Relationships Between Counselors' Philosophical Consistency And Congruency With Their Effectiveness As Counselors

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Request accessible transcript

Transcript (if available)

Content This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 70-362 RAVE, Elizabeth Jeanne, 1932- RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COUNSELORS1 PHILOSOPHICAL CONSISTENCY AND CONGRUENCY WITH THEIR EFFECTIVENESS AS COUNSELORS. University of Southern California, Ed.D., 1969 Education, guidance and counseling University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan © Elizabeth Jeanne Rave 1970 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN COUNSELORS' PHILOSOPHICAL CONSISTENCY AND CONGRUENCY WITH THEIR EFFECTIVENESS AS COUNSELORS £ Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the School of Education University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Education Elizabeth Jeanne Rave June, 1969 This dissertation, written under the direction of the Chairman of the candidate’s Guidance Committee and approved by all members of the Committee, has been presented to and accepted by the Faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education. Date. .............. uidari&t Commit tee Dean Guidon ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Members of the guidance committee varied over the years this study was in progress. Dr. Earl Carnes was the chairman and final members were Dr. Robert Smith and Dr. William Ofman. However, earlier other individuals, such as Dr. Richard Wolf and Dr. Robert Brackenbury, offered guidance and encouragement. The facilities of the University of Southern California Computer Scienceis Labora tory were made available for much of the statistical analysis of the data. There are several persons whose help went far beyond any "duties" with which they may have been involved. Art Prescott compiled the programming of the data and helped with the statistics under very trying circumstances. Mrs. Eve Kerr not only did the final typing but has been a cherished friend as well, Mrs. Kay Lewis ran errands and tracked down procedures in the final stages when it was very difficult for me to do so. Mrs, Bea Heimerl gave last minute direction when it was desperately needed. Two members of my Immediate family gave much valued and needed support just because they were there. Neither my father nor my grandmother really ever quite understood the reasons that I wanted to continue my education but the fact that I wanted to was sufficient for them. Although the ii distance between us in miles was great, the "emotional" distance never was, mainly because neither of them ever put any pressure on me, I can only hope tint in some way these many hours of additional education will help me be at least in part the human being my father's eight years of education made him. The number of friends who nurtured me along the way includes far too many for me to name. There were many who literally housed, clothed, and fed me* without that type of support I could not have managed financially. However, more important there were many additional friends who gave emotional support. Without their continual encouragement and understanding I just plain could not have managed. Three individuals who saw me all the way through are Jo Burch and Jim and Joyce Burt, Finally I am deeply indebted to each and every one of the counselor trainees with whom I worked during four years as a staff member at the Guidance and Counseling Institute, From each one I learned and I thank each one for allowing me to do so, E. R. ill TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES.................................... v Chapter I, THE PROBLEM........................... . 1 Statement of Problem Hypotheses Importance of Study Organization of the Dissertation II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE................. 18 Philosophical Foundations Two Divergent Philosophies Reconciling Divergencies Philosophical Studies Related Studies III. PROCEDURES................................ 71 Population Used Collection of Data Development of Instruments Statistical Approach Used IV. RESULTS.................................... 95 Consistency Type of Philosophical Consistency Congruency V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................... 126 Findings Limitations Implications Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................... 14-3 APPENDICES.................................... 157 iv LIST OP TABLES Table Page I. Test-Retest Correlation Data for Preliminary PCI . . . ........ ............ II. Test-Retest Correlation Information for PCI........................... 103 III. Correlations of Observer Pairs............. 109 IV. Correlations of Three Independent Judges , . Ill V. Summary of Kruskal-Wallls Data for Hypothesis Ii Comparing Counselors' Philosophical Consistency and Effectiveness ................................ 116 VI. Summary of Kruskal-Wallis Data for Hypothesis II1 Comparing Philosophical Type and Effectiveness.............. H 9 VII. Summary of Mann-Whitney U Datai Comparing Effectiveness of Behavioristic and Humanistic Counselors . ............. 122 VIII. Correlations of Three Criterion Groups for Effectiveness.............. . 13^ v CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM "It doesn't make much difference what you believe. The important thing is to know what you believe and to act accordingly." In one way or another that type of statement has been made more frequently by counselor educators and counseling theorists within recent years. There has been a shift In emphasis in the literature from expounding various "techniques" of counseling toward the Importance of self- knowledge by the counselor. Included in this trend has been an emphasis upon the counselor becoming a more "congruent" person. In other words, what a counselor does seems to be less important than whether his actions are congruent with his beliefs. When a counselor is aware of what he believes and acts accordingly, theoretically he is a more effective counselor. Writers have become increa singly concerned with determining what a counselors behavior Implies about the counselor's own values and attitudes, the counselor's own philosophy of life. For example, Farwell (371I60) goes so far as to assert that self-knowledge on the part of the school counselor is as important as the counselee's self-knowledge which the counselor attempts to promote. Arbuckle (4-i213) < ? 2 maintains, ' ’One's concept of the nature of man, then, must surely affect his operation as a counselor since it means that the counselor must see both himself and the client in a different light." In another article, Arbuckle (3■1^) presses for more counselors who know why they do what they do. Vance (129*1015) argues that unless the counselor is aware of his own values and ethics, he could accept any behavioral goal as stated by the client. Hunt sums up the situation by saying* Counseling theorists are of the opinion that the success of the counseling relationship is directly dependent on its congruency* in such a relation this would involve supplementation of philosophical premises, Implicitly or explicitly held, by phenomeno logical experiences* the counselor would attempt to proceed in a fashion that allied his purposes, practices and techniques with his inner feelings and value s. (59 * ^) Hand in hand with the pleas for the counselor's awareness of his beliefs have been expressions of need for consistencies in a counselor's beliefs. In other words, a counselor should not only know what he believes but then strive to form a consistent philosophy. Patterson (98*217) early pointed out that goals are influenced by values and that (98*219) as values influence the goals of therapy, they also influence methods and techniques, which are means toward the goals. If a counselor follows one philo sophy during the actual counseling process but at the same time has as his goal a tenet from another philosophy, he will be an ineffective counselor. Theoretically, only if the counselor adopts goals, roles, and outcomes that are consistent with one system of counseling can he be an effective counselor, Pohlman (102121^) emphasizes the importance of consistency by saying that assumptions do not have to be empirically demonstrated} they need only be logically consistent. Beck (11*95) searches for consistency and also wonders whether the presuppositions underlying statements of credo in guidance have been clouded by semantic con fusions and unexamined assumptions, resulting in an inconsistent philosophical position for guidance. Hunt (59*29) thinks that consistency between behavior and ideals can come only from clearly understanding one's goals and the relation of goal values and processes. Hunt summarizes the need for consistency in this manneri ■The search for Internal consistency is a part of the search for what is true in the framework of a counseling process. An approach that is biased in one way in regard to the nature of man, in another way toward values, and in a third way toward the outcome of the counseling process would seem to contain too many unconscious variables to be found "true" in that sense; moreover, it would appear that such philosophical moving about would offer problems to the counselee, and that he must then contend with these problems in addition to the ones for which he has sought counseling, (59*5-6) Philosophy, then, cannot be' escaped by the counselor. His actions reflect his philosophy of life and his philosophy influences his actions in a continually reinforcing pattern* As Browning and Peters (14-J12) state, "It seems to us that considerations of ultimate values cannot be avoided by the counselor as a person, and that he must operate from some philosophical point of view -- some form of Idealism, Realism (Christian or otherwise), Pragmatism, Naturalism, or Existentialism (again religious or otherwise)." In general, then, writers have increasingly emphasized the necessity of a counselor's knowing his own philosophy of counseling. In addition, authors have stressed the importance of the counselor's belief system being internally consistent. In fact, if the number of articles on the subject is any indication, the concern with and interest in counseling philosophy has rapidly Increased in the last decade. Another assumption, becoming more and more accepted, is that the counselor reveals his philosophy through his actions. For example, Arbuckle (4-i211) indicates that there is evidence that the counselor, as he actually works, is "giving a display of his philosophy of life rather than showing how well he has learned certain techniques and procedures in a graduate school." Vordenberg (131*4-39) early recognized that the counselor's beliefs were revealed through his actions. He also thought that as the individual gained more experience and insight into the problems of others he began to think fundamentally about his own beliefs and their relationship to his job. Vordenberg (131iM40) summarized by saying, "Regardless of the kind of personal philosophy evolved by the counselor, it must surely affect the techniques he uses and the evaluation of the effectiveness of his work," Another writer who indicated a connection between value judgments and the therapist's personal philosophy was Walters. He (132*2*44) thought that as soon as one person used his psychological knowledge to modify the attitudes and ideas of another he of necessity formed value judgments as to the need, the goal and the method of therapy. Walters (132*2*4-8) maintained, "Every psycho therapist is a philosopher of sorts. When the psychologist turns away from his measurements and statistics to deal with troubled individuals on a one-to-one basis, he leaves pure science behind. Becoming a participant in the healing process draws him inescapably into the realm of values." In a recent review Ford and Urban (40 * 3 * 4 - ( ) ) point out that decisions about what to do in psychotherapy Imply prior judgments about what Is wrong. In addition, they (*4-0*341) suggest that the judgments Involve not only ques tions of what is wrong and why but also what the behavior should be like if therapy Is effective. 6 As writers discuss the importance of a counselor's knowing his own philosophy, it becomes apparent these writers must believe there is more than one counseling philosophy. If only one philosophy exists, there would be no need for a counselor to discover "his own." In fact, underlying most of the literature in the field is the assumption that there are different philosophies of counseling. Sometimes the differences are in name only and sometimes the differences are in emphasis, Regardless, most authorities agree that there are disagreements among philosophies of counseling, Walters (132*250) says,"The psychotherapist is not offered a choice between a scien tific and an unscientific doctrine of man. Rather, the choice is among different views of man that are corollary to various philosophies," In summary, the stage for this research was set by several noticeable trends in the theoretical literature. First of all, there seems to be an Increased Interest In counseling philosophy. In addition, some assumptions have been perpetuated in the literaturej I.e., a counselor should strive for a consistent philosophical system, a counselor's philosophy can be ascertained through his actions, and the more congruent a counselor's actions are with his beliefs the better counselor he will be. 7 Statement of Problem Briefly, this study could be described as basic research. It is an exploratory attempt to measure the relationship between counselors' philosophy, consistency, and congruency with effectiveness. After assuming the existence of different philosophies, this study first classifies counselor trainees by their philosophy of counseling. Although most authorities agree that it is important for a counselor to develop a consistent philo sophy of counseling, few attempts have been made to measure whether counselors do indeed have consistent philosophies of counseling. In addition, very few studies have attempted to measure whether a counselor consistent in his beliefs is more effective than one who is not. The whole area of congruency between beliefs and actions is pretty well devoid of research. Theoretically, the counselor can be more effective as a counselor if there is a higher degree of congruency between his underlying philosophy and his actions in counseling. After distinguishing individuals by their type of philosophy, this study attempts to measure the effec tiveness of the counselors. It looks at whether the con sistent counselor is viewed as more effective than the inconsistent counselor and then whether the congruent counselor is viewed as more effective than the incongruent counselor# Because of the difficulties in using a single criterion measure for effectiveness, three criterion groups are usedi observers, independent judges, and counselees. Because this research is exploratory in nature, the operational definitions are determined by the instruments used in the study. To illustrate, the counselor's per ception of his philosophical consistency will be measured by the Philosophical Concept Inventory, The observers and judges responded to the Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale and their perceptions of the counselor's philosophical con sistency will be determined by that instrument. The counselees' perceptions of the counselor's philosophical consistency will be measured by the Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form, Congruency occurs when there is agreement between the counselor's view of his philosophical consis tency and one of the criterion group's view. Effectiveness will be measured by two different instruments. The counselees completed the Counseling Evaluation Inventory. Observers and judges filled out the Effectiveness Bating Scale. More specific information regarding the instruments and the criteria for establishing consistency, congruency, and effectiveness will be reported in a later chapter. 9 Hypotheses After assuming the existence of different philo sophical systems in counseling, three major null hypotheses were examined. Several statistical hypotheses were formed to test the major hypotheses, I, There will he no difference in effectiveness among inconsistent and highly consistent counselor trainees regardless of their philosophy of counseling. A. The amount of correlation between the counselors1 self-perceptions of consistency and the counselees1 perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not he significant, B, The amount of correlation between the counselors* self-perceptions of consistency and the observers* perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not be significant. G, The amount of correlation between the counselors* self-perceptions of consistency and the judges1 perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not be significant. D. The amount of correlation between the counselees* perceptions of counselors' consistency and effectiveness will not be significant. E, The amount of correlation between the observers' perceptions of counselors' consistency and effectiveness will not be significant. F. The amount of correlation between the judges' perceptions of counselors' consistency and effectiveness will not be significant, II. There will be no difference in effectiveness among the highly consistent counselor trainees regardless of their philosophy of counseling. A. The amount of correlation between the counselors' self-perceptions of philosophical system and the counselees' perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not be significant, B. The amount of correlation between the counselors' self-perceptions of philosophical system and the observers' perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not be significant. C. The amount of correlation between the counselors' self-perceptions of philosophical system and the,judges' perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not be significant. D* The amount of correlation between the counselees' perceptions of counselors' philosophical system and effectiveness will not be significant. E, The amount of correlation between the observers' perceptions of counselors' philosophical system and effectiveness will not be significant. 11 P. The amount of correlation between the judges* perceptions of counselors1 philosophical system and effectiveness will not be significant. III. There will be no difference In effectiveness among counselor trainees with high congruency and low congruency between their philosophy of counseling and their actions in counseling, A. The amount of correlation between counselees1 perceptions of counselor congruency and effectiveness will not be significant. B. The amount of correlation between observers1 perceptions of counselor congruency and effectiveness will not be significant, C. The amount of correlation between judges' perceptions of counselor congruency and effectiveness will not be significant. Importance of Study In general, then, writers in the field seem to agree that there are different systems of philosophy in counseling and the counselor reflects his own philosophical system through his actions during the counseling process. In many ways the counselor Influences the counselee through his actions and beliefs. Therefore, authorities also agree that it is Important for a counselor to be aware of his own philosophy so that he understands In what ways he is 12 Influencing the counselee. In addition, many voices proclaim the importance of a counselor having an internally consistent system of philosophy so that he is not working at cross-purposes with himself and in turn confusing the counselee. On the other hand, if the counselor has a consistent philosophy and is fully aware of it, he will be better able to act congruently with his beliefs, an ideal all counselors — all humans for that matter — work toward» All of the above statements are generally accepted maxims in the field of counseling and therapy and ideals for which all counselors strive. So far, however, all of these assumptions remain just that, assumptions. Very little research has actually been conducted in any of these areas to test the assumptions. Any study that would put the maxims to some form of experimentation can but enhance general knowledge in the whole field of counselor learning and education. If research supports the assumptions, counselors can well devote more of their time and energy to developing an individual and consistent philosophy of counseling and then investigate whether their actions are congruent with their beliefs. On the other hand, if research questions these same assumptions, counselors may well find their already limited time and energy can be geared to other pur suits, The use of time seems especially important during 13 the educational program of counselors as more and more areas of learning are stressed as necessary. Browning and Peters (14i12) emphasize, "It seems imperative that guidance counselors and educators must join other leaders in education, psychology, psychotherapy, philosophy and religion in doing basic research in this field.” Vordenberg (131*^0) concurs, "Basic, too, are the personal philosophies of the counselor and student. An understanding of the student is incomplete without an understanding of his philosophy of life and the empirical basis for it* nor is counseling on firm ground without the counselor's understanding of his own philosophy of life and the subtle, and sometimes undetected, impact of these philosophies on the counseling situation.” Discussing trends in guidance, Topetzes (123*208) expresses the coun selor's hopes that the various theories of man's essence will be brought together to help him understand himself through philosophical techniques. Williamson (133*620), early aware of the relation ship between values and philosophy, said recently, "Essentially, incorporating the problem of value choice into counseling practices requires that we become thoughtful philosophers and logicians and that we learn more complex techniques of conversing with students about complex con cepts and questions involved in the pursuit of the good 14 life," In a related field, Curran, Gordon, and Doyle (24*383) stress the Importance of examining a teacher's philosophy of education. They point out this philosophy "must he understood in conjunction with the analytical study of teaching in order to gain insight into just what the teacher views to be the goals of education." Hunt also discusses the importance of a counselor's self-understanding and need for consistency. With access to a diversity of schools of thought, a counselor might take any aspect of his counseling procedure and compare it with other parameters within the chosen philosophical context to determine the con sistency of his approach. Departure from Internal consistency in a specific individual's counseling activities would be manifest, and data on this departure could be means by which he might grow to a greater self-understanding as the reason for the lack of coherence was clarified, (59*188-189) Patterson (95*80) views the increasing attention to the theoretical-philosophical underpinnings or assumptions of counseling as a mark of maturing in the profession, Patterson (981216) early recognized the connection between values and philosophy and defined philosophy as an integ ration of values, "usually resulting in statements of postulates and assumptions, or principles." The same author quoted Paul Tillich at the beginning of his recent book (99)» uNo therapeutic theory can be developed without an implicit or explicit image of man." Patterson (99*5) believes every practice or approach to counseling has implicit assumptions. 15 Patterson goes on to discuss several approaches to counseling. He (99*^87) claims, "The picture Is one of diversity. The various points of view appear to differ considerably in philosophy or concepts, in goals or objectives, and In methods or techniques," After agreeing that there are many different philosophies of counseling, Patterson concludes* Perhaps the greatest divergence Is between the behavior therapies on the one hand and the existen tialist approaches (including client-centered therapy) on the other.......it appears that these two points of view are perceived by their adherents and by others as Inconsistent and contradictory, ‘ (99*^99) Again, it would seem Important to supplement the large body of theory involving philosophy of counseling with some experimentation. In fact, the area of counseling philosophy rightly deserves research in the realms of con sistency and congruency. Theorists agree consistency of philosophy is necessary and congruency between beliefs and actions is vital. Because theorists do emphasize these two aspects, they are saying there are different philosophies of counseling. Writers would not discuss the Importance of consistency unless there were different approaches with which to be consistent. Any research which attempted to test these assumptions would add needed knowledge to the field of counseling philosophy. In addition, there is another area lacking In research. Very few experimental designs involving a 16 measure of effectiveness include more than one criterion measure. Farnsworth (36:82) recently added his criticism to using a single criterion to determine effectiveness. One piece of research uses supervisors as the criterion of effectiveness and obtains one type of results. Another uses counselees and may or may not get similar results. Most research, however, relies on one criterion measure and one alone to determine whether a certain group of counselors are seen as effective. Any research then which included more than one criterion measure of effectiveness would seem a contribution to the field. Organization of the Dissertation Briefly, the dissertation is organized in the following manner: Chapter I has included a statement of the study’s problem, purpose, and plan as well as presented the hypo theses and indicated the importance of the study. Chapter II will review the literature that pertains to counseling philosophy. Much of the literature is theoretical in nature but the few direct studies will also be reviewed. In addition, experimentation in related areas, such as values and attitudes, will be discussed. Chapter III describes the population used in the study, the development of Instruments peculiar to this particular study, other measurement devices, and the methodology of the study* Chapter XV presents the results of this Investi gation. Naturally these findings relate to the three major hypotheses presented in the first chapter. The final chapter, Chapter V, contains the summary, conclusions, Implications, and further recommendations for investigation and research of this study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE The nature of this study's topic, philosophy, suggests that much of the review will be devoted to theoretical literature exploring the importance of philo sophy, the philosophical foundations of counseling, the two major philosophical systems, and attempts to reconcile the major systems. In addition, reports of experimental studies in philosophy and related research concerning values and attitudes will be explored. Each writer, each researcher has his own definitions of counseling and of psychotherapy. This writer views counsling as a form of psychotherapy and, thus, the review of literature will include reports of authors who use each term. The literature in the field of counseling philo sophy is filled with references regarding the connection between a counselor's actions and his beliefs. Many theoretical articles have been written by authors from different philosophical leanings. Recent years have seen more and more discussions of the importance of a counselor being aware of his own philosophy. However, trying to find reports of studies on the connection between actions and beliefs and the effects of that connection is like looking for the proverbial needle. It seems much easier to 18 19 maintain that philosophy is important in the life of the counselor than it is to prove such a statement. Most of the "proof" so far has involved developing a logical argument to support the beliefs. On the other hand, it is probably necessary to convince people that an area is important before research can take place. The whole realm of counseling philosophy seems at that point presently* everyone agrees it is important for a counselor to know what he believes and act accordingly, but no one knows quite how to find out what a counselor believes, whether his beliefs are consistent, whether his actions are congruent with his beliefs, and then whether it really makes any difference if there is consistency or congruency. The writer who most synthesized the state of philosophy in the guidance area was Beck (11). He looked over the whole history of guidance philosophy and defined trends that had occurred during the years. In addition, Beck examined the assumptions and presuppositions of various schools of thought to determine what these same assumptions mean philosophically. In many ways, Beck also opened the floodgates to the rush to philosophical discussion. Hunt (59) was the next author to review philosophical writings, especially those published after Beck's book was printed. Both authors indicate that much of the material on 20 philosophy had to be gleaned from the implications of suggested practices and techniques as well as Issues in the field rather than articles directly on the subject of counseling philosophy. In the same manner, much of this review discusses related theoretical writings and studies, simply because so few direct studies have been done. Historically the individual who most forced psycho therapists to look at the relationship of counseling to philosophy was Hogers in Arbuckle's (3:12) opinion. Not only did Rogers' painstaking elaboration of his counseling system focus attention on philosophical questions but his public discussions with Skinner (109) more than a decade ago raised philosophical problems. Much of their Intellectual energy was devoted to the value choices in decision making during the process toward goals. For many years philosophy has been lurking around the corner, getting in the back door via implications from procedures and goals but not quite making it as a full-fledged area of concern in its own right. The usual reason given for the absence of philo sophical contributions related to guidance and counseling is that guidance services have arisen out of practical concerns rather than systems of philosophy. Counselors and related specialists have been so busy supplying services that there has been little time to evolve a formal 21 philosophy. Yet the interest in philosophy of counseling certainly seems apparent. As Strickland (121*4-70) says, "Such a lack of philosophical emphasis in psychology could partially explain some of the lack of philosophical bases in counseling theory that has drawn heavily upon psycho logical theory. The neglect of philosophical application in psychology or counseling cannot be attributed to any lack of interest in philosophy in general* that is, if quantity of publications available is an indicator of interest. A reader can find an ample supply of publications in many areas of philosophical thought." Philosophical Foundations Arbuckle (4-*211) recognizes that many of counseling philosophical questions are indirect in nature, "Philo sophy should probably be discussed in philosophical terms, but many of the philosophical issues in counseling are of a realistic and down-to-earth nature." He (3s13) leaves no question that he believes the therapist must also be a philosopher. "Once, however, he becomes concerned with the more 'existential' aspects of anxiety (and how could one be a psychotherapist without having this concern) then he has entered the realm of philosophy." Not only does Arbuckle think a counselor should be concerned with philosophy but he (6*808) says, "Williamson has indicated his belief that 22 the counselor's philosophy of human development should show through his behavior, and his effectiveness in relating with students must issue from his own acceptance of himself as he is." Curran (23*19) relates the connection between recent questions and more established philosophies, "...many of the things this counseling process is revealing about human nature in a fresh and dramatic way, are yet not so com pletely new but that some of the ancient philosophical conceptions of Aristotle's Ethics and what used to be called the Cardinal Virtues can yet hold this powerful modern and new psychological movement." Mowrer (86:135-136) questions the long held belief that psychoanalysis is not involved with philosophy. "Despite Freud's assertions to the contrary, there can be no doubt that psychoanalysis does generate some very specific and — one may add — rather singular philosophical implications, implications which lay men have been quick to sense." Other writers discuss the relationship between philosophy and procedures. Browning and Peters (14:7) question, "There appears to be an urgent demaid among guidance counselors for a clarification of the relationship between the counselor's basic philosophy and his counseling procedures. Can a counselor remain philosophically neutral, on the one hand, and should the counselor do so, on the 23 other hand." Lynn (73*50) cautiously agrees, "Psycho therapists themselves should develop very "broad and general postulates for model philosophies of life." Williamson (133*618) is much more definite in his belief, "And when we examine and evaluate the counseling relationship as a means of helping students become full, humane personalities, then we are cognizant of the philosophic implications of counseling technique." A great deal of the discussion has been centered around the place of values in counseling. Even the psychiatric journals have begun to ignore Freud's dictum and are reflecting a concern with values. Cappen (18) classi fies, defines, and describes values in psychoanalytic theory, Maslow (75*123) maintains therapy fuses facts and values. He sees the "process" of therapy as the "is" and the "goals" as the "ought" indistinguishable in many cases. Williamson, of another counseling school, also points out the place of values. ■If we agree that value judgments are Implicit In every action we take, we should also agree that counselors cannot fully escape introducing their own value systems into the counseling interview. While the counselor's moral and ethical standards may not be made clear to clients, or even to the counselor himself, they are influential in his reactions to the client’s story, his emphases, his choice of objectives and counseling method, and in the techniques he uses to carry out the chosen method of interviewing. : (13^*52^) Samler (112*10-11) claims, "There is reason to think that the professed neutrality of counselor and therapist Is 24 more a professional stance than it is reality. If these points are admitted, the problem seems to be either to work toward an impossible neutrality or to determine which values to support, under what conditions, and with how much force." Nash (88*427) recognizes the importance of values and warns, "Values are implicit in the counseling situation and cannot be concealed by merely refraining from saying certain words. We should recognize that concealing one's own values may be the most effective way to manipulate another person. This is not to suggest that most counselors consciously wish to manipulate their students, but the urge to manipulate may exist below the level of conscious deliberation. Moreover, we must be aware of the tendency to conceal our true values from ourselves." Perhaps Beck sums up the connection most succinctly. Any time that one person enters deeply into the world of meanings of another, the question of values and value conflicts arises. The counseling relation ships, and indeed the whole idea of guidance itself, brings into question the legitimacy of such relation ships as well as how they might most effectively be carried out. The age-old philosophical question, "What is man's proper relationship to his fellow men?" now arises with new urgency, (10*250) Everyone seems to agree that the field of counseling theory has a long way to go in the realm of philosophy. O'Connell (90*54) says, "The helping profession is still in the Dark Ages as far as systemlzed knowledge is concerned but should feel that its goals and aims are worthy enough 25 to admit dissenting opinion." Most of the discussion so far has been engendered by writers of the existentialist schools of thought as they search for the philosophical bases for their beliefs. For example, Cottingham (20) examines the philosophical and psychological origins of authentic behavior with particular reference to existentialism and humanistic psychology. The major subject of concern has centered around the free will - determinism controversy. Eobb (107:1010) thinks, "Such fatalism defies the very nature of man as a self-motivating agent who must, if he is to maintain psychological and moral health, affirm himself through his choices." Nash (88:2^4) relates freedom to the use of testing, "...we must ask whether the act of prediction enhances or restricts the student's freedom through the external influence it adds to those factors governing his choices." Nash concludes, "...for we become more free as we perceive more alternatives and become better informed about the probable consequences of choosing among them." Recently, Pohlman (102) tried to resolve the free will versus determinism conflict. He argued that the deterministic assumption has not been empirically proven or refuted but it is both internally consistent and not in conflict with any customary counseling approaches. He went on to maintain that the counselor can assume that 26 human "behavior is completely determined by many causal factors and still provide an atmosphere for choice to take place, encourage students to make choices, reward students positively if the counselor thinks best, and in general carry on the usual range of counseling activities. However, Morris and Meek, among others, would not let the issue rest. They explain! So the counselor is not merely caught in the cross fire of himself as person and as scientist* he struggles against a divided allegiance to his client as person, and to the pulls of the technological society which science so actively supports. Such factors help to account for the fact that the counselor, as few other persons, is still a battleground for the old warfare between "determinism1 and "freedom". (8^*217-218) Other writers earlier became involved in the con troversy, Budd (15*217) suggested that all behavior be considered determined regardless whether one is setting up a science of behavior or an ethical system. In an attempt to end the argument, he concluded* Certainly some people will object to the use of servomechanism as a model for human moral behavior and the summary dismissal of the assumption of human free dom. They will say that it lowers the dignity of man to be regarded in this fashion and that it is contrary to nature. My counterclaim would be that it will simultaneously to two things* It will increase the real freedom of mankind, and it will help avoid mental indigestion. ' (15*218) However, other theoreticians were not satisfied. Hartmann (55*38) even wonders, "The causal chain, then, is not all-pervading and all-binding In the world *out there,* but a function of our method of operating. It may be that 27 the world Is not determined, that we determine it." Wolfensberger (136*37) claims, "...in the long run the assumption of freedom of will may contribute more to the progress of psychology than a completely mechanistic assumption.1 1 The same author distlnulshes between causation and determinism. ... it should be remembered that proponents of free will do not necessarily rule out causality. To the contrary, some of them view every human act as caused, but not necessarily determined. How do determinism and causality differ? Determinism implies by necessity a cause-effect or stimulus-response sequence once certain conditions are satisfied. Causality can be viewed as a motivating condition for an act. In a choice situation, several motivational forces may be operant, and while each calls for a different response, only one would be appropriate for the particular situation at hand.• (136*36) Two Divergent Philosophies Mainly because of the free will - determinism controversy, most writers see two widely and strongly divergent philosophies of counseling and therapy emerging. Generally, these fall along a continuum from the more determined, so-called "objective" philosophies to those that emphasize freedom of choice and are more "subjective" In nature. Although a "continuum" Implies an even scale with one end having just as much weight as the other, frequently writers turn the "scale" Into a "ladder." Depen ding upon which theory the writer ascribes to, one side will be at the bottom and the other will be at the top of the 28 ladder, the apex, so to speak, toward which all counselors should climb In their struggle for philosophical continuity and bliss, Thorne (122>19) effectively warns against using "loaded*1 terms to express the philosophical foundations of a counseling system. He discusses the dangers in implying that psychoanalysis or nondireotivism have some face validity from being related to such respected authorities as Augustine or Bousseau. Similar comments apply to the currently popular practice of using laudatory or discriminatory desig nations to categorize accepted or rejected concepts as when Snyder.•.categorizes neofundamentalism, scholasti cism, behaviorism, psychobiology, learning theory and directive counseling as being "authoritarian," while nondirectivlsm is identified with »self-actualism" or "self-determinism," idealism, democratic government, humanism, progressive education, hormic psychology and phenomenology. Such a dichotomy is purely arbitrary and probably artifactual, and even worse are the self- reflexive connotations of the term "authoritarian" as interpreted against the recent associative contexts of Fascism, Communism, regimentation and exploitation as contrasted with other possible connotations involving such positive contexts as love, protection, paternalism, guidance, help and wise counseling. The use of such self-reflexive terms in purportedly scientific communi cations is very undesirable.- (122*19-20) Thorne's warnings to the contrary, the basic issue of determinism versus free will remains at the core of different counseling philosophies. Pohlman alleges* 'Even if there is no freedom of choice, on the day- to-day level it seems necessary to pretend that there is. Such a convenient division between a view that is more analytically correct, and a view that is more phenomenally convenient in practice, is no novelty to humans. 29 If there were no free choice, It would he necessary for man to Invent one. The firmest believer in determinism...must, for convenience, think in terms of choice most of the time. There is no necessary inconsistency in this, nor in counseling to help people "6hoose" provided the determinist can translate the phenotype of choice into what he regards as the geno type underlying it. (102i213) In disoussing the free choice aspect, Cottingham (22i330) asserts, "The existentialist attitude appears to offer the most appropriate source for some of the pre suppositions of authenticity in human behavior....Exis tentialism seems particularly revelant since it appears to offer a philosophical base for assuming that man has the capacity to influence in some way how he will relate to his fate," To summarize the existentialist's view of human nature, Cottingham quotes a guidance seminar paper* The philosophy of existentialism interprets the condition of man quite differently from the philo sophies of Idealism and realism. The classical philosophers believe that there are universal laws, absolute truths, and preexisting values* that man's destiny is determined. Not so the existentialist. To him man comes into an unstructured world as a neutral- active being. Man is constantly in the process of becoming, of self-actualizing through continuous crisis. He exists first, then his acts define him. The character that his becoming takes on is a matter of the way he chooses to exercise his freedom of the choices he makes in terms of the values he assigns to the world as he defines it. Without fixed laws or rules, man must live alone with only his own postulations to guide him. (22*331) Dieslng classifies the divergency as one between objectivism and subjectivism. He describes the views in this manner* 30 ■...the objectivists have argued that the scientific method requires publicly observable, replicable facts, and these are available only In the area of overt behavior. Subject phenomena such as Intending, conceiving, and repressing can be studied only Indirectly through their connections with overt behavior, if at all. ...the subjectivists have argued that the essential, unique characteristic of human behavior is its subjective meaningfulness, and any science which ignores meaning and purpose is not a social science. Human action is governed by subjective factors — by images not stimuli, by reasons, not causes. Consequently an adequate science of man must understand action from the standpoint of the actor, as a process of defining the situation, evaluating alternatives in terms of goals, standards, and predic tions, and choosing to act, (29*124) Dolliver sees the two main schools of thought in a slightly different manner, expressive and instrumental. "The expressive approach posits an inner person within the client which is burled under layers of some thing, usually socialization. Psychological treatment involves getting through to this core, which is more real than what is on the surface. This view of counseling can be said to use the onion as its model,.. The instrumental approach focuses on various kinds of cause and effect relationships, usually intending to interrupt what the client has come to see as the usual sequence of events. This view of counseling can be said to use the billiard ball as its model," (31i4l6) Agreeing there are two divergent concepts, Blocher (13*799) declares, "Two rather distinctly alternative directions seem to open before counseling. The existen tialist position seems a philosophically attractive but scientifically unclear path. The Skinnerian-behavioristic road is scientifically rigorous, but philosophically frightening." Delaney (27*279) concurs, "There appear to be two main and opposing concepts of man having most influence on the counselor of today. These two 31 orientations can "best be described as Operant Conditioning and Existential Psychology. This present situation can be posed as a dichotomy between these two orientations, based not on the operational behavior, but more on the view each school has of the nature of man." Delaney continues* The basic premise of the existential counselor is that man has freedom of choice and freedom In establishing the goals for which he desires to strive. The operant conditioning counselor views the goals of counseling as those specifications of behavior deter mined by the counselor, or for the counselor by society. (27*279) In their recent book Ford and Urban (41) distin guish the choices as "robot" and "pilot," In the latter view, situational events are deemphasized while manners In which the individual evaluates data are given Importance. The "pilot" theorists use concepts such as Judging, comparing, analyzing, choosing, and planning. Sometimes man is viewed as exercising control over his behavior and the situations he encounters. He pilots his craft through the sea of life, choosing his course from among those presented by the charac teristics of his ship, the influences of the winds and waves present at the time, and the ports toward which he wishes to sail. He can be 'responsible* for his own behavior. (41*595) Ford and Urban classify the theories of Adler, Hank, Rogers, and the Existentialists in the "pilot" view of man. On the other hand, the "robot" view is characterized by Wolpe, Dollard and Miller, and Freud. Rather than talking about goals, these theorists emphasize characteristics of events that determine the direction behavior will proceed. 32 Another Image of man is also implicit in several of the theories. In this view the automaticity of behavior is emphasized. Man*s craft follows the currents in the sea of life. It Is the direction of the wind, the power of the waves, the size of the ship*s sail, and so forth that determine Its direction. It only seems to be guided, but In reality it cannot help Itself. Therefore, It Is not responsible for its direction. (*H«597) Hunt (59) concurs with the concept of two divergent philosophies of counseling. After classifying systems by goals, roles, and learnings, Hunt assertsi A role in the counseling relationship can be viewed (1) as a structural object, or (2) as part of a dynamic process. In the structural approach the counseling participants are measured, evaluated, and related to each other as fixed entities* prediction can then be more easily drawn from what is known of their behavior. The counselee is measured and categorized* his problem is analyzed and the height of his anxiety ascertained. (59*33) The "dynamic" role Is seen somewhat differently. ...a dynamic view of the counselee is Immediate, nonsymbolic, and significantly Intuitive* arriving at empathic knowledge of a counselee consists of identi fying with him by an effort of will, and in so doing knowing him from within, as he Is in himself. Trans lations have been eliminated that his unmediated self might be known directly and as a whole, and as only intuition reveals persons. (59*35) In terms of counselee learning, Hunt (59*38-39) sees the counselor!s position on a continuum whose extremes represent learning viewed as objective and as subjective. In the former learning exists independently of how the counselee evaluates it. At the subjective extreme, coun selee learning originates within him. The counselee*s judgment is respected and he creates his own truth. Hunt 33 summarizes the two main streams in counseling philosophy in this manner* The two principal traditions of psychology rep resent much of the mainstream of counseling theory and practicet historically, there is an upsurge of one and then the other. Behaviorism, the testing movement, Trait and Factor Theory, scientific observation, factor analysis, and measurement represent aspects of one of the traditions, ,.,The other main trend is represented by the concepts of humanists, existentialists, Self- theorists, Gestalt psychology, phenomenology, points of view of such men as Maslow, May, Fromm, Allport, Frankl. (59*53-5*0 Patterson (95 *98) explains that to many the exist ential and behaviorist points of view seem irreconcilable. He reports that Rogers thinks the two strong currents appear as separate because the larger frame of reference that would contain them both has not been developed yet. In smother source, Patterson (99*^88) says Rogers is disillusioned over the field of psychotherapy. At first Rogers thought every one was talking about the same experiences but using different words, labels, and descriptions. Now Rogers thinks therapists differ at the most basic levels of personal experience, Patterson (99*^89) reasons that there may be two divergent trends in counseling — "one toward a ■ more cognitive approach and the other toward a more affective approach," After reviewing several different theories, Patterson decides* Perhaps the greatest divergence is between the behavior therapies.,,.and the existentialist approaches (including client-centered therapy)...it appears that these two points of view are perceived by their ad herents and by others as inconsistent and contradictory. 34 The behavior therapies appear to be objective, impersonal, technique-oriented, and mechanical. The existential approaches may be seen as subjective, personal, and not concerned with technique. (99*499) Beconclllng Divergencies In the beginning of his book, Ard (7) quotes A. N. Whitehead, "A clash of doctrines is not a disaster — it is an opportunity," If such a statement is true, opportunities presently abound for counseling theories and philosophers. Most recently writers have grasped the opportunity of combining the two major trends in counseling under one umbrella-like philosophy. Perhaps theorists cannot live with the "choice" of two directions; perhaps the ambiguity of not knowing the "true nature of man" is too much for them; perhaps authors think if the free will versus determinism question were settled, individuals could go on to bigger and better pursuits. On the other hand, maybe theorists reason that two approaches that indicate positive results must have common underlying tenets. Whatever the reason the major trend within recent years has involved a serious search for a common philosophy that would incorporate the tenets of the two divergent trends discussed previously. Delaney (27 * 280), for example, maintains that the existential concept that to choose for oneself is to choose for all humanity and the behaviorist concept regarding determined societal goals are reconciable. He suggests, though, that counseling philosophy should he approached through an operational level. The starting point should not he juggling hypothetical constructs as categories into which behaviors are ordered. Rather the behavior itself, the counseling process with its techniques and methodology, should he the beginning point. The theoretical framework should then be applied to the observations, examinations, and analyses of counseling behavior. In Delaney*s view, "The operational behavior being similar, the theoretical constructs will approach toward more uniformity," Diesing (29il2*f), after pointing out the differences between "subjectivism" and "objectivism," Indicates that recent developments have made many of the old philosophical arguments obsolete. He believes developments in experi mental methods have made possible a behavioristic treat ment of everything subjectivists held Important in human action and developments in computer and mathematical models have made possible a type of theory that carries out the program of the subjectivists but is not vulnerable to the arguments of the objectlvists. Diesing sees what remains of the philosophical argument as two types of theory which are both useful, both scientific, and often equivalent. He concludes, "Choice between them by scientists can be made on empirical grounds rather than on the grounds developed in the philosophical controversy," 3 6 Arbuckle (5) makes the point that differences in counseling do not occur between the kinds of counseling but rather between the kinds of counselors. He reasons that developmental counseling and behavioral counseling appear to be pretty much the same thing although the latter counselor sets up the experiences which will affect the behavior of the individual rather than being the one whose own personal involvement with the individual is the principal factor affecting behavior, Arbuckle quotes various theorists to prove his contentions that all counseling is involved with change, concerned with cognition, and deals with "well" rather than "sick" people. He (5*222) thinks, "...all counseling is developmental, and no one can surely argue against the evidence that the counselor, like any other human, regardless of whether he is viewed as a human being with behaviors or as a set of behaviors, does act as a conditioning agent on the person with whom he is having a human relationship. In this sense, then, all counselors are involved in behavior therapy, and all are behavior therapists," Because, Arbuckle argues, there are so many simi larities among the kinds of counseling, the differences that occur are really differences among the kinds of counselors. He (5*22*0 concludes, "The degree of the counselor's humanness, the extent of his dedication to the 37 Individual freedom of man and to the dignity and the worth of the individual man — these are possibly the crucial questions which will determine the kind of counselor, and automatically, the kind of counseling, in which we are involved." In a way, Arbuckle is telling experimenters in the counseling process and begin looking for differences among the counselors themselves. One method of combining the two approaches Is to say that therapists act one way even though they believe another way, Hobbs, for example, contends that therapists, like all human beings, assume there Is freedom of choice and no amount of talk Is going to much change that primary assumption. That people are going to behave as though they have freedom of choice is an important datum that must be Included in a scientific system which says they do not In fact have such freedom. There may be some comfort in the face of this contradiction in noting that science not infrequently can get ahead with its business only when it does adopt a formulation at variance with dally experience, (561270) Pohlman (102*21^)urges counselors divorce themselves of the age-old conflict by accepting determinism and acting as though there were free will. He bases his reasoning on an alternative he calls "determinism plus chance." This approach assumes that the configuration of influencing factors narrows greatly the range of possible alternatives for action. Then if there are alternatives remaining after 38 accounting for all the determined factors, the outcome is decided by genuine chance and not free choice, Pohlman (102*216) next suggests a counselor who rejects the assumption of free will may still incorporate certain ideas into his rationale. He thinks "freedom” and "choice" are convenient illustrations in daily thinking about counseling even though they are illusionary. The counselors opinions and behavior can be viewed as part of the counselee*s environment that helps determine the counselee*s behavior. The counselor may also praise or blame a counselee*s "choice" if it is pragmatically useful to the counselor to do so. Finally, one may believe that the time spent in counseling may make a difference in the counselee*s subsequent behavior without believing that genuine "choice" occurs. Another method of combining the two beliefs is to maintain both are a necessary contingency to being an effective therapist. For example, Gatch and Temerlin concludei ■...it appears that the therapist-as-scientist must assume determinism because explanation is difficult or impossible without it* the therapist-as- helper must assume a choice-making capacity because therapeutic change and accountability in human affairs outside the treatment hour are not otherwise possible. Both determinism and free will, therefore, are necessary programmatic assumptions in psychotherapy. (46*31) Still another approach is to assert that freedom is dependent upon determinism. Nash (88*246) says, "He is 39 more free who knows that his behavior Is partly determined." The author explains that knowledge of the limits of free dom increases the freedom and knowledge of the forces of authority acting upon a person renders that person more able to deal with those forces. Thus, Nash (88*2^6) asserts, "But if the individual Is partly influenced by authority, he is also partly free. No man is either wholly determined or wholly free. How to exercise this modest degree of freedom most effectively Is the art of life." After analyzing ten therapy systems, Ford and Urban (4l) decide that neither the "robot" or "pilot" view is found in pure form anywhere. All1 ’systems agree that behavior is characterized by automaticity and choice making both. However, the authors recognize that agreement exists in principle but the theorists differ considerably in their emphasis on one or the other basis for behavior. The authors conclude that an over-emphasis of either alternative will lead to serious theoretical weaknesses. If a theorist emphasizes the "pilot" image, he might omit reference to and incorporation of the facts established about physiological, motoric, and glandular responses, and their more complex organization into emotional patterns. On the other hand, if a theorist emphasizes the "robot" image, he might erroneously generalize from observations on one species to another. 40 We "believe more rapid progress will follow from assuming that behavior is both automatic and consciously determined, along with adopting both the corresponding subjective and objective vantage points of observation, thereby avoiding the pitfall of ignoring significant data. (41i599) Still another method of reconciling differences between the two directions has been to show "their side" how it has been helped by "our side." Usually the behavior- ists have reported how much their experimentation has helped the humanists. Perhaps this magnanimity has not always been received too magnanimously. Greenspoon (51*145) readily recognizes that learning theory contributions to psychotherapy have not been direct reflection of theoretical constructions. However, he sees the most important contri bution as the emphasis learning theorists place on behavior. Another aspect has been the learning theorist's emphasis on control. Krumboltz (67) and his associates perhaps best typify the attempts to apply learning theories to counseling This group especially stresses stating the goals of coun seling in the form of specific behavior change. An individual who has nicked away at the wall between behavioristic and humanistic theories is Truax. In a recent article (124) he related specific learning theories to results of research In psychotherapy. He suggests that warmth, genuineness, and empathy serve as potent reinforcers. To illustrate, these three "therapeutic conditions" reinforce positive aspects of the oounselee's 41 self-concept, self-explanatory behavior, and human relating. In addition, the same three conditions extin guish anxiety or fear responses associated with specific cues. In another publication (128), Truax and Carkhuff discuss the bewildering array of divergent theories and the difficulty in translating concepts from the language of one theory to another. However, they did find several common threads In almost every major counseling theory, Including psychoanalytic, client-centered, behavioristic, and eclectic. The authors characterize these common sets as "accurate empathy, non-possessive warmth, and genuineness," In a statement unusual when one considers the history of animosity between behaviorists. and humanists, the authors conclude * • ...the present evidence does not suggest that behavior therapy is Indeed superior to psychotherapy. On the other hand, the evidence is far from complete* It may be that behavior therapy or conditioning therapy is more effective or more economical with certain kinds of patients. The case history material certainly does suggest that In its present state of development it is. on the average, equivalent in effectiveness to other commonly used therapeutic approaches. Certain research studies also suggest that it has contributed unique therapeutic procedures that indeed produce positive client change. (128*149) While some have attempted to prove that there is little difference between a belief in determinism and free will, while others have asserted that both are necessary, and while still others have shown how behavior research Is applicable to therapeutic practice, p.atterson has somewhat 42 tentatively attempted to prove that behavioristic and humanistic philosophies can be combined under the same system. In a recent review Patterson (95) maintains that conditioning therapies can be incorporated under a broader view. He reports that the most powerful (generalized) re inforcers are the concern, interest, understanding, and respect of the counselor. In another source, Patterson discusses the difficulties in finding a common philosophy, or even a common concept, among the various points of view. ...concepts relating to the nature of man and the nature of emotional disturbances vary considerably. There would seem to be little, if anything, in common between a concept of man as determined by his environ ment or by his internal needs and drives.••.and the concept of man as a person capable of making choices and free to do so....; or between the concept of man as essentially an organism to be manipulated by rewards and punishments....and.••.as having the poten tial for growth and development in the process of self-actualization. (99*494) Then Patterson proceeds to find similarities between the systems. He (99*497) thinks that almost all approaches include a relationship which on the part of the therapist is "characterized by a belief in the possibility of client changei an expectation that the client will change! interest in and concern for the client, including a desire to help, influence, or change him! sincerity and honesty in the therapy process! and confidence in the approach used to achieve client change," Patterson (99* 498) reasons that all approaches "deal with clients who 43 are in need of help, recognize this need, believe they can change, believe that the counselor can help them change, and engage in some activity in the attempt to change," Patter son then concludes* There is thus no basic or necessary contradiction between behavior therapy and relationship therapy. One emphasizes the shaping or changing or specific aspects of behavior by specific rewards or relnforcers. The other emphasizes more general behavior changes (including changes of attitudes and feelings), achieved by the use of generalized relnforcers. Both utilize the principles of learning — one rather narrowly, emphasizing conditioning — the other more broadly, emphasizing what might be called a social learning approach. The behavior therapists are...systematic in their application of specific learning concepts. But it might also be said that many relationship therapists are also systematic in the application of generalized relnforcers. The conditioning or behavior therapy approach is supported by research evidence, including laboratory or experimental research. The relationship approach is also supported by research, Including some of the research on conditioning. It is interesting and significant that both groups are coming to the same conclusions, one from laboratory work in conditioning, the other from experience and research in counseling or psychotherapy.- (99* 502-503) Begardless of the attempts to reconcile different philosophies, the concensus of most authorities seems to be that there are at least two divergent trends in counseling philosophy today. Perhaps no theory Is "pure" in its philosophical approach but the fact remains that writers agree the counseling systems, implicitly or explicitly, In existence today lean toward one end of de.termlnism versus free will continuum or the other. Whatever the two ends of the continuum are called, counseling theories can be class!- 44 fled by the emphasis they place upon man as the controller of his own destiny or being controlled by forces outside himself. Philosophical Studies As must be obvious by this time, there is an "awful lot of talk" about philosophy in the guidance, counseling, and therapy literature. Actual studies are few and far between for obvious reasons. Putting philoso phical concepts to experimentation presents many hazards. Yet, even theoretical studies developing a logical system of philosophy are hard to come by. Instead most of the discussion has been of the "Let-me-say-a-few-words-about- determinism" type or the "I-want-to-discuss-phllosophical- implicatlons-of-confidentlality" type or a similar incompletely developed, indirect approach. As discussed previously. Beck (11) contributed much to the Increased discussion of philosophical founda tions of counseling. Not only did Beck take an historic look at the presuppositions and assumptions underlying the guidance movement from Its inception to the present but he also attempted to develop a philosophy of guidance for the future, one that would encompass all of the trends running rampant throughout the guidance movement. After analyzing basic questions in general philosophy and determining the 45 demands made upon any philosophy of guidance. Beck con tended that only one position has teen addressed to the counselors* questions. That philosophy, of course, Is Daselnanalyse. Beck (lltl44) described modern guidance philosophically as ’ 'man's attempt to discover the pre existent truths about himself, his world, and the world of values (all relationship-determined) by the methods of science and inductive logic, said to aid others In pursuing these goals by sharing insights gained with those who have not attained the same degree of congruence with reality." The next theoretical study was Hunt's (59) monumental work. He first developed an analytic model to examine counseling systems for internal philosophical consistency and then tested his model with two theories. Hunt posits three elements common to counseling methodsi goals or objectives held by the counselor equated with philosophical value theory, process or roles of the counselor said counselee equivalent to philosophical ontology and learnings or change of the counselee equated to philosophical epistemology. Thus counseling must deal with ontology If it takes cognlzsoice of a need to answer man's questions regarding beingi It must deal with epistemology If It states that certain learnings are validj it must deal with axiology if it Involves evaluation of goals pertinent to a better adjustment, a happier life or a more adequate understanding of self. Since these are essential elements of counseling, it is apparent that philosophical elements of counseling must be implicit In every situation where a counselor works with a k 6 counselee* just as a complete philosophy Includes an ontology* axiology, and epistemology, so a complete counseling system contains definitions of role (ontology), goal (axiology), and learning (epistemology), (59i^3) Hunt reasons that the three elements of counseling are not only related but interactive and a model that demonstrates their Interdependence must be three-dimensional. One face represents the modes of the counselor and the counselee as expressed in their related roles* the second face represents the goals of counseling* and the third represents the definitions of counselee learning. Each of the faces could be divided many times but Hunt divides each face three times, the midposition on each face being an undefined area of possibilities not explored by Hunt, The other two segments of the role face Include the subjec tivist or idealist and the ways in which he behaves in counseling and the objectlvist or realist and his role. The goals of counseling Include, in addition to the undefined middle position, the idealist, a priori goal values, belief in free choice, and emotional, intuitive or mystical approaches on one extreme and the realist, a posteriori goal values, and prescribed and predictable approaches based on determinism on the other extreme. The third face of the cube represents the definitions of counselee learning. The two extremes here are the idealist, intuitive, a priori learning and the realist, measurable.. a posteriori learning. Next Hunt uses E. G, Williamson*s counseling theory to test the realistic or "behavioristic sides of the model and Carl Rogers1 system for the idealistic or humanistic. All of Hunt*s major hypotheses relating Williamson to realism and Rogers to Idealism were refuted. He then speculates that "both syspems became inconsistent as the two men involved in providing immediate service refined and changed their systems from experiences and different per ceptions, Change in their initial positions provided the Inconsistencies in their philosophical systems. After reviewing much of the research in therapy, Bergin (12) concludes that behavior therapists are right when they assert that "symptoms" are not symptoms of the psychoanalytic*,style pathology but rather that these are learned behaviors subject to modification via relearning. Ford and Urban (40*3^7) report that some studies have raised the question whether differences in the therapists* conceptualizations about behavior and therapy make a difference in what is done in therapy or whether all therapists do essentially about the same thing regardless of how they think about it. For example, one study investi gated the effects of different amounts and kinds of information on Judgments about a hypothetical patient by experienced, psychoanalytically-oriented therapists and concluded the therapists* orientation seemed to be the main 4 - 8 factor but the amount of data affected the similarity of view whereas the kind influenced Judgments about the extent of the patient's disturbance. Another study found no differences between groups of psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers in their evaluation of a patient's adjustment when they were told that the patient had or had ; not had previous therapy, Patterson (95*8?) relates a study that compared the Fiedler Q-sort ratings of two taped interviews conducted by twelve school counselors with the same client five weeks apart and found the counselors were not consistent in their relationship. Another study found that students in a counseling practicum were consistent in their feeling verbalization with their clients and in case conferences, Patterson thinks a major defect in most studies of coun seling or psychotherapy has been a lack of controls or specification of the nature of counseling or psychotherapy. One study developed a Therapist Orientation Scale that differentiated therapists with claimed Freudian, Sullivaniai* and Rogerian orientations on nine of the scales in expected directions but the scales did not differentiate between two experience levels, Patterson reports two other studies that differentiate between types of counseling or therapy but did not discern a relationship between the factors and experience. Instead relationships with theo- $9 retleal orientations were present. All of the studies Patterson mentions disagree with Fiedler's earlier studies that indicate experienced therapists are similar in their approaches. Perhaps there are some signs that a therapist's beliefs determine his actions, weak though those signs may be, Lazarus (69) presents an "objective" clinical appraisal of behavior rehearsal with direct advice and non directive refleetion-interpretation. The author concludes that behavior rehearsal is almost twice as effective as direct advice and the non-directive treatment fared worst of all. However, Lazarus' conclusions are slightly suspect of their objectivity to say the least. Although his inter pretations are based on seventy-five patients, he was the therapist in every case. He randomly decided which of his patients received which of the three treatments. When the other two methods did not produce "objective" evidence of behavior change in some interpersonal aspect, Lazarus applied behavior rehearsal. Although he admits the possi bility of some bias, Lazarus still maintains that the over all effectiveness of behavior rehearsal was 86,5^. Lazarus's conclusions notwithstanding, one could certainly question whether his study adds much to the general knowledge of the relationship between types of therapy and 50 effectiveness. In fact, Lazarus may have indirectly indicated that if a therapist's actions are not congruent with his philosophical beliefs, the therapy will be Ineffective, Dreyfus (32) used a questionnaire survey and com pared therapists of different orientations with regard to specific practices, such as the use of the couch, taking of notes during the hour, and the use of diagnosis. He found no significant differences among the various orientations and concluded that trying to extract significant differences among therapists of different schools is a fruitless enter prise, Dreyfus Interprets the results to mean that the only real differences that exist among experienced therapists as a group are semantic. In other words, therapists differ according to the name they apply to themselves and the theoretical language they speak. While they may differ In theory Dreyfus does not believe therapists differ significantly in their overall picture. Another study that explored whether differences actually exist in the behavior by therapists of diverse theoretical stances Is one conducted by Truax (12*0, Truax used a single, long-term, successful case of Carl Rogers as the basic raw data. From the middle one-third of the eighty five Interviews, therapist-patient-therapist Interaction units were selected randomly. Nine separate classes of patient behavior which might be expected significant for behavioral change were separately rated by five experienced psychotherapists. Three "relnforcers" were also measuredi empathy, nonpossesslve warmth or acceptance, and directiveness. Bogers significantly tended to respond selectively with differential levels of the three "re inforcer s'* to high and low levels of five of the nine classes of patient behavior but he did not systematically vary his level of "reinforcers" with four classes of patient behavior. However, Truax deduces a clear and significant pattern of selective responding was indicated. In addition, Truax expected that since the basic property of a "reinforcer" is that it leads to change in behaviors, the five patient classes of behavior that were selectively "reinforced" would show increases over time in therapy while the four classes of patient behavior not "reinforced" would show no such Increase, When the thera pist "reinforced" classes of patient behavior, four out of the five showed significant changes. By contrast»among the classes of patient behavior to which the therapist did not selectively respond, three out of four did not show increase or decrease over time in therapy. In other words, the data were consistent with a reinforcement view In seven out of the nine classes of patient behavior. Truax (124-*l68) concludes, "The findings suggest strongly that important reinforcement effects are indeed imbedded in even client-centered therapy." One study that dealt directly with the effects of belief in psychic determinism on the behavior of therapists was conducted by Gatch and Temerlin (46). They studied the typescripts of tape recordings by two groups of therapists, those who were committed to determinism and those who were not. Freudians represented the former group and existential psychoanalysts the latter. The researchers had a great deal of difficulty obtaining typescripts and eventually just took whatever ones they could get. However, it still took them over four years to accumulate type scripts from each of ten psychoanalysts in the two groups. The authors discovered there was no difference between the groups on the number of statements which referred to the patient's past or the percentage of interpretations phrased in the form of a hypothesized causal process. The existentialists, however, far exceeded the Freudians on the percentage of responses referring to the patient's choices, decisions, and responsibilities. Gatch and Temerlin conclude that therapists spoke in a manner consistent with determinism when discussing the patient's past but appeared to assume a choice-making capacity when speaking of the patient's behavior in the present or future. They also conclude that both Freudian and existential therapists appeared to be both determinlsts 53 and committed to free will, depending upon the temporal, social, or scientific context. Onstad (91) explored the relationships between con cepts, beliefs, preferences of positions on philosophical and psychological Issues, and preferences for counselor action. She first assumed that there should be a consis tency evidenced among constructs, beliefs, stands on issues, and choices of counselor action as manifested on a freeing-controlling dimension. As Onstad kept reemphasizing her study by design and Intent was exploratory rather than comprehensive and definitive in nature. Her major experi mental hypothesis was There are statistically significant positive relationships among the following variablest (1) con structs about the effective counselor, (2) beliefs about counselors and the counseling process, (3) positions on philosophical and psychological issues accepted, and (ty) types of counselor verbal activity preferred, (91»2) To test this hypothesis, Onstad developed five sub hypotheses, including one which also had five more sub hypotheses under it, one for each of the five instruments she developed. Types of validity used were derived from the measurements obtained with the five instruments, use of grades as an outside validating criterion, and construct i validity of the inventories. Onstad used the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient, t-test for testing the significance of the difference between means, and the 5^ chi-square test of significance as her statistics. On the basis of the data collected, she accepted her major hypothesis because she did develop five inventories, the inventories elicited responses sufficiently discriminating to allow the needed comparisons to be made, and some comparisons resulted in positive evidence of validity. Although the scope of her study did not include using the instruments to determine relationships between beliefs and actions in the counseling process, Onstad did come to several conclusions. She decided that effective instruments could be and were constructed to measure constructs, beliefs, stands on issues, preferences for depth responses, and ability to identify correctly the types of counselor responses! the instruments elicited differential responses useful in making comparisons between groups and individuals* there is some positive evidence of the validity of the measurements obtained with the use of these inventories* in their present form, rela tionships among measurements based on these inventories were more pronounced and consistent for the groups studied than for Individuals within the group* the group on which individual comparisons were made tended to be relatively homogeneous and freeing, however, as indicated by scores on the freeing-controlling dimensions of the inventories! and there is evidence supporting the hypo- 55 thesis of a positive relationship between constructs, beliefs, stands on issues, and depth of counselor responses preferred. Related Studies From the few studies preceding this section, it is obvious that direct experimentation on philosophical constructs is scant. Even in turning to related issues, such as studies on values and attitudes, one discovers very- little research in counseling and psychotherapy. The reasons for so little experimental activity are varied but perhaps are best summed up by Ehrlich and Wiener (3^*365)» "The intrinsic difficulties in assessing values and trying to relate them to specific behavioral manifestations, or inferring them from certain behavioral acts are, of course, multiplied when values are investigated in the therapeutic setting." One of the major difficulties involves the relationship between the stated value and the behavior based on the verbalized value, Pittel and Mendelsohn (101:26) are suspicious of all tests that have as their underlying principle the assumption that a moral judgment offers a reliable estimation of moral integrity. Patterson (95*97) thinks that the confrontation of the existential approaches and the behavioral therapies points up the issue concerning the place of values in counseling and psychotherapy. Patterson maintains this aspect has received some attention "but has not been adequately considered. Now that behavioral therapies especially emphasize measuring change according to specific goals, Patterson argues that outcomes must be evaluated in terms of their desirability. That automatically makes the issue of values crucial. Patterson C95* 91) also discusses the fact that for years workers In the field have accepted slight evidence that clients change their values during counseling so that they become more like those of the counselor. More recent research is beginning to question that generalization. For example, one study indicated that clients as a group tend to more resemble therapists as a group, but not their own therapists, except In the case of less well-adjusted, less-competent therapists. Nawas and Landfield (89) used the twelve most Improved and eight least improved clients to test the hypo thesis that improvement in therapy is contingent upon the adoption by the client of the personal meaning system of his therapist. Although the hypothesis was rejected, directions of data suggested the least Improved clients tended to Internalize their therapist's personal construct dimensions whereas the most Improved increased their preference for their own construct dimensions. In a related study, Landfield and Nawas (68) hypothesized that Improvement in therapy Is accompanied by a shift In the present-self of the client towards the ideal of the 57 therapist as described within the language dimensions of the client rather than those of the therapist. The authors accepted their hypothesis and suggested that results also Indicate that dissonance between the client and therapist is not as critical an issue as the therapist*s sharing of common ground within the client*s language dimension. Hiewald (105) found that counselor trainees intolerant of ambiguity attempt in predictable ways to structure and control the ambiguity level of the counseling interview. For example, the Intolerant trainee used significantly more responses which initiated, interrupted, or changed the client*s topic of conversation? had a significantly greater focus on cognitive material? and expressed significantly more value judgments. Holzman (57) discovered that outpatients similar in life situation to their therapist reflected improvement in social adaptation significantly associated with Increased similarity of the patient's value Judgments to those of his therapist. Those patients similar in life situation but unimproved did not show increased similarity of value judgments and the group of out-patients dissimilar in life situation showed no relationship between Improved social adaptation and increased similarity in value Judgments. Kritzberg (66) placed twenty-four representatives from each of four principal conceptual systems under conditions in which basic concepts were either supported or contradicted 58 by a person of perceived higher status. While some over lap in behavior patterns did exist among the four conceptual systems, system-discriminating styles of behavior were isolated. The purpose of Banning's (9) research was to investigate the role of counselor values in the reduction of personal disjunctions. The study was designed to examine whether or not the values a counselor holds for a particular student affects the reduction of the disjunction between the values held for certain goals by the students and the expectancies held by the student for obtaining the desired goals. The control group did not show significant improvement in disjunction reduction but the tendency of the experimental group was in the predicted direction. When the counseling group was limited to only those cases where accurate perception was present and change was predicted in the direction of disjunction reduction, the counseling group did show significantly greater disjunction reduction than the control group. Cook (19)explored the question of expressed value similarity between counselors and counselees on change in meaning during brief counseling. The counselees took the Semantic Differential before and after counseling and the Study of Values before counseling while the counselors were administered the latter instrument. Similarity in values "between the clients and counselors was determined by comparing each client's Study of Values profile with that of his counselor and employing the D statistic to provide a global index of similarity for each client. The clients were placed in high, medium and low groups of thirty each according to degree of similarity in values between the client and his counselor and then groups were compared for average change in the evaluative meaning of each of the Semantic Differential concepts. Differences among the three groups were not significant for "me" and "the ideal student" but the differences for "education" and "my future occupation" suggested a curvilinear relationship with the medium similarity group showing a more positive change in * meaning than the other two groups. Cook concludes* Perhaps in the present brief counseling situation, a medium degree of similarity in values enabled the counselor to be divergent enough in his own opinions to stimulate exploration and new ideas on the part of the client without antagonizing him, resulting in positive changes in the client's perception. (19*81) Pentony (100) used the Q-sort technique to explore whether therapists shape their client's values or provide them with the freedom to develop their own. The study was conducted with the staff, students, and clients at the Counseling Center of the University of Chicago,the universal mother of counseling research. Pentony discovered that client-centered counselors described their values in terms that distinguished them, as a group, from other members of 6o the community. Pentony also hypothesized that clients exposed to client-centered counseling will in the course of therapy move in the direction resembling more closely the client-centered orientation. He concluded that evidence favored this hypothesis and that clients do express their values in terms corresponding more closely to those of their therapists after therapy. After -being impressed with the lack of research In the effects of philosophical constructs during counseling, one is similarly struck by the dearth of research on the place of values in counseling. However, the step from value to attitudes is a short one. This area might give more information, Indirect though" that data may be, on the relationship between attitudes and their effects during the counseling process. Before too long, though, one discovers that the realm of attitudes has hardly been touched by counseling research. Changes in attitudes by trainees In various programs have been explored. Jones (62), for example, measured attitudlnal changes that occurred among guidance counselors in a seven-week NDEA summer institute and the degree to which these changes were retained six months later when the counselors were back on their Jobs. Jones found shifts toward attitudes of accepting and under standing the counselee as a person as contrasted to one of informing or advising him* toward attitudes of greater 6l listening and permissiveness in the counselor's role and manner of approach; toward an empathetic comprehension of the total setting in which the immediate problem existed; and toward a changed and improved attitude of self- confidence on the part of guidance counselors in their use of certain professional techniques. Although similar studies are available, very few have been conducted involving effects of attitudes on counseling outcomes. A major factor inhibiting such research, of course, is the whole problem of semantics. Where does a value end and an attitude begin? There is no agreement by professionals on definition of terms. In addition, problems of measurement and criterion affect attitudinal research as well. Bokeach (110) thinks researchers have missed the boat in the general area of attitude research. Most of the evidence is conflicting but, generally, attitudes seem Ingrained and most resistant to change. Bokeach (110*529) hypothesizes that attitude change is a function "not merely of attitude toward an object but also of attitude toward a situation,1 1 which naturally "further complicates the study of expressed opinion change and behavior change in relation to attitude." As a result of not considering that an attitude-object is always encountered within some situation about which there is also an organized attitude, research 62 has frequently resulted in "unjustified interpretations and conclusions that there are often inconsistencies between attitudes and behavior or between attitude change and behavioral changes." (110t531) Bather than going into the whole field of attltu- dinal change in the social sciences, hoping to find some relevant material, it might be more pertinent to simply report some of the conclusions reached by Moscovloi (85) in his recent review of the research. Supporting Bokeach's beliefs, Moscovicl (85*235) reported that a twenty-year longitudinal study implied values seem to be more stable than attitudes which appear to be inconsistent. In addition, changes are more marked in specific rather than in general attitudes, Moscovici (85*251) concluded from his review that those who changed their opinions tended to discuss the subject with people who supported their new attitude while those who maintained their original positions conversed with others of like attitude. Also those who changed their opinions but engaged in no supportive conversations tended to revert to their Initial positions. Similarly, in her study Golightly (4-8) discovered that similar attitudes are a reinforcement. She also speculated that there may be two types of responses learned in learning studies, the dependent variable under investi gation and the attraction of the subject toward the 63 experimenter. Wright (137) reached a similar conclusion after studying attitude change under direct and indirect interpersonal Influence. !It appears that there is a strong element of truth in (Benjamin) Franklin*s advice to would-be inf.luencersi an influence attempt delivered in an indirect, non pur poslve way is apt to be more effective than one delivered directly, or in a bone of positiveness and arrogance." But, one should hasten to add, make sure the person you are trying to persuade likes you in the first place, or your efforts are likely to be in vain. (137*210) Turning specifically to counseling research, Currier (25) referred to attitudes as values and found that they did contribute to the way in which the therapist and his patient evaluated therapy. Similarity of values was related to higher rating by the therapist while the same held true for the patients if the pairs were of opposite sex. A greater change in the attitudes of the patient occurred when different values were present at the beginning of therapy. Mendelsohn and Geller (83) reported-two studies reflecting client attitudes toward counseling and their relation to client-counselor similarity. They mailed a questionnaire to each counselee three to twelve months after his counseling had been completed, A cluster analysis of responses indicated three clusters, Evaluation, Comfort- Bapport, and Judged Counselor Competence, which showed unexpectedly low positive correlations with each other. Most of the research then involves attitude changes of the counselor or counselor trainee rather than the effects of attitudes on counseling process. Patterson (97) compared NDEA Institute members, students in a regular counseling curriculum, and noncounseling graduate students. Each group was administered a battery of Instruments at the beginning and end of their training. All groups showed increases on the Counseling Attitude Scale and decreases on the P scale, though the total counseling group was higher on the first and lower on the second scale, both at the beginning and the end of the year. Since a change toward a less authoritarian and more accepting attitude appeared to occur in noncounselor as well as counselor students, Patterson concluded that the change cannot be attributed specifically to the counselor education program. More "basic" personality characteristics, as measured by the CPI, are less susceptable to change than attitudes. Patterson also concluded that on the measures used the Institute program was not any more effective in its influence on students than the regular counseling education program. Rochester (108) attempted to assess the permanency of attitudes and values of 126 counselor trainees In eight one-year NDEA Guidance and Counseling Institutes. He administered the Porter Test of Counselor Attitudes and the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values on three occasions, the beginning of the Institute, the end of the Institute, and one year later. Rochester used two-tailed correlated 65 t tests on his data. The attitude Understanding did not change significantly from the first to the third testing date. The attitude Probing had indicated significant change at the end of the Institute hut a year later had changed hack toward the level of the first test. The attitude Interpretive followed the same pattern as Probing, indicating that after a year away from training the student reverts hack to his original attitude in these two categories. The Evaluative attitude recorded a significant change from the first to the last testing and Rochester thinks this attitude may have slowly intensified from the time the trainees left the program. The only Study of Values category that changed during training was Religion and this category seemed to have some semblance of permanency a year after training. Bochester concludes that the Institutes apparently brought about certain attitude change, as measured by the Test of Counselor Attitudes, but the permanency of these attitude changes is questionable. He feels students may have answered items at the end of training as they thought faculty members might want them to. At the same time, value change as measured by the Study of Values appeared very minimal. If one assumes that counselee or counselor expec tations and perceptions of counseling are indicative of 66 attitudes, then the search for related research uncovers a few more relevant studies, Patterson (95188-89) reports a study that provides some evidence that change in clients during counseling is related to the initial status of the client in the problem area being considered. In addition, this researcher found evidence that the client's per ception of the counselor Is a factor In client change, Lorr (72) studied the main ways clients perceive their therapists. He used an inventory of sixty five statements that was constructed to measure eight postulated interpersonal behavior patterns and administered the questionnaire to patients who had been in treatment for at least three months, A factor analysis disclosed five dimensions of perceived therapist behaviors, Accepting, Understanding, Authoritarian, Independence-Encouraging, and Critical-Hostile, The patient and therapist ratings of Improvement related significantly to therapist Acceptance and Understanding, Gross and DeRidder (52) measured each client's perception of his counselor's congruence, empathy, unconditionality, and level of regard by a relationship Inventory, Then the Gendlin-Tomlinson Experiencing Scale was also applied to taped excerpts from the second and next to the last Interviews of each client to measure the amount of movement. The authors found significant movement In the 6? predicted direction had occurred in each client * clients whose EP ratings were high early in counseling manifested significantly more movement than those having low ratingsi and congruence, empathy, and unconditional regard corre lated significantly with movement, Cundick (22) related expectations to counseling satisfaction with fifty-nine client-counselor pairs. He measured expectations and satisfactions by two ques tionnaires, After an intake interview, the client was given an expectation questionnaire and the counselor was given information on the client*s problem and personal data. Then the counselor filled out an expectation questionnaire. After counseling, participants filled out a modified expec tation questionnaire and a satisfaction questionnaire. Cundick discovered that the congruent of counselor-client expectations did increase significantly during counseling but the congruence of expectations was not significantly correlated with counseling satisfaction for either the counselor or the client. Satisfaction with the counseling relationship seemed to be related more to ambiguity reduction for both participants, an area more important to the client than the counselor. Severinsen (116) investigated a method of measuring client expectation and perception of counseling and then studied their relationship to satisfaction with counseling. Before counseling, clients Indicated the "expected" counselor "behavior and after counseling the "perceived" counselor behavior. They selected one of six counselor responses in hypothetical counseling situations. One group of 23^ clients rated the degree of lead that they expected and perceived counselors to take in interviews and another group of 31^ clients rated the empathy that they expected and perceived of counselors, Severinsen found a significant relationship between client satisfaction and differences in expectation and perception of counselor empathy. The direction of the differences was not a significant factor, suggesting that satisfaction seems to be a function of how closely the counselor approximates the clients expectation and not whether he is "fact" or "feeling" oriented in the interview. On the other hand, differences in expectation and perception of counselor lead were not significantly related to satisfaction* Severinsen concluded that client dissatisfaction seems to be related to dissimilarity of expected counselor behavior and perceived counselor behavior, Irrespective of the direction of the dissimilarity Geller (^7) studied the client's expectations about counseling and each counselor's perception of his role as a counselor, Geller hypothesized that neither client expectations nor counselor role-perceptions by themselves would be significantly related to either the client's nor the counselor's evaluation of satisfaction with counseling. 69 He also hypothesized, the greater the similarity between a client's expectation and his counselor's role-perceptions, the greater the over-all satisfaction with counseling as rated Independently by both the client and the counselor. The data of his study did not lend support to the notion that the congruence of client expectations and counselor role-perceptions Is a successful predictor of outcome. However, the data did point to the fact that client expectations are significant predictors to the client's evaluation of counseling but not to the counselor's evaluations of counseling. Counselor role-perceptions were related to both client and counselor evaluations of the outcome of counseling. Counselors strongly oriented toward work with school problems generally have clients who evaluate counseling as being successful, feel that the counselor was competent and had strong feelings of "Comfort and Bapport." Counselors who strongly feel that their clients should be able to shoulder their own responsibili ties seem to instill in their clients a desire to return to the Counseling Center if things get rough. Geller also discovered a slight trend which Indicated that greater congruence between client expectations and counselor role- perceptions leads to a greater number of sessions. Briefly, then, the literature relating to philosophical concepts and their place in the counseling process is scant. A great deal of discussion exists but little experimentation has been conducted. Even turning to the closely related areas of values and attitudes finds few studies involved with changes or influences of values or attitudes during the counseling process. Going another step away from the main topic toward counselor and counselee expectations still uncovers few studies. Looking at the research in all areas one discovers very few harmonious trends or results obtained from the experiments. CHAPTER III PROCEDUBES From the review of the literature it can be seen that the area of philosophy in counseling and psychotherapy has been filled with theoretical discussions and fairly void of actual research* Experimental studies in the related fields of values and attitudes that involve the effects of these aspects on the counseling process itself are also few and far between. A few studies do exist but these have generally produced conflicting results, indicating that there is much room for further experimentation. The general purpose of this paper is to explore the relationships between philosophical concepts with congruent behavior in counseling and their connections with effectiveness as viewed by counselees, observers, and independent judges. The specific purpose of this chapter is to explain the procedures used in the study. Information about the subjects is given as well as the procedures for the collection of data. In addition, instruments that were developed for this study are described and the statistical approach explained. 71 72 Population Used From the outset It should be emphasized that when the term "counselors" is used in reference to the subjects of this study the term actually refers to "counselor trainees." Each counselor was a member of a full year NDEA Guidance and Counseling Institute at the University of Southern California. The Institute was conducted during the 1966-67 academic year. The thirty members of the Institute had at least sir units in guidance and counselor training before entering the Institute as well as three years of teaching experience. Not all of the Institute members had previous counseling experience, however, and the amount and type of experience was quite varied. In addition to the academic classroom activities, the program included weekly seminars. Here the subjects were divided into three permanent groups of eight and one group of six for the full academic year, meeting with the same professor and counseling supervisor during these seminars. In addition, the groups counseled students on campus one afternoon a week. During the counseling periods, the groups were divided in half, one portion counseling one hour and the other the second. This division made it possible for the counselors to be observed and heard through a one-way mirror by at least half of the members of their 73 seminar groups plus the professor and counseling supervisor. Following the two observations during the afternoon counseling sessions, the groups would meet as a unit to discuss the observations. With this procedure, each counselor in the three seminar groups of eight would theo retically be observed once every four weeks while each counselor in the one seminar group of six would be observed once every three weeks. No attempt was made to interfere in any way with the usual administration of the observations, seminar groups, or the counseling practicums* In other words, some counselors were seeing counselees for a period of two weeks, some for six, and in a few cases, some for over ten weeks. A counselor may have been observed with the same counselee on more than one occasion. In addition, no attempt was made to control the "type" of counseling that occurred during an observation period. At times the interview was the first one with a counselee; at other times it was a terminating interview; it may have been an interpretation of test results; or the interview could have been one in the middle of a series involving personality exploration. There were two main reasons for not controlling the kinds of activities involved during the observations. First it was felt that the observations should be as "typical1 ' as possible and involve whatever would be involved at that particular stage of counseling If there were no study being 74 conducted. Generally, the research tried to interfere as little as possible in the usual routine. Secondly, the material being observed was the counselor*s actions and it was assumed that if his actions did reflect his philosophy they would do so under varied circumstances and topics of counseling. In addition to their counseling experience at the campus Counseling Center, the trainees also spent one-half day a week at one of the parochial schools in the greater Los Angeles area. Because of the difficulties in assuring experimental control over the use of the Instruments, the counselees seen in the schools were not used in the study with one exception. Toward the end of the year the trainees were requested to hand in a tape recording of an initial Interview for a typescript. If the trainee were not going to be seeing a new counselee at the Counseling Center, he was requested to save a first Interview tape recording from his school experience. Less than half of the final Initial Interviews involved a counselee In the school setting. The counselees that came to the Counseling Center were assigned to counselors on a random basis. When a counselor had terminated one counselee, he began seeing the next one available. No counselor saw less than two nor more than six counselees at the Counseling Center, The majority of the counselees were secondary high school students from public schools, A few came from parochial schools and a few were junior high school students In addition, there was a scattering of counselees from junior colleges and from the University of Southern California, Over eighty per cent of the counselees had seven or fewer interviews. The maximum number of Interviews was fifteen and only two counselees came to the Counseling Center that number of times. The majority completed their counseling in five or less interviews. To assure anonymity, the data collected from each of the counselees were assigned numbers as were each of the counselor trainees. Collection of Data Each of the counselor trainees was administered the Philosophical Concept Inventory twice during the year. Because the trainees did have a varied background of experience, It was felt that a more valid sampling of their philosophy toward counseling could be obtained If the instrument were administered after they had a common experience. Therefore, the trainees took the Philosophical Concept Inventory the first time after approximately four weeks of the Institute. This time was chosen so that each trainee would have some understanding of the language used in the instrument and also so that each would have taken it before he saw his first counselee. In addition, the 76 Philosophical Concept Inventory was administered the last week of the Institute after the counselors had seen their last counselee* When a counselee came to the Center, he was given a brief statement by a receptionist explaining that a research program was in process and requesting his cooperation in filling out forms after he had completed counseling* (Appendix E) Then immediately after his final interview, the counselee was given two forms by the receptionist, the Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form and the Counseling Evaluation Inventory. At no time did the counselor administer the instruments to the counselee or see the results. In cases where the counselee failed to return for a scheduled interview or the reoeptionist missed the counselee and it was determined that he had completed counseling for one reason or another, he was mailed the forms with a personal letter requesting that he fill them out as soon as possible. If the forms were not returned within a week, a postal card reminder was sent. If that did not bring results, a second reminder was mailed, asking if perhaps the forms had not been received. Finally, a third reminder in the form of a personal letter was sent. In this manner, thirty six returns were received in the mail, usually within two weeks after the individual had 77 terminated counseling. Thirteen, including two run-aways, two who had moved, one who joined the Air Force, and one who was on tour with a singing group, did not return the forms. Seventy counselees completed the Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form and the Counseling Evaluation Inventory Immediately after their last session of counseling. All told, then, one hundred and six.counselees filled out the necessary forms to be included in the data for the study. Using chi square, those who answered by mall and those who filled out the forms following the last session were compared for their year in school, sex, and number of interviews. No significant differences were found on these variables and it was decided that both methods of responding could be included together in the final data. On the same characteristics there were also no differences between those who responded by mail and those who did not, other than the obvious one of responding or not responding. Slightly over seventy three per cent of the forty nine who were mailed forms did return them completed. When a counselor was in the observation room, the professor and counseling supervisor assigned to that seminar group filled out an Effectiveness Eating Scale and a Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale immediately following the observation. In the fall of the year, all professors 78 and supervisors were given samples of the scales and illustrations for marking them. Theoretically, there should have been two ratings for each observation and each coun selor should have been observed at least once every four weeks. However, as every researcher knows, what is suggested as practice or design often falls by the wayside as a result of human idiosyncrasies. For example, at times the counselee scheduled for the observation room would not appear for his counseling session. On other occasions, the day of an observation would be the day a counselor had scheduled for testing. On various occasions, professors would be absent from the observations for one reason or another, leaving only one rating completed, that of the supervisor. In addition, one of the professors did not approve of observations and felt that any suggestions to hold them, even though they were an established part of the program, was an infringement upon his academic freedom. Therefore, it was not possible to obtain two ratings per counselor every four weeks. Every counselor had at least two observations and some had five. The majority of the counselors had four observations. Not all of these were rated by both the supervisor and professor, however. At least one Effectiveness Hating Scale and Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale was obtained from each observation. 79 Recognizing the dangers from inbreeding and contamination of data If the raters were individuals who worked closely with the trainees in seminars, classroom activities, and Individual conferences, an attempt was made to obtain some outside judgment. Three Independent judges were selected who Jhad wide experience in counselor super vision and were serving on the staffs of nearby colleges as counselors or professors. They evaluated typescripts from each counselor and used the same Effectiveness Rating Scale and Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale as the observers had. The typescripts were given to the judges in the same order, having been numbered to assure anonymity and then randomized by a Table of Random Numbers previously. The typescripts were obtained from the Initial interview of each counselor with his first counselee of the year. The second typescript was also an initial Interview because it was felt that two initial interviews would be more comparable than an initial and a terminal Interview, for example. The trainees were instructed to submit the first initial interview that occurred after April 15* In this manner, each counselor would have an opportunity to begin seeing another counselee and yet each counselor*s second typescript would be from approximately the same time period. No distinction was made on the typescripts between the first initial interview and the second initial interview - 80 Typescripts consisted of three segments of approxi mately a minute and a half each from the beginning, middle, and end of the tape recording. The term "approximately" Is used because on occasion the counselee would be in themiddle of a sentence or thought when the time expanded. In that case, the thought was completed and the counselor^ res ponse, if there were one, recorded. In most instances, then, the final quotation was that of a counselor. This approach was used because the beliefs and actions of the counselor were the areas under investigation. Before going on to the development of the various instruments used, it might be wise to summarize which ones were administered to whom. The counselor trainees took the Philosophical Concept Inventory in the fall and again in the spring. Counselees were administered the Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form and the Counseling Evaluation Inventory upon completion of counseling. Observers filled out the Effectiveness Bating Scale and the Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale. These same two Instruments were completed by three independent Judges after reading a type script that included a segment from the beginning, middle, and end of an initial interview. Each Judge completed forms for two typescripts from each trainee or a total of sixty typescripts. 81 Development of Instruments Since no instrument was available to measure philosophical concepts, it was necessary to develop one. The first step toward the Philosophical Concept Inventory was to cull the literature (11; 118) for statements Involving assumptions and presuppositions from the various theories of counseling. The three-faced philosophical model developed by Hunt (59) was used as the basis for the selection of statements. Some of them were concerned with the goals of counseling, others with the roles, and still other statements with the learnings of the participants in counseling. However, no attempt was made to Include an equal number of statements from each of the three areas for all of the theories Included. Statements were taken from the theories of existentialists, Freud and neo-Freudians, behaviorists, phenomenologists, Rogers, and Rogerians. After going over the statements to cull out those that said the same thing in slightly different ways, a total of eighty-one items were randomized and submitted to a panel of three judges. Each of these individuals had had wide experience In counseling theory and practice as well as philosophy. Since It seemed to the author after reviewing the literature and obtaining the Items that there were two main philosophical stances in counseling theory, the judges were instructed (Appendix A) to check if the Item were 82 philosophically consistent with a behaviorist or humanistic theory* In addition, there was a third column, "other,1 1 for those items that did not fit either category or both categories. Judges also were requested to make any comments about items, such as whether the statements were unclear and how. The judges independently agreed on a total of forty-four items, half in the behavioristic category and half in the humanistic category. These items were again classified according to a Table of Eandom numbers and randomized before being submitted to a group of subjects for reliability information. Because the purpose of the pilot run with the instru ment was to obtain further information on its usefulness as well as reliability data, individuals were chosen who had completed a training program in guidance and counseling and were somewhat versed in the field. Sixty-six individuals were randomized into three equal groups. One group was mailed Form A which Included two choices, "agree" and "disagree," Form B had four choices for answering, "strongly agree," "agree," "disagree," and "strongly dis agree," Form C had three choices, "agree," "disagree," and "don't know." In addition to responding to the items, the pilot group was encouraged to Include any suggestions or questions they had about the items as well as list the length of time it took them to complete the instrument. (Appendix C) 83 Most of the replies were received within a week after hoth mailings but this time did vary somewhat because the material was mailed over the summer months. The average time between the two administrations of the instruments was thirty seven days. Of the twenty two individuals sent Form A, nineteen or eighty six per cent returned the first and second mailing. On Form Bf H seventeen of the twenty two individuals returned both mailings or seventy seven per cent of them did. Of the twenty two individuals who were mailed Form C, eighteen or eighty two per cent returned both forms. All told fifty four of sixty six or eighty two per cent replied in both instances to the preliminary study of the Philoso- phical Concept Inventory. Beliability data from the preliminary administration is given in Table I. As can be ascertained from Table It the test-retest stability for each form of the preliminary administration was never lower than .71 with p<^01 in each case between the first and second administration of both the humanistic scale and the behavioristic scale. Correlations between the humanistic and behavioristic variables did not approach significance Indicating that the instrument did distinguish between the two variables as well as demonstrate some stability. The only exception to the preceding statement is the correlation between post- HNn rlN H CM 84 TABLE I TEST-BETEST COBRELATION DATA FOB PBELIMINABY PCI Form A 2 3 4 .71 .28 .36 .41 .53 N = 19 .78 Form B 2 3 4 .91 .23 .08 .31 .21 N a 17 .85 Form C 2 3 4 .82 .10 -.09 .30 .22 N = 18 .79 Scale 1 - First Humanistic Scale 2 - Second Humanistic Scale 3 - First Behavioristic Scale 4 - Second Behavioristic 85 humanistic and post-behavioristic on Form A. Since this correlation did approach significance, it seemed possible that a two-choice scale did not distinguish as well between the two variables, humanistic and behavioristic. In addition to obtaining reliability information, a wealth of material was gleaned on the items. Individuals were extremely helpful in pointing out the items that were not clear or had questionable meaning. The same items that were questioned in several cases were rewritten Incorporating the suggestions for clarity. These rewritten items were resubmitted to the same judges to determine whether the meaning had been changed during the rewriting. After receiving assurance that the rewritten Items were essen tially the same in meaning, they were included In the final instrument. Two other pieces of information were obtained from the preliminary study. The individuals who were sent Form A, which included two choices frequently objected to ''he limitation of their choices. The individuals who were sent Form C, which Included three choices, often commented that "don’t know" did not really fit their choice but they did not have any other category to place their answer in. On the basis of these criticisms, the final form of the Philosophical Concept Inventory included four choices, "strongly agree," "agree," "disagree," and*tetrongly; disagree." 86 The second main change in the Instrument Involved two Items. One of the humanistic Items did not discriminate at all between individuals. Everyone agreed with it on both mailings. It was excluded from the final form. One of the behavioristic items was frequently questioned as being unclear and at times individuals did not answer it. There fore, that item was omitted from the final form. As a result, the final Philosophical Concept Inventory included forty two Items, twenty one scored on the behavlorist scale and twenty one of the humanist scale. The final Items had complete content validity Judge agreement as belonging in one or the other philosophical camps. (Appendix D) The next instrument to be developed was one to measure the counselee*s perception of his counselor*s philosophy, a measure of the counselor*s congruence. Since most of the counselees would be high school students, it was decided that a modified version of the Philosophical Concept Inventory would be appropriate. For example, while the PCI made statements of the ,rI believe" type, the instrument for the counselees would state the items in simpler language and be of the "My counselor believes" type. Thus, the first step in developing the Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form was to develop several statements based on the Philosophical Concept Inventory. In this manner, forty five Items were developed, again following Eunt*s model, 87 and after randomization were submitted to the same three judges who had supplied the content validity for the PCI. They were given similar instructions as they had been for the earlier instrument as well as an opportunity to make comments about lack of clarity or confused meaning. (Appendix A) This time the judges Independently expressed total agreement on thirteen behavioristic items and nine humanistic Items, Because there was an uneven number of items for the two scales* those Items were recorded where a judge had checked "both" this time but for the "parent" PCI had previously classified the Item one way or another. Those few Items that were seriously questioned for clarity by one or more judges for the Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form were omitted and the final Instrument included a total of twenty eight items, fourteen scored for the behavioristic scale and fourteen for the humanistic, (Appendix E) Again before inclusion In the final CABF, the items were sub mitted to a Table of Random Numbers, The Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form was also constructed with a four-choice scale, "strongly agree," "agree," "disagree," and "strongly disagree." Since no test-retest stability measure was available for the CABF, the two scales, humanistic and behaviorlstio, were sub mitted to the Spearman-Brown formula for determining split- 88 half reliability. Reliability for the humanistic scale was ,82 and for the behavioristic scale was .93; these were felt sufficient for using the results in this particular study. One counselee had completed the CABF but not the CEI and that information is included in the reliability data but not in other statistical treatment of data throughout the study. The design for the study also included the need for a measure of effectiveness by the counselees. After checking several scales reported in the literature (114; 6*H 60; 71; and 125)» it was decided that the Counseling Evaluation Inventory (70) would be the most appropriate for this particular study. The Counseling Evaluation Inventory is a five-choice scale, "always," "often,” "sometimes," "rarely," and "never," Considerable work had been done with this instrument and the total CEI score demonstrated significant test-retest stability. Before using the CEI for this study, however, it seemed necessary to make sure the items were not weighted toward one philosophical stance or another. Therefore, the twenty one Items were submitted to three different Judges, again individuals who had wide experience in counseling theory and practice. They were asked to Independently check whether the item was behavioristic, humanistic, both, or neither. (Appendix B) Since the Judges agreed on no items, 89 two different judges agreeing on only ten items, it was felt the Counseling Evaluation Inventory must not reflect one philosophical framework, and, therefore, would he appropriate to use as an effectiveness measure. The final instruments that needed to he developed were those for the observers, professors and counseling supervisors from the seminar groups, and independent judges, individuals who would make their judgments on the hasis of typescripts. Recognizing that these individuals would carry the brunt of the evaluations and he required to do them week after week in the case of observers and type script after typescript in the case of independent judges, It seemed Important to keep these scales as brief as possible and still as discriminating as possible. Using the Philosophical Concept Inventory as a basis, seventeen statements were developed that indicated beliefs based on observable behavior and statements made by the counselor. Prom this list of seventeen, two judges, a different set than used previously so as not to wear out the same judges, chose a total of ten items that they agreed met the criteria. Five items were scored on the behavioristic scale and five on the humanistic. These items another measure of the counselor*s congruence between belief and behavior, were randomized by a Table of Random Numbers and then included in the final Counselor Beliefs 90 and Actions Scale, (Appendix P) Three choices were available for raters, “agree," "unobservable," and "dis agree." The Effectiveness Bating Scale was developed in a similar manner. Drawing heavily on Truax (125) and the Counseling Evaluation Inventory, a total of twelve scales was developed, each on a five-point continuum. Each end of the continuum included a description of the sort of behavior typical to receive a marking at that end of the continuum. Prom the original twelve scales, the same two judges who had developed the Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale, chose six that did not seem to overlap or reflect only one philosophical framework. These six items were then randomized and became the final Effectiveness Bating Scale. (Appendix F) To summarize before discussing the statistical approach used in the study, several Instruments were developed for use in this experiment. To indicate the counselor trainees1 perception of his philosophical stance and consistency, the Philosophical Concept Inventory was developed. To measure the counselees1 perception of their counselors' philosophy, consistency in another's view as well as congruence between the counselor's beliefs and his actions, the Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form was developed. After determining it did not reflect one philosophical framework or another, the Counseling Evaluation Inventory was used as a measure of the coun- selee*s perception of his counselorfs effectiveness. Another measure of consistency in perception hy others as well as congruence "between the counselor's beliefs and his actions was developed for observers and independent judges. This form is the Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale, The observers and judges also filled out a scale for effec tiveness, one developed for this study and referred to as the Effectiveness Rating Scale, Statistical Approach Used This study was designed to examine various relationships of philosophical consistency among a group of counselor trainees to their effectiveness as determined by three groups, counselees, observers, and independent judges who evaluated typescripts of two Initial Interviews. In addition, the study attempted to determine if a coun selor's actions were congruent with his beliefs and whether he was then viewed as more effective by the same three groups of evaluators as a counselor whose actions were incongruent with his beliefs. Because the thirty counselor trainees in this study are a fairly selective group of individuals, the generalizability of any results obtained would be questionable. Results, then, at best may only be 92 Indicators of possible relationships between philosophical consistency, congruency, and effectiveness. For a relationship to be considered significant in this study, the chances for its appearance would have to be no more than five chances out of a hundred (five per cent level of significance) or no more than one chance out of a hundred (one per cent level of significance). Hypotheses were stated In a null fashion and two-tailed tests of statistical significance were employed. All of the instruments used could be classified as ordinal scales. The dependent variable was the measure of effectiveness obtained from each of the three criterion groups, Nonparametric statistical measurements were used to test the three major hypotheses of this study. The Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance is a rank test for independent samples (117). It was used to test Hypo thesis I, which called for a comparison of philosophically consistent and Inconsistent counselor trainees. The Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance was also employed for Hypothesis II to test the differences among behavioristic, humanistic, and inconsistent counselor trainees. As an added refinement for Hypothesis II, the Mann-Whitney U was used to test the differences between the behavioristic and humanistic counselor trainees. This statistic is closely related to the H statistic when k = 2, 93 As Winer (135*623) reported, "Individual comparisons ■between two treatments following an over-all H test may be made by means of the U statistic." Hypothesis III involved differences in effectiveness among congruent and incongruent counselor trainees. To test this hypothesis chi square was employed. Other statistical procedures throughout the study included the use of correlation techniques to obtain reliability measures on the Instruments. In addition, paired observations and the Independent judges' data called for correlation techniques. Information from the various instruments was punched on data processing cards after being coded to assure anonymity. A Honeywell 800 computer at the University of Southern California Computer Science Laboratory was used to process the data as long as its use was available. Host of the statistics were computed by hand using a calculator. To classify the data, the same approach was used throughout the study. Because many of the Instruments did not have sufficient reliability information available, a simple above and below the median classification was made. This approach was used because it does not require a highly reliable instrument.* In addition, there was little *Dr. Hiehard Wolf, personal conference, 7/3/67* Dr. Earl Carnes, personal conferences, 7/11/67, 7/20/67. 9^ a priori information available concerning the instruments. They were used simply to classify the counselor trainees as humanistic, behavioristic, or Inconsistent in philosophy. Before classifying results from the three instru ments, Philosophical Concept Inventory, Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form, and Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale, it was determined that the break would Include all scores above the median in one category and all scores at or below the median in the other category every time such a classification was necessary. For example, to determine whether a counselor trainee viewed himself as humanistic or behavioristic in philosophical concepts, the scores on each scale were ranked. Those above the median went Into one classification and those at and below the median went into the other classification. More specific Information will be reported in relation to each criterion group used to determine consistency, congruency, and effectiveness in the following chapter. For the present an illustration may clarify the data available for each counselor trainee. In essence the computer stored Information of the following nature for each counselor. Sample Measures for Each of Thirty Counselors Criterion Measures Philosophical Position of Effectiveness Self Beh Counselees Inc Observers Hum Judges Inc Counselees 97 Observers 23 Judges 13 CHAPTER IV RESULTS This chapter will report the results of the study to determine relationships between philosophical consistency, congruence with behavior, and effectiveness as determined by three criterion groups, counselees, observers, and independent judges. The terms "behavioristic” and "humanistic” refer to the manner in which individuals reponded to the items of the instruments designed to measure philosophical consistency. Again, items for the Philosophical Concept Inventory, Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form, and Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale generally followed Hunt's (59) philosophical model for counseling systems. Individuals who are referred to as "behavioristic" tended to respond favorably to items on the PCI reflecting an objective reality Independent of the knower. They seemed to believe actions are learned, can be modified, and can also be directly observed and described. Individuals who are referred to as "humanistic" tended to respond favorably to Items with an emphasis on Introspection, subjective experiences, and the self. They believe inner experiencing is important. When counselees, observers, or judges saw 95 96 the counselor trainees as "humanistic" or "behavioristic," they tended to perceive the actions and beliefs of the trainee along the same lines as the preceding descriptions and responded in that manner to items on the CABF and CBAS. Consistency, then, refers to individuals who favorably responded to one type of item over the other, behavioristic or humanistic, while inconsistency refers to individuals who responded favorably or unfavorably to both types of items. They tended to "mix" their beliefs, incorporating some from one general philosophical framework sind some from another philosophical system. Individuals could view themselves as consistent or inconsistent, their own self-perception of their philosophical position, or they could be viewed by one of the three criterion groups, counselees, observers, or judges, as consistent or incon sistent. Perception by others as consistent or Inconsistent philosophically might also affect whether the counselors were seen by these others as effective. For a counselor trainee to be considered congruent, he would have to perceive his philosophical stance in the same manner as one of the three criterion groups did. The counselor saw himself as behavioristic and the counselees also saw him that way, for examplei or the counselor viewed himself as humanistic and the observers also viewed him as humanistic. Those counselor trainees that viewed themselves 97 as inconsistent and were viewed as inconsistent by others were not included in the statistical analysis of congruency because this area was considered too hazy, too grey, too unknown. Effectiveness was determined through the instruments filled out by the three criterion groups. The counselees completed the Counseling Evaluation Inventory while the observers and independent judges completed the Effectiveness Eating Scale, The observers responded to the EES after viewing the counselors through a one-way mirror during a counseling session and the judges completed the EES after reading a typescript of an initial interview that included three segments, beginning, middle, and end of the inter view. Hypotheses were stated in a null fashion. The three major ones examined by this study and the statistical hypotheses used to test the major hypotheses werei I. There will be no difference in effectiveness among inconsistent and highly consistent counselor trainees regardless of their philosophy of counseling. A. The amount of correlation between the coun selors' self-perceptions of consistency and the counselees* perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not be significant. B. The amount of correlation between the counselors * 98 self-perceptions of consistency and. the observers * perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not be significant! C. The amount of correlation between the coun selors' self-perceptions of consistency and the judges' perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not be significant. D. The amount of correlation between the coun selees1 perceptions of counselors' consistency and effectiveness will not be significant, E. The amount of correlation between the observers* perceptions of counselors' consistency and effectiveness will not be significant. P. The amount of correlation between the judges* perceptions of counselors' consistency and effectiveness will not be significant. II. There will be no difference in effectiveness among the highly consistent counselor trainees regardless of their philosophy of counseling. A. The amount of correlation between the counselors' self-perceptions of philosophical system and the counselees* perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not be significant. B. The amount of correlation between the counselors' self-perceptions of philosophical system and the ob 99 servers' perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not be significant, C, The amount of correlation between the counselors self-perceptions of philosophical system and the judges' perceptions of counselor effectiveness will not be significant, D, The amount of correlation between the counselees perceptions of counselors' philosophical system and effectiveness will not be significant, E, The amount of correlation between the observers* perceptions of counselors' philosophical system and effectiveness will not be significant, F, The amount of correlation between the judges' perceptions of counselors' philosophical system and effectiveness will not be significant. XII. There will be no difference in effectiveness among counselor trainees with high congruency and low con gruency between their philosophy of counseling and their actions in counseling. A. The amount of correlation between counselees' perceptions of counselor congruency and effectiveness will not be significant. B. The amount of correlation between observers' perceptions of counselor congruency and effectiveness will not be significant. 100 C. The amount of correlation between judges' perceptions of counselor congruency and effectiveness will not be significant. Consistency The philosophical consistency of the counselor trainees was determined by the manner in which they res ponded to the Philosophical Concept Inventory. Although some reliability information had been obtained during a preliminary study of the PCI, these data, as reported in the preceding chapter, involved a period of time less than a month and a half. The experimental design for this study called for an eight-month time span. In addition, on the basis of suggestions from the preliminary group, the PCI had been changed slightly. For these two reasons, it was deemed necessary to obtain further test-retest stability information on the PCI. Since the counselor trainees were involved in a counselor education program, It seemed feasible some of their ideas might change over the time period. Therefore, individuals selected as a control group for the instrument were chosen who had completed their training in counselor education. However, it was not possible to prevent further learning through the employment situation, informal dis cussions, additional classes, or various other manners by 101 the control group. At the same time that the counselor trainees were administered the PCI, mailings were sent to fifty-five experienced counselors "in the field*' with an accompanying letter. (Appendix C) Although the nunber of days did vary somewhat, the individuals chosen as the control group for the PCI returned the forms within a week after they were mailed. If not, a follow-up post card was mailed. In this manner responses were received from forty-eight of the fifty-five on both mailings. The time span between the two mailings was approximately seven and a half months. A total of eighty-seven per cent of those individuals mailed the PCI returned both forms. The test-retest data for both the control group and the counselor trainees are reported in Table II, The trainees reflected correlation coefficients of .59 on the humanistic scale between the first and second admini stration of the PCI and .62 on the behavioristic scale. The control group had a correlation coefficient of .69 on the humanistic scale and ,65 on the behavioristic. All of these correlation coefficients were at least statistically significant at the .01 level (p-=r,01). To determine whether the counselor trainees viewed themselves as behavioristic or humanistic, all of the scores were ranked into four columns, the humanistic scale 102 and behavioristic scale on the first administration of the PCI and the humanistic scale and behavioristic scale on the second administration. Medians were determined for each scale. If a counselor's score were above the median on both administrations of the humanistic scale he was considered as viewing himself as humanistic in philosophy. If his score were above the median on both administrations of the behavioristic scale, that counselor was considered as viewing himself as behavioristic in philosophy. If scores on the two scales ofboth administrations were all either below or above the medians, the counselor was considered inconsistent in his philosophical stance. He was also considered inconsistent if his scores were above on one scale of the first administration and below on the same scale of the second administration. In this manner, eight counselors were classified as consistently behavioristic, six as consistently humanistic, and sixteen as Inconsistent philo sophically• This approach was chosen for several reasons. First of all, a classification above and below the median does not require a highly reliable instrument and it was felt some uniform approach should be chosen for designation throughout the study. Because preliminary forms of the Philosophical Concept Inventory had been administered, there was some test retest stability information available for that one instru ment. However, there was no a priori information available 103 TABLE II TEST-RETEST CORRELATION INFORMATION FOR PCI Counselor Trainees 2 3 4 1 .59 .22 -.23 2 .0? -.21 N - 30 3 .62 Control Group 2 3 4 1 .69 .39 .27 2 .28 .28 N = 48 3 .65 Scale 1 - First Humanistic Scale 2 - Second Humanistic Scale 3 - First Behavioristic Scale 4 - Second Behavioristic 10^ for the other two Instruments, the Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form and the Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale, that would be used for classification purposes. Whether they were or were not reliable instruments was unknown. Secondly, by using the counselor's scores on the first and second administration of the Philosophical Concept Inventory, consideration would be given to any changes that might occur over time in that counselor's viewpoint. As discussed previously, counselors saw coun selees for a varied number of interviews and wereobserved at different points in time throughout the academic year. Since these two factors could not be controlled and, in fact,since the research design did not want to interfere with the usual procedures of the Institute, it was felt that using scores from the two administrations of the PCI would take Into con sideration any changes that did occur over time. If a counselor viewed himself as humanistic in philosophy, for example, at the beginning and the end of the academic year, it was assumed he quite likely viewed himself in the same manner throughout the year when he was seeing different counselees or when he was being observed or when he con ducted an interview that was used for a typescript. Regard less of when counselees or observers, in particular, filled out their forms in relation to a particular counselor trainee, it was assumed that trainee was probably viewing himself in the same manner as he did on the two administrations of the PCI. As discussed previously, the counselor trainees saw a different number of counselees throughout the year. Data from the Counseling Evaluation Inventory were analyzed after determining a composite average score for each counselor. These data were compared to the manner in which the counselor viewed himselfi those that viewed themselves as consistently behavioristic or humanistic were combined and compared to those who viewed themselves as inconsistent in philosophical outlook as the first statistical test of Hypothesis I. The Kruskal-Wallls one-way analysis of variance by ranks was employed for each of the statistical hypotheses to test Hypothesis I. In discussing the occurrence of ties in the ranking procedure, Siegel (117sl88) pointed out that the effect of correcting for ties is to increase the value of H and to make the result more significant than it would have been if uncorrected. However, Siegel also emphasized that the effect of the correction is negligible. If no more than twenty five per cent of the observations are involved in ties, the probability associated with an H computed without the correction for ties , • • • is rarely changed by more than ten per cent when the correction for ties is made. (117* 188) Therefore, in computing the H statistic, the correction for ties was not used unless the number of tied scores was twenty five per cent of the total. In addition, 106 if the H statistic lid not approach significance, the correction for ties was not computed. For example, an H statistic with pj=*,20 was not submitted to the correction for ties formula. To determine whether the amount of correlation between the counselors' self-perceptions of consistency and the counselees1 perceptions of counselor effectiveness was significant, those counselors who viewed themselves as consistently behavioristic or humanistic were grouped to gether, Their average scores on the Counseling Evalu ation Inventory were then compared with the group of counselors who viewed themselves as inconsistent in philo sophical outlook. The resulting H statistic was 2.95 (p-c.10 and p^>- .05), In other words, there was not a significant differ ence between those counselors who perceived themselves as inconsistent in philosophical outlook and those counselors who perceived themselves as consistent on the criterion of effectiveness as measured by the counselees of these coun selors on the Counseling Evaluation Inventory, Hypothesis I, then, is accepted for the first criterion group. The second criterion group was the observers. As explained previously, the counselor trainees were divided into seminar groups and these remained the same throughout the academic year, A professor and counseling supervisor were assigned to each group. During the observations 10? there were times when both the professor and counseling supervisor were present, times when the supervisor alone was present, and a few occasions when the professor alone was present. Whoever observed the counseling interview completed the two forms, Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale and Effectiveness Rating Scale. When both indivi duals observed the same counseling interview, it was possible to determine correlations for their ratings and these correlations for each pair are presented in Table III. As is obvious from Table III, the correlations be tween the pairs of observers were not always as high as might be desired. However, even with this knowledge it was decided to use all of the rating forms filled out by the observers for several reasons. First of all, there seemed to be no alternative. Secondly, even though the corre lations obtained were not as high as desired, they did not seem too far out of line with some other recent studies (35* 58* 115)* In addition, the -.72 correlation on the Effectiveness Scale for Pair D occurred with five obser vations only. The correlation technique is not very effective with a small N. When this same scale, the Effec tiveness Scale, was correlated with seventeen observations for Pair B, the correlation was ,77, Thirdly, in all cases the treatment of the data would Involve a composite average score for each counselor 108 trainee. Differences, then, in approaches to the rating scales hy the observers would be averaged out. In a sense, when the correlations for a pair on one scale were not as high as desired, the averaging process is the same as eliminating the scores in the first place since one seems to be canceling the other. Finally, a fairly wide spread in number of rating scales was obtained for each seminar group, again indicating that an average for each counselor would be the best approach. The three groups of eight counselor trainees had 4*5, 4*2, and 4*9 observers each who filled out the CBAS and ERS. The seminar group of six had nineteen observers over the year who filled out the two forms. In comparing the counselors* perception of consis tency in philosophical outlook with the observers' rating of effectiveness, the same approach was taken as had been taken with the counselee criterion group. The resulting H statistic was 1.86 (p*C.20). Hypothesis I is accepted for the second criterion group, the observers of counseling interviews. The third criterion group was the independent judges who filled out the CBAS and ERS after reading a typescript of an initial interview. These judges completed the scales independently of each other. One judge completed the set of sixty typescripts in one sitting* another did them in four sittings over as many days* and a third judge 109 TABLE III CORRELATIONS OF OBSERVER PAIRS Pair A Pair B Humanistic Scale .52 .44 Behavioristic Scale .05 .29 Effectiveness Scale ,54 .77 Number of Observations 12 17 Pair C Pair D Humanistic Scale .63 .96 Behavioristic Scale ,6l .28 Effectiveness Scale .35 -.72 Number of Observations 14 5 110 completed, them a few at a time over several weeks. The different ways the judges approached the typescripts may partially explain the rather low correlations obtained and presented in Table IV, Each judge did the typescripts In the same order, however. Correlations ranged from a low of -.24 between Judges II and.Ill for the first humanistic scale and highs of .55 between Judges I and III for the second effectiveness scale and .60 between Judges I and II for the second effectiveness scale. Following the same reasoning that was used with the observers, the judges1 data were included as the third criterion measure for effectiveness. Using the same approach as the other two criterion measures, the judges' data were analyzed by the H statistic. This time the resulting H was 2.01 (p<,20). The amount of correlation between the counselors' self-perception of consistency and the judges' perceptions of counselor effectiveness was not significant. Before analyzing the data in another fashion, it might be wise to briefly summarize. Hypothesis I states, in effect, that there will be no difference in effectiveness between counselors with consistent and inconsistent philosophies of counseling. So far the data have been analyzed according to the counselors* own perception of their consistency and compared to effectiveness as viewed TABLE IV CORRELATIONS OP THREE INDEPENDENT JUDGES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1 1.00 2 ■ -.18 3 .30 -.24 4 .61 .21 .27 5 .31 -.06 .20 .36 6 .38 -.32 .45 .15 .36 7 .55 -.01 .19 .43 .21 .20 8 « -.13 .57 ■ -.04 .14 . -.01 ■ -.29 .29 9 .16 -.34 .67 .14 .14 .20 .08 -.09 10 .38 -.11 ■ -.12 .16 . -.01 . -.14 .20 -.37 .01 11 .16 -.19 -.15 - -.12 ,00 .26 .09 -.16 — 0 22 .25 12 .04 -.23 ■ -.25 - -.07 . -.13 .01 .08 -.38 -.05 .55 .42 13 .09 -.15 ■ -.18 .02 .04 • -.18 .09 -.23 .08 .67 .14 .44 14 .26 -.12 ■ -.02 .24 .31 .38 .27 -.18 -.17 .12 .05 .05 .13 ‘ -.09 -.00 . -.19 .02 .26 .13 .02 -.08 —. 16 .03 .33 .41 .17 .26 16 .18 -.10 . -.27 .06 .08 ■ -.18 .21 -.34 -.18 .73 .28 .55 .69 .35 17 .13 -.20 ■ -.17 ■ -.03 .04 .26 .27 -.31 -.17 .34 .65 .54 .30 .48 18 ■ -.14 -.07 -.29 ■ -.11 • -.22 ■ -.03 .03 -.22 -.24 .38 .47 .88 .26 .02 15 16 17 .21 .36 .60 .28 .46 .47 Variables l-9=*First Initial Interview* Variables 10-18=Second Initial Interview* Variables 1-3 and 10-12=Humanistic Scale* Variables 4-6 and 13-15-Behavloristic Scale* Variables 7-9 and l6-l8=sEffectiveness Scale* Variables 1, 4, 7» 10* 13» and l6=*Judge I* Variables 2, 5t 8, 11, 14, and 17=*Judge II* Variables 3» 6, 9» 12, 151 and l8=Judge III 112 by three separate criterion groups. In only one case, when the counselees* scores on the Counseling Evaluation Inventory were used as the criterion did the results even approach statistical significance. However, even in this case p^.05, the previously determined acceptable level of significance. In every other case, the H statistic did not approach significance. Therefore, it seems safe to conclude that when a counselor perceives himself as con sistent with a behavioristic or humanistic philosophy of counseling he is not viewed by counselees, observers, or independent judges as any more effective than the counselor who perceives himself as philosophically Inconsistent, So far the data have been analyzed only in terns of the manner in which the counselor perceives his own philosophical consistency. But questions could also be asked concerning the manner in which others perceive the counselor*s philosophy of counseling. If an "other" — in this study a counselee, observer, or Independent judge — perceives a counselor's beliefs as consistent philosophi cally, regardless of the kind of philosophy, does that "other" also peroeive the counselor as being more effective than a counselor who is perceived as inconsistent philosophically? The next analysis of the data will attempt to answer that general question. Again, each of the three criterion groups will be used to test Hypothesis I, this time from their perceptions of the counselors' consistency. The dependent variable once more is the measure of effectiveness, either the Counseling Evaluation Inventory or the Effectiveness Eating Scale, The counselees* perception of their coun selors’ philosophical consistency Is determined by the Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form. Since,.' each counselor had a different number of counselees, a composite average was determined on each of the scales, behavioristic and humanistic, Then both scales were ranked in order and the median determined for each. Because each counselee saw only one counselor, it was felt that the final thirty average scores on each scale could be ranked together, If a coun selor's composite score were above the median on the humanistic scale and at or below the median on the behavior istic scale, he was classified as humanistic in the percep tions of his counselees. If the counselor trainee's score on the behavioristic scale were above the median and his score on the humanistic scale were at or below the median, he was classified as behavioristic in the perceptions of his counselees. Counselors with all other combinations of composite average scores were classified as inconsistent. Using the Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale for the observers' perceptions of the counselors, the same approach was taken with one exception. Since the pairs of observers only worked with either eight or six of the same counselor trainees throughout the academic year, the 11^ average scores were ranked for each seminar group. The same procedure of classifying above and below the median was maintained. In addition, out of curiosity more than anything else, the average composite scores were ranked for the thirty counselors together to determine whether such a ranking would result in different conclusions. Which procedure was followed, however, is clearly indicated In the discussion of the results. The independent judges also completed the Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale. In addition, they had contact through the typescripts with all thirty of the counselor trainees. Therefore, the classification of average scores was made on the basis of all thirty scores. When comparing the amount of correlation between the counselees' perceptions of counselors' consistency and effectiveness the H statistic was .63 (N. S.). The observers' perceptions of counselors* consistency were classified In two ways, first by seminar group and second by the total group of thirty counselor trainees. In neither case were the results significant. Finally, the Judges' perceptions of counselors' consistency and effectiveness were computed with a resulting H. statistic of ,83 (N. S.). Results of the statistical hypotheses to test Hypothesis I are summarized in Table V. Because this research Is exploratory in nature, probabilities are listed 115 for those criterion measures which may warrant further research. However, none of the H statistics approached the acceptable level of statistical significance for this study. Therefore, the first hypothesis is quite firmly accepted. In terms of the counselor's own perception of his philosophical consistency, there appears to be no difference in effectiveness between the consistent or Inconsistent counselor as defined by the limits of this study. Type of Philosophical Consistency So far the discussion has been concerned with an analysis of the data to test Hypothesis I, The next step is to test the second hypothesis. Are counselors philoso phically consistent with behavioristic theories more effective than counselors philosophically consistent with humanistic theories? In other words, does the type of philosophy a counselor adheres to make a difference in terms of his effectiveness? Specifically, Hypothesis II states* There will be no difference in effectiveness among the highly consistent counselor trainees regardless of their philosophy of counseling. Again the data were treated in the same manner. The first analysis involved the counselors* own perception of his philosophical consistency, whether he views himself as a behavior1st or a humanist or whether he views himself as 116 TABLE V SUMMARY OP KRUSKAL-WALLIS DATA FOR HYPOTHESIS It COMPARING COUNSELORS1 PHILOSOPHICAL CONSISTENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS Counselors' Perceptions of Consistency Criterion Group H p Counselees 2.95 e=j.lO Observers 1.86 -*sf;20 Judges 2.01 «==r:20 Others' Perceptions of Consistency Criterion Group H p Counselees .63 N. S. Observers 0.00 N. S. (Classified by Seminar Group) Observers .0^ N. S, (Classified by Total Group) Judges .83 N. S. 117 inconsistent in philosophical approach. These three variables, behavioristic, humanistic, and inconsistent, were compared to the dependent variable, effectiveness. Again, the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance was the statistical technique used to test Hypothesis II, In addition, the Mann-Whitney U was employed to further compare the behavioristic and humanistic classifications. Taking into consideration the counselors' self perception of their philosophical consistency, the results for the counselees1 criterion group was H = 3*38 (pi>.20). The observers' H was 2.11 (pjs.*50). Finally, the judges' H was 2.90 (p>-.30). Therefore, when the independent variable under consideration is the counselor's own perception of his philosophical consistency, Hypothesis II Is accepted. In other words, whether the counselor views himself as behavioristic, humanistic, or inconsistent in philosophy of counseling, not one of the three criterion groups, counselees, observers, or Independent judges, distinguished between the counselors in terms of effectiveness. The counselor's own philosophical bent seems unimportant to individuals evaluating that counselor's effectiveness. However, what If the evaluators perceive the counselor's philosophical stance in one manner or another? Does that perception make a difference in the effectiveness of the counselor? For example, If a counselee viewed his 118 counselor as humanistic , would he also view his counselor as more effective than the counselee who viewed his counselor as behavioristic? These are the sorts of ques tions the data were next analyzed to answer. Hypothesis II, then, was tested in terms of the evaluators' perceptions of the philosophical consistency of the counselor. First of all, the same procedures were used for analyzing the data that were used in the preceding sections. The results of the CABF and CBAS have already been classi fied into three categories, behavioristic, humanistic, and inconsistent. This Independent variable, the counselees*, observers', and judges' perceptions of the counselors' philosophical theory, was compared to the same three criterion groups' opinions of the counselors' effectiveness. All of the H statistics to test Hypothesis II are summar ized in Table VI, The counselees' H statistic was 2.09 (p^=-.50) and the judges' H was 3*33 (p-c.20). However, the third cri terion group, the observers, consisting of professors and counseling supervisors, presents a different story. When the data are classified according to the observers* perception of the counselors' philosophy, there appears to be a relationship between that philosophy and the dependent variable, effectiveness. The observers saw the counselor they viewed as humanistic as much more effective than the 119 TABLE VI SUMMARY OF KRUSKAL-WALLIS DATA FOR HYPOTHESIS II* COMPARING PHILOSOPHICAL TYPE AND EFFECTIVENESS Counselors' Perceptions of Philosophical Type Criterion Group H p Counselees 3,38 ^.20 Observers 2,11 J>-.50 Judges 2.90 J>.30 Others' Perceptions of Counselors' Philosophical Type Criterion Group H p Counselees 2*09 I>%50 Observers 7.99 *<c*02 (Classified by Seminar Group) Observers 8.37 ■=df.02 (Classified by Total Group) Judges 3*33 .20 120 counselor they viewed as behavioristic. In fact, for the observers a counselor who was viewed as inconsistent in philosophy was even more effective than one who was viewed as consistently behavioristic. The observers' average scores for each counselor on the CBAS were classified in two ways. First, they were classified, ranked, and the median determined for each seminar group. The E for this classification was 7.99 (p<^.02)• Then the composite average on the CBAS was ranked for all thirty counselor trainees and the median determined for this ranking. In this manner, the H was 8.37 (p«=c..Q2). Using the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks, the only statistically significant figures are the two involving the observers' perceptions of the counselors' philosophical beliefs. When the observers thought the counselor was reflecting humanistic theories, he was viewed as effective* when the observers thought the counselor was reflecting behavioristic theories, he was viewed as ineffective. As an added refinement, the next statistical measure used to test Hypothesis II was the Mann-Whitney U (117)■ In this approach, the average effectiveness scores for each counselor in the behavioristic and humanistic classifications were ranked together. The results are summarized in Table VII. With the self-perception of the counselors as the 121 independent variable, the U for the counselees1 criterion group was 20 (p;=>,66) \ for observers, the U was 21 ( p > ,7^)* and for judges, the U was 16 (pi=»,62). Again, not one of the U approaches statistical significance. Next the criterion groups' perceptions of the counselors' philosophies were analyzed. The U for the counselee group was 22 (p->*32) and the judges' was ^ (p^>.,09). Although the latter U approaches significance, the five per cent level had been determined as acceptable for this study. Then the observers' perceptions were analyzed with the Mann-Whitney U. When the scores were ranked by the total thirty, U was 22.5 (p<Ti02) and when the scores were ranked by the seminar group, U was 21.5 (p<.02). Once more, the observers' perception of the counselors' philosophical theory made a significant difference in whether the observers saw the counselors as effective or ineffective. In summary, Hypothesis II is accepted for all three criterion groups when the independent variable under consideration is the counselors' perception of their philosophy. In that situation, there is no difference in effectiveness among the highly consistent counselor trainees regardless of their philosophy of counseling. However, when the independent variable under consideration is someone else's perception of the counselors' philosophy, another story develops. For two of the three criterion groups, the counselees and the independent judges, 122 TABLE VII SUMMARY OF MANN-WHITNEY U DATA* COMPARING EFFECTIVENESS OF BEHAVIORISTIC AND HUMANISTIC COUNSELORS Counselors1 Perceptions of Philosophical Type Criterion Group U p Counselees 20 .66 Observers 21 2^ .7^ Judges 16 '2b*. .62 Others’ Perceptions of Counselors' Philosophical Type Criterion Group U Counselees 22 ^.32 Observers 21.5 -*=d.02 (Classified by Seminar Group) Observers 22.5 <2^02 (Classified by Total Group) Judges 4 * ^ ,09 123 Hypothesis II is accepted. For the third criterion group, the professors and counseling supervisors, the hypothesis is rejected. To this group, the counselors' philosophy, as the observers viewed it, did make a difference. When the counselor was viewed as consistently humanistic in philosophy, he was also viewed as effective by the ob servers! when he was viewed as behavioristic, he was viewed as ineffective. In addition, when a counselor was viewed by the observers as inconsistent, he was still seen as more effective than one they viewed as behavioristic. Congruency The final questions to be answered by this study involve congruency between two sets of perceptions, the counselors and each of the three criterion groups. If a counselor views himself as behavioristic in philosophy and the judges view him as behavioristic, is that counselor also then seen by the judges as more effective than the counselor who is Inconsistent in philosophy? Is the counselor who states his beliefs as humanistic and is seen to act congruently with humanistic beliefs by the observers seen as more effective than one who states his views as humanistic but is seen to act incongruently with humanistic beliefs? In other words, what is the relationship between the congruency of a counselor's actions with his beliefs and his effectiveness as a counselor? Specifically, XZH- Hypothesis III states* There will he no difference in effectiveness among counselor trainees with high congruency and low congruency between their philosophy of counseling and their actions in counseling* For whatever reason, whether there really were only a few counselors who saw themselves In the same manner as the criterion groups viewed them or whether the instruments were too insensitive to distinguish differences, there simply were not many counselors who saw themselves as humanistic or behavioristic who were also viewed as humanistic or behavioristic by any of the three criterion groups. Chi square was determined for each of the three criterion groups* A composite average score for each counselor trainee was used with the independent variable, congruence, and dependent variable, effectiveness. The average score was obtained from the Instruments previously described and in the manner previously described, Chi square for the counselse criterion group was ,16 (p<r»70)i for the observers, ,^8 (p<-,50){ and for the judges, ,if-8 (p-sr*50). Even when classifying the observers1 scores over all thirty counselors, chi square was ,^8, Not one of the statistics approaches significance. On the basis of the evidence and within the limit ations of this study, Hypothesis III is accepted. There is 125 no difference in effectiveness 'between counselor trainees who exhibit high congruency or low congruency between their philosophy of counseling and their actions in counseling. In summary, all three null hypotheses can be accepted with one exception. There is no difference in effectiveness among consistent and inconsistent counselors, among counselors who are philosophically consistent behavioristically or humanistically, or among counselors who exhibit congruence between their actions and beliefs. The lack of difference in effectiveness is discovered whether one analyzes the data from the perceptions of the counselors or the perceptions of the criterion groups. The one exception involves the observers. For this criterion group, Hypothesis II must be rejected when the data are analyzed according to the criterion groups perception of the counselor's consistency. The observers saw the counselor trainee who was consistent with humanistic philosophy as more effective than the counselor trainee who was consistent with behavioristic philosophy. For the observers, even the counselor viewed as philosophically inconsistent was seen as more effective than the counselor viewed as philosophically consistent with behavioristic principles. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The main purpose of this study was to explore the relationships between philosophical concepts and congruent behavior in counseling with effectiveness In counseling as determined by counselees, observers, and Independent judges* To accomplish this purpose, the subjects of the study were thirty members of an academic year NDEA Insti tute, Their philosophical concepts were measured and the effectiveness of the trainees was determined by the three criterion groups. In addition, each group determined the philosophical actions and beliefs of the counselor trainees as seen from the others' perspective, the perspective of the counselees, the observers, and the Independent judges. The hypotheses tested revolved around attempts to answer several questions. If a counselor viewed himself as consistent in philosophical concepts, was he viewed as more effective than a counselor who viewed himself as Inconsistent In philosophical con cepts? If a counselor were viewed by some other group as consistent In philosophical concepts, was he also viewed by that group as more effective than a counselor that group viewed as inconsistent in philosophical concepts? 126 If a counselor viewed himself as consistent with one type of philosophical theory, was he viewed by others as more effective than a counselor who viewed himself as consistent with another type of philosophical theory or one who viewed himself as inconsistent In philosophy? If a counselor were viewed by another group as consistent with a particular type of philosophy, did that group also view that counselor as more effective than a counselor whom they viewed as consistent with another type of philosophical theory or a counselor whom they viewed as inconsistent with either types of philosophical theory? And finally, If a counselor considered himself consistent with a type of philosophical theory and was viewed by another group as consistent with the same type of philosophical theory — in other words, a congruent counselor — was that counselor seen as more effective than an incongruent counselor? To examine these questions, three main hypotheses were formed and analyzed statistically. I. There will be no difference in effectiveness among Inconsistent and highly consistent counselor trainees regardless of their philosophy of counseling. II. There will be no difference in effectiveness among the highly consistent counselor trainees regardless of their philosophy of counseling. III. There will be no difference in effectiveness 128 among counselor trainees with high congruency and low congruency between their philosophy of counseling and their actions In counseling. Findings On the basis of the statistical analysis the following findings were reported relating to the three null hypotheses. 1. When the self-perception of the counselor is considered, there is no difference in effectiveness between the philosophically consistent and inconsistent counselor according to any of the three criterion groups. 2. When the perception by smother group, the counselees, observers, or independent judges, Is considered, there is no difference in effectiveness between the philo sophically consistent and inconsistent counselor according to any of the three criterion groups. 3. When the self-perception of the counselor is considered, there is no difference in effectiveness among the counselor philosophically consistent with behaviorism, the counselor philosophically consistent with humanism, and the counselor philosophically Inconsistent with both philosophies according to any of the three criterion groups. Jf. When the perception by another group Is con sidered, there is no difference in effectiveness among the 129 counselor philosophically consistent with behaviorism, the counselor philosophically consistent with humanism, and the counselor inconsistent with both philosophies according to two of the three criterion groups, the counselees and the independent judges. 5. Their perception of the counselors philosophy made a definite difference in effectiveness to the observers, professors and counseling supervisors. This criterion group saw the counselor they viewed as humanistic not only more effective than the counselor they viewed as behavioristic but they also saw the counselor they viewed as philosophically inconsistent as more effective than the counselor they viewed as behavioristic* 6. The congruent counselor was not seen as more effective than the incongruent counselor by any of the three criterion groups. As a result of the findings, all three of the null hypotheses were accepted with one exception. Hypotheses II was rejected when the independent variable was the observers* perception of the counselors* actions and beliefs and the dependent variable was the observers* measure of effectiveness. On the other hand, Hypothesis II was accepted for the other two criterion groups under the same circumstances. It was also accepted when the Independent variable was the counselors* own perception of their con sistency with one type or another of counseling philosophy. Limitations 130 Before discussing the Implications of these findings, it might be wise to emphasize some of the llmi- •4 i tations of the study. First of all, the subjects are not necessarily typical of all counselor trainees. In fact, since they were members of a NDEA Guidance and Counseling Institute, the counselor trainees quite likely were atypical of counselor trainees in general. In addition, the observers represented only eight individuals in counselor education and perhaps they are not typical of all counselor educators throughout the country. They can only be considered typical of the counselor education department at one university. There were one hundred and six counselees included and three independent judges. Each of these individuals was perhaps representative of himself and no one else. No attempt was made to use a stratified sample of counselees who came to the Counseling Center. Instead every counselee who came and filled out the forms upon completion of counseling was included in the study. The very fact that the counselees came to an "outside agency" rather than going to a counselor at their own school probably makes them "different" than the typical counselee in a high school or college. In other words, the general!zability of the results is very limited. 131 The second main limitation of the study involves the Instruments. With the exception of the Counseling Evaluation Inventory, all of the instruments were devised for this study. Perhaps insufficient reliability and validity data are presently available to make sound Inter pretations from the results. In addition, perhaps the Instruments are not sensitive enough to distinguish between "real" differences. The major limitations of the Instruments involve their design. Each one was designed for a particular group: the Philosophical Concept Inventory for the counselor trainees* the Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form for the counselees* and the Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale and Effectiveness Bating Scale for the observers and independent judges. The purpose of this approach was to make each of the instruments applicable to the frame of reference of each group. Even though precautions were taken all along the path to make sure that a change in wording did not result . in a change In meaning, such changes may have occurivd, in other words, the Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form may not in reality measure the same concepts that the Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale does. And neither of those instru ments may measure the same concepts that the Philosophical Concept Inventory does. Bather than simply changing the wording of the concepts so that wording would be applicable to a particular group, the Instruments may actually measure different concepts. The third main limitation of the study involves the experimental design in theory and in actual practice. When designed, the study called for many more observations than actually occurred. As a result, the average scores used for each counselor were composed of a large variety of combin ations. Would more observations simply have compounded the findings? Or would more observations have resulted in different findings? The same two questions could be asked about the number of counselees used as one criterion group. If each counselor had seen more counselees and his average score been based on an equal number of counselees, would the results have been different? Those questions will have to be answered by further research. Implications . After taking into consideration the limitations Just discussed, there remain several implications from this study. One involves the determiner of effectiveness. Table VIII presents the correlations of the three criterion groups used In this study. Certainly many things could be said to explain the low correlations among the three groups. The counselees filled out a different form than the observers and Judges did. Each of the groups knew the counselor trainees from a different perspective i the counselees 133 from Interacting with the counselors in counseling inter views* the observers from watching interviews through a one-way mirror as well as interacting with the counselor trainees in other situations and. In other roles throughout the academic year* and the judges through typescripts of initial Interviews. Even after explaining the reasons for each group*s different interpretation of effectiveness, however, several nagging thoughts remain. Most of these queries Involve who should determine what is considered "effective" in counseling. For example, should the counselees, the ones who are the beneficiaries, the ones served by counseling, be the individuals who can best determine what type of counseling is effective or most helpful? Should professors and counseling supervisors, who frequently are involved In counseling theory rather than counseling practice, be the ones to determine what Is effective counseling? Or should some "independent" group, people who do not become Involved with the counselors as individuals and work with them on a day-to-day basis but rather see the counselors in some "objective" manner such as type scripts, be the ones to determine what is effective counseling, and thereby, who are effective counselors? The manner in which an individual answers the preceding questions is quite likely determined by his own individual philosophy of counseling. In a manner of 13^ TABLE VIII CORRELATIONS OP THREE CRITERION GROUPS FOR EFFECTIVENESS Counselees 1 Observers 2 .02 Judges 3 .38 -.06 Variables Mean S.E. S.D 1 91.6 .8 ^.5 2 20.0 .5 2.5 3 17.6 2.1 135 speaking, then, this study has come full circle. After attempting to answer some philosophical questions, the study has posed more philosophical questions. The next area of implications has to do with the observers and their opinion of effectiveness. When the observers viewed the counselor trainees as behavioristic, these trainees were also viewed by the observers as ineffective. However, the counselor trainees did not necessarily view themselves as behavioristically oriented. Who then is in the better position to determine an individuals philosophy, that individual or another person? Because there was little relationship between the counselors* view of their philosophy and others* perceptions, that same question could be asked concerning the other two criterion groups. The answer may partially involve the instruments used and whether they in fact measured the same variables. In addition, Just as with the question concerning the determiner of effectiveness, part of the answer is dependent upon the philosophy of the individual who is answering the question. Again, this study raises more philosophical issues. However, there Is another implication suggested by the fact that when the observers viewed the counselor trainees as behavioristic, these trainees were also viewed by the observers as ineffective. Were these counselors 136 actually behavioristic and the observers as professionals Involved in counselor education in a better position to determine that the counselors were in fact behaviorls- tically oriented although the counselors did not view them selves in that manner? Or did the observers in a manner of speaking equate humanism with effectiveness and behaviorism with ineffectiveness? Part of the answer may again be found in the Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale, Because so few items contribute to the total scores on the scales, the instrument itself may not have discriminating powers. Yet the independent judges responded to the same instrument and similar interactions did not occur. Perhaps for the observers the words used to des cribe behavioristic actions are so emotionally laden with negative concepts that the items on the scale are difficult to accept. At the same time the words used to describe humanistic actions may be so emotionally laden with positive concepts that the items are difficult to reject. In other words, the observers1 value system may include an ' ’ideal” counselor that more closely resembles one who performs in a manner described by the items contributing to the human istic scale on the Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale. The question of counselor educators' philosophy regarding effective counseling and its implications for training of counselors also deserves further exploration. 137 Another implication involves the place of congruity in counseling theory. The results of this study imply that the important thing is not whether the counselor views his beliefs as consistent with a philosophy and attempts to make his actions congruent with his beliefs but rather whether his beliefs are perceived by one particular cri terion group, the observers, as congruent with his actions. To the other two criterion groups, the counselees and the judges, neither their perceptions nor the counselors' perceptions of the counselors* consistency seemed to make any difference in whether these two criterion groups viewed the counselors as effective. On the one hand, further research could be conducted to develop more sensitive instruments to determine whether congruency is really as unimportant as this study indicates it is. On the other hand, perhaps there is a need for further thought on the part of theorists involving the whole question of congruency. Perhaps the concept of congruency is not important to anyone other than counselor educators. Perhaps the other two criterion groups, especially the counselees, did not see the value of congruency due to lack of knowledge or exposure to that concept. At the same time, counselor educators are the ones who will be determining which future counselors will be viewed as effective. Maybe what counselor educators are really 138 proposing Is that oongruency is "good" If that congruency involves humanistic principles but "bad" if It involves behavioristic principles. If that Is the case, congruency Is a first step toward distinguishing between types of counselors and not a final step in itself. Another Implication of the findings from this study involves some speculation to say the least. If counselor educators do in fact agree that the most effective counselors are those that are congruent with humanistic beliefs and actions, what is the best manner for these same counselor educators to perpetuate these beliefs? When one considers the preliminary work done by Truax (12*f), perhaps the best approach counselor educators can take is to use the behavioristic principles of reinforcement and condi tioning. In other words, after a counselor trainee has become truly congruent with humanistic philosophical beliefs and actions, he may have reached that apex by an application of behavioristic principles! With that rather bewildering and ironic thought, it seems appropriate to move on to recommendations for further experimentation. Becommendatlons As a result of the findings of this particular study, several recommendations are made for further study and examination. First of all, the instruments developed for 139 this experiment need further development. A factorari'alysis of the items may answer some of the questions revolving around whether the instruments really do measure what they purport to measure. If the instruments are not as sensitive as they should be, further development of them should heighten their sensitivity. Hopefully, the next experimental design would involve more subjects. A larger sampling of individuals would make it possible to use more refined statistical procedures and also to cast further light on the question of whether obtained differences are actual differences or simply differences in the type of instruments. Along the same lines, it is hoped that the next study would involve only those individuals who are committed to the idea of research and willingly participate in the research. Less time and energy would be devoted to the "mechanics" of the research, getting the forms filled out, and more time and energy could be released for more important problems. In other words, if the study Is ever duplicated, there should be more control over the day-by-day workings of the study. As a result of the findings of this study, two recommendations are made to counseling theorists for further examination. First of all, some thought should be devoted to the question of who does determine what Is an effective counselor and who should determine what is an effective 1^0 counselor. The answer to both questions may be the same but presently there Is not an answer to either question. Secondly, counseling theorists should devote some time to the implications of semantic problems in describing philosophical assumptions. Do the words used tend to equate humanism with effectiveness? The meaning of such an equation for the field of counseling and counselor education is beyond the realm of this study but certainly deserves further exploration. Another recommendation involves the question of congruency. After pointing out that the instruments may not be sensitive and that each of the groups was viewing the counselors' actions from a different perspective, there is still the possibility that congruency between beliefs and actions is not as Important as counseling theorists and educators presently tend to purport. Perhaps the Important thing is whether the beliefs and actions are perceived as congruent rather than whether they are In fact congruent. In this study, however, it made no difference to two of the three criterion groups, the counselees and independent judges, whether they even perceived the actions and beliefs of the counselors as consistent. Maybe — just maybe — congruency is not an important aspect of counseling effec tiveness after all. Instead maybe some other factor outside the realm of this study is the Important factor in l^X effectiveness. If that Is the case, such a factor will have to be discovered by some other study. The final recommendation involves the whole field of counseling philosophy. Again recognizing that the Instru ments used in this study may be insensitive to differences in philosophy, it still seems feasible that there may not be different philosophies of counseling. Perhaps there is an "umbrella" philosophy that incorporates principles from both extremes and all the variations along the way. At this point in time, it would seem appropriate for further explorations similar to those begun by Patterson (99). Truax's (124-) work certainly supports the possibility that theories may not be as far apart as presently thought. In conclusion, the relationships between philoso phical concepts and actions and effectiveness are still hazy. This rather exploratory study has perhaps resulted in more questions being asked than It has answered. How ever, the fact that there are more questions in itself may emphasize the importance of further examination into the question of a counselor*s philosophy, the internal consis tency of his philosophy, his congruency with his philosophy, and his effectiveness as a counselor. B I B L I O G R A P H Y BIBLIOGEAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10, Allen, Thomas W, "Effectiveness of Counselor Trainees as a Function of Psychological Openness," Journal of Counseling Psychology. No. 1 (196?)» 35-^0. Arbuckle, Dugald S. "Counselor, Social Worker, Psy chologist iLet's *Ecumenicalize,*" The Personnel and Guidance Journal. No. 6 (1967), 532-538* ________ . "Counseling: Philosophy or Science," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. No. 1 (I960T, 11-14. ________ . "Five Philosophical Issues in Counseling," Journal of Counseling Psychology. No. 3 (1958), 211-215. ________ • "Kinds of Counseling* Meaningful or Meaningless," Journal of Counseling Psychology. No. 3 (1967). 219-225. ________ • "The Self of the Counselor," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. No. 8 (1966), 807-812• Ard, Ben N. (Editor) Counseling and Psychotherapy. Classics on Theories and Issues. Palo Alto: Science and Behavior Books, Inc., 1966. Auerbach, A. H. and Ewing, J. H. "Some Limitations of Psychiatric Eating Scales: The Clinician*s Viewpoint," Comprehensive Psychiatry, No, 2 (1964), 93-100. Banning, James H, "The Bole of Counselor Values in the Seduction of Personal Disjunctions," Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 1965* Beck, Carlton E. (Editor) Guidelines for Guidance: Headings in the Philosophy of Guidance. Dubuque, Iowa* William C. Brown Company, 1966, 143 144 11. ____________ . Philosophical Foundations of Guidance. Englewood Cliffs, New Jerseyi Prentlce-Hall, Inc., 1963. 12. Bergin, Allen E. "Some Implications of Psychotherapy Research for Therapeutic Practice," Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Number 4 (1966), 235-246, 13. Blocher, Donald H. "Issues In Counsellngi Elusive and Illusional," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 8 I1965)* 796^800. 14. Browning, Robert L. and Peters, Herman J. "On the Philo sophical Neutrality of Counselors," Guidelines for Guidance* Readings in the Philosophy of Guidance. Edited by Carlton E. Beck. Dubuque, Iowa1 William C. Brown Company, 1966, 7-12. 15. Budd, W. C, "Is Free Will Really Necessary?" American Psychologist. Number 3 (i960), 217-218. 16. Byrne, Donn and London, Oliver. "Primacy-Recency and the Sequential Presentation of Attitudlnal Stimuli," Psychonomic Science. Number 4 (1966) 193-194. 17. Canon, Harry J. "Personality Variables and Counselor- Client Affect," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 1 (1954), 35-4(6, 18. Cappon, D, "Values and Value Judgment in Psychiatry," Psychiatric Quarterly. Number 3 (1966), 538-^4. 19. Cook, Thomas E, "The Influence of Client-Counselor Value Similarity on Change in Meaning During Brief Counseling," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 1 (1966), 77-81. 20. Cottingham, Harold F* "The Challenge of Authentic Behavior," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 4 (1955), 325-336. 21. Cribbin, James J. "A Critique of the Philosophy of Modern Guidance," Guidelines for Guidance1 Readings in the Philosophy of Guidance. Edited by Carlton E. Beck. Dubuque, Iowat William C. Brown Company, 1966, 143-157, 145 22. Cundick, Bert Pierson. "The Belation of Student and Counselor Expectations to Rated Counseling Satisfaction," Dissertation Abstracts. Number 8 (1963), 2983-2954^ 23* Curran, Charles A. "Some Ethical and Scientific Values in the Counseling Psychotherapeutic Process," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, Number 1 11960)7 15-20. 24. Curran, R. L., Gordon, X. J., and Doyle, J* P* "A Short Test of One's Educational Philosophy," Educational and Psychological Measurement. Number 2 ^19^1. 383-393. 25• Currier, Carol Beverly. "Patient-Therapist Relation ships and the Process of Psychotherapy," Dissertation Abstracts. Number 12 (1964), 5539-^0. 26. Dana, Richard Q. "An NDEA Counseling and Guidance Institute! Prediction, Performance, and Follow- up," Genetic Psychology Monographs, Number 2 (1965), 289-315. 27. Delaney, Daniel J. "Toward a Uniform Theory of Coun seling," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 3 U§66), 279-280. 28. Diab, Lufty N, "Some Limitations of Existing Scales in the Measurement of Social Attitudes," Psychological Reports. Number 2 (1965), 427-430". 29# Dleslng, Paul. "Objectivism Versus Subjectivism in the Social Sciences," Philosophy of Science. Number 1-2 {1966), 124-133. 30. Dilley, Josiah S. "Out-Thinking About Not-Words," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 5 Tl966), 460-463• 31. Dolllver, Robert H. "'Expressive* and 'Instrumental' as Conceptualizations of Counseling," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 4 (1965)» Tfl4-417. 32. Dreyfus, Edward A. "HumannesstA Therapeutic. Variable" The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 6 (09^7), 573-577. 146 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. Edwards, Allen L . Experimental Design in Psycho logical Research. New Yorki Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc,, 1964, Ehrlich, Danerta and Wiener, Daniel N. "The Measure ment of Values in Psychotherapeutic Settings," Journal of General Psychology. Number 2 (1961), 359-372. Ellsworth, Sterling G, "The Consistency of Counselor Feeling-Verbalization," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 4, (1963) 356-361. Farnsworth, Kirk E. "Application of Scaling Tech niques to the Evaluation of Counseling Outcomes" Psychological Bulletin, Number 2 (1966), 81-93. Farwell, Gail F. "The Role of the School Counselor," Guidelines for Guidance1 Readings In the Philosophy of Guidance. Edited by Carlton E. Beck, Dubuque, Iowat William C. Brown Com pany, 1966, 159-161. Feifel, Herman and Eells, Janet. "Patients and Thera pists Assess the Same Psychotherapy," Journal of Consulting Psychology. Number 4 (1963), 310-318. Ferguson, George A. Statistical Analysis in Psycho logy and Education. New Yorki McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1959• Ford, Donald H. and Urban, Hugh B. "Psychotherapy," Annual Review of Psychology. Volume 18 (1967), 333-372. Ford, Donald H, and Urban, Hugh B, Systems of Psycho therapy . A Comparative Study. New Yorki John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963. Franck, Isaac. "The Concept of Human Nature 1 A Philo sophical Analysis of the Concept of Human Nature in the Writings of G. W, Allport, S. E. Asch, Erich Fromm, A. H. Maslow, and C. R. Rogers," Dissertation Abstracts. Number 4-A (1966), 1079. Friedman, Lawrence. "The Significance of Determinism and Free Will," International Journal of Psycho analysis. Number 4 (1965)* 515-520. lk7 44, Gardner, G. Gail. "The Psychotherapeutic Relation ship," Psychological Bulletin, Number 6 (1964-) , 4-26-4-39. 4-5. Garrett, Henry E. Statistics in Psychology and Edu cation, New Yorki David McKay Co., Inc., 1958. 4-6, Gatch, Vera M, and Temerlin, Maurice K. "The Belief in ' Psychic Determinism and the Behavior of the Psychotherapist," Review of Existential Psycho logy and Psychiatry. Number 1 (1965), 16-33. 4-7. Geller, Marvin Herbert. "Client Expectations, Coun selor Role-Perception, and Outcome of Coun seling." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, California, 1965. 4-8, Golightly, Carole A. C. "The Reinforcement Properties of Attitude Similarlty-Dissimllarlty," Dissertation Abstracts. Number 2 (1965), ll6o. 4-9, Golightly, Cornelius. "Counseling, Culture, and Value," Guidelines for Guidance 1 Readings in the Philosophy of Guidance. Edited by Carlton E. Beck. Dubuque, Xowai William C. Brown Company, 1966, 316-323. 50. Gonyea, G, C, "The 1Ideal Therapeutic Relationship1 and Counseling Outcome," Journal of Clinical Psycho logy. Number 4-~ (1963) , 4-81-4-87. 51. Greenspoon, Joel, "Learning Theory Contributions to Psychotherapy," Psychotherapy! Theory. Research and Practice, Number 4- (1965)» 14-5-146. 52. Gross, William F. and DeRidder, Lawrence M, "Signi ficant Movement in Comparatively Short-term Counseling," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 1 (1966), 98-99. 53. Guilford, J. P. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education. New Yorki McGraw-HiXT Book Co., 1956. 54-, Hartley, Eugene and Schwartz, Shirley. "Self-Consis tency, Value Strength and Aesthetic Judgments," Psychological Reports. Number 2 (1966), 367-370. 148 55* Hartmann, W. "Comment on Budd, 1960," American Psychologist. Number 1 (1961), 37-38. 56. Hobbs, Nicholas, "Science and Ethical Behavior," Guidelines for Guidance! Readings In the Philo sophy of Guidance. Edited by Carlton E. Beck, Dubuque, Iowat William C. Brown Company, 1966, 261-273. 57. Holzman, Mathilda Sara. "The Significance of the Value Systems of Patient and Therapist for the Out come of Psychotherapy," Dissertation Abstracts. Number 11 (1962), 4073. 58. Horsman, Virginia G. "Critical Factors In Differen tiating Between Effective and Ineffective Counselors," Dissertation Abstracts, Number 2 (1965), 1170-1171. 59. Hunt, Clifford Mervyn. "A Philosophical Model for Counseling Systems." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Southern Cali fornia, Los Angeles, California, 1966. 60. Johnson, Dorothy, Shertzer, Bruce, Linden, J. E,, and Stone, S. C, "Relationship of Counselor Candi date Characteristics and Counseling Effec tiveness," Counselor Education and Supervision. Number 4 (1967), 297-30^ 61. Johnson, Ray W. "Number of Interviews, Diagnosis and Success of Counseling," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 3 (1965)» 248-251. 62. Jones, Vernon. "Attitude Changes in an N.D.E.A. Institute," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 4 (19537. 387-392. 63. Jourard, Sidney M, "Counseling for Authenticity," Guidelines for Guidance 1 Readings in the Philosophy of Guidance. Edited by Carlton E. Beck. Dubuque, Iowa* William C. Brown Company, 1966, 168-176. 64. Kelz, James W, "The Development and Evaluation of a Measure of Counselor Effectiveness," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 5 (1966) 511-5167 149 65. Klinger, M. Robert. "Moral Values Across Cultures," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 2 T1962) . “T39-143. 66. Kritzberg, Samuel F. "Conceptual Systems and Behavior Styles," Dissertation Abstracts. Number 10 (1966), 626W . 67. Krumboltz, John D, "Behavioral Goals for Counseling," Journal of Counseling Psychology, Number 2 (1966), 153-159. 68. Landfield, A. W. and Nawas, N. M, "Psychotherapeutic Improvement as a Function of Communication and Adoption of Therapist's values," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 4 (1964), 336-341. 69. Lazarus, Arnold A. "Behavior Rehearsal Versus Non directive Therapy Versus Advice In Effecting Behavior Change," Behavior Research and Therapy. Number 3 (1966), 209-212. 70. Linden, James D,, Stone, Shelley C., and Shertzer, Bruce. "Development and Evaluation of an Inven tory for Rating Counseling," The Personnel and Guidance Joumal. Number 3 (1965) * 267-276. 71. Lister, James L, "Counseling Experiencing! Its Implication for Supervision," Counselor Educa tion and Supervision. Number 2 (1966), 72. Lorr, Maurice, "Client Perception of Therapists! A Study of the Therapeutic Relation," Journal of Consulting Psychology. Number 2 (1965), 146-149. 73. Lynn, David B. "Personal Philosophies in Psycho therapy," Journal of Individual Psychology. Number 1 (1961), 49-51^ 74. Marmor, Judd, "Theories of Learning and the Psycho therapeutic Process," British Journal of Psychiatry, Number 485 (1966), 363-366. 75* Maslow, A. H. "Fusion of Facts and Values," American Journal of Psychoanalysis. Number 2 (1963), 117-131. 150 76. May, Hollo. "On the phenomenological Bases of Psycho therapy," Heview of. Existential Psychology and Psychiatry. Number!i(I964), 22-367 77. McClung, Philip T. "The Personalist View of Man and Its Implications for Religious Education," Dissertation Abstracts, Number 27 (1966), 533-683::------------------ 78. McGreevy, C. Patrick. “Factor Analysis of Measures Used in the Selection and Evaluation of Counselor Education Candidates," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 1 (1. 967) »5^-56. 79. McGuire, William J. "Attitudes and Opinions," Annual Review of Psychology. Number 17 (1966), 475-514. 80. McNair, Douglas M., Lorr, Maurice, and Callahan, Daniel M. "Patient and Therapist Influence on Quitting Psychotherapy.1 1 Journal of Consulting Psychology. Number 1 (1963), 10-17. 81. Mendelsohn, Gerald A. "Effects of Client Personality and Client-Counselor Similarity on the Duration of Counseling* A Replication and Extension," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 2 (1966), 228-236: 82. Mendelsohn, Gerald A. and Geller, Marvin H. "Effects of Counselor-Client Similarity on the outcome of Counseling," Journal of Counseling Psych ology. Number 1 (1983)• 71-77• 83. Mendelsohn; Gerald A. and Geller, Marvin E. "Structure of Client Attitudes Toward Counseling and Their Relation to Client-Counselor Similarity," Journal of Consulting Psychology, . Number 1 (196577 63-72. 84. Morris, Charles and Meek, Phyllis, "Comment," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 3(1966), 217-218. 85« Moscovlci, S. "Attitudes and Opinions," Annual Review of Psychology. Number 14 (1963), 231-260• 151 86. Mowrer, 0. Hobart. "Some Philosophical Problems in Mental Disorder and Its Treatment," Guide lines for Guidancei Readings In the Philosophy of Guidance. Edited by Carlton E. Beck. Dubuque, Iowat William C. Brown Company, 1966, 132-143, 87* « "Science, Sex, and Values," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 8 (1964), 7^-752. 88. Nash, Paul. "Some Notes Toward a Philosophy of School Counseling," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 3 (1964)7 2^3-2^8. 89. Nawas, M. Mike and Landfield, A. W. "Improvement in Psychotherapy and Adoption of the Therapist's Meaning System," Psychological Reports, Number 1 (1963)» 97-98. 90. O'Connell, Walter E, "Humanizing Versus Dehumanizing in Somatotherapy and Psychotherapy.1 1 Journal of Individual Psychology. Number 1 (1966), 4-9-55. 91. Onstead, Gwendolyn. "The Influences of Constructs and Beliefs on Choices of Operational Procedures In Psychotherapy." Unpublished Ph.D. Disser tation, Colorado State College, Greeley, Colorado, 1966. 92. Opler, Charlotte. "Existentialist Counseling and Therapy1 Social Perspective," International Journal of Social Psychiatry. Number 4 (I966) 261-272. 93. Ourth, Lester Lynn. "The Relationship of Similarity In Therapist Client Pairs to Clients Stay and Improvement in Psychotherapy," Dissertation Abstracts. Number 9 (1964) 3839-384-0. 94. Ourth, Lynn and Landfield, Alvin W. "Interpersonal Heanlngfulness and Nature of Termination in Psychotherapy," Journal of Counseling Psycho logy. Number 4 C1965)> 3^5-371, 95. Patterson, C. H. "Counseling," Annual Review of Psychology. Number 17 (1966), 79-110* 152 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. __________ . "Counseling as a Relationship," Guide lines for Guidance: Readings in the Philosophy ■ - of Guidance. Edited by Carlton E. Beck. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Company, 1966, 113-119. . "Effects of Counselor Education on Personality," Journal of Counseling Psychology, Number 5 (196?)7™WP44'B7 __________ . "The Place of Values in Counseling and Psychotherapy," Journal of Counseling Psycho logy, Number 3 (1958), 216-223. __________ . Theories of Counseling and Psycho therapy . New York: Harper and Row, I966. Pentony, P. "Value Change in Psychotherapy," Human Relations, Number 1 (1966), 39-46. Pittel, Stephen M. and Mendelsohn, Gerald. "Measure ment of Moral Values: A Review and Critique," Psychological Bulletin. Number 1 (I966), 22-35. Pohlman, Edward. "Counseling Without Assuming Free Will," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number TT1966), 212-215. Rapoport, Anatol. Operational Philosophy:.Into*-. grating Knowledge and Action. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1953. Reiss, Bernard F. and Brandt, Lewis, "What Happens to Applicants for Psychotherapy?," Community Mental Health Journal. Number 2 (1965), 175-lSo, Riewald, Arthur George, "The Relationship of Coun selor's Tolerance Ambiguity to Counselor Behavior in the Counseling Interview: A Pilot Study," Dissertation Abstracts, Number 11 (1965), 6768-6769. Rinn, John L. "Structure of Phenomenal Domains," Psychological Review. Number 6 (1965), 445-466. 153 107* Robb, J, Wesley, "Self-Discovery and the Bole of the Counselor," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 10 (1967), 1008-1011. 108* Rochester, Dean E, "Persistence of Attitudes and Values of NDEA Counselor Trainees," Journal of Counseling Psychology, Number 6 (1967), 5^-537. 109* Rogers, Carl R, and Skinner, B. F« "Some Issues Con cerning the Control of Human Behavior," Science. Number 3231 (1956), 1057-1066, 110. Rokeach, Hilton* "Attitude Change and Behavioral Change," Public Opinion Quarterly. Number 4 (1966-1967), 529^5SoI 111. Rosen, Julius. "Multiple-Regression Analysis of Counselor Characteristics and Competencies," Psychological Reports. Number 3 {1967), 1003-1008. 112. Samler, Joseph. "An Examination of Client Strength and Counselor Responsibility," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 1 (1962),*3-11, 113. Schmidt, Lyle and Peplnsky, Harold, "Counseling Re search in 1963,H Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 4 (1965),418-427. 114. Schoch, Jacqueline L. "The Development of an Instru ment to Measure Some Attitudes Related to Counseling Effectiveness," Dissertation Ab stracts. Number 27 (1966), 712-713. 115. Schumacher, Ray M. "Rating of Competence of Coun selors and Psychotherapists," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 5 (1967), 446-443. 116. Severinsen, K. Norman, "Client Expectation and Percep tion of the Counselors Role and Their Rela tionship to Client Satisfaction," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 1 (I966J, 169-II2. 117. Siegel, Sidney. Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. New York* McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1956. 154 118. Stefflre, B. (Editor) Theories of Counseling. New Yorki McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1965• 119* Steffire, B., King, P., and Leafgren, P. "Charac teristics of Counselors Judged Effective by Their Peers," Journal of Counseling Psycho logy. Nunber 4"Tl962), 335-340. 120. Stcler, Norton. "Client Likabilityi A Variable In the Study of Psychotherapy," Journal of Con sulting Psychology. Number 2 (1963), 175-178• 121. Strickland, Ben. "Kierkegaard and Counseling for Individuality," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, Number 5 (1966), 470-474. 122. Thome, Frederick C. "Critique of Recent Developments in Personality Counseling Theory," Counseling and Psychotherapy Classics on Theories and Issues. Edited by Ben N. Ard. Palo Altoi Science and Behavior Books, Inc-., 1966, 13-31* Topetzes, Nick J. "The Secondary School Counselor and His Role," Guidelines for Guidance! Readings in the Philosophy of Guidance. Edited by Carlton E. Beck. Dubuque, lowai William C. Brown Company, 1966, 205-218, Truax, Charles B. "Some Implications of Behavior Therapy for Psychotherapy," Journal of Coun seling Psychology. Number 2 (1966)"7 lS0-170. 123* 124. 125* 126. 127. _______ , "A Tentative Scale for the Measurement of Therapist Genuineness or Self-Congruence," Discussion Papers. Wisconsin Psychiatric Institute, The University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, October, 1962. Truax, Charles B. and Carkhuff, Robert R. "Client and Therapist Transparency in the Psychothera peutic Encounter," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number lTl9^5) . 3-9* Truax, Charles B. and Carkhuff, Robert R. "Concrete ness t A Neglected Variable In Research in Psychotherapy," Journal of Clinical Psycho logy. Number 2 (1964), 2W - 267, 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 13**. 135. 136. 137. 138. 155 Truax, Charles B. and Carkhuff, Robert R. Toward Effective Counseling and Psychotherapyi Training and Practice. Chicago* Aldine Publishing Company, 1967* Vance, Barbara. "The Counselor — An Agent of What Change?," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, Number 10 (1967). 1012-1OlS. van der Veen, Ferdinand, "Effects of the Therapist and the Patient on Each Other*s Therapeutic Behavior," Journal of Consulting Psychology. Number 1 (1965)* 19-26. Vordenberg, Wesley. "The Impact of Personal Philo sophies on Counseling," The Personnel and Guidance Journal. Number 7 (1953)» 439-440. Walters, Orville S. "Metaphysics, Religion and Psycho therapy," Journal of Counseling Psychology. Number 4 (1958)., 2^5-252. Williamson, E. G. "Value Options and the Counseling Relationship," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, Number 6 (1966), 617-623. . "Value Orientation in Counseling," The Personnel and Guidance Journal, Number 8 ( 19581.^20- 52^ Winer, B. J. Statistical Principles In Experimental Design. New York* McGraw-Hill Book Company, 19627 Wolfensberger, Wolf. "Comment on Budd, i960," American Psychologist. Number 1 (1961), 36-37* Wright, Paul H. "Attitude Change Under Direct and Indirect Interpersonal Influence," Human Relations. Number 2 (1966), 199-211. Zax, M. and Klein, A. "Measurement of Personality and Behavior Changes Following Psychotherapy," Psychological Bulletin, Number 5 (I960), ^35_ * + a j . 8. APPENDICES APPENDIX A TYPICAL DIRECTIONS TO JUDGES FOR CONTENT VALIDITY Below are several Items reflecting philosophical viewpoints of counseling. Some of the items refer to the nature of man» some to the goals of the counseling process, such as who does what and who is responsible for what. There are three categories. The first, behavior istic philosophies, refers to those Items reflecting an objective reality Independent of the knower. Here actions are learned, can be modified, and can also be directly observed and described. The second category, humanistic philosophies, refers to those items with an emphasis on Introspection, subjective experiences, and the self. Here Inner experiencing Is Important. The third category, other, refers to any item that does not quite fit into the preceding categories. Please feel free to add any expla nation to items in this column, such as the name of the theorist it describes. In addition, there is space between items for any comments or clarifications you may wish to make about the statements themselves. 157 APPENDIX B DIRECTIONS TO JUDGES FOR PHILOSOPHICAL CONTENT VALIDITY OF COUNSELING EVALUATION INVENTORY Below are several statements for counselees to respond to in an attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of their counseling. I need to know which items reflect which philosophical framework. There are four possibilities to check. The first column refers to "behavioristic philosophies. These would reflect an objective reality independent of the knower. Here actions are learned, can be modified, and can also be directly observed and described. The second refers to humanistic philosophies. These would refer to those Items with an emphasis on introspection, subjective experiences, and the self. Inner experiencing is important. If the items could fit Into either philosophical framework equally, place a check in the third column, Both. If, however, the item does not reflect either of the philosophical frame works, place a check in the fourth column, Neither. 158 APPENDIX C TYPICAL COVEH LETTER TO MAIL SAMPLES FOE PHILOSOPHICAL CONCEPT INVENTORY HI, I am appealing to you for help on a study I am running. One of the instruments I am using for my dissertation is one that I have developed. Although there are preliminary data available concerning reliability, the time span is not as long as the one I will actually be using In the study. Therefore, I am requesting the help of people who have oompleted training in guidance and counseling to determine If differences do indeed occur. Enclosed are a form and an answer sheet for you to respond to. Generally it has not taken people longer than 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire. After you have taken the instrument, please put both the form and the answer sheet in the enclosed self-addressed envelope. A few months from now I will be sending you another form to respond to. If it is not possible for you to complete the questionnaire, simply return the form and answer sheet to me. I certainly recognize that each of you has a very busy schedule and that I am imposing upon your time. May I take this opportunity to express appreciation for any help you might give me. Sincerely, 159 APPENDIX D PHILOSOPHICAL CONCEPT INVENTORY DIRECTIONS* On the pages following are several statements reflecting viewpoints of counseling. Some of the items refer to the nature of man* some to the goals of the counseling process* and some to the roles within the counseling process. Read each statement and decide what you think about the statement. You are to mark all your answers on the answer sheet. If you strongly agree with the statement, blacken between the lines of Column 1, corresponding to the number of that statement. If you merely agree or tend to agree with the statement but have no strong feelings about it, blacken between the lines of Column 2. If you disagree or tend to disagree with the statement, mark Column 3. If you strongly disagree with the statement, mark Column 4, corresponding to the numbered statement on the answer sheet. To reiterate, the code is this* 1. Strongly agree 2. Agree 3. Disagree 4. Strongly disagree. Please respond to each Item as well as filling in the identifying data on the answer sheet. Thank you. 1. In the counseling process, the counselor begins with the symptons, such as going from the part to the whole, 2. Counseling is fundamentally an emotion-arousing human relationship in which each person tries to communicate honestly with the other both verbally and nonverbally. 3. Counselors help counselees gain insight because as the person gains understanding of self he may change his behavior. 4. Case histories provide information to enable the coun selor to decide whether his skills, orientation, and institutional responsibilities are such that he should counsel the individual. 160 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 161 A real world, whose existence can be inferred but not experienced directly, exists independent of the knower. The counselor creates a set of conditions under which it becomes possible for the counselee to overcome faulty learnings and acquire new ones, Man is not a being* instead he is coming into being, emerging, becoming, evolving toward something. Every individual exists in a continually changing world of experiences of which he is the center. Each person is faced with real choices in a nondeter mini stlc world. The counselor should be aware of his own values and attitudes, attempting to weave these values into his counseling skills on a conscious rather than uncon scious level. Each human seeks to maintain himself and his equili brium in the face of constant threats from a hostile world. A human being's self-awareness gives him his personal sense of identity. The world of objects and the world of situations follow certain predictable laws and can be known by reason via inference. Anxiety instigates behavior and any action which reduces anxiety leads to a repetition of that action. The counselor helps the counselee to think more effectively and to approach situations with a problem solving attitude. The counselor maintains complete neutrality both affectively and Intellectually, observing all the counselee*s responses. Every person has a right to his own life-style and his own values but has no right to impress these upon another. Limitations exist but may be overcome by choice plus actions* thus choices are real. 162 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 2^. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Host of the ways of behaving which are adopted by the person are those which are consistent with his concept of self. Control of human behavior can be accomplished by controlling the environment. Responsibility is a psuedo-concept since the whole pattern of a person's life is almost totally determined by forces, drives, Instincts, and early experiences beyond his power to alter. The best vantage point for understanding behavior is from the internal frame of reference of the individual himself. There is no meaning to behavior except with reference to the events towards which the behavior is directed. There is dignity in each human being plus freedom which comes from the lack of a pre-determined agenda in each man's world. Seen from the perspective of the person himself, his behavior is organized and meaningful. Han has virtually no control over the existing objec tive order of reality. Once laws of behavior are discovered, human behavbr can be predicted and is potentially controllable. Han isi he then evaluates himself and his worldj he does not discover relationships} he creates them. A counselor's task is to discover the nature of the conflicts within the counselee and the responses related to the conflicts, establishing conditions that may bring about a change. A person's relationship to others ought to be that of self-realization for all. Certain key concepts influence behavior, are not measurable, and can be called existent only by the examination of deep human feelings experienced by everyone. 163 32. Man becomes hateful, self-centered, ineffective or antagonistic to his fellow man only because of the learning experiences he undergoes during the course of his development. 33* Man exists in a world of choicesi determinism is the basic fabric of the physical universe but not of man. 34-. The influence of later events may change the conse quences of some earlier event. 35* The world exists and moves in accordance with cause- and-effect laws of nature, 36. A person*s actions are determined by his drives, needs and wants. 37. Under certain conditions, involving complete absence of any threat to the self-structure, experiences which are inconsistent with the self may be examined and the structure of self revised to assimilate and Include such experiences. 38. Mankind is becoming and has no fixed essence or nature but each person makes himself what he will be within the limits of his potential. 39* A counselor must be concerned with the total meaning- structure of the counselee, including his life style, his views of life and death, his word choices, and all aspects of his relating to life. 40, Before changing behavior the counselor must diagnose the situation and then determine where to begin counseling. *H. To restructure his needs, a person may rely upon an objective outsider to help him understand the influ ences acting upon him, ^2. Because of self-awareness, a person is capable of being selective in what he responds to and how he responds. APPENDIX E COUNSELEE POEMS Information Sheet Preceedlng Counseling The Counseling Center of the University of Southern California is involved In an ongoing research project. This research is separate from the counseling program. All responses will be considered confidential. After your final interview with your counselor, you will be asked to fill out some forms. It should take you no longer than half an hour to complete the task and most people require less time* Your cooperation in the research program would be very much appreciated. Information Sheet Following Counseling As part of an ongoing research project, the Coun seling Center of the University of Southern California requests that you respond to the following two forms. Specific directions for each form are included with it. The task should take you no longer than half an hour and most people require a lesser amount of time. Your answers are confidential and neither your counselor nor any other counselor in the Center will see your responses. Identifying data requested are for statistical purposes and you will in no way be named in the reports of the research. Your honest and immediate reaction to the items would be the most helpful for the research. You may use either a pen or a pencil. When you have completed the forms, return all the materials to Boom 100. Since it will not be possible to thank each one of you individually, may I take this opportunity to express my appreciation for your cooperation. 16*J> 165 Counselor Actions and Beliefs Form DIRECTIONS* On the following pages are several statements about beliefs some counselors have and actions some coun selors take. You are to respond to the Items according to what you think about your counselor here at the Counseling Center. Even If the Idea did not come up in your inter views, respond to the item according to what you think about your counselor from what you know about him or her. You are to mark all your answer on the answer sheet. If you strongly agree with the statement, put an X In Column 1, corresponding to the number of that statement. If you merely agree or tend to agree with the statement but have no strong feelings about it, put an X in Column 2, If you disagree or tend to disagree with the statement, mark Column 3, If you strongly disagree with the statement, mark Column 4, corresponding to the numbered statement on the answer sheet. To repeat, the code is this* 1. Strongly agree 2. Agree 3. Disagree 4. Strongly disagree Remember* your Job is to read over each of these statements and mark the degree to which you agree or disagree with the statement - that is, how well the statement des cribes how counseling and your counselor look to you as you make these statements now. Please respond to each item as well as filling in the identifying data on the answer sheet. Thank you. 1. My counselor tried to understand my behavior from the way I see things. 2. My counselor believes that I am sometimes hateful, self- centered, or ineffective because of the way I learned as I grew up, 3. My counselor thinks that every person is completely different. 4. My counselor acted as if he knew something about me that I did not. 5. My counselor helped me think more effectively so that I can approach situations with a problem-solving attitude. 166 6. My counselor thought my behavior made sense when he saw my actions as I do. 7. My counselor emphasized changing my behavior rather than my attitude. 8. My counselor pointed out steps I might take to make things easier for me. 9. My counselor thinks I can overcome my limitations by making choices and then acting upon my choices. 10. My counselor assumes that I act certain ways because I am anxious and I will do whatever makes me less anxious 11. My counselor believes that I am still emerging and evolving toward something. 12. My counselor believes that I have a right to my own values but I have no right to impose my values on some one else. 13• My counselor thinks he (or she) can,predict my behavior. 14. My counselor believes that I have real choices to make and have control over my future, 15* My counselor made me feel as if I have dignity and freedom. 16. My counselor began our interviews with minor matters, almost like going from a part of the problem to the whole problem, 17. My counselor seems to think each person will have a different experience even if he is in same situation with someone else, 18. My counselor controlled my actions in our Interviews because he (or she) controlled the situation* 19. My counselor believes things happen because of some cause-and-effect laws. 20. My counselor discovered the nature of my problem and then made it possible for me to change. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26 ■ 27. 28. 16? My counselor thinks behavior follows certain predic table laws. My counselor seemed to do whatever I thought was important at the time. My counseling was very emotion-arousing because my counselor and I tried to communicate honestly with each other. My counselor heard all of my problem and then decided where to begin counseling. My counselor believes a person gains a personal sense of Identity as he becomes more aware of himself. My counselor seems to think most of my behavior was developed in early childhood. My counselor was interested in everything about me. My counselor seems to be aware of his own beliefs, values, and attitudes. APPENDIX P OBSEEVEES AND JUDGES FORMS Counselor Effectiveness Scale Empathy 1 2 3 4 - 5 Counselor unaware of counselee1s feelings* responses not appropriate to mood and content of counselee^ comments. Counselor unerringly responded to full range of counselee*s feelings* sensed each of counsel- ee's feelings and reflec ted them in his voice and words. Relationship 1 2 3 4 5 Cool and distant. Warm and concerned, Counselee Trust 1 2 3 4 5 111 at ease* counselee almost hiding, suspi cious and distrustful. Counselee open and free to he himself* honest. 168 169 Counselor Self-Congruence 1 2 3 ^ 5 Striking evidence of Counselor freely and contradiction between deeply himself* genu counselor's experiencing inely reflects his and verbalization. honest reactions. Counselor Involvement 1 2 3 ^ 5 Counselor displayed Counselor communicated bored inattentiveness attentivenesst pre and indifference. occupied with coun- selee's experiences and vitally concerned. Global Counselor Effectiveness 1 2 3 ^ 5 Potentially damaging. Effective school counselor. Counselor Beliefs and Actions Scale DIRECTIONS* Check Column 1 if you agree that the counselor exhibited the described behavior or belief. Check Column 2 if you think the behavior or belief was unobservable or could not be distinguished. Check Column 3 if you disagree that the counselor exhibited the described behavior or belief or If you think the counselor did almost the opposite. 170 Agree Unobservable 1 2 1* The counselor emphasized ____ ____ changing the counselee*s attitudes more than his behavior. 2. The counselor tried to discover the nature of the counselee*s problem and make it possible for him to change. 3« The counselor seemed to think the counselee could overoome his limitations by making choices and then acting upon his choices. The counselor focused on understanding the counseled * s"1 behavior from the counselee*s frame of reference, 5* To help change the coun- selee*s behavior, the ~ counselor diagnosed the situation and then determined where to begin counseling. 6. The counselor heard all of the problem and then decided where to begin counseling. 7. The counselor helped the counselee become more aware of himself and gain a per sonal sense of identity. 8. The counselor seemed to do whatever the counselee thought was important. 9. The counselor believes each individual exists in a continually changing world of experiences of which he is the center. Disagree 3 1?1 10. Agree Unobservable 1 2 The counselor attempted to understand the coun selee 1s behavior in ref erence to the events towards which the behavior was directed. Disagree 3

Asset Metadata

Creator Rave, Elizabeth Jeanne (author)

Core Title Relationships Between Counselors' Philosophical Consistency And Congruency With Their Effectiveness As Counselors

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, guidance and counseling,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Carnes, Earl F. (committee chair), Ofman, William V. (committee member), Smith, Robert A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-379203

Unique identifier UC11360994

Identifier 7000362.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-379203 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7000362.pdf

Dmrecord 379203

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Rave, Elizabeth Jeanne

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA