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A Comparative Analysis Of Three Approaches To Beginning Reading

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A Comparative Analysis Of Three Approaches To Beginning Reading

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Content 70-16,860
DAWES, Darrel Lee, 1929-
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THREE APPROACHES TO
BEGINNING READING.
University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1970
Education, theory and practice
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THREE APPROACHES
TO BEGINNING READING
t o y
Darrel L. Dawes
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
(Education)
January, 1970
UNIVERSITY O F SO UTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
under the direction of hi.?..... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments of the degree of
DARREL L. DAWES
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
V
Dean
D a t e . . . t ^ l * W . J B l
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
/ / -'-'7 Chairman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES iv
LIST OF FIGURES vii
Chapter
I. PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM 1
Introduction
The Problem
Statement of the Problem
Importance of the Problem
Statement of Hypothesis
Definition of Terms
Basic Assumptions
Delimitations
Limitations
Organization of Remaining Chapters
Introduction
Historical Perspective
Research in Reading
The Use of Phonics in Beginning Reading
The Development of Basal Readers
The Use of Artificial Orthographies in
Beginning Reading
Research on the Use of Phonics in Beginning
Reading
Phonics Versus "Look-Say"
Intensive Phonics Versus Incidental Phonics
Immediate Phonics Versus Postponed Phonics
Research on the Ginn Basic Reading Approach
Research on the Use of Phonetic Keys to Reading
Research on the Use of Temporary Alphabets in
Beginning Reading
Early Studies
Research on the Initial Teaching Alphabet
Summary
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 10
i
ii
Chapter Page
III. PROCEDURES OF THE STUDY............................ 6k
Research Method
The Sample
Socioeconomic Characteristics
Mental Maturity
Chronological Age
The Pretest Covariate
Adjustment Factors
Teacher Factors
Program Descriptions
Description of Basic Methods
Instructional Materials
Class Size
Organizational Patterns
Testing Program
Procedure
Description of Tests
IV. ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS............................10^
Introduction
Hypothesis Tested
The Findings
Summary of Findings
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......... 119
Summary
The Problem
Procedures
Summary of Findings
Conclusions
Recommendations
APPENDICES.................................... 126
A. THE INITIAL TEACHING ALPHABET ..................... 128
B. THE WARNER-MEEKER-EELS SCALE FOR RATING OCCUPATIONS 130
C. ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE SUMMARY............. 13^
D. DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE METROPOLITAN
READINESS TESTS ............................... 1^2
E. DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE LORGE-THORNDIKE
INTELLIGENCE T ES T S................................1 ^
iii
Chapter Page
F. DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE SRA READING
TESTS.............................................. 146
G. DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE GATES-MacGINITIE
READING TESTS ................................148
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................... 150
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Distribution by School of Classes Using Each
Approach.................... 67
2. Number of Students at Each Level on the Warner-
Meeker-Eels Scale for Rating Occupations ..... 69
3. Group Means Socioeconomic Level on the Warner-
Meeker-Eels Revised Scale for Rating Occupations . 70
k. Group Means and Standard Deviations The Lorge-
Thorndike Intelligence Tests Raw Scores .... 71
5. Intelligence Quotient Equivalents of Lorge-
Thorndike Mean Raw Scores................. 71
6. Group Means and Standard Deviations Chronological
Age in Months.............. 72
7. Group Means and Standard Deviations Pretest Covariate
Metropolitan Readiness Tests Total Raw Scores . • 73
8. Group Means and Standard Deviations Emotional
Adjustment Ratings . . . ......................... 78
9. Group Means and Standard Deviations Attitude Toward
School Ratings .................................... 78
10. Group Means and Standard Deviations Appearance in
Terms of Cleanliness and Grooming Ratings .... 77
11o Group Means and Standard Deviations General Energy
Level Ratings ..... ......................... 77
12. Group Means and Standard Deviations Listening
Ability Ratings ................................. 78
13. Group Means and Standard Deviations Ability in Oral
Expression Ratings ..... .................. ?8
lb. Group Means and Standard Deviations Parental
Interest in the Child and His School Program
Ratings .................................... 79
iv
V
Table Page
15» Group Means and Standard Deviations Parental
Attitude Toward the School Ratings ............... 79
16. Group Means and Standard Deviations Parental
Understanding of Educational Issues Ratings . * • 80
17. Group Means and Standard Deviations Relationship
with Peers Ratings............................... 80
18. Teacher Appraisal by Principal..................... 8*f
19. Ginn, Economy, and i.t.a. Comparisons on Selected
Variables Adapted from Chall (5:338-3^0) ........ 93
20. Average Daily Attendance ............................ 99
21. Hypotheses.......................................... 106
22. Significance of Mean Score Comparisons ............. 107
23« Scheffe Post Hoc Comparison Test For Mean
Differences...................................... Ill
2k, One Way Analysis of Covariance Adjusted Means
Stanford Word Reading........................... 113
25* One Way Analysis of C o v a r i a n c e Adjusted Means
Stanford Paragraph Meaning .. ................... 113
26. One Way Analysis of Covariance Adjusted Means
Stanford Reading and Paragraph Meaning Total . . . 113
27* One Way Analysis of Covariance Adjusted Means
Stanford Vocabulary ............... ll^f
28. One Way Analysis of Covariance Adjusted Means
Stanford Word Study Skills....................... ll*f
29* One Way Analysis of Covariance Adjusted Means
SRA Verbal-Pictorial Association.............. ll^f
30. One Way Analysis of Covariance Adjusted Means
SRA Language Perception ......................... 115
31. One Way Analysis of Covariance Adjusted Means
SRA Comprehension............................... 115
32. One Way Analysis of Covariance Adjusted Means
SRA Vocabulary................................... 115
vi
Table Page
33. One Way Analysis of Covariance Adjusted Means
SBA Reading Total ........................... 116
3**. One Way Analysis of Covariance Adjusted Means
Gates-MacGinitie Vocabulary .... ................. 116
35. One Way Analysis of Covariance Adjusted Means
Gates-MacGinitie Comprehension .................... 116
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Methods.............................................. 65
2. Major Steps in Conducting the Study .............. 66
vii
CHAPTER I
PRESENTATION OF THE PROBLEM
Introduction
Educational objectives have traditionally included the
mastery of "reading, writing, and arithmetic" fundamentals. In
our schools today these are generally regarded as means to
achieving the larger purpose of developing well-rounded and well-
integrated individuals capable of responsible behavior in a
dynamic society. It is recognized that learning to read, in its
broadest sense, constitutes a basic step in achieving this goal.
Early success in reading is an important aspect in the
total development of a child’s educational experience. Unfortu
nately, there is a rather high incidence of early reading failure
on the part of many first grade children. Lack of success often
leads to difficulties in other learning areas. For this reason
there is a continuing search for ways to reduce the number of
reading failures and, at the same time, increase the proficiency
of the more successful learners.
The numerous methods, materials, and media of instruction
in the field of reading today all claim certain superior qualities.
No approach, or combination of approaches, has proven to be uni
versally more acceptable than all others. The tried and proven
approaches used in a given time and place may be scornfully
rejected in another setting. For this reason, and because learn
ing to read is a complex process, educators must be continually
aware of the changing nature of beginning reading programs.
Recently the results of several studies have suggested
that the Initial Teaching Alphabet (i.t.a.), when used as an
integral part of a well-developed reading program, may substan
tially reduce the number of reading failures in the first grade.
Similar claims have been made for Phonetic Keys to Reading.
materials produced by the Economy Company. Included in the basal
reading programs which have been successfully used by teachers
for many years are materials produced by Ginn and Company which
have also produced claims of superiority. At present there exists
a need to test these claims against some well-developed and
meaningful criteria. This study represents an attempt to do that.
The Problem
Statement of the Problem
This study stemmed from the need to find more effective
ways to teach beginning reading. Specifically, it was designed to
compare the relative advantages of three approaches to first
grade reading: (l) a basal reading method utilizing the Ginn
Basic Reading Series and accompanying supplementary material,
(2) an intensive, early-phonics approach in which the Economy
Company's Phonetic Keys to Reading materials are used and (3) the
Early-to-Read i.t.a. Program which employs an artificial ortho
graphy. In this study these three approaches are referred to as
(1) Ginn, (2) Economy and (3) i.t.a. respectively.
Importance of the Problem
Because learning to read is a continuous and complex
process it is very difficult to determine the overall effective
ness of a particular approach during a limited period of time.
This difficulty is compounded because all children do not respond
to a given method in the same way, all teachers do not present a
particular program in the same manner, and researchers use varying
techniques and criteria in formulating their conclusions regarding
the effectiveness of a specified approach. For these reasons the
results of a single study involving the effectiveness of a reading
methodology cannot be considered as conclusive. Other studies
must be conducted using the same general approaches with some
variations. The need presently exists for more studies which
include evaluations of the effectiveness of the three approaches
under consideration in this dissertation.
Statement of Hypothesis
This study was designed to test the null hypothesis that,
on the basis of selected criteria, there would be no significant
differences in the effectiveness of the three beginning reading
approaahus under investigation. This hypothesis was tested with
children categorized as (l) low ability boys (2) high ability
boys (3) low ability girls (b) high ability girls and against the
following criteria:
A. The Stanford Reading Tests (Primary I, Form W)
1. Word Reading
2. Paragraph Meaning
3« Word Reading and Paragraph Meaning Total
*f. Vocabulary
5» Word Study Skills
B. SRA Achievement Series (Reading 1-2, Form C)
1. Verbal-Pictorial Association
2. Language Perception
3» Comprehension
k. Vocabulary
5. Reading Total
C. Gates-MacGinite Reading Tests (Primary A, Form 1)
1. Vocabulary
2. Comprehension
Definition of Terms
1. Analysis, phonetic; The process of determining the
pronunciation of a word through an analysis of the sounds repre
sented by letters and combinations of letters.
2. Analysis, word; The process of analyzing an unfa
miliar word in order to find clues which lead to its pronuncia
tion and meaning.
3. Grapheme: The symbol which represents a unit of
speech sound.
1 f. Initial Teaching Alphabet (i.t.a.): An artificial
5
orthography consisting of forty-four symbols developed by Sir
James Pitman in England. Each symbol stands for a single phoneme.
It is used primarily to teach beginning reading.
5. Method, analytical: An approach to reading which
first presents the word as a whole and then breaks it down into
smaller units for analysis.
6. Method. phonic: A method of teaching reading by
analyzing basic speech sounds and their corresponding symbols in
order to identify words.
7. Method, sight (sometimes called "look-say"): A
method of teaching reading by first exposing children to whole
words rather than letters or syllables.
8. Method, synthetic: A reading approach which first
presents single units such as letters and syllables and then pro
ceeds to larger units such as words, phrases, and sentences.
9. Method, whole word: An approach to teaching reading
that emphasizes the recognition of the word as a whole rather
than through an analysis of its parts.
10. Orthography: As used in this study the term refers
to the symbols, or alphabet, which represent the sounds of a
language.
11. Phonetics: The science of speech sounds, including
their pronunciation, the action of the larynx, tongue, and lips
in sound production, and the symbolization of sounds (22:182).
The word "phonetics” often has been used to mean "phonics,"
especially in earlier literature on the subject of reading.
12. Phonics: The study of sound-letter relationships
in reading and spelling, and the use of this knowledge in
recognizing and pronouncing words.
13. Program, basal-reading: A program of reading
designed to teach basic reading skills. (The term is often used
to imply a somewhat analytical, delayed phonics reading approach
in which words are first introduced as wholes and in context.)
l*t. Traditional orthography (t.o.): As used in this
study the term refers to the regular twenty-six letter alphabet
used in modern English.
Basic Assumptions
1. It was assumed that there was a similar range of
teaching competency in all three approaches and that existing
differences would not significantly affect pupil achievement.
2. It was assumed that any differences found in post
testing comparisons were due to the varying effects of the read
ing programs used.
Delimitations
1. The study was limited to first grade children who
were not repeaters and who were available for all testing
sessions.
2. The duration of the study was one school year.
3. The sample was selected from schools located in three
separate school districts.
7
Limitations
The fact that this was a field study presents an advant
age in generalizing the results to practical classroom applica
tions. It also presents some disadvantages in that it was not
possible to have the kind of rigid controls present in a truly
experimental study conducted under laboratory conditions. For
this reason the following limitations should be taken into
accounts
1. The inability to assign all students randomly to
treatment groups was one limitation of the study.
2. The inability to assign teachers randomly to treatment
groups may be a limitation.
3* The inability to control variations within treatments,
again, may be a limitation.
k. Six i.t.a. classes, five Ginn classes, and no Economy
classes participated in a staggered day program (sometimes
referred to as an extended day program) for at least part of the
school year. In this arrangement approximately half of each
participating class came one-half hour before the start of the
regular school day and were dismissed a half hour early. This
allowed the teachers to spend some time working with smaller
groups than usual and may have been an advantage to the children
involved.
5. The fact that the criterion tests were written in the
traditional alphabet may have presented some disadvantage to the
i.t.a. taught children, particularly in cases where a full
transition to the regular alphabet had not been made at the time
of testing.
6. For purposes beyond the scope of this study five of
the i.t.a. classes were given an i.t.a. version of the Stanford
Reading Tests prior to taking the regular test. It was felt that
any advantage because of "practice effect" would be cancelled out
because of a lack of familiarity with the traditional alphabet on
the part of i.t.a. taught children. Nevertheless, it was a
limitation of the study because the total effect, if any, was not
known.
Organization of Remaining Chapters
This chapter included an introduction to the problem
under investigation, a statement of the importance of the problem,
the. hypothesis around which the study was designed, a definition
of important terms, certain basic assumptions, and the delimita
tions and limitations inherent in the study.
Chapter II includes a review and summary of pertinent
literature related to the problem. The purpose was to form a
background of information which would add relevance to the study.
Particular emphasis was placed upon historical antecedents to
present practices, especially in the areas of phonics, basal
readers, and artificial orthographies.
The purpose of Chapter III was to explain the experimental
design, outline the procedures, describe the independent and
dependent variables, and present the method employed in analyzing
In Chapter IV an analysis of the major findings related
to the hypothesis is given.
The last chapter summarizes the findings, states some
final conclusions, and gives recommendations derived from the
study.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The primary purpose of this chapter is to present a
review of the literature related to the problem under investiga
tion. The broad areas of phonics, basal readers, and artificial
orthographies were considered from historical and research per
spectives. In addition, special emphasis was placed upon the
literature related to the three specific beginning reading
approaches compared in this study.
The chapter begins with an introduction to the problem
and a review of historical antecedents to present reading
practices. This is followed by a discussion of the research
related to the three reading approaches under consideration and,
finally, by a summary of the chapter content.
An attempt was made to restrict the information given in
this chapter to literature which pertains directly to the re
search problem previously described. In view of the large amount
of material indirectly related to the topic a broader coverage
would have been impractical.
Introduction
Although reading has long been taught in our schools as
a separate subject area it is basically a skill which is required
10
11
for success in almost all phases of school life. For this reason
the acquisition of reading ability by young children has been a
topic of great interest to educators for many years. Before the
turn of the century G. Stanley Hall wrote:
How to teach children to read and what they should read
are two of the oldest and most complicated as well as the
most important problems of pedagogy (1^:1).
This concern persists in much of the literature on reading being
published today.
It does appear that we are making some progress in teach
ing children to read. For years educational psychologists have
been making steady gains toward an understanding of the learning
process. Recent studies in the field of linguistics have brought
us closer to a realization of what language and communication
are. Bloomfield's charge of some forty-five years ago that
teachers "do not know what language is, and yet they must teach
it, and in consequence, waste years of every child's life and
reach a poor result" (3^*l-5) is not so true today as it may
have been at that time. The large amount of research which has
been done in reading methodology is slowly affecting teaching
practices. According to Gates (51*198) and other experts in the
field of reading, children of today are generally reading better
than at any other time in our history.
Much of the controversy which, historically, has sur
rounded beginning reading approaches has centered upon the use of
phonics. Often opposing views are reduced to the most simple
terms and expressed in such typical ways as: the phonic method
12
versus the look-say method, intensive phonics versus gradual
phonics and systematic phonics versus intrinsic phonics. In
addition, other terms which usually (though not always) suggest a
particular degree and kind of phonic approach are used to further
delineate between two opposing views. These include such com
parisons as synthetic versus analytic, atomistic versus holistic,
and deductive versus inductive. In practice there are no pure
approaches and elements of each exist in all reading programs.
For this reason differences in reading approaches are best thought
of in terms of degree rather than kind.
Chall (37!569-575) studied the relationship between read
ing methods said to be used in classrooms and the implementation
of these methods and found a considerable difference between how
teachers teach and how they say they teach. In addition,
teachers using the same method vary considerably in their imple
mentation of that method. It is very important that this be
taken into consideration in determining the nature of a parti
cular approach and interpreting research data regarding it.
In recent years there has been a tendency for many people,
educators and layman alike, to oversimplify the complex process of
learning to read. This view often begins with a limited defini
tion of what reading is and centers upon the use of intensive,
early phonic approaches to reading. Such authors as Flesch (8),
Terraan and Walcutt (2*f), and Trace (25) have suggested that there
is a simple solution to most beginning reading problems. Kirk
expressed the view this way:
13
But the vast majority of young people— even those
' ‘culturally deprived" and apparently stupid— can acquire
the skills of reading and writing with comparatively little
effort, given a phonetic grounding (63s588).
Gates (90:197-205) cautioned against this kind of view
and pointed out the limitations of intensive phonics and the
importance of being aware of the many complex factors which
differentiate among individual children and particular learning
situations.
Historical Perspective
That learning to read is a very complex process is
illustrated by the constantly changing methods of beginning
reading instruction. Since colonial times children in this
country have learned to read by methods which often differ
radically.
During the colonial period, when education was compara
tively simple by today's standards, reading was often learned
incidentally from parents, other children, and adults such as
ministers or masters in the case of apprentices. Those fortunate
enough to attend school initially concentrated upon learning the
ABC's and some religious instruction. Both were often presented
in the hornbook, which consisted of a piece of paper or parchment
attached to a board and covered with transparent horn.
Research in Reading
Reading research in the United States is largely a
product of the twentieth century. Before 1900 most of the
l i t
investigations in the area of reading were done in Germany and
France. By the early 1920*8 the United States had surpassed all
other countries in the number of scientific investigations into
the problems of reading (12:2).
Extensive investigation done by Gray revealed a total of
only ^35 studies in reading done before 192*f which could be con
sidered more or less scientific. Of these all but four were com
pleted after 1895* It was between 1911 and 1915 that considerable
interest developed in reading research (12:5)• After that time,
the research data in the area of reading accumulated quite
rapidly.
Traxler reported on 6l8 researches done in the thirties
and estimated that about twice that number were available for
study (27:2). Between 19^0 and 19^5 he reported a shift from
interest in diagnosis and remediation to increased interest in
developmental reading. He reviewed 527 studies completed during
this period (26:75-18^).
Gray reported that the number of scientific studies
relating to reading published in the United States and England
from 1951 to 19^0 was 1,071. From 19^1 to 1950 the number was
915 and from 1951 to 1957 more than 700 (11:1087). Since that
time the number of research studies has continued to multiply so
that today the total is in the thousands.
The Use of Phonics in Beginning Reading
During the colonial period children generally began
learning to read by memorizing the letters of the alphabet. This
approach, known as the ABC method, was essentially the process of
learning to read by spelling and dates back to methods used by
the Greeks and Romans. After gaining knowledge of the letters of
the alphabet children spent more time memorizing long lists of
syllables and then finally began spelling and memorizing words.
The same general procedure was used after phonics was introduced
except that children were now required to learn the names of
syllables and letters as well as their sounds. Webster, who
introduced this approach, had simply added the teaching of letter
sounds to the then existing alphabet method (75s73)•
The best known reading book during the colonial period
was the New England Primer which, between the years of 1700 and
1850, sold some three million copies (*f:69). Children using the
book typically began with several pages devoted to the alphabet
in both small and capital letters, lists of syllables, and then
went on to words of increasing length and difficulty (^:119).
The ultimate purpose of the whole process was to teach children
to read so that they might be better instructed in the rigid
traditional Calvinist religious views of the Puritans.
Phonics instruction came into use along with the publica
tion of Noah Webster's "blue backed speller" in 1782. One of the
first effects of this book was to emphasize spelling and spelling
bees to the extent that the spelling bee became an American fad
(*f:270). Webster introduced phonics as a means of unifying and
purifying spoken English in America after it had become an
independent nation. Teachers discovered that learning the sounds
of letters helped children in attacking new words. Gradually the
idea caught on and the teaching of phonics became an instructional
method (76:1). Almost immediately, at the beginning of first
grade, phonics was taught as a basic approach to learning to
read. The first major change in this approach to beginning
reading came with the discovery of the "word method" when it was
observed that children could learn to read an entire word without
knowing the names of the letters or their sounds. Bumstead and
Webb published readers based on this idea in 18^-0 and in l8*t6 and
many schools replaced the phonics approach with this whole word
method. The word-method approach was used by a minority of
schools from about l8*tO to 1890. Nila Banton Smith (75s 73-7*0
states that, "This is the only period in American history in which
word-method was ever used exclusively as an approach to reading."
It is interesting to note that even here phonics was delayed
rather than entirely omitted.
By the early l890's the word method had become very
popular. This began an emphasis upon large thought units
described as the story-sentence methods which were used until
about 1925. At the same time another but smaller group recom
mended more detail and more intensive drill on phonetic elements
as a prereading requisite (75s 7*0.
A section from the manual of Rebecca Pollard's "Synthetic
Method" first published in 1889 reads:
17
Instead of teaching the word as a whole, and afterwards
subjecting it to phonic analysis, is it not infinitely better
to take the sounds of the letters for our starting point, and
with these sounds lay a foundation firm and broad, upon which
we can build whole families of words for instant recognition?
. . . (10:10).
Following this came the Ward Series, the Beacon Readers,
and the Gordon Readers. The Gordon Readers were quite popular
just after the turn of the century and employed a phonic approach
to beginning reading. The teachers manual emphasized that child
ren must master certain phonic facts before going on to solve
word problems (10:10).
A common attitude toward phonic usage in beginning reading
programs was expressed by Bowden who wrote in 1911;
There is an undoubted advantage in having words presented
at the start as units or wholes, as contrasted with the dis
carded teaching by letters. But that a word method can be
used very long without some detailed analysis of the structure
and parts of the words is altogether too common a notion in
the theory if not in the practice of teaching (35s33)•
The statement also suggests something of the controversy
which surrounded the teaching of phonics over a half century ago
and at a time when an intensive use of phonics was utilized in
numerous beginning reading programs.
At this time the major emphasis was upon individual words
and determining the proper pronunciation and meaning of isolated
words on the assumption that if a child understood the meaning of
a particular word he would understand the meaning of a series of
words. Gray stated that the "word" or the "phonic" readers were
used predominantly in our schools until about 1915 when the
"story method" began to gain in popularity (10:2*0.
18
The story method emphasized drill on whole phrases and
sentences as well as words and recognized ’ ’phonetic analysis" as
only one factor in word perception. With this approach the stage
was set for a more analytic approach to beginning reading. The
increasing influence of Gestalt psychology provided a theoretical
basis, perhaps erroneously to some degree, for the whole-word
approach to learning. At any rate, there was some reform in
phonic approaches and improved techniques resulted.
In spite of these improvements there was such a reaction
against phonics that by about 1920 the use of the old "phonic"
readers had fallen into disrepute among many school people (10:26).
The pendulum was now swinging toward an emphasis upon meaning
rather than word recognition alone and upon silent reading instead
of oral reading.
In the early twenties Gray was emphasizing the importance
of silent reading and summarized research findings to support his
conclusions (12:27). At the same time he and others were question
ing the value of particular kinds of phonic training. Already in
much of the literature of the time there were statements to the
effect that not all children were helped by the use of phonics.
Many of the views expressed at that time were similar to the con
clusions reached by many educators today. For example, in 1925
Anderson and Davidson stated:
There is abundant evidence that phonetic training has
some value in the independence given to the pupil who is
mastering new words. The point that is still unsettled is
just how much is needed (2:76).
19
This is the problem that we still face in teaching reading
today.
By the late twenties it had been rather firmly concluded
that silent reading was more important than oral reading, though
the amount of time which should be spent on each was still pretty
much an open question.
The basal reading approach was being used more and more.
Gray noted that an important characteristic of a good basal
method was that it emphasize the content or meaning of what was
read. He also pointed out that a good basal method provides for
gradual development of independence in word recognition and that
"phonetics" and word analysis should be introduced merely as a
means to that end (13:87)•
It is interesting to note that those who studied reading
over a long period of time and were considered experts in the
field rarely represented extremes in views on reading methodology.
Even in the thirties phonics, contrary to popular belief,
was recognized as a valuable tool to assist children in learning
new words. The approach, however, was generally analytic rather
than synthetic and it was emphasized that sounds taught should be
derived and illustrated through the analysis of familiar sight
words (20:202).
There was still a lack of objective experimental data to
show the relative effect of varying amounts and kinds of phonic
instruction upon the achievement of first grade children.
Just before World War II there was strong pressure from
20
parents and teachers alike which reawakened educational conscious
ness to word perception as a factor in learning to read (10:27).
By 19A0 the pendulum was swinging back to a greater emphasis upon
the intensive use of phonics.
Following the war there was an unprecedented amount of
criticism directed at public schools. Much of it was critical of
the methods of teaching reading and decried a lack of phonic
emphasis. Some of it was, no doubt, justified, but a large part
of it was based upon the sentiment of the time rather than a
clear understanding of educational needs.
The extent, if not the degree, to which phonics was used
during the early fifties was revealed in a poll by Russell who
determined that ninety-eight percent of the teachers questioned
indicated that they taught phonics (71:371-375)•
Again, the basic questions in the area of phonics concern
the nature of its use rather than whether or not it is being used.
This view was expressed by Smith who stated the following several
years ago:
Since we have abundant evidence that phonics is valuable,
instruction in this facet of reading should continue without
interruption in the future if it is provided in such ways and
at such times as research tells us are most helpful to child
ren in meeting their reading needs (76:7).
Smith also pointed out that during the long history of
phonics in the United States there have been many changes. These
include changes in the time at which phonics has been introduced,
changes in the organization of phonic content and changes in the
methods of teaching phonics (75:73)»
21
Today the proper emphasis on and use of phonics is still
an open question. It does seem, however, that research is making
some progress in determining what kinds of approaches are best
for some children.
The Development of Basal Readers
Three books, or series of books, stand out as unique in
the development of beginning reading approaches in American
schools prior to the twentieth century. Before the colonies
gained their independence the New England Primer was widely used,
not only to teach reading but also to give instruction in the
rigid Calvinist religious principles of the time. The New
England Primer, with six of its less than one hundred pages
devoted to the alphabet, some syllables, and a word list was used
for nearly one hundred years in the American colonies to teach
beginning reading. Following it the "Blue-Back Speller," with
its clutter of diacritical markings and its emphasis upon
spelling as a way of learning to read, received wide acclaim.
The publishers stated the following:
It is the opinion of many intelligent teachers, who have
examined the plan of this book, that it needs but to be known
to be universally adopted in our schools (68:^35).
Apparently the words of the publishers were widely accepted be
cause it was almost universally used in this country for many
years.
McGuffey^s Eclectic Readers, which followed the "Blue-
Back Speller," marked the beginning of a new approach to the
22
teaching of reading. Selections from the books were graded and
contained introductory material which was beneficial to teachers
and students alike. For the first time, children and stories
about children became a basic part of reading material. They
were written about children and for children. This pattern since
has persisted in reading material for young children.
It was in the late twenties that the basal reader approach
began to gain wide acceptance. Gray and Zirbes (13s87) expressed
the prevailing view toward the basal method of that time when
they wrote:
. . . Scientific studies show quite conclusively that the
most important characteristic of a good basal method is that
it emphasize the content or meaning of what is read. To this
end the passages or selections must relate to familiar exper
iences and must be highly charged with interest. As a rule a
sentence, story, or written record of a real experience is
used. . . .
. . . A second characteristic of a good basal method is that
it provides for the gradual development of independence in
word recognition. To this end, word analysis and phonetics
are desirable. The error which was made in the past is that
word recognition became the chief aim of reading instruction.
The modern view is that reading must always be a thought-
getting process and that phonetics and word analysis should
be introduced merely as a means to that end. . . .
Some thirty years later the same general attitude toward
basal reading approaches and phonics instruction was reflected by
Artley (29s199) who wrote in 1955:
There is a place for phonics as well as other procedures
of word perception, but they should not take precedence over
the primary function of reading which is to create meaning.
They should be introduced after a basic stock of sight words
has been established.
Artley also emphasized inductive development of generalizations
23
about sounds, endings, prefixes, and similar and dissimilar
elements.
Along with the acceptance of basal readers came the wide
spread use of the experience-chart approach to beginning reading
starting about 192*f. It was similar to the story-sentence method
and was applied to short compositions which were the outgrowth of
the children's own experiences. Children read the experience
chart first and then broke it down into the smaller parts of
sentences, phrases, and words. It was not an all inclusive pro
gram but was simply a new development which is used widely, in
various forms, in reading programs today (75:75)»
Basal reading series now in use are considerably more
elaborate than those first published. Earlier series typically
had a primer and first reader for grade one and a reader for each
grade beyond that. Teachers manuals, if they existed, were
generally very brief and there were few supplementary materials
other than word or phrase cards for the first grade. Today's
series usually start with readiness books or workbooks. Following
this there are usually about three paper-covered preprimers. Next
come one or two primers followed by the first readers. In the
second and third grades there are usually two readers for the
grade and one rather thick volume for each grade above that.
Many accessory materials are provided including workbooks, phrase
strips, and correlated audio-visual materials (15:71-72).
24
The Use of Artificial Orthographies in
Beginning Reading
The Initial Teaching Alphabet, or the Augmented Roman
Alphabet as it was known a few years ago, was not the first
attempt to utilize an artificial and phonemically regular alpha
bet to teach beginning reading.
One of the earlier attempts at alphabet and spelling
reform was that of Richard Hodges, an English school master who
designed a diacritical marking system using the regular alphabet.
In 1644 he brought out a book which he maintained would greatly
simplify the learning of reading, writing, and spelling (5s39)»
Over the years several systems were suggested but none
seems to have maintained any degree of popularity. It would
appear that those who used English were committed to the con
ventional alphabet in spite of its imperfections. Other reformers
included the names of Sir Thomas Smith, Johan Hart, and William
Bullokar whose works left little impression upon the history of
reading instruction (18:27).
One of the early American experiments with a phonetic
alphabet was that conducted by Zalmon Richards who, in 1844,
claimed that he had taught reading in about one-fourth the time
and with greater accuracy than with conventional procedures
(43:169).
In 1837 Isaac Pitman (later Sir Isaac) invented a phonetic
shorthand system called "Phonography" which proved successful
almost immediately. Later he worked with John Ellis in preparing
25
a phonetic alphabet which could be used by printers. By l8Mt
they had completed their alphabet consisting of characters called
"phonotypes." One phonotype stood for each speech sound. Both
men were certain that people could learn reading more easily
using this alphabet and that they could transfer this ability to
the traditional English alphabet. The system was tried and used
successfully in several English schools for teaching reading
(18:167).
About this same time several schools in Massachusetts
were experimenting with "fonotypy." This alphabet, as with the
Initial Teaching Alphabet, was used in the beginning stages of
reading and was followed by a transition to the traditional
alphabet. Between the years 1852 and i860 the first large
experiment took place in ten schools in Waltham, Massachusetts.
The "First Phonetic Reader" printed in fonotypic alphabet was
used. For most readers the transition began at the end of six to
eight months. At a meeting of the American Philosophical Society
in 1899 the system was reported to be superior to conventional
methods of teaching beginning reading (^3:169-170).
The success of fonotypy was, no doubt, partly responsible
for the interest expressed in other kinds of phonetic alphabets.
One of the best known was developed by Dr. Edwin Leigh, a New
England minister and physician, who designed an alphabet consist
ing of over seventy characters (*f3sl70). This system was used in
the St. Louis schools beginning in 1866 and continuing for a
period of at least twenty years. Again, exceptional results were
26
claimed for the system, with speed of learning to read being the
major advantage. W. T. Harris, St. Louis superintendent of
schools, listed many advantages of the system including the saving
of time, better articulation, and the development of the power of
the mind (18:171).
From time to time experiments using temporary alphabets
to teach beginning reading continued to be tried. An approach
similar to Leigh's method was used in England about 191^ by
Robert Jackson who reported that "the reading was much more
fluent, natural, and intelligent than is commonly found in an
Infant School" (^3:171).
Between 1915 and 192*f fifteen British schools experimented
with another "simple phonetic orthography." Though all of these
schools used the "nue spelling" they appear to have made the
transition at varying times. There was general agreement that
the method speeded up the process of learning to read (^3^171)*
Reports from almost all of these early investigations
were similar. Children learned to read more easily, quickly, and
with greater understanding than was the case when using the
regular alphabet. The transition to traditional orthography
posed no real problem. The absence of drudgery was an advantage
for both teacher and pupil. However, in spite of these claims
interest in this country in temporary alphabets subsided as quickly
as it had arisen.
An interest in introductory alphabets persisted longer in
England than in the United States. During World War II it was
27
discovered in England (and in this country too, for that matter)
that large numbers of men were unable to read well. This fact
received wide publicity so that following the War there was a
great deal of interest expressed in the teaching and learning of
reading. In 1953 a bill was introduced in the House of Commons
"to institute researches with a view to reading and, if possible,
eliminating the widespread inability of the children of Great
Britain to read their own language." As a part of the implementa
tion of this bill Sir James Pitman, grandson of Sir Isaac, and his
helpers prepared an alphabet which, with later modifications,
became known as the Initial Teaching Alphabet (18:175-178). In
recent years this alphabet has received a great deal of publicity
in the English-speaking world and studies involving its use have
been made in the United States and several other nations.
Research on the Use of Phonics in Beginning Reading
Phonics Versus "Look-Say"
Most research in the area of phonics is designed to
determine the relative effectiveness of particular ways of uti
lizing phonics in instructional programs rather than comparing
approaches utilizing no phonics with those that do. Chall (5:105)
reports that she found nine studies comparing a look-say approach
with a phonic method and that all but one were done before or
during the 1930's. After pointing out several limitations of
these studies including the fact that most were concluded prior
to the end of the first grade and that none was tested beyond the
28
second grade, she concluded that the results favored the phonics
approach.
Flesch (8:68) lists seven of these studies and three or
four others after spending ". • . two days in the library of
Teachers College, Columbia University, tracking down every single
reference to a study of 'phonics vs. no phonics.'" He stated
that he had covered the ground as diligently as he possibly could
and that there was no scientific evidence in favor of the word
method (8:6l). While the conclusions here were grossly overstated
it is correct that the research which he reviewed did generally
favor a phonic over a "no phonic" approach. Perhaps the greatest
weakness of Why Johnny Can't Read was not the overstated case for
intensive phonics but Flesch's basic assumption that the prevail
ing method of teaching reading in the United States essentially
utilized no phonics at all.
It is interesting to note that during the same year that
Why Johnny Can't Read was published Russell (71:371-375) gave the
results of his poll which revealed that ninety-eight percent of
the teachers queried reported that they used phonics in teaching
reading.
One of the earliest experiments comparing a look-say with
a phonics approach was that reported in 1912 by Gill (535 243-248)•
Results were inconclusive, possibly due to the fact that the
children involved were four and five year olds. Those taught by
the look-say method did appear to have an advantage in reading
rate. In fact, of the nine studies comparing phonics with look-
29
say reported by Chall (5sl08), all but one reported that the look-
say approach resulted in faster reading rate.
Shortly after this, in 1913i another such comparison by
Valentine (86:99-112) reported superior ability in word recogni
tion for children taught by the phonic method. This was the case
in recognizing words which had been previously taught and words
which had not been taught before. An exception to these results
was that children of low intelligence who had been taught by the
look-say method did better on oral word recognition. This seems
consistent with several other studies which suggest that low
ability pupils do not profit as much by phonics instruction
initially as do children of higher ability.
One study frequently cited in reviews of the research on
phonics is that reported by Currier and Duguid (38:Mt8-452) • The
first part of this study was reported in 1916 and compared a
method in which words were "phonetically" developed and one in
which they were developed by "quick perception and sense-content."
The results indicated that children who were phonetically trained
were helped in fluency and accuracy of word recognition. It was
also observed that:
(1) The phonetically trained classes read generally with
less speed, less interest, greater fatigue and with
confusion of ideas.
(2) Classes not having phonetic drills read with greater
interest, increased speed, and more expression but
were careless in pronunciation.
(3) There was little difference between the average abi
lity of those having phonetic training and those not
having it when attacking sight words (39•286-287)•
30
Later when children who had reached third grade were com
pared it was observed that there was little difference between
the two groups and that "for at least one-fourth of the class
phonetic drills was an absolute waste of time" and that "what is
food for one may be poison for another" (38: Mf8-^52).
Winch (88) tested two groups of British first graders who
had been taught by a phonics approach and a look-say approach
respectively and reported results favoring the phonics group. He
noted, as did several other researchers, that the look-say group
read faster but added that the phonics group recognized more
words per minute when accuracy was taken into account.
A rather unusual research approach was used by Sexton and
Herron (72:690-701) in a reading study started in September of
192^ in Newark, New Jersey. At the beginning of the school year,
in each of eight schools, a phonics and non-phonics class was
established. At mid-year the teachers switched classes so that
those who had originally taught one approach were now teaching the
other. The children continued with the same approach. Testing
at the end of five months showed that "the teaching of phonics
functions very little or not at all with beginners in reading
during the first five months. It begins to be of some value
during the second five months but is of greater value in the
second grade." They also noted, as have many other researchers,
that the differences among teachers within a method was greater
than the differences between methods. In addition, when a teacher
got good results using one method she also got good results when
she switched to the other.
Tate (83!752~763) presented results of an eight-week
study in first grade reading comparing groups receiving formal
instruction in phonics and a look-say approach. After testing in
April on the Gates Primary Reading Test, Type I and Type II, the
following conclusions were reached:
(1) Phonics instruction and drill are superior to the
look-say method in developing the ability to recog
nize words.
(2) The look-say method appears to be slightly superior
to the phonics method in developing the ability to
comprehend sentences.
(3) The look-say method is superior to phonics instruc
tion and drill in developing the ability to compre
hend paragraphs and directions.
The author was opposed to regular periods of phonic
instruction and cautioned against an overemphasis on phonics.
Later, in 19^0, Tate, Herbert, and Zeman (84:529-537)
reported on a study comparing an incidental phonics approach with
a look-say method. In March of the first year superior gains were
measured for the look-say group in both vocabulary and compre
hension. However, by the end of the second grade the group being
instructed with incidental phonics was ahead in both of thes.e
factors. The conclusion was reached by the authors that inci
dental phonics was superior to both isolated phonics and no
phonics methods in aiding silent reading comprehension.
Another study reporting results at the end of second
grade was that of Mosher and Newhall (67:500-506) about a decade
earlier. They presented results favoring a phonics approach, but
32
not significantly so. After suggesting that caution be exercised
in interpreting the results they indicated that measures of speed,
fixation pauses, and comprehension showed no essential differences
at the end of the second year. They concluded that added time
devoted to phonics would not appreciably increase reading skill
and, therefore, phonic training was not especially to be recom
mended.
In 1938* near the end of an era in which phonics was de
emphasized as a valuable aid to learning, Gates and Russell
(52:27-35, 119-128) reported on a comparison of three reading
approaches involving the value of phonics and word analysis in
teaching beginning reading. They compared groups of children who
(1) received a small amount of phonics or word analysis, (2) those
who were given moderate amounts of informal "newer-type" word
analysis comparisons and generally informal and varied word
analysis instruction and (3) those who had large amounts of
"conventional" phonetic drill. They concluded that a program
with very little "phonetic" or word analysis is not as good as
the informal program but is at least as good as one containing
large amounts of formal phonetic work.
Several limitations are encountered in generalizing the
results of these studies to reading situations which exist today.
Children of today are different, in several respects, from child
ren who were entering first grade twenty or thirty years ago and
may respond differently to similar programs. None of the studies
was carried beyond second grade so we do not know what latent
effects, if any, may have later been in evidence. Some of the
studies were done when ability in oral reading was considered a
most important criterion whereas others were done when emphasis
was placed upon silent reading. The changing attitudes toward
phonics in general may be felt by the child and reflected in his
response to a particular learning situation. Added to this is the
overall problem of lack of controls which characterized so many
of these earlier studies.
The thread of consistency which seems to appear throughout
these studies is the conclusion that in the long run phonics is
beneficial. Investigations have not conclusively demonstrated
what kind of phonics approach is most helpful. Research showing
the superiority of a phonic approach over a non-phonic approach
is not nearly so conclusive as is sometimes believed. It is
merely that the evidence is weighted somewhat in that direction.
After about 19^0 research became more and more directed at deter
mining the relative effectiveness of varying phonic approaches
rather than the value of phonics versus no phonics. Smith (76:6)
has stated, "Acceptance of the verdict of research that phonics
instruction is effective must be qualified with a consideration
of findings which research reveals about method as well as time
of instruction."
Intensive Phonics Versus Incidental Phonics
In 1953 Burrows (36:12) wrote, "The conflict over phonics
is still raging." During the last half of that same decade the
controversy became even more heated and even now, some ten years
later, the question is by no means resolved. She did suggest
that research reflected a certain view when she further stated,
"The accumulated findings resulting from twenty years of varied
investigations, when looked at with a view to finding relation
ships, point conclusively to a sound case for teaching phonics,
but not in isolation and not as an approach to beginning reading."
The literature reviewed in this section demonstrates that this
view is not universally accepted.
In 1965 Gurren and Hughes (55:339-3^7) published a review
of eighteen research studies which made twenty-two comparisons of
"intensive phonics" with "gradual phonics" in teaching beginning
reading. The studies generally paralleled those analyzed by
Chall (55109-11*0 except that Gurren and Hughes rejected some of
the research studies reviewed by Chall as lacking essential
controls. They also included a few studies which Chall did not.
Of the twenty-two comparisons made nineteen favored the "phonetic"
program, three were favorable to neither group and none favored
the "conventional" group. As a result of these comparisons
Gurren and Hughes recommended that both vowel sounds and consonant
sounds be taught intensively from the start of reading instruc
tion.
Chall (5:109-11*0 analyzed twenty-five studies which
compared the relative effectiveness of "systematic" and "intrin
sic" phonics in teaching beginning reading. Included in these
studies, many of which are reviewed later in this chapter, were
35
most of those reported by Gurren and Hughes. Unlike Gurren and
Hughes the observation of Chall is that "... the evidence avail
able on this issue is still deplorably limited ..." (5:109)•
Among the limitations listed were the facts that so many of the
studies were concluded at the end of first grade, few included
comparisons at the end of second grade, an even smaller number
did so at the end of third and fourth grades, and practically
none presented data beyond that level.
Of the few investigators who tested oral reading all but
one favored the systematic-phonics approach. On tests of vocab
ulary and comprehension the children who were exposed to syste
matic phonics generally did better. This was especially true in
second grade but by fourth grade the evidence was more limited
and not nearly so conclusive. Chall concluded that on the basis
of these studies "we can say that systematic phonics at the very
beginning tends to produce generally better reading and spelling
achievement than intrinsic phonics, at least through grade three"
(5:11*0.
Bleismer and Yarborough (33:500-50*0 analyzed the compara
tive results of ten approaches to beginning reading. In five of
the approaches children were initially taught whole words, then
the recognition of the letters and sounds represented in the
words. These were referred to as "analytic" methods. In the
other five approaches children were taught certain letter-sound
relationships from the very beginning of learning to read. These
were described as "synthetic" methods. All were administered
36
the Stanford Achievement Test in May. When the mean scores of
the pupils taught through the ten programs were compared the
differences rather consistently favored the five synthetic groups.
In 1915 Gray (5^:104) made a comparative study of pro
gress in oral reading made by children using the "Ward" method, a
t
phonic approach, and the Aldine method, which emphasized reading
for meaning. He found practically no differences on a test of
oral reading administered at the end of the first three grades.
A study by Peyton and Porter (69:26^-276) done a little
more than ten years later compared a systematic and an intrinsic
phonics approach. On measures of comprehension at the end of
first grade, results favored the intrinsic phonics method.
Gates (50:217-226) reported on a study in 1927 in which
a comparison was made between a systematic phonics approach and
what Gates called an intrinsic approach. He noted that the groups
were equally competent in rate and accuracy in oral reading and
that the "phonetic group" tended to look at words in detailed
analysis whereas the "non-phonetic" group depended more on context
for word identification. At the end of first grade the group
using an intrinsic phonics approach was ahead of the group using
systematic phonics. Chall (5:112) states that of the twenty-five
studies she reviewed comparing a systematic and intrinsic phonics
approach this was the only one which favored an intrinsic
approach. After corresponding with Gates on the matter she con
cluded that this might be due to the fact that the intrinsic
phonics materials were extremely well programmed and that the
alphabet was taught along with the words.
Another study done during this same period when the
intensive use of phonics was falling into disrepute was that of
Garrison and Heard ( ^9 s 9-1*0• The experiment began in September
of 1927 with children entering first grade and continued through
May, 1930i when these children completed grade three. The
students were divided into two groups with one receiving formal
phonics instruction during first and second grades and the other
not receiving formal phonics instruction. Results at the end of
first grade showed superior gains for bright children who had
received phonics instruction but no differences between "dull"
children in the two groups in comprehension. At the end of
second grade both groups were equal on a measure of comprehension
except that dull children who had received instruction in intrin
sic phonics were ahead of their counterparts who had not. At the
end of third grade there was no difference between the groups of
bright children but dull children who had received systematic
phonics were now ahead of those receiving intrinsic phonics in
comprehension. From results of the study the authors generalized
that much of phonics instruction should be delayed until the
second or third grade. It is interesting to note that there was
no recommendation that phonics be abandoned entirely as was some
times the case during that particular period.
One study done by Agnew (1:70-81) in the late 1930's is
sometimes quoted by both those who favor more intensive phonics
and those who do not. Comparisons were made within and between
38
two North Carolina districts on two groups of third graders. One
group had had phonics from the first grade and the other had not.
Generally the results favored the children who had been taught by
systematic phonic approaches. It was concluded that "phonetic1 1
training in large amounts increases independence in recognizing
correct pronunciation, and improves the quality of oral reading.
Of the twenty-five studies which Chall (55100-112)
reviewed seven were done between 19^0 and I960 and all favored a
systematic phonics approach as determined by testing done at the
end of first grade. In those cases where testing was also done
at the end of second and third grades the same was true but not
so conclusively.
In an effort to determine which kind of phonic approach
was most effective, Bear (315 39^-^02) compared a synthetic,
systematic approach with an analytic, intrinsic approach. This
study began in 1956 and involved two groups, both of which used
basal reading materials except that the experimental group used
Reading with Phonics published by J. B. Lippincott Company instead
of the phonics materials accompanying the basal readers. Test
results were most favorable to the synthetic, systematic group on
measures of both vocabulary and comprehension at the end of Grade
One. The extent to which the effectiveness of the synthetic
phonics program was due to the fact that it was used parallel to
a well developed basal reader approach is not known.
Later Bear made a follow-up study of these children near
the end of sixth grade. Originally the children were tested at
the end of the first semester and reading test scores were almost
identical. However, by the end of first grade those using the
synthetic approach scored significantly higher. Beginning in
Grade Two the Lippincott phonics program was discontinued and
both groups received instruction in the basal reading approach.
During the following five years instruction was given much in
accordance with the teachers' manuals. In 1962, as pupils neared
the end of Grade Six, the Gates Reading Survey. Form 2, was
administered. The result showed that differences which had
appeared at the end of Grade One persisted through Grade Six.
Overall results favored the synthetic approach though not so
conclusively as at the end of Grade One. The author expressed
the view that those who write basal readers should "take a more
realistic position on the issue of phonics." He felt the
synthetic approach to be most advantageous for average and low
ability children. (32:273-279).
Immediate Phonics Versus Postponed Phonics
In 1950 Smith (77:13-16) listed several reasons for post
poning phonics instruction to a time later than the beginning of
first grade. She emphasized that children should develop an
interest in reading and a desire to read before formal instruction
in phonics. Children should first acquire the attitude of reading
for meaning before attention is directed to sound elements. She
demonstrated the attitude generally reflected in basal reading
approaches when she stated further that children should acquire a
4o
reading vocabulary of word-wholes sufficiently large to represent
the letter sounds which are later to be taught. Generally, the
reading process is too complex to further burden most beginning
readers with the study of phonics during the first few weeks of
school.
In support of this view she referred to "The Newark
Phonics Experiment" done in the early 1920's and reported by
Sexton and Herron (72:690-701). In an investigation which in
cluded several hundred children in grades one and two they con
cluded that the teaching of "phonetics" functioned very little
or not at all during the first five months of reading instruc
tion, that it was of some value during the second five months,
and that it was of considerable value in the second grade.
In another study reported by Dolch and Bloomster (40:20*0
in 1937 it was suggested that a mental age of seven years seemed
to be the lowest at which a child can be expected to use phonics
effectively. (Needless to say, this view is not universally
accepted at this time nor is it entirely in agreement with some
recent research conclusions which are reviewed elsewhere in this
chapter.) Since most children are in the second grade when they
reach a mental age of seven years Smith (77*14) suggested that
Grade One should be largely a time of preparing children for more
intensive phonic instruction. She pointed out that phonic
instruction should be continuously adjusted to the maturity level
and individual need of the child.
Tronsberg (85:18-20) has, perhaps, oversimplified and
ifl
overgeneralized certain research conclusions when she wrote:
Research indicates that a child must have a mental age of
at least seven years before he can use phonics successfully.
Since the average child is only six years of age mentally upon
school entrance, he will not be ready for phonics until he
enters second grade.
She points out that this does not mean that all phonics
should be avoided but emphasizes, as does Nila B. Smith (77:13-
16), that much of a general readiness program includes readiness
for phonics.
Research on the Ginn Basic Reading Approach
Dodds (89:^163^, kl6k-k) compared the reading results
of children taught to read using Words in Color, a synthetic-
analytic approach, with those of children taught to read using
the Ginn and Company basal reading series. Each method was used
beginning in the second semester of kindergarten and continuing
on through grades one and two. Results on the California
Achievement Test favored the Words in Color group in word recogni
tion skills but there were no differences between the groups for
reading comprehension.
One study, referred to elsewhere in this chapter, was done
by Gold (91:1-173) who compared the results of a group of children
taught to read by using the Ginn and Company basal readers and
another group taught by using Phonetic Keys to Reading in Grade
One. No essential differences in results were noted.
Lashinger (98:^l66-A, 4167-A) evaluated the reading
achievement scores of three groups of first grade children who
bz
were taught to read using the Ginn Basic Reading Series, the
Structural Reading Series by L. W. Singer Company and the Bloom
field and Barnhardt Let's Read materials. Among the post-tests
given was the Stanford Achievement Test. Results of the study
showed that no one of the three approaches was more effective
than the others in teaching children to read as determined by
achievement scores at the end of Grade One.
Sheldon and Lashinger (73:576-579)» in another report of
the same study, also presented some interesting information
related to the performance of boys as compared with girls. For
example, boys did not score differently from girls on the Stanford
Word Reading subtest. Similar reviews of the other subtests
showed substantially the same thing.
At the end of second grade the children were again tested.
Comparative results were similar to what they were at the end of
Grade One. Although some differences were noted in subtest scores,
none of the approaches was demonstrated to be consistently supe
rior. Differences among the three groups on paragraph meaning
scores were not significant (7^:720-725)•
Kendrick (62:25-30) compared children who had been taught
by an "experience" approach with those taught by a traditional
approach in first grade. The principal difference between the
two was that the traditional approach teachers adhered very
closely to the teacher's manual for each reader in the Ginn
series whereas the experience group did not. Instead a large
part of the program centered around the experiences of children
which were encountered during the year. In final comparisons the
group having been taught by the traditional method made the
greatest gains on the paragraph meaning section of the Stanford
Reading Test. On most comparisons there were no essential differ
ences.
The relative effects of approaches to reading utilizing a
basal reader method and a language arts method were compared by
Stauffer (79:18-2^). Some of the children in the basal group
used the Ginn basic reading materials and some used the Bett's
basic readers published by the American Book Company. On the
Stanford Reading Test which was administered at the end of Grade
One the language arts group achieved the highest results on word
reading and paragraph meaning. They were equal on tests of word
study skills and vocabulary.
The pupils were followed through the second year by
Stauffer and Hammond (80:7^0-7^6). The authors concluded that
"the standardized test results yielded evidence of the superiority
of the language arts approach when extended into second grade."
Research on the Use of Phonetic Keys to Reading
Phonetic Keys to Reading is described by Harris as a
"dual meaning-discrimination approach" to reading. Initial read
ing activities are designed to help the child understand the way
in which written symbols are used to convey meaning and to build
the basic discriminations needed for early dependence in reading.
Meaning and discrimination are taught with parallel emphasis as
i f i f
contrasted with approaches which emphasize one or the other
(58:5).
One of the best known studies involving Phonetic Keys to
Reading was the Champaign, Illinois, study which Harris (58:8)
describes as "the most thorough, comprehensive, and continuous
appraisals of the effectiveness and stability of the dual meaning-
discrimination approach." He further writes of the "clear-cut
statistical superiority of this approach" over the meaning-first
approach. Evaluations of this study done by several other re
viewers do not suggest such conclusive results.
Greennian (92:8) reported that the first phase of the
Champaign study was initiated in 1952 and compared the Phonetic
Keys to Reading approach with that which was traditionally used
in the schools. The methods and materials used in the traditional
approach, a basal reading program, were not described, which,
incidentally, was one of several criticisms made of the early
reports of the Champaign study (30:105)•
In the spring of 1953 the three types of the Gates
Primary Reading Tests were administered to all pupils. On all
the tests the children using Phonetic Keys achieved superior
scores (92:3)• When these children were tested in the fall at
the beginning of second grade the general picture was the same.
Follow up studies done in later years reported the children who
learned to read using Phonetic Keys maintained a substantial lead
over those using the traditional approach (58:9)*
Artley (30:102-108), in a response to the progress report
on the Champaign reading study, 1952-1955» questioned several
aspects of the report. He pointed out that the control group was
not adequately described, there was no statement on how the
experimental teachers were selected, and there was little discus
sion of such factors as teacher enthusiasm, extra time devoted to
reading or the Hawthorne effect. In short, he wondered what
effects were due to method and what were due to other factors.
A study done in Louisville, Kentucky, comparing the
effectiveness of Phonetic Keys with the Scott-Foresman basic
reading approach was reported by Sparks and Fay (78:386-390) in
1957* Comparisons were made over a period of four years, begin
ning in 1952. The results of the California Reading Test at the
end of Grade One showed that children who had been taught using
Phonetic Keys were superior in vocabulary and comprehension. By
the end of second grade they were superior in comprehension but
there appeared to be no significant difference in vocabulary. At
the end of Grade Three there was very little difference between
the two groups except that results of tests seemed to slightly
favor the basal reading group in comprehension. At the conclusion
of the fourth grade there were no significant differences on
measures of comprehension, vocabulary, speed, and spelling, but
the basal reading group did seem to have a slight advantage in
reading accuracy. The authors concluded that there was no
evidence to indicate the superiority of one of the approaches
over the other and that there was no overall advantage in using
Phonetic Keys.
k6
An unpublished doctoral dissertation by Gold (91s1-173)
reported the results of a study done to determine whether the
Economy reading program (Phonetic Keys) produced more learning
than a basal reading approach in first grade and to ascertain the
effect of an early emphasis upon phonetic analysis in teaching
beginning reading. The criteria were accuracy, comprehension,
reading rate, and vocabulary development as determined by the
Gilmore Oral Reading Test and The California Reading Test. One
hundred matched pairs of children who scored slightly above
average in intelligence were included. One group was taught
reading using Phonetic Keys and the regular textbooks normally
used in the reading program. The other used basal reading
materials published by Ginn and Company and the Allyn Bacon
materials.
The children were given the Gilmore Test in April. The
Phonetic Keys group showed a slight superiority in reading
accuracy and comprehension as measured by the Gilmore Oral Reading
Test. The Phonetic Keys group was significantly inferior in read
ing rate. There was no difference on the vocabulary development
section of the California Reading Test. The comprehension section
of the California Reading Test favored the basal group. There was
no consistent pattern of superiority on the part of either of the
two approaches.
Research on the Use of Temporary Alphabets
in Beginning Reading
Early Studies
Prior to the last decade there was very little carefully
controlled, objective research on the use of temporary alphabets
in beginning reading instruction. Several experiments were
carried out during the first half of the present century, espe
cially in Great Britain, but most reported results in highly sub
jective terms and very few, if any, could be considered scien
tific. There were, however, rather consistent observations
reported on most of these studies. Children learned to read much
earlier; they enjoyed learning more; they were more proficient at
writing; and they had little difficulty in making the transition
to the traditional alphabet.
Chall (5:123) reports one fairly well known English
experiment with an artificial alphabet done by Winch in the
nineteen-twenties. Winch used a system called "Phonoscript"
which employed silencing marks. There was an attempt to control
both teachers and students as well as method in both experimental
and control groups. Results after two years favored those child
ren who had learned to read using "Phonoscript."
Research on the Initial Teaching Alphabet
After Sir James Pitman had completed the development of
the Initial Teaching Alphabet (called the Augmented Roman Alpha
bet at that time) in 1959« he made it clear that it was not to be
if8
regarded as an attempt at spelling reform but was designed as a
tool to assist in the teaching of reading (16:106).
The proponents of i.t.a. point out that it is not a method
of instruction (though a method may be implied) but, rather, a
medium of instruction. Pitman (*f3:177) believed that i.t.a. helps
in the "look-and-say" approach because the visual patterns do not
vary and thus produces stable visual images, and it helps in the
phonics approach because each symbol stands for a single phoneme.
Also, the alphabet is designed to minimize transitional diffi
culties.
Much of the research done to date involving i.t.a. has not
clearly described a method apart from the alphabet itself but has,
rather, simply compared a general i.t.a. approach with some tra
ditional approach. A need presently exists to compare specific
approaches using the initial teaching alphabet with the tradi
tional alphabet.
During the past few years there have been numerous reports
of superior achievement on the part of i.t.a. taught children
when compared with those taught using the traditional alphabet.
Most of these reports have not clearly described the specific
kind of traditional program used. For this reason only those out
lining the methods as well as the media of instruction are in
cluded. Among the many authors who have outlined the overall
advantages and summarized research favoring i.t.a. are Wapner
(101) and Holmes (9*0 in California and Downing (90) in Great
Britain.
A study conducted in Australia and reported by Morris
(66:5-22) compared the relative effectiveness of two teaching
media, the initial teaching alphabet and traditional orthography.
Both were used to present each of two different basic methods of
teaching beginning reading described as "sentence" and "kinaes-
thetic." It should be noted that those children using the i.t.a.
approach were tested only in the i.t.a. orthography. Since there
was no measure of post transitional reading performance the
results of the study are somewhat limited in value. The children
in the study were tested on the Schonell Word Recognition Test
and the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability-Accuracy sub-test and
comparisons were made on the basis of sex, socio-economic status,
and intelligence. The findings supported the hypothesis of the
study that i.t.a. is a superior medium which assists the learning
of reading by children in the first year of school in word
recognition and reading accuracy.
A comparative study which utilized controlled methodology
in order to determine the relative effect of three orthographies
on the reading performance of second semester kindergarten child
ren was done by McClenathan (99tl62^-A, 1625-A). The Initial
Teaching Alphabet, an adjusted traditional orthography, and
traditional orthography were used with three different groups to
present the material in the three pre-primers of the New Basic
Reader Series published by Scott, Foresman. At the end of
twelve weeks all were tested in the medium in which they had been
taught. In this case the i.t.a. group and the adjusted tradi
tional orthography group scored significantly higher than did the
traditional group. There was no difference between the group
which used i.t.a. and the one which used the adjusted traditional
orthography. This study has only limited implications for the
first grade reading programs because the children were in kinder
garten, the treatment was for a very short period of time, and
each was tested in the orthography of instruction. The fact that
the basic content and method was the same in each group and that
only the medium of instruction varied gave a much better indica
tion of the effect of the orthography itself than has been the
case with most studies comparing i.t.a. and other alphabets.
Wapner (87:201-20*0 reported the results of a study com
paring an i.t.a. and a traditional approach to teaching beginning
reading. There were several limitations of the study including
the fact that children were placed in i.t.a. classes at the
option of their parents. In addition, there was no description
of the two approaches other than in terms of the orthographies
used. The project began in the fall of 1965 and was concluded
after the children were tested on the Stanford Reading Test the
following May. The author reported superior results on all
sections of the Stanford Reading Test for those children who had
been taught by the i.t.a. approach.
In an attempt to determine the effect of two different
orthographies in reading achievement Kirkland (96:51^-515-A)
compared scores of children taught in an approach using the
Early-to-rRead Series and supplemented by the Downing Readers
51
(i.t.a.) with the scores of children taught using the Ginn Basal
Reader Series supplemented by the Allyn-Bacon Reader Series.
Tests used to measure reading achievement were the Gates Primary
and Advanced Reading Tests, Botel Phonics Mastery Test, and the
Botel Word Recognition Test which was administered to a sub-group
of third graders. The author concluded that, over a period of
three years, (l) i.t.a. children achieved more success in first
grade than children using a traditional approach, (2) girls using
i.t.a. became better readers early in the year, (3) at the end of
third grade neither group was favored significantly though i.t.a.
children were ahead on some mean scores, (k) i.t.a. children were
ahead at the end of third grade on the Botel Word Recognition
Test, (5) i.t.a. children lost more during the summer months than
did traditionally taught children, and (6) children who gained
the most from i.t.a. were those in the upper third of the class
according to mental ability. (It should be noted that this study
represents not only a comparison of orthographies but also a com
parison of methods.)
Hahn (56:590-59^) compared the results of i.t.a., a
language-experience approach, and a basal reading approach. Each
i.t.a. classroom was provided with Downing readers and extensive
i.t.a. library books. Language-experience classes used materials
prepared by Van Allen, and each basal reading class used a popular
basal series which the teacher had not used previously. All
teachers were volunteers and all were using the materials for the
first time. In May each of the thirty-six classes was given the
52
Stanford Achievement Test and the Gilmore Oral Reading Paragraphs.
Three word lists were given to a random sample of approximately
fifty-five students in each approach. All tests were administered
in traditional orthography. Results showed that no one method was
consistently superior to the other two at the end of the first
year of reading instruction although the basal reading approach
tended to lag behind the other two.
During the second year of instruction (57•711-715) the
children continued in similar programs except that those taught
in i.t.a. changed to traditional orthography. In May of the
second year all the students were administered the Stanford
Achievement Test. Primary Battery II. In addition, a random
sample was given the Gilmore Oral Reading Paragraphs and the
Gates Word List. Results showed no significant difference between
the i.t.a. and the language experience groups. The i.t.a. child
ren made higher scores than the basal reading group on word study
and the Gates Word List but lower scores on the Reading Attitude
Test and the Writing Mechanics Ratio Scale.
Fry (^8:5^9-553) is somewhat skeptical of the conclusions
reached by some reviewers of the research data on i.t.a. He
writes, "Basically, there seems to be a great divergence between
the early studies coming out of Britain done by Downing and
later studies done in both the United States and Britain" (*f8:5^9) •
He is very critical of Downing's research, especially
regarding the selection of criterion measures. (Fry feels that
reading ability is best measured by paragraph meaning type tests
53
at the first grade as well as at other levels.) He states that
one of Downing's claims at the 1963 convention of the Inter
national Reading Association that children taught to read by i.t.
a. did significantly better on tests in traditional orthography
is refuted by Mazurkiewicz. In a study reported in the September,
196^, issue of the Journal of the Reading Specialist Mazurkiewicz
stated that there was no significant difference in reading
achievement.
Fry goes on to report the result of a U.S. Office of
Education First Grade Project in which five of twenty-seven
independent investigators compared i.t.a. with basal approaches.
All used the Stanford Primary Achievement Test with sub-samples
receiving the Gilmore Oral Reading Test. All had one hundred
forty days training time, common intelligence and reading readi
ness tests, and not less than seven first grade classes were in
volved in each of the methods under investigation. All the i.t.a.
classes, except one, used the Mazurkiewicz and Tanyzer materials
published by the Pitman Publishing Company. The scores on the
paragraph meaning section of the Stanford Reading Test showed no
significant differences between the children taught by i.t.a.
and those taught by a basal reading approach in four of the five
studies. Similar results were obtained on the Gilmore Oral
Paragraphs Reading Test. At the end of the second year the child
ren were tested again and results were similar. (All tests were
given in traditional orthography.)
Fry predicts that the use of i.t.a. will not become wide
spread in the United States.
Ward (102:1219-A, 1220-A) analyzed the test results of
four groups of children taught to read by the Early-to-Read i.t.a.
Program and the Downing Readers, the Ginn Basic Reading Series,
the Let's Read Program, and the Structural Reading Series,
respectively. Posttesting was done at the end of one hundred
forty days using the Stanford Achievement Test which included Word
Reading. Paragraph Meaning, Vocabulary, and Word Study Skills.
Using class means, a comparison of the four groups on each of the
reading criteria revealed no significant differences. It was
determined, however, that girls made more rapid progress than did
boys when instructed in i.t.a. or the linguistic program but not
in the basal or modified linguistic program.
Fry (45:607-61^) participated in a project in which i.t.a.,
The Diacritical Marking System and a basal reading approach were
used. The i.t.a. children used the Early-to-Read Series by
Albert Mazukiewicz and Harold Tanyzer. The Diacritical Marking
System group (spelling is not changed but phonetic regularity is
increased by the use of diacritical markings) used Sheldon Readers
which were specially prepared using diacritical markings. The
third group used the Sheldon Readers published by Allyn and Bacon.
Volunteer teachers were assigned by lot to the twenty-one
classes involved in the project. In order to equate the groups,
pretest measures of intelligence and readiness were administered.
After one hundred forty days of instruction, posttests, including
the Stanford Achievement Test, the Gilmore Oral Reading Test, the
55
Phonetically Regular Word Test and the Gates Oral Reading Test,
were given. Analysis of variance on group means with the class
room as a unit was used in the treatment of the data.
Fry concluded that there were, essentially, no differences
in reading achievement among the three approaches at the end of
the experiment. He did report, as have so many researchers before
him, that the differences between classrooms within a method were
far greater than the differences between methods.
A follow-up study was done at the end of second grade and,
again, Fry observed that there were no significant differences in
the reading performance of children taught initially by any one
of the three methods ( 4 6 :687- 693) •
When the children had completed third grade, results were
again compared and no significant differences between the
approaches were observed (47:357-362).
Perhaps one of the most important findings of this study,
and many others, is reflected in Fry's statement that:
One interesting observation was that the variability
between classroom means within one method was so much greater
than the variability between method means that it is indeed
difficult to see how anyone could ever place any credence in
small method studies which compare method X with method Y
using only one or two classroous in each method (47:361).
In the 1964-1965 school year Hayes (59:627-630) evaluated
the results of four beginning reading approaches. They were:
(l) the basal reading approach of Scott, Foresman, i960 edition
(SF); (2) the Scott, Foresman materials supplemented by Phonics
and Word Power published in 1964 by American Education Publi-
cations (PWP): (3) the phonic filmstrip approach using J. B.
Lippincott materials published in 19&3 (LIPP); and (*)■) the Early-
to-Read materials of ITA Publications, Inc. (ITA). Posttesting
showed that generally ITA, LIPP, and PWP methods appeared to
result in higher reading achievement than did SF as measured by
the Stanford Reading Test. The LIPP and ITA groups were higher
than either of the other two on the Fry and Gates word lists and
the Gilmore Oral Reading Rate. When the children were divided
by ability groups the LIPP and ITA readers generally achieved
higher results on the Stanford Reading Test if they were of
average or high ability. For the low ability group the ITA child
ren generally scored highest on both silent and oral reading
achievement.
A second year follow-up study was reported by Hayes and
Wuest ( 60: 69^ - 697, 7 0 3 ) » In second grade children continued in
the same program throughout the year except that ITA children
changed to the "Treasury of Literature" series published by
Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc. after making the transition to the
traditional alphabet. Results at the end of second grade were
not always consistent. Whereas low ability children using ITA
had done best at the end of Grade One, results now favored low
ability children who had been instructed using Scott, Foresman
materials. For example, on paragraph meaning the SF low IQ group
was ahead of the other three. Other results tended to follow the
pattern set in the previous year and favored the ITA and LIPP
groups.
57
At the end of the third year comparisons were again made.
Results favored the Lippincott group on most comparisons including
word reading and paragraph meaning. Lippincott and ITA were equal
on word study skills. The ITA group was superior to the other two
approaches on almost all measures including word reading, para
graph meaning, and word study skills. The author concluded that
basal reader programs should consider increasing both vocabulary
and phonics in their beginning reading materials (61:363-370)•
Using controlled methodology Mazurkiewicz (6^:606-610)
compared the achievement of first graders who used traditional
orthography with those who used i.t.a. Both groups used a basal
reader nucleus with a language experience approach. Both groups
introduced letters as characters according to the frequency of
sound occurrence, a variety of supplementary materials and
encouraged wide reading experiences. At the end of first grade
results showed no significant differences between i.t.a. and
traditionally taught populations in paragraph reading and word
study skills on the Stanford Reading Test. There was some
advantage for i.t.a. children on word reading. It was suggested
that since i.t.a. children did not have enough time to take full
advantage of post-transitional skills this might have had some
effect on results.
A year later, at the end of Grade Two, when almost all
children had made the transition to traditional orthography
Mazurkiewicz (65:726-729) again reported reading scores. Group
reading scores showed no consistent superiority for either group
though the author did describe the results as somewhat favorable
to i.t.a.
Tanyzer and Alpert (82:636-646) used the term "Basal Read
ing Systems" to refer to three considerably different approaches
to beginning reading. They compared the reading results of child
ren who had been taught to read by: (1) the Lippincott Basic
Reading Series; (2) the Early-to-Read ITA Program: and (3) the
Scott, Foresman basic reading series. At the end of one hundred
forty days of instruction all were tested on the Stanford Reading
Test and other reading measures. Results showed the Lippincott
and Early-to-Read i.t.a. groups significantly ahead of the Scott,
Foresman group on all subtests of the Stanford Reading Test. The
Lippincott group showed higher achievement on the vocabulary
section than did the i.t.a. group. There were no differences
between i.t.a. and Lippincott groups on word reading, paragraph
meaning and word study skills.
In a doctoral dissertation completed in 1967 Howard (95*
409-A) compared the results of a traditional approach and an i.t.a.
approach to beginning reading used with disadvantaged, low
ability, southern Negro children. Although the main purpose of
the study was to determine the effect of these two programs upon
intelligence scores, reading results were included. At the end
of the first year of instruction results on the Metropolitan
Reading Test favored those children taught by the Rudisill Begin
ning Reading Program over those taught by the i.t.a. beginning
reading program in fifteen of eighteen comparisons, including
sentence and paragraph reading.
Four groups of third grade children who had originally
been taught to read by (l) i.t.a., (2) basal readers supplemented
with a list of phonograms, (3) basal readers alone and (k) basal
readers supplemented with phonics were compared by Lamana (97^
1733-A). The California Reading Test was used to measure word
recognition, word meaning, and reading comprehension. The author
concluded that children who had been taught to read in the basal
approach alone scored significantly higher in word recognition,
word meaning, and reading comprehension. Children taught using
i.t.a. employed more running words and more different words in
composition than those taught by the other methods. A final
observation was that, although the differences in reading skills
were statistically significant, the differences appeared to be too
small to be of practical importance. In this study intelligence
test scores were used to equate the groups. Since reading method
ology may affect intelligence test scores and since the tests
were administered after initial reading instruction this method
of equating the groups would be open to some question.
Holland (93s2896-A, 2897-A) conducted an experiment in
which he compared the results of approaches to beginning reading
using the Initial Teaching Alphabet. Gattegno's Words in Color
program, and a traditional basal reader method. At the end of
one year the children were tested on the Stanford Reading Test.
Results showed superior achievement in all reading areas for
children taught by the Words in Color program, particularly in
60
vocabulary and word study skills sections of the Stanford Reading
Test. In addition, the basal reading program showed some super
iority over i.t.a.
Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to provide a background of
literature and research related to the total problem under con
sideration. Special emphasis was given to historical settings
particularly as they relate to changing views and the effect of
these changes upon beginning reading methodology.
Since the turn of the century, when research in reading
was just starting, the number of studies done during each decade
has multiplied rapidly. In spite of the fact that the total
number of investigations in the area of reading now numbers into
the thousands the basic problems which were considered in early
studies are still topics of concern today.
Much of the literature regarding beginning reading pro
grams is dominated by questions concerning the use of phonics.
There are widely varying opinions about when phonics should be
introduced, how phonic content should be organized, and what
methods of teaching phonics should be employed.
Phonics instruction, in some form, has been used in this
country since colonial times. After the publication of Noah
Webster's "blue backed speller" in 1782 the use of phonics gained
popular and wide-spread support. Then, beginning about l8*t0 and
lasting until around 1890, the importance of phonics was de-
emphasized and the "whole-word" approach became widely used.
Then the tide of opinion changed again and the use of phonics as
an approach to beginning reading instruction gained impetus.
During the first quarter of this century intensive and rather
highly structured phonics programs were in widespread usage
throughout the country. It was in the mid-twenties that the
pendulum began its swing back to the more analytic whole word
approach. This method was popular until about 19^0. After World
War II there was an unprecedented amount of debate regarding the
proper use of phonics in reading programs. Today this debate
continues. At the present time there seems to be a drift toward
a more structured and intensive use of phonics in first grade
reading instruction.
Research on the effectiveness of phonics in beginning
reading instruction has been generally inadequate and inconclusive.
Recent summaries of research in the field seem to suggest that a
structured approach to phonics instruction yields the best results.
However, the cause and effect relationship is not clearly revealed
and there is some question as to whether it is the phonics, as
such, or some other factor or combination of factors which
principally accounts for the results. At any rate, the whole
question regarding the use of phonics awaits further clarification.
McGuffey’s Eclectic Readers represented a new approach to
the teaching of reading. Selections were graded and were written
about the interests of children and for children. In addition,
they contained introductory material which was helpful to students
62
and teachers alike. These characteristics persist in most of the
basal reading material available today, though most modern
editions are considerably more elaborate than those published
earlier.
Basal reading approaches generally start with the recogni
tion of a basic sight vocabulary and then introduce phonic
principles as they apply to these words. Intensive phonic instruc
tion is generally delayed until considerably beyond the beginning
of the first grade. In some cases, it has become common to adopt
supplementary phonic materials so that intensive phonic instruc
tion may be given along with the basal reading materials and at
the very beginning of the school year. At the present time there
is considerable debate as to whether or not this is an advisable
procedure. Research findings seem to vary considerably from one
situation to another.
Artificial orthographies have been used at various times
in the United States to teach beginning reading. Reports regard
ing their use were almost always favorable and consistently indi
cated that children learned to read more easily, more quickly,
and with more understanding than was the case with the traditional
alphabet. In spite of these claims their use did not persist.
The most recent, and the most widely used, artificial alphabet is
known as the Initial Teaching Alphabet (i.t.a.). In recent years
it has received a great deal of publicity because of its unortho
dox approach and the rather phenomenal claims of success which
appeared after earlier experiments. Recently there have been some
challenges to these claims.
The relative effectiveness of the three reading approaches
under investigation in this project is still an open question.
The nature of the child, the quality of the teacher, and the
impact of a given time and place are all factors which influence
results. At this point, the best explanation of reading per
formance appears to be in terms of the inter-relationship of many
casual factors.
CHAPTER III
PROCEDURES OF THE STUDY
This chapter presents a description of the basic pro
cedures and research techniques which form a background of in
formation necessary to interpret properly the findings of the
study.
Research Method
Since the primary purpose of this study was to measure
the relative effectiveness of three beginning reading approaches
(Ginn, Economy, and i.t.a.) an attempt was made to select com
parable treatment groups for each approach. Because the nature
of the study did not lend itself to the random assignment of
subjects to each of the three approaches, intact classes which
had been assigned to each method prior to the initiation of the
experiment were selected. In order to take into account and
adjust for initial differences among the groups a pretest was
administered and analysis of covariance was selected as the
appropriate statistical procedure. This design is illustrated by
the paradigm in Figure 1. The X represents the pretest covariate
(readiness) and the Y represents the posttest criterion variable
(achievement). The design was applied to each criterion measure
within each sub-group (see Hypothesis is Chapter I).
64
65
Figure 1
METHODS
A1 A2
A3
X y X Y X y
The primary independent variables selected for this
quasi-experiment were mode of instruction, mental age, and sex.
The dependent variables were scores on the Stanford Reading Tests.
the SRA Achievement Series (Reading), and the Gates-MacGinitie
Reading Tests.
The major steps in conducting the study are outlined in
Figure 2. Preliminary plans were made early in 1967 and the
final writing was completed in December of 1969.
66
Figure 2
MAJOR STEPS IN CONDUCTING THE STUDY
Dates Procedure
1/67-3/67 Preliminary review of the literature in
order to determine the scope of previous
research in the field.
k/67-6/67 Contact with central office administrators,
principals, and teachers in order to gain
approval and outline procedures for conducting
the study.
9/67 Meet with teachers and principals prior to
the start of the school year to review
specific plans for conducting the study.
9/67 Participate in and help conduct separate
in-service meetings for the teachers in each
instructional method prior to the start of
the school year.
9/67-10/67 Administer Metropolitan Readiness Tests and
Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Tests.
9/67-6/68 Implement the instructional program. Collect
baseline data to be used in the description
of variables.
5/68-6/68 Administer Stanford Reading Tests.
Administer S.R.A. Reading Tests.
Administer Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests.
7/68-12/68 Score tests, organize and process data, and
do statistical analysis utilizing computer
services.
1/69-12/69 Complete final writing of the study and
compile in dissertation form.
The Sample
An attempt was made to select classes of children of
comparable background and ability for each of the methods under
investigation, A total of twenty-four classes, eight in each
instructional approach, was chosen from eleven schools which were
within the boundaries of three separate school districts. All
were located near the western end of San Bernardino County in
Southern California.
TABLE 1
DISTRIBUTION BY SCHOOL OF CLASSES
USING EACH APPROACH
School Ginn Economy i.t.a.
A 1 1 1
B 0 1 1
C 2 0 0
D 0 0
3
E 2 0 0
F 0
3
0
G 0 0 1
H 2 0 1
I 0 0 1
J 0
3
0
K 1 0 0
Totals 8 8 8
All children in each class were initially included in the
study. After final posttesting was done those who had repeated
first grade and those for whom there were not completed test data
were eliminated from the sample. The remaining totals were
further reduced by random selection (a table of random numbers
was used) so that there were sixty boys and sixty girls in each
of the learning approaches for a total of 360 students. Within
each method the boys and girls were divided evenly into upper and
lower ability groups according to their scores on The Lorge-
Thorndike Intelligence Tests. This resulted in a total of twelve
sub-groups of thirty students each.
Socioeconomic Characteristics
It is generally felt that socioeconomic background has
some effect upon the reading achievement of children. While it
was assumed that early effects would be reflected in the pretest
measures it was, nevertheless, felt advisable to include a
description of the socioeconomic background of each group used in
the comparisons. The Warner-Meeker-Eells Scale for Rating
Occupations (28:l40-l4l), with some adaptations,was selected as
an appropriate instrument for doing this. In this scale the
rating classifications of occupations correspond to socioeconomic
levels which are defined by the authors. The scale ranges from
level "I” which includes professional categories such as lawyers,
doctors, engineers and high salaried business men to level "7"
which includes the most menial of occupations. For the purposes
of this study Warner's categories "6" and "7" were both included
in level "6." The data secured are shown in Table 2.
69
TABLE 2
NUMBER OF STUDENTS AT EACH LEVEL ON THE
WARNER-MEEKER-EELS SCALE FOR RATING OCCUPATIONS
Method
Sex Ability Rating Ginn Economy x.t.a.
Boys Low (1) 1 1 1
(2)
7
6
3
(3) 7 3
i f
(if) 3 3
6
(5) 9
8 11
(6)
3 7 3
Unclassified 0 2 2
Boys High (1) 1 2
3
(2) 8 8
9
(3) 7
6
7
(if) 5 5 3
(5)
8 6
7
(6) 1 1 0
Unclassified 0 2 1
Girls Low (1) 1 0
3
(2)
5
i f
3
(3)
8 k 6
(4) 2 8 4
(5)
11 8 12
(6) 2
5
2
Unclassified 1 1 0
Girls High (1) 1 3 5
(2) i f 8 6
(3) 9
6
3
(if) 8 2 6
(5)
6
7 7
(6) 1
3
2
Unclassified 1 1 1
In some cases it was necessary to make subjective judg-
ments in assigning occupations to appropriate levels. This was
particularly true for those specialized areas which have come into
existance since the creation of the rating scale. In addition,
the relative social and economic importance of the various
70
categories has tended to shift somewhat since the late 1940's.
However, since the primary purpose for use of the scale was to
gather data with respect to relative differences, and because the
same criterion for assignment of occupations to levels was used
for all subjects, it was felt that the scale was appropriate for
equating the groups. In situations where it was not possible to
determine an appropriate category the case was listed as "unclas
sified. "
Table 3 shows the mean occupation levels of the pupils
included in the study when categorized by method, sex, and
intelligence level.
TABLE 3
GROUP MEANS SOCIOECONOMIC LEVEL ON THE
WARNER-MEEKER-EELS REVISED SCALE FOR RATING OCCUPATIONS
Method
Sex Ability Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Boys Low
3.7
4.1 4.1
High 3.4
3.3 3.1
Girls Low 3.8 4.2 3.8
High 3.6 3.4 3.3
Mental Maturity
Because mental age is an important factor in reading
readiness an attempt was made to compare the relative mental
abilities of the students in each approach. Raw score results on
the Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Tests indicated only slight
71
variations among comparable groups from one method to another.
These variations, summarized in Table 4, suggest that the children
in each comparison were very similar in terms of mental maturity.
TABLE 4
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS THE
LORGE-THORNDIKE INTELLIGENCE TESTS
RAW SCORES
Method
Sex Ability
Ginn Economy i.t. a .
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low 40.2
5.3 40.9 5.0
39.1 4.7
High 49.8 3.4
51.3
3.0 49.8 3.2
Girls Low
39.1
4.8 38.2
5.3 37.9
6.4
High 49.0
1.9
50.4
3.5 49.3 3.5
As an additional step, the Lorge-Throndike mean raw scores
were converted to intelligence quotient equivalents and are in
cluded in Table 5* This table allows for a somewhat clearer
description of variations in intelligence among the groups.
TABLE 5
INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT EQUIVALENTS OF
LORGE-THORNDIKE MEAN RAW SCORES
Sex Ability
Method
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Boys Low 94 96
93
High 111
113 113
Girls Low 92 92 93
High 109 113
110
Chronological Age
There is some evidence to suggest that children who are
older chronologically when entering first grade do somewhat better
than their younger counterparts. Because of the relationship of
chronological age, mental age, and general maturity it was felt
that data allowing for comparison of children in the various
treatment groups should be presented. Table 6 shows the relative
mean chronological ages of the sub-groups in months. As can be
seen from the table, variations in chronological age were minor.
TABLE 6
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
CHRONOLOGICAL AGE IN MONTHS
Method
Sex Ability
Ginn Economy i.t. a .
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low
74.7 3.7 75.3 3.1 75.1 3.5
High
77.7 3.2 77.1
4.0 76.4
3.1
Girls Low 75.9 3.6
75.3 3.7 74.3 3.3
High
76.9 3.4 76.1 3.6 76.4 4.1
The Pretest Covariate
The total raw score on the Metropolitan Readiness Test
was the pretest covariate selected for the analysis of covariance
procedure used in this study. Through this procedure the differ
ences between treatment groups revealed in Table 7 were taken
into account and adjustments in posttest scores were made accord
ingly. Because of the complex nature of the many factors which
73
influenced the obtained readiness scores it was felt that they
were very valuable in reflecting the comparative prepardness of
the children for a formal reading program. In a sense they were
a summary reflection of other descriptive data provided for
comparison purposes.
TABLE 7
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS PRETEST COVARIATE
METROPOLITAN READINESS TESTS TOTAL RAW SCORES
Method
Sex Ability
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low
52.5 13.7 55.7 12.3 50.7 13.9
High 60. k
13.1
65.8
11.5
63.6
12.3
Girls Low 56A 12.k 52.2 8.7 52.3 12.7
High 66.7
7.3 67.7
12.6 66.6 10.8
Adjustment Factors
Among the many factors found to influence reading perform
ance are the physical and emotional makeup of the child and his
ability to adjust to the school situation. For this reason an
attempt was made to compare the pupils in each approach on these
and other factors which might influence achievement.
Early in the spring of 1968 teachers were asked to rate
each child on the selected characteristics according to the
following code:
(1) Good
(2) Average
7*f
(3) Poor
Because of the subjective nature of the judgments, it was recog
nized that the results could not be used as a precise measure of
pupil differences but would yield data describing how the teachers
viewed their pupils.
Tables 8 through 17 reflect each characteristic and give
the average teacher rating and standard deviation for each group.
The smaller mean values indicate the most desirable responses.
There were almost no differences in the way teachers
viewed comparable groups of boys in each approach in terms of
emotional adjustment to the classroom situation. There appeared
to be a slight tendency for Economy teachers to give low ability
girls less desirable ratings than did the teachers in the other
two approacheso The i.t.a. teachers tended to rank high ability
girls as slightly better adjusted than did the teachers of the
other two groups. Information regarding emotional adjustment is
presented in Table 8.
Table 9 presents the teachers' assessment of the pupils'
overall attitude toward school. The data suggested a slight
tendency for i.t.a. teachers to give the most desirable ratings,
though not consistently so.
The cleanliness and grooming scores outlined in Table 10
show a pattern similar to that of Tables 8 and 9, with low ability
girls in the Economy group generally receiving the least desirable
ratings.
In Table 11 the general energy level of low ability girls
75
in the Economy group is described as somewhat less than that of
their counterparts in the other two groups. Both ability levels
of i.t.a. boys are given ratings by their teachers slightly
superior to those of the pupils in the other two approaches.
The average listening ability of comparable groups as it
was estimated by teachers is presented in Table 12. Differences
did not appear to be large.
Ability in oral expression was also rated by teachers.
Besults are shown in Table 13. There appeared to be an inclination
on the part of Economy teachers to rank both low ability boys and
low ability girls as somewhat less capable in oral expression than
their i.t.a. and Ginn counterparts.
Tables l*f, 15 and 16 reveal teachers' estimates of parent
interest in the child and his school program, parent attitudes
toward the school, and parent understanding of educational issues.
Although differences among comparable groups did not appear to be
great, Economy teachers tended to give the least desirable ratings,
particularly to low ability girls.
Table 17 gives teachers' views of the peer relationships
of their pupils. Comparable groups in each of the three reading
approaches did not vary greatly.
In summary, Economy teachers generally gave slightly less
desirable ratings on those characteristics outlined in Tables 8
through 17. This was particularly the case for low ability
pupils, especially low ability girls.
76
Teacher responses are summarized in the following tables
in the form of mean scores and standard deviations.
TABLE 8
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
EMOTIONAL ADJUSTMENT RATINGS
Method
Sex Ability
Ginn Economy i.t • £ 1 •
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low 1.8 .6
1.7
.6 1.8
.7
High 1.6 .6
1.7 .7
1.6 • 6
Girls Low 1.6
.7 1.9 .7 1.5 .7
High 1.4 .6 1.4 .7 1.1 • 3
TABLE 9
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
ATTITUDE TOWARD SCHOOL RATINGS
Method
Sex Ability
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low 1.7 .6 1.9 .7
1.6
.7
High
1.7 .7 1.7
.6
1.3 .5
Girls Low
1.3 .5 1.9 .7 1.3
• 6
High 1.2 .4 1.2
.5 1.1 .3
0
77
TABLE 10
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS APPEARANCE
IN TERMS OF CLEANLINESS AND GROOMING RATINGS
Method
Ginn Economy 3.. t. a •
Sex Ability Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low 1.6 .6 1.6 .6 1.6 .7
High
1.5 -5
1.4 .6 1.2 .5
Girls Low
1.3 .5 1.7 .6 1.3 .6
High 1.4 .5 1.3 .4 1.2 .4
TABLE 11
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
GENERAL ENERGY LEVEL RATINGS
Method
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Sex Ability Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low
1.7 .7 1.9
.8
1.5 .7
High
1.7 .5
1.6 .6
1.3 .5
Girls Low
1.5
.6 2.0 .6 1.6 .7
High 1.4
.5
1.4 .6
1.3 .5
78
TABLE 12
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
LISTENING ABILITY RATINGS
Method
Sex Ability
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low 2.1 .7 2.1 .8 2.1 .8
High 2.0 .7 2.0
.7
1.6
.7
Girls Low
1.7 *7
2.0
.7 1.9 .7
High 1.2 A 1.5 .7 1.2 A
TABLE 13
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
ABILITY IN ORAL EXPRESSION RATINGS
Method
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Sex Ability Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low
1.7 .6 2.2 .7
1.7 .7
High
1.5 .7 1.5 .6 1.5
.6
Girls Low 1.8 .7 2.1 .5 1.6
.7
High
1.3 .5 1.5 .6 1.3
.if
79
TABLE lb
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS PARENTAL
INTEREST IN THE CHILD AND HIS SCHOOL PROGRAM RATINGS
Method
Sex Ability
Ginn Economy i.t • 3.*
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low 1.6 .7 1.7 .7 1.7 .7
High 1.2 .b
1.3 .5 1.3 .5
Girls Low 1.4 .6 1.8 .7 1.6 .8
High
1.3 *4 1.3 .5 1.2 .5
TABLE 15
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS PARENTAL
ATTITUDE TOWARD THE SCHOOL RATINGS
Method
Sex Ability
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D,
Boys Low l.b .6
1.9
.6 1.6 .8
High
1.3 .4 1.5 .5 1.3 .5
Girls Low 1.4 .5 2.0
.7 1.6 .6
High
1.3 .5 1.4 .6 1.2 .4
8o
TABLE 16
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS PARENTAL
UNDERSTANDING OF EDUCATIONAL ISSUES RATINGS
Sex Ability
Method
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low
1.7 .7
2.0
.7
2.1 .8
High 1.6 .6
1.7
.6
1.5
.6
Girls Low
1.5 .5
2.2 .6 2.1
.7
High
1.5
.6 1.6
.7 l A .6
TABLE 17
GROUP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
RELATIONSHIP WITH PEERS RATINGS
Method
Sex Ability
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Mean S.D. Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
Boys Low 1.8 • 6 2.0
.7 1.9
.6
High 1.6 .6
1.7
.6 1.8
.7
Girls Low 1.6 .6
1.9 .5 1.7 .7
High 1.6 .6 l A .6 1.2 .if
81
Teacher Factors
Conditions under which the study was conducted did not
permit random selection and assignment of teachers to treatment
groups. To allow for judgment as to teacher comparability,
descriptive data on teacher characteristics which might influence
pupil performance were secured. A questionnaire was submitted to
each teacher in order to determine her academic and experiential
background. The questions and responses are summarized as follows:
1. What was your undergraduate major in college?
Education
Sociology
History
Psychology
English
Literature
Piano Pedagogy
Ginn
5
0
1
1
1
0
0
2. What was your undergraduate minor?
Social Science
English
Speech
Psychology
History
Anthropology
Spanish
Science
Physical Education
Music
None listed
Ginn
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
3
Economy
if
2
0
0
1
1
0
Economy
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
3
i.t.a.
7
0
0
0
0
0
1
ii 2 _tia.
0
3
0
2
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
82
How many units of work have you taken beyond your bachelor
degree?
Ginn Economy i.t.a
None 0 2 2
1-10
3
1 1
11-20 k 2 2
21-30 0 2 1
More than 30 1 1 2
What is your highest earned degree?
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Associate in Arts 0 1 0
Bachelor's degree 8 6 8
Master's degree 0 1 0
How many units in the area of reading have you taken since
college?
Ginn Economy x.t.a.
None
5 3
i f
1-10 2 i f
3
More than 10 1 1 1
How many years of teaching experience have you had?
(Prior to this year)
Ginn Economy x. t. a.
None 0 1 0
One year 0 1 0
2-5 5
4 1
6-10 0 1
3
11-20 2 0
3
More than 20 1 1 1
How many years have you taught first grade?
(Prior to this year)
Ginn Economy Xit.a.
None 1 1 0
One Year 0 1 1
2-5
i f
5
2
6-10 2 0 i f
11-20 0 0 0
More than 20 1 l 1
83
8. How many years have you taught first grade using the present
approach? (Prior to this year) •
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
None 1 2 6
One year 0 3 2
2-5 5 2 0
More than five 2 1 0
9. If you teach first grade next year would you prefer to con
tinue using this approach?
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Yes 5 ^ 7
Possibly 0 2 1
No 3 2 0
Results of the questionnaire showed that the experiential
and academic backgrounds of the teachers in each reading approach
were generally comparable. All had bachelors degrees except one
Economy teacher. The one Master's degree was also held by an
Economy teacher. All had regular teaching credentials.
The i.t.a. teachers averaged a few more years of teaching
experience than did the other two groups of teachers. They also
averaged a few more years of teaching experience at the first
grade level.
One notable difference among the three groups was that
i.t.a. teachers had considerably less experience teaching the
present method than did the others. They also tended to be more
enthusiastic about the approach which they were using than were
the other teachers.
An attempt was also made to determine the principal's
estimation of the effectiveness of the teachers in the study. A
teacher appraisal questionnaire for each teacher was prepared and
8if
submitted to her principal in April of 1968 for his evaluation of
performance on selected characteristics. The results are sum
marized in Table 18.
TABLE 18
TEACHER APPRAISAL BY PRINCIPALS
Teacher Characteristics Ginn Economy i.t.a.
1. Professional qualities
Attitudes
Weak 0 0 0
Satisfactory
3 3
1
Strong 5 5 7
Cooperation
Weak 0 0 0
Satisfactory 2 2 2
Strong 6 6 6
Observation of ethics of
the teaching profession
Weak 0 0 0
Satisfactory k
3
1
Strong k
5 7
Professional growth
Weak 0 0 0
Satisfactory if if
3
Strong if if
5
Participation in profes
sional organizations
Weak 0 1 1
Satisfactory 7 5
if
Strong 1 2
3
2. Instructional Skills
Curriculum and lesson
planning
Weak
Satisfactory
Strong
0
3
5
0
1
7
0
2
6
Teacher Characteristics___________
Classroom organization
Weak
Satisfactory
Strong
Methods and Techniques
Weak
Satisfactory
Strong
Classroom control
Weak
Satisfactory
Strong
Command of English
Weak
Satisfactory
Strong
Development of pupil's
attitudes and understandings
Weak
Satisfactory
Strong
3. Personality Traits
General Personality
Weak
Satisfactory
Strong
Emotional Adjustment
Weak
Satisfactory
Strong
Promptness
Weak
Satisfactory
Strong
Accuracy and Dependability
Weak
Satisfactory
Strong
85
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
0 0
3 2
5 6
0 0
if 2
if 6
0 1
5 1
3 6
1 o
2 3
5 5
0 0
3
^ 5
o 0
i f 2
if 6
0 0
i f 3
^ 5
o o
2 2
6 6
0 0
3 2
5 6 VJlVH O V J 1 V * l O OM\) O VJlVjJ O VJ1VMO -p- O V jl O C T v r o o .fr -p- O
Teacher Characteristics
86
Ginn Economy i.t.a*
General Health
Weak 0 0 0
Satisfactory 2 5 3
Strong 6 3 5
Voice
Weak 0 0 0
Satisfactory 5 ^ 5
Strong 3 ^ 3
4. Teacher-Parent Relationships
Relations with parents
Weak 0 0 0
Satisfactory 1 2
Strong ^ 7 6
5* Effectiveness in Interpreting
the School Program
Weak 0 0 0
Satisfactory 3 1
Strong 5 7
In only a few cases were teachers in any of the approaches
given weak ratings. One Economy and one i.t.a. teacher received
a weak score on "Participation in professional organizations,"
one Economy teacher on "Classroom control" and one Ginn teacher
on "Command of English." All other ratings were either satis
factory or strong.
Principal evaluations among the three groups were gener
ally comparable except that there was a tendency for Ginn teachers
to receive fewer strong ratings than teachers in the other two
reading approaches. These variations are not surprising in view
of the subjective nature of the characteristics listed.
Program Descriptions
It was pointed out in Chapter II that teachers using a
given method vary considerably in their implementation of that
method. Such was the case with teachers involved in this study.
For example, classroom observations and discussions with the
teachers revealed that some of the Ginn teachers emphasized short
and long vowel sounds much sooner and more often than did others.
Some of the Economy teachers were more rigid in observing pro
cedures outlined in the teacher's manual than others and the
i.t.a. teachers started their children in the transition to the
traditional alphabet at different times. These kinds of varia
tions were anticipated and were not discouraged. It was felt
that because these kinds of differences are inherent in first
grade reading instruction programs generally, they would not de
tract from the generalizability of the findings of this study.
However, there are some important and essential differences among
the three approaches to the teaching of reading which clearly
distinguish each from the others. These are outlined below.
Description of Basic Methods
One purpose of the Ginn approach was to teach such
qualities as appreciation for literature, desirable reading, habits
and good attitudes as well as comprehension and word study skills.
An immediate and long range objective was to gain meaning from the
printed page. The approach used to bring this about was primarily
analytic. Children were first taught to recognize words as
88
wholes through inductive processes. Words were first introduced
in complete stories around which entire lessons were built.
Emphasis was placed on the building of a basic sight vocabulary.
Word analysis began with a presentation of initial consonants
first and then final consonants and some digraphs and blends.
Short and long vowel sounds were taught later. Phonics was
taught incidentally as a follow-up activity. Teachers in this
particular study tended to place more emphasis upon teaching of
phonics than was generally demanded by the teachers' manuals.
The Economy approach (Phonetic Keys to Reading) has been
described as a dual meaning-discrimination approach in which
word-attack skills and comprehension skills are taught simul
taneously. From the outset children in the study were involved
in word attack skills. There was very little emphasis placed on
an initial sight vocabulary. Very early all the letters of the
alphabet were introduced. Although the basic teaching approach
tended to be synthetic in nature the relationship between letters
and sounds generally was taught analytically. Long vowel sounds
were introduced first, then short vowel sounds, and finally con
sonants. This early emphasis upon phonetic analysis and a
generally deductive approach to beginning reading distinguished
the Economy method from the Ginn method.
The distinguishing feature of the i.t.a. method outlined
in this study was the alphabet. Its forty-four symbols consti
tuted the basic medium through which the method was implemented.
Because each of the forty-four symbols represented only one sound
the alphabet was considered phonemic rather than strictly phonetic.
Twenty-four of the symbols were the same as in the tradi
tional alphabet while fourteen were augmentations which look
similar to two traditional letters combined. The remaining six
symbols represented the other phonemes of the system. (See
Appendix A).
In some ways the approach used resembled the old alphabet
method of teaching beginning reading. The symbols and their
corresponding sounds were introduced very early. The sound of
the symbol was taught as its name. When enough graphemes were
introduced to make words these were also taught. One objective
of the program was to help children to recognize words early and
to begin reading almost immediately. The procedure used in
teaching the sound relationships between symbols and sounds was
primarily analytic.
Another distinguishing feature of the i.t.a. method was
the emphasis upon writing, especially the writing of creative
stories. Almost from the very beginning children were taught to
write and continued to do so throughout the year.
Instructional Materials
Frequently the materials used in a reading approach imply
the kind of methodology used. This was especially true in the
three programs described in this study.
The primary materials used in the Ginn approach included
the Ginn Basic Reading Series. The series consisted of three
90
pre-primers, My Little Red Story Book, My Little Green Story Book,
and My Little Blue Story Book. These were followed by a primer,
The Little White House, and two readers, Fun With Tom and Betty
and On Cherry Street. Also available were some Ginn and Company
supplementary books, the Sheldon Basic Reading Series published by
Allyn and Bacon and some books from other publishers. These
materials were supplemented by word cards, picture charts,
picture-sequence stories, and workbooks. The procedure for
utilizing these materials was outlined comprehensively in the
teachers' manuals.
The Economy approach utilized the Phonetic Keys to Reading
program published by the Economy Company, which consists essenti
ally of three paper-back volumes and a teachers manual at Grade
One. The three titles, Tag, Dot and Jim, and All Around With Dot
and Jim represent the readiness-pre-primer, primer, and first
reader stages. The accompanying teacher's manual outlines each
lesson in considerable detail.
Available as supplementary material were the Ginn Basic
Reading Series and the Allyn Bacon reading materials as well as
other state-adopted books. These were used only as follow-up
material for the Economy program.
The i.t.a. approach utilized the Early-to-Read i.t.a.
Program materials published by the Initial Teaching Alphabet
Publications, Inc., and included the titles Rides, Dinosaur Ben,
Houses, and books 2-7. In addition, the Downing Readers were
91
used as supplementary books. Again, the procedure was carefully
outlined in the teachers' manuals.
Generally, the books available to the Ginn teachers were
also available to the i.t.a. teachers, to be used when the i.t.a.
children made the transition to the traditional alphabet.
Chall (5:336-335) developed a classification scheme which
included comparisons of the Ginn, Economy, and i.t.a. reading
programs. The purpose of the scheme was to demonstrate essential
similarities and differences among the three approaches. Table 19
lists the variables which were selected from Chall's classifi
cation scheme and are appropriate for the programs included in
this study.
The category listed as "structure" refers to the extent
to which a program is worked out in a definite sequence. "Goals"
are divided between ultimate and beginning goals and are described
in terms of a code emphasis or a meaning emphasis. The section in
the scheme which deals with the kind of motivational appeal at the
beginning of the program attempts to determine whether the primary
emphasis is on content or the process of learning to read. The
variable listed as "stimulus controls" contains several sub-cate
gories which attempt to illustrate the kinds of controls which
are used in sequencing and integrating the various parts of the
program. Comparisons given under "Content, first year" concern
the nature of the stories included in each program. Both of the
next major sections, "Learning of grapheme-phoneme correspondences?'
and "Response modes" deal with some of the basic differences in
92
the area of phonics instruction. Differences in "Readiness for
reading" is described in global or specific terms. The last
section determines the extent to which the teacher is directly
needed in implementing the program.
Table 19 illustrates the Economy program's emphasis upon
code and a generally greater stress upon the process of learning
to read in preference to meaning in the initial stages. Economy
also utilized the teaching of phonic elements and the learning of
grapheme-phoneme relationships to a greater extent than either
Ginn or i.t.a.
Another important difference was the opportunity which
each program provided for the transfer of knowledge gained
regarding sound-symbol relationships to an actual reading situa
tion. On this variable Ginn was described as low, Economy
medium, and i.t.a. high.
The i.t.a. program was characterized by a more consistent
and intensive use of writing than the other two approaches.
Ginn was the only one of the three approaches which
emphasized whole words before smaller speech elements.
93
TABLE 19
GINN, ECONOMY, AND I.T.A. COMPARISONS ON
SELECTED VARIABLED ADAPTED FROM CHALL (5:338-3^0)
Variables
Ginn
Basic
Readers
Phonetic
Keys to
Reading
i.t.a.
Series
Structure:
(High, Moderate, Low) High High High
Goals: (Meaning, appreciation,
application, or learning Code)
Ultimate
Beginning
Meaning
Meaning
Meaning
Code
Meaning
Meaning
Motivational appeal at beginning:
(Primarily on Content or on
Process of learning to read) Content
Process
plus
Content
Content
plus
Process
Stimulus controls:
Units to control difficulty
(Words, Phonic Elements,
Spelling Patterns, Letters
Language Patterns) Words
Phonic
Elements Words
Major Criterion for Selecting
Words (Meaning Frequency Meaning
or Spelling Regularity) Frequency
Meaning
Frequency
Meaning
Frequency
Vocabulary Load: First Year
(High, Moderate, Low) Low Low High
Picture Load: First Year
(High, Moderate, Low) High High High
Content, first year:
Stories-familiar experiences Familiar
Stories-imaginative Exp.
Familiar
Exp.
Familiar
Exp. and
Imag.
Learning of grapheme-phoneme
correspondences (phonics):
How?
Number of verbalized rules
Teacher guidance
Phonic load, first year
Analytic
Moderate
Moderate
Low
Analytic
High
High
High
Analytic
Low
High
High
9^
Variables
Ginn
Basic
Readers
Phonetic
Keys to
Reading
x.t.a.
Series
Concentrated practice on
individual correspondences
Opportunity for transfer
Cues to Use
Structural cues employed
Low
Low
Meaning
Visual
analysis
and sub
situation
Low
Medium
Structure
and Mean.
Sounding
and
blending
High
High
Structu
re and
Mean.
Visual
analysis
and sub
situation
Response modes:
Preferred reading at
beginning
Use of writing
Programming of meaning,
appreciation, and appli
cation responses
Whole Words or Letters first
Silent-
oral
Low
High
Whole
words
Oral-
silent
Low
High
Letters
in whole
words
Silent-
oral
High
High
Letters
Readiness for reading:
(Defined in Global or
Specific Terms) Global Specific Specific
Need for teacher: High High High
Late in the year the participating teachers were asked to
fill out a questionnaire concerning the instructional program in
their classrooms. An oral explanation of each question was given
so that teachers would have an understanding of the intent of
each.
Results of the survey showed that Economy teachers
averaged fewer books, other than regular textbooks, per class-
95
room than either of the other two groups.
Teachers in all three approaches spent approximately the
same amount of time reading orally to their students. The average
time ranged from fifteen minutes to thirty-five minutes a day.
There was a tendency for i.t.a. teachers to use audio
visual equipment, with the exception of record players, more
frequently than teachers in the other two approaches. On the
whole the Economy teachers made less use of audio-visual equipment
than either Ginn or i.t.a.
With the exception of one Ginn teacher, all teachers used
reading workbooks either regularly or often. Duplicated reading
material was used regularly or often by all of the Ginn and
Economy teachers and six of the i.t.a. teachers. One i.t.a.
teacher used word cards only rarely. All other teachers used
them regularly or often. Seven of the teachers in each group
used letter cards regularly or often. Reading charts were used
regularly or often by all i.t.a. teachers and by six Ginn and six
Economy teachers.
Children in the i.t.a. classes tended to do more creative
writing than children in the other approaches. All children in
the Ginn and Economy groups read orally on a regular basis whereas
i.t.a. pupils were slightly less likely to do soa All classes
allowed children to share experiences either regularly or often.
The amount of participation in play acting varied somewhat from
class to class in all three approaches.
The questions and a summary of responses are indicated as
96
follows:
1. How many books (other than regular text books) are presently
available in your room for children to read?
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Range of answers 25-210 30-50 60-130
Average per class 71 38 89
2. Approximately how much time, on the average, do you spend
each day reading to your students. (In minutes)
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Range of answers 15-30 15-30 15-35
Average per class 19 19 21
3. Please indicate the frequency with which you use the following
items of equipment and material in your instructional program.
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Movie Projector
Regularly 2 3 5
Often 5 5 2
Rarely 1 0 1
Never 0 0 0
Film Strip Projector
Regularly 1 0 2
Often k 5 3
Rarely 2 2 3
Never 1 1 0
Overhead Projector
Regularly 0 0 1
Often 0 0 1
Rarely 5 2 5
Never 3 6 1
Record Player
Regularly 5 6 k
Often 3 1 4
Rarely 0 1 0
Never 0 0 0
Tape Recorder
Regularly 0 0 3
Often 2 0 2
Rarely 3 3 1
Never 3 5 2
97
*f. To what extent do you use the following?
Reading Workbooks
Regularly
Often
Rarely
Never
Duplicated Reading Material
Regularly
Often
Rarely
Never
Word Cards
Regularly
Often
Rarely
Never
Letter Cards
Regularly
Often
Rarely
Never
Reading Charts
Regularly
Often
Rarely
Never
Ginn
5
2
0
1
6
2
0
0
5
3
0
0
5
2
1
0
k
3
1
0
Economy
7
1
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
1
0
0
6
1
0
1
2
5
1
0
X • t • a a
How often do your students do the following?
Ginn Economy
Write Creative Stories
Regularly
Often
Rarely
Never
Read Orally
Regularly
Often
Rarely
Never
3
5
0
0
8
0
0
0
3
3
2
0
8
o
0
0
C ^ H O O K W H O VOHHO lAf\J H O -4 - -4 - O O + > V O O J O O iTNK'vOO
98
Ginn Economy i.t.a.
Share Experiences
Often
Rarely
Never
Regularly 8
0
0
0
5
3
o
0
5
3
0
0
Participate in Play
acting
Regularly 1
5
1
1
2
3
3
0
2
1
5
0
Often
Rarely
Never
Class Size
A relatively small class size appears to be an advantage
in teaching beginning reading. Because of this, class size is an
important consideration in a study of this kind. Table 20 lists
the average daily attendance for all of the classes in each
method. While this does not reveal the amount of student turn
over nor absenteeism it does allow for a reasonable estimate of
comparative class sizes. As can be seen there were few, if any,
important differences in class size among classes or methods.
99
TABLE
AVERAGE DAILY
20
ATTENDANCE
Method
Class Ginn Economy i.t.a.
1. 27.1 27.8
2k ,7
2. 27.6 27.8 27.^
3.
28.i f 28.2 28.7
if. 28.9 28.6 29.0
5. 28.9 28.7
29.0
6. 30.0
28.7 29.5
7.
30.6 29.6 30.6
8.
30.9 30.9
31.2
Averages 29.1 28.8 28.8
Organizational Patterns
The self-contained, single grade classroom was the
primary organizational pattern used by all teachers. The total
amount of instructional time available was approximately the same
for all classes. The classes typically started at 8:30 a.m. and
were released at 2:00 p.m. or started at 9:00 a.m. and were dis
missed at 2:30 p.m.
One important variation among approaches which was also
considered to be a limitation of the study was the utilization of
"staggered sessions" by six of the i.t.a. classes, five of the
Ginn classes, and none of the Economy classes. In most cases the
staggered sessions were not used for the entire year.
The teacher of each class was asked to submit a daily
100
schedule for comparison purposes. The variations among methods
appeared to be no greater than those within methods. The
schedules seemed to follow similar patterns with all teachers
teaching reading at some time early in the school day.
Testing Program
Procedure
A total of five separate tests was selected to be included
in the testing program. In order of their administration they
were: the Metropolitan Readiness Tests, the Lorge-Thorndike
Intelligence Tests, the Stanford Reading Tests, the SRA Reading
Tests, and the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests.
Prior to the beginning of the testing program, meetings
were arranged with the teachers and principals and the procedures
to be followed were carefully outlined. It was decided that the
teachers themselves would administer the tests under the direct
supervision of the school principal. Tests were hand-delivered
to the schools and before each testing session an individual
conference was held with the teacher and principal and both
written and oral instructions for administering the tests were
given.
The total score on the Metropolitan Readiness Tests was
used as the pretest covariate. The results of the Lorge-Thorndike
Intelligence Tests were used as descriptive information to help
determine initial differences among the population groups. The
Stanford, SRA, and Gates-MacGinitie reading tests were the
101
criterion variables.
For purposes beyond the scope of this study some of the
i.t.a. children were administered the i.t.a. translation (differ
ent form) of the Stanford Reading Tests prior to taking it in the
traditional alphabet. Since the orthography was different and the
questions were not the same it was suspected that any "practice
effect" would be minimal and would be more than balanced out by
the lack of familiarity with the traditional alphabet on the part
of i.t.a. taught children. Nevertheless, this was listed as a
possible limitation of the study.
Description of Tests
A detailed description of the five standardized tests
used in this study would be impractical. Further information may
be gained by perusing the tests themselves, consulting teacher's
manuals, and reviewing the technical supplements.
The Metropolitan Readiness Tests (Form A was used) are
published by Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc. and are authored by
Gertrude H. Hildreth, Nellie L. Griffiths, and Mary E. McGauvran.
There are six sections labeled Word Meaning, Listening, Matching.
Alphabet, Numbers, and Copying. The seventh, an optional test
called Draw-a-Man. was not used in this study. Validity and
reliability reports are furnished by the publisher in the Manual
of Directions.
The Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Tests, Level 1, Form A,
Primary Battery, was used to determine mental age. The tests
102
are published by Houghton Mifflin Company and are authored by
Irving Lorge and Robert L. Thorndike. They are group administered
and consist of three subtests which were combined to form a total
score. A technical manual, which furnishes complete statistical
data on the tests, is available from the publishers.
The Stanford Reading Tests, Primary I, was the first
posttest administered. The publisher is Harcourt, Brace, and
World, Inc. and the authors are Truman L. Kelley, Richard Madden,
Eric F. Gardner, and Herbert C. Rudman. The tests consist of
five sections: Word Reading, Paragraph Meaning, TOTAL READING
(a combination of Word Reading and Paragraph Meaning), Vocabulary,
and Word Study Skills. (The TOTAL READING section was especially
arranged by the publishers for the California state-mandated
testing program.) Again, complete data on the tests are published
in a technical supplement.
The reading section of the SRA Achievement Series, (Read
ing 1-2, Form C) was the second reading test administered. The
test, published by Science Research Associates, was prepared by
Louis P. Thorpe, D. Welty Lefever, and Robert A. Naslund. It
consists of four sections: Verbal-Pictorial Association, Language
Perception. Comprehension, and Vocabulary. Technical data are
published in the Test Coordinator's Manual and in a technical
report.
The Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests (Primary A, Form 1)
was the final test to be administered. It is a relatively short
test consisting of Vocabulary and Comprehension sections. It is
published by Teachers College Press, Teachers College, Columbia
University and is authored by Arthur I. Gates and Walter H.
MacGinitie. A technical manual is available.
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to present and interpret
the major findings related to this investigation. The relative
effectiveness of the Ginn, Economy, and i.t.a. approaches was
determined by analyzing the raw score data of twelve dependent
variables which were derived from the sub-tests of the Stanford,
SRA, and Gates-MacGinitie reading tests. Comparisons were made
within each of four categories of children: low ability boys,
high ability boys, low ability girls, and high ability girls.
A one-way analysis of covariance design was selected as
the appropriate statistical technique to be used in the treatment
of data. The facilities of the Computer Science Laboratory at the
University of Southern California were utilized in processing the
data through the analysis of covariance program, BMD-0*fV.
Differences at or above the .05 level of confidence were
considered appropriate in establishing the superiority of a
particular approach on a given criterion. When significant F
values among treatment means were discovered the Scheffe method
for post-hoc comparisons was then employed in order to determine
which pairs of mean scores were significantly different.
10*f
Hypothesis Tested
The study was designed to test the null hypothesis that
no significant differences would be found to exist among the mean
scores of children taught by the Ginn, Economy, and i.t.a. reading
approaches. This hypothesis was tested against twelve criterion
measures within each of four classifications of children resulting
in forty-eight applications of the hypothesis. In Table 21 each
application is assigned a number for purposes of identification
and illustration.
Table 22 illustrates each of the one hundred forty-four
possible mean score comparisons against which the hypothesis was
tested. It also shows which comparisons were significantly
different at the .05 confidence level. A detailed explanation
of the findings is given in the paragraphs following Table 22.
106
TABLE 21
HYPOTHESES
Criterion Variable
Low
Ability
Boys
High
Ability
Boys
Low
Ability
Girls
High
Ability
Girls
Stanford Reading Tests
Word Reading
Paragraph Meaning
Total (WR and PM)
Vocabulary
Word Study Skills
SRA Reading Tests
Verbal-Pictorial Assoc.
Language Perception
Comprehension
Vocabulary
Reading Total
Gates-MacGinitie Reading
Tests
Vocabulary
Comprehension
H H H H
°1 °2
°3 °k
H H H H
°5
°6
°7
°8
H H H H
°9
°10 °11 °12
H H H H
K\
i —1
O
°lk
°15
°l6
H H H H
°17
°l8
°19
°20
H H H H
°21 °22
°23
°2k
H H H H
°25
°2 6 °27 °28
H H H H
°29 °30
°31
°32
H H H H
°33 °35 °35 °36
H H H H
°37 °38 °39
°ko
H H H H
°*H °k2
°^3
H H H H
°^3
% 6
°^7
°b8
107
TABLE 22
SIGNIFICANCE OF MEAN SCORE COMPARISONS
Reading
Test
Low
Ability-
High
Ability
Low High
Ability Ability
Criterion Comparison Boys Boys Girls Girls
Stanford
WR Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Economy-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
PM Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Economy-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Total Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Economy-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Voc Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Economy-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
WSS Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS Significant
Economy-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
SRA
VPA Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Economy-i.t.a. NS Significant NS NS
LP Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Economy-i.t.a. Significant NS NS NS
Comp Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Economy-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Voc Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Economy-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Total Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Economy-i.t.a. Significant NS NS NS
Gates-
MacGinite
Voc Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Economy-i.t.a. NS Significant NS NS
Comp Ginn-Economy NS NS NS NS
Ginn-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
Economy-i.t.a. NS NS NS NS
The Findings
In order to achieve the .01 level of confidence an F value
of 4.86 was necessary. None of the forty-eight comparisons
yielded F ratios of this magnitude thus indicating that no mean
score comparisons were significant at this level.
An F value of 3*10 was necessary to attain the .05 confi
dence level. Six of the forty-eight comparisons yielded F values
beyond 3*10. These are discussed below under the appropriate
hypothesis designation. The Scheff& method for post hoc compar
isons (.05 confidence level) was used to test the significance of
the difference between pairs of raw score means after significant
F values were determined.
Hypotheses
H
°20 Stanford Reading Tests
Word Study Skills
High Ability Girls
This was the only comparison based on the scores of the
Stanford Reading Tests which yielded a significant F value (3.87).
Further analysis using the Scheffe method for post hoc comparisons
revealed that Ginn was superior to i.t.a. No other comparisons
were significant.
H
°22 SRA Reading Tests
Verbal-Pictorial Association
High Ability Boys
In this comparison significance was established by an F
value of 3*56. The mean score for i.t.a. was significantly
109
greater than the score for the Economy approach. Again, no other
comparisons were significant.
H
°25 SRA Reading Tests
Language Perception
Low Ability Boys
An F value of 3»96 in this comparison was largely due to
the mean differences between the Economy and the i.t.a. approaches.
The Scheffe comparison method showed the Economy score to be
significantly superior to the i.t.a. score. As in the two pre
vious cases there were no other significant differences between
means.
H
°28 SRA Reading Tests
Language Perception
High Ability Girls
Here the F value of 3*35 was only slightly above that
required for the .05 confidence level. The Scheffe test was
applied and failed to yield a comparable F value between the two
means in any of the three comparisons. In view of the fact that
the Scheff& method tends to be a rigorous test this finding was
not too surprising. This was the only case where a significant
F, after analysis of covariance, failed to show significant
differences between pairs of individual means after the applica
tion of the Scheffe test.
Because the null hypothesis was not rejected it was con
cluded that the three approaches were comparable on this variable
and with this group of children.
110
H
°37 SRA Reading Tests
Reading Total
Low Ability Boys
The SRA total reading score showed a significant differ
ence in favor of the Economy approach over i.t.a. An earlier
comparison on the Language Perception sub-test showed essentially
the same difference. It appears that the same factors account
for the differences in both comparisons and that the use of the
total score added very little to the findings. Neither of the
other two comparisons showed a significant difference.
H
kz Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests
Vocabulary
High Ability Boys
The i.t.a. group scored significantly higher than did the
Economy group in this comparison. There were no other significant
differences.
Table 23 illustrates the significance of the differences
between means where original F values indicated the need for
further comparisons.
Ill
TABLE 23
SCHEFF4 POST HOC COMPARISON TEST FOR MEAN DIFFERENCES
Criterion Group Comparison Mean F»
Stanford High Ginn versus 41.50
Word Ability Economy 40.67 .17
Study Girls
Skills Ginn versus 41.50
i.t.a.
36.39
6.68*
Economy versus 40.67
x . t. a.
36.39
4.68
SRA High Ginn versus 18.47
Verbal- Ability Economy 16.98 .56
Pictorial Boys
Association Ginn versus 18.47
i.t.a. 22.14 3.40
Economy versus 16.98
i.t.a. 22.14
6.71*
SRA Low Ginn versus 83.44
Language Ability Economy 89.60
2.23
Perception Hoys
Ginn versus 83.44
x. t. a. 77.86 1.81
Economy versus 89.60
i.t.a. 77.86 8.18*
SRA High Ginn versus 105.90
Language Ability Economy 105.20 .04
Perception Girls
Ginn versus 105.90
i.t.a. 98.45 5.45
Economy versus 105.20
i.t.a. 98.45 4.54
SRA Low Ginn versus 120.84
Total Ability Economy 126.30 .83
Reading Boys
Ginn versus 120.84
i.t.a. 110.23
3.14
Economy versus 126.30
i.t.a. 110.23 7.19*
TABLE 23— Continued
112
Criterion Group Comparison Mean F'
Gates- High Ginn versus 20.21
MacGinitie Ability Economy 19.57 .l*f
Vocabulary Boys
Ginn versus 20.21
i.t.a. 23.98 ^•75
Economy versus
19.57
i.t.a. 23.98 6.kk*
* p^.05 This value is not the conventional table value,
but is computed a priori to be used with the Scheffl post
hoc comparison method. An F1 value at or above 6.10 was
needed for the .05 significance level on this application
of the Scheffe test.
Tables 2k through 35 reveal adjusted raw score means and
provide the basic data against which the hypothesis was tested in
each case. Appendix C provides additional data regarding the
analysis of covariance treatment of raw scores.
113
TABLE 24
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
STANFORD WORD READING
Method Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy i.t.a. F .05 .01
Boys Low 16.40 16.19 17.65 .48 NS NS
High 20.21 20.62 22.80
1.39
NS NS
Girls Low 17.19
17.87 20.47 2.16 NS NS
High 24.15 24.12
25.33
.61 NS NS
TABLE 25
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
STANFORD PARAGRAPH MEANING
Method Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy x. t. a. .
o
vn
.
o
H
Boys Low
15.19 14.57 14.37 .13
NS NS
High 19.40
15.77 20.06 2.43 NS NS
Girls Low
16.97 16.55 17.18 .04 NS NS
High 23.24 21.50 22.90 .37
NS NS
TABLE 26
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
STANFORD WORD READING AND PARAGRAPH MEANING TOTAL
Method Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy i.t.a. *3
.
0
V J l
.
0
H
Boys Low
31.59 30.76 32.02 .10 NS NS
High 39.62
36.39
42.86
1.73
NS NS
Girls Low
34.17
34.42 37.64
.55
NS NS
High 47.38 45.62
48.23 .37
NS NS
llif
TABLE 27
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
STANFORD VOCABULARY
Method Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy i.t.a. F .05 .01
Boys Low 19.83 19.86 19.1k .19
NS NS
High
25.85 27.03
26.61
.19
NS NS
Girls Low
19.79 19.67 20.51 .18 NS NS
High
25.99
2k,88
25.99 A?
NS NS
TABLE 28
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
STANFORD WORD STUDY SKILLS
Method Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy l a t »cl« F
.05
.01
Boys Low 32.60 32.78 30. i f 9 .75
NS NS
High
36.^3 36.27
37.0if .07
NS NS
Girls Low
35.5^
32. ^ 2
31.77 1.50 NS NS
High ^1.50 ifO.67 36.39 3.87
S* NS
TABLE 29
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
SRA VERBAL-PICTORIAL ASSOCIATION
Method Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy i.t.a. F
.05
.01
Boys Low 12.60 12.if7 11.86 .11 NS NS
High 18. i f 7 16.98 22.1k 3.56 S* NS
Girls Low lif.2i f 13.0if 15.65 .95
NS NS
High 21.67 20.ifl
23.^9 l.ifl NS NS
115
TABLE 30
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
SRA LANGUAGE PERCEPTION
Method Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy i.t.a. F .05 .01
Boys Low 83.44 89.60 77.86 3.96 s* NS
High 9k.69 98.63 100.02
.97
NS NS
Girls Low 90.08 88. k2 92.70
.55
NS NS
High 105.90
105.25 98.45 3.35
S* NS
TABLE 31
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
SRA COMPREHENSION
Method___________ Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy i.t.a. F
.05
.01
Boys Low 12.89 13.61
11.33 2.17
NS NS
High 16.68
14.87 15.51
.84 NS NS
Girls Low
13.73
14.00 13.78 .02 NS NS
High 17.03 18.49 16.75
.81 NS NS
TABLE 32
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
SRA VOCABULARY
Method___________ Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy i.t.a. F
.05
.10
Boys Low
11.91
10.45 9.21 2.88 NS NS
High
13.23 13.72 13.23
.20 NS NS
Girls Low 12.26 12.11
10.53 1.09 NS NS
High 14.43 15.79 16.35
.66 NS NS
0
116
TABLE 33
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
SRA READING TOTAL
Method Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy i.t.a. F .05 .01
Boys Low 120.84 126.30 110.23 3.64 s* NS
High 143.07 144.20 151.82
.95
NS NS
Girls Low
130.31 127.57
132.66 .28 NS NS
High 159.02 159.94 155.04
.3^
NS NS
TABLE 34
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
GATES-MacGINITIE VOCABULARY
Method___________ Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy i.t.a. F
.05
.01
Boys Low 18.58
15.97 15.25
2.63 NS NS
High 20.21
19.57 23.98 3.80 S* NS
Girls Low 18.27 19.92 19.64
A3
NS NS
TABLE 35
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE ADJUSTED MEANS
GATES-MacGINITIE COMPREHENSION
Method____________ Significance
Sex Ability Ginn Economy x. t. a. F
.05
.01
Boys Low 28.86 28.82 27.52 .21 NS NS
High 34.70
33.^5
35.21 .24 NS NS
Girls Low 32.78 31.69 32.30 .11 NS NS
High 40.02 37.96 39.^8 .64 NS NS
*F>95 (2.86) = 3.10
Summary of Findings
As was pointed out earlier, the purpose of this study was
to compare the relative effectiveness of the Ginn, Economy, and
i.t.a. approaches to beginning reading instruction. The variables
selected for comparison purposes consisted of the ten sub-test
scores of the Stanford, SRA, and Gates MacGinitie reading tests,
and the two total scores on the Stanford and the SRA tests. The
sample was divided into four substrata of low ability boys, high
ability boys, low ability girls and high ability girls. Among
the methods there were three comparisons possible: Ginn versus
Economy, Ginn versus i.t.a., and Economy versus i.t.a. The three
methods, twelve criteria, and four sub-groups (3x12x4) made a
total of one hundred forty-four possible mean score comparisons.
Of these one hundred forty-four comparisons there were
only five which were significant at the .05 level and one of these
was a total score comparison which reflected a sub-test difference.
Of the four significant comparisons on sub-test scores one favored
Ginn over i.t.a. (Stanford Word Study Skills, low ability boys);
two favored i.t.a. over Economy (SRA Verbal Pictorial Association
and Gates-MacGinitie Vocabulary, high ability boys); and one
favored Economy over i.t.a. (SRA Language Perception, low ability
boys).
It should be kept in mind that the large number of com
parisons involved in the study increases the probability that
some significant differences will result from chance alone.
Added to this is the fact that there was no consistent pattern of
superiority for one approach over another on any of the variables
or in any of the groups. The conclusion which naturally follows
is that the findings of the study did not support a rejection of
the null hypothesis and that there were no consistently signi
ficant differences among the three beginning reading approaches.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter provides a brief review of the purpose,
procedures, and findings of this study and includes a statement
of the conclusions and recommendations resulting from the findings.
Summary
The Problem
This study was based upon the need to find more effective
ways to teach beginning reading. It was specifically designed to
compare the relative advantages of the Ginn, Economy, and i.t.a.
reading approaches. Special consideration was given to the kinds
of phonic instruction utilized in the implementation of each
approach.
The study was proposed to test the hypothesis that there
would be no significant differences in reading achievement among
the groups taught by each of the three methods. This hypothesis
was applied to forty-eight comparisons involving four sub-groups
and twelve criterion measures.
Procedures
An experimental design utilizing analysis of covariance
was selected as the appropriate procedure for comparing the
achievement of children taught by the Ginn, Economy, and i.t.a.
119
120
approaches. The primary independent variables selected for this
quasi-experimental study were mode of instruction, mental age and
sex. The dependent variables were scores on the Stanford Reading
Tests, and SRA Reading Tests, and the Gates-MacGinitie Reading
Tests.
The sample consisted of twenty-four classes, eight in
each instructional approach, which were selected from within
three school districts located near the western end of San
Bernardino County in Southern California. Since it was not
possible to randomly assign children to treatment groups, con
siderable baseline data were provided in order to compare the
children in each treatment catagory. Information collected
revealed that the groups were very similiar in terms of mental
age, socio-economic background, personal characteristics, and
other important factors.
The importance of the teacher variable in determining
the effectiveness of a particular program was not overlooked in
this study. A comparison of the teachers in each method did not
reveal any evidence to indicate that one group of teachers was
potentially more effective than any other.
A description of each method showed certain essential
differences. The Ginn basal reader approach emphasized long
range objectives such as appreciation for literature, desirable
reading habits, and good attitudes. An immediate, as well as
long range, purpose was to get meaning from the printed page.
Children were first taught to recognize words as wholes through
121
inductive processes. Emphasis was placed upon building a basic
sight vocabulary and lessons were built around complete stories.
The immediate objective of the Economy approach was to
teach word recognition and from the beginning children were taught
word attack skills. In contrast to the Ginn approach there was
an early, intensive, phonic emphasis with little importance
placed upon the value of an initial sight vocabulary. Very early
all the letters of the alphabet were introduced and phonic
generalizations were taught regularly throughout the year.
The most apparent difference between the i.t.a. method
and either of the other two was the forty-four symbol alphabet.
One objective of the program was to get children to read as soon
as possible. Also, the i.t.a. children spent considerably more
time writing than did those in the other approaches. Sound-
symbol relationships were taught early and consistently until all
forty-four symbols and their corresponding sounds had been intro
duced.
Five standardized tests were selected and administered
as part of the total testing program. The Metropolitan Readiness
Tests were given very early in the year and the total raw score
was used as the pretest covariate. The Lorge-Thorndike Intel
ligence Tests, also given early in the year, provided descriptive
data used to compare the pupils in each reading approach. The
criterion variables were raw scores on the Stanford Reading Tests,
the SRA Reading Tests, and the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests
122
which were administered near the end of the school year. It was
on the basis of these test results that the conclusions and recom
mendations of this study were formulated.
Summary of Findings
As was stated earlier, this study was based upon the null
hypothesis that there would be no significant differences among
the reading scores of comparable groups of children in each
reading approach. A one-way analysis of covariance design was
selected as the appropriate method for treating the data in order
to test this hypothesis. When significant F values were found,
further analyses using the Scheff4 method for post hoc comparisons
were made in order to determine which pairs of mean scores were
significantly different. Of a possible one hundred forty-four
comparisons, five showed significant differences at the .05 level
and none showed significant differences at the .01 level.
None of the forty-eight comparisons between Ginn and
Economy showed any significant difference. On one comparison
Ginn was superior to i.t.a. (Stanford Word Study Skills, high
ability girls). In no case did i.t.a. show greater gains than
Ginn. In two cases i.t.a. was superior to Economy (SRA Verbal-
Pictorial Association and Gates-MacGinitie Vocabulary, high
ability boys) and in two cases Economy was superior to i.t.a.
(SRA Language Perception and SRA Total Reading, low ability boys).
There was no consistent pattern of superiority for any
one of the three reading approaches on the twelve criterion
123
variables or within the four population sub-groups. Based on
these findings the major null hypothesis of no significant differ
ences among treatment groups was not rejected. The findings
showed that the overall gains made by the children in each method
were essentially the same.
Conclusions
The review of literature related to the problem under
investigation in this study demonstrated that no single beginning
reading method was consistently superior to all others. Nor has
any research technique been developed which can objectively
establish the inherent superiority of any one of numerous begin
ning reading approaches. For these reasons the judgment of
professionally trained educators is an essential component in the
proper interpretation of research data.
The findings of this study were interpreted as reinforce
ment for the generalization that no inherently superior beginning
reading approach has been discovered. Specifically, the con
clusion was reached that none of the approaches utilized in this
study was consistently and significantly superior to either of the
other two on any of the criteria or within any of the groups.
Recommendations
The purpose of the following recommendations is to point
the way for further research which will provide information
necessary to evaluate and improve existing beginning reading
programs. These recommendations are based upon the findings of
12^
this study.
1. While there was no attempt to control variations in
teacher effectiveness within treatments it appeared that they did
exist. In fact, findings not included as a part of this study
suggested that achievement differences within methods were greater
than those among methods. Further research is needed to identify
effective teaching practices. Research designs utilizing class
means rather than total group means should be employed in order
to help determine which teachers are achieving the best results
within a method.
2. Learning to read is a continuous process which en
compasses a lifetime rather than a short period of formal educa
tion. There is serious need for longitudinal studies involving
the reading approaches described in this study so that latent and
long range effects may be determined. Particularly, comparative
studies which involve i.t.a. should include comparisons made well
beyond the end of the first year and at a time when all children
have made a full transition to the traditional alphabet.
3. Further research should be done in order to determine
the relationship between these reading programs and achievement
in other areas such as spelling, creative writing, and arithmetic.
b. There is a need for further studies comparing the
effectiveness of traditional and i.t.a. orthographies when method
ology is held as constant as is appropriate for the orthography
used. Lessons built around the same stories, one group using an
i.t.a. translation and the other a t.o. version, would help in the
design of such a study.
5. There is a continuing need for further research in
volving variations of the three approaches considered in this
study. Particular attention should be given to the kind of
phonic emphasis which seems most appropriate for a particular
approach. In the case of i.t.a. there is the need for the i.t.a.
orthography to be studied as a medium for implementing varying
kinds of reading methods.
6. And finally, there should be further investigation in
those areas where variations were found to exist in the results
revealed by this study. An attempt should be made to determine
whether these differences were due primarily to chance and the
peculiar circumstances of time and place or whether they were
real differences with much broader implications.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
THE INITIAL TEACHING ALPHABET
THE INITIAL TEACHING ALPHABET
a a a e a u b c (h d ee e
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f g h ie i j k l mn
i in « * r * ir l h a t t i e
ink jam kitten lion man nest
gee o (o ® ou oi p r r
king to e on book food out oil pig red bird
sjh 3 t |h jtiu eu vw
soap ship treasure tre e th ree m other due o p van window
\V h y z s
wheel yellow zoo is
128
APPENDIX B
THE WARNER-MEEKER-EELS SCALE
FOR RATING OCCUPATIONS
130
APPENDIX B
REVISED SCALE FOR RATING OCCUPATION*
Rating
Assigned to
Occupation
Professionals Proprietors
and
Managers
1
Lavyers, doctors, dentists, engineers
judges, high school superintendents,
veterinarians, ministers (graduated from
divinity school), chemists, etc., with
post-graduate training, architects
Businesses
valued at
$75,000
and over
2
High school teachers, trained nurses,
chiropodists, chiropractors, undertakers,
ministers (some training), newspaper
editors, librarians (graduate)
Businesses
valued at
$20,000 to
$75,000
3
Social workers, grade-school teachers,
optometrists, librarians (not graduate),
undertakers’ assistants, ministers (no
training)
Businesses
valued at
$5,000 to
$20,000
4
Businesses
valued at
$2,000 to
$5,000
5
Businesses
valued at
$500 to
$2,000
6
Businesses
valued at
less than
$500
7
131
APPENDIX B (Continued)
REVISED SCALE FOR RATING OCCUPATION*
Rating Business Men Clerks and Kindred Workers
1
Regional and divisional
managers of large financial
and industrial enterprises
Certified Public Accountants
2
Assistant managers and office Accountants, salesmen
and department managers of of real estate, of
large businesses, assistants insurance, post-masters
to executives, etc.
3
All minor officials of
businesses
Auto salesmen, bank clerks,
cashiers, postal clerks, secre
taries to executives, supervisors
of railroad, telephone, etc.
justices of the peace
4
Stenographers, bookkeepers,
rural mail clerks, railroad
ticket agents, sales people in
dry goods store, etc.
5
Dimestore clerks, hardware
salesmen, beauty operators,
telephone operators
6
7
132
APPENDIX B (Continued)
REVISED SCALE FOR RATING OCCUPATION*
Rating Manual Workers Protective and
Service Workers
Farmers
1
Gentlemen
Farmers
2
Large farm
owners
3
Contractors
4
Factory foremen,
Own business:
electricians
plumbers
carpenters
watch-makers
Dry cleaners,
butchers,
sheriffs,
railroad engineers
and conductors
5
Carpenters, plumbers,
electricians (apprentice),
timekeepers, linemen,
telephone or telegraph,
radio, repairmen,
medium-skill workers
Barbers, firemen,
butchers’ apprentices,
practical nurses,
policemen, seamstresses,
cooks in restaurants,
bartenders
Tenant
farmers
6
Moulders, semi-skilled
workers, assistants to
carpentefrs, etc.
Baggage men, night Small
policemen and watchmen, tenant
taxi and truck drivers, farmers
gas station attendants,
waitresses in restaurants
7
Heavy labor, migrant
work, odd-job men,
miners
Janitors, scrubwomen
newsboys
Migrant
farm
laborers
*W. Lloyd Warner et al., Social Class in America (Chicago: Science
Research Associates, 1949), pp. 140-141.
APPENDIX C
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE SUMMARY
13^
APPENDIX C
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE SUMMARY
Criterion
Variable Group
Source
of
Variation
Sums of
Squares
Degrees
of
Freedom
Mean
Square
F
Ratio
Among 36.72 2 18.36 .48
Stanford Low
Word Ability Within 3318.33 86 38.39
Reading Boys
Total 3355.05 88
Among 115.31 2 57.65 1.39
Stanford High
Word Ability Within 3574.37 86 41.56
Reading Boys
Total 3689.68
Among 176.77 2 88.36 2.16
Stanford Low
Word Ability Within 3515.84 86 40.88
Reading Girls
Total 3692.55 88
Among 28.51 2 14.25 .61
Stanford High
Word Ability Within 2027.26 86 23.57
Reading Girls
Total 2055.77
Among 10.74 2 5.37 .14
Stanford Low
Paragraph Ability Within 3425.49 86 39.83
Meaning Boys
Total 3436.23 88
Among 315.88 2 157.94 2.43
Stanford High
Paragraph Ability Within 5581.41 86 64.90
Meaning Boys
Total 5897.29
Among 6.12 2 3.06 .04
Stanford Low
Paragraph Ability Within 6334.00 86 73.65
Meaning Girls
Total 6340.12 88
135
APPENDIX C (CONTINUED)
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE SUMMARY
Criterion
Variable Group
Source
of
Variation
Sums of
Squares
Degrees
of
Freedom
Mean
Square
F
Ratio
Among 50.75 2 25.38 .37
Stanford High
Paragraph Ability Within 5873.03 86 68.29
Meaning Girls
Total 5923.78 88
Among 24.00 2 12.00 .10
Stanford Low
Total Ability Within 10666.26 86 124.03
WR and PM Boys
Total 10690.26 88
Among 624.71 2 312.35 1.73
Stanford High
Total Ability Within 15495.16 86 180.18
WR and PM Boys
Total 16119.87 88
Among 222.93 2 111.47 .55
Stanford Low
Total Ability Within 17604.48 86 204.70
WR and PM Girls
Total 17827.41 88
Among 105.63 2 52.81 .37
Stanford High
Total Ability Within 12414.03 86 144.35
WR and PM Girls
Total 12519.66 88
Among 9.82 2 4.91 .19
Stanford Low
Vocabulary Ability Within 2249.92 86 26.16
Boys
Total 2259.74 88
Among 20.83 2 10.41 .19
Stanford High
Vocabulary Ability Within 4778.15 86 55.56
Boys
Total 4798.98 88
APPENDIX C (CONTINUED)
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE SUMMARY
Criterion
Variable Group
Source
of
Variation
Sums of
Squares
Degrees
of
Freedom
Mean
Square
F
Ratio
Stanford
Vocabulary
Low
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
12.58
2931.66
2944.24
2
86
88
6.29
34.09
.18
Stanford
Vocabulary
High
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
21.52
1985.96
2007.48
2
86
88
10.76
23.09
.47
Stanford
Word
Study
Skills
Low
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
94.97
5426.35
5521.32
2
86
88
47.49
63.10
.75
Stanford
Word
Study
Skills
High
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
9.98
6525.76
6535.74
2
86
88
4.99
75.88
.07
Stanford
Word
Study
Skills
Low
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
237.27
6812.05
7049.32
2
86
88
118.63
79.21
1.50
Stanford
Word
Study
Skills
High
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
451.11
5015.62
5466.73
2
86
88
225.56
58.32
3.87
S.R.A.
Verbal-
Pictorial
Association
Low
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
9.20
3543.53
3552.73
2
86
88
4.60
41.20
.11
137
APPENDIX C (CONTINUED)
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE SUMMARY
Criterion
Variable Group
Source
of
Variation
Sums of
Squares
Degrees
of
Freedom
Mean
Square
F
Ratio
S.R.A.
Verbal-
Pictorial
Association
High
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
423.36
5120.88
5544.24
2
86
88
211.68
59.55
3.56
S.R.A.
Verbal-
Pictorial
Association
Low
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
102.76
4645.20
4747.96
2
86
88
51.38
54.01
.95
S.R.A.
Verbal-
Pictorial
Association
High
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
143.95
4387.80
4531.75
2
86
88
71.97
51.02
1.41
S.R.A.
Language
Perception
Low
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
2016.12
21867.52
23883.65
2
86
88
1008.06
254.27
3.96
S.R.A.
Language
Perception
High
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
448.66
19848.19
20296.85
2
86
88
224.33
230.79
.97
S.R.A.
Language
Perception
Low
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
279.32
21899.76
22179.08
2
86
88
139.66
254.65
.55
S.R.A.
Language
Perception
High
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
1021.90
13136.60
14158.50
2
86
88
510.95
152.75
3.35
138
APPENDIX C (CONTINUED)
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE SUMMARY
Criterion
Variable Group
Source
of
Variation
Sums of
Squares
Degrees
of
Freedom
Mean
Squares
F
Ratio
S.R.A.
Comprehen
sion
Low
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
79.44
1575.40
1654.84
2
86
88
39.72
18.32
2.17
S.R.A.
Comprehen
sion
High
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
48.77
2510.76
2559.53
2
86
88
24.39
29.19
.84
S.R.A.
Comprehen
sion
Low
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
1.21
2286.23
2287.44
2
86
88
.60
26.58
.02
S.R.A.
Comprehen
sion
High
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
52.61
2782.88
2835.49
2
86
88
26.31
32.36
.81
S.R.A.
Vocabulary
Low
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
109.53
1638.24
1747.77
2
86
88
54.77
19.05
2.88
S.R.A.
Vocabulary
High
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
12.48
2746.92
2759.40
2
86
88
6.24
31.94
.20
S.R.A.
Vocabulary
Low
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
54.81
2161.48
2216.29
2
86
88
27.40
25.13
1.09
139
APPENDIX C (CONTINUED)
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE SUMMARY
Criterion
Variable Group
Source
of
Variation
Sums of
Squares
Degrees
of
Freedom
Mean F
Squares Ratio
S.R.A.
Vocabulary
High
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
58.48
3833.82
3892.30
2
86
88
29.24
44.58
.66
Among 3917.87 2 1958.93 3.64
S.R.A. Low
Total Ability Within 46284.98 98 538.20
Reading Boys
Total 50202.85 88
Among 1355.80 2 677.90 .95
S.R.A. High
Total Ability Within 61112.85 86 710.61
Reading Boys
Total 62468.65 88
Among 389.42 2 194.71 .28
S.R.A. Low
Total Ability Within 58966.62 86 685.66
Reading Girls
Total 59356.04 88
Among 407.68 2 203.84 .34
S.R.A. High
Total Ability Within 51947.82 86 604.04
Reading Girls
Total 52355.50 88
Among 184.32 2 92.16 2.63
Gates- Low
MacGinitie Ability Within 3014.32 86 35.05
Vocabulary Boys
Total 3198.64 88
Among 341.03 2 170.72 3.80
Gates- High
MacGinitie Ability Within 3855.86 86 44.84
Vocabulary Boys
Total 4196.89 88
I*f0
APPENDIX C (CONTINUED)
ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE SUMMARY
Criterion
Variable Group
Source
of
Variation
Sums of
Squares
Degrees
of
Freedom
Mean
Squares
F
Ratio
Gates-
MacGinitie
Vocabulary
Low
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
45.23
4524.38
4569.61
2
86
88
22.61
52.61
.43
Gates-
MacGinitie
Vocabulary
High
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
148.67
3514.08
3662.75
2
86
88
74.33
40.86
1.82
Gates-
MacGinitie
Compre
hension
Low
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
34.68
7279.13
7313.80
2
86
88
17.34
84.64
.21
Gates-
MacGinitie
Compre
hension
High
Ability
Boys
Among
Within
Total
48.70
8835.73
8884.43
2
86
88
24.35
102.74
.24
Gates-
MacGinitie
Compre
hension
Low
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
17.68
6783.20
6800.87
2
86
88
8.84
78.87
.11
Gates-
MacGinitie
Compre
hension
High
Ability
Girls
Among
Within
Total
68.35
4579.61
4647.97
2
86
88
34.18
53.25
.64
APPENDIX D
DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING
The Metropolitan Readiness Tests
Ik2
Teacher
School
Principal
DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE
METROPOLITAN READINESS TESTS
1. Please administer the entire test during the two days of
Wednesday, September 27&, and Thursday, September 28to.
2. Directions begin on page 5 of the enclosed manual. Please
read them very carefully and follow the sequence prescribed.
3. Administer all sections of the test including the DRAWING A
MAN part on the back of the test booklet.
k. After the testing is completed put all of the tests back in
the boxes and return them to your school office where they
will be picked up on Monday, October 2.
5» (During the two testing days space the four sessions in what
ever way is to the best advantage of your students.)
PUPIL INFORMATION
1. On the front of the booklet please include the child's NAME
(last name first), BOY OR GIRL, and, especially, DATE OF
BIRTH.
2. On succeeding tests it will not be necessary to include the
date of birth.
Your cooperation is greatly appreciated.
Darrel L. Dawes
APPENDIX E
DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING
THE LORGE-THORNDIKE INTELLIGENCE TESTS
3 M
Teacher
School
Principal
DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE
LORGE-THORNDIKE INTELLIGENCE TESTS
1. Please administer the entire test during the four days of
October 3» * * ■ » 5* and 6. (Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and
Friday).
2. Read the general instructions on page 2 very carefully.
3. When the tests are completed return them to the school office
where they will be picked up on Monday, October (Please
return the tests in the manila envelope.)
k, The only information needed on the front page of the test
booklet is the child's name (last name first).
5. Space the testing in whatever way is best for you. If you
can finish before Friday this would probably be best.
APPENDIX. F
DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING
THE SRA READING TESTS
Ik6
May 1^, 1968
TO: Teachers in First Grade Reading Study
FROM: Darrel Dawes
SUBJECT: SRA Reading Test
1. Please begin testing on May 21 (Tuesday). Try to have all
testing completed before the end of the week. Test at a
time most advantageous to the children, preferably in the
morning.
2. Be sure the student's name, first and last, is on the back
cover of the test booklet. (No other information is needed.)
3. Instructions for administering the test begin on page k.
Total testing time is two hours (four sessions).
*f. When tests are completed return them to your school office.
They will be picked up on Friday afternoon, May 2^. Scoring
will begin that weekend and every attempt will be made to get
class lists with scores back to you before the end of the
school year.
5. Your help is greatly appreciated. The results of the study
should be valuable to all of us.
APPENDIX G
DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING
THE GATES-MacGINITIE READING TESTS
IkS
May 29, 1968
TO:
FROM:
SUBJECT:
1. Please administer this test on Tuesday, June k, (The two
sections take 15 minutes and 25 minutes respectively.)
2. Be sure the child's name is on the test (first and last).
No other information is needed.
3. Return to your school office by Thursday for pick-up.
k9 This test should be an enjoyable experience for both teacher
and students!!
5. The last test is now being scored. (As you know some of the
teachers felt it was quite difficult for first graders.)
6. Your help is very much appreciated.
Teachers in Reading Study
Darrel Dawes
Final Testing
Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests
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V
159
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Testing Instruments
103. Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests. Primary A, Form 1, by
Arthur I. Gates and Walter H. MacGinitie, Teachers
College Press, Teachers College, Columbia University
New York, 1965*
10k. Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Tests, Level 1, Form A,
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105. Metropolitan Readiness Tests. Form A, by Gertrude H.
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McGauvran. Harcourt, Brace and World Inc., New
York, 1965.
106. SRA Achievement Series, Reading 1-2, Form C, by Louis P.
Thorpe, D. Welty Lefever and Robert A. Naslund,
Science Research Associates, Inc., Chicago,
Illinois, 1963*
107. Stanford Achievement Test. Reading, Primary I, Form W, by
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and Herbert C. Rudraan, Harcourt, Brace and World,
Inc., New York, 1965.
Reading Programs
108. Early-to-Read: i/t/a Program, by Albert J. Mazurkiewicz
and Harold J. Tanyzer, Initial Teaching Alphabet
Publications, Inc., New York, 1965*
\V
160
109. Ginn Basic Readers, by David H. Russell, et. al., Ginn and
Company, Boston, 1963.
110. Phonetic Keys To Reading, by Theodore L. Harris, Mildred
Creekmore, and Margaret Greenman. The Economy
Company, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 196b,

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Creator Dawes, Darrel Lee (author)

Core Title A Comparative Analysis Of Three Approaches To Beginning Reading

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, general,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format dissertations (aat)

Language English

Advisor Naslund, Robert A. (committee chair), Brown, Charles M. (committee member), Lovell, Constance (committee member)

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