University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

False Prophets In Fiction: Camus, Dostoevsky, Melville, And Others

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False Prophets In Fiction: Camus, Dostoevsky, Melville, And Others

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Content This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received
69-6505
RYSTEN, F elix Simon Anton, 1936-
FALSE PROPHETS IN FICTION: CAMUS,
DOSTOEVSKY, MELVILLE, AND OTHERS.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1968
Language and Literature, general
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
FALSE PROPHETS IN FICTION: "*KUS, DOSTOEVSKY,
MELVILLE, AND OTHERS
by
F e lix Simon Anton R y ste n
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P re s e n te d t o th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e
R equirem ents f o r th e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(C om parative L i t e r a t u r e )
A ugust 1968
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
TH E GRADUATE S C H O O L
UNIVERSITY PA R K
LOS A N G ELES, CA LIFO RN IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
F e l ix S im on An t o n R y s t e n
under the direction of hA§... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Date A ugust ,...1968
DISSERTATION COM M ITTEE
. 1 : . . . . I ' L L 1 c-*ik......................
Chairman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
C h a p te r Page
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................... I
I. A LITERARY CLIMATE, 1860-1960 12
I I . C A M U S* LA C H U T E ..................................................................... 77
I I I . DOSTOEVSKY* S THE POSSESSED............................................. 121
IV. MELVILLE*S MOBY-DICK........................................................... 168
CONCLUSION............................................................................................... 213
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................. 221
ii
INTRODUCTION
In any a n a l y s i s o f a c e r t a i n a s p e c t o f f i c t i o n o v e r
th e p a s t h u n d red y e a r s , i t i s n e c e s s a ry t o s e l e c t and t o
l i m i t exam ples t o th o s e t e x t s and t o th o s e s ta te m e n ts w hich
b e a r i m m e d i a t e p e r tin e n c e to th e a n a l y s i s i n h an d . I t
seem s to me, f o r exam ple, t h a t some o f th e m ost v i o l e n t l y
p e s s im is tic o b s e r v a tio n s made d u rin g t h i s p e rio d o f tim e
c an be found i n L o u is -F e rd in a n d C e li n e 's Voyage a u b o u t de
l a n u i t ( E a r is , 19 3 2 ). T his do es n o t p ro v e t h a t C e l i n e 's
n o v e l i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e a g e , b u t i t does s u g g e s t
t h a t th e w ork c o n c e n tr a te s on th e same som ber a t t i t u d e o f
d e s t r u c t i v e a n a rc h y w hich had a lr e a d y b e en s t a t e d m ost
d r a m a tic a lly by su ch p re v io u s m a s te rs a s Fyodor D o sto ev sk y ,
o r Herman M e lv ille , b o th re m a rk a b le f o r t h e i r moments o f
gloom . I t f u r t h e r seems l i k e l y t h a t C e lin e p o r t r a y s , w ith
a v e n g e a n c e , th e h o r r o r s o f v io le n c e w hich o th e r m odern
n o v e l i s t s su c h a s A lb e rt Camus, A ndre M alraux, and F ranz
K afka have d e v e lo p e d u n f o r g e tta b ly i n t h e i r m a s te r p ie c e s .
1
2
S in c e th e m id d le o f th e l a s t c e n tu ry th e C h r i s t ia n
r e l i g i o n o f th e W est, an d , i n f a c t , th e C h r is tia n c u l t u r a l
sy stem i n g e n e r a l, hav e b e e n u n d e r a t t a c k by su ch w r i t e r s
a s D ostoevsky, F r i e d r ic h N ie tz s c h e , J e a n -P a u l S a r t r e , and
A lb e rt Camus i n a c o n s ta n t p ro c e s s o f e v e r - a c c e l e r a ti n g
r e - e v a l u a ti o n . God, f i r s t u n d erm in ed , th e n d e th ro n e d , was
e v e n tu a lly , and by su c h n o v e l i s t s a s D ostoevsky, f e l v i l l e ,
M alraux, and Camus, r e p la c e d by th e m an-god, b y th e s o v e r
e ig n S e lf w ith in e a c h man*s b e in g . Y et, i f c o n c e rn w ith
n o n -p h y s ic a l r e a l i t y i s c o n s id e re d to b e n o t o n ly a s t a t e
o f u l ti m a t e im p o rta n c e , b u t a l s o a q u e s tio n in g a w are n ess o f
o n e ’ s e x is te n c e , th e n a C e lin e o r a P au l T i l l i c h c a n b o th
be term ed r e l i g i o u s f i g u r e s . S in c e i t seems im p o rta n t t o
d e m o n s tra te su ch a p p a r e n tly in c o m p a tib le a t t i t u d e s , I h av e
e v a lu a te d a b la sp h e m e r and an e s s e n t i a l l y C h r is tia n s p o k e s
men a s th e f i r s t s t e p in a d i s c u s s io n o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l
a t t i t u d e s w h ich , i n f i c t i o n , f l u c t u a t e b etw een th e s e two
e x tre m e s .
Man, i n th e m odem w o rld o f th e l a s t h u n d red y e a r s ,
f in d s h im s e lf a lo n e i n th e u n iv e r s e , w ith o u t a god, w ith o u t
a r a t i o n a l sy stem t o g u id e him , i n s h o r t , w ith o u t a n i d e n t i
f i a b l e o r d e r . In t h e f i r s t c h a p te r I d is c u s s t h i s them e
o f i s o l a t i o n and i t s Im p lic a tio n s by s t a r t i n g w ith th e c o n
c e p t o f " th e a b s u r d ," a s em ployed by A lb e rt Camus, Andre
M alraux, and F ranz K afka. Such a s t a r t i n g p o in t in th e
work o f su c h i n f l u e n t i a l a u th o r s p ro v id e s u s w ith a g ran d
p o r t a l th ro u g h w hich we may e n t e r th e w o rld o f f i c t i o n i n
g e n e r a l. W hile k e e p in g in m ind t h a t th e w ork o f a r t i s a n
e s t h e t i c c r e a t i o n , we s h a l l t r y , n e v e r t h e l e s s , to i s o l a t e
c e r t a i n o f i t s p h ilo s o p h ic a l s ta te m e n ts i n o r d e r t o answ er
th e q u e s tio n : w hat i s th e a b s u rd i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o man,
a c c o rd in g t o th e work o f c e r t a i n w r i t e r s ?
S in c e W estern man h a s liv e d f o r h u n d red s o f y e a rs
w ith in a p re d o m in a n tly C h r i s t ia n c i v i l i z a t i o n , i t seems
a p p r o p r ia te t o a n a ly z e th e c o n c e p t o f th e a b s u rd i n r e f e r
ence to t h i s c u l t u r a l sy ste m , t h a t i s , w ith in a g e n e r a lly
re c o g n iz a b le fram e, o f r e f e r e n c e f o r h i s th o u g h ts and f o r
h i s a c t i o n s . Works w r i t t e n w ith in a C h r i s t ia n fram ew ork
te n d t o c o n c e n tr a te upon m an’ s s e p a r a t io n from God o r upon
h is n a t u r a l s t a t e a f t e r Adam's f a l l from communion w ith th e
F a th e r . The s e a rc h o f th e a u th o r , th e c h a r a c t e r , and,
h o p e f u lly o f th e r e a d e r h as g e n e r a lly r e p r e s e n te d a q u e s t
f o r a c l o s e r u n io n w ith m ankind and a d e s i r e t o know a
tr a n s c e n d e n t m y s te ry . In th e n a r r a t i v e s w hich employ
r e l i g i o u s ty p e s and Im ages, t h e r e i s a g iv e n r e a l i t y ,
i d e n t i f i a b l e a s a C h r i s t ia n b ack g ro u n d , a g a i n s t w hich th e
s e a r c h f o r th e m eaning o f l i f e i s d e p ic te d .
We s h o u ld re m a in aw are t h a t in a c o n s id e r a tio n of
th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een man and a c e r t a i n l i t e r a r y w ork,
we f a l l u n a v o id a b ly i n t o a c e r t a i n s u b j e c t i v i t y . W e may
a l s o be aw are t h a t t h e r e i s a n in h e r e n t d a n g e r in a d m ittin g
a n e c e s s a r i l y som ewhat s u b j e c t iv e a p p ro a c h in a d i s c u s s io n
w h ich , a tte m p tin g t o b e fo rm a l, m ust ev en so b e g u id e d by
o b j e c t i v i t y . S t i l l , i t a p p e a rs t o me t h a t , s in c e th e
f u n c tio n o f a r t i s c r e a t i o n , f i c t i o n c a n be s a id t o a s p i r e
to w ard th e i n f i n i t e . W e may t h e r e f o r e assum e t h a t th e
v i s i o n c o n ju re d up i n o u r m inds i s , to some la r g e d e g re e ,
i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e a r t i s t ' s i n t e n t , so t h a t we a r e g ra n te d
a n i n s i g h t i* to o u r own e s t h e t i c e x p e r ie n c e . F o r tu n a te ly ,
th e a u th o r h a s im posed a l i m i t a t i o n , w hich a llo w s f o r a n
a c c e p te d s ta n d a r d o f o b j e c t i v i t y . The r e s t r i c t i v e f a c t o r
i s o rd a in e d by th e w ords u s e d , f o r in s t a n c e , a s b y th e
m anner in w hich th e c h a r a c t e r s a tte m p t to e x p re s s them
s e l v e s . T h e re fo re we a s p i r e to w ard becom ing one w ith th e
e lu s iv e w o rld o f th e c h a r a c t e r s so lo n g a s we r e s p e c t th e
a u t h o r 's tim e ly r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f f l e e t i n g o r s t a t i c
r e a l i t y . In t h i s m anner i t i s p o s s ib le t o i d e n t i f y w ith
th e im age o f a c h a r a c t e r p o r tr a y e d i n th e p ro c e s s o f
e s tra n g e m e n t. B rin g in g th e v i s i o n i n t o fo c u s , we a r e th e n
r e a c t i n g a c c o rd in g t o th e a u t h o r 's i n t e n t .
The f r e q u e n tly o b se rv e d e stra n g e m e n t o f f i c t i o n a l
c h a r a c te r s c a n b e b ro u g h t a b o u t e i t h e r by s o c i e t y 's ju d g
m ent o r by t h e i r own r e j e c t i o n o f i t s ju d g e s . In th e
l a t t e r c a s e , th e f i c t i o n a l p e o p le go i n to a s e lf-im p o s e d
e x i l e b e c a u se o f d is a p p o in tm e n ts w hich r e s u l t e d from a m is
p la c e d f a i t h . They c u t th e m se lv e s o f f when th e y hav e d e
f in e d th e s o u rc e o f t h e i r d isc o u ra g e m e n t. D ise n c h a n te d ,
th e y g a th e r s t r e n g t h by r e s e n t i n g th e random f o r c e s w hich
d e s tro y e d t h e i r b e l i e f s . T h is s t r e n g t h th e y p r o j e c t u n to
th o s e who a r e s t i l l w ith o u t c o n v ic tio n . T hese u n d e c id e d ,
f i c t i o n a l p e rs o n s , soon c o n v e rte d , t u r n i n to men " p o s s e s s e d "
by t h e i r m is le a d e r s ; an d , a lth o u g h th e y can re c o g n iz e t h e i r
g u id e s a s im p o s te r s , th e s e re a d y fo llo w e r s p r e f e r th e s u r
f a c e s e c u r i t y t o a p a in f u l dem asque. The r e a d e r c a n r e c o g
n iz e th e a u t h o r 's t e r r i b l e i n t e n t , and i t i s f o r him to
acknow ledge th e h y p o c ris y w hich b ro u g h t a b o u t th e t e r r i b l e
v i s i o n o f f a l s e s a l v a t i o n .
In n o v e ls su c h a s Camus' l a C hute. D o sto e v sk y 's
The P o sse sse d , and M e l v i l l e 's Moby-Dick th e r e a p p e a rs t o be
an o b v io u s p u rp o se t o show th e f a t e o f th o s e who p la c e
t h e i r t r u s t i n m is le a d e r s h ip . A p p a re n tly , th e e s t h e t i c
e x p e rie n c e , in c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith th e s e n o v e ls , i s , in
p a r t , d e te rm in e d by th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c o n te n t and form .
B oth D ostoevsky and M e lv ille tu rn e d t h e n o v e l t o th e u s e s
o f tr a g e d y , a s we s h a l l s e e , and a d a p te d t h i s c l a s s i c a l
form . Camus le a r n e d from th e s e p r e d e c e s s o r s and u n d e rs to o d ,
a s th e y d id , t h a t th e r e a d e r sh o u ld b e g iv e n th e ch an c e to
a c t th e p la y r a t h e r th a n to c o n te m p la te i t . The r e a d e r i s
t h e r e f o r e draw n i n t o th e m oving dram a and made t o l i v e th e
e x p e rie n c e . C o n s id e r in g - th is , we may c o n c lu d e , a f t e r th e
p r e s e n t a ti o n o f o u r e v id e n c e , t h a t n o v e ls w hich em ploy th e
d ra m a tic m ethod a r e h ig h ly s u i t e d t o th e d e p ic tio n o f p r o
p h e tic c h a r a c t e r s . T hese p s e u d o - in h e r ito r s o f d iv in e u n i ty
r e q u i r e a l i g h t and a p e d e s t a l, a s w e ll a s th e s t r e n g t h to
l u r e s c a t t e r e d d i s b e l i e v e r s i n C h r i s t ia n s a l v a t i o n .
The sem b lan ce o f u n i t y w hich su c h n o v e ls o f f e r ,
s e r v e s a tw o -fo ld aim . W ith in th e l i t e r a r y w ork o f a r t ,
i t c r e a t e s a te n s io n tr a n s m itte d t o th e r e a d e r ; an d , m ore
o v e r, th e b a la n c e d , a r t i s t i c p r e s e n t a ti o n w hich s u g g e s ts a n
o rd e re d u n iv e r s e , i s c o n tr a d ic te d by th e ch ao s o f th e c o n
t e n t . T hese t h r e e n o v e ls p r e s e n t an a n a l y s i s o f t h e i r tim e ;
th e y a r e a m ir r o r w here th e c o n s c ie n c e o f th e r e a d e r i s
tr a p p e d .
Our f i r s t c h a p te r in tr o d u c e s some g e n e r a l c o n c e p ts .
I ch o o se to b e g in w ith Camus, b e c a u se t h i s w r i t e r gave " th e
a b s u rd " a c e n t r a l p o s i t io n d u rin g a c e r t a i n p e rio d o f h i s
l i t e r a r y c a r e e r . I a l s o in c lu d e M alraux w h e re, p a r t i c u
l a r l y i n h i s e a r l i e r n o v e ls , t h i s i s a l s o th e c a s e , and I
f u r t h e r in c lu d e him b e c a u se h i s f i c t i o n h a s c l e a r l y i n f l u
enced Camus. As t h i r d member i n t h i s t r i n i t y o f th e a b s u rd ,
I r e f e r t o K afka. H is w ork, l i k e t h a t o f M alraux, form ed
an im p o rta n t s o u rc e o f i n s p i r a t i o n f o r Camus.
A f te r th e d is c u s s io n o f th e w orks o f th e s e a u th o r s ,
we s h a l l c o n tin u e w ith a p r e s e n t a ti o n o f a s p e c i f i c work by
Camus, o f one by D ostoevsky, and o f one by M e lv ille . The
l a s t tw o a u th o r s a p p e a r a l s o b e c a u se o f th e f a s c i n a t i o n
th e y e x e r c is e d o v e r Camus, and b e c a u se h i s r e c i t l a C hute.
a s a p a ro d y o f a r e l i g i o u s e x p e rie n c e in d ra m a tic form , may
be s a i d t o hav e b e en d e riv e d from The P o s se ss e d and s u g
g e s te d by M oby-D ick. In C h a p te rs I I th ro u g h IV we s h a l l
p r e s e n t a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f th e s e t h r e e n o v e ls , an
e x p l i c a t i o n d e t e x t e . t o r e v e a l how t h e s e p a ro d ie s o f r e l i
g io u s e x p e r ie n c e , i n form and c o n te n t, may e x i s t a s an
in d iv i d u a l g e n re in f i c t i o n .
The t h r e e n o v e ls , l a C hute. The P o s se ss e d , and
M obv-Dick. s u g g e s t a f i v e - a c t c l a s s i c a l tr a g e d y . W ith in
t h i s w o rld o f t r a g i c c o n f l i c t d e s t r u c t i v e f i g u r e s r u l e .
La C hute i s d o m in ated by J e a n - B a p tis te C lam ence, The
P o sse sse d by N ik o la y S ta v ro g in , and Mobv-Dick b y Ahab. As
p r i n c i p a l s th e y a r e p o r tr a y e d l i k e c o n te m p o ra ry h e ro e s o f
am o ra l a c t i o n s , who d e s tr o y th e p e o p le a ro u n d them . They
h av e b e e n maimed by a ch an ce e n c o u n te r, s o t h a t i t seem s
im p e ra tiv e f o r them t o a s s e r t t h e i r own s i g n i f i c a n c e v i a a
p e rs o n a l re v e n g e upon an i n d i f f e r e n t unknown. In t h i s
o b s e s s io n th e y r e q u i r e th e p re s e n c e o f p e o p le w ith whom
th e y c a n f i l l t h e i r own w o rld o f h a tr e d . They r e q u i r e a
fo llo w in g o f o r d in a r y men t o en h an ce t h e i r s t a t u r e and t o
r e l i e v e th e lo n e l i n e s s o f t h e i r dem onic m is s io n . In o r d e r
t o a t t r a c t a l l i e s f o r t h e i r tr e a c h e r o u s p u r s u i t a g a i n s t th e
e s t a b l i s h e d , u n i v e r s a l o r d e r , th e y m ust come d is g u is e d a s
le a d e r s to u c h e d by th e s p a rk o f i n s i g h t . T h e ir p o w e rfu l
a p p e a ra n c e h id e s a o a v sa e e d e m o ra lis e , an d , s in c e th e y l i v e
on s o l i t a r y h e ig h t s , th e y a r e a d m ired by th o s e who s u f f e r
from d is c o n te n tm e n t and a f e e l i n g o f l o n e l i n e s s . They
p ro c la im t o b e th e b e g in n in g and th e end o f th e r e c o g n i ti o n
o f m a n 's c o m p lic ity i n th e e x i s t i n g w o rld o f a n a rc h y .
S in c e in t h e i r w o rld s a s t a t e o f a n a rc h y i s th e o n ly i d e n t i -
f i a b l e norm l e f t , p e o p le f lo c k tow ard them i n r e c o g n itio n
o f th e f a m i l i a r . I t i s e s s e n t i a l f o r th e s e m is le a d e r s t h a t
th e y m a in ta in t h e i r s t r e n g t h th ro u g h i n d i f f e r e n c e . They
h av e a tte m p te d to lo v e a s a n e sc a p e from t h e i r v i o l e n t
m is s io n o f ju d g m e n t, b u t th e y l e f t lo v e b e h in d them when
th e y d is c a r d e d t h e i r in n o c e n t b e l i e f t h a t th e u n iv e r s e was
e s s e n t i a l l y good. They r e j e c t e v e ry th in g w hich b in d s man
t o man and a l l t h a t c a n s e r v e a s g o -b etw een f o r th e m se lv e s
and th e C r e a tio n . H aving c o n s id e re d any human q u a l i t y and
any m a n -c re a te d in v e n tio n a s an i n t o l e r a b l e d e c e p tio n o f
harm onious e x is te n c e , th e y m ust r e t r e a t t o a " m a lc o n fo rt"
o f i s o l a t i o n , d o u b t, and f e a r . In p e r s o n a l agony th e y w i l l
d i s i n t e g r a t e i n th e v o id o f t h e i r own d i s s e n t .
A lre a d y b e f o r e t h e i r f a l l i n t o a w a re n e s s, th e y had
s e t th e m se lv e s above o t h e r s ; a f t e r t h e i r f a l l th e y c o n tin u e
to do th e sam e. L u c id ity h a s shown them th e way o u t o f
t h e i r b le s s e d c o n te n tm e n t, and i n t h e i r n e w ly -a c q u ire d p e r
c e p tio n th e y assum e t h a t m ankind w i l l b e s e rv e d by t h e i r
b ra n d o f n i h i l i s m . They hav e one, s o le c e r t a i n t y : h a v in g
u n d e rs to o d w hat th e y b e lie v e t o hav e b e e n th e i r r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y o f t h e i r e a r l i e r i d e a l s , th e y h a v e becom e c o n v e rte d
10
t o a b e l i e f I n a b s o lu te d i c t a t o r s h i p . Cut o f f from th e
cosmos in th e p r is o n o f c i v i l i z a t i o n , th e y a r e th e ep ito m e
o f d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith God and w ith l i f e ; th e y m ust s u f f e r
th e woe o f th o s e " th ro u g h whom te m p ta tio n c o m e th ." They
tem p t t h e i r f o llo w e rs i n t o ack n o w led g in g t h e i r r e a l i t y by
p ro p o sin g a s o l i d a r i t y b a se d on th e f e a r o f r e f u s a l to
fo llo w a s a v i o r . They rem em ber t h a t s u f f e r i n g i s th e
n a t u r a l c o n d itio n o f man i n an e v i l w o rld , and in t h i s
know ledge th e y occupy an em in en t p o s i t io n w hich n e e d s t o be
p re s e rv e d so t h a t th e y w i l l n o t p e r i s h i n th e judgm ent o f
th e w o rld . L ike C ain , th e y make th e m se lv e s ju d g e s o f G od's
d eed s and th e re b y o f H is C r e a tio n . By h a v in g a p p o in te d
th e m se lv e s a s godheads in t h e i r own e s t a b l is h e d re a lm s ,
th e y t u r n th e p e rs o n s whom th e y have c o n v e rte d i n t o emana
t io n s o f t h e i r own e v i l s p i r i t ; and s o th e y a r e f a t e d to
b r in g t o a c lo s e th e r e i g n o f u n c e r t a i n d i s b e l i e f .
So lo n g a s W estern man c o n tin u e s t o p e r p e t r a t e th e
sham o f a c u l t u r a l sy stem w hich t h r i v e s upon th e n e g a tio n
o f human v a lu e s , h e c a n n o t, a c c o rd in g to o u r n o v e l i s t s ,
e n jo y th e lo v e o f k in s h ip ; i n h a te , h e m ust d e sce n d i n to
h is own h e l l . He can t r a v e l in o n ly one d i r e c t i o n : o u t o f
a lo v e le s s p a s t i n t o a l i f e l e s s c h a o s, a t t e s t i n g t o th e
t o t a l d e n i a l o f th e Prom ised la n d . He do es n o t s e e man In
G od's im age, b u t he alw ay s e n c o u n te rs h i s S e lf In c a r n a te d
in o t h e r s . T hese f a l s e p ro p h e ts s i g n i f y l i f e - i n - d e a t h to
th o s e who b e li e v e , and t h e r e a l i t y o f n o th in g n e s s t o th o s e
o u ts id e t h i s d e s t r u c t i v e s p h e r e . M an's r e l a t i o n t o th e
o u ts id e w o rld i s w hat h e b e lie v e s i t t o b e . M an's know l
edge i s r e l a t i v e b e c a u se h e a c t s u n d e r o r d e r s o f th e u n
known, th e i n e x p l i c a b le , and th e i r r a t i o n a l . Man i s a ?
p r is o n e r so lo n g a s h e i s maimed by f e a r . M an's l i f e i s
in d e e d l i k e t h e la b o r o f S isy p h u s. Freedom and i n s i g h t a r e
h i s o n ly when h e l i v e s th ro u g h p a in and s u f f e r i n g w ith o u t
f e a r and w ith o u t hope f o r th e u n a t t a i n a b l e . He m ust u n i t e
to c o n f r o n t, in s o l i d a r i t y , th e i n d if f e r e n c e o f th e u n i
v e r s e .
CHAPTER I
A LITERARY CLIMATE, 1860-1960
When, i n 1932, L o u is -F e rd in a n d C e lin e s e n t h i s f i c
t i o n a l d o u b le on a jo u rn e y to th e end o f n i g h t , h e w arn ed :
R eten ez b ie n c e c i F e rd in a n d , c e q u i e s t l e commencement
de l a f i n de t o u t c 'e s t l e manque d e m esu re! . . . Par
l e s f a n t a i s i e s de l a m esu re que 9a a commence! P ar l e s
o u tra n e e s e tr a n g e r e s ! P lu s d e m e su re , p lu s d e f o r c e !
C 'e t a i t e c r i t ! A lo rs au n e a n t t o u t l e monde? P o u rq u o i
p a s ? T ous? C 'e s t e n te n d u ! Nous n 'y a l i o n s pas __
d 'a i l l e u r s , on y c o u r t ! C * est une v e r i t a b l e ru e e ! J e
l * a i vu m oi, 1*e s p r i t F e rd in a n d , c e d e r peu a peu d e so n
e q u i l i b r e e t p u is s e d is s o u d r e d an s l a g ra n d e e n t r e -
p r i s e d e s a m b itio n s a p o c a ly p tiq u e s ! C e la commenpa v e r s
1900. . . . A p a r t i r d e c e t t e epoque . . . c e f u t a q u i s e
v o u e r a i t a u m o n stre l e p lu s t d t p o s s i b l e , a l a b e te
sa n s c o e u r e t sa n s r e te n u e ! . . . I a b& te? une g r o s s e
t e t e q u i m arche comme e l l e v e u t! Ses g u e r r e s e t s e s
b a v e s f la m b o ie n t d e ja v e r s nous e t de to u te s p a r t s !
Nous v o i c i en p l e i n d e lu g e ! T out sim p le m e n t.
L o u is -F e rd in a n d C e lin e , Voyage au b o u t de l a n u i t
( P a r i s : G a llim a rd , 1 9 5 2 ), p . 4 3 3 .
"Remember t h i s w e ll F e rd in a n d , t h a t th e b e g in n in g
o f t h e end i s a lo s s o f a s e n s e o f p r o p o r tio n . . . . I t
b e g a n w ith a w ild la c k o f m o d e ra tio n ! F o re ig n f r e n z i e s !
An outw orn s e n s e o f f i t n e s s , a n end t o s t r e n g th ! I t was
w r i t t e n . Chaos f o r a l l th e n ? Why n o t? F o r e v e ry o n e ? I t
i s a g re e d . We a r e n o t g o in g in t h a t d i r e c t i o n , we a r e
r u s h in g t h e r e — I t ' s a r e a l r o u t . I 'v e s e e n th e s o u l, F e r d i
n a n d , g iv e w ay, b i t by b i t , lo s e i t s b a la n c e and d is s o lv e
12
13
W ith t h i s d e s p e r a te r e a l i z a t i o n th e a u th o r h a s e x p re s s e d
a n a w a re n e ss w h ich i s o f t e n found i n t w e n tie th - c e n t u r y
l i t e r a t u r e . Of c o u rs e , i t c a n b e s a id t h a t C e li n e 's ttis e
s u f f e r s from b i t t e r d i s i l l u s i o n a f t e r a n ig h t o f d e s p a i r ,
b u t i t i s n e v e r th e le s s t r u e t h a t w ith th e them e o f c h a o s,
w r i t e r s o f o u r tim e h av e b e e n f r e q u e n t ly o c c u p ie d . Vague
term s l i k e ’’s e n s e o f doom" and " lo s s o f p r o p o r tio n " do n o t
c o v e r any id e a s p e c u l i a r t o o u r a g e . T h is p e r c e p tio n o f
l i f e a s e x p re s s e d by a r t i s t s c a n be t r a c e d back t o R om anti
c ism , a lth o u g h w ith t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n t h a t in th e i n t e r
v e n in g y e a rs th e v e i l o f b e a u ty h a s b e e n t a t t e r e d t o ex p o se
th e u g ly c o n te n t.
o
A lrea d y i n B y ro n 's poem "D a rk n ess" (1816) t h e r e
h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d th e dream o f th e lo v e le s s w o rld d e s tro y e d
i n th e v a s t w e l t e r o f a p o c a ly p tic a m b itio n . I t b eg an in
1900. . . . From t h a t tim e onw ards . . . e ac h s tr o v e to s e e
who c o u ld im m olate h im s e lf th e s o o n e s t t o th e m o n ste r o f
no h e a r t and no r e s t r a i n t . . . . What i s t h i s m o n ste r? A
g r e a t b r u t e tu m b lin g a lo n g w h e re v e r i t l i s t e t h ! I t s w ars
and i t s d r o o lin g flo o d i n to w a rd s u s a lr e a d y from a l l
s i d e s . We s h a l l b e sw ept away on t h i s t i d e - - y e s , sw ept
a w ay ." L. F. C e lin e , Jo u rn e y t o th e End o f N ig h t, t r a n s l .
John H. P. M arks (London: Penguin Books, 1 9 66), p . 367.
2
G eorge Gordon, Lord B yron, " D a rk n e s s ," i n C om plete
P o e tic a l W orks, e d . P au l E. More (C am bridge, M a s s .: R iv e r
s id e P re s s , 1 9 33), p p . 189-190.
14
I n a f i e r y h o lo c a u s t, an d , l i k e th e man i n S h e l le y 's s o n n e t
" L i f t n o t th e P a in te d V e il" (1 8 2 4 ), a r t i s t s h av e d is c o v e r e d
3
" th e chasm , s i g h t l e s s and d r e a r . " Man, a lo n e in h i s
s p a c e -tim e co n tin u u m , h a s known f o r some tim e t h a t none o f
h i s s u b j e c t i v e s t r i v i n g s c a n i n f lu e n c e th e u n iv e r s e . He i s
a p a r t o f N a tu re , and y e t N a tu re i s i n d i f f e r e n t t o h i s mood
and y e a r n in g . He i s a v ic tim o f tim e , c u t o f f from th e
d iv in e s o u rc e , h a v in g o n ly th e c e r t a i n t y o f d e a th . W hile
c e r t a i n w r i t e r s o f th e R om antic e r a s t i l l saw an a s p e c t o f
th e d iv in e r e f l e c t e d i n N a tu re , th e a u th o r s o f to d a y c an
o n ly t u r n t o th e S e lf f o r i n s p i r a t i o n . The p ro o f o f G o d 's
p re s e n c e , a s i n Sam uel B e c k e tt 's En A tte n d a n t Godot (1 9 5 2 ),
h a s b e en re d u c e d t o th e p r e c a r io u s c e r t a i n t y t h a t f o r w a i t
in g man h e w i l l come th e day a f t e r to d a y .^ N e v e r th e le s s ,
m odem w r i t e r s , ev en a s th e y r e j e c t th e p ro m ise o f God,
s t r u g g l e w ith th e r e l i g i o u s p ro b lem —b u t th e God th e y evoke
i s s t r u c t u r e d i n n e g a tiv e a rg u m e n t. Som etim es th e y in d u lg e ,
l i k e C e lin e , in blasphem ous argum ent w ith th e C re a to r and
3
P ercy B. S h e lle y , " l i f t n o t t h e B a in ted V e il, " i n
K eats and S h e lle y : C om plete P o e t ic a l Works (New Y ork:
M odem l i b r a r y , n . d . ) , p . 608.
4
Samuel B e c k e tt, En A tte n d a n t Godot ( P a r i s : G a l l i -
m ard, 1952), A ct I I , p . 134.
15
h i s C r e a tio n . But i n e i t h e r c a s e , th e s e a r c h f o r God
re m a in s , in M arcel A rla n d ’s a p t w ords, " l 'e t e m e l to u rm e n t
d es horames, s o i t q u 'i l s s 'a t t a c h e n t a l e c r e e r ou a l e
d e t r u i r e . F r i e d r i c h N ie tz s c h e found Him d e a d , a s he
g
f i r s t s t a t e d i n D ie f r tth lic h e W is s e n s c h a ft (1 8 8 2 ); s t i l l ,
t h e " r e l i g i o u s " im p u lse p e r s i s t s . The q u e s t f o r th e
tr a n s c e n d e n t t h a t i s beyond a l l re a s o n and beyond a l l p ro o f
h as n o t ended; b u t God re m a in s i n v i s i b l e and unknow able,
and so t h e w r i t e r m ust c o n fin e h im s e lf t o th e u n iv e r s e o f
th e human, th e re a lm o f th e se n su o u s , th e te m p o ra l, th e
f i n i t e .
The way a w r i t e r re sp o n d s to th e c h a lle n g e o f e x i s
te n c e and i n t e r p r e t s th e n a tu r e o f man may depend upon h is
know ledge o f th e a b se n c e o f God. B ut, a s I h u l tT i l l i c h
s t a t e s th e p ro b lem :
W hatever th e s u b je c t m a tte r w hich a n a r t i s t c h o o se s ,
. . . he c a n n o t e sc a p e r e l i g i o n even i f h e r e j e c t s r e l i
g io n , f o r r e l i g i o n i s th e s t a t e o f b e in g u l ti m a t e l y
^M arcel A rla n d , "S u r un nouveau Mai du S i e c l e , "
N o u v e lle Revue F r a n c a is e . XXII (F e b ru a ry , 1 9 2 4 ), 157.
^ F r ie d r ic h N ie tz s c h e , D ie f r f lh lic h e W is s e n s c h a ft
( S t u t t g a r t : A. K roner V e rla g , 1 9 2 1 ), s e c t i o n 108, p . 147.
F r i e d r ic h N ie tz s c h e , The J o y f u l Wisdom, t r a n s l .
Thomas Common (London: T. N. F o u lis , 1 9 1 0 ), s e c t i o n 108,
p . 151.
16
c o n c e rn e d . And I n e v e ry s t y l e th e u l t i m a t e c o n c e rn o f
a human g ro u p i s m a n if e s t.
I f t h i s i s s o , th e n even n e g a tiv e r e f l e c t i o n s o f l i f e , and
i t s ex trem e c a s e th e em ergence o f th e dem onic, a r e e s s e n
t i a l l y r e l i g i o u s i n t h e i r c o n f r o n t a ti o n o f r e a l i t y . A ll
t h a t m a tte r s i s t h e d e g re e o f h o n e s ty w ith w hich th e w r i t e r
i n t e r p r e t s l i f e . "Ohne K r i t ik am L eben i s t k e in e R e lig io n
d e n k b a r ," h o ld s th e D utch, r e l i g i o n - o r i e n t e d a n th r o p o lo g is t
and s o c i o l o g i s t , G. v a n d e r Leeuw; and h e c o n tin u e s i " R e li
g io n b e d e u te t e b e n , d a s s man d a s Leben n i c h t e in f a c h
Q
h innim m t. D ie R e lig io n r i c h t e t s i c h in n e r a u f d as A n d e re."
Thus, a lth o u g h C e lin e on th e one h an d , and T i l l i c h and
v a n d e r Leeuw on th e o t h e r , b e g in w ith o p p o sin g p re m ise s
and d i f f e r e n t form s o f e x p re s s io n , th e y a r r i v e a t s u b s ta n
t i a l l y th e same c o n c lu s io n .
T h is i s t h e c h a lle n g e w hich c o n f r o n ts th e m odem
a r t i s t : how t o o f f e r " K r i t i k am Leben" when th e d i r e c t i o n
t o "dem A ndera" i s n o t g iv e n , o r , i n o th e r w o rd s, how t o
e x p re s s m e a n in g le s s n e s s i n a u n iv e r s e t h a t i s i n d i f f e r e n t
^ P a u l T i l l i c h , " P r o te s ta n tis m and A r t i s t i c S t y l e , "
i n The T heology o f C u ltu r e (New Y ork: O xford U n iv e r s ity
P r e s s , 1 9 5 9 ), p . 70.
8 —
G. v an d e r Leeuw, Phflnom enologie d e r R e lig io n
(T ttbingen: J . C. B. Mohr V e rla g , 1 9 3 3 ), p . 189.
17
t o h i s p l i g h t and w h ic h , t o a l l a p p e a ra n c e s , i s w ith o u t
t h e p re s e n c e o f God. Man c o n f r o n ts a n e v id e n c e w hich seem s
t o b e in e x p lic a b ly f u t i l e , and y e t h e i s t o make a s e p a r a te
p e ac e i n a w o rld o f f u t i l i t y . He p r e f e r s t o deny th e
d e s i r e to m erge w ith th e Beyond—t h i s f a tu o u s y e a rn in g f o r
th e A b s o lu te —s t i l l h e m ust q u e s t f o r h i s i d e n t i t y . I f h e
g iv e s u p t h i s s e a r c h , h e becom es an em pty s e l f in w hich h e
p e r i s h e s . T h is i s n o t to say t h a t th o s e who se e k on f i n d
t h e way t o t h e i r i d e n t i t y . The m ost th e y c an e x p e c t i s t o
f in d a s e lf -a w a r e n e s s i n th e r e a l i t y o f d e f ia n c e o f d e a th .
In th e q u e s t th e m odern w r i t e r lo o k s w ith in and
f in d s no e n t i t y t h a t h e c an d e f in e a s th e s e l f , no e v e r -
f ix e d m ark b y w hich h e c an e v a lu a te h i s e x p e r ie n c e s . Yet
th e w r i t e r m u st somehow come to term s w ith th e tim e s i n
o r d e r n o t t o b e sw ept aw ay. He c an c r e a t e a n a r t i s t i c
moment in w hich h e and o th e r s a l s o may f in d a n u n d e rs ta n d
in g o f th e m se lv e s and t h e i r w o rld . He c an d e v e lo p a v a lu e
sy ste m w hich may s u g g e s t a n i d e n t i f i a b l e o r d e r , a p o in t o f
r e f e r e n c e , a n i n s t a n t o f s t a b i l i t y t o c o n s id e r th e s t i l l i n g
9
o f u n r e s t .
9
See A lfr e d N. W hitehead, E ssa y s i n S c ie n c e and
H iilo s o p h v (New Y ork: R iilo s o p h ic a l l i b r a r y , 1 9 4 7 ),
pp. 7 7 -9 6 , f o r an e x c e l l e n t d is c u s s io n o f th e im p o rta n c e o f
th e c r e a t i o n o f a ’’W orld o f V a lu e s” t o m o d ify th e ’’W orld
18
A lb e r t Camus h a s sp o k en o f th e s to n e i n Le Mythe
d e S isv p h e (1942) t o s u g g e s t a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e w o rld
i n w hich man m oves; h e m akes i t a sym bol o f th e b u rd e n man
c a r r i e s , a s w e ll a s o f th e s i l e n t i n d i f f e r e n c e o f m a n 's
s u rr o u n d in g s . T r a v e llin g th ro u g h I t a l y a s a young a d u l t ,
Camus saw th e p a in t i n g "The F l a g e l l a t i o n " by P ie r r o d e l l a
F ra n c e s c a . He was a s to n is h e d b y th e d e ta c h m e n t, th e
s u p e r io r i n d i f f e r e n c e w hich th e a t t i t u d e s o f b o th C h r is t
and th e to rm e n to r co n v ey . "De c e s f a c e s f i g e e s dan s d es
lig n e s e t e m e l l e s , i l s o n t a ja m a is c h a s s e l a m a le d ic tio n
d e l 'e s p r i t . " '* ’ ® I t i s th e same i n d i f f e r e n c e w hich c h a r a c
t e r i z e s man when h e i d e n t i f i e s w ith th e s to n e and do es n o t
se e k r e f u g e i n h o p e. In t h i s a c c e p ta n c e man acknow ledges
a s t e r i l e l i b e r a t i o n , a l i b e r a t i o n w h ich d e l i v e r s him to
th e e t e r n a l p r e s e n t o f th e p h y s ic a l e x p e r ie n c e . However,
t h i s p h y s ic a l e x p e rie n c e c a r r i e s i t s own s e e d o f d e s t r u c
t i o n . When i t e x i s t s , i t d e n ie s i t s e l f in c o n f r o n ta tio n
w ith s u f f e r i n g and t h e r e s u l t a n t a w a re n e ss o f d e a th . F e a r
s p u rs man on t o q u e s tio n h i s r e a s o n f o r b e in g , b u t no answ er
o f A c t iv i t y " so t h a t an e v a lu a tio n o f th e " S e lf " and th e
w o rld may le a d t o " U n ity ."
^ A l b e r t Camus, Noces ( P a r i s : E d itio n s C h a rio t,
1 9 3 7 ), p . 93.
19
i s e v e r g iv e n . Man d is c o v e r s t h a t t h e r e i s no d e f in a b le
c o rre s p o n d e n c e b etw een him and h i s w o rld an d i n t h i s r e c o g
n i t i o n o f la c k o f r e l a t i o n s h i p man d is c o v e r s w h at Camus h a s
c a l l e d th e " a b s u r d ."
T h is th e o r y o f a b s u r d ity d e s c r ib e s th e p o s i t i o n o f
man w i t h in h i s w o rld a s a d ia lo g u e w ith a s i l e n t p a r t n e r .
W ith o u t r e a s s u r a n c e t h a t th e an sw er man h a s p ro v id e d him
s e l f i s c o r r e c t , h e becom es e s tr a n g e d from a w o rld w hich
a p p e a re d t o b e lo n g t o him . In Camus * w o rd s :
J e s u i s n e p a u v re so u s un c i e l h e u re u x , d an s une n a tu r e
a v ec l a q u e l l e on s e n t un a c c o rd , non u n e h o s t i l i t e . J e
n ' a i done p as commence p a r l e d e c h ire m e n t, m ais p a r l a
p l e n i t u d e . 1
A b s u rd ity i s d is tu r b e d harm ony, u nderm ined s t a b i l i t y , and
b ro k e n u n i t y . I t c o n s i s t s o f harm ony and d i s r u p t i o n , i n
s t a b i l i t y and e q u ilib r iu m , j u s t a s i n d i f f e r e n c e i s form ed
o u t o f m eaning and m e a n in g le s s n e s s . B oth M e u rs a u lt, th e
m ain c h a r a c t e r o f L* E tr a n e e r (1 9 4 2 ), and C lam ence, th e
c o m p u lsiv e t a l k e r o f l a C hute (1 9 5 6 ), e x p e r ie n c e an i n i t i a l
harm ony w ith th e w o rld u n t i l a c o n f l i c t e x p o ses th e m eaning
le s s n e s s o f t h e i r w o rld . From t h e d is p la c e m e n t o f f a m i l i a r
^ A l b e r t Camus, A c tu e lle s : c h ro n io u e s 1944-1948
( P a r i s : G a llim a rd , 1 9 5 0 ), p . 225.
20
p e rc e p tio n and th e rem em brance o f th e way i t w as, th e
a b s u rd i s b o m . T h is dram a o f th e s i l e n t w o rld a g a i n s t
u n ity -d e m a n d in g man c an b e e n a c te d e v e ry w h e re . The d i s g u s t
o f R o q u en tin in J e a n -P a u l S a r t r e ’s l a N ausee (1938), when
h e i s c o n fro n te d w ith t h e s u f f o c a t i n g f u l l n e s s o f th e u n i
v e r s e , i s a s much a n exam ple o f i t a s th e s i l e n t s to n e
w h ich , in i t s m a s s iv e n e s s , r e s i s t s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
Once th e a b s u rd h a s sh a k en m an’ s w o rld , h e w i l l
w ant t o t u r n t o some one b e c a u se some th in g d o es n o t a n sw e r.
In Camus' d e f i n i t i o n t h e o th e r one, w ith whom th e t e r r o r
c a n b e s h a re d , i s n o t t o b e fo u n d and m an’s e stra n g e m e n t
d e e p e n s. The a b se n c e o f th e o th e r one i s n e v e r c l e a r l y
p r e s e n te d , and th e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r com m unication i s n o t
3-n i e d . The o th e r i s sim p ly n o t t h e r e when n e e d e d . T h is
p h ilo s o p h ic p r i n c i p l e o f a b s u r d i ty i s n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o
Camus. I t c a n a l s o b e found i n t h e f i c t i o n a l w o rld o f
A ndre M alraux, a lth o u g h h e re t h e te rm " a b s u rd 1 ' i s n o t so
much a d e l i b e r a t e c h o ic e o f r e f e r e n c e a s a n i n c i d e n t a l
o b s e r v a tio n . M alraux im p a rte d t o h i s g e n e r a tio n " a b s u r d ity "
a s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f r e a l i t y . In h i s e p i s t o l a r y n o v e l,
l a T e n ta tio n d e 1*O c c id e n t (1 9 2 6 ), M alraux in tro d u c e d i n t o
th e th o u g h t o f E urope t h i s n o tio n w h ich , l a t e r , Camus
21
d e v e lo p e d I n t o a p re m ise f o r a w a re n e ss an d a c t i o n . " I I e s t
a u c o e u r du monde o c c i d e n t a l ," s a y s a c o rre s p o n d e n t i n a
l e t t e r t o h i s f r i e n d ,
un c o n f l i t s a n s e s p o i r , so u s q u e lq u e form e q u e n ous l e
d e c o u v rio n s : c e l u i d e l'hom m e e t d e c e q u ’ i l a c r e e .
. . . [Ce c o n f l i t ] a p p re n d a l a c o n s c ie n c e a d i s p a r a i t r e
e t n o u s p r e p a r e aux royaum es m e ta lliq u e s de l 'a b s u r -
d i t e .12
M alraux, w r i t i n g i n th e wake o f W orld War I , r e a l i z e d t h a t
W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n was d i s i n t e g r a t i n g , and i n t h i s e p i s
t o l a r y n o v e l h e conveyed th e f e e l i n g o f d e s p a i r an d a b
s u r d i t y .
I n a n a b s u rd u n iv e r s e o f d i s a s s o c i a t e d r e a l i t i e s
M alraux found a tw o - f o ld r e s o u r c e : c o u ra g e and a c t i o n ,
m e ta p h y s ic a l and p h y s ic a l c o u ra g e o f a b o ld ly h o p e le s s
k in d , ta k in g t h e form o f a d v e n tu re , w ith th e S e lf a s s ta k e
i n p e r i l o u s c irc u m s ta n c e s . The e n c o u n te r i s t o h av e one
p u rp o s e : th e s e n s e o f l i v i n g d e riv e d from d e f ia n c e o f d e a th .
A ndre M alraux, l a T e n ta tio n d e 1*O c c id e n t ( P a r i s :
B. G r a s s e t, 1 9 2 6 ), p . 198.
"A t t h e c o re o f W estern c i v i l i z a t i o n t h e r e i s a
h o p e le s s c o n t r a d i c t i o n , i n w h a te v e r sh a p e we d is c o v e r i t :
t h a t b etw een man and w hat h e h a s c r e a t e d . . . . T h is s p i r i t
o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n t r a i n s o u r c o n s c io u s n e s s to g iv e way and
p r e p a r e s u s f o r t h e m e t a l l i c re a lm s o f t h e a b s u r d ." A ndre
M alraux, The T e m p ta tio n o f th e W est, t r a n s l . R o b e rt H ol
la n d e r (New Y ork: V in ta g e Books, 1 9 6 1 ), p. 118.
22
Out o f M a lra u x ' e x p e rie n c e i n C hina c a n e Les Conquer a n ts
(1 9 2 8 ). G a rin e , t h e m ain c h a r a c t e r o f t h i s n o v e l, h a s
e x p e rie n c e d t h e a b s u rd . T h ere i s a k i n s h i p b e tw ee n him and
M e u rs a u lt. He to o h a s t o s i t th ro u g h a t r i a l i n w h ich th e
a b s u r d i ty o f human e x is te n c e becom es m a n if e s t, an d h e to o
e x p e r ie n c e s i t a s a k in d o f comedy w hich i s p la y e d a ro u n d
him . The ju d g e s t r y h i s s t a n d - i n , n o t him , even th o u g h
t h i s s t a n d - i n c a r r i e s h i s nam e. E q u a lly a p p a r e n t, how
e v e r , a r e th e d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een G a rin e and M e u rs a u lt.
M e u rsa u lt h a s b e e n an a m a te u r a l l h i s l i f e , n e v e r f u l l y
co m m itted t o any a c t i o n . D uring t h e t r i a l G a rin e o n ly
p re te n d s t o b e u n in v o lv e d , and so h e d is c o v e r s th e gap
b etw een him and s o c i e t y ; h e com m itted h i s c rim e —f i n a n c i a l
a s s i s t a n c e t o women who c o u ld n o t pay f o r a n a b o r t i o n — in
a n a r c h i s t i c c o n v ic tio n . M e u rsa u lt d is c o v e r s i n th e t r i a l
th e a b s u r d i ty o f a n e x is te n c e w h ich p r a c t i c e s a s e n s e l e s s
r i t u a l . G a rin e d is c o v e r s th e sam e, b u t h e f i g h t s b a ck and
goes t o C hina t o j o i n th e com m unist p a r t y even th o u g h h e
d o es n o t f in d t h a t t h i s j u s t i f i e s h i s e x is te n c e . M e u rsa u lt
and G a rin e u n d e rg o th e same c o n f r o n t a ti o n ; f o r one i t i s
th e end, f o r th e o th e r th e b e g in n in g . Camus n o te d t h a t
L * E tra n g e r was m eant a s "un e x e r c ic e d * o b j e c t i v i t e e t de
23
/ 13
d e ta c h e m e n t. " M alraux t o l d T ro tz k y t h a t Les C o n o u eran ts
i s "d * ab o rd u n e a c c u s a tio n d e l a c o n d itio n h u m a in e ." ^
F o r Camus a b s u r d i ty i s t h e fo re g ro u n d , f o r M alraux
i t i s b a ck g ro u n d . M e u rsa u lt* s t r i a l and i t s a f te r m a th ta k e
up h a l f th e n a r r a t i v e . G a rin e * s t r i a l i s s k e tc h e d in to
e x p la in h i s p r e s e n t l i f e i n C hina and i t s e n d . G a rin e
s a y s : "On p e u t v i v r e en a c c e p ta n t l* a b s u r d e , on n e p e u t
v i v r e d an s l* a b s u r d e ." 15 M alraux* Les C o n o u e ran ts i s th e
com m entary on t h i s rem ark , b e c a u s e i t d e s c r ib e s th e
s t r u g g l e o f G a rin e a g a i n s t th e a b s u rd f o r c e s o f t h e w o rld .
L* E tr a n e e r a b s u r d i ty i n d i c a t e s la c k o f m eaning f o r a
s a t i s f a c t o r y r e l a t i o n b etw een man and h i s w o rld . W hile in
Les C o n o u eran ts a b s u r d ity may h a v e th e same m eaning a s in
L * E tra n e e r. th e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f human e x p e rie n c e o n ly c o n
s i d e r s i t a s p a r t o f th e c a u s e . A b s u rd ity i s h e re r e l a t e d
13
A lb e rt Camus, " L e t t r e a u d i r e c t e u r d e s Temps
M odem es. " Les Temps M pdernes. V I I I (A u g u st, 1 9 5 2 ), 320.
A ndre M alraux, "R eponse a Leon T r o tz k y ," N o u v e lle
Revue F r a n c a is e . XXXVI ( A p r il, 1 9 3 1 ), 502.
^ A n d re M alraux, Les C o n q u e ran ts ( P a r i s : B.
G r a s s e t, 1 9 2 8 ), p . 209.
"You may l i v e b e li e v i n g i n th e v a n i t y o f a l l th in g s ,
b u t you c a n n o t l i v e i n t h a t v a n i t y . " A ndre M alraux, The
C o n q u e ro rs. t r a n s l . W in ifre d S. W hale (B o sto n : Beacon
P r e s s , 1956), p . 164.
24
t o th e f a c t t h a t man i s th r e a te n e d by f o r c e s a g a i n s t w hich
h e c a n n o t d e fe n d h im s e lf , b u t w hich d i g n i t y t e l l s him he
16
m u st b o ld ly f a c e .
T hese f o r c e s w h ich man f in d s w i t h in h im s e lf , o r
w hich h e f in d s o p p o sin g him from th e o u t s i d e , i n s p i r e a s
w e ll a s t h r e a t e n . In l a V oie r o v a le (1930) t h i s i s even
c l e a r e r th a n i n Les C o n q u e ra n ts. A young man, C lau d e,
jo u rn e y s i n t o th e ju n g le w ith h i s o ld e r f r i e n d , P erk en .
C laude f i n d s th e a b s u rd , sy m b o liz ed b y th e w ild e r n e s s ,
i n s p i r i n g ; h e h opes t o f in d t h e r e g i g a n t i c Siam ese f i g u r e s .
As f i c t i o n a l e x p e rie n c e t h i s n o v e l i s a n o b s e s s io n b e c a u se
o f th e c u rio u s m ix tu re o f c h an c e and d a n g e r th e t r i p i n
v o lv e s . T here i s th e c h an c e f o r C laude t o o b ta in s t a t u e s
and f o r P erken t o make money, and f o r b o th t h e d a n g e r o f
d e a th w i t h in th e la n d o f i n s e c t s and h o s t i l e t r i b e s .
P erk en and h i s com panion a r e th e s u c c e s s o r s o f G a rin e and
h i s n a m e le ss f r i e n d , th e n a r r a t o r o f t h e n o v e l. J u s t c*»
Les C o n q u e ran ts ends w ith th e i l l n e s s o f G a rin e , w hich
F o r com m entary on M alraux* c o n c e p t o f d i g n i t y s e e
W ilb u r M. F ro h o ck , A ndre M alraux and t h e T rfflV Imag in a t i o n
( S ta n f o rd , C a l i f . : S ta n fo rd U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 19 5 2 ),
p p . 3 5 -3 6 ; Edward Gannon, The Honor o f B eing a Man: th e
W orld o f A ndre M alraux (C h icag o : L o y o la U n iv e r s ity P re s s ,
1 9 5 7 ), p p . 6 0 -6 3 .
25
w i l l b e fo llo w e d by a c e r t a i n d e a th , th e f i n a l page o f
l a V oie r o v a le d e s c r ib e s P erken*s d y in g . T h e ir end i s
a b s u rd , b u t from a b s u r d i ty th e y drew th e s t r e n g th t o f i g h t
a s men.
Symbol o f th e d eh u m an izin g pow er o f th e a b s u r d —
th e j u n g l e —i s G ra b o t, who i s i n i t i a l l y o n ly i d e n t i f i e d a s
th e man who w ent i n t o th e w ild e r n e s s and d id n o t come b a c k .
E v e n tu a lly th e y f in d him , e y e le s s and t i e d t o a m i l l s t o n e ;
h e i s no lo n g e r human; h e h a s become th e h e a r t o f d a rk n e s s .
The m o st d e s p e r a te s i t u a t i o n o c c u rs when th e a b s u r d i ty
becom es so p o w e rfu l t h a t human e x is te n c e d is a p p e a r s .
G rab o t h a s d is s o lv e d i n th e w ild e r n e s s . He i s th e a b y ss
w hich C laude and P erk en d is c o v e r , th e a b y ss i n t o w hich
th e y , to o , c a n f a l l . He i s s i m i l a r t o th e t e r r o r i s t Hong
who s ta n d s w ith G a rin e , th e man who m ore re s e m b le s G a rin e
th a n an y o f h i s p a r ty m em bers. G a rin e c o n tin u e s to s a y ,
aw are o f th e p a ra d o x , t h a t h e f i g h t s to g iv e o th e r s a
m e a n in g fu l e x is te n c e , w h ile Hong, in h i s a n a r c h i s t i c
a c t i v i t i e s , o n ly av en g es a m is e r a b le p a s t . W ith th e
f i g u r e s o f Hong and G ra b o t, " n e g a tiv e " d o u b le s o f G a rin e
and P erk en , th e l i m i t o f e x is te n c e i s to u c h e d : a b s u r d i ty
c a n c e ls o u t a l l human a s p e c t s . The h e a t o f b a t t l e i n w hich
26
man d e fe n d s h im s e lf a g a i n s t t h e a b s u rd pow ers h as made way
f o r th e c h i l l o f m adness i n w hich inhum an pow ers h av e
triu m p h e d .
N o v e lis ts l i k e Camus an d M alraux d e s c r ib e t e r r o r ,
an d i n t h i s r e g a r d th e y may b e c a l l e d l i t e r a r y d e s c e n d a n ts
o f F ranz K afka. In Camus' r e c i t s m u rd e r, s u i c id e , and
a n n i h i l a t i o n a r e common o c c u rr e n c e s . In M alrau x ' n o v e ls
c h a r a c t e r s a r e alw ay s f i g h t i n g ; i n P er P ro z e ss (1925) and
Das S c h lo ss (1926) th e K. *s a r e c o n ti n u a l l y m enaced. A ll
th e s e m a n if e s ta tio n s o f v io le n c e s i g n i f y th e flo o d w hich i s
to sweep man aw ay, b u t th e m eaning o f b a t t l e , m u rd e r, and
t h r e a t i s p e c u l i a r to each a u th o r . In t h e f i c t i o n o f Camus
and M alraux t h i s m eaning can p e rh a p s b e e x p la in e d i n r e f e r
e n ce t o a g iv e n c h a r a c t e r ; i n K a fk a 's w ork t h i s i s im pos
s i b l e . I n Les C o n q u eran ts th e b a t t l e i s m e a n in g fu l b e c a u se
i t te m p o r a r ily b r in g s G a rin e lo s s o f h i s l o n e l i n e s s , w h ile
M artha, i n Le M alentendu (1 9 4 5 ), h a s gone on a m u rd e rin g
ram page t o s e c u r e a c a r e f r e e l i f e . T h ere n e v e r th e le s s
e x i s t s th e q u e s tio n i f t h e i l l u s i o n s o f M artha and G a rin e
c a n s u p p o r t th e m eaning o f t h e i r a c t i o n s . T h e ir d e ed s may
b e j u s t i f i a b l e t o th e m s e lv e s , b u t th e y a r e e v e n tu a lly t o b e
ju d g e d by an o u ts id e norm w hich may r e v e a l t o them th e
27
a b s u r d i ty o f a c t i o n . In t h i s r e g a r d i t i s im p o rta n t t o
n o te t h a t i n t h e t h r e e w orks w hich a r e fu n d a m e n ta l t o th e
c o n c e p t o f th e a b s u r d — L * E tra n e e r. Les C o n o u e ra n ts. and
P e r P r o z e s s —c o u r t t r i a l s p la y an im p o rta n t p a r t i n w hich
th e i n d iv i d u a l c a s e i s in s p e c te d w ith g e n e r a l r u l e . A f te r
th e t r i a l M e u rsa u lt and G a rin e su d d e n ly r e a l i z e t h a t l i f e
i s a b s u rd , t h a t i s , th e y acknow ledge th e d is c re p a n c y
b etw een t h e w o rld an d t h e way th e y had p e rc e iv e d th e w o rld
to b e . T h e ir m isd ee d h a s b e e n g iv e n a s i g n i f i c a n c e w hich
i t d o es n o t have f o r them . The l i f e o f Jo se p h K ., s u r
rounded by i n v i s i b l e ju d g e s , o n ly s lo w ly becom es a b s u rd .
H is (m is -)d e e d s a r e b e in g g iv e n an im p o rta n c e w hich i s
beyond h i s co m p reh en sio n .
I t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f w orks t h a t d e a l w ith th e
a b s u rd t o d is c u s s r i g h t and wrong in d o u b tf u l term s and to
d e p ic t th e h e ro a s n o t know ing how he h a s o ffe n d e d th e
common norm . The n a r r a t i v e s o f K afka o f t e n b e g in w ith a
p u z z lin g o c c u rre n c e w hich c o n f r o n t a c h a r a c t e r . In th e
w orks o f Camus t h e r e i s shown a b re a k in th e known schem e
o f o r d in a r y e x p e r ie n c e , a d i s r u p t i o n w hich th e c h a r a c te r s
c a n n o t ig n o r e . And i n M a lrau x ' n o v e ls p e o p le f i g h t t o d i s
c o v e r th e m eaning b e h in d t h e i r d a i l y e x is te n c e .
In a b s u r d i ty m eaning i s q u e s tio n a b le . A d e s i r a b l e ,
g e n e r a l norm w hich c a n b e u se d a s g u id in g l i g h t i s c o n
s p ic u o u s ly a b s e n t. Each man s e a r c h e s a lo n e . A n o th er
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , th e n , o f a b s u r d ity w hich p e r t a i n s to K afka,
a s w e ll a s to Camus and M alraux, i s th e i s o l a t i o n o f th e
i n d i v i d u a l . Man h a s t o r e l y on so m eth in g h e s h a r e s w ith
o t h e r s — K afka: th e ju d g e s , Camus: d a i l y e x p e rie n c e , M alraux
th e f i g h t —and when he i s u n s u c c e s s f u l, h i s s i t u a t i o n h a s
become a b s u rd . He n e e d s a map, b u t h as t o do w ith o u t. He
m ust jo u rn e y a c c o rd in g t o p la n , b u t h e la c k s a com pass.
I f he f a i l s to become o r i e n t e d , he w i l l c e a s e to e x i s t . As
th e n e c e s s i t y f o r th e s e a r c h in c r e a s e s , h i s s i t u a t i o n w i l l
become m ore d e s p e r a te and h i s i s o l a t i o n w i l l i n c r e a s e .
Camus sa y s in The Myth o f S isy p h u s t h a t man a s k s f o r m ean
in g b u t t h a t th e u n iv e r s e rem a in s s i l e n t . In o th e r w o rd s,
man n e ed s a p la n w hich he a s k s in v a in .
T h is d is c r e p a n c y b etw een th e n eed f o r and th e
a b se n c e o f a s e n s e o f d i r e c t i o n , w hich i s o l a t e s man, f in d s
i t s e s t h e t i c e x p r e s s io n in th e n o v e ls o f Camus, M alraux,
and K afka. In L * E tra n e e r th e r e a d e r i s draw n i n t o an
a b s u rd e x p e rie n c e a s a r e s u l t o f M e u rsa u lt* s r e a c t i o n s .
29
The r e c i t i s a m onologue o f someone who d e s c r ib e s h im s e lf
and h i s d e e d s, and y e t f a i l s to c r e a t e a p i c t u r e o f h i s
p e r s o n a l i t y . The r e a d e r l i s t e n s to th e s t o r y o f Meur
s a u l t * s l i f e w ith o u t b e in g a b le t o g iv e m eaning t o th e
c h a r a c t e r 's a c t i o n s ; h e t r i e s t o become o r ie n te d b u t i s
d e n ie d th e p o s s i b i l i t y . The w ork o f M alraux, on th e o th e r
h an d , i s a d e fe n s e a g a i n s t a b s u r d i ty . I f Camus' r e a d e r
became i s o l a t e d b e c a u se h e was in c a p a b le t o i d e n t i f y him
s e l f w ith th e c h a r a c t e r , M alrau x ' r e a d e r i s c u t o f f i n h i s
c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith th e f o r c e s o f d e a th and s u f f e r i n g . On
th e one h an d , th e s e f o r c e s p re v e n t man from g e t t i n g
o r i e n t e d - - t h e w ork o f M alraux c o n ta in s s e v e r a l ’’l o s t " s o u ls
l i k e Tchen, Hong, and G ra b o t—on th e o t h e r , th e s e f o r c e s
com pel man t o r e s i s t and d e fe n d h im s e lf . I t i s t r u e t h a t
w ,£h M alraux man o n ly l i v e s t o h i s f u l l p o t e n t i a l when he
p itc h e s h im s e lf a g a i n s t s u f f e r i n g ; he t r u l y i s when he
e x i s t s by th e g ra c e o f w h at w i l l e lim in a te him . " I a m o rt
e s t l a , " sa y s P erk en t o C lau d e, "co m p re n ez -v o u s, comme,—
comme 1*i r r e f u t a b l e p re u v e de l 'a b s u r d i t e d e l a v i e . " And,
P erken goes on:
Ce q u i p e s e s u r m oi c ' e s t , —comment d i r e ? ma c o n d itio n
d'hom m e: que j e v i e i l l i s s e , que c e t t e ch o se a t r o c e :
30
l e tem p s, s e d e v e lo p p e en m oi comme un c a n c e r , i r r e v o -
c a b l e m e n t ,- - l e tem ps, v o i l a .
M alraux, a s e x p e c te d , com pares a b s u r d ity w ith a c a n c e r and
c o n s id e r s th e f o r c e s w hich t h r e a te n man and h i s f r a g i l e
I n d i v i d u a l i t y a s a b s u rd .
As M alraux d e v e lo p s a s n o v e l i s t , th e fre q u e n c y o f
th e c o n c e p t o f th e a b su rd d im in is h e s . A new em phasis I s
p la c e d on a c t i o n , r a t h e r th a n on th e d eed w h ich le a d s t o
b ro k e n u n i t y . The i n t r i g u e i n l a C o n d itio n hum aine (1933)
an^ L * E sp o ir (1937) i s d e te rm in e d by th e s t r u g g l e b etw een
man and th e d eh u m an izin g f o r c e s w hich a t t a c k h i s human
e x is te n c e . The n o v e ls a r e a c a l l to s o l i d a r i t y , and w ith
Kyo and M anuel and t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e one c a n i d e n t i f y .
T hese h e ro e s e x i s t b e c a u se o f th e c o n f l i c t , w h e th e r th e y
f i g h t w ith w o rd s, p u t ti n g e x is te n c e on t r i a l , o r do b a t t l e
w ith a c o n c r e te enemy. A s i m i l a r d ev elo p m en t c an b e tr a c e d
in Camus, who a l s o came to s e e th e n e c e s s i t y o f s o l i d a r i t y
^ A n d re M alraux, La V oie r o v a le ( P a r i s : B. G ra s s e t,
1 9 3 0 ), p p . 1 5 7 -1 5 8 .
"And d e a th i s a lw ay s t h e r e , you s e e , ah ead . . .
l i k e a s ta n d in g p ro o f o f th e f u t i l i t y o f l i f e " ; "What
w eighs on me i s —how s h a l l I p u t i t ? —my human l o t , my
l i m i t a t i o n s ; t h a t I m ust grow o ld , and tim e , t h a t lo ath so m e
th in g , s p re a d th ro u g h me l i k e a c a n c e r , i n e v i t a b l y . Time—
t h e r e you h av e i t . " Andre M alraux, The R oval Wav, t r a n s l .
S tu a r t G i l b e r t (itew Y ork: V in ta g e Books, 1 9 5 5 ), p . 142.
31
a g a i n s t s u f f e r i n g , m an 's m ig h t i e s t o p p o n e n t. B oth a u th o r s
had a g ro w in g a w are n ess o f m a n k in d 's n e ed t o r e u n i t e .
Rieux and C laude w ere w i l l i n g t o f in d t h e m eaning i n l i f e
a t th e r i s k o f lo s in g th e c o n te s t w ith th e w o r ld 's b r u t e
f o r c e s . W ith t h e i r s u r v i v a l a t th e end o f th e n o v e ls th e
a u th o r s a f f i r m m a n 's h o p e.
In t h e w ork o f K afka a l l th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e
a b s u rd c an b e fo u n d , w h ile h a r d ly e v e r ru n n in g a c r o s s th e
w ord i t s e l f . K afka, w ith o u t any fo re g o n e s o l u t i o n ,
s e a r c h e s w ith h i s c h a r a c t e r s . I t w ould b e a te n u o u s p o s i
t i o n t o h o ld t h a t b o th th e K. *s o f P e r P ro z e ss and Das
S c h lo ss a r e i n q u e s t o f th e m eaning o f l i f e . Tenuous b e
c a u s e , f i r s t o f a l l , th e y c a n n o t a llo w th e m se lv e s su ch a
g e n e r a l s e a r c h : one i s lo o k in g f o r h i s a c c u s e r , th e o th e r
f o r h i s e m p lo y er; f u r t h e r b e c a u s e , w ith t h e i r e f f o r t to
f in d t h e i r g u i l t and jo b , t h e i r e x is te n c e i s a t s t a k e . I t
i s im p o s s ib le f o r K afka t o s a y , w ith Camus, t h a t t h e r e i s
no m ean in g , o r b e c o n v in c e d w ith M alraux t h a t man m ust f in d
a c o u n te r b a la n c e a g a i n s t t h e m e a n in g le s s n e s s o f l i f e .
W ith in th e c o n te x t o f th e n o v e ls th e K. *s s lo w ly lo s e t h e i r
f o o tin g and c o n s t a n t ly se e k e sc a p e from th e t h r e a t o f
n o th in g n e s s . I t c a n n o t be m a in ta in e d t h a t th e y c a n n o t
32
becom e o r i e n t e d , b u t i t c a n n o t b e s a i d e i t h e r t h a t th e y a r e
a b le to do s o . The l a b y r i n th i n e n o v e ls o f K afka a r e mon
s t r o u s o r i e n t a t i o n c h a r t s , a s in g e n io u s a s th e y a r e i n
c o m p le te . Man c a n w ander t h e r e f o r e v e r . He w i l l alw ay s
d is c o v e r a new c o r r i d o r and t h e r e f in d a n u n fo re s e e n p o s s i
b i l i t y . E very c o r r i d o r , how ever, h a s a dead en d , and so
e v e ry p o s s i b i l i t y le a d s to a t l e a s t one i m p o s s i b i l i t y .
Thus, man i s n o t i s o l a t e d , b u t i n h i s jo u rn e y s th ro u g h th e
l a b y r i n t h h i s a lo n e n e s s —s lo w ly b u t u n s u r e ly —becom es a
18
f a c t . Jo se p h K. a l i e n a t e s h im s e lf from h i s s u rro u n d in g s
th e m ore h e t r i e s t o f in d th e r e a s o n f o r h i s g u i l t . In
Das S c h lo ss th e w hole v i l l a g e tu r n s a g a i n s t K. when he
t r i e s to s e e k c o n ta c t w ith h i s e m p lo y er. T hat w hich
a f f ir m s h i s b e in g man i s im m e d ia te ly d e n ie d ; e v e ry d e n ia l
o f p u rp o se and n eed c r e a t e s th e ch an c e o f a new a p p ro a c h ,
u n t i l a t l a s t th e t r a p a t d ead c e n t e r c lo s e s . A ll c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s o f G a rin e and M e u rs a u lt, w hich a r e r e l a t e d t o th e
a b s u rd , w ere a lr e a d y p r e s e n t i n Jo s e p h K. H ie q u e s tio n s ,
18
G ustav R. Hocke in D ie W elt a l s L a b y rin th (Ham
b u rg : Row ohlt V e rla g , 19 5 9 ), I I , 90, 272, s e e s th e w o rld
a s l a b y r i n t h w here man s e a rc h e s f o r "V e re in ig u n g d es
D is p a r a te n ," b u t w h e re, f o r la c k o f e x i t , he can do l i t t l e
e l s e b u t d e s tr o y h im s e lf .
33
Who i s Jo se p h K. ? and What d id Jo se p h K. do? r e t u r n a s
e c h o e s . I f one w a n ts t o know, f o r exam ple, i f h e i s g u i l t y ,
one i s r e f e r r e d t o t h e ju d g e s who, i n t h e i r tu r n , r e f e r
b a c k t o th e a c c u se d , a p ro c e s s i n f i n i t e l y r e p e a te d . The
i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f man i s e lim in a te d i n f a v o r o f c h a n g in g
p e r s p e c t iv e s . The a b s u rd h e r e i s th e s im u lta n e o u s y es and
n o , th e r e p e t i t i o u s a m b iv a le n c e o f th e w ork i t s e l f . The
r e a d e r who i d e n t i f i e s w ith K. i s draw n i n t o a s i t u a t i o n
f u l l o f c o n t r a d ic t io n s w hich f o r c e him t o ta k e a s ta n d .
W ith K. h e h opes t h a t W estw est i s i n th e C a s tle and w ith
K afka t h a t , h a v in g w r i t t e n a b o u t l i f e ' s la b y r i n th , th e
c o u rs e o f e x is te n c e h a s b e en c h a r te d . But he hopes i n
v a i n . In t h i s m anner th e an sw er t o th e q u e s tio n , What i s
a b s u r d ity ? , c a n b e found i n th e e x p e rie n c e w ith in th e
r e a d e r 's m ind.
When man i s fo rc e d t o f i n d h i s b e a r in g and th e
o p p o r tu n ity to do so i s la c k in g , h e i s an a b s u rd s i t u a t i o n .
From a r e l i g i o u s p o in t o f v iew t h i s a b se n c e o f an o r i e n t a
t i o n c h a r t i s r e l a t e d t o th e d is a p p e a ra n c e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y
a s a " c u l t u r a l sy s te m " ; t h a t i s t o s a y , a s g e n e r a lly
a c c e p te d fram e o f r e f e r e n c e f o r th o u g h t and a c t i o n . T here
i s r i v a l r y b etw een th e C h r i s t ia n f a i t h and th e b e l i e f i n
th e a b s u r d . In l a P e s te (1947) and L * E tra n e e r. in l a
C o n d itio n hum aine. and Fyodor D o s to e v sk y 's The P o sse sse d
(1 8 7 1 -7 2 ) th e p r i e s t e n te r s when th e t h r e a t o f d e a th h a s
become a c u t e . F a th e r P aneloux knows i n t h e b e g in n in g o f
th e n o v e l why th e p la g u e m akes p e o p le d i e . The c o n fe s s o r
v i s i t s th e condemned M e u rsa u lt, and i t i s Tchen in M alraux*
n o v e l and S ta v ro g in in D o s to e v sk y 's who c a r r y on a c o n v e rs a
t i o n w ith a p r i e s t . When man i s c o n fro n te d w ith d e a th and
f in d s i t d i f f i c u l t t o a p p ro a c h a new enigm a, p r i e s t s o f f e r
them , i n th e form o f C h r i s t ia n f a i t h , a g u id in g l i n e . I n
th e w ork o f Camus and M alraux, a s w e ll a s i n The P o s se ss e d .
o r , f o r t h a t m a t t e r , i n The B ro th e rs Karamazov (1879-80)
th e y a r e p r e s e n t a s te m p te rs f o r w hose a t t r a c t i v e o f f e r one
h a s to pay th e p r i c e o f r e s i g n a t i o n . T hese p r i e s t s r e p r e
s e n t a f ix e d o r d e r w hich th e y c o n s id e r i n f i n i t e l y v a l i d ;
th e y a r e n o t t r a g i c f i g u r e s s u f f e r i n g from th e s i t u a t i o n .
They h a v e l i t t l e i n common w ith th e p r i e s t s o f Graham
G reene o r w ith th e m ain f i g u r e o f G eorges Bera&.ios* J o u r n a l
d 'u n c u re de cam naene (1 9 3 6 ). What i s o f c o n c e rn h e re i s
C h r i s t i a n i t y a s c u l t u r a l sy ste m w hich Camus and M alraux
o b je c t t o , and w hich th e y r e j e c t a s a w o rk a b le v a lu e sy ste m .
35
C h r i s t ia n te a c h in g s s u g g e s t a b e l i e f in l i f e a f t e r
d e a th . They p ro m ise th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f g ra c e on w hich
g ro u n d s man c a n e x p e c t s a l v a t i o n so t h a t l i f e and s u f f e r i n g
can h av e m eaning f o r him . Camus and M alraux, i n t h e i r
e a r l i e r w ork, p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h i s hope o f s a l v a t i o n and
u s e th e term " a b s u r d ." T h is w ord, b e g in n in g w ith La C ondi
t i o n hum aine, i s no lo n g e r u se d by M alraux in t h i s s p e c i f i c
s e n s e ; f o r Camus th e u s e ended p r i o r to La P e s te : an d in
K afka i t i s a p p a r e n tly a b s e n t. The w ord a b s u rd , th e n ,
seem s t o b e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t any form o f tr a n s c e n d e n t h o p e,
e v e ry g e n e r a l c h a n c e f o r o r i e n t a t i o n .
I f one re a d s K a fk a 's work a s an in v e r te d C h r i s t ia n
19
th e o lo g y , i t is_m ade m ore d e p e n d e n t upon W estern f a i t h
th a n i t r e a l l y i s . I t c a n b e s u g g e s te d o f th e K. *s t h a t
th e y a r e on t h e i r way to God o r in s e a r c h o f th e m eaning o f
l i f e , s o lo n g a s i t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t th e n o v e ls th e m se lv e s
n e v e r sp e ak o f i t . I f , how ever, C h r i s t ia n im p lic a tio n i s
d e n ie d , one ig n o re s th e c u l t u r a l sy ste m o f th e W est o f
19
Hannah A ren d t i n "F ra n z K a fk a : A R e v a lu a tio n ,"
P a r tis a n Review. X I ( F a l l , 1 9 4 4 ), 4 1 2 -4 2 2 , h o ld s t h a t K afka
d e p ic te d s o c i e t y " a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r God"; s o c i e t y r e j e c t s
K. b e c a u se o f h i s n o rm alcy .
E ric h H e lle r i n The D is in h e r ite d Mind (London:
Bowes and Bowes, 1 9 5 7 ), p p . 19 9 -2 3 1 , s e e s th e C a s tle a s th e
re a lm o f demons w hich h a u n t man.
36
w hich Kafka was a p a r t . The d e d u c tio n s v e r y much r e s t w ith
th e e s t h e t i c e x p e rie n c e o f th e r e a d e r , and i f h e i s w i l l i n g
t o g r a n t " a b s u rd " and " C h r i s t i a n ," e a c h a s h a re o f th e
c o n c e p t "m o d em ," h e c a n n o t f a i l t o s e e a r e l a t i o n s h i p .
E very fram e o f r e f e r e n c e , w h e th e r C h r i s t ia n o r o t h e r , im
p o sed upon th e f i c t i o n a l l a b y r i n t h o f K afka, n e v e r th e le s s
becom es a b l i n d e r . The r e s u l t becom es one o f l o s s , o f
d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , and le a d s to ^ a f e e l i n g o f a b s u r d i ty . T h is
s e n s e o f a lo n e n e s s , p ro d u ced by th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
p re c o n c e p tio n and a c t u a l e x p e r ie n c e , i s a l s o a n a ly z e d by
Camus and M alraux. In t h e i r w ork i t p ro d u ce s s t r a n g e r s who
do n o t know o r who do n o t a c c e p t th e w o rld in s i d e th e
s ta n d a r d fram e o f r e f e r e n c e .
The a b se n c e o f g e n e r a lly re c o g n iz e d a t t i t u d e s w hich
m ark th e r o u te o f o n e 's i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e w o rld i s
n o t p e c u l ia r to w r i t e r s o f a b s u r d i ty . I t i s o n ly t y p i c a l
o f Camus and M alraux t h a t th e y re c o g n iz e th e s i t u a t i o n a s
a b s u rd and c l a s s i f y i t a s s u c h . They do n o t i n s t i t u t e a
new dogma o r c a r r y a m essage to th e r e a d e r . L ik e M a lrau x '
A lv e a r, th e o ld a r t lo v e r o f L 'E s p o ir. th e y t r y t o d e s c r ib e
th e w o rld in s p i t e o f i t s e l f know ing t h a t
n i l e s ro m a n c ie rs n i l e s m o r a l is t e s n 'o n t de so n , c e t t e
n u i t . . . . Les g en s de l a v i e n e v a l e n t r i e n p o u r l a
37
m o rt. I a s a g e s s e e s t p lu s v u ln e r a b le que l a b e a u te ;
c a r l a s a g e s s e e s t u n a r t impur.^O
Works w hich f a l l w ith in th e p a le o f c o n v e n tio n a l sy ste m s
c a n n o t s o l e l y s u r v iv e by v i r t u e o f t h e i r w ise m o ra l and
C h r i s t i a n m essa g e. They n eed t o c o n c e n tr a te on m a n 's
c o n s c io u s n e s s i n u n f a m ilia r s u rro u n d in g s w h ile h e i s c a u g h t
b e tw ee n " a * e s t p as e n c o re ” and "n e p e u t p a s § t r e , " t o
/ 21
b o rro w from P au l V a le ry . When one ta k e s n o v e ls l i k e
M e l v i l l e 's M oby-Dick (1851) o r D o s to e v sk y 's The P o sse sse d
one r e a l i z e s t h a t t h e i r perm anence i s g u a ra n te e d b y a la c k
o f p re -d e te rm in e d o r d e r w ith in th e i n t e r n a l n a r r a t i v e . In
th e c a s e o f M e lv ille —d i s r e g a r d in g th e w h a lin g h i s t o r y
^^A ndre M alraux, L * E sp o ir ( P a r i s : G a llim a rd , 19 6 0 ),
p . 283.
" T o n ig h t . . . n e i t h e r p h ilo s o p h e r n o r n o v e l i s t h a s
an y m essa g e. P eo p le who d e a l i n l i f e a r e u n a v a ilin g i n th e
f a c e o f d e a th . Wisdom i s m ore v u ln e r a b le th a n b e a u ty ;
b e c a u se w isd o m 's an im pure a r t . " A ndre M alraux, M an's
Hope, t r a n s l . S t u a r t G i l b e r t and A. M acdonald (New Y ork:
Random H ouse, 1 9 3 8 ), p . 320.
21 , ✓
P a u l V a le ry , I n tr o d u c tio n a l a m ethode de L eonard
d e V in c i ( P a r i s : G a llim a rd , C o lle c tio n Id e e s , 19 5 7 ), p . 93.
Man " p a s s e s n i n e - t e n t h s o f h i s tim e i n w h at h a s y e t
t o h ap p en , i n t h a t w h ich no lo n g e r i s , in w hat c a n n o t p o s
s i b l y b e ; t o su c h an e x te n t t h a t o u r t r u e p r e s e n t h a s n in e
c h a n c e s o u t o f t e n o f n e v e r b e in g ." P au l V a le ry , I n t r o
d u c tio n t o th e M ethod o f L eonardo d a V in c i, t r a n s l . T.
McGreevy (London: John R odker, 1 9 2 9 ), p . 24.
38
c h a p t e r s — i t i s o b v io u s t h a t F a th e r M a p p le's serm on and
I s h m a e l's c o n te m p la tio n in th e g ra v e y a rd a r e a d a n g lin g
p ro lo g u e to t h e n a r r a t i v e p r o p e r . I t i s a p ie c e o f r e l i
g io u s com m entary w hich in tr o d u c e s a s t o r y t h a t i s n o t y e t
22
re a d y t o d e v e lo p d r a m a tic a lly . F u rth e rm o re , t h e d e s c r i p
t i o n o f th e f a t e o f Jo n ah im poses a c o n v e n tio n a l sy ste m
w h ich , by h a v in g b e e n g iv e n undue im p o rta n c e , d i s t r a c t s
from th e tra g e d y a b o u t t o fo llo w . T here i s an in c o n g r u ity
betw een J o n a h 's r o l e and th e one o f Ahab and h i s men i n th e
t r a g i c n a r r a t i v e . The le s s o n t o b e le a rn e d from J o n a h 's
p u n ish m en t i s n o t conveyed th ro u g h th e n o v e l, b u t i s a s
" t r u t h " lim ite d t o M e l v i l l e 's p e rs o n a l c o n v ic tio n . I t i s
o n ly a f t e r one ig n o re s th e r e q u e s te d a t t i t u d e t h a t th e
h o r r o r o f A h a b 's t r a g i c f a t e c a n b e e x p e rie n c e d . The c a p
t a i n 's " s tr a n g e n e s s " c a n o n ly b e known i f one d is r e g a r d s
th e common C h r i s t ia n no rm s—w hich i s n o t t o s a y t h a t Ahab
i s n o t a r e l i g i o u s f i g u r e . He i s , i n so f a r t h a t o th e r
w o rld s c a n m a n if e s t th e m se lv e s i n him .
In s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t D ostoevcky gav e h i s l a t e r
n o v e ls a C h r i s t ia n m essag e, h i s w ork s t i l l s u r v iv e s a s a
22
For b r i e f com m entary on " ex c a th e d r a r e f l e c t i o n s "
s e e A. A. M endilow , Time and th e N ovel (L ondon: P e te r
N e v ill, 1 9 5 2 ), p . 110.
39
r e l i g i o u s e x p e rie n c e w hich i s n o t d e te rm in e d by t h i s m es
s a g e . H is n o v e ls p re s u p p o se a s o c i e t y c a s t a d r i f t tin d e r
th e l e a d e r s h ip o f a C hurch h ie r a r c h y and a g ro u p o f i n t e l
l e c t u a l s e s tr a n g e d from th e p e o p le . D o sto ev sk y p re a c h e d a
R u ssia n C h risten d o m , and h i s g r e a t n o v e ls w ere m eant t o
c a r r y th e m essa g e. F o r tu n a te ly , h i s c h a r a c t e r s b e lo n g t o
t h e i r f i c t i o n a l w o rld b e c a u se th e y a r e made t o l i v e t h e i r
r e l i g i o u s e x p e r ie n c e . They a r e p a r t o f D o s to e v sk y 's i s o l a
t i o n , and th e y l i v e h i s e s tra n g e m e n t: Iv a n i s g iv e n
A lyosha f o r s a l v a t i o n , S ta v ro g in h a s S h a to v , and R ogozhin
and I p p o ly t c a n t u r n t o M yshkin. B ecause D ostoevsky made
h i s c h a r a c t e r s th e spokesm en o f h i s r e l i g i o u s d o u b t, h i s
c o n v ic tio n s and d e n ia ls a r e com m unicable th ro u g h them . H is
c o n te m p la tio n s do n o t s ta n d a s a p r i v a t e t r u t h a s id e th e
n a r r a t i v e p ro p e r. M yshkin i s n o t th e sym bol o f C h r is t
b e c a u se h e v o ic e s th e a u t h o r 's o p in io n t h a t th e s u f f e r i n g
t o w hich men s u b j e c t e ac h o th e r h a s n o th in g t o do w ith
r e l i g i o n . He c a n sy m b o liz e C h r is t b e c a u s e h e g la d ly s h a re s
th e s u f f e r i n g o f o t h e r s . S ta v ro g in i s n o t th e sym bol o f
e v i l b e c a u se h e p re a c h e s th e d e n ia l o f a l l v a lu e s . He i s
th e d e s t r o y e r w hose m o tiv a tio n s D osto ev sk y n e v e r e x p l i c i t l y
s t a t e s b u t a llo w s th e r e a d e r to d ed u ce from th e r e a c t i o n s
40
o f a l l “p o s s e s s e d " c h a r a c t e r s . S ta v ro g in and M yshkin a r e
i d e a l l y p o r tr a y e d : th e y draw th e r e a d e r a lo n g th e p a th o f
t h e i r s e a r c h f o r a n A b s o lu te —b e i t good o r e v i l - - a n d when
th e y f i n a l l y re c o g n iz e th e f u t i l i t y o f t h e i r q u e s t, th e y
h av e evoked th e s e n s e o f e stra n g e m e n t w h ich l a t e r n o v e l i s t s
h av e p r a i s e d . Camus, M alraux, and K afka le a rn e d w e l l, and
i n o r d e r to u n d e rs ta n d w hat " r e l i g i o u s " h a s m eant t o them ,
t h e r e a d e r h a s to depend upon h i s e s t h e t i c e x p e rie n c e when
c o n fro n te d w ith t h e i r f i c t i o n a l w o rld .
T a rro u i n l a P e s te w onders how one c an become a
s a i n t w ith o u t God. He i s a d i s b e l i e v e r who t r i e s h i s
u tm o st t o b a n is h s u f f e r i n g , t o u n d e rs ta n d e v e ry o n e , and n o t
t o h u r t h i s f e llo w man. C a lig u la , i n th e p la y w hich c a r
r i e s h i s nam e, knows a s i m i l a r d e s i r e f o r u n i ty , b u t f o r
him i t w orks i n a n o p p o s ite d i r e c t i o n . T a rro u t r i e s to
p r a c t i c e a r e l a t i v i s m ; C a lig u la i s a n a b s o l u t i s t who s u b ju
g a te s a l l t o h i s w i l l and who, i n r e f u s i n g t o u n d e rs ta n d ,
c r e a t e s havoc a t random . He lo o k s f o r so m eth in g t h a t i s
n o t o f t h i s w o rld : th e moon, im m o r ta lity , o r w h a te v e r e l s e
i t may b e . So s b s o lu te i s h i s d e s i r e t h a t he h a s made
r e l a t i v e e v e ry th in g a ro u n d h i m - - j u s t a s T a rro u h a s le a r n e d
41
o£ t h i s r e l a t i v i t y w hich le a v e s him n o th in g b u t a k in d o f
a b s o lu te s a in th o o d w here th e t i e s w ith t h e w o rld c a n b e
s e v e re d b e c a u se th e y w i l l b e c l e a r l y d e f in e d . B oth
C a lig u la and T a rro u a r e r e l i g i o u s f i g u r e s , a s w e ll a s
e c c e n t r ic and b ra n d e d : th e one b e c a u se o f h i s autonom ous,
c r u e l m ad n ess, th e o th e r b e c a u se o f h i s m e r c if u l s a in th o o d
a t h i s own r i s k .
I t i s s a i d a b o u t Tchen i n l a C o n d itio n hum aine t h a t
h e h a s "q u e lq u e c h o se de fo u , m ais a u s s i q u e lq u e c h o se de
s a c r e —c e qu*a to u jo u r s d e s a c r e l a p re s e n c e d e 1*i n -
23
h u m a in ." Tchen c a n n o t do a n y th in g e l s e b u t m u rd e r. He
h a s becom e th e v ic tim o f th e f o r c e s a g a i n s t w hich th e
f i g u r e s in M alraux* work hav e t o p ro v e t h e i r c o n d itio n o f
b e in g man. D eath, th e m ig h t i e s t o p p o n en t man m eets i n h is
l i f e , h a s a lr e a d y ta k e n p o s s e s s io n o f Tchen w ith in h i s
l i f e - t i m e . L ik e S ta v ro g in , D o s to e v sk y 's p r e s e n t a t i o n in
The P o sse sse d o f d e a t h - i n - l i f e , h e i s s in g le d o u t t o r e p e l
23
Andre M alraux, l a C ondit i o n huma-ing ( P a r i s :
G a llim a rd , 1 9 4 6 ), p . 180.
"T here was so m eth in g mad a b o u t t h i s s i l e n t com rade
m e d ita tin g upon h i s f a m i l i a r v i s i o n s o f h o r r o r , b u t a l s o
so m eth in g s a c r e d —a s th e r e alw ay s i s a b o u t th e p re s e n c e o f
th e in h u m an ." A ndre M alraux, M an's F a te , t r a n s l . H. M .
C h e v a lie r (New Y ork: Modern L ib r a r y , 1 9 3 4 ), p . 159.
42
p e o p le b e c a u se h e f a s c i n a t e s them . M alraux and D ostoevsky
u s e r e l i g i o u s te rm in o lo g y when th e y w r i t e a b o u t human
s o l i d a r i t y . To m a in ta in t h e i r o n e n e ss , b e i t in C h r i s t ia n
harm ony w ith God o r i n a t h e i s t i c u n io n w ith m ankind, men
m ust s h a r e i n th e b a t t l e a g a i n s t th e power o f D eath . T hose
who d r i f t away from u n i t y e v e n tu a lly d ie in th e agony o f
a lo n e n e s s . Man l i v e s b etw een th e s e two e x tre m e s, th e s e two
p o le s w h ich Camus d e f in e d a s th e s o l i t a r y and th e s o l i d a r y
s t a t e .
T arro u * s f a t h e r was a ju d g e . H is so n h a s r e a l i z e d
t h a t h e a tte n d e d th e e x e c u tio n s o f th o s e h e had condemned
to d i e . E ver s in c e h e h a s f e l t p la g u e d by th e n a u s e a tin g
memory, and h e t r i e s t o redeem h i s f a t h e r 's g u i l t w ith a c t s
o f u n d e rs ta n d in g and good d e e d s . A lyosha Karam azov d o es
p en an ce f o r h i s fa m ily i n a s i m i l a r m anner. C a lig u la
b e g in s to in d u lg e i n h i s v i c i o u s whims a f t e r th e d e a th o f
h i s b e lo v e d s i s t e r : h e s u b j e c t s a w o rld h o s t i l e t o him to
h i s a b s o lu te w i l l . Tchen becom es inhum an a f t e r h i s a s s a s
s i n a t i o n o f an enemy. A ll th e s e c h a r a c te r s a c t and r e a c t
b e c a u se o f a f a t h e r f i g u r e who i s d e s t r u c t i v e , f a l s e , o r
a b s e n t. So i t i s w ith K afka. H is w r i t in g i s d e fin e d b y
th e a m b iv a le n t r e l a t i o n o f K. to h i s f a t h e r . W ith o u t
43
c o n s c io u s a w a re n e s s, h e f e e l s a co m p u lsio n f o r s e l f
pun ish m en t w ith o u t e v e r b e in g a b le t o pay th e m o ra l d e b t.
In a l l th e s e c a s e s man r i s k s e s tra n g e m e n t from h im s e lf and
h is w o rld . He h a s b e e n le d t o th e b o r d e r o f n o -m a n * s-la n d
w here lu r k la c k o f s a l v a t i o n and th e im m inence o f d e a th .
An am biguous f a t h e r f i g u r e o r p a t e r n a l s u b s t i t u t e i s
u s u a l ly , w ith in o u r r e l i g i o u s c u l t u r a l sy ste m , a s s o c i a t e d
w ith a n n i h i l a t i o n . In "Das H r t e i l ” (1916) K afka t e l l s o f
a man who was s e n te n c e d t o d e a th by h i s f a t h e r . B e c k e tt 's
E stra g o n and V la d im ir w a s te t h e i r l i v e s i n n o th in g n e s s
w a itin g f o r G odot. The n a r r a t o r o f l a C hute c a l l s m ankind
to a b ro th e rh o o d o f p e r p e tu a l d e n i a l . A h a b 's crew i s
d e s tro y e d in v e n g e a n c e . M alrau x ' r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s a r e
e lim in a te d by th e sy ste m in w h ich th e y s o u g h t r e f u g e . In
a l l t h e s e n a r r a t i v e s , w hich em ploy r e l i g i o u s ty p e s and
C h r i s t ia n im ag es, t h e r e i s a g iv e n f i c t i o n a l r e a l i t y w ith
w hich th e c h a r a c t e r s c an i d e n t i f y and in w hich th e y c a n
o p e r a te . I t i s t h e i r r e a l i t y from w hich th e y become e s
tr a n g e d . Tchen c a n s t i l l f u n c tio n w ith in th e com m unist
p a r ty . C a lig u la c a n f o r some tim e com bine h i s c a p r ic e s and
h i s im p e r ia l f u n c t i o n s . T a rro u , a t odds w ith h im s e lf , i s
s t i l l w ith t h e v a n g u ard in t h e b a t t l e a g a i n s t th e p la g u e .
The s o l i d a r i t y th e y f in d i s r e a l , i f s h o r t - l i v e d . Katow,
f o r exam ple, h a s b u t th e b r i e f moment in w h ich he g iv e s
away h i s p o iso n b e fo r e b e in g b u rn e d a l i v e . In th e s e n a r
r a t i v e s so m eth in g " s tr a n g e " h a p p e n s, w hich i s u n u s u a l
enough t o b r in g th e in c i d e n t and th e c h a r a c t e r s in v o lv e d
to th e f o r e , y e t n o t so d i f f e r e n t t h a t th e y a r e tr a n s p o r te d
beyond th e f i c t i o n a l r e a l i t y w ith w hich th e y and th e r e a d e r
h av e i d e n t i f i e d . One c a n o n ly b e e s tr a n g e d from th e known
and th e i d e n t i f i a b l e . I t i s , to b o rro w one o f Camus*
exam ples o f th e a b s u rd , a m a tte r o f lo o k in g a t o n e 's m ir r o r
im age, n o t f in d in g th e e x p e c te d , and th u s d is c o v e r in g who
one r e a l l y i s . In o th e r w o rd s, th e u n f a m ilia r and th e
known oppose e ac h o t h e r , and from t h i s te n s io n i s b o rn an
i n s i g h t , a tr a n s c e n d in g and v i s i o n a r y r e a l i t y w hich c a n b e
term ed "une s o r t e d e m y stiq u e d es s e n s a t io n s , . . . une V ie
A J
e x t e r i e u r e d 'i n t e n s i t e e t de p r o f o n d e u r ."
To sa y t h a t th e a w are n ess o f t h i s v i s i o n a r y e x p e r i
en ce i s l im ite d t o o u r c e n tu r y w ould b e i n c o r r e c t . The
n e c e s s i t y t o im p a rt t h i s q u a l i t y t o a w ork o f a r t had
■ ■ m .................................. - ■ — -■■■■- rv*
2 L , s ,
P au l V a le ry , "A u to u r de C o ro t" in P ie c e s s u r
l ' a r t ( P a r i s : E d itio n s d e l a NRF. 1 9 3 8 ), p . 151.
45
a lr e a d y b e e n p e rc e iv e d by C h a rle s B a u d e la ir e . In h i s S alo n
d e 1846 h e s a i d t h a t R om anticism , among many th in g s , i s a n
" a s p i r a t i o n v e r s 1* i n f i n i , e x p rim ee p a r to u s le s moyens que
25
c o n tie n n e n t l e s a r t s . " In th e s u c c e e d in g y e a r s t h e r e h a s
c o n tin u e d t h i s u n i n te r r u p te d r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t a r t , a s
a s p i r a t i o n tow ard th e i n f i n i t e , p o s s e s s e s a " q u a s i-
t h e o l o g i c a l" q u a l i t y : " th e end o f a r t a s su c h i s n o t to
know, b u t t o p ro d u ce o r c r e a t e . . . in th e way o f th e
26
s p i r i t and o f l i b e r t y . " What i s m eant h e r e w ith th e word
" c r e a t e " i s th e m e n ta l a c t o f c o n ju r in g up a v i s i o n o f a
tr a n s c e n d e n t r e a l i t y . In a su p e rb stu d y on th e n a tu r e o f
l i t e r a r y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n M urray K rie g e r h a s spoken o f t h i s
v i s i o n a s i t h a s d e v e lo p e d i n th e p a s t one h u n d red y e a r s .
Man a c t s i n th e tra g e d y o f l i f e and becom es c o n fro n te d w ith
th e a m o r a lity o f th e u n iv e r s e . He d is c o v e r s t h a t h i s m o ra l
25 * /
C h a rle s B a u d e la ire , C u r i o s i te s e s t h e t i a u e s . e d .
F. F. G a u tie r ( B a ris : E d itio n s d e l a NRF. 1 9 2 5 ), p . 84.
" . . . a s p i r a t i o n to w a rd s t h e i n f i n i t e , e x p re s s e d
by e v e ry m eans a v a i l a b l e t o th e a r t s . " C h a rle s B a u d e la ire ,
A rt i n P a r i s : 1845-1862; S a lo n s and O th er E x h ib itio n s .
t r a n s l . and e d . J . Mayne (London: P haidon P re s s , L td .,
1 9 6 5 ), p . 4 7 .
26
Ja c q u e s M a r ita in , "C o n cern in g P o e tic K now ledge,"
in J . and R. M a r ita in , The S i t u a t i o n o f P o e try (New Y ork:
P h ilo s o p h ic a l L ib r a r y , 1 9 55), p p . 4 4 , 4 7 .
46
a ssu m p tio n s a r e in a d e q u a te t o cope w ith h i s e x p e r ie n c e .
U nable t o s y n th e s iz e th e c o n tr a d ic t io n , h e h a s a " t r a g i c
v i s i o n " o f l i f e ' s a b s u r d i ty . In l i t e r a t u r e w hich d e a ls
w ith th e "n o rm al" man c o n v e rte d t o th e " e x c e p tio n a l" man,
t h e r e m ust b e , K rie g e r f u r t h e r m a in ta in s , f o r th e r e a d e r
a b a la n c e o f n e c e s s i t i e s b etw een th e t r a g i c and th e A bso
l u t e . T hese o p p o s ite s , p o is e d a g a i n s t each o t h e r , a r e
" to c r e a t e th e u n r e s o lv a b le t e n s io n t h a t m ust now r e p la c e
t r a g e d y 's m ore su b lim e c a t h a r s i s a s th e p r i n c i p l e o f a e s
t h e t i c c o n t r o l . " The " v is io n " o f th e f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r ,
th e " v i s i o n a r y ," m ust b e
a v i s i o n o f ex trem e c a s e s , a d i s t i l l a t e o f th e r e b e l
l i o n , th e g o d le s s n e s s w h ich , once in tro d u c e d by c r i s i s ,
p u r i f i e s i t s e l f by r e j e c t i n g a l l p a l l i a t i v e s . And th e
t r a g i c v i s i o n a r y , by th e s t a r k a u s t e r i t y o f h i s o n to
l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n and o f h i s d ra m a tic p o s i t i o n in th e
f a b l e , i s th e e x tr e m is t who—d e s p i t e h i s r i c h i n t e r
m in g lin g w ith th e s t u f f o f e x p e r ie n c e - - f in d s h im s e lf
tra n s fo rm e d from c h a r a c t e r to p a r a b le . 7
T h is tr a n s f o r m a tio n " to p a r a b le " s u g g e s ts th e m o ra l A bso-
28
l u t e , and a s su c h i t p a r ta k e s o f th e " r e l i g i o u s . " As a
27
M urray K rie g e r, The T ra g ic V is io n (C h icag o : U ni
v e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s , 19 6 0 ), p p . 1 -2 1 .
28
E ric h K ah ler s e e s t h e p a r a b le a s a p o s s ib ly new
m odem g e n re , and h e d e f in e s i t a s a s t o r y "on a n a b s t r a c t ,
R a re fie d l e v e l , l i f t e d o u t o f s p e c i f i c l o c a l e , tim e an d
i n d iv i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s —a s t o r y t h a t p i c t u r e s o u r human
47
ty p e o f i n s i g h t on th e p a r t o f th e " t r a g i c v i s i o n a r y , " i t
can le a d to s a l v a t i o n in a s o l i d a r i t y w ith m ankind a s i s
th e c a s e w ith Dr. R ieu x , P rin c e M pshkin, o r K assner o f
M a lrau x ' Le Temps du m e o ris (1 9 3 5 ). Even i f th e v i s i o n i s
d e n ie d , t h e r e i s s t i l l th e n eed to e sc a p e from a lo n e n e s s .
C lam ence, S ta v ro g in , and Ahab deny tr a n s c e n d e n c e , b u t in
t h e i r s e a rc h f o r a ty p e o f s o l i d a r i t y th e y se e k com panion
s h ip . The f i r s t g ro u p o f f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s su c c e e d s
b e c a u se th e y do n o t r e j e c t th e human; th e seco n d g ro u p
f a i l s b e c a u se th e y deny t h i s bond.
The r e a d e r , c a u g h t i n w hat K rie g e r term ed th e
" u n r e s o lv a b le t e n s i o n ," may i d e n t i f y w ith th e moment o f
c o n f r o n t a ti o n i n w h ich th e i n d iv i d u a l r i s k s e s tra n g e m e n t.
P a s s iv e ly , h e can b e aw are o f lo s s a n d , w ith th e p a t r i c i a n s ,
f e e l th r e a te n e d by C a lig u la ( in Camus p la y o f th e same name,
19 4 4 ), o r w ith A h ab 's crew b e s a i l e d t o d e s t r u c t i o n .
A c tiv e ly , th e r e a d e r c a n e n t e r th e te n s io n w ith th e
" s tr a n g e " c h a r a c t e r and becom e th e o u t s i d e r r a t h e r th a n th e
norm . Once " o u ts id e " h e i s a llo w e d a g lim p se o f th e
c o n d itio n i n an im m e d ia te ly s u p r a - in d i v i d u a l m an n er, w i t h
o u t lo s in g i t s human i n t e n s i t y and v i v i d n e s s ." See h i s
"H ie T ra n s fo rm a tio n o f M odem F i c t i o n , " C o m p arativ e L i t e r a
t u r e . V II (1 9 5 5 ), 126-127.
48
tr a n s c e n d e n t o r o f w hat R u d o lf O tto h a s c a l l e d , "Das Ganz
A n d e re ," th e W holly O th e r, w here h e c a n p a r ta k e o f a num i-
29
nous e x p e r ie n c e .
The s t r a n g e r can be c o n s id e re d a f i g u r e i n whom th e
O th e rn e ss ta k e s form b e c a u se h e i s o th e r th a n th e p e o p le
a ro u n d him . T h is i s c l e a r l y th e c a s e w ith M e u rsa u lt and
Jo se p h K., whom th e r e a d e r , in awe, fo llo w s to t h e i r ju d g
m ent a f t e r a l i e n a t i o n from t h e i r e n v iro n m e n t. In th e s e two
in s ta n c e s th e r e a d e r c an o n ly j o i n K. and M e u rs a u lt. How
e v e r , in n o v e ls l i k e la P e s te . l a V oie r o v a le . o r The I d i o t
(1 8 6 8 ), w here th e c h a r a c t e r s s t r u g g l e t o r e a d j u s t t o a
changed e n v iro n m e n t, th e r e a d e r i s o f f e r e d a c le a rly -m a rk e d
c h o ic e . Rieux i s , w i t h in th e w o rld o f th e n o v e l, th e
" i d e a l " man who h as come to h e lp " o r d in a r y " p e o p le . H is
p re s e n c e s u g g e s ts hope to th e p l a g u e - s t r ic k e n and redem p
t i o n in a b ro th e rh o o d o f h e a l in g . He i s th e O th er i n t h a t
h e knows t h a t th e p la g u e b a c i l l i n e v e r d i e o r d is a p p e a r f o r
g o od . The r e a d e r , l i k e Rieux* f r i e n d s , c a n a c c e p t him o r
r e j e c t h i s v i s i o n .,th « t in man t h e r e i s m ore to a d m ire th a n
29
R u d o lf O tto , Das H e i li e e : fib er d a s I r r a t i o n a l e
d e s G f lttlic h e n und s e i n V e rh flltn is zum R a tio n a le n (B re s la u :
T rew endt und G ra n ie r, 1 9 1 7 ), Ch. V, pp. 2 6 -3 2 .
49
t o d e s p is e . M alraux p r e s e n ts th e r e a d e r w ith F erken who
i s O th e r, n o t o n ly b e c a u se he h a s r e j e c t e d W estern s o c i e t y ,
b u t a l s o b e c a u se h e knows t h a t man i s a p r is o n e r o f d e s t i n y .
At th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e n o v e l, h i s yo u n g er com panion w an ts
to em brace him a s h e i s d y in g , b u t P erken g a z e s a t him a s
30
i f h e i s a s t r a n g e r , "un e t r e d*un a u t r e m onde." One c a n
r e s o lv e th e t e n s io n and a c c e p t P erken*s n ew ly "fo u n d re a lm
w here one e s c a p e s o n e 's d e s t in y o r e n jo y C la u d e ’s b r i e f ,
’’r e l i g i o u s " e x p e rie n c e o f d e s p e r a te f r a t e r n i t y . P rin c e
fy s h k in i s O th er b e c a u se h e i s n o t p a r t o f th e s e n s u a l
w o rld o f "n o rm al" p e o p le . The " sa n e " o b se rv e t h a t h e i s a n
" i d i o t . " H is e x c e p tio n a l p o s i t i o n i s la d e n w ith am b iv a
l e n c e s . The f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s w hich su rro u n d him a r e
b o th f a s c i n a te d an d r e p e l l e d by th e P rin c e , w h ile th e
r e a d e r , i n t u r n , i s f a s c i n a te d and r e p e l l e d b y them . The
n a tu r e o f t h i s te n s io n d e v e lo p e d w i t h in th e f i c t i o n a l w o rld ,
th e r e a d e r c an r e c o g n iz e . I t i s m ore d i f f i c u l t , how ever,
to d e te rm in e th e n a tu r e o f th e a m b iv a le n c e when th e O th er
s ta n d s a lo n e in th e c e n t e r o f th e n o v e l, unaccom panied and
30
M alraux, La V oie r o y a le , p . 269.
" . . . a n i n t r u d e r from a n o th e r w o r ld ." M alraux,
The R oval Wav, p . 250.
a b s u rd In h i s s o l i t a r y s t a t e . R ieu x , P erk en , and M yshkin
a r e p a r t o f th e O th e r w hich s u rro u n d them ; M e u rsa u lt and
Jo se p h K. la c k t h i s i d e n t i t y i n t h e i r f i c t i o n a l w o rld , and
i t i s u p t o th e r e a d e r to move i n t o th e e m p tin e s s . How
e v e r , th e i n v i t a t i o n t o th e r e a d e r a l s o c a r r i e s an am b iv a
l e n t e f f e c t . M e u rsa u lt and Jo sep h K. a r e f a s c i n a t i n g
b e c a u s e th e y le a d man t o a p o in t o f c o n ta c t w ith a lo n e n e s s ,
b u t th e y a l s o make him r e c o i l b e c a u se o f th e in tim a tio n o f
d e a th in h e r e n t i n a lo n e n e s s . Both s tr a n g e r s a r e condemned
to d ie and in t h i s th e y d i f f e r from tfy sh k in who becom es
d e ra n g e d , from P erken who w i l l s h i s f a t e , and from Rieux
who re m a in s t o a d m ire th e l i v i n g and th e d e ad .
I f one c o n s id e r s th e p r i n c i p l e o f O th e rn e ss a s a
p a r t i c u l a r c a te g o ry w ith in th e e s t h e t i c e x p e rie n c e and
c a l l s i t " r e l i g i o u s , " one can c a l l th e s t r a n g e r s a lr e a d y
d is c u s s e d " r e l i g i o u s " f i g u r e s . Y et, by em ploying su c h a
l i m i t a t i o n one c a n tam per w ith th e a r t i s t i c moment th e
a u th o r p r e s e n te d . The s t r a n g e r s a r e d i f f e r e n t from t h e i r
e n v iro n m e n t, th e r e a d e r 's a t t i t u d e is , one o f a m b iv ale n ce
and n o t o f a f f i r m a t i o n , b u t t h e i r O th e rn e ss c a n n o t b e d e
f in e d w ith o u t th e f i c t i o n a l w o rld i n w hich th e y l i v e . The
e le m e n ts w hich s e t th e s t r a n g e r a p a r t can b e j u s t l y
51
a n a ly z e d , b u t th o s e a s p e c ts w hich t e s t i f y t o t h e i r O th e r
n e s s a r e th e n e a s i l y ig n o r e d . T here i s th e d a n g e r t h a t
em phasis on th e " r e l i g i o u s " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e s t r a n g e r
l i f t s him p re m a tu re ly from th e r e a d e r 's e s t h e t i c e x p e rie n c e
w h ere, i n a s e n s e , he was c r e a t e d .
The a u th o r h a s th ro w n o u t a c h a lle n g e t o w hich th e
r e a d e r w i l l i n s i s t on f in d in g a n a n sw e r. The m ost o b v io u s
way o f c r e a t i n g a fram e o f r e f e r e n c e i s to d is c o v e r th e
a u t h o r 's m o tiv a tio n f o r w r i t in g w hat h e w ro te . I f , f o r
exam ple, one w an ts to know why D ostoevsky c r e a te d The
P o sse sse d , i t i s h e l p f u l t o know t h a t h e had a h o r r o r o f
p o l i t i c a l c rim e s and w an ted t o w arn h i s c o n te m p o ra rie s o f
th e d a n g e rs o f n i h i l i s m . B u t, a c t u a l l y , th e m o tiv a tio n i s
se c o n d a ry . What i s n eed ed i s an a n a l y s i s o f th e th o u g h t
e x p re s s e d and th e lan g u a g e u s e d . K i r i l l o v 's e x p re s s io n o f
h i s n eed to become a m an-god i s h a l t i n g l y p u t f o r t h , i n th e
a p p r o p r ia te m anner o f a man who seldom sp e a k s and m o s tly
r e f l e c t s on h i s f a t e . H is aim i s c l e a r l y o u tlin e d and h i s
d is c o n n e c te d e x p re s s io n s s u g g e s t a th in k e r o u t o f to u c h
w ith th e w o rld .
In th e tw e n tie th c e n tu r y K i r i l l o v 's l i t e r a r y d e
s c e n d a n ts no lo n g e r t r y t o b e e x p l i c i t when th e y p ro p o se
52
and d is p o s e . I f one c o n s id e r s th e i s o l a t i o n o f T chen, th e
m u t i l a t i o n o f G ra b o t, th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f th e Renegade (from
Camus' s h o r t s t o r y o f th e same t i t l e [1 9 5 7 ]), o r , f o r t h a t
m a tte r , th e e n ig m a tic p re s e n c e o f th e s t r a n g e r , t h e i r l a n
guage i s re d u c e d t o g u t t e r a l n o n -s e n s e s y l l a b l e s o r to
v a g u e ly e x p re s s e d m ean in g . T here a r e s u g g e s tio n s o f th e
unknown, th e d i s s i m i l a r , th e m y s te r io u s , th e a l i e n , w hich
i n d i c a t e t h a t man i s tr a n s c e n d in g h im s e lf and h i s w o rld —
t h a t i s , t h a t h e e x p e rie n c e s a r e a l i t y w hich i s beyond h i s
o b s e r v a tio n and h i s r a t i o n a l a w a re n e s s. They a r e w ords
w hich a lr e a d y w ere p a r t o f t h e R om antic c u l t . As M ario
P raz h a s i t :
Bacon h ad a lr e a d y e x p re s s e d th e id e a ( t h a t Poe n e v e r
t i r e d o f q u o tin g an d B a u d e la ire r e p e a te d a f t e r him )
t h a t " th e r e i s no e x c e l l e n t b e a u ty t h a t h a th n o t some
s tr a n g e n e s s i n th e p r o p o r t i o n ."31
The s tr a n g e n e s s m eant h e r e i s th e " sp o o k y ," th e b i z a r r e ,
th e f a t a l , th e s e c r e t o f th e n i g h t , th e m acab re, and s i n f u l
32
a t t r a c t i o n , w hich a r e a l l r e l a t e d t o s e x u a l i t y . The
b la c k m agic o f lo v e b r in g s man i n c o n ta c t w ith a n e lu s iv e
M ario P ra z , Thg Roman t i c Agony. t r a n s l . Angus
D avidson (New Y ork: W orld P u b lis h in g Company, 1956),
p . 438.
32
I b i d . , p a s s im .
53
r e a l i t y w hich i s p re m a tu re ly r a t i o n a l i z e d i n a n i n d u s t r i a l
i z i n g w o rld . S u rre a lis m a l s o h a s a p r e f e r e n c e f o r w hat i s
d i f f e r e n t from th e o r d in a r y . The s u r r e a l i s t i c a r t i s t
re s e m b le s h i s ro m a n tic p r e d e c e s s o r , b u t h e l i v e s u n d e r
s t i l l g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e i n a s t a t e o f in q u ie tu d e b ro u g h t on
by t h r e a t s o f cosm ic w a r f a r e . S u rre a lis m i s m ore a g g r e s
s i v e , m ore c r im in a l, and m ore p o l i t i c a l l y m inded th a n
ro m a n tic ism . The s tr a n g e n e s s i s r e l a t e d t o th e m y s te r io u s ,
th e in fam o u s, th e a b s u rd , and i t c h a lle n g e s com placency
w ith I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w hich c an a l s o b e found i n R om anticism
b u t w hich i n S u rre a lis m a r e o f t e n e x p lo ite d f o r t h e i r own
s a k e . The r e v o l t i n S u rre a lis m i s m ore pronounced th a n in
R om anticism . "R e v o lu c io n . . . R e v o lu tio n . . . R ealism i s
th e p ru n in g o f t r e e s , s u r r e a lis m i s th e p ru n in g o f l i f e , "
O
sa y th e e d i t o r s o f l a R e v o lu tio n S u r r e a l i s t e . The a r t i s t s
o f t h i s movement b e lie v e d i n t h e i r own m a g ic a l q u a l i t i e s
an d in th e " m ira c le o f a r t . "
The w ork i t s e l f o f th e w r i t e r , and p a r t i c u l a r l y o f th e
p o e t, was se e n m ore and m ore to b e a m a g ic a l i n c a n ta
t i o n , a n e v o c a tiv e m agic o r w i t s h c r a f t whose c r e a t i o n
33
J . A. B o if f a r d , P. E lu a rd , R. V itr a c , E d i t o r i a l
i n l a R e v o lu tio n S u r r e a l i s t e . No. 1, Decem ber, 1924, a s
r e p r i n t e d i n P a tr ic k W aldberg, S u rre a lis m (New Y ork:
M cG raw -H ill, 1 9 6 5 ), p . 4 8 .
and w hose e f f e c t w ere b o th m ira c u lo u s . The a r t i s t i c
w ork m ig h t b e com pared t o t h e " h o s t" o f s a c ra m e n ta l
C h r i s t i a n i t y w hich c o n ta in s th e " r e a l p re s e n c e .
The s u r r e a l i s t i s th e m anager o f O th e rn e s s . I n t h i s l i e s
th e pow er and th e w eakness o f t h i s movement and o f r e l a t e d
a r t i s t i c e x p e r im e n ta tio n s . In c l e a r i n g gro u n d f o r th e
f u t u r e d e v elo p m e n ts o f a M alraux and a Camus, t h e r e i s th e
in h e r e n t d a n g e r o f c o n fu s in g a m a n if e s to w ith a n a r t i s t i c
c r e a t i o n , a s A ndre B r e to n 's N adia (1928) b e a rs o u t.
Camus h a s n o t w anted to d e v e lo p i n C a lig u la a f i g u r e
i n whom th e O th e rn e ss o f u n i ty i s m a n if e s te d . He h a s c r e
a te d a C a lig u la in whom t h i s ta k e s p la c e a f t e r a l l . F i r s t
t h e r e i s C a lig u la , o n ly th e n th e O th e rn e ss o f h i s a p p e a r
a n c e . T h is c a u s e and e f f e c t sh o u ld n o t b e r e v e r s e d . No
one b e g in s w ith th e w o rld on th e o th e r s id e o f t h i s e x i s
te n c e . When S a r t r e c r e a te d h i s O r e s te s , h e had h i s h e ro
d is c o v e r t h a t " l a v i e hum aine commence d e 1 'a u t r e c S te du
/ 35
d e s e s p o i r ." T h is f a r s i d e o f d e s p a ir w here human l i f e
p
W allace F o w lie , Age o f S u rre a lis m (B lo o m in g to n :
In d ia n a U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 60), p . 24.
35 /
J e a n -P a u l S a r t r e , Les Mouches i n h i s T he& tre
( P a r i s : G a llim a rd , 19 4 7 ), Act I I I , p . 102.
55
b e g in s h a s had i t s s o u rc e i n t h i s l i f e , and th e a r t i s t ,
d e s c r ib in g th e e v e n ts , s h o u ld a r r i v e a t th e S tra n g e . The
o th e r n e s s c a n b e t h e i s t i c a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r e v e l a t i o n
i n w hich man becom es i n v i s i b l e , w here th e human d is a p p e a r s .
I t i s a n a w a re n e ss w here h e tr a n s c e n d s h im s e lf and comes in
c o n ta c t w ith a " r e l i g i o u s " a s p e c t o f th e e s t h e t i c e x p e r i
e n c e . I f , l i k e D an te, t h e a r t i s t b e g in s h i s a r t i s t i c
moment on th e O th er s i d e , le a v in g th e r e a d e r t o f i l l in th e
know ledge o f T h is w o rld , one i s le d t o a p e r s o n a l c o n fr o n
t a t i o n w ith th e a r t i s t . The e x p e rie n c e i s p re -d e te rm in e d
a s in th e w o rld o f K afka w ith i t s c o n f l i c t b etw een th e
i n d iv i d u a l and a u t h o r i t y , and th e w o rld o f D ostoevsky w ith
i t s c la s h o f good and e v i l i n th e h e a r t o f m an. I t i s a l s o
p o s s ib le f o r th e a r t i s t to c r e a t e th e e x is te n c e o f th e
known w o rld and le a v e th e r e a d e r to a r e a l i z a t i o n o f O th e r
n e s s . In t h i s c a s e one c o n f r o n ts th e im p e rso n a l w ork o f
a r t , and th e r e a d e r i s l e f t a m u lt i p le c h o ic e o f p r i v a t e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The d ise m b o d ied p re s e n c e o f "No. 1" i n
A rth u r K o e s t i e r 's D arkness a t Noon (1 9 4 0 ), th e a b se n c e o f
G odot, o r t h e presum ed p re s e n c e o f K u rtz in Jo sep h C o n ra d 's
H e a rt o f D arkness (1902) a r e moments o f s u s p e n s io n and o f
s i l e n c e w ith in th e e s t h e t i c e x p e rie n c e . They a r e i n s t a n t s
w here th e a r t i s t h a s l e f t a b la n k f o r a p e r s o n a l v i s i o n on
th e p a r t o f th e r e a d e r . W ith th e im p riso n e d R ubashov, w ith
E s tra g o n and V la d im ir, w ith Marlow th e w a itin g and th e
s e a r c h becom e a f a c t . W ith them one f l u c t u a t e s b etw een th e
g e n e r a l and th e p e r s o n a l, th e la c k o f c e r t a i n t y and th e
p r i v a t e v i s i o n .
T h is v a c i l l a t i n g movement i s a n e stra n g e m e n t
w h ich ta k e s sh a p e i n th e f ig u r e o f th e s t r a n g e r . The m ain
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h i s f i c t i o n a l ty p e i s , o f c o u rs e ,
t h a t one c a n n o t re c o g n iz e him , b u t one h a s to d e f in e h i s
a p p e a l so t h a t one c a n a s s o c i a t e w ith him . In i d e n t i f y
in g w ith th e s t r a n g e r 's anonym ity and u s in g him a s a m ir r o r
o f o n e 's S e l f , one b e g in s to move b ack and f o r t h t o g e t
th e im age i n s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r s p e c tiv e . The p o in t o f r e s t
becom es r e l o c a t e d and th e l o s t e q u ilib r iu m o f th e d i s
p la c e d w o rld h as to b e r e - s t a b i l i z e d . T hus, th e te n s io n
o f th e w ork o f l i t e r a r y a r t h as i t s s o u rc e i n th e s t r a n g e r ,
w h e th e r h e i s p r e s e n t , a b s e n t, o r a d ise m b o d ie d r e a l i t y .
Camus e x p e rim e n te d w ith a l l th r e e c a t e g o r i e s : t h e r e i s
M e u rs a u lt, t h e r e i s th e d e p a rte d God i n La P e s te . and
th e r e i s Clam ence i n l a C h u te . W ith o u t any one o f th e s e
r e a l i t i e s no a m b iv a le n c e w ould e x i s t in th e g iv e n w o rld
57
o f th e f i c t i o n .
I n p a r t i a l summary i t can b e s a i d t h a t e stra n g e m e n t
le a d s t o a l a b i l e e q u ilib r iu m w ith in th e c o n f r o n t a ti o n o f
S e lf and O th e r, w h ic h , i n t u r n , c a n le a d t o a tr a n s c e n d in g
o r " r e l i g i o u s " a w a re n e s s. Some c r i t i c s h a v e c a l l e d th e
w ork o f Kafka r e l i g i o u s e i t h e r b e c a u se th e y e x p e c t th e
p re s e n c e o f a godhead i n th e h id d e n c o u rtro o m o r in th e
C a s tle , o r b e c a u se th e y s e e th e s e p la c e s a s sym bols o f
36
god*s i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y . I t i s , how ever, n o t n e c e s s a r y to
s p e c u la te b e c a u se gods a r e p r e s e n t i n K a fk a 's f i c t i o n a l
w o rld . Ih e y a r e d e s c r ib e d , b u t one c a n n o t r e a l l y sa y t h a t
36
Max B rod, F ran z K afka; e in e B io g ra p h ie ( B e r lin :
S. F is c h e r V e rla g , 1 9 5 4 ), pp. 2 0 5 -2 3 8 .
Max B rod, "N achw ort z u r e r s t e n A usgabe" i n F ran z
K afka, Das S c h lo ss (New Y ork: Schocken B ooks, 1 9 4 6 ),
p p . 4 1 5 -4 2 4 .
A lb e rt Camus, " L 'E s p o ir e t l 'a b s u r d e dan s
1*o e u v re d e F ra n z K afka" i n Mvthe d e S isv n h e (17e e d .;
P a r i s : G a llim a rd , 1 9 4 2 ), p . 183.
N o rb e rt F lir s t, Die o ffe n e n G eheim ttiren F ranz
K afkas (H e id e lb e rg : W olfgang R othe V e rla g , 19 5 6 ), pp. 16-
3 5 .
Thomas Mann, "Homage" i n F ra n z K afka, The C a s tle .
t r a n s l . W . and E. M uir (New Y ork: A lfre d A. Knopf, 1 9 5 4 ),
p p . i x - x v i i .
Edwin M iir, " I n tr o d u c to r y N ote t o th e F i r s t A m eri
c an E d itio n " i n F ran z K afka, The C a s tle , t r a n s l . E. and W .
M iir (New Y ork: A lfre d A. K nopf, 1 9 4 1 ), p p . i - v i i ( a t e n d ).
F e lix W e ltsc h , R e lig io n und Humor 1m Leben und
Werk F ran z K afkas ( B e r lin : F. A. H e rb ig , 1 9 5 7 ).
58
th e y e x i s t o r t h a t th e y do n o t e x i s t . T h e ir e x is te n c e i s
s o l e l y d e te rm in e d b y th e r e a l i t y th e f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s
a r e w i l l i n g t o a s c r i b e t o them . In P e r P ro z e ss T i t o r e l l i
i s p a in t i n g a ju d g e in a c h a i r , a ju d g e who, a t tim e s ,
37
re s e m b le s a g o d d e ss. In A m erika (1927) t h e r e a r e tru m p e t
b lo w e rs , i n f r o n t o f th e N a tu re t h e a t e r o f Oklahoma, d r e s s e d
38
a s a n g e ls . I n Das S c h lo ss K. dream s t h a t h e d e f e a t s a
39
s e c r e t a r y who re s e m b le s a G re c ia n g o d . The gods o f K afka
become a r e a l i t y w ith in t h e w o r d - p ic tu r e o n ly a n d , w i t h in
t h i s im age c r e a te d w hich one c a n " s e e , " th e i n s t a b i l i t y o f
th e s i t u a t i o n i s i n t e n s i f i e d . They a l l a p p e a r a t th e end
o f th e n o v e l w here t h e i r a p p a r i t i o n i s a q u e s tio n r a t h e r
th a n an a n sw e r. W ill R ossm ann's p ro b lem s b e s o lv e d i n a
t h e a t r e a lm o s t a s la r g e a s th e w o rld ? W ill K. b e a b le t o
m o ll i f y th e s e c r e t a r y ? W ill th e ju d g e s e v e n tu a lly d e s tr o y
Jo se p h K. ? T hese d i v i n i t i e s a r e f o r t u i t o u s , and th e y o n ly
s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e th e s i t u a t i o n , w hich i s o f e n d le s s
37
F ran z K afka, P e r P ro z e ss (New Y ork: Sc hoc ken
B ooks, 1 9 46), Ch. V II, p p . 156-157.
38
F ran z K afka, A m erika (New Y ork: Schocken Books,
19 4 6 ), Ch. V I I I , p p . 2 6 6 -2 8 8 .
39
F ran z K afka, Das S c h lo ss (New Y ork: Schocken
Books, 1 9 4 6 ), Ch. X V III, p p . 3 0 4 -3 0 5 .
59
p e r s p e c t iv e . When Jo se p h K. a s k s T i t o r e l l o t o e x p la in th e
p a in t i n g , th e l a t t e r c o n tin u e s h i s w ork t o c l a r i f y th e
p i c t u r e . W ith e v e ry s t r o k e o f t h e c ra y o n a new im age i s
c r e a te d b e h in d t h e a lr e a d y e x i s t i n g im age u n t i l su d d e n ly a
g o d d e ss a p p e a rs , and th e n a n o th e r one, and a n o th e r o n e.
In K a fk a 's m u lti- d im e n s io n a l w o rld d i v i n i t i e s c a n e x i s t ,
and in so d o in g th e y c r e a t e a l i m i t . The c h a r a c t e r c an
r e a l i z e t h a t th e y a r e a fa k e b e c a u se th e y a r e o n ly a p a i n t
in g . Y et, h i s c e r t a i n t y i s c a n c e le d o u t b e c a u se h e do es
n o t know i f th e g o d d e ss i s m eant t o h id e so m e th in g . The
i n t e n t o f th e ju d g e s i s s t i l l n o t r e v e a le d . The gods o f
Kafka r e f l e c t t h e e s tra n g e m e n t o f th e m ain c h a r a c t e r s o f
h i s n o v e ls . They f in d th e m se lv e s in a s i t u a t i o n beyond
t h e i r co m p reh en sio n b u t w h ich th e y , a t a l l c o s t , h a v e t o
m a s te r . W ith in th e e s t h e t i c e x p e rie n c e o f th e r e a d e r th e y
a r e n e c e s s a r y b u t o u ts id e t h i s c o n f r o n ta tio n th e y fa d e
w ith in th e im age. They a r e n o t l i k e D o s to e v sk y 's s p id e r s
and d e v il s who c a n e x i s t i n o th e r fram ew orks. The " r e l i
g io u s " a w a re n e ss i s n u l l i f i e d i n K a fk a 's w ork. The g o d d ess
in T i t o r e l l o * s c h a i r m u st r e t u r n t o n o n -b e in g .
The god whom B e c k e tt c a l l s Godot d i f f e r s from h e r
i n t h a t h e i s i n v i s i b l e . The s i t u a t i o n w ith w hich th e
60
s p e c t a t o r o f Eh A tte n d a n t G odot i s c o n fro n te d shows t h a t h e
h a s n o t ( y e t) a r r i v e d . The ( n o n - ) e x is te n c e o f G odot i s
im p o rta n t o n ly i n so f a r a s i t g iv e s m eaning t o t h e e x i s
te n c e o f E stra g o n and V la d im ir. W a itin g f o r G odot, th e y
k i l l tim e , t r y i n g t o g u e ss a re a s o n f o r b e in g in s t e a d o f
a c c e p tin g l i f e . H ere, to o , w ith in th e e s t h e t i c e x p e r ie n c e ,
th e r e i s a t r u e r e l a t i o n b etw een e stra n g e m e n t and r e l i
g io n —a lth o u g h th e p a th le a d s from r e l i g i o n t o e s tra n g e m e n t.
In t h i s c a s e t h e r e i s a r e v e r s a l o f th e e x p e r ie n c e s so f a r
d is c u s s e d . In K a fk a 's w o rld th e a l i e n a t i o n su d d e n ly b e
comes a c u t e , and a god a p p e a r s . In B e c k e tt 's p la y h i s
a b se n c e i s so c o n sp ic u o u s t h a t th e w o rld o f th e c h a r a c t e r s
lo s e s a l l s t a b i l i t y . E s tra g o n and V la d im ir b e g in t o a c t
l i k e clow ns p re te n d in g t h a t th e y e x i s t . W ith o u t Godot
t h e i r i n d iv i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have become i r r e l e v a n t .
T h is s lo w ly d e v e lo p in g la c k o f i d e n t i t y i s tr a n s m i t te d t o
th e w o rld o f th e s p e c t a t o r and w ith th o s e on s ta g e one
d r i f t s away t o a p o in t o f f u t i l i t y and n o th in g n e s s .
W ith Godot th e s t r a n g e r s have i n common t h a t th e y
f u n c tio n a s a c e n t e r o f e s tra n g e m e n t. S om ething, t h e r e
f o r e , i s w rong w ith t h e i r name o r t h a t ty p e o f i d e n t i f i c a
t i o n w ith w hich man c a n d e f in e h im s e lf , a s , f o r exam ple,
61
S tep h en D edalus i n J o y c e 's p o r t r a i t o f h i s y o u th f in d s
r e l e a s e from e stra n g e m e n t when h e becom es c o n s c io u s o f th e
p r o p h e tic q u a l i t y o f h i s nam e. The s t r a n g e r i s n o t so
lu c k y , and h i s name i s m e re ly a l a b e l by w h ich o th e r s
i d e n t i f y him . M e u rsa u lt i s a d ead m o th e r 's so n , a g i r l ' s
lo v e r , and a p im p 's f r i e n d . He re m a in s anonymous u n t i l h e
becom es a m u rd e re r—a t w hich p o in t h e i s tra n s fo rm e d i n t o
a n i d e n t i f i a b l e r e a l i t y . W ith th e p e o p le in th e c o u rtro o m
h e i s a b le t o s a y : I , M e u rs a u lt, th e m u rd e re r. Only on th e
v e rg e o f d e a th d o es h e r e a l i z e a ’’n a m e fu l" r e l a t i o n s h i p
w ith th e u n iv e r s e . In La C hute t h i s anonym ity i s l e s s
c l e a r . The s tr a n g e n e s s i s o b v io u s ly a m asq u erad e and a
d e l i b e r a t e d e c e p tio n . J e a n - B a p tis te h a s a name when h e
e n t e r s , b u t h e a d m its l a t e r t h a t i t i s a pseudonym . H is
s tr a n g e n e s s i s e q u iv o c a l; h i s an o n y m ity i s " p la y e d ." In
The P o sse sse d th e s t r a n g e r h a s a name. N am elessn ess d o es
n o t seem t o b e th e c a s e , b u t i t so o n becom es c l e a r t h a t
S ta v ro g in i s a fa q a d e b e h in d w h ic h p e o p le s e c r e t l y r e l a t e
t o him . H is i n d i f f e r e n c e m ir r o r s t h e i r a n g u is h . He i s th e
" u n d e r-c o v e r" s t r a n g e r a s opposed to S tep h en D edalus who
o n ly se e m in g ly i s a n o u t s i d e r . The i n s i d e r s who h e lp him
r e c o n c i l e th e c o n f l i c t i n g a s p e c ts o f th e S e lf h e w elcom es.
62
A p p a re n tly , s o c i e t y do es n o t a lw ay s t u r n th e p r o ta g o n is t
i n t o a n o u t c a s t . M e u rs a u lt, G a rin e , an d K. w ere s e t a d r i f t
by t h e judgm ent o f th e w o rld . A n o th e r c a te g o r y a r e th o s e
who re c o g n iz e t h i s d a n g e r, w ish t o a v o id d e s t r u c t i o n a t th e
hand o f o t h e r s , and condemn th e m s e lv e s .
T h is them e o f s e lf-c o n d e m n a tio n can b e tr a c e d b a c k
t o D o s to e v s k y 's u n d e rg ro u n d n a r r a t o r who i s c h a rg e d w ith
h a tr e d f o r h im s e lf and th e w o rld a t l a r g e . The q u e s tio n
i s , how d id t h i s h a tr e d o r i g i n a t e ? A p p a re n tly , i t h a s h ad
i t s s o u rc e i n f r u s t r a t e d a s p i r a t i o n ; t h a t i s , f a i t h h a s
b e e n p la c e d i n a f a l s e p ro m ise fro m th e o u t s i d e . F o r
D o s to e v sk y 's a n t i - h e r o i t h a s b e e n , a s i t was f o r C ain , a
p ro m ise o f j u s t i c e . Once th e y d is c o v e r e d th e d e c e p tio n ,
th e y so u g h t r e f u g e i n a n autonom ous s t a t e . God i s u n j u s t ;
man m ust ta k e h i s p l a c e . P rid e o f i n t e l l e c t h a s alw ay s
b een a te m p ta tio n , b u t i n f i e r c e d e f ia n c e i t becom es a m p li
f i e d ; and a s i t s w e lls , th e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f e x is te n c e
becom es s o l i t a r y and c o n te m p tu o u s .^ In s o l i t u d e man d i s
c o v e rs t h a t t h e p ro m ise i s f a l s e , b u t , u n a b le t o co nvey
40
P e rry D. W estbrook, The G re a tn e s s o f Man; An E ssav
on D ostoevsky and Whitman (New Y ork: T. Y o s e lo ff, 1 9 6 1 ),
p . 136.
t h i s e x p e r ie n c e , h e re m a in s a lo n e an d s o d e sc e n d s i n t o
a h e l l o f p r i v a t e d is a p p o in tm e n t. The u n d e rg ro u n d man
h as hoped t o f i n d communion i n s o l i d a r i t y an d s h a r e h i s
so rro w o f f r u s t r a t i o n . But h i s was a n em pty h ope s i n c e he
gam bled w ith n o th in g a t s t a k e . He lo u d ly p ro c la im e d t h a t
h e d id n o t w ish t o ch an g e h i s b e in g and t h a t h e was self**
s u f f i c i e n t . H is p r id e c o u ld s u r v iv e o n ly w ith th e h e lp o f
a l i e , and th e l i e was s u s ta in e d w ith th e d e s i r e f o r self**
p r e s e r v a ti o n . D o s to e v sk y 's m o u s e -lik e h e ro d i f f e r s r a d i
c a l l y from M alraux* f i g h t e r s who a r e w i l l i n g t o se e k
s o l i d a r i t y in communal a c t i o n a g a i n s t o p p o sin g f o r c e s , from
Camus' D r. Rieux who opposed f a t e in h i s d e f ia n c e o f d e a th ,
and from th e Jo se p h K. *s who a r e a t t h e m ercy o f so m e th in g
th e y c a n n o t d e f i n e . D o s to e v sk y 's u n d e rg ro u n d man h a s d e
f in e d t h i s so m e th in g and he h a s p a s s e d on t h i s a w a re n e ss to
h i s l i t e r a r y d e s c e n d a n ts . D ostoevsky r e c r e a t e d him i n th e
c h a r a c t e r o f S ta v ro g in , Camus im ita te d him w ith t h e p o r
t r a y a l o f C lam ence, and l a s t l y , a lth o u g h h e i s n o t a
D o s to e v s k y -in s p ire d h e ro , Herman M e lv ille d e v e lo p e d Ahab,
an A m erican e q u iv a le n t o f th e s e l f - c a s t i g a t o r s T hese
^ G e o f f r e y H. H artm an, A ndre M alraux (London:
Bowes and Bowes, 1 9 6 0 ), p p . 2 9 -3 0 . See pp. 168-169^.
64
h e ro e s h a v e r e a l i z e d th e f a l s e p ro m ise o f j u s t i c e ; th e y
h a v e c e a s e d t o y e a rn f o r in n o c e n c e and p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a
b ro th e rh o o d o f s u f f e r i n g . They th in k s o l i d a r i t y a sham
b e c a u se i n s o l i d a r i t y t h e r e i s th e r i s k o f e x p u ls io n and
ju d g m en t, a n d , s in c e a t a l l c o s t s a se co n d b re a c h o f
p ro m ise m ust b e a v o id e d , th e y c r e a t e a w o rld o f t h e i r
own m aking. To th e o u ts id e i t a p p e a rs t h a t t h e i r s e l f -
s u f f i c i e n c y i s a d iv in e i n h e r i ta n c e , and s o th e e x c lu d e d
t u r n to w ard them f o r g u id a n c e . They i n s p i r e f a i t h and
th o s e who a r e a t t r a c t e d th in k th e y n e e d b u t d is c o v e r t h e i r
s e c r e t t o e n jo y a same b r i l l i a n t f u t u r e o f g r a t i f i e d y e a r n
in g .
l a n e g a tio n d e D ieu n e su p p rim e p as l a tra n s c e n d a n c e
m ais e l l e f a i t d e v ie r c e l l e - c i de l* a u - d e la v e r s l* e n
d e p a . L* i m i t a t i o n de J e s u s - C h r is t d e v ie n t 1*i m i t a t i o n
du p r o c h a i n . ^
As Camus im p lie d , man n e ed s to t u r n t o som eone
o th e r t o r e l i e v e th e te n s io n o f e s tra n g e m e n t. C lam ence,
S ta v ro g in , an d Ahab r e a l i z e t h a t man lo o k s i n v a in , and
th e y move i n a s d iv in e s u b s t i t u t e t o f i l l th e v o id . To
u n d e rs ta n d them th e r e a d e r m ust look a t them a s m odels and
^ R e n e G ira rd , Mens one e ro m a n tiq u e e t v e r i t e
rom anesoue ( B a r i s : B. G r a s s e t, 1 9 6 1 ), p . 65.
c o n s id e r t h e i r r e l a t i o n w ith t h e i r f o llo w e r s , th e p o s s e s s e d ,
who l i v e by th e id e a s o f t h e i r i d o l s . They r e g a r d them
w ith b o th a d m ir a tio n and h a tr e d , a m ix tu re w hich c h a r a c t e r
iz e s m o st l e a d e r - d i s c i p l e r e l a t i o n s h i p . The w o rld o f th e
p o s s e s s e d i s a p a ro d y o f th e C h r i s t i a n o n e . The s i n c e r e
m e d ia tio n o f C h r is t an d h i s p ro p h e ts i s r e p la c e d by th e
s e l f i s h i n t e r f e r e n c e o f a d v o c a te s o f a n g u is h and h a t e . The
l i s t e n e r s i n The F a l l , th e n i h i l i s t s i n The P o s se ss e d , and
A h a b 's crew i n Moby Dick o f f e r to t h e i r le a d e r e v e ry th in g
t h a t i s m ost p re c io u s t o th em : t h e i r hope i n re d e m p tio n .
U h fo rtu n a te ly , t h e i r tra n s c e n d e n c y , a s Camus saw i t in The
F a l l , i s h o r i z o n t a l . T here i s no a s p i r a t i o n t o a s c e n d . I t
i s m a n -d ire c te d i n a w o rld w here God i s e i t h e r d ead o r
u n a p p ro a c h a b le .
F a ls e p ro p h e ts p ro m ise s a l v a t i o n i n a b ro th e rh o o d
o f c o m p lic ity , and th e y p ro c la im th e w ay; th e y c la im to
p ro v id e th e c h a r t t o th e l a b y r i n t h o f e stra n g e m e n t and s u g
g e s t ways t o a l l e v i a t e th e g u i l t man f e e l s i n h a v in g c o n
t r i b u t e d t o m a n k in d 's s e p a r a t io n from in n o c e n c e . They a r e
tr e a c h e r o u s b e c a u se th e y h e r a ld p a r a d is e w h ile le a d in g
t h e i r p e o p le i n t o t h e i r p r i v a t e h e l l w here th e y a r e to
p e r i s h in a lo n e n e s s . They a r e th e f a l s e gods w ith a human
66
f a c e who know t h a t a b s o l u te freed o m i s u n b e a ra b le . They
c a p i t a l i z e on th e a n g u is h o f F a t h e r l e s s men and becom e, i n
th e m anner o f S ta v ro g in , th e f l a g on w hich m ankind c a n f i x
h i s e y e s . They r e a l i z e t h a t man n e ed s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith
th e O th e r, and so th e y c h o o se t o becom e th e godheads f o r
th o s e who c a n n o t g iv e up t h e i r lo n g in g f o r e t e r n i t y .
C lam ence, S ta v r o g in , and Ahab a r e l i k e th e gods o f K a fk a 's
f i c t i o n a l w o rld i n t h a t th e y p ro v id e a p e r c e p tio n a l l i m i t
f o r th e c h a r a c t e r s w h ich s u rro u n d them . They c a n b e r e c o g
n iz e d a s a fa k e b u t i n d o in g so th e o f f e r e d s e c u r i t y i s
d e s tr o y e d . The hope i s t h a t th e y know th e g a te t o s a l v a
t i o n , b u t t h e i r f a l s e l y p r o p h e tic i n t e n t i s seldom r e v e a le d .
T hese e m is s a r ie s o f th e V oid r e f l e c t th e e stra n g e m e n t o f
th e n o v e ls ' c h a r a c t e r s , b u t u n lik e K a fk a 's gods th e y do n o t
fa d e f o r th e r e a d e r o u ts id e h i s e s t h e t i c e x p e r ie n c e . The
t e r r i b l e v i s i o n o f t h e p a ro d y o f r e l i g i o u s e x p e rie n c e
l i n g e r s on.
l a C h u te. The P o s s e s s e d , and Moby-Dick c r e a t e a
v i s i o n w ith in th e e s t h e t i c e x p e r ie n c e o f th e r e a d e r w h ich
i s , i n p a r t , d e te rm in e d by t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e c o n te n t
an d form o f th e s e n o v e ls . To u n d e rs ta n d t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p
67
i t i s h e l p f u l t o t u r n t o N ie tz s c h e . In D ie G eb u rt d e r
T rag fld ie (1872) t h e German p h ilo s o p h e r s e e s i n tr a g e d y th e
u n io n o f A p o llo n ia n and D io n y sia n m o tiv e s , o r in th e
te rm in o lo g y o f W estern r e l i g i o n , C h r i s t ia n and A n ti
c h r i s t i a n f o r c e s w h ic h r e s i s t and y e t com plem ent e ac h
o t h e r . A p o llo i s th e god o f l i g h t , th e m a rv e llo u s im age
t h a t r a d i a t e s th e f u l l d e l i g h t , w isdom , and b e a u ty o f i l l u
s io n ; h i s c o u n te r im age D ionysos i s th e e s s e n c e o f r a p t u r e
and p h y s ic a l i n t o x i c a t i o n . In G reek c u l t u r e , a s e x p re s s e d
in t h e i r tr a g e d y , t h e r e i s a p e r f e c t b le n d in g o f t h e s e two
o p p o sin g f o r c e s :
D ie V e rzau b eru n g i s t d i e V o ra u sse tz u n g a H e r dram a-
tis c h e n K u n st. In d i e s e r V erzau b eru n g s i e h t s i c h d e r
d io n y s is c h e Schwilrmer a l s S a ty r, und a l s S a ty r w iederum
s c h a u t e r d en G o tt. d .h . e r s i e h t i n s e i n e r V erw andlung
e in e n eu e V is io n a u s s e r s i c h , a l s a p o l l i n i s c h e V o lie n -
dung s e in e s Z u s ta n d e s . H it d i e s e r n e u en V is io n i s t d as
Drama v o l ls titn d ig .4 3
I f one d e n ie s th e D io n y sia c , N ie tz s c h e f u r t h e r com m ents,
43
F r i e d r ic h N ie tz s c h e , D ie G eburt d e r T ra e ttd ie
(L e ip z ig : A. KrOner V e rla g , 1 9 2 3 ), p . 61.
"T h is en ch an tm en t i s th e p r e r e q u i s i t e o f a l l
d ra m a tic a r t . I n t h i s en ch an tm en t t h e D io n y sia n r e v e l l e r
s e e s h im s e lf a s a s a t y r , and a s s a t y r he i n t u r n b e h o ld s
th e god, t h a t i s , i n h i s tr a n s f o r m a tio n h e s e e s a new
v i s i o n o u ts id e him a s th e A p o llo n ia n consum m ation o f h i s
s t a t e . W ith t h i s new v i s i o n th e dram a i s c o m p le te .1 1
F r i e d r i c h N ie tz s c h e , The B ir th o f T rag ed y , t r a n s l . W . A.
Haussmann (London: T. N. F o u lis , 1 9 0 9 ), p . 68.
68
i f one becom es a " S o c r a tic " m o r a l iz e r , one d o es n o t c r e a t e
tr a g e d y b u t one d e s tr o y s i t . The c o n f l i c t i s rem oved and
o n ly t h e r i g i d b o u n d ary l i n e s re m a in . When, on t h e o th e r
h a n d , t h e r e s h o u ld b e th e D io n y sia n w ith o u t th e A p o llo n ia n ,
l i f e w ould b e i n f i n i t e l y c h a o t ic and ( s e l f - ) d e s t r u c t i v e .
In e f f e c t , s a y s K rie g e r d i s c u s s in g N ie tz s c h e 's e s s a y :
I t w ould b e l i k e tra g e d y w ith o u t t h a t moment in w hich
th e p la y comes ro u n d and th e cosm os i s sa v e d and r e
tu rn e d to u s i n t a c t . I t w ould b e , i n o th e r w o rd s, th e
t r a g i c v i s i o n w a n d erin g f r e e o f i t s c a p a c io u s home in
tr a g e d y . . . . And th e a l i e n a t e d m em bers, now u n c h a l
le n g e d , w ould b e f r e e t o t u r n in w ard upon th e m se lv e s t o
n o u r is h t h e i r in d ig n a t io n i n t h e d a rk u n d e r g r o u n d .^
T h is i s p r e c i s e l y w h at h appened i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y
when th e C h r i s t ia n God o f l i g h t was e lim in a te d from th e
th o u g h t o f W estern m an. The " a l i e n a t e d m em bers" tu r n e d
in w ard and d is a p p e a re d u n d e rg ro u n d w a itin g f o r a s u b s t i t u t e
C r e a to r o f r i g i d b o u n d a ry l i n e s . I t i s th e a r t i s t ' s
a w a re n e ss o f t h i s c o n d itio n w h ich te m p ts him t o d e p ic t a
S ta v ro g in and a n Ahab, w h ich , l a t e r , b r in g s a b o u t a
C lam ence.
A f te r t h e a n c ie n t G re c ia n c u l t u r e had ru n i t s
c o u r s e , when S h a k e s p e a ria n and R a c in ia n dram a had come
/ l / l
K rie g e r, The T ra g ic V is io n , p . 10.
69
and g o n e, W estern c u l t u r e had p a sse d i t s " t r a g i c m om ent."
I t h ad t o w a it two h u n d re d y e a rs t o accom m odate t h e a n c ie n t
v i s i o n i n a new g e n re . I t rem a in e d f o r D osto ev sk y and
M e lv ille t o t u r n th e n o v e l t o t h e u s e s o f t r a g e d y . ^ I t
was th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , th e t r i a l s o f th e h e ro , w hich had
t o b e new ly d e fin e d t o make him r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e a g e .
To c r e a t e th e n e c e s s a r y s u p p o rt o f a t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e o f
u n i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f tr a g e d y D o sto ev sk y and M e lv ille
r e s o r t e d t o th e d ra m a tic o r i n N o rth ro p F r y e ’s w ords th e
46
h ig h mime t i c mode i n f i c t i o n . The "new" h e ro s tr u g g le d
"n o t so much w ith a c r i s i s a s w ith a c o n d it i o n ," an d w o rse ,
w ith o u t a " c l e a r and p r e s e n t o p p o n e n t. How th e n to
45
R ic h a rd B. S e w a ll, The V is io n o f T ragedy (New
H aven: Y ale U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1 9 5 9 ), p . 8 5 .
G eorge S t e in e r , T o ls to y o r D ostoevsky (New Y ork:
V in ta g e Books, 19 6 1 ), p p . 135 f f .
46
N o rth ro p F ry e , Anatomy o f C r i ti c is m (P rin c e to n ,
N .J .: P rin c e to n U h iv e r s ity P re s s , 1 9 5 7 ), pp. 3 3 -3 4 . " I f
s u p e r i o r i n d e g re e t o o th e r men b u t n o t t o h i s n a t u r a l
e n v iro n m e n t, t h e h e ro i s a l e a d e r . He h a s a u t h o r i t y , p a s
s i o n s , and pow ers o f e x p r e s s io n f a r g r e a t e r th a n o u rs , b u t
w h at h e d o es i s s u b j e c t b o th t o s o c i a l c r i t i c i s m and to
th e o r d e r o f n a tu r e . T h is i s th e h e ro o f th e h ig h m im e tic
m ode, o f m ost e p ic and tr a g e d y , and i s p r im a r ily th e k in d
o f h e ro t h a t A r i s t o t l e had i n m in d ."
47
S e w a ll, The V is io n o f T rag ed y , p . 110.
70
a d a p t a c l a s s i c a l form t o c o n ta in th e i l l - d e f i n e d in v o lv e
m ent o f a c e n t r a l a c t io n ? The m a tte r s t o b e c o n s id e re d in
su ch a n a d a p t a t i o n w ould b e d ia lo g u e (o r m on o lo g u e),
lim ite d p o in t o f v ie w , and a v e r i s i m i l i t u d e o f th e u n i t i e s
o f tim e and p la c e .
To r e t u r n t o N ie tz s c h e on ce m ore. In e a r l y G reek
tr a g e d y , i t seem s, th e o n ly r e a l i t y on s ta g e was th e c h o ru s ,
w hich c r e a te d a v i s i o n o u t o f i t s e l f and p ro c la im e d i t
th ro u g h d a n c e , m u sic , and w o rd s.
D ie s e r Chor s c h a u t i n s e i n e r V is io n s e in e n H erm und
M e is te r D ionysus und i s t darum ew ig d e r d ie n e n d e C hor:
e r s i e h t , w ie d i e s e r , d e r G o tt, l e i d e t und s i c h v e r -
h e r r l i c h t , und h a n d e lt d e s h a lb s e l b s t n i c h t
As N ie tz s c h e saw i t , so D o sto ev sk y and M e lv ille m ig h t h a v e
p e rc e iv e d o f t h i s d ra m a tic p o s s i b i l i t y . In The P o sse sse d
and Moby-Dick th e y re d u c e d th e c h a r a c t e r s who su rro u n d
S ta v ro g in and Ahab t o s u p p o rtin g p la y e r s (in c lu d in g th e
n a r r a t o r ) , who s e r v e t h e i r g o d h ead . Camus, who e x p e r i
m ented w ith t h e same mode i n l a C h u te, e lim in a te d th e
48
N ie tz s c h e , Die G eburt d e r T ra g fld ie . p . 63.
"T h is c h o ru s b e h o ld s i n t h e v i s i o n i t s lo r d and
m a s te r D io n y su s, an d i t i s th u s f o r e v e r th e s e r v in g
c h o r u s : i t s e e s how h e , th e g o d , s u f f e r s and g l o r i f i e s him
s e l f , and t h e r e f o r e d o es n o t i t s e l f a c t . " N ie tz s c h e , The
B ir th o f T rag ed y , p . 69.
71
c h o ru s a l t o g e t h e r by m aking i t s f u n c tio n p a r t o f th e p r o
t a g o n i s t 's r o l e ; h e th e r e b y r e s t r i c t e d th e d ra m a tic p o in t
o f v iew w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t t h e w ork a p p ro x im a te s, i n t h i s
r e s p e c t , a n c ie n t tr a g e d y . M alraux, when sp e a k in g o f t h i s
form , s u c c i n c tl y p u t i t a s f o llo w s :
Le monde de l a t r a g e d i e , e s t to u jo u r s l e monde a n tiq u e ;
l'hom m e, l a f o u le , l e s e le m e n ts , l a femme, l e d e s t i n .
I I s e r e d u i t a deux p e rs o n n a g e s, l e h e ro s e t so n se n s
d e l a v i e . 49
In o r d e r n o t t o d i s t r a c t from th e h e ro and h i s s e n s e o f
l i f e , a n a r r a t o r i s em ployed t o p e rfo rm a t h r e e - f o l d fu n c
t i o n . He i s e s s e n t i a l f o r th e p ro p e r developm ent o f c o n
t e n t in t h a t h e s k e tc h e s i n th e b ack g ro u n d , p ro v id e s
c o n ti n u i ty , and u n i v e r s a l i z e s th e d ra m a tic e x p e rie n c e .
F u r th e r , h e fo c u s e s a t t e n t i o n on th e a c t i o n o f th e p r e s e n t
moment by re d u c in g p a s t an d o f f - s t a g e a c t io n t o a minimum.
F or th e o m n is c ie n t a u th o r t h e r e i s th e o p p o r tu n ity t o
r e f r a i n from in tr u d in g a n d , i n s o d o in g , a llo w in g th e
r e a d e r 's im a g in a tio n t o l o s e i t s e l f i n tim e . H is d ra m a tic
^ A n d r e M alraux, " ftre fa c e " t o Le Temps du m e n ris
( P a r i s : G a llim a rd , 1 9 3 5 ), p . 8 .
’’The w o rld o f tr a g e d y , i s th e a n c ie n t w o rld s t i l l —
man, th e crow d, th e e le m e n ts , woman, d e s t in y . I t re d u c e s
i t s e l f to two c h a r a c t e r s , th e h e ro and h i s s e n s e o f l i f e . "
A ndre M alraux, " A u th o r's P re fa c e " t o Da vs o f W rath, t r a n s l .
Haakon M . C h e v a lie r (New Y ork: Random H ouse, 1 9 3 6 ), p . 3 .
72
m ethod s h o u ld convey " th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l e q u iv a le n t o f th e
d ra m a tic p r e s e n t " ; and a s Jo se p h Beach sum m arizes i t :
The d ra m a tic m ethod i s th e m ethod o f d i r e c t p r e s e n t a
t i o n , and aim s to g iv e th e r e a d e r th e s e n s e o f b e in g
p r e s e n t , h e r e and now, i n th e sc e n e o f th e a c t i o n .
T h at i s why th o s e e le m e n ts a r e u n d ra m a tic w hich make
u s aw are o f a n a u th o r e x p la in in g t h in g s . ®
The d ra m a tic moment becom es a se q u e n c e o f th e " h e re and
now" o f e ac h sc e n e and a s su ch one can sp e a k o f a u n i t y o f
tim e , a n u n in te r r u p te d c h r o n o lo g ic a l p r o g r e s s io n o f e v e n ts
i n tim e . T h is c o n tin u o u s p r e s e n t i s w e ll e x e c u te d by
D ostoevsky, t o a l e s s e r e x te n t by M e lv ille in Moby-Dick.
and b ro u g h t t o p e r f e c t i o n by Camus i n La C h u te . H ie d r a
m a tic m ethod i s s u c c e s s f u ll y p u rsu e d when i t e n a b le s th e
r e a d e r t o m erge th e f i c t i o n a l tim e o f th e book w ith h i s own
f i c t i o n a l p r e s e n t , and c r e a t e s i n him th e i l l u s i o n o f b e in g
p r e s e n t, b o th i n th e s e n s e o f "now" and i n th e s e n s e o f
w a tc h in g an a c t i o n on s t a g e .
B ecause a s ta g e e f f e c t i s t o b e c r e a te d , th e r e a d e r
sh o u ld n o t b e d i s t r a c t e d by an e v e r-c h a n g in g back g ro u n d
o r s e t t i n g . The d e c o r sh o u ld b e a p a r t o f a c h a r a c t e r ’ s
r e a c t i o n a t a g iv e n moment o r i t sh o u ld c o n tr i b u te t o th e
"^ Jo se p h W . Beach, The T w e n tie th C e n tu ry N ovel (New
York: A p p le to n -C e n tu ry Company, 19 3 2 ), pp. 148, 181.
73
d ev elo p m en t o f h i s e m o tio n a l a w a re n e s s. T h is a s p e c t o f th e
d ra m a tic moment c a n b e d e s ig n a te d a s th e u n ity o f p la c e ,
t h a t I s , th e s e t t i n g s h o u ld com plem ent th e a c t i o n and b e
k e p t f a i r l y c o n s ta n t a c c o rd in g t o th e re q u ire m e n ts o f th e
" h e r e ."
Hie I l l u s i o n o f p r e s e n tn e s s a l s o h e a v ily depends
upon th e u s e o f d ia lo g u e w hich p ro d u c e s an e f f e c t s i m i l a r
t o t h a t o f th e t h e a t e r w here one w itn e s s e s an a c t i o n o f
w hich i t i s assum ed t h a t one i s n o t a p a r t . "Drama i s a
51
m im esis o f d ia lo g u e o r c o n v e r s a tio n ," sa y s F ry e ; b u t, o f
c o u rs e , i f a n o v e l w ere a l l d ia lo g u e , i t w ould change
g e n re s and becom e a p la y . As M endilow s u g g e s te d , a s o lu -
52
t i o n t o t h i s d i f f i c u l t y w ould be i n d i r e c t s p e e c h . The
com prom ise o f d i r e c t and r e p o r te d d ia lo g u e w ould n o t b e tr a y
th e f i c t i o n a l g e n re , w h ile a llo w in g th e r e a d e r t o i d e n t i f y
th e c h a r a c t e r s who a r e n o t, a s i n a p la y , p h y s i c a l ly p r e s
e n t . In La C hute Camus s o lv e d t h i s problem i n an i n t e r e s t
in g m anner. He w ro te th e r e c i t a s a m onologue and r e p o r te d
o n ly th e n a r r a t o r 's s i d e o f any d ia lo g u e w h ich o c c u rre d .
^ F r y e , Anatomy o f C r itic is m , p . 269.
■^M endilow, Time and th e N ovel, p . 112.
74
By m aking th e r e a d e r th e " l i s t e n e r " t o t h e e n d le s s flo w o f
w ords an d by i n v i t i n g him t o move i n a s th e im a g in a ry
p a r t n e r i n th e n o n -re c o rd e d s id e o f th e d ia lo g u e , he
d im in is h e s th e s e p a r a te n e s s o f c h a r a c t e r and r e a d e r i n
b r in g in g him "on s t a g e ." The r e a d e r i s i n v it e d to i n t e r
p r e t , an d In d o in g s o , he p a r t i c i p a t e s . He comes c lo s e to
th e a c t i o n and i s made to l i v e i t , r a t h e r th a n c o n te m p la te
i t . In o t h e r w o rd s, e s t h e t i c d i s t a n c e h a s b e e n re d u c e d to
a minimum.
I t i s my c o n te n tio n t h a t n o v e ls w hich em ploy th e
d ra m a tic m ethod a r e h ig h ly s u i t e d t o th e d e p ic ti o n o f p r o
p h e tic c h a r a c t e r s . T hese e m is s a r ie s from E lsew h ere r e q u i r e
a l im e lig h t and a r a i s e d p la tf o r m in o r d e r to b e n o tic e d .
S in c e th e y g iv e th e i l l u s i o n o f d iv in e s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y ,
th e y m u st r e p r e s e n t a n o r d e r —an o r d e r w hich a n a u th o r can
s u g g e s t by c a s t i n g h is s u b je c t m a tte r i n t o a m old o f u n i ty .
T his sem b lan ce o f u n i t y , how ever, s e rv e s a n a d d i t i o n a l p u r
p o se . I t c r e a t e s a t e n s io n w ith in th e l i t e r a r y work o f
a r t : th e m o ra l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l ch ao s o f th e c o n te n t
b e l i e s th e a r t i s t i c p r e s e n t a ti o n , w hich im p lie s an o rd e re d
u n iv e r s e .
Camus in La C hute. D ostoevsky in The P o s se ss e d , and
M e lv ille in Mobv-Dick s u g g e s t a f i v e - a c t c l a s s i c a l tra g e d y
75
and p r e s e n t a w o rld o f t r a g i c c o n f l i c t u n d e r d o m in a tio n o f
f a l s e l e a d e r s . J e a n - B a p tis te C lam ence, N ik o la y S ta v ro g in ,
and C a p ta in Ahab a r e d e p ic te d a s h e ro e s l a r g e r th a n l i f e ,
who b r in g down t h e i r w o rld when th e y f a l l from t h e h ig h
s t a t i o n th e y o ccu p y . T h e ir r e i g n i s e s t a b l i s h e d on th e
tr e a c h e r o u s fo u n d a tio n o f w ra th upon th e i n e x p l i c a b le
f o r c e s w h ich h av e b ro k e n down th e w a ll o f c o n te n tm e n t w ith
s a t i s f a c t o r y r e a l i t y . In o th e r w o rd s, th e y h a v e m et w ith
th e " a b s u r d .”
To ta k e re v e n g e f o r w hat th e y c o n s id e r a p e rs o n a l
i n s u l t , th e y m ust g a th e r a n arm y f o r t h e i r d e s t r u c t i v e
m is s io n a g a i n s t t h e e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r . They n e e d c o n v e rts
f o r t h e i r z e a lo u s g o a l and th e y p e rs u a d e th e d is e n c h a n te d ,
th e non-com m it t e d , and th e unaw are t h a t t h e i r i n s i g h t c an
g u a ra n te e a U to p ia , any U to p ia , to b e d e f in e d a f t e r th e
r e v o lu tio n a r y a c t i o n h a s b e e n c o m p le te d . Som etim es th e s e
s e l f - a p p o i n te d r u l e r s w onder why th e y w ere b o rn t o s e t a
d is p la c e d o r d e r r i g h t , b u t, l i k e H am let, th e y m u st r e j e c t
e v e r y th in g w hich c a n c r e a t e a human bond.
The a u th o r s s u g g e s t t h a t l i f e i s o n ly l iv e d to th e
f u l l e s t i n c o n te n tio n w ith o p p o sin g f o r c e s . But a s sp o k e s
men th e y le a v e l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t th e s e c r e t f o r h a p p in e s s
i n t h i s c o n te s t l i e s i n th e r e c o g n i ti o n o f e ac h m a n 's s o l i
d a r i t y w ith m ankind. The r e j e c t i o n o f t h i s f a c t o r becom es
m a n 's u n d o in g . T h is fla w in t h e i r i n f l e x i b l e d e te r m in a tio n
tu r n s them i n t o f a l s e p ro p h e ts an d d e s tr o y e r s o f th e m acro
cosm th e y r u l e .
The r e a d e r , w a tc h in g t h i s en ac tm en t o f monomania,
and tem p ted by th e p r e s e n tn e s s o f th e p e rfo rm e rs , moves
i n t o th e em pty s p o t w hich th e a u th o r h as p ro v id e d , and s o ,
w i t h in th e e s t h e t i c e x p e rie n c e , th e r e a d e r v a c i l l a t e s
b etw een th e p o le s o f h o r r id f a s c i n a t i o n and m itig a te d r e
p u ls io n . Y et, an a c c e p ta n c e o f th e v i s i o n a s d e s i r a b l e
w ould go a g a i n s t th e a u t h o r 's i n t e n t . S in c e th e w orks a r e
m eant a s a n a n a ly s is o f t h e i r tim e s th e y s h o u ld t h e r e f o r e
b e th e m ir r o r w here w a rn in g and r e f l e c t i o n m eet to t r a p th e
u n e a sy C h r i s t i a n c o n s c ie n c e o f th e r e a d e r .
CHAPTER II
CAMUS' LA CHUTE
When A lb e rt Camus* r e c i t l a C hute was p u b lis h e d In
1956, i t m et w ith a c r i t i c a l o p in io n t h a t s t r e s s e d th e
w o rk 's a m b ig u itie s . Most re v ie w e rs r e a c t e d f a v o r a b ly ; a l
th o u g h u n s u re o f Camus' p u rp o s e , th e y te n d e d t o r e g a r d i t
a s i n f e r i o r t o La P e s te . Many su b s e q u e n t c r i t i c s have
a g re e d t h a t th e w ork le n d s i t s e l f to v a r io u s i n t e r p r e t a
ti o n s : " D i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t w ith c e r t a i n t y , " a s C ru ic k -
shank w ro te , ^ o r in G erm aine B r e e 's w o rd s, a w ork o n ly t o
2
b e u n d e rs to o d " a s a p a r a b l e , " an o p in io n s u p p o rte d by
* 3
V i g g i a n i 's d is c u s s io n o f th e r e c i t . J e a n -P a u l S a r t r e 's
^John C ru ic k sh a n k , A lb e rt Camus and th e L i t e r a t u r e
o f R e v o lt (New Y ork: O xford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1960),
p . 183.
2 /
G erm aine B re e, Camus (R e v ised e d .; New Y ork: H ar-
c o u r t , B race and W orld, I n c . , 19 6 4 ), p . 133.
C a rl V ig g ia n i, "Camus and th e F a l l from In n o c e n c e ,"
Y ale F re n ch S tu d ie s . XXV (1 9 6 0 ), 6 5 -7 1 .
77
78
com m entary o f th e same y e a r te n d s t o c o n firm th e A nglo-
A m erican o b s e r v a tio n .^ T h e ir rem ark s h av e rem ain ed v a l i d ,
and much o f th e i n t e r p r e t i v e c r i t i c i s m w hich fo llo w e d i s in
a g reem en t w ith them . I t a p p e a rs t h a t o n ly th o s e commen
t a t o r s who h av e s tu d ie d th e form o f La C hute, and th o s e who
h av e lo o k ed f o r l i t e r a r y a n te c e d e n ts , c a n l e t th e is s u e
r e s t .
I t i s d i f f i c u l t to f in d a s a t i s f a c t o r y r e l a t i o n s h i p
b etw een th e p a r t s o f l a C hute b e c a u se o f an in c o n g r u ity
b etw een c o n te n t and form . The n a r r a t o r 's a c c o u n t o f h i s
p a s t i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e (he a d m its t o ly in g ) , and h i s
com m entary on th e p r e s e n t i s b ia s e d , w h ile th e s im p le form
i n w hich th e f a l s e avow al i s a rra n g e d g iv e s a w rong im p re s
s io n o f o r d e r .
The n a r r a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f s ix c o n f e s s io n s . The
f i r s t one e x p la in s th e p re s e n c e o f th e s p e a k e r in th e p a r
t i c u l a r s e t t i n g , and h i s r o l e i n l i f e ; th e n e x t f i v e r e l a t e
th e p a s t e x p e rie n c e s o f th e p r o ta g o n is t t o h is p r e s e n t
f u n c tio n i n l i f e . I f t h i s f i r s t p a r t i s c a l l e d a P ro lo g u e
w here th e sc e n e i s s e t and th e c h a r a c t e r s a r e in tr o d u c e d ,
4
J e a n -P a u l S a r t r e , " A lb e rt Cam us," F ra n ce O b serv a-
t e u r . Ja n u a ry 7, 1960, p . 17.
79
th e re m a in in g p a r t s may w e ll s u g g e s t th e f i v e - a c t c l a s s i c a l
tra g e d y w ith a u n i t y o f tim e and p la c e m a in ta in e d .^ The
u n i t y o f tim e i s s u g g e s te d by th e se q u en c e o f n i g h ts i n
w hich th e c o n fe s s io n s a r e m ade, a tim e o f d a rk n e s s w ith o u t
end, a p e r p e tu a l v o id . The u n i t y o f p la c e i s o b v io u s ly
t h e b o u rg e o is h e l l o f dis**eased com placency w ith in th e
c o n c e n tr ic c i r c l e s o f th e Amsterdam c a n a ls t h a t c o n n e c t
w ith a dead s e a .
I f , how ever, th e tim e e la p s e d i n th e t e l l i n g o f th e
c o n fe s s io n i s c o n s id e r e d , th e f i v e n i g h ts m ig h t make up
th e f i v e a c t s . C a rl V ig g ia n i, ta k in g th e w om an's s u i c id e
on t h e b r id g e a s th e c r u c i a l p o in t in th e n a r r a t i o n , o b
s e rv e s t h a t t h i s
i s th e c lim a x in th e s y m m e tric a lly s t r u c t u r e d n a r r a t i v e ,
o c c u r r in g a t th e end o f th e t h i r d day ( t h e r e a r e f i v e )
o f th e c o n fe s s io n and a t th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e t h i r d
c h a p te r ( th e r e a r e s i x ) , ”
w hich w ould c o in c id e w ith th e c l a s s i c a l c o n c e p t o f e p i t a s i s .
o r t u r n in g p o i n t, i n t h e t h i r d a c t . M aurice B la n c h o t^ i s
^See Norman R udich, " I n d iv id u a l a s M yth," C hicago
Review . X I I I (Summer, 1 9 5 9 ), 9 4 -1 1 9 , and i n p a r t i c u l a r
p . 109.
V ig g ia n i, "Camus and th e F a l l from In n o c e n c e ,"
p . 67.
^M aurice B la n c h o t, " l a C o n fe ssio n d e d a ig n e u s e ,"
N o u v e lle N o u v e lle Revue F r a n c a is e . IX (D ecem ber, 1 9 5 6 ),
1050-1053.
80
a l s o i n t e r e s t e d i n La C hute a s a c lo s e r e l a t i v e o f c l a s s i
c a l tr a g e d y a n d , a f t e r h a v in g r e f e r r e d t o th e r e c i t a s a
" d ia lo g u e s o l i t a r e " and i t s n a r r a t o r 's r e l a t i o n t o O edipus
(b o th sp e a k to s i l e n t s k ie s an d r e t i r e d G ods), h e go es on
t o l i s t i t s c l a s s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . They a r e " l 'i m p e r -
s o x m a lite d e s t r a i t s , " " l a g e n e r a l i t e d e s c a r a c t e r e s , "
" l e s d e t a i l s q u i n e re p o n d e n t a r i e n d 'u n i q u e ," and up t o
th e sc e n e o f rem o rse w hich m ig h t h a v e b e e n borrow ed from
S te n d h a l " c e t t e c o n f e s s io n d e d a ig n e u s e q u i n e c o n fe s s e r i e n
ou l 'o n p u is s e r e c o n n a £ tr e q u e lq u e e x p e rie n c e v e c u e ."
G erm aine B re e , u n d o u b te d ly aw are o f a l l th e s e e le m e n ts ,
summed i t up by r e f e r r i n g t o Camus' f i c t i o n a l o e u v re a s
w o rld s "w hich r e c a l l th e c lo s e d s e l f - c o n t a i n e d u n iv e r s e o f
8
c l a s s i c a l tr a g e d y ."
I t i s p l a u s i b l e t h a t th e s e c r i t i c a l o b s e r v a tio n s
w ere s u g g e s te d by a n in te r v ie w w hich Camus gave t o th e
o
l i t e r a r y m ag azin e V e n tu re . The o r i g i n a l F ren ch v e r s i o n
h a s b e e n r e p r i n t e d i n R aul G i n e s t i e r 's s tu d y o f Camus.
In t h i s d is c u s s io n Camus had t h e fo llo w in g t o sa y a b o u t
8 *
B ree, Camus, p . 110.
^ R o b e rt D. S p e c to r, " A lb e r t Camus, 1913-1960:
A F i n a l I n te r v ie w ," V e n tu re . I l l (1 9 6 0 ), 2 5 -3 9 .
81
l a C h u te :
J* y a i u t i l i s e u n e te c h n iq u e d e t h e a t r e ( l e m onologue
d ra m a tiq u e e t l e d ia lo g u e i m p l i c i t e ) p o u r d e c r i r e un
com edien t r a g i q u e . J ’a i a d a p te l a form e a u s u i e t .
V o lla t o u t . 10
Two o th e r d im e n sio n s a r e s u g g e s te d by t h i s s t a t e
m e n t. The p r o ta g o n is t o f th e ’'p la y ” i s a com edien tr a g iq u e
who u s e s a m onologue d ra m a tiq u e w h ile b e in g th e s o l e p e r
fo rm e r (d ia lo g u e i m p l i c i t e ) on t h e s t a g e . The t r a g i c
com edian p la y s f o r a n a u d ie n c e g u i l t y o f m u rd er and u n
c o n c e rn f o r m ankind. In th e p e rfo rm a n c e h e a tte m p ts to
c a tc h i t s c o n s c ie n c e and b r in g a b o u t a c a t h a r s i s ; h e n c e ,
Camus* c h o ic e t o c a s t t h e r e c i t i n t o t h e c l a s s i c a l d ra m a tic
fo rm . The p la y ta k e s p la c e w i t h in th e p la y m ankind p e r
fo rm s, an d th e d ra m a tic m onologue o f th e s p e a k e r i s a
r e f l e c t i o n o f th e m odem communique, w hich h a s r e p la c e d th e
ex ch an g e o f id e a s e s s e n t i a l f o r a harm o n io u s e x is te n c e .
The w it o f th e com edian i s v e ry e n t e r t a i n i n g and aim s f o r
th e s t r a y i n g b o u rg e o is , M l e b o u rg e o is q u i s ’ e g a r e " — th e
p la y e r s on th e s ta g e o f l i f e - i n t e l l i g e n t . T hese p l a y e r s ,
i n t h e i r f a s c i n a t i o n , a r e draw n i n t o th e game o f c o m p lic ity
^ R a u l G i n e s t ie r , La P ensee de Camus (n .p . : B o rd as,
1 9 6 4 ), p . 204.
82
in g u i l t t o b e d e s tr o y e d :
Les p lu s s e n s i b l e s de mes am ies s *e f f o r s a i e n t d e me
com prendre e t c e t e f f o r t l e s m e n a it a d e m e la n c o liq u e s
a b a n d o n s.
The com edian m ir r o r s th e m is e r a b le c o n d it i o n o f m ankind
w hich i t s e l f h a s l o s t human d i g n i t y ; and s i n c e i n th e
m odern w o rld any v a lu e i s a s good a s th e n e x t, t h e c lo w n is h
p e rfo rm e r p r o f f e r s h i s f r i e n d l y s o l u t i o n on ce h i s a u d ie n c e
i s tr a p p e d : t o become Okie i n a dem ocracy o f g u i l t t o r e
p la c e a l l th e d e fu n c t sy stem s man h a s t o s e t u p s in c e th e
day h i s U n ity in God was d e s tro y e d i n E den. Man h a s
d r i f t e d away in e x i l e on s e p a r a te i s l a n d s w ith o u t communion,
and w ith o u t com m unication to w ard a n e g a tiv e la n d s c a p e w here
e v e ry th in g i s " h o r i z o n t a l ” and man i s a lo n e w ith h i s o th e r
s e l f . CKir s a v in g com edian sp e a k s t o g a th e r th e o th e r
s e lv e s i n t o h i s h av en o f o n e -m in d e d n e ss. The new U n if ie r
on s t a g e i s a c h a r a c t e r o f i n s i d i o u s i n t e n t who, a f t e r h e
h a s b ro u g h t a b o u t a c o n v e rs io n , a d m its t h a t h e spoke n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y o f t r u t h b u t o n ly t r i e d t o
■^The E n g lis h q u o ta tio n s a r e ta k e n from The F a l l .
t r a n s l a t o r J u s t i n O’ B rie n (New Y ork: V in ta g e Books, 1 9 5 6 );
t h e F re n c h ones from l a C hute ( B a r is : G a llim a rd , 1 9 5 6 ).
I a C h u te, p p . 72-73.
"The m ost s e n s i t i v e among them t r i e d t o u n d e rs ta n d
me, and t h a t e f f o r t le d them t o m e la n c h o ly s u r r e n d e r s ."
The F a l l , p . 61.
83
f a b r i q u e [ r ] un p o r t r a i t q u i e s t c e l u i de to u s e t de
p e rs o n n e . Un m asque, en somme, a s s e z se m b la b le a ceux
du c a m a v a l, a l a £ o is f i d e l e s e t s i m p l i f i e s , e t d e v a n t
l e s q u e ls on s e d i t : " T ie n s , j e l * a i r e n c o n tr e , c e l u i -
l a ! " IZ
13
He i s a lo n e , ab o v e th e crow d, w ith n o one to
s h a r e th e l im e li g h t , an d a l l ey es d i r e c t e d a t him . He h a s
p la c e d h im s e lf i n t h i s a d v a n ta g e o u s p o s i t i o n t o b e w e ll
s e e n an d w e ll h e a rd a s a s p e a k e r who i s a n n o u n cin g a b e t t e r
tom orrow . The m ask h e w e ars h id e s th e m icrocosm w ith in ,
th e n a v sa e e d e m o ra lis e , th e d e s e r t h id d e n b e h in d th e
p a in te d p o r t r a i t o f th e Prom ised Land t h a t te m p ts th e
c o n v e r t s - t o - b e .
The u s e o f th e d ia lo g u e i m p l i c i t h e lp s to c r e a t e
th e d is c o m fo rt e s s e n t i a l f o r th e a c t o f c o n v e rs io n , th e
r e c o g n i ti o n o f g u i l t w hich may le a d to re p e n ta n c e and n e x t
t o th e a d m is s io n t o th e b ro th e rh o o d o f b e t r a y a l . In t h i s
i m p l i c i t d ia lo g u e o n ly th e n a r r a t o r 's p a r t in th e c o n v e rs a
t i o n w ith a n in te r c h a n g e a b le O th er i s r e l a t e d and th e
12
l a C hute, p . 161.
”. . . c o n s t r u c t a p o r t r a i t w h ich i s th e im age o f
a l l and no o n e. A m ask, in s h o r t , r a t h e r l i k e th o s e c a r n i
v a l m asks w hich a r e b o th l i f e l i k e and s t y l i z e d , so t h a t
th e y make p e o p le s a y : 'Why, s u r e l y I 'v e m et h im !* " The
F a l l , p . 139.
13
F or th e h e ig h t im ages i n Camus* l a C hute s e e
S te p h en U llm an, The Image i n th e M odem F re n c h N ovel (Cam
b r id g e : U h iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 6 0 ), pp. 2 3 9 -2 9 9 .
84
a u d ie n c e i s l e f t t o w onder how w e ll th e u n h e a rd s i d e i s
acknow ledged o r i n t e r p r e t e d by th e s p e a k e r. The m onologue
m asq u era d in g a s d ia lo g u e (a w e ll- c o in e d c r i t i c s ' p h r a s e )
g o es on and on u n t i l e v ery o n e p r e s e n t i s c o n v in c e d t h a t h e
i s th e O th e r. Then t h e c o m e d ia n 's o b l ig a t io n to m ankind i s
f u l f i l l e d : Man, h a v in g become aw are o f h i s v i l e s t a t e , can
now " j u s t l y " b e tr a y and p ro n o u n ce judgm ent on h i s f e llo w
men.
The m onologue p u r p o r ts t o b e a c o n f e s s io n o f th e
n a r r a t o r 's s in s o f o m is sio n and a c t s o f t r e a s o n b y h a v in g
d o n e, a s T. S. E l i o t w r i t e s in M urder i n th e C a th e d r a l, th e
14
" r i g h t deed f o r th e w rong r e a s o n ." The c o n f e s s io n a l
a c c o u n t fo llo w s no c h r o n o lo g ic a l o r d e r —th e in c i d e n t s
r e l a t e d a r e a rra n g e d i n in c r e a s in g o r d e r o f th e s e r io u s n e s s
in v o lv e d i n th e s i n co m m itted . The m anner i n w hich th e
c o n fe s s io n s a r e m ade—s l a n t e d , to s t r e s s th e d e s p ic a b le in
th e n a r r a t o r 's l i f e and t o p la c e th e comm endable i n a
r i d ic u lo u s l i g h t —b r in g t o th e f o r e th e s p e a k e r 's p u rp o s e :
t o le a d m ankind to a s l a v e r y t h a t w i l l r e u n i t e man. As
M arcel A rlan d a p t l y p u t i t :
^ T . S. E l i o t , The C om plete Poems and P la y s : 1909-
1950 (New Y ork: H a rc o u rt, B race and W orld, I n c . , 1 9 5 2 ),
pp. 196-197. Thomas B e c k e t's l a s t sp e e c h o f P a r t I .
85
Tous l e s hommes s o n t n e s p o u r l a s e r v i tu d e ; d an s l a
f r a t e r n i t e du m a l, Clam ence s e r a l e u r c o n s c ie n c e , l e u r
v o ix e t l e u r m a t t r e . 5
J e a n - B a p tis te C lam ence, th e n a r r a t o r o f La C hute.
c o n d u c ts c o u r t in a b a r in Amsterdam and i n v i t e s a l l th o s e
i n t e r e s t e d in " l a s e r v i tu d e " t o j o i n him . H is name i s a
1 6
m arv e lo u s pun on Jo h n th e B a p tis t who was a vox plflm ans
i n d e s e r t o . a v o ic e c r y in g o u t i n th e d e s e r t , "R epent y e :
f o r th e kingdom o f h e av e n i s a t h a n d ." "And th e same John
had h i s ra im e n t o f c a m e l's h a i r " ; Je a n B a p tis te d o es to o .
"Le cham eau q u i a f o u r n i l e p o l l de mon p a rd e s s u s s o u f f r a i t
17
sa n s d o u te de l a g a l e ." John th e B a p ti s t p r e p a r e s th e
way f o r a s a v io u r who w i l l b r in g clem ency (a n o th e r p o s s i
b i l i t y f o r th e pun i n th e name C lam en ce); J e a n - B a p tis te
p re p a re s th e way f o r th e p e r p e tu a tio n o f th e v o id . John
th e B a p tis t p re a c h e s o u ts id e J e ru s a le m and g a th e r s a fo llo w
in g ; J e a n - B a p tis te a d v o c a te s judgm ent f a r away from B a r is —
th e p la c e w here h e was happy o n c e —t o th o s e who come o u t o f
^ M a r c e l A rla n d , " La C hute d * A lb e rt Cam us," N o u v elle
N o u v e lle Revue F r a n c a is e . V I I I ( J u ly , 1 9 5 6 ), 125.
^ S e e M atthew 3 ; Marc 1.
^ Ia C h u te, p . 14.
"The cam el t h a t p ro v id e d th e h a i r f o r my o v e rc o a t
was p ro b a b ly m an g y ." The F a l l , p . 9 .
86
"m ythom anie ou . . . b S t i s e . ” ^® To h i s fo llo w in g J e a n -
B a p tis te p ro c la im s h im s e lf t o be th e b e g in n in g an d th e end
o f th e r e c o g n i ti o n o f m a n 's c o m p lic ity .
When th e r e c i t o p e n s, we a r e a t th e f i r s t n i g h t o f
c o n fe s s io n . Clam ence h a s m et a c o m p a tr io t, a p p a r e n tly a
l i k e l y v ic tim , t o whom h e t e l l s th e s t o r y o f h i s a d u l t
l i f e . Ckice, th e s t o r y g o e s, he had b e en a b r i l l i a n t P a r i
s i a n la w y e r. The y e a rs w ere a jo y o f s e l f - s a t i s f a c t i o n ,
b u t i t was n o t t o l a s t . One autum n e v e n in g h e r e t u r n s home
an d , w h ile c r o s s in g th e Pont R oyal, h e n o t ic e s a woman
s ta n d in g a t th e r a i l i n g . He a d m ire s h e r lo v e ly n eck b u t
d o es n o t s t o p . C o n tin u in g a lo n g , he su d d e n ly h e a r s th e
s p la s h o f a body h i t t i n g th e w a te r , fo llo w e d by scream s
d im in is h in g in th e d i s t a n c e . Clam ence p a u se s t o l i s t e n .
J e t r e m b la is , j e c r o i s , de f r o i d e t d e s a is is s e m e n t.
J e me d i s a i s c p ' i l f a l l a i t f a i r e v i t e e t j e s e n t a i s u ne
f a i b l e s s e i r r e s i s t i b l e e n v a h ir mon c o r p s . J ' a i o u b lie
ce que j ' a i p e n se a l o r s . ” T rop t a r d , t r o p l o i n . . . ”
ou q u e lq u e c h o se de c e g e n re . J 'e c o u t a i s t o u jo u r s ,
im m obile. P u is , a p e t i t s p a s , so u s l a p l u i e , j e
m 'e l o i g n a i . J e n e p r e v in s p e rs o n n e . . . . Ni l e le n d e -
m ain, n i l e s j o u r s q u i s u i v i r e n t , j e n 'a i lu l e s j o u r -
n a u x .
^ La C h u te, p . 11.
”. . . m ythom ania and s t u p i d i t y . ” The F a l l , p . 7.
19
La C h u te, pp. 8 2 -8 3 .
”1 was tre m b lin g , 1 b e li e v e from c o ld and sh o c k .
I t o l d m y s e lf t h a t I had t o b e q u ic k and I f e l t a n i r r e
s i s t i b l e w eakness s t e a l o v e r me. I h av e f o r g o t te n w hat
87
Clam ence p r e f e r s t o f o r g e t t h a t h e h a s l e t In n o cen ce d i e .
Some y e a r s p a ss and a g a in g o in g home one e v e n in g ,
t h i s tim e c r o s s in g th e Pont d e s A r ts , h i s p e a c e o f m ind i s
th r e a te n e d . F o r a moment Clam ence l i n g e r s t o e n jo y an
i s l a n d i n th e S e in e when lo u d la u g h te r b u r s t s o u t b e h in d
him . He t r i e s t o f in d th e s o u rc e , b u t th e la u g h te r re c e d e s
and h e s e e s no o n e. T h at n ig h t t h e r e i s la u g h te r u n d e r h i s
bedroom window. When h e lo o k s o u t, t h e r e a r e o n ly a few
young men in t h e s t r e e t s a y in g good n i g h t t o each o t h e r .
From t h a t moment on Clam ence b e g in s to lo o k a t h im s e lf i n
r e l a t i o n t o th e w o rld a ro u n d him . W ith th e im p lie d d e r i
s io n th e " s ta g e s e t s " h a v e c o lla p s e d and Clam ence becom es
c o n fro n te d w ith th e " a b s u rd " a s Camus d e s c r ib e d i t i n a
s e c t i o n o f Le My th e de S jsy p h e w hich h e c a l l e d "L es Murs
20
a b s u r d e s ." C lam ence1s c o n s c io u s n e s s i s aw akened w ith th e
r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t th e e v e n in g "ou l a m usique s ’ e s t a rr & te e ,
I th o u g h t th e n . fToo l a t e , to o f a r . . .1 o r so m e th in g o f
th e s o r t . I was s t i l l l i s t e n i n g a s I s to o d m o tio n le s s .
Then, s lo w ly u n d e r t h e r a i n , I w ent aw ay. I in fo rm ed no
o n e. . . . The n e x t d ay , and th e day s f o llo w in g , I d i d n ’t
re a d th e p a p e r s ." The F a l l , p p . 7 0 -7 1 .
^ A l b e r t Camus, Le M /the d e S isv p h e ( P a r is : G a l l i -
m ard, 1 9 42), p p . 2 4 -4 5 .
88
21
l e s lu m ie re s s e s o n t e t e i n t e s . " He I s now made t o re c o g
n iz e th e d is c r e p a n c y b etw een th e way th e w o rld i s and th e
way h e p e r c e iv e s i t to b e .
He r e a l i z e s t h a t t o c o n d escen d t o t r e a t h o p e le s s
c a s e s i s n o th in g b u t s e l f - e x u l t a t i o n w hich a f f o r d s th e
ch an ce to r i s e above c o lle a g u e s and s o c i e t y . R e tu rn in g to
h is c o n s c io u s n e s s a r e a l s o th e i n c i d e n t s i n h i s l i f e w hich
showed up h is p e t t i n e s s and c o w a rd ic e . T h ere was th e tim e
h e h e s i t a t e d to h i t b ack a n a t t a c k e r u n t i l th e moment had
p a s s e d ; and th e tim e he a sk e d t h a t a b e g g a r be rem oved from
h is p re s e n c e f o r d i s t u r b i n g th e jo y o f a good lu n c h ; and
th e tim e i n a c o n c e n tr a tio n camp i n T r i p o l i s when h e d ran k
th e w a te r o f a d y in g man, w h ile c o n v in c in g h im s e lf "que le s
a u tr e s a v a ie n t b e s o in de m oi, p lu s que de c e l u i - c i q u i
22
a l l a i t m o u rir d e t o u te s f a ^ o n s ." *
Clam ence r e a l i z e s t h a t h e l i v e s , in w hat he c a l l s ,
a " m a lc o n fo rt" (a " l i t t l e - e a s e " ) . I t i s a ty p e o f m e d ie v a l
c e l l n o t h ig h enough t o s ta n d up in n o t y e t w ide enough
2 ^ ~ La C h u te, p . 38.
" . . . when th e m usic sto p p e d and th e l i g h t s w ent
o u t ." The F a l l , p . 30.
2 2 l a C h u te, p . 148.
" . . . t h a t t h e o th e r s need ed me m ore th a n t h i s
f e llo w who was g o in g t o d i e anyw ay." The F a l l , p . 127.
89
t o a llo w ly in g down. A man l i v i n g w ith in th e s e in g e n io u s
23
d im e n sio n s h a s t o l i v e "en d ia g o n a le " --m uch l i k e th e
Jo n ah o f F a th e r M a p p le's serm on in M obv-Dick. who n o tic e s
t h e " o b l iq u i t y " o f th e c a b in i n t h e s h ip o f h i s e s c a p e .
W ith in th e s e f ix e d r e s t r i c t i o n s o f t h e i r su rro u n d in g s th e s e
two a r e c o n s ta n tly rem in d ed o f t h e i r g u i l t th ro u g h p h y s ic a l
u n e a s e . Clam ence now b e g in s t o se e k f o r e sc a p e from ju d g
m ent and h opes f o r a lo v e to s e t him f r e e ; u n f o r tu n a te ly ,
h i s s e l f - l o v e k e e p s him im p riso n e d .
Non, c e n ' e t a i t pas 1 'am o u r, n i l a g e n e r o s ite q u i me
r e v e i l l a i t lo r s q u e p e t a l s en d a n g e r d 'e t r e abandonne,
m ais se u le m e n t l e d e s i r d 'e t r e aim e e t de r e c e v o ir ce
q u i, s e lo n m oi, m 'e t a i t dfl. A u s s itd t aim e, e t ma
p a r t e n a i r e a nouveau o u b lie e , j e r e l u i s a i s , j ' e t a i s a u
m ieux, j e d e v e n a is s jr m p a th iq u e .^
Clam ence c o n s id e r s s u i c id e b u t h e r e s i s t s , th in k in g h is
f r i e n d s w i l l f in d i t v u lg a r and i d i o t i c . In a l a s t a tte m p t
t o sh a k e o f f h i s s e l f - a c c u s a t i o n Clam ence p lu n g e s i n to
23
l a C hute, p . 127.
" . . . on th e d i a g o n a l." The F a l l , p . 109.
2b
la C hute, p . 78.
" I t was n o t lo v e o r g e n e r o s ity t h a t awakened me
when I was i n d a n g e r o f b e in g fo rs a k e n , b u t m e re ly th e
d e s i r e to b e lo v ed and t o r e c e i v e w hat in my o p in io n was
due me. The moment I was lo v e d and my p a r t n e r a g a in f o r
g o t te n , I sh o n e , I was a t th e to p o f my form , I became
l i k a b l e . " The F a l l , pp. 6 6 -6 7 .
90
d e b a u c h e ry , l i b e r a t i n g b e c a u s e i t c r e a t e s no o b l ig a t io n ,
t o f in d t h a t i t i s b u t " a lo n g s l e e p ." And s o , a t l a s t ,
h e le a v e s B a ris f o r A m sterdam : t h e G a b r ie l o f l u c i d i t y h a s
shown Clam ence th e way o u t o f h i s s t a t e o f b le s s e d c o n te n t.
To Camus t h i s N o rth e rn C ity i s a k in d o f h e l l f o r
th e b o u rg e o is , a n ic e p la c e t o p r a c t i c e a c a l l i n g a s " ju g e -
p e n i t e n t . " In t h i s p r o f e s s i o n a c o n fe s s a n t a c c u s e s him
s e l f , b u t by k e e p in g t h e a c c u s a tio n s e l f d i r e c te d , he
a v o id s th e judgm ent o th e r s c o u ld p ronounce a f t e r h a v in g
o v e rh e a rd th e m onologue. The id e a i s to f o r c e o th e r s t o
fo llo w h i s exam ple so t h a t a l l c o n fe s s a n ts c a n become One,
w ith Clam ence a s Judge an d P e n ite n t S u p e rio r. Clam ence*s
m o tiv a tio n s h a v e changed b u t h is a c t io n s and s e l f - l o v e have
rem ain ed a s th e y alw ays w e re . He t e l l s h is l i s t e n e r :
J e p l i e , p a rc e que j e c o n tin u e de m 'a im e r. T enez,
a p re s t o u t c e que j e v o u s a i r a c o n te , que c ro y e z -v o u s
q u * il me s o i t v e n u ? Le degoG t de moi-mGme? A llo n s
d o n e, c * e t a i t s u r t o u t d e s a u t r e s que j * e t a i s d eg o G te.
C e r te s , j e c o r m a is s a is mes d e f a i l l a n c e s e t j e le s
r e g r e t t a i s . J e c o n ti n u a i s p o u r ta n t de l e s o u b l ie r ,
av ec vine o b s t i n a t i o n a s s e z m e r i t o i r e . Le p ro c e s d es
a u t r e s , a u c o n t r a i r e , s e f a i s a i t sa n s trG v e dan s mon
c o e u r. 5
25
La C hute, p . 9 0 .
" I b en d , b e c a u s e I c o n tin u e t o lo v e m y s e lf. F or
exam ple, a f t e r a l l I h a v e t o l d you, w hat do you th in k I
d e v e lo p e d ? An a v e r s io n f o r m y s e lf? Come, come, i t was
91
And l a t e r on i n th e m onologue Clam ence a d m its :
J e n 'a i p as ch an g e de v i e , j e c o n tin u e de m 'a im e r e t
de me s e r v i r d e s a u t r e s . S eu len ien t, l a c o n fe s s io n d e
mes f a u t e s me p erm et de recom m encer p lu s le g e re m e n t
e t d e j o u i r deux f o i s , d e ma n a tu r e d 'a b o r d , e t en**
s u i t e d 'u n ch arm an t r e p e n t i r . °
As a ju d g e Clam ence u se d t o s e t h im s e lf above e v e ry o n e ; a s
a ju d g e p e n it e n t h e do es th e sam e. T h is i s C lam ence*s
s o l u t io n , b u t he i s n o t happy w ith i t . I t i s th e l i f e o f
a man who h a s b e en b a n is h e d f o r e v e r from th e p a r a d is e o f
in n o c e n c e —a s t a t e o f u n aw aren ess o f s i n —and who, w ith
m a lic io u s i n t e n t , s e e k s a fo llo w in g t o make h i s new l i f e
w o rth w h ile . Clam ence no lo n g e r l i v e s i n Eden w here t h e r e
e x is te d , a s W . R. M ie lle r comm ented, " th e freed o m to g iv e
r a t h e r th a n t o r e c e i v e , th e freedom t o ju d g e r a t h e r th a n
27
be ju d g e d ." W ith th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r h i s own a c t i o n s ,
e s p e c i a l l y w ith o th e r s t h a t I was fe d u p . To b e s u re I
knew my f a i l i n g s and r e g r e t t e d them . Y et I c o n tin u e d to
f o r g e t them w ith m e r ito r io u s o b s tin a c y . The p r o s e c u tio n o f
o t h e r s , on th e c o n tr a r y , w ent on c o n s t a n t ly i n my h e a r t . "
Hie F a l l , p . 76.
26 La C h u te, p . 164.
" I h a v e n 't changed my way o f l i f e ; I c o n tin u e to
lo v e m y s e lf and t o make u s e o f o t h e r s . O nly, th e c o n fe s
s io n o f my c rim e s a llo w s me t o b e g in a g a in l i g h t e r i n h e a r t
and t o t a s t e a d o u b le e n jo y m en t, f i r s t o f my n a tu r e and
se c o n d ly o f a ch arm in g r e p e n ta n c e ." The F a l l , p . 142.
27
W illia m R. M u e lle r, The P ro p h e tic V oice in Modern
F i c t i o n (New Y ork: A s s o c ia tio n P re s s , 1 9 5 9 ), p . 57.
92
Clam ence h a s now begun th e s e a r c h f o r a m ethod t o a v o id
b e in g ju d g e d . T h is i s a c c o m p lish e d by tu r n in g p e o p le i n t o
p e n i t e n t s who acknow ledge t h e i r own w rong d o in g s , and n e x t
becom e t h e i r own ju d g e . C lam en c e 's c o n f e s s io n h as th e m ain
p u rp o se o f f o r c in g th e l i s t e n e r i n t o s e l f - r e c o g n i t i o n
d u rin g t h e c y n ic a l a c c o u n t o f s n e e r in g s e lf - c o n te m p t.
P lu s j e m *accuse e t p lu s j ' a i l e d r o i t d e v o u s j u g e r .
M ieux, j e v ous provoque a v ous j u g e r vous -mime, c e
q u i me s o u la g e d 'a u t a n t .
The d is c o n te n te d , s t i l l unaw are o f t h e i r p e r v e r te d c o n d i
t i o n , he c o n v e r ts t o h i s way o f t h in k in g t o a c q u ir e company
in t h e p a c t f o r th e p r e s e r v a tio n o f th e F a l l . He h as one
c e r t a i n t y w hich he p re a c h e s : s in c e Adam 's e x i l e i s e v e r
l a s t i n g , a f u t u r e U to p ia o f autonom ous D ic ta to r s h ip o f
G u ilt i s th e s o l e re m a in in g p ro m ise .
On a w hole i t i s n o t so e a s y t o d e te rm in e w hat k in d
o f p e rs o n Clam ence r e a l l y i s . The ju d g e - p e n ite n t a d m its
t h i s h im s e lf : " I I e s t b ie n d i f f i c i l e d e d em £ ler l e v r a i du
29
fau x d an s c e que j e r a c o n t e ." S e rio u s i n t e n t and ir o n y
28
l a C h u te, p. 162.
"The m ore I a c c u s e m y s e lf, th e m ore I hav e a
r i g h t to ju d g e y o u . Even b e t t e r , I pro v o k e you i n t o ju d g
in g y o u r s e l f , and t h i s r e l i e v e s me o f t h a t much o f th e
b u r d e n ." The F a l l , p. 140.
29
La C hute, p. 139.
" I t ' s v e ry h a rd t o d i s e n ta n g le th e t r u e from th e
f a l s e in w h at I am s a y in g ." The F a l l , p . 119.
o v e rla p I n C lam en c e 's c o n f e s s io n . S e v e ra l c r i t i c s a g re e
t h a t t o g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r e x te n ts Camus h im s e lf , and h i s
q u a r r e l w ith S a r t r e and E x is te n t ia li s m , a p p e a r t h i n l y d i s
g u is e d i n v a r io u s p a ssa g e s o f th e r e c i t . " I t i s n o t u n -
l i k e l y , " C a rl V ig g ia n i w r i t e s ,
t h a t l a C hute i s a p ro d u c t o f a p ro fo u n d m o ra l c r i s i s
i n Camus. T h ere a r e so many t h i n l y v e i l e d a u to
b io g r a p h ic a l f a c t s i n t h e n a r r a t i v e t h a t Camus' im age
c a n b e se e n f a i r l y b e h in d t h a t o f h i s j u d g e - p e n i t e n t .3®
31
O th e rs b ack t h i s a rg u m e n t. The p o s s i b i l i t y i s c e r t a i n l y
n o t e x c lu d e d b e c a u se th e r e c i t i s , among o th e r a s p e c t s , a n
a t t a c k upon th e th o u g h t o f th e d a y .
30
V ig g ia n i, "Camus and t h e F a l l from In n o c e n c e ,"
p . 69.
31
F o r a good a c c o u n t o f th e o r i g i n o f th e q u a r r e l
s e e N ic o la C h iaro m o n te, " S a r t r e v e rs u s Camus: A P o l i t i c a l
Q u a r r e l," P a r t is a n Review. XIX (Novem ber-Decem ber, 1 9 5 2 ),
6 8 0 -6 8 7 ; t h i s a r t i c l e h a s b e e n r e p r i n t e d i n Camus, e d .
G. B ree (Englewood C l i f f s , N .J .: P re n tic e -H a 11, I n c .,
1962), p p . 3 1 -3 7 . F or a n a n a l y s i s o f th e a l l u s i o n s to
S a r t r e and th e E x i s t e n t i a l i s t s i n La C hute s e e i n p a r t i c u
l a r R o b e rt Champigny, "Cam us' F i c t i o n a l W orks; The P lig h t
o f In n o c e n c e ," A m erican S o c ie ty L egion o f Honor M agazine.
XXVIII (Summer, 1 9 5 7 ), 180. A dele K ing, " S tr u c tu r e and
M eaning i n La C h u te ." PMLA, LXXVII (D ecem ber, 1 9 6 2 ), 66 1 -
664. R ic h a rd L ehan, " L e v e ls o f R e a lity i n th e N ovels o f
A lb e rt Cam us," Modern F i c t i o n S tu d ie s . X (Autumn, 1 9 6 4 ),
2 4 0 -2 4 1 . H i i l i p Thody, A lb e rt Camus. 1913-1960 (London:
Hamish H a m ilto n , 1 9 6 1 ), p . 174. V ig g ia n i, "Camus and th e
F a l l from In n o c e n c e ," p . 69.
94
La C hute was o r i g i n a l l y in te n d e d a s one o f th e
s t o r i e s t o b e in c lu d e d i n L 'E x il e t l e rovaum e (1 9 5 7 ), and
B re e, p la c in g i t w ith in th e c o n te x t o f th e c o l l e c t i o n , com-
32
p a re s i t w ith "The R en eg ad e," a l s o a m onologue t h a t d e a ls
w ith f a l l e n m an. W ith th e f a c t t h a t t h e s e p ie c e s o f w r i t in g
a r e m onologues, t h e r e i s a n i n d i c a t i o n o f th e m ain c h a r a c
t e r ' s i s o l a t i o n : th e y a r e f i g u r e s who h a v e s e e n th ro u g h th e
i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e i r e a r l i e r i d e a l s and who h av e b een
c o n v e rte d t o f a i t h f u l s la v e s o f a n a v a i l a b l e t o t a l i t a r i a n
sy ste m . P erh ap s th e y a r e " th e m odern i n t e l l e c t u a l s " who
33
w ish f o r d e a th o r se e k a ty ra n n y t o e n d u re . R e g a rd le s s
o f w h e th e r th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s th u s a p p li e d , th e f a c t
re m a in s t h a t Clam ence a s w e ll a s th e R enegade a r e a d a n g e r
t o t h e i r f e llo w men, th e fo rm e r s t i l l i n th e o r y , th e l a t t e r
a lr e a d y a p h y s ic a l t h r e a t . The R enegade, th e to n g u e le s s
m is s io n a r y , h as a lr e a d y b een c o n v e rte d by th e c r u e l sungod
^ B r e e , Camus, pp. 10 6 -1 0 9 , 1 32-134.
33
F o r t h i s k in d o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s e e V ic to r Brom-
b e r t , " 'T h e R enegade' o r th e T e r r o r o f th e A b s o lu te ," Y ale
F re n ch S tu d ie s . XXV (1 9 6 0 ), 8 1 -8 4 ; V ic to r B rom bert, The
I n t e l l e c t u a l H ero: S tu d ie s i n th e F re n ch N ovel. 1880-1955
( P h ila d e lp h ia : J . B. L ip p in c o tt C o ., 19 6 1 ), pp. 2 2 7 -2 3 1 ;
Emmett B a rk er, A lb e rt Camus: th e A r t i s t i n th e A rena
(M adison: U n iv e r s ity o f W isco n sin P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 ).
95
o f t h e d e s e r t to s e r v e th e b r u t e s o f th e s a l t e m p ire .
C lam ence, th e f a l s e p ro p h e t, s e e k s t o b r in g p e o p le t o g e t h e r
f o r a n a l l i a n c e o f c o n s o lid a te d g u i l t . Both th e n a r r a t i v e s
t r y t o p u n c tu re th e fa k e i d e a l o f s e c u r i t y i n a re a s o n e d
w e lf a r e , e s p e c i a l l y th o s e o f t h e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s who, in
f e a r o f th e in d iv i d u a l, s u p p o rt th e t o t a l i t a r i a n r e l i g i o n
o f t h e p r o l e t a r i a t , i . e . , communism. La C hute c o u ld b e
c a l l e d an a t t a c k upon t h e g u i l t f e e l in g s o f th e e d u c a te d
b o u r g e o is ie who e sc a p e in a c a l c u l a t e d r i s k t h e t h r e a t o f
freed o m f o r th e s la v e r y o f m ass s e n tim e n t. Acme M inor*s
d i s c u s s i o n o f L * E x il e t l e rovaum e i s a p p r o p r ia te i n t h i s
r e g a r d . "The R enegade" sh e s e e s a s th e r e f l e c t i o n o f a
t r a g i c e r a i n w hich
F o r Camus, th e " k n ig h t o f th e a b s u r d ," i t i s b e t t e r to
f a c e a b s u r d ity i n t h e name o f r e v o l t th a n bow down
t o e v i l i n th e name o f l o g i c . W hatever th e dram a o f
a b s u r d i ty may b e , t h a t o f th e lo g ic o f e v i l i s w o rse . ^
In La C hute Camus w r i t e s an i r o n i c p r o t e s t a g a i n s t
t h i s by c a r i c a t u r i n g a r e a s o n a b le man. Camus, u n lik e h is
c h a r a c t e r Clam ence, d o es n o t f in d man g u i l t y . He had
s t a t e d e a r l i e r in Le M rthe d e S jsv p h e (1942) t h a t a m ind
" p e n e tr e d * a b su rd e " r e a l i z e s t h a t " i l p e u t y a v o ir d es
^ A n n e M inor, "The S h o rt S to r ie s o f A lb e rt Cam us,"
Y ale F ren ch S tu d ie s . XXV (1 9 6 0 ), 77.
96
35
r e s p o n s a b le s , i l n*y a pas d e c o u p a b le s ." In a n i n t e r
v iew o f y e a rs l a t e r F ran ck J o t t e r a n d a sk e d Camus: "Que
pens e z -v o u s de c e t t e a f f i r m a t i o n q u e nous sommes to u s
c o u p a b le s ?" The an sw er w a s :
Beaucoup d 'e c r i v a i n s m o d em es, d o n t l e s e x i s t e n t i a l i s -
t e s a th e e s , o n t su p p rim e D ieu; m ais i l s o n t c o n se rv e
l a n o tio n d u p ech e o r i g i n e l . On a t r o p a f f ir m e 1* i n
n o c en c e de l a c r e a t i o n . A u jo u rd fh u i , on v e u t nous
a c c a b le r so u s l e p o id s de n o t r e c u l p a b i l i t e . I I y a ,
j e c r o i s , u n e v e r i t e i n te r m e d i a i r e .
From th e in te r v ie w o f th e tim e t h a t l a C hute was b e in g
p la n n e d , i t can b e deduced t h a t Camus s t i l l b e lie v e d i n th e
g u i l t o f th e C re a to r who p u n ish e s m ankind f o r Adam, s r e b e l
l i o n . But God s h o u ld n o t c a r r y a l l th e b lam e; man s h a re s
th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . I t may b e s a i d t h a t Camus lo o k ed f o r
th e t r u t h by d i s t o r t i n g t h e c a s e i n La C hute in d e p ic tin g
a n a d v o c a te o f man*s g u i l t in b o ld o u t l i n e .
In l a C hute man i s t o be blam ed . Clam ence i s a
f r ig h te n e d man, re a d y to do a n y th in g t o e sc a p e h i s s e l f
a c c u s a tio n . He l i v e s in a se e d y c i t y , " th e m ark o f a w o rld
t h a t h as s e e n b e t t e r d a y s ," "an a n c ie n t im age, th e im age
•* ~ * I a C hute, p . 9 5 .
"Im bued w ith th e a b s u rd " r e a l i z e s t h a t " t h e r e may
b e r e s p o n s ib le p e rs o n s " b u t t h a t " t h e r e a r e no g u i l t y o n e s ."
The F a l l , p . 50.
~ ^La G a z e tte de L ausanne. March 2 7 -2 8 , 1954.
37
o f d e s p a i r and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n in I s a i a h and J e re m ia h ."
He i s c u t o f f from th e cosm os i n th e p r is o n o f c i v i l i z a
t i o n , and h e s u g g e s ts a way o u t by p ro p o sin g a r e t u r n t o
38
p r e - C h r i s t i a n day s o f judgm ent w ith o u t M ercy. Clam ence
i s abandoned t o th e C h r i s t ia n t r a d i t i o n o f th e W est. He
s ta n d s i n h i s t o r y a n d , u n lik e th e e tr a n g e r M e u rsa u lt, he
t r i e s t o sa v e h i s s k in b y a v o id in g th e a c c u s a tio n and ju d g
m ent o f th e t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e a t l a r g e . He i s th e l i v i n g
p ro o f o f Camus' t h e s i s i n L*Homme r e v o l t e (1951) t h a t a
d i c t a t o r s h i p o f th e m a jo r ity m u st f l o u r i s h i n a p o s t-
C h r i s t ia n w o rld .
Even th o u g h m a n 's g u i l t f e e l i n g s a r e b e in g e x a g g e r
a te d w ith heavy iro n y , a new and d e f i n i t e v iew o f man
a p p e a rs i n th e r e c i t . In La P e s te (1947) " l a c o n d itio n
hum aine" was a tta c k e d b y th e p la g u e from w ith o u t; in l a
C hute i t s f e s t e r i n g p re s e n c e comes from w ith in , b ro u g h t o u t
i n t o t h e open by C lam ence. He i s a s c o u rg e , th e p la g u e
p e r s o n i f i e d , and a s su c h th e p ro p h e t o f c o r r u p tio n . In
F or th e c i t y a s im age o f man s e e Jaco b I s a a c s ,
An A ssessm ent o f T w e n tie th C e n tu ry L i t e r a t u r e (London:
S e e k er and W arburg, 1 9 5 1 ), p p . 5 5 -5 8 .
38
See R. T h e is , " A lb e rt Camus' R tickkehr zu S is y
p h u s ," Rom anische F o rsch u n e en . IXX (1 9 5 8 ), 6 6 -9 0 .
98
La P e s te Camus gav e t h e r o l e s o f G oodness t o th e m a jo r
c h a r a c t e r s , c o w a rd ic e and tr e a c h e r y I n th e f a c e o f d a n g e r
had o n ly w a lk -o n p a r t s . T h ere i s C o tta rd who e n jo y s th e
s t a t e o f p la g u e b e c a u se I t p lu n g e s e v ery o n e i n t o th e same
p l i g h t o f c o n d em n atio n ; a s T a rro u r e c o r d s i t :
l a s e u le c h o se q u 'i l n e v e u i l l e p a s , c 'e s t e t r e s e p a r e
d es a u t r e s . I I p r e f e r e e t r e a s s i e g e av ec to u s que
p r i s o n n i e r t o u t s e u l . . . . I I n*y a p lu s de p o l i c e , p lu s
de c rim e s a n c ie n s ou n ouveaux, p lu s de c o u p a b le s ,
i l n 'y a que d e s condam nes q u i a tt e n d e n t l a p lu s a r b i -
t r a i r e d e s g r a c e s . 9
" L * a ttitu d e d e C o t ta r d ," comments A ndre N ic o la s ,
a s e r v i d e them e fo n d a m e n ta l a La C h u te: C lam ence,
a p re s a v o ir p r i s c o n s c ie n c e de l 'i m p u r e te de s e s
i n t e n t i o n s , v e u t e n t r a i n e r to u s l e s hommes d a n s l a
c o n s c ie n c e d e l e u r c u l p a b i l i t e : c 'e s t une fa £ o n de
s o r t i r de s a s o l i t u d e , m ais e l l e su p p o se l e n i h i -
lis m e.40
I t seem s v e ry l i k e l y t h a t th e m o tiv a tio n s o f C o tta rd
39
A lb e rt Camus, l a P e s te ( P a r i s : G a llim a rd , 1 9 4 7 ),
p . 213.
"The th in g h e 'd m ost d e t e s t i s b e in g c u t o f f from
o t h e r s ; h e 'd r a t h e r b e one o f a b e le a g u e re d crow d th a n a
p r i s o n e r a lo n e . . . . We h av e no p o lic e now adays; no c rim e s
p a s t o r p r e s e n t , no m ore c r i m in a l s - - o n l y condem ned men
h o p in g f o r th e m o st c a p r ic io u s o f p a rd o n s ." A lb e rt Camus,
The P la g u e , t r a n s l . S tu a r t G i l b e r t (New Y ork: The M odem
L ib ra r y , 1 9 4 8 ), p . 175.
40 *
Andre N ic o la s , Une R iilo s o n h ie de l 'e x i s t e n c e :
A lb e rt Camus ( P a r i s : P re s s e s U n i v e r s i ta ir e s d e F ra n c e ,
1964), p. 167.
99
fu n c tio n e d a s fu n d a m e n ta l them e. However, th e a t t i t u d e o f
t h e p e r s o n i f i e d P lag u e i n L ' E ta t d e s ie g e (1948) i s a n o th e r
i n t e r e s t i n g b a s i s f o r t h e a t t i t u d e in Clam ence*s p o se . The
l a s t sp e e c h , b e f o r e th e c u r t a i n f a l l s on th e f i r s t p a r t o f
t h e p la y , Camus g av e t o The P la g u e . Oh th e h ig h e s t p o in t
o f th e p a la c e h e s ta n d s and p ro c la im s :
Moi, j e re g n e , c * e s t tan f a i t , c * e s t done tan d r o i t .
Mais c ’ e s t tan d r o i t q u ’on n e d i s c u t e p a s : v o u s devez
v ous a d a p te r . . . . J * a i p r i s 1 'a i r d*un s o u s - o f f i c i e r .
C’ e s t l a f a9on q u e ^ j’a i de vous v e x er^ c a r i l e s t bon
que vous so y e z v e x e s : v o u s a v ez t o u t a a p p re n d re .
A ll s e n tim e n t w i l l go b y t h e b o a rd , The P lag u e c o n tin u e s ,
and o r g a n iz a tio n s w i l l r e p l a c e i t . D eath w i l l b e s t a t i s t i
c a l l y d e te rm in e d and b ad g es w i l l b e w orn, i n d i c a t i n g "m arked
down f o r e l i m in a ti o n ."
Les a u t r e s , ceux q u i, p e rs u a d e s que 9a n e l e s c o n e e rn e
p as . . . s ’ e c a r t e r o n t d e v ous q u i s e r e z s u s p e c t s , f e i s
n ’ay ez auctane am ertum e: 9a l e s c o n c e m e . U s s o n t
star l a l i s t e e t j e n 'o u b l i e p e rs o n n e . Tous s u s p e c ts ,
c 'e s t l e b on commencement. . . . J e vous a p p o r te l e
s i l e n c e , l ’o r d r e e t l ’a b s o lu e j u s t i c e . J e n e v o u s
demande pas de m 'e n r e m e r c ie r , c e que j e f a i s p o u r
vous e ta n t b ie n n a t u r e l . Mais j ’ e x ig e v o t r e c o l l a
b o r a t i o n a c t i v e . Mon m in i s t e r e e s t commence.^1
A lb e rt Camus, L’ E ta t de s ie g e ( P a r i s : G a llim a rd ,
1 9 48), pp. 9 1 -9 5 .
" I am th e r u l e r h e r e ; t h i s i s a f a c t , t h e r e f o r e
i t i s a r i g h t . A r i g h t t h a t a d m its o f no d i s c u s s io n ; a
f a c t t h a t you m ust a c c e p t. . . . I p r e f e r t o lo o k l i k e a
q u i t e o r d in a r y p e rs o n . . . . T h a t’ s one o f my ways o f
100
T h is c o n c lu s io n i s a s som ber and f r i g h t e n i n g a s t h a t o f
l a C h u te :
M ais r a s s u r o n s - n o u s ! I I e s t t r o p t a r d , m a in te n a n t,
i l s e r a to u jo u r s t r o p t a r d . H e u re u s e m e n t!^
In l a P e s te t h i s acknow ledgem ent was s t i l l overshadow ed by
t h e n o v e l 's c o n c lu s io n t h a t t h e r e a r e m ore th in g s t o a d m ire
i n men th a n t o d e s p is e . H ere a s w e ll a s i n L*Homme r e v o l t e
th e em phasis f a l l s on a n a c c u se d God and a n a t u r a l in n o
c e n c e o f man w hich a llo w s f o r t h e i r s o l i d a r i t y . S o l i t a r y
e x is te n c e i s a them e o f La C h u te.
M an's s t a t e o f i s o l a t i o n i s a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f th e
F a l l : upon b i r t h h e e n te r s a w o rld o f s i n . C h r i s t i a n i t y
h a s k e p t man aw are o f t h i s and h a s d e v e lo p e d w i t h in i t s
v e x in g you, and b e in g v ex ed w i l l do you good; you s t i l l
h av e much t o l e a r n . "
"So th e o t h e r s , p e o p le who th in k t h e s e m arks a r e
n o c o n c e rn o f t h e i r s . . . w i l l t r e a t you a s s u s p e c ts and
edge away from y o u . But you n eed n o t f e e l a g g rie v e d ; th e s e
m arks c o n c e rn them a l s o , t h e y 'r e a l l down on o u r l i s t s and
nobody i s o v e rlo o k e d . In f a c t a l l a r e s u s p e c t s — t h a t 's th e
lo n g and th e s h o r t o f i t . . . . I b r in g you o r d e r , s i l e n c e ,
t o t a l j u s t i c e . I d o n 't a s k you t o th a n k me f o r t h i s ; i t ' s
o n ly n a t u r a l , w hat I am d o in g h e re f o r you. O nly, I m ust
i n s i s t on y o u r c o l l a b o r a t i o n . M/ a d m i n i s t r a t io n h as
b e g u n ." A lb e rt Camus, C a lig u la and T h ree O th er P la y s .
t r a n s l . S tu a r t G i l b e r t (New Y ork: V in ta g e Books, 1958),
p p . 170-173.
42
l a C hute, p . 170.
"B ut l e t ' s n o t w o rry ! I t ' s to o l a t e now. I t
w i l l alw ay s be to o l a t e . F o r t u n a te ly ! " The F a l l , p . 147.
101
b e l i e v e r s a f e e l i n g o f g u i l t w hich r e q u i r e s p e n a n c e . La
C hute i s an a t t a c k upon t h i s p e rv a s iv e f e e l i n g o f g u i l t and
th e r e c o g n i ti o n o f m a n 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n h a v in g c o n
t r i b u t e d to t h i s c o n d itio n i n th e name o f God and c o u n try .
By d o in g so Cantus e x p e rim e n ts w ith in C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n .
The fram e o f th e n o v e l i s d e riv e d from C h r i s t i a n i t y .
The them e o f th e book i s th e F a l l and i t s h e ro i s C lam ence,
an e x il e d Adam, who l i v e s in H e ll—a c o n d itio n r e m in is c e n t
o f S a r t r e 's H uis C los and E l i o t 's The C o c k ta il P a rty in
w h ich h e l l i s b e in g o n e s e lf , a lo n e among o t h e r s . To Camus
Amsterdam i s th e i n f e r n a l p i t , th e c e n t e r o f D a n te 's h e l l ,
e n c lo s e d by th e c o n c e n tr ic c i r c l e s o f th e c a n a l s . ^ W ith in
t h e s e c o n fin e s ( in c lu d in g th e i s l e o f M arken w h ich l i e s
j u s t o f f th e c o a s t in th e Z uyder Z ee) Clam ence moves a b o u t
a s a g u id e . Leon S. R oudiez k e e n ly o b se rv e d t h a t th e n a r
r a t o r o f l a C hute i s "a m odem t r a v e s t y o f V e r g i l , ” a
f i g u r e who ”h ad b e e n e rro n e o u s ly c o n s id e r e d a s a p ro p h e t
43
F or e x c e l l e n t s t u d i e s o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een
l a C hute and D a n te 's I n f e r n o s e e A lfre d G a lp in , " I t a l i a n
Echoes in A lb e rt Camus: Two N otes on La C h u te. ” Sym posium .
X II (1 9 5 8 ), 6 5 -7 2 ; A dele K ing, " S t r u c tu r e and M eaning in
La C h u te ." PMLA. LXXVII (D ecem ber, 1 9 6 2 ), 6 6 4 -6 6 7 ; C a rin a
G adourek, Les In n o c e n ts e t l e s c o u n a b le s (The H ague:
Mouton and Company, 1 9 6 3 ), p p . 176-187.
102
44
o f th e com ing o f C h r i s t ." A p p ro p ria te ly , th e f a l s e p r o
p h e t f o r p o st-W o rld War I I tim e s l i v e s i n , w hat was o n c e,
t h e Je w ish n e ig h b o rh o o d , " l e s lie u x d 'u n d e s p lu s g ra n d s
c rim e s d e l * h i s t o i r e . " ^ H ere h e g a th e r s h i s s t r e n g t h t o
sp e ak a b o u t th e h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t ia n c i v i l i z a t i o n . His
name, J e a n - B a p tis te C lam ence, John th e B a p ti s t o f Clem ency,
i s p o le m ic a lly d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t C h r i s t i a n i t y . He p ro c la im s
e v e r y th in g b u t G ra ce . The d o v e s, sym bols o f p e a c e and
in n o c e n c e , c i r c l e th e IXitch s k i e s , u n a b le t o come down
b e c a u se t h e r e i s " n u l le t S t e ou s e p o s e r. Y et, th e
doves n e v e r le a v e th e sk y . When Clam ence n o t i c e s t h a t th e y
a r e g a th e r in g a t n i g h t - f a l l , he c a l l s th e moment s i n i s t e r.^
He f e e l s t h a t th e Holy G host i s n o t w anted among h i s
44
Leon S. R o u d iez, " L * E tra n e e r. l a C h u te, an d th e
A e s th e tic L egacy o f G id e ," The F ren ch R eview . XXXII (F e b ru
a r y , 1 9 5 9 ), 308.
45
l a C h u te, p . 16.
" . . . th e s i t e o f one o f th e g r e a t e s t c rim e s i n
h i s t o r y . " The F a l l , p . 11.
46
l a C h u te, p . 87.
" . . . n e v e r a h ead on w hich t o l i g h t . " The
F a l l , p . 73.
47
See G e ra ld S to u rz , "The U n fo rg iv a b le S in : An
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f The F a l l . " C hicago Review . XV (1 9 6 1 ),
4 5 -5 7 , f o r a d i s c u s s io n o f th e s i n a g a i n s t th e Holy G host
a s c e n t r a l them e o f The F a l l .
103
f o llo w e r s , th o s e who " c o u re n t c o n s t r u i r e d e s bO chers p o u r
re m p la c e r l e s e g l i s e s , " and who "n e c r o i e n t q u 'a u p e c h e ,
ja m a is a l a g r f ic e ." ^ 8
At t h e c o n c lu s io n o f th e r e c i t snow b e g in s t o f a l l .
As Clam ence w a tc h e s th e i l l u s i o n o f p u r i t y , h e tu r n s t o h i s
l i s t e n e r :
Ce s o n t l e s colom bes, sO rem ent. . . . Q u e lle in v a s io n .
. . . T out l e monde s e r a s a u v e , h e in , e t p as se u le m e n t
l e s e l u s . ^
The O th e r i s m is ta k e n . C lam ence e n jo y s th e s u c c e s s o f h i s
r o l e a s f a l s e d i v i n e r and s u g g e s ts : "A p a r t i r d * a u jo u d * h u i,
v o u s c o u c h e re z t o u te s l e s n u i t s s u r l e s o l , p o u r m oi."^®
A ll th o s e who acknow ledge h is r e a l i t y m ust b e re a d y to bow
down t o him . Clam ence *s triu m p h i s a s m a lig n a n t a s o r i g i n a l
s i n — i t p e r p e tu a te s th e f e e l i n g s o f g u i l t an d d e n ie s any
^ 8Ia C h u te, p . 156.
" . . . r u s h o u t t o b u i l d p i l e s o f f a g g o ts to r e
p la c e c h u rc h e s " " b e lie v e s o l e l y i n s i n , n e v e r i n g r a c e ."
The F a l l , p. 135.
^ La C h u te, p p . 16 7 -1 6 8 .
" I t m ust b e th e d o v e s, s u r e l y . . . . What a n i n
v a s io n . . . . E veryone w i l l b e s a v e d , e h ? —and n o t o n ly th e
e l e c t . " The F a l l , p. 145.
La C h u te, p . 168.
"From to d a y on you w i l l s l e e p e v e ry n ig h t on th e
gro u n d f o r m e ." The F a l l , p . 145.
104
m ercy o f ju d g m e n t. I t shows t h e i n a b i l i t y t o b e li e v e i n
God and th e r e f u s a l to b e li e v e i n G race.
A lth o u g h God i s e x c lu d e d from C lam ence*s w o rld , th e
C h r is t o f th e New T esta m e n t h o ld s an im p o rta n t p la c e in h i s
a w a re n e s s. He a d m ire s him a s th e J u s t Man who was b e tr a y e d
by C h r i s t i a n i t y . He who p re a c h e d lo v e was condem ned by
th e p e o p le and l a t e r made d i v in e . C h r is t was " o rd a in e d o f
G od," s a y s P e te r , " t o b e th e Ju d g e o f q u ic k and d e a d " —
a m essage so im p o rta n t t h a t th e Holy G host f a l l s "on a l l
them w hich h e a rd th e w o r d . T o d a y p e o p le a r e ju d g e d in
H is name by members o f a C hurch fo u n d ed on a cow ard c a l l e d
P e te r , who d e n ie d Him t h r e e tim e s . C h r is t made a p la y on
w o rd s, Clam ence th in k s , when He c a l l e d P e te r th e " ro c k "
upon w hich " I w i l l b u ild my c h u r c h ." S u re ly , "on n e p o u v a it
pas p o u s s e r p lu s l o i n l * i r o n i e . " I f th e n o u r f a i t h in
j u s t i c e i s b u t a p aro d y o f th e d iv in e i n t e n t , we sh o u ld b e
s a t i s f i e d w ith th e s o l u t i o n Clam ence p r o p o s e s : th e com ing
o f a ju d g in g s a v io r who c a n prom ote a s o l i d a r i t y b a se d on
f e a r .
51A cts 1 0 :4 2 -4 3 .
C hute, p . 134.
" . . . ir o n y c o u ld go no f u r t h e r . " The F a l l .
p . 116.
105
C lam ence h a s re c o g n iz e d i n C h r is t th e man who
a c c o m p lish e d w hat h e h a s b e e n u n a b le t o b r in g a b o u t. B oth
a r e aw are o f m a n 's g u i l t o f w h ich th e y a r e a p a r t . C h r is t
liv e d w ith th e s h a re d g u i l t i n th e m u rd er o f R a c h e l's c h i l
d r e n , much a s R ieux liv e d w ith h i s h e lp l e s s n e s s t o p re v e n t
t h e d e a th o f O ra n 's c h i l d r e n . B oth C h r i s t and th e d o c to r
h e a rd th e w eeping v o ic e s o f th e m o th e rs t o rem ind them t h a t
th e y w ere a l i v e . Clam ence h a s h e a rd o f so rro w a l s o , b u t he
u s e s i t a g a i n s t p e o p le by c o n v in c in g them t h a t t h i s i s th e
n a t u r a l c o n d itio n o f man i n a n e v i l w o rld . He c a n n o t g iv e
up t h e o n ly th in g h e know s:
S a c h a n t c e q u 'i l s a v a i t , c o n n a is s a n t t o u t d e l'hom m e—
a h ! q u i a u r a i t c r u que l e c rim e n 'e s t p as t a n t de f a i r e
m o u rir que de n e p as m o u rir s o i - m e m e ! ^3
C h r i s t l e t h im s e lf b e c r u c i f i e d i n o r d e r n o t t o b e a n
a c c o m p lic e in th e w ic k e d n e ss o f th e tim e . T here i s no s a l
v a t i o n p o s s i b l e . H is d e s o la te n e s s and H is f e a r o f d e a th
show a t th e c r o s s : "My God, my God, why h a s t th o u f o rs a k e n
me?" T h is c ry o f agony m ig h t h av e w arned p e o p le o f th e
La C hute, p . 131.
"Knowing w h at h e knew, f a m i l i a r w ith e v e r y th in g
a b o u t man—a h , who w ould h av e b e lie v e d t h a t c rim e c o n s i s t s
l e s s i n m aking o th e r s d ie. th a n i n n o t d y in g o n e s e l f ! "
The F a l l , p . 113.
106
v o id b e h in d th e p a in te d v e i l o f l i f e . But t h e l i a r was
su c ce ed e d by t h e c e n s o r . Luke, th e t h i r d r e c o r d e r o f th e
l i f e o f C h r i s t , l e f t t h e s e w ords o u t and so d i s t o r t e d th e
t r u t h . C h r is t h a s l e f t t h i s w o rld t o i t s own, f a l s e
d e v ic e s
p o u r c o n tin u e r , q u o i q u * i l a r r i v e , mime lo r s q u e nous
n ic h o n s dan s le m a lc o n f o r t, s a c h a n t a n o t r e t o u r c e
q u * i l s a v a i t , m ais in c a p a b le s d e f a i r e c e q u 'i l a f a i t
e t de m o u rir comrae l u i. *
C h r i s t was th e f i r s t o f th e J u s t t o b e d e s tro y e d b y a s e n s e
o f g u i l t and th e n o n e x is te n c e o f r e c o n c i l i a t i o n .
In o r d e r to com pare th e p o s i t i o n o f Clam ence w ith
w hat C h r is tia n s c o n s id e r t o b e t h e f a l l o f man, one m ig h t
c o n s id e r l a C hute to b e a p a ra p h ra s e o f G en esis 3 . The
c o n seq u e n ce s o f Clam ence*s f a l l a r e much l i k e th o s e o f Adam
and Eve who, w a n tin g t o b e l i k e God, a s p ir e d to know b o th
good and e v i l . They w anted t o r i d th e m se lv e s o f d ep en d en ce
upon God in o r d e r to m atch t h e i r a b i l i t y to ju d g e i n an
autonom ous s t a t e . When th e y a t e o f th e f r u i t , t h e i r
c a p a c ity t o ju d g e becam e d i r e c t e d a t th e m s e lv e s : th e y
~ ^I a C h u te, p . 132.
" . . . to c a r r y on, w h a te v e r h a p p e n s, ev en when
we a r e lo d g ed i n th e l i t t l e - e a s e , know ing in t u r n w hat he
knew, b u t in c a p a b le o f d o in g w hat h e d id and o f d y in g l i k e
h im .” The F a l l , p . 114.
107
d is c o v e r e d th e y w ere n a k e d . The o b s e r v a tio n d e s tro y e d
t h e i r n a t u r a l u n i ty o f s e x u a l i t y , and w ith i t o th e r n a t u r a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ere d e s tro y e d i n t h e i r new, autonom ous
ju d g m e n t. S uddenly man found h im s e lf fa c e d w ith , i n s te a d
o f one w ith , h i s fe llo w man, h i s w ork, and N a tu re . D anger
an d d e a th becam e known w i t h in t h i s u n ity - s e v e r e d a w a re n e s s.
I h i s d i s r u p t i o n o f n a t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s may w e ll b e d e s i g
n a te d w ith th e c o n c e p t o f o r i g i n a l s i n . I h i s b re a k i s th e
im m ed iate c o n seq u en ce o f th e o f f e n s e a g a i n s t God, th e
F a th e r . Those who c u t o f f t h i s communion a l s o a l i e n a t e
th e m se lv e s from a l l th o s e made i n His im age. The la w le s s
n e s s w hich r e s u l t e d from th e P a t r i c i d e le d t o th e f r a t r i
c id e o f G e n esis 4 .
Camus' o p in io n o f C ain d o es n o t c o in c id e w ith t h i s
C h r i s t ia n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In L*Homme r e v o l t e i t i s s t a t e d
t h a t C a in 's c rim e i s a r e t a l i a t i o n o f G od's c rim e : th e
r e f u s a l t o a c c e p t C a in 's o f f e r i n g in p r e f e r e n c e t o A b e l's .
I t i s r i g h t , how ever, t h a t C ain w anted t o a p p r o p r ia te
d iv in e r i g h t by w a n tin g t o become God. T h is d e s i r e was
n a t u r a l i n m a n 's new s t a t e i n h e r i t e d from Adam and Eve.
C ain was b o m o u ts id e th e p a r a d is e o f in n o c e n c e in th e la n d
o f b a n is h m e n t. F a lle n man i s a ju d g e i n h i s autonom y, and
108
a s ju d g e he h a s s e p a r a te d h im s e lf from h i s communion w ith
men. He d is c a r d s h i s n e ig h b o r and i s th e re b y h im s e lf d i s
c a rd e d .
Dans l a m esu re ou l a r a c e d e Ca£n a trio m p h e de p lu s
en p l u s , a u lo n g d e s s i e c l e s , i l e s t p o s s ib le de d i r e
a i n s i que l e d ie u de l'A n c ie n T estam en t a connu une
f o r tu n e in e s p e r e e . Les b la s p h e m a te u rs , p a ra d o x a le m e n t,
f o n t r e v i v r e l e d ie u ja lo u x que l e c h r i s ti a n i s m e v o u l a i t
c h a s s e r de l a s c e n e de l 'h i s t o i r e . L 'u n e de l e u r
a u d a c e s p ro fo n d e s a e t e ju s te m e n t d 'a n n e x e r l e C h r is t
lui-m em e a l e u r champ, en a r r e t a n t so n h i s t o i r e au
sommet de l a c r o i x e t a u c r i am er q u i p re c e d a son
a g o n ie . A in s i s e t r o u v a i t m a in te n u e l a f i g u r e im
p la c a b le d 'u n d ie u de h a in e . ^
U n til D o sto ie v sk y an d N ie tz s c h e r e b e l l i o n i s d i r e c t e d
a g a i n s t t h e c r u e l d i v i n i t y , Camus g o es on, b u t on ce God was
found d e ad i n th e m ind and h e a r t o f man and th e d i v i n i t y o f
C h r is t d e n ie d , t h e r e was n o th in g l e f t t o lo v e o r h a te in
p a r t i c u l a r . Commenting on N ie tz s c h e , Camus f in d s t h a t
" ^ A lb e rt Camus, L*Homme r e v o l t e ( P a r i s : G a llim a rd ,
19 5 1 ), p . 52.
" I n t h a t t h e c h il d r e n o f C ain have triu m p h e d , i n
c r e a s i n g ly , th ro u g h o u t t h e c e n t u r i e s , th e God o f th e Old
T estam en t c a n be s a i d t o hav e b e e n i n c r e d i b l y s u c c e s s f u l.
P a r a d o x ic a lly , th e b la sp h e m e rs h av e i n j e c t e d new l i f e i n t o
th e j e a lo u s God whom C h r i s t i a n i t y w ish e d to b a n is h from
h i s t o r y . One o f t h e i r m o st p ro fo u n d ly a u d a c io u s a r t s was
t o r e c r u i t C h r is t i n t o t h e i r camp by m aking H is s t o r y end
on th e C ro ss and on th e b i t t e r n o te o f th e c r y t h a t p r e
c e d e s H is ag o n y . By t h i s m eans i t was p o s s ib l e t o p r e s e r v e
th e im p la c a b le fa c e o f a God o f h a t e . . . . " A lb e r t Camus,
The R e b e l, t r a n s l a t e d and r e v is e d by A nthony Bower (New
Y ork: V in ta g e Books, 1 9 5 6 ), p . 33.
109
P r iv e d e l a v o lo n te d iv in e , l e monde e s t p r iv e e g a le -
m ent d * u n ite e t de f i n a l i t e . C 'e s t p o u rq u o i l e monde
n e p e u t e t r e ju g e . Tout ju g em en t de v a le u r p o r te s u r
l u i a b o u t i t fin a le m e n t a l a c a lo m n ie d e l a v i e . On
ju g e a l o r s d e c e q u i e s t , p a r r e f e r e n c e a c e q u i
d e v r a i t e t r e , royaum e du c i e l , id e e s e t e r n e l i e s , ou
im p e r a t i f m o ra l. Mais c e q u i d e v r a i t e t r e n 'e s t p a s ;
c e monde n e p e u t & tre ju g e a u nom d e rie n .* ®
As Camus s e e s i t , th e w o rld c a n n o t be ju d g e d in th e name
o f n o th in g . Y et, we need a p o in t o f r e f e r e n c e , and to
e s t a b l i s h t h i s we s e t o u r s e lv e s up a s s ta n d a r d f o r ju d g m e n t.
W e th u s a r r i v e a t th e f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r o f C lam ence.
Camus' n a r r a t o r knows t h a t man h as c o n tin u e d to
l i v e in a f a l l e n s t a t e w ith o u t h o p e. T h ere was a b r i e f
r e s p i t e d u rin g th e t h r e e y e a rs C h r is t ta u g h t, b u t th o s e who
came a f t e r Him f a l s i f i e d H is te a c h in g s and ex am p les. They
became f a l s e p r o p h e ts , and Clam ence f e e l s h im s e lf to b e
t h e i r n a t u r a l h e i r . What Camus c o n c e iv e s C lam ence*s p a r
t i c u l a r f a l l t o be i s h a rd to s a y . P erh ap s John C ru ick sh an k
was r i g h t when he w ro te "Man i s s e e n m ore a s c o n tin u a lly
L*Homme r e v o l t e , p . 90.
"D e p riv e d o f th e d iv in e w i l l , th e w o rld i s
e q u a lly d e p riv e d o f u n i ty and f i n a l i t y . T h at i s why i t i s
im p o s s ib le t o p a ss judgm ent on th e w o rld . Any a tte m p t to
a p p ly a s ta n d a r d o f v a lu e s t o th e w o rld le a d s f i n a l l y to a
s la n d e r on l i f e . Judgm ents a r e b a se d on w hat i s , w ith
r e f e r e n c e to w hat sh o u ld b e —th e kingdom o f h e a v e n , e t e r n a l
c o n c e p ts , o r m o ra l im p e r a tiv e s . But w hat s h o u ld be does
n o t e x i s t ; an d th e w o rld c a n n o t be ju d g e d i n th e name o f
n o t h in g ." The R e b el, p . 67.
110
57
f a l l i n g th a n f a l l e n , " a n o b s e r v a tio n p l a u s i b l e w ith in th e
p e s s i m is ti c c o n te x t o f th e r e c i t . I t i s c l e a r t h a t th e
sc e n e on th e b r id g e and th e d e r i s i v e l a u g h te r o f th e c o n
s c ie n c e a r e o n ly r e v e l a t i o n s o f a n a lr e a d y e x i s t i n g c o n d i
t i o n . When Clam ence i s sh ak en o u t o f h i s c o m p lac en t
h a p p in e s s , h e becom es aw are t h a t h e had a lr e a d y f a l l e n a s
la w y e r, a s c o n c e n tr a tio n camp pope, and a s lo v e r . B ecause
o f t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y th e tim e o f th e F a l l c a n n o t be r e c a l l e d ,
and i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o sa y w hat th e b a s i s o f h i s g u i l t
m ig h t b e , i . e . , in how f a r i s Clam ence s o l e l y r e s p o n s ib le
f o r " s la n d e r in g " l i f e .
W hatever th e f a l l may hav e b e e n , th e co n seq u e n ce s
f o r Clam ence a r e t h a t from h a v in g b e en a law y er h e has
become a ju d g e . From a s o l i d a r y d e fe n d e r h e h as tu rn e d
i n t o a s o l i t a r y m an-god. As a f a l l e n man, a s a ju d g e , he
h as fo llo w e d C ain i n t o e x i l e to le a d a shadowy e x is te n c e i n
Id m b o -o n -th e -N o rth -S e a t o w atch th e t r a f f i c on th e c a n a ls .
Clam ence s p ie s on th e m is f o r tu n e s o f o th e r s to f in d
th e g u i l t y l i v e s on w hich to l i v e . He f o r c e s th e v ic tim s
i n t o penance by ju d g in g them , and l i k e a p ro p h e t he f e e l s
"^ C ru ic k sh a n k , Camus, p . 187.
Ill
t h a t h e I s d o in g r i g h t b e c a u se h e h a s b e e n " a p p e le r e e l l e -
58
m en t" t o b e a j u d g e - p e n i t e n t . In e a r l i e r d ay s he had
a lr e a d y b e e n s e l f - e l e c t e d pope o v e r p e o p le w hose s u f f e r i n g
he s h a r e d . T h is was h i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e camp i n T r ip o l i s
w here h e h e ld th e power o f l i f e and d e a th o v e r th e p e o p le
who t r u s t e d him . W ith Clam ence we f i n d th e c o n fir m a tio n o f
Camus* t h e s i s in L*Homme r e v o l t e t h a t a man who n o lo n g e r
b e lie v e s i n God f e e l s th e need t o become a godhead b e c a u se
h e c a n n o t and d a re s n o t l i v e w ith th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f b e in g
m e re ly man. The man who h as e lim in a te d G od's p re s e n c e
f e e l s h i s w eakness and t o in v o k e pow er h e a p p o in ts h im s e lf
t o b e h i s own g o d h e a d 's r e p r e s e n t a t i v e on e a r t h and th u s
becom es a d a n g e r t o m ankind. As a n a u t h o r i t a r i a n h e c ra w ls
i n t o th e sy ste m w hich r e l i e v e s him o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . The
ju d g e becom es th e p r is o n e r and th e s la v e to th e c a u se w hich
h id e s him . Not th e man b u t t h e sy ste m becom es th e d iv in e
s u b s t i t u t e . T h is c e n t r a l th o u g h t o f L*Homme r e v o l t e
a p p e a rs i n C h r i s t ia n fram ew ork i n l a C hute and c o in c id e s
w ith m ost o f G e n esis 3 . The d i f f e r e n c e l i e s i n th e u n
c e r t a i n t y o f th e o r i g i n o f C lam en c e 's f a l l and th e u t t e r
58
l a C h u te, p . 9 9 .
”. . . r e a l l y c a l l e d . " The F a l l , p . 84.
112
la c k o f e v e n tu a l s a l v a t i o n f o r Clam ence o r anyone e l s e
u n d e r th e s p e l l o f h i s f a l s e p r o p h e c ie s .
The i s o l a t i o n i n w hich Clam ence f in d s h im s e lf i s
i n v i o l a b l e b e c a u s e h e w i l l n o t c o n s id e r r e l i n q u i s h i n g h i s
autonom y. He c a n n o t j o i n a n o th e r b e in g , l e t a lo n e abandon
h im s e lf t o som eone. He d e s i r e s communion and lo v e b u t i s
in c a p a b le o f f u l f i l l i n g t h i s d e s i r e . " I I me sem ble b ie n
q u 'a c e t t e epoque j e r e s s e n t i s l e b e s o in d 'u n am our.
\ 59
O bscene, n 'e s t - c e p a s ? " When th e p la g u e o f d e s t r u c t i o n
comes from w ith in , man i s d iv id e d u n to h im s e lf . H is g u i l t
m akes him n a r c i s s i s t i c and e g o c e n tr ic . I t i s in t h i s
a s p e c t t h a t Clam ence re s e m b le s h i s p r e d e c e s s o r C a lig u la in
th e p la y Camus w ro te d u rin g W orld War I I . B oth t u r n away
from lo v e once th e y h a v e l e f t th e p a r a d is e o f in n o c e n c e b e
h in d th e n . R a th e r th a n e x e r t th e m se lv e s i n u n d e rs ta n d in g
l a C h u te, p . 115.
" I t seem s t o me t h a t a t t h a t tim e I f e l t th e n eed
o f lo v e . O bscene, i s n ’ t i t ? " The F a l l , p . 99.
*^F or i n t e r e s t i n g c o m p a riso n s o f th e two w orks s e e
Haul G i n e s t ie r , La P en se* d e Camus ( n . p . : B o rd as, 1 9 6 4 );
A ndre N ic o la s , Une H iilo s o p h ie de 1*e x is te n c e : A lb e rt Camus
( B a r is : P re s s e s U h i v e r s i ta ir e s d e F ra n c e , 1 9 6 4 ), p p . 2 6 -2 7 ;
R oger Q u i l lo t , L’ U h iv ers t h e a t r a l e t rom anesque d * A lb e rt
Camus ( n . p . : n . p u b l ., 1 9 6 4 ), c o l l e c t i o n : " L e t tr e s Con-
te m p o ra in e s " ; F. C. S t. Aubyn, " A lb e rt Camus and th e D eath
o f th e O th e r: An E x i s t e n t i a l i s t I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , " F ren ch
S t u d i e s . XVI ( A p r il, 1 9 6 2 ), 124-141.
113
m ankind and th e m se lv e s th ro u g h lo v e , th e y assum e th e w o rld
t o b e e v i l and c o n t r i b u t e to i t so th e y may r i s e a s an
a b s o lu te power o f S a ta n ic m a g n itu d e . What R ach el B e s p a lo ff
s a i d o f C a lig u la a l s o h o ld s f o r C lam ence:
He w an ts to b e g u i l t y ; h e n e e d s th e t r a n s g r e s s io n o f
s a c r i l e g e i n o r d e r t o a s s e r t h i s freed o m . And a t th e
same tim e , w ith a l l h i s m ig h t, h e d e n ie s h i s g u i l t ,
f o r in d e e d , w h at j u s t i c e w ould t h e r e b e u n d e r th e r u l e
o f e q u iv a le n c e ? He e x t e r n a l i z e s e v i l i n o r d e r to
l i b e r a t e h im s e lf , and by d o in g so h e c l i n g s to n e c e s
s i t y and p la y s i n t o i t s h a n d s . The e x te r n a l i z i n g o f
e v i l i s n o th in g b u t a way o f s h i f t i n g th e r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y f o r o r i g i n a l s i n on a n a b s e n t g o d . °
Clam ence n e e d s th e freedom o f ’’ h e i g h t s ." He se e k s i t to
a v o id th e judgm ent o th e r s m ig h t pro n o u n ce upon him . He i s
th e "com edian" in s a c k - c lo th who p ro n o u n ces a fa k e judgm ent
on h i s own a c t io n s t o f o r e s t a l l o t h e r s , b e c a u se once th e
w o rld tu r n s upon him h e w i l l lo s e h i s autonom ous s t a t e .
Clam ence c lin g s to th e n e c e s s i t y t o e x t e r n a l i z e e v i l to
m a in ta in th e s t a t u s quo o f c o m p a riso n w ith o t h e r s . So lo n g
a s we h av e t h i s c h a n c e , we e sc a p e a f i n a l ju d g m e n t. Beware
62
th e l a s t Judgm ent, " I I a l i e u to u s le s j o u r s . " Clam ence
^ " T h e W orld o f th e Man Condemned t o D eath, ” in
Camus, e d . G. B re e, p . 103.
62La C h u te, p . 129.
" I t ta k e s p la c e e v e ry d a y .” The F a l l , p . 111.
114
i s c o n s t a n t ly on th e a l e r t : th e Judgm ent w ould b e t e r r i f y
in g i f t h e r e w ere no m ethod o f g a g in g th e e x te n t o f o n e 's
g u i l t . When man s ta n d s a lo n e , g u i l t h a s become an a b s o lu te
s t a t e i n w hich h e c e a s e s t o b e .
Clam ence c a n n o t b e li e v e i n r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , and th e
e x te n t t o w hich he n e e d s t o p la y th e f a l s e p ro p h e t i s i n d i
c a te d by h i s c o n fe s s io n o f h id in g a s t o l e n p a in t i n g . F or
s a fe k e e p in g h e r e c e iv e d one day a p a n e l o f Van E y c k 's
a l t a r p i e c e "L 'A gneau m y stiq u e " c a l l e d "Les Ju g e s i n t e g r e s . "
The t h i e f h as n e v e r b e en found and th e p a in tin g n e v e r
tr a c e d t o C lam ence. The c u s to d ia n s o f th e c a t h e d r a l a t
Ghent e v e n tu a lly r e p la c e d th e o r i g i n a l w ith a n a c c u r a te
co p y . To Clam ence i t i s im p o rta n t t h a t no one h a s b e e n a b le
t o t e l l th e copy from th e o r i g i n a l : "d e c e t t e m a n ie re , j e
63
d o m in e ." He i s th e o n ly one who knows w here th e t r u e
" J u s t Ju d g e s" a r e an d , m ore im p o r ta n tly , who th e y a r e .
Clam ence rem ark s t h a t th e ju d g e s on th e p a n e l h e owns move
to w ard th e S acred A nim al, th e D iv in e lamb w hose in n o c e n c e
no lo n g e r e x i s t s :
63
l a C hute, p . 151.
" I n t h i s way I d o m in a te ." The F a l l , p . 130.
115
P a rce que de c e t t e fa $ o n , n ous sommes d an s l* o r d r e .
l a j u s t i c e e t a n t d e f in itiv e m e n t s e p a re e de 1*in n o
c e n c e , c e l l e - c i s u r l a c r o i x , c e l l e - l a a u p la c a r d ,
j * a i l e champ l l b r e p o u r t r a v a l l l e r s e lo n mes c o n
v i c t i o n s .
Today th e f a l s e ju d g e s move to w a rd th e Lamb i n G hent, and
Clam ence i s t h e i r a c c o m p lic e i n k e e p in g s i l e n t . B ecause
o f him , j u s t i c e and s a l v a t i o n re m a in s e p a r a t e . The w o rld
c o n tin u e s to a w a it t h e ju d g m en t o f th e a b s e n t T rue Ju d g es
w hich Clam ence h id e s i n th e c l o s e t .
D e c e p tio n i s w hat C lam ence n e e d s i n o r d e r to c o n
t in u e h i s m is s io n . He h a s a lw ay s had t h a t p r iz e d a b i l i t y to
le a d p e o p le w ith a n a i r o f b e n ig n i n d i f f e r e n c e . In h i s
e a r l y P a r i s i a n day s h e was th e i d e a l h e i r o f Camus' e a r t h a t
T ip a sa (Noces.), aw are o f a harm ony w ith in him . He d id w e l l:
h e b ro u g h t a sem b lan ce o f u n i t y , th ro u g h j u s t i c e , to th e
d is p o s s e s s e d who s e e k r e f u g e i n c i v i l i z a t i o n . He was th e
superm an p e o p le n e ed e d t o b e li e v e i n , need ed t o re c o g n iz e
a s t h e i r r e s c u e r : "On c r o y a i t m 'a v o ir d e ja r e n c o n tr e .
64La C h u te, p . 151.
"T h is way e v e r y th in g i s i n harm ony. J u s t i c e
b e in g d e f i n i t i v e l y s e p a r a te d from in n o c e n c e — th e l a t t e r on
th e c r o s s and th e fo rm e r in t h e c u p b o a rd . I h av e th e way
c l e a r t o w ork a c c o rd in g t o my c o n v ic ti o n s ." The F a l l .
p . 130.
65
la. C h u te, p . 36.
"P e o p le th o u g h t th e y had m et me b e f o r e ." The
F a l l , p . 28.
116
Clam ence grow s accu sto m ed to th e r o l e he I s f o r c e d t o p la y
a n d , e x u ltin g i n t h e new ly found pow er, h e b e g in s to
im ag in e h im s e lf " f i l s d e r o i , ou b u is s o n a r d e n t . He
f e e l s t h a t h e h as th e s t a t u r e o f Moses w ith a v o ic e l i k e
G o d 's.
A f te r h i s f a l l , h a v in g s e e n in D je m ila , th e la n d on
th e o th e r s i d e o f th e T ip a s a h i l l s , h i s own d e s t r u e t i b i l i t y ,
Clam ence lo s e s h i s c o n v ic tio n o f harm ony. He a d o p ts th e
r o l e o f com edian to a d v o c a te a f a l s e d e s e r t s t a t e , a
Prom ised la n d o f su sp en d ed s a l v a t i o n . He tu r n s t o a l l
th o s e who, l i k e him , h av e b e en c a s t o u t o f Eden. They a r e
p e o p le who w ant a p ro p h e t and a s Clam ence n o t i c e s : " I I f a u t
que q u e lq u e c h o se a r r i v e , v o i l a 1*e x p l i c a t i o n d e l a p lu p a r t
d es engagem ents h u m ain s. I I f a u t que q u e lq u e c h o se a r r i v e ,
67
meme l a s e r v i tu d e sa n s a m o u r." They w ant o n ly t o e sc a p e
from t h e i r s o l i t a r y s t a t e . P ro p h e ts l i v e by w ords and
z e a l ; t h e i r s u c c e s s depends upon d iv in e r e c o g n i ti o n . S in c e
------------------------------------
66
l a C hute, p . 36.
" . . . a k i n g 's so n o r a b u rn in g b u s h ." The F a l l .
p . 2 9 .
^ I a C h u te, p . 4 5 .
"S om ething m ust h ap p en —and t h a t e x p la in s m ost
human com m itm ents. Som ething m ust h ap p en , even lo v e le s s
s l a v e r y . ” The F a l l , p . 37.
117
Clam ence knows t h a t th e w o rld I s w ith o u t God, h e p ro c e e d s
c a u t i o u s l y : " J 'a v a n p a is a i n s i a l a s u r f a c e d e l a v i e , dans
l e s m ots en q u e lq u e s o r t e , ja m a is dan s l a r e a l i t e ."88 The
w ords a t t r a c t e d p e o p le ; th e y came and w anted t o c l i n g , b u t
t h e r e was no c o n fir m a tio n to c l i n g t o : no Holy G h o st, no
fla m in g c h a r i o t a s to k e n o f d iv in e i n t e n t . W a itin g f o r th e
s ig n p e o p le c o n tin u e t o f lo c k to w ard C lam ence. He e n jo y s
i t :
J e n e p o u v a is done v i v r e , da mon a v e u meme, qu*a l a
c o n d itio n q u e, s tir t o u t e l a t e r r e , to u s l e s e t r e s , ou
l e p lu s g ra n d nom bre p o s s ib l e , fu s s e n t to u r n e s v e rs
m oi, e te r n e lle m e n t v a c a n ts , p r iv e s de v i e in d e p e n d a n te ,
p r e t s a re p o n d re a mon a p p e l a n 'im p o r te q u e l m om ent.6*
Clam ence i s now p re p a re d , i n G erm aine B r e e 's w o rd s, " t o f i l l
th e w o rld w ith h i s own im age. H aving become a godhead,
h e i s re a d y t o a c c u s e th e w hole human r a c e and heav en
68Ia C h u te, p . 60.
" I p ro g re s s e d on th e s u r f a c e o f l i f e , i n th e
re a lm o f w ords a s i t w e re, n e v e r i n r e a l i t y . " The F a l l .
p . 50.
69
La C hute, pp. 7 9 -8 0 .
" I c o u ld l i v e h a p p ily o n ly on c o n d itio n t h a t a l l
th e i n d iv i d u a ls on e a r t h , o r th e g r e a t e s t p o s s ib le num ber,
w ere tu rn e d to w ard me, e t e r n a l l y i n s u s p e n s e , d e v o id o f
in d e p e n d e n t l i f e , and re a d y to an sw er my c a l l a t any
m om ent." The F a l l , p . 68.
^ B r e e , Camus, p . 132.
118
I t s e l f , l i k e John th e B a p tis t h e h a s come to th e r e a l i z a -
71
t i o n t h a t h e e x c e ls " s u r t o u t d a n s l e m e p r is ," and t h a t ,
l i k e God, h e i s p r e s e n t w ith o u t b e in g t h e r e : " J 'e t a i s
a b s e n t au moment ou j e t e n a i s l e p lu s de p l a c e ."
Toward th e end o f th e c o n fe s s io n a w eary Clam ence
a d m its to th e d e s p e r a tio n w hich prom pted h i s w i l l i n g a s c e n t
t o th e l e a d e r s h ip o f th e g u i l t y :
Dans l a s o l i t u d e , l a f a t i g u e a id a n t, que v o u le z - v o u s ,
on s e p re n d v o l o n t i e r s p o u r un p r o p h e te . A pres t o u t ,
c 'e s t b ie n l a c e que j e s u i s , r e f u g i e dans un d e s e r t d e
p i e r r e s , d e brum es e t d*eaux p o u r r i e s , p ro p h e te v id e
p o u r tem ps m e d io c re s , E lie sa n s m e s s i e .'^
Clam ence acknow ledges t h a t th e b e l i e f in g ra c e f o r him and
f o r a l l th o s e i n h i s s i t u a t i o n , i s b u t a te m p ta tio n . H is
u n iv e r s e i s e n t i r e u n to i t s e l f and h i s g u i l t i s d e fin e d by
t h i s u n iv e r s e : h e i s g u i l t y b e c a u se he f a i l e d i n w hat h e
7^I a C h u te, p . 101.
"... above a l l in s c o r n ." The F a l l , p . 86.
7^ I a C hute, p . 102.
" I was a b s e n t a t th e moment when I to o k up th e
m ost s p a c e ." The F a l l , p . 8 7 .
73La C hute, p . 135.
" I n s o l i t u d e and when f a tig u e d , one i s a f t e r a l l
i n c l i n e d t o ta k e o n e s e lf f o r a p ro p h e t. When a l l i s s a id
and d o n e, t h a t 's r e a l l y w hat I am, h a v in g ta k e n r e f u g e i n a
d e s e r t o f s to n e , f o g s , and s ta g n a n t w a te r —an em pty p ro p h e t
f o r shabby tim e s , E l i j a h w ith o u t a m e s s ia h ." The F a l l .
p . 117.
119
e x p e c te d h im s e lf t o d o . H is own norm s w ere th e ju d g e and
n o t , a s i n C h r i s t i a n i t y , th e b re a k in g o f a c o v e n a n t w ith
God and G o d 's c r e a t i o n .
Clam ence r e f u s e s f o r g iv e n e s s o f s i n s , g r a c e , and
s a l v a t i o n from o u ts id e a s o b s t i n a t e l y a s Camus tu rn e d down
e t e r n a l l i f e in Le Mythe de S is v p h e . Camus r e f u s e d in
o rd e r t o re m a in f a i t h f u l t o t h i s l i f e ; Clam ence r e f u s e s
s a l v a t i o n i n th e name o f h i s ty p e o f j u s t i c e and f o r th e
sa k e o f h i s o n ly l i f e , unw orthy a s i t may b e . F or him i t
i s to o l a t e f o r e v e r . Only one v a lu e r e m a in s : p r id e in
b e in g an exam ple o f r ig h te o u s n e s s J u s t im a g in e, h e s u g
g e s ts t o th e l i s t e n e r , t h a t you w ould r e p o r t me f o r h a v in g
h id d e n a s t o l e n p a in t i n g . I f you d id , I w ould b e b e tra y e d
and p e rh a p s become a m a rty r.
On me d e c a p i t e r a i t . . . . A u -d essu s du p e u p le a sse m b le ,
vous e le v e r i e z a l o r s ma t e t e e n c o re f r a t c h e , p o u r
q u 'i l s s 'y r e c o n n a is s e n t e t q u 'a nouveau j e l e s dom ine,
e x e m p la ire . Tout s e r a i t consomme, j 'a u r a i s a c h e v e , n i
v u n i connu, ma c a r r i e r e de fau x
l e d e s e r t e t r e f u s e d 'e n s o r t i r . '
l a C h u te, p . 169.
"1 w ould b e d e c a p it a t e d . . . . Above th e g a th e re d
crowd you w ould h o ld up my s t i l l warm h e a d , s o t h a t th e y
c o u ld re c o g n iz e th e m se lv e s in i t and I c o u ld a g a in dom i
n a t e —an e x e m p la r. A ll w ould b e consum m ated; I s h o u ld hav e
b ro u g h t t o a c lo s e , u n se e n and unknown, my c a r e e r a s a
f a l s e p ro p h e t c ry in g i n th e w ild e rn e s s and r e f u s in g t o come
f o r t h . ” The F a l l , p p . 146-147.
p ro p h e te q u i c r i e dan s
120
U n til t h a t d ay , how ever, he s h a l l c o n tin u e t o p la y a t b e in g
god. Unseen and unknown l i k e h i s dead L ord, God th e F a th e r ,
h e w a tc h e s th e m u ltitu d e s o f th e l a s t Judgm ent a sc e n d
tow ard him t o hand them t e s ti m o n ia l s o f bad c h a r a c t e r and
h a b i t . Clam ence i s c a u g h t i n th e u n iv e r s e o f h i s own ego,
w h ich he h a s f i l l e d w ith h i s im age. He i s to re m a in i n th e
" m a lc o n fo rt" o f ex em p lar u n t i l h i s d e a th . What i s t o h a p
pen t o h is f o llo w e r s and how th e w o rld m ust cope w ith t h e i r
f e s t e r i n g p re s e n c e Camus h a s l e f t d e l i b e r a t e l y u n r e s o lv e d .
CHAPTER III
DOSTOEVSKY* S THE POSSESSED
A lb e r t Camus was In flu e n c e d by Fyodor D ostoevsky,
a f a c t s e v e r a l c r i t i c s have a lr e a d y p o in te d out.'*' S t a r t i n g
P e te r M . A xthelm , The Modem C o n fe s s io n a l N ovel
(New H aven: Y ale U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1 9 6 7 ), pp. 13-96
Etamanuel B e rl, "F ace a l* a b s u r d e ," l a T a b le Ronde.
CXLVI (F e b ru a ry , 1 9 6 0 ), 163-166.
G erm aine B ree, Camus (R ev ised e d . ; New Y ork: H ar-
c o u r t , B race and W orld, 1 9 64).
G erm aine B ree, "Camus* C a li g u l a : E v o lu tio n o f a
P la y ," Symposium. X II (1 9 5 8 ), 4 5 .
C h a rle s B. Brockmann, "M etam orphosis o f H e ll: The
S p i r i t u a l Q uandary i n l a C h u te ." F ren ch R eview . XXXV (F e b ru
a r y , 1 9 6 2 ), 3 6 1 -3 6 8 .
Jo h n C ru ic k sh a n k , A lb e r t Camus and t h e L i t e r a t u r e
o f R e v o lt (New Y ork: O xford U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1 9 6 0 ).
C a rin a G adourek, In n o c e n ts e t c o u p a b le s (The Hague:
Mouton and C o ., 1 9 6 3 ).
N ina G o u rfin k e l, D o s to ie v s k i. n o t r e c o n te m p o ra in
( P a r i s : Calm ann-Levy, 1 9 6 1 ), p . 226.
G a r r e t t G reen, A Kingdom Not o f T h is W orld (S ta n
f o r d , C a l i f . : S ta n fo rd U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1 9 6 4 ).
R. W . B. L ew is, The P ic a re s q u e S a in t ( P h ila d e lp h ia :
J . B. L ip p in c o tt C o., 1 9 6 1 ), p . 106.
Ja c q u e s M adaule, "Camus e t D o s to e v s k i," La T ab le
Ronde. CXLVI (F e b ru a ry , 1 9 6 0 ), 127-136.
Rene M icha, "L*Agneau d an s l e p l a c a r d , " N o u v e lle
121
122
w ith Camus' own a d m is s io n s , th e y h a v e draw n l e g i t im a t e
p a r a l l e l s in c o m p a ra tiv e s t u d i e s . To m e n tio n one s im i
l a r i t y : i n th e w ork o f b o th we f in d t h e them e o f m urder
an d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , r e f l e c t i o n s on p a t r i c i d e . Camus f o l
lowed D ostoevsky i n L 'E tr a n e e r when h e had M e u rsa u lt s a y :
"Tous l e s e t r e s s a in s a v a ie n t p lu s ou m oins s o u h a ite la
2
m o rt d e ceux q u 'i l s a im a ie n t." Iv a n Karamazov i s m ore
s p e c i f i c y e t when h e a c c u s e s e v e ry o n e : "They a l l d e s i r e th e
3
d e a th o f t h e i r f a t h e r s . " Those who d o , c a n n o t a d j u s t to
th e w o r l d 's i n j u s t i c e f o r w hich th e y h o ld a f a t h e r f i g u r e
r e s p o n s i b l e .
Revue F r a n c a is e . XV (M arch, 1 9 60), 5 0 1 -5 0 5 .
Roger Q u i l l i o t , "Un Monde a m b ig u ," P re u v e s. X
( A p ril, 1960), 34.
W arren Ramsey, " A lb e rt Camus on C a p ita l P u n ish
m ent : H is A d a p ta tio n o f The P o s s e s s e d ." Y ale Review. X LV III
(Summer, 1 9 5 9 ), 6 3 4 -6 4 0 .
H. G. S c h o g t, l a S o litu d e du s o u t e r r a i n (The H ague:
Mouton an d C o ., 1 9 5 8 ).
S a ra T oenes, " P u b lic C o n fe ssio n in La C h u te ."
W isco n sin S tu d ie s i n C ontem porary L i t e r a t u r e . IV (Autumn,
1963), 3 0 5 -3 1 8 .
2
A lb e rt Camus, L * E tra n e e r ( P a r i s : G a llim a rd , L iv re
de poche, 19 5 7 ), I I , i , p . 9 6 .
3
Fyodor D osto ev sk y , The B ro th e rs Karamazov, t r a n s l .
C o n stan ce G a rn e tt (New Y ork: Modem L ib ra ry , 19 2 9 ), X II, v ,
p . 864. A ll o th e r r e f e r e n c e s a r e to t h i s e d i t i o n .
123
In p a r t i c u l a r th e t h e o l o g i c a l a s p e c t o f p a t r i c i d e
i s s t a t e d and e v a lu a te d In th e w ork o f b o th a u th o r s . I t i s
God, th e F a th e r , th e C re a to r, who i s r e s p o n s ib le f o r a
w o rld i n w hich c h il d r e n s u f f e r and d i e . I v a n 's r e f u s a l to
accept: th e t o r t u r e o f in n o c e n t c r e a t u r e s a s p a r t o f an
In s p ir e d and Harm onious D esign i s a c e n t r a l th o u g h t t o l a
P e s te and Les J u s t e s . When A lyosha sp e a k s o f G od's om ni
s c ie n c e , Iv a n r e t o r t s : " A ll I know i s t h a t th e r e i s s u f f e r -
4
in g and t h a t t h e r e a r e none g u i l t y . " On t h e s e g ro u n d s man
r e b e l s a g a i n s t God, and on t h i s a n g u ish e d r e p ly o f Ivan i s
b a se d th e second p a r t o f L*Homme r e v o l t e . Both Camus and
D ostoevsky knew a n a l l - p e r v a s i v e lo v e f o r l i f e . " I 'v e
a sk e d m y s e lf many tim e s ," Ivan sa y s t o A ly o sh a,
w h e th e r th e r e i s in th e w o rld any d e s p a i r t h a t w ould
overcom e t h i s f r a n t i c t h i r s t f o r l i f e . . . . I h av e a
lo n g in g f o r l i f e , and I go on l i v i n g in s p i t e o f l o g ic .
Though I may n o t b e li e v e in th e o r d e r o f th e u n iv e r s e ,
y e t I lo v e th e s t i c k y l i t t l e le a v e s a s th e y open in
s p r in g . I lo v e th e b lu e sk y . I lo v e some peop le.^
Hie d y in g Ip p o ly t, e x p la in in g h i s a c t io n s t o th e " i d i o t "
p r in c e , s t a t e s t h i s lo v e f o r l i f e e x p l i c i t l y :
4I b i d . . V, i v , p . 299.
5I b i d . . V, i i i , p . 283.
124
I t ’ s l i f e t h a t m a t t e r s , n o th in g b u t l i f e —th e p ro c e s s
o f d is c o v e r in g , t h e e v e r l a s t i n g and p e r p e tu a l p r o c e s s ,
n o t th e d is c o v e r y i t s e l f , a t a l l .
I t i s a q u e s tio n c e n t r a l t o Camus’ w ork w h ich , a s w ith
D osto ev sk y , r e c e iv e s a n a f f i r m a t i v e r e p l y . F o r Camus l i f e
even h a s a v a lu e w h ic h m akes him q u a l i f y I v a n 's p re m ise
t h a t i f t h e r e w ere no im m o rta lity , n o th in g "w ould be
im m oral, e v e r y th in g w ould b e la w fu l, even c a n n ib a lis m .
Camus o b s e rv e s "T out e s t p erm is n e s i g n i f i e p as que r i e n
n ’ e s t d e fe n d u ." ^
I a C hute, b o th i n form and c o n te n t, h a s b e e n i n
flu e n c e d by th e c o n f e s s io n a l, f i r s t - p e r s o n n a r r a t i v e N otes
from U nderground and by "At T ih o n ’s " ( " S ta v r o g in ’s C o n fe s
s i o n " ) from The P o s s e s s e d . W ith r e g a r d to th e c o n te n t i t
i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e f o r th e D o sto e v sk ia n m o tif o f th e p a i n t
in g w hich f o r Clam ence h a s sy m b o lic s i g n i f i c a n c e . In
Fyodor D osto ev sk y , The I d i o t , t r a n s l . C o n sta n ce
G a r n e tt, r e v . John W . S tra h a n (New Y ork: W ashington S quare
P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 ), I I I , v , p . 403. A ll o th e r r e f e r e n c e s a r e to
t h i s e d i t i o n .
^The B ro th e rs Karam azov. I I , v i , p . 81.
O
A lb e rt Camus, Le Mvthe d e S isv p h e ( P a r i s : G a l l i -
m ard, 1 9 4 2 ), p . 9 4 ; " ’ E v e ry th in g i s p e rm itte d * do es n o t
mean t h a t n o th in g i s f o r b id d e n ." The Myth o f S isy p h u s.
t r a n s l . J u s t i n O’ B rie n (New Y ork: V in ta g e Books, 19 5 5 ),
p . 50.
125
The P o s se ss e d , and in The I d i o t a s w e ll, t h e r e a r e p a i n t
in g s w hich a r e o f d e c is iv e im p o rta n c e t o th e m ain c h a r a c
t e r s . F u rth e rm o re , t h e r e i s a lo v e f o r n a tu r e , an a n t i -
r a t i o n a l i s m , a g l o r i f i c a t i o n o f o n e 's own la n d and p e o p le ,
and an o p p o s itio n a g a i n s t th e s p i r i t o f W estern E urope—a l l
th e s e a r e p o in ts o f c o rre sp o n d e n c e b etw een Camus and
D o sto ev sk y .
In The P o sse sse d Camus h a s s e e n one o f th e "m ost
g
p ro fo u n d " e x p re s s io n s o f " o u r h i s t o r i c a l d e s t i n y ." He
a g re e d w ith th e R u ssia n w r i t e r t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a ry to a sk
th e q u e s tio n th e m an-god p o s e s , b u t he d i f f e r s w ith th e
f i n a l an sw er g iv e n in The B ro th e rs K aram azov. Camus f e e l s
t h a t K i r i l l o v 's s a c r i f i c e was n e g a te d by A ly o s h a 's comment
t o th e c h ild r e n t h a t men w i l l m eet a g a in in an a f t e r - l i f e .
D o sto ev sk y , j u s t b e f o r e h i s d e a th , made th e K ie rk e g a a rd ia n
le a p and so " c o n tin u e d t o c h e r is h " m a n k in d 's " b lin d
ho pes.In s p i t e o f a l l s i m i l a r i t y t h e r e i s a c l e a r d i s
t i n c t i o n in th e two a u t h o r s ' a f f i r m a t i o n and d e n i a l o f th e
C h r i s t i a n f a i t h . In one o f th e m ost p e r t i n e n t c o m p a ra tiv e
^ A lb e rt Camus, "The O th e r R u s s ia ," New York H erald
T rib u n e . December 19, 1957.
^ The Myth o f S isy p h u s, p . 82.
126
s t u d i e s Ja cq u e s M adaule s e e s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een th e
r e l i g i o u s a t t i t u d e s o f Camus and D ostoevsky a s f o l lo w s :
I l s s o n t to u s deux p re o c c u p e s p a r l 'a t h e ls m e , m ais pas
d u t o u t d e l a meme fa ? o n . Four D o s to ie v s k i, c 'e s t a u
c o e u r de lui-m em e une l u t t e de to u s l e s i n s t a n t s , e t
q u i n e s e te r m in e r a q u 'a v e c l a m o rt, c o n tr e l a t e n t a -
t i o n de 1 'ath eX sm e c a r , " s i D ieu n 'e x i s t e p a s, t o u t e s t
p e rm is ," c e que nous voyons p a r t i c u l i e r e m e n t d an s l e s
P o s se d e s. . . . L 'a th e is m e de Camus, l u i , e s t un f a i t
a c q u is . I I n e s e d i s c u t e m£me p a s . I I e s t . On e s t
a th e e ch ez Camus comme on r e s p i r e . . . . Les h e ro s d e
l'a t h e is m e , c h ez D o sto ie v sk y , s o n t d es m a lh e u re u x .
L eur f o i e ne c e s s e d 'e t r e d e v o re e a u f la n c d e q u e lq u e
C aucase s p i r i t u e l . Au c o n t r a i r e ceux de Camus s o n t d es
h e ro s au se n s p r o p re , comme l e Dr. R ieux d e l a P e s te .
I l s s 'e s t i m e n t d 'a u t a n t p lu s o b lig e s que D ieu n 'e x i s t e
p a s .
K i r i ll o v , t h e man f o r whom a th e is m was a " f a i t
a c q u i s ," h e ld g r e a t f a s c i n a t i o n f o r Camus. In The Myth o f
S isy p h u s t h e r e i s a s p e c i a l e s s a y d e v o te d t o him a s one o f
D o sto e v sk y 's im p o rta n t spokesm en. A lre a d y i n a C a rn e t
e n tr y f o r December, 1938, Camus had a g re e d w ith t h i s f i c
t i o n a l h e ro t h a t t o com m it s u i c id e i s t o p ro v e o n e 's f r e e
dom. In a l a t e r e n t r y —a l e t t e r d a te d S eptem ber 24, 1944—
Camus was s t i l l f a s c i n a t e d w ith K i r i l l o v 's t h e o r i e s .
In d ee d , h e n o te s , th e o n ly way t o c r e a t e God i s t o become
h im : th e p ro o f l i e s in th e w hole h i s t o r y o f W estern
"^M adaule, "Camus e t D o s to fiv sk i," pp. 127-128.
127
12
c i v i l i z a t i o n .
In 1959 Camus f i n a l l y c o m p lete d th e a d a p ta tio n o f
The P o sse sse d f o r th e s t a g e . F or f i v e y e a rs he had w orked
on i t , and f o r a lm o st tw e n ty y e a r s h e c la im s to hav e ta k e n
" s u s te n a n c e ” from t h i s n o v e l a s a " p r o p h e tic b o o k ,"
n o t o n ly b e c a u se i t p r e f ig u r e s o u r n i h i l i s m , b u t a l s o
b e c a u se i t s p r o ta g o n is ts a r e t o m o r dead s o u ls u n a b le
t o lo v e and s u f f e r in g from t h a t i n a b i l i t y , w a n tin g t o
b e lie v e and y e t u n a b le to do s o .
Camus ends t h i s "Forew ord" t o h i s s ta g e a d a p ta tio n by i n t r o
d u c in g th e p l a y ’s s u b j e c t : " th e m u rd er o f S h ato v " and " th e
13
d e a th o f S ta v ro g in , a c o n tem p o rary h e r o ." The p la y was
w e ll r e c e iv e d in F a ris and, a c c o rd in g t o W arren Ramsey,
"a p o w e rfu l p la y re m a rk a b ly f a i t h f u l t o th e n o v e l.
K i r i l l o v h a s b e en g iv e n a m in o r p a r t i n k e e p in g w ith
D o sto ev sk y ’ s f i c t i o n a l w o rld : th e b i z a r r e superm an i s a n
im p o rta n t, b u t o n ly o c c a s io n a l p r e s e n c e . The r o l e o f p ro
t a g o n i s t h as b een a s s ig n e d to N ik o lay S ta v ro g in , th e f a l s e
^ A l b e r t Camus, C a rn e ts . Mai 1935 - Mars 1951
( P a r i s : in p r im e r ie N a tio n a le , 1 9 6 2 -6 4 ), pp. 85, 231.
13
A lb e rt Camus, "F orew ord" to The P o sse sse d .
t r a n s l . J u s t i n O’ B rie n (New Y ork: V in ta g e Books, 1964),
no page num bers. N ote: The "F orew ord" d o es n o t a p p e a r in
th e G a llim a rd e d i t i o n .
14
W arren Ramsey, " A lb e rt Camus on C a p ita l P u n ish
m e n t: H is A d a p ta tio n o f The P o s s e s s e d ." p . 634.
128
e m is s a ry from p r im o r d ia l c h a o s , who i s w ith o u t b e l i e f in
l i f e o r d e a th . R am sey's re v ie w h o ld s t h a t S ta v ro g in , a s a
c h a r a c t e r on s ta g e , h a s l o s t h i s a i r o f m y ste ry and h a s
come i n t o th e fo re g ro u n d a s a n " a ll-to o -h u m a n noblem an.
T h is may b e t r u e ; how ever, i t i s n o t e v id e n t from re a d in g
th e p la y . I t c a n w e ll p ro v e t h a t S ta v ro g in , l i k e J e a n -
B a p tis te C lam ence, i s m ost e f f e c t i v e a s an e v i l f o r c e when
he i s b u t a d ise m b o d ied p re s e n c e . D ostoevsky was c e r t a i n l y
a w a re —c o n s id e r in g h i s N otebook— o f t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y when,
r a t h e r th a n b u ild in g a dram a a ro u n d S ta v ro g in , h e c r e a te d
a n o v e l t o c o n ta in th e u n se e n d i f f u s i o n o f a s p i r i t “ lam ing
p e s t i l e n c e . The f i n is h e d w ork p a r ta k e s o f b o th g e n re s .
As e x p e c te d , The P o sse sse d l e n t i t s e l f w e ll t o a
s ta g e a d a p ta tio n . I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , b e c a u s e th e n o v e l
c o n s i s t s m a in ly o f re c o rd e d c o n v e r s a tio n s w ith c h a r a c t e r s
c o n tin u o u s ly j o in i n g i n o r ta k in g le a v e . Any a c t i o n t h a t
ta k e s p l a c e —w ith some n o n - e s s e n ti a l e x c e p tio n s — i s c o n
f in e d t o a room i n so m eo n e's h o u se o r an a r e a o u td o o rs
b o rd e re d by w a l ls , f e n c e s , o r r a i l i n g s . The tim e e la p s e d
a p p e a rs a s a p e r p e tu a l moment, a p a r t from c o n v e n tio n a l tim e .
^~*Ibid.. p. 636.
129
T hroughout th e n a r r a t i v e th e w ords flo w from d ay i n to
n ig h t, and t h e f a c t t h a t th e a c t u a l e v e n ts w hich ta k e p la c e
i n th e n o v e l l a s t two weeks i s b l u r r e d by th e c o n s ta n t e x
change o f id e a s and o p in io n s . The se co n d and d e c is iv e
a p p e a ra n c e o f S ta v ro g in a t h i s m o th e r 's and h i s v i s i t s to
h i s f r i e n d s t h a t n ig h t o c c u r w ith in tw e n ty - f o u r h o u rs .
E ig h t day s e la p s e and th e c li m a c ti c g ra n d b a l l f i n a l l y
ta k e s p la c e . The m o rn in g 's p r e p a r a tio n , th e d i s a s t r o u s
g a th e r in g , and th e m urderous a f te r m a th ta k e b u t f o r t y - e i g h t
h o u r s . ^ The re m a in in g in c i d e n t s a r e c o v e re d i n th e i n t r o
d u c to ry e x p o s itio n and e p il o g u e - l i k e c o n c lu s io n f o r w hich
D ostoevsky em ployed a n a r r a t o r , a n e u t r a l o b s e r v e r whose
" c h r o n ic le " c o u ld a l s o s e r v e t o p ro v id e f o r n e c e s s a r y
t r a n s i t i o n s .
Jo se p h W . Beach h a s w r i t t e n a n e x c e l l e n t e s s a y on
th e " d ra m a tic te n d e n c y " i n D ostoevsky, i n w hich he d is c u s s e s
16
Fyodor D ostoevsky, The P o sse sse d (New Y ork:
Modern L ib r a r y , 1 9 6 3 ). A ll o th e r r e f e r e n c e s a r e t o t h i s
e d i t i o n . S ta v ro g in * s tw e n ty -f o u r h o u r p re s e n c e c o v e rs
104 p a g e s; th e t r a n s i t i o n a l e ig h t- d a y la p s e 64; and th e
" b ig s c e n e " ( in c lu d in g " S t a v r o g in 's C o n fe s s io n " ) 332; th e
Modem L ib r a r y e d i t i o n (e x c lu d in g th e " V a ria n t R e a d in g s" )
c o n ta in s 730 p ag es o f w hich th e S te p an T ro fim o v itc h fra m e -
o f - r e f e r e n c e s t o r y c o v e rs a l i t t l e o v e r 200. S ta v r o g in 's
p re s e n c e o r in f lu e n c e in d e e d c o v e rs m ost p ag es o f th e
" i n t e r n a l " n o v e l.
130
th e " s i n g l e c e n t e r o f I n t e r e s t " e s s e n t i a l to dram a, th e
" l i m i t a t i o n o f p l a c e ," th e "am ount o f tim e c o v e r e d ," and
17
th e " d e v e lo p m e n ts" w ith in a s i n g l e d a y . A n o th er comen -
t a t o r , V y a ch e slav Ivanov, sp e a k s o f th e e s s e n t i a l law o f
tr a g e d y , w hich p a r ta k e s o f " e p ic rhythm " and th e " p r o g r e s
s i v e l y g a th e r in g momentum o f e v e n t s ." F u r th e r h e comments
on D o s to e v sk y 's " c r u e l M use," t r a g i c " to th e l a s t d e g r e e ,"
who b r in g s a b o u t a " c a t h a r s i s " th ro u g h f e a r and p i t y .
Ivanov c o n s id e r s D o s to e v sk y 's d ra m a tic te c h n iq u e i n f i c t i o n
com m endable, b u t n o t w ith o u t f a u l t : d i s t r a c t i n g , f o r
exam ple, i s th e a r t i f i c i a l j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r and
18
e v e n t in th e same p la c e and tim e . G eorge S t e in e r , l i k e
Beach and Iv an o v , d is c u s s e s th e e le m e n ts o f p la c e and tim e ;
b u t th e n h e go es on t o m e n tio n th e " e s s e n t i a l s t r u c t u r e o f
19
d ia lo g u e " expanded by " s t a g e - d i r e c t i o n s " i n t o a n o v e l.
■ ^Joseph W . B each, The T w e n tie th C en tu ry N ovel
(New Y ork: A p p le to n -C e n tu ry C o ., 1932), pp. 155-163.
18
V y ach eslav Iv an o v , Freedom and th e T ra g ic L if e —
A S tudy i n D ostoevsky (New Y ork: Noonday P re s s , 1952),
p p. 1 1 -1 5 .
19
G eorge S te in e r , T o ls to v o r D ostoevsky (New Y ork:
V in ta g e Books, 19 6 1 ), pp. 137-160.
A lso s e e : Camus, "F orew ord" t o The P o s s e s s e d .
R. F lilfip -M ille r and F. E c k s te in , P er u n b e k a n n te
D o sto ie w sk i (MHnchen: R. P ip e r C o ., 1926), p . 133.
W aslaw L e d n ic k i, R u ss ia . P o lan d , and th e W est (New
131
What C o n s ta n tin M b tc h o u lsk i had t o sa y a b o u t " l e d ram atism e
de D o s to ie v s k i" c an b e w e ll a p p lie d to The P o s s e s s e d : i t i s
a t h r e e - a c t " r o m a n - tr a g e d ie ," "un t h e d t r e de m asques t r a -
20
g i q u e s ," w ith , a t th e en d , a s ta g e l i t t e r e d w ith c o r p s e s .
W ith in t h i s t h e a t r i c a l and t r a g i c w o rld D ostoevsky
d e p ic te d a c o n te m p o ra ry h e ro whose a m o ra l a c t io n s and
c a s u a l a d v ic e d e s tr o y e d th e p e o p le a ro u n d him . S ta v ro g in
i s a d m ire d . He l iv e s on s o l i t a r y h e ig h t s . D is c o n te n te d
i n t e l l e c t u a l s and members o f th e a v a n t- g a r d e b o u r g e o is ie
i d o l i z e him . He i s f e a r e d by th o s e who h av e m et w ith h i s
m a lic io u s i n d if f e r e n c e and h a te d by th o s e w hose in n o c e n c e
w ith s ta n d s h i s p e r v e r s io n . He b r in g s a b o u t p i t y and f e a r
i n th o s e who w atch him o r come u n d e r h i s in f lu e n c e ; and
t o g e th e r w ith h i s f i c t i o n a l a u d ie n c e th e r e a d e r i s draw n
i n t o th e tim e le s s u n iv e r s e o f c h a o s . W ith a h o r r i d f a s c i n a
t i o n S ta v ro g in * s c i r c l e i s a t t r a c t e d by h i s " m e lo d io u s1 1
v o ic e and d is c o m f o rtin g s i l e n c e s t o b e d e s tro y e d a g a i n s t
Y ork: Roy R ib lis h e r s , 1 9 5 4 ), p. 133.
J o s e O rteg a y G a s s e t, The D ehum anization o f A rt
(G arden C ity , N .Y .: D oubleday A nchor, 1956), p . 71.
^ C o n s t a n t i n M o tc h o u lsk i, D o s to ie v s k i. l*homme e t
1*o e u v re , t r a d u i t de r u s s e G. W e lte r ( P a r i s : P a y o t, 1963),
pp. 3 6 2 -3 6 5 .
132
a w a ll o f i n d i f f e r e n c e . P r io r t o th e a c t i o n d e s c r ib e d i n
th e n o v e l, S ta v ro g in i s s a id t o h av e su g g e s te d id e a s to
o th e r s w ith w hich th e y c a n s u s t a i n f a i t h . Once he e n te r s
th e f i c t i o n a l fram ew ork, h i s fo rm e r f o llo w e r s come b ack ,
and now S ta v ro g in r e f u s e s t o acknow ledge h i s e a r l i e r w o rd s.
A ll th o s e who become in v o lv e d i n su c h a c o n f r o n ta tio n
r e s e n t d o u b tin g th e i n t e g r i t y o f th e M a ste r. They w ant a
c l e a r a n sw e r, and i n t h e i r p e r s i s t e n c e th e y a r e draw n i n to
a web o f c o n s p ira c y t o b e tr a y and d e s tr o y m ankind. I t i s
t h i s d e s t r u c t i o n , t h i s "m o n stro u s a v i l l a i n y " o f v io le n c e
a g a i n s t o th e r s and a g a i n s t s e l f w h ich D ostoevsky in te n d e d
t o p r e s e n t a s a w a rn in g to th e tim e s .
In my n o v e l The P o sse sse d I made th e a tte m p t to d e p ic t
th e m a n ifo ld and h e te ro g e n e o u s m o tiv e s w hich may prom pt
ev en th e p u r e s t o f h e a r t and th e m ost n a iv e p e o p le to
ta k e p a r t in th e p e r p e t r a t i o n o f so m o n stro u s a v i l
l a i n y . The h o r r o r l i e s p r e c i s e l y i n th e f a c t t h a t in
o u r m id s t th e f i l t h i e s t an d m ost v i l l a i n o u s a c t may b e
com m itted by one who i s n o t a v i l l a i n a t a l l ! T h is ,
how ever, h ap p en s n o t o n ly i n o u r m id s t b u t th ro u g h o u t
t h e w o rld ; i t h a s b e en so from tim e im m em orial, d u rin g
t r a n s i t i o n a l e p o c h s, a t tim e s o f v i o l e n t com m otion i n
p e o p le 's l i v e s —d o u b ts , n e g a tio n s , s c e p tic is m and
v a c i l l a t i o n r e g a r d in g th e fu n d a m e n ta l s o c i a l c o n v ic
t i o n s . . . . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n s id e r in g o n e s e lf n o t
a s a v i l l a i n , and som etim es a lm o st n o t b e in g one, w h ile
p e r p e t r a t i n g a p a te n t and i n c o n t e s ta b l e v i l l a i n y —
t h e r e i n i s o u r p r e s e n t- d a y c a la m ity .
21
Fyodor D o sto ie v sk y , The D ia rv o f a W rite r , t r a n s l .
and a n n o ta te d b y B o ris B ra s o l (New Y ork: C. S c r i b n e r 's
Sons, 1949), I, 149.
133
In th e s e "e p o c h s" men f a l l i n lo v e w ith a n a d v o c a te o f
n o th in g n e s s ; th e y w ant a n a rc h y f o r a n a r c h y 's sa k e b e c a u se
i t i s th e o n ly c o n c r e te and i d e n t i f i a b l e norm l e f t . They
la c k a l l g u id in g f o r c e , and th e y s e e k a le a d e r t o show them
s a l v a t i o n . The p o l i t i c a l t h e o r i e s t S h lg a lo v , w ith whose
w ork S ta v ro g in i s f a m i l i a r , a n t i c i p a t e s Iv an K aram azov's
"G rand I n q u i s i t o r " i n h is d i s c u s s io n o f e q u a l i t y . Men
s h o u ld b e made s l a v e s , and S ta v ro g in i s prom pted t o become
t h e i r " d i r e c t o r . " S h ig a lo v 's spokesm an i n s i s t s :
A ll a r e s la v e s and e q u a l in t h e i r s l a v e r y . . . . S la v e s
a r e bound t o be e q u a l. T here h a s n e v e r b e en e i t h e r
freedom o r e q u a l i t y . . . . S la v e s m ust h av e d i r e c t o r s .
A b s o lu te su b m iss io n , a b s o lu te lo s s o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y ,
b u t once in t h i r t y y e a rs S h ig a lo v w ould l e t them hav e
a sh o ck and th e y w ould a l l su d d e n ly b e g in e a tin g one
a n o th e r u p , to a c e r t a i n p o i n t, sim p ly a s a p r e c a u tio n
a g a i n s t boredom .
The le a d e r f o r th e West s h a l l b e th e Pope, th e d e s tr o y e r o f
C h r i s t 's te a c h in g s , and f o r R u ssia t h e r e s h a l l be S ta v ro g in :
"You s h a l l b e f o r u s ," you s h a l l b e th e " i d o l" and th e
22
" s u n ." But S ta v ro g in , w ith h i s u s u a l p h le g m a tic a t t i t u d e ,
r e f u s e s th e h o n o r.
S ta v r o g in 's i n d if f e r e n c e i s i n t e r p r e t e d by h is
a u d ie n c e a s a s ig n o f g r e a tn e s s and m y s te ry , a s a p ro m ise
22
The P o sse sse d . I I , v i i i , pp. 4 2 4 -4 2 5 .
134
o f s a l v a t i o n t o come. S ta v ro g in i s an enigm a to h i s f i c
t i o n a l w o rld and t o h i s r e a d e r s . I n o r d e r t o s o lv e th e
problem a la r g e num ber o f th e c r i t i c s a tte m p t t o r e l a t e him
to one o r a n o th e r o f th e a r c h e ty p a l h e ro e s o f l i t e r a t u r e .
V y ch eslav Iv anov f in d s th e s t o r y o f S ta v ro g in to b e p a r a l l e l
to th e F a u s t m yth w ith th e d i s t i n c t i o n , how ever, t h a t th e
h e ro , u n lik e F a u s t who i s S a ta n 's d e b to r , i s th e " v a s s a l"
23
o f th e T em pter. G eorge S te in e r s e e s i n D o s to e v sk y 's h e ro
a " v a r i a n t on th e S a ta n ic h e ro e s o f B yronism and t h e G o th ic "
and n o te s , m o reo v e r, t h a t , l i k e A n t i c h r i s t , h e " re se m b le s
24
th e t r u e M e ss ia h ." D. A. T r a v e r s i a g re e s w ith th e f i r s t
p a r t o f S t e i n e r 's o b s e r v a tio n when h e c a l l s S ta v ro g in a
25
" ro m a n tic , 'B y ro n ic ,* e g o i s t " ; R o b e rt Payne f in d s r e l i
g io u s o v e rto n e s when h e d e s c r ib e s th e h e ro a s " th e b u rn in g
s a t a n i c c o re a t th e h e a r t o f t h i n g s , " " th e F a lle n A ngel who
26
w anders d i s c o n s o l a t e l y th ro u g h th e w o r ld ." L a s tly t h e r e
23
Iv an o v , Freedom and t h e T ra g ic L if e , pp. 6 1 -6 4 .
24
S te in e r , T o ls to v o r D o sto ev sk y , pp. 311, 314.
25
D. A. T r a v e r s i, " D o s to ie v s k y ," The C r i t e r i o n . XVI
(J u ly , 1 9 37), 598.
26
R o b ert Payne, D ostoyevsky (New Y ork: A lfre d
Knopf, 1961), p. 261.
135
a r e th o s e who a p p ro a c h The P o sse sse d i n s e a r c h o f m yth
and a r c h e ty p a l p a t t e r n w ith o u t s p e c i f i c a l l y fo c u s in g on
27
S ta v ro g in . Some c r i t i c s do n o t r e l a t e D o s to e v sk y 's h e ro
to any s p e c i f i c p r e d e c e s s o r b u t sp eak o f him a s a man
28
"to rm e n te d by th e demon o f p r i d e ," s u f f e r i n g from "rom an-
29
t i c e n n u i." and l i v i n g "below , n o t beyond, good and
e v i l . " ^ S ta v ro g in s p re a d s chaos w h e rev e r h e g o e s :
Wrapped in i n d i f f e r e n c e , l o s t in an e g o tism h e d o es
n o t v a lu e , h e p a s s e s b y , sim p ly b u t d e a d ly , a s i f h e
w ere th e i n h a b i t a n t o f a n o th e r p l a n e t, s p re a d in g
a ro u n d him , im p a s s iv e ly , a miasma a s h e g o e s . - * I
I f com m entators have b een n o tic in g a l l th e v a r i e d d i r e c
tio n s f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , th e y have c o n c u rre d w ith
2 7
' R alph J . H allm an, P sychology o f L i t e r a t u r e :
A S tudy o f A lie n a tio n and T ragedy (New Y ork: P h ilo s o p h ic a l
L ib ra r y , 19 6 1 ), p p . 2 0 6 -2 2 3 .
R enato P o g g io li, " D o sto e v sk i, o r R e a lity and
M yth," i n The P hoenix and th e S p id e r (C am bridge: H arvard
U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1 9 5 7 ), p p . 16-32.
Leon A. Z an d er, D ostoevsky, t r a n s l . N. D uddington
(London: SCM P re s s , 1 9 4 8 ), pp. 99 f f .
28 /
A ndre G ide, D ostoevsky (N o rfo lk , C o n n .: New
D ir e c tio n s Books, 1949), p . 87.
Edward H. C a rr, D ostoevsky. 1821-1881: A New
B io g rap h y (London: A lle n and Unwin, 1 9 4 9 ), p . 227.
30
I r v in g Howe, P o l i t i c s and th e N ovel (New Y ork:
M e rid ia n Books, 19 5 7 ), p . 64.
3 1
R ic h a rd C u rie , C h a ra c te rs o f D o sto ie v sk y : S tu d ie s
from F our N ovels (London: W . Heinem ann, 19 5 0 ), p . 138.
136
D o s to e v sk y 's a tte m p t t o c r e a t e a t r a g i c h e ro c lo a k e d in
m y s te ry . When th e a u th o r was s t i l l w o rk in g on th e n o v e l,
h e w ro te t o h i s p u b lis h e r K atkov (O cto b er 8, 1870) t h a t th e
p o l i t i c a l a g i t a t o r who had b e e n in te n d e d a s th e m ain
c h a r a c t e r was g o in g to b e r e p la c e d by a n o th e r "H au p t-
p e r s o n ."
D ie se a n d e re P e rso n d es Romans (N ik o la i S ta w ro g in ) i s t
g l e i c h f a l l s e in e d iis te r e E rsc h e in u n g , e i n U e b e ltM te r.
Ich h a l t e s i e je d o c h f tir e in e t r a g i s c h e F ig u r. . . .
M einer Meinung n ach i s t s i e sow ohl r u s s i s c h , w ie
ty p is c h m e n s c h lic h . . . . Nur e in e s bem erke i c h : d i e s e r
g an ze C h a ra k te r w ird von m ir d u rc h Szenen und Hand-
lu n g e n g e s c h i l d e r t w erden, n i c h t d u rc h E rtirte ru n g e n ,
es i s t a l s o H offnung v o rh a n d e n , d a sz e in e P er s tin 1 ic h -
k e i t d a b e i herauskom m t.
T h is new h e ro had a lr e a d y b een s k e tc h e d on th e p ag es o f th e
w r i t e r 's N otebook. P a rt o f th e e n tr y f o r A ugust 16, 1869,
re a d s a s f o l lo w s :
Le p r i n c e —som bre, p a s s io n n e , c a r a c t e r e dem oniaque e t
d e so rd o n n e . Sans au cu n e m esu re, a v ec l a q u e s tio n
supr& ne S tr e ou n e pas e t r e ? V iv re ou s e d e t r u i r e ?
C o n tin u e r comme p a r l e p a s s e , i l l e ju g e en c o n s c ie n c e
im p o s s ib le , m ais i l c o n tin u e d 'a g i r comme a v a n t e t
v i o l e .
S e v e ra l p a ra g ra p h s l a t e r D ostoevsky rem in d s h i m s e l f : "T out
32
F tlltip -M ille r and E c k s te in , P er u n b e k a n n te
D o sto ie w sk i. p . 130.
^ F . H. D o sto ie v sk y , C a rn e ts d es demons ( P a r i s :
G a llim a rd , 1 9 55), p . 784. ( B ib lio th e q u e d e l a P l e i a d e .)
137
e s t dan s l e c a r a c t e r e d e S ta v ro g u in e . S ta v ro g u in e TOUT. " 34
S in c e h e i s e v e r y th in g , h e i s p a r t o f th e ch ao s w here h e
l i v e s : "Un a r i s t o c r a t e d e p ra v e e t r i e n d e p lu s . R ien que
* 35
d e s o r d r e ." N e v e r th e le s s , t h i s m ust go u n re c o g n iz e d
w ith in th e w o rld o f The P o s s e s s e d . I t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t he
36
i s d e p ic te d "comme ton homme e x tr a o r d in a ir e " in o r d e r t o
c a tc h th e a t t e n t i o n o f th o s e w a itin g t o b e u n i te d . Human
r e l a t i o n s h i p s had b een s h a t t e r e d a f t e r The F a l l a n d , in d e
c i s i v e l y , man h a s w an d ered , w a itin g f o r a s a v io u r t o le a d
him t o th e p ro m ised la n d o f harm ony. In h i s D ia ry D o sto
evsky rem a rk ed :
E verybody s e g r e g a te s h im s e lf , k eep s a lo o f from o t h e r s .
. . . Form er t i e s a r e b e in g s e v e re d w ith o u t r e g r e t and
everybody a c t s by h im s e lf , and in t h i s a lo n e do es he
f in d c o n s o la tio n . I f h e d o e s n 't a c t , he w ish e s he
c o u ld a c t . T ru e, a g r e a t many p e o p le a r e n o t s t a r t i n g
a n y th in g and n e v e r w i l l s t a r t ; even s o , th e y a r e d e
ta c h e d ; th e y s ta n d a p a r t , s t a r i n g a t th e em pty s p o t
and i d l y w a itin g f o r so m e th in g . W e a l l a r e a w a itin g
so m e th in g . '
In The P o sse sse d e v ery o n e i s " w a itin g f o r so m e th in g " in
S ta v ro g in , b u t th e d i f f i c u l t y i s t h a t t h e i r p r o p h e t - e le c t
3 4 I b i d . . p . 787.
^ I b i d . . p . 1051. E n try f o r Ju n e 9, 1870.
3 6 I b i d . . p . 1069. E n try f o r May 23, 1870.
3 ^ D iarv o f a W rite r . I, 245. E n try f o r M arch, 1876.
138
c a n n o t f i l l th e "em pty s p o t" ; h e l i v e s i n a s t a t e o f
a n t i c i p a t i o n , lo o k in g f o r so m eth in g h im s e lf ; h e em bodies
v a r io u s b e l i e f s f o r th o s e a ro u n d him b u t c an f in d no f u l
f i ll m e n t h im s e lf . When h e r e a p p e a r s a t h i s m o th e r 's home,
h a v in g t r a v e le d a b ro a d h e i s r e c e iv e d w ith " n a iv e so lem
n i t y . "
In a l l ey es f a s te n e d upon him c o u ld b e re a d e a g e r
a n t i c i p a t i o n . N ik o lay a t once w rapped h im s e lf in th e
m ost a u s t e r e s i l e n c e , w h ich , o f c o u r s e , g r a t i f i e d
ev ery o n e much m ore th a n ' i f h e h ad ta lk e d t i l l doom sday.
In a w ord, h e was a s u c c e s s , he was th e f a s h io n . . . .
He was n o t found c h e e r f u l com pany: " a man who h a s b e en
s u f f e r i n g ; a man n o t l i k e o t h e r p e o p le ; h e h a s some
th in g t o b e m e lan c h o ly a b o u t." Even th e p r id e and d i s
d a i n f u l a lo o f n e s s f o r w h ich h e had b e en so d e te s t e d
fo u r y e a rs b e fo r e was now lik e d and r e s p e c te d .
The r e a d e r , l i k e th e s o c i e t y o f th e s m a ll R u ssia n tow n,
becom es in v o lv e d w ith S ta v r o g in 's p e r v e r s io n s and c rim e s .
In v e ig le d , one o v e rlo o k s h i s d e p r a v ity , h i s v ic io u s c o n
d u c t, h i s o u tra g e s a g a i n s t s o c i e t y , and h i s d i s d a in f o r
c o n v e n tio n a l m o r a l it y . H is rem ark s t h a t "good and e v i l
39
r e a l l y do n o t e x i s t " and a r e " b u t a p r e j u d i c e ," a r e d i f
f i c u l t t o ju d g e . S ta v ro g in , l i k e C lam ence, i s a m ir r o r i n
w hich e ach c an re c o g n iz e h i s a n x i e t i e s , h i s a m b iv a le n c e ,
38
The P o s se ss e d . I I , i v , 1, p . 304.
3 9 I b i d . . "A t T ih o n 's ," p . 712.
139
h i s g u i l t , and h i s c o m p lic ity in th e p e r p e tu a tio n o f th e
f r a u d o f C h r i s t ia n c i v i l i z a t i o n . Y et, S ta v ro g in h im s e lf i s
em pty a n d , h e n c e , a lo o f in p e rs o n a l com m itm ents. He lo n g s
f o r so m eth in g t h a t w i l l r e l e a s e him from h i s boredom , and
t h i s d e s i r e even m a n if e s ts i t s e l f i n a n eed t o o v e r s t a t e
h i s g u i l t in o r d e r t o a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n . T hose who p r o j e c t
th e m se lv e s i n t o S ta v r o g in 's c o n s c io u s n e s s f in d t h a t h i s
h a u g h ty i n d if f e r e n c e i s n o t s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t : h e a c t s f o r
th e sa k e o f a p p e a ra n c e , y e t aw are o f h is e v e r-c h a n g in g
m asq u era d e. Above a l l he la c k s th e e s s e n t i a l w o rth by
w hich man c a n tra n s c e n d h im s e lf , th e a b i l i t y t o lo v e , w hich
b r in g s t o m ind F a th e r Z o s s im a 's a s s e r t i o n in The B ro th e rs
K aram azov: "What i s h e l l ? I m a in ta in t h a t i t i s t h e s u f -
40
f e r i n g o f b e in g u n a b le t o lo v e ." S u re ly , t h i s i s a s t a t e
o f b e in g w ith w hich S ta v ro g in i s f a m i l i a r .
N ik o lay h a r d ly knew h i s p a re n ts and was r a i s e d by a
t u t o r who ta u g h t th e c h il d t o w eep. T h is te a c h e r su c ce ed e d
i n r e a c h in g th e " d e e p e s t c h o rd s in h i s p u p i l 's h e a r t " and
" a ro u s e d in him a f i r s t v ag u e s e n s a t io n o f t h a t e t e r n a l ,
s a c r e d y e a rn in g w hich some e l e c t s o u ls c a n n e v e r g iv e up
40
The B ro th e rs Karam azov. V I, i i i , p . 400.
41
f o r c h ea p g r a t i f i c a t i o n . ” The n a r r a t o r o f th e n o v e l
f u r t h e r t e l l s t h a t th e c h i l d l e f t home, and so o n to o k " to
r i o t o u s l i v i n g w ith a s o r t o f f r e n z y ," w h ile " a s s o c ia t in g
w ith th e d re g s o f th e p o p u l a t i o n .1,42 A p p a re n tly , th e
" y e a rn in g " h a s n o t b e en g r a t i f i e d . S ta v ro g in tu r n s to
d e b a u c h e ry , f u r i o u s l y jo in i n g th e "m ockery" o f l i f e . L ike
Camus' C a lig u la . h e tr a n s c e n d s a l l d i s t i n c t i o n s b etw een
good and e v i l and p a s s e s beyond i n t o th e a m o r a lity o f a
re a lm w here a l l a c t io n s a r e o f e q u a l v a lu e . S ta v ro g in h a s
" o u tra g e d c h i l d r e n , " and h a s s e e n "no d i s t i n c t i o n in b e a u ty
b etw een some b r u t a l o b sc en e a c t i o n and any g r e a t e x p l o i t ,
even th e s a c r i f i c e o f l i f e f o r th e good o f h u m a n ity ." He
found " i d e n t i c a l b e a u ty , e q u a l enjoym ent in b o th e x -
43
tr e m e s ." At th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e n o v e l, i n a l e t t e r to
th e o n ly woman who h a s u n d e rs to o d him , S ta v ro g in w r i t e s :
" I 'v e t r i e d th e d e p th s o f d e b a u c h e ry and w a ste d my s t r e n g th
44
o v e r i t , " b u t h e i s s t i l l n o t s u r e why he fo llo w e d t h i s
c o u rs e .
4 * ~ The P o s se ss e d . I , i i , 1, p . 38.
4 2 I b i d . . pp. 3 8 -3 9 .
4 3 I b i d . . I I , i , 7, p. 257.
44Ibid.. Ill, viii, p. 685.
141
45
C o n c u rrin g w ith o th e r c r i t i c s , N ic h o la s B erdyaev
p ro p o se s a p a r t i a l answ er by s u g g e s tin g a " d e f i a n t s e l f -
a f f ir m a tio n " w hich many D o sto e v sk ia n h e ro e s have in common.
In them i s shown
freedom d e t e r i o r a t i n g i n t o s e l f - w i l l and a d e f i a n t
s e l f - a f f i r m a t i o n t o b e th e n c e fo rw a rd i n e f f e c t u a l ,
w o r th le s s , and a d r a i n on th e in d iv i d u a l. . . .
Freedom t h a t i s a r b i t r a r y d e s tr o y s i t s e l f . . . .
Man i s consum ed a s by f i r e am id th e shadows o f th e
w ild e r n e s s t h a t h e h a s h im s e lf c h o s e n . ^
I f in h i s s e l f - w i l l S ta v ro g in i s a n enigm a to h im s e lf , to
o th e r s he o f te n seem s to b e a m ask. The f i r s t tim e h e s e e s
S ta v ro g in , th e n a r r a t o r comments t h a t he was " b o ld and
s e l f - r e l i a n t , a s none o f us w e re ." H is a p p e a ra n c e was im
p r e s s i v e l y handsom e, " y e t a t th e same tim e th e r e seemed
so m eth in g r e p e l l e n t a b o u t him . I t was s a id t h a t h is fa c e
su g g e s te d a m a s k ." ^ T his q u e s tio n o f th e m ask, t h i s
45
Janko l a v r i n , D ostoevsky and H is C r e a tio n :
A P s v c h o - C r itic a l S tudy (London: C o llin s , 1920), pp. 111-
114.
M ischa F a y e r, G ide. Freedom and D ostoevsky (B ur
l in g to n , V t . : Lane P re s s , 1946), p . 62.
A. L evinson, l a V ie p a th e tia u e de D o s to ie v s k i
( P a r is : L i b r a i r i e P lo n , 1 9 31), p. 110.
H en ri T ro y a t, D o sto ie v sk y ( P a r i s : L i b r a i r i e
A rthem e F ay ard , 1 9 4 0 ), pp. 125, 370.
46
N ic h o la s B erdyaev, D ostoevsky (New Y ork: M eri
d ia n Books, 1957), p . 76.
47
The P o sse sse d . I , i i , 1, pp. 4 0 -4 1 .
142
u n c h an g in g , " q u ie t" e x p re s s io n , le n d s a sem blance o f m ys
t e r i o u s u n i ty t o an a lr e a d y frag m en ted p e r s o n a l i t y . S e v e ra l
tim e s S ta v ro g in i s c a l l e d " P r in c e " ; b u t th e form o f a d d re s s ,
l i k e th e name S ta v ro g in (d e riv e d from th e G reek w ord f o r
c r o s s , s t a u r o s ) . a r e th e i r o n i c a l a t t r i b u t e s o f th e d e c e p
t i v e mask th e w o rld s e e s . As th e p r e te n d e r t o th e th ro n e
o f c h a o s, he c o n ta in s e le m e n ts o f charm and g ra n d e u r; and
h i s c o n sp ic u o u s a p p e a ra n c e , l i k e "a diam ond s e t i n th e
48
d i r t y back g ro u n d o f . . . l i f e , " draw s p e o p le t o th e edge
o f a b a r r e n w ild e r n e s s .
The in te n s e r e a c t i o n in d u ced by th e p re s e n c e o r
a c tio n s o f S ta v ro g in i s one o f f a s c i n a t i o n and f e a r , h o r r o r
and a d m ira tio n . He i s th e p e r f e c t decoy to draw m ankind
i n t o th e c o m p lic ity o f u t t e r n e g a tio n . When h e a p p e a rs ,
when h e c la s h e s w ith o t h e r s , when he i s r e l a t e d t o th e p a s t ,
p a r t i c i p a t e s i n th e p r e s e n t, o r p r o j e c t s h im s e lf i n t o th e
f u t u r e , awe o r t e r r o r e n v e lo p h is s u rro u n d in g s . Those who
hav e f e l t th e la s h o f h is m a lig n i n d if f e r e n c e l in k him w ith
th e low er form s o f a n im a l l i f e : th e y s e e him a s a v i p e r ,
48Ibid.. I, v, 6, p. 187.
143
49
a s p i d e r , o r a c la w in g b e a s t . His p re s e n c e I n c i t e s th e
c o n s c io u s n e s s o f e v i l , and o n ly th e In n o ce n t I n s t i n c t i v e l y
re c o g n iz e th e dem onic. T h is i n t u i t i v e p e rc e p tio n becom es
e v id e n t when S ta v ro g in * s w if e , th e c r i p p l e M arya, sa y s to
him : ’’When I saw y o u r mean fa c e a f t e r I*d f a l l e n down and
you p ic k e d me u p — i t was l i k e a worm c ra w lin g i n t o my
h e a r t . One n ig h t h e go es t o s e e K i r i l l o v , who i s p la y
in g w ith a s m a ll c h il d , h e ld by a woman. A f te r h a v in g
e n te r e d , ’’th e c h i l d c a u g h t s i g h t o f him , n e s t le d a g a i n s t
th e o ld woman and w ent o f f i n t o a p ro lo n g e d i n f a n t i l e
51
w a i l ." Yet no o th e r s r e j e c t him i n s t i n c t i v e l y , and even
Marya h a s i n i t i a l l y b e en c a p tiv a te d by h e r " s a v i o r ." His
c o n v e r ts , who have e le c te d him t o f i l l th e "em pty s p o t" i n
t h e i r l i v e s , r e g a r d him a s t h e i r i d o l , t h e i r l i g h t and su n
u n t i l th e c r u c i a l moment when th e y a r e c a s t o f f to m eet
t h e i r f a t e in d a rk n e s s .
F or an in f o r m a tiv e d is c u s s io n o f a n im a l sym bol
ism in D ostoevsky s e e R alph E. M atlaw, " R e c u rre n t Im agery
i n D o s to e v s k ij," H arvard S la v ic S tu d ie s . I l l (1 9 5 7 ), 201-
225.
~^The P o s se ss e d . I I , i i , 3, p . 282.
51Ibid.. II, i, 5, p. 235.
144
At one tim e S ta v ro g in had g iv e n a d v ic e to th o s e
in n e e d , b u t h a v in g r e tu r n e d t o th e fa m ily e s t a t e from
S t. P e te rs b u rg , h e d e n ie s th e v a l i d i t y o f e a r l i e r a d v ic e by
r e f u s in g t o comment. S ta v ro g in h a s b een made t o re c o g n iz e
th e f u t i l i t y o f f a i t h i n p e o p le , in id e a s , and in h i s own
im p o rta n c e . In m a n k in d 's w i l l i n g a s s e n t to b e lie v e in him
and t o s e rv e h i s need S ta v ro g in h as b een o f f e r e d a ch an ce
f o r s e l f - e x u l t a t i o n and so to r i s e above th e m a sse s. In
th e c i t y h e liv e d in th e lim e lig h t o f h i s power u n t i l th e
day when h e ra p e d a young g i r l and a llo w e d h e r t o hang h e r
s e l f a fte r w a r d s in a d e lir iu m o f g u i l t . F or S ta v ro g in th e
c o n c e p t o f h is s u p e r i o r i t y h a s c o lla p s e d w ith th e r e a l i z a
t i o n t h a t f e a r h a s e n te r e d h i s autonom ous s t a t e .
The m ain th in g was t h a t I was a f r a i d and t h a t I was
so c o n s c io u s o f b e in g a f r a i d . Oh, I know o f n o th in g
m ore a b su rd and m ore a b o m in ab le ! I had n e v e r e x p e r i
enced f e a r b e f o r e , n e v e r b e fo r e and n e v e r a f te r w a r d s ,
b u t t h i s one tim e i n my l i f e I was a f r a i d , and i n f a c t ,
I l i t e r a l l y tre m b le d . The in te n s e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f i t
was a p ro fo u n d h u m ilia tio n .
S ta v ro g in h a s b e en fa c e d w ith th e a b su rd in h i s r e c o g n itio n
o f th e d is c r e p a n c y betw een h is a c t u a l s e l f and th e way he
h as c o n c e iv e d h im s e lf to b e . L ik e Clam ence who l e t a g i r l
2Ibid.. "At Tihon's," p. 707.
145
drown and th e n r e a l i z e d h i s v u l n e r a b i l i t y to judgm ent and
co n d em n atio n , h e ru n s from th e c o n f r o n ta tio n o n ly t o m e e t,
l i k e C lam ence, h i s b a p tis m by a b s u r d i ty . Dream ing o f an
" e a r t h l y p a r a d i s e ," h e aw akens, and w ith s t i l l c lo s e d ey es
th e image o f th e l i t t l e g i r l sh a k in g h e r f i s t a t him throw s
i t s p r o j e c ti o n on th e b e a u ty o f th e e a r l i e r v i s i o n .
What I r e g r e t i s n o t t h e c rim e, n o r h e r d e a th , I am n o t
s o r r y f o r h e r , w hat I c a n n o t b e a r i s j u s t t h a t one
i n s t a n t , I c a n 't , I c a n 't , b e c a u se I s e e h e r t h a t way
e v e ry d ay , and I know f o r a c e r t a i n t y t h a t I am
doomed.
S ta v ro g in now r e t u r n s to h i s a n c e s t r a l e s t a t e t o b e g in h is
l i f e in th e " m a lc o n fo rt" o f g u i l t : i n th e " b ir d c a g e " ( in
"a s m a ll wooden box f o r s t a r l i n g s , " th e E n g lis h m eaning o f
S lc v o resh n ik i. th e S ta v ro g in e s t a t e ) he b e g in s h i s s o l i t a r y
e x i l e .
S ta v ro g in i s a n e th e rw o rld in c a r n a t e . As a n e m is
s a r y o f h e l l , he tr a n s m its a m e r c ile s s s p i r i t o f d e s t r u c
t i o n . O ften he i s p r e s e n t w ith o u t b e in g t h e r e : h i s shadow
f a l l s a c r o s s a l l o th e r c h a r a c t e r s . He rem a in s unm ovable
w ith in h i s own u n iv e r s e , and y e t he i s th e f o r c e t h a t
i n i t i a t e s th e d e a d ly f a t e o f th o s e whom he e n c o u n te rs .
53Ibid.. "At Tihon's," p. 717.
146
Once th e s e p e rs o n s re c o g n iz e him a s a p o s s ib le r e a l i t y ,
t h e i r p e r d i t i o n becom es i r r e v o c a b le . S ta v ro g in p e r s o n i f i e s
a l l t h a t i s beyond hope, a n d , h e n c e , beyond human e x is te n c e .
He i s n o t s u s c e p t i b l e t o th o u g h ts o r a c t io n s r e s u l t i n g from
human p a s s io n :
S ta v ro g in w ould hav e s h o t h i s opponent i n a d u e l . . .
b u t i t w ould h av e b e e n w ith o u t th e s l i g h t e s t t h r i l l o f
en jo y m en t, la n g u id ly , l i s t l e s s l y even w ith e n n u i and
e n t i r e l y from u n p le a s a n t n e c e s s i t y .
G ra n te d , th e n a r r a t o r o b s e rv e s , h e may f e e l a n g e r u n d e r th e
c irc u m s ta n c e s , b u t i t i s " a calm , c o ld , i f one may s a y s o ,
re a s o n a b le a n g e r ,” th e "m ost t e r r i b l e p o s s ib le ." " * 4 H is
m o th e r and L iz a , th e g i r l t o whom h e h as b e e n a t t r a c t e d f o r
some tim e , r e a l i z e th e in h u m a n ity o f h i s b e in g . T e rro r
g r ip s th e m o th e r when sh e in tr u d e s upon h e r s le e p in g so n ,
" s i t t i n g s t r a n g e l y m o tio n le s s ."
H is fa c e was p a le and f o r b id d in g , b u t i t lo o k ed , a s
i t w e re, numb and r i g i d . H is brow s w ere somewhat c o n
t r a c t e d and fro w n in g . He p o s i t i v e l y h ad th e lo o k o f
a l i f e l e s s wax f i g u r e . . . . She w ith d rew on t i p t o e
. . . w ith a new o p p re s s io n and a new a n g u is h a t h e r
h e a r t .^ 5
L iz a , a f t e r h a v in g s p e n t th e n ig h t w ith him , b re a k s o u t in
t e r r o r :
5 4 I b i d . . I , v , 8, p . 206.
5 5 I b i d . . I I , i , 4 , p . 232.
147
I o u g h t t o c o n fe s s t h a t e v e r s in c e th o s e days in
S w itz e rla n d I have had a s tr o n g f e e l in g t h a t you h av e
so m e th in g la w fu l, lo a th so m e , some b lo o d sh e d on y o u r
c o n s c ie n c e , and y e t so m eth in g t h a t w ould make you lo o k
v e ry rid ic u lo u s .-* ®
W hatever th e r i d i c u l o u s h a s b e e n , L iz a v o ic e s h e r d i s a p
p o in tm e n t :
I alw ays fa n c ie d t h a t you w ould ta k e me t o some p la c e
w here t h e r e was a huge w icked s p i d e r , b ig a s a man,
and we sh o u ld sp en d o u r l i v e s lo o k in g a t i t and b e in g
a f r a i ^ o f i t . T h a t 's how o u r lo v e w ould spend i t
s e l f .
She d o es n o t r e a l i z e t h a t sh e h as s e e n th e s p id e r o f d e
s t r u c t i o n , and sh e le a v e s th e " b ir d c a g e ” to m eet h e r d e a th .
In The I d i o t D ostoevsky em ployed a s i m i l a r im age t o w arn
Ip p o ly t o f th e a p p ro a c h o f th e demon R ogozhin. In my
d e lir iu m , Ip p o ly t s a y s ,
I seem ed t o fa n c y a t tim e s t h a t I saw in some s tr a n g e ,
i n c r e d ib l e form t h a t i n f i n i t e Power, t h a t d u l l , d a rk
dumb f o r c e . I rem em ber t h a t someone seemed t o le a d me
by th e h an d , h o ld in g a c a n d le , to show me a huge and
lo ath so m e s p i d e r , and to a s s u r e me, la u g h in g a t my
in d ig n a tio n , t h a t t h i s was t h a t same d a rk , dumb and
a lm ig h ty power.-*8
T h is a lm ig h ty pow er o f d ia b o lis m p e rv a d e s D o sto
e v s k y 's th in k in g , and a s n o v e l i s t h e o f te n d e p ic ts dem onic
56I b i d . . I l l , i i i , i , p . 534.
5 7 I b i d ., I l l , i i i , i , p . 535.
58
D ostoevsky, The I d i o t . I l l , v i , p . 418.
148
p o w ers. When th e d e v i l a p p e a rs , h e c an do so i n p e rs o n ,
d i s t i n c t l y v i s i b l e t o a p a r t i c u l a r f i g u r e , a s in th e c a s e
o f Iv an Karamazov and I p p o ly t, o r w ith in a n o th e r c h a r a c t e r
a s e v i l 's a d v o c a te , w hich i s th e c a s e w ith S ta v r o g in . In
th e f i r s t , S a ta n a p p e a rs in a n ig h tm a re ; i n th e se co n d ,
e v i l i s an i n t u i t i v e r e a l i t y .
When I v a n 's d e v i l w anders i n t o h i s room , h e a c t s
l i k e a "p o o r r e l a t i v e " in n eed o f s u p p o r t. As an in c a r n a
t i o n o f Iv an he i s " a phantom i n l i f e who h a s l o s t a l l
b e g in n in g and e n d ." Iv an w a n ts t o show him th e d o o r, b u t
th e d e v i l c li n g s t o h is " re f u g e " b e c a u s e h e h a s found an
a d v o c a te o f th e c o n d itio n w here " a l l th in g s a r e la w f u l."
T his a ssu m p tio n h a s i n v i t e d th e " v i s i t o r , " who i s alw ays
w i l l i n g " to e n t e r i n t o th e w o rld " and to ta k e a s e a t on a
s o f a t o g iv e a d v ic e :
I m a in ta in t h a t n o th in g n eed b e d e s tr o y e d , t h a t we o n ly
n eed t o d e s tr o y th e id e a o f God in man, t h a t 's how we
h av e t o s e t t o w ork. I t ' s t h a t , t h a t we m ust b e g in
w ith . Oh! b l in d r a c e o f men who have no u n d e rs ta n d in g !
As soon a s men have a l l d e n ie d God . . . th e o ld c o n
c e p tio n o f th e u n iv e r s e w i l l f a l l o f i t s e l f w ith o u t
c a n n ib a lis m and w h a t's m ore th e o ld m o r a lity , and
e v e r y th in g w i l l b e g in anew . . . . Man w i l l b e l i f t e d
up w ith a s p i r i t o f d iv in e T ita n ic p r id e and th e m an-
god w i l l a p p e a r. . . . Even i f t h i s p e rio d n e v e r comes
t o p a s s , s in c e t h e r e i s anyway n o God and no immor
t a l i t y , th e new man may w e ll becom e th e m an-god, even
i f h e i s th e o n ly one i n th e w hole w o rld . Prom oted
149
t o h i s new p o s i t i o n , h e may l i g h t - h e a r t e d l y o v e rs te p
a l l th e b a r r i e r s o f th e o ld m o r a lity o f th e o ld s l a v e -
man. 9
T h is q u o ta tio n from The B ro th e rs Karamay-mr th ro w s l i g h t on
D ostoevsky*s e a r l i e r e x p e rim e n ta tio n w ith S ta v ro g in in
The P o s s e s s e d . C o n tra ry to Iv an , S ta v ro g in do es n o t r e s i s t
th e te m p ta tio n to " o v e r s te p a l l th e b a r r i e r s " and be l i f t e d
up w ith " T ita n ic p r i d e . " F or S ta v ro g in God i s dead so t h a t
f o r him t h e r e i s n o th in g l e f t to lo v e o r h a te i n p a r t i c u l a r .
S ta v ro g in h a s rem oved h im s e lf t o h i s lo s tn e s s w here h i s
new ly found i s o l a t i o n i s i n v i o l a b l e . He i s above and
beyond human com m itm ent: i n t h i s l i e s h i s f a s c i n a t i o n f o r
m ankind, who w ish to " c a tc h " him so t h a t th e y c a n b e lie v e
in him . "To cook y o u r h a re you m ust f i r s t c a tc h i t , to
fin
b e li e v e in God you m ust f i r s t h a v e a g o d ." S ta v ro g in * s
own s a y in g h i s f o llo w e rs rem em ber.
S ta v ro g in i s an a l i e n in t h i s w o rld : "I*m an o u t
s i d e r , n o t y o u r h u sb an d , n o r y o u r f a t h e r , n o r y o u r b e
t r o t h e d ," h e sa y s t o h i s c r ip p le d w i f e . ^ One o f h i s
59
The B ro th e rs Karam azov, X I, ix , pp. 8 1 5 -8 1 6 .
^ The P o sse sse d . I I , i , 7, p . 256.
61Ibid.. I, v, 5, p. 184.
150
fo llo w e r s c a r e f u l l y rem in d s him d u rin g a d is c u s s io n , "you
s e e , I d o n 't sa y 'o u r ,* you d o n ’ t l i k e th e word 'o u r ,* I
62
sa y th e c a u s e ." To h i s " n u rs e " h e w r i t e s : " I hav e no
t i e s in R u s s ia —e v e ry th in g i s an a l i e n t o me t h e r e a s
63
e v e ry w h e re ." S ta v ro g in h as d iv o rc e d h im s e lf from h i s
n a t i v e s o i l , and a s F a th e r T ihon rem in d s him : "One does n o t
become a f o r e i g n e r i n o n e 's own c o u n try w ith im p u n ity ." I f
one d o e s, th e pu n ish m en t i s boredom and i d l e n e s s . S ta v ro g in
i s t h e ep ito m e o f d i s a f f e c t i o n w ith God and l i f e , and he
m ust s u f f e r th e woe o f th o s e " th ro u g h whom te m p ta tio n
c o m eth . "^4
The c h a p te r o f th e n o v e l "At T ih o n 's " in w hich
S ta v ro g in c o n fe s s e s to th e p r i e s t , i s th e f i r s t time**3 he
shows a s i n c e r i t y w rought in d e s p a i r . However, a s Tihon
o b s e rv e s , th e a d m is s io n o f s i n s may w e ll be h e a v ily dram a
t i z e d and S ta v ro g in * s d e s i r e f o r punishm ent y e t a n o th e r
6 2 I b i d . . I I , i , 3, p . 227.
6 3 I b i d . . I l l , v i i i , p . 685.
6 4 I b i d . . "A t T ih o n 's ," p . 722.
65
I have assum ed t h a t th e o r i g i n a l l y s u p p re s s e d
c h a p te r "A t T ih o n * s ," a l s o known a s " S ta v ro g in * s C o n fe s
s i o n ," b e lo n g s , a s D osto ev sk y in te n d e d when h e w ro te th e
n o v e l, i n F a r t I I , b etw een c h a p te r s V I I I and IX.
151
w ish f o r s e l f - a s s e r t i o n . " I t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r a man to
ta k e up h i s c r o s s when h e does n o t b e lie v e in th e c r o s s o f
C h r i s t ." In r e g a r d to t h i s s e c t i o n o f th e n o v e l, E. J .
Simmons h as rem ark ed t h a t S ta v ro g in * s e v e n tu a l r e f u s a l to
p u b lis h h is c o n f e s s io n i n f e a r o f r i d i c u l e , " i s sy m b o lic o f
66
h i s u l ti m a t e s p i r i t u a l b a n k ru p tc y ." The n a r r a t o r i n t r o
d u c es th e c o n fe s s io n by o b s e rv in g t h a t lo o k in g a t th e
docum ent "one s e n s e s a new, u n e x p e c te d and i r r e v e r e n t c h a l -
6 7
le n g e t o s o c i e t y . " I t i s t h i s , b u t i t i s a l s o a tu r n in g
p o in t i n th e b a t t l e b etw een " y e a rn in g " and r e s i g n a t i o n to
C h r i s t i a n i t y . S ta v ro g in r e j e c t s th e ch an ce t o p r a c t i c e
h u m ility an d , a s F a th e r T ihon p r e d i c t s , c o n tin u e s h i s s e a r c h
a lo n g a p a th o f d e s t r u c t i o n .
S ta v ro g in h im s e lf r e l a t e s t h a t " I was so u t t e r l y
b o re d t h a t I c o u ld hav e hanged m y s e lf, and i f I d i d n 't , i t
was b e c a u se I was s t i l l lo o k in g fo rw a rd to so m e th in g , a s I
68
have a l l my l i f e . " To r e l i e v e t h i s boredom h e f i r s t
m o le s ts a c h i l d (e x p la in e d away a s a " p s y c h o lo g ic a l m is
u n d e rs ta n d in g " ) , and once th e f e a r o f d is c o v e ry h a s p a s s e d ,
66
E. J . Simmons, D o sto ie v sk y : The Making o f a N ovel
i s t (New Y ork: V in ta g e Books, 1 9 6 2 ), p p . 2 5 2 -2 5 3 .
^ The P o s se ss e d . "A t T ih o n * s ," p . 702.
68Ibid.. "At Tihon*s," pp. 704-705.
152
h e a g a in c o n c e iv e s th e id e a " o f somehow c r i p p l i n g h is l i f e . "
He now d e c id e s t o m arry th e lam e M arya, who i s n o t y e t
in s a n e , " b u t sim p ly a r a p tu r o u s i d i o t . " Y et, h e a d m its :
" I c o u ld n e v e r lo v e a n y o n e ." S ta v ro g in * s w ords sp eak f o r
th e m s e lv e s , an d th e i n i t i a l f e e l i n g o f sym pathy f o r h is
s u f f e r i n g so o n tu r n s t o th e a w a re n e ss t h a t one i s i n th e
p re s e n c e o f a l i a r s e e k in g t o b e d e s p is e d . As a n ex em p lar
o f s i n h e w an ts to c r e a t e a b ro th e rh o o d o f h a te in w hich
a l l can p e r i s h .
"P e rh ap s I l i e d t o you a good d e a l a b o u t m y s e lf ,"
S ta v ro g in r e p e a te d i n s i s t e n t l y . " I m y s e lf do n o t know
even y e t. W ell, w hat i f I h a v e d e f ie d them by th e
c ru d e n e s s o f my c o n f e s s io n , i f you d id n o t i c e th e c h a l
le n g e ? T h a t’ s th e r i g h t way. They d e s e rv e i t . I w i l l
o n ly f o r c e them t o h a te me m ore, t h a t 's a l l . . . . I
d e s p is e them a l l , j u s t a s I do m y s e lf, a s much i f n o t
m ore, i n f i n i t e l y m ore. No one c a n b e my ju d g e .
L ik e C lam ence, S ta v ro g in n e e d s t o p r e s e r v e h i s em inent
p o s i t i o n in o r d e r n o t t o p e r i s h i n th e judgm ent o f th e
w o rld . T ihon knows t h a t th e p u b l ic a t i o n o f th e c o n fe s s io n
w i l l d e s tr o y S ta v ro g in , n o t by th e h a te i n c i t e d , b u t by th e
" la u g h te r " o v e r a f o o l who " k is s e d th e n a s ty l i t t l e g i r l ' s
h a n d ."
69Ibid.. "At Tihon*s," p. 723.
153
Who w i l l u n d e rs ta n d th e t r u e re a s o n f o r th e c o n fe s s io n ?
In d e e d , p e o p le w i l l p u rp o s e ly r e f u s e t o u n d e rs ta n d i t ,
f o r su ch u n c o n v e n tio n a l a c t s a r e f e a r e d ; th e y ro u s e
a la rm . . . f o r th e w o rld lo v e s i t s a b o m in a tio n and
d o es n o t w ish to s e e i t th r e a te n e d ; f o r t h a t re a s o n
p e o p le w i l l tu r n i t t o r i d i c u l e , f o r r i d i c u l e i s th e
w o rld ’ s s t r o n g e s t w e a p o n .70
The p r i e s t su c c e e d s i n d is s u a d in g S ta v ro g in w h ile r e a l i z i n g
t h a t th e c o n f e s s o r w i l l s u b s t i t u t e c rim e f o r th e p u b l ic a
t i o n . In a c c o rd w ith th e p r e d i c t i o n , S ta v ro g in becom es
m o ra lly r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e d e a th s o f many o f th e p e o p le
who l i v e u n d e r h i s do m in an ce. He i s g u i l t y o f M arya*s m ur
d e r in t h a t , aw are o f i t s im m inence, h e ta k e s no p r e v e n tiv e
s t e p s . H is f a i l u r e t o i n t e r f e r e i s , i n p a r t , b ro u g h t a b o u t
by th e v ag u e hope t h a t m a rry in g L iz a may b r in g w hat he h a s
y e a rn e d f o r a l l h i s l i f e . L iz a , aw are to o l a t e o f h a v in g
b e en im p lic a te d , goes to t h e sc e n e o f th e c rim e and i s
ly n ch e d by th e mob a s ” S ta v ro g in * s w om an.” M oreover, a s
th e i d o l o f th e r e v o lu tio n a r y f i g u r e s , h e c a n b e s a i d t o
b e p a r t l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e m u rd er o f one o f them .
S ta v ro g in * s c rim e i s n o t one o f h e ro ic a c t i o n , b u t one o f
i n a c ti o n in th e a w are n ess o f c a t a s tr o p h e . He knows t h a t
h a v in g f i l l e d th e w o rld w ith h i s fra g m e n te d im age, th e r e
^ H ie P o s se ss e d . ”At T ih o n * s ,1 1 p . 725.
154
i s n o th in g h e w ish e s t o do t o p re v e n t t o t a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n .
A bout th e in f lu e n c e o f e v i l , Leon Z ander h a s made
a n i n t e r e s t i n g o b s e r v a tio n , w hich c a n b e w e ll a p p lie d to
The P o s s e s s e d :
In a w hole s e r i e s o f c h a r a c t e r s D osto ev sk y shows how
th e e v i l p r i n c i p l e , in c r e a s in g in s t r e n g t h , e x p re s s e s
i t s e l f f i r s t by a u to m a tism , th e n by becom ing a m an 's
" d o u b le ," and f i n a l l y by c o m p le te ly s p l i t t i n g h i s p e r
s o n a l i t y s o t h a t th e u n i ty o f th e human s e l f i s f i n a l l y
l o s t . . . . As so o n a s i t becom es th e d o m inant f o r c e
i t im m e d ia te ly d i s s o l v e s th e human p e r s o n a l i t y , d e s tr o y s
i t s u n iq u e n e s s and a p p e a rs to man a s so m e th in g fo rm le s s
and f e a t u r e l e s s , r a t i o n a l and i r o n i c a l , p r e s e n t in d i f
f e r e n t p e rs o n s and d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r s b u t alw ay s one
and th e sam e.'-*’
In t h e i r p ro p o s a l o f su c h and s i m i l a r s ta te m e n ts , s e v e r a l
c r i t i c s a g re e t h a t m ost o f th e c h a r a c t e r s a ro u n d S ta v ro g in
a r e e m a n atio n s o f h i s e v i l s p i r i t ; th e y a r e h i s c r e a t i o n ,
72
h i s d i s c i p l e s , h i s s a t e l l i t e s . Of th e women a ro u n d him
^ Z a n d e r , D o sto ev sk y , p . 13.
72
B erdyaev, D ostoevsky, pp. 4 1 -4 4 .
R ic h a rd P. B lackm ur, E leven E ssav s in th e Euro
pean N ovel (New Y ork: H a rc o u rt, B race and W orld, 19 6 4 ),
p . 182.
D m itri C h izh ev sk y , "The Theme o f th e D ouble in
D o sto e v sk y ," i n D o sto ev sk y , e d . Rene W ellek (Englewood
C l i f f s , N .J .: P r e n tic e H a ll, 1962), p . 118.
P a v e l N. Evdokimov, P er A b s tie g i n d i e H ttlle :
G ogol und D o sto ie w sk ii (S a lz b u rg : O tto M ille r , 1 9 6 5 ),
pp. 2 3 4 -2 3 5 .
G o u rfin k e l, D o s to ie v s k i. p p . 2 4 1 -2 4 3 .
Romano G u a rd in i, R e lig ifls e G e s ta lte n in
155
73
each r e f l e c t s a p a r t o f h i s c h a r a c t e r . T here i s L iz a ,
h i s e m o tio n a l d o u b le ; t h e r e i s th e w if e o f S h ato v , h i s
l i c e n t i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t ; t h e r e i s M arya, th e fo rs a k e n and
c r ip p le d ’’M other R u s s ia " ; and l a s t , t h e r e i s D asha, th e
u n re c o g n iz e d s a c r i f i c i a l s p i r i t , alw ay s p r e s e n t , n e v e r s u b
m itte d t o . A ll fo u r S ta v ro g in d e s e r t s : th e f i r s t t h r e e in
l i f e , th e f o u r t h in d e a th . The men who l i v e w ith in h is
s p h e re a r e many, and each p a rta k e s o f a fra g m e n t o f
D o s to ie w s k iis Werk (Mtinchen: KBsel V e rla g , 1 9 5 1 ), p . 291.
Howe, P o l i t i c s and th e N ovel, p p . 6 4 -6 5 .
D to itr ii S. M e rez h k o v sk ii, T o ls to y a s Man and
A r t i s t : W ith a n E ssa y on D o s to ie v s k i (New Y ork: G. P. P u t
nam’ s Sons, 1 9 0 2 ), p p . 28 6 -2 8 7 .
M o tc h o u lsk i, D o s to ie v s k i. L’Homme e t l f o e u v re .
pp. 3 6 1 -3 6 2 , 376.
John M . to irry , Fyodor D o sto ev sk y —A C r i t i c a l
S tudy (London: M a rtin S e e k e r, 1 9 2 3 ), p p . 162-163, 178.
E lis a b e th S te in b o c k -F e rm e r, "L erm ontov and
D o s to e v s k ij* s N ovel The D e v i ls ." S la v ic and E a st E uropean
J o u r n a l. XVII ( F a l l , 1 9 59), 218.
M . P. W illc o c k s , B etw een th e Old W orld and th e
New; S tu d ie s in L it e r a r y P e r s o n a lity (New Y ork: G. A lle n
and Unwin, L td ., 1 9 2 5 ), p . 298.
Avraham Y arm o lin sk y , D o sto ev sk y — H is L if e and A rt
(2nd e d . r e v is e d and e n la rg e d ; New Y ork: C r i t e r i o n Books,
1 9 5 7 ), pp. 2 9 2 -2 9 4 .
^ B e r d y a e v , D o sto ev sk y , pp. 112-113.
Iv an o v , Freedom and th e T ra g ic L if e , pp. 42,
6 0 -6 3 .
Payne, D o sto y ev sk y , pp. 2 6 7 -2 7 1 .
N athan R osen, "Chaos and D o sto e v sk y ’ s Women,"
Kenyon R eview . XX (S p rin g , 1 9 5 8 ), 2 5 7 -2 7 7 .
Z an d e r, D o sto ev sk y , pp. 6 6 -1 3 7 .
156
S ta v r o g in 's d is a g g r e g a te d p e r s o n a l i t y . l y o t r r e p r e s e n ts
th e n i h i l i s t i c r e v o l u t io n a r y , K i r i l l o v th e s e l f - d e i f i e d
man, S hatov th e i n a r t i c u l a t e and m urdered f a t h e r la n d ,
S te p a n th e Old O rd er, L ebyadkin th e d ru n k en l i b e r t i n e , and
Fedka th e d e v i l . When th e n o v e l h a s draw n to i t s c o n c lu
s io n , o n ly l y o t r h a s s u rv iv e d t h e h o lo c a u s t a s th e s o le
n o n -co m m itted c h a r a c t e r : he re m a in s t o c o n tin u e th e
d e s t r u c t i o n o f l i f e .
The i n e x h a u s t ib l e " e v i l p r i n c i p l e " in S ta v ro g in
f in d s i t s c o u n te r p a r t i n h i s " e x tr a o r d in a r y p h y s ic a l
s t r e n g t h ," b o th in h i s prow ess and in h i s s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s
w ith o th e r f i g u r e s . In t h i s r e s p e c t h e t y p i f i e s th e
s t r e n g t h and c u n n in g a s s o c i a t e d w ith pow ers o f s a t a n i c m ag
n i tu d e . A lthough h e a p p e a rs " l i s t l e s s , q u i e t , r a t h e r
m o ro se ," he i s c o n s t a n t ly on t h e a l e r t . B eing f a te d to
b r in g t o a c lo s e th e r e i g n o f u n c e r t a i n d i s b e l i e f , S ta v ro -
g i n 's d i s i n t e g r a t i o n s p re a d s i t s fo rm le s s p re s e n c e t o f i l l
o th e r c h a r a c t e r s . H is r e l a t i o n t o P y o tr i l l u s t r a t e s h is
m a lig n a n t in f lu e n c e . S ta v ro g in i s th e p r e te n d e r t o th e
th r o n e o f c h a o s, a th r o n e w h ich l y o t r t r i e s to h e lp s e c u r e .
The r e v o lu tio n a r y f i g u r e i s th e s e l f - a p p o i n te d le a d e r o f
t h e T e r r o r i s t s , i s c o n c e rn e d m ore w ith p o l i t i c a l a c t io n
157
74
th a n w ith b e l i e f . H is id e a i s t o have S ta v ro g in i n i t i a t e
t h e p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a l by p ro c la im in g him t o b e th e le g e n d
a r y Iv a n t h e T s a r e v itc h . P y o tr s u g g e s ts th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f
R u ss ia so t h a t " th e e a r th w i l l weep f o r i t s o ld g o d s ."
Then we w i l l sa y t h a t y o u r s a v io r i s " i n h i d i n g ."
The rum or w i l l s p re a d o v e r th e la n d , "We*ve s e e n him ,
we*ve s e e n him . . . . You [who] a r e b e a u t i f u l and p ro u d
a s a God. . . . You*11 c o n q u e r them , you*11 h av e o n ly
t o lo o k , and you w i l l c o n q u er them . He i s * in h id in g *
^Some com m entators c o n s id e r The P o sse sse d p r im a r ily
a p o l i t i c a l t r a c t . F or t h i s k in d o f a p p ro a c h s e e :
Jo se p h B o h a te c, P er Im p e ria lism u sg e d a n k e und d i e
L e b e n s p h ilo s o p h ie D o s to ie w s k iis (G ra z-K b In : H. B bhlaus
N a c h f., 1951.
Howe, P o l i t i c s and th e N ovel, p p . 5 1 -7 5 .
R ic h a rd Happen, D ie Id e e d es V olkes b e i D o sto -
i ew ski (W drzburg: V e rla g K. T r i l t s c h , 1 9 3 6 ).
Hans Kbhn, P ro p h e ts and P e o p les (New Y ork: Mac
m illa n C o ., 19 4 6 ).
Janko l a v r i n , D o sto ie v sk y . A S tudy (New Y ork:
M acm illan C o ., 1 9 4 7 ).
S ta n is la w M ackiew icz, D ostoyevsky (London:
O rb is , 1 9 4 7 ).
David M agarshack, " I n tr o d u c tio n " to The D e v ils
(London: P enguin Books, L td ., 1 9 5 3 ), p p . v i i - x v i i .
A rth u r McDowall, " The P o sse sse d and B o lsh e v is m ,"
London M ercury. XV II (November, 1 9 2 7 ), 5 2 -6 1 .
C h a rle s A. M oser, A n tin ih ilis m i n th e R u ssia n
N ovel o f th e 1860*s (The H ague: Mouton and C o ., 1 9 6 4 ).
S erg e P e rsk y , l a V ie e t 1*o e u v re de D o sto ie v sk y
( P a r i s : P a y o t, 1 9 2 4 ).
P h i l i p Rahv, " D o s to e v sk i and P o l i t i c s : N otes on
The P o s s e s s e d ," P a r t is a n Review , V (J u ly , 1 9 3 8 ), 2 5 -3 6 .
Rex W arner, The C u lt o f Power (London: John
la n e , 1 9 4 6 ), pp. 5 1 -1 1 1 .
158
and w i l l come f o r t h b r in g in g a new t r u t h . . . . And th e
w h o le la n d w i l l re s o u n d w ith t h e c r y , *A new j u s t law
i s t o come.*
S ta v ro g in th in k s a l l t h i s m adness, b u t h e le a v e s f y o tr
" w ith o u t a n s w e rin g ." S im ila r ly , when l y o t r o f f e r s t o do
away w ith Marya an d t o b r in g him L iz a f o r am usem ent,
S ta v ro g in r e f u s e s t o ta k e h is "a p e " s e r i o u s l y and re m a in s
s i l e n t . l y o t r may b e b u t a "'dem on m e sq u in ' s e c e t
76
c y n iq u e " ; y e t h e i s th e r e l e n t l e s s a g e n t o f c h a o s : he
d i r e c t s th e v io le n c e r e l e a s e d i n th e w o rld by th e l a s s i t u d e
o f a n u n c o n c e rn e d S ta v ro g in . H is g o a ls a r e t a n g i b l e o n e s.
He p l o t s t o c r i p p l e , " to l e v e l m o u n ta in s ," t o e s t a b l i s h
" th e r i g h t t o d is h o n o r ," and t o i n i t i a t e a new sy ste m o f
"m o n stro u s, d i s g u s t i n g v i c e w hich tu r n s man i n t o an a b j e c t ,
c o w a rd ly , c r u e l , and s e l f i s h w r e tc h ." S ta v ro g in r e p r e s e n ts
th e d e a th o f m o ra l and s p i r i t u a l v a lu e s ; and l y o t r who
c la im s to n e ed him : "W ith o u t you I am n o th in g . W ith o u t you
77
I am a f l y , a b o t t l e d id e a : Columbus w ith o u t A m e ric a,"
t h i s l y o t r whom S ta v ro g in b r in g s t o l i f e i s th e m u rd e re r o f
c r e a t i o n .
^~ *The P o s se ss e d . I I , v i i i , p p . 4 2 9 -4 3 0 .
76
G o u rfin k e l, D o s to ie v s k i. n o t r e c o n te m p o ra in .
p. 241.
^ Ih e P o s se ss e d . I I , v i i i , p p . 4 2 6 -4 2 7 .
159
U n lik e P y o tr, who c o n tin u e s t o draw i n s p i r a t i o n
from S ta v ro g in a f t e r th e y a r e r e u n i t e d i n th e c o u n tr y tow n,
th e o th e r c h a r a c t e r s i n th e n a r r a t o r 's a c c o u n t w ith d raw
from th e c r e a t o r o f t h e i r id e a s when th e y r i g h t l y i n t e r p r e t
h i s s i l e n c e a s a d i s i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o i n d i f f e r e n c e . Once
S ta v ro g in * s f o llo w e r s w ere lo o k in g f o r a god, b u t th e
s e a r c h p ro v ed h o p e le s s to th e man th e y t r u s t e d t o le a d them
so t h a t in agony th e y now q u e s tio n th e p r i n c i p l e s by w hich
th e y w ere i n s t r u c t e d t o l i v e . His a s s o c i a t i o n s w ith
K i r i l l o v and S h ato v r e f l e c t S ta v ro g in * s a t t i t u d e . At th e
same tim e t h a t h e was i n d o c t r i n a t i n g S hatov w ith r e l i g i o u s
n a tio n a lis m , S ta v ro g in had im p la n te d i n K i r i l l o v a g o d -
d e fy in g a rr o g a n c e . K i r i l l o v w an ts to k i l l God and become
a godhead h im s e lf . "God i s th e p a in o f th e f e a r o f d e a th .
He who w i l l c o n q u e r p a in and t e r r o r w i l l become h im s e lf a
g o d "; y e t , K i r i l l o v a d m its , "God h a s to rm e n te d me a l l my
78
l i f e , " and t o s to p th e agony i s t o r e p la c e him . Ih e s e
id e a s K i r i l l o v h a s w e ll rem em bered, and when S ta v ro g in
comes t o v i s i t him he n e ed s t o r e v a l u a t e them . K i r i l l o v
expounds h i s i d e a s , b u t a f t e r S ta v ro g in h a s m u tte re d w ith
^ Ibid.. I, iii, 8, pp. 114-115.
160
d i s d a in t h a t t h e s e a r e ’’t h e o ld com m onplaces o f p h ilo s o p h y ,”
h e becom es aw are o f h i s m a s t e r 's i n s i n c e r i t y . In re p ro a c h
h e acknow ledges h i s d e p en d e n ce : "Remember w hat you h av e
79
m eant i n my l i f e , S ta v r o g in ."
In t h e c h a r a c t e r o f K i r i ll o v D ostoevsky s t u d i e s
80
m a n 's r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t h i s C re a to r. H is c o n c lu s io n i s
t h a t , h a v in g f r e e d h im s e lf from b e l i e f i n God, man i s bound
t o d e if y h im s e lf : f o r i f God does n o t e x i s t , th e n man i s
79I b i d . . I I , i , 5, pp. 23 8 -2 4 2 .
80
F or The P o sse sse d a s a r e l i g i o u s d is c o u r s e s e e :
Evdokim ov, P er A b s tie e in d i e H B lle. pp. 229 f f .
Rene G ir a r d , "M etap h y siq u e du s o u t e r r a i n d an s le s
'p o s s e d e s , '" l a T a b le Ronde. CLXXXIII (A p r il, 1 9 6 3 ), 7 3 -7 6 .
G u a rd ln i, R e lie iO s e G e s ta lte n in D o s to ie w s k iis
W erk.
W illia m Hubben, F our P ro p h e ts o f Our D e stin y (New
Y ork: M acm illan and C o ., 1 9 5 2 ), pp. 4 3 -8 0 .
H e n ri de Lubac, The Drama o f A th e is t Humanism.
t r a n s l . E d ith M . R ile y (New Y ork: The W orld R ib lis h in g
C o ., 1 9 6 3 ), pp. 161-244.
Z en ta M aurina, A P ro p h e t o f th e S o u l: F. D o sto
e v sk y . t r a n s l . C. P. F in la y s o n (London: J . C la rk and C o.,
n . d . ) .
P a u l Ramsey, "G o d 's G race and M an's G u i l t ,"
J o u r n a l o f R e lig io n . XXXI (Ja n u a ry , 1 9 5 1 ), 2 1 -3 7 .
G eorge C. S trem , "The M oral W orld o f D o s to e v sk y ,"
R u ssia n Review , XVI ( J u ly , 1 9 5 7 ), 1 5 -2 6 .
M ary sia T u r ria n , D o sto ie w sk ii und F ran z W e rfe l.
vom 8s t l ic h e n zum w e s t lic h e n Denken (B ern: P. H aupt,
1 9 5 0 ), p p . 1 5 -3 7 .
N ic o la s Z ern o v , T hree R u ssia n P ro p h e ts : Khomiakov.
D o sto ev sk y . S o lo v ie v (London: SCM P re s s , L t d ., 1 9 44),
p p. 8 2 -1 1 5 .
161
Lord o f th e c r e a t i o n . As so o n a s man d e c l a r e s t h a t e v e ry
th in g i s la w fu l, h e becom es a h e l p l e s s v ic tim o f h i s own
p a s s io n s , f e a r , and d o u b ts . He f in d s h im s e lf in th e t r a p
o f h i s im p o ten ce and c o r r u p tio n u n t i l th e o n ly a c t l e f t to
h is freedom i s s u i c i d e . A lth o u g h K i r i l l o v b e lie v e s in th e
" e t e r n a l m om ents" o f t h i s l i f e , h e i s w i l l i n g t o s a c r i f i c e
h im s e lf , l i k e C h r i s t , t o b r in g man im m o r ta lity . But h i s
d e a th i s n o t a C h r i s t ia n o n e -- u n le s s one c o n s id e r s h i s
p ro m p te r to b e l i k e Ju d a s whom C h r is t w i l le d t o f o r c e th e
moment t o i t s c r i s i s —b e c a u s e K i r i l l o v f u l f i l l s h i s own
w i l l . As B erdyaev c o n c lu d e s : K i r i ll o v ends " i n a d e a th
t h a t knows no r e s u r r e c t i o n ; d e a th i s v i c t o r i o u s o v e r d e i
f i e d m a n ." ^
S ta v ro g in * s n e x t c o n f r o n ta tio n i s w ith S h ato v , th e
man who b e lie v e s in th e " g o d -b e a rin g p e o p le " o f R u ssia and
who w an ts to b u t c a n n o t b e li e v e i n God, b e c a u s e , d e fin e d a s
" th e s y n t h e ti c p e r s o n a l i ty o f th e w hole p e o p le " He i s b u t
a n i h i l i s t i c h a l f - t r u t h . S ta v ro g in h a s come t o w arn S hatov
t h a t h i s l i f e i s in d a n g e r, and t h a t th e r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s
p la n to m urder him a s an in fo rm e r. But S h a to v , in p e r
p l e x i t y o v e r S ta v ro g in * s c o m p lic ity in th e p l o t , c r i e s o u t
81
B erdyaev, D ostoevsky, p . 203.
i n d i s b e l i e f t h a t h i s "su n ” t o whom he i s a m ere " i n s e c t "
i n co m p a riso n s h o u ld h av e w anted t o j o i n . S ta v ro g in
r e p l i e s t h a t i t was "by a c c id e n t, a s a man o f l e i s u r e . "
Drop y o u r d e ta c h e d a i r , S h ato v i n s i s t s , "S peak i f o n ly f o r
once i n y o u r l i f e w ith th e v o ic e o f a m an." S ta v ro g in c o n
t in u e s t o r e f u t e t h e p r e s e n t v a l i d i t y o f h i s y o u th f u l
u t t e r a n c e s , and a t l a s t a d m its : " I w asn ’ t jo k in g w ith you
th e n ; i n p e rs u a d in g you I was p e rh a p s m ore c o n c e rn e d w ith
m y se lf th a n y o u ." F u rth e rm o re , h e rem ark s t h a t "e v e ry o n e
o f you f o r some in e x p l i c a b le re a s o n k e ep s f o i s t i n g a f l a g
upon m e." T h is i s p r e c i s e l y w hat S ta v ro g in do es n o t w a n t.
I f h e w ere to assum e b o ld l e a d e r s h ip , h e w ould r i s k h a v in g
h i s f a l l i b i l i t y e x p o sed . S ta v ro g in p r e f e r s t o re m a in
w ith in th e sy ste m h e h a s c r e a t e d . He h a s l o s t to u c h w ith
th e p e o p le , a s S hatov s u s p e c ts , by r a i s i n g h im s e lf above
h u m an ity . S t i l l , h i s s t a t u r e i s u n d im in ish e d : "Why am I
condemned t o b e li e v e i n you th ro u g h a l l e t e r n i t y " ; i t i s
S hatov*s c r y and a s th e e m iss a ry o f th e R u ssia n p e o p le i t
GO
i s t h e i r s a s w e l l.
S ta v ro g in w i l l s to f o r g e t th e p a s t in w hich he
"p e rsu a d e d " h im s e lf t h a t man’ s " y e a rn in g " m ust b e d i r e c t e d
82The P o s s e s s e d . I I , i i , 6 -7 , p p . 24 2 -2 6 0 .
163
tow ard a u n io n w ith God and H is C re a tio n ; he w i l l s to f o r
g e t h i s m a rria g e to Marya " f o r a d ru n k en b e t , " h i s r a p e o f
M atryosha f o r r e l i e f o f boredom , and h i s b e t r a y a l o f a l l
83
f r i e n d s h i p s . " I h a te d i t a s . . . p a r t o f m e." S ta v ro g in
lo n g s to e sc a p e t o p r e - C h r i s t i a n day s and t o r e t u r n t o th e
l i g h t and p u r i t y t h a t was G re ec e. L ike Clam ence t r a v e l i n g
a c r o s s th e "w et" v o id o f th e Z uyder Z ee, S ta v ro g in makes
h i s jo u rn e y th ro u g h t h e " r a in y " h e l l on th e b r id g e lin k in g
two d a rk e n e d s h o r e s .
Once S ta v ro g in was g iv e n a v i s i o n o f E den: C laude
L o r r a i n e 's p a in tin g "A cis and G a l a t e a ," w hich h e g r e a t l y
a d m ire d , had becom e a n " a c tu a l" sc e n e w i t h in a dream .
"E uropean m ankind rem em bers t h i s p l a c e ," he t e l l s F a th e r
T ihon,
As i t s c r a d l e , and th e th o u g h t f i l l e d my s o u l w ith th e
lo v e t h a t i s b re d o f k in s h ip . H ere was m a n k in d 's
e a r t h l y p a r a d is e . . . . The m ost im p ro b a b le o f a l l
v i s i o n s , t o w hich m ankind th ro u g h o u t i t s e x is te n c e h a s
g iv e n i t s b e s t e n e r g ie s , f o r w hich i t h a s s a c r i f i c e d
e v e r y th in g . . . and w ith o u t w hich n a tio n s w i l l n o t
d e s i r e to l i v e , and w ith o u t w hich th e y c a n n o t even
d i e . 84
83
I b i d . . "A t T ih o n * s ," p . 714.
84
Ibid.. "At Tihon*s," p. 715.
164
S ta v ro g in h a s a c c e p te d th e f a c t t h a t t h i s v i s i o n i s dead
( i r o n i c a l l y , L o r r a in e ’ s th r e a te n in g C yclops on th e m o u n ta in ,
a b o u t to k i l l A c is, d o es n o t a p p e a r i n th e r e v e l a t i o n ) . I t
i s n o t t o b e r e c r e a t e d , D ostoevsky im p lie s , so lo n g a s
W estern man c o n tin u e s t o p e r p e t r a t e th e sham o f h i s c i v i l i
z a t io n , w hich t h r i v e s on th e n e g a tio n o f human v a lu e s . The
" lo v e t h a t i s b re d o f k i n s h i p ” Adam and C ain d e s tr o y e d . Man
c a n b u t h a te and so d e sce n d i n t o h i s own h e l l . L ik e S ta v ro
g in , h e i s ”t o go d o w n h ill,” " to r e a c h an empty e x p a n s e ,”
and th u s t o f in d h im s e lf , when w aking up "from a p ro fo u n d
r e v e r i e , ” a lo n e " i n th e m id d le o f one lo n g , w e t, f l o a t i n g
b r i d g e .” S ta v ro g in * s dream h as tu r n e d i n t o a n ig h tm a re in
w hich a T em pter a s k s f o r p r o t e c t i o n : " W ill you k in d ly a llo w
me, s i r , to s h a r e y o u r u m b re lla ? " When S ta v ro g in lo o k s
c lo s e l y , he r e c o g n iz e s Fedka, " th e c o n v i c t ." " I s ta n d b e
f o r e you, s i r , a s b e f o r e God, b e c a u se I have h e a rd so much
a b o u t y o u ." He p u l l s b ack from t h i s man who h as "d ro p p ed
from th e sk y " t o e sc a p e th e su a v e v o ic e t h a t i n s i s t s :
But do you know th e way h e re ? T h ere a r e a l l s o r t s
o f tu r n in g s . . . . I c o u ld g u id e you; f o r t h i s town
i s f o r a l l th e w o rld a s th o u g h th e d e v i l c a r r i e d i t
i n h i s b a s k e t and d ro p p ed i t in b i t s h e re and t h e r e . *
85Ibid.. II, ii, 3, pp. 281-282.
165
S ta v ro g in do es know th e way th ro u g h th e la b y r i n th
o f c h a o s . I t i s h i s dom ain. From th e b e g in n in g t o th e end
o f S ta v ro g in * s c a r e e r h i s a c t io n s and th o u g h ts le a d th e way
i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f breakdow n and d e a th . In him th e s e n s e
o f a s p i r a t i o n b eg an i t s d e s c e n t in S t. P e te rs b u rg . The
" b r i g h t f a lc o n " who s o a re d , " g a z in g a t th e s u n ," f e l l from
t h e sky i n t o th e " p a le b lu e " h o u se w here M atryosha liv e d .
Marya re c o g n iz e s th e d e c e p tio n b e h in d S ta v ro g in * s m ask,
and sh e r e j e c t s h i s s u g g e s tio n t o fo llo w him i n a " f o r t y
y e a rs * " e x i l e to th e "gloom y" v a l l e y o f U ri. "No, i t c a n
n o t b e t h a t a f a lc o n h a s become a n ow l. frfy p r in c e i s n o t
l i k e t h a t . " D e s p ite th e d i s i l l u s i o n t h e r e i s p r id e and
triu m p h in h e r e x c la m a tio n . As a s p i r i t o f th e R u ssia n
e a r t h sh e f u l l y r e j e c t s th e f a l l e n v a l o r o f th e f a l s e
b e a r e r o f s a l v a t i o n .
D ostoevsky showed i n S ta v ro g in * s c h a r a c t e r a com
p l e t e la c k o f p o s i t i v e d e v e lo p m e n t: he lo v e s n o th in g ; he
d o u b ts e v e r y th in g . In h i s N otebook D ostoevsky p la n n e d to
have S ta v ro g in re m a rk :
J e me c o n s id e r e . . . comme une u n i t e in d e p e n d a n te e t
j e d i r a i au c o n t r a i r e que l* o n m*a t r a h i e t non que
j * a i t r a h i . I a is s e z - m o i, j e s u is a p a rt* J e s u is un
e g o ls te e t j e veux v i v r e dans l*ego£sm e.
Q
D o s to ie v s k i, C a rn e ts d es d a n o n s. p . 825. E n try
f o r March 11, 1870.
166
B ecause o f t h i s k in d o f n e g a tio n , w hich S ta v ro g in m ust
r e p r e s e n t , h e can t r a v e l i n o n ly one d i r e c t i o n , o u t o f a
l o v e le s s p a s t i n to a l i f e l e s s c h a o s, a t t e s t i n g to th e t o t a l
d e n i a l o f th e Prom ised la n d . H is v e ry e x is te n c e i s , w hat
Camus c a l l e d , a h o r i z o n t a l one, inasm uch a s h e r e f u s e s to
acknow ledge w hat i s beyond h i s w o rld . I t i s an e x is te n c e
f i l l e d w ith h i s own linage from w hich he c a n n o t e sc a p e
th ro u g h communion w ith o th e r s ; h e c a n m e re ly a p p e a r a s an
a s p e c t o f s e l f , in c a rn a te d i n a Fedka o r in a K i r i l l o v .
He s i g n i f i e s d e a t h - i n - l i f e and th e r e a l i t y o f n o th in g n e s s
from th e v ie w p o in t o f th e w o rld beyond h i s im age; i t i s
t h i s " r e a l i t y " to w hich m ankind c li n g s in i t s e a g e rn e s s to
f in d a firm f o o tin g , any f o o tin g in a n o n -d e fin e d w o rld .
P e r p e tu a lly f a l l i n g , S ta v ro g in i s u n a b le t o f in d a p la c e o f
r e s t . T rapped in h i s "c a g e " he i s c o n s t a n t ly s h i f t i n g to
f in d s t a b i l i t y . He t r a v e l s in th e O r ie n t; he goes to Mount
A thos and s ta n d s th ro u g h n ig h t s e r v i c e s ; h e v i s i t s Egypt
and S w itz e rla n d and s a i l s a s f a r as I c e la n d . And y e t f o r
th e t r a v e l e r th e r e i s no r e s t o r f u l f i l l m e n t ; a b s e n t-
m in d e d ly he p a s s e s th e s t a t i o n w here he o u g h t to ch an g e f o r
h i s d e s t i n a t i o n . W hether a t home o r a b ro a d , S ta v ro g in i s
w e ll aw are t h a t he r u in s th e w o rld and t h a t n o t a l l th e
pow er in th e u n iv e r s e c a n sa v e him from h i s demonism .
87
"N o th in g comes t o a n end i n t h i s w o r ld ." But i t d o e s :
The c i t i z e n o f th e c a n to n o f U ri was h a n g in g t h e r e
b e h in d th e d o o r. On th e t a b l e la y a p ie c e o f p a p e r
w ith th e w ords i n p e n c i l : "No one i s t o blam e, I d id
i t m y s e lf ." 88
To t h e n a r r a t o r t h i s sc e n e p ro v e s p r e m e d ita tio n and c o n
s c io u s n e s s "up to th e l a s t m om ent." S ta v ro g in h as d e s tro y e d
th e c r e a t o r o f h is own u n iv e r s e , h im s e lf . He h a s e sc a p e d
from h i s " m a lc o n f o r t," b u t h i s s u b v e rs iv e in f lu e n c e w i l l
c o n tin u e t o s p re a d in th e P y o trs who, in t u r n , become
" e v e ry th in g " t o t h e i r f o llo w e r s .
8 ^The P o s se ss e d . I I , i i i , 4 , p . 297.
8 8 I b i d . . I l l , v i i i , p . 688.
CHAPTER IV
MELVILLE’ S MOBY-DICK
I t w ould b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o s p e c u la te w hat m ig h t
h av e happened i f D ostoevsky and Herman M e lv ille had b e en
f a m i l i a r w ith e a c h o t h e r ’ s w ork, b u t , a s th e c a s e s ta n d s
now, t h i s w ould b e m ere s u r m is a l. The R u ssia n w r i t e r d o es
n o t m e n tio n th e A m erican i n h i s l e t t e r s o r n o te b o o k s. T h is
i s l i k e l y i f one c o n s id e r s t h a t th e o n ly n in e te e n th - c e n tu r y ,
n o n -E n g lis h a tte m p ts t o p u b l ic i z e M e lv ille a p p e a re d a t a
tim e when D ostoevsky was s t a r t i n g h i s c a r e e r a s w r i t e r
and o n ly a few y e a rs b e f o r e h i s d e p o r t a ti o n t o S ib e ria .'* '
D ostoevsky had b een dead some d e c a d e s when M e lv ille i n t e r e s t
R i i l a r e t e C h a sle s f a i l e d ^ t o b r in g M e lv ille to
p u b lic a t t e n t i o n i n J o u r n a l d e s d e b a ts (1846) and Revue d e s
deux mondes (1 8 4 9 ). Not u n t i l 1919 ( th e d a te o f th e Mel
v i l l e c e n t e n n i a l ) d id h e come t o th e f o r e in F ra n c e . See
F e lix A nserm oz-D ubois, L * I n te r p r e t a t i o n f r a n c a i s e de l a
l i t t e r a t u r e a m e ric a in e d *e n tr e - d e u x - e u e r r e s (Im usanne:
L n p rim e rie d e l a C oncorde, 1 9 44), p . 8 .
Poor F o lk was p u b lis h e d i n 1846; t h r e e y e a rs l a t e r
D ostoevsky was d e p o rte d .
168
169
re a c h e d R u ss ia i n th e wake o£ th e A nglo-A m erican r e v i v a l o f
2
th e 1920*s . R e v e rsin g t h i s m a tte r o f l i t e r a r y in f lu e n c e ,
i t m u st a l s o b e assum ed t h a t M e lv ille d id n o t d is c o v e r
D o sto ev sk y . H is e x ta n t l e t t e r s do n o t r e f e r t o th e R u ssia n
a u th o r a n d , m o reo v e r, M erton S e a lts * e x te n s iv e s tu d y o f
3
M e lv ille ’ s B e le s e n h e it d o es n o t l i s t D o sto ev sk y . T hese
f a c t s a r e h a r d ly c o n tr a r y t o e x p e c ta tio n , s in c e M e lv ille ,
in a l l l ik e l i h o o d , re a d no R u ss ia n an d , o b v io u s ly , d id n o t
l i v e t o s e e D o s to e v sk y 's w orks t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g lis h .
The n in e te e n th c e n tu ry was n o t a s c o n g e n ia l t o a
r a p i d d is s e m in a tio n o f id e a s a s o u rs i s , and so i t i s f o r
a u th o r s o f t h i s c e n tu r y to s e l e c t and mix co m p arab le id e a s
w hich a r o s e In d e p e n d e n tly . A good c a s e i n p o in t i s Camus,
who n o t o n ly r e a d and a d a p te d D ostoevsky, b u t who a l s o
f a m i l i a r i z e d h im s e lf w ith th e w ork o f M e lv ille . Camus
2
John C. F is k e i n "Herman M e lv ille in S o c ie t C r i t i
c is m ," C o m p arativ e L i t e r a t u r e . V (W in te r, 1953), 31-32,
s t a t e s : "The e a r l i e s t S o v ie t c r i t i c a l stu d y o f M e lv ille
t h a t I h av e d is c o v e r e d a p p e a rs i n th e L i t e r a r y E n c y c lo
p a e d ia [1930-39; v o l . V II, p p . 108-109T o v e r th e s ig n a tu r e
o f A. M elesh k o ."
3
M erton M . S e a l t s , M e l v i l l e 's R ead in g : A C h e c k - lis t
o f Books Owned and Borrowed (M adison: U n iv e rs ity o f W is
c o n s in P re s s , 1966).
170
m e n tio n s th e A m erican a u th o r i n h i s n o te b o o k s^ and s u g g e s ts
i n h i s M y th e de S isv n h e t h a t Mpby-Dick (1851) i s a n exam ple
o f " t r u l y a b su rd " works."* Some te n y e a rs a f t e r h e had made
t h i s s u g g e s tio n , h e w ro te a n a p p r e c i a ti o n o f M e lv ille in
w hich th e a p p e a l th e A m erican a u th o r had f o r him becom es
c l e a r . A h a b 's s t o r y can b e r e a d , Camus s t a t e s , "cooame l a
p a s s io n f u n e s te d 'u n p e rso n n a g e fo u de d o u le u r e t de s o l i
t u d e ," w h ile rem em bering t h a t i t i s
l e com bat de l*homme c o n tr e l e m al e t . . . 1 'i r r e s i s t i b l e
lo ^ iq u e q u i f i n i t p a r d r e s s e r l'hom m e j u s t e c o n tr e l a
c r e a t i o n e t l e c r e a t e u r d 'a b o r d , p u is c o n tr e s e s sem -
b l a b l e s e t c o n tr e lui-m em e.
From th e d a te o f t h i s com m entary i t a p p e a rs t h a t Camus had
M e lv ille in m ind w h ile h e was p r e p a r in g l a C h u te . Clam ence,
who p o se s a s a le a d e r o f men, re se m b le s th e c a p ta in o f th e
Pequod. They b o th em bark on a voyage t o d e s tr o y th e " w h ite "
i n d if f e r e n c e w hich h a s maimed them an d , i n t h e i r p r i v a t e
o b s e s s io n , th e y le a d t h e i r crew t o d e s t r u c t i o n . T h at a
A
A lb e rt Camus, C a rn e ts : Mai 1935 - Mars 1951 ( P a r i s :
L n p rim erie N a tio n a le , 1 9 6 2 -1 9 6 4 ), pp. 150, 153, 155, 34 2 -
343.
A lb e rt Camus, Le Mythe d e S isv n h e ( P a r i s : G a l l i -
m ard, 1 9 4 2 ), p . 153.
* * A lb e rt Camus, "Herman M e l v il l e ," in Les E c r iv a in s
c e l e b r e s . e d . Raymond Queneau ( P a r i s : L ucien Mazenod,
1 9 53), I I I , 128.
171
s tr o n g , o v e r - a l l a f f i n i t y e x i s t e d , Leon S. R oudiez h a s
n o te d i n h i s o u ts ta n d in g e s s a y on Camus and M oby-Dick.
R oudiez draw s p a r a l l e l s b etw een th e c h a r a c t e r s o f Ahab and
C a lig u la , b etw een th e a u th o rs * s h a re d p re o c c u p a tio n w ith
th e them e o f d e a th , and f u r t h e r s u g g e s ts " th e a n a lo g y w ith
S isyphus* ro c k o f th e u n e n d in g p u t ti n g o u t t o s e a and
r e t u r n i n g t o p o r t o f s h ip s an d s a i l o r s . " B ut, i n s p i t e o f
s i m i l a r i t i e s , R oudiez em p h a size s t h a t Moby-Dick " i s n o t a
m ajo r s o u rc e in th e u s u a l l i t e r a r y m eaning o f th e te rm .
Of c o u rs e i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o a p p ly th e "te rm "
r i g o r o u s l y when i t i s o b se rv e d t h a t M e lv ille * s Moby-Dick.
l i k e D o sto ev sk y ’ s The P o s se ss e d , may h a v e s u g g e s te d to
Camus a d ra m a tic te c h n iq u e i n c o n s tr u c tin g l a C h u te. J u s t
a s D o s to e v sk y 's fo n d n e ss f o r S c h i l l e r le d him to u s e d r a
m a tic form s in The P o s se ss e d , so M e l v i l l e 's fo n d n e ss f o r
S h a k e sp ea re may h av e r e s u l t e d in t h e u s e o f th e d ra m a tic
o
form i n M oby-Dick. In th e re v ie w "H aw thorne and H is
^Leon S. R o u d iez, "Camus and M oby-D ick." Symposium.
XV (S p rin g , 1961), 3 0 -4 0 . See a l s o h i s " S tr a n g e r s i n
M e lv ille and Cam us," F re n ch Review. XXXI (Ja n u a ry , 19 5 8 ),
2 1 7 -2 2 6 .
Q
The term " d ra m a tic " i s h e r e u se d i n a t e c h n ic a l
s e n s e and r e f e r s t o any o r a l l o f su ch d e v ic e s a s d i v i s i o n
i n t o a c t s , u n i t i e s o f tim e and p la c e , i t a l i c i z e d s ta g e
d i r e c t i o n s , s e t sp e e c h e s w ith th e s p e a k e r named in c a p i t a l s ,
s o l i l o q u i e s , and d ia lo g u e s w ith o u t com m entary.
172
M o sse s,” M e lv ille d e c la r e s t h a t S h a k e s p e a re 's g e n iu s l i e s
in
th o s e o c c a s io n a l f l a s h i n g s - f o r t h o f th e i n t u i t i v e T ru th
i n him ; th o s e s h o r t , q u ic k p ro b in g s a t th e v e ry a x is o f
r e a l i t y , — th e s e a r e th e th in g s t h a t make S h a k e sp e a re ,
S h a k e sp e a re . Through th e m ouths o f th e d a rk c h a r a c t e r s
o f H am let, Timon, L e a r, and Ia g o , he c r a f t i l y s a y s , o r
som etim es i n s i n u a t e s th e th in g s w hich we f e e l t o be so
t e r r i f i c a l l y t r u e . *
A p p a re n tly , M e lv ille f e l t t h a t th e m ethod o f p r e s e n tin g
t r u t h i n th e S h a k e sp e a re a n s e n s e i s d ra m a tic p o r t r a y a l o f
c h a r a c t e r —a f a c t w hich may h a v e le d him to c o n s id e r an
o v e r - a l l d ra m a tic a p p ro a c h .
S e v e ra l c r i t i c s h av e d iv id e d Moby-Dick i n t o a f i v e -
a c t dram a and h a v e c o n c u rre d w ith C h a rle s O ls o n 's e a r l y
s u g g e s tio n t h a t th e book "h a s a r i s e and f a l l l i k e th e
movement o f a n E liz a b e th a n tra g e d y ." ^ ® However, beyond
t h i s i n i t i a l p re m ise m ost s i m i l a r i t i e s b etw een c r i t i c a l
o p in io n s en d . O ls o n 's d i v i s i o n was r e f u t e d by Newton
A rv in , who h o ld s t h a t M obv-Dick m ost re s e m b le s an " e p i c ,"
9
Herman M e lv ille , "H aw thorne and H is M o sse s," in
Herman M e lv ille , e d . W illa rd T horp (New Y ork: A m erican
Book C o ., 1 9 3 8 ), p . 334 ( o r i g i n a l l y p u b lis h e d i n The
L it e r a r y W orld. A ugust 17 and 24, 1 8 5 0 ).
^ C h a r l e s O lson, C a ll Me ishm aA l (New Y ork: R eynal
and H itc h c o c k , 1 9 47), pp. 6 6 -6 9 .
173
n o t a dram a. N e v e r th e le s s , A rv in , sp e a k in g o f "m ovem ents,"
11 12
does h i s own d i v id in g o f th e n o v e l, a s do Jam es M ille r ,
13 14
Je a n Simon, and o t h e r s . W hichever way th e n o v e l i s
s e c tio n e d , i t seem s a p p a re n t t h a t th e P ro lo g u e , w here th e
m a jo r c h a r a c t e r s a r e in tro d u c e d and th e sc e n e i s s e t , ends
w ith th e se co n d a p p e a ra n c e o f E li j a h and t h a t A ct I b e g in s
■^Newton A rv in , Herman M e lv ille (New Y ork: W illia m
S lo an e A s s o c ia te s , I n c . , 19 5 0 ), pp. 15 4 -1 5 8 .
12
James E. M ille r , A R e a d e r’s G uide to Herman M el
v i l l e (New Y ork: Noonday P re s s , 1 9 6 2 ), p p . 8 0 -8 1 .
13 ,
J e a n Simon, Herman M e lv ille , mar in . m e ta n h v s ic ie n .
e t p o e te ( P a r i s : B o iv in and C i e ., 1939), pp. 3 3 4 -3 4 1 .
14
T. R. D ale, " M e lv ille and A r i s t o t l e : The C o n clu
s io n o f M obv-Dick a s a C l a s s i c a l T ra g e d y ," B oston U n iv e r
s i t y S tu d ie s i n E n g lis h . I l l (S p rin g , 1 9 5 7 ), 4 5 -5 0 .
N. B. F a g in , "Herman M e lv ille an d th e I n t e r i o r
M onologue," A m erican L i t e r a t u r e . VI (Ja n u a ry , 1 9 3 5 ), 4 3 3 -
434.
A ndre Le V ot, "S h a k e sp e a re e t M e lv ille : Le them e
im p e r ia l dan s Moby D ic k ." E tu d e s A n e la is e s . XVII (Q c to b e r-
December, 1 9 6 4 ), 549-563.
F r a n c is 0 . M a tth ie s s e n , A m erican R e n a iss a n c e (New
Y ork: O xford U h iv e rs ity P re s s , 1941), pp. 4 1 5 -4 2 1 .
M ilto n M il lh a u s e r ," T h e Form o f M oby-D ick." The
J o u r n a l o f A e s th e tic s and A rt C r itic is m . X I I I (Ju n e, 1 9 55),
5 27-532.
H enry A. Ify ers, " C a p ta in A h ab 's D isc o v e ry : The
T ra g ic M eaning o f M oby-D ick." New E ngland Q u a r te r ly . XV
(M arch, 1 9 4 2 ), 1 5 -3 4 .
C h a rle s O lso n , " M e lv ille e t S h a k e sp e a re , ou la
d e c o u v e rte d e Moby D ic k ." Temps Mod e r n e s . V II (O c to b e r,
1 9 5 1 ), 64 7 -6 7 6 .
Dan V ogel, "The D ram atic C h a p te rs i n Mobv D ic k ."
N in e te e n th C e n tu ry F i c t i o n . X I I I (Decem ber, 1 9 5 8 ), 2 3 9 -2 4 7 .
w ith th e s a i l i n g o f th e Peauod (X X II). In t h i s a c t th e
re m a in in g c h a r a c t e r s a r e in tro d u c e d and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b etw een Ahab and h i s crew e s t a b l i s h e d . To p ro p o se a f u r
t h e r d i v i s i o n , A ct I I opens w ith "The Q u a rte r-D e c k " (XXXVI).
T h ere Ahab g a th e r s h i s s a i l o r s an d w ith h i s p ro m ise o f
re w a rd f o r th e c a tc h o f Moby D ick, th e te n s io n b e g in s t o
r i s e . The a c t i o n c o n tin u e s (th ro u g h th e calm o f c h a p te r s
on c e to lo g y ) and ends i n "The D oubloon" (XCIX) w here i n a
c lim a c tic g a th e r in g th e g o ld c o in i s a d m ired a s re w a rd , and
w here th e doom o f e ac h a d m ire r i s s e a l e d . A f te r th e c lim a x ,
th e f a l l i n g a c t i o n o f A ct IV i s c o n c e rn e d w ith Ahab’ s mono
m an iac v i s i o n and p r e p a r a t i o n t i l l a c a ta s tr o p h e i s re a c h e d
and t h e Peauod i s d e s tro y e d by Moby D ick. I s h m a e l's " E p i
lo g u e " ends th e f i v e - a c t d ra m a tic s t r u c t u r e o f M e lv ille ’ s
n o v e l.
Not o n ly c an Mobv-Dick b e c o n s id e r e d t o b e a s e
quence o f A c ts , b u t s e v e r a l i n d iv i d u a l c h a p te r s a r e an a c t
u n to th e m s e lv e s . The d ram atis p e rs o n a e o f th e s e c h a p t e r s —
Ahab, S ta rb u c k , S tu b b , F la s k , P ip , an d th e c a r p e n t e r —a r e
p re s e n te d i n n a r r a t i v e c h a p te r s w ith o u t a w ord o f d ia lo g u e
b e f o r e th e y a r e p re s e n te d in s t a g e - s e t c h a p t e r s . Ahab h a s
th e c h a p te r w here h i s f i r s t a p p e a ra n c e on deck i s d e s c r ib e d
(X X V III). In "K n ig h ts and S q u ire s " (XXVI, XXVII) S ta rb u c k ,
175
S tubb, F la s k , an d P ip h av e t h e i r s ; and th e c a r p e n t e r , l i k e
Ahab, d e s e rv e s one a l l t o h im s e lf (C V II). A f te r t h e s e
i n tr o d u c ti o n s , t h e i r s o l i l o q u i e s and d ia lo g u e s b e g in .
W hile th e s e a r e in tr o d u c e d o r b e in g sp o k en , Ish m a e l, a s
n a r r a t o r , i s c o m p le te ly a b s e n t. M oreover, h e i s n o t e x
p l i c i t l y p r e s e n t i n t h e a lr e a d y m en tio n ed Q u arte r-D e ck
s c e n e , n o r i n th e c h o ric r e v e l r y o f t h e w o r ld 's s a i l o r s
(XL), n o r i n th e c li m a c ti c c o rp u s a n t sc e n e (CXIX). C h a rle s
F e id e ls o n , e q u a tin g th e " d ra m a tic p r e s e n t a ti o n " and
" I s h m a e l's v i s i o n , " s u g g e s ts t h a t " i n th e v i s i o n a r y s t a t u s
o f th e e n t i r e a c t i o n , " a p p a r e n tly " b o th M e lv ille and
Ish m ael lo s e t h e m s e l v e s ." ^
I t seem s o n ly r i g h t t h a t Ish m a e l s h o u ld lo s e him
s e l f . A f te r a l l , h e i s , a s n a r r a t o r , b u t a o n e -d im e n s io n a l
c h a r a c t e r i n th e f i n is h e d n o v e l—and t h i s i n s p i t e o f w hat
M e lv ille may h a v e in te n d e d . Many a r e th e r o l e s Ish m a e l h a s
b een a s s ig n e d b y th e c r i t i c s , b u t w hat in e s s e n c e many
o f th e term s s u g g e s t i s t h a t Ish m ael i s a n o n - e n t i ty in
M e l v i l l e 's f i c t i o n a l w o rld . He i s c a l l e d M e l v i l l e 's
C h a rle s F e id e ls o n , J r . , Sym bolism and A m erican
L i t e r a t u r e (C h ica g o : U n iv e rs ity o f C hicago P re s s , 1 9 5 3 ),
p . 31.
176
"m ask,"*® h e i s r e f e r r e d t o a s "an a b s t r a c t i o n from th e
f u l l r ic h n e s s o f A m erican e x p e rie n c e " * ^ and " th e d e le g a te d
v i s i o n o f M e lv ille " ;* ® h e i s "n eb u lo u s and n e u tr a l" * ^ and
20
th e c o n t r a s t t o "Ahabs V e rm e ssen h e it und M onom anie." And
l a s t , n o t l e a s t , h e i s "an e x il e " i n a "w o rld o f m o ra l
21
ty r a n n y ." Some i n t e r e s t i n g s u g g e s tio n s h a v e b een made
by a few c r i t i c s who hav e d e v e lo p e d a th e o r y o f a m u l t i
f a c e te d Ish m a e l. W a lte r B ezanson sp e a k s o f two Is h m a e ls :
22
th e n a r r a t o r and th e s im p le crew member. A m ore w o rk a b le
s u g g e s tio n seem s t o b e Haul B ro d tk o rb ’ s w h ich h o ld s t h a t
16
G erh ard F r i e d r ic h , In P u r s u it o f Moby D ick; M el
v i l l e ’s linage o f Man (W a llin g fo rd , Ea. : P en d le H i l l ,
1 9 5 8 ), p . 5.
R ic h a rd V. C hase, Herman M e lv ille (New Y ork:
M acm illan C o ., 1 9 4 9 ), p . 73.
18
F e id e ls o n , Sym bolism , p . 32.
19
Howard P. V in c e n t, The T ry in g -O u t o f Moby Dick
(B o sto n : H oughton M L fflin C o., 1 9 4 9 ), p . 56.
20
Hans Helm cke, Die F u n k tio n d es Ic h -E rz flh le rs i n
Herman M e lv ille s Roman "Moby D ick" (MUnchen: Max H ueber,
1 9 57), pp. 131-133.
^ * A lfre d K azin, "Ish m a e l and A hab," The A t l a n t i c
M onthly. CXCVIII (November, 1 9 5 6 ), 8 2 -8 3 .
^ W a l t e r E. B ezanson, "M obv-D ick: Work o f A r t , " in
Mobv-Dick C e n te n n ia l E ssa y s, e d s . T yrus H illw a y and l u t h e r
M a n sfie ld ( D a lla s : S o u th e rn M e th o d ist U n iv e r s ity P re s s ,
1953), p . 3 6 .
177
" Ish m a e l f o r c e s th e r e a d e r b a c k upon h i s own r e s o u r c e s and
p r e v e n ts an y d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p . . . . The r e a d e r i s th e n
fo rc e d t o b e and to p r o j e c t w hat i s i n h i m s e l f . T h i s
s ta te m e n t h ad b e e n a n t i c i p a t e d by M aurice Friedm an who
w ro te t h a t
The c h a n g in g , e v e r - s h i f t i n g p o in t o f v iew i n Mobv-Dick
i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e e v e r-c h a n g in g , e v e r - s h i f t i n g
a t t i j ^ d e o f man to w a rd th e r e a l i t y t h a t c o n f r o n ts
What th e s e c r i t i c s s u g g e s t i s t h a t Ish m a e l i s Everym an:
H is i s th e "em pty" s p o t p ro v id e d by M e lv ille i n t o w hich th e
r e a d e r c a n move by becom ing p a r t o f t h e d ra m a tis p e rs o n a e
t h a t c o n fr o n t Ahab.
Ish m a e l i s th e a v e ra g e man, and a s su c h he f u n c tio n s
a s th e " c h o r u s ." He i s c a u g h t up i n th e p a le r e f l e c t i o n o f
a v i o l e n t "beyond" t h a t re m a in s i n s c r u t a b l e . To a p p r o x i
m ate t h i s tr a g e d y , w hich i s n o t w i t h in human c o m p reh en sio n ,
M e lv ille c h o se a lo o s e a d a p ta tio n o f c l a s s i c a l t r a g e d y . ^
2 3
Haul B ro d tk o rb , Tshmael, s W hite W orld (New Haven,
C o n n .: Y ale U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1 9 6 5 ), p . 3 .
24
M aurice F riedm an, P ro b le m a tic R ebel (New Y ork:
Random H ouse, 1 9 6 3 ), p . 59.
25
M arius Bewley in The E c c e n tr ic D esign (London:
C h a tto and W indus, 1 9 5 9 ), p p . 191-192, s u g g e s ts t h a t an
a p p a r e n tly lo o s e form in Mobv-Dick i s b ro u g h t a b o u t b e c a u se
178
S e v e ra l a r e th e c h a p te r s w hich d e a l w ith w h a lin g and i t s
h i s t o r y — i t a p p e a rs t h a t t h e s e p e rfo rm a tw o -f o ld f u n c tio n .
F i r s t , th e y s u g g e s t t h a t p a r t o f th e u n iv e r s e w hich Ish m ael
c an com prehend; th e y a r e h i s and th e r e a d e r 's p ro b a b le
r e a l i t y . S e c o n d ly , th e y c r e a t e a l u l l in th e v i o l e n t
a c t i o n p r o p e lle d by Ahab, so t h a t th e d ra m a tic t e n s io n i s
26
e a s e d . In th e c h a p te r s w hich d e a l w ith A h a b 's tr a g e d y ,
a fo rm a l and c l a s s i c a l d e f i n i t i o n c a n b e a p p li e d . Ahab £s.
k in g i n h i s own re a lm and i s o l a t e d from th e p e o p le in h i s
p r id e and m ad n ess. H is fla w i s a h u b r is t h a t d a re s to
c h a lle n g e th e v e ry n a tu r e o f t h e u n iv e r s e . H is p u r s u i t o f
th e W hite W hale, h i s p ro u d , d e s t r u c t i v e p a s s io n p ro v id e s a
" s i n g l e ” a c t i o n ; and h i s i n e v i t a b l e d e s t r u c t i o n le a v e s th e
r e a d e r w ith a s e n s e o f p i t y f o r a man who s h o u ld h av e known
b e t t e r and a f e e l i n g o f f e a r t h a t on a n o th e r vo y ag e in a n
i n d i f f e r e n t u n iv e r s e t h e r e w i l l b e no c o f f i n t o buoy him .
M e l v i l l e 's h e ro e s a r e " in c a p a b le o f d ev elo p m en t o r p r o g r e s
s i o n ." They a r e " tra p p e d in th e e n d le s s u n f o ld in g o f m o ra l
a m b ig u itie s w hose t o t a l s i g n i f i c a n c e was t o d r a i n a l l
p o s s ib l e m eaning from l i f e . R e a lity w hich i s c o n c e iv e d a s
e n d le s s ly am biguous, n e v e r com ing to r e s t i n an y c e r t a i n t y ,
i s th e n e g a tio n o f fo rm ."
26
F or an a c c la im e d s tu d y on t h e im p o rta n c e o f th e
" C e to lo g y " c h a p te r s i n M obv-Dick s e e V in c e n t, The T ry in g -
o u t o f Moby D ick, p p . 121 f f .
179
The jo u rn e y on t h e Peauod. w h ich h a s le d Ahab from h i s
d e s i r e f o r re v e n g e to h i s s e l f - a n n i h i l a t i o n , ta k e s p la c e in
a tim e le s s w o rld . I t i s a p r o t r a c t e d i n s t a n t i n tim e and
a s su c h p ro v id e s a u n i t y o f d u r a t i o n . Mobv-Dick opens w ith
a p ro lo g u e ; b u t o n ce th e Peauod s a i l s , a l l a c t io n i s co n
f in e d t o t h e s h ip and th e w a te r s u rro u n d in g i t , and so i s
p r e s e n te d a d i s t i n c t u n i t y o f p la c e .
M e lv ille d e p ic te d a s u i t a b l e s ta g e f o r h i s t r a g i c
a c t i o n . The s h ip o f m ankind h e c a l l e d t h e Peauod. re m in d
in g t h e r e a d e r t h a t i t i s " th e name o f a c e le b r a te d t r i b e
o f M a s s a c h u s e tts I n d ia n s , now e x t i n c t a s th e a n c ie n t
27
M edes." (The name i t s e l f m eans " d e s tr o y e r " in A lg o n q u ian
28
In d ia n a n d , a c c o rd in g to th e R i r i t a n s , i t was a s s o c ia te d
2 9
w ith S a ta n . ) On t h i s " c a n n ib a l o f a c r a f t , " w ith b u l
w ark s " g a rn is h e d l i k e one c o n tin u o u s j a w ," Ahab r u l e s th e
30
d e c k s w hich a r e l i k e th e f l a g - s t o n e s "w here B ecket b l e d ."
27
Herman M e lv ille , M obv-Dick o r The W hale, e d s.
L u th e r S. M a n sfie ld and Howard P. V in c e n t (New Y ork: Hend
r i c k s H ouse, 1 9 5 2 ), XVI, 6 8 . A ll o th e r r e f e r e n c e s a r e to
t h i s e d i t i o n .
^ ® F rie d ric h , In P u r s u it o f Moby D ick, p . 13.
29
" E x p la n a to ry N o te s" t o th e M a n sfie ld and V in c e n t
e d i t i o n o f M obv-Dick o r The W hale, p . 631.
30Moby-Dick. XVI, 68-69.
180
W ith in t h i s re a lm Ahab d o m in a tes t h e lo n e ly h e ig h t o f th e
Q u a rte r d e c k . He i s lo o k ed u p t o by a l l h i s crew b u t
f e a r e d by th o s e who u n d e rs ta n d h i s m o tiv e s . L ik e S ta v ro g in ,
h e draw s h i s f i c t i o n a l a u d ie n c e a s w e ll a s th e r e a d e r i n t o
h i s m onom aniacal w o rld o f w ra th and d e s t r u c t i o n ; h e lu r e s
a l l w ith p ro m ise o f re w a rd on th e s ta g e w h e re, l i k e B e ck e t,
th e y s h a l l b e k i l l e d f o r h a v in g d a re d to c h a lle n g e an
e x i s t i n g o r d e r .
At t h e tim e M e lv ille was w r i t in g M obv-Dick h e was
much c o n c e rn e d w ith ’’th e a p p re h e n s io n o f th e a b s o lu te c o n d i
t i o n o f p r e s e n t th in g s a s th e y s t r i k e th e ey e o f th e man
who f e a r s them n o t . " In a l e t t e r to H aw thorne i n A p r il,
1851, he w ro te o f m a n 's r i g h t t o h i s own s o v e r e ig n ty i n a
w o rld w h ich may w e ll b e i n d i f f e r e n t t o h i s th o u g h ts and
a c t i o n s . The man who ta k e s t h i s r i g h t , a s Ahab d id ,
d e c la r e s h im s e lf a s o v e re ig n n a tu r e ( in h im s e lf ) am id
t h e pow ers o f h e a v e n , h e l l , and e a r t h . He may p e r i s h ;
b u t so lo n g a s h e e x i s t s he i n s i s t s upon t r e a t i n g w ith
a l l Powers upon a n e q u a l b a s i s . I f any o f th o s e o th e r
Powers c h o o se t o w ith h o ld c e r t a i n s e c r e t s , l e t them ;
t h a t do es n o t im p a ir my s o v e r e ig n ty i n m y s e lf; t h a t
d o es n o t make me t r i b u t a r y . And p e rh a p s , a f t e r a l l ,
t h e r e i s no s e c r e t .
31
The L e t t e r s o f Herman M e lv ille , e d s . M e r re ll R.
D avis and W illia m H. G ilm an (New Haven, Conn. : Y ale U ni
v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 0 ), p p . 124-125.
181
I f t h i s I s so and i f th e m y ste ry o f C r e a tio n i s d is c o v e re d
to be n o n - e x i s t e n t , an y enigm a c a n ta k e i t s p la c e t o p r o
v id e th e d is a p p o in te d f a i t h f u l w ith a s u r r o g a te Power.
"Take God o u t o f th e d i c t i o n a r y , " M e lv ille c o n c lu d e s i n th e
same l e t t e r , "an d you w ould h av e him i n th e s t r e e t . " T h is
i s p r e c i s e l y w h at h e s e t o u t t o do in M obv-Dick when he
s e n t Ahab on h i s jo u rn e y t o m is le a d th e p e o p le .
As h a s b e e n th e c a s e w ith S ta v ro g in , l i t t l e i s
known o f Ahab p r i o r to h i s f i r s t a p p e a ra n c e on th e deck o f
th e P eauod. I t i s s t a t e d t h a t h e o n ly h a s one le g and
t h a t th e o th e r "was d e v o u re d , chewed u p , c ru n c h e d by th e
32
m o n s tro u s e s t p a rm a c e tty t h a t e v e r c h ip p e d a b o a t ." He i s
d e s c r ib e d a s " a g ra n d , u n g o d ly , g o d lik e m a n ," a n d , l i k e h i s
33
b i b l i c a l nam esake "a crow ned k i n g ." I t i s p r e d ic te d t h a t
32M obv-Dick. XVI, 71.
33
I b i d . . XVI, 79. F or d is c u s s io n s c o n c e rn in g th e
s i m i l a r i t i e s b etw een M e l v i l l e 's Ahab an d h i s b i b l i c a l
c o u n te r p a r t in th e F i r s t Book o f Kings s e e :
Bew ley, The E c c e n tr ic D esig n , pp. 1 93-196.
Lloyd N. J e f f r e y , "A C oncordance t o th e B i b l i c a l
A llu s io n s i n Moby D ic k ." B u l le t in o f B ib lio g ra p h y . XXI
(M ay-A ugust, 1 9 5 6 ), 2 2 3 -2 2 9 .
M . 0. P e r c iv a l, A R eading o f Moby D ick (C h icag o :
U n iv e rs ity o f C hicago P re s s , 1 9 5 0 ), p p . 4 - 6 .
Law rance Thompson, M e l v i l l e 's Q u a rre l w ith God
(P r in c e to n , N .J .: P r in c e to n U h iv e rs ity P re s s , 1 9 5 2 ), p . 153.
N a th a lia W rig h t, " B i b l i c a l A llu s io n s i n M e l v il l e 's
P r o s e ," A m erican L i t e r a t u r e . X II (May, 1 9 4 0 ), 1 88-189.
N a th a lia W rig h t, M e l v i l l e 's Use o f th e B ib le
(Durham: Duke U h iv e r s ity P re s s , 1 9 4 9 ), p p . 6 1 -7 2 , 76.
182
34
h i s "name w ould somehow p ro v e p r o p h e t i c ," w h ich , a s th e
rum ors g o , h a s tu r n e d o u t t o be t r u e . Ahab h a s k i l l e d
som eone i n f r o n t o f a n a l t a r , s p a t i n t o a communion c u p ,
an d th e n l o s t h i s le g on th e homeward v o y a g e . He s t a r t e d
o u t b e li e v i n g t h a t s a c r e d p la c e s and m a n -c re a te d r i t u a l s
c o u ld b e ta k e n f o r g r a n te d , b u t h e ended up d is c o v e r in g
t h a t t h e o b j e c t o f m a n 's v e n e r a tio n , th e s o u rc e o f b e a u ty
and h a p p in e s s , h a s b e e n an ab o m in ab le l i e . I n t h i s r e a l i z a
t i o n Ahab h a s e n c o u n te re d t h e a b s u rd , and a s th e n a r r a t i v e
opens h e h a s d e c id e d t o a v en g e h im s e lf on t h a t w h ich
a s s a u l t e d h i s b le s s e d s t a t e o f i n ju d ic io u s autonom y.
In a new a w a re n e ss th e p a rm a c e tty w h ale now becom es
A h a b 's m eans o f c o n f r o n tin g th e p u rp o s e le s s n e s s o f th e
u n iv e r s e . The a l l - d e s t r o y i n g w h ale e n a b le s Ahab t o w r e s t
i d e n t i t y from a n a m e le ss f o r c e and t o a s s e r t s i g n i f i c a n c e
i n t h e f a c e o f i n d i f f e r e n c e . Ahab c a n f in d h im s e lf and
know h im s e lf i n t h e p u r s u i t o f th e w h a le . He becom es an
a l i e n when h i s n o rm a l d e s i r e f o r re v e n g e upon th e W hite
35
W hale d e v e lo p s i n t o a monomania, a "m adness m ad d en ed ,"
34Mobv-Dick. XVI, 80.
35Ibid.. XXXVII, 166.
183
w h ich a llo w s n o th in g t o i n t e r f e r e w ith th e consum m ation o f
h i s t i t a n i c re v e n g e . H is m adness grew o u t o f a p e r s o n a l
i n j u r y , and so i t i s a p e r s o n a l v i c t o r y h e i s s e e k in g , a
triu m p h o f th e s e l f . T h is a rro g a n c e , t o g e t h e r w ith h i s
p o s i t i o n o f command, c an le a d o n ly t o i s o l a t i o n . However,
u n a id e d h e c a n n o t s u c c e e d , and by b e g u ilin g th o s e who th in k
th e y a r e g a th e r in g o i l f o r th e lam ps o f th e w o rld , h e form s
h i s band o f a v e n g e rs . As th e d e l i b e r a t e m is le a d e r , Ahab
a p p e a rs i n f a l s e d i s g u i s e s , and th e crew to o r e a d i l y
b e li e v e i n him . They a r e f a s c i n a te d when Ahab em erges from
th e " s a c re d r e t r e a t o f th e c a b i n ," lo o k in g " l i k e a man c u t
away from th e s ta k e " and se e m in g ly made " o f s o l i d b r o n z e ."
He d o es n o t sp e a k , b u t l i k e S ta v ro g in , h e o n ly h a s to
a p p e a r: h i s p re s e n c e i s enough t o e n t h r a l l th o s e who w atch
him h ig h on th e d e ck .
T h ere was a n i n f i n i t y o f f i r m e s t f o r t i t u d e , a d e te r m i
n a te , u n s u rre n d a b le w i l f u l n e s s , in th e f ix e d and f e a r
l e s s , fo rw a rd d e d ic a tio n o f th e g la n c e . Not a w ord h e
sp o k e . . . . Moody s t r i c k e n Ahab s to o d b e f o r e them w ith
a c r u c i f i x i o n in h i s f a c e ; in a l l th e n a m e le ss r e g a l
o v e rb e a rin g d i g n it y o f some m ig h ty w oe. °
To s u g g e s t t h i s o v e rb e a rin g w oe, Ahab i s d e p ic te d i n m ig h ty
te rm s . He i s made t o w e a r, l i k e C harlem agne and N apoleon,
36Ibid.. XXVIII, 119-122.
184
t h e ’’Iro n Crown o f Lombardy" w h ile "damned i n th e m id s t o f
37
P & ra d is e ." He i s th e c a p ta in who, "th o u g h n o m in a lly
in c lu d e d i n t h e c e n su s o f C h risten d o m , . . . was s t i l l a n
38
a l i e n t o i t . " M e lv ille i s fo n d o f g r a n d io s e e p i t h e t s ,
an d h i s f a v o r i t e w ords (w ild , moody, m y s tic , n a m e le s s .
i n t e n s e , and m a l i c i o u s ) s u g g e s t d a rk and e n ig m a tic them es
39
o f e le m e n ta l s t r i f e .
"B randed" Ahab, a s w e ll a s C a in , i s d e d ic a te d t o
v io le n c e , and i n h i s o b s tin a c y h e s c o r n f u l l y c o n f r o n ts th e
doom o f h i s m o r t a l i t y . U ia b le t o g e t even w ith a S o u rce o f
E v il t h a t may w e l l b e w ith o u t d e s ig n , Ahab a t t a c k s th e
t a n g i b l e r e a l i t y w hich h e can h o ld r e s p o n s i b l e . As Ish m a el
e x p l a i n s :
The W hite W hale swam b e f o r e him a s th e monomaniac i n
c a r n a t i o n o f a l l th o s e m a lic io u s a g e n c ie s w h ich some
d e ep men f e e l e a t in g i n them . . . . T h a t i n t a n g i b l e
m a lig n ity w hich h a s b e e n from t h e b e g in n in g ; t o w hose
d o m in io n ev en th e m odern C h r is tia n s a s c r i b e o n e - h a lf o f
t h e w o rld s . . . . A ll th e s u b t l e demonism s o f l i f e and
th o u g h t; a l l e v i l , t o c ra z y Ahab, w ere v i s i b l y p e r s o n i
f i e d , and made p r a c t i c a l l y a s s a i l a b l e i n Moby D ic k .4 ®
3 7 I b i d . , XXXVII, 165.
3 8 I b i d . . XXXIV, 150.
3^ A rv in , Herman M e lv ille , p p . 162-163.
40Moby-Dick. XLI, 181.
H ie n a r r a t o r r i g h t l y a n t i c i p a t e s w hat i s t o f o llo w . Ahab
h a s now become c o n v in c e d o f a t r u e e x is te n c e o f demonism i n
t h e w o rld . From h e r e on h e c a n o n ly e n d e a v o r t o s te p o u t
s i d e t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f man t o d e s tr o y a perm anent o r d e r
i n t h e u n iv e r s e . In h i s r e s o l u t i o n h e may b e c a lle d P ro
m eth ean i n so f a r t h a t h e i s g o in g t o d e fy th e g o d s, b u t
t h e c o m p a riso n does n o t t r u l y h o ld b e c a u s e Ahab w o rsh ip s
f i r e a s th e d e s t r u c t i v e e le m e n t and h im s e lf c r e a t e s th e
v e r y m o n s te r t h a t w i l l d e s tr o y h i s b o dy.
Once Ahab h a s b e e n in tr o d u c e d , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to
f i n d a s p e c i f i c p ro to ty p e a f t e r w hich h e may h av e been
d e s ig n e d . He p a rta k e s o f many, b u t i s n o n e. A h ab 's v i t a l
s t r e n g t h tem p ts Ish m a e l t o d e s c r i b e th e enigm a w hich i s h i s
c a p t a i n ; b u t h i s pow ers o f o b s e r v a tio n f a i l and he i s
f o r c e d t o c o n clu d e t h a t "Ahab*s l a r g e r , d a r k e r , d e e p e r p a r t
re m a in s u n h i n t e d . A h a b h im s e lf d o e s n o t f a r e much
b e t t e r : h e knows " t h a t to m ankind he d id lo n g d is s e m b le ;
i n some s o r t , d id s t i l l . But t h a t th in g o f h i s d is s e m b lin g
was o n ly s u b je c t t o h i s p e r c e p t i b i l i t y , n o t t o h i s w i l l
42
d e te r m i n a te ." Ahab m ust re m a in unknown t o h i s f i c t i o n a l
w o rld t o c a r r y o u t h i s dem onic r o l e . F o r th e r e a d e r M el
v i l l e p u rp o s e ly h a s p o r tr a y e d o n ly t h a t a s p e c t o f h i s h e ro
w h ich d e f in e s h im : a g ra n d w i l l t o d e s t r u c t i o n ; th e r e
m a in d e r o f th e c h a r a c t e r o n ly h e h a s s k e tc h e d i n . To p r o
v id e a d d i t i o n a l d im e n sio n s c r i t i c s h av e a tte m p te d t o f i t
him i n t o one o r a n o th e r m old o f a r c h e ty p a l h e r o e s . H enry F.
Pommer h a s a f u l l le n g th s tu d y t h a t d e a ls w ith th e c o n c e p t
o f M ilto n ’ s S a ta n a s r e f l e c t e d i n A h a b .^ D a n ie l G. H o ff
man f in d s M e lv ille ’ s h e ro '*more p r o p e r ly a F a u s t” who
"commands and e n c h a n ts h i s f o llo w e r s ” and who ends up ”a
44
S a ta n , a s o r c e r e r , an A n t i c h r i s t . " H enry A. M irray c o n
c u r s w ith Hoffman when h e c a l l s Ahab a " L u c i f e r ," a C h r is t
" i n r e v e r s e . " ^ R u d o lf S ilhnel th in k s o f a n i n e t e e n t h -
c e n tu r y phenomenon when h e d e c l a r e s : "Ahab stam m t a u s d e r
46
R e to r te d e s ro m a n tis c h e n S a ta n ism u s" —a n o p in io n
—
H enry F. Pommer, M ilto n and M e lv ille ( P itts b u r g h :
U n iv e r s ity o f P itts b u r g h P re s s , 1 9 5 0 ).
AA
D a n ie l G. H offm an, "Ify th , M agic, and M etaphor i n
M oby-D ick," i n h i s Form an d F a b le i n A m erican F i c ti o n (New
Y ork: Cbcford U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1 9 6 1 ), p . 2 3 4 ; f o r Ahab a s
F a u s t s e e a l s o W illia m W . B e tts , " M obv-D ick: M e lv ille ’s
F a u s t ," Lock Haven B u l l e t i n . I (M arch, 1 9 5 9 ), 3 1 -4 4 .
^ H e n r y A. M urray, " In Nomine D L a b o li," i n M obv-Dick
C e n te n n ia l E ssa y s, p . 10.
AA
R u d o lf S ilh n el, " M e lv ille s M obv-D ick. V ersuch
e i n e r D eu tu n g ," D ie N eueren S p ra ch e n . V (1 9 5 6 ), 560.
187
Iaw ran c e Thompson m ust h av e fo u n d c o n g e n ia l when h e su g -
47
g e s te d M anfred a s w e ll a s P ro m eth eu s. Some c r i t i c s have
q u a l i f i e d t h e i r p ro p o s a l, a s d id W illia m E. Sedgw ick when
48
h e s u g g e s te d a " m is a n th ro p ic " P ro m eth eu s; o th e r s , n o t
r e l a t i n g Ahab t o any s p e c i f i c m o d el, s e e him a s a "o n e -
le g g e d i n c a r n a t i o n o f E v il, a " m e c h a n ic a l man, and a
" s e l f - a p p o i n te d m e s s i a h " ^ e x p re s s in g " c i v i l i z e d m an 's
52
c o l o s s a l e r r o r . " A p p a re n tly , th e c r i t i c s on t h e i r voyage
to t h e h e a r t o f Ahab h av e b e h e ld t h e i r p e t im age in th e s e a
o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In th e o p e n in g c h a p te r o f Mobv-Dick
M e lv ille h a s o f f e r e d a m u lt i p le i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to h i s
r e a d e r s when h e h a s Ish m ael s p e c u la te on N a r c is s u s ,
47
Thompson, M e l v i l l e 's Q u a rre l w ith God, p . 179.
^ W i l li a m E. Sedgw ick, Herman M e lv ille ; The T ragedy
o f Mind (C am bridge, M ass. : H a rv ard U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1 9 4 5),
p . 9 3 .
49
Leon S. R oudiez, " S tr a n g e r s i n M e lv ille and
Cam us," pp. 22 2 -2 2 3 .
^®R. P. Adams, "R om anticism and th e A m erican R e n a is
s a n c e ," A m erican L L te ra tu re . X X III (J a n u a ry , 1 9 5 2 ), 422.
^ S j i l l i a m Hubben, "Ahab, t h e W haling Q u a k er," R e l i
g io n i n L if e . X V III (Summer, 1 9 4 9 ), 372.
C O
J James B a ird , Ish m a el (B a ltim o re : Johns Hopkins
P r e s s , 1956), p . 251.
188
who b e c a u s e h e c o u ld n o t g r a s p th e to rm e n tin g , m ild
im age h e saw i n th e f o u n ta in , p lu n g ed i n t o i t and was
drow ned. B ut t h a t same im age, we o u r s e lv e s s e e i n a l l
r i v e r s and o c e a n s . I t i s t h e im age o f th e u n g ra s p a b le
phantom o f l i f e ; and t h i s i s th e k ey t o i t a l l .
Lewis Mumford h ad t h i s p a s s a g e i n m ind when, s p e a k in g o f
th e " e t e r n a l N a rc is s u s in m an ," h e c o n c lu d e d t h a t "Moby
D ick i s a l a b y r i n t h , and t h a t l a b y r i n t h i s th e u n iv e r s e .
T h is s ta te m e n t i s h a r d ly s u r p r i s i n g when i t i s k e p t
in m ind t h a t s e v e r a l o f th e c h a r a c t e r s i n th e n o v e ls o f a
m a tu re M e lv ille , p u rs u in g th e unknown, f in d th e m se lv e s
a lo n e in a m aze o f u n f a m i li a r w o rld s . R edbum , on h i s
f i r s t v o y a g e , i s c o n fro n te d w ith Ja c k s o n , a n A h a b -lik e
c h a r a c t e r , o f whom i t i s s a i d t h a t h e i s " su c h a h id e o u s
lo o k in g m o r ta l, t h a t S a ta n h im s e lf w ould h a v e ru n from h im ."
He i s th e man w ith th e " i n f e r n a l " lo o k in g ey e o f a "w o lf"
R edbum c a n n o t e s c a p e , so t h a t a t l a s t he f in d s h im s e lf
"a s o r t o f Ish m a el i n th e s h i p , w ith o u t a s i n g l e f r i e n d o r
c o m p a n i o n . W h i t e J a c k e t s u f f e r s th e same f a t e on th e
53M obv-Dick. I , 3 .
54
Lewis Mumford, Herman M e lv ille (New Y ork: H ar-
c o u r t , B race an d Company, 1 9 2 9 ), p . 158.
33Herman M e lv ille , R edbum (G arden C ity , N. Y. :
D oubleday A nchor, 1 9 5 7 ), X II, 5 3 -6 0 ; s e e W illia m H. G ilm an,
M e lv ille * s E a rly L if e an d R edbum (New Y ork: New Y ork:
U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 5 1 ), p p . 2 7 2 -2 7 3 , f o r d is c u s s io n o f
p a r a l l e l s b etw een Ja c k so n and Ahab.
189
N e v e rs in k . H is s h ip h a s a c a p ta in who d is a p p e a r s " b e h in d
th e s c e n e s , l i k e th e p a s te b o a rd g h o s t i n H a m le t." He i s
unaw are t h a t h i s s a i l o r s h av e s in g le d o u t th e man w ith th e
w h ite j a c k e t a s g h o s tly and " i n f e r n a l , " o r t h a t h e a r b i
t r a r i l y h a s b e en r e f u s e d p a i n t — in a to u c h K afka w ould have
b e e n p ro u d o f — "when b u t one dab o f p a in t w ould make a man
56
o f a g h o s t ." The h e ro o f M ardi. th e man w ith th e assum ed
name o f T a ji, s t a r t s h i s jo u rn e y b e lie v in g t h a t t h e r e i s
"no s o u l a m agnet t o m in e; none w ith whom t o m in g le sym pa
t h i e s . " When th e v oyage t o th e la n d o f M ardi i s o v e r, he
e x c la im s : "L et me, th e n , b e th e u n r e tu r n in g w a n d e re r." By
p ro p o sin g t h i s , he i s fo llo w in g th e a d v ic e o f th e M ardian
p h ilo s o p h e r , B a b b a la n ja , who r e a l i z e d t h a t "up and down we
57
w an d er, l i k e e x i l e s tr a n s p o r te d to a p la n e t a f a r . " M el
v i l l e seem s to s u g g e s t h e re t h a t we a p p ro a c h th e sum m it o f
o u r e x p e rie n c e u t t e r l y d i s i n h e r i t e d .
A f te r Mobv-Dick a changed M e lv ille seem s t o have
g iv e n u p th e hope t h a t a l l man h a s t o do i s s e t o u t on
56
Herman M e lv ille , W hite J a c k e t, i n t r o d . W illia m
Plow er (New Y ork: Grove P re s s , 1952), XXXIX, 162; XIX,
8 5 -8 6 .
■^Herman M e lv ille , M ardi (B o sto n : S t. B o to lp h
S o c ie ty , 1 9 23), LIV, 146; I, 3 ; CIXXXXV, 579; CIXXXV, 548.
190
th e ro a d o f l i f e to d is c o v e r I t s m ean in g . The c h a r a c te r s
o f th e l a t e r n o v e ls becom e, w i l l y - n i l l y , v ic tim s o f a
f a t a l i s t i c u n iv e r s e . In h i s " I n tr o d u c tio n " t o P ie r r e o r
th e A m b ig u itie s Henry M urray m akes th e fo llo w in g o b s e rv a
t i o n :
M e l v i l l e 's p o s i t i o n i n M ardi m ig h t b e d e fin e d i n t h e s e
w o rd s: " I f I f a i l t o r e a c h my g o ld e n haven, may my
a n n i h i l a t i o n b e c o m p le te !" ; i n M oby-D ick: " I s e e t h a t
I am to b e a n n i h i l a t e d , b u t a g a i n s t t h i s v e r d i c t I
s h a l l h u r l an e v e r l a s t i n g p r o t e s t ! " ; in P i e r r e : " I m ust
make up my m ind, i f p o s s ib l e , t o th e i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f
my a n n i h i l a t i o n " ; . . . and i n 1891, i n B i l l y Budd:
" I a c c e p t my a n n i h i l a t i o n .
W ith P ie r r e th e s e r p e n t h a s e n te r e d M e l v i l l e 's f i c t i o n a l
w o rld . H is h e ro o f th e A m b ig u itie s l i v e s in th e Eden o f
h i s fa m ily e s t a t e u n t i l one day th e s i n o f h i s f a t h e r i s
v i s i t e d upon him . E n te rin g a s e lf-im p o s e d p e n an c e, h e d i s
c o v e rs " t h a t th e u tte r m o s t i d e a l o f m o ra l p e r f e c t i o n i n man
i s w ide o f th e m ark. The d em i-gods tra m p le on t r a s h , and
59
V ice and V ir tu e a r e t r a s h ! " And i n M e l v il l e 's l i t e r a r y
te s ta m e n t, B i ll y Budd, " p r a c t i c a l l y a f a t a l i s t , " i s made t o
t a s t e " th e q u e s tio n a b le a p p le o f know ledge" when tem p ted
58
Henry A. M urray, " I n tr o d u c tio n " t o Herman M el
v i l l e , P ie r r e o r th e A m b ig u itie s (New Y ork: F a r r a r S tr a u s s ,
1949), pp. x iv - x v .
59Melville, Pierre. XIX, ii, 321.
191
t o m u rd er by " a l i e n e y e s" o f " s e r p e n t f a s c i n a t i o n . " ^
W ith in a s e r p e n t " c o n tr o l l e d w o rld , a s th e Eden m yth
h a s s u g g e s te d , i s o l a t i o n i s m a n 's n a t u r a l s t a t e . In t h i s
c o n d itio n th e A bels may b e d e s tr o y e d , w h ile th e C a in s,
h a v in g t a s t e d G od's i n j u s t i c e , m ust f l e e i n to a p u rp o s e
le s s n e s s u n iv e r s e . In o r d e r t o s u r v iv e th e y s e t up t h e i r
own autonom ous re a lm w here t h e i r r e i g n o v e r th e b le s s e d ly
ig n o r a n t can r i v a l G o d 's.
I s o l a t i o n i s a l s o a s i g n i f i c a n t them e i n M obv-Dick.
I t i s in tro d u c e d i n th e f i r s t pages o f Ish m ael* s r e f l e c
t i o n s on th e " i n s u l a r c i t y o f th e M a n h atto es" w here " s i l e n t
s e n t i n e l s a l l a ro u n d th e tow n" s ta n d " i n ocean r e v e r i e s .
As a n u n d e rly in g them e i t i s r e p e a te d i n th e c h a p te r b e f o r e
A h ab 's f i r s t a p p e a ra n c e :
They w ere n e a r ly a l l I s la n d e r s i n th e Pequod, I s o l a to e s
to o , I c a l l su c h , . . . e ac h I s o l a t o l i v i n g on a s e p a
r a t e c o n tin e n t o f h i s own. Yet now, f e d e r a te d a lo n g
one k e e l . ^
^ H erm a n M e lv ille , B i l l y Budd. S a i lo r , e d s . H a r r i
son H ayford and M erton M . S e a lts (C h ica g o : U h iv e r s ity o f
C hicago P re s s , 1 9 6 2 ), I, 49; I I , 52; XIX, 98.
61M obv-Dick. I, 1.
62Ibid.. XXVII, 118.
192
They a r e a w a itin g th e com ing o f th e man who th e y hope w i l l
u n i t e them i n one common p u rp o s e . W hereas Ish m ael i s l e f t
a t th e end t o t e l l t h a t t h e r e was no c o n tin e n t o f b r o t h e r
hood, th e o th e r s p e r is h w ith t h e i r f a l s e le a d e r .
Ahab h im s e lf l i v e s i n s e lf-im p o s e d e x i l e . He
em erges o n ly a f t e r s e v e r a l d a y s o f s e c lu s io n i n h i s c a b in .
When h e a p p e a rs on d eck , h e sp e a k s n o w ord; and even a t
63
d in n e r w ith h i s m ates Ahab r u l e s h i s iv o ry kingdom " l i k e
a m u te, maned s e a - l i o n on th e w h ite c o r a l b e a c h , su rro u n d e d
by h i s w a r lik e b u t s t i l l d e f e r e n t i a l cubs."**4 The sc e n e
sy m b o liz es th e d is ta n c e w hich e x i s t s b etw een Ahab and th o s e
w hich s h o u ld b e c l o s e s t t o him . Ahab i s h im s e lf f u l l y
aw are o f h i s s o l i t a r y s t a t e . In two o f th e v e ry few i n
s ta n c e s i n th e n a r r a t i v e in w hich h e sp e a k s o f th e l o n e l i
n e s s o f h i s dem onic m is s io n , h e a d m its t o S ta rb u c k :
When I th in k o f t h i s l i f e I h a v e le d ; th e d e s o la tio n
o f s o l i t u d e i t h a s b e e n ; th e m asoned, w a lle d -to w n o f
a C a p ta in 's e x c lu s iv e n e s s , w hich a d m its b u t sm a ll
63
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o te t h a t Ahab n o t o n ly h a s
a n iv o ry le g , b u t a l s o p o s s e s s e s a n iv o r y s t o o l (XXX, 126)
and a n i v o r y - i n l a i d d in n e r t a b l e (XXXIV, 1 4 7 ). Most im por
t a n t , p e rh a p s , in t h i s r e s p e c t i s th e r e f e r e n c e to A h ab 's
s h ip a s th e " iv o r y Pequod" (L I, 2 3 0 ).
64Mobv-Dick. XXXIV, 147.
193
e n tr a n c e t o any sym pathy from th e g re e n c o u n try w ith -
o u t- - o h ! w e a rin e s s ! h e a v in e s s ! G u in e a -c o a s t s la v e r y o f
s o l i t a r y command.
But Ahab knows t h a t h e i s "b ra n d e d " and I s aw are t h a t ,
h a v in g d ra g g e d " th e ju d g e t o th e b a r , " h e m ust b r in g a b o u t
65
h i s own doom. "B e g o n e," h e t e l l s h i s m a te s on t h e f i r s t
day o f th e c h a s e , "y e two a r e a l l m an k in d ; and Ahab s ta n d s
a lo n e among th e m il l io n s o f th e p e o p le d e a r t h , n o r g o d s,
66
n o r men h i s n e ig h b o r s ." T h e re fo re Ahab h a s b u t one th in g
l e f t t o do when c o n fr o n te d w ith th e havoc i n w h ich h e h a s
b e e n in s tr u m e n ta l. Knowing t h a t i n th e end th e w h ale c a n
n o t b e c o n q u e re d , h e c h o o se s h i s own d e s t r u c t i o n , s in c e he
c an w ork h i s v e n g ea n ce on h im s e lf a lo n e . He m ust la y down
h i s l i f e , n o t f o r o t h e r s , b u t w ith a l l t h e o th e r s h e h a s
c a u g h t i n h i s web o f c o n s p ir a c y .
L ik e S ta v ro g in , D o s to e v s k y 's g r e a t s i n n e r , Ahab
g a in s d i a b o l i c a l c o n tr o l o v e r th e s o u ls o f h i s f o llo w e r s ;
b y s p r e a d in g e v i l , h e tu r n s them i n t o men p o s s e s s e d . In
th e im p re s s iv e " Q u a rte r-D e c k " c h a p te r , Ahab em erges from
h i s c a b in w ith " e v e r - p a c in g th o u g h t" and o r d e r s S ta rb u c k
65I b i d . . CXXXIII, 5 3 4 -5 3 6 .
66I b i d . . CXXXIV, 545.
194
t o se n d ev ery b o d y a f t . L ooking a t th e a p p re h e n s iv e f a c e s ,
Ahab p i t s h i s d e te rm in e d w i l l a g a i n s t t h e a sse m b le d power
o f t h e m en. The n a i l i n g o f th e rew ard d o u b lo o n , th e
p ro c la m a tio n t h a t i t was th e w h ite w h a le "som e c a l l Moby
D ick” t h a t " d is m a s te d ” t h e i r c a p t a i n , t h e j o i n i n g o f hands
t o s i g n i f y th e common bond o f re v e n g e , and t h e g ro g d r i n k
in g s e a l th e b ro th e rh o o d o f a n n i h i l a t i o n w hich Ahab h as
c o n c e iv e d . The d i a b o l i c a l r i t u a l ends w ith a d ra u g h t " h o t
a s S a t a n 's h o o f .” Ahab lo o k s a t h i s band o f c o n s p ir a to r s
and c an f e e l s a t i s f i e d a s t h e i r ey es m eet h i s ,
a s th e b lo o d s h o t ey es o f th e p r a i r i e w o lv es m eet th e
ey e o f t h e i r le a d e r , e r e h e r u s h e s on a t t h e i r h ead in
th e t r a i l o f th e b is o n ; b u t, a l a s ! o n ly t o f a l l i n t o
th e h id d e n s n a re o f th e I n d ia n .
Only one p e rs o n on b o a rd h a s r e a l i z e d th e m adness
o f b e in g e n ra g e d by a dumb a n im a l. S ta rb u c k r e q u i r e s "a
l i t t l e lo w er l a y e r ” w hich Ahab w i l l i n g l y p r o v i d e s :
A ll v i s i b l e o b j e c ts , man, a r e b u t a s p a s te b o a rd m ask s.
But in each e v e n t— i n th e l i v i n g a c t , th e und o u b ted
d e e d — t h e r e , some unknown b u t s t i l l r e a s o n in g th in g
p u ts f o r t h th e m o u ld in g s o f i t s f e a t u r e from b e h in d
t h e u n re a s o n in g m ask! I f man w i l l s t r i k e , s t r i k e
th ro u g h t h e m ask! How c a n th e p r i s o n e r r e a c h o u ts id e
e x c e p t by t h r u s t i n g th ro u g h th e w a ll? To me, th e
w h ite w h ale i s t h a t w a l l, shoved n e a r t o me. Some
tim e s I th in k t h e r e 's n a u g h t b ey o n d . . . . I 'd s t r i k e
th e su n i f i t i n s u l t e d me. 7
67Ibid.. XXXVI, 157-165.
195
S ta rb u c k r e t r e a t s i n h o r r o r , h a v in g g lim p se d th e d e p th o£
A h a b 's n i h i l i s m . H aving r e t r e a t e d t o th e m ain m ast, he
c r i e s o u t i n a n g u is h :
M y s o u l i s m ore th a n m atch ed ; s h e 's o v er-m anned; and
by a madman. . . . W ho's o v e r him , h e c r i e s ; —a y e , h e
w ould b e a d e m o c rat t o a l l a b o v e; lo o k , how he lo r d s i t
o v e r a l l below ! Oh! I p l a i n l y s e e my m is e r a b le
o f f i c e , — t o o b ey , r e b e l l i n g ; and w o rse y e t , t o h a te
w ith to u c h o f p i t y . 8
S ta rb u c k h a s a s e n s e o f d ecen cy and common h u m an ity w hich
h e s h a r e s w ith D o s to e v s k y 's S h a to v . B oth r e p r e s e n t t h e
n a t i v e s o i l t h e i r l e a d e r s f o r s a k e and d e s tr o y in o r d e r t o
r i s e t o g o d ly h e i g h t s . P ity h a s no p la c e i n a u n iv e r s e
t h a t la c k s p o s i t i v e p u rp o se and Ahab, t r y i n g to d is c o v e r i f
t h e r e i s a n y th in g h id d e n b e h in d th e v i s i b l e C re a tio n , m u st
s h a t t e r t h e w a l l t o b e f r e e . S ta rb u c k * s human co m p assio n
i s a n o b s ta c le an d a s su c h m ust b e e lim in a te d .
B e fo re th e Pequod v o y ag e, S ta rb u c k had o n ly known
o f th e w h ite w h a le th ro u g h common t a l k , and t o him t h a t
w h ale alw ay s rem a in e d a d an g ero u s o p p o n en t f o r w hich one
r i s k s o n e 's l i f e i n th e w h a lin g b u s i n e s s . He knows o f
p e o p le k i l l e d in th e w h ale h u n t, b u t h e c o n s id e r s t h i s a
p r o f e s s i o n a l h a z a rd . He k i l l s w h a les f o r a l i v i n g , n o t f o r
68Ibid.. XXXVIII, 166-167.
196
a t h r i l l , o r f o r t h a t m a tte r any " h e a v e n - in s u ltin g p u r-
69
p o s e ." He i s w hat Chase h a s c a l l e d , " th e o n ly hommg
moven s e n s u e 1" i n t h e n o v e l. "H is name i n d i c a t e s t h i s , "
Chase e x p la in s ; " i t i s a common one in N a n tu c k e t; and th e
o th e r c h a r a c t e r s a l l have b i b l i c a l , b a r b a r i c , o r com ic
nam es."79 He i s a human b e in g w ith i n s t i n c t i v e lo v e f o r
h i s la n d , h i s home, and f a m ily . He d o e s n o t c o n s id e r th e
k i l l i n g o f th e w h ale a b id f o r g lo r y , b e c a u se h e i s no
" c r u s a d e r a f t e r p e r i l s."71 C o n te n t t o t r u s t i n God and t o
h u n t w h a le s f o r a l i v i n g h e i s , i n John B e r n s t e i n 's w o rd s,
" th e o n ly man o f t r u e C h r i s t ia n f a i t h i n th e n o v e l. When
72
S ta rb u c k s p e a k s , th e v o ic e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y i s h e a r d ."
Tc S tubb, A h ab 's se co n d m a te , s a i l i n g and h u n tin g
a r e w o n d e rfu l s p o r t s and c o n s c ie n c e a " to o th a c h e ," th e Lord
7 3
i n f l i c t s . "T h in k n o t, i s my e le v e n th com m andm ent," he
s a y s , b e c a u se " a l a u g h 's th e w i s e s t , e a s i e s t a n sw e r to a l l
69I b i d . . XXXVIII, 167.
79C hase, Herman M e lv ille , p . 9 7 .
71M obv-Dick. XXVI, 113.
72
John B e r n s te in , P a c ifis m and R e b e llio n in th e
W ritin g s o f Herman M e lv ille (The H ague: Mouton and C o.,
19 64), p . 104.
73Mobv-Dick. XXIX, 125.
74
t h a t 's q u e e r ." S tubb n e v e r th in k s a b o u t God, b u t h e h a s
h i s own c o m fo rt i n th e b e l i e f t h a t " i t ' s a l l p r e d e s t i -
75
n a te d ." In s p i t e o f h i s e n th u s ia sm f o r w h a lin g , Ahab
do es n o t l i k e him b e c a u se h e does n o t t h in k . Stubb t r i e s
t o c h e e r up Ahab a f t e r he h a s b e en n e a r ly drow ned i n th e
f i r s t a s s a u l t on Moby D ick and c a l l s h i s c a p t a i n 's w recked
b o a t " th e t h i s t l e th e a s s r e f u s e d ." Ahab s n a r l s b a c k : "D id
I n o t know th e e b ra v e a s f e a r l e s s f i r e (and a s m e c h a n ic a l)
I c o u ld sw ear th o u w e rt a p o ltr o o n . " 7* * He damns th e d e v i l
and d e r id e s God, " th e o ld g o v e r n o r ," who s ig n e d a bond
" t h a t a l l t h e p e o p le th e d e v i l k id n a p p e d , h e 'd r o a s t f o r
h im."77 In s h o r t , Stubb i s i n d i f f e r e n t t o s p i r i t u a l and
i n t e l l e c t u a l a f f a i r s , a n d , t o him , th e k i l l i n g o f Moby D ick
i s b u t a n o th e r c h a lle n g e .
Ish m ael lo o k s a t th e duo and c o n c lu d e s t h a t Ahab
c a n n o t e x p e c t much h e lp from
74I b i d . . XXXIX, 168.
76I b i d . . CXXXIII, 545.
77I b i d . . L X X III, 325.
198
t h e In co m p eten ce o f m ere u n a id e d v i r t u e o r r i g h t -
m in d ed n ess I n S ta rb u c k , t h e I n v u ln e r a b le j o l l i t y o f
i n d i f f e r e n c e and r e c k le s s n e s s I n S tu b b .
S ta rb u c k i s th e o n ly one who g o es t o h i s doom w ith open
e y e s . He h a s , a s Ish m a e l h i n te d , r e a l i z e d " th e f a l l o f
79
v a l o r in t h e s o u l . " U n til t h e l a s t d ay b e f o r e Moby D ick
i s s i g h t e d , S ta rb u c k h a s k e p t hope t h a t Ahab may y e t b e
d is s u a d e d . On t h i s " c l e a r s t e e l - b l u e d ay " h e a p p ro a c h e s
Ahab u n d e r th e p r o t e c t i o n o f "sn o w -w h ite w in g s o f s m a ll,
u n s p e c k le d b i r d s " t h a t g l i d e a b o v e . In t h i s s c e n e , w hich
s t r a n g e l y a n t i c i p a t e s th e doves o v e r C lam en c e 's Am sterdam ,
Ahab r e j e c t s h i s l a s t c h an c e f o r re d e m p tio n th ro u g h f a i t h
and le a v e s S ta rb u c k , " b la n c h e d t o a c o r p s e 's hue w ith
80
d e s p a i r ," t o j o i n F e d a lla h , h i s p r i v a t e h a rp o o n e e r.
T h is F e d a lla h h a s b e e n a s much a n enigm a t o A h a b 's
crew a s h e h a s b e e n t o th e r e a d e r s o f M obv-D ick. W illia m
B ra s w e ll d is m is s e s th e m a tte r by s a y in g t h a t h e i s "o b -
81
v io u s ly a s o r t o f M e p h isto p h e le s t o A h ab ." D orothee
78I b i d . . XLI, 184.
79I b i d . . XXVI, 113.
80I b i d . . CXXXII, 536.
8H /illia m B ra s w e ll, M e l v i l l e 's R e lig io u s Thought
(Durham, N .C .: Duke U h iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 4 3 ), p . 6 0 .
199
G r d s e lo f f e x p la in s h i s r o l e b y a n a ly z in g th e A ra b ia n m ean-
82
in g o f h i s name ( " th e S a c r i f i c e o r Ransom o f God")*
A rv in s e e s him i n g e n e r a l term s a s "a p r i n c i p l e o f p u re
83
n e g a t io n ," w h ile o t h e r s , p e rh a p s c l o s e r t o th e m ark, s e e
him a s A h a b 's D ouble. Of t h i s g ro u p th e m ore e x p l i c i t
s ta te m e n t i s M . 0. P e r c i v a l 's w hich m a in ta in s t h a t F e d a lla h
" i s n o t r e a l l y a n e x t e r n a l a g e n t, s e n t t o tem pt a c e r t a i n
v ic tim b y a rra n g e m e n t w ith t h e L ord; h e i s th e c r e a t i o n o f
A h a b 's own s e l f - s e d u c i n g m ind."® ^ Ahab h im s e lf b ro u g h t
F e d a lla h on b o a rd a n d , a s h im s e lf , h id him f o r s e v e r a l d a y s .
The f i r s t tim e th e b o a ts a r e lo w e re d , th e seem ing phantom
s u d d e n ly a p p e a rs . F e d a lla h , o r t h e B a rse e , a s h e i s a l s o
82
D orothee G r d s e lo f f , "A N ote on th e O rig in o f
F e d a lla h i n Mobv D ic k ." A m erican L i t e r a t u r e . XXVII (Novem
b e r , 1 9 5 5 ), 3 9 6 -4 0 3 . She w r i t e s t h a t , g iv e n th e A ra b ia n
m eaning, F e d a lla h w ould th e n mean "one who s a c r i f i c e s him
s e l f f o r God" and w ould sy m b o liz e th e " d e s tro y in g a n g e l"
s e n t by God t o b r in g a b o u t t h e " a s s a s s in a ti o n " o f Ahab, th e
h e r e t i c . In th e a cc o m p lish m en t o f h i s m is s io n F e d a lla h ,
th e m y s tic , o f f e r s u p h i s l i f e and th u s becom es a fe d a . a
" s a c r i f i c e " o r "ra n so m ," p . 4 0 3 .
83
A rv in , Herman M e lv ille , p . 192.
84
P e r c iv a l, A R eading o f Mobv D ick, p . 3 9 . See
a l s o :
B a ird , Ish m a e l. p p . 2 8 0 -2 8 1 .
W illa rd T h orp, " I n tr o d u c tio n " t o Herman M e lv ille :
R e p r e s e n ta tiv e S e le c tio n s (New Y ork: A m erican Book C o .,
1 9 3 8 ), p . I x x iv .
200
c a l l e d , i s " s w a r t” and d r e s s e d i n b la c k . H is shadow y com
p a n io n s a r e n a t i v e s o f t h e M a n illa s , " a r a c e n o to r io u s f o r
a c e r t a i n d ia b o lis m o f s u b t i l i t y , and b y some h o n e s t w h ite
m a rin e r s su p p o sed t o b e th e p a id s p ie s an d s e c r e t c o n f i -
85
d e n t i a l a g e n ts on t h e w a te r o f th e d e v i l . ” M e lv ille ,
l i k e D o sto ev sk y , n e v e r c a l l s h i s f i c t i o n a l a p p a r i t i o n s
d e v i l s , b u t , i n s t e a d , h as h i s d is e a s e d o r s u p e r s t i t i o u s
c h a r a c t e r s make t h a t o b s e r v a tio n . As Stubb d e c l a r e s : ” 1
ta k e t h a t F e d a lla h t o b e a d e v i l i n d i s g u i s e . ” He i s a
p re s e n c e a b o a rd f o r one p u rp o se o n ly . ” Do ye s e e , ” S tubb
s a y s , " th e o ld man i s h a rd b e n t a f t e r t h a t W hite W hale, and
th e d e v i l t h e r e i s t r y i n g to come round him , and g e t him
t o swap . . . h i s s o u l, . . . an d th e n h e ' l l s u r r e n d e r Moby
D ick."86
Most o f th e tim e , th o u g h , F e d a lla h i s made to
a p p e a r an e x te n s io n o f Ahab: "Ahab ch an ced s o t o s ta n d ,
t h a t th e P a rse e o c c u p ie d h i s shadow ; w h ile , i f th e P a r s e e 's
shadow was t h e r e a t a l l i t seem ed o n ly t o b le n d w ith , and
87
le n g th e n A h a b 's .” Once, when Ahab i s a n x io u s ly a w a itin g
85M obv-Dick. X L V III, 215.
86I b i d . . LXXIII, 324.
87Ibid.. LXXIII, 327.
201
t h e f i r s t s ig n o f Moby D ick, h i s " d e s p o t” eye w a tch e s
F e d a lla h , who h a s grown t h i n and e e r i e l i k e "a tre m u lo u s
88
shadow c a s t upon th e d eck by some u n se e n b e i n g 's b o d y ."
I n th e f i n a l s c e n e b e f o r e th e c h a s e b e g in s , Ahab, g a z in g a t
th e w a te r , " s t a r t e d a t two r e f l e c t e d , f ix e d eyes i n th e
w a te r t h e r e . F e d a lla h was m o tio n le s s ly le a n in g o v e r th e
89
same r a i l . ” And so th e y e x i s t t o g e th e r " f ix e d ly g a z in g
upon each o t h e r ; a s i f i n th e P a rse e Ahab saw h i s f o r e throw n
Q A
shadow , i n Ahab th e P a rse e h i s abandoned s u b s ta n c e ."
A h a b 's u n h o ly a l l i a n c e i s a ls o em phasized i n o th e r
s c e n e s . When h e w eld s h i s own h a rp o o n w ith w hich t o k i l l
th e w h ite w h a le , he demands b lo o d , th e " t r u e d e a th - te m p e r ,"
from h is h a rp o o n e e rs t o c o o l th e s t e e l .
"Ego non b a p tiz o t e i n nom ine p a t r i s , se d i n nom ine
d i a b o l i ! " d e l i r i o u s l y how led Ahab, a s th e m a lig n a n t
ir o n s c o r c h in g ly d e v o u re d th e b a p tis m a l b lo o d .
One n ig h t th e " c o r p u s a n ts " a p p e a r: "ea c h o f th e t h r e e t a l l
m a s ts " i s " s i l e n t l y b u rn in g i n t h a t su lp h u ro u s a i r . "
88I b i d . . CXXX, 527.
89I b i d . . CXXXII, 5 3 6 .
90I b i d . . CXXX, 528.
9^ I b id . . C X III, 4 8 4 ; f o r M e l v il l e 's comment on t h i s
p a ro d y in I a t i n s e e h i s l e t t e r t o H aw thorne Ju n e 29, 1851,
i n L e t t e r s . pp. 13 2 -1 3 3 .
202
Stubb c u r s e s , f a i l i n g t o s e e t h a t God h a s w r i t t e n a b u rn in g
92
"Mene, Mene, T e k e l U p h a rsin " a c r o s s th e s h i p . Ahab,
d e l i r i o u s l y , p u ts h i s f o o t upon F e d a lla h and g ra b s th e
m ainm ast lin k s t o f e e l t h e f i r e ' s " p u ls e " a g a i n s t h i s own.
Ahab p ra y s to t h e l i g h t t h a t i s le a p in g o u t o f d a rk n e s s ,
and su d d e n ly a m y s te rio u s and p a le fla m e a p p e a rs a t t h e t i p
o f A h a b 's v e ry own h a rp o o n . He w aves i t among th e crew and
th e n , i n a f i n a l g e s t u r e o f d e f ia n c e , h e e x tin g u is h e s th e
flam e w ith one b l a s t o f h i s b r e a t h . Ahab blow s o u t th e
l i g h t w h ich h a s l i t up th e d a r k n e s s . ^ He h a s now b e e n
shown t h e way t o th e W hite W hale.
E ver s in c e h i s f i r s t e n c o u n te r w ith Moby D ick, Ahab
h as h a te d him, b e h e " p r i n c i p a l " o r " a g e n t." He h as p i le d
upon h is w h ite hump th e ra g e o f m ankind, b u t w h e th e r
^ M obv-Dick. CX3X, 4 9 8 ; f o r th e b i b l i c a l r e f e r e n c e
to th e w r i t in g in G od's hand s e e D a n ie l 5 :2 2 -3 1 .
go
M obv-Dick. CXIX, 4 9 9 -5 0 2 ; f o r i n t e r e s t i n g com
m en tary on th e f i r e and l i g h t sym bolism s i n Mobv-Dick s e e
B e r n s te in , P a c ifis m and R e b e llio n , pp. 100-103.
Max F ra n k , D ie F a rb - und L ic h ts v m b o lik im P ro s a -
w erk Herman M e lv ille s (H e id e lb e rg : C a rl W in te r, 1 9 6 7 ),
pp. 106-110.
Haul W . M i l le r , "Sun and F ir e i n M e l v i l l e 's Mobv-
D ick. " N in e te e n th C e n tu ry F i c ti o n . X I I I (S eptem ber, 1 9 5 8 ),
139-144.
C h a rle s C. W a lc u tt, "The F ir e Sym bolism i n Mobv-
D ic k ." Modem la n g u a g e N o te s. LIX ( A p r il, 1 9 4 4 ), 3 0 4 -3 1 0 .
203
Moby Dick i s a d i v i n i t y , E v il p e r s o n i f i e d , o r o n ly a m a n i
f e s t a t i o n o f a m a lig n ly i n d i f f e r e n t u n iv e r s e , Ahab h as
n e v e r d e c id e d . I t i s enough t o b e li e v e i n th e h a t e f o r
94
t h a t " i n s c r u t a b l e t h i n g . " I t i s im p o s s ib le to com prehend
t h i s W hale t o w hich many c r i t i c s a t t r i b u t e d iv in e pow er o r
d iv in e e s s e n c e . A rv in * s comments a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f
w hat m ost c r i t i c s h a v e o b se rv e d . He s e e s Moby D ick, n o t a s
a C a l v i n i s t i c God, b u t a s " a g r a n d io s e m y th ic p r e s e n t a ti o n
o f w hat i s g o d lik e i n th e c o sm o s," a s an a n im a l d e i t y o f
95
"alw ay s o v e rb e a rin g and u n c o n q u e ra b le f o r c e ." Moby D ick,
th e n , i s b e a u ty an d w isdom , an d , a s e n e rg y , h e i s th e u n
re a s o n in g f o r c e o f c h a o s, th e d e s tr o y e r o f r i v a l pow er
w hich se e k s t o know him . H is in c o m p re h e n s ib le r o l e a s
e x e c u tio n e r o f man s h a l l re m a in u n e x p la in e d , and a l l th e
" s u p e r s t i t i o u s " w i l l e v e r know i s t h a t Moby Dick i s " u b i-
96
q u i t o u s ."
94M pbv-Dick. XXXVI, 162.
9^ A rv in , Herman M e lv ille , p p . 18 8 -1 8 9 ; s e e a l s o
B a ird , Ish m a e l. p a s s im .
B ra s w e ll, M e lv ille * s R e lig io u s T hought, p . 59.
C hase, Herman M e lv ille , p p . 4 9 -5 1 .
Hoffm an, "M yth, M agic, and M etaphor i n Mobv-
D ic k ." p . 271.
Mayoux, M e lv ille p a r lui-m & ne. p . 75.
Mumford, Herman M e lv ille , p . 185.
96Mobv-Dick. XLI, 179.
204
Che d o e s n o t h av e t o b e a n Ahab t o r e a l i s e t h a t
nth e p ro b lem o f th e u n iv e r s e* 1 I s r e v o lv in g i n him . Ish m a el
97
knows i t t o o . When Ahab u n i t e s h i s c re w I n u n h o ly s a c r a -
m en t, Ish m a e l, l i k e t h e r e a d e r , e x p e r ie n c e s "a w ild , m y s t i-
98
c a l f e e l i n g . " As th o u g h tf u l n a r r a t o r —an d a s M e l v il l e1 s
spokesm an—h e p o n d e rs o n t h e w h ite n e s s o f t h e w h a le , a
d e t a i l w h ich l i e s o u ts id e th e d ra m a tic d e v elo p m e n t o f t h e
n a r r a t i v e an d a s s u c h i s n o t g iv e n s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r Ahab.
The c a p t a i n I s p r i m a r i l y aw are o f t h e p h y s i c a l e n t i t y o f
t h e w h a le , a n d i t I s f o r Ish m a e l t o s u g g e s t t h a t nt h e
99
s u p e m a tu r a lis m o f t h e h u e1 1 s h o u ld rem in d t h e f a i r y t a l e
r e a d e r o f th e h e a d le s s horsem an o f t h e H a rtz f o r e s t .
W h iten e ss i s f o r m le s s n e s s , a n i n d e f i n i t e b la n k , an d b e a u ty
an d m eaning a r e " b u t s u b t i l e d e c e i t s , n o t a c t u a l l y in h e r e n t
i n s u b s ta n c e s , b u t o n ly l a i d on from w ithout** b y t h e o b
s e r v e r .
97I b l d . . XXXV, 155.
98n>id. , XLI, 175.
" i b i d . . XLXI, 189.
100J U d . , XLXI, 191; f o r a n i n t e r e s t i n g m odem
tr e a tm e n t I n f i c t i o n o f t h i s them e s e e M ic h el B u to r, l a
( * * r is s l a s E d itio n s d e M in u it, 1 9 5 7 ),
p p . 126, 151, a n d c h . V I I , p p . 16 3 -1 9 5 , i n p a r t i c u l a r .
205
A ll d e i f i e d N a tu re a b s o l u t e l y p a i n t s l i k e th e h a r l o t ,
w hose a llu r e m e n ts c o v e r n o th in g b u t th e c h a r n e l-h o u s e
w i t h in . . . . P o n d e rin g a l l t h i s , th e p a ls ie d u n iv e r s e
l i e s b e f o r e u s a l e p e r .
I t i s t h i s s ta te m e n t w h ich a l e s s - s p e c u l a t i v e Ahab w an ts to
v e r i f y . But i n h i s p u r s u i t e v e n Ahab, when h i s "to rm e n te d
s p i r i t " d i s a s s o c i a t e s i t s e l f from h i s monomania, becom es a
m e a n in g le s s b e in g . He i s th e n
a v a c a te d t h in g , a fo rm le s s so m n a m b u listic b e in g , a
r a y o f l i v i n g l i g h t , t o b e s u r e , b u t w ith o u t a n o b je c t
t o c o l o r , and t h e r e f o r e a b la n k n e s s in i t s e l f .
Of t h e Peouod * s crew , Ahab i s th e o n ly one in whom
s u p e r n a t u r a l w o rld s m a n if e s t th e m s e lv e s , and t h e r e f o r e h e
i s a l s o , a t tim e s , t h e v o id o f t o t a l e s tra n g e m e n t. He
a lo n e i s f r e e to d en y h i s bonds w ith t h e c a rd b o a rd s e c u r i t y
o f t r a d i t i o n an d h a p p in e s s . H aving r i s e n above th e b l i s s
f u l ig n o ra n c e o f m ankind, h e c a n , l i k e M e u rsa u lt, e x te n d
a g r a t u i t o u s g e s t u r e o f k in d n e s s an d a llo w a h a rm le s s i d i o t
th e u s e o f h i s c a b in . Ahab d o e s n o t n eed S ta rb u c k * s
M obv-D ick. XL1I, 1 9 3 -1 9 4 ; f o r a m o st th o ro u g h
s tu d y o f M e lv ille * s u s e o f " w h ite " sym bolism s e e F ra n k , Die
F a rb - und L ic h ts v m b o lik im P ro saw erk Herman M e lv ille s : f o r
a l i t e r a r y p a r a l l e l s e e th e c o n c lu d in g c h a p te r o f E dgar A.
Poe, "The N a r r a tiv e o f A. Gordon I^ m ," i n C om plete W orks.
ed . Jam es A. H a rris o n (New Y ork: Thomas Y. C ro w e ll and
C o ., 1 9 0 2 ), I I I , 5 -2 4 2 .
102 Mobv-Dick. XLIV, 200.
206
c o n s c ie n c e o r lo v e o r d u ty , s i n c e t h e s e a r e q u a l i t i e s t h a t
b in d man t o man. " S c ie n c e ! C u rse th e e , th o u v a in t o y ,"
h e y e l l s , and c u rs e d a l l th in g s " t h a t c a s t m a n 's eye a l o f t "
103
t o h e a v e n . M an's g o -b etw e en f o r h im s e lf and th e u n i
v e r s e Ahab r e j e c t s a s i n t o l e r a b l e d e c e iv e r o f harm onious
e x is te n c e . In one o f th e m ore c l i m a c t i c sc e n e s tow ard th e
c o n c lu s io n o f th e n o v e l, Ahab r e j e c t s th e l a s t p le a m ankind
b r in g s t o him : t o h e lp s e a r c h f o r th e l o s t so n o f th e c a p
t a i n o f th e R a c h e l. " I w i l l n o t do i t , " h e t e l l s th e
b e g g in g f a t h e r , "God b l e s s y e, man, an d may I f o r g iv e my
s e l f , b u t I m ust g o."*®4 Ahab c a n n o t r e s t u n t i l h e h a s
e lim in a te d th e o n ly f o r c e w hich p r e v e n ts him from b e in g
a b s o l u te r u l e r in h i s autonom ous re a lm .
A h a b 's d e te r m in a tio n i s now here m ore e v id e n t th a n
i n h i s r e a c t i o n t o th e e n c o u n te r w ith o t h e r w o rld s t h a t
hav e n o t come u n d e r h is dem onic i n f lu e n c e . T hese e n c o u n te rs
ta k e t h e form o f th e P eq u o d 's n in e "g am s," th e s o c i a l m e e t
in g s o f A h a b 's s h ip w ith o th e r w h a le r s.*®3 A h ab 's
103 lb i d . . CXVIII, 494.
104I b i d . , CXXVIII, 524.
*®3I b i d . . L I I I , 2 3 9 ; f o r p e r t i n e n t com m entary on
t h e f u n c t i o n o f th e "gam s" i n t h e n o v e l s e e
B ezanson, "M obv-D ick: Work o f A r t ," pp. 5 3 -5 4 .
Don G e ig e r, " M e l v i l l e 's B lack God: C o n tra ry E v i
d e n c e i n The Town-Ho's S to r y ," A m erican L i t e r a t u r e . XXV
207
e stra n g e m e n t and h i s s in g le n e s s o f p u rp o se s ta n d o u t i n th e
fa c e o f t h i s n a t u r a l and c u sto m a ry s o c i a b i l i t y , s i n c e he
w i l l n o t " c o n s o r t, even f o r f i v e m in u te s , w ith any s t r a n g e r
c a p t a i n , e x c e p t h e c o u ld c o n t r i b u t e some o f t h a t in fo rm a
t i o n h e s o a b s o r b in g ly s o u g h t."^88 When th e Pequod m eets
a n o th e r s h ip , A h a b 's one q u e s tio n i s , "Have ye s e e n th e
W hite W hale?"*"87 The c a p t a i n o f t h e E nderbv h as n o t o n ly
se e n th e W hite W hale, b u t h a s l o s t h i s arm a s a r e s u l t o f
him . "T h ere w ould b e g r e a t g lo r y i n k i l l i n g him , . . .
b u t, h a rk y e , h e 's b e s t l e t a l o n e ." But t o Ahab i t i s j u s t
t h i s f a c t w hich h a s g iv e n p u rp o se t o h i s l i f e . "He i s , "
Ahab a d m its , " b u t h e w i l l s t i l l b e h u n te d , f o r a l l t h a t .
What i s b e s t l e t a lo n e , t h a t a c c u rs e d t h in g i s n o t alw ays
108
w hat l e a s t a l l u r e s . He i s a l l a m a g n e t." The E nderbv
(Ja n u a ry , 19 5 4 ), 4 6 4 -4 7 1 .
B ruce I . G ra n g er, "The Gams i n Mobv D ic k ."
W estern H um aniti e s Review. V I I I (W in te r, 1 9 5 3 -5 4 ), 4 1 -4 7 .
R onald Mason, The S p i r i t Above th e D ust (London:
Jo h n Lehmann, 1 9 5 1 ), p . 151.
P e r c iv a l, A R eading o f Moby D ick, pp. 6 6 -7 4 .
Jam es D. Young, "T he N ine Gams o f th e 'P e q u o d ,'"
A m erican L i t e r a t u r e . XXV (Ja n u a ry , 1 9 5 4 ), 4 4 9 -4 6 3 .
106M pbv-Dick. L I I I , 236.
107I b i d . . L I I , 235.
108Ibid.. C, 439.
208
a t l e a s t h a s e n c o u n te re d Moby D ick, b u t th e j o l l y B a c h e lo r.
l i k e S tubb, c a n n o t ev en ta k e him s e r i o u s l y . I t s c a p t a i n
s ta n d s e r e c t on h i s q u a rte r d e c k , e n jo y in g h i s s h ip o f
" j u b i l a t i o n . " Ahab, i n c o n t r a s t , s ta n d s on th e deck o f
th e "moody P eq u o d ." "sh ag g y and b la c k , w ith a s tu b b o rn
gloom."109
P erhaps th e m o st d i s t i n c t i n d i c a t i o n o f A h ab 's
m onomaniac l i f e i s th e d o u b lo o n w hich h e n a i l s t o th e m a st
a s a p r i z e f o r th e f i r s t man who s i g h t s Moby D ick. When
one a f t e r th e o t h e r , Ahab and some crew members re a d th e
d e s ig n on th e d o u b lo o n , th e c o in " to e ac h and e v e ry man in
t u r n , b u t m ir r o r s b a c k h i s own m y s te rio u s s e l f , " a s Ahab
know s. And o n ly Ahab s e e s i t a s h im s e lf :
T h e r e 's so m e th in g e v e r e g o t i s t i c a l i n m o u n ta in -to p s
and to w e rs , and a l l o t h e r g ra n d and l o f t y t h i n g s ; lo o k
h e r e , —t h r e e p eak s a s p ro u d a s L u c if e r , The firm
to w e r, t h a t i s A hab; th e v o lc a n o , t h a t i s Ahab; th e
c o u ra g e o u s, th e u n d a u n te d , and v i c t o r i o u s fo w l, t h a t ,
to o , i s Ahab; a l l a r e Ahab. 10
Each s e e s r e a l i t y from h i s own p e r s p e c tiv e , a s l i t t l e P ip
in d i c a t e s in t h e l a s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n : " I lo o k , you lo o k ,
111
h e lo o k s ; we lo o k , ye lo o k , th e y lo o k ." But o n ly Ahab
109I b i d . . CXV, 4 8 8 -4 8 9 .
110I b i d . . XCIX, 4 2 8 .
U 1 I b i d . . XCIX, 4 3 2 .
209
i d e n t i f i e s h im s e lf w ith m o u n ta in -to p s a t t h e e x c lu s io n o f
a l l u n - l o f t y t h i n g s . I t i s a p p r o p r ia te t h a t i t i s Ahab
h im s e lf who f i r s t " r a i s e s ” Moby D ick and th e n c la im s th e
d o u b lo o n f o r h i s own. He d o es n o t f a i l t o draw th e p ro p e r
c o n c lu s io n from t h i s h a p p e n in g .
" I saw h im a lm o s t t h a t same i n s t a n t , s i r , t h a t C a p ta in
Ahab d id , and I c r i e d o u t , ” s a i d T ah teg o . "N ot th e
same i n s t a n t ; n o t t h e sam e—n o , th e d o u b lo o n i s m ine,
F a te r e s e r v e d th e d o u b lo o n f o r me. X o n ly : none o f ye
c o u ld h a v e r a i s e d t h e W hite W hale f i r s t . ” 112
Ahab re a p s h i s own rew ard and r e f u s e s t o s h a r e h i s m is -
le a d e r s h ip a s d e s t r u c t i v e v i s i o n a r y .
L ik e D o sto e v sk y ’ s h e ro e s , Ahab dream s o f p a r a d is e ,
b u t h e i s b ro u g h t low b y th e v i s i o n o f e v i l w h ich i n t e r
p o se s i t s e l f . On th e t h i r d day o f th e c h a s e h i s th o u g h ts
w ander o f f t o o t h e r t i m e s :
L et me h a v e o n e m ore good ro u n d lo o k a l o f t h e r e a t th e
s e a ; t h e r e ’s tim e f o r t h a t . An o ld , o ld s i g h t , and
y e t somehow s o young; a y e , and n o t changed a w ink s in c e
I f i r s t saw i t , a boy, from th e s a n d - h i l l s o f Nan
tu c k e t! The s a m e ! - - th e sam e!—th e same t o Noah a s to
me. T h e re ’ s a s o f t show er to le e w a rd . Such lo v e ly
le e w a rd in g s ! They m ust le a d som ew here—to so m e th in g
e l s e th a n common la n d , m ore palm y th a n th e p alm s. L ee
w ard! t h e w h ite w h a le g o es t h a t w ay; lo o k t o w indw ard,
th e n ; t h e b e t t e r i f th e b i t t e r e r q u a r t e r . 13
112I b i d . . CXXXIII, 538.
113I b i d . , CXXXV, 557.
210
In h i s moment o£ c l a r i t y Ahab r e a l i z e s h i s lo s s and, d r i v e n
b y c o m p u lsio n , h e g o es t o h i s doom l i k e R a sk o ln ik o v ,
K i r i l l o v , S ta v ro g in , and Iv an K aram azov. W o rld ly o rd e r
and d i v i n e l y p ro m ised harm ony a r e h a t e f u l c o n c e p ts t o Ahab
b e c a u s e th e y l i m i t h i s p e r s o n a l freed o m . He m u st c o n fr o n t
them and r e f u s e t o com prom ise. To ab an d o n th e c h a se o f th e
W hite W hale i s t o b e l e s s th a n a c o n q u e ro r: Ahab c a n n o t
r e l e n t .
Oh, now I f e e l my to p m o st g r e a tn e s s l i e s in my to p m o st
g r i e f . Ho, ho! from a l l y o u r f u r t h e s t b o u n d s, p o u r ye
now i n , ye b o ld b illo w s o f my w hole fo re g o n e l i f e , and
to p t h i s one p i l e d com ber o f my d e a th ! Towards th e e
I r o l l , th o u a l l - d e s t r o y i n g b u t u n c o n q u e rin g w h a le; t o
th e l a s t I g r a p p le w ith t h e e ; from h e l l * s h e a r t I s ta b
a t th e e : f o r h a t e ’ s sa k e I s p i t my l a s t b r e a th a t
t h e e . 11A
W ith p a s s io n a te d e f ia n c e Ahab r a g e s on, u n d e fe a te d i n h i s
s e l f - c e n t e r e d a p p ro b a tio n . He h a s n o t g iv e n a th o u g h t to
11C
th e " u n n e c e s s a ry d u p l ic a t e s " J h e le d t o t h e i r d e a th f o r
th e g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f h i s own a m b itio n .
In t h i s " f a t a l p r i d e " h e r a i l s a g a i n s t d iv in e
i n j u s t i c e , w h ile assu m in g t h a t m ankind w i l l b e s e rv e d by
I1 AI b i d . . CXXXV, 565.
115I b i d . . CV II, 4 6 2 .
116I b i d . . CXXIV, 512.
211
h i s b ra n d o f n i h i l i s m . He d e n ie s God, b u t f o r g e t s t h a t
t h i s w i l l o n ly le a d to t h e a tte m p t t o r e p l a c e him . I n h is
s in g le -m in d e d a s c e n t Ahab h as o n ly a ff ir m e d h i s own l i f e
an d abandoned h i s i l l u s i o n s t o g e t h e r w ith h i s l o s t le g .
Ahab know s, a s do Camus' and D o s to e v s k y 's h e r o e s , t h a t l i f e
i s o n ly l iv e d t o t h e f u l l e s t i n c o n te n tio n w ith o p p o sin g
f o r c e s . But th e s e c r e t f o r h a p p in e s s i n t h i s c o n te s t l i e s
i n th e r e c o g n i ti o n o f e ac h m a n 's s o l i d a r i t y w ith m ankind.
The n e g le c t o f t h i s f a c t o r becom es th e u n d o in g o f th e New
E ngland c a p t a i n , a s w e ll a s t h a t o f S ta v ro g in and C lam ence.
T h is fla w in t h e i r z e a l tu r n s them i n t o m is le a d e r s and
d e s t r o y e r s o f th o s e th e y b r in g u n d e r t h e i r in f lu e n c e .
A h a b 's q u e s t, in th e l a s t a n a l y s i s , re d u c e s t o
M e l v i l l e 's own s e a rc h f o r th e a n sw e rs to th e e t e r n a l q u e s
t i o n s : What i s th e n a tu r e o f m a n 's r e l a t i o n t o th e r e a l i t y
w hich s u rro u n d s him ? Why i s man n o t a llo w e d a b s o lu te
know ledge so t h a t h e can d i s t i n g u i s h b etw een a p p e a ra n c e and
r e a l i t y ? And how i s he t o know th e good t h a t a llo w s e v i l ?
The a n sw e rs a r e i m p l i c i t i n th e w ords and d eed s o f C a p ta in
Ahab.
Ahab i s f o r e v e r Ahab, man. T his w hole a c t 's im m utably
d e c re e d . 'Twas r e h e a r s e d b y th e e and me a b i l l i o n
y e a r s b e f o r e t h i s o c e a n r o l l e d . F o o l! I am th e F a te s*
L ie u te n a n t; I a c t u n d e r o r d e r s . Look th o u , tin d er lin g !
212
t h a t th o u o b e y e s t m in e .— S tan d ro u n d me, men. . . .
I f e e l s t r a i n e d , h a I f - s t r a n d e d , a s ro p e s t h a t tow d i s
m aste d f r i g a t e s I n a g a le ; and 1 may lo o k s o . But
e r e I b r e a k , y e ’ l l h e a r me c r a c k ; and t i l l ye h e a r
t h a t , know t h a t A hab’ s h a w se r tow s h i s p u rp o se y e t .
Man’s r e l a t i o n t o th e o u ts id e w o rld i s w hat h e b e li e v e s i t
t o b e . Man’ s know ledge i s r e l a t i v e b e c a u se h e a c t s u n d e r
o r d e r s o f t h e unknown, th e i n e x p l i c a b l e , and th e i r r a
t i o n a l . Man i s a p r i s o n e r s o lo n g a s h e i s lam ed by f e a r .
A h a b 's a n c h o r c a b le m u st tow him y e t , u n t i l h e h a s come
fa c e t o f a c e w ith , w h at he b e l i e v e s , i s th e s o u rc e o f th e
a b s u r d i ty o f e x is te n c e . M an's l i f e i s l i k e th e la b o r o f
S is y p h u s. Freedom and i n s i g h t a r e o n ly h i s when h e a c c e p ts
p a in and s u f f e r i n g w ith o u t f e a r and w ith o u t h o p e . I t i s
e v i l t o la b o r a t th e e x p e n se o f o t h e r s . I t i s good when
man u n i t e s t o c o n f r o n t, in s o l i d a r i t y , th e i n d i f f e r e n c e o f
a c h a o tic u n iv e r s e .
117Ibid., CXXXIV, 554.
CONCLUSION
T his s tu d y o f A lb e rt Camus, Andre M alraux, F ran z
K afka, Fyodor D o sto ev sk y , and Herman M e lv ille h a s a s c e r
ta in e d t o w hat e x te n t t h e i r f i c t i o n r e f l e c t s an om inous
p re s e n c e o f d e s t r u c t i v e a n a rc h y , b ro u g h t a b o u t b y th e c o l
la p s e o f th e C h r i s t i a n c u l t u r a l sy ste m o f th e W est, and to
w hat e x te n t t h e s e a u th o r s hav e p ro p o sed a c o u n te r a c tio n f o r
th e s a l v a t i o n o f man. To w r e s t m eaning from a se e m in g ly
f u t i l e e x is te n c e and to u s u rp th e t r a d i t i o n a l l y d iv in e
r i g h t t o g r a n t h a p p in e s s a f t e r d e a th , Camus h as a d v o c a te d
hope i n th e s o l i d a r i t y o f man, s u g g e s tin g t h a t a t th e r o o t
o f a n a rc h y l i e s each m a n 's in d e c is io n to u n i t e i n th e
common p u rp o se o f t h i s l i f e . M alraux h a s i n s i s t e d on m a n 's
d u ty to m atch h i s pow er i n c o n te s t w ith th e a n n i h i l a t i n g
fo r c e s t h a t s u rro u n d him i n o rd e r t o f in d f u l f i l l m e n t i n
th e r e s i s t a n c e t o d e a t h 's i n e v i t a b i l i t y . K afka h a s p r o
posed s a l v a t i o n i n u n f lin c h in g and h o n e s t a w a re n e ss o f th e
u n a v o id a b le e li m in a ti o n t h a t a w a its each m an. T h e ir g r e a t
213
214
p r e d e c e s s o r s , D osto ev sk y and M e lv ille , h a v e r e s o lv e d t h a t
I n th e end g o o d n e ss, a s d iv in e m a n i f e s ta t io n on e a r t h ,
w ould e v e n tu a lly triu m p h , and t h a t man c a n o n ly hope f o r
h a p p in e s s i n o b e d ie n c e t o G o d 's commandments.
H aving s p e c i f i c a l l y fo c u se d upon Camus' La C h u te.
D o s to e v s k y 's The P o s s e s s e d , a n d M e l v i l l e 's M obv-Dick. we
h av e d e te rm in e d t h a t s ta te m e n ts o f e x tre m e p e ssim ism w ere
in te n d e d a s m ir r o r s w here th e r e a d e r was shown th e d i s a s
tr o u s r e s u l t s o f b o th s e l f i s h com m itm ent and la c k o f i n
v o lv e m e n t. T hese t h r e e n o v e l i s t s , a n d M alraux and K afka a s
w e l l, fo u n d man to b e a s o l i t a r y c r e a t u r e w ith o u t any
o r i e n t a t i o n map i n th e l a b y r i n t h o f h i s e x is te n c e . We hav e
rem arked upon th e them e o f i s o l a t i o n in t h e i r n o v e ls , and
a p p lie d i t to th e c o n c e p t o f " th e a b s u rd " a s em ployed by
Camus, M alraux, and K afka. W e have fo u n d t h a t t h e id e a o f
e stra n g e m e n t an d o f th e a b s u rd a re r e l a t e d t o t h e c u l t u r a l
sy ste m o f th e W est, b e c a u se o f m an 's i s o l a t i o n from God and
h i s fello w m en , a n i s o l a t i o n w h ich commenced w ith Adam 's
e x p u ls io n from E den. The s e a r c h o f t h e a u th o r an d th e
c h a r a c t e r we h a v e s e e n t o r e p r e s e n t a q u e s t f o r a c l o s e r
u n io n w ith m ankind— som etim es e x p re s s e d i n n e g a tiv e term s —
and a d e s i r e t o know a tr a n s c e n d e n t m y s te ry . As we hav e
215
s e e n , t h e r e was a g iv e n r e a l i t y In t h e n a r r a t i v e s , w hich
em ployed r e l i g i o u s ty p e s and im ag es, i d e n t i f i a b l e a s a
C h r i s t ia n b ack g ro u n d a g a i n s t w h ic h th e s e a r c h f o r th e m ean
in g o f l i f e was d e p ic te d .
The e s tra n g e m e n t o f th e f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r s
r e s u l t e d from a judgm ent im posed from o u t s i d e , o r from a
c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith d e s t r u c t i v e f o r c e s beyond th e c a rd b o a rd
s e c u r i t y o f d a y -to -d a y l i v i n g . We h a v e co n clu d ed t h a t th e
r e s u l t i n b o th c a s e s was th e w ith d ra w a l o f th e f i c t i o n a l
p e rs o n s i n to a s e lf-im p o s e d e x i l e . H aving e n c o u n te re d t h e
’’a b s u rd , ” th e y b ro k e w ith th e w o rld o f t h e i r i d e a ls and
r e t r e a t e d to d e f in e th e random f o r c e s w hich had d e s tro y e d
t h e i r b e l i e f s . In n o v e ls su ch a s Camus' la C hute. D o sto
e v s k y 's Ih e P o s se ss e d , and M e l v i l l e 's Mobv-Dick th e m ain
c h a r a c t e r s h a v e p r o je c te d t h e i r new pow er o f u n d e rs ta n d in g
u n to th o s e whom th e y found s t i l l w ith o u t s e c u r e c o n v ic tio n .
F i r s t th e y c o n v e rte d them , and th e n th e y tu r n e d them i n t o
men ’’p o s s e s s e d ” by t h e i r own d e v i l i s h i n t e n t i o n . A lth o u g h
th e s e f a l s e l y p r o p h e tic spokesm en c o u ld h av e b een r e c o g
n iz e d a s im p o s te rs , t h e i r f o llo w e r s p r e f e r r e d th e s u r f a c e
s e c u r i t y to a p a in f u l dem asaue. As r e a d e r s , we h av e a c k
now ledged th e a u t h o r s ' t e r r i b l e i n t e n t , and i t i s f o r us
216
t o a d m it t o th e h y p o c ris y w hich b ro u g h t a b o u t t h e t e r r i b l e
v i s i o n o f f a l s e s a l v a t i o n .
In l a C hute. The P o s s e s s e d . an d M obv-Dick we have
c o n s id e r e d th e a u t h o r s ' p u rp o se in show ing th e f a t e o f
th o s e who p la c e t h e i r t r u s t in m is l e a d e r s h ip . The e s t h e t i c
e x p e r ie n c e , in c o n f r o n ta tio n w ith t h e s e n o v e ls , h a s b e e n
p a r t i a l l y d e te rm in e d by th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c o n te n t t o form .
D osto ev sk y and M e lv ille , a s w e ll a s Camus, tu r n e d th e n o v e l
to th e u s e s o f tra g e d y so t h a t t h e r e a d e r c o u ld hav e th e
o p p o r tu n ity t o a c t th e p la y r a t h e r t h a n sim p ly t o contem
p l a t e i t . A fte r th e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o u r e v id e n c e , we can
now c o n c lu d e t h a t n o v e ls w hich em ploy th e d ra m a tic m ethod
a r e w e ll s u i t e d to th e p o r t r a y a l o f p r o p h e tic c h a r a c t e r s .
The b la z in g h e ig h ts from w hich th e y is s u e d commands fo rc e d
th e s c a t t e r e d d i s b e l i e v e r s in C h r i s t i a n s a l v a t i o n t o j o i n
th em . J e a n - B a p tis te Clam ence, N ik o la y S ta v ro g in , and
C a p ta in Ahab, c o n te m p o ra ry , a m o ra l h e ro e s e n a c tin g a p aro d y
o f s a l v a t i o n , d e s tr o y th e p e o p le a ro u n d them .
I t h a s b e en e v id e n t t h a t t h e s e d e s t r o y e r s , h a v in g
b een maimed by a ch an ce e n c o u n te r , f e l t th e g r e a t need to
a s s e r t t h e i r own s i g n i f ic a n c e v i a a p e r s o n a l re v e n g e upon
a n i n d i f f e r e n t unknown. In t h e i r m onomania th e y r e q u ir e d
217
t h e p re s e n c e o f p e o p le w ith whom th e y c o u ld f i l l t h e i r own
w o rld o f h a t r e d . They s t r o n g l y d e s i r e d a fo llo w in g o f
o r d in a r y men t o enhance t h e i r s t a t u r e and t o r e l i e v e th e
l o n e l i n e s s o f t h e i r dem onic m is s io n . In o r d e r t o a t t r a c t
a l l i e s f o r t h e i r tr e a c h e r o u s p u r s u i t a g a i n s t e s t a b l is h e d ,
u n i v e r s a l o r d e r , th e y h ad t o come d is g u is e d a s le a d e r s
to u c h e d b y th e s p a rk o f i n s i g h t . T h e ir p o w e rfu l a p p e a ra n c e
h id a " d e m o ra liz e d la n d s c a p e ," a n d , s in c e th e y liv e d on
s o l i t a r y h e ig h t s , th e y w ere ad m ired by th o s e who s u f f e r e d
from d is c o n te n tm e n t and from a f e e l i n g o f l o n e l i n e s s . S in c e
th e y p ro c la im e d th e m se lv e s t o h a v e b e e n th e b e g in n in g and
th e end o f th e r e c o g n itio n o f m a n 's c o m p lic ity i n th e e x ist-*
in g w o rld o f a n a rc h y , p e o p le flo c k e d to w ard them , d e lig h te d
w ith th e v i s i o n o f a f a m i l i a r norm . As we hav e o b se rv e d ,
i t was e s s e n t i a l f o r th e s e m is le a d e r s t o m a in ta in t h e i r
s t r e n g t h th ro u g h i n d if f e r e n c e i n i m i t a t i o n o f th e u n iv e r s e .
At one tim e th e y had a tte m p te d t o lo v e a s an e sc a p e from
t h e i r v i o l e n t m is s io n o f ju d g m e n t, b u t th e y l e f t lo v e
b e h in d them when th e y d is c a r d e d t h e i r in n o c e n t b e l i e f t h a t
th e u n iv e r s e was e s s e n t i a l l y g o od. They f e l t a co m p u lsio n
t o r e j e c t e v e r y th in g w hich bound man t o man, to deny a l l
t h a t c o u ld have s e rv e d a s in te r m e d ia r y b etw een th e m se lv e s
218
and th e C r e a tio n . When th e y re g a r d e d a n y human q u a l i t y and
any m a n -c re a te d In v e n tio n a s a c r u e l d e c e p tio n o f u n i v e r s a l
e x is te n c e , th e y c o u ld b u t r e t r e a t t o a " m a lc o n fo rt" o f
I s o l a t i o n , d o u b t, and f e a r . And a s we hav e s e e n , t h e i r
f a t e a s su g g e s te d by Camus, and a s d e s c r ib e d by D ostoevsky
and M e lv ille , was a d i s i n t e g r a t i o n i n t h e v o id o f t h e i r own
d i s s e n t .
A lre a d y , b e fo r e t h e i r f a l l i n t o a w a re n e ss, th e s e
spokesm en f o r n i h i l i s m had s e t th e m se lv e s above o t h e r s ;
a f t e r t h e i r f a l l th e y c o n tin u e d t o do t h e sam e. L u c id ity
had shown them th e way o u t o f t h e i r i r r e s p o n s i b l e re p o s e ,
and i n t h e i r n e w ly -a c q u ire d p e r c e p tio n th e y n e x t assum ed
t h a t m ankind w ould b e s e rv e d by t h e i r a f f i r m a t i o n o f
n o th in g n e s s . Once th e s e f a l s e p ro p h e ts had u n d e rs to o d w hat
th e y b e lie v e d to have b e e n th e c a p r ic e o f t h e i r e a r l i e r
i d e a l s , th e y to o k up th e b a n n e r o f a b s o lu te d i c t a t o r s h i p .
I t was e v id e n t t h a t th e y knew s u f f e r i n g t o b e th e n a t u r a l
c o n d itio n o f man in a n e v i l w o rld , an d , i n t h i s know ledge,
th e y o c c u p ie d an em inent p o s i t i o n w hich had t o be p re s e rv e d
l e s t th e y p e r is h i n th e c o n t r a d i c t o r y ju d g m en t o f th e w o rld .
L ik e C ain, th e y made th e m se lv e s ju d g e s o f G od's deeds and
th e r e b y o f H is C r e a tio n . By h a v in g a p p o in te d th e m se lv e s
219
a s godheads I n t h e i r own e s t a b l i s h e d re a lm s , th e y tu rn e d
th e p e rs o n s whom th e y h ad c o n v e rte d i n t o e m a n atio n s o f
t h e i r own e v i l s p i r i t ; a n d , a s we c o n c lu d e , th e y w ere th u s
f a t e d t o b r in g t o a c lo s e th e r e i g n o f u n c e r t a i n d i s b e l i e f .
A cco rd in g t o o u r n o v e l i s t s , man c a n n o t e n jo y th e
lo v e o f k in s h ip so lo n g a s h e c o n tin u e s t o n e g a te human
v a lu e s . I f h e p e r s i s t s , he c a n o n ly l i v e in and b y a n a rc h y ,
a t t e s t i n g to th e d isa v o w a l o f h a p p in e s s th ro u g h s o l i d a r i t y
w ith m ankind. He w i l l th e n n o t s e e man i n G od's im age, b u t
h e w i l l alw ay s e n c o u n te r h i s S e lf in c a r n a te d i n o t h e r s .
T hese m asked p ro p h e ts o f d e s t r u c t i o n s i g n i f y l i f e - i n - d e a t h
t o th o s e who w ish t o b e lie v e i n t h e p r o f f e r e d r e a l i t y ; b u t
t o u s , o u ts id e t h i s d e a d ly s p h e re , th e y a r e r e a l i t i e s o f
n o th in g n e s s who, a s su c h , c a n be r e j e c t e d a s sym bols o f
t o t a l a n n i h i l a t i o n . And, a s we h a v e fo u n d from t h e e v i
d e n ce p r e s e n te d , t h i s i s w hat th e a u th o r s have in te n d e d .
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Creator Rysten, Felix Simon Anton (author)

Core Title False Prophets In Fiction: Camus, Dostoevsky, Melville, And Others

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Comparative Literature

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, General,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Goodrich, Norma Lorre (committee chair), Armato, Rosario P. (committee member), Belle, Rene F. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-659226

Unique identifier UC11360900

Identifier 6906505.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-659226 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6906505.pdf

Dmrecord 659226

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Rysten, Felix Simon Anton

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA