University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A Study Of Images In The Poetry Of Jonathan Swift

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A Study Of Images In The Poetry Of Jonathan Swift

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Content 70 - 1 3 ,6 6 8
SELLECK, William Robert. 1927-
A STUDY OF IMAGES IN THE POETRY OF JONATHAN
SWIFT.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1970
Language and Literature, modern
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
A STUDY OP IMAGES IN THE POETRY OF JONATHAN SWIFT
by
W illiam R o b e rt S e lle c k
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e
R eq u irem en ts f o r th e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(E n g lis h )
J a n u a ry 1970
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
WILLIAM _ R OBERT_ _ _ S ELLEC K ................
under the direction of A .i.?.... Dissertation C om
m ittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by T he G radu
ate School, in partial fulfillm ent of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
(/ Dean
D a te ......
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
.....
t
TABLE OP CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
C h ap ter
I . THE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY BACKGROUND FOR
A STUDY OP SWIFT'S IMAGES ........................................ 12
I I . IMAGES BASED ON SUPERNATURAL BEINGS
AND IMAGES DERIVED PROM THE A R T S ......................... 30
Im ages B ased on S u p e r n a tu r a l B ein g s
Im ages D e riv e d from th e A r ts
I I I . IMAGES BASED ON EXTERNAL N A T U R E ............................... 48
IV. IMAGES BASED ON PEOPLE AND THE
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT............................................................ 71
V. IMAGES DERIVED PROM THE HUM AN BODY.......................... 107
Im ages D e riv e d from E x t e r n a l P h y s ic a l
A sp e c ts and B o d ily P a r t s
Im ages D e riv e d from B o d ily F u n c tio n s
Im ages D e riv e d from S ic k n e s s , D is e a s e ,
and D e fo rm ity ; Im ages D e riv e d from
E x t e r n a l P ain and V io le n c e
V I. IMAGES DERIVED PROM THE ANIMAL WORLD..................... 1 3 6 !
VTI. A REVIEW OP THE REACTION OP CRITICS TO
SWIFT'S IMAGES BEFORE AND AFTER 1900 . . . . 164;
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................... 187
11
INTRODUCTION
The e x t e n t and v a r i e t y o f J o n a th a n S w i f t 's p o e tr y and
th e o b s e s s io n o f c r i t i c s w ith S w ift th e man have somehow
p r e v e n te d much s tu d y o f S w ift a s p o e t. F or th e m ost p a r t
c r i t i c a l e v a lu a tio n s o f h i s p o e tr y have been r e s t r i c t e d to
a n a ly s e s o f s in g le poems o r to b io g r a p h i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f s i n g l e groups* such a s th e B ir th d a y poems to S t e l l a .
These s tu d ie s * th o u g h i n t e r e s t i n g * a r e o f li m i t e d a p p l i c a
tio n * and w hat i s needed i s a s t r u c t u r a l a p p ro a ch t h a t
c r o s s e s o v e r th e b a r r i e r s im posed by th e v a r io u s g e n re s and
p r o v id e s m e a n in g fu l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s t h a t a p p ly to th e whole
o f S w i f t 's p o e t r y . T hat such an a p p ro ach i s p o s s i b l e
th ro u g h c o n c e n tr a tio n on im agery i s s u g g e s te d th ro u g h r e c e n t
s t u d i e s o f th e im agery o f o t h e r E n g lis h p o e ts : M. A. Ru-
1 2
g o f f 's work on Donne* Theodore B anks' on M ilton* and Edwin
S t . V i n c e n t 's on P op e.^ These s t u d i e s have been d e sig n e d to
c l a s s i f y im ages w ith a view tow ard w h eth er o r n o t th e r e a re
"^Milton A lle n Rugoff* D onne's Im agery: A S tudy i n C re
a t i v e S o u rces (New York* 1939)•
2Theodore Howard Banks* M ilto n ' s Im agery (New York*
1 9 5 0 ).
^Edwin S t . V incent* "A sp ects o f P o p e 's Im agery*" unpub.
d i s s . (Colum bia U.* 1 9 6 2 ) .
s i g n i f i c a n t r e c u r r i n g p a t t e r n s . S w i f t 's p o e tr y le n d s i t
s e l f to t h i s ty p e o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n b e c a u se o f S w i f t 's g r e a t
pow er a s an image m aker, th e n o ta b le a b i l i t y o f h i s mind to
re d u c e a b s t r a c t i o n s to t h a t w hich can be g ra s p e d by th e
s e n s e s . A s i g n i f i c a n t q u a l i t y o f S w i f t 's p o e tr y , r e c o g
n iz e d b u t n o t d e e p ly e x p lo re d , i s th e c o p io u sn e s s o f im
a g e s — th e e x te n s iv e n e s s o f h i s m ention o f p h y s ic a l d e t a i l s .
The q u a n t i t y o f th e l i t e r a l im ages i n S w i f t 's p o e tr y
j u s t i f i e s a com prehensive c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e s u b je c t
m a tte r o f a l l o f th e im ag es, n o t m e re ly th e f i g u r a t i v e
o n e s . T h e re fo re i n d e te rm in in g w hat f i t s w ith in my stu d y
o f th e im ages, I have d e f in e d an image to mean th e r e p r e
s e n t a t i o n th ro u g h lan g u ag e o f se n se e x p e r ie n c e , o r , to p u t
i t a n o th e r way, th e u s e o f lan g u ag e to r e p r e s e n t d e s c r i p
t i v e l y o b j e c t s , a c t i o n s , and s e n s a t i o n s . T h is i n c l u s i v e
d e f i n i t i o n fo llo w s th e p r a c t i c e o f modern c r i t i c s who u se
th e term "im age" to r e f e r to th e r e c o r d in g in words o f any
s e n s o ry e x p e r ie n c e — o f e x p e r ie n c e th ro u g h s i g h t , sound,
s m e ll, to u c h , t a s t e , and m u sc u la r s e n s a tio n .
I u se th e term s "im age" and "im agery" to d e s c r ib e l i t
e r a l a s w e ll a s f i g u r a t i v e im ag es— th o s e t h a t a re m erely
d e s c r i p t i v e a s w e ll a s th o s e t h a t a re m etap h o r, s im ile ,
sy n ecd o ch e, metonymy, o r p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n , and th o s e su g
g e s te d by a l l u s i o n s . T h at th e fo rm er a r e w orthy o f stu d y
i s s u g g e s te d by th e modern c r i t i c ' s i n c r e a s i n g aw aren ess o f
th e e lem en t o f a n alo g y p r e s e n t In im ages w hich seem to be
p u r e ly d e s c r i p t i v e . C. Day-Lewis h a s w r i t t e n :
An image may be p r e s e n te d to u s in a p h ra s e o r p a ssa g e on
th e fa c e o f i t p u r e ly d e s c r i p t i v e , b u t conveying to ou r
im a g in a tio n som ething more th a n th e a c c u r a te r e f l e c t i o n o f
an e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y . E very p o e t i c im age, t h e r e f o r e , i s to
some d e g re e m e ta p h o r ic a l. I t lo o k s o u t from a m ir r o r in
w hich l i f e p e r c e iv e s n o t so much i t s fa c e a s some t r u t h
a b o u t i t s f a c e .^
In c l a s s i f y i n g th e im ag es, I worked i n d u c t i v e l y from
th e e v id e n c e o f th e poems th e m s e lv e s . I have u s e d th e
th re e -v o lu m e e d i t i o n by W illia m s^ o f S w i f t 's poems a s th e
b a s i s f o r a s y s te m a tic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f im ages on in d e x
c a r d s . I n o te d each image on a s e p a r a te c a r d and th en
grouped th e c a rd s i n t o c a t e g o r i e s s u g g e s te d by th e s u b je c t
m a tte r . T h is com prehensive scope h a s e n a b le d me to a s s e s s
th e ra n g e and v a r i e t y o f th e p o e t 's i n t e r e s t s . I t h a s a ls o
r e v e a le d s i g n i f i c a n t r e c u r r i n g p a t t e r n s o f im ages w hich
have an o rg a n ic f u n c tio n in te rm s o f S w i f t 's s a t i r i c p u r
p o se s .
The m ajo r v a lu e o f t h i s k in d o f stu d y i s t h a t i t p r o
v id e s i n s i g h t i n t o a r e l a t i v e l y u n e x p lo re d p a r t o f th e
^ The P o e tic Image (London, 1 946), p . 18.
^The Poems o f Jo n a th a n S w if t, ed . H a ro ld W illiam s
(Oxford^ 1937j r e v . 1 9 5 6 )j I - I I I . R e fe re n c e s in t h i s p a p e r
a r e to th e 1958 e d i t i o n .
4
e x te n s iv e w orks o f a m ajo r E n g lis h w r i t e r . ^ G enerally.,
c r i t i c s have a v o id ed th e p o e tr y o r have fo c u se d a t t e n t i o n
on th e s e n s a t i o n a l s c a t o l o g i c a l poems, th e s o - c a l l e d "un
p r i n t a b l e poem s." S w i f t 's p o e tr y a s a w hole h a s som etim es
been condemned b ecau se th e c r i t i c p a id a t t e n t i o n o n ly to th e
l a t t e r poems and t h e i r " i n d e l i c a c y ." In th e e a r l y n in e te e n th
c e n tu r y t h i s a t t i t u d e was a lr e a d y so w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t
John B a r r e t t , in a b io g r a p h i c a l e s s a y on S w if t, su g g e ste d
t h a t th e " i n d e l i c a t e " q u a l i t i e s o f S w i f t 's v e rs e were so
d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e a s to a f f o r d a means o f i d e n t i f y i n g poems
d o u b tf u l ly a t t r i b u t e d to S w ift:
B ut n o th in g i s more o b s e r v a b le i n th e t r u e and i n d i s
p u te d p r o d u c tio n s o f S w if t, th a n th e p a in s he seems to
ta k e in ra k in g to g e th e r th e m ost n au seo u s id e a s , and
d w e llin g upon th e m ost i n d e l i c a t e im ag es. I t i s u n n e c e s
s a r y f o r me to b r in g exam ples o f t h i s s tr a n g e p r o p e n s ity
o f h i s n a t u r e , w hich i s th e more s e r v ic e a b le to u s , b e
c au se he i s a lm o st s i n g u l a r in t h i s r e s p e c t , and i t form s
th e s tro n g o u t l i n e t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s him from alm o st
e v e ry o t h e r w r i t e r . 7
A c tu a lly such w h o le sa le condem nation i s n o t d e se rv e d b e
cau se th e s c a t o l o g i c a l poems c o n s t i t u t e o n ly a sm all s e c
t i o n o f S w i f t 's t o t a l o u tp u t. M aurice Johnson s u g g e s ts
C la re n c e L. K u lish e c k , "A C r i t i c a l A p p r a is a l o f th e
P o e try o f Jo n a th a n S w if t," unpub. d i s s . (U. o f W ashington,
1 9 4 9 ), p . 2, s t a t e s : "The v e rs e p e rfo rm a n c e s o f S w ift con
s t i t u t e th e l a r g e s t s i g n i f i c a n t body o f E n g lis h l i t e r a t u r e
by an acknow ledged and c o n s t a n t l y r e a d g e n iu s y e t to be
c o m p le te ly e v a lu a te d c r i t i c a l l y . "
^An E ssay on th e E a r l i e r P a r t o f th e L if e o f S w if t—
To Which a re S u b jo in ed S e v e ra l P ie c e s A sc rib e d to S w ift;
Two o f H is O r ig in a l L e t t e r s ; and E x t r a c t s from H is Remarks
on B ishop B u r n e t 's H is to r y (London, lfcSOb), p .' 28.
5;
t h a t such lo p s id e d e v a l u a t i o n o f S w ift a s p o e t r e s u l t s from
th e c r i t i c s ’ la c k o f a w aren ess o f th e e x t e n t and th e v a r i
e ty o f S w i f t 's p o e tr y :
By p e rs o n s supposed to have r e a d him J o n a th a n S w ift
h a s so o f t e n been a i r i l y d is m is s e d a s a v e r s i f i e r l i m i t e d
to o c t o s y l l a b i c j i n g l e s on a n g ry o r u n c o m fo rta b le su b
je c ts ., t h a t i t i s im p o r ta n t to make a p o i n t o f th e v a r i e t y
i n h i s p o e tr y . . . : o d e s, h e r o ic c o u p l e t s , q u a t r a i n s ,
b a l l a d s , a d a p ta tio n s and t r a n s l a t i o n s from L a t i n , v e rs
d 'o c c a s io n [v e rs de c ir c o n s ta n c e ( s i c ) ] , p a r o d ie s , n a r r a
t i v e s , s t r e e t v e n d o rs ' c r i e s , r i d d l e s , e x p e rim e n ts w ith
rhyme and le n g th o f l i n e . 8
One p ro b lem was t h a t , up to 1937 j c o l l e c t e d e d i t i o n s o f
S w i f t 's p o e tr y w ere in c o m p le te and, b e c a u se o f u n r e s o lv e d
pro b lem s o f a t t r i b u t i o n , were u n r e l i a b l e .
H a ro ld W illia m s ' th re e -v o lu m e e d i t i o n , p u b lis h e d in
1937 j in c lu d e d a l l o f S w i f t 's known poems and made a v a i l
a b le s c h o l a r l y t e x t s t h a t f a c i l i t a t e more v a l i d c r i t i c a l
a p p r a i s a l s . In 1958, W illia m s r e v i s e d th e e d i t i o n , i n c o r
p o r a tin g r e c e n t f i n d i n g s , in c lu d in g two im p o r ta n t manu
s c r i p t s in S w i f t 's hand and s e v e r a l n o ta b le co n tem p o rary
t r a n s c r i p t s . T h is r e v i s e d e d i t i o n makes p o s s i b l e d e t a i l e d
s t u d i e s o f S w i f t 's p o e t r y . I t i s e s p e c i a l l y h e l p f u l f o r
th e k in d o f s tu d y I am m aking, in w hich c o m p reh en siv en ess
and a c c u ra c y o f d e t a i l s a r e e s s e n t i a l . S in ce th e tim e o f
W illia m s ' r e v i s e d e d i t i o n , P r o f e s s o r George P. Mayhew h as
made th e t e x t s o f two h i t h e r t o u n p u b lis h e d p a s s a g e s o f
Q
The S in o f W it: J o n a th a n S w ift a s a P o et (S y ra c u s e ,
1950), p . 2 3 .
S w i f t ’ s poems a v a i l a b l e i n Rage o r R a i l l e r y , p u b lis h e d in
1 9 6 7 .^ T h e re fo re th e e n t i r e known canon o f S w i f t 's p o e tr y
i s now a c c e s s i b l e , and a more a c c u r a te p e r s p e c t i v e can be
g a in e d o f th e w hole.
A n o th er f a c t o r e n c o u ra g in g an o v e r a l l s tu d y o f th e
p o e tr y i s t h a t in r e c e n t y e a r s th e r e h a s b een an i n c r e a s e
o f i n t e r e s t in S w ift a s p o e t; t h i s r e c o g n i t i o n may be p a r
t i a l l y a c c o u n te d f o r by th e p re s e n c e o f q u a l i t i e s i n h i s
p o e t r y w hich a r e d e c id e d ly m odern. P erh ap s th e m ost s i g
n i f i c a n t o f th e s e i s th e p re p o n d e ra n c e o f u g ly , v i o l e n t ,
" t r i v i a l " d e t a i l s ta k e n from e v ery d ay o r d in a r y l i f e . A l
though A ugustan w r i t e r s g e n e r a l l y fo llo w e d D ry d e n 's r e c
ommendation t h a t co n tem p o rary l i f e was th e p r o p e r fo c u s o f
s a t i r i c p o e t r y , S w i f t 's u se o f m inute r e a l i s t i c p a r t i c u
l a r i t y i s more p e r v a s iv e in h i s s a t i r i c poems th a n in th o s e
o f h i s c o n te m p o ra r ie s . F u rth e rm o re , i t i s a ls o c h a r a c t e r
i s t i c o f even h i s n o n - s a t i r i c p o e t r y . In f a c t , an e s s e n t i a l
q u a l i t y o f S w i f t 's te c h n iq u e i s th e c o n s ta n t s t r e s s i n a l l
o f h i s p o e tr y on ev ery d ay d e t a i l s . B ut g r a d u a l ch an g es in
l i t e r a r y t a s t e p ro d u c e d a r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t c o a r s e d e t a i l s .
The n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y , an age w hich em phasized i d e a l
i s t i c q u a l i t i e s o f p o e tr y , u n d e r s ta n d a b ly d e n ie d S w ift th e
t i t l e o f p o e t . The p re d o m in a n t p o e t i c th e o r y was b a s e d on
% a g e o r R a i l l e r y : The S w ift M a n u sc rip ts a t th e H unt
in g to n L ib r a r y (H u n tin g to n L ib r a r y , San M arino, 19^7)- My
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f im ages in c lu d e s co v erag e o f th e s e p a ss a g e s .
ro m a n tic a ssu m p tio n s t h a t p o e tr y was c o n cern ed w ith " th in g s
o f b e a u ty , s e n tim e n ts o f p l e a s u r e , in n o c en c e o f e x p e r i
e n c e . n'1 '0 In th e w ords o f P e rc y B ysshe S h e lle y :
P o e try t u r n s a l l t h i n g s to l o v e l i n e s s . . . . I t s t r i p s
th e v e i l o f f a m i l i a r i t y from th e w o rld , and la y s b a re th e
naked and s le e p in g b e a u ty , w hich i s th e s p i r i t o f i t s
fo rm s . 11
In a re v ie w o f S w i f t 's p o e t r y , T aine sums up th e n i n e t e e n t h -
c e n tu r y a t t i t u d e t h a t p o e tr y sh o u ld a v o id th e u n p le a s a n t
r e a l i t i e s o f ev ery d ay l i f e :
A ll p o e tr y e x a l t s th e mind b u t t h i s d e p re s s e s i t ; i n
s te a d o f c o n c e a lin g r e a l i t y , i t u n v e i l s i t ; i n s t e a d o f
c r e a t i n g i l l u s i o n s , i t rem oves them . . . . He saw in th e
f o r e s t s o n ly lo g s o f wood, and in th e f i e l d s o n ly sac k s
o f c o r n . 12
B ut in th e tw e n t i e t h c e n tu r y th e r e h a s been a s h i f t in
c r i t i c a l th e o ry a s to w hat th e p ro p e r co n cern o f th e p o e t
i s . In th e w ords o f C. D ay-Lew is:
Today o u r E n g lis h p o e ts a re com m itted to th e b e l i e f t h a t
e v e ry id e a and e v e ry o b j e c t o f se n se i s p o t e n t i a l l y ma
t e r i a l f o r p o e t r y . 13
As a r e s u l t o f th e b ro a d e n in g o f th e a c c e p te d s u b je c t m at-
■^"The Poems o f S w ift" (an o n , r e v . ) , Times L i t e r a r y
S u p p lem en t, J u l y 4 , 1929 . > PP- 521-522.
l l n A D efence o f P o e tr y ," in The S e le c te d P o e try and
P ro se o f P e rc y B ysshe S h e lle y , ed~ C a rlo s B aker (New Y ork,
1 9 5 1 ), PP. 510-519.
12
A H is to r y o f E n g lis h L i t e r a t u r e , t r a n s . H. Van Laun
(E d in b u rg h , 1 8 7 3) . U l T 23b .
^ c . D ay-Lew is, p . 95*
t e r o f p o e tr y , th e r e i s more c r i t i c a l a c c e p ta n c e o f S w i f t 's
c o n cern w ith th e p a r t i c u l a r s o f e v ery d ay l i f e .
A n o th er way i n w hich S w i f t 's p o e tr y i s a ttu n e d to
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y c r i t i c a l t a s t e i s in h i s c o n s i s t e n t u se
o f a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f sen se d a ta . The need f o r such c o p i
o u sn e ss o f d e t a i l in modern p o e tr y i s p o in te d o u t a ls o by
C. D ay-Lew is:
I n o u r own tim e th e mere in v e n to r y o f o b j e c t s w ith w hich
l i f e i s f u r n is h e d grows so e x te n siv e ., p o e tr y sh o u ld be
more and more p ack ed w ith im a g e s .1^
My s tu d y shows t h a t p h y s ic a l d e t a i l s a r e n o t o n ly p e r
v a s iv e i n S w i f t 's p o e tr y b u t a ls o t h a t S w if t, l i k e many
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y p o e t s , had a s tr o n g te n d e n c y to choose
h i s p h y s i c a l d e t a i l s from th e w o rld c l o s e s t to th e ev ery d ay
l i f e o f man, to p r e f e r th e f a m i l i a r , th e o r d in a r y , and th e
u g ly , and to shun th e re m o te , th e e x o t i c , and th e b e a u t i
f u l . When th e l a t t e r k in d s o f im ages do a p p e a r, th e y a re
a lm o st alw ays in c o n te x ts w hich em phasize p a ro d y , i r o n i c
c o n t r a s t , o r s a t i r i c d e f l a t i o n . T hat i s , S w ift does n o t
d e r iv e i n s p i r a t i o n from , o r show s e r io u s i n t e r e s t i n , con
v e n t i o n a l s o u rc e s o f p o e t i c im ag ery . In f a c t , w hat h as
been c a l l e d " a n t i - p o e t i c im agery" i s so extrem e and so p e r
v a s iv e i n h i s p o e tr y t h a t we can c a l l h i s im agery r e a l i s t i c
i f we q u a l i f y th e a d j e c t i v e . S w i f t 's p r e s e n t a t i o n i s a t
tim e s a s v i v i d l y g ra p h ic a s t h a t o f any r e a l i s t p o e t, b u t
l i i
C. D ay-Lew is, p . 99.
he g e n e r a l l y h a s removed any h i n t o f th e c o l o r f u l o r th e
b e a u t i f u l i n th e g lim p se s o f e v ery d ay l i f e t h a t he p r e s e n t s
to u s . B ecause o f t h i s te n d e n c y , James R u s s e ll L ow ell d e
s c r ib e d S w ift th e p o e t i n term s o f th e "eye t h a t d i s -
i d e a l i z e d . S w i f t ' s I n c l i n a t i o n to u se th e f a m i l i a r ,
o r d in a r y , and u g ly d e t a i l s from th e e v ery d ay o r d in a r y w o rld
n o t o n ly p e r m itte d a k in d o f p u rg in g o f h i s own lo a th in g
f o r th e p h y s i c a l b u t was a ls o an o rg a n ic d e v ic e f o r h i s
s a t i r i c i n t e n t i o n — to a t t a c k m a n 's p r id e by rem in d in g him
t h a t he i s an e a rth b o u n d a n im a l. As S w ift h im s e lf s a id :
" I have g o t m a t e r i a l s f o r a t r e a t i s e , p ro v in g th e f a l s i t y
o f t h a t d e f i n i t i o n an im al r a t i o n a l e , and to show i t would
be o n ly r a t i o n i s c a p a x . " 1^
In s u p p o rt o f my f in d i n g s a s to th e r e l a t i v e w e ig h t
and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e v a r io u s k in d s o f im ages S w ift u s e s ,
my stu d y in c lu d e s a com prehensive c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e
B u b je ct m a tte r o f a l l o f S w i f t 's im ag es. On th e b a s i s o f
my f i n d i n g s , I have d iv id e d th e im ages i n t o s ix b ro a d
c l a s s e s ; th o s e t r e a t i n g r e s p e c t i v e l y l ) s u p e r n a t u r a l b e in g s ,
2 ) th e a r t s , 3) e x t e r n a l n a t u r e , 4) p e o p le , 5) th e human
body, and 6 ) a n im a ls . In d e te rm in in g th e o r d e r o f d i s c u s -
S w i f t , " in The F u n c tio n o f th e P o et and O th er E s
say s (B o sto n , 1920), p . 174.
In a l e t t e r to A lex an d er Pope, Septem ber 2 9 , 1725.
See The C orrespondence o f J o n a th a n S w if t, ed . H a ro ld W il
l i
s io n I have been g u id e d by th e f u n c t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
each c l a s s o f im ages i n term s o f S w i f t 's p o e t i c p u rp o s e s .
I have a ls o ta k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n th e r e l a t i v e fre q u e n c y
o f o c c u r re n c e . T h e r e f o r e , i n th e second c h a p te r I combine
my d is c u s s io n o f im ages d e r iv e d from th e im a g in a tio n and
th e a r t s b e ca u se b o th o f th e s e g ro u p s a r e r e l a t i v e l y unim
p o r t a n t and o c c u r i n f r e q u e n t l y . In C h ap ter I I I , I d is c u s s
im ages d e r iv e d from in a n im a te n a tu r e b e c a u s e , a lth o u g h th e y
a re f a i r l y num erous, th e y a re n o t so s i g n i f i c a n t a s th e
im ages o f man and a n im a l. The n e x t two c h a p te r s d e a l w ith
im ages b a se d on man a s a s o c i a l b e in g and man as a p h y s i c a l
b e in g . In th e f i r s t o f th e s e , C h ap ter IV, I i s o l a t e a
c a te g o ry o f im ag es— th o s e d e a lin g w ith c l o t h i n g and to a
l e s s e r d e g re e w ith c o s m e tic s — showing t h a t th e developm ent
o f t h i s ty p e o f image c o rre sp o n d s to S w i f t 's grow th a s a
p o e t. In C h ap ter VI I d is c u s s an im al im ag es, r e s e r v i n g
them to th e l a s t b e c a u se o f th e c e n t r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
t h i s ty p e o f image to S w i f t 's s a t i r i c p u rp o s e s .
W ith in each b ro a d c l a s s , th e im ages a re f u r t h e r a r
ra n g e d i n t o su b g ro u p s. In my d is c u s s io n o f th e su b g ro u p s,
I have a tte m p te d to fo llo w th e m ost m e an in g fu l sequence o f
d ev elo p m en t, b u t th e same p r i n c i p l e o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c o u ld
n o t be u s e d in each c h a p te r . T h e re fo re , th e n a tu r e o f each
group d e te rm in e d th e o r d e r o f d is c u s s i o n . F o r exam ple, th e
b ro a d c l a s s o f an im al im ages in c lu d e s th o s e o f w ild a n im a ls ,
d o m estic a n im a ls , low er a n im a ls , b i r d s , f i s h , and i n s e c t s .
11
In t h i s c a s e , my arra n g em en t was d e te rm in e d by th e t r a d i
t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y o f th e a n im a l w o rld .
In th e f i n a l c h a p te r , I su rv e y c r i t i c a l r e a c t i o n o f
th e p a s t th r e e c e n t u r i e s to S w i f t 's Im agery and th em es. I t
w i l l become a p p a r e n t In t h i s c h a p te r t h a t f o r to o lo n g
c r i t i c s m is u n d e rsto o d and r e j e c t e d S w i f t 's p o e tr y p r i m a r i l y
b e ca u se th e y d id n o t f u l l y u n d e r s ta n d th e t r a d i t i o n w ith in
w hich S w ift was w o rk in g , th e g e n re o f s a t i r e w hich, a s
N o rth ro p F rye a s s u r e s u s , a lm o st n e c e s s a r i l y I n c lu d e s th e
o b sc e n e . The f a c t t h a t tw e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y p o e tr y draw s
h e a v i l y on c o a r s e d i c t i o n and Im ages from common e x p e rie n c e
h a s been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e aw akening In co n tem p o rary
c r i t i c s o f a new a p p r e c i a t i o n o f b o th s a t i r e and S w if t.
CHAPTER I
THE SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY BACKGROUND
FOR A STUDY OF SWIFT'S IMAGES
S w i f t 's s tr o n g p r e f e r e n c e f o r commonplace, s o r d id ,
" d is id e a liz in g " im a g e r y ta k e n from e v ery d ay l i f e i s com
p a t i b l e w ith c e r t a i n d ev elo p m en ts in s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu r y
p h ilo s o p h y , r h e t o r i c , and p o e tr y . The r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l s o f
S w i f t 's s a t i r i c scen e r e f l e c t a s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu r y w o rld
view o f man d e th ro n e d , c a s t down from th e l o f t y p o s i t i o n he
o c c u p ie d in th e R e n a is sa n c e w o r l d - p i c t u r e . W hereas Marlowe
had lo o k e d heavenw ard and found man c o n te n d in g w ith th e
g o d s, S w ift lo o k ed e a rth w a rd and found man s t r u g g l i n g w ith
th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f h i s p h y s i c a l b e in g . S w i f t 's view o f man
i s , i n some r e s p e c t s , c o m p a tib le w ith t h a t o f s e v e n te e n th -
c e n tu r y t h i n k e r s whose i n c r e a s i n g r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e s i g
n i f i c a n c e o f m e a s u ra b le , e m p ir ic a l phenomena r e s u l t e d i n a
c o rre s p o n d in g l o s s o f f a i t h in th e power o f th e u n a id e d
i n t e l l e c t , and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , th e im a g in a tio n .
The dom inant mode o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l th o u g h t, as r e p r e
s e n te d by C a r te s ia n is m , g r a d u a l l y r e p la c e d S c h o la s tic is m
and i n s i s t e d upon p l a i n r e a s o n in g , u n ad o rn ed i d e a s , and
m a th e m a tic a l l u c i d i t y . T h is a t t i t u d e en co u rag ed a d i s t r u s t
o f c o n v e n tio n a l s o u rc e s o f p o e t i c im ag ery and an in c r e a s in g
12
engagem ent w ith r e a l i t y in p o e t r y . Hobbes denounced th e
m etap h o rs o f t r a d i t i o n a l p o e tr y a s an im p ro p er u se o f words
w hich he th o u g h t sh o u ld be u se d to r e p r e s e n t r e a l t h i n g s . '1 '
Locke., i n d i s c r e d i t i n g th e r o l e o f th e im a g in a tio n a s a way
o f a r r i v i n g a t t r u t h , a t t a c k e d t r a d i t i o n a l p o e t i c im agery
and a d v o c a te d a d i f f e r e n t method f o r p o e tr y :
T h is i s a way o f p ro c e e d in g q u i t e c o n tr a r y to m etaphor
and a l l u s i o n , w h e rein f o r th e m ost p a r t l i e s t h a t e n t e r
ta in m e n t and p l e a s a n t r y o f w it w hich s t r i k e s so l i v e l y on
th e fa n c y , and t h e r e f o r e i s so a c c e p ta b le to a l l p e o p le ,
b e c a u se i t s b e a u ty a p p e a rs a t f i r s t s i g h t , and th e r e i s
r e q u i r e d no la b o r o f th o u g h t to exam ine w hat t r u t h o r
re a s o n th e r e i s in i t . 2
I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t a ls o to n o te t h a t s e v e n te e n th c en
t u r y t h e o r i e s o f r h e t o r i c a ls o en co u rag ed p o e ts to i n c r e a s
in g c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith r e a l i t y . R am ist r h e t o r i c , w hich h a s
been shown to have s i g n i f i c a n t l y in f l u e n c e d th e p o e tr y o f
Donne, a d v o c a te d a c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een r h e t o r i c and
p o e tr y . The R am ists made c l e a r and i n f l u e n t i a l p ro n o u n c e
m ents on th e n a tu r e o f p o e tr y , and on im ag ery s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
and were an im p o r ta n t in f l u e n c e upon th e r i s e o f th e a n t i -
r h e t o r i c a l s p i r i t o f th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y . The R am ists
saw p o e tr y a s an i d e a l v e h ic l e f o r p e r s u a s io n , b u t d e
em phasized e lo q u e n c e and ornam ent in f a v o r o f c l e a r v i s u a l
"'"Thomas Hobbes, L e v ia th a n , o r th e M a tte r, Forme and
Power o f a Commonwealth E c c l e s i a s t i c a l and C i v i l (London,
1 6 5 1) , C h a p te r V I I I .
P
John Locke, An E ssa y C oncerning Human U n d e rsta n d in g
( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1 8 5 7 ), Book I I , C h ap ter X I, S e c tio n 2, p . 106.
im ages w hich r e p r e s e n t e d r e a l i t y as i t a c t u a l l y w a s.^ T hat
S w ift was d i r e c t l y c au g h t up i n t h i s a n t i - r h e t o r i c a l s p i r i t
o f h i s tim e h a s been s u g g e s te d by M artin P r ic e i n S w i f t 1s
R h e t o r i c a l A r t :
The c e n t r a l t r a d i t i o n i n w hich S w ift grew was an a n t i -
r h e t o r i c a l o n e. I t s d i s t r u s t o f r h e t o r i c w as, o f c o u rs e ,
a d i s t r u s t o f one k in d o f r h e t o r i c , and i t s d i s t r u s t o f
th e o ld gave m o tiv e and form to a new r h e t o r i c which
em erged i n f u l l m a tu r ity , s e c u re and u n q u e s tio n e d , i n th e
A ugustan Age.^
The a n t i - r h e t o r i c a l s p i r i t e x te n d e d to men o f s c ie n c e
such a s F r a n c is Bacon and Thomas S p r a t. Bacon w ish ed to
em phasize re a s o n o v e r im a g in a tio n in r h e t o r i c a l d is c o u r s e ,
and S p r a t w anted to " s e p a r a te th e know ledge o f N a tu re , from
th e c o lo u r s o f R h e t o r ic k , th e d e v ic e s o f F an cy , o r th e d e
l i g h t f u l d e c e i t o f Fables. S p r a t ' s p r i n c i p a l t a r g e t was
th e e l a b o r a t e im agery o f E liz a b e th a n and M e ta p h y sic a l
p o e tr y :
They [ f i g u r e s o f sp ee c h ] a r e i n open d e f ia n c e a g a i n s t
R easo n : p r o f e s s i n g , n o t to h o ld much c o rre sp o n d e n c e w ith
t h a t j b u t w ith i t s S la v e s , th e P a s s i o n s . . . . Who can
b e h o ld w ith o u t i n d i g n a t i o n , how many m is ts and u n c e r t a i n -
^F or a d i s c u s s io n o f R am ist in f l u e n c e upon s e v e n te e n th -
c e n tu r y p o e t r y , see Rosamund Tuve, E liz a b e th a n and M eta
p h y s i c a l Im agery: R e n a is sa n c e P o e tic and T w e n tie th C entury
C r i t i c s (C h icag o , 1947 V, C h ap ter IX; and Thomas 0. S lo a n ,
J r . , "The R h e to r ic i n th e P o e try o f John D onne," unpub.
d i s s . (N o rth w e ste rn U ., i 9 6 0 ) .
^(New Haven, 1953)* P. 1.
H is to r y o f th e R oyal S o c ie ty (London, 1 6 6 7 ) . I
q u o te from th e f a c s i m i l e e d i t i o n by Ja c k so n I . Cope and
H a ro ld W. Jo n e s ( S t . L o u is, 1 9 5 8 ), p . 62.
15
t i e s , th e s e s p e c io u s T ropes and F ig u r e s have b ro u g h t on
o u r Knowledge
Of p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e to S w i f t 's p o e t i c p r a c t i c e i s
S p r a t 's a t t a c k on th e t r a d i t i o n a l s o u rc e s o f p o e t i c im agery
w hich he s e e s a s o b s o l e t e :
. . . th e F a b le s and R e l ig io n s o f th e A n c ie n ts , th e C i v i l
H i s t o r i e s o f a l l C o u n tr ie s , th e Customs o f N a tio n s , th e
B ib le , th e S cien ces', the' iManners o f Men, th e s e v e r a l A rts
o f t h e i r h a n d s, and th e w orks o f N a tu r e . I n a l l th e s e ,
w here th e r e may be a re sem b la n c e o f one th in g to a n o th e r ,
a s th e r e may be i n a l l , th e r e i s a s u f f i c i e n t F o u n d atio n
f o r W it.
. . . The W it o f th e F a b le s and R e lig io n s o f th e An
c i e n t W orld i s w e ll- n ig h consumed: They have a lr e a d y
s e rv e d th e P o e ts lo n g enough; i t i s now tim e to d is m is s
them; e s p e c i a l l y s e e in g th e y have t h i s p e c u l i a r im p e r
f e c t i o n , t h a t th e y w ere o n ly F i c t i o n s a t f i r s t ; w hereas
T ru th i s n e v e r so w e ll e x p r e s s 'd o r a m p lif y 'd , a s by
th o s e Ornam ents w hich a r e Tru and R ea l in th e m s e lv e s .7
Thus S p r a t denounced a l l tr o p e s and m etap h o rs and a d v o c a te d
a o n e -to -o n e r a t i o betw een word and id e a .
The M e ta p h y s ic a l P o e ts had w idened th e b o u n d a rie s o f
s u b j e c t m a tte r th o u g h t f i t f o r p o e tr y and had i n c r e a s i n g l y
tu r n e d to w ard th e e v ery d ay w o rld a s a so u rc e o f im ag es.
Rosamund Tuve p o i n t s o u t th e s i g n i f i c a n t d i r e c t i o n o f M eta
p h y s i c a l p o e tr y :
We have seen in th e e a r l i e r p o e ts [ E liz a b e th a n ] a d e co
r a t i v e p o e t i c d i c t i o n and an u n f u n c tio n a l u s e o f sensuous
im ages f o r p u re e x u b eran ce o f o rn a m e n ta tio n , and have
seen them a s e v id e n c e o f b a r r i e r s e r e c t e d betw een th e
p o e t and r e a l i t y . . . .
C e r t a i n l y a v e ry g r e a t d e a l o f th e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f
th e s h i f t i n o u r t a s t e from E liz a b e th a n to Jaco b ean p o -
^ S p r a t, p . 1 1 2 .
^ S p r a t, p p . 413 -4 1 4 .
e t r y h a s found i t s b a s i s i n d i f f e r e n c e s seen betw een th e
two p e r io d s a s r e g a r d s th e r e l a t i o n o f im agery to r e a l i
t y . 8
In many ways S w i f t 's p o e tr y r e p r e s e n t s a p a ra d ig m a tic
re s p o n se to th e s e f o r c e s t h a t were w orking a g a i n s t t r a d i
t i o n a l p o e t r y i n th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu r y . S w i f t 's a t t i t u d e
tow ard p o e tr y and th e im a g in a tio n i s q u i t e in a c c o rd w ith
t h a t o f i n f l u e n t i a l t h i n k e r s o f th e l a t e s e v e n te e n th c e n
t u r y . H is e a r l y r e n u n c ia ti o n o f th e Muse w ould a p p e a r, in
p a r t a t l e a s t , a re s p o n s e to th e p h i l o s o p h i c a l and r h e t o r
i c a l f o r c e s t h a t so u g h t a p l a i n s t y l e o f r h e t o r i c , a
p o e tr y o f s ta te m e n t and w it t h a t u sed c l e a r f i g u r e s o f
sp eech w ith im ages drawn l a r g e l y from e v ery d ay l i f e . F or
S w if t, c o n v e n tio n a l p o e t r y w ith i t s t r a d i t i o n a l s o u rc e s o f
im agery im posed a b a r r i e r betw een th e p o e t and r e a l i t y .
I t s rh a p s o d ic f l i g h t s , i t s o rn a m e n ta l f i g u r e s , i t s co n cern
f o r th e cosm ic o n ly s e rv e d to c lo u d m en 's m inds, making
them th e v ic tim s o f d e lu s io n .
B ut few c r i t i c s o f S w i f t 's p o e tr y , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e
o ffe n d e d by h i s u se o f r e a l i s t i c im ages, have made any
e f f o r t to r e l a t e S w i f t 's p o e tr y to s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu r y
t r a d i t i o n s . U n d e rsta n d a b ly , c r i t i c s who were co n v in ced
t h a t S w ift w ro te a k in d o f n o n -p o e try w ere n o t i n t e r e s t e d
in what S w ift a s p o e t was t r y i n g to do. Y et i t i s im p o r
t a n t to remember t h a t th e young S w ift to o k h im s e lf v e ry
O
Tuve, p p . 6 - 7 .
17
s e r i o u s l y a s a p o e t and t h a t h i s f i r s t e f f o r t s w ere i n th e
h ig h ly r h e t o r i c a l mode o f th e m e ta p h y s ic a l p o e t s . H is e a r l y
s t y l e , th e in f l u e n c e o f w hich can be n o te d even i n h i s
l a t e r work, was in i m i t a t i o n o f p o e ts such -as Abraham Cow
le y who had r e a c t e d a g a i n s t th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f E liz a b e th a n
p o e tr y .
S w i f t 's e a r l i e s t p o e tr y i s g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n iz e d a s
h a v in g been m odeled on C ow ley's P in d a r ic o d e s. The sim
i l a r i t i e s betw een S w i f t 's e a r l y odes and C ow ley's a r e a
m a sc u lin e s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by ro u g h n e ss r a t h e r than
sm oothness; a c o u n t e r - p u l l o f a n t i t h e t i c a l modes, im a g in a
t i v e j u x t a p o s i t i o n s v e rs u s more r a t i o n a l developm ent; and
f i n a l l y a s i m i l a r i t y o f d i c t i o n and im ag ery . S w ift borrow s
from Cowley a s to c k o f c o n v e n tio n a l p o e t i c im ages a s w e ll
as th e l e s s t r a d i t i o n a l l y p o e t i c im ages o f i n s e c t s , a n im a ls,
and d i s e a s e . The fo llo w in g p a ssa g e by Cowley, f o r exam ple,
w ith i t s u n s a v o ry im agery m ig h t e a s i l y be a t t r i b u t e d to
S w ift:
Lo th e t h i r d E lem ent does h i s P la g u e s p r e p a r e ,
And swarming c lo u d s o f I n s e c t s f i l l th e A ir .
W ith s u l l e n v o ic e th e y ta k e t h e i r f l i g h t ,
And m arch i n B o d ies i n f i n i t e ;
A s k i l f u l A ngel d id t h ' I n g r e d i e n t s ta k e ,
And w ith j u s t hands th e sad composure make,
And o v e r a l l th e Land d id th e f u l l v i o l sh ak e.
T h i r s t , G id d in e s s , F a i n t n e s s , and P u t r i d H e a ts,
And p in in g P a in s , and S h iv e rin g Sw eats q
O n a l l th e C a t t l e , a l l th e B e a s ts d id f a l l .
^Abraham Cowley, Poems, ed . A. R. W a lle r (C am bridge,
M ass., 1 9 0 5 )3 p . 2 2 3 .
18
B ut w h ile C ow ley's im agery i s u n sa v o ry a t tim es., i t i s
n e v e r a s u n m itig a te d ly so a s S w i f t 's i s i n even h i s e a r l i
e s t o d e s.
The c o a r s e d e t a i l e n liv e n s o th e rw is e t r i t e , conven
t i o n a l p a s s a g e s in S w i f t 's e a r l y o d e s: b u t a t th e same tim e
i t i s th e p r i n c i p a l re a s o n f o r th e f a i l u r e o f th e s e poems.
Shocking d e t a i l s o f t e n b re a k th e to n e o f th e p a n e g y r ic and
d i s t r a c t th e r e a d e r from th e p o e t 's p rim a ry p u rp o s e , p r a i s e
o f th e h e r o . In th e l a s t two s ta n z a s o f S w i f t 's f i r s t poem,
f o r exam ple, p r a i s e o f King W illia m i s overwhelm ed by th e
e x c e s s iv e d i s g u s t h eaped upon th e K in g 's en em ies. Thus,
James I I i s d e s c r ib e d
Upon a r u b b is h Heap o f b ro k en Laws
And H is b e s t V ic to r y a Noble D eath;
H is s c r a p o f L if e i s b u t a Heap o f
M is e r ie s ,
The Remnant o f a f a l l i n g S n u ff,
Which h a r d ly w an ts a n o th e r p u f f ,
And n eed s m ust s t i n k when e 'r e i t d i e s .
( I , 9, 11. 102, 1 0 b -110)
In h i s e a r l y poems S w ift a ls o g o es beyond Cowley in
h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r u n s h o c k in g , i n c i d e n t a l , p r o s a i c d e t a i l .
L ik e th e u g ly im ag es, th e s e im ages to o f r e q u e n t l y r e s i s t
a s s i m i l a t i o n w ith c o n v e n tio n a l p o e t i c p a s s a g e s , and th e r e
s u l t i s o f t e n b a th o s o r a n t i - c l i m a x . T h is u n s u c c e s s f u l
j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f th e r e a l i s t i c and c o n v e n tio n a l i s a m ajor
w eakness o f such poems a s "The Ode to th e Hon. S i r W illiam
T em ple." In s ta n z a XI o f t h i s poem, im ag ery d e r iv e d from
19
m e n ia l o c c u p a tio n s seems o u t o f p la c e in S w i f t 's s to c k s e l f -
e f f a c i n g com plim ent to Temple a s a p e rs o n endowed w ith
s u p e r i o r a b i l i t i e s .
S h a ll I b e l i e v e a S p i r i t so d iv in e
Was c a s t i n th e same Mold w ith m ine?
Why th e n does N a tu re so u n j u s t l y sh a re
Among h e r E ld e r Sons th e w hole E s t a t e ?
And a l l h e r Je w e ls and h e r P l a t e ,
Poor we C ad ets o f H e a v 'n , n o t w o rth h e r C are,
Take up a t b e s t w ith Lumber and th e L eav in g s o f a
P a te :
Some she b id s " P r e n tic e to th e Spade,
Some to th e D rudgery o f a T rad e,
Some she does to E g y p tia n Bondage draw.
B id s u s make B r ic k s , y e t sen d s u s to lo o k o u t f o r
S traw ;
Some she h as f o r L if e to t r y
To d ig th e le a d e n Mines o f deep P h ilo so p h y ;
Me she h a s to th e M u se's G a l l i e s t y 'd .
( I , 32, 11. 178-191)
The poem ends w ith an a n t i - c l i m a c t i c s ta n z a i n w hich p r o
s a ic d e t a i l s d e f l a t e S w i f t 's d e d i c a t i o n o f th e poem to
Temple:
Then ( S i r ) , a c c e p t t h i s w o r th le s s V e rse ,
The T r ib u te o f an humble Muse,
'T i s a l l th e P o r tio n o f my n ig g a r d S t a r s ;
N a tu re th e h id d e n S park d id a t my B i r t h i n f u s e ,
And k in d le d f i r s t w ith In d o le n c e and E a se,
And s in c e to o o f t d e b a u c h 'd by P r a i s e ,
'T i s now grown an i n c u r a b l e D is e a s e .
In v a in a l l wholsome H erbs I sow.
Where nou g h t b u t weeds w i l l grow.
W h a te 'e r I p l a n t ( l i k e Corn on B arre n E a rth )
By an e q u iv o c a l B i r t h
Seeds and r u n s up to P o e tr y . ( I , 32 , 11. 199-
205, 2 0 8- 2 1 2)
Though i t p e r m itte d i n c l u s i o n o f e v ery d ay d e t a i l , th e
C ow leian poem was o b v io u s ly u n s u i t e d to S w i f t 's t a l e n t s .
I t s pompous r h e t o r i c a l e x c e s s e s , c o n fu se d c o n c e i t s , and
d i f f i c u l t a l l u s i o n s w ere in c o m p a tib le w ith S w i f t 's i n c l i n a
t i o n s tow ard c l a r i t y and s i m p l i c i t y . F or S w ift th e l a t e
M e ta p h y s ic a l mode was to o f a r rem oved from r e a l i t y , and in
th e l a s t o f th e e a r l y poems ( 1 6 9 3) he r e j e c t s th e t r a d i
t i o n a l p o e t i c im a g in a tio n a s p r o d u c tiv e o f m adness.
When he a g a in began w r i t i n g ( c . 1 6 9 8)* S w ift a d o p ted
an a n t i - r h e t o r i c a l p l a i n s t y l e f o r h i s p o e tr y , one w hich
demanded c l a r i t y and a v o id e d th e e x c e s s e s o f o v e r - e x te n s io n
and o v e r - l i t e r a l i z a t i o n o f im ag ery . S w i f t 's l a t e r s t y l e
u s e s im ag ery drawn l a r g e l y from e v ery d ay human e x p e rie n c e
and w hich a p p e a ls to common s e n s e . The im ages a re u s e d
l e s s f o r adornm ent and a r e more o f t e n i n t e g r a l to th e s t r u c
t u r e , h e lp in g to u n i t e theme and f u n c tio n .
F o r h i s l a t e r p o e tr y , S w ift found i n th e work o f
Samuel B u t l e r a s u i t a b l e m odel. B e s id e s s h a r in g B u t l e r 's
fo n d n e ss f o r p a ro d y and th e o c t o s y l l a b i c c o u p le t , S w ift was
a ls o a ttu n e d to B u t l e r 's p a r t i c u l a r b ra n d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l
i n g e n u ity .
S w if t, l i k e B u t l e r , came to depend h e a v i l y upon in c o n
g ru o u s lan g u ag e and im ag ery , u s in g i r o n i c j u x t a p o s i t i o n f o r
s a t i r i c d e f l a t i o n . S w i f t 's fo n d n e ss f o r c o a r s e an im al im
a g ery was p ro b a b ly in f l u e n c e d by h i s c lo s e know ledge o f
H u d ib ra s . B u t l e r 's work f r e q u e n t l y depends upon th e m an/
an im al m etaphor f o r g e n e r a l s a t i r e . The fo llo w in g i r o n i c
c o n c e it from H u d ib ra s — th e c o r r u p tio n o f a n im a ls by t h e i r
21i
a s s o c i a t i o n w ith man— i s a f a m i l i a r d e v ic e i n S w i f t 's p o
e t r y :
'T i s o u r exam ple t h a t i n s t i l l s
In them t h 'i n f e c t i o n o f o u r i l l s .
For., a s some l a t e P h ilo s o p h e r s
Have w e ll o b s e r v 'd B e a s ts t h a t co n v erse
W ith man, ta k e a f t e r him , a s Hogs
G et P ig s a l l t ' h e a r , and B itc h e s Dogs.
J u s t so by o u r exam ple C a t t e l
L earn to g iv e one a n o th e r B a t t e l .
( I , i , 11. 781-788)
B u t l e r , l i k e S w if t, depends h e a v i l y upon th e lo w erin g
e f f e c t o f hom ely, r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l , b u t f o r i r o n i c c o n t r a s t
w ith i t , h e , u n l i k e S w if t, u s e s a la r g e amount o f le a r n e d ,
p e d a n tic im agery g le a n e d from o b sc u re b o o k s. T hroughout
H u d ib ra s o b sc u re a l l u s i o n s and commonplace d e t a i l a p p ea r
s id e by s i d e :
He was by b i r t h , some a u th o r s w r i t e ,
A R u s s ia n , some a M u sco v ite,
And 'mong th e C ossacks had been b re d .
Of whom we in D iu r n a ls r e a d .
Or s e rv e to f i l l up Pages h e r e .
As w ith th e r e bodyes D itc h e s t h e r e .
S crim ansky was h i s C ousin-germ an.
W ith whom he s e rv e d and fe d on V erm in.
( I , i i , 1 1 . 2 6 5 - 2 7 2 )
S w if t, on th e o t h e r hand, g e n e r a l l y a v o id s o b sc u re a l l u
s io n s to o r r e f e r e n c e s from l i t e r a t u r e and th e h i s t o r i c a l
p a s t . H is a l l u s i o n s to G reek and Roman m ythology a re g e n
e r a l l y th o s e w hich w ere w id e ly known and e a s i l y re c o g n iz e d .
I m p a tie n t w ith d i s p l a y s o f p e d a n tr y in v e r s e , S w ift g e n
e r a l l y c o n f in e s h im B elf to th e f a m i l i a r p e r s o n s , p l a c e s ,
and e v e n ts o f h i s own tim e . W hereas many o f B u t l e r 's
im ages a r e re m o te , s p r in g in g from h i s fo n d n e ss f o r s tr a n g e
22
w ords and e s o t e r i c language* S w ift p r e f e r s commonplace im
a g e ry e x p re s s e d i n th e lan g u ag e o f o r d in a r y sp ee c h .
F or f r e s h e f f e c t s * Sw ift* l i k e B u tle r* u s e s odd sim
i l e s and a n a lo g ie s * b u t S w i f t 's co m p ariso n s a re g e n e r a l l y
composed o f f a m i l i a r d e t a i l s and so com m unicate more d i
r e c t l y . U nusual s i m i l e s and a n a lo g ie s d e s c r ib in g th e
sw in d le o f s to c k h o ld e rs * f o r example* f i l l m ost o f th e
f i f t y - f i v e q u a t r a i n s o f S w i f t 's long s a t i r i c a l poem* "The
B u b b le " :
When S to ck i s h ig h th e y come between*
Making by second hand t h e i r O ffers*
Then c u n n in g ly r e t i r e unseen*
W ith each a M illio n i n h i s C o f f e r s .
So when upon a M oon-shine N ig h t
An Ass was d r in k in g a t a Stream*
A c lo u d a ro s e and s t o p t th e L ight*
By i n t e r c e p t i n g e v 'r y Beam;
The Day o f Judgem ent w i l l be soon*
C ryes o u t a Sage among th e Croud*
An Ass h a th s w a llo w 'd up th e Moon*
The Moon la y s a f e b e h in d th e C loud.
(I* 2 5 3 * 1 1 . 6 9 - 8 0 )
The d i r e c t i o n o f S w i f t 's l a t e r p o e tr y i s shaped to a
la r g e e x t e n t by h i s s tr o n g r e j e c t i o n o f th e c o n v e n tio n a l and
th e t r i t e . More so th a n B u tle r* he d is p l a y s im p a tie n c e w ith
w hat had been done b e f o r e . T r i t e im agery* i n p a r t i c u l a r *
so annoyed S w ift t h a t he c o n s t a n t l y p a r o d ie s i t i n h i s
v e r s e . At tim es* as in " A p o llo 's E d ic t* " f o r example* h i s
d i s g u s t em erges in th e form o f d i r e c t condem nations
23
No S im ile s h a l l be beg u n *
W ith r i s i n g o r w ith s e t t i n g Sun;
And l e t th e s e c r e t Head o f N ile
Be e v e r b a n i s h 'd from y o u r I s l e .
No Son o f mine s h a l l d a re to say.,
A u ro ra u s h e r 'd i n th e Day,
The B ird o f Jove s h a l l t o i l no more,
To te a c h th e humble Wren to s o a r .
When you d e s c r ib e a lo v e ly G i r l ,
No l i p s o f C o ra l T eeth o f P e a r l .
( I , 270, 11. 1 2 -1 5 , 2 0 -2 1 , 25-26;
272, 11. 5^-55)
B ut S w i f t 's fo n d n e ss f o r u n u s u a l co m p ariso n s and d i s l i k e o f
th e c o n v e n tio n a l and th e t r i t e d id n o t o f te n le a d to h ig h ly
o r i g i n a l o r f a n t a s t i c e x p e r im e n ta tio n o r to a s e a rc h f o r
e x o tic o r b i z a r r e im ag ery . He s h a r e d , to some e x t e n t , th e
A ugustan d i s t r u s t o f unchecked im a g in a tio n and s t a r t l i n g
in n o v a t i o n .
H is l a t e r poems a re o f t e n n o t so much a com plete d e
p a r t u r e b u t r a t h e r an i r o n i c r e v e r s a l o f c o n v e n tio n a l and
f a m i l i a r modes. Thus, in w r i t i n g f a l s e p a n e g y ric S w ift
u s u a l l y r e t a i n s th e form and im agery o f c o n v e n tio n a l p a n e
g y r i c , b u t he t u r n s them to se rv e s a t i r i c en d s.
The s t r e n g t h o f many o f S w i f t 's l a t e r poems l i e s in
th e i n t e n s i t y g e n e r a te d by th e s k i l l f u l j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f
c o n v e n tio n a l p o e tic and r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l s . The l a t e r poems,
l i k e th e e a r l i e r , c o n ta in b o th c o n v e n tio n a l and r e a l i s t i c
d e t a i l s , b u t in th e fo rm er S w ift i s more s u c c e s s f u l a t com
b in in g th e s e d i s p a r a t e e le m e n ts . Exam ples o f a s u c c e s s f u l
24;
s y n th e s is a r e "The F i r s t o f A p r i l , " "Cadenus and V a n e s sa ,"
"A pollo O u tw itte d ," "To B e tty th e G r i z e t t e , " "The P ro g re s s
o f B e a u ty ," and "The L a d y 's D re ssin g Room"— to name o n ly a
few.
W hile i t i s t r u e t h a t S w ift ju x ta p o s e d c o n v e n tio n a l
p o e t i c im agery and im agery d e riv e d from o r d in a r y l i f e , even
more pro n o u n ced and more e f f e c t i v e as a s a t i r i c weapon i s
h i s j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f h ig h and low d i c t i o n and to n e . Thus,
a s h i s p o e t i c c o n t r o l d e v e lo p e d , th e d ra m a tic v a lu e o f th e
yoked d i s s i m i l a r s o f th e m e ta p h y s ic a l c o n c e it ( d i s s i m i l a r s
o f k in d , drawn from d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s o f e x p e r ie n c e ,
e . g . , a compass and th e s e p a r a tio n o f lo v e r s ) g iv e s way b e
f o r e th e y o k in g o f d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s o f d i c t i o n and to n e . In
t h i s r e s p e c t S w ift i s l i k e B u t l e r and th e A u gustans who
d i s t r u s t e d th e i n t r i c a t e , o b sc u re m etap h o r. In l i n e w ith
t h i s developm ent th e im ages become i n c r e a s i n g l y congruous
w ith each o t h e r . In th e mock p a n e g y r ic s , f o r exam ple, and
i n th e poems a t t a c k i n g W illiam Wood, th e im ages emerge from
th e a c t u a l l i f e e x p e r ie n c e w hich i s th e s i t u a t i o n o f th e
poem. The im ag es, n e c e s s a r i l y , become more f ir m ly i n t e
g r a t e d i n t o th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e poems and become l e s s
d e c o r a t i v e .
In S w i f t 's p seudo-C ow leian p e r io d , we have n o te d , th e
s a t i r i c a l e lem en t was o f te n i n tr u B iv e , n o t to say d i s r u p
t i v e . As S w ift abandoned c o n c e its f o r c o n t r a s t s in d i c t i o n ,
25,
th e d i s r u p t i v e elem en t d isap p e a re d ., o r r a t h e r , e v e r y th in g
became d e l i b e r a t e l y d i s r u p t i v e and c h a o t i c .
In a poem l i k e "A S a t i r i c a l E leg y on th e D eath o f a
L ate Famous G en eral" th e d e f l a t i o n o f M a rlb o ro u g h 's c h a r
a c t e r i s acco m p lish ed n o t by means o f c o n c e i t s b u t by sub
s t i t u t i o n s o f low, u n p le a s a n t w ords f o r c o n v e n tio n a l
e l e g i a c d i c t i o n :
H is G race! im p o s s ib le ! w hat dead!
Of o ld age to o , and i n h i s bed!
And c o u ld t h a t M ighty W a rrio r f a l l ?
And so i n g l o r i o u s , a f t e r a l l !
W ell, s in c e h e 's go n e, no m a tte r how,
The l a s t lo u d trum p m ust wake him now:
And t r u s t me, as th e n o is e grows s t r o n g e r ,
H e'd w ish to s le e p a l i t t l e lo n g e r .
And c o u ld he be in d e e d so o ld
As by th e n e w s-p a p e rs w e 'r e t o ld ?
T h re e s c o re , I th i n k , i s p r e t t y h ig h ;
'Twas tim e i n c o n sc ie n c e he sh o u ld d i e .
T h is w o rld he c u m b er'd long enough;
He b u r n t h i s c a n d le to th e s n u f f ;
And t h a t ' s th e r e a s o n , some f o l k s t h in k ,
He l e f t b e h in d so g r e a t a s k .
B ehold h i s f u n e r a l a p p e a rs .
Nor w idow 's s ig h s , n o r o r p h a n 's t e a r s ,
Wont a t such tim e s each h e a r t to p i e r c e ,
A tte n d th e p r o g r e s s o f h i s h e r s e .
B ut what o f t h a t h i s f r i e n d s may say ,
He had th o s e h o n o u rs in h i s d ay.
True to h i s p r o f i t and h i s p r i d e .
He made them weep b e f o r e he d y 'd .
Come h i t h e r , a l l ye empty t h i n g s ,
Ye b u b b le s r a i s ' d by b r e a t h o f K ings;
Who f l o a t upon th e t i d e o f s t a t e ,
Come h i t h e r , and b e h o ld y o u r f a t e .
L e t p r i d e be ta u g h t by t h i s re b u k e ,
How v e ry mean a t h i n g 's a Duke;
From a l l h i s i l l - g o t h o n o u rs f lu n g ,
T u rn 'd to t h a t d i r t from whence he sp ru n g .
( I , 296-297)
The p a r t i c u l a r e lem en ts o f th e im ages grow o u t o f th e s i t -
n a t i o n o f M a rlb o ro u g h 's d e a th . Thus, t h e r e i s th e f u n e r a l ,
th e l a s t p r o c e s s io n o f th e h e a r s e , th e g r i e v i n g widow and
c h i l d r e n , th e o b i t u a r y , and th e a l l u s i o n to th e f u n e r a l
serm on. Most t y p i c a l o f th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f S w i f t 's
m a n ip u la tio n o f d i c t i o n i s th e l a s t l i n e o f th e poem, i n
w hich th e word " d i r t " i s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r th e c o n v e n tio n a l
and th e a n t i c i p a t e d " d u s t ."
S w i f t 's heavy u s e o f c e r t a i n k in d s o f commonplace
p h y s i c a l im agery c an n o t be e n t i r e l y e x p la in e d i n te rm s o f
a re s p o n s e to " a n t i - p o e t i c " d ev elo p m en ts o f th e s e v e n te e n th
c e n tu r y . C e r ta in k in d s o f p o lem ic im agery w hich S w ift u s e s
r e p e a t e d l y h e lp to t i e him to a n o th e r t r a d i t i o n — t h a t o f
s e v e n te e n th - c e n tu r y C h r i s t i a n humanism— a t r a d i t i o n w hich
many s c h o la r s have re c o g n iz e d as v i o l e n t l y opposed to th e
ch an g in g c o n d itio n s o f human l i f e i n e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h -
c e n tu r y E n g lan d . P a u l F u s s e l l , in a r e c e n t book The R h e to r
i c a l W orld o f A ugustan Humanismt E t h ic s and Im agery from
10
S w if t to B u rk e , h a s lin k e d S w ift to o t h e r A ugustan human
i s t s — Pope, Jo h n so n , R ey n o ld s, G ibbon, and B u rk e— showing
t h e i r common r e l i a n c e upon c e r t a i n k in d s o f im ages such a s
th o s e d e r iv e d from th e m i l i t a r y , a r c h i t e c t u r e , c l o t h e s , and
i n s e c t s , to e x p re s s th e c o n f l i c t o f C h r i s t i a n h u m an ist
v a lu e s w ith th o s e o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y o p tim ism . S w if t,
100 x fo rd , 1 9 6 5 . F o r a d is c u s s io n o f th e s e image p a t
t e r n s , see P a r t I I , "The R e a l i z a t i o n o f Humanism: Im ages
and M o tif s ."
27
a s th e f i r s t o f th e s e A ugustan hum anists., i s an im p o r ta n t
t r a n s m i t t e r o f h u m a n ist e t h i c s and im a g e ry . F u s s e l l w r i t e s :
Once we p e r c e iv e th e fu n d a m e n tal u n i t y o f th e e t h i c a l
t r a d i t i o n a r t i c u l a t e d by S w ift and Pope and t r a n s m i t t e d
to Johnson and R ey n o ld s, to G ibbon, and f i n a l l y to B urke,
we a r e i n a p o s i t i o n to m easure i t s " g r e a t r e j e c t i o n " o f
w hat i s som etim es th o u g h t o f a s " th e e ig h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ."
A g a in st th e h u m a n ist t r a d i t i o n ru n n in g from S w if t to
Burke we must p la c e th e o p t i m i s t i c t r a d i t i o n bounded on
one end by Defoe and on th e o t h e r by B urns and
B lak e . . . . 11
S w i f t 's d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t w ith th e breakdow n o f th e
h u m a n ist i d e a l p o s s i b l y ex ceed ed t h a t o f any o t h e r A ugustan
h u m a n ist, and i t f i n d s e x p r e s s io n nowhere more s t r o n g l y
th a n in th e e s s e n t i a l l y n e g a tiv e m a t e r i a l s o f h i s v e r s e .
H is g o a l a s s a t i r i c p o e t was to expose th e d e p r a v i t y o f th e
l i f e o f h i s tim e and to en co u rag e m o ral re d e m p tio n . Those
a s p e c ts o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y l i f e t h a t m ost d i s t u r b e d
S w ift and th e o t h e r A ugustan h u m a n ists a r e a p t l y sum m arized
by B u s s e ll:
The v ig o u r o f th e a s s e r t i o n and embodiment o f s e v e n
t e e n t h - c e n t u r y i d e a s by th e e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y h u m a n ists
i s a m easure o f t h e i r s e v e re m o ral d is c o m fo rt i n a w o rld
r a p i d l y tu r n i n g "modern" a l l a b o u t them . In d e e d , th e
power and, i n Burke e s p e c i a l l y , th e f u r y o f A ugustan
h u m a n ist e x p r e s s io n s u g g e s ts id e a s o f a c t u a l w artim e con
d i t i o n s . And th e enem ies a r e f a i r l y c l e a r : th e y a r e th e
m echanism , r e l a t i v i s m , and " R a tio n a lis m " a s c r i b e d to th e
i n f l u e n c e o f Hobbes and D e s c a r te s ; th e new sy stem o f f i
nance c a p i t a l i s m , whose "b u b b le s" can be seen b u r s t i n g
th ro u g h th e e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y ; th e "new s c i e n c e , " e s p e
c i a l l y i n i t s r o l e a s m idw ife to th e new i n d u s t r i a l i s m ;
th e new s e n t i m e n t a l i t y a t t r i b u t e d to S h a f te s b u r y and
H u tch eso n ; th e new ly s a n c t i f i e d com m ercial and a c q u i s i
t i v e e t h i c , v i s i b l e n o t m erely i n Grub S t r e e t and th e
11F u s s e l l , p . 22.
28
C ity , b u t to P o p e 's and S w i f t 's h o r r o r , i n W e stm in ste r and
th e W est End a s w e ll; th e new c o n c e p tio n o f a r t a s an end
p ro d u c t o f s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n , a c o n c e p tio n i s s u i n g from th e
p le a s in g p re m is e — among o t h e r s — t h a t man i s by i n s t i n c t
v ir t u o u s and t h a t he comes eq u ip p ed w ith an in b o rn m o ral
s e n s e ; th e new lo w e r-m id d le c l a s s r e l i g i o u s " e n th u s ia s m ,"
w ith i t s b u i l t - i n t h r e a t to a u t h o r i t y and t r a d i t i o n a l
u s a g e s ; and w hat can be c a l l e d th e new u to p ia n f lip p a n c y
a b o u t man and h i s m oral s t a t e . . . .12
S w i f t 's i n t e n t , th e o b v e rse o f th e ro m a n tic o u tlo o k
tow ard p o e tr y , was to c o n f r o n t and to d e s c r ib e and ex ag
g e r a te th e u g ly r e a l i t i e s o f th e l i f e o f h i s tim e r a t h e r
th a n to tu r n away from them . Most o f th e "enem ies" d e
s c r ib e d by F u s s e l l above a r e d e a l t w ith e x t e n s i v e l y in
S w i f t 's poems. S w i f t 's a b i l i t y to c r e a t e u g ly im ages i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y e f f e c t i v e i n a t t a c k s upon th e new s e n tim e n
t a l i t y , e n th u sia s m , and u to p ia n optim ism a b o u t th e c o n d i
t i o n o f man. S w i f t 's s tr o n g em phasis on man a s an im a l and
h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r u g ly v i o l e n t , " t r i v i a l " im ag ery were
e s s e n t i a l to h i s e f f o r t to c o u n te r th o s e e n t h u s i a s t s who
p r e f e r r e d to ig n o r e th e d a rk s id e o f m an 's n a t u r e . As a
c le a r - e y e d r e a l i s t w r i t i n g in an " a n t i - p o e t i c " ag e, S w ift
p ro d u ced a c o n s c io u s ly " a n t i - p o e t i c " p o e tr y w hich sco rn e d
e sc a p e i n t o th e w o rld s o f c l a s s i c a l m ythology, th e h i s
t o r i c a l p a s t , o r e x t e r n a l n a t u r e . The e x a g g e r a tio n o f
S w i f t 's s a t i r i c m ethods, i n p a r t i c u l a r h i s s tr o n g depend
ence upon n e g a tiv e m a t e r i a l s , sh o u ld n o t b l i n d u s to th e
12F u s s e l l , p . 21. '
29:
e s s e n t i a l l y h u m a n is tic aim o f h i s g e n e r a l s a t i r e , w hich can
p e rh a p s be b e s t sum m arized by th e R e n a issa n c e -h u m a n ist
p h ra s e "n o sce te ip s u m , 1 1 "know t h y s e l f . "
CHAPTER I I
IMAGES BASED ON SUPERNATURAL BEINGS
AND IMAGES DERIVED FROM THE ARTS
Im ages B ased on S u p e r n a tu r a l B eings
Though c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to th e t r a d i t i o n , S w ift d id n o t
s h a re th e C h r i s t i a n h u m a n is t's f a i t h i n th e power o f p o e t i c
im a g in a tio n a s a way o f a r r i v i n g a t t r u t h . S u s p ic io u s o f
f l i g h t s o f fa n c y . S w if t, e x c e p t f o r common m y th o lo g ic a l a l
lu s i o n , u s e s few im ages w hich a re n o t d e riv e d from o b s e r v
a b le e n t i t i e s i n r e a l l i f e . The s u p e r n a tu r a l im ages c l a s
s i f i e d in t h i s c h a p te r com prise th e o n ly m ajo r c a te g o ry o f
im ages i n S w i f t 's p o e tr y w hich a re n o t d e r iv e d from e v e r y
day e x p e r ie n c e . I have d iv id e d th e s e im ages i n t o two sub
g ro u p s : th o s e b a se d on m y th o lo g ic a l b e in g s and th o s e b a se d
on n o n -m y th o lo g ic a l s u p e r n a t u r a l b e in g s . W hile th e s e
im ages a r e q u i t e a b u n d a n t, w ith th e fo rm er k in d f a r ex
c ee d in g th e l a t t e r , th e y a r e n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t
i n th e m se lv e s b e c a u se th e y com prise a w o rld which S w if t,
a f t e r h i s e a r l y r e j e c t i o n o f th e muse in th e poem "Occa
s io n e d by S i r W T 's L ate I l l n e s s and R ecovery" ( I ,
5 1 ), does n o t a p p e a r to ta k e s e r i o u s l y . In th e p o e tr y
w r i t t e n a f t e r 1698 S w ift does n o t d i s p l a y th e p o e t 's t r a
30
d i t i o n a l re v e re n c e f o r th e w o rld o f G reek and Roman m yth
o lo g y , and he u s e s Im ages d e r iv e d from t h i s so u rc e c h i e f l y
a s v e h i c l e s f o r s a t i r i c c o n t r a s t w ith th e r e a l w o rld .
I have d iv id e d S w i f t 's m y th o lo g ic a l im ages i n t o th r e e
g ro u p s : m y th o lo g ic a l gods and g o d d e ss e s, m y th o lo g ic a l a n
im a ls , and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f m etam orphoses. In th e e a r l y
p o e tr y , moBt o f which i s p a n e g y r ic , S w ift u s e s th e f i r s t
two ty p e s w ith a s e r io u s a t t i t u d e ; i n t h i s r e s p e c t h i s p r a c
t i c e i s s i m i l a r to t h a t o f th e R e n a issa n c e p o e ts whose d e
pendence on m y th o lo g ic a l im agery h a s been p o in te d o u t by
D ouglas Bush i n h i s M ythology and th e R e n a issa n c e T r a d i
t i o n . The t h i r d ty p e a p p e a rs i n o n ly th e l a t e r p o e tr y . A
t y p i c a l exam ple o f S w i f t 's c o n v e n tio n a l u se o f m y th o lo g ic a l
d i v i n i t i e s and a n im a ls in h i s e a r l y p o e tr y o c c u rs in s ta n z a
IX o f th e "Ode to S i r W illiam Tem ple":
S ing ( b e lo v 'd Muse) th e P le a s u r e s o f R e t r e a t ,
And i n some u n to u c h 'd V ir g in S t r a i n
Shew th e D e lig h ts th y S i s t e r N atu re y i e l d s ,
S ing o f th y V a le s , s in g o f th y Wpods, sin g o f
th y F i e l d s ;
How i s th e Muse l u x u r i a n t grown,
W h en e'er she ta k e s t h i s F l i g h t
She s o a r s c l e a r o u t o f s i g h t ,
These a re th e P a r a d is e s o f h e r own;
(The P e g a su s, l i k e an u n r u ly H orse
T ho 1 n e 'e r so g e n t l y le d
To th e l o v 'd P a s tu r e where he u s 'd to fe e d ,
Runs v i o l e n t l y o ' e r h i s u s u a l C o u rse .)
Wake from th y wanton Dreams,
Come from th y d e a r - l o v 'd S tream s,
The cro o k ed P a th s o f w andering Thames.
( I , 30, 11. 135-138, 142-152)
^ M in n e a p o lis, 1932.
32
In t h i s p a s s a g e , S w ift in v o k e s th e two t r a d i t i o n a l s o u rc e s
o f p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n : th e Muse and PegasuB.
In a n o th e r e a r l y poem, "Ode to th e A th en ian S o c i e t y , "
S w ift a tte m p ts to work o u t i n d ra m a tic term s h i s own r e l a
t i o n s h i p w ith th e MuBe. However, h i s a tte m p t to c o r r e l a t e
h i s r o l e w ith t h a t o f th e Muse r e s u l t s i n a c o n fu sed s e r i e s
o f c o n t r a d i c t o r y im ag es. In th e f i r s t s ta n z a . S w ift draws
an a n a lo g y betw een th e a f te r m a th o f th e B i b l i c a l f lo o d and
th e a f te r m a th o f w arj p h ilo s o p h y r e a p p e a r s and i s p a r t i a l l y
i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e "Dove-m use":
At th e f i r s t Ebb o f N oise and P e a r s ,
P h ilo s o p h y 1s e x a l t e d h ead a p p e a rs ;
And th e Dove-muse, w i l l now no lo n g e r s ta y
B ut plum es h e r S i l v e r Wings and f l i e s away.
And now a L a u re l w re a th she b r in g s from f a r ,
To Crown th e happy C onquerour,
To shew th e F lo o d b e g in s to c e a s e ,
And b r in g s th e d e a r Reward o f V ic to r y and P e a c e .
( I , 16, 11. 14-21)
Then i n s ta n z a I I I , S w ift i d e n t i f i e s h im s e lf a s th e " V irg in -
m use":
Pardon Ye g r e a t Unknown, and f a r - e x a l t e d Men,
The w ild e x c u r s io n s o f a y o u th f u l pen;
F o rg iv e a young and (a lm o s t) V irg in -m u se ,
Whom b l i n d and e a g e r C u r i o s i t y
(Y et C u r i o s i t y th e y say ,
I s in h e r Sex a Crime n e ed s no ex cu se) . . .
( I , 17, 11. 60-65)
S w ift moves from a c o r r e l a t i o n o f h im s e lf w ith th e Muse to
a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e Muse a s fe m in in e . In d e e d , l a t e r she
becomes a symbol f o r womanhood. Thus S w i f t 's a tte m p t to
work o u t i n d ra m a tic term s h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e Muse
f a i l s b e c a u se th e c o n fu s in g s e r i e s o f im ages b l u r s th e
33
M use's t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e aB th e i n s p i r e r f o r p o e tr y .
In " S i r W T 's L a te I l l n e s s , " th e l a s t o f th e
e a r l y poems, S w ift re n o u n c e s th e Muse o f th e e a r l y poems,
and i n so doing b id s f a r e w e l l to t r a d i t i o n a l s o u rc e s o f
p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n :
M alig n an t g o d d ess! bane to my r e p o s e ,
Thou u n i v e r s a l cau se o f a l l my woes;
( I , 53* 11. 81-82)
I h e r e ren o u n ce th y v i s i o n a r y p o w 'r;
And s in c e th y e ss e n c e on my b r e a t h d ep en d s,
Thus w ith a p u f f th e w hole d e lu s io n e n d s.
( I , 55, 11. 152-154)
Here S w i f t 's a t t i t u d e i s in tu n e w ith th e a t t i t u d e o f th e
R oyal S o c ie ty a s e x p re s s e d by Thomas S p r a t (s e e Ch. I , p .
1 5 ).
When S w ift a g a in s t a r t s w r i t i n g p o e tr y a f t e r a f i v e -
y e a r la p s e , he t u r n s to th e r e a l w o rld a s th e m ajo r so u rc e
o f h i s im ag es. Though he c o n tin u e s u s in g m y th o lo g ic a l
im ages, th e th r e e ty p e s a re u s e d n o t m e re ly f o r t h e i r own
sa k e , b u t p re d o m in a n tly a s v e h i c l e s f o r s a t i r i c c o n t r a s t
w ith th e r e a l w o rld . S w ift b le n d s r e f e r e n c e s to m y th o lo g
i c a l gods and g o d d e sse s w ith th e e v ery d ay w o rld o f th e
e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y . The s h i f t in S w i f t 's te c h n iq u e i s w e ll
i l l u s t r a t e d by h i s u s e o f th e Muse f o r m o ck -h ero ic p u rp o s e s
i n th e poem "To S t e l l a " ; he p o r t r a y s th e Muse as p a y e r o f
b i l l s , th u s jo in in g th e m y th o lo g ic a l g o d d ess w ith an o r d i
n a ry ev ery d ay a c t i v i t y :
34
A P o e t, s t a r v i n g i n a G a r r e t,
Conning o ld T opicks l i k e a P a r r o t ,
InvokeB h i s M is tr e s s and h i s Muse,
And s t a y s a t home f o r w ant o f Shoes:
Should b u t h i s Muse d e sc e n d in g drop
A S l i c e o f B re a d , a M utton-Chop,
Or k in d ly when h i s C r e d i t 's o u t,
S u r p r iz e him w ith a P in t o f S to u t,
Or p a tc h h i s b ro k en S to c k in g S o a ls ,
Or sen d him in a Peck o f C o als;
E x a lte d i n h i s m ig h ty Mind
He f l i e s , and le a v e s th e S t a r s b e h in d ,
C ounts a l l h i s L abours amply p a id ,
A dores h e r f o r th e tim e ly A id.
( I I , 7 2 8 , 1 1 . 2 5 - 3 8 )
T h is d e f l a t i o n o f th e gods and g o d d e sse s o f m ythology i s a
common te c h n iq u e i n S w i f t 's l a t e r p o e tr y . In "A pollo O ut
w i t t e d , " he d e s c r i b e s A pollo a s an e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y
noblem an i n d i s g u i s e whose a tte m p te d s e d u c tio n o f A r d e lia
i s th w a rte d by th e Muse T h a lia , who p la y s th e r o l e o f
ch a p e ro n e . In a n o th e r poem, " D ir e c tio n s f o r a B ir th d a y
S o n g ," S w ift em ploys f a l s e p a n e g y r ic i n h av in g th e gods and
g o d d e sse s d escen d to w o rsh ip George I I and h i s queen:
Now B i r t h - d a y B ard , w ith jo y p ro c e e d
To p ra iB e y o u r E m press, and h e r B reed .
F i r s t , o f th e f i r s t . To vouch y o u r Lyes
B rin g a l l th e Fem ales o f th e Skyes:
The G races and t h e i r M is tr e s s Venus
MuBt v e n tu r e down to e n t e r t a i n u s .
W ith bended k n e es when th e y a d o re h e r
What Dowdys th e y a p p e a r b e f o r e h e r I
Nor s h a l l we t h i n k you t a l k a t random,
F o r Venus m ight be h e r g r e a t Grandam.
S ix th o u sa n d y e a r s h a th l i v ' d th e G oddess,
Your H ero in e h a r d ly f i f t y odd i s .
( I I , 465, 11. 151-162)
H ere S w ift employs a f a v o r i t e d e v ic e , th e i r o n i c t w i s t in
th e l i n e "What Dowdys th e y a p p e a r b e f o r e h e r I" He m ixes
35'
th e two w o rld s , th e m y th o lo g ic a l and th e r e a l , and s u c c e s s
f u l l y a c c o m p lish e s d e f l a t i o n o f b o th .
A n o th er way i n w hich S w ift d e f l a t e s th e gods and god
d e s s e s o f m ythology i s by m ixing m y th o lo g ic a l and s c a t o
l o g i c a l im ag ery . T h is i s a f a v o r i t e d e v ic e he u s e s i n th e
n o t o r i o u s "D ressing-R oom " poem s. F o r exam ple, i n "The
L a d y 's D re ss in g Room," S w ift com pares S tr e p h o n 's f a t e f u l
a c t o f o p en in g C e l i a 's commode to E p im e th e u s 's opening o f
P a n d o r a 's box:
F o r S tre p h o n v e n t u r 'd to lo o k i n ,
R e s o lv 'd to go t h r o ' t h i c k and t h i n ;
He l i f t s th e L id , th e r e n eed s no more,
He sm e lt i t a l l th e Time b e f o r e .
Ab from w ith in P a n d o ra ' s Box,
When E pim etheus o p 'd th e Locks,
A sudden u n i v e r s a l Crew
Of humane E v i l s upw ards fle w .
( I I , 528, 11. 79-86)
In th e l a t e r p o e tr y , S w ift a ls o u s e s th e second ty p e
o f m y th o lo g ic a l im ag es, th o s e o f a n im a ls , f o r s a t i r i c p u r
p o s e s . In h i s w i t t y poem "The P r o g re s s o f P o e tr y ," he n o t
o n ly re d u c e s th e u s u a l e l e v a t e d a t t i t u d e tow ard p o e t i c i n
s p i r a t i o n by h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e s e l f - s a t i s f i e d p o e t too
f a t to r i s e on th e w ings o f P e g a su s, b u t he a ls o b r in g s
P egasus h im s e lf low i n th e fo llo w in g d e s c r i p t i o n :
Nor P eg asu s c o u ld b e a r th e Load,
Along th e h ig h c e l e s t i a l Road;
The S te e d , o p p r e s s 'd , w ould b re a k h i s G ir th ,
To r a i s e th e Lumber from th e E a r th .
( I , 231, 11. 27-30)
H e re, th e c o l l o q u i a l term s " b e a r th e l o a d , " " b re ak h i s
G i r t h , " and " r a i s e th e Lumber" a re c o m ic a lly ju x ta p o s e d
36
w ith th e more e le v a te d term s such a s "P egasus*" "h ig h c e l e s
t i a l * " and " S te e d ." In e f f e c t * P egasus i s re d u c e d to th e
l e v e l o f a d r a f t h o r s e .
The l a t e r p o e tr y a ls o i n c lu d e s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f m eta
m orphoses u s e d f o r s a t i r i c p u rp o s e s . In "The V i r t u e s o f
S id Hamet th e M a g ic ia n 's Rod" S w ift com bines a s e r i e s o f
m etam orphoses o f a s i n g l e p h y s i c a l o b je c t* a wand* w ith
v a r io u s m y th o lo g ic a l r e f e r e n c e s in a s a t i r i c a l a t t a c k on th e
a b u se s o f p o l i t i c a l power e x e m p lif ie d by S id n ey G odolphin.
I n th e poem* S w ift s u c c e s s iv e ly d e s c r ib e s th e wand in term s
o f a s e rp e n t* a s tic k * a b ro o m stick * a d iv in in g rod* th e
ro d o f Hermes* A c h i l l e s ' s c e p tre * and f i n a l l y a Newmarket
s w itc h . The f i n a l change i s e s p e c i a l l y d e v a s ta tin g w ith
i t s s c a t o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s :
D ear S id , th e n why w e r 't thou so mad
To b re a k th y Rod l i k e n au g h ty la d ?
You sh o u ld have k i s s ' d i t i n y o u r D i s t r e s s ,
And th e n r e t u r n 'd i t to y o u r M istre ss*
Or made i t a Newmarket Switch*
And n o t a Rod f o r th y own B re ec h .
F or s in c e o ld S id h a s b ro k en th is *
H is n e x t w i l l be a Rod in P i s s .
(I* 135, 11. 79-8 6 )
In "The S to ry o f B a u c is and P h ilem o n ," we have a
s t r i k i n g exam ple o f S w i f t 's s a t i r i c u s e o f m etam orphoses in
2
h i s a d a p ta tio n o f O v id 's s t o r y . S w ift n o t o n ly d e f l a t e s
th e myth b u t a ls o w i t t i l y s a t i r i z e s th e (lo w er) c le r g y .
2
F or a modern v e r s io n o f t h i s myth see E d ith Ham ilton*
M ythology (Boston* 1 940), p p . 150-153-
37
A lth o u g h he fo llo w s th e g e n e r a l p l o t o f h i s source., a t e s t
o f h o s p i t a l i t y , he changes c e r t a i n d e t a i l s f o r p u rp o se s o f
comic d e f l a t i o n . In p la c e o f th e m y th o lo g ic a l g o d s, J u
p i t e r and M ercury, S w ift s u b s t i t u t e s C h rlB tla n f i g u r e s :
"Two B r o th e r-H e rm its , S a i n t s by T rade" ( I , 9 0 ). They a re
se rv e d hom ely f a r e :
. . . Goodman Philem on . . .
Bade Goody B au c is mend th e F ir e
W h ils t he from o u t th e Chimny to o k
A F l i t c h o f Bacon o f f th e Hook,
And f r e e l y from th e f a t t e s t S ide
C u tt o f f la r g e S l i c e s to be f r y 'd ;
Which t o s s t up in a Pan w ith B a t t e r ,
And s e r v 'd up i n an e a r th e n P l a t t e r .
( I , 91, 11. 52-62)
S i m i l a r l y , i n S w i f t 's d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e m etam orphoses
he u s e s homely r e a l i s t i c o b je c tB u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith
th e low er c l a s s . For exam ple,
The K e t t l e to th e Top was h o i s t
And th e r e Btood f a s tn e d to a J o y s t , . . .
T is now no K e t t l e b u t a B e l l .
( I , 92, 11. 97-104)
S w i f t 's d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e m etam orphosis o f th e " P o rre n g e rs "
p r e p a r e s u s f o r th e comic t w i s t a t th e end o f th e poem:
The P o r re n g e rs t h a t in a Row
Hung h ig h and made a g l i t t ' r i n g Show
To a l e s s n o b le S u b stan ce c h a n g 'd
Were now b u t l e a t h e r n B u ck ets r a n g 'd .
( I , 93, 11. 113-116)
I n t h i s c a s e , th e m etam orphosis does n o t move from th e
hom ely to th e g ra n d . S i m i l a r l y , th e c u lm in a tin g metam or
p h o s is in v o lv e s i r o n i c r e v e r s a l a s Philem on i s a c t u a l l y
lo w ered i n s t a t u s . A lth o u g h he i s changed to a p a r i s h
38
p r i e s t , h i s gown "b ein g o ld c o n tin u e d j u s t / As th r e a d b a r e ,
and a s f u l l o f D ust" ( I , 11. 1 6 9- lT O ) . F u rth e rm o re ,
th e r e i s a dow ngrading o f h i s c h a r a c t e r :
A sham bling awkward G ate he to o k ,
W ith a demure d e je c te d Look.
T a lk t o f h i s O f f ’r i n g s , T y th s, and Dues,
Could Smoak, and D rin k , and r e a d th e News;
Or s e l l a Goose a t th e n e x t Toun
D e c e n tly h i d b e n e a th h i s Goun.
C o n triv d to p re a c h h i s Sermon n e x t
C hang'd i n th e P r e f a c e and th e T e x t:
C a r r y 'd i t to h i s E q u a lls h i g h 'r ,
B ut m ost o b se q u io u s to th e S q u ir e .
( I , 95, 11. 171-180)
Thus, th ro u g h th e u se o f m etam orphoses p r e s e n te d w ith v i v id ,
r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l s , S w ift e f f e c t i v e l y b u i l d s up to a s a t i r i c
p o r t r a i t o f th e la z y , s h i f t l e s s c le r g y .
L ike th e m y th o lo g ic a l im ag es, m ost o f th e non-m ytho-
l o g i c a l s u p e r n a t u r a l im ag es, in c lu d in g th o s e o f g h o s ts ,
witches, elveB, sprites, and fairies, are used seriously in
th e e a r l y p o e tr y and s a t i r i c a l l y i n th e l a t e r . In th e
e a r l y poems S w ift w i l l o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e th e image o f a
g h o s t when he w ants to d e s c r ib e an ep h em eral a b s t r a c t i o n
such a s t r u t h o r p o e t i c po w ers. In "Ode to Dr. W illiam
S a n c r o f t, L a te Lord A rch b ish o p o f C a n t e r b u r y ," S w ift p o r -
tray B t r u t h as a " re v e re n d g h o s t" :
D i s j o i n t i n g sh ap es a s in th e f a i r y - l a n d o f
dream s,
Or im ages t h a t s in k in s tre a m s ;
No w onder, th e n , we t a l k am iss
Of t r u t h , and w h at, o r where i t i s ;
Say Muse, f o r th o u , i f any, k n o w 'st
S in ce th e b r i g h t e ss e n c e f l e d , where h a u n ts
th e re v e r e n d g h o s t? ( I , 3 5, 11. 39-^4)
39
I n "O ccasioned by S i r W T ' s L a te I l l n e s s and Recov
e r y , " th e poem In w hich S w if t re n o u n c e s t r a d i t i o n a l p o e t i c
s u b j e c t m a tte r , he useB a s i m i l a r te c h n iq u e i n d e s c r ib in g
th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n i n termB o f a
shadowy s u p e r n a t u r a l b e in g s
Ah, sh o u ld I t e l l a s e c r e t y e t unknown,
T hat thou n e 'e r h a d s t a b e in g o f th y own,
B ut a w ild form d ep en d en t on th e b r a i n , . . .
L ike a n t i c sh ap es In dream s, from waking
e y e s :
In sum, a g l i t t ' r i n g v o ic e , a p a i n t e d name,
A w alk in g v a p o r, l i k e th y s i s t e r fam e.
( I , 54, 11. 9 3 -9 5 , 100-101)
In "Ode to th e H onorable S i r W illia m Tem ple," a n o th e r poem
o f th e e a r l y p e r io d , S w ift u s e s th e image o f a g h o s t in a
s e r i o u s m etap h o r, b u t he a n t i c i p a t e s h i s l a t e r p r a c t i c e o f
u s in g such an image f o r B a t i r i c p u rp o s e s by s a t i r i z i n g
th o s e who see l e a r n i n g a s s t r i c t l y c o n fin e d to books and
s c h o o ls :
F or L e a r n in g 1s m ig h ty T r e a s u re s lo o k
In t h a t deep Grave a Book,
T hink she t h e r e d o es a l l h e r T r e a s u re s h id e ,
And t h a t h e r t r o u b l e d G host s t i l l h a u n ts th e r e
s in c e she d y 'd ;
C o n fin e h e r W alks to C o lle g e s and S c h o o ls ,
Her p r i e s t s , h e r T ra in and F o llo w e rs show
As i f th e y a l l w ere S p e c tr e s to o .
They p u rc h a se Knowledge a t th e Expence
Of common B re e d in g , common S en se,
And a t once grow S c h o la rs and F o o ls .
( I , 27, 11. 35-44)
I n th e l a t e r poems, S w ift u s e s im ages o f non-m ytho-
l o g i c a l s u p e r n a t u r a l b e in g s f o r l i g h t r a i l l e r y , mock h e r o i c ,
s a t i r i c a n a lo g y , and a s a means o f a t t a c k i n g th o s e who b e
l i e v e in s u p e r n a t u r a l phenomena. In "Lady B B-----
4o
f in d i n g in th e A u th o rs Room some V e rse s U n fin is h e d , u n d e r -
w r i t a S ta n z a o f h e r own, w ith R a i l e r y upon him , w hich gave
O ccasion to t h i s B a l l a d e ," we f i n d a good exam ple o f
S w i f t s u s e o f th e s u p e r n a t u r a l f o r l i g h t r a i l l e r y . He
pokes fun a t th e p r e t e n s i o n s o f a w ould-be w r i t e r and su g
g e s t s t h a t th e w r i t e r had s u p e r n a t u r a l a s s i s t a n c e :
T h is p u t me th e F r y a r i n t o an Amazement,
F or he w is e ly c o n s i d e r 'd i t m ust be a S p r i t e ,
T h at came th ro u g h th e Key-Hole o r in a t th e Casem ent,
And i t n eed s m ust be one t h a t c o u ld b o th Read and
W rite :
Y et he d id n o t know
I f i t w ere F r ie n d o r Foe,
Or w h e th er i t came from Above o r Below.
H ow e'er i t waB c i v i l i n Angel o r E l f ,
F o r he n e 'r e c o u ld have f i l l ' d i t so w e ll o f h im s e lf .
( I , 77, 11. 12-20)
I n "C a ssin u s and P e t e r , a T r a g ic a l E le g y ," S w ift u s e s
th e s u p e r n a t u r a l image i n a m o ck -h ero ic p a ro d y o f t r a d i
t i o n a l d e ath b e d vows. The dying C a ssin u s t h r e a t e n s P e te r
w ith s u p e r n a t u r a l v i s i t a t i o n s i f P e t e r d i s c l o s e s th e r e a
so n s f o r C a s s i n u s 's d e a th :
B u t, i f you f a i l , my S p e c tr e d re a d
A tte n d in g n i g h t l y round y o u r Bed;
And y e t , I d a re c o n fid e i n you;
So, ta k e my S e c r e t, and a d ie u .
( I I , 597, 11. 113-116)
"The Run upon th e B an k ers" p r o v id e s a p e r t i n e n t exam ple o f
S w i f t 's u s e o f th e s u p e r n a t u r a l image f o r s a t i r i c a n alo g y :
C onceive th e Works o f M id n ig h t Hags,
T orm enting F o o ls b e h in d t h e i r B acks;
Thus B an k ers o ' e r t h e i r B i l l s and Bags
S i t sq u ee z in g Im ages o f Wax.
41
C onceive th e w hole E nchantm ent b ro k e ,
The W itch es l e f t i n open A ir ,
W ith P o w 'r no more th a n o t h e r F o lk
E x p o s 'd w ith a l l t h e i r M agick W are.
So P o w 'r f u l a re a B a n k e r 's B i l l s
When C r e d i t o r s demand t h e i r Due;
They b re a k up C o u n te rs, D oors, and T i l l s ,
And le a v e h i s emty C h e sts in View.
( I , 240, 11. 29-40)
The c l e a r l y d e v elo p e d a n a lo g y betw een th e b a n k e rs and th e
w itc h e s i l l u s t r a t e s a t y p i c a l te c h n iq u e o f S w i f t 's , th e
p r a c t i c e o f d e v e lo p in g p o i n t by p o i n t s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een
th e o b j e c t o f th e s a t i r e and th e v e h ic l e f o r s a t i r e . And,
f i n a l l y , S w ift a ls o u s e s s u p e r n a t u r a l im ages to a t t a c k
thoBe who b e l i e v e i n such phenom ena. In "To S t e l l a ,
V i s i t i n g me i n my S ic k n e s s ," S w ift p r a i s e s h e r by i n d i r e c t l y
a t t a c k i n g women who see g h o s ts :
F or S t e l l a n e v e r l e a r n 'd th e A rt,
At p r o p e r Times to scream and s t a r t ;
Nor c a l l s up a l l th e House a t N ig h t,
And sw ears she saw a Thing i n W hite.
( I I , 725, 11. 71-74)
S w i f t 's r e l a t i v e l y i n f r e q u e n t u s e o f im ages o f th e
s u p e r n a t u r a l , b o th m y th o lo g ic a l and n o n -m y th o lo g ic a l, con
t r a s t s w ith P o p e 's more f r e q u e n t u s e . As Edwin S t . V in c e n t
p o i n t s o u t,
T hroughout h i s [ P o p e 's ] poems im ages abound t h a t have
been spun from mere fa n c y : o f G o th ic s c e n e s , o f fa r-a w a y
p l a c e s , o f s u p e r n a t u r a l b e in g s from b o th f o l k l o r e and
c l a s s i c a l m ythology, and o f e v e n ts o f an e n t i r e l y f a n c i
f u l k i n d . 3
^ S t. V in c e n t, p p . 125-126.
42
Pope* l i k e S w if t, u s e s some o f th e s e im ages f o r s a t i r i c
p u rp o s e s , b u t, u n lik e S w if t, Pope a ls o u s e s them f o r atm os
p h e r ic e f f e c t s i n poems such a s "W indsor F o r e s t" and "E lo -
i s a to A b e la r d ." In t h i s r e s p e c t , S w i f t 's p o e t r y la c k s th e
"Rom antic" e le m e n ts w hich a p p e a r in P o p e 's p o e tr y . S w i f t 's
a v o id an c e o f f a n c i f u l e le m e n ts i s u n d e r s ta n d a b le s in c e in
h i s p o e tr y he s t r e s s e s o r d in a r y s o c i a l l i f e , and t h e r e f o r e
f i n d s more to h i s p u rp o se im ages d e r iv e d from o r d in a r y ,
t r i v i a l , e v ery d ay e x p e r ie n c e .
Im ages D eriv ed from th e A rts
The p a u c i t y o f im ages d e r iv e d from th e a r t s can a l s o ,
in p a r t , be a c c o u n te d f o r by S w i f t 's te n d en c y to draw th e
s u b j e c t m a tte r o f h i s im ages d i r e c t l y from l i f e . S w ift d id
n o t sh a re P o p e 's p a s s io n f o r p a i n t i n g , and th o u g h h i s p o
e t r y i s h i g h ly v i s u a l i t c a n n o t be c a l l e d p i c t o r i a l .
S w i f t 's i n t e r e s t in d e p ic t in g th e u g ly a s p e c ts o f l i f e p r e
c lu d e d h i s u se o f p l e a s i n g im ages from th e w o rld o f a r t .
Hence, on th e i n f r e q u e n t o c c a s io n s when he does u se im ages
d e r iv e d from s c u lp t u r e o r p a i n t i n g , he u s u a l l y ig n o r e s
such p o t e n t i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e a e s t h e t i c d e t a i l s a s l i g h t and
c o l o r . Thus, when he u s e s im ages d e r iv e d from m u sic, he
s t r e s s e s th e in s tr u m e n ts t h a t p ro d u ce u n p le a s a n t o r h a rs h
so u n d s. F u rth e rm o re , he seems to be more i n t e r e s t e d in th e
m a t e r i a l s and t o o l s o f th e a r t s th a n i n th e f i n i s h e d
p r o d u c ts th e m s e lv e s . :
43
When Sw ift., i n th e e a r l y p o e t r y , u s e s im ages d e riv e d
from th e a r t s , t h e i r p rim a ry f u n c tio n i s s i m i l a r to t h a t o f
some o f th e im ages d is c u s s e d above, in S e c tio n A; t h a t i s ,
th e y a r e u s e d s e r i o u s l y to make c o n c r e te an a b s t r a c t i o n .
F o r exam ple, in "Ode to D r. W illia m S a n c r o f t, L a te Lord
A rch b ish o p o f C a n te rb u r y ," S w ift d e s c r ib e s m u t a b i l i t y in
term s o f th e c o m p o sitio n o f a s t a t u e :
Made up o f i r o n m ix t w ith c la y ,
T h is , cru m b les i n t o d u s t,
T h a t, m o u ld ers i n t o r u s t ,
Or m e lts by th e f i r s t s h o w 'r away.
N othing i s f i x ' d t h a t m o r ta ls see o r know,
U n le s s , p e r h a p s , some s t a r s above be so .
( I , 39, 11. 139-144)
In "To Mrs. B iddy F lo y d ," we f i n d one o f th e r a r e i n
s ta n c e s i n S w i f t 's l a t e r p o e tr y i n w hich he u s e s im ages
d e r iv e d from th e a r t s to e x p re s s a com plim ent. Inasm uch aB
th e image o f th e s c u l p t o r a t work i s s k i l l f u l l y d ev elo p ed
th ro u g h o u t th e whole poem, I q u o te i t i n i t s e n t i r e t y :
When Cupid d id h i s G ra n d s ire Jove i n t r e a t ,
To form some B eau ty by a new R e c e it,
Jo v e s e n t and found f a r i n a C ountry Scene,
T ru th , In n o c e n c e , Good N a tu re , Look s e r e n e ;
From w hich I n g r e d ie n tB , F i r s t th e d e x t 'r o u s Boy
P ic k t th e Demure, th e Aukward, and th e Coy;
The G races from th e C o u rt d id n e x t p ro v id e
B re e d in g , and W it, and A ir , and d e c e n t P r id e ;
These Venus c l e a n s 'd from e v 'r y s p u rio u s G rain
Of N ic e, C oquet, A f f e c te d , P e r t , and V ain .
Jove m ix 'd up a l l , and h i s b e s t C lay im p lo y 'd ;
Then c a l l ' d th e happy C o m p o sitio n , F lo y d .
( I , 118)
More t y p i c a l o f S w ift i s th e fo llo w in g u se o f im agery
d e r iv e d from s c u l p t u r e i n w hich he w i t t i l y u s e s th e d e -
44
s c r i p t i o n o f a s t a t u e b e in g p la c e d in a n ic h e to a t t a c k
W illiam Wood;
A Jo y n e r to f a s t e n a S a in t in a M itc h ,
B o r 'd a la r g e A u g re -h o le i n th e Im a g e 's B reech ;
B ut f in d in g th e S ta tu e to make no C om plaint,
He w ould n e 'e r be c o n v in c 'd i t was a True S a i n t :
When th e True W OOD a r r i v e s , a s he soon w i l l no
d o u b t,
(B or t h a t ' s b u t a Sham W OOD th e y c a r r y a b o u t)
What S t u f f he i s made on you q u ic k ly may f i n d ,
I f you make th e same T r y a l, and B ore him B eh in d ;
I ' l l h o ld you a G ro a t, when you wimble h i s Bumm,
H e 'l l B ellow a s lo u d a s th e D e e 'l in a Drum.
( I , 336, 11. 71-80)
By s t r e s s i n g th e p r o c e s s o f s c u l p t u r i n g and th e b a s i c p h y s
i c a l m a t e r i a l s u s e d , S w ift g iv e s v i t a l i t y to w hat m ight w e ll
h ave been a s t a t i c im age. The image a ls o g a in s v i t a l i t y by
S w i f t 's com parison o f th e s t a t u e to a human b e in g , a com
p a r is o n t h a t a llo w s him to i n tr o d u c e th e i n g r e d i e n t s o f
p a in and v io le n c e .
S w i f t 's em phasis on th e human i s f u r t h e r e x e m p lifie d
i n th e k in d o f i n t e r e s t he d i s p l a y s in p a i n t i n g . H is la c k
o f a t t e n t i o n to a e s t h e t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s such a s l i g h t and
c o l o r i s w e ll i l l u s t r a t e d i n "A C h a r a c te r , P a n e g y ric , and
D e s c r ip tio n o f th e L egion Club" in w hich S w ift l i k e n s h i s
work to t h a t o f H o g a rth , who s p e c i a l i z e d in s a t i r i c p o r
t r a i t s in b la c k and w h ite :
How I w ant th e e , humorous H o g a rt?
Thou I h e a r , a p l e a s a n t Rogue a r t ;
Were b u t you and I a c q u a in te d ,
E v ery M onster sh o u ld be p a in te d ;
You sh o u ld t r y y o u r g ra v in g T ools
On t h i s o d io u s Group o f F o o ls ;
Draw th e B e a s ts a s I d e s c r ib e 'em,
Form t h e i r F e a tu r e s , w h ile I g ib e them;
45
Draw them l i k e , f o r I a s s u r e you,
You w i l l n eed no C a r 'c a t u r a .
( I l l , 8 3 9 , 1 1 . 2 1 9 - 2 2 8 )
Here a g a in S w i f t 's c h o ic e o f image r e v e a l s h i s i n t e r e s t in
d e p ic t in g th e u g ly a s p e c ts o f l i f e . As M aurice Johnson
sa y s,
Sometimes S w i f t ’ s u r g e n t w ish to d e s c r ib e th e r i d i c u
lo u s o r v i l e made h i s s t r o n g e s t v e rs e seem to him to o
i n e f f e c t u a l and b l i n d f o r h i s p u rp o s e , and he w anted th e
added power . . . l i k e t h a t i n H o g arth . . . .4
S w i f t 's u se o f im ages d e r iv e d from m usic r e v e a l s h i s
f a m i l i a r i t y w ith t h i s a r t . We may g a t h e r from h i s poem
"The Dean to H im self on S t. C e c i l i a 's Day" t h a t S w ift was
f a m i l i a r w ith o p e r a t i c p e rfo rm a n c e s and p e rh a p s a tte n d e d
them . In t h i s poem, th e o n ly one w hich d e s c r ib e s m usic and
m u s ic ia n s e x c l u s i v e l y , he ja b s a t th e P r o t e s t a n t c l e r g y 's
d i s l i k e o f m usic and i r o n i c a l l y p r o f e s s e s h i s own ig n o ra n c e
o f m u sic. Y et th e l a s t l i n e o f th e poem r e v e a l s S w i f t 's
knowledge o f s p e c i a l i z e d m u s ic a l te rm in o lo g y ;
Grave D. o f S t. P— ho[w ] comes i t to p a ss
T h at y [o u ] who know m usick no more th a n an a s s
T h at you [who] was found w r i t i n g o f D ra p ie rs
S hould le n d y o u r c a t h e d r a l l to p l a y e r s and s c r a p e r s
To a c t such an o p e ra once i n a y e a r
I s o f f e n s i v e to e v e ry t r u e P r o t e s t a n t e a r
W ith tru m p e ts and f i d d l e s and o rg a n s and s in g in g
W ill s u re th e P r e te n d r and P opery b r in g i n .
No P r o t e s t a n t P r e l a t e , H is Ldshp o r Grace
D u rst th e r e show h i s r i g h t o r m ost re v n d fa c e
^ Jo h n so n , p . 104.
....................................................46
How w ould I t p o l l u t e t h e i r C r o s ie r s and R o ch ets
To l i s t e n to minimms and q u a v e rs and C ro c h e ts .
( I I , 522)
The f a c t t h a t S w ift ends a poem a b o u t m usic w ith two h a r s h ,
u n m u sic a l-so u n d in g w ords such as "q u av e rs" and "C ro c h e ts"
I s a t y p i c a l S w lfte a n t w i s t .
P erh ap s S w i f t 's m ost s i g n i f i c a n t u se o f Im ages d e riv e d
from m usic I s in h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e human v o ic e In term s
o f m u s ic a l I n s tr u m e n ts t h a t a re c a p a b le o f h a r s h , lo u d
sound. The m ost f r e q u e n t a r e tru m p e ts , drum s, and b e l l s .
F or exam ple, i n "The F i r s t Ode o f th e Second Book o f H orace
P a r a p h r a s 'd ," S w ift d e s c r ib e s th e sound o f a human v o ic e a s
f o llo w s :
M ethlnks I h e a r th e e lo u d , a s Trum pet,
As B agpipe s h r i l l , o r O y s te r-S tru m p e t.
( I , 182, 11. 71-72)
And In "A Q u ie t L i f e , and a Good M an," S w ift d e s c r ib e s th e
v o ic e o f a lo u d , sh re w ish fem ale In term s o f a b e l l :
Why D ick! th e D e v i l 's In th y N e ll
Quoth W illj th y House i s w orse th an H e ll:
Why, w hat a P e a l th e Jad e h a s ru n g ,
Damn h e r , why d o n 't you S l i t h e r Tongue?
( I , 220, 11. 9 -1 2 )
In a s h o r t poem, "An Epigram on W oods's B ra ss-M o n ey ," S w ift
a t t a c k s W illia m W ood's debasem ent o f c o in a g e by ex ten d e d
puns on th e word "b ra z e n " w hich b r in g In h a r s h m u s ic a l
so u n d s:
CART' RET was w elcom 'd to th e Shore
F i r s t w ith th e b ra z e n Cannons R oar.
To m eet him n e x t, th e S o l d i e r comes,
W ith b ra z e n Trumps and b ra z e n Drums.
A pproaching n e a r th e Town, he h e a r s
The b ra z e n B e l l s s a l u t e h i s E a r s :
B ut when Wood1s B ra s s began to sound.
Guns, T rum pets, Drums, and B e l l s were
drow n 1d . ( I , 338)
CHAPTER I I I
! IMAGES BASED ON EXTERNAL NATURE j
i I
| |
A lthough S w i f t 's p o e tr y I n c lu d e s a la r g e amount o f I
1
Im agery from e x t e r n a l n a t u r e . S w ift shows l i t t l e i n t e r e s t !
jin e i t h e r th e g e n t l e o r th e w ild a s p e c ts o f n a tu r e f o r
i t h e i r own sak e . He seldom d e r iv e s i n s p i r a t i o n from n a t u r e , i
i i
land o n ly r a r e l y do we f i n d a poem w hich i s c e n t r a l l y f o - I
; j
jcused on o r g iv e s much sp ace to d e s c r i p t i o n s o f n a t u r e . j
iS w i f t 's f i r s t l i t e r a r y e f f o r t s were poems, b u t he d id n o t j
I fo llo w th e u s u a l p r a c t i c e o f b e g in n in g w ith p a s t o r a l p o -
j ;
i e tr y , as Pope d id . In f a c t , th ro u g h o u t h i s p o e t i c c a r e e r , i
j
!e x c e p t f o r p u rp o s e s o f p a ro d y . S w ift c a r e f u l l y a v o id e d th e
j p a s t o r a l w ith i t s s to c k n a tu r e im ag es. S w ift w ro te s o c i a l
ip o e try from th e b e g in n in g , and, in g e n e r a l , was n o t i n t e r -
! i
j i
le s te d i n im ages w hich a r e removed from th e d a i l y l i f e o f j
: i
■man. j
| Though im ages d e r iv e d from e x t e r n a l n a tu r e a r e n o t th e j
|most im p o r ta n t i n S w i f t 's p o e tr y , t h e i r v e ry b u lk w a r r a n ts j
! j
| t h e i r i n c l u s i o n i n a s e p a r a te c h a p te r i n my s tu d y . In t h i s j
: i
ic a te g o ry I in c lu d e im ages whose s u b je c t m a tte r i s d e r iv e d j
from la n d s c a p e , t r e e s , g a rd e n s , c u l t i v a t i o n and g ro w th ,
jh eav en ly b o d ie s , m e te o r o lo g ic a l phenomena, and th e b a s ic
[elem en ts.
I 48
.........................................4 9
D e s c r ip tio n s o f la n d s c a p e s a r e ra re ., b u t th e r e a re a
few t h a t a r e w orth m e n tio n in g . O c c a s io n a lly , S w ift u s e s
them in th e e a r l y p o e tr y a s p a r t o f th e m ach in ery f o r f i g
u r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f a b s t r a c t i o n s . F o r exam ple, i n "Ode
to th e A th e n ian S o c ie ty " S w ift f i g u r a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e s
le a r n in g w ith th e "Dove-muse" ( I , 17)- He th e n d e s c r ib e s
th e la n d sc a p e o v e r w hich th e "Dove-muse" f l i e s : "A P e a c e fu l
and a F lo u r is h i n g S h o re ," " th e d e l i g h t f u l S tr a n d ," "w ith
flo w e ry V a le s , . . . f r u i t f u l G ardens . . . And many a
p l e a s a n t Wood" ( I , 1 7 ). A few l a t e r poems c o n ta in in g sim
i l a r p l e a s a n t , b u t w h o lly p la titu d in o u s * im ages d e riv e d
from la n d sc a p e a r e i m i t a t i o n s o f Roman p o e t s . In one p a s
sag e'1 ' we have a s to c k H o ra tia n scene d e p ic t in g c o u n try
r e t i r e m e n t :
A R iv e r a t my G ard en 1s End,
A T e r r a s Walk, and h a l f a Rood
Of Land s e t o u t to p l a n t a Wood.
( I , 198, 11. 3 -6 )
p
In a n o th e r p a s s a g e , w hich i s " u n -S w if tia n " in to n e , we f in d
a g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f th e e f f e c t s o f th e r e b i r t h o f S p rin g :
To s h i e l d th e i n f a n t F r u i t s and F lo w e rs,
And b l e s s th e E a r th w ith g e n i a l Show ers.
. . . th e V a l l i e s s in g
And W in te r s o f te n s i n t o S p rin g .
( I I , 387* 11. 109-110, 125-126)
The above im ages, o c c u r r in g i n poems t h a t a r e d e r i v a t i v e ,
^■"Horace, L ib . 2, S a t. 6 ."
2 "The B i r t h o f Manly V i r t u e . "
a re p ro b a b ly n o t b a se d upon d i r e c t o b s e r v a tio n by th e p o e t.
" C a rb e ria e Rupes"^ p r o v id e s a sh a rp c o n t r a s t In t h a t S w ift
d e s c r ib e s d i r e c t l y a w ild and ru g g ed la n d s c a p e . W illia m s
( I , 315) p o i n t s o u t t h a t th e poem was w r i t t e n s h o r t l y a f t e r
th e d e a th o f E s th e r V anhom righ, th e V anessa o f S w i f t 's
poems. S w i f t 's f e e l i n g o f b ereav em en t may a cc o u n t f o r th e
a t y p i c a l e m o tio n a l to n e . S w ift w ro te t h i s poem in L atin.,
p o s s i b l y a s a k in d o f s c re e n f o r th e em otion e x p re s s e d . In
th e poem he d e s c r ib e s th e e f f e c t s o f a storm on C arb ery
Rocks i n th e County o f Cork., I r e l a n d :
Ecce in g e n s fragm en s c o p u li quod v e r t i c e summo
D esuper im p en d et, n u llo fundam ine nixum
D e c id it in f l u c t u s : m a ria u n d iq ; & u n d iq ; sax a
H orisono S t r i d o r e to n a n t, & ad a e t h e r a murmur
E r i g i t u r . . . 3 ( I , 316, 11. 1-5)
D e s c r ip tio n s o f t r e e s a r e a l i t t l e more f r e q u e n t th an
b r o a d e r la n d sc a p e im ages and a r e c e n t r a l in a few poems.
In an e a r l y poem, "Ode to th e H onorable S i r W illiam Temple"
( I , 2 6 ), S w ift d e v o te s one f u l l s ta n z a to d e s c r ib in g th e
b e n e f i t s o f T e m p le 's r e t i r e m e n t i n term s o f th e grow th and
developm ent o f a t r e e . In a n o th e r poem-' w hat s t a r t B o u t as
■^"Carbery R o ck s."
li
Lol from th e Top o f y o n d er C l i f f , t h a t sh ro u d s
I t s a i r y Head a m id st th e a z u re C lo u d s,
Hangs a huge Fragm ent; d e s t i t u t e o f p ro p s
Prone o n . th e Waves th e ro c k y R uin d ro p s .
( T r a n s la te d by W illia m D unkin; see W illia m s , I , 317)
^"On C u ttin g down th e Old Thorn a t M arket H i l l " ( i l l . ,
51
a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e c u t t i n g down o f an o ld th o rn t r e e
t u r n s i n t o a v e h ic l e f o r r i d i c u l e o f c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l s .
The t r e e i s p e r s o n i f i e d and i s s u e s th e in d ic tm e n t a g a i n s t
i t s d e s tr o y e r s w hich c u lm in a te s in a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e
hangm an's t r e e as th e f i n a l in s tr u m e n t o f th e th o rn t r e e ' s
re v e n g e . In a t h i r d poem., "A S e rio u s Poem upon W illiam
Wood" ( l , 3 3 3 ) 3 S w ift b r in g s i n t r e e im agery by a sk in g what
k in d o f t r e e "Wood" came from :
I h e a r among S c h o la rs th e r e i s a g r e a t Doubt
Prom what Kind o f Tree t h i s Wood was Hewn o u t.
Teague made a good PUN by a Brogue in h i s Speech,
And s a id : By my Shoul h e 's th e Son o f a BEEGH:
Some c a l l him a Thorn, th e Curse o f a N a tio n ,
As Thorns were d e s i g n 'd to be from th e C r e a tio n .
Some th in k him c u t o u t from th e P o iso n o u s Yew,
B en eath whose i l l Shade no P la n t e v e r grew .
Some say h e 's a B ir c h , a Thought v e ry odd,
For none b u t a Dunce w ould come u n d e r h i s Rod.
B ut I ' l l t e l l you th e S e c r e t, and p ra y do n o t B la b ,
He i s an o ld Stump c u t o u t o f a Crab . . . .
( I , 334, 11. 2 5I 3 0 )
H ere, th e v a r i e t y o f t r e e s s e l e c t e d a re th o s e which p ro v id e
v i o l e n t and u g ly a s s o c i a t i o n s ; t h i s i s u s u a l l y t r u e where
S w ift n eed s im ages f o r s a t i r i c a b u se .
Garden im ages a re a ls o more common th a n b ro a d la n d
scape im ag es. In b o th th e e a r l y and th e l a t e p o e tr y S w ift
employs d e s c r i p t i o n s o f g a rd e n s f i g u r a t i v e l y to i l l u s t r a t e
human s i t u a t i o n s . One o f th e few i n s t a n c e s i n w hich he
r e f e r s to a s p e c i f i c flo w e r w ith p l e a s a n t a s s o c i a t i o n s o c
c u rs in "Cadenus and V a n e s sa ," i n w hich S w ift a l l u d e s to
"A S p rig o f A m aranthine F lo w 'r s " ( I I , 6 9 1 ., 1. 155) in a
c o n c e it i n p r a i s e o f VaneBsa. The u se o f t h i s k in d o f
52
image i s u n u s u a l f o r S w ift in t h a t th e r e i s no u n p le a s a n t
image f o r s a t i r i c c o n t r a s t . Such s a t i r i c c o n t r a s t i s found
i n an e a r l y poem., "Ode to D r. W illia m S a n c r o f t ," in w hich
S w ift u s e s a weed as th e symbol o f th e c o r r u p t p o p u la ce and
a r o s e to r e p r e s e n t th e k in g :
Our B r i t i s h s o i l i s o v e r - r a n k , and b re e d s
Among th e n o b l e s t f l o w 'r s a th o u san d p o is 'n o u s w eeds,
And e v 'r y s t i n k i n g weed so l o f t y grow s.
As i f ' tw ould o v e rsh a d e th e R oyal R ose.
( I , 37, 11. 101-104)
An even more s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t o f im ages a p p e a rs in "An
A nsw er," in w hich S w ift s a t i r i z e s a p a s t o r a l poem by com
b in in g i n o f f e n s i v e flo w e r im agery w ith o f f e n s iv e s c a t o l o g
i c a l im ag ery . S w ift h e ig h te n s th e s a t i r i c c o n t r a s t by
u s in g h ig h ly a r t i f i c i a l and h ig h ly r e a l i s t i c d i c t i o n :
T is sung; w h erev er C e lia t r e a d s ,
The V i ' l e t s ope t h e i r p u r p le h e a d s ,
The R oses blow , th e C ow slip s p r in g s ;
T is sung. B ut we know b e t t e r t h i n g s .
T is t r u e ; a Woman on h e r m e ttle
W ill o f te n p - - s upon a n e t t l e ;
Y e t, though we g r a n t she makes i t w e t t e r .
The n e t t l e n e v e r t h r i v e s th e b e t t e r .
B ut we by g e n tle A p r il show ers
P roduce in May th e s w e e te s t f lo w r s .
( I I , 621, 11. 139-148)
The r e f e r e n c e s in th e l a s t two l i n e s a r e u n u s u a l f o r S w ift
b e c a u se in h i s p o e tr y he seldom m en tio n s th e changes o f th e
s e a s o n s . E x c e p t i n th e e a r l y p o e tr y and i n some l a t e r
p a r o d ie s . S w if t g e n e r a l l y a v o id s th e s to c k im ages o f
E n g lis h p a s t o r a l and l y r i c p o e t r y .^
g
For an e x c e p tio n , see th e e x c e r p t from "The B i r t h o f
Manly V ir tu e " on p . 49.
53
C lo s e ly r e l a t e d to g a rd e n im ages a re th o s e c o n n e c te d
w ith c u l t i v a t i o n and g ro w th . In a number o f poems S w ift
u s e s w ords such as " t r a n s p l a n t i n g , " " w e e d in g ," and " p ru n
in g " in b r i e f m e ta p h o r ic a l c o m p ariso n s o f p e o p l e 's a c t i v i
t i e s w ith th o s e o f p l a n t s . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s
S w i f t 's u se o f t h i s k in d o f f i g u r a t i v e image i n d e s c r i p -
7
t i o n s o f th e w r i t i n g o f p o e t r y . In an e a r l y poem' he u s e s
such im ages to d e s c r ib e h i s own p roblem s in w r i t i n g p o e tr y :
I n v a in a l l wholsome H erbs I sow,
Where n o u g h t b u t Weeds w i l l grow.
W h a te 'e r I p l a n t ( l i k e Corn on b a r r e n E a r th )
By an e q u iv o c a l B i r t h
Seeds and r u n s up to P o e try .
( I , 33, 11. 208-212)
O
In a n o th e r p a ss a g e he s a t i r i z e s th e poems o f S tep h en Duck,
th e T h re s h e r p o e t, by d e s c r ib in g them in te rm s o f such
im ages as " f l a y l , " " c o r n ," " g r a i n s , " " s t r a w ," and " s t u b b l e ."
In a l a t e r famous poem, "On P o e try , A R a p s o d y ," S w ift e x
pands on t h i s k in d o f f i g u r a t i v e c o m p ariso n , d e s c r ib in g
p o e t i c p r o d u c tio n in g e n e r a l i n term s o f p l a n t i n g and
g row th. He r e f e r s s p e c i f i c a l l y to th e s c a r c i t y o f w o rth
w h ile p o e ts :
Say B r i t a i n , c o u 'd you e v e r b o a s t , —
T hree fcoe'ts i n an Age a t m ost?
Our c h i l l i n g C lim ate h a r d ly b e a r s
A S p rig o f Bays in F i f t y Y e a rs :
^"The Ode to th e H o n o rab le S i r W illiam Temple" ( I , 2 6 ).
Q
"On S tephen Duck, th e T h r e s h e r, and F a v o u r ite P o e t,
a Q u ib b lin g E pigram " ( I I , 6 3 9 ) .
54
W hile e v 'r y F o o l h i s c la im a lle d g e s .,
As i f i t grew i n common H edges.
( I I , 640, 11. 5-10)
He th e n u s e s a flo w e r image f o r i r o n i c a d v ic e to th e a s
p i r i n g p o e t on how to g a in f a v o r w ith th e k in g :
Then P o e t, i f you mean to t h r i v e .
Employ y o u r Muse on K ings a l i v e ;
W ith P rudence g a t h 'r i n g up a C lu s t e r
Of a l l th e V i r t u e s you can m u s te r:
Which fo rm 'd i n t o a G arlan d sw eet,
Lay humbly a t y o u r M o n arch 's F e e t;
Who, a s th e Odours r e a c h h i s T hrone,
W ill s m ile , and t h i n k 'em a l l h i s own.
( I I , 647, 11. 219-226)
The n e x t g ro u p o f im ages o f e x t e r n a l n a tu r e in c lu d e s
th o s e d e r iv e d from h e a v e n ly b o d ie s . These o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y
th ro u g h o u t S w i f t 's p o e tr y , and he p u ts them to a w ide v a r i
e t y o f 'u se s. I n th e e a r l y p o e tr y , such im ages r e f l e c t
S w i f t 's i n t e r e s t i n th e cosm ic, th e s e a r c h o f th e y o u th f u l
p o e t f o r r e a s s u r a n c e a b o u t m an 's r o l e i n th e u n i v e r s e . In
h i s v e ry f i r s t poem ,^ S w ift d e s c r ib e s King W illia m i n term s
o f th e su n . S w if t draw s a c o n v e n tio n a l R e n a is sa n c e c o r r e s
pondence betw een th e k i n g 's r o l e i n th e body p o l i t i c and th e
s u n 's r o l e i n th e u n i v e r s e . S w ift a ls o r e f e r s to L o u is XIV
a s a f a l l i n g s t a r . In "To Mr. C ongreve" ( I , 4 3 ), S w ift d e
s c r i b e s C o n g re v e 's c r i t i c s i n te rm s o f o b j e c t s t h a t b lo c k
o u t th e sun, " c e n s u re seems t h a t f i e r y f r o t h w hich b r e e d s /
O 'e r th e s u n 's fa c e " (p . 45, 11. 6 9 - 7 0 ) and f u r t h e r d e v e lo p s
th e c o n c e i t by r e f e r r i n g to th e c r i t i c s a s " s c r i b b l e r s " who
^"Ode to th e King" ( I , 6 ) .
55
" le a v e th e m se lv e s i n n i g h t , / B ut can no more o b s c u re my
CONGREVE'S l i g h t " (p . 45, 11. 7 9 -8 0 ).
In b o th th e e a r l y and th e l a t e p o e tr y , S w ift i s fond
o f p e r s o n if y in g th e sun. In an e a r l y p o e m ^ he u s e s p e r
s o n i f i c a t i o n a s a means o f g l o r i f y i n g th e sun i n l i n e s t h a t
a re s t r o n g l y r e m in is c e n t o f E n g lis h b aro q u e p o e tr y :
T i l l th e b l e s t sun to g iv e k in d dawn o f g ra c e
D a rts w eeping beams a c r o s s h e a v e n 's w a t 'r y f a c e .
( I , 52, 11. 25-26)
The k in d o f im agery t h a t p e r s o n i f i e s th e sun i s q u i t e d i f
f e r e n t in a l a t e r poem .'1 ''1 ' S w ift d e p i c t s th e "g o ld en beams"
as "soon l i c k [ i n g ] up a l l u n s a v 'r y steam s" ( I I , 432, 11. 7 -
8).
As th e sun i s th e c e n t r a l image o f some o f th e e a r l y
poems, th e moon i s th e c e n t r a l image o f some o f th e l a t e r .
A lth o u g h im ages o f th e moon a r e n o t f r e q u e n t, th e y a re
s i g n i f i c a n t in a few o f th e s e poems. In "The P r o g re s s o f
B e a u t y ," S w ift p e r s o n i f i e s th e moon in an e f f e c t i v e com
p a r i s o n betw een th e moon and a d i s e a s e - r i d d e n London s t r e e t
w a lk e r . The b e g in n in g o f th e poem shows S w i f t 's m ethod as
he com pares th e fa c e o f th e r i s i n g moon to C e l i a ' b fa c e
when she g e t s u p :
10"O ccasio n ed by S i r W — T— 's L a te I l l n e s s and Re
co v ery " ( I , 5 l ) .
■'•■'■"The Answer, by D r. S w ift" ( I I , 4 3 2 ).
56
When f i r s t D iana le a v e s h e r Bed
V apors and Steams h e r Looks d i s g r a c e ,
A fr o u z y d i r t y c o l o u r 'd re d
S i t s on h e r c lo u d y w rin c k le d P a c e.
To see [ C e lia ] from h e r P illo w r i s e
A ll re e k in g i n a c lo u d y Steam ,
C ra ck t L ip s , f o u l T e e th , and gummy E y es, . . . .
( I , 2 2 6, 1 1 . 1 -4 , 13-15)
S w ift d e v elo p s th e a n a lo g y th ro u g h o u t th e poem w ith c a r e
f u l l y drawn p a r a l l e l s betw een th e f a c e o f th e waning moon
and th e d e t e r i o r a t i n g f e a t u r e s o f th e woman, c u lm in a tin g in
th e f i n a l s ta n z a in th e s im u lta n e o u s dem ise o f b o th t
Ye Pow'rB who o v e r Love p r e s i d e ,
S in ce m o r ta l B ea u ty e s drop so soon,
I f you w ould have u s w e ll s u p p ly 'd ,
Send u s new Nymphs w ith each new Moon.
( I , 229, 11. 117-120)
A n o th er c a r e f u l l y drawn a n a lo g y i n w hich S w ift p e r
s o n i f i e s th e moon o c c u rs in "A S im ile " ( i , 353)* H ere,
S w ift u s e s an e c l i p s e image to d e s c r ib e in c a r e f u l p a r a l l e l
how Wood a tte m p te d th e debasem ent o f I r i s h c o in a g e . The
r e le v a n c e o f th e moon image i s o b v io u s s in c e i t i s ro u n d ,
and th e "S i l v e r Pace" (p . 354, 1. 14) c o rre s p o n d s w ith th e
s i l v e r c o in s S w ift i s t r y i n g to p r o t e c t .
The m ost im p o r ta n t image o f a s t a r o c c u rs in "Ode to
D r. W illiam S a n c r o f t" in w hich th e s t a r r e p r e s e n t s S a n c r o f t
and a ls o s ta n d s f o r perm anence a s c o n t r a s t e d w ith m o rta l
f r a i l t y :
N othing i s f i x ' d t h a t m o r ta ls see o r know,
U n le ss , p e rh a p s , some s t a r s above be so;
And th o s e , a l a s , do show
Like a l l tr a n s c e n d e n t e x c e lle n c e below ;
In both., f a l s e mediums c h e a t o u r s i g h t ,
And f a r e x a l t e d o b j e c t s le s s e n by t h e i r h e i g h t :
T hus, p r i m i t i v e SANCROFT moves to o h ig h
To be o b s e r v 'd by v u lg a r eye.
And r o l l s th e s i l e n t y e a r
On h i s own s e c r e t r e g u l a r s p h e re ,
And sh ed , t h o ' a l l u n se e n , h i s s a c re d in f l u e n c e
h e r e . ( I , 39, 11. 143-153)
As K a th le e n W illia m s p o i n t s o u t, h e re S w ift u s e s "an image
w hich b le n d s th e o ld and new, in h i s own v e r s io n o f an e x
ample w hich th e p h ilo s o p h e r s o f th e s e v e n te e n th and e i g h t
e e n th c e n t u r i e s a d o p te d to i l l u s t r a t e th e d e c e p tiv e n e s s o f
12
th e s e n s e s ." I n s t e a d o f u s in g th e t r a d i t i o n a l image o f
th e sun, S w ift u s e s a s t a r im age. W illia m s se e s t h i s p a s
sage a s a p r e lim in a r y e x p r e s s io n o f th e theme o f d e c e p tio n
found everyw here in S w i f t 's l a t e r work.
In two poems S w ift makes e x te n s iv e u se o f v a rio u s
k in d s o f c e l e s t i a l im agery f o r s a t i r i c a t t a c k . In th e
f i r s t , "H is G r a c e 's Answer to Jo n a th a n " ( I I , 3&1), he i s
u n t y p i c a l l y f a n c i f u l a s he s u g g e s ts t h a t h i s v ic tim " b u ild
a C a s tle in th e A i r ." S w ift s t a t e s t h a t th e man and h i s
w ife w i l l be "a New Sun, and a New Moon" w ith "Lady Luna"
as t h e i r n e ig h b o r and M id-w ife f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n , "Ten
th o u san d G i r l s and B oys" who " l i k e S t a r s s h a l l R ise and
S e t " (p . 3 6 2 ) .
12,1'A nim al R a t i o n i s C a p a x ': A S tudy o f C e r ta in A sp e c ts
o f S w i f t 's Im a g e ry ," E n g lis h L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y , XXI (1 9 5 4 ),
193-207.
58:
In th e n o to r io u s m ock-elegy p re m a tu re ly c e l e b r a t i n g
1?
th e d e a th o f an a s t r o l o g e r , Mr. P a t r i g e , -1 S w ift m asses a
s e r i e s o f c e l e s t i a l im ages in a mock d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e
c o n v e n tio n a l p r o c e s s io n o f th e m o u rn e rs. The ir o n y i s t h a t
S w ift l i s t s th e m ourners who do n o t a p p e a r a t th e f u n e r a l :
Not one o f a l l h i s Crony S t a r s ,
To pay t h e i r Duty a t h i s H earse!
No M eteor, no E c lip s e a p p e a r 'd !
No Comet w ith a Flam ing B eard!
The Sun haB r o s e , and gone to Bed,
J u s t a s i f P a t r i g e w ere n o t Deadj
Nor h id h im s e lf b e h in d th e Moon,
To make a d r e a d f u l N ig h t a t Noon.
( I , 98, 11. 7-14)
C lo s e ly r e l a t e d to c e l e s t i a l im agery a re th e v a rio u s
im ages o f l i g h t in w hich a com parison to a h e a v e n ly body,
u s u a l l y th e sun, i s im p lie d . S w ift o f te n u s e s words such
a s " d a z z le ," "g lim m er," " g l i t t e r , " " s h i n e ," " sh e d ," " l u s
t e r , " and " b r ig h t" a s subm erged m etap h o rs in c o n v e n tio n a l
a s s o c i a t i o n s o f l i g h t w ith know ledge, v i r t u e , and g lo r y .
The im ages d e r iv e d from m e te o r o lo g ic a l phenomena and
n a t u r a l c a ta c ly sm r e f l e c t S w i f t 's p r e f e r e n c e f o r th e v i o
l e n t a s opposed to th e s t a t i c , th e u n p le a s a n t a s opposed to
th e p l e a s a n t . He f r e q u e n t l y u s e s im ages o f l i g h t n i n g ,
th u n d e r, and s to rm s, l e s s f r e q u e n t l y th o s e o f e a rth q u a k e s
and v o lc a n o e s . He g e n e r a l l y a v o id s th e more g e n t l e p h e
nomena such a s f o g s , c lo u d s , ra in b o w s, m iB ts, and b r e e z e s .
When he does u se im ages d e r iv e d from th e l a t t e r , he does
"An E leg y on Mr. P a tr i g e ,- th e A lm anack-m aker."
n o t d e v elo p t h e i r p l e a s a n t a s s o c i a t i o n s b u t u s e s them f o r
s a t i r i c i m p l i c a t i o n s .
S w ift o c c a s i o n a l l y d e s c r ib e s human d u lln e s s i n term s
o f fo g . The r e f e r e n c e i s u s u a l l y b r i e f and c o n v e n tio n a l,
a s i n "The P r o g re s s o f P o e tr y ," in w hich S w ift d e s c r ib e s
th e p o e t a s "Grown la z y , foggy, f a t , and d u l l " ( I , 2 3 1, 1.
2 2 ). A n o th er k in d o f d e s c r i p t i o n in v o lv e s a l i t e r a l u se o f
a fog im age. In "An A pology," S w ift a d d r e s s e s th o s e "who
long have b r e a t h ’d th e Fum es/ Of C ity Fogs and crowded
Rooms" ( I I , 3 8 0, 11. 1 3 9 -1 4 o ), and i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s
atm o sp h ere h a s c o r r u p te d them.
Im ages o f c lo u d s a re a ls o u se d in s h o r t , c o n v e n tio n a l
m etap h o rs a s sym bols o f o b B c u r ity . In "To Mr. C o n g rev e,"
S w ift sp eak s o f c r i t i c s who "R aise e n v y 's c lo u d s to le a v e
th e m se lv e s in n ig h t" ( I , 45, 1 . 7 9 ) . A more s t r i k i n g , l e s s
c o n v e n tio n a l image w hich S w ift d e v e lo p s a t le n g th a p p e a rs
in an answ er to a poem w r i t t e n by S h e rid a n w hich had com
p lim e n te d women by com paring them to c lo u d s . In S w i f t 's
14
poem th e c lo u d s th e m se lv e s v o ic e t h e i r re s e n tm e n t a t such
a com parison and p ro v e t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y by making p o i n t -
b y - p o in t comic co m p ariso n s betw een t h e i r p o s i t i o n and fu n c
ti o n and th o s e o f women: "Femal c l a t t r i n g " ( l . 9) i s w orse
th a n th e c lo u d s ' th u n d e r; "woman i s a c u r s t in f la m e r " ( l .
■^"An Answer to a l a t e s c a n d a lo u s Poem . . . " ( I I ,
3 5 ) w h ile th e c lo u d s h e lp p u t o u t f i r e s ; women a r e f i c k l e
and "change e v 'r y f e a t u r e e v 'r y second" ( l . 46) w hereas
c lo u d s "keep th e same f a c e an h o u r t o g e th e r " ( l . 4 4 ) .
F i n a l l y j th e c lo u d s say :
Compare u s th e n to fem al r a c e !
We, to whom a l l th e Gods g iv e p l a c e .
(1 1 . 95-96)
Thus in p ro v in g t h e i r s u p e r i o r i t y to women, th e c lo u d s a s
s e r t t h a t th e y a r e even s u p e r i o r to th e g o d s. B ecause o f
th e r i d i c u l o u s co m p ariso n s th e c lo u d s make, one o f th e e f
f e c t s o f th e poem i s a n e g a tio n o f th e u s u a l p l e a s a n t
a s p e c t s o f c lo u d s a s n a t u r a l phenom ena.
S i m i l a r l y , in th e im ages o f l i g h t n i n g , th u n d e r, and
s to rm s . S w if t g e n e r a l l y ig n o r e s any p o t e n t i a l l y awe
i n s p i r i n g d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s o f th e phenomena t h a t c o u ld
be u s e d to c r e a t e an e f f e c t o f s u b lim ity . I n s t e a d he u s e s
th e c o n v e n tio n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s o f th e im ages t h a t le n d them
s e l v e s to s a t i r i c d e s c r i p t i o n s o f m e n 's a c t i o n s and a t t i
tu d e s . In " D e s ire and P o s s e s s i o n ," S w ift m en tio n s th e
Bpeed o f l i g h t n i n g in d e s c r ib in g a c o n t e s t betw een th e two
a b s t r a c t i o n s :
D e s i r e , th e s w i f t e r o f th e two,
Along th e p l a i n l i k e L ig h tn in g fle w .
( I I , 412, 11. 21-22)
In "An A n sw e r," S w if t mocks th e s to c k P e tr a r c h a n c o n c e it
w hich com pares th e f l a s h o f l i g h t n i n g to th e b e a u ty o f
women's e y e s :
6 l
Your P o e ts C h lo e ' s b e a u ty h e ig h tn in g
Compare h e r r a d i a n t e y e s to L ig h tn in g :
And y e t , I hope ' t w i l l be a llo w 'd
No L ig h tn in g comes b u t from a C loud.
( I I , 621, 11. 149-152)
E lsew h ere S w if t s t r e s s e s th e lo u d n e ss o f th u n d e r in c o r -
r e l a t i n g i t w ith an o r a t o r ' s v o ic e . ^ In a co n tem p o rary
v e r s io n o f a m y t h , ^ S w ift p la y s on th e n o is e and power o f
th u n d e r in an a t t a c k on Wood a s a p s e u d o -T h u n d e re r:
T h is v a p 'r i n g Scab m ust n eed s d e v is e
To ape th e T hunder o f th e S k ie s ;
W ith B ra s s two f i e r y S te e d s he shod.
To make a C l a t t 'r i n g as th e y t r o d . . . .
And up he m ounts i n t o th e Box,
And He m ust th u n d e r, w ith a Pox.
( I , 352, 11. 9 -1 2 ,1 5 -1 6 )
Some im ages w hich combine th u n d e r and l i g h t n i n g a re
17
o f i n t e r e s t . In an e a r l y poem, 1 S w if t, in an e x te n d e d
f i g u r e , c o r r e l a t e s th e power o f b o th th u n d e r and l i g h t n i n g
w ith t h a t o f a r t i l l e r y to c o n t r a s t w ar and p e a c e :
Only th e L a u r e l g o t by Peace
No T hunder e ' e r can b l a s t ,
Th' A r t i l l e r y o f th e S k ie s
S h o o ts to th e E a r th and d i e s ; . . .
A bout th e Head c ro w n 'd w ith th e s e B ays,
L ik e Lambent F i r e th e L ig h tn in g p l a y s .
( I , 29, 11. 8 1 -8 4 , 8 7 - 8 8 )
18
In a n o th e r e a r l y poem, th e pow ers o f b o th th u n d e r and
l i g h t n i n g a r e com bined in a s to c k f i g u r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f
1^"0n Mr. P—y b e in g p u t o u t o f th e C o u n cil" ( I I , 5 37)•
1 f\
"On W OOD th e Iro n -m o n g e r."
•^"Ode to th e H o norable S i r W illia m T em ple."
"^"Ode to th e King on h i s I r i s h E x p e d itio n ."
62:
"a D e stro y in g A ngel" ( I , 7, 1. 48) who s ta n d s "W ith L i g h t
n in g in h i s E y es, and Thunder in h i s Hands" ( l . 5 0 ). The
same f i g u r e s a r e u s e d s a t i r i c a l l y in a l a t e r poem"^ to
r i d i c u l e th e p r i d e and po m p o sity o f th e s e lf - p r o c la im e d
h e r o :
Then from h i s Arm h o a rs e th u n d e r r o l l s
As lo u d a s f i f t y m u stard bow ls;
F o r th u n d e r s t i l l h i s arm s u p p ly e s ,
And l i g h t n i n g alw ays in h i s E yes:
They b o th a r e cheap enough in C o n sc ie n ce ,
And s e rv e to eccho r a t l i n g N onsence.
( I I , 461, l l . 39-44)
A lm ost a l l o f th e r e f e r e n c e s to w in d s, s to rm s, and
n a t u r a l c a ta c ly sm s a r e u s e d f i g u r a t i v e l y . S w ift d e s c r ib e s
c o n t r a d i c t i o n a s a v o r te x ( I , 3 6, 1 . 6 3 ) , p o l i t i c a l power
as a wind blow ing a s h ip ( I I , 493, H * 1 7- 2 0 ) , and p o l i t
i c a l c o r r u p tio n in E n g lan d a s a Tem pest t h a t "shook th e
Land" ( I I , 5 6 8 , 1. 3 8 9 ) . A more e x te n d e d developm ent o f
such im ages i s found in "Ode to D r. W illia m S a n c r o f t" in
w hich S w ift draw s an a n alo g y betw een n a t u r a l c a ta c ly s m s and
p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l:
Ah, may no u n k in d e a rth q u a k e o f th e S t a t e ,
Nor h u r r ic a n o from th e Crown,
D is tu r b th e p r e s e n t M itr e , a s t h a t f e a r f u l sto rm o f
l a t e ,
Which in i t s dusky march a lo n g th e p l a i n .
Swept up whole c h u rc h es as i t l i s t ,
W rapp'd i n a w h irlw in d and a m is t;
" ^ " D ir e c t io n s f o r a B i r th - d a y S ong."
L ike t h a t p r o p h e tic te m p e st in a v i r g i n reig n .,
And sw a llo w 'd them a t l a s t , o r flu n g them down.
Such were th e sto rm s good SANCROFT long h a s b o rn e .
( I , 4 0 , 11. 190-198)
20
I n a l a t e r poem, S w ift makes u se o f a v o lcan o image in
d e s c r ib in g S t e l l a a s h a v in g q u a l i t i e s w hich e l i c i t b o th
f e a r and a d m ira tio n s
And y e t a F a u lt we o f te n f in d
M ix'd i n a n o b le g e n e ro u s Mindj
And may compare to A e tn a 's F i r e ,
W hich, t h o ' w ith T rem b lin g , a l l ad m ire;
The H eat t h a t makes th e Summit glow ,
E n ric h in g a l l th e V a le s below .
( I I , 731, 11- 103-108)
Of th e im ages c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r th e b a s ic e le m e n ts ,
th o s e o f f i r e and w a te r a r e more num erous and s i g n i f i c a n t
th a n th o s e o f a i r and e a r t h . The u s u a l r e f e r e n c e to a i r
i s to v i o l e n t w inds w hich I d is c u s s e d above. S w ift seldom
u s e s q u i e t im ages o f s t i l l a i r , calm z e p h y rs, o r b r e e z e s .
S w i f t 's em phasis on th e s t r o n g e r movement r e f l e c t s h i s
p r e f e r e n c e f o r th e image w ith v i t a l i t y and h i s a v o id an c e o f
th e c o n v e n tio n a l p o e t i c d e s c r i p t i o n . The same g e n e r a l i z a
t i o n a p p l i e s to S w i f t 's u se o f im ages d e r iv e d from e a r t h .
S w if t r a r e l y r e f e r s to e a r t h i n t r a d i t i o n a l p o e t i c term s as
a symbol o f n a t u r e 's f e r t i l i t y o r e a r t h as m o th er. R a th e r
im ages o f e a r t h fo c u s on such u g ly c o n s t i t u e n t s as mud and
d i r t . S w ift i s fond o f d e s c r ib in g a f i l t h y garm ent o r a
muddy London s t r e e t . C e r t a i n l y such im ages a re in k e ep in g
2 0 "To S t e l l a . "
64
w ith S w i f t 18 u se o f s o r d id r e a l i s t i c o r d in a r y d e t a i l s o f
ev ery d ay l i f e f o r s a t i r i c p u rp o s e s . F o r exam ple, in "A
B e a u t i f u l Nymph," S w ift u s e s an image o f p h y s i c a l d i r t to
em phasize th e c o r r u p tio n o f th e s tr e e tw a lk e r s
Or, n e a r F l e e t - P i t c h i oozy B r in k s ,
S urrounded w ith a Hundred S ti n k s ,
B e la te d , seems on w atch to ly e ,
And snap some C u lly p a s s in g b y .
( I I , 5 8 3 , 1 1 . 47-50)
In h i s famous "A D e s c r ip tio n o f a C ity Show er," S w ift d e
s c r i b e s th e needy p o e t 's d i r t y c o a ts
When D ust and R ain a t once h i s C oat in v a d e ;
H is o n ly C o at, where D ust c o n f u s 'd w ith R ain ,
Roughen th e Nap, and le a v e a m in g led S t a i n .
( I , 1 3 8, 1 1 . 2 8 - 3 0 )
And, o f c o u rs e , th e f i n a l th r e e l i n e s em phasize t h a t th e
f l o a t i n g g arb ag e i s " a l l d r e n c h 1d in Mud" (p . 1 3 9, 11. 6 l -
6 3 ) .
Of th e many r e f e r e n c e s to f i r e , some a r e c o n v e n tio n a l
m etap h o rs u s e d to d e s c r ib e s p i r i t o r p a s s io n , a s in
"S trep h o n and C hloe"s
And th u s a m u tu al g e n t l e F i r e ,
S h a ll n e v e r b u t w ith L if e e x p ir e .
( I I , 593, 11. 313-314)
A s i m i l a r image o f a g e n t l e f i r e u se d to r e p r e s e n t con
t r o l l e d p a s s io n a p p e a rs in "Cadenus and V a n essa ":
T hat modern Love i s no such Thing
As w hat th o s e a n t i e n t P o e ts s in g ;
A F i r e c e l e s t i a l , c h a s te , r e f i n ' d ,
C o n c e iv 'd and k in d le d in th e Mind,
Which h a v in g found an e q u a l Flam e,
U n ite s , and b o th become th e same,
In d i f f e r e n t B r e a s ts to g e t h e r b u rn .
T o g e th e r b o th to A shes t u r n .
65
B ut Women now f e e l no such F ire.,
And o n ly know th e g r o s s D e s ir e .
( I I , 687, 11. 27-36)
The Im agery h e re i s u se d to r e p r e s e n t S w i f t 's c o n c e p t o f
th e i d e a l r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e s e x e s , one t h a t h a s
P la to n ic i m p l i c a t i o n s .
S w ift a ls o u s e s f i r e im agery to r e p r e s e n t p o e t i c i n
s p i r a t i o n . Two o f th e s e t h a t a r e e x ten d e d a re w orthy o f
comment as th e y i l l u s t r a t e th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een S w i f t 's
e a r l y im m ature i m i t a t i o n o f th e m e ta p h y s ic a l mode and h i s
l a t e r s t y l e . The f i r s t example r e a d s :
Then ( S i r , ) a c c e p t t h i s w o r th le s s V e rse ,
The T r ib u te o f an humble Muse,
'T is a l l th e P o r tio n o f my n ig g a rd S t a r s ;
N atu re th e h id d e n S park d id a t my B i r t h i n f u s e ,
And k in d le d f i r s t w ith In d o le n c e and E ase,
And s in c e to o o f t d e b a u c h 'd by P r a i s e ,
'T I b now grown an i n c u r a b le D is e a s e :
In v a in to quench t h i s f o o l i s h F i r e I t r y
In Wisdom and P h ilo s o p h y .2!
S w ift compounds th e c o n c e it by m ixing im agery o f f i r e w ith
s u g g e s tio n s o f v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e , and th e n moves to an image
o f c u l t i v a t i o n in w hich he com pares h i s o u tp u t w ith w eeds.
In th e second exam ple, S w ift d i s p la y s a more s e l f -
a s s u r e d s t y l e in d e s c r ib in g th e e f f e c t s o f h i s p o e t i c o u t
p u t i n term s o f a r o c k e t b e in g f i r e d i n t o th e a i r . Here
th e c o n c e it i s more w i t t i l y d e v e lo p e d , and th e term s o f th e
com parison a re c a r e f u l l y s e p a r a te d by p o i n t - b y - p o i n t
a n a lo g y :
21"0de to S i r W illia m Temple" ( I , 3 2 -3 3 ).
66
Have you seen a R ocket f l y ?
You w ould sw ear i t p i e r c 'd th e Sky]
I t b u t r e a c h 'd th e m id d le Air.,
B u r s tin g i n t o P ie c e s t h e r e :
Thousand S p a rk le s f a l l i n g down
L ig h t on many a Coxcomb' s Crown.
See, w hat M irth th e S p o rt c r e a t e s ]
S in d g es H a ir , b u t b re a k s no P a te s .
Thus, S h o u 'd I a tte m p t to c lim b ,
T r e a t you i n a S t i l e su b lim e ,
Such a R o ck et i s my Muse,
S h o u 'd I l o f t y Numbers c h u se ,
E 'e r I r e a c h 'd P a rn a s su s Top
I s h o u 'd b u r s t , and b u r s t i n g d ro p .
A ll my F i r e w ould f a l l in S c ra p s ,
Give y o u r Head some g e n t l e R aps;
Only make i t sm art a w h i l e . 22
R a th e r th a n th e more rem o te c e l e s t i a l s h o o tin g s t a r o r
m e te o r t h a t i s a c o n v e n tio n a l f i g u r e f o r p o e t i c i n s p i r a t i o n .
S w ift r e f l e c t s h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r th e r e a l i s t i c image t h a t
i s r e l a t e d to man by u s in g th e im ag ery o f f ir e w o r k s . The
t a c t i l e im agery e f f e c t i v e l y s u g g e s ts d is c o m fo rt to th e
human body and adds v i t a l i t y to th e b a s i c im age. In o t h e r
c o n te x t s a ls o S w ift f r e q u e n t l y g a in s such v i t a l i t y by
ta k in g ad v an ta g e o f th e v i v i d t a c t i l e and v i s u a l pow er o f
such v e rb s r e l a t i n g to f i r e a s s in d g e , b l a z e , fla m e , s c o r c h ,
s p a r k , b u r n , h e a t , and k i n d l e .
Im ages o f w a te r a ls o r e f l e c t S w i f t 's p r e f e r e n c e f o r
th e image t h a t h a s v i t a l i t y . He i s p a r t i c u l a r l y fo n d o f
d e s c r i p t i o n s o f moving w a te r and c o n s i s t e n t l y a v o id s r e f
e re n c e s to s t i l l w a te r . In some poems w a te r im ages f u n c tio n
22,1 An E p i s t l e to a Lady" ( I I , 6 3 8 ) .
67
to b r in g to l i f e a b s t r a c t i o n s : S w if t u s e s th e B i b l i c a l
image o f th e "D eluge" to d e s c r ib e " t h ' In u n d a tio n o f a
oo pii
W ar"; ■ " t h 1 im p etu o u s T o r r e n t r o l l i n g on" to r e p r e s e n t
E n g la n d 's im m inent r u i n ; th e "T o r r e n t, m e r c i l e s s " 2^ to
d e s c r ib e th e f o r c e o f p u b lic o p in io n ; and "a l a s t i n g wave
26
. . . th e w o r l d 's w a t 'r y h o u r - g l a s s s tre a m in g f a s t " to
i n d i c a t e th e p a ss a g e o f tim e .
S w if t a ls o u s e s w a te r im ag ery f o r s a t i r i c c h a r a c t e r i
z a t i o n . A comic poem a b o u t an I r i s h f e a s t in c lu d e s an e x
a g g e r a te d d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e e f f e c t s o f s p i l l e d l i q u o r and
th e p e r s p i r a t i o n o f th e d a n c e r s :
The F lo o r i s a l l w et
W ith Leaps and w ith Jum ps,
W hile th e W ater and Sw eat,
S p lis h , s p la s h in t h e i r Pumps.27
I n "The B ubble" S w if t s a t i r i z e s th e i n v e s t o r s i n th e S o u th -
Sea S w in d le . By many s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e s to w a te r , he
d e s c r i b e s i n p h y s i c a l term s th e e f f e c t s o f th e s w in d le . Of
s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t in h i s dev elo p m en t o f th e theme o f d e c e p
t i o n i s S w i f t 's u se o f th e p r o p e r t y o f w a te r to d i s t o r t .
S w ift n o t o n ly l i n k s t h i s p r o p e r t y w ith th e a c t i o n s o f th e
2 3"0de to th e A th e n ia n S o c ie ty " ( I , 16, 11. l - l l ) .
2^"0de to King W illiam " ( I , 12, 1 . 1 8 ).
25"The F a b le o f M idas" ( I , 1 5 8 , 1. 7 7 ).
2 6 "To Mr. C ongreve" ( i , 49, 11. 1 8 7 - 1 8 9 ) .
27"The D e s c r ip tio n o f an I r i s h - f e a s t , t r a n s l a t e d a lm o st
l i t e r a l l y o u t o f th e O r i g i n a l I r i s h " ( I , 245, H . 4 1 -4 4 ) .
s w in d le r s b u t a ls o b r i n g s o u t one o f h i s r e c u r r i n g them es,
th e d e c e p tio n o f th e s e n s e s :
Thus i n a B a sin drop a S h i l l i n g ,
Then f i l l th e V e s s e l to th e Brim ,
You s h a l l o b se rv e a s you a r e f i l l i n g
The p o n d 'r o u s M etal seems to swim;
I t r i s e s b o th in B ulk and H e ig h t,
B ehold i t m ounting to th e Top,
The l i q u i d Medium c h e a ts y o u r S ig h t ,
B ehold i t s w e llin g l i k e a Sop. . . .
Thus th e d e lu d e d B an k ru p t r a v e s ,
P u ts a l l upon a d e s p 'r a t e B e t t ,
Then p lu n g e s in th e S o u th e rn Waves,
D ip t o v e r h ead and E a r s — i n D eb t.
( I , 251, 11. 9 -1 6 , 21-24)
O c c a s io n a lly S w if t u s e s f lo o d im ag ery f o r s a t i r i c
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f a c e r t a i n ty p e o f i n d i v i d u a l . In a
g ro te s q u e c a r i c a t u r e o f a s ta te s m a n S w ift d e s c r i b e s h i s
sp ee c h :
Of lo u d un-m eaning Sounds, a r a p i d F lo o d
R o lls from h i s Mouth in p le n te o u s S tream s o f
M ud.28
In a n o th e r poem. S w ift makes a more e x te n s iv e im a g in a tiv e
com parison betw een a t o r r e n t o f w a te r and a woman's mind:
In a d u l l S tream , w hich moving slow
You h a r d ly see th e C u rre n t flo w ,
I f a sm a ll B reeze o b s t r u c t s th e C o u rse,
I t w h i r l s a b o u t f o r Want o f F o rc e ,
And i n i t s n arro w C i r c l e g a t h e r s
N o th in g b u t C h a ff, and S tra w s, and F e a th e r s :
The C u rre n t o f a Female Mind
S to p s th u s , and t u r n s w ith e v 'r y Wind;
O Q
To Mr. Gay on h i s b e in g S tew ard to th e Duke o f
Q u een sb erry " ( I I , 532, 11. 39-5o)*
69
ThuB w h ir li n g ro u n d , to g e t h e r draw s
P o o ls , F ops, and R akes, f o r C h aff and
S tr a w s .29
We a ls o f i n d f lo o d im ag ery i n p a s s a g e s w hich a re mock-
p a s t o r a l o r m o c k -e p ic. In " D ir e c ti o n s f o r a B ir th - d a y
S ong," S w ift p a r o d ie s c o n v e n tio n a l p a s t o r a l e le m e n ts w hich
were o f t e n in c lu d e d i n co m p lim en tary poems w r i t t e n to
George I I s
" P a i r I s i s , and ye Banks o f Cam,
"Be w itn e s s i f I t e l l a Plam:
"What P ro d ig y s i n A r ts we d r a in
"Prom b o th y o u r S tream s in G e o rg e 's R eign I
"As from th e flo w ry Bed o f N i l e —
B ut h e r e 's enough to shew y o u r S t y l e .
( I I , 462, 11. 77-8 2 )
In "S trep h o n and C h lo e ," S w ift com bines a p a s t o r a l image o f
a w a t e r f a l l w ith s c a t o l o g i c a l im ag ery :
STREPHON who h e a r d th e fum ing R i l l
As from a mossy C l i f f d i s t i l l ;
C ry 'd o u t, y e Gods, w hat Sound i s t h i s ?
Can C h lo e, h e a v 'n l y Chloe ----- ?
( I I ," 5 B 9 7 11- 175-178)
In "A D e s c r ip tio n o f a C ity S how er," S w ift p ro d u c e s a mock-
e p ic e f f e c t i n h i s e x a g g e ra te d u s e o f f lo o d im ag ery :
N O W from a l l P a r t s th e s w e llin g K ennels flo w .
And b e a r t h e i r T ro p h ie s w ith them as th e y go:
F i l t h o f a l l Hues and Odours seem to t e l l
What S t r e e t th e y s a i l ' d from , by t h e i r S ig h t and
S m ell.
They, a s each T o r r e n t d r i v e s , w ith r a p i d F orce
Prom S m i th f ie ld , o r S t . P u l c h r e ' s shape t h e i r C ourse,
And in huge C o n flu e n t j o i n a t S n o w -H ill R id g e,
P a l l from th e C o n d u it p ro n e to H o lb o rn - B r id g e .
Sw eepings from B u tc h e rs S t a l l s , Dung, G u ts, and B lood,
D row n'd P u p p ie s , s t i n k i n g S p r a t s , a l l d r e n c h 'd in Mud,
2^"C adenus and V an essa" ( I I , 688, 11. 5 1 - 6 0 ) .
T O
Dead C ats and T u rn ip -T o p s come tu m b lin g down th e
F lo o d , ( I , 139, 11. 53-63)
S w ift u s e s s i m i l a r im agery and d i c t i o n i n "The P r o g r e s s o f
B e a u ty " :
The p a i n t by P e r s p i r a t i o n c r a c k s ,
And f a l l s in R iv u le ts o f Sw eat,
On e i t h e r S ide you see th e T ra c k s,
W hile a t h e r Chin th e C o n f l u 'e n t s m et.
A S k i l l f u l Housw ife th u s h e r Thumb
W ith S p i t t l e w h ile she s p in s , a n o i n t s ,
And th u s th e brown M eanders come
In t r i c k l i n g S tream s b e tw ix t h e r J o y n ts .
( I , 227, 11. 37-44)
In b o th poems S w ift u s e s th e same e le v a te d d i c t i o n , " f a l l "
and " c o n f l u e n t ," in f i g u r a t i v e l y d e s c r ib in g th e p h y s i c a l
c o r r u p tio n o f a c i t y and a woman i n te rm s o f th e image o f
two r i v e r s coming t o g e t h e r .
CHAPTER XV
IMAGES BASED ON PEOPLE AND
THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
B ecause im ages o f p e o p le a re p e r v a s iv e th ro u g h o u t
S w i f t 's p o e tr y , I have e s t a b l i s h e d two b ro a d c l a s s i f i c a
t i o n s . I n t h i s c h a p te r I d is c u s s im ages r e l a t e d to man as
a s o c i a l b e in g , in c lu d in g th o s e c o n n e c te d w ith m an 's s o c i a l
e n v iro n m e n t; in C h a p te r V I d is c u s s im ages r e l a t e d to man
as an i n d i v i d u a l p h y s i c a l b e in g , in c lu d in g im ages o f move
ment and b o d ily f u n c t i o n . R e fe re n c e s to s p e c i f i c p e rs o n s
o c c u r f r e q u e n t l y in S w i f t 's p o e t r y . Many o f th e t i t l e s i n
c lu d e p r o p e r names, and w ith in th e poems S w if t o f te n men
t i o n s a c t u a l p e o p le . O c c a s io n a lly he puns upon a name to
b u i l d a s e r i e s o f im ag es. In a d d i t i o n to a l lu d in g to r e a l
p e r s o n s , S w ift a ls o u s e s names o f r e c o g n iz a b le i n d i v i d u a l s
to r e p r e s e n t c e r t a i n p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v io r . As R onald P a u l
son h a s p o in te d o u t:
P e o p le named " S w ift" o r "Pope" f i g u r e d i n S w i f t 's
p o e tr y from tim e to tim e ; th e y a re o r d i n a r i l y u sed as
normB o f p i e t y , t r a d i t i o n a l i s m , common s e n s e , S c r i b l e r i a n
s o l i d a r i t y , and sound p o e t i c c r a f ts m a n s h ip w hich a re o p -
71
72;
p o sed to th e i m b e c i l i t y t h a t i s b e in g s a t i r i z e d in
e q u a lly c o n c r e te names l i k e "Wood" and " W a lp o le ." 1
S w ift i s a keen o b s e r v e r o f p e o p le in t h e i r s o c i a l e n v ir o n
m ent. He o f t e n d e s c r ib e s men in term s o f im ages d e riv e d
from r o u t i n e a c t i v i t i e s , in c lu d in g th o s e a s s o c i a t e d w ith
v a r io u s p r o f e s s i o n s . S w ift w i l l f r e q u e n t l y i d e n t i f y lo w e r-
c l a s s women w ith p a r t i c u l a r k in d s o f work and d e s c r ib e
women o f d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s in term s o f im ages d e r iv e d from
t h e i r o r d in a r y a c t i v i t i e s such as th o s e o f th e h o u s e h o ld .
He a ls o u s e s im ages o f c o sm e tic s and c l o t h i n g to a t t a c k o r
d efen d c e r t a i n k in d s o f b e h a v io r and a t t i t u d e s .
S w ift u s e s some im ages w hich a r e r e l a t e d to r e l a t i o n
s h ip s betw een th e s e x e s , such a s th o s e c o n n e c te d w ith lo v e
and m a rria g e . However, he r a r e l y d e s c r i b e s th e fa m ily as
a s o c i a l u n i t . C o n se q u e n tly , th e r e a r e few r e f e r e n c e s to
b a b ie s and c h i l d r e n ; when such im ages do o c c u r , th e y fu n c
t i o n f o r s a t i r i c p u rp o s e s .
In t h i s c h a p te r I d is c u s s a ls o im ages d e r iv e d from
m an 's u rb a n and r u r a l s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n ts. S w ift f r e q u e n t l y
m en tio n s s p e c i f i c p la c e nam es, g e n e r a l l y th o s e w ith w hich
he was m ost f a m i l i a r . He a ls o d e p i c t s s t r e e t sc e n e s w ith
c lo s e a t t e n t i o n to r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l s . In a d d i t i o n , S w ift
shows a keen i n t e r e s t in th e p h y s ic a l s u b s ta n c e s a s s o c i a t e d
^■"Swift, S t e l l a , and P e rm a n e n ce ," E n g lis h L i t e r a r y
H is to r y , XXVII ( i 9 6 0 ) , 2 9 8 .
73
w ith m an 's d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s , such a s money, m e ta ls , and
p r e c io u s s to n e s .
S w ift o f t e n r e f e r s by t h e i r p r o p e r names to a c t u a l
p e o p le in h i s poems. T h is p r a c t i c e n o t o n ly adds to th e
r e a l i s m o f th e p o e tr y b u t may a ls o be c o n s id e r e d a n o th e r
im a g i s t i c e lem en t b e c a u se S w i f t 's r e a d e r s were g e n e r a l l y
f a m i l i a r w ith th e p e o p le he was w r i t i n g a b o u t, and, t h e r e
f o r e , such p r o p e r names may w e ll have s u g g e s te d s p e c i f i c
m e n ta l p i c t u r e s . In S w i f t 's co m p lim en tary v e r s e s , we f i n d
numerous r e f e r e n c e s to h i s p o l i t i c a l a l l i e s and p e r s o n a l
f r i e n d s , such a s th e poems a d d re s s e d to th e Lord T r e a s u r e r
H a rle y , Lord C a r t e r e t , and E s t h e r Johnson and E s th e r Van-
hom righ, th e S t e l l a and V an essa o f S w i f t 's poems. A l a r g e r
g ro u p o f a c t u a l i n d i v i d u a l s a r e named in S w i f t 's s a t i r i c
p o e tr y . A lth o u g h S w ift s a id t h a t "He l a s h 'd th e V ice b u t
O
s p a r 'd th e Name," H e r b e r t D avis p o i n t s o u t t h a t S w ift
was c o n v e n ie n tly f o r g e t t i n g th o s e anonymous p ie c e s w r i t t e n
in th e s e r v i c e o f a p a r t y o r p o l i t i c a l c a u s e . Where,
in d e e d , e x c e p t p e rh a p s i n Byron w i l l you f in d in E n g lis h
b e t t e r exam ples o f p e r s o n a l i n v e c t i v e th a n th e lampoons
a g a i n s t th e E a r l o f N o ttin g h am , th e Duke o f M arlborough,
th e D uchess o f S o m erset, and l a t e r on a g a i n s t S w i f t 's
enem ies in I r e l a n d —Lord C h ie f J u s t i c e W h itsh ead , Lord
A lle n , th e Hon. R ic h a rd T ighe and S e rg e a n t B e tte s w o r th —
o r t h a t a l l - i n c l u s i v e lampoon upon th e whole I r i s h House
o f Commons u n d e r th e e x c e l l e n t t i t l e o f th e "Legion
C lu b ."3
^"V erses on th e D eath o f D r. S w ift" ( I I , 571)-
^"The P o e try o f J o n a th a n S w i f t , " C o lle g e E n g l i s h , I I
( 19^0), 1 0 8.
74
In some o f th e s a t i r i c poemB d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t Judge
B o a t, S tep h en Duck th e T h re s h e r P o e t, and W illia m Wood,
S w ift puns on th e name o f th e v ic tim a s th e b a s i s f o r th e
s a t i r i c im ag ery . F o r exam ple, in "A S e rio u s Poem upon
W illia m W ood," S w ift p la y s on th e word "Wood" to p i l e up a
number o f im ages d e r iv e d from a s i n g l e s u b s ta n c e :
When Foes a r e o 'e rc o m e , we p r e s e r v e them from
S la u g h te r ,
To be Hewers o f W OOD and D raw ers o f W a te r,
Now, a lth o u g h to Draw W ater i s n o t v e ry good,
Y et we a l l sh o u ld R eJoyce to be Hewers o f WOOD.
I own i t h a t h o f t e n p ro v o k 'd me to M u tte r,
T h a t, a Rogue so O bscure sh o u ld make such a C l u t t e r ,
B ut a n t i e n t P h ilo s o p h e r s w is e ly Remark,
T hat o ld R o tte n W OOD w i l l S hine in th e D a rk .
The H e a th e n s , we Read, had Gods made o f W OOD,
Who c o u ld do them no Harm, i f th e y d id them no Good:
B ut t h i s I d o l W OOD may do u s g r e a t E v i l ,
T h e ir Gods w ere o f WOOD, b u t o u r W OOD i s th e DEVIL:
To c u t down f i n e W OOD i s a v e ry b ad T hing,
And y e t we a l l know much Gold i t w i l l b r i n g ,
Then i f c u t t i n g down W OOD b r in g s Money good S to r e ,
Our Money to k e ep , l e t u s Cut down ONE m ore.
( I , 334, 11. 1-16)
As i s cu sto m ary in s a t i r e , S w ift d i r e c t s h i s a t t a c k s
a g a i n s t members o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n s . He o f te n
s a t i r i z e s s p e c i f i c i n f l u e n t i a l i n d i v i d u a l s as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n s . P o l i t i c i a n s , l i t e r a r y men, and th e
c le r g y a re m ost f r e q u e n t l y s a t i r i z e d , w ith few er r e f e r e n c e s
to d o c t o r s , la w y e rs , and m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s . O c c a s io n a lly
S w ift p r e s e n t s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e a l i s t i c g lim p se s o f a
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l i n a c t i o n in h i s p r o f e s s i o n . B ut
more f r e q u e n t l y S w ift em ploys f i g u r a t i v e im agery in w hich
te n o r and v e h ic l e a re d i B t i n c t , such as when he d e s c r ib e s
75
i n d i v i d u a l members o f v a r io u s p r o f e s s i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
p o l i t i c i a n s , in te rm s o f a n im a l m e ta p h o r. S in c e I b a se my
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n on th e s u b j e c t m a tte r o f th e im ages them
s e lv e s r a t h e r th a n th e s u b j e c t o f th e s a t i r e , c l a s s i f i c a
t i o n o f such im ages c r e a t e s no p ro b lem . Hence I d is c u s s in
C h ap ter V im ages such a s th e fo llo w in g i n w hich S w ift draw s
a g r o te s q u e c a r i c a t u r e o f a s t a t e s m a n 's fa c e w ith im agery
o f a w ild a n im a l:
I p la c e a ST * * * AN f u l l b e f o r e my S ig h t .
A b l o a t e d M — r in a l l h i s G eer,
W ith sh am eless V isa g e , and p e r f i d i o u s L e e r,
Two Rows o f T eeth arm each d e v o u rin g Jaw;
And, O s t r i c h - l i k e , h i s a l l - d i g e s t i n g Maw.
( I I , 532, 11. 32-36)
Y et n o t a l l f i g u r a t i v e co m p ariso n s a r e so e a s y to c l a s s i f y
b e c a u se in some c a s e s te n o r and v e h i c l e have many p o i n t s o f
s i m i l a r i t y . The f o llo w in g f i g u r a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f law
y e r s p r e s e n t s an a p t i l l u s t r a t i o n :
To s i t among t h a t s c - - r e l crew ,
T h at p ack o f mimick 1— r s ,
A bandon'd, s t u p i d , s l a v i s h p r a t e r s !
F o r, a s th e r a b b le daub, and r i f l e
The f o o l , who s c ra m b le s f o r a t r i f l e ;
Who f o r h i s p a in s i s c u f f 'd , and k i c k 'd ,
Drawn th ro u g h th e d i r t , h i s p o c k e ts p i c k 'd ;
You m ust e x p e c t th e l i k e d i s g r a c e ,
S cram b lin g w ith r es to g e t a p l a c e .
( I I , 436, 11. 132-140)
Here S w ift u s e s im agery o f s t r e e t v i o l e n c e — o f a man b e in g
c lu b b ed by a mob— to d e s c r ib e la w y e rs s t r u g g l i n g f o r p o l i t
i c a l f a v o r . S w ift d e l i b e r a t e l y b l u r s th e d i s t i n c t i o n s
betw een th e mob and th e la w y e rs by u s in g th e word "scram b le"
to d e s c r ib e th e a c t i o n s o f b o th and by u s in g w ords such as
" s c —r e l crew" and " r e s" to d e s c r ib e th e la w y e rs. Thus
d e f i n i t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s n o t sim p le b ecau se th e image
o f th e mob m erges i n t o th e image o f th e la w y e rs.
A lso d i f f i c u l t to c l a s s i f y a r e th e p o r t r a i t s o f p r o
f e s s i o n a l men p r e s e n te d in a s e r i e s o f c l o s e l y r e l a t e d b u t
d i s t i n c t im ages w hich c u s to m a r ily c u lm in a te in th e s tro n g
u g ly im age, a s in th e fo llo w in g d e s c r i p t i o n o f W alp o le:
a J o b b e r o f S to c k s by r e t a i l i n g f a l s e news
a p r a t e r a t C ourt in th e S t i l e o f th e Stews
o f V ir tu e & w o rth by p r o f e s s i o n a g i b e r
o f J u r i e s & s e n a te s th e b u l l y & b r i b e r
Tho I name n o t th e w re tc h you know who I mean
T 'i s th e Cur dog o f B r i t t a i n & s p a n ie l o f S p a in .
( I I , 540, 11. 9-14)
H ere S w if t a g a in shows th e i n d i v i d u a l engaged in th e a c
t i v i t y o f h i s p r o f e s s i o n , b u t th e im ages a ls o s u g g e s t o t h e r
o c c u p a tio n s . The f i r s t im age, "Jo b b e r o f S to c k s ," s u g g e s ts
a p e rso n engaged in u n d erh an d ed m ark et a c t i v i t y ; th e second,
a c o u rtro o m im age, i s com bined w ith an image o f a b r o t h e l ;
th e f i n a l one r e f e r s to d o m estic a n im a ls . Y et a l l o f th e
im ages add up to a p o r t r a i t o f a p a r t i c u l a r s ta te s m a n . In
such c a s e s , I have t r i e d to be c o n s i s t e n t i n my m ethod o f
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and, when p o s s i b l e , have bro k en th e s e r i e s
o f im ages down to th e s m a l le s t m e an in g fu l u n i t . T h e re fo re
I l i m i t my d is c u s s io n o f im ages c o n n ec te d w ith v a r io u s p r o
f e s s i o n s to th o s e w hich s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y d e s c r ib e th e
a c t i v i t i e s o f th e p r o f e s s i o n a l p e rs o n and to th o s e w hich
a r e u se d f i g u r a t i v e l y in o t h e r c o n te x ts b u t a re d e riv e d
from a p a r t i c u l a r p r o f e s s i o n . F u rth e rm o re , in t h i s s e c tio n
77
I in c lu d e f i g u r a t i v e im ages d e r iv e d from o c c u p a tio n s w hich
can ro u g h ly be c l a s s i f i e d a s m id d le -c la s s ., such a s ban k in g
and shopkeeping., o r lo w e r-c la s s ., such a s c a r p e n tr y and
s m ith in g .
S w ift o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n s
em p h asizin g p a r t i c u l a r i t y o f d e t a i l f o r r e a l i s t i c e f f e c t to
b r in g to l i f e p r o f e s s i o n a l men g o in g a b o u t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
d u t i e s . A t y p i c a l exam ple i s th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a law y er
in "The Answer, by D r. S w i f t ," in w hich p a r t i c u l a r i t y o f
d e t a i l p ro d u c e s a c l e a r - c u t im age:
W ith e a r l y c l i e n t s a t h i s d o o r,
Though he were d runk th e n i g h t b e f o r e ,
And c r o p - s i c k w ith u n c lu b 'd f o r w ine,
The w re tc h m ust be a t c o u r t by n in e :
H a lf sunk b e n e a th h i s b r i e f and bag,
As r id d e n by a m id n ig h t h a g .
( I I , 434, 11. 71-7 6 )
In a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a clergym an S w ift a g a in u s e s e x a g g e ra te d
d e t a i l s in p o r tr a y in g th e d a i l y ro u n d o f a c t i v i t i e s :
I M arch'd th r e e m ile s t h r o ' s c o rc h in g san d ,
W ith z e a l i n h e a r t , and n o te s in hand;
I ro d e f o u r more to g r e a t S t. Mary;
U sing f o u r le g s when two were w eary.
To th r e e f a i r v i r g i n s I d id t i e men
In th e c lo s e b an d s o f p le a s in g hymen.
I d i p p 'd two b a b es i n h o ly - w a te r .
And p u r i f y 'd t h e i r m o th ers a f t e r .
W ith in an h o u r, and eke a h a l f ,
I p re a c h e d th r e e c o n g re g a tio n s d e a f ,
W hich, th u n d rin g o u t w ith lu n g s lo n g -w in d ed
I c h o p p 'd so f a s t , t h a t few th e r e m inded.
( I I , 675, 11. 1-12)
In "The P a r s o n 's C a s e ," S w ift u s e s a s e r i e s o f r e a l i s t i c
d e t a i l s to p r e s e n t c o n t r a s t i n g im ages o f a p o o r c u r a te and
a more f o r t u n a t e dean:
78
Thy c u r a t e 's p la ce * th y f r u i t f u l w ife*
Thy busy* d ru d g in g scen e o f l i f e *
Thy I n s o l e n t i l l i t ' r a t e v ic a r*
Thy w ant o f a l l - c o n s o l i n g liq u o r*
Thy th r e a d - b a r e gown* th y c a sso c k re n t*
Thy c r e d i t sunk* th y money spent*
Thy week made up o f f a s t i n g days*
Thy g r a t e u n c o n sc io u s o f a b laze*
But* now s h o u 'd f o r tu n e s h i f t th e scene*
And make th y c u r a t e - s h i p a d ean; . . .
W ith s w e llin g s c a rf* and g lo s s y gown*
And l i c e n s e to r e s i d e in town; . . .
W ith u n d e r lin g s th y f l o c k to teach*
W ith no d e s i r e to p ra y o r p re a c h ;
W ith h a u g h ty spouse i n v e s tu r e fin e *
W ith p le n te o u s m eals* and g e n 'r o u s w ine . . . .
(II* 6 7 6 * 1 1 . 5 - 1 2* 1 9 - 2 0 * 2 6 - 2 6 * 3 1- 3 4 )
More i n t e r e s t i n g th a n S w i f t 's l i t e r a l u se o f im agery
d e r iv e d from th e p r o f e s s i o n s i s h i s f i g u r a t i v e u se o f such
im ag es. Many o f th e s e a re d e v elo p e d a t le n g th and o f te n
ta k e th e form o f a l l e g o r y o r a n a lo g y . S w ift f r e q u e n t l y d e
v e lo p s e x te n d e d co m p ariso n s making u se o f a v a r i e t y o f p r o
f e s s i o n s and o c cu p a tio n s* th e m ost im p o r ta n t o f w hich a re
th e m ilit a r y * s a i l i n g and n a v ig a tio n * m edicine* law* and
a r c h i t e c t u r e .
Though S w ift th ro u g h o u t h i s l i f e d e t e s t e d war and had
no g r e a t lo v e f o r m i l i t a r y le a d e rs * he n e v e r t h e l e s s em
p lo y e d a f a i r l y e x te n s iv e amount o f m i l i t a r y im agery in h i s
p o e tr y . B a t tle s * sie g e s* and c o n q u e s ts p ro v id e d him w ith
th e k in d o f v i o l e n t and v i t a l im agery he p r e f e r r e d . The
c a ta lo g u e o f in s tr u m e n ts o f v io le n c e * in c lu d in g many
weapons o f war* i s e x te n s iv e th ro u g h o u t S w i f t 's p o etry *
though he r a r e l y d e s c r ib e s d i r e c t l y an a c t u a l h i s t o r i c a l
79
b a t t l e . H is b a t t l e Im agery o c c u r s m ost o b t r u s i v e l y In com
p a r i s o n s w hich a re c o v ered In th e space o f a s i n g l e s ta n z a
o r v e rs e p a ra g ra p h w hich o c c u p ie s a s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n In
th e poem. F or exam ple, th e t h i r d s ta n z a o f h i s f i r s t poem,
"Ode to th e K in g ," d e v e lo p s a l l e g o r i c a l l y th e image o f a
m e d ie v al k n ig h t doing b a t t l e w ith a g i a n t to d ra m a tiz e King
W illia m 's s e a rc h f o r fame:
These a re th e Ways
By w hich o u r happy P r in c e c a r v e s o u t h i s B ays;
Thus he h as f i x ' d H is Name
F i r s t , in th e m ighty L i s t o f Fame,
And th u s He d id th e A iry Goddess C o u rt,
He so u g h t H er o u t in F ig h t ,
And l i k e a B old R om antick K night
R e s c u 'd H er from th e G i a n t 's F o r t:
The T y ra n t D eath la y c ro u c h in g down,
W aitin g f o r O rd ers a t h i s F e e t,
S p o i l 'd o f h i s Leaden Crown;
He tra m p le d on t h i s H aughty B a.jaz et,
Made him h i s F o o ts to o l in th e War,
And a Grim S la v e to w a it on h i s T riu m p h al C ar.
( I , 7 , 11. 31-44)
S i m i l a r l y , th e l a s t s ta n z a o f "Ode to th e A th e n ian S o c ie ty "
i s a s h o r t a l l e g o r y w hich d e s c r ib e s an a t t a c k upon le a r n in g
in term s o f a G o th ic i n v a s i o n . I q u o te i t i n p a r t :
C en su re, and P e d a n try , and P r id e ,
N um berless N a tio n s , s t r e t c h i n g f a r and w ide.
S h a ll ( I f o r e s e e i t ) soon w ith G o th ic k Swarms come
f o r t h
From I g n o r a n c e ' s U n iv e r s a l N o rth ,
And w ith b l i n d Rage b r e a k a l l t h i s p e a c e f u l G overn
m ent;
Y et s h a l l th e s e T ra c e s o f y o u r w it rem ain
Like a .ju st Map to t e l l th e v a s t E x te n t
Of C onquest in y o u r s h o r t and Happy R eig n .
( I , 2 5 , 11. 2 9 6- 3 0 3 )
In th e l a s t v e rs e p a ra g ra p h o f h i s f i n e s a t i r e "P ethox th e
G r e a t ," S w ift t r a c e s th e p r o g r e s s o f a d is e a s e in term s o f
th e a c t i o n s o f a m i l i t a r y le a d e r :
How fa m 'd th y Conduct in th e F i g h t ,
W ith Hermes, Son o f F l e i a s b r i g h t .
O ut-num ber' d, h a l f en co m p ass'd ro u n d ,
You s tr o v e f o r e v 'r y In c h o f Ground;
Then, by a S o l d i e r l y R e t r e a t ,
R e t i r 'd to y o u r I m p e r ia l S e a t.
The V i c t o r , when y o u r S te p s he t r a c 'd ,
Found a l l th e Realm s b e f o r e him w a ste ;
You, o ' e r th e h ig h T riu m p h al Arch
P o n t i f i c k , made y o u r g l o r i o u s March;
The w o n d 'ro u s A rch b e h in d you f e l l ,
And l e f t a Chasm p ro fo u n d a s H e ll:
You, in y o u r C a p i to l s e c u r 'd ,
A S ie g e a s lo n g a s Troy e n d u r 'd .
( I , 3 2 6 , 1 1 . 85-98)
And th e f i r s t v e rs e p a ra g ra p h o f a poem to D r. D elaney ( I I
5 0 0 ) com pares th e e x p e r ie n c e o f an a u th o r f a c in g c r i t i c s
f o r th e f i r s t tim e to a c o u n try y o u th u n d e r f i r e f o r th e
f i r s t tim e in an a c t u a l b a t t l e . The im ages h e re s p rin g
from c o l l o q u i a l la n g u a g e . S w ift w r i t e s o f " b u l l e t s w h i s t
l i n g ro u n d h i s e a r s , " " b u l l e t s now a s t h i c k a s H ops," "p o t
g u n ," and " c a n n o n 's c h o p s ." T h ese, t o g e t h e r w ith o t h e r
im ages w hich d e s c r ib e g u n f i r e a s " s q u ib b in g , f l a s h i n g , and
p o p p in g ," g iv e th e p a ss a g e g r e a t v i t a l i t y .
Though S w ift o f t e n c o n f in e s e x te n d e d f i g u r a t i v e u s e o
m i l i t a r y im agery to one p a ra g ra p h o r s ta n z a w ith in a poem,
i n "The R e v o lu tio n a t M a r k e t- H ill" i t i s a v e h ic l e f o r th e
e n t i r e poem. As Pope d id in "The Rape o f th e L o ck ," S w ift
u s e s m o ck -h ero ic im agery o f b a t t l e in a good-hum ored d e
s c r i p t i o n o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The v i s i t o f S w ift and
81
f r i e n d s to a c o u n try house I s d e s c r ib e d In term s o f an a t
ta c k on a f o r t i f i e d c a s t l e :
COM E S p a n ia rd , l e t u s from o u r Farms
C a ll f o r t h o u r C o tta g e r s to Arms;
Our F o rc e s l e t u s b o th u n i t e ,
A tta c k th e Foe a t L e f t and R ig h t;
From M ark et-H I1 1 1s e x a lt e d Head,
F u l l N orthw ard, l e t y o u r Troops be le d :
W hile I from D r a p i e r 1s Mount d e sc e n d ,
And to th e S outh my Squadrons bend:
N ew -R iver-w alk w ith f r i e n d l y Shade,
S h a ll keep my H ost In Ambuscade;
While you, from where th e BaBin s ta n d s ,
S h a ll s c a le th e Ram part w ith y o u r B ands.
( I l l , 884, 11. 43-54)
N a u tic a l Im ag ery , though n o t as common a s m i l i t a r y
Im ag ery , a p p e a rs In a wide v a r i e t y o f c o n t e x t s , m ost n o t
a b ly to b r in g to l i f e a b s t r a c t i o n s , to d e s c r ib e S w i f t 's
r o l e as p o e t , and to d i r e c t l y a t t a c k s a t i r i c v ic t i m s . The
"Ode to th e A th en ian S o c i e t y , " as m en tioned b e f o r e , b e g in s
w ith an e x te n d e d m etaphor w hich d e s c r ib e s th e developm ent
o f l e a r n in g in term s o f th e Ark a d r i f t on th e w a te r s o f th e
g r e a t f lo o d . S w ift th e n d e p a r t s from B i b l i c a l Im agery and
c o n tin u e s w ith modern im ages o f m erch an t s h ip p in g to d e
s c r i b e th e c h a lle n g e o f new l e a r n i n g :
I n s t e a d o f b o ld ly s a i l i n g f a r to buy
A S to c k o f Wisdom and P h ilo so p h y ,
We fo n d ly s ta y a t home in f e a r
Of e v 'r y c en su rin g P r i v a t e e r .
( I , 19, 11. 97-100}
Im agery o f row ing i s u se d by S w ift f o r s a t i r i c p u rp o s e s and
to d ra m a tiz e h i s own r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e Muse. In an e a r l y
poem, "Ode to S i r W illia m T em ple," S w ift s e e s h im s e lf s e n
82
te n c e d by N a tu re to be a g a l l e y - s l a v e to th e Muse:
I n v a in I s t r i v e to c r o s s t h i s s p a c io u s Main,
In v a in I tu g and p u l l th e O ar,
And when I a lm o st re a c h th e Shore
S t r a i t th e Muse tu r n s th e Helm, and I la u n ch
o u t a g a in . ( I , 32, 11. 192-195)
In a l a t e r poem, "An E p i s t l e to a L ad y ," t h i s image r e
a p p e a r s , b u t t h i s tim e S w i f t 's v ic tim s a re th e g a l l e y -
s la v e s on th e s h ip o f s t a t e ta u n te d by S w ift from th e
s a f e t y o f a sm a ll a g i l e c r a f t :
W HEN my Muse o f f i c i o u s v e n tu r e s
On th e N a t i o n 's R e p r e s e n te r s ;
T eaching by w hat Golden R u le s
In to Knaves th e y tu r n t h e i r P o o ls :
How th e Helm i s r u l ' d by --------
At whose O ars, l i k e S la v e s , th e y a l l p u l l :
L et th e V e s s e l s p l i t on S h e lv e s ,
W ith th e F r e i g h t e n r ic h th e m s e lv e s :
Safe w ith in my l i t t l e W herry,
A ll t h e i r Madness makes me m erry:
L ike th e Watermen o f Thames,
I row b y , and c a l l them Names.
( I I , 635, 11. 155-166)
A n o th er image o f row ing a p p e a rs in "An E p i s t l e upon an
E p i s t l e " in w hich S w if t j e s t i n g l y a t t a c k s th e e x tra v a g a n c e
o f h i s f r i e n d , D elan ey , who h a s gone i n t o d e b t to b u i l d a
f i n e e s t a t e :
B ut you must have C ascad es, and a l l
I e r n a ' s Lake, f o r y o u r C an al,
Your V i s t o s , B a rg e s, and (A Pox on
A ll P r id e ) o u r S p eak er f o r y o u r Coxon:
I t ' s P i t y t h a t he c a n 't b esto w you
Twelve Commoners in Caps to Row y o u .
Thus E dgar p ro u d , in Days o f Y ore,
H eld M onarchs la b o u rin g a t th e Oar;
And a s he p a s s 'd , so s w e l l 'd th e Dee
I n r a g 'd , a s E rn w ould do a t th e e .
( I I , 476, 11. 37-46)
S w ift a g a in u s e s n a u t i c a l im agery to a t t a c k a s p e c i f i c i n -
d i v i d u a l in "A Q u ib b lin g E leg y on th e W o rsh ip fu l Judge
B o at" ( I , 2 8 4 ). As in th e poem on W illia m Wood, m entioned
above, th e im ages emerge from punning upon th e name o f th e
v ic tim , whom S w ift d e s c r ib e s in term s o f a v e s s e l fo u n d e rin g
on th e s e a o f l i f e . S w ift shows h i s fo n d n e ss f o r d e t a i l in
u s in g such n a u t i c a l term s as " l a d i n g ," " b a l l a s t , " " a n c h o r,"
" c a n v a s ," " t a c k ," " p i l o t , " " r o p e ," " p i t c h , " " p la n k s ," and
" p o r t ."
The p r o f e s s i o n s o f a r c h i t e c t u r e and b u i l d i n g p ro v id e d
S w ift w ith an e q u a lly ab u n d an t so u rc e o f p h y s i c a l d e t a i l s .
S e v e r a l o f h i s poems c o n ta in r e f e r e n c e s to b u i l d i n g s ,
b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s , and c o n s t r u c t i o n , and he u s e s e a s i l y
such term s as "beam ," " s l a t e , " " t i l e , " " r a f t e r , " " j o i s t , "
" s t e e p l e , " " b e v e l," " a r b o r ," " a r c h ," and "dom e." Most o f
th e s e te rm s a re found in p a s s a g e s w hich d e v elo p e x ten d e d
m e ta p h o rs. In "V an b ru g 's H o u se," f o r exam ple, S w ift u s e s
c o n s t r u c t i o n im agery f o r a double p u rp o s e , w i t t i l y c r i t i
c iz i n g V a n b ru g 's a b i l i t y a s an a r c h i t e c t and a t th e same
tim e commenting upon th e s t a t e o f th e d ra m a tic v e rs e o f th e
tim e . The op en in g l i n e s r e l a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n im agery to th e
w r i t i n g o f p o e tr y :
In tim e s o f o ld , when Time was young,
And P o e ts t h e i r own V e rse s sung,
A Song c o u ld draw a S tone o r Beam,
T h at now would o v e rlo a d a Team,
Lead them a Dance o f many a M ile,
Then r e a r 'em to a g o o d ly P i l e ,
Each Number had i t ' s d i f f ' r e n t Power;
H e ro ic k S t r a i n s c o u ld b u i l d a Tower;
84
Sonnets and Elegyes to C h lo ris
Would r a i s e a House about two S to ry es;
A L yrick Ode would S l a te ; a Catch
Would T i le ; an Epigram would Thatch.
( I , 79, 11. 1-12)
Paulson, in commenting upon t h i s poem and o th e r s , reminds us
t h a t S w ift f r e q u e n tly u ses th e image o f a b u ild in g in poems
which d e a l w ith the themes o f permanence and tr a n s ie n c e :
As f a r back as "V anbrug's House" S w ift used a house as a
t e s t image f o r t h i s theme: V anbrug's house i s d w arfish ,
an image o f a m odern's s o u l. In "To S t e l l a Who V i s i t e d
Me" he opposes the house (body) occupied by honor to the
one in which am b itio n , a v a r ic e , and l u s t 'p r e s i d e ' and he
r i d i c u l e s the id e a t h a t S t e l l a should d e s tr o y h e r 'P a l a c e 1
to salvage h i s o ld 'House d e c a y 'd . ' In " S t e l l a , Who C ol
le c t e d and T ra n sc rib e d My Poems" he compares h i s poems to
a house: he i s th e a r c h i t e c t and S t e l l a the workman; and
in th e b ir t h d a y poem f o r 1 7 2 1, he i s th e a r c h i t e c t and
S t e l l a i s an i n n . 4
We may add to P a u ls o n 's l i s t the moral o f "Strephon and
C hloe," overlooked by many commentators, in which Sw ift com
p a re s the plan n in g o f a m arriage to th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f a
b u ild in g :
A PRUDENT B u ild e r should f o r e c a s t
How long th e S t u f f i s l i k e to l a s t ;
And, c a r e f u l l y observe the Ground,
To b u i l d on some Foundation sound;
What House, when i t s M a te ria ls crumble.
Must n o t i n e v i t a b l y tumble?
What E d i f ic e can long endure,
R a i s 'd on a B asis unsecure?
Rash M o rtals, e ' e r you take a Wife,
C on triv e y our P il e to l a s t f o r L ife ;
Since Beauty sca rc e endures a Day,
And Youth so s w i f t l y g l i d e s away;
Why w i l l you make y o u r s e l f a Bubble
To b u i l d on Sand w ith Hay and Stubble?
( I I , 592, 11. 293-306)
4
Paulson, p. 310.
F ig u r a tiv e imagery d e riv e d from th e p r a c t i c e o f medi
cin e and law i s n o t as common as m i l i t a r y , n a u t i c a l , and
a r c h i t e c t u r a l im agery. Under m edicine I do not in c lu d e
imagery o f d is e a s e , which I have re s e rv e d f o r d is c u s s io n in
C hapter V, and r e f e r h e re o n ly to images o f th e p h y s ic ia n
in th e a c t o f perform ing h i s d u t i e s . Two o f th e s e are
worthy o f n o te . In th e "Ode to S a n c ro ft" re fo rm ers o f r e
l i g i o n a re d e s c rib e d as p h y s ic ia n s whose tre a tm e n t would
k i l l th e p a t i e n t ( I , 42, 1 1 . 2 5 1- 2 5 8), and in a l a t e r poem,
"To Mr. Gay," we f i n d a s i m i l a r image used to d e s c rib e the
r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e King and h i s C ouncil:
THE Law so s t r i c t l y guards the M onarch's H ealth ,
That no P h y sician d a re s p r e s c r i b e by S t e a l t h :
The Council s i t ; approve the D o c to r's S k i l l ;
And g iv e Advice b e fo re he g iv e s th e P i l l .
But, th e S ta te -E m p 'r ic a c t s a s a f e r P a rt;
And w hile he p o iso n s, wins the Royal H e art.
( I I , 533, 11. 77-82)
In h i s long poem "Cadenus and Vanessa" ( I I , 686-714),
Sw ift makes e x te n s iv e use o f t r i a l imagery in d e s c rib in g a
b a t t l e o f th e sexes over the meaning o f lo v e. In a mytho
l o g i c a l s e t t i n g , w ith gods and goddesses as p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
Sw ift makes use o f a l l o f the p a r a p h e r n a lia o f a modern
ju ry t r i a l w ith re f e r e n c e to "accu sed ," "d e fe n d a n t,"
" ju d g e ," " la w y e rs," " c r y e r s , " " p e t i t i o n , " and " b r i e f . "
We may conclude t h a t , in g e n e r a l, th e more c o n v en tio n al
p r o f e s s io n s p rovide o b je c t s f o r S w i f t 's s a t i r e and p ro v id e
a r i c h source o f f i g u r a t i v e imagery f o r h i s p o e try . But
S w i f t 's p o e try a ls o c o n ta in s copious r e f e r e n c e s to a v a s t
v a r i e t y o f o c cu p a tio n s which a re a s s o c ia te d w ith th e m iddle
and lower c l a s s e s . He o f te n m entions in d i v i d u a l s from
m id d le - c la s s p ro f e s s io n s o r b u s in e s s o c cu p a tio n s such as
p u b l i s h e r s , la n d lo r d s , b a n k ers, d r u g g i s t s , t r e a s u r e r s , con
t r o l l e r s , and stew ard s. More numerous, however, a re people
from o rd in a ry tr a d e s and s e r v ic e o c c u p a tio n s — shoemakers,
b a r b e r s , b a r te n d e r s , s e x to n s, c a r p e n te r s , lumbermen,
c o in e r s , hardware men, shopkeepers, t i n k e r s , b r a s i e r s ,
c o p p ersm ith s, yeomen, w a i t e r s , b u tc h e r s , b u t l e r s , u s h e r s ,
fo o tb o y s, ta n n e rs o f h id e , b a i l i f f s , c o a l men, j a i l e r s ,
p o r t e r s , and even p r o f e s s i o n a l weepers a t f u n e r a l s . But
e x ce p t f o r an o c c a s io n a l a t t a c k a g a in s t an a s t r o l o g e r o r a
b an k er, such i n d i v i d u a l s a re n o t u s u a l l y the o b je c t o f
S w i f t 's s a t i r e . R ath er th ey serv e the aims o f g e n e r a l
s a t i r e to remind man o f th e h a rs h r e a l i t i e s o f h i s l i f e .
J u s t as S w ift o f te n a s s o c i a t e s men w ith t h e i r d a i l y
o c c u p a tio n s , so does he o f te n d e s c rib e women in v o lv e d in
everyday r o u ti n e a c t i v i t i e s . These in c lu d e a g r e a t v a r i e t y
o f women o f a l l ages and s o c i a l c l a s s e s . Adding to the
r e a lis m a re a number o f lo w e r - c la s s ty p e s : workingmen's
w ives, p r o s t i t u t e s , charwomen, midwives, fis h w iv e s , b a r
m aids, s e r v a n t g i r l s , and s t r e e t vendors, to name a few.
These women a re u s u a l l y n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y th e o b j e c t s o f
S w i f t 's B a tir e , b u t they a re o f te n p re s e n te d as in g r e d i e n t s
in a l a r g e r s a t i r i c scene. The glim p ses o f th e women in
87
th e famous "A D e s c rip tio n o f th e Morning" show S w i f t ' b s k i l l
in employing im agery to c r e a te v iv id , b r i e f p o r t r a i t s :
Now B e tty from h e r M asters Bed. had flown.
And s o f t l y s t o l e to discompose h e r own. . . .
Now Moll had w h i r l 'd h e r Mop w ith d e x t 'r o u s Airs.,
P r e p a r 'd to Scrub th e E n try and th e S t a i r s . . . .
And B ric k d u st Moll had Scream 'd through h a l f th e
S t r e e t . ( I ,~T2$, 11. 3 -4, 7 -8 , 14)
More im p o rta n t as o b j e c t s o f s a t i r e and o f compliment are
women o f S w i f t 's own c l a s s and th o se whom he knew p e rs o n
a l l y . Those s p e c i f i c a l l y named in h i s p o e tr y a re r a r e l y
t r e a t e d b a d ly , a lth o u g h S w ift w i l l o c c a s io n a ll y use h a rsh
im agery to d e s c rib e them. S t e l l a , V anessa, Lady Acheson,
Lady C a r t e r e t , Mrs. Pinch, Lady B erk eley , Mrs. Cope., Mrs.
Biddy Floyd, and Mrs. Sican a re sometimes th e o b j e c t o f
l i g h t r a i l l e r y , b u t, more o f te n than n o t, they r e c e iv e
charming compliments from th e pen o f S w ift.
But w hether he i s s a t i r i z i n g o r com plim enting the
women o f h i s own c l a s s S w ift depends h e a v ily upon images
a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e p e t t y a c t i v i t i e s and d e t a i l s o f t h e i r
everyday l i v e s . He u s e s s k i l l f u l l y t h i s k in d o f im agery to
c r i t i c i z e th e m e n ta lity , a f f e c t a t i o n , v a n ity , and i d le n e s s
o f u p p e r - c l a s s women. As e a r l y as 1 6 9 8, in "Verses Wrote
in a L ad y 's Iv o ry T able-B ook," he had used im agery o f t h i s
k in d , and in "The F u r n itu r e o f a Woman's Mind," w r i t t e n in
1 7 2 7, h i s tech n iq u e i s p o lis h e d :
A SET o f P h rases l e a r n ' t by Rote;
A P assion f o r a S c a r le t- C o a t;
When a t a P lay to laugh, o r cry ,
Yet cannot t e l l th e Reason why:
88 ;
Never to h o ld h e r Tongue a M inute;
N h ile a l l she p r a t e s haB n o th in g in i t .
Whole Hours can w ith a Coxcomb s i t ,
And ta k e h i s Nonsense a l l f o r W it.
( I I , 415, 11. 1-8)
In "The J o u r n a l o f a Modern Lady" ( I I , ■444-453) a f in e
s a t i r i c p o r t r a i t o f an e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y woman o f l e i s u r e
emerges from a c lo s e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a s in g le day in h e r
l i f e . The poem h as a rem arkably modern tone as th e f u t i l i t y
o f th e woman's l i f e u n f o ld s i n a s e r i e s o f scenes f i l l e d
w ith d e t a i l e d , r e a l i s t i c im agery. She wakes a t noon,
having p la y ed q u a d r i l l e th e n i g h t b e f o r e ; she has a h e ad
ache and th e s p le e n , ta k e s a g l a s s o f w a ter, looks in a
m ir r o r , see s h e r pawnbroker and garment salesm en, g o s s ip s
w ith o t h e r women, p la y s q u a d r i l l e again in to th e n i g h t , and
f i n a l l y r e t i r e s , to com plete th e round.
Household im agery i s im p o rta n t In many o f th e p o r
t r a i t s o f women in S w i f t 's p o e tr y . J u s t as he appeared
f a s c i n a t e d by th e image o f a b u ild in g o r a house, so was he
a l s o k e en ly aware o f what was i n s i d e . In both s a t i r i c and
com plim entary poems S w ift i s fond o f d e s c r ib in g women
b u s i l y engaged in h o u seh o ld c h o re s. For example, in th e se
l i n e s from "The J o u rn a l" he u s e s homely, dom estic imagery
to c h a r a c t e r i z e th e busy, t a l k a t i v e w ife o f a p ed an t:
And how h i s Wife t h a t Female Pedant,
But now th e r e need no more be s a id o n ' t ,
Shews a l l h e r S e c re ts o f House keeping,
For C andles, how she tr u c k s h e r D rip in g ;
Was f o r c 'd to send th r e e M iles f o r Y e st,
To brew h e r A le, and r a i s e h e r P a s te :
89
T e l l s e v 'r y t h i n g t h a t you can th in k o f ,
How she c u r 'd C harley o f th e Chincough;
What gave h e r B r a ts and P igs th e M eazles,
And how h e r Doves were k i l l ' d by W eezles.
( I , 282, 11. 85-9^)
To t h i s we may c o n t r a s t , In "The F i r s t o f A p r i l , " S w i f t 's
charming compliment to h i s f r i e n d , Mrs. Cope, whom he p i c
t u r e s as b u s i l y m in is te r in g to th e needs o f h e r c h ild r e n .
The tone I s rem arkably "u n -S w iftia n "j
They p e e p 'd , and saw a Lady th e re
P inning on C o ifs and combing H a ir;
S o f t 'n l n g w ith Songs to Son o r D aughter,
The p e r s e c u tio n o f co ld W ater.
S t i l l p l e a s 'd w ith th e g o o d -n a tu r-d N oise,
And h arm less F r o lic k s o f h e r Boys;
Equal to a l l In Care and Love,
Which a l l d eserv e and a l l im prove.
To K itc h in , P a r lo u r , N u r s 'r y f l i e s ,
And seems a l l F e e t, and Hands, and Eyes.
( I , 321, 11. 29238")
More t y p i c a l o f S w ift i s h i s f in e compliment to the h o s p i
t a l i t y o f Mrs. S ican: h e re S w ift combines household and
anim al imagery to c a p tu re th e essen ce o f h e r c h a r a c t e r in
th e space o f th e f o u r t e e n - l i n e poem, "On P sy ch e." The good-
humored s a t i r i c t w i s t o f th e l a s t two l i n e s tem pers the
sen tim en t o f h i s compliment:
At two A fternoon f o r our Psyche in q u i r e ,
Her T e a - K e t t l e 's on, and h e r Smock a t th e F i r e :
So l o i t r i n g , so a c t i v e ; so busy, so i d l e ,
Which h a th she most need o f , a Spur o r a B r id le ?
Thus, a Greyhound o u t- r u n s th e whole Pack in a Race,
Yet would r a t h e r be h a n g 'd than h e 'd leav e a warm
P l a c e .
She g iv e s you such P le n ty , i t p u ts you in Pain;
But e v er w ith Prudence ta k e s Care o f th e Main.
To p le a s e you, she knows how to chuse a n ic e B it;
For h e r T aste i s alm ost as r e f i n ' d as h e r W it.
90
To o b lig e a good F rie n d , she w i l l t r a c e e v 'r y M arket,
I t would do y our h e a r t good, to see how she w i l l cark
i t .
Yet beware o f h e r A rts , f o r i t p l a i n l y a p p ea rs.
She Baves H alf h e r V i c t u a l s , by feed in g y our E a rs.
( I I , 580)
A s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f c lo th in g and cosm etic imagery
i s a lso used in S w i f t 's p o r t r a i t s o f women. These images
a re used more e x te n s iv e ly than household images in s a t i r i c
c o n te x ts . Whereas c lo th in g imagery i s p e rv a s iv e th roughout
S w i f t 's p o e try , cosm etic imagery i s used h e a v ily in o n ly a
few poems. A d is c u s s io n o f the development o f t h i s k in d o f
im agery, i l l u s t r a t i n g changes o f tech n iq u e in S w i f t 's po
e t r y , w i l l fo llo w a t th e end o f t h i s c h a p te r.
Though he numbered many women among h i s f r i e n d s . Sw ift
d id n o t h id e h i s d i s t a s t e f o r normal lo v e , m arriag e, and
fa m ily r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Yet i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t
love and m arriage i s th e s u b je c t o f s e v e r a l poems and t h a t
i t i s in th e se poems t h a t images o f men and women to g e th e r
are most f u l l y developed. S w i f t 's a t t i t u d e i s s tr o n g ly
a n ti- r o m a n tic , and he c o n s i s t e n t l y avoids amorous d e s c r i p
ti o n s o f te n d e r embraces, words o f endearm ent, o r p a s s io n a te
scenes which would ten d to e le v a te the r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n
s te a d , Sw ift s t r i p s away th e i l l u s i o n s o f rom antic love and
p r e s e n ts th e u n p le a s a n t s id e o f such r e l a t i o n s h i p s by u sin g
h a rs h , r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l s . As H erb ert Davis p o i n t s o u t,
"the love p o e try o f S w ift" can be c o n sid e re d a " p a r t l y
co n scio u s b u rle sq u e o f the S p en serian i d e a l o f rom antic
91
love b ro u g h t w ith in th e C h r is tia n concept o f m a r r ia g e .
"The P ro g re ss o f Love" p ro v id e s a t y p i c a l example o f
S w i f t 's a t t i t u d e toward th e man/woman r e l a t i o n s h i p . He
ta k e s th e theme o f elopem ent, which i s p o t e n t i a l l y ro m an tic,
and p a i n t s th e o p p o s ite p i c t u r e by showing in a s e r i e s o f
s e p a ra te scenes th e u l t i m a t e debasement o f the co u p le. In
th e f i r s t scene. S w ift p o r tr a y s P h i l l i s as th e p u rs u e r and
th u s i r o n i c a l l y r e v e r s e s the u s u a l rom antic view o f the
fe m a le 's p a s s iv e r o l e :
In Church, secure beh in d h e r Pan
She d u r s t behold t h a t M onster, Man:
There p r a c t i c ' d how to p la c e h e r Head,
And b i t h e r L ips to make them re d :
Or on th e Matt d e v o u tly k n eelin g
Would l i f t h e r Eyes up to the C eeling,
And heave h e r Bosom unaware
Por n e i g h b 'r in g Beaux to see i t b a re .
( I , 222, 11. 11-18)
The poem t r a c e s P h i l l i s ' f i n a l d e g re d a tio n to p r o s t i t u t i o n :
How Jonny wheadled, th r e a tn e d , fawnd,
T i l l P h i l l i s a l l h e r T r in k e ts pawn'd:
How o f t she broke h e r m arriage Yows
In k in d n ess to m a in ta in h e r Spouse.
( I , 224, l l . 87-90)
The poem ends:
Por John i s L andlord, P h i l l i s H o stess;
They keep a t S ta in s th e o ld b lu e Boar,
Are Cat and Dog, and Rogue and Whore.
( I , 225, 11. 98-100)
Thus by a choice o f u n p le a s a n t d e s c r i p t i v e d e t a i l s . Sw ift
e f f e c t i v e l y d e f l a t e s th e I n s t i t u t i o n o f m arriag e.
^Davis, p. 112.
92
Normal, p le a s a n t fam ily scenes a re very r a r e in S w i f t 's
p o e tr y , and l i k e most Augustan w r i t e r s S w ift shows l i t t l e
i n t e r e s t in b a b ie s and c h ild r e n . This a t t i t u d e i s r e
f l e c t e d in a poem in which S w ift r i d i c u l e s John Gay f o r a c
c ep tin g a p o s i t i o n which in v o lv ed the c a re o f a tw o -y ear-
o ld g i r l ("To Mr. Gay . . . " [ I I , 5 3 1, 11. 7 - 1 2 ] ) . In view
o f S w i f t 's a t t i t u d e i t i s n o t s u r p r is in g to f in d t h a t on the
few o c ca sio n s t h a t images o f i n f a n t s and a d o le s c e n ts appear
in th e poems, they g e n e r a lly fu n c tio n f o r s a t i r i c p u rp o ses.
In h i s f i r s t poem, "Ode to th e K ing," S w ift a t t a c k s r o y a l t y
by red u cin g i t s p a g ea n try to c h i l d ' s p la y :
What do th e S c e p te r, Crown and B a l l,
R a t t l e s f o r I n f a n t R oyalty to p la y w ith a l,
But serve t ' adorn the B aby-dress
Of one poor C oronation-day,
To make the Pageant gay:
A th r e e Hours Scene o f empty P rid e ,
And then th e Toys a re thrown a s i d e .
( I , 6 , 11. 12-18)
In a l a t e r poem, Sw ift groups c h ild r e n w ith th e incom petent:
Por Madmen, C h ild re n , Wits and Pools
Shou'd n e v er meddle w ith E dg'd T ools.
( I , 181, 11. 31-32)
Sw ift o c c a s io n a lly d e s c r ib e s schoolboys, s t r e s s i n g t h e i r
m ischievousness as th ey torm ent t h e i r e l d e r s ( I , 100, 11.
91-92) o r in d u lg e in w ild p a r t i e s ( I I , 450, 11. 1 8 2- 1 8 3).
Perhaps the most famous image o f a schoolboy in S w i f t 's
poems i s one t h a t echoes S h a k e sp e a re 's
And then th e whining school-boy, w ith h i s s a tc h e l
And sh in in g morning f a c e , creep in g l i k e s n a i l
U n w illingly to school (Ab Y ou Like I t , I l . v i i .
146-148)
93
as i t b r in g s to a c lo se "A D e s c rip tio n o f th e Morning":
"And Schoo1-Boys lag w ith S a tc h e ls in t h e i r Hands" ( I , 125,
1. 18). The o n ly notew orthy extended d e s c r ip ti o n o f the
growth o f a c h i l d o ccu rs in "Cadenus and V anessa," in which
S w ift d e p ic t s th e b i r t h and m a tu ra tio n o f Vanessa as she
was formed by th e gods.
Like o th e r Augustan w riters., S w ift i s p r im a r i ly i n
t e r e s t e d in urban r a t h e r than r u r a l l i f e . His poems o f
c o u n try l i f e focus on th e s o p h i s t i c a t e d people o f h i s own
c l a s s who i n h a b i t c o u n try e s t a t e s . Sw ift shows l i t t l e i n
t e r e s t in r u s t i c ty p e s, and, on th e few o c ca sio n s when
cou n try maids o r p e a s a n ts appear in h i s p o e try , they p r o
v ide comic d iv e r s io n . The one r u r a l scene t h a t pro v id ed
s i g n i f i c a n t imagery f o r S w i f t 's p o e try was th e b arn y ard ,
which I s h a l l d is c u s s in C hapter VI. But th e l i f e o f the
c i t y , w ith i t s p eo p le, s i g h t s , and sounds, was a source o f
e n d le s s f a s c i n a t i o n f o r S w ift, and to re a d much o f S w i f t 's
p o e try i s to r e v i s i t th e London and Dublin o f th e e a r ly
e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry . G re a tly c o n tr ib u tin g to th e re a lis m
a re abundant r e f e r e n c e s to s p e c i f i c l o c a l e s : S m ith fie ld ,
Kent, Ludgate, Temple Bar, Charing C ross, Holborn, Change
A lle y , Snow-Hill Ridge, S t. James Park, Gerard S t r e e t ,
S te p h e n 's Green, Dawson S t r e e t , Grub S t r e e t , and th e Con
d u i t , to name a few.
In h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r urban scenes Sw ift
g e n e r a lly avoids th e p le a s a n t a s p e c ts o f c i t y l i f e ; we do
n o t f in d , as we do in Pope, g l i t t e r i n g d e s c r i p t i o n s o f gay
p a r t i e s in London's g r e a t h o u ses. S w ift i n s t e a d tu r n s h i s
a t t e n t i o n to th e o r d in a r y and o f te n s o rd id l i f e along th e
s t r e e t s o f th e g r e a t c i t i e s , ta k in g u s i n t o ta v e r n s such as
The T h a tc h t, The Dog, The P a r t r i d g e , The George, C h ild s,
and The Rose, and d e s c rib in g such a c t i v i t i e s as d rin k in g ,
f i g h t i n g , gam bling, s t e a l i n g , and b e a r - b a i t i n g .
The f i l t h and s q u a lo r o f th e c i t y becomes in much o f
S w i f t 's p o e try a p h y s ic a l symbol o f m oral c o r r u p tio n , b u t
many o f th e se d e s c r i p t i o n s were p erhaps n o t t e r r i b l y exag
g e r a te d . D an iel M ilburn in The Age o f W it, 1650-1750 (New
York, 1 9 6 6) reminds us t h a t London in th e e a r l y e ig h te e n th
c en tu ry had i t s u g ly a s p e c ts :
But in s p i t e o f a l l o f i t s g r e a t c u l t u r a l advantages
London was a p la c e o f dram atic c o n t r a s t s : crime in chu rch
y a rd s , b r u t a l i t y in face o f emergent s e n s i b i l i t y , s t a r v a
t i o n amid w e alth , and p r o f l i g a t e im m o rality in d e fia n c e o f
P u r ita n r i g o r . . . . S t r e e t s were s t i l l m edieval in c h a r
a c t e r — crooked and narrow, always c o n g ested w ith p eo p le,
and w ith the w aste w a ter, o rd u re , and garbage h a b i t u a l l y
thrown i n t o them. . . . During heavy r a i n s . . . heavy
cascad es o f w a ter poured from th e r o o f s i n t o th e c e n t r a l
s t r e e t g u t t e r s to form o f f e n s iv e quagm ires. (p. 2 1)
In a poem such as " D e s c rip tio n o f a C ity Shower" S w ift not
o nly p r e s e n ts an a c c u ra te p i c t u r e o f a London s t r e e t during
a r a in s to r m , as Milburn d e s c r ib e s above, b u t a l s o , by the
s k i l l f u l u se o f s o rd id p h y s ic a l d e t a i l s , i n t e n s i f i e s the
h y p o c ris y o f the people d e s c rib e d in th e scen e. S im ila r ly ,
S w i f t 's "A D e s c rip tio n o f th e Morning" seems a t f i r s t
g la n ce to be m erely an ite m iz e d account o f c i t y s i g h t s and
sounds., b u t a c l o s e r look r e v e a l s t h a t by c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n
o f d e t a i l s S w ift I s drawing a p i c t u r e o f m oral c o r r u p tio n .
The poem has su g g ested to one c r i t i c , a t l e a s t (th e anony
mous re v ie w er c i t e d above in TLS, J u ly 4, 1929j pp. 521-
522), th e manner o f T. S. E l i o t ' s "Morning a t th e Window":
They a re r a t t l i n g b r e a k f a s t p l a t e s in basement
k itc h e n s ,
And along th e tram ple edges o f th e s t r e e t
I am aware o f th e damp s o u ls o f housemaids
S p ro u tin g d esp o n d en tly a t a re a g a te s .
The brown waves o f fog to s s up to me
T w isted fa c e s from th e bottom o f th e s t r e e t ,
And t e a r from a p a s s e r-b y w ith muddy s k i r t s
An a im le ss sm ile t h a t h overs in th e a i r
And v a n ish e s along th e l e v e l o f th e r o o f s .
The low l i f e , th e m enial t a s k s , and th e somber c o lo r s r e c a l l
S w i f t 's morning scene, and b o th poems r e l y upon c l e a r , h ard
language and r e a l i s t i c p h y s ic a l d e t a i l . S w i f t 's poem, l i k e
E l i o t ' s , f in d s an o b j e c t i v e c o r r e l a t i v e to ex p ress the
p o e t 's a t t i t u d e toward th e people in th e scene.
People a re alm ost always th e c e n t r a l focus o f S w i f t 's
urban scen es, and d e s c r i p t i o n s o f them a re alm ost always
p h y s ic a l in n a t u r e . Accumulation o f p h y s ic a l d e t a i l s in
th e p o r t r a y a l o f i n d i v i d u a l s i s im p o rta n t th roughout S w i f t 's
p o e tr y . As we have seen, S w ift makes s i g n i f i c a n t use o f
c lo th in g , co sm etic, and household im agery, m entioning p hys
i c a l ite m s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e v a rio u s p r o f e s s i o n s and
t r a d e s , and p h y s ic a l d e t a i l s from th e g e n e r a l s o c i a l en
vironm ent. His use o f imagery o f th e human body and anim al
im agery, which I examine in th e fo llo w in g c h a p te r s , demon-
96
s t r a t e s even more f o r c e f u l l y S w i f t 's stro n g p re o c cu p a tio n
w ith th e p h y s i c a l .
Thus f a r I have been l a r g e l y concerned w ith th e gen
e r a l s u b je c t m a tte r o f S w i f t 's images. At t h i s p o in t I
should l i k e to i s o l a t e one c a te g o ry o f images., those d e a l
ing w ith c lo th in g and to a l e s s e r degree w ith co sm etics. I
choose to c o n c e n tra te on th e images o f t h i s cate g o ry n o t
because they a re in any way o u ts ta n d in g (though they are
p r e v a le n t in b o th S w i f t 's p ro se and p o e try ) b u t because
what S w ift does w ith them i s symptomatic o f h i s tre a tm e n t o f
images in g e n e r a l. In th e fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n I s h a l l show
how a s in g le type o f imagery (th e c lo th in g -c o s m e tic im
agery) can be seen to p a r a l l e l in i t s development th e gen
e r a l p a t t e r n o f S w i f t 's growth as a p o e t. I do n o t wish to
su g g est t h a t S w i f t 's development was one o f even o r con
s t a n t p r o g r e s s io n . R ath er th e r e i s one m ajor change b e
tween th e e a r l y poems ( 169O -I 6 9 3 ) and th e poems a f t e r 1 6 9 8.
Yet some s ta te m e n t may be made about changes even in the
l a t e r group o f poems.
In th r e e o f S w i f t 's very e a r l y poems, when he was
5 s t i l l und er th e in f lu e n c e o f Cowley, th e c lo th in g imagery
se rv e s p u r e ly f o r adornment. There i s no i n t r i n s i c con
n e c tio n between th e c lo th in g r e f e r e n c e and what i t i s i n
tended to m odify. R a th e r, as w ith decadent m etap h y sical
c o n c e its , d i s s i m i l a r s a re p a ir e d a r b i t r a r i l y . "Baby-dress"
c e r t a i n l y h as no i n t r i n s i c c o n n ectio n w ith what i t symbol-
i z e s , th e pomp and ceremony o f c o ro n a tio n day, in th e l i n e s
from S w i f t 's f i r s t poem "Ode to th e King": "But serv e to
adorn the B a b y - d r e s s / Of one poor C oronation-day" ( I , 6 ,
11. 14-15)• S im ila r ly th e c lo th in g imagery in "Ode to the
A thenian S o c ie ty " ( 1 6 9 2) i s fo rc e d i n to c o n ju n c tio n w ith a
p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f P h ilosophy. Why P hilosophy should wear
"a huge P a rd in g a le to sw e ll h e r F u s tia n S tu f f " ( I , 23, 1.
222) o r should have "a Top-knot and a R uff" ( I , 2 3 , 1. 2 2 3)
o r should have "a sweeping T r a i n / Of Comments and D isp u tes"
( I , 2 3, 11. 225-226) n ev er becomes a p p a re n t. S w ift sim ply
d e c o r a te s h i s p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n w ith d e t a i l s which in the
c o n te x t o f th e poem a re e s s e n t i a l l y n e u t r a l o r a r b i t r a r y .
Yet th ey a re n o t, o f c o u rse, n e u t r a l , f o r S w ift i s r e ly in g
on a s to c k a s s o c i a t i o n o f c e r t a i n c lo th in g w ith th e vain
and f r i v o l o u s p e rso n . But because t h i s i s an a s s o c i a t i o n
which he does n o t c r e a te in th e poem, b u t r e l i e s upon h i s
r e a d e r to p ro v id e , we can term th e use o f c lo th in g imagery
in t h i s poem c o n v e n tio n a l.
In "B allad on th e Game o f T r a f f ic k " (1702) S w ift ap
pends a s ta n z a on c lo th in g
But Weston has a n ew -cast Gown
On Sundays to be f in e in ,
And i f she can b u t win a Crown,
'T w ill j u s t new dye th e L in in g .
( I , 75, 11. 21-25)
to th e s i t u a t i o n o f a game o f c a r d s . The c lo th in g image
again r e l i e s on th e c o n v e n tio n a l a s s o c i a t i o n o f c lo th in g
w ith v a n ity , o f dyeing w ith d e c e p tio n , b u t h e re th e image
98
i s surrounded by a s i t u a t i o n which r e p r e s e n t s vain endeavor.
Thus th e r e i s an a s s o c i a t i o n between th e theme and th e con
v e n tio n a l resp o n se demanded by th e image.
In th e two v e rs io n s o f "The S to ry o f B aucis and P h i l e
mon" (1 7 0 6 and 1 7 0 8- 1 7 0 9) no sto ck a s s o c i a t i o n i s awakened
by th e c lo th in g images:
Thus having f u r b i s h ’d up a Parson,
Dame B aucis n e x t, th ey p l a y 'd t h e i r Farce on;
I n s te a d o f Home-spun C o ifs were seen.
Good P in n ers e d g 'd w ith C o lb erteen :
Her P e t t i c o a t tr a n s f o r m 'd apace.,
Became B lack S a t t i n , F lo u n c 'd w ith Lace.
P la in Goody would no lo n g e r down.,
'Twas Madam., in h e r Grogram Gown.
( i j 115, 11. 137-144)
Or:
You've r a i s ' d a Church h e re in a Minute,
And I would f a in co n tin u e in i t ;
I'm good f o r l i t t l e a t my days;
Make me th e Parson i f you p l e a s e .
He spoke, and p r e s e n t l y he f e e l s
His G r a z i e r 's Coat re a c h down h i s H eels,
The S leeves new b o r d e r 'd w ith a L i s t
Widn'd and g a th e rd a t h i s W rist;
But being o ld c o n tin u e d j u s t
As th re a d b a r e , and as f u l l o f Dust.-
( I , 94, 11. 161-170)
I n s te a d , th e tra n s fo rm a tio n o f costume i s one more example
o f m etam orphosis, the theme o f th e poem. I t might be added
t h a t th e theme o f metamorphosis (d is c u ss e d in C hapter I I )
I s a n a t u r a l one f o r S w ift, as i t p e rm its him to dram atize
r a d i c a l c o n t r a s t s . A lso, in th e s e th r e e poems o f h i s second
phase S w ift can be seen moving toward a p l a i n e r s t y l e , more
r e p l e t e w ith p r o s a ic imagery and making l e s s use o f conven
t i o n a l p o e tic d e t a i l .
99
One a t t r i b u t e o f th e p l a i n o r r e a l i s t i c s t y l e Sw ift
adopts i s th e in c re a s e d use., e s p e c i a l l y in the poems o f th e
middle p e rio d , o f sn atc h e s o f d ia lo g u e . In th e e a r l i e r
v e rs io n o f the B aucis and Philemon poem th e Parson i s made
to speak d i r e c t l y . So alBo in "Cadenus and Vanessa" ( 1 7 1 3)
we h e a r sn atc h e s o f d ia lo g u e as th e o ld b id d ie s a t t a c k
V a n e s s a 's too modest appearance:
They r a i l l y ' d n e x t V a n e s sa 's D re ss ;
That Gown was made f o r Old Queen B e s s .
Dear Madam, Let me s e t y our Head:
D o n 't you in te n d to p u t on Red?
A P e tty c o a t w ith o u t a Hoop!
Sure, you a re n o t asham 'd to stoop;
With handsome G a rte rs a t your Knees,
No m a tte r what a Fellow se e s.
( I I , 6 9 9, 1 1 . 3 9 6- 4 0 3 )
A fu n c tio n perform ed by t h i s i n c lu s io n o f dialo g u e i s t h a t
i t sharpens c o n t r a s t s in d i c t i o n . The p l a i n , c o l l o q u i a l
speech o f th e women a l t e r n a t e s w ith th e more c o n v e n tio n a lly
p o e tic p a ssa g es o f d e s c r i p t i o n and w ith th e m y th o lo g ical
framework o f the poem. The h ig h and the low tones are
p la y ed a g a in s t each o th e r , and n e i t h e r outw eighs the o t h e r .
While Sw ift f r e q u e n tly c h a r a c t e r i z e s people by means
o f th e s t a t e o f t h e i r c lo th in g ( i . e . , p o v e rty i s suggested
when c lo th in g i s th r e a d - b a r e , s t a i n e d , ta r n is h e d , d i r t y ,
d u s t y ) , in "Cadenus and Vanessa" th e women who a re o v e r
h e ard p ro v id e t h e i r own c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s . I t i s n o t t h a t
c lo th e s in t h i s poem a re i m p l i c i t l y e v i l . I t i s t h a t women
show them selves to be s i l l y because they a re p reoccupied
w ith c lo th e s to th e e x te n t t h a t th ey a re b lin d to the
1 0 0
v i r t u e , n a t u r a l b e a u ty , and goodness o f V anessa. A ll t r a c e
o f a r e l i a n c e on th e s to c k a s s o c i a t i o n o f c lo th in g w ith
v a n ity o r d e ce p tio n has d is a p p e a re d . I n s te a d th e poem i t
s e l f c r e a t e s th e a s s o c i a t i o n s a f r e s h .
In "The P ro g re ss o f Beauty" (1719) j a poem which d e
pends h e a v il y on cosm etic im ages, S w ift p a ro d ie s two p o e tic
c o n v en tio n s. F i r s t , he r e v e r s e s th e c o n v e n tio n a l a s s o c i a
t i o n o f th e moon (Diana o f th e sky) w ith p u r i t y and c h a s
tity,* and he p o in ts o u t th o se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e moon
which can be given a n e g a tiv e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; i t s change
a b i l i t y , i t s appearance a t n i g h t , and i t s d isap p earan ce in
d a y lig h t. Second, he p a ro d ie s th e m e ta p h y sic a l c o n c e it.
I n s te a d o f c o n c e n tr a tin g on o b j e c t i v e l y d i s c e r n i b l e a s p e c ts
o f the moon and p a r a l l e l i n g them w ith o b j e c t i v e l y d i s c e r n
i b l e a s p e c ts o f th e woman o f the poem, C e lia , he makes
p a r a l l e l s ("Twixt e a r t h l y Femals and th e Moon/ A ll P a r a l l e l s
e x a c tly run" [ I , 225, 11. 9-10]) where no i n t r i n s i c s im i
l a r i t i e s e x i s t . The s i m i l a r i t i e s appear o n ly when S w ift
tran sm u tes th e moon, when he endows i t w ith a w rin k le d and
a r t i f i c i a l face c o lo re d a d i r t y r e d . He can then w r ite o f
the c h a n g e a b ility o f th e moon, i t s p h a se s, as a sign o f
c o r ru p tio n and "decay"—a c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n f o r which th e r e
i s no o b j e c t i v e b a s i s . Thus th e su ccess o f th e mock con
c e i t stems n o t from i n t r i n s i c , a l b e i t rem ote, s i m i l a r i t i e s ,
b u t from f e a t u r e s which S w ift imposes on th e moon. The
b a s i s f o r th e c o n c e it, th en , d e r iv e s e x c lu s iv e ly from the
1 0 1
c o n te x t o f th e poem. Even more than in th e in s ta n c e o f
"Cadenus and Vanessa" c o n v e n tio n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s a re re p la c e d
by a s s o c i a t i o n s which a re e n t i r e l y c r e a te d by S w ift and
which e x i s t only w ith in th e poem.
The f o u r - l i n e epigram which in tr o d u c e s "Verses to
V a n e s s a ," 1720,
Dorinda dreams o f D ress a bed
'T is a l l h e r Thought and A rt,
Her Lace h a th g o t w ith in h e r Head
Her S tays s t i c k to h e r H e art.
( I I , 733, 11. 1-4)
shows an enormous le ap from S w i f t 's e a r l i e r (and p r e v io u s ly
m entioned) epigram m atic l i n e s from "B allad on th e Game o f
T r a f f ic k " (1702): "But Weston has a new -cast Gown," e t c .
( I , 75, 1. 2 1 ). Both q u a t r a i n s depend f o r t h e i r e f f e c t on
th e e q u atio n o f c lo th in g w ith woman's f r i v o l i t y . But in the
l a t e r poem th e e q u a tio n i s made much more d r a m a tic a lly . The
image has become a g ra p h ic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , an image in th e
d e ep e st sen se . One v i s u a l i z e s a b r a in bedecked w ith la c e
and a h e a r t p ie r c e d by th e w hale-bone d a r t s o f a g i r d l e .
The e f f e c t o f th e l i n e s , pure shock, comes from th e g ra p h ic
q u a l i t y o f th e image, from i t s v i s u a l r e a lis m .
S w i f t 's p r o p e n s ity f o r r e a l i t y , f o r s c a to lo g y , f o r th e
d ram atic s i t u a t i o n , and f o r th e g ra p h ic image a re a l l abun
d a n tly c l e a r in h i s i m i t a t i o n , "Clad A ll in Brow n," o f Cow
1 0 2
l e y 's "Clad A ll in W h i t e . T h e m ajor p a ro d ic fo rc e d e
r i v e s from S w i f t 's d i c t i o n . A comparison o f th e f i r s t l i n e
o f b o th poems shows examples o f th e a d ju stm en ts S w ift makes
th ro u g h o u t h i s poem. Cow ley's " F a i r e s t th in g t h a t sh in e s
below" becomes in S w i f t 's v e rs io n "Fow lest b r u te t h a t s t i n k s
below ." S im ila r ly , Cowley's c lo th e s im ages, w hite lin e n
covering a s t i l l w h ite r and p u r e r body ("Thy Body' s C lothed
l i k e Thy Soul") a re r e p la c e d by S w ift w ith a c o a t o f dun
which c o n ce a ls a s t i l l f o u l e r body. S w ift d e f l a t e s Cow
l e y ' s P la to n ic idealiB m , and sim u lta n e o u sly mocks, as he
d id in "The P ro g re ss o f B ea u ty ," th e m e ta p h y sic a l c o n c e it.
The h o r r o r o f th e c lo th in g images in "The L ady's
D ressing Room," 1730, s t i l l more than in any o f S w i f t 's
e a r l i e r poems, grows d i r e c t l y from th e dram atic s i t u a t i o n
o f th e poem. As we fo llo w S tr e p h o n 's l i n e o f v is io n w hile
he p e e rs about C e l i a 's chamber, we go from a n o t too h o r
rendous s i g h t
And f i r s t a d i r t y Smock a p p e a r 'd
B eneath the A rm -pits w e ll besm ear'd
( I I , 526, 1 1 . 11-12) —
to th e more u n p le a s a n t
Here P e tty c o a ts in frowsy Heaps;
Nor be th e H andkerchiefs f o r g o t
A ll v a r n i s h 'd o ' e r w ith S nuff and Snot.
The S to c k in g s, why sh o u ' d I expose,
S t a i n 'd w ith th e Marks o f s tin k in g Toes.
( I I , 527, 11. 47-51)
g
Cowley, Poems, p. 77*
103
Again, i t i s p r im a r i ly th e d i c t i o n t h a t communicates the
u g l i n e s s : arm p its "w ell b e s m e a r'd ," h a n d k e rc h ie fs " v a r
n i s h 'd " w ith "S n o t." The u g l i n e s s i s the r e s u l t n o t o f
incongruous j u x t a p o s i t i o n s b u t o f the r e p e t i t i o n and c a t a
loguing o f th e c o n s i s t e n t l y d is g u s ti n g and the d i s g u s t i n g l y
t a n g i b l e .
The poem in c lu d e s two extended s im ile s which a re i n
t e r e s t i n g because they a re r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e range o f
S w i f t 's a l l u s i o n s . The f i r s t i s a comparison o f Strephon
p eerin g in to C e l i a 's chamberpot w ith Epimetheus opening
P a n d o ra 's box. The s im ile 1 b d e fe a te d in th e end when
Strephon f i n d s , i n s t e a d o f Hope, C e l i a 's fe c e s . S w ift,
th en , u se s th e s im ile to d e f l a t e n o t only S tr e p h o n 's i l l u
s io n s b u t to parody th e p o e t 's p r a c t i c e o f making c l a s s i c a l
a l l u s i o n s . The second s im ile i s more i n d i c a t i v e o f S w i f t 's
l a t e r p r a c t i c e o f drawing h i s images from th e realm o f
human e x p e rie n c e : f o r i t g iv e s an image o f th e cooking o f
"mutton c u t l e t s . " E a r l i e r , in C hapter I I I n o ted t h a t in
S w i f t 's f i r s t poems th e r e a l i s t i c image and th e c o arse d e
t a i l in tr u d e upon th e poem and o f te n d i s t u r b i t s b a la n c e .
In "The L ady's D ressin g Room," on th e o th e r hand, th e i n
tru d in g image i s th e c l a s s i c a l a l l u s i o n . Yet what keeps i t
from d is tu r b in g th e b a la n c e , from being d i s r u p t i v e , i s the
f i n a l d e f l a t i o n o f i t . I t , l i k e e v ery th in g e l s e in the
poem, i s s a t i r i z e d .
104
F i n a l l y , in "C assinus and P e te r " and " H e lte r S k e l t e r o r
th e Hue and Cry a f t e r th e A tto r n i e s , going to r i d e th e C ir
c u i t " (both w r i t t e n in 1731 toward th e end o f S w i f t 's po
e t i c c a r e e r ) , th e c lo th in g imageB a re used to r e p r e s e n t two
s t a t e s o f b e in g . C assin u s, a Cambridge s c h o la r , having
le a rn e d t h a t h i s m is tr e s s C e lia i s im p e rfe c t (" C a e lia ,
C a e lia , C a e lia sh " [ I I , 597, 1. 1 1 8 ]), becomes in s a n e .
The d is o r d e r o f h i s mind i s r e p r e s e n te d by h i s d is o rd e re d
appearance and h i s d is r e p u ta b l e a t t i r e s
One g re a sy Stocking round h i s Head,
The t ' o t h e r he s a t down to darn
With Threads o f d i f f ' r e n t c o l o u r 'd Yarn.
His B reeches to rn exposing wide
A ragged S h i r t , and tawny Hyde.
S co rch t were h i s S hins, h i s Legs were b a re ,
B ut, w e ll embrown'd w ith D i r t and H a ir.
A Rug was o ' e r h i s S houlders thrown;
A Rug; f o r Night-gown he had none.
( I I , 594, 11. 12-20)
In " H e lte r S k e lte r " a group o f a t t o r n e y s , d is h o n e s t
fe llo w s , have s to le n from t h e i r c l i e n t s . They a re d e
s c r ib e d :
Like so many l i t t l e M a rs's,
With t h e i r T i l t e r s a t t h e i r A rses,
Brazen h i l t e d l a t e l y b u r n i s h 'd ,
And w ith H arness-B uckles f u r n i s h 'd ;
And w ith Whips and Spurs so n e a t.
And w ith Jockey-C oats com pleat;
And w ith Boots so very grazy
And w ith Saddles eke so easy
And w ith B r id le s f in e and gay,
B r i d l e s b o rro w 'd f o r a Day,
B r id le s d e s t i n 'd f a r to roam.
Ah! nev er to r e t u r n Home;
And w ith Hats so very b ig , S i r ,
And w i [ t ] h pow der'd Caps and Wigs, S i r ;
And w ith R u ffle s to be shewn,
Cambrick R u ffle s n o t t h e i r own;
105
And w ith H olland S h i r t s so w h ite ,
S hirtB becoming to th e s i g h t ,
S h i r t s be wrought w ith d i f f e r e n t L e t t e r s ,
As belonging to t h e i r b e t t e r s .
( I I , 573, 11. 5-24)
In t h i s i n s ta n c e , th e f a c t t h a t th e c lo th e s a re s to le n
r e p r e s e n t s th e e s s e n t i a l d is h o n e s ty o f th e a t t o r n e y s . The
c lo th e s c ata lo g u e d a re p l e a s a n t l y enough d e s c rib e d . I t i s
th e f a c t t h a t they a re s to le n t h a t makes them d i s t a s t e f u l
and t h a t makes t h e i r very p le a s a n tn e s s i r o n i c .
In th e e a r l y poems S w ift used th e c lo th in g and c o s
m etic images in a f a i r l y c o n v e n tio n a l f a s h io n , to p o r tr a y
v a n ity and f r i v o l i t y in the same way t h a t , f o r example,
Cowley does in "The C h ro n ic le , a B a l la d ." But during the
course o f h i s w r iti n g , Sw ift comes to use th e same categ o ry
o f images to r e p r e s e n t new s t a t e s : d e c e p tio n , p o v erty , then
s l o t h f u l n e s s , and f i n a l l y madness and th ie v e r y . Thus,
though S w i f t 's c a te g o r ie s o f images a re r e l a t i v e l y lim ite d ,
each c a te g o ry becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y m a lle a b le as Sw ift r e
f i n e s h i s s a t i r i c v i s i o n . As he r e j e c t s co n v en tio n al
p o e tic a s s o c i a t i o n s and c r e a te s w ith in th e poems new i n d i
v id u a l a s s o c i a t i o n s he i s a b le to use each c ate g o ry o f
images to r e p r e s e n t s e v e r a l s t a t e s o f b e in g .
I n c r e a s in g ly , as c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e images has
shown. S w ift tu rn e d toward a world o f common-sense waking
c o n sc io u sn ess, a w orld which he c o n s ta n tly e x p l o i t s f o r i t s
a n t i - p o e t i c v a lu e . The s u b je c ts o f h i s poems, more o fte n
than n o t, a re contem porary f i g u r e s and contem porary p u b lic
106
a f f a i r s . The a n t i - p o e t i c a t t i t u d e i s c o n s i s t e n t l y r e i n
fo rce d by S w i f t 's u se o f a p r o s a ic s t y l e c h a r a c te r iz e d by
d i r e c t statem e n t and r e s t r a i n e d m etaphor. C o llo q u ia l l a n
guage, c o n v e r s a tio n a l speech, and customs o f th e day, such
as we have Been in th e " S a t i r i c a l E l e g y ," a re common in h i s
p o e try . S p e c if ic d e s c r i p t i o n s o f a c t u a l lo c a l e s and i n d i
v id u a ls , w ith a t t e n t i o n to i n c i d e n t a l r e a l i s t i c d e t a i l s
such as r e f e r e n c e s to the time o f day, h e lp b rin g S w i f t 's
p o e tr y c l o s e r to r e a l i t y .
A stro n g sense o f l i f e , o f g r e a t v i t a l i t y , i s perhaps
more s u s ta in e d and more in te n s e in S w i f t 's p o e try than in
t h a t o f any o f h i s con tem p o raries o r h i s immediate p re d e
c e s s o rs o r s u c c e s s o rs . No o th e r e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y p o et
comes to mind whose work c o n s i s t e n t l y su g g e sts a sense o f
immediate and d i r e c t c o n ta c t w ith e x p e rie n c e . I r o n i c a l l y ,
Sw ift grew i n c r e a s i n g l y d is e n c h a n te d w ith contem porary l i f e
even though i t gave such g r e a t v i t a l i t y to h i s p o e try .
CHAPTER V
IMAGES DERIVED PROM THE HUM AN BODY
E x te r n a l P h y s ic a l A spects and B o d ily P a r ts
Images d e riv e d from th e human body e a s i l y com prise the
l a r g e s t and most v a r ie d group In S w i f t 's p o e tr y , and f o r
th e sake o f convenience, I have d iv id e d my d is c u s s io n In to
th r e e s e c t i o n s . I dlscusB In th e f i r s t s e c tio n Images d e
r i v e d from b o d ily p a r t s and th o se r e l a t e d to e x t e r n a l phys
i c a l a s p e c ts such as movement, p o s tu r e , f a c i a l e x p re ss io n ,
and s o c i a l g e s tu r e s . In s e c tio n two I examine S w i f t 's use
o f th o se Images r e l a t e d to o r d in a r y f u n c tio n s o f th e human
body such as u t t e r a n c e , hunger and t h i r s t , sex u al a c t i v i t y ,
b i r t h and g e s t a t i o n , and e x c r e t i o n . In s e c tio n th r e e I
d is c u s s two im p o rta n t groups o f Images which do n o t r e a d i l y
f i t u n d er e i t h e r o f th e o t h e r two c a t e g o r i e s , th o se d e riv e d
from s ic k n e s s , d is e a s e , and d e fo rm ity , and th o se r e l a t e d to
p h y s ic a l p a in and v io le n c e .
S w i f t 's p o e tr y c o n ta in s a la r g e number o f Images o f
b o d ily a c ti o n s which c o n tr ib u te g r e a t l y to th e v i t a l i t y o f
th e p o e tr y . In t h i s r e s p e c t a t l e a s t Sw ift may s ta n d com
p a ris o n w ith p o e ts such as Pope and Shakespeare o f whom S t.
V incent w r i t e s : "Both p o e ts a re s i n g u l a r In re g a rd to the
107
108
number and v iv id n e s s o f Images d e s c r ib in g b o d ily a c t i o n s ." 1
Like Pope, S w ift u s e s Images o f b o d ily a c ti o n c h i e f l y to
d e s c rib e th e m ental o r m oral q u a l i t i e s o f p e o p le . Aimless
o r e r r a t i c movement, f o r example, I s o f te n used to drama
t i z e a s t a t e o f m ental c o n fu sio n . In th e "Ode to Dr.
W illiam S a n c r o f t," s in n e r s who have l o s t the way to C h r is t
a re d e s c rib e d as
M istaken I d e o ts ! see how g i d d i l y they run,
Led b l i n d l y on by a v a r ic e and p r i d e ,
What m ighty numbers fo llo w them;
Each fond o f e r r i n g w ith h i s g u id e .
( I , 39, 11. 162-165)
S w ift u s e s a v a r i e t y o f term s to d e s c rib e th e most
common a c ti o n s o f h i s s a t i r i c v ic tim s : w alk in g , s te p p in g ,
p a cin g , h a s te n in g , h u rr y in g , clim bing, g l i d i n g , dancing,
s t r u t t i n g , s t i r r i n g , swaggering, ram bling, flo u n c in g , and
t r u c k l i n g down. When he w ishes to p i c t u r e them in slow o r
f u r t i v e movement he w i l l d e s c rib e them as c r e e p in g , sneak
i n g , g ro p in g , sk u lk in g , tru d g in g , p lo d d in g , la g g in g , and
s a u n t e r i n g . For l e s s s p e c i f i c v i t a l a c ti o n he u s e s such
term s as ju m b lin g , romping, r o u z in g , r o y s t e r i n g , b u s t l i n g ,
s tr u g g lin g , and j u s t l i n g .
Also numerous and im p o rta n t in S w i f t 's p o e try a re im
ages o f f a c i a l appearance and e x p re s s io n . From th e e a r l y
poems on we f in d d e t a i l e d u se o f t h i s kind o f im agery. In
1"A spects o f P o p e's Im agery," unpub. d i s s . (Columbia
u . , 1962), p. 96.
109.
"Occasioned by S i r W T 's Late I l l n e s s and Recovery"
c o n c e its c o n s tr u c te d o f f a c i a l imagery appear in e x p re s
s io n s o f g r i e f th roughout the poem. Many o f th e se are
c o n v e n tio n a l p a t h e t i c f a l l a c i e s in which a l l n a tu r e mourns:
. . .. th e . . . sun . . .
D arts weeping beams a c r o s s h e av e n ’s w a t ’r y fa c e;
You t h a t would g r i e f d e s c r ib e , come h e re and tr a c e
I t ’ s [ s i c ] w atery f o o t s t e p s in D o rin d a ’ s fa c e ;
G rie f from D o rin d a 's face does n e ’e r d e p a rt
Thus, when Dorinda wept, joy e v 'r y face fo rso o k ,
And g r i e f flu n g s a b le s on each m enial look;
So would e a r t h ’s face tu r n p a le , and l i f e decay.
( I , 5 2, 1 1 . 2 5- 2 6, 51-53, 5 9- 6 0 , 6 3 )
In l a t e r poems f a c i a l e x p re ss io n i s used m ainly f o r s a t i r i c
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n as S w ift r e f e r s to s m ile s , g r i n s , frowns,
w inks, s q u i n t s , grim aces, sm irks, b lu s h e s , o g lin g s , l e e r s ,
s n e e rs , and g a p e s . Many o f th e se appear in b r i e f p o r t r a i t s ,
b u t o c c a s io n a ll y S w ift w i l l focus a t le n g th on a s in g le
f a c e . The most memorable face in S w i f t 's p o e tr y i s t h a t o f
th e London s t r e e t w a l k e r in "The P r o g r e s s .o f Beauty" whose
decaying f e a t u r e s a re compared to th e waning moon. Another
poem d e s c r ib e s th e many fa c e s o f a p o l i t i c i a n :
Thy busy never-m eaning Pace;
Thy Screw 'd up f r o n t ; th y S ta te Grimace;
Thy form al Nods; im p o rtan t S neres;
Thy W h isp 'rin g s f o i s t e d in a l l E a rs .
( I l l , 775, 11- 59-62)
In "To B e tty th e G r i z e t t e " S w ift u s e s h i s f a m i l i a r i r o n i c
method o f e l e v a t i o n - d e f l a t i o n in d e s c rib in g a g i r l ’ s
f e a t u r e s :
1 1 0
Queen o f Wit and Beauty, B e tty ,
Never may th e Muse f o r g e t ye:
How th y Pace charms e v 'r y Shepherd,
S p o tted o v er l i k e a L e'p ard !
And, th y f r e c k le d Neck d i s p l a y ’d,
Envy b reed s in e v 'r y Maid.
Like a f l y blown Cake o f Tallow,
Or, on Parchment, Ink t u r n 'd yellow :
Or, a tawny speckled P ip p in ,
S h r i v e l 'd w ith a W in te r 's keeping.
( I I , 5 2 2, 1 1 . 1 - 1 0)
S w ift had e a r l i e r used th e u n u su al image o f th e l a s t two
lineB to d e s c rib e th e face o f the bridegroom in "The Prog
r e s s o f M arriage":
His muddy, w rin c k le d , sm irking Face,
Like th e f a i n t re d upon a Pippin
H a lf w i t h e r 'd by a W inters keeping.
( I , 2 9 0, 1 1 . 2 4- 2 6)
Sw ift sometimes u s e s images o f f a c i a l e x p re ss io n
f i g u r a t i v e l y to b rin g to l i f e an a b s t r a c t i o n . In "An
E p i s t l e to a Lady, Who D esired th e Author to make V erses on
Her in th e H eroick S t i l e " Sw ift defends h i s s a t i r i c method,
s t a t i n g t h a t he
Thought no Method more commodious,
Than to shew t h e i r V ices o d io u s:
Which I chose to make ap p ear.
Not by Anger, b u t a Sneer:
As my Method o f Reforming,
I s by Laughing, n o t by Storm ing.
(For my F rien d s have always thought
T enderness my g r e a t e s t F a u l t . )
Wou'd you have me change my S t i l e ,
On y our F a u lts no lo n g er sm ile?
( I I , 6 3 7, 1 1 . 2 2 5- 2 3 4)
C lo se ly r e l a t e d to images o f b o d ily movement and f a
c i a l e x p re ss io n a re th o se t h a t d e s c rib e p o s tu re , p h y s ic a l
a t t i t u d e s , and s o c i a l g e s t u r e s . Sw ift u s e s a g r e a t number
ill!
o f commonplace p h y s ic a l a ttitu d e s ., o f people e r e c t , s i t t i n g ,
k n e e lin g , b e n d in g , bowing, and on t i p t o e in h i s poems. Im
ages o f awkward, u n g a in ly p o s tu r e , l i k e th o se o f awkward,
u n g a in ly movement, a re u sed f o r s a t i r i c p u rp o se s, and we
f i n d th e human body s p ra w lin g , l o l l i n g , p u ffe d u p , tucked
u p , drooping, b ed rag g led , sunk, t o p s y - t u r v y , s q u a t t i n g ,
c r i n g i n g , wedged, and cramped. S w i f t 's most d e v a s ta tin g
a t t a c k s o f te n make use o f em barrassing p o s tu r e s to accom
p l i s h s a t i r i c d e f l a t i o n , as in t h i s c o u p le t from "Strephon
and Chloe" which d e s c r ib e s a p e e r l e s s young b e au ty : "Her
d e a r e s t Comrades n ev er caught h e r / Squat on h e r Hams to make
M aid's W ater" ( I I , 584, 11. 17-18). And in " D ire c tio n s f o r
a B irth d a y Song" S w ift u s e s two homely images o f t h i s type
to r i d i c u l e th e p o e t l a u r e a t e , Laurence E u sd e n 's comparison
o f George I I to A pollo:
Then make t h i s new Apollo s i t
Sole P a tro n , Judge, and God o f W it.
"How from hiB A ltitu d e he sto o p s,
"To r a i s e up V ir tu e when she d ro o p s ."
( I I , 462, 11. 72-75)
Images o f s o c i a l g e s tu r e s such as nodding, s a l u t i n g ,
c u r ts y in g , t o a s t i n g , sh ru g g in g , b eckoning, f l u t t e r i n g o f
fa n s , and cocking o f h a t s occu r f r e q u e n tly . S w ift o f te n
accum ulates images o f t h i s type to anim ate a s o c i a l scene.
In "Strephon and C h lo e," f o r example, S w ift d e s c r ib e s the
b e a u t i f u l C h lo e 's e f f e c t on th e young men in h e r l i f e in
th e se term s: "Think what a Case a l l Men a re now i n , / What
o g lin g , s i g h i n g , ' t o a s t i n g , vowing!" ( I I , 585j 11. 33-34)*
112
S w i f t 's d e r i s i v e d e s c r ip ti o n o f an a c t r e s s on the I r i s h
sta g e c o n ta in s e q u a lly l i v e l y images:
Thus., w ith T a le n ts w e ll en d u 'd
To be s c u r r i l o u s , and ru d e;
When you p e r t l y r a i s e your Snout,
F le e r , and g ib e , and laugh, and f l o u t ;
T his among H ibernian A sses,
For sh ee r Wit, and Humour p a ss e s I
( I I , 523, 11. 29-34)
And in "The J o u r n a l o f a Modern Lady," in one o f many p a s
sages which remind u s o f "The Rape o f th e Lock," Sw ift
s k i l f u l l y u s e s images o f g e s tu r e and f a c i a l e x p re ssio n to
s a t i r i z e th e f o i b l e s o f g o ssip in g l a d i e s :
Nor do they t r u s t t h e i r Tongue alo n e,
To speak a Language o f t h e i r own;
But re a d a Nod, a Shrug, a Look,
F ar b e t t e r than a p r i n t e d Book;
Convey a L ib el in a Frown,
And wink a R ep u tatio n down;
Or by th e to s s in g o f the Fan,
D escribe th e Lady and th e Man.
( I I , 450, 11. 188-195)
The c ata lo g u e o f human b o d ily p a r t s in S w i f t 's p o e try
i s enormous as again and again he d em o n strates a keen i n
t e r e s t in d e t a i l s o f both i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l anatomy.
Almost every e x t e r n a l f e a t u r e , from eyebrows and elbows to
n oses and k n e e s, i s used to b rin g s a t i r i c p o r t r a i t s to l i f e .
A la rg e number o f i n t e r n a l p a r t s in c lu d e th e h e a r t , l i v e r ,
stom ach, b r a i n , s p le e n , lu n g s, bones, v e i n s , and b lo o d .
Many o f th e se a re used as c o n v en tio n al m etaphors: " b ra in s"
f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e , "blood" f o r lin e a g e , "tongue" f o r speech,
f o r example. O c ca sio n ally Sw ift w i l l use such images in
extended f i g u r e s o f speech as in "The Run Upon th e B an k ers,"
1 1 3
in which a p h y s io lo g ic a l image d e s c rib e s the c i r c u l a t i o n o f
money s
Money, th e L ife - b lo o d o f the N ation,
C orru p ts and s ta g n a te s in th e V eins,
U nless a p ro p e r C ir c u la tio n
I t s Motion and i t s Heat m a in ta in s .
( I , 2 3 9, 1 1 . 9-12)
S w ift a lso u se s a v a r i e t y o f low term s to evoke images o f
b o d ily p a r t s , a p r a c t i c e which serv es th e needs o f h i s
s a t i r e and a t th e same time r e f l e c t s h i s lo a th in g o f the
p h y s ic a l. Among th e s e a re such terms as p a t e , n o o d le,
b reech , bum, a r s e , b e l l y , g u ts , paunch, and p h i z .
Of the images o f b o d ily p a r t s th o se o f th e human eye
a re th e most numerous in S w i f t ’ s p o e try . They o fte n dom
i n a t e h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f women. In th e e a r l y poems
S w i f t 's r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e Muse i s f r e q u e n tly d e s c rib e d in
term s o f th e power o f h e r gaze:
When to p o e tic view th e Muse a p p e a r 'd .
Such seem 'd h e r ey es, as when an evening ra y
Gives g la d f a r e w e ll to a tem pestuous day;
Such to unhallow ed s ig h t the Muse d iv in e
Might seem, when f i r s t she r a i s ' d h e r eyes to mine.
( I , 5 1, 1 1 . 1 6- 1 8, 2 9- 3 0 )
In l a t e r poems Sw ift w i l l o f te n pay a compliment to a la d y
by commenting upon th e b r ig h t n e s s o f h e r ey es. He ends a
poem o f apology to Lady C a r t e r e t w ith a com plim entary query:
"Or i s he c rim in a l t h a t f l i e s / The li v i n g L usture o f your
Eyes?" ( I I , 380, 11. 1 6 5- 1 6 6) . And o f th e aging S t e l l a he
w r ite s "That h e r Eyes were as b r i g h t as our s e l f a t Noon-
1 1 4 :
Day" ( I , 264, 1. 4 l ) . In a w i t t y poem to Mrs. F inch, Sw ift
endows h e r w ith eyes too b r i g h t f o r Apollo h im s e lf :
THE God l a i d down h i s Feeble Rays,
Then l i g h t e d from h i s G l i t t ' r i n g Coach,
But f e n c 'd h i s Head w ith h i s own Bays
B efore he d u r s t th e NYMPH approach.
UNDER th o se Sacred Leaves, Secure
From common L ig h tn in g o f th e S k ie s,
He fo n d ly tho u g h t he might endure
The F la s h e s o f A r d e l i a h 's Eyes.
( I , 1 1 9, 11. 5 - 1 2]
The image o f th e eye I s o f c e n t r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e in the
e a r l y poems in m etaphors which e x p re ss th e themes o f de
c e p tio n and d e lu s io n . In th e "Ode to th e A thenian S o ciety "
S w ift w r i t e s o f ". . . th e Worlds D is e a s e , / (That Epidemick
E r r o r and D e p r a v i ty / Or in our Judgment o r our Eye)" ( I , 20,
11. 138-140). In th e "Ode to Dr. W illiam S a n c ro ft" S w ift
p r a i s e s S a n c ro ft as a man whose v i r t u e s p la c e him, l i k e a
rem ote s t a r , beyond th e s i g h t o f l e s s e r men:
. . . f a l s e mediums c h ea t our s i g h t ,
And f a r e x a lt e d o b j e c t s le s s e n by t h e i r h e ig h t:
Thus p r i m itiv e SANCROFT moves too h ig h
To be o b s e r v 'd by v u lg a r eye.
( I , 39j 11. 147-150)
L a te r in th e poem S a n c r o f t 's g lo r y i s compared to th e l i g h t
o f th e sun which i s too b r i g h t f o r common ey es: "The d a z '-
l i n g g lo r y dimms t h e i r p r o s t i t u t e d s i g h t , / No d e flo w e r'd
eye can fa c e th e naked l i g h t " ( I , 4 l , 11. 221-222). When
S w ift r e j e c t s th e Muse in "Occasioned by S i r W T 's
Late I l l n e s s and R e c o v e ry ," he d e s c r ib e s h i s g rie v a n ce in
1 1 5 ;
term s o f th e d e ce p tio n o f h i s sense o f s i g h t . He speaks
d i r e c t l y to th e Muse:
. . . thou n e 'e r h a d st a being o f th y own,
But a w ild form dependent on th e b r a in ,
S c a t t 'r i n g loose f e a t u r e s o ' e r th e o p t i c v ein ;
T ro u b lin g th e c h r y s t a l fo u n ta in o f th e s i g h t ,
Which d a r t s on p o e ts eyes a tre m b lin g l i g h t ;
K indled w hile re a so n s le e p s , b u t q u ic k ly f l i e s .
Like a n t i c shapes in dreams, from waking ey es.
( I , 54, 11. 94-100)
C onversely, d e ce p tio n and ig n o ran ce o f th e mob a re most
o f te n d e s c rib e d in S w i f t 's p o e try in term s o f p h y s ic a l
b lin d n e s s . He r e f e r s to "th e B lin d and th o u g h tle s s Croud"
( I , 18, 1. 8 7 ), th e crowd "le d b l i n d l y on by a v a r ic e and
p r id e " ( I , 39, 1. 1 6 3), o r "Led b l i n d l y on by g ro s s p h i l o s
ophy and p rid e " ( I , 3 6 , 1. 6 6 ). In an extended f i g u r e ,
S w ift w r i t e s o f
. . . f o o l i s h Man . . .
B o l l ‘wing Opinion, d ark, and b lin d ,
That v a g ra n t le a d e r o f th e mind,
T i l l Honesty and Conscience are c l e a r
o u t o f s i g h t . ( I , 3 6 , 1 1 . 54, 5 6- 5 8 )
Images D erived from B o d ily F u n ctio n s
Of th e images based on o r d in a r y fu n c tio n s o f th e human
body th o se o f u t t e r a n c e a re p erhaps th e most numerous. As
w ith sounds o f m u sic al in s tr u m e n ts , Sw ift p r e f e r s th e h a rs h ,
u g ly sounds o f th e human v o ic e . Though th e word murmur i s
a f a v o r i t e o f S w i f t 's in th e e a r l y p a n e g y r ic s , words which
su g g est p l e a s a n t u t t e r a n c e s a re r a r e l y found in th e l a t e r
p o e tr y . S w ift w i l l o c c a s io n a ll y use a word such as w h is p e r,
116
b u t seldom In a p le a s a n t c o n te x t. I t I s I n t e r e s t i n g to note
a ls o t h a t though Sw ift d is p la y s a f in e sense o f humor and
o f te n d e s c r ib e s people in r i d i c u l o u s s itu a tio n s * images o f
l a u g h te r a re r e l a t i v e l y r a r e in h i s p o e try .
On th e o th e r hand* th e v a r i e t y o f words which suggest
u n p leasan t* h o s t i l e u t t e r a n c e i s im p re ssiv e : q u a r r e l , gibe*
w ra n g le * b r a n g l e * s c o l d , ,1eer* r a i l , s c o f f , c h id e , c u r s e ,
r a n t , r a v e , swear, scream , sn e e z e , w h i s t l e , and c r y . Sw ift
f r e q u e n tly u s e s h a rs h , c o l l o q u i a l term s to evoke images o f
h a rs h u t t e r a n c e : baw l, b l a b , s q u a l l , s p l u t t e r , c la c k ,
J a b b e r , p r a t e , groan, s n o re , squeak, sh o u t, sq u ab b le, hum
and haw, and h u z z a .
Almost as numerous and v a r ie d a re images r e l a t e d to
hunger and t h i r s t , as S w ift i s fond o f d e s c r ib in g people in
th e a c t o f e a ti n g and d rin k in g . B esides such o rd in a ry
term s as e a t i n g , d r in k i n g , t a s t i n g , and d in in g , we f in d
g l u t t i n g , g o b b lin g , sw allow ing, q u a f f in g , s w i l l i n g , im
b i b i n g , supping, and chew ing. Images o f t h i s s o r t provided
a r i c h source o f m etaphors which S w ift used in a wide v a r i
e ty o f c o n te x ts . Swallowing, f o r example, i s sometimes used
in th e e a r l y poems to b rin g to l i f e a b s t r a c t i o n s . A tta c k
in g p e d a n try in th e "Ode to S i r W illiam Temple," Sw ift
d e s c r ib e s s c h o la r s who are
. . . s ic k w ith Dregs o f Knowledge grown,
Which g r e e d i l y th ey swallow down,
S t i l l c a s t i t up and n a u se a te Company.
( I , 27, 11. 47-49)
117
In the "Ode to S i r W illiam S a n c ro ft" Sw ift d e s c r ib e s r e
l i g i o u s reform In term s o f a storm which swallows up
ch u rch es, and a few l i n e s l a t e r , he w r i t e s o f "D eath 's
s tin g . . . Bwallow'd up in v i c t o r y a t l a s t " ( I , 40, 11.
197-201)• In o th e r poems S w ift w r i t e s o f th e " T h ir s t o f
Honor" ( I I , 500, 1. 2 ), o f " D o c tr in e s " th a t a re "Im bib'd"
( I I , 708, 1. 6 7 9)3 and o f "Remembrance" which i s "our
T reasu re and our Food" ( I , 27, 1. 3 l ) . In a t l e a s t two
poems S w ift u s e s imagery o f e a tin g and d rin k in g to d e sc rib e
th e e f f e c t s o f re a d in g bad p o e tr y :
Such haggard l i n e s as th e se
They s t i c k a th w a rt my maw
As bad as S u ffo lk cheese.
( I I , 429, 11. 14-16)
And, o f th e works o f a n o th e r p o e t:
The co ld C o n c e its, th e c h i l l i n g Thoughts,
Went down l i k e s tu p if y in g D raughts.
( I I , 470, 11. 7-8)
A few poems use images o f e a tin g and d rin k in g in more
extended m etaphors. In an " E p is tle to a Lady, . . . " Sw ift
c a r r i e s h i s f ig u r e o f speech through an e n t i r e s ta n z a in
which th e a r t s o f c o n v e rsa tio n and d in in g a re compared:
S c h o la rs , when good Sense d e s c r ib in g ,
C a ll i t T a s t i n g , and Im b ib in g :
M etaphorick Meat and D rink,
I b to u n d e rs ta n d , and th in k :
We may carve f o r o th e r s th u s;
And l e t o th e r s carve f o r u s .
To d is c o u r s e , and to a tte n d ,
I s to h e lp y o u r s e l f , and F rie n d .
C o nversation i s b u t c a rv in g ,
Carve f o r a l l , y o u r s e l f i s s ta r v in g .
Give no more to e v 'r y G uest,
Than h e 's a b le to d i g e s t :
1 1 8
Give him always o f the Prime,
And, but l i t t l e at a Time.
Carve to a l l but ju st enuff,
Let them neither starve, nor stu ff:
And that you may have your Due,
Let your Neighbours carve for you.
( I I , 6 3 3 , l l . 115-132)
Images o f th is type are occasion ally mixed with sca to lo g ica l
Imagery to produce some o f S w ift's most o ffen siv e s a tir ic
passages. Addressing an individual who fawned a fter great
men, a practice which Swift thoroughly despised, he w rites:
No Wonder you should think I t l i t t l e
To lic k a Rascal Statesman's S p it tle ,
W ho have, to shew your great Devotion,
Oft' swallow'd down a stronger Potion,
A Composition more absurd,
Bob's S p ittle mix'd with Harry's T .
(I I , 495, 11. 58-63)
In a la te r passage In the same poem Swift again saves the
most shocking Image for the end as he attacks the system of
Anglican Church preferment:
Our M inisters are void of Taste,
When such Adepts as you, and I
So long unbishoprick'd l i e by.
While Dunces of the coarsest Clay,
That only know to preach and pray,
Devour the Church's tid d est B it s ,
The P erqu isites o f Pimps and W its.
And leave us nought but Guts and Garbage,
Or d irty O ffals cook'd with Herbage.
(I I , 497, 11. 145-153)
Much le s s common in S w ift's poetry i s sexual imagery,
as Swift generally i s careful to avoid descriptions of a f
fection ate physical contact between men and women. Images'
o f k issin g , for example, are seldom found in S w ift's poetry
outside o f s a t ir ic contexts. S w ift's usual p ractice i s to
n e u t r a l i z e a rom antic scene by th e u se o f u g ly im agery, as
in h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f a g i r l who "was k is s e d and slo b b ered
by a lad " ( I , 150, 1. 19). In resp o n se to a f r i e n d ’s poem
which p r a i s e d th e young l a d i e s who fre q u e n te d a c e r t a i n
I r i s h spa, Sw ift w rote:
Now, as I l i v e ,
I would n o t give
A S t i v e r o r a S k e llin
To towse and k i s s
The f i n e s t Miss
T hat le a k s a t B a l l y s p e l l i n .
( I I , 442, 11. 73-78)
Images o f th e s ex u a l a c t I t s e l f a re very r a r e in
S w i f t 's p o e tr y . Such images a re n ev er h ig h ly e r o t i c , as
S w ift most o f te n p r e f e r s to d e s c rib e th e sex u al a c t ob
l i q u e l y in a c o arse manner o r In term s o f g r e a t lo a th in g
and d i s g u s t . The elem ent o f m oral censure i s alm ost always
p r e s e n t. In " H e l t e r - S k e l t e r , " f o r example, Sw ift l i g h t l y
s a t i r i z e s the amorous f r o l i c s o f b ra s h , young I r i s h a t t o r
neys r i d i n g c i r c u i t :
Some to Cuckold Farmers SpouBes,
And make merry in t h e i r HouseSj
Some to tumble Country-Wenches
On t h e i r Rushy Beds and Benches.
( I I , 574, 11. 43-46)
And in a n o th e r poem S w ift i n c i d e n t a l l y c r i t i c i z e s a " p r e t t y
Miss" who "has p l a y 'd th e F ool":
"And c r a c k 'd h e r te n d e r Maidenhead
"With ly in g on too h a rd a B e d ."
( I I , 497, 11. 131-133)
Perhaps th e most g ra p h ic sex u al image in S w i f t 's p o e try i s
a lso th e most d i s g u s t i n g . I t ap p ears a t th e end o f a
1 2 0
yicio u B a t t a c k on a c e r t a i n Baron C u tts . Here th e sexual
a c t I s used by S w ift as an In stru m e n t o f In v e c tiv e and i s
made more loathsome by th e ju x ta p o s i t i o n o f anim al and
d is e a s e im agery:
And should some Nymph who n e 'e r was cruel*
Like C arleto n cheap* o r fam 'd D u ru e l,
Receive th e F i l t h which he e je c ts *
She soon would find* th e same E ffe c ts*
Her t a i n t e d Carcase to pursue*
As from th e Salam ander' s Spue;
A dism al shedding o f h e r Locks
And* i f no Leprosy* a Pox.
(I* 8 5* 11. 6 1 - 6 8 )
Though v a rio u s poems c o n ta in r e f e r e n c e s to such so rd id
a s p e c ts o f sex u al b e h av io r as rape* p r o s t i t u t i o n * voyeurism*
sodomy* and c a s tr a tio n * th ey a re r e l a t i v e l y f r e e o f l u r i d
sex u a l im agery. Even p h a l l i c imagery* t r a d i t i o n a l l y p o p u la r
w ith s a t i r i s t s * and used e f f e c t i v e l y by Pope and o th e r
Augustans* i s r e l a t i v e l y r a r e in S w i f t 's p o e tr y . I t i s im
p o r t a n t in o n ly one poem* "The V ir tu e s o f Sid Hamet the
M a g ic ia n 's Rod" (I* 131)* in which i t i s used as one o f a
s e r i e s o f puns on th e t i t l e . Here again th e sex u al image
i s follow ed by a s c a t o l o g i c a l image:
DEAR S id * then why w e r 't thou so mad
To b reak th y Rod l i k e naughty Lad?
You should have k i s s ' d i t in y our D istre ss*
And then r e t u r n ' d i t to your M i s t r e s s ,
Or made i t a Newmarket Switch*
And n o t a Rod f o r th y own Breech.
For s in ce o ld Sid h as broken th is *
H is n e x t w i l l be a Rod in P i s s .
(I* 135, 11. 79-86)
Images o f b i r t h and g e s t a t i o n appear somewhat more
f r e q u e n tly than s ex u al images in S w i f t 's poems* and most o f
1 2 1
th e se a re found in f i g u r a t i v e c o n te x ts . Sw ift w i l l o cca
s i o n a l l y use a n e u t r a l , I n o f f e n s iv e metaphor such as "the
womb o f e a r th " ( I , 1 3 1, 1. 20) o r th e wooden h o rs e "preg
n a n t w ith Greeks" ( I , 139j 1. 4 8 ), b u t more o f te n he w i l l
use o f f e n s iv e Images o f t h i s type In s a t i r i c c o n te x t s . As
e a r l y as h i s f i r s t poem "Ode to th e King" Sw ift u s e s such
an image to ex p re ss a b a s ic theme o f h i s l a t e r s a t i r e . A
"D estroying Angel" speaks a g a in s t th e I r i s h r e b e l l i o n :
In v a i n , s a id He, does Utmost Thule b o a st
No p o y s'n o u s B east w i l l in Her b r e e d ,
Or no I n f e c t i o u s Weed,
When she sends f o r t h such a m alig n an t B i r t h ,
When Man h i m s e l f 's th e Yermin o f Her E a rth .
( I , 7, 11. 51-55)
S w ift, l i k e o t h e r A ugustans, o c c a s io n a ll y u s e s images
o f b i r t h to d e s c rib e th e p ro d u c tio n o f l i t e r a r y works. (We
r e c a l l P o p e's d e s c r i p t i o n o f C ib b e r 's w r i t i n g s — "much em
bry o , much a b o rtio n " [Dunciad Y, 1. 2 7 8 ] .) In S w i f t 's w e ll-
known "On P o e try : A Rhapsody" t h i s k in d o f imagery i s used
to d e s c rib e th e low e s t a t e o f p o e ts in England:
Not B e g g a r's B r a t, on Bulk begot;
Nor B a s ta rd o f a P e d la r S c o t;
Nor Boy bro u g h t up to c le a n in g Shoes,
The Spawn o f B rid e w e ll, o r th e Stews;
Nor I n f a n t s d ro p t, the' sp u rio u s Pledges
Of G ip s ie s l i t t e r i n g u nder Hedges,
Are so d i s q u a l i f i e d by F ate
To r i s e in Church, o r Law, o r S t a t e ,
As he, whom Phebus in h i s I r e
Hath b l a s t e d w ith p o e tic k F i r e .
( I I , 6 4 l, 11. 33-42)
The passage r e f l e c t s S w i f t 's a t t i t u d e toward th e fe c u n d ity
o f th e common crowd. To a group o f G ru b -S tre e t v e rse
1 2 2
■writers S w ift o f f e r s i r o n i c encouragement: "Your s t i l l - b o r n
Poems s h a l l r e v iv e " ( I I , 394, 1. 7 ) j and in th e epigrams
which c r i t i c i z e C h arles C a rth y 1s t r a n s l a t i o n o f Horace,
S w ift asks "Cou'd Horace g iv e so sad a M onster B ir th ? " ( I I ,
6 6 9 ) j and rem inds C arthy t h a t "th y Book p e r i s h 'd on i t s
n a t a l Day" ( I I , 6 6 9 ). In "V anbrug's Houise" S w ift d e s c rib e s
in term s o f la b o r p a in s a f r i e n d ' s e f f o r t s to w r ite a p la y
and b u i l d a house:
A f te r h ard Throws o f many a Day
Van was d e l i v e r 'd o f a P lay,
Which in due time bro u g h t f o r t h a House;
J u s t as th e Mountain d id th e Mouse.
( I , 81, 11. 73-76)
More numerous and more im p o rtan t in S w i f t 's p o e tr y a re
images o f human e x c r e tio n : f e c e s , u r i n e , wind, and vomit.
Many o f th e se images a re found in p a ssa g es which d e p ic t an
i n d i v i d u a l , o f te n fem ale, in th e a c t o f v o id in g . This
s c a t o l o g i c a l im agery became an im p o rta n t d ev ice f o r S w i f t 's
s a t i r i c i n t e n t i o n — to remind man t h a t he i s an earthbound
anim al. To e f f e c t t h i s s a t i r i c d e f l a t i o n , S w ift o f te n
ju x ta p o s e s u g ly , s c a t o l o g i c a l imagery w ith p l e a s a n t , r o
m antic im agery. In evoking th e se im ages. S w ift, d i s d a i n f u l
o f euphemism and c irc u m lo c u tio n , f r e e l y u s e s taboo words
f o r th e purpose o f shocking the r e a d e r .
S w i f t 's la c k o f r e s t r a i n t in t h i s r e s p e c t , p a r t i c u
l a r l y in th e s o - c a l l e d " u n p rin ta b le " poems, h a s r a i s e d th e
i r e o f c r i t i c s from h i s own time to th e p r e s e n t . The c r i t
i c a l c o n tro v e rs y over th e problem o f th e s c a t o l o g i c a l has
produced r a t h e r c lo s e a n a l y s i s o f t h i s a s p e c t o f S w i f t ’ s
p o e tr y . For t h i s re a so n and because I have a lr e a d y c i t e d
s e v e r a l examples (see pp. 3 5 , 3 6 , 5 2 , 6 9 , 1 1 8, and 1 1 9) j
f u r t h e r exam ination o f s c a t o l o g i c a l c o n te x ts does n o t seem
n e c e s s a ry in t h i s p a p e r. But th e m ajor argum ents o f the
c r i t i c a l c o n tro v e rs y i t s e l f may p erh ap s be p r o f i t a b l y ex
amined w ith in th e c o n te x t o f a stu d y o f a l l o f th e images
in S w i f t 's p o e tr y . I t h e r e f o r e r e s e r v e f u r t h e r commeht on
t h i s s u b je c t f o r a l a t e r c h a p te r.
Images D erived from S ic k n e ss, D isease,
and D eform ity] Images D erived from
P h y s ic a l Fain and V iolence
Two h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t groups o f images o f th e human
body a re th o se r e l a t e d to p h y s ic a l i n f i r m i t i e s , s ic k n e s s ,
and d is e a s e , and th o se r e l a t e d to p a in and v io le n c e . Both
o f th e se groups a re common in S w i f t 's p o e tr y from th e b e
g in n in g to th e end, a p p earin g in a wide v a r i e t y o f c o n te x ts .
Both a re u sed by S w ift to remind man o f h i s p h y s ic a l l i m i
t a t i o n s , and to some e x te n t they r e f l e c t S w i f t 's concern
f o r h i s own d i s a b i l i t i e s which plagued him th ro u g h o u t most
o f h i s a d u l t l i f e .
The e a r l y poems c o n ta in a c o n s id e ra b le number o f im
ages d e riv e d from d is e a s e and s ic k n e s s . TheBe u s u a l l y are
found in c o n c e its which d e s c r ib e a b s t r a c t i o n s , in p a r t i c
u l a r , c e r t a i n m oral f a u l t s . Thus S w ift d e s c r ib e s "Imper
tin e n c e " as "The Scurvy o f Mankind" ( I , 18, 1. 70) and
1 2 4
"Indolence" as "now grown an In c u ra b le D isease" ( I , 3 3, 1.
205)• R ep e a ted ly we f in d c o n c e its which d e s c rib e th e world
I t s e l f as s ic k . In th e "Ode to th e A thenian S o ciety " Sw ift
w r i t e s o f "the W o rld 's D is e a s e , / (That Epidemick E r r o r and
D e p rav ity . . .") ( I , 20., 11. 1 3 8- 1 3 9) , and in "Occasioned
by S ir W T 's L ate I l l n e s s and Recovery" the c o n c e its
a re com patible w ith th e s u b je c t o f th e poem:
As p a r e n t e a r t h , b u r s t by im p r is o n 'd winds,
S c a t t e r s s tra n g e agues o ' e r m en's s ic k l y minds,
So would e a r t h 's face tu rn p a le , and l i f e decay,
Should heaven suspend to a c t b u t f o r a day;
So n a tu r e s c r a z 'd co n v u lsio n s make us dread
That time i s s ic k , o r th e w o r ld 's mind i s dead.
( I , 52, 11. 37-38; 53, 11. 6 3- 6 6 )
In th e "Ode to Dr. W illiam S a n c ro ft" images o f s ic k n e s s are
u sed in an extended metaphor which d e s c r ib e s re fo rm ers o f
r e l i g i o n as p h y s ic ia n s m a ltr e a tin g a p a t i e n t :
R e lig io n now does on h e r d eath -b ed l i e ,
H e a r t - s i c k o f a high fe v e r and consuming a tro p h y ;
How th e p h y s ic ia n s swarm to shew t h e i r m o rtal s k i l l ,
And by t h e i r c o l l e g e - a r t s m e th o d ic a lly k i l l :
Reform ers and p h y s ic ia n s d i f f e r b u t in name,
One end in b o th , and th e design th e same;
C o rd ia ls a re in t h e i r t a l k , w h i l s t a l l th e y mean
I s b u t th e p a t i e n t ' s d e a th , and g a in .
( I , 42, 1 1 . 2 5 1- 2 5 8)
A wide v a r i e t y o f images r e l a t e d to d is e a s e , s ic k n e s s,
and d e fo rm ity appear in th e l a t e r p o e try , most o f te n in
s a t i r i c c o n te x ts . Only r a r e l y do we f in d images o f un u su al
o r e x o tic d is e a s e s ; b u t one, used in an im a g in a tiv e extended
m etaphor, i s worthy o f n o te . In "The Bubble" S w ift de
s c r ib e s v ic tim s o f th e South Sea Swindle as s u f f e r in g from
1 2 5
c a l e n t u r e , a t r o p i c a l f e v e r a f f l i c t i n g s a i l o r s , which i s
accompanied by d e liriu m and a longing to throw o n e s e lf in to
th e sea ( I , 251, 11. 25-3 2 ). But S w ift u s u a l l y p r e f e r s
images r e l a t e d to common, o rd in a ry a ilm e n ts which add to
th e r e a lis m o f s a t i r i c c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s . Throughout the
l a t e r poems we f in d r e f e r e n c e s to people who s u f f e r from
such a ilm e n ts as headache, to o th a c h e , stomachache, d i z z i
n e s s , i t c h i n g sk in , th e g o u t, rheum atism , th e common c o ld ,
f e v e r , s o r e s , m e asle s , and c o r n s .
Of th e s e , images r e l a t e d to i t c h i n g and d iz z i n e s s a re
th e most common. The form er i s f r e q u e n tly used f i g u r a
t i v e l y . In "On the I r i s h Club" Sw ift d e s c rib e s a "pack o f
p e n sio n a ry P—r s / Whose f i n g e r s i t c h f o r p o e t 's e a r s " ( I I ,
487, 11. 5 -6 ) , In "A P anegyric on Dean S w ift" he o b serv es
t h a t "M itres and Glebes could s ca rc e do m ore/ To s c r a tc h
our e n d le s s I t c h o f Pow'r" ( I I , 493 j H . 9 - 1 0 ) j and in "On
P o e try : a Rapsody" Sw ift d e s c r ib e s bad w r iti n g as the
p ro d u c t o f a " S c rib b lin g I t c h " ( I I , 642, 1. 7 4). D iz zin e ss
o r v e r t i g o , o r the human body unbalanced o r o u t o f c o n tr o l,
i s th e most common type o f p h y s ic a l i n f i r m i t y in S w i f t 's
p o e try . I t i s su g g ested by such images as r e e l i n g , s t a g
g e r i n g , w h i r l i n g , j e r k in g , tw itc h in g , swooning, sp in n in g ,
tu m b lin g , and sw aying. S w ift sometimes u s e s images o f t h i s
type to d e s c rib e m isguided groups o f p eo p le. In a passage
from "The Bubble" S w ift draws Images o f t h i s type from
Psalm 107 to d e s c rib e th e v ic tim s o f th e sw indle:
Now b u r y 1d in th e Depth below ,
Now mounted up to Heav'n a g a in ,
They r e e l and s ta g g e r too and f r o ,
At t h e i r W its end l i k e drunken Men.
( I , 25b, 11. 149-152)
We may n o te t h a t S w i f t 's f a s c i n a t i o n f o r t h i s k in d o f im
agery was poB sibly in flu e n c e d by th e a t t a c k s o f v e r tig o he
h im s e lf e x p erien c e d in h i s long en co u n ter w ith what modern
N .
p h y s ic ia n s b e lie v e to have been M eu n iere's D isease.
G e n era lly S w ift d id n o t c r u e l l y e x p l o i t th e d efo rm i
t i e s o f s p e c i f i c in d i v i d u a l s in h i s p o e try . This f a c t
b e a r s o u t h i s sta te m e n t in "Verses on th e Death o f Dr.
Sw ift" t h a t "He s p a r 'd a Hump o r crooked Nose" (II., 572, 1.
46 7 ). He g e n e r a l l y c o n fin e s images o f the c r ip p le d human
body to m e ta p h o ric a l use as in t h i s a t t a c k on bad p o e try :
Or o f t when E p i t h e t s you lin k j
In gaping L ines to f i l l a Ohinkj
Like step p in g Stones to save a S t r i d e ,
In S t r e e t s where Kennels a re too wide:
Or l i k e a H e e l-p ie c e to su pport
A C rip p le w ith one Foot too s h o r t.
( I I , 645, 11. 167-172)
Or in a passage which p e r s o n i f i e s female v ic e s Sw ift w r ite s ,
"And S tu d ied A f f e c ta t io n c a m e ,/ Each Limb, and F e a tu re out
o f Frame" ( I I , 449, 11. 1 3 2- 1 3 3) . But S w ift i s i n t e n s e l y
aware o f d i s t o r t i o n s o f s iz e and shape o f the human body,
as r e a d e r s o f G u l l i v e r 's T rav e ls w i l l r e c a l l . He u ses
f r e e l y such term s as f a t , bulky, h u lk in g , s w e llin g , plump,
and s tr a p p in g , o r t h i n , la n k , l e a n , s p a r e , and w ith e r e d .
Some o f th e se a re used to c r e a te comic c a r i c a t u r e s such as
t h a t o f h i s f r i e n d . Lady Acheson, who, in "My L ad y 's Lamen-
127
t a t i o n and Complaint A g ain st th e Dean," com plains o f
S w i f t 's fin d in g f a u l t w ith h e r f i g u r e :
Next, f o r h i s d iv e r s io n .
He r a i l s a t my p erso n :
What c o u rt-b r e e d in g t h i s i s ?
He ta k e s me to p ie c e s .
Prom s h o u ld er to fla n k
I'm le an and am lank;
My nose, long and t h i n ,
Grows down to my ch in ;
My chin w i l l n o t s ta y ,
But meets i t h a l f way;
My f i n g e r s , p r o l i x ,
Are te n crooked s t i c k s :
He swears my e l bows
Are two ir o n crows,
Or sharp p o in te d ro c k s,
And wear o u t my smocks.
( I l l , 853-854, 11. 67-82)
R eferen c es to h i s own p h y s ic a l i n f i r m i t i e s a re o c ca
s i o n a l l y found in th e l a t e r p o e tr y as the aging S w ift found
h im s e lf tr o u b le d n o t o n ly by a t t a c k s o f v e r t i g o , b u t by
d e afn ess and lo s s o f memory as w e ll. Most o f th e se r e f
e re n c e s appear in poems in which Sw ift d is p la y s a l i g h t
h e a r te d a t t i t u d e toward h i s i l l n e s s e s . In a poem to Pope,
f o r example, S w ift d e s c r ib e s th e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f c o n v ersa
t i o n between th e two p o e ts :
Pope h as th e T a le n t w e ll to speak,
But n o t to re a c h th e E ar;
H is lo u d e s t Voice i s low and weak.
The Dean too d e a f to h e a r .
Thus, Pope, in vain you b o a s t y o u r Wit;
For, had our d e a f D ivine
Been f o r your C o nversation f i t ,
You had n o t w r i t a L ine.
( I I , 405, 11. 1-4, 21-24)
But i n f r e q u e n t l y we f in d p assa g es in which th e image o f th e
1 2 8
a i l i n g S w ift i s p r e s e n te d in term s o f s e l f - p i t y i n g d e s p a ir .
In "To S t e l l a V i s i t i n g Me in My Sickness.," f o r example,
S w ift w r i t e s :
When on my s i c k l y Couch I la y ,
Im p a tie n t b o th o f N ight and Day,
Lamenting in unmanly S t r a i n s
C a l l 'd e v 'r y Pow'r to ease my P a in s .
( I I , 726, 11. 97-100)
And in a s h o r t poem "On H is Own D eafness" th e heavy tone i s
r e l i e v e d o n ly by th e humor o f th e f i n a l word:
DEAF, giddy, h e l p l e s s , l e f t alo n e,
To a l l my F rien d s a B urthen grown,
No more I h e a r my C h u rch 's B e l l,
Than i f i t rang o u t f o r my K n ell:
At Thunder now no more I s t a r t .
Than a t th e Rumbling o f a C art:
Nay, w h a t's i n c r e d i b l e , a la c k l
I h a r d ly h e a r a Woman's C lack.
( I I , 673, 11- 1-8)
Of a l l th e images r e l a t e d to p h y s ic a l i n f i r m i t y in
S w i f t 's p o e try th o se d e riv e d from v e n e r e a l d is e a s e s are
most im p o rtan t f o r s a t i r i c p u rp o se s. These images served
c o n v e n ie n tly S w i f t 's s a t i r i c method o f d e s c r ib in g m oral
c o r ru p tio n in term s o f p h y s ic a l c o r r u p tio n . Often an image
i s su g g ested m erely by a r e f e r e n c e to "clap s" o r "pox," the
h a rs h v e r n a c u la r term s f o r g o n o rrh ea and s y p h i l i s . The
word "pox" i s o f te n used as c o n v e n tio n a l e p i t h e t : "A pox on
E l r i n g t o n 's m a je s tic to n e !" ( I , 186, 1. l ) , f o r example.
In "Pethox, the G r e a t," a k in d o f s a t i r i c a l r i d d l e . S w ift
u s e s th e d ev ice o f p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n to d e s c rib e th e rav ag es
o f th e pox:
1 2 9
The B r i t o n s , once a savage Kind,
By you were b r i g h t e n 'd and r e f i n ' d ,
D escendents o f th e b a rb a ro u s Huns,
With Limbs r o b u s t , and Voice t h a t s tu n s;
But you have molded them a f r e s h ,
Remov'd th e tough s u p e rflu o u s F le sh ,
Taught them to m odulate t h e i r Tongues,
And speak w ith o u t th e Help o f Lungs.
( I , 3 2 6, 11. 73-80)
The p h y s ic a l m o rb id ity emphasized in th e above passage
i s t y p i c a l o f S w i f t 's r e f e r e n c e s to v e n e r e a l d i s e a s e s . He
seemed to be p a r t i c u l a r l y f a s c i n a t e d by such u g ly e f f e c t s
as th e a tro p h y o f o rg an s, th e lo s s o f h a i r , o r th e d e t e r i
o r a tio n o f th e s k in . Many p assa g es c a l l a t t e n t i o n to such
d e t a i l s as s c a b s , s c a r s , b l o t c h e s , and b le e d in g s o r e s .
These g r i s l y images a re most o f te n found in d e s c r i p
t i o n s o f young women whose b e au ty has changed to u g l i n e s s ,
and who serve as symbols o f th e p r e c a r i o u s n a tu r e o f human
e x is t e n c e . But S w ift, as s a t i r i s t , i s n o t so much i n t e r
e s te d in sym pathizing w ith women as v ic tim s as he i s in
a tta c k in g them as c a r r i e r s o f v e n e r e a l d is e a s e . In "Cas-
s in u s and P e t e r , " f o r example, S w ift s a t i r i c a l l y e x a g g e ra te s
th e p re v a le n c e o f women deformed by v e n e r e a l d is e a s e .
P e te r , to d is c o v e r th e cause o f C a s s in u s 's disenchantm ent
w ith C e lia , a sk s:
Say, h as th e sm all o r g r e a t e r Pox
Sunk down h e r Nose, o r seam 'd h e r Face?
He then l i g h t l y d is m is s e s h i s own q u e s tio n w ith an a i r o f
i n d i f f e r e n c e : "Be easy, ' t i s a common Case" ( I I , 595j H *
48-5 0 ). In a poem e n t i t l e d "An Answer to a Late Scandalous
Poem, Wherein th e Author Most A udaciously Presumes to Com
p a re a Cloud to a Woman" images o f v e n e r e a l d is e a s e a re
used in an a t t a c k upon womens
Some C r i t i c k s may o b je c t p erh ap s.
That Clouds a re blam 'd f o r g iv in g C laps:
But what a l a s ! a re Claps a e t h e r i a l
Compar'd f o r m is c h ie f , to V enereal?
Can Clouds g iv e buboes, u l c e r s , b lo tc h e s ?
Or, from your noses dig o u t n o tch es?
We leav e th e body sweet and sound,
May k i l l p e rh a p s, b u t n e v er wound.
( I I , 618, 11. 21-28)
And in "A B e a u t i f u l Young Nymph Going to Bed" s i m i l a r d is
g u s tin g p h y s ic a l im agery i s e f f e c t i v e l y combined w ith pas
t o r a l elem ents as S w ift d e s c r ib e s a d is e a s e - r id d e n London
B tr e e tw a lk e r :
CORINNA, P rid e o f D rury-Lane,
For whom no Shepherd s ig h s in v ain ;
Never d id Covent Garden b o a st
So b r i g h t a b a t t e r ' d , s t r o l l i n g T oast;
R etu rn in g a t th e M idnight Hour;
Four s t o r i e s clim bing to h e r Bow'r;
Then, s e a te d on a th r e e - le g g e d C hair,
Takes o f f h e r a r t i f i c i a l H a ir:
Now, p ic k in g o u t a C r y s ta l Eye,
She wipes i t c le a n , and la y s i t by.
Her Eye-Brows from a Mouse's Hyde,
Stuck on w ith A rt on e i t h e r S ide,
P u ll s o f f w ith Care, and f i r s t d is p la y s 'em,
Then in a Play-Book smoothly la y s 'em.
Now d e x tro u s ly h e r Plumpers draws.
That serv e to f i l l h e r hollow Jaws.
U n tw ists a Wire; and from h e r Gums
A s e t o f T eeth co m p letely comes.
P u ll s o u t th e Rags c o n t r i v 'd to prop
Her fla b b y Dugs and down th ey drop.
Proceeding on, th e lo v e ly Goddess
U nlaces n ex t h e r S t e e l - R i b 'd Bodice;
Which by th e O p e r a to r 's S k i l l ,
P ress down th e Lumps, th e Hollows f i l l ,
131
Up goes h e r Hand, and o f f she s l i p s
The B o ls t e r s t h a t supply h e r H ips.
With g e n t l e s t Touch, she n e x t e x p lo re s
Her Shankers, I s s u e s , running Sores,
E f f e c t s o f many a sad D is a s te r ;
And then to each a p p lie s a P l a i s t e r .
( I I , 581-582, 11. 1-4, 7-32)
Here S w ift does n o t sim ply p r e s e n t a s o rd id p o r t r a i t o f an
u n f o r tu n a te in d i v i d u a l b u t p a i n t s an e x ag g e ra te d d e s c r i p
tio n o f p h y s ic a l decay to b rin g to l i f e th e theme o f de
c e p tio n . The m oral im p lic a tio n s a re su g g ested by a note
appended to th e t i t l e : "W ritten f o r th e Honour o f the P a ir
S ex."
The p r a c t i c e o f u sin g u g ly images o f d is e a s e c h i e f l y
in d e s c r i p t i o n s o f women h as r e s u l t e d in charges o f mys-
ogyny being bro u g h t a g a in s t S w ift. Some c r i t i c s have sug
g e s te d t h a t S w i f t 's use o f t h i s and o t h e r ty p es o f u g ly
imagery was a m a n if e s ta tio n o f h i s d i s g u s t f o r a f f e c t i o n a t e
p h y s ic a l c o n ta c t between th e sexes, and, in p a r t i c u l a r , f o r
th e sex u al a c t i t s e l f . On the o th e r hand, Sw ift has been
a b ly defended f o r h i s use o f such m a t e r ia ls by c r i t i c s who
see S w i f t 's u g ly imagery as e n t i r e l y a p p r o p r ia te f o r h i s
s a t i r i c i n t e n t i o n s and s t r a t e g i e s . The f i n a l c h a p te r i n
c lu d es f u r t h e r d is c u s s io n o f th e s e opposing p o in ts o f view.
C lo se ly r e l a t e d to images o f d is e a s e and d e fo rm ity a re
th o se d e riv e d from p ain and v io le n c e . The number and v a r i
e ty o f images o f t h i s type in S w i f t 's p o e try are s ta g g e rin g ,
as Sw ift f r e e l y employs them to a t t a c k h i s v ic tim s . In t h i s
r e s p e c t a ls o we may c o n t r a s t th e p o e tr y o f Pope, o f whom
132
S t. V incent w r i t e s : "Only o c c a s io n a lly does Pope m a n ife st
e i t h e r suppressed o r o v e r t I n t e n t to do p h y s ic a l harm to
p
th o se to whom he f e e l s a n im o s ity ." In S w i f t 's p o e tr y the
e x p re ssio n o f I n t e n t to do b o d ily harm i s the r u l e r a t h e r
than th e exception., and th e number o f images ,of t h i s type
p o s s ib ly exceeds t h a t o f any o th e r E n g lish p o e t.
This q u a l i t y o f S w i f t 's work began to emerge in the
e a r l y poems as S w ift, in r e a d i l y assuming the r o l e o f the
scourge o f f o l l y , r e v e a ls h i s fondness f o r images o f f l a g
e l l a t i o n . In th e l a s t o f th e e a r l y odes Sw ift ta k e s whip
in hand in a passage t h a t s e ts th e tone f o r much o f h i s
l a t e r p o e tr y : "My h a te , whose la s h j u s t heaven has long
d e c r e e d / S h a ll on a day make s in and f o l l y b le ed " ( I , 47,
11. 133-134). In l a t e r poems which r e i n f o r c e t h i s image,
S w ift shows h i s p re fe re n c e f o r th e word " l a s h ." In "The
L ife and C h a ra c te r o f Dean S w ift" the word appears in a
posthumous defense o f the Dean:
" I f he makes Mankind bad as E lv es,
"I answer, th ey may thank them selves;
" I f Vice can ev er be a b a s h 'd ,
" I t must be R i d l c u l 'd , o r L a s h 'd .
B ut, i f I chance to make a s l i p ,
What r i g h t had he to hold th e Whip?
( I I , 548, 11. 115-120)
And in h i s pow erful s a t i r e on th e Legion Club, S w ift ap
p l i e s th e whip to a p a i r o f p o l i t i c a l enemies:
p
"Aspects o f P ope's Im a g e ry ," p. 109•
133
Tye them Keeper in a T e th e r,
L et them s t a r e and s t i n k to g e th e r ;
Both a re a p t to be u n ru ly ,
Lash them d a i l y , la s h them duly.,
Though ' t i s h o p e le s s to re c la im them,
Scorpion Hods p erhaps may tame them.
( I l l , 835, 11. 153-158)
In "Verses on th e Death o f Dr. S w ift" the word "la sh " ap
p e a r s in an o f t 'q u o t e d c o u p le t which Bums up S w i f t 's s a
t i r i c work: "His V ein, i r o n i c a l l y g r a v e , / E x p o s'd th e Pool,
and l a s h 'd th e Knave" ( I I , 5 6 5* H * 315-316). Perhaps the
most l i v e l y images o f f l a g e l l a t i o n appear in "An E p i s t l e to
a Lady . . . ," in which S w ift u n le a s h e s h i s fu ry a g a in s t
Walpole and o th e r Whig p o l i t i c i a n s :
POULTNEY deep, a cc o m p lish 'd ST. JOHNS,
Scourge th e V i l l a i n s w ith a Vengeance.
L et me, t h o ' th e Smell be Noisom,
S t r i p t h e i r Bums; l e t CALEB hoyse 'em;
Then, apply ALECTO's Whip,
T i l l th ey w rig g le , howl, and sk ip .
( I I , 6 3 5 , 11. 175-180)
In th e same poem, when S w ift needs a metaphor to d i s t i n
g u ish H o ra tia n from J u v e n a lia n B a t ir e , he t u r n s once again
to th e w hip:
I t i s w e ll o b s e r v 'd by HORACE,
R id ic u le has g r e a t e r Pow'r
To reform th e World, than Sour.
H orses th u s , l e t Jockeys judge e l s e ,
Sw itches b e t t e r guide than C udgels.
B a s tin g s heavy, d ry, o b tu se,
Only D ulness can produce,
While a l i t t l e g e n tle J e rk in g
S e ts th e S p i r i t s a l l a working.
( I I , 6 3 6 , 1 1 . 1 9 8- 2 0 6)
But S w ift, o f c o u rse, p r e f e r r e d th e heavy-handed blow
to a t t a c k h i s s a t i r i c v ic tim s , who a re n o t o n ly la sh e d b u t
134
a lso s t r u c k , stu n n ed , b a s te d , clap p ed , c lo u te d , s m itte n ,
c u d g e lle d , rapped, thumped, and knocked down, as S w ift d e
s c r ib e s th e human body being h i t by an o b j e c t . The human
body a lso s u f f e r s from being to s s e d , f lu n g , s e i z e d , tu g g ed ,
t h r u s t e d , h a u le d , shoved, d is c a r d e d , tum bled, and s t u f f e d .
In a d d itio n i t i s shaken, squeezed, trimmed, j u s t t e d ,
p in c h e d , p e s te r e d , snapped, crammed, and dragged down.
B odies a re a ls o b u r s t , b l a s t e d , b a t t e r e d , b r u i s e d , b e
s p a t t e r e d , k ick ed , b i t t e n , choked, s t i f l e d , t h r o t t l e d ,
sm othered, s t r a i n e d , and t o r n . Some v ic tim s a re r a c k e d ,
c h a in e d , s c a ld e d , b o i l e d , soused, s in g e d , p o is o n e d , and
s c o u re d . S t i l l o th e r s a re hanged, drowned, r a p e d , stab b ed ,
bo red , and run th r o u g h .
As th e above l i s t i n d i c a t e s , S w ift p r e f e r s words p ro
d u c tiv e o f stro n g im ages. He u s e s r a t h e r s p a r in g ly words
such as murder o r k i l l which do n o t p r e s e n t a s p e c i f i c
image. The form er i s o c c a s io n a ll y found in c o n c e its such
aB "the Murders o f h e r Eyes" ( I I , 69Tj !• 3 3 3 )j o f In a
d e s c r i p t i o n such as t h a t o f a t to r n e y s who "murder E q u ity "
( I I , 574, 1. 4 9 ). S e v e ra l o f th e epigram s a g a i n s t C arthy
d e s c rib e th e l a t t e r ' s t r a n s l a t i o n o f Horace in term s o f
murder o r m u r d e r - s u ic id e :
Creech m u rd e r'd Horace in hiB s e n s e le s s Rhymes,
But hung h im s e lf to e x p ia te h i s Crimes.
What then must C arthy do in p ro p e r Season,
Who m u rd er'd Horace w ith o u t Rhyme o r Reason?
( I I , 666)
In a poem "To a F rien d Who Had Been Much Abused in Many
3-35
I n v e t e r a t e Libels., " S w ift u s e s images o f murder and rap e to
d e s c r ib e th e h a z a rd s o f fame:
The g r e a t e s t monarch may be s t a b b ’d by n ig h t.
And f o r tu n e h e lp th e m u r d 'r e r in h i s f l i g h t j
The v i l e s t R u ffia n may commit a ra p e ,
Yet sa fe from i n j u r e d innocence escap e:
And calumny, by working u nder ground,
Can, u n re v e n g ’d, th e g r e a t e s t m e r it wound.
( I I , 5 0 6, 11. 1-6)
A f a i r l y la r g e number o f images o f v io le n c e a g a in s t
th e human body su g g e s t d i r e c t o r i n d i r e c t comparison to
anim al a c t i v i t y . I have r e s e r v e d f o r th e n e x t c h a p te r d i s
c u s sio n o f th e se and o t h e r anim al images which a re used to
d e s c r ib e th e human body. By t h i s p ro ced u re I hope to dem
o n s t r a t e more e f f e c t i v e l y th e e x te n t to which S w ift con
s c io u s ly b lu r r e d th e d i s t i n c t i o n between man and anim al, a
s t r a t e g y b a s ic to h i s s a t i r i c i n t e n t i o n .
CHAPTER VI
IMAGES DERIVED FROM THE ANIMAL WORLD
The q u a n t i t y and v a r i e t y o f images d e riv e d from animal
l i f e in S w i f t 's p o e tr y a re t r u l y rem a rk a b le. These a re
numerous n o t o n ly in th e anim al f a b le s S w ift w rote b u t a lso
in o th e r k in d s o f s a t i r i c and n o n - s a t i r i c verse., in c lu d in g
th e p a n e g y ric s and poems o f compliment. To b e s t show th e
range and v a r i e t y o f th e s e images I have o rg a n iz e d my d i s
c u s sio n to fo llo w th e t r a d i t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y o f th e anim al
w orld, b e g in n in g w ith th e h ig h e r a n im als, and moving in
tu r n to lower anim als and f i s h , b i r d s , and i n s e c t s .
The l a r g e s t group o f anim als in S w i f t 's p o e try a re
th o se c l o s e s t to th e l i f e o f man— dom estic farm anim als and
house p e t s . Though S w ift d is p la y s l i t t l e i n t e r e s t in r u r a l
l i f e i t s e l f he seems s tr o n g ly f a s c i n a t e d by th e b arn y ard ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y th e d i r t and sm ells o f penned-up an im als,
which p ro v id e d a r i c h source o f s a t i r i c im agery. He u ses
f r e q u e n tly such termB as dung, d u n g h i l l , w allow , and o f f a l
in p assa g es which im ply a d i r e c t c o r r e l a t i o n between the
b arn y ard and p o l i t e s o c i e t y . R eferen c es to swine—p ig s ,
hogs, and sows—a re f a i r l y common as S w ift in s a t i r i c com
p a r is o n s e x p l o i t s th e c o n v e n tio n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s o f f i l t h
and g l u tto n y . The s w in d le rs o f "The B u b b le," f o r example,
136
137:
a re d e s c rib e d as "devouring swine" ( I , 2 5 9., 1. 1 3)., and., in
"Clad A ll in Brown.," a parody o f Cowley's "Clad A ll in
W hite," S w i f t 's enemy, R ich ard Tighe, i s compared to a
"wallowing sow":
F o u le s t B rute t h a t s t i n k s below,
Why in t h i s Brown d o st thou appear?
For w o u ld 's t thou make a f o u l e r Show,
Thou must go naked a l l th e Year.
Fresh from th e Mud a wallowing Sow
Would then be n o t so brown as thou.
( I l l , 7 8 6, 11. 1-6)
Images o f c a t t l e and sheep a re f a i r l y numerous in
S w i f t 's p o e try , w ith th e form er used most o fte n in s a t i r i c
e p i t h e t s . Sw ift re c o g n iz e s c a t t l e aB lower than sheep in
th e chain o f being and f r e q u e n tly r e f e r s to th e common
people as "the h e r d ." In "To Mr. Congreve," f o r example,
Sw ift u s e s images o f t h i s type to d e p ic t the Muse who,
" lik e some b r i g h t c o u n try v i r g i n , " has "F a lle n by mishap
amongst a knot o f beaux":
She, who on shady banks has j o y 'd to slee p
Near b e t t e r an im als, h e r f a t h e r ' s sheep;
Sham'd and am az'd, b eholds th e c h a t t 'r i n g th ro n g ,
To th in k what c a t t l e she h as g o t among;
But w ith the o dious sm ell and s i g h t annoy'd,
In h a s te she does t h 'o f f e n s i v e h e rd avoid.
( I , 50, 11. 221-226)
One o f S w i f t 's b e s t known m etaphors compares S t e l l a ,
weakened by s ic k n e s s , to a cow d e p riv e d o f food in w in te r .
The h a rs h , r e a l i s t i c images serv e to smother any h i n t o f
s e n t i m e n t a l i t y . The poem i s a f in e example o f S w i f t 's
method o f s e p a ra te p o i n t - b y - p o i n t development o f v e h ic le
and te n o r . As i s t y p i c a l o f many o f S w i f t 's poems, d e t a i l e d
138
d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e v e h ic l e , in t h i s c a se , th e cow, i s p r e
se n te d f i r s t :
Meager and lan k w ith f a s t i n g grown,
And n o th in g l e f t h u t Skin and Bone;
The f a m i s h 't Cow h e r Want s u p p lie s ;
W ithout an Ounce o f l a s t Y e a r 's F le sh ,
W h ate 'er she g a in s i s young and f r e s h ;
Grows plump and round, and f u l l o f M e ttle .
( I I , 759, 11. 7 -8 , 14-17)
Then th e term s o f th e comparison are s t a t e d o b v io u sly :
Why, S t e l l a , should you k n i t your Brow,
I f I compare you to the Cow?
'T is j u s t th e Case: For you have f a s te d
So long t i l l a l l your F lesh i s w asted.
( I I , 759, 11. 21-24)
F i n a l l y , S w ift su g g e sts t h a t S t e l l a , l i k e th e cow, w i l l
f a t t e n up w ith p ro p e r nourishm ent:
And must a g a in s t th e warmer Days
Be s e n t to Q uilca down to g ra z e;
Where M irth , and E x e rc is e , and A ir,
W ill soon your A p p e tite r e p a i r .
The N utrim ent w i l l from w ith in
Round a l l your Body plump y our Skin.
( 1 1 . 25-30)
Images o f sheep in S w i f t 's p o e tr y a re n o t o f te n used
f o r s a t i r i c in v e c t i v e , as th e y r e p r e s e n t more o f te n in n o
cence and h e l p l e s s n e s s r a t h e r than s t u p i d i t y . O c ca sio n ally
S w ift u s e s th e c o n v e n tio n a l comparison o f a c h u r c h 's con
g r e g a tio n to a flo c k o f sheep, and in th e f a b l e s , sheep are
o f te n r e l e g a t e d to th e r o l e o f v ic tim s o f w i l i e r an im als.
Submerged m etaphors o f sheep a re f r e q u e n tly suggested by
S w i f t 's use o f th e verb " fle e c e " to d e s c rib e th e a c t o f
sw indling o r s t e a l i n g .
139
S w ift a ls o adds r e a l i s t i c touches by r e f e r e n c e s to
everyday farm a c t i v i t i e s such as th e m ilking o f cows and
th e feed in g o f p ig s . Even more im p o rtan t i s th e h o r s e -
r i d i n g im agery which i s most o f te n used in submerged m eta
phors., as in a d e s c r i p t i o n o f Mrs. S iccan : "So l o i t r i n g , so
active., so busy., so i d l e . , / Which h a th she most need of., a
Spur o r a B rid le ? " ( I I , 580, 11. 3 -4 ); o r in an epigram
a g a i n s t C arthy: "Your S c h o la rs want th e w h ip ,—I s h a n 't
dem ur;—/ But th e n , I'm su re , f r i e n d C h arles, you want the
spur" ( I I , 6 7 1 ) . In a n o th e r a t t a c k on C arthy "For t h r e a t -
ning th e World w ith a T r a n s la tio n o f P in d a r," S w ift u se s
th e image o f an unmanageable h o rs e :
Thou h a s t s l a i n H orace, what sh o u 'd h in d e r
Thy Muse from f a l l i n g upon P in d a r ?
But e ' e r you mount h i s m e ttle d S teed,
Beware, 0 Bard, how you proceed.
I f you sh o u 'd g iv e him once th e R eins,
High up in A ir h e ' l l tu rn your B ra in s;
And i f you s h o u 'd h i s Fury check,
'T is ten to one, he b reak s your Neck.
( I I , 666)
The most e x te n s iv e use o f h o rse imagery in S w i f t 's
p o e tr y o ccu rs in "A Panegyric on Dean S w if t," a mock l i b e l
a g a in s t S w ift h im s e lf . S w ift f i r s t a llu d e s to h i s e x a l
t a t i o n o f th e Houyhnhnms in G u l l i v e r 's T ra v e ls and then
d evelops a d e t a i l e d comparison o f a statesm an and a d r a f t
h o rs e :
Thus, should I g iv e your Humour p la c e ,
And draw l i k e you my P a t r o n 1s Face;
To pay him Honour due, in Course
I muBt compare him to a Horse;
l4o
Then shew, how Statesm en o f t a re stung
By G nats, and draw th e N a tio n 's Dung,
The s tin k in g Load o f a l l the Crimes,
And N a s tin e s s o f modern Times,
Not only what them selves have ------
For t h a t were n o t u n j u s t a B i t ,
But a l l th e F i l t h b o th S p is s , and Sparse
Of e 'e r y Rogue t h a t wears an ------- .
( I I , 496, 11. 110-121)
A few l i n e s l a t e r Satan i s compared to a h o rs e :
The s im ile would b e t t e r jump,
Were you b u t p l a c 'd on S a t a n 's Rump;
For i f b e s tr o d e by you, Old N—k ,
H im self could sca rc e fo r b e a r to k ic k ,
And cu rse h i s wicked B urthen more
Than a l l th e S ins he ev er b o re .
(11. 136-141)
F i n a l l y S w ift tu r n s a g ain to Book IV o f G u l l i v e r 's T ra v e ls
f o r a metaphor o f a h o rse which e x p re sse s h i s d is e n c h a n t
ment w ith men and e v e n ts :
But Things a re s t r a n g e l y ch an g 'd s in ce th en ,
And Kings a re now no more than Men;
From whence ' t i s p l a i n , they q u ite have l o s t
God's Image, which was once t h e i r B o ast.
For G u lliv e r d i v in e ly shews,
That Humankind a re a l l Yahoos.
Both Envy then and M alice must
Allow y our h a t r e d s t r i c t l y j u s t ;
Since you alone o f a l l th e Race
D isclaim th e Human Name, and Face
And w ith th e V ir tu e s p a n t to wear
(May Heav'n In d u lg e n t h e a r your P r a y 'r ! )
The P roof o f y our h ig h O rlg in e,
The H o rs e ' s Countenance D iv in e .
(11. 165-175)
Images o f donkeys and a s s e s a re a s t a p l e o f s a t i r i c
l i t e r a t u r e , and Sw ift o c c a s io n a ll y u se s th e c o n v e n tio n a l
a s s o c i a t i o n s o f stu b b o rn n ess and s t u p i d i t y to d e s c rib e i n
d iv id u a l f o o ls o r th e mob. He sometimes d e s c r ib e s I r i s h
commoners as "H ibernian A sses" ( I I , 523j 1- 33) j and he
141
w i l l o c c a s io n a ll y d e s c rib e an I n d iv i d u a l who haB made a
f o o l o f h im s e lf as having a c q u ire d a s s e s ' e a r s . In "To Mr.
Congreve" S w ift u s e s t h i s k in d o f imagery to p u t down a
p r e te n d e r to C ongreve's m antle:
Should such a w retch u su rp my CONGREVE'S p la c e ,
And chuse o u t w its who n e 'e r have seen h i s face;
I ' l l be my l i f e b u t th e d u l l c h ea t would p a ss,
Nor need th e l i o n ' s sk in co n ceal the a s s ;
Yes, t h a t b e a u 's look, t h a t v o ic e , those c r i t i c e a r s ,
Must needs be r i g h t , so w e ll resem bling t h e i r s .
( I , 48, 11. 1 6 9- 1 7 4)
And in a f i n e s h o r t b u r s t o f s a t i r i c in v e c t iv e a g a in s t S ir
Thomas P re n d e rg a st th e h a rs h , u g ly sounds are e s p e c i a l l y
a p p r o p r ia te to th e image p r e s e n te d :
Let S i r T , t h a t rampant Ass,
S t u f f h i s Guts w ith Flax and G rass.
( I l l , 831, 11. 63-64)
Even more s i g n i f i c a n t than images d e riv e d from b a rn
y a rd anim als a re th o se d e riv e d from c a t s and dogs. Though
most o f th e se images d e p ic t u g ly o r v ic io u s q u a l i t i e s , some
p le a s a n t images o f S w i f t 's own house p e ts suggest t h a t he
was n o t i n t o l e r a n t o f a n im als. In one o f the poems Lady
Acheson com plains t h a t S w i f t 's anim als r e q u ir e too much
food:
His b race o f Puppies how th ey s t u f f ,
And th ey must have th r e e Meals a Day,
Yet n ev er th in k th ey g e t enough;
His Horses too e a t a l l our Hay.
( I l l , 861, 11. 33-36)
In a n o th e r poem S w ift shows a f f e c t i o n f o r a s ic k c a t:
I p i t i e d my Cat, whom I knew by h e r Mew s ic k ;
She mended a t f i r s t , b u t now s h e 's anew s ic k .
( I l l , 1029, 11. 6 - 7 )
142
A nother p l e a s a n t Image o f a c a t ap p ears a t th e beginning o f
"A D e s c r ip tio n o f a C ity Shower"— "the p en siv e Cat g iv e s
o ' e r / Her P r o lic k s and p u rsu es h e r T a i l no more" ( i , 1 3 6,
11. 3 - 4 ) . However, th e u g ly image o f th e l a s t li n e o f the
poem i s more t y p i c a l o f S w ifts "Dead Cats and Turnip-Tops
come tum bling down th e Flood" ( i , 139* 1. 6 3 ).
In o t h e r poems u n p le a s a n t images o f c a t s a re used f o r
s a t i r i c c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . In "A Fable o f the Widow and
Her Cat" S w ift d e s c r ib e s Queen A nne's d is m is s a l o f M arl
borough a f t e r he had been accused o f embezzlement. In the
poem a g e n tle house c a t (M arlborough), having grown s le e k
and f a t , becomes bold and v ic io u s , s c r a tc h e s th e maid,
s t e a l s th e cream, and t e a r s th e c lo th in g o f h i s m is tr e s s
(Queen Anne). The widow r e t a l i a t e s by sending th e w atch
dog (P arliam en t) a f t e r th e c a t:
So f l a g r a n t i s Thy In s o le n c e ,
So v i l e Thy B reech o f T r u st i s ;
That lo n g e r w ith Thee to D ispense,
Were want o f Pow 'r, o r want o f Sense:
Here, Towzerl—Do Him J u s t i c e .
( I , 1 5 4 7 3 1 7 41-45)
Images o f dogs, th e l a r g e s t s in g le group o f anim als in
S w i f t 's p o e tr y , g e n e r a l l y s t r e s s t h e i r u n d e s ir a b le q u a l
i t i e s . Images o f la p -d o g s , f o r example, emphasize t h e i r
fawning dependence. In a d e s c r i p t i o n o f S t e l l a ' s h o u se
k eep er S w ift w r i t e s :
May Bee have many an evening nap
With Tyger s l a b b 'r i n g in h e r la p .
( I I , 761, 11. 39-40)
143
In a n o th e r passage S w ift d e s c r ib e s fawning w r i t e r s who
compose:
Poems a d d r e s s 'd to g r e a t Men's Whores;
Or o th e r Lap-Dog Cures f o r Sores.
( I I , 494, 11. 35-36)
And in "The B e a s t 's C o n fe ssio n ," S w ift, in a tta c k in g Aesop
f o r endowing anim als w ith human c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p r e f e r s
th e stubborn a ss to th e fawning lap -d o g :
The Ass was n ever known so s tu p id
To a c t th e P a rt o f T ray, o r Cupid;
Nor le a p s upon h i s M a s te r's Lap,
There to be s t r o a k 'd and fed w ith Pap;
As Esop would the World perswade;
He b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d s h i s Trade:
Nor comes w h en e'er h i s Lady w h is tle s ;
B ut, c a r r i e s Loads, and fe e d s on T h i s t l e s .
( I I , 6 0 7 , 1 1 . 2 0 7- 2 1 4)
But S w ift does n o t o f te n r e f e r to re c o g n ize d q u a l i t i e s
o f s p e c i f i c b reed s o f dogs. I n s te a d , when he s a t i r i c a l l y
c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i v i d u a l s , he u s e s such term s as "mongrel"
o r "cur" to su g g est such n e g a tiv e q u a l i t i e s as v ic io u s n e s s
and low b i r t h . He i s fond o f u sin g t h i s kind o f e p i t h e t
in a tta c k in g pow erful p o l i t i c a l enem ies. In a s h o r t poem
e n t i t l e d "The C h a ra c te r o f S ir R obert W a lp o le ," f o r ex
ample, S w ift, a f t e r l i s t i n g charges a g a in s t h i s v ic tim ,
ends w ith th e fo llo w in g summary c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n :
Tho I name n o t th e w retch you know who I mean
T ' i s the Cur dog o f B r i t t a i n and s p a n ie l o f Spain.
( I I , 540, 11. 13-14)
In "Verses on the Death o f Dr. S w ift" S w ift u ses th e e x
p r e s s io n "m ungril Breed" i r o n i c a l l y to d e s c rib e th o se o f
144
noble b i r t h . In e x i l e in I r e l a n d he w i l l l i s t among h i s
f r i e n d s
"No Pools o f Rank, a m ungril Breed,
"Who f a in would p a ss f o r Lords indeed:
"Where T i t l e s g iv e no R ight o r Power,
"And Peerage i s a w i t h e r 'd Flower.
( I I , 570, 11. 437-440)
And in a lampoon e n t i t l e d "T raulus" S w ift u se s d e t a i l e d
imagery o f t h i s type in comparing Lord A llen to a mad dog:
. . . when Towzer snaps
At P e o p le 's H eels w ith f r o th y Chaps:
H ang's down h i s Head, and drops h i s T a il,
To say h e 's mad w i l l n o t a v a i l :
The Neighbours a l l cry , Shoot him dead,
Hang, Drown, o r knock him on th e Head.
So, T rau lu s when he f i r s t h a ra n g u 'd ,
I wonder why he was n o t h a n g 'd :
For o f the two, w ith o u t D isp u te,
Tow zer's th e l e s s o f f e n s iv e B ru te .
( I l l , 797, 11. 35-44)
In p a r t two o f the same poem S w ift r e t u r n s to th e image o f
a mongrel dog to a t t a c k Lord A l l e n 's p r o g e n ito r s :
T rau lu s o f amphibious Breed,
Motly F r u i t o f M ungril Seed:
By th e Dam from L o rd lin g s sprung,
By th e S ir e e x h a l ' d from Dung:
Think on e v 'r y Vice in b o th ,
Look on him and see t h e i r Growth.
( I l l , 799, 11. 1-6)
In some o f th e f a b le s S w ift u se s d e t a i l e d , homely,
r e a l i s t i c images o f dogs to dram atize c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l
a c t i v i t i e s he opposed. In "The Fable o f th e B itc h e s ," f o r
example, S w ift u se s th e image o f a p reg n an t dog to voice
h i s o p p o s itio n to a move to l i f t c e r t a i n r e s t r i c t i o n s
p la c e d upon C a th o lic s and D is s e n te r s . The dog (C a th o lic s
and D i s s e n t e r s ) , given s h e l t e r a t M ustek's House (Church o f
145
E ngland), tu r n s h e r new born a g a in s t h e r b e n e f a c to r ,
d r iv in g h e r o u t o f h e r own house.
With fawning Whine, and r u e f u l Tone,
With a r t f u l Sigh and fe ig n e d Groan,
With couchant C ringe, and f l a t t e r i n g T ale,
Smooth Bawty d id so f a r p r e v a i l ;
That Musick gave h e r Leave to l i t t e r ,
But mark what f o l l o w 'd , —F a ith she b i t h e r.
( I , 208, 1 1 . 13-18)
In "The Dog and th e T h ief" S w ift u se s a fa v o ra b le image o f
a dog in a tta c k in g th e p r a c t i c e o f p o l i t i c a l c a r p e t-
bagging. The s i t u a t i o n o f a ro b b e r t r y i n g to b r ib e a watch
dog w ith food i s compared to a p o l i t i c i a n tr y i n g to buy
v o te s . The d o g 's l o y a l t y to h i s m aster i s meant to serve
as an example f o r v o te r s :
Your d e l i c a t e B i t s w i l l n o t serve me a Meal,
But my M aster each Day g iv e s me Bread;
Y o u 'l l f l y when you g e t what you come h e re to
s t e a l ,
And I must be h a n g 'd in your S tead.
( I I , 395, 11. 5-8)
In a n o th e r poem S w ift u ses dog im agery to a t t a c k th o se who
accused FranciB A tte rb u ry , th e Bishop o f R o ch e ster, o f
tr e a s o n . Sw ift r i d i c u l e s th e a tte m p t o f th e a c c u s e rs to
f in d s e c r e t meanings in e x p re ss io n s such as "lame dog"
which appeared in A t t e r b u r y 's co rrespondence. In so doing,
he u s e s f o r d e ro g a tio n b e s id e s "dog" such term s as " c u r ,"
"w h elp ," "puppy," "hound," and " b i t c h , " and d e s c r ib e s such
common a c t i v i t i e s o f dogs as b a rk in g , how ling, fawning,
e a ti n g , and doing t r i c k s .
146
S w ift o c c a s io n a ll y u se s the image o f a dog to d e sc rib e
c e r t a i n l i t e r a r y phenomena. In "On P o etry : A R ap so d y ," he
a t t a c k s bad p o e ts r
Or o f t when E p i th e ts you lin k ,
In gaping L ines to f i l l a Chinkj
So I have seen i l l - c o u p l e d Hounds,
Drag d i f f - r e n t Ways in miry Grounds.
( I I , 645, 11. 167-168, 175-176)
In a poem c r i t i c i z i n g C a r th y 's w r iti n g s S w ift g iv e s a fr e s h
tu rn to a t r a d i t i o n a l metaphor "the t e e t h o f s a t i r e " by
c o n t r a s t i n g C a r th y rs i n e f f e c t u a l b i t e to t h a t o f a m a s t i f f ,
and a t th e same time r e f e r r i n g to th e b o o k -b in d e r1s use o f
a dog'B tooth:
A M a s t i f f 's t e e t h a re j u s t l y h e ld in vogue,
They b u rn is h p a p er, o r th ey b i t e a rogue:
To n e i t h e r use th y tu sk s c o n tr ib u te r i g h t ,
Too rough to p o l i s h , and too b lu n t to b i t e .
( I I , 672)
Though n o t as numerous o r as im p o rtan t as images de
r i v e d from dom estic an im als, th o se o f w ild anim als appear
f r e q u e n tly in S w i f t 's p o e tr y . These in c lu d e images d e riv e d
from b e a r s , monkeys, l i o n s , le o p a rd s , c r o c o d ile s , foxeB,
wolves, h a r e s , b ad g ers, p o rp o is e s , w hales, and w ild g o a ts .
These a re o fte n used p e r f u n c t o r i l y in c o n v e n tio n a l a s s o c i
a t i o n s such as th e speedy h a re , o r p r e d a to ry fox, o r the
lio n as king o f b e a s t s .
Many images o f w ild anim als a re found in s a t i r i c
a n a lo g ie s , some o f which a re developed im a g in a tiv e ly a t
c o n s id e ra b le le n g th . In "On Mr. P—y Being Put o u t o f the
147
C o u n cil" S w ift com pares W a lp o le 's h a ra ssm e n t by p o l i t i c a l
enem ies to a h a re b e in g p u rsu e d by h o u n d s. A f te r jum ping
i n t o th e sea th e h a r e i s a tta c k e d by d o g - f is h ; d e sc e n d in g
to th e u n d e rw o rld , i t e n c o u n te rs C erberuB ; and, f l y i n g i n t o
th e sky, i t i s c h ase d and m auled by S y r iu s , th e d o g - s t a r :
S y r iu s , th e s w i f t e s t o f th e h e a v n 'l y Pack,
F a i l ' d b u t an In c h to s e iz e him by th e Back.
He f l e d to E a r th , b u t f i r s t i t c o s t him d e a r;
He l e f t h i s S cu t b e h in d , and H a lf an E a r.
( I I , 538, 11. 33-36)
S w ift th e n w i t t i l y a p p l i e s th e im agery o f th e f a b le to
W alpole h im s e lf :
Thus was th e Hare p u r s u 'd , t h o ' f r e e from G u i l t ;
Thus B s h a l ' t thou be m aw l'd, f l y where thou
w i l ' t :
Then h o n e s t R n , o f th y Corps bew are:
Thou a r t n o t h a l f so nim ble a s a H are:
Too p o n d 'ro u s i s th y B ulk to mount th e Sky;
Nor can you go to H e ll b e f o r e you d y e .
So keen th y H u n te r s , and th y S cen t so s tro n g ;
Thy T urns and D o u b lin g s c an n o t save th e e lo n g .
( 1 1 . 37-44)
S w ift em ploys a s i m i l a r te c h n iq u e in "The Bubble";- th e
image o f a w hale b each ed upon a s e a c o a s t i s u se d to warn
th e d i r e c t o r s o f th e S outh Sea Company o f p o s s i b l e r e t r i
b u tio n by sw in d led s to c k h o l d e r s :
Bew are, n o r o v e r-b u lk y grow,
Nor come w ith in y o u r C ullyeB Reach,
F or i f th e Sea sh o u ld s in k so low
To le a v e you d ry upon th e B each,
Y o u 'l l ow Your Ruin to y o u r B ulk;
Your Foes a lr e a d y w a itin g s ta n d
To t e a r you l i k e a fo u n d red Hulk
W hile you ly h e l p l e s s on th e Sand:
148;
Thus when a Whale h a th l o s t th e Tide
The C o aste rs crowd to s e is e th e Spoyl,
The Monster in to P a r t s divide.,
And s t r i p th e Bones, and m elt th e Oyl.
( I , 2 5 8, 1 1 . 193-204)
In "The B e a s t 's C onfession to th e P r i e s t " S w ift u s e s s h o rt
p o r t r a i t s o f v a rio u s anim als to s a t i r i z e such t r a d i t i o n a l
t a r g e t s as d o c to r s , law yers, statesm en , and the c le r g y .
Each o f th e anim als and each r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e p r o
f e s s io n s d e n ie s h i s most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v ic e . The c h a t
t e r i n g ape, f o r example, ta k e s p r id e in h i s s t o i c r e s e r v e
and s t r i c t m oral c h a r a c t e r :
The Mimick Ape began h i s C h a tte r ,
How e v i l Tongues h i s L ife b e s p a t t e r :
Much o f th e c e n s 'r i n g World co m p lain 'd ,
Who s a id , h i s G ra v ity was f e i g n 'd :
Indeed th e S t r i c t n e s s o f h i s Morals
E ngag'd him in a hundred Q u a rre ls.
( I I , 602, 11. 47-52)
Images d e riv e d from lower anim als such as mice, r a t s ,
l i z a r d s , w e a se ls, vermin, salam anders, snakes, worms,
to a d s, and f i s h a re used p r i n c i p a l l y to evoke s a t i r i c d i s
g u s t. In most i n s ta n c e s S w ift e x p l o i t s th e loathsom e o r
v ic io u s q u a l i t i e s o f th e se an im als. In th e "Ode to S ir
W illiam Temple," f o r example, S w ift d e s c r ib e s Tem ple's r e
tir e m e n t from p u b lic l i f e in term s o f a d e f e a t in b a t t l e
a g a in s t a h id eo u s r e p t i l e who r e p r e s e n t s th e enemy o f
v i r t u e a t c o u r t:
What S e r p e n t 's t h a t which s t i l l r e s o r t s .
S t i l l lu r k s in P a la ce s and C o u rts,
See how she r e a r s h e r Head,
And r o l l s a b o u t h e r d r e a d f u l E y es,
149
To drive a l l V ir tu e o u t, o r lo o k I t dead!
And t h o ' he o f t re n e w 'd th e F i g h t *
He n e 'e r c o u ld overcom e h e r q u i t e ,
( in p ie c e s cut., th e V ip e r s t i l l d id r e u n i t e . )
( I , 3 0, 1 1 . 1 1 6- 1 1 7j 1 2 1- 1 2 3, 1 2 9, 1 3 1- 1 3 2)
Two o f S w i f t 's m ost o f f e n s i v e a t t a c k s u se im ages b a se d
upon p o p u la r b e l i e f s a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f w e a se ls and s a l a
m an d ers. I n "The P ro b lem ," S w ift com pares a c e r t a i n "Lord
B " who " s t i n k s , when h e 's in Love— " to a w e a s e l, w hich,
a c c o rd in g to p o p u la r b e l i e f , e m its an o d o r when a ro u s e d :
B ut now, to so lv e th e N a t 'r a l Cause
By s o b e r, P h ilo s o p h ic k Laws,
W hether a l l P a s s io n s , when in F erm ent,
Work o u t, a s Anger does in Vermin?
So, when a W easel you to rm e n t,
You f in d h i s P a s s io n by h i s S c e n t.
( I , 6 5, 1 1 . 1 3- 1 8)
In a n o th e r poem S w ift a t t a c k s a d i s t i n g u i s h e d s o l d i e r ,
B aron C u tts , r i d i c u l i n g h i s nicknam e— " th e S alam an d er"—by
p i l i n g up lo ath so m e im ages o f th e r e p t i l e . In s e p a r a te
e q u a l p a ra g ra p h s S w ift d e s c r ib e s f i r s t th e r e p t i l e , th en
th e B aron:
FIRST th e n , o u r A uthor h a s d e f i n 'd
T h is R e p t i l , o f th e S e rp e n t k in d ,
W ith gawdy C o at, and s h in in g T r a in ,
B ut lo ath so m S p o ts h i s Body s ta i n s
Out from some Hole o b sc u re he f l i e s
When R ain s d e sc e n d , and T em pests r i s e ,
T i l l th e Sun c l e a r s th e A ir j and th e n
C raw ls back n e g le c te d to h i s Den.
SO when th e War h a s r a i s ' d a Storm
I 'v e seen a Snake i n human Form,
A ll s t a i n 'd w ith Infam y and V ic e ,
Leap from th e D u n g h ill in a t r i c e ,
150
B u rn is h and make a gaudy show.
Become a G e n e ra l, Peer., and Beau,
T i l l Peace h a th made th e Sky serene.,
Then s h r in k In to I t s H ole a g a in .
( I , 8 3 , 11. 29-44)
The im ages become i n c r e a s i n g l y more loathsom e a s S w ift r e
f e r s to p o p u la r b e l i e f s t h a t th e c o ld salam an d er w i l l p u t
o u t a f i r e and t h a t i t "Spues a f i l t h y F ro th " t h a t c a u se s
le p r o s y and b a ld n e s s :
FARTHER, we a re by P lin y t o l d
T h is S e rp e n t i s e x tre m e ly c o ld ,
So c o ld , t h a t p u t i t in th e F i r e ,
'T w ill make th e v e ry Flam es e x p ir e ,
B esid e i t Spues a f i l t h y F r o th ,
(W hether t h r o ' Rage o r Love, o r b o th )
Of m a tte r p u r u le n t and w h ite
Which h a p p 'n in g on th e s k in to l i g h t ,
And th e r e c o r r u p tin g to a Wound
S p read s L eprosy and B a ld n e ss ro u n d .
( I , 84, 11. 47-56)
F i n a l l y S w if t com pares th e c o ld sk in and v i r u l e n t spue o f
th e salam an d er to th e c o ld to u c h and c o n ta m in a te d e j e c t i o n
o f "a b a t t e r ' d B e a u / By age and C lap s grown c o ld as Snow":
Whose B re a th o r Touch, wher e ' e r he came,
Blew o u t L o v e 's T orch o r c h i l l ' d th e Flame:
And sh o u ld some Nymph who n e 'e r was c r u e l ,
L ike C a r le to n ch eap , o r fa m 'd D u ru e l,
R eceiv e th e F i l t h w hich he e j e c t s .
She soon w ould f i n d , th e same E f f e c t s ,
H er t a i n t e d C arcase to p u rs u e .
As from th e S a la m a n d e r's Spue;
A d ism a l sh edding o f h e r Locks
And, i f no L ep ro sy , a Pox.
( I , 8 5, 1 1 . 5 8- 6 8 )
S in ce S w ift g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r s im ages o f o b s e r v a b le e n
t i t i e s from e v ery d ay l i f e , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t im ages
o f f i s h and o t h e r c r e a t u r e s o f th e s e a a r e n o t common in
h i s p o e t r y . A few r e f e r e n c e s to s t i n k i n g f i s h o f th e
151
m a rk e tp la c e o c c u r in p a s s a g e s w hich em phasize p h y s i c a l c o r
r u p t i o n . Im ages o f l i f e in th e s e a u s u a l l y a re b a se d on
th e v ic io u s s t r u g g l e f o r s u r v i v a l in w hich th e la r g e e a t
th e s m a ll. In "The B ubble" S w ift u s e s a m etaphor o f t h i s
k in d to d e s c r ib e how th e s w in d le r s p re y upon each o th e rs
One F o o l may f[ r]o m a n o th e r w in.
And th e n g e t o f f w ith Money s t o r 'd ,
B ut i f a S h a rp e r once comes i n .
He th ro w s a t a l l , and sweeps th e B oard.
As F is h e s on each o t h e r p re y
The g r e a t ones s w a ll'w in g up th e sm a ll
So f a r e s i t in th e S o u th ern Sea
B ut Whale D i r e c t o r s e a t up a l l .
( I , 2 5 3, 1 1 . b l - 6 8 )
I n a n o th e r poem S w ift u s e s more d e t a i l e d im ages o f s p e
c i f i c k in d s o f f i s h to d e s c r ib e th e k in d o f v ic io u s p o l i t
i c a l a c t i v i t y t h a t r e s u l t e d in th e u n f a i r im p riso n m en t o f
p u b l i s h e r George F a u lk n e r:
B e t t e r we a l l w ere in o u r G raves
Than l i v e in S la v e ry to S la v e s ,
Worse th a n th e A narchy a t S ea,
Where F is h e s on each o t h e r p re y ;
Where e v 'r y T ro u t can make u s h ig h R an ts
O 'e r h i s I n f e r i o r s as o u r T y r a n ts :
And sw agger w h ile th e C o ast i s c l e a r :
B ut sh o u ld a l o r d l y P ik e a p p e a r.
Away you see th e V a r l e t scu d ,
Or h id e h i s coward Snout in Mud.
T hus, i f a Gudgeon m eet a Roach
He d a re n o t v e n tu re to a p p ro a ch ;
Y et s t i l l h a s Impudence to r i s e ,
And, l i k e D o m itian , le a p a t F ly e s .
( I l l , 824)
Im ages d e r iv e d from b i r d s a r e numerous in S w i f t 's
p o e tr y , and m ost o f them a re e x a c t l y w hat we m ight e x p e c t
from a p o e t who, in h i s p r e f e r e n c e f o r th e u g ly and th e
1 5 2
commonplace* shuns th e b e a u t i f u l and th e e x o tic . Though
n ig h tin g a le s * lin n e ts * and th ru s h e s abound in much o f
E n g lish poetry* in S w i f t 's p o e try we f in d crows* cuckoos*
and sparrow s. Except in a few s a t i r i c contexts* images o f
song b i r d s seldom ap p ear. E q u a lly r a r e a re images o f b i r d s
w ith b e a u t i f u l plumage* as S w ift alm ost n ev er r e f e r s to
c o lo r s o f b i r d s .
Images o f b i r d s in g r a c e f u l f l i g h t a re a lso rare* but
one o r two a re worch m entioning. In "To Mr. Congreve"
Sw ift b r in g s to g e th e r th e two extrem es o f th e chain o f
being* th e wren and th e eagle* in comparing h i s work to
t h a t o f Congreve:
Nor tax th e goddess o f a mean design
To p r a i s e your p a r t s by p u b lis h in g o f mine;
That be my tho u g h t when some la r g e bulky w r i t
Shews in th e f r o n t th e am bition o f my w it;
There to surmount what b e a rs me up* and sing
Like th e v i c t o r i o u s wren p e r c h 'd on th e e a g l e 's
wing;
T his could I do and p ro u d ly o ' e r him tow 'r*
Were my d e s i r e s b u t h e i g h t e n 'd to my p o w 'r.
(I* 44* 11. 33-^0)
In "The Bubble" S w ift ag ain u se s th e image o f an e ag le in
f l i g h t to d e s c rib e th e h ig h hopes o f a p o t e n t i a l v ic tim o f
th e sw indle:
R a i s 'd up on H ope's a s p ir in g Plumes*
The young A d v e n t'r e r o ' e r th e Deep
An E a g l e 's F l i g h t and S ta te assumes*
And sco rn s th e middle Way to keep.
(I* 252* 11. 33-36)
Sw ift then s h i f t s to th e image o f th e i l l - f a t e d Daedalus to
d e s c rib e th e v i c t i m 's f a l l :
153
On P ap er w ings he ta k e s h i s P l i g h t ,
W ith Wax th e F a th e r bound them fa st.,
The Wax i s m e lte d by th e H eight.,
And down th e to w rin g Boy i s c a s t .
(11. 37-40)
S w i f t 's p r e f e r e n c e f o r th e v i o l e n t and th e u g ly i s r e
f l e c t e d in numerous im ages o f b i r d s o f p re y such a s hawks,
v u l t u r e s , and crow s. These a re u s u a l l y found in m etaphors
w hich d e p i c t them fe e d in g upon c a r r i o n . In "D e sire and
P o s s e s s i o n ," f o r exam ple, S w ift ends th e poem w ith a d e
s c r i p t i o n o f P o s s e s s io n , f a l l e n u n d e r th e w e ig h t o f h i s
b u rd e n s , b e in g p ic k e d to d e a th by b i r d s o f p re y :
P o s s e s s i o n ' s Load was grown so g r e a t ,
He sunk b e n e a th th e cumbrous W eight:
And, as he now e x p ir in g la y ,
F lo c k s e v 'r y om inous B ird o f P rey;
The Raven, V u ltu r e , Owl, and K ite ,
At once upon h i s C arcase l i g h t ; •
And s t r i p h i s Hyde, and p ic k h i s B ones,
R e g a rd le s s o f h i s dying G roans.
( I I , 413, 11. 51-58)
In "D eath and Daphne" S w ift u s e s t h i s k in d o f image in a
p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f d e a th a s a b rid eg ro o m , w earin g on h i s
h a t f e a t h e r s from "The Owl, th e Raven, and th e B a t, and
. . . l o t h h i s P erso n to e x p o s e / B a re, l i k e a C arcase
p i c k ' t by Crows" ( I I I , 903, 11. 29, 33-34).
Some o f th e im ages o f t h i s ty p e a re d e r iv e d from pop
u l a r b e l i e f s o r e x p r e s s io n s o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y .
S w ift o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e s th e image o f a v u l t u r e p re y in g upon
a m an 's l i v e r , a p o p u la r e x p r e s s io n o f a n x ie t y , to a t t a c k
a s a t i r i c v ic tim . In "A pollo to Dean S w if t," f o r exam ple,
154
S w ift g o o d n atu red ly w ishes punishm ent on h i s f r i e n d ,
Delanyr
Since Delany h as d a r 'd , l i k e Prometheus h i s S ir e ,
To climb to our Region, and thence to s t e a l F ir e ;
We o r d e r a V u ltu re , in Shape o f th e Spleen,
To prey on hiB L iv e r, b u t n o t to be seen.
( I , 266, 11. 95-98)
A s i m i l a r image ap p ears in "Prom etheus," an a t t a c k upon
W illiam Wood. Sw ift f i r s t d e s c r ib e s th e agony o f P ro
metheus, then u se s the same images to su g g est t h a t Wood be
hanged f o r h i s c o r r u p t a c t i v i t i e s :
Prometheus on a Rock i s l a i d ,
T y'd w ith the Chain h im s e lf had made;
On Ic y Caucasus to s h iv e r ,
While V u ltu re s e a t h i s growing L iv er:
But Jove w i l l soon c o n v ert I hope,
This Brazen Chain i n t o a Rope;
With which Prometheus s h a l l be t y 'd .
And h ig h in A ir f o r e v er r i d e ;
Where, i f we f in d h i s L iv er grows,
For want o f V u ltu re s , we have Crows.
( I , 346, 11. 53-58, 71-76)
In s t i l l o th e r p assag es Sw ift f o r s a t i r i c c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n
u s e s images d e riv e d from th e p o p u la r b e l i e f s t h a t the
o s t r i c h w i l l e a t alm ost any th in g ( I I , 352, 11. I I 3 5- I I 3 6)
and t h a t th e crow e a t s i t s own o f f a l ( I I , 479* 11. 121-122).
O c ca sio n a lly Sw ift u se s images d e riv e d from b i r d s f o r
s a t i r i c c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n in th e f a b l e s . In "The W — d s —r
P rophecy," f o r example, a poem supposedly two hundred y e a r s
o ld , S w ift, uBing th e m edieval device o f a p a rlia m e n t o f
fow ls, c h a r a c t e r i z e s the E a r l o f Nottingham as a " t a l l ,
b la c k , Daventry B ir d ," and th e Duke o f Marlborough as a
155
"Harpy t h a t craw ls on a l l fo u r" ( I , 147, 11. 6 -1 1 ) . In
"An Answer to Dr. D e lan y 's Fable o f th e P heasant and the
Lark" S w ift d e s c rib e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s e v e r a l b i r d s , I n
c lu d in g th e daw, pigeon, n ig h t i n g a l e , hawk, p h e a s a n t, la r k ,
peacock, and owl. S w i f t 's r e j e c t i o n o f c o n v e n tio n a l im
a gery i s w e ll i l l u s t r a t e d by a passage which r i d i c u l e s
D e lan y 's ch o ice o f th e peacock as king o f b i r d s :
You see him f i r s t th e Peacock b r in g ,
A g ain st a l l R ules to be a King:
That in h i s T a il he wore h i s Eyes,
By which he grew b o th r i c h and w ise.
Now pray observe th e D o c to r's Choice,
A Peacock chose f o r F l i g h t and Voice:
Did e v er m o rta l see a Peacock
Attem pt a F l i g h t above a Haycock?
And f o r h i s s in g in g , D octor, you know,
H im self co m p lain 'd o f i t to J u n o .
He sq u a ls in such a h e l l i s h Noise
I t f r i g h t e n s a l l th e V illa g e Boys.
( I I , 513, 11. 15-26)
The u n p le a s a n t v o ic e s and p h y s ic a l u n g a in lin e s s o f
b arn y ard fow l—g e ese , ducks, and c h ic k e n s — p ro v id ed Sw ift
w ith images f o r s a t i r i c a n a lo g ie s . He found th e image o f
a goose p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r a tta c k in g bad p o e ts . In
one o f th e Epigrams a g a in s t C arthy, th e p o et f in d s h im s e lf
changed to a goose:
Once Horace fa n c ie d from a Man
He was tr a n s f o r m 'd in to a Swan,
But C arthy, as from him thou l e a r n e s t ,
Has made th e Man a Goose in e a r n e s t .
( I I , 6 6 6 , 11. 1-4)
One o f S w i f t 's most d e l i g h t f u l poems, "The P ro g re ss o f
P o e t r y , " compares in d e t a i l an o v e rfe d goose and a s e l f -
s a t i s f i e d Grub S t r e e t p o e t:
156
The P a rm e r's Goose, who In th e S tu b b le,
Has fed w ith o u t R e s t r a i n t , o r T rouble;
Grown f a t w ith Corn and S i t t i n g s t i l l .
Can sca rc e g e t o ' e r the Barn-Door S i l l :
And h a r d ly waddles f o r t h , to cool
Her B e lly in th e n e ig h b 'r in g Pool:
Nor lo u d ly c a c k le s a t th e Door;
For C ackling shews th e Goose 1 b poor.
( I , 230, 11. 1-8)
Such i s th e P oet, f r e s h in Pay,
(The t h i r d N i g h t 's P r o f i t s o f h i s P la y ;)
His M orning-Draughts ' t i l l Noon can s w i l l ,
Among h i s B re th re n o f th e Q u ill:
With good R oast B eef h i s B e lly f u l l .
Grown la z y , foggy, f a t , and d u l l :
Deep sunk in P le n ty and D e lig h t,
What Poet e ' e r could ta k e h i s P li g h t?
Or s t u f f e d w ith Phlegm up to th e T hroat
What Poet e ' e r could sin g a Note?
( 11. 17- 26)
Only when lean and hungry does th e goose tak e wing o r the
p o et f in d i n s p i r a t i o n to w r ite :
But when she must be t u r n 'd to g ra z e ,
And round th e b a rre n Common s t r a y s .
Hard E x e rc is e and h a r d e r Pare
Soon make my Dame grow lan k and sp a re :
Her body l i g h t , she t r i e s h e r Wings,
And sco rn s th e Ground, and upward s p r in g s ,
While a l l th e P a r is h , as she f l i e s ,
Hear Sounds harmonious from th e S k ie s.
( 11. 9- 16)
But view him in a n o th e r Scene,
When a l l h i s d rin k i s H ippocrene,
His Money s p e n t, h i s P a tro n s f a i l .
His C re d it o u t f o r Cheese and Ale;
His Two-Year's Coat so smooth and b a re ,
Through e v 'r y Thread i t l e t s in A ir;
With hungry Meals h i s Body p i n 'd ,
His Guts and B e lly f u l l o f Wind;
And, l i k e a Jockey f o r a Race,
His F le sh b ro u g h t down to F ly in g -C ase:
Now h i s e x a lt e d S p i r i t l o a th s
Incumbrances o f Food and C lo a th s;
And up he r i s e s l i k e a Vapour,
Supported h ig h on Wings o f Paper;
157
He s in g in g f l i e s , and f l y i n g s in g s ,
While from below a l l G r u b - s tr e e t r i n g s .
(11. 31-46)
In "The P r o g re s s o f M arriag e" S w ift u s e s a n o th e r im a g in a
t i v e image o f b a rn y a rd fow l to d e s c r ib e a c u ck o ld e d c l e r g y
m an 's r e l u c t a n c e to a p p ro a ch a p o o l in w hich h i s w ife and
h e r f r i e n d s a re b a th in g :
Where i f th e Dean by chance a p p e a rs
I t shames h i s C assock and h i s Y ears
He k eep s h i s d i s t a n c e in th e G a lle r y
T i l l b a n i s h t by some Coxcombs R a i l l e r y ;
F o r, i t w ould h i s C h a r a c te r Expose
To b a th among th e B e l le s and Beaux.
So have I seen w ith in a Pen
Young D u c k lin g s, f o s t e r e d by a Hen;
B ut when l e t o u t, th e y ru n and muddle
As I n s t i n c t le a d s them , in a P u d d le;
The s o b e r Hen n o t b o rn to swim
W ith m o u rn fu l N ote c lo c k s ro u n d th e Brim .
( I , 294, 11. 139-150)
Im ages d e r iv e d from i n s e c t s a p p e a r f r e q u e n t l y and con
s i s t e n t l y i n S w i f t 's p o e tr y from th e e a r l y odes th ro u g h th e
l a t e s a t i r e s . As w ith o t h e r im ages o f an im a l l i f e S w ift
p r e f e r s to u se th e common v a r i e t i e s , f l i e s , m oths, f l e a s ,
l i c e , l o c u s t s , and g n a t s , and to e x p l o i t t h e i r o b n o x io u s
q u a l i t i e s . P le a s a n t im ages o f such i n s e c t s a s b e e s ,
b u t t e r f l i e s , o r d r a g o n - f l i e s a r e r a r e in S w i f t 's p o e tr y .
A lm ost a l l o f th e im ages o f i n s e c t s i n S w i f t 's p o e tr y
a r e u se d f o r s a t i r i c p u rp o s e s . In th e e a r l y p a n e g y r ic s
S w ift o c c a s i o n a l l y e l e v a t e s h i s h e ro e s by d e f l a t i n g
enem ies o r i n f e r i o r s to th e l e v e l o f i n s e c t s . In h i s f i r s t
poem, "Ode to th e K in g ," f o r exam ple, S w ift d e s c r ib e s th o s e
158
who seek r o y a l fa v o r as I n s e c t s drawn to and d e stro y ed by
a b r i g h t flam e:
W h ilst a t Your V ic to r io u s L ig h t
A ll l e s s e r ones expire.,
Consume, and p e r i s h from our s i g h t ,
J u s t as th e Sun p u ts out a F ir e ;
And every f o o l i s h Flye t h a t d a re s to aim
To buzz about th e mighty Flame;
The w retched I n s e c t s singe t h e i r Wings, and f a l l ,
And humbly a t th e bottom craw l.
( I , 9, 11. 111-118)
In the "Ode to Congreve" S w ift u ses a s i m i l a r image to con
t r a s t C ongreve's g en iu s to t h a t o f i n f e r i o r w r i t e r s
. . . who by w ild d e lu s io n s e n t e r t a i n
A l u s t o f rhim ing f o r a p o e t 's v e in ,
R aise e n v y 's clouds to leav e them selves in n ig h t,
But can no more obscure my CONGREVE'S l i g h t
Than swarms o f g n a ts , t h a t wanton in a ra y
Which gave them b i r t h , can rob th e w orld o f day.
( I , 45, 11. 77-82)
S w ift then expands th e m etaphor u sin g c o n tr a s ti n g images
from th e l i f e c y cle o f th e b u t t e r f l y in d e s c rib in g Con
g r e v e 's c r i t i c s as schoolboys newly a r r i v e d from the
co u n try :
What n o rth e rn h iv e p o u r 'd o u t th e s e foes to w it?
Whence came th e se Goths to overrun th e p i t ?
How would you b lu sh th e shameful b i r t h to h e a r
Of th o se you so ig n o b ly stoop to f e a r ;
For, i l l to them, long have I t r a v e l l ' d sin ce
Round a l l th e c i r c l e s o f im p e rtin e n c e ,
S e a rc h 'd in th e n e s t where every worm d id l i e
B efore i t grew a c i t y b u t t e r f l y ;
I'm sure I found them o th e r k in d o f th in g s
Than th o se w ith backs o f s i l k and golden wings;
A se a rc h , no doubt, as c u rio u s and as wise
As v i r t u o s o e s ' in d i s s e c t i n g f l i e s ;
For, could you th in k ? th e f i e r c e s t fo es you dread,
And c o u rt in p ro lo g u e s, a l l a re c o u n try -b re d ;
Bred in my scene, and f o r th e p o e t 's s in s
A d jo u rn 'd from to p s and grammar to th e in n s ;
Those beds o f dung where schoolboys sp ro u t up beau
Far sooner than the n o b le r mushroom grows.
( I , 46, 11. 83-100)
Again, In "Ode to th e A thenian S o ciety " S w ift u s e s the
Image o f I n s e c t s a t t r a c t e d to l i g h t to d e s c rib e th e f a s
c in a t io n f o r w it o f men o f le a r n in g :
And a l l we F ools, who a re the g r e a t e r p a r t o f i t ,
Tho 1 we be o f two d i f f e r e n t F a c tio n s s t i l l .
Both the G o o d -n atu r'd and th e 111,
Yet w h e re so e 're you look y o u ' l l always f in d
We j o i n l i k e F ly e s , and Wasps, in b u z z in g a b o u t W it.
( I , 18, 11. 71-75)
Though Sw ift in the e a r l y poems l i m i t s th e use o f in
s e c t imagery to a tta c k s upon v a g u e ly -d e fin e d groups o f
i n d i v i d u a l s , in the l a t e r poems he sometimes u se s i t to
a t t a c k s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u a l s . In "Wood, an I n s e c t" Sw ift
develops most o f h i s images from puns upon h i s v i c t i m 's
name. In a d e t a i l e d comparison o f W illiam Wood to the
wood lo u se , th e wood worm, and th e maggot, S w ift shows a
knowledge o f entomology:
BY long O bservation I have u n d e rsto o d ,
That th r e e l i t t l e Vermin a re kin to W ill. Wood:
The f i r s t i s an In B e ct th e y c a l l a Wood-L o u se,
That f o ld s up i t s e l f in i t s e l f f o r a House:
As round as a B a ll, w ith o u t Head w ith o u t T a i l ,
I n c l o s 'd Cap-a-pee in a stro n g Coat o f M ail.
And th u s W illiam Wood to my fancy appears
In F i l l e t s o f B rass r o l l ' d up to h i s E ars:
And over th e se F i l l e t s he w isely has thrown,
To keep out o f Danger, a Doublet o f Stone.
THE Louse o f th e Wood f o r a M ed 'cin e i s u s 'd ,
Or sw allow 'd a l i v e , o r s k i l f u l l y b r u i s 'd .
THE T h ird i s an I n s e c t we c a l l a Wood-Worm,
T hat l i e s in o ld Wood l i k e a h a re in h e r Form;
160
With Teeth o r w ith Claws i t w i l l b i t e o r w i l l sc ra tc h ,
And Chambermaids c h r i s t e n t h i s Worm a Death-Watch:
Because li k e a Watch i t always c r i e s C lic k .
( I , 350-351, 11. 1-12, 17-21)
S w ift goes on to suggest t h a t j u s t as i n f e s t e d wood may be
saved by sc a ld in g th e wood worm w ith h o t w a ter, so I r e l a n d
may be saved by the sc a ld in g o f W illiam Wood. In "Van-
b r u g ' s House" S w ift, in r i d i c u l i n g th e e f f o r t s o f a would-
be p la y w rig h t, draws h i s images from th e l i f e - c y c l e o f the
silkworm. Like the silkworm, the p la y w rig h t i s doomed to
d ie a f t e r a b o rtiv e a tte m p ts to take f l i g h t :
There i s a Worm by Phoebus b re d ,
By Leaves o f M ulberry i s fed;
Which unprovided where to d w ell,
Consumes i t s e l f to weave a C e ll.
Then c u rio u s Hands t h i s T exture ta k e ,
And f o r them selves f in e Garments make.
Mean time a P a ir o f awkward Things
Grew to h i s Back in s t e a d o f Wings;
He f l u t t e r s when he Thinks he f l y e s ,
Then sheds about h i s Spaun, and dyes.
J u s t such an I n s e c t o f th e Age
I s he t h a t s c r i b b l e s f o r th e Stage;
His B i r t h he does from Phoebus r a i s e ,
And feed s upon im a g in 'd Bays:
Throws a l l h i s W itt and Hours away
In tw is tin g up an i l l - s p u n Play:
This g iv e s him Lodging, and p ro v id e s
A Stock o f tawdry S t u f f b e s id e s .
With th e u n r a v e lld Shreds o f which
The U nder-w its adorn t h e i r Speech.
And now he spreads h i s l i t t l e Pans,
(For a l l the Muses Geese a re Swans)
And borne on f a n c y 's P in io n s, th in k s ,
He so ars su b lim e st when he S inks:
But s c a t t ' r i n g round h i s P ly-blow s, dyes;
Whence Broods o f i n s e c t P oets r i s e .
( i , 79-80, 11. 29-54)
Images o f i n s e c t s in S w i f t 's p o e try a re n o t e n t i r e l y
r e s t r i c t e d to m e ta p h o ric al c o n te x ts . They sometimes appear
161:
in s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p h y s ic a l decay and c o r
r u p ti o n . S w ift i s fond o f u s in g th e se images in mock-
p a s t o r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f women in which th ey serv e as p a r t
o f th e p a r a p h e r n a lia f o r s a t i r i c d e f l a t i o n o f th e rom antic
i d e a l . Thus "Queen o f Wit and B eauty, B e tty " has a
f r e c k le d neck "Like a fly-blow n cake o f ta llo w " ( I I , 522-
5 2 3, 11. 1, 7 ); C orinna, h e ro in e o f "A B e a u tif u l Young
Nymph Going to Bed," awakens to f in d "her T resses f i l l ' d
w ith P le a s" ( I I , 5 8 3,' 1. 6 4 ); and Sheelah, the h e ro in e o f
"A P a s t o r a l D ia lo g u e," i s accused by h e r lo v e r o f c rack in g
a n o t h e r 's l i c e between h e r n a i l s ( i l l , 8 8 2, 1 . 3 6).
In a d d itio n to th e la rg e number o f d i r e c t com parisons
o f men and an im als, S w i f t 's p o e tr y a ls o c o n ta in s a g r e a t
many i n d i r e c t o r submerged m etaphors which su g g est m an's
c lo se r e l a t i o n s h i p to anim al l i f e . In h i s d e s c r i p t i o n s o f
men and t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s S w ift, o f te n by use o f a s in g le
word o r p h ra se , w i l l reduce man to th e l e v e l o f the anim al.
In d e s c r ib in g th e sound o f th e human v o ic e , f o r example,
S w ift w i l l f r e q u e n tly evoke anim al images by use o f such
term s as r o a r , h i s s , whine, c ro a k , s n a r l , b u z z , p a n t , o r
b e llo w . In d e s c r i p t i o n s o f p a r t s o f th e human body Sw ift
o f te n u s e s such anim al images as claw s, paws, g u l l e t , sn o u t,
f la n k , h i d e , rump, g r i n d e r s , and c a r c a s s . In d e s c r i p t i o n s
o f human b o d ily movement and f u n c tio n , anim al comparison 1 b
su g g ested by such term s as w addle, stam p, wallow, r e a r ,
craw l, w rig g le , c r e e p , ram b le, f r i s k a b o u t, n e s t l e , c rin g e ,
s o a r , f l u t t e r , g o b b le, fawn, spawn, l i t t e r , and b r e e d .
Submerged m etaphors o f v i o l e n t anim al a c t i v i t y , sug
g e s te d by such term s as s c r a t c h , b i t e , swarm, dev o u r,
t e a r , and maul, a re u sed to d e s c rib e v a rio u s ty p e s o f human
h o s t i l i t y . The Image su g g ested by th e word maul, l i k e t h a t
o f th e word l a s h , d is c u s s e d above. I s used f r e q u e n tly to
d e s c rib e S w i f t 's own s a t i r i c a t t a c k s upon s p e c i f i c i n d i
v id u a ls . Of W illiam Wood, f o r example, S w ift w r i t e s :
But now, s in c e th e D ra p ie r h a th h e a r t i l y m a u l'd him,
I t h i n k th e b e s t Thing we can do i s to s c a ld him .
( I , 351, 11. 33-3^)
In "V erses on th e D eath o f D r. S w ift" S w ift u s e s t h i s image
a g a in in a p a ss a g e w hich d e s c r ib e s th e e f f e c t s o f h i s p o
l i t i c a l s a t i r e :
ST. JOHN, as w e ll as FULTNEY knows,
That I had some r e p u te f o r Prose;
And t i l l th e y drove me o u t o f D ate,
Could maul a M in is te r o f S t a t e .
( I I , 555, 11. 59-62)
But though S w i f t 's anim al im ages, l i k e so many o f the
o t h e r c a te g o r ie s o f im ages, a re alm ost always used to de
f l a t e man and to p o in t to h i s i n f i r m i t i e s ; th e purpose o f
t h i s d e f l a t i o n i s to le a d him to th e good. Even when th e
poems a re pure i n v e c t i v e , in th e background looms S w i f t 's
neo-humanism. Always th e r e i s an i m p l i c i t c o n t r a s t b e
tween what i s (th e bad) and what could and should be (th e
good). Thus, in "To Mrs. Biddy Floyd" "T ruth, Innocence,
Good N a tu re , Look seren e" ( I , 118, 1. 4) and "B reeding,
and W it, and A ir, and decen t P rid e" ( I , 118, 1. 8 ) a re the
■wheat t h a t i s s o r te d from th e c h a f f : "th e Demure, th e Auk
ward, and th e Coy" ( I , 118, 1. 6 ) as w e ll as th e "Nice,
Coquet, A ffe c te d , P e r t, and Vain" ( I , 118, 1. 10). I f
Sw ift seems to dw ell on the c h a f f , i t i s always w ith the
i n t e n t i o n o f le ad in g man to th e wheat.
CHAPTER V II
A REVIEW OP THE REACTION OP CRITICS TO
SWIFT'S IMAGES BEFORE AND AFTER 1900
S w i f t ’s a t t a c k on the m oral d e p ra v ity o f h i s age., and
hiB d e te rm in a tio n to see th in g s e x a c tly as they a r e , Bet
him a g a in s t th e emerging id e a lis m and s e n t i m e n t a l i t y o f
e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y l i f e and th o u g h t. J u s t as S w ift r e
je c t e d th e changing world o f th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , so
t h a t w orld in tu r n r e j e c t e d him. Harsh c r i t i c i s m o f h i s
p o e tr y began s h o r t l y a f t e r h i s d eath and co n tin u ed w ith
h a rd ly a d is s e n tin g voice through th e n in e te e n th and w e ll
in to the tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . But a g ra d u a l a p p r e c ia tio n o f
S w ift as p o e t has developed in our own tim e, an age which
has o f te n seen f i t to l i f t th e v e i l t h a t the n in e te e n th
c e n tu r y f r e q u e n tly p r e f e r r e d to draw o v er th e h a rs h r e
a l i t i e s o f l i f e .
Like S w ift, many tw e n tie th - c e n tu r y p o e ts and c r i t i c s
have found them selves d isen c h a n te d by a ra p id ly -c h a n g in g ,
m o rally -d ep rav ed world in which th e s p i r i t o f optimism
seems in co n g ru o u s. Like S w ift a ls o many modern p o e ts have
tu rn e d to th e u g ly , d is c o r d a n t a s p e c ts o f l i f e to f i n d ma
t e r i a l s f o r t h e i r p o e tr y . T w e n tie th -c e n tu ry c r i t i c s have
164
165
I n c r e a s in g ly follow ed th e le a d o f tw e n tie th - c e n tu r y p o e ts
In r e d e f in in g th e b o u n d a rie s o f s u b je c t m a tte r thought f i t
f o r p o e try . As a r e s u l t , th e p r i n c i p a l b a r r i e r to a sym
p a t h e t i c re a d in g o f S w i f t 's v erse has been removed; hiB
" a n t i - p o e t i c Imagery" no lo n g e r a u to m a tic a lly d i s q u a l i f i e s
h i s work from s e r io u s c o n s id e r a tio n as p o e try .
N egative r e a c t i o n to S w i f t 's p o e try was encouraged by
changing l i t e r a r y t a s t e s a f t e r 1750 t h a t r e f l e c t e d th e de
velopment o f stro n g s ta n d a rd s o f l i t e r a r y p r o p r i e t y . With
th e trium ph o f th e school o f s e n s i b i l i t y , h a rs h language
and u g ly , s c a t o l o g i c a l Imagery became l e s s a c c e p ta b le , p a r
t i c u l a r l y In p o e tr y and drama. The tendency, which we
a s s o c i a t e w ith th e V ic to r ia n Age, to Ignore c e r t a i n b o d ily
fu n c tio n s , had begun s tr o n g ly to a f f e c t l i t e r a r y t a s t e as
e a r l y as the middle o f the e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry . Two e a r l y
c r i t i c s o f S w i f t 's p o e try , Lord O rrery and P a t r i c k Delany,
s e t the tone o f much o f the c r i t i c i s m o f th e n e x t 150 y e a r s
by p r o t e s t i n g a g a in s t S w i f t 's emphasis on c e r t a i n b o d ily
fu n c tio n s . O rrery , d is tu r b e d by th e u g ly Imagery o f the
s c a t o l o g i c a l poems, w r i t e s ,
. . . b u t l e t h i s views have been ev er so b e n e f i c i a l h i s
g e n e r a l want o f d e lic a c y and decorum must n o t hope to f in d
even the shadow o f an excuse; f o r I t I s Im possible n o t to
own t h a t he a l l too f r e q u e n tly f o r g e t s t h a t p o l i t e n e s s
and te n d e rn e s s o f manners, which a re undoubtedly due to
human k i n d . l
■'■John Boyle (E a rl o f O rre ry ), Remarks on th e L ife and
W ritin g o f Jonathan S w ift (London, 1752), p. 119-
166
A f r i e n d o f S w if t'S j Delany., a ls o offen d ed by th e sca to lo g y ,
made no e f f o r t to examine S w i f t 's m otives o r aims in the
poems. In a r e p ly to O rrery , Delany b r i e f l y surveys the
s c a to lo g y and blames S w i f t 's p ru rie n c y on h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p
w ith Pope:
This a lso I know w ith utm ost c e r t a i n t y ; t h a t th e d e f i l e
ment became much more conspicuous, upon h i s r e t u r n from
h i s f i r s t long v i s i t to Mr. Pope and t h a t a l l the time I
had th e honour to be known to him, a n tec e d en t to t h i s
e r a , h i s id e a s and h i s s t y l e th roughout th e whole course
o f h i s c o n v e rsa tio n were rem arkably d e l i c a t e , p u re, b e
yond th o se o f most men I was a cq u a in te d w i t h . 2
Romantic and V ic to r ia n c r i t i c s were even more s tr o n g ly
d is tu r b e d by the u g ly elem ents in S w i f t 's w r i t i n g s .
C olerid g e a tta c k e d S w i f t 's works " fo r th e v a s t q u a n tity o f
p h y s ic a l d i r t w ith which they a b o u n d , and Macaulay ob
serv ed t h a t S w i f t 's mind was " r i c h l y s to r e d w ith images
„4
from th e d u n g -h i11 and the l a z a r - h o u s e . Thackeray was so
d is tu r b e d by S w i f t 's la c k o f r e s t r a i n t t h a t he f i r e d a
m arvelous b l a s t a t S w ift h im s e lf:
. . . a m onster g ib b e rin g s h r ie k s , and gnashing im preca
t i o n s a g a in s t mankind t e a r in g down a l l shreds o f modesty,
2
P a tr i c k Delany, O bservations upon Lord O r r e r y 's Re
marks on th e L ife and W ritin g o f Jonathan Sw ift (D ublin,
1754), p. 51.
^Samuel T aylor C o lerid g e, "On Wit and Humor," L ecture
IX, M iscellaneous C r i t i c i s m , ed. T. M. Raysor (Cambridge,
M ass~ 1936), p. 114.
^Thomas Babington Macaulay (re v . o f Lord Mahon's The
HiBtory o f th e War o f Succession in S p a in ), Edinburgh Re-
167
past all sense of manliness and shame; filthy In word,
filthy In thought, furiouB, raging, obscene.5
Talne chided S w ift f o r w r itin g p o e tr y which exposed u g ly
r e a l i t y , and found th e images o f such poems as "A D e s c rip
t i o n o f a C ity Shower" p a r t i c u l a r l y o f f e n s iv e :
When he w ishes to p a i n t th e r a i n , he d e s c r ib e s " f i l t h
o f a l l hues and o d o u rs ," th e " sw e llin g k e n n e ls ," the
"dead c a t s , " " tu r n ip t o p s ," " s t in k in g s p r a t s , " which
"come tum bling down th e f lo o d ." His long v e rs e s w h ir l a l l
t h i s f i l t h in t h e i r e d d ie s . We sm ile to see p o e tr y d e
graded to t h i s u se ; we seem to be a t a masquerade; i t i s
a queen t r a v e s t i e d in to a rough co u n try g i r l . We sto p ,
we look on, w ith the s o r t o f p le a s u r e we f e e l in d rin k in g
a b i t t e r d r a u g h t.°
The v alu es assumed h e re a re q u i t e c u rio u s to th e tw e n tie th -
c e n tu ry c r i t i c , and a t tim es anathema, e s p e c i a l l y T a in e 's
i m p l i c i t view t h a t p o e tr y should be w r i t t e n about b eau ty
e x clu siv e ly .
Again and again c r it ic s in the nineteenth century,
disturbed by the harsh imagery, had accused Swift of
writing non-poetry, and on grounds that were informed by
values quite sim ilar to those o f Taine. Gerald Moriarty,
as la te as 1892, finds Swift "non-poetic" in that he over
looks the picturesque in nature:
view, January 1833. Quoted from Macaulay's H isto rica l Es
says (London, 1913)^ P- 224.
^William Makepeace Thackeray, "Swift," English Humor-
i s t s o f the Eighteenth Century, Gray Walls Press ed ition
(London, 1949)7 p. 3&.
£
H ippolyte T aine, A H is to ry o f E n g lish L i t e r a t u r e ,
t r a n s . H. Van Laun (Edinburgh, 1873)j I I L 2 3 7.
168
Another c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e p o e t, love o f n a t u r a l
scenery., i s a ls o a b se n t from S w i f t 's w r i t i n g s . The man
w ith th e muckrake, he sees n o th in g save th e u s u a l s u r
ro u n d in g s and ap pearances o f everyday l i f e . S w i f t 's
r e a lis m , to u se a modern term , i s so in te n s e and so i l l -
d i r e c t e d , t h a t i t m isses th e p i c t u r e s q u e . 7
E a r l i e r , James R u s s e ll Lowell had e x p re ssed s i m i l a r m is
g iv in g s over th e s u b je c t m a tte r o f S w i f t 's p o e tr y , s t a t i n g
t h a t i t was
m isle ad in g to t a l k o f th e p o e tr y o f one whose f a t a l g i f t
was an eye t h a t d i s i d e a l i z e d , and who had done more than
a l l o th e r s to g e th e r to s t r i p l i f e and human n a tu re o f
t h e i r l a s t i n s t i n c t i v e decency o f i l l u s i o n . 8
O th ers, such as Mary Suddard, th e f i r s t tw e n tie th - c e n tu r y
c r i t i c to c o n s id e r S w i f t 's v e rs e from a l i t e r a r y r a t h e r
than a b i o g r a p h ic a l p o in t o f view, went so f a r as to sug
g e s t t h a t S w i f t 's h a rs h im agery r e f l e c t e d h i s h a t r e d f o r
p o e tr y and h i s i n t e n t i o n to d e s tr o y i t . For S w ift, she
say s, p o e tr y , "born o f an u n h e a lth y s t a t e o f mind . . . has
no o t h e r purpose than to p ro p a g a te i l l u s i o n . I t s e f f e c t on
mankind i s to p e r v e r t th e sense o f r e a l i t y . T h erefo re th e
duty o f th e p h ilo s o p h e r i s to r e a c t by h i s own example
a g a in s t th e p e r n ic io u s i n f l u e n c e ." ^ S w i f t 's " f i d e l i t y to
r e a l i s m ," Miss Suddard c o n tin u e s ,
7
G erald M o ria rty , Dean S w ift and H is W ritin g s (London,
1892), p. 297.
O
James R u s s e ll Low ell, " S w ift," The F u n ctio n o f the
Poet and O ther E ssays (Boston, 1920), pp. 173-199.
^Mary Suddard, " S w i f t 's P o e tr y ," K eats, S h e lle y , and
Shakespeare: S tu d ie s and E ssays in E n g lish L i t e r a t u r e
(Cambridge, England, 1912), p. 2 3 2 .
r ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ^
i when a p p lie d to th e sphere o f mankind, g iv e s him, as h i s j
! o n ly s u b j e c t s , th e morbid, th e g h a s tl y , th e obscene, and
| even th e f e t i d . Psychology w i l l serv e o n ly to d i s c l o s e '
th e b a se n e ss o f th e s o u l, keenness o f s i g h t to n o te !
p h y s ic a l d e f o r m it ie s , im a g in a tio n to awaken id e a s t h a t j
m ight be th o u g h t unavowable . . . . Such i s th e d ev ice :
in h i s p o s i t i v e p o e tr y : he e lim in a te s every elem ent o f
b e a u ty , in o r d e r to le av e o n ly th e r e p u l s i v e elem en ts,
; and subm its th e s e to an im a g in a tiv e tre a tm e n t c a r ry in g
them beyond th e bounds o f a l l co n ce iv a b le r e p u ls iv e n e s s ,
i ;
jMiss Suddard c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e s a b a s ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f j
| !
I S w i f t 's im agery— e lim in a tio n o f th e b e a u t i f u l and emphasis
Ion th e r e p u l s i v e —b u t w ith h e r , a s w ith many o th e r c r i t i c s , !
j
Imoral r e v u ls io n i n h i b i t s more p e n e t r a t i n g a n a l y s i s . ;
i
Pew o f th e e a r l i e r c r i t i c s were a b le to come to g r i p s j
w ith th e problem o f S w i f t ’s heavy dependence upon th e
; j
h a r s h , p h y s ic a l r e a l i t i e s o f everyday l i f e . Pew seem to j
ihave c ared much o r p a id much a t t e n t i o n to S w i f t 's avowed |
:or e x p l i c i t aims in th e poems, much l e s s to h i s l e s s ob- i
| I
I
Ivious, o r u n d e c la re d , aim s. Most o f th e e a r l i e r c r i t i c s i
I
ifound t h a t S w ift d id n o t f i t t h e i r n o tio n o f p o e tr y , and so
'he was ip s o f a c to damned. Most o f them seem to have f o r - j
g o tte n an im p o rta n t p o i n t — t h a t S w ift, in th e m a jo r ity o f
h i s poems, was f i r s t o f a l l a s a t i r i s t . Those who d id j
i ;
|acknowledge t h i s f a c t were hampered in t h e i r e v a lu a tio n s by |
Ian i n a b i l i t y to re c o g n iz e th e c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f p o e tr y and j
; s a t i r e . As l a t e as 1910 Miss Sophie Smith w rote: j
j ;
i H erein we have th e key to S w i f t 's v e rs e , and h e re we j
have th e re a so n o f i t s f a i l u r e as p o e tr y . E v e ry th in g j
1 0S u d d ard , p p . 248-249*
170
t h a t he does must have I t s p r a c t i c a l v a lu e , hence h i s
v e rse I s s a t i r i c a l . S a t i r e had a c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e end In
view, a c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e purpose, hence S w i f t 's s a t i r e as
a means to h i s p u rp o se, which i s th e reform o f hum anity.
The [ t r u e ] p o e t, on th e o t h e r hand, s in g s a Bong spon
tan eo u s in i t s e x p re ss io n o f em otion. I t i s a p a r t o f
h i s n a tu r e , p a r t o f h im s e lf . He w r i t e s t h a t he may
s i n g . 11
The ro m a n tic , s e n tim e n ta l t r a d i t i o n in p o e try which
Miss Smith defends was to be s e v e re ly c h a lle n g e d by the
p o e tr y w r i t t e n a f t e r 1914. The g e n e r a l m a la ise t h a t s e t in
a f t e r World War I i s r e f l e c t e d in th e work o f p o e ts who
them selves had re p u d ia te d th e m oral and a e s t h e t i c v a lu es o f
th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . Im p o rtan t p o e ts o f th e p e rio d ,
such as Y e a ts, Pound, and E l i o t , le d th e way to a widening
o f s e n s i b i l i t y which brought in to p o e tr y an in c r e a s in g
aw areness o f everyday l i f e . The f o r m a lity and h ig h s e r i
ousness t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d so much o f V ic to r ia n p o e try
gave way in many c a se s to more sim ple, u n p r e te n tio u s , c o l
lo q u i a l e x p re s s io n .
A p re o c c u p a tio n w ith th e n e g a tiv e r e tu r n e d in the
p o e tr y o f such groups as th e D a d a is ts and th e S u r r e a l i s t s .
In th e work o f T. S. E l i o t we f i n d once a g a in , as in S w ift,
a s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f u g ly , " a n t i - p o e t i c " im agery. Like
S w ift, E l i o t o f te n t u r n s to s o rd id l i f e along th e s t r e e t s
o f London and u se s u n p le a s a n t p h y s ic a l imagery as a symbol
o f m oral c o r r u p tio n . The pock-marked moon, f o r example,
11Sophie Smith, Dean S w ift (New York, 1910), p . 1 8 3.
171
p e r s o n i f i e d as a London s t r e e t - w a l k e r In E l i o t ' s "Rhapsody
on a Windy N ig h t," r e c a l l s S w i f t 's comparison o f th e moon
and a London s t r e e t - w a l k e r in "The P ro g re ss o f B eau ty ." In
"P relu d es" E l i o t u s e s u n p le a s a n t p h y s ic a l d e t a i l to suggest
th e d e s p a ir o f a c i t y d w e lle r whose "so u l" c o n s i s t s o f a
"thousand s o rd id im ages":
The w in te r evening s e t t l e s down
With sm ell o f s te a k s in passagew ays.
Six o 'c l o c k .
The b u r n t- o u t ends o f smoky days.
And now a g u sty shower wraps
The grimy scrap s
Of w ith e re d le a v e s about y our f e e t
And newspapers from v acan t l o t s ;
The showers b e a t
On broken b l in d s and chim ney-pots.
The morning comes to co n scio u sn ess
Of f a i n t s t a l e smellB o f b e e r
Prom th e saw dust-tram pled s t r e e t
With a l l i t s muddy f e e t t h a t p r e s s
To e a r l y c o f f e e - s ta n d s .
You dozed and watched th e n ig h t re v e a lin g
The thousand s o rd id images
Of which your so u l was c o n s t i t u t e d .
You hacL_such a viBion o f th e s t r e e t
As th e s t r e e t h a r d ly u n d e rs ta n d s ;
S i t t i n g along th e b e d 's edge, where
You c u r le d th e p ap ers from y our h a i r ,
Or c la sp e d th e y ello w s o le s o f f e e t
In th e palms o f b o th s o i l e d h a n d s .12
And in "The W asteland" th e p h y s ic a l c o r r u p tio n o f the r i v e r
Thames becomes a symbol o f s o c i a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n :
■^T. S. E l i o t , C o lle c te d Poems (New York, 1930)> PP»
24-25.
172
The r i v e r b e a r s no empty b o t t l e s , sandwich p a p e rs,
S il k h a n d k e rc h ie fs , cardboard boxes, c i g a r e t t e ends
Or o th e r testim o n y o f summer n i g h t s . The nymphs
a re d e p a rte d .
A r a t c r e p t s o f t l y through th e v e g e ta tio n
Dragging i t s slim y b e l l y on th e bank
While I was f i s h i n g in th e d u l l c an a l
On a w in te r evening round behind th e gashouse
The extreme candor, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e works o f
many modern p o e ts , i s re m in is c e n t o f S w i f t 's d e te rm in a tio n
to see th in g s e x a c tly as th ey a r e . These l i n e s from R ichard
E b e r h a r t 's "For a Sheep," f o r example, a re every b i t as
morbid as S w i f t 's tough-m inded, b lu n t p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
p h y s ic a l d e t a i l :
I saw on th e s l a n t h i l l a p u t r i d lamb,
Propped w ith d a i s i e s . The s le e p looked deep,
The face nudged in th e green p illo w
But th e g u ts were o u t f o r th e crows
to e a t . 14-
C lo se r to S w ift in tone and in th e use o f n a s ty p h y s ic a l
d e t a i l i s K arl S h a p ir o 's "The F ly ," which shows no tr a c e
o f e i g h t e e n t h - , n i n e t e e n t h - , o r e a r l y tw e n tie th - c e n tu r y
squeam ishness:
0 hideous l i t t l e b a t, the s iz e o f sn o t.
With p o ly h e d ra l eye and shabby c lo th e s ,
To p o p u la te th e s tin k in g c a t you walk
The promontory o f th e dead m an's nose,
13E l i o t , p. 78.
"^R ichard E b e rh a rt, S e le c te d Poems, 1930-1985 (New
York, 1965), P. 3.
173
R iding and r i d i n g w ith y our f i l t h o f h a i r
On g lu ey fo o t o r wing., fo r e v e r coy,
Hot from th e compost and green sweet decay,
Sounding y our bu zzer l i k e an u rc h in to y —
You dot a l l w h iten ess w ith d im in u tiv e s t o o l ,
In th e t i g h t b e l l y o f th e dead
Burrow w ith hungry head
And i n l a y maggots l i k e a j e w e l .15
In t h e i r w illin g n e s s to a cc e p t u g ly , r e a l i s t i c ma
t e r i a l s as p ro p e r to p o e try , many tw e n tie th - c e n tu r y c r i t i c s
tak e a p o s i t i o n d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed to n in e te e n th - and
tw e n tie th - c e n tu r y c r i t i c a l o p in io n . Some have even gone so
f a r as to l i n k S w i f t 's name w ith t h a t o f Shakespeare in
defending the use o f th e " a n t i - p o e t i c " in p o e tr y . Maurice
Johnson, f o r example, w r i t e s :
D isg u st and i n s u l t , as Shakespeare and S w ift and c e r
t a i n tw e n tie th - c e n tu r y p o e ts p ro v e, a re good s u b je c ts ,
p erhaps among th e few good ones t h a t have n o t been worked
to d e ath . Modern p o e ts have s a id t h a t i f v e rse i s to b e
come human a g ain , i t must f i r s t become b r u t a l ; t h a t a
p o e t may p r o f i t from th e d i l i g e n t study o f h a tr e d ; t h a t
p r i v a t e d is g u s t and s c o r n fu l w it can be th e s t u f f o f ex
c e l l e n t song; and t h a t p o e try must rub a g a in s t l i f e i t
s e l f and every ex p erien ce o f l i f e w hether mean o r common,
o r speaking i t o u t, u n sp eak ab le. J . M. Synge, R obert
Graves, W. B. Y e ats, T. S. E l i o t , and W. H. Auden have
a l l made t h i s kind o f s ta te m e n t, and to some e x te n t have
dem onstrated i t in t h e i r p o e t r y . 16
E. San J u a n 's defen se o f S w i f t 's p o e tr y couples S w i f t 's
name w ith t h a t o f Shakespeare in r e f e r r i n g to th e need f o r a
"^K arl S h ap iro , Poems, 1940-1953 (New York, 1953) j
p . 56.
1
Maurice Johnson, The Sin o f W it: Jonathan S w ift as
a Poet (S yracuse, 1950), pp. 120-121.
174
f l i g h t to_ r e a l i t y , to th e w orld given us by our senses
and by our s e n s i t i v e g ra sp o f l i f e , [which] r e v e a ls I t
s e l f in th e language o f many p o e ts . S hakespeare, f o r
example, was b e s e t by th e need to p e n e t r a t e through the
facade o f a b s t r a c t i o n s and c o n v en tio n s. He e x p ressed h is
a n t i - p o e t i c d riv e through h i s p r o t a g o n i s t .17
W. B. C. W atkins, speaking in g e n e r a l o f S w i f t 's works,
f in d s S w i f t 's im agery, l i k e t h a t o f S hakespeare, h ig h ly
p o e t i c :
His [ S w i f t 's ] p e r s i s t e n t use o f imagery i s o f te n
s tr o n g ly re m in is c e n t o f S h a k e sp e a re 's . . . . He evokes
th e maximum im a g is tic elem ent in even th e most o rd in a ry
words. . . . The r e s u l t o f t h i s p o e tic use o f imagery in
S w ift and Shakespeare i s an i n t e n s i t y o f lo a th in g . Both
t r a n s f e r o u tra g e d s p i r i t u a l and e t h i c a l v a lu e s in to
r e tc h in g p h y s ic a l term s. At tim es th e tr a n s f e r e n c e i s
too s u c c e s s f u l and we e x p erien c e o n ly th e p h y s ic a l nausea;
b u t when th e b alan ce i s kept the r e s u l t i s s t r i k i n g l y and
im m ediately e f f e c t i v e . I t i s t h i s e s s e n t i a l l y p o e tic
tre a tm e n t o f S w i f t 's . . . —h i s r e s o r t to imagery used
s y m b o lic ally as w e ll as c o n c r e te ly —which e x p la in s to a
la rg e e x te n t th e depth and power o f h i s b e s t s a t i r e .
P. R. Leavis a g re es w ith W atkins t h a t th e r e i s something
p o e tic in S w i f t 's use o f n e g a tiv e m a t e r i a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
in th e ju x t a p o s i t i o n o f d i s p a r a t e s :
In h i s use o f n e g a tiv e m a t e r i a l s - - n e g a t i v e em otions
and a t t i t u d e s — th e re i s something t h a t i s d i f f i c u l t n o t
to c a l l c r e a t i v e . . . . S u r p ris e and c o n t r a s t o p e ra te in
modes t h a t th e r e i s some p o in t in c a l l i n g p o e t i c . "The
moBt h etero g en eo u s id e a s are yoked by v io le n c e to g e th e r"
— and in th e j u x t a p o s i t i o n i n t e n s i t y i s g e n e r a te d . . . .
S w i f t 's i n t e n s i t i e s a re i n t e n s i t i e s o f r e j e c t i o n and n e
g a tio n ; h i s p o e t i c j u x t a p o s i t i o n s a re , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y ,
d e s t r u c t i v e in i n t e n t i o n , and when they most seem most
■^E. San Juan, "The A n ti- p o e tr y o f Jonathan S w if t,"
P h i l o l o g i c a l Q u a rte rly , XLIV ( 1 9 6 5) j 389-
"^W. B. C. W atkins, "Absent Thee from F e l i c i t y ; Sw ift
C onsidered in th e L ight o f ShakeB peare," Southern Review,
Y (1939), 355-366.
175
c r e a t i v e o f energy* a re most s u c c e s s f u l in sp o ilin g * r e
ducing* and d e s t r o y i n g .19
Though tw e n tie th - c e n tu r y c r i t i c s a re f r e q u e n tly w illin g
to a cc e p t harsh* r e a l i s t i c imagery as proper* even d e s i r
a b le in poetry* some a re s t i l l d is tu r b e d by S w i f t 's s c a t o l -
ogy. As in th e n in e te e n th century* t h i s elem ent o f S w i f t 's
v e rse has c o n tin u e d i t s f a s c i n a t i o n f o r c r i t i c s whose r e
a c tio n to i t has e x a g g e ra te d i t s im p o rtan ce. A r e a d e r o f
th e c r i t i c i s m who p o sse sse d only sca n t knowledge o f th e
p o e tr y m ight be le d to b e lie v e t h a t a m a jo r ity o f th e poems
a re dominated by s c a t o l o g i c a l im ages. But a m a jo r ity a re
n o t. Such images a re uBed s i g n i f i c a n t l y in perhaps only
tw elve to f i f t e e n poems. C ataloguing a l l th e images o f
S w i f t 's poems shows t h a t t h i s k in d o f im agery has n o t th e
w eight o r im portance t h a t has been a tta c h e d to i t by most
n i n e te e n th - and some tw e n tie th - c e n tu r y c r i t i c s . But i t has
enough so t h a t many o f th e se c r i t i c s condemn S w ift f o r
u sin g th e se images a t a l l and f o r e x p re ss in g them w ith a
l a r g e l y u n i n h i b i t e d use o f taboo words.
D efenders o f S w i f t 's excrem ental im agery have shown
t h a t i t i s o f te n u sed to d ram atize personae and t h a t S w ift
i s n o t s in g u la r in h i s use o f i t* b u t fo llo w s a long sa-
^ F . R. Leavis* "The Iro n y o f Sw ift*" The Common P ur
s u i t (London* 1952)* p. 79*
176
20
t i r i c t r a d i t i o n . K a th erin e M. R ogers, who sees use o f
t h i s im agery as evidence o f S w i f t 's misogyny, and Aldous
Huxley, who sees i t as evidence o f S w i f t 's in te n s e " h a tre d
21
o f b o w els," have f a i l e d to ta k e t h i s i n t o acco u n t.
M ilton V o ig t, in answer to th e se c r i t i c s , w r i t e s :
A b io g ra p h e r who could see t h a t i t i s Strephon, the
s ta r r y - e y e d beau o f "A L ad y 's D ressin g Room," and n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y S w ift, who i s d i s t r e s s e d by C e l i a 's n a t u r a l
f u n c tio n s , m ight w e ll d e l i v e r us from th e ty ran n y o f
H uxley ' b " h a tre d o f b o w e l s . "22
This might w e ll be used to answer S t. V in c en t, who f a l l s
i n t o th e same e r r o r as Huxley in comparing S w i f t 's s c a t o l -
ogy w ith t h a t o f Pope.
[P o p e's ] u se o f t h i s imagery does n o t evoke th e same
m oral and a e s t h e t i c problem s t h a t i t does in th e case o f
S w ift. In c o n t r a s t to S w ift, whose s c a to lo g y i s accom
p an ied w ith a f e e l i n g o f soured d is d a i n , P o p e's s c a t o l
ogy i s good-humored and f r e e from any b i t t e r n e s s o r
a n im o s ity . Nor does he, l i k e S w ift, i d e n t i f y th e e x c r e -
m ental fu n c tio n w ith sex. There i s no r e g i s t e r i n g o f
h o r r o r over th e d is c o v e ry t h a t young l a d i e s have such
f u n c tio n s . With S w ift the main e f f e c t o f s c a t o l o g i c a l
e v e n ts i s o f te n one o f h o r r i f i e d r e v u ls io n , as in th e
case o f G u lliv e r when th e Yahoos d e fe c a te on him, o r o f
Strephon when he makes h i s d is c o v e ry [ t h a t Chloe has
n a t u r a l f u n c t i o n s ] . 23
20
K a th erin e M. R ogers, "'My Female F r i e n d s ': The Mis
ogyny o f Jo n ath an S w if t," Texas S tu d ie s in Language and
L i t e r a t u r e , I (1959). 366-379.
21Aldous Huxley, " S w if t," Do What You W ill (Garden
C ity , New York, 1929). pp. 97-112.
22M ilton V o ig t, S w ift and th e T w entieth C entury (De
t r o i t , 1964), p. 1 3 0 .
2% dwin H arold S t. V in c en t, "A spects o f P o p e's Im
a g e r y ," unpub. d i s s . (Columbia U ., 1962), p. 122.
177
S t. V in cen t p r o p e rly d e fin e s th e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r
ences between P o p e 's and S w i f t 's s c a to lo g y , b u t he f a i l s to
take i n to account the s ig n i f i c a n c e o f the p erso n ae. Norman
0. Brown b r i l l i a n t l y a t t a c k s Huxley., F re u d ia n s, and o th e r s
who see th e s c a to lo g y as evidence o f S w i f t 's n e u r o s is i
A f te r a d m ittin g in to c o n sc io u sn ess th e u n p le a s a n t
f a c t s which p re v io u s c r i t i c i s m had r e p r e s s e d , they p r o
ceed to p r o t e c t them selves and us a g a in s t th e d is tu r b in g
im pulse o f th e excrem ental v is io n by s y s te m a tic d i s t o r
t i o n , d e n u n c ia tio n , and d e p r e c i a t i o n . . . . We no lo n g er
t r y to e x p la in away S w i f t 's l i t e r a r y achievem ents as mere
epiphenomena on h i s i n d i v i d u a l n e u r o s is . R ath er we seek
to a p p r e c ia te h i s i n s i g h t in to th e u n i v e r s a l n e u ro s is o f
mankind. Then p s y c h o a n a ly sis becomes a method n o t f o r
e x p la in in g away b u t f o r e x p l i c a t i n g Swift.24
The charge t h a t s c a t o l o g i c a l imagery i s most o f te n
used to d e s c rib e women and i s evidence o f d e e p -se a te d m is
ogyny has been made by K ath erin e Rogers, who sees S w i f t 's
i n t e r e s t in excrement as p a t h o l o g i c a l l y e x c e s s iv e .
The d e s c r i p t i o n o f C h lo e 's u r i n a t i o n seems more de
t a i l e d than i s n e c e s s a ry to th e s a t i r i c i n t e n t i o n o f the
poem, and c e r t a i n l y th e v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f Chloe on the
p r iv y i s s u p e r flu o u s . In th e same way, the 46 l i n e s o f
"The L ad y 's D ressing Room" devoted to C e l i a 's commode and
i t s c o n te n ts seem g r a t u i t o u s . . . . S w i f t 's s e v e r a l de
s c r i p t i o n s o f p e o p le — always women— in th e p ro c e ss o f
e x c r e tio n r e f l e c t d i s g u s t , o f c o u rse , b u t a ls o i n t e r e s t . 25
W atkins and R eid Baytop S i n c l a i r , however, tu rn in g
away from S w ift th e man to h i s words, remind u s t h a t ex-
24
Norman 0. Brown, "The E xcrem ental V is io n ," L ife
A g ain st Death: The P s y c h o a n a ly tic a l Meaning o f H is to ry
(Middletown, Conn., 1959)> PP- 180-165•
^ R o g e r s , p . 370.
178:
crem en tal im agery i s a t r a d i t i o n a l device o f s a t i r e . Wat
k in s w r i t e s :
In th e r e p e a te d imagery o f excrement and f i l t h Sw ift
i s n o t in d u lg in g in mere s e n s a tio n a lis m ; he i s employing
a p o e tic d ev ice used among o th e r s by S hakespeare, Spen
s e r , Donne, and M ilto n :
Donne: Ranke sweaty f r o t h thy m i s t r e s s now d e f i l e s
Like sperm atique is s u e d o f r i p e , m enstrous
b o i l s .
Hamlet: In th e ran k sweat o f an unseamed bed,
stewed in c o r ru p tio n honeying and
making love over the n a s ty sty ?2 °
27
S i n c l a i r , in a r e c e n t d i s s e r t a t i o n , 1 has tr a c e d the
u se o f u g ly imagery from th e Greeks through S w i f t 's con
te m p o ra rie s . He shows t h a t S w i f t 's u se o f th e s c a t o l o g i c a l '
p la c e s him in a long t r a d i t i o n . In g e n e r a l, he s id e s w ith
Norman Brown in d efen se o f S w i f t 's use o f t h i s kind o f im
agery as a l e g i t i m a t e and e f f e c t i v e s a t i r i c d e v ic e . N o rth
rop Frye in The Anatomy o f C r itic is m says very s u c c in c tly :
"S w ift i s m erely fo llo w in g where h i s s a t i r i c g en iu s le ad s
him, and g e n iu s seems to have le d p r a c t i c a l l y every g r e a t
28
s a t i r i s t to become what th e w orld c a l l s o b scen e."
I t i s n o t to my purpose h e re to analyze S w i f t 's use o f
s c a t o l o g i c a l im agery in th e famous " u n p rin ta b le " poems,
W atkins, p. 3 6 3 .
2^Reid Baytop S i n c l a i r , " 'What th e World C a lls Obscene':
S w i f t 's Ugly V erse and th e S a t i r i c T r a d i t i o n ," unpub. d i s s .
(V a n d e rb ilt U ., 1 9 6 5).
28
N orthrop Frye, The Anatomy o f C r itic is m (New York,
1 9 6 8), p. 2 3 5 .
179
s in ce S i n c l a i r and o t h e r s have a lr e a d y done t h i s . I may
p o in t o u t, however., t h a t my r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t S w i f t 's
u se o f t h i s imagery i s p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t w ith h i s use o f
o th e r kinds o f im agery. In th e works o f a s a t i r i s t who
d i s i d e a l i z e s , who t e a r s down i l l u s i o n , who proposes to see
th in g s e x a c tly as th ey a r e , we m ight ex p ect to f in d t h i s
s c a t o l o g i c a l im agery. C e r ta i n ly i t i s a p a r t o f th e anim al-
man m etaphor, baBic to S w i f t 's s a t i r e .
S c a to lo g ic a l imagery was common in s a t i r i c p o e try o f
th e e a r l y e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry , and much o f i t was q u ite
bawdy and p o rn o g rap h ic . To some e x te n t th e alm ost complete
la c k o f e r o t i c im agery in S w i f t 's p o e tr y would seem to r a i s e
more q u e s tio n s than does h i s f l a g r a n t use o f the s c a to lo g
i c a l . S w ift, alth o u g h a r e a l i s t in many ways, a v e r te d h i s
eyes from th e sex u al a c t .
W. B. C. W atkins, seein g S w ift as sh arin g th e " t r a g i c
d is illu s io n m e n t" o f Hamlet, o f f e r s an e x p la n a tio n :
Let u s examine more c l o s e l y th e e s s e n t i a l n a tu re o f
t h i s t r a g i c d is i l l u s i o n m e n t . . . . Why i s Hamlet so much
occupied w ith th e b e s t i a l ? A lready s u p e r s e n s i tiv e to the
anim al n a tu re o f man, he does n o t have time to re c o v e r
from the rude shock o f h i s f a t h e r ' s m o r t a l i t y b e fo re h i s
m o th e r's i n c e s t i s a s ten c h in h i s n o s t r i l s . . . . So,
in Hamlet sex becomes th e symbol o f m an's decay and c o r
r u p ti o n . U n fo rtu n a te ly to S w ift a ls o sex, p a r t i c u l a r l y
woman, d e s p it e h i s deep love f o r i n d i v i d u a l women, i s a
symbol o f m an's b e s t i a l i t y . He v ic tim iz e s woman by h i s
own s e c r e t o v e r - i d e a l i z a t i o n o f h e r . His c r u e l t y to
C orinna, S t e l l a , V anessa, i s th e c r u e l t y o f Hamlet to
G ertrude and O phelia. . . . S w ift becomes ob sessed by the
180
m orbidly p h y s ic a l . . . to such an e x te n t t h a t he cannot
r e d r e s s th e b a l a n c e . 29
I f t h i s i s true., then Swift., i r o n i c a l l y , was a v ic tim
o f h i s own methods, f o r h i s heavy emphasis upon th e p h y s ic a l
and th e anim al was, a cco rd in g to K athleen W illiam s, an e f
f o r t to h e lp man ach iev e a b a lan c e d , sane view o f l i f e .
She concludes h e r a r t i c l e "Animal R a tio n is Capax: A Study
o f C e r ta in A spects o f S w i f t 's Im agery," th u s:
G u lliv e r and Strephon in t h e i r d i f f e r e n t ways expect
more than mankind can g iv e , and in t h e i r disappointm ent
lo se something o f t h e i r own p ro p e r hum anity. Sw ift f r e
q u e n tly comments on m an's s tra n g e i n a b i l i t y , shared w ith
no o th e r anim al, to know h i s own c a p a c i t i e s , and the form
which t h i s i n a b i l i t y most o f te n ta k e s , in A Tale o f a Tub
as w e ll as in poems l i k e "Strephon and C hloe," i s a r e -
f u s a l to r e a l i z e how narrow ly we a re bounded by our
b o d ie s, by sen ses and p a s s io n s and by a l l th e a c c id e n ts
o f our p h y s ic a l p re sen c e in a m a t e r i a l w orld. To come to
term s w ith the f a c t s o f p h y s ic a l e x is te n c e i s e s s e n t i a l
i f we a re to l i v e a s e n s ib le l i f e in touch w ith r e a l i t y ,
and S w ift i s c o n tin u a lly tr y i n g to b rin g us back to e a r t h .
His s t r e s s on th e p h y s ic a l i s p a r t o f t h a t a t t e m p t . 3°
The approach to th e problems o f S w i f t '3 imagery by
K athleen W illiam s i n v i t e s agreem ent. U nlike many o th e r s ,
she does n o t r e s o r t to em otional condemnations o f S w i f t 's
c h a r a c t e r , b u t d i s p a s s i o n a t e l y examines th e p a t t e r n s o f
p h y s ic a l imagery t h a t emerge from a c a r e f u l re a d in g o f
S w i f t 's p ro se and p o e try . Her aw areness o f S w i f t 's uBe o f
t h i s imagery to c h a r a c t e r i z e personae and to i l l u s t r a t e
2^Watkins, p. 357-
^ K a t h l e e n W illiam s, "Animal R a tio n is Capax: A Study
o f C e rta in A spects o f S w i f t 's Im agery," E n g lish L i t e r a r y
H i s t o r y , XXI (195^0, 207.
18 1 '
b a s ic s a t i r i c themes p re c lu d e s shallow judgments o f Sw ift
th e man. Miss W illiam s does n o t i s o l a t e o r over-em phasize
th e s c a t o l o g i c a l imagery as o th e r s have done., b u t con v in
c in g ly t r e a t s i t as b u t one o f many m a n if e s ta tio n s o f
S w i f t 's dependence upon th e p h y s ic a l. The evidence o f my
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n su p p o rts th e v a l i d i t y o f Miss W illiam s'
stro n g emphasis upon anim al imagery and imagery o f th e
human body in S w i f t 's w r i t i n g s .
I am a ls o i n c l i n e d to agree w ith Miss W illiam s t h a t we
cannot d ism iss S w i f t 's p a t t e r n s o f imagery as m a n if e s ta tio n s
o f m erely a morbid p re o c c u p a tio n w ith the p h y s ic a l; as we
have seen, S w ift o fte n p r e s e n ts th e m oral in term s o f the
p h y s ic a l, and S w i f t 's emphasis on the p h y s ic a l i s so b a s ic
to h i s e x p re ss io n t h a t i t p erv ad es th e n o n - s a t i r i c as w e ll
as th e B a t i r i c v e rs e . In th e e a r l y odes, in complimentary
poems to S t e l l a , V anessa, and o t h e r s , in l i g h t , humorous
v e rs e , and in v a rio u s o c c a s io n a l n o n - s a t i r i c poems, S w ift
u s e s much anim al imagery and im agery o f the human body.
Another a sp e c t o f S w i f t ' s p o e try , l a r g e l y overlooked
by c r i t i c s , i s th e enormous amount o f c o n c re te d e t a i l taken
d i r e c t l y from contem porary l i f e . E. San Juan w r i t e s :
Pew have c a l l e d a t t e n t i o n to th e e x tr a o r d in a r y mass o f
d e t a i l s in S w i f t 's p o e try . . . . Yet we must n o t ig n o re
h i s in te n s e s c r u tin y , h i s a p a t h e t i c a l l y h o s t i l e , b u t v ig
i l a n t and m inute a t t e n t i o n focused on everyday a c t u a l i t y .
This f i d e l i t y to p e rc e p tio n se rv e s as an ap p eal to the
182
r e a d e r 's d i s p o s i t i o n f o r f a n t a s t i c d e t a i l s , h i s c u r i o s i t y
f o r m icro sco p ic p a r t i c u l a r s . . . .31
T his p ro f u s io n o f c o n c re te d e t a i l in S w i f t 's p o e tr y would
seem to p la c e S w ift in o p p o s itio n to the n e o c la s s ic b e l i e f
t h a t th e r e a l was th e u n i v e r s a l and t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s f a l s i
f i e d th e t r u t h . P a r t i c u l a r s i n t e r e s t e d S w ift in an age in
which th e p o et was supposed to be concerned w ith th e gen
e r a l , w ith th e t o t a l im p ressio n o f th e form o f the t u l i p
r a t h e r than w ith m inute d e ta i lB . In t h i s r e s p e c t S w i f t 's
work c h a lle n g e s c r i t i c a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s about th e n a tu re
o f Augustan p o e try . James S u th e rla n d , f o r example, has
w r i t t e n : "What i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y a b se n t from e ig h te e n th -
c e n tu ry p o e tr y (and, in d e ed , from a l l th e a r t s o f th e p e r i
od) i s th e sense o f im m ediate, d i r e c t c o n ta c t w ith
e x p e r ie n c e ." ^ 2 And W. K. Wimsatt has seen th e A ugustans as
h ig h ly i n t e r e s t e d in cosmic r e a l i t y , b u t th e " o p p o site s o r t
o f r e a l i t y — commonplace and frag m e n ta ry — th e u n e x p lain ed ,
supposed r e a l o f l i t e r a l everyday l i f e , was something t h a t
Augustan p o e ts d id n o t much t r y to h a n d l e . "33
Though somewhat u n u su al in th e p o e tr y o f h i s own tim e,
S w i f t 's a t t e n t i o n to m icro sco p ic p a r t i c u l a r s a n t i c i p a t e s
the p r a c t i c e o f tw e n tie th - c e n tu r y p o e ts who have f e l t an
3^San Juan, p. 389-
32James S u th e rla n d , A P refac e to E ig h te e n th C entury
P o e try (Oxford, 1948), p. 75-
33w. K. W imsatt, "The Augustan Mode in E ig h te e n th
183
o b l i g a t i o n to d e a l w ith th e "supposed r e a l o f l i t e r a l
everyday l i f e . " C. Day-Lewis sums up th e problem o f the
modern p o e t:
A poem must be concerned w ith th e present., must show a
comprehension o f i t s age; y e t th e p r e s e n t i s a confused
s p e c t a c l e , b a f f l i n g th e com prehension, and o u r own p r e s
e n t we may add, i s th e most b e w ild e rin g p o e ts have had to
f a c e . The sh ee r mass o f sense d a ta haB so v a s t l y i n
c re a s e d . . . .
I b e lie v e t h a t h i s p re o c c u p a tio n w ith images i s a lso a
sig n ,of th e modern p o e t 's e f f o r t to e l u c i d a t e and c o n tr o l
th e modern s i t u a t i o n . 34
S w i f t 's p re o c c u p a tio n w ith im ages, h i s "crude m a t e r i a l i t y , "
so d i s t u r b i n g to e a r l i e r c r i t i c B , would be acc e p ted by a
modern c r i t i c such as A lvin Kernan as le g i t i m a t e and con
v e n tio n a l in th e work o f a s a t i r i s t . Kernan d e s c r ib e s the
t y p i c a l s a t i r i c scene as
d i s o r d e r l y and crowded, packed to th e very p o in t o f
b u r s t i n g . . . , choked w ith th in g s : o s t e n t a t i o u s b u i l d
in g s , s t a t u a r y , c h a r i o t s , sedan c h a i r s , c l o t h e s , books,
food, h o r s e s , d ild o e s , lu x u rio u s f u r n i s h i n g s , g in b o t t l e s ,
w igs. P ick up any m ajor s a t i r i c work and open i t a t r a n
dom and th e immediate e f f e c t i s one o f d i s o r d e r l y p r o f u
s io n . The sh ee r d i r t y w eig h t, w ith o u t reaso n o r conscious
p u rp o se, o f p eo p le and t h e i r v u lg a r p o s s e s s io n s t h r e a t e n s
to overwhelm th e w orld in T r im a lc h io ' s banquet room, the
s t r e e t s o f J u v e n a l 's Rome, [and S w i f t 's London and Dub
l i n ]. . . .
G ross, sodden, r o t t i n g m a tte r i s th e su b stan ce o f the
s a t i r i c scene and any t r a c e o f th e b e a u t i f u l o r th e s p i r
i t u a l i s always in danger o f being d e stro y e d by the
w eight o f mere " s t u f f . "35
C entury L i t e r a t u r e , " E n g lish L i t e r a r y H is to r y , XX (1953)*
1-14.
3 V Day-Lewis, The P o e tic Image (London, 1946), 98-99.
3^Alvin Kernan, The Cankered Muse: S a t i r e o f the
E n g lish R en aissan ce (New Haven, 1959) j P* 9-
Another elem ent In S w i f t 's p o e tr y t h a t c r i t i c s have
tended to o v erlo o k I s th e enormous amount o f Imagery t h a t
e x p re ss e s human and anim al v io le n c e . Such v io le n c e , though
n o t u n u su al in s a t i r i c p o e tr y , i s p a r t i c u l a r l y stro n g in
S w i f t 's v e rs e . He i s p erh ap s th e most v i o l e n t o f major
E n g lish s a t i r i s t s , and in t h i s r e s p e c t we may c o n t r a s t h i s
work w ith th e more g e n t l e , urbane s a t i r i c p o e try o f Dryden
and Pope. I t i s one o f th e i n g r e d i e n t s o f h i s work which
b r in g s him n e a r e r to our own tim e, which M arius Bewley has
d e s c rib e d as "a c en tu ry in which e v i l has been so u n i v e r s a l
t h a t i t seems a n o n y m o u s."^ The p h y s ic a l b r u t a l i t y in
S w i f t 's p o e tr y i s n o t o n ly m a n ife st in S w i f t 's punishm ent
o f s a t i r i c v ic tim s b u t i s a lso an e x p re ssio n o f m an's i n
hum anity to man as w itn e sse d by S w ift in th e b e h a v io r o f
h i s c o n tem p o raries. Images o f p h y s ic a l v io le n c e a re p r i
mary i n g r e d i e n t s o f S w i f t 's m an/animal m etaphor, th e s i g
n i f i c a n c e o f which would n o t be l o s t upon such m id -tw e n tie th
c en tu ry w r i t e r s as R obert Ardrey, who, in a r e c e n t book,
The T e r r i t o r i a l Im p e ra tiv e , co n clu d es, "I can d is c o v e r no
q u a l i t a t i v e b re a k between th e moral n a tu re o f th e anim al
07
and th e m oral n a tu re o f man."-’1
^ M a r i u s Bewley, "The P o e try o f S w if t," S p e c ta to r , CCI
(August 29, 1958), 2 8 3 .
^ R o b e r t A rdrey, The T e r r i t o r i a l Im p e ra tiv e (New York,
1 9 6 6) , p . 78.
185
S w i f t 's w illin g n e s s to face c o n s i s t e n t l y In h i s p o e try
th e u g ly r e a l i t i e s o f everyday l i f e i s p erhaps c l o s e r to
th e a t t i t u d e o f tw e n tie th - c e n tu r y p o e ts than to t h a t o f
p o e ts in S w i f t 's own day. S w ift was n o t th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
p o et o f th e Augustan age, as Pope o r Johnson was. He was
opposed to th e b a s ic p h ilo so p h y o f optimism and could never
accep t th e f a c i l e b e l i e f t h a t "Whatever i s , i s r i g h t . " The
u g ly , v i o l e n t , " t r i v i a l " im agery, o f te n d e riv e d from c o l
lo q u ia l speech, which c h a r a c t e r i z e s S w i f t 's l a t e r p o e try ,
opposes the e ig h te e n th - c e n tu r y tendency to narrow th e l a n
guage o f p o e try and i t s range o f s u b je c t m a tte r . Like many
a modern p o e t, Sw ift s t e a d f a s t l y r e f u s e s to g lo s s over o r
tu rn away from th e u g ly r e a l i t i e s , r e f u s e s to f in d o rd e r
and beau ty where f o r him th ey do n o t e x i s t . The d is o rd e re d
a r r a y o f images we f in d in many o f th e l a t e r poems— among
them "Verses Wrote in a L ad y 's Iv o ry Table-Book," "The
F u r n itu r e o f a Woman's Mind," "A D e s c rip tio n o f th e Morn
in g ," "A D e s c rip tio n o f a C ity Show er," "The P ro g re ss o f
B eau ty ," "The L ad y 's D ressing Room," and "Mrs. H a r r i s 's
P e t i t i o n , " to name only a few—m ir ro rs a s e n s e le s s chaos
t h a t i s a mockery o f th e Augustan concern f o r o rd e r in
human a f f a i r s .
In many r e s p e c t s ( in c lu d in g th e dependence upon con
c r e t e p a r t i c u l a r s from everyday l i f e , th e use o f imagery
d e riv e d from everyday speech, th e a b sen ce— except f o r
parody—o f t r a d i t i o n a l p o e tic im agery, th e i r o n i c j u x t a
p o s i t i o n o f d i s p a r a t e s , and th e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f u g ly ,
v i o l e n t , " a n t i - p o e t i c " imagery) S w i f t 's p o e try i s c l o s e r to
our own time than to h i s . The h a rs h , r e a l i s t i c imagery
which so d e v a s ta te d th e m a jo r ity o f e ig h te e n th - and
n in e te e n th - c e n tu r y c r i t i c s i s now accommodated by the ex
panded b o u n d a rie s o f s u b je c t m a tte r thought f i t f o r p o e try .
I t has taken th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , w ith i t s eye f o r p e r
sonae, iro n y , dry and h a rd language, g en res (and t h e i r
p a r o d ie s ) , and g e n e r a l l y c l o s e r a t t e n t i o n to th e t e x t to
a s s e s s S w i f t 's v e rse a d e q u a te ly . We a re a t l a s t in a
p o s i t i o n to make a m ajor c r i t i c a l r e e v a lu a tio n o f S w i f t 's
p o e tr y .
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
187
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Creator Selleck, William Robert (author)

Core Title A Study Of Images In The Poetry Of Jonathan Swift

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

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Advisor Templeman, William D. (committee chair), Knodel, Arthur J. (committee member), Nichol, John W. (committee member)

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