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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Postwar South African Fiction In English: Abrahams, Paton, And Gordimer
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Postwar South African Fiction In English: Abrahams, Paton, And Gordimer
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This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received
69-19,369
ESSA, Ahmed, 1929-
POSTWAR SOUTH AFRICAN FICTION IN
ENGLISH: ABRAHAMS, PATON, AND
GORDIMER.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1969
Language and L iterature, m odern
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
© Copyright by
AHMED ESSA
1969
POSTWAR SOUTH AFRICAN FICTION IN ENGLISH:
ABRAHAMS, PATON, AND GORDIMER
by
Ahmed E ssa
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P re s e n te d to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf i llm e n t o f th e
R eq u irem en ts f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(E n g lish )
Ja n u a ry 1969
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
............................ AJbime.d..Es.s.a...........................
under the direction of //is Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments for the degree of
D O C TO R OF P H ILO SO P H Y
q JL m xv.'™
Dean
Date.___I.an.Viary.„l.3.6.2_______
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
C h ap ter Page
I . INTRODUCTION ........................................................... 1
I I . THE FORERUNNERS . ..................................................10
I I I . PETER ABRAHAMS............................. 63
IV. ALAN PATON........................................ 107
V. NADINE GORDIMER......................................................... 165
VI. CONCLUSION............................................................. . 224
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................. 235
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
"E x p lain i t a s you w i l l , " John Barkham o b se rv e d ,
" th e flo w e rin g o f t a l e n t among South A fric a n w r i t e r s s in c e
World War I I i s som ething o f a m ira c le . "1 T h is stu d y w i l l
n o t p re te n d to e x p l ic a te m ira c le s . I n s te a d , n o tin g Alan
P a to n 's s ta te m e n t t h a t "n o th in g could be more a p ro d u c t of
th e South A fric a n scene than th e South A fr ic a n n o v e l in
9
E n g lis h " (and s h o r t s t o r i e s , he m ight have added, had he
b een d is c u s s in g them ), i t w i l l e v a lu a te in o r d e r to d e t e r
mine w h eth er such p r a is e can be s u b s t a n tia te d .
D e sp ite c o n te n tio n s t h a t South A fric a n w r i t i n g in
E n g lis h can n o t be c o n s id e re d in d ig e n o u s, t h i s f i c t i o n has
^"S outh A fr ic a : P e r p l e x i t i e s , B r u t a l i t i e s , A bsur
d i t i e s , " Satur^ay_^ey2^w , January 12, 1963, 63.
^"The South A fric a n Novel in E n g l i s h ," in P ro
c e e d in g s o f a C onference o f W rite rs , P u b lis h e r s ,
E d ito r s and U n iv e rs ity T eachers o f E n g lis h , Jo h a n n e s
b u rg , 1956, ed. A.C. P a r tr id g e (Johannesburg, 1957),
p. 146.
1
i t s r o o ts w ith in th e co u n try i t s e l f . ^ The m ajor work of
Thomas P r in g le , who came to so u th e rn A f r ic a w ith th e f i r s t
B r i t i s h s e t t l e r s in 1820, b e a rs t h i s o u t. Towards th e end
o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , O live S c h r e in e r produced th e
f i r s t South A fric a n novel and e s t a b l i s h e d a tr e n d fo llo w ed
by l a t e r f i c t i o n w r i t e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y S arah G ertru d e
M illin and W illiam Plom er. S i g n i f i c a n t l y , f o r th e purpose
o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , the works o f P r i n g l e , S c h re in e r,
M il lin , and Plomer have had a c o n s id e r a b le in f lu e n c e on
p o stw ar South A fric a n f i c t i o n . These w orks w i l l th e r e
fo re be d is c u s s e d in d e t a i l in C h ap ter Two.
A com prehensive study o f p o stw ar S outh A fric a n
f i c t i o n would cover a l l th e n o v e ls and s h o r t s t o r i e s
w r i t t e n in E n g lish by South A fric a n s a f t e r 1945. Such a
ta s k would prove fo rm id ab le . Of th e 290 item s l i s t e d by
Aviva A s trin s k y in A B ib lio g ra p h y o f S outh A fric a n E n g lis h
Novels 1930-1960,^ 183 were p u b lis h e d a f t e r 1945. But
t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s concerned w ith th e m a tu r ity o f p o s t
war South A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lis h an d , a s such, w i l l
O
For th e c o n te n tio n s see A.G. Woodward, "South
A fric a n W r iti n g ," C o n tra s t, I I (Autumn 1962), 45-50.
^Cape Town, 1965.
be dev o ted to th o se w r i t e r s w hich b e s t r e p r e s e n t t h i s
achievem ent: P e te r Abrahams, A lan P ato n , and Nadine
G ordim er.
The s ig n if ic a n c e o f P e te r A braham s's n o v e ls h as been
m inim ized by r a c ia lis m . The ten d en cy o f w h ite South
A fric a n c r i t i c s has been to p r a c t i c e a p a r th e id in t h e i r
c r i t i c i s m and d is c u s s Abrahams a p a r t from w h ite South
A fric a n w r i t e r s . Most c r i t i c s o f A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e , on
the o th e r hand, o fte n ig n o re th e w h ite n o v e l i s t s and
w r i te as i f Abrahams w ere th e o n ly m ajor po stw ar South
A fric a n w r i t e r u n t i l th e em ergence o f o th e r n o n-w hite
w r i t e r s in th e l a t e f i f t i e s . W ithout re g a rd to h i s ra c e ,
t h i s stu d y re c o g n iz e s P e te r Abrahams a s th e f i r s t o f the
p o stw ar f i c t i o n w r i t e r s . His n o v e ls w i l l be d is c u s s e d
in C h ap ter T hree.
Two decades have p a s s e d s in c e th e ap p earan ce o f
Alan P a to n 's f i r s t n o v e l, Cry, th e B eloved C o u n try . The
p assag e o f tim e has n o t d e p riv e d th e n o v el of i t s a u ra
o f n o v e lty . I t s p o p u la r ity h as a ls o c o n tin u e d to o v e r
shadow th e marked developm ent P a to n 's l a t e r works demon
s t r a t e . At th e same tim e , more r e c e n t l y , th e re h as been
c r i t i c i s m w hich looks beyond th e ro m an tic a s p e c ts o f the
f i r s t n o v e l. W hile th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e f i r s t work
w i l l n o t be ig n o re d , th e l a t e r works by P ato n w i l l r e
ce iv e th e a t t e n t i o n th e y d e se rv e in C h ap ter Four.
C hapter F iv e w i l l c o n c e n tr a te a lm o st e n t i r e l y on the
s h o rt s t o r i e s o f N adine G ordim er, f o r a v e ry good reaso n .
Her n o v e ls, even when th e y a r e n o t b e in g compared w ith
her s h o r te r w orks, a r e rem arkably te p id . Through h e r
s t o r i e s , by c o n t r a s t , ru n s a c l e a r l i n e o f p ro g re s s io n .
The n o v e ls, though, w i l l be m entioned where r e le v a n t.
D e f in iti o n s o f Terms Used
T his stu d y c o v e rs th e l i t e r a t u r e o f an a re a which
may n o t be f a m i l i a r to th e r e a d e r . I t i s n e c e ss a ry ,
th e r e f o r e , to d e f in e term s e s s e n t i a l to an u n d e rsta n d in g
of the d is c u s s io n t h a t fo llo w s .
South A f r i c a .--T h e p o l i t i c a l u n i t , th e R epublic of
South A fr ic a (fo rm e rly th e Union o f South A f r ic a ) , i s
more commonly known a s South A f r ic a . I t c o n s is ts o f fp ro v in c e s, Cape P ro v in c e , Orange F re e S ta te , T ran sv aal,
and N a ta l. (S outh A f r ic a a l s o c o n s id e r s South-W est
A fric a a s p a r t o f th e R e p u b lic .) Where r e f e r e n c e i s
bein g made t o th e g e o g ra p h ic a l r e g io n , th e term ,
"so u th e rn A f r i c a , " w i l l be u sed .
5
South A f r ic a n F i c t i o n .--A s a t i s f a c t o r y d e f i n i t i o n o f
A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e , o f w hich South A fric a n f i c t i o n i s a
p a r t , a lre a d y e x i s t s . I t was fo rm u la te d , a f t e r c a r e f u l
c o n s id e r a tio n , by a c o n fe re n c e o f w r i t e r s , c r i t i c s , and
te a c h e rs o f A fr ic a n l i t e r a t u r e , a t th e U n iv e rs ity C o lleg e
of S ie r r a Leone, F reetow n, in A p ril 1 9 6 3 .^
A p a ra p h r a s e o f th e Freetow n d e f i n i t i o n would b e s t
serve to i n t e r p r e t South A fric a n f i c t i o n f o r th e purpose
of t h i s stu d y : S outh A fric a n f i c t i o n i s f i c t i o n in w hich
a South A fric a n s e t t i n g i s a u t h e n t i c a l l y handled or to
which e x p e rie n c e s w hich o r ig in a t e d in South A fric a a re
i n t e g r a l . A d e l i n e a t i o n such a s t h i s i s n e c e ss a ry h e re .
I t c o v e rs th e w orks o f th o s e w r i t e r s who were o r a re no
lo n g e r l i v i n g in South A frica--T hom as P r in g le , W illiam
Plom er, and P e t e r Abrahams. W hether th e s e w r i t e r s can
s t i l l be c a l l e d S outh A fric a n s may be doubted. But th e
in c lu s io n o f t h e i r n o v e ls and s h o r t s t o r i e s in t h i s
d i s s e r t a t i o n c a n n o t b e.
^The F reeto w n r e s o l u t i o n re a d s , "The co n feren c e . . .
ag reed t h a t th e term sh o u ld co v e r l i t e r a t u r e in w hich an
A fric a n s e t t i n g i s a u t h e n t i c a l l y h an d led or to w hich
e x p e rie n c e s w h ich o r i g i n a t e d in A fr ic a a re i n t e g r a l . "
G erald Moore, e d . , A fric a n L i t e r a t u r e and the U n iv e r s it ie s
(Ibadan, N ig e r ia , 1965), p . 147.
I t seem s, a t tim e s, as i f th e o nly m easure o f a u th e n
t i c i t y , in South A fric a n f i c t i o n , i s the e x te n t to w hich
a work d e p i c ts th e r a c i a l p r e ju d ic e o f th e c o u n try .
R a c ia lism , more th a n any o th e r f a c t o r , a p p e a rs to be th e
r a is o n d 'e t r e o f S outh A fric a n f i c t i o n in th e same way as
i t s u s t a in s th e S outh A fric a n way o f l i f e . "R ace ," Alan
P aton f e l t , " i s n o t a p l o t , o r a s t r u c t u r a l p a t t e r n , o r
an o b s e s s io n , i t i s o f th e v e ry s t u f f of our l i v e s , and
i t i s l i f e t h a t i s th e making o f a s to r y " (p. 149). An
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e im p lic a tio n s o f P a to n 1s s ta te m e n t i s
a p r e r e q u i s i t e to th e d is c u s s io n t h a t fo llo w s .
But th e c o m p le x itie s o f th e r a c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n s in
South A f r ic a m ust be re c o g n iz e d . As Leo M arquard p u t i t ,
" D i s r a e l i 's 'tw o n a t i o n s ' become, in South A f r ic a , a t
l e a s t f i v e ; and th e s e a r e r e n t by s u b d iv is io n and i n t e r
n a l d i s s e n s i o n . A ll t h a t can be p ro v id ed h e re , t h e r e
f o re , i s an e x p la n a to ry l i s t o f th e r a c i a l l a b e l s commonly
used by th e w r i t e r s .
E u ro p e an . --A p p lie d s t r i c t l y to p eo p le o f European
£
The P eo p le and P o l i c i e s of South A f r i c a , 3 rd ed.
(London, 1962), p . 32.
o r i g i n , "European" i s a synonym f o r w h ite s - - w h ite s , t h a t
i s , in th e South A fric a n c o n te x t. Even among th e E uro
p e a n s, though, d i s t i n c t i o n is made between th e two m ajor
g ro u p s, th e E n g lis h and th e A frik a n e r. The l a t t e r group
i s made up m ainly o f d escen d an ts o f th e Dutch who s e t t l e d
in ^ s o u th e rn A fric a in th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry . The
language th e y speak, A frik a a n s, i s a s im p lif ie d form of
D utch. Jew s, s in c e th e y a ls o o r ig in a te d in E u ro p e, a r e
re c o g n iz e d a s E uropeans.
N on-European. - - A l l p e rso n s b e lo n g in g to th o s e r a c e s
th e South A fric a n governm ent c o n s id e rs n o n - w h ite - -
A f r ic a n s , A sia n s, and p erso n s o f mixed b lo o d - - a r e non-
E uropeans .
A f r ic a n . - -T h is term i s so w idely a p p lie d to th e b la c k
p e o p le o f A f r ic a t h a t i t would be easy to say t h a t th e
A fric a n s o f South A fr ic a a re N egroes. But th e y a r e
n e i t h e r b la c k n o r N egroes. Most o f them have l i g h t brown
s k in s . And " a lth o u g h n o t N egroes, th ey have N egroid
f e a t u r e s , such a s th ic k l i p s , f l a t n o se s, and s h o r t,
b la c k , f r i z z y h a i r " (M arquard, p. 34). The S outh A fric a n
governm ent o f f i c i a l l y c la s s e s them as "B antu" (from
a b a n tu , l i t e r a l l y " p e o p le " ), a g e n e ric term w h ich c o v e rs
a l i n g u i s t i c a l l y i n t e r r e l a t e d fa m ily o f A fric a n s in
so u th e rn and c e n tr a l A fric a .
"B antu" has now re p la c e d , on th e governm ent le v e l ,
th e e a r l i e r o f f i c i a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f " n a t i v e ." But
" n a tiv e " i t s e l f has been so im p o rta n t a p a r t o f th e
v o c a b u la ry o f l i f e in South A fr ic a t h a t th e p e o p le s t i l l
u se i t w id e ly . T his i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g . "N a tiv e " has
become e x c lu s iv e ly lim ite d in u sa g e . The o n ly synonym
f o r " n a t i v e ," in South A fric a , i s " b la c k m an." Even
though th e A fric a n s them selves f in d " n a t i v e " d is p a ra g in g ,
i t does n o t have th e same c o n n o ta tio n a s " n ig g e r ." The
word " n ig g e r" i s sometimes used, b u t th e more f a m i l i a r
p e j o r a t i v e term in so u th e rn A fr ic a i s " k a f f i r . "
Most know ledgeable w r i t e r s — and even th o s e n o t so
k n o w le d g e a b le --o fte n r e f e r to A fric a n s in term s o f th e
t r i b e th e y b elo n g to . I t i s n e c e s s a r y , t h e r e f o r e , to make
th e d i s t i n c t i o n th a t in South A fr ic a th e r e a r e
some hundreds o f A fric a n t r i b e s d iv id e d in to fo u r
main language g roups. The Xhosa, Z u lu and Swazi
b elo n g to th e Nguni group; th e n o r th e r n and so u th e rn
Sotho, th e Tsw ana-speaking t r i b e s o f B echuanaland,
and v a r io u s t r i b e s o f w e ste rn T ra n s v a a l b elo n g to
th e Sotho group; th e Venda and Tsonga a r e two
sm all s e p a r a te groups. (M arquard, p . 34)
C o lo u re d .- - T h is la b e l i s o f te n c o n fu s in g to p eo p le
n o t f a m i l i a r w ith South A f r ic a . In t h a t c o u n try i t h as a
s p e c i f i c a p p l ic a tio n . Only a p e rso n o f mixed blood i s a
C oloured. '"M ixed r a c e 1 means th o s e who have some E uro
pean b lo o d in t h e i r v e in s , b u t a r e n o t o f 'p u r e ' European
o r ig in " (M arquard, p. 75). To a v o id c o n fu sio n w ith th e
g e n e ra l word, " c o lo r e d ," th e S outh A fric a n form o f th e
la b e l w i l l be r e ta in e d in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n - - t h a t i s ,
c a p i t a l i z e d and s p e lle d w ith a "u. "
A sia n .--T h e m a jo rity of th e A sian s in South A f r ic a
a r e In d ia n in o r ig in . There a r e a l s o a number o f C hinese
and Ja p a n e se . Even among th e In d ia n s th e m selv es, d i s
t i n c t i o n s a re made on th e b a s is o f r e l i g i o n o r la n g u a g e ;'
B ut th e r e i s no need to go in t o d e t a i l h e r e , sin c e th e
p a r t In d ia n s p la y in South A f r ic a n f i c t i o n i s in c i d e n t a l .
Tf t h i s l i s t im p lie s t h a t S o u th A f r ic a i s f i l l e d w ith
r a c i a l c o n f l i c t , then th e main p o in t h as been em phasized.
From such s t u f f comes th e drama o f S outh A fric a n f i c t i o n
in E n g lish .
CHAPTER II
THE FORERUNNERS
L aurens van d e r P o s t d iv id e s South A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e
in to fo u r d i s t i n c t p h a s e s , each a s s o c ia te d w ith an o u t
sta n d in g w r i t e r , th r e e o f them n o v e l i s t s : Thomas P rin g le
(1789-1834), O liv e S c h re -n e r (1855-1920), H. R ider
Haggard (1856-1925), and W illiam Plom er (1903- ).■ *•
T ogether w ith S arah G e rtru d e M il lin (1889-1968), a n o th e r
n o v e l i s t , th e s e w r i t e r s a r e a ls o s i g n i f i c a n t in th e h i s t o r y
o f South A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lis h .
Thomas P r i n g l e 's p o s i t i o n i s u n iq u e . He is th e f i r s t
to be named in any h i s t o r y o f any E n g lis h p u b lic a tio n in
so u th e rn A f r ic a . He i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e f i r s t E n g lish
newspaper in t h a t a r e a .^ W ith John F a i r b a i r n , he was
r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e f i r s t E n g lis h p e r i o d i c a l , The South
^ I n t r o . to W illiam Plom er, T u rb o tt Wolfe (London,
1965), pp. 28-39.
O
G.M. M ille r and Howard S e rg e a n t, A C r i t i c a l Survey
o f South A fric a n P o e try in E n g lis h (Cape Town, 1957), p . 17.
10
11
A fric a n J o u r n a l (1 8 2 4 ). The J o u rn a l stopped p u b lic a tio n
a f t e r two i s s u e s , b u t t h a t i t was p u b lis h e d a t a l l p u t
P rin g le i n t o h i s t o r y books. His p e r io d ic a l marked a
v ic to r y f o r th e freedom o f th e p r e s s in an a re a where th e r e
had been none b e f o r e and where th e government a tte m p te d to
s t i f l e i t . ^ P r i n g l e i s a l s o " r i g h t l y . . . c o n s id e re d th e
e a r l i e s t South A f r ic a n p o e t" who w ro te in E n g lish ( M ille r
and S erg ean t, p . 1 4 ). Randolph V igne, in a survey o f
South A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e , c a l l s P rin g le "th e f i r s t r e a l
c o n t r i b u t o r ." 1 ^ P r in g l e a c h ie v e d a g r e a t d ea l in th e s h o r t
tim e he sp e n t i n th e new colony: he a r r iv e d w ith th e f i r s t
B r i t i s h s e t t l e r s in 1820 and rem ained in the re g io n f o r
only s ix y e a rs .
Those s ix y e a r s w ere re c o rd e d in N a rra tiv e of a
R esidence in S o u th A f r ic a (1834), " h is l a s t i n g c o n tr ib u
t io n to l i t e r a t u r e . "5 W ith th e p u b lic a tio n o f th is o nly
^A.M. Lewin R obinson, None D aring To Make Us A fra id
(Cape Town, 1962), pp. 19-40.
^"S outh A f r i c a , " in The Commonwealth Pen, ed. A.L.
McCleod ( I t h a c a , 1961), p. 79.
^A.M. Lewin R obinson, I n t r o , to Thomas P rin g le ,
N a rra tiv e o f a R e sid e n c e in South A fric a (Cape Town, 1966),
p. x i. A ll q u o ta tio n s o f N a r ra tiv e a re tak en from t h i s
l a t e s t r e p r i n t o f P r i n g l e 's work.
12
b o o k - le n g th p ro se work, P r in g le became th e f i r s t a u t h e n ti c
l i t e r a r y v o ic e in so u th e rn A fr ic a . W hile h i s contem pora
r i e s "w ere a p a th e t ic to th e la n d in which they l i v e d , "
P r in g le " d is p la y e d a genuine i n t e r e s t in th e l i f e o f th e
c o u n try " ( M ille r and S e rg e a n t, p. 19). Vigne b e l i e v e s
t h a t
\
th e l i t t l e , lame p r o -b la c k Scot seemed to have b e
come a p a r t o f th e w ild c o u n try he had come to and
to have found an A fric a n n o te which can s t i l l sound
upon th e e a r to d a y . (p. 79)
T h at " A fric a n n o te " - - M il le r and S e rg e a n t c a l l i t " th e
s p i r i t o f A fr ic a " (p. 2 2 )- - d i s t i n g u i s h e s P r i n g l e 's work
from th e l im ite d v ie w p o in ts ex p re sse d by o th e r t r a v e l e r s
who jo u rn e y e d to th e Cape b o th b e fo re and a f t e r P r i n g l e .
The d i s t i n c t i v e v o ic e i s r e f l e c t e d in th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f
l i f e on th e edge o f u n e x p lo re d t e r r i t o r y - -
T a ll D u tc h -A fric a n b o o rs, w ith b road brimmed w h ite
h a t s , and huge to b acco p ip e s in t h e i r m ouths, w ere
b a w lin g in c o l o n ia l Dutch. Whips were sm acking,
b u llo c k s b e llo w in g , wagons c re a k in g ; and th e h a l f -
naked H o tte n to ts , who le d th e long teams of d ra u g h t
oxen, w ere running^ and h a llo o in g , and w aving t h e i r
lo n g la n k sw arth y arms in f r o n t o f t h e i r horned
f o llo w e r s , l i k e so many macl d e rv is h e s . (p. 10)
in h i s r e f u s a l to fo llo w th e co n v en tio n o f p a ra p h ra s in g
th e h ig h ly m e ta p h o ric speech o f th e A fric a n ; in h i s i n s i s
te n c e on t r a n s l a t i n g th e im agery d i r e c t l y in to E n g lis h and
c l a r i f y i n g th e an alo g y in p a r a n th e s is :
13
[G aika] to l d th e d e p u tie s t h a t he c o u ld n o t b e lie v e
th e c o l o n i s t s were s e rio u s in t h e i “: p ro p o s a l [ t h a t
he occupy la n d between the d is p u tin g B r i t i s h and
Dutch s e t t l e r s ] ; and t h a t . , . f o r h i s own p a r t ,
he had no i n c l i n a t i o n to p la c e h im s e lf , l i k e a s i l l y
d e e r, between a lio n on th e one s id e and a w o lf on
th e o th e r (th e E n g lish and th e D u tch ). (pp. 71-72)
in th e u n a f f e c te d and unassum ing way he p a r t i c i p a t e s in
s e r v ic e s w ith a H o tte n to t c o n g re g a tio n , o r a d a p ts h im s e lf
to th e " f o r e s t o f ju n g le " camps, o r jo u rn e y s up th e R iv er
o f Baboons, o r im p ro v ises a community in th e w ild s , o r
s e t t l e s a group o f H o tte n to ts among h i s p e o p le , o r clim bs
th e Z ureberg M ountains, o r a c c e p ts th e h o s p i t a l i t y o f a
Dutch fa m ily e i t h e r in th e voorkam er o r in th e la r g e room
where a l l g u e s ts , men and women, s l e p t , o r seek s out*
h u n ts , o b se rv e s and le a rn s a b o u t e le p h a n ts , sn a k es, l i o n s ,
hyena, and in h i s re a d in e s s
to u se A fric a n d e rism s when he f e l t them to be
e s s e n t i a l to th e s p i r i t o f h is s u b je c t . . . in
[ h is ] works lo c a l Cape words and even com plete
p h ra s e s in South A fric a n Dutch a r e to be found.
The u se o f th e s e words i l l u s t r a t e s th e d eg ree o f
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n P rin g le f e l t w ith th e la n d o f h i s
a d o p tio n . . . . (Robinson, None D a rin g , p. 4 8 ).
A nother m ajor c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f N a r ra tiv e o f a R e s i
dence in South A f r ic a , s in c e i t d e s c r ib e s p io n e e r in g
e x p e rie n c e , i s t h a t in p a r t s i t re a d s l i k e an a d v e n tu re
s to r y . P r in g le h im s e lf s t a t e s how he f e l t l i k e R obinson
Crusoe as he "betook h im s e lf to th e u se o f th e h a t c h e t ,
14
saw, and au g er" to have h i s new c a b in fu rn is h e d (p. 113).
B ut th e e x p e rie n c e s a re n o t m e re ly a d v e n tu re s , however
f a s c i n a t i n g they may be. They a r e e x p e rie n c e s o b serv ed ,
f e l t , liv e d , and absorbed, enhanced by a k ee n ess o f o b se r
v a t io n , a c a p a c ity fo r f e e l in g , a f e r v id n e s s f o r l i f e , and
an aw areness th a t each e x p e rie n c e i s m e a n in g fu l. What
enhances th e l i t e r a r y q u a l i t y o f th e book i s P r i n g l e 's
m atu re o u tlo o k , an im p o rta n t p o i n t w hich makes P r i n g l e 's
work an e x c e p tio n to th e l i t e r a r y e f f o r t s in th e new
s e ttle m e n t.
These l i t e r a r y e f f o r t s a p p e a r to p a r a l l e l th e growth
o f th e colony. When th e co lo n y was in i t s c h ild h o o d ,
S outh A fric a n w r i t e r s of th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e n in e te e n th
c e n tu ry were s t i l l try in g to a r t i c u l a t e . The f i r s t known
"n o v e l" w r i tte n in so u th e rn A f r ic a i s t i t l e d , a p p r o p r ia te ly ,
The E n g lis h Boy a t th e Cape (1 8 3 5 ), by Edward A ugustus
K e n d a ll. And, as i f to conform to th e a d o le sc e n c e o f the
colony in th e second h a l f o f th e c e n tu r y , th e " n o v e ls"
c o n s is te d o f a s e r i e s o f j u v e n i l i a o r , a t b e s t , romances
d e a lin g w ith w ild l i f e and .savages., J.-P.L. Snyman, in h is
The South A fric a n Novel in E n g lis h (1 8 8 0 -1 9 3 0 ), c a t e g o r i
c a l l y d ism isse s them w ith th e s ta te m e n t,
The main fe a tu r e of th e s e n o v e ls i s t h e i r q u a s i-
15
s c i e n t i f i c d is c u s s io n o f South A fric a n f l o r a and
fauna; t h e i r p l o t s a r e m eagre and m arred by f r e
q u en t d i g r e s s i o n s .6
The o u ts ta n d in g n o v e l i s t o f th e l a s t c e n tu ry i s O live
S c h re in e r. In h e r e a r l y d ay s, she was f a s c in a te d w ith the
e x o tic background o f th e en v iro n m en t in w hich she liv e d
and th e re was a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t she would have gone th e
way of o th e r w r i t e r s o f a d v e n tu re s t o r i e s . There i s a
marked d if f e r e n c e betw een h e r e a r l y s t o r y - t e l l i n g h a b i ts
and h e r f i r s t m ajor n o v e l, The S to ry o f an A fric a n Farm
(1883). In the l a t e s t o f th e b io g r a p h ie s of S c h re in e r,
Johannes M e in tje s d e s c r ib e s how, a s a g o v e rn e ss, she e n t e r
ta in e d th e Orpen c h i ld r e n w ith s t o r i e s u n t i l Mrs. Orpen
asked h e r to sto p b ec a u se th e c h ild r e n
were becoming to o e x c i t a b l e . A p p a re n tly th e t a l e s
were ab o u t ro b b e rs , c a v e s , w ild rocky i s l a n d s , huge
r i v e r s , and h a i r b r e a d t h e s c a p e s . 7
But she e v e n tu a lly changed, due no doubt to th e s e rio u s
re a d in g she su b se q u e n tly d id . M e in tje s l a t e r p o in ts o u t
t h a t "h e r ig n o ran ce o f contem porary f i c t i o n may have con
t r i b u t e d to h e r s t a r t l i n g o r i g i n a l i t y " (p. 36).
6 (P o tc h e fstro o m , 1952), p. 28.
7
O live S c h re in e r: P o r t r a i t o f a South A fric a n Woman
(Johannesburg, 1965), p . 17.
16
E nvironm ent i s th e m ost im p o rta n t s in g le f a c t o r in
The S to ry o f an A fric a n Farm . A lthough Vigne f in d s i t s
main theme to be M a u n iv e r s a l o n e ," he ad m its t h a t "from
*
th e f i r s t l i n e , i t s s e t t i n g b r e a th e s South A f r ic a " (p . 8 1 ).
In th e n o v e l, th e r e i s no l o c a l c o lo r f o r th e sake o f l o c a l
c o lo r. Nor i s th e r e any a tte m p t to p o r tra y th e u n u s u a l.
But, a s Snyman o b s e rv e s , " th e farm i s more th a n a b a c k
ground, i t i s p a r t o f th e a c tio n " (p. 3 ) . On t h i s i s o l a t e d
sp o t in th e a r i d K arroo, L y n d all and Waldo, th e main c h a r a c
t e r s , r e p r e s e n t a tw o -fo ld se a rc h f o r f u l f i l l m e n t .
L y n d a ll, s tr o n g - w i lle d from h e r ch ild h o o d , w ants to be
re c o g n iz e d a s an i n d iv i d u a l. Her b r i e f s ta y in a c i t y
in tro d u c e s h e r to th e freedom she has been c ra v in g f o r .
But as she grows i n t o womanhood and fin d s h e r s e l f ham pered
by th e s t a t u s o f women, she r e tu r n s to th e farm . T here she
becomes r e s t l e s s . " I t i s d e l i g h t f u l to be a woman," she
says to Waldo, " b u t e v e ry man th an k s th e Lord d e v o u tly t h a t
he i s n ' t o n e . "8 in d e s p e r a tio n she a g ree s t o m arry G regory,
whom she does n o t lo v e , on th e c o n d itio n t h a t he g iv e h e r
h is name and make no demands on h e r . A fte r a l l , a m a rrie d
®(London, 1961), p. 170. A ll q u o ta tio n s a re ta k e n
from t h i s e d i t i o n .
17
woman in a c i t y evokes fewer r a is e d eyebrow s th a n one who
i s n o t. The p r e p a r a tio n s f o r th e w edding a r e s t i l l in
p r o g re s s when, m e lo d ra m a tic a lly , L y n d a ll's lo v e r from th e
c i t y tu r n s up in re sp o n se to a l e t t e r from h e r , and she
goes o f f w ith him.
L y n d a ll i s such an im pressive c h a r a c te r t h a t c r i t i c s ,
sp e ak in g as i f she were th e only le a d in g c h a r a c t e r , have a l l
too h a s t i l y c l a s s i f i e d th e theme o f th e n o v e l a s th e eman
c i p a t i o n o f women. By com parison, th e y a rg u e , Em i s
p a s s iv e and re s ig n e d to w hatever b e f a l l s h e r . The c r i t i c s
ig n o re w hat w ent on b e fo re L y n d a ll's demands f o r em ancipa
t i o n and w hat happens to h e r a fte rw a rd s . D uring h e r c h i l d
hood, she i s c o n s ta n tl y q u e s tio n in g and q u e s tin g a f t e r
know ledge. She, Waldo, and sometimes Em, r e a d o ld h i s
t o r i e s on t h e i r own. They a ls o le a rn from t h e i r e n v iro n
m ent. " L y n d a ll," Waldo ask s, "has i t seemed to you t h a t
th e s to n e s w ere ta lk in g w ith you?" (p. 3 3 ). And lo n g
a f te r w a r d s , fo rsa k e n by h er lo v e r, L y n d all e x p e r ie n c e s th e
o n ly happy moments in h e r l i f e as th e m o th e r o f h e r b a s ta r d
c h i l d . Simply s t a t e d , the theme of th e n o v e l, in a s f a r as
i t co n c ern s L y n d a ll o n ly , i s t h i s : L y n d all w an ts to know
w hat i t i s to be a woman, and only c o n c o m ita n tly does she
seek e m a n c ip a tio n .
18
But th e s to r y is n o t L y n d a ll 's a lo n e . I t i s W ald o 's,
to o . Waldo a ls o seeks f u l f i l l m e n t - - a s a man. As i f to
rem ind th e re a d e r of th e s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e Waldo p la y s in
th e n o v e l, S c h re in e r h as a s t r a n g e r say to him,
. . . th e whole of th e s to r y i s n o t w r i t t e n , b u t i t
i s su g g e ste d . And th e a t t r i b u t e o f a l l tr u e a r t ,
th e h ig h e s t and the lo w est i s t h i s - - t h a t i t says more
th a n i t says . . . . (p. 151)
W aldo's q u e s t i s n o t a s in g le q u e s t b u t a s e r i e s . In th e
b e g in n in g , s t i l l a c h i ld , Waldo i s u n a b le to s le e p . In
s te a d , in th e d a rk n e ss, he l i s t e n s to th e lo u d tic k in g o f
h i s f a t h e r 's " g r e a t s i l v e r h u n tin g y a t c h ." " I t n ev er
w a ite d ; i t w ent on in e x o ra b ly ; and e v e ry tim e i t tic k e d
a man d i e d .'" (p. 21). While th e t i c k i n g overwhelms him
w ith t e r r o r , he r e a l i z e s t h a t God i s a s a l o o f a s th e
environm ent. From th e n on, he i s more i n t e r e s t e d in
m a tte r s r e l a t i n g to man, a lth o u g h he n e v e r r e lin q u i s h e s
a s k in g m e ta p h y sic a l q u e s tio n s . D uring one p e rio d on th e
farm , however, W aldo's q u e s tio n in g o f God i s r e p la c e d by an
i n t e r e s t in th e s e a rc h f o r T ru th . A p a s s in g s tr a n g e r
r e l a t e s to Waldo a long p a ra b le a b o u t a h u n te r and T ru th .
T ru th i s a b ir d and th e h u n te r l e a r n s o f i t s p re se n c e by
i t s shadow when i t f l i e s over him. A f te r a long and
arduous se a rc h f o r T ru th , th e man i s rew arded, j u s t b e fo re
19
he d ie s , w ith a f e a t h e r w hich drops from th e sky. While
th e p a ra b le makes Waldo w ant to go o u t and d is c o v e r th e
w orld f o r h im s e lf, th e s tr a n g e r p e rsu a d e s him to rem ain on
th e farm, where Waldo s t i l l seek s f u l f i l l m e n t , t h i s tim e in
h i s work. E v e n tu a lly , L y n d a ll r e t u r n s from th e c i t y and
j o l t s him o u t o f w h a te v e r com placency he fin d s in h is work:
So you a r e a t your o ld work s t i l l . Why, why, why?
What i s th e reaso n ? I t i s enough f o r me i f I f in d
o u t w hat i s b e a u t i f u l and w hat i s u g ly , what is
r e a l and.w hat— i-s— n o t . . . You m ust s n i f f a f t e r
re a so n s . . . L if e i s too s h o r t to run a f t e r
m ig h ts; we m ust have c e r t a i n t i e s . (p. 180)
f
Waldo goes o u t to seek th e c e r t a i n t i e s , b u t he does
n o t fin d any. He r e t u r n s to th e farm one stormy n ig h t.
The storm a t f i r s t lo o k s l i k e an a d d i tio n a l m elodram atic
to u ch in th e n o v e l, b u t i t h as a n o th e r purpose a t t h i s
p o in t. I t makes com m unication betw een Waldo and Em
d i f f i c u l t . G regory, now Em's f ia n c e , has gone o u t to seek
L y n d all in th e c i t i e s and Em i s a lo n e on the farm . Waldo
inform s Em t h a t he i s going to w r i te a l e t t e r to L y n d a ll,
b u t th e storm p r e v e n ts Em from h e a rin g him. In th e l e t t e r ,
Waldo d e s c r ib e s h i s e x p e rie n c e s in th e w orld away from th e
farm . In s u b s ta n c e , th e l e t t e r i s f i l l e d w ith i n s i g h t s
re g a rd in g work. Waldo f in d s d i s t a s t e f u l h is s p e l l a s a
c l e r k in a s to r e b e c a u se o f th e danger t h a t he would be
20
o b se q u io u s l i k e th e o th e r c le r k s th e r e . The o n ly k in d word
he h as i s f o r an A fric a n storem an: "he n e v e r n eeded to
sm ile e x c e p t when he lik e d , and he never t o ld l i e s "
(p. 2 3 2 ). One o f W aldo's in s ig h ts i s s t i l l r e l e v a n t to th e .
c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n . I know of no b e t t e r d e s c r i p t i o n o f what
th e S outh A fric a n European i s doing to th e A fr ic a n , by
t r e a t i n g him s o l e l y in term s of la b o r, th a n W ald o 's
r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t "you may work a m an's body so t h a t h i s
so u l d i e s " (p. 237). I t depends on the k in d o f w ork a man
do es, a s Waldo goes on to observe:
Work i s good. I have worked a t th e o ld farm from
th e s u n 's r i s i n g t i l l i t s s e t t i n g , b u t I have had
tim e to th in k , and tim e to f e e l . You may work a
man so t h a t a l l b u t th e anim al in him i s gone; and
t h a t grows s tr o n g e r w ith p h y s ic a l la b o u r. You may
work a man t i l l he i s a d e v il. I know i t , b e c a u se
I have f e l t i t . (p. 237)
Waldo f i l l s th e l e t t e r w ith o th e r e x p e r ie n c e s - - h is f i r s t
s i g h t o f th e s e a , h i s f i r s t t a s t e o f good m u sic. Then he
e x p r e s s e s th e main re a s o n f o r h is r e tu r n . He h a s b een
lo n g in g f o r L y n d a ll. H ere, Em i n t e r r u p t s him. On
le a r n in g t h a t th e l e t t e r i s f o r L y n d all, she in fo rm s Waldo
t h a t L y n d a ll i s dead.
The two q u e s ts , L y n d a ll's and W aldo's, merge a t t h i s
p o in t. B oth L y n d a ll and Waldo le a r n th e same le s s o n
th ro u g h b i t t e r e x p e rie n c e . A fte r h e r f i r s t s o jo u r n in th e
21
c i t i e s , L y n d all inform s Waldo,
W e sb.v-11 f in d n o th in g new in human n a t u r e a f t e r we
have once c a r e f u l l y d is s e c t e d and a n a ly z e d th e one
b e in g we s h a l l ev er t r u l y k n o w --o u rs e lf. (p . 181)
On th e v e ld , away from th e farm , Waldo comes to a s im ila r
r e a l i z a t i o n :
A c o n v ic t, o r a man who d r in k s , seems som ething f a r
o f f and h o r r i b l e when we see him; b u t to h im s e lf he
seems q u ite n e a r to u s, and l i k e u s . W e wonder
w hat k in d o f a c r e a tu r e he i s ; b u t he i s j u s t we,
o u r s e lv e s . (p. 238)
What b o th f i n a l l y le a r n - - L y n d a ll th ro u g h b e t r a y a l , s u f f e r
in g , and a slow , p a in f u l i l l n e s s le a d in g to h e r d e a th , and
Waldo on h e a rin g o f L y n d a ll's d e a t h - - i s t h a t he who q u e s ts
does so a lo n e .
B efore h e r d eath , however, L y n d a ll h as two c o n s o la
t i o n s . She has h e r baby a t f i r s t . And a f t e r th e baby
d ie s , she has Gregory who has f i n a l l y found h e r . W aldo's
le s s o n i s accompanied by a s i l e n t agony. "E x p erien ce
te a c h e s us in a m illennium w hat p a s s io n te a c h e s u s in an
h o u r" (p. 254). When Em o f f e r s him money f o r e d u c a tio n ,
he r e j e c t s i t , adding, " I have gone so f a r a lo n e I may go
on to th e end" (p. 277). He c o n tin u e s to ,w o rk on th e
farm , he lo n g s fo r L y n d a ll, and he spends m ost o f h is sp a re
tim e w andering and w ish in g he w ere an i n s e c t o r a p la n t.
In t h i s frame o f mind, he s t r e t c h e s h im s e lf o u t in th e
22
su n sh in e one a fte rn o o n and goes o f f in to a deep s le e p from
which he does n o t awake. The n o v e l seems to end on a
f u t i l e n o te , b u t th e s to r y i s n o t one o f t o t a l d e s p a ir . As
Snyman o b se rv e s,
The l i v e s o f L y n d a ll and Waldo a r e t r a g i c , b u t t h e i r
trium ph l i e s in w hat th e y f i n a l l y a c h ie v e d --a n i n
s i g h t i n t o th e e t e r n a l v e r i t i e s o f l i f e . (p. 8)
There i s a t h i r d , p o ig n a n t v o ic e w hich a ls o sav es
th e n o v el from b e in g one o f t o t a l d e s p a ir . T his i s Em,
who i s by no means a p a s s iv e c h a r a c te r . She h a s, to
s t a t e i t sim ply, come to term s w ith h e r environm ent.
E a rly in l i f e she le a rn e d h e r le s s o n , she e x p la in s to
Waldo:
I remember once, v e ry long ago, when I was a v e ry
l i t t l e g i r l , my m other had a w ork-box f u l l of
c o lo u re d r e e l s . I alw ays w anted to p la y w ith them,
b u t she would n e v e r l e t me. At l a s t , one day, she
s a id I m ight ta k e th e box. I was so g la d I h a rd ly
knew w hat to do. I ra n round th e house and s a t down
w ith i t on th e back s te p s . But when I opened th e
box a l l th e c o tto n s were ta k e n o u t. (pp. 277-278)
She s t o i c a l l y a c c e p ts th e s u f f e r i n g on th e farm b ecause
she re c o g n iz e s th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h a t microcosm o f a
h a rs h w o rld . When G regory r e j e c t s h e r and i n s i s t s on
se ek in g L y n d a ll in th e c i t i e s , she a c q u ie s c e s . But she
welcomes him on h i s r e t u r n , co m fo rts him, and f i n a l l y
m a rrie s him. L ike D ilse y in W illiam F a u lk n e r 's The
23
Sound and th e F u ry , she en d u re s.
But th e n o v e l i s n o t p e r f e c t . F a r c ia l e p iso d e s mar
th e to n e . A whole s e c tio n c o v e rs th e e p iso d e s o f Bona
p a r te B le n k in s, a b u rle s q u e U riah Heep. The e v i l B len k in s
r e p r e s e n ts h as no v i t a l i t y ; a t b e s t , he i s shrewd a t
m a n ip u la tin g th e ig n o r a n t. He i n g r a t i a t e s h im s e lf w ith
T a n t1 S an n ie, th e owner o f th e farm , co n v in ces h e r o f h i s
p i e t y sim ply b ec au se she does n o t u n d e rsta n d E n g lish , and
o u s ts W aldo's g r a n d f a th e r O tto from th e farm on a trum ped-
up c h a rg e . I n d i r e c t l y , B len k in s i s re s p o n s ib le f o r O t t o 's
d e a th . He a l s o m i s t r e a t s and h u m ilia te s Waldo. B l e n k in s 's
end i s com m ensurate w ith h i s c a r i c a t u r e . Having made
advances to T a n t1 S annie, he does n o t h e s i t a t e in tu rn in g
h is a t t e n t i o n s to a n ie c e o f h e rs when he le a r n s t h a t th e
n ie c e has more money th a n h e r a u n t. T a n t' Sannie s e c r e t l y
w atches h i s love-m aking e f f o r t s from a l o f t and d renches
him w ith p ic k le w a te r.
The n o v e l i s a l s o to o e p is o d ic . Snyman m inim izes
t h i s w eakness b ec au se he se e s i t a s " e s s e n t i a l l y a n o v el
o f c h a r a c te r [ in which] p l o t i s a secondary c o n s id e r a tio n "
(p. 3 ). In a d d i tio n to c h a r a c te r , a s i g n i f i c a n t u n ify in g
f a c t o r i s th e s e t t i n g . F u n c tio n in g as a m etaphor, th e
farm makes th e s to r y b o th South A fric a n and g lo b a l.
24
Nadine Gordim er b e lie v e s S c h r e in e r 's work to be "th e
s o r t o f n o v el we can hope i s to come" from f u tu r e South
A fric a n n o v e l i s t s . ^ She goes on, however, to e x p re s s th e
n o v e l 's re le v a n c e to South A fr ic a in th e m id -tw e n tie th
c e n tu r y :
. . . th e s p i r i t u a l p r o g re s s io n o f Waldo, s tr u g g lin g
to u n d e rs ta n d h im s e lf, and th e r e l a t i o n o f man to
h i s god-head, a lo n e and ill - e q u ip p e d , a p o o r, i g
n o r a n t boy "so b lin d e d by th in k in g and f e e l i n g t h a t
he h as n e v e r seen th e w o r l d " - - th a t same s tr u g g le i s
b e in g liv e d th ro u g h by many young A fric a n s to d ay
. . . . (p. 21)
E z e k ie l M phahlele, an o th e rw ise h a r s h c r i t i c o f th e w h ite
m an 's image o f th e A fric a n , p r a is e s . S c h re in e r f o r th e ty p e
o f c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n more l i k e l y to be found in th e p o stw ar
S outh A fric a n n o v e l, when he fo c u se s h is a t t e n t i o n on th e
A fric a n s e r v a n ts who form p a r t o f th e background o f
A fric a n Farm :
These n o n -w h ite s a r e seen as an o rg a n ic p a r t o f th e
A fric a n s e t t i n g : v i o l a t e th e b la c k man, you v i o l a t e
th e s e t t i n g ; r e s p e c t th e one, you r e s p e c t th e o t h e r . 10
In The S to ry o f an A fric a n Farm O liv e S c h re in e r
su cceed ed , a s no o th e r w r i t e r in h e r c o u n try , in u n iv e r-
^"The E n g lis h Novel in South A f r i c a ," in The Novel
and th e N a tio n , ed. Hugh Lewin (Cape Town, 1960), p. 21.
• ^ T h e A fric a n Image (London, 1962), p. 121.
25
s a l i z i n g t h a t unknown p a r t o f South A f r ic a w hich she knew,
th e K arroo. She w ent on to w r ite o th e r n o v e ls , b u t th e y
a l l proved f a i l u r e s . T rooper P e te r H a lk e t (1 8 9 7 ), th e
b e t t e r known o f h e r l e s s e r w orks, i s b e s t d e s c r ib e d as a
sermon w hich, d e s p ite i t s e lo q u en ce , d im in ish e s w h atev er
l i t t l e a r t i s t r y th e n o v el p o s s e s s e s . B ecause o f A fric a n
Farm a lo n e , Snyman re c o g n iz e s S c h re in e r a s h av in g " l a i d th e
fo u n d a tio n s o f South A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e " (p. x i ) . L aurens
van d e r P o s t f e e l s t h a t "w ith h e r , E n g lis h l i t e r a t u r e in
South A fr ic a su ddenly becomes in d ig e n o u s and th e im agina
ti o n i s n a t iv e " (p. 29).
When th e n o v el was f i r s t p u b lis h e d , how ever, "some o f
th e rev ie w s were r a t h e r tame f o r such a s t a r t l i n g n o v e l,
a t l e a s t f o r th e tim e " (M e in tje s , p. 5 0 ). N e v e rth e le s s , i t
won f o r S c h re in e r th e a d m ira tio n and f r ie n d s h ip - - s h e was in
E ngland when th e n o v el came o u t - - o f George B ernard Shaw,
John S tu a r t M ill, George Moore, O scar W ilde, R id e r Haggard,
and p a r t i c u l a r l y H avelock E l l i s (M e in tje s , p. 6 0 ). But th e
g e n e r a l p u b lic , w hich made th e n o v el a b e s t - s e l l e r b o th in
E ngland and th e U n ited S ta te s , was d i s a p p o i n t e d . ^ A
■^Morton N. Cohen, R id e r Haggard (New York, 1960),
p. 90.
26
"k in d c r i t i c , " in a l e t t e r to O liv e S c h re in e r, r e f l e c t s
th e p u b l i c 's a t t i t u d e , a s p o in te d o u t by S c h re in e r in h e r
p re fa c e to th e second e d i t i o n :
I t has been su g g e ste d by a k in d c r i t i c t h a t he would
b e t t e r have lik e d th e l i t t l e book i f i t had been a
s to r y o f w ild a d v e n tu re ; o f c a t t l e d r iv e n i n t o i n
a c c e s s ib le " k ra n z e s" by Bushmen; "o f e n c o u n te rs w ith
ra v e n in g l i o n s , and h a i r b r e a d t h e s c a p e s ." T his
could n o t b e. Such works a r e b e s t w r i t t e n in
P i c c a d i l l y o r in th e S tra n d . . . . (pp. 15-16)
She was aware o f th e k in d o f n o v e l demanded by th e p u b lic .
In A fric a n Farm i t s e l f , she c a s t i g a t e s th ro u g h W aldo's
l e t t e r th e i n s a t i a b l e r e a d e r o f such books:
"G o lly !" [W aldo's v i s i t o r ] s a id ; " I 'v e g o t a l o t
o f dry s t u f f l i k e [W aldo's books] a t home I g o t
f o r my Sunday School p r i z e s ; b u t I o n ly keep them
to l i g h t my p ip e now; th e y come in handy f o r t h a t . "
Then he asked me i f I had e v e r re a d a book c a l l e d
th e "B lack-eyed C r e o le ." "T hat i s th e s t y l e f o r
m e," he s a id ; " th e re where th e fe llo w ta k e s th e
n i g g e r - g i r l by th e arm, and th e o th e r fe llo w c u ts
o f f! T h a t's w hat I l i k e . "
But what he s a id a f t e r t h a t I d o n 't remember,
o nly i t made me f e e l a s i f I w ere h av in g a bad dream,
and I w anted to be f a r away. (p . 234)
Romances d e a lin g w ith w ild l i f e and savages con
tin u e d in vogue f o r th e re m a in d e r o f th e n in e te e n th
c e n tu ry . I n a d v e r te n tly a c tin g a s a comment on th e "age"
l i t e r a r y t a s t e had re a c h e d a t th e tim e , th e l a s t two
" n o v e ls" o f th e c e n tu ry a r e t i t l e d , a p p r o p r ia te ly ,
A South A fric a n Boy (1897), by an anonymous " N a ta lia n ,"
27
and A D aughter o f th e T ra n sv a a l (1899), by A lys Lowth,
b o th about sc h o o l l i f e .
A n o ta b le e x c e p tio n among th e s e rom ancers i s H.
R id er Haggard. B ecause s e v e r a l o f h is works have much in
common w ith th e p o p u la r ad v e n tu re s t o r i e s , th o se f a m il ia r
w ith h is King S olom on's Mines (1885) and She (1886-87)
d ism iss h i s o th e r works a s rom ances s im ila r to th e s e two.
I t i s easy to do so from th e v a n ta g e p o in t o f th e mid-
\
tw e n tie th c e n tu ry W ith i t s n o v e ls so f a i t h f u l to r e a l i s t i c
d e t a i l s as to be docum entary n o v e ls . Of H aggard's m ajor
n o v e l, Nada th e L ily (1 8 9 2 ), M phahlele says:
As in h is o th e r boo k s, th e A fric a n i s ro m a n tic iz e d
in t h i s n o v e l. And l i k e James Fenim ore C o o p er's
t a l e s about Red In d ia n s , H ag g a rd 's w o rld -- th e
f a k e - l e g e n d a r y - - i n t e r e s t s j u v e n i l e s . (p. 115)
But a t th e tim e when o th e r s p in n e rs o f y arn s d e p ic te d
A fric a n s as sa v a g e s, H ag g a rd 's "Zulu s t o r i e s , h i s saga o f
th e b la c k n a tio n " w ere th e o n ly n o v e ls which won i n
c r e a s in g a d m ira tio n f o r th e Z ulu p eo p le (Cohen, pp.
228-229).
In South A fric a n l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , th e in flu e n c e o f
H aggard's n o v e ls h as b een c o n s id e r a b le . Vigne s t r e s s e s
t h i s p o in t (p. 8 3 ), b u t g iv e s no d e t a i l s . L aurens van
d e r P o st, c o n sc io u s o f such th in g s b ecau se he h im s e lf i s
28
a n o v e l i s t , i s more s p e c i f i c :
[Haggard] was o f g r e a t p io n e e rin g im portance to
us in A f r ic a b ecau se he was th e f i r s t to f in d th e
b la c k man ro m a n tic . He d id n o t do t h i s a t long
ra n g e , from E urope. Haggard found th e b la c k man a
s u b je c t o f romance and wonder a s a r e s u l t o f d a i ly
c o n ta c t w ith him, and on a s c a le and w ith an i n t e n s i t y
t h a t no one had e v e r done b e f o re . He saw in th e
b la c k man som ething e p ic and h e r o ic . . . I can s t i l l
remember th e a c u te sen se o f re a s s u ra n c e and l i b e r a
t i o n my own c h i l d i s h f e e lin g s a b o u t th e b la c k p eo p le
t h a t I e x p e rie n c e d when I f i r s t re a d him a s a young
boy. (pp. 31-32)
The c h i e f c r i t e r i o n van d e r* P o st u se s to d eterm in e
th e h i s t o r i c a l s ig n i f ic a n c e o f a South A fric a n w r i t e r i s
w h eth er th e w r i t e r p o rtra y e d th e A fric a n w ith hum anity
and u n d e rs ta n d in g . T his m ust be th e re a s o n he l e f t o u t
any c o n s id e r a tio n o f Sarah G ertru d e M il lin . M i l l i n 's
r e p u ta tio n r e s t s la r g e ly on h e r f o u r th n o v e l, G od's S te p
c h ild r e n (1924). P a ra d o x ic a lly , s in c e t h i s i s th e o nly
work a s s o c ia te d w ith h e r name r e c e n tly , i t h as been th e
undoing o f M i l l i n 's r e p u ta tio n . Read to d ay , th e n o v el
sounds a s i f i t w ere w r i t t e n by a s tro n g a d v o c a te o f
a p a r th e id .
G od's S te p c h ild r e n tr a c e s th e p ro d u c ts o f m isceg en a
ti o n th ro u g h fo u r g e n e ra tio n s . A c h a r a c te r , d e s c r ib in g
th e o n ly member o f th e l a s t g e n e ra tio n , sums up th e
s to r y n e a tly :
29
And t h i s i s h i s a n c e s try : A mad w h ite m is s io n a ry
who m a rrie d a degraded H o tte n to t woman, a th in g
l i k e a b e a s t. And h is d a u g h te r who had an i l
l e g itim a te son by a p a s s in g B oer. And a c o lo u re d
nursem aid who m a rrie d t h a t son. And a woman who
ra n away w ith a n o th e r man. T h at, on one s id e .
And, on th e o th e r s id e , a bad o ld man who, when
he was more th a n s i x t y , f e l l in lo v e w ith a
c o lo u re d c h i ld , and d i d n 't c a re w hat happened as
long a s he g o t h e r . A ll t h i s e v i l B arry has in h i s
b lood to hand on f u r t h e r . And he i s my b r o t h e r . 12
But B arry i s n o t going to p ass on h i s co n tam in ate d blood
any more. He s a c r i f i c e s h i s w ife (and f u tu r e c h ild ) and
a sk s h e r to r e tu r n to h e r p e o p le in England. He h im s e lf
w i l l be ta k in g up m is s io n a ry work among h i s p e o p le --
t h a t i s , h is m o th e r's p e o p le . W ith h i s d e c is io n , B arry
becomes an id e a l C o lo u re d --I a lm o st s a id , "member," b u t
t h i s would be in a c c u r a t e - - o f an a p a r t h e id - o r i e n te d
s o c ie ty .
The n o v el co u ld have been a superb r e f l e c t i o n o f
South A f r i c a 's r a c i a l m o r a lity , had M il lin c o n fin e d h e r
s e l f to th e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f th e s to r y . But she had to
make comments which re v e a l h e r p r e ju d ic e s . The n o v el
becomes, in su b sta n c e , a w e ll-w ro u g h t argum ent b ased on
th e f a l s e prem ise t h a t mixed b lo o d i s an ab om ination
and an e v i l . S u r p r is in g ly , Snyman p r a i s e s M il lin f o r
■^(London, 1924), p. 220.
30
b e in g o b je c tiv e in th e n o v e l (p. 100), a f t e r q u o tin g h e r
a t t i t u d e two pages e a r l i e r :
Her a t t i t u d e i s b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d in h e r own w ords:
"N othing in my young l i f e had shocked me more th an
th e w ickedness o f m is c e g e n a tio n : i t s im m ediate
shame and th e way i t f i l l e d th e w o rld w ith m is e r y ."
(p. 98)
T his o u tlo o k c o lo r s th e e n t i r e book, e s p e c i a l l y in th o se
p a r t s o f th e n o v el w here she speaks o m n is c ie n tly . A fte r
p r a is i n g th e A fric a n t r i b e s a s " b ig , and b la c k and
v ig o r o u s - -th e y had t h e i r jo y s and c h a n c e s ," she goes on to
d e s c rib e th e C olo u red s o f G riq u a la n d West as
n o th in g b u t an u n t i d i n e s s on G od's e a r t h - - a m ix tu re
o f d e g e n e ra te brown p e o p le s , r o t t e n w ith s ic k n e s s ,
an a f f r o n t a g a i n s t N a tu re . (p. 293)
M illin does, in a moment o f w eakness p e rh a p s, b eg ru d g in g ly
adm it t h a t th e r e w ere among th e C oloureds "what m ight
s h o r t l y be d e s c rib e d a s d e c e n t f o l k , " b u t adds, in th e
v e ry same b r e a th , t h a t "to o o f te n th e y w ere sm all and
v ic io u s , and c ra v e n and d e g e n e ra te " (p. 228). Having
d ec id ed th a t th e C oloureds a r e a h o p e le s s l o t , M illin
ta k e s th e r o le o f o m n iscien ce too s e r io u s ly and e n te r s
th e minds of two o f h e r m is e r a b le C oloured c h a r a c te r s to
show t h a t t h e i r a tte m p ts a t g a in in g an e d u c a tio n a r e in
v a in . Deborah, M il lin c la im s , le a rn e d b ecau se she had th e
h a l f - c a s t e c a p a c ity f o r i m i ta t io n . Deborah "seemed" to
31
le a r n q u ic k ly ,
b u t o n ly to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t. I n e v ita b ly th e p o in t
would be re a c h e d where a s o l i d b a r r i e r o f u n re c e p
t i v i t y would h in d e r a l l f u r t h e r m en tal p ro g re s s .
(p. 63)
E lm ira , who h as more w h ite b lo o d in h e r th an b la c k , i s
doomed, to o .
She was n o t as c l e v e r a t h e r schoolw ork as she had
prom ised to be when a c h i l d . I t was a s i f h e r
b r a in , ru n n in g a ra c e a g a in s t th e b r a i n s of w h ite
c h ild r e n , was v e ry q u ic k a t s t a r t i n g b u t soon t i r e d
and la g g ed b e h in d , so t h a t th e tim e came when i t
f e l l a l t o g e t h e r o u t o f ru n n in g . (p . 132)
M il lin , in making such o b s e rv a tio n s , m ust have assumed
h e r r e a d e rs to be n a iv e . Her comments m erely em phasize
th e b i a s e v id e n t in th e n o v el i t s e l f . The two w h ite
men who m arry n o n -w h ite s do so b ecau se th e y a re d eranged.
The Reverend F lo o d , who b e g in s th e c u rs e o f mixed b lo o d ,
i s a lu d ic r o u s f i g u r e , " s u r e ly one o f th e m ost u n a t t r a c
t i v e c h a r a c te r s anyone h as e v e r in v e n te d 1 ' (G ordim er, p.
1 7 ). Adam L i n d s e l l , B a r r y 's f a t h e r , p u rsu e s E lm ira
b ecau se he i s c ra z e d by l u s t . But a t l e a s t th e s e two
m arry: th e y a r e Englishm en. The o nly w h ite man who i s
a t t r a c t e d tow ard a C oloured g i r l , h as an a f f a i r w ith
h e r , and le a v e s h e r p re g n a n t, b u t does n o t m arry h e r i s
an A frik a n e r .
Most o f th e in c id e n ts show th e C oloureds in d e g ra d in g
32
a c t i v i t i e s . Where th e y a r e n o t so o c c u p ie d , th e y a r e i n
v a r i a b l y tr y in g to p ass a s w h ite . B a rry , l a s t o f th e
d e g e n e ra te l i n e , i s n o t a p a s te b o a rd c h a r a c te r l i k e th e
o th e r C o lo u red s. But t h a t i s b ec au se he h as more w h ite
b lo o d th an a l l h is o th e r r e l a t i v e s and a l s o b ec au se h i s
w h ite h a l f - s i s t e r E d ith b r in g s him up from c h ild h o o d and
p ro v id e s him w ith a good European e d u c a tio n . E d ith h e r s e l f
i s r e s p o n s ib le f o r h i s estra n g e m e n t from h i s E n g lis h w ife .
r
E d ith makes su re B arry knows h i s p la c e a s a C oloured. L ike
M il lin , she can be proud b ec au se he tu r n s o u t to be a good
C oloured. He
makes th e d e c is io n to g iv e h i s l i f e - - n o t h i s f l e s h
and b lo o d , b u t a l l t h a t makes l i f e w o rth l i v i n g to
h im --to a to n e f o r th e o r i g i n a l s i n o f h i s g r e a t -
g r e a t - g r a n d f a th e r . But w hat h as h i s a n c e s to r done?
M urdered? Swindled? No; none o f th e s e . He h as
m a rrie d a b la c k woman. (G ordim er, p . 18)
I t i s n o t s u r p r i s in g , th e r e f o r e , to see M phahlele
c o r r e c t w hat had h i t h e r t o been e n t i r e l y th e w h ite m an's
p e r s p e c tiv e on th e novel--Snym an u s e s s u p e r l a t i v e s to
p r a i s e i t (pp. 9 8 -1 0 0 )--b y p ro v id in g a non-European
v ie w p o in t:
When S arah G ertru d e M i l l i n 's G od's S te p c h ild r e n
became a b e s t s e l l e r in th e U n ite d S ta te s in 1925,
th e c a t h a r s i s o f i t m ust have rubbed th e w h ite
Am ericans th e r i g h t way. H e r e 's th e tra g e d y o f
mixed b lo o d , and w e 'r e in i t to o b ro th e r-m a n ,
th e y m ust have th o u g h t. A s h a t t e r i n g g u i l t complex
33
s e t in : n o t o v er th e w h ite m an 's r o t t e n t r e a t
ment o f th e Negro, b u t o ver h i s " s i n f u ln e s s "
th a t produced th e N egro. Mrs. M il lin was tr y in g
to show t h a t m is c e g e n a tio n betw een b la c k and w h ite
i s an e v i l th in g , e v i l , she th o u g h t, b ec au se i t p ro
duces a d e g e n e ra te r a c e in s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l con
d iti o n s t h a t o u tlaw m ixed m a rria g e s . (pp. 115-116)
There a r e , how ever, s e v e r a l redeem ing f e a tu r e s in th e
n o v e l. Some o f th e s u f f e r i n g o f th e n o n -w h ite i s r e a l i s
t i c a l l y p o rtra y e d . When K le in h a n s, D eb o rah 's i l l e g i t i m a t e
son, saves some money and goes to th e diamond f i e l d s w ith
th e i n t e n t i o n o f p r o s p e c tin g , th e A frik a n e rs throw him
o u t as soon as th e y r e a l i z e he i s a " B a s ta a r d ." I r o n i c a l l y ,
th e n e x t m orning he h e lp s an A frik a n e r g i r l fin d a
g o a t she has l o s t . T h e n --a n o th e r ir o n y - - h e r f a t h e r and
two o th e r men b e a t him up and le a v e him n e a r d e a th , sim ply
b ecau se he ta lk e d to a w hite, g i r l . T his re a d y r e s o r t to
b r u t a l i t y on th e p a r t o f w h ite s , p a r t i c u l a r l y A frik a n e rs ,
a g a in s t n o n -w h ites i s a theme r e p e a te d in p r a c t i c a l l y
e v e ry s to r y o f r a c i a l c o n f l i c t in South A f r ic a , a s i t has
been re p e a te d p r a c t i c a l l y e v e ry day in South A fr ic a . The
f a t e o f K leinhans a ls o r e f l e c t s th e s i t u a t i o n of th e
C oloureds in th e c o u n try w hich i s t h e i r home. His f a th e r
i s th e A frik a n e r who abandoned h i s m other a f t e r making
h e r p re g n a n t. The abandoning o f a problem th e A frik a n e r
h im s e lf c r e a te d i s sym bolic o f th e tre a tm e n t o f th e
34
C oloureds by th e A fr ik a n e rs : a f t e r g a in in g p o l i t i c a l
c o n tr o l o f South A f r ic a th ro u g h t h e i r N a t i o n a l i s t P a rty ,
th e A frik a n e r s d e p riv e d th e C oloureds o f th e v o te s th ey
once had in th e Cape.
Towards th e end o f th e n o v e l, th e Europeans b e a r th e
b ru n t o f M i l l i n 's c a s t i g a t i o n . Of t h e i r a t t i t u d e tow ards
C oloureds p a s s in g o f f a s w h ite , she sa y s,
t '
In s p i t e o f t a l k and t a l k and t a l k , i f a man looked
w h ite , and had su c c e s s enough, he was, in th e
f u l l e s t se n s e , a c c e p te d . T hat was th e t r u t h , and
much o f th e sh u d d e rin g and c ra w lin g was c o n v e n tio n a l
h y p o c ris y . (p . 230)
The c h a r a c te r M il lin does n o t sp a re i s E d ith , whose h a l f -
b r o th e r i s B a rry , a C oloured. From th e moment she le a r n s
o f h e r f a t h e r 's i n t e n t i o n to m arry a C oloured g i r l , she
i s h a tr e d made f l e s h . She ta k e s ch arg e of B arry o nly
b ec a u se , a s a c h i l d , he succeeded in b re a k in g th ro u g h h e r
r e s e r v e . I t th e n becomes a m a tte r o f need, E d i t h 's , n o t
B a r r y 's . T h is need tu r n s to t e n a c i ty when h e r lo v e f o r
a m in i s te r o f th e ch u rch i s th w a rte d . " I f she had n o t
B a rry , she w ould be c u t o f f from a l l th e human w o rld , she
f e l t " (p. 2 4 9 ). She to rm en ts him a b o u t h i s mixed b lood
b ecau se she does n o t w ant him to m arry:
I only w anted to warn you a b o u t th e f u t u r e - - t o
e x p la in to you why you w i l l n e v e r have th e r i g h t
to --m a rry . T o--have c h i ld r e n . I th o u g h t i t was
35
tim e you u n d e rsto o d t h a t you ought n o t to a llo w
y o u r s e lf e v e r to c a re f o r a g i r l . B ecause i t would
be u n ju s t to h e r- -a n d to th e ra c e . (p . 252)
I t i s o nly when he i s away from h e r , in E ngland as a chap
l a i n to th e f o rc e s f ig h tin g in World War I , t h a t he
m a rrie s an E n g lis h g i r l . But on h i s r e t u r n to South
A f r ic a - - a n d in th e p re se n c e o f E d ith who i s now f i f t y -
n in e - - " h e f e l t h i s b lood once m ore" (p . 2 6 7 ). She p e s te r s
him u n t i l she succeeds in b re a k in g up h i s m a rria g e . Only
th e n , T h th e miasma o f h e r s a t i s f a c t i o n , does she c o n so le
Nora whom she has a ls o d riv e n to g u i l t f o r b e a rin g a c h i ld
whose b lo o d i s p o llu te d :
The baby w i l l be a l l r i g h t . . . Why, i f a woman
w ere to b e g in c o n s id e rin g a l l th e e v i l s from g e n e ra
t io n s back t h a t may l i e in h e r c h i l d 's b lo o d , she
would n e v e r d are to b r in g i t in to th e w o rld a t a l l .
(p . 279)
T his s o r d id t r i a n g l e - - E d i t h , B a rry and N o r a - - is th e
fo cu s o f Nadine G o rd im er's c r i t i c i s m o f th e n o v e l. She
se e s th e n o v e l le a d in g to th e p o in t where
n e a r th e end th e r e a r e th r e e w ords, spoken by a m inor
c h a r a c te r , t h a t seem to be h e a rd from o u ts i d e . When
B arry L in d s e ll makes to h i s young E n g lis h w ife th e
c o n fe s s io n t h a t he has b la c k b lo o d in him, she sa y s,
in s u r p r is e d r e l i e f : " Is t h a t a l l ? "
The c a t i s o u t o f th e bag, f o r th e n a tio n and th e
n o v e l. I s t h a t a l l ? Is t h a t th e s t u f f o f sin ? I s
t h a t th e s t u f f o f trag e d y ? And i f i t i s , a t w hat a
c u rio u s d isa d v a n ta g e m ust i t p u t us w ith th e p e o p le s
o f o th e r n a tio n s , whose w r i t e r s a r e co n cern ed w ith
36
m an's s u r v iv a l and th e meaning o f h i s l i f e on e a r t h .
Yet t h i s i s th e t r u t h w e'v e been re a d in g about in
G od's S te p c h ild r e n ; [ th e South A f r ic a n 's ] k in d o f
t r u t h . (p. 18)
B ut one s i t u a t i o n does n o t make a n o v e l. The weak
n e s s e s f a r outw eigh i t s redeem ing f e a t u r e s . And, to a
p e rso n who h as re a d M i l l i n 's f i r s t n o v e l, some o f th e
m a te r ia l i s f a m il ia r : th e w h ite man who g e ts a C oloured
g i r l w ith c h i ld and d e s e r ts h e r ; th e husband who ta k e s
l i f e e a sy and r e a l i z e s , when h i s w ife d ie s , t h a t she had
com plete ch arg e o f th e farm and fa m ily ; a w h ite woman who
f in d s th e c h i l d o f a mixed m a rria g e anathem a; th e o ld
maid who c a re s f o r a r e l a t i v e 's c h i l d ; and th e C oloured
who p a s s e s o f f a s w h ite and i s more o f a r a c i a l i s t th a n
th e w h ite s . There i s a s t a l e n e s s in th e s e e p iso d e s in
G od's S te p c h ild r e n . M il lin a lre a d y p u t them to more
e f f e c t i v e u se in th e f i r s t n o v e l.
B ecause o f t h i s f i r s t n o v e l, The Dark R iv er (1919),
Edgar B e rn s te in , su rv e y in g th e E n g lis h n o v el in South
A fr ic a betw een 1910 and 1960, c a l l s M illin th e f i r s t
r e a l i s t . C r i t i c s ig n o re i t to d ay , b u t when i t ap p eared
K a th e rin e M a n sfie ld p r a is e d i t f o r "m arking th e emergence
1 3 " p if ty Y ears of th e South A fric a n N o v el," in P.E.N .
1960 (Jo h an n esb u rg , 1960), p. 37.
37
o f a s i g n i f i c a n t new t a l e n t in South A fric a n w r i tin g "
( B e rn s te in , p. 37).
The n o v e l 's b a c k g ro u n d --th e diamond d ig g in g s around
K im berley a t th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu r y - - c a l l e d f o r a
ro m an tic tr e a tm e n t. R eaders s t i l l e x p e c te d such an
ap p ro ach from a South A fric a n w r i t e r . The c o u n try w as,
a f t e r a l l , th e la n d o f w ild an im als and sav ag es. The
d isc o v e ry o f diamonds and, soon a f t e r , o f g o ld , w ith i t s
s t o r i e s o f p eo p le becoming r i c h o v e rn ig h t, added to th e
s e n s a tio n a lis m . But M il lin w anted none o f i t .
From th e opening pages o f th e n o v el she makes i t
c l e a r t h a t r e a d e rs who sh a re th e i d e a l i s t i c n o tio n s o f John
O liv e r, th e main c h a r a c te r , sh o u ld d isp e n se w ith them.
O liv e r comes to South A f r ic a to f i g h t in th e Boer War,
b u t when he a r r i v e s i t i s o v e r. He d e c id e s to s ta y and
seek h is fo rtu n e in th e d ig g in g s . His ro m an tic n o tio n s
a re c o n tr a s te d w ith th e r e a l l i f e he comes a c r o s s . He
knew o f th e A fric a n s a s th e g l o r i f i e d Z ulus o f a d v e n tu re
s t o r i e s , b u t he m eets A fric a n s who a r e m ongrel, h a l f
s ta rv e d , and d e g e n e ra te . The p i c t u r e he h as o f th e young
school-m arm o f American f i c t i o n i s d is p e lle d when he
f in d s th e a c tu a l sc h o o l te a c h e r an o ld maid and a p i t i f u l
f ig u r e .
38
A sim ple s tr a ig h tf o r w a r d s t y l e e n fo rc e s th e r e a lis m .
The few f i g u r a t i v e to u ch es a r e h ig h ly e lo q u e n t: one o f th e
c h a r a c te r s , an o b je c t o f d e r is i o n , p o s s e s s e s "a s m a tte rin g
o f in fo rm a tio n w hich was e n c y c lo p e d ic in w id th and m ic ro
sc o p ic in d ep th .A s B e rn s te in p u ts i t ,
In a sim p le , compact s t y l e , w ith o u t s t r i v i n g a f t e r
d ra m a tic e f f e c t s , [th e n o v el] c a p tu re d th e mundane
o r d in a r in e s s o f l i f e on th e d ig g in g s , th e f r u s t r a
t i o n o f p e o p le who d id n o t f in d w e a lth . (p. 37)
Throughout th e n o v e l, M il lin t r e a t s th e in c id e n t s as
commonplace. She does n o t c o n tr iv e to p r e s e n t any g r e a t
them es. As she h e r s e l f c la im s,
I h a d n 't a n y th in g I p a r t i c u l a r l y w anted to say ; I
h a d n 't a s to r y I was b u r s tin g to t e l l . . . Only
one th in g was c l e a r in my m ind. I was going to
w r i te ab o u t l i f e on th e R iv e r, f o r t h a t was a l l I
knew to w r i te a b o u t. (q u o ted by Snyman, p. 89)
There a r e tim es when th e s to r y ap p ro ach es a w orld where
dreams come t r u e . But th e r e i s no c r o s s in g o v er in to
romance. John O liv e r d ig s f o r tw elve y e a rs , f in d in g
diamonds w hich m erely e n a b le him to pay h i s d e b ts .. He
" ta k e s in " A nnie, a n a t iv e woman, l i v e s w ith h e r f o r e le v e n
y e a rs , and h as fo u r i l l e g i t i m a t e c h i ld r e n . D e sp e ra te , he
and o th e r m in e rs form a s y n d ic a te to b u i l d a b re a k w a te r in
14
(New York, 1920), p. 29.
39
o r d e r to d ig in th e r i v e r bed. B ut, a s th e y s t a r t d ig g in g ,
th e r a i n s flo o d th e r i v e r , in u n d a tin g t h e i r in v e stm e n t and
hopes. In 1914, when John f in d s a b ig diamond, i t h e lp s
him f o r a tim e b u t does n o t improve h i s s i t u a t i o n . He goes
o u t to f i g h t in " th e g r e a t w a r ," i s wounded in German West
A f r ic a , and goes to Cape Town to r e c u p e r a te . There he
\
m eets and m a rr ie s H e s te r G ra n t, th e g i r l he dreamed ab o u t
e v e r s in c e he m et h e r b r i e f l y a t th e d ig g in g s . He r e tu r n s
to th e d ig g in g s , f i r s t a s a b u y e r, and th e n , a f t e r lo s in g
t h a t jo b , as th e d ig g e r he once was. The o n ly home he has
i s a t i n shack w ith h a r d ly any f u r n i t u r e .
At t h i s s ta g e th e theme o f th e n o v el em erges. L ike
Thomas Hardy, M il lin im p lie s t h a t th e d e s tin y o f a man
e v e n tu a lly c a tc h e s up w ith him, even though he t r i e s to
evade i t . B ecause John does n o t w ant H e s te r to know
a b o u t A nnie, he l i v e s in an a r e a away from th e one he
l iv e d in b e f o r e . But M aggie, J o h n 's i l l e g i t i m a t e d a u g h te r,
tu r n s up to work f o r Mrs. Benjam in, a Jew ish s to r e k e e p e r 's
w ife and H e s t e r 's o n ly com panion. John ask s Maggie to
le a v e th e a r e a and she d o es, b u t i t i s to o l a t e . H e ste r
has a lr e a d y n o tic e d th e resem b lan ce betw een Maggie and
John. John a d m its fa th e rh o o d and inform s H e s te r ab o u t
A nnie. The two s e p a r a te , a lth o u g h H e ste r i s p re g n a n t.
40
She r e tu r n s to Cape Town and John goes o f f to th e war in
Europe. He does n o t make a n o th e r ap p e aran c e in th e n o v e l.
Towards th e end o f th e s to r y , H e s te r r e c e iv e s a l e t t e r from
him, inform ing h e r t h a t he i s a t some European b a t t l e -
f r o n t . What happens to him a f te r w a r d s , th e re a d e r n ev e r
l e a r n s .
M illin does n o t b e lie v e a m an 's d e s tin y to be an
o u ts id e , u n c o n tr o lla b le f o r c e . Each man, M il lin f e e l s , i s
r e s p o n s ib le f o r h i s own d e s tin y . T h is m o tif i s augmented
in th e s to r y o f H e s t e r 's s i s t e r Alma. Alma, l i k e John,
i s a ls o r e s p o n s ib le f o r h e r own d e s tin y . At a tim e when
peo p le av o id H e s te r, Alma i s su rro u n d e d by men. She r e
j e c t s th e p ro p o sa l o f George B uckle, th e o n ly p e rso n to
c o u r t h e r s e r io u s ly . I n s te a d she i s a t t r a c t e d to an
A frik a n e r, Rene van Reede, who tu r n s o u t to be a f a i l u r e .
Years l a t e r , in Cape Town, George B uckle a g a in becomes a
fre q u e n t v i s i t o r to th e G ran t home. T his tim e Alma makes
up h e r mind to m arry G eorge. At th e v e ry moment she
f i n a l l y d e c id e s , George a s k s A lm a's younger s i s t e r Ruth to
m arry him and Ruth a c c e p t s . Alma e v e n tu a lly succeeds in
m a rry in g --n o t George b u t Rene.
M isceg e n atio n p la y s a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t in The Dark
R iv e r, b u t i t does n o t dom inate th e n o v e l. In f a c t , th e
41
id e a s M il lin p r e s e n ts a re n o t imposed from th e o u ts id e ,,
as in God’s S te p c h ild r e n . The th e m a tic im p lic a tio n s emerge
from th e s to r y in The Dark R iv e r . John c o n fe s s e s to a
com panion:
When y o u 'v e m urdered a man y o u 'v e m urdered him, and
t h e r e 's th e end o f i t . But I 'v e s t a r t e d a s in t h a t ' s
going on f o r g e n e ra tio n a f t e r g e n e r a tio n , and n o th in g
anyone can do can sto p i t now. (p. 107)
When he se e s h i s h a l f - c a s t e c h ild r e n f o r th e l a s t tim e,
he lo o k s a t them "as a s tr a n g e r m ight have looked who
d e p lo re d t h e i r e x is te n c e a s ev id en ce o f a w h ite m an's
d e g ra d a tio n " (p . 109). His w i f e 's r e a c tio n to h is " s in "
r e p r e s e n ts th e code o f b e h a v io r, in South A f r ic a , b ased
on th e d e n ig r a tio n o f th e non-European.
Mrs. O l i v e r 's r a c i a lis m i s n o t th e o n ly f a c t o r t h a t
makes th e n o v e l s i n g u l a r l y South A fric a n . A se n se o f
p la c e and atm osphere p r e v a i l s from th e v e ry f i r s t chap
t e r . P ro s p e c tin g f o r p re c io u s m in e ra ls may assume a
s im i l a r p a t t e r n th e w orld o v e r. B ut, in th e e a r l y days
o f K im berley, th e European " d ig g e r" sought diamonds in
th e h o t sun by s ta n d in g u n d er an u m b re lla w h ile th e
n a t iv e s d id th e a c tu a l d ig g in g u nder h i s s u p e rv is io n .
These A fric a n s form an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f th e s e t t i n g
and o f p a r t s o f th e s to r y . T h e ir b la c k n e s s does n o t
42
o b tru d e in th e way i t does in Godfs S te p c h ild r e n . Y et,
as he would be in South A f r ic a , th e r e a d e r i s aware
t h a t b la c k men a r e k a f f i r s , t h a t Jews a r e " d i f f e r e n t , 1 1
t h a t A frik a n e rs a r e r u s t i c , and t h a t th e E n g lis h a r e th e
o nly c i v i l i z e d p eo p le in t h a t p a r t o f th e w o rld . A lthough
M i l l i n 's jin g o ism shows, she i s n o t c o n s c io u s ly tr y in g to
advance any p re c o n c e iv e d id e a s . Because o f t h i s , th e
p ic tu r e o f th e A fric a n i s b e t t e r p r e s e n te d . The European,
M illin im p lie s , i s p a r t l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e c o n d itio n s o f
th e A f r ic a n s . "An a d m itte d n a t iv e n e v e r a t t a i n e d m a tu rity
in th e w h ite m an 's e y e s ," M il lin s t a t e s e a r l y in th e n o v e l.
"He rem ained a 'b o y ' to th e end o f h i s day s" (p. 26).
At one p o in t, th e European a t t i t u d e i s i r o n i c a l l y and more
e f f e c t i v e l y em phasized. Mrs. Benjam in, th e o n ly c h a r a c te r
in th e n o v el who t r e a t s th e A fric a n s a s human b e in g s ,
m om entarily speaks o u t o f c h a r a c te r in d e s c r ib in g th e
A fric a n s in th e a re a :
Oh, b u t th e y a r e m oribund. They have g iv en up
s t r i v i n g . They do n o t t r o u b le . They l i v e f o r th e
day. They do n o t p l a n t b ec au se n e x t y e a r does n o t
i n t e r e s t them. Q u ite p o s s ib ly th e y w i l l be dead
n e x t y e a r . . . . (p. 227)
What she i s doing h e re i s summing up th e c o m p la in ts th e
w h ite s make o f th e A fr ic a n s . Her a u d ie n c e , a l l E uropeans,
a g re e s w ith h e r , u n t i l she p la c e s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y where
43
i t ought to b e, by ad d in g , "But I do n o t blame th e K a f f i r s ! "
(p. 227). A p p a re n tly , she i s blam ing th e w h ite s .
Upon i t s p u b lic a tio n , The Dark R iv er became a b e s t
s e l l e r in E ngland, in South A f r ic a , and, when i t was
p u b lis h e d th e r e a y e a r l a t e r , in th e U n ited S t a t e s .
M i l l i n 's n e x t n o v e l, M iddle C lass (1921), h a s t i l y w r i t t e n
a t th e r e q u e s t o f h e r p u b lish er-w h o w anted to c a p i t a l i z e
on h e r p o p u la r ity , i s d is a p p o in tin g . T his s to r y o f an
a v erag e c i t y fa m ily in Johannesburg f l i c k e r s to l i f e o nly
in th o se e p iso d e s s e t in K im berley, th e diamond c i t y . I t
was an a re a M il lin knew from h e r ch ild h o o d . She u sed m ost
o f th e s e e x p e rie n c e s in th e second o f h e r th r e e books ab o u t
th e d ig g in g s , Adamfs R est (1922). As Snyman n o te s , i t
re a d s more l i k e an a u to b io g ra p h y o f th e a u th o r (p. 9 1 ).
A f te r an i n t e r v a l o f n in e y e a rs , sp e n t in g r a p p lin g w ith a
theme " f i t f o r D ostoevsky" (Snyman, p. 9 2 ), M il lin came
o u t w ith th e t h i r d book w ith i t s s e t t i n g on th e r i v e r ,
The Sons o f Mrs. Aab (1 9 3 1 ). Gideon Aab, th e le a d in g
c h a r a c te r , h as to su p p o rt h i s e n t i r e fa m ily , p a r t i c u l a r l y
h i s younger b r o th e r , H e rc u le s, a c o n g e n ita l i d i o t . As
te n a c io u s a s S in d b a d 's Old Man o f th e Sea, H ercu le s c l in g s
to h i s b r o th e r . Gideon f r a u d u le n tly in s u r e s h i s b r o t h e r 's
l i f e and becomes o b se ssed w ith th e id e a o f g e t t i n g a
44
fo rtu n e on h i s b r o t h e r 's d e a th : a v i v i d r e n d i t i o n o f an
a p p e t i t e w hich in c r e a s e s by w hat i t fe e d s on. Gideon r i s e s
"from a p e t ty human b e in g to a c h a r a c te r o f t r a g i c dimen
s io n s " (Snyman, p. 9 4 ). The tra g e d y r e s u l t s from G id e o n 's
lo s s o f th e in s u ra n c e c la im , in c lu d in g th e premiums.
A lan P aton was r e f e r r i n g to th e s e e a r l y n o v e ls , I
b e l ie v e , when he s a id t h a t a f t e r O live S c h re in e r "came
Mrs. M il lin , who pro ceed ed s in g le -h a n d e d to b u ild up
[S outh A fric a n ] l i t e r a t u r e " (p. 146). F o llo w in g th e s e
f i r s t w orks, in w hich she i s f a i t h f u l to r e a l i t y , M illin
e x p re s se d h e r p r e ju d ic e s in G od's S te p c h ild re n and d i s
co v ered h e r own w e a lth in th e r i c h f i e l d s o f r a c ia lis m .
She made th e m is ta k e o f g iv in g th e p u b lic w hat i t w anted,
w hich in South A f r ic a m eant j u s t i f y i n g r a c i a lis m . L ike
h e r w h ite c h a r a c t e r s , she became o b se ssed w ith r a c e .
T here a r e , how ever, o c c a s io n a l f la s h e s o f i n s i g h t in h e r
l a t e r w orks. In The Coming o f th e Lord (1928), f o r
exam ple, she p o rtra y e d th e Germans as enem ies, p a r t i c u l a r l y
o f th e Jew s. But she c o n tin u e d to h arp on th e r a c i a l
theme. In The H err W itch d o c to r (1941), sev en teen ' y e a rs
a f t e r G od's S te p c h ild r e n , B arry L in d s e ll i s s t i l l t r y in g
to e x p ia te h i s g r e a t - g r e a t g r a n d f a t h e r 's s in o f p o l l u t i n g
h i s b lo o d . Two Bucks W ithout H air (1957) b ro u g h t to g e th e r
s h o r t s t o r i e s she had w r i t t e n in h e r e a r l y p e r io d . These
s t o r i e s , in w hich M il lin r e f r a i n s from e d i t o r i a l i z i n g w ith
a r a c i a l b i a s , a r e f a r s u p e r io r to h e r l a t e r n o v e ls .
F ar more i n f l u e n t i a l th an M i l l i n — in f a c t , th e m ost
i n f l u e n t i a l o f South A f r i c a 's w r i t e r s - - i s W illiam Plom er.
W a lte r A lle n p u t i t s u c c in c tly . " I f to d ay th e re i s such
a th in g a s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y South A fric a n f i c t i o n
. . . , " he s a id , " th e n Plom er was i t s a n c e s t o r . In
h i s South A fric a n n o v el and s h o r t s t o r i e s , Plom er c o n f ro n ts
more s q u a re ly th e overw helm ing c o lo r b a r o f th e c o u n try .
T u rb o tt Wolfe (1925), h i s f i r s t n o v e l, i s so o utspoken
t h a t van d e r P o s t com pares i t w ith "a c l e a r m ir r o r sud
d en ly h e ld up in f r o n t o f a human b e in g who had n e v e r
seen h i s fa c e b e f o r e " (p . 4 5 ). In South A f r ic a , van d er
P o s t a l s o p o in ts o u t, i t was g r e e te d w ith an u p ro a r
(p. 11) and cau sed "an i n t e l l e c t u a l r i o t " (p. 1 8 ). South
A f r ic a was n o t read y f o r i t . The n o v e l was " f a r ahead o f
i t s tim e " (V igne, p. 9 3 ). N adine Gordim er b e l ie v e s t h a t
T u rb o tt W olfe, w ith i t s t a l k o f A fric a n n a tio n a lis m
and i t s view o f A f r ic a a s a c o lo u re d m an's c o u n try ,
would seem th e s o r t o f n o v el o f S outh A fric a n l i f e
f a r more l i k e l y to be w r i t t e n now th a n in th e
T w en ties. (p . 20)
r '•
15
T r a d itio n and Dream (Harm ondsworth, 1965), p. 218.
46
E z e k ie l M phahlele, an o th e rw ise s t r i n g e n t c r i t i c , f e e l s
t h a t
a f t e r re a d in g much o f th e South A fric a n f i c t i o n
o f th e l a s t t h i r t y y e a rs , i t i s r e f r e s h in g to go
b ack to 1925 and re a d P lo m e r's T u rb o tt W olfe. I t s
i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t i s more in te n s e th an e v e r
b e f o r e in South A fric a n E n g lis h f i c t i o n w r i tin g .
(p . 124)
" P lo m e r's p i c t u r e is-a n ig h tm a r e ,” Snyman c la im s
(p . 174), sp e a k in g more a s a w h ite South A fric a n th a n as
a c r i t i c . I t i s n o t d i f f i c u l t to see why. E v e ry th in g in
th e n o v e l i s anathem a to th e w h ite South A fric a n : m a rria g e
betw een a b la c k man and a w h ite woman ( ” . . . t h i s Des-
demona has found h e r O th e llo ," Mabel inform s F r i s t o n , th e
16
l i b e r a l E uropean m is s io n a ry who lo v e s h e r ) ; se x u a l
in te r c o u r s e betw een a b la c k man and a w h ite woman ("We
c a s t r a t e d t h a t n i g g e r ," Soper sa y s, o n ly to d is c o v e r l a t e r
t h a t i t was th e w h ite woman "who was to blam e. She had
ask ed [ th e n ig g e r] to come [ in to h e r ro o m ]"--p p . 1 5 0 -1 5 1 );
a b la c k m an 's p o l i t i c a l p a r ty w ith w h ite members; a b e l i e f
t h a t m is c e g e n a tio n " i s th e o nly way f o r A fr ic a to be
se c u re d to th e A fric a n " (p. 144); w h ite c i v i l i z a t i o n
d e s c r ib e d as "o b scen e" (p. 89) and m is s io n a ry work a s
■^(London, 1965), pp. 175-176. A ll q u o ta tio n s a r e
ta k e n from t h i s l a t e s t e d i t i o n .
47
d e p lo ra b ly i n e f f e c t i v e among th e A fric a n s ( " I t ' s l i k e
g iv in g them a s la p in th e fa c e , and hoping th e y w i l l be
branded f o r l i f e " - - p . 122); a w h ite man lo s in g h is head
o v er a b la c k woman ("You can guess t h a t I s u f f e r e d . Of
co u rse I co u ld n o t g e t th e g i r l out o f my m in d " --p . 9 0 );
an A fric a n s e r v a n t who i s more e d u c a te d th a n th e European
woman she works f o r ( th e s e rv a n t has " th e fa c e o f an
em press w ashing th e f e e t o f b e g g a rs " -- p . 8 2 ); and w h ite
men shaking, hands w ith th e n a tiv e s and t r e a t i n g them as
e q u a ls (" 'S h a k e hands w ith a n a tiv e .11 th e y would have
s h rie k e d . 'Why, th e y a r e j u s t l i k e a n im a ls ! ' " - - p . 87).
T u rb o tt W olfe, th e n a r r a t o r , i s a r a c o n te u r l i k e
Marlow in Jo se p h C o n ra d 's The H ea rt o f D a rk n e ss. From th e
way Wolfe t e l l s th e s to r y , i t i s e v id e n t t h a t Plom er i s
a tte m p tin g an ap p ro ach s im i l a r to C o n ra d 's . There i s even
a c h a r a c te r l i k e K urtz in P lo m e r's n o v e l: th e Reverend
R upert F r i s t o n a l s o succumbs to A fric a n in flu e n c e and s u f
f e r s d e a th in some rem ote p a r t o f A f r ic a . F r i s t o n echoes
K urtz when, u n d er th e in f lu e n c e o f a n a t iv e n a r c o t i c , he
c r i e s o u t to W olfe, "Your g o d 's F e a r. So i s m ine. But
w a it t i l l you see 'HORROR,' my c h i ld , w r i t t e n on th e sun"
(p. 168). Some o f th e in c id e n ts in C o n ra d 's n o v el ap p e ar
d i s p a r a t e , b u t in th e end th e y a l l f a l l i n to a p a t t e r n .
48
They a l l p o in t to th e c e n t r a l theme o f th e n o v e l, th e d a rk
n e s s w ith in th e h e a r t o f man. T u rb o tt Wolfe i s a ls o
e p is o d ic ; how ever, P lo m e r's work, aimed a t th e d ark n ess
w ith in th e h e a r t o f th e South A fric a n European, does n o t
re a c h beyond th e shadows. At b e s t , i t p o in ts to th e sham
and h y p o c risy o f th e w h ite s in t h a t p a r t o f th e w o rld .
P lo m e r's n o v el a ls o f a i l s in th e one a s p e c t w hich saves
th e r h e t o r i c o f C o n ra d 's r a c o n te u r from sounding l i k e a
d i s s e r t a t i o n : M arlow 's s to r y h as a d ra m a tic i n t e n s i t y
la c k in g in P lo m e r's n o v e l.
When Wolfe b e g in s h i s s to r y , he prom ises to become
d ee p ly in v o lv e d in th e e v e n ts w hich fo llo w . "There would
be c o n f l i c t betw een m y se lf and th e w h i t e ," he sa y s,
" th e r e would be c o n f l i c t betw een m y se lf and th e b la c k "
(p. 68). He i s newly come to so u th e rn A f r ic a b ec au se o f
h i s h e a lth and ru n s a tr a d in g s t o r e in Lembuland (P lo m e r's
f i c t i t i o u s name f o r Z u lu la n d ) . Not c o n d itio n e d to th in k in g
e n t i r e l y in term s o f r a c i a l d is c r im in a tio n , he se e s him
s e l f as a l i b e r a l p r o ta g o n is t to th e p r e ju d ic e d a n ta g o n is ts
around him. The s to r y becomes co m p lic a te d when h i s
a e s t h e t i c and ro m an tic o u tlo o k le a d s to lo v e f o r an
A fric a n g i r l . But Wolfe m erely rh a p s o d iz e s o v er h e r:
She was an am bassadress o f a l l t h a t b e a u ty ( i t m ight
49
be c a l l e d ^ h o l i n e s s ) , t h a t i n t e n s i t y o f th e o ld w onder
f u l unknown p r im itiv e A fric a n l i f e - - o u t s i d e h i s t o r y ,
outsi.de tim e, o u ts id e s c ie n c e . She was a l i v i n g
image o f w hat has been k i l l e d . . . by o u r obscene
c i v i l i z a t i o n t h a t conquers e v e ry th in g . (p . 89)
The g i r l i s aware o f h is lo v e f o r h e r ; n e v e r t h e l e s s , i t
tu r n s o u t to be a o n e -s id e d , p a s s iv e a f f a i r . The o n ly
move Wolfe makes, when he m eets h e r by a c c id e n t, i s to
g iv e h e r a g o ld p in . (T his can be re a d a s a sym bolic
g e s tu r e : a w h ite man r e tu r n in g to th e A fric a n th e w e a lth
he has ta k e n from th e n a t i v e 's la n d .) The lo v e a f f a i r
comes to nought. The g i r l , Wolfe i s inform ed one day,
has gone to a n o th e r p a r t o f Lembuland to m arry h e r c o u s in .
Though th e r a c i a l c o n f l i c t p e r s i s t s to th e end o f
th e n o v e l, Wolfe g iv e s th e im p re ssio n t h a t i t i s la r g e l y
im p e rso n al. His involvem ent i s as d etach e d a s t h a t o f
an i n t e l l e c t u a l . He j o i n s th e Young A f r ic a o r g a n iz a tio n
and assum es a s e l f - r i g h t e o u s pose as long a s th e s o lu t io n s
th e o r g a n iz a tio n a d v o c a te s a re a l l in th e f u t u r e . But
when he i s face d w ith th e r e a l th in g , he o p ts o u t:
I t i s one th in g to t a l k g l i b l y a b o u t m is c e g e n a tio n ,
to fo o l ab o u t w ith an id e a , and a n o th e r to f in d
o n e s e lf fa c e to fa c e w ith th e a c t u a l happ en in g : i t
was th e d if f e r e n c e betw een a box o f m atches and a
house on f i r e . (p . 142)
Soon a f t e r Mabel van d e r H o rst m a rrie s Z achary Msomi,
Wolfe d e c id e s to r e t u r n to England.
50
B efore Wolfe le a v e s Lembuland, however, he le a r n s t h a t
h i s a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e A fr ic a n s , d etach ed a s i t was, has
a f f e c t e d him p e r s o n a lly . The Commissioner f o r Lembuland
a c c u se s Wolfe o f a n ti-g o v e rn m e n t a c t i v i t i e s and g iv e s him
th r e e months to q u i t Ovuzane, th e tr a d in g s t a t i o n . The
moment b elo n g s to Wolfe a s he inform s th e Com missioner t h a t
he h as a lre a d y d ec id ed to le a v e . The moment does n o t l a s t ,
though. A l e t t e r o f a c c u s a tio n th e Commissioner shows
Wolfe i s from S .S . B lo o d f ie ld , one o f W o lfe 's f i r s t r a c i a l
a n t a g o n is t s . Wolfe responds
" t h a t Mr. B l o o d f i e l d 's u n o f f i c i a l n a tiv e w ife m ust
have a lre a d y p re s e n te d him . . . w ith a t l e a s t two
c h i l d r e n . "
" T h a t's n e i t h e r h e re n o r t h e r e , " snapped th e
C o lo n e l. "Mr. B lo o d fie ld i s n o t a t r a d e r . " (p. 206)
I r o n i c a l l y , w h ile Wolfe and th e Commissioner a r e t a l k i n g ,
B lo o d f ie ld becomes a tr a d e r - - b y buying ne, W o lfe 's
t r a d in g s t a t i o n .
Plom er h im s e lf f e l t t h a t " th e r e was n o t much o f a
s to r y " in T u rb o tt Wolfe and t h a t " to speak o f i t a s a
n o v el i s p erh ap s a m i s n o m e r . W h a t e v e r i t s w eaknesses
in term s o f p l o t , th e n o v el i s c e r t a i n l y f a r s u p e r io r to
"^Double L iv es (New York, 1956), pp. 186-187.
51
m ost South A fric a n n o v e ls . The A fr ic a n s , f o r one th in g ,
a r e n o t p a r t o f th e background, a s in S c h r e i n e r 's n o v e l,
n o r do th ey f u n c tio n a s v e h i c le s f o r a p re d e te rm in e d
r a c i a l i s t t h e s i s , as in G od's S te p c h ild r e n . In o rd e r to
make th e r e a d e r see th e A fr ic a n s , Wolfe d e s c r ib e s them in
a r t i s t i c te rm s, a s a p a i n t e r who w ants to d e p ic t th e
v i t a l i t y o f A fric a n l i f e on can v as. The v i v i d canvas i s
h e re , a l b e i t a v e r b a l one. The A fric a n s do emerge a s
human b e in g s . L aurens van d e r P o s t em phasizes t h i s
achievem ent:
Some p eo p le in Europe to d ay m ight th in k t h a t t h i s
was obvious enough; b u t f o r t y y e a rs ago i t was a
p io n e e rin g achievem ent o f courage and o r i g i n a l i t y
as g r e a t as any in [South A fric a n ] h i s t o r y . (p. 33)
The c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f th e n o n -A fric a n s a r e e q u a lly
w ell-d raw n . They a r e v i g n e t t e s o f p eo p le found in s o u th e rn
A fr ic a to d a y . Wolfe h im s e lf i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e
l i b e r a l who i s fo rc e d to le a v e th e c o u n try b ec au se o f h i s
hum anist id e a s . T here a r e m in i s te r s o f th e ch u rch who,
l i k e th e Reverend F r i s t o n , drop t h e i r t r u t h s on th e v e ld
w ith o u t r e c e iv in g an echo and who e v e n tu a lly fad e o u t in
th e rem ote c o rn e rs o f A f r ic a . Such m in i s t e r s a r e com
plem ented by th e Reverend F o th e rin g h a y . F o th e rin g h a y and
h is w ife sle ep w alk t h e i r way th ro u g h t h e i r l i v e s b ec au se
52
th e y "had been drugged w ith A f r ic a , so t h a t t h e i r b r a i n s
co u ld n o t cope w ith i t " (p. 117). Soper and h i s com
p a n io n -- th e two who c a s t r a t e an A fric a n --h a v e t h e i r c o u n te r
p a r t s in many A frik a n e rs b ro u g h t to t r i a l and l e t o f f
e a s i l y f o r b e a tin g up A fric a n s and even le a v in g them n e a r
d e a th . But th e p erso n who m ost b elo n g s to th e S outh A fr ic a
o f to d ay , w ith i t s S p e c ia l P o l i t i c a l B ranch o f th e p o lic e
f o r c e , i s th e Com missioner f o r Lembuland. He sp eak s f o r
th e S p e c ia l Branch when he sa y s, "We have to i n t e r f e r e w ith
e v e ry b o d y 's p r i v a t e a f f a i r s h e re , as i t i s a la r g e p a r t o f
o u r w o rk --o f o ur d u ty " (p. 203). E xcept t h a t to d a y he
w ould throw Wolfe in to p r is o n , w ith o u t th e b e n e f i t o f a
t r i a l , f o r a s long as he p le a s e d .
The p rim ary achievem ent o f T u rb o tt Wolfe l i e s in i t s
m e r its a s a n o v el o f i d e a s . Speaking o f th e n o v e l 1 s
im pact on South A f r ic a , van d e r P o st p o in ts o u t,
The a t t i t u d e o f w h ite South A fric a n s to t h e i r c o lo u re d
and b la c k countrym en had n ev e r b e fo re been c h a l
len g ed in d e p th from t h e i r own m id s t. (p. 41)
Plom er was b lu n t in h is sta te m e n ts ab o u t b la c k A f r ic a , m is
c e g e n a tio n , C h r is t ia n m is s io n a ry a c t i v i t i e s , and th e
h y p o c ris y o f th e w h ite s . Again and a g a in , he p o in ts o u t
t h a t s o u th e rn A fr ic a i s a b la c k m an's c o u n try . The Young
A f r ic a o r g a n iz a tio n w ants th e w o rld to know o f t h i s (p .
53
144). W olfe, lo o k in g a t two w h ite g i r l s mocking a t a
drunken A fric a n in th e s t r e e t , e x c la im s, "T hat i s why t h i s
i s going to be a b la c k m an 's c o u n try " (p. 113). F r is to n
th e m is s io n a ry , in a moment o f l u c i d i t y , p u ts f o r t h th e
C h r is t ia n v ie w p o in t a s i t sh o u ld be p u t:
I b e lie v e t h a t th e w h ite man’s day i s o ver . . .
I b e lie v e t h a t i t i s th e m is s io n a r y 's work now,
and th e work o f any w h ite man in A fric a w o rth h is
s a l t , to p re p a re th e way f o r th e u ltim a te end.
(p. 123)
Even Old F ran k , n e i t h e r a n e g r o p h ile , n o r a r a c i a l i s t ,
ad m its t h a t S outh A fr ic a "can n ev e r be a n y th in g b u t a
b la c k , o r a t l e a s t a c o lo u re d m an's c o u n try " (p. 134).
Mabel van d e r H o rs t, " th e o n ly one t h a t i s n o t on th e
South A fric a n s ta g e to d a y " (van d e r P o s t, p. 50), makes a
s e r i e s o f s ta te m e n ts w hich a r e s t i l l r e le v a n t:
What th e h e l l jLs th e n a t iv e q u e s tio n ? You ta k e away
th e b la c k m a n 's c o u n try , and, s h ir k in g th e f u tu r e
consequences o f your a c tio n , you b l i n d l y a f f i x a
l a b e l to w hat you know (and f e a r ) th e b la c k man i s
th in k in g o f y o u - -" th e n a t iv e q u e s tio n ." N ativ e
q u e s tio n , in d eed ! My good man, th e r e i s no n a tiv e
q u e s tio n . I t i s n ' t a q u e s tio n . I t ' s an answ er.
I d o n 't know w h eth e r p eo p le a re w i l f u l l y b lin d , t h a t
th e y c a n 't see w h a t's coming. The w h ite m an's dead
a s a d o o r n a il in t h i s c o u n try . You g a in n o th in g by
n o t lo o k in g f a c t s in th e fa c e . (p . 137)
T u rb o tt W olfe m ight n o t have been r e a l in i t s r e p r e
s e n ta ti o n , b u t i t i s th e c l o s e s t to r e a l i t y in w hat i t
had to say a b o u t th e w h ite man in th e b la c k m an's w orld.
54
T his i s th e re a s o n van d e r P o s t b e lie v e s t h a t " to t h i s
day South A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e u s e s T u rb o tt W olfe, c o n s c io u s
ly o r u n c o n s c io u sly , a s a k in d o f com pass” (p. 5 3 ). The
n o v el was i n f l u e n t i a l in th e l i t e r a r j a s w e ll a s th e
e x t r a - l i t e r a r y w o rld . W ith in a few y e a rs o f i t s p u b lic a
tio n , " w r ite r s and j o u r n a l i s t s were th in k in g and sa y in g
th in g s th e y co u ld n o t have s a id b e f o re T u rb o tt W olfe”
(van d e r P o s t, p. 5 3 ).
t *
D e sp ite th e enormous p r a is e th e n o v el r e c e iv e d (se e
Double L iv e s , pp. 187-190, and van d e r P o s t, pp. 3 6 -3 7 ),
Plom er h im s e lf d e p re c a te d h i s e f f o r t s . The n o v e l, he
f e l t , was "an o u tb u r s t o f p o e tic fre n z y " by "a s o l i t a r y
and em o tio n a l y o u th who had n o t red u ced h i s th o u g h ts to
o r d e r ” (Double L iv e s , p. 187). What th e b a s ic id e a needed
was fo c u s. So, ab o u t a decade l a t e r , he w rote "The C h ild
o f Queen V i c t o r i a ” (c . 1933), a s h o r t e r , more u n i f i e d , and
m ature v e r s io n o f T u rb o tt W olfe. The b a s ic problem s t r e a t e d
a r e th e same in b o th th e n o v el and th e s h o r t s to r y : th e
r e l a t i o n betw een th e w h ite s and th e b la c k s , th e m ercenary
o b je c tiv e s o f th e t r a d e r , th e b e a u t i f u l s id e o f th e b la c k
r a c e , i t s hum anity, and lo v e betw een a w h ite man and a
b la c k woman.
F r a n t, l i k e W olfe, i s a n e w ly -a rriv e d Englishm an, ___
55
tr a d in g in Lembuland. The tr a d in g s t a t i o n does n o t b elo n g
to him b u t to MacGavin, a c o lo n ia l o f S c o tti s h d e s c e n t.
F ra n t i s th e man w ith o u t p r e ju d ic e , though t h i s c h a r
a c t e r i s t i c i s o v e rb a la n c e d by h i s , a t tim e s, ro m an tic
o u tlo o k . MacGavin r e p r e s e n ts th e h y p o c r ite . O ften th e two
look a t th e same p e o p le , th e same in d iv id u a ls , th e same
s i t u a t i o n , and draw c o m p letely d i f f e r e n t c o n c lu s io n s ,
com mensurate w ith e i t h e r r a c i a lis m o r i t s ab sen ce . T his
d if f e r e n c e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y e v id e n t in t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w ith
th e A fr ic a n s . An o ld A fric a n , a s s o c ia tin g E ngland w ith
th e g r e a t queen he knows o f from c h ild h o o d , c a l l s F ra n t
" c h ild o f Queen V ic t o r ia " and, l a t e r , j u s t " c h i l d . "
"How can you a llo w t h a t d i r t y o ld swine to c a l l
you 'c h i l d '. 1" ex claim ed MacGavin.
"Why, h e 's o ld enough to be my g r a n d f a th e r ! "
r e s o r te d F r a n t.
F r a n t 's p o in t o f view seemed so f a n t a s t i c to
MacGavin t h a t he laughed a s h o r t, h a rs h laugh.
"My a d v ic e i s , d o n 't sta n d any cheek from any
n i g g e r ," he s a id .
"He i s n ' t cheeky to me, o n ly f r ie n d ly .
But MacGavin is. n o t c o n s i s t e n t in h i s r e a c tio n s to w h atev er
th e A fric a n s do. He i s th e t y p i c a l l y s u p e r c ilio u s c o l o n ia l
J-^Four C o u n trie s (London, 1949), p. 79.
56
f o r whom th e n a t iv e s can do n o th in g r i g h t . When an A fric a n
behaves in a norm al m anner, MacGavin f e e l s th e A fric a n i s
tr y in g to sc o re him o f f . But when th e A fric a n i s p o l i t e ,
he r e s e n ts t h i s b ec au se he b e l ie v e s th e A fric a n i s t r e a t i n g
him a s an e q u a l.
F r a n t 's ro m an tic o u tlo o k r e s u l t s in a b e t t e r t r e a t
ment o f th e A fric a n s and, i r o n i c a l l y , more b u s in e s s f o r
MacGavin. L ike W olfe, F ra n t se e s an A fric a n woman, S era-
p h in a , a s a woman and f a l l s in lo v e w ith h e r . But he does
n o t pause to re a s o n , a s does W olfe. He a c t s , im p u ls iv e ly ,
w hich i s a s i t sh o u ld b e. Overwhelmed w ith g r a t i t u d e , he
k is s e s S erap h in a f o r g iv in g him th e s k in o f a python she
k i l l e d w ith a hoe. He se ek s o u t h e r v i l l a g e among th e
v a l le y s and, s ta n d in g on th e c r e s t o f a h i l l o v e rlo o k in g
th e h u ts , i s p re v e n te d from going down. Umlilwana, a
Lembu he m eets by a c c id e n t on th e c r e s t , inform s him t h a t
S erap h in a i s away and t h a t he w i l l l e t F ra n t know when she
r e t u r n s .
The f i n a l e p iso d e i s m e lo d ra m atic, b u t i s saved by an
iro n y . F ra n t w a its f o r news o f S erap h in a and goes to seek
h e r o nly when a se v e re storm ends a long d ro u g h t. On th e
c r e s t he m eets th e o ld man who c a l l s him " c h i l d . " A
l ig h t n in g f l a s h r e v e a ls th e e n t i r e v i l l a g e submerged under
57
th e flo o d . S erap h in a was a t home, th e o ld man inform s
F r a n t. The o ld man a ls o r e v e a ls t h a t Umlilwana was n o t
S e r a p h in a 1s c o u s in , as he claim ed to b e, b u t h e r f ia n c e .
The s h o r t s to r y i s n o t aimed a t m erely e x p lo d in g th e
shams and h y p o c ris y o f th e European. I t i s more s i g n i f i
c a n t on a sym bolic l e v e l . S e ra p h in a r e p r e s e n ts A f r ic a .
F ra n t, in lo v e w ith h e r , i s a ls o in lo v e w ith A f r ic a .
But A f r ic a e lu d e s F ra n t a s i t has e lu d e d m ost w h ite men.
The re a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h a t F ra n t ig n o re d a p a r t of
A f r ic a , sym bolized by Umlilwana, w hich w ants to r e j e c t
him sim ply b ecau se he i s w h ite . A fr ic a r e q u ir e s t o t a l
r e c o g n itio n and, c o n s e q u e n tly , t o t a l a l l e g i a n c e . I t i s
n o t enough to rem ain a c h i ld o f Queen V i c t o r i a in a
c o n tin e n t w hich does n o t w ant to be r u le d by p e rso n s w ith
d iv id e d l o y a l t i e s . T his i s one o f th e t r a g e d ie s o f
E n g la n d 's involvem ent in so u th e rn A f r ic a .
A lthough T u rb o tt Wolfe and "A C h ild o f Queen V ic
t o r i a " a r e s i g n i f i c a n t in South A fric a n l i t e r a r y h is to r y - -
T u rb o tt Wolfe m arks a tu r n in g p o in t and th e s h o r t s to r y
augm ents t h a t p o in t- - a n o th e r s h o r t s to r y by Plom er, "Ula
M asondo," p u b lis h e d in I Speak o f A f r ic a (1 9 2 7 ), proved
sem inal and, th e m a tic a lly , th e m ost i n f l u e n t i a l . Plom er
w ro te i t soon a f t e r he com pleted th e n o v el and c o n s id e re d
i t an achievem ent b ecau se i t i s "much more c o h e re n t and
o b je c ti v e " th a n T u rb o tt Wolfe (Double L iv e s , p. 192).
U la Masondo, a n a tiv e o f Lembuland, buys a b la n k e t on
th e eve o f h i s d e p a rtu re f o r th e b ig c i t y . He sh a re s th e
jo y o f p o s s e s s in g th e c o l o r f u l b la n k e t w ith h i s fa m ily .
They s in g and d ance. Some o f th e communal warmth i s s t i l l
w ith him in th e t r a i n . His t r a v e l i n g companions a re a ls o
v i l l a g e r s on th e way to work in th e m ines.
The c i t y , by c o n t r a s t , i s h a rs h , th e atm osphere c o ld .
Masondo i s i n i t i a t e d in to a l i f e o f crim e. The i n i t i a t i o n
i s g ra d u a l: f i r s t come th e shebeen, p r o s t i t u t e s , gam bling
th en fo llo w n a r c o t i c s , and ro b b e ry ; f i n a l l y , a p o s s ib le
ch arg e o f hom icid e. Masondo n arro w ly esc a p e s a r r e s t .
The n e x t day he i s tra p p e d in a c a v e - in a t th e m ines.
Upon r e l e a s e from th e h o s p i t a l , he r e tu r n s to Lembuland,
ta k in g w ith him a p r o s t i t u t e whose v i l l a g e i s n e a r h i s .
H is m other a n x io u s ly w a its f o r him a t th e t r a i n s t a t i o n .
But he r e f u s e s to re c o g n iz e h e r and c a l l s h e r a bloody
h e a th e n . The m other hangs h e r s e l f . S u ic id e among th e
A fric a n s i s so r a r e t h a t even th e European t r a d e r in th e
v i c i n i t y i s shocked.
In d is c u s s in g th e in f lu e n c e o f h is work, Plomer
a tte m p ts to m inim ize i t by r e f e r r i n g to C roce, who
59
b e lie v e d t h a t M a th o u g h t n e v e r p ro d u ces an e f f e c t b u t
alw ays a c o l la b o r a ti o n " (Double L iv e s , p. 192). Did Plom er
" c o lla b o r a t e " w ith O live S c h re in e r? D e sc rib in g h i s s ta y in
th e re g io n where S c h re in e r l iv e d , Plom er sa y s,
I had w ith me The S to ry o f an A fric a n Farm, a n d . I
was aware o f i t s a u th o r b o th a s one who had g iv en
l a s t i n g shape to forms o f l i f e h i t h e r t o u n p e rc e iv e d
o r u n reco rd ed ( th e p ro p e r fu n c tio n o f a w r i t e r ) and
a s one who t h e r e f o r e , though dead, was s t i l l l i v i n g .
Such i s th e power o f th e w r i t t e n word t h a t she was
in f a c t a c l o s e r companion to me th a n th o se b e in g s
w ith whom my l i f e was p a sse d . ( Double L iv e s , p. 155)
"U la Masondo" re a d s l i k e th e f i n e s t r e n d i t i o n o f S c h r e in e r 's
c o n te n tio n , "You may work a m an 's body so t h a t h i s so u l
d i e s . " Plom er g iv e s th e theme an added dim ension. No
w here, n o t even in th e l a t e r expanded v e r s io n s o f th e
same theme, i s th e c o n t r a s t betw een th e b e g in n in g and th e
ending so sh o ck in g .
The com parison betw een th e warm human r e l a t i o n s h i p s
in th e v i l l a g e and th e c o ld , s t e r i l e , lo n e ly l i f e in th e
c i t y i s h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e . Masondo n e v e r s l e p t by h im s e lf
in th e v i l l a g e . At th e mine compound, he l i e s one n ig h t
w ith a f r ie n d f o r warmth and company: th en comes th e
b e w ild e rin g a c c u s a tio n t h a t he i s r i s k i n g a flo g g in g f o r
sodomy. The k in d o f p e rso n Masondo i s to become i s
V ila k a z i, who in tro d u c e s him to th e l i f e o f crim e. When
60
Masondo h as V ila k a z i re a d a l e t t e r from home a sk in g f o r
money b ec au se o f a d ro u g h t, V ila k a z i re p h ra s e s th e l e t t e r
as i f i t w ere f i l l e d w ith g r e e t in g s . For V ila k a z i, th e
common s o u l w hich b in d s th e v i l l a g e to g e th e r no lo n g e r
e x i s t s . The r e v e l a t i o n t h a t Masondo has l o s t h i s so u l
in th e c i t y does n o t come u n t i l a f t e r he le a v e s i t .
The en d in g in f a c t i s th e added dim ension, b ecau se o f
i t s im p lic a tio n s . I t i s n o t u n t i l then t h a t th e r e a d e r
r e a l i z e s th e s ig n i f ic a n c e o f th e c a v e -in a t the m ine. The
c a v e - in h as th e same e f f e c t on Masondo as a tr a p would
have on an an im a l. An a lm o st c ru s h in g w eig h t la y on h is
le g , sym bolic o f th e c ru s h in g o f h i s s o u l. His su b seq u en t
d e p a rtu re from th e c i t y i s th e a c t o f a p e rso n se ek in g
mere s u r v i v a l . But i t i s n o t o n ly Masondo who i s a f f e c t e d .
His m o th er, r e p r e s e n tin g th e v i l l a g e , i s le d by M asondo's
d eh u m an izatio n to an u n p re c e d e n te d a c t , s u ic id e . Even in
th e v i l l a g e , th e s p i r i t o f A fr ic a h as d e p a rte d b ecau se of
w hat happens to h e r sons in th e c i t y th e y have to go to .
M Ula Masondo" r e p r e s e n t s , in m icrocosm , th e s i t u a t i o n
o f th e b la c k A fric a n in w h ite South A fr ic a . I t i s a
s to r y w hich r e p e a ts i t s e l f in c i t i e s a l l o v er th e c o u n try .
Plom er i s th e f i r s t to r e n d e r i t in a r t i s t i c term s.
A ll th e m ajo r a s p e c ts o f th e A f r i c a n 's l i f e in th e
61
w h ite m an's c i t y , a l l o f them p ro m in en t in l a t e r South
A fric a n f i c t i o n , a r e b ro u g h t s h a rp ly i n to fo cu s in
"Ula M a so n d o " --life in th e v i l l a g e , a u s te r e b u t p o s s e s s
in g j o i de v i v r e ; th e e n tic e m e n t o f th e c i t y f o r th e
young A fric a n ; th e cam arad e rie among th e A fric a n s on th e
t r a i n jo u rn e y ; th e s t a r k , reg im e n ted l i f e on th e m ines;
th e c ry from th e v i l l a g e f o r h e lp from th e c i t y ; th e
n a iv e te o f th e n e w ly -a rriv e d A fric a n l o s t in th e la b y
r i n t h o f th e w h ite m an's w o rld ; th e lo s s o f innocence
and th e i n i t i a t i o n in to a l i f e o f crim e, th e shebeen,
p r o s t i t u t i o n , gam bling, ro b b e ry , m urder; th e f a l l e n s t a t e
o f th e A fric a n woman from th e v i l l a g e ; th e m a s te r - s e r v a n t
c o n f l i c t ; th e v a n ity o f th e w h ite s and w hat th e A f r i
cans th in k o f them; th e r e t u r n to th e v i l l a g e w ith an
a tr o p h ie d h e a r t ; and th e su n d e rin g o f l i f e in th e
v i l l a g e . P lo m e r's s to r y i s a l s o th e f i r s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f th e A fric a n from th e A f r i c a n 's v ie w p o in t. He has
c a p tu re d p o e t i c a l l y th e h ig h ly m e ta p h o ric language o f
th e A fric a n s and t h e i r p en ch an t f o r m y th ify in g th e mundane
e v e n ts o f l i f e .
In South A fric a n l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y , th e im p lic a tio n s
o f "Ula Masondo" e x ten d f a r beyond th e s to r y i t s e l f .
The s to r y s e t "a p a t t e r n w hich would be fo llo w ed by w r i t e r s
62
19
many tim es o v er in th e n e x t d e c a d e s ." L aurens van d e r
P o s t r e p e a ts P lo m e r's theme w ith some su c c e ss in h i s In
A P ro v in c e (1 9 3 4 ). I Am B lack (1936), by J . G re e n fe ll
W illiam s and Henry John May, a tte m p ts to convey th e s to r y
th ro u g h th e mind o f an A fric a n b u t does n o t prove s u c c e s s
f u l . Both P e te r Abrahams and Alan P aton g iv e w id er scope
to th e theme in t h e i r f i r s t n o v e ls and s c r u t i n i z e , a t
le n g th , th e t r i b a l A f r i c a n 's c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith th e com
p l e x i t i e s o f l i f e in th e w h ite m an's w o rld . The works o f
N adine Gordim er and Dan Jaco b so n , though n o t concerned
w ith th e n e w ly -a rriv e d t r i b a l A fric a n , n e v e r th e le s s fo llo w
P lo m e r's p a th in d e p ic tin g th e A fric a n in th e c i t y .
W ith Plom er, a l l th e predom inant themes in South A fric a
w ere s e t f o r t h . P r in g le in d iv id u a liz e d th e la n d sc a p e .
S c h re in e r peo p led i t w ith se e k e rs a f t e r t r u t h . Haggard
re c o g n iz e d i t s n a t iv e in h a b i t a n t s . M illin " a c tu a liz e d "
th e r e l a t i o n s - - i n c l u d i n g th e s e x u a l- - o f th e b la c k s and
th e w h ite s . And Plom er an a ly ze d t h e i r p sy ch es, e s p e c i a l l y
in th e c i t y o f g o ld where th e y converged. The r e s t o f South
A fric a n f i c t i o n c o n s i s t s o f v a r i a t i o n s on th e s e them es.
■^Tom H opkinson, "A S earch f o r T ru th in th e A r t s ,"
S outh A f r ic a (New York, 1964), p. 118. See a ls o
M phahlele, p. 126.
CHAPTER III
PETER ABRAHAM S (1919- )
The South A fric a n l i t e r a r y r e n a is s a n c e th e works o f
W illiam Plom er prom ised d id n o t m a t e r i a l i z e . Plom er him
s e l f made a d eterm in ed e f f o r t . In 1926, w ith Roy Campbell
and L aurens van d e r P o s t, he launched a p e r i o d i c a l ,
V oorslag (W hiplash). I n s te a d o f welcoming th e p e r i o d i c a l ,
Plom er n o te d , " l i t e r a t e South A f r ic a was m o stly p u zz led
by [ i t ] " (Double L iv e s , p. 193). W hether Plom er h im s e lf
was p u zz led by th e re s p o n s e , he does n o t say . He should
n o t have been, s in c e h i s l i t e r a r y p e r i o d i c a l was lim ite d
to a s p e c i f i c ty p e o f w r i t i n g . The main purpose o f
V o o rslag , Plom er s t a t e d , was " to s t i n g w ith s a t i r e th e
m e n tal h in d q u a r te r s . . . o f th e b o vine c i t i z e n r y o f th e
Union" (q u o ted by H opkinson, p. 118). Plom er and Campbell
w ro te most o f th e f i r s t two num bers. Then, due to p r e s s u re
from th e sp o n so rs, th e th r e e w r i t e r s d is s o c ia te d th em selv es
from th e p e r i o d i c a l . Plom er and van d e r P o st went to Japan
and, n o t long a f te rw a r d s , Campbell l e f t f o r E urope. A part
63
64
from a few s h o r t s t o r i e s , Plom er no lo n g e r w ro te ab o u t
South A f r ic a . His second n o v e l, Sado (1931), i s s e t in
Ja p an . His n e x t two n o v e ls, a ls o p u b lis h e d in th e e a r l y
t h i r t i e s , a r e s e t in London.
In South A fr ic a , th e r e was a l u l l in l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y ,
a l u l l w hich c o n tin u e d th ro u g h World War I I . A f te r th e
p u b lic a t io n o f The H err W itch d o cto r (1941), S arah G ertru d e
M il lin d id n o t have a book p u b lis h e d u n t i l 1950, when King
o f th e B a s ta rd s was p u b lis h e d . Of th e m ajor p o p u la r w r i t
e r s , o n ly S t u a r t C lo ete (1897- ) c o n tin u e d to w r ite
n o v e ls d u rin g th e w ar. His f i r s t n o v e l, The T urning
Wheels (1 9 3 7 ), was a b e s t s e l l e r in England and th e U nited
S t a t e s . (In South A fr ic a , i t was banned b ec au se i t
p o r tr a y s se x u a l r e l a t i o n s betw een w h ite and b l a c k .)
B e rn s te in d e s c r ib e s i t as a "v ig o ro u s hi ^ t o r i c a l n o v el
. . . an a tte m p t to p a i n t a r e a l i s t i c r a t h e r th a n a r o
m a n tic p i c t u r e o f th e G reat T rek" (p. 3 9 ). A f te r two more
n o v e ls , Watch f o r th e Dawn (1939) and The H i l l o f th e
Doves (1941), s im ila r in q u a l i t y and w ith th e same b ac k
ground a s th e f i r s t , C lo ete began tu r n in g o u t p o t
b o i l e r s in th e R id er Haggard t r a d i t i o n .
The renew al o f l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y fo llo w in g World War
I I prom ised a d e p a rtu re from th e tre n d South A fric a n f i c t i o n
65
had fo llo w e d . E xcept f o r O liv e S c h re in e r, m ost m ajor
S outh A fric a n f i c t i o n w r i t e r s had h i t h e r t o d e riv e d t h e i r
s t o r i e s from th e r a c i a lis m d o m in atin g t h e i r c o u n try . The
end o f th e war saw two n o v e ls w hich t r e a t e d th e p r e ju d ic e s
o f South A fr ic a n s o n ly i n c i d e n t a l l y . Both w ent beyond th e
l i m i t a t i o n s o f r a c i a lis m and d e a l t w ith o th e r problem s
c o n f ro n tin g th e p e o p le o f so u th e rn A f r ic a . One was a f i r s t
n o v el by a new w r i t e r ; th e o th e r was a posthum ous p u b lic a
tio n .
The f i r s t n o v e l, The Sea Hath Bounds (1946) by Daphne
Rooke (1914- ) - - p u b lis h e d in th e U n ited S ta te s u n d er th e
t i t l e , A Grove o f F ev er T re e s - - i s a f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e
t o l d by Danny A shburn, an i n v a l i d c o n fin e d to a w heel
c h a ir . A lth o u g h h alf-m ad and s u s c e p ti b le to f i t s o f
how ling, D anny's sa v in g g ra c e i s a v i v i d memory. " I am a
man w ith o u t a p r e s e n t o r a f u t u r e , " he s a y s .^ The p a s t
he l i v e s in i s th e s to r y he t e l l s , a ram b lin g acco u n t
b e g in n in g w ith th e e a r l y p io n e e rin g days when h i s widowed
m other s e t t l e d on th e f r in g e s o f Z u lu lan d and ending w ith
th e " a c c id e n t" in w hich he lo s e s h i s le g s . The s to r y
i s a b o u t th e je a lo u s y betw een Danny and h i s b r o th e r Edward
^(New York, 1950), p. 113.
66
o v er a n e ig h b o r 's g i r l who grows up w ith them. The je a lo u s y
c o n tin u e s long a f t e r Danny, d u rin g one o f h i s f i t s ,
s tr a n g l e s Edward and g e ts away w ith i t . When Danny a tte m p ts
to p re v e n t th e g i r l ' s m a rria g e to a new n e ig h b o r, th e g i r l ' s
m other sh o o ts him in th e le g s . Danny ends th e s to r y by
em phasizing th e immense p le a s u r e he has in b e in g a l i v e ,
e s p e c i a l l y s in c e Edward i s dead.
Because o f D anny's m acabre humor and f i t s o f la u g h te r ,
th e n o v e l, w ere i t p u b lis h e d to d a y , would be d e s c rib e d as
a South A fric a n v e r s io n o f b la c k humor. A m a trix o f
interw oven symbols e n fo rc e s th e s ic k jo k e on th e South
A fr ic a n s . D anny's p r e f e r e n c e f o r l i v i n g l i k e th e Z u lu s --
he w ears s k in s and a tte n d s p a r t i e s b a r e f o o te d - - th e grove
o f fe v e r t r e e s a t th e edge o f th e farm , and th e p re se n c e
o f Z u lu lan d on the o th e r s id e , a l l se rv e a s symbols o f
p eo p le and th in g s th e Europeans would l i k e to r i d them
s e lv e s o f , o r a t l e a s t ig n o re . Danny makes a mockery o f
t h e i r e f f o r t s to le a d o rd e re d l i v e s in a d i s o r d e r ly w o rld .
The in c o n g r u it ie s he exposes a r e th e ones betw een t h e i r
id e a l s and t h e i r d i s s i p a t e d l i v e s . H is b r o th e r p a r t i c u l a r l y
e x a s p e r a te s him when, f o r g e t t i n g th e w o rth w h ile th in g s he
w anted to do a f t e r g ra d u a tin g from th e u n i v e r s i t y , he
w a ste s h i s l i f e a s a drunken s o t.
67
When A Grove o f F ev er T rees was p u b lis h e d in th e
U nited S t a t e s , John Barkham, re v ie w in g i t in th e S atu rd ay
Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , p r a is e d i t a s M one o f th e b e t t e r
p ro d u c ts o f South A f r i c a 's l i t e r a r y r e s u r g e n c e
M arg aret Hubbard, in h e r rev iew in The New York H erald
T ribune Book Review, a ls o commended i t :
T his co m p ellin g n a r r a t i v e i s n o t b u rdened w ith
m o rals . . . The a u t h o r 's h a n d lin g o f h o r r o r i s
to o w e ll founded on c h a r a c te r s w o rth knowing to
cheapen th e s to r y o r l e t i t drop in to s e n s a tio n
f o r s e n s a t i o n 's sa k e .3
One o f th e re a s o n s th e n o v el was so h ig h ly p r a is e d i s
t h a t , in th e n o v e l, th e a u th o r Daphne Rooke showed a g r e a t
d e a l o f prom ise. There were two p a th s in d ic a t e d in th e
n o v e l. The b o o k 's s e r io u s m oral p u rp o se , th e s t r u c t u r e o f
th e n o v e l, and th e sym bolic im p lic a tio n s o f th e c h a r a c te r s
and s e t t i n g , a l l in d ic a te d a p a th tow ards a h ig h e r l i t e r a r y
l e v e l . The o th e r p a th le d to romance and melodram a,
e s p e c i a l l y e v id e n t in th e e p iso d e s c o n c e rn in g w ild an im als
and th e a d v e n tu re s o f th e p io n e e rin g d ay s. Daphne Rooke
chose th e l e s s e r o f th e two p a th s and f i l l e d h e r su b se q u en t
n o v e ls w ith i n s i p i d c h a r a c te r s and f a r - f e t c h e d i n c i d e n t s .
^March 4, 1950, p. 17.
^March 19, 1950, p. 6.
68
In f a c t , h e r work has shown a s te a d y d e c lin e . I t i s
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t a p u e r i l e e f f o r t l i k e The G re y lin g (1962)
was c o n s id e re d w orthy o f p u b lic a t io n .
The posthum ous n o v e l, E x p irin g Frog (1946), was th e
l a s t work o f E liz a b e th C h a r lo tte W ebster (d. 1934), whose
p re v io u s two n o v e ls were t a l e s o f a d v e n tu re , o f diamond
f i e l d s , and o f b u r ie d t r e a s u r e . S ince E x p irin g Frog d e a ls
w ith th e k in d o f second coming d e s c rib e d by Y eats, i t
was more a p p r o p r ia te ly t i t l e d Ceremony o f Innocence when
i t was p u b lis h e d in E ngland and th e U nited S ta te s in 1949.
In th e n o v e l, S y b il W hite, a n o v ic e in an A nglican co n v en t,
c r e a te s a f u r o r among th e n uns, th e M other S u p e rio r, th e
m i n i s t e r s , and th e Canon, f i r s t by p ro p h esy in g sim ple
e v e n ts , th e n by e f f e c t i n g a m ir a c le cu re on a lo n g -tim e
s u f f e r e r o f S t. V i t u s 's dance, and f i n a l l y by announcing
t h a t she i s b e a rin g a c h i ld "who w i l l one day h e lp to
l i b e r a t e m an k in d ."^ The s to r y , however, i s u n lik e o th e r
m ira c le t a l e s . The c h i ld i s co n ceiv ed when S y b il, obeying
an u n i d e n t i f i e d command, s le e p s w ith a w r i t e r o f " v io l e n t"
books, T e a rla c h H e r io t, b r o th e r o f one o f th e m in i s te r s of
^(New York, 1965), p. 133. A ll q u o ta tio n s a re tak en
from t h i s P o p u la r L ib ra ry r e p r i n t .
69
th e ch u rch . S y b i l 's m is sio n i s n o t to save th e chu rch ,
b u t " to b r in g c o n fu sio n upon th e C h u rc h --c o n fu sio n and
d e s tr u c tio n " (p. 134). As S y b il le a v e s th e co n v en t, th e
convent i t s e l f lo s e s some o f i t s v a lu e d members, th u s
b e g in n in g th e c o lla p s e she p ro p h e sie d . T e a rla c h a ls o
f u l f i l l s a prophecy, by p la c in g th e c a r he i s d r iv in g
in th e p a th o f an oncoming t r a i n . When th e c h i ld i s b o rn ,
th r e e men v i s i t him, two o f them m in i s te r s who u n d e rsta n d
S y b i l 's m is sio n and th e t h i r d a b la c k man.
In th e hands o f l e s s s k i l l f u l w r i t e r s - - E n g l i s h South
A fr ic a h as a rem arkably h ig h p r o p o rtio n o f th e m --th e s to r y
would have been e x p lo ite d to y i e l d a l l th e s e n s a tio n a lis m
i t co u ld s u s t a i n . W ebster, how ever, u se s i t as a v e h ic le
to c a s t i g a t e a l l t h a t i s c r a s s in South A fric a n c i t y l i f e .
The ch u rch r e c e iv e s th e m ajor c r i t i c i s m , b u t o th e r a r e a s o f
l i f e a r e n o t sp a re d : th e ea sy , p e t t y , h e d o n is tic l i f e o f
th e E uropeans, th e s e n s a tio n a lis m o f th e p r e s s , th e i n
s ip id n e s s o f th e c o u n t r y 's f i c t i o n , and th e r a c i a lis m w hich
makes an ea sy l i f e p o s s i b le . The a t t i t u d e r e f l e c t e d in th e
n o v el i s summed up c l e a r l y by th e a u th o r:
The South A fric a n townswoman— th an k s to th e n a t iv e s e r
v a n t- -was an i d l e whore . . . One s ta y e d in South
A fr ic a , o f c o u rse , b ec au se o f th e sun: th e r e was
n o th in g e l s e . . . South A fr ic a i s an e x c e l l e n t p la c e
to be i d l e in . (p. 29)
70
The a u t h o r 's v e r b a l b a rra g e i s e s p e c i a l l y e v id e n t in th e
f i r s t few c h a p te rs o f th e n o v e l. The s u p e rin te n d e n t o f th e
" s h e l t e r f o r f a l l e n women . . . c o l l e c t e d p r o s t i t u t e s as
a p h i l a t e l i s t c o l l e c t s p o sta g e stam ps" (p . 9 ). To S i s t e r
L i l l i a n , a revue "sounded as s i n i s t e r . . . as a M anhattan
c o c k t a i l " (p. 2 5 ). In heaven "God a c t s l i k e a package of
Lux [a South A fric a n b ran d o f soap f la k e s ] and d o e s n 't
s h r in k even th e s m a lle s t s in n e r" (p . 3 0 ). "The J e s u s w or
sh ip p ed by S i s t e r L i l l i a n was no b e t t e r th a n a ty r a n n ic a l
nincompoop" (p . 3 7 ). Sunday i s " th e day o f s t u f f e d c h ic k e n ,
s o r d id new spapers, and se x u a l i n te r c o u r s e " (p . 3 7 ). Most
o f th e s e s ta te m e n ts a r e n o t made by th e c h a r a c te r s b u t a re
conveyed th ro u g h th e a u t h o r 's o m n is c ie n t v ie w p o in t. In
a d d i tio n , some o f th e th in g s th e c h a r a c te r s say a r e e q u a lly
a p p a llin g . The news e d i t o r o f th e c i t y ' s le a d in g news
p a p e r, f o r exam ple, e x p re s s e s h i s b e l i e f t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y
owes i t s e x is te n c e to p u b l i c i t y : John th e B a p t i s t was
C h r i s t 's p u b l i c i t y m anager u n t i l J e s u s ra n th e show him
s e l f ; a l l th e m ajor e v e n ts in C h r i s t 's l i f e w ere p u b l i c i t y
s t u n t s ; th e c r u c i f i x i o n and r e s u r r e c t i o n was "a stupendous
s t u n t " (p. 4 4 ).
No l e s s co g en t a re th e a u t h o r 's in co n g ro u s j u x t a
p o s i t i o n s , a l l o f w hich c l e a r l y p o in t to th e an om alies
e x i s t i n g in th e ch u rch . Side by s id e w ith scen es d e p ic tin g
th e members o f th e co n v en t and th e ch u rch in th e s e r v ic e
o f t h e i r r e l i g i o n a r e sc en es r e v e a lin g th e g ro ss a p p e t i t e s
o f th e v e ry same p e o p le . S i s t e r L i l l i a n i s p a s s io n a te ly
fond o f a p p le s and e a t s them s e c r e t l y in h e r c e l l - l i k e
a p a rtm e n t. The R everend B u c k le th w a ite f l i r t s w ith g i r l s ,
a lth o u g h h i s c h a s te n e s s d r iv e s them " to d e s p a ir ” (p. 1 8 ).
The Canon pays more a t t e n t i o n to s a t i s f y i n g h is p a l a t e
th a n to h i s d u t i e s , a s do many o f th e o th e r m i n i s t e r s .
The Reverend G reenhalgh " c a te re d w e ll f o r th e s a t i s f a c t i o n
o f h i s se x u a l a p p e t i t e " (p. 125). For th e Reverend
H e rio t " th e re was o n ly one p l e a s u r e - - t h e supreme jo y o f
s le e p in g w ith [ h is w ife ] R uth" (p. 107). These a p p e t i t e s
a r e s h a rp ly c o n tr a s te d w ith a l a c k a d a i s i c a l perform ance o f
s p i r i t u a l d u tie s and b r a s h ly em phasize th e h y p o c risy o f
such p eo p le in th e ch u rch . The manner in w hich th e y a r e
c h a r a c te r i z e d foreshadow s t h e i r re sp o n se to th e c r i s i s
in th e co n v en t: a l l o f them e x p re s s e x a s p e r a tio n a t
h av in g t h e i r in an e l i v e s d is r u p te d . They a l s o a c t as
f o i l s to th o s e who a r e n o t h y p o c r ite s , T e a rla c h and
e s p e c i a l l y th e Reverend N ic h o la s, whose a s p e r i t y i s
d ir e c t e d a g a in s t h i s c o lle a g u e s . W ebster, p a r t i c u l a r l y
th ro u g h h e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s , im p lie s t h a t th e ch u rch ,
72
fed "on th e m e n ta l husks o f an e f f e t e c le r g y " (p. 107),
has been i n e f f e c t u a l in th e m oral le a d e r s h ip ex p e cte d from
i t . But th e r e i s an iro n y in v o lv e d , a s th e a u th o r p o in ts
o u t:
Only God H im self c o u ld have been c le v e r enough to have
d e v ise d such a scheme. To c r a d le th e new l i b e r a t o r in
th e m id s t o f th e t o t t e r i n g C h u r c h - - it was a m a ste r
s tr o k e . (p. 140)
A lan P aton c a l l s Ceremony o f Innocence M a tr u e s to r y
o f South A f r ic a " (p . 149). The n o v e l 's im p lic a tio n s ,
however, ap p ly w h erev er th e ch u rch i s d e lin q u e n t. T his
u n iv e r s a l a p p l i c a t i o n i s r e f l e c t e d in th e re sp o n se o f
re v ie w e rs o u ts id e S outh A f r ic a . C .J . R o lo 's p r a i s e in The
A t l a n t i c c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h i s re sp o n se :
I have seldom h i t upon a book by an unknown w r i t e r
. . . so acco m p lish ed in i t s a r t i s t r y . T his i s a
b o ld ly o r i g i n a l m o r a lity t a l e . . . .5
Diana T r i l l i n g , in N a tio n , commends th e a u th o r:
. . . M iss W e b s te r's t a l e n t i s v e ry rem a rk a b le, o f
a k in d n o t e a s i l y d u p lic a te d in p r e s e n t-d a y f i c t i o n
. . . a f i r s t - r a t e n o v e l i s t o f s o c i a l m an n ers--
u rb an e, w i t t y , a f in e s t y l i s t , an a c u te ly s a t i r i c
b u t sy m p a th etic o b s e rv e r o f s o c i a l b e h a v io r . . . .
The anonymous re v ie w e r o f th e Times L i t e r a r y Supplement
5CLXXXIII ( A p ril 1949), 86.
fylarch 12, 1949, p. 310.
73
fin d s th e n o v e l 's s t y l e to be i t s m ost d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e
and c a l l s th e n o v el an
a c id , i n t r a n s i g e n t book, w ith i t s d e v a s ta tin g
ex p o su re o f h y p o c ris y , i t s n a r r a t i v e power and
sudden f la s h e s o f sa rd o n ic w it . . . . 7
By any c r i t i c a l s ta n d a r d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o se a p p lie d to
s t y l e , th e n o v el i s an o u ts ta n d in g work o f l i t e r a t u r e .
The po stw ar atm osphere in South A f r ic a m ust have been
conducive to th e p u b lic a t io n o f such a n o v e l. Were i t
w r i t t e n today, i t i s d o u b tfu l w h eth er i t would be p u b lis h e d
in a c o u n try where th e s t a t e p u ts a s tu d e n t on t r i a l f o r
blasphem y m erely b ecau se he r e p o r te d in a m agazine d e t a i l s
ab o u t a u n i v e r s i t y d is c u s s io n on th e "God i s dead"
c o n tro v e rsy .®
A Grove o f F ever T re es and Ceremony o f Innocence
marked a d e p a rtu re from th e s tr o n g ly r a c i a l i s t themes o f
South A fric a n f i c t i o n . But th e d e p a r tu r e was s h o r t - l i v e d .
P e te r Abrahams, a C oloured w r i t e r n u r tu re d on th e works
o f R ich ard W right, began to w r i te n o v e ls r e f l e c t i n g th e
b la c k m an's v ie w p o in t and South A f r ic a , s u r p r is e d t h a t a
7 Nov. 25, 1949, p. 765.
®For a r e p o r t on th e t r i a l , see S ta n le y Uys, " B la s
phemy T r i a l A irin g D eath-of-G od Q u e s tio n ," Los A ngeles
Tim es, Ja n . 21, 1968, se c . A, p. 18.
74
non-European co u ld w r i t e , welcomed h i s w orks.
D uring th e w ar, Abrahams p u b lis h e d two works in a
lim ite d e d i t i o n . Dark T estam ent (1942), a volume o f
s h o r t s t o r i e s , can be r e a d i l y d ism isse d as a s e r i e s o f
e x e r c i s e s . Song o f th e C ity (1944), a n o v e l, i s i n t e r
e s t i n g f o r w hat i t r e v e a ls about th e developm ent o f
Abrahams a s a w r i t e r .
In w r i t i n g Song o f th e C^ ty , Abrahams u n d o u b ted ly d e
r iv e d i n s p i r a t i o n from Plom er. (In h is au to b io g ra p h y , T e ll
Freedom , Abrahams d e s c r ib e s how d e lig h te d he was to r e c e iv e
"W illiam P lo m e r's b e a u t i f u l l i t t l e book I Speak o f A f r i c a "
from a h ig h sc h o o l p r i n c i p a l . ^) C hapter One o f Song o f th e
C ity re a d s a s i f Abrahams added d e t a i l s to th e b e g in n in g
o f "U la Masondo": N duli i s le a v in g h is home in th e v i l l a g e
to work in th e c i t y o f g o ld , Johannesburg, and th e r e i s
th e same warmth among th e v i l l a g e r s a s in P lo m e r's s h o r t
s to r y , th e same in e l u c t a b l e su n d erin g o f fam ily t i e s , and
th e same fo re b o d in g t h a t th e son i s most l i k e l y to be l o s t
in th e w h ite m an 's w o rld . But Abrahams t r i e s too h a rd to
convey th e b la c k m an's v ie w p o in t. He c o n s ta n tly i n t e r r u p t s
th e n a r r a t i v e to e x p la in th e w h ite m an's tre a tm e n t o f
^(London, 1954), p. 249.
75
N d u li. L a te r in th e n o v e l, however, Abrahams r e f r a i n s
from t e l l i n g th e r e a d e r w hat he should know. But by th e n ,
Song o f th e C ity i s no lo n g e r N d u li's s to r y .
T his la c k o f fo cu s in th e n o v el b e g in s w ith th e second
c h a p te r . A p p a re n tly , th e r e i s a n o th e r s to r y to be to l d , th e
s to r y o f w h eth er South A fr ic a sh o u ld e n t e r World War I I on
th e s id e o f th e a l l i e s , o r rem ain n e u t r a l . The d e c is io n
th r e a te n s th e h a p p in e ss o f H endrik van d e r Merwe, an
A frik a n e r who i s th e c o u n t r y 's M in is te r o f N ativ e A f f a i r s ,
and h is E n g lis h w ife , Myra. In th e end, duped by h is
c o u sin W ilhelm --one o f th e c h a r a c te r s d e s c rib e s him as
10
a N azi H endrik v o te s f o r s ta y in g o u t o f th e war and
h is w ife le a v e s him and r e t u r n s to E ngland. As f o r N duli,
th e r e a d e r g e ts an o c c a s io n a l glim pse o f him: N d u li has
an a f f a i r w ith a n e ig h b o r 's s e rv a n t, c o n s ta n tly produces
h is p ass to show to th e p o l i c e , spends a n ig h t in j a i l f o r
n o t h av in g p e rm is s io n to s ta y o u t l a t e one n ig h t, i s
b e a te n up by w h ite men an g ered t h a t South A fr ic a i s to
e n t e r th e w ar, and r e t u r n s to h i s v i l l a g e . In th e v i l l a g e ,
u n ab le to r e s i s t th e song o f th e c i t y , he obeys an im pulse
and goes back to Jo h an n esb u rg . The c i t y m ight have an
•^(London, 1944), p. 99.
76
i r r e s i s t i b l e charm, b u t w hat t h a t charm c o n s i s t s o f i s
l e f t e n t i r e l y to th e re a d e r to d e c id e f o r h im s e lf.
Abrahams o f f e r s no h e lp . He a llo w s N d u li few moments o f
jo y . Most o f th e tim e, however, he d e p ic ts N duli as a
v ic tim o f p e r s e c u tio n . N duli i s u n ab le to make a move
w ith o u t h av in g a policem an sto p him and demand t h a t he
produce h is p a s s .
How th e p a ss c o n tr o ls th e l i f e o f an A fric a n in th e
c i t y i s A braham s's main co n cern in th e N d u li s e c tio n s o f
Song o f th e C i t y . The w eakness i s n o t t h a t Abrahams
p r o t e s t s , b u t t h a t he p r o t e s t s too much. Most o f th e
m a te r ia l b elo n g s to a pam phlet, n o t to a n o v e l. There i s
one redeem ing scene in th e n o v e l, a scene w hich demon
s t r a t e s th e k in d o f w r i tin g Abrahams i s c a p a b le o f. He
l e t s th e s c e n e 's p e a k f o r i t s e l f . The r e s u l t i n g im pact i s
f a r s u p e r io r to a n y th in g e l s e th e r e a d e r g e ts from th e
n o v e l. On h i s f i r s t S atu rd ay n ig h t o u t, N d u li ta k e s
D aisy, th e n e ig h b o r 's s e r v a n t, to a dance h a l l in Malay
Camp. F or th e f i r s t tim e s in c e he a r r i v e d in th e city-,
N duli i s happy. But th e d a n c e --a n d N d u li's tem porary
h a p p i n e s s - - is i n t e r r u p t e d . The p o lic e r a i d th e dance
h a l l to a r r e s t A fric a n s who a r e n o t c a r r y in g p a s s e s . The
c h i e f p o lic e o f f i c e r o f th e r a id in g p a r ty i s f r i e n d l y and
77
u n d e rs ta n d in g . The moment th e p o lic e le a v e , however,
N d u li and D aisy f in d , as do th e o th e r s , t h a t t h e i r jo y has
d i s s i p a t e d . Even though th e y make an a tte m p t, i t i s
d i f f i c u l t to r e t u r n to t h a t e a r l i e r warmth. The h a l l
em p ties g r a d u a lly and N duli and D aisy a l s o le a v e . T his
p i c t u r e makes th e p re v io u s c a ta lo g o f p a ss in c id e n ts
u n n e c e ss a ry . I t a l s o makes su p e rflu o u s th e su b seq u en t
p o lem ics re g a rd in g th e i n i q u i t i e s o f th e p ass laws (pp.
110- 111).
A p art from t h i s p a r t i c u l a r scen e, Song o f th e C ity
abounds in w eak n esses. I t i s weak in c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , in
p l o t t i n g , and in n a r r a t i v e power. The c h a r a c te r s have no
d e p th and fu n c tio n a s m outhpieces f o r th e a u t h o r 's id e a s .
The one predom inant p l o t - - t h a t i s , th e s to r y o f H endrik van
d e r M erw e--is d i s t o r t e d by to o many d is p a r a te i n t r u s i o n s ,
w hich b e a r no r e l a t i o n s h i p to each o th e r . The n a r r a t i v e
i s m arred by awkward c o n s tr u c tio n s and by a tte m p ts a t
a r t i s t i c w r i tin g f i l l e d w ith p u rp le p a s s a g e s . Abrahams
h im s e lf r e a l i z e d how b o tch ed th e whole work was and d ec id ed
to w r i te a b e t t e r novel.'*''*' He succeeded.
Mine Boy (1946) i s t h a t s u c c e s s . In t h i s second n o v e l,
~ * ~ ^ R etu rn to G o li (London, 1953), pp. 17-18.
Abrahams rew orked some o f th e m a te r ia l he had used in th e
f i r s t n o v e l. E v id e n tly , Song o f th e C ity s t a r t e d as a s to r y
o f an A f r ic a n 's f i r s t e x p e rie n c e s in Jo hannesburg, b u t
N d u li's s to r y was s id e tr a c k e d by what ap p eared to be a
more s i g n i f i c a n t p ro b lem --w h e th er South A fr ic a should
p a r t i c i p a t e in th e w a r - - , b u t w hich le d to melodrama. I f
Song o f th e C ity was m eant to be an ex ten d ed e x p lo r a tio n
o f th e "Ula Masondo" theme, i t f a i l e d m is e ra b ly . Re
tu r n in g to P lo m e r's theme f o r h i s second n o v e l, Abrahams
m ust have r e a l i z e d t h a t h i s e f f o r t would be s tre n g th e n e d
i f he av o id ed more th a n one v ie w p o in t. As B e rn s te in
o b se rv e s, in Mine Boy "Abrahams fin d s h is form " (p. 4 1 ).
Mine Boy i s c h a r a c te r i z e d by s i m p l i c i t y - - i n th e s to r y
l i n e and in th e s t y l e . Abrahams c o n c e n tr a te s on a s in g le
s to r y th ro u g h o u t, th e s to r y o f Xuma from th e N orth, who
comes to Johannesburg to work in th e m in es. E xcept f o r one
e p iso d e , where Xuma i s th e s u b je c t o f a c o n v e rs a tio n b e
tween two c h a r a c te r s , th e e n t i r e s to r y i s to ld from Xuma's
v ie w p o in t. And in d e l in e a tin g Xuma's s tr u g g le to rem ain a
man w h ile s u f f e r i n g h u m ilia tio n s a t th e hands o f th e
w h ite s , Abrahams does n o t pause to e x p la in and does n o t
c r e a te any d i s t r a c t i o n s , e i t h e r by b r in g in g in o th e r
s t o r i e s , o r by a tte m p tin g to convey a v a r i e t y o f v ie w p o in ts.
79
The awkwardness o f some o f th e in c id e n t s in Song o f th e
C ity i s a b s e n t, a s a r e th e p u rp le p a s s a g e s . The p ro se
i s le a n , d i r e c t , d ra m a tic . Each in c id e n t i s t r e a t e d l i k e
a scene from a p la y . A few words in tr o d u c e th e scene and
from th e n on th e d ia lo g u e s k i l l f u l l y c o m p lic a te s th e
s i t u a t i o n and advances th e p l o t .
The opening scene i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f A braham s's
s t y l e in th e n o v e l - - o f h i s economy o f w ords, and o f h is
e f f e c t i v e in te rw e a v in g o f p l o t , c h a r a c te r , and s e t t i n g ,
so t h a t th e y f u n c tio n to g e th e r a s a u n i t . When th e n o v el
opens, Xuma i s a lr e a d y in Jo h a n n esb u rg . I t i s 3 a.m . and
he f in d s he i s in "a d ark narrow s t r e e t f u l l o f s h a d o w s , "12
s e a rc h in g f o r a p la c e to s ta y . Im m ediately, th e re a s o n
Abrahams e lim in a te d th e v i l l a g e and jo u rn e y sc en es becomes
e v id e n t. The d a rk n ess image on th e f i r s t page o f th e n o v el
i s more r e v e a lin g o f th e b a s ic s i t u a t i o n . Xuma i s l o s t
in th e d a rk n e s s, b e w ild e re d by s tra n g e su rro u n d in g s , u n ab le
to comprehend a w o rld so d i f f e r e n t from h i s . The image
a ls o e l u c i d a t e s th e w h ite m an 's tre a tm e n t o f th e n o n -w h ite .
Here i s Jo h an n esb u rg , th e b ig g e s t c i t y in South A f r ic a
12(New York, 1955), p. 11. A ll q u o ta tio n s a r e ta k en
from t h i s f i r s t U.S. e d i t i o n .
80
and th e m ost modern c i t y on th e A fric a n c o n tin e n t, and the
p a r t where th e n o n -w h ites l i v e has no s t r e e t l i g h t s . T his
i s em phasized l a t e r in th e n o v el when, one n ig h t, Xuma
re a c h e s th e to p o f a h i l l w ith a g i r l - f r i e n d . She fin d s
i t easy to p o in t o u t Malay Camp in th e sea o f l i g h t s
b ecau se i t i s " th e d ark s p o t w ith o nly a few l i g h t s '1
(p . 205). The d a rk n e ss in th e s t r e e t , to g e th e r w ith th e
accom panying c o ld , a ls o a c t s a s a c o n t r a s t to th e warmth
t h a t fo llo w s when Xuma i s in v it e d in to a shebeen, run by
Leah. Leah (and l a t e r Jo h an n es) h e lp Xuma so t h a t he
f in d s i t e a s i e r to a d j u s t to th e new l i f e in th e c i t y .
T his i s a d e p a rtu re from P lo m e r's s to r y , where th e ex
p e rie n c e d c o r r u p t th e newcomer and i n i t i a t e him in to a
l i f e o f crim e.
There a r e o th e r s i g n i f i c a n t d e p a rtu re s in th e n o v e l.
Abrahams does n o t em phasize th e crim e among th e non-
E uropeans- -sim p ly b ecau se crim e has become p a r t o f t h e i r
l i v e s . Jo h an n esb u rg , a s Xuma f i r s t e n c o u n te rs i t , i s n o t
an im p re s siv e c i t y o f to w erin g b u ild in g s and mine dumps
g l i s t e n i n g in th e sun. What he se e s around th e shebeen
i s b r u t a l : men l o s t in d ru n k en n ess, a k n if e p u lle d o u t
a t th e f i r s t s ig n o f a b raw l, two women b a t t e r i n g each o th e r
in th e s t r e e t . And th ro u g h i t a l l - - a n o t h e r departure--X um a
81
r e t a i n s h i s m oral i n t e g r i t y .
T his i n t e g r i t y i s d em o n strate d in h i s r e f u s a l to a c c e p t
th e code o f th e shebeen q ueens. S in ce th e code i s b ased on
money, i t p e rm its th e queens to "buy" p r o te c tio n from th e
law. As Leah, sh ak in g a l e a t h e r bag f i l l e d w ith money,
inform s Xuma, "T his i s pow er" (p. 3 7 ). Xuma does n o t
a c c e p t th e code, n o t b ec au se i t i s p r e d ic a te d upon law
le s s n e s s , b u t b ecau se i t i s c o n tra ry to t r i b a l law.
Xuma's ad h eren ce to th e m o r a lity o f th e t r i b e saves him.
He r e a l i z e s e a r l y t h a t when he lo s e s th e way o f h is p e o p le ,
he lo s e s h im s e lf.
Xuma's m oral aw areness i s e s s e n t i a l to A braham s's
a r t i s t i c p u rp o se . Abrahams i s n o t co n cern ed , a s i s Plom er,
m erely w ith th e e f f e c t o f th e c i t y on th e A fric a n from
th e v i l l a g e . The th e m a tic im p lic a tio n s o f th e n o v el range
much w id e r. The b a s ic c o n f l i c t o f th e s to r y i s betw een th e
b la c k man and w h ite a u t h o r i t y , a c o n f l i c t w hich p erv ad es
a l l o f South A fric a n l i f e . The la b o r system in th e c o u n try
i s c a lc u l a te d to d e s tr o y th e s e l f - r e s p e c t o u t o f whidh
r e v o l t m ight grow. P r o t e s t does n o t b elo n g to th e le a d e r s
a lo n e , Abrahams f e e l s , b u t should be e x p re s se d by th e
in d iv id u a l w henever he can e f f e c t i v e l y do so. Xuma's r o le
in th e n o v el e x e m p lifie s t h i s b e l i e f . I t i s th e r e f o r e
82
im p e ra tiv e t h a t he r e t a i n h is m oral i n t e g r i t y . Only th en
can he be c e r t a i n t h a t h i s so u l does n o t d ie a s he la b o rs
in th e m ines.
His f i r s t c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith a u t h o r i t y foreshadow s, on
a m inor s c a le , th e t e s t he w i l l be p u t to a t th e end o f
th e s to r y . On h i s f i r s t S atu rd ay n ig h t o u t, he ig n o re s a
com panion's p le a to ru n from ap p ro ac h in g p o lic e . I n s te a d ,
he i n s i s t s , "But we have done n o th in g ," and th e n h i t s th e
policem an who has g o t a h o ld o f him (p . 3 1 ). But th e blows
a re i n e f f e c t i v e , and he i s com pelled to f l e e . The blows
r e p r e s e n t a fe e b le a tte m p t to s t r i k e o u t a g a i n s t w h ite
a u t h o r i t y , w hich th e b la c k policem an sy m b o lizes. More
s i g n i f i c a n t , a t t h i s s ta g e o f th e s to r y , i s Xuma's r e t o r t
t h a t he h as done n o th in g wrong. I t r e f l e c t s a n a iv e te
on h is p a r t . His f i r s t crim e, in th e eyes o f th e w h ite
South A fric a n and hence a c c o rd in g to th e laws o f th e
c o u n try , i s h i s b la c k s k in . And t h i s i s th e p o in t from
w hich th e theme o f th e n o v el stem s. A u th o rity b a se d on
r a c i a lis m a c ts a s an a n ta g o n is t in th e n o v e l.
In h i s tre a tm e n t o f th e a n ta g o n is t, Abrahams r e v e r s e s
th e l o g i c a l sequence o f cause and e f f e c t . As in d ic a te d
above, he .ex p lo res f i r s t th e e f f e c t s o f r a c i a lis m as
e x e m p lifie d in th e submerged w o rld o f th e n o n -w h ite s in
8 3
Malay Camp. Then he p r e s e n ts th e c a u se, th e economic b a s is
o f th e c o u n try , th e epitom e o f w hich i s th e m ining in d u s tr y :
a u t h o r i t y se e s to i t t h a t th e A fric a n s in th e m ines fu n c tio n
o n ly a s means to an economic end. The s e t t i n g s in th e n o v el
a r e n o t mere backgrounds a g a in s t w hich th e e v e n ts ta k e
p la c e . Malay Camp and th e m ines a re h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t
elem en ts in th e p l o t .
W hile th e y do f u n c tio n as sym bols, b o th Malay Camp
and th e m ines a r e a ls o e s s e n t i a l to th e developm ent o f
Xuma’s c h a r a c te r . W hether he succumbs to th e c o m p le x itie s
o f t h i s b rav e new w o rld suddenly t h r u s t upon th e B antu
depends upon h i s s i t u a t i o n . In Malay Camp, he co u ld have
been drawn in to a w orld o f crim e and, a t th e end o f th e
s to r y , escap ed in to cy n icism l i k e Ula Masondo. Or, he co u ld
have found o n ly l o n e lin e s s , as N duli d id in Song o f th e
C i t y , so t h a t he would have had to r e t r e a t to h is v i l l a g e .
The o nly t e s t i n g o f h is i n t e g r i t y in Malay Camp comes from
an in v a s io n by th e p o lic e . The r e a l o rd e a l i s in th e
m ines. Xuma's f i r s t day th e r e i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s and a t th e
same tim e becomes a m etaphor f o r th e A f r ic a n 's s i t u a t i o n
in th e w h ite m an 's c i t y . The w h ite foreman commands Xuma
to push a lo ad ed tr u c k on r a i l s up a s te e p i n c l i n e .
A lthough th e o th e r A fric a n la b o r e r s p r o t e s t t h a t "he does
84
n o t know howM and t h a t " i t i s th e work o f two m en," th e
foreman d is m is s e s t h e i r o b je c tio n s w ith a c u r t , "Shut
u p !" (p. 6 2 ). But Xuma m eets th e c h a lle n g e and su c cee d s.
He th en becomes a b la c k S isy p h u s, p u sh in g th e tr u c k w ith
th e h e lp o f a n o th e r A fric a n , and em ptying i t a t th e top
o f th e i n c l i n e .
T his u n r e le n tin g s tr u g g le , p h y s ic a l h e r e , becomes
p s y c h o lo g ic a l a f t e r he i s re sc u e d from th e jo b o f p u sh in g
tr u c k s . As Leah rem inds him th e ev en in g o f h i s f i r s t day
a t h is new jo b , "In th e c i t y i t i s alw ays l i k e t h i s : a l l
th e tim e you a r e f i g h t i n g . F ig h tin g . F ig h tin g ! " (p . 75).
I t i s l e f t to Paddy, Xuma's forem an, to con v in ce Xuma o f
th e s ig n i f ic a n c e o f " f i g h t i n g . " So t h a t , when th e c r i s i s
a r i s e s , Xuma resp o n d s l i k e a h e ro .
A c a v e -in a t th e m ine, in w hich two p e o p le a re k i l l e d ,
p r e c i p i t a t e s th e c r i s i s , a m inor one f o r th e E uropeans,
b u t f o r Xuma a t e s t o f s tr e n g t h and a more s i g n i f i c a n t
c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith a u t h o r i t y : he r e f u s e s to go back to
work and Paddy j o i n s him. The manager i n t e r p r e t s th e a c tio n
o f Xuma and Paddy as c o n s t i t u t i n g a s t r i k e and c a l l s fo r
th e p o lic e . And th e r e i t i s , a u t h o r i t y backed by law. The
law d e n ie s th e A fric a n th e r i g h t to s t r i k e . In f a c t , th e
law c o n s ta n tly d i c t a t e s to th e A fric a n w hat he can o r ca n n o t
85
do, and se e s to i t t h a t , w h ile in th e c i t y , th e A fric a n
has o n ly one f u n c tio n , to se rv e h i s w h ite b o s s .
In d e p ic tin g th e su b seq u en t e v e n ts , Abrahams makes an
im p o rta n t p o in t. When th e p o lic e come ru s h in g in w ith
t h e i r b a to n s , in re sp o n se to th e mine m a n a g e r's c a l l , Xuma
h i t s a p olicem an and ru n s . A braham s's im p lic a tio n h e re i s
t h a t th e A fric a n i s c o n d itio n e d to resp o n d to a u t h o r i t y
w ith f e a r and t h a t th e c o n d itio n in g i s r e p e a te d u n t i l th e
re sp o n se becomes a lm o st i n s t i n c t i v e . F u rth e rm o re , Abrahams
w ants th e r e a d e r to know t h a t Xuma's r e b e l l i o n i s h i s own,
w ith o u t Paddy a t h i s s id e . Hence, Xuma r e a l i z e s he sh o u ld
n o t have f l e d . To p e r s i s t in ru n n in g away from a u t h o r i t y
and in f i g h t i n g th e law by becoming la w le s s , as th o se in
th e shebeen have done, means succumbing to a l l t h a t i s
n e g a tiv e in a w h ite m an 's c i t y . I t would o nly le a d to days
and n ig h ts s p e n t in a drunken s tu p o r . But a sta n d a g a in s t
a u t h o r i t y i s a n o th e r m a tte r . I t i s th e o n ly way a man
sh o u ld behave. S i g n i f i c a n t l y , when Xuma a r r i v e s a t t h i s
r e a l i z a t i o n , he does i t a t th e shebeen and n o t in h i s own
q u a r t e r s . He d e c id e s to g iv e h im s e lf up, m ain ly in o rd e r
to inform th e p u b lic o f th e re a s o n s f o r h i s r e b e l l i o n .
W ith t h i s r e s o l u t i o n , Xuma a c h ie v e s th e s t a t u r e o f a
h e ro . And t h i s i s where Abrahams d i f f e r s from Plom er.
86
Where Plom er d e p ic ts th e l i f e o f th e t r i b a l A fric a n in th e
c i t y a s i t i s , A braham s's p i c t u r e o f th e b la c k m an's l i f e
i s b o th a s i t i s and a s i t sh o u ld b e . Abrahams i d e a l i z e s
th e en d in g o f h i s n o v e l. In t h i s r e s p e c t, Mine Boy i s a t
th e o th e r extrem e from Song o f th e C i ty , w hich ends on a
d espondent n o te . However, w h ile Mine Boy d e m o n stra te s a
c o n s id e r a b le improvem ent o v er Song o f th e C ity , p a r t i c u l a r l y
in te c h n iq u e , th e r e i s s t i l l a w eakness c a r r i e d o v er from
th e f i r s t n o v el and t h a t i s in th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . In
Mine Boy th e melodrama i s gone, b u t th e em phasis i s on
a c tio n r a t h e r th a n on c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . Xuma ends up a s a
h ero b u t la c k s th e d e p th o f one. The Times L i t e r a r y
Supplem ent re v ie w e r r a i s e s th e q u e s tio n a s to w h eth e r th e
n o v el r e v e a ls a n y th in g a b o u t "human n a tu re u nder th e d a rk e r
13
s k i n ," and d is c o v e r s t h a t i t does n o t. A nother anonymous
re v ie w e r, in The New Y o rk e r, f e e l s t h a t a lth o u g h Xuma i s
"an in e s c a p a b ly a p p e a lin g f i g u r e , " he "n ev er becomes more
th a n an o u t l i n e .
The Times L i t e r a r y Supplem ent rev iew , though l a r g e l y
■^O ctober 5, 1946, p. 477.
^ J u n e 18, 1955, p. 106.
87
n e g a tiv e , n o te d one improvement in Mine Boy:
In one im p o rta n t r e s p e c t, how ever, Mr. Abrahams has
advanced: he no lo n g e r t i p s th e s c a le s a g a in s t th e
h e r o - - l i f e can be depended on to do t h a t . (p . 477)
In th e U nited S t a t e s , re v ie w e rs on th e whole s a id fa v o ra b le
th in g s a b o u t th e n o v e l. S ince i t was n o t p u b lis h e d in t h i s
co u n try u n t i l 1 9 5 5 - - th a t i s , a f t e r A braham s's su b seq u en t
two n o v e ls were p u b lis h e d - - Mine Boy was c o n s id e re d as
m arking a s i g n i f i c a n t developm ent in A braham s's c a r e e r .
Almost a l l th e re v ie w e rs compared Mine Bov w ith one o f h is
o th e r n o v e ls . Here i s a sam pling o f some o f th e o th e r
comments made by th e re v ie w e rs . S y lv ia S t a l l i n g s , in th e
New York H erald T rib u n e Book Review, had t h i s to say:
Mr. Abrahams . . . has n o t s a c r i f i c e d p o e try to
propaganda. His sim ple s to r y , d e a lin g w ith sim ple
p e o p le , i s d i g n i f i e d and m o v i n g . 15
In S atu rd ay Review , H o llis A lp e r t took a s i m i l a r view:
I suppose t h a t Mine Boy can be ta k e n a s a n o v el o f r a c i a l
p r o t e s t b u t to c a l l i t t h a t would be h ig h ly u n f a i r . For
one th in g th e p r o t e s t i s k e p t muted a l l th e way . . . .16
The anonymous New Y orker re v ie w e r, d e s p ite h is c r i t i c i s m
o f th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , found th e o v e r a l l e f f e c t o f th e
n o v el s a t i s f y i n g :
"^June 12, 1955, p. 2.
■^July 2, 1955, p. 18.
88
One f i n i s h e s t h i s book w ith a v i v i d , i f im p r e s s io n is t ic
p i c t u r e o f what l i f e i s l i k e f o r th e b la c k r e s i d e n t s o f
Jo h an n esb u rg , (pp. 105-106)
The en th u siasm o f th e s e American re v ie w e rs i s u n d e r
s ta n d a b le . Mine Boy i s th e o n ly one o f A braham s's n o v e ls
w hich le a v e s th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to th e r e a d e r: th e id e a s
a re i m p l i c i t in th e a c tio n . A braham s's su b se q u en t n o v e ls
s u f f e r from w hat John Povey d e s c r ib e s as "a k in d o f s e l f -
in d u lg e n ce in th e m e ."17 The danger in h e re n t in t h i s k in d
o f s e lf - in d u lg e n c e i s one w hich w r i t e r s o f r a c i a l i s t themes
a r e s u s c e p tib le to . Anthony B u rg ess, in h i s d is c u s s io n o f
th e South A fric a n n o v e l, makes t h i s c l e a r :
The danger o f a s tr o n g ly p ro p a g a n d is t c o n te n t in a
n o v e l l i e s in th e f a c t t h a t i t may swamp th e a r t , tu r n in g
a p ie c e o f l i t e r a t u r e i n to a mere p a m p h le t.18
R ecognizing t h a t some South A fric a n n o v e ls have been w r i t t e n
w ith th e purpose o f making th e r e a d e r aware o f " th e
i n j u s t i c e o f th e N e g ro 's s t a t u s in South A f r i c a ," B urgess
adds, "Knowing th e p o s i t i o n o ur d u ty i s to f i g h t a g a in s t
i t , and we do n o t need to be t o l d th e p o s i t i o n a g a in "
i
(pp. 158-159).
17
" L i t e r a t u r e , " in A fr ic a in th e W ider W orld, ed s.
David Brokensha and M ichael Crowder (New York and London,
1967), p. 61.
• ^ T h e Novel Now (London, 1967), p. 158.
89
Abrahams, a f t e r subsuming h i s id e a s in Mine Boy, con
tin u e d p u rsu in g themes r a t h e r th an a r t and, a lth o u g h th e
id e a s th em selv es a r e w o rth c o n s id e rin g , he ends up more a
n o n -w h ite spokesman th an a n o v e l i s t concerned w ith l i t e r a r y
e x p re s s io n o f th e South A fr ic a he knew. Abrahams th e
p o le m ic is t i s e s p e c i a l l y e v id e n t in h i s t h i r d n o v e l,
The P a th o f Thunder (1948).
In The P a th o f T hunder, Abrahams im poses th e s i g n i f i
cance on th e s to r y , by h aving a Jew and a Zulu, and some
tim es th e C oloured p r o ta g o n is t, comment on th e a c tio n .
Though th e comments a re p e r t i n e n t in th e b e g in n in g - -
Abrahams co n ten d s t h a t s in c e th e C oloureds have no p a s t,
o n ly th e f u tu r e , th e y can d em o n strate t h e i r w o rth as
in d iv id u a ls o n ly i f r a c ia lis m i s n e g a te d - - , they do n o t
save th e s to r y from d ev o lv in g in to melodrama. In th e s to r y ,
Lanny S w artz, a C oloured, r e tu r n s to h is v i l l a g e to p ro v id e
h i s p eo p le w ith e d u c a tio n , b u t in s te a d f a l l s in lo v e w ith
an A frik a n e r g i r l and i s k i l l e d by A frik a n e rs w h ile
a tte m p tin g to e lo p e w ith h e r . P a r t i c u l a r l y incom m ensurate
i s th e d i r e c t i o n th e s to r y ta k e s . The o n ly th o u g h t Lanny
h a s , a f t e r he a f f irm s h i s lo v e f o r th e A frik a n e r g i r l , i s
how he can g e t away w ith h e r from South A fr ic a so t h a t
th e two can l i v e h a p p ily e v e r a f t e r . The C o lo u red s, to
90
whom he was so d e d ic a te d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e n o v e l, a re
c o m p letely d is re g a rd e d . W orse, L an n y 's th o u g h ts o f escap e
do n o t f i t in w ith th e theme o f th e n o v e l: one does n o t
n e g a te r a c ia lis m by ru n n in g away from i t . Subsequent South
A fric a n n o v e ls , in v o lv in g th e same theme, make A braham s's
n o v el sound s p e c io u s . In The E vidence o f Love (1960), by
Dan Jaco b so n , K enneth M akeer, a Cape C oloured, and h is
w h ite South A fric a n w ife , I s a b e l, abandon th e s e c u r i t y o f
a c o m p a ra tiv e ly n o n r a c ia l E ngland and r e t u r n to South
A f r ic a , where th e y a re im m ediately j a i l e d b ecau se m a rria g e s
a c ro s s th e c o lo r l i n e a r e i l l e g a l . In R ich ard R iv e 's
Emergency (1964), Andrew D ryer, a C oloured h ig h sch o o l
te a c h e r , and th e w h ite woman he lo v e s , R uth T a lb o t, d ec id e
to rem ain in Cape Town r a t h e r th a n escap e to B a su to lan d
(now L e s o th o ) .
The P a th o f Thunder re a d s as i f Abrahams d id n o t
develop a f t e r Song o f th e C i t y . The P a th o f T hunder,
though l e s s awkward in e x p re s s io n , s h a re s many o f th e weak
n e s s e s o f th e f i r s t n o v e l. In a d d itio n to th e melodrama
and weak c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , The P a th o f Thunder h as a
s e t t i n g w hich i s c o n triv e d so a s to fu n c tio n s y m b o lic a lly .
W hile m ost re v ie w e rs had b o th fa v o ra b le and u n fa v o ra b le
comments ab o u t th e n o v e l, The New Y orker d ism isse d i t w ith
91
th e s ta te m e n t, "H ardly f i r s t - r a t e f i c t i o n , b u t v a lu a b le
as a t r a c t .
Abraham s' s re a s o n s f o r w r i tin g The P a th o f Thunder
le n d w e ig h t to The New Y orker c r i t i c i s m . His p rim ary aim,
w hich he e x p re s s e s in R etu rn to G o li (pp. 1 7 -1 8 ), was to
c o r r e c t th e p i c t u r e o f th e C oloureds in S arah G ertru d e
M i l l i n 's n o v e ls . As a c o r r e c t i v e , The P a th o f Thunder
f a i l s m is e ra b ly . By com parison, A braham s'c ■ ::obiography,
T e ll Freedom (1954), s u rp a s s e s m ost o f h i s f i c t i o n in con
v ey in g th e e x p e rie n c e s o f th e n o n -w h ite s, e s p e c i a l l y th e
C o lo u red s. The a u to b io g ra p h y , l i k e Mine Boy, i s sim ple in
s t y l e . The p ro se o f T e ll Freedom i s a ls o le a n , d i r e c t ,
c o n c is e . Abrahams in c r e a s e s th e d ra m a tic im pact o f th e
t e l l i n g scen es th ro u g h th e use o f se n te n c e s a lm o st t o t a l l y
devoid o f m o d if ie r s . One scene in p a r t i c u l a r g iv e s a b e t t e r
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e s i t u a t i o n o f th e C oloureds th a n a l l o f
The P a th o f T hunder. Because young P e te r does n o t p a s s iv e ly
a c c e p t th e r i d i c u l e o f two European boys, th e b o y s ' f a t h e r
i n s i s t s t h a t P e t e r 's u n c le whip P e te r in h i s p re se n c e and
th e n calm ly w atches w h ile th e u n c le does so (pp. 3 8 -4 0 ).
Scenes l i k e t h i s and o th e r e x c e r p ts from T e ll Freedom a r e
■^February 7, 1948, p. 85.
92
b e in g p u b lis h e d in such r e c e n t a n th o lo g ie s o f A fric a n
l i t e r a t u r e a s Modern A fric a n P ro se (1964), e d i te d by R ichard
R ive, A f r ic a n /E n g lis h L i t e r a t u r e (1965), e d i te d by Anne
T ib b ie , and Through A fric a n Eyes (1966), e d i te d by P aul
Edw ards.
E v id e n tly , c r i t i c s p r e f e r A braham s's a u to b io g ra p h y
to h i s f i c t i o n . Such a p re fe r e n c e r a i s e s a q u e s tio n : why
i s i t t h a t m ost n o n -w h ite S outh A fric a n w r i t e r s , u n t i l
r e c e n t l y and w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f Abrahams, have c o n fin e d
t h e i r l i t e r a r y e f f o r t s to a u to b io g ra p h ic a l works? E z e k ie l
M p h a h le le 's f i r s t m ajor work, Down Second Avenue (1959),
d e s c r ib e s h i s s tr u g g le s in grow ing up in "a b la c k g h e tto "
and in g e t t i n g an e d u c a tio n . In Drawn in C olor (1960),
Noni Jab av u ta k e s th e o p p o rtu n ity o f a v i s i t to h e r s i s t e r
in Uganda to r e l a t e h e r p a s t l i f e in South A fr ic a . A lfre d
H u tc h in s o n 's Road to Ghana (1960) t e l l s a h ig h ly d ram a tic
s to r y o f h i s escap e from South A fr ic a a f t e r th e f i r s t
s e s s io n o f th e tr e a s o n t r i a l d u rin g w hich he was one o f th e
s u s p e c ts . C h o c o lates f o r My W ife (1 9 6 1 ), by Todd
M a ts h ik iz a , i s an a u to b io g r a p h ic a l s k e tc h , in p a r t s w i t t y
and humorous. Bloke M odisane, in th e s to r y o f h i s l i f e ,
Blame Me On H is to ry (1963), b o th moves th e r e a d e r and shocks
him i n to an aw areness o f th e i n t e n s i t y o f h a tr e d engendered
93
by th e r a c i a l s i t u a t i o n in South A f r ic a . H a lf o f Lewis
N k o s i's Home and E x ile (1965) c o n s i s t s o f a u to b io g r a p h ic a l
e s s a y s , much alo n g th e l i n e s o f th o se w r i t t e n by James
B aldw in. The n o n -w h ite w r i t e r ’s p r e fe re n c e f o r a u to b io
g r a p h ic a l w r i tin g has been so c o n s i s t e n t t h a t i t moved
Nadine Gordimer to e x p re ss h e r r e g r e t s :
U n fo rtu n a te ly , A fric a n s who a r e b e g in n in g to w r i te now
seem to p u t m a te r ia l t h a t we m ight hope to see u se d in
n o v e ls , in to a u to b io g ra p h ie s . (p. 19)
Where th e n o n -w h ites have v e n tu re d i n t o f i c t i o n , th e y
have l a r g e l y c o n fin e d them selv es to s h o r t s t o r i e s . F or th e
n o n -w h ite South A fric a n a u th o r, M phahlele c la im s , th e s h o r t
s to r y i s "a s h o r t c u t to p ro se m eaning" (p. 1 8 6 ). I t i s
n o t e a sy , he b e l ie v e s , f o r th e n o n -w h ite w r i t e r " to o rg a n iz e
h im s e lf f o r a n o v e l" (p. 3 7 ). Lewis N k o s i's re sp o n se to
M p h a h le le 's c o n te n tio n s i s b lu n t. " P a r t o f th e r e a s o n ,"
20
N kosi f e e l s , " i s sh e e r s l o t h . " The argum ents o f b o th
M phahlele and N kosi la c k su b sta n c e when compared to th e f a c t
t h a t n e i t h e r la c k o f tim e n or s l o t h p re v e n te d th e w r i tin g
o f h ig h ly commendable l i f e s t o r i e s .
There a re many re a s o n s why n o n -w h ite s choose to w r i te
^ " S o u t h A fr ic a : L i t e r a t u r e o f P r o t e s t , " in A Hand
book o f A fric a n A f f a i r s , ed. H elen K itc h en (New York,
1964), p . 283.
a u to b io g ra p h ie s in s te a d o f f i c t i o n . They w ant to em phasize
a u t h e n t i c i t y and a t th e same tim e e x p re s s t h e i r p o in ts o f
view . The E uropeans have a l l to o o f te n d e n ig ra te d th e non
w h ite s w ith a l l k in d s o f s to c k p h ra s e s . The non-European
grows up w ith a c c u s a tio n s h u rle d a t him, a l l o f w hich a re
c a lc u l a te d to make him f e e l i n f e r i o r . To c o u n te r such
e p i t h e t s , to s t a r t o u t w ith f i c t i o n would be f u t i l e , f o r
f e a r t h a t th e f i c t i o n would be d ism isse d as an u n tr u th , as
b e in g u n a u th e n tic . The degree o f a u t h e n t i c i t y depends on
how much th e w r i t e r draws on f i r s t - h a n d e x p e rie n c e and such
e x p e rie n c e can b e s t be conveyed in a u to b io g ra p h ie s . There
a re tim es when th e r e i s no need to f i c t i o n a l i z e . In a d d i
ti o n , th e n o n -w h ite w r i t e r , in a c lim a te l i k e South
A f r i c a 's , f e e l s a need to g iv e h i s own p o in t o f view b e
cause th e b la c k m an 's v ie w p o in t had h i t h e r t o n o t been h e a rd .
I f th e w r i t e r e x p re s s e s such a v ie w p o in t th ro u g h th e medium
o f f i c t i o n , th e r e i s th e danger t h a t i t would sound l i k e
propaganda o r p o le m ic s. T his i s w hat i s wrong w ith A bra
h am s's Song o f th e C ity and The P a th o f T hunder. Abrahams
a ls o goes to th e o th e r extrem e in h i s a tte m p ts to g e t away
from a u to b io g ra p h y , in h is a tte m p ts to f i c t i o n a l i z e :
h is s t o r i e s a re so f a r removed from r e a l i t y t h a t th e y end
up a s melodram a. T his i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a l l o f
95
A braham s's n o v e ls , e x c e p t Mine Boy. His l a t e s t n o v el s e t
in South A f r ic a , A N ight o f T h e ir Own (1 9 6 5 )- - s i m i l a r to
The P a th o f Thunder in e x e c u t i o n - - t e l l s th e s to r y o f a
b la c k P im pernel and u s e s th e s to r y a s a v e h ic le to convey
some w o rth w h ile id e a s on th e need f o r r e b e l l i n g a g a in s t
a p a r th e id . A nother re a s o n why n o n -w h ite a u th o rs w r ite
a u to b io g ra p h ie s , a s Gordim er p o in ts o u t, i s " th e te m p ta tio n
to s a t i s f y . . . [th e ] c u r i o s i t y " o f South A fr ic a and o th e r
n a tio n s who a r e i n t e r e s t e d in South A f r ic a (p. 19).
T his p a n d e rin g to c u r i o s i t y i s e s p e c i a l l y tr u e o f much
o f th e f i c t i o n w r i t t e n by South A fr ic a n s . P a r t o f th e
re a so n i s th e demand o f th e p u b lic , b u t a s i g n i f i c a n t
re a so n i s th e a t t i t u d e o f a lm o st a l l re v ie w e rs and some
l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s . As l a t e a s 1964, when th e tr e n d in
l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m had gone beyond t h a t o f t r e a t i n g n o v e ls
in term s o f s o c io lo g y , W a lte r A lle n , a B r i t i s h a u t h o r i t y
on th e n o v e l, was s t i l l em phasizing th e outmoded approach.
In re sp o n se to a q u e s tio n a s to w hat he looked f o r in an
A fric a n n o v e l, A lle n answ ered:
I th in k t h a t th e f i r s t th in g one lo o k s f o r in a n o v e l,
no m a tte r w hat k in d o f n o v e l i t i s , i s som ething you
can a lm o st c a l l th e j o u r n a l i s t i c s id e o f i t . . .
news v a lu e in th e se n se o f in fo rm a tio n a b o u t p e o p le ,
ways o f l i f e , custom s, h a b i t s and so on, b e lo n g in g to
peo p le we may n o t be v e ry f a m i l i a r w ith .
96
I t was p o in te d o u t to him t h a t th e c r i t i c "m ight be d iv e r te d
from th e l i t e r a r y q u a l i t y o f th e n o v e l," so he added:
Yes, t h a t ' s a r e a l danger and i t ’s in e s c a p a b le a t f i r s t .
And p erh ap s one s h o u ld n 't even t r y to escap e i t - - b e c a u s e
th e in fo rm a tio n one can g e t from a n o v el a b o u t A fr ic a
w r i t t e n by an A fric a n , even i f i t ' s n o t a good n o v e l,
may be v e ry v a lu a b le .
W ith th e c r i t i c and th e re v ie w e r paying more a t t e n t i o n to
w hat th e w r i t e r sa y s, r a t h e r th a n to th e l i t e r a r y m e r its
o f th e work, i t i s th e w r i t e r who s u f f e r s . There i s no need
f o r him to improve th e q u a l i t y o f h i s w r i tin g i f he con
tin u e s to be a c c la im e d . A ll o f A braham s's n o v e ls , in c lu d in g
Mine Boy, have been ju d g ed on th e b a s is o f t h e i r c o n te n t;
c o n s e q u e n tly , th e p r a i s e has been h ig h .
I t i s n e c e s s a ry to keep t h i s in mind when lo o k in g a t
A braham s's f o u r th n o v e l, W ild C onquest (1951). I t d e a ls
w ith th e G re a t T rek o f th e B o e r s - - t h e i r e p ic jo u rn e y , away
from th e sp h e re o f B r i t i s h in f lu e n c e in th e Cape, to
u n e x p lo re d t e r r i t o r y in th e n o r th . In South A f r ic a , a
r e l i g i o u s a u ra h as becom6 a tta c h e d to th e G re at T rek.
S ince h i s t o r i c a l a c c o u n ts o f th e G re at T rek d id n o t
convey th e drama o f th e jo u rn e y , th e p u b lic tu rn e d to
21
Lewis N kosi, "Some C o n v e rsa tio n s w ith A fric a n
W r i t e r s ," A f r ic a R e p o rt, XI ( J u ly 1964), 8.
n o v e ls to s a t i a t e t h e i r c u r i o s i t y . But m ost o f th e n o v e ls
d id n o t t r e a t th e e v e n t a s more th a n a t a l e o f a d v e n tu re .
The o n ly s a t i s f a c t o r y f i c t i o n a l r e n d i t i o n , S tu a r t C l o e te 's
The T urning Wheels (1 9 3 7 ), was banned b ecau se i t p o rtra y e d
sex betw een Boer and A fric a n , a r e l a t i o n s h i p w hich r e s u l t e d
in th e C o lo u red s, A braham s's p e o p le . Abrahams, in h is
tre a tm e n t o f th e G re a t T rek, i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d in sex o r
lo v e betw een b la c k and w h ite . But t h i s was n o t th e main
re a so n h i s n o v el was welcomed in South A f r ic a . B efore
c o p ie s o f W ild C onquest re a c h e d South A f r ic a , th e y were
p rece d ed by glow ing rev ie w s from England and th e U nited
S ta te s . And, m ost im p o rta n t, f o r th e f i r s t tim e th e G re at
Trek was b e in g seen from th e v ie w p o in t o f th e n o n -w h ite.
I can r e c a l l , v i v i d l y , th e a r r i v a l o f Wild Conquest
in Durban, South A f r ic a . I t was th e custom th e n - - a s i t m ost
l i k e l y s t i l l i s - - f o r th e two le a d in g Durban b o o k s e lle r s on
West S t r e e t to g iv e t h e i r prom inence, in t h e i r windows, to
works by South A fric a n w r i t e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o se p r a is e d
in E ngland. I remember th e n o n -w h ite crowds g a th e rin g
around th e s e windows to m arv el a t th e c o p ie s o f W ild
C o n q u est. P e te r Abrahams was th e f i r s t n o n -w h ite w r i t e r
to be so h o n o red . Edgar B e r n s t e i n 's e v a lu a tio n , made in
h i s 1960 su rv ey o f f i f t y y e a rs o f South A fric a n f i c t i o n ,
98
t y p i f i e s th e re sp o n se o f South A fric a n r e v ie w e rs . Wild
C onquest, B e rn s te in f e e l s ,
i s a f o r c e f u l, w e l l - w r i t t e n and c o n v in c in g stu d y o f th e
G reat T rek . .' . T his i s a b e t t e r book th a n S tu a r t
C l o e te 's Trek n o v e l, T urning W heels. (p. 41)
A lso ty p i c a l i s th e rev ie w o f John Barkham, a form er South
A fric a n , in The New York Times Book R eview . Barkham,
having re a d "many a c c o u n ts o f th e T rek, b o th f a c t u a l and
f i c t i o n a l , " f in d s in W ild C onquest "an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n more
rounded, more j u s t , and immensely more d r a m a t i c ."22 The
New Y orker re v ie w e r b e l ie v e s th e c h a r a c te r s a r e u n s a t i s
f a c to r y , as i f th e y were " fro z e n in to p la c e , l i k e p eo p le
in a h i s t o r i c a l p a g e a n t . "23 on th e o th e r hand, C.N. Govan,
in th e S atu rd ay Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , p r a i s e s th e c h a r a c te r
i z a t i o n and c r i t i c i z e s th e d ia lo g u e , b u t c a l l s W ild Con
q u e s t "a n o v el o f l a s t i n g q u a l i t y . "24
Wild C o n q u est, Gordim er p o in ts o u t, " a tte m p ts to
r e c o n s tr u c t th e b e g in n in g o f th e g r e a t m oral dilemma o f
b la c k and w h ite " (p. 1 8 ). T h e re fo re , A braham s's c h o ic e o f
22A pril 30, 1950, p. 4.
23May 27, 1950, p. 109.
2 4 j Un e 17, 1950, p. 21.
99
th e G reat~ T rek o f th e B oers and t h e i r w ar w ith th e M atebele
i s a w ise one. The G re a t Trek i s th e f o c a l p o in t in w hich
a l l th e c a u se s o f r a c i a lis m c u lm in a ted and from w hich a l l
su b seq u en t e v e n ts in South A fr ic a ev o lv ed . The B o e rs 1
jo u rn e y n o r th , Abrahams d e m o n stra te s in W ild C o n q u est,
i n t e n s i f i e d th e e x i s t i n g h a tr e d among them, a h a tr e d
em phasized in th e opening c h a p te r o f th e n o v e l. The
jo u rn e y was, f o r th e B oer, a p o in t o f no r e t u r n . The
p rim ary cau se o f th e G re at T r e k - - th a t i s , th e a b h o rre n c e
o f th e E n g lis h and t h e i r way o f l i f e , and th e d e n ig r a tio n
o f th e b la c k man, w hich became a m ania d u rin g th e T re k --
s t i l l p e r s i s t in South A f r ic a . In one r e s p e c t , t h e r e f o r e ,
W ild C onquest i s a m etaphor o f th e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n in
South A f r ic a . A frik a n e r n a tio n a lis m today i s t h a t d e fe n
s iv e c i r c l e o f wagons, th e la a g e r , w hich e x c lu d e s anyone o r
a n y th in g opposed to r a c i a lis m . Hence, th e p r a i s e o f th e
re v ie w e rs , a p r a i s e b ased alm o st e n t i r e l y on th e c o n te n t o f
th e n o v e l, i s v a l i d to a c e r t a i n e x te n t. Beyond b e in g a
m etaphor, how ever, W ild C onquest h as v e ry l i t t l e o th e r
l i t e r a r y m e r it.
In o rd e r to p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t v ie w p o in ts , Abrahams
d iv id e s th e n o v el in to th r e e s e c tio n s . S e c tio n One d e a ls
w ith th e B oers and th e f i r s t o f th e t r e k s n o r th . The second
100
s e c tio n , th e lo n g e s t and m ost complex, fo c u se s on th e M ate-
b e l e , who a r e em b ro iled in t h e i r own t r i b a l c o n f l i c t s and
who a r e a l s o v ag u e ly aware o f th e ap p ro ach o f th e B oers.
The l a s t s e c tio n c o v e rs th e c l a s h betw een th e A frik a n e rs
and th e M a teb e le. The d i v i s i o n o f th e n o v el i s e f f e c t i v e ,
b u t each s e c tio n h as w eaknesses com parable to th o se o f
A braham s's o th e r n o v e ls .
S e c tio n One, a t tim e s, s t r i d e s th e th i n l i n e betw een
p o p u la r h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n and l i t e r a t u r e . In some o f th e
d e s c r i p t i o n s and e p is o d e s o f th e jo u rn e y a c ro s s th e v e ld ,
th e h o s t i l e s e t t i n g becomes a s i g n i f i c a n t segment o f th e
p l o t . Only d u rin g a lo n e ly and b i t t e r jo u rn e y such as th e
t r e k co u ld h a tr e d in a p eo p le be i n t e n s i f i e d a s much a s i t
was among th e B o ers. K asper Ja n se n , th e le a d in g c h a r a c te r
in th e f i r s t s e c tio n , becomes h a te p e r s o n if ie d . In th e
r e l a t i o n s betw een th e b la c k s and th e w h ite s , h a te b e g e ts
h a te , and in c r e a s e s , a s i t w ere, g e o m e tr ic a lly . But
Abrahams o verdoes i t . He makes i t a l l too c l e a r w hat h i s
theme i s . H is theme, in G o rd im er's w ords, i s " t h a t you
c a n n o t have th e B ib le in one hand and th e r i f l e in th e
o th e r " (p . 1 8 ).
The im m ediate v ic tim s ' o f t h i s "im moral m o r a lity "
(G ordim er, p. 1 8 ), th e M ateb ele, a r e th e s u b je c t o f th e
101
second s e c tio n o f th e n o v e l, "B ay ete" (a t r a d i t i o n a l Zulu
g r e e t in g to a m ajo r c h i e f ) . The s e c tio n c o v e rs t h e i r l i v e s ,
b e g in n in g w ith in te r n e c in e i n t e r - t r i b a l w a r fa re , im p o rta n t
in i t s e l f , b u t m ost c r u c i a l in th e outcome o f t h e i r
e n c o u n te r w ith th e B oers. The e v e n ts in c r e a s e in complex
i t y , in v o lv in g f a c t io n s w ith in th e M atebele t r i b e tr y in g
to w re s t power from t h e i r c h i e f , tr e a c h e r y , th e d is a p p e a r
ance o f th e c h i e f ’s f a v o r i t e w ife , a c o n f l i c t o f ideas and
id e a ls and betw een th e o ld and th e young, and a f i n a l
aw areness o f th e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f fa c in g th e w h ite s who
f i n a l l y a r r i v e . A braham s’s p o r t r a y a l o f th e A fric a n s
d e f ie s a l l p o p u la r n o tio n s . As M phahlele o b se rv e s:
M z ilik a z e and h i s p eo p le a r e n o t th e u n f e e lin g savages
who r e v e l in b e e r , war and women, such as we a re used
to re a d in g a b o u t. (p. 178)
In o rd e r to a c h ie v e such a c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n , however,
Abrahams u s e s a c o n triv a n c e a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e s e c
ti o n and th e n r e s o r t s to an ach ro n ism s. The c o n triv a n c e
i s a t h e a t r i c a l in tr o d u c t io n o f M z ilik a z e , c h i e f o f th e
M a teb e le. The s e t t i n g a p p e a rs to be o u t o f a Hollywood
m ovie: a s e r i e s o f w a r r io r s gu ard s th e c a p i t a l c i t y ,
b u rn in g to r c h e s l i g h t th e e n tra n c e to th e h u ts , and th e
b ig g e s t h u t i s th e th ro n e room, b r i g h t l y l i t and f i l l e d
w ith anim al s k in s . Abrahams a ls o makes h i s two le a d in g
c h a r a c te r s , M z ilik a z e and h i s w itc h - d o c to r Mkomozi, a p p e a r
too modern. M z ilik a z e speaks l i k e a d em o cratic le a d e r
when he inform s h is p e o p le , ’’W ithout you, I ca n n o t be
k i n g . ”25 And Mkomozi u se s w hat M phahlele c a l l s a ’’psycho
a n a l y s t 's e x p la n a tio n ” (p. 179), in o rd e r to b re a k th e
s p e l l o f a r i v a l w itc h - d o c to r .
E xcept f o r ”an u n lik e ly b u t n e a t s c e n e ” (G ordim er,
p. 1 8 ), th e t h i r d s e c tio n i s s u p e rf lu o u s , sim ply b ecau se
th e Boer d e f e a t o f th e M atebele was i n e v i t a b l e and c l e a r l y
foreshadow ed in th e p re v io u s two s e c tio n s . The scene
Gordimer s in g le s o u t as th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t in th e n o v e l:
a M atebele and a Boer l i e dying b e s id e each o th e r ; a l l
th e y w anted, th e y inform each o th e r , i s to t i l l th e ground
th ey were b o th f o r peace and th e y b o th r e g r e t th e h a te
among t h e i r p eo p le (p. 379). E q u a lly s i g n i f i c a n t , I
b e lie v e , i s a scene w hich ta k e s p la c e w ith in th e la a g e r
o f th e Boer wagons, w ith th e b a t t l e ab o u t to be waged.
Anna Ja n se n , h aving d i f f i c u l t y in g iv in g b i r t h , r e f u s e s
to l e t h e r husband c o n so le h e r and d ie s c a l l i n g him a
k i l l e r (pp. 369-370). The B oer c h i l d i s born in th e
epitom e o f h a tr e d , w hich has tu rn e d husband a g a in s t w ife
25(London, 1951), p. 220.
103
and w ife a g a in s t husband. The c h i ld , a t th e moment o f
b i r t h , i n h e r i t s th e r a c i a l c o n f l i c t he w i l l be p a s s in g on
to h i s d e sc e n d a n ts.
Scenes l i k e t h i s show up th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e n o v e l.
As th e Times L i t e r a r y Supplem ent re v ie w e r p u t i t , in u n d e r
s ta te m e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e p e r i o d i c a l , W ild C onquest
i s M a l i t t l e la c k in g in s u b t l e t y . " 2^ In one r e s p e c t,
however, A braham s's n o v el i s h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t in t h a t
i t s e t a p re c e d e n t. When i t ap p eared C.P. Snow, in a
rev iew in th e London Sunday Tim es, p r e d ic te d t h a t " i t may
be th e fo re ru n n e r o f an e n t i r e sch o o l o f A fric a n a r t . " ^
S ince th e n , A fric a n f i c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in E a s t and West
A f r ic a , h as c o n c e n tra te d on th e k in d o f change e x p re s se d
in W ild C onquest- - a s one o f th e M atebele w a r r io r s ob
s e rv e s , "But th e o ld days a r e p a s s in g and s tr a n g e new
th in g s a r e coming to p a s s " (p. 169). Davidson N ic o l, a
le a d in g e d u c a t i o n i s t o f S ie r r a Leone, n o te s t h i s predom
in a n t theme in A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e . ^8
26June 1, 1951, p. 337.
^ Q u o te d by Anne T ib b ie , A f r ic a n /E n g lis h L i t e r a t u r e
(New York, 1965), p. 45.
2® Africa; A S u b je c tiv e View (London, 1964), p. 78.
In a d e p a rtu re from h i s p re v io u s work, Abrahams t r e a t s
t h i s id e a o f change from an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t v ie w p o in t,
t h a t o f p o l i t i c s in a newly in d ep en d en t s t a t e in West
A fr ic a , in A W reath f o r Udomo (1956). M ichael Udomo
becomes in v o lv e d in a new A f r i c a n i s t movement w h ile a
s tu d e n t in London and a c h ie v e s p o l i t i c a l prom inence on
r e tu r n in g to h i s n a t iv e c o u n try , a f i c t i t i o u s s t a t e c a l l e d
P a n a f r ic a . When th e c o u n try becomes in d e p en d en t, Udomo, now
i t s prim e m i n i s t e r , comes in c o n f l i c t w ith t r i b a l f o r c e s .
He i s too r e a l i s t i c , how ever, and f o r re a so n s o f p o l i t i c a l
expediency b e tr a y s a f r ie n d to a n e ig h b o rin g s t a t e s t i l l
u n d er B r i t i s h r u l e . The t r i b a l fo rc e s th en a s s a s s i n a t e
him in a r i t u a l dance o f d e a th . A W reath f o r Udomo l i e s
beyond th e purview o f t h i s stu d y and th e r e i s no need to
go in to d e t a i l r e g a rd in g t h i s n o v e l, e x c e p t to say t h a t
a t a tim e o f e u p h o ria in th e r e s t o f A f r i c a - “Ghana was
going to become in d e p en d en t in 1957--Abrahams c o n fro n te d
h i s r e a d e rs w ith an aw areness o f w hat th e change was going
to mean. He made "A fric a n r e a d e rs th in k a b o u t w hat fo rc e s
in t h e i r la n d a r e em b ro iled in p o l i t i c s , econom ics, and
in p ro g re s s " (T ib b ie , p. 4 6 ).
Because o f h i s c o n t r ib u t io n to th e l i t e r a t u r e o f
A f r ic a , A braham s's p la c e in th e l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y o f th e
105
c o n tin e n t d e s e rv e s r e c o g n i tio n . But th e r e c o g n itio n he has
re c e iv e d needs to be p u t in t o p e r s p e c tiv e . His r e p u ta tio n
i s b e in g e le v a te d a t th e expense o f w h ite w r i t e r s . To m ost
c r i t i c s , b o th in s id e and o u ts id e th e A fric a n c o n tin e n t,
A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e c o n s i s t s o f works w r i t t e n ly b la c k w rite rs .
The o n ly c o n c e ss io n some c r i t i c s make, a s i f to a p p e ar
n o n - r a c i a l i s t , i s to in c lu d e n o n -w h ite w r i t e r s who a r e n o t
e x a c tly b la c k A fr ic a n s . Anne T ib b ie does t h i s in h e r
A fr ic a n /E n g lis h L i t e r a t u r e . The A fric a n W r ite rs S e r ie s
makes a s im i l a r c o n c e ss io n . T h is a p a r th e id in r e v e r s e
p e r s i s t s in p r a c t i c a l l y e v e ry d is c u s s io n o f A fric a n l i t e r
a t u r e . The a t t i t u d e i s c h a r a c te r i z e d by M phahlele, who, in
an in te rv ie w , d e n ied t h a t th e w h ite w r i t e r h as any c o n t r i
b u tio n to make to A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e (N kosi, "Some Con
v e r s a t i o n s , " p. 9 ). As a r e s u l t , A braham s's r e p u ta tio n
has g a in ed s t a t u r e o u t o f a l l p ro p o rtio n to h i s l i t e r a r y
m e r it. S im ila r ly , m ost w h ite South A fric a n c r i t i c s have
had no d i f f i c u l t y in p la c in g Abrahams h ig h in t h e i r e v a l
u a tio n s o f S outh A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lis h . F or them,
he i s n o t a South A fric a n w r i t e r - - t h e d i s t i n c t i o n i s
im p o r ta n t- -b u t a C oloured o r n o n -w h ite w r i t e r . From t h i s
p rem ise, i t was n o t d i f f i c u l t to c o n s id e r Abrahams a s th e
m ost im p o rta n t n o n -w h ite n o v e l i s t (B e r n s te in , p. 41;
106
V igne, p. 8 7 ).
A lan P ato n , r e j e c t i n g th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e
a c c o rd in g to th e a u t h o r 's ra c e , rem inded h i s South A fric a n
a u d ie n c e t h a t he d id "n o t re g a rd Mr. Abrahams as a s o l i t a r y ,
b u t r a t h e r a s a fo re ru n n e r" (p. 150). W ith in S outh A f r ic a ,
th e r e f o r e , Abrahams has th e d i s t i n c t i o n o f b r id g in g th e gap
betw een W illiam Plom er and A lan P ato n . From' a l i t e r a r y
v ie w p o in t, A braham s's r e p u ta tio n r e s t s l a r g e l y on h i s a u to
b io g ra p h y , T e ll Freedom , and, to a l e s s e r e x t e n t, Mine Boy.
A v a l i d and c o n c lu s iv e e v a lu a tio n o f A braham s's works i s
th e one made by an anonymous w r i t e r in th e Time s L i t e r a r y
S upplem ent. S urveying E n g lis h as th e l i t e r a r y lan g u ag e o f
South A f r ic a , th e w r i t e r b e lie v e s t h a t A braham s's n o v e ls
"belong in th e m e rely com petent c a t e g o r y ," and t h a t T e ll
Freedom " s h a re s th e d i s t i n c t i v e q u a l i t y o f o th e r good
29
w r i t i n g from th e same c o u n try .
^ " G e t t i n g Through to th e South A f r ic a n ," Times
L i t e r a r y S upplem ent, A ugust 10, 1962, p. 572.
CHAPTER IV
ALAN PATON (1903- )
A ccording to South A fric a n c r i t i c s , A lan P a to n 's
f i r s t n o v el m arks th e a n t h e s is o f p o stw ar South A fric a n
f i c t i o n in E n g lis h . Vigne b e lie v e s i t to be th e b e g in n in g
o f a l i t e r a r y r e n a is s a n c e in South A f r ic a (p. 9 5 ). H.K.
G ir lin g se e s i t a s a work w hich le d " w r ite r s in E n g lis h
. . . to m a t u r i t y . " ! P a to n 's n e x t n o v el i s u n p re c e d e n te d :
i t r e f l e c t s th e in c r e a s in g im portance o f th e A frik a n e r in
South A fric a n s o c ie ty . F o llo w in g th e p u b lic a t io n o f
th e s e two n o v e ls , P ato n became em b ro iled in p o l i t i c s .
A p art from a p o l i t i c a l b io g ra p h y , h i s o n ly work s in c e i s
a c o l l e c t i o n o f s h o r t s t o r i e s w r i t t e n o v er a tw e lv e -y e a r
p e r io d .
In th e f i r s t n o v e l, Cry, th e Beloved C ountry (1948),
P ato n , l i k e Abrahams, w r i t e s a b o u t th e "U la Masondo" theme
■^"Provincial and C o n tin e n ta l: W r ite rs in South A fric a,"
E n g lis h S tu d ie s in A f r i c a , I I I (Septem ber 1960), 118.
107
108
o f th e A f r i c a n 's c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith th e w h ite m an 's c i t y .
There a re i n c i d e n t a l echoes o f Mine Boy in P a to n 's n o v e l.
P ato n , however, u se s th e f a c t t h a t th e m ines r e l y h e a v ily
on cheap l a b o r - - o r , a s he p u ts i t , th e y "depend f o r t h e i r
su c cess on a p o lic y o f k e e p in g la b o r p o o r " 2 - - to convey an
iro n y . One o f th e European c h a r a c te r s d efen d s th e system
under w hich th e m ines o p e r a te and c o n c lu d e s, " I t e l l you
th e re w o u ld n 't be any S outh A fr ic a a t a l l i f i t w e r e n 't f o r
th e m ines" (p. 149). What he i s sa y in g in s u b s ta n c e , and
th e r e in l i e s th e iro n y , i s t h a t th e r e would be no South
A fr ic a were i t n o t f o r cheap la b o r.
In Cry, th e Beloved C o u n try , how ever, P aton t r e a t s th e
"Ula Masondo" theme in term s o f th e f a t h e r in se a rc h o f h i s
son: th e Reverend Kumalo, i n v i t e d . t o Jo h an n esb u rg to
re sc u e h i s s i s t e r from a l i f e o f s in , ta k e s ad v an tag e o f
th e o p p o rtu n ity to s e a rc h f o r h i s son, who i s a l s o in
Jo hannesburg. What th e R everend Kumalo f in d s in th e b ig
c i t y i s tra g e d y . His son i s found g u i l t y o f m urder and
se n ten c ed to hang.
Not s in c e T u rb o tt Wolfe has th e r e been a s much p r a is e
f o r a South A fric a n n o v el a s f o r Cry, th e B eloved C o u n try .
^(New York, 1948), p. 143.
109
C h a rle s J . Rolo, rev ie w in g th e n o v el in A t l a n t i c , commended
P aton f o r p r o je c tin g "w ith e x tr a o r d in a r y poignancy th e
tra g e d y o f South A fric a n b la c k s " and f o r p ro v id in g , in
Kumalo, "a co n v in cin g p o r t r a i t o f a s a i n t l y m an." R ich ard
S u l l i v a n 's rev iew in The New York Times Book Review i s
f i l l e d w ith s u p e r la tiv e s :
T his i s a b e a u t i f u l n o v e l, a r i c h , firm and moving
p ie c e o f p ro se . . . to re a d th e book i s to sh a re
i n tim a te ly , even to th e p o in t o f c a t h a r s i s , in th e
g rav e human e x p e rie n c e t r e a t e d . . . an u r g e n t, p o e tic
and profound s p i r i t u a l drama, profound in i t s
im p lic a tio n s .4
The T im es L i t e r a r y S u p p lem en t r e v ie w i s a l s o f i l l e d w i t h
p r a i s e :
[K um alo's] t r a g i c se a rc h i s lin k e d w ith a s e rio u s
and moving a n a ly s is o f South A f r i c a 's m ost d is t u r b in g
r a c i a l problem : th e v o id in th e home l i f e o f th e
A fric a n n a tiv e . . . [ P a to n 's ] e v id e n t and s in c e r e
f e e l in g f o r r a c i a l and s o c ia l is s u e s h as n o t been
allo w ed to cramp h is c r e a t i v e im a g in a tio n .5
N egative c r i t i c i s m was r a r e , b u t w o rth n o tin g i s W alter
A l l e n 's :
In c e r t a i n r e s p e c ts th e n o v el i s a m a te u ris h ; I was
q u ite unconvinced by th e good t h a t comes o u t of
th e p a r t i c u l a r e v i l Mr. P aton d e s c r ib e s .
3CLXXXI (A p ril 1948), 112.
^F eb ru ary 1, 1968, p. 6.
^O ctober 23, 1948, p. 593.
% he New S tatesm an and N a tio n , Nov. 20, 1948, p. 446.
110
P a to n 's n o v el soon proved to be unique in South
A fric a n f i c t i o n : i t a c h ie v e d th e d i s t i n c t i o n o f b ein g
w id e ly ac cla im e d b o th in s id e South A fr ic a and o u ts id e . In
South A f r ic a , i t was t r a n s l a t e d in to A frik a a n s and Zulu.
I t was s e r i a l i z e d in Drum, a p o p u la r Johannesburg m agazine
f o r n o n -w h ite s. In 1956, a t a c o n fe re n c e o f w r i t e r s ,
p u b lis h e r s , e d i t o r s , and u n i v e r s i t y te a c h e rs o f E n g lis h a t
th e U n iv e r s ity o f W itw a te rsra n d , th e consensus o f o p in io n
was, in W illiam P lo m e r's w ords, t h a t P a to n 's n o v el was "by
any s ta n d a rd s o f l i t e r a r y judgm ent th e o u ts ta n d in g South
A fric a n n o v el o f th e d e c a d e . "7 Plom er gave h i s own re a s o n s
f o r h i s judgm ent:
At a moment in th e e v o lu tio n o f South A f r ic a when a
k in d o f inw ard c r i s i s seemed to have o c c u rre d in th e
South A fric a n c o n s c io u s n e s s , o r c o n s c ie n c e , t h a t book
ca u g h t and c r y s t a l l i z e d i t s s ig n i f ic a n c e . (p. 57)
O u tsid e South A f r ic a , th e n o v el was t r a n s l a t e d in to ab o u t
tw enty la n g u a g e s, in c lu d in g Ja p a n e se , P e r s ia n , Hebrew,
Greek and th e S can d in av ia n la n g u a g e s. In 1949, i t re c e iv e d
th e A n is fie ld -W o lf Award in th e U n ited S ta te s and th e
London Times S p e c ia l Book Award in E ngland.
C ry, t h e B e lo v e d C o u n try a l s o h a s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f
7"South A fric a n W r ite rs and E n g lis h R e a d e rs ," in
P a r t r i d g e , p. 57.
Ill
b e in g th e o nly South A fric a n n o v el used in h ig h sc h o o ls
and c o lle g e s in th e U n ited S t a t e s . C o lleg e E n g lis h
p u b lis h e d s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s on Cry, th e B eloved C o u n try .
H arold R. C o llin s , d is c u s s in g th e n o v el a s r e f l e c t i n g th e
e f f e c t s o f th e broken t r i b e in A f r ic a , sums up:
Cry, th e Beloved C ountry does w hat no d is c u r s iv e work
in p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e , s o c io lo g y , econom ics, o r a n th r o
pology co u ld e v e r do; i t makes us u n d e rsta n d "how i t
f e e l s " to be a South A fric a n to d a y ; i t g iv e s us th e
"form and p r e s s u r e " o f l i f e in South A f r i c a . 8
In a n o th e r C o lleg e E n g lis h a r t i c l e , S h erid an Baker ap
p ro ach es P a to n 's n o v el in a way s im i l a r to C a rlo s B a k e r's
approach to Hemingway' s A F a re w e ll to Arms, in term s o f
Q
"m oral g e o g ra p h y ." He se e s th e n o v e l 's th r e e s e t t i n g s - -
th e v a l le y o f N d o tsh en i, th e c i t y o f Jo h an n esb u rg , and
th e m ountain o v e rlo o k in g th e v a l l e y - - a s B i b l i c a l sym bols,
r e s p e c tiv e ly , o f th e v a l l e y o f th e shadow o f d e a th , "a
f l a t tu rb u le n c e o f good and e v i l " (p. 5 8 ), and th e p e a l o f
O m niscience. But h i s e la b o r a te e v o c a tio n o f B i b l i c a l
p a r a l l e l s tu r n s o u t to be b o th sp u rio u s and sp e c io u s, o r,
a s H arry A. G a ile y p u t i t in h i s r e b u t t a l to B a k e r's
^ "Cry, th e Beloved C ountry and th e Broken T r i b e ,"
C o lleg e E n g lis h , XIV (A p ril 1953), 385.
9 " P a to n 's Beloved C ountry and th e M o ra lity o f
G eography." C o lleg e E n g lis h , XIX (November 1957), 56-61.
112
d i s q u i s i t i o n , "a s h o r t a r t i c l e w ith so much prom ise [b u t]
compounded o f so much unproven s p e c u l a t i o n ."10
R e c e n tly , how ever, c r i t i c s have view ed th e n o v e l, as
B e rn s te in p o in ts o u t, "more o b je c ti v e ly th a n when i t f i r s t
ap p e ared " (p. 4 0 ). B e r n s t e i n 's own e v a lu a tio n s u c c in c tly
s e p a r a te s th e n o v e l 's m e r it from i t s c h i e f w eakness:
I t s d e s c r i p t i v e p ro se has l y r i c a l b e a u ty , i t s d ia lo g u e
has em o tio n a l im pact, and th e w r i tin g i s s te e p e d in
com passion. But i t has i t s d e f e c ts a s l i t e r a t u r e :
th e r e i s a s e n t i m e n t a l i t y a b o u t th e s to r y and th e
c h a r a c t e r s ; th e mood i s too o b v io u sly aimed a t th e
h e a r t s t r i n g s . (p. 40)
There i s a g r e a t d e a l to be s a id f o r B e r n s t e i n 's second
th o u g h ts . The n o v el i s c e r t a i n l y charm ing a s long a s i t
s u s t a in s i t s em o tio n a l a p p e a l, b u t a su b se q u en t re a d in g ,
e s p e c i a l l y now t h a t i t h as l o s t i t s n o v e lty , r e s u l t s in a
s e r i e s o f m is g iv in g s .
In one r e s p e c t , th e n o v el h as d a te d . As P a r t I I I
d e m o n stra te s, Cry th e Beloved C ountry i s d i d a c t i c in i n t e n t
and p o in ts tow ards b e t t e r r e l a t i o n s betw een w h ite and
b la c k . The n o v e l e x p re s s e s a m uch-needed hope in South
A f r ic a , a s much needed a t th e tim e i t was w r i t t e n a s i t i s
now. However, th e hope e x p re sse d by P ato n in th e n o v el
10 "S h erid an B a k e r's 'P a to n 's Beloved C o u n t r y ',"
C o lleg e E n g lis h , XX (December 1958), 144.
began to be d i s s i p a t e d th e v e ry y e a r i t was p u b lis h e d . In
t h a t y e a r, th e A frik a n e r N a t i o n a l i s t P a r ty g a in ed p o l i t i c a l
c o n tr o l o f South A fric a and s t a r t e d d e s tro y in g a l l th e
a tte m p ts tow ards a m u l t i - r a c i a l s o c ie ty . The s i t u a t i o n in
so u th e rn A f r ic a has w orsened s in c e th e n . I r o n i c a l l y , th e
same y e a r, Jan Hofmeyr, th e s u b je c t o f P a to n 1s b io g ra p h y ,
Hofmeyr (1 9 6 4 ), d ie d . A dep u ty prim e m in i s te r in th e
Smuts governm ent and a c lo s e f r i e n d o f P ato n , Hofmeyr
sym bolized th e k in d o f hope e x p re s s e d in Cry, th e B eloved
C o u n try . The hope d ie d w ith Hofmeyr. In a d d itio n , th e
m in i s te r s o f th e ch urch o f th e s o r t p o rtra y e d in P a to n 's
n o v el have become r a r e in th e b e lo v e d c o u n try . Those who
came from o u ts id e th e c o u n try , th e R everend M ichael S c o tt,
F a th e r T rev o r H uddleston, Bishop R eeves, and Dr. J o o s t de
B lank, f o r exam ple, were d e p o rte d by th e N a t i o n a l i s t
governm ent.
To p e rso n s who have a f i r s t - h a n d knowledge o f th e l i f e
o f th e n o n -w h ite in South A f r ic a , th e w eakest p o r tio n s o f
Cry,, th e Beloved C ountry a r e th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s . Mphah-
l e l e r e j e c t s P a to n 's c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s o f th e A fric a n s
becau se th e y a r e a l l f l a t and made s u b s e rv ie n t to " th e
a u t h o r 's monumental sermon" (p. 1 3 1 ). In one r e s p e c t,
however, M phahlele i s in a c c u r a te . He d is c u s s e s th e n o v el
114
under th e l a b e l , "Man w ith a H a lo ." The n o v el i s n o t ab o u t
a man w ith a h a lo , b u t ab o u t men w ith h a lo s . P r a c t i c a l l y
ev e ry c h a r a c te r i s e n t i t l e d to one: Msimangu, th e p r i e s t
who w r i te s to Kumalo ab o u t h is s i s t e r and who a s s i s t s him
a t ev ery s te p in Jo h an n esb u rg , th e Europeans in th e f a c
t o r i e s where Absalom worked, th e w h ite man who goes o u t o f
h is way to g iv e Kumalo and Msimangu a r i d e to A lexander
Township b ecau se o f th e bus b o y c o tt, th e A frik a n e r head o f
th e re fo rm a to ry , th e law yer C arm ichael who d efen d s Absalom
f o r no paym ent, and b o th James J a r v i s and h i s son. A rth u r
J a r v i s , th e m urdered man, i s p r a c t i c a l l y a s a i n t , and h is
f a t h e r t r i e s to outdo him to th e e x t e n t t h a t th e Reverend
Kumalo c a l l s him a man on whom "God p u t His hands" (p. 268).
In th e e n t i r e n o v e l, th e r e i s h a r d ly an in c id e n t showing
what i s now known as " p e tty a p a r t h e i d ." Where a re th e
i n s u l t s , th e a b u se s, th e p e j o r a t i v e e p i t h e t s , th e s la p s , th e
h a rs h w ords, th e j i b e s , and th e c a llo u s tre a tm e n t w hich a re
p a r t of th e everyday l i f e o f th e n o n -w h ite s in th e c i t i e s ?
They a re a b s e n t and, hence, th e n o v el i s a d i s t o r t i o n . I t
g iv e s th e im p re ssio n t h a t th e A fric a n i s a f f o rd e d a h e lp in g
hand a t e v e ry tu rn in th e c i t y , w hereas th e r e v e r s e i s
t r u e .
And where a r e th e v i l l a i n s o f t h i s t r a g i c , r a c i a l i s t
115
s o c ie ty o f a b elo v ed co u n try ? They a r e in th e n o v e l, b u t
la r g e l y in th e a b s t r a c t . T h e ir i n i q u i t i e s a r e m erely r e
f e r r e d to on th e p o l i t i c a l p la tfo rm , in th e mass m eetin g s
th e Europeans c a l l to p r o t e s t a g a in st th e r i s i n g crim e r a t e ,
and in th e a r t i c l e s and speeches o f A rth u r J a r v i s . For
th e A fric a n , p r a c t i c a l l y ev ery w h ite man i s a v i l l a i n
u n t i l proven b e n ig n . (R e c e n tly , as in th e U n ite d S ta te s ,
even t h a t i s n o t enough.) B ut, from re a d in g P a to n 's n o v e l,
one would n e v e r know i t . Among th e non-E uropeans in th e
n o v e l, how ever, v i l l a i n s abound. And th e b ig g e s t v i l l a i n
i s th e p e rso n who d a re s to expose th e e v i l s o f r a c i a lis m .
He i s John Kumalo, th e b r o th e r o f th e R everend Kumalo.
John Kumalo i s a v i l l a i n b ecause he h i r e s a law y er to save
h i s son from c o m p lic ity in th e crim e Absalom i s charged
w ith . But he i s d e p ic te d as a coward, a b le to sway crowds
b u t a f r a i d to go to p r is o n (p. 181). M phahlele d is m is s e s
him as a " p o l i t i c a l c a r i c a t u r e " (p. 132).
The b ig g e s t d isa p p o in tm e n t in th e n o v el i s th e
Reverend S tephen Kumalo. M phahlele i s b lu n t in h is r e
j e c t i o n o f th e -A fric a n p r i e s t :
Kumalo r e p r e s e n ts th e A fric a n s o f th e o ld e r g e n e ra tio n
who behave o r d i n a r i l y in th e p re se n c e o f t h e i r fe llo w
A fric a n s , b u t w ith s e lf - e f f a c e m e n t in th e p re se n c e of
w h ite p e o p le ; th e lo n g - s u f f e r in g type t h a t g e ts a l l th e
k ic k s and w ish e s to g iv e none; th e type t h a t g iv e s a
116
s to c k re sp o n se to v i o l e n t s i t u a t i o n s ; b e a r and s u f f e r .
(p. 131)
Lewis N kosi c a l l s th e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f Kumalo "an
u ltim a te a b s u r d i t y ," ad d in g t h a t Kumalo i s
an embodiment o f a l l th e p i e t i e s , t r e p i d a t i o n s and
h u m i l i t i e s we th e young A fric a n s had begun to
d e s p is e w ith such a consuming p a s s i o n . l l
The R everend Kumalo i s p o rtra y e d w ith c h i ] d - l i k e q u a l i t i e s ,
presum ably to em phasize h i s in n o cen ce. He i s u n a b le to
u n d e rs ta n d a neon sig n a d v e r t i s i n g w hiskey (p. 1 7 ). A
young A fric a n h as to h e lp him a c ro s s th e s t r e e t when he
a r r i v e s in Jo h an n esb u rg (p. 1 8 ). He h as n e v e r seen a
f a u c e t b e f o r e (p. 21): where d id he r e c e iv e h is t r a i n i n g
as a p r i e s t ? A ll th e s e d e t a i l s add up, n o t to in n o cen ce,
b u t to n a i v e te . Kumalo i s n o t tu e B antu o f p o stw ar South
A f r ic a . An A fric a n bumpkin from th e b a c k v e ld m ight behave
a s he does, b u t an e d u c a te d A fric a n p r i e s t ? Even w ith th e
w i l l i n g su sp e n sio n o f d i s b e l i e f , such a p o r t r a y a l i s
d i f f i c u l t to a c c e p t. What i s w orse i s t h a t Kumalo sim ply
does n o t grow. He kowtows to th e w h ite man a t th e end o f
th e n o v e l, a f t e r b i t t e r e x p e rie n c e s , j u s t a s much a s he
d id a t th e b e g in n in g . In f a c t , among th e n o n -w h ite s in
^Home and E x ile (London, 1965), p. 5.
South A fr ic a , Kumalo h as a c h ie v e d th e s t a t u s o f an Uncle
Tom. T his i s e s p e c i a l l y tr u e w ith re g a rd to th e manner
in w hich Kumalo p r a i s e s James J a r v i s f o r h i s k in d n e sse s to
th e A fric a n p e o p le . The p o r t r a y a l o f Kumalo and h i s f lo c k
as sim plem inded m ust have been in a d v e r te n t on P a to n 's
p a rt--k n o w in g P aton b o th th ro u g h h is works and p e r s o n a lly ,
I do n o t b e lie v e he in te n d e d i t to be s o - - b u t in h i s
m e lio rism he does go a lo n g w ith th e a t t i t u d e o f m ost
E uropeans in South A fr ic a in re g a rd in g A fric a n s a s c h i ld r e n .
At th e end o f th e n o v e l, James J a r v i s p ro v id e s Kumalo and
h i s p eo p le w ith m ilk and a te a c h e r , th u s im plying t h a t th e y
a r e s t i l l c h ild r e n and t h a t th e y m ight someday, in some
f u tu r e , grow up and become good c i t i z e n s o f t h e i r b elo v ed
c o u n try .
There i s a n o th e r way o f lo o k in g a t Cry, th e Beloved
C o u n try : i t can be re a d as a p a ra b le o f b la c k -w h ite
r e l a t i o n s in s o u th e rn A f r ic a , a p a r a b le s tre n g th e n e d by a
s e r i e s o f i r o n i e s . The f a t h e r , th e Reverend Kumalo, i s n o t
m erely s e a rc h in g f o r h i s son b u t se ek in g h i s " p r o d ig a l"
son (p . 9 4 ). And th e son, b ecau se o f th e sorrow he b r in g s
to h i s f a t h e r , i s a p p r o p r ia te ly named a f t e r th e B i b l i c a l
Absalom. The im pact o f th e n o v el depends on a cu m u latio n
o f i r o n i e s . P r a c t i c a l l y ev e ry e p iso d e in Books I and I I in
118
Cry, th e B eloved C ountry ends i r o n i c a l l y . Kumalo*s moment
o f e u p h o ria a t th e end o f h i s f i r s t day in Jo hannesburg,
a f t e r he has saved h is s i s t e r , a shebeen queen, from a l i f e
o f p r o s titu t io n - - " O n e day in Johannesburg and a lre a d y th e
t r i b e was b e in g r e b u i l t , th e house and th e so u l r e s to r e d "
(p. 3 2 )- - i s s h a t t e r e d f o r e v e r . His s e a rc h f o r Absalom
r e v e a ls , a t ea ch p a i n f u l tu r n , t h a t h i s son has become
in v o lv e d in crim e : e v id e n tly th e t r i b a l and C h r is t ia n
u p b rin g in g Absolom m ust have had in h i s f a t h e r 's house
d id n o t s u rv iv e in th e w h ite m an's c i t y . "The tra g e d y i s
n o t t h a t th in g s a r e b ro k en . The tra g e d y i s t h a t th e y a re
n o t mended a g a in " (p. 2 5 ). A fte r a s e r i e s o f m inor i r o n
i e s , th e f a t h e r 's f e a r s t h a t h i s son i s in v o lv e d in a m urder
tu r n o u t to be t r u e . The m urdered man i s t h a t r a r e p erso n
in South A f r ic a , humane and l i b e r a l , re c o g n iz in g th e
inhum anity o f w hat i s b e in g done to th e A fric a n , and doing
som ething a b o u t i t . And, to to p i t a l l , th e m urdered man
i s A rth u r J a r v i s , son o f James J a r v i s , Ju m a lo 's n eig h b o r in
N d o tsh en i. As th e e v e n ts in v o lv in g Kumalo and h i s son and
J a r v i s and h i s son in e lu c t a b ly become tra g e d y , th e supreme
iro n y i s one w hich P aton to o k from a c t u a l new spaper a c c o u n ts
announcing th e d is c o v e ry o f a n o th e r m ajo r g o ld d e p o s it in
O d e n d a a ls ru s t:
119
Men a r e p ro p h esy in g t h a t a new Johannesburg w i l l r i s e
th e r e , a g r e a t c i t y o f t a l l b u ild in g s and busy s tr e e ts ..
(p. 164)
P aton e x p re s s e s th e iro n y sim p ly . "No second Johannesburg
i s needed upon th e e a r t h , " he f e e l s . "One i s enough"
(p. 168).
Had th e s to r y ended w ith th e p a s s in g o f th e d e a th
se n te n c e on Absalom, Cry, th e B eloved C ountry would have
become a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e South A fric a n tra g e d y in i t s r e
f l e c t i o n o f i t s tim e s. W ith a s tre n g th e n in g in th e c h a r
a c t e r i z a t i o n , th e R everend Kumalo would have emerged as a
b la c k Z hivago, r e t a i n i n g h i s i n t e g r i t y w h ile th e fo rc e s o f
h i s t o r y , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n e v i t a b l e , overwhelm him. Kumalo
e x p re s s e s h i s Z h iv a g o -lik e s i t u a t i o n m e ta p h o ric a lly when
he r e f e r s to h im s e lf and s a y s, "And o v er him i s g a th e r in g
th e g r e a t e s t storm o f a l l h i s days" (p . 105). The r e l i g i o u s
m oral would s t i l l be dom inant had th e n o v e l ended a s a
tra g e d y . In Book I I , K um alo's f e llo w p a s to r s in Jo h a n n es
burg p o in t o u t to him t h a t "sorrow i s b e t t e r th a n f e a r .
F or f e a r im p o v e r is h e s a lw a y s , w h i l e so r ro w may e n r ic h "
(p. 106). But th e n o v e l i s s u b t i t l e d , "A S to ry o f Com fort
in D e s o la tio n ," and Book I I I i s a b o u t t h a t co m fo rt.
In Book I I I , P aton advances a C h r is t ia n m e lio rism he
b e lie v e s i s th e hope f o r a b e t t e r South A f r ic a . The b e l i e f
120
i s p r e d ic a te d upon fo rg iv e n e s s . A rth u r J a r v i s , f a t h e r o f
th e m urdered man, r e a d i l y f o rg iv e s K um alo--through a c t s o f
c h a r i t y . There i s , in f a c t , a whole stream o f c h a r i t a b l e
a c t s , each more magnanimous th a n th e p re v io u s one, a l l
d esig n ed to a l l e v i a t e th e s u f f e r i n g o f th e A fric a n s in
K um alo's community. In Book I I I , P ato n i s e v id e n tly
ta l k i n g to h i s fe llo w South A f r ic a n s , a s k in g them to go
and do lik e w is e .
What s tr e n g th e n s th e a l le g o r y i s th e p o e tic language
o f Cry, th e B eloved C o u n try . As th e Times L i t e r a r y
Supplem ent re v ie w e r p o in ts o u t:
Mr. P ato n conveys som ething o f th e p o e tic power o f th e
Zulu tongue to im p a rt com prehension and com passion, as
he a llo w s h i s n a t iv e c h a r a c te r s to u n fo ld , u n o b tr u s iv e
ly , th e m ajo r is s u e s u n d e rly in g th e s to r y . (p . 593)
P ato n , in f a c t , d e m o n stra te s a r a r e a b i l i t y in re n d e rin g
in to E n g lis h th e rhythm and h ig h ly m e ta p h o ric c o n te n t o f
Z ulu, th e language o f th e A fric a n c h a r a c te r s in th e n o v e l.
Some o f th e f i g u r a t i v e language i s a l s o used to enhance
th e l y r i c a l , d e s c r i p t i v e p a s s a g e s . In a d d i tio n , th e p ro se
i s sim p le, w ith a cadence and rhythm and s i m p l i c i t y
re m in is c e n t o f th e King James v e r s io n o f th e B ib le .
Cry, th e Beloved C ountry i s v e ry much l i k e A braham s's
Mine Boy in one r e s p e c t: m ost o f th e e p is o d e s a r e t r e a t e d
121
l i k e sc en es from a p la y w ith p r a c t i c a l l y no comment to
mar th e im pact o f th e d ia lo g u e . But th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een
th e two n o v e ls i s c l e a r l y e v id e n t. P a to n 's n o v e l i s
p o e t ic . Where P ato n i s n o t d e a lin g w ith a sc en e, he re n d e rs
a v ie w p o in t, a mood, a f e e l in g , a l l e x p re s s e d l y r i c a l l y .
I f p o e t r y b e t h e medium o f t r a g e d y , a s some s t i l l i n s i s t ,
th e n C ry, th e B e lo v e d C ou n try s e r v e s a s a g o o d m odern
e x a m p le .
The ly r ic is m i s e s p e c i a l l y e v id e n t in th e in tr o d u c to r y
c h a p te r to P a r t I . In t h i s c h a p te r P aton c o n t r a s t s th e
a r e a s where th e Europeans l i v e , "th e r i c h g reen h i l l s "
(p. 3 ), and th e v a l l e y below, where th e A fr ic a n s l i v e .
P ato n u se s th e m etaphor, "re d blood o f th e e a r t h " (p. 4 ),
to d e s c r ib e th e s o i l in th e v a l le y b e in g washed away.
S ince l i f e in th e v a l le y i s h a rsh , each tim e th e s o i l i s
l o s t , i t i s a s i f th e A fric a n s were b e in g d e p riv e d o f
t h e i r l i f e b lo o d . There i s an a d d i tio n a l c o n t r a s t betw een
th e opening c h a p te r o f th e n o v el and th e l a s t . The
Reverend Kumalo, a t th e end o f th e s to r y , goes up to a
m ountain to m e d ita te , on th e day h is son i s sc h e d u le d
to be hanged in Jo hannesburg. Now t h a t K um alo's p eo p le
a re b e in g h e lp e d by J a r v i s , Kum alo's clim b foreshadow s a
change in th e s t a t u s o f th e A fric a n s . They a r e no lo n g e r
122
p eo p le o f an e n e rv a te d v a l l e y s in c e th e y have a lr e a d y ta k en
th e s te p s to improve t h e i r s i t u a t i o n . Kumalo, however,
r e s ig n s h im s e lf to th e f a c t t h a t "he would n o t see t h a t
s a lv a ti o n " (p . 271). P a to n 's c h o ic e o f th e word, " s a lv a
t i o n , " makes i t c l e a r t h a t th e r e sh o u ld be no d em arcatio n
betw een th e s p i r i t u a l and m a te r ia l needs o f a p e o p le . The
two needs c a n n o t be s e p a r a te d .
In th e h i s t o r y o f South A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lis h ,
Cry, th e B eloved C ountry m e r its r e c o g n itio n , n o t o nly a s an
o u ts ta n d in g work o f a r t , b u t a ls o a s a h i s t o r i c a l la n d -
p
mark, one w hich made p eo p le o u ts id e P a to n 's c o u n try aware
o f h is c o u n t r y 's l i t e r a t u r e and which awakened th e con
sc ie n c e o f th e w o rld by r e v e a lin g th e n o n -w h ite s ' t r a g i c
c irc u m sta n c e s in a b elo v e d c o u n try governed by r a c i a lis m .
N e v e rth e le s s , P a to n 's r e p u ta tio n w i l l c o n tin u e to grow,
n o t o n ly b ec au se o f Cry, th e B eloved C o u n try , b u t b ecau se
o f h i s second n o v e l, Too L a te th e P h ala ro p e (1 9 5 3 ), w hich
i s f a r s u p e r io r .
The s e c o n d n o v e l h a s b e e n p r a i s e d a s much a s th e
f i r s t , i f not m ore. Hugh I . F a u s s e t , r e v i e w i n g i t in th e
M a n c h e s te r G u a rd ia n W e ek ly , b e l i e v e s t h a t Too L a te th e
P h a la r o p e
g iv e s an i n t e n s e r and more h idden e x p re s s io n th a n th e
123
e a r l i e r n o v el to th e tra g e d y o f r a c i a l d iv is io n in
South A fr ic a . . . th e s i m p lic ity o f drama w hich
c h a r a c te r iz e d th e f i r s t n o v el i s even more pronounced
in th e c u lm in a tio n o f t h i s o n e . 12
In th e S atu rd ay Review, John Barkham s t a t e s t h a t th e second
n o v el " d is p la y s a d e p th and p e n e tr a tio n th e o th e r book d id
n o t p o s s e s s ."1^ The Times L i t e r a r y Supplem ent rev ie w e r
f e e l s t h a t Too L ate th e P h ala ro p e
co n firm s [ P a to n 's ] power to d e a l c o n v in c in g ly w ith a
t r a g i c theme . . . His i n t e r e s t i s as much in th e
human as in th e s o c i a l tr a g e d y .14
In a le n g th y rev iew w hich a ls o p o in te d o u t th e w eaknesses
o f th e n o v e l, A lfre d K azin s in g l e s o u t th e atm osphere o f
th e n ovel as i t s m ost o u ts ta n d in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , adding
t h a t "P ato n conveys . . . th e s u l t r y , b ro o d in g te n s io n in
South A fr ic a i t s e l f . "15
Y et, more r e c e n t l y , more h as been w r i t t e n ab o u t Cry,
th e Beloved C ountry th a n a b o u t Too L a te th e P h a la ro p e .
C r i t i c s s t i l l have to re c o g n iz e th e l a t t e r f o r th e
m a s te rp ie c e i t i s . Of th e c r i t i c s r e f e r r e d to in t h i s
^ S e p te m b e r 3, 1953, p. 11.
i,
l^A ugust 22, 1953, p. 9.
l^A ugust 28, 1953, p. 545.
15The New York Times Book Review, Aug. 23, 1953, p. 1.
124
s t u d y , o n ly B e r n s t e i n and G ordim er g i v e i t c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
B e r n s t e i n f e e l s t h a t Too L a te t h e P h a la r o p e i s " s t r o n g e r
as a n o v e l, more m a s te r f u l a s a r t " th a n P a to n 's f i r s t
n o v el (p . 4 0 ). Gordim er re c o g n iz e s th e n o v el a s f u l f i l l i n g
" th e c l a s s i c a l c o n d itio n s o f tra g e d y " (p . 1 8 ). There i s ,
how ever, an e x te n s iv e d is c u s s io n o f th e n o v e l- - a d is c u s s io n
w hich r e l a t e s th e n o v el to th e South A fric a n b ac k g ro u n d --
in Edward C a l l a n 's A lan P aton (1968).
D e s p i t e i t s t r a g i c a s p e c t s , Too L a te th e P h a la r o p e h a s
som ething w hich i s r a r e in South A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lis h ,
comic e p is o d e s - - s c e n e s in w hich th e c h a r a c te r s j e s t and
engage in humorous b a n t e r . The scen es in Too L a te th e
P h ila r o p e i n v o l v e J a p i e G r o b le r , " th e b i g g e s t c lo w n o f
a l l , " and Jakob van V laan d eren and Sybrand W essels, "two
16
o ld c lo w n s." There a r e comic e p iso d e s in some South
A fric a n s h o r t s t o r i e s , n o ta b ly in th e s t o r i e s ab o u t
A frik a n e rs by Herman C h a rle s Bosman (1905-1951), who i s
v e ry l i t t l e known o u ts id e South A f r ic a . Bosman's humor
i s C h ap lin esq u e, p a r t c a r i c a t u r e and p a r t com passion.
B ut i n th e n o v e l s , t h e r e i s a d e a r t h o f co m ic e p i s o d e s .
S c h r e in e r in t r o d u c e d lo w com edy in t h e B o n a p a r te e p i s o d e s
^ T o o L ate th e P h a la ro p e (New York, 1953), p. 189.
125
in The S to ry o f an A fric a n Farm . W r ite rs l i k e M il lin ,
Plom er and Abrahams r e l y on w it to p ro v id e r e l i e f . In
f a c t , in T u rb o tt W olfe, w it i s P lo m er' s c h i e f m e r it and
h as y e t to be su rp a ss e d by any o th e r South A fric a n w r i t e r .
P ato n , on th e o th e r hand, in c lu d e s humorous e p iso d e s in h i s
second n o v e l, n o t m erely to p ro v id e comic r e l i e f , b u t to
convey a more a u th e n tic p i c t u r e o f a sm a ll South A fric a n
town, th e lo c a le o f Too L a te th e P h a la ro p e .
Such a lo c a le i s a n o th e r r a r i t y in p o stw ar South
A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lis h . Few w r i t e r s have v e n tu re d
in to th e b a c k v e ld o f th e c o u n try to p r e s e n t l i f e a s s i g
n i f i c a n t a s t h a t in th e c i t i e s . In The P a th o f T hunder,
P e te r Abrahams conveys a p i c t u r e o f n o n -u rb an l i f e . Dan
Jacobson i s th e o nly o th e r m ajor South A fric a n E n g lis h
n o v e l i s t who, in n o v e ls l i k e A Dance in th e Sun (1956),
s e t h i s s t o r i e s away from th e c i t y . Alm ost a l l th e p o s t
war n o v e ls and a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o rtio n o f th e s h o r t s t o r
ie s a r e s e t in Jo hannesburg, th u s l i m i t i n g th e scope o f
South A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lis h . I t i s a s i f New York
w ere th e o nly p la c e in th e U n ited S ta te s w o rth w r i tin g
a b o u t.
In h i s p i c t u r e o f V en te rsp an , a dorp on th e road
betw een Jo hannesburg and N a ta l, P ato n p r e s e n ts th e mundane
126
in South A f r ic a , by answ erin g th e q u e s tio n , "What i s l i f e
r e a l l y l i k e in th o se l i t t l e tow ns, away from th e cosmo
p o l i t a n c i t i e s ? " V en tersp an i s l i k e so many dorps a l l o ver
S outh A fr ic a : o b se sse d w ith s p o r t s , e s p e c i a l l y rugby, aware
t h a t a man i s an A frik a n e r , o r an Englishm an, o r a Jew,
r a t h e r th an a South A fric a n , and f a n a t i c ab o u t th e f o c a l
p o in t o f th e A frik a n e r community, th e ch u rch , w hich an
A fr ik a n e r n e g le c ts a t th e r i s k o f b e in g o s tr a c iz e d . In
Too L a te th e P h a la ro p e , Jakob van V laan d eren , th e le a d in g
A fr ik a n e r o f th e community, p r e f e r s an u i t l a n d e r
( l i t e r a l l y " f o r e i g n e r ," a p e j o r a t i v e la b e l a p p lie d
to E n g lis h -s p e a k in g South A fric a n s ) to an A frik a n e r d o c to r
who does n o t a tte n d chu rch .
In a c i t y , th e im petuous a c t o f P i e t e r van V laan d eren ,
th e le a d in g c h a r a c te r , would be l o s t in th e w e lt e r o f many
s i m i l a r c rim e s. But in V en te rsp an , P i e t e r 's a c t a c h ie v e s
th e p r o p o rtio n o f a c a ta c ly sm . He does som ething "n e v er
fo rg iv e n , n e v e r f o r g o tte n " (p. 1 6 ). And w hat i s P i e t e r 's
crim e o r s in ? He has se x u a l in te r c o u r s e w ith a n o n -w h ite
woman, w hich in South A fr ic a i s " th e g r e a t e s t tr a n s g r e s s io n "
(G ordim er, p. 1 8 ). The tr a n s g r e s s io n ends P i e t e r 's w orld
a n d 'h i s f a m i l y 's . The tra g e d y , how ever, i s n o t P i e t e r 's
o r h i s f a m il y 's a lo n e . By e x te n s io n , i t i s a l s o th e
127
A f r i k a n e r s '. D o ris L e s s in g , in Going Home (1957), ex
p r e s s e s f e e l i n g s a b o u t th e A frik a n e r t h a t a re s im ila r to
th o se o f A lan P ato n , a s r e f l e c t e d in h i s n o v e l. L e ssin g
s t a t e s ,
I th in k i t i s th e A fr ik a n e r who i s th e o r i g i n a l ;
som ething new; som ething w hich ca n n o t be seen in
any o th e r c o n t in e n t . He i s a t r a g i c f i g u r e . 17
At th e same tim e , P a to n 's n o v el i s a m etaphor o f th e South
A fric a n s i t u a t i o n u n d er th e A frik a n e r and th e r e f o r e needs
to be i n t e r p r e t e d in some d e t a i l .
The e n o r m ity o f P i e t e r ' s t r a n s g r e s s i o n i s d e m o n str a te d
a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n o v e l . P i e t e r , who i s a p o lic e m a n ,
re s c u e s a w h ite boy from h av in g se x u a l r e l a t i o n s w ith a
n o n -w h ite g i r l and w arns him n e v e r to th in k o f i t a g a in .
A f te r a l l , u n d er th e Im m o rality A ct, se x u a l r e l a t i o n s , o r
even m a rria g e , betw een w h ite s and n o n -w h ites i s a crim e.
A lso , th e s o c i a l co n seq u en ces, n o t th e l e g a l , a r e so grave
t h a t Sm ith, in a dorp n e a r V en te rsp an , k i l l s h i s b la c k
s e rv a n t g i r l , whom he has made p re g n a n t, r a t h e r th a n r i s k
d is c o v e ry , and S m ith 's w ife a s s i s t s him in th e m urder
(pp. 3 6 -3 9 ).
The f a c t o f p regnancy in S m ith 's ca se i s ex tre m ely
■^(New York, 1968), p. 21.
s i g n i f i c a n t in th e n o v e l. The Im m o rality A ct i s n o t
n e c e s s a r ily aimed a t s a fe g u a rd in g th e w h ite woman: alm o st
a l l se x u a l in te r c o u r s e a c ro s s th e c o lo r l i n e in South
A fr ic a in v o lv e s a w h ite m ale and a n o n -w h ite fem ale. What
th e A frik a n e r f e a r s m ost i s t h a t such i l l i c i t sex would
produce more C o lo u red s. The A fr ik a n e r s , in f a c t , c o n tin u e
to a b so lv e th em selv es o f a l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r having
c r e a te d th e C oloured r a c e . In Too L ate th e P h a la ro p e ,
P aton im p lie s a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e C oloureds and th e
e a r l i e s t A frik a n e r s e t t l e r s in T ra n s v a a l. S te p h a n ie , th e
n o n -w h ite woman P i e t e r h as se x u a l in te r c o u r s e w ith , i s n o t
e x a c tly b la c k : " th e r e w a s ," th e n a r r a t o r p o in ts o u t, "a
good d e a l o f l i g h t n e s s in h e r c o lo r " (p. 9 ). S te p h a n ie 's
r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e o ld woman she l i v e s w ith i s n o t
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y e s t a b l i s h e d . The o ld woman co u ld be h e r
g r e a t- g r e a t- g r a n d m o th e r . N e v e rth e le s s , th ro u g h th e o ld
woman, S te p h a n ie 's w h ite a n c e s tr y i s su g g e ste d . The o ld
woman claim s to have been a c h i l d when th e "w h ite p eo p le
f i r s t came tr e k k in g in to th e g r a s s c o u n try " (p . 9 ). Under
th e s e c irc u m sta n c e s , P i e t e r 's s e x u a l in te r c o u r s e w ith a
woman o f th e C oloured r a c e - - a ra c e th e A frik a n e r w ish es to
d e n y -- in c re a s e s th e e x t e n t o f h i s tr a n s g r e s s io n in th e eyes
o f h i s p e o p le .
I t i s n o t s u r p r i s in g , th e r e f o r e , to f in d P i e t e r b e
lie v i n g t h a t th e law a g a in s t i l l i c i t sex i s M th e g r e a t e s t
and h o l i e s t o f la w s” and t h a t i f he were to b re a k i t and
be d is c o v e re d , " th e whole w orld w i l l be b ro k en " (p. 123).
When he does commit th e p r a c t i c a l l y m o rta l s in , i t i s h i s
mind t h a t i s a lm o st b ro k en . On re a c h in g home t h a t v e ry
ev e n in g , he f in d s a n o te on h i s door, s t a t i n g , " I saw you"
(p. 156). From th e n on he l i v e s in t e r r o r , b e lie v in g t h a t
everyone in V en tersp an knows a b o u t h i s h av in g had se x u a l
r e l a t i o n s w ith a n o n -w h ite woman. There a r e s ig n s w hich
le a d him to b e lie v e so. The boy V o rs te r a t th e p o lic e desk
r e f u s e s to lo o k him in th e eye and s u lk s . Old Herman Geyer
does n o t r e t u r n P i e t e r 's g r e e t in g ; in s te a d , he s p i t s "w ith
an g er and contem pt" (p. 175). In b eh av in g l i k e a p a ra n o id ,
P i e t e r i s b eh av in g l i k e a t y p i c a l South A fric a n . W ithin
South A f r ic a , r a c i a lis m g e n e ra te s a f e a r o f o th e r r a c e s .
C r itic is m o f South A f r ic a , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e U nited
N a tio n s, has a ls o c r e a te d p a ra n o ia among th e South A fric a n s .
T his c r i t i c i s m , w hich in o th e r w e ste rn c o u n tr ie s would be
c o n s id e re d a p a r t o f p u b lic l i f e , i s a m p lif ie d o u t o f a l l
p ro p o rtio n : some South A fric a n s even b e lie v e t h a t th e
U nited N a tio n s, w ith th e b ac k in g o f th e U n ited S t a t e s , i s
g e t t i n g read y to conquer South A f r ic a f o r th e b la c k s .
130
P i e t e r , how ever, e v e n tu a lly le a r n s t h a t h i s f e a r s were
g ro u n d le s s --h e d is c o v e rs t h a t th e boy V o rs te r i s ashamed o f
fa c in g him b ecau se th e boy i s u n ab le to pay a d e b t (p . 181),
t h a t th e n o te i s m erely a j e s t on th e p a r t o f a f r ie n d who
saw P i e t e r t a l k i n g to a n o th e r g i r l w h ile h i s w ife i s away
v i s i t i n g h e r f a t h e r (p. 185), and t h a t Geyer i s contem ptuous
o f a l l policem en b ec au se th e c a p ta in o f th e p o lic e h as
o rd e re d him to b u i l d new s t a b l e s o r g e t r i d o f h i s cows
(p . 188). Even though P i e t e r i s r e lie v e d to le a r n o f
th e s e th in g s , a p e r v e rs e k in d o f g u i l t rem a in s. E a r l i e r in
th e book P i e t e r had la b e le d h i s c o n d itio n , "mad s ic k n e s s "
(p. 5 5 ). A f te r h i s t r a n s g r e s s io n , he a n a ly z e s h i s l u s t f o r
a n o n -w h ite woman and comes to th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t such a
d e s ir e "co u ld s u r e ly n o t be a d e s ir e o f th e f l e s h , b u t
some mad d e s ir e o f a s ic k and tw is te d s o u l" (p . 163).
When he g e ts down on h i s k n ees, he p ra y s , "n o t to be saved
from s in b u t from i t s consequence" (p. 157). The f e e l in g
t h a t rem ain s, t h e r e f o r e , i s sym ptom atic o f an in d iv id u a l
r e b e l l i n g a g a i n s t h i s s o c ie ty and r e a l i z i n g t h a t th e con
sequences would be d i r e . His se x u a l r e l a t i o n s w ith a non
w h ite woman clim ax a s e r i e s o f g e s tu r e s , w hich, though n o t
o v e r tly r e b e l l i o u s , do in d ic a te a d e p a rtu re from a r i g i d
ad h eren ce to A frik a n e r p a ro c h ia lis m . From h i s c h ild h o o d ,
131
he has been f r i e n d l y w ith th e b la c k s and even a s a p o l i c e
man he t r e a t s them w ith hum anity (p . 2 1 ). His c l o s e s t
f r ie n d in th e community i s a Jew, Matthew K aplan. In
World War I I , he fo u g h t on th e s id e o f th e B r i t i s h , ta k in g
th e " re d o a th " and w ea rin g " re d f la s h e s " on h is sh o u ld e rs
(p . 3 2 ). The c o lo r , " r e d ," i s a p p r o p r ia te , s in c e th e
A frik a n e r lo o k s down upon th e E n g lis h -s p e a k in g South A fric a n
as a r o o in e k , a re d -n e c k .
As a r e s u l t , P i e t e r 's p e r s o n a l i t y i s s p l i t i n to two.
"He was alw ays two m en," h i s a u n t, th e n a r r a t o r , p o in ts o u t
(p. 3 ). He i s an A fr ik a n e r b u t he i s a ls o a South A fric a n .
To th e A fr ik a n e r s , th e two a r e n o t co m p atib le b u t anom alous.
The A fr ik a n e r s , u n le s s th e y a r e r e f e r r i n g to th em selv es,
th in k l e s s in term s o f n a tio n a lis m and more in term s o f
r a c e . A p e rso n i s p a r t o f h i s ra c e o r he i s n o t, an o u tlo o k
th e A fr ik a n e rs a r e d eterm in ed to impose on th e o th e r ra c e s
in S outh A f r ic a . A lso , in A frik a n e r s o c ie ty , th e r e i s no
room f o r in d iv i d u a ls o r in d iv id u a l a c tio n , and P i e t e r i s
d e f i n i t e l y an in d iv id u a l when compared to th e o th e r members
o f h i s p e o p le . R e le v a n t h e re i s an illu m in a tin g scene in
D o ris L e s s in g 's n o v e l, M artha Q uest (1952). M artha, in v it e d
to a dance a t a n e ig h b o rin g A frik a n e r farm , i s "dism ayed"
a t th e la c k o f "jo y o f any k in d " among th e in d iv id u a l
132
d a n c e rs, u n t i l th ey a l l dance to g e th e r in a communal fo lk
dance and th e n th e r e i s nth e sp o n tan eo u s jo y o f movement
la c k in g in th e o t h e r . "18 In Too L a te th e P h a la ro p e % t h i s
r i g i d l y communal way o f doing th in g s i s m e ta p h o ric a lly
su g g e ste d in th e A f r ik a n e r s ' o b s e s s io n w ith rugby. The
E n g lis h -s p e a k in g S outh A fric a n i s e q u a lly o b se sse d w ith
c r i c k e t . But c r i c k e t depends on th e i n d i v i d u a l 's p erfo rm
an ce, w hereas rugby depends on team -w ork. The n a r r a t o r
makes i t c l e a r in th e n o v el t h a t " i t i s th e A frik a n e rs
who a re r e a l l y th e rugby n a tio n " (p. 110). When Dominee
S ta n d e r in tro d u c e s th e new m i n i s t e r a t th e ch u rch , he
em phasizes t h a t th e new m i n i s t e r i s an o u ts ta n d in g rugby
p la y e r (p. 7 0 ). O u tsid e th e ch u rc h , th e new m i n i s t e r
e x p re s s e s h i s f e e l in g s a b o u t th e s p o r t. " I t ' s a lm o st my
r e l i g i o n , " he says (p . 7 8 ). The p o lic e c a p ta in j e s t s w ith
P i e t e r when he s a y s, "W r e m u s t n 't a llo w d u ty to i n t e r f e r e
w ith rugby" (p. 196), b u t i t a l s o seems t h a t he i s
e x a g g e ra tin g f o r th e sake o f em phasis. As an o u ts ta n d in g
rugby p la y e r , P i e t e r i s p a r t o f th e A fr ik a n e r team , b u t he
a ls o s te p s o u t o f th e bounds o f h i s r a c e .
P i e t e r 's g r e a t e s t a d v e rs a r y , a s f o r any A f rik a n e r , i s
^-®(New York, 1966), pp. 89-90.
133
n o t o u ts id e h i s s o c ie ty b u t w ith in . I r o n i c a l l y , t h i s
a d v e rs a ry tu r n s o u t to be P i e t e r 's f a t h e r . Jakob van
V laanderen i s a s te r n o ld p a t r i a r c h , to o p u r i t a n n i c a l in
o u tlo o k , a p e rso n whose f a i t h i s d ee p ly r o o te d in th e Old
T estam ent, even though th e new m i n i s t e r o f h i s ch u rch
rem inds him and the c o n g re g a tio n o f i t . In a sermon th e
m i n i s t e r a sk s p o in te d ly :
I s th e r e n o t a g o sp e l o f G od's lo v e , t h a t G od's lo v e
can tra n s fo rm u s, making us c r e a t o r s n o t s u f f e r e r s ,?
-{ p . 72)
But to Jakob, as f a n a t i c a C a l v i n i s t a s p r a c t i c a l l y any
A frik a n e r , th e h ig h e s t law to be fo llo w ed by man i s
o b e d ie n c e . The o nly book he re a d s i s th e B ib le . P i e t e r
commits a lm o st a s a c r ile g e by p r e s e n tin g him w ith a n o th e r
book on h i s b ir th d a y , a book on South A fric a n b i r d s . Jakob
i s u n a b le to r e s i s t th e b e a u ty o f th e p i c t u r e s in th e book,
b u t he ta k e s p r id e in f in d in g f a u l t s w ith th e Englishm an
who com piled th e volume.
H is m ost triu m p h a n t d is c o v e ry i s t h a t th e a u t h o r i t y
on b i r d s does n o t know w hat a p h a la ro p e i s . And so he
ta k e s P i e t e r o u t on a p ic n ic , to show him th e p h a la ro p e .
Even though Jakob a c t u a l l y p o in ts to th e b i r d , P i e t e r i s
u n a b le to see i t (pp. 213-214). At t h i s p o in t, t h e 's i g n i f
ic a n c e o f th e t i t l e em erges: th e p h a la ro p e , a lm o st e x t i n c t ,
134
i s a b i r d o f th e p a s t and Jakob w ants h is son to h o ld th e
same v ie w p o in t on th e p a s t a s th e o ld A frik a n e r, b u t i t
i s to o l a t e . Both f a t h e r and son have been a l i e n a t e d , and,
d e s p ite a tte m p ts on b o th s id e s , th e y a r e u n ab le to s e t t l e
t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s . The p h a la ro p e se rv e s a s a symbol, as
th e n a r r a t o r , P i e t e r 's a u n t, p o in ts o u t. Jakob, she sa y s,
"was lo o k in g f o r no p h a la ro p e , b u t f o r som ething he had
l o s t , tw en ty , t h i r t y y e a rs ago" (p. 134).
Jakob and h i s son a ls o f u n c tio n a s sym bols. Jakob i s
a p io n e e r and r e p r e s e n ts th e h i s t o r i c a l A frik a n e r, whose
r o o ts go b ack to th e Boers o f th e G re at Trek. His p r iz e
p o s s e s s io n i s a fa m ily B ib le i n h e r i t e d from h i s a n c e s to r,
A n d ries van V laan d eren , who b ro u g h t i t w ith him from th e
Cape "on th e G re a t Trek o f 1836" (p. 3 0 ). He em phasizes
th e Boer id e a l when a p e e r q u e s tio n s th e purpose o f l i f e .
He s ta n d s up from h i s c h a ir and sa y s,
in a v o ic e o f th u n d e r, th e p o in t o f l i v i n g i s to se rv e
th e Lord your God, and to uphold th e honor o f your
ch u rch and language and p eo p le . . . . (p. 92)
T y p ify in g th e h i s t o r i c a l A frik a n e r, Jakob has l o s t c o n ta c t
w ith th e g e n e r a tio n r e p r e s e n te d by P i e t e r , w hich does n o t
see th in g s a s th e e l d e r s do. The d i s t i n c t i o n between
f a t h e r and son i s s t r e s s e d by th e n a r r a t o r . Where P i e t e r 's
f a t h e r " r u le d by a s t r i c t and ir o n la w ," P i e t e r " ru le d
135
by no law a t a l l " (p. 2 2 ). The l a t t e r i s a s tr a n g e o b s e r
v a tio n to make a b o u t an A frik a n e r policem an, b u t in th e
c o n te x t o f th e s ta te m e n t th e o b s e rv a tio n im p lie s t h a t th e
t r a d i t i o n a l A frik a n e r does n o t re c o g n iz e P i e t e r 's k in d of
law. The a l i e n a t i o n betw een th e g e n e ra tio n s i s s tre n g th e n e d
by J a k o b 's s ta n d in g in th e community. He i s th e "chairm an
o f th e whole P a r ty in th e g r a s s c o u n try " (p. 5 8 ). Hence,
when Jakob r e j e c t s h i s son a f t e r le a r n in g o f th e t r a n s
g r e s s io n , he does so as a f a t h e r , a s a le a d in g member o f th e
A frik a n e r community, and a s a b e l i e v e r in th e Old T e s ta
m ent. S i t t i n g in judgm ent o f P i e t e r , he re a d s from 109„th
Psalm , w hich c o n c lu d e s, "L et th e r e be none to ex ten d
mercy u n to h im ."
Edward C a lla n , in d is c u s s in g th e re a s o n f o r P i e t e r 's
d e s ir e f o r a n o n -w h ite woman, b e lie v e s t h a t such a d e s ir e
"can be e x p la in e d as a p s y c h o lo g ic a l im pulse to r e v o l t
a g a in s t a l l h i s f a t h e r sto o d f o r . " - ^ T here i s e v id e n c e ,
how ever, t h a t th e r e v o l t i s eq u ab ly d ir e c t e d a g a in s t th e
w if e . P i e t e r 's c o n s ta n t c o m p la in t a g a i n s t N e lla , h i s
w ife , i s n o t t h a t she does n o t s a t i s f y h i s se x u a l p a s s io n s
b u t t h a t , in h i s own w ords, she s h u ts him o u t (p. 8 3 ). A
•^ A lan P ato n (New York, 1968), p. 79.
136
l e t t e r she w r i te s to him w h ile she i s away p u ts him in M a
b la c k m ood,M known to A frik a n e rs a s s w a r t g a l l i g h e i d . w hich
P ato n t r a n s l a t e s a s ’’th e b la c k g a l l " (p . 138). O ther
E n g lis h synonyms f o r th e word a re "m elancholy, m oro sen ess,
a t r i b i l i o u s n e s s ," F or a w ife to p u t h e r husband in to such
d e p re s s in g s t a t e s o f mind m ust a f f e c t th e husband v e ry
much.
E a rly in th e n o v e l, P aton g iv e s a s u b tl e i n d ic a t io n o f
th e d i r e c t i o n o f P i e t e r 's r e v o l t a g a in s t h i s v?ife. At t h a t
p a r t i c u l a r moment, P i e t e r has re a s o n f o r r e a c t i n g to h is
w ife . When he inform s N e lla ab o u t th e w h ite boy he saves
from com m itting i l l i c i t in te r c o u r s e w ith a n o n -w h ite g i r l ,
she r e a c t s l i k e a t r a d i t i o n a l A frik a n e r. The v e ry f a c t
t h a t D ick, th e w h ite boy, th o u g h t a b o u t sex w ith a non
w h ite makes N e lla condemn him. " I ' l l n o t f o rg iv e h im ,"
she says (p. 1 9 ). And so P i e t e r su b c o n sc io u s ly r e v o l t s
a g a in s t h e r by g iv in g a h i n t t h a t he d e s ir e s a n o n -w h ite
woman h im s e lf: P i e t e r p ra y s f o r Sm ith, who h as been se n
te n c e d to d e a th fo r m urdering th e b la c k woman, and in th e
same b r e a t h and in e x a c tly th e same w ords, P i e t e r p ra y s f o r
h im s e lf (p . 3 6 ). U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e p o in t does n o t re a c h
th e re a d e r who does n o t know A frik a a n s : th e p r a y e r i s in
A frik a a n s and P aton does n o t p ro v id e a t r a n s l a t i o n .
137
A lso s i g n i f i c a n t i s th e f a c t t h a t P i e t e r has se x u a l
in te r c o u r s e w ith th e n o n -w h ite woman, n o t once, b u t th r e e
tim e s. The c irc u m sta n c e s su rro u n d in g th o se th r e e a c t s o f
tr a n s g r e s s io n a r e v e ry r e v e a lin g . The f i r s t tim e he i s in
a drunken s tu p o r - - h e d r in k s "more th an he had e v e r drunk
b e f o r e " (p. 1 5 1 )--a n d h i s w ife i s away v i s i t i n g h e r p a r e n ts .
The f i r s t a c t i s th e r e f o r e an im petuous one. But th e second
a c t i s im p o rta n t in term s o f th e r e v o l t a g a in s t h i s w ife .
His w ife has r e tu r n e d and, a s she has done s e v e r a l tim es
b e f o r e , a g a in a l i e n a t e s him. The p h ra se P ato n u se s to
c h a r a c t e r i z e h e r a t t i t u d e tow ards P i e t e r i s " r u le and c u s
tom" (p. 196). Two pages l a t e r , P aton u se s th e i d e n t i c a l
p h ra s e , " r u le and cu sto m ," to d e s c r ib e th e a t t i t u d e of
P i e t e r 's f a t h e r (p. 198). And th e r e i s th e ru b . A ll t h a t
P i e t e r 's f a t h e r s ta n d s f o r i s p r e s e n t in P i e t e r 's own
home, p e r s o n if ie d by h i s w ife . What P i e t e r 's f a t h e r th in k s
o f N e lla b e a rs t h i s o u t: Jakob s in g le s o u t N e lla a s th e
"one s e n s ib le woman in th e house" o f van V laan d eren . The
o th e r two women, P i e t e r 's a u n t and m other, s id e more w ith
P i e t e r th a n w ith h i s f a t h e r . P i e t e r 's second a c t o f
tr a n s g r e s s io n i s th e r e f o r e d ir e c te d a g a in s t b o th h i s
w ife and f a t h e r . The second tim e, P i e t e r b re a k s "the law,
o f h i s own w i l l and c h o ic e " (p. 199).
138
The t h i r d tim e P i e t e r has se x u a l in te r c o u r s e w ith
S te p h a n ie , he g iv e s in h e l p l e s s l y to th e g i r l ' s te m p ta tio n ,
d e s p ite a l l h i s vows t h a t he would r e f r a i n from doing so.
As P i e t e r h im s e lf p u ts i t , he " c a r r i e d o u t h e r p u rp o se"
and n o t h i s own "w hich was made in p ra y e r" (p. 228). T his
tim e he r e v e a ls , d e s p ite h i s o th e r s t r e n g t h s , a w eakness
in n o t b e in g a b le to overcome h i s own d e s i r e s . T his weak
n e ss m ight be c o n s id e re d th e flaw in h i s c h a r a c te r .
The flaw i s n e c e s s a ry s in c e P aton d e p ic ts P i e t e r in
term s o f an A r i s t o t e l i a n h e ro . P i e t e r i s " th e b r a v e s t
and g e n t l e s t o f them a l l " (p. 1 ), has "a p a s s io n f o r books
and le a r n in g " (p. 2 ), and i s a ls o an accom plished a t h l e t e - -
as an o u ts ta n d in g rugby p la y e r , he i s "a c e r t a i n t y " f o r th e
S pringboks, th e n a t i o n a l team (p . 235). In s h o r t, he i s
" li k e a god" (p. 2 1 ),
l i k e a man who had liv e d famous by some leg en d . . .
u n d e rn e a th h i s c l o th e s he was n o t l i k e o th e r men, b u t
had th e p a r t s o f a god. (p. 262)
L ike th e Greek h e ro , he i s g u i l t y o f h u b r i s , a p rid e he i s
aware o f (p. 8 0 ). And, as in th e ca se o f many a Creek
tra g e d y , P i e t e r 's r u i n r e s u l t s in th e r u i n o f h i s fa m ily .
The n a r r a t o r makes i t c l e a r t h a t " th e house o f van
V laanderen was d e s tro y e d " (p. 191).
Y et, h i s d o w n fa ll from such a h ig h s t a t e i s n o t th e
o n ly f a c t o r w hich makes th e r e a d e r sym pathize w ith P i e t e r .
A p erso n who i s u n ab le to c o n t r o l h i s se x u a l p a s s io n s a f t e r
much re p e n ta n c e i s n o t much o f a h e ro . The h u b r is P i e t e r i s
g u i l t y o f i s t h a t he r e f u s e s to d is c u s s h is in te n s e l y
p e rs o n a l problem s w ith o th e r s , in c lu d in g Kaplan who co u ld
have h e lp e d him. In o th e r r e s p e c t s , how ever, P i e t e r i s
humble; f o r exam ple, he s h ie s away from any p r a i s e o f h is
prow ess in rugby. As a humble p e rso n , he a c t s a s a f o i l
to h is p eo p le who a re a r r o g a n t beyond re a s o n . I t i s t h e i r
a rro g a n c e w hich m a g n ifie s P i e t e r ’s se x u a l a c t s o u t o f a l l
p r o p o rtio n and w hich makes th e r e a d e r sym pathize w ith
P i e t e r . In any o th e r c o u n try , as Gordim er p o in ts o u t,
P i e t e r 's l u s t would in v o lv e him " in a p r i v a t e s tr u g g le , a
p r i v a t e h u r t and u n h ap p in ess betw een him and th e w ife whom
he lo v e s " (p. 1 8 ), b u t th e A fr ik a n e r s r e f u s e to l e t P i e t e r
c o n s id e r h i s a c t o f s le e p in g w ith a n o n -w h ite woman as
m erely th e r e s u l t o f l u s t . Nor do th e y re c o g n iz e i t a s a
crim e, as som ething betw een P i e t e r and th e law, n o r as a
s in , betw een P i e t e r and God. P ato n resp o n d s to such
th in k in g on th e p a r t o f th e A frik a n e r s when he h as th e
p o lic e c a p ta in say,
. . . a s a policem an I know an o ffe n c e a g a in s t th e law,
and as a C h r is t ia n I know an o ffe n c e a g a in s t God; b u t I
do n o t know an o ffe n c e a g a in s t th e r a c e . (p. 265)
140
P i e t e r 's a u n t, sp e ak in g a b o u t th e A fr ik a n e rs , p u ts i t
sim ply: "The t r u t h i s we a re n o t as o th e r p eo p le any
m ore" (p . 269).
Towards th e end o f th e n o v e l, th e re a r e a s e r i e s o f
s ta te m e n ts a c c u sin g th e A frik a n e rs o f a b r o g a tin g th e law o f
God and r e p la c in g i t w ith a narroxtf law o f t h e i r own.
P i e t e r 's m o th er,' r e b e l l i n g in h e r own sm a ll way a g a i n s t
J a k o b 's r e j e c t i o n o f P i e t e r , sa y s,
God i s b o th Lover and Judge o f men, and i t i s H is
commandment t h a t we j o i n Him in lo v in g , b u t to ju d g e
we a r e fo rb id d e n . (p. 255)
The p o lic e c a p ta in a tte m p ts to e x p la in to N e l l a 's f a t h e r
th e h a rs h n e s s o f th e A f r ik a n e r 's judgm ent o f P i e t e r : " i f
a man ta k e s u n to h im s e lf G od's r i g h t to p u n is h ," th e c a p ta in
sa y s, " th e n he m ust a l s o ta k e upon h im s e lf G od's prom ise
to r e s t o r e " (p. 265). But s in c e N e l l a 's f a t h e r r e f u s e s to
l i s t e n , th e p o lic e c a p ta in tu r n s to P i e t e r 's a u n t and makes
h i s p o in t c l e a r e r . " T h e re 's a h ard la w ," he e x p la in s ,
" t h a t when a deep i n ju r y i s done to u s , we n e v e r re c o v e r
u n t i l we f o r g iv e " (p . 266). The a u n t, in tu r n , p r o t e s t s
to th e o ld dominee o f h e r ch u rch t h a t "as th e Lord i s th e
Lord o f Love, so m ust His Church be th e Church o f Love"
(p. 267). She co n c lu d es th e n a r r a t i v e w ith a p r a y e r w hich
i s s u c c in c t in r e v e a lin g th e a rro g a n c e o f th e A f r ik a n e r s :
141
I p ra y we s h a l l n o t w alk a r r o g a n t, remembering Herod
whom an Angel o f th e Lord s tr u c k down, f o r t h a t he
made h im s e lf a god. (p . 272)
B oth th e p o lic e c a p ta in and th e a u n t a ls o r e p r e s e n t
th e o n ly glim m er o f hope in th e t r a g i c s to r y o f Too L a te
th e P h a la r o p e . The p o lic e c a p ta in i s E n g lis h and th e f a c t
t h a t an Englishm an heads an A frik a n e r p o lic e fo rc e in an
A f r ik a n e r - c o n tr o l le d community i s c o n tr a r y to A frik a n e r
t r a d i t i o n . The main re a s o n he i s th e c a p ta in , and a
r e s p e c te d one a t t h a t , i s h i s s t r i c t adheren ce to th e
l e t t e r o f th e law . "D u ty 's d u ty ," he b e l ie v e s , "and i t
m ust be done" (p. 145). P ato n s u g g e s ts , tow ards th e end
o f th e n o v e l, t h a t th e p o lic e c a p ta in and P i e t e r 's a u n t
have a c h ie v e d r a p p o r t w ith each o th e r . The p o lic e c a p ta in
i s th e o n ly p e rso n in th e n o v el to lo o k upon P i e t e r 's a u n t
a s "a lo v e ly woman" (p. 264). In b r in g in g t h i s couple
to g e th e r , P ato n im p lie s t h a t ad h eren ce to th e law , w hich
th e p o lic e c a p ta in r e p r e s e n ts , ought to be tem pered by a
h u m a n ita ria n o u tlo o k , sym bolized by th e a u n t. I t i s a ls o
s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t th e p o lic e c a p ta in i s E n g lis h and th e a u n t
i s an A f r ik a n e r . I f th e A frik a n e r i s to overcome h i s
a rro g a n c e , he sh o u ld b e g in by re c o g n iz in g th e E n g lis h a s a
f e llo w c i t i z e n .
P a to n 's u se o f im agery to d e s c rib e P i e t e r a ls o adds
142
to th e im p lic a tio n s o f Too L ate th e P h a la ro p e . The im agery
c o n s i s t s o f a l i g h t - d a r k m o tif. P i e t e r "was alw ays two
men . . . The o th e r was a d a rk and s i l e n t man1 1 (p. 3 ).
He i s s u s c e p tiv e to " b la c k m oods," w hich h i s w ife d e s p is e s
(p. 4 3 ). "D arkness and l i g h t , " th e n a r r a t o r sa y s, "how th e y
fo u g h t f o r h i s so u l . . ." (p . 2 8 ). P i e t e r i s shocked when
he suddenly c o n fr o n ts h i s o th e r s e l f : " I t was l i k e a k in d
o f shadow o f m y se lf, t h a t moved w ith me c o n s ta n tly , b u t
alw ays a p a r t from me . . ." (p. 5 4 ). The A frik a n e rs re c o g
n iz e h i s d a rk e r s id e a s " s w a r t g a l l i g h e i d , w hich i s th e b la c k
g a l l " (p. 138). The l i g h t - d a r k m o tif r e f l e c t s th e c o n f l i c t
betw een P i e t e r and h is fa m ily . But th e m o tif su g g e sts
o th e r l e v e l s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . On one l e v e l , th e m o tif
makes P i e t e r a symbol o f am b iv alen ce. His f a m ily 's
a m b iv a le n t a t t i t u d e tow ards him i s made q u ite e x p l i c i t in
th e n o v e l.
But he a l s o r e p r e s e n ts th e a m b iv alen t A frik a n e r: he
i s more humane th a n th e o th e r members o f h i s r a c e , y e t he
w ears th e a b h o rre d u niform o f th e South A fric a n P o lic e .
Though few in number, th e r e a r e A frik a n e rs o f P i e t e r 's
ty p e . Nat Nakasa, an a s t u t e A fric a n j o u r n a l i s t , d e s c r ib e s
an e n c o u n te r w ith such a p e rso n . The A frik a n e r a r t i s t he
m eets n e g a te s many th in g s th e A fr ik a n e rs s ta n d f o r : he
j o i n s Nakasa in a d rin k and even o f f e r s th e b la c k man a
room in h is house. Yet th e a r t i s t b e lo n g s to th e N a tio n a l
i s t P a r ty , g iv in g a s h i s re a s o n s : "You s e e , I'm an A frik a n
e r . The N a tio n a l P a r ty i s my p a r ty . T h a t's why I v o te fo r
i t . "20 The d ark s id e o f P i e t e r a l s o r e p r e s e n ts an a f f i n i t y
he, an A frik a n e r, sh a re s w ith th e b la c k s , th e A fric a n s :
one o f h is f r ie n d s inform s P i e t e r , "You ta k e th e b la c k
n a tio n too much to h e a r t " (p. 142).
The A frik a n e r and th e A fric a n have a l o t in common;
in f a c t , th e two words a r e sy nonym ous--A frikaner i s an
A frik a a n s word m eaning A fric a n . The c o h e siv e n e ss o f th e
A fric a n t r i b e i s m atched by th e A f r i k a n e r 's s tro n g communal
t i e s . Edwin M unger's A fr ik a n e r and A fric a n N a tio n a lism
(1967) shows th e c lo s e p a r a l l e l s betw een th e p o l i t i c a l
p h ilo s o p h ie s o f th e two r a c e s , e s p e c i a l l y in South A fr ic a ,
where th e two n a tio n a lis m s a r e in terw o v en and r e a c t more
in tim a te ly to each o th e r th a n any o th e r n a tio n a lis m in th e
w o rld . On a n o n - r a c ia l l e v e l , th e b la c k -w h ite m o tif le a d s
to two o th e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , b o th r e f l e c t i n g th e d u a l i t y
o f man. One way o f lo o k in g a t P i e t e r i s t h a t w ith in him
20"Johan n esb u rg , J o h a n n e s b u rg ," The C l a s s i c , I I
(1966), 22.
144
th e r e i s
a p r i v a t e tra g e d y o f a man o f f in e i n s t i n c t s in con
f l i c t w ith an i n s t i n c t t h a t seems m is p la c e d from some
e a r l i e r , b r u t i s h e x is te n c e . (G ordim er, p. 18)
The o th e r p e r s p e c tiv e i s t h a t , ta k e n n o t o n ly in r e f e r e n c e
to P i e t e r a s a symbol b u t w ith a l l th e im p lic a tio n s o f th e
n o v e l, th e b la c k -w h ite im agery i s an a r t i s t i c e x p re s s io n
o f th e th e o ry advanced by L aurens van d e r P o st in The Dark
Eye in A f r i c a :
I b e lie v e t h a t in th e h e a r t o f each human b e in g th e r e i s
som ething w hich I can only d e s c rib e a s a " c h ild o f d a rk
n e s s " who i s e q u a l and com plem entary to th e more obvious
" c h ild o f l i g h t " . . . w e ste rn man . . . h as in c r e a s in g ly
c o n s id e re d t h i s s id e o f h im s e lf n o t a s a b r o t h e r b u t as
an enemy . . . T his s e p a r a tio n o f th e w h ite man w ith h is
b r i g h t m orning fa c e from h is own d ark r e j e c t e d b r o th e r
w ith in , in c r e a s e s w ith f r ig h t e n in g a c c e l e r a t i o n . Sim ul
ta n e o u s ly p r e ju d ic e a g a in s t th e b la c k s k in o f th e n a t u r a l
A fric a n h as deepened and made i t a dangerous symbol, f o r
now th e w h ite man in A f r ic a se e s r e f l e c t e d in th e n a t u r a l
d ark man around him t h a t d ark a s p e c t o f h im s e lf w hich he
has r e j e c t e d . 21
In th e h a n d lin g of th e d e t a i l s and in th e t e l l i n g o f
th e s to r y , P aton d is p la y s an a b i l i t y t h a t i s a c o n s id e r
a b le improvement o v er t h a t o f h is f i r s t n o v e l. Too L ate
th e P h a la ro p e i s n o t a p o l i t i c a l o r s o c i a l t r a c t , n o r i s i t
a r e l i g i o u s sermon. In s h o r t, i t i s n o t c o n tr iv e d f o r th e
purpose o f conveying a m essage. The w r i t i n g i s c o n c is e ,
21(London, 1955), pp. 54-55.
1 4 5
though th e r e a r e tim es when th e n a r r a t o r , P i e t e r 's a u n t,
p a in s ta k in g ly e x p la in s and o c c a s io n a lly r e p e a ts h e r s e l f .
E s p e c ia lly e x a s p e r a tin g i s h e r o c c a s io n a l r e f e r e n c e , from
th e b e g in n in g o f th e s to r y , to th e im pending doom. As
K azin p o in ts o u t, " th e c a ta s tro p h e i s h in te d a t so s t e a d i l y
th ro u g h o u t th e book t h a t when i t comes we a r e moved, b u t
n o t e n lig h te n e d " (p. 2 4 ). The language i s s t i l l p o e t ic ,
b u t n o t a s p o e tic a s in Cry, th e Beloved C o u n try . P aton
a v o id s th e p i t f a l l o f a tte m p tin g to s u s t a i n h i s e a r l i e r
s t y l e , an a tte m p t w hich h a s, in many a w r i t e r , ten d ed to
make th e second work sound l i k e a parody o f th e f i r s t .
The v ie w p o in t, how ever, i s a m ix tu re o f f i r s t - p e r s o n and
o m n is c ie n t. At tim e s, P i e t e r 's a u n t f i l l s in d e t a i l s she
was p r e v io u s ly unaware o f by q u o tin g from P i e t e r 's d ia r y .
At o th e r tim e s , though, i t i s d i f f i c u l t to d eterm in e
w h eth e r th e a u n t i s r e p o r tin g som ething she le a r n e d ab o u t
a f t e r P i e t e r 's a r r e s t o r w h eth er i t i s P ato n sp eak in g
o m n is c ie n tly . B ecause o f t h i s in c o n g ru ity , th e n a r r a t i v e
a p p e a rs l e s s t i g h t l y s tr u c t u r e d th a n Cry, th e Beloved
C o u n try . In a n o th e r r e s p e c t, Too L ate th e P h a la ro p e
d i f f e r s from th e f i r s t n o v e l: th e r e a r e more d ig r e s s io n s
in th e second n o v e l, e s p e c i a l l y in th o se s e c tio n s d e a lin g
w ith J a p ie and th e comic s i t u a t i o n s in v o lv in g him.
146
In h i s volume o f s h o r t s t o r i e s , Debbie Go Home (1 9 6 1 )--
p u b lis h e d in th e U n ited S ta te s u n d er th e t i t l e , T a le s from
a T ro u b led Land--P a to n conveys w hat Plom er and Abrahams and
P aton h im s e lf ( i n Cry, th e B eloved C o u n try ) were u n ab le to ,
an u n s e n tim e n ta lis e d e n c o u n te r w ith th e d ark and ir o n
r e a l i t y o f th e l i f e o f th e u rb an A fric a n . . . an
e a r n e s t c o n f r o n ta ti o n o f th e c e n t r a l is s u e o f E v il and____ -
th e m eagreness o f th e l i b e r a l v i s i o n b e f o r e so c h a lle n
g in g a r e a l i t y . (N kosi, Home and E x i l e , p. 6)
One re a s o n f o r th e s e q u a l i t i e s i s P a to n 's s t y l e in th e s h o r t
s t o r i e s . Each su c c e e d in g book o f h i s i s l e s s p o e t ic . Most
o f th e l y r i c a l d is c o u rs e o f Cry, th e B eloved C ountry i s
a b s e n t from Too L a te th e P h a la ro p e . B ut Debbie Go Home
i s devoid o f ly r ic i s m . The e f f e c t i s one o f s t a r k r e a l i t y .
"The e x a c tn e s s and r e s t r a i n t o f w r i t i n g , " th e Times L i t e r a r y
Supplem ent re v ie w e r p o in ts o u t, " c o n fe r s t r e n g t h and
a u t h o r i t y on Mr. P a to n 's a t t i t u d e . O n f i r s t im p re ssio n ,
P a to n 's s h o r t s t o r i e s , l i k e R o b ert F r o s t 's poems, a p p e a r to
be la c k in g in s u b t l e t y . P aton makes th e p o in t o f each
s to r y q u ite e x p l i c i t . H is s t r e n g t h i s in th e manner in
w hich he d ev e lo p s th e s t o r y . A symbol h e r e , a m etaphor
t h e r e , and an i r o n i c a l i n c id e n t o r comment a t a rem arkably
a p p r o p r ia te moment in c r e a s e th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e s t o r i e s .
^ J u n e 16, 1961, p. 369.
147
The r e s u l t i s a s e r i e s o f illu m in a tin g e p is o d e s w hich, in
th e words o f B e v erly Grunwald, " t e l l th e South A fric a n s to r y
more s u c c in c tly th a n volum es o f p o l i t i c a l r e p o r ta g e .
S ix o f th e te n s t o r i e s in D ebbie Go Home d e p i c t th e
problem s in a re fo rm a to ry f o r A fric a n b o y s. The s t o r i e s
a r e to l d in th e f i r s t p e rso n , from th e v ie w p o in t o f th e
0 /
p r i n c i p a l , who i s supposed to have "a lm o st d iv in e pow ers," ^
b u t who i s p o w erless to do a n y th in g a b o u t th e many dilemmas
he f a c e s . U ltim a te ly , a s th e s t o r i e s im ply, th e r o o ts
o f th e dilemmas can be tr a c e d back to th e e f f e c t s o f th e
c i t y on th e psyches o f th e A fric a n b o y s. The d e t r i b a l i z a -
ti o n , th e rem oval from a r i g i d l y m oral environm ent to an
am oral m ilie u , th e l o n e l i n e s s , and th e la c k o f c o h e siv e
and a f f e c t i o n a t e fam ily l i f e , a l l o f th e s e te n d to c r e a te
a schism w ith in th e A fric a n s , a " d iv id e d h o u s e ," th e t i t l e
o f one o f th e s h o r t s t o r i e s .
"The D ivided House" i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e te c h n iq u e
and developm ent o f th e s t o r i e s in D ebbie Go Home. Jack y ,
one o f th e A fric a n boys in th e re fo rm a to ry , i s g iv e n th e
O O
"Shapes and Shades o f th e Dark C o n t in e n t ," S atu rd ay
Review, June 10, 1961, p. 25.
^ D e b b ie Go Home (London, 1961), p. 73.
148
freedom o f th e g ro u n d s, e s c a p e s, and i s sh o t w h ile b re a k in g
in to a house. B rought b e fo re th e p r i n c i p a l , Jack y co n v in ces
him t h a t he w ants to become a p r i e s t and th e p r i n c i p a l g iv e s
him p e rm is sio n to r e t u r n to th e f r e e h o s t e l s . But " th e
c i t y was now in h i s b lo o d " (p. 35) and he ab u ses h i s
freedom s e v e r a l tim e s , each tim e sn eak in g away to smoke
dagga (a H o tte n to t word f o r w ild hemp). The p r i n c i p a l sa y s,
. . . o f a l l re fo rm a to ry enem ies, dagga i s th e m ost
in s i d io u s . I t tem p ts f r e e boys to b re a k bounds, and
to go on se e k in g i t in P im v ille , K liptow n, and
O rlando. I t tem pts them to s t e a l goods, e s p e c i a l l y
c l o th e s , w hich th e y tr a d e f o r th e t e r r i b l e weed.
(pp. 39-40)
At th e end o f th e s to r y , a f t e r Jacky i s im p riso n ed f o r
a tta c k in g a n o th e r A fric a n w ith a p a i r o f s c i s s o r s , he
w r i te s a l e t t e r to th e p r i n c i p a l . He i s " s t i l l d eterm in ed
to be a p r i e s t , " and th e p r i n c i p a l b e lie v e s him to be
" e a r n e s t and p e n i t e n t ; " n e v e r th e le s s , th e p r i n c i p a l con
c lu d e s :
Yet I knew t h a t th e boy who w ro te th e l e t t e r w ould, so
f a r a s men knew, alw ays be d e f e a te d , t i l l one day he
would g iv e up b o th hope and g h o s t, and le a v e to i '-
enemy th e s o le te n an cy o f th e d iv id e d h o u se. (p. .m )
Both " th e d iv id e d house" w ith in th e A fric a n and th e
h e lp le s s n e s s o f th e p r i n c i p a l a re th e b a s i s o f a n o th e r
s h o r t s to r y , "Sponono." Even more th a n "The D ivided
H ouse," "Sponono" em phasizes t h a t th e A fric a n boy and th e
p r i n c i p a l a r e th e v ic tim s o f f a c t o r s beyond t h e i r c o n tr o l.
Sponono, a Xhosa boy, c o n tin u a lly begs th e p r i n c i p a l fo r
fo r g iv e n e s s , b u t each tim e g e ts in to more tr o u b le , u n t i l
th e p r i n c i p a l f i n a l l y d e c id e s to do n o th in g more ab o u t him.
L ike Ja ck y , Sponono i s d eterm in ed to do good, b u t h i s good
n e ss l i e s in th e co n cern he shows f o r h is fe llo w p r is o n e r s .
The p r i n c i p a l i s im pressed w ith him b ecause he i s a b le to
"fo rm u la te . . . n o b le id e a ls o f b e h a v io r" (p. 99).
One o f th e s e id e a l s ta k e s th e form o f an e x c e s s iv e b e l i e f
in f o rg iv e n e s s . He f o rg iv e s one o f th e o th e r inm ates f o r
h u r tin g h i s eye b u t i s u n ab le to see t h a t fo rg iv e n e s s does
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t a p erso n sh o u ld n o t b e a r th e
consequences o f h i s a c t . The eye rem ains h a l f c lo s e d , "as
though he co u ld have seen more o f o n e 's weakness had he
opened i t " (p. 111). The eye becomes a symbol o f Sponono's
lo p s id e d m o r a lity . "Engaging r a s c a l " (p. 99) t h a t he i s ,
he a ls o w ants to be fo rg iv e n r e g a r d le s s o f what he does.
But each tim e he i s fo rg iv e n , he g e ts in to more tr o u b le .
S ponono's "n o b le i d e a ls " a ls o se rv e to r e v e a l th e
s i t u a t i o n o f th e p r i n c i p a l .. The A fric a n boy ta k e s advantage
o f th e C h r i s t i a n i t y th e p r i n c i p a l p r o f e s s e s , and even though
th e Xhosa boy i s n o t a C h r is t ia n , he q u o te s th e B ib le to
g a in th e u p p er hand. The p r i n c i p a l f in d s h im s e lf c h a lle n g e d
150
to l i v e up to h i s C h r i s t i a n i d e a l s . Even i f i t were
p o s s ib le to do so, he would have f a i l e d in a c h ie v in g
h i s g o a ls . More th a n a n y th in g e l s e , he, l i k e Sponono, i s
a v ic tim o f th e s o c ie ty in w hich he l i v e s . Sponono i s h is
c h i e f a c c u s e r. As th e p r i n c i p a l s t a t e s a t th e b e g in n in g
o f th e s to r y , one o f S ponono's l e t t e r s , f i l l e d w ith q u es
t i o n s , i s an " in d ic tm e n t w hich q u e s tio n s q u a l i t i e s o f my
c h a r a c te r o f whose e x is te n c e I have been m o d e ra te ly c e r
t a i n " (p. 9 9 ). In a n o th e r p a r t o f th e s to r y , th e
p r i n c i p a l says to Sponono, "You should have been a law yer"
(p. 109). In s u b s ta n c e , th e b o y 's q u e s tio n s become a
s e r i e s o f a c c u s a tio n s . When th e p r i n c i p a l ask s ab o u t h is
c h a r a c te r , Sponono a d m its t h a t he h as many f a u l t s , and
ad d s, "b u t we a r e sp e ak in g o f you n o t m y se lf" (p. 114),
a s i f to say, "You a r e th e C h r is t ia n , n o t I . The
q u e s tio n i s w h eth er you a r e l i v i n g up to th e C h r is tia n
id e a ls you p r o f e s s . "
The m ost im p o rta n t q u e s tio n Sponono a sk s th e p r in -
cip al--"W h o i s th e m a s te r o f your hou se?" (p. 116)--com es
tow ards th e end o f th e s to r y and h as r e v e r b e r a tio n s t h a t
go beyond th e im m ediate s i t u a t i o n . I t i s a q u e s tio n w hich
r i l e s many a w e ll-m e an in g l i b e r a l and co u ld be a d d re sse d
to p r a c t i c a l l y any South A fric a n . Even th o s e a t th e to p ,
th o se who w ie ld power, may th u s be q u e s tio n e d . The m a ste r
i s , o f c o u rs e , th e r a c i a l i s t id e o lo g y t h a t makes ev ery
South A fric a n i t s s la v e . The p r i n c i p a l 's l a s t words a re
a ls o sym ptom atic o f th e South A fric a n s i t u a t i o n , a s i t
p r e v a i l s to d ay . A p o stro p h iz in g Sponono, he c o n fe s s e s t h a t
he and th e A fric a n boy have re a c h e d "a s ta le m a te ," a lth o u g h
b o th w ish " t h a t th e game co u ld have ended o th e rw is e " (p.
117). The ch e ssb o a rd m etaphor i s a p p r o p r ia te . A g r e a t
d e a l o f s k i l l i s r e q u ir e d to even a tte m p t to s e t a r i g h t
" th e d iv id e d h o u s e ." In a d d i tio n , th e A fric a n i s u n ab le
to a m e lio ra te h i s c o n d itio n w ith o u t h e lp from a c ro s s th e
r a c i a l b a r r i e r , b u t, in a p a r th e id s o c ie ty , th e p e rso n who
w ants to h e lp fin d s t h a t s o c ie ty p re v e n ts him from doing
so. U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e s ta le m a te c o n tin u e s to e x a c e rb a te
an a lre a d y v i t i a t e d s o c ie ty .
"The E le p h a n t- S h o o te r," a n o th e r s h o r t s to r y , imme
d i a t e l y fo llo w s "Sponono." The j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f th e s e
two s h o r t s t o r i e s , I b e lie v e i s d e l i b e r a t e . "The
E le p h a n t-S h o o te r" i s m eant a s a commentary on "Sponono,"
by d e m o n stra tin g t h a t w eaknesses in a b la c k man work a g a in s t
him in a r a c i a l i s t s o c ie ty , w hereas th e same w eaknesses
in a w h ite man a r e o v e rlo o k e d . C o etzee, a form er e l e -
p h a n t-h u n te r, g e ts a tem porary jo b a t th e re fo rm a to ry . He
152
p ro v es h im s e lf c a p a b le b u t a c h ie v e s " th e r e p u t a t i o n o f
i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y " (p. 122). He "borrow s" th in g s w ith o u t
p e rm is s io n , a c tio n s w hich in a b la c k man would u n r e s e rv e d ly
b r in g a b o u t a c c u s a tio n s o f t h e f t ( s e v e r a l c h a rg e s o f t h e f t
a r e b ro u g h t a g a in s t Sponono). But C oetzee i s w h ite and
th e r e f o r e excused.
E v e n tu a lly , when th e re i s a vacancy f o r a perm anent
jo b , C o e tz e e - - lik e S ponono--uses a l l th e w ilin e s s he can
and g e ts th e jo b on th e u n d e rs ta n d in g t h a t he become re s p o n
s i b l e . P ato n t r e a t s th e s i t u a t i o n l i g h t l y and i s a t h is
m ost w h im sical in h i s p i c t u r e o f th e p r i n c i p a l and form er
e le p h a n t- h u n te r p a rr y in g o v er th e jo b . The f i n a l scen e,
how ever, makes th e p o in t o f th e s to r y v e ry c l e a r .
C o e tz e e 's im m ediate s u p e r io r o b je c ts to th e p r i n c i p a l
r e t a i n i n g C o etzee, b u t th e p r i n c i p a l m e rely p o in ts to a
ch e ss s e t w hich h as two p ie c e s m is sin g and s a y s, "Mr.
R o b ertso n , you and I a re th e pawns. C oetzee h as g o t th e
jo b " (p. 1 2 7 ). The ch e ss a n a lo g ie s a r e th e s tr o n g e s t lin k s
betw een "Sponono" and "The E le p h a n t- S h o o te r." In
S ponono's c a se , th e s i t u a t i o n ends in a s ta le m a te , in
C o e tz e e 's , i t ends in a v i c t o r y . The c o lo r o f a p e r s o n 's
s k in makes a l l th e d if f e r e n c e .
A nother s to r y w hich tu r n s i t s a t t e n t i o n to th e
153
a d m in is t r a tio n o f th e re fo rm a to ry i s "The W orst Thing o f
His L i f e . " H ere, P ato n shows t h a t th e European m ight con
s i d e r h im s e lf a god among th e b la c k s b u t he has th e d u s t
o f th e v e ld on h i s f e e t . There a r e two v ie w p o in ts in th e
s to r y , th e second making an ir o n ic comment on th e f i r s t and
a ls o s t r e s s i n g a p o in t o f i t s own. "You n ev er g e t used to
a b s c o n d in g ,1 1 th e p r i n c i p a l b e g in s and ad d s, a l i t t l e l a t e r ,
"A tim e o f ab sco n d in g was a t r i a l o f th e so u l" (p . 73).
He t e l l s how, a lth o u g h he i s supposed to have d iv in e pow ers,
he s t i l l spends an x io u s h o u rs w ondering w h eth er an e s
caped A fric a n has g o t i n t o f u r t h e r tr o u b le . When he i s
ro u sed o u t o f bed l a t e a t n ig h t by J o n k e rs , second in
command a t th e re fo rm a to ry , he i s convinced i t i s th e
moment he h as been d re a d in g . The r e v e l a t i o n i s a s sudden
f o r th e p r i n c i p a l as i t i s f o r th e re a d e r : J o n k e r 's
tr o u b le i s p e r s o n a l, h i s son h as been a r r e s t e d . He has
come to th e p r i n c i p a l f o r r e l i e f , w hich th e p r i n c i p a l i s
more th a n happy to o f f e r , b u t, i r o n i c a l l y , he r e l i e v e s th e
p r i n c i p a l i n s t e a d . "The r e l i e f was so g r e a t , " th e
p r i n c i p a l c o n f e s s e s , " t h a t my whole s e l f had to e x p e rie n c e
i t . . ." (p . 7 7 ). But th e r e i s a f u r t h e r iro n y . P aton
i s n o t o f f e r i n g a mere p i c t u r e o f th e p r i n c i p a l , a w h ite
man, h av in g a n x i e t i e s and f e e l in g s l i k e any o th e r human
154
b e in g . I t i s Jo n k e rs who i s th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e
w h ite , s e lf - a p p o i n te d g u a rd ia n s who c o n s id e r A fric a n s to be
t h e i r w ards, b u t who d is c o v e r th em selv es u n a b le to ta k e
c a re o f t h e i r own.
"The W orst Thing o f His L if e " depends a g r e a t d e a l on
developm ent f o r i t s im pact. In a few p a ra g ra p h s a t th e
b e g in n in g , P aton i s a b le to convey th e p r i n c i p a l 's a n x ie
t i e s . But i t i s n o t u n t i l tow ard th e end o f th e s to r y t h a t
th e r e a d e r le a r n s o f th e s i g n i f i c a n t and i r o n i c a l d r i f t
o f th e whole e p is o d e . The same te c h n iq u e sav es a n o th e r
s to r y , "H a 'p e n n y ," from d e v o lv in g in to b a n a l i t y . One o f
th e sm all boys th e p r i n c i p a l ta k e s a p e rs o n a l i n t e r e s t in
i s H a'penny, a l i k e a b l e tw e lv e -y e a r- o ld from B loem fontein.
H a 'p e n n y 's o n ly to p ic o f c o n v e rs a tio n i s h i s m other, two
b r o th e r s , and two s i s t e r s . The p r i n c i p a l f e e l s t h a t
H a'penny " in v e n te d them a l l " b ec au se he "was ashamed o f
b e in g w ith o u t a fa m ily " (p. 2 9 ). An i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e v e a ls
th e e x is te n c e o f such a fa m ily , e x c e p t t h a t H a'penny
does n o t b elo n g to i t . He i s a M asuto and th e Maarmans a r e
C oloured. The p r i n c i p a l c o n fro n ts H a'penny w ith th e
t r u t h :
I was shocked by th e im m ediate and v i s i b l e e f f e c t of
my a c tio n . His whole b ra v e re a s s u ra n c e d ie d w ith in
him . . . I had s h a t t e r e d th e v e ry fo u n d a tio n s o f h i s
155
p r id e , and h is sen se o f human s i g n i f i c a n c e . (p. 31)
H a'penny w ithdraw s from th e w o rld . When th e d o c to r i n
forms th e p r i n c i p a l t h a t th e r e i s l i t t l e hope, th e
p r i n c i p a l , in d e s p e r a tio n , sends f o r Mrs. Maarman. E a r l i e r
she r e j e c t e d any a s s o c i a t i o n o f H a'penny w ith h e r fa m ily ,
b u t she comes and s ta y s a t h i s b e d s id e . The boy d ie s and
Mrs. Maarman i s f i l l e d w ith rem o rse. The p r i n c i p a l t r i e s
to c o n so le h e r , s t a t i n g t h a t " th e s ic k n e s s would have
com e,” b u t she resp o n d s:
"N o," she s a id , sh ak in g h e r head w ith c e r t a i n t y . " I t
w o u ld n 't have come. And i f i t had come a t home, i t
would have been d i f f e r e n t . " (p . 32)
And th e re i t i s , a b o y 's l i f e , a woman who c o u ld have been
h i s m other, and h e r s ta te m e n t w hich s t a r t l e s th e re a d e r
in to aw aren ess. What th e boy needed was lo v e , a m other,
b r o th e r s and s i s t e r s , a home. In South A f r ic a , u nder
a p a r th e id law s, th e s e b a n a l i t i e s have become n e c e s s i t i e s .
I t i s i l l e g a l f o r an A fric a n co u p le to l i v e to g e th e r in
c e r t a i n u rb an a re a s u n le s s th e y work f o r th e same w h ite
fa m ily . Even i f th ey d id l i v e to g e th e r , t h e i r c h ild r e n
a r e n o t p e rm itte d to l i v e w ith them. In th e m ining
in d u s tr y , w hich draws th e m ost A fric a n la b o r from th e
r e s e r v e s , th e re a r e no f a c i l i t i e s f o r accommodating
A fric a n f a m il ie s . The c h ild r e n a r e o u t in th e s t r e e t s ,
156
fen d in g f o r th e m selv es. They a r e th e f u tu r e inm ates o f th e
r e f o rm a to r ie s and th e f u tu r e c r im in a ls o f th e c o u n try .
A veraging th r e e m urders a day, Jo h an n esb u rg has one o f th e
h ig h e s t crim e r a t e s in th e w orld.
The power o f th e c rim in a l underw orld in Johannesburg
and th e h e lp le s s n e s s o f th e w h ite s to do a n y th in g a b o u t i t
i s th e f o c a l p o in t o f "D eath o f a T s o t s i , " th e l a s t o f th e
s h o r t s t o r i e s s e t in th e re fo rm a to ry . ( T s o t s i , a B antu
word, has much s tr o n g e r c o n n o ta tio n s th a n i t s E n g lis h
e q u iv a le n t, j u v e n ile d e lin q u e n t.) In t h i s s to r y , however,
P aton i s too e x p l i c i t . Abraham M o le tis a n e , th e t s o t s i ,
i s d eterm in ed to refo rm , i s r e le a s e d from th e re fo rm a to ry ,
m a rr ie s , and g e ts a good jo b in a f a c t o r y . But th e form er
members o f h i s gang w i l l n o t l e t him a lo n e . Abraham i s n o t
a s s u re d t h a t th e p r i n c i p a l 's e f f o r t s to p r o t e c t him w i l l
save him from th e gang. His r e s i g n a t i o n i s l i k e Ole
A n d e rso n 's in Hemingway's "The K i l l e r s . " P aton co u ld have
ended h i s s h o r t s to r y th e way Hemingway d id , w ith th e main
c h a r a c te r w a itin g f o r th e k i l l e r s . I n s te a d , he goes on to
d e s c rib e how, d e s p ite th e e f f o r t s o f de V i l l i e r s , th e
A frik a n e r from th e re fo rm a to ry , Abraham i s sta b b e d to
d e a th . The s to r y ends w ith th e words o f th e p r i n c i p a l a t
th e f u n e r a l, words w hich make a l t o g e t h e r to o c l e a r th e
157
im port o f A braham s's d e a th , b u t w hich a l s o sum up th e
s ig n i f ic a n c e o f th e re fo rm a to ry s t o r i e s in Debbie Go
Home;
W e were a l l o f u s, w h ite and b la c k , r i c h and poor,
le a rn e d and u n tu to r e d , bowed down by a knowledge
t h a t we liv e d in th e shadows o f a g r e a t danger and
w ere p o w erless a g a in s t i t . I t was no p la c e f o r a
w h ite p e rso n to pose in any m a n tle o f power o f
a u t h o r i t y ; f o r t h i s d e a th gave th e l i e to b o th o f
them.
And t h i s d e a th would go on to o , f o r n o th in g l e s s
th a n th e refo rm o f a s o c ie ty would b r in g i t to an end.
I t was th e menace o f th e s o c i a l l y f r u s t r a t e d , s tr a n g e r s
to m ercy, s t r i k i n g l i k e a d d e rs f o r th e d ark re a s o n s
o f a n c ie n t m inds, a t any who c ro s s e d t h e i r p a th s .
(p . 69)
The e x e c ra b le w o rld o f th e t s o t s i s i s made c l e a r e r
in a n o th e r s h o r t s to r y , "The Waste L an d ." In "The Waste
L an d ," th e r e i s no need f o r m o ra liz in g , f o r comment, o r
f o r e x p l i c i t s ta te m e n ts a s to w hat th e s to r y i s a b o u t.
The s tr e n g t h o f th e s to r y r e s t s on one o f th e m ost i r o n i c a l
s i t u a t i o n s to come o u t to South A f r ic a . An o ld A fric a n ,
r e tu r n in g home in th e d ark , i s a tta c k e d by a group o f
young t s o t s i s b e n t on ro b b in g him. He r e a l i z e s th e y a re
g oing to k i l l him. To th e a t t a c k e r s , "mercy was th e
unknown word" (p. 8 1 ). His o n ly hope i s to ta k e c o v e r in
" th e w aste la n d , f u l l o f w ire and ir o n and th e b o d ie s o f
o ld c a r s " (p. 8 1 ). J u s t b e fo re he re a c h e s s a f e ty , one o f
158
h is p u rs u e rs b lo c k s h i s p a th and he b ash es h i s a s s a i l a n t 's
head w ith a heavy s t i c k . Then he seeks re fu g e u n d er an
o ld l o r r y . The p u rs u e rs , f in d in g t h e i r dead companion,
push h i s body u nder th e l o r r y , n e x t to th e o ld man. From
s
t h e i r c o n v e rs a tio n , th e o ld man le a r n s t h a t he has k i l l e d
h i s own son, who was a member o f th e t s o t s i s and who
e v id e n tly su g g e ste d to them t h a t t h e i r n e x t v ic tim ought
to be h i s own f a t h e r r e tu r n in g home w ith h i s wages in h is
p o c k e t.
V io len ce i s a p a r t o f th e South A fric a n way o f l i f e .
The m o r a lity o f th e c o u n try a s a whole i s so p e rv e rs e as
to be u n b e lie v a b le . P aton d em o n strate s t h i s in a s h o r t
s to r y a p p r o p r ia te ly t i t l e d , " L ife f o r a L i f e . " The t i t l e
r e f e r s to a cru d e j u s t i c e w hich demands t h a t a non-
European l i f e be f o r f e i t e d f o r th e m urder o f a European,
r e g a r d le s s o f g u i l t . Big Baas F lip h as been m urdered and
in Enoch Maarman, head shepherd o f th e farm , th e p o lic e
have a v u ln e ra b le v ic tim . He i s n e v e r h e a rd from a f t e r
th e p o lic e ta k e him away. E n q u irie s r e v e a l t h a t he d ie d
" a c c i d e n ta lly " and has a lr e a d y been b u r ie d by th e p o lic e .
L ike "The Waste L an d ," "L ife f o r a L if e " i s a d e p a rtu re
f o r P ato n . The re fo rm a to ry s t o r i e s have a k in d , w h ite
p r i n c i p a l to b a la n c e th e d a rk , somber s i t u a t i o n s . But b o th
159
"The W aste Land" and " L ife f o r a L if e " s u s t a i n th e b r u t a l i t y
o f th e s i t u a t i o n s w ith o u t r e l i e v i n g th e te n s io n s c r e a te d .
In th e form er s to r y , th e o u t s k i r t s o f a c i t y — t h a t i s , th e
a re a s e t a s id e f o r A f r i c a n s - - i s " th e w aste la n d ," and, in
th e l a t t e r , th e farm i s f o r th e non-European th e "la n d o f
s to n e " (p. 5 8 )--A le x La Guma a p p lie s a s im ila r e p i t h e t to
a l l o f S outh A f r ic a in h i s n o v e l, The Stone C ountry (1967).
L if e in such a s e t t i n g m ust be h a rs h , b u t th e s to r y
d e p ic ts a h a r s h e r tim e. The j u s t i c e w hich seeks o u t a
v ic tim l i k e Maarman c o n s i s t s o f v io le n c e and m adness,
sym bolized by R o b b e rtse , th e d e t e c t iv e who in te r r o g a t e s
Maarman. The A frik a n e r i s c h a r a c te r i z e d a s a man
w ith th e tem per t h a t g o t o u t o f hand, so t h a t r e d d is h
foam would come o u t o f h i s mouth, and he would h o ld a
man by th e t h r o a t t i l l one o f h i s c o lle a g u e s would
sh o u t a t him to l e t th e man go. (p. 46)
He a l s o t y p i f i e s th e a t t i t u d e o f p r a c t i c a l l y any w h ite
South A fric a n policem an tow ards p r a c t i c a l l y any n o n -w h ite:
th e p o lic e speak w ith b r u t a l i t y b e f o re th e y speak w ith
w o rd s.
A lso , in " L ife f o r a L i f e , " Maarman r e p r e s e n ts th e
f a c t t h a t , in South A f r ic a , th e re is. a g r e a t e r crim e th an
m urder, th e r e f u s a l to a c c e p t th e s u b s e r v ie n t r o le th e
governm ent b e l ie v e s th e n o n -w h ite sh o u ld p la y : he sends
160
h i s son to a u n i v e r s i t y , w hich, a s f a r a s th e governm ent
i s co n cern ed , b re e d s l i b e r a l s , a term c o n s id e re d synonymous
w ith com m unists. T h is i s th e main re a s o n Maarman i s
s in g le d o u t as a v ic tim .
" L ife f o r a L if e " does n o t end w ith th e d e a th o f
Maarman. I t goes on to t e l l o f th e f a t e o f S ara,
M aarman's w if e . S ara s u f f e r s , to o . She i s e je c te d from
h e r house on th e farm . She i s ex p en d ab le. Once a non
w h i t e 's u s e f u ln e s s i s o v e r, he i s s e n t to h i s "hom e."
Under a p a r th e id law s, c e r t a i n a r e a s a r e o s te n s ib ly th e
"homes" o f c e r t a i n r a c e s .
S ara i s g la d to le a v e th e farm and lo o k s forw ard to
Cape Town, where p e o p le l i v e " s o f t e r and sw e e te r liv e s ! '
(p. 5 8 ). S in ce " L ife f o r a L if e " comes a f t e r th e t i t l e
s to r y , th e r e a d e r knows w hat S ara Maarman can e x p e c t to
f in d in Cape Town. The s e t t i n g o f "Debbie Go Home" can be
any b ig South A fric a n c i t y , b u t i t m ig h t a s w e ll be Cape
Town. In no p a r t o f th e c o u n try i s th e n o n -w h ite s a fe from
r a c i a l p r e ju d ic e , e x c e p t th a t * i n th e c i t y some o f th e fo rc e s
a t work a r e s u b tl e . In "Debbie Go Home," th e a d m in is t r a to r
o f th e p ro v in c e h as a g re e d to r e c e iv e g i r l s a t th e Debu
t a n t e 's B a ll o rg a n iz e d by th e C oloureds and t h i s c r e a te s
d iv is io n in th e home o f th e de V i l l i e r s , a C oloured fa m ily .
161
B oth m other and d a u g h te r a r e f o r th e B a ll and f a t h e r and
son a g a in s t i t . The son g iv e s in to th e m o th e r's p le a s
and p e rsu a d e s h i s f a t h e r to l e t th e g i r l go to th e B a ll.
The iro n y o f th e s i t u a t i o n i s t h a t th e son in te n d s to
p ic k e t th e B a ll w ith s ig n s re a d in g , "DEBBIE GO HOME" and
"WELCOME, SPICK LITTLE LICKSPITTLE" (p . 2 1 ).
"The w o r ld 's m ad," Mrs. de V i l l i e r s sa y s. "B ro th e r
a g a in s t s i s t e r , husband a g a i n s t w ife " (p. 2 2 ). P aton
a m p lif ie s " th e d iv id e d h ouse" in t h i s s to r y . I t a p p lie s
n o t o n ly to th e de V i l l i e r s home b u t, s in c e t h e i r s i t u a t i o n
i s b e in g d u p lic a te d in many o th e r C oloured homes, to a l l
s o c ie ty . The s i t u a t i o n i s sym ptom atic o f th e schism •
c r e a te d among th e n on-E uropeans. The f a t h e r knows "what
th e w orld i s l i k e , y e t he goes on h o p in g ," and th e son
hopes f o r " n o th in g . N othing, n o th in g , n o th in g " (p. 17).
The two r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r i n g a t t i t u d e s tow ards th e r a c i a l
p o l i c i e s o f t h e i r c o u n try and o th e r c h a r a c te r s su g g e st
o th e r a t t i t u d e s . Some o f th e n o n -w h ite s a re f o r a p a r th e id ,
some a r e a g a in s t b u t f e e l th e y have to c o o p e ra te , some a re
w i l l i n g to g iv e in a l i t t l e , some b e lie v e th e y can do
n o th in g , and o th e r s p r o t e s t w ith d ir e conseq u en ces.
In th e l a s t o f th e s h o r t s t o r i e s , "A D rink in th e
P a s s a g e ," P ato n r e v e r s e s th e w h ite m an 's v ie w p o in t o f h is
162
o th e r s t o r i e s and shows w hat a b la c k man th in k s o f p eo p le
l i k e P i e t e r van V laanderen in Too L ate th e P h a la ro p e .
In "A D rink in th e P a s s a g e ," Edward S im elane, an A fric a n ,
a c c i d e n t a l l y w ins th e f i r s t p r iz e f o r a p ie c e o f s c u lp tu r e
in a n a t io n a l c o m p e titio n w hich sh o u ld have been r e s t r i c t e d
to w h ite s . W atching th e s c u lp tu r e on d is p la y in a book
s to r e one ev e n in g , Edward i s i n v i t e d f o r a d r in k by an
A fr ik a n e r, van Rensburg. The A frik a n e r does n o t i n v i t e
Edward in to h i s home in a b lo c k o f f l a t s b u t o f f e r s him h i s
b e s t brandy j u s t o u ts id e th e door, o u t in th e p a s sa g e . The
s to r y a t once becomes a m etaphor o f th e S outh A fric a n w orld
o f a p a r th e id . S ince South A fr ic a i s th e m ost advanced
c o u n try on th e c o n tin e n t o f A fr ic a , i t h as much to o f f e r to
th e b la c k man. The door to what th e w h ite s c o n s id e r to be
t h e i r e x c lu s iv e w orld i s k e p t a j a r , f o r th e b la c k s to
peek in to t h a t w o rld . But th e y a re n e v e r p e r m itte d to
e n t e r , r e g a r d le s s o f how w ell-m ean in g some o f th e w h ite s
w ant to b e. The A frik a n e r, van R ensburg, re a c h e s o u t to
make c o n ta c t w ith th e b la c k w orld: he goes down e v e ry
ev en in g to adm ire th e s c u lp tu r e , w hich p o r tr a y s a b la c k
m other and c h i l d . When th e o p p o rtu n ity p r e s e n ts i t s e l f
in Edward, som ething p re v e n ts van R ensburg from to u c h in g
th e b la c k man. The brandy i s th e o n ly th in g he can o f f e r .
163
I t i s th e symbol o f a l l th e inducem ents th e w h ite man
d a n g le s in f r o n t o f th e b la c k s , who can en jo y them tem
p o r a r i l y and o n ly a t th e b e h e s t o f th e m a s te r. The m a s te r
in th e s to r y i s van Rensburg b e c a u se , d e s p ite h is g e s tu r e ,
he i s s t i l l an A frik a n e r, "a man tr y in g to run a ra c e in
ir o n sh o es, and n o t u n d e rs ta n d in g why he c a n n o t move"
(p . 9 5 ).
As in th e o th e r s t o r i e s , th e l a s t l i n e in "A D rink in
th e P a ssa g e " makes a v e ry p e r t i n e n t p o in t. Edward con
c lu d e s h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e in c id e n t w ith th e s ta te m e n t,
"When I g o t back to O rlando, I to ld my w ife th e s to r y ,
and she w ept" (p. 9 5 ). Among th e n o n -w h ite s, th e r e a re
p e o p le whose r e a c tio n to th e r a c ia lis m i s an g e r and, a t
tim e s , even h a tr e d . But to men o f u n d e rs ta n d in g , th e
re sp o n se i s d i f f e r e n t . Hence, P a to n 's c h o ic e o f an a r t i s t
a s th e p r o ta g o n is t o f th e s to r y . Edward i s a man o f
s e n s i t i v i t y and u n d e rs ta n d in g : th e manner o f h i s t e l l i n g
o f th e s to r y , a s P ato n re c o rd s i t , m ust have been th e same
a s when he t o l d i t to h is w ife . Thus, in th e end, th e
r e a d e r ’s re sp o n se i s s im ila r to E dw ard's w i f e 's , one o f
sorrow o v er th e c o n d itio n o f th e A fr ik a n e r. IIow e l s e
can one r e a c t to a man whose "eyes had been b lin d e d by
y e a rs in th e d ark " (p. 94)?
164
P a to n 1s l a t e s t work i s a b io g rap h y o f Hofmeyr, a c lo s e
f r ie n d and th e m ost l i b e r a l member o f th e p r e - N a t i o n a l i s t
P a r ty Smuts governm ent. E xcept f o r t h i s l a t e s t work,
P a to n 's books have la r g e l y been p o p u la r. They a ls o have
some l i t e r a r y m e r it. A lthough Cry, th e Beloved C ountry
e x p re s s e s a hope t h a t i s no lo n g e r te n a b le , i t r e t a i n s
i t s a p p e a l a s an a l le g o r y o f ra c e r e l a t i o n s in so u th e rn
A fr ic a . P a to n 's a r t i s t r y i s more e v id e n t in Too L a te th e
P h a la ro p e . I t e x p r e s s e s , more th a n th e f i r s t n o v e l, th e
South A fric a n tra g e d y . As a work o f l i t e r a t u r e , i t m e r its
more a t t e n t i o n th a n i t has r e c e n tly r e c e iv e d . S ince th e
s h o r t s t o r i e s in Debbie Go Home n e c e s s i t a t e d more re a lis m ,
P aton d is p e n s e s w ith ly r ic is m and c o n c e n tr a te s on a le a n ,
d i r e c t ap p ro ach . The r e s u l t i s a rem ark ab ly p e r c e p tiv e
p i c t u r e o f th e South A fric a n w o rld o f n o n -w h ite s. South
A fric a n c r i t i c s b e lie v e t h a t P ato n i s la r g e l y r e s p o n s ib le
f o r th e p o stw ar l i t e r a r y re su rg e n c e in S outh A fr ic a (V igne,
p. 95; G ir lin g , p. 118; Plom er, p. 5 7 ). I t i s d i f f i c u l t
to d eterm in e how v a l i d t h e i r c o n te n tio n i s .
CHAPTER V
NADINE GORDIMER (1923- )
In The L onely V o ice, Frank O'Connor advances th e
t h e s i s t h a t th e s h o r t s to r y w r i t e r 's v o ic e i s " th e lo n e ly
v o ic e " sp eak in g a b o u t "o u tlaw ed f ig u r e s w andering ab o u t
th e f r in g e s o f s o c i e t y . A p p l i e d to South A fr ic a ,
O 'C o n n o r's th e o ry f i t s e x c e e d in g ly w e ll. The n o n -w h ite
i s "o u tlaw ed " from b i r t h b ec au se o f th e c o lo r o f h i s s k in .
In a se n se , so u th e rn A f r ic a o f f e r s th e w r i t e r a Chekhovian
w o rld , as D oris L e ss in g o b serv ed :
I am s tr u c k c o n t in u a l ly by th e p a r a l l e l s betw een
p r e - r e v o lu tio n a r y R u s sia a s d e s c rib e d in Chekhov
. . . and t h a t p a r t o f A f r ic a [ s o u th e rn A fric a ]
I know. (Going Home, p . 19)
The s h o r t s to r y i s South A f r i c a 's m ost w id e ly -u se d
l i t e r a r y form. Drama h as been a lm o st t o t a l l y n e g le c te d .
South A fr ic a has produced a few good p o e ts , w ith an
o c c a s io n a l p o e t l i k e Roy Campbell a c h ie v in g i n t e r n a t i o n a l
•*-(New York, 1968), p. x i i . A ll q u o ta tio n s from The
L onely Voice have been ta k e n from t h i s p ap erb ack r e p r i n t .
165
166
a c c la im . The South A fric a n n o v el h as a c h ie v e d p o p u la r ity ,
b u t th e good n o v e l i s t i s alm o st a s r a r e a s th e good p o e t.
The s h o r t s to r y , however, has s u b s i s te d from th e b e g in n in g s
o f South A fric a n l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y . O liv e S c h re in e r
a tte m p te d th e form in a s e r i e s p u b lis h e d u n d er th e t i t l e ,
Dreams (1890). S arah G ertru d e M il lin , a f t e r h e r i n i t i a l
su c c e s s a s a n o v e l i s t , w ro te s h o r t s t o r i e s s u p e r io r in
q u a l i t y to h e r l a t e r n o v e ls . A lthough W illiam Plom er i s
b e t t e r known a s a n o v e l i s t and p o e t, i t i s n e v e r th e le s s
d i f f i c u l t to d e c id e w hich o f h i s South A fric a n works has
more l i t e r a r y m e r it, h i s n o v e l, T u rb o tt W olfe, o r h i s s h o r t
s t o r i e s . P e te r A braham s’s f i r s t l i t e r a r y a tte m p ts , though
n o t s u c c e s s f u l, were s h o r t s t o r i e s . A lan P a to n , f in d in g
i t i n c r e a s in g l y d i f f i c u l t to c o n c e n tr a te on le n g th y works
un d er th e c o n d itio n s o f h i s c o u n t r y 's m oral e n e r v a tio n ,
has tu rn e d to th e s h o r t e r l i t e r a r y form to e x p re s s th e
need f o r m o r a lity . Two w r i t e r s who have e x c e lle d in th e
s h o r t s to r y a r e Dan Jacobson (1928- ) and Nadine
G ordim er. Jaco b so n d e m o n stra te s e q u a l com petence in th e
s h o r t s to r y and in th e n o v e i. B ut G ordim er i s in d u b ita b ly
a b e t t e r s h o r t s to r y w r i t e r th a n a n o v e l i s t . " I have
w r i t t e n a few s t o r i e s t h a t s a t i s f y m e," she a d m its, " b u t
I 'v e n o t w r i t t e n a n o v el t h a t comes anywhere n e a r doing
There a r e o th e r s h o r t s to r y w r i t e r s who have g a in e d
r e p u ta tio n s in South A fr ic a b u t who a r e v e ry l i t t l e known
o u ts id e th e c o u n try . Uys K rige (1910- ) , an A frik a a n s
p o e t, w r i te s e q u a lly w e ll in b o th A frik a a n s and E n g lis h .
The r e p u t a t i o n o f C h a rle s Herman Bosman, m entioned in th e
l a s t c h a p te r,- c o n tin u e s to grow in South A f r ic a and i s
sp re a d in g to E ngland. Ja c k Cope (1913- ) h as a lr e a d y
had two volum es o f s h o r t s t o r i e s p u b lis h e d in E ngland. An
o u ts ta n d in g pre-W orld War I I s h o r t s to r y w r i t e r i s P a u lin e
Sm ith (d. 1957).
P a u lin e S m ith 's volume o f s h o r t s t o r i e s , The L i t t l e
Karoo (1925), c a r r i e s an i n tr o d u c t io n by A rnold B e n n e tt.
A p r e f a c e by W illiam Plom er was added to th e 1950 r e p r i n t ,
in w hich Plom er c a l l s th e book " th e b e s t c o l l e c t i o n o f
s h o r t s t o r i e s y e t w r i t t e n in E n g lis h on South A fric a n
t h e m e s . T h e s t o r i e s , s e t in th e P la tk o p a r e a o f th e
a r i d L i t t l e K arroo re g io n , d e p ic t th e l i v e s o f A fr ik a n e rs
who t r y to e x i s t in a h a rs h en v iro n m en t. In "The P a in "
^"A W rite r in South A f r i c a , " London M agazine, V
(May 1965), 25.
^(London, 1952), p. 13.
168
J u r ia a n van Royen ta k e s h i s dying w ife to a h o s p i t a l b u t
s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y s t e a l s away w ith h e r l a t e one n ig h t and
ta k e s h e r home. P h y s ic a l p a in i s e a s i e r to b e a r th a n th e
p a in o f s e p a r a tio n . There i s a Chekhovian to u c h in "The
S c h o o lm a s te r." The sc h o o lm a ste r Jan B o e tje , a f t e r k i l l i n g
a co u p le o f m ules in a ra g e , p u ts on a h a rn e s s and spends
th e rem a in d er o f h i s s h o r t l i f e draw ing a c a r t in a to n e
m ent. The ending o f "The S ch o o lm aster" i s l i k e th e one
in C hekhov's "The D ep e n d an ts," in w hich an o ld man, a f t e r
h av in g h i s o ld h o rs e and dog k i l l e d , i s re a d y to o f f e r h i s
own head f o r th e t h i r d blow. In " D e s o la tio n ," P a u lin e
Sm ith u se s a p h y s ic a l d ro u g h t to d e p ic t th e c o n d itio n
w ith in a human b e in g .
P a u lin e Sm ith has been one o f th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t
in f lu e n c e s on Nadine G ordim er. S m ith 's s t o r i e s , p lu s th e
New Z ealand s t o r i e s o f K a th e rin e M a n sfie ld , Gordimer n o te s ,
co n firm ed f o r me t h a t my own " c o lo n ia l " background
p ro v id e d an e x p e rie n c e t h a t had s c a r c e ly been looked
a t , l e t a lo n e th o u g h t a b o u t, e x c e p t a s a so u rce o f
a d v e n tu re s t o r i e s . ^
In "A W rite r in South A f r i c a ," Gordimer d is c u s s e s o th e r
^ P h ilip Toynbee, N adine G ordim er, and o th e r s , L eaving
School (London, 1966), p. 30.
169
i n f l u e n c e s ' (p. 2 4 ). D. H. Lawrence in f lu e n c e d h e r "way o f
lo o k in g a t la n d sc a p e and th e n a t u r a l w o rld in g e n e r a l ."
Henry James made h e r c o n sc io u s o f " fo rm --a s in g le se n te n c e
as much a s an e n t i r e n o v e l." From Hemingway she le a rn e d
to le a v e th in g s o u t, " o r, r a t h e r , to h e a r th e e s s e n t i a l in
d ia lo g u e ." E. M. F o r s t e r in flu e n c e d h e r h a n d lin g o f human
r e l a t i o n s h i p s . " L a te r came Conrad; and l a t e s t , Camus."
Two South A fric a n w r i t e r s have a l s o in flu e n c e d h e r
c o n s id e ra b ly , Uys K rig e and W illiam Plom er. K rige a ls o
g o t h e r o u t o f th e r u t o f c o n t r ib u t in g o n ly to th e sm all
p o l i t i c a l m agazines in South A fr ic a and p ro v id e d an
in tr o d u c tio n to a l i t e r a r y a g e n t in New York, w hich le d to
p u b lic a t io n in p e r i o d i c a l s o u ts id e South A f r ic a . In
L eaving S ch o o l, G ordim er d e s c r ib e s th e e f f e c t o f h e r f i r s t
m eeting w ith K rig e:
. . . t h a t day I had a g lim p se o f - - n o t some sp u rio u s
" a r t i s t ' s l i f e , " b u t, th ro u g h th e p o e t 's p e rso n , th e
g l i n t o f f h i s p u rp o se --w h a t we a r e a l l g e t t i n g a t .
(pp. 33-34)
P lo m e r's s h o r t s to r y , "The C h ild o f Queen V i c t o r i a ," made
a deep im p re ssio n on h e r . She c o u p le s P lo m e r's s to r y w ith
T o ls to y 's "The D eath o f Ivan I l y i c h " and s t a t e s th e s i g n i
fic a n c e th e two s t o r i e s had f o r h e r:
. . . th e whole id e a o f w hat a s to r y co u ld do, be,
swept a s id e th e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f p ro d u cin g som ething
170
t h a t found i t s v a l i d i t y in p r i n t . (Leaving S ch o o l,
p. 30)
W hereas i t was P lo m e r's "U la Masondo" w hich in flu e n c e d
L aurens van d e r P o s t, P e te r Abrahams, and A lan P ato n , i t
was "The C h ild o f Queen V ic t o r ia " w hich im pressed Nadine
G ordim er. The d i s t i n c t i o n i s im p o rta n t. The le g a c y o f
"Ula Masondo" f o r van d e r P o s t, Abrahams, and P aton was i t s
theme, i t s c o n te n t. What Gordimer d e riv e d from "The C h ild
o f Queen V i c t o r i a , " as she p o in ts o u t in th e s ta te m e n t
qu o ted above, i s " th e whole id e a o f w hat a s to r y co u ld
d o ."
G o rd im er's e a r l y s t o r i e s , when compared w ith th e
l a t e r ones, r e v e a l some w eaknesses she l a t e r e lim in a te d .
"Some o f them a r e a w f u l," she say s o f th e s t o r i e s in h e r
f i r s t c o l l e c t i o n , ad d in g t h a t th e y w ere "concerned w ith
c a tc h in g th e s u r fa c e shimmer" (" W rite r in South A f r i c a ,"
p. 2 8 ). The " s u r fa c e shimmer" i s e s p e c i a l l y e v id e n t in
"The S o ft V oice o f th e S e rp e n t" and " T re a s u re s o f th e
S e a ."
In "The S o ft V oice o f th e S e rp e n t" (1 9 4 8 ),5 a man who
^The d a te s o f th e s t o r i e s a r e th o se o f f i r s t p u b l i
c a tio n , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y in th e U n ited S ta te s . The
chronology i s th e one com piled by R a c i l i a J i l i a n N e ll,
Nadine Gordim er: A B ib lio g ra p h y (Jo h an n esb u rg , 1964).
!71
h as l o s t h is le g and i s a tte m p tin g to r e g a in h i s f a i t h in
a g a rd e n , i d e n t i f i e s w ith a lo c u s t w hich a l s o has a le g
m is s in g , u n t i l th e lo c u s t f l i e s o f f and he i s b i t t e r w ith
th e knowledge o f h i s h e l p le s s n e s s . He had f o r g o tte n a
lo c u s t co u ld f l y . The theme i s a rem a rk a b le one, w ith th e
g ard en th e man s i t s in p a r a l l e l i n g th e Garden o f Eden.
The p a r a l l e l i s e x p re sse d in th e second p a ra g ra p h . The
v o ic e o f th e s e r p e n t, th e s to r y im p lie s , comes p a r t l y from
th e w orld o f n a tu r e . The v o ic e o f th e s e rp e n t i s a ls o an
in n e r v o ic e w hich w h isp e rs to man th e c o n d itio n o f h is
m o r t a l i t y . In t h i s s to r y , th e " s u r fa c e shimmer1 1 i s e v i
d e n t in th e a n a lo g ie s . The flo w e rs shake " in vehem ent
d e n i a l" o f th e m an's h o p e s .^ A " f i r s t s l i g h t w ind" l i f t s
" in th e s la c k , f u r le d s a i l o f h im s e lf " (p. 2 ). The f i r s
" p a r t s i l k i l y a s a c h i l d 's f in e s t r a i g h t h a i r in th e w ind"
(p . 3 ). The l o c u s t 's body i s compared to " flim s y p ap e r
s t r e t c h e d o ver a frame o f m a tc h s tic k " (p. 4 ) . In "The
S o ft V oice o f th e S e r p e n t ," Gord?mer a l s o u s e s a n o th e r
te c h n iq u e she i s going to d is p e n s e w ith l a t e r : th e ending
^The S o ft Voice o f th e S e rp e n t and O th er S to r i e s
(New York, 1962), p. 1. A ll q u o ta tio n s from t h i s f i r s t
c o l l e c t i o n o f s t o r i e s a r e ta k e n from t h i s l a t e s t p a p e r
back r e p r i n t .
172
r e l i e s on th e te c h n iq u e known a s M th e b i t e r b i t , M a
r e v e r s a l . Her l a t e r s t o r i e s do n o t depend on s u r p r i s e
e n d in g s .
" T re a s u re s o f th e Sea" (1950) i s a p o e t ic e v o c a tio n
o f th e e t h e r e a l atm osphere o f a young g i r l ' s lo v e o f th e
s e a . The lo v e o f th e se a p e r s i s t s u n t i l she m eets a man
who demands t o t a l a l l e g i a n c e . The s to r y ends in tra g e d y .
W hile w a itin g f o r h e r man on th e b each , w here she i s
a lo n e , she h i t s h e r head on a ro ck and drowns. The se a
g iv e s an abundance o f t r e a s u r e s , b u t i t a l s o demands much
in r e t u r n . There i s some sh a rp , r e le v a n t im agery in th e
s to r y , b u t th e r e i s a ls o " s u r fa c e shim m er." F or exam ple,
a b ig d o g 's paws c r e a te a "fan cy d a p p le " ( S o f t V o ic e , p.
6 8 ). O y ste r s h e l l s g iv e o f f an " u n b e lie v a b le s a t i n p in k
shimmer" (p . 6 9 ). The g i r l o f f e r s , and "a d e l i c a t e o ld
g entlem an" r e c e iv e s , a " s u n b u rs t o f a sm ile " (p . 70).
The c r i t i c i s m Edward Hickman Brown made o f G o rd im e r's
l a t e s t volume o f s h o r t s t o r i e s , Not f o r P u b lic a tio n
(1 9 6 5 )- - t h a t th e r e i s
to o much d is p a s s io n and detachm ent [on G o rd im e r's
p a r t and th a t ] one sh o u ld s u r e ly n o t be so e v e r
l a s t i n g l y c o n sc io u s o f th e a u t h o r 's own c o o l i n t e l l i
gence h o v e rin g a b o u t h e r s t o r i e s ^ —
^S atu rd ay Review, May 8, 1965, p. 33.
173
a p p l ie s more to th e s e e a r l y s t o r i e s . The r e a d e r a l s o g e ts
th e im p re ssio n t h a t th e s t o r i e s a r e sta g e d f o r h i s b e n e f i t .
The c h a r a c te r s emerge su ddenly from th e background from
w here th e y a r e drawn, perform t h e i r l i t t l e p a r t s , and
d e p a r t i n to th e background. One re a s o n f o r such an im
p r e s s io n i s t h a t p r a c t i c a l l y e v e ry c h a r a c te r in th e f i r s t
volume o f s t o r i e s i s anonymous. In f i f t e e n o f th e tw en ty -
one s t o r i e s , th e le a d in g c h a r a c te r s a r e n o t named. In a l l
th e s t o r i e s v e ry few o f th e m inor c h a r a c te r s a r e . In one
o f th e s t o r i e s , "The C atch" (1 9 5 1 ), she s u g g e s ts a re a s o n
f o r le a v in g o u t names. D isc u ssin g th e n e g lig e n c e o f
s e v e r a l c h a r a c te r s to le a r n each o t h e r 's names, she adds,
So t h e i r y o u 's and. h e 's and I ' s took on th e p o s i t i v e
n e ss o f names, and y e t seemed to deepen t h e i r sen se
o f com m unication by th e f a c t t h a t th e y in tro d u c e d none
o f th e o b j e c t i v i t y t h a t names m ust alw ays b r in g .
( S o f t V o ice, p. 12)
By th e tim e she w ro te "Horn o f P le n ty " (1956),
though, p e o p l e 's names have come to s ig n i f y c l o s e r p e r
so n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . In "Horn o f P l e n t y ," Mrs. M cCleary,
an Am erican l i v i n g in Jo h an n esb u rg , i s e x a s p e r a te d b ec au se
h e r A fric a n m aid, R ebecca, keeps c a l l i n g h e r , "Madam,"
O
in s t e a d o f "Mrs. M cC leary." She lo n g s f o r th e in tim a te
^ S ix F e e t o f th e C ountry (New York, 1956), p. 194.
174
r e l a t i o n s h i p she had w ith h e r Negro maid in New York.
I r o n i c a l l y , Rebecca f in d s i t d i f f i c u l t to u n d e rsta n d Mrs.
M cC leary 's i n s i s t e n c e : a f t e r a l l , e v e ry w h ite p erso n w ants
to be c a l l e d e i t h e r "Madam" o r " M a s te r." And Rebecca has
le a r n e d to keep an enormous em o tio n a l d is ta n c e betw een
h e r s e l f and h e r em ployers.
The e a r l y s t o r i e s g iv e an e x c e l l e n t in d i c a t i o n o f th e
developm ent o f Gordim er a s a s h o r t s to r y w r i t e r . From th e
b e g in n in g , Gordim er d e m o n stra te s h e r s k i l l in th e u se o f
im agery. "The K in d e s t Thing To Do" (1945), a lth o u g h
m arred by o v e r - w r itin g , depends on images o f le th a r g y in
b o th human b e in g s and th e s e t t i n g to convey th e atm osphere
o f a h o t, la z y a fte rn o o n and to p o r tr a y th e d u lli n g o f th e
se n se s in th e main c h a r a c te r , a g i r l . In th e fo llo w in g
p a s sa g e , f o r exam ple, th e image o f "d ro o p in g " i s re p e a te d
to e n fo rc e th e mood o f i n e r t i a :
Her head, d ro o p in g n e a r th e d ro o p in g , b ee -h e av y ,
crum pled p a p e r c h a lic e s o f th e p o p p ie s, l i f t e d
h a l f - p r o t e s t i n g l y , h e r la z y hand b ru sh e d th e g ray
specks o f i n s e c t s w hich fle c k e d th e pages o f
P e t r a r c h 's "L aura in D e a th ." ( S o ft V o ic e , pp. 26-27)
Alm ost a l l th e s e n te n c e s in th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e la z y
a fte rn o o n a r e lo n g , drawn o u t, and a p t l y convey th e
s o p o r i f i c e f f e c t o f th e sun. In "A Commonplace S to ry "
(1949), images d e s c r ib in g a house s u g g e s t, by an alo g y , th e
175
fra y e d l i f e o f an o ld-m aid m usic te a c h e r : th e g ard en g a te
grows " o ld e r and r u s t i e r " and i t s s c re e c h " s h r i l l e r "
(S o ft V o ice, p. 214), th e la c e c u r t a i n s h r in k s , a room i s
"e x h a u ste d " (p. 216).
The l a t e r s t o r i e s in th e f i r s t volume show th e e x te n t
o f G o rd im er's. p ro g re s s in making more e f f e c t i v e u se o f a
s in g le image. The s in g le d e t a i l , in many c a s e s , makes a
r e v e l a t i o n a l l on i t s own, ill u m in a tin g some s i g n i f i c a n t
f a c e t o f a c h a r a c te r o r em phasizing some im p o rta n t p o in t
in th e s i t u a t i o n . The r e c u r r e n t image o f th e metronome
in "A Commonplace S to r y ," to c k -to c k in g even when i t i s
n o t needed, s t r e s s e s th e monotonous e x is te n c e o f th e m usic
te a c h e r . Towards th e end of "La V ie Boheme," an empty
box w hich once c o n ta in e d an e x p e n siv e fa c e powder r e v e a ls
to a younger s i s t e r th e economic s tr u g g le h e r e l d e r s i s t e r
i s fa c in g . At one p o in t in "Ah, Woe I s Me" (1 9 5 2 ), an
A fric a n c h i ld resp o n d s to h i s m o th e r's q u ery a s to why he
c a d d ie s on th e g o lf co u rse in s t e a d o f g o in g to sc h o o l by
opening h i s hand and d is c lo s in g two s h in in g c o in s . The
whole p o in t o f "The D efea ted " (1952) r e s t s on a v e ry
r e v e a lin g d e t a i l a t th e end o f th e s t o r y . The S a iy e to -
v i t z e s , r e fu g e e s from some g h e tto in e a s t e r n E urope, run
a c o n c e ss io n s to r e in a m ining town b u t make no p ro g re s s
176
w h ile th e n e ig h b o rin g s to r e k e e p e rs move on to b e t t e r l i v e s .
The re a s o n comes to th e n a r r a t o r d u rin g a b r i e f glim pse o f
S a i y e t o v i t z ' s tre a tm e n t o f a Swazi custom er: th e s t o r e
k e e p e r 's v o ic e s t r i k e s " l i k e a snake . . . angry and brow
b e a tin g , s u ll e n and f i n a l , la s h in g w eakness a t th e weak"
( S o ft V o ice., p. 212). The v ic tim , t h i s en d in g im p lie s , has
h im s e lf become a v i c t i m i s e r , and t h a t i s th e w o rs t k in d o f
v i c t i m i s e r th e r e i s .
The s t o r i e s in th e f i r s t volume a l s o in d ic a t e a
developm ent in th e h a n d lin g o f tim e. Most o f th e e a r l y
s t o r i e s a r e lim ite d to a s in g le e p iso d e o r a v e ry b r i e f
span o f tim e . "The K in d e st Thing To Do" c o v e rs a few
m in u tes d u rin g w hich th e g i r l n e g le c ts h e r dog and a n o th e r
few m in u tes w h ile she b u r ie s a b i r d th e dog h as m u tila te d
and w hich she had to k i l l . S e v e ra l se n te n c e s a t th e
c o n c lu s io n o f th e s to r y show h e r a t a p a r ty , f o r g e t t i n g
w hat seemed to be a tra u m a tic e n c o u n te r w ith d e a th . "The
T ra in from R hodesia" (1947) l a s t s a s long a s th e s h o r t
s to p th e t r a i n makes d u rin g a long jo u rn e y . "The S o ft
V oice o f th e S e rp e n t" and "The U m b ilica l Cord" a r e con
f in e d to th e s in g le e p iso d e s a lr e a d y d e s c rib e d .
"A P re s e n t f o r a Good G i r l " (1949) c o v e rs a much
lo n g e r p e rio d th a n any o f th e p re v io u s s t o r i e s , from
177
Septem ber to j u s t b e fo r e C h ristm a s, b u t th e scene in each
e p iso d e rem ains th e same, a j e w e l e r 's shop to w hich a hag
o f a m other comes to s e l e c t an e x p e n siv e p u rse f o r h e r
d a u g h te r and to pay f o r i t in in s ta lm e n ts . L ike a r e p e a t
ed m o tif, each ap p e aran c e o f th e o ld woman in c r e a s e s th e
im p re ssio n t h a t h e r d a u g h te r m ust be v e ry d e s e rv in g . When
th e g i r l does a p p e a r a t th e end o f th e s t o r y , she comes
in l i k e a s h a t t e r i n g a n t i t h e s i s , d e s tro y in g th e waves o f
good w i l l th e r e a d e r had b u i l t up f o r h e r . T hat th e tim e
i s C h ristm as makes th e s i t u a t i o n i r o n i c a l . The two s t o r
ie s w hich fo llo w , c h r o n o lo g ic a lly , " I s There Nowhere E lse
Where W e Can M eet?" (1949) and "La Vie Boheme," a r e th e
l a s t o f th e s t o r i e s c o n fin e d w ith in a s h o r t p e rio d * o f
tim e, th e form er r e l a t i n g an e p iso d e l a s t i n g a few m in
u t e s , and th e l a t t e r th r e e e p is o d e s w hich ta k e up a co u p le
o f h o u rs. From th e n on, th e s t o r i e s co v er lo n g e r p e rio d s
u n t i l th e y span, w ith o u t th e b e n e f i t o f f la s h b a c k s ,
tw enty o r t h i r t y y e a r s .
The tim e elem en t i s c o n s e q u e n tia l to G o rd im e r's l a t e r
s t o r i e s s in c e th e y c o n c e n tr a te more h e a v ily on c h a r a c te r
th a n on p l o t . In h e r e a r l y s t o r i e s , w ith th e c h a r a c te r
p la c e d w ith in a s h o r t e r p e r io d , th e r e i s a s in g le d e l i
n e a tio n . B ut, w ith th e tim e p e r io d expanded, more a t t e n -
178
t i o n i s p a id to changes in c h a r a c te r . In th e f i r s t o f th e
s t o r i e s e x te n d in g o ver a lo n g e r p e r io d , "The T alism an"
(1949), Gordim er u se s fla s h b a c k s in h a n d lin g th e tim e
elem en t and to an alo g y in d e p ic tin g change in th e main
c h a r a c te r . The n a r r a t o r o f th e s to r y s t a r t s by ta l k i n g
a b o u t c lo th e s and d is c u s s e s th e f a t e o f a d r e s s h e r g ra n d
m other k e p t b u t n e v e r w ore. Then she goes on to d e s c r ib e
th e one a m ale a r t i s t f r ie n d chose a s h e r w edding d r e s s .
She i s w earing i t on a r a r e o c c a sio n when she m eets him
a g a in . At th e end, d iv o rc e d and s u f f e r i n g from a weak
h e a r t , she lo o k s a t th e d re s s and f in d s t h a t i t h as begun
to r o t . Gordimer makes e f f e c t i v e u se o f th e adage t h a t
c lo th e s make th e man. But Gordim er u s e s th e adage a s a
p o i n t e r to th e main theme o f th e s to r y . L ike a ta lis m a n ,
c lo th e s m ight a f f e c t th e ap p earan ce o f a p e rs o n ; how ever,
Gordim er im p lie s , c lo th e s r e f l e c t th e man in much th e
same way th e p o r t r a i t r e f l e c t e d th e m oral d e p r a v ity o f
D orian Gray. Whereas W ild e 's n o v el i s a f a n ta s y ,
G o rd im e r's s h o r t s to r y i s n o t. C lo th e s do change and do
e v e n tu a lly r o t and th e r e f o r e c o n s t i t u t e an a p p r o p r ia te
an alo g y to th e change w ith in a p e rso n , a change n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y p a r a l l e l e d in a p e r s o n 's fa c e .
A nalogy i s a l s o used in a n o th e r complex s to r y , "The
179
C atch" (1951). S ince th e s to r y c o v e rs a few days, i t i s
n o t th e tim e elem en t a lo n e w hich i s r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e
co m p lex ity b u t th e manner in w hich th e s to r y i s d ev elo p ed .
In "The C a tc h ," a w h ite co u p le b e f r ie n d an In d ia n f is h in g
n e a r where th e y a r e v a c a tio n in g . He c a tc h e s a huge f i s h
and, u n a b le to g e t r i d o f i t , t r i e s to d rag i t home. T hat
ev e n in g , on th e way to th e c i t y w ith t h e i r f r ie n d s , th e
co u p le g iv e him and th e f i s h a r i d e to h i s home. John
Barkham, in h i s rev ie w o f The S o ft V oice o f th e S e rp e n t
in S atu rd ay Review , i n t e r p r e t s "The C atch" on a r a c i a l
b a s i s . TL o re se n c e o f th e o th e r w h ite s in th e c a r , B ark
ham p o in ts oi_ , makes th e couple c o n sc io u s of th e " i n f e r
i o r i t y " o f th e I n d ia n .^ In "The C a tc h ," Nadine Gordim er
does e x p lo re th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een th e Europeans and
th e In d ia n s in South A f r ic a . The Europeans accu se th e
In d ia n s o f b e in g too com m ercial-m inded. Both th e European
co u p le and th e In d ia n fish erm a n in th e s to r y a re on
v a c a tio n , y e t th e In d ia n c o n s ta n tly th in k s o f s e l l i n g th e
f i s h he c a tc h e s . The f i r s t tim e th e In d ia n m entions
s e l l i n g , "d isa p p o in tm e n t a s much a s a s a t i s f i e d d ig in th e
r i b s from o p p o r tu n is t p r e ju d ic e s t i f f e n e d " th e couple
^M ay 24, 1952, p. 22.
180
( S o ft V o ice, p. 1 1 ). Yet th e c a m a ra d e rie rem ains u n t i l
th e In d ia n le a v e s th e c a r and th e young woman e x p re s s e s
sympathy f o r him. Her f r ie n d s r i d i c u l e and em b arrass h e r
by la u g h in g .
But B arkham 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n l i m i t s th e im p lic a tio n s
o f "The C a tc h ." There i s a n o th e r b ro a d e r le v e l on w hich
th e s to r y can be i n t e r p r e t e d . Gordim er p ro v id e s a p e r
s p e c tiv e by ju x ta p o s in g r e f e r e n c e s to tim e and sp ace:
"th e t e n s io n le s s sh o re " g iv e s th e co u p le "a se n se o f
tim e le s s n e s s " and when th e y w atch th e In d ia n w h ile ly in g
on th e sand, th e y see h i s f e e t " p a s s in g away up th e b each
and s h rin k in g i n to th e f ig u r e o f an In d ia n fish e rm a n "
( S o f t V o ice, p. 8 ). A l i t t l e l a t e r in th e s to r y , p e r
s p e c tiv e h e lp s l i n k th e In d ia n fish erm a n and th e huge
f i s h he has ca u g h t:
At l a s t th e In d ia n came round th e paw o f th e b ay , a
t i n y b la c k s tic k - s h a p e d e te c te d moving a l i v e a lo n g th e
beached w a te r l in e o f b la c k d r i f t - s t i c k s , and a s he drew
n e a r e r he to o k on a shape, and th e n , more d i s t i n c t l y ,
th e shape d iv id e d , a n o th e r shape d e ta c h e d h im s e lf from
th e f i r s t , and th e r e he w a s --a man h u rry in g h e a v ily w ith
a huge f i s h slu n g from h i s s h o u ld e r to h i s h e e ls .
(p . 15)
The theme i s th e tim e le s s o ld man o f th e se a , e x c e p t t h a t
in t h i s s to r y i t i s much more in v o lv e d . In a d d i tio n to
b e in g a b u rd en , th e o ld man—and t h i s i s th e c a tc h - - h a s a
181
b u rd en h im s e lf and b o th a r e e q u a lly unw anted. At th e same
tim e , b o th th e o ld man and h is b u r d e n - - th a t i s , th e In d ia n
and h i s huge f is h - -s y m b o liz e th e unw anted, th e man from
th e p a s t and th e deadw eight of h i s t o r y , o r th e in t r u s i o n
o f an enormous ta s k in to th e easy l i f e o f th e South A f r ic a .
The im p lic a tio n s o f "The C atch" a r e b o th lo c a l and u n i
v e r s a l . In th e words o f W illiam Peden, "P lac e i s an
im p o rta n t elem en t in [G o rd im er's] f i c t i o n ; she i s , however,
no lim ite d lo c a l c o l o r i s t ."10
In h e r l a t e r s t o r i e s , a p a r t from such s t o r i e s as
"The P e t" (1962) where she w ants to em phasize th e p a r
a l l e l , Gordim er d is p e n s e s w ith an alo g y as a means o f
c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . I n s te a d , she r e s o r t s to sum m arizing th e
c h a r a c t e r 's l i f e . T his does n o t mean a l l h e r complex
s t o r i e s e x p re s s change in a c h a r a c te r . "The P ris o n e r "
(1952), f o r exam ple, spans th r e e g e n e r a tio n s , b u t th e
whole p o in t o f th e s to r y , e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d by G ordim er,
i s t h a t " in p o v e rty and d rab n ess n o th in g chan g es" (S o ft
V o ice, p. 9 0 ). In "The P r i s o n e r , " a f t e r h e r husband
abandons h e r , Mrs. K ey te r i s su p p o rte d by h e r son, Mark.
l^R ev. o f The S o ft V oice o f th e S e r p e n t, The New York
Times Book R eview , June 15, 1952, p. 17.
182
E v e n tu a lly Mark d ie s in th e w ar, le a v in g a son, C h a rle s,
who becomes Mrs. K e y te r 's w ard. The w o rld changes around
Mrs. K e y te r, a s i t does around South A fr ic a , w ith th e war
in c r e a s in g th e f l u c t u a t i o n s , b u t Mrs. K ey ter rem ains th e
same. She p o s s e s s e s a te n a c io u s lo v e , w ith w hich she
hopes to keep Mark t i e d to h e r . At th e end o f th e s to r y ,
C h a rle s i s th e p r is o n e r o f t h a t lo v e . To co v er th r e e
g e n e ra tio n s in s ix t e e n p ag e s, Gordim er u s e s s t r a i g h t
n a r r a t i o n . "The P r is o n e r " i s a lm o st e n t i r e l y a summary.
But i t p o in ts to th e te c h n iq u e Gordim er w i l l be in c r e a s
in g ly making u se o f, a co m b in atio n o f e x p o s itio n and
summary.
The S o ft V oice o f th e S e rp e n t foreshadow s o th e r
th in g s to come in G o rd im e r's te c h n iq u e , th e sh a rp focus
a t th e end o f th e s t o r y and a heavy r e l i a n c e on c o n t r a s t s .
There i s ev id e n c e o f b o th in "The T ra in from R h o d e sia ."
In t h i s s to r y G ordim er f i r s t c r e a t e s th e b u s t l e o f a
crowd and v e n d o rs around a t r a i n sto p p in g on a long
jo u rn e y , and th e n fo c u se s on a co u p le in one o f th e
com partm ents in th e t r a i n . T h is te c h n iq u e and th e con-
s t r a s t s e x p re s s th e p o in t o f th e s to r y v e ry e f f e c t i v e l y .
On th e one hand, th e o v e r a l l p i c t u r e shows th e A f r ic a n s '
s tr u g g le f o r e x is te n c e and on t h e i r r e l i a n c e on th e
183
t r a i n s f o r a l i v e lih o o d . The sh a rp fo cu s tow ards th e
end o f th e s to r y im p lie s t h a t th e A fric a n s a re b e in g
e x p lo ite d by th e w h ite s : th e woman in th e com partm ent i s
an g ry a t th e man f o r p ay in g a p a l t r y sum f o r a work o f
a r t , a li o n c a rv e d o u t o f wood, showing a rem ark ab le
p r o p e n s ity f o r v i v i d d e t a i l . Gordim er u s e s th e sh arp
fo cu s a t th e end in c r e a s in g l y in h e r l a t e r s t o r i e s .
The u se o f c o n t r a s t s i s e s p e c i a l l y e v id e n t in "Monday
I s B e tte r Than Sunday" (1949). E liz a b e th , an A fric a n
s e r v a n t, i s c o n t in u a l ly a t th e beck o f an e n t i r e European
h o u seh o ld and i t s g u e s ts , a l l o f whom a r e sp ending a
l e i s u r e l y Sunday. A d e la id e , b e l ie v i n g h e r s e l f to be a
l i b e r a l , d efen d s E liz a b e th , b u t th e s e r v a n t does n o t
a p p r e c ia te i t . At th e end o f th e day, s ta n d in g on th e
ro o f o f th e b lo c k o f f l a t s , E liz a b e th f e e l s lo n e ly .
"Monday I s B e tte r Than Sunday" p r e s e n ts a s e r i e s o f p o in ts ,
c o u n te r p o in ts , a s e r i e s o f c o n t r a s t s betw een th e w h ite s
la z y in g around th e house b u t making c o n s ta n t demands on
E liz a b e th , betw een A d e la id e 's v e r b a l d e fe n se o f E liz a b e th
and h e r tre a tm e n t o f th e s e rv a n t g i r l , betw een E l i z a b e t h 's
a tte m p ts to p re p a re th e b ig Sunday d in n e r and th e c o n s ta n t
i n t e r r u p t i o n s to p ro v id e b r e a k f a s t f o r th e l a t e - s l e e p e r s ,
to w a te r th e flo w e rs , to make t e a f o r g u e s ts , to p re p a re
184
th e b a th , and to c le a n i t a f te r w a r d s . The c o n t r a s t s a re
n a t u r a l l y in tro d u c e d , y e t th e r e i s a d e te rm in e d , b u t
f l u i d , c o n tr o l o ver them. S ince th e v ie w p o in t i s
o m n is c ie n t, a d d i tio n a l c o u n te r p o in ts a r e conveyed th ro u g h
E l i z a b e t h 's r e a c tio n s : h e r r e b e l l i o n i s e x p re sse d in
l i t t l e , e x a s p e r a tin g a c t s . She se rv e s A d ela id e k ip p e rs
a lth o u g h A d elaid e ab h o rs them, she ig n o re s w a te rin g th e
flo w e rs , and she tu r n s h e r fa c e away from A d ela id e when
th e w h ite g i r l defen d s h e r . By th e end o f th e s to r y ,
th e r e a d e r i s convinced t h a t E liz a b e th , a s do th o u san d s
o f A fric a n s s e rv a n ts l i k e h e r , p r e f e r s th e f i r s t "work"
day o f th e week to w hat i s supposed to be th e day o f
r e s t .
Of th e f i r s t volume o f G o rd im e r's s h o r t s t o r i e s ,
Honor T racy, rev ie w in g i t in The New S tatesm an and N a tio n ,
sa y s,
. . . h e r f a u l t s o f o c c a s io n a l o v e r - w r itin g , o f
o v e r-c h a rg in g w ith em otion, o f m ild h y s t e r i a even,
a re th e f a u l t s o f im m atu rity w h ile h e r s p le n d id
g i f t s a re th o se o f a b o rn s t o r y - t e l l e r .
I t would be e q u a lly a c c u r a te to - s a y t h a t th e " g i f t s " f a r
outw eigh th e " f a u l t s . "
11A p ril 11, 1953, p. 434.
185
G o rd im er's n e x t volume o f s h o r t s t o r i e s , S ix F e e t o f
th e C ountry (1956), d is p la y s a m a ste ry o f th e c r a f t o f
s h o r t s to r y w r i tin g f a r o u t o f p r o p o rtio n to th e d e v e lo p
ment in d ic a te d in th e f i r s t volum e. The s t o r i e s r e f l e c t
a c l e a r e r and more p e r s u a s iv e h a n d lin g o f th e d e t a i l s .
She h as tem pered h e r f ig u r e s o f speech and e lim in a te d
th o se w hich a r e fo rc e d and awkward. She s t i l l m a in ta in s
a r i g i d c o n tr o l o v er th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e s to r y , b u t she
le a v e s th e m oral and s o c ia l aw areness to th e r e a d e r . The
te n s io n , w hich was r e s p o n s ib le f o r some o f th e aw kardness
in th e e a r l y s t o r i e s , i s made s u b o r d in a te . The c h a r a c te r s
a r e named and more s e n s i t i v e l y d e l in e a te d . The main
re a s o n f o r th e improvement in th e q u a l i t y o f th e s e s t o r i e s ,
I b e l ie v e , i s t h a t betw een th e w r i tin g o f th e s t o r i e s in
th e two volum es, Gordim er w ro te a n o v e l, The L ying Days
(1953).
A s e m i-a u to b io g ra p h ic a l B ildungsrom an, The Lying Days
h e lp e d Gordim er to purge h e r s e l f o f th e ten d en cy to o v e r
w r i t e . I t a l s o proved a n e c e s s a ry v e h ic le th ro u g h w hich
to e x p re s s th e id e a s .a s e n s i t i v e and l i b e r a l young p e rso n
c a n n o t h e lp ac cu m u latin g w h ile growing up in South A f r ic a .
In "A South A fric a n C hildhood: A llu s io n s in a L an d sc ap e ,"
Gordim er d e s c r ib e s h e r growing aw areness t h a t b la c k
186
A fric a n s were human b e in g s :
I was a long tim e le a r n in g , and each s ta g e o f
e n lig h te n m e n t b ro u g h t i t s own im pulse o f g u i l t
f o r th e ig n o ra n c e t h a t had gone on b e f o r e . 12
A m ajo r p r o p o r tio n o f The Lying Days, e s p e c i a l l y th e
c h a p te r s d e a lin g w ith H e le n 's l i f e a f t e r she e n t e r s th e
u n i v e r s i t y , a m p lif ie s b o th th e aw areness and g u i l t , and
adds th e f u t i l e n o te o f th e l i b e r a l ' s i n a b i l i t y to do
a n y th in g ab o u t th e i n j u s t i c e s o f r a c i a lis m . The n o v el
h as i t s m e r its and w eak n esses, b u t i t e n a b le d Gordim er to
c u l t i v a t e a m atu re v o ic e in h e r s h o r t s t o r i e s . S ince th e
q u a l i t y in h e r e n t in th e s h o r t s t o r i e s in S ix F e e t o f th e
C ountry m atches t h a t o f a lm o st a l l h e r su b se q u en t s t o r i e s
(some a r e w eak), i t i s n e c e s s a ry , b e fo re d e a lin g w ith
in d iv id u a l s t o r i e s , to r e c a p i t u l a t e some o f th e above
d is c u s s io n r e g a r d in g G o rd im e r's developm ent and a l s o
a n a ly z e , in some d e t a i l , th e te c h n iq u e w hich m arks m ost
o f h e r s t o r i e s .
Gordim er re c o g n iz e s th e s h o r t s to r y n e i t h e r as
p o e try , n o r a s drama, b u t a s s t r i c t l y a p ro se form . The
d i s t i n c t i o n i s s i g n i f i c a n t . In th e e a r l y s t o r i e s , th e r e
was some re a c h in g f o r th e p o e tic tu r n o f p h ra se in th e
• ^ T h e New Y o rk e r, O ctooer 16, 1954, p. 140.
187
d e s c r i p t i o n o f p e o p le and p la c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y , a s p o in te d
o u t above, in th e heavy r e l i a n c e on s im ile and m etaphor.
In th e l a t e r s t o r i e s , Gordim er u se s f ig u r e s o f speech
s p a r in g ly . Her l a t e r s im ile s and m etaphors a r e u t i l i z e d
f o r t h e i r f u l l e f f e c t and ran g e w id e ly in t h e i r im p lic a
t i o n s . In "Charmed L iv e s " (1 9 5 6 ), f o r exam ple, Gordimer
u se s th e m ethaphor o f an aquarium to p i c t u r e th e w orld
o u ts id e a w atc h m ak e r's window th ro u g h w hich p e o p le come
to p e e r a t him. W ith in t h i s s in g l e image, Gordimer
c o n c e n tr a te s th e m e a n in g le ssn e ss o f th e w atc h m ak e r's l i f e ,
h is lim ite d view o f th e w o rld , h i s a l i e n a t i o n from i t ,
and th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f h i s e x is te n c e .
A lso, in a few o f h e r l a t e r s t o r i e s , Gordim er r e l i e s
on a l l u s i o n s to g e t h e r p o in t a c r o s s , b u t th e a l l u s i o n s
a re c o n fin e d to th e t i t l e s and, e x c e p t in one s to r y , l e f t
o u t o f th e t e x t . The r e f e r e n c e to th e le g e n d a ry is la n d
in "Face from A t l a n t i s " (1956) p o in ts to a p a s t t h a t
p ro b a b ly n e v e r w as. "Our Bovary" (1957) i s an i r o n i c a l
a l l u s i o n in re v e .rse , s in c e th e Bovary o f th e t i t l e f e e l s
no com punction in b e tr a y in g h e r husband and h as one o f
th e b ig g e s t f u n e r a ls in town when she d ie s o f o ld age.
Gordim er t e l l s h e r s t o r i e s in s t r a i g h t p ro s e , w ith o u t
f r i l l s and f l o u r i s h e s . She m a in ta in s th e p r o s a ic to n e by
188
subduing th e drama l a t e n t in th e s i t u a t i o n s . There i s a
s p a rs e n e s s o f d ia lo g u e in alm o st a l l th e s t o r i e s . Even
in th e l i t t l e th e r e i s , te n s io n i s a b s e n t. Where th e
d ra m a tic i n tr u d e s , a s i t som etim es m ust, G ordim er sup
p r e s s e s i t th ro u g h th e u se o f u n d e rs ta te m e n t, a s in th e
d e s c r ip tio n o f th e war e x p e rie n c e s o f Mark K ey te r in "The
P r i s o n e r ," o r s h i f t s i t o f f s ta g e . Most o f th e tim e she
r e s o r t s to th e l a t t e r te c h n iq u e . The m urder o f a new -born
i n f a n t in "Happy E vent" (1953) and th e drow ning o f a boy
in "A Company o f Laughing F a c e s" (1960) a r e n o t d e s c r ib e d
b u t m entioned a f t e r th e e v e n ts have ta k e n p la c e . In two
in s ta n c e s , Gordim er ends th e s to r y b e f o r e i t re a c h e s th e
m ost d ra m a tic moment. " H a rry 's P re se n c e " (1960) ends w ith
a young u s u rp e r o f a hou seh o ld a b o u t to b e a t th e f a t h e r
w h ile two d a u g h te rs sta n d by h e l p l e s s l y . "Through Time
and D is ta n c e " (1962) i s te rm in a te d when a w h ite t r a v e l i n g
salesm an and h i s b la c k c h a u ffe u r a r e c a u g h t in th e m id s t
o f a m inor r i o t .
Gordim er i s a ls o aware o f an im p o rta n t d i s t i n c t i o n
betw een th e s h o r t s to r y and th e n o v e l: in h e r s h o r t
s t o r i e s she e n t i r e l y s u p p re ss e s th e e p is o d ic i n t e r e s t - -
t h a t i s , h e r l a t e r s t o r i e s do n o t c o n s i s t o f a s e r i e s o f
e p is o d e s . I n s te a d , she c o n c e n tr a te s on a d e l i n e a t i o n o f
189
c h a r a c t e r . E v id e n tly , she ig n o re d th e ad m o n itio n o f th e
Times L i t e r a r y Supplem ent re v ie w e r who, rev ie w in g h e r
f i r s t volume o f s h o r t s t o r i e s , took i t upon h im s e lf to
warn h e r:
In s h o r t s t o r i e s th e s i t u a t i o n i s e v e ry th in g and
c h a r a c te r c o m p a ra tiv e ly s u b o r d in a te . I t would be
a p i t y i f M iss Gordim er f e l l in to th e h a b i t of
r e ly in g to o g e n e r a lly on th e p r e s e n ta ti o n o f an
in n e r se n se o f d is a p p o in tm e n t.13
Most o f "Clowns in C lo v er" (1953) i s a c h a r a c te r s k e tc h
o f th e n a r r a t o r 's Uncle C hookie. Almost a l l o f "Charmed
L iv e s " re a d s l i k e a summary o f th e l i v e s o f two p eo p le
in a sm a ll town. "Enem ies" (1956) combines summary and
i n t e r i o r monologue. G o rd im er's i s a h ig h ly d is c u r s iv e
s t y l e , w ith th e w r i t e r ta k in g th e r e a d e r in to c o n fid e n c e ,
b u t i t i s a ls o one in te n d e d to ex clu d e th e r e a d e r from
th e a c tio n and in s te a d p r e s e n ts him w ith in fo rm a tio n w hich
he ca n n o t m odify to s u i t h i s r e a c t i o n s . The ap p ro ach , in
G o rd im e r's w ords, i s "more i n t e l l e c t u a l " (" W rite r in South
A f r i c a ," p . 2 8 ). The r e a d e r a c c e p ts th e in fo rm a tio n in
t r u s t . I llu m in a tio n , in d ig n a tio n , o r com passion, w hich
in v o lv e th e r e a d e r in th e a c tio n and make him see th e
s to r y in term s o f h i s u n d e rs ta n d in g , come a t th e end, w ith
13 pebruary 27, 1953, p. 133.
190
Gordim er p e r m ittin g h e r s e l f a s i n g l e , s i g n i f i c a n t e p iso d e
to fo cu s on th e p o in t o f th e s to r y .
S e v e ra l re v ie w e rs have n o te d t h i s p a r t i c u l a r te c h n i
que in G o rd im er's h a n d lin g o f th e s h o r t s to r y . John
Wakeman d e s c r ib e s i t a s fo llo w s:
Her te c h n iq u e i s to p r e s e n t h e r c h a r a c te r s fo r
re c o g n itio n , and th e n , by a shake o f th e
k a le id o sc o p e a s i t w ere, to r e v e a l th e d i f f e r e n t
and t r u e r p a t t e r n i m p l i c i t in t h e i r b e h a v io r .14
"One o f h e r m ost a r r e s t i n g m e th o d s," A d rian M itc h e ll
p o in ts o u t, " i s t h i s : to c o n c e n tr a te th e r e a d e r 's a t t e n
t i o n on one p a r t i c u l a r moment, one g e s t u r e . "15 a Time
m agazine re v ie w e r sum m arizes th e te c h n iq u e as i t a p p lie s
to G o rd im er's s t o r i e s a b o u t h e r c o u n t r y 's r a c ia lis m :
A uthor G o rd im er's t a c t i c i s to b la n k e t b o th ra c e s
in a fog o f r o u t i n e l y b e n e v o le n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s and
th en l i f t i t su d d e n ly , r e v e a lin g th e com placent w h ite s
s ta n d in g on th e edge o f an e m o tio n a l a b y s s . 16
Because o f t h i s te c h n iq u e , G o rd im er's s t o r i e s can be
term ed " p l o t l e s s . " Gordim er h e r s e l f p o in te d o u t t h a t she
■^Rev. o f F r i d a y 's F o o t p r i n t , The New York Times
Book Review. Ja n u a ry 10, 1960, p. 4.
■^Rev. o f Not f o r P u b l i c a t i o n , The New York Times
Book Review, May 23, 1965, p. 5.
l ^ s ix F e e t o f th e C o u n try , anon, r e v . , Time,
O ctober 15, 1956, p . 126.
191
i s "p re o c c u p ie d n o t so much w ith th e how, b u t th e why"
("A W rite r in South A f r i c a ," p. 2 8 ). T hat she h as n o t
succeeded in f u l l y conveying th e "why" i s o f seco n d ary
im p o rta n ce. The p rim ary c r i t e r i o n by w hich h e r s t o r i e s
sh o u ld be ju d g ed i s w h eth er th e te c h n iq u e h as proven
e f f e c t i v e . There i s no doubt t h a t i t h a s . The s h i f t
betw een th e n arratio n -su m m ary and th e sh a rp fo cu s on an
in c id e n t a t th e end o f th e s to r y makes th e r e a d e r aware
t h a t som ething s i g n i f i c a n t i s to fo llo w . As a r e s u l t , th e
en d in g r e c e iv e s s p e c ia l em phasis b ecau se o f th e sh arp
c o n t r a s t . In a d d i tio n , however, th e te c h n iq u e disarm s
th e r e a d e r by in v o lv in g him, a s Gordim er in te n d e d ,
" i n t e l l e c t u a l l y . " A f te r h i s mind i s engaged does she add
a to u c h o f f e e l i n g in th e f i n a l p a ra g ra p h s o f th e s to r y .
Of th e tw e n ty -fiv e s t o r i e s h an d led in t h i s m anner, s i x in
p a r t i c u l a r ex e m p lify th e te c h n iq u e a t i t s m ost e f f e c t i v e .
In "A B i t o f Young L if e " (1952), Mrs. M a ise l becomes
th e d a r lin g o f th e h o te l w h ile v a c a tio n in g w ith h e r baby
on th e b e a c h - f r o n t in Durban. Old l a d i e s , Ed, a l a d y 's
man, th e young men, a l l succumb to h e r charm. A f te r she
h as r e tu r n e d to Jo h an n esb u rg , th e y le a r n o f h e r a d u lte r o u s
b e h a v io r w hich r e s u l t s in a sc an d alo u s d iv o rc e . The u se
o f an o m n is c ie n t v ie w p o in t l e t s th e r e a d e r see Mrs. M aisdl
192
throughi th e eyes o f th e o th e r g u e s ts ; h ence, th e r e a d e r i s
b e g u ile d , to o . The in c id e n t a t th e end comes a f t e r th e
r e v e l a t i o n o f th e sc a n d a lo u s d iv o rc e : i t shows Mrs. M aisel
a lo n e in h e r f l a t in Jo h an n esb u rg , a f t e r she has re c e iv e d
p h o to g rap h s o f th e baby ta k e n by Ed. She f in d s th e g u i l t
o f hav in g duped th e h o t e l g u e s ts h e a v ie r th a n t h a t o f h e r
i n f i d e l i t y . The f i r s t im p re ssio n th e s to r y g iv e s i s t h a t
i t i s a b o u t how a p p e a ra n c e s a re d e c e iv in g . But th e f i n a l
glim pse o f Mrs. M a ise l, p lu s an e a r l i e r one where she
alm o st b re a k s down in t e a r s b ec au se Ed i n s i s t s t h a t she
c a n c e l h e r p rem a tu re p la n e r e s e r v a t i o n , make a more p r o
found s ta te m e n t on s o c ie ty . An e a r l y r e v e l a t i o n o f th e
im pending d iv o rc e would have tu rn e d th e g u e s ts in to a mob
i n t e n t on c a s tin g th e f i r s t s to n e s - - th e y e x e c r a te h e r when
th e y le a r n o f th e d iv o r c e . Mrs. M aisel i s th u s p re v e n te d
from se e k in g o u t from among th e g u e s ts th e one p e rso n who
co u ld have h e lp e d h e r th ro u g h th e c r i s i s she was s i l e n t l y
u n d erg o in g . The ending im p lie s t h a t Ed would have been
t h a t p e rso n and t h i s i s w hat in c r e a s e s h e r g u i l t f e e l i n g s .
D u p lic ity a l s o p la y s a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t in b o th "Out
o f Season" (1954) and "My F i r s t Two Women" (1 9 5 6 ), th e
d u p l i c i t y o f women b e n t on a c h ie v in g t h e i r own ends by
any means. T here i s a seaso n when women g e t m a rrie d , th e
193
n a r r a t o r L o tty inform s th e r e a d e r in "Out o f S e a s o n ," b u t
C a ro lin e H unter re m a rr ie s " o u t o f se aso n " (S ix F e e t , p.
9 0 ). The n a r r a t i o n i s g o s s ip y in to n e a s L o tty d is c u s s e s
h e r own l i f e , th e l i f e o f C a ro lin e , and th e l i v e s o f D olly
and C a ro l, th e fo u r women who o c c a s io n a lly m eet a t C aro
l i n e ' s f o r lu n c h . C a ro lin e "has e v e ry th in g " (p. 87) w h ile
th e o th e r s a r e r e s ig n e d to n o t b e in g a b le to m arry a g a in .
S e v e ra l tim es L o tty m en tio n s t h a t C a r o l i n e 's f r ie n d s do
n o t envy h e r , b u t th e im p re ssio n th e r e a d e r g e ts i s t h a t
L o tty p r o t e s t s to o much. The d i r e c t i o n o f th e s to r y
depends upon t h i s im p re s sio n . When th e fo u r m eet f o r
lu n ch , C a ro lin e re a d s to th e o th e r th r e e a l e t t e r from h e r
a b s e n t husband, in fo rm in g h e r how much he m is se s h e r.
L o tty peeks a t th e l e t t e r and d is c o v e rs t h a t C a ro lin e had
in s e r t e d th e s ta te m e n t, " I m iss you t e r r i b l y and I w ant
you in my arm s" (p. 9 5 ). The s to r y ends w ith L o t t y 's
d is c o v e ry : th e r e i s no need to inform th e r e a d e r t h a t
C a ro lin e w i l l be to r n to sh re d s th ro u g h g o s s ip .
"My F i r s t Two Women" i s a lo v e s t o r y - - t h a t i s , th e
s to r y o f a boy re a c h in g o u t f o r lo v e . S ta te d th u s , th e
s to r y sounds sim p le , b u t i t i s c o m p lic a te d by two c o n t r a
d ic to r y , in terw o v en s tr a n d s w hich seem commonplace when
i s o l a t e d and d is c u s s e d i n d i v i d u a l l y . In th e s to r y , th e
n a r r a t o r re m in is c e s ab o u t h i s c h ild h o o d , h i s d iv o rc e d
m other, h i s f a t h e r ’ s re m a rria g e , and h i s ste p m o th e r. The
n a r r a t i v e v e e rs from v i s i t s to th e m other, who pam pers
th e boy, and th e atm osphere a t home w ith th e new s t e p
m other, D ebbie. The r e a d e r wonders w h eth er th e boy would
a c c e p t h i s ste p m o th e r and e x p e c ts a c o n f l i c t betw een th e
two. But such a c o n f l i c t i s e lim in a te d from p r a c t i c a l l y
th e b e g in n in g , to be re p la c e d by a n o th e r, more s u b tl e
te n s io n betw een th e two. The boy does a c c e p t D ebbie and
ev e ry now and th e n re a c h e s o u t f o r h e r lo v e . H is m o tiv a
t i o n s , how ever, a r e m ixed. Gordimer s k i l f u l l y c r e a t e s a
mood each tim e th e boy ap p ro ach es Debbie and th e r e i s no
doubt t h a t th e boy i s g e n u in e ly o f f e r in g a f f e c t i o n and
a sk in g f o r i t in r e t u r n . At th e same tim e, though, he
u s e s h i s m other to m a n ip u la te D e b b ie 's f e e l i n g s . The
r e a d e r i s t a n t a l i z e d a s Debbie i n s i s t s on k eep in g th e boy
a t a d is t a n c e . The r e a d e r adm ires h e r f o r n o t g iv in g in
to th e b o y 's w ile s b u t i s b e w ild e re d t h a t th e r e i s no
re sp o n se to h i s a f f e c t i o n . The re a so n f o r h e r b e h a v io r i s
j u s t a s sh ocking to th e re a d e r a s i t i s f o r th e boy.
Debbie r e l u c t a n t l y r e v e a ls to him, when he i s f i f t e e n ,
t h a t h is mother, d id n o t w ant him and t h a t she d id n o t
w ant to come betw een him and h i s m other. I r o n i c a l l y , h e r
195
good in t e n t i o n s r e s u l t e d in a l i e n a t i n g him from b o th . I f
h i s m other and Debbie were th e f i r s t two women in h i s l i f e ,
. one can im agine how warped h i s a t t i t u d e m ust be tow ard a l l
o th e r women.
In "The P a th o f th e M oon's Dark F o r tn ig h t" (1957) th e
im p lic a tio n s o f th e s to r y a r e h id d en in a w e lte r o f d e t a i l s
o f a p r e p a r a tio n f o r an e la b o r a te lu n c h and th e lu n ch
i t s e l f . A r e c u r r e n t to p ic o f c o n v e rs a tio n among th e h o s t
and th e g u e s ts le a d s to th e main p o in t o f th e s to r y . The
de-em phasis o f th e theme i s d e l i b e r a t e on G o rd im er's p a r t .
She w ants th e r e a d e r to c o n c e n tr a te on th e b e h a v io r of
th e a d u l ts b e f o re she in tr o d u c e s , a t th e end, a c h i l d 's
n e g a tio n o f t h a t w o rld . Manuel De Vos i n v i t e s th e
Lennoxes and th e Tollm ans f o r lu n c h and spends s e v e r a l
days m a rin a tin g v e n is o n , ch o o sin g th e r i g h t v e g e ta b le s ,
and making th e sa u ces and th e d e s s e r t . In th e d e s c r ip tio n
o f th e s e p r e p a r a tio n s th e r e a d e r g e ts an i n d ic a t io n o f
one o f th e th in g s th e s to r y i s to c a s t i g a t e : M an u el's
com parison o f a dead r a t f l o a t i n g in th e swimming pool
to th e v e n iso n m a rin a tin g in h i s k itc h e n makes th e re a d e r
wonder ab o u t th e g ro s s n e s s o f an a p p e t i t e w hich o v erlo o k s
such an od io u s com parison. The r e c u r r e n t to p ic i s ab o u t
Ruth Lennox ta k in g up yoga and becoming a v e g e ta r ia n .
196
R u th 's new i n t e r e s t i s n o t t r e a t e d a s a fad and t h a t
i s w hat makes i t so s i g n i f i c a n t . Her son, W illiam , adds
to h e r s e r io u s n e s s by j o i n i n g h e r in b o th th e e x e r c is e s
and th e d i e t . Manuel s e rv e s Ruth and h e r son v e g e ta b le
soup, r e a l i z i n g to o l a t e t h a t th e soup h as c h ick en s to c k .
Ruth does n o t n o tic e , b u t W illiam , a f t e r th e f i r s t s ip ,
ru n s o f f and f i l l s h i s mouth w ith d i r t . W ith t h a t one
g e s tu r e , W illiam r e v e a ls th e sham and h y p o c ris y o f th e
a d u l t w o rld and t h e i r g ro s s a p p e t i t e s . The t i t l e makes
an a d d i t i o n a l p o in t. A ccording to th e B h ag av ad -G ita,
th e re a r e two p a th s o f th e moon, a " b r ig h t f o r t n i g h t " and
j
a "d ark f o rtn ig h t. Evidently, Ruth Lennox i s le a d in g
h e r s e l f down th e n e g a tiv e p a th .
"Face from A t l a n t i s " d i f f e r s from th e o th e r s i m i l a r
ly h an d led s t o r i e s in one r e s p e c t: in s te a d o f en d in g w ith
a s in g l e e p iso d e , i t ends w ith a s e r i e s o f c o n t r a s t i n g
in c id e n t s . For one c h a r a c te r in p a r t i c u l a r , th e y amount
to an a n t i t h e s i s to a l l t h a t has gone b e f o r e . The B rands,
th e husband a form er A u s tria n , to u r Europe and th e U n ited
S ta te s , m eetin g Waldeck B ra n d 's com panions o f h i s y o u th .
The s to r y i s to ld th ro u g h th e v ie w p o in t o f E ile e n Brand,
• ^ F r i d a y 's F o o tp r in t (London, 1960), pp. 127-128.
197
who, ro m an tic in o u tlo o k , goes th ro u g h th e jo u rn e y w ith
f e e l i n g s o f e u p h o ria and e x p e c ta tio n .
The r e a d e r i s ta k e n up w ith t h i s e x p e c ta tio n s in c e
th e one p e rso n E i l e e n 's husband would l i k e to see m ost i s
m entioned in th e f i r s t p a ra g ra p h : C a r l i t t a , whom E ile e n
knows th ro u g h p h o to g rap h s and s t o r i e s . Each m ention o f
C a r l i t t a m a g n ifie s h e r o u t o f a l l r e a l i s t i c p r o p o rtio n
u n t i l th e r e a d e r e x p e c ts a le t-d o w n . There i s one.
C a r l i t t a , when th e B rands f i n a l l y m eet h e r, has a "fad e d ,
fa d in g f a c e ," b u t " th e eyes had l o s t n o th in g . . . T h e ir
a s s e r t i o n in t h a t fa c e was r a t h e r aw fu l" (S ix F e e t, p.
2 6 ). D e sp ite E i l e e n 's p r o t e s t s , h e r husband keeps
i n s i s t i n g , "But C a r l i t t a h a s n 't changed a t a l l " (p. 2 8 ),
"Same o ld C a rljL tta " (p. 3 0 ), " I to l d you, same o ld
C a r l i t t a " (p. 3 8 ). Most s h o r t s t o r i e s end w ith one o f
th e c h a r a c te r s coming to a r e a l i z a t i o n , o r , more o f te n ,
th e r e a d e r re a c h in g a p o in t o f ill u m in a tio n . "Face from
A t l a n t i s " ends b o th ways. For E ile e n Brand, though she
does n o t re c o g n iz e i t a t th e tim e, th e re i s an end to th e
ro m an tic o u tlo o k on E urope. She r e a l i z e s t h a t h e r h u s
b a n d 's p i c t u r e o f p re -w a r Europe i s , l i k e th e d e s c r ip tio n
o f A t l a n t i s , vague and she has no way o f knowing w h eth er
t h a t p i c t u r e has any v a l i d i t y . E ile e n a ls o s to p s p ro -
198
t e s t i n g when she r e a l i z e s t h a t C a r l i t t a had n o t changed,
b u t n o t in way h e r husband th o u g h t:
Under t h a t faded fa c e , in t h a t worn body, was th e
l i t t l e German g i r l o f th e T w en ties, a r r o g a n t in a
y o uth t h a t d id n o t e x i s t , c o n f id e n tly d i s d a i n f u l in
th e p o s s e s s io n o f a b e a u ty t h a t was no lo n g e r th e r e .
(p. 38)
And th e re a d e r r e a l i z e s t h a t C a r l i t t a f u n c tio n s a s a sym
b o l, r e p r e s e n tin g an i r r e t r i e v a b l e p a s t in w hich p eo p le
l i k e Waldeck Brand l i v e . How empty m ust be th e l i v e s o f
th e Waldecks when th e y c l i n g to a p a s t t h a t has fad ed .
To say t h a t some p e o p le a r e so e g o c e n tr ic a s to be
im pervious to r e a l i t y i s to say n o th in g new. But to
u t i l i z e th e axiom to convey a number o f p o in ts in a
s in g le s to r y , a s Gordim er does in M Face from A t l a n t i s "
i s a n o th e r m a tte r . Gordim er makes u se o f i t a g a in in
"A Company o f Laughing F a c e s" to end th e s to r y w ith a
n e a t, i r o n i c a l to u c h , th u s enhancing th e s to r y c o n s id e r
a b ly . In "A Company o f Laughing F a c e s" Mrs. Hack ta k e s
h e r d a u g h te r Kathy to a se a r e s o r t and l e t s h e r lo o se
among th e y o u th so t h a t she co u ld p a r t i c i p a t e in l i f e .
Kathy f in d s i t d i f f i c u l t to g e t c lo s e to h e r y o u th fu l
com panions. She comes c lo s e to a boy o f te n , who drowns.
T his c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith d e a th i s f o r h e r " th e one r e a l
happening o f th e h o lid a y , th e one t r u t h and th e one
199
beauty."^-® I r o n i c a l l y , Mrs. Hack b e lie v e s t h a t th e d e a th
h as s p o ile d h e r d a u g h te r 's v a c a tio n .
S e tti n g p la y s a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t in "A Company o f
Laughing F a c e s ," as i t does n o t in many o f G ordim erfs
o th e r s t o r i e s . U nless th e them e-of a s to r y i s th e
r a c i a lis m o f South A fr ic a , th e r e a d e r i s h a rd ly aware
t h a t many o f th e e v e n ts in G o rd im e r's work a r e ta k in g
p la c e in a p a r t i c u l a r c o u n try . E v id e n tly , a s h e r s t a t e
ment on K a th e rin e M a n sfie ld and P a u lin e Sm ith i n d i c a t e s ,
Gordim er has no i n t e n t i o n on c a p i t a l i z i n g on some o f th e
e x o tic background o f h e r c o u n try . From th e f i r s t o f h e r
s t o r i e s p u b lis h e d in th e U nited S t a t e s , "The K in d e st
Thing To D o," Gordim er does n o t even m ention th e name o f
th e town o r th e c i t y th e s to r y i s s e t in , when th e s e t t i n g
i s n o t an im p o rta n t p a r t o f th e theme.
But in "A Company o f Laughing F a c e s ," In g aza Beach
i s a t once p a r t i c u l a r i z e d and u n i v e r s a l , and s i g n i f i c a n t .
The amorphous mass o f yo u th , rem ain in g th e same even
though th e fa c e s change, in v o lv e d in a r i t u a l l i k e some
p r im it iv e i n i t i a t i o n , b u t in t o n o th in g n e s s , can a l s o be
in B rig h to n o r Miami Beach. Gordim er p r e s e n ts th e mass a s
^ N o t f o r P u b lic a tio n (New York, 1965), p. 50.
200
a c t i v e , u n s e t t l e d , c o n s ta n tl y in m otion, even when th e
g i r l s ’ m others a r e ta k in g a f te rn o o n n a p s, swaying and
je r k in g to th e s ta c c a to o f canned m usic long a f t e r th e
m others a r e a s le e p a t n ig h t, b u t e v e ry now and th e n she
o f f e r s a v e r b a l c ra c k th ro u g h w hich th e r e a d e r p e rc e iv e s
t h a t th e immense d i s s i p a t i o n o f so much v i t a l i t y amounts
to n o th in g .
These v e r b a l c ra c k s a r e o f th r e e K inds, K a th y 's
r e a c t i o n s , i n c i s i v e comments by th e a u th o r, and d e t a i l s
o f th e n a t u r a l w o rld o f th e s e a . Kathy soon f o r g e ts th e
a n t i c i p a t i o n w ith w hich she looked forw ard to th e h o lid a y .
She re g a rd s h e r new d r e s s e s and "sm a ll t i g h t s h o r ts " as
"equipm ent r a t h e r th a n c l o t h e s " (p. 3 6 ). She le a r n s to
go " th ro u g h m otions o f p le a s u r e " (p . 3 8 ), and a t one
p o in t f e e l s l i k e a " s i l l y l i t t l e a s s " f o r doing so (p . 4 7 ).
Only once does she f e e l a l i v e , when she m eets an unnamed
young man who f o r a moment em erges from th e mass a s an
in d iv id u a l and k i s s e s h e r:
She became aware o f th e m ost e x tr a o r d in a r y s e n s a tio n ; -
h e r l i t t l e b r e a s t s , t h a t she had n e v e r th o u g h t o f as
having any s o r t o f a s s e r t i o n o f l i f e o f t h e i r own,
w ere su ddenly in h a b ite d by two s tr u g g lin g t r e e s o f
f e e l i n g , one t h r u s t i n g up, u n c u r lin g , s p re a d in g ,
tow ard each n ip p le . And from h i s l i p s , i t came, t h i s
s e n s a tio n ! (p. 44)
But th e moment does n o t l a s t : a l l th e young man i s
i n t e r e s t e d in i s se d u cin g h e r .
Gordim er p e rm its h e r s e l f a few i n c i s i v e comments in
"A Company o f Laughing F a c e s .” She l a b e l s th e y o u th s '
a c t i v i t i e s a s a "m u ffle o f autom atism " and " th e p e r f o r
mance o f a r i t e " (p. 3 8 ). She m entions th e young m en 's
" e x a g g e ra te d en d earm en ts" and "suprem e in d if f e r e n c e "
(p . 3 8 ). She draws a t t e n t i o n to th e boys and g i r l s
la n g u is h in g on th e b each and t h e i r " e n e r v a tio n o f ex p o su re
to th e long h o t day" (p. 4 2 ). S h arp ly c o n t r a s tin g w ith
th e s e comments a r e th e images d e s c r ib in g th e sea and th e
n a t u r a l w o rld . Many o f th e s e images a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith
th e boy o f te n , a s i f he w ere a n a t u r a l p a r t o f t h i s
n a t u r a l w o rld . The f i r s t tim e Kathy comes a c ro s s him,
she ig n o re s him. But th e second tim e, a f t e r she ru n s
from h e r w ould-be s e d u c e r, she j o i n s th e boy and s h a re s
w ith him an a f f i n i t y a b s e n t from h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith
. h e r c o n te m p o ra rie s . He shows h e r th e s p i r a l s he has
c o l l e c t e d , p o in ts o u t to h e r "a t i n y h e rm it crab t h a t had
b lu e e y e s ," and la y s o u t on a ro c k , a s an o f f e r in g f o r h e r ,
" f iv e d i f f e r e n t c o lo r s o f s t a r f i s h " (p. 4 6 ). Gordim er
em phasizes th e a f f i n i t y a g a in when she p i c t u r e s th e s e a rc h
f o r th e boy a f t e r he d is a p p e a rs . W hile th e r e s t o f th e
crowd, p a n i c - s t r i c k e n , s e a rc h e s f o r him f r a n t i c a l l y , Kathy
202
w alks calm ly and d i r e c t l y to a le d g e in th e ro c k s and
f in d s him drowned. "What she f e l t was n o t shock, b u t
r e c o g n i tio n 1 ' (p. 4 9 ). As i f th e c o n f r o n ta tio n w ere a
s e c r e t , betw een h e r s e l f and th e boy, Kathy w alks away and
l e t s someone e l s e f in d him. E x p e c tin g n o th in g o f h e r, he
sh a re d w ith h e r a l l he had r e c e iv e d from th e n a t u r a l
w o rld .
W hile G ordim er u s e s th e su m m ary -n arratio n and sh a rp -
fo cu s te c h n iq u e in a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o rtio n o f h e r
s t o r i e s - - t w e n t y - f i v e o u t o f s i x t y - s i x - - o t h e r s t o r i e s
ex em p lify th e ran g e o f h e r o th e r te c h n iq u e s . These
s t o r i e s a r e "S ix F e e t o f th e C o u n try ," "Happy E v e n t,"
"Which New E ra Would T hat Be?" "The B rid eg ro o m ," "The
G en tle A r t , " and "The A fric a n M a g ic ia n ."
The to n e o f " S ix F e e t o f th e C ountry" (1 9 5 3 ), a
f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e from th e v ie w p o in t o f a European
owner o f a farm , i s p r im a r il y one o f e x a s p e r a tio n , b u t
w ith nuances o f change a t each tu r n o f e v e n t s / In th e
s to r y , an I l l e g a l A fr ic a n im m igrant d ie s on th e farm and
th e p o lic e ta k e away th e body. The r e l a t i v e s and w orkers
pay to re c o v e r th e c o rp s e , b u t j u s t b e fo r e b u ry in g i t ,
th ey d is c o v e r t h a t i t i s th e wrong body. The owner of
th e farm makes f u r t h e r a tte m p ts to re c o v e r th e r i g h t one
203
and f a i l s . T hat th e owner o f the farm i s n o t e x a c tly a
fa rm e r--h e works in th e c i t y - - i s s i g n i f i c a n t . I t i s
e x p e n siv e to ru n th e farm , b u t i t i s a ls o w o rth b e in g
away from th e te n s io n s o f th e c i t y , te n s io n s r e s u l t i n g
from r a c i a l c o n f l i c t . When th e n a r r a t o r e x p la in s a l l
t h i s to th e r e a d e r in th e b eg in n in g , he sounds w ell-m ean
in g , s e n s i t i v e .
But th e n th e n a r r a t o r a ls o draws a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t
ween l i f e on th e farm and l i f e in th e c i t y . On th e farm ,
he s t a t e s , "o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith th e b la c k s i s alm o st
fe u d a l" (S ix F e e t , p. 3 ). And th e r e i s th e ru b . I t i s
a f a c i l e com parison, made in an o ff-h a n d e d m anner, b u t i t
i s so r e v e a lin g o f th e f e e lin g s o f m ost South A fric a n
w h ite s . I m p lic it in th e com parison i s th e s u p e r c i l i o u s
a t t i t u d e tow ards th e b la c k s . E s p e c ia lly a f t e r th e d i s
covery o f th e dead body n e g a te s th e n a r r a t o r 's i n i t i a l
b o a s ts o f l i b e r a l i s m and proves him to be l i k e any o th e r
E uropean. "S ix F e e t o f th e C ountry" a n a ly z e s t h i s
a t t i t u d e and makes an a d d i tio n a l, i r o n i c a l p o in t re g a rd in g
w h ite s who w ant to p e r p e tu a te th e "a lm o st f e u d a l" s t a t u s
quo. The n a r r a t o r r e a d i l y h e lp s th e A fric a n s on th e farm ,
b u t th e b lu n t manner in w hich t h i s h e lp i s o f f e r e d b e tr a y s
an i r r i t a t i o n and im p a tie n ce c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e
European. He i s a v e rs e to c o n s id e r in g A fric a n s as
c h ild r e n , b u t th e r e i s no doubt ab o u t h i s behaving l i k e a
f a t h e r w ith f o o l i s h c h ild r e n when he r e c e iv e s th e money
to re c o v e r th e body. He f in d s i t d i f f i c u l t to u n d e rsta n d
why th e A fric a n s would want to p la c e so g r e a t an em phasis
on g iv in g th e dead man a d e c e n t b u r i a l . Y et, subcon
s c io u s ly o r i n a d v e r te n tl y , he se e s th e b u r i a l in B i b l i c a l
term s (p . 1 1 ).
The to n e o f e x a s p e r a tio n p e r s i s t s th ro u g h o u t "S ix
F e e t o f th e C o u n try ," b u t th e r e i s a s h i f t when the
n a r r a t o r a tte m p ts to re c o v e r th e r i g h t c o rp s e . I n s te a d o f
b e in g e x a s p e ra te d w ith th e A fr ic a n s , he i s now e x a s p e ra te d
w ith th e a u t h o r i t i e s . In d e s c r ib in g th e f u t i l i t y o f th e
n a r r a t o r 's a tte m p ts , Gordim er p ro v id e s a m etaphor o f th e
w h ite m an 's s i t u a t i o n in South A fr ic a . The n a r r a t o r
inform s P e tr u s , a c lo s e r e l a t i v e o f th e dead man, o f h i s
e f f o r t s , " b u t a lth o u g h .. . . th e v o ic e in w hich [he] s a id
i t was th e same, ev ery ev en in g i t sounded w eaker" (p. 1 4 ).
The v o ic e o f a u t h o r i t y i s so overwhelm ing t h a t i t en
fe e b le s th e v o ic e s o f a l l who come a g a in s t i t . I r o n i
c a l l y , th e an alo g y o f a f e u d a l s o c ie ty a p p lie s j u s t as
much to th e w h ite s a s to th e b la c k s . A w h ite man may be
th e lo r d o f th e l i t t l e p ie c e o f la n d he p o s s e s s e s , b u t
205
o v er him i s a h ig h e r a u t h o r i t y w hich makes him a h e l p le s s
s u b je c t. The t i t l e p o in ts to th e sim ple f a c t t h a t th e
A fric a n has no say w h a tso e v e r, even when i t comes to th e
la n d he can c a l l h i s , o n ly s i x f e e t o f th e c o u n try .
The t i t l e o f "Happy E v en t" (1953) i s l i t e r a l a t th e
b e g in n in g o f th e s to r y , b u t becomes i r o n i c a l tow ard th e
end. E l l a P la is to w , lo o k in g forw ard to a lo n g -a w a ite d
t r i p to Europe, ( th e "happy e v e n t" ) h as s e rv a n t problem s
w hich she t r i e s to ig n o re . She th e n f in d s h e r s e l f in
c o u r t b ecau se h e r s e r v a n t - g i r l i s ch arg ed w ith m urdering
a new -born i n f a n t . The s u b je c t o f "Happy E vent" i s n o t
problem s th e w h ite s have w ith t h e i r s e r v a n ts - - s u c h
in c id e n ts a re commonplace a l l o v er South A f r ic a - - b u t th e
a b e r r a t io n of th e w h ite s l i v i n g in , to q u o te Gordimer
from a n o th e r c o n te x t, "an e m o tio n a l c lim a te o f p r i v i
le g e . "^9 On th e s u r fa c e , such p e o p le m ight assume an
am oral a t t i t u d e , b u t th e y do have g u i l t y c o n s c ie n c e s .
Gordimer conveys such a p i c t u r e o f c o n c e n tr a tin g on E l l a
P la is to w 1s th o u g h ts in a s to r y w hich i s o m n isc ie n t in
v ie w p o in t.
In d e s c r ib in g E l l a 's a n t i c i p a t i o n o f a t r i p to Europe
" A p a r th e id ," H o lid a y , XXV (A p ril 1959), 95.
206
she h as been lo o k in g forw ard to a l l h e r l i f e , Gordimer
g lo s s e s o v er th e a b o r tio n E l l a u ndergoes s in c e a n o th e r
c h i l d w ould mean p o stp o n in g th e t r i p f o r y e a rs to come.
In f a c t , to r e f l e c t E l l a 's f e e l in g s a b o u t th e a b o r tio n ,
Gordim er does n o t even m ention th e word. In any c a se ,
E l l a would have f o r g o tt e n a l l a b o u t i t d u rin g th e t r i p ,
w ere i t n o t f o r th e d is c o v e ry t h a t h e r s e r v a n t - g i r l Lena,
w ith o u t s u s p ic io n on E l l a 's p a r t , gave b i r t h to a baby,
m urdered i t , and b u r ie d i t , a l l in a s in g le n ig h t. For
E l l a , th e m urder i s somewhat an alo g o u s to w hat she d id to
th e c h i l d she was c a r r y in g . There a r e s e v e r a l in d ic a t io n s
o f t h i s . A f t e r Lena i s a r r e s t e d , E l l a f e e l s "a h o r r i b l e
c o n f l i c t o f a g i t a t i o n and sh a m e --fo r w hat, she d id not-
know" (S ix F e e t , p. 1 6 4 ). A lso, betw een th e tim e o f th e
a r r e s t and th e t r i a l , E l l a , s e e in g L e n a 's a c t th ro u g h th e
eyes o f f r i e n d s and n e ig h b o rs , p i c t u r e s Lena a s a "ghou
l i s h c r e a t u r e , " a lth o u g h l a t e r , when she s e e s Lena in
c o u r t, th e r e i s "som ething d is q u i e ti n g and u n ex p ected
a b o u t th e o r d i n a r i n e s s , th e n a t u r a ln e s s " o f L e n a 's
ap p e aran c e (p . 165).
The m ost a r r e s t i n g image in th e s to r y i s th e image o f
th e dead baby. As W illiam Peden p o in ts o u t,
. . . th e p a r a f f i n t i n on th e v e ld w ith i t s dead
207
b la c k i n f a n t i s a s e f f e c t i v e a symbol o f in d iv id u a l
and c o l l e c t i v e g u i l t a s C o le r id g e 's r o t t i n g a l b a
t r o s s . 20
What s tre n g th e n s th e symbol i s t h a t th e dead i n f a n t was
wrapped in a b lu e s a t i n nightgow n once b e lo n g in g to E l l a
and 'w ith h e r name on i t . T h is, p lu s th e r e c e n t a b o r tio n ,
makes E l l a sh a re in th e g u i l t and a lth o u g h she does go
o f f to E urope, i t i s no lo n g e r a "happy e v e n t ." "Happy
E v en t" a l s o im p lie s a c o l l e c t i v e g u i l t . Most w h ite s in
South A fr ic a a p p e ar im pervious to th e c o n d itio n s engen
d ered by r a c i a lis m . The n a r r a t o r in G o rd im er’s second
n o v e l, A World o f S tra n g e rs (1 9 5 8 ), new ly a r r i v e d from
E ngland, makes a p e r t i n e n t o b s e rv a tio n :
T hat was th e f i r s t tim e I e n c o u n te re d w hat I was soon
to re c o g n iz e a s a f a m i l i a r a t t i t u d e among South
A fric a n s : an u n ex p ected d e s ir e to d i s s o c i a t e them
s e lv e s from t h e i r m ilie u , a w ish to make i t c l e a r th e y
were n o t ta k e n in , even by th e m s e lv e s .21
N e v e rth e le s s , th e y a r e r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e c irc u m sta n c e s
o f th e n o n -w h ites in t h e i r c o u n try and th e y become aw are,
o r a re made aw are, o f t h e i r g u i l t when th e y t r a v e l to
o th e r c o u n t r ie s . The m urder o f an- i n f a n t i s an ap p ro -
20
Rev. o f S ix F e e t o f th e C o u n try , S a tu rd a y Review,
O ctober 27, 1956, p. 17.
21(London, 1958), p. 64.
p r i a t e m ethaphor f o r t h i s g u i l t . The South A fric a n
governm ent m ight p r o t e s t t h a t th e l i v i n g c o n d itio n s o f
A fric a n s in i t s c o u n try i s f a r b e t t e r th a n in any o th e r
c o u n try on th e A fric a n c o n tin e n t, b u t th e in f a n t mor
t a l i t y r a t e b e l i e s t h e i r propaganda. The r a t e i s one o f
th e h ig h e s t in th e w o rld . W hile f o r th e w h ite s in South
A f r ic a th e r a t e i s 28 p e r 1 ,0 0 0 , f o r th e b la c k s i t i s
116 p e r 1,000 in P r e t o r i a , 250 p e r 1,000 in Cape Town,
and 397 p e r 1,000 in P o r t E liz a b e th . In o th e r p a r t s o f
A f r ic a , th e l a t e s t f ig u r e s a r e 195 p e r 1,000 in Kenya,
143 p e r 1,000 in M alawi, 135 p e r 1,000 in th e C e n tra l
A fric a n R e p u b lic , 131 p e r 1,000 in Mozambique, and 40 p e r
1,000 in T an zan ia. The h ig h e s t m o r t a l i t y r a t e in th e
c o u n tr ie s s o u th o f th e S ahara i s 276 p e r 1,000 in N ig e ria ,
w hich i s low er th a n th e r a t e f o r b la c k s in Cape Town.
22
(F ig u re s f o r some A fric a n c o u n tr ie s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e . )
On th e o th e r hand, d e s p ite th e w h ite South A f r i c a n 's
c o n te n tio n t h a t he knows what i s good f o r th e A fr ic a n s , he
has v e ry l i t t l e knowledge o f th e l i f e o f an A fric a n u nder
a p a r t h e id . "What i t means to l i v e l i k e [ th e way A fric a n s
22
F or th e s e l a t e s t f i g u r e s , see M o rris L. E rn s t,
The C om parative I n t e r n a t i o n a l Almanac (New York, 1967).
209
d o ], " Gordimer p o in ts o u t, M I ca n n o t t e l l y o u .' No w h ite
p e rso n can" (" A p a rth e id ," p . 9 5 ). T his i s th e main p o in t
o f "Which New E ra Would T h at Be?" (1 9 5 5 ). A l i s t e r H a lfo rd
ta k e s J e n i f e r T e tz e l to se e a C oloured p r i n t e r , Jake
A lexander. S e v e ra l o f J a k e 's n o n -w h ite f r ie n d s t e l l
s t o r i e s o f a b su rd e x p e rie n c e s u nder a p a r th e id . J e n i f e r ,
a l i b e r a l , does n o t b e l ie v e them. When she le a v e s w ith
A l i s t e r , Jak e k ic k s th e c h a i r she has been s i t t i n g on.
"Which New E ra Would T h at Be?" sounds l i k e a fo o tn o te
to th e n o v e l, A World o f S tr a n g e r s , in w hich th e le a d in g
c h a r a c te r , who i s from E ngland, g e ts to know more ab o u t
th e A fric a n s th an th e S outh A fric a n w h ite s . Jak e i s
m entioned tw ic e in th e n o v e l. A l i s t e r , in th e e x p e rie n c e s
r e f e r r e d to in th e s h o r t s t o r y , sounds l i k e Toby in th e
n o v e l. E xcept f o r t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n s - - A l i s t e r i s a
j o u r n a l i s t and Toby i s a p u b l i s h e r 's r e p r e s e n t a t i v e - - t h e
two m ight as w e ll be th e same p e rso n .
The n o v e l, in a s ta te m e n t made by a know ledgeable
South A fric a n c h a r a c te r , a l s o p o in ts to th e im p lic a tio n s
o f th e s h o r t s to r y . Anna Louw, an A frik a n e r p e rs e c u te d
by th e governm ent f o r f i g h t i n g a g a in s t a p a r th e id , inform s
Toby o f th e w h i t e 's a t t i t u d e s tow ards r a c ia lis m :
. . . you m ust u n d e rs ta n d t h a t you a r e in a c o u n try
210
where th e r e a r e a l l s o r t s o f d i f f e r e n t ways o f ta l k i n g
a b o u t o r r a t h e r d e a lin g w ith t h i s th in g . One o f th e
ways i s n o t t a l k a b o u t i t a t a l l . Not to d e a l w ith i t
a t a l l . (pp. 73-74)
J e n i f e r T e tz e l in "Which New E ra Would T hat Be?" em bodies
one o f th e s e a t t i t u d e s . She b e lie v e s t h a t i f she d e n ie s
a s i t u a t i o n i t would ce a se to e x i s t . Gordim er u se s
c o n v e rs a tio n s betw een A l i s t e r and Ja k e , betw een J e n i f e r
and Jak e and th e o th e r n o n -w h ites to make J e n i f e r ap p e ar
r i d i c u l o u s in assum ing th e p o s tu re o f l i b e r a l i s m .
G ordim er, f o r once, throw s s u b t l e t y o u t on th e v e ld and
aim s e v e ry th in g a t J e n i f e r . A few pages a f t e r i d e n t i f y
in g J e n i f e r s e v e r a l tim e s, she r e f e r s to h e r a s "th e
young w h ite woman" (S ix F e e t , p. 77). She makes J e n i f e r
r e s p o n s ib le f o r J a k e 's unspoken t i r a d e a g a in s t e q u a l i t y .
F or th e s t o r y 's im p lic a tio n s , Gordim er depends on
c o n t r a s t s . The two main c o n t r a s t s a re betw een J e n i f e r 's
b e l i e f s and h e r s ta te m e n ts and betw een th e ca m a ra d e rie
and b a n t e r o f Jak e and A l i s t e r and th e re s e rv e d t r e a t
ment Ja k e s m etes o u t to J e n i f e r . More s i g n i f i c a n t a re
th e i r o n i e s , some o f w hich a r e made q u ite em phatic th ro u g h
rem arks by th e c h a r a c te r s . I t i s i r o n i c a l t h a t J e n i f e r
sh o u ld w ant to work and l i v e among th e non-E uropeans in
Cape F l a t s when she d e t e s t s th e p la c e . There a r e s e v e r a l
211
o th e r i r o n i e s , a l l stemming from th e in c o n g ru ity betw een
J e n i f e r 's l i b e r a l i s m and h e r i n a b i l i t y to a c c e p t th e
sta te m e n ts o f M axie, th e A fric a n , and Temba, th e C oloured,
re g a rd in g t h e i r r a c i a l e x p e rie n c e s . Most i r o n i c a l l y , i t
i s J e n i f e r who fram es th e q u e s tio n t h a t p ro v id e s th e
t i t l e o f th e s to r y .
"Which New E ra Would T hat Be?" a p p e a rs to be w r i t t e n
in a n g e r. The k ic k a t th e end o f th e s to r y i s aimed a t
th e k in d o f m e lio rism e x p re s se d in A lan P a to n 's Cry, th e
Beloved C o u n try . S o u th ern A f r ic a , s in c e p r a c t i c a l l y th e
b e g in n in g o f th e w h ite s e ttle m e n t in t h a t a r e a , h as had a
r e g u la r p r o c e s s io n o f d o -g o o d ers, b u t t h e i r e f f o r t s have
done no good. B lack A fr ic a n s , Gordim er c o n te n d s, do n o t
w ant a l i t t l e t e a and c h a r i t y . C h a rity in a c o u n try
where th e r e w ould be no need f o r much o f i t i f th e
u n d e rly in g c a u s e s , th e e v i l s o f r a c i a lis m , a re e lim in a te d
i s n o t c h a r i t y . In such a s i t u a t i o n , even th e l i b e r a l s
a re s u s p e c t, a s "Which New E ra Would T hat Be?" makes
f o r c e f u l l y and b l u n t l y c l e a r . I do n o t b e lie v e Gordim er
a b s o lv e s h e r s e l f , e i t h e r . I am su re she i s in c lu d in g
h e r s e l f in one o f many s u c c in c t s ta te m e n ts she re n d e rs
on a p a r th e id :
Even to c o n tin u e to l i v e in South A f r ic a i s to
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a c q u ie s c e in some m easure to a p a r t h e i d - - t o a s e a lin g
o f f o f re s p o n s e s , th e c a u t e r i z a t i o n o f th e human
h e a r t . ( " A p a rth e id ," p. 95)
Gordim er, however, rem ains tr u e to h e r a r t i s t i c s e l f in
t h a t she p ro v id e s no s o lu t io n s w h a tso e v e r.
T his a r t i s t r y i s e s p e c i a l l y e v id e n t in "The B rid e
groom" (1959), w hich c o n s i s t s o f a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e l a s t
ev en in g an A frik a n e r spends w ith h i s A fric a n crew b e fo re
going o f f to g e t m a rrie d . The e n t i r e s to r y depends on a
c r e a tio n o f a mood o f a f f i n i t y betw een th e A f rik a n e r and
th e A fric a n s w orking on a ro a d in th e K a la h a r i, s e v e r a l
hundred m ile s from th e n e a r e s t town. A lo n g p a ra g ra p h
n e a r th e b e g in n in g o f th e s to r y s e t s th e mood. The
p a ra g ra p h evokes, th ro u g h th e u se o f c o l o r s , a b e a u t i f u l
ev en in g in th e K a la h a ri d e s e r t : th e "g re y sand" tu r n s
i n to "a fa d in g p i n k , " th e low th o rn sc ru b g iv e s o u t
" sp re a d in g s t a i n s o f l i l a c shadow ," and th e camp f i r e s
change from " n e a r - i n v i s i b l e f l i c k e r s o f , l i q u i d l i g h t to
b r i l l i a n t fo c u se s o f le a p in g to n g u es o f l i g h t " ( F r i d a y ' s
F o o t p r i n t , p. 8 3 ). These e v o c a tiv e to u c h e s c o n tin u e
th ro u g h o u t th e s to r y , s u s t a in in g th e atm o sp h ere. In
a d d i tio n , Gordim er r e s o r t s to o th e r means to s tr e n g th e n
th e mood. She shows th e A fric a n s " la u g h in g , t a l k i n g ,
y e l l i n g and a rg u in g " (p. 8 3 ).
213
Two sc en es in p a r t i c u l a r convey th e harm onious
r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e A fr ik a n e r and th e A fr ic a n s . One
h as to do w ith th e A f r i k a n e r 's cook P i e t . B efore P i e t ,
th e A frik a n e r alw ays had a c ra v in g f o r a good m eal and,
in f a c t , once w alked f o u r te e n m ile s to a farm to g e t one.
But P i e t tu r n s o u t m eals w hich s a t i a t e h i s a p p e t i t e to
th e e x t e n t t h a t he te a s e s P i e t a b o u t i t , l i k e a husband
would w ith a w ife who s p o i l s hom w ith good food. The
o th e r sc en e, a l i t t l e more e x te n s iv e , comes tow ards th e
end, w ith th e A fric a n s p la y in g m usic f o r th e A f rik a n e r .
The m usic, more th a n a n y th in g e l s e , b o th s u s t a in s th e
mood and d e m o n stra te s th e c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e \
A fr ik a n e r and h i s men. Gordim er makes i t c l e a r t h a t
when th e m usic began, " th e b a r r i e r s o f tongues f e l l w ith
s i l e n c e " (p . 9 0 ). Towards th e end o f th e s to r y , however,
th e mood, th e harmony, and th e peace a r e d is r u p te d .
I t i s no o r d in a r y b re a k in g up o f a company o f men
f o r th e n ig h t, though, and t h i s i s w hat makes "The
B ridegroom " a s h o r t s to r y , in s te a d o f m erely a d e s c r i p t i v e
s k e tc h . I n te r s p e r s e d th ro u g h o u t th e s to r y and p o in tin g
tow ards th e s i g n i f i c a n t end a r e s u b tle n o te s t h a t a re '
d is c o r d a n t- - w ith em phasis on th e noun, d is c o r d , from
w hich t h i s a d j e c t i v e comes. These d is c o r d a n t n o te s n o t
214
o n ly foreshadow th e end o f th e s to r y b u t a l s o th e f u tu r e
r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e A fr ik a n e r and th e A fr ic a n s .
There w i l l be a w h ite woman among them and t h i s f a c t o r
w i l l make a l l th e d i f f e r e n c e .
The s ta te m e n t o f th e A f r i k a n e r 's m o th e r - in - la w - - th a t
h e r d a u g h te r w i l l be "su rro u n d e d by a gang o f k a f f i r s a l l
day" (p . 85)--m akes th e A fr ik a n e r h y p e r s e n s itiv e and
h y p e rc o n s c io u s. He f e e l s t h a t th e A fric a n "boys m ust
keep o u t o f th e way" (p. 8 5 ). He wonders w hat w i l l
happen i f P i e t " t a l k s to h e r . Man, i t ' s su re h e ' l l t a l k
to h e r " (p. 86). Caught up w ith th e m usic o f th e
A fr ic a n s , he p ro m ises to b r in g back a r a d io b u t soon
r e g r e t s h i s prom ise:
A s tr a n g e th in g happened to him. He f e l t h o t, o v er
f i r s t h i s neck, th e n h i s e a r s and h i s fa c e . I t
d i d n 't m a tte r , o f c o u rs e ; by n e x t week th e y would have
f o r g o tte n , (p . 90)
In th e end, " th e m usic sto p p e d Jirid tim e began a g a in "
(p. 90). The w ording o f t h i s s ta te m e n t s u g g e s ts more
th a n th e f a c t t h a t th e p re se n c e o f a w h ite woman ex
a c e r b a te s th e r e l a t i o n s betw een w h ite s and b la c k s .
"T im e," in th e above s ta te m e n t, i s th e h i s t o r y o f th e
A f r i k a n e r 's p e o p le w hich th e A fr ik a n e r h as ig n o re d in
h i s r e l a t i o n s w ith th e b la c k s . W hile he s h a re s an
215
a f f i n i t y w ith them, he i s o b liv io u s o f t h a t h i s t o r y .
But when th e r e l a t i o n s h i p en d s, t h a t h i s t o r y c a tc h e s up
w ith him. His m o th e r-in -la w i s th e v o ic e o f h e r p e o p le ’s
h i s t o r y . She r e p r e s e n ts th e a r c h a ic , narrow a t t i t u d e
w hich lo o k s a t th e c o lo r o f a p e r s o n ’s s k in in o rd e r to
d eterm in e h i s s ta n d in g among men.
"The G en tle A rt" (1959) a ls o depends on th e c r e a tio n
o f a mood. The mood i s n e c e s s a ry to convey a young
woman's e n c h a n tin g e n c o u n te r w ith th e w o rld o f h u n tin g .
V iv ien McEwen and h e r husband accompany a c ro c o d ile -h u n -
t e r , Jimmy B a ird , on th e r i v e r one n ig h t. V iv ie n f in d s
i t e x c i t i n g , b u t Mrs. B a ird does n o t. In th e s to r y ,
Gordim er g r a n ts t h a t th e r e i s an a t a v i s i t i c f a s c i n a t i o n
a b o u t k i l l i n g and t h a t , f o r some p e o p le , i t p ro v id e s an
escap e from th e humdrum o f c i t y l i f e , a s i t does f o r
V iv ie n . But Gordim er has no i n t e n t i o n o f c r i t i c i z i n g
such an a t t i t u d e on th e p a r t o f V iv ie n . Nor does
Gordim er in te n d denying a p e r s o n 's r i g h t to evoke a
ro m a n tic , d re a m -lik e atm osphere by g lo s s in g o v er th e
d e t a i l s w hich r e v e a l th e h a rs h n e s s o f a s i t u a t i o n .
Hence, Gordim er t r e a t s th e whole e p iso d e g e n tly . She
does t h i s by s o f te n in g d e t a i l s w hich m ight s u g g e s t th e
h o r r o r o f k i l l i n g . She m a n ip u la te s th e language and th e
216
im agery to em phasize a m a g ic a l q u a l i t y a b o u t th e n ig h t,
th e r i v e r , and th e h u n t. In th e opening p a ra g ra p h s, th e
r i v e r i s d e s c r ib e d a s h av in g a "p a le s i l k y w id th ,,f a
s tr ip p e d c r o c o d ile h as " f o u r g lo v e s o f s k in l e f t on i t s
c la w s ," th e r i v e r s t i r s th e c r o c o d ile " l i k e a b re e z e in
f e a t h e r s " ( F r i d a y 's F o o t p r i n t , p. 104), and th e n ig h t i s
"as warm a s m ilk " (p . 105). A p o e t i c - r e a l i s t i c h a n d lin g
o f d e t a i l s i s e v id e n t in th e d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e c ro c o
d i l e s , w hich a r e d e p ic te d a s b o th b e a u t i f u l and d an g ero u s.
The c r o c o d ile s p o s s e s s a "horny h id e o f l e a t h e r m edal
l i o n s , " b u t th e y a l s o have " r a z o r-ja g g e d t e e th " (p. 112).
V iv ie n r e p r e s e n ts th e ro m an tic v ie w p o in t; n e v e rth e
l e s s , Gordim er does s u g g e s t, th ro u g h V iv ie n , th e need f o r
some re a lis m in lo o k in g a t th e w orld o f a d v e n tu re . Jimmy
B a ird , famed c r o c o d i le - h u n te r , does n o t l i v e up to
V iv ia n 's image o f a d a rin g a d v e n tu re r . He resem b les "one
o f th o s e sm a ll boys who lo o k l i k e o ld men" (p. 105).
As a r e s u l t , V iv ie n h as to r e v i s e h e r ro m an tic o u tlo o k ,
f o r , a f t e r m eetin g him, " h e r p i c t u r e o f a man had shrunk
to f i t Jimmy B a ird " (p . 107). Mrs. B a ird , on th e o th e r
hand, i s overw helm ingly u n ro m an tic and a f o i l to V iv ie n .
W hile V iv ie n e u p h o r ic a lly lo o k s forw ard to th e n i g h t 's
h u n t, Mrs. B a ird calm ly s ta n d s by. When everyone e l s e
217
d e p a rts on th e b o a t, she rem ains to ta k e c a re o f th e
c h ild r e n . Hers i s a mundane l i f e . In th e end, when
V iv ien ask s h e r w hat she d id w h ile h e r husband was away,
she answ ers sim p ly , " I w a ite d ” (p. 119). In re sp o n se to
V iv ie n 's i n s i s t e n c e on an e x p la n a tio n , she m erely r e p e a ts
th e s ta te m e n t (p . 120).
W ith th e em phasis on w a itin g , th e s to r y a c h ie v e s
a n o th e r dim ension. S ince Mrs. B a ird i s alw ays w a itin g
f o r h e r husband, w ith o u t b e in g e x a s p e ra te d , th e r e i s a
tim e le s s q u a l i t y a b o u t h e r . In t h i s r e s p e c t, a l s o , Mrs.
B a ird a c ts a s a f o i l to V iv ien who d is r e g a r d s tim e s in c e
she was "n e v er p u n c tu a l” (p. 105). The tim e le s s n e s s o f
th e s t o r y 's im p lic a tio n s i s su g g e ste d s e v e r a l tim es in
th e n a r r a t i v e . One p a r t o f th e r i v e r i s "a c lo s e d
s a u ria n w o rld o f mud, d a rk n e s s , sun, unm easured tim e "
(p. 114). B a ird , in a p e n s iv e mood a f t e r k i l l i n g a
c r o c o d ile , rem arks t h a t f iv e o r s i x c r o c o d ile s add up to
"a thousand y e a rs o f l i f e " (p. 118). A f te r th e b o a t
r e tu r n s to th e camp, th e n ig h t r i v e r goes "back where
i t came from . . . th e p la c e b e fo r e b i r t h , a f t e r d e a th "
(p. 119). These r e f e r e n c e s to tim e e n fo rc e th e s t o r y 's
theme o f a ta v ism .
There i s a l s o an elem en t o f tim e le s s n e s s in "The
A fric a n M agician" (1 9 6 1 ). In t h i s s to r y , an A fric a n
m ag ician d is a p p o in ts h i s au d ie n c e on a b o a t on th e Congo
R iv e r when he e n t e r t a i n s them w ith in an e c o n ju rin g t r i c k s .
In re sp o n se to th e a u d ie n c e ’s demands t h a t he do more, he
h y p n o tiz e s h i s a s s i s t a n t . But th e au d ien ce i s s t i l l n o t
s a t i s f i e d : th e y w ant him to u se h i s powers on one o f th e
w h ite s . W ithout a s in g le movement o r word, he makes a
young w h ite woman come up and pay homage to him. Gordim er
c o n c e n tr a te s a l l th e im pact o f h e r s to r y on t h a t s in g le
g e s tu r e , in a s in g le p a ra g ra p h w hich ra n g e s w id ely in i t s
im p lic a tio n s . The r e a d e r i s b o th p re p a re d and u n p rep ared
f o r t h i s clim a x . He i s p re p a re d b ec au se th e d i r e c t i o n of
th e s to r y p o in ts to some in c id e n t w hich would u p s e t th e
com placency o f th e w h ite s on th e b o a t. T h e ir a t t i t u d e
tow ards th e b la c k s i s d i s d a i n f u l . "C ountry f u l l o f
n o th in g ," one o f th e c h a r a c te r s s a y s . "Bush, bush,
t r e e s , t r e e s " (Not f o r P u b l i c a t i o n , p. 1 3 0 ). A nother
c h a r a c te r d is m is s e s th e A fric a n s w ith th e s ta te m e n t, "They
a r e j u s t l i k e monkeys, you know. We've ta u g h t them a few
t r i c k s " (p. 131).
These s ta te m e n ts a re b a la n c e d by a co u p le o f con
t r a s t s showing th e A fric a n s in a b e t t e r l i g h t . There i s
a com parison betw een th e s e d a te , c o n v e n tio n a l, form al
219
s o c ie ty o f th e w h ite s on th e b o a t and M a l o t o f l i f e "
(p . 131) among th e A fric a n s in th e b a rg e s towed by th e
b o a t, and betw een w hat th e convoy u n lo a d s --a lw a y s "some
th in g o u tla n d is h and b u lk y " (p . 1 3 5 )--a n d th e f r u i t i t
p ic k s up a t each s to p . The c o n t r a s t s g iv e a s tr o n g
i n d ic a t io n o f som ething more s i g n i f i c a n t to come and y e t
th e re a d e r i s u n p rep ared f o r w hat does happen b ec au se i t
p a r ta k e s o f f a n ta s y . Gordim er p ro v id e s a s l i g h t h i n t
when she r e f e r s to th e b la c k crew managing e v e ry th in g
"w ith an a lm o st m y ste rio u s e a s e " (p. 132), b u t t h a t can n o t
be c a l l e d foreshadow ing. Nor does th e to n e o f th e s to r y
g iv e any i n d ic a t io n o f th e tu r n o f e v e n ts . The re a d e r
i s j u s t a s s u r p r is e d a s th e a u d ie n c e when th e A fric a n
m ag ician d em o n strate s h i s powers and th e s to r y depends
on t h a t s u r p r i s e . I t i s d e l i b e r a t e l y c a l c u l a t e d .
But th e r e i s a need f o r an a n a ly s is o f th e g e s tu re
o f th e w h ite woman and Gordim er r e a d i l y h e lp s in th e
p a ra g ra p h fo llo w in g th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e g e s tu r e . " I t
was th e m ost e x tr a o r d in a r y g e s t u r e ," Gordim er p o in ts o u t
(p. 143), and th e n im p lie s how th e g e s tu r e may be
a n a ly z e d . She h a s te n s to d is p e n s e w ith any se x u a l i n t e r
p r e t a t i o n th e re a d e r m ight w ant to p la c e on th e a c t : " I t
was n o th in g to do w ith w hat e x i s t s betw een men and women"
220
(p . 143). I n s te a d , she su g g e s ts p s y c h o lo g ic a l, s o c i a l ,
p o l i t i c a l , a n th r o p o lo g ic a l, r e l i g i o u s , and e s t h e t i c a l
a s s o c i a t i o n s . The p s y c h o lo g ic a l a s p e c t i s upperm ost in
th e b e g in n in g o f th e p a ra g ra p h . The A f r i c a n 's in f lu e n c e
o v er th e w h ite woman i s n o t p h y s ic a l- - h e does n o t make a
move o r speak a w o rd --b u t a com m unication betw een th e
two m inds. The s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s go to g e th e r
s in c e th e A fric a n m a g ician r e v e r s e s th e r o l e s o f th e
w h ite s and b l a c k s . W ith a r e l u c t a n t r e v e l a t i o n o f h i s
pow ers, th e m a g ician d is p o s e s once and f o r a l l th e
s o c i a l l y and p o l i t i c a l l y m e n ial s t a t u s th e w h ite s had
imposed on th e b la c k s .
A s ta te m e n t th e n a r r a t o r makes r a i s e s an a n th r o
p o lo g ic a l q u e s tio n . She has l iv e d in A f r ic a a l l h e r l i f e ,
she s a y s, b u t th e whole th in g , and e s p e c i a l l y th e g e s tu r e ,
i s new to h e r . Where d id i t a l l come from? There i s ,
e v id e n tly , a s id e to A fric a n l i f e no w h ite p e rso n , o r
p erh ap s v e ry few, knows a b o u t. On th e o th e r hand, th e
n a r r a t o r makes v e ry e x p l i c i t th e r e l i g i o u s im p lic a tio n s
o f th e g e s tu r e : ^
One o f th e d i s c i p l e s m ight have come b e f o re C h r is t
l i k e t h a t . There was th e peace o f a b s o lu te t r u s t
in i t . (p . 143)
At th e end o f th e p a ra g ra p h , lo o k in g a t th e e v e n t in
221
e s t h e t i c te rm s, th e n a r r a t o r makes a p r o v o c a tiv e s t a t e
m ent: "To see i t was b e a u t i f u l would make us dang ero u s"
(p . 143). One way to i n t e r p r e t t h i s s ta te m e n t i s to
r e c a l l T u rb o tt W o lfe 's way o f lo o k in g a t th e A fric a n g i r l
he f a l l s in lo v e w ith . W hile th e o th e r w h ite s r e j e c t a l l
A fric a n s as i n f e r i o r , T u rb o tt se e s th e g i r l a s b e a u t i f u l .
His e s t h e t i c le a p o ver r a c i a l b a r r i e r s th u s makes him a
dangerous man in a s o c ie ty t h a t t h r i v e s on r a c i a l s e p a r a
t i o n . N e v e rth e le s s , th e f o c a l p a ra g ra p h in "The A fric a n
M ag ician " le a v e s many q u e s tio n s unansw ered. The th o u g h ts
o f th e n a r r a t o r , d e s p ite t h e i r v a r io u s im p lic a tio n s , do
n o t h e lp e x p la in th e A fric a n m a g ic ia n 's power and th e
g e s tu r e o f th e w h ite woman. The in c id e n t rem ains a
m y stery w hich re n d e rs a l l th e w h i t e 's p r e te n s io n s , e s p e
c i a l l y ab o u t knowing th e A fricans", in to w hat th e y r e a l l y
a r e , n o th in g .
"The A fric a n M agician" makes a p ro fo u n d s ta te m e n t on
a s in g u l a r theme u n d e rly in g m ost o f G o rd im e r's s h o r t
s t o r i e s . There i s no denying t h a t many o f G o rd im erfs
s h o r t s t o r i e s p o r tr a y an i s o l a t i o n o f th e in d iv i d u a l, b o th
b la c k and w h ite . In f a c t , h e r work i s r a r e in South
A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e in t h a t i t a l s o r e f l e c t s th e a l i e n a t i o n
among th e Europeans in h e r c o u n try . One o f th e more
222
know ledgeable c h a r a c te r s in A World o f S tra n g e rs d e s c r ib e s
i t a s fo llo w s:
L o n e lin e s s ; o f a s p e c ia l k in d . Our l o n e l i n e s s . The
la c k o f a common human i d e n t i t y . The lo n e lin e s s o f
a p o w erfu l m in o r ity . (p. 75)
Which i s why th e main c h a r a c te r in th e n o v el say s t h a t he
came to f e e l " c u r io u s ly a t home" in South A fr ic a , "a
s tr a n g e r among p eo p le who w ere s tr a n g e r s to each o th e r"
( p . , 1 5 9 ). But th e theme i s n o t p r im a r ily one o f l o n e l i
n e s s , d e s p ite th e c o n te n tio n o f th e Times L i t e r a r y S up p le
ment re v ie w e r t h a t "M iss G ordim er’s r e a l theme i s l o n e l i
n e s s - - th e l o n e lin e s s o f a l l k in d s o f e x i l e .
G o rd im e r's s h o r t s t o r i e s do n o t y i e l d sim ple themes
o r sim p le i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . One can t a l k o f th e lo s s o f
in n o c en ce , o f grow ing up, o f le a r n in g o f d e a th , o f h o r r o r ,
o f l o n e l i n e s s even. But th e s e la b e ls to u c h o n ly a p a r t
o f th e c o re o f h e r work. In "One Whole Y ear, and Even
More" (1 9 6 3 ), f o r exam ple, th e theme a p p e a rs to be a
s u b tl e b a t t l e f o r th e husband th ro u g h sex when an E n g lis h
man and h i s South A fric a n w ife h i r e a German g i r l f o r a
y e a r. Sex i s one f a c t o r among many in m o tiv a tio n s w hich
no
Rev. o f Not f o r P u b l i c a t i o n , Times L i t e r a r y
S upplem ent, J u ly 22, 1965, p. 609.
223
a re h ig h ly com plex. What f i n a l l y em erges in "One Whole
Y ear, and Even More" i s a s to r y o f r a c i a l p r id e , w ith sex
p a r t l y e x p re s s in g t h a t p r id e , t h a t th e Germans s t i l l
p o s s e s s . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , th e Englishm an i s a Jew who l o s t
h is m other in a German c o n c e n tr a tio n camp. I f th e r e i s
a s in g l e , p re d o m in a n t theme in G o rd im er's s t o r i e s , i t i s ,
in G o rd im er's own w ords, t h a t "men a r e n o t b o rn b r o th e r s ;
th ey have to d is c o v e r ea ch o th e r " ( " A p a rth e id ," p. 9 4 ).
Her s h o r t s t o r i e s a r e f i l l e d w ith p eo p le n o t knowing each
o th e r , o r f i n a l l y g e t t i n g to th ro u g h some c a t y l i s t i c
e v e n t, o r n o t g e t t i n g to a t a l l .
I t i s t h i s theme w hich s e t s h e r a p a r t from th e o th e r
South A fric a n w r i t e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y P e te r Abrahams and
Alan P ato n . Her em phasis on a r t i s t r y , r a t h e r th an w ith a
r a c i a l c h ip on th e s h o u ld e r, h as p a id o f f . From making
th e re a d e r aware o f h e r p re se n c e in h e r work, she has
moved tow ard, f o r w hat o f a b e t t e r word, s e lf - e f f a c e m e n t.
From sim ple s t o r i e s she has pro ceed ed tow ard r e f l e c t i n g
th e co m p lex ity o f l i f e . From b e in g a South A fric a n
w r i t e r , p u b lis h in g in sm a ll, lo c a l m agazines, she has
become p a r t o f w o rld l i t e r a t u r e .
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION
The tr e n d o f South A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lis h , b o th
b e f o re World War I I and a f te rw a r d s , h as been f a i r l y
c o n s i s t e n t . A m ajor p r o p o rtio n o f th e f i c t i o n , p o p u la r
in ap p ro ach , c a t e r s to th e r e a d e r 's i n t e r e s t in th e
u n u su a l. As a r e s u l t , when a d i s t i n c t i o n i s made betw een
th e l i t e r a r y m e r its o f a work and i t s c o n te n t, v e ry l i t t l e
o f th e f i c t i o n o f s o u th e rn A f r ic a em erges as l i t e r a t u r e .
In any o f th e th r e e p e rio d s o f South A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e - -
th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry b e fo r e World
War I I , and p o st-W o rld War I I - - tw o w r i t e r s , a t th e m ost,
a re l i t e r a r y f ig u r e s and th e r e s t , a s tim e h as a lre a d y
shown, proved to be o f ephem eral i n t e r e s t .
In th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry , fo llo w in g th e p r e c u r s o r
o f South A fric a n l i t e r a t u r e , P r i n g l e 's a u to b io g ra p h ic a l
N a r ra tiv e o f a R esid en ce in South A f r i c a , th e c o u n t r y 's
f i c t i o n d e a l t w ith s t o r i e s o f th e ad v e n tu ro u s and th e
e x o t ic , o f "sa v a g e s" and l i f e on a f r o n t i e r w hich was
224
225
f i l l e d w ith w ild a n im a ls. There were a l s o e a r l y E n g lis h -
s e t t l e r n o v e ls p r im a r ily j o u r n a l i s t i c and in fo rm a tiv e in
c o n te n t. N e v e rth e le s s , two w r i t e r s , H. R id e r Haggard and
O liv e S c h r e in e r, a r e e x c e p tio n s f o r t h e i r tim e . H ag g ard 's
w orks, d e s p ite t h e i r em phasis on th e ro m an tic a s p e c ts o f
A fric a n l i f e , r e f l e c t a r e c o g n itio n o f th e A fric a n s a s
human b e in g s , w hereas o th e r w r i t e r s re g a rd e d them as
sa v a g e s. O liv e S c h r e in e r 's The S to ry o f an A fric a n Farm
has a c h ie v e d th e s t a t u s o f a m inor c l a s s i c , in England
and so u th e rn A f r ic a , i f n o t in th e U n ited S t a t e s . To
d is m is s S c h r e in e r 's n o v el a s a p r o t e s t f o r women's r i g h t s ,
as some c r i t i c s have, i s to c o n s id e ra b ly l i m i t i t s im p li
c a t i o n s . The S to ry o f an A fric a n Farm e x p lo re s th e
s e a rc h f o r s e l f in term s o f what would l a t e r become known
a s e x i s t e n t i a l i s m . S c h r e in e r 's n o v el s t i l l h as to be
su rp a ss e d by any o th e r South A fric a n w r i t e r .
In th e second p e rio d , to o , two w r i t e r s s ta n d o u t as
e x c e p tio n s , S arah G ertru d e M illin and W illiam Plom er.
D uring t h i s p e r io d , i n t e r e s t has s h i f t e d from th e e x o tic
and a d v e n tu ro u s to th e r a c ia lis m t h a t was in c r e a s in g ly
and s tr o n g ly becoming th e b a s is f o r a l l l i f e in so u th e rn
A f r ic a . M il lin , a f t e r in tro d u c in g a m uch-needed re a lis m
in t o h e r c o u n t r y 's f i c t i o n , c a p i t a l i z e d on r a c i a l i s t
226
themes and m arred w h ate v er m e r its h e r l a t e r n o v els m ight
have had. W illiam Plom er, on th e o th e r hand, rem ained
f a i t h f u l to an a r t i s t i c purpose in a l l h i s f i c t i o n s e t
in South A f r ic a . Plom er i s a ls o th e m ost i n f l u e n t i a l o f
South A fric a n w r i t e r s o f f i c t i o n . His r e l a t i o n s h i p to
l a t e r South A fric a n f i c t i o n i s l i k e t h a t o f Gogol to
R u ssian w r i t e r s . Turgenev, sp eak in g f o r h is co n tem p o rar
i e s , o b se rv e d , ,fW e a l l came o u t from u nder G o g o l's
'O v e r c o a t'" (q u o ted by O 'Connor, p. i x ) . In a s im ila r
m anner, w r i t e r s o f p o stw a r South A fric a n f i c t i o n in
E n g lis h can say t h a t th e y a l l came o u t frorti under P lo m e r's
b la n k e t o f U la Masondo. For th e sake o f em phasis, a
p o in t made e a r l i e r in t h i s stu d y needs to be r e p e a te d
h e re . The theme o f P lo m e r's "Ula M asondo"--a b la c k m an's
c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith th e w h ite w orld in th e c i t y - - i s th e
predom inant theme o f alm o st a l l o f p o stw ar South A fric a n
f i c t i o n in E n g lis h .
The i n s i s t e n c e o f l a t e r w r i t e r s in p u rsu in g th e
"Ula Masondo"*theme h as lim ite d , to a c o n s id e ra b le d e g ree ,
p o stw ar South A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lis h . The c i t y i s
in v a r ia b ly Jo h a n n esb u rg . The f r o n t i e r l i f e w hich forms
th e b a s i s o f th e f i c t i o n o f O liv e S c h re in e r and P a u lin e
S m ith --rem n an ts o f th e f r o n t i e r s t i l l s u r v i v e - - i s n o ta b ly
227
a b s e n t from p o stw ar f i c t i o n . The l i t t l e town on th e v e ld ,
th e p red o m in an tly A fr ic a n a r e a s o u ts id e th e c i t i e s , and
th e o th e r c i t i e s ev en , v e r y r a r e l y p ro v id e th e v a r i e t y in
background needed t o b a la n c e th e o v e r-u s e o f Johannesburg
as a s e t t i n g . D urban, f o r exam ple, r e f l e c t s th r e e m ajor
c u l tu r e s o f th e w o rld , E uropean, A sia n , and A fric a n . But,
e x c e p t in a couple o f G o rd im e r's s h o r t s t o r i e s , Durban
does n o t e x i s t in S outh A fr ic a n f i c t i o n . The u t i l i z a t i o n
o f p la c e s lik e Durban a s a background would p ro v id e o th e r
themes th a n th e one w hich ru n s th ro u g h p r a c t i c a l l y a l l
o f th e c o u n tr y 's f i c t i o n .
T his predom inant them e, d e riv e d p a r t l y from P lo m e r's
s h o r t s to r y , i s r a c i a l i s m . T h is e x a s p e ra te d M phahlele.
" E n g lis h f i c t i o n in S outh A f r i c a ," he e x c la im s, " i s
o b sessed w ith r a c e r e l a t i o n s " (A fric a n Image, p. 108).
Not o nly has th e r a c i a l s i t u a t i o n p ro v id e d a ready-m ade
theme f o r w r i t e r s , b u t i t a l s o s e rv e s a s a myth in th e
absence o f o th e r m yths. A c o u n t r y 's m ythology i s e x p re s s
ed th ro u g h i t s l i t e r a t u r e . The r a c i a l myth i s , in Laurens
van d e r P o s t's w ords, " th e myth o f th e G od-chosen ra c e "
(Dark Eye, p. 1 1 9 ), o f , a s G ordim er p u t i t , "an immoral
m o r a lity " ("The E n g lis h N o v e l," p. 1 8 ). B ut i t i s a
n e g a tiv e myth. T hat i s , i t i s n o t a myth th e w r i t e r s
228
co u ld b u ild on, b u t one w hich th e y c o n tin u e to r e f u t e .
T his has had a d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t on th e c o u n t r y 's
f i c t i o n , p r im a r ily b ec au se m ost South A fric a n a u th o rs o f
n o v e ls and s h o r t s t o r i e s have been w r i t i n g w ith th e
i n t e n t i o n o f swaying th e p u b lic to a p re d e te rm in e d sta n d
on r a c ia lis m , r a t h e r th a n m a in ta in in g a f i d e l i t y to
l i t e r a r y a r t .
More a t t e n t i o n h as been p a id to c o n te n t th a n to th e
l i t e r a r y m e rits o f p o stw ar S outh A fric a n f i c t i o n in
E n g lis h . South A fric a n c r i t i c s , in c lu d in g Nadine
Gordim er, and B r i t i s h and Am erican re v ie w e rs have comment
ed e x te n s iv e ly on th e r a c i a l background and th e themes
and have l a r g e l y n e g le c te d c o n s id e r a tio n o f th e q u a l i t y
o f th e n a r r a t i v e . In view o f th e v a l i d i t y o f such an
approach, th e r e ought to be a l i n e o f d em arcatio n betw een
l i t e r a t u r e , on th e one hand, and propaganda and i n f o r
m atio n , on th e o th e r . I sh o u ld l i k e to su g g e st one
means o f e v a lu a tin g p o stw a r S outh A fric a n f i c t i o n i n
E n g lis h : does i t t e l l us more a b o u t o u r s e lv e s , o r does i t
p ro v id e more in fo rm a tio n , made p a l a ta b ly human, ab o u t
ra c e r e l a t i o n s in S outh A fric a ? T aking i n to a c c o u n t a
s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o rtio n o f South A fric a n f i c t i o n t h a t I
have re a d le a d s me to a s in g l e c o n c lu s io n . Most South
229
A fric a n w r i t e r s of f i c t i o n , and even n o n -S o u th A fric a n s
w r i tin g a b o u t th e c o u n try , a r e p a n d e rin g to th e w o r ld 's
i n t e r e s t in a p a r th e id c o n d itio n s . In s h o r t, m ost South
A fric a n f i c t i o n c o n s is ts o f v e r b a l weapons on th e r a c i a l -
i s t i c b a t t l e f i e l d s o f so u th e rn A fr ic a .
Of c o u rse , i t i s n o t th e theme t h a t sh o u ld be
q u e s tio n e d , b u t th e a r t i s t i c means by w hich i t i s convey
ed. R a cia lism can be t r e a t e d in more a r t i s t i c and s u b tle
te rm s, a s in E liz a b e th C h a r lo tte W e b s te r's Ceremony o f
Innocence and G o rd im er's s h o r t s t o r i e s . But th e r e i s
alw ays th e danger o f succumbing to a r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e
theme, w ith a drama o f i t s own, so t h a t a l l th e w r i t e r has
to do i s f i c t i o n a l i z e m a te r ia l t h a t w ould o th e rw is e be
c o n s id e re d jo u rn a lis m . I f th e w r i t e r i s a g a in s t a p a r th e id
and e x p re s s e s h is argum ents w e ll, e s p e c i a l l y th ro u g h
d ia lo g u e , adding b i t s a b o u t th e d i g n i t y o f man and th e
r i g h t s o f th e in d iv id u a l, he i s c e r t a i n to f in d a welcome
r e c e p tio n in th e book rev iew s and among r e a d e r s in England
and th e U nited S ta te s .
There i s a ls o a n o th e r s id e to th e s i t u a t i o n . W rite rs
to d ay have a c c e p te d th e c h a lle n g e o f Camus to commit
them selv es in a r e a s o u ts id e th e lo n e ly w o rld o f th e
a u th o r. In a c o u n try l i k e South A f r ic a , i t a p p e a rs
230
im p e ra tiv e f o r th e w r i t e r to speak o u t a g a i n s t a p a r th e id .
T his i s e v id e n t in th e works o f P e te r Abrahams and Alan
P ato n . Nadine G ordim er, to o , h as r e f u s e d to rem ain
s i l e n t . A World o f S tra n g e rs sounds l i k e a work w r i t t e n
w ith th e aim o f g iv in g p e r s p e c tiv e to a p a r t h e id . And
th e r e i s no doubt t h a t h e r m ost r e c e n t n o v e l, The L ate
B ou rg eo is World (196b), i s c e r t a i n l y a n o v el o f p r o t e s t .
But commitment and a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h a t commitment in
f i c t i o n does n o t mean an in d if f e r e n c e tow ards a r t i s t r y .
T his i s where Nadine Gordim er d i f f e r s from th e o th e r
w r i t e r s : even in h e r p r o t e s t f i c t i o n th e r e i s much
l i t e r a r y m e r it.
P e te r Abrahams developed in to a s k i l f u l w r i t e r , as
d em o n strated in Mine Boy. A lthough weak in c h a r a c t e r
i z a t i o n , Mine Boy d is p la y s a rem a rk a b le c o n t r o l in
d ra m a tiz in g s i t u a t i o n s , b o th th ro u g h le a n n a r r a t i o n and
c o n c is e d ia lo g u e . W ithout th e b e n e f i t o f e d i t o r i a l
iz in g , Abrahams p r e s e n ts in Mine Boy an ex ten d ed r e n d i t i o n
o f th e M Ula Masondo" theme; th e n o v el a l s o f u n c tio n s as
a m etaphor o f th e A fric a n a s a h e l p l e s s v ic tim o f w h ite
a u t h o r i t y . But h is l a t e r n o v e ls a r e m arred by h is
i n a b i l i t y to c o n tr o l an im pulse to a c t a s a spokesman f o r
th e b la c k man. The P a th o f Thunder p r e s e n ts a d ia lo g u e
t
231
on lo v e a s opposed to th e h a tr e d engendered by r a c i a lis m .
W ild C onquest i s c o n triv e d so as to convey th e b la c k m an 's
v ie w p o in t on one o f th e m ost im p o rta n t h i s t o r i c a l e v e n ts
in s o u th e rn A f r ic a , th e t r e k o f th e B oers to th e n o r th e r n
p a r t s o f s o u th e rn A f r ic a and t h e i r e n c o u n te r w ith th e
b la c k s a lre a d y s e t t l e d in th o s e a r e a s . The m ost o u ts ta n d
in g w eakness o f W ild C onquest i s t h a t i t i s o v e r - e x p l i c i t .
A N ight o f T h e ir Own i s a ls o a d ia lo g u e , b u t t h i s tim e in
d efen ce o f sa b o ta g e as a weapon a g a in s t a p a r th e id . A ll
th e s e l a t e r works c o n ta in some w o rth w h ile id e a s , b u t th e s e
id e a s a lo n e do n o t add up to l i t e r a r y a r t . T hat Abrahams
was l a t e r c a p a b le o f th e a r t i s t r y r e f l e c t e d in Mine Boy
i s more th a n a d e q u a te ly d em o n strate d in h i s a u to b io g ra p h y ,
T e ll Freedom , w hich has many q u a l i t i e s in common w ith
Mine Boy, p a r t i c u l a r l y a le a n p ro se s t y l e and t e r s e
d ia lo g u e .
P ato n , in a l l h i s f i c t i o n , h as been e o n s i s t e n t in
one r e s p e c t: he c o n tin u e s to s t r i d e th e th i n l i n e betw een
l i t e r a r y a r t and p o p u la r f i c t i o n . His books a r e p o p u la r,
b u t th e y a ls o m e r it a t t e n t i o n from c r i t i c s . In a way,
t h i s b e lo n g in g to two camps a ls o means t h a t he does n o t
t o t a l l y b elo n g to e i t h e r , a lth o u g h h i s works le a n more
h e a v ily tow ards th e p o p u la r. Cry, th e Beloved C o u n try ,
232
d e s p ite th e a d v e rs e c r i t i c i s m i t has been r e c e n tly r e c e i v
in g , i s s t i l l h i s best-know n and m ost w id e ly -re a d work.
I t s p o e t ic e v o c a tio n o f a t r a g i c s i t u a t i o n in a c o u n try
made t r a g i c by i t s r a c i a lis m s t i l l moves th e r e a d e r .
P a to n 's second n o v e l, Too L ate th e P h a la ro p e , shows a
marked improvem ent in th e p r e s e n ta tio n o f th e t r a g i c
s i t u a t i o n in S outh A f r ic a , t h i s tim e fo c u sin g on A frik a n e r
s o c ie ty . Though n o t a s t a u t l y o rg a n iz e d as th e f i r s t
n o v e l, i t n e v e r th e le s s r e f l e c t s th e te n s io n o f an i n d i v i
d u a l in th e te n a c io u s g ra sp o f th e c u rs e o f r a c i a lis m .
P a to n 's volume o f s h o r t s t o r i e s , Debbie Go Home, i s a much
more r e a l i s t i c tre a tm e n t o f th e s i t u a t i o n o f th e A fric a n s
and d ev o id o f th e p o e try c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e two n o v e ls ,
b u t i t la c k s in s u b t l e t y .
P ato n i s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t in th e h i s t o r y o f p o stw ar
S outh A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lish . He c r e a te d , o u ts id e
S outh A f r ic a , an in c re a s e d i n t e r e s t in h i s c o u n t r y 's
l i t e r a t u r e . He e x p re s s e d P lo m e r's "Ula Masondo" theme
in a l l e g o r i c a l term s in Cry, th e Beloved C ountry and even
though o th e r w r i t e r s had been e x p re s s in g t h i s theme f o r
y e a r s , h e , more th a n any o th e r w r i t e r , made i t w id e ly
known. South A fric a n c r i t i c s c r e d i t P aton f o r th e r e s u r
gence in t h e i r c o u n t r y 's f i c t i o n a f t e r World War I I .
233
P ato n h im s e lf , how ever, concedes some o f th e c r e d i t to
P e te r Abrahams.
By any s ta n d a rd o f c r iti c is m - - w h e th e r a p p lie d to
c o n te n t, theme, te c h n iq u e , th e h a n d lin g o f lan g u ag e, o r
l e v e l s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n - - t h e o u ts ta n d in g South A fric a n
w r i t e r i s u n re s e rv e d ly Nadine G ordim er. Though a poor
n o v e l i s t , she h as emerged a s one o f th e m ost s k i l f u l s h o r t
s to r y w r i t e r s o f o u r time.., I would go so f a r as to say
t h a t many o f h e r s h o r t s t o r i e s say more ab o u t th e South
A fric a n s i t u a t i o n a s w e ll a s o u rs e lv e s th a n m ost South
A fr ic a n w r i t e r s do in b o o k -le n g th n o v e ls . Gordimer d id
n o t s t a r t o u t w ith th e i n t e n t i o n o f e x p re s s in g h e r view s
on r a c i a l i s m . From th e v e ry b e g in n in g o f h e r w r i tin g
c a r e e r , she h as c o n c e n tra te d on a r t i s t r y and has succeeded
in m a in ta in in g a h ig h l i t e r a r y s ta n d a rd . I t i s to h e r
c r e d i t t h a t she has c e ase d to be c l a s s i f i e d u n d er th e
lim ite d l a b e l o f a South A fric a n w r i t e r . She h a s, in
s h o r t, a lr e a d y ta k e n h e r p la c e among h e r co n te m p o ra rie s
from o th e r p a r t s o f th e w o rld .
The body o f p o stw a r S outh A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lis h
w hich d e m o n stra te s l i t e r a r y m e r it i s sm a ll: a n o v el each
by Daphne Rooke, E liz a b e th C h a r lo tte W ebster, and P e te r
Abrahams, two n o v e ls by Alan P ato n , s e v e r a l s h o r t s t o r i e s
234
by Dan Jaco b so n , s e v e r a l s h o r t s t o r i e s by Ja c k Cope and
Uys K rig e, and fo u r volum es o f s h o r t s t o r i e s by Nadine
Gordim er. The p o stw a r p e rio d , i f ju d g ed by a s t r i c t
l i t e r a r y s ta n d a r d , can o f f e r o n ly one o u ts ta n d in g w r i t e r ,
Nadine G ordim er. I t i s s p e c io u s , t h e r e f o r e , to t a l k o f
p o stw ar South A fric a n f i c t i o n in E n g lis h in term s o f a
re n a is s a n c e . T here i s l!a flo w e rin g o f t a l e n t , ” c e r t a i n l y ,
b u t t h a t t a l e n t h a s , in m ost c a s e s , n o t liv e d up to i t s
p ro m ise .
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
235
236
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1942.
__________________. Mine Boy. London: F ab er and F ab er,
1946.
__________________. A N ight o f T h e ir Own. London: F aber
and F ab er, 1965.
__________________. The P a th o f T hunder. New York: H arper
and B ro s ., 1948.
__________________. R etu rn to G o l i . London: F aber and
F ab er, 1953. ^
~ ______________ . Song o f th e C i t y . London: Dorothy
C ris p , 1944.
__________________. T e ll'F re e d o m . London: F aber and F ab er,
1954.
__________________. W ild C o n q u e st. London: F ab er and F ab er,
1951.
A lle n , W a lte r. Rev. o f Cry, th e B eloved C o u n try , The
New Statesm an and N a tio n , November 20, 1948, pp.
445-446.
_______________ . Rev. o f S ix F e e t o f th e C o u n try , The
New S tatesm an and N a tio n , A ugust 18, 1956, pp.
191-192.
_______________ . T r a d itio n and Dream. Harmondsworth:
Penguin Books, 1965.
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2, 1955, p. 18.
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(November 1957), 56-61.
Barkham, John. Rev. o f A Grove o f F ev er T r e e s , S atu rd ay
Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , March 4, 1950, p. 17.
237
_______________ . Rev. o f *Soft V oice o f th e S e r p e n t,
S atu rd ay Review, May 24, 1952, p. 22.
_______________ . Rev. o f T a le s from a T ro u b led Land. The
New York Times Book Review, A p ril 16, 1961, p. 4.
_______________ . Rev. o f Too L a te th e P h a la ro p e . S atu rd ay
Review, A ugust 22, 1953, pp. 9-10.
_______________ . Rev. o f W ild C o n q u est, The New York Times
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B e rn s te in , Edgar. " F i f t y Y ears o f th e South A fric a n
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Bosman, Herman C h a rle s . M afeking Road. Johan n esb u rg :
C e n tra l News Agency, 1947.
__________________________ . Unto D u st, ed. L io n e l Abrahams.
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B u rg ess, Anthony. The Novel Now. London: F ab er and
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I n c ., 1968.
Ceremony o f In n o c e n c e . Anon, r e v . , Times L i t e r a r y
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Cohen, Morton N. R id e r H aggard. New York: W alker and
Company, 1960.
C o llin s , H arold R. "Cry, th e B eloved C ountry and th e
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379-385.
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____________. The Tame Ox. London: Heinemann, 1960.
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238
Debbie Go Home. Anon, r e v . , Times L i t e r a r y S upplem ent,
June 16, 1961, p. 369.
E r n s t, M o rris L. The C om parative I n t e r n a t i o n a l A lm anac.
New York: The M acm illan C o., su b s, o f C row ell
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F a u s s e t, Hugh I . Rev. o f Too L ate th e P h a la ro p e ,
M anchester G uardian W eekly, Septem ber 3, 1953, p. 11.
F r i d a y 's F o o t p r i n t . Anon, r e v . , Times L i t e r a r y
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G a ile y , H arry A. "S h e rid a n B a k e r's 1P a to n 's Beloved
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" G e ttin g Through to th e South A f r ic a n ." Times L i t e r a r y
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G ir lin g , H.K. " P r o v in c ia l and C o n tin e n ta l: W r ite rs in
South A f r i c a ," E n g lis h S tu d ie s in A f r i c a , I I I
(Septem ber 1960), 113-118.
G ordim er, N adine. " A p a r th e id ," H oliday XXV (A p ril 1959),
94-95, 133-134.
___________________ . "The E n g lis h Novel in South A f r i c a ."
In The Novel and th e N a tio n , ed. Hugh Lewin. Cape
Town: N a tio n a l Union o f South A fric a n S tu d e n ts ,
1960.
___________________ . F r i d a y 's F o o t p r i n t . London: V ic to r
G o lla n c z , 1960.
___________________ . The L a te B ourgeois W orld. New York:
The V iking P r e s s , 1966.
. The Lying D ays. New York: Simon and
S c h u s te r, 1953.
Not f o r P u b lic a tio n and O ther S t o r i e s .
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___________________ . S ix F e e t o f th e C o u n try . New York:
Simon and S c h u s te r, 1956.
___________________ . The S o ft V oice o f th e S e r p e n t. New
York: Compass Books, im p rin t o f The V iking P re s s ,
I n c . , 1962. F i r s t p u b lis h e d , New York, 1952.
___________________ . "A South A fric a n C hildhood: A llu s io n s
in a L a n d sc a p e ," New Y o rk e r, O ctober 16, 1964, pp.
121-143.
___________________ . A World o f S tr a n g e r s . New York:
Simon and S c h u s te r, 1958.
___________________ . "A W rite r in South A f r i c a ," The
London M agazine. V (May 1965), 21-28.
Govan, C.N. Rev. o f W ild C o n q u est. S atu rd ay Review, o f
L i t e r a t u r e . June 17, 1950, p. 21.
Grunwald, B e v e rly . "Shapes and Shades o f th e Dark
C o n tin e n t," S a tu rd a y Review, June 10, 1961, pp.
23-26.
H opkinson, Tom. "A S earch f o r T ru th in th e A r t s ,"
South A f r i c a . New York: Time I n c ., 1964.
Hubbard, M a rg a re t. Rev. o f A Grove o f F ever T r e e s , The
New York H erald T ribune Book Review, March 19, 1950,
p. 6.
H u tch in so n , A lf re d . Road to Ghana. London: V ic to r
G o lla n c z , 1960.
Jaco b so n , Dan. A Dance in th e Sun. London: W eidenfeld
and N ic o lso n , 1956.
________________. A Long Way from London. London:
W eidenfeld and N ico lso n , 1958.
________________. The T ra p . New York: H a rc o u rt, B race and
C o., 1955.
240
K azin, A lf re d . Rev. o f Too L a te th e P h a la ro p e , The New
York Times Book Review, A ugust 23, 1953, pp. 1, 24.
Koch, A d rien n e. Rev. o f Cry, th e Beloved C o u n try .
S a tu rd a y Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , F eb ru ary 14, 1948,
p. 14.
K rig e, Uys. The Dream and th e D e s e r t. London: C o llin s ,
1953.
La Guma, A lex. And A T h re e fo ld C ord. B e rlin : Seven
Seas Books, 1964.
. A Walk in th e N ig h t. Ibad an , N ig e ria :
M bari P u b lic a tio n s , 1962.
L e ss in g , D o ris . Going Home. New York: B a lla n tin e Books,
•1968. F i r s t p u b lis h e d , London, 1957.
_____________ ___. M artha Q u e s t. New York: S ig n e t Books,
im p rin t o f New American L ib ra r y , I n c ., 1966. F i r s t
p u b lis h e d , New York, 1952.
L y tto n , D avid. The Goddam W hite Man. London: MacGibbon
and Kee, 1960.
M arquard, Leo. The P eo p le s and P o l i c i e s o f South A f r i c a ,
3rd ed . London: O xford U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1962.
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1965.
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S outh A fric a n P o e try in E n g lis h . Cape Town: A.A.
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__________________________ . G od's S te p -C h ild re n . London:
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pp. 105-106.
_________ . Anon, r e v . , Times L i t e r a r y Supplem ent,
O ctober 5, 1946, p. 477.
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New York Times Book Review , May 23, 1965, p. 5.
M odisane, B lo k e. Blame Me on H is to r y . London: Thames
and Hudson, 1963.
Moore, G erald, ed. A fric a n L i t e r a t u r e and th e
U n i v e r s i t i e s . Ib ad an , N ig e ria : Ibadan U n iv e r s ity
P re ss, 1965.
M phahlele, E z e k ie l. The A fric a n Im age. London: F aber
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____________________ . Down Second Avenue. B e rlin :
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London: O xford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1967.
N kosi, Lewis. Home and E x i l e . London: Longmans, 1965.
______________ . "Propaganda in th e South A fric a n S tr u g g le ."
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_____________ . Too L ate th e P h a la ro p e . New York:
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________________ . Rev. o f S o ft V oice o f th e S e r p e n t,
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_________________ . T u rb o tt W olfe. London: The H ogarth
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v
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.**•
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Essa, Ahmed
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Postwar South African Fiction In English: Abrahams, Paton, And Gordimer
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Doctor of Philosophy
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English
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Casson, Allan Perham (
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