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An Analysis Of Critical Issues In Higher Education In Denmark

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An Analysis Of Critical Issues In Higher Education In Denmark

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Content This dissertation has been
microfilmed exactly as received 69-17,873
CHRISTENSEN, Viktor Albert, 1921-
AN ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL ISSUES IN
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DENMARK.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1969
Education, theory and practice
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
© Copyright by
VIKTOR ALBERT CHRISTENSEN
1969
AN ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL ISSUES IN
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DENMARK
by
Viktor Albert Christensen
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
January 1969
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
.........
under the direction of h%$.... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
January, 1969
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF
Chapter
I.
II.
III.
IV.
TABLES
THE PROBLEM ................................
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Importance of the Study
Delimitations of the Study
Procedure
Organization of the Study
REVIEW OF LITERATURE .......................
Nature and Purpose of Higher Education
Development and Structure of Higher
Education in Denmark
PROCEDURE AND FINDINGS .....................
Procedure
Findings from the Questionnaire
Findings from the Interviews
ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS ...................
Variety of Preparation
Admission Requirements
Supply of Manpower in Academic Professions
Grade Point Average as Basis for Admission
Financing Higher Education in Denmark
The Problem of Teacher Supply
Administration of Higher Education
in Denmark
Private Universities
Tuition
Higher Education as a Function of the
State
Percentage of Population in Higher
Education
Size of the Universities
ii
Page
Iv
1
11
42
65
Chapter Page
Student Housing
Character Development
Preparation for Research and for Teaching
Relevance of Course Offerings
Possibilities for Some New Degrees
^ Attendance Policies
Library. Facilities
Final Examinations
Higher Education in Relation to the Effec
tiveness of a Modern Democracy
The Three Most Critical Issues
The Planning Council for Higher Education
in Denmark
Issues in Higher Education in Denmark
Foreign to the System in the United
States
Evaluative Criteria
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Background
The Problem
Procedure
Summary of the Findings
Conclusions
Recommendations
APPENDIXES
A. QUESTIONNAIRE ..............................
B. BASIC QUESTIONS USED IN THE INTERVIEW . . .
C. REQUIREMENTS FOR MATRICULATION EXAMINATION .
D. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM' IN DENMARK........
116
131
150
152
156
BIBLIOGRAPHY
158
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Distribution of Respondents to the Question
naire ...................................... 45
2. Distribution of Interviewees .............. 47
3. Responses to the Questions from the Question
naire in the Age Group 21-50 Years of Age . 48
4. Responses to the Questions from the Question
naire in the Age Group Over 50 Years
of A g e .................................... 51
5. Questions on the Questionnaire About Which a
Majority of 66.7 Per Cent or More Agreed
in One or Both of the Age Groups........ 54
6. Questions on the Questionnaire Where Answers
Were Evenly Divided Between Yes and No . . 56
7. Answers to Question Number Twenty-Two on the
Questionnaire, Listed in Sequence of
Frequency.................................. 58
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
In tr oduc t i on
A system of higher education is a major social
enterprise. It engages a vast army of workers such as
trustees, administrators, teachers, and other staff in its
operation. As time goes on and the enterprise grows larger
and larger, its problems also become more and more complex.
The person who would understand a given system of
higher education must necessarily have some knowledge of
its history and background and also a basic acquaintance
with the units of which it is composed.
Concerning the study of foreign systems of educa
tion Nicholas Hans made the following observation:
The purpose of comparative education is to discover
the differences in forces and causes that produce dif
ferences in educational systems, and to discover the
underlying principles which govern the development of
all national systems of education. (25:5)
In another of his books the same author stated:
A national system of education is a living thing,
the outcome of forgotten struggles and difficulties
and of "battles long ago." It has in it some of the
secret working of national life. It reflects, while
seeking to remedy, the feelings of national character.
By instinct it often lays special emphasis on those
1
2
parts of training which the national character partic
ularly needs. Not less by instinct, it often shrinks
from laying stress on points concerning which bitter
dissensions have arisen in former periods of national
history. But is it not likely that if we have endeav
ored, in a sympathetic spirit, to understand the real
working of a foreign system of education, we shall in
turn find ourselves better able to enter into the
spirit of our own national education, more sensitive
to its unwritten ideals, quicker to catch the signs
which mark its growing or fading influence, readier
to mark the dangers which threaten it and the subtle
workings of hurtful change. The practical value of
studying, in a right spirit and with scholarly accu
racy, the working of foreign systems of education is
that it will result in our being better fitted to
study and understand our own. (26:58)
Higher education in Denmark dates back to the fif
teenth century. However, up until World War II develop
ments were rather slow. Only about 8 per cent of the popu
lation ever found their way to a university or to another
institution of a similar level. Higher education was only
for the elite, and the young Danes who did acquire a higher
education did so in order to obtain professional qualifica
tions rather than to get a well-rounded liberal education.
As a result, the system of higher education grew very
slowly over a period of approximately 470 years.
Since World War II this picture has sharply changed.
Studies of what goes on in other countries revealed that
there is a desirable correlation between the quality of a
country's system of education and the quality of its living
standards. Accordingly, Denmark started a reevaluation of
its entire educational system at all levels. This led to
3
some drastic changes both at the elementary and secondary
level with new legislative acts, in 1958 for the elementary
schools and in 1960 for the secondary schools.
It was soon realized that changes were also neces
sary within the system of higher education, if for no other
reason, than because of the explosive growth in the number
of students now seeking admission into the universities and
other institutions of higher learning. It was found that
in the decade between 1950 and 1960 the total expenses for
higher education, including research, at the national level
had grown three times as rapidly as the gross national
product; and this growth has been even more rapid since
1960 (91:13).
Naturally, a reorganization together with an explo
sive growth makes matters even more complicated and creates
many problems for which a solution must be sought. The
fact that educational research has been hampered by disin
clination on the part of the universities to recognize the
scientific study of education as an independent subject has
hindered improvement. Not until 1955 was any real research
done in education in Denmark, and what has been done so far
has been concerned mainly with elementary education, al-
thought a few studies in secondary education have also been
published (70:19).
4
Statement of the Problem
The purpose of this study was to determine some of
the basic problems facing higher education in Denmark today
and to analyze these problems in a setting of the histori
cal development connected with the needs of the present
system of higher education. The intention was to answer
the following questions:
1. What is the historical development of the sys
tem of higher education in Denmark?
2. What are some of the critical issues facing
higher education in Denmark at present?
3. What is being done to solve the problems and
stabilize the further development of the system
of higher education in Denmark?
4. What are some of the basic principles which
could serve as criteria of present effective
ness and future developments in Danish higher
education?
5. What changes in the present system might be
implied by the criteria suggested?
Importance of the Study
As a native of Denmark but now a naturalized citi
zen of the United States this writer has for a long time
been keenly interested in the task of analyzing the
strengths and weaknesses of the Danish system of higher
5
education. Very little research or writing has been done
in this area, possibly because Denmark is a relatively
small country. However, Denmark is in no way without in
fluence. It has a high living standard; its educational
system at all levels is seemingly of high quality; and it
has fostered great men in science, politics, arts, busi
ness, and industry. It has no racial or colonial problems,
and its people are well received as immigrants in most
other countries.
Heinberg, in his book Scandinavia— Past and Pres
ent, stated:
Increasing attention has begun to be paid in world
politics to the under-developed countries and their
struggle against overpopulation and mass poverty. It
may be of interest to take note of some facts relating
to our corner of the world, in which it is possible to
follow numerically the development from a markedly
under-developed stage to a civilization which both
intellectually and materially has indisputably come to
rank among the highest. Let us take our minds back
to the Scandinavia of the eighteenth century. We find
an "under-developed" environment which in important
respects corresponds to the conditions existing today
in that half of the world population which is in the
phase of development subsequent to man's leaving the
lowest stage of civilization. (28:25)
This statement seems to indicate that the so-called
underdeveloped countries might be able to profit from ob
serving and analyzing the development of other countries
under comparable conditions.
In connection with the study of foreign systems of
education, Kandel made the following observation:
6
Foreign educational systems are laboratories for
the solution of problems, many of which are shared
by the American educational system, and their study
will contribute to the development of a philosophy
of education based on a variety of experiences.
(35:8)
However, Kandel also pointed out that in order to
be of any value as a contribution to the clarification of
thought and to the upbuilding of a comprehensive philosophy
of education such a study must entail the search for the
deeper meaning of schools and be more than merely the ac
quisition of information about another educational system
(35:7).
As already referred to, Nicholas Hans shared the
opinion that one is better able to understand his own sys
tem of education with all of its strengths and weaknesses
when one has studied in depth some foreign system of educa
tion (26:58).
Also this study may be of value to those who, in
reference to systems of higher education, would be facing
problems of a similar nature as those presented and ana
lyzed herein.
Delimitations of the Study
This study is connected only with such problems of
higher education as are present in the Danish universities
and other educational institutions whose level of education
and research is equal to that of the universities.
7
In Denmark, higher education is usually defined as
all education based upon the completion of the "Gymnasium."
This is a three-year general academic curriculum terminat
ing with the matriculation examination (Studentereksamen)
which is the normal requirement for matriculation to the
universities and other institutions of higher learning.
(See Appendix C.)
Recognized as institutions of higher learning in
Denmark at the present are three general universities? one
technical university (Danmarks Tekniske H^jskole); one
Royal Veterinary and Agricultural College (Den Kongelige
Veterinaer og Landboh^jskole); two Royal Colleges of Den
tistry (De Kongelige Tandlaegeh^jskoler i K^benhavn og
Aarhus); one Royal College of Pharmacy (Den Kongelige
Farmaceutiske H0jskole); one commercial college (Handel-
hjzfjskolen) ? one Academy for Engineers (Ingenijzfrakademiet);
one Royal Music Conservatory (Det Kongelige Musikkonserva-
torie)? one Royal Academy of the Fine Arts (Det Kongelige
Kunstakademi)? one college for advanced training of teach
ers (Danmarks Laererh^jskole) ; and one college for physical
education (Danmarks H0jskole for Legemsjrfvelser). All of
these institutions are administratively under the Danish
Ministry of Education, except the Royal Music Conservatory
and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Those two are adminis
tered by the Danish Ministry of Cultural Affairs. Excluded
8
from the realm of higher education in Denmark are the regu
lar teachers' colleges that prepare teachers for work in
the elementary school and for the lower part of secondary
education, which is named the "Realskole." Also excluded
are the Danish Folk High Schools.
Procedure
Utilizing both the historical and the survey method,
this study aims to ascertain and analyze the critical is
sues affecting higher education in Denmark.
Although this writer had some knowledge of the sys
tem of higher education in Denmark from firsthand experi
ence, being a 1950 graduate of the College of Physical Ed
ucation, he spent three months in Denmark in intensive re
search on problems concerning this study.
For the development of the historical background,
both primary and secondary sources were utilized. These
are available in the Danish University Libraries, the Dan
ish Royal Library, and the archives in the Ministry of
Education in Denmark. All of this material was made avail
able through the courtesy of the Division of International
Relations of the Ministry of Education under the able
leadership of Mr. Paul Lyngbye.
For the survey of current issues, the principal
device was a questionnaire followed by interviews. Also,
the reports made by the Planning Council for Higher Educa
tion in Denmark under the chairmanship of former Minister
for Education,. Mr. K. Helveg Petersen, were analyzed. The
most recent and also the most complete of these reports was
published just before the research for this study was com
pleted, and its findings have been included in the study.
Since the study was done in Denmark the question
naire was necessarily translated into Danish and all inter
views were also conducted in that language. Most of the
sources on which the study is based were published in Den
mark and printed in Danish and therefore had to be trans
lated. All translations from Danish to English and vice
versa have been done by this writer.
Organization of the Study
This study is divided into five chapters. Chap
ter I serves as an introduction with a statement of the
problem; it points out the importance of the study, states
its delimitations, explains the procedures employed, and,
finally, it furnishes an overview of the organization of
the study.
Chapter II is a review of related literature, de
scribing the characteristics of higher education in the
Western world, with a review of the background of the com
monly accepted philosophies of a university. This chapter
also portrays contemporary practices and possible future
demands.
10
Chapter II also contains a brief historical sketch
of the development of higher education in Denmark from its
founding in the fifteenth century up to the present. It
attempts to point out the more significant forces which
have influenced Danish higher education during that period.
Chapter III is a compilation of the findings from
the questionnaire, from the interviews, and from the re
ports by the Planning Council for Higher Education in Den
mark. The purpose of this study was to determine the crit
ical issues most prevalent in the system of higher educa
tion in Denmark at present.
Chapter IV analyzes the issues pointed out in
Chapter III. It also defines basic principles which could
serve as criteria for present effectiveness and future de
velopments in higher education in Denmark.
The final chapter, Chapter V, presents a summary
of the major points of the study. Conclusions are drawn
from the findings, and certain recommendations are pre
sented.
A bibliography and pertinent appendixes complete
the study.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Nature and Purpose of Higher Education
As a background for and a help in understanding the
specific critical issues in modern higher education in
Denmark, it might be well to bring together some of the
best thoughts expressed in the professional literature con
cerning the nature and purpose of higher education in the
Western world in general. It would be too gigantic a task,
however, to attempt to cover everything that has been writ
ten on the subject; hence this review will cover only those
writings that contribute to a better understanding of the
problems studied here.
In his dissertation, "Shaping the Idea of the Uni
versity," Hodgman attempted to show the continuity of the
aims and functions of higher education in the Western world
and he concluded with the following statement:
For more than two milennia the university has had
and continues to have a profound and apparently in
eradicable continuity in the civilized societies of
western Europe and America. Whatever may be the
shortcomings of the contemporary university, it does
at least appear to have a heritage that is guiding
it through the temporal conflicts and problems of the
present. (124:343)
11
12
The development of higher education has, in a
sense, taken place since the founding of Plato's Academy in
387 B.C.; but as it is known toda,y it has come out of the
colleges and universities as they were founded in medieval
Europe and, later, in colonial America.
So many forces have influenced this development
that, at times, it appears as if higher education has lost
its unity of purpose. What essentially was based upon the
Greek and Christian philosophies has now become fragmented
and seemingly without unity. Thus Clark Kerr spoke about
the modern university as a "Multiversity," which he defined
as "a city of infinite variety." (37:41).
In this connection it might be well, however, to
consider some of the ideas which have distinguished the
colleges and universities during the past, and which also,
at least to some degree, have been expressed by some of the
men who are deeply concerned with the problems of higher
education today.
Whitehead expressed his ideas of the essence of
higher education in the following statement:
The justification for a university is that it
preserves the connection between knowledge and the
zest of life, by uniting the young and the old in the
imaginative consideration of learning. The university
imparts information but it imparts it imaginatively.
At least, this is the function which it should perform
for society. A university which fails in this respect
has no reason for existence. This atmosphere of ex
citement, arising from imaginative consideration,
transforms knowledge. A fact is no longer a bare fact;
13
it is vested with all its possibilities. It is no
longer a burden on the memory: it is energizing as
the poet of our dreams, and as the architect of our
purposes. (74:93)
Hodgman pointed out that "the university is that
unique institution wherein one finds and learns to partici
pate in the disciplined search for truth in an atmosphere
of intellectual freedom." (124:343). And Pullias stated
that:
The essence of the higher learning is the search
for truth and its relation to all of life: a search
expressed through (a) the study of the experience and
achievement of man, especially the best he has
achieved, (b) the "imaginative consideration" of the
implications of that achievement for the present and
the future, and (c) the persistent study of all as
pects of reality by direct observation. . . . The cen
tral goal is the full development of the whole person
and involves knowledge, attitudes, values and skills.
The man so educated will be somewhat wiser than he
would have been because of what he learns and what he
is, but perhaps more because of his awareness of what
he does not know and has not become? he catches the
vision of man as he can and should be. (56:18)
During the early and middle nineteenth century
Cardinal Newman wrote one of the finest expositions in re
gard to what higher education should aim toward doing for
a person. Among other things he had the following to say:
But a university training is the great ordinary
- means to a great but ordinary end? it aims at raising
the intellectual tone of society, at cultivating the
public mind, at purifying the national taste. It is
the education which gives a man a clear conscious
view of his own opinions and judgments, a truth in
developing them, an eloquence in expressing them and
a force in urging them. It teaches him to see things
as they are, to go right to the point, to disentangle
a skein of thought, to detect what is sophistical, and
14
to discard what is irrelevant. It shows him how to
accommodate himself to others., how to throw himself
into their state of mind, how to bring before them
his own, how to influence them, how to come to an
understanding with them, how to bear with them.
(49:191,192)
Gilman, in his inaugural address, pointed out that
the university is a place for the advanced special educa
tion of youth who have been prepared for its freedom by the
• . discipline of a lower school. He then concluded:
But while forms and methods vary, the freedom to
investigate, the obligation to teach, and the careful
bestowal of academic honors are always understood to
be among the university functions. (71:304)
Likewise, Sproul expressed himself by saying that
the primary purpose for a university is not the parceling
out of ready-made knowledge, but rather that fresh thinking
which results in new knowledge; that the university exists
not merely for passing on facts, but for showing the stu
dents how facts are discovered; that it is not so much a
museum in which may be found the accumulated wisdom of the
past as it is a factory humming with industry and turning
out the newest wisdom of the day (72:270,271).
It is generally agreed that higher education has at
least three or four distinct significant functions. Thus,
in an attempt to answer the question "What is the mission
of the university?" Ortega concluded that three functions
of higher education are (1) transmission of culture, (2)
teaching of the professions, and (3) scientific research
15
and training of new scientists (51:43).
The same concept was stated by McGrath as he men
tioned the aims of higher education:
They are the preservation and handing on of tradi
tional culture, preparation for the professions (in
cluding the higher branches of industry and commerce),
research in every field of knowledge, the development
of the individual personality of the student, and the
raising of the cultural level of society. (42:209)
Pusey also made the observation that the university
has two principal activities— teaching and research. He
stated:
The first part of its obligation is to keep knowl
edge alive, usable and growing; the other essential
part is to help to prepare young people for respon
sible living and for all of the great callings of life.
Any other activities the university may have (and they
are many) rightfully develop from one or another of
these primary responsibilities— to advance learning
and to perpetuate it to posterity. (57:18)
Thwing divided the universities of the world into
four categories. One category has as its purpose the dis
covery and the publication of truth. The schools of this
category are devoted to learning and scholarship. The
laboratory and the library are their tools, and observation
represents their method. A second category is the type
which has for its primary purpose the development of char
acter through the power of thinking. Scholarship finds its
place too in this category but less dominantly. The aim is
rather personal, directed toward the individual in order
to train him to use the power of thinking with depth,
16
breadth, and height, thinking comprehensively. The third
category has for its real, although seldom spoken of, pur
pose the making of the gentleman. For this purpose both
r-
scholarship and disciplined thinking are needed as methods
of creating men who are interpreted by the word gentlemen,
men in whom the intellect, the heart, the conscience, the
will, and the aesthetic faculty are so blended and so har
monious that they become at home in any society. Finally,
the fourth category seeks to train men of efficiency. In
stitutions of this category endeavor to produce graduates
who are able to make a living. This category constitutes
the professional schools of the universities. Thwing con
cludes that the characteristics of all of these four cate
gories are found to a lesser or greater degree in every
university (70:xi-xiii).
Millett stated that it is customary to speak of
higher education as having three primary purposes, namely
instruction, research, and public service, or stated again
in other terms, higher education seeks to preserve, trans
mit, and advance knowledge (44:33).
In the words of Karl Jaspers the task of the uni
versity may be divided into the three functions of research,
the transmission of learning, and education of culture.
But even when each of these is considered in isolation it
is inseparable from the other two. Jaspers summarized his
17
ideas in the following words:
In the idea of the university these three are
indissolubly united. One cannot be cut off from the
others without destroying the intellectual substance
of the university, and without at the same time crip
pling itself. All three are factors of a living
whole. By isolating them the spirit of the university
perishes. (32:37-41)
Gibson pointed out that definite criteria for
higher education would include transmission of the heritage
and the search for new truth through research. Another
purpose of higher education to which he refers is that of
offering the students the opportunity to select personal,
social, and spiritual values which will lead to a mature
life (24:34,226).
When the Educational Policies Commission of the
National Education Association and the American Association
of School Administrators in 1957 published its evaluation
of higher education, which also contained recommendations
for the subsequent decade, the following purposes of higher
education were presented:
To help realize the dream of individual opportu
nity. Higher education should not be a privilege
belonging to a small selected group, but all youth who
want to go to college should have a chance to do so
provided they are able to do college work.
The preservation and enrichment of the cultural
heritage. It is the particular responsibility of
institutions of higher education to transmit the cul
tural heritage from generation to generation, not as
a dead body of knowledge, but vitalized and enriched
with all its new developments in natural as well as
in social sciences, in technology, and in the fine
arts.
18
To push back the frontiers of knowledge. This
activity which takes place in the libraries and labo
ratories of institutions of higher education is of
vital importance, not only to the institutions them
selves but also to society at large. One needs only
to think of the advances in medical sciences or in
space science over the past few years to realize this.
To provide solutions for society's problems. Col
leges and universities are parts of the foundation of
democracy and have an active role in the transfer of
learning to life. The members of the academic commu
nity give counsel on community developments and carry
educational programs to the people through extension
services and adult education, and thus serve as civic
leaders. (20:6-10)
In the book Toward Excellence in College Teaching,
Pullias mentioned two major functions of higher education.
One is to pass on "to the rising generation that which man
has learned from his experience on this planet." This is
the transmission of the culture in order to enable the new
generation to profit from the experiences of former genera
tions. The other major function is that of search and re
search for new truth. Pullias concluded that "wherever
these things (teaching and research) take place with zest
and in freedom, there the spirit of the higher learning,
the idea of the university, exists and does its incompa
rable work." (56:7).
Several writers have expressed themselves along
the same line of thought, both during the years leading up
to the time of the statement of the Educational Policies
Commission and during the years following. In a lecture
presented to the Twelfth Educational Conference in New York
18
To push back the frontiers of knowledge. This
activity which takes place in the libraries and labo
ratories of institutions of higher education is of
vital importance, not only to the institutions them
selves but also to society at large. One needs only
to think of the advances in medical sciences or in
space science over the past few years to realize this.
To provide solutions for society's problems. Col
leges and universities are parts of the foundation of
democracy and have an active role in the transfer of
learning to life. The members of the academic commu
nity give counsel on community developments and carry
educational programs to the people through extension
services and adult education, and thus serve as civic
leaders. (20:6-10)
In the book Toward Excellence in College Teaching,
Pullias mentioned two major functions of higher education.
One is to pass on "to the rising generation that which man
has learned from his experience on this planet." This is
the transmission of the culture in order to enable the new
generation to profit from the experiences of former genera
tions. The other major function is that of search and re
search for new truth. Pullias concluded that "wherever
these things (teaching and research) take place with zest
and in freedom, there the spirit of the higher learning,
the idea of the university, exists and does its incompa
rable work." (56:7).
Several writers have expressed themselves along
the same line of thought, both during the years leading up
to the time of the statement of the Educational Policies
Commission and during the years following. In a lecture
presented to the Twelfth Educational Conference in New York
19
in 1947 Ordway Tead had the following to say:
It seems to me that if we ask in a common sense
what it is we want out of colleges, what our commu
nities need in respect to the equipment and the dy
namic of college graduates, we have to acknowledge
that we seek and require more inclusive results than
the purely intellectual. For me the only defensible
view is that a larger and larger fraction of our able
young people have to become equipped to help to admin
ister a kind of society and to advance a quality of
personal life within that society, the problems of
which are more grave, more urgent, and more difficult
than the world has ever known. Education for char
acter becomes meaningful in a way which goes, beneath
the level of conventional moral codes when we say with
Kilpatrick that "character is an abiding tendency to
seek the good life. ..." I see no escape that in
the confronting of this need education finds its cen
tral mandate. (69:9,10)
In his discussion of knowledge Perkins pointed out
that the acquisition of knowledge is the mission of re
search? the transmission of knowledge is the mission of
teaching? and the application of knowledge is the mission
of public service. The understanding of these three as
pects of knowledge is fundamental to the understanding of
the functions of a modern university (53:9).
In the opinion of Gardner, any coherent conception
of the university's role must begin with an understanding
of the university's central missions: teaching and intel
lectual inquiry. He goes on to say that "these are the
secrets of the university's strength and the springs of its
vitality." (30:214).
DeVane expressed his ideas in this statement:
The ideal of the advancement and transmission of
19
in 1947 Ordway Tead had the following to say:
It seems to me that if we ask in a common sense
what it is we want out of colleges, what our commu
nities need in respect to the equipment and the dy
namic of college graduates, we have to acknowledge
that we seek and require more inclusive results than
the purely intellectual. For me the only defensible
view is that a larger and larger fraction of our able
young people have to become equipped to help to admin
ister a kind of society and to advance a quality of
personal life within that society, the problems of
which are more grave, more urgent, and more difficult
than the world has ever known. Education for char
acter becomes meaningful in a way which goes, beneath
the level of conventional moral codes when we say with
Kilpatrick that "character is an abiding tendency to
seek the good life. ..." I see no escape that in
the confronting of this need education finds its cen
tral mandate. (69:9,10)
In his discussion of knowledge Perkins pointed out
that the acquisition of knowledge is the mission of re
search? the transmission of knowledge is the mission of
teaching? and the application of knowledge is the mission
of public service. The understanding of these three as
pects of knowledge is fundamental to the understanding of
the functions of a modern university (53:9).
In the opinion of Gardner, any coherent conception
of the university's role must begin with an understanding
of the university's central missions: teaching and intel
lectual inquiry. He goes on to say that "these are the
secrets of the university's strength and the springs of its
vitality." (30:214).
DeVane expressed his ideas in this statement:
The ideal of the advancement and transmission of
20
knowledge in the universities has met another strong
ideal native in America, the assumption that educa
tional institutions should be useful to the society.
This idea of service has its roots deep in the Ameri
can soil. (19:10)
Another way of looking at the purpose of higher
education would be to analyze the end product and see what
kind of person the graduate of the college or university
should be. Concerning this problem McGrath had the follow
ing to say:
Education, then, must develop skills that are
basic, durable, and general so that they will serve
the individual in a great variety of work-role and
life-role demands. He must be able to analyze and
synthesize, to handle data, to see relationships, to
see meanings, to judge evidence, to generalize, and
so on. These are the kinds of things that must some
how be taught more and more generally, even to people
whose work requirements are not going to be on a very
high level.
More than that, education must produce a kind of
flexibility in the person, an adaptability that per
mits him to go on learning and to change rapidly from
one social role to another without feeling that he
has lost his sense of himself. Further, there must
be a value orientation that is truly durable. Such
an orientation can be arrived at only through thought
and understanding, so that it is felt by the individ
ual to be part of himself. When this is so, he can
resist pressures to act according to the norms of a
particular social group. A person who has developed
this capacity is prepared to take part in decisions
affecting the whole community, and thus be a respon
sible citizen. (43:48-49)
According to Henderson, the student should be
taught to become a scholar in the sense of one engaged in
critical inquiry (29:39).
And Millett stated that the function of higher edu
cation ought to be the turning out of young people who can
20
knowledge in the universities has met another strong
ideal native in America, the assumption that educa
tional institutions should be useful to the society.
This idea of service has its roots deep in the Ameri
can soil. (19:10)
Another way of looking at the purpose of higher
education would be to analyze the end product and see what
kind of person the graduate of the college or university
should be. Concerning this problem McGrath had the follow
ing to say:
Education, then, must develop skills that are
basic, durable, and general so that they will serve
the individual in a great variety of work-role and
life-role demands. He must be able to analyze and
synthesize, to handle data, to see relationships, to
see meanings, to judge evidence, to generalize, and
so on. These are the kinds of things that must some
how be taught more and more generally, even to people
whose work requirements are not going to be on a very
high level.
More than that, education must produce a kind of
flexibility in the person, an adaptability that per
mits him to go on learning and to change rapidly from
one spcial role to another without feeling that he
has lost his sense of himself. Further, there must
be a value orientation that is truly durable. Such
an orientation can be arrived at only through thought
and understanding, so that it is felt by the individ
ual to be part of himself. When this is so, he can
resist pressures to act according to the norms of a
particular social group. A person who has developed
this capacity is prepared to take part in decisions
affecting the whole community, and thus be a respon
sible citizen. (43:48-49)
According to Henderson, the student should be
taught to become a scholar in the sense of one engaged in
critical inquiry (29:39).
And Millett stated that the function of higher edu
cation ought to be the turning out of young people who can
21
use their creative possibilities in terms of social inven
tions even more than in terms of technological inventions
(45:14).
Pusey expressed somewhat the same concept in the
following statement:
But beyond- all immediately practical considera
tions, there is needed, deep within our university
communities, an animating conviction that what ulti
mately matters among men is learning itself, quickened
and brought to full life in individual minds and
through them disseminated as a force for good— for
moral good as well as for technical advance— throughout
society. The charm and the appeal of humane learning,
the pursuits of arts and letters, and of the sciences,
is not exclusively for utilitarian ends— rather first
for joy of the chase. (57:12)
Although the principles expressed up to this point
primarily reflect the thinking of American educators, it
was found that they do not differ much from those found in
other countries and cultures. Several studies and surveys
of foreign systems of higher education have been made, and
these studies express very much the same ideas concerning
the basic nature and purpose of higher education.
In his comparative study of the universities in the
British Commonwealth and those in the United States, Car
michael made it clear that one common factor is the concern
about both the individual's growth and the needs of society.
Both curricula and methods in higher education must reflect
this twofold purpose? in the absence of either the program
is incomplete (14:5).
21
use their creative possibilities in terms of social inven
tions even more than in terms of technological inventions
(45:14).
Pusey expressed somewhat the same concept in the
following statement:
But beyond- all immediately practical considera
tions, there is needed, deep within our university
communities, an animating conviction that what ulti
mately matters among men is learning itself, quickened
and brought to full life in individual minds and
through them disseminated as a force for good— for
moral good as well as for technical advance— throughout
society. The charm and the appeal of humane learning,
the pursuits of arts and letters, and of the sciences,
is not exclusively for utilitarian ends— rather first
for joy of the chase. (57:12)
Although the principles expressed up to this point
primarily reflect the thinking of American educators, it
was found that they do not differ much from those found in
other countries and cultures. Several studies and surveys
of foreign systems of higher education have been made, and
these studies express very much the same ideas concerning
the basic nature and purpose of higher education.
In his comparative study of the universities in the
British Commonwealth and those in the United States, Car
michael made it clear that one common factor is the concern
about both the individual1s growth and the needs of society.
Both curricula and methods in higher education must reflect
this twofold purpose? in the absence of either the program
is incomplete (14:5).
22
Anthony Kerr, in writing about the universities of
Europe, made the following observation:
The most important thing about a university is
that it is a place of general studies and of research
into many fields of learning. If it is limited to one
subject only (e.g., medicine) or to a small group of
allied subjects it is no university. The students of
such institutions may be doing worthwhile work, but
they miss the contact with minds of different interests
though equal ability, and their whole atmosphere is
colored by the fact that everybody is there to gain a
qualification rather than to complete an education.
Universities are places where knowledge is actually
created, where things become known that were not pre
viously known to all. University professors carry on
research to increase not merely their own stock, but
the sum total of human intellectual achievement.
(36:15,16)
In 1961 the English Prime Minister appointed a com
mittee to study the English system of higher education in
order to formulate some recommendations for future develop
ment. Chairman of the committee was Professor Lord Robbins.
The committee worked for two years, and in September 1963
they submitted their report to the government. In refer
ence to the aims of higher education in England, the report
had the following say:
In our submission there are at least four objec
tives essential to any properly balanced system.
We begin with instructions in skills suitable to
play a part in the general division of labor. We put
this first, not because we regard it as the most im
portant, but because we think that it is sometimes
ignored or undervalued. We deceive ourselves if we
claim that more than a small fraction of the students
in institutions of higher education would be where
they are if there were no significance for their
future careers in what they hear and read? and it is
a mistake to suppose that there is anything discred
itable in this.
1 22
Anthony Kerr, in writing about the universities of
Europe, made the following observation:
The most important thing about a university is
that it is a place of general studies and of research
into many fields of learning. If it is limited to one
subject only (e.g., medicine) or to a small group of
allied subjects it is no university. The students of
such institutions may be doing worthwhile work, but
they miss the contact with minds of different interests
though equal ability, and their whole atmosphere is
colored by the fact that everybody is there to gain a
qualification rather than to complete an education.
Universities are places where knowledge is actually
created, where things become known that were not pre
viously known to all. University professors carry on
research to increase not merely their own stock, but
the sum total of human intellectual achievement.
(36:15,16)
In 1961 the English Prime Minister appointed a com
mittee to study the English system of higher education in
order to formulate some recommendations for future develop
ment. Chairman of the committee was Professor Lord Robbins.
The committee worked for two years, and in September 1963
they submitted their report to the government. In refer
ence to the aims of higher education in England, the report
had the following say:
In our submission there are at least four objec
tives essential to any properly balanced system.
We begin with instructions in skills suitable to
play a part in the general division of labor. We put
this first, not because we regard it as the most im
portant, but because we think that it is sometimes
ignored or undervalued. We deceive ourselves if we
claim that more than a small fraction of the students
in institutions of higher education would be where
they are if there were no significance for their
future careers in what they hear and read; and it is
a mistake to suppose that there is anything discred
itable in this.
23
But, secondly, while emphasizing that there is
no betrayal of values when the institutions of higher
education teach what will be of some practical use,
we must postulate that what is taught should be taught
in such a way as to promote the general powers of the
mind. The aim should be to produce not mere special
ists but rather cultivated men and women. And it is
a distinguishing characteristic of a healthy higher
education that even where it is concerned with prac
tical techniques it imparts them on a plane of gener
ality that makes possible their application to many
problems— to collection of particulars. It is this
that the world of affairs demands of the world of
learning.
Thirdly, we must name the advancement of learning.
The search for truth is an essential function of in
stitutions of higher education and the process of edu
cation is itself most vital when it partakes of the
nature of discovery. It would be untrue to suggest
that the advancement of knowledge has been or ever
will be wholly dependent on universities or other in
stitutions of higher education. But the world, not
education alone, would suffer if they cease to regard
it as one of their main functions.
Finally, there is a function that is more difficult
to describe concisely, but that is nonetheless funda
mental: the transmission of a common culture and com
mon standards of citizenship. By this we do not mean
the forcing of all individuality into a common mold;
that would be the negation of higher education as we
conceive it. But we believe that it is a proper func
tion of higher education, as of schools to provide in
partnership with the family that background of culture
and social habit upon which a healthy society depends.
(86:6-7)
Sir James Mountford described the broad nature of
the British universities in the following terms:
Knowledge at the highest level is the domain of
universities; their function is to preserve it, hand
it on, and expand it. This is inherent in their
nature and confirmed by their history. . . . The
knowledge with which they are concerned is that which
is ascertainable by human reason and observation;
prophecy and revelation are outside their orbit, though
theology is not. Their attitude is of necessity crit
ical; they tend to be radical rather than conservative;
23
But, secondly, while emphasizing that there is
no betrayal of values when the institutions of higher
education teach what will be of some practical use,
we must postulate that what is taught should be taught
in such a way as to promote the general powers of the
mind. The aim should be to produce not mere special
ists but rather cultivated men and women. And it is
a distinguishing characteristic of a healthy higher
education that even where it is concerned with prac
tical techniques it imparts them on a plane of gener
ality that makes possible their application to many
problems— to collection of particulars. It is this
that the world of affairs demands of the world of
learning.
Thirdly, we must name the advancement of learning.
The search for truth is an essential function of in
stitutions of higher education and the process of edu
cation is itself most vital when it partakes of the
nature of discovery. It would be untrue to suggest
that the advancement of knowledge has been or ever
will be wholly dependent on universities or other in
stitutions of higher education. But the world, not
education alone, would suffer if they cease to regard
it as one of their main functions.
Finally, there is a function that is more difficult
to describe concisely, but that is nonetheless funda
mental: the transmission of a common culture and com
mon standards of citizenship. By this we do not mean
the forcing of all individuality into a common mold?
that would be the negation of higher education as we
conceive it. But we believe that it is a proper func
tion of higher education, as of schools to provide in
partnership with the family that background of culture
and social habit upon which a healthy society depends.
(86:6-7)
Sir James Mountford described the broad nature of
the British universities in the following terms:
Knowledge at the highest level is the domain of
universities? their function is to preserve it, hand
it on, and expand it. This is inherent in their
nature and confirmed by their history. . . . The
knowledge with which they are concerned is that which
is ascertainable by human reason and observation?
prophecy and revelation are outside their orbit, though
theology is not. Their attitude is of necessity crit
ical? they tend to be radical rather than conservative?
24
they are seminaries for new ideas and a sanctuary for
unpopular opinions? freedom of thought and expression
is essential to their.existence. (46:1)
Investigations have been made of higher education
in other countries. In his study of higher education in
Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon in 1957-58 Geraty found that higher
education in these countries has an obligation to society
in answering the intellectual need of the current time, and
he concluded that "the aims and objectives of the national
university and other national institutions of higher educa
tion may well be compared with the foreign universities."
(123:142,321)
Margaritis studied current problems in higher edu
cation in Greece during 1963, and he found that the univer
sity there offers educational experiences necessary to the
realization of personal goals. The curriculum is designed
to give students a better understanding of the basic
skills, but even more so to help them understand- the mean
ing and significance of values, and also the nature and
meaning of freedom and society (125:54-55).
In analyzing the functions of the Danish universi
ties the administrator of Odense University suggested that
they have the following three main functions:
1. Research for the purpose of finding new knowledge.
2. Research for the purpose of developing qualified
researchers.
3. Teaching for the purpose of developing qualified
personnel for business, industry, and society at
large. (4:15)
24
they are seminaries for new ideas and a sanctuary for
unpopular opinions? freedom of thought and expression
is essential to their.existence. (46:1)
Investigations have been made of higher education
in other countries. In his study of higher education in
Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon in 1957-58 Geraty found that higher
education in these countries has an obligation to society
in answering the intellectual need of the current time, and
he concluded that "the aims and objectives of the national
university and other national institutions of higher educa
tion may well be compared with the foreign universities."
(123:142,321)
Margaritis studied current problems in higher edu
cation in Greece during 1963, and he found that the univer
sity there offers educational experiences necessary to the
realization of personal goals. The curriculum is designed
to give students a better understanding of the basic
skills, but even more so to help them understand- the mean
ing and significance of values, and also the nature and
meaning of freedom and society (125:54-55).
In analyzing the functions of the Danish universi
ties the administrator of Odense University suggested that
they have the following three main functions:
1. Research for the purpose of finding new knowledge.
2. Research for the purpose of developing qualified
researchers.
3. Teaching for the purpose of developing qualified
personnel for business, industry, and society at
large. (4:15)
25
So it is seen that higher education, in spite of
its diversities in various parts of the world, has common
functions and purposes. As the world grows smaller and the
nations become more interested in learning from one an
other, higher education might become more significant for
the generations ahead. Maybe that was what Mayer had in
mind when he made the following statement:
Universities may help to decide our destiny. They
can become vigorous centers of culture. They can
treasure independent thinking. They can preserve not
only the vitality of the past but also anticipate the
opportunities of the future. (40:111)
Development and Structure of Higher
Education in Denmark
The Country
Denmark is one of the oldest existing monarchies in
the world, dating back to the ninth century A.D. It is a
relatively small country, about 16,600 square miles, or the
size of the combined areas of Vermont and New Hampshire.
The population is about 4.6 million, or approximately 265
persons per square mile (34:1944).
The country, located in the northern part of Europe,
is one of the Scandinavian countries. It has always been
an important agricultural country although at present more
people work in industry and business than, in agriculture.
The country is comprised of the peninsula Jutland (Jylland),
an extension of the European continent, and some 480 is-
25
So it is seen that higher education, in spite of
its diversities in various parts of the world, has common
functions and purposes. As the world grows smaller and the
nations become more interested in learning from one an
other, higher education might become more significant for
the generations ahead. Maybe that was what Mayer had in
mind when he made the following statement:
Universities may help to decide our destiny. They
can become vigorous centers of culture. They can
treasure independent thinking. They can preserve not
only the vitality of the past but also anticipate the
opportunities of the future. (40:111)
Development and Structure of Higher
Education in Denmark
The Country
Denmark is one of the oldest existing monarchies in
the world, dating back to the ninth century A.D. It is a
relatively small country, about 16,600 square miles, or the
size of the combined areas of Vermont and New Hampshire.
The population is about 4.6 million, or approximately 265
persons per square mile (34:1944).
The country, located in the northern part of Europe,
is one of the Scandinavian countries. It has always been
an important agricultural country although at present more
people work in industry and business than in agriculture.
The country is comprised of the peninsula Jutland (Jylland),
an extension of the European continent, and some 480 is
26
lands of which only ninety-nine are inhabited (88:1).
Denmark has been a member of the United Nations
since 1945 and also belongs to the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO). In 1960 Denmark joined with the
United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Switzerland, and
Austria to form the European Free Trade Area (EFTA) (88:1).
The Danish language appears to originate from the
primitive Norse. It is quite distinct from English, Ger
man, and French; but it has enough in common with Norwegian
and Swedish to enable Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes to
understand each other when speaking their respective lan
guages (88:99,100).
Danish Government
Denmark is a constitutional monarchy. The absolute
monarchy was abolished and parliamentary democracy intro
duced with the constitution of June 5, 1849. Most of the
provisions of that constitution are still in force, al
though it has been revised four times, moist recently on
June 5, 1953 (88:141-142).
The constitution declares that the legislative
power is vested jointly in the king and the parliament
(Folketinget), the executive power in the king, and the
judicial power in the courts. It also declares that the
king holds the supreme authority in all national affairs
and exercises it through his ministers, who thus become, as
26
lands of which only ninety-nine are inhabited (88:1).
Denmark has been a member of the United Nations
since 1945 and also belongs to the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO). In 1960 Denmark joined with the
United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Switzerland, and
Austria to form the European Free Trade Area (EFTA) (88:1).
The Danish language appears to originate from the
primitive Norse. It is quite distinct from English, Ger
man, and French; but it has enough in common with Norwegian
and Swedish to enable Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes to
understand each other when speaking their respective lan
guages (88:99,100).
Danish Government
Denmark is a constitutional monarchy. The absolute
monarchy was abolished and parliamentary democracy intro
duced with the constitution of June 5, 1849. Most of the
provisions of that constitution are still in force, al
though it has been revised four times, moist recently on
June 5, 1953 (88:141-142).
The constitution declares that the legislative
power is vested jointly in the king and the parliament
(Folketinget), the executive power in the king, and the
judicial power in the courts. It also declares that the
king holds the supreme authority in all national affairs
and exercises it through his ministers, who thus become, as
27
agents of the Crown, the real holders of the executive
power (88:142) .
Altogether there are eighteen ministries, among
which is the Ministry of Education. This ministry is re
sponsible for legislation and administration of education
in general. It is organized in a department of general
education, a department of higher education and interna
tional relations, a department of vocational education, and
three educational directorates of, respectively, primary
schools and teachers' training colleges, secondary schools,
and youth education. Although the system of higher educa
tion in Denmark is under the supervision of the Danish
Ministry of Education, each institution enjoys considerable
autonomy (8:23-24) .
Origin of Higher Education
in Denmark
Higher education in Denmark dates back to 1479 when
the University of Copenhagen opened its doors to seventy-
nine students. Prior to that time King Erik of Pommern in
1419 had obtained permission from the Pope to establish a
university in any one of the Scandinavian countries. How
ever, circumstances beyond his control prevented him from
carrying out his plans.
Thus the University of Copenhagen was founded under
a Bull granted by Pope Sextus IV, issued in 1475 on peti-
27
agents of the Crown, the real holders of the executive
power (88:142).
Altogether there are eighteen ministries, among
which is the Ministry of Education. This ministry is re
sponsible for legislation and administration of education
in general. It is organized in a department of general
education, a department of higher education and interna
tional relations, a department of vocational education, and
three educational directorates of, respectively, primary
schools and teachers' training colleges, secondary schools,
and youth education. Although the system of higher educa
tion in Denmark is under the supervision of the Danish
Ministry of Education, each institution enjoys considerable
autonomy (8:23-24).
Origin of Higher Education
m Denmark
Higher education in Denmark dates back to 1479 when
the University of Copenhagen opened its doors to seventy-
nine students. Prior to that time King Erik of Pommern in
1419 had obtained permission from the Pope to establish a
university in any one of the Scandinavian countries. How
ever, circumstances beyond his control prevented him from
carrying out his plans.
Thus the University of Copenhagen was founded under
a Bull granted by Pope Sextus IV, issued in 1475 on peti-
28
tion of King Christian I. The Bull runs in a form not un
usual at this period: it authorizes the primate, the arch
bishop of Lund, to erect a "studium generale" in any place
selected by the king, to frame statutes for it, and to make
the bishop of the diocese the chancellor. In 1478 the uni
versity was placed in Copenhagen, which had been the capi
tal of the kingdom since 1443. In 1479 a code of statutes
was promulgated by the archbishop, and the university was
a reality (58:299-300).
There were not many universities in existence in
Europe at that time. The universities in Bologna and Paris
were established during the eleventh century. During the
twelfth century followed Oxford, Cambridge, and Montpellier.
The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries saw the establish
ment of Parma, Padua, Rome, Vienna, Napoli, Toulouse, and
a few others. During the fifteenth century some twenty
universities were founded in various parts of Europe, and
among them was the University of Copenhagen (92:186).
The University of Copenhagen
At the time of its foundation the University of
Copenhagen was very poorly endowed, and during its first
years it was heavily involved in political as well as reli
gious strife which almost paralyzed its activities. As a
result, the university had almost ceased to function at the
time of the Reformation (7:3).
28
tion of King Christian I. The Bull runs in a form not un
usual at this period: it authorizes the primate, the arch
bishop of Lund, to erect a "studium generale" in any place
selected by the king, to frame statutes for it, and to make
the bishop of the diocese the chancellor. In 1478 the uni
versity was placed in Copenhagen, which had been the capi
tal of the kingdom since 1443. In 1479 a code of statutes
was promulgated by the archbishop, and the university was
a reality (58:299-300).
There were not many universities in existence in
Europe at that time. The universities in Bologna and Paris
were established during the eleventh century. During the
twelfth century followed Oxford, Cambridge, and Montpellier.
The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries saw the establish
ment of Parma, Padua, Rome, Vienna, Napoli, Toulouse, and
a few others. During the fifteenth century some twenty
universities were founded in various parts of Europe, and
among them was the University of Copenhagen (92:186).
The University of Copenhagen
At the time of its foundation the University of
Copenhagen was very poorly endowed, and during its first
years it was heavily involved in political as well as reli
gious strife which almost paralyzed its activities. As a
result, the university had almost ceased to function at the
time of the Reformation (7:3).
29
In the fall of 1536, after the Reformation had been
successfully completed in Denmark, the king, Christian III,
took action to reestablish the University of Copenhagen.
He found that this was urgently needed for the furtherance
of the new church, and in this he was encouraged by a let
ter from Martin Luther himself. The university reopened
on October 28, 1537 (61:45-63).
It was almost two years, however, before the uni
versity charter was written up. On June 10, 1539, the king
placed his seal upon the original charter and signed it
together with twenty-two of his councilmen. This document,
which was written in Latin on parchment, is still kept in
the archives of the University of Copenhagen. Its title is
Fundatio Et Ordinatio Vniversalis Scholae Haffniensis, and
it contains detailed stipulations concerning the activities
of the university with all of its rights and privileges.
This is the foundation upon which the university rested for
approximately 200 years and many of its rules are still in
force (50:9-70).
Naturally, the university was not complete from the
very beginning. Buildings were old, students were few, and
the financial situation was extremely poor. But each new
king seemed to be interested in improvements. During the
reign of King Frederik II the finances were greatly im
proved, and in 1601, during the reign of King Christian IV,
29
In the fall of 1536, after the Reformation had been
successfully completed in Denmark, the king, Christian III,
took action to reestablish the University of Copenhagen.
He found that this was urgently needed for the furtherance
of the new church, and in this he was encouraged by a let
ter from Martin Luther himself. The university reopened
on October 28, 1537 (61:45-63).
It was almost two years, however, before the uni
versity charter was written up. On June 10, 1539, the king
placed his seal upon the original charter and signed it
together with twenty-two of his councilmen. This document,
which was written in Latin on parchment, is still kept in
the archives of the University of Copenhagen. Its title is
Fundatio Et Ordinatio Vniversalis Scholae Haffniensis, and
it contains detailed stipulations concerning the activities
of the university with all of its rights and privileges.
This is the foundation upon which the university rested for
approximately 200 years and many of its rules are still in
force (50:9-70).
Naturally, the university was not complete from the
very beginning. Buildings were old, students were few, and
the financial situation was extremely poor. But each new
king seemed to be interested in improvements. During the
reign of King Frederik II the finances were greatly im
proved, and in 1601, during the reign of King Christian IV,
30
new buildings were erected, library facilities were im
proved, the number of teachers was increased, and the orig
inal charter was revised (50:71-96).
In 1728, when the Great Fire ravaged the old city
of Copenhagen, most of the university buildings, including
the library with its irreplaceable collection of books,
were destroyed. The university was rebuilt, and in 1736
the Faculty of Law was added to the university. Later in
the eighteenth century, by the new charter of May 7, 1788,
the Faculties of Medicine and Arts were established. Fi
nally, in 1850 the Science Department of the Faculty of
Arts became the independent Faculty of Science, thus estab
lishing the five faculties of the university still in ef
fect: the Faculty of Theology? the Faculty of Law (and
Economics); the Faculty of Medicine; the Faculty of Arts
(sometimes called Faculty of Humanities)? and the Faculty
of Science (7:3-4).
Originally the University of Copenhagen was an in
dependent institution maintained by special endowments, but
from the middle of the nineteenth century the costs of its
upkeep have been borne by the state. Administratively, the
university comes under the Ministry of Education, although
it has recognized extensive autonomy. Its authorities are
the University Council, the Governing Body, the Vice-
Chancellor, the Curator, and the faculties. The University
30
new buildings were erected, library facilities were im
proved, the number of teachers was increased, and the orig
inal charter was revised (50:71-96).
In 1728, when the Great Fire ravaged the old city
of Copenhagen, most of the university buildings, including
the library with its irreplaceable collection of books,
were destroyed. The university was rebuilt, and in 1736
the Faculty of Law was added to the university. Later in
the eighteenth century, by the new charter of May 7, 1788,
the Faculties of Medicine and Arts were established. Fi
nally, in 1850 the Science Department of the Faculty of
Arts became the independent Faculty of Science, thus estab
lishing the five faculties of the university still in ef
fect: the Faculty of Theology; the Faculty of Law (and
Economics); the Faculty of Medicine; the Faculty of Arts
(sometimes called Faculty of Humanities); and the Faculty
of Science (7:3-4).
Originally the University of Copenhagen was an in
dependent institution maintained by special endowments, but
from the middle of the nineteenth century the costs of its
upkeep have been borne by the state. Administratively, the
university comes under the Ministry of Education, although
it has recognized extensive autonomy. Its authorities are
the University Council, the Governing Body, the Vice-
Chancellor, the Curator, and the faculties. The University
31
Council, comprising the professors and some of the lec
turers, elects the Vice-Chancellor for two years, with .
eligibility for reelection? the same council also elects
fifteen members to serve on the Governing Body. Ex officio
members of the Governing Body are the deputy Vice-Chancellor
and the chairmen of the faculties. The Curator is ap
pointed by the king on the recommendation of the Minister
of Education. The Vice-Chancellor directs the academic
affairs of the university and also represents it externally.
His authority is in certain cases subject to the decisions
of the Governing Body. The Curator is in charge of the
financial administration, though certain matters are de
cided by the Vice-Chancellor and the Curator jointly
(88:248-249).
In accordance with the statutes of the University
of Copenhagen, a professor has a twofold task: to do re
search and to teach the students. As a result, the scope
of the professor's lectures will often extend far beyond
what actually is required for examinations. The routine
class work and laboratory exercises are usually left to the
junior members of the staff, i.e., the lecturers, assis
tants, and manuductors (7:5).
Study at the University of Copenhagen is in the
main free. Attendance at lectures is to a large extent
voluntary, and there is no prescribed period of time for
31
Council, comprising the professors and some of the lec
turers, elects the Vice-Chancellor for two years, with .
eligibility for reelection; the same council also elects
fifteen members to serve on the Governing Body. Ex officio
members of the Governing Body are the deputy Vice-Chancellor
and the chairmen of the faculties. The Curator is ap
pointed by the king on the recommendation of the Minister
of Education. The Vice-Chancellor directs the academic
affairs of the university and also represents it externally.
His authority is in certain cases subject to the decisions
of the Governing Body. The Curator is in charge of the
financial administration, though certain matters are de
cided by the Vice-Chancellor and the Curator jointly
(88:248-249).
In accordance with the statutes of the University
of Copenhagen, a professor has a twofold task: to do re
search and to teach the students. As a result, the scope
of the professor's lectures will often extend far beyond
what actually is required for examinations. The routine
class work and laboratory exercises are usually left to the
junior members of the staff, i.e., the lecturers, assis
tants, and manuductors (7:5).
Study at the University of Copenhagen is in the
main free. Attendance at lectures is to a large extent
voluntary, and there is no prescribed period of time for
32
which a student must have been enrolled before sitting for
his examinations; he may choose to take any examination
whenever he feels adequately prepared for it. Degrees are
based solely on the performance of the required examina
tions- . The period of study for the various degrees thus
becomes difficult to assess. In the case of medical study,
the average is seven to eight years from the time of ma
triculation, and it is generally a little less in the other
faculties (88:253).
The University of Aarhus
The idea of a second university to be located in
Jutland had been frequently considered over the centuries
but did not take concrete shape until the year 1919 when
the Minister of Education on October 13 appointed a commit
tee to investigate the possibilities for establishing such
an institution. This committee did a thorough study which
lasted for six years, and in 1925 it submitted its report
together with a unanimous recommendation that a university
be established in Jutland at the earliest possible date.
Some of the findings upon which they built their recommen
dation were the following:
1. University of Copenhagen has become too large
(3,923 students during the academic year 1923-24).
2. The population has expressed a strong desire for
a new university.
3. A new university will strengthen the possibilities
32
which a student must have been enrolled before sitting for
his examinations; he may choose to take any examination
whenever he feels adequately prepared for it. Degrees are
based solely on the performance of the required examina
tions- . The period of study for the various degrees thus
becomes difficult to assess. In the case of medical study,
the average is seven to eight years from the time of ma
triculation, and it is generally a little less in the other
faculties (88:253) .
The University of Aarhus
The idea of a second university to be located in
Jutland had been frequently considered over the centuries
but did not take concrete shape until the year 1919 when
the Minister of Education on October 13 appointed a commit
tee to investigate the possibilities for establishing such
an institution. This committee did a thorough study which
lasted for six years, and in 1925 it submitted its report
together with a unanimous recommendation that a university
be established in Jutland at the earliest possible date.
Some of the findings upon which they built their recommen
dation were the following:
1. University of Copenhagen has become too large
(3,923 students during the academic year 1923-24).
2. The population has expressed a strong desire for
a new university.
3. A new university will strengthen the possibilities
for better research through some friendly com
petition.
4. The establishment of a university in Jutland will
make for a better understanding between the cul
tural functions of the capital and those of" the
rest of the country.
The committee were unanimous in their decision
about the establishment of a new university? however, in
regard to its location they were divided. Some of them
suggested that it be placed in Viborg, which is an old
it
capital of the country, while the majority suggested Aarhus
as the new university center, because of its being the
largest city in Jutland and also the most centrally lo^-
cated (92:8-31).
In the meantime the City Council of Aarhus and a
group of interested citizens calling itself the University
Association, which was formed in 1921, had made plans for
some type of university education to take place in Aarhus.
The Ministry of Education found it financially impossible
to establish a university in Jutland after it received the
committee's report in 1925, but it was willing to permit an
experimental program sponsored by the City Council of
Aarhus and the University Association. This led to the
foundation of an institution which was named the University
Education in Jutland. From its start the institution was
a nonprofit organization whose primary purpose was to ad
minister the university education in Aarhus. Its executive
for better research through some friendly com
petition.
4. The establishment of a university in Jutland will
make for a better understanding between the cul
tural functions of the capital and those of ~ the
rest of the country.
The committee were unanimous in their decision
about the establishment of a new university? however, in
regard to its location they were divided. Some of them
suggested that it be placed in Viborg, which is an old
i t
capital of the country, while the majority suggested Aarhus
as the new university center, because of its being the
largest city in Jutland and also the most centrally lo
cated (92:8-31).
In the meantime the City Council of Aarhus and a
group of interested citizens calling itself the University
Association, which was formed in 1921, had made plans for
some type of university education to take place in Aarhus.
The Ministry of Education found it financially impossible
to establish a university in Jutland after it received the
committee's report in 1925, but it was willing to permit an
experimental program sponsored by the City Council of
Aarhus and the University Association. This led to the
foundation of an institution which was named the University
Education in Jutland. From its start the institution was
a nonprofit organization whose primary purpose was to ad
minister the university education in Aarhus. Its executive
34
committee was to consist of seven members, three of them
chosen by the City Council, three by the University Asso
ciation, and the seventh by the faculty (22:21-42).
On September 11, 1928, the new university commenced
its instructional program in facilities rented from a tech
nical school in Aarhus. Sixty-four students had matricu
lated, and five professors had been hired to carry on the
academic work. The institution was financed by the City of
Aarhus, and everything was on an experimental basis. How
ever, the University Association showed considerable faith
in the project, and its members worked untiringly on its
consolidation and expansion. The following spring, 1929,
a large piece of land was acquired on which to erect build
ings for the university; and the first buildings to be
erected were financed entirely by private donations. At
the end of the three-year experimental program in 1931, the
university program was so well established that the Minis
try of Education recommended its continuance, and a law was
passed to that effect. As the program was improved year by
year another law was passed in 1937 concerning the univer
sity. This law changed the name of the institution to Uni
versity of Aarhus. It also provided state aid for both
operational purpose and capital outlay; but the university
kept its autonomy and remained a private institution
(6:169-177).
34
committee was to consist of seven members, three of them
chosen by the City Council, three by the University Asso
ciation, and the seventh by the faculty (22:21-42).
On September 11, 1928, the new university commenced
its instructional program in facilities rented from a tech
nical school in Aarhus. Sixty-four students had matricu
lated, and five professors had been hired to carry on the
academic work. The institution was financed by the City of
Aarhus, and everything was on an experimental basis. How
ever, the University Association showed considerable faith
in the project, and its members worked untiringly on its
consolidation and expansion. The following spring, 1929,
a large piece of land was acquired on which to erect build
ings for the university; and the first buildings to be
erected were financed entirely by private donations. At
the end of the three-year experimental program in 1931, the
university program was so well established that the Minis
try of Education recommended its continuance, and a law was
passed to that effect. As the program was improved year by
year another law was passed in 1937 concerning the univer
sity. This law changed the name of the institution to Uni
versity of Aarhus. It also provided state aid for both
operational purpose and capital outlay; but the university
kept its autonomy and remained a private institution
(6:169-177).
35
During the German occupation of Denmark, from 1940
to 1945, the development of the University of Aarhus was
greatly hampered. The Germans took over part of the new
buildings as their headquarters for Jutland, and this re
sulted in the bombing and destruction of most of the uni
versity by the allied foroes in October of 1944. The
architect for the university happened to be at the scene
during the bombing, and he was buried under one of the de
stroyed buildings. Fortunately, he was rescued, and after
he recovered, he was able to supervise the rebuilding, and
also, for several years after the war was over, was in
charge of the building program as the university was ex
panding (22:118).
Since 1962 the University of Aarhus has had com
plete university status on the same basis as the University
of Copenhagen and also has the same basic five faculties.
The Board of Management (Universitetsbestyrelsen) now con
sists of eight members. Three of these are elected by the
City Council and three by the University Association; in
addition the Vice-Chancellor (Rektor) and the Deputy Vice-
Chancellor (Prorektor) are members. The board administers
university allocations and reserves, is responsible for
general financial matters, and makes provision for expan
sion and development. A business manager is in charge of
the day-to-day business transactions. The Vice-Chancellor
35
During the German occupation of Denmark, from 1940
to 1945, the development of the University of Aarhus was
greatly hampered. The Germans took over part of the new
buildings as their headquarters for Jutland, and this re
sulted in the bombing and destruction of most of the uni
versity by the allied foroes in October of 1944. The
architect for the university happened to be at the scene
during the bombing, and he was buried under one of the de
stroyed buildings. Fortunately, he was rescued, and after
he recovered, he was able to supervise the rebuilding, and
also, for several years after the war was over, was in
charge of the building program as the university was ex
panding (22:118).
Since 1962 the University of Aarhus has had com
plete university status on the same basis as the University
of Copenhagen and also has the same basic five faculties.
The Board of Management (Universitetsbestyrelsen) now con
sists of eight members. Three of these are elected by the
City Council and three by the University Association; in
addition the Vice-Chancellor (Rektor) and the Deputy Vice-
Chancellor (Prorektor) are members. The board administers
university allocations and reserves, is responsible for
general financial matters, and makes provision for expan
sion and development. A business manager is in charge of
the day-to-day business transactions. The Vice-Chancellor
is the chairman of the board and also academic head of the
university. The University Council (Den Akademiske Laerer-
forsamling), comprising the members of all the faculties,
elects the Vice-Chancellor and the Deputy Vice-Chancellor.
This council may also make policies that are of general
interest to the university. However, as far as academic
affairs are concerned, the Governing Body (Konsistorium),
which consists of the Vice-Chancellor, the Deputy Vice-
Chancellor, the chairmen of the faculties (Dekaner), and a
number of members of the faculties elected for four year
terms, is the supreme authority (88:256).
The University of•Odense
In June, 1962, the Minister of Education appointed
a committee to study the needs for further developments in
the establishment of new universities in Denmark. The com
mittee reported in December of 1963 that, based on its
studies of the prognoses of future influx of students to
the two existing universities, there clearly is a need to
establish more faculties to relieve the pressure. The rec
ommendation of the committee was to establish such facul
ties as they were needed, and that the most urgent needs at
present were for a new Faculty of Medicine and a Faculty of
Arts and Sciences (97:23-24).
This report led to the passing of the law of June 4,
1964, concerning the University of Odense. This law
is the chairman of the board and also academic head of the
university. The University Council (Den Akademiske Laerer-
forsamling), comprising the members of all the faculties,
elects the Vice-Chancellor and the Deputy Vice-Chancellor.
This council may also make policies that are of general
interest to the university. However, as far as academic
affairs are concerned, the Governing Body (Konsistorium),
which consists of the Vice-Chancellor, the Deputy Vice-
Chancellor, the chairmen of the faculties (Dekaner), and a
number of members of the faculties elected for four year
terms, is the supreme authority (88:256).
The University of•Odense
In June, 1962, the Minister of Education appointed
a committee to study the needs for further developments in
the establishment of new universities in Denmark. The com
mittee reported in December of 1963 that, based on its
studies of the prognoses of future influx of students to
the two existing universities, there clearly is a need to
establish more faculties to relieve the pressure. The rec
ommendation of the committee was to establish such facul
ties as they were needed, and that the most urgent needs at
present were for a new Faculty of Medicine and a Faculty of
Arts and Sciences (97:23-24).
This report led to the passing of the law of June 4,
1964, concerning the University of Odense. This law
authorizes the Minister of Education to take action immedi-
%
ately to establish a university in Odense. It furthermore
provides for the establishment of a permanent Planning
Council for Higher Education in Denmark with the purpose of
giving continuous study to the needs and developments in
all areas of higher education in the future (102:1).
The new University of Odense started its academic
functions in the fall of 1964 with a medical faculty. Con
currently, the Ministry of Education was working on a
charter for the University of Odense. The purpose of the
university is research and teaching. It is tentatively
established with two faculties: the Faculty of Medicine
and the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. It is a state insti
tution under the authority of the Ministry of Education,
-and its•administrative pattern follows that of the Univer
sity of Copenhagen (109:1-4).
Other Institutions of
Higher Learning
As previously mentioned, in Denmark higher educa
tion is not confined to the universities. Several other
institutions have the same status as well as similar func
tions in their specific fields. The Royal Academy of Fine
Arts dates back to the year 1754, and the Royal Danish
Music Conservatory to 1827. Next to the University of
Copenhagen, these are the oldest institutions of higher
authorizes the Minister of Education to take action immedi-
0
ately to establish a university in Odense. It furthermore
provides for the establishment of a permanent Planning
Council for Higher Education in Denmark with the purpose of
giving continuous study to the needs and developments in
all areas of higher education in the future (102:1).
The new University of Odense started its academic
functions in the fall of 1964 with a medical faculty. Con
currently, the Ministry of Education was working on a
charter for the University of Odense. The purpose of the
university is research and teaching. It is tentatively
established with two faculties: the Faculty of Medicine
and the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. It is a state insti
tution under the authority of the Ministry of Education,
-and its administrative pattern follows that of the Univer
sity of Copenhagen (109:1-4).
Other Institutions of
Higher Learning
As previously mentioned, in Denmark higher educa
tion is not confined to the universities. Several other
institutions have the same status as well as similar func
tions in their specific fields. The Royal Academy of Fine
Arts dates back to the year 1754, and the Royal Danish
Music Conservatory to 1827. Next to the University of
Copenhagen, these are the oldest institutions of higher
38
education in Denmark. Another feature of these is that
they are not under the auspices of the Ministry of Educa
tion but rather under the Ministry of Cultural Affairs
(8:25) .
The Technical University of Denmark (Den Polytek-
niske Laereanstalt) was founded in 1829 by the physicist
H. C. 0rsted. During approximately the first thirty years
only chemical engineers were educated, but curricula for
building and construction engineers were added later, and
in 1906 the first graduates in electrical engineering com
pleted their studies. Graduates of the Technical Univer
sity are licensed as civil engineers, and their training is
on a highly theoretical basis. However, in 1957 a new pro
gram was started based on a more practical education. This
program is offered at the Academy of Engineers, which
shares facilities and director with the Technical Univer
sity. During the same year, 1957, a building program was
initiated to provide new facilities for the two institu
tions. Phase one of this program was completed in 1962
when both institutions moved onto the new campus situated
in a rapidly developing area about ten miles north of Co
penhagen in Lundtofte. The building program is expected to
be completed during the early 1970's and will provide some
of the finest and most modern facilities for training of
engineers found anywhere in the world (88:257-263).
38
education in Denmark. Another feature of these is that
they are not under the auspices of the Ministry of Educa
tion but rather under the Ministry of Cultural Affairs
(8:25).
The Technical University of Denmark (Den Polytek.-
niske Laereanstalt) was founded in 1829 by the physicist
H. C. 0rsted. During approximately the first thirty years
only chemical engineers were educated, but curricula for
building and construction engineers were added later, and
in 1906 the first graduates in electrical engineering com
pleted their studies. Graduates of the Technical Univer
sity are licensed as civil engineers, and their training is
on a highly theoretical basis. However, in 1957 a new pro
gram was started based on a more practical education. This
program is offered at the Academy of Engineers, which
shares facilities and director with the Technical Univer
sity. During the same year, 1957, a building program was
initiated to provide new facilities for the two institu
tions. Phase one of this program was completed in 1962
when both institutions moved onto the new campus situated
in a rapidly developing area about ten miles north of Co
penhagen in Lundtofte. The building program is expected to
be completed during the early 1970's and will provide some
of the finest and most modern facilities for training of
engineers found anywhere in the world (88:257-263) .
39
In 1858 the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural Col
lege was founded. This institution furnishes higher educa
tion in the- fields of agriculture, horticulture, forestry,
and veterinary sciences. It is governed by the Ministry of
Agriculture. Although this institution also enjoys univer
sity status, research activities are rather limited, and
the admissions requirements for students are not as strict
as at other institutions of higher learning in Denmark
(88:266-271).
Pharmaceutical training comprises a combination of
a practical and theoretical traineeship at a pharmacy plus
at least three years study at the Royal Danish College of
■ I
Pharmacy, which was founded in 1892 (88:264).
Two independent dental colleges, the Royal Dental
College in Copenhagen, founded in 1941, and the Royal Den
tal College in Aarhus, founded in 1958, are responsible for
the dental training in Denmark. Together they have a ca
pacity of approximately 200 graduates per year, and the
training lasts for five years after matriculation (88:265-
266) .
By law of February 25, 1963, the Danish College for
Graduate Studies for Elementary Teachers was given status
of higher education and its structure and functions were
reorganized. It is still under the Ministry of Education
but it enjoys the same autonomy as the universities and the
39
In 1858 the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural Col
lege was founded. This institution furnishes higher educa
tion in the fields of agriculture, horticulture, forestry,
and veterinary sciences. It is governed by the Ministry of
Agriculture. Although this institution also enjoys univer
sity status, research activities are rather limited, and
the admissions requirements for students are not as strict
as at other institutions of higher learning in Denmark
(88:266-271).
Pharmaceutical training comprises a combination of
a practical and theoretical traineeship at a pharmacy plus
at least three years study at the Royal Danish College of
. 1
Pharmacy, which was founded in 1892 (88:264).
Two independent dental colleges, the Royal Dental
College in Copenhagen, founded in 1941, and the Royal Den
tal College in Aarhus, founded in 1958, are responsible for
the dental training in Denmark. Together they have a ca
pacity of approximately 200 graduates per year, and the
training lasts for five years after matriculation (88:265-
266) .
By law of February 25, 1963, the Danish College for
Graduate Studies for Elementary Teachers was given status
of higher education and its structure and functions were
reorganized. It is still under the Ministry of Education
but it enjoys the same autonomy as the universities and the
40
other institutions of higher learning. The faculty of the
institution hold ranks similar to those of the universities,
and the college grants degrees of the same level as do
other institutions of higher education. This is the first
time in the history of higher education in Denmark that an
advanced degree has been granted in education (paedagogik)
(101:1) .
Granting of Degrees
The granting of a degree in the system of higher
education in Denmark is based upon the passing of final
examinations. These are both written and oral and are
given twice yearly. The examiners are a professor and two
external scholars (censorers) appointed by the Ministry of
Education after consultation with the faculty. The degrees
conferred after all examinations have been successfully
completed are termed Candidatus, as for example candidatus
magisterii (cand. mag.) in the'Faculty of Humanities,
candidatus medicinae in the Faculty of Medicine, candidatus
scientiarum in the Faculty of Science, candidatus theo-
logiae in the Faculty of Theology, candidatus juris in the
Faculty of Law, and candidatus polytechnices in the Techni
cal University (8:26) .
The doctor1 s degree (doctor phil'osophiae, doctor
medicinae, doctor technices, etc.) is conferred only upon
candidates who have performed a scholarly work of research
40
other institutions of higher learning. The faculty of the
institution hold ranks similar to those of the universities,
and the college grants degrees of the same level as do
other institutions of higher education. This is the first
time in the history of higher education in Denmark that an
advanced degree has been granted in education (paedagogik)
(101:1).
Granting of Degrees
The granting of a degree in the system of higher
education in Denmark is based upon the passing of final
examinations. These are both written and oral and are
given twice yearly. The examiners are a professor and two
external scholars (censorers) appointed by the Ministry of
Education after consultation with the faculty. The degrees
conferred after all examinations have been successfully
completed are termed candidatus, as for example candidatus
magisterii (cand. mag.) in the Faculty of Humanities,
candidatus medicinae in the Faculty of Medicine, candidatus
scientiarum in the Faculty of Science, candidatus theo-
logiae in the Faculty of Theology, candidatus juris in the
Faculty of Law, and candidatus polytechnices in the Techni
cal University (8:26).
The doctor1s degree (doctor philosophiae, doctor
medicinae, doctor technices, etc.) is conferred only upon
candidates who have performed a scholarly work of research
and written this up in a dissertation which must be ac
cepted by the faculty and defended during an oral examina
tion. During the oral examination two official opponents
will comment on the quality of the work and ask questions
of the candidate? and furthermore anyone else who might
wish to do so may also criticize the dissertation and ques
tion the candidate. No classwork or committee is available
for doctoral candidates, and usually it is required that
the dissertation be printed and bound in book form before
it is handed in to the faculty for evaluation (8;26-27).
To sum up this historical development of higher
education in Denmark, it should be pointed out that the
quality of education offered is probably as high as that in
any other modern system. However, due to the traditions
which have developed along with the system over the cen
turies, the whole system seems to be rather inflexible with
a great lack of articulation and communication among the
various institutions of higher learning, or even among the
faculties of each university. As a result of these condi
tions, educators, especially the younger ones, now realize
that a reevaluation and maybe even a complete restructure
of the entire system is necessary in order to meet the
needs of the students as they come to the institutions of
higher learning in ever-increasing numbers.
and written this up in a dissertation which must be ac
cepted by the faculty and defended during an oral examina
tion. During the oral examination two official opponents
will comment on the quality of the work and ask questions
of the candidate; and furthermore anyone else who might
wish to do so may also criticize the dissertation and ques-
3
tion the candidate. No classwork or committee is available
for doctoral candidates, and usually it is required that
the dissertation be printed and bound in book form before
it is handed in to the faculty for evaluation (8;26-27).
To sum up this historical development of higher
education in Denmark, it should be pointed out that the
quality of education offered is probably as high as that in
any other modern system. However, due to the traditions
which have developed along with the system over the cen
turies, the whole system seems to be rather inflexible with
a great lack of articulation and communication among the
various institutions of higher learning, or even among the
faculties of each university. As a result of these condi
tions, educators, especially the younger ones, now realize
that a reevaluation and maybe even a complete restructure
of the entire system is necessary in order to meet the
needs of the students as they come to the institutions of
higher learning in ever-increasing numbers.
CHAPTER III
PROCEDURE AND FINDINGS
Procedure
This phase of the study was based upon a survey
taken in Denmark during the summer of 1967. Realizing the
limitations caused partly by shortage of time and partly by
the fact that summer is vacation time from about June 24 to
about August 12, with no activities taking place at the in
stitutions of higher education in Denmark, the writer did
much preliminary work prior to reaching Denmark on June 13,
1967.
During the early fall of 1966 arrangements had been
made with the university libraries in Denmark in order to
ensure that resource material would be available for this
study during the summer months of 1967. Contacts were also
made with the Danish Ministry of Education through Program
Secretary Mr. Paul Lyngbye of the International Relations
Division of this ministry, and also through former Minister
of Education, Mr. K. Helveg Petersen, who at that time was
the chairman of the Planning Council for higher education
in Denmark. Both of these gentlemen showed great interest
in the study and pledged their full support. Several
42
0
CHAPTER III
PROCEDURE AND FINDINGS
Procedure
This phase of the study was based upon a survey
taken in Denmark during the summer of 1967. Realizing the
limitations caused partly by shortage of time and partly by
the fact that simmer is vacation time from about June 24 to
about August 12, with no activities taking place at the in
stitutions of higher education in Denmark, the writer did
much preliminary work prior to reaching Denmark on June 13,
1967.
During the early fall of 1966 arrangements had been
made with the university libraries in Denmark in order to
ensure that resource material would be available for this
study during the summer months of 1967. Contacts were also
made with the Danish Ministry of Education through Program
Secretary Mr. Paul Lyngbye of the International Relations
Division of this ministry, and also through former Minister
of Education, Mr. K. Helveg Petersen, who at that time was
the chairman of the Planning Council for higher education
in Denmark. Both of these gentlemen showed great interest
in the study and pledged their full support. Several
42
43
letters of information and some preliminary reports of the
work of the Planning Council for Higher Education were re
ceived from Mr. Petersen. .
On the basis of this information a brief question- “
naire was prepared and sent for printing in Denmark to be
printed in Danish. Concurrently a list of 325 names of
professional people, each one holding a degree from an in
stitution of higher education in Denmark, was prepared by
random selection with representation from all across the
nation. Some of these people were directly connected with
the universities or other institutions of higher education
as professors or administrators; others were physicians,
dentists, lawyers, and engineers in private practice; still
others were teachers in public or private secondary schools
and ministers in the state church.
The 325 questionnaires were mailed in Denmark about
two weeks prior to the beginning of the summer vacation at
the institutions for higher learning. Since the survey
method is not commonly used in Denmark, the questionnaire
was kept rather brief in the hope that more receivers would
feel encouraged to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire. However, only ninety-one usable question
naires, or 28 per cent, were returned, even after a re
minder was mailed to all recipients who had not returned it
by August 25, 1967, or about two weeks after the new school
43
• A
letters of information and some preliminary reports of the
work of the Planning Council for Higher Education were re
ceived from Mr. Petersen. .
On the basis of this information a brief question- -
naire was prepared and sent for printing in Denmark to be
printed in Danish. Concurrently a list of 325 names of
professional people, each one holding a degree from an in
stitution of higher education in Denmark, was prepared by
random selection with representation from all across the
nation. Some of these people were directly connected with
the universities or other institutions of higher education
as professors or administrators; others were physicians,
dentists, lawyers, and engineers in private practice? still
others were teachers in public or private secondary schools
and ministers in the state church.
The 325 questionnaires were mailed in Denmark about
two weeks prior to the beginning of the summer vacation at
the institutions for higher learning. Since the survey
method is not commonly used in Denmark, the questionnaire
was kept rather brief in the hope that more receivers would
feel encouraged to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire. However, only ninety-one usable question
naires, or 28 per cent, were returned, even after a re
minder was mailed to all recipients who had not returned it
by August 25, 1967, or about two weeks after the new school
44
year started. For distribution of the respondents, see
Table 1.
Of the ninety-one who returned the questionnaire,
thirty-six, or 39.5 per cent, agreed to submit themselves
to an interview for the purpose of discussing the questions
in more depth and also of getting an opportunity to ask
further questions pertaining to the study. Interviews were
conducted with all but one of the thirty-six persons, a
conflict in appointments making it impossible to reach the
thirty-sixth. Furthermore, interviews were conducted with
the administrator of the University of Aarhus, the adminis
trator and his assistant at the University of Odense, and
several key people in the Ministry of Education, among whom
was Mr. Helveg Petersen.
Seven questions were used as a basis for the inter
views. These questions were formulated as a result of some
findings in the questionnaire and of informal talks with
educators. They are found in Appendix B of this study.
Other issues were also touched on during the course of the
interviews; but most of these were so closely connected to
the questions asked either in the interview or in the ques
tionnaire that no significant new information derived from
them. The interviews lasted from about twenty minutes for
the shortest to about two and a half hours for the longest.
Most of them were taped; only a few interviewees refused to
44
year started. For distribution of the respondents, see
Table 1.
Of the ninety-one who returned the questionnaire,
thirty-six, or 39.5 per cent, agreed to submit themselves
to an interview for the purpose of discussing the questions
in more depth and also of getting an opportunity to ask
further questions pertaining to the study. Interviews were
conducted with all but one of the thirty-six persons, a
conflict in appointments making it impossible to reach the
thirty-sixth. Furthermore, interviews were conducted with
the administrator of the University of Aarhus, the adminis
trator and his assistant at the University of Odense, and
several key people in the Ministry of Education, among whom
was Mr. Helveg Petersen.
Seven questions were used as a basis for the inter
views. These questions were formulated as a result of some
findings in the questionnaire and of informal talks with
educators. They are found in Appendix B of this study.
Other issues were also touched on during the course of the
interviews; but most of these were so closely connected to
the questions asked either in the interview or in the ques
tionnaire that no significant new information derived from
them. The interviews lasted from about twenty minutes for
the shortest to about two and a half hours for the longest.
Most of them were taped; only a few interviewees refused to
45
TABLE 1
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Respondents Number Per Cent
University professors 31 35.1
Gymnasium teachers 13 14.2
Attorneys 11 12.0
Ministers of the State Church 8 8.7
Professors at Teachers' Colleges 7 7.6
Physicians - general practice 5 5.4
Dentists - general practice 5 5.4
Educational consultants 3 3.1
Engineers 2 2.1
Architects 2 2.1
Forest supervisors 2 2.1
Director of Zoo 1 1.1
College president - private college 1 1.1
Total 91 100.0
45
TABLE 1
DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Respondents Number Per Cent
University professors 31 35.1
Gymnasium teachers 13 14.2
Attorneys 11 12.0
Ministers of the State Church 8 8.7
Professors at Teachers' Colleges 7 7.6
Physicians - general practice 5 5.4
Dentists - general practice 5 5.4
Educational consultants 3 3.1
Engineers 2 2.1
Architects 2 2.1
Forest supervisors. 2 2.1
Director of Zoo 1 1.1
College president - private college 1 1.1
Total 91 100.0
46
permit the use of a tape recorder. For distribution of the
interviewees, see Table 2.
Findings from the Questionnaires
In the questionnaires the respondents indicated
their age group and their sex. The age groups were twenty-
one to thirty-five years, thirty-six to fifty years, and
over fifty years. Only three from the age group twenty-one
to thirty-five years responded, and also there were only
three responses from females. In the tabulation of re
sponses, sex was therefore not taken into consideration,
and the age groups were limited to two, namely those up to
fifty years of age and those over fifty years of age.
There were forty-five responses in the first group and
forty-six in the second. The findings of the first twenty-
one questions from the questionnaire are expressed in per
centage in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 5 is a summary of the questions from the
questionnaire about which at least two-thirds of the re
spondents were in agreement in their answers of yes and no.
This table also shows the difference in responses of the
two age groups on the same questions. In Table 6 is given
a list of questions where the answers were evenly, or al
most evenly, distributed between yes and no. Again, dis
tinction is made between the respondents under fifty years
of age and those over fifty years of age.
46
permit the use of a tape recorder. For distribution of the
interviewees, see Table 2.
Findings from the Questionnaires
In the questionnaires the respondents indicated
their age group and their sex. The age groups were twenty-
one to thirty-five years, thirty-six to fifty years, and
over fifty years. Only three from the age group twenty-one
to thirty-five years responded, and also there were only
three responses from females. In the tabulation of re
sponses, sex was therefore not taken into consideration,
and the age groups were limited to two, namely those up to
fifty years of age and those over fifty years of age.
There were forty-five responses in the first group and
forty-six in the second. The findings of the first twenty-
one questions from the questionnaire are expressed in per
centage in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 5 is a summary of the questions from the
questionnaire about which at least two-thirds of the re
spondents were in agreement in their answers of yes and no.
This table also shows the difference in responses of the
two age groups on the same questions. In Table 6 is given
a list of questions where the answers were evenly, or al
most evenly, distributed between yes and no. Again, dis
tinction is made between the respondents under fifty years
of age and those over fifty years of age.
47
TABLE 2
DISTRIBUTION OF INTERVIEWEES
Interviewee Number Per Cent
University professors 14 40.0
Gymnasium teachers 1 2.8
Attorneys 3 8.6
Ministers of the State Church 5 14.3
Professors at Teachers' Colleges 3 8.6
Physicians - general practice 3 8.6
Dentists - general practice 2 5.7
Educational consultants 1 2.8
Forest supervisors 1 2.8
Director of Zoo 1 2.8
College president - private college 1 2.8
. Total 35 99.8
I
47
S
TABLE 2
DISTRIBUTION OF INTERVIEWEES
Interviewee Number Per Cent
University professors 14 40.0
Gymnasium teachers 1 2.8
Attorneys 3 8.6
Ministers of the State Church 5 14.3
Professors at Teachers' Colleges 3 8.6
Physicians - general practice 3 8.6
Dentists - general practice 2 5.7
Educational consultants 1 2.8
Forest supervisors 1 2.8
Director of Zoo 1 2.8
College president - private college 1 2.8
Total 35 99.8
48
TABLE 3
RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE
IN THE AGE GROUP 21-50 YEARS OF AGE
(Given in Percentage)
Question Yes Undecided No
1. Are the institutions of higher
learning in Denmark meeting
the needs of the people as
far as variety of preparation
is concerned? 60.0 13.3 26.7
2. Should students with quali
fications other than the
matriculation examination
(studentereksamen) be admitted
to the institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 77.9 4.4 17.7
3. Is there a significant short
age of academic manpower in
the academic professions in
Denmark? 60.0 20.0 20.0
4. Should a certain level of
scholarship (G.P.A) be pre
sented as basis for acceptance
(reacceptance yearly) into the
institutions of higher
learning? 60.0 8.9 31.1
5. As the institutions of higher
learning increase the number
of students accepted, will it
be possible to finance the
program of higher education
under the present structure? 66.7 28.9 4.4
6. Will it be possible to find
enough qualified teachers for
the institutions of higher
education as the enrollment
increases? 49.0 26.7 24.3
48
TABLE 3
RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE
IN THE AGE GROUP 21-50 YEARS OF AGE
(Given iii Percentage)
Question Yes Undecided No
1. Are the institutions of higher
learning in Denmark meeting
the needs of the people as
far as variety of preparation
is concerned? 60.0 13.3 26.7
2. Should students with quali
fications other than the
matriculation examination
(studentereksamen) be admitted
to the institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 77.9 4.4 17.7
3. Is there a significant short
age of academic manpower in
the academic professions in
Denmark? 60.0 20.0 20.0
4. Should a certain level of
scholarship (G.P.A) be pre
sented as basis for acceptance
(reacceptance yearly) into the
institutions of higher
learning? 60.0 8.9 31.1
5. As the institutions of higher
learning increase the number
of students accepted, will it
be possible to finance the
program of higher education
under the present structure? 66.7 28.9 4.4
6. Will it be possible to find
enough qualified teachers for
the institutions of higher
education as the enrollment
increases? 49.0 26.7 24.3
49
TABLE 3— Continued
Question Yes Undecided No
7. Would it be better if the
administration of higher
education in Denmark was
decentralized?
8. Do you see any value in
having private institutions
of higher learning governed
by a private board of
trustees?
9. Would you favor tuition paid
by the students at the state
institutions of higher
learning in Denmark?
10. Are there any special prob
lems in connection with the
fact that higher education
in Denmark is a function of
the state?
11. Do you believe it would be
desirable to have a larger
percentage of the population
attend institutions of higher
learning in the future than
has been the case in the past? 80.0 4.4 15.6
12. Would you favor large uni
versities (5,000 students or
more) with student housing
connected with these? 13.3 26.7 60.0
13. Should the institutions of
higher learning provide
recreational facilities and
supervision for the students
living in student housing 6.6 4.4 89.0
14. Should the teachers in the
institutions of higher
learning show an interest in
their students outside of the
17.7 53.3 29.0
11.1 8.9 80.0
6.6 4.4 89.0
22.2 13.3 64.5
49
TABLE 3— Continued
Question Yes Undecided No
7. Would it be better if the
administration of higher
education in Denmark was
decentralized? 17.7 53.3 29.0
8. Do you see any value in
having private institutions
of higher learning governed
by a private board of
trustees? 11.1 8.9 80.0
9. Would you favor tuition paid
by the students at the state
institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 6.6 4.4 89.0
10. Are there any special prob
lems in connection with the
fact that higher education - -
in Denmark is a function of
the state? 22.2 13.3 64.5
11. Do you believe it would be
desirable to have a larger
percentage of the population
attend institutions of higher
learning in the future than
has been the case in the past? 80.0 4.4 15.6
12. Would you favor large uni
versities (5,000 students or
more) with student housing
connected with these? 13.3 26.7 60.0
13. Should the institutions of
higher learning provide
recreational facilities and
supervision for the students
living in student housing 6.6 4.4 89.0
14. Should the teachers in the
institutions of higher
learning show an interest in
their students outside of the
50
TABLE 3— Continued
Question Yes Undecided No
academic endeavors, such as
for example, students' char
acter development, etc.? 49.0 15.6 35.4
15. Should the education for
prospective teachers and
prospective researchers be
essentially the same? 35.5 37.8 26.7
16. Overall, are the course
offerings of the institu
tions of higher learning
in Denmark keeping up with
modern developments? 37.8 28.9 33.3
17. Do you see merit in the in
stitutions of higher learning
offering a lower academic
degree than is now the case,
maybe similar to what is done
in other countries? (B.A.
and B.S.) 62.2 15.6 22.2
00
•
Should class attendance be
required in institutions of
higher learning in Denmark? 37.8 8.9 53.3
19. Do the students in the in
stitutions of higher learn
ing in Denmark have access
to adequate library
facilities? 86.7 6.7 6.7
20. Do you feel that too much
significance is placed upon
final examinations at the
institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 6.7 17.8 75.5
21. Is the effectiveness of a
modern democracy dependent
upon the quality of its sys
tem of higher education? 80.0 13.3 6.7
<
50
TABLE 3— Continued
Question Yes Undecided No
academic endeavors, such as
for example, students' char
acter development, etc.? 49.0 15.6 35.4
15. Should the education for
prospective teachers and
prospective researchers be
essentially the same? 35.5 37.8 26.7
16. Overall, are the course
offerings of the institu
tions of higher learning
in Denmark keeping up with
modern developments? 37.8 28.9 33.3
17. Do you see merit in the in
stitutions of higher learning
offering a lower academic
degree than is now the case,
maybe similar to what is done
in other countries? (B.A.
and B.S.) 62.2 15.6 22.2
18. Should class attendance be
required in institutions of
higher learning in Denmark? 37.8 8.9 53.3
19. Do the students in the in
stitutions of higher learn
ing in Denmark have access
to adequate library
facilities? 86.7 6.7 6.7
20. Do you feel that too much
significance is placed upon
final examinations at the
institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 6.7 17.8 75.5
21. Is the effectiveness of a
modern democracy dependent
upon the quality of its sys
tem of higher education? 80.0 13.3 6.7
<
51
TABLE 4
RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE
IN THE AGE GROUP OVER 50 YEARS OF AGE
(Given in Percentage)
Question Yes Undecided No
1. Are the institutions of higher
learning in Denmark meeting
the needs of the people as far
as variety of preparation is
concerned? 65.2 13.0 21.8
2. Should students with qualifi
cations other than the ma
triculation examination
(studentereksamen) be admitted
to the institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 84.8 6.5 8.7
3. Is there a significant short
age of academic manpower in
the academic professions in
Denmark? 37.0 34.7 2 8.3
4. Should a certain level of
scholarship (G.P.A) be pre
sented as basis for accep
tance (reacceptance yearly)
into the institutions of
higher learning? 41.3 17.4 41.3
5. As the institutions of higher
learning increase the number
of students accepted, will it
be possible to finance the
program of higher education
under the present structure? 54.4 39.1 6.5
6. Will it be possible to find
enough qualified teachers
for the institutions of
higher education as the en
rollment increases? 27.0 44.7 38.3
51
TABLE 4
RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE
IN THE AGE GROUP OVER 50 YEARS OF AGE
(Given in Percentage)
Question Yes Undecided No
1. Are the institutions of higher
learning in Denmark meeting
the needs of the people as far
as variety of preparation is
concerned? 65.2 13.0 21.8
2. Should students with qualifi
cations other than the ma
triculation examination
(studentereksamen) be admitted
to the institutions of higher
learning in Denmark?
3. Is there a significant short
age of academic manpower in
the academic professions in
Denmark?
4. Should a certain level of
scholarship (G.P.A) be pre
sented as basis for accep
tance (reacceptance yearly)
into the institutions of
higher learning?
5. As the institutions of higher
learning increase the number
of students accepted, will it
be possible to finance the
program of higher education
under the present structure?
6. Will it be possible to find
enough qualified teachers
for the institutions of
higher education as the en
rollment increases?
84.8 6.5 8.7
37.0 34.7 28.3
41.3 17.4 41.3
54.4 39.1 6.5
27.0 44.7 38.3
« V
TABLE 4— Continued
52
Question Yes Undecided No
7. Would it be better if the
administration of higher
education-in Denmark was
decentralized? 41.3 31.8 26.9
8. Do you see any value in
having private institutions
of higher learning governed
by a private board of
trustees? 8.7 26.9 64.4
9. Would you favor tuition paid
by the students at the state
institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 4.3
10. Are there any special prob
lems in connection with the
fact that higher education
in Denmark is a function of
the state? 15.2
11. Do you believe it would be
desirable to have a larger
percentage of the population
attend institutions of higher
learning in the future than
has been the case in the past? 5 8.7
12. Would you favor large uni
versities (5,000 students or
more) with student housing
connected with these? 19.6
13. Should the institutions of
higher learning provide
recreational facilities and
supervision for the students
living in student housing? 4.3
14. Should the teachers in the
institutions of higher
learning show an interest in
their students outside of the
academic endeavors, such as
4.3 9.14
15.2 69.6
8.7 32.6
15.2 65.2
6.5 89.2
TABLE 4— Continued
Question Yes Undecided No
7. Would it be better if the
administration of higher
education-in Denmark was
decentralized? 41.3 31.8 26.9
8. Do you see any value in
having private institutions
of higher learning governed
by a private board of
trustees? 8.7
9. Would you favor tuition paid
by the students at the state
institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 4.3
10. Are there any special prob
lems in connection with the
fact that higher education
in Denmark is a function of
the state? 15.2
11. Do you believe it would be
desirable to have a larger
percentage of the population
attend institutions of higher
learning in the future than
has been the case in the past? 58.7
12. Would you favor large uni
versities (5,000 students or
more) with student housing
connected with these? 19.6
13. Should the institutions of
higher learning provide
recreational facilities and
supervision for the students
living in student housing? 4.3
14. Should the teachers in the
institutions of higher
learning show an interest in
their students outside of the
academic endeavors, such as
26.9 64.4
4.3 9.14
15.2 69.6
8.7 32.6
15.2 65.2
6.5 89.2
TABLE 4— -Continued
Question Yes Undecided No
for example, students' char
acter development, etc.? 34.8 0 65.2
15. Should the education for
prospective teachers and
prospective researchers be
essentially the same? 57.9 26.9 15.2
16. Overall, are the course
offerings of the institu
tions of higher learning
in Denmark keeping up with
modern developments? 57.9 15.2 26.9
17. Do you see merit in the in
stitutions of higher learning
offering a lower academic
degree than is now the case,
maybe similar to what is done
in other countries? (B.A.
and B.S.) 39.1 31.8 39.1
18. Should class attendance be
required in institutions of
higher learning in Denmark? 27.0 8.7 65.3
19. Do the students in the in
stitutions of higher learn
ing in Denmark have access
to adequate library
facilities? 86.9 8.7 4.4
20. Do you feel that too much
significance is placed upon
final examinations at the
institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 6.5 6.5 86.9
21. Is the effectiveness of a
modern democracy dependent
upon the quality of its Sys
tem of higher education? 71.8 15.2 13.0
TABLE 4--Continued
53
Question Yes Undecided No
for example, students' char
acter development, etc.? 34.8 0 65.2
15. Should the education for
prospective teachers and
prospective researchers be
essentially the same? 57.9 26.9 15.2
16. Overall, are the course
offerings of the institu
tions of higher learning
in Denmark keeping up with
modern developments? 57.9 15.2 26.9
17. Do you see merit in the in
stitutions of higher learning
offering a lower academic
degree than is now the case,
maybe similar to what is done
in other countries? (B.A.
and B.S.) 39.1 31.8 39.1
18. Should class attendance be
required in institutions of
higher learning in Denmark? 27.0 8.7 65.3
19. Do the students in the in
stitutions of higher learn
ing in Denmark have access
to adequate library
facilities? 86.9 8.7 4.4
20. Do you feel that too much
significance is placed upon
final examinations at the
institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 6.5 6.5 86.9
21. Is the effectiveness of a
modern democracy dependent
upon the quality of its Sys
tem of higher education? 71.8 15.2 13.0
54
TABLE 5
QUESTIONS ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE ABOUT WHICH
A MAJORITY OF 66.7 PER CENT OR MORE AGREED
IN ONE OR BOTH OF THE AGE GROUPS
21 to 50 Over 50
Question
Years Years
Answer: Yes
2. Should students with qualifi
cations other than the matric
ulation examination (studen
tereksamen) be admitted to the
institutions of higher learning
in Denmark? 77.9% 84,8%
5. As the institutions of higher
learning increase the number
of students accepted, will it
be possible to finance the
program of higher education
under the present structure? 66.7%
11. Do you believe it would be
desirable to have a larger
percentage of the population - •
attend institutions of higher
learning in the future than
has been the case in the past? 80.0%
19. Do the students in the insti
tutions of higher learning in
Denmark have access to adequate
library facilities? 86.7% 86.9%
21. Is the effectiveness of a
modern democracy dependent
upon the quality of its system
of higher education? 80.0% 71.8%
Answer: No
8. Do you see any value in having
private institutions of higher
54
TABLE 5
QUESTIONS ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE ABOUT WHICH
A MAJORITY OF 66.7 PER CENT OR MORE AGREED
IN ONE OR BOTH OF THE AGE GROUPS
21 to 50 Over 50
Question Years Years
Answer: Yes
2. Should students with qualifi
cations other than the matric
ulation examination (studen
tereksamen) be admitted to the
institutions of higher learning
in Denmark? 77.9% 84.8%
5. As the institutions of higher
learning increase the number
of students accepted, will it
be possible to finance the
program of higher education
under the present structure? 66.7%
11. Do you believe it would be
desirable to have a larger
percentage of the population - -
attend institutions of higher
learning in the future than
has been the case in the past? 80.0%
19. Do the students in the insti
tutions of higher learning in
Denmark have access to adequate
library facilities? 86.7% 86.9%
21. Is the effectiveness of a
modern democracy dependent
upon the quality of its system
of higher education? 80.0% 71.8%
Answer: No
8. Do you see any value in having
private institutions of higher
55
TABLE 5— Continued
Question
21 to 50
Years
Over 50
Years
governed by a private board
of trustees? 80.0%
9. Would you favor tuition paid
by the students at the state
institutions of higher learn
ing in Denmark? 89.0% 91.4%
10. Are there any special prob
lems in connection with the
fact that higher education
in Denmark is a function of
the state? 69 .6%
13. Should the institutions of
higher learning provide
recreational facilities and
supervision for the students
living in student housing? 89.0% 89.2%
20. Do you feel that too much
significance is placed upon
final examinations at the
institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 75.5% 86.9%
55
TABLE 5— Continued
Question
21 to 50
Years
Over 50
Years
governed by a private board
of trustees? 80.0%
9. Would you favor tuition paid
by the students at the state
institutions of higher learn
ing in Denmark? 89.0% 91.4%
10. Are there any special prob
lems in connection with the
fact that higher education
in Denmark is a function of
the state? 69 .6%
13. Should the institutions of
higher learning provide
recreational facilities and
supervision for the students
living in student housing? 89.0% 89.2%
20. Do you feel that too much
significance is placed upon
final examinations at the
institutions of higher
learning in Denmark? 75.5% 86.9%
56
TABLE 6
QUESTIONS ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE WHERE ANSWERS
WERE EVENLY DIVIDED BETWEEN YES AND NO
Question Yes No
21 to 50 Years:
16. Overall, are the course
offerings of the institu
tions of higher learning
in Denmark keeping up with
modern developments? 37.8% 33.3%
Over 50 yearst
4. Should a certain level of
scholarship (G.P.A.) be
presented as basis for ac
ceptance (reacceptance
yearly) into the institu
tions of higher learning? 41.3% 41,3%
6. Will it be possible to find
enough qualified teachers
for the institutions of
higher education as the
enrollment increases? 27.0% 28.3%
17. Do you see merit in the
institutions of higher
learning offering a lower
academic degree than is
now the case, maybe
similar to what is done
in other countries (B.A. —
and B.S.)? 39.1% 39.1%
56
TABLE 6
QUESTIONS ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE WHERE ANSWERS
WERE EVENLY DIVIDED BETWEEN YES AND NO
Question Yes No
21 to 50 Years:
16. Overall, are the course
offerings of the institu
tions of higher learning
in Denmark keeping up with
modern developments? 37.8% 33.3%
Over 50 yearst
4. Should a certain level of
scholarship (G.P.A.) be
presented as basis for ac
ceptance (reacceptance
yearly) into the institu
tions of higher learning? 41.3% 41,3%
6. Will it be possible to find
enough qualified teachers
for the institutions of
higher education as the
enrollment increases? 27.0% 28.3%
17. Do you see merit in the
institutions of higher
learning offering a lower
academic degree than is
now the case, maybe
similar to what is done
in other countries (B.A. —
and B.S.)? 39.1% 39.1%
57
In question twenty-two of the questionnaire the
respondents were to list in order the three most critical
issues in higher education in Denmark. Many different an
swers appeared here; but three of these were more prevalent
than the others. Most often mentioned was the lack of fa
cilities, which was given as an issue in 35.2 per cent of
all responses. Next was a lack of qualified teaching per
sonnel, found in 25.3 per cent of all responses. The third
problem most mentioned was a lack of finances, indicated in
20.0 per cent of the responses. Eleven per cent of all
responses listed the problem of the rapid increase in num
ber of students which, inevitably, has an influence upon
the three aforementioned problems.
Other problems mentioned more than once were lack
of flexibility in the structure of higher education, inade
quate housing, the high dropout rates, and limitations in
admission at certain institutions of higher learning be
cause of their high academic standards for admission.
Table 7 lists in order of frequency all the answers to
question number twenty-one., which appeared more than once
among responses to the questionnaire.
Less than 10 per cent of the respondents gave an
answer to the last question concerning suggestions for
solution to these problems. Most of the answers referred
the problems to the politicians for solution. Since educa-
57
In question twenty-two of the questionnaire the
respondents were to list in order the three most critical
issues in higher education in Denmark. Many different an
swers appeared here; but three of these were more prevalent
than the others. Most often mentioned was the lack of fa
cilities, which was given as an issue in 35.2 per cent of
all responses. Next was a lack of qualified teaching per
sonnel, found in 25.3 per cent of all responses. The third
problem most mentioned was a lack of finances, indicated in
20.0 per cent of the responses. Eleven per cent of all
responses listed the problem of the rapid increase in num
ber of students which, inevitably, has an influence upon
the three aforementioned problems.
Other problems mentioned more than once were lack
of flexibility in the structure of higher education, inade
quate housing, the high dropout rates, and limitations in
admission at certain institutions of higher learning be
cause of their high academic standards for admission.
Table 7 lists in order of frequency all the answers to
question number twenty-one., which appeared more than once
among responses to the questionnaire.
Less than 10 per cent of the respondents gave an
answer to the last question concerning suggestions for
solution to these problems. Most of the answers referred
the problems to the politicians for solution. Since educa-
58
TABLE 7
ANSWERS TO QUESTION NUMBER TWENTY-TWO* ON
THE QUESTIONNAIRE, LISTED IN
SEQUENCE OF FREQUENCY
— -
Times Answer
Appeared
Per Cent
1. Shortage of facilities 32 35.2
2. Shortage of qualified teachers 23 25.3
3. Lack of finances 18 20.0
4. The structure of the system 16 17.6
5. The explosive growth of the
student body 10 11.0
6. The problem of student housing 6 6.6
7. The dropout rate 4 4.4
8. Limitations in admission at
certain institutions of
higher learning 4 4.4
*Question number twenty-two read: "Below, list in
order the three greatest problems in higher education in
Denmark at present."
Note: All answers appearing more than once are in
cluded in this table.
58
TABLE 7
ANSWERS TO QUESTION NUMBER TWENTY-TWO* ON
THE QUESTIONNAIRE, LISTED IN
SEQUENCE OF FREQUENCY
— .
Times Answer
Appeared
Per Cent
1. Shortage of facilities 32 35.2
2. Shortage of qualified teachers 23 25.3
3. Lack of finances 18 20.0
4. The structure of the system 16 17.6
5. The explosive growth of the
student body 10 11.0
6. The problem of student housing 6 6.6
7. The dropout rate 4 4.4
8. Limitations in admission at
certain institutions of
higher learning 4 4.4
*Question number twenty-two read: "Below, list in
order the three greatest problems in higher education in
Denmark at present."
Note: All answers appearing more than once are in
eluded in this table.
59
tion in Denmark is a function of the state through the Min
istry of Education7 it was commonly felt that this was
where leadership should be sought. It should be the re
sponsibility of legislative agencies to provide more and
better facilities and to allocate more funds for higher
education, and also to solve the problem of shortage of
qualified teachers by making teaching positions more at
tractive .
Findings from the Interviews
One problem repeatedly pointed out during the in
terviews was that of providing quality education for the
ever-increasing student body at the institutions for higher
education in Denmark, and at the same time to make provi
sion for sufficient time to carry on research. At most
institutions teaching has taken priority over research? as
a result many of the research projects already under way
have been delayed, and new projects are extremely difficult
to start.
Another factor which seemingly causes friction in
the overall structure of higher education in Denmark is
that of limited facilities at certain institutions of
higher learning, such as, for example* the Technical Univer
sity, The Royal Dental Colleges, and the Royal Veterinary
and Agricultural College. This causes the institutions
involved to set high academic standards for admission into
I
59
tion in Denmark is a function of the state through the Min
istry of Educatioh7 it was commonly felt that this was
where leadership should be sought. It should be the re
sponsibility of legislative agencies to provide more and
better facilities and to allocate more funds for higher
education, and also to solve the problem of shortage of
qualified teachers by making teaching positions more at
tractive .
Findings from the Interviews
One problem repeatedly pointed out during the in
terviews was that of providing quality education for the
ever-increasing student body at the institutions for higher
education in Denmark, and at the same time to make provi
sion for sufficient time to carry on research. At most
institutions teaching has taken priority over research? as
a result many of the research projects already under way
have been delayed, and new projects are extremely difficult
to start.
Another factor which seemingly causes friction in
the overall structure of higher education in Denmark is
that of limited facilities at certain institutions of
higher learning, such as, for example, the Technical Univer
sity, The Royal Dental Colleges, and the Royal Veterinary
and Agricultural College. This causes the institutions
involved to set high academic standards for admission into
60
their various programs of study, thus barring certain stu
dents from obtaining admission. However, according to both
traditions and present laws, anyone who has passed the
matriculation examination has the right and the privilege
to go on to higher education. Thus the universities are
obligated to accept all students who apply, including those
who do not meet the academic requirements for admission to
the above-mentioned institutions. This factor, in reality,
causes a dual problem. First, it makes it a matter of
prestige to get into one of the institutions with higher
academic standards, and, secondly, it lowers the overall
academic standards of the universities.’
The dropout rate seems to be a problem which should
be recognized. In theory, anybody who passes the matricu
lation examination is eligible to receive a higher educa
tion. In practice, though, most of the faculties of the
universities and also some of the other institutions of
higher education administer rather rigid examinations or
screening tests to their students in order to sift out the
so-called "unqualified" students after from one to three
years of study. In some faculties the dropout rate is as
high as 70 per. cent while in others it varies down to 10
to 15 per cent. To become a dropout is often a traumatic
experience for the student since the matriculation examina
tion does not prepare for a vocation, but mainly for fur-
60
their various programs of study, thus barring certain stu
dents from obtaining admission. However, according to both
traditions and present laws, anyone who has passed the
matriculation examination has the right and the privilege
to go on to higher education. Thus the universities are
obligated to accept all students who apply, including those
who do not meet the academic requirements for admission to
the above-mentioned institutions. This factor, in reality,
causes a dual problem. First, it makes it a matter of
prestige to get into one of the institutions with higher
academic standards, and, secondly, it lowers the overall
academic standards of the universities.’
The dropout rate seems to be a problem which should
be recognized. In theory, anybody who passes the matricu
lation examination is eligible to receive a higher educa
tion. In practice, though, most of the faculties of the
universities and also some of the other institutions of
higher education administer rather rigid examinations or
screening tests to their students in order to sift out the
so-called "unqualified" students after from one to three
years of study. In some faculties the dropout rate is as
high as 70 per. cent while in others it varies down to 10
to 15 per cent. To become a dropout is often a traumatic
experience for the student since the matriculation examina
tion does not prepare for a vocation, but mainly for fur
ther study at the level of higher education.
The dropout rate and overproduction of professional
people with a degree from a university or other institution
of higher learning have caused some concern in acadmeic
circles. Several individuals in responsible positions ex
pressed this concern and suggested that perhaps it would be
well to take a strong look at the entire structure of the
system of higher education with specific concern for some
new degrees similar to the American baccalaureate degree
after three or four years of study at the university. This
may be one of the greatest issues with which the system of
higher education in Denmark is faced.
The quality of teaching in the system of higher
education in Denmark does not seem to have been influenced
by the relatively much higher number of instructors without
a doctoral degree. If anything, it may have improved. The
instructors with a lower degree usually devote full time to
teaching, and they are teaching at lower levels of the uni
versity studies where they are fully qualified as far as
knowlege of the subject matter content is concerned.
The feeling about the size of the institutions of
higher education in Denmark has been definitely toward
smaller institutions (maximum enrollment of 5,000 students).
It was the conviction of all interviewees that both the
University of Copenhagen with approximately 19,500 students
61
ther study at the level of higher education.
The dropout rate and overproduction of professional
people with a degree from a university or other institution
of higher learning have caused some concern in acadmeic
circles. Several individuals in responsible positions ex
pressed this concern and suggested that perhaps it would be
well to take a strong look at the entire structure of the
system of higher education with specific concern for some
new degrees similar to the American baccalaureate degree
after three or four years of study at the university. This
may be one of the greatest issues with which the system of
higher education in Denmark is faced.
The quality of teaching in the system of higher
education in Denmark does not seem to have been influenced
by the relatively much higher number of instructors without
a doctoral degree. If anything, it may have improved. The
instructors with a lower degree usually devote full time to
teaching, and they are teaching at lower levels of the uni-
■ versity studies where they are fully qualified as far as
knowlege of the subject matter content is concerned.
The feeling about the size of the institutions of
higher education in Denmark has been definitely toward
smaller institutions (maximum enrollment of 5,000 students).
It was the conviction of all interviewees that both the
University of Copenhagen with approximately 19,500 students
62
and the University of Aarhus with approximately 7,000 stu
dents are too big for effective teaching and research.
However, everyone also realized the tremendous financial
burden it will be to establish a sufficient number of new
institutions of higher education to meet the needs of the
immediate future.
The total lack of communication and interrelation
ship between faculties also was found to be a problem.
Once a student has decided under which faculty he wishes to
study, he stays with that until he graduates. This means,
for instance, that if a student studies English, he will
spend five to six years studying English and nothing else.
Naturally, this makes him an expert in English; but at the
same time it narrows his horizon insofar as a broad general
knowledge is concerned. It also means that several of the
faculties or institutions are overlapping in their course
offerings. Thus it was found that both the Faculty of
Medicine and the Faculty of Science as well as the Techni
cal University and the Royal Dental College in Copenhagen
all maintain and operate expensive chemistry laboratories
and offer mainly the same basic chemistry courses to their
students.
Time and time again it was brought up that many of
the existing physical facilities were both outdated and
overcrowded. There also is a need for expansion due to the
1
62
and the University of Aarhus with approximately 7,000 stu
dents are too big for effective teaching and research.
However, everyone also realized the tremendous financial
burden it will be to establish a sufficient number of new
institutions of higher education to meet the needs of the
immediate future.
The total lack of communication and interrelation
ship between faculties also was found to be a problem.
Once a student has decided under which faculty he wishes to
study, he stays with that until he graduates. This means,
for instance, that if a student studies English, he will
spend five to six years studying English and nothing else.
Naturally, this makes him an expert in English; but at the
same time it narrows his horizon insofar as a broad general
knowledge is concerned. It also means that several of the
faculties or institutions are overlapping in their course
offerings. Thus it was found that both the Faculty of
Medicine and the Faculty of Science as well as the Techni
cal University and the Royal Dental College in Copenhagen
all maintain and operate expensive chemistry laboratories
and offer mainly the same basic chemistry courses to their
students.
Time and time again it was brought up that many of
the existing physical facilities were both outdated and
overcrowded. There also is a need for expansion due to the
1
63
greater number of students applying for matriculation every
year. However, the issue here is whether new institutions
should be structured after the pattern of the ones already
in existence. Suggestions were made to the effect that the
new universities very well could be established in such a
way that they would create better possibilities for experi
mentation with new structures and programs that will better
meet the needs, of a modern society.
The instructional methods in the system of higher
education were also suggested to be due for a revision.
Instruction is given in the form of lectures, courses, and
seminars. The lectures cover certain subjects required for
the examinations, especially such aspects as might not be
in publications or readily available to the student, and
might include reports on original research done by the pro
fessor. The purpose of the courses and the seminars is to
acquaint the students with examination requirements and
also to teach them research methods and practices. Atten
dance at lectures, and seminars is, as a rule, voluntary?
however, the courses are required, and so are the labora
tory exercises in the natural sciences and medicine. In
practically all subject matter areas there are courses and
lectures which the students themselves will find necessary
to attend in order to complete their curriculums.
Students may present themselves for examinations
63
greater number of students applying for matriculation every
year. However, the issue here is whether new institutions
should be structured after the pattern of the ones already
in existence. Suggestions were made to the effect that the
new universities very well could be established in such a
way that they would create better possibilities for experi
mentation with new structures and programs that will better
meet the needs of a modern society.
The instructional methods in the system of higher
education were also suggested to be due for a revision.
Instruction is given in the form of lectures, courses, and
seminars. The lectures cover certain subjects required for
the examinations, especially such aspects as might not be
in publications or readily available to the student, and
might include reports on original research done by the pro
fessor. The purpose of the courses and the seminars is to
acquaint the students with examination requirements and
also to teach them research methods and practices. Atten
dance at lectures, and seminars is, as a rule, voluntary;
however, the courses are required, and so are the labora
tory exercises in the natural sciences and medicine. In
practically all subject matter areas there are courses and
lectures which the students themselves will find necessary
to attend in order to complete their curriculums.
Students may present themselves for examinations
64
when they consider themselves ready to achieve a passing
standard. There are no time limits, hence the number of
years spent in a certain study depends on the student's
ability, diligence, and the time he is able to devote to
his studies. This pattern will vary a little from institu
tion to institution. For example, the study at the Royal
Dental Colleges is very rigid, and students must be in at
tendance at practically all sessions; but altogether, study
in the system of higher education in Denmark is very free
and the student is pretty much left to organize his own
progress rate.
Without doubt, several rather serious issues are
facing Danish higher education. Solution to most of these
cannot be easily found. Much planning and research will be
needed to find the best possible solutions that will fit
into the culture of the people and at the same time make
the system more comparable to certain successful systems of
higher education in other parts of the Western world. Cen
turies of tradition make changes come slowly; but forces
are now at work attempting to make some of the most ur
gently needed changes. The following chapter is an analy
sis and evaluation of the findings listed in this chapter.
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS
The purpose of this chapter is to analyze each of
the findings in the preceding chapter in the light of some
of the general principles of higher education in the West
ern world and specifically as they pertain to higher educa
tion in Denmark. Also, it is an attempt to establish a set
of criteria on which to evaluate present effectiveness and
which also might serve as a basis for suggestions for fu
ture developments.
Variety of Preparation
In the first question on the questionnaire it was
asked if the institutions of higher learning in Denmark are
meeting the needs of the people as far as variety of prepa
ration is concerned. The majority of responses indicated
the needs are adequately met. However, there was some dif
ference of opinion, more so among the younger academicians,
among whom 26.7 per cent indicated that the needs are not
being met, and 13.3 per cent were undecided about it.
More interesting than the actual percentage of the
replies in each group are some of the comments made in re
gard to this question. Thirteen per cent of those who
65
66
answered yes to the question qualified their answer with
I
explanatory remarks. Some of these were as follows: "It
would be desirable to have possibilities for more combina
tions of subjects instead of staying within the tradition-
bound faculties." "The structure rests more upon tradition
than upon actual needs." "Even if the system is rather old
fashioned." "Certain subject combinations are more easily
obtained in foreign countries."
The following suggestions are some of those given
by the individuals who disagreed with the question: "The
offerings are traditionally determined by the needs of the
past in a less differential society." "The developments in
society have been so rapid that the system of higher edu
cation has not been able to keep up? new needs have ap
peared which were totally unknown in the past." "In most
areas there is a need for a program similar to the American
bachelor's degree for people who do not really need or de
sire the highest academic degree." "There is a definite
need for more subject matter area combinations."
These remarks indicate that the tradition-bound
system of higher education in Denmark with its strictly
isolated faculties might be facing a critical issue in
meeting the needs of a modern society. The implication
seemed clear that serious consideration be given to this
matter in the near future.
67
Admission Requirements
The second question concerned itself with the ad
mission requirements for the system of higher education in
Denmark. Incidentally it should be noted that the question
was already outdated before the survey was made. Unknown
to this writer, several new regulations concerning admis
sion to the various institutions of higher learning were
passed during the year prior to this study, the most recent
being dated May 5, 1967, and going into effect on May 15,
1967.
This specific law is in regard to the universities,
and states ‘ that students in the following three categories
are eligible for matriculation as students at the universi
ties :
1. Passing the matriculation examination with a grade
level acceptable to the university concerned.
2. Graduation from one of the following institutions:
The Technical University; the Academy for Engi
neers? the College of Pharmacy; the Royal Dental
Colleges; the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural
College? College of Economics and Business Adminis
tration? Teachers Colleges? the College of Library
Science? the Royal Academy of Fine Arts? and the
College of Architecture.
3. Passing an entrance examination which would admit
the student to a university or other institution
of higher learning in a foreign country with which
Denmark has an agreement about mutual recognition
of admission standards and policies. (104:1-2)
Admission into the other institutions of higher
learning in Denmark is based upon entrance examinations ad-
68
ministered every year during the months of May and June.
According to the law of February 2, 1966, students in the
following categories are eligible to apply for entrance
examinations:
1. Passing the matriculation examination. If this
examination has been passed with an emphasis on
mathematics and physics and with sufficiently high
grade point average, the entrance examination
requirements are waived.
2. Passing "Realeksamen" (Danish High School), aca-
demic or technical. If French has not been part
of the curriculum, a test in this language must
be satisfactorily passed.
3. Graduation from a teachers' college and satisfac
tory completion of the above requirements for
French, and also satisfactory completion of a
second foreign language test in either German or
English, whichever was not included in the curric
ulum in the teachers' college.
4. Permission to take the entrance examination on
recommendation of the specific institution of
higher education, in harmony with exceptions rec
ognized by the Ministry of Education in special
cases permitting a student who does not meet these
requirements but who, based upon his experience,
is deemed to have obtained the necessary body of
knowledge to take the entrance examination.
(105:1-2)
Within the present structure of the system of
higher education in Denmark the admissions policies per se
do not appear to present a problem. However, the problem
of shortage of facilities at some of the institutions makes
it extremely difficult to gain admission even though one
passes the entrance examination. Since only a certain num->
ber may be accepted at any one institution, naturally those
69
who score highest on the test will be the chosen ones.
This problem will be discussed a little later in this chap
ter.
Supply of Manpower in Academic Professions
Question number three asked if there is at present
a significant shortage of manpower in the academic profes
sions in Denmark. Again, there was quite a difference in
opinion between the younger and the older members of the
professions. While only 37 per cent among the older group
indicated a shortage of manpower, 60 per cent of the
younger group answered yes to the question. More than one-
third of the older group were undecided on the question,
which might indicate that here is another problem. The
various comments to this question point out that the short
age is not equally significant within all areas. The
greatest need at present seems to be for qualified teaching
personnel both at the university and the gymnasium levels;
however, there appears to be an adequate supply in the hu
manities but a definite shortage in the natural sciences.
There is also a need felt for more physicians, dentists,
and theologians. That there is a shortage of highly quali
fied research personnel was suggested, and this may be true.
There is the possibility, though, that this is due to the
need for more teaching personnel at the level of higher
education with the result that some of the research per
70
sonnel is spending a disporportionate amount of time on
teaching assignments, thus neglecting the field of research.
Some of the remarks also pointed out that while
there is a shortage in a few areas, there are others where
there definitely is an overproduction. As a solution to
this problem it was suggested that there be more counsel
given to beginning students in order to guide them into the
areas of greatest need. Unfortunately, some of these areas
have either the highest entrance requirements or the long
est period of study.
Grade Point Average as Basis for Admission
The fourth question was in regard to admission on
the basis of grade point average. This question touches
upon one of the most sacred aspects of higher education in
Denmark. For centuries the tradition has held that higher
education, at least at the universities, is open to anyone
who has been able to successfully complete the matricula
tion examination. Interestingly enough, the older genera
tion (over fifty years of age) was evenly divided on this
issue, with 41.3 per cent answering yes, and 41.3 per cent
answering no; 17.4 per cent were undecided. However, among
the younger generation (from twenty-one to fifty years of
age) there was a clear majority of yes answers, namely 60
per cent. Only a few explanatory remarks were made to this
question. Some of them were as follows: "There are too
4
< 4,
71
many unqualified students who begin their study, as shown
by the large dropout rate." "The requirements for passing
the matriculation examination are too low." "Several of
the institutions of higher learning already have this
policy, and it would be desirable with a uniform system."
"The admission of so many unqualified students has a detri
mental influence upon both teaching and research."
In its report published in July 1967, the Planning
Council for Higher Education in Denmark reported on a prog
nostic study of the student population up to the year 1980.
On the basis of the increase in population and also the
increase in the desire for a higher education, the council
predicted a minimum of 62,000 students and foresaw a pos
sibility of this number rising to 68,000 in the Danish sys
tem of higher education. This is at least a doubling com
pared to the year 1965, when the actual count was 31,000
students (91:33).
As viewed by this writer, there are at least two
serious issues which must be faced in connection with this .
prognosis. One of these is that the matriculation examina
tion is not quite meeting its purpose of being an entrance
examination into the system of higher education, which it
traditionally has been over a period of several hundred
years. This might not be a problem in higher education per
se; but it certainly is closely connected with it. The
second issue has to do with the free entrance to the uni
versities on the basis of the matriculation examination.
If this policy is to be retained, there are two possibili
ties for the future. Either there must be provided suffi
cient facilities and staff at the universities for the ex
panding number of students, or else the dropout rate will,
instead of decreasing, be even higher than it now is. The
first of these alternatives leads into other questions,
both from the questionnaire and from the interviews. The
second alternative would seem to be undesirable to all
parties involved, not the least because every dropout is an
expense on the state budget.
Financing Higher Education in Denmark
A clear majority in both groups indicated, in an
swer to question number five, that it still will be pos
sible to finance the program of higher education in Denmark
in spite of the great increase in number of students. Less
than 6 per cent answered no to this question, and although
some 33 per cent were undecided, more than 60 per cent gave
a yes answer. The comments added to this question show a
clear concept of the welfare state where the population al
ready accepts as a natural thing that the state must solve
a problem of this nature. There is no room for private
initiative; in fact, several responses suggested to enlarge
the funds available for state scholarships and state loans
73
in order to make it easier for the poorer students to de
vote full time to their studies. Some of the answers also
suggested cutting back on military expenses in order to
make more funds available to higher education. From these
remarks it may be concluded that the academic sector of the
population in Denmark readily and willingly turns over the
responsibility for programs and facilities for higher edu
cation to the state, thus also yielding the control thereof
to the state.
The Problem of Teacher Supply
Whether it will be possible to find enough quali
fied teachers for the institutions of higher learning as
the enrollment continues to increase (the question in num
ber six), the majority was in doubt. Among the older gen
eration only 27 per cent answered yes, while the younger
group gave 49 per cent yes answers. Maybe the two groups
have a different perception of the term "qualified." Sev
eral of the explanatory remarks referred to the fact that
securing qualified teachers is already difficult, and that
the problem will be even more acute, at least for a while,
as new institutions are established and older institutions
expand.
Some of the more significant reasons for this per
plexity were mentioned and are here recorded. Both working
conditions and salary schedules are unsatisfactory in most
\
74
cases. The student pressure is too great, not leaving much
time for research. Possibilities for advancement are small
as compared to the possibilities in industry. As a result,
many courses now are taught by graduate assistants. This
was felt as a threat to the older generation, and in the
estimate of an older professor, a graduate assistant is not
qualified to teach. Here is an issue where there is a def
inite break with tradition, according to which no one was
qualified to teach in the system of higher education unless
he had proved himself as a scholar by obtaining a doctoral
degree and being appointed professor. Judged on that basis,
it would be impossible to find enough qualified teachers
even to meet the present needs. However, by permitting
young promising scholars to advance to top positions and by
making even the lower positions more attractive there seems
to be agreement, at least among the younger academicians,
that a sufficient number of qualified personnel is avail
able. The problem is to get them interested in joining the
various institutions of higher education.
Administration of Higher Education
in Denmark
Question number seven, concerning decentralization
of the administration of higher education in Denmark, ap
pears to be a difficult one. More than half of the respon
dents under fifty years of age were undecided on this, and
only 17.7 per cent answered yes. The reason for this could
be that the younger generation has not reached the posi
tions of involvement in the administration, and therefore
they have made no commitment on the problem. Among the
group over fifty years of age, 41.3 per cent voted in favor
of more decentralization. Several respondents expressed
the belief that many of the minor problems could be solved
at the local level, thus making for a smoother operation as
compared to the time-consuming practice of having the Min
istry of Education make all decisions. Also, more local
autonomy would allow for experimental programs, which might
enhance the development in the future. Others expressed
the fear that the uniformity of the system might suffer if
more administrative automony were placed with individual
institutions. The issue seems to be mainly between those
who would like to see the traditions preserved and those
who would prefer a change in structure. The trend is to
ward local autonomy, at least within certain limits. Sev
eral of the institutions of higher learning, as for example
the Technical university and the Dental Colleges, already
have greater local autonomy than does the University of
Copenhagen. In planning the new university in Odense, an
administrator was the first person to be employed. His as
signment was to coordinate the planning within the guide
lines laid down by the Ministry of Education. However, in
76
planning for the future he was given rather free rein to
experiment with new structures of programs as well as with
new methods of instruction. With the help of his assis
tants he has had success so far in breaking away from the
traditional Danish university pattern, and this may in the
future lead the way into more local administration in the
system of higher education in Denmark.
Private Universities
According to the responses to the eighth question
there is not much possibility of establishing private uni
versities or other private institutions of higher learning
in Denmark. Almost 80 per cent of the respondents were
opposed to that; and even some of those who would favor the
idea were afraid that it would be impractical. This re
sponse is a bit surprising in view of the fact that the
University of Aarhus was founded in the year 192 8 as a pri
vate institution and still is operated as such as far as
administration is concerned. However, it is not financed
by the private foundation; the government makes allocations
to this university on the same basis as it does to the Uni
versity of Copenhagen and other institutions of higher
learning. The curricula within the various faculties are
also kept in harmony with those at the University of Copen
hagen through the coordination of the Ministry of Educa
tion, thus making transfer from one university to the other
77
easier on the part of the students.
Another feature that makes the views on private
higher education rather unusual is .the programs of private
education at all lower levels. These programs date back to
the middle of the nineteenth century, when Chresten Kold
founded the first "free school" (the term "free" meaning
"not under the state or local government"). This develop
ment spread across the nation and soon was including the
secondary schools, both the "Real School" and the "Gymna
sium." Later several private teachers' colleges were
founded, and this movement of private education is still
very strong. All private schools must meet certain stan
dards set up by the Ministry of Education. When these
standards are met, the state pays 80 per cent of the opera
tional expenses of the school.
In the responses to this question several comments
were made to the effect that it would be doubtful that any
private foundation or concern would invest in higher educa
tion on the background of the centuries of tradition of a
state administered program. Even if it would be possible
to finance such an endeavor, the thought was expressed that
it still might be undesirable to have the influence of pri
vate capital upon the system of higher education. There
was an expression of fear as to what influence this might
have upon the objectivity of teaching and research in such
a relatively small country.
78
Tuition
The answers to the question about the students'
paying tuition at the state institutions of higher learning
in Denmark show clearly that there would be an overwhelming
disapproval of charging tuition. About 90 per cent of all
respondents were negative and only 5 per cent approved.
This attitude reflects the strong conviction that everybody
should have equal opportunity to obtain a higher education
regardless of socioeconomic status. It possibly also re
flects a faith in the welfare society where the state sup
posedly provides free education for everyone. Whatever the
case might be, the problem does not seem to be an issue in
higher education in Denmark.
Higher Education as a Function
of the State
The tenth question was designed to determine if
there are any special problems in connection with the fact
that higher education in Denmark is a function of the state.
The majority did not see any problems in this particular.
However, one in every five of the younger age group felt
that it does create certain problems. Among those men
tioned in the explanatory remarks the following appeared
most often: "Long range planning becomes extremely precar
ious when the government might be changed and a new Minis-
ter of Education takes over." "Allocations of funds are
often slow because the politicians do not always see the
needs as the educators see them." "All courses of study
must be accepted by the Ministry of Education before they
can be implemented, which 'slows down any change that might
be desirable."
These problems, although they may seem insignifi
cant to the majority, could very well develop into real is
sues in a time of rapid development in the system of higher
education in Denmark, where new universities are being
planned and one is already in its first stages of estab
lishment .
Percentage of Population
in Higher Education
In question number eleven it was asked if it would
be desirable to have a larger percentage of the population
obtain a higher education in the future than has been the
case in the past. The reason for asking this question was
that, traditionally, in the past only about 8 to 10 per
cent of the population ever entered the system of higher
education, and even a smaller percentage completed a degree.
However, modern society requires more education, and any
country which proposes to keep up with the changing world
must recognize this fact. In a small country such as
Denmark there could be the danger of an overproduction of
80
people with a high academic degree which might upset the
balance of the socioeconomic structure.
There was quite a difference in replies between the
two age groups. Although the respondents over fifty years
of age had a majority (almost 60 per cent) of yes answers
to this question, it was clear that there still is some
i
opposition to this, with one-third of the answers being no.
Among the younger group 80 per cent were in favor of the
expanded spread of educational opportunities and only 15
per cent against. In the comments on this question it was
clearly indicated that in order for more persons to get a
part in higher education it would be desirable to restruc
ture the system to meet the needs of more people. The
feeling was that most people do not necessarily need the
present high degrees to fill their places in society, but
that they could still profit from some form of higher edu
cation. The opinion was.that without lowering the academic
standards of the present program, new studies of shorter
duration might be established to meet a need which is not
being fulfilled under the present structure. It was also
pointed out that as automation takes over more and more of
the manual labor, a need is created for various skills in
business and technology which could be combined with some
studies in the humanities to further the cultural life of
the nation. Many words of caution were expressed to safe-
81
guard the quality of higher education in Denmark and not to
sacrifice quality for quantity.
Size of the Universities
The twelfth question was concerned with the size of
the universities and also with student housing. The ques
tion suggested 5,000 students as a maximum, and a clear
majority of the respondents favored universities smaller
than that. In comparison, it was found that the University
of Copenhagen, which was structured for a maximum of 7,000
students, already had reached more than 18,000 by October
1966, and that Aarhus University at the same date had al
most 7,000 students. In other words, since both of these
institutions have reached and passed the desirable maximum,
the establishment of new universities or university cam
puses is.long overdue.
Student Housing
Student housing (question thirteen) proves to be a
real problem. The University of Copenhagen has only one
very old housing complex, "Regensen," which traditionally
is occupied by high quality scholars and hold about 100
students. Priority is given to students from Greenland and
the Faeroe Islands, the two most northern counties of Den
mark.. Housing in "Regensen" is free, and a small monthly
stipend is given to each student. Besides "Regensen," a
few privately or corporationally owned student-housing com-
plexes are found in Copenhagen; but in general the students
must acquire housing privately. Consequently, they must
pay the prices asked, and this places a tremendous hardship
on many students from the lower socioeconomic classes.
The University of Aarhus maintains student housing
for approximately 1,000 students right on campus. However,
this accommodates only a seventh of the student body. The
rest of the students must find their own living quarters.
With the general poor housing situation which has been
prevalent in Denmark ever since World War II this problem
becomes extremely difficult. In the autumn just before the
university opens, there is a demand for every vacant room
in and around the city; and some students find themselves
unable to attend the university because of a lack of a
place to live.
Question thirteen also pertains to student housing,
asking if institutions of higher learning should provide
recreational facilities and supervision for the students in
student housing. Quite obviously, this is a new thought to
the academic world in Denmark; only about 5 per cent would
favor such arrangements, and 90 per cent were against it.
The general feeling was found to be that when the students
reach the age of eighteen to twenty years they are per
fectly capable of furnishing their own recreation and
83
handling their own time without supervision, and that this
in no way should be the responsibility of the system of
higher education. Again the responses revealed that this
is one aspect of the Danish system of higher education
which rests heavily upon traditions. The student, when he
enters a university or any other institution of higher
learning, all of a sudden becomes a "mature" individual
who, due to his high intelligence, now is ready to make all
of his own decisions. And, hopefully, everything which he
does decide should pertain to his academic development
within the very narrow field of his choice. The result is
that those who survive the keen competition and complete
their studies do become highly educated in their own sub
ject areas, but often know very little outside of that.
-This fact has given birth to the term "subject-matter-
idiot" which has been used often over the past couple of
decades by those who are suggesting some alternate routes
for the system of higher education in Denmark.
Character Development
Answers to the next question, question fourteen,
show a marked difference in responses between the two age
groups. The question asked whether the teachers in the in
stitutions of higher learning should show an interest in
their students outside of academic endeavors, such as, for
example, student's character development. In the older age
84
group 65.2 per cent were against such concern, while in
the younger group only 35.4 per cent were againsJt.it.
Forty-nine per cent of the younger generation approved the
idea, even though several commented that programs of such a
nature would be very difficult under the present structure.
Based on traditions, there has always been an "academic
distance" between student and professor. Older professors
are engaged in research and sometimes feel that teaching is
a necessary evil; they are interested only in presenting
their material in a very academic and scholarly manner.
Some of the comments expressed the opinion that it is the
responsibility of the student to develop academically so
that he understands and accepts the presentation of the
professor at an academic level, but that it cannot be the
responsibility of the professor to be concerned about the
student as a human being or even to know him by name.
Younger professors seem to have a desire to change this
tradition. Since they themselves have felt the need for
association with older scholars, not only as to subject
matter but also in human relationships, they are attempting
to approach their own students in this more intimate manner.
The problem connected with this, however, is that younger
faculty members are usually assigned to teach the general
courses. As a result they meet so many students in their
classes that it becomes rather difficult to take an inter-
85
t
est in individual students, get to know them personally and
be familiar with their individual problems. Because the
will to help is becoming more and more prevalent as time
goes on, this attitude and practice will, hopefully, become
the rule rather than the exception.
Preparat-i-on for Research and for Teaching
Should the education for prospective teachers and
prospective researchers be essentially the same? This was
question number fifteen on the questionnaire. There was
great diversity in the opinion of the respondents. The
question was asked because of the well-known fact that one
of the greatest scientists who ever lived in modern times
in Denmark was probably one of the poorest teachers insofar
as getting the material across to the students. This case
is not an isolated one. To know a subject matter area does
not guarantee the ability to present it to a group of stu
dents in an organized and understandable form. Interest
ingly enough, the majority (57.9 per cent) of the older
group favored the same educational background for teachers
and researchers, whereas the younger group was less deci
sive about it, with only 35.5 per cent in favor of it.
Several of those who were in favor qualified their position
with such comments as: "The basic education should be the
same, but the teaching personnel should have some knowledge
of psychology and teaching methods (pedagogy)." "Research
should be the basis for teaching." "During the basic
training it could be the same, but a distinction could be
made during the last two to three years of study." This
lack of a unified conviction indicates that perhaps the
time has come in the system of higher education in Denmark
to make room for some studies in the improvement of teach
ing methods and in the preparation of teachers for the sys
tem, thus moving away from the assumption that anyone who
successfully has passed through the system is also ade
quately prepared to teach the next generation. During the
interviews it was even suggested that studies of this na
ture might show one of the reasons for the high dropout
rate from the system of higher education in Denmark.
Relevance of Course Offerings
Question sixteen concerned the course offerings of
the institutions of higher learning in theii: relation to
meeting the needs of the times in which we live. The opin
ions given indicated that this probably varies from faculty
to faculty. For instance, it was felt that in science and
medicine the courses are definitely meeting the needs,
whereas in an area such as theology it was found that the
course work is rather outdated and also irrelevant to the
person who wants to spend his lifetime serving as a minis
ter in the Lutheran State Church. Interviews with several
ministers revealed the general opinion among these people
87
that training in such areas as social welfare, pastoral
care, counseling techniques, and also simple day-to-day
¥
record keeping would be extremely useful for the prospec
tive minister but that these areas are completely ignored
during the course of study at the universities.
Some of the comments were to the effect that al
though the course content might be up to date as far as re
search is concerned, it is often presented in such a manner
that it seems irrelevant to the student at the moment; and
since it is not made meaningful, it is not retained. These
comments reflected a connection between this question and
the previous one concerning methods of teaching. It indi
cates that there is a problem in this area. The fact that
less than 50 per cent of all respondents answered yes to
this question indicates that the problem does exist and
that possible solutions should be sought in planning for
the future.
Possibilities for Some New Degrees
The next question, number seventeen, was an attempt
to discover and analyze the reaction of the respondents to
the thought of adopting something new from a foreign system
of education. The question asked: Do you see merit in the
institutions of higher learning offering a lower academic
degree than is now the case, maybe similar to what is done
in other countries (B.A. and B.S.)? There was a definite
88
interest in this, especially among the group below fifty
years of age, of which 62.2 per cent answered in favor of
such programs. Even among the older group there were as
many for it as there were against it, while 21.8 per cent
in that group were undecided about the question. Several
of the explanatory remarks referred to the "over-qualified"
individuals in positions which might just as well be filled
with lower university degrees such as the American bache
lor's degree. The answers suggested that such a program
might even solve two problems: first, saving a consider
able amount of public funds by lowering the period of study
to two to three years for some students; and secondly, more
students might be able to pursue such a course of study
successfully and thus avoid the large percentage of drop
outs that now is found at several of the institutions of
higher learning. Offering new kinds,of degrees would take
much planning and restructuring of the present program.
The idea of a lower degree is also found as one of the rec-
■ >
ommendations included in the report by the Planning Council
for Higher Education in Denmark.
Attendance Policies
Question eighteen asked whether attendance should
be required in institutions of higher learning. Tradi-
/
tionally, the university study in Denmark has been a free
study with no compulsory class attendance. The student was
89
free to attend lectures and seminars at his own choosing;
and at such a time as he felt ready, he would sit for any
examinations required for a degree. A large majority of
the respondents over the age of fifty years opposed a re
quired attendance policy; they still favored the free study
where the student is responsible for his own Jwork. However,
among the respondents below fifty years of age 37.8 per
cent would favor required class attendance. This might in
dicate a trend toward change. Another sign of this change
is the fact that several faculties at the universities, and
more so in some of the other institutions of higher learn
ing, have structured courses of study and laboratory exer
cises which are made compulsory and which the students must
have completed before they will be allowed to take their
examinations. Many of the comments to this question, even
from some of the respondents who favored the completely
free study, indicated that such a policy would have several
advantages. Those most frequently mentioned were that the
study time might be considerably reduced; that there might
be a closer relationship between students and professors as
the professors would have a chance to get to know their
students better; and that the students would be better pre
pared for their examinations, thus avoiding many failures.
It was suggested that actual required attendance would be
preferable during the first two or three years of study,
90
but it might taper off during the later years as the stu-
r
dent gains the habit of attending and also develops judg
ment as what should take priority and what is less signif
icant. Often first year students have not sufficient
judgment to decide the question of class attendance which
results in a waste of the student's time and consequent
financial burden to the system of higher education.
Library Facilities'
Question nineteen, concerning the adequacy of li
brary facilities for the students in the institutions of
higher learning in Denmark, does not seem to reveal any
significant problem. The opinion is aljnost unanimous that
library facilities are adequate and that the students have
access to any material they need for their studies.
Final Examinations
Question twenty surveys a special aspect of the
system of higher education in Denmark, that is, the empha
sis which is placed upon final examinations. As has al
ready been stated, only a very few courses are compulsory,
and most of the knowledge required to pass the examinations
for any degree can theoretically be obtained outside the
university. The student may do this on his own, and at any
time when he feels ready he may sit for his examination,
and if he passes he will be granted a degree. Most degrees
91
require at least two sets of examinations which must be
taken separately and at least half a year apart. Each ex
amination usually consists of a written part and an oral
part. The written examination is of the essay type where
the student generally has a choice of two or three ques
tions, one of which must be answered in depth within the
time limit of from two to four hours. The oral part of the
examination is also based upon in-depth presentation of one
or two questions from the material covered, and it may last
from about one hour up to three hours.
The responses to question twenty show that a great
majority of respondents still favor the present system of
having the final examinations count as the sole instrument
of evaluation and of using it as a basis for granting a
degree. Less than 7 per cent of the respondents thought
that the emphasis is placed too heavily on final examina
tions .
The examinations given are comprehensive, although
they do not cover a broad spectrum of the subject matter
area which the student is supposed to know. Consequently,
as was pointed out in several of the interviews, sometimes
the result is based mostly on chance. For example, a stu
dent might have a decidedly limited knowledge in the spe
cific area from which the examination question is selected
by the examiner, although he generally is well prepared for
92
the degree for which he is studying. This random selecting
practice could cause him to fail the examination, thus de
laying his graduation. On the contrary, it also might hap
pen that a student of average or even low achievement in
his chosen field of study might be lucky enough' to get a
question from an area in which he is extremely well pre
pared, thus scoring a higher mark on the final examination
than his general knowledge would warrant.
Another problem which might arise from a system of
degree by examination only is that the students become
interested only in the subject matter material which has
relevance to their examinations; and even some professors,
in presenting their material, are thinking more about ex
aminations than about how best to present a broad coverage
of the subject matter field.
This issue about the significance and meaning of
the examinations might well be one of the greater weak
nesses of the entire system of higher education in Denmark.
Higher Education in Relationship to the
Effectiveness of a Modern Democracy
The last question to be answered (number twenty-
one) with yes., no, or undecided is probably of a more
philosophical nature and does not really pinpoint any issue
as such. The question was: Is the effectiveness of a
modern democracy dependent upon the quality of its system
of higher education? The purpose of the question was to
find out if there is, in the opinion of the academic pro
fession in Denmark, a direct connection between the quality
of the educational system and the characteristics of a
democratic society such as the Danish. A great majority
seemed to feel that there is a connection. However, many
of the respondents qualified their answers. Some of them
pointed out that the system of higher education is only one
of many factors. Others said yes to the question, but ex
pressed the opinion that the elementary and secondary edu
cation probably had a greater influence since more people
go through these two systems than the much smaller number
who complete curriculums in higher education. Only about
4 per cent of the population between the ages of nineteen
and twenty-eight are at present enrolled as students in the
institutions of higher learning; and although this smaller
number might now or later exert some influence upon soci
ety, it was felt that the levels of education from which
everyone is profiting would be of greater importance to
society at large.
The Three Most Critical Issues
The three most often repeated problems as found in
the answers to question number twenty-two, where the re
spondents were to list the three most critical problems
in higher education in Denmark— did-not seem to be very
94
profound. As shown in Table 7 these were (1) shortage of
facilities, (2) shortage of qualified teachers, and (3)
lack of finances. True, lack of .facilities^can cause major
problems? however, in a system of higher education which is
fully financed by the state, ’ this problem would seem to be
rather simple and the solution easily found. If sufficient
appropriations of funds from the state budget were avail
able, this problem would solve itself. Among the several
factors which could have caused this problem it should be
pointed out that one is the lack of communication between
the educators who use the facilities and the politicians
who make the financial appropriations. Both of these
groups should have been aware that a rapid increase in the
number of students could be expected during the post World
War II decade; but neither of them did anything about an
ticipating the real needs until it was too late and all
available facilities already were overcrowded. Plans for
expansions at the University of Copenhagen as well as for
the Technical University were laid during the middle 1950's.
Both of these institutions were located in the inner city
of Copenhagen where no land was available for expansions?
consequently, several segments of the University of Copen
hagen were placed at the outskirts of the city, and the
Technical University was moved some ten miles north of
Copenhagen where land was available in sufficient amount to
95
warrant expansions also for the future. Naturally, it is
both a slow and an expensive procedure to relocate institu
tions of this nature. The Technical University is still in
the process of finishing its building program, which is
expected to be completed during the early 1970's. During
the relocation of this institution its research program has
been almost at a standstill, and is just now getting under
way again.
In the meantime the demand for facilities grew
bigger and bigger every year, and the Ministry of Education
felt the need for some long-range plans. This led, as
previously mentioned, to the appointment of the Planning
Council for Higher Education in Denmark in December 1964.
The task of the council was to make studies of immediate
as well as of long-range needs in the field of higher edu
cation in Denmark and to formulate recommendations for pro
grams to meet these needs.
Another contributing factor to the lack of funds
and facilities in the system of higher education in Denmark
might be the political situation of that country. Ever
since World War II Denmark has been governed by a coalition
government which most of the time had representatives from
a minority party in such key positions as Prime Minister,
Foreign Minister, and Finance Minister. There are in Den
mark six major political parties, all represented in the
House of Representatives (Folketinget), and the cabinet of
ministers has had representatives from as many as three of
these parties at the same time. In a political structure
of this kind it can become extremely difficult to reach
unanimous decisions on various issues, even when the solu
tions should have top priority.
A third factor which might have aggravated the
problem under discussion is the total lack of educational
research at the level of higher education in Denmark. As
previously mentioned, the first educational research pro
grams were started in 1955 at the Teachers* College in
Copenhagen, which at that time was not yet considered a
part of the system of higher education. It was not until
February 25, 1963, that it was granted that status. Most
of the research done to date has been in the field of ele
mentary education; but nothing has been done yet. to attempt
to evaluate the condition or the structure of the system
of higher education.
The reluctance to change, as it is expressed among
the older generation of faculty members at the existing
universities, has also been a contributing factor to the
confusion in which the system of higher education in Den
mark finds itself. Most of the members of the older gener
ation are very conservative and would prefer to see every
thing kept at the university as it has been for generations
97
but this attitude is causing them to lose touch with real
ity and the modern developments of education in other parts
of the world.
The problem of finding a sufficient number of qual
ified teachers, which was the second in sequence of the
three most prevalent problems listed, has partly grown out
of the same conservatism. For centuries it has been a
requirement that one must have obtained his doctorate be
fore he can be appointed to a professorship at an institu
tion of higher learning. Since there are great expenses
connected with the preparation of the dissertation without
any kind of guarantee of obtaining the degree when the dis
sertation is completed, relatively few academicians ever
reach that high goal. Consequently, there will continue to
be a shortage of so-called qualified personnel. However,
there may be a large number of persons who would be quali
fied to teach after they have completed their first univer
sity degree and maybe had experience in their specific
subject matter area, either in practice (medicine, law,
engineering, etc.) or in teaching at the "gymnasium" level.
In recent years it has become more common to make use of
such individuals on the teaching faculties of the institu
tions of higher learning, giving them ranks of instructors
and lecturers. It was also found that students nearing the
completion of their studies have been assigned to teach
some of the required courses for first- and second-year
students. But the tradition is still maintained that in
order to be appointed professor, one must have completed
the doctoral requirements. When this is done, one becomes
"qualified" to lecture at the level of higher education
without previous experience in teaching and even without
the knowledge or understanding of the teaching and learning
processes. Thus it seems that the term "qualified teacher"
is rather vague, depending upon the definition of the word
"qualified."
As previously stated, most of the problems in
higher education in Denmark are caused by the rapid in
crease in the number of students desiring a higher educa
tion. The population explosion in connection with in
creased knowledge and the necessity for more education in a
complex society found the Danish .system of higher education
almost totally unprepared to cope with the problems of
rising costs, expanding facilities, and a restructuring of
tradition-bound university education.
The Planning Council for Higher Education
in Denmark
Several attempts have been made to solve the prob
lems. Committees have been appointed by the Minister of
Education, and many and varied suggestions have been made.
In the meantime, the growth of the student body had con
tinued steadily until the problems have become acute and
99
almost impossible of solution. Finally, in June of 1964,
a law was passed by the government authorizing the estab
lishment of a new university in Odense. One paragraph in
this law reads:
Under the direction of the Ministry of Education
a permanent planning council is to be established,
the task of which will be to make studies and recom
mendations in connection with the planning of further
expansions of universities and other institutions of
higher learning. The Minister of Education makes the
decisions about the structure of the council, its
main functions and responsibilities, etc. (102:1)
This planning council was appointed in December of
1964. It was made up of thirty members representing all
areas of higher education as well as the Ministry of Educa
tion, the Ministry of Finances, and the Ministry of Cul
tural Affairs. Former Minister of Education, Mr. K. Helveg
Petersen, was appointed chairman of the council.
The council went to work immediately and was able
to publish its first preliminary report during the summer
of 1965. This report merely stated some of the problems
with which the council was to be concerned, and suggested
some of the studies which should be undertaken in order to
find solutions to the problems.
Among the problems under consideration was the
relatively large dropout percentage among students at the
universities. The council discussed various possibilities
for a better screening program for admission purpose. The
"open door" policy whereby anyone with a passing grade on
100
a matriculation examination is admitted into the universi
ties seems to have resulted in the acceptance of a number
of students who are not academically able to complete a
university study under the present structure. However,
since a new differentiated registrations system was just
inaugurated at the universities during the year 1964, which
was expected to change the statistics of the dropout rate,
and also since there did not seem to be a consensus as to
how to approach a solution to this problem, the council
felt that more time was needed to study several alterna
tives before a recommendation could be made.
Preliminary plans were laid for a thorough study
of the expected increase in student population during the
next fifteen years in order to assist toward intelligent .
recommendations for any expansions of existing facilities
as well as for the establishment of new universities and
other institutions of higher learning in different parts of
the country. Part of this study would also be an attempt
to make prognoses for the needs of academicians within the
various fields in the future of Danish society. Also in
cluded would be an investigation of the relationship be
tween the requirements for the academic degrees and the
requirements for the various professional positions for
which these degrees supposedly are preparation. This in
vestigation also is to explore whether the education meets
101
the needs of society or whether there is a solution in the
establishment of a new structure with a set of lower aca
demic degrees similar to the American bachelor's degree.
Some observations were also made concerning the
shortage of research personnel and teachers at many of the
institutions of higher learning, including all five facul
ties at the universities. This shortage is especially felt
at the faculty of medicine and is shown by the large number
of instructors and graduate assistants in proportion to the
number of professors. While in 1955 there were about the
same number of professors as of instructors and graduate
assistants together, it was found that in 1965 there were
three times as many instructors and graduate assistants as
there were professors. This might have a definite influ
ence upon the quality of instruction presented at the uni
versities and other institutions of higher learning. The
council states that it has always been a unique character
istic in the system of higher education in Denmark that in
order to warrant the highest quality in education there
must be a closer connection between quality and the re
search, and both time and adequate facilities should be
available for this purpose for all members of the teaching
faculties. Especially due to a lack in facilities, but
also due to poor pay and promotion policies it has been
very difficult during recent years to attract high quality
102
scholars to positions in higher education. The council is
not making any definite recommendations in the first report
since another committee, a special committee on university
administration, has been studying this problem since 1962
without being able to come up with suggested solutions.
Finally, the council report mentions the possibil
ity of a restructure of the curriculum in higher education
whereby it should be possible to offer a basic curriculum
to a large segment of the student population, thus avoiding
the great overlapping which has been taking place in the
past. The suggestion was to make a basic scientific cur
riculum for all students who later on would specialize in
medicine, natural sciences, technology, agriculture, and
veterinary science. However, there were some reservations
to this suggestion because the various faculties in the
past have presented their basic science subjects with spe
cial relevancy to later experience in the students' special
fields of study.
The council concluded that practically every prob
lem with which the system of higher education is faced will
require extensive investigation and thorough planning.
Therefore the most pressing task for the council would be
to make a plan by which all the problems might be put in
sequence as to their importance as far as rapid solution is
concerned. This procedure first of all includes the expan
103
sion of the existing facilities at the universities in
Copenhagen and Aarhus and the building program for the new
University of Odense. But at the same time it will be ne
cessary to establish the needs for new centers for univer
sities and other institution^ of higher learning during the
next two decades (89) .
After two years of intensive study, the Planning
Council for Higher Education in Denmark published a compre
hensive report entitled: A Sketch for the Expansion of
Higher Education During the Period until 1980. (Skitse for
Udbygningen af de H^jere Uddannelser i Tiden indtil 1980.)
This document of some 250 pages is partly a report of the
findings of the council's studies and partly a series of
recommendations to the Ministry of Education concerning
future developments and expansions to take place during the
next twelve to thirteen years.
Of interest to this study are the basic problems
pointed out by the council. The report states that the
actual requirement for planning must be evaluated on the
background of the immense increase in the number of stu
dents that has taken place and which is expected to con
tinue and possibly become even more acute in the near fu
ture. In this connection the following were listed as the
three most critical issues at the present:
1. Available facilities
2. Available qualified teachers
3. Appropriation of funds
These three issues are the same, and given in the
same order, as was found through the survey made as a
basis for this study.
Even with a sufficient appropriation of funds in
the future, the first two problems mentioned have become so
complex that they are not easily solved within a short pe
riod of time. Building programs require time for prepara
tion, and some time is needed for planning as to the wisest
choices of placement of future institutions of higher
learning. Several geographical areas seem to be entirely
acceptable choices for placement of universities. It is a
question, however, whether the demand will be great enough
to warrant a university program in each of these areas; and
if not, what are the criteria which should be used for se
lecting a certain area over and above another? This must
be decided only after thorough investigations, which again
are time-consuming.
As to the demand for teachers, it was pointed out
that this depends upon the teaching load each teacher may
be expected to carry. In this connection, the possibility
of creating a number of teaching positions without research
obligations attached to them has been mentioned. After a
period of four to five years, when the great increase in
\
104
2. Available qualified teachers
3. Appropriation of funds
These three issues are the same, and given in the
same order, as was found through the survey made as a
basis for this study.
Even with a sufficient appropriation of funds in
the future, the first two problems mentioned have become so
complex that they are not easily solved within a short pe
riod of time. Building programs require time for prepara
tion, and some time is needed for planning as to the wisest
choices of placement of future institutions of higher
learning. Several geographical areas seem to be entirely
acceptable choices for placement of universities. It is a
question, however, whether the demand will be great enough
to warrant a university program in each of these areas; and
if not, what are the criteria which should be used for se
lecting a certain area over and above another? This must
be decided only after thorough investigations, which again
are time-consuming.
As to the demand for teachers, it was pointed out
that this depends upon the teaching load each teacher may
be expected to carry. In this connection, the possibility
of creating a number of teaching positions without research
obligations attached to them has been mentioned. After a
period of four to five years, when the great increase in
\. .
105
student population begins to result in a greater output of
candidates, it is believed that the balance between the
demand for and the availability of qualified teachers will
be restored. .
The essential motivation for an extensive develop
ment of the capacity of the system of higher education in
Denmark as a whole is the aim to create equal opportunities
for all young people to obtain a higher education commen
surate with their abilities and interest. Because of this
basic principle it is an accepted political objective that
free access to all fields of higher education must be pro
vided for.
One of the consequences of carrying through this
objective is an increased influx on the academic labor mar
ket. In this connection the council pointed out that such
public services as schools,, hospitals, courts, government,
and the state church are the principal users of graduates
from the system of higher education, and further stated
that a free education of this manpower is a costly affair
for the taxpayer, especially if the education, free and
open to everyone, results in an overproduction of academic
manpower. Consequently, it was recommended that serious
consideration be given to a restructuring of the system of
higher education in a way that will allow for shorter and
less costly education for a large number of individuals to
106
carry out part of the duties that traditionally have been
reserved for graduates from the universities and other in
stitutions of higher learning.
As the council views the expansions in the future
with the establishment of additional institutions of higher
learning, it has two main recommendations for reorganiza
tion:
1. Provision for the termination of studies at
different levels.
2. Organization of the studies according to stu
dent interests through liberal regulations
cutting across existing curricula.
Consideration of these recommendations leads into
reflections of the concept of Centers for Higher Education.
As new centers are developed this concept could be carried
out with due regard to modifications in the strucure and
aims of modern education. Instead of building new univer
sities after the traditional pattern with five faculties,
each new center could specialize in a small number of re
lated groups of subject-matter fields.
This concept has already been incorporated into the
plans of the administration of the new University of Odense.
This center started with a faculty of medicine, but during
its first year of existence plans were laid to add a de
partment for the study of agricultural and veterinary sci- :
107
ences. This led to further considerations of the possi
bility of making a center for the basic natural sciences,
such as biology, chemistry, and physics, which could be
structured as a basic scientific foundation for all the
students regardless of their later choice of specializa
tion. An educational center of this nature could also
function as a basic research center for cross sections of
scientific disciplines.
The administrator of the University of Odense,
Mr. Bengt Bengtson, makes the following observation in his
book, Taenk paa et Tal (Think of a Number):
When special significance is placed upon the per
spectives of a research center with representation
from several scientific disciplines, it should be seen
in the light of the fact that many of the newer prob
lems and tasks are found in no-man1s-land between the
traditional faculties or subject matters. Our en
vironment is not, by nature, divided in such a way
that it can be completely explored within clearly
defined boundary lines of one specific subject. The
traditional division in subjects, as we have known
them, was made by man, and naturally, is not adhered
to by nature. The boundaries between groups of sub
jects have become more and more blurred, and in this
lies a special challenge for an untraditional effort
to be made. (4:55-56)
A basic scientific education from the center at the
University of Odense would be valuable in many respects.
It could be a termination of the university study for some
students with a diploma or a degree attached to it, and
thus serve the industry in many ways. It could also be the
basis for further study in various fields of higher educa
108
tion according to the needs and interests of the students.
This sequence would give the young student more time to
make a final decision as to what his future career should
be. It would also be easier for him at a later date to
transfer to another discipline without having to repeat his
previous studies. All in all,, it would ensure far greater
flexibility in the system of higher education than has been
the case in the past.
With regard to the dropout rate the council found
that the majority of students leave the institution during
or at the end of the first year of study. Two factors
should be examined in this connection. First is the ques
tion whether the first year of study is organized expedi
ently to meet the students at their level of competence,
or whether the first year of study is too difficult for a
great number of students. The council recommends that the
study during the first year be organized as a preparatory
study at a rate slower than at the present. The second
factor to be considered is the matriculation examination
("Studentereksamen") as a basis for admission into all
areas of higher education. Since the students have a
choice of several emphases of study in the "gymnasium" (see
Appendix C), their matriculation examination might be ir
relevant to the field of study which they choose to pursue
at the university level. The council recommended that
109
admission to the system of higher education be based upon
the relation between the subjects studied for the matricu
lation—examination and the chosen field of study in higher
education. If there is no relationship, a period of basic
preparatory study should be required before admission into
specialized study in the universities or other institutions
of higher learning. It is believed that such a procedure
would greatly decrease the dropout rate.
It was also suggested that it might be of value to
both the student and the institution if some type of
achievement or aptitude test would be administered during
the last year of the "gymnasium" study and the results of
this test then be combined with an effective guidance pro
gram through which the student could be aided in his choice
of study for his future career.
The council expressed deep concern in regard to the
existing regulations for admission into certain institu
tions of higher education. These regulations bring about
a risk that the distribution of students will correspond
neither to the wishes of the students nor to the educa
tional needs of society. Entrance regulations for admis
sion to some of the institutions with entrance limitations
have caused a number of students to enroll at one of the
other universities, perhaps without sufficient interest.
This condition has brought about an increased number of
110
acceptances of students with a lower academic ability.
It seems clearly indicated that if general entrance
restrictions into some institutions of higher learning are
desirable, some equality should be made with regard to en
trance requirements at all institutions, including the uni
versities. Such adjustment normally would bring about a
restructuring of some areas of higher education to make
these more practical or vocational in order to meet the
needs of those students who do not qualify academically for
the more rigid university or similar academic study. How
ever, if it is felt that it would be better to follow the
traditional avenue of free study for everyone with a ma
triculation examination, it will be necessary to expand
facilities where there now is an entrance restriction in
order to accommodate everyone who would be interested in
entering these areas of study. This does not seem desir
able, since there is already a relatively high dropout rate
in the institutions with entrance restriction; and it is
feared that the rate would increase rapidly if admission
were opened to everyone interested, regardless of prepara
tory background.
All in all, it would seem to be wiser if the Danish
government, would be able and willing to establish other
educational possibilities for the young people and incorpo
rate these specialized studies— or curricula— into the
Ill
system otJ higher education. No doubt, there would be gredt
opposition against such an arrangement, especially in aca
demic circles. Objectors would most probably point out the
excellent programs of apprenticeships and the technical
schools available to everyone who would seek the skills
necessary to being a journeyman laborer in any given voca
tion. And it is a fact there are such programs. The
skilled tradesman who has completed his apprenticeship
training, including technical schools, which usually is a
four- to five-year educational program, is probably second
to none. The academically educated person could, and maybe
rightfully so, ask the question, "Why should the vocational
training become part of the system of higher education in
Denmark where it, traditionally, never has belonged?"
Issues in Higher Education in Denmark
Foreign to the System m
the United States
Analyzing the problems of higher education in Den
mark reveals several aspects which seem strange to an Amer
ican educator.
One of these is the fact that no general education
is required by students in an institution of higher learn
ing in Denmark. It is assumed that general education is
completed at the secondary level (the "gymnasium"), and
once a student is admitted into higher education his study
becomes highly specialized in his chosen field.
112
Another aspect where Danish higher education dif
fers from its counterpart in the United States is in its
attendance policies. While a student in higher education
in this country is expected to be present at class sessions
and examinations in order to recieve credit toward a de
gree, the student in the Danish system may or may not at
tend classes or lectures at his own choosing. There is no
rule that makes attendance a partial requirement for credit
towards a degree as in the case here. This leads to a
third difference in the two systems; in Denmark a degree is
granted solely on the basis of performance on a series of
examinations, usually both written and oral, while in the
United States the degree is granted on the basis of credits,
and honor points (based on class performance and examina
tion results) and, for higher degrees, a series of exami
nations .
These differences in the two systems of higher edu
cation make it extremely difficult for a student to trans
fer from one system to the other. Especially is it dif
ficult to evaluate credits for a student from the Danish
system in order to place him at a similar level in the
American system, the difficulty being to translate an exam
ination certificate into a certain number of credit units.
To someone familiar with the system of higher edu
cation in the United States where many of the highly recog
113
nized institutions are privately owned and operated, it
might seem strange that there is no room for private ini
tiative in higher education in Denmark. However, this
phenomenon is linked with the mental attitudes of a people
living in a state where it is commonly expected that the
government makes provision for the welfare of everyone,
including education at all levels.
Still another area of difference is found in the
institution's responsibility for its students outside of
the academic realm. In Denmark very little is done to pro
vide housing facilities for students; and virtually nothing
is done by the institutions of higher learning to provide
recreation for the students. This is left entirely to the
student organizations. The concept of counseling and guid
ance through the office of an academic dean or a dean of
students or through a system of dormitory deans is unknown.
And such things as intramural activities or organized ath
letics are unheard of. Students are assumed to be suffi
ciently mature to organize their own time and activities
without the guidelines set up by an institution of higher
learning.
Finally, there is the entire structural upbuilding
of the system of higher education in Denmark which is so
different from what is known in the United States. A
Danish university has traditionally been restricted to the
114
five faculties: Theology, Medicine, Law, Science, and
Humanities. Any subject matter field which does not fall
under one of these five, is usually assigned to a profes
sional school such as the Royal Dental Colleges or the
Technical University. However, with the foundation of the
new University of Odense a breakthrough might develop which
could change the traditional pattern which is so foreign
to the pattern of higher education in the United States.
Evaluative Criteria
The questions below were derived from the analysis
of the problems of higher education in Denmark. They com
prise a set of criteria which might be used to evaluate the
effectiveness of the present system and also to serve as a
basis for suggestions and recommendations for future devel
opments :
1. Does the system of higher education in Denmark
really meet the needs of all segments of the
society which it is serving? Does it keep the
balance between demand and supply in all areas
of professional preparation?
2. Is there sufficient articulation between the
preparatory schools and the institutions of
higher education, and also between the various
institutions of higher education?
3. Is the structure of the Danish system of higher
education flexible enough to ensure a high
degree of effectiveness as measured by such
factors as dropout rate, the length of the
study, and the' quality of the final product?
In a technological world society, does the sys
tem of higher education in Denmark contribute
significantly to new research in the natural
and social sciences, and does it provide for a
smooth transfer of its students and graduates
from one part of the Western world to another?
CHAPER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Background
Higher education in Denmark faces a trfemendous task
in the decade ahead. According to prognostic studies it
will need to find ways of educating at least twice the num
ber of students that it is now accommodating at its univer
sities and other institutions of higher learning. And it
must do so at a time of rising costs and an insufficient
number of qualified faculty members.
There is no doubt that higher education in Denmark
must continue to search for ways of organizing the stu
dents ' educational experiences in order to achieve more
effective and economical results. It must continue in its
search for quality while handling a larger quantity of stu
dents than ever before.
The Problem
It was the purpose of this study to determine the
most critical issues facing the Danish system of higher
education and to analyze these issues on the background of
the historical development of this system as well as in the
116
117
light of present-day needs. Specifically, the study at
tempted to answer the following questions:
1. What is the historical development of the sys
tem of higher education in Denmark?
2. What are some of the critical issues facing
higher education in Denmark at present?
3. What is being done to solve the problems and
stabilize the further development of the system
of higher education in Denmark?
4. What are some of the basic principles which
could serve as criteria of present effective
ness and future developments in Danish educa
tion?
5. What changes might be indicated by the criteria
suggested?
Procedure
This study utilized both the historical and the
survey method. A thorough research of primary as well as
of secondary sources was undertaken in Danish libraries and
archives in order to determine the most important factors
influencing the development of the system of higher educa
tion in Denmark from the issuance in 1475 of a Bull by Pope
Sextus IV granting King Christian I of Denmark permission
to found a "study generale" (university) within the bound
aries of his kingdom. For the survey, a questionnaire
118
(Appendix A) was distributed among 325 professional indi
viduals selected at random from all over Denmark, the pur
pose being to discover the most significant of the funda
mental problems which face the Danish system of higher
education. Finally, thirty-five of the respondents to the
questionnaire were interviewed in order to discuss in depth
the established problems and also to get an opportunity to
ask further questions concerning the system of higher edu
cation. Most interviews were recorded on tapes.
The questionnaire as well as the interviews had to
be conducted in Danish, just as most of the library re
search material was in Danish. All translations from Dan
ish to English and vice versa are by this writer.
Summary of the Findings
In Denmark, the system.of higher education dates
back to year 1479 with the establishment of the University
of Copenhagen. This institution developed into a strong
university with the traditional five faculties found at
most European universities established during the Middle
Ages, namely, the Faculty of Theology, the Faculty of Medi
cine, the Faculty of Law, the Faculty of Science, and the
Faculty of Arts (or Humanities). During the five centuries
since the foundation of the University of Copenhagen, the
system of higher education^in Denmark has developed further
to the extent that there are now three universities, two
v ‘ .; ii9
of which have the traditional five faculties; and the third
one, now under development, might take a form different
from the traditional one. Furthermore, there are now nine
other institutions of higher learning with university sta
tus but specializing in their own fields of study, the
Royal Dental Colleges, the Technical University, the Royal
Veterinary and Agricultural College, the Royal College of
Pharmacy, the Royal Music Conservatory, the Royal Academy
of Fine Arts, the College for Advanced Training of Teachers
and the Academy for Engineers.
The following points comprise a summary of the
Findings from the questionnaire:
1. According to the majority of respondents, the
institutions of higher learning in Denmark are meeting the
needs of the people as far as variety of preparation is
concerned.
2. Results on the matriculation examination should
not be the only basis upon which students should be ad
mitted into programs of higher education in Denmark.
3. There is a shortage of academically educated
manpower in Denmark at present, more so in some areas than ,
in others. However, taken as a whole, this shortage might
not be too significant in relation to the particular system
of higher education now characteristic in Denmark.
4. There is no clear consensus concerning requir
120
ing or maintaining a certain level of scholarship (G.P.A.)
as basis for acceptance or reacceptance into the institu
tions of higher learning.
5. A clear majority expressed their faith in the
present financial structure of the Danish system of higher
education.
6. It is doubtful that it will be possible to find
a sufficient number of qualified teachers for the institu
tions of higher learning, at least for the next four to
five years.
7. There is no firm belief that the administration
of the system of higher education in Denmark should be
decentralized.
8. There is no basis at present for the establish
ment of private institutions of higher learning in Denmark.
9. There is even less evidence that it would be
desirable to have students pay tuition at the state insti
tutions of higher learning.
10. No special problems are seen in connection with
the fact that higher education in Denmark is a function of
the state.
11. A majority, especially among the younger group
of respondents (age twenty-one to fifty years), would
favor having larger percentage of the population attend
institutions of higher learning in the future than has been
121
the case in the past.
12. Universities with a student body of up to
5,000 are favored over larger institutions.
13. The idea of sponsoring extracurricular activ
ities for students.living in student housing seems to be
completely foreign to the Danish system of higher education.
14. Answers to the preceding question revealed no
solid conviction that teachers, should show an interest in
their students outside the academic endeavors.
15. There is a feeling that teaching and research
are inseparable in the system of higher education in Den
mark .
16. Less than half of the respondents feel that
the course offerings of the institutions of higher learning
are keeping up with the demands of modern developments.
17. The younger segment of respondents is strongly
in favor of offering a lower academic degree, one similar
to what is done in other countries, particularly if this
would become qualification for certain positions in society.
18. The majority is against compulsory attendance
at the institutions of higher learning in Denmark.
19. Adequate library facilities are available to
the students in higher education in Denmark.
20. The final examinations are regarded as the
best measuring tool of a student's qualification, and the
12.2
feeling is that undue significance is not placed upon ex
aminations in the system of higher education in Denmark.
21. A modern democracy is highly dependent on its
quality of higher education.
22. The three most critical issues in higher edu
cation in Denmark today as listed in order of preference
are:
a.. Lack of facilities
b. Lack of qualified teachers
c. Lack of appropriate funds
23. Solution to these problems are expected to
come from politicians and the government, and not from
educators.
The findings from the interviews are summarized in
the following points:
1. Because of the ever-increasing student popula
tion and the lack of qualified teachers, teaching has taken
priority over research, with the result that many research
projects are being hindered.
2. Some institutions of higher learning limit the
number of students accepted, whereas others, among which
are the universities, must admit everyone who has satis
factorily completed the matriculation examination. This
procedure causes discrimination among the students, and it
also lowers the academic average of the university student
123
bodies.
3. The dropout rate is a serious problem in the
system of higher education in Denmark. At some of the
,faculties and institutions of higher learning the rate is
as high as 70 per cent, and at others it is as low as 10
to 15 per cent.
4. The lack of interrelationships between facul
ties at the universities and between the universities and
other institutions of higher learning causes some concern.
This concern is caused partly because the student becomes
too narrow in his education when studying only one subject-
matter field, and partly because of the overlapping cost
of laboratories and equipment in several of the institu
tions of higher learning.
5. In relation to plans for future expansion of
institutions of higher education the question was raised as
to whether it would be better when establishing new insti
tutions to locate them in various parts of the country in
order.to keep them smaller and closer to the people. An
other question in the same connection was whether new uni
versity centers should follow the traditional pattern of
five faculties or possibly prefer to open (or add) new
experimental programs which eventually might lead to a
change in structure of the overall pattern of higher educa
tion in Denmark.
124
6. The practical consensus was that the instruc
tional methods of the system of higher education in Denmark
are due for a revision.
Conclusions
On the basis of the findings and their analysis,
the following conclusions are drawn:
1. The many immediate problems facing the system
of higher education in Denmark indicate that the increase
in number of students has taken place at a much more rapid
rate than have the appropriate plans for expansion and
future developments.
2. Age-old traditions are prominent among the main
factors that have held, and still are holding, back the
programs of experimentation and restructure which are
needed and which are also desired by a great many of the
younger academicians.
3. It is generally accepted that as long as lead
ership is expected to come from among the changing politi
cians rather than from among the educators themselves, it
is most likely that adequate provisions for expansion will
come very slowly and will not in the foreseeable future be
able to catch up with the developments and needs of a
modern society.
125
Recommendations
The following recommendations are based upon the
findings and conclusions as reported in this study.
General Recommendations
1. Serious consideration should be given by edu
cators as to how the system of higher education in Denmark
can best meet the needs of a rapidly developing society in
the immediate future.
2. Study should be given to the solution of the
problem of how to keep a balance between demand and supply
in the various fields of higher education.
3. A closer correlation should be provided be
tween the preparatory schools ("gymnasia") and the system
of higher education if a set grade on the matriculation ex
amination is to be retained as the basic entrance require
ment.
4. In order to solve the problem of teacher short
age it is recommended that high rank positions be opened
up for younger, promising scholars before they complete
their doctoral program. If this does not seem feasible,
perhaps a restructure of the doctoral program would be
advisable.
5. It is strongly recommended that serious consid
eration be given to the inauguration of new general studies
curricula of shorter duration than the present higher
126
degree programs, the shorter curricula to terminate with a
diploma or a degree and lead into specialized programs of
the present traditional nature.
6. More student housing should be provided, either
by the institutions of higher learning or by private foun
dations .
7. A change in the concept of student personnel
services is greatly needed. Studies should be made to set
up effective testing and guidance programs, especially for
first- and second-year students in the system of higher
education.
8. In the same connection, plans should be made to
make the transfer from the "gymnasium" to the institutions
of higher learning less traumatic by making the first year
of study at the latter institutions more structured with
required class attendance and guidance in study methods and
techniques.
9. It is recommended that serious consideration be
given to a change in evaluation procedures with specific
regard to the significance placed upon final examinations
under the present structure.
10. The government should take action to get the
building program under way at the University of Odense.
11. Decisions should be made in regard to the loca
tion of the next center of higher learning in Denmark so
127
that definite plans and actions can be started without
undue delay.
12. The University of Aarhus should be kept at its
present size, while the University of Copenhagen should
decrease its enrollment to an absolute maximum of 15,000
students.
13. All other institutions of higher learning
should be expanded or duplicated in order to accommodate
the increased number of students.
14. The Planning Council for Higher Education in
Denmark should continue its work of giving study to and
recommendations for further developments and structures of
the system of higher education.
For a system of higher education like the Danish
one, which seems to be bound in the traditions of centuries,
it is something of a shock to face so many almost insur
mountable barriers. Much research and experimentation must
be processed in order to find reasonable solutions to the
complex of problems— including inertia. However, en
lightened and responsible individuals have recognized what
the prolems are, that they are current, and that they must
be solved— which is the first and most important step to
ward their solution. This in itself gives hope for the
future, in spite of the fact that the task will be diffi
cult.
128
Recommendations f or
Further Study
Since research in higher education in Denmark is
relatively unknown, many areas are open for further inves
tigation. The following important topics are recommended
for future study:
1. The problem of articulation between secondary
and higher education in Denmark.
2. An experimental study involving a closer rela
tionship between the various institutions of higher learn-.
ing and also between the various faculties of the univer
sities in Denmark.
3. Future needs -for academically trained personnel
in business, industry and the professions in Denmark.
4. The relationship between teaching and research
in the system of higher education in Denmark; what it is
and what it might become.
5. A comparison of the cost of educating students
in various instituions of higher education in Denmark.
6. The relationship between the admission require
ments, the content matter of the study and the graduation
requirements in higher education in Denmark.
APPENDIXES
129
APPENDIX A
QUESTIONNAIRE
130
AN ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL ISSUES IN
HIGHER EDUCATION IN DENMARK
QUESTIONNAIRE
VIKTOR CHRISTENSEN
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
LA SIERRA COLLEGE, RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA
131
132
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANOELES, CALIFORNIA B 0 0 0 7
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION May 9, 1967 TCLBPHONti ( S O I 7 4 6 -E 3 B 3
To V 7 hom It Liay Concernt
This letter will introduce and commend to you Ur. Viktor
Christensen, Assistant Professor, La Sierra College) and
advanced graduate student at the University of Southern California.
I am serving as Chairman of Ur. Christensen's Doctoral Committee
and thus I know him well as a scholar and as a person.
Ur. Christensen has completed all.of his work for the Ph.D.
degree except the dissertation. He wishes to complete the research
for his dissertation while he is in Denmark. We are keenly
intereeted in his study of Higher Education in Denmark and will
appreciate any assistance you can give him. He is a mature and
responsible scholar and will respect and use wisely any privileges
granted him.
Kindest greetings from the University of Southern California
to our fellow educators in Denmark.
Sincerely yours,
P ro fe s s o r o f H igher E ducation
LA SIERRA COLLEGE
LA SIERRA, CALIFORNIA 92»0»
133
June 1J>, 1967
Dear Sir:
Higher Education in Western Culture today faces serious
problems; and although each country seems to go about solving
the problems in its own way, there is no doubt that we can learn
from each otheri
With this in mind, I am entering upon a study of the most
critical issues in Higher Education in Denmark. The result of
this study is still unknown; but when completed, it will be sub
mitted as a doctoral dissertation at the University of Southern
California, Los Angeles, California, 90007.
It is hoped that this project will be worth-while and
that the result will be of interest to you. Your assistance in
the study by completing the questionnaire on the following pages
will prove invaluable. Those cooperating with this survey will
receive a summary of the results upon request.
Your kind cooperation will be thoroughly appreciated. Due
to the shortness of ray stay in Denmark I do hope that you will be
able to return this questionnaire within the next two weeks or at
the very latest on August 1, 1967. For your convenience an ad
dressed stamped envelope in enclosed. Thank you for your time and
interest.
Cordially yours,
—
Viktor Christensen
Assistant Professor
Jah
>
INSTRUCTIONS
As you answer this questionnaire,, please keep in
mind that all information will be kept confidential. No
individual or institution will be named or revealed in the
report or otherwise.
Use your personal judgment in each case. Do not
try to guess which answer the investigator would prefer.
After you have checked the proper column for each
answer, please jot down a sentence or two as explanatory
remarks in the space provided. Since this part of the
questionnaire is very important, it will be greatly appre
ciated if you will do this as a help in making the study
more meaningful.
134
GENERAL INFORMATION
Age: 21-35____35-50____Over 50____ Sex:_Male____Female
Position:
Degrees:______________________ Year:
Which institution(s) of higher education did you attend:
Would you be interested in a summary of this study when
4
completed? Yes:____ No:
Would you be willing to submit one-half hour to forty-five
minutes for an interview concerning this study?
Yes:____ No:____
If Yes, please indicate approximate date (before Septem
ber 15, 1967) and time of the day which would be convenient
for you.
Give three choices:
1. Date:_____________________________Time:........ .....
2. Date: Time:
3. Date: * Time:
135
SPECIAL INFORMATION
YES UNDECIDED NO
1. Are the institutions of higher
learning in Denmark meeting the
needs of the people as far as
variety of preparation is con
cerned?
Explanatory remarks:
2. Should students with qualifica
tions other than the matricula
tion examination (Studen-
tereksamen) be admitted to the
institutions of higher learning
in Denmark?
Explanatory remarks:
3. Is there a significant shortage
of manpower in the academic
professions in Denmark?
Explanatory remarks:
4. Should a certain level of schol
arship (G.P.A.) be presented as
basis for acceptance (reaccep
tance yearly) into the institu
tions of higher learning in
Denmark?
Explanatory remarks:
5. As the institutions of higher
learning increase the number of
students accepted, will it be
possible to finance the program
of higher education in Denmark
136
YES
under the present structure?
Explanatory remarks:
6. Will it be possible to find
enough qualified teachers for
the institutions of higher
learning as the enrollment in
creases?
Explanatory remarks:
7. Would it be better if the ad
ministration of higher education
in Denmark was decentralized?
Explanatory remarks:
8. Do you see any value in having
private institutions of higher
learning governed by a private
board of trustees?
Explanatory remarks:
9. Would you favor tuition paid by
the students at the state insti
tutions of higher learning in
Denmark?
Explanatory remarks:
10. Are there any special problems
in connection with the fact that
higher education in Denmark is
a function of the state?
Explanatory remarks:
11. Do you believe it would be de
sirable to have a larger per
centage of the population
137
UNDECIDED NO
138
YES UNDECIDED NO
attend institutions of higher
learning in the future than
has been the case in the past?
Explanatory remarks:
12. Would you favor large universi
ties (5,000 students or more)
with student housing connected
with these?
Explanatory remarks:
13. Should the institutions of higher
learning provide recreational
facilities and supervision for
the students living in student
housing?
Explanatory remarks:
14. Should the teachers in the insti
tutions of higher learning show
an interest in their students
outside of the academic endeavors,
such as for example students'
character development, etc.?
Explanatory remarks:
15. Should the education for prospec
tive teachers and prospective
researchers be essentially the
same?
Explanatory remarks:
16. Overall, are the course offerings
of the institutions for higher
learning in Denmark keeping up
139
YES UNDECIDED NO
with modern developments?
Explanatory remarks:
.17. Do you see merit in the insti
tutions of higher learning of
fering a lower academic degree
than is now the case, maybe
similar to what is done in other
countries (B.A. and B.S.)?
Explanatory remarks:
18. Should class attendance be re
quired in institutions of
higher learning in Denmark?
Explanatory remarks:
19. Do the students in the institu
tions of higher education in
Denmark have access to adequate
library facilities?
Explanatory remarks:
20. Do you feel that too much sig
nificance is placed upon final
examinations at the institutions
of higher learning in Denmark?
Explanatory remarks:
21. Is the effectiveness of a mod
ern democracy dependent upon the
quality of its system of higher
education?
Explanatory remarks:
140
22. Below, list in order the three greatest problems in
higher education in Denmark at present:
23. What suggestions could you give to solve these prob
lems?
AN A N A L Y S IS O F CRITICAL IS S U E S IN
HIGHER ED U C A T IO N IN DENM ARK
SP0RGESKEM A
VIKTOR CHRISTENSEN
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION
LA SIERRA COLLEGE, RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA
142
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOSA N CELES,CALIFO RN IA # 0 0 0 7
tCHOOL OP ED U CATION toy 9, 1967 TELEPHONE* I * t S ) T 4 « .E S 6 J
To Whoa It Way Concerm
This letter will introduce and command to you Ur. Viktor
Christensen, Assistant Professor, La Sierra College, and
advanced graduate student at the University of Southern California.
X am serving as Chairman of Ur. Christensen's Doctoral Committee
and thus X know him well as a scholar and as a person.
Ur. Christensen has completed all of his work for the Ph.D.
degree except the dissertation. He wishes to complete the research
for his dissertation while he is in Denmark. We are keenly
Interested in his study of Higher Education in Denmark and will
appreciate any assistance you can give him. He is a mature and
.responsible scholar and will respect and use wisely any privileges
granted him.
Kindest greetings from the University of Southern California
to our fellow educators in Denmark.
Sincerely yours,
Pidlias
Professor of Higher Education
L A SIERRA C O L L E G E
MVKMIDE. CAUTOaMA 83303
DEPARTMENT OP
EDUCATION
Den 15. juni 1967
Hajere uddannelse i den vestlige verden mader i
dag alvorlige problemer} og'endskant hvert land synea
at falge sin egen fremgangamide ved lasningen af lokale
problemer, er der ingen tvivl om, at vi kan lsre af
hverandre•
Med dette i tanke har jeg lagt planer om at fore-
tage et atudium af de meat kritiake problemer inden for
den hajere uddannelse i Danmark. Resultatet af) dette atu
dium er naturligvis endnu ukendtj men n&r alle oplys-
ninger er analyseret og en rapport udarbejdet,: vv il den
blive forelagt University of Southern California i Los
Angeles som en doktordiaputats.
Jeg hAber at kunne samle mange vardifulde op-
lysninger, og at resultatet vil vmre af interesse for
Dem. Deres andel i atudiet ved at udfylde spargeskemaet
pA de falgende aider vil vmre af uvuxderlig betydning
for et godt resultat. Hvis De er'intereaaeret i udfal-
det, skal det vmre mig en fornajelse at tilsende Dem et
sammendrag af den fardige rapport, n&r den foreligger.'
Jeg akal vare Dem meget taknemlig for Derea med-
virken i dette. Da jeg kun kan opholde nig i Danmark i
forholdavia kort tid, h&ber jeg, at De vil vare i stand
til at returnere dette spargeskena til mig i labet af et
par uger eller allerseneat den 1. august 1967* For at-
lette returneringen har jeg vedlagt en adresseret, fran-
keret kuvert. Mange tak for Deres tid og interease.
Viktor Christfensen
Assistant Professor
144
VEJLEDNING
Idet De besvarer dette sporgeskema, bedee De bemeerke, at alle oplysninger vil
blive behandlet fortroligt. Ingen person eller Institution vil blive omtalt ved navn
eller pfi anden mfide Sbenbaret i rapporten. •
Glv udtryk for D eres egen mening i hvert tilfaelde. Prov Ikke pS at geette, hvil-
ket svar der vil blive foretrukket.
Efter at De har meerket det svar, der efter Dares mening passer bedst ved at
understrege et ord (»Ja<, *nej* eller »ved ikke-), vasr da venlig at forklare i en
saetning eller to pS linierne under sporgsmfilet. Denne del af sporgeskem aet er
m eget vigtig, da den vil hjeelpe til at ffi en dybere indsigt i problemerne og sSledes
hjaelpe til med af gore studiet mere betydnlngsfuldt.
ALMINDELIGE O PL Y SN IN G E R
Ken: Mand Kvinde. Alder: 21-35 fir. 36— 50 Sr. Over 50 fir
Uddannelse: Ar fuldfert:
Hejere leereanstalt,. hvor uddannelsen er taget:
Er De interesseret I at m'odtage et sammendrag af resultatet af dette studium?
J a . . NeJ. , •
Vil De vaBre villig til at ofre en halv time til tre kvarter pfi et Interview?
Jo NeJ.
Hvls »Ja«, vaer venlig at angive en dato (for 15. September 1967) og klokkeslat,
der vil passe Dem bedst. Hvis muligt, giv tre forskellige datoer. Jeg skal da sa3tte
mig I forbindelse med Dem og trseffe endellg a'iale.
1. Dato: Tid:
2. Dato: Tid:
3. Dato: Tid:
145
' SPE C IE L L E O P L Y S N IN G E R
I. Tllbyder de hojere laereanstalter i Danmark en undervisnlng,
som er tilstraekkelig varieret til at mode b'efolknlngens behov? ia Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
2. Skulle det vaere muligt for personer uden studentereksam en,
men som mSske har andre og ligestillede kvalifikatloner, at
blive optaget som elever ved alle de hojere laereanstalter,
speclelt ved unlversiteterne? ia Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
Er d er en betydnlngsfuld mangel pS »akademisk« uddannede
personer I Danmark? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerf.nlnger:
4. Ville det vaere en fordel at have et vlst gennem snlt af karak-
terer som minimum for optagelse (b3de forste gang og hvert
folgende 8r) som elev ved de hojere lasreanstalter? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
5. Idet antallet af olever ved de hojere laereanstalter forcges,
vil det da vaere muligt at financlere den hojere uddannelse
I Danmark under det nuvaerende system? ia Nej Ved ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
6.. Vil det vaere . muligt at flnde et tllstreekkellgt antal kvallflce-
rede laerere til de hojere laereanstalter I Danmark, eftersom
* elevantallet foroges? Ja Nej Vedlkko
Forklarende bemaerkninger:
146
Ville det vasre en fordel at have mere lokal administration af
hver af de hojere laereanstalter? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
8. Ville det vaere vaerdifuldt at have private unlverslteter og
andre hojere laereanstalter I konkurrence med statens Institu-
tloner? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
Ville De foretraekke at studenterne betalte skolepenge ved
atatens hojere laereanstalter? Ja Nej . Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaorknlnger:
10. Er der saerlige problem er I forbindelse med den kendsger-
nlng, at den hojere uddannelse I Damark er et stats-
anliggende? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
11. Tror De, at det ville vaere onskellgt, at en storre procent af
befolknlngen fik anledning til at f& en hojere uddannelse I
Fremtlden, end tllfaeldet har vaeret Indtil nu? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
12. Ville De foretraekke storre unlverslteter (over 5000 studenter)
med tilhorende bollgforhold for studenterne? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
13. Skulle de hojere laereanstalter vaere ansvarllg for de studen
ter, d er b e?i— I studenterkollegler, og arrangere fritidsbeskaef-
-.'.tlgelse og rekreatlon for dem? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
\
147
14. Skulle professorer og andre laerere ved de hojere laereanstal-
: •. te r vise Interesse for deres .studenter udover de akadem iske
omrflder, som for eksem pel deres karakterudvikling, .osv.? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:-
15. Skulle fremtldlge laerere (professorer) og fremtldlge vlden-
skabsmaend gennemgS den samme hojere uddannelse? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
16. Er undervlsnlngen ved de hojere laereanstalter I al almlndellg-
hed I takt med tidens udvikling? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
17.' Kan De s e nogen fordel ved at tllbyde en lavere akadem isk
grad ved de hojere laereanstalter I Danmark end det nu er
tllfaeldet, mfiske I llghed med, hvad der tilbydes I andre
lande (B. A. og B. S.)? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
18. Skulle tllstedevaerelse ved forelaesnlnger og I klasser krea-
v es af Studenter ved de hojere laereanstalter? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger: '
19. Har studenter ved de hojere laereanstalter I Danmark adgang
til vel udstyrede blblloteker? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
20. Leegges der efter D eres mening for megen veegt pS resul
tatet af de afsluttende eksam lner ved de hojere laereanstal-
te r I Danmark? Ja Nej Ved Ikke
Forklarende bemaerknlnger:
148
21. Tror De, at resultatet af at moderna demokratlsk samfund
afhaenger af kvaliteten af dets hojere uddannelse? Ja
Forklarende bemserknlnger:
22. Anfor i reekkefolge de tre m est krttlske problemer vedrorende
den hojere uddannelse I Danmark I dag:
i .
2.
8.
23. Hvad vllle De foresIS som losnlng pS dlsse problemer?
Nej Ved Ikka
M O d tU K 4 S B S I • tUSi
APPENDIX B
BASIC QUESTIONS USED IN THE INTERVIEW
149
BASIC QUESTIONS USED IN THE INTERVIEWS
1. Do you believe that the field of research is being ne
glected due to the pressure for teaching caused by the
large enrollments during the recent years?
2. By having limitations of number of students admitted to
certain institutions of higher education and at the
same time not having such limitations at the universi
ties, do you feel that the academic quality of the
university student, in general, is inferior to that of
the students at the institutions with the limitations?
3. As you see it, can anything be done to remedy the large
dropout rate among the students in the system of higher
education?
4. Do you feel that the quality of the teaching in the
system of higher education has been influenced by the
fact that the number of teachers with a doctoral degree
has dropped from 66 per cent in 1943 to 33 per cent in
1966?
5. Some countries have universities with an enrollment of
20,000 students or more. Do you feel that it would be
desirable to have large universities like that in
Denmark, or would you prefer several smaller universi
ties in order to accommodate the expected rise in en
rollment (predicted to be 68,000 students by 1980)?
6. Is the present university structure with five separate
faculties functional; or could you visualize a struc
ture of more flexibility and interrelationship between
the various fields of study?
7. Are the instructional methods in the system of higher
education, in general, considered to be effective in
preparing the students for their examinations as well
as for their professions?
150
APPENDIX C
REQUIREMENTS FOR MATRICULATION EXAMINATION
151
REQUIREMENTS FOR MATRICULATION EXAMINATION
("THE GYMNASIUM")
In the Law of June 7, 1958 concerning the new
structure of the.Danish "Gymnasium," the paragraph on ob
jectives reads as follows: . .
The Gymnasium section, of the school gives, as an
addition to the second Real-class, through three one-
year classes, a continued general education; it also
serves as a necessary basis for studies at the higher
education level, and it terminates with the matricula
tion examination ("Studentereksamen"). (96:20)
At the time of the admission the student must
choose between two lines of study, the language line or the
mathematics line. During the last two years a further spe
cialization takes palce. Each of the two lines are divided
into three subdivisions according to the following pattern:
Language line Mathematics line
1. Modern languages (ml) 1. Mathematics/physics (mp)
2. Socio-languages (si) 2. Socio-mathematics (sm)
3. Classical languages (cl) 3. Mathematics/science (ms)
(96:28-30)
The weekly number of class periods (usually fifty
minutes each) has been set at thirty-six for all lines.
The school year follows that of the other departments of
the public schools, starting in the middle of August and
lasting to about June 23, thus allowing for forty full
weeks of instruction (96:28).
152
153
The methods of presenting the subject matter are
left up to the individual teachers. However, it is recom
mended that as the students progress the emphasis be placed
upon individual work for the students, thus preparing them
for a smoother transition into the system of higher educa
tion (96:25).
The following is a distribution of the time in
hours which should be allotted weekly to the various sub
jects during each year of the Gymnasium study:
Subject Language Line
Core ml si cl
I-II-III II-III II-III II-III
Religion 1-1-1
Danish 4-4-4
English 4- -6- 5 -4-3
German 3- -5- 4 -2- 0
French (Russian) 5-3-4
Latin 4- -3- 3 -3- 3 -7- 5
Greek w/ancient
history -8- 8
Ancient history 1- -1- 1 -1- 1
History 4-3-3
Government 0- -0- 1 -5- 5 -0- 1
Geography 2-1- - 2
Biology 0-0-4
Mathematics 3- 3- 0
Subtotal 31-15-16 -15-14 -15-14 -15-14
Physical education 3-3-3
Field-study 0-1-1
Music (maximum) 2-2-2
Music (minimum) (2- 0- 0)
Art appreciation (0- 2- 2)
Total
36-21-22 -15-14 -15-14 -15-14
APPENDIX D
THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN DENMARK
155
THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN DENMARK
156
Vocational
schools
Adult
education
etc.
8th grade
Universities
and
other
institutions
nf
Institutions higher
for learning
teachers'
training
4
"S tudentereks amen"
"Realeksamen
10th grade
9th grade
3. gymnasium
2. gymnasium
1. gymnasium
7th grade
6th grade
5th grade
4th grade
3rd grade
2nd grade
1st grade
BIB LI OGR AP HY
157
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 .
2.
3.
4.
5.
6 .
7.
8 .
9.
10.
11.
1 2 .
Books
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Baskin, Samuel, ed. Higher Education: Some Newer
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Company, 1965.
Bauerlund, Hans Chr., ed. Haandbog for Studenter.
K^benhavn: Studenterraadet ved K^benhavns Uni
versitet, 1967.
Bengtson, Bengt. Taenk paa et Tal. K^benhavn:
Normanns Foflag, 1966.
______, et al. Tanker om et Nyt Universitet.
Odense: Fyns Stifttidende, 1966.
Blinkenberg, Andreas. Aarhus Universitet 1928-1953.
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Branth, Ellen. The University of Copenhagen. Copen
hagen: University of Copenhagen, 1965.
Brickman, William W. Denmark's Educational System and
Problems. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of
Education, 1967.
Brook, G. L. The Modern University. London: Andre
Deutsch, 1965
Brubacher, John Seiler. Bases for Policy in Higher
Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1965.
, and Rudy, Willis. Higher Education in
Transition. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers,
TW5T.----
Butterfield, Herbert. The Universities and Education
Today. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962.
158
159
13. Buurf Christian. Bidrag til Undervisningens Historie.
K^benhavn: P. Haase & S0ns Forlag, 1934.
14. Carmichael, Oliver C. Universities: Commonwealth and
American. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959.
15. Carr-Saunders, A. M. New Universities Overseas.
London: George Allen & Unwin, 1961.
16. Clapp, Margaret, ed. The Modern University. Ithaca,
N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1950.
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r

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Creator Christensen, Viktor Albert (author)

Core Title An Analysis Of Critical Issues In Higher Education In Denmark

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, general,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Pullias, Earl Vivon (committee chair), Berg, Richard H. (committee member), Wilbur, Leslie (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-704307

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