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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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An Experimental Study Of The Ability Of Lay Judges To Distinguish Betweentypescripts Of Individual Idea Development And Group Idea Development
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An Experimental Study Of The Ability Of Lay Judges To Distinguish Betweentypescripts Of Individual Idea Development And Group Idea Development
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AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE ABILITY OF LAY JUDGES TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN TYPESCRIPTS OF INDIVIDUAL IDEA DEVELOPMENT AND GROUP IDEA DEVELOPMENT by A r th u r J . F e a r A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d t o The FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r t h e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ( S p e e c h ) S ep tem b er 1966 U N IV ERSITY O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA T H E GRAD U A TE S C H O O L U N IV E R SIT Y PARK L O S A N G E L E S. C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by ....................Ar.thur.. J L _ J r . e & . r . ............................. under the direction of / a s Dissertation C om mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean Date S ep tg.rabe x . x .. 1.9 .6 .6. ION \ c Chairm an TABLE OF CONTENTS Page L i s t of T a b l e s ........................................................................................................ i v C h a p te r I . THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF T E R M S ...................... 1 O r i g i n o f t h e Problem S ta te m e n t o f t h e Problem D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e Problem R e le v a n c e to Contem porary E x p e r i m e n t a l M ethodology R elev a n ce t o C u r r e n t T h e o r e t i c a l Concerns R elev a n ce t o th e V alue o f t h e T r a n s c r i p t o f t h e O r a l Message in Communication R e se a rc h Summary and P review o f R em aining C h a p te rs I I . REVIEW OF THE L IT E R A T U R E ....................................................... 18 L i t e r a t u r e on R e s e a rc h i n D i s c u s s i o n Lewin and F i e l d Theory C l a s s i f i c a t i o n by O b s e rv e rs L i t e r a t u r e on Communication Theory D e f i n i t i o n o f Communication S e m i o t i c : A Theory o f S ig n s L i t e r a t u r e on T h in k in g I I I . SUBJECTS, MATERIALS, AND PROCEDURE ............................ 47 The S u b j e c t s The D i s c u s s a n t s The J u d g e s The M a t e r i a l s The Tape R e c o rd e r The D i s c u s s i o n T r a n s c r i p t The E x c e r p t s i i C h a p te r Page I n s t r u c t i o n t o Ju d g e s S e ts o f E x c e r p t s The P r o c e d u re The F i e l d Study The E x p e r i m e n t a l T e s t Com parison t o Bowman Study IV. PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA . . . 64 T e s t D ata R e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e T e st I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f T e s t D ata Q u e s tio n 1 Q u e s tio n 2 Q u e s t io n 3 Q u e s tio n 4 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ............................................................ 87 Summary C o n c lu s io n s Recommendation f o r F u r t h e r R e se a rc h BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 99 APPENDIX 106 LIST OP TABLES T able Page 1. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of S et A E x c e r p ts by Ju d g es i n Group A ......................................................... 66 2. I d e n t i f ica't io n o f Set B E x c e rp ts by Ju d g es i n Group B ........................................................................67 3. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f Set C E x c e rp ts by Ju d g es in Group C ........................................................................68 4. D i s t r i b u t i o n and Summary o f J u d g e s ’ S co res ................................................................................. 69 5. Comparison of th e Accuracy of I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of D i s c u s s i o n and Speech E x c e r p ts ........................... 71 6. Comparison o f Group S co res ........................................................ 72 7. D i s t r i b u t i o n of E r r o r s Among E x c e rp ts and B inom ial T e s t f o r S i g n i f i c a n c e .............................................7^ 8. C o r r e l a t i o n o f J u d g e s ' S co res w ith Academic D a t a ........................................................................................76 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS O r i g i n o f t h e Problem Through s e v e r a l y e a r s o f a s s o c i a t i o n w ith i n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g program s i n i n d u s t r y and c o n t i n u i n g e d u c a t i o n p r o grams on t h e u n i v e r s i t y campus, th e a u t h o r d e v e lo p e d an i n t e r e s t i n t h e u s e s o f d i s c u s s i o n i n b u s i n e s s and i n d u s t r y . A p r i v a t e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g d i s c u s s i o n c o u ld be u t i l i z e d i n i n d u s t r y as e x t e n s i v e l y and e f f e c t i v e l y as t h e i n s t r u c t i o n c o n f e r e n c e was t h e o r i g i n a l m o t i v a t i o n f o r u n d e r t a k i n g an i n t e n s i v e I n v e s t i g a t i o n in t h i s a r e a . The above p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t g r a d u a l l y d e v e lo p e d i n to a t h e o r e t i c a l one: How do th e t h o u g h t s and em o tio n s of one i n d i v i d u a l become i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h t h o s e o f a n o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l ? T h is t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s t i o n a r o s e from t h e f a c t t h a t c o n f e r e n c e s i n b u s i n e s s and i n d u s t r y o f t e n f o llo w e d t h i s g e n e r a l p a t t e r n : (1) s t a t e m e n t o f t h e p ro b le m con f r o n t i n g t h e g ro u p ; (2) s u g g e s t i o n s o f how t o s o lv e t h e p ro b le m by one o r more i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e g ro u p ; and (3) g e n e r a l (d is c u s sio n by v a r i o u s members o f t h e g r o u p , d u r i n g w hich i t a p p e a r e d t h a t t h e t h o u g h t s and f e e l i n g s o f most o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s were m o d if ie d i n v a r i o u s ways by t h e p r e c e d in g re m a rk s o f o t h e r s . 2 S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem The o b j e c t o f t h i s s tu d y was p r i m a r i l y t h a t o f e x p l o r i n g c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f th e n a t u r e o f th e p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n one i n d i v i d u a l who i s t r a n s m i t t i n g a message and th e p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n a n o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l who i s r e c e i v i n g t h e m essage. The problem was f o rm u la te d as f o l l o w s : 1. Can la y ju d g e s d i s t i n g u i s h i n d i v i d u a l i d e a de velopm ent from group i d e a developm ent? 2. Are th e i n d i v i d u a l i d e a developm ent e x c e r p t s of some p a r t i c i p a n t s more c o n s i s t e n t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from group i d e a developm ent e x c e r p t s th a n th o s e o f o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s ? 3. How do th e a c c u ra c y s c o r e s o f i n d i v i d u a l ju d g e s vary in r e l a t i o n to l i n g u i s t i c a b i l i t y as r e f l e c t e d in Col le g e Board s c o r e s and p r e d i c t e d s c h o l a s t i c achievem ent? 9. What l i n g u i s t i c c lu e s can ju d g e s i d e n t i f y as h e l p f u l i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g betw een i n d i v i d u a l i d e a d e v e lo p ment and group i d e a developm ent? D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms Com m unication. — Human com m unication has been de f i n e d as " th e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s m i t t i n g and r e c e i v i n g m essages by means o f symbols a n d / o r sig n a ls."'* ' Two k in d s o f human com m unication may be d e f i n e d o p e r a t i o n a l l y as i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l . ■'"Milton D ic k e n s , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , i n a c l a s s l e c t u r e , J u ly 26, 1965. P e r m is s io n t o quote s e c u r e d . 3 I n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication. — ’’I n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l communication i s th e p ro c e ss by which th e t h i n k i n g and f e e l in g of one p e rso n a f f e c t s h i s su b seq u en t t h i n k i n g and f e e l in g by means of symbols a n d /o r s i g n a l s s e n t and r e c e i v e d by 2 t h a t same p e r s o n ." I n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication. - - I n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l communication i s th e p ro c e s s by which th e i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l communication of one p e rso n a f f e c t s th e i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l communication of a n o th e r p e rso n by means of symbols a n d /o r s i g n a l s se n t by one p erso n and r e c e i v e d by a n o th e r . For i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l communication, th e symbols a n d /o r s i g n a l s by which a s p e a k e r e x p re s s e s h is i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l th o u g h ts and f e e l i n g s must be i n t e r p r e t e d and re c o rd e d in memory by the l i s t e n e r . Subsequent use of th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is d e pendent upon i t s a v a i l a b i l i t y from memory a t which time i t may be employed in i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l or i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l communication as d e f in e d above. While a l l messages r e p r e s e n t i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m u n ic a tio n , i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l communication may be i n f e r r e d by o b s e rv e rs ( t h i r d p a r t i e s ) n o t i n g m o d i f i c a t i o n s in b ehav i o r a l re sp o n se s ( i n c l u d i n g v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s ) which r e f l e c t awareness o f th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f o t h e r s . The c o n v e rse , however, i s not n e c e s s a r i l y t r u e . One cannot i n f e r t h a t t h e r e has been no i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l communication from th e ^ I b i d . A l a c k o f o b s e r v a b l e m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n b e h a v i o r a l r e s p o n s e s . L i s t e n e r s may w ish t o c o n c e a l t h e i r r e a c t i o n s , o r t h e i r r e a c t i o n s may be d e l a y e d . S i g n . — Any o b j e c t o r e v e n t becomes a s i g n when i t i s u sed by an o rg a n ism as a means o f t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f some t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e o b j e c t o r e v e n t i t s e l f . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f becom ing a s i g n i s n o t i n h e r e n t i n t h e o b j e c t o r e v e n t which may become a s i g n ; c h is p o s s i b i l i t y i s i n h e r e n t o n ly i n t h e e x p e r i e n c e t h e o rg a n ism ( s i g n u s e r ) has had w ith s o m e th in g i t p e r c e i v e s i n t h e o b j e c t o r e v e n t . S ig n i s a more i n c l u s i v e te rm th a n s i g n a l o r s y m b o l, b o th o f which i t i n c l u d e s . S i g n a l . — A s i g n a l i s a s i g n which evokes an i n v a r i a b le r e s p o n s e . Most a n im a l com m unication and a l l machine com m unication i s l i m i t e d t o t h e use o f s i g n a l s . S ym bol. — A symbol i s a c o n v e n t i o n a l s i g n t o which an a r b i t r a r y ra n g e o f m eanings has been a s s i g n e d . Words and word c o m b in a tio n s a r e common exam ples o f l i n g u i s t i c sym bols. P rim a ry phonemes (s p e e c h s o u n d s) and s e c o n d a ry phonemes ( v o c a l i n f l e c t i o n s , s t r e s s p a t t e r n s , e t c e t e r a ) a r e common e x a m p l e s . I n d i v i d u a l s p e e c h .--A n i n d i v i d u a l sp e e c h i s a s i n g l e u n i n t e r r u p t e d c o n t r i b u t i o n o f one o f th e c o n f e r e n c e p a r t i c i p a n t s . I f a s p e a k e r i s i n t e r r u p t e d j u s t once w h i l e making 5 a c o n t r i b u t i o n , th e c o n t r i b u t i o n i n c l u d e s two i n d i v i d u a l speeches as d e f in e d h e r e . S i g n i f i c a n c e of th e Problem The s i g n i f i c a n c e of th e problem d e r i v e s c h i e f l y from i t s r e l a t i o n t o th e fu n d am en tal q u e s ti o n of how man com m unicates. As a m a t t e r of i n t e l l e c t u a l c u r i o s i t y , man seek s a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h i m s e l f and o f th e f u n c t i o n s t h a t are u n iq u e ly human. Prom a p r a c t i c a l p o in t o f view, th e problem i s s i g n i f i c a n t in term s of th e demands imposed by a changing so cio -eco n o m ic o r d e r . The co m p lex ity and num b e r of i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s each i n d i v i d u a l must m a in ta in make i t im p e r a tiv e t h a t man improve h i s communica t i o n s k i l l s . In h i s e ssa y " C h a r a c t e r and S o c ie ty " David Riesman d e p i c t s th e emergence o f a new c l a s s o f s o c i e t i e s which he q c a l l s o t h e r - d i r e c t e d t y p e s . This new c l a s s , em erging p r i m a rily in th e c o n s u m e r- o rie n te d i n d u s t r i a l communities o f America, s ta n d s in sh a rp c o n t r a s t to th e t r a d i t i o n - d i r e c t e d and th e i n n e r - d i r e c t e d ty p e s of s o c i e t y which c h a r a c t e r i z e o t h e r s o c i e t i e s p a s t and p r e s e n t . T y p ic a l of t h i s new c l a s s a re th e b u r e a u c r a t s and s a l a r i e d employees in b u s in e s s as opposed to " th e b a n k e r , th e tra d e sm a n , th e s m a ll e n t r e p e - n e u r , th e t e c h n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d e n g i n e e r , e t c . " o f th e q David Riesman, Nathan G la z e r , and Reuel Denney, The Lonely Crowd (New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1950), p p . 6-31. 6 i n n e r - d i r e c t e d t y p e s and t h e p a t r i a r c h and t r i b a l l e a d e r o f 2 i t r a d i t i o n - d i r e c t e d t y p e s o f s o c i e t y . The d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s o f o t h e r - d i r e c t e d t y p e s o f s o c i e t i e s a r e t h a t man must a d a p t h i m s e l f t o h i s a s s o c i a t e s , g o a l s a r e s e t i n te r m s o f g ro u p a c h i e v e m e n t , and t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s e v a l u a t e d i n te r m s o f how e f f e c t i v e l y he works w i t h o t h e r s . I n t e r d e p e n d e n c e r e p l a c e s i n d e p e n d e n c e , t h u s i n c r e a s i n g t h e number and c o m p l e x i t y o f m an’ s i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The a u t h o r s o f D i s c u s s i o n i n Human A f f a i r s a p p a r e n t l y had t h e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts i n mind when t h e y w r o t e : The d i s c u s s i o n o f human a f f a i r s i s a u n i v e r s a l e x p e r i e n c e . The r e l a t i o n s o f one p e r s o n t o a n o t h e r , o f one group t o a n o t h e r , and o f i n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s t o t h e i r e n v ir o n m e n t g i v e r i s e t o t h e c o u n t l e s s m a t t e r s w hich p e o p l e d i s c u s s . The form and s u b s t a n c e o f t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s d e t e r m i n e i n much l a r g e r m e a su re t h a n i s commonly r e a l i z e d t h e k i n d o f p e o p l e we a r e and t h e k i n d o f s o c i e t y i n w h ich we l i v e . 5 ( I t a l i c s m i n e .) I f R ie s m a n ’ s a n a l y s i s i s so u n d , d i s c u s s i o n i n g e n e r a l and p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g d i s c u s s i o n i n p a r t i c u l a r w i l l p l a y an even more v i t a l r o l e i n t h e f u t u r e t h a n t h e y do t o d a y . What makes h i s arg u m en t p e r s u a s i v e i s t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p he e s t a b l i s h e s b e tw e e n s o c io - e c o n o m i c demands and c h a r a c t e r d e v e lo p m e n t; and what i s d i s t u r b i n g t o communica t i o n t h e o r i s t s i s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e n o t a t a l l 2 1 I b i d . , p. 21. 5 James H. McBurney and K enneth G. H an ce, D i s c u s s i o n i n Human A f f a i r s (New York: H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s , 1 9 5 0 ) , p . 3. c e r t a i n how t h e m e c h a n ic s o f d i s c u s s i o n must be a d j u s t e d i n o r d e r t o h a n d l e t h e i n c r e a s e d l o a d . T h e re i s to o much t r u t h i n an o ld q u ip t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t we know j u s t t h r e e t h i n g s a b o u t d i s c u s s i o n : t h a t i t b e g i n s w i t h a p r o b le m , ends w i t h some t e n t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s , and i n b e tw e e n t h e s e two a n y t h i n g can h a p p e n . I . A, R i c h a r d s a s s e r t e d b l u n t l y , "When p e o p l e t a l k w i t h e ach o t h e r m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s t h e r u l e and u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a happy a c c i d e n t . " ^ W hile i t was g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t d i s c u s s i o n p l a y e d a v i t a l r o l e i n t h e d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s and t h a t d i s c u s s i o n n o r m a lly p r e c e d e d l e g i s l a t i v e and j u d i c i a l d e b a t e , r h e t o r i c i a n s and s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s gave l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g d i s c u s s i o n u n t i l t h e se c o n d q u a r t e r o f t h e T w e n t i e t h C e n tu r y . S c i e n t i f i c e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n p r o c e s s was i n i t i a t e d by e x p e r i m e n t a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 's when d i s c u s s i o n was t a k e n t o t h e l a b o r a t o r y f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Only f o r t y - t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s were 7 r e p o r t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e b e tw e e n 1924 and 1946. By 1955, h o w e v e r, R i c h a r d S n y d er was a b l e t o r e p o r t : " R e s e a r c h on d i s c u s s i o n m ethods h a s , i n t h e l a s t few y e a r s , come i n t o i t s own w i t h a v i r t u a l f l o o d o f s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n t h e s o c i a l g I . A. R i c h a r d s as q u o t e d by Andrew T. Weaver i n "Toward U n d e r s t a n d i n g T h rough S p e e c h ," V i t a l S p e e c h e s o f t h e D ay , XXVII ( F e b r u a r y 1, 1 9 6 1 ) , 245. M il t o n D ick en s and M a r g u e r i t e H e f f e r n a n , " E x p e r i m e n t a l R e s e a r c h i n Group D i s c u s s i o n , " The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XXV ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 4 9 ) , 23. 8 Q s c i e n c e l i t e r a t u r e . " I n e ach o f t h e s e r e p o r t s , w a r n in g s were so u n d ed con c e r n i n g t h e d a n g e r s i n h e r e n t i n r e l y i n g e x c l u s i v e l y on l a b o r a t o r y bound s t u d i e s . D ic k e n s and H e f f e r n a n , f o r e x a m p le , d i s c o v e r e d t h a t " n i n e t y - o d d p e r c e n t o f t h e more t h a n t e n t h o u s a n d p a r t i c i p a n t s were e i t h e r c o l l e g e o r h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . " They r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n , "How v a l i d and r e l i a b l e a r e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d w ith s t u d e n t g ro u p s ( u s u a l l y i n c l a s s r o o m s i t u a t i o n s ) as a p p l i e d t o n o n - s t u d e n t g ro u p s i n Q n o n - s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n s ? " S n y d e r , i n h i s s p e e c h b e f o r e t h e Speech A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m erica, u n d e r s c o r e d t h i s c o n c e rn when he s a i d : I t h i n k i t i m p o r t a n t t o p o i n t o u t t h a t a t t e m p t s t o a p p ly th e f i n d i n g s o f r e c e n t s t u d i e s t o t h e s o l u t i o n o f a c t u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p ro b le m s have f r e q u e n t l y met w ith l e s s t h a n c o m p le te s u c c e s s and have o c c a s i o n a l l y b een a lm o s t l u d i c r o u s l y i n e f f e c t i v e . . . . P e rh a p s p a r t o f t h e d i f f i c u l t y h as a r i s e n b e c a u s e so much o f t h e r e s e a r c h on t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f d i s c u s s i o n g r o u p s , on p r o blem s o l v i n g , and so o n, h a s b een c a r r i e d out w ith g ro u p s w hich have e x i s t e d m a in ly f o r t h e p u rp o s e o f t h e r e s e a r c h and have had o n ly p e r i p h e r a l and u n i m p o r t a n t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o u t s i d e t h e r e s e a r c h s i t u a t i o n .10 W hile S n y d e r ’ s re m a rk s p o i n t up p ro b le m s i n t h e a r e a O R ic h a r d S n y d e r , "P ro b lem s and P o s s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e Use o f D i s c u s s i o n f o r O r g a n i z a t i o n a l D e c i s i o n M ak in g ," A P a p e r r e a d a t t h e N a t i o n a l C o n v e n tio n o f The Speech A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m erica a t Los A n g e l e s , C a l i f o r n i a , December 2 9, 1955 ( P o r t O r d , C a l i f o r n i a : Human R e s e a r c h U n it No. 2 , 1 9 5 5 ) , p. 3. (M im eo g rap h ed .) 9 i D ick en s and H e f f e r n a n , o p . c i t . , p. 24. ■ ^ S n y d e r, o p . c i t . , pp. 3 -4 . 9 o f m e th o d o lo g y , more r e c e n t a p p r a i s a l s p o i n t t o t h e n eed f o r t h e o r y o r i e n t e d r e s e a r c h , t h e n eed t o q u e s t i o n t h e assum p t i o n s on which c u r r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s a r e b a s e d . Dean C. B a r n lu n d , who i s b e s t known f o r h i s work i n d i s c u s s i o n , d i r e c t e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h e b a s i c p ro b le m o f communica t i o n t h o e r y when he w ro te i n 1 9 6 2 , ’’While t h e r e i s a lm o st u n i v e r s a l ag re e m e n t t h a t com m unication i s t i e d t o t h e m anip u l a t i o n o f sy m b o ls, t h e r e i s w i d e s p r e a d d i s a g r e e m e n t as t o what c o n s t i t u t e s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n t h i s b e h a v i o r . ” 11 Leo 0. T h a y e r , i n an e x t e n s i v e a r t i c l e i n t h e December 1963 i s s u e o f The J o u r n a l o f C o m m u n icatio n , d i s c u s s e d what he c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e most common m is c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e com m unication p r o c e s s . He l i s t e d t e n c o n c e p t u a l p ro b le m s which he c h a r a c t e r i z e d as " b a s i c o b s t a c l e s to t h e d ev elo p m en t o f an e f f i c a c i o u s and v i a b l e t h e o r y o f com- 12 m u n i c a t i o n . " In t h i s a n a l y s i s he p o i n t e d up t h e need t o q u e s t i o n t h e b a s i c a s s u m p tio n which " f u n c t i o n t o d e te r m in e how and what we a r e g o in g t o lo o k f o r , " and h i s f i r s t e x ample was " t h e assu m p tio n s t h a t com m unication i s a t h i n g s u i g e n e r i s w hich can be s t u d i e d and d e a l t w ith a p a r t from 13 human b e h a v i o r . " 11Dean C. B a r n lu n d , "Toward a M e a n in g -C e n te re d P h ilo s o p h y o f C o m m u n icatio n ," The J o u r n a l o f C o m m u n icatio n ," X II (Decem ber, 1 9 6 2 ), 198. 12 Lee 0. T h a y e r, "On T h e o r y - B u i l d i n g i n Communica t i o n : Some C o n c e p tu a l P r o b le m s ," The J o u r n a l o f Communica t i o n , X I I I (December, 1 9 6 3 )* 21 7 -2 3 5 . 13I b i d . , pp. 2 19-220. 10 Contem porary s c h o l a r s a re g e n e r a l l y a g re e d t h a t messages do n o t c a r r y a s p e a k e r ' s meaning to h i s l i s t e n e r ; th e y h o ld i n s t e a d t h a t meaning i s somehow g e n e r a t e d in th e mind o f t h e l i s t e n e r . J u s t how an i d e a i s g e n e r a t e d , i n duced or c r e a t e d i n th e mind o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n has n o t y e t been d e m o n s tr a te d . Nor has i t been shown how th e symbols and s i g n a l s s h o u ld be m a n ip u la te d t o e n s u re e f f e c t i v e o r a l com m unication. I t i s assumed by some t h a t i n d i v i d u a l b e h a v i o r i s d i r e c t e d th ro u g h an i n t e r n a l com m unication sy stem u t i l i z i n g symbol and s i g n a l system s s i m i l a r , i f n o t i d e n t i c a l , to th o s e employed in p e r s o n - t o - p e r s o n com m unication. The q u e s t i o n o f how t h e s e system s a re r e l a t e d o r w h e th e r one i s an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e o t h e r i s a m a t t e r o f g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t . R e c o g n itio n o f th e im p o rta n c e o f d i s c u s s i o n i s ap p a r e n t from both th e i n c r e a s e in r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t y and th e number of c r i t i c a l a r t i c l e s in th e l i t e r a t u r e a t t e m p t i n g to guide r e s e a r c h e r s i n t o more v i t a l a r e a s . The needs r e v e a l e d by th o s e and o t h e r c r i t i c a l a p p r a i s a l s o f th e r e s e a r c h e f f o r t c e n t e r e d i n th e a r e a s o f (1) m eth o d o lo g y , t h e need to b ro a d e n t h e r e s e a r c h b ase to encompass group f u n c t i o n i n g in a n a t u r a l en v iro n m e n t and th u s a c h ie v e g r e a t e r v a l i d i t y , and (2) t h e o r y , th e need t o q u e s t i o n o u r most b a s i c a s s u m p tio n s . The p r e s e n t e x p e rim e n t was an e f f o r t t o make a c o n t r i b u t i o n i n b o th a r e a s by f i n d i n g and v a l i d a t i n g a means o f s tu d y i n g group p r o b le m - s o lv i n g i n t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t i n which th e 11 problems d e v e lo p , by t e s t i n g th e a b i l i t y o f o b s e r v e r s to d i s t i n g u i s h i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l communi c a t i o n , and by p r o v i d i n g some e v id e n c e of th e i n f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f a d i s c u s s i o n t r a n s c r i p t . Thus t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e problem can be s t a t e d in term s o f r e l e v a n c e to contem porary e x p e r i m e n t a l method o lo g y , t o c u r r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e r n s , and t o e v a l u a t i o n o f th e t r a n s c r i p t o f th e o r a l message f o r use i n communica t i o n r e s e a r c h . Relevance t o Contemporary E x p e rim e n ta l Methodology F u r t h e r s i g n i f i c a n c e of th e problem i s t h a t i t h e lp s f i l l a gap in r e s e a r c h methodology by i n t r o d u c i n g r e a l l i f e p r o b le m - s o lv in g d i s c u s s i o n as th e m a t e r i a l t o be s t u d i e d . I n s o f a r as th e p r e s e n t w r i t e r has been a b le t o d e te r m in e , t h i s stu d y i s unique i n t h a t th e d i s c u s s i o n c o n t e n t u t i l i z e d was ta k e n from an o n - t h e - j o b p r o b le m - s o lv in g c o n fe re n c e of men o f s u p e r v i s o r y ran k i n an e s t a b l i s h e d b u s i n e s s or i n d u s t r y . Since t h e d i s c u s s a n t s were d e a l i n g w ith t h e i r p ro b lem in th e c o n te x t and environm ent in which i t d e v e lo p e d , many o f th e common q u e s t i o n s o f v a l i d i t y do n o t a r i s e . There was no q u e s t i o n as t o w h e th e r th e p a r t i c i p a n t s were r e a l l y concerned about f i n d i n g an answer t o th e p roblem , w h eth er th e y would have behaved d i f f e r e n t l y i f t h e y had known th e y would be com m itted t o t h e r e s u l t s o f th e 12 c o n fe re n c e a f t e r w a r d s , or w h e th e r aw areness o f o n - t h e - j o b s t a t u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s would have caused them t o behave d i f f e r e n t l y . These q u e s ti o n s are only r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e many t h a t may be r a i s e d w ith r e f e r e n c e t o a p r o b le m - s o lv in g d i s c u s s i o n h e ld s o l e l y f o r p u rp o se s o f t h e s tu d y . Relevance to C urrent T h e o r e t i c a l Concerns As s t a t e d e a r l i e r , p r a c t i c a l q u e s ti o n s such as t h a t of how p r o b le m - s o lv in g d i s c u s s i o n d i f f e r s e s s e n t i a l l y from d i s c u s s i o n employed f o r i n s t r u c t i o n a l p u rp o ses le d to more t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . I f d i s c u s s i o n "em phasizes th e lM s e a r c h f o r t r u t h " and r h e t o r i c i s " th e f a c u l t y o f o b s e rv - 15 in g in any g iv en case th e a v a i l a b l e means o f p e r s u a s i o n , " i s r h e t o r i c in any way u s e f u l in th e t r a i n i n g of d i s c u s s a n t s ? I f advocacy i s s e l e c t i v e com m unication, as im p lie d i n " a v a i l a b l e means o f p e r s u a s i o n , " and d i s c u s s i o n i s com p l e t e or open com m unication, as im p lie d in " th e s e a rc h fo r t r u t h " c o n c e p t, are b r i e f b u r s t s of advocacy d e t r i m e n t a l to th e p r o b le m - s o lv in g d i s c u s s i o n ? Do t e c h n i q u e s such as b r a i n s t o r m i n g , r o l e p l a y i n g , o r n o n d i r e c t i v e c o u n s e lin g em body p r i n c i p l e s which could be a p p l i e d more c o n s i s t e n t l y in group p r o b le m -s o lv in g ? 14 Alan N i c h o l s , D is c u s s io n and Debate (New York: H a r c o u r t , Brace and Company, 1 9 ^ 1 ), p^ ■ ^ A r i s t o t l e R h e t o r i c a i . 2. 1355°• 2 6 -2 7 , from The Works o f A r i s t o t l e , ecH W T DT R oss, t r a n s . W. Rhys R o b erts ( O x fo rd : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 ^ 6 ), XI. 13 In s e a r c h i n g th e l i t e r a t u r e f o r th e answers t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s , t h e r e was f r e q u e n t l y a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f v a r io u s t y p e s and d e g re e s o f l e a d e r s h i p w ith o u t b e n e f i t o f a c l e a r l y d e f in e d con cep t o f th e n a t u r e of t h e p r o c e s s th ro u g h which th e p a r t i c i p a n t s must be l e d . D i f f e r e n c e s of o p in io n on th e r o l e o f l e a d e r s h i p seemed t o a r i s e from q u i t e d i f f e r e n t a s s u m p tio n s — not about what was wanted from th e p a r t i c i p a n t s but about how p a r t i c i p a n t s must f u n c t i o n to produce what was wanted of them. U l t i m a t e l y two b a s i c q u e s ti o n s emerged: (1) How does one g e n e r a t e , i n d i v i d u a l l y o r c o o p e r a t i v e l y , th e id e a s t o be communicated t o o t h e r s ? and (2) What are th e e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts in communication b e h a v io r? Assuming t h a t c r e a t i v e p ro b le m - s o lv in g d i s c u s s i o n in v o lv e s b o th i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication, i t should be h e l p f u l to g a in a b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d in g of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of th e s e two k in d s o f communication. One phase of a stu d y o f " i n t e r - a c t i v e t h i n k i n g " r e p o r t e d by F r e d e r i c k B. Bowman i n 1957 r e v e a l e d ev id e n c e r e l e v a n t t o th e r e l a t i o n o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l communication 16 t o i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication. In an e f f o r t to develop low l e v e l i n t e r a c t i v e d i s c u s s i o n c o n te n t f o r use in ■ ^ F re d e ric k B. Bowman, "An E x p e rim e n ta l Study t o Determine th e Amount o f I n t e r - a c t i v e T h in k in g D isp la y e d in a P ro b le m -S o lv in g Group D is c u s s io n " ( u n p u b lis h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g eles, 1957), pp. 37-^0. 14 h i s e x p e r i m e n t , Bowman had h i s d i s c u s s a n t s w ear e a r p lu g s d u r i n g one p h a se o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n . The o b j e c t was t o p r e v e n t t h e d i s c u s s a n t s from h e a r i n g one a n o t h e r , t h u s m in im iz in g i n t e r a c t i v e t h i n k i n g . A f t e r s e c u r i n g d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s r e p r e s e n t i n g h i g h , medium, and low l e v e l s o f i n t e r a c t i v e t h i n k i n g , Bowman t y p e d e ach i n d i v i d u a l sp eech on a s e p a r a t e c a r d , s h u f f l e d each o f th e t h r e e s e t s o f c a r d s , and a s k e d h i s ju d g e s t o r e s t o r e each s e t o f s p e e c h e s t o th e o r i g i n a l o r d e r . The s u c c e s s o f t h e ju d g e s v a r i e d d i r e c t l y w ith t h e d e g r e e of i n t e r a c t i v e t h i n k i n g r e p r e s e n t e d by earch o f t h e t h r e e e x c e r p t s . While t h e ju d g e s were a b l e t o r e s t o r e most o f t h e c a r d s from t h e h i g h l e v e l i n t e r a c t i v e t h i n k i n g e x c e r p t t o t h e o r i g i n a l o r d e r , t h e i r s u c c e s s w ith t h o s e from t h e e x c e r p t p ro d u c e d by t h e e a r p lu g t e c h n i q u e was n e g l i g i b l e ; l e s s t h a n e i g h t p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n s e s were c o r r e c t . A lth o u g h th e Bowman^experiment was n o t d e s ig n e d to t e s t f o r a p o s s i b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l c o m m u n ic a tio n , i t d i d r e v e a l a d i f f e r ence i n c o n t i n u i t y o f t h o u g h t . C o n s i d e r i n g h i s h i g h l e v e l i n t e r a c t i v e t h i n k i n g e x c e r p t as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f i n t e r i n d i v i d u a l com m unication and t h e low l e v e l i n t e r a c t i v e t h i n k i n g e x c e r p t p ro d u c e d by t h e e a r p lu g t e c h n i q u e as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f o n ly i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l c o m m u n ic a tio n , t h e s e r e s u l t s show t h a t u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s t h e two t y p e s o f d i s c u s s i o n c o n t e n t can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d on t h e b a s i s of 15 c lu e s t o c o n t i n u i t y and d i s c o n t i n u i t y in th e t r a n s c r i p t o f th e o r a l m essages. The d i s c u s s i o n s i t u a t i o n h e re i s s i m i l a r t o one i n which each d i s c u s s a n t i s e a g e r to p r e s e n t h i s own id e a s but u n w i l l i n g t o l i s t e n t o th o s e o f o t h e r s . A t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s t i o n s a r o s e , t h e n , as t o w h eth er th e c o n t i n u i t y in u n i n t e r r u p t e d i n d i v i d u a l id e a development would be s u f f i c i e n t l y d i f f e r e n t from th e c o n t i n u i t y e x h ib i t e d in group id e a development t o e n a b le ju d g e s t o d i s t i n g u ish them. Assuming t h a t the d i s t i n c t i o n co u ld be made and t h a t l i n g u i s t i c c lu e s co u ld be i d e n t i f i e d , i t sh o u ld th e n be p o s s i b l e to d e s c r i b e more f u l l y th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l communication. Any p r o g r e s s in t h i s d i r e c t i o n would be a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o ward a f ir m e r fo u n d a tio n in f a c t on which to b u i l d a th e o r y o f com munication. I t was f o r t h i s re a so n th e p r e s e n t stu d y was planned as an e x t e n s i o n o f th e Bowman s tu d y . Relevance to th e Value o f th e T r a n s c r i p t o f th e O ral Message in Communication R esearch The s i g n i f i c a n c e of th e problem d e r i v e s i n p a r t from th e f a c t t h a t th e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t r e v e a l e d e v id e n c e of th e i n f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f a t r a n s c r i p t i o n . T his s u g g e s ts a n o th e r approach to th e s tu d y o f th e m essage-m eaning r e l a t i o n s h i p which might be o f i n t e r e s t t o th o s e p r e s e n t l y d is s u a d e d from f u r t h e r a t t e m p t s t o apply Shannon's m athe m a t i c a l f o r m u l a i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y ) t o v e r b a l 16 17 communication. By u s in g an e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y , i t might be p o s s i b l e t o p r o v id e o b s e r v e r s w ith e x c e r p t s which le a d up t o th e p o i n t s where d e c i s i o n s a r e made and th e n t e s t t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p r e d i c t th e a c t i o n s ta k e n by th e group. The c u m u la tiv e r e s u l t s o f such a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s i n c l u d i n g th e p r e s e n t s tu d y would have im p o rta n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r c o n te n t a n a l y s i s . In l i g h t o f th e c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t in f i e l d s t u d i e s , th e use o f a d i s c u s s i o n t r a n s c r i p t has many a d v a n ta g e s . The r e c o r d i n g te c h n iq u e i s r e l a t i v e l y u n o b t r u s i v e , in e x p e n s i v e , and a d a p ta b le t o most ? ir c u m s ta n c e s . The t r a n s c r i p t i o n i s perm an en t; once i t i s made, i t may be s u b j e c t e d to r e p e a t e d t e s t s over a long p e r i o d o f tim e . Summary and Preview of Remaining C h ap ters In t h i s c h a p t e r th e a u th o r has r e l a t e d how th e r e s e a r c h problem d ev elo p ed from h i s study and e x p e r ie n c e in group d i s c u s s i o n , s t a t e d th e p ro b le m , i n d i c a t e d th e s i g n i f i cance of th e problem in term s o f i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e developm ent of e x p e r im e n ta l r e s e a r c h in group d i s c u s s i o n and t o c u r r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l p ro b le m s, and d e f i n e d th e term s 17 C. E. Shannon, "A M ath e m a tica l Theory o f Communi c a t i o n , " B e l l System T e c h n ic a l J o u r n a l , XXVII ( J u l y , 1948), 379-423; ( O c t o b e r , 1948) , 623-656 ; a l s o C. E. Shannon and Warren Weaver, The M a th e m a tic a l Theory of Communication (Urbana: The U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s P r e s s , 1949). 17 u sed in a s p e c i a l o r r e s t r i c t e d s e n s e . A r e v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h i s pro b le m and from which t h e a u t h o r d e v e lo p e d most of t h e c o n c e p t s u t i l i z e d i n t h i s e x p e rim e n t w i l l be p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p te r I I . The s u b j e c t s , m a t e r i a l s , and e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p te r I I I . The p r e s e n t a t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a from t h e e x p e r im e n t w i l l be p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p te r IV. C h a p te r V w i l l i n c l u d e th e summary, c o n c l u s i o n s , and recom m e n d a tio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h . CHAPTER I I REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE As a l r e a d y n o t e d , r e s e a r c h in group d i s c u s s i o n came i n t o prom inence i n th e decade f o ll o w i n g World War I I . A b r i e f su rv ey o f te x tb o o k s and j o u r n a l s i n d i c a t e d t h e same was t r u e of d i s c u s s i o n l i t e r a t u r e in g e n e r a l . N i c h o l s ' D is c u s s io n and D e b a t e , p u b l i s h e d i n 1941, f e a t u r e d an anno t a t e d b i b l i o g r a p h y l i s t i n g 162 t i t l e s o f which only f i f t e e n made r e f e r e n c e to e i t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o r c o n f e r e n c e . By 1954, how ever, a marked change in te x tb o o k o r i e n t a t i o n was e v i d e n t . The b i b l i o g r a p h y i n D is c u s s io n and C onference by S a t t l e r and M i l l e r , p u b l i s h e d i n t h a t y e a r , l i s t e d s i x t y - f o u r t i t l e s w ith s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o d i s c u s s i o n , a l l b u t f i v e of which had been p u b l i s h e d s in c e 1941.2 In The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l of Speech from 1915 t o 19 39, only f i v e t i t l e s i n c l u d e d a r e f e r e n c e to d i s c u s s i o n as compared t o e i g h t y - f i v e on d e b a t e . S in ce 19 39 th e r a t i o has been -kAlan N i c h o l s , D i s c u s s i o n and Debate (New York: H a r c o u r t , Brace and Company” , 194l) , p p . 551-562. 2W illiam M. S a t t l e r and N. Edd M i l l e r , P i s c u s s i o n and C onference (Edgewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1954), pp. 311-318. 18 19 s l i g h t l y i n f a v o r o f d i s c u s s i o n . 3 D u rin g t h i s p e r i o d i n w hich d i s c u s s i o n was g a i n i n g a c a d e m ic s t a t u s , t h e r e was a c o r r e s p o n d i n g e x t e n s i o n i n e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s i n th e b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s . T hese two a r e a s o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e were r e v ie w e d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o th e p r e s e n t s t u d y . L i t e r a t u r e on R e s e a r c h i n D i s c u s s i o n E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h i n group d i s c u s s i o n was i n a u g u r a t e d i n th e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 ’s by p s y c h o l o g i s t s s e e k i n g t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f g ro u p and i n d i v i d u a l m ethods o f p ro b le m s o l v i n g . Concern f o r t h e r o l e o f d i s c u s s i o n soon l e d t o e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t i n g of t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f d i s c u s s i o n and t h e l e c t u r e as methods of i n s t r u c t i o n . By th e m i d - 1 9 4 0 ' s , s p e e c h s c i e n t i s t s were c h a l l e n g i n g p s y c h o l o g i s t s f o r t h e dom inant r o l e i n e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e d i s c u s s i o n p r o c e s s as t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r s f o c u s e d t h e i r i n q u i r i e s on i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s and t h e i r i n v e n t i v e t a l e n t s on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f new t e c h n i q u e s and m e a s u r in g i n s t r u m e n t s . ^ I f any one i n t e r e s t h as d o m in a te d d i s c u s s i o n r e s e a r c h s i n c e t h e m i d - 1 9 4 0 ’s , i t w ould be t h e i n t e r e s t i n 3T a b le o f C o n te n ts o f Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S peech 1915-1964 (New York: S peech A s s o c i a t i o n o f A m erica, 1 9 6 5 ), pp~! 3 -4 3 . 2 4 M il t o n D ick en s and M a r g u e r i t e H e f f e r n a n , " E x p e r i m e n t a l R e s e a r c h i n Group D i s c u s s i o n , " The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XXXV ( F e b r u a r y , 19 4 9 ), pp. 2 3 -2 4 , 2 7 -2 8 . 20 i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , i n c l u d i n g th e e f f e c t s o f v a r io u s t y p e s o f group l e a d e r s h i p . K urt L e w in 's work h as had a marked i n f l u e n c e in th e two a r e a s w i t h which th e p r e s e n t s tu d y was c o n c e r n e d , r e s e a r c h m ethodology and com m unication t h e o r y . Lewin and F i e l d Theory Assuming th e d i r e c t o r s h i p of th e newly formed Re s e a r c h C e n te r f o r Group Dynamics a t The M a s s a c h u s e t t s I n s t i t u t e o f Technology i n 19^5 gave Lewin an o p p o r t u n i t y t o c o n c e n t r a t e h i s e n e r g i e s on t h e o r y - b u i l d i n g u n t i l h i s d e a th i n 19^7- John Mogey, w r i t i n g f o r E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , c r e d i t e d Lewin w i t h t r a n s f o r m i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g a b o u t man i n s o c i e t y . He s t a t e d : Lewin e x c e l l e d i n th e i m a g i n a t i v e p l a n n i n g o f e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n s by which t h e o r e t i c a l i n t u i t i o n s a b o u t s o c i a l u n r e s t co u ld be t e s t e d . His work, and t h a t o f h i s s t u d e n t s , opened one i m p o r t a n t ap p ro a c h [ f i e l d t h e o r y ] t o th e s tu d y o f s o c i a l g r o u p s . 5 Some i n s i g h t i n t o L e w in 's co n cep t o f t h e r o l e o f a s c i e n t i s t seemed a p p a r e n t t o t h i s w r i t e r i n h i s t r i b u t e to th e p h i l o s o p h e r , E r n s t C a s s i r e r , whom he f r e q u e n t l y q u o te d i n h i s own w o r k s : He [ C a s s i r e r ] d i s c l o s e s th e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r o f s c i e n c e as th e e t e r n a l a t t e m p t t o go beyond what i s r e g a r d e d as s c i e n t i f i c a l l y a c c e s s i b l e a t any s p e c i f i c t i m e . To p r o c e e d beyond th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f a g i v e n l e v e l o f know ledge t h e r e s e a r c h e r , as a r u l e , has to b r e a k down m e t h o d o l o g i c a l ta b o o s w hich condemn as 5jo h n Mogey, "K urt L e w in ," E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a (1966 e d i t i o n ) , X I I I , 1007- 21 " u n s c i e n t i f i c " o r " i l l o g i c a l " th e v ery methods o r con c e p ts which l a t e r on prove t o be b a s i c f o r t h e n e x t m a jo r p r o g r e s s . 6 L e w in 's f i e l d th e o r y embodied s o m e th in g more t h a n a t h e o r y i n th e u s u a l s e n s e o f a g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e or h y p o t h e s i s s u b j e c t t o v e r i f i c a t i o n ; i t r e p r e s e n t e d a s t i l l h i g h e r o r d e r o f a b s t r a c t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h th e n a t u r e o f th e c o n d i t i o n s o f s o c i a l change. In L e w in ’s own w o rd s, " F i e l d t h e o r y i s p r o b a b ly b e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a m ethod: n am ely , a method o f a n a l y z i n g c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s and o f b u i l d i n g s c i e n t i f i c c o n s t r u c t s ." 7 From t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n t o r e s e a r c h , two methods o r v a r i a t i o n s d e v e lo p e d w hich have come t o be c a l l e d f i e l d s t u d i e s and f i e l d e x p e r i m e n t s . C o n c e rn in g f i e l d s t u d i e s , D a n i e l Katz s t a t e d : [ F i e l d s t u d i e s ] a re b r e a k i n g down th e n arro w w a l l s of th e t r a d i t i o n a l e x p e r i m e n t a l l a b o r a t o r y i n th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a r e s e a r c h ap p ro a c h t o complex problem s o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The e f f e c t i s t w o f o ld : (1) o u r s c i e n t i f i c knowledge i s I n c r e a s i n g as a r e s u l t o f th e d i r e c t s tu d y o f f i e l d s i t u a t i o n s and (2) th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l a b o r a t o r y i s b e g i n n i n g t o i n c l u d e i n i t s e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n s o c i a l and group v a r i a b l e s . I n b u i l d i n g a s c i e n c e o f s o c i a l p sy c h o lo g y i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o t a k e a d v a n ta g e o f th e d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s i n which our phenomena o c c u r and o f a p p ro a c h e s which u t i l i z e t h e p a r t i c u l a r a d v a n ta g e s o f a g iv e n s e t t i n g . The f i e l d s tu d y i s un iq u e i n e n a b l i n g us t o o b s e rv e and m easure s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s in t h e i r n a t u r a l o c c u r r e n c e . ^Kurt Lewin, F i e l d Theory i n S o c i a l S c i e n c e : Se l e c te d T h e o r e t i c a l P a p e r s , ed. Dorwin C a r t w r i g h t ("New York: H a rp e r and Row, 195l ) , p. xv. 7I b i d . , p. 45. ^ D a n ie l K a tz , " F i e l d S t u d i e s , " R e s e a rc h Methods i n th e B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s , ed . Leon F e s t i n g e r and D a n i e l K atz (Hew York: Ho]t, R i n e h a r t and W in sto n , 1 9 5 3 ), pp. 56, 94. 22 The developm ent o f f i e l d e x p e r im e n ts seems t o have come i n r e s p o n s e to Lewin ’ s p l e a when he w ro te i n 19^3-' We s h a l l have a l s o to d e v e lo p r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s t h a t w i l l p e r m i t us t o do r e a l e x p e r im e n ts w i t h i n e x i s t in g " n a t u r a l " s o c i a l g r o u p s . In my o p i n i o n , th e p r a c t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l im p o rta n c e o f t h e s e ty p e s o f e x p e r i ments i s o f t h e f i r s t m a g n i t u d e . 9 In e x p l a i n i n g th e a d v a n ta g e s o f th e f i e l d e x p e r i m ent, F ren ch c o n t r a s t e d t h e a r t i f i c i a l s i t u a t i o n i n th e l a b o r a t o r y w ith th e n a t u r a l s o c i a l s e t t i n g t h u s : One m eaning o f " a r t i f i c i a l " as a p p l i e d t o th e b e h a v i o r o f p e o p le in th e l a b o r a t o r y seems t o be t h a t t h e i r b e h a v i o r i s d e te rm in e d by t h e i r r o l e o f b e i n g a s u b j e c t , t h a t th e y would n o t a c t th e same way i f they were n o t in t h i s r o l e . . . . [ I n a d d i t i o n , ] th e b e h a v i o r o f s u b j e c t s i n a l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r im e n t i s h i g h l y r e s t r i c t e d by th e r u l e s and p r o c e d u r e s i n s t i t u t e d in o r d e r t o c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n s ; f r e q u e n t l y , t h i s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i n v o l v e s th e c r e a t i o n o f new gro u p s which w i l l n o t be i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r p a s t h i s t o r y o r t h e i r p r e s e n t s o c i a l s e t t i n g . The laws which h o ld f o r such r e s t r i c t e d s i t u a t i o n s may n o t ap p ly w i th o u t changes t o th e more com p l e x s e t t i n g s o f r e a l l i f e . U s u a lly a f i e l d e x p e rim e n t i s n o t s u b j e c t t o such a r t i f i c i a l i t y and th u s av o id s t h i s problem of g e n e r a l i z i n g t o r e a l - l i f e situ a tio n s.-* -^ In " F r o n t i e r s of Group D ynamics," Lewin (19^7) o u t l i n e d h i s a p p ro ach t o th e s tu d y o f group b e h a v i o r and r e l a t e d i t to h i s f i e l d t h e o r y p r e s e n t e d i n e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s . One o f h i s s t r o n g e s t c o n v i c t i o n s seemed t o be t h a t the s o c i a l s c i e n c e s would have t o fo llo w e s s e n t i a l l y th e same p a t h th e n a t u r a l s c i e n t i s t s had t r a v e l e d i n t h e o r y - b u i l d i n g . ^Lewin, o p . c i t . , pp. 16M-165. 10<John R. P. F re n c h , J r . , "E x p e rim e n ts i n F i e l d S e t t i n g s , " R e s e a rc h Methods i n th e B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s , ed. Leon F e s t i n g e r and D a n i e l K atz (New York: H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W in sto n , 1 9 5 3 ), P» 100. 23 He made f r e q u e n t co m p ariso n s b etw een t h e o r e t i c a l d e v e lo p ments i n t h e b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s and t h o s e r e c o r d e d i n th e h i s t o r y o f t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s . E x p l a i n i n g th e r o l e of i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , which he i n c l u d e d among th e s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f th e s o c i a l g r o u p , he w r o te : In th e s o c i a l as i n t h e p h y s i c a l f i e l d t h e s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f a dynamic whole a re d i f f e r e n t from th e s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f s u b - p a r t s . Both s e t s of p r o p e r t i e s have to be i n v e s t i g a t e d . S t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r e l a t i o n s b etw een p a r t s r a t h e r th a n by th e p a r t s o r e l e m ents t h e m s e l v e s . C a s s i r e r em p h a siz e s t h a t th r o u g h o u t th e h i s t o r y o f m a th e m a tic s and p h y s i c s pro b le m s o f c o n s ta n c y o f r e l a t i o n s r a t h e r th a n o f c o n s ta n c y of e l e ments have g a i n e d im p o rta n c e and have g r a d u a l l y changed th e p i c t u r e o f what i s e s s e n t i a l . The s o c i a l s c i e n c e s seem to show a v ery s i m i l a r d e v e l o p m e n t . i l Lewin was e x tr e m e ly c a u t i o u s i n a s s i g n i n g c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A cc o rd in g t o h i s p r i n c i p l e o f co n te m p o r a n e i t y , which i s c e n t r a l t o f i e l d t h e o r y , "Any b e h a v i o r o r any o t h e r change i n a p s y c h o l o g i c a l f i e l d depends only upon th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l f i e l d a t t h a t t i m e . " ! 2 While t h i s i s n o t e q u i v a l e n t t o s a y i n g t h a t b e h a v i o r a t a g iv e n moment can n o t be i n f l u e n c e d by p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s , i t does f o r c e t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o ta k e a c c o u n t o f p o s s i b l e i n t e r v e n i n g f a c t o r s when a t t e m p t i n g t o b r i d g e t h e gap b etw een a g iv e n b e h a v i o r a l s i t u a t i o n and one which p re su m a b ly im m e d ia te ly p r e c e d e d i t . Lewin, o p . c i t . , p. 192. l 2I b i d . , p. -45. 24 Two p r i n c i p l e s from Lew in’ s f i e l d t h e o r y have been m entioned h e re t o show som ething of h i s i n f l u e n c e i n th e two a r e a s w ith which t h i s s tu d y was co n cern ed . F i r s t , he s t r e s s e d th e r o l e of th e r e l a t i o n s betw een th e members or ele m e n ts in d e te r m in in g t h e s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r i t e s o f a group. Second, he i n s i s t e d t h a t b e h a v i o r must be e x p l a i n e d s o l e l y i n term s o f th e f o r c e s e x i s t i n g w i t h i n th e p s y c h o lo g i c a l f i e l d a t th e tim e th e b e h a v i o r a l re s p o n s e i s made. In t h e s e two r e s p e c t s as w e ll as i n h i s i n s i s t e n c e on th e s tu d y o f " r e a l l i f e " s i t u a t i o n s , h i s work a n t i c i p a t e d con tem p o rary r e s e a r c h in group b e h a v i o r . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n by O b serv ers One o f th e e a r l y e x p e rim e n ts u t i l i z i n g o b s e rv e r s and a d i s c u s s i o n t r a n s c r i p t was r e p o r t e d by Eugene F o s t e r 1 ^ i n 1941. The o b j e c t o f t h i s stu d y was to dev elo p a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system f o r use in su b se q u e n t r e s e a r c h . The c r i t e r i a e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system were s t a t e d as f o ll o w s : (1) I t s term s w i l l t r a n s c e n d p a r t i c u l a r t o p i c s . (2) I t s c a t e g o r i e s w i l l be a l l i n c l u s i v e and m u tu a lly e x c l u s i v e . (3) I t s c a t e g o r i e s w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t . (4) I t s use w i l l be s u b j e c t t o check by o t h e r s . (5) I t s use w i l l not be to o l a b o r i o u s . 1 ^ ^ E u g e n e S. F o s t e r , "A C l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r A nalyzing t h e C ontent of I n fo rm a l Group D is c u s s io n " (U npublished M a s t e r ’ s t h e s i s , S y racu se U n i v e r s i t y , S y r a c u s e , New York, 1941). 1^ I b i d . , p. 101. A f t e r s i x r e v i s i o n s , P o s t e r a c h ie v e d what he c o n s id e r e d a s a t i s f a c t o r y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n sy stem . I t p r o v id e d f o r the a ssig n m e n t o f a l l d i s c u s s i o n c o n t e n t t o one of s i x c a t e g o r i e s : (1) m e a n i n g l e s s , (2) i r r e l e v a n t , (3) m echanics of d i s c u s s i o n , (4) f a c t s , (5) o p i n i o n , and (6) n e g a t i v e s t a t e ment. One o f P o s t e r ' s m a jo r co n cern s th ro u g h o u t th e e x p e r im e n t, c o n t i n u i n g ‘long a f t e r o t h e r c r i t e r i a had been m et, was w ith o b s e r v e r a g re e m e n t. He d e v e lo p e d a r u l e o f thumb by which th e combined judgm ents o f t h r e e q u a l i f i e d ju d g e s was c o n s id e r e d a v a l i d r a t i n g . He a c c e p te d unanimous agreem ent above th e s e v e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l p r o v id e d t h e no agreem ent l e v e l c o u ld be h e l d t o f i v e p e r c e n t or l e s s . 1'’ I t seemed to th e p r e s e n t w r i t e r , how ever, t h a t w h e th e r t h i s t e s t of o b s e r v e r r e l i a b i l i t y may be c o n s id e r e d s a t i s f a c t o r y as an o v e r a l l measure of r e l i a b i l i t y would de pend upon th e p u rp o se o f th e p a r t i c u l a r stu d y in which the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n would be employed. I f a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e s h a r e of th e d is a g r e e m e n t happened to f a l l in a c a te g o r y of s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t o th e p a r t i c u l a r i n q u i r y , th e r e s u l t s would be i n v a l i d a t e d . A n o th er ap p ro a c h t o a n a l y s i s by c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was d e v e lo p e d by R o b ert B a le s and r e p o r t e d i n h i s I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e s s A n a l y s i s . 1^ In t h i s sy stem t r a i n e d o b s e r v e r s 1^I b i d . , pp. 89-95- -^ R o b e rt F. B a l e s , I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e s s A n a ly s is (Cam bridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s : A d d iso n -W e sle y , I n c . , 1950), pp. 100-115. 26 c l a s s i f i e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e sp o n s e s in terms of a sequence o f f o u r m ajor c a t e g o r i e s , each of which was d i v id e d i n t o t h r e e sub c a t e g o r i e s . A lthough a p ro c e d u re f o r a c h ie v in g and m a i n t a i n i n g o b s e r v e r agreement was i n c o r p o r a t e d in such a manner as to p ro v id e a c o n tin u in g check, t h e r e was no p r o v i s i o n f o r a check a g a i n s t a c o n s ta n t b i a s among o b s e rv e rs which would rem ain u n d i s c l o s e d in a t e s t of o b s e r v e r a g re e m e n t. A nother of the d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n te r e d i n d e a l i n g b o th q u a l i t a t i v e l y and q u a n t i t a t i v e l y w ith i n t e r a c t i o n phenomena was r e v e a l e d by an a n a l y s i s o f d a t a p r e s e n t e d by B a le s . In r e c o g n i t i o n of q u a l i t a t i v e as w e ll as q u a n t i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s , B ales developed s i x c a r e f u l l y b a la n c e d p a i r s of c a t e g o r i e s w ith each p a i r r e p r e s e n t i n g th e n ega t i v e and p o s i t i v e s id e of an i n t e r a c t i o n concept ( e . g . , " th e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of need" on the n e g a t i v e s id e and "th e a c t of s a t i s f y i n g th e need" on the p o s i t i v e s i d e ) . The two members i n each p a i r (1 -1 2 , 2 -1 1 , 3-10, 4-9, 5 -8 , and 6-7 as shown below) were p la c e d e q u i d i s t a n t from th e neu t r a l o r m id - p o in t on th e s c a l e , w ith t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c a t e g o r i e s d e s c r i b e d b r i e f l y as fo llo w s : 1. Shows s o l i d a r i t y , r a i s e s o t h e r ’s s t a t u s . . . . 2. Shows t e n s i o n r e l e a s e , j o k e s , la u g h s . . . . 3. A g r e e s , shows p a s s i v e a c c e p ta n c e . . . . 4. Gives s u g g e s t i o n , d i r e c t i o n . . . . 5. Gives o p i n i o n , e v a l u a t i o n , a n a l y s i s . . . . 6. Gives o r i e n t a t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n , r e p e a t s . . . . 7- Asks f o r o r i e n t a t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n . . . . 8. Asks f o r o p i n i o n , e v a l u a t i o n , a n a l y s i s . . . . 9. Asks f o r s u g g e s t i o n , d i r e c t i o n . . . . 27 10. D i s a g r e e s , shows p a s s i v e r e j e c t i o n . . . . 11. Shows t e n s i o n , asks f o r h e lp . . . . 12. Shows a n t a g o n i s t , d e f l a t e s o t h e r ' s s t a t u s ^ r : . 1 ' In a p p ly in g B a l e s ' c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , o b s e rv e rs r e corded th e number of o v e r t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f each type of r e a c t i o n . The t o t a l p a t t e r n of r e a c t i o n s f o r a g iv e n d i s c u s s io n p e r i o d was r e p r e s e n t e d q u a l i t a t i v e l y by p o s i t i o n on th e s c a l e and q u a n t i t a t i v e l y by the number of re sp o n s e s a s s i g n e d to each c a t e g o r y . In a t a b l e g i v i n g the r e s u l t s from th e a n a l y s i s o f th r e e d i s c u s s i o n g ro u p s , he r e p o r t e d 26l6 o b s e r v e r r e s p o n s e s . The r a t i o of p o s i t i v e re sp o n s e s ( c a t e g o r i e s 1-6) t o n e g a t i v e re sp o n se s ( c a t e g o r i e s 7-12) was f o u r to one, e x a c t l y 2114 t o 5 0 2 . D is c o v e rin g t h a t o v e rt m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of p o s i t i v e f a c t o r s outnumbered th e o v e r t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of n e g a tiv e f a c t o r s was not s u r p r i s i n g when i t was r e c a l l e d t h a t s o c i e ty has c o n s i s t e n t l y frowned on th o se who complain and r e warded th o s e who a re a g r e e a b l e . The s u r p r i s i n g t h i n g was t h a t i n i n t e r p r e t i n g th e s e d a t a Bales t r e a t e d p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e o v e r t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s as o p p o s ite s of e q u a l i n t e n s i t y in s p i t e o f th e f o u r t o one r a t i o s u s t a i n e d over th r e e f u l l d i s c u s s i o n p e r i o d s . In some of th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of th e d a t a p r e s e n t ed , t h i s concept o f b a la n c e d id n o t seem a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r . I t d i d , however, seem to be c r i t i c a l in the development of 17I b i d . , p. 129• l 8 I b i d . 28 a m a th e m a tic a l e q u a t i o n t-o c a l c u l a t e an "In d e x of D i f f i c u l t y o f C om m unication," an "Index of D i f f i c u l t y of E v a l u a t i o n , " e t c e t e r a . -*-9 B a l e s ' r e a s o n i n g , which u n d e rla y th e d e v e lo p ment of th e s e i n d i c e s and o t h e r s , was s t a t e d as fo llo w s : I f we assume t h a t f o r a g iv e n group under g iv e n c o n d i t i o n s t h e r e i s a k in d of norm al b a la n c e between th e number o f i n t e r a c t i o n s in C ategory 7 ( a s k in g f o r o r i e n t a t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n , e t c . ) and th e number of Category 6 i n t e r a c t i o n s in answer t o th e s e i n d i c a t e d n e e d s , o r i n a n t i c i p a t i o n of th e s e n e e d s , the changes in t h i s r a t i o from p e r i o d to p e r i o d o f i n t e r a c t i o n may i n d i c a t e a f a v o r a b l e or an u n f a v o r a b le im balance f o r any g iv e n p e r i o d . In g e n e r a l we would assume t h a t when r e q u e s t s f o r o r i e n t a t i o n in Category 7 b u i l d up w i th o u t a comparable i n c r e a s e in Category 6 which p r o v id e s the an sw ers, the im balance i s f o r th e moment u n f a v o r a b l e . u When a n a t u r a l b a la n c e was assumed b u t e x p e r ie n c e y i e l d e d 2114 i n s t a n c e s of p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n to be b a la n c e d by 502 i n s t a n c e s of n e g a t i v e r e a c t i o n , i t would seem t h a t the p a r t i c i p a n t s were re sp o n d in g t o many n e g a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n s th e o b s e rv e r s f a i l e d to i d e n t i f y . Perhaps the a n a l y s t s h o u ld have c o n s id e re d the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t w ith o u t s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g th e o b s e rv e r s co u ld not c o n s c io u s ly i d e n t i f y and r e c o r d a l l of the n e g a t i v e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s t o which they would have resp o n d ed as d i s c u s s a n t s . T h is co u ld have been th e r e s u l t of a c o n s i s t e n t or u n i v e r s a l b i a s - among o b s e rv e r s drawn from th e same c u l t u r e . A t e s t of o b s e r v e r agreem ent has been th e prim ary means o f q u a l i f y i n g th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n r e s u l t s in most c o n t e n t a n a l y s e s . When o b s e rv e r agreem ent v a r i e s 19I b i d . , pp. 143-144. 20I b i d . , p. 141. 29 s i g n i f i c a n t l y from p e r f e c t a g re e m e n t, t h e q u e s t i o n o f what l e v e l of o b s e r v e r ag reem en t i s s a t i s f a c t o r y s h o u ld be de t e r m in e d anew f o r each a p p l i c a t i o n d e p en d in g on th e use to be made o f th e r e s u l t s . B e rn a rd B e r e l s o n may have had t h i s problem in mind when he w r o te , "The whole problem o f r e l i a b i l i t y i n c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s has been g iv e n i n s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n f o r th e p r o p e r developm ent of th e f i e l d . " 21 A s tu d y o f r e l i a b i l i t y i n c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s was r e p o r t e d by David S h ep ard i n 1955. A cco rd in g t o S h e p a rd , "a r e l i a b i l i t y check b e d e v i l s th e a n a l y s t i n two ways. F i r s t , how many c o d ers a re n e c e s s a r y ? Second, when do th e p p s c o r e s i n d i c a t e r e l i a b i l i t y ? " Ke r e p o r t e d t h a t most a n a l y s t s c o n s id e r e d unanimous agreem ent a t th e s e v e n ty to e i g h t y p e r c e n t l e v e l as s a t i s f a c t o r y and t h a t unanimous agreem ent a t th e n i n e t y p e r c e n t l e v e l r a r e l y o c c u r r e d . With h i s own s tu d y he d e m o n s tr a te d t h a t c r e d i b i l i t y co u ld be e s t a b l i s h e d th ro u g h r e l i a b i l i t y t e s t s b u t t h a t th e ex p e n d i t u r e of tim e and e f f o r t m ight be a r e a l burden t o the a n a l y s t not s u p p o r t e d by a f i n a n c i a l g r a n t . The t a s k a s s i g n e d th e ju d g e s i n th e Bowman s tu d y was a sim p le one compared t o th e e v a l u a t i v e judgm ents P1 B e r n a r d B e r e l s o n , C o n ten t A n a ly s is i n Communi- c a t i o n R e se a rc h (G le n c o e , I l l i n o i s : The F ree P r e s s , 1952), p. 172. ^ D a v i d S h e p a rd , " R e l i a b i l i t y i n a C o n ten t A nal y s i s , " W estern S p e e c h , XIX ( J a n u a r y , 1955) 3 10-11. o b s e rv e r s were asked t o make f o r c o n te n t or i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s as c i t e d above. F u r th e r m o r e , th e means o f d e t e r m ining o b s e r v e r a c c u ra c y was d i r e c t and s im p le . Bowman gave h i s ju d g es scram bled sp eech es which he asked them to r e s t o r e t o th e sequence i n which th e y were o r i g i n a l l y given. The r e s u l t s were th e n t e s t e d o b j e c t i v e l y a g a i n s t th e d i s c u s s io n t r a n s c r i p t . Had he been t e s t i n g s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s , as in c o n te n t a n a l y s i s , i t would have been n e c e s s a r y to run a s e p a r a t e t e s t f o r each v a r i a b l e ; even so , th e i n c r e a s e in v a l i d i t y might have been a d e q u a te co m p en satio n . The s e p a r a te t e s t s might a l s o have been l e s s tim e consuming th a n th e t r a i n i n g o f o b s e r v e r s . The Bowman method had a number o f a d v a n t a g e s : 1. Mo e v a l u a t i v e judgm ents were r e q u i r e d ; o b s e rv e r s had no r e a s o n to concern th e m se lv e s w ith th e q u e s ti o n of " f a i r n e s s " to th e p a r t i c i p a n t s . 2. O b serv er a c c u ra c y was t e s t e d a g a i n s t e x t e r n a l f a c t r a t h e r th a n by o b s e r v e r agreem ent or i n t e r n a l c o n s i s te n c y . 3. The e x p e r im e n te r was not concerned w ith w h eth er judgm ents were a r r i v e d a t o b j e c t i v e l y o r s u b j e c t i v e l y . 4. I t was n o t n e c e s s a r y t o t r a i n th e o b s e r v e r s . 5. Each o b s e r v e r was needed f o r only a s h o r t tim e ; t h e r e f o r e , more o b s e r v e r s were a v a i l a b l e th a n a r e n o rm a lly a v a i l a b l e when th e t a s k r e q u i r e s many h o u r s . 6. The e x p e r im e n te r was a b le t o m o n ito r a l l work 31 done by t h e o b s e r v e r s . A t t r a c t i v e as t h e s e a d v a n t a g e s w e r e , t h e a p p a r e n t v a l i d i t y o f t h e t e s t was t h e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t a d v a n t a g e . O b s e r v e r s r e l i e d on t h e same l i n g u i s t i c s k i l l s t h e y would have em ployed had t h e y b een p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n . The p r i v i l e g e o f a p p r o a c h i n g t h e t a s k s u b j e c t i v e l y a llo w e d t h e o b s e r v e r t o p r o j e c t h i m s e l f i n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n d i a l o g u e r a t h e r t h a n f o r c i n g him t o t a k e a c r i t i c a l , d e t a c h e d r o l e f o r w hich he may have b e e n i l l - p r e p a r e d . L i t e r a t u r e on C om m unication Theory C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f la n g u a g e h a b i t s , t h o s e o f t h e l i s t e n e r as w e l l as t h e s p e a k e r , l e d t o an a r e a o f common i n t e r e s t w ith l i n g u i s t s , b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n t i s t s , and n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i s t s . The l i t e r a t u r e h a s b een e n r i c h e d by t h e d i v e r s e i n t e r e s t s and p o i n t s o f view from w hich t h e s t u d i e s w ere made. In i n t r o d u c i n g h i s r e v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e on human c o m m u n ic a tio n , h o w e v e r, C o lin C h erry w r o te : At t h e tim e o f w r i t i n g [1 9 5 6 ] t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n , as t h e y a r e s t u d i e d u n d e r t h e d i f f e r e n t d i s c i p l i n e s , by no means form a u n i f i e d s t u d y ; t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n common g ro u n d w hich shows p ro m ise o f f e r t i l i t y , n o t h i n g m o r e . 23 P r o g r e s s i n u t i l i z i n g t h e r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e from many d i s c i p l i n e s h a s b een im peded by t h e l a c k o f a common t e r m i n o l o g y . The f i r s t p ro b le m f o r t h i s s t u d y , t h e r e f o r e , was t h a t o f d e f i n i n g te rm s and a c q u i r i n g new c o n c e p t s . 23Co l i n C h e r r y , On Human Com m unication (C a m b rid g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t s : The M .I .T -! P r e s s , 1957) , p~i 27 Among th e im p o rta n t c o n c e p ts e x p lo r e d were com m unication, s e m i o t i c , memory, and t h i n k i n g . D e f i n i t i o n of Communication The use o f th e term "com m unication1 ' to denote a wide v a r i e t y of a c t i v i t i e s has g iv en r i s e t o a c o m p lain t by Lee T hayer: A s i n g l e c o n c e p t [com m unication] cannot u s e f u l l y c o v e r phenomena o f such a d i v e r s e n a t u r e s as . . . some marks on a p ag e, . . . what goes on between t h e " b la c k boxes" in a co m p u ter, . . . what th e female p a r t r i d g e does d u r in g a m atin g s e a s o n , . . . an a tte m p t to modify a t t i t u d e s , th e p r o c e s s o f " i n f o r m a tio n " s t o r a g e and r e t r i e v a l , and on and on.^4 To Thayer th e problem o f d e f i n i t i o n was som ething more th a n a s e m a n tic problem and a c c o u n te d f o r much t h e o r e t i c a l co n fu s io n in th e l i t e r a t u r e . He claim ed to have e n c o u n te re d more th a n t w e n t y - f i v e c o n c e p t u a l l y d i f f e r e n t r e f e r e n t s f o r com- 25 m u n ic a tio n in only s i x y e a rs of th e l i t e r a t u r e . Jon E is e n so n w r o te , "Communication i s any a c t by v i r t u e o f which one organism evokes b e h a v io r from a n o t h e r . " He went on t o i d e n t i f y i n t e n t i o n a l communication as th e p o r t i o n w ith which he was concerned in h i s a n a l y s i s o f o r a l com m unication: "By t h i s we mean th e use of symbol b e h a v io r t h a t not o n ly t r i g g e r s o t h e r b e h a v i o r b u t does so w ith th e i n i t i a t o r u s u a l l y a b le to a n t i c i p a t e th e n a t u r e of th e 2 4 Lee 0. T h a y e r, "On T h e o ry -B u ild in g i n Communica t i o n : Some C o n ce p tu a l P ro b le m s," The J o u r n a l o f Communica t i o n , X III (December, 1963), 219. 26 88 r e a c t i o n t o h i s b e h a v i o r . " Many w r i t e r s have t h o u g h t i t i m p o r t a n t t o s t a t e s p e c i f i c a l l y some t h i n g s t h a t com m unication i s n o t , and t o g u a rd a g a i n s t o v e r - s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . David B e rio w arned a g a i n s t a p o p u l a r m i s c o n c e p t i o n : "Com m unication does n o t c o n s i s t o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f m eaning. Meanings a r e n o t t r a n s m i t t e d , n o t t r a n s f e r a b l e . Only m essages a r e t r a n s m i t - t a b l e , and m eanings a r e n o t i n t h e m e ss a g e , th e y a r e in t h e 2 7 m e s s a g e - u s e r ." A f t e r s t a t i n g t h a t "co m m u n icatio n means a s h a r i n g of e le m e n ts o f b e h a v i o r , o r modes o f l i f e by t h e 2 8 e x i s t e n c e o f s e t s o f r u l e s , " C o lin C herry a l s o sounded a w a rn in g a g a i n s t o v e r - s i m p l i f i c a t i o n : The s u g g e s t i o n t h a t words a r e symbols f o r t h i n g s , a c t i o n s , q u a l i t i e s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e t c e t e r a , i s n a i v e , a g r o s s s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . Words a r e s l i p p e r y c u s to m e r s . The f u l l m eaning o f a word does n o t a p p e a r u n t i l i t i s p l a c e d i n i t s c o n t e x t , and t h e c o n t e x t may s e r v e an e x t r e m e l y s u b t l e f u n c t i o n — as w i t h puns o r d o u b le e n t e n d r e . 29 B a rn lu n d d e f i n e d com m unication p o s i t i v e l y i n te rm s o f m eaning: Com m unication, as I c o n c e iv e i t , i s a word t h a t d e s c r i b e s t h e p r o c e s s o f c r e a t i n g a m eaning. Two words i n t h i s s e n t e n c e a re c r i t i c a l . They a r e " c r e a t e " and " m e a n in g ." M essages may be g e n e r a t e d from t h e o u t s i d e P 6 Jo n E i s e n s o n , "The Communicative P r o c e s s : Scheme and D e s i g n ," The P sy c h o lo g y o f C o m m u n icatio n , by Jo n E i s e n so n , J . J e f f e r y A uer, and John V. I r w i n (New York: A p p le to n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 19& 3)» P- 131. 2 7 D avid B e r i o , The P r o c e s s o f Communication (New York: H o l t , R i n e h a r t , and W in sto n , I960) , p . 175• 2 8 C h e r r y , o p . c i t . , p. 6. 2 ^ I b i d . , p . 10. 34 — by a s p e a k e r , a t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n , a s c o l d i n g p a r e n t — b u t m eanings a re g e n e r a t e d w i t h i n . . . . Communica t i o n i s m an's a tte m p t t o cope w ith h i s e x p e r i e n c e , h i s c u r r e n t mood, h i s em erging n e e d s . For e v e ry p e r s o n i t i s a un iq u e a c t o f c r e a t i o n i n v o l v i n g d i s s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s . 30 R e f e r r i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y t o B a r n l u n d 's d e f i n i t i o n , T h a y er s t a t e d h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t Mead, S z a s z , Ruesch, B e c k e r, and o t h e r s had s u c c e s s f u l l y c o n t r o v e r t e d th e con c e p t o f v e r b a l i z a t i o n s as e x p r e s s i o n s o f i n n e r s t a t e s : T here may be some d e l e t e r i o u s a s s u m p tio n s qua m e n ta lism i n t h e a tte m p t to e q u a te com m unication w ith meaning. Where "meaning" c o n n o te s some k in d o f c e r e b r a t i o n , o r even some c o n s c io u s a c t i v i t y , th e n i t s use f o r c o n c e p tu a l a p p r e h e n s io n may become d e t r i m e n t a l . . . . Meaning i s b e s t viewed as a s o c i o l o g i c a l n o t i o n . The co n cep t o f i n t e n t i o n a l i t y may b e t t e r s e r v e our a tte m p ts a t t h e o r y - b u i l d i n g c o m m u n ic a tio n .31 T h a y e r 's i n s i s t e n c e t h a t much com m unication i s u n i n t e n t i o n a l may have r e l e v a n c e to d i s c u s s i o n and to th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m u n ic a tio n . I f t h i s f a c t o r s h o u ld t u r n out t o be a v a r i a b l e , i t may be t h e one t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l from i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication and d i s c u s s i o n from o t h e r sp eech form s. S e m io tic : A Theory o f Signs The f o r m u l a t i o n o f th e t h e o r y o f s ig n s was c r e d i t e d t o C h a rle s W. M o rris by C herry who a l s o c i t e d th e p h ilo s o p h y 30 Dean C. B a rn lu n d , "Toward a M e a n in g -C en tered P h ilo so p h y o f Com m unication," The J o u r n a l o f C om m unication, XII (December, 1 9 6 2 ), 200. ^ T h a y e r , o p . c i t . , p. 2 3 5 . 35 o f C h a r l e s S a n d e rs P e i r c e a n d , b e f o r e t h a t , an e s s a y by John Locke as a n t e c e d e n t s o f t h i s w ork. "Locke [ 1 6 8 9 ] u s e d 32 t h e word ’ s e m e i o t i c ' t o d e n o t e t h e ’ d o c t r i n e o f s i g n s . ’ ’1 M o rris u s e d t h e te rm s e m i o s i s t o name t h e p r o c e s s i n w hich so m e th in g f u n c t i o n s as a s i g n . He d e s i g n a t e d t h r e e f a c t o r s i n t h i s p r o c e s s : " t h a t w hich a c t s as a s i g n , t h a t w hich t h e s i g n r e f e r s t o , and t h a t e f f e c t on some i n t e r p r e t e r i n v i r t u e o f which t h e t h i n g i n q u e s t i o n i s a s i g n t o t h a t 3 3 i n t e r p r e t e r . " The d e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e s e t h r e e f u n c t i o n s i s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e i t make c l e a r t h a t what one may c a l l a s i g n i s n o t a s i g n t o e v e r y o n e ; i t i s a s i g n o n ly t o t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who use i t as a means o f r e f e r r i n g to s o m e th in g e l s e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s may use i t t o r e f e r to d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s o r q u a l i t i e s so t h a t i t may be a d i f f e r e n t s i g n t o e a c h . M o rris d e s i g n a t e d t h r e e d im e n s io n s o f s e m i o s i s : t h e s e m a n t i c a l , t h e s y n t a c t i c a l , and t h e p r a g m a t i c a l . He d e f i n e d s e m a n ti c s as t h e s tu d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s o f s i g n s t o t h e o b j e c t s t o which t h e y r e f e r , s y n t a c t i c s as t h e s tu d y of t h e r e l a t i o n s o f s i g n s t o one a n o t h e r , and p r a g m a t i c s as th e s tu d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s o f s i g n s t o t h e i r i n t e r p r e t e r s . The s tu d y o f t h e r e l a t i o n s o f t h e s e t h r e e d im e n s io n s t o one o 2 C h e r r y , o p . c i t . , p. 8. 3 3 C h a r l e s W. M o r r i s , "The F o u n d a t i o n s o f t h e T h e o ry o f S i g n s , " I n t e r n a t i o n a l E n c y c l o p e d i a o f U n i f i e d S c ie n c e S e r i e s , I ( 1 9 3 8 ) , 3- a n o t h e r , se m a n tic s t o s y n t a c t i c s t o p r a g m a t i c s , e t c e t e r a , he c a l l e d s e m i o t i c . Thus, th e t h r e e b ra n c h e s of s e m io tic p ro v id e d th e means f o r s tu d y i n g " t h r e e a s p e c t s o f one and th e same phenomenon." While h o l d in g t h a t t h e s e t h r e e dim ensions and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to one a n o t h e r were b a s i c t o th e a n a l y s i s o f la n g u a g e , he a l s o d i s t i n g u i s h e d f u n c t i o n a l l e v e l s in th e p r o c e s s o f s e m i o s i s . He s t a t e d : I t i s very im p o rta n t t o d i s t i n g u i s h between th e r e l a t i o n s which a g iv e n s ig n s u s t a i n s and th e s ig n s used i n t a l k i n g about such r e l a t i o n s — f u l l r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s i s p e rh a p s th e most im p o rta n t g e n e r a l p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of s e m i o t i c . 36 M orris h e ld t h a t a t t e m p t s to d e s c r i b e a language in th e term s of t h a t same language had le d to e n d l e s s c o n fu s io n . To keep d i s t i n c t th e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s on which th e s ig n s f u n c t i o n , he d e s ig n a te d t h r e e s e m io tic la n g u a g e s : th e language o f s e m a n tic s , th e language o f s y n t a c t i c s , and th e language of p r a g m a tic s . In more r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w ith language a n a l y s i s in term s of s e m a n ti c s , s y n t a c t i c s , and p r a g m a t ic s , th e term s m e ta - la n g u a g e , m e ta -m e ta la n g u a g e , e t c e t e r a have r e p l a c e d M o r r i s 1 s term s f o r d e s i g n a t i n g th e 37 p r o g r e s s i v e l e v e l s of s ig n f u n c t i o n i n g ( c f . Cherry and H a r r a h ^ ) . • ^ I b i d . , p. 6. ^ I b i d . , p. 10. ^ I b i d . , p. 7. 37 C h erry , o p . c i t . , p. 19. q O David H a rra h , Communication: A L o g ic a l Model (Cam bridge, M a s s a c h u s e tts ! The M .I.T . P r e s s , 196 3) , p • 11 • 37 The u s e f u l n e s s o f s e m i o t i c was d e m o n s t r a t e d i n a r e c e n t a n a l y s i s o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y . I n a p p r a i s i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s t o be e n c o u n t e r e d i n a p p l y i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y t o t h e m easurem ent o f m ean in g , Weaver and Weaver c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y t h e s y n t a c t i c a l , s e m a n t i c a l , and p r a g m a t i c a l d im e n sio n s o f l a n g u a g e . T h e i r c o n c l u s i o n was p e s s i m i s t i c : A tte m p ts t o compute b i t s o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e f i e l d o f s y n t a c t i c s have n o t d e a l t w ith t h e whole mean i n g , and any a t t e m p t a t q u a n t i f i c a t i o n i n p r a g m a t ic s seems h o p e l e s s . The t h e o r e t i c a l p o s s i b i l i t y e x i s t s in s e m a n ti c s o f g e n e r a t i n g t h e d a t a t h a t S h a n n o n 's f o rm u la r e q u i r e s , b u t t h e s i z e o f th e t a s k o f c o l l e c t i n g d a t a r e n d e r s i t p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e and even a c c e p t a b l e compromises w ith t h i s i d e a l s t i l l r e q u i r e c o m p u ta tio n s o f s t a g g e r i n g m a g n i t u d e . 39 A n o th er r e c e n t a p p l i c a t i o n o f s e m i o t i c t o lan g u a g e 4 0 a n a l y s i s i s t h a t r e p o r t e d by David H a rra h . He has a p p l i e d sy m b o lic l o g i c t o t h e t h e o r y o f s e m a n tic i n f o r m a t i o n i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f a model o f human com m unication. To t h e p r e s e n t w r i t e r , H a r r a h rs p r o j e c t e d model seemed q u i t e e l a b o r a t e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f a c t t h a t he had th u s f a r c o v e re d o n ly q u e s t i o n s , and o f q u e s t i o n s he had c o n s id e r e d o n ly two t y p e s . These two t y p e s were t h e " w h e th e r q u e s t i o n " which he h a n d le d as a m u l t i p l e c h o ic e q u e s t i o n and t h e "which q u e s t i o n " which he h a n d le d as a f i l l - t h e - b l a n k ty p e o f q u e s t i o n . 3 9 C a r l H. Weaver and G arry L. W eaver, " I n f o r m a t i o n Theory and th e M easurem ent o f M ean in g ," Speech M onographs, XXXII (November, 1 9 6 5 ) , 447. 40 H a r r a h , o p . c i t . , pp. 1 -1 1 8 . 38 F u r t h e r m o r e , he had t h u s f a r i g n o r e d most s y n t a c t i c and p r a g m a t ic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s e x c e p t t o s p e c u l a t e on how t h e y m ig h t be i n c l u d e d l a t e r . T h is p o i n t was i n t e r e s t i n g i n l i g h t o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e a r e t h e same l i n g u i s t i c dim en s i o n s Weaver and Weaver were u n a b le t o accommodate w i t h i n t h e framework of i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y . The p r a g m a t i c s d im e n s io n was o f most i n t e r e s t t o t h i s w r i t e r b e c a u s e i t o f f e r e d a means o f t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f i n d i v i d u a l o r p e r s o n a l f a c t o r s i n t h e use o f s i g n s . Two s t a t e m e n t s were s e l e c t e d from M o rris as p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b le t o th e p r e s e n t s t u d y : P r a g m a t i c a l r u l e s s t a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e i n t e r p r e t e r s u n d e r which t h e s i g n v e h i c l e i s a s i g n . Not o n ly may a l l s i g n s be r e g a r d e d i n te rm s o f p r a g m a t i c s , b u t i t i s a l s o p e r f e c t l y l e g i t i m a t e f o r c e r t a i n p u r p o s e s t o use s ig n s sim p ly i n o r d e r to p ro d u c e c e r t a i n p r o c e s s e s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e th e r t h e r e a r e o b j e c t s d e n o t e d by t h e s ig n s o r even w h e th e r th e s i g n c o m b in a tio n s a r e f o r m a l l y p o s s i b l e i n te rm s o f th e f o r m a t i o n and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n r u l e s o f t h e la n g u a g e in w hich th e s ig n v e h i c l e s in q u e s t i o n a r e n o r m a lly u s e d . ^ l L l t e r a t u r e on T h in k in g Group p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a p p e a r s on t h e s u r f a c e t o p r e s e n t a p a r a d o x , t h a t o f a group o f i n d i v i d u a l s t h i n k i n g s e p a r a t e l y t o g e t h e r . In l i g h t o f t h i s p a r a d o x , t h e q u e s t i o n p o se d f o r t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y was: How does th e com m unication p r o c e s s p r o v id e f o r t h e b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r o f t h o s e s e p a r a t e t h o u g h t s ? 4l M o r r i s , o p . c i t . , pp. 35 , 39 * 39 The Bowman s tu d y r e v e a l e d t h a t o b s e r v e r s were a b l e t o r e s t o r e t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l o r d e r th e scram b led sp eech es from a d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t r e p r e s e n t i n g h ig h l e v e l i n t e r a c t i v e t h i n k i n g ; th e y were u n a b le t o a c c o m p lish th e t a s k w ith scram bled sp e e c h e s r e p r e s e n t i n g low l e v e l i n t e r a c t i v e t h i n k i n g . I n t e r a c t i v e t h i n k i n g seemed t o imply a se n se of c o n t i n u i t y r u n n in g th ro u g h th e sp eech es of d i f f e r e n t s p e a k e r s . The q u e s t i o n became, t h e n , how were the id e a s o f one p a r t i c i p a n t r e f l e c t e d i n th e speech of th e s p e a k e r who f o l lowed? Some w r i t e r s have s u g g e s te d an e x p l a n a t i o n o f th e s h a r i n g o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l c o n c e p ts in term s o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y . As n o te d above, how ever, Weaver and Weaver ( 1 9 6 5 ) 4 2 c o n clu d ed com m unication was u n p ro m is in g . B r u n e r , Goodnow, and A u s tin (1956) r e j e c t e d i n f o r m a t i o n th e o r y much e a r l i e r . They saw som ething more in human com m unication th a n t h e mere m a n i p u l a t i o n o f s y m b o ls : I t s [ in f o r m a t i o n t h o e r y ' s ] s h o r t h i s t o r y in p s y c h o l ogy r e c a p i t u l a t e s th e f a t e o f s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e l e a r n i n g t h e o r y . The i n p u t s and o u t p u t s o f a com m unication s y ste m , i t soon became a p p a r e n t , c o u ld n o t be d e a l t w ith e x c l u s i v e l y in term s o f t h e n a t u r e o f th o s e i n p u t s and o u t p u t s alo n e n o r even in te rm s o f such i n t e r n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as c h a n n e l c a p a c i t y and n o i s e . The cod in g and r e c o d i n g o f i n p u t s — how incom ing s i g n a l s are s o r t e d and o r g a n i z e d — t u r n s out t o be t h e im p o rta n t s e c r e t o f th e b l a c k box t h a t l i e s a th w a r t th e communica t i o n c h a n n e l. Those who would ap p ly i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomena a r e , t h e n , s i m i l a r l y fa c e d lip Weaver and Weaver, l o c . c i t . 40 43 w ith th e problem o f m e d ia tin g c o g n i t i o n . M e d ia tin g c o g n i t i o n im p lie s t h a t man p e r c e i v e s so m eth in g more th a n th e symbols in v o lv e d and i s a b le t o c r e a t e some t h i n g from i t . In r e c a s t i n g th e message he may make as much use o f what was o m itte d from th e message as from what was i n c lu d e d . B ru n e r, Goodnow, and A u s tin p o i n t e d out t h a t man i n v e n t s t h e c a t e g o r i e s he needs i n o r d e r t o d e a l e f f e c t i v e l y w ith th e m u l t i t u d e of d i s c r i m i n a b l y d i f f e r e n t ob j e c t s , p e o p l e , and e v e n ts he e n c o u n te r i n ev ery d ay l i f e . Economy o f e f f o r t r e q u i r e s t h a t he group e n v ir o n m e n ta l e l e m ents; o t h e r w i s e , th e burden o f f o r m u l a t i n g a unique r e sponse to each p e rso n and ev e n t becomes overw helm ing. Thus, " th e l e a r n i n g and u t i l i z a t i o n of c a t e g o r i e s r e p r e s e n t s one o f th e most e le m e n ta ry and g e n e r a l forms o f c o g n i t i o n by 4 4 which man a d j u s t s to h i s e n v iro n m e n t." While th e p e rs o n u s in g a c a te g o r y may not be a b le t o e x p l a i n h i s r e s p o n s e s i n term s o f c a t e g o r i z i n g , h i s use o f a c a te g o r y may be i n f e r r e d from th e f a c t t h a t he i s making a common r e s p o n s e to d i s c r i m i n a b l y d i f f e r e n t e v e n t s . Two b ro a d ty p es o f c a t e g o r i z i n g may be d e f i n e d in term s o f th e r e s p o n s e s made t o them. One i s th e i d e n t i t y 43 Jerome S. B ru n e r, J a c q u e l i n e J . Goodnow, and George A. A u s t in , A Study o f T h in k in g (London: Methuen and C o., L t d . , 1956; New York: John Wiley and Sons, I n c . , S c ie n c e E d i t i o n s ,1 9 6 3 ) , p. v i i . 44 I b i d . , p . 2 . 41 r e s p o n s e i n w h ic h a p e r s o n r e s p o n d s t o a v a r i e t y o f s t i m u l i as fo rm s o f t h e same t h i n g , s u c h a s b e i n g a f r a i d o f a l l s t r a n g e r s o r l o v i n g a l l c h i l d r e n . The o t h e r t y p e i s t h e e q u i v a l e n c e r e s p o n s e i n w h ic h a p e r s o n r e s p o n d s t o d i f f e r e n t s t i m u l i as t h e same k i n d o f t h i n g , s u c h a s a v a r i e t y o f w eapons u s e f u l f o r d e f e n d i n g o n e s e l f . The e q u i v a l e n c e r e s p o n s e i s d i v i d e d i n t u r n i n t o t h r e e k i n d s o f r e s p o n s e 45 c a t e g o r i e s c a l l e d a f f e c t i v e , f u n c t i o n a l , and f o r m a l . The e x p e r i m e n t s r e p o r t e d by B r u n e r , Goodnow, and A u s t i n w ere i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g b e h a v i o r o f s u b j e c t s d e v e l o p i n g c a t e g o r i e s fro m t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e i n s t a n c e s . L o g ic p r o b le m s w ere p r e s e n t e d as games p l a y e d w i t h a l l c a r d s f a c e u p . An e x a m i n e r w orked w i t h e a c h s u b j e c t i n d i v i d u a l l y . The s u b j e c t was shown a c a r d and t o l d t h a t t h i s was one e x a m p le o f t h e c l a s s he was t r y i n g t o d e f i n e . H is g o a l was t o be a c h i e v e d by f o r m u l a t i n g h y p o t h e s e s and t e s t i n g th em by s e l e c t i n g a n o t h e r c a r d t o s e e w h e t h e r i t was a p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e e x a m p le o f t h e c l a s s . A f t e r e a c h c h o i c e he was p e r m i t t e d one g u e s s a s t o w h at t h e d e f i n i n g a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e c l a s s w e re ( e . g . , a l l c a r d s w i t h a r e d b o r d e r and a g r e e n f i g u r e ) . The o b j e c t was t o a c h i e v e t h e g o a l w i t h t h e f e w e s t p o s s i b l e num ber o f s e l e c t i o n s . The s t u d y r e v e a l e d i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t e r m s o f s e l e c t i o n s t r a t e g i e s , r e l u c t a n c e t o a b a n d o n u n s u c c e s s f u l ^ I b i d . , pp. 2-6. 42 s t r a t e g i e s , r e s p o n s e s to tim e l i m i t a t i o n s , e t c e t e r a . The problem s and t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g s i t u a t i o n s were so s t r u c t u r e d as t o g iv e t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s th e o p p o r t u n i t y to know i n advance what p o s s i b l e c h o ic e s were a v a i l a b l e t o th e s u b j e c t s . Thus, th e y were a b l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e a c t i o n ta k e n i n e ach c a s e and t o m easure t h e economy o f moves in term s o f t h e minimum number in which t h e g o a l co u ld be r e a c h e d . The p r i n c i p a l r e s u l t s of t h i s e x p e rim e n t w ere: (1) i t was p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e and e v a l u a t e s t a t e g i e s , (2) i t was p o s s i b l e t o m easure t h e e f f e c t o f r e l e v a n t -co n d itio n s on c a t e g o r i z i n g s t r a t e g i e s , (3) th e problem s o f c a t e g o r i z in g and c o n c e p t a t t a i n m e n t c o u ld a l l be found in A r i s t o t l e ’s De S e n s u , (4) th e s u b j e c t s p r e f e r r e d c o n j u n c t i v e c o n c e p ts as opposed t o d i s j u n c t i v e , (5) s u b j e c t s te n d e d to t e s t f o r p o s i t i v e i n s t a n c e s even when n e g a t i v e i n s t a n c e s would have y i e l d e d more i n f o r m a t i o n , and (6) s u b j e c t s f r e q u e n t l y f a i l e d 46 t o u t i l i z e i n f o r m a t i o n r e v e a l e d by n e g a t i v e i n s t a n c e s . This s tu d y o f t h i n k i n g ( i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l communica t i o n ) i s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t w ith r e f e r e n c e t o th e p r e s e n t s tu d y f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . The s u b j e c t s r e v e a l e d t h e i r i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unications th ro u g h a c t i o n d e c i s io n s r a t h e r t h a n w ords. I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o assume t h a t had t h e problem s been p r e s e n t e d i n o r a l s t a t e m e n t s r a t h e r t h a n i m p lie d s t a t e m e n t s on c a r d s j t h e s u b j e c t s would ^ I b i d . , pp. 231-239 . 43 have asked th e q u e s t i o n s im p lie d by t h e i r c h o ic e s of c a r d s . Such q u e s t i o n s , had th ey been a s k e d , would have been e q u a l l y a c c u r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f th e s u b j e c t s ’ i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l co m m u n icatio n s. The i n v e s t i g a t o r s b a se d t h e i r i n f e r e n c e s on th e moves a c t u a l l y made and not on th o s e th e s u b j e c t s may have c o n s id e re d but d id not make. In n e i t h e r th e c a rd problem n o r th e s u g g e s te d o r a l problem would a l l of th e s u b j e c t s ' i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l communication be r e v e a l e d , but i n f e r e n c e s about th e s u b j e c t s ’ t h i n k i n g should be e q u a l l y v a l i d in e i t h e r c a s e . T his stu d y r e v e a l e d d i f f e r e n c e s in i n d i v i d u a l t h i n k i n g which th e same i n d i v i d u a l s might have e x h i b i t e d i n group p r o b le m - s o lv in g . I t would seem t h a t th e e x p e r i m enters might have o b serv ed some of th e same i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s had th e s u b j e c t s been working in groups r a t h e r th a n i n d i v i d u a l l y . I f a group problem had been in c lu d e d i n t h i s s tu d y and a r e c o r d made of th e group c h o i c e s , i t seems l i k e l y t h a t an i n v e s t i g a t o r r e a d i n g th e r e c o r d could have d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h i s r e c o r d from one produced by an i n d i v i d u a l . S ince th e p r e s e n t stu d y u t i l i z e d v e r b a l e x p r e s s i o n as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication, th e q u e s t i o n o f how c l o s e l y th o u g h t and speech a re a s s o c i a t e d was a c r i t i c a l one. C h a rle s N. Cofer d e a l t w ith t h i s q u e s t i o n as fo llo w s : 44 For p ro b a b ly 2,000 y ears or more i t has been sug g e s te d t h a t perhaps th o u g h t i s but th e o p e r a t i o n of i m p l i c i t speech. As a s ti m u l u s - r e s p o n s e type of p s y c h o l o g i s t , I f in d t h i s d o c t r in e a t t r a c t i v e , but a l s o I f in d i t d i f f i c u l t o r im p o ss ib le to conceive any o p e r a t i o n s by which th e a s s e r t i o n can be c o n v in c in g ly t e s t e d once and f o r a l l . I a l s o s u s p e c t t h a t n o n - v e r b a l re sp o n s e s may se rv e m e d i a t i o n a l f u n c tio n s in some c a s e s , j u s t as may v e r b a l re sp o n s e s in o t h e r s . ^7 Cofer r e p o r t e d s e v e r a l ex p erim en ts conducted under h i s s u p e r v i s i o n which d em o n strated v e r b a l c o n t r o l in non v e r b a l problem s o lv i n g . He a l s o c i t e d many o th e r s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d in th e l i t e r a t u r e and concluded t h a t " t h e r e i s abundant e v id en ce showing t h a t b e h a v io r may be brought under 48 v e r b a l c o n t r o l . " He observed t h a t t h i s f a c t has long been r e c o g n iz e d but t h a t in h is judgment i t has been t r e a t e d as an i s o l a t e d f a c t . He saw a need f o r a th e o ry of v e r b a l b e h a v i o r which would give s a t i s f a c t o r y account of v e r b a l con t r o l and co n clu d ed , "I t h i n k i t q u ite p o s s i b l e t h a t th e study of v e r b a l b e h a v io r may be more p r o d u c tiv e to our un d e r s t a n d i n g of problem s o lv i n g th a n f u r t h e r stu d y of p ro - 40 blem s o l v i n g i t s e l f . " In a review of f i f t y y ears of e x p e rim e n ta l p s y c h o l ogy, George Humphrey (1951) e v a l u a t e d many arguments sup p o r t i n g and a t t a c k i n g t h i s i s s u e , coming f i n a l l y to th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t " a l l a v a i l a b l e e x p e rim e n ta l and c l i n i c a l 4 7 C h a rle s N. C o fe r, "Reasoning As an A s s o c ia tiv e P ro c e ss : I I I . The Role of V erbal Responses in Problem S o l v i n g ," J o u r n a l o f G eneral P sychology, XVII ( J u l y , 1957), 55. ^ I b i d . , p . 66 . 45 e v id e n c e i s a g a i n s t th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th o u g h t w ith 5 0 la n g u a g e ." In h i s summary re m a rk s, how ever, he in c l u d e d th e f o llo w in g s ta t e m e n t s : Human t h i n k i n g i s perm eated w ith la n g u a g e . There i s some e le m e n ta ry e x p e r im e n ta l e v id e n c e b e a r i n g on th e way in which human l a n g u a g e - te c h n iq u e i s u t i l i z e d in t h i n k i n g . . . . O rd in ary language in v o lv e s p r o c e s s e s which would u s u a l l y be c l a s s e d as t h i n k i n g . . . . C e r t a i n o b j e c t i v e e x p e rim e n ts o f f e r a p a r a l l e l which makes i t l e g i t i m a t e t o speak o f lan g u ag e as e x p r e s s i n g t h o u g h t .51 In summary, t h i s review o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on e x p e r im e n ta l r e s e a r c h in group d i s c u s s i o n made a p p a re n t two a r e a s where f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h was needed. There was a need t o i n t r o d u c e r e a l l i f e d i s c u s s i o n c o n te n t i n t o e x p e r im e n ta l r e s e a r c h In group d i s c u s s i o n . The need h e re was to s u p p l e ment th e many e x p e rim e n ts based on l a b o r a t o r y d ev elo p ed d i s c u s s i o n c o n t e n t . There was a l s o a need to supplem ent Bowman's work on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l communication. Review of s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n s of th e l i t e r a t u r e on communication and t h i n k i n g r e v e a l e d a g e n e r a l concern f o r t h e o r y - b u i l d i n g . E x te n s io n of th e i n q u i r y begun by Bowman seemed to be one means of c o n t r i b u t i n g to t h i s r e s e a r c h gap. S e v e ra l s t u d i e s review ed in th e l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s te d a p p ro a c h e s t o th e a n a l y s i s o f d i s c u s s i o n c o n t e n t f o r e v id e n c e 50 Oeorge Humphrey, T h in k in g : An I n t r o d u c t i o n to I t s E x p e rim e n ta l Psychology (New l o r k : John Wiley and Sons, 1963) , pi 264. [ O r i g i n a l l y p u b lis h e d by Methuen and Com pany, L im ite d , 1951.] 46 o f t h e i n t r a - and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l co m m u n ic a tio n r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The t h e o r y o f s i g n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a r e a o f p r a g m a t i c s , and s t u d i e s in c o n c e p t a t t a i n m e n t i n d e v e l o p in g c a t e g o r i e s seemed a p p l i c a b l e . CHAPTER I I I SUBJECTS, MATERIALS, AND PROCEDURE The S u b j e c t s The D i s c u s s a n t s S ix s a f e t y e n g i n e e r s from d i f f e r e n t p l a n t s had been chosen by management t o s e rv e on a s p e c i a l s a f e t y com m ittee. T h e ir a s s i g n e d t a s k was t o p l a n a company-wide s a f e t y cam p a ig n f o r an i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w ith o v e r 5 0 ,0 0 0 em p lo y e e s . For p u rp o se s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in th e d i s c u s s i o n t r a n s c r i p t , t h e s e s i x men were a s s i g n e d t h e names A r t , Bud, C a l, Don, E r n , and Fox. A ll b u t Ern and Fox, o n ly r e c e n t l y a p p o in te d t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n s , had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n one or b o th o f th e two s a f e t y c o n f e r e n c e s h e ld d u r in g th e p r e c e d in g two y e a r p e r i o d . The only e v id e n c e o f t r a i n i n g in d i s c u s s i o n o r sp eech r e v e a l e d by p e r s o n n e l r e c o r d s was t h a t Don had r e c e n t l y co m p leted a c o u rs e i n p u b l i c s p e a k in g . I f any o f t h e o t h e r s had had such t r a i n i n g , th e y had n o t th o u g h t t o i n c l u d e i t on t h e i r employment a p p l i c a t i o n s . The Judges S e v e n t y - f o u r u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s ( s e v e n t y - o n e male and t h r e e fem ale) i n a r e q u i r e d c o u r s e i n p u b l i c 47 48 s p e a k in g s e rv e d as ju d g e s f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t . Most of th e s t u d e n t s were j u n i o r s and s e n i o r s m a jo rin g in m athe m a t i c s , s c i e n c e , o r one o f th e t e c h n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d c u r r i c u l a such as i n d u s t r i a l management, a g r i c u l t u r e , and e n g in e e r i n g . For a l l of th e ju d g e s t h i s was t h e f i r s t c o u rse in sp eech . At t h e tim e t h e e x p e r im e n ta l t e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d , th e y had not y e t been a s s i g n e d th e b r i e f s e c t i o n on d i s c u s s io n and p a r l i a m e n t a r y p r o c e d u re . For p u rp o se s o f th e t e s t , th e s t u d e n t s were d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e g ro u p s. Group A was made up o f Judges 1 th ro u g h 24, Group B in c lu d e d Judges 25 th ro u g h 49, and Group C i n clu d ed Judges 50 th ro u g h 74. The M a t e r i a l s The Tape R ec o rd er A W ilcox-Gay, Model 2A10, p o r t a b l e ta p e r e c o r d e r was used t o r e c o r d th e com plete c o n f e r e n c e . A n o n - d i r e c - t i o n a l microphone w ith a f o r t y - f o o t s h i e l d e d cord was p r e p a re d by a sound e n g i n e e r who a l s o s e r v i c e d th e r e c o r d e r t o en su re s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n . Two 1 8 0 0 -fo o t t a p e s were u se d , each p r o v id i n g one and o n e - h a l f hours of r e c o r d i n g tim e . The Discussion Transcript A com plete t y p e w r i t t e n t r a n s c r i p t i o n of th e d i s c u s s io n was made from t h e r e c o r d i n g . An e f f o r t was made to in c lu d e a l l o v e r l a p p i n g e l e m e n t s , a l l r e p e t i t i o n s or f a l s e 49 s t a r t s , and a l l v o c a l i z e d p a u s e s . The c o n f e re n c e r a n two h o u rs and f o r t y m i n u t e s , o v er 29,000 w ords. Because o f t h e l e n g t h o f t h e t r a n s c r i p t , only t h e e x c e r p t s used i n th e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t a r e r e p ro d u c e d in th e a p p e n d ix . The E x c e rp ts E i g h t e e n e x c e r p t s o f a p p r o x im a te ly 250 words each were s e l e c t e d from th e com plete t r a n s c r i p t o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e . They were e d i t e d t o e x c lu d e s p e a k e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , d i r e c t a d d r e s s , v o c a l i z e d p a u s e s , s l i g h t o r m e a n in g le ss r e p e t i t i o n s , and p a r a g r a p h d i v i s i o n s . Each e x c e r p t was ty p e d on a s e p a r a t e d u p l i c a t o r m a s te r s h e e t w ith space p r o v id e d a t t h e b o tto m o f th e page f o r r e c o r d i n g th e j u d g e 's d e c i s i o n . These e x c e r p t s were th e n d u p l i c a t e d by th e s p i r i t 1 p r o c e s s . I n d i v i d u a l sp eech e x c e r p t s . — Nine e x c e r p t s were chosen from i n d i v i d u a l r e p o r t s p r e s e n t e d in th e f i r s t phase o f th e c o n f e r e n c e . The e x c e r p t s d id not i n c l u d e any i n t e r r u p t i o n s , n o r d id th e y i n c l u d e e i t h e r t h e f i r s t o r th e f i n a l e x p r e s s i o n s o f an i n d i v i d u a l s p e e c h . Each o f th e f o u r men who p a r t i c i p a t e d most in th e c o n f e re n c e ( A r t , Bud, Don, and Ern) was r e p r e s e n t e d by two e x c e r p t s . The man who r a n k e d f i f t h i n p a r t i c i p a t i o n (Fox) was r e p r e s e n t e d by one e x c e r p t . The one r a n k i n g s i x t h (C al) d id not have a 250- word sp eech i n t h e e n t i r e c o n f e re n c e an d , t h e r e f o r e , was 1See Appendix f o r c o p ie s o f speech e x c e r p t s . 50 no t r e p r e s e n t e d . D i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s . — Nine e x c e r p t s were ch o sen from t h e d i s c u s s i o n on m u l t i - i n d i v i d u a l p o r t i o n o f t h e con f e r e n c e . The c r i t e r i a used in s e l e c t i n g each e x c e r p t were as f o l l o w s : ( 1 ) th e e x c e r p t sh o u ld r e p r e s e n t c o l l e c t i v e i d e a developm ent a n d / o r e v a l u a t i o n , ( 2 ) d i s p u t e s and r e f e r en ces t o p r o c e d u re o r t h e m echanics o f d i s c u s s i o n s h o u ld be a v o id e d , ( 3 ) each e x c e r p t s sh o u ld r e p r e s e n t a t l e a s t f o u r p a r t i c i p a n t s , and (4) each e x c e r p t sh o u ld i n c l u d e a t l e a s t seven i n d i v i d u a l s p e e c h e s . A ll d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s met t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s . I n s t r u c t i o n t o Judges A page o f i n s t r u c t i o n s was p r e p a r e d as a co v er s h e e t 2 f o r each s e t o f e x c e r p t s . In a d d i t i o n to t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s t o be f o ll o w e d , t h i s page in c lu d e d a b r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e o r i g i n o f t h e m a t e r i a l used i n th e e x p e rim e n t and th e p u rp o se o f t h e t e s t . Space was p r o v id e d a t t h e b o tto m of th e page f o r th e d a t e and th e name o f th e ju d g e . These i n s t r u c t i o n s were ty p ed and d u p l i c a t e d on a s p i r i t d u p l i c a t o r . S e ts o f E x c e rp ts Three s e t s o f e x c e r p t s d e s i g n a t e d as Set A, S et B, and Set C were made up, one f o r each o f t h r e e g ro u p s of 2 See Appendix f o r a copy o f t h e I n s t r u c t i o n s to J u d g e s . 51 j u d g e s . Each s e t c o n s i s t e d o f tw e lv e e x c e r p t s , s i x sp e e c h ( i n d i v i d u a l ) e x c e r p t s and s i x d i s c u s s i o n ( m u l t i - i n d i v i d u a l ) e x c e r p t s . The e i g h t e e n e x c e r p t s were r o t a t e d so t h a t e ach e x c e r p t a p p e a r e d i n two s e t s , e ach s e t i n c l u d i n g s i x e x c e r p t s i n common w ith each o f t h e o t h e r two s e t s . S et A was made up o f E x c e r p t s 1 t h r o u g h 12; S e t B was made up o f E x c e r p t s 1 th r o u g h 6 and 13 t h r o u g h 1 8 ; S et C was made up o f E x c e r p t s 7 th ro u g h 18. Set A was a d m i n i s t e r e d t o Group A o f t h e j u d g e s , S et B t o Group B, and Set C t o group C. The P r o c e d u re T h is s tu d y was p la n n e d as an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e Bowman e x p e r i m e n t . The p u rp o se was t o complement t h e Bowman s tu d y by u t i l i z i n g p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g d i s c u s s i o n c o n t e n t drawn from an a c t u a l b u s i n e s s c o n f e r e n c e r a t h e r t h a n a c o n t r o l l e d l a b o r a t o r y d i s c u s s i o n and by i n v e s t i g a t i n g f u r t h e r t h e i n t r a i n d i v i d u a l , i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication r e l a t i o n s h i p . The e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n was d e v e lo p e d i n two p a r t s : f i r s t , t h e f i e l d s tu d y p h a se i n which t h e r e c o r d i n g o f t h e b u s i n e s s c o n f e r e n c e was s e c u r e d and t r a n s c r i b e d , and s e c o n d , th e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t p h a se i n which t h e m a t e r i a l was t e s t e d f o r e v id e n c e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l c o m m u n ic a tio n . A co m p a riso n w ith t h e Bow man s tu d y w i l l show why t h e two s t u d i e s were viewed as com p l i m e n t a r y t o one a n o t h e r . The F i e l d S tu d y The f i e l d s t u d y p h a s e o f t h e e x p e r im e n t d i v i d e d n a t u r a l l y i n t o t h r e e p a r t s : d e t e r m i n i n g what k in d o f r e a l l i f e d i s c u s s i o n would b e s t m eet t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e s t u d y , f i n d i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e and s e c u r i n g p e r m i s s i o n t o r e c o r d , a n d , f i n a l l y , r e c o r d i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e . R e a l i z i n g t h a t some com prom ises m ig h t be a p r a c t i c a l n e c e s s i t y , t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r e s t a b l i s h e d t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a f o r s e l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e t o be r e c o r d e d : ( 1 ) The c o n f e r e n c e s h o u ld be one co n v en ed t o r e s o l v e a s p e c i f i c p r o b le m ; i t s h o u ld n o t be a r o u t i n e s t a f f o r b u s i n e s s m e e t i n g . (2) The p ro b le m s h o u ld be s i g n i f i c a n t i n te rm s o f p o l i c y a n d / o r f i n a n c i a l com m itm ents. (3) The c o n f e r e n c e s h o u ld be one s c h e d u l e d p r i o r t o n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r perm issi-on t o r e c o r d , p o s s i b l y one s e s s i o n i n a s e r i e s o f m e e t i n g s . (4) In o r d e r t o f a c i l i t a t e p o s i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s and t o a v o i d t e c h n i c a l p ro b le m s in r e c o r d i n g , t h e optimum number o f p a r t i c i p a n t s would be f o u r t o s i x . (5) The d i s c u s s a n t s s h o u ld be e m p lo y ees a s s i g n e d by manage ment w i t h o u t r e g a r d f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d i s c u s s i o n would be r e c o r d e d . The s e a r c h f o r an o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e c o r d a c o n f e r ence e x t e n d e d o v e r s i x m o n th s. The main s t e p s were a s f o l low s: (1) I n f o r m a t i o n l e a d i n g t o t h e i n i t i a l c o n t a c t s w i t h I n d u s t r y was s e c u r e d t h r o u g h i n t e r v i e w s w i t h e i g h t f a c u l t y members i n b u s i n e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i n d u s t r i a l r e l a t i o n s , 53 and i n d u s t r i a l management a t t h r e e u n i v e r s i t i e s . (2) I n i t i a l a p p o in tm e n ts w ith i n d u s t r i a l p e r s o n n e l were made by t e l e p h o n e , a t which tim e t h e p u rp o se o f th e i n q u i r y was e x p l a i n e d b r i e f l y . (3) C o n ta c ts w ith i n d u s t r i a l p e r s o n n e l y i e l d e d s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r i n q u i r y . (4) The i n q u i r y was c o n tin u e d u n t i l p e r m is s i o n t o r e c o r d th e s a f e t y con f e r e n c e was s e c u r e d . The r e c o r d i n g was a c c o m p lish e d w i th o u t h a v in g e i t h e r th e r e c o r d e r o r t h e o p e r a t o r i n view o f th e d i s c u s s a n t s . The r e c o r d e r was p l a c e d i n a room n e x t t o th e c o n f e re n c e room, and a f o r t y - f o o t m icrophone cord was used so t h a t t h e m icrophone c o u ld be suspended from a l i g h t f i x t u r e o v e r th e c o n f e re n c e t a b l e . The e x p e r im e n te r used headphones to moni t o r and make n o te s d u r in g th e c o n f e r e n c e . The c o n f e re n c e r a n f o r 164 m in u tes and pro d u ced 2 9 ,1 3 7 w ords. A d u p l i c a t e o f th e ta p e was made as i n s u r a n c e a g a i n s t l o s s . A com plete t y p e s c r i p t was made, f i r s t in longhand and th e n ty p e d in d u p l i c a t e . The d u p l i c a t e t r a n s c r i p t s were used s i m u l t a n e o u s l y by t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r and t h e t y p i s t to check f o r a c c u ra c y as t h e t a p e was p la y e d and r e p l a y e d . A ll v o c a l i z e d p a u s e s , f a l s e s t a r t s , and o v e r l a p p in g e le m e n ts i n which more t h a n one p e r s o n spoke a t a tim e were t r a n s c r i b e d . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n was made th ro u g h d i r e c t a d d r e s s , s u b j e c t m a t e r i a l , v o ic e q u a l i t y and i n f l e c t i o n , and sp eech p a t t e r n and d i c t i o n . In c a s e o f doubt i n i d e n t i f y i n g v e ry s h o r t s p e e c h e s o r sp e e c h f r a g m e n t s , 54 v o ic e s were m atched a g a i n s t th o s e i n th e p r e p a r e d sp eeches by u s in g two r e c o r d e r s and th e two t a p e s . In a l l , 246 words were u n i d e n t i f i e d and u n a s s ig n e d . The E x p e rim e n ta l T e st The main p u rp o se o f th e t e s t was to d e te rm in e w h e th e r ju d g e s could d i s t i n g u i s h between i n d i v i d u a l speech e x c e r p t s and m u l t i - i n d i v i d u a l d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s . P r i o r to th e a c t u a l t e s t a d ry run was made w ith s e v e n te e n ju d g e s u s in g s e t s of t e n e x c e r p t s . Below each e x c e r p t was a s c a l e on which th e ju d g e was asked t o r e g i s t e r t h e d eg ree of con fid e n c e w ith which he had made h i s d e c i s i o n . A fte rw a rd , th e e x p e r im e n te r d i s c u s s e d th e t e s t w ith th e ju d g e s and d i s covered th e y were most co n cern ed about how to r a t e t h e i r own c o n f id e n c e . A ll r e p o r t e d th e y had had ample tim e f o r th e t e s t . A f t e r c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s e r e s p o n s e s th e exam iner d e c id e d to expand th e i n s t r u c t i o n s s l i g h t l y , i n c r e a s e th e num b e r o f e x c e r p t s to tw e l v e , and e l i m i n a t e th e c o n fid e n c e s c a le . U n d erg rad u a te s t u d e n t s in a r e q u i r e d speech co u rse s e rv e d as ju d g e s f o r th e e x p e r im e n ta l t e s t . The t e s t was a d m i n i s t e r e d in th e c la ssro o m s d u r in g r e g u l a r c l a s s p e r i o d s . Each s t u d e n t was given a s e t of tw elv e e x c e r p t s s t a p l e d t o g e t h e r w ith an i n s t r u c t i o n s h e e t as th e co v er page. As t h e t e s t s e t s were d i s t r i b u t e d , t h e e x p e r im e n te r e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e r e sh o u ld be no need t o h u r r y . The ju d g es were n o t t o l d t h a t each s e t c o n ta in e d an e q u a l number of th e two 55 k in d s o f e x c e r p t s . The ju d g e s were ask ed t o ( l ) r e a d each e x c e r p t and d e c id e w h eth er s e v e r a l members were p a r t i c i p a t in g o r w h e th e r one man was d o in g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g and ( 2 ) mark any words o r p h r a s e s t h a t s e rv e d as c l u e s . As each s t u d e n t f i n i s h e d th e t e s t , he handed t h e s e t t o th e e x p e r i m e n te r who was c a r e f u l t o n o te t h a t t h e c o v e r s h e e t had been s ig n e d . The t e s t s were n o t r e - u s e d . Comparison to Bowman Study One m ajo r o b j e c t i v e of t h i s s tu d y was t o i n t r o d u c e r e a l l i f e d i s c u s s i o n c o n te n t i n t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f p r o b le m - s o lv i n g d i s c u s s i o n . The o b j e c t o f p l a n n in g an e x t e n s i o n of th e Bowman e x p e rim e n t was to p r o v id e a b a s i s f o r com paring th e p r e s e n t stu d y w ith a more conven t i o n a l l a b o r a t o r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n of group p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g . The two s t u d i e s are com plem entary from th e p o i n t o f view o f b o th m ethodology and th e o r y o r i e n t a t i o n . S i m i l a r i t i e s . — These two s t u d i e s a r e s i g n i f l e a n t l y s i m i l a r i n t h e f o ll o w i n g r e s p e c t s : 1. Both e x p lo r e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l t o i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication. 2. Both sought t o d i s c o v e r t o what e x t e n t t h e gen e r a l problem co u ld be e x p lo r e d w h ile r e s t r i c t i n g th e d a t a to t h e w r i t t e n l i n g u i s t i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f t h e m essage. D uring most p h a se s o f th e e x p e rim e n ts b o th r e l i e d on t r a n s c r i p t s of t h e o r a l p r e s e n t a t i o n , o m i t t i n g b o th t h e v i s u a l 56 and a u d i t o r y s t i m u l i t h a t accompany t h e words i n an o r a l m e s s a g e . 3. Both u t i l i z e d in f o r m a l s m a ll group p r o b l e m - s o l v in g d i s c u s s i o n as th e ty p e o f com m unication s t u d i e d . Use o f th e s m a ll group i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e when e x p l o r in g com m unication i n g e n e r a l , as w e l l as when f o c u s i n g a t t e n t i o n on s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s in i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication. 4. Both drew t h e sam ples o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication from th e d i f f e r e n t p h a se s of a s i n g l e p r o b le m - s o lv i n g d i s c u s s i o n so t h a t f o r each e x p e r iment th e p e r s o n n e l and th e problem f a c t o r s re m a in e d con s t a n t . 5. Both r e l i e d on t h e e x c l u s i o n o f o r a l l i n g u i s t i c c lu e s as t h e means o f s e c u r i n g i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l d i s c u s s i o n c o n te n t f o r use in th e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t s . P o s s i b l e v i s u a l s i g n a l s from o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s may have c o n ta m in a te d t h e d a t a t o some e x t e n t in e i t h e r c a s e . 6 . Both employed samples o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m u n ic a tio n p ro d u ced in t h e p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r s . In b o th c a s e s i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t s o c i a l r e s t r a i n t s c a u se d c o n c e a l ment o f some i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l t h o u g h t s . I f any u n c o m p li m en tary o r p e r s o n a l th o u g h ts o c c u r r e d t o one o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , th e y were p r o b a b ly s u p p r e s s e d . The e x p e r i m e n t e r s would have had no way o f knowing w h e th e r such r e s t r a i n t s were o p e r a t i v e . 57 7. B oth in v o lv ed , an e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t u t i l i z i n g o b s e r v e r s who w ere a s k e d o n l y t o r e a d t h e d i s c u s s i o n con t e n t an d make s im p l e d e s c r i p t i v e r e s p o n s e s . 8 . Both d i s c u s s i o n g r o u p s h a d some c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e e x p e r i m e n t e r s b e f o r e t h e c o n f e r e n c e , and b o t h g r o u p s e x h i b i t e d a d e s i r e t o c o o p e r a t e . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h i s a t t i t u d e c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o t h e a c t u a l d i s c u s s i o n , i t w ould t e n d t o c o n t a m i n a t e . The e x p e r i m e n t e r s w ould p r e f e r t o h a v e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s m o t i v a t e d s o l e l y by an i n t e r e s t i n t h e p ro b le m . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e l a b o r a t o r y s t u d y , t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s w ere p r o b a b l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e i n q u i r y i t s e l f , i n t h e m e c h a n ic s o f t h e p r o c e d u r e as w e l l a s in t h e s u c c e s s o f a f r i e n d ' s p r o j e c t . ’ They may h av e f e l t i t w ould be u n f o r t u n a t e f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t i f t h e y s h o u l d s o l v e t h e p ro b le m t o o q u i c k l y . In t h e c a s e o f t h e s a f e t y c o n f e r e n c e , t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r was i n t r o d u c e d t o t h e c o n f e r e e s a s t h e y e n t e r e d t h e c o n f e r e n c e room. They w ere shown t h e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r r e c o r d i n g and t o l d o n ly t h a t t h i s was b e i n g done s o l e l y f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f a s t u d y a t a u n i v e r s i t y . W hile t h e e x p o s u r e o f t h e c o n f e r e e s t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r and h i s e q u ip m e n t was b r i e f , i t may h av e had some c o n t a m i n a t i n g e f f e c t . D i f f e r e n c e s . — T h e se two s t u d i e s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s p e c t s : 58 1. The d e s i g n and p u rp o se o f t h e t e s t s were d i f f e r e n t . Bowman gave h i s ju d g e s sc ra m b le d s p e e c h e s t o r e s t o r e t o t h e o r i g i n a l o r d e r . In t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y t h e ju d g e s were g iv e n d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s w i t h no i n d i c a t i o n o f w h e th e r th e y were c o n t r i b u t e d by one o r s e v e r a l p a r t i c i p a n t s , and th e y were a sk e d t o i d e n t i f y o n e - p e r s o n e x c e r p t s and m u l t i p e r s o n e x c e r p t s . In b r i e f , what was " g iv e n " t o t h e ju d g e s i n t h e Bowman e x p e r im e n t was t e s t e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y . 2. The s o u r c e s o f d i s c u s s i o n c o n t e n t were d i f f e r e n t . The d i s c u s s i o n c o n t e n t f o r t h e Bowman s tu d y was d e v e lo p e d In a c o n t r o l l e d l a b o r a t o r y s e t t i n g w hich a t b e s t was a r t i f i c i a l . The c o n t r o l s employed were th e m s e lv e s p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n . The p r e s e n t s tu d y u t i l i z e d a f i e l d s e t t i n g i n which th e l a c k o f c o n t r o l s l e f t t h e g a t h e r e d m a t e r i a l v u l n e r a b l e t o such s o u rc e s o f c o n ta m in a t i o n as t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e o f o u t s i d e n o i s e s and t h e e f f e c t s o f f a t i g u e r e s u l t i n g from an e x te n d e d d i s c u s s i o n p e r i o d . S in c e no means seemed a v a i l a b l e f o r s e c u r i n g th e a d v a n ta g e s o f b o t h In a s i n g l e s t u d y , i t was a m a t t e r o f t r a d i n g t h e a d v a n ta g e s o f one f o r t h e a d v a n ta g e s o f t h e o t h e r . By d e v e l o p i n g a companion s t u d y , h o w ev er, one m ight be view ed as s u p p le m e n tin g th e o t h e r . The f o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c exam ples w i l l i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s . 3. The means o f s e c u r i n g i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l communi c a t i o n c o n t e n t t o be u s e d i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t s were 59 d i f f e r e n t . D uring one phase o f th e l a b o r a t o r y d i s c u s s i o n th e e x p e r im e n te r sought t o p r e v e n t i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m u n ic a tio n by h a v in g th e d i s c u s s a n t s wear e a r p l u g s . This c r e a t e d an a r t i f i c i a l s p e a k in g s i t u a t i o n in t h a t i t f o rc e d p a r t i c i p a n t s t o speak in th e p re se n c e of o t h e r s , knowing th e y could not h e a r . T h is i n a b i l i t y t o h e a r may have f r u s t r a t e d th e s p e a k e r and th u s produced a t y p i c a l l i n g u i s t i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . The i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication sam ples f o r th e p r e s e n t stu d y were s e l e c t e d from i n d i v i d u a l r e p o r t s p r e pa re d in advance of th e c o n f e re n c e . Thus, th e p r e s e n t stu d y p u rc h a se d n a t u r a l n e s s a t th e c o s t of p o s s i b l e c o n ta m in a tio n r e s u l t i n g from t h e f a c t t h a t each s p e a k e r co u ld re a d th e fa c e s of h i s l i s t e n e r s f o r e v id en ce of a p p r o v a l , d o u b t, amusement, e t c e t e r a . The e x p e r im e n te r could not use such c o n t r o l s as a re employed i n l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s . In b o th c a ses some degree of c o n ta m in a tio n by v i s u a l s t i m u l i i s h i g h l y p r o b a b l e . In th e f i r s t c a s e , s ig n s o f i n a t t e n t i o n might have had a d i s t r a c t i n g or f r u s t r a t i n g i n f l u e n c e ; i n t h e seco n d , s ig n s of a p p r o v a l , d is a g r e e m e n t, e t c e t e r a may have te n d e d to s t i m u l a t e i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication, th u s r e n d e r i n g th e c o n te n t more d i f f i c u l t to d i s t i n g u i s h from d i s c u s s i o n c o n t e n t . 4. The b a s i s f o r s e l e c t i n g ju d g e s was d i f f e r e n t . Bowman s e l e c t e d e x p e r t ju d g e s who were speech t e a c h e r s and g r a d u a te s t u d e n t s m a jo rin g in speech w ith e x p e r ie n c e and 60 t r a i n i n g i n group d i s c u s s i o n . The p r e s e n t s tu d y u t i l i z e d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s . The use o f t e a c h e r s o f speech and g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , such as Bowman u s e d , would presum ably have t e s t e d th e h y p o t h e s i s u n d e r more f a v o r a b l e c o n d i t i o n s . The c h o ic e o f la y ju d g e s f o r th e second e x p e rim e n t was f o r th e p u rp o se o f t e s t i n g w h e th e r th e y co u ld s e r v e s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f C o lle g e Board s c o r e s and th e l i k e l i h o o d o f s e c u r i n g a w id e r ran g e o f l i n g u i s t i c a b i l i t y were a l s o f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g th e c h o i c e . 5. The r o l e s p la y e d by th e e x p e r i m e n t e r s d u r in g t h e d i s c u s s i o n s were d i f f e r e n t . For th e l a b o r a t o r y s tu d y th e e x p e r i m e n t e r was p r e s e n t th ro u g h b o th p h a se s o f th e d i s c u s s i o n . In a d d i t i o n to o p e r a t i n g t h e r e c o r d i n g e q u i p ment in f u l l view of th e p a r t i c i p a n t s , he was an o b s e r v e r and tim e k e e p e r . I t i s d o u b t f u l w h e th e r t h e s e f u n c t i o n s were a c c o m p lish e d w ith o u t a f f e c t i n g th e d i s c u s s i o n t o some e x t e n t . R e c o rd in g th e s a f e t y c o n fe re n c e was a c c o m p lish e d w i t h o u t h a v in g th e e x p e r i m e n t e r o r any o f th e equipm ent w i t h i n th e norm al v i s u a l f i e l d o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . Whether th e y o c c a s i o n a l l y g la n c e d tow ard t h e c e i l i n g and n o t i c e d th e m icrophone o v e rh e a d o r t h e co rd r u n n in g a c r o s s th e c e i l i n g i s n o t known. I t would be u n r e a s o n a b le to assume t h a t t h i s had no e f f e c t on th e c o n f e r e n c e ; how ever, th e e x p e r i m e n t e r was u n a b le t o d i s c o v e r any e v id e n c e t h a t i t a c t u a l l y made a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p r o c e e d i n g s . 61 6 . The b a s i s on which th e p a r t i c i p a n t s were chosen was q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f o r th e two d i s c u s s i o n s . For t h e l a b o r a t o r y d i s c u s s i o n t h e f o u r p a r t i c i p a n t s were g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s i n sp e e c h . The e x p e r i m e n t e r e x p l a i n e d t h a t a l l had had c o n s i d e r a b l e t r a i n i n g and e x p e r i e n c e as p a r t i c i p a n t s i n group d i s c u s s i o n and t h a t none co u ld r e a d l i p s . Presum ably th e y were f r i e n d s o f th e e x p e r i m e n t e r and were m o tiv a te d i n p a r t , a t l e a s t , by a d e s i r e t o be h e l p f u l . P a r t i c i p a n t s in th e s a f e t y c o n f e re n c e were chosen by t h e company's C h ie f o f S a f e t y . He e x p l a i n e d t o them at a p r e l i m i n a r y s e s s i o n t h a t th e y had been ch o sen t o r e p r e s e n t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p l a n t s , t h a t he had d e l i b e r a t e l y s e l e c t e d some "o ld t i m e r s " f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e i r e x p e r ie n c e i n p r e v io u s s a f e t y campaigns and some "new blo o d " t h a t would be a b le to c o n t r i b u t e f r e s h i d e a s . The s i x men were a l l s a f e t y e n g i n e e r s who, a lo n g w ith o t h e r p l a n t s a f e t y e n g i n e e r s , would be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s u c c e s s or f a i l u r e of th e campaign. For two o f th e men t h i s was th e f i r s t e x p e r ie n c e as a p l a n t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a t a companywide s a f e t y c o n f e r e n c e , an im p lie d r e c o g n i t i o n and a p p r o v a l by management. 7. The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e d i s c u s s a n t s to t h e p r o blem was q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . The p roblem f o r th e l a b o r a t o r y d i s c u s s i o n was c a l l e d "The J a c k Donavan C a s e ." I t was a c a r e f u l l y c o n s t r u c t e d p u z z le ty p e o f problem w ith a l l e s s e n t i a l e v id e n c e g iv e n t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s , and th e 62 s o l u t i o n depended s o l e l y on t h e use o f d e d u c t i v e r e a s o n i n g . The o b j e c t was to f i g u r e o u t who k i l l e d J a c k Donavan. The e x p e r i m e n t e r e x p l a i n e d t h a t h i s o b j e c t was " to f i n d a p r o blem t h a t was new to th e d i s c u s s a n t s , i n t e r e s t i n g and 3 c h a l l e n g i n g . " The problem f o r t h e s a f e t y c o n f e r e n c e was chosen by th e E x e c u tiv e S a f e ty Committee composed o f management p e r s o n n e l. T h is problem had r e a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r th e d i s c u s s a n t s o u t s i d e t h e c o n f e re n c e room. 8 . The m o t i v a t i o n o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s was q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f o r th e two d i s c u s s i o n g r o u p s . P a r t i c i p a n t s i n th e l a b o r a t o r y d i s c u s s i o n co u ld n o t have been m o t i v a t e d by any in v o lv e m e n t i n th e p roblem o u t s i d e th e c o n f e r e n c e . T h e i r work on th e problem d id not r e s u l t i n any p e r s o n a l commitment o r rew ard o u t s i d e th e l a b o r a t o r y . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t in two h a l f - h o u r d i s c u s s i o n p e r i o d s th e y d id n o t s o lv e t h e p roblem . The e x p e r i m e n t e r d id not s t a t e w h e th e r any o f th e p a r t i c i p a n t s w anted to c o n t i n u e u n t i l a s o l u t i o n was found o r w h e th e r any o f them ask ed to keep a copy o f t h e problem . T here was c o n s i d e r a b l e e v id e n c e o f m o t i v a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s in th e s a f e t y c o n f e r e n c e . They had r e c e i v e d n o t i c e o f t h e i r ap p o in tm e n t t o th e com m ittee two weeks e a r l i e r , and th e y a l l a t t e n d e d a p r e l i m i n a r y s e s s i o n one week b e f o r e th e c o n f e r e n c e . At t h e p r e l i m i n a r y m e e tin g 3 Bowman, o p . c i t . , p. 29. 63 th e y chose a chairm an and a s e c r e t a r y and e s t a b l i s h e d b ro a d o b j e c t i v e s f o r t h e cam paign. D u rin g t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h e s a f e t y e n g i n e e r s were aware t h a t th e y were a s k in g f o r a s p e c i a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n am ounting t o more t h a n t h r e e th o u sa n d d o l l a r s p e r month f o r t h e l a s t h a l f o f t h e c a l e n d a r y e a r . They a l s o r e a l i z e d t h a t th e y were making d e c i s i o n s t o which th e y and o t h e r s a f e t y e n g i n e e r s would be com m itted f o r s i x m o n th s . CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA To answ er t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e th e r la y ju d g e s can d i s t i n g u i s h i n d i v i d u a l i d e a developm ent from group i d e a d e v e lo p m e n t, t h r e e g ro u p s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s were a sk e d t o d i s t i n g u i s h i n d i v i d u a l and m u l t i - p e r s o n communica t i o n c o n t e n t from an a c t u a l b u s i n e s s c o n f e r e n c e . Nine d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s and n in e i n d i v i d u a l sp eech e x c e r p t s were s e l e c t e d f o r th e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t . ” 1 " By u s in g each e x c e r p t t w i c e , i t was p o s s i b l e to a ssem b le t h r e e s e t s of tw e lv e e x c e r p t s , one f o r each group o f j u d g e s . The e i g h t e e n e x c e r p t s were r o t a t e d so t h a t ( 1 ) each e x c e r p t was p r e s e n t e d t o two g r o u p s , ( 2 ) no e x c e r p t was p r e s e n t e d t o t h r e e g ro u p s, and ( 3 ) each s e t c o n s i s t e d o f s i x d i s c u s s i o n and s i x speech e x c e r p t s . T e s t D ata In r e c o r d i n g t h e d a t a , t h e t h r e e groups o f ju d g e s were i d e n t i f i e d as Group A, Group B, and Group C. The d a t a d e r i v e d from each t e s t group a re p r e s e n t e d i n s e p a r a t e t a b l e s showing t h e r e s p o n s e s o f each j u d g e . T a b le 1 ■^See pp. 49-51. 64 65 p r e s e n t s th e d a t a from Group A; Group B and Group C r e s u l t s a re shown i n Table 2 and T able 3. In each c a s e , th e s c o re s p r e s e n t e d In t h e r i g h t - h a n d column show th e number o f c o r r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s made by each ju d g e ; th e group s c o re s r e c o rd e d on th e bottom l i n e show how many ju d g e s marked each e x c e r p t c o r r e c t l y . I n s p e c t i o n o f th e d a t a r e v e a l s t h a t (1) th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s c o r e s was h e a v i e s t tow ard th e maximum s c o r e , ( 2 ) only f i v e ju d g es sc o re d l e s s th a n t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f th e p o s s i b l e s c o r e , and ( 3 ) only one ju d g e sc o re d l e s s th a n t w o - t h i r d s . Table 4 shows d i s t r i b u t i o n of s c o re s w i t h i n each o f th e t h r e e groups and f o r th e t e s t as a whole. A com parison of t h e s c o re s o f th e t h r e e groups r e v e a l s a g e n e r a l c o n s i s t e n c y . The median s c o re s a re th e same, e le v e n in a l l t h r e e g ro u p s , and th e mean sc o re v a r i e s l e s s th a n o n e - t e n t h o f a p o i n t . T his s u p p o rts th e assump t i o n t h a t a l l ju d g e s were drawn from th e same p o p u l a t i o n . One o b j e c t i v e of th e e x p e r im e n ta l t e s t was t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r ju d g e s would e x p e r ie n c e more d i f f i c u l t y in c l a s s i f y i n g th e speech c o n te n t of some p a r t i c i p a n t s th a n o f o t h e r s . A check of t h e number o f tim e s e a c h e x c e r p t was c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d r e v e a l e d t h a t group s c o r e s on speech e x c e r p t s v a r i e d as much as t e n p o i n t s , and f u r t h e r i n s p e c t i o n o f th e d a t a showed t h a t speech e x c e r p t s were m isjudged more f r e q u e n t l y th a n d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s . A com parison of th e a c c u ra c y of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of d i s c u s s i o n and speech 66 TABLE 1 IDENTIFICATION OF SET A EXCERPTS BY JUDGES IN GROUP A T 1 1 H r r o S et A E x c e r p t s O U.L1 g j t i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 u L U I c 1 d s d s s d d d* d d* s d 1 0 2 s* d* d d* s d d d* d s s d 8 3 d s d s s d d d* d s d* d 1 0 d s d s s. d d s d s s d 1 2 5 d s d s s d d s d s s d 1 2 6 d d* d s s d d d* d d* s d 9 7 d s d s s d d s d s s d 1 2 8 d s d s s d d s d s s d 1 2 9 d d* d s s d d s d s s d 1 1 1 0 d s d s s d d s d s s d 1 2 1 1 d s d s d* d d d* d d* s d 9 1 2 d s d s s d d s d s s d 1 2 13 d s d s s d d s d s s d 1 2 i4 d d* d d* s d d s d s s d 1 0 15 d s d s s d d s d d* s d 1 1 16 d s d s s d d s s* d* s d 1 0 17 d s d s s d d s d s d* d 1 1 18 d s d s s d d s d s s d 1 2 19 d s d s s d d d* d s s d 1 1 2 0 d s d s s d d d* d s d* d 1 0 2 1 d s d s s d d d* d d* s d 1 0 2 2 d s d s s d d s d s s d 1 2 23 d s d s s d d s d d* * s d 1 1 24 d s d d* s d d d* d s d* d 9 Group S core 23 2 0 24 2 1 23 24 24 15 23 17 2 0 24 NOTE: The l e t t e r s d and s_ d e n o te d i s c u s s i o n and s p e e c h . The a s t e r i s k (*) i n d i c a t e s i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s . 67 TABLE 2 IDENTIFICATION OF SET B EXCERPTS BY JUDGES IN GROUP B Judge S et B E x c e r p t s Q p piy»p» 1 2 3 4 5 6 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 d d* d s s d d* s d d s d 10 2 d d* d d* d* d d* d* d d d* d 6 3 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 4 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 5 d s d d* s d s s d d s d 11 6 d s d s s d d# d* d s* s s* 8 7 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 8 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 9 d s d s s d d* s d d s d 11 10 d s d d* s d d* s d d s d 10 11 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 12 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 13 d d* d s s d d* s d d s d 10 l4 d d* d s d* d s s d d d* d 9 15 d s d s s d s d* d d s d 11 16 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 17 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 18 d s d s s d s c : k . - d d s d 12 19 d d* d s s d d* s d d s d 10 20 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 21 d s d s s d s s d d d* d 11 22 d d* d s s d d* s d d s d 10 23 s* s d s s d s d* d d d* d 9 24 d d* d s s d s d* d d s d 10 25 d s d d* s d s s d d s d 11 Group S c o re 18 25 21 23 25 17 20 25 24 21 24 • • NOTE: The l e t t e r s d and s_ d e n o te d i s c u s s i o n and s p e e c h . The a s t e r i s k (* ) i n d i c a t e s i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s . 68 TABLE 3 IDENTIFICATION OF SET C EXCERPTS BY JUDGES IN GROUP C Ju d g e Set C E x c e r p t s Score 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 d s d d* s d s s d d s d 11 2 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 3 d s d s s d s d* d d s d 11 4 d s d d* s d s s d d d* s* 9 5 d s d d* s d s d* d d s d 10 6 d s d s s d s s d d d* s* 10 7 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 8 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 9 d s d d* s d s s d d s d 11 10 d d* d d* s d s d* d d s d 9 11 d s d s s d d* s d d d* d 10 12 d s d d* s d s s d d s d 11 13 d d* d d* s d s d* d d d* d 8 14 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 15 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 16 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 17 d s d s s d s d* d d s d 11 18 d d* d d* s d d* s d d d* d 8 19 d s d d* s d d* s d d d* d 9 20 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 21 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 22 d d* d s s d s s d d s d 11 23 d s d d* s d d* s d d s d 10 24 d s d s s d s s d d s d 12 25 d d* d s s d s s d d s d 11 Group Score 25 20 25 15 25 25 21 20 25 25 19 23 • • NOTE: The l e t t e r s d and s_ d e n o te d i s c u s s i o n and s p e e c h . The a s t e r i s k (* ) i n d i c a t e s i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s . 69 TABLE 4 DISTRIBUTION AND SUMMARY OF JUDGES' SCORES Scores u U.LJ. o 12 11 10 9 8 6 i u u a x i T C C L l 1 Group A 9 5 6 3 1 0 24 10.75 Group B 10 5 6 2 1 1 25 1 0 .6 8 Group C 9 7 4 3 2 0 , 25 10 . 72 T o t a l 28 17 16 8 4 1 74 OJ C-- o 1 —1 P e r c e n ta g e 38 23 22 11 5 1 100 • * 70 e x c e r p t s i s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le 5. The r a t i o o f e r r o r s i n i d e n t i f y i n g d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s t o e r r o r s i n i d e n t i f y i n g s p e e c h e x c e r p t s was one t o t w e l v e , and t h i s r a t i o re m a in e d n e a r l y c o n s t a n t f o r t h e t h r e e g ro u p s o f j u d g e s . W hile t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e ju d g e s i n i d e n t i f y i n g a l l e x c e r p t s was 8 9 .3 p e r c e n t , t h e i r a c c u r acy i n i d e n t i f y i n g s p e e c h e x c e r p t s was 8 0 . 2 p e r c e n t as c o n t r a s t e d w i t h 9 8 . 5 p e r c e n t a c c u r a c y in i d e n t i f y i n g d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s . R e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e T e s t O b s e r v in g t h a t t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t a p p e a r e d t o be s i g n i f i c a n t i n te rm s o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s t u d y , t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r s o u g h t t o d e te r m in e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e t e s t by ( 1 ) c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d e g r e e o f c o n s i s t e n c y b e tw e e n g ro u p s o f ju d g e s and ( 2 ) t e s t i n g f o r t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e t e s t m e a s u re m e n ts . S in c e e ach e x c e r p t had b e e n c l a s s i f i e d by two g ro u p s o f j u d g e s , i t was p o s s i b l e t o compare t h e two s e t s o f g ro u p s s c o r e s as shown i n T a b le 6 . I t was n o t e d t h a t t h e s c o r e s on t h e d i f f e r e n t ite m s te n d e d t o f l u c t u a t e t o g e t h e r ; t h a t i s , when one group o f ju d g e s e x p e r i e n c e d d i f f i c u l t y i n i d e n t i f y i n g a g iv e n e x c e r p t , t h e o t h e r group u s u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e d a c o m p a ra b le d e g r e e o f d i f f i c u l t y . To t e s t t h e c o n s i s t e n c y among a l l t h r e e s e t s o f j u d g m e n t s , a p r o d u c t - 71 TABLE 5 COMPARISON OF THE ACCURACY OF IDENTIFICATION OF DISCUSSION AND SPEECH EXCERPTS E x c e rp ts Group A Group B Group C rp„4 -fl-| (24 J u d g e s ) ( 2 5 J u d g e s ) ( 2 5 J u d g e s) D i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s T o t a l r e s p o n s e s 144 E r r o r s 2 C o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s 142 P e r c e n ta g e c o r r e c t 98.6 150 3 147 98.0 150 2 148 98.7 444 7 437 98.5 Speech e x c e r p t s T o t a l r e s p o n s e s 144 E r r o r s 2 8 C o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s 116 P e r c e n ta g e c o r r e c t 80.6 150 30 120 8 0 .0 150 30 120 80.0 444 88 356 80.2 Combined e x c e r p t s T o t a l r e s p o n s e s 288 E r r o r s 30 C o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s 258 P e r c e n ta g e c o r r e c t 8 9 .6 300 33 267 8 9 .0 300 32 268 8 9 .O 888 95 793 89.3 72 TABLE 6 COMPARISON OF GROUP SCORES Group A Group B Group C (24 Ju d g e s) (25 J u d g e s) (25 Judges) 1 . Discussion 23 24 2 . Speech (Ern) 20 18 3. Discussion 24 25 4. Speech (Art) 21 21 5. Speech (Bud) 23 23 6 . Discussion 24 25 7. Discussion 24 25 8 . Speech (Bud) 15 20 9. Discussion 23 25 1 0 . Speech (Don) 17 15 1 1 . Speech (Fox) 20 25 12 . Dis cus s ion 24 25 13. Speech (Ern) 17 21 14. Speech (Don) 20 20 15. Discussion 25 25 1 6 . Discus sion 24 25 • t—! Speech (Art) 21 19 1 8 . Discuss ion 24 23 2 moment c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a t i o n was c a l c u l a t e d . The r e s u l t i n g c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a t i o n was . 7 5 2 ; t h e r e f o r e , w i t h o n ly two v a r i a b l e s and s e v e n t e e n d e g r e e s o f fre e d o m , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s o f o n ly a ch a n c e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n any two s e t s o f ju d g m e n ts was r e j e c t e d a t below t h e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . The most c r i t i c a l t e s t f o r t h i s e x p e r i m e n t was t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y w i t h w hich l a y ju d g e s were a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h i n d i v i d u a l and g ro u p i d e a d e v e lo p m e n t. The b i n o m i a l t e s t was a d o p te d a s a t e s t o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e o b s e r v e d fre q u e n c y o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s and t h e f r e q u e n c y o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s e x p e c t e d on t h e b a s i s o f c h a n c e . The n u l l hyp o t h e s i s t e s t e d was t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f s e c u r i n g c o r r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n would be e x a c t l y .5 ( f i f t y p e r c e n t ) . The 3 b i n o m i a l t e s t was a p p l i e d t o t h e com bined s c o r e s f o r e ach e x c e r p t as shown i n T a b le 7 t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e b i n o m i a l t e s t . As s u g g e s t e d by S i e g e l , r e j e c t i o n o f t h e n u l l hyp o t h e s i s was s e t a t t h e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e i n — 5 s t e a d o f t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l commonly u s e d ; a l l ^ J . P. G u i l f o r d , F u n d a m e n ta l S t a t i s t i c s i n P s y c h o l ogy and E d u c a t i o n ( t h i r d e d i t i o n ; New York: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 5 6 ) , pp. 1 3 8 - 1 4 1 , 539. ■^Signey S i e g e l , N o n p a r a m e tr ic S t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s (New York: M cG raw -H ill Book, Company, I n c . , 1 9 5 6 ) , pp. 3 5 - 4 2 , 2 4 7 -2 5 0 . ^ I b i d . , pp. 39- ^ 0 . 5 G u i l f o r d , o p . c i t . , pp. 5 3 8 -5 4 1 . 7 4 TABLE 7 DISTRIBUTION OP ERRORS AMONG EXCERPTS AND BINOMIAL TEST FOR SIGNIFICANCE E x c e rp t C o r r e c t Responses I n c o r r e c t R esponses P 1 . D i s c u s s i o n 47 2 .0001 2 . Speech (Ern 38 11 .0002 3. D is c u s s io n 49 0 .0001 4. Speech (A rt) 42 7 .0001 5. Speech (Bud) 46 3 . 0001 6 . D i s c u s s i o n 49 0 .0001 7. D is c u s s io n 49 0 .0001 8. Speech (Bud) 35 14 .0023 9. D iscus s io n 48 1 . 0001 10 . Speech (Don) 32 17 .0228 11. Speech (Fox) 45 4 . 0001 12 . D i s c u s s i o n 49 0 . 0001 13. Speech (Ern) 38 12 .0003 14. Speech (Don) 40 10 .0001 15. D i s c u s s i o n 50 0 .0001 1 6 . D i s c u s s i o n 49 1 .0001 17. Speech (A rt) 40 10 .0001 • CO i — \ D iscus s io n 47 3 .0001 75 e x c e r p t s e x c e p t E x c e r p t 10 met t h e t e s t . E x c e r p t 10 a t t h e .0228 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e w ould have met t h e t e s t a t t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l o f r e j e c t i o n . F o r s i x t e e n o f t h e e i g h t e e n t e s t i t e m s , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d a t t h e .001 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . F o r t h e t e s t as a w h o le , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d and t h e a c c u r a c y o f l a y j u d g e s i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i n d i v i d u a l and g ro u p i d e a d e v e lo p m e n t was a c c e p t e d as d i f f e r i n g v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y from c h a n c e . The e x p e r i m e n t e r was i n t e r e s t e d n o t o n ly i n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e j u d g e s w ere a b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e two k i n d s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n b u t a l s o why some j u d g e s were more a c c u r a t e i n t h e i r j u d g m e n t s . In o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r j u d g e s ’ s c o r e s had v a r i e d c o n s i s t e n t l y i n r e l a t i o n t o C o l l e g e B oard s c o r e s o r t h e p r e d i c t e d g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e s , t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r h ad a c o r r e l a t i o n ru n a t t h e Clemson U n i v e r s i t y Com puter C e n t e r . The j u d g e s ’ s c o r e s were c o r r e l a t e d w i t h (1) t h e C o l l e g e B oard v e r b a l s c o r e , (2) t h e C o l l e g e B oard math s c o r e , and (3) t h e p r e d i c t e d g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e . A summary o f t h e r e s u l t s i s shown i n T a b le 8. The t h r e e c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e g ro u p as a w hole were p o s i t i v e , b u t none was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l . The c o r r e l a t i o n o f j u d g e s ' s c o r e s t o t h e C o l l e g e B oard v e r b a l s c o r e came n e a r e s t t o b e i n g s i g n i f i c a n t . W ith a c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a t i o n o f .217 and 71 d e g r e e s o f f r e e dom, t h i s was o n ly .016 b elo w t h e .233 l i m i t f o r t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . S e p a r a t e c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r 76 TABLE 8 CORRELATION OF JUDGES’ SCORES WITH ACADEMIC DATA Academic R a tin g s Group A (21 d f) Group B (23 d f) Group C (23 d f) T o t a l (71 d f) SAT V e rb a l Score .254 .327 .054 .217 t R a tio 1.203 1.659 .263 1.877 SAT Mat Score .518 - .218 .053 .073 t_ R a tio 2.778 1.069 .257 .619 P r e d i c t e d GPA .314 - .045 - .0 4 3 .078 t_ R a tio 1.515 .219 .211 .663 d f = D egrees o f Freedom SAT = C o lle g e Board S c h o l a s t i c A p titu d e T e st GPA = Grade P o in t Average 77 each group a r e a l s o shown i n T a b le 8, b u t t h e s e a p p e a r e d to be c o n t r a d i c t o r y . A p p a r e n t l y , th e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e t h r e e g ro u p s o f ju d g e s s h o u ld be r e g a r d e d as m e a n in g le s s sample d i f f e r e n c e s . The f i n a l o b j e c t i v e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t was to d i s c o v e r what c l u e s ju d g e s a re a b l e t o i d e n t i f y as h e l p f u l i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i n d i v i d u a l and group i d e a d e v e lo p m e n t. I n s t r u c t i o n s t o th e ju d g e s w e re , "Mark any words o r p h r a s e s t h a t s e r v e as c l u e s . Make any n o t e s o r marks you l i k e . " At t h e end o f each e x c e r p t t h e r e was a r e m in d e r to u n d e r l i n e words o r p h r a s e s t h a t had s e rv e d as c l u e s . ^ Most ju d g e s made some marks on e v e ry e x c e r p t , and s e v e r a l made f r e q u e n t comments betw een l i n e s o r in t h e m a r g in s . O ther th a n th e u n d e r l i n i n g , th e most f r e q u e n t l y used mark was a s l a s h b etw een s e n t e n c e s , a p p a r e n t l y i n t e n d e d t o i n d i c a t e a change o f s p e a k e r s . The s l a s h e s , how ever, gave l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n o f which l i n g u i s t i c e le m e n ts th e ju d g e s were n o t i n g . The r e s p o n s e s o f t h e t w e n t y - e i g h t ju d g e s who i d e n t i f i e d a l l e x c e r p t s c o r r e c t l y were ta k e n as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h o s e d e t e r m i n i n g c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s . Of t h e s e j u d g e s , t w e n t y - s i x marked e x p r e s s i o n s o f ag reem en t and d is a g r e e m e n t ("Sure," "T h a ts r i g h t , " " N o , " "Yeah, b u t . . . . " ) as c l u e s t h e y used t o i d e n t i f y d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s . Twenty g See Appendix. 78 ju d g e s checked q u e s t i o n s and answ ers on d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s a n d / o r n o te d t h e l a c k o f q u e s t i o n s in sp eech e x c e r p t s . S i x t e e n ju d g e s w ro te i n such comments as " d i f f e r e n t i d e a s , " "no b r e a k in t h o u g h t , " " c o n t i n u i t y o f t h o u g h t , " e t c e t e r a . F re q u e n t use o f t h e pronoun " I" was i n d i c a t e d by f i f t e e n o f th e t w e n t y - e i g h t as e v id e n c e o f a sp eech e x c e r p t s , b u t t h e y f a i l e d t o comment on th e f r e q u e n t o c c u r re n c e o f " I" in some d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s . O th e r i d e n t i f y i n g c lu e s used in c o n j u n c t i o n w ith u n d e r l i n i n g a n d / o r s l a s h marks were " l o n g , smooth s e n t e n c e s " in sp e e c h e s as c o n t r a s t e d w ith " s h o r t , choppy s e n t e n c e s " in t h e d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s ; " c o o r d i n a t e s " ; "good E n g lis h " and "poor E n g l i s h " ; " t y i n g s e n te n c e s t o g e t h e r w ith 'now' and ' t h e s e ' " ; and " th e same guy r e p e a t s . " Of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t w ith r e s p e c t t o th e use of c lu e s were th e n o te s made by s i x of t h e s e t w e n t y - e i g h t ju d g e s on c e r t a i n sp eech e x c e r p t s . Although th e y marked th e e x c e r p t s c o r r e c t l y , th e y seemed to be i n d i c a t i n g con t r a d i c t o r y e v id e n c e . They sometimes p l a c e d a q u e s t i o n mark a t a g iv e n j u n c t u r e , and some w rote in " I s t h i s a b re a k ? " "Sounds l i k e a n o t h e r s p e a k e r , b u t I doubt i t , " e t c e t e r a . Three o f them p l a c e d such marks on th e one sp e e c h e x c e r p t m isju d g e s more f r e q u e n t l y th a n any o t h e r e x c e r p t u sed in t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t (E x c e rp t 10). E r r o r s in i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f sp eech e x c e r p t s were u s u a l l y accompanied by th e u n d e r l i n i n g of s h o r t s t a t e m e n t s or o f i n i t i a l words or p h r a s e s in lo n g e r s e n t e n c e s . To th e e x a m in e r, th e e f f e c t o f t h e s e u n d e r l i n i n g s was to c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o th e la c k of t r a n s i t i o n s and to s u g g e st i n d e c i s io n on th e p a r t o f th e s p e a k e r. Of th e s e v e n te e n who ju d g ed E x c e rp t 10 (Don's speech) as d i s c u s s i o n , f o u r t e e n u n d e r l i n e d "Gee, I n o t i c e d them t h i n g s " ; s i x u n d e r l in e d "But i t ’s a s a f e t y message" and "I t h i n k th e l e t t e r sh o u ld be. . . ." The f i r s t word or p h ra se in th e s e n te n c e was more f r e q u e n t l y marked th a n any o t h e r elem en t in th e speech e x c e r p t s ; th e speech e x c e r p t s d id n o t , o f c o u r s e , in c lu d e q u e s t i o n s o r s ta t e m e n t s o f ag reem en t. Ten of th e f o u r t e e n who m issed E x c erp t 8 (B ud's speech) marked "I d o n 't know" as one o f t h e i r c l u e s , and most of th e u n d e r l i n i n g c l u s t e r e d around t h i s p o in t in th e sp eech ; seven marked th e p r e c e d in g s ta te m e n t and f i v e marked t h e f o ll o w i n g one. Twelve ju d g e s m issed E x c e rp t 13 ( E r n 's speech) and e i g h t of them marked th e p h r a s e , "A word about p u b l i c a t i o n s , " which i n t r o d u c e d a n o th e r i d e a . E leven m issed E x c erp t 2 ( E r n 's s p e e c h ) , w ith a l l o f t h e marks c o n c e n t r a t e d on "Now, I t h i n k , " "I hope i t may be p o s s i b l e , " "A lso, i f you . . . , " and "Like you men t i o n e d . " In c o n te x t t h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s seemed t o s u g g e s t to some ju d g e s t h a t a n o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t was h e l p i n g out w ith minor r e f i n e m e n t s when, in f a c t , th e same s p e a k e r was only a d d in g som ething t o what he had j u s t s a i d . The two sp eech es t h a t were each m isju d g ed t e n tim e s were marked in th e same way, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t ju d g e s were m isle d by th e in fo r m a l h a n d lin g o f i d e a s . 80 From a n a l y s i s of t h e s e n o te s and marks made by th e j u d g e s , th e e x p e r im e n te r co n clu d ed t h a t th e ju d g e s r e l i e d most h e a v i l y on e x p r e s s i o n of agreem ent and d isa g re e m e n t ( " R i g h t ! 1 1 "Oh, n o ." ) i n i d e n t i f y i n g d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s ; r e l i a n c e on q u e s ti o n s and a n sw e rs, s h o r t , choppy s e n t e n c e s , and change of th o u g h t o r a t t i t u d e i n c l u d i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s fo llo w e d in t h a t o r d e r . Some speech e x c e r p t s were i d e n t i f i e d by f r e q u e n t use o f th e f i r s t p e rso n s i n g u l a r , c o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s , lo n g s e n t e n c e s , and a more fo rm al s t r u c t u r e . A n a ly s is o f th e e r r o r s in c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f speech e x c e r p t s d i s c l o s e d t h a t most m is ta k e s o c c u r r e d where th e speech was l o o s e l y s t r u c t u r e d , where id e a s seemed t o come up s p o n ta n e o u s ly r a t h e r th a n h a v in g been a n t i c i p a t e d by th e s p e a k e r. S e v e r a l ju d g e s seemed t c have g e n e r a l i z e d t h a t lo n g e r i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s would be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by lo n g , smooth s e n te n c e s of one t a k i n g a d e f i n i t e s t a n d on an i s s u e , t h a t th e s l i g h t e s t e x p r e s s i o n of doubt o r any d i s c e r n i b l e change in th e d i r e c t i o n of t h i n k i n g c o u ld be a t t r i b u t e d only to a change o f s p e a k e r. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f T e st Data Q u e s tio n 1 Can la y ju d g e s d i s t i n g u i s h i n d i v i d u a l i d e a d e v e lo p ment from group i d e a developm ent? T h is problem was p h ra se d as th e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t i n c o r r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s might be e x p e c te d to occur as f r e q u e n t l y as c o r r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s . To t e s t th e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s , t h e b in o m ia l t e s t was 81 a p p l i e d as a m easure o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e betw een t h e o b se rv e d r a t i o o f c o r r e c t t o i n c o r r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s and th e r a t i o e x p e c te d on th e b a s i s o f c h a n c e . The t e s t r e v e a l e d a v ery s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e and t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d . S u b je c t t o t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , th e c o n c l u s i o n was drawn t h a t la y ju d g e s can d i s t i n g u i s h i n d i v i d u a l i d e a developm ent and group i d e a d e v elo p m en t. C o n f i dence i n t h i s c o n c l u s io n was enhanced by th e f a c t t h a t (1) t h e s c o r e s o f th e t h r e e groups of ju d g e s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y 7 c o r r e l a t e d , (2) i t was p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f each t e s t ite m s e p a r a t e l y , (3) a l l item s were a c c e p t a b l e a t w e ll below th e f i v e p e r cent l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e , (4) a l l b u t one were a c c e p t a b l e a t below th e .01 l e v e l of c o n f i d e n c e , and (5) a l l b u t two were a c c e p t a b l e a t 8 o r below t h e very s i g n i f i c a n t .001 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . In c o n j u n c t i o n w ith Bowman's d i s c o v e r y t h a t ju d g e s were a b le t o d e te r m in e th e n a t u r a l o r d e r o f scram b led s p e e c h e s , t h i s s tu d y s u g g e s te d t h a t r e a d e r s o f a t r a n s c r i p t a r e a b le t o i n f e r w ith r e a s o n a b l e a c c u ra c y some o f t h e e n v ir o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s which i n f l u e n c e d t h e d i s c u s s a n t s b u t were n o t e x p l i c i t l y r e f e r r e d t o i n th e m essage. The f a c t t h a t i n b o t h c a s e s t h e ju d g e s were r e l y i n g s o l e l y on 7See pp. 70-73. 8See T a b le 7, p. 74. 82 t r a n s c r i p t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e d f u r t h e r e v id e n c e o f th e adequacy o f t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n as a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o r a l communica t i o n and o f i t s u s e f u l n e s s in d i s c u s s i o n r e s e a r c h . While much more r e s e a r c h i s needed t o e s t a b l i s h a r e a s o n a b l y a d e q u a te a p p r a i s a l o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f a t r a n s c r i p t i o n , t h e e v id e n c e p ro d u c e d by t h i s and Bow m an 's s tu d y s u g g e s t s th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e c r e a t i n g in th e l a b o r a t o r y many o f th e e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts o f a r e a l l i f e d i s c u s s i o n , so th e y may be s t u d i e d u n d e r more c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s th a n a r e a v a i l a b l e to th e r e s e a r c h e r w o rk in g i n t h e f i e l d . In t h e c r i t i c i s m s o f e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h in group d i s c u s s i o n c i t e d i n C h a p te r I I , i t was n o t th e methods o f o b s e r v a t i o n and a n a l y s i s t h a t were q u e s t i o n e d b u t r a t h e r th e v a l i d i t y of th e l a b o r a t o r y d e v e lo p e d d i s c u s s i o n c o n t e n t on which th e s t u d i e s were b a s e d . The t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f a r e a l l i f e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g d i s c u s s i o n s h o u ld meet th e v a l i d i t y t e s t , and i t may prove t o have i n f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y a d e q u a te f o r th e p u rp o se s o f many s i g n i f i c a n t s t u d i e s . The p o p u l a r n o t i o n t h a t th e t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f a con f e r e n c e l o s e s a l l th e e f f e c t s o f v o c a l i n f l e c t i o n , f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n , e t c e t e r a , may be c h a l l e n g e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e f i n d i n g s . Such e le m e n ts may be l a r g e l y re d u n d a n t c l u e s th e r e a d e r does n o t r e q u i r e i n o r d e r t o g r a s p th e e s s e n t i a l s o f a t r a n s a c t i o n n e g o t i a t e d i n th e c o n f e r e n c e room. Q u estio n 2 Are t h e i n d i v i d u a l i d e a developm ent e x c e r p t s of some p a r t i c i p a n t s more c o n s i s t e n t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from group i d e a developm ent e x c e r p t s t h a n th o s e o f o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s ? T h is problem was p h ra se d as t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t a l l i n d i v i d u a l sp eech es a r e e q u a l l y d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y ; t h e r e f o r e , i t would be e x p e c te d t h a t one would be i n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d as f r e q u e n t l y as any o t h e r . A ccording t o th e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s , th e p r o p o r t i o n of g e r r o r s in th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l speech e x c e r p t s would, e x c e p t f o r chance d e v i a t i o n s , be th e same f o r th e n in e speech e x c e r p t s . This h y p o t h e s i s was t e s t e d by a p p l i c a t i o n of c h i sq u are as a measure o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of th e d i f f e r e n c e between th e o b se rv e d and th e e x p e c te d f r e q u e n c ie s . The d i f f e r e n c e s were s i g n i f i c a n t a t below th e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e , and th e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d . I t was c o n clu d ed t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l id e a developm ent o f some p a r t i c i p a n t s was more c o n s i s t e n t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from group i d e a developm ent th a n t h a t o f o t h e r s . Q u e stio n 3 How do th e a c c u ra c y s c o r e s o f i n d i v i d u a l ju d g e s v a ry in r e l a t i o n t o s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e as r e f l e c t e d in t h e i r C o lle g e Board s c o r e s and p r e d i c t e d academ ic achievem ent? ^See T able 6, p. 72. 10G u i l f o r d , o p . c i t . , pp. 3 3 0 - 3 3 ^ s 5^0. 8k T h is p ro b le m was p h r a s e d a s t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t any p a r a l l e l i s m e x i s t i n g b e tw e e n j u d g e s ' s c o r e s and any m easu re o f t h e i r s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e c o u l d have d e v e l o p e d by c h a n c e . T h i s h y p o t h e s i s was t e s t e d by t w e l v e c o r r e l a t i o n s . C o r r e l a t i o n s w ere made o f t h e j u d g e s ' s c o r e s and t h e i r C o l l e g e B oard v e r b a l s c o r e s , t h e i r C o l l e g e B oard m ath s c o r e s , and t h e i r p r e d i c t e d g r a d e p o i n t r a t i o s . One j u d g e , a f o r e i g n s t u d e n t , was n o t r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e s c h o l a s t i c d a t a were n o t a v a i l a b l e . The t h r e e c o r r e l a t i o n s were made f o r e a c h g ro u p s e p a r a t e l y and f o r a l l j u d g e s as a g ro u p . The r e s u l t s o f t h e t e s t w ere i n c o n c l u s i v e . W hile f o r Group A t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n j u d g e s ' s c o r e s and t h e i r C o l l e g e B oard math s c o r e s was s i g n i f i c a n t and p o s i t i v e , f o r Group B i t was n e g a t i v e and f o r Group C, n e g l i g i b l e . The c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n j u d g e s ’ s c o r e s and t h e C o l l e g e Board v e r b a l s c o r e s was p o s i t i v e and j u s t below t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . The n u l l . - h y p o t h e s i s c o u l d n o t be r e j e c t e d w i t h c o n f i d e n c e . The c o n c l u s i o n f o r p u r p o s e s o f t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y was t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n j u d g e s ’ s c o r e s and a v a i l a b l e s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e d a t a had b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d . Q u e s t i o n 4 What l i n g u i s t i c c l u e s can j u d g e s i d e n t i f y a s u s e f u l ‘* " 1See T a b le 8 , p. 76. f o r making t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een i n d i v i d u a l and group i d e a d ev e lo p m e n t? The answ er t o t h i s q u e s t i o n was so u g h t f i r s t from t h e ju d g e s th e m s e l v e s and seco n d from a n a l y s i s o f th e e x c e r p t s used i n t h e t e s t . The ju d g e s made n o te o f e le m e n ts th e y were c o n s c i o u s l y u s i n g as c l u e s , and t h e s e i n d i c a t e d t h a t e x p r e s s i o n s o f ag re e m e n t and d is a g r e e m e n t were th e c l u e s used most e x t e n s i v e l y i n i d e n t i f y i n g d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s . Q u e s tio n s and answ ers were a l s o c o n s i d e r e d r e l i a b l e s ig n s o f d i s c u s s i o n by most j u d g e s ; h o w ev er, i n f o u r i n s t a n c e s o f i n c o r r e c t d e c i s i o n s ju d g e s e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s were u sed r h e t o r i c a l l y . T here were t h r e e o t h e r i n s t a n c e s where d i s c u s s i o n e x c e r p t s were i n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d , b u t t h e c l u e s were n o t c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d . O th e r c l u e s marked by t h e ju d g e s as s i g n s o f group i d e a d ev elo p m en t were t h e l a c k o f t r a n s i t i o n s b etw een t h o u g h t u n i t s , s h o r t s e n t e n c e s , and i n t e r r u p t i o n s o r changes i n t h e l i n e o f t h o u g h t . In i d e n t i f y i n g sp eech e x c e r p t s , c l u e s marked most f r e q u e n t l y were t h e e x t e n s i v e use o f t h e p ronoun I_, lo n g s e n t e n c e s , t h e u se o f l i n k i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s , e t c e t e r a . Most e r r o r s i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n were t h o s e which c l a s s i f i e d i n d i v i d u a l i d e a d ev elo p m en t a s group i d e a d e v e l o p m ent. The j u d g e s ' n o t e s and marks on th e e x c e r p t s seemed t o i n d i c a t e t h a t f a i l u r e t o p r o v id e t r a n s i t i o n s when i n t r o d u c in g a d i f f e r e n t i d e a , m o d i f i c a t i o n o f p o s i t i o n o r l i n e o f t h o u g h t , and g r a m m a tic a l e r r o r s were t a k e n a s s i g n s o f 86 a change o f s p e a k e r s . As an e x t e n s i o n o f t h e Bowman e x p e r i m e n t , one o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s was t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r t h e c o n t i n u i t y in i n d i v i d u a l i d e a developm ent and group i d e a developm ent would be so s i m i l a r as t o r e n d e r t h e two i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e . I t was th o u g h t t h a t th e c o n t i n u i t y which e n a b le d Bowman's ju d g e s t o r e s t o r e scram b led s p e e c h e s t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l o r d e r m ight be so s i m i l a r t o t h e c o n t i n u i t y i n i n d i v i d u a l sp e e c h e s t h a t ju d g e s would be u n a b le t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e two. On th e o t h e r h an d , i t seemed p o s s i b l e t h a t group i d e a developm ent m ight be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l t e r n a t i n g d i v e r g e n c e and con v e rg e n c e o f th o u g h t as i d e a s from d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s were b e i n g amalgamated or r e j e c t e d . The d a t a d e r i v e d from t h i s e x p e rim e n t do n o t show to what e x t e n t t h e ju d g e s b a se d t h e i r d e c i s i o n on a d i s t i n c t i o n betw een t h e s e two ty p e s o f c o n t i n u i t y , b u t t h e r e i s e v id e n c e t h a t t h e ju d g e s were u t i l i z i n g t h e s e two con c e p t s of c o n t i n u i t y i n making t h e i r d e c i s i o n s . The many r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e l i n e o f t h o u g h t c h a n g in g or c o n t i n u i n g s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s may have been t h e o v e r r i d i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n i d e n t i f y i n g i n d i v i d u a l i d e a d e v e lo p m e n t. T h is was p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e when q u e s t i o n s were c o n s id e r e d r h e t o r i c a l and when c e r t a i n e x p r e s s i o n s o f a p p r o v a l were i n t e r p r e t e d as r e p e t i t i o n s o r r e d u n d a n c i e s . CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Summary The p ro b le m chosen f o r t h i s s tu d y d e v e lo p e d from an i n t e r e s t i n t h e use o f p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g d i s c u s s i o n i n b u s i n e s s and i n d u s t r y . I t e v o lv e d from c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s e v e r a l p r a c t i c a l q u e s t i o n s such as t h e f o ll o w i n g : How does e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p r o b le m - s o lv i n g d i s c u s s i o n d i f f e r from e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n o t h e r d i s c u s s i o n s i t u a t i o n s ? Should p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g d i s c u s s i o n be r e s t r i c t e d to i n q u i r y , o r i s t h e r e a p l a c e f o r advocacy? Do t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f r h e t o r i c a n d / o r d i a l e c t i c a p p ly i n p r o b le m - s o lv i n g d i s c u s s io n ? What l e a d e r s h i p f u n c t i o n s a r e I n h e r e n t group in p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g and how s h o u ld th e y be a s s ig n e d ? R ecourse t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e on com m unication and d i s c u s s i o n r e s e a r c h r e v e a l e d two a r e a s o f need r e l e v a n t t o t h i s i n q u i r y i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f com m unicative b e h a v i o r and th e means o f m o t i v a t i n g i d e a developm ent e i t h e r i n d i v i d u a l l y o r c o l l e c t i v e l y . S e v e r a l w r i t e r s em phasized th e need t o t e s t our b a s i c a s s u m p tio n s c o n c e r n in g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e com m unication p r o c e s s , th e need t o conduct t h e o r y o r i e n t e d r e s e a r c h . I n t h e a r e a o f r e s e a r c h m e th o d o lo g y , o t h e r 87 88 w r i t e r s c r i t i c i z e d th e p r a c t i c e o f b a s in g e x p e r im e n ta l s t u d i e s on l a b o r a t o r y dev elo p ed p r o b le m - s o lv in g a c t i v i t i e s . They s t r e s s e d th e dangers i n h e r e n t in t h e use o f a r t i f i c i a l p r o b le m - s o lv in g s i t u a t i o n s d e s ig n e d s o l e l y f o r th e e x p e r i ment and th e n g e n e r a l i z i n g t o r e a l l i f e p r o b le m - s o lv in g s i t u a t i o n s i n b u s i n e s s and i n d u s t r y . In a stu d y r e p o r t e d i n 1957, Bowman made a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o communication t h e o r y . He d e m o n stra te d t h a t e x p e r t j u d g e s , g iv e n scram b led sp e e c h e s r e p r e s e n t i n g i n t e r a c t i v e and n o n - i n t e r a c t l v e t h i n k i n g ( i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l c o m m u n ic a tio n ), were a b le t o r e s t o r e t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l o r d e r th e sp eech es r e p r e s e n t i n g i n t e r i n d i v i d u a l communication but not th o s e r e p r e s e n t i n g i n t r a i n d i v i d u a l c o m m u n ic a tio n .1 T his l e f t unanswered th e q u e s t i o n o f w h eth er th e ju d g e s could have d i s t i n g u i s h e d th e s e two ty p e s o f communication c o n te n t had th e i n d i v i d u a l sp eech es not been i d e n t i f i e d f o r them. The p r e s e n t study was d e s ig n e d t o answer t h i s q u e s t i o n ; i t was p la n n e d as an e x t e n s i o n o f th e Bowman e x p e rim e n t. The p u rp o se of th e stu d y was tw o fo ld : t o f u r t h e r e x p lo r e th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r i n d i v i d u a l com m unication as s u g g e s te d by th e r e s u l t s o f th e 1P r e d e r i c k B. Bowman, "An E x p e rim e n ta l S t u d y to Determ ine th e Amount of I n t e r a c t i v e T h in k in g D is p la y e d in a P ro b le m -S o lv in g Group D is c u s s io n " (u n p u b lis h e d D o c t o r 's d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n i v e r s i t y of S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g eles, 1957), pp. 58-60. Bowman stu d y and to i n t r o d u c e r e a l l i f e p r o b le m - s o lv in g d i s c u s s i o n c o n te n t i n t o e x p e r im e n ta l r e s e a r c h . The problem was s t a t e d th u s : ( l ) Can la y ju d g e s d i s t i n g u i s h i n d i v i d u a l i d e a developm ent from group i d e a developm ent? (2) Are th e i n d i v i d u a l i d e a developm ent e x c e r p t s o f some p a r t i c i p a n t s more c o n s i s t e n t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from th e group i d e a d e v e lo p ment e x c e r p t s th a n th o s e o f o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s ? (3) How do th e a c c u ra c y s c o re s of i n d i v i d u a l ju d g es vary i n r e l a t i o n to t h e i r s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e as r e f l e c t e d in C ollege Board s c o re s and p r e d i c t e d academic achievem ent? (4) What l i n g u i s t i c c lu e s can ju d g e s i d e n t i f y as h e l p f u l in d i s t i n g u i s h in g betw een i n d i v i d u a l id e a development and group i d e a de velopment ? The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e problem r e l a t e d p r i m a r i l y t o two r e s e a r c h gap s, two a r e a s o f need s t r e s s e d in th e l i t e r a t u r e . The f i r s t was th e t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s ti o n of th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication; th e second was m e th o d o lo g ic a l, th e need to base th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of p r o b le m - s o lv in g d i s c u s s i o n on th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th o s e a c t u a l l y d e a l i n g w ith problems in th e environm ent where th e problems d ev elo p ed . F u r t h e r s i g n i f i cance was a p p a re n t from th e f a c t t h a t th e e x p e r im e n ta l t e s t r e v e a l e d ev id e n c e of th e i n f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y of a t r a n s c r i p t i o n of th e o r a l message and o f th e u s e f u l n e s s o f lay o b s e r v e r s in e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h . O p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s of th e two phases of human 90 com m unication were p ro p o se d f o r t e s t i n g (1) t h a t i n t r a i n d i v i d u a l com m unication i s t h e p r o c e s s by which t h e t h i n k in g and f e e l i n g o f one p e r s o n a f f e c t s h i s s u b se q u e n t t h i n k in g and f e e l i n g by means o f symbols a n d / o r s i g n a l s s e n t and r e c e i v e d by t h a t same p e r s o n , and (2) t h a t i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m u n icatio n i s t h e p r o c e s s by which t h e i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication o f one p e r s o n a f f e c t s th e i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication of a n o t h e r by means of symbols a n d / o r s i g n a l s s e n t by one p e r s o n and r e c e i v e d by a n o t h e r . The e x p e rim e n t was d e s ig n e d t o t e s t t h e a s su m p tio n t h a t i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication may be i n f e r r e d from o b s e rv e d m o d i f i c a t i o n s in t h e r e s p o n s e s o f each com m unicator which r e f l e c t an a w a re n e ss o f th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f o t h e r c o m m u n ic a to rs . The r e v ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f r e s e a r c h on group b e h a v i o r r e v e a l e d a c o n t i n u i n g i n f l u e n c e o f t h e work of 2 Kurt Lewin i n which he s t r e s s e d th e need t o s tu d y t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e e le m e n ts of s o c i a l b e h a v i o r and t h e n eed t o s tu d y them i n t h e i r n a t u r a l s e t t i n g . Re f e r e n c e s t o c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s and i n t e r a c t i o n a n a l y s i s ( a t te m p ts t o c l a s s i f y and d e a l q u a n t i t a t i v e l y and q u a l i t a t i v e l y w ith i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s e s ) r e v e a l e d t h a t a c h i e v i n g o b s e r v e r r e l i a b i l i t y had b een a p e r s i s t e n p ro b le m . In g e n e r a l , a p p r a i s a l s o f t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h e o r y t o sp eech com m unication d i s c r e d i t t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f th e fro m er as a means o f d e te r m in g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c a p a c i t y o f o r a l mes s a g e s . P r a g m a tic s as a b ra n c h o f s e m i o t i c p r o v i d e s a means ^See pp. 20-2 4. 91 o f d e a l i n g w ith th e p e r s o n a l dim ension w hich, more th a n any o t h e r , d i s t i n g u i s h e s n a t u r a l languages from codes o r a r t i f i c i a l la n g u a g e s . I n t u i t i v e a p p r a i s a l s o f messages by communicants and o b s e r v e r s a re d e te rm in e d p r a g m a t i c a l l y . The l i t e r a t u r e o f e x p e r im e n ta l r e s e a r c h on t h i n k i n g r e v e a l s t h a t w h ile speech and th o u g h t a re not synonymous, each is l a r g e l y dependent on t h e o t h e r ; t h e r e i s much e v id e n c e to s u p p o rt th e n o tio n t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n o f human b e h a v i o r i s s u b j e c t to v e r b a l c o n t r o l . There is a l s o e v id en ce i n d i c a t i n g t h a t c o g n i t i v e a c t i v i t y , w h ile s t r u c t u r e d by language and o t h e r c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e s , r e t a i n s i n d i v i d u a l p a t t e r n s which in many i n s t a n c e s make i t p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t th e l i n e of th o u g h t an i n d i v i d u a l w i l l p u rsu e . This stu d y was d i v id e d i n t o two p h a s e s , th e f i e l d stu d y and the e x p e r im e n ta l t e s t . For th e f i r s t p h a s e , p e r m is s io n was s e c u re d t o r e c o r d a s a f e t y c o n fe re n c e in which s i x s a f e t y e n g in e e r s were p la n n in g a s a f e t y campaign f o r an i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n w ith over 50,000 employees in s e v e r a l p l a n t s . The men p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e co n fe re n c e knew t h a t th ey were th e ones who would assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e s u c c e ss o f th e campaign e x te n d in g over a six-m onth p e r i o d w ith e x p e n d i t u r e s a v e r a g in g t h r e e th o u san d d o l l a r s p e r month. The men knew t h e i r c o n fe re n c e was b e in g reco rd ed , b ut n e i t h e r th e exam iner n o r h i s equipment were in view of th e p a r t i c i p a n t s . A com plete t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f th e c o n f e r ence was made from t h e t a p e r e c o r d i n g and e x c e r p t s were 92 s e l e c t e d f o r use In th e e x p e r im e n ta l t e s t . For t h e t e s t , e i g h t e e n o n e -p a g e , 250-word e x c e r p t s were chosen. These were e d i t e d t o remove a l l s p e a k e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , d i r e c t a d d r e s s , and p a ra g ra p h d i v i s i o n s so t h a t each e x c e r p t had th e a p p e a ra n c e of a s i n g l e p a ra g ra p h . Nine o f th e e x c e r p t s were s e l e c t e d from i n d i v i d u a l r e p o r t s f o r which th e p a r t i - . c i p a n t s used n o te s p r e p a re d in advance. Nine e x c e r p t s were s e l e c t e d from t h e d i s c u s s i o n p o r t i o n o f th e c o n f e r e n c e ; each one com prised seven t o tw e n ty -o n e i n d i v i d u a l sp eech es by f o u r o r more p a r t i c i p a n t s . A s e t of tw elv e e x c e r p t s was p r e p a r e d f o r each of t h r e e groups of j u d g e s , w ith the e i g h t e e n e x c e r p t s r o t a t e d so t h a t each one was judged by two groups of j u d g e s . The t h r e e groups of j u d g e s , s e v e n t y - f o u r i n a l l , were u n d e r g r a d u a te s e n r o l l e d in a r e q u i r e d co u rse i n p u b l i c sp e a k in g . Each ju d g e was asked t o re a d each e x c e r p t s e p a r a t e l y and to i n d i c a t e w h eth er he th o u g h t i t r e p r e s e n t e d one s p e a k e r or s e v e r a l s p e a k e r s . He was th e n asked t o u n d e r l i n e or o t h e r wise n o te th e c lu e s t h a t had i n f l u e n c e d h i s d e c i s i o n . The r e s u l t s of th e t e s t were t a b u l a t e d and t e s t e d by s t a n d a r d s t a t i s t i c a l methods f o r r e l i a b i l i t y and f o r th e s i g n i f i c a n c e of th e d i f f e r e n c e between o b se rv e d f r e q u e n c i e s and th o s e e x p e c te d by chance or a c c o r d in g to a n u l l hypo t h e s i s . 93 C o n c lu s io n s W ith in t h e l i m i t s of t h e e x p e r im e n t t h e c o n c l u s i o n s were t h a t ( l ) l a y ju d g e s can d i s t i n g u i s h t y p e s c r i p t s of i n d i v i d u a l i d e a developm ent from t h o s e o f group i d e a d e v e lo p m e n t, (2) t h e i n d i v i d u a l i d e a dev elo p m en t e x c e r p t s o f some p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e more c o n s i s t e n t l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from group i d e a developm ent e x c e r p t s t h a n t h o s e o f o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s , (3) t h e a c c u r a c y s c o r e s o f i n d i v i d u a l ju d g e s do n o t v a ry s i g n i f i c a n t l y in r e l a t i o n t o t h e i r s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e as r e f l e c t e d i n C o lle g e Board s c o r e s and p r e d i c t e d academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t, and (4) s e v e r a l l i n g u i s t i c c l u e s were a v a i l a b l e t o t h e ju d g e s f o r making t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een i n d i v i d u a l and group i d e a d ev e lo p m e n t. In te rm s o f th e p u rp o se of t h i s s t u d y , i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication a r e d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e , and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication can be i n f e r r e d from m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s r e f l e c t i n g a w a re n e s s o f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s . Some exam ples o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication were more e a s i l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from exam ples o f i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication t h a n o t h e r s . Because o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll number o f e r r o r s on which t o b a s e t h e s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e , f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s n eeded t o s u p p o r t t h i s c o n c l u s i o n a t t h e v e ry s i g n i f i c e n t ( .0 1 ) l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . While i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e a c c u r a c y s c o r e s o f 94 i n d i v i d u a l ju d g e s d id n o t vary s i g n i f i c a n t l y in r e l a t i o n to t h e i r s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e as r e f l e c t e d i n C o lleg e Board s c o r e s and p r e d i c t e d academic a c h ie v e m e n t, some c o r r e l a t i o n s were h ig h enough to su g g e st f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s t e s t , however, were i n c o n c l u s i v e ; no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between j u d g e s ' s c o re s and a v a i l a b le s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e d a t a were e s t a b l i s h e d . S e v e r a l l i n g u i s t i c c lu e s were i d e n t i f i e d by th e ju d g es as s ig n s o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l comm unication. E x p r e s s io n s of agreement and d isa g re e m e n t were marked as c lu e s to group id e a developm ent ( i n t e r i n d i v i d u a l communication) by 26 o f th e 28 ju d g e s who i d e n t i f i e d a l l o f t h e i r tw elv e e x c e r p t s c o r r e c t l y . Q u estio n s and answers ranked second in freq u en cy as c lu e s to i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication, but s e v e r a l ju d g es seemed to have had d i f f i c u l t y i n d e c i d i n g when q u e s ti o n s were b e in g used r h e t o r i c a l l y . The one speech e x c e r p t t h a t i n c lu d e d a r h e t o r i c a l q u e s t i o n was i n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d more o f t e n th a n any o t h e r e x c e r p t . S e v e r a l judges marked th e f r e q u e n t use of th e pronoun I as a clu e to i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l communication. S e v e r a l i n d i c a t e d c o n t i n u i t y v e rsu s la c k of c o n t i n u i t y and lo n g , smooth s e n te n c e s v e rs u s s h o r t , choppy s e n te n c e s as d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The ju d g e s found more s p e c i f i c c lu e s t o group id e a developm ent th a n to i n d i v i d u a l i d e a developm ent and t h e i r ac c u ra c y of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n v a r i e d a c c o r d i n g l y , 98.5 p e r 95 c e n t and 80.2 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y . For b o th i n t r a i n d i v i d u a l and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l co m m u n ic a tio n , t h o s e exam p l e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s p i r i t o f advocacy were more a c c u r a t e l y i d e n t i f i e d t h a n t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s p i r i t o f i n q u i r y . T h is c o n c l u s i o n i s s u p p o r t e d by two f a c t s : (1) e x p r e s s i o n s o f ag reem en t and d i s a g r e e m e n t were used more e x t e n s i v e l y and more s u c c e s s f u l l y i n i d e n t i f y i n g i n t e r i n d i v i d u a l com m unication t h a n any o t h e r c l u e , and (2) l o n g , smooth s e n t e n c e s in e x c e r p t s w ith no change i n t h e l i n e o f t h o u g h t and no s u g g e s t i o n o f i n d e c i s i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h o s e exam ples o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication i d e n t i f i e d c o r r e c t l y by most j u d g e s . The a s s u m p tio n h e r e i s t h a t un s o l i c i t e d e x p r e s s i o n s o f ag reem en t and d is a g r e e m e n t s u g g e s t advocacy r a t h e r t h a n i n q u i r y , as does th e lo n g , smooth s e n t e n c e , t h e one l i n e o f t h o u g h t , o r a to n e of c o n v i c t i o n . The c l u e s r e p o r t e d o r marked by th e ju d g e s as u s e f u l i n making t h e i r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h e y were r e l y i n g p r i m a r i l y on p r a g m a tic d im e n sio n s o f t h e m essage. The one e x c e p t i o n m ight be t h e use o f t h e q u e s t i o n which would be e n t i r e l y m e c h a n ic a l i f we assume t h a t ju d g e s r e l i e d e n t i r e l y on th e q u e s t i o n mark. However, t h o s e who d e t e r mined f o r t h e m s e lv e s w h e th e r t h e q u e s t i o n was b e in g u sed r h e t o r i c a l l y were u t i l i z i n g p r a g m a t ic c l u e s t o r e s o l v e t h a t q u e s t i o n . C o n s i d e r i n g th e f a c t t h a t t h e e x c e r p t s were s h o r t and t h a t ju d g e s had l i t t l e o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a r n t o i d e n t i f y i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c i p a n t s , i t i s r e m a rk a b le t h a t t h e i r 96 i n t u i t i o n s s e r v e d them so w e l l . In te rm s o f m e th o d o lo g y , t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y demon s t r a t e d b o th th e f e a s i b i l i t y of u t i l i z i n g r e a l l i f e d i s c u s s io n c o n t e n t i n e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s and th e adequacy of la y ju d g e s f o r making c e r t a i n l i n g u i s t i c d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s . The Bowman s tu d y and t h e p r e s e n t e x p e rim e n t t o g e t h e r d e t e r m i n e d t h a t w r i t t e n l i n g u i s t i c c lu e s a lo n e a r e s u f f i c i e n t t o e n a b le ju d g e s t o i n f e r c e r t a i n e n v ir o n m e n ta l f a c t o r s n o t e x p l i c i t l y r e f e r r e d to in th e m essage. Recommendations f o r F u r t h e r R esearch ■The Bowman e x p e rim e n t and t h e p r e s e n t stu d y t e s t e d two t y p e s o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication and d e te rm in e d t h a t th e y were d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from th e p r o b le m - s o lv i n g ty p e of i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication; how ever, t h e e x t e n t t o which t e s e a re r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m u n ic a tio n and i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication has n o t been e s t a b l i s h e d . D i f f e r e n c e s in a c c u r a c y of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t exam ples o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication r e v e a l ed by t h i s s tu d y i n d i c a t e a need f o r f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n . S t u d i e s sh o u ld be u n d e r ta k e n t o d e te rm in e th e ex t e n t o f v a r i a n c e w i t h i n i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication and w i t h i n i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication. For exam ple, i t would be h e l p f u l t o know w h e th e r a man d i c t a t i n g o r r e c o r d i n g s o l e l y f o r h i s own su b se q u e n t use p ro d u c e s com m unication c o n t e n t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t he p ro d u c e s w h ile r e c o r d i n g m essages f o r someone e l s e . I t would a l s o be 97 h e l p f u l t o know w h e th e r t h e p r o b le m - s o lv i n g ty p e o f i n t e r i n d i v i d u a l com m unication v a r i e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y as t h e group moves from one p h ase in th e p r o b l e m - s o l u t i o n sequence t o a n o t h e r , from t h e developm ent of p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s to th e s e l e c t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n . One c o n c l u s i o n drawn from t h i s e x p e rim e n t was t h a t th o s e examples o f i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l o r i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m u n ic a tio n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e s p i r i t o f advocacy a r e more e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d th a n th o s e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e s p i r i t o f i n q u i r y . This r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e th e r exam ples o f t h e s e two k in d s of com m unication c o u ld be d i s t i n g u i s h e d i f a l l sam ples were drawn from a c o n f e re n c e d e v o te d t o i n q u i r y . T h is q u e s t i o n r e l a t e s t o t h e problem of v a r i a n c e ; i t might be answ ered e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by u t i l i z i n g examples i n i n d i v i d u a l and group i d e a t i o n o r b r a i n - s t o r m i n g . I n v e s t i g a t i o n i s needed t o d e f i n e more s h a r p l y th e two c o n c e p t s , advocacy and i n q u i r y . There i s need t o d e te r m in e w h e th e r t h e y r e p r e s e n t a dichotom y o r a continuum and w h e th e r , i n f a c t , pure examples o f e i t h e r a re e n c o u n t e r ed i n human com m unication. An o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f i n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m u n ic a tio n was d e v e lo p e d f o r t h i s s tu d y . I n t e r - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication was d e f i n e d as t h e p r o c e s s by which th e i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication o f one p e r s o n a f f e c t s th e i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l com m unication o f a n o t h e r p e rs o n by means o f symbols a n d / o r s i g n a l s s e n t by one p e r s o n and r e c e i v e d 98 by a n o t h e r . T his d e f i n i t i o n was based on th e assu m p tio n t h a t i n t r a - i n d i v i d u a l communication i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same w hether th e i n d i v i d u a l i s t a k i n g co g n izan ce o f an e v e n t or o b j e c t by means o f d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n o r by means o f a mes sage r e p o r t i n g th e o b s e r v a t i o n s of a n o t h e r . The a ssu m p tio n sh o u ld be s u b je c te d to f u r t h e r t e s t i n g . This co u ld be ac com plished e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by a d e s ig n which would make th e same in f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e by th e two means d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . B I B L I O G R A P H Y 99 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books A r i s t o t l e . R h e t o r i c a , Vol. XI of The Works o f A r i s t o t l e . E d i t e d by W. D. Ross; t r a n s l a t e d by W. Rhys R o b e r ts . O xford: The U n i v e r s i t y P ress* 19^6. A uer, J . J e f f e r y . An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o R e se a rc h i n S p e e c h . New York: H arp er and Row, 1959. B a l e s , R obert F. I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e ss A n a l y s i s . Cambridge, M a s s a c h u s e t t s : A d d iso n -W e sle y , I n c . , 1950. B e a r d s l e y , Monroe C. T h in k in g S t r a i g h t : A Guide f o r Readers & W r i t e r s . New York: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1950. B e r e l s o n , B e rn a rd . C ontent A n a ly s is i n Communication R e s e a r c h . G len co e, I l l i n o i s : The Free P r e s s , 1952. B e r i o , David K. The P ro c e ss o f Communication: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Theory and P r a c t i c e . New York: H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W inston, i 9 6 0 . B r u n e r , Jerome S . , J a c q u e l i n e J . Goodnow, and George A. A u s tin . A Study o f T h i n k i n g . London: Methuen and C o ., L t d . ” 19 56 ; New York: John Wiley and Sons, I n c . , S c ie n c e E d i t i o n s , 1963- C a r t w r i g h t , Dorwin, and A lv in Z ander. Group D ynam ics, R e se a rc h and T h e o r y . E v a n s to n , I l l i n o i s : Row, P e t e r s o n and C o ., 1953* C h e rry , C o lin . On Human C om m unication. Cambridge, Mas s a c h u s e t t s : The M .I.T . P r e s s , 1957. D ic k e n s , M ilto n . Speech: Dynamic Com m unication. Second E d i t i o n . New York: H a r c o u r t , Brace and W orld, I n c . , 1963. E i s e n s o n , J o n , J . J e f f e r y Auer, and John V. I rw in . The Psychology of C om m unication. New York: A p p le to n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1953. 100 101 E l l i o t t , H a r r i s o n . The P r o c e s s o f Group T h i n k i n g . New York: A s s o c i a t i o n P r e s s , 1946. F e s t i n g e r , Leon. A T h e o ry o f C o g n i t i v e D i s s o n a n c e . E v a n s t o n , I l l i n o i s : Row, P e t e r s o n and C o ., 1957. __________ , and D a n i e l K atz ( e d s . ) . R e s e a r c h Methods i n t h e B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s . New Y ork: H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W in s to n , 1953. F reem an , E l l i s . "The A t t r i b u t i v e A t t i t u d e , " The Language o f Wisdom and F o l l y . E d i t e d by I r v i n g J . Lee. New York: H a r p e r and B r o t h e r s , 19^9. ( F i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1936; S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y by E l l i s F reem an. New York: Henry H o lt and C o ., I n c . ) F r e n c h , J o h n R. P . , J r . " E x p e r im e n ts i n F i e l d S e t t i n g s , " R e s e a r c h Methods in t h e B e h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s . E d i t e d by Leon F e s t i n g e r and D a n i e l K a tz . New York: H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W in s to n , 1953. G u i l f o r d , J . P. F u n d a m e n ta l S t a t i s t i c s i n P sy c h o lo g y and E d u c a t i o n . T h i r d e d i t i o n . New York: M cG raw -H ill Book C o ., I n c . , 1956. G u l l e y , H a l b e r t E. D i s c u s s i o n , C o n f e r e n c e , and Group P ro c e s s . New York-! Henry Hold and Co . , I960 . H a rn a c k , R. V i c t o r , and T h o r r e l B. F e s t . Group D i s c u s s i o n T heory and T e c h n i q u e . New York: A p p l e t o n - C e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 1964. H a r r a h , D a v id . C om m unication: A L o g i c a l M o d e l. C am b rid g e, M a s s a c h u s e t t s -! The M .I .T . P r e s s , 1963. H o w e ll, W illia m S . , and D onald K. S m ith . D i s c u s s i o n . New York: The M a c m illa n C o ., 1956. Humphrey, G eorge. T h i n k i n g : An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o I t s Exp e r i m e n t a l P s y c h o l o g y . New York: J o h n W iley and S o n s, 1963. ( F i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1951: London, Methuen and C o . , L t d . ). K a t z , D a n i e l . " F i e l d S t u d i e s , " R e s e a r c h Methods i n t h e Be h a v i o r a l S c i e n c e s . E d i t e d by Leon F e s t i n g e r and D a n i e l K a tz . New York: H o l t , R i n e h a r t and W in s to n , 1953. Lew in, K u r t. F i e l d T h e o ry i n S o c i a l S c i e n c e : S e l e c t e d T h e o r e t i c a l P a p e r s . E d i t e d by Dorwin C a r t w r i g h t . New York: H a r p e r and Row, 1951. McBurney, James H. , and K enneth G. Hance. D i s c u s s i o n i n Human A f f a i r s . New York: H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s , 1950. Mogey, J o h n . "K urt L e w in ," E n c y c l o p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a (1966 e d i t i o n ) , X I I I , 1007. M o r r i s , C h a r l e s W. The F o u n d a tio n s o f t h e T heory o f S i g n s . In I n t e r n a t i o n a l E n c y c l o p e d i a o f U n i f i e d S c i e n c e , I , No. 2. C h icag o : The U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1938. __________ . S i g n i f i c a t i o n and S i g n i f i c a n c e : A Study o f t h e R e l a t i o n s o f S ig n s and V a l u e s . Cam bridge, M a s s a c h u s e tts : The M .I.T . P r e s s , 1964. __________ . "The T h ree P rim a ry Forms o f D i s c o u r s e , " The Lan guage o f Wisdom and F o l l y . E d i t e d by I r v i n g J . Lee. New York: H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s , 1949- (From " S c i e n c e , Art and T e c h n o lo g y ," The Kenyon Review, I [Autumn, 1939].) N i c h o l s , A lan. D i s c u s s i o n and D e b a t e . New York: H a r c o u r t , B race and Co” 1941. Riesm an, D av id , N athan G l a z e r , and R euel D enny. The Lonely Crowd. New Haven: Y ales U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1950. 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Compiled by F r a n k l i n H. Knower. New York: Speech A s s o c i a t i o n of America, 1965. T honssen, L e s t e r . S e l e c t e d Readings i n R h e t o r i c and P u b lic S p e a k in g . New Y ork: The H. wT W ilson Company, 1942. U t t e r b a c k , W illiam E. Group T h in k in g and C onference L e a d e r s h i p . New York: R in e h a r t and C o., I n c . , 1950. Welby, V. " S i g n i f i e s , " The Language o f Wisdom and F o l l y . E d ite d by I r v i n g J . Lee. New York: H arper and B r o t h e r s , 1949. ( F i r s t p u b l i s h e d in 1911: E n c y c lo p a e d i a B r i t a n n i c a , E le v e n th E d i t i o n , XXV.) W hite, W illiam A. "Thought and I t s I n s t r u m e n t — L anguage," The Language of Wisdom and F o l l y . E d ite d by I r v i n g J . Lee. New York: H arper and B r o t h e r s , 1949 . (From "The Language o f S c h i z o p h r e n i a ," A rchives o f N eurology and P s y c h ia t r y , XVI [O c to b e r, 1926 ] . ) W hitney, F r e d e r i c k Lamson. The Elem ents of R e s e a r c h . T h ird e d i t i o n . New York: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1950. A r t i c l e s and P e r i o d i c a l s B arn lu n d , Dean. "Toward a M eaning-C entered P h ilo so p h y of Communication," The J o u r n a l of Com m unication, XII (December, 1962), 197-211. B u e h le r , Roy E . , and Jo F. Richmond, " I n t e r p e r s o n a l Com m u n ic a tio n B eh a v io r A n a ly s is : A R esearch Method," The J o u r n a l o f Communication, X III (S ep te m b e r, 1963), 146-155. C a r r o l l , John B. "Communication T heory, L i n g u i s t i c s , and P s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c s , " Review o f E d u c a t io n a l R e s e a rc h , XXVIII ( A p r i l , 1958),' 79-66. C o fe r, C h a rle s N. "R easoning As an A s s o c i a t i v e P r o c e s s : I I I . The Role o f V e rb a l Responses in Problem S o l v i n g ," J o u r n a l o f G eneral P sy c h o lo g y , XVII ( J u l y , 1957), 55- 67. Corman, Bernard B. "L e a rn in g : I I . Problem S o lv in g and R e la te d T o p i c s ," Review of E d u c a t io n a l R e s e a r c h , XXVIII (December, 1958), 459-468. 104 C outu, W a l t e r . "An O p e r a t i o n a l D e f i n i t i o n o f M e a n in g ," The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XLVIII ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 6 2 ), 59-64. D ic k e n s , M i l t o n , and M a r g u e r i t e H e f f e r n a n . " E x p e r i m e n t a l R e s e a rc h i n Group D i s c u s s i o n , " The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XXXV ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 4 9 ), 2 3 -2 9 . __________ , and F r e d e r i c k W i l l i a m s . "Mass C o m m u n icatio n ," Review o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , XXXIV ( A p r i l , 1 9 6 4 ) , 2 1 1 - 2 2 1 . F e a r i n g , F r a n k l i n . "Human C o m m u n ic a tio n ," AV C o m m u n ic a tio n , X (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 2 ) , 7 8 -1 0 8 . G e t z e l s , Jaco b W ., and K e ith E l k i n s . " P e r c e p t u a l and C o g n i t i v e D e v e lo p m e n t," Review o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , XXXIV (December, 1 9 6 4 ), 559-573- Haiman, F r a n k ly n S. "A Measurement o f A u t h o r i t a r i a n A t t i t u d e s Toward D i s c u s s i o n L e a d e r s h i p , " The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XLI ( A p r i l , 1 9 5 5 ), 1 40-144. H artm an, Frank R. "A B e h a v i o r i s t i c Approach t o Communica t i o n : A S e l e c t i v e Review o f L e a r n i n g Theory and a D e r i v a t i o n o f P o s t u l a t e s , " AV Com m unication Review , XI ( S e p te m b e r, 1 9 6 3 ), 15 5 -1 9 0 . K e l t n e r , J o h n , and C a r r o l l C. A rn o ld . " D i s c u s s i o n in American C o l l e g e s and U n i v e r s i t i e s , " The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , XLII ( O c t o b e r , 1956) , 25 0 -2 5 6 . Richmond, Jo F . , and Roy E. B u e h l e r . " I n t e r p e r s o n a l Com m u n i c a t i o n : A T h e o r e t i c a l F o r m u l a t i o n , " The J o u r n a l o f C o m m u n icatio n , X II (M arch, 1 9 6 2 ), 3 -1 0 . S c h e i d e l , Thomas M ., and L a u ra C r o w e ll. " I d e a D evelopment i n Small D i s c u s s i o n G ro u p s ," The Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h , L ( A p r i l , 1 9 6 4 ), l40-T45^ Shannon, C. E. " M a th e m a tic a l Theory o f C o m m u n icatio n ," B e l l System T e c h n i c a l J o u r n a l , XXVII ( J u l y , 1 9 4 8 ) , 379-423;" ( O c to b e r 1 9 4 8 ) , 623-656 . S h e p a r d , D avid. " R e l i a b i l i t y i n a C o n te n t A n a l y s i s , " W estern S p e e c h , XIX ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 5 5 ), 9 -1 4 . T h a y e r , Lee 0. "On T h e o r y - B u i l d i n g i n C o n m u n i c a t i o n : Some C o n c e p tu a l P r o b le m s ," The J o u r n a l o f Com m unication, X I II (December, 1 9 6 3 ) , 217-235* 105 Utterback, William E. "Independent Variables in the C o n fe re n c e Situation," The Quarterly Journal of Speech, XL (December, 1954), 381-387. Weaver, Andrew T. "Toward Understanding Through Speech," Vital Speeches of the Day, XXVII (February 1, 1 9 6 1), 244-2 47 . Weaver, Carl H., and Garry L. Weaver. "Information Theory and the Measurement of Meaning," Speech Monographs, XXXII (November, 1965), 435-447. Unpublished Material Bowman, Frederick B. "An Experimental Study to Determine the Amount of Interactive Thinking Displayed in a Problem-Solving Group Discussion." Unpublished Doctor’s dissertation, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1957. Foster, Eugene S. "A Classification for Analyzing the Content of Informal Group Discussion." Unpublished- Master's thesis, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, 1941. Snyder, Richard. "Problems and Possibilities in the Use of Discussion for Organizational Decision Making." Paper read at the National Convention of the Speech Associa tion of America at Los Angeles, California, December 2 9, 1955- Fort Ord, California: Human Research Unit No. 2, 1955- (Mimeographed.) appe ndix 106 INSTRUCTIONS TO JUDGES We a r e a s k in g f o r your a s s i s t a n c e w ith an ex p e rim e n t which i s p a r t o f an i n q u i r y i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i n d i v i d u a l i d e a developm ent and th e developm ent of i d e a s by a group. S p e c i f i c a l l y , we want t o d e te rm in e w h e th e r by r e a d in g e x c e r p t s from a d i s c u s s i o n you can t e l l when one p e rso n i s d o in g a l l of th e t a l k i n g and when s e v e r a l p e rso n s are sp e a k in g a l t e r n a t e l y . M a t e r i a l s . The e x c e r p t s you w i l l re a d were ta k e n from an a c t u a l b u s i n e s s c o n f e re n c e . T h is was an in fo r m a l c o n f e r ence w ith s i x men s i t t i n g f a c e - t o - f a c e around a c o n fe re n c e t a b l e . I n d i v i d u a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s ran g ed in l e n g t h from one t o s e v e r a l hundred words as th e y p r e s e n t e d in fo r m a l r e p o r t s and t h r a s h e d out th e d e t a i l s of a s a f e t y campaign f o r a company w ith more th a n 50,000 employees in s e v e r a l p l a n t s . Some of th e e x c e r p t s i n c lu d e c o n t r i b u t i o n s from f o u r t o s i x men s p e a k in g a l t e r n a t e l y . Some a re from i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s ; t h a t i s , one man i s doing a l l o f th e t a l k i n g . In e i t h e r c a s e , th e c o n te n t i s p r e s e n t e d i n a s i n g l e b lo c k w ith no i n d i c a t i o n as to who i s t a l k i n g or w h eth er t h e r e is a s h i f t from one s p e a k e r t o a n o t h e r . P r o c e d u r e . Read each e x c e r p t and d e c id e w h eth er i t i n c lu d e s s e v e r a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s o r w h eth er one man i s s p e a k in g w ith o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n . Record your d e c i s i o n by c h e c k in g th e a p p r o p r i a t e s ta te m e n t a t th e bottom of th e page. As you r e a d , mark any words or p h r a s e s t h a t s e rv e as c l u e s . Make any n o te s or marks you l i k e ; th e s e p a p e rs w i l l not be used a g a in . As tim e p e r m i t s , you may look back over th e e x c e r p t s and r e c o n s i d e r your d e c i s i o n s . Thank you f o r your a s s i s t a n c e . Date Name 107 EXCERPT 1 [ D i s c u s s i o n ] 108 . . . No, i t w ould be q u i t e d i f f i c u l t . A l l o f y o u r a d d r e s s i n g , now, i s done t h r o u g h t h e medium o f y o u r IBM s y s tem . Now, I was t h i n k i n g a l o n g t h a t same l i n e . A r e n ’t t h o s e t a b c a r d s s e t up a c c o r d i n g t o w h e t h e r t h e p e r s o n i s m a r r i e d o r n o t ? I know you a r e a s k e d t h a t w h en ev er you come i n . Y o u 'r e a s k e d t h a t and home a d d r e s s . I t ' s a l r e a d y on t h e r e . Yeah. I s i t on t h e t a b r u n ? Y eah, I t h i n k s o . Yeah— I mean, I t h i n k s o . Now, t h a t ' s — r e a s o n I was t h i n k i n g a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s . I t i t ' s on t h e IBM m a c h in e , t h e n i t w o u l d n 't be v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o have i t s e n t o u t t o M rs. So- a n d - s o . Can you g e t y o u r IBM t a b on i t f o r Mrs. S o - a n d - s o ? I h a v e b e e n t o l d t h a t t h e y c o u l d . Now, i t ' s j u s t h e a r s a y on my p a r t , b u t I h e a r d i t c o u ld be i f t h e IBM c a r d s a r e s e t u p , i f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a r e su c h t h a t t h e company a s k t h a t , and t h e IBM c a r d s a r e p u n ch ed w h e th e r t h e f e l l o w i s m a r r i e d , d i v o r c e d , s i n g l e , o r w hat h ave you. S o m e th in g c o u l d be p i c k e d up t h e r e . Of c o u r s e , y o u 'v e g o t a n o t h e r p ro b le m t h e r e , t o o ; t h a t i s , when you r u n a c r o s s a g i r l ' s name on t h a t t h i n g and s h e ' s m a r r i e d and t h e n you g o t t h a t t h i n g t h a t r e a d s "D ear M rs ." No, t h e y ' r e a l l by i n i t i a l , and I d o n ' t t h i n k t h e y go by nam es. I f s h e ' s m a r r i e d , s h e ' s s t i l l " M r s ." T h a t ' s no p ro b le m . I t would be " M rs." — h e r name, w h a t e v e r s h e ' s g o in g by h e r e a t t h e p l a n t . I t ' s a p o s s i b i l i t y . . . . * * * * * Check one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o i n g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e k i n g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d e r lin e words o r p h r a s e s t h a t s e r v e as c l u e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . EXCERPT 2 [ S p e e c h — Ern] 109 . . . I f you can a d d r e s s a l e t t e r t o t h e w i f e , s h e ' l l s t o p and r e a d i t b e c a u s e t h e r e i s a q u e s t i o n i n h e r m ind: "What h a s my h u sb a n d done a t work? What a r e t h e y s e n d i n g me a l e t t e r f o r ? " And i t w i l l s t i m u l a t e an i n t e r e s t t h a t w i l l c a u s e h e r t o s t a r t r e a d i n g t h e l e t t e r , and s h e ' l l g e t f a r enough i n t o i t t h a t i f i t i s an i n t e r e s t i n g l e t t e r i t w i l l h o l d h e r a t t e n t i o n and s h e ' l l r e a d t h e whole t h i n g . O t h e r w i s e , i f i t i s a l e t t e r t h a t comes t o t h e h u s b a n d , h e ' l l lo o k a t i t — " S a f e t y l e t t e r from ARC," and i n t h e can i t g o e s . And, he u s u a l l y w o n 't g e t f a r enough i n t o t h e l e t t e r t o s e e w h e t h e r i t w i l l h o l d h i s a t t e n t i o n o r n o t , so t h a t i s j u s t an a t t e n t i o n - g e t t e r , t h e f a c t t h a t i t ' s s e n t t o t h e w i f e . As an o b j e c t o f t h i s l e t t e r I can show t h e w i f e a c o m p a r is o n b e tw e e n t h e money h e r h u s b a n d w ould l o s e i f he had an a c c i d e n t and what i t would buy f o r t h e f a m i l y - - a s an e x a m p le , s h o e s f o r t h e c h i l d r e n o r s o m e th in g l i k e t h a t , l i k e you m e n tio n e d i n y o u rs a m in u te a g o . Now, I t h i n k t h a t w ould be a good a t t e n t i o n - g e t t e r . I hope i t may be p o s s i b l e f o r us t o do t h a t . A ls o , i f you can have t h e word P e r s o n a l stam ped on t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e e n v e l o p e , i t w i l l be a b e t t e r a t t e n t i o n - g e t t e r t h a n j u s t a p l a i n e n v e l o p e from t h e p l a n t , I t h i n k 3b e c a u s e t h e n t h e y t h i n k i t ' s s o m e th in g more t h a n a d v e r t i s e m e n t , s o m e th in g more t h a n a m i l l - o f - t h e - r u n l e t t e r . . . . * * * * * Check one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o in g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k i n g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d e r lin e words or p h r a s e s t h a t s e r v e as c l u e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . 110 EXCERPT 3 [ D i s c u s s i o n ] . . . And when he wins t h a t buck h e ' l l s a y , "Hey, A r t , I g o t a b u c k !" How a b o u t g i v i n g them a c a r d ? "Hey, J o e , I g o t a b u c k !" J u s t as w e l l g iv e him a c a r d and have him come i n t o t h e s a f e t y o f f i c e and p i c k up y o u r d o l l a r . T h e y ’r e c a r r y i n g money. You’ r e l o s i n g p r e c i o u s t i m e . T h a t s i l v e r d o l l a r means a l l — . You g iv e him t h a t b u c k , and gee w hiz! My p o i n t on t h e t h i n g i s t h i s . Under t h i s s y s te m , y o u r g r e a t em p h asis i s t o be a b l e t o remember a s l o g a n , w h e re a s on t h e p o i n t t h a t I was making you g iv e a man an award f o r d o in g s o m e th in g , n o t f o r re m e m b e rin g - -. But a c t u a l l y , d o n ’t we want our p e o p le t o r e a d t h e s e b a n n e r s , t o remember ’ em? Yeah! But t h a t ' s n o t t h e q u e s t i o n , I d o n ' t t h i n k , as much as i t i s , which do we g e t t h e most f o r o u r money. Sure we want t h a t d one. Yes. A b s o l u t e l y . But we want so m e th in g done. D o n 't you want t o have t h e m - - do so m e th in g ? D o e s n 't t h a t f o l l o w — h a v in g t h i s in y o u r mind? I t h i n k i f you can g e t t h e p e r s o n t o t h i n k s a f e t y h e ’l l a c t s a f e t y . I w ish I c o u ld a g r e e w ith t h a t . I t ' s j u s t l i k e — you h e a r t h o s e s p o t c o m m e r c ia ls . L ik e t h e A l k a - S e l t z e r o ne, where t h e guy w alks i n , A l k a - S e l t z e r ’ s a l l s p e l l e d backw ards and u p s id e down. You open t h e d o o r and up goes A -L-K -A -S-E-L, and t h e T - Z -E -R 's c o v e re d by th e d o o r . He slam s t h e door and i t comes down. " A lk a - S e l t z e r ! " And h e r e comes th e A l k a - S e l t z e r , t h e n boom, i t ' s o v e r . I remember i t . . . . * * * * * Check one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o in g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k i n g a l t e r n a t e l y . ** ** * U n d e r lin e words or p h r a s e s t h a t s e r v e as c l u e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . EXCERPT 4 [ Speech— A r t ] 111 . . . I was p l a y i n g w ith t h e p l a n o f our s a f e t y d i n n e r s t h e m s e l v e s , a lth o u g h th e y have been i n e f f e c t f o r a lo n g tim e . I t h i n k i t w o u ld n ’t h u r t us t o r e v i s e our l i t t l e t i c k e t i n s e r t t h a t th e y use i n t h e l a p e l p o c k e t and l e t i t r e a d , "H i, N e ig h b o r, My Name I s S o - a n d - s o . " T h a t would t i e i t i n w ith t h i s program . I'm t h i n k i n g in te rm s o f h a v in g t h e g i r l s o f our o f f i c e come d r e s s e d f o r m a l l y and g i v i n g c o r s a g e s t o a l l of t h e women and have them s t a n d a t th e d o o r and a c t as r e c e p t i o n i s t s , so when t h e s e p e o p le come i n t h a t th e y w i l l f e e l t h a t t h e y ' r e a t home and t h a t th e y a re wanted i n t h e r e r a t h e r t h a n s t a n d i n g a ro u n d . A h o s t s h o u ld be a t each s i n g l e t a b l e , a s a f e t y e n g i n e e r . He s h o u ld s i t a t t h e t a b l e and see t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e — a t t h a t one t a b l e — a r e made welcome and t h a t he s h o u ld be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p a s s i n g out th e c i g a r s to t h e s e p e o p l e — n o t th e r e s t a u r a n t s as has been done. So t h a t , a g a i n , t h e y ' l l f e e l t h a t th e S a f e t y Departm ent has done t h i s and n o t th e r e s t a u r a n t . I t h i n k , t o o , t h a t a t t h o s e d i n n e r s i t would be w e ll t o g et some k in d o f a f a v o r each t i m e — a v i s o r , a p e n c i l , a b a l l p o i n t pen as Bud m e n tio n e d , some work c a p s , o r so m eth in g w ith s a f e t y i m p r i n t s ' t h a t c o u ld be g iv e n t o everybody so t h a t when th e y come back to work t h e n e x t day th e y s a y , "See what I got a t t h e d i n n e r l a s t n i g h t . " . . . * * * * * Check one o f t h e f o ll o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o in g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k in g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d e r lin e words or p h r a se s t h a t s e r v e as c l u e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . EXCERPT 5 [S p e e c h — Bud] 112 . . . Have s l o g a n s , and h av e t h e s e s l o g a n s a p p e a r I n t h e f o u r i s s u e s o f t h e T R Ib u n e . D u rin g t h i s s l o g a n p e r i o d p e r m i t t h e s a f e t y e n g i n e e r s — d e s i g n a t e o n e ; d o n ' t l e t a n y body in t h e p l a n t know who t h a t s a f e t y e n g i n e e r i s . F o r exam ple h e r e , Don c o u ld d e s i g n a t e t h e s a f e t y e n g i n e e r d u r i n g t h e f o u r w eek s, o r maybe f o r two w e e k s, maybe one week, maybe a d a y , d e p e n d in g on how he w a n te d t o do i t . Now, he c o u l d go o u t a f t e r t h i s a r t i c l e h as a p p e a r e d F r i d a y . The s a f e t y e n g i n e e r c o u l d go o u t t h e f o l l o w i n g Monday and s a y , "Bob, w h a t ' s t h e s l o g a n f o r t h e week ( o r f o r t h e m o n th )? " And i f h e ' d s a y , " W e ll, t h e s l o g a n — I remember s e e i n g i t i n t h e TR Ibune— 'Be A Good N e ig h b o r ; P r a c t i c e S a f e t y A lw a y s '" o r " ' S a f e t y pays A l l Ways by B e in g A Good N e i g h b o r . ' " T hese a r e s l o g a n s we can make up as we go t o f i t o u r n e e d s . And h e ' d s a y , " F i n e ! " and hand t h e guy a s i l v e r d o l l a r and t a k e h i s name, w r i t e i t down on a Good N e ig h b o r c a r d — name and c l o c k num ber. And he would g iv e t h a t employee a copy o f t h i s c a r d w i t h t h e s l o g a n and e v e r y t h i n g on i t , and he w ould r e t a i n t h i s . And t h i s copy would be b r o u g h t i n and d e p o s i t e d i n a b a r r e l w hich i s a t th e main g a t e w i t h some k in d o f a s a f e t y s l o g a n on i t . T h is would be l o c k e d , t h i s b a r r e l w o u ld , so t h a t nobody c o u ld d e p o s i t i t b u t maybe Don o r Guy o r somebody t h a t h a n d le d th e k e y . . . . * * * * * Check one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o in g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k i n g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d e r lin e words or p h r a s e s t h a t s e r v e a s c l u e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . EXCERPT 6 [ D i s c u s s i o n ] 113 . . . O f f e r th ro u g h th e s u g g e s t i o n p l a n an award. When t h e y f i r s t came out w ith th e n e w sp a p e r, th e y gave u s — I d o n ' t know what i t was— a hu n d red d o l l a r s , hu n d red d o l l a r bond o r so m e th in g , and t h e i r names i n t h e T R Ibune. T h e y 'r e a l r e a d y awarded w ith th e money on t h e s m a l l e r s u g g e s t i o n s . D o n 't you suppose t h a t t h a t sh o u ld be enough i n c e n t i v e f o r th o s e p e o p l e ? - - b e c a u s e w e 'r e g e t t i n g lo a d s o f them i n h e r e , and h a l f o f them d o n ' t amount to v e ry much, from what I g a t h e r . Like Screw D r iv e r? No, I mean, f o r exam ple, l e t ' s g e t a c h a r a c t e r l i k e H a l b e r t , synonymous w ith F i l t h y F i l b e r t f o r S a f e t y — n o t S a f e t y Sam. I f you want to go t o i t , t h i s S a f e t y Sammy i s th e n a t i o n a l one. I t i s n ’t as d ra m a tic as t h e o t h e r s b e c a u s e o f th e way i t ' s drawn, I'm s u r e ; b u t n o n e t h e l e s s , you a re c a p i t a l i z i n g on n a t i o n a l a d v e r t i s i n g r a t h e r th a n t r y i n g t o e s t a b l i s h o u r own. I mean, w e' ve got F r u g a l McDougall and w e've got th e o t h e r guy and, a c t u a l l y , w e 'r e co p y in g so m eth in g and y o u 'r e c l o u d i n g up th e p i c t u r e . I mean, y o u 'v e got t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s now i n s t e a d o f two. And, I ' d r a t h e r t r y t o do som ething more o r i g i n a l — I mean, a t l e a s t on t h i s program . I ' d l i k e b e i n g o r i g i n a l ; I ' d go f o r a c o n t i n u i n g c a r t o o n c h a r a c t e r to be c a r r i e d out on a m onthly p rogram , m onthly m a i l i n g — any c a r t o o n c h a r a c t e r l i k e Screw D r i v e r . How about Dennis th e Menace? T h a t ' s n a t i o n a l . Yeah, b u t we c o u l d n ' t use i t . We could use h i s book; we c o u l d n ' t use him as a c h a r a c t e r in our p l a n t , as our s a f e t y c h a r a c t e r . ** ** * Check one o f t h e f o ll o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o in g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k in g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d erlin e words or p h r a se s t h a t s e r v e as c lu e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . 114 EXCERPT 7 [ D is c u s s io n ] . . . I worked a t T ri-C o when th e y were d o in g t h a t * and I ' l l t e l l you f o r damned s u re t h e r e was a l o t of guys a s k in g each o t h e r , "Do you know what i t i s t h i s week?" Oh, s u r e . On Monday and T u e sd ay s, e s p e c i a l l y , and t h e r e was a l o t o f t a l k between th e employees a s k in g i f th ey knew what t h e s a f e t y s lo g a n was f o r th e week. In f a c t , I d o n ’t e v e r remember even knowing anyone t h a t had an award in th e machine shop. W hat'd he give 'em, a d o l l a r ? He gave ’em a s i l v e r d o l l a r . J u s t l i k e Bud s a y s , h e ’ d come up an ask and i f you knew i t , he re a c h e d r i g h t i n h i s p o ck et and give you th e s i l v e r d o l l a r . I f you d i d n ' t , h e 'd give you a book o f s a f e t y matches t h a t had th e s lo g a n w r i t t e n on th e o u t s id e o f i t . T h a t 's i t , t h a t ' s th e i d e a o f i t ] i n o t h e r w ords, give him t h a t s lo g a n i n s t e a d of a c a r d , b u t have a Good N eighbor t h i n g on th e b a c k , see? How much a re you going to give away, now? Y ou're t a l k i n g about d o l l a r s and c e n t s . I 'm s a y in g t h a t we sh o u ld give between now and November t h i r t y - f i r s t a t l e a s t a th o u sa n d d o l l a r s . I f we g iv e away t h a t much, a th o u sa n d b u c k s , i f i t d o e s n 't do more th a n a th o u sa n d d o l l a r s w orth o f good, I ' l l e a t th e s i l v e r d o l l a r s m y se lf. I ' l l go alo n g w ith Bud, one hundred p e r c e n t. Yeah, I ' l l e a t th o s e s i l v e r d o l l a r s . I t ' l l cause a l o t o f t a l k in th e sh o p , I know f o r damn s u r e . . . . * * * * * Check one of the Following statements: 1. One man is doing all of the talking. ___ 2. S e v e ra l men a r e s p e a k in g a l t e r n a t e l y . ____ * *** * U n d erlin e words or p h rases th a t se r v e as c lu e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . 115 EXCERPT 8 [ S p e e c h — Bud] . . . At t h e end o f t h e y e a r , y o u 'd f o l l o w i t up. At t h e end o f t h e y e a r , two weeks b e f o r e C h r i s t m a s , t h e C h r is tm a s e d i t i o n o f t h e TRIbune comes o u t — you draw o u t names o u t o f t h i s b a r r e l and anyone who i s q u a l i f i e d — you can b r i n g them i n f o r a c o u p le o f more q u i z z e s and g iv e them some r e a l p r i z e s . Now, t h i s m ig h t have a te n d e n c y t o s a y , "Oh, h e l l , we w o n 't g e t a r o u n d t o e v e r y b o d y ." Now, you a r e n o t g o in g t o g e t aro u n d t o e v e ry b o d y w i t h a n y t h i n g . I d o n ’t c a r e what i t i s — y o u ' r e n o t g o in g t o g e t t o e v e r y e m p lo y ee. What w e ' r e t r y i n g t o do i s t o s t i m u l a t e t h e i n t e r e s t o f e v e r y o n e — i n some way, i n some f a s h i o n . I f e e l t h a t t h i s m ig h t be one. I d o n ' t know. Now, you c o u l d even f o l l o w t h i s up. Now, you must remember t h a t you do t h i s o n ly w i t h em p lo y ees t h a t a r e w o rk in g s a f e l y . I f someone i s n ' t w o rk in g s a f e l y , t h e n you go t o them and i f t h e s a f e t y e n g i n e e r d e s i r e s , j u s t say t o t h i s man out t h e r e w h o 's g r i n d i n g and n o t w e a r in g g o g g l e s — you go o v e r and g i v e him j u s t a c a r d and s a y , "You c a n ' t win u n l e s s you p r a c t i c e s a f e t y . " You hand him t h i s c a r d . In o t h e r w o rd s, he had a ch a n c e t h e r e t o win a buck and g e t i n t o t h e b a r r e l t o win some p r i z e s d u r i n g C h r i s t m a s . But b e c a u s e he w a s n ' t w o rk in g s a f e l y , a l l he g e t s i s a r e m in d e r t h a t he s h o u ld n e x t tim e p r a c t i c e s a f e t y . See? Now, t h i s c o u ld be f o ll o w e d up. . . . * * * * * Check one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o i n g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k i n g a l t e r n a t e l y . # * * * * U n d e r lin e words or p h r a s e s t h a t s e r v e as c l u e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . 116 EXCERPT 9 [ D i s c u s s i o n ] . . . I f you want t o send a l e t t e r o f any t y p e , I ’d l i k e t o s t a n d p a t on i t — i t ought t o be s e n t t o t h e w i f e , and i t ’d come a l o t n e a r e r g e t t i n ’ r e a d t h a n i f you sen d i t t o t h e h u sb a n d . By god, t h e r e m ight be p o s s i b i l i t i e s on t h a t . I t c o u ld s t i l l be i n i t i a l s . R ig h t! I t c o u ld be Mrs. J . R. W ilso n . R ig h t! I t c o u ld be Mrs. Jo h n J o n e s . R ig h t! R ig h t! How about i f we have a woman em ployee h e r e , would we a d d r e s s i t t o h e r husband? Oh, a d d r e s s i t t o h e r . A ddress i t t o h e r . I would p r e f e r t h a t i t would go t o h e r h u s b a n d , t h e n , b u t y o u ’ d r u n i n t o d i f f i c u l t y on t h e IBM m achine. In t h a t c a s e , t h e whole works would j u s t have to go t o "Mrs. E v e ry b o d y ." What a r e you g o in g t o do a b o u t th e M isses? W e ll, t h e i r c a r d s w o u l d n 't come o u t , b e c a u s e t h e y ’re n o t m a r r i e d e m p lo y e e s. No, we d o n ' t use th e A d d re ss o g ra p h s any more. T h a t ' s why I t h i n k t h e r e ' s a p o s s i b i l i t y h e r e . Oh. Oh, I s e e ! S e e , what th e y do now i s to ru n t h e IBM c a r d . You’re g o in g t o ru n t h e IBM c a rd t h r o u g h ; I d i d n ' t know t h a t . Yeah. They ru n t h e s e r i e s of s t i c k e r s . Yeah. I t ' s an IBM r e p r o d u c t i o n , and t h e n in t u r n t h e m achine s l a p s i t o f f and g lu e s i t on t h e e n v e lo p e . W e ll, t h a t ' s t h e m e c h a n ic a l t h i n g , b u t what do we do w ith i t ? I mean, now t h a t we know how t o a d d r e s s Mrs. S o - a n d - s o . What a r e we g o in g t o a d d r e s s to h e r? . . . * * * * * Check one o f th e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o in g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k i n g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d e r lin e words or p h r a se s t h a t s e r v e as c l u e s J ’f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . EXCERPT 10 [S p e ech — Don] 117 . . . I f i g u r e t h e message w i l l have a l a s t i n g e f f e c t i f i t ’s u s e d . I keep t h a t in mind b e c a u se of th e s u c c e s s we had w ith th e Chamber o f Commerce p le d g e s t i c k e r . And t h a t had a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g to do w ith ARC, no c o n n e c tio n w ith our company. Anything to make a f e llo w f e e l p ro u d . I s t i l l have t h e s t i c k e r on my bumper, and I s t i l l s a y , "I A ssign t h e P le a s u r e t o You.” Gee, I n o t i c e d them t h i n g s when I came up t o th e s to p l i g h t . I looked down a t t h i s f e l l o w ’ s bumper and i t s a y s , " I A ssign th e P l e a s u r e t o You." I knew I had mine on t h e b a c k , and I c a n ' t h e lp b u t f e e l t h a t t h e r e f o r an i n d e f i n i t e p e r i o d i s a s a f e t y m essage, sim ple and s h o r t . But i t ’s a s a f e t y m essage, g e t t i n g i t o v e r t o a l o t o f p eo p le u s in g a u to m o b ile s a t th e p l a n t . I checked th e c o s t on th o s e and we can g e t a p r e s s u r e - s e n s i t i v e s t i c k e r w ith a tw o -ru n c o l o r which would giv e us our b l a c k and g re e n c o l o r s f o r t h r e e c e n t s , m axi mum, t h r e e c e n t s . So f o r e i g h t e e n hundred d o l l a r s we could have s t i c k e r s p ro v id e d f o r th e e n t i r e o r g a n i z a t i o n f o r one month, and o f co u rse t h e r e ' d be th e c o s t o f m a i l i n g . Now, in a d d i t i o n , I would l i k e to su g g e st t h a t each m a ilin g sh o u ld c o n t a i n a cover l e t t e r on th e home s a f e t y , th e d r i v i n g s a f e t y , or job s a f e t y . I t h i n k th e l e t t e r s h o u ld p o in t out th e f i n a n c i a l l o s s t o th e em ployee, th e f i n a n c i a l i n t e r e s t th e employee has in p r e v e n t i n g a c c i d e n t s . . . . * * * * * Check one o f th e f o llo w in g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s doing a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a re s p e a k in g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d erlin e words or p h ra se s t h a t se r v e as c lu e s fo r t h i s d e c i s i o n . EXCERPT 11 [S p e e c h — P o x ] 118 . . . You m e n tio n e d t h e c o n t e s t , "Why Mommy and Daddy S hould Work S a f e l y a t ARC." A n o th er one t h a t we u sed when I was on t h e s a f e t y com m ittee -was t h e home s a f e t y s u r v e y . I found a v e ry good r e s p o n s e . And I t ' s a funny t h i n g , t h e s e women t h a t I have on t h e s a f e t y com m ittee a r e th e ones t h a t do t h e b e s t jo b a t home. And t h e y ' d come i n and s a y , " T h is I s t h e check l i s t f o r my h u s b a n d ," and "W e're t a k i n g c a r e o f t h i s , " and t h e y would r e a l l y go i n t o i t . P ro b a b ly t h e s e home s a f e t y s u rv e y s c o u ld be c o n d u c te d by th e f a m il y . Of c o u r s e , any c o n t e s t r e q u i r e s an aw ard. I j u s t j o t t e d down a few i d e a s t h a t w o u l d n 't c o s t t o o much t h a t m ight be n i c e t o g iv e a p e r s o n — an e x t r a u s e f u l g i f t o r a s a v in g s bond o r some u s e f u l g i f t , s o m e th in g t h a t th e y c o u ld u s e . We’ l l t h i n k o f a p r o c e d u r e . A n o th e r t h o u g h t I h a d was t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s t h a t a r e s u b m i t t e d by e m p lo y e e s- v e ry o f t e n th e y a r e i n v o l v i n g a s a f e t y s u g g e s t i o n , and i f we c o u ld s c h e d u le w in n in g s u g g e s t i o n s m onthly o r a n n u a l l y , th e y c o u ld be p u b l i c i z e d on t h e b u l l e t i n b o a r d s . The awards c o u ld be made p u b l i c l y , some s u i t a b l e awards by th e head o f t h e d e p a r tm e n t o r s a f e t y e n g i n e e r — some way t o g e n e r a t e a l i t t l e i n t e r e s t as f a r as a m o n etary rew ard i f t h e s u g g e s t i o n would be a c c e p t a b l e t o th e s u g g e s t i o n s com m i t t e e . But we s h o u ld maybe d e t a c h t h i s and b r i n g i t out and show what t h e y can do i n s a f e t y . . . . ¥t * * * * Check one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o in g a l l o f th e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k i n g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * # # U n d e r lin e words or p h r a se s t h a t s e r v e as c l u e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . 119 EXCERPT 12 [ D is c u s s io n ] . . . How about t h i s L ife Saver program— how much do th e y run? I w ouldn’t be a b le to t e l l you, because i t would mean co rresp o n d en ce w ith th e f a c t o r y t o get th o s e t h i n g s . I know th e a i r l i n e s use them, and th e y a re a n i c k e l f o r a t h r e e r o l l r e t a i l . I t looks to me l i k e we ought to be a b le to g e t ’em f o r a penny a package. I could have g iv en you some f i g u r e s on t h a t i f I had known ahead of tim e . The Watkins Company, J . R. Watkins h e re in town, uses th o s e to give t o t h e i r sale sm en , and th e y d i s t r i b u t e them in th e homes as th e y make t h e i r rounds t r y i n g t o s e l l goods. Of c o u r s e , th e t r i c k on t h i s t h i n g l i e s in th e f a c t t h a t you would have t o have L if e S a v e rs; you c o u l d n ’t get a s u b s t i t u t e . T h a t ’ s r i g h t , t h a t ' s what th e s e a r e . You have t o t r y t o g et p e rm is s io n from th e L if e Saver Company because th ey have a c o p y rig h t and a l l t h a t s o r t of s t u f f . T h a t ’s r i g h t . But I'm n o t s u r e — do you r e c a l l , on th e p la n e s do th e a i r l i n e s have t h e i r i n s i g n i a on th o se t h i n g s ? No, not on 'em. They use C h i c l e t s . No, sometimes they give L ife S a v e rs. Yeah. Yeah, w ith fo u r in a pack. But i f we were t o use t h a t on th e f i r s t p a r t of i t — l i k e i f th e slo g an be put i n s i d e , on th e back s id e of th e l a b e l , I was t h i n k i n g — and i f they r e f u s e to allo w us th e f r o n t of i t — i t could c o n c e iv a b ly be s im p le r f o r them i f th ey would p ic k up t h i s a d v e r t i s i n g gimmick, t o o , and make t h i s a v a i l a b l e t o o t h e r places. . . . * * * * * Check one of th e f o llo w in g s ta t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s doing a l l of th e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e ra l men are sp e a k in g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d erlin e words or p h ra ses th a t serv e as c lu e s fo r t h i s d e c i s i o n . 120 EXCERPT 13 [ S p eech — E rn] . . . When we b r e a k down t h e s u p e r v i s i o n p a r t o f t h e p r o gram I t h i n k t h a t we s h o u ld have ab o u t e i g h t y - f i v e t o n i n e t y p e r c e n t s e l l i n g a t t h e s h o p , p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t w ith t h e s u p e r v i s o r s , and a b o u t t e n o r f i f t e e n p e r c e n t home m a i l i n g t o them. And i f we a r e g o in g t o send l e t t e r s t o t h e s u p e r v i s o r s ab o u t home s a f e t y , I t h i n k t h a t t h e o b j e c t o f some l e t t e r s would be t o show t h a t a s u p e r v i s o r c a n ’t do a good jo b a t t h e shop i f he i s w o r r i e d ab o u t what has h appened t o h i s w i f e , and n o t p r e s s money so much t o t h e s u p e r v i s o r s b e c a u s e t h e m a j o r i t y o f them a r e n o t as aware o f m o n e ta ry v a l u e s as t h e w o rk er i s . The s u p e r v i s o r i s t h i n k i n g more o f h i s jo b as a s u p e r v i s o r , and I t h i n k th e s u p e r v i s o r ' s w if e d o e s , t o o , a l o n g w i t h him. A word a b o u t p u b l i c a t i o n s . I cam up w ith t h i s i d e a o f t h e s a f e t y c a r - 1 t o o n i n t h e TRIbune two tim e s a month; t h a t ' s e v e ry o t h e r week. I f e e l t h a t c a r t o o n s a r e a t h i n g t h a t more p e o p le w i l l n o t i c e t h a n a w r i t t e n a r t i c l e i n t h e TRIbune b e c a u s e t h e y w i l l g l a n c e a t i t , and t h e n i f t h e y g e t a l i t t l e t i t o f a c h u c k le o u t o f i t — th e y w i l l n o t i c e I t . And a l s o , I t h i n k we s h o u ld have a s a f e t y a r t i c l e i n t h e A R C l i t e , th e m agazine t h a t ' s p u b l i s h e d by th e company once a m onth, and we s h o u ld have a s a f e t y a r t i c l e i n t h a t about e v e ry o t h e r month. . . . Check one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o in g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k i n g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * # # * U n d e r lin e words or p h r a se s th a t s e r v e as c l u e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . 121 EXCERPT Ik [ S p e e c h — D on ] . . . U t i l i z e a home m a i l i n g t h r e e tim es d u r in g th e y e a r — i n o t h e r w ords, once e v e ry f o u r m onths, th e t h r e e s u b j e c t s t o be one m a i l i n g on home s a f e t y , a m a i l i n g on d r i v i n g s a f e t y , and a m a i l i n g on jo b s a f e t y . In each of t h e s e m a i l i n g s , I'm s u g g e s t i n g t h a t we in c lu d e a bumper s t i c k e r . Number one, I f e e l th e a d v a n ta g e s o f th e bumper s t i c k e r a re t h a t i t i d e n t i f i e s th e p e rso n as an ARC employee. I t h i n k t h a t i s good f o r m o ra le . I t h i n k t h a t a l o t of our p eo p le would l i k e t o be i d e n t i f i e d . As a m a t t e r of f a c t , when I was w orking in a shop a t S u p e r i o r , we a c t u a l l y bought d e c a l s w ith th e name S u p e r io r on i t , so t h a t each man c o u ld put i t on— so I t h i n k i t would be good f o r m o ra le . I t would be easy to see a c c e p ta n c e o r r e j e c t i o n o f th e program th ro u g h a survey of a u to s in th e p a r k in g l o t s . In o t h e r words, i f we p ass th e s e out we could p u rc h a se enough f o r one m a i l i n g , and th e n we could survey th e p a r k in g l o t s a t th e end of a week or two weeks or w h atev er tim e we e s t a b l i s h . And t h e n , i f we see t w e n t y - f i v e p e r cent of th e c a r s , w e ' l l know we've developed a p r e t t y good amount of i n t e r e s t . I f we only see one or two in a whole bunch of l o t s , w e can im m ed iately drop th e program and t a k e o f f on a n o t h e r t a n g e n t . So f o r a r e a s o n a b l e e x p e n d i t u r e , we can see what k in d of a c c e p ta n c e we a re g e t t i n g . . . . * * * * * Check one of th e f o llo w in g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s doing a l l o f th e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a re s p e a k in g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d e r l i n e w o r d s o r p h r a s e s t h a t s e r v e a s c l u e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . EXCERPT 15 [ D i s c u s s i o n ] 122 . . . I ' d l i k e t o see t h i s t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m f o r s u p e r v i s i o n s e t up t o s e l l s a f e t y t o them p e r s o n a l l y i n t h e p l a n t . I t h i n k we a g r e e d l a s t tim e t h a t t h e b e s t method o f g e t t i n g s a f e t y a c r o s s i s p e r s o n a l s e l l i n g . W e ll, now, w e ' r e g o in g t o have t o be s p e c i f i c on t h i s . Now, what d i d you h av e i n mind on t h a t ? I mean, d i d you have i n mind t h a t e a c h s a f e t y e n g i n e e r make a o n e - h o u r c o n t a c t w i t h e v e r y s u p e r v i s o r , o r t h a t e a c h s a f e t y e n g i n e e r make a f i f t e e n - m i n u t e c o n t a c t ? C o u r s e , i t ' s gonna have t o be w orked o u t as f a r a s t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e , I t h i n k . I t h i n k t h e g ro u p s h o u ld have some say i n what th e y w a n te d t o be c o v e r e d i n i t . I t h i n k t h a t a l l t h e s u p e r v i s o r s , as w e l l as p o s s i b l e - - o f c o u r s e , t h e r e ' l l a lw a y s be some a b s e n t and some t h a t c a n ' t g e t away — b u t t r y t o c o v e r as many o f t h e s u p e r v i s o r s a s p o s s i b l e i n a o n e - o r tw o - m e e t in g s a f e t y p ro g ram t o p r e s e n t s a f e t y t o them p e r s o n a l l y . Do you mean a v i s i t i n t h e p l a n t to t a k e t h e men on t h e f l o o r , o r do you mean a c t u a l l y i n v i t i n g them i n t o a c o n f e r e n c e ? I n v i t i n g him and h i s o t h e r s u p e r v i s o r s i n t h e d e p a r t m e n t i n t o a c o n f e r e n c e . What would be y o u r s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n t h i s c a s e ? Now l e t ' s t a k e , f o r i n s t a n c e , what J im S t o v e r d i d o v e r i n p r i n t i n g and p a c k i n g . He to o k t i m e — and t h e s u p e r v i s o r s o v e r t h e r e went a lo n g w i t h i t — t o have a l l t h e men b r o u g h t i n . . . . * * * * * Check one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o i n g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k i n g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d e r lin e words or p h r a s e s t h a t s e r v e a s c l u e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . EXCERPT 16 [ D i s c u s s i o n ] . . . I ' l l go f o r d r i v e r e d u c a t i o n . I t h i n k t h a t ' s your i d e a . Yeah, b u t I t h i n k what we s h o u ld do on t h e bumper s t i c k e r s and which I t h i n k would make a r e a l p r a c t i c a l p r o p o s a l would be to p r o v i d e t h e bumper s t i c k e r s , a t t h r e e c e n t s a p i e c e , and m e re ly u se them as an i n s e r t in any o t h e r s t a n d a r d company m a i l i n g . T h a t ' s a good p o i n t . Very good. J u s t th ro w i t i n t h e r e . Very good. Throw i t i n t h e r e and l e t them u s e i t . Maybe a TRIbune a r i t c l e when i t s coming t h a t c o v e r s i t o r w h a te v e r t h e s u b j e c t i s , and l e t 'em know t h a t t h e y ' r e f o r t h e b u m p ers, and j u s t i n c l u d e them i n t h e r e , and I t h i n k we can do good on t h a t . Y o u 're r i g h t , t h e r e . T h a t ' s a whiz o f a t h i n g , r e a l l y , b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e days l i k e when th e y m a i l out t h i s i n s u r a n c e s t u f f and so on from h e r e — . Sure! Why, j u s t s l i p one i n w ith t h e i r m a i l . Sure! And we can do i t . I mean, i t ' s j u s t one more s e t u p on t h e i r s t u f f i n g m a c h in e , so — t h e c o s t i s o n ly what we p a y , t h r e e c e n t s a p i e c e , o r a b o u t e i g h t e e n h u n d red b u c k s . Now, p l e a s e n o t e on th e p o s t c a r d s 'b o u t ARC p r o d u c t s . T h a t ' s r i g h t . You m ight make a n o te o f t h a t a lo n g i n t h e r e - - A u t o m a t i c s , P r o j e c t i l e s - - . ( G e n e ra l l a u g h t e r ) Okay. What e l s e f o r home? HOw ab o u t home m essag es? Home mes s a g e s? I mean l e t t e r s . How ab o u t making a l e t t e r w ith d o t t e d l i n e s on i t so t h e k i d s c o u ld f o l d i t i n t o an a i r p l a n e , l i k e t h i s , and a m il i t ? Not such a dumb id e a ! . . . * * * * * Check one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o in g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k in g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d e r lin e words or p h r a se s t h a t s e r v e as c l u e s f o r t h i s d e c i s i o n . EXCERPT 17 [S p e e c h — A r t ] 12H . . . P e rh a p s we c o u ld g e t a h o ld o f t h e L i f e S a v e r Candy p e o p le and g e t t h o s e l i t t l e p a c k a g e s o f f o u r c a n d i e s i n a p ackage l i k e t h e y s e r v e on a i r l i n e s , and have s lo g a n s o r l a b e l s on t h e i n s i d e o f t h e l a b e l , t h e b ack of t h e l a b e l , o r even on t h e f r o n t . C arry d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f s lo g a n s on t h e s e l a b e l s . And, t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e t h i n g s , t h e n , s h o u ld be made i n a tre m e n d o u s q u a n t i t y o f them , and t h e s a f e t y committeeman c o u ld j u s t c a r r y a p o c k e t f u l o f them and hand them o u t r i g h t d u r i n g work h o u rs o r any tim e he i s a ro u n d . I t would p o p u l a r i z e him. S a f e t y e n g i n e e r s c o u ld c a r r y a b u c k e t f u l o f them w i t h them a l l o f t h e t i m e . They c o u ld be d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e c a f e t e r i a o r any o t h e r p l a c e so t h a t t h e y c o u ld be handed out a lm o st as a c o n t i n u o u s t h i n g , b e c a u s e t h e y ’ re s o m e th in g t h a t p e o p le would go f o r ; and t h a t r e a l l y s o r t o f drums up t h e i d e a o f "Good N e ig h b o rs Are R ea l L i f e S a v e r s . " Now we c o u l d , i f need b e , c a r r y i t on even a l i t t l e b i t f u r t h e r b y , s a y , t a k i n g and making t w e lv e s lo g a n s o r m ore, and when a p e r s o n has a c c u m u la te d tw e lv e of t h e s e s lo g a n s or a l l tw e lv e o f them , why, t h e n he c o u ld be i n f o r a p r i z e of some k in d o r s o m e th in g . The o b j e c t o f him t r y i n g t o r e t a i n t h e s e t h i n g s , or t h e f a c t t h a t he r e t a i n s them and r e a d s them , t h a t way you have a v a lu e on them. I have b ro k e n my t h o u g h t s down f u r t h e r — i n t o an i n - p l a n t program f i r s t - - a n d I have l i s t e d what I would c a l l t h e Good N eig h b o rs L i f e S a v e r C o n t e s t . . . . * * * * * Check one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o in g a l l o f t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k i n g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d e r lin e words or p h r a s e s t h a t s e r v e as c l u e s fo r t h i s d e c i s i o n . EXCERPT 18 [ D i s c u s s i o n ] 125 . . . W h at's t h a t gonna be l i k e ? W e ll, I t h i n k i t c o u ld be j u s t a r e p r o d u c t i o n o f w h a te v e r we put out t h a t month. We c o u ld j u s t make them very s m a l l — ab o u t t h i s l a r g e — so t h e y would s e t up l i k e t h i s , and I s s u e them out j u s t e v e ry p l a c e so t h a t e v e ry e n g i n e e r and e v e ry desk p e r s o n c o u ld have them. How you gonna g et them o u t , m a il them? Dump them o f f som eplace so th e y co u ld be p a s s e d aro u n d . W h a t's t h e s i z e — what a r e you t h i n k i n g ab o u t t h a t ? J u s t a l i t t l e m i n i a t u r e p o s t e r about th e s i z e o f your pack o f c i g a r e t t e s . They c o u ld be f o ld e d i n a f a s h i o n l i k e t h i s . What would we do w ith them? ^ t ' s a means o f t r y i n g t o g e t t h e o f f i c e f o r c e . Is t h i s g o in g t o be a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e p o s t e r s t h a t we g e t now w ith th e k n ig h t in armor and t h e woman w e a rin g je w e l r y ? Yeah. I t c o u ld b e; i t c o u ld be a d i f f e r e n t t h i n g ; i t c o u ld be a c a r t o o n . You c o u ld t a k e t h i s t h i n g r i g h t h e r e — . I t c o u ld be j u s t a r e p r o d u c t i o n , maybe. That would be a b e t t e r i d e a , maybe, t h a n our e i g h t - a n d - a - h a l f - b y - e l e v e n t h a t we a r e u s in g now. Yeah. Yeah. Could be. Yeah, somebody dropped t h a t e i g h t - a n d - a - h a l f - b y - e l e v e n , and when th e y do g et i n t o o f f i c e a r e a s th e y a re p r e t t y b u lk y . How about u s in g some c h e e se c a k e on t h e s e e a s e l s ? Now y o u 'r e g o in g to t e l l m e,I know, t h a t t h e r e ' s some p e o p le who d o n ' t l i k e c h e e s e c a k e . I d i d n ' t say i t . Put i t on t h e p o s t e r s o r on e a s e l s ? . . . * * * * * Check one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t s : 1. One man i s d o in g a l l of t h e t a l k i n g . 2. S e v e r a l men a r e s p e a k in g a l t e r n a t e l y . * * * * * U n d e r lin e words or p h r a se s t h a t s e r v e as c lu e s fo r t h i s d e c i s i o n .
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Creator
Fear, Arthur J.
(author)
Core Title
An Experimental Study Of The Ability Of Lay Judges To Distinguish Betweentypescripts Of Individual Idea Development And Group Idea Development
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Speech
Publisher
University of Southern California
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OAI-PMH Harvest,Speech Communication
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dissertations
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Language
English
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Dickens, Milton (
committee chair
), Fisher, Walter R. (
committee member
), Priest, Robert F. (
committee member
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https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-115354
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UC11360792
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115354
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Fear, Arthur J.
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The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
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