a c t o r s o f c u l t u r e d is ta n c e from
th e m in o r ity - p o v e r ty community. In cases o f d i f f e r e n t
r a c i a l o r e t h n i c i d e n t i t y , th e s c a l e s m easured th e im por
ta n c e o f o t h e r th an i d e n t i t y f a c t o r s in th e p e r c e p t i o n o f
d i s t a n c e from th e m in o r ity - p o v e r ty community w ith r e s p e c t
to l i f e s t y l e s and dominant v a lu e s .
The s c a le s were b a se d on in f o r m a tio n g a in ed from
members in th e a p p l i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e , thro u g h c o n v e r s a tio n
d u rin g th e i n s t i t u t e , and by d i r e c t q u e s tio n s asked a t th e
time o f a d m in is te r in g o f th e e v a l u a t i o n q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
S co rin g on th e s c a l e s was b a se d on th e fo llo w in g f a c t o r s :
1. R u r a l, s m all town, suburban o r c e n t r a l c i t y
r e s id e n c e .
2. E th n ic o r r a c i a l s e l f - i d e n t i t y .
3. S t a t e d c a t e g o r i e s o f o b j e c t i o n a b l e b e h a v io r o f
f r i e n d s and a q u a i n t a n c e s .
4. I n t e n s i t y o f i n t e r e s t in th e h i s t o r y , and a r t
forms o f th e s u b - c u l t u r e in q u e s ti o n .
5. S t a t e d a b i l i t y to g a t h e r w ith and e n jo y l e i s u r e
a c t i v i t y a s s o c i a t e d w ith members o f th e
m in o r ity - p o v e r ty community in q u e s t i o n .
6 . S t a t e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e phenomenon o f
h ig h sch o o l d ro p - o u ts .
7. Membership a n d /o r i n t e r e s t in v o lu n ta r y a s s o c i-
10 8
a tio n s o f th e s u b - c u l t u r e in q u e s ti o n .
Members were r a t e d in th e two s c a l e s somewhere betw een one
( l e a s t p e r c e iv e d c u l t u r a l d is ta n c e ) and te n (most p e r c e iv e d
c u l t u r a l d i s t a n c e ) , on th e b a s i s o f what the r e s e a r c h e r
knew from a p p l i c a t i o n forms and c o u ld f i n d o u t from i n t e r
p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t . A weakness in th e te c h n iq u e , th e n , was
t h a t s in c e th e r e s e a r c h e r d id n o t develop i n t e r p e r s o n a l
r e l a t i o n s to the same degree w ith a l l members, th e s c a l e s
were u n d o u b ted ly more a c c u ra te f o r some i n s t i t u t e members
th a n f o r o t h e r s . For no one, however, was r a t i n g done
h a s t i l y o r w ith o u t c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f as many f a c t o r s
as p o s s i b l e . The c u l t u r e d is ta n c e s c a l e s were e s t a b l i s h e d
from th e f i f t h to th e e i g h t h week o f th e i n s t i t u t e ; many
r e v i s i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l r a t i n g s were done.
CHAPTER VI
FINDINGS
G eneral Remarks
R a th e r th a n tu r n d i r e c t l y to p ro v in g th e h y p o th e se s,
some p r e s e n t a t i o n sh o u ld be made o f th e p r o f i l e o f raw data.
Looking a t th e r e t u r n f o r a s i n g l e v a r i a b l e , w ith o u t any
re g a r d f o r c o r r e l a t i o n w ith o t h e r v a r i a b l e s , can o f t e n give
u s e f u l i n s i g h t i n to th e n a tu r e o f sam ple-group c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c s . This was c e r t a i n l y th e case w ith t h i s group o f
t h i r t y e d u c a to r s . W e f i n d , f o r i n s t a n c e , some i n t e r e s t i n g
te n d e n c ie s in th e r e t u r n f o r th e two s ta n d a r d iz e d t e s t s .
Now r e c a l l t h a t in s c o r in g the sem a n tic d i f f e r e n
t i a l d e v ic e , s c a l e d p o s i t i o n s from one to seven betw een
s e t s o f p o l a r i z e d a d j e c t i v e s were accum ulated f o r te n s e t s
f o r each concept m easured; and, th e r e were n in e m easured
c o n c e p ts . A s c o re on th e s c a le in any s e t o f o n e , p r e
sumably i n d i c a t e d low a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n to th e c o n c e p t, and
a s co re on th e s c a l e in any s e t o f s e v e n , presum ably i n d i
c a te d h ig h a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n to th e c o n cep t. Had a s u b j e c t
sc o r e d e x a c t l y in th e m iddle of a l l s e t s f o r a l l c o n c e p ts ,
h i s s c o re on th e d ev ice would have been 360. The r e tu r n e d
mean s c o re f o r th e d ev ice was 2 72.68. As we m ight have
109
110
e x p e c te d , th e s e e d u c a t o r s , on th e w hole, d id n o t f i n d th e
s t e r e o t y p i c symbols o f m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y y o u th c u l t u r e
h i g h l y a n x ie ty -p ro d u c in g s t i m u l i .
The s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r th e sem a n tic d i f f e r e n
t i a l r e t u r n was only 2 6 .6 9 , o r le s s th a n 10 p e r c e n t o f the
a r i t h m e t i c mean. The h i g h e s t s c o re r e t u r n e d f o r th e device
(319) was o n ly 46.32 p o i n t s above th e mean. The lo w est
s c o re r e t u r n e d (209) was o n ly 66.68 p o i n t s below th e mean.
So we n o t i c e t h a t th e sample group was r e l a t i v e l y c o n s i s
t e n t in i t s "u n an x io u s" r e a c t i o n to th e sym bols. Even th e
h i g h e s t s c o re r e t u r n e d was s i g n i f i c a n t l y below th e median
o f p o s s i b l e re sp o n se s on th e d e v ic e . You w i l l re c o g n iz e
t h a t th e mean o f 2 72.6 8 was more th a n th r e e s ta n d a r d d e v i a
t i o n s from th e median o f p o s s i b l e re sp o n se s (360) .
I t i s f a s c i n a t i n g to o b serv e t h a t th e mean sco re
on th e d e v ice f o r Negroes (291.53) was h ig h e r th a n f o r a l l
o t h e r i n s t i t u t e members (2 6 3 .5 1 ). This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n t e r e s t i n g when we c o n s id e r t h a t i t was u n d o u b ted ly e a s i e r
to a s s o c i a t e a l l n in e m easured co n cep ts w ith Negro youth
th a n w ith M exican-American y o u th . (Only seven co n cep ts
a p p lie d d i r e c t l y to M exican-Am erican y o u th .) Y et th e Negro
e d u c a to rs in t h i s group seemed to i n d i c a t e more a n x ie ty
r e a c t i o n to th e symbols o f m in o r ity y o u th c u l t u r e th an non-
N egroes. Only two o f th e e le v e n Negroes r e t u r n e d s c o re s
below th e group mean.
I l l
The Rokeach D -Scale t e s t a lso r e t u r n e d what might
be term ed "m ild" r e a c t i o n , a lth o u g h as we s h a l l d is c o v e r
below , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i n d i v i d u a l s c o r e s on th e s e
two s ta n d a r d iz e d t e s t s was p u z z lin g in d e e d . R e c a ll t h a t in
s c o r in g th e Rokeach t e s t , a s i x - p a r t s c a l e was used f o r
s u b j e c t s ' r e s p o n s e s , and th e form o f the t e s t used h e re
c o n ta in e d 66 ite m s . In o rd e r to be ab le to compare r e s u l t s
w ith r e s u l t s p u b lis h e d in R okeach's m ajor w ork, h is s c o r in g
s c a l e o f 0-5 r a t h e r th an 1-6 was employed.
I f a s u b j e c t had i n d i c a t e d re sp o n se s f u r t h e s t in
th e d i r e c t i o n o f f l e x i b i l i t y and open-m indedness f o r a l l
ite m s , h is t o t a l s c o r e , th e n , would have been 0. Had a
s u b j e c t i n d i c a t e d re sp o n se s f u r t h e s t in th e d i r e c t i o n o f
clo sed -m in d ed n ess and i n f l e x i b i l i t y , h i s t o t a l s co re would
have been 66 x 5 = 330. The r e t u r n e d mean f o r th e group
on th e Rokeach t e s t was 131.07. D iv id in g th e number o f
item s i n t o t h i s f i g u r e to d eterm in e th e average s c a l e i n d i
c a t i o n f o r ite m s , we come up w ith a s c a l e i n d i c a t i o n of
1 .9 8 . When shown g r a p h i c a l l y on th e s c a l e ,
0 1 2 3 4 5
X
we can a p p r e c i a t e t h a t th e group as a whole ap p eared r a t h e r
f l e x i b l e and open-m inded. A s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 35.05
(o v er 20 p e r c e n t o f th e mean) on th e o th e r hand, shows
t h a t th e group was much l e s s c o n s i s t e n t in r e a c t i n g to t h i s
112
d e v ice th an w ith th e sem a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l .
A check o f the h i g h e s t and lo w est s c o r e s , i n d i c a t e s
t h a t th e p a t t e r n o f re sp o n se s to th e Rokeach t e s t was some
w hat e r r a t i c . (See Table I . ) The h ig h e s t sco re was 205,
o r 73.93 p o i n t s above th e mean (more th an two s ta n d a r d
d e v i a t i o n s ) . The two lo w e st s c o r e s , 49 and 52, are b o th
more th a n two s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s below th e mean. U nlike
th e sem a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l , r e t u r n f o r t h i s t e s t d id n o t
i n d i c a t e a p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n on th e b a s i s o f e t h n i c i t y .
Age in y e a rs and months f o r th e group tu rn e d up th e
fo llo w in g d a ta :
Range 23 y e a r s , two m onths-50 y e a r s ,
f i v e months
Mean 35.87 y e ars
Mode 31 y e a r s (to n e a r e s t b ir t h d a y )
S ta n d a rd D e v ia tio n 9.45
F ive s u b j e c t s f e l l in th e 20-29 c a te g o r y , s i x t e e n f e l l in
th e 30-39 c a te g o r y , seven f e l l in th e 40-49 c a te g o r y , two
s u b j e c t s were o v e r 49. C o n sid e rin g th e h ig h f a c u l t y " t u r n
o v er" r a t e in seco n d ary s c h o o ls in m in o r ity - p o v e r ty commu
n i t i e s , we can surm im ise t h a t t h i s f a i r l y young group is
n o t f a r from th e average age o f te a c h e r s in such s c h o o ls .
An average o f s l i g h t l y o v er te n y e a rs o f t o t a l
p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e rie n c e was i n d i c a t e d , a lth o u g h th e range
o f e x p e r ie n c e was c o n s id e r a b le .
113
TABLE I
RAW SCORE INDICATION FOR THE ROKEACH D-SCALE TEST
I n s t i t u t e Member Score
1 90
2 49
3 151
4 149
5 158
6 168
7 140
8 139
9 149
10 205
11 142
12 156
13 141
14 153
15 117
16 169
17 52
18 103
19 163
20 139
21 89
22 131
23 75
24 93
25 136
26 160
27 101
28 171
29 129
30 114
114
Range ( in academic y e a r s ) 1-27
Mean 10.77
Mode 17
S ta n d a rd D e v ia tio n 7.2 34
P r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e rie n c e in c r o o s - c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s , t h a t is ,
i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to c a r r i e r s o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th c u l
t u r e , i n d i c a t e d a s i m i l a r la c k o f c e n t r a l te n d en c y .
Range (in academic y e a r s ) 1-18
Mean 6.90
Mode 5
S ta n d a rd D e v ia tio n 4.505
Here a g a in , th e d i v e r s i t y o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e , b o th
g e n e r a l l y and in term s o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th , i s p r o b
ab ly f a i r l y t y p i c a l of s c h o o l f a c u l t i e s in m in o r ity - p o v e r ty
c o m m u n ities.
The two m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e item s o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e
d e sig n e d to i n d i c a t e "sm oothness o f p e rfo rm an c e" i n th e
f i e l d as jud g ed by th e Community C o o rd in a to rs ( v a r i a b l e g
in th e p re c e d in g c h a p te r) were s c o r e d sim ply by a s s ig n in g
th e fo u r a l t e r n a t i v e s in each item w e ig h ts from one to f o u r .
The b e s t p o s s i b l e e v a l u a t i o n f o r s u b j e c t s was a w e ig h t o f
one f o r each item ; so t h a t an in d ex w e ig h t o f two i n d i c a t e d
th e h i g h e s t r a t i n g o f p e rfo rm an c e, and a w e ig h t o f e i g h t
i n d i c a t e d th e p o o r e s t p o s s i b l e r a t i n g . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g
to p r e s e n t th e d a ta r e t u r n f o r t h i s index a lo n g s id e th e
in d ex o f perform ance as d e term in e d by th e mean s c o re f o r
s u b j e c t s by o th e r e d u c a to rs in th e teams ( v a r i a b l e f) .
E v a lu a tio n o f F i e l d Mean E v a lu a tio n o f F i e l d
P erform ance by Perform ance by O ther
Community Co- E d u cato rs in th e
o r d i n a t o r s Team
Mean 4.40 Mean 3.41
Mode 6 Mode 3.50
S.D. 1.453 S.D. .892
While t h i s i n d i c a t e s an i n t e r e s t i n g v a ria n c e betw een th e
two s o u rc e s o f r a t i n g , th e r e t u r n e d c o r r e l a t i o n between
v a r i a b l e s f and g o f .712 shows t h a t th e r e was a very
s tr o n g ten d en cy f o r b o th C o o rd in a to rs and e d u c a to rs to r a t e
s u b j e c t s in th e same d i r e c t i o n , i f n o t p r e c i s e l y w ith th e
same w e ig h ts .
One m ight have g u essed t h a t th e e d u c a t o r s ' r a t i n g s
o f s u b j e c t s would be more c o n s e r v a tiv e than th e C o o rd in a
t o r s ' . This was c e r t a i n l y th e c a s e ; th e h i g h e s t ( i . e . ,
p o o r e s t) mean r a t i n g by th e o th e r two e d u c a to rs f o r s u b
j e c t s was only 5 .0 0 , and t h i s a p p eared only once. A mean
r a t i n g o f 2 .0 0 , th e b e s t p o s s i b l e r a t i n g , was r e t u r n e d only
f o r two s u b j e c t s . The Community C o o rd in a to rs d id n o t ab an
don th em selv es to s e v e r i t y e i t h e r . A r a t i n g as poor as 7
a p p eared o n ly o n ce, and w h ile th e n e x t p o o r e s t r a t i n g o f 6
116
a p p eared n in e tim e s , th e r e were th r e e " p e r f e c t " s c o r e s o f
2 r e t u r n e d by th e C o o rd in a to rs .
A nother i n t e r e s t i n g f in d i n g re g a r d in g th e r a t i n g by
C o o rd in a to rs was t h a t w h ile Negro C o o rd in a to rs te n d e d to
give Negro e d u c a to rs s l i g h t l y h ig h e r r a t i n g th an "w h ite s"
i n . a b i l i t y to f u n c tio n sm oothly in th e m in o r ity - p o v e r ty
community, th e mean s c o re f o r th e two c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s
showed a d i f f e r e n c e o f l e s s th a n a f u l l u n i t (on th e e i g h t
p a r t s c a l e ) : 5.428 to 4 .8 5 7 . M exican-American C oordina
t o r s r a t e d M exican-American e d u c a to rs w ith e x a c t l y th e same
mean r a t i n g as a l l o t h e r s , a t 3 .4 0 . In a w ord, th e r e ap
p e a r e d no marked ten d en cy f o r C o o rd in a to rs to r a t e ed u ca
t o r s i n t h i s im p o rta n t v a r i a b l e on an e t h n i c - s p e c i f i c b a s is .
The "grow th in d ex " item s in th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e
( v a r i a b l e s h and i ) , r e t u r n e d r a t h e r s i m i l a r a r i t h m e t i c
means betw een r a t i n g s by C o o rd in a to rs and r a t i n g s by th e
o t h e r two e d u c a to rs in th e team s: 3.34 by C o o rd in a to rs ,
3.84 by e d u c a to r s . However, c o r r e l a t i o n between th e two
v a r i a b l e s a t .648 i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e r e was l e s s o f a t e n
dency th a n w ith v a r i a b l e s f and g f o r C o o rd in a to rs and ed u
c a to r s to be in agreem ent as to how much i n d i v i d u a l ed u ca
t o r s g a in ed from th e f i e l d e x p e r ie n c e s .
Perhaps i t i s n o t a l t o g e t h e r s u r p r i s i n g t h a t Negro
C o o rd in a to rs gave w h ite e d u c a to rs low er s c o r e s (h ig h e r
r a t i n g s ) th a n Negro e d u c a to rs f o r th e s e ite m s . The mean
117
s c o re f o r " w h ite s" by Negro C o o rd in a to rs was 3 .1 3 , and f o r
Negro e d u c a to rs r a t e d by Negro C o o r d in a to r s , th e mean was
4 .5 0 . With t h i s in d e x , as w ith th e p re v io u s two, r a t i n g s
by e d u c a to rs showed more c l u s t e r i n g around th e mean th a n
d id th e r a t i n g s o f C o o rd in a to rs .
Mean "Growth R ate" "Growth R ate" by
by E d u cato rs C o o rd in a to rs
Range 2-5 .5 0 Range 2-7
Mode 3.50 Mode 5
S.D. .812 S.D. 1.362
The in d e x o f i n t r a te a m r e l a t i o n s ( v a r ia b le s j and
k) r e t u r n e d d a ta which fo llo w e d th e same b a s i c t r e n d as th e
o t h e r i n d i c e s . The measurement h e re w as, as th e l a s t ch ap
t e r i n d i c a t e s , th e r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n of i n d iv id u a ls
tow ard harmonious team f u n c tio n . In resp o n d in g to th e s e
two q u e s t i o n n a i r e ite m s , s e v e r a l re sp o n d en ts asked i f th ey
s h o u ld r e s t r i c t e v a lu a tio n to f i e l d e x p e r ie n c e s , or in c lu d e
a l l team i n t e r a c t i o n in th e e v a l u a t i o n o f s u b j e c t s . The
r e s e a r c h e r i n d i c a t e d t h a t re sp o n d e n ts sh o u ld c o n s id e r a l l
a s p e c ts o f team f u n c tio n in making th e re s p o n se .
L a te r r e f l e c t i o n on t h i s m a t t e r has caused th e r e
s e a r c h e r to doubt th e wisdom o f th e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s . As
teams moved o u t of th e f i e l d and i n t o th e p ro d u c tio n room,
th e r o l e of th e C o o rd in a to rs te n d e d to change n o t i c e a b l y .
At t h i s p o i n t th e e d u c a to rs were once a g ain in a dominant
118
p o s i t i o n ; most l a t e d e c is io n s co n cern in g p r o d u c tio n s were
made e x c l u s i v e l y by e d u c a to r s . E s p e c i a l l y w ith th e mea
surem ents f o r v a r i a b l e k , where C o o rd in a to rs e v a lu a te d th e
in t e r t e a m r e l a t i o n s in d ex f o r e d u c a to r s , i t p ro b a b ly would
have been b e t t e r to have i n s t r u c t e d th e C o o rd in a to rs to
c o n s id e r b e h a v io r in th e f i e l d o n ly .
At any r a t e , no e c c e n t r i c b ia s was r e f l e c t e d i n th e
d a ta p r o f i l e as a whole.
Mean I n tr a te a m R e la tio n s In tr a te a m R e la tio n s Index
Index by E d u c a to rs by C o o rd in a to rs
Range 2-5 Range 2-6
Mean 3.37 Mean 4.30
Mode 3.50 Mode 4
S.D. .901 S.D. 1.511
When we t u r n to th e e t h n i c breakdown o f C o o rd in a
t o r s ' re sp o n se t o th e e d u c a to r s ' c o n t r i b u t i o n s toward
harm onious in t e r t e a m f u n c tio n in g e c c e n t r i c i t i e s do a p p e a r,
i f r e s u l t s a re compared w ith th e p re v io u s two i n d i c e s .
Negro and M exican-Am erican C o o rd in a to rs b o th r a t e d members
o f t h e i r own g e n e r a l e t h n i c group p o o r e r th a n non-members.
Negro C o o rd in a to rs r a t e d Negro e d u c a to rs a t an average o f
5 .5 7 , q u i t e n e a r th e top o f th e range o f C o o rd in a to r r e
sponses as shown above, and th e y r a t e d a l l o th e r e d u c a to rs
a t 4 .7 4 . M exican-American C o o rd in a to rs r a t e d M exican-
American e d u c a to rs w ith an average of 4 .9 2 , w h ile r a t i n g
119
a l l o th e r s w ith an average o f 4 .1 4 .
The c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e s c a l e a s s ig n e d to each e d u c a
t o r by th e r e s e a r c h e r r e t u r n e d some i n t e r e s t i n g i f u n s p e c
t a c u l a r in f o r m a t io n . S in ce seven o f th e te n Negro ed u ca
t o r s worked w ith Negro C o o rd in a to rs in a Negro community
d u rin g th e i n s t i t u t e , and fo u r o f th e f i v e M exican-American
e d u c a to rs worked w ith M exican-Am erican C o o rd in a to rs in a
M exican-Am erican community, th e s c a l e s te n d e d to be " e t h n i c
c o n s ta n t" f o r m in o r ity e d u c a t o r s ; t h a t i s , th ey i n d i c a t e d
c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e s w i t h i n e t h n i c o r r a c i a l a f f i l i a t i o n s .
With th e w h ite e d u c a t o r s , th e f a c t o r o f r a c i a l o r e t h n i c
d i f f e r e n c e caused th e r e s e a r c h e r to i n d i c a t e somewhat
g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s , a lth o u g h th e measurement in c lu d e d e t h
n i c a l l y " n e u t r a l " f a c t o r s such as r e l a t i v e a f f l u e n c e , e d u
c a t i o n o f p a r e n t s ( i n some cases t h i s was e s tim a te d ) and
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e c o r e - c u l t u r e . Raw d a t a , w ith
e t h n i c i t y i n d i c a t e d , r e t u r n e d as shown in Table I I .
You w i l l n o t i c e t h a t a number o f W hite-A nglo s u b
j e c t s ( s u b j e c t s 3, 8, 9, 13, 17, 20, and 21) show a d e
c r e a s e in c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e from th e r e s e a r c h e r 's s c o r in g
f o r o r i g i n s , to s u b j e c t s e s ti m a te o f p r e s e n t c u l t u r a l
o r i e n t a t i o n . I t may seem p u z z li n g t h a t a (more or l e s s )
m iddle c l a s s w h ite American would be c o n s id e re d to have
red u ced somehow th e d i f f e r e n c e in c u l t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s b e
tween h i m s e l f and th e s u b - c u l t u r e o f g h e tto o r b a r r i o y o u th
120
TABLE I I
DATA RETURN FOR VARIABLES 1 AND m
S u b je c t E t h n i c i t y
C u l t u r a l D istan c e
O rig in s
C u ltu re D istan c e
P r e s e n t
1 (M-A) 2 3
2
(N)
6 5
3 (W-A) 9 7
4 (N) 3 4
5 (W-A) 8 8
6 (M-A) 5 3
7 (W-A) 8 8
8 (W-A) 7 6
9 (W-A) 7 5
10 (M-A) 4 3
11
(N)
4 2
12 (W-A) 8 9
13 (W-A) 9 8
14 (N) 3 4
15 (W-A) 7 7
16
(N)
5 6
17 (W-A) 8 7
18 (W-A) 8 9
19 (W-A) 10 10
20 (W-A) 9 8
21 (N) 8 7
22 (N) 8 6
23 (M-A) 2 3
24 (M-A) 8 8
25 (N) 4 5
26 (N) 3 4
27 (W-A) 9 9
28 (N) 8 8
29 (W-A) 9 7
30 (N) 7 5
121
a f t e r r e a c h in g a d u lth o o d and becoming more o f an autonomous;
f u n c t i o n n a i r e of core c u l t u r e r o u t i n e . I t came o u t t h a t
way f o r two re a s o n s : A lthough th e e d u c a to rs d id s u r p r i s
in g ly w e ll in i n d i c a t i n g to th e r e s e a r c h e r ( in th e v ery
in fo r m a l p ro c e d u re d e s c r ib e d above) an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f
c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e between th e m selv e s and th e y o u th o f th e
c u l t u r e o f s tu d y , t h e r e was ten d en cy f o r a l l s u b j e c t s to
u n d e r e s tim a te t h i s d i s t a n c e f o r p r e s e n t c irc u m s ta n c e s . In
f a c t , th e l e a s t r e a l i s t i c i n d i c a t i o n s o f s e l f - p e r c e i v e d
c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e in p r e s e n t c irc u m sta n c e s were made by
M exican-American and Negro e d u c a to r s in t h i s group.
In a t l e a s t f i v e c a s e s , a v ery u n r e a l i s t i c a l l y low
l e v e l o f c u l t u r e d i s ta n c e was p e r c e iv e d seem ingly i n f l u
enced by th e d e s i r e o f m in o r ity e d u c a to rs to " l i n e up"
a g a i n s t c u r r e n t p h ilo s o p h y o f th e e d u c a tio n e s ta b lis h m e n t.
The second re a so n f o r th e s h i f t in s c o r e s downward was t h a t
p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e rie n c e w ith m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y outh ten d s
to e n la r g e c u l t u r a l p e r c e p t i o n , re d u c in g c e r t a i n k in d s o f
shock r e a c t i o n to c u l t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t phenomena. This
e n larg em e n t o f p e r c e p t i o n u n f o r t u n a t e l y does n o t n e c e s
s a r i l y accompany in c r e a s e d a cc e p tan c e o f th e c u l t u r a l l y
d i f f e r e n t , b u t th e p e r c e p t i o n i t s e l f can be an a s p e c t o f
changing c u l t u r a l o r i e n t a t i o n . S tu d ie s o f c u l t u r e c o n ta c t
would s u p p o rt the c o n te n tio n t h a t aw areness o f d i f f e r e n t
c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s has a t l e a s t a sm all e f f e c t on p la c i n g
122
o n e ’s own c u l t u r e in b e t t e r p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e r e f o r e changing
to a degree o r i e n t a t i o n tow ard c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s in
g e n e r a l .
P roving th e Hypotheses
sm oothness and e f f e c t i v e n e s s in w orking in th e m in o r ity
p o v e rty community showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r s c o r e s
(p o o re r e v a lu a tio n ) f o r e d u c a to rs when jud g ed by C o o rd in a
t o r s th a n when ju d g ed by o t h e r e d u c a to rs in th e team s. A
g lan ce above a t th e s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r s c o re s by Co
o r d i n a t o r s confirm s a r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g r e s t r a i n t in g iv in g
h ig h s c o r e s . This g iv e s somewhat more w eig h t to th e f i n d
in g s , as th e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e cannot be a t t r i b u t e d
to a few e r r a t i c h ig h s c o r e s .
two s e t s of d a t a - - v a r i a b l e s g and f - - a n d u s in g th e form ula
f o r F i s h e r 's t f o r t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e between means
H y p o th esis 1. Data r e t u r n e d f o r the in d ex o f
Even w ith o u t f i g u r i n g f o r c o r r e l a t i o n betw een th e
t
M f - M£
where a were computed w ith & and - , th e
/ n- i / n -1
d a ta r e t u r n e d
t = 2.483.
123
When c o r r e l a t i o n was f ig u r e d i n , and u s in g form ula
t
2 r aM a
Mg M£
th e r e t u r n was
t = 4.277.
In a o n e - t a i l e d t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , a t sco re v a lu e o f
2 .3 3 i s needed to prove s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between
means a t th e .01 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ; t h e r e f o r e , Hq i s
r e j e c t e d beyond th e .01 le v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e and H£ i s
v e ry s t r o n g l y s u p p o rte d .
sumed, t h r e was s tr o n g i n d i c a t i o n o f a d i f f e r e n c e between
th e way young m ales o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities see
and e v a lu a te th e a b i l i t y of e d u c a to rs to f u n c tio n e f f e c
t i v e l y in such com m unities and th e way e d u c a to rs judge such
a b i l i t y . The e v id en ce i n d i c a t e d a tendency f o r e d u c a to rs
to o v e r e s tim a te th e a b i l i t y o f fe llo w e d u c a to rs to work
sm oothly and w ith o u t awkwardness in m in o r ity - p o v e r ty com
m u n itie s .
r e l a t i v e g a in in u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e c u l t u r e o f m in o r ity -
p o v e rty you th showed a s l i g h t tendency f o r p o o r e r r a t i n g
by C o o rd in a to rs th a n by fe llo w e d u c a to r s . Using th e
I n d i c a t i o n : I f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam pling can be as-
H y p o th esis 2 . D ata r e t u r n e d f o r th e in d ex o f
124
F i s h e r form u la and assuming c o r r e l a t i o n , th e r e t u r n was
t = 1.88,
barely s ig n if ic a n t at the .05 le v e l of s ig n ific a n c e . Hq
r e jected at the .05 le v e l of s ig n ific a n c e ; H -^ supported,
but not strongly supported.
I n d i c a t i o n : There was some evidence o f a d i f f e r
ence betw een th e amount o f g a in i n u n d e rs ta n d in g e x p e r i
enced in w orking in m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty communities when judged
by young men o f such communities as compared w ith e v a l u a
t i o n s made by fe llo w e d u c a to r s . The i n d i c a t i o n was t h a t
e d u c a to rs te n d e d to o v e r e s tim a te gain in u n d e rs ta n d in g when
compared w ith g a in in u n d e r s ta n d in g as seen by young men o f
th e community.
H y p o th esis 5 . D ata r e t u r n e d f o r th e in d ex o f in -
tr a te a m r e l a t i o n s showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r s c o r e s
(p o o re r i n d i c a t i o n of r a p p o r t w i t h i n teams) when judged by
C o o rd in a to rs th a n when ju d g ed by o th e r e d u c a to rs i n the
team. Using th e same method f o r t e s t i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e b e
tween means as f o r th e H ypotheses 1 and 2, a z s c o re ( a s
suming d a ta c o r r e l a t e d ) o f
t = 4.89
was r e t u r n e d , s i g n i f i c a n t beyond th e .01 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i
cance. Hq r e j e c t e d , and H -^ s t r o n g l y s u p p o rte d .
I n d i c a t i o n : There was s tr o n g ev id en ce to s u p p o rt
th e c o n te n tio n t h a t young members o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty
125
communities and e d u c a to r s d id n o t see and r e a c t to group
r a p p o r t to a s i m i l a r e x t e n t . There was e v id en ce ( r ^ j =
.952) t h a t e d u c a to rs and young men from m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty
communities saw i n d i v i d u a l e d u c a to rs s i m i l a r l y as r e l a
t i v e l y easy o r r e l a t i v e l y d i f f i c u l t to work t o g e t h e r w ith .
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e h e re was n o t in th e d i r e c
t i o n of e v a l u a t i o n , b u t i n th e d i f f e r e n t w e ig h t o f im p o r
ta n c e given to i n t e r p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s betw een e d u c a to r s and
young men from m in o r ity - p o v e r ty com m unities.
H y p o th esis 4 . D ata r e t u r n d id n o t s u p p o rt th e
c o n te n t io n o f a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between r e a c t i o n to
c u l t u r a l symbols o f m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th c u l t u r e and
e v a l u a t i o n o f f i e l d awkwardness as judged by young men o f
th e community. In f a c t th e P earso n P ro d u c t Moment c o r r e l a
t i o n , a t
r = -.0 3 9
ag
seemed to i n d i c a t e a s l i g h t tendency f o r th o se r e a c t i n g to
th e symbols w ith r e l a t i v e l y more a n x ie ty to be e v a lu a te d
more fa v o r a b ly by th e young men from th e community. H q
a c c e p te d a t th e .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ; H^ n o t supported.
I n d i c a t i o n : Level o f a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n to s t e r e o
t y p i c symbols o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th c u l t u r e was e i t h e r
n o t i n d i c a t e d w e ll enough by th e sem a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l
t e c h n i q u e , o r was n o t r e l a t e d to a b i l i t y to f u n c tio n in
126
such communities w ith o u t obvious awkwardness.
H y p o th esis 5 . There r e t u r n e d an i n t e r e s t i n g , b u t
n o t q u i t e s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n
betw een r e l a t i v e dogmatism as m easured by th e Rokeach D-
S cale and e v a l u a t i o n o f f i e l d awkwardness as jud g ed by
young men o f th e m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y community. At tw en ty -
n in e d eg rees o f freedom (N -l) , a P earso n P ro d u ct Moment o f
.361 i s r e q u i r e d in o r d e r to f o r m a lly r e j e c t random c o r r e
l a t i o n a t .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . C o n sid e rin g th e sm all
N, and th e c ru d e n ess o f measurement o f f i e l d awkwardness,
th e r e t u r n o f r ^ = . 322 m ight a c t u a l l y be s i g n i f i c a n t f o r
p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t the
in d e x o f f i e l d awkwardness c o r r e l a t e d h ig h e r w ith s c o r e s on
th e Rokeach t e s t when e v a lu a te d by th e C o o rd in a to rs th a n
when e v a lu a te d by o t h e r e d u c a to r s = .2 6 1 ). Hq t e c h
n i c a l l y a c c e p te d a t .05 le v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . H^ t e c h n i
c a l l y n o t s u p p o rte d a t .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , b u t s u p
p o r t e d a t l e s s th an .10 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .
I n d i c a t i o n : There was some ev id en c e to s u g g e s t
t h a t r e l a t i v e r i g i d i t y and c lo se -m in d ed n e ss i s a f a c t o r o f
i n a b i l i t y to f u n c tio n w ith ease in c r o s s - c u l t u r a l situ a--
t i o n s i n m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y com m unities; a lth o u g h such i n d i
c a tio n s do n o t meet form al s t a t i s t i c a l s t a n d a r d s .
127
H y p o th esis 6 . The d a ta r e t u r n d id n o t s u p p o rt th e
c o n te n tio n t h a t s e l f - c o n c e i v e d c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e was p o s i
t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n to symbols o f
m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th c u l t u r e . At r am = .014, r a ^ = .077
t h e r e is l i t t l e to s u g g e s t even a tendency in th e d i r e c t i o n
o f th e Hq. T able 3 i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e c u l t u r a l d i s t a n c e
s c a l e s f a i l e d to ach iev e s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n w ith any
o f th e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . Hq a c c e p te d a t .05 l e v e l o f s i g
n i f i c a n c e ; H^ n o t s u p p o rte d .
I n d i c a t i o n : S e l f p e r c e iv e d d i s ta n c e in c u l t u r a l
term s from th e c u l t u r e o f m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y y outh d id n o t
seem to be r e l a t e d to a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n to s t e r e o t y p i c a l
a t t r i b u t e s o f such s u b - c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s .
H y p o th esis 7 . As w ith , th e c o r r e l a t i o n r e
tu r n e d f o r r ^ was i n t e r e s t i n g b u t n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g
n i f i c a n t ( .2 9 4 ) . I f th e r e s e a r c h e r had r e a l i z e d from th e
b e g in n in g how d i f f i c u l t i t would be to coax c o r r e l a t i o n s
from th e d a t a , he would have used .10 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e
th ro u g h o u t. In t h i s case r ^ would have r e t u r n e d fo rm a lly
s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n . Hq t e c h n i c a l l y a c c e p te d a t .05
l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . H^ t e c h n i c a l l y n o t s u p p o rte d a t .05
l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , b u t s u p p o rte d a t l e s s th a n .10 l e v e l
o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .
I n d i c a t i o n : There was some e v id en ce to s u g g e s t
t h a t r e l a t i v e r i g i d i t y and c lo se -m in d ed n e ss i s a f a c t o r in
TABLE I I I
MATRIX OF CORRELATIONS
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
A -.5432 -.190 -.196 -,363a .042 -.039 .037 -.122 .170 -.242 .077 .014
B .142 .068 .098 .261 .322° .211 .294° .283° . 303° -.119 -.067
C -.004 .033 .009 -.121 -.201 .033
D .216 -.096 -.085 -.128 -.054 .191
E .196 .135 -.262 -. 077 -.235 .049
F .244 .255 .47ia .503a .064 .255
G -.143 . 324° .498a .393b .004 .148
H .364b .279° .091 .160
I .359 .505 .008 -.151
J .044 .199
K .181 -.238
L
M
Significant at . 01 level of significance.
Significant at .10 level of significance.
Significant at . 05 level of significance.
ts)
00
129
i n a b i l i t y to g a in in u n d e rs ta n d in g d u rin g exposure to
m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th c u l t u r e as e v a lu a te d by young mem
b e rs o f such s u b - c u l t u r a l s e t t i n g s .
H y p o th esis 8 . Data r e t u r n f o r th e c o r r e l a t i o n b e
tween v a r i a b l e s a and b p ro v ed to be th e most s u r p r i s i n g
o f th e s tu d y . O bviously th e r e s e a r c h e r e x p e c te d a p o s i t i v e
c o r r e l a t i o n between th e s c o r e s on th e a l t e r e d sem a n tic d i f
f e r e n t i a l d ev ice and th e Rokeach D -S cale. Not o n ly d id a
p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n f a i l to r e t u r n , b u t had th e h y p o th e s is
been r e v e r s e d (H^: x 3l\) > c o rre sp o n d in g n u l l h y p o th
e s i s would have been r e j e c t e d a t beyond th e .01 l e v e l o f
s i g n i f i c a n c e . Hq v e ry s t r o n g l y s u p p o rte d ; H -^ r e j e c t e d most
e m p h a tic a lly a t a l l l e v e l s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .
I n d i c a t i o n : A lthough n o t f i g u r i n g i n t o any h y p o th
e s i s , th e r e was s tr o n g i n d i c a t i o n t h a t s u b j e c t s who were
most dogm atic were a ls o l e s s l i k e l y to show a n x ie ty r e a c
t i o n to s e l e c t e d symbols o f you th o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty
com m unities.
f ■ ■
H y p o th esis 9 . N othing more th a n random te n d e n c ie s
f o r c o r r e l a t i o n w ith age and any o f th e in d ex v a r i a b l e s
( f , g , h , i , j , k ) was i n d i c a t e d by th e d a ta r e t u r n . Hq a c
c e p te d a t th e .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ; H^ n o t s u p p o rte d .
I n d i c a t i o n : There was no e v id e n c e , as p roduced by
t h i s s tu d y , to s u p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n t h a t r e l a t i v e l y young
130
e d u c a to rs f i n d i t e a s i e r th a n o ld e r e d u c a to rs to f u n c tio n
w ith o u t awkwardness in th e s e t t i n g o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty
c u l t u r e as e v a lu a te d by young men o f such co m m u n ities.
H y p o th esis 10. There was a v e ry s l i g h t , b u t f a r
from s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t tendency f o r p e rs o n s who saw
th em selv es as r e l a t i v e l y c u l t u r a l l y c lo s e to th e y o u th o f
m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty communities to be e v a lu a te d fa v o r a b ly in
f u n c tio n in g in such com m unities. This i n d i c a t i o n was f o r
th e i n s t i t u t e members as a w hole. E a r l i e r in t h i s c h a p te r
i t was p o in te d o u t t h a t th o s e s u b j e c t s who r a t e d v e ry c lo s e
to th e m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty community o f stu d y b ecau se o f s i m i
l a r e t h n i c a f f i n i t y , a c t u a l l y s c o r e d p o o r e r th a n th e a v e r
age f o r a l l s u b j e c t s on index g. Hq a c c e p te d a t th e .01
l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ; n o t s u p p o rte d .
I n d i c a t i o n : S e l f - p e r c e i v e d c u l t u r a l d i s t a n c e was
n o t i n d i c a t e d as a f a c t o r i n t h i s s tu d y in a b i l i t y to f u n c
t i o n w ith o u t awkwardness in s p e c i f i c m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y com
m u n itie s as e v a lu a te d by young men o f such com m unities.
H y p o th esis 1 1 . The n e g a ti v e c o r r e l a t i o n r e tu r n e d
f o r s e l f - c o n c e i v e d c u l t u r e d is ta n c e o f p r e s e n t c irc u m
s ta n c e s and i n t r a t e a m r e l a t i o n s was i n t e r e s t i n g . I t may
stem from th e f e e l i n g o f s tr a n g e n e s s o f c u l t u r a l s u r ro u n d
in g s on th e p a r t o f th o se more d i s t a n t from th e community
o f s tu d y , and ov erco m p en satio n in term s o f a m e n a b ility due
131
to t h i s f e e l i n g . At any r a t e , r e j e c t e d a t a l l le v e l s
o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ; H -^ s t r o n g l y s u p p o rte d .
I n d i c a t i o n : There was no e v id e n c e , as pro d u ced by
t h i s s tu d y , to s u p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n t h a t s e l f - p e r c e i v e d
c lo s e r e l a t i v e c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y w ith s p e c i f i c m in o r ity -
p o v e r ty com m unities was a p o s i t i v e f a c t o r in c lo se i n t e r
p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s o f e d u c a to rs in sm all o r i e n t e d groups
c o n ta in in g seco n d ary sc h o o l-a g e young men from th e communi
t i e s as jud g ed by th e young men.
H y p o th esis 1 2 . I t i s easy to m isre ad th e i n d i c a
t i o n s o f r„ and r r from Table I I I . Keep in mind t h a t the
eg e f
h ig h e r th e in d ex s c o r e , th e p o o re r th e i n d i c a t i o n . Length
o f tim e was c a l c u l a t e d in raw c h r o n o lo g ic a l manner, the
more y e a r s te a c h in g th e h ig h e r th e s c o r e . T h e r e f o r e , th e
d a ta i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e s u b je c ts w ith lo n g e r te a c h in g
e x p e r ie n c e , b o th o v e r a l l and in th e community o f p o v e r ty ,
tn ed ed to be r a t e d p o o r e r than te a c h e r s w ith le s s e x p e r i
ence in th e f i e l d perform ance index b o th by C o o rd in a to rs
and by o t h e r e d u c a to r s . N e ith e r i n d i c a t i o n i s s t a t i s t i
c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , even a t th e .10 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ,
b u t even such m odest c o r r e l a t i o n i s i n t e r e s t i n g , and a t
l e a s t h i n t s a t th e v a l i d i t y o f th e r e s e a r c h h y p o th e s i s .
N o tice how t h i s i n d i c a t i o n appears to c o n t r a d i c t fin d in g s
f o r h y p o th e s is No. 9, in which v i r t u a l l y no d i r e c t i o n o f
c o r r e l a t i o n f o r age and v a r i a b l e g i s i n d i c a t e d by th e d a ta
132
r e t u r n . Hq r e j e c t e d a t .01 l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e ;
s t r o n g l y s u p p o rte d .
I n d i c a t i o n : There was no e v id e n c e , as pro d u ced by
t h i s s tu d y , to s u p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l
e x p e r ie n c e , o v e r a l l or s p e c i f i c a l l y i n s i t u a t i o n s in v o lv in g
m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th , i s a p o s i t i v e f a c t o r in a b i l i t y to
f u n c tio n w ith o u t awkwardness in t a s k o r i e n t e d s i t u a t i o n s in
such com m unities.
H y p o th esis 1 3 . Age was even l e s s o f a f a c t o r in
e v a l u a t i o n o f f i e l d e f f e c t i v e n e s s when judged by fe llo w
e d u c a to r s . r = .004, even w ith an N hundreds o f tim es
g r e a t e r th a n t h i s , i s no c o r r e l a t i o n a t a l l . Hq r e j e c t e d
a t .01 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ; H -^ s t r o n g l y s u p p o rte d .
I n d i c a t i o n : There was no e v id e n c e , as pro d u ced by
t h i s s tu d y , to s u p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n t h a t age i s a p o s i
t i v e f a c t o r in a b i l i t y to f u n c tio n w ith o u t awkwardness in
s p e c i f i c m in o r ity - p o v e r ty communities as e v a lu a te d by y-©ung
m^n... o f s uch...xom m unities-.-'
H y p o th e sis 14. As i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r in t h i s ch ap
t e r , th e r e was a v ery s l i g h t ten d en cy f o r C o o rd in a to rs to
s c o re v a r i a b l e g on an e t h n i c - s p e c i f i c b a s i s , b u t th e t e n
dency was v e ry s l i g h t . D ata r e t u r n f o r t h i s h y p o th e s is
b e a r s t h i s o u t. Using th e same te ch n iq u e f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e
betw een means as in th e f i r s t th r e e h y p o th e s e s , a t sco re
133 !
o f only
t = .058
was i n d i c a t e d f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e between means o f w h ite e d
u c a to r s e v a lu a te d by Negro C o o rd in a to rs and means o f Negro
e d u c a to rs e v a lu a te d by Negro C o o r d in a to r s , Hq r e j e c t e d a t
a l l re a s o n a b le l e v e l s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ; s t r o n g l y s u p
p o r te d .
I n d i c a t i o n : There was no e v id e n c e , as p roduced by
t h i s s tu d y , to s u p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n t h a t Negro e d u c a to rs
are seen as p o s s e s s in g s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r a b i l i t y to
f u n c tio n w ith o u t awkwardness in th e s p e c i f i c , m in o r ity -
p o v e rty community o f s tu d y as e v a lu a te d by young Negro men
o f th e community.
H ypothesis 15. With a d i f f e r e n c e o f 0.00 between
means o f Mexican-American e d u c a to rs and a l l o th e r s as
e v a lu a te d by M exican-American C o o r d in a to r s , i t was, o f
c o u rs e , u n n e c e ssa ry to run a t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . Such a
t e s t was run in o rd e r to fo rm a lly prove th e h y p o th e s is
however, and th e r a t h e r s i l l y t s c o re tu rn e d o u t to be
t = .003.
Hq r e j e c t e d a t a l l l e v e l s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ; H^ s t r o n g l y
s u p p o rte d .
I n d i c a t i o n : There was no e v id e n c e , as p ro d u ced by
t h i s s tu d y , to s u p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n t h a t M exican-American
e d u c a to rs are seen as p o s s e s s in g s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r
134
a b i l i t y to f u n c tio n w ith o u t awkwardness in th e s p e c i f i c
m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty community o f stu d y as e v a lu a te d by young
M exican-American men o f th e community.
H y p o th esis 1 6 . The raw d a ta f o r b o th sexes r e
tu r n e d as fo llo w s :
N = 12 N = 18
X = 4.66 X = 4.22
= 1.572 = 1.354
.443 = .328
t s c o re (u s in g fo rm u la f o r F i s h e r t a d ju s t e d f o r s m all N)
computed a t
t = .081
f o r th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e betw een means, f a r s h o r t
o f r e q u i r e d v a lu e f o r norm al l e v e l s o f form al s i g n i f i c a n c e .
Hq r e j e c t e d a t .01 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e ; H -^ s t r o n g l y s u p
p o r t e d .
I n d i c a t i o n : There was no e v id e n c e , as pro d u ced by
t h i s s tu d y , to s u p p o rt th e c o n te n t io n t h a t e i t h e r male or
fem ale e d u c a to rs a re s u p e r i o r in a b i l i t y to f u n c tio n w i t h
o u t awkwardness in th e s p e c i f i c m in o r ity - p o v e r ty community
o f s tu d y as e v a lu a te d by young men from th e community.
CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSIONS
G eneral Remarks
In summary, th e s tu d y p r e s e n t e d above took advan
tag e o f a summer i n s t i t u t e f o r te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
o f d is a d v a n ta g e d y o u th to i n v e s t i g a t e th e r e a c t i o n s o f
e d u c a to rs - -by d e f i n i t i o n p a r t i c i p a n t s in c o r e - c u l t u r e rou^
t i n e - - t o f i e l d e x p e r ie n c e s in m i n o r ity - p o v e r ty communities
p la n n e d and guid ed by y o u th f u l members o f such communities
Nine in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s were m easured f o r th e e d u c a to rs
1. R e l a t i v e a n x ie ty to a t t r i b u t e s o f m in o r ity -
p o v e r ty y o u th c u l t u r e .
2. R e l a t i v e open-m indedness.
3. Age.
4. Sex.
5. E t h n i c i t y .
6 . T o ta l y e a r s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e rie n c e .
7. Y ears o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e in d e a lin g
w ith m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th .
8. R e l a t i v e c u l t u r e d is ta n c e o f s u b j e c t ' s a d o l e s
c e n t y e a rs from th e community o f stu d y .
136
9. R e l a tiv e c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e o f s u b j e c t ' s p r e s e n t
c irc u m sta n c e s from th e community o f s tu d y .
To th e s e were added s i x dependent v a r i a b l e m easurem ents:
1. E v a lu a tio n o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s in w orking in th e
community ju d g ed by o t h e r e d u c a to r s .
2. The same e v a l u a t i o n by seco n d ary sc h o o l-a g e
r e s i d e n t s o f th e community.
3. E v a lu a tio n o f com parative g a in in u n d e rs ta n d in g
from f i e l d e x p e r ie n c e s jud g ed by o th e r e d u c a
t o r s .
4. The same e v a l u a t i o n by seco n d ary s c h o o l-a g e
r e s i d e n t s o f th e community.
5. E v a lu a tio n o f how w e ll e d u c a to rs worked w ith
o th e r s in th e f i e l d judged by o th e r e d u c a to r s .
6 . The same e v a l u a t i o n by seco n d ary sc h o o l-a g e
r e s i d e n t s of th e community.
A c o r r e l a t i o n m a tr ix was e s t a b l i s h e d f o r th e se f i f t e e n
v a r i a b l e s , minus sex and e t h n i c i t y . A t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e
o f d i f f e r e n c e betw een means was made f o r th e d ich o to m ies
m a le /fe m ale s u b j e c t s , m in o r ity /n o n - m in o r ity s u b j e c t s ,
s c o r e s by s c h o o l-a g e y o u th /s c o r e s by e d u c a t o r s , f o r s e v e r a l
o f th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . F in d in g s seemed to i n d i c a t e
t h a t e d u c a to rs have a tendency to u n d e r e s tim a te th e d i f f i
c u l t i e s o f f u n c tio n in g o u ts id e a m iddle c la s s o r i e n t e d s y s
tem. E t h n i c i t y p ro v e d to be a s u r p r i s i n g l y n e u t r a l f a c t o r
137
in measurem ents f o r dependent v a r i a b l e s , The common sense
s u s p ic io n t h a t le n g th o f e x p e rie n c e in d e a lin g w ith
m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y outh red u ces shock v a lu e o f the c u l t u r a l
a t t r i b u t e s o f th e se y o u th was s u p p o rte d . There was a t e n
dency, a lth o u g h n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 o r .01
l e v e l s , f o r s u b j e c t s who m easured as r e l a t i v e l y c lo se d
minded to s c o re p o o rly on dependent v a r i a b l e s . C o r r e l a t i o n
betw een dependent and in d e p en d e n t v a r i a b l e s ten d ed to be
s m a l l .
As much as an y th in g th e stu d y d e m o n strated how
undeveloped i s th e s y s te m a tic s tu d y o f c u l t u r e s e t d i f f e r
e n t i a l s in American e d u c a tio n . There were no g u id e lin e s
e s t a b l i s h e d f o r such a s tu d y , and the la c k o f com parative
d a ta makes g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , o f th e f in d i n g s d i f f i c u l t . I t i s
n o t c l e a r w h eth er th e f a i l u r e to r e t u r n s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g
n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s between dependent and in d ep en d en t
v a r i a b l e s r e s u l t e d from tr u e la c k o f r e l a t i o n s h i p between
th e s e f a c t o r s , o r sim ply from th e f a c t t h a t m easuring d e
v ic e s were to o g ro ss to measure a c c u r a t e l y th e s e p a r t i c u l a r
v a r i a b l e s .
The f a i l u r e to r e t u r n s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n b e
tween in d e p en d e n t v a r i a b l e s o f c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e , e x p e rie n c e
and age, and th e measurements o f ease in f i e l d s i t u a t i o n s ,
grow th i n u n d e r s ta n d in g and c o n t r i b u t i o n to group e f f e c
t i v e n e s s , im p lie s t h a t th e s e f a c t o r s (th e in d ep en d en t
138
v a r i a b l e s ) a re n o t d e c id in g c o n d itio n s in t e a c h e r and ad
m i n i s t r a t o r su cc e ss in m u l t i - c u l t u r a l s c h o o ls . F a i l u r e to
show s i g n i f i c a n c e between means f o r e t h n i c i t y and sex in
th e same measurements i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e se f a c t o r s too may
n o t be as im p o rta n t f o r e f f e c t i v e n e s s p o t e n t i a l in m u l t i
c u l t u r a l s c h o o ls . What th e stu d y d id imply was t h a t r e l a
t i v e p s y c h o lo g ic a l f l e x i b i l i t y i s more im p o rta n t th a n
e t h n i c i t y and c u l t u r e d is ta n c e as a f a c t o r in p o t e n t i a l
su c c e ss in surm ounting s u b - c u l t u r a l b a r r i e r s , a t l e a s t
where i d e o l o g i c a l c o n s id e r a tio n s are c o n s ta n t.
The most im p ressiv e f in d in g o f th e stu d y was t h a t
young men o f eco n o m ically d e p re ss e d Negro and Mexican-
American s e c t o r s o f g r e a t e r Los A ngeles--young men c a r e
f u l l y s e l e c t e d to r e p r e s e n t th e average seco n d a ry -a g e young
man in t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o m m u n itie s--d id n o t f i n d e d u c a to rs
o f t h e i r own e t h n i c or r a c i a l group more ab le th a n o th e r s
to f u n c tio n e f f e c t i v e l y in th e community. R eader s k e p t i
cism a t such a c o n c lu sio n can h a r d ly be blamed. The r e a d e r
m ig h t, f o r in s ta n c e , s u sp e c t t h a t th e s p e c i a l s t a t u s o f
th e s e young men as q u asi-em p lo y ees o f th e I n s t i t u t e , and
t h e r e f o r e o f th e u n i v e r s i t y , e s t a b l i s h e d an a t t i t u d e o f
"we" and "th e y " tow ard I n s t i t u t e members, and th e re b y e n
couraged a b la n k e t e v a lu a tio n o f th e " s t u d e n t s " ( i . e . , the
e d u c a to rs ) w ith undue d i s r e g a r d f o r e t h n i c d i f f e r e n c e s in
p e rfo rm a n c e .
139
The m a t t e r o f C o o rd in a to r s e l e c t i o n i s , as w e l l ,
s u b j e c t to some re a s o n a b le s u s p ic io n . I n s t i t u t e s t a f f i n
te rv ie w e d a l l p r o s p e c t i v e C o o rd in a to rs p r i o r to th e i n s t i
t u t e ; i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t s e l e c t i o n was b i a s e d by an uncon
s c io u s tendency to choose c a n d id a te s i n d i c a t i n g r e l a t i v e l y
l e s s h o s t i l i t y , le a v in g th e I n s t i t u t e w ith young men le s s
k een ly r e s e n t f u l o f " C h a r ly ," " th e Man," e t c .
F i n a l l y , s u s p ic io n as to th e v a l i d i t y o f such a
f in d in g c o u ld be r a i s e d by th e c l o s e , alm ost i n t i m a t e , r e
l a t i o n s h i p s which grew betw een C o o rd in a to rs and e d u c a to rs
w i t h i n team s. R e l a tio n s between th e young men and th e e d u
c a to r s was n o t always warm and a c c e p tin g , b u t w orking in
teams c e r t a i n l y prom oted f a m i l i a r i t y . Everyone w i t h i n
teams came to know team members as i n d i v i d u a l s . Perhaps
t h i s d id c r e a t e a s i t u a t i o n which was so u n lik e classro o m
r e l a t i o n s betw een te a c h e r s and s t u d e n t s , t h a t c o n c lu s io n s
drawn from such s i t u a t i o n s have v e ry l i m i t e d r e le v a n c e to
th e form al e d u c a tio n s e t t i n g .
While such s u s p ic io n s are u n d e r s ta n d a b le , t h i s
w r i t e r , as p a r t i c i p a n t - o b s e r v e r w ith th e i n s t i t u t e , h o ld s
th e o p in io n t h a t th e y do n o t p o i n t to c o n d itio n s which i n
v a l i d a t e th e f i n d i n g s . The young men employed as Community
C o o rd in a to rs f o r t h i s i n s t i t u t e were f a r from n e u t r a l in
m a tte rs o f e t h n i c c o n f l i c t . Here were no m ild-m annered
c o n fo rm is ts to sch o o l i n d o c t r i n a t i o n , u rg in g m o d e ra tio n in
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c u r r e n t e t h n i c s t r u g g l e s , and a v a i l a b l e as a p o l o g i s t s f o r
th e s t a t u s quo. In th e s e m in a rs , as w e ll as in p r i v a t e
c o n v e r s a t i o n , v i r t u a l l y a l l th e C o o rd in a to rs were a t l e a s t
as r a d i c a l in a d d r e s s in g th e problem s o f m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y
p e o p le s as th e two a r d e n t s e p a r a t i s t s among th e e d u c a to r s .
B i t t e r n e s s c o n ce rn in g ra c e r e l a t i o n s i n American s o c i e t y
was f r e q u e n t l y v o ic e d by C o o r d in a to r s ; a l l ag re ed e n t h u s i
a s t i c a l l y t h a t an e t h n i c a l l y in d e p e n d e n t developm ent o f th e
c u l t u r e o f t h e i r own community was n e c e s s a r y and d e s i r a b l e .
This w r i t e r i s co n v in ced t h a t th e s e young men w ere, r e g a r d
l e s s o f t h e i r s t a t u s w i t h i n th e i n s t i t u t e , no more prone
th a n any randomly s e l e c t e d group o f m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y h ig h
s c h o o l s tu d e n t s to "go s o f t " on a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e w h ite
m iddle c l a s s .
The a p p a r e n t i n c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h i s group o f young
men, on th e one hand v a g u ely in fa v o r o f v a r io u s forms o f
e t h n i c s e p a r a tis m in e d u c a tio n , and on th e o t h e r hand n o t
f in d i n g e d u c a to rs o f t h e i r own e t h n i c a f f i l i a t i o n more
e f f e c t i v e in h a n d lin g s i t u a t i o n s in t h e i r own n eig h b o rh o o d s,
i s n o t easy to e x p l a i n . I t may be t h a t t h e y , as a group,
e x h i b i t e d a r a t h e r s o p h i s t i c a t e d u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e c l a s s
c u l t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een e d u c a to r s as a whole and
m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y y o u th , and sim ply ig n o re d th e is s u e o f
e t h n i c i t y f o r p u rp o se s o f e d u c a to r e v a l u a t i o n . I t i s th e
f e e l i n g o f th e w r i t e r t h a t th e a t t i t u d e s o f s e p a r a tis m
141
m entioned above were n o t s e r i o u s l y a l t e r e d by th e i n s t i t u t e
e x p e rie n c e in th e minds o f th e C o o r d in a to r s . W hatever th e
C o o r d in a to r s ' fo rm al a t t i t u d e s were c o n ce rn in g th e i d e a l
e t h n i c make-up o f sc h o o l f a c u l t i e s , t h i s a t t i t u d e d id n o t
te n d to e f f e c t t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l e d u c a to r s .
In th e m a t t e r o f C o o rd in a to r s e l e c t i o n , i t i s u n
l i k e l y t h a t a b i a s tow ard " a c c e p t a b l e " a t t i t u d e s re g a r d in g
ra c e and o t h e r m a tte r s e n t e r e d i n . A ll C o o rd in a to rs were
chosen by p e rs o n s w ith lo n g - s ta n d in g o p e r a t i v e f a m i l i a r i t y
w ith th e communities in q u e s t i o n . Both s e l e c t i o n and
s u p e r v i s i o n o f C o o rd in a to rs were c a r r i e d o u t by r e s i d e n t s
o f th e r e s p e c t i v e m i n o r i t y - p o v e r t y com m unities who were
q u i t e aware o f th e im p o r ta n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een su b
c u l t u r e s . M exican-Am erican C o o rd in a to rs were s e l e c t e d and
s u p e r v is e d by f u n c t i o n a l members o f th e S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a
M exican-Am erican s u b - c u l t u r e n o t n o rm a lly i d e n t i f i e d w ith
s c h o o ls o r o t h e r c o r e - c u l t u r e i n s t i t u t i o n s . While th e
c h i e f s u p e r v i s o r f o r Negro C o o rd in a to rs was an o f f i c i a l
w ith th e Los A ngeles C ity School D i s t r i c t , h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l
d u t i e s were d i r e c t e d tow ard d is a d v a n ta g e d y o u th , and he
e a s i l y g r a v i t a t e d to a h ig h d egree o f r a p p o r t w ith g h e tto
y o u th . In no case was i t n e c e s s a r y f o r p r o s p e c t i v e Co
o r d i n a t o r s to have had "good" r e l a t i o n s w ith r e p r e s e n t a
t i v e s o f m iddle c l a s s core c u l t u r e to be s e l e c t e d .
The s u s p i c i o n t h a t th e I n s t i t u t e was a s p e c i a l
s i t u a t i o n and had l i t t l e r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e sc h o o l s e t t i n g
i s th e most d i f f i c u l t to answ er. C e r t a i n l y had someone
come i n t o a t y p i c a l i n s t i t u t e f u n c tio n tow ard the end o f
th e e i g h t weeks he would have o b serv ed p e r s o n a l i n t e r
a c ti o n between sch o o l-a g e young men and a d u lts which bore
l i t t l e resem blance to t y p i c a l s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
The young men came to be c o m p le tely r e la x e d in th e p re s e n c e
o f th e e d u c a to r s , and seemed t o enjoy u sin g a d i a l e c t and
m a n if e s tin g o th e r a sp e c ts o f t h e i r s u b - c u l t u r e which are
u s u a l l y d isc o u ra g e d in s c h o o ls . There was n o t much the
e d u c a to rs c o u ld do b u t assume an e q u a ll y r e la x e d to n e . The
s o c i a l e v e n ts o f th e i n s t i t u t e - - i n e sse n c e p a r t i e s - - d r i f t e d
about as f a r from o r d in a r y s t u d e n t - t e a c h e r r e l a t i o n s as i s
p o s s i b l e to g e t. A d m itted ly t h i s k in d of r a p p o r t cannot be
p a r t o f th e t y p i c a l secondary sch o o l s e t t i n g as p r e s e n t l y
c o n s t i t u t e d . This f a c t , how ever, is t r u e f o r a l l p u b lic
secondary sch o o l s e t t i n g s , and may have n o th in g to do w ith
e t h n i c and r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s . The b a s i c purpose o f t h i s
stu d y was to i n v e s t i g a t e d i f f e r e n t i a l s in th e backgrounds
of e d u c a to rs as th ey r e l a t e d to a b i l i t y to work w ith
m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y outh in th e community o f the l a t t e r . I t
seems l i k e l y t h a t r e l a t i v e a b i l i t y to f u n c tio n in such s i t
u a tio n s has re le v a n c e f o r a l l ty p es o f i n t e r a c t i o n a cro ss
s u b - c u l t u r e l i n e s , in c lu d in g th e classro o m .
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S e r e n d i p i t i e s
In a stu d y l i k e t h i s w ith a r a t h e r l a r g e v a r i a b l e
c o u n t, and e s p e c i a l l y in a s tu d y in such v i r g i n g round, i t
u s u a l l y happens t h a t some f in d i n g s r e t u r n which are w h o lly
u n a n t i c i p a t e d . There were th r e e such f in d i n g s in th e stu d y
p r e s e n te d h e re .
1. The s t r i k i n g n e g a ti v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een a n x i
e ty r e a c t i o n to symbols o f m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th c u l t u r e
and r e l a t i v e clo se -m in d ed n e ss g iv es r i s e to some i n t e r e s t
ing c o n je c tu r e . Much more s tu d y would have to be done to
e s t a b l i s h any such r e l a t i o n s h i p , o f c o u rs e , b u t th e stu d y
s t r o n g l y s u g g e s te d t h a t r e l a t i v e a n x ie ty to symbols o f th e
c u l t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t was n o t a t a l l a c lo se -m in d ed r e j e c
t i o n o f a t t r i b u t e s o f th e c u l t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t . When we
look a t some r e s p e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r th e s e two v a r i
a b le s w ith o th e r s in th e m a t i r x , we are tem pted to e x ten d
th e im p l i c a t i o n s a b i t and even s u g g e s t t h a t p e rh a p s low
a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n to d i s t a n t c u l t u r a l a t t r i b u t e s ten d s to be
a s s o c i a t e d w ith r e l a t i v e i n s e n s i t i v i t y to d iv e r g e n t c u l
t u r a l s ta n d a r d s . I t may be t h a t e d u c a to rs who l e a s t n o t i c e
and l e a s t " r e a c t " to c u l t u r a l l y d i s t a n t a t t r i b u t e s te n d to
be l e s s l i k e l y th a n o th e r s to a cc e p t th e f a c t o f a u t h e n t i c
d i f f e r e n c e s , and t h e r e f o r e would l e a s t l i k e l y be a b le to
d e a l e f f e c t i v e l y i n c r o s s - c u l t u r a l e d u c a tio n a l s e t t i n g s .
I t p ro b a b ly does n o t fo llo w t h a t , c o n v e r s e ly ,
144
e d u c a to rs w ith th e most a n x ie ty r e a c t i o n to symbols of
m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y outh c u l t u r e te n d to be th e most a c c e p t
in g and t h e r e f o r e more e f f e c t i v e in c r o s s - c u l t u r a l ed u ca
t i o n a l s e t t i n g s . A lthough t h i s r e s e a r c h e r does n o t w ish to
r u l e o u t som ething l i k e t h i s , n o r would he want to d i s c o u r
age f u r t h e r in q u ir y i n t o such a r e l a t i o n s h i p . One problem
h e re i s te rm in o lo g y . A f t e r a l l , what we have l a b e l e d as
a n x ie t y b ased on r e l a t i v e s c o re s in th e measurement o f th e
p o te n c y and a c t i v i t y dim ensions o f O sgood's sem a n tic space
i s p ro b a b ly n o t so f a r from c o n c e rn , i n t e r e s t , and o t h e r
f a r more p o s i t i v e sounding c o n c e p ts .
Such i m p lic a tio n s must be viewed w ith c a u ti o n , on
th e o t h e r hand, because o f th e many l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s
s tu d y . The w r i t e r does f e e l s a f e in s t a t i n g t h a t th e id e a
of. a g e n e r a l i z e d , dichotom ous r e a c t i o n to c u l t u r a l l y d i f
f e r e n t s t i m u l i - - c o n f o r t a b l e r e a c t i o n and o pen-m indedness/
anxious r e a c t i o n and c lo s e d - m in d e d n e s s - - is o v e r s i m p l i f i e d ,
i f n o t c o m p letely i n a c c u r a t e .
2. I t was e x p e c te d t h a t th e c lim a te o f th e i n s t i
t u t e would d isco u rag e a h a u g h ty , s u p e r i o r a t t i t u d e on th e
p a r t o f th e e d u c a to rs in d e a li n g w ith th e C o o rd in a to rs .
The C o o rd in a to rs a c t u a l l y had some r e a l a u t h o r i t y in m at
t e r s o f f i e l d work, and th e i n s t i t u t e s t a f f made i t c l e a r
th e f i r s t week t h a t d e c i s i o n o f where to go and what to do
by C o o rd in a to rs would n o rm a lly have s t a f f s u p p o rt.
145
One m ight w onder, on th e o th e r hand, j u s t how easy
i t would be f o r e d u c a to rs to d e al on e g a l i t a r i a n and f a
m i l i a r term s w ith th e same k in d s o f young p e o p le whom they
so th o ro u g h ly dom inate i n t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n . The ten d en cy
tow ard p a r a n o ia which i s so n o t i c e a b l e in th e sc h o o l atmo
sp h e re where s c h o o ls a r e , in a s e n s e , c h a lle n g e d by d i v e r
g en t c u l t u r a l s ta n d a r d s s u r e l y sh o u ld p r e s e n t some b a r r i e r s
to c lo s e o u t - o f - s c h o o l r a p p o r t betw een e d u c a to rs and
m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th .
This was n o t the c a s e . From th e b e g in n in g t h e r e
was a rem arkable la c k o f any tendency to r o l e - p l a y on th e
p a r t of th e e d u c a to r s . This w r i t e r has o b serv ed how u t
t e r l y d i f f i c u l t i t i s f o r most m ed ical d o c to rs to sh ed the
a u ra of e x p e r t i s e g r a n te d them i n t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n . The
r e s u l t is o f t e n a b o o ris h n e s s in d e a lin g w ith m a tte r s in
which th ey c l e a r l y have no s p e c i a l aw aren ess. I f t h i s
group of te a c h e r s i s a t a l l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , i t i s l i k e l y
t h a t t h e r e i s much l e s s o f a tendency f o r te a c h e r s to o v e r
e x te n d r o l e p r e r o g a t i v e s . These e d u c a to rs ap p eared to be
q u i t e w i l l i n g to a c c e p t th e f a c t t h a t th e r e was v ery l i t t l e
about th e community o f s tu d y which they u n d e rs to o d as w e ll
as th e C o o rd in a to rs . When th e C o o rd in a to rs t a l k e d d u rin g
th e s e m in a rs , th e e d u c a t o r s , on th e w hole, l i s t e n e d . There
ap p eared v ery l i t t l e tendency to rank comments as em anating
from o th e r e d u c a to rs or s t a f f - - t o be ta k en s e r i o u s l y ; and
146
as em anating from C o o rd in a to rs - - to be d is c o u n te d . A ppar
e n t l y i t i s n o t so d i f f i c u l t f o r th e average e d u c a to r to
shed th e r o l e a t t r i b u t e s when s l i g h t l y a l t e r e d c o n d itio n s
p r e v a i l , even when b o th e d u c a to rs and s tu d e n t s come to the
s i t u a t i o n w ith " l a b e l s sh o w in g ."
3. A lthough n o t a momentous d is c o v e r y , t h e r e a p
p e a r e d in th e d a ta r e t u r n a c u rio u s i n a b i l i t y to c o r r e c t l y
i n d i c a t e p r e f e r e n c e s of a c t i v i t i e s f o r o t h e r team members.
As a p a r t o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e a d m in is te r e d to members a t
th e c lo s e o f th e i n s t i t u t e , two m u l t i p l e ch o ice item s were
in c lu d e d d e sig n e d to i n d i c a t e r e l a t i v e p o p u l a r i t y o f d i f
f e r e n t i n s t i t u t e a c t i v i t i e s . S u b je c ts w ere asked to rank
th e t h r e e a c t i v i t i e s - -m orning s e m in a rs , f i e l d e x p e r i e n c e s ,
p r e p a r in g th e p r o d u c tio n - - o n th e b a s i s o f p r e f e r e n c e . As
w ith th e o th e r q u e s t i o n n a i r e ite m s , s u b j e c t s were th en
asked to i n d i c a t e how t h e i r f e llo w team members ran k ed th e
e x p e r ie n c e s . This was done p r i m a r i l y to keep th e fo rm at
o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t e n t ; i t was assumed t h a t th e r e
would be n e a r l y p e r f e c t c o n s is te n c y betw een a s u b j e c t ' s
own ra n k in g and th e o t h e r team members' gu esses as to h is
p r e f e r e n c e s .
S u r p r i s i n g l y , th e members as a whole were u nable
to c o r r e c t l y guess o t h e r team members' ra n k in g s o f p r e f e r
e n c e s. C o o rd in a to rs were in c lu d e d in t h i s r a n k in g , so t h a t
in a l l th e r e were n i n e t y r a n k in g s , th r e e f o r each s u b j e c t .
147
In only s i x t y - o n e i n s t a n c e s were r a t e r s a b le to c o r r e c t l y
i n d i c a t e even th e f i r s t ch o ice o f a c t i v i t i e s , and in only
e ig h te e n i n s t a n c e s were ra n k in g s c o n s i s t e n t w ith s u b j e c t s '
own ra n k in g s o f p r e f e r e n c e s . A p p a ren tly w h ile w orking
t o g e t h e r w ith t h r e e o t h e r p e o p le f o r e i g h t weeks in com
p a r a t i v e in tim a c y , s u b j e c t s in th e s e teams d id n o t te n d to
communicate to t h e i r f e llo w team members how th e y r e a c t e d
to th e s e t h r e e i n s t i t u t e a c t i v i t i e s in term s o f p r e f e r e n c e .
This may r a i s e some doubt as to th e v a l i d i t y o f s u b j e c t s '
e v a l u a t i o n in term s o f th e m easured v a r i a b l e s by o t h e r
team members. Or i t may sim ply i n d i c a t e t h a t a l l a c t i v i
t i e s were seen as s i m i l a r l y v a l u a b l e , and t h e r e was l i t t l e
ten d en cy f o r s tr o n g p r e f e r e n c e s f o r one o v er a n o th e r .
S u g g e s tio n s f o r F u r th e r Study
There needs to be much more s tu d y done i n th e gen
e r a l a r e a o f c u l t u r e and e d u c a tio n b e fo re we can even b e g in
to come to g r i p s w ith th e is s u e s t u d e n t - e d u c a t o r r e l a t i o n s
in c r o s s - c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n s . B efore s p e c i f i c s t u d i e s l i k e
th e above can be o f much v a l u e , th e t h e o r e t i c a l ground in
th e a r e a o f com m unication a c ro ss s u b - c u l t u r e s w i t h i n th e
l a r g e r American s o c i e t y must be farm ed. There needs to be
much more done in th e a r e a o f w o rld view s t u d i e s w ith in
v a r io u s s u b - c u l t u r a l o r i e n t a t i o n s i n th e s o c i e t y so t h a t
we can become a u t h o r i t a t i v e when d is c u s s in g p a t t e r n s o f
a ssu m p tio n s and how th e y " m i s f i r e " betw een s u b - c u l t u r e s .
148
The s tu d y r e p o r t e d h e re may have been on th e r i g h t
t r a c k , b u t f o r fo llo w up work to be o f b e n e f i t , a t l e a s t
t h r e e d i f f e r e n t c o n d itio n s must be met.
1. The s tu d y o f th e e f f e c t o f c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e on
e f f e c t i v e n e s s in w orking w ith m in o r ity - p o v e r ty y o u th sh ould
be b ro u g h t i n t o th e sch o o l s e t t i n g i t s e l f . O therw ise a l l
we can do i s to guess how f in d i n g s r e l a t e to th e d a y -to -d a y
f u n c t i o n of e d u c a tio n .
2. I n d ic e s of s o c i a l d i s ta n c e and e f f e c t i v e n e s s in
d e a lin g in c u l t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s need to be r e
f i n e d . A ssignm ent o f c u l t u r e d i s t a n c e sc o re s by a k in d o f
r e s e a r c h d e i t y method c l e a r l y i s n o t a c c e p ta b le because
th e r e i s no way to s t a n d a r d i z e m easurem ent. This w r i t e r
can see no re a so n why c r o s s - c u l t u r a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s cannot
be m easured w ith a s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t d e sig n e d f o r t h i s
p u r p o s e .
3. F ar l a r g e r numbers of s u b je c ts s h o u ld be i n
c lu d ed in stu d y d e sig n to com pensate f o r i d i o s y n c r a t i c
r e s p o n s e s .
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
149
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LP~
APPENDIX
FORM D OF THE ROKEACH D SCALE TEST
FOR CLOSE-MINDEDNESS
158
FORM D OF THE ROKEACH D SCALE TEST
FOR CLOSE-MINDEDNESS
INSTRUCTIONS
The b e s t answer to each s ta te m e n t in t h i s b o o k le t is
y our p e r s o n a l o p i n i o n . We have t r i e d to cover many
d i f f e r e n t and opposing p o i n t s o f view ; you may f i n d
y o u r s e l f a g re e in g s t r o n g l y w ith some o f th e s t a t e
m en ts, d is a g r e e in g j u s t as s t r o n g l y w ith o t h e r s , and
p e rh a p s u n c e r t a i n about o t h e r s ; w h eth er you ag ree or
d is a g r e e w ith any s ta t e m e n t, you can be su re t h a t
many p e o p le f e e l th e same as you do.
(1) The U n ite d S t a t e s and R u ssia have j u s t about n o th in g
in common.
(2) Communism and C a th o lic is m have n o th in g in common.
(3) The p r i n c i p l e s I have come to b e lie v e in are q u i t e
d i f f e r e n t from th o s e b e l i e v e d in by most p e o p le .
(4) In a h e a te d d i s c u s s i o n p eo p le have a way of b r in g i n g
up i r r e l e v a n t i s s u e s r a t h e r th a n s t i c k i n g to th e main
i s s u e .
(5) The h i g h e s t form o f government i s a democracy and th e
h i g h e s t form of democracy i s a government run by th o se
who are most i n t e l l i g e n t .
(6) Even though freedom o f speech f o r a l l groups i s a
w o rth w h ile g o a l, i t i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y n e c e s s a r y to
r e s t r i c t th e freedom o f c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l g ro u p s.
(7) While th e use o f fo r c e i s wrong by and l a r g e , i t is
sometimes th e only way p o s s i b l e to advance a noble
i d e a l .
(8) Even though I have a l o t o f f a i t h in th e i n t e l l i g e n c e
and wisdom o f th e common man I must say t h a t th e
masses behave s t u p i d l y a t tim e s.
159
160
(9) I t i s o n ly n a t u r a l t h a t a p e rs o n would have a much
b e t t e r a c q u a in ta n c e w ith id e a s he b e l i e v e s in th an
w ith id e a s he op p o ses.
(10) There a re c e r t a i n "ism s" w hich a re r e a l l y th e same
even though th o se who b e l i e v e in th e s e "ism s" t r y to
t e l l you th e y a re d i f f e r e n t .
(11) Man on h i s own i s a h e l p l e s s and m is e r a b le c r e a t u r e .
(12) F u n d am en tally , th e w o rld we l i v e in i s a p r e t t y lone^
some p l a c e .
(13) Most p e o p le j u s t d o n 't g iv e a "damn" f o r o t h e r s .
(14) I ' d l i k e i t i f I could f i n d someone who would t e l l me
how to s o lv e my p e r s o n a l p roblem s.
(15) I t i s only n a t u r a l f o r a p e rs o n to be r a t h e r f e a r f u l
o f th e f u t u r e .
(16) There i s so much to be done and so l i t t l e time to do
i t i n .
(17) Once I g e t wound up in a h e a te d d i s c u s s i o n I j u s t
c a n ' t s to p .
(18) In a d i s c u s s i o n I o f t e n f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y to r e p e a t
m y self s e v e r a l tim es to make s u re I am b e in g u n d e r
sto o d .
(19) In a h e a te d d i s c u s s i o n I g e n e r a l l y become so ab so rb ed
in w hat I am going to say t h a t I f o r g e t to l i s t e n to
what o th e r s are s a y in g .
(20) In a d i s c u s s i o n I sometimes i n t e r r u p t o th e r s too much
in my e a g e rn e ss to p u t a c ro ss my own p o i n t o f view.
(21) I t i s b e t t e r to be a dead h ero th an to be a l i v e
coward.
(22) My h a r d e s t b a t t l e s are w ith m y s e lf.
(2 3) At tim e s I t h in k I am no good a t a l l .
(24) I am a f r a i d o f p e o p le who want to f i n d o u t what I'm
r e a l l y l i k e f o r f e a r t h e y ' l l be d is a p p o i n te d in me.
161
(25) While I d o n 't l i k e to adm it t h i s even to m y s e lf, my
s e c r e t am b itio n i s to become a g r e a t man, l i k e
E i n s t e i n , B eethoven, o r S h ak esp eare.
(26) The main t h in g in l i f e i s f o r a p e rs o n to w^nt to do
som ething im p o r ta n t.
(27) I f g iv e n th e chance I would do som ething o f g r e a t
b e n e f i t to th e w o rld .
(28) I f I had to choose between h a p p in ess and g r e a t n e s s ,
I ' d choose g r e a t n e s s .
(29) I t ' s a l l too tr u e t h a t p e o p le j u s t w o n 't p r a c t i c e what
th e y p re a c h .
(30) Most p e o p le are f a i l u r e s and i t is th e system which
i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s .
(31) I have o f te n f e l t t h a t s t r a n g e r s were lo o k in g a t me
c r i t i c a l l y .
(32) I t is only n a t u r a l f o r a p e rso n to have a g u i l t y con
s c ie n c e .
(33) People say i n s u l t i n g and v u lg a r th in g s about me,
(34) I am s u re I am b e in g t a l k e d about.
(35) In th e h i s t o r y o f mankind t h e r e have p ro b a b ly been j u s t
a h a n d fu l o f r e a l l y g r e a t t h i n k e r s .
(36) There a re a number o f p eo p le I have come to h a te
b ecau se o f th e th in g s th e y s ta n d f o r .
(37) A man who does n o t b e l i e v e in some g r e a t cause has n o t
r e a l l y l i v e d .
(38) I t i s only when a p e rs o n dev o tes h i m s e l f to an i d e a l
o r cause t h a t l i f e becomes m e an in g fu l.
(39) Of a l l th e d i f f e r e n t p h ilo s o p h ie s w hich e x i s t in t h i s
w o rld t h e r e is p ro b a b ly only one which, i s c o r r e c t .
(40) A p e rs o n who g e ts e n t h u s i a s t i c about to o many causes
i s l i k e l y to be a p r e t t y "wishy-washy" s o r t o f p e rs o n .
(41) To compromise w ith our p o l i t i c a l opponents i s dan g err
ous b ecau se i t u s u a l l y le ad s to th e b e t r a y a l of our
own s i d e .
162
(42) When i t comes to d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p in io n in r e l i g i o n
we must be c a r e f u l n o t to compromise w ith th o s e who
b e l i e v e d i f f e r e n t l y from th e way we do.
(43) In tim es l i k e t h e s e ? a p e rs o n must be p r e t t y s e l f i s h
i f he c o n s id e r s p r i m a r i l y h i s own h a p p in e s s .
(44) To compromise w ith our p o l i t i c a l opponents i s to be
g u i l t y o f appeasem ent.
(45) The w o rs t crim e a p e rs o n c o u ld commit i s to a t t a c k
p u b l i c l y the p e o p le who b e l i e v e i n th e same th in g he
d o e s .
(46) In tim es l i k e th e s e i t is o f te n n e c e s s a r y to be more
on g uard a g a i n s t id e a s p u t o u t by p e o p le o r groups in
o n e 's own camp th a n by th o se in th e opposing camp.
(47) A group which t o l e r a t e s too much d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p in
io n among i t s own members cannot e x i s t f o r long.
(48) There a re two k in d s o f p e o p le in t h i s w o rld : th o se
who are f o r th e t r u t h and th o se who a re a g a i n s t th e
t r u t h .
(49) My b lo o d b o i l s whenever a p e rs o n s tu b b o r n ly r e f u s e s to
adm it h e 's wrong.
(50) A p e rs o n who th in k s p r i m a r i l y o f h i s own h a p p in e s s is
b e n e a th contem pt.
(51) Most o f th e id e a s which g e t p r i n t e d nowadays a r e n ' t
w o rth th e p a p e r th e y are p r i n t e d on.
(52) I sometimes have a tendency to be too c r i t i c a l o f th e
id e a s o f o t h e r s .
(53) In t h i s c o m p lic a te d w o rld o f ours th e o n ly way we can
know w h a t's going on is to r e l y on l e a d e r s o r e x p e r ts
who can be t r u s t e d .
(54) I t i s o f t e n d e s i r a b l e to r e s e r v e judgment about w h a t's
g oin g on u n t i l one has had a chance to h e a r th e o p in
io n s o f th o se one r e s p e c t s .
(55) In th e long run th e b e s t way to l i v e is to p ic k
f r i e n d s and a s s o c i a t e s whose t a s t e s and b e l i e f s are
th e same as o n e 's own.
163
C56) T h e r e 's no use w a s tin g y our money on new spapers which
you know in advance a re j u s t p l a i n p ropaganda.
(5 7) Young p eo p le sh o u ld n o t have top easy a ccess to books
which are l i k e l y to confuse them.
(58) The p r e s e n t i s a l l too o f te n f u l l o f u n h a p p in e s s. I t
i s only th e f u t u r e t h a t c o u n ts .
(59) I t is by r e t u r n i n g to our g lo r i o u s and f o r g o t t e n p a s t
t h a t r e a l s o c i a l p r o g r e s s can be a ch iev ed .
(60) To achieve th e h a p p in e ss of mankind in the f u t u r e i t
i s sometimes n e c e s s a ry to p u t up w ith i n j u s t i c e s in
th e p r e s e n t .
(61) I f a man is to accom plish h i s m is sio n in l i f e i t is
sometimes n e c e s s a r y to gamble " a l l o r n o th in g a t a l l . "
(62) U n f o r t u n a te ly , a good many p e o p le w ith whom I have
d is c u s s e d im p o rta n t s o c i a l and m oral problem s d o n ’t
r e a l l y u n d e rs ta n d w h a t's going on.
(63) Most p eo p le j u s t d o n 't know w h a t’s good f o r them.
(64) There is n o th in g new under th e sun.
(65) To one who r e a l l y ta k e s th e tr o u b l e to u n d e rs ta n d the
w o rld he l i v e s i n , i t ' s an easy m a tte r to p r e d i c t
f u t u r e e v e n ts .
(66) I t i s sometimes n e c e s s a ry to r e s o r t to f o r c e to ad
vance an i d e a l one s t r o n g l y b e l i e v e s in .

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Creator Mckinstry, John Arthur (author)

Core Title The Middle Class Educator And Minority-Poverty Youth: An Analysis Of The Reactions Of The Educators To Selected Experiences In The Cultural Milieuof Disadvantaged Youth

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Sociology, general

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Martin, David W. (committee chair), Kimizuka, Sumako (committee member), Wilbur, Leslie (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-412798

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