University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Manufacturing Under Porfirio Diaz

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Manufacturing Under Porfirio Diaz

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Content This dissertation has been m icrofilmed exactly as received 69-5050 DOTY, Richard George, 1942- MANUFACTURING UNDER PORFIRIO DIAZ. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1968 Language and Literature, modern University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan MANUFACTURING UNDER PORFIRIO DIAZ -by R ic h a rd George Doty A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f the R e q u ire m e n ts f o r the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ( L a t i n A m erican S t u d i e s ) June 1968 UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA TH E GRADUATE S C H O O L UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. C A LIFOR N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by Richard George Doty under the direction of h..±s..Dissertation C om mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of O R D F - P H I L O S O P H Y Dean Date ..... DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Chairman PREFACE P e rh ap s no o th e r H is p a n ic Am erican has b een more h i g h ly p r a i s e d or ro u n d ly condemned th a n P o r f i r i o D ia z , P r e s i d e n t of Mexico from 1876 to 1880, and from 1884 to 1911, the e s s e n t i a l f i g u r e i n t h i r t y - f i v e y e a rs o f M exico’ s p a s t . Diaz has been e x t o l l e d as a g r e a t , s e l f l e s s le a d e r of the M exican p eo p le i n t h e i r march toward the New E ra . He has a l s o been brand ed the a g e n t t h r u s t i n g t h a t p eople i n t o a new, d a rk e r a of b a r b a r is m . With the p a s s in g of th e y e a r s , as the f e r v o r o f th e p a r t i s a n of th e a n c ie n regim e and of th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y grow c o ld e r , we are p e rh a p s le a r n in g t h a t th e t r u t h l i e s somewhere in betw een. I hope t h a t , w ith a more r e a l i s t i c a p p ro a c h , th e Diaz p e rio d may be reopened to i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I b e l i e v e t h a t i t i s h i g h ly w o rth w h ile f o r h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h , b o th f o r th e i n s i g h t i t can a f f o r d i n t o a bygone a g e , as w e ll as f o r i t s use i n th e e x a m in a tio n of c o n tem p o rary phenomena i n L a t in A m erica. Books d e a l i n g w ith th e Mexico of th o se y e a r s and the man who r u l e d i t have been num erous, f a l l i n g i n t o many c a t e g o r i e s , some f a v o r a b le to th e man and h i s a c t i v i t i e s , o t h e r s u n f a v o r a b l e , s t i l l o th e r s somewhere i n b etw een . T h is stu d y w i l l d e a l w ith an im p o rta n t f a c e t of such books and a u th o r s - - t h e i r tr e a tm e n t of M exicors m a n u fa c tu rin g d u rin g the P o r f i r i a n y e a r s . I t w i l l cover a s e r i e s of books p u b lis h e d from 1876 to 1930 w r i t t e n in E n g lish and S p a n ish , and w i l l in c lu d e those f a v o r a b le and u n fa v o ra b le to Diaz and to manu f a c t u r i n g in Mexico d u rin g h i s r u l e . There a re s e v e r a l o b j e c t i v e s which I hope to ach iev e w ith such a s u b j e c t . One i s sim ply the e x p l o r a t i o n and r e covery of an im p o rta n t p a r t of a f a s c i n a t i n g s e r i e s of bo oks. The books in q u e s tio n were u n u su a l. By and l a r g e , they were w r i t t e n by two c l a s s e s of w r i t e r s : t r a v e l e r s in Mexico from England and the U n ited S t a t e s in th e l a t e n i n e t e e n th and e a r l y tw e n ti e t h c e n t u r i e s , and M exicans, b o th p ro - and a n t i - P o r f i r i o D iaz. They were f r e q u e n t l y im pas sio n e d , never u n b ia s e d . T h e ir a u th o r s r e a c te d f o r or a g a i n s t the h i s t o r i c a l phenomena of D iaz, h is Mexico, and, of e s s e n t i a l im portance to t h i s p a p e r, m an u fa c tu rin g w i th in t h a t Mexico. I n s h o r t , the mere e x p l o r a t i o n of the t r e a t ment of m a n u fa c tu rin g under Diaz p ro v id ed by th e s e books can, I hope, show two t h in g s im m e d ia te ly --a s e r i e s of im p r e s s i o n i s t i c v i g n e t t e s of a p e rio d by i t s c o n te m p o ra rie s and a study o f p e r s o n a l p s y c h o lo g ie s . T his l a t t e r o b je c t i v e , e s p e c i a l l y , has been o f g r e a t im portance i n the m eth ods used i n t h i s stu d y . Another g o a l i s the h i g h l i g h t i n g of g e n e ra l h i s t o r i c a l tr e n d s in Mexico, sim ply by a c h ro n o lo g ic a l arrangem ent iii of a u t h o r s and b o o k s. One exam ple s h o u ld s u f f i c e . The w orks p r i o r to 1910 were g e n e r a l l y h i g h l y f a v o r a b l e to D iaz and m a n u f a c tu r in g i n h i s a g e . They r e f l e c t e d , p e r h a p s , th e b o u n d le s s op tim ism o f a b u r g e o n in g c a p i t a l i s m so t y p i c a l of th e new y e a r s of th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . P e o p le became some w hat j a u n d i c e d w i t h u n r e s t r a i n e d c a p i t a l i s m , how ever; t h i s and th e f a c t o f th e r e v o l u t i o n a r y r e a c t i o n seemed to make many books a f t e r 1911 u n f a v o r a b l e . Of c o u r s e , t h e r e were many who lo o k ed back n o s t o l g i c a l l y a t t h e good o ld d a y s , and th e r e a d e r f i n d s f a v o r a b l e im p r e s s io n s a f t e r 1911. I have l a b o r e d under th e d e l u s i o n t h a t th e p a s t , ~ w h ile n o t e n a b lin g th e h i s t o r i a n to p r e d i c t th e p r e s e n t , may s t i l l h e lp him to u n d e r s t a n d i t . T h u s, i t i s my b e l i e f t h a t an e x a m in a tio n o f D iaz and the im p u lse o f m a n u f a c tu r in g i n t o M exico can a f f o r d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e m a n u f a c tu r in g phenomenon i n o t h e r d e v e lo p in g c o u n t r i e s . I t can un co ver many c l o s e p a r a l l e l i s m s i n such m a t t e r s a s t a r i f f s , sequence o f m a n u f a c tu r in g d e v e lo p m e n t, and lab o r-m an a g em e n t r e l a t i o n s . H i s t o r i a n s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s f i e l d have a l a b o r a t o r y c a se h e r e , a c a s e w i t h a d i s c e r n i b l e b e g in n in g and e n d . I t seems o n ly l o g i c a l t o r e f e r t o t h i s exam ple a s an a id i n an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m a n u f a c tu r in g e ls e w h e r e . To n o te th e s e p a r a l l e l i s m s i n th e d i s s e r t a t i o n would expand i t beyond i t s o r i g i n a l s c o p e . I t i s my hope t h a t th e w r i t e r s and books w i l l speak t o th e r e a d e r f o r t h e m s e lv e s . These a re th e g e n e r a l g o a ls o f t h i s s t u d y . Some word r e g a r d i n g th e m ethods w hich w i l l be used to o b t a i n them w i l l be h e l p f u l h e r e . The tim e -s p a n encom passed i n th e s e s o u rc e s c o v ered th e p e r io d from 1876 t o 1930. The c h o ic e of th e f i r s t d a te was o b v io u s : D iaz became P r e s i d e n t i n t h a t y e a r . The second c h o ic e must be e x p l a i n e d . I have chosen i t as a c u t o f f d a te f o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . One was t h a t books on D iaz and Mexico seemed to d e c l i n e a f t e r t h a t g e n e r a l y e a r , an i n d i c a t i o n , p e r h a p s , o f an im provem ent in M exican- U n ite d S t a t e s r e l a t i o n s . Books on th e good old d a y s , w r i t t e n by E n g li s h - s p e a k in g a u t h o r s who h a rk e d back to th e d ays when f o r e i g n c a p i t a l was s e c u re and M exicans behaved them s e l v e s , were no lo n g e r th e f a s h i o n . By th e same to k e n , many M exican a u th o r s had by t h i s tim e d e c l i n e d somewhat i n t h e i r vehemence a g a i n s t D ia z . T h is was p e rh a p s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t by th e n th e R e v o lu tio n had l o s t much o f i t s r a d i c a l i s m . F u r th e r m o r e , books by o b s e r v e r s o f Mexico d u r in g th e P o r f i r i a n e r a d e c l i n e d in number as tim e went on, sim p ly b e c ause th e o b s e r v e r s th e m s e lv e s d i e d . I found t h a t , by 1930, a l a r g e number of them were a l r e a d y d e a d , o r , a t any r a t e , had c e a se d to w r i t e . D e ath s i n t h i s g ro u p i n c r e a s e d a f t e r t h a t y e a r . W hatever th e c a u s e s , the e f f e c t rem ained th e same: around th e end o f th e t h i r d decade o f t h i s c e n t u r y , f a v o r a b le and u n f a v o r a b l e booked on Diaz and m a n u fa c tu rin g d e c l i n e d i n num ber. S ince t h i s was the c a s e , and, due to v l i m i t a t i o n s of tim e , s in c e i t was n e c e s s a r y to end th e stu d y somewhere, the year 1930 seemed to be an a c c e p ta b le te r m in a l p o i n t. The stu d y was l im i te d to i n v e s t i g a t i o n of works in E n g lish and S p a n ish , n o t only because o f my l i m i t a t i o n in la n g u a g es, b u t a ls o p r i m a r i l y because v i r t u a l l y a l l of the books a v a i l a b l e were i n e i t h e r of th o se la n g u a g e s . I have lim ite d my coverage to f a v o r a b le or u n fa v o ra b le books, p r i m a rily because th e p e rio d i t s e l f seemed to c o n ta in th e se a l most e x c l u s i v e l y . Diaz has never been known fo r h is a b i l i t y to a t t r a c t u n b iased s c h o l a r s . The t r a n s i t i o n to a c l e a r eyed tr e a tm e n t o f him and h i s p e rio d i s s t i l l in p ro c e ss and o nly began r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y . C e r t a i n l y , of the s e v e r a l hundred books examined w r i t t e n up to and in c lu d in g 1930, only a v e ry few, l e s s than t e n , could i n my judgment have been c a l l e d i m p a r t i a l . There was alw ays the danger t h a t what I f e l t was u n b ia se d someone e ls e would n o t. T h at was a danger i n h e r e n t in t h i s kind o f work, however. I h o n e s tly f e e l t h a t I have done my b e s t to rem ain i m p a r t i a l . S e v e ra l hundred works in E n g lis h and S p a n ish come under my e x a m in a tio n , of which p e rh a p s o n e - f o u r th c o n ta in e d im p re ssio n s on m a n u fa c tu rin g d u rin g the p e rio d under rev ie w . Never knowing in advance which books would prove u s e f u l , my tim e was n e c e s s a r i l y d ev o ted to re a d in g e v e r y th in g w ith a p u b l i c a t i o n d a te of 1930 or b e fo re which covered Diaz and Mexico. The d i s s e r t a t i o n has two p a r t s , the one in c o r p o r a te d i n th e o t h e r . T hat i s , having once i s o l a t e d an im p re ss io n or an o p in io n , my n e x t o b je c tiv e was to a tte m p t to e x p la in i t s o r i g i n , the f o r c e s w ith in th e a u th o r which caused him to re c o rd h i s im p re ss io n in the s p e c i f i c manner in which he d i d . I t i s obvious t h a t a w r i t e r w i l l see th in g s through h is background, throu gh th o se e x p e rie n c e s which have gone b e f o r e . With t h a t i n mind, i t was my o b je c tiv e to g a th e r as much m a t e r i a l on the a u th o r as would be u s e f u l in e x p la in in g h is o p in io n and which would f i t i n t o a stu d y of t h i s le n g th . Success was n o t com plete h e r e , f o r many of the a u th o rs seemed to lea v e no t r a c e s o th e r th an a s in g le book, one which c o n ta in e d no in f o r m a tio n on th e m se lv e s. These were uncommon, however. A c e r t a i n amount of b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m ation was found fo r v i r t u a l l y everybody, e n a b lin g me in many c a se s to show a d i r e c t c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p between background and o p in io n . The books th em selv es were u s e f u l h e re in most c a s e s . O ther so u rc e s in c lu d e d Who’ s Who and s i m i l a r w orks, o th e r books on Mexican and H isp a n ic American h i s t o r y , book re v ie w s , and card c a ta lo g u e s f o r v a r io u s l i b r a r y c o l l e c t i o n s , in c lu d in g th o se of th e U n iv e r s ity of Southern C a l i f o r n i a , the U n i v e r s i ty o f C a l i f o r n i a a t Los A ngeles and B e rk e le y , the L ib r a r y of C o ngress, and the B r i t i s h Museum. These so u rc e s were u t i l i z e d to f i l l gaps in in f o r m a tio n a lr e a d y o b ta in e d , f o r p o s s ib le le a d s e ls e w h e re , and to g iv e some i n d i c a t i o n of an a u t h o r ’s background and vii tem peram ent by th e books he w r o te . I n many c a s e s , th e y were a l s o u s e f u l f o r p i n p o i n t i n g th e a u t h o r s ’ d a t e s of b i r t h , p e r i o d s o f l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y , and d e a t h d a t e s . The p a p e r i t s e l f i s d i v i d e d i n t o two m ajo r p a r t s , one d e a l i n g w i t h th o se w r i t e r s and o p in io n s b e f o r e th e 1911 a b d i c a t i o n of D iaz and th e o t h e r w i t h th o s e a f t e r i t . W ith i n th e s e b ro a d c a t e g o r i e s , f u r t h e r s u b d i v i s i o n s have b e e n made. F a v o ra b le a u t h o r s w r i t i n g i n E n g li s h and S p a n ish b e f o r e 1911 a r e f i r s t d i s c u s s e d , each occupy ing one s u b s e c t i o n a p i e c e , each co m p lete w i t h a b r i e f i n t r o d u c t i o n and c o n c l u s i o n , s e r v in g t o h i g h l i g h t t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s e c t i o n . U nfav o r a b l e a u t h o r s a re h a n d le d i n th e same way and s e q u e n c e . Then th e second m ain d i v i s i o n , c o v e r in g p o s t- 1 9 1 1 a u t h o r s i s - e n t e r e d , w i t h th e same seq u en c e o f m a t e r i a l s . T h is g i v e s th e d i s s e r t a t i o n two l a r g e s e c t i o n s w ith f o u r s u b s e c t i o n s e a c h . I n a l l c a s e s , i n each s u b s e c t i o n a s t r i c t l y c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r o f books i s f o llo w e d , b e g in n in g w i t h th e e a r l i e s t , e n d in g w i t h th e l a t e s t . In th e d i s c u s s i o n of e a c h book, t h e b a c k g ro u n d of th e a u th o r i s f i r s t p r e s e n t e d , t h e n th e o p in io n on th e s u b j e c t w hich he m a n i f e s te d i n h i s bo o k . A t w o - p a r t c o n c l u s i o n f o l lo w s t h e s e s e c t i o n s o f th e p a p e r , i n c l u d i n g g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s on th e a u t h o r s , and g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s on th e phenomenon of m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d er D iaz and th e way i n w h ich i t i s p r e s e n t e d . I hope t h a t th e m ethods employed w i l l a f f o r d the r e a d e r a u n iq u e and u s e f u l p i c t u r e of m a n u f a c tu r in g and h i s t o r i o g r a p h y i n th e s e t t i n g viii o f the D iaz d i c t a t o r s h i p i n M exico. B e fo re th e main p a r t of th e d i s s e r t a t i o n i s e n t e r e d , how ever, I s h a l l d i s c u s s D iaz h i m s e l f and h i s p e rio d of r u l e i n M exico. TABLE OP CONTENTS Page PREFACE............................................................................................................... i i INTRODUCTION: THE DIAZ P E R I O D .................................................... 1 PART ONE: PRE-REVOLUTIONARY MATERIAL C hapter I . FAVORABLE SOURCES IN E N G L I S H ..................................... 28 I I . FAVORABLE SOURCES IN SPANISH ..................................... 103 I I I . UNFAVORABLE SOURCES IN E N G L I S H ................................ 132 IV. UNFAVORABLE SOURCES IN S P A N I S H ................................ 196 PART TWO: POST-REVOLUTIONARY MATERIAL V. FAVORABLE SOURCES IN E N G L I S H ..................................... 206 VI. FAVORABLE SOURCES IN S P A N I S H ..................................... 244 V II. UNFAVORABLE SOURCES IN E N G L I S H ................................ 265 V III. UNFAVORABLE SOURCES IN SPANISH ................................ 325 IX. CONCLUSION.................................................................................. 348 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................ 361 INTRODUCTION: THE DIAZ PERIOD I t seems w e l l t o g iv e an o v e rv ie w o f th e e n t i r e D ia z , or P o r f i r i a n p e r i o d i n M exican h i s t o r y b e f o r e d e s c r i b ing one f a c e t o f t h a t p e r i o d i n d e t a i l . I b e l i e v e t h a t th e p e r io d i t s e l f i s w o rth y o f a resum e a t t h i s p o i n t , n o t o n ly b e c a u se o f i t s i n t r i n s i c v a lu e t o th e h i s t o r i a n , b u t b e c a u se m a n u f a c tu r in g m ust be c o n s i d e r e d in i t s t r u e l i g h t i n r e l a t i o n t o th e p e r i o d . I t s h o u ld n o t be r e g a r d e d as i t s d om i n a n t n o t e , an im p r e s s io n w hich w ould be e a s y to o b t a i n from a r e a d i n g o f t h i s p a p e r a l o n e . T h u s, one f i t s m a n u f a c tu r in g i n t o i t s r i g h t f u l and t r u e p la c e i n th e scheme o f t h i n g s o n ly by f i r s t r e l a t i n g h i g h l i ^ f t i s o f th e e n t i r e D iaz p e r i o d . To b e g i n , t h e n , th e man. Who was D ia z ? What were h i s a n t e c e d e n t s and h i s h i s t o r y up t o th e tim e he became P r e s i d e n t ? J o s e de l a Cruz P o r f i r i o Diaz was b o rn on Septem ber 15, 1830, i n O axaca, t h a t s o u t h e r n M exican s t a t e w hich was th e b i r t h p l a c e o f many o t h e r e s s e n t i a l men o f M exico. H is p a r e n t s w ere o f m id d le c l a s s b a c k g ro u n d . On h i s m o t h e r ’s s i d e , D iaz i n h e r i t e d M ix tec I n d i a n b lo o d . When he was t h r e e , h i s f a t h e r d i e d , and h i s m o th er was l e f t w ith th e s u p p o r t o f th e f a m i l y . C o n s e q u e n tly , D iaz w ent to work 1 a s soon as he was a b le t o , i n a v a r i e t y o f j o b s , i n c l u d i n g c a r p e n t r y . At h i s m o th e r Ts i n s i s t e n c e , he p r e p a r e d h im s e lf f o r th e p r i e s t h o o d . F o llo w in g h is n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n s “~and th e f a s h i o n o f th e d a y , h ow ever, he soon tu r n e d to law , w hich he s t u d i e d under B e n ito J u a r e z . He had a m inor r o l e i n th e r e v o l u t i o n w hich u n s e a te d th e p e r e n n i a l d i c t a t o r , S an ta Anna, i n 1854-1855. When th e Wars o f Reform e r u p te d in 1857, Diaz a g a in to o k to th e f i e l d , on th e s id e o f J u a r e z and th e new C o n s t i t u t i o n of 1857. He saw s e r v i c e i n th e s o u t h , and he r o s e s t e a d i l y i n ra n k u n t i l th e c o n c lu s io n of th e war i n 1860. D iaz now e n t e r e d th e p e r io d w hich was to g iv e him h i s g r e a t e s t m i l i t a r y n a m e --th e I n t e r v e n t i o n . The r o o t s of t h i s s t r u g g l e l a y i n Europe and Mexico b o t h . Mexican con s e r v a t i v e s had n e v e r abandoned th e id e a o f a crowned monarch i n t h e i r c o u n tr y , an d , in th e e a r l y 18 6 0 ’ s , s e v e r a l f a c t o r s u n i t e d to g iv e them a chance to t r y t h e i r system . The J u a r e z governm ent was b a n k r u p t, i n d e b t , and f i n a l l y c a n c e l l e d payment on i t s f o r e i g n o b l i g a t i o n s . L ouis N apoleon o f F rance was a n x io u s to e x te n d F r a n c e ’ s i n f lu e n c e i n th e New W orld. The U n ite d S t a t e s was now a t c i v i l w ar. The tim e s were p r o p i t i o u s , and M exican c o n s e r v a t i v e s to o k ad v an ta g e of t h i s s i t u a t i o n . The F ren ch em peror was co n v in c ed of th e f e a s i b i l i t y o f s e t t i n g up a monarch on a new M exican t h r o n e . A monarch was found ( M a x im ilia n ) , an army s e t f o r t h , and Mexico e n te r e d th e ephem eral p e rio d of th e em pire of M a x im ilia n . I t would be i n c o r r e c t to say t h a t th e Mexican r e p u b l i c a n s were c a u g h t o f f g u a rd . E xcept f o r a r e v e r s e a t P u e b la (May, 18 6 2 ), th e F rench made r a p id p r o g r e s s i n o ccu pying the m ajor c e n t e r s of p o p u l a t i o n . J u a r e z l e f t Mexico C ity in m id-1863, headed n o r t h , and f i n a l l y l o c a te d h i s gov ernm ent in the n o r th e r n s t a t e of C hihuahua. Here r e s i s t a n c e was to c e n t e r f o r the n e x t th r e e and o n e - h a l f y e a r s . D ia z , a s i n c e r e r e p u b l i c a n a t t h i s tim e , was a lr e a d y i n the f i e l d . He saw s e r v i c e w ith Z aragoza a t th e French r o u t a t P u e b la i n May, 1862, and was to f i g h t w ith an army som etim es num bering a h a n d f u l, a t o th e r tim e s th o u s a n d s , fo r th e n e x t f i v e y e a r s . H is a c t i v i t i e s i n t h i s sp h e re c o n t i n ued u n t i l th e F rench were e v i c t e d , M ax im ilian was s h o t , and c i v i l , r e p u b l i c a n governm ent was r e s t o r e d , in the m iddle of 1867. D iaz was a s k i l l f u l s o l d i e r . He was e x tre m e ly lu ck y and u n d e n ia b ly b ra v e . A lthough he was o p e r a t in g in th e f a r so u th most of th e tim e , h is name became known th ro u g h o u t the R e p u b lic . When the Empire c o lla p s e d in th e s p r in g of 1867, D iaz was one o f th e best-know n s o l d i e r s of the Mexican r e s i s t a n c e . He was a l s o a m b itio u s f o r p o l i t i c a l power. T here fo llo w ed a n i n e - y e a r p e rio d d u rin g w hich Diaz d i s r u p t e d th e p o l i t i c a l r e i n s w ith J u a r e z and h i s c i v i l i a n s u c c e s s o r , S e b a s tia n Lerdo de T e ja d a . J u a r e z was e l e c t e d a g a in t o the P r e s id e n c y in 1867. Diaz r e t i r e d , m u tt e r i n g som ething about i l l e g a l r e - e l e c t i o n , f o r th o se d a y s, the C o n s t i t u t i o n was i n t e r p r e t e d as f o r b i d d in g a P r e s i d e n t to succeed h i m s e l f , a lth o u g h th e document i t s e l f s a id n o th in g r e g a r d in g the s u b j e c t . P re p a rin g f o r the n e x t e l e c t i o n , in 1871, D iaz c o u rte d the f a v o r of p o w e rfu l f i g u r e s th ro u g h o u t M exico. When th e e l e c t i o n came, he had i n f l u e n t i a l f r i e n d s , b u t n o t enough. He came in a poor t h i r d to J u a r e z and L e rd o . D iaz fumed and th en a c t e d . From h i s h a c ie n d a of La N o ria , he laun ch ed a r e v o l u t i o n in th e tim e -h o n o re d t r a d i - t io n _ o f Mexican p o l i t i c s , com plete w ith the P la n de l a N o ria , a p r o n u n c ia m ie n to , and a p la tf o r m (no r e - e l e c t i o n ) . The r e v o l u t i o n went w e l l f o r a w h ile , th e n c o l l a p s e d . Diaz to ok to th e h i l l s . In the m eantim e, how ever, J u a r e z d ie d and Lerdo succeeded him. In a b u r s t of unw ise m agnam inity, th e new P r e s i d e n t g r a n te d am nesty to a l l r e b e l s , in c lu d in g D ia z . T h at was L e r d o ’ s f i r s t m is ta k e . H is second was to a tte m p t t o su c ceed h im s e lf a t the n e x t e l e c t i o n , i n 1876. T his gave Diaz the o p p o r t u n it y he n e ed ed : when he l o s t the e l e c t i o n , he c r i e d f r a u d , g o t out h i s no r e - e l e c t i o n p la n k , d u s te d i t o f f , made i t the c e n t r a l p a r t o f th e new P la n de P a lo B lan co , and was a g a in on the m arch. There ensued a th re e -w a y f i g h t f o r th e P r e s id e n c y . Lerdo and Diaz were th e two main c o n te n d e r s , o f c o u rs e . The t h i r d was th e head o f th e F e d e ra l Supreme C o u rt, Jo se M aria I g l e s i a s , who th o u g h t he should r i g h t f u l l y be th e P r e s i d e n t . In r e t r o s p e c t , i t seems t h a t he had a f a i r l y s tro n g case fo r h i s c a n d id ac y . In th o s e d ay s, t h e r e was no V i c e - P r e s id e n t. The l i n e of s u c c e s s io n went d i r e c t l y from th e P r e s i d e n t to th e C h ief o f th e Supreme C o u rt, who a t t h a t tim e was I g l e s i a s . I g l e s i a s ag re ed w ith Diaz t h a t L e rd o ’s s u c c e s s io n was i l l e g a l , b u t t h i s , i n h is mind, made him th e l e g i t i m a t e P r e s i d e n t . D i a z ’s movement got o f f to a poor s t a r t , b u t was do ing w e ll by l a t e 1876. By t h a t time Lerdo had f l e d to the U n ited S t a t e s . T his l e f t I g l e s i a s , o p e ra tin g c h i e f l y around G u a n aju a to , in th e n o r t h - c e n t r a l p a r t o f th e c o u n try . By th e end o f the year D iaz had d e f e a te d him as w e l l , and was i n u n d isp u te d c o n tr o l of the P r e s id e n c y . A cowed l e g i s l a tu r e r a t i f i e d r e a l i t y i n th e fo llo w in g s p r i n g . Thus by May, 1877, Diaz was the l e g a l P r e s i d e n t of Mexico. He was to r e main so , w ith one b r i e f e x c e p tio n , f o r the n e x t t h i r t y - f o u r y e a r s . M e x ic o 's I r o n Age was a t hand. A b r i e f overview of the e n t i r e p e rio d i s e asy enough to g iv e . As n o ted b e f o r e , Diaz became C o n s t i t u t i o n a l P r e s i d e n t in 1877, to hold o f f i c e f o r the rem ainder of th e tim e u n t i l 1880. His f i r s t term was e s s e n t i a l l y one of c o n s o l i d a t i o n . I t in c lu d e d th e paying o ff o f old p o l i t i c a l d e b ts ( th e s to c k in g of p u b lic o f f i c e s w ith fe llo w Oaxaquenos began i n t h i s p e rio d ) and the l o c a t i n g o f the b a s e s of power s q u a r e ly behind him. He p a id o f f some of the f o r e i g n d e b ts , removing some of th e c au se s of co m p lain t and p o s s ib l e f o r e i g n i n t e r v e n t i o n . He a tte m p te d t o c o n v in c e d i e h a r d s t h a t i t was w i s e r t o subm it t h a n t o r e b e l - - t h e g e n e s i s o f th e pan o p a lo ( b r e a d or th e c lu b ) p o l i c y o f l a t e r y e a r s . A r e v o l t i n V e ra c ru z was c ru s h e d ; a f e s t e r i n g b o r d e r d i s p u t e w ith th e U n ite d S t a t e s was q u i e t e d ; th e c o u n t r y was a t p e a c e . I n 1880, h a r d l y b e in g a b l e to s e t a s i d e th e program w hich had c a r r i e d him to o f f i c e (n o r e - e l e c t i o n ) so so o n , D ia z s te p p e d down. He a llo w e d an o ld c o m p a d re , M anuel G o n z a le z , to ta k e the r e i n s of o f f i c e , w ith th e t a c i t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t D iaz would become P r e s i d e n t a g a i n f o u r 1 * y e a r s l a t e r . G o n z ale z s a t u n e a s i l y i n th e g i l d e d c h a i r o f o f f i c e f o r th e n e x t f o u r y e a r s , w ith D iaz v e r y much i n e v id e n c e i n and o u t o f th e g o v e rn m e n t. O f f i c i a l l y , D iaz seems to have s te p p e d back and a llo w e d G o n zalez to make h i s own m i s t a k e s , making c e r t a i n t h a t th e y w ere s u i t a b l y a d v e r t i s e d . Nor was he o th e r w is e i n a c t i v e . Head of th e i m p o r t a n t M i n i s t r y of Fomento f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d , G overnor o f O axaca, C ongressm an, D iaz s p e n t much o f w hat tim e re m a in e d making p u b l i c i t y and •T g o o d w ill v i s i t s , t o New O rle a n s and o t h e r c i t i e s . Mean- w h i l e , G onzdlez muddled th r o u g h h i s f o u r y e a r s , i n a g o v e rn ment ( w i t h i t s P r e s i d e n t ) c o r r u p t t o th e core.. I t was an age o f s p e c u l a t i o n and p u b l i c t h e f t on a l a r g e s c a l e . I t was a l s o a f r u i t f u l p e r i o d f o r b u i l d i n g r a i l r o a d s , i n s t a l l in g t e l e g r a p h l i n e s , f o r m o d e r n i z a t io n e s s e n t i a l t o th e c r e a t i o n o f D i a z 's New E r a . When D iaz r e t u r n e d t o o f f i c e in 1884 (and t h e r e was n e v e r s e r i o u s d o u b t t h a t he w o u ld ), he came back w i t h a charm ing young w i f e , d a u g h te r of Romero R ub io, an o ld p o l i t i c a l enemy, and r e s t o r e d l u s t e r t o h i s name. T h is tim e he d id n o t le a v e o f f i c e v o l u n t a r i l y . T h is tim e t h e r e would be no in te r r e g n u m . Mexico would s e e new b lo o d in i t s p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s , b u t i t would o n ly come by f o r c e and o n ly a f t e r a q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y . The u n i n t e r r u p t e d a u to c x a c y of D iaz was on i t s way, and i t would l a s t u n t i l May, 1911. D iaz had h i m s e l f r e e l e c t e d ' e v e r y fo u r y e a r s , up to 1904, when he a c q u ir e d a V i c e - P r e s i d e n t and a s i x - y e a r te rm , b o th by amendment of th e C o n s t i t u t i o n . H is s e v e n th and l a s t e l e c t i o n to o k p la c e i n th e f a l l o f 1910. In th e s e e l e c t o r a l f a r c e s , D iaz would e n c o u rag e o t h e r s to e n t e r th e l i s t s . An a s p i r i n g p o l i t i c i a n m ig h t f i n d h i m s e l f e n co u rag e d by th e d i c t a t o r to e n t e r th e n e x t e l e c t i o n , w hich m ight be ta k e n as a h i n t o f h i s own s u c c e s s i o n to D ia z . He s u b s e q u e n tly fo u n d , how ever, t h a t th e Oaxacan was q u i e t l y e n c o u ra g in g o t h e r s to ru n a s w e l l . The p o l i t i c i a n s c a n c e l le d e a c h o th e r o u t. Diaz alw ays won. But the f o r m a l i t y was t h e r e , even i f th e s u b s ta n c e was n o t . For th e e l e c t i o n s o f 1892 and t h e r e a f t e r , Diaz had a p a r t y o rg a n iz e d t o e l e c t him, u s u a l l y c a l l e d th e Union L i b e r a l . O r d i n a r i l y , a l s o , t h e r e would be an o p p o s i t i o n c a n d i d a t e . I n v a r i a b l y , o f c o u r s e , D iaz won. A " n e a r l y unanim ous man d a te of th e M exican p e o p le " would be announced, D iaz would be i n s t a l l e d as P r e s i d e n t f o r th e n e x t term , and b ored M exicans would go home. The method worked w e l l u n t i l n e a r th e end of th e r e gim e. The clockw ork mechanism s e t up over a p e rio d o f y e a rs began to go aw ry. Labor was d i s a f f e c t e d , a t i n y b u t some tim e s v o c a l m i n o r i t y . P o l i t i c i a n s d e s p a i r e d of r e a c h in g h ig h o f f i c e und er D ia z , and some of them began to s e a r c h f o r o th e r r o u t e s t o pow er. The i n t e l l e c t u a l s , b o red w ith the re g im e , became d i s a f f e c t e d . The d i c t a t o r ’ s g r i p on t h in g s became l e s s v i s e - l i k e w ith ag e. A s t r a n g e fe rm e n t became e v i d e n t . I n 1908, A ndres M olina E n r iq u e z , i n Los G randes p ro b lem as n a c i o n a l e s , w rote a s e a r i n g i n d ic t m e n t o f th e w hole a u to c r a c y and the man who r a n i t . The book was q u i e t l y s u p p r e s s e d , b u t i t had a l r e a d y g a in e d wide c u r r e n c y . I n th e same y e a r , a s m a ll, r a b b i t l i k e man, F r a n c is c o Madero by name, came out w ith La S u c e sio n p r e s i d e n c i a l en 1910, i n w hich i t was s u g g e s te d t h a t , i f D iaz w anted th e P r e s i d e n t i a l o f f i c e in 1910, the p e o p le sh o u ld have th e o p p o r t u n i t y o f c h o o sin g h i s V ic e - P r e s i d e n t . T h is was a sound b i t o f r e a s o n i n g , s i n c e D iaz, s e v e n t y - e i g h t a t the tim e , was u n l i k e l y to l i v e u n t i l 1916. M adero ’s book came on th e h e e l s o f th e famous C reelm an I n t e r v i e w , i n which D iaz was supposed to have s a id t h a t he would d e f i n i t e l y le a v e o f f i c e i n 1910, when h i s term e x p i r e d , and t h a t he would welcome a d e m o c r a tic p o l i t i c a l c o n t e s t f o r th e o f f i c e a t t h a t tim e . M exicans were u n d e r s t a n d a b ly s k e p t i c a l , b u t , when th e d i c t a t o r d id n o t deny th e r e p o r t , a few o f them began cam paigning a c t i v e l y f o r o f f i c e . The m ost im p o r ta n t were B ernardo R eyes, G overnor of Nuevo Leon, and F r a n c is c o Madero.. Both movements g a in e d ground r a p i d l y . Madero, f i r s t cam paigning f o r V i c e - P r e s i d e n t , changed h i s mind and began ■ fig h tin g f o r the c h i e f o f f i c e . At t h i s p o i n t , Diaz i n t e r vened. He sq u e lc h e d Reyes by g iv in g him a l u c r a t i v e p o s t o u t s i d e th e c o u n try and Madero by j a i l i n g him. The 1910 e l e c t i o n went ahead on s c h e d u le . D iaz won, of c o u rs e , and the g a la c e l e b r a t i o n of the c e n t e n n i a l o f th e o u tb re a k of th e Independence Movement in 1810 got under way. Madero m eanwhile brok e j a i l , ru sh e d n o r t h , and lau n ch ed the P la n of San L u is P o t o s i , which i r o n i c a l l y championed the same t h in g s as had D iaz i n h i s P la n de P a lo Blanco t h i r t y - f i v e y e a r s b e f o r e . The M exican R e v o lu tio n , the only one th e M exicans d i s t i n g u i s h w ith a c a p i t a l nr , M was under way. I t f a l t e r e d f o r s e v e r a l m onths, w h ile M adero’s r e l a t i v e s d e s p e r a t e l y soug ht a id i n New York. In d e e d , had th e Diaz gov ernm ent been up to i t s v au n ted s t r e n g t h , th e r e b e l l i o n a l most c e r t a i n l y would have f a i l e d . But th e regim e was h o l low. The supposed s t r e n g t h sim p ly was n o t t h e r e . R e la ti v e to th e number o f i n h a b i t a n t s o f Mexico, Madero had few a c t i v e s u p p o r t e r s . But Diaz had s t i l l few er. The old p r o c e s s of p i t t i n g a m b itio u s p o l i t i c i a n s a g a i n s t each o th e r had worked only to o w e l l . D iaz had few a c t i v e e n em ies, b u t he a ls o had few a c t i v e f r i e n d s . Most of th e 10 p o s s i b l e s u p p o r t e r s had been a l i e n a t e d from th e regim e by t h i s tim e . The one man who m ig ht have sav ed th e s i t u a t i o n was J o s e Yves L im a n to u r, D i a z ’ s a b le M i n i s t e r of F in a n c e , b u t he was i n P a r i s on o f f i c i a l b u s i n e s s . O th e r th a n him, t h e r e was v i r t u a l l y no one, D iaz h im s e lf was u n a b l e . t o make q u ic k d e c i s i o n s a t th e tim e . He was e i g h t y y e a r s o l d , had b e e n d e c l i n i n g f o r th e p a s t few y e a r s , and had a p a i n f u l i n f e c t e d t o o t h w hich f u r t h e r h in d e r e d h is d e c is io n - m a k in g . The army, su p p o s e d ly i n v i n c i b l e , was i n r e a l i t y r o t t e n to th e c o r e , v i c t i m o f long y e a r s o f p r o f i t e e r i n g on th e p a r t o f g e n e r a l s and o f a p r i s o n - l i k e c o n s c r i p t i o n sy ste m . W hile a f f a i r s ground to a h a l t i n Mexico C i t y , th e movement a g a i n s t th e governm ent began t o g a in ground i n th e n o r t h . C iudad J u a r e z f e l l . The p r o c e s s o f c o l l a p s e was a c c e l e r a t e d . L im antour h a s te n e d b ack from P a r i s , a d v is e d Diaz to r e s i g n . P a i n f u l i n d e c i s i o n r e s u l t e d . F i n a l l y , l a t e i n May, 1911, th e d e c i s i o n was made: D iaz s ig n e d a p a p e r of r e s i g n a t i o n , q u i e t l y l e f t Mexico C i t y , and u l t i m a t e l y went to P a r i s , where he d ie d fo u r y e a r s l a t e r . To th e m u tu al amazement o f a lm o s t e v e ry b o d y , D iaz was no lo n g e r P r e s i d e n t . New b lo o d had e n te r e d Mexico C i t y . B efo re th e R e v o lu tio n was o v e r , much b lo o d would e n t e r o t h e r p l a c e s , among them th e s o i l o f C e la y a , of M o re lo s, of V e ra c r u z , and o f Tampico. The g r e a t l y o v e r e s tim a te d s t r e n g t h o f th e D iaz r e gime i n 1910 and 1911 h as j u s t b een n o te d . In r e t r o s p e c t , i t seems am azing t h a t such power could have been a t t r i b u t e d 11 to what was i n r e a l i t y so weak a governm ent. The answer i s t h a t , i n th e b e g in n in g and th ro u g h much of th e P o r f i r i a n p e r i o d , the power was t a n g i b l e , b ased on c o n c re te r e a l i t i e s . One of th e s e was th e man h i m s e l f . Diaz i n s p i r e d c o n fid e n c e . S tro n g and f o r c e f u l from the b e g in n in g , he r e t a i n e d th e s e q u a l i t i e s th ro u g h most of h i s reg im e. He never seemed to ch an g e , to gr.ow o l d e r , w eak er, as o th e r men. The amazement o f M exicans and f o r e i g n e r s a l i k e grew as D iaz r e mained in power y ear a f t e r y e a r . A m y stiq u e was c r e a t e d , and powers were imputed to a m an--pow ers w hich he g r a d u a l ly l o s t as h i s r u l e n e ared i t s end. An a d d i t i o n a l so u rce o f s t r e n g t h was th e s e r i e s of a l l i a n c e s w hich Diaz made w ith th e im p o rta n t e le m e n ts of the d ay . To th e army g e n e r a l s , he gave f a t c o n c e s s io n s and ex c e l l e n t p ay , in r e t u r n f o r l o y a l t y . To th e h a c e n d a d o s, th e l a r g e la n d o w n ers, he gave th e o p p o r t u n it y of g a in in g more of the la n d s a l i e n a t e d by th e Laws o f Reform , as w e ll as o th e r l a n d s . He a ls o gave them improved t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i n the form of new r a i l r o a d s . To p o l i t i c i a n s , he gave a chance a t th e p u b l ic tro u g h , alw ays i n r e t u r n fo r l o y a l t y . To f o r e i g n e r s , he gave p e a c e , s e c u r i t y , f a v o r a b le h e a r in g s in Mexican c o u r t s , r a i l r o a d s , and g en ero u s c o n c e s s io n s . To th e Church he gave a r e l a x a t i o n o f the Laws o f th e Reform of 1855-1859. A l l of th e s e e le m e n ts he c o u r te d , won, and k e p t. W hile i t l a s t e d , t h i s s e r i e s o f a l l i a n c e s was h ig h ly e f f e c t i v e . 12 Nor d id D iaz s to p th e r e i n th e c o n s o l i d a t i o n and m ain ten an ce of power. Pan o p a lo worked b o th ways. In gen e r a l , anyone im p o rta n t enough to th e regim e to d e s e rv e no t i c e got the c h o ic e of b re a d or th e c lu b . The c lu b could b e , and w as, u se d . A m b itio u s p o l i t i c i a n s found th e m se lv e s s i d e t r a c k e d i f th e y d i s a g r e e d w ith P o r f i r i o . Army g e n e r a l s were c o n s t a n t l y s h i f t e d to o b v ia te th e p o s s i b i l i t y of tr o o p l o y a l t y t o a p a r t i c u l a r g e n e r a l o th e r th an D iaz. The p r e s s , s t i l l somewhat f r e e d u r in g D i a z 's f i r s t te rm , was m uzzled th ro u g h tim e . C r i t i c s of th e regim e found i t w i s e s t to f l e e . The R u r a l e s , t h a t guard of mounted horsemen som ew hat— a n alo g o u s to th e Texas R a n g ers, was w e l l - t r a i n e d and w e l l - p a i d , w ith v i r t u a l c a r t e b lan c h e on t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . They and th e army e f f e c t i v e l y broke up d e m o n s tr a tio n s , s t r i k e s , and o th e r a c t i v i t i e s deemed p r e j u d i c i a l to th e reg im e. D i a z 's own n a t i v e c le v e r n e s s and th e q u a l i t i e s of some o f th o s e around him u n d o u b te d ly s tr e n g th e n e d h is hold on Mexico. The p o l i c y o f pan o p a lo worked w e ll f o r many y e a r s . In s e t t i n g men a g a i n s t each o th e r and n o t a g a i n s t him, in h i s v e i l e d t h r e a t s of f o r c e to w ould-be d i s s i d e n t s , in h i s m a n ip u la tio n of the army and e v e ry o th e r lo c u s of power in M exico, Diaz showed an in b o r n , M a c h ia v e llia n g en i u s . Many o f th o se around him l e n t l u s t e r to h i s reg im e, s o l i d i f y i n g i t and c o n t r i b u t i n g t o i t s a p p ro v a l i n th e minds of many p e o p le , b o th in Mexico and e ls e w h e r e . Such men i n c lu d e d M a tia s Romero, th e seasoned d ip lo m a t and sometime M in is te r of F in a n c e , J u s t o S i e r r a , M in is te r of E d u c a tio n , and, above a l l , Jo s e Yves L im anto ur. Lim antour served as M in is te r of Finance from 1893 u n t i l the f a l l of the regim e, and was p e rh a p s th e a b l e s t f i n a n c i a l w izard Mexico ever had. B esid es h i s o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n , he was the head o f the sh a d owy C i e n t i f i c o c l i q u e , the C re o le elem ent i n th e Diaz gov ernm ent, which in c r e a s e d i t s power as the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n wore on. M exico’ s p re v io u s c o n d itio n was a d e f i n i t e f a c t o r in D ia z ’s s t r e n g t h . Mexico had been l a r g e l y a t w ar, i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l , s in c e 1810. Nine y e a rs b e fo re D iaz, in 1867, i t had d e f e a te d th e b id f o r em pire by Louis Napoleon. But t h i s was a hollow triu m p h . The c o u n try was weak, ravaged by the w ar, s t i l l d i v id e d . Diaz s e iz e d upon a b a s i c d e s i r e fo r peace on the p a r t o f M exicans, as w e ll as a d e s i r e f o r b e t t e r tim e s. He s e iz e d upon them, made them h i s slo g a n , and, to the amazement of everybody, p rod uced. Even the b i t t e r e s t of p o l i t i c a l m a lc o n te n ts could n o t deny t h a t Diaz brou g h t peace and, in i t s wake, a measure o f p r o s p e r i t y n e v er b e fo re known. G r a titu d e f o r the r e s p i t e of peace and a f e a r of lo s in g i t i f th e r e were no Diaz a t the helm u n d o u b ted ly prompted many to su p p o rt him thro u g h much of the e r a , con t r i b u t i n g s o l i d a r i t y to the d i c t a t o r s h i p . T h is seems e s p e c i a l l y t r u e in th e e a r l y and m iddle p e r i o d s , when many s t i l l remembered th e o ld , u n c e r t a i n tim e s . The f e a r seems to have d e c lin e d toward th e end, and a g e n e ra l ap ath y seems to have r e p l a c e d i t , f a t a l t o th e re g im e . P e rh a p s one key to D i a z ’ s s u c c e s s and s t r e n g t h - - a key w hich f i t t e d i n t o what was j u s t n o te d - - w a s th e e s s e n t i a l l y n o n r e v o l u t i o n a r y n a t u r e o f th e d i c t a t o r s h i p . I n r e t r o s p e c t , D iaz may go down i n h i s t o r y a s much l e s s o f an i n v e n to r th a n a p e r f e c t o r ( i n some s e n s e s ) of a l r e a d y - e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . As i t p e r t a i n e d t o r e p r e s s i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s , t h i s b e l i e f i n D i a z ’s g r e a t r o l e a s an i n n o v a t o r seemed to be a common f a l l a c y of many o f th e w r i t e r s o f th e R e v o lu t i o n . A k ey f a c e t o f t h e i r t r e a t m e n t o f th e d i c t a t o r s h i p was i t s r e p r e s s i v e n a t u r e . I do n o t d i s a g r e e w ith t h e i r c e n t r a l p o i n t . The d i c t a t o r s h i p was r e p r e s s i v e , a t l e a s t by our s t a n d a r d s . The h ack w r i t e r o f th e R e v o l u t i o n , how ever, would have h i s r e a d e r s b e l i e v e t h a t M exico had no r e p r e s s i v e f e a t u r e s u se d i n the D iaz P r e s i d e n c y b e f o r e D iaz became P r e s i d e n t ; t h a t D ia z i n v e s t e d a new, h e l l i s h r e p r e s s i o n and clamped i t down on M exico; i n s h o r t , t h a t he in n o v a te d th e e n t i r e m a c h in e ry . I n my o p i n i o n , D iaz r a t h e r p e r f e c t e d some of t h a t a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g . One exam ple may h e lp . I t was c o n s t a n t l y s t a t e d t h a t D ia z c l e v e r l y h i r e d b a n d i t s , b o u g h t them u n if o r m s , tu r n e d them i n t o m ounted p o l i c e , and t h u s had a k ey i n s t r u m e n t o f t e r r o r , o rd e r and r e p r e s s i o n , th e R u r a l e s . ^ W ith due a p o l o g i e s to s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s o f "^See, f o r e x am p le, C a r l e t o n B e a l s , P o r f i r i o D ia z , D i c t a t o r o f Mexico ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J . B. L i p p m c o t t , 1 9 3 2 ), pp. 2 2 5 -6 . 15 w r i t e r s , t h i s d oes n o t seem t o have b e en th e c a s e . The R u r a le s e x i s t e d b e f o r e D ia z , as f a r back as tw e n ty y e a r s b e f o r e h i s d i c t a t o r s h i p , a t a tim e when he was a s m a ll g u e r - r i l l e r o h i m s e l f , and was e v a d in g p o l i c e , n o t c r e a t i n g them . ^One a u th o r named I g n a c i o Com onfort a s th e man c r e a t i n g them , i n th e l a t e 1 8 5 0 ’ s , the b a n d i t s in q u e s t i o n h a v in g become 2 b a n d i t s a f t e r th e f i n a l e v i c t i o n o f S an ta Anna i n 1855. A n o th e r a g r e e d , l o c a t i n g th e d a te o f t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n a t around 1858. A t h i r d w r i t e r s t a t e d t h a t th e y were c r e a t e d by two laws i n th e J u a r e z a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , one o f th e f i f t h 4 o f May, 1861, th e o th e r of J a n u a r y 21, 1867. These a u th o r s n o te d e x a c t l y th e same background to h i r i n g a s d id th o se naming D iaz as th e c r e a t o r o f th e R u r a l e s . W hile Diaz u sed th e R u r a le s more t h a n h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s , t h i s m is c o n c e p tio n o f th e o r i g i n of an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f the D iaz d i c t a t o r s h i p was c u r i o u s , and i t s p e r p e t u a t i o n spoke l i t t l e f o r th e c r e d i b i l i t y or c a re e x e r c i s e d i n th e t r e a t m e n t o f c e r t a i n a r e a s o f H is p a n ic A m erican h i s t o r i c a l s c h o l a r s h i p . < Much th e same t h i n g m ight be s a id o f th e l a n d - p o l i c y 2 C h a r le s Macomb F la n d r a u , Viva M exico I , e d . and w ith an i n t r o d u c t i o n by C. H arvey G a r d in e r (U rb a n a : U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 ), pp. 2 7 0 -1 . o C h a r le s M o r r i s , The S to r y of Mexico I P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n i v e r s a l Book and B ib le House", c"! 1914 J , pT 137. ^A dolfo D uclo s S a l i n a s , The R ic h e s o f Mexico and I t s I n s t i t u t i o n s ( S t . L o u is : N ix o n -Jo n e s P r i n t i n g C o ., 189 3 ), p. 447. 16 of D ia z . P ic k in g up any book on Mexican h i s t o r y under D ia z , one i s l i k e l y t o fin d a s e n te n c e which in fo rm s th e r e a d e r t h a t , by th e land laws o f 1883 and 1894, Diaz r e c e iv e d l e g i s l a t i o n which e n a b le d him to s e t up su rv e y in g com panies. These com panies were empowered w ith s u rv e y in g and deno uncin g la n d s f o r which c l e a r t i t l e could n o t be p ro v e n . The a u th o r i s l i k e l y to im ply t h a t t h i s was a r e p r e s s i v e f e a t u r e o f the d i c t a t o r s h i p , which i t w as, and t h a t D iaz in v e n te d it.~* T h is was n o t th e c a s e , a lth o u g h D iaz d id p e r f e c t th e p o l i c y . I n 1863, tw enty y e a r s p r e v io u s to th e law o f 1883, a m easure was p a sse d which o u t l i n e d c o n d it i o n s under w hich an i n d i v i d u a l m ight se c u re ow nership of t e r r e n o s b a l d i o s , u n occupied l a n d s . T h is was the f i r s t of s e v e r a l laws p a sse d r e g a r d in g lan d d i s t r i b u t i o n , among which were th e law s o f 1883 and 1894. The o r i g i n a l law was s i d e t r a c k e d by th e F rench I n t e r v e n ti o n , b u t , w ith th e r e s t o r a t i o n of the R e p u b lic in 1867, s a l e s o f lan d under i t became im p o r ta n t. In f a c t , by 1876, an a r e a of 1 ,3 7 6 ,1 6 9 h e c t a r e s had b een d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h i s manner. One m ight add here t h a t up to th e m iddle 1 8 8 0 ’ s " p r a c t i c a l l y a l l " th e la n d s d i s t r i b u t e d went to n a t i o n a l s , n o t f o r e i g n e r s . In s h o r t , a lth o u g h lan d laws were b e in g For an e x c e l l e n t example of t h i s type of s ta te m e n t in a p o p u la r h i s t o r y t e x t , see H u bert H e r r in g , A H i s t o r y of L a t in Am erica (2nd e d . , r e v ; New York: Knopf, 196 4), p. 345: g C h e ste r Lloyd J o n e s , Mexico and I t s R e c o n s tr u c ti o n (New York: D. A p p le to n and Company, 1921), pp. 151-2. 17 w r i t t e n under D ia z, th ey were n o t b ein g w ritte n _ o ,u t of a vacuum. The p r e c e d e n ts were a lr e a d y t h e r e , even i f under th e Diaz regim e the new laws took on a q u a l i t y which th e old ones had n o t p r e v i o u s ly p o s s e s s e d . A ll t h i s i s n o t to say t h a t Diaz d id n o t in n o v a te , b o th in r e p r e s s i v e and p r o g r e s s iv e m easu res. He c e r t a i n l y d i d . One example of the l a t t e r was the a b o l i t i o n of th e a l c a b a l a , the in la n d s a l e s t a x , and a g ra d u a l r a t i o n a l i z i n g of th e e n t i r e system o f t a x a t i o n . A nother would be the im p e tu s given to h y d r o e l e c t r i c power, n o ted by s e v e r a l au- n t h o r s . One p r o g r e s s iv e measure w orthy of no te was the gov e rn m e n t’s d r iv e toward i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s l a t e i n th e r e gime. These were p r o j e c t s on a la r g e s c a l e , and one p r o v i s io n of the c o n c e ssio n g iv en by th e government bound the d e v e lo p in g p a r ty to t u r n ro u g h ly o n e - t h i r d of the land b ro u g h t i n t o c u l t i v a t i o n over to the government f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n to sm a ll n a tiv e fa r m e rs . These p r o j e c t s were l a r g e l y stopped by th e R e v o lu tio n , b u t t h e i r c r e a t i o n and b a ck in g by a gov ernm ent c o n sid e re d th o ro u g h ly r e g r e s s i v e as r e g a r d s land O d i s t r i b u t i o n and a g r i c u l t u r e was c u r i o u s . These were i n n o v a tio n s , in d e e d , b u t , my o p in io n , D iaz p e r f e c t e d and 7 F a c ts and F ig u re s a b o u t Mexico and I t s G re at R a i l way System , th e N a tio n a l R ailw ays of Mexico~ N a tio n a l R a i l ways of Mexico, T r a f f i c and I n d u s t r i a l D epartm ents (Mexico: V. M. G u t i e r r e z , 1911), p. 55. o W allace Thompson, T rad in g w ith Mexico (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1921), pp. 35-7. 18 expanded f a r more th a n he in n o v a te d . P e rh a p s , in d e e d , t h i s was one key to th e l e n g t h of h is te n u re in o f f i c e . Mexican P r e s i d e n t s who in n o v a te l a r g e l y o f t e n e n c o u n te r a storm o f o p p o s itio n and f r e q u e n t l y f i n d th e m se lv e s o u t o f o f f i c e or fa c e d w ith r e v o l t - - w i t n e s s P l u t a r c o C a l l e s , V a l e n t in Gomez F a r i a s , B e n ito J u a r e z , and F r a n c is c o Madero. At t h i s p o i n t , hav ing examined some of th e b a s e s of s t r e n g t h of th e d i c t a t o r s h i p , I s h a l l n o te some o f th e con c r e t e r e s u l t s . These f e l l i n t o b o th p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e c a t e g o r i e s , f o r no P r e s id e n c y , D i a z 's or anybody e l s e ’ s , i s an un blem ished r e c o r d of s u c c e s s or an u n r e l i e v e d p i c t u r e of d a r k n e s s . D i a z 's a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was u n d o u b te d ly one of b o th . On th e n e g a tiv e s i d e , i t i s easy to d i s c e r n s e v e r a l b a s i c i l l s , some s o c i a l , o th e r s econom ic. One b a s i c fla w was t h a t th e Diaz a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was a d i c t a t o r s h i p . Any d e n i a l of t h a t e s s e n t i a l f a c t l e a v e s th e r e s e a r c h e r w ith an in c o m p le te , u n r e a l i s t i c p i c t u r e of an a g e . I t was a d i c t a t o r s h i p w ith a l l t h a t the term i m p l i e s - - c e n s o r s h i p , o v e r w eening p o l i c e , r u l e by c l i q u e s , a s o c i a l c a n c e r e a t i n g a t the v i t a l t i s s u e of th e body p o l i t i c . A g e n e r a t i o n o f youth grew up, c y n i c a l , r e j e c t i n g th e i d e a l and th e q u e s t f o r d e m ocracy which ru n s l i k e a th r e a d th ro u g h the h i s t o r y o f i n d ep en dent M exico. I t could h a r d l y have been o th e r w is e . T h i r t y - f i v e y e a rs of a man who i n s i s t e d on l e g a l l y doing t h i n g s by th e book, and who, in doing t h i s , d id i t as th e 19 means o f c lo a k in g d e s p o t ic power w ith the m antle of r e p u b l i canism , who p a id a s u b s e r v i e n t p r e s s to c lo s e t h e i r eyes t i g h t l y to the r e a l i t y o f h is system , and r a t h e r to sin g paeans o f joy and th a n k s g iv in g to him as the r e s t o r e r of the very system he d e n ie d , a l l t h i s made fo r a c e r t a i n cyn icism in young minds a s they saw the d u a l i t y which was the e sse n ce of th e Diaz sy stem . Y et th e s e same men, some of them, were to f i g h t f o r th e R e v o lu tio n some tim e l a t e r . H is to ry and the human mind a re s t r a n g e . The tr e a tm e n t a f f o r d e d to th e masses must a ls o be chalked up on th e d e b i t s id e of th e d i c t a t o r s h i p . I t h as a lr e a d y been n o te d t h a t th e r e was a measure of p r o s p e r i t y d u rin g th e P o r f i r i a n p e r i o d . T h is p r o s p e r i t y d id n o t re a c h down beyond th e upper c l a s s and a p o r t i o n of the n a s c e n t m iddle c l a s s . To say t h a t th e m asses were e x p lo i t e d sounds somewhat Communistic and q u i t e out o f d a te , b u t my judgment i s t h a t th ey w e re . As the a l i e n a t i o n o f p u b l ic lands got under way, as th e laws of denouncement were u se d , the rank s of the l a n d l e s s s w e lle d . Much of th e land e x p r o p r ia te d had been the p o s s e s s io n o f In d ia n v i l l a g e s s in c e tim e immemori a l . These v i l l a g e s r a r e l y h eld w r i t t e n t i t l e to t h e i r la n d s , in d e e d , had n e v e r needed to . But th e law was the law, and, as th e p ro c e s s of denouncement g o t under way, they found t h a t a w r i t t e n t i t l e must be produced or t h a t th e land could be taken away from them. T h is i s what happened, to th e e x te n t t h a t w e ll over n i n e - t e n t h s of a l l farm e rs by 1910 20 were l a n d l e s s . At th e same tim e, the la n d s owned by la r g e hacendados in c r e a s e d , and th e peons found t h e i r l i v i n g on the la n d s of o t h e r s . T h e ir wages d id not improve w ith the new sy stem , and th e y c o n tin u ed as th e y always had, poo r, un d e r f e d , and b a d ly housed. They were a ls o b a d ly e d u c a te d . The p r o p a g a n d is ts of the p e rio d would have the o b se rv e r b e lie v e t h a t D ia z Ts Mexico was d o t te d w ith th e H isp a n ic American e q u iv a le n t of l i t t l e red s c h o o lh o u s e s . T h is sim p ly was n o t th e c a s e . Always a man w ith an eye f o r a good p u b lic im age, Diaz had sc h o o ls e r e c t e d , b u t they were u s u a l l y along the main l i n e s ' \ of t r a v e l , where im p re s s io n a b le f o r e i g n e r s could see them. But even th e n , th e y were sometimes undermanned and u n d e r e q u ip p ed . The same was t r u e of o th e r p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n s , such as h o s p i t a l s , p u b lic b u i l d i n g s , and p u b l ic works. Diaz was v u ln e r a b le on a n o th e r p o i n t : namely, the f o r e i g n e r s in M exico. Eager to d e v e lo p th e c o u n tr y , Diaz a t f i r s t shunned f o r e i g n in v estm en t and p e n e t r a t i o n , b u t soon found i t a n e c e s s a r y e v i l . The f o r e i g n in v e stm e n t of i t s e l f was n o t bad. Mexico d e f i n i t e l y needed the o u ts id e c a p i t a l , f o r what c a p i t a l i t had was in v e s te d in the f a s h io n a b le a re a of land o w nership. U n f o r tu n a te ly , w ith the i n f l u x o f f o r e ig n money i n t o r a i l r o a d s , f a c t o r i e s , m ines, and p u b lic u t i l i t i e s came a tt e n d a n t e v i l s - - o v e r l y f a v o r a b le tr e a tm e n t of f o r e i g n e r s in the law c o u r ts of the c o u n try v i s - a - v i s M exicans, la b o r e x p l o i t a t i o n i n c e r t a i n a r e a s , such as 21 m ining, and a c e r t a i n u n e a s in e s s on the p a r t of many Mexi cans t h a t Diaz was s e l l i n g out th e c o u n try . I t i s only a x i om atic to say t h a t much of th e l a t e r a n t i f o r e i g n sen tim en t in Mexico had i t s o r i g i n in the p o l i c i e s of the Diaz g overn ment and i t s r e s u l t i n g s t a t e of a f f a i r s , e s p e c i a l l y in r e gard to the p e tro leu m i n d u s t r y . By D ia z ’s new m ining law s, i n d i v i d u a l s , and n o t the n a t i o n , owned s u b s o il r e s o u rc e s ; tr o u b le r e s u l t e d when the C o n s t i t u t i o n of 1917, prom ulgated s i x y e ars a f t e r D ia z ’s d e p a r t u r e , t r i e d to a b ro g a te t h i s r i g h t . The Diaz regime had an o th e r s id e to i t . I f th e re was l i t t l e l i b e r t y , th e re was much p e ac e. I f th e r e was the palo of p r i v a t i o n - - r u l e by an o l i g a r c h i c d i c t a t o r s h i p - - t h e r e was a ls o the pan of t a n g ib le m a t e r i a l accom plishm ents. One f a c e t of t h i s , which had im portance fo r much t h a t fo llo w ed , was the r a i l r o a d s . They expanded trem endous ly d u rin g the p e r i o d , more th an t h i r t y f o l d . In t h e i r wake came a le s s e n in g p r o v in c ia lis m , improved com m unications, growth in o th e r l i n e s , g r e a t e r and e a s i e r e x p l o i t a t i o n of M exico’ s n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , and, n o t e n t i r e l y i n c i d e n t a l l y , a more f l e x i b l e m i l i t a r y e s ta b lis h m e n t- - o n e a b le to move more q u ic k ly th an b e fo r e . Mexico became s o lv e n t and f i n a n c i a l l y tr u s tw o r th y . When the f i r s t payment a f t e r D ia z ’s a c c e s s io n on the f o r e ig n lo an to the U n ited S t a t e s came due, Diaz s t r a i n e d Mexican r e s o u r c e s , b u t he made the payment and then c o n tin u ed paying 22 on tim e . In 1893, J o s e I v e s L im antour became M i n i s t e r o f F in a n c e , and M e x ico ’ s so lv e n c y i n c r e a s e d . L im an to u r was e x tr e m e ly a d e p t a t h ig h f i n a n c e . The h i g h l i g h t s o f h i s con t r o l of th e f i n a n c e s o f Mexico in c lu d e d th e b a la n c i n g o f th e b u d g e t f o r th e f i r s t tim e i n many y e a r s , th e b u i l d i n g of p u b l ic w o rk s, and th e c r e a t i o n o f th e F e r r o c a r r i l e s N a c io n a le s ( t h e s ta te - o w n e d r a i l w a y s y s te m ) . M e x ic o 's c r e d i t r a t i n g r o s e so h ig h t h a t she was a b le to bo rrow money more a d v a n ta g e o u s ly t h a n many o f th e s o - c a l l e d c i v i l i z e d European n a t i o n s . The e n t i r e n a t i o n e n jo y e d an econom ic boom. More s i l v e r and gold were mined than e v e r b e f o r e . New p r o d u c t s , such a s g u ay u le r u b b e r and o r a n g e s , were prod uced i n r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t i e s f o r e x p o r t . C o ffee e n jo y e d an u p su rg e i n p r o f i t s , as d i d , i n f a c t , most o t h e r a g r i c u l t u r a l , n o n s t a p l e co m m o d ities. M e x ic o 's f o r e i g n t r a d e w ent up g r e a t l y from th e p re -D ia z p e r i o d . In s h o r t , f o r p e rh a p s f i f t e e n p e r c e n t of th e p e o p le , p r o s p e r i t y was very r e a l and a g old en age m a n if e s te d i t s e l f . The Mexican m id d le c l a s s grew f a i r l y r a p i d l y d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d , i n r e s p o n s e to f a v o r a b l e e c o nomic s t i m u l i . And what of m a n u f a c tu r in g , th e s u b j e c t o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n ? I have s p e n t s i x or se v en y e a r s d o in g r e s e a r c h on m a n u fa c tu rin g under D ia z , and I hope to advance some g en e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s a t t h i s p o i n t , c o n c lu s io n s w hich may se rv e t o h i g h l i g h t th e re m a in d e r of th e d i s s e r t a t i o n . F i r s t , 23 m a n u fa c tu rin g i n c r e a s e d tre m e n d o u s ly , i n s e v e r a l w ays. The number of p l a n t s i n a lm o s t any p re -1 8 7 6 m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r y i n c r e a s e d . A t th e same tim e , th e r e l a t i v e s i z e of th e a v e ra g e p l a n t a l s o grew i n th e y e a r s o f D i a z ’ s r u l e . The a v e ra g e o u tp u t n a t u r a l l y i n c r e a s e d a s w e l l . G e n e r a lly s p e a k in g , th e q u a l i t y o f th e p r o d u c t a l s o im proved. At th e same tim e , new a v en u es o f m a n u fa c tu rin g were opened up. B e fo re D ia z , Mexico m a n u fa c tu re d o nly one com m o dity in q u a n ± i . t y - - t e x t i l e s . By th e end o f th e p e r i o d , she m a n u fa c tu re d i r o n and s t e e l p r o d u c t s a t new f a c t o r i e s i n M o n te rre y , b e e r , i c e , wood p r o d u c ts such as m a tc h e s, and to b a c c o p r o d u c t s , e s p e c i a l l y c i g a r e t t e s . She a ls o had a s sem blin g p l a n t s f o r such v a r i e d ite m s as b i c y c l e s , t y p e w r i t e r s , and b r a s s b e d s t e a d s . New jo b s were c r e a t e d as o ld i n d u s t r i e s were e x panded and new ones fo und b i r t h . The p o o re r c l a s s e s had a c e r t a i n ’’o u t , " however l i m i t e d , p ro v id e d to them. A ty p e of e d u c a ti o n of th e p e r e n n i a l l y subm erged c l a s s e s could b e g in . F i n a l l y , to a c e r t a i n d e g r e e , th e a d v e n t of m a n u fa c tu rin g m eant a b e t t e r way o f l i f e f a t ' c e r t a i n p o r t i o n s of th e popu l a t i o n , as some m a n u fa c tu re d goods became c h e a p e r once th e y were p rodu ced a t home. T here were l i a b i l i t i e s a s w e l l . Most m a n u fa c tu rin g was f o r e i g n owned, and t h e r e was p e rh a p s a r e l a t i v e i n c r e a s e i n f o r e i g n as a g a i n s t home owned m a n u f a c tu r in g p l a n t s th ro u g h o u t th e D iaz p e r i o d . T h is m eant t h a t few er p r o f i t s 24 s ta y e d in Mexico th a n m ight have o th e rw is e been the c a s e . P r i c e s on goods m anufactured a t home were h ig h , even ta k in g i n t o account th e c o n c e ssio n s a f f o r d e d by th e governm ent, b e cause of a s e r i e s of h ig h ly p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s d e sig n e d to f o s t e r the new e n t e r p r i s e s . The p a r t y u l t i m a t e l y paying fo r the i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n o f Mexico was the consumer. There was la b o r e x p l o i t a t i o n , to o . The f i r s t r e a l u n io n s were founded about 1900, and th e y sim ply d id n o t f i t i n t o th e scheme of t h i n g s . Workers were l a r g e l y u n o rg an i z e d , lo w -p a id , worked long h o u rs , and i n t i m i d a t e d i f th ey d e s i r e d to a s s o c i a t e . S t r i k e s e ru p te d and were b r u t a l l y put down, such as one i n T izapan i n 1909, a n o th e r in Rio B lanco, V e rac ru z, d u rin g the p re v io u s y e a r . E f f e c t i v e u n i o n iz a t i o n and b e t t e r wages and w orking c o n d itio n s had to a w ait the m iddle s ta g e s o f the R e v o lu tio n . I t i s q u e s tio n a b le w hether some of th e i n d u s t r i e s were e s s e n t i a l fo r a r a t i o n a l dev elo pm ent, as w e ll as b e in g conducive to f u r t h e r developm ent. M oreover, one wonders a t tim es w hether Mexico paid to o d e a r l y f o r some of the f a c t o r i e s o b t a i n e d - - a p r ic e composed of i n t o l e r a b l e working con d i t i o n s , hig h p r i c e s to th e consum er, m o n o p o lies, and f o r e ig n c o n t r o l . There i s one e s s e n t i a l p o in t to be made a t t h i s tim e, however:- M exico’s i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n was n e i t h e r much b e t t e r nor worse than t h a t of many o th e r em erging n a ti o n s of the n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n ti e t h c e n t u r i e s . The same 25 f a c e t s were t h e r e , b o th good and b a d . The U n ite d S t a t e s , t o o , had b lo o d y s t r i k e s , u n p la n n e d d e v e lo p m e n t, t r u s t s and m o n o p o lie s . I t a l s o had a l e s s e n i n g o f p r o v i n c i a l i s m , a b e t t e r l i f e f o r some, and a b u r s t of n a t i o n a l p r i d e upon s e e in g a m achine w hich p ro d u ce d t h i n g s and was i t s own. The p r o c e s s e s o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n fo llo w e d a p a t t e r n i n Mexico w hich w as, and i s , s e e n e ls e w h e r e . The s t r i k e s , h ig h t a r i f f s , n a t i o n a l p r i d e , i r r a t i o n a l l o c a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n o f g o o d s, even th e se q u e n c e o f ty p e s o f goods - m a n u f a c t u r e d - - t e x t i l e s , l i g h t i n d u s t r y , heavy i n d u s t r y - - f o l - lowed a d i s c e r n i b l e p a t t e r n w hich one can se e i n o t h e r co u n t r i e s i n H is p a n i c A m e ric a, i n A s i a , i n A f r i c a , and i n Europe and th e U n ite d S t a t e s to a d e g r e e . A l l t h i s i s to say t h a t t h e r e was n o t h in g u n iq u e a b o u t th e a d v e n t o f m a n u f a c tu r in g in Mexico u n d er D ia z . I t had i t s grow ing p a in s and tim e s of triu m p h a s i t d id e ls e w h e r e . F i n a l l y , i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e how g r e a t a r o l e Diaz had i n th e m a n u f a c tu r in g w hich e v o lv e d . H is r o l e was g r e a t , b u t t h e r e were o t h e r f a c t o r s t o o . No one i n d i v i d u a l f a c t o r , i n c l u d i n g D ia z , was th e f a c t o r p r o d u c in g th e t o t a l m an u fac t u r i n g i n c r e a s e . To th e e x t e n t t h a t D iaz p ro d u ced r a i l r o a d s , p e a c e , and f a v o r a b l e c o n c e s s i o n s , to t h a t e x t e n t he was r e s p o n s i b l e . To th e e x t e n t t h a t th e d e c l i n e i n s i l v e r p r i c e s made im p o rte d goods more e x p e n s iv e i n M ex ico, t h i s -' d e c l i n e was r e s p o n s i b l e . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t U n ite d S t a t e s and E u ro p ea n c a p i t a l i s t s had e x c e s s fu n d s to i n v e s t ab ro a d i n th e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s , th e y were r e s p o n s i b l e . To th e e x t e n t t h a t o t h e r s i n M exico, such as Reyes and L im a n to u r, e n c o u ra g e d e x p a n s io n and d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n , th e y were r e s p o n s i b l e . By th e same to k e n , no one man or f a c t o r was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e n e g a tiv e p o i n t s o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . To g iv e one ex am p le : D iaz may have been r e s p o n s i b l e fo r th e s h o o tin g o f Rio B lan co t e x t i l e s t r i k e r s , b u t o t h e r hands h e ld th e guns and p u l l e d th e t r i g g e r s , and D iaz was a c t i n g i n a n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y c o n te x t w hich p e r m i t t e d such a c t i v i t y . I do n o t p ro p o se to have answ ered any e s s e n t i a l q u e s t i o n s in t h i s s e c t i o n . I t i s my hope, how ever, t h a t I have o r i e n t e d th e r e a d e r p r o p e r l y f o r an e x a m in a tio n of th e main body o f th e p a p e r . PART ONE: PRE-REVOLUTIONARY MATERIAL 27 CHAPTER I FAVORABLE SOURCES IN ENGLISH The a u th o r s and books w hich I s h a l l d i s c u s s i n t h i s c h a p te r were among th e most i n t e r e s t i n g t o me o f any covered in my r e s e a r c h . The f a c t t h a t m ost of th e a u th o r s were ^ E n g lis h or N o rth Am erican t r a v e l e r s or r e s i d e n t s i n D i a z ’s Mexico had b e a rin g on my f e e l i n g h e re , a s d id the f a c t t h a t th e y had most v a r ie d backgrounds and p r o f e s s i o n s . But the main re a s o n f o r my i n t e r e s t was in th e w i l d l y f a v o r a b le s ta te m e n ts which many of them w ro te on m a n u fa c tu rin g under D ia z . The f i r s t of th e s e a u th o r s which I s h a l l d i s c u s s i s L eo nid as H am ilton . H am ilton was th e a u th o r of s e v e r a l books on M exico. The e a r l i e s t , and th e f i r s t book to be d e s c r i b e d in t h i s s e c t i o n , d a te d from 1881. I t was e n t i t l e d B order S t a t e s of M exico: S o nora, S i n a l o a , C hihuahua and D urango. H a m ilto n ’ s background w i l l be examined in somewhat g r e a t e r d e t a i l when I d e s c r i b e h is o p in io n s on m a n u fa c tu rin g under D iaz con t a i n e d i n a book which he w ro te two y e a r s l a t e r . H ere, how e v e r , l e t me no te t h a t he was a p u b l i s h e r , l o c a t e d on th e c o rn e r o f Clay and Montgomery S t r e e t s in San F r a n c i s c o . He 28 29 was in th e p ro c e s s of p u b lis h in g a map on the b o rd er s t a t e s of Mexico when t h i s book was p u b lis h e d . The map was p ro b a b ly in te n d e d to accompany t h i s book.'*' H a m ilto n 's background seems to have in c lu d e d a l e g a l em ph asis: i n a d d i t i o n to th e map, he was engaged i n pub l i s h i n g a work in E n g lis h and S p anish c a l l e d R e s t r i c t i v e Land Laws A g a in st American C i t i z e n s A c q u irin g R eal E s t a t e in 2 Any of th e Border S t a t e s of M exico. I t i s u n c le a r w hether H am ilton had any d i r e c t e x p e rie n c e in M exico. I am i n c l i n e d to doubt i t , a t l e a s t on th e b a s i s of Border S t a t e s , because H am ilton n ev er spoke in the f i r s t p e rso n re g a r d in g Mexico. T his book was e s s e n t i a l l y a handbook f o r p eo p le en r o u te to M exico, w ith ad v ice on p r e s e n t c o n d itio n s in the n o r th e r n S t a t e s . I f i t was composed by th e same means as h i s Mexican Handbook o f two y e a rs l a t e r , i t r e l i e d on th e im p r e s s i o n s of t r a v e l e r s . T h is m ight e x p la in i t s fa v o r a b le n a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y as th o se upon whom H am ilton r e l i e d fo r in f o r m a tio n were b u sin essm en , and salesm en. Such i n d i v i d u a l s m ight be e x p ec te d to be f a v o r a b le to th e new Diaz d i c t a t o r s h i p , e s p e c i a l l y as i t had r e s t o r e d o rd e r and made b u s in e s s e a s i e r and more p r o f i t a b l e . At any r a t e , H am ilton "^Leonidas H am ilton, Border S t a t e s o f Mexico: Sonora, S in a lo a , C hihuahua, and Durango (San F r a n c i s c o : Bacon & Company, Book and Job P r i n t e r s , 1881), p. i v ( u n numbered, fo llo w in g the t e x t ) . Ibid., p. viii (unnumbered, following the text). 30 r e l i e d t o some e x t e n t on M exican governm ent s t a t i s t i c s as w e l l . ^ I n th e D iaz e r a , such m eager s t a t i s t i c s as e x i s t e d w ere n o t n o t a b l e f o r r e p o r t i n g th e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s a s i t r e a l l y w as, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e s e s t a t i s t i c s r e f l e c t e d an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a t e o f a f f a i r s . A c c o rd in g t o H a m ilto n , i n 1881 c o t t o n , w o o le n , s i l k , p o t t e r y , g l a s s and p a p e r f a c t o r i e s w ere b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d " i n th e g r e a t e r p a r t o f th e s t a t e s o f M ex ico , . . . w hich w i l l [w o u ld ] add t o h e r p r e s e n t p r o s p e r i t y . " ^ The a u th o r e l a b o r a t e d on t h i s g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t . He c i t e d A n to n io G a r c i a Cubas* e s t i m a t e of th e number o f m a n u f a c t u r in g c o n c e r n s i n M exico i n 1875, im m e d ia te ly b e f o r e D iaz became P r e s i d e n t , and t h e n added t h a t , by 1 88 1 , t h i s f i g u r e had g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d . F a c t o r i e s had b e e n b u i l t i n S i n a l o a , S o n o ra , and i n o t h e r s t a t e s , e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e rn s f o r f a b r i c a t i n g f l o u r , p a p e r , and g l a s s . ^ H a m ilto n a l s o c i t e d th e m onum ental B u sto r e p o r t o f 1879 a s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t M exico was now s u p p ly in g her own n e e d s by d o m e s t i c a l l y f a b r i c a t e d goods " t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t . " T h is was r e d u c i n g th e c o u n t r y 's f o r e i g n t r a d e . 3 H a m ilto n , H a m i l t o n 's M exican Handbook . . . ( B o s to n : D. L o th r o p & C o. , P u b l i s h e r s , 1 8 8 3 ), pi T7 4 H a m ilto n , B o rd e r S t a t e s , p . 13. 5I b i d . , p . 145. Ibid., p. 148. 31 As one r e a s o n f o r t h i s m a n u f a c tu r in g i n c r e a s e , H a m ilto n o f f e r e d th e system of t a x a t i o n as i t th e n e x i s t e d in M exico. He was th e f i r s t t o a d m it t h a t th e sy ste m was i n e q u i t a b l e . I t was g e n e ro u s to l a r g e la n d o w n e rs , who w ere s c a r c e l y aware t h a t th e y w ere b e in g t a x e d . A t th e same tim e , " t h e l a b o r i n g and i n d u s t r i a l c l a s s e s " f e l t i t s w e ig h t v e ry much, f o r t h e y were ta x e d d i r e c t l y . D u t i e s abounded, b o th w i t h i n th e R e p u b lic and o u t s i d e , i n th e form o f t a r i f f s imposed on f o r e i g n made g o o d s. T hese d u t i e s were a f a c t o r a g a i n s t th e com m ercial d e v e lo p m e n t o f M exico. At th e same tim e , th e e n t i r e system o f th e p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f had " r e s u l t e d i n a w o n d e r f u l d e v e lo p m e n t of h e r [M e x ico ’ s] i n d u s - 7 t r i e s . " In s h o r t , H a m ilto n saw p r o g r e s s i n M exican manu f a c t u r i n g s in c e th e coming o f P o r f i r i o D ia z . W hile th e m ethods employed ( p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s ) may have b e e n somewhat u n w ise , th e y w e re , to him e f f e c t i v e . No books r e l e v a n t to th e s u b j e c t w ere found i n th e f o l lo w in g y e a r . I n 1883, how ever, two books a p p e a re d , b o th of w hich gave m a n u f a c tu r in g a f a i r l y l a r g e , and q u i t e f a v o r a b l e , t r e a t m e n t . One o f t h e s e was by L e o n id a s H a m ilto n , th e o th e r by Thomas U n e tt B r o c k l e h u r s t . The l a t t e r w i l l be d i s c u sse d f i r s t . B r o c k l e h u r s t was one o f a m yriad o f t r a v e l e r s from E ngland who v i s i t e d Mexico d u r in g th e D iaz p e r i o d . U n lik e 7Ibid., pp. 150-2. m ost, however, h is jo u rn e y to Mexico was f o r t u i t o u s . He b e gan a t r i p around the w orld in the f a l l of 1879, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t he was p ro b a b ly a gentlem an of l e i z u r e . A r r iv in g in th e U n ited S t a t e s , he found t h a t a p e r s o n a l f r i e n d , the B e lg ia n M in is te r to the U n ited S t a t e s , had j u s t been ap p o in te d M in is te r to M exico. A c c o rd in g ly , a lth o u g h Mexico had n o t o r i g i n a l l y been on h i s i t i n e r a r y , B r o c k le h u rs t de- g cided to accompany him and h is fa m ily to Mexico C ity . B ro c k le h u rs t* s s t a y in Mexico l a s t e d seven m onths. During t h a t tim e , e x c e p t f o r s h o r t e x c u r s io n s to n e ig h b o rin g towns, the a u th o r s p e n t h i s time in Mexico C ity , m in g lin g w ith th e r i g h t p e o p le . He w rote t h a t h i s s t a y was e x c e e d in g ly e n jo y a b le becau se o f th e a g re e a b le s o c i e t y , th e p e r f e c t h e a l th which he e x p e r ie n c e d , th e o p p o r t u n i t i e s he had fo r o b se rv in g a l l s t r a t a o f s o c i e t y . He a d m itte d , however, t h a t h i s views 9 on Mexico may have been somewhat r o s e - c o l o r e d . From t h i s t r i p , a book emerged in 1883, Mexico Today: A C ountry w ith a G re at F u t u r e . I t c o n ta in e d a s h o r t b u t f a v o r a b le r e f e r ence to m a n u fa c tu rin g . T h is f a v o r a b le view m ight have been due to th e r o s e - c o l o r e d im p re ss io n which B ro c k le h u r s t had f o r the c o u n try . But i n my judgm ent, a n o th e r f a c t o r might have had im portance i n B r o c k l e h u r s t Ts views on D iaz and g Thomas U nett B r o c k le h u r s t, Mexico Today: A C ountry w ith a G reat F uture (London: John M urray, 1883), pp. 1-2. ^Ibid., pp. vii-viii. 33 m a n u f a c tu r in g . T hus, i t seemed t h a t B r o c k le h u r s t was a t te m p tin g t o c o n v in c e a B r i t i s h a u d ie n c e to resume r e l a t i o n s w ith Mexico by t e l l i n g them how w o n d e rfu l c o n d i t i o n s in Mexico w ere. I n f a c t , a t one p o i n t in h i s book he e n t e r e d a p l e a f o r th e re s u m p tio n of r e l a t i o n s betw een Mexico and B r i t a i n , b ro k e n s in c e th e M a x im ilia n e p i s o d e . 10 These r e l a t i o n s w e re , i n f a c t , resum ed the y e a r a f t e r th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f th e book. A f a v o r a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of M exican m a n u fa c tu rin g became u n d e r s t a n d a b le i n th e l i g h t o f th e ob j e c t i v e s o f th e a u t h o r . A c co rd in g to B r o c k l e h u r s t , n o t o n ly were f a c t o r i e s i n a f l o u r i s h i n g s t a t e , b u t more were b e in g b u i l t . In one p a s s a g e , s h o r t b u t p e rh a p s m e a n in g fu l f o r th e f u t u r e , he spoke o f new e v id e n c e s o f p r o g r e s s th ro u g h o u t Mexico d u r in g the p a s t few y e a r s , seen in r a i l w a y s , new b u i l d i n g s , and f a c to r ie s .'* '^ E ls e w h e re , he d e s c r i b e d th e School o f A r t s in Mexico C ity a s a huge w o rk sho p, w hich in c lu d e d i r o n and b r a s s f o u n d r i e s , many s k i l l e d t r a d e s , and s i l k and c o tto n 12 handw eaving. H is co v erag e o f th e s u b j e c t o f t h i s s tu d y ended a t t h a t p o i n t . L e o n id a s H a m ilto n w ro te a much lo n g e r d e s c r i p t i o n o f Mexican m a n u fa c tu rin g i n H a m i l t o n ^ M exican Handbook, which a l s o a p p e a re d i n 1883. In f a c t , t h i s book 10I b i d . , p. 259. 11 Ibid., p. 102. l2Ibid., p. 109. 34 gave one of the m ost co m p lete c o v e ra g e s to M exican m an u fac t u r i n g o f any o f th e s o u r c e s to be n o te d i n t h i s s e c t i o n of th e p a p e r . The p l a c e s w here the a u th o r o b ta in e d h i s in f o r m a t i o n , as w e l l as p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r h i s f a v o r a b l e t r e a t m e n t o f m a n u f a c tu r in g , have b een a l r e a d y n o ted ( s e e page 29). Y e t, i t sh o u ld be known t h a t H a m ilto n was an a t to r n e y a t law , i n a d d i t i o n to a w r i t e r on M exican s u b j e c t s . He had a M a s t e r ’s d e g r e e , a lth o u g h the e x a c t a r e a o f h i s s p e c i a l t y c o u ld n o t be d e te r m in e d . H is books e n jo y e d a c e r t a i n amount o f s u c c e s s . B order S t a t e s o f Mexico went th ro u g h s e v e r a l e d i t i o n s w i t h i n two y e a r s . The y e a r a f t e r i t s i n i t i a l p u b l i c a t i o n , i n 1882, H a m ilto n ’ s Mexican Law a p p e a r e d . However, H a m ilto n d id n o t l i m i t h i m s e l f to w r i t i n g on Mexico a lo n e . He a l s o d a b b le d i n a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e , and had to h i s c r e d i t a v e rs e t r a n s l a t i o n o f a B a b y lo n ia n e p i c , 13 I s h t a r and I z d u b a r . H a m ilto n ’ s M exican Handbook was in te n d e d f o r an au - d ie n c e composed o f b u sin e ssm e n g o in g to Mexico or th o s e r e m aining a t home who tr a d e d w ith t h a t c o u n tr y . To t h i s e n d , th e a u th o r t h o u g h t f u l l y in c lu d e d a com m ercial d i r e c t o r y in th e b a ck o f h is bo o k . In e s s e n c e , t h i s book was an expanded e d i t i o n o f th e B order S t a t e s o f M e x ico , as th e a u th o r him s e l f a d m itte d B ord er S t a t e s o f Mexico was f a v o r a b l y H a m ilto n , Handbook, pp. x i v - x v . r e c e i v e d , as f o u r e d i t i o n s w ere p u b lis h e d 1881-1883, and H a m ilto n d e c id e d t o e n la r g e i t s c o v e ra g e . The M exican 14 Handbook r e s u l t e d . As i n h i s p r e v io u s book, H a m ilto n employed a s t a t e - b y - s t a t e c o v e ra g e . C o n s e q u e n tly , h i s p a s s a g e s on m an u fac t u r i n g were s c a t t e r e d over a wide a r e a o f the book. I n o rd e r t o make a more c o h e s iv e r e p r o d u c t i o n of m a t e r i a l , s t a t e m e n t s w hich a p p ly to m a n u f a c tu rin g th r o u g h o u t the e n t i r e R e p u b lic w i l l be t r e a t e d f i r s t . Those a p p ly in g to man u f a c t u r i n g i n v a r i o u s s t a t e s w i l l be n o ted l a t e r . A cco rd in g to H a m ilto n , v a r i o u s k i n d s o f f a c t o r i e s were b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d th ro u g h o u t most o f M exico, a c o n d i t i o n w hich would add t o th e p r e s e n t p r o s p e r i t y of th e c o u n t r y . These f a c t o r i e s i n c lu d e d w oolen m i l l s , c o t t o n m i l l s , s i l k f a c t o r i e s (dorm ant s i n c e the c o l o n i a l p e r i o d ) , and e s t a b l i s h m e n t s f o r making g l a s s , p a p e r , and e a r t h e n w a r e . ^ The a u th o r e l a b o r a t e d . M a n u f a c tu rin g s p a r t i c u l a r l y th e f a b r i c a t i o n o f t e x t i l e s , was a l r e a d y s i g n i f i c a n t . T here were ov er s e v e n ty c o t t o n f a c t o r i e s , which produ ced m a n ta , a c o a r s e , brown c o t t o n c l o t h . Much of the raw m a t e r i a l f o r th e s e m i l l s was im p o rted from the U n ited S t a t e s . A l t o g e t h e r , fo u r m i l l i o n p i e c e s o f m anta of t h i r t y - t h r e e y a rd s a p ie c e were a n n u a l l y p ro d u c e d , as w e ll a s fo u r hundred ^ Ibid . , p. 1. 15Ibid., p. 13. th o u sa n d p i e c e s o f p r i n t e d goods ( p r o b a b l y c a l i c o e s ) from n in e p r i n t w o rk s, and two m i l l i o n p i e c e s o f c a s s im e re a n d w oolen c l o t h from te n w oolen m i l l s . Even s o , M exican p r o d u c e r s were u n a b le t o s u p p ly the home demand. F in e r g r a d e s o f w oolen s c o n tin u e d t o be im p o rte d from F ra n c e and E n g la n d . The M exican p r o d u c e r s d i d n o t by any means have a m onopoly as y e t on t e x t i l e goods consumed i n M exico. The peon and h i s w ife were q u i t e a s l i k e l y a s n o t to w ear im p o rte d s t u f f s i f th e y c o u ld g e t them . I n f a c t , th e i m p o r t e r s o f f o r e i g n f a b r i c s had so u g h t to p e r p e t u a t e t h e i r p o s i t i o n o f im p o r ta n c e by i n f l u e n c i n g th e governm ent (H a m ilto n d id n o t s t a t e whose g o v ern m ent) to p u t an i n t e r n a l rev e n u e t a x on th e p r o d u c t s o f d o m e s tic m i l l s . D e s p ite f o r e i g n c o m p e t i t i o n , m a t t e r s were im p ro v in g . Most of th e r e b o z o s , or sh a w ls worn by th e women, w ere now b e in g p ro d u ce d i n M ex ico , and th e d o m e s tic c o t t o n i n d u s t r y was a l s o d o in g w e l l . I t was w e l l p a t r o n i z e d i n M exico, and 16 new m i l l s w ere b e in g b u i l t e v e r y y e a r . M a n u fa c tu rin g was e x p a n d in g i n o t h e r a r e a s as w e l l . The demand f o r " a l l c l a s s e s o f m a c h in e ry ’' i n M exico was " u n p a r a l l e l e d in th e h i s t o r y o f any n a t i o n . " Mexico had t o have m a c h in e ry , f o r m a n u f a c tu r in g was f i n a l l y t a k i n g a f o o t h o l d i n th e n a t i o n . T h is demand would c o n ti n u e f o r y e a r s t o come, and p r e s e n t e d a l a r g e and o b v io u s m a rk e t f o r U n ite d S t a t e s p r o d u c e r s of 16 Ibid. , pp. 269-270,. _ 37 c a p i t a l goods. At t h i s tim e , m a n u f a c tu r in g c e n te r e d around c o t t o n f a b r i c a t i o n , an a r e a w here " m a n u f a c tu r e r s a re [w ere] f i n d i n g a f o o t h o ld i n M e x ic o ." M o reo ver, m achine sh ops were now p ro d u c in g v a r i o u s k in d s o f m a c h in e ry in M exico, a c l e a r a d m o n itio n to U n ite d S t a t e s p r o d u c e r s to g e t i n w h ile th e y c o u ld . F o u n d r ie s had a l r e a d y b een e s t a b l i s h e d a t D urango, M a z a tla n , Guaymas, and P u e b la , and o t h e r s were s l a t e d fo r d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f th e c o u n tr y . F a c t o r i e s f o r th e making of fa rm in g im plem ents were a l s o b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d ; one had a l rea d y been c o n s t r u c t e d i n P u e b la and a n o th e r i n Mexico C i t y . Mexico was d e f i n i t e l y awake. She was b l e s s e d w ith v a s t c o a l f i e l d s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f h e r t e r r i t o r y , and th e s e would p e rm it i t to m a n u fa c tu re on th e g ran d s c a l e " i n th e n e a r f u t u r e . " M a n u fa c tu rin g p l a n t s and m achine shops c o u ld be e a s i l y e s t a b l i s h e d as m a t t e r s now s t o o d , w ith c o a l as th e m otive f o r c e . High d u t i e s and f r e i g h t r a t e s , added to th e b a se c o s t o f f o r e i g n made a r t i c l e s , o f f e r e d a s t r o n g t e m p t a t io n to e s t a b l i s h f a c t o r i e s i n M exico, and th e s e t t i n g up o f f a c t o r i e s in r e c e n t y e a r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e te m p t a t io n was to o g r e a t to be r e s i s t e d . T h is phenomenon o f h i g h - p r i c e d f o r e ig n goods g e n e r a t i n g th e p r o d u c t i o n o f n a t i v e goods was se en in th e home m a n u fa c tu re of v a r i o u s k in d s o f m a c h in e ry , such as a g r i c u l t u r a l im p lem en ts and v a r i o u s common u t e n s i l s . A s i t u a t i o n o b t a i n e d - - s u c h a s happened in. Ja p a n --w h e re 38 A m erican m achinery was c l e v e r l y co p ied by M exican m an ufac t u r e r s , w ith o u t the paym ent o f r o y a l t i e s to th e o r i g i n a l , i n v e n t o r . In some c a s e s , t h e co py in g was so e x a c t and so s u c c e s s f u l t h a t th e o r i g i n a l A m erican i n v e n t o r fo u n d h i s p r o d u c t b a r r e d from the Mexican R e p u b lic . H a m ilto n warned th e 17 A m erican b u sin e ssm a n to bew are o f u n s c r u p u lo u s M ex icans, w hich was somewhat a t v a r i a n c e w ith th e a d v ic e many M exicans would have g iv e n t h e i r c o m p a tr i o t s r e g a r d in g th e in v a d in g £ £ in £ 0 . H a m ilto n ’ s g e n e r a l c o v e ra g e o f M exican m a n u f a c tu rin g was fo llo w e d by a s t a t e - b y - s t a t e a c c o u n t. H is o p in io n s on m a n u fa c tu r in g here fo llo w e d th e g e n e r a l p la n o f h i s book. T h at i s , th e y moved from n o r t h e r n s t a t e s s o u th , w ith th e m ajor c o v e ra g e b e in g g iv e n t o th e n o r t h . H a m ilto n ’ s c o v e r age was s p o t t y , b u t i t m ir r o r e d th e f a v o r a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m a n u fa c tu rin g a l r e a d y s e e n i n h i s g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t s . B eginning i n H e r m o s illo , S o n o ra , H a m ilto n spoke of th e p r e s e n t f l o u r i s h i n g s t a t e o f t h a t c i t y , w hich c o u n te d a l a r g e c o t t o n m i l l , ’’I n d u s t r i a S o n o r e n s e ,” em ploying a b o u t t h r e e hundred men and women, a su g a r m i l l , and a t a n n e r y , in a d d i t i o n to a shoe f a c t o r y and an e s t a b l i s h m e n t f o r m anu fac t u r i n g w agons. At th e tim e o f w r i t i n g , t h e r e was an a tte m p t t o o rg a n iz e a gas f a c t o r y , a p p a r e n t l y on th e i n i t i a t i v e o f 18 l o c a l b u sin e ssm e n . F u r th e r a f i e l d , th e Yaqui R iv e r a r e a 17 Ibid., pp. 277-8. 18Ibid., p. 34. saw an i n f l u x o f f l o u r m i l l s , th e r e s u l t of c a p i t a l and en- 19 e rg y i n v e s t e d by f o r e i g n e r s . Moving on to th e s t a t e o f S i n a l o a , H am ilton d e s c r i b e d th e p o r t o f M a z a tla n i n h i g h l y f a v o r a b l e d e t a i l . At t h i s t im e , i f was a r a p i d l y growing community of s e v e n te e n th o u s a n d , a "commanding com m ercial c i t y " o f " r a p id ly - g r o w in g im p o rta n c e " t o B aja C a l i f o r n i a , th e s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n of S ono ra, C hihuahua, D urango, S i n a l o a , and n o r t h e r n J a l i s c o . I t was now p ro d u c in g i t s own f l o u r , much o f which was e x p o r te d i n exchange f o r c o f f e e and v a r i o u s o th e r good s. O th er i n d u s t r i a l p u r s u i t s i n c lu d e d th e e l a b o r a t i o n o f h i d e s , t a l l o w , and c o t t o n , th e l a t t e r a c t i v i t y b e in g d om in ated by a l a r g e f a c t o r y i n the c i t y w hich depended on l o c a l l y r a i s e d 20 s u p p l i e s o f c o t t o n . The a u th o r th e n moved e a s t to C hihuahua and Durango. I n th e a r e a o f E l Paso d e l N o rte (C iudad J u a r e z ) , he n o te d an i n c r e a s e i n v i t i c u l t u r e , th e r e s u l t o f the e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f v i n e y a r d s by "some e n t e r p r i s i n g A m e ric a n s ," whose p a in s had been rew arded by "a v e ry good t r a d e i n wine and b ran d y 21 w ith th e i n t e r i o r . " D urango was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by H am ilto n as an e s s e n t i a l l y m ining and a g r i c u l t u r a l s t a t e , w ith " b u t 22 few m a n u f a c t u r e s ." However, he d e v o te d s e v e r a l p a ra g r a p h s to a m a n u fa c tu rin g l i n e i n t o w hich th e s t a t e was a b o u t to 19 Ibid., p. 43. 21Ibid., p. 149. 2 0I b i d . , pp. 110-11. ^ I b i d . , p. 161. e n te r — iro n -w o rk in g . In f a c t , the i n d u s t r y a lr e a d y e x i s t e d , i n the form o f the P ie d r a Azul I r o n Works, l o c a te d on th e Rio T u n al, abo ut f i v e m ile s so u th of th e s t a t e c a p i t a l , V i c t o r i a de Durango (D urango). The P ie d r a Azul Iro n Works c o n s i s t e d of a b l a s t - f u r n a c e , a h e a tin g f u r n a c e , a p u d d lin g f u r n a c e , a r o l l i n g p l a n t , and o th e r m achin ery . The m otive fo rc e was w ater-p o w er from th e n e arb y r i v e r . The W orks’ p ro d u c tio n was a b o u t s i x t y q u i n t a l s ( s i x thousand pounds) of pig ir o n per day, or an un determ in ed amount of e la b o r a t e d i r o n . The p r o j e c t to be e s t a b l i s h e d was to be f a r l a r g e r . The Iro.n M ountain Company o f V i c t o r i a de Durango had been p r e v i o u s ly in c o r p o r a te d i n New York C i t y , and was now p r o p o sin g to e r e c t la r g e i r o n w orks, which would c o n s i s t of a b l a s t f u r n a c e , w ith a c a p a c ity of two hundred to n s of i r o n per week, and a la rg e fo u n d ry p l a n t . The i r o n company e x p e c te d t o o b ta in i t s ore from th e C erro de M ercado, a h i l l of h ig h q u a l i t y iro n l o c a te d in Durango, and had a c q u ire d 9 o ow nership of v i r t u a l l y th e e n t i r e d e p o s i t . On the b a s i s of t h i s and o th e r p r o j e c t s , H am ilton e x p re ss e d a b e l i e f t h a t th e i r o n i n d u s t r i e s o f Mexico would assume an im p o rtan ce T ,i n th e near f u t u r e ” which would s u r p a s s , or a t l e a s t e q u a l, her s i l v e r p r o d u c tio n s a t t h a t tim e. The p la c e which would give t h i s g r e a t f u t u r e in i r o n m an ufactu re to Mexico was the 23Ibid. , pp. 175-6. 41 24 C e r ro de M ercad o . I n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n of m a n u f a c t u r in g i n C o a h u il a , H a m ilto n d e s c r i b e d a f l o u r i s h i n g c o t t o n f a c t o r y , ,fLa E s t r e l l a , " l o c a t e d i n P a s a s de l a F u e n t e . He added t h a t c o t t o n m a n u f a c t u r i n g th r o u g h o u t C o a h u ila had b e e n , and was d e s t i n e d to b e , o f m a jo r im p o r t a n c e , b e c a u s e o f th e i n c r e a s i n g dem ands from th e home m a rk e t and a more e x te n d e d t r a d e . I n th e e n t i r e s t a t e o f C o a h u il a , t h e r e w ere "no l e s s t h a n e i g h t c o t t o n f a c t o r i e s . . . and f i f t y f l o u r and c o rn m i l l s , b e s i d e s s e v e r a l saw m i l l s " a t t h e tim e o f w r i t i n g . ^ H a m i l t o n ’ s c o v e ra g e o f th e r e m a in in g s t a t e s was somewhat s k e t c h y , a v e r a g i n g one or two p a g e s a p i e c e ; as a r e s u l t , th e e n t i r e work was o v e r b a la n c e d to w a rd n o r t h e r n M exico. The a u th o r seemed to have c o m p l e t e ly r e v i s e d h i s 1881 w o rk , f o r h i s t r e a t m e n t o f th e n o r t h i n 1883 was f a r more e x t e n s i v e and d i f f e r e n t l y h a n d le d . He th e n seemed t o have r u n o u t o f tim e or i n f o r m a t i o n , or p o s s i b l y b o t h , and h i s t a n t a l i z i n g l y b r i e f p a s s a g e s on th e o t h e r t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f th e s t a t e s o f M exico w ere th e r e s u l t . However, h i s c o v e r a g e o f th e s o u t h was n o t u s e l e s s t o t h i s s t u d y . On th e c o n t r a r y , s i n c e H a m ilto n was f o r c e d to p r o v i d e a c u r s o r y v iew o f e a c h o f th e c e n t r a l and s o u t h e r n M exican S t a t e s , th e r e a d e r was som etim es p r o v id e d w i t h c o n c i s e , f a v o r a b l e 24 Ibid., p. 182. 25Ibid., pp. 187-8. 42 sum m ations o f m a n u f a c tu r in g w hich would p e rh a p s be l a c k i n g i f H a m ilto n were a b le t o d i s c u s s h i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l . I n Q u e r e t a r o , f o r e x am p le, he gave t h i s s o r t o f t r e a t m e n t t o th e m a n u fa c tu re of t e x t i l e s . The s t a t e had th e most e x t e n s i v e and b e s t e q u ip p e d t e x t i l e m i l l s i n M exico, owned by th e H ubio f a m i ly . One o f t h e i r m i l l s , "La P u r i s i m a C o n c e p c io n ," employed t h r e e h u n d red w o r k e r s . A n o th e r was th e " H e r c u l e s , " a mammoth e s t a b l i s h m e n t f o r t h o s e t i m e s . I t was s u p e r i o r t o any o t h e r m i l l i n M exico, "and p r o b a b ly e q u a l to th e b e s t to be found anywhere i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . " A few y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y , i t had g iv e n employment t o e i g h t e e n hundred o p e r a t i v e s and r a n e i g h t e e n th o u s a n d s p i n d l e s . S in c e t h a t tim e i t had h i r e d more p e o p le and e x p a n d ed , so t h a t i t now employed two th o u s a n d and r a n tw e n ty - t h r e e th o u sa n d s p i n d l e s . B e s id e s t e x t i l e w o r k e r s , i t em p lo y ed "a la r g e number o f common l a b o r e r s o u t s i d e . " To g e t h e r , t h e s e two m i l l s p ro d u ce d aro u n d tw e lv e h u nd red to n s of c o t t o n c l o t h p e r y e a r , i n a d d i t i o n t o l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f y a rn and w ic k . F or t h i s q u a n t i t y o f f i n i s h e d goods a lm o s t two th o u s a n d to n s o f raw c o t t o n were u se d e a c h y e a r , most o f w hich was grown i n M exico. The l a r g e r m i l l , th e " H e r c u l e s , " was " a m odel e s t a b l is h m e n t i n e v ery r e s p e c t . " I t s s p a c io u s b u i l d i n g s c o v e re d a v a s t e x t e n t o f t e r r i t o r y . I t s m a c h in e ry was th e m ost mod e r n o b t a i n a b l e , im p o rte d from F ran ce and E n g la n d . The 43 m ac h in e ry was a p p a r e n t l y ste a m -p o w e re d , and t h e company even b o a s t e d i t s own p r i v a t e army and c a v a l r y . The owners had a p p a r e n t l y c r e a t e d t h i s s t a n d i n g arm y, a s w e l l a s a r e s e r v e u n i t o f f i v e h u n d red w o r k e r s , due to p r e v i o u s u n s e t t l e d c o n d i t i o n s . The f a c t o r y co u ld t u r n i t s e l f i n t o so m eth in g o f a f o r t i f need b e . 2 ^ H a m ilto n n e x t t u r n e d to th e n o r t h w e s t e r n p a r t o f th e R e p u b lic , t o J a l i s c o . I t s c a p i t a l , G u a d a l a j a r a , was d e s c r i b e d as ’’th e p r i n c i p a l s e t o f th e c o t t o n and wool manu f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s o f th e c o u n tr y [ o f J a l i s c o ? ] . " The m i l l s , and t h e r e w ere a l a r g e number o f them , were a l l l o c a te d o u t s i d e o f th e c i t y i t s e l f , many o f them on th e b a n k s o f th e Lerm a, w h ic h s u p p l i e d them w i t h w a te r pow er. Four l a r g e m i l l s d o m in a te d , b u t " w i t h i n a few y e a r s p a s t " a l a r g e number o f s m a ll e r m i l l s had b e e n b u i l t , m ost o f them c o n t a i n i n g one h u n d red tw e n ty looms and g i v in g employment t o ab o u t t h r e e h u n d red p e r s o n s a p i e c e , a lth o u g h s m a ll e r and 27 l a r g e r m i l l s o f r e c e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n w ere a l s o s e e n . As h a s b e en s e e n , H a m ilto n gave f a v o r a b l e o p i n io n s on m a n u f a c tu r in g i n many a r e a s o f th e R e p u b l i c , i n th e se n se t h a t he spoke of a r e c e n t or p la n n e d u p su rg e i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g . I n a d d i t i o n , he d e v o te d much o f h i s s p a c e to a t e l l i n g o f how f l o u r i s h i n g m a n u f a c tu r in g a l r e a d y w as, w i t h .n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t i t s f l o u r i s h i n g s t a t e was o f r e c e n t o c c u r r e n c e , 26Ibid., pp. 207-8. 27Ibid., p. 220. o r , i n d e e d , d a te d from any p a r t i c u l a r t im e . An e x c e l l e n t c a s e i n p o i n t i s h i s t r e a t m e n t o f th e m a n u f a c t u r in g i n O a x a c a , w here H a m ilto n n o te d 233 s u g a r f a c t o r i e s ^ tw e n ty - n i n e b ra n d y d i s t i l l e r i e s , 400 f l o u r m i l l s , 368 brown s u g a r • * * f a c t o r i e s , s e v e n t e e n t o b a c c o f a c t o r i e s , 476 p l a n t s f o r mak in g m e z c a l b r a n d y , f i v e i r o n f o u n d r i e s , 200 p o t t e r y f a c t o r i e s , and t h r e e c o t t o n and w oolen m i l l s . S u g ar cane was b e ing p ro d u c e d i n su c h l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s t h a t th e common brown 28 v a r i e t y , p a n o c h a , was s e l l i n g f o r one c e n t a pound. H a m ilto n ended h i s i m p r e s s i o n on m a n u f a c t u r in g a t t h a t p o i n t . H is M exican Handbook o f f e r e d th e e a r l i e s t e x t e n s i v e , f a v o r a b l e t r e a t m e n t o f M exican m a n u f a c t u r in g fo u n d i n t h e r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d o ut f o r t h i s s t u d y . As can be s e e n , H a m ilto n p r e s e n t e d a f a v o r a b l e o p i n io n on a n a t i o n a l , a n d , i n a d d i t i o n , on a l o c a l b a s i s . T h is was t r u e b o th i n te r m s o f r e c e n t g ro w th o f m a n u f a c tu r in g a c t i v i t y i n M exico and i n term s o f i t s p r e s e n t s t a t e . T en y e a r s e l a p s e d b e tw e e n th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s book and th e n e x t c i t e d i n t h i s s t u d y , M exico i n T r a n s i t i o n . M exico i n T r a n s i t i o n was th e p r o d u c t o f W illia m B u t l e r , a P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n a r y i n th e c o u n t r y . The e r a of D iaz was r e p l e t e w i t h books on M exico w r i t t e n by su c h f o r e i g n r e s i d e n t s . W ith a lm o s t no e x c e p t i o n s , th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f D i a z Ts m a n u f a c t u r in g p r e s e n t e d by t h e s e a u t h o r s was 28 Ibid., pp. 243-4. f a v o r a b l e . W illia m B u t l e r , th e e a r l i e s t o f th e s e a u t h o r s , was b o rn i n 1818 and d i e d i n 1899. H is l i t e r a r y e f f o r t s r e f l e c t e d h i s b a c k g ro u n d . H is e a r l i e s t book was The Land o f th e V eda, a p e r s o n a l r e m i n is c e n c e o f th e y e a r s he s p e n t i n I n d i a a s a m i s s i o n a r y . The same b a ck g ro u n d g e n e r a t e d a l a t e r book of t r a v e l a c c o u n t s , Prom B o sto n to B a r e i l l y and Back ( 1 8 8 6 ) . H is t h i r d and l a s t w o rk, Mexico i n T r a n s i t i o n ( 1 8 9 3 ) , c o v e re d h i s e x p e r i e n c e s i n and im p r e s s io n s of c o n te m p o ra ry M exico. W illia m B u t l e r ’s e x p e r i e n c e i n Mexico p r e - d a t e d th e D iaz e n t r a n c e to pow er, b u t c o n tin u e d w e l l i n t o th e P o r f i r i - an p e r i o d . He was a member o f th e M e th o d is t E p is c o p a l m is s i o n a r y e f f o r t , and was i n s t r u c t e d by h i s b is h o p to p ro c e e d t o M exico and s e t u p " a m i s s i o n t h e r e f o r our d e n o m in a tio n ” l a t e i n 1872. He r e a c h e d th e c a p i t a l d u r i n g th e f o llo w in g F e b r u a r y . He im m e d ia te ly b e g an h i s e f f o r t s t o s e c u r e p r o p - 29 e r t y f o r h i s c h u r c h , b o th i n M exico C i t y and P u e b la . H is e f f o r t s i n t h e f i e l d c o n ti n u e d u n t i l 1879, when he w ent 30 home. He r e t u r n e d b r i e f l y i n 1888. I n B u t l e r ’ s c a s e , i n d e e d , i n t h a t o f th e A m erican P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n a r y g ro u p i n g e n e r a l , f a v o r a b l e o p in io n s 29 W illia m B u t l e r , M exico i n T r a n s i t i o n ( 3 r d e d . , r e v . ; New Y o rk : Hunt and E a to n , 1 8 9 3 ), pp. 2 8 9 -9 2 . 30 Ibid., p. 298. 46 on D i a z ’s M exico, i n c l u d i n g th e m a n u f a c tu r in g p h a s e , seem to have b e e n g e n e r a t e d by D i a z ’s g e n e ro u s a t t i t u d e tow ard P r o t e s t a n t i s m . B u t l e r n o te d w ith g r a t i t u d e t h a t ’’d u r i n g h i s [ D i a z ’ s] a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a l l form s o f w o r s h ip have b e e n p r o - 31 t e c t e d . ” The a u th o r e l a b o r a t e d on t h i s o p e n in g s t a t e m e n t . The D iaz governm ent lo o k ed w i t h g r e a t i n t e r e s t on th e a c t i v i t y o f th e P r o t e s t a n t m is s i o n s i n M exico. T h is work was " f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o w i t h a p p r o b a t i o n , " and D i a z ’ s S e c r e t a r y o f F in an ce w ro te and p u b l is h e d an O f f i c i a l R e p o rt of th e P r o g r e s s o f P r o t e s t a n t M is s io n s i n Mexico i n J a n u a r y , 1879, " i n w hich th e p l a i n f a c t s a r e g iv e n w i t h e n t i r e f a i r n e s s . " T h is and o t h e r " k i n d l y p u b l i c n o t i c e of th e P r o t e s t a n t p ro p a g a n d a " i n Mexico were g iv e n n o t b e c a u s e th e gov ern m ent had a p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n th e P r o t e s t a n t s , b u t b e c au se th e f a c t s a s p u b l is h e d f u r n i s h e d th e b e s t p o s s i b l e e v id e n c e o f " t h e f u l l r e l i g i o u s free d o m and p r o g r e s s " w hich Mexico was now e n jo y in g u n d e r D ia z . A l l w rongs a g a i n s t P r o t e s t a n t s were now " q u i c k l y r e d r e s s e d " by t h a t g o v e rn - 32 m e n t. The a u th o r r e c a l l e d an i n t e r v i e w w ith th e P r e s i d e n t on th e o c c a s io n o f th e m artyrdom s u f f e r e d by s e v e r a l n a t i v e members o f th e P r o t e s t a n t f a i t h a t A t z a l a i n 1878. D iaz e x p r e s s e d d eep so rro w and a s s u r e d B u t l e r t h a t r e l i g i o u s l i b e r t y would be " v i n d i c a t e d " i n M exico. He p le d g e d th e go vern m en t to a d e f e n s e o f th e P r o t e s t a n t a d h e r e n t s and 31Ibid., p. 287. 32 Ibid., p. 297. t .. s 47 damned t h i s and o t h e r i n s t a n c e s o f ’’Romish i n t o l e r a n c e . ” Due to D i a z ’ s a i d , ’’th e [ C a t h o l i c ] f a n a t i c s ” were now a f r a i d to m o le s t P r o t e s t a n t s i n M exico, a c o n d i t i o n a ls o due to the s e t t l e m e n t o f P r o t e s t a n t c o n g r e g a t i o n s in cen - 33 t e r s where th e p o l i c e c a re was more e f f e c t i v e . I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , r e a l i s t i c to c o n c lu d e t h a t D i a z ’ s a t t i t u d e t o ward P r o t e s t a n t g ro u p s i n Mexico made f o r a v e ry f a v o r a b l e book tow ards D iaz and M exico, i n c l u d i n g th e m a n u fa c tu rin g a s p e c t . W illia m B u t l e r ’s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m a n u fa c tu rin g under th e D iaz regim e was s h o r t . He m e re ly s t a t e d t h a t man u f a c t u r i n g had i n c r e a s e d s in c e D i a z ’s r i s e to pow er, due to ’’th e p r o t e c t i o n o f an e n l i g h t e n e d g o v e rn m e n t. S h o rt though B u t l e r ’s s t a te m e n t w as, i t was s i g n i f i c a n t i n s e v e r a l ways. I t c a p s u l i z e d an o p in io n form ed by y e a r s o f r e s id e n c e under a f r i e n d l y g o v ern m en t. M o reov er, i t was f a i r l y t y p i c a l o f th e c o n c e p tio n s o f D i a z ’s m a n u f a c tu r in g w hich were e x p re s s e d by s e v e r a l o th e r P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n a r i e s la b o r in g i n Mexico d u r in g t h e s e y e a r s . F i n a l l y , i t a s s i g n e d Diaz and h i s governm ent f u l l c r e d i t f o r an i n d u s t r i a l i n c r e a s e , a f a i r l y common p r a c t i c e among a u t h o r s w r i t i n g l a t e r in th e r e g im e . The y e a r 1894 saw th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f S k e tc h e s o f M exico, by Jo h n W. B u t l e r , son o f th e W illia m B u t le r who 33 Ibid., pp. 303-5. 34 Ibid., p. 285. 48 -2 C w ro te the book j u s t d i s c u s s e d . Born i n M a s s a c h u s e tts m 1851, John B u t le r fo llo w e d th e same c a r e e r as h i s f a t h e r , t h a t o f a m is s io n a r y . He was e d u c a te d in P a s s a i c , New J e r s e y , and B o sto n , where he a tte n d e d th e B oston U n i v e r s i t y School of T heology f o r t h r e e y e a r s , from 1871 to 1874, f i n a l l y r e c e iv in g a D octor o f D i v i n i t y d e g re e much l a t e r , i n 1889. He m a rrie d i n 1878. F iv e y e a rs b e f o r e , he a p p a r e n t l y accompanied h i s f a t h e r to M exico, where he was to spend th e r e s t of h i s l i f e up t o h i s d e a t h i n 1918. He worked in th e M e th o d is t E p is c o p a l Church i n the c a p a c ity o f a m is s i o n a r y , d e v o tin g most o f h is r e s i d e n c e to Mexico C i t y . He was a p a s t o r t h e r e f o r t e n y e a r s , and e i t h e r p r e s i d i n g e l d e r or d i s t r i c t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t from 1890 to 1918. He was a l s o p r e s i d e n t of th e Mexican M e th o d is t I n s t i t u t e f o r two y e a r s . T h is took him to P u e b la . T his was a p p a r e n t l y th e o n ly tim e betw een 1873 and h i s d e a th when he li v e d anywhere b e s i d e s th e f e d e r a l c a p i t a l . His books i n clu d ed S ketches o f Mexico (1 8 9 4 ), S i l v e r A n n iv e rs a ry o f Methodism i n Mexico ( i n S p a n ish , 18 98), and Mexico Coming I n t o L ig h t (1 9 0 7 ). At th e tim e of h i s d e a t h , he was t r e a s u r e r and a t t o r n e y of th e M is s io n a ry S o c i e t y of th e M e th o d ist E p is c o p a l Church i n Mexico. 35 John W. B u t l e r , S k e tc h e s o f Mexico (New York: Hunt and E a to n , 1894), p. i i i . 3 6 Who’s Who in A m e ric a , IX (1 9 1 6 -1 9 1 7 ), 363. 49 Like h is f a t h e r , John B u tle r d em o n stra te d deep a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r D i a z ’s h e lp to th e P r o t e s t a n t w orkers in M exico, going so f a r as to say t h a t D i a z 's Mexico "h as [had] enjoyed u n i n t e r r u p t e d p e ac e" under th e l e a d e r s h ip o f "a man would would r e a d i l y make a le a d e r among the sta te sm e n o f any n a t i o n on e a r t h , " a man who was the " f r i e n d o f every modern id e a t h a t w i l l [would] l i f t up h i s c o u n try " --w h ic h in c lu d e d P r o t e s t a n t i s m , o f c o u rs e . With t h i s k in d of v ie w p o in t, i t was no s u r p r i s e t h a t John B u t l e r ’ s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of manu f a c t u r i n g was a ls o h ig h ly f a v o r a b l e . The a u th o r w rote of th e g r e a t growth o f m a n u fa c tu r ing in Mexico under th e d i c t a t o r , c i t i n g th e c o n s t r u c t io n of f a c t o r i e s i n M onterrey and San L uis P o to s i which were in p ro g re s s a t the tim e o f w r i t i n g — p l a n t s w hich c o s t n e a r l y a m i l l i o n d o l l a r s a p ie c e . An a d d i t i o n a l p l a n t in San R a fae l was a ls o i n the b u i l d i n g s t a g e , and was to c o s t somewhat more. T h is p l a n t could have been the San R a fa e l t e x t i l e m i l l or a n o th e r co n cern in th e same p la c e f o r the m anufac t u r e of p a p e r. F i n a l l y , John B u tle r spoke i n glowing term s of c o tto n and p r i n t f a c t o r i e s j u s t i n s t a l l e d i n O riz a b a , w orth t h r e e and o n e - h a lf m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . With t h i s , he 37 concluded h i s s k e tc h on m a n u fa c tu rin g . The n e x t book covered in t h i s s tu d y d id n o t appear u n t i l 1898. T his p u b l i c a t i o n was th e p ro d u c t of C h a rle s 37 J. W. Butler, op. cit., pp. 309-11. 50 F l e t c h e r Lummis, and was t i t l e d The Aw akening o f a N a t i o n . Lummis was a n exam ple o f a ty p e w hich i s f a i r l y common i n E n g la n d , a l l to o r a r e i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s : t h e e c c e n t r i c on a g ran d s c a l e . A h o s t o f rum ors and a n e c d o te s grew up aro und him , p e rh a p s u n t r u e , b u t th e v e r i f i a b l e d e t a i l s o f h i s l i f e a re i n t e r e s t i n g enough i n t h e m s e lv e s . C h a r le s F l e t c h e r Lummis was b o r n i n Lynn, M assachu s e t t s , i n 1859. He was e d u c a te d a t H a r v a r d , g r a d u a t i n g i n 1881. L a t e r , he r e c e i v e d a D o c to r o f L e t t e r s d e g re e from S a n ta C l a r a C o lle g e and an h o n o r a r y B a c h e lo r o f A r t s d e g re e from H a rv a rd . F o llo w in g h i s g r a d u a t i o n from H a rv a r d , he w ent t o O h io , where he e d i t e d a n ew sp ap er from 1882 u n t i l 1884. He th e n d e c id e d t o move w e s t , and i t was now t h a t th e e c c e n t r i c q u a l i t y o f t h e man, a f a c t o r w h ich n e v e r l e f t him, m a n i f e s t ed i t s e l f . Most A m erican s g o in g w e s t t r a v e l e d i n co m p a n ie s, by h o r s e b a c k , by wagon, by b o a t aro u n d th e t i p o f S o u th A m e ric a , o r , by t h i s t im e , by t r a i n . Lummis s e t out from C i n c i n n a t i i n 1884, b u t he w alked th e e n t i r e d i s t a n c e t o Los A n g e le s , t a k i n g a r o u n d - a b o u t r o u t e , a t r i p w hich c a r r i e d him 3 ,5 0 7 m i l e s . A r r i v i n g i n Los A n g e le s , he became c i t y e d i t o r o f th e Los A n g e le s D a ily Times i n 1885, h o l d in g t h a t jo b u n t i l 1887. He th e n l i v e d f o r f i v e y e a r s i n th e I n d ia n p u e b lo o f I s l e t a , New M exico, w here he l e a r n e d I n d i a n la n g u a g e s and c u s to m s . He t r a v e l e d e x t e n s i v e l y : th r o u g h th e e n t i r e 51 A m erican S o u th w e st on h o rs e b a c k ; th ro u g h M exico, C anada, South A m erica; i n s h o r t , th ro u g h th e A m ericas from Canada to C h i l e . I n 1894, Lummis found ed Out West M a g az in e , re m a in in g as i t s e d i t o r u n t i l 1909. He s e rv e d a s L i b r a r i a n of th e Los A n g e les P u b l i c L i b r a r y from 1905 to 1910. He was a p u b l i c f i g u r e i n S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a f o r many y e a r s . In 1895, he fo u n d ed th e Landmarks C lub. He p r e s e r v e d s e v e r a l C a l i f o r n i a m i s s i o n s , i n c l u d i n g th o se o f San Ju a n C a p is tr a n o and San F ern an d o . In 1902 he founded th e Sequoya League and s e rv e d as chairm an o f i t s e x e c u ti v e co m m ittee. T h is o r g a n i z a t i o n d e d i c a t e d i t s e l f to e f f o r t s to make b e t t e r I n d i a n s , a f a c t w hich I have d e c id e d to n o te w ith o u t comment. He found ed th e S o u th w e st Museum i n 1907. He was k n ig h te d by A lfo n s o X I I I i n 1915 f o r h i s r e s e a r c h e s i n t o S p a n ish -A m e ric an h i s t o r y , p e rh a p s th e crow ning e v e n t of h i s l i f e . H is p e r s o n a l l i f e was h i g h l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l . Afiec- d o t e s abound a b o u t t h i s a u t h o r , b u t i t i s p e rh a p s b e s t to o n ly n o te t h a t he was m a r r ie d t h r e e tim e s and had f i v e c h i l d r e n . H is home, L I A l i s a l , l o c a t e d i n H ig h lan d P a rk , i s s t i l l one o f th e landm arks o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a . I t i s im p o s s ib le to deny t h a t Lummis made many p o s i t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s to th e i n t e l l e c t u a l and h i s t o r i c h e r i t a g e o f th e S o u th w e st. A c a se in p o i n t would be h i s p h o n o g rap h ic r e c o r d i n g s o f o r a l l i t e r a t u r e . B e g in n in g i n 1905 and 52 c o n tin u in g t o h i s d e a th i n 1928, he made r e c o r d i n g s of 550 o ld S p a n ish songs i n th e S ou th w est U n ite d S t a t e s , r e c o r d i n g 425 more i n t h i r t y - s e v e n In d ia n la n g u a g e s - But h i s books v a r i e d i n h i s t o r i c a l im p o r ta n c e . They i n c l u d e d , f o r exam p l e , B irc h Bark Poems ( 1 8 7 9 ), w hich had the d i s t i n c t i o n of b ein g p r i n t e d on r e a l b i r c h - b a r k , A Tramp A c ro s s th e C o n t i n e n t ( 1 8 9 2 ) , My F r ie n d W ill ( 1 9 1 1 ), and s e v e r a l o t h e r s w hich were p e rh a p s o f o n ly p a s s in g v a lu e . On th e o t h e r hand, such books a s The S p a n ish P io n e e r s ( 1 8 9 3 ) , The Man 'Who M a rrie d th e Moon (P u e b lo I n d i a n f o l k l o r e , 1 8 9 4 ), and S p a n ish Songs of Old C a l i f o r n i a (192 3, 1 9 2 8 ), were o f d i s t i n c t v a lu e . Lummis a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d a r t i c l e s to th e E n c y c lo p a e d ia 3 8 B r i t a n n i c a , E n c y c lo p e d ia A m e ric a n a , and th e N a t i o n . As f o r The Awakening o f a N a t io n , w h ile o f g r e a t v a lu e to t h i s s t u d y , th e r e a d e r w i l l have t o d e te r m in e f o r h i m s e l f w h eth er i t was o b j e c t i v e or n o t . The Awakening of a N a tio n c o n ta in e d an e x tre m e ly f a v o r a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e e n t i r e Mexico of P o r f i r i o D ia z , in c l u d i n g i t s m a n u f a c tu r in g . T h is may p a r t i a l l y have been e x p la in e d by th e a u t h o r ’s own n a t u r a l e x h u b e ra n c e . I f Lummis was f a v o r a b l y im p re ss e d w ith s o m e th in g , he seems to have g iv e n f r e e r e i n t o h i s p en. And Lummis was f a v o r a b l y ^ W h o ’s Who i n A m erica, XV (1 9 2 8 -L 9 2 9 ) , 336. 53 -3 Q s t r u c k by D iaz*s M exico. The same h e ld t r u e f o r Diaz him s e l f , f o r Lummis v i s i t e d him and was tre m e n d o u sly im- 40 p r e s s e d . But a n o th e r f a c t o r e n te r e d i n h e r e . Lummis was co n vinced t h a t th e p e o p le of th e U n ite d S t a t e s had an i n c o r r e c t , s n o b b ish p i c t u r e of M exico. He b e li e v e d t h a t th e tim e was r i p e f o r "a l i t t l e modern and i n t e r i o r t r u t h ” abo ut M exico, som ething w hich would c o u n te r th e common run of t r a v e l books on th e c o u n tr y . M exico, ” an a m b itio u s m archer i n th e p r o c e s s io n o f n a t i o n s , ” had n o t y e t b e en g iv e n h e r 41 due by an a u th o r . The Awakening of a N a tio n was in te n d e d to r e v e r s e t h i s t r e n d . R a th e r than view ing M exicans th ro u g h the ey es of the s u p e r i o r w h i t e , A nglo-Saxon P r o t e s t a n t , Lummis proposed t o view them th ro u g h th e ey es o f t r u t h , and to p u t th e s e view s down i n th e form of t h i s book. He f e l t he had p re p a re d w e l l . S h o r t l y b e fo r e w r i t i n g , he ” re in v a d e d n e a r l y e v e ry s t a t e ” of Mexico f o r t h r e e m onths, t a l k i n g to everybody who would t a l k to him, from D iaz down. In d e e d , h i s m ethods were t o be fo llo w e d f i f t y y e a rs l a t e r by L e s li e Byrd Simpson, f o r Lummis sounded out th e man on th e s t r e e t . 42 A f t e r g a th e r in g h i s m a t e r i a l , he w rote th e book. I n a d d i t i o n to d e s i r i n g to g iv e what he c o n s id e re d to be a t r u e *30 C h a r le s F l e t c h e r Lummis, The Awakening o f a N a tio n (New Y ork: H arper and B r o s ., 1898), p . 2. 4° I b i d . , pp. 1 03-5. 41I b i d . , pp. 2 -3 . 4^Ibid. , p. 6. p i c t u r e o f M exican c o n d i t i o n s t o c o u n t e r a c t th e f a l s e i n f o r m a tio n g iv e n b y so many o t h e r s , th e w r i t e r d e s i r e d t o g iv e a d e f i n i t i v e o n e , t o c o u n te r A m erican p r e j u d i c e to w a rd s f o r e i g n e r s . T h is was i m p o s s i b l e , how ever, f o r o t h e r d u t i e s i n t e r v e n e d , and he e l e c t e d t o s e t down w hat l i t t l e he knew i n th e hope t h a t i t would i n c r e a s e f r i e n d l y f e e l i n g f o r Mexico on th e p a r t o f A m e r i c a n s . ^ U n f o r t u n a t e l y , r a t h e r t h a n n e u t r a l i z i n g th e w orks o f w r i t e r s o f a n ti- M e x ic a n m a t e r i a l by a s o b e r c o l l e c t i o n o f f a c t s , Lummis w ent to o f a r i n th e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , w r i t i n g an o f t e n l y r i c a l , a lw ay s p r o - M exican b ook. As s u c h , i t c o n ta in e d h i g h l y f a v o r a b l e r e p o r t s on m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D ia z . R e f e r r i n g t o th e m a n u f a c tu r in g i n d u s t r y o f P o r f i r i a n M exico a s a w h o le , Lummis s t a t e d t h a t n o t h in g was more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c o n te m p o ra ry M exico th a n t h e m u l t i p l y i n g o f f a c t o r i e s and th e am ounts and k in d s of Mexican-manufactured g o o d s . He compared m a n u f a c tu r in g i n M exico m ost f a v o r a b l y w i t h t h a t i n th e r e s t o f L a t i n A m e ric a . W hile th e r e g i o n c o n ta in e d c o u n t r i e s w here huge f a c t o r i e s were n o t grow ing u p , Mexico was n o t among them . He s u c c i n c t l y c o n c lu d e d h i s g e n e r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by s a y in g t h a t " f a c t o r i e s have [h ad ] become s u d d e n ly e p id e m ic " u n d e r P o r f i r i o D l a z . ^ Lummis t h e n w ent i n t o g r e a t e r d e t a i l , d e s c r i b i n g new m a n u f a c tu r in g c o n c e rn s to be e n c o u n t e r e d in v a r i o u s p a r t s o f 43 Ibid., p. v. 44 Ibid., pp. 36-7. 55 th e R e p u b li c . In th e n o r t h , he w ro te o f th e new b r e w e r i e s i n C h ih u a h u a , as w e l l as the c i t y * s new f a c t o r i e s and i r o n f o u n d r i e s . He added t h a t b r e w e r i e s were now t o be found a l l o v e r M e x ic o .4 '’ Moving s o u t h t o Q u e r e t a r o , Lummis c o v e re d th e l a r g e " H e r c u l e s ” c o t t o n m i l l s , f i t t e d o u t w i t h th e m ost m odern m a c h in e ry a v a i l a b l e , em ploying o v e r 1,700 w o r k e r s . T h is m i l l had b e e n fo u n d ed y e a r s b e f o r e D iaz began h i s r u l e , b u t i t had r e c e n t l y b e e n e q u ip p e d w i t h th e m ost modern ma c h i n e r y , and was now " t h e m odel f a c t o r y , p e r h a p s , o f A m eri c a . " A t th e f a l l s o f J u a n a c a t l a n , t h e r e was a s i m i l a r b u t s m a ll e r c o t t o n m i l l , c a p a b le o f e m ploying one th o u s a n d w o rk e r s . T h is f a c t o r y had j u s t b e e n c o m p le te d . I n t h i s same g e n e r a l a r e a o f th e c o u n t r y , Lummis w ro te t h a t d u r in g th e p r e s e n t y e a r (1898) a c o t t o n m i l l c o s t i n g f o u r m i l l i o n d o l l a r s was b e in g b u i l t n e a r P u e b l a , a s w e l l a s s e v e r a l o t h e r s r a n g i n g i n c o s t from a q u a r t e r o f a m i l l i o n d o l l a r s t o a m i l l i o n d o l l a r s a p i e c e , "and so n e a r l y a l l o ver th e r e p u b - i • t f 4 6 l i e . " C a r r y in g h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f m a n u f a c tu r in g i n t o P u e b la , he n o te d t h a t l a r g e , modern m i l l s w ere now t a k i n g th e p l a c e s o f s m a l l , f i r e s i d e i n d u s t r i e s and th e o b r a j e s common d u r i n g th e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d . P u e b la now b o a s t e d f i f t e e n c o t t o n m i l l s , one g l a s s f a c t o r y , f i v e or s i x f l o u r m i l l s , and " c o n s i d e r a b l e i n d u s t r i e s " i n p o t t e r y , t i l e s , and 45Ibid., p. 17. 46Ibid., pp. 36-7. 56 on yx. One c o t t o n m a g n a te , R u b in , had p u t o v e r two m i l l i o n pounds of new m a c h in e ry i n t o h i s new c o t t o n m i l l , "La M o r a t i l l a . " A n o th e r c o t t o n f a c t o r y w i t h two h u n d re d looms was i n s t a l l e d n e a r San M a r tin d u r i n g 1897. F a c t o r i e s had in v a d e d th e c e n t r a l a r e a o f th e c i t y of P u e b la w i t h th e con s t r u c t i o n i n th e same y e a r o f a new f a c t o r y f a c i n g th e P u e b la r a i l r o a d s t a t i o n , p r o b a b ly f o r th e m a n u fa c tu re of t e x t i l e goods from c o t t o n . Lummis ended t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f m a n u f a c tu r in g in or aro u n d P u e b la w i t h th e m e n tio n o f a new 47 f l o u r m i l l i n t h a t c i t y . To t h e n o r t h w e s t , i n th e c i t y o f G u a d a l a j a r a , "some o f th e f i n e s t f a c t o r i e s i n A m e ric a" w ere r e p o r t e d t o have 48 b e e n grow ing u p . To Lummis, s o u t h e r n M exico d e m o n s tr a te d s i m i l a r p r o g r e s s . For e x am p le , i n th e t e r r i t o r y s e r v e d by th e I n t e r - o c e a n ic R a i l r o a d , c o t t o n and p a p e r m i l l s were " s p r i n g i n g u p , " and o ld su g a r h a c i e n d a s w ere s u d d e n ly m o d e r n i z i n g .49 The su g a r cane m a n u f a c tu r in g i n d u s t r y a s a w hole was d e s c r i b e d a s g o in g f o r t h on "an enorm ous and f a s t - r i s i n g ■ , i*50 s c a l e Lummis s e a r c h e d f o r th e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s m a n u f a c t u r in g grow th and c o n c lu d e d t h a t i t had b e e n due p r i m a r i l y to g e n e r o u s c o n c e s s io n s by th e D iaz governm ent t o a t t r a c t 47 Ibid., p. 138. 49Ibid., p. 79. 48Ibid., p. 144. 50Ibid., p. 48. 57 p r o s p e c t i v e m a n u f a c tu r e r s ( " f o r Diaz b e l i e v e s [ b e l i e v e d ] in f a c t o r i e s , and means [m eant] to have them w h o l e s a l e " ) th e rem oval o f i n t e r s t a t e t a r i f f b a r r i e r s , a cheap s u p p ly of 51 l a b o r , and v e ry f a v o r a b l e r a t e s o f f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e . T h is s ta te m e n t co n clu d ed th e Lummis a c c o u n t. Lummis1 work was fo llo w e d by th e l o n g e s t im p r e s s io n o f m a n u fa c tu r in g u n d e r D iaz in c lu d e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n , found i n E l E s ta d o de S i n a l o a , M exico, e d i t e d by Jo h n R. S o u th - w o r th , p u b lis h e d i n 1898. The t i t l e was somewhat m i s l e a d i n g . The book was n o t e n t i r e l y i n S p a n is h , b u t r a t h e r i n p a r a l l e l columns o f S p a n ish and E n g l i s h . T h is a rra n g em e n t made i t somewhat d i f f i c u l t to d e c id e on th e a p p r o p r i a t e p la c e t o l o c a t e i t i n t h i s s tu d y . A lm ost e v e r y t h in g o f a b i o g r a p h i c a l n a tu r e on S o u th - w o rth may be lo c a te d in a l i b r a r y c a r d c a t a l o g u e . He was b o rn i n 1866 and d ie d i n 1938 or l a t e r . He was th e a u th o r o f s e v e r a l books on C a l i f o r n i a or M exico. He w ro te i n S p a n ish as w e l l a s E n g l i s h , and h i s books i n c lu d e d E l D i r e c t o r i o o f i c i a l de l a s m inas y h a c ie n d a s de Mexico . . . ( 1 9 1 0 ) , S a n ta B a rb a ra and M o n te c ito , P a s t and P r e s e n t ( 1 9 2 0 ) , Los Adobes a n ti g u o s de S a n ta B a rb a ra ( c . 1 9 2 1 ), and H i s t o r i c Adobes o f S a n ta B a rb a ra C o u n ty , C a l i f o r n i a (3 rd e d . , 1 9 3 8 ). He was th e c o m p ile r o f E l T e r r i t o r i o de l a B aja C a l i f o r n i a , Mexico . . ■ ( 1 8 9 9 ), a work w h ich seems to have 51Ibid., p. 73. 58 b e e n a com p an ion s t u d y o f t h e p r e s e n t book u n d e r e x a m in a t i o n . S o u th w o rth a p p a r e n t l y e d i t e d a n o t h e r work on one o f 52 th e M exican s t a t e s , b u t I have b e e n u n a b le t o l o c a t e i t . I n s e a r c h i n g f o r th e r e a s o n s f o r th e f a v o r a b l e a c c o u n t o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g g iv e n by S o u th w o rth i n E l E s ta d o de S i n a l o a , M e x ic o , s e v e r a l f a c t s may be c o n s i d e r e d . F i r s t and m ost i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e book was p u b l i s h e d " b a j o l a s d i r e c - c i o n e s d e l G o b ie rn o d e l E s t a d o , " a s was n o te d on th e t i t l e 53 p a g e . T h is i n i t s e l f was h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t , s i n c e th e g o v e rn m e n t o f th e s t a t e would have b e e n u n l i k e l y t o s u p p ly i n f o r m a t i o n w h ic h w ould have p r e s e n t e d a n e g a t i v e p i c t u r e of th e a r e a . When i t i s n o te d t h a t the e d i t o r e x p r e s s e d h i s g r a t i t u d e t o C anedo, th e G o v e r n o r , t o th e s t a t e o f f i c i a l s and " t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e b u s i n e s s men of S i n a l o a " f o r th e "many c o u r t e s i e s " e x te n d e d t o him by t h e m - - c o u r t e s i e s w h ich m ust have i n c l u d e d th e g i v in g o f i n f o r m a t i o n f o r th e com pi l a t i o n o f th e b o o k — th e p r e v i o u s s t a t e m e n t was r e i n f o r c e d . M o re o v e r, S o u th w o rth e x p r e s s e d h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h i s work "m u st r e s u l t . . . i n a m arked b e n e f i t to t h i s s t a t e , " ^ w hich a g a i n le d me t o th e t h o u g h t t h a t th e g o v e r n m ent o f t h e s t a t e , u n d e r whose d i r e c t i o n t h e book was 52 J o h n R. S o u th w o rth C e d .) , E l E s ta d o de S i n a l o a , M e x ic o . Sus i n d u s t r i a s c o m e r c ia n te s V m ln e r a s y m a n u f a c t u r e r a s ^ jS a n F r a n c i s c o s The r i ic k s - J u d d Com panyJ, 1 8 9 § ) , p i 3. 5 3I b i d . , p . 1. ^Ibid., p. 3. 59, p u b l i s h e d , would have hoped f o r such a b e n e f i t and th u s w ould have p r e s e n t e d S i n a l o a , i n c l u d i n g i t s m a n u f a c tu r in g a s p e c t , i n a f a v o r a b l e l i g h t . I n p a s s i n g , a f o u r t h f a c t o r m ig h t be i n tr o d u c e d h e r e . S i n a l o a was d e s c r i b e d a s a lan d o f f e r i n g g r e a t in d u ce m e n ts to U n ite d S t a t e s m a n u f a c tu r e r s and f a r m e r s , who w ere i n v i t e d t o s e t t l e t h e r e . T h u s, th e f a v o r a b l e t r e a t m e n t of m a n u fa c tu rin g and, in d e e d , of a l l a s p e c t s o f S i n a l o a may be c o n s id e r e d a s an a tte m p t to g a in more i n h a b i t a n t s f o r an u n d e rp o p u la te d s t a t e . A g e n e r a l p i c t u r e o f i n d u s t r i a l c o n d i t i o n s in S i n a l o a i n 1898 was f i r s t p r e s e n t e d . At t h a t t im e , p r i n c i p a l b ra n c h e s o f m a n u f a c tu r in g were th e making and r e f i n i n g o f s u g a r , f l o u r m i l l i n g , t a n n i n g , c o t t o n m a n u f a c tu r in g , so a p -m ak in g , "num erous" f a c t o r i e s f o r making s h o e s , b o o t s , c i g a r s and c i g a r e t t e s , a c a r r i a g e and m atch w o rk s, and a " w e l l e q u ip p e d " b rew ery in M a z a tla n .^ ^ L eav in g a g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n of c o n d i t i o n s , S o u th w o rth to o k th e r e a d e r on a d e t a i l e d t o u r o f th e s t a t e , one r e p l e t e w ith f a v o r a b l e p i c t u r e s of t h e i n c r e a s e i n m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D ia z . He began h i s s tu d y w ith th e c a p i t a l , C u lia c a n . S o u th w o rth p r e s e n t e d a f a v o r a b l e p i c t u r e o f t h i s c i t y . The la c k of a r a i l r o a d had th u s f a r a c te d a g a i n s t i t s p r o g r e s s , b u t t h i s was f o r t u n a t e l y t o be rem ed ied i n th e n e a r f u t u r e w ith th e c o m p le tio n o f th e pro p o sed l i n e from 55Ibid., p. 7. 60 D u ra n g o . I n d e e d , th e e n g i n e e r s had a l r e a d y " a l l b u t com p l e t e d th e s u r v e y i n g of th e r o u t e . " S o u th w o rth w ro te i n glo w in g te rm s o f w hat would happen once t h e l i n e was com p l e t e d . C u l i a c a n would be p u t i n d i r e c t com m u n icatio n w i t h M exico C i t y , and new l i f e would flo w i n t o S i n a l o a ’ s m in in g and a g r i c u l t u r e . The r a i l r o a d would a l s o l u r e many new 56 f a c t o r i e s i n t o C u l i a c a n . Not t h a t much m a n u f a c tu r in g had n o t come i n t o th e c i t y anyway o f r e c e n t y e a r s . A c a s e i n p o i n t was "La A u r o r a " s u g a r f a c t o r y , th e f i r s t o f i t s k in d t o be e s t a b l i s h e d i n th e s t a t e . "La A u r o ra " d a te d from 1876, and was fo u n d ed by S e n a to r J o a q u i n Redo. The p r e m is e s o c c u p ie d a l a r g e b u i l d i n g 200 by 120 f e e t , " c o m p l e t e ly f u r n i s h e d w i t h th e m ost m odern m a c h in e r y ," w i t h a d o u b l e - e f f e c t vacuum pan f o r s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r in g . The f a c t o r y p ro d u ce d over 750,000 po unds o f s u g a r and 500 b a r r e l s o f a l c o h o l eac h y e a r , gave employm ent to 250 w o r k e r s , and had la n d s u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n c o m p r is in g 170 h e c t a r e s . The su g a r m i l l was u n d e r th e man agem ent o f th e younger J o a q u in Redo. H is f a t h e r was i n M exico C i t y , h a v in g b e en a s e n a t o r from s e v e r a l s t a t e s f o r th e p a s t t h i r t y y e a r s , "one o f th e R e p u b l i c ’s m ost n o t a b l e 57 s t a t e s m e n . " The a u th o r th e n p ro c e e d e d t o an i m p o r t a n t com m ercial house i n C u l i a c a n , t h a t of L u c ia n o de l a Vega. Vega began 56Ibid., p. 27. 57Ibid., p. 37. 61 h i s b u s i n e s s a b o u t f i f t e e n y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y . H is h o ld in g s now in c lu d e d ”a l a r g e f a c t o r y f o r th e m an u fa ctu re o f c i g a r e t t e s . ” His b ran d o f c i g a r e t t e s , c a l l e d ”La R efo rm a,” was ”a f a v o r i t e w ith th e p u b l i c . ” The f a c t o r y and b u s in e s s were 58 b o th lo c a te d on C a lle d e l Com ercio. Oddly enough, e x a c t l y th e same s o r t o f co m b in atio n e x i s t e d i n a n o th e r f i r m , ”La Voz d e l P u e b l o ,” owned by two b r o t h e r s a ls o named Vega, a ls o l o c a te d i n C u lia c a n . The com m ercial house was s t a r t e d i n 1895 and was now e n jo y in g ”a w e l l - m e r i t e d s u c c e s s . ” Under th e management o f Leopoldo de l a Vega, i t was th e le a d in g f i r m of i t s k in d i n th e c i t y , w ith b ra n c h e s in th e C u lia c a n m arket p la c e and a t Tam azula, D urango. The firm o p e ra te d th e ” La Reform ada” c i g a r e t t e f a c t o r y , which m a n u fa c tu re d 4 ,5 0 0 ,0 0 0 p ackages of c i g a r e t t e s a n n u a l ly . E ig h ty p e o p le were employed i n t h i s w ork. ” La Reform ado” [ s i c ] c i g a r e t t e s were ’’e s p e c i a l l y g o o d ,” b e in g made from a s p e c i a l ( u n s p e c i f i e d ) k in d of to b a c c o . A la r g e b u s i n e s s was t r a n s a c t e d , one which c o n s t a n t l y in c r e a s e d from y e a r t o y e a r . The s u c c e s s of th e b u s i n e s s was due in no s m a ll m easure t o th e f a c t t h a t the f irm f u l l y liv e d up to r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of i t s p r o d u c t s ’ q u a l i t y . The f irm was com posed o f A lb e rto and L eopoldo de l a Vega, f a t h e r and so n , 59 the l a t t e r a m odel, p u b l i c - s p i r i t e d c a p i t a l i s t . 58Ibid., p. 38. ^Ibid., p. 40. 62 L eaving C u lia c a n , S outhw orth n e x t d e s c r ib e d N a v o la to , i n th e d i s t r i c t of C u lia c a n , home of " t h e g r e a t su g ar f a c t o r y and d i s t i l l e r y , ” "La P r im a v e r a ," t h i r t y - o n e k i l o m e t e r s w est o f th e c a p i t a l . The e n t e r p r i s e had been founded l e s s th a n f i v e y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y . I t had two main f e a t u r e s f o r - making an e x c e l l e n t s i t e f o r a f a c t o r y o f t h i s ty p e —w a te r and e a s i l y c u l t i v a t e d la n d . I t s land com prised 35.000 a c r e s , w ith enough w a te r to th o ro u g h ly i r r i g a t e over 50.000 a c r e s . T h is i r r i g a t i o n was accom p lish ed by means of a c a n a l, c a p a b le o f d e l i v e r i n g f o u r t e e n c u b ic m e te r s of w a t e r . Two c e n t r i f u g a l pumps were u sed f o r i r r i g a t i o n , su p p ly in g e i g h t th o u san d g a l l o n s o f w a te r p e r m in u te . Sugarcane was th e main p ro d u c t r a i s e d on t h i s la n d , b u t i t was a ls o p e r f e c t l y c a p a b le o f p ro d u cin g c o t t o n , c o r n , b e a n s, and w h e a t. The y i e l d p e r a c r e was f o r t y to n s of s u g a r, a t a p r o d u c tio n c o s t i n 1898 of one peso p e r a cre p e r y e a r . At p r e s e n t , 1,700 a c r e s were u nder c u l t i v a t i o n . Over n in e th o u sa n d m e te rs o f w ire fe n c in g had been c o m p leted , and , a l l t h in g s c o n s id e r e d , ’’th e su g a r p l a n t a t i o n i s [was] i n s p le n d id c o n d i t i o n , n o th in g b e in g n e g le c te d or o v e r l o o k e d .” A r a i l r o a d went th ro u g h th e p l a n t a t i o n ( ”La O c c i d e n t a l " ) , and th e p r o d u c tio n had made the h a c i e n d a ’s s t a t i o n a t N av olato " t h e b u s i e s t on th e r o a d . ” The e x i s t e n c e of th e r a i l r o a d g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d s h ip p in g p r o c e d u r e s , s in c e th e p r o d u c ts o f th e su g a r f a c t o r y co uld be d e l i v e r e d i n C u lia c a n or th e c o a s t a l p o r t of A l t a t a 63 w i t h in two h o u rs from th e tim e th ey l e f t N a v o lato . The su gar f a c t o r y i t s e l f was lo c a te d n e ar th e t r a c k s , an immense b u i ld i n g of sto n e and b r i c k a f u l l s i x hundred f e e t long on each s i d e , " c o m p le te ly f i t t e d up and equipped w ith th e l a t e s t improved and most modern m a c h in e ry ," c a p a b le of pro d u c ing t h r e e hundred to n s of su gar per day. This p l a n t a t i o n in c lu d e d an a lc o h o l and liq u o r d i s t i l l e r y , lo c a te d n e a r the su g a r f a c t o r y . The d i s t i l l e r y was "th e f i r s t one of i t s c l a s s " in the R epub lic o f Mexico. I t m anufactured tw e n ty - e ig h t t o t h i r t y d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s of l i q u o r s , l i q u e u r s , and s p i r i t s , "which f o r p u r i t y and good f la v o r cannot be e x c e l l e d . " A f i f t y by one hundred f e e t storero om was sto c k e d w ith th e p ro d u c ts of th e p la c e , cognac, p o r t , s h e r r y , a n g e l i c a , verm outh, c h a tr e u s e , Damiana B i t t e r s , c o r d i a l s , and o t h e r s — a l l o f which found a rea d y market th ro u g h o u t S in a lo a , a t a l l p o i n t s on t h e P a c i f i c C oast, and i n Sonora. The e d i t o r s t a t e d t h a t "a com plete in v e n to r y of a l l ’La P r im a v e ra ’ c o n ta in s [ c o n ta in e d ] would ta k e more space than i s [was] a t our d i s p o s a l , " and c o n te n te d h im s e lf w ith a g e n e ra l p i c t u r e o f th e f a c t o r y . Over nin e hundred people were em ployed, in a d d i t i o n to fo u r hundred m ules and s i x t y wagons. The p l a n t a t i o n p o ss e s se d i t s own tramway, com plete w ith one hundred f l a t c a r s f o r c a r r y in g sugar cane to the m i l l s . The m i l l s th em se lv e s had a c a p a c ity of 1,200,000 pounds of cane d a i l y , and th e c a n e , once i t was crush ed , 64 s e r v e d a s f u e l . The s u g a r m i l l ’ s e q u ip m en t i n c lu d e d tw e lv e b o i l e r s o f a th o u s a n d h o rse p o w e r e a c h , m achine and b l a c k s m ith s h o p s , two a l c o h o l d i s t i l l e r i e s , a c o m p lete e l e c t r i c p l a n t f o r l i g h t i n g th e f a c t o r y , and th e n e a r b y town of N a v o la to , a m achine f o r making cube s u g a r , w ith a d a i l y c a p a c i t y of t e n t o n s , a new d i s t i l l e r y b u i l d i n g o f b r i c k and i r o n , t h r e e s t o r i e s h i g h , and t h r e e h u n d red h o u se s f o r em p l o y e e s of t h e m i l l s . The town of N a v o la to , b u i l t by th e company, was " l a i d o u t p e r f e c t l y , and w ould a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n a n y w h e re .” An avenue one h u n d red f e e t w ide and o v e r a m ile i n l e n g t h , f l a n k e d by palm s and b a n a n a t r e e s , d i v i d e d i t ; th e b l o c k s w ere t h r e e h u n d red f e e t on e a c h s i d e . The v a lu e o f t h e s e b l o c k s had gone up f a n t a s t i c a l l y . F ive y e a r s a g o , th e y c o u ld have b e e n b o u g h t f o r t e n d o l l a r s a p i e c e ; t h e y were now w o rth s e v e n h u n d red d o l l a r s , w hich would g iv e th e r e a d e r an i d e a o f t h e p r o g r e s s and e n t e r p r i s e goin g on i n N a v o la to . T h ere was a l s o an o r c h a r d , w i t h two th o u sa n d o ra n g e t r e e s , two h u n d red f i g t r e e s , and t h i r t y th o u sa n d b a n a n a t r e e s , a l l b e a r i n g f r u i t , b e s i d e s o t h e r f r u i t t r e e s su ch a s th e mango, g u a v a , and plum . S p e ak in g from a p u r e l y t o p o g r a p h i c a l p o i n t of view , N a v o la to o c c u p ie d a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n f o r p ro d u c in g s u g a r th a n H o n o lu lu or Cuba and c o u ld s e l l su g a r more c h e a p ly to t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s th a n any o t h e r a r e a i n th e w o r ld . T h is was due t o e c o n o m ic a l p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s , a low f r e i g h t r a t e from N a v o la to t o San F r a n c i s c o ($3.00 p e r t o n ) , and to th e f a c t 65 t h a t th e e x p e n se s i n Mexico w ere i n s i l v e r , w h ile th e s a l e s e ls e w h e re were i n g o ld . W ith a l l o f i t s la n d s u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n , N a v o la to c o u ld have pro d u ced from f o r t y t o f i f t y th o u sa n d to n s o f s u g a r d u r in g eac h s e a s o n , a t ” an i n s i g n i f i c a n t c o s t ” i n s i l v e r , and c o u ld have e x p o rte d t h a t su g ar and s o ld i t f o r g o ld . The la n d s were a l r e a d y c l e a r e d and fenced, and, w i t h e v e r y t h in g i n c o r r e c t o r d e r , ” an enorm ous p r o f i t ” co u ld have b een made i n su g a r i n exchange f o r a m ino r o u t l a y of money. S o u th w o rth b e l i e v e d t h a t , w ere a l l o f th e a v a i l a b l e la n d s u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n , th e r e s u l t i n g s u g a r p r o d u c t i o n would have u n d o u b te d ly r e s u l t e d i n " g i v in g th e d e a th - b lo w to th e su g a r t r u s t i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , ” s u r e l y an a t t r a c t i v e argum ent f o r p r o s p e c t i v e su g a r i n v e s t o r s . At t h e p r e s e n t tim e , th e e n t i r e o u tp u t o f th e f a c t o r y was e a s i l y d is p o s e d of i n S i n a lo a i t s e l f and th e n e a r b y s t a t e s o f S o n o ra , D uran go, C h ih u ah u a, and th e t e r r i t o r y o f Lower C a l i f o r n i a , as w e l l a s o t h e r p o i n t s on th e P a c i f i c C o a s t. The p r o f i t on t h e s e s a l e s in th e m s e lv e s was enough to r u n a p l a n t w ith an a n n u a l c a p a c i t y of f o r t y t o f i f t y th o u sa n d to n s o f s u g a r . The p r o p r i e t o r s of th e huge e n t e r p r i s e , J e s u s and J o rg e Alm ada, had by now i n v e s t e d more th a n two m i l l i o n d o l l a r s i n i t . They had n o t s p a re d e x p e n se s i n o r d e r to im prove th e b u s i n e s s , h a v in g s p e n t l a r g e amounts on i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s and o t h e r u n d e r t a k i n g s . T o g e t h e r , t h e s e im prove m ents had r e s u l t e d i n making t h e i r p r o p e r t y ” th e m ost 66 advanced o f i t s k ind i n S i n o l o a ." Five y e a rs b e f o r e , Navo l a t o was n o th in g b u t a w i l d e r n e s s . Today, th ro u g h the c e a s e l e s s e n t e r p r i s e and en erg y of the Almada b r o t h e r s , i t had a p o p u la tio n of over two th o u sa n d , and th e la n d s which surro u n d ed i t were i n a h ig h ly p ro d u c tiv e c o n d it i o n . In case anyone doubted th e e n t e r p r i s e and f o r e s i g h t o f th e Almada b r o t h e r s , S outhw orth c i t e d one exam ple. In 1896, when corn was w orth f i f t y c e n ts a b u s h e l th ro u g h o u t the c o u n tr y , "La P rim av e ra" was s h o r t o f w o rk e rs. In ord er to a t t r a c t them, the p r o p r i e t o r s of the f a c t o r y a d v e r t is e d t h a t th ey would s e l l c o rn a t h a l f the going p r i c e . The r e s u l t was a f u l l la b o r crew w i t h in te n days of the b r o a d c a s t ing of the announcem ent. The b r o t h e r s were p u b l i c - s p i r i t e d , re a d y to g e n e ro u sly su p p o rt w hatever would advance th e i n t e r e s t s of S in a lo a . To such men as t h e s e , Mexico owed her 60 p r e s e n t p r o s p e r i t y and looked to "h er f u t u r e g r e a t n e s s . " Southw orth devo ted s e v e r a l pages to the p o r t and a re a of M a z a tla n . P rom inent among th e b u s in e s s e s i n the c i t y was t h a t of th e "F u n d ic io n de S in a lo a " (The S in a lo a F ou ndry). In f a c t , i f any i n d u s t r i a l e s ta b lis h m e n t in a l l S in a lo a d e se rv e d t o be v i s i t e d by the c u r i o u s , i t was t h i s one. The p r e s s had f r e q u e n t l y c e l e b r a t e d th o se modern shops w hich s u p p lie d alm o st a l l of the m ines of the i n t e r i o r of th e Mexican R e p u b lic w ith m ach in ery , and i t s c i t i e s w ith 6°Ibid., pp. 43-7. 67 u s e f u l o b j e c t s f o r s c h o o l s , f u r n i t u r e , and o t h e r a c c e s s o r ie s . The " F u n d ic io n de S i n a l o a ” com peted w ith any i n Mexico and was v e ry l i t t l e i n f e r i o r t o the m o st fam ous f o u n d r i e s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . The f i r m d a t e d back to 1862, when i t was founded by F r a n c i s c o L o u b e t, f a t h e r o f th e p r e s e n t m a n a g er, A le ja n d r o L o u b e t. The f o u n d e r la c k e d money, b u t he d id have e x p e r i ence i n th e b u s i n e s s . The ’’F u n d ic io n de S i n a l o a " e n jo y e d th e d i s t i n c t i o n of b e in g th e f i r s t b u s i n e s s of i t s k in d i n th e s t a t e . S in c e M a z a tla n was i n th o s e d a y s c o n s id e r e d th e c e n t e r o f S i n a l o a , L o u b et fo un ded h i s b u s i n e s s t h e r e . F iv e y e a r s p a s s e d , and t h e f i r m a c q u i r e d a new ow ner, J o a q u in Redo, p r e s e n t l y a s e n a t o r , who managed i t u n t i l 1883. In th e b e g in n in g o f th e l a t t e r y e a r , h a v in g made e v e r y e f f o r t to b u i l d up th e f i r m , he p a s s e d i t a lo n g to F e r r e i r a y C i a . About t h i s tim e A l e ja n d r o L o u b e t, so n o f th e f o u n d e r , was r e t u r n i n g home a f t e r t e n y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n i n F r a n c e . I n 1881, th e y e a r a f t e r h i s r e t u r n , he w ent t o San F r a n c i s c o , w here he w orked i n th e " F u l t o n I r o n W o rk s ,” an e d u c a t i o n w hich was t o be u s e f u l and c o n t r i b u t e t o th e p r o g r e s s o f M exico. A l e j a n d r o L o u b et became m anager o f th e b u s i n e s s when V ic e n te F e r r e i r a , head o f th e f o u n d r y , p e r i s h e d in th e w reck o f th e s te a m e r S o n o r a . L o u bet was a p r a c t i c a l man, s k i l l e d in a l l b r a n c h e s of m e c h a n ic a l e n g i n e e r i n g . One c o u ld have c o n fid e n c e i n him; th e w orks e x e c u te d by him p ro v ed t h a t . 68 He c o n tin u e d t h e work whose f o u n d a t i o n s had b een e s t a b l i s h e d b y h i s f a t h e r , a n d , a l t h o u g h s t i l l a young man, form ed a p o w e r fu l c o r p o r a t i o n i n 1896, b e c a u se o f t h e e x p a n s io n of th e b u s i n e s s up t o t h a t p o i n t . F r a n c i s c o E c h e g u re n Hermanos y S o b rin o s w ere th e l a r g e s t s t o c k h o l d e r s , L ou bet becom ing G e n e r a l M anager. From humble b e g in n i n g s i n a s i n g l e b u i l d i n g , th e company had expanded y e a r by y e a r , now o c cu p y in g a lm o s t two s q u a re b l o c k s , e i g h t y - t w o th o u s a n d s q u a r e f e e t . Under A l e ja n d r o L o u b e t, new b u i l d i n g s had b e e n e r e c t e d , th e o ld ones w ere re m o d e le d , and th e l a t e s t m a c h in e ry was i n s t a l l e d . T h is e x p a n s io n was a r e f l e c t i o n of th e m e c h a n ic a l s k i l l s of th e m an ag er, and th e o p p o s i t e s i d e o f th e c o i n w a s, of c o u r s e , t h a t ” th e b u s i n e s s w ent ah ead w i t h g i g a n t i c s t r i d e s . tr The m a c h in e ry o f th e f o u n d r y a lo n e was v a lu e d a t •‘over $ 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 .” The v a r i o u s e n t e r p r i s e s o f th e f i r m gave em ploym ent t o 150 s k i l l e d w o r k e r s , w i t h w ages r a n g in g from t h r e e t o f o u r d o l l a r s a d a y . S e v e r a l a p p r e n t i c e s w ere a l s o e m ployed. The company demanded t h a t a l l e m p lo y ees be a b le t o r e a d , w r i t e , and do a r i t h m e t i c . The im p o r ta n c e of th e f i r m was m a n i f e s te d i n th e f a c t t h a t “ a lm o s t a l l th e m ines i n th e i n t e r i o r o f th e R e p u b lic ” w ere e q u ip p e d by i t . M ore o v e r , many of th e s c h o o ls w ere f u r n i s h e d b y i t , s c h o o l f u r n i t u r e b e in g one o f t h i s f i r m * s s p e c i a l t i e s . T h is was mod e l e d on th e ty p e c u r r e n t i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , a l t h o u g h i t 69 was a c t u a l l y b e t t e r , s in c e th e woods u sed were of h i g h e r q u a l i t y . The iro n w o rk was p e rh a p s somewhat b e t t e r , t o o . The c o r p o r a t i o n s u p p lie d s e v e r a l f ir m s i n th e a re a w ith e q u ip m e n t, i n c l u d i n g t h e "Compania M inera d e l T a jo " (consum ing h a l f a m i l l i o n pounds o f i r o n p r o d u c ts from the company e a c h y e a r ) , "Compania M inera de V e n ta n a s ," "Compania M inera La C a n d e l a r i a , " "Compania M inera San L u i s , " and the su g a r m i l l s of " N o v a to ," " E l A g u i l a , " "La F l o r i d a , " "La A u t r a r a " and o t h e r s i n T e p ic , C olim a, C h ia p a s, and B a ja C a l i f o r n i a . F i n a l l y , th e fo u n d ry s u p p l i e d m ost of th e ma c h in e r y t o , and d id a l l r e p a i r s f o r , t w e n t y - f i v e a d d i t i o n a l m in e s, s c a t t e r e d a l l th e way from S i n a l o a to N ic a ra g u a . I n c o n c l u s i o n , " th e work o f th e company, i n a l l i t s b r a n c h e s , s ta n d s [ s t o o d ] w i t h o u t a p e e r . " Once a r a i l r o a d had been com pleted t o M a z a tla n , th e t r a d e of th e company, w hich was now drawn from S i n a l o a , C h ih u ah u a, D urango, J a l i s c o , S ono ra, C o lim a, C h ia p a s , "and many C e n t r a l A m erican c i t i e s , " was s u r e t o i n c r e a s e g r e a t l y . ^ M a z a tla n a l s o b o a s te d a b re w e ry , t h a t o f J a c o b Lang. T h is c o n c e rn had b een s t a r t e d on a m odest s c a l e i n 1882, b u t grow th was r a p i d , s i n c e th e c i t i z e n s "were n o t slow t o r e a l i z e t h a t th e p r o d u c t of th e b re w e ry was of th e h i g h e s t q u a l i t y . " Each p a s s i n g y e a r saw a "marked i n c r e a s e " i n th e demand f o r Lang*s b e e r , u n t i l th e o r i g i n a l q u a r t e r s o f th e ^Ibid. , pp. 84-6. 70 brew ery became to o s m a ll and th e f a c t o r y had to be e n la r g e d . At th e tim e of w r i t i n g , the p rem ise s covered an e n t i r e c i t y b lo c k , and the equipm ent of the brew ery was " th e most modern and com plete" o b t a i n a b l e . S e v e ra l s k i l l e d w o rk e rs found em ploym ent t h e r e . The b re w e ry 1s p r o d u c ts , la g e r b e e r , a l e , and p o r t e r , were so ld th ro u g h o u t S in a lo a and Durango. Lang h im s e lf was a n a t i v e of Germany, where he le a r n e d to brew b e e r . At th e age o f f i f t e e n he was a p p re n t i c e d t o the b u s i n e s s , and had fo llo w e d i t ever s i n c e . S ince comiirg ~to M a za tla n he had " i d e n t i f i e d h im s e lf w ith the c i t y ’s i n t e r e s t s and i s [was] to - d a y w e ll known and much e s teem ed ." He had l a t e l y been c u l t i v a t i n g g rap e s on h i s ranch n e a r M a zatlan , s in c e he hoped t o expand h i s p r o d u c tio n i n t o 62 w in e s. Southw orth c o n tin u e d to d e s c r i b e m a n u fa c tu rin g in S in a lo a alm ost i n d e f i n i t e l y . I have covered o n ly the high p o in ts of h is s tu d y , p a s s a g e s which i l l u s t r a t e d th e combina t i o n o f c i v i c p r i d e , p rop ag anda, and smugness u n d e r ly in g th e e n t i r e p u b l i c a t i o n . Two y e a rs a f t e r th e p u b l i c a t i o n of S o u th w o rth ’ s book, Mexico: A G e o g ra p h ic a l S k e tch a p p e a re d . T h is book was an e a r l y p ro d u c t of th e Bureau of the Am erican Repub l i c s , a n c e s to r o f the p r e s e n t Pan-Am erican U nion. I t was p u b lis h e d in W ashington by th e Government P r i n t i n g O ff ic e in 62Ibid., pp. 98-9. 71 1900. I was u n a b le t o u n c o v e r th e p e r s o n or p e r s o n s r e s p o n s ib l e f o r th e b o o k , or th e r e a s o n f o r i t s f a v o r a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r P o r f i r i o D ia z . I n r e g a rd t o th e l a t t e r p ro b le m , a r e a s o n a b l e c o n j e c t u r e would be t h a t , s i n c e th e B u r e a u ’ s m ajor f u n c t i o n a t t h i s tim e was to prom ote t r a d e b e tw e e n th e A m erican r e p u b l i c s , i t would be i n c l i n e d to p a i n t econom ic c o n d i t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g th o s e p e r t a i n i n g t o m a n u f a c t u r in g , i n r o s y h u e s in o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e i n t e r e s t , t r a d e , and b u s i n e s s . ‘ W hatever t h e r e a s o n s , th e a c c o u n t o f th e B ureau was a f a v o r a b l e one. S p e a k in g g e n e r a l l y on th e s u b j e c t o f m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D ia z , th e B ureau s t a t e d t h a t th e c o n s t r u c t i o n of r a i l r o a d s and th e i n f l u x o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l , a t t r a c t e d by th e D iaz g o v e rn m e n t, had c o n t r i b u t e d t o th e " i n d u s t r i a l aw aken- 6 3 in g " of M exico. I t e m p h asized th e e f f o r t s made by t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o a t t r a c t m a n u f a c t u r e r s , s a y in g t h a t a " p r o g r e s s i v e Government [ D i a z ’ s i " had done e v e r y t h i n g p o s s i b l e to f o s t e r home m a n u f a c t u r in g . I t had o f f e r e d g r e a t i n d u c e m ents to f o r e i g n e n t r e p r e n e u r s i n o r d e r to coax them t o come 64 to M exico and e s t a b l i s h f a c t o r i e s . T h is a c t i v i t y on th e p a r t o f D iaz gov ernm ent was a p p a r e n t l y s u c c e s s f u l , f o r th e B ureau n o te d t h a t " v e r y l a r g e am ounts o f c a p i t a l have [had] M exico: A G e o g r a p h ic a l S k e tc h . . . , Bureau o f th e A m erican R e p u b lic s (. Wa s n in g T o n : 190CU , p 7 220. 64Ibid., p. 214. 72 b e en i n v e s t e d i n m a n u f a c t u r i e s and i n d u s t r i e s " i n Mexico s i n c e 1897- The r e s u l t was t h a t , by 1900, m a n u f a c tu r in g was b e g in n in g t o be e n c o u n t e r e d i n M ex ico . Only r e c e n t l y , i t had b e e n o f p r a c t i c a l l y no i m p o r t a n c e . Mexico now m an u fac tu r e d a r t i c l e s w hich i t had im p o rte d o n ly a few y e a r s b e - f o r e . 65 From g e n e r a l i t i e s th e r e p o r t o f th e B ureau w ent i n t o d e t a i l . For e x a m p le , i t r e p o r t e d t h a t th e g o vern m ent had been making e f f o r t s to expand t h e w ine i n d u s t r y s i n c e 1883. As a r e s u l t , " g r e a t s t r i d e s " fo r w a r d had b e e n made s in c e 1890, and s e v e r a l v i n t n e r s were now u s in g th e m ost m odern 6 6 e q u ip m en t a v a i l a b l e . T obacco p r o d u c t i o n had a l s o e x p a n d ed . The B ureau c i t e d e x p o r t s i n 1887-1888 a s 7 6 4 ,1 2 1 k i l o gram s, i n c r e a s i n g to 1 ,7 7 0 ,1 3 5 k i l o g r a m s f o r th e 1896-1897 f i s c a l y e a r . T h e s e ~ f i g u r e s i n c l u d e d b o th l e a f to b a c c o and th e m a n u fa c tu re d p r o d u c t , a l t h o u g h th e t o t a l f i g u r e s were f\*7 n o t b ro k e n down i n t h i s r e p o r t . I n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f 1897, th e D iaz reg im e e n t e r e d i n t o two c o n t r a c t s f o r th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p a c k in g h o u s e s , w hich w ere e x p e c te d t o " g iv e g r e a t im p e tu s " to th e c a t t l e i n d u s t r y . R ubber f a c t o r i e s w ere " s p r i n g i n g u p ," and A m eri can s had r e c e n t l y b e e n g r a n te d c o n c e s s i o n s i n N uevo“Leon t o e s t a b l i s h a f a c t o r y t o make p e rfu m e , v i n e g a r , and o t h e r 65Ibid., pp. 204-5. 67Ibid., p. 155. 66Ibid., pp. 168-9. 73 c o m m o d ities. A n o th e r c o n c e s s io n was r e c e n t l y g r a n te d t o e s t a b l i s h a f l o u r m i l l in th e same s t a t e . A l l o f th e s e l a t t e r 6 8 i n d u s t r i e s would c e n t e r i n M o n te rre y . As one exam ple o f th e grow th o f m a n u fa c tu r in g under D ia z , th e r e p o r t c i t e d th e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y . S i l k m anu fac t u r i n g was u n d e rg o in g a r e v i v a l d u rin g th e l a s t y e a r s o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . A number o f t e x t i l e m i l l s f o r th e manu f a c t u r e o f m anta had a ls o r e c e n t l y b e en e s t a b l i s h e d . T h is a c t i v i t y e x te n d e d t o c o t t o n and p r i n t m i l l s i n g e n e r a l , and th e number o f f a c t o r i e s so engaged had i n c r e a s e d from 101 d u r in g th e 1895-1896 f i s c a l y e a r to 130 i n 1900, th e y e a r o f 69 th e r e p o r t . T u rn in g to o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s , th e Bureau commented on s e v e r a l f a c t o r i e s f o r e x t r a c t i n g o i l from c o t t o n s e e d s . The l a r g e s t o f t h e s e was e s t a b l i s h e d in 1887 and had a c a p a c i t y o f one h u n d red to n s d a i l y a t th e tim e o f w r i t i n g . The p ro d u c t e x t r a c t e d from th e c o tt o n s e e d was p r i m a r i l y u sed i n the _ 70 m a n u fa c tu re o f so a p . I t was e x p e c te d t h a t th e p a p e r - m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r y would be expanded i n th e n o t to o d i s t a n t f u t u r e , s in c e t h e l e g i s l a t u r e o f th e s t a t e of Mexico had, on Ju n e 3, 1899, g r a n t e d a c o n c e s s io n to make p a p e r from maguey f i b e r to a c o r p o r a t i o n known as UE1 P r o g r e s o I n d u s t r i a l . " Terms o f th e c o n c e s s io n i n c lu d e d th e exem ption 68Ibid.t p. 214. 70Ibid., p. 212. 69Ibid., pp. 205-7. 74 of th e company from s t a t e t a x e s f o r t e n y e a r s and o t h e r ad v a n ta g e s .* ^ Two y e a r s b e f o r e , th e D epartm ent o f Fomento had made a n o th e r c o n t r a c t w i t h a c a p i t a l i s t f o r th e m a n u fa c tu re o f e x p l o s i v e s . F i n a l l y , s m e ltin g and r e d u c t i o n works were 72 " s p r i n g i n g up th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n t r y . " O v e r a l l e x p o r t s of m a n u fa c tu re d goods ro s e from a v a lu e of 1 ,9 0 9 ,7 6 1 p e s o s in 1897-1898 t o 2 ,6 1 5 ,7 6 8 p e s o s i n 1 8 9 8 -1 8 9 9 .73 By 1900 th e D iaz governm ent had d e c id e d to e s t a b l i s h s e v e r a l o th e r m a n u fa c tu rin g p l a n t s , i n c l u d i n g one fo r condensed m ilk , one f o r i r o n s a f e s , one f o r b i c y c l e s and t y p e w r i t e r s , and one f o r e l a b o r a t i n g h e n e q u e n , t h i s l a s t to be lo c a te d somewhere i n Y u c a ta n . R eview ing M exican m an ufac t u r e s as th e y now s to o d , th e Bureau of th e A m erican Repub l i c s was a b le to w r i t e t h a t "an e r a of peace and p r o s p e r i t y 7 A has [had] daw n ed ." Much th e same s o r t of i m p r e s s io n i s a f f o r d e d b y Mexico as I Saw I t , p u b l is h e d two y e a r s l a t e r . The p e rs o n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n was an E n g lis h l a d y w ith th e u n l i k e l y name of E t h e l B r i l l i a n a T w eedie. M rs. Tweedie r e c e i v e d h er e d u c a ti o n a t Q ueenTs C o lle g e , i n London, and i n Germany. She d i v i d e d her tim e betw een s e r v i n g on v a r i o u s co m m ittees and t r a v e l i n g t o f a r - o f f c o r n e r s o f th e w orld and th e n w r i t i n g a b o u t them. She s e rv e d on th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o u n c il o f Women i n 1899 and on 71Ibid., p. 208. 73Ibid., p. 224. 70 Ibid., pp. 213-14. 74 Ibid., p. 214. 75 many c h a r i t a b l e and p h i l a n t h r o p i c c o m m itte e s, r e c e i v i n g th e th a n k s of the I t a l i a n governm ent f o r her a id to th e v ic tim s o f th e S i c i l i a n e a rth q u a k e in 1912. She was a ls o L i f e - G overnor of U n i v e r s i t y C o lle g e H o s p i t a l and S t . M ary’ s Hos p i t a l , b o th lo c a te d i n London, h e r p la c e of r e s i d e n c e . Her books in c lu d e d Mexico as I Saw I t , The Maker o f Modern Mex i c o : P o r f i r i o Diaz (1 9 0 6 ), T h ir t e e n Y ears o f a Busy Woman’s 75 L if e (1 9 1 2 ), and M exico, from Diaz to th e K a is e r (1 9 1 7 ). She d ie d i n 1940. Mexico as I Saw I t was th e r e s u l t of a t r i p to Mex i c o made by th e a u th o r i n 1900. She s p e n t s i x m onths t h e r e , and a p p a r e n t l y en jo y ed i t im m ensely. D iaz a id e d h e r when e v e r she w andered i n t o p o t e n t i a l l y d an g ero u s t e r r i t o r y . He was alw ays t h e r e w ith an e s c o r t of s o l d i e r s f o r h er p r o t e c t i o n , and h er p a r t y was o f t e n augmented by ’’o f f i c i a l s , mem b e r s of th e S e n a te , e n g in e e r s , and f r i e n d s who s e i z e d an op p o r t u n i t y to e x p lo re the c o u n t r y . " Mrs. Tweedie adm ired D iaz tr e m e n d o u s ly .7^ D i a z ’ s a id to M rs. T w e e d ie ’ s w a n d erin g s and h er a d m i r a t i o n f o r him m ig h t, in my ju dg m en t, have e x p la in e d why so much of her book was f a v o r a b le to him, i n c l u d i n g th e a s p e c t examined h e r e . Her a d m ir a tio n f o r Diaz was e v id e n c e d 75Who’ s Who, 1940, pp. 32, 35. 7 f \ — M rs. A lec-T w eedie [p s e u d , o f E t h e l B r i l l i a n a T w ee d ie], The Maker of Modern M exico: P o r f i r i o Diaz (New Y ork: John Lane Company, 1906), P- v i i i . 76 by th e t i t l e o f her seconcVvwork on M exico, The Maker of Modern M exico: P o r f i r i o D ia z . F i n a l l y , t h e r e was a n o th e r p o s s i b l e r e a s o n f o r th e fav o r tow ard Diaz and h i s c o u n tr y e x h i b i t e d i n Mexico a s I Saw I t , i n th e a l l e g a t i o n s made by Henry B a e r l e i n . B a e r l e i n w rote and p u b lis h e d a book in 1913 c a l l e d M exico, th e Land of U n r e s t , i n w hich he a ll e g e d t h a t Diaz s u b s id i z e d Mexico as I Saw I t , h i n t i n g t h a t th e same 77 h e ld t r u e f o r The Maker o f Modern M exicot P o r f i r i o D i a z . I f th e s e c h a rg e s were t r u e , t h e y would c e r t a i n l y have e x p l a i n e d why M rs. Tweedie w rote th e way she d i d . I doubt t h i s , how ever, p r i m a r i l y because th e f a c t s w hich I o b ta in e d r e g a r d in g her l i f e sim p ly did n o t seem to a llo w f o r any a c t i v i t y of t h i s ty p e . T h at she was n a iv e or m isin fo rm e d , I b e l i e v e p o s s i b l e , b u t t h a t she was v e n a l , I do n o t . Mrs. T w ee d ie f s a cco u n t o f m a n u fa c tu rin g in Mexico as I Saw I t was s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t th e book. She spoke o f Mexico as b e in g a la n d of " e n d l e s s s o u rc e s o f - d e v e lo p m e n t,” w ith th e Diaz governm ent doing a l l i t c o u ld to h e lp . F o r e ig n owned shops were p r o f i t a b l e , s in c e " p r a c t i c a l l y e v e r y th in g " was s t i l l im p o rte d , due to a la c k o f home m a n u fa c to r i e s . T h is s i t u a t i o n had o b ta in e d u n t i l r e c e n t l y . At th e p r e s e n t tim e , i t was c h an g in g . C o tto n was b e in g spun and made i n t o s h i r t i n g . B ric k s w ere b ein g m a n u fa c tu re d , "and 77 'H enry B a e r l e i n , M exico, th e Land of U n re s t ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J . B. L i p p i n c o t t Company L1913J,), p. 410. 77 here and th e r e eac h [m a n u fa c tu rin g ] tr a d e i s [w as] f in d in g a 78 p io n e e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . ” T h is f a c t was i l l u s t r a t e d by the i n c r e a s e i n im p o rts of coke and c o a l . I n 1898 th e s e amount ed to 597,892 t o n s , as a g a i n s t 886,637 to n s in 1899. A p o r t i o n of the i n c r e a s e was a cc o u n ted f o r by th e many new in - 79 d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s of th e R e p u b lic . The g r e a t in d u s t r i e s of th e R e p u b lic were p r a c t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by Anglo- 80 Saxons a t t h i s p o i n t . The a u th o r d ev o ted some space to a coverage of the sugar i n d u s t r y . She saw i t as b e in g in a p e rio d of m oderni z a t i o n . Modern m achinery was coming i n t o use ”a l l throu gh M exico, and a t m ost of th e h a c ie n d a s th e old system i s [was] 81 b e in g aban d o n ed .” She concluded w ith t h a t im p re s s io n . Three y e a rs l a t e r saw th e p u b l i c a t i o n of a much more extend ed coverage of Mexican m a n u fa c tu rin g th a n t h a t a p p e a r- ing in Mexico as I Saw I t , i n Commercial Mexico i n 1905, i s sued by th e U n ited S t a t e s D epartm ent of Commerce and L abor. No a p p a re n t a u th o r e x i s t e d f o r t h i s book, b u t t h a t p o r t i o n of i n t e r e s t h ere c o n s i s t e d of r e p o r t s of v a r i o u s U nited S t a t e s c o n s u la r a g e n ts i n M exico. These e x te n d e d from l a t e 1902 to 1905, and th e a u th o r s were named. They f r e q u e n t l y 78M rs. A lec-T w eedie [p se u d , o f E t h e l B r i l l i a n a T w eedie], Mexico a s I Saw I t (2nd e d . ; New York: The M acm illan Company, 19 0 2 ;, p. 230. 79Ibid., p. 454. 80Ibid., pp. 84-5. 81Ibid., p. 304. 78 in c l u d e d f a v o r a b l e p i c t u r e s o f d e v e lo p m e n ts i n m a n u f a c tu r in g d u r i n g th e p e r i o d . W ith su ch a s e r i e s o f r e p o r t s by so many r a t h e r o b sc u re a u t h o r s , i t was i m p o s s i b l e t o show c l e a r mo t i v a t i o n l e a d i n g to f a v o r a b l e r e p o r t s f o r e a c h o f them . C overage o f t h e s e r e p o r t s w i l l f o l lo w a c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e , b e g in n in g w i t h th e e a r l i e s t r e p o r t , by C o n su l G e n er a l B arlow . In h i s r e p o r t from M exico C i t y o f O c to b e r 29 , 1902, B arlow r e f e r r e d t o th e " g r e a t i n d u s t r i a l p r o g r e s s w hich i t [M exico] h a s [h a d ] made d u r i n g th e p a s t t w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s . " He b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s i n c r e a s e was due l a r g e l y to th e g r e a t g ro w th in M e x ic o ’ s w o rk in g c a p i t a l from U n ite d S t a t e s i n v e s t m e n t, e n c o u ra g e d by th e D iaz g o v e rn m e n t. M a n u f a c tu rin g was s t i l l i n an e a r l y s t a g e , t o be s u r e , b u t i t was i n a h e a l t h y o n e, and th e D iaz regim e was making e x c e l l e n t e f f o r t s to f o s t e r i t . B arlow added t h a t new f a c t o r i e s b o a s t in g l a r g e i n v e r s i o n s o f U n ite d S t a t e s c a p i t a l were j u s t s t a r t i n g or i n th e c o u rs e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a t th e tim e o f h i s w r i t i n g , c i t i n g th e new i r o n and s t e e l w orks a t M o n te rre y as - 82 one e x am p le . D u rin g 1903, D eputy C o n su l G e n e r a l R o b e rts o n of Mon t e r r e y n o te d th e d e v elo p m e n t o f a new i r o n and s t e e l i n d u s t r y i n t h a t a r e a . At th e tim e o f h i s w r i t i n g , M o n te rre y had O p C om m ercial M exico i n 1905, U. S. D ep artm en t o f Commerce and L a b o r, 'Bureau of S t a t i s t i c s (W a sh in g to n : 1 9 0 5 ), pp . 2 8 1 8 -1 9 . 79 j u s t e n t e r e d i t s m a n u f a c tu r in g s t a g e . I t s f u t u r e in t h i s a r e a o f e n d ea v o r loo ked e x tre m e ly p r o m is in g . "The M o n te rre y I r o n and S t e e l F oundry" had j u s t co m pleted i t s new p l a n t , " t h e l a r g e s t and most im p o r ta n t m a n u fa c tu rin g e n t e r p r i s e i n th e R e p u b lic of M e x ic o ." I t had c o m p le te ly modern m ac h in e ry and a c a p i t a l i z a t i o n o f te n m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . The f i r s t s t e e l e v e r prod uced i n th e R e p u b lic came from t h i s p l a n t on th e t h i r d o f J u l y , 1 9 0 3 .83 D uring th e f o llo w in g y e a r , a r e p o r t by C onsul G e n er a l Hanna a t M o n te rre y spoke o f th e g e n e r a l d ev elo p m en t of m a n u fa c tu rin g d u r i n g th e p e r io d in a v e ry f a v o r a b l e t o n e . Mexico was now making a r e a l e f f o r t to g e t m a n u f a c tu r in g c o n c e rn s , and t h i s b id was p ro d u c in g r e s u l t s . L arge f a c t o r i e s were b e in g b u i l t " i n e v e ry p a r t o f th e R e p u b l i c ." D i a z ’ s governm ent was h e lp i n g by e n a c t i n g p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s . The new t a r i f f o f A p r i l , 1904, was e s p e c i a l l y b e n e f i c i a l t o th e new M exican i r o n and s t e e l i n d u s t r i e s . Hundreds o f th o u s a n d s of f o r m e r ly unemployed p e o p le were now w o rk in g , h aving found jo b s in th e new m i l l s and f a c t o r i e s . The l a t t e r were pay in g d i v id e n d s t o i n v e s t o r s and i n c r e a s e d wages to l a b o r e r s . Hanna c o n c lu d e d by s t a t i n g t h a t i n d u s t r i a l c o n c e r n s , m a n u fa c tu rin g n e a r l y e v e r y k in d of a r t i c l e , w ere p r e s e n t l y s p r i n g i n g up i n M exico. He demon s t r a t e d g r e a t optim ism about M e x ico ’s m a n u f a c tu rin g i n th e 83Ibid., p. 2870. 80 f u t u r e , b e l i e v i n g t h a t Mexican m a n u fa c tu rin g would s h o r t l y be a b le t o s u p p ly th e n eed s o f ev ery o n e l i v i n g i n Mexico i t s e l f , and would p ro v id e th e p e o p le s o f C e n t r a l and S o u th A m erica, E u ro p e , and th e West I n d i e s w ith ,fa l l s o r t s ” o f 84 m a n u fa c tu re d goods as w e l l . S e v e r a l i n t e r e s t i n g r e p o r t s f o r 1905 were in c lu d e d i n t h i s book . C onsul M a r tin , w r i t i n g from C uidad P o r f i r i o D iaz C P ie d ra s N e g r a s ) , m en tio n ed th e p r o t e c t i v e p o l i c y of th e D iaz regim e i n r e g a r d to ” th e s e v e r a l i n d u s t r i e s grow ing up i n t h i s c o u n t r y . ” The i n t e n t o f t h i s p o l i c y was to g iv e th e new m a n u fa c tu r in g i n d u s t r i e s an o p p o r t u n i t y to grow and 85 + become th o r o u g h ly e s t a b l i s h e d . C o nsul K a is e r i n M a z a tla n a l l u d e d t o th e new dynam ite f a c t o r y i n T o rre o n . T h is p l a n t was e x p e c te d to e n t e r i n t o v ig o ro u s c o m p e ti t io n w ith th e U n ite d S t a t e s f a c t o r i e s w hich had f o r m e r ly c o n t r o l l e d th e m a rk e t i n d y n a m ite , so e s s e n t i a l to M e x ico Ts m ining a t t h i s 86 t i m e . One y e a r a f t e r th e a p p e a ra n c e of Com m ercial M exico i n 19 05, E t h e l B r i l l i a n a Tweedie p u b lis h e d th e second o f her bo o k s c o n ta in e d i n t h i s s tu d y , The Maker of Modern M exico: P o r f i r i o D i a z . The a u t h o r 1 s c o v e ra g e of m a n u f a c tu r in g under D ia z was lo n g e r th an t h a t found in Mexico a s I Saw I t . I t was a ls o somewhat more f a v o r a b l e t o th e s u b j e c t . In 84 Ibid., pp. 2789-90. o/i Ibid., p. 2852. 85Ibid., p. 2793. 81 a d d i t i o n to the p o s s i b l e re a s o n s advanced f o r th e f a v o r a b l e tone of her p re v io u s w ork, re a s o n s w hich m ight have b een e x p e c te d to have a p p lie d h ere as w e l l , t h e r e were s e v e r a l item s w hich, i n my judgm ent, could have i n f lu e n c e d th e tone of th e l a t e r w ork. For exam ple, D iaz h i m s e l f s u p p lie d the a u th o r w ith i n f o r m a tio n " d e m o n s tra tin g th e p r o g r e s s o f t h i s c o u n t r y ," as was s t a t e d in a t r a n s l a t i o n of a l e t t e r to her from Diaz d a te d November 23, 1904. The background o f t h i s l e t t e r was t h a t Mrs. Tweedie made a second t r i p to Mexico in t h a t y e a r , w ith th e i n t e n t i o n of w r i t i n g a b io g ra p h y of the old g e n e r a l . In f a c t , Diaz s e n t h e r a te le g ra m t h a t f a l l , when she was i n the U n ite d S t a t e s , i n v i t i n g h e r to M exico. She longed to w r i t e h i s b io g ra p h y , and one day f i n a l l y asked him f o r p e rm is s io n to do i t . At f i r s t he m o d e s tly s a id "N o," b u t th e p e r s u a s i o n o f h i s w ife was added to t h a t of Mrs. T w eedie, and he f i n a l l y a g re e d , even g oin g so f a r as to su p p ly her w ith in f o r m a tio n , as has j u s t b e e n se e n . The i n f o rm a tio n g iv e n was p a r t l y i n the form o f a t h r e e - c o r n e r e d c o n v e r s a t io n betw een D ia z , Mrs. T w eedie, and Mrs. D ia z , the l a t t e r a c t i n g a s t r a n s l a t o r i n t e c h n i c a l m a t t e r s c o v e re d . In a d d i t i o n , th e d i c t a t o r s u p p lie d Mrs. Tweedie w ith e x t r a c t s from h i s d i a r i e s , p e r s o n a l s t o r i e s of h i s l i f e , and "a mass o f f i g u r e s and f a c t s about Mexico t o w r i t e fr o m ." 87 The book r e s u l t i n g was w r i t t e n a f t e r th e a u th o r l e f t Mexico. Tweedie, Porfirio Diaz, pp. vii-ix. 82 W ith a l l due re g a r d to Mrs. T w eedie, Diaz was n o t as m odest as she b e l i e v e d . He had an eye f o r p u b l i c i t y and had a p a id p r e s s to s i n g h i s p r a i s e s , one^o f whose p u b l i c a t i o n s w i l l be d is c u s s e d s h o r t l y . In b r i e f , i n my jud gm ent, even i f th e c h a rg e s o f a su b s id y p a id to M rs. Tweedie by Diaz a re l e f t a s i d e , t h i s so u rc e of h e r in f o r m a ti o n m ight have e x p la in e d th e f a v o r a b l e n a tu r e of her work of 1906 r e g a r d in g D iaz and such a s p e c t s of h i s regim e a s m a n u f a c tu r in g . Speaking i n a g e n e r a l v e in c o n c e rn in g Diaz and man u f a c t u r i n g , M rs. Tweedie r e f e r r e d t o h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as o o b e in g famous f o r i t s i n d u s t r i a l d e v elo p m e n t. B efore an y one r e a l i z e d what was ta k in g p l a c e , D iaz was f o s t e r i n g new f a c t o r i e s to g iv e employment t o th e p e o p le . Developm ent in t h i s a r e a went on a t a " f e v e r i s h p a c e " ; y e t , i t was accompa- 89 n ie d by a "most r i g o r o u s economy in a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , " a d u a l i t y of c irc u m s ta n c e s p ro b a b ly d e s i r e d by e v e ry L a t in American c h i e f o f s t a t e s in c e D ia z . I n d u s t r i a l developm ent was th e b r i g h t f u t u r e which th e g e n e r a l fo re s a w f o r Mex- 90 i c o . In the o p in io n o f M rs. T w eedie, t h i s dream had been f u l f i l l e d by the tim e of h e r w r i t i n g . F a c t o r i e s were now to be found in a lm o st e v e ry town. M anchester goods, th e common c l o t h i n g of M exicoTs I n d i a n s , were now f a b r i c a t e d w i t h in th e c o u n tr y ; th e y were f o r m e r ly OO Ibid., pp. 391-2. 90Ibid., p. 331. 89Ibid., p. 281. 83 im p o rted . B la n k e ts and o th e r woolen goods from lo w est to h ig h e s t q u a l i t y were a ls o m an u factu red w i t h in M exico. The brewing in d u s t r y had seen a g r e a t e x p a n s io n . Beer from T oluca was r e p l a c i n g the E n g lis h and American b ra n d s fo rm e r ly consumed by the i n h a b i t a n t s , and th e e n t i r e a r t of brew ing was becoming a n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r y . B o t t l e s , h a b e rd a s h e r y , and hardw are were now b e in g m an u fa ctu red w i th in th e c o u n try as w e ll. Mrs. Tweedie b e li e v e d t h a t , i n a d d it i o n to D iaz, the f a l l i n th e p r i c e of s i l v e r had a g r e a t in f lu e n c e on t h i s i n c r e a s e in m a n u fa c tu rin g , because i n e f f e c t i t meant t h a t M exicans had to pay more th an p r e v io u s ly f o r the m anufac tu r e d goods w hich th e y im p o rte d . T h is in tu rn prompted them to b e g in t h e i r own m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s . Mrs. Tweedie concluded t h a t , under D ia z, a c o u n try w ith an e s s e n t i a l l y m ining base of a c t i v i t y was b eing tra n s fo rm e d i n t o M one 91 g r e a t hiv e of m an u factu re f o r home c o n su m p tio n .” I t has been n oted t h a t Diaz had a paid p r e s s to sp re ad th e word abo ut th e g l o r i e s of the New Era in Mexico. The n e x t book to be examined i n t h i s stu d y was a p ro d u c t of t h i s p r e s s , d a ti n g from 1907. I t was c a l l e d E th ic s in A c t i o n , and was su p p o sed ly w r i t t e n by "A S o ld ie r of th e Old G u a rd ." No a u t h o r ’ s name was g iven in th e book. The tru e a u th o r s were two f r i e n d s of Diaz from Oaxaca, Manuel 9lIbid., p. 334. 84 F ern an d ez O r t i g o s a and Manuel Romero I b a n e z . The book was 92 c i r c u l a t e d i n huge q u a n t i t i e s by th e D iaz g o v e rn m e n t. E t h i c s i n A c t io n was a e u l o g i s t i c b i o g r a p h y , and was a p p a r e n t l y w r i t t e n fo r E n g l i s h c o n su m p tio n , s i n c e i t em ployed an a n g l i c i z e d form o f s p e l l i n g . I f s o , i t was one o f th e most c l e v e r l y done p i e c e s o f p ro p ag a n d a w hich I have e v e r s e e n , c o n s i d e r i n g the y e a r o f i t s p u b l i c a t i o n . R e g a rd in g th e s u b j e c t o f t h i s p a p e r , F e rn a n d e z and Romero f i r s t d i s c u s s e d r e a s o n s f o r th e d e a r t h o f m a n u f a c t u r in g a c t i v i t y in M exico p r i o r to D ia z . They c i t e d th e g r e a t p r o p e r t y r i s k s , owing t o th e t u r b u l e n c e of th e p r e - D ia z p e r i o d , heavy t a x a t i o n , f o r c e d l o a n s , and no r e a l m a rk e t w i t h - 9 3 in M exico f o r m a n u fa c tu re d goods a s c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r s . T h is u n f o r t u n a t e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s im proved once D iaz to o k o f f i c e . A b a s i c f a c t o r i n t h i s im provem ent was th e c o n f i dence w hich c a p i t a l i s t s p la c e d i n him . I n d e e d , D i a z ’ s h ig h r e p u t a t i o n was th e o n ly g u a r a n te e f o r th e s a f e t y o f c a p i t a l w hich was s u f f i c i e n t t o a t t r a c t i t . The a u t h o r s e x p la in e d t h a t D i a z ’ s p ro gram f o r i n d u s t r y was tw o -p ro n g e d . One pron g Q p C a r l e t o n B e a l s , P o r f i r i o D ia z , D i c t a t o r o f Mexico ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J . B. L i p p i n c o t t , 1 9 3 2 ;, p . 290. B e a ls c i t e d th e book i n q u e s t i o n a s La M o ral en a c c i o n . An i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a t i s f i e d me t h a t i t was i d e n t i c a l w i t h E t h i c s in A c t i o n , e v en down to s e v e r a l p ages o f p h o to g ra p h s show ing D i a z ’ s m i l i t a r y d e c o r a t i o n s a t th e end o f th e bo ok. 93 A S o l d i e r o f th e O ld Guard [ p s u e d . of M anuel F e rn a n d e z O r t i g o s a and Manuel Romero I b a n e z ] , E t h i c s i n A c t io n (M exico: Im p r e n ta de H u l l , 1 9 0 7 ), pp. 9 6 - 7 . 85 was th e en co u rag em en t and s t i m u l a t i o n o f m a n u fa c tu rin g w hich a l r e a d y e x i s t e d b u t was i n a weakened c o n d i t i o n due to p r e v io u s t r o u b l e s . The o th e r was th e c r e a t i o n of new m an u fac t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s . T h is program was c a r r i e d on i n a sy ste m - 94 a t i c m anner. D urin g t h a t same y e a r , P e rc y F a lk e M a r tin b ro u g h t out a two-volume s tu d y o f Mexico i n th e l a t e r D iaz p e r i o d , Mexico of th e T w e n tie th C e n tu r y . M a r tin was an E n g lis h a u th o r and j o u r n a l i s t , and was bo rn i n 1861 and d i e d in 1941. He was e d u c a te d a t U n i v e r s i t y C o l le g e , London, a s w e l l as o u t s i d e E n g la n d . He began h i s c a r e e r i n j o u r n a l is m a s a s p e c i a l i s t w r i t e r f o r th e P a l l M all G a z e tte i n 1885. D uring th e f o llo w in g y e a r he a l s o b e came a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e Evening News (London) i n th e same c a p a c i t y ; he h e ld b o t h p o s i t i o n s u n t i l 1888. From 1887 to 1889 he was a l s o f i n a n c i a l e d i t o r o f th e F re e m e n 's J o u r n a l . M a r t i n 's p r o f e s s i o n f r e q u e n t l y to o k him a b ro a d . He was a c o r r e s p o n d e n t i n Mexico f o r s e v e r a l p a p e r s , i n c l u d i n g th e Tim es and T rib u n e of London, and th e Glasgow H e r a l d . He saw s e r v i c e i n I n d i a as w e l l , as th e e n g in e e r i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n t f o r th e T im e s . He was s p e c i a l c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f th e F i n a n c i a l News, F i n a n c i a l T im es, and The E n g in e e r in C e n t r a l and S outh A m erica. In a d d i t i o n t o many o th e r d u t i e s , he was a t r a v e l i n g c o r r e s p o n d e n t f o r R e u t e r 's T rad e S e rv ic e and s p e c i a l c o rr e s p o n d e n t in I t a l y f o r the New York J o u r n a l of 94 Ibid., pp. 123-5. 86 Commerce. He a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d t o th e B u s in e s s E n c y c lo p a e d ia and The E c o n o m is t. Margin found tim e to w r i t e a l a r g e number of books a s w e l l , many o f them r e f l e c t i n g an e s s e n t i a l l y b u s i n e s s and e n g in e e r in g o r i e n t a t i o n a lr e a d y d i s c e r n i b l e in h i s j o u r n a l ism c a r e e r . These in c lu d e d Through F ive R e p u b lic s o f South A m erica (1 9 0 5 ), M exico’ s T re a su re House: G u a n aju a to (1906; a work d evo ted to an e x a m in a tio n of th e m ines in th e a r e a and w heth er or not th e y were pay in g i n v e s t m e n t s ) , Mexico of th e T w e n tie th C e n tu ry (1 9 0 7 ), Handbook t o L a tin -A m e ric a n I n v e s tm e n ts (1 9 1 1 ), S alv ad o r of th e T w e n tie th C e n tu ry (1 9 1 1 ), Peru of th e T w e n tie th C en tu ry (1 9 1 1 ), G reece o f th e T w e n ti e t h C e n tu ry (1 9 1 2 ), M a x im illia n i n Mexico (1 9 1 3 ), The Sudan i n E v o lu tio n (1 9 2 1 ), and E g y p t, Old and New (1 9 2 3 ). He r e t i r e d i n 1933 and d ie d e i g h t y e a r s l a t e r , spen din g h i s l a s t • t ^ 9 5 y e a rs m London. I can n o t e x p l a i n why M a r t i n ’ s stu d y was f a v o r a b le tow ards D iaz. P o s s i b l y as a b u s i n e s s o r i e n t e d j o u r n a l i s t , he may have seen th e Diaz governm ent from an o v e rly f a v o r a b le v ie w p o in t i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n . M a rtin handled th e R e p u b lic and i t s m a n u fa c tu rin g on a l a r g e l y r e g i o n a l b a s i s , moving n o r th t o s o u th . H is o v e r a l l im p re s s io n o f m a n u fa c tu rin g under th e Diaz regim e was a v e ry f a v o r a b l e - o n e . In th e s t a t e of C o a h u ila , f o r exam ple, 9 5 Who’s Who, 1941, p. 2099. 87 he n o te d t h a t h a r d ly a month went by which d id n o t w itn e s s 96 the e s ta b lis h m e n t of some new m a n u fa c tu rin g c o n c e rn . In G u a n aju a to , he w ro te o f th e s t i r r i n g w oolen and c o tto n manu- * 97 * f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y , c e n te re d a t Leon. In Nuevo Leon, he m entioned th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f two new cement f a c t o r i e s which would p ro b a b ly su p p ly a l l of Mexico*s n eeds f o r t h a t commodity. The new f a c t o r i e s were lo c a te d in M o n terrey , which was a ls o th e scene o f a new meat packing p l a n t , o p e r a te d by th e governm ent. At th e tim e of w r i t i n g , th e l a t t e r p l a n t was working a t c a p a c i ty . C o n tin u in g t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of c o n d it i o n s in Nuevo Leon, M a rtin n o ted t h a t th e M o n terrey b e e r i n d u s t r y was ex panding a t t h i s tim e , t h a t a p o ta ssiu m f a c t o r y was b eing c o n s t r u c t e d , and t h a t a new can d le f a c t o r y and a n o th e r f o r m an u fa c tu rin g c a r r i a g e s and h a r n e s s e s were a lr e a d y in o p e ra t i o n . In f a c t , so much b u i ld i n g was going on t h a t a s h o r t - 98 age o f la b o r e x i s t e d i n th e v i c i n i t y o f M o n terrey . Moving s o u th , M a rtin m entioned r e c e n t c o n c e s s io n s g ra n te d by th e Diaz government to N orth Am ericans i n V e ra c ru z . These con c e s s io n s were in te n d e d f o r th e e s t a b l is h m e n t o f r e f r i g e r a - 99 t i o n , p a c k in g , and ta n n in g p l a n t s m t h a t a r e a . 9 6 Percy Falke M artin, Mexico o f the Twentieth Century (London: E. Arnold, 1907), IT, 3 l . 97I b i d . , I I , 50. 98I b i d . , I I , 8 3-5. "ibid., II, 140. 88 M a rtin concluded t h a t Mexico was now "rea d y to c lo s e h er door i n to to to a l l b u t a very few m anufactured a r t i c l e s . ” To prove t h i s p o i n t , he c i t e d s e v e r a l com m odities which were fo rm e rly im ported b u t which were now made a t home. For exam ple, Mexico im ported a l l of her f i n e c a n d le s a decade b e f o r e . Now she was m an u fa c tu rin g 90 p e r c e n t of a l l of th e c a n d le s she consumed. A new m alt f a c t o r y had j u s t been e s t a b l i s h e d a t the time o f th e a u t h o r ’ s w r i t i n g , and he h a il e d i t as th e f u t u r e s u p p l i e r of alm ost o n e - h a lf of M exico’ s needs i n t h i s a r e a . Ten y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y , Mex ic o had no chem ical f a c t o r i e s , b u t i n 1907 th e re were s i x , " a l l o f which are [were] doing e x c e l l e n t b u s i n e s s . ” A sim i l a r claim was advanced fo r th e paper m an u fa c tu rin g in d u s t r y . M a rtin w rote t h a t i t began on a modern s c a le around 1891 and was now su p p ly in g th e g e n e r a l m ark ets of Mexico."^® M a rtin concluded w ith t h a t p ie c e of in f o r m a tio n . R a fa e l de Zayas E n riq u e z , whose book, P o r f i r i o D ia z , a pp eared in 1908, p r e s e n te d somewhat of a problem , due t o c o n f l i c t i n g in fo rm a t i o n re g a rd in g him, as w e ll as because of th e n a tu r e of h is book. From th e t r a n s l a t o r ’s n o te in P o r f i r i o D iaz, one can l e a r n t h a t Zayas E n riq u ez was the Poet L au re ate of Mexico, a u th o r of poems, of works of h i s t o r y , and o f o th e r s u b j e c t s . He had been edu cated f o r the l e g a l p r o f e s s i o n , was an o f f i cer in the army f o r some y e a r s , and was th e n (1908) a member 100Ibid., II, 231-4. 89 of th e Mexican C o n g ress. He was, a c c o rd in g to th e t r a n s l a t o r , "a l i f e l o n g f r i e n d of P r e s i d e n t D ia z ," b u t had l a t e l y f a l l e n out w ith him r e g a r d in g government p o lic y . Zayas E n riq u e z h im s e lf gave more in f o r m a tio n in a book p u b lis h e d s i x y e a rs l a t e r , The Case of Mexico and the P o lic y of P r e s i d e n t W ils o n . He s t a t e d t h a t he never con s p i r e d , nor was he a r e v o l u t i o n a r y , nor y e t d id he ever swear " u n c o n d i t i o n a l a l l e g i a n c e to any g o v ern m en t." In the next b r e a t h he a d m itte d t h a t he was "a p a r t i s a n o f G eneral P o r f i r i o Diaz from the day when he f i r s t p r e s e n te d h is can d id ac y to th e P re s id e n c y o f the R e p u b lic ." He added t h a t he upheld D ia z ’ s p o l i c i e s when the l a t t e r became P r e s i d e n t , and was a s u p p o rte r u n t i l 1906, when he s p l i t away, " e x p r e s s in g f r a n k l y and op en ly the r e a s o n s f o r my changed a t t i t u d e . " His d isa g re e m e n t le d to th e r e s i g n a t i o n of h is s e a t in Con- 102 g re s s and to "a v o l u n t a r y e x i l e " in New York u n t i l 1910. C a rlo de Fon aro , a n o th e r a u th o r , o f f e r e d a somewhat d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e . Zayas E n riqu ez d id not le a v e Mexico v o l u n t a r i l y , w rote F o rn a ro . He was d r iv e n out "because of po l i t i c a l c o n d it i o n s th e r e and on acco u n t of th e p e r s e c u t io n s R a fa e l de Zayas E n riq u e z , P o r f i r i o D i a z , t r a n s . by T. Quincy Browne, J r . (New York: 1). A pp leton and Com pany, 1908), p. v. 102 R a fa e l de Zayas E n riq u e z , The Case o f Mexico and the P o lic y of P r e s i d e n t W ilso n , t r a n s . by Andrd T ridon (New York: A bert and C h a rle s Boni, 1914), pp. 13-14. o f J . Y. L im a n t o u r ." A c c o rd in g t o F o r n a r o , Z ayas i n c u r r e d L im a n to u r 1s w ra th when he a t t a c k e d th e C i e n t i f i c o i n s p e e c h - 10 3 es and new spaper a r t i c l e s . E x i l e , how ever, c o n t r i b u t e d t o making Z a y a s 1 l a t e r c a r e e r more i n t e r e s t i n g . Once D iaz had been d i s p l a c e d from o f f i c e , Zayas was i n v i t e d b a c k to M exico t o ta k e p a r t i n t h e new Madero g o v e rn m e n t. He a p p a r - 104 e n t l y d i d n o t . I n s t e a d , he seems to have become p r o - H u e r ta . Once H u e r ta had ta k e n c o n t r o l o f th e c e n t r a l gov e rn m e n t, Z ayas became c o n v in c e d t h a t a coup a g a i n s t th e r e c a l c i t r a n t f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t u r e was i n e v i t a b l e . He p u b l i s h e d v a r i o u s a r t i c l e s i n La T r ib u n a (M exico C i ty ) and i n La R e v i s t a de Y u c a ta n ( M e r id a ) , i n w hich he " d id my I h i s ] b e s t t o show t h e Chamber o f D e p u t ie s t h a t th e y w ere p ro v o k in g t h a t s t e p [ t h e c o u p ] , m aking i t i n f a c t n e c e s s a r y . A f t e r w r i t i n g t h i s , he d ro p p ed out o f s i g h t and d i e d i n . 1932, a t th e age o f e i g h t y - f o u r . He a u th o r e d s e v e r a l b o o k s. B e s id e s th e one t h a t was p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d , Zayas w ro te Los E s ta d o s U nidos M ex ica n o s, s u s c o n d ic io n e s n a t u r a l e s y s u s e le m e n to s de p r o s p e r id a d (1 8 9 3 ; p u b l is h e d by th e D iaz g o v e rn m e n t), Los E s ta d o s U nidos M e x ic a n o s, su s p r o g r e s o s en v i e n t e anos de p a z , 1877-1897 103 C a r lo de F o r n a r o , D ia z , Czar o f M exico: An A r r a i g n m ent ( [ P h i l a d e l p h i a ] : I n t e r n a t i o n a l P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 19091, p p . 4 6 -7 . 104 Z ayas E n r iq u e z , Case o f M e x ic o , p. 14. 105 Ibid., p. 156. 91 ( 1 8 9 9 ) , B e n ito J u a r e z , su v i d a - - s u ob ra . . . (1 9 0 6 ) , and E l E sta d o de Y ucatan ( 1 9 0 8 ). The b i o g r a p h i c a l work on Diaz ( P o r f i r i o D ia z ) i s d i f f i c u l t to e v a l u a t e . Zayas E n riq u e z h i m s e l f , of c o u rs e , s t a t e d t h a t th e book was a b io g ra p h y , " w r i t t e n w ith s c r u p u lo u s f i d e l i t y t o th e f a c t s , and w ith o u t m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f any k i n d , " n e i t h e r th e work o f an enemy or a p a r t i s a n , " b u t th e f r a n k and l o y a l s t a te m e n t of a w i t n e s s b e fo r e the X0 6 T r ib u n a l o f H i s t o r y . " O ther w r i t e r s were n o t so s u r e . Jo hn K enneth T u rn er op ined t h a t Zayas E n r iq u e z had a d e f i n i t e p l a n in m ind. He in te n d e d t o w r i t e a c r i t i c i s m o f the Diaz re g im e , and d e c id e d to make i t e x tr e m e ly v e i l e d and i n t e r s p e r s e d w ith f l a t t e r y so t h a t i t would be a llo w e d t o c i r c u l a t e i n M exico. Only one Am erican r e v i e w e r , s a id T u r n e r , saw th ro u g h th e schem e. M exican o f f i c i a l s , how ever, were n o t so n a iv e . The volume was b a r r e d from M exico. Nor was t h a t a l l . S u d d e n ly , i t d i s a p p e a r e d from b o o k s to r e s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s and was soon u n o b t a i n a b l e . I f th e book had d i s a p p e a r e d b e c a u se i t was b o ug ht by th e p u b l i c , a second e d i t i o n would be e x p e c te d t o a p p e a r . The p u b l i s h e r s d e c l i n e d to r e p u b l i s h , and r e f u s e d to g iv e a s a t i s f a c t o r y r e a son t o Zayas E n riq u e z or anyone e l s e . T u rn e r h i n te d d a r k l y , i n c r e d i b l e a s i t may seem, t h a t th e D iaz governm ent p r e s su re d th e p u b l i s h i n g h o u se , D. A p p le to n and Company, to ^■O^Zayas E n r iq u e z , P o r f i r i o D ia z , p. 5. 92 107 a d o p t t h i s p o s i t i o n . F orn aro o f f e r e d a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t o p in io n co n c e rn in g th e volume. He w ro te t h a t P o r f i r i o Diaz was a p s y c h o l o g i c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l stu d y o f th e d i c t a t o r , ” a c le v e r and s u b t l e c r i t i c i s m , b u t n o t s i n c e r e f o r i t does I d i d ] n o t t e l l th e t r u t h . ” Now and th e n th e a u th o r f e i n t e d a t the t r u t h , b u t he was ’’o n ly p l a y i n g , inasm uch as he seems [seem ed] to be a f r a i d . ” He may have b een ’’a p p re h e n s iv e of th e dan g er of th e long arm o f P o r f i r i o Diaz r e a c h in g him 108 t r e a c h e r o u s l y , ” even though he was i n New York. Thus, what a p p ea re d i n r e a l i t y to have been a g e n e r a l l y e u l o g i s t i c b io g ra p h y o f the d i c t a t o r was d e s c r ib e d by i t s a u th o r as th e com plete t r u t h , and by two o th e r w r i t e r s as a c l e v e r a n ti - D i a z s tu d y , p e rh a p s to o c l e v e r , s in c e i t f a i l e d i n i t s p u rp o se , e i t h e r th ro u g h l a c k o f c i r c u l a t i o n i n Mexico or th ro u g h lac k of s e r i o u s n e s s . As p e r t a i n s to th e f a v o r a b l e s k e tc h of D iaz and m a n u f a c tu r in g , e i t h e r of th e judgm ents o f f e r e d by T u rn e r or F o rn a ro m ig h t have a p p l i e d . The book may have been f a v o r a b l e to Diaz r e g a r d i n g m anufac t u r i n g and v a r io u s o th e r a s p e c t s o f h i s regim e so t h a t i t c o u ld g a in e n tr a n c e i n t o M exico, w here i t s t r u e p o l i t i c a l m eaning would have been known. On th e o th e r hand, Zayas may 107 John Kenneth T u r n e r , B a rb aro u s Mexico (C h icag o : C h a rle s H. K err and Company, 1911,), pp. 2 45-6. 108n - - 4 . „ F o rn a ro , op. c i t . , pp. 4 6 -7 . 93 have b een f a v o r a b le to th e d i c t a t o r in t h i s and many o th e r a s p e c ts sim ply becau se he f e a r e d r e p r i s a l s from the Diaz governm ent, whose hand had rea ch ed as f a r as S t. Louis and Los A n g e le s, and which could have c o n c e iv a b ly reach ed him in New York. I am prone to o f f e r a t h i r d p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n . Zayas E n riqu ez c r i t i c i z e d Diaz only s l i g h t l y in h is book; when he d id , i t was on a p o l i t i c a l b a s i s . I b e lie v e t h a t he was s t i l l fa v o r a b le to th e d i c t a t o r on o th e r l e v e l s , i n c l u d ing m a n u fa c tu rin g . The t i t l e s on some o f h is e a r l i e r works h in te d t h a t t h i s may have been the c a s e . At any r a t e , the Zayas coverage of m an u fa c tu rin g under Diaz was a h ig h ly f a v o ra b le o n e . I t became l y r i c a l a t tim e s. Zayas w rote t h a t , under the in f lu e n c e o f " p r o g r e s s and c i v i l i z a t i o n ” a s s o c i a t e d w ith the Diaz governm ent, m a n u fa c tu rin g p l a n t s were b u i l t , and g r e a t f a c t o r y chimneys now r e a r e d up, s ta n d in g out a g a i n s t the sky. L evers were thrown open to l e t th e r e s t l e s s steam of th e New Era d r iv e p i s t o n s , "and th u s communicate i t s l i f e 109 to th e dead m achinery" of th e f a c t o r y . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , the a u th o r n o te d t h a t Mexican w r i t e r s and "m oney-seeking f o r e i g n w r i t e r s ” had b u i l t up a c o m p le te ly f a l s e p i c t u r e of the g e n e ra l and h i s reg im e. The f o r e i g n w r i t e r s , c o n tin u ed Zayas E n riq u e z , had "been p a id good money f o r bad ■^^Zayas E n riq u e z , P o r f i r i o D iaz, p. 158. 94 i n f o r m a t i o n ,M and had been w e l l - r e c e i v e d by th e P r e s i d e n t and h i s o f f i c i a l s . "The l i s t of w r i t e r s i s [was] lo n g : from H ubert Howe B a n c ro ft . . . to Mrs. A lec Tweedy [ s i c ] , " a ch arge which may throw a d i f f e r e n t l i g h t on th o se two w r i t e r s . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , Diaz was th e f i r s t to deny such ex a g g e r a t i o n s , b u t the damage was done, as an i n a c c u r a t e p ic - 110 tu r e of Mexico was p r e s e n te d . T his concluded the acco u n t of Zayas E n riq u e z . The works o f two more w r i t e r s rem ain to be exam ined, one of them r e l a t i v e l y u n im p o r ta n t, the o th e r of paramount im p o rta n c e , b o th in t h i s stu d y and in Mexican h i s t o r y i t s e l f . The f i r s t of th e s e i s Jo se F ra n c is c o Godoy, whose book was P o r f i r i o D ia z : P r e s i d e n t of Mexico (1 9 1 0 ), th e second was James Creelm an, a u th o r of D iaz, M aster of Mexico (1 9 1 1 ). Godoy was born in Tampico i n 1851, b u t r e c e iv e d h is e a r l y e d u c a tio n i n Mexico C i ty . He th e n jo in e d h is f a t h e r , who was the Mexican C onsul in San F r a n c is c o , and e n te r e d an academy t h e r e . His s t u d i e s were te m p o r a r ily ended w i t h the d e a th o f h i s f a t h e r , b u t he l a t e r s tu d ie d law, was a d m itte d to th e b a r , and p r a c t i c e d i n C a l i f o r n i a and M exico. He was a newspaper w r i t e r f o r some y e a r s , s e rv in g on th e s t a f f of The Two R e p u b li c s , La P a t r i a , and o th e r Mexican d a i l i e s . By the tim e he was around f o r t y , Godoy found employ ment in th e Diaz governm ent, an a s s o c i a t i o n w hich was to 110Ibid., pp. 15-16. 95 l a s t f o r many y e a r s . H is f i r s t p u b l i c p o s i t i o n was t h a t of a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of Mexico a t th e San A n to n io (T e x a s ) I n t e r n a t i o n a l F a i r , h e ld i n 1889. He r e p r e s e n t e d h i s governm ent a t many s u c c e e d in g f a i r s , m e e ti n g s , and s i m i l a r e v e n t s , i n c l u d i n g th e W o rld ’ s C olum bian E x p o s i t i o n , w here he was a member o f th e M exican com m ission o f th e j u r y ; th e N a s h v i l l e E x p o s i t i o n ( 1 8 9 7 ) ; th e C h a r i t i e s and C o r r e c t i o n s C o n fe re n c e s ( T o r o n t o , 1897; W a sh in g to n , 1 9 0 1 ); th e N a t io n a l P r i s o n s Con f e r e n c e ( C l e v e l a n d , 1 9 0 0 ), and th e C o f f e e C o n g re ss (New Y o rk , 1 9 0 2 ). He was a l s o S e c r e t a r y o f th e Second Pan- A m erican C o n fe re n c e , h e ld i n Mexico C i t y d u r i n g 1901 and 1902. Godoy’ s employment f o r D i a z ’ s governm ent a l s o i n c lu d e d t h e u s u a l d i p l o m a t i c a s s i g n m e n t s . He was M exican c h a rg e d ’ a f f a i r e s i n C e n t r a l A m erica ( 1 8 9 3 - 1 8 9 6 ) , f i r s t s e c r e t a r y o f th e M exican Embassy t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s (1 8 9 6 - 1903) and envoy e x t r a o r d i n a r y and m i n i s t e r p l e n i p o t e n t i a r y t o th e C e n t r a l A m erican r e p u b l i c s from 1903 u n t i l a t l e a s t 1906. Godoy d a b b le d i n l i t e r a t u r e and was th e a u th o r of s e v e r a l b o o k s, p l a y s , and o t h e r w o rk s. H is books i n c lu d e d The A m erican L ’A ssom m oir: Who Did I t ? (1 8 8 3 , a m y s t e r y ) ; The P ro m in e n t Men o f Mexico C1901); A Pew F a c t s a b o u t M exico ( 1 9 0 1 ) , and a B io g ra p h y of P r e s i d e n t P o r f i r i o D iaz ( 1 9 0 6 ) . He a ls o had two p l a y s to h i s c r e d i t , n e i t h e r of them un d y in g w o rk s o f l i t e r a t u r e , b u t b o th p e rfo rm e d : C u p i d ’ s Law S u i t s 96 111 and Orphan o f th e S ta te . Godoy d ie d sometime a f t e r 1910. C a rlo de F o n a ro , who e x p la in e d Zayas E nriquez* s t a n d in g w ith D ia z , o f f e r e d an e x p l a n a t i o n o f why Godoy adop ted a f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e to w ard D iaz i n P o r f i r i o D ia z : P r e s i d e n t o f M e x ico . He s t a t e d t h a t Godoy, by now the c o n s u l in Cuba, was **inspired” to w r i t e th e book by th e D iaz g o vernm ent. Such i n s p i r a t i o n p re su m a b ly e x p la in e d i t s f a v o r a b le b i a s to w ard D ia z . Godoy i n c lu d e d s e v e n ty p ages of e n d o rse m e n ts of th e P r e s i d e n t by p ro m in e n t N orth A m ericans a t th e tim e , and a c t u a l l y w andered a b o u t - - o r s e n t a b o u t - - ’’s o l i c i t i n g k in d words f o r P r e s i d e n t D iaz.'* F o rn a ro th e n c o n tin u e d t o jud ge t h a t D iaz and h i s s u p p o r t e r s b e li e v e d t h e y c o u ld keep M exicans q u i e t i f p u b lic o p in io n i n Europe and th e U n ited S t a t e s were m isin fo rm ed a b o u t " th e r e a l c o n d i t i o n s i n Mexico.'* T h is was th e r e a s o n f o r the a p p e a ra n c e 112 o f the b o o k . A lth o u g h F o rn a ro was s u s p e c t , th e e x p la n a t i o n he o f f e r e d was f a i r l y p l a u s i b l e . I t was p o s s i b l e t h a t Godoy s o l i c i t e d o p in io n s from p ro m in e n t p e o p le m e re ly b e c au se he was h o n e s t l y im p re ssed w ith th e re g im e , b u t t a k i n g h i s own governm ent c o n n e c tio n s and l i t e r a r y e x p e r ie n c e i n t o a c c o u n t, t h i s seemed u n l i k e l y . I t was t h e r e f o r e p ro b a b le t h a t th e D iaz governm ent m e re ly found i t s e l f a f a i t h f u l 1 1:LWho's Who in A m e ric a , IV (1 9 0 5 -1 9 0 7 ), 691. 112 F o rn a ro and o t h e r s , C a rra n z a and Mexico (New York: M i t c h e l l K e n n e rly , 1915)~ pp. 3& -9. 97 p u b l ic s e r v a n t who co uld and would w r i t e and t h a t a book r e s u l t e d , w hich was f a v o r a b l e to D iaz and h i s M exico. The p o r t i o n of th e book d e v o te d to a f a v o r a b l e p i c t u r e of m a n u fa c tu rin g u nder Diaz was s h o r t b u t i n t e r e s t i n g , e s p e c i a l l y i f th e b ackground of i t s a u th o r i s r e c a l l e d . Godoy w rote t h a t m a n u fa c tu rin g e n t e r p r i s e s , e s p e c i a l l y c i g a r and t e x t i l e f a c t o r i e s , had been making ’’most w o n d e rfu l p r o g r e s s ” d u rin g th e regim e of P o r f i r i o D iaz. Companies w ith " s e v e r a l m i l l i o n d o l l a r s " w orth o f c a p i t a l had r e c e n t l y been e s t a b l i s h e d , and t h e i r m achinery was the most modern a v a i l - 113 a b l e . T h is was th e t o t a l p i c t u r e of m a n u fa c tu rin g p r e s e n te d by Godoy. G odoy’s w ork, w hich was r e l a t i v e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t , was fo llo w e d by th e most famous book on th e d e c r e p i t d i c t a - to r - - J a m e s C re e lm a n 's D ia z , M aster of M ex ico . C reelm an, an a u th o r and j o u r n a l i s t , was b orn i n M o n tre a l i n 1859. He b e gan h i s c a r e e r i n j o u r n a l is m as an e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r and c o r re s p o n d e n t f o r th e New York H e ra ld in 1877. He rem ained i n t h i s p o s i t i o n u n t i l 1889, when he became e d i t o r of th e Lon don e d i t i o n o f th e same paper i n 1890, and l a t e r o c cu pied th e same p o s i t i o n w ith th e P a r i s b ran c h d u r in g 1891 and 1892. He became e d i t o r of th e New York E vening T elegram i n 1893 and se rv e d f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s as th e E uropean e d i t o r of l - ^ J o s e F r a n c is c o Godoy, P o r f i r i o D ia z: P r e s i d e n t of Mexico (New York: G. P. Putnam ’s Sons, 191 0), pi 115. the New York J o u r n a l . C reelm an ’ s s p e c i a l t y was i n te r v ie w in g famous people of the d a y . H is r o s t e r in c lu d e d the Pope, King George o f G reece, th e Emperor of K orea, P r e s i d e ^ : Faure o f F ra n ce , P rin c e B ism arck, H.—M. S ta n le y , Louis K o s su th , Leo T o ls to y , and, o f c o u r s e , P o r f i r i o D iaz. He serv ed as B r i t i s h e d i t o r of C o sm o p o litan Magazine in 1893 and as war c o rre s p o n d e n t fo r s e v e r a l p a p e rs d u rin g th e Ja p a n e se War (1 8 9 4 ), the G re c o -T u rk ish War (1 8 9 7 ), th e Spanish-A m erican War (1 8 9 8 ), and the P h i l i p p i n e I n s u r r e c t i o n (1 8 9 9 ). In th e l a t t e r a r e a , he was an a id e on G en eral Law ton’ s s t a f f , and was wounded once. He was a member o f the New York Board o f E d u c a tio n in 1911 and P r e s i d e n t o f the. M u n ic ip a l C i v i l S e rv ic e Commission of New York C i ty d u rin g the same y e a r . F i n a l l y , he was a s s o c i a t e e d i t o r of P e a rs o n ’s M agazine, i n which c a p a c ity he conducted h is fam ous in te r v ie w w ith D iaz. B efore dying in 1915, Creelm an w ro te fo u r books: On the G reat Highway (1 9 0 1 ), E agle Blood (1 9 0 2 ), Why We Love L in c o ln (1 9 0 8 ), and D iaz, M aster of Mexico ( 1 9 1 1 ) . ^ ^ The f a c t s of C reelm an ’s l i f e were u n im p o rta n t, p e r h ap s, e x c e p t f o r one: l a t e i n 1907 he went to Mexico C ity and o b ta in e d a j o u r n a l i s t i c ’’s c o o p ,” an e x c lu s iv e i n te r v ie w w ith P o r f i r i o D ia z. In the course of t h a t i n te r v ie w , Diaz ll4Who’s Who, 1915, pp. 499-500. 99 r e p o r t e d l y s a id t h a t Mexico was now read y f o r dem ocracy, t h a t he welcomed p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , and, most i m p o r ta n tly , t h a t he d e c lin e d to run f o r r e - e l e c t i o n in 1910. T his i n te rv ie w s t a r t e d a c h ain o f e v e n ts w hich f i n a l l y saw Diaz lea v e h i s p o s t in th e same month t h a t C reelm an’s o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e came out a s a book, May, 1911. Thus the c i r c l e was c o m p le te . Why d id Diaz g r a n t th e i n te r v ie w in the f i r s t p la c e ? E rn e s t G ruening b e li e v e d t h a t i t was " t o t e s t out h i s en- 115 to u r a g e ," and t h a t i t was c e r t a i n l y n o t s i n c e r e . Above a l l , why d id he a llo w i t to sta n d as i f he had been s i n c e r e , e n co u rag in g M exicans to o rg a n iz e p o l i t i c a l l y fo r the a n t i c i p a ted dawn of 1910? In my judgm ent, Diaz allow ed the s t a t e ment to s ta n d b ecause he hoped i t would encourage elem en ts d i s l o y a l to him to r a i s e t h e i r h ead s. Those heads could th en be e a s i l y removed. U n f o r tu n a te ly f o r D iaz, once the o p p o s itio n r e v e a le d i t s e l f , he was u n a b le to s t r i k e q u ic k ly , w id e ly , or e f f e c t i v e l y enough to c o n s t r a i n i t . Thus, the R e v o lu tio n , th e c e n t r a l f a c t i n modern Mexican h i s t o r y , b e gan. C reelm an’ s in te r v ie w was p u b lis h e d in P e a r s o n ’ s Mag a z in e in March, 1908. The magazine a r t i c l e served as the b a s i s f o r the book, D ia z, M aster o f Mexico. Both had th e ''■'^Ernest G ru en in g , Mexico and I t s H e rita g e (New York: The C en tury C o ., [ c . 1928J) , pi 92~. 100 same e x tre m e ly f a v o r a b le n a tu r e . Both employed many o f the same p h ra s e s and e v a l u a t i o n s . I n s h o r t , the book seems to have been an expanded v e r s i o n of th e a r t i c l e . In se e k in g an e x p la n a tio n fo r the h ig h ly f a v o r a b le b i a s e x h ib i t e d th ro u g h o u t D iaz, M aster o f M exico, s t u d e n ts of the s u b j e c t must t u r n to John K enneth T u rn e r. T u rn er s t a t e d t h a t D iaz c a l l e d Creelman away from h i s j o u r n a l i s t i c d u t i e s i n T urkey to w r i t e a r e f u t a t i o n o f T u r n e r ’s own work, B arbarous M exico. T urner w rote t h a t Creelman sp e n t s e v e r a l weeks going over th e same t e r r i t o r y t h a t he h im s e lf had t r a v e r s e d , i n o rd er t o be a b le t o w r ite a r e f u t a t i o n w ith verisim ilitud e.'*''*'^ T h is seems somewhat f a r - f e t c h e d , when one c o n s id e r s an a u th o r of C reelm an ’s c a l i b e r , and, t h a t C re elm a n ’s o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e , the b a s i s o f h is l a t e r book, was is s u e d s e v e r a l y e a r s b e fo re B arb arou s M exico. T h e r e fo r e , i t seems p l a u s i b l e t h a t Creelman was t r e mendously im pressed by Diaz d u r in g the in te r v ie w and t h a t t h i s f e e l i n g found i t s way in to th e a r t i c l e and l a t e r i n to th e book, in th e form of a f a v o r a b le s tu d y of D iaz and of a l l a s p e c ts o f h i s reg im e, in c lu d in g m a n u fa c tu rin g . Creelman w rote t h a t m a n u fa c tu rin g was i n a " d y in g ” 117 c o n d itio n b e fo r e D ia z . In d e e d , ’’th e r e was p r a c t i c a l l y no ^^■^Turner, op. c i t . , p. 245. 117 Jam es C reelm an, D iaz, M aster of Mexico (New York: D. A ppleto n & C o ., 1911), pi 329. 101 118 m a n u f a c tu r in g i n d u s t r y i n th e c o u n t r y ” i n 1876 anyway. Then D iaz em erged. S in ce th e tim e he f i r s t a c q u i r e d th e P r e s i d e n c y , an ’’immense grow th o f m a n u f a c t u r e s ” had o c c u r r e d in M exico, a grow th r e p r e s e n t i n g an i n v e s tm e n t of ’’h u n d re d s of m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s ” by f o r e i g n and d o m e s tic c a p i t a l i n t h i s f i e l d . T h is huge in v e s tm e n t i n m a n u f a c t u r in g was due 119 to th e r a i l r o a d s w h ich D iaz c o n s t r u c t e d . I n a c h a p t e r t i t l e d ’’"Wonderful R e s u l t s o f D i a z ’ s 120 R u l e , ” C reelm an e l a b o r a t e d . Compared w ith th e y e a r 1876, when v i r t u a l l y no m a n u f a c tu r in g e x i s t e d , th e 146 c o t t o n m i l l s e x t a n t a t th e tim e o f w r i t i n g p ro d u ce d $ 4 3 ,3 7 0 ,0 1 2 .0 5 w o rth o f f a b r i c s and employed 3 2 ,2 2 9 w o r k e r s a l o n e . Sugar r e f i n e r i e s were y i e l d i n g a b o u t 127,000 to n s o f r e f i n e d s u g a r a n n u a l l y . O th e r ( u n s p e c i f i e d ) f a c t o r i e s w ere a l s o num er- 121 o u s. C reelm an f a i l e d to g iv e the s o u r c e o f th e s e f i g u r e s , and any d e t a i l e d p i c t u r e o f m a n u f a c t u r in g c o n d i t i o n s in 1876. He m e re ly n o te d t h a t th e y w ere u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . Thus t h e r e was no t r u e b a s i s o f c o m p a ris o n . H is a c c o u n t ended_ t h e r e . S om ething o f th e b a c k g ro u n d s o f th e h i g h l y i n t e r e s t ing g ro u p o f men and women c o v e re d i n t h i s c h a p t e r has a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d . I n c o n c l u s i o n to t h i s c h a p t e r , some o f th e t h i n g s w hich th e y r e p o r t e d i n th e re a lm o f m a n u fa c tu r in g 118 119 I b i d . , p . 386. I b i d . , p. 417. 120 121 I b i d . , p . 381. I b i d . , p. 386. 1 0 2 u n d e r D iaz w i l l be sum m arized h e r e . T h ese w r i t e r s s t a t e d t h a t m a n u fa c tu r in g was th riv iri'g i n th e D iaz p e r i o d , and t h a t i t was f a i r l y d i v e r s i f i e d ( a l t h o u g h t e x t i l e s w ere th e p r im a r y f a b r i c a t i o n ) . They e m p h a siz e d t h a t i t was s p re a d t h r o u g h o u t th e R e p u b lic and n o t m e re ly i n M exico C i t y , and t h a t m a n u f a c tu rin g u n d e r D iaz was i n a f a r more h e a l t h y c o n d i t i o n th e n i t was u n d e r h i s p r e d e c e s s o r s . For a l l o f t h i s , D iaz r e c e i v e d much c r e d i t , some a u t h o r s g oin g so f a r a s to sa y t h a t Diaz was s o l e l y r e s p o n s i b l e . How d i d he do i t ? These w r i t e r s would r e p l y t h a t t h e t a s k was e f f e c t e d t h r o u g h a c o m b in a tio n of h ig h t a r i f f s on im p o rte d m a n u fa c tu re d g o o d s, o f s u b s i d i e s and c o n c e s s io n s to new m a n u f a c tu r in g e n t r e p r e n e u r s , of f a v o r shown to th e e n t r y o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i n v a r i o u s w a y s, o f th e c h o ic e o f s k i l l f u l governm ent s u b o r d i n a t e s , o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n i n o t h e r l i n e s , e s p e c i a l l y r a i l r o a d s , and f i n a l l y , o f th e e s t a b l i s h ment o f peace i n a w a r - t o r n l a n d . I r o n i c a l l y , many of th e f o e s t o m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D iaz would deny none o f th e s e f a c t s , b u t w ould condemn D ia z . T h is i s , p e r h a p s , an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t an e v e n t i s n o t th e e s s e n t i a l t h i n g i n th e w r i t i n g of h i s t o r y , b u t r a t h e r how an e v e n t or f a c t i s i n t e r p r e t e d as a r e s u l t o f o n e ’s b ack g ro u n d and o f th e c h a n g in g fa c e o f th e tim e s i n w hich one l i v e s and w r i t e s . CHAPTER I I FAVORABLE SOURCES IN SPANISH I e n c o u n te r e d few er books i n S p a n ish th a n i n E n g li s h on Diaz w h ile he was i n pow er. I s h a l l o f f e r a few t e n t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s o f t h i s phenomenon. F i r s t , H is p a n ic Am erica p u b l is h e d r e l a t i v e l y few books d u r in g th e D iaz p e r i od. L i t e r a c y was low; th e p o t e n t i a l m ark e t was s m a ll. S eco n d ly , H is p a n ic A m erican w r i t e r s commonly w rote a b o u t t h e i r own c o u n t r i e s , or E u ro p e, or th e U n ite d S t a t e s , seldom on o th e r H is p a n i c c o u n t r i e s i n th e h e m is p h e re . E xcep t in tim e s o f c r i s i s , H is p a n ic A m ericans r a r e l y looked o u t s i d e of t h e i r own n a t i o n s , E u ro p e, or th e U n ite d S t a t e s fo r m a t e r i a l s . The Diaz p e r i o d saw r e l a t i v e l y few c r i s e s i n H is p a n ic A m erica, o th e r th a n th o s e o f an i n t e r n a l , p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e . F i n a l l y , S p a in , a p o t e n t i a l so u rc e of m a t e r i a l s , was l a r g e l y concerned w ith i t s own p ro b lem s d u r in g th e D iaz p e r i o d . In my ju dgm ent, as a co n sequence o f th e s e f a c t s , v e ry l i t t l e was w r i t t e n on D iaz and Mexico by any S p a n is h -la n g u a g e w r i t e r s e x c e p t M ex ican s. As in th e c ase o f th e E n g li s h - s p e a k in g a u th o r s of th e p e r i o d , w r i t e r s o f d i v e r s e o r i g i n s and p o s i t i o n s i n l i f e 10 3 104 w i l l be e n c o u n te re d . A few m erely t r a v e l e d to Mexico. O th e rs held p o s i t i o n s in the Diaz governm ent or were p r o f e s s i o n a l men. The two f a c t s l in k i n g them t o g e t h e r were t h e i r p r a i s e of the r o l e o f Diaz i n m a n u fa c tu rin g and the f a c t t h a t t h e i r books appeared w i t h in th e c o n fin e s of the Diaz p e r io d . The e a r l i e s t w r i t e r c o n s id e re d h e re i s H ubert Howe B a n c r o ft, whose work was V ida de P o r f i r i o D ia z . I t d a te d from 1887. B a n c ro ft was born i n G r a n v i l l e , Ohio i n 1832. His e d u c a tio n was sc a n ty a t b e s t , a lth o u g h he d id r e c e iv e an h o n o rary M aster of A rts d e g re e from Yale U n i v e r s i t y in 1875. He e n te r e d i n t o th e employ of a b o o k s to re i n B u f f a lo , New York, in 1848, and found a p r o f e s s i o n w hich was to dom inate the rem aind er of h i s l i f e . In 1856 he e s t a b l i s h e d a sm all b o o k sto re and p u b lis h in g house in San F r a n c is c o . Two y e a rs l a t e r he began to c o l l e c t m a t e r i a l on the P a c i f i c C o a st, ma t e r i a l which was to e v e n t u a l l y f in d i t s way i n t o numerous books b e a rin g h i s name. T his c o lle -c tio n c o n tin u e d and grew f o r many y e a r s , u n t i l i t f i n a l l y became th e b a s i s of the l i b r a r y w hich c a r r i e d h is name. I n 1905 he tu rn e d th e s e m a t e r i a l s over to th e U n i v e r s i ty o f C a l i f o r n i a . By t h a t time they numbered s i x t y thousand volum es, in c lu d in g hun d re d s of m a n u s c rip ts , most of them d i c t a t i o n s ta k e n from prom inent p i o n e e r s . But B a n c ro ft was p r i m a r il y known a s a w r i t e r on P a c i f i c Coast s u b j e c t s . He was su p p o sed ly the a u th o r of the 105 West A m erican H i s t o r i c a l S e r i e s , c o m p ris in g t h i r t y - n i n e v o l um es, th e f i r s t p u b l i s h e d by h i s company i n 1875, th e l a s t i n 1887. H is o t h e r w orks in c l u d e d C h r o n i c l e o f th e B u i l d e r s o f th e Commonwealth ( s e v e n v o lu m e s, 1 8 9 1 -1 8 9 2 ). B a n c r o f t — - d i e d i n 1918, an d , as a book by him i n 1914 d e m o n s tr a te d , was a c t i v e i n l i t e r a r y p u r s u i t s up t o th e end of h i s life ."* - B a n c r o f t h i m s e l f e x p la in e d th e r e a s o n f o r th e w r i t ing o f Vida de P o r f i r i o D i a z . At t h e tim e he f i r s t co n c e iv e d o f i t , he had b e e n w r i t i n g t h e l a s t volum es of th e H i s t o r y o f M e x ic o , p a r t o f th e West A m erican H i s t o r i c a l S e r i e s . Hoping t o f i n d o u t more a b o u t th e c o u n tr y and th e n a t u r e of i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s , he made a t r i p t o th e a r e a , one w h ich l a s t e d fro m l a t e 1883 t o e a r l y 1884. He found some u n r e s t t h e r e , i n s p i t e o f th e d e s i r e of " l o s m e jo re s hom bres de to d o s l o s p a r t i d o s " f o r p e a c e . He l e a r n e d t h a t one man c o n t r o l l e d e v e n t s i n M exico, e v e n thou gh he was n o t c o n n e c t ed w ith th e governm ent a t t h a t t i m e - - P o r f i r i o D ia z . Ban c r o f t was im p r e s s e d . He f e l t t h a t D iaz had done much f o r h i s c o u n tr y b u t had r e c e i v e d in a d e q u a t e r e c o g n i t i o n a b ro a d . * 2 T h a t b e in g th e c a s e , he d e c i d e d to w r i t e D i a z ’ s b i o g r a p h y . B a n c r o f t e x p la in e d th e m ethods w hich he em ployed, w hich may th ro w l i g h t on why h i s s tu d y was a f a v o r a b l e one, e s p e c i a l l y ^Who's Who i n A m e ric a , IX ( 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 1 7 ) , 115. 2 H u b ert Howe B a n c r o f t , V ida de P o r f i r i o D iaz (San F r a n c i s c o : The H i s t o r y Company" P u b l i s h e r s , 1887 J , pp. v - v i . 106 i n r e s p e c t t o m a n u f a c tu r in g . He r e l i e d on h i s own l i b r a r y 3 and ’’to d o s l o s a r c h i v o s de l a R e p u b lic a M e j i c a n a ." I f th o s e r e s o u r c e s c o n ta in e d m a t e r i a l s p u b l i s h e d by th e Diaz g o v e rn m e n t, w h ich from a s c h o l a r Ts v ie w p o in t w ere d i s i n c l i n e d t o d w e ll on c o n te m p o ra ry w e a k n e s s e s , i t c o u ld e x p l a i n th e f a v o r a b l e r e p o r t on m a n u f a c t u r in g . B a n c r o f t a d m itte d t h a t he em ployed th e a i d o f v a r i o u s p e r s o n s i n p r e p a r i n g h i s b i o g r a p h y , d e n o m in ate d a s M m is a u x i l i a r e s " or " s e c r e t a r i o s , ” h i n t i n g t h a t he may have had th e h e l p o f M exican s e c r e t a r i e s 4 as w e l l . T hus, i t was n o t c l e a r w h e th e r a l l th e m a t e r i a l was from h i s pen o r p a r t s of i t from someone e l s e ’s . W r i t in g i n V ida de P o r f i r i o D i a z , B a n c r o f t e x p re s s e d h i s o p in io n t h a t th e r a i l r o a d s c o n s t r u c t e d u n d e r D i a z ’s a e g i s d u r in g h i s f i r s t term i n c r e a s e d th e f lo w o f commerce i n Mexico and a l s o a c t e d as a p o w e r f u l s t i m u l a n t to m an u fa c t u r i n g . M a n u f a c tu rin g i n c r e a s e d b e c a u s e o f th e r a i l r o a d s . B e s id e s th e e n c o u rag e m en t o f r a i l w a y s , th e D iaz governm ent engaged i n o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s w hich b e n e f i t t e d m a n u f a c t u r in g . M a n u f a c tu r e r s w ere the o b j e c t o f i n t e r e s t o f th e D iaz ad m in i s t r a t i o n , w hich e n a c te d p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s i n t h e i r f a v o r . I n d u s t r y i n g e n e r a l was f o s t e r e d by ’’l e y e s s a b i a s ” t o a t t r a c t im m ig ra n ts , e s p e c i a l l y s k i l l e d a r t i s a n s and f a r m e r s . C a p i t a l was l i k e w i s e i n v i t e d t o l o c a t e i n M ex ico .^ ^Ibid., p. xiii. 5Ibid., p. 525. 4Ibid., p. 523. 107 B a n c ro f t n o te d t h a t th e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , w hich was i n a f l o u r i s h i n g s t a t e i n 1843, e n te r e d i n t o a su b s e q u e n t p e rio d o f d e c l i n e , due to p o l i t i c a l ch ao s and c o r r u p t i o n i n th e v a r i o u s g overnm ents a f t e r t h a t d a t e . T h is s t a t e of a f f a i r s had begun to improve by th e tim e o f h i s w r i t i n g . In s h o r t , B a n c ro f t a d o p te d a f a v o r a b l e v iew o f D iaz and m a n u f a c tu r in g . A s i m i l a r view was a d o p te d i n th e n e x t book, a p p e a rin g in 1889. T h is volume was th e p ro d u c t o f a young M exican w r i t e r of th e p e r i o d , A lfo n s o L u is V e la s c o , and was e n t i t l e d P o r f i r i o D iaz y su g a b i n e t e . I t was p u b lis h e d i n Mexico C i t y . My r e s e a r c h u n c o v e re d v i r t u a l l y n o th in g c o n c e rn in g V e la sc o . He was f i v e y e a r s o ld a t th e tim e of th e f i n a l e x p u l s i o n of th e F re n ch i n 1867, w hich would make him tw e n ty - sev en when t h i s book a p p e a re d . He was born and r a i s e d in Mexico C i t y , and had b een an a d m ire r o f D i a z ’ s s in c e he had 7 f i r s t h e a rd of him in 1867. The a u th o r w ro te many b o o k s, a l l e x c e p t th e above p r i n t e d by the D iaz g o v e rn m e n t, i n d i c a t i n g a c a r e e r as a governm ent-em ployed a u t h o r . V e la sc o w ro te a G e o g r a fia y e s t a d l s t i c a de l a R e p u b lic a M exicana which was p r i n t e d by th e O f ic in a T i p o g r a f i c a de l a S e c r e t a r i a de Fomento o f the ^I b i d . , pp. 60 3 -4 . 7 A lfo n so L u is V e la s c o , P o r f i r i o D iaz y su g a b in e te Mexico C i t y : Eduardo D ublan y Compania, Ed i t o r e s , 1889.), pp. 9 -1 0 . D iaz governm ent from 1889 to 1898. I t c o n s i s t e d o f a s t a t i s t i c a l and g e o g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t of e a c h M exican s t a t e , one volume f o r e a c h , and co m p rised a t o t a l s e t o f tw e n ty v olum es, e a c h b e a r i n g th e h e a d in g o f ”Obra Mandada im p rim ir por o rd en d e l supremo g o b ie r n o de lo s E s ta d o s U nidos M exi- c a n o s ." He a l s o w ro te G e o g r a f ia y e s t a d i s t i c a de l a Repub- l i c a M exicana in 1896, p r i n t e d by th e same o f f i c e . T h is a p p a r e n t l y co m p leted h i s l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y . S e v e r a l p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s f o r V e l a s c o ’ s f a v o r a b l e e v a l u a t i o n o f a l l a s p e c t s o f D iaz and h i s regim e were o b v i ous. F i r s t , D iaz e v i d e n t l y im p re sse d th e young w r i t e r , w hich i n i t s e l f m ig ht be enough to make f o r a f a v o r a b l e p i c t u r e o f him and h i s a c t i v i t i e s . S e c o n d ly , a w r i t e r whose w orks were p r i n t e d by th e governm ent w o uld , i n a d i c t a t o r s h i p , be s u p p o r te d by p u b l i c a t i o n o n ly i f h i s w orks were f a v o r a b l e . F i n a l l y , g iv e n c o n d i t i o n s o f c e n s o r s h ip i n Mex i c o , i t would have b e en d i f f i c u l t to f i n d p u b l i c a t i o n in th e c o u n tr y u n l e s s o n e ’ s book w ere e i t h e r n o n in v o lv e d in contem p o r a r y a f f a i r s or f a v o r a b l y d is p o s e d tow ard them , a p o in t w hich must be k e p t i n mind i n th e e x a m in a tio n of o th e r M exican p u b l is h e d w orks d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d . V e l a s c o ’ s judgm ent on Diaz and th e advancem ent o f m a n u f a c tu r in g could h a r d l y have been more f a v o r a b l e . I n h i s f i r s t r e f e r e n c e to th e s u b j e c t , he made th e f l a t s ta te m e n t t h a t D iaz had by now g iv e n l i f e to t h a t a r e a , i n a d d i t i o n to commerce, a g r i c u l t u r e and th e a r t s . I f anyone w anted p r o o f , 109 l e t him loo k a t " e l b i e n e s t a r de l o s h a b i t a n t e s " and th e i n c re a s e i n th e e x p o r t a t i o n of th e p r o d u c ts of a g r i c u l t u r e or i n d u s t r y , w hich now r e a c h e d t h i r t y m i l l i o n p e so s a n n u a l ly , or o f i m p o r ts , w h ich now exceed f i f t y m i l l i o n p e s o s a n n u a l l y . V e la sc o f a i l e d to i n c l u d e any c o v erag e o f c o n d i t i o n s p r i o r to D ia z , nor d id he seem to r e a l i z e t h a t what he had g j u s t r e p o r t e d c o n s t i t u t e d an u n f a v o r a b le b a la n c e of t r a d e . M in d le ss o f t h i s , V e lasc o c o n tin u e d h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of Diaz and m a n u f a c tu r in g . He w ro te t h a t , w h e re v e r one lo o k e d , "se d e s b o rd a la r i q u e z a . " A g r i c u l t u r e , i n d u s t r y , and r a i l r o a d s were making " i n c r e i b l e s p r o g r e s o s . " E v e r y th in g was going fo rw a rd . And why? Sim ply b e c a u se h o n e s ty p e r s o n i f i e d in P o r f i r i o Diaz was now w a tc h in g over th e f i n a n c i a l a f f a i r s of th e Repub- 9 l i e . As a f i t t i n g end to h i s c o v e r a g e , V e la sc o asked who i n Mexico "h a d e s a r r o l l a d o l a s i n d u s t r i a s , la e d u c a c io n pop u l a r , l a a g r i c u l t u r a , l a m a r i n e r i a , e t c . ? " He answ ered h i s own q u e s t i o n w ith a r e s o u n d in g " P o r f i r i o Diaz."'*'9 Between V e l a s c o ’ s work and th e n e x t t h e r e e x i s t e d a gap o f t h i r t e e n y e a r s . Books in S p a n is h on D ia z , how ever, d id c o n tin u e to a p p e a r i n f r e q u e n t l y , f o r th e re a r e b i b l i o g r a p h ic d a t a on s e v e r a l p u b lis h e d i n th e n i n e t i e s , most of them o r i g i n a t i n g i n Mexico C i t y . These works w ere n o t 8Ibid., pp. 71-2. 10 Ibid., p. 79. 9Ibid., p. 183. 110 a v a i l a b l e , however. Thus the n e x t book in t h i s stu d y d a te d from 1902. W ritte n by G u illerm o Wodon de S o rin n e , i t was e n t i t l e d La C o lo n iz a c i6 n de M exico. I t was p u b lis h e d b y the Diaz governm ent. Except f o r the f a c t t h a t th e a u th o r was a c o lo n e l in the army and a c i v i l e n g in e e r w ith a deg ree (b o th of w hich f a c t s may be le a r n e d from th e t i t l e page of th e b o o k ), no b i b l i o g r a p h i c d a ta on him was a v a i l a b l e , d e s p i t e a long se a rc h i n s e v e r a l l i b r a r i e s . C o n se q u e n tly , ex ce p t fo r the obvious f a c t of a l i n k w ith the Diaz governm ent, i t would seem unwise to c o n je c tu r e th e re a s o n s fo r h i s p ro -D iaz p o s i t i o n , a lth o u g h a p o s s ib l e re a s o n w i l l be advanced l a t e r . Wodonr s l i t e r a r y e f f o r t s were a p p a r e n tly concen t r a t e d in t h i s book. A lthough p r i m a r il y concerned w ith c o l o n i z a t i o n e f f o r t s o f the Diaz governm ent, he a l s o i n c l u d ed b r i e f b u t f a v o r a b le m entions o f m a n u fa ctu rin g in v a rio u s p a r t s of th e work. For exam ple, he s t a t e d t h a t e i g h t e e n y e a r s of th e w is e , e n e r g e t i c Diaz governm ent, w h ich bore a l o f t the banner of C i v i l i z a t i o n and P r o g r e s s , had by 1900 c o m p le te ly changed th e u n f o r tu n a te s i t u a t i o n o b ta in in g i n the Mexico of p r e v io u s tim e s. Then th e re were n e i t h e r r a i l ro a d s nor im m igrant c o lo n i e s . Now th e r e were b o th . In ad d i t i o n , r i v e r s had been h a rn e s s e d to i r r i g a t e fo rm e rly b a r re n la n d s . W a t e r f a l l s were employed to move t u r b i n e s to n o u r is h dynamos, g iv in g m otive fo rc e to m a n u fa c tu rin g and l i g h t to an emerging c i v i l i z a t i o n . As sown seed s r a p i d l y germ inated and bore f r u i t Ill b e n e a th the l i f e - g i v i n g sun, so a l s o were a l l the e lem en ts of p u b l ic w e a lth in Mexico a r i s i n g and p r o g r e s s in g . A g r i c u l t u r e , m ining, and m a n u fa c tu rin g , " to d o va n acien d o y c re c ie n d o de una manera que nos l l e v a de a d m ira c io n ." But more people were needed. T h is s t a t e of a f f a i r s could not c o n tin u e i f t h e r e were n o t a c o n tin u in g i n f l u x of people 11 i n t o Mexico. T h is d e s i r e f o r more im m ig ra tio n and c o l o n i z a t i o n , in f a c t , i s the one e x p la n a t i o n which I can advance fo r Wodon*s f a v o r a b le approach to m a n u fa c tu rin g . Most of h i s book was com prised o f a long l e t t e r to D iaz, d a te d September 15, 1900. The l e t t e r was a p p a r e n t l y a resume of p r e s e n t c o n d itio n s of im m igrant c o l o n i z a t i o n and a p le a f o r more a id from th e governm ent. The l e t t e r in c lu d e d the p a ssa g e s a l ready exam ined. Thus, Wodon could have been r e p o r t i n g f a v o ra b ly to Diaz to convince him to give more h e lp to th e im m ig ra n t c o l o n i z a t i o n program , i f he d e s i r e d to see the f a v o ra b le c o n d itio n s which Wodon r e p o r te d c o n tin u e d . The a u th o r made o th e r s ta te m e n ts in t h i s same v e in . He lam ented t h a t th e la b o rin g c l a s s e s were f lo c k in g to the c i t i e s w ith t h e i r g r e a t f a c t o r i e s b ecau se the f a c t o r i e s o f f e re d h ig h e r wages th an d id employment in the c o u n tr y s id e . A g r i c u l t u r e was b e in g abandoned as a r e s u l t . To r e l i e v e the 11 * G u illerm o Wodon de S o rin n e , La C o lo n iz a c io n de Mexico (2nd e d . ; Mexico: O f ic in a T ip o g r a f ic a de l a S e c re - t a r i a de Fomento, 1902), pp. 9-11. 112 im balance caused by th e ru s h to c i t i e s and f a c t o r i e s , a b i g - 12 ger program of a g r i c u l t u r a l c o l o n i z a t i o n was n eed ed . To ward the c lo s e of th e l e t t e r (which ended on page n i n e t y - f i v e of t h i s book o f 104 p a g e s ), th e a u th o r made h i s p le a f o r b ig g e r and b e t t e r c o l o n i z a t i o n . Given th e p r e s e n t s t a t e of M exico, argued "Wodon, a s tr o n g , r a p i d , v i v i f y i n g c o l o n i z a t i o n program would be an in d is p e n s a b le f a c t o r f o r th e s o c i a l e q u i l i b r i u m , th e m a t e r i a l n e c e s s i t i e s , and th e d e v e lo p ment of the com m ercial, i n d u s t r i a l , and p o l i t i c a l program of 13 Mexico. Wodon ended h i s coverage of m an u fa c tu rin g on t h a t n o te . The n e x t book d is c u s s e d h e re appeared two y e a rs l a t e r , in 1904. I t was th e p ro d u ct of Juan Pedro Didapp, who was alm ost as obscure as Wodon. Didapp was one o f th o se a u th o rs about whom only enough could be le a r n e d to f r u s t r a t e the r e s e a r c h e r . He was th e c o n su l g e n e r a l i n S a n ta n d e r, S p ain , d u rin g th e Diaz r e - 14 gime. He f e l l i n t o d i s f a v o r w ith the L im antour f a c t i o n in the Diaz governm ent, which a p p a r e n tly i n c i t e d the S pan ish government to d e c l a r e him p e rso n a non g r a t a and e v i c t him from h is c o n s u la r d u t i e s a t S a n ta n d e r. T his o c c u rre d some tim e a f t e r 1906. Didapp was r e l e g a t e d to a t h i r d - r a t e jo b , a p o l i t e kind o f e x i l e in th e form o f the c o n s u la r p o s t a t 12I b i d . , p. 72. l 3 I b i d . , p. 94. 14 Ju an Pedro Didapp, Los E stad o s Unidos y n u e s t r o s c o n f l i c t o s i n t e r n o s (M exico: T ip o g r a f ia "E l R e p u b lic a n o , k ' 1913), ~ 3 t :----------- 113 N o rfo lk , V i r g i n i a . ^ Some time l a t e r , having tu rn e d a g a i n s t the D iaz governm ent, Didapp r e tu r n e d to Mexico. At t h i s time (1 9 0 9 ), Diaz was s e l e c t i n g Ramon C o rra l to ru n w ith him as V ic e - P r e s id e n t in 1910. Didapp foug ht t h i s s e l e c t i o n in 16 the Chamber of D e p u tie s, b u t w ith o u t s u c c e s s . S e v e ra l y e a rs p a s s e d . Diaz went h i s way, and Didapp took on new d u t i e s . He r e f u s e d to su p p o rt the Madero gov ernment and sp e n t h is tim e in the U nited S t a t e s , l a r g e l y as the. r e p r e s e n t a t i v e in W ashington o f v a rio u s anti-M adero r e v o l u ti o n a r y g ro u p s. He su p p o rte d F ra n c is c o Le6n de la B arra 17 fo r some tim e, as w e ll as F ra n c is c o V^squez Gomez, on whose b e h a l f he b r i e f l y r e tu r n e d to Mexico to t r y and e n l i s t 18 * the su p p o rt of P a s c u a l O rozco. He l a t e r r e p u d ia te d Vas- quez Gomez, su p p o rtin g Orozco, always rem aining a n t i - 19 Madero. Other e v e n ts in Dadapp’s l i f e in c lu d e d h is a r r e s t in E l Paso on ch arges of v i o l a t i n g U n ited S t a t e s n e u t r a l i t y laws i n c o n n e c tio n w ith h i s a c t i v i t i e s w ith Vasquez Gomez 20 and o t h e r s . Dadapp was the a u th o r of s e v e r a l book. His f i r s t was p r i v a t e l y p r i n te d in P uebla i n 1898, Espana en l a g u erra. P a r t id o s p o l i t i c o s de Mexico and El derecho de la f u e r z a both appeared in 1903. G obiernos m i l i t a r e s de Mexico and 15Ibid., pp. 12-13. 16Ibid., p. 10. 17Ibid., p. 54. 18Ibid., p. 56. 19 90 Ibid., p. 62. z Ibid., pp. 55-7. 114 th e work u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n h e r e , E x p lo ta d o r e s p o l i t i c o s de M exico, b o th a p p e a re d i n 1904. R e s p o n s i b i l i d a d e s p o l i t i c a s de Mexico fo llo w e d i n 1905 and a two-volume s e t , Despecho p o l i t i c o , a p p e a re d th e n e x t y e a r . Los E s ta d o s U nidos y n u e s t r o s c o n f l i c t e s i n t e r n e s , h i s l a s t book, was p u b lis h e d in 1913. Didapp d i e d somewhere around 1914. R e g a rd in g the a u t h o r ' s f a v o r a b l e id e a s on Diaz and m a n u fa c tu rin g a s e x h ib i t e d in E x p lo t a d o r e s p o l i t i c o s de M ex ico , t h e y may have been e x p la in e d by th e f a c t t h a t D idapp was i n f a v o r w ith th e Diaz governm ent a t t h a t tim e . Once he f e l l out o f f a v o r , h i s to ne c h an g e d , and a n u n f a v o r a b l e view was advanced i n h i s l a s t w ork, p u b l i s h e d in 1913. In E x p lo t a d o r e s p o l i t i c o s de M ex ico , Ju a n P ed ro D idapp f i r s t d e s c r i b e d th e s t a t e of m a n u fa c tu rin g b e f o r e th e coming o f P o r f i r i o D ia z . At t h a t tim e , i t was i n a v e ry poor c o n d i t i o n . U n s a t i s f a c t o r y m ethods of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s . M oreover, p r o d u c ts were made by han d, and th e r e s u l t was t h a t th e y were made 21 s lo w ly . M a n u fa c tu rin g p r o d u c t i o n was th u s s m a ll. Then came th e New E ra . D idapp p i n p o in t e d i t as b e g in n in g in 22 + 1882. W ith i t , " r e v o l u c i o n hubo en e l m ovim iento i n d u s t r i a l . " Speaking g e n e r a l l y , Didapp opined t h a t manufacturing 21 Ju a n P e d ro D idapp, E x p lo ta d o r e s p o l i t i c o s de Mexico (M exico: T ip o g r a f x a de lo s S u c e so re s de F r a n c i s c o Diaz de Leon, 1 9 0 4 ), pp. 2 3 4 -5 . 22Ibid., p. 305. 115 23 c o n c e rn s "se m u l t i p l i c a b a n ” d u rin g the y e a r s of D ia z . Once i n v e s t o r s f e l t t h a t c a p i t a l i n v e s te d i n Mexico would be s e c u r e , th e y took i t out o f h id in g and p u t i t in to m anu fac t u r i n g and com m ercial p u r s u i t s , i n d i r e c t c o n t r a s t to e a r l i e r d a y s . 24 In p la c e of th e p r i m i t i v e loom gu id ed by a fe m in in e hand, t h e r e was now a pow erfu l m achine, p o s s e s s e d w ith a t e r r i f y i n g e n e rg y , p ro d u c in g a thousand tim e s as much c l o t h a s had th e old hand loom. W ith t h i s new, modern m a c h in e ry , m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s i n Mexico had a r r i v e d **al colmo de su d e s t i n o . ” T h e ir w ares were now w i t h i n th e r e a c h of a l l 25 M exicans. I t was im p o s sib le to deny t h a t Mexico had a d vanced i n d u s t r i a l l y from th e o ld d a y s. Y e t, i t s develop m en t i n t h i s a r e a was s t i l l "c-asi i n s i g n i f ica n te '* compared w ith w hat i t c o u ld b e . 2^ During th e f i v e y e a r s f o llo w in g th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f D idapp*s book, no o th e r s on D i a z 's m anufac t u r i n g co u ld be l o c a t e d . The y e a r 1910, how ever, saw th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f two such s t u d i e s . The f i r s t o f t h e s e was by Joh n H ubert C ornyn, and was c a l l e d D iaz y M exico . I t was o f a h ig h ly la u d a to r y n a t u r e . Cornyn was born i n O n t a r i o , Canada, i n 1875, and d ie d i n 1941. He r e c e iv e d h i s B a ch e lo r of A r t s d e g re e from T oro n to U n i v e r s i t y in 1895 and s p e n t two y e a r s in 27 Ibid., pp. 239-41. Ibid., p. 237. 24Ibid., p. 234. 26Ibid., p. 298. 116 p o s tg ra d u a te s t u d i e s in Germany and F ra n ce . He employed h i s l i f e in a v a r i e t y of p r o f e s s i o n s . He d id newspaper work i n T o ro n to , moving on to the same type of employment in New York C ity , Cuba, and Mexico. Once he reached Mexico, Cornyn found the p la c e which was to be h i s home fo r many y e a rs and a g r e a t in f lu e n c e on h is l i f e . He became the p r i n c i p a l and d i r e c t o r of the Mexico C ity Grammar and High School in 1901, and rem ained a t t h i s ta s k f o r th e next fo u r y e a r s . During 1908 and 1909 he was p r i n c i p a l o f Pan-American C o lle g e . The fo llo w in g y ear he became p r o f e s s o r of E n g lish and Greek a t the N a tio n a l U n iv e r s ity of Mexico, a p o s t which he held u n t i l 1913. He a ls o worked in jo u rn a lis m d u rin g th ese y e a r s , r e p o r t i n g on the Mexican r e v o l u t io n s of 1910 to 1914. Cornyn then r e tu r n e d to the U nited S t a t e s . He b e came a p r o f e s s o r of Romance languages a t Birmingham S outhern C ollege d u rin g 1918-1919. He sp e n t the n ex t y ear a t South w e ste rn U n iv e r s ity and th en r e tu r n e d to Mexico, becoming managing e d i t o r of s e v e r a l Mexican new spapers. He a ls o served as d i r e c t o r of the Chicago T ribune F oreig n News Bureau (Mexico C ity ) from 1920 to 1932. Here he covered th e Mexican p o l i t i c a l scene d u rin g t h a t e r a . He was a p r o f e s s o r of A ztec language and l i t e r a t u r e a t the summer school of the Mexican N a tio n a l U n i v e r s i ty from 1923 to 1931, and a ls o op e r a te d h is own t o u r i s t h o t e l in Mexico C ity , th e Q u e tz a l- c o a t l P a la c e . He sp e n t h is l a s t y e ars i n t h i s a c t i v i t y . Cornyn w rote more th an newspaper a r t i c l e s . He was 117 th e a u th o r o f b o o k s o f s t o r i e s on M exican f o l k l o r e , i n c l u d in g M exican F a i r y T a l e s and K ing o f Reeds and R ushes ( b o t h 1 9 0 8 ), and I n th e Name o f Our Lady ( 1 9 0 9 ) . He a l s o e d i t e d v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s on H is p a n ic A m erica i n s e v e r a l e n c y c l o p e d i a s , f i n a l l y becom ing th e H is p a n ic A m erica e d i t o r o f th e E n c y c lo p e d ia A m erican a i n 1915, h o ld in g t h i s p o s i t i o n u n t i l 1920. Cornyn a c q u i r e d an e n d u rin g i n t e r e s t i n th e a b o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s o f M exico. T h is r e s u l t e d i n much r e s e a r c h and s e v e r a l b o o k s. He made many t r a n s l a t i o n s o f s t o r i e s , s o n g s , and com edies from N a h u a tl i n t o E n g l i s h and S p a n i s h , among them tw e lv e I n d i a n d ra m a s. Books r e s u l t i n g from t h i s i n t e r e s t i n c l u d e d The Song of Q u e t z a l c o a t l ( 1 9 3 0 ) , The Song of th e Ages ( 1 9 3 0 ) , and The Song o f T e t z a u t e a t l ( 1 9 3 8 ) . 27 As i t a p p e a re d i n Diaz y M e x ico , C o rn y n ’ s o p i n io n on D iaz and m a n u f a c tu r in g w as r a t h e r long and h i g h l y f a v o r a b l e . I n d e e d , t h e e n t i r e work d e m o n s tr a te d a f a v o r a b l y o r i e n t e d a p p ro a c h t o Diaz and h i s c o u n t r y . No r e a s o n can be ad vanced w i t h c o n f id e n c e t o e x p l a i n t h i s a p p ro a c h . H ow ever, th e a u t h o r seemed to be a f a i r l y good exam ple o f th e A n g lo -S a x o n who came t o D i a z ’ s M exico, d id w e l l , and th e n w ro te l o v i n g l y o f t h e reg im e u n d e r w h ich he found p r o s p e r i t y . In my j u d g m ent, t h i s was a p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r C o rn y n ’ s t r e a t m e n t of m a n u f a c tu r in g i n D i a z ’ s p e r i o d . D iaz y M exico was a tw o-volum e w ork, b u t C ornyn 27W ho's Who i n A m e ric a, XXI (1 9 4 0 - 1 9 4 1 ) , 651. 118 c o n fin e d h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of m a n u fa c tu rin g to th e second v o l ume. He made e x te n s iv e m en tio n o f g r e a t im provem ents i n m a n u fa c tu rin g d u r in g D i a z ’s r u l e , f i r s t sp e a k in g i n a g e n e r a l v e in , n o tin g M l a m a r a v i l l o s a m e jo r ia r e a l i z a d a en cada l i n e a de l a i n d u s t r i a . " Cornyn b e li e v e d t h a t th e p r o s p e r i t y of e v e r y c o u n try depended l a r g e l y upon the p r o g r e s s o f i t s m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s . A g lan c e a t Mexico d u r in g th e l a s t t h i r d o f a c e n tu r y d e m o n s tra te d t h i s t r u t h c l e a r l y . The Mexico of th e p r e v io u s e r a and th e Mexico of 1910 seemed l i k e two d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n s . The d i f f e r e n c e was due to th e p r o g r e s s made i n th e c o u n try d u rin g t h r e e and a h a l f d e c a d e s . ^A.11 o f t h i s p r o g r e s s was due to the " a d m ira b le d e s a r r o l l o econdm ico i n d u s t r i a l d e l p a i s 1' d u r in g th e Diaz • ,, 28 p e r i o d . When Diaz came i n t o power in_M exico, m a n u fa c tu rin g c o n d it i o n s were p o o r. The Mexican people had alm o st l o s t P 9 f a i t h t h a t t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s would im prove. S e v e ra l f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e d to th e " b a jo n i v e l " of i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t i e s a t t h i s tim e . L ocal im p o rts were im p o rta n t in t h i s r e s p e c t , f o r th ey te n d e d to o b s t r u c t commerce and b lo c k the developm ent o f m a n u fa c tu rin g a c t i v i t y in M exico. T a r i f f b a r r i e r s e r e c t e d betw een Mexico i t s e l f and th e r e s t of th e p © Ju an Humberto [Joh n H u b ert] Cornyn, Diaz y M exico, I I (M exico: Im p ren ta L acau d , 1910), pp. 168-9. 29 Ibid., pp. 165-6. 119 w orld a ls o c o n t r i b u t e d to th e o b s t r u c t i o n and r e t a r d a t i o n of grow th in m a n u fa c tu rin g - F u rth e rm o re , b e ca u se of th e con s t a n t p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n s w ith w hich th e n a t i o n was a f f l i c t e d b e fo re D ia z , i t was n e x t to im p o s s ib le to borrow money to s e t up a l o c a l m a n u fa c tu rin g e n t e r p r i s e . T h is u n f o r t u n a t e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s c o n tin u e d f o r some y e a r s i n t o th e Diaz p e r i o d , b e cau se m a t t e r s had been so bad f o r so long t h a t i t was d i f f i c u l t to r e g a i n th e c o n fid e n c e o f th e n a t i o n and i t s p e o p le . M a tte r s , how ever, d id e v e n t u a l l y im prove. From th e f i r s t , D iaz showed h i m s e l f d e c i d e d l y in fa v o r o f i n d u s t r i a l developm ent in a l l d i r e c t i o n s and by a l l means p o s s i b l e . H is government s p e n t m i l l i o n s of p e so s i n s u b s i d i e s f o r th e e s t a b l is h m e n t of new f a c t o r i e s . Hundreds of new u n d e r t a k in g s were conceded ex em p tio n s from payment o f im post d u t i e s f o r c e r t a i n p e r io d s o f tim e . As a r e s u l t of a l l t h i s a c t i v i t y on th e p a r t o f th e Diaz governm ent, m a n u fa c tu rin g had re a c h e d a p o i n t by 1910 where i t would a lm o st s a t i s f y 30 e v e ry b o d y ’ s m a t e r i a l n eeds i n th e n e a r f u t u r e . Moving from a n a t i o n a l c o v e ra g e , Cornyn m entioned r e c e n t m anufac t u r i n g in c re m e n ts i n s e v e r a l M exican s t a t e s . A g u a s c a l i e n t e s "h a p ro s p e ra d o mucho de pocos anos" i n r e g a r d t o i t s m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s . The same could 3°Ibid., II, pp. 169-71. 31 Ibid., II, p. 245. 120 32 be s a i d f o r C h ia p a s , t o an even g r e a t e r e x t e n t . In Nuevo L eon, th e c i t y o f M o n te r re y had g r e a t l y grown i n im p o rta n c e w i t h i n th e p a s t t e n y e a r s , d u r in g w hich tim e num erous manu f a c t u r i n g c o n c e rn s had b een e s t a b l i s h e d . M o n te rre y had b een c o n v e r te d to one o f th e m ost advan ced c e n t e r s o f m a n u f a c t u r in g i n th e e n t i r e R e p u b li c . L arg e am ounts o f money had been i n v e s t e d i n th e c i t y , and new c a p i t a l had b e e n c o n s t a n t l y Q added t o t h a t w hich was a l r e a d y i n v e s t e d i n th e num berous 33 i n d u s t r i e s to be foun d t h e r e . On t h a t n o t e , C ornyn ended h i s c o v erag e o f m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D ia z . Much th e same s o r t o f view s w ere d i s p l a y e d i n an a d u l a t o r y work p u b l is h e d d u r i n g th e same y e a r , c a l l e d E l Mdxico de P o r f i r i o D i a z , i t was w r i t t e n by a young S p a n ia r d , J u l i o S e s t o . S e s to was a n o th e r exam ple of a n on-M exican w r i t i n g a work on Diaz i n S p a n is h . S e s to was b o rn i n P o n te v e d ra , S p a in , in 1879, b u t came to M exico a t an e a r l y a g e , w here he s p e n t th e r e s t o f h i s l i f e " c o n s a g ra d o a l p e rio d is m o y a l a s l e t r a s . " He w orked f o r s e v e r a l n e w sp a p ers i n M exico, i n c lu d i n g E l I m p a r c i a l and E l Mundo. S e s to s p e n t some tim e as h o l d e r o f th e c h a i r i n l i t e r a t u r e a t th e U n i v e r s id a d de M exico. He d i e d in 1960. S e s to w ro te s e v e r a l w o rk s, i n c lu d i n g a book o f poem s, A z u l e j o s . H is poem "Las 32Ibid. , II, p. 249. 33Ibid. , II, p. 261. 121 A bandonadas” won immense p o p u l a r i t y i n M e x i c o . S e v e r a l n o v e ls w ere a ls o numbered among h is l i t e r a r y e f f o r t s , i n c lu d in g La T o r t o l a d e l A ju sco ( 1 9 1 5 ), La Ciudad de lo s p a l a c i o s (1 9 2 0 ) , and iMamacita l i n d a ! ( 1 9 2 7 ) . S e s to a l s o produced f a c t u a l w o rk s, such as H i s t o r i a d e l p e n sa m ie n to m exicano (1 9 4 2 ). No r e a s o n can be advanced f o r th e f a v o r a b l e n a t u r e of E l Mexico de P o r f i r i o D iaz on D i a z ’ s advancem ent of manu f a c t u r i n g , o th e r th a n th e f a c t t h a t S e s to was tre m e n d o u s ly im p re sse d w ith D iaz and th e Mexico he r u l e d , a f a c t w hich was m a n if e s te d th ro u g h o u t h i s book. S e s to em ployed a g e n e r a l l y r e g i o n a l a p p ro a ch i n h i s c ov erage o f M exican m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d er D iaz. F i r s t , how e v e r , he spoke a b o u t c o n d i t i o n s in t h i s f i e l d th r o u g h o u t M ex ico _ He c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e c o u n try a s now b e in g — "em in en tem en te i n d u s t r i a l . ” A c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r to t h i s p r e s e n t s t a t e of a f f a i r s was th e f a c t t h a t M exicans p o s s e s s e d g e n u in e ly i n d u s t r i a l a t t i t u d e s . "M oreover, Diaz p r o v id e d them w ith u n f a m i l i a r b u t needed p e a c e f u l c o n d i t i o n s in w hich to d e v e lo p . When th e y r e a l i z e d t h a t p eace i n Mexico now e x i s t e d , t h e i r i n s t i n c t of s a t i s f y i n g t h e i r im m ediate n e c e s s i t i e s to o k command, and th e y s u b s e q u e n t ly m a n u fa c tu re d ^ D i c c i o n a r i o P o rru a de h i s t o r i a , b i o g r a f i a , y g e o g r a f i a <de Mexico (M exico: E d i t o r i a l P o r r u a , S. A. p“. 1355. 122 35 e v e r y th in g w hich th e y had p r e v i o u s l y la c k e d . S e s to th en gave a d e s c r i p t i o n of some o f the m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s d e v e lo p in g d u rin g th e Diaz p e r io d i n v a rio u k p a r t s o f Mex i c o . For exam ple, C hihuahua was d e s c r i b e d as now p o s s e s s ing l a r g e , modern i n d u s t r i e s , such as i t s famous f l o u r and c o tt o n m i l l s . In f a c t , p r o g r e s s in C hihuahua had been so g r e a t i n r e c e n t y e a r s t h a t M lo s m e t r o p o l i t a n o s I i n h a b i t a n t s 37 o f Mexico C ity ] se asom braron de e l l o s . ” S a l t i l l o was b e ing tra n s fo rm e d , a m id st th e p o w e rfu l c h a n t of th e looms Q O w hich were e l a b o r a t i n g f i n e a r t i c l e s from c o tt o n and wool. I n Durango, th e c i t y of Gomez P a l a c io had now re a c h e d a h ig h s t a t e o f m a n u fa c tu rin g d e v elo p m e n t, ev id e n ce d by th e f a c t t h a t c o n t a i n e r s m an u fa ctu red by th e f a c t o r i e s o f th e c i t y 39 were now sh ip p ed to a l l p a r t s of th e R e p u b lic f o r u s e . S e sto th e n moved on to P u e b la .. He s t a t e d t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l lo o k in g a t the new P u e b la , w ith i t s f e v e r i s h man u f a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t y , f e l t th e hand of D iaz and even saw him t h e r e , f o r t h a t P r e s i d e n t had g iv e n a l l t h i s a c t i v i t y i t s im p e tu s . In V e ra c ru z , one now e n c o u n te r e d huge f a c t o r i e s . An example would be th e complex making up th e "Compania 3~*Julio S e s to , E l Mexico de P o r f i r i o Diaz (2nd ed.; V a le n c ia : F. Sempere, 1 9 1 0 ), p"! 128. 36I b i d . , p. 141. 37I b i d . , p. 138. 38Ibid., p. 143. 39Ibid., p. 152. 123 I n d u s t r i a l de O riz a b a , S. A . , n founded in 1889. T his co n c e rn produced the same ty p es of goods a s d id th o se in P u e b la , c o tto n c l o t h and o th e r f a b r i c s . ^ S e s t o ’s d e s c r i p t i o n o f m a n u fa c tu rin g under D ia z , a lth o u g h f a i r l y s u b s ta n t i a l , was dw arfed by one p ro v id e d by A dolfo D o l l e r o , a u th o r of Mexico a l d i a . Mexico a l d i a ap p ea re d in 1911, im m ed iately b e fo re D ia z ’ s d e p a r tu re from Mexico f o r e x i l e and d e a th in P a r i s . I t i s im p o s sib le to say much about D o lle ro w ith c e r t a i n t y . He was e v id e n tl y non-M exican, sin c e Mexico a l d i a d e s c r ib e d a t r i p which he made th ro u g h th e c o u n try . He may have been from Colombia, f o r he d id w r i t e a book p r i n t e d in Bogota in 1930 c a l le d C u ltu ra c o lo m b ia n a . But my c o n je c tu r e i s t h a t he was Cuban. He w rote one book c a l l e d C u ltu r a cubana (La p r o v in c ia de M atanzas y su e v o lu c io n i n 1919, and a n o th e r , C u ltu r a cubana (La p r o v i n c i a de P in a r d e l Rio y su e v o lu - c i o n ) , in 1921. T h is in i t s e l f proved n o th in g , b u t the f a c t t h a t D o lle ro w rote on th e l o c a l h i s t o r y of Cuban p ro v in c e s seemed to i n d i c a t e t h a t he was e i t h e r a Cuban by b i r t h or p o ssesse d o f a long e x p e r ie n c e in t h a t n a t i o n . As f o r Mexico a l d i a , th e re was room f o r g r e a t e r c e r t a i n t y , f o r th e a u th o r h im s e lf o u t li n e d th e re a so n s f o r the book. He s a id t h a t , upon w r i t in g Mexico a l d i a , he had not d e s i r e d to c r e a t e a l i t e r a r y work, but r a t h e r to sim p ly 40 Ibid., pp. 144-7. 124 d e m o n stra te t h a t Mexico was a c o u n try w ith an a l l u r i n g f u tu re and t h a t c a p i t a l could be in v e s te d here i n a thousand d i f f e r e n t f i e l d s , a l l of them w ith m a g n ific e n t a t t r a c t i o n s . T his in v estm en t would be under the a e g is of "un G obierno f i r m e , a p to , c i v i l , moderno, que ampara e fic az m e n te i . m exi- canos y e x t r a n j e r o s , M t h a t of P o r f i r i o D iaz. Here the t o u r i s t , the s tu d e n t of s o c io lo g y or e th n o lo g y , th e m a n u fa c tu r e r , the comm ercial man, th e sage, and the man of b u s in e s s would a l l fin d som ething new, a g re e a b le , and i n t e r e s t i n g . Mexico had ev o lv e d . I t was n o t the Mexico of y e s te r d a y , b le s s e d w ith few r a i l r o a d s , w ith in s e c u re p o r t s and th o r o u g h f a r e s , w ith v i o l e n t changes of governm ent, and f r a t r i c i d a l s t r u g g l e s . I t was a new c o u n try , f u l l of a s p i r a t i o n s and of l i f e , w ith the d e s i r e to m a in ta in i t s e l f in th e vanguard of H isp a n ic American n a t i o n s . I t was a c o u n try which was guided by p e ac e, p r o g r e s s , and c i v i l i z a t i o n . I t was to t e l l of t h i s r e a l , p r e s e n t Mexico t h a t Mexico a l d ia 41 was w r i t t e n . S t a r t i n g from t h i s p o i n t, when D o lle ro spoke of m an u fa ctu rin g under D iaz, one m ight ex p ect him to have spoken of i t f a v o r a b ly , which was th e c a se . The book was the re c o rd of a l e i s u r e l y t r i p tak e n 42 around Mexico l a t e i n the Diaz p e rio d (1907) w ith s p e c i a l Adolfo D o lle ro , Mexico a l d ia (Im p re sio n e s y n o ta s de via.je) ( P a r i s : L i b r e r l a de la Viuda de C. B o u re t, 1911), pp. 7 -9 . ^ I b i d . , p. 11. 125 r e f e r e n c e to m a n u f a c tu r in g c o n d i t i o n s . The a u th o r seems to have v i s i t e d e v e r y f a c t o r y i n M exico and t o have b een f a v o r a b ly im p re s s e d w ith them a l l . C o n s e q u e n tly , i t i s incum bent t o g iv e o n ly a sa m p lin g o f D o l l e r o ’ s comments. D o l l e r o began h i s t o u r o f th e c o u n tr y i n th e c a p i t a l . He p r e s e n t e d many f a v o r a b l e s k e t c h e s o f v a r i o u s f a c t o r i e s he v i s i t e d i n th e g e n e r a l a r e a of th e F e d e r a l D i s t r i c t i n h i s book': He made a t o u r o f ”La C a r o l i n a , ” and " e x p l e n - d i d a f a b r i c a de h i l a d o s , t e j i d o s y e stam p ad o s de a l g o d o n . ” ”La C a r o l i n a ” was th e p r o p e r t y o f th e " f l o r e c i e n t e c a s a e s p a fio la C. N o rie g a y C i a . ” At th e tim e o f D o l l e r o ’ s v i s i t , th e f a c t o r y was n o t ru n n in g to i t s f u l l c a p a c i t y , b u t he w i t n e s s e d t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f th e l a s t o f th e m ac h in e s t o be em ployed in th e p l a n t , " t o d a s de p r o c e d e n c i a i n g l e s a , p e r - f e c t a s y m o d e rn a s ." Once t h i s i n s t a l l a t i o n was c o m p le te d , th e ow ners i n te n d e d t o p ro d u ce 7 0 0 ,0 0 0 c u t s of c l o t h p e r y e a r . T h is l a b o r would r e q u i r e o v e r se v en h u n d red w o r k e r s , e i g h t hundred loom s, and t w e n t y - f i v e thou-s-and s p i n d l e s . ^ Some d a y s l a t e r , th e a u th o r v i s i t e d a s i l k f a c t o r y i n th e a r e a , th e p r o p e r t y o f H i p d l i t o Chambon, a F rench s u b j e c t . T h is p a r t i c u l a r f i r m was fo u n d ed som etim e a f t e r 1880, an d , a f t e r e n e r g e t i c e f f o r t s on th e p a r t o f i t s ow ner, had become th e m ost im p o r ta n t f a c t o r y o f i t s k in d i n th e e n t i r e R e p u b li c . The f a c t o r y c o n ta in e d t h r e e th o u sa n d s p i n d l e s 43Ibid., p. 35. 126 w hich spun th e s i l k i n t o t h r e a d f o r th e p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c t i o n o f th e f i r m , th e M exican sh aw l or r e b o z o . Rebozos made by th e f a c t o r y w ere i n demand t h r o u g h o u t M ex ico , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e P a c i f i c C o a st and C e n t r a l S t a t e s , and w ere even t o be s h ip p e d to th e n a t i o n s of C en t r a l and S outh A m e ric a, w here t h e y " e n c o n t r a r f a n muy buen m e r c a d o ." E u ro p ea n m ethods w ere employed to wash and dye th e s i l k . Chambon im p o rte d a n i l i n e d y e s and o t h e r c h e m ic a ls from F r a n c e , Germany and th e U n ite d S t a t e s . T a n n ic a c i d was o b t a i n e d from th e n a t i v e c a s c a l o t e . B e s id e s s h a w ls , t h i s f a c t o r y p ro d u ced s i l k t h r e a d f o r o t h e r , l e s s i m p o r t a n t s i l k m a n u f a c t u r e r s , as w e l l a s sew ing t h r e a d . In a s h o r t tim e i t w ould b e g in to make p o n g e e s, t a f f e t a s and o t h e r s p e c i a l t y 44 f a b r i c s . D o l l e r o n e x t v i s i t e d a f a c t o r y m aking l a d i e s ’ h a t s , " l a p r im e r a f a b r i c a de b o n e t a r i a que e x i s t e e n l a R epub- l i c a . " Even i n E u ro p e , p e r h a p s , t h e r e were few b o n n e t f a c t o r i e s w hich c o u ld com pete w i t h "La P e r f e c c i o n a d a ." The e n t e r p r i s e was l o c a t e d i n th e F e d e r a l D i s t r i c t , and was owned by a c a p i t a l i s t named R o s a l, who i n v i t e d th e a u th o r to to u r i t . The f a c t o r y u se d E g y p ti a n , U n ite d S t a t e s , and M exican c o t t o n , and had a d a i l y p r o d u c t i o n , b e s i d e s h a t s , o f 350 d o z e n u n d e r s h i r t s and u n d e r p a n t s and 250 d o z e n so c k s and s t o c k i n g s o f a l l s i z e s . The b o n n e ts made i n th e f a c t o r y 44 Ibid., pp. 67-8. 127 were o f combed c o t t o n , w ith the e x c e p t i o n o f th e f i n e r l a d i e s 1 h e a d g e a r or o u t e s . These w ere made from E g y p tia n c o t t o n and were so p e r f e c t t h a t t h e y a c t u a l l y s o ld f o r h i g h e r p r i c e s th a n th o s e im p o rte d from th e U n ite d S t a t e s . M La P e r f e c c i o n a d a ” a l s o m a n u fa c tu re d meshwork f a b r i c s from m er c e r i z e d t h r e a d . The p l a n t 1s m a c h in e ry was composed o f more th a n 350 German, A m erican , and E n g lis h m a c h in e s , a l l moved by e l e c t r i c i t y . The s i x hundred w o rk e rs employed by th e f i r m w ere m ost f o r t u n a t e i n t h a t th e y r e c e i v e d good h o u sin g f o r v e ry low r e n t s and had th e s e r v i c e s of a d o c to r f o r th e m s e lv e s and t h e i r f a m i l i e s . For th e d o c to r and m e d ic in e th e y had to pay o n ly one c e n ta v o d a i l y ( a t t h i s tim e , a b o u t o n e - h a l f c e n t i n U n ite d S t a t e s c u r r e n c y ) . The company p a id f o r th e 4 - 4 5 r e s t . D o l l e r o n e x t t r a v e l e d to a r e c e n t l y fou nded b u t s u c c e s s f u l f a c t o r y i n th e c a p i t a l , "La S u i z a . ’1 uLa S u i z a ” was a ” f l o r e c i e n t e . . . f ^ b r i c a de d u l c e s , ” whose p r i n c i p a l s h a r e h o l d e r s w ere two I t a l i a n s , th e L o d ig ia n i b r o t h e r s . The f a c t o r y had done m ir a c u l o u s l y w e l l . A lth o u g h i t was founded o n ly i n 1902, n e v e r t h e l e s s , when D o l l e r o v i s i t e d th e p l a c e , i t had su c ce ed e d in a t t r a c t i n g th e f a v o r o f th e p u b l i c to th e e x t e n t t h a t "su p o s i c i o n c o m e rc ia l e r a v e rd a d e ra m e n te p r i v i l e g i a d a . ” The d a i l y p r o d u c t i o n o f f i n e c a n d ie s a t t h i s 45Ibid., p. 78. 128 p l a n t am ounted to more th a n 1 ,500 k i l o g r a m s , bo n b o n s and c a ra m e ls b e in g th o s e c a n d i e s p ro duced i n th e g r e a t e s t num b e r . S e v e n ty w o rk e r s were em ployed. The m a c h in e ry was v e r y modern and came from S w it z e r l a n d and Germany. The lu x u r y b o x e s i n w hich t h e c a n d ie s were packed came from I t a l y , a s d id th e alm onds and e s s e n c e s employed i n t h e i r p r e p a r a - . . 46 t i o n . The a u th o r f i n a l l y l e f t th e c a p i t a l and s t a r t e d h i s t o u r of t h e r e s t o f t h e c o u n tr y . He found m a n u f a c tu r in g s e e m in g ly i n e v e r y M exican town o f any c o n s e q u e n c e . S in c e t h e s e s k e t c h e s o f m a n u f a c tu r in g w ere a l l f a v o r a b l e and t h e r e w ere d o z en s of them s p r e a d th r o u g h o u t th e book, o n ly a few w i l l be r e p r o d u c e d h e r e . I n C e la y a , G u a n a ju a to , D o l l e r o e n c o u n te r e d an a l c o h o l f a c t o r y , "La F a v o r i t a , " i n t r o d u c i n g i t b y , " l B o n i t a f a b r i c a La F a v o r i t a y una am able p e rs o n a e l d i r e c t o r Don A gusto V ey an !" "La F a v o r i t a ” was an u p - t o - d a t e a l c o h o l d i s t i l l a t i o n p l a n t , em p loy ing C o l l e t t e ’ s method o f d i s t i l l a t i o n , s u p e r i o r t o any o t h e r . C o n s e q u e n tly , i t s p r o d u c t was th e b e s t i n th e c o u n tr y in q u a l i t y and i n y i e l d . From one hun dred k i l o s o f c o r n , "La F a v o r i t a " was a b le to e x t r a c t f o r t y l i t e r s o f v e r y f i n e a l c o h o l . B ut th e f i r m ’ s p r o d u c t i o n d id n o t s t o p t h e r e . Each day t e n th o u s a n d k ilo g r a m s o f c a r b o n ic a c id w ere p ro d u ce d a s 46Ibid., pp. 95-6. 129 a b y - p r o d u c t , owing to the f a c t o r y ' s p e r f e c t e d sy ste m . M La F a v o r i t a " a l s o p ro duced o i l from what was l e f t o f th e c o rn used i n making a l c o h o l . What rem ained of th e c o rn a f t e r t h a t was e x p o r te d to E u ro p e , where i t was employed t o f a t t e n c a t t l e . Veyan showed D o lle r o around th e f a c t o r y h i m s e l f , p o i n t i n g o u t p l a n s f o r a new sy ste m o f co m p lete d i s t i l l a t i o n w hich had b e e n in v e n te d i n P a r i s . Work was r a p i d l y g o in g on i n th e f a c t o r y f o r th e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h i s new, im proved s y s te m . "La F a v o r i t a Ts " c a p i t a l was F re n c h . I t amounted to around 300,000 p e so s on th e b o o k s, b u t much more th a n t h a t had b e en i n v e s t e d . Around two hundred w o rk e rs were p r e s e n t l y em ployed, p ro d u c in g a b o u t f i v e m i l l i o n l i t e r s o f hundred p r o o f a l c o h o l a t t h a t tim e , " l o que da una i d e a de su im por- t a n c i a . " 47 D o l l e r o v i s i t e d a n o th e r f a c t o r y in C e la y a im m e d ia te l y a f t e r he had c o n clu d ed h i s i n s p e c t i o n o f "La F a v o r i t a . " T h is firm s p e c i a l i z e d i n f a b r i c a t i n g v a r i o u s a r t i c l e s from w o o l, e s p e c i a l l y c a r p e t s , as w e l l a s i n m aking wool t h r e a d . I t was owned by Manuel M o lin a, and was c a l l e d "San A n to n io ." Even tho ugh i t was n o t one o f th e m ost im p o r ta n t w oolen m i l l s i n M exico, i t p rodu ced " s i n embargo a r t i c u l o s muy b u e n o s, y e s p e c ia lm e n te a lfo m b ra s de c l a s e s s u p e r i o r e s v e r d a d e r a m e n te . " The f a c t o r y was ru n n in g d ay and n i g h t , and 47Ibid., pp. 130-1. 130 * a g r e a t f u t u r e was p r e d i c t e d f o r i t by D o l l e r o , due t o the a c t i v i t y of M olina and h i s c o n s t a n t e f f o r t s t o im prove p r o - ^ 48 d u c t i o n . D o l l e r o Ts book i s th e l a s t to be d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n o f my s tu d y . The a u t h o r s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r e x p re s s e d many o f th e o p in io n s of t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s w r i t i n g i n E n g l i s h , exam ined p r e v i o u s l y . The same s t o r y was t o l d of grow th i n m a n u fa c tu rin g i n many l i n e s and i n many a r e a s of th e R e p u b lic , o f p r id e i n m a n u f a c tu r in g a d v a n c e s , p e rh a p s b e s t e x p re s s e d i n th e p ages o f D o lle r o and V e la s c o . T here was a l s o a f r e q u e n t a ssig n m e n t o f c o m p lete c r e d i t f o r such d e v elo p m e n ts a s o c c u rre d t o P o r f i r i o D ia z , a c t i n g w i t h such p o l i c i e s . a s h ig h t a r i f f s , c o n c e s s i o n s , and th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of p e a c e f u l c o n d i t i o n s . At tim e s , th e p r a i s e of D iaz f o r su c h a c t i v i t i e s re a c h e d th e p o i n t o f a d u l a t i o n , b u t i t m ust be k e p t i n mind t h a t th e a u th o r s o f many of th e o p in io n s e x p r e s s e d were M exicans, w r i t i n g u n d e r a M exican d i c t a t o r , a c o m b in a tio n w hich p e rh a p s i n v i t e d a d u l a t i o n , an d , of c o u r s e , f a v o r a b l e o p in io n s . These w r i t e r s were im m ensely i n t e r e s t i n g to me, f o r th e y in c lu d e d men from many d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s i o n s , i n c l i n a t i o n s , even c o u n t r i e s . R eading th e a c c o u n t o f an E nglishm an w r i t i n g in S p a n ish on a Mexico i n w hich he l i v e d i s a b i z a r r e e x p e r i e n c e , b u t a w o rth w h ile o n e, f o r i t t e l l s much of 48Ibid., p. 131. 131 the a u th o r h i m s e l f , more p e rh a p s of th e s o c i e t y o f an age i n which a f o r e i g n e r c o u ld h a p p ily s e t t l e i n Mexico and t h e r e w r i t e b o o k s. CHAPTER I I I UNFAVORABLE SOURCES IN ENGLISH Every h i s t o r i c a l phenomenon h as a t l e a s t two s i d e s . The r o l e of D iaz i n M exican m a n u f a c tu r in g and th e s t a t e o f m a n u fa c tu rin g i n D i a z ’ s Mexico were no e x c e p t i o n s . To le a v e th e s e s u b j e c t s w ith o u t an e x a m in a tio n o f th e u n f a v o r a b le view s w hich some a u t h o r s h e ld r e g a r d i n g them would be to le a v e th e s u b j e c t o f t h i s p a p e r o n ly h a l f - e x p l o r e d . I t would a l s o r u n th e r i s k of g iv in g th e r e a d e r an u n r e a l i s t i c o u tlo o k on th e e n t i r e q u e s t i o n of m a n u f a c tu r in g under D ia z . T hus, my s tu d y now t u r n s to a r e v ie w o f u n f a v o r a b le a u th o r s and o p in io n s i n E n g lis h w hich a p p e a re d p r i o r to D i a z ’ s o v e rth ro w in 1911. The a u th o r s t o be d i s c u s s e d had i n t e r e s t i n g b a c k g ro u n d s . Some of them m e r e ly t r a v e l e d to Mexico and re c o r d e d th e u n f a v o r a b le im p r e s s io n s on m anu fac t u r i n g w hich th e y r e c e i v e d . O th e r w r i t e r s were r a d i c a l s who ten d e d to view m a n u fa c tu rin g u n d er Diaz a s a new exam ple o f an old e v il- - w a g e s l a v e r y . The f i r s t o f th e s e u n f a v o r a b le a c c o u n ts ap p ea re d i n M exico! P i c t u r e s q u e , P o l i t i c a l , P r o g r e s s i v e . T h is work a p p e a re d i n 1888, and was w r i t t e n by Mary E l i z a b e t h Blake and M a rg a re t F . S u l l i v a n . 132 133 Both a u th o r s o r i g i n a l l y e m ig ra te d t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s from I r e l a n d . M rs. Blake was b o rn t h e r e in 1840. She was e d u c a te d i n Q uincy and B o sto n , M a s s a c h u s e tts , f i n i s h i n g h er e d u c a ti o n a t th e Academy o f the S acred H e a r t . She m a rrie d i n 1865 and had s i x c h i l d r e n . She c o n t r i b u t e d a r t i c l e s to num erous p e r i o d i c a l s of th e tim e , such a s the N o rth A m erican R eview , C a th o l i c W orld, S c r i b n e r Ts M a g az in e , and The P i l o t , and w rote a column f o r the B o sto n J o u r n a l f o r many y e a r s . She w ro te s e v e r a l b o o k s: Poems (1 8 8 4 ) , On th e Wing; Rambling N otes on a T r ip to th e P a c i f i c (1 8 8 5 ), A Summer H o lid ay i n Europe (1 8 8 9 ), V erse s a lo n g th e Way (1890), and A Memoire (1 8 9 5 ) , among o t h e r s . She l i v e d in B o s to n ,^ u n t i l h er d e a th i n 1907. M a rg a re t F . S u l l i v a n was a ls o b o rn i n I r e l a n d , and fo llo w e d th e c a r e e r of a newspaperwoman, u n u s u a l in th o se t im e s . She was an e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r on C hicago d a i l y news p a p e rs and f o r le a d in g j o u r n a l s i n New York and B o sto n , em erging as c h i e f e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r f o r th e New York T im es- H e ra ld i n 1895. She became an e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r and a r t c r i t i c f o r the C hicago C h ro n ic le s i x y e a r s l a t e r . M rs. S u l l i v a n was s e n t to P a r i s as a s p e c i a l c o rr e s p o n d e n t f o r th e A s s o c ia te d P r e s s in 1889, when th e U n i v e r s a l E x h i b i t i o n was h e ld i n t h a t c i t y . She a ls o c o n t r i b u t e d to v a r i o u s mag a z i n e s and w rote I r e l a n d o f To-day in 1901. She s p e n t her “ Stfho^ Who i n A m erica, IV (1 9 0 6 -1 9 0 7 ), 1 61 -2 . » 134 2 3 l a s t y e a r s i n C h ica g o , d y in g th e r e i n 1903. The a u th o r s went to Mexico i n th e f a s h i o n a b l e manner of t r a v e l e r s of th e tim e , as members o f a l a r g e p a r t y 4 ( s e v e n t y - f o u r p e o p le ) . What l a t e r became a book was f i r s t p r i n t e d in th e B oston J o u r n a l and th e C a t h o l i c World (New Y o r k ) .^ F r a n k l y , no r e a s o n can be advanced a s t o why t h e s e a u t h o r s saw m a n u fa c tu rin g in Mexico u n f a v o r a b l y , e s p e c i a l l y as o t h e r s w ere s e e in g i t in a f a v o r a b l e way d u r in g th e same p e r i o d . As i n so many o th e r i n s t a n c e s , th e view s th e a u t h o r s h eld r e f l e c t e d t h e i r p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s . T h at t h e i r o p in io n s w ere u n f a v o r a b le was a d e q u a te ly p ro v e n by t h e tone a d o p te d i n s p e a k in g a b o u t m a n u f a c tu r in g , as w e l l as b y w hat th e w r i t e r s r e p o r t e d . For i n s t a n c e , th e y n o te d t h a t one now saw modern c o n t r i v a n c e s i n Mexico such as t e l e g r a p h w i r e s , t e l e p h o n e s , sew ing m a c h in e s , and e l e c t r i c l i g h t s . Y et the p e o p le rem ain ed b ackw ard. They s t i l l clu ng to th e ” o l d - f a s h i o n e d m ethods of h a n d -w o rk .” The a u th o r s m arv e le d a t how a n y th in g produ ced w i t h such an e x p e n d i tu r e of tim e and la b o r could s t i l l be so ld so c h e a p ly . They jo u rn e y e d t o Q u e r e ta r o , home o f th e R ubio t e x t i l e m i l l s , 2 I b i d . , I I (1 9 0 1 -1 9 0 2 ), 1103. 3I b i d . , IV (1 9 0 6 -1 9 0 7 ), 1735. ^Mary E l i z a b e th .B l a k e and M a rg a re t F. S u l l i v a n , M exico: P i c t u r e s q u e , Po l i t i c a l , P r o g r e s s i v e (B o s to n : Lee and S h e p h e rd , t u b 11 s h e r s , 1 8 8 8 ), p. t>6. 5Ibid., p. 2. 6Ibid., p. 30. 135 ’’the o n ly ones of any n o te in th e c o u n t r y . ” They were an ’’odd c o m b in atio n . . . o f p e a c e f u l employment and m a r t i a l l a w .” Moving s o u th , Blake and S u l l i v a n n oted t h a t tw en ty y e a r s h en ce, p e rh a p s , t h e r e would be m a n u fa ctu rin g h e r e . W hatever would be the case th e n , th e r e was no m an u fa ctu rin g 8 — now, and t h i s i n the o u t s k i r t s of Mexico C ity i t s e l f . The very s i z e and n a tu r e o f th e im p o rt t r a d e proclaim ed Mexico*s w eakness. Amounting to ab out t h i r t y - f i v e m i l l i o n d o l l a r s a n n u a lly , i t c o n s i s t e d of m an u fa ctu red a r t i c l e s ’’w hich, f o r the most p a r t , m ight be [have been] produced a t home,” but 9 which w ere n o t . These la c e c u r t a i n a u th o r s examined c o tto n m anufac tu r in g i n d e t a i l , and r e p o r t e d u n f a v o r a b ly upon i t . They noted t h a t B ran tz Mayer (1844) re c o rd e d f i f t y - t h r e e c o tto n f a c t o r i e s , ru n n in g somewhat more th an 130,000 s p i n d l e s . About f o r t y y e a r s l a t e r , W ells (1883) found e ig h t y - f o u r f a c t o r i e s r e p o r t e d by th e t a x c o l l e c t o r s , ru n n in g s l i g h t l y over 240,000 s p i n d l e s . W hile t h i s was an obvious i n c r e a s e , Blake and S u lliv a n d id n o t s t o p h e re . They added t h a t , by the te s tim o n y of T i t u s S h e a rd , a member o f th e p a r t y of t r a v e l e r s , c o t t o n t e x t i l e s c o s t n e a r l y tw ic e as much per yard to make i n Mexico as th ey d id in th e U n ited S t a t e s . T h is was due to ’’the crude c h e m is try and crude m ethods” employed in ?Ibid., p. 48. 8Ibid., p. 58. 9 Ibid., pp. 218-19. 136 t h e i r f a b r i c a t i o n i n M exico. M oreover, th e w ork ers i n Mexi can t e x t i l e m i l l s w ere s u b je c te d t o bad w orkin g c o n d i t i o n s , being "com p elled t o work from d a y l i g h t to d ark f o r l i t t l e p a y ." An im provem ent i n m ac h in e ry and more modern p r o c e s s e s , th e y b e l i e v e d , would te n d to low er th e s e h ig h c o s t s of p ro d u c tio n . M eanw hile, however, " a c o n s i d e r a b le q u a n t i t y of m an u factu red c o t t o n i s [w as] im p o rte d , i n s p i t e o f th e e x c e s s iv e t a r i f f . " G re a t B r i t a i n s u p p l i e d the l i o n ' s sh a re of th e s e f a b r i c s in th e p a s t , a s i t u a t i o n w hich th e r a i l r o a d c o n n e c tio n s w i t h th e U n ite d S t a te s would p ro b a b ly a l t e r in tim e . An anomaly i n t h i s i n d u s t r y , a c c o rd in g to B lake and S u l l i v a n , was t h a t a lt h o u g h the c o t t o n f a c t o r i e s in Mexico had grown f o u r f o l d s in c e th e end o f the I n t e r v e n t i o n , and a lth o u g h the la n d s around O rizab a and Q u e r e t a r o , the c h i e f c o tto n - m a n u fa c tu r in g c e n t e r s , were w e l l- a d a p te d to grow c o t to n , O rizab a employed o n ly New O rle a n s c o tt o n f o r i t s t e x t i l e m aking, and o n e - h a l f o f th a t used a t Q u e re ta ro was a ls o from th e U n ite d S t a t e s . There was no re a s o n why Mexico should n o t grow and m a n u fa c tu re a l l the c o t t o n i t n e e d e d . The a u th o r s moved on to o t h e r m a n u fa c tu r in g , w hich th e y d e s c r i b e d as " t r i f l i n g . " The p o t t e r y made in th e coun t r y was o v e r p r a i s e d . At l e a s t i t was a d e q u a te f o r th e com mon u s e s of th e M exican s, b u t t h e i r " c u l i n a r y and o t h e r house h a b i t s a re [w ere] e x tre m e ly p r i m i t i v e " anyway. The 137 a dv en t of the sewing machine had g iv e n some im petus to l e a t h e r m a n u fa c tu rin g , b u t, a lth o u g h M exican s a d d le s w ere w o rld famous, Mexico p a id th e U n ite d S t a t e s alm o st t h i r t y thousand d o l l a r s per y e a r f o r s a d d le s im p orted from t h a t s o u r c e , t h i s when Am erican s a d d le s bore an im po rt d u ty of 55 p e r c e n t . T h is f a c t could be acco u n ted f o r i n the ” su p e - r i o r m ech an ical a p p lia n c e s used by the American m a n u fa c tu r e r s . ” The t a r i f f sy stem , Blake and S u l l i v a n a v e r r e d , was e s p e c i a l l y b ad. In f a c t , to the f i r s t g la n c e , i t would ap p ear t h a t the men who p assed the Mexican t a r i f f ” had sou ght to r i v a l N atu re in p ro ducin g a r t i f i c i a l o b s t a c l e s to r i v a l the p h y s ic a l o n e s” to m a n u fa c tu rin g . Prom the moment la b o r f i r s t touched any a r t i c l e u n t i l th e time i t p a sse d to th e a c t u a l use of th e consum er, i t was ta x e d . T h is e v i l came from M exico’ s S p a n ish e x p e r ie n c e , and th e c o u n try now saw ’’e x c e s s iv e t a x a t i o n ” and ’’th e su p p o rt of an army of t a x c o l l e c t o r s upon th e commerce of the c o u n t r y . ” As an example o f how the ta x - s y s te m f u n c t i o n e d , Blake and S u l l i v a n d e s c r ib e d the s t o r y o f a y ard of c a l i c o . The land which grew th e c o tt o n used in i t s m an u factu re paid n o th in g i n t a x e s . T h is was b ecause la n d h o ld e rs made th e laws i n M exico. While the land paid n o th in g f o r the c o tt o n w hich i t p ro d u ced , the i n s t a n t la b o r touched t h a t c o tt o n , the c o t t o n began to pay t a x e s . E v e ry th in g used i n t r a n s form ing th e c o tt o n b o l l i n t o c o tto n c l o t h s u f f e r e d t a x a t i o n . 138 The d yes u se d t o c o l o r i t w ere ta x e d . The s a l e o f e a c h o f them was i n d i v i d u a l l y t a x e d . The v e h i c l e t h a t c a r t e d th e c o t t o n fro m f i e l d to f a c t o r y was ta x e d . The w h e e l t h a t s o f t e n e d ^ t h e c o t t o n was t a x e d . The a n im a l t u r n i n g t h a t w h e el was t a x e d . The c h e m ic a ls u se d i n th e m a n u fa c tu r e o f th e c o t t o n w ere t a x e d . The t r a n s f e r o f t h a t c o t t o n from f a c t o r y to shop was ta x e d . The s a l e o f th e f a b r i c to th e c u sto m e r was t a x e d . Under c i r c u m s ta n c e s l i k e t h e s e , was i t any wonder t h a t c o t t o n c l o t h c o s t more a t Q u e r e t a r o and O r iz a b a t h a n a t M a n c h e ste r o r L ow ell? Of c o u rs e l i t t l e c o t t o n was grown i n M exico! W ith a t a x a t i o n sy ste m such as t h e one in e f f e c t , t h e m e rc h a n t fo u n d i t '‘more c o n v e n ie n t t o pay a l l h i s b u r d e n s a t th e c u s to m - h o u s e , th a n e a c h o f th e l o t to t h e i n t e r n a l - r e v e n u e c o l l e c t o r s . ' 1 T h i s e x am p le , i t ta k e n l i t e r a l l y , was u n t r u e , b u t th e p r i n c i p l e of t a x a t i o n i n Mexico was a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d by i t . The am azing t h in g was t h a t so many hammer- b lo w s i n s u c c e s s i o n t o m a n u f a c tu r in g had n o t p a r a l y z e d i t . The t a r i f f sy s te m was a b o m in a b le ; y e t t r a d e i n c r e a s e d i n s p i t e o f i t . T h is phenomenon j u s t i f i e d th e h ig h hopes h e ld by o p t i m i s t i c M exican s i n t h e f u t u r e of m a n u f a c tu r in g in t h e i r c o u n t r y . Such o p t i m i s t s would say t h a t t h i s manner o f r a i s i n g n a t i o n a l r e v e n u e s would be rem e d ie d i n t im e . They w ould p o i n t o u t t h a t b e n e f i c i a l c h an g e s had a l r e a d y o c c u r r e d . For i n s t a n c e , t h e M exican s t a t e s f o r m e r ly c o l l e c t e d t a x e s on 139 e v e r y t h in g p a s s in g t h e i r b o r d e r s , n o m a t t e r what n a t i o n a l ta x e s had p r e v i o u s l y b e e n p a id on them . T h is s o r t o f im p o st had been a b o l i s h e d a few y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y by a c t of Con g r e s s . Some of t h e s t a t e s c o n tin u e d t o a p p ly i t on th e groun ds o f n e c e s s i t y . I t was f i n a l l y a b o li s h e d by an amend ment to t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n . 10 The a u t h o r s ended t h e i r c r i t i cism on th e g e n e r a l n o te t h a t th e u n s a t i s f a c t o r y m a n u f a c tu r ing c o n d i t i o n s o f p r e s e n t had hope f o r th e f u t u r e . A s i m i l a r s tu d y a p p e a re d d u r in g th e f o llo w in g y e a r , The Land o f the M ontezum as, by Cora C ra w fo rd . M rs. C raw ford went to Mexico w i t h her m o th e r, ^ as a member o f a p a r t y of 12 t r a v e l e r s . Her stu d y of D i a z ’ s m a n u f a c tu r in g was somewhat s h o r t e r th a n th e p r e c e d in g s e l e c t i o n , b u t was e q u a l l y u n f a v o r a b l e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o th in g was found r e g a r d i n g th e a u th o r i n th e way o f b i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a , and any c o n j e c t u r e on my p a r t r e g a r d i n g e x p e r ie n c e s making M rs. C raw ford u n f a v o r a b le to D ia z and m a n u fa c tu r in g would m erely be a pure g u e s s . M rs. C raw ford w ro te t h a t , even th o u g h i t was p r o t e c t e d by heavy d u t i e s from o u t s i d e c o m p e t i t i o n , ’’m an u fac t u r i n g h e r e does I d id ] n o t f l o u r i s h . ” S e v e r a l f a c t o r s were im p o r ta n t i n making t h i s the c a s e . The c o s t o f f u e l to ru n 1 n Ibid., pp. 219-23. ^ C o r a Hayward C ra w fo rd , The L and^of th e Montezumas (2nd e d . ; New Y ork: Jo h n B. A ld e n , P u b l i s h e r , 1 8 8 9 ;, p. i i i . 12 Ibid., p. 1. 140 f a c t o r i e s was e x tr e m e ly h ig h . Steam power was r a r e l y em p lo y e d t o r u n f a c t o r i e s . T h at l e f t w a te r power a s a p o s s i b l e m otiv e f o r c e , and m i l l s so pow ered w ere " n e c e s s a r i l y s c a r c e , " due to a p a u c i t y i n s t r e a m s . The goods w hich were m a n u f a c tu r e d , she c o n ti n u e d , w ere low i n q u a l i t y and h i g h i n p r i c e . In a l l M exico t h e r e w ere o n ly a b o u t a h u n d red f a c t o r i e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g an a g g r e g a te in v e s tm e n t o f f i f t e e n m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . C o tto n and w oolen t e x t i l e s w ere th e m ost e x t e n s i v e p r o d u c t i o n s of t h e s e m i l l s . O th e r p r o d u c t s w ere " p a p e r o f a p o o r g r a d e , " l e a t h e r goods o f a l l k i n d s , s t r a w and f e l t h a t s , c o a r s e f l o u r , b a s k e t s , s i l k , b r u s h e s , g l a s s , r o p e , m a ts , palm l e a f w a r e s , c o c h i n e a l d y e s , c a n t o n - f l a n n e l s , s u g a r , c h o c o l a t e , co co a, 13 t i l e s , c a n d l e s , and a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f p o t t e r y . One o f th e w o r s t a s p e c t s o f M exican m a n u f a c tu r in g was th e m u tu a l s u s p i c i o n e x e r c i s e d by th e s t a t e s i n the form of t a x a t i o n . To e x p l a i n h e r p o s i t i o n , M rs. C raw ford used th e exam ple o f a c a r l o a d o f m a c h in e ry bound f o r a f a c t o r y . E v ery tim e th e lo a d o f m a c h in e r y c r o s s e d a s t a t e b o u n d a ry , i t was s t o p p e d , u n lo a d e d , t a x e d , and r e l o a d e d . The i n e v i t a b le r e s u l t was d e l a y , damages t o th e g o o d s, and a d o u b le c o s t f o r them . T hese m eth o d s w ere " n e c e s s a r i l y f a t a l to any e n t e r p r i s e r e q u i r i n g f o r e i g n goods or m a c h in e r y " — w hich o f c o u rs e m eant m a n u f a c t u r in g . I n th e c o u rs e o f tim e th e l3Ibid., pp. 134-5. 141 p e o p le would se e th e " i n j u s t i c e o f such a sy stem o f t a x a t i o n / ’ te n d in g a s i t d i d t o th e b e n e f i t o f th e man o f c a p i t a l and m a n u f a c tu r e r i n M exico, and to " t h e p o s i t i v e i n j u r y 14 o f th e c o n su m e r." L e a v in g th e s e g e n e r a l i t i e s , th e a u th o r d e v o te d h e r s e l f to a c o v e ra g e of i n d u s t r y i n two c i t i e s , A g u a s c a l i e n t e s and Q u e r e t a r o . In th e fo rm er c i t y , she d e s c r i b e d a f a c t o r y which m a n u fa c tu re d s e r a p e s . I t gave employment " a t v e ry low wages t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f M e x ic a n s ." The wool was c a rd e d , d y e d , and woven i n t o th e s e r a p e , an e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f the a t t i r e o f th e M exican m a le . The w eaving was done on a p rim i t i v e hand loom, "m anual l a b o r b e in g so cheap h e re t h a t the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m ac h in e ry h as [h ad ] proved to be f a r from r e m u n e r a t i v e . " An o r d i n a r y l a b o r e r r a r e l y r e c e i v e d more th a n tw e n ty to f i f t y c e n t s a day, and a l a r g e p o r t i o n of even t h i s m eager income was s p e n t on to b a c c o and p u l q u e . B ecause th e l a b o r e r c o u ld l i v e i n h i s " w r e tc h e d ly poor way" on v i r t u a l l y n o t h in g , i t n e v e r o c c u r re d to him t o save any- 1 * 5 t h in g f o r th e f u t u r e . M rs. C raw ford moved on to th e " H e r c u le s " t e x t i l e m i l l i n Q u e r e t a r o . The p l a n t was huge and b e a u t i f u l , pow e r e d by steam and w a t e r , and had 1 ,8 0 0 w o r k e r s . T hese em p lo y e e s were worked t e n t o tw e lv e h o u rs d a i l y , s p i n n e r s r e c e i v in g t h i r t y to f i f t y c e n t s per d a y , w e a v e rs s i x d o l l a r s a l4Ibid. , pp. 259-60. l5Ibid., p. 58. 142 week. The m i l l s tu rn e d o u t "immense q u a n t i t i e s o f c o a r s e , u n b lea ch e d c l o t h [ m a n t a ] ," w hich was u n i v e r s a l l y used f o r th e c lo t h i n g of th e M exican w orking c l a s s , " t o whom i t i s [was] so ld a t a g r e a t p r o f i t . " ^ The a u th o r co n cluded h er c ov erage of m a n u fa c tu rin g w ith t h i s u n f a v o r a b le o b s e r v a t i o n . Between h e r book and th e n e x t th e r e was a la p s e o f nine y e a r s . Then s e v e r a l books a p p e a re d i n 1898, a l l by th e same p e rs o n , M a tia s Romero. Romero was born in Oaxaca C i t y in 1837. He com p l e t e d h i s s t u d i e s t h e r e , f i r s t a tt e n d i n g th e S e m in a rio de S a n ta Cruz and l a t e r th e I n s t i t u t e de C ie n c ia s y A r t e s d e l E s ta d o , g r a d u a tin g from t h a t s c h o o l i n 1855. Moving to Mexico C i t y , he e n te r e d the employ o f the S e c r e t a r i a de R e la c io n e s E x t e r i o r e s , b e g in n in g an a s s o c i a t i o n w hich was to c o n tin u e w ith i n t e r r u p t i o n s f o r over f o r t y y e a r s , u n t i l h i s d e a t h i n 1898. He was a d m itte d to th e b a r in 1857, b u t , upon th e announcement of th e c o n s e r v a tiv e P la n de T acubaya, Romero jo in e d th e l i b e r a l p a r t y . L eaving Mexico C i t y , he went t o G u an aju ato to j o i n J u a r e z , and had the d i s t i n c t i o n of b e in g th e only p u b l ic employee t o f o llo w t h a t l e a d e r i n h i s p e r e g r i n a t i o n s w hich le d to th e s e t t i n g up o f th e l i b e r a l , rump governm ent a t V e ra c ru z . In December, 1859, immedi a t e l y b e fo re the b r i e f l i b e r a l triu m p h , he became S e c r e t a r y of th e Mexican L e g a tio n in W ash ington. The fo llo w in g y e a r 16Ibid., pp. 137-8. 143 he was a p p o in te d charge d fa f f a i r e s i n the same p l a c e , a job w hich he held u n t i l 1 8 6 2. Romero r e tu r n e d to Mexico th e f o llo w in g y e a r . I t was now th e tim e of the opening p h a ses of th e I n t e r v e n t i o n , and he t r i e d to e n te r the army. He r e t u r n e d to th e U n ited S t a t e s th e same y e a r , however, and became th e Mexican M in is t e r in W ashington. Romero h e ld t h i s o f f i c e u n t i l O c to b er, 1867, d u rin g one of the most t r y i n g p h a ses of a l l Mexican h i s t o r y . On th e f i r s t day o f 1868, J u a r e z named him S e c re - t a r i o de H acienda, b u t he t e m p o r a r ily abandoned t h i s p o s t in May, jo u rn e y in g to the U n ited S ta te s to s ig n a c laim s con v e n ti o n . He r e t u r n e d to Mexico C ity the f o llo w in g A ugust, and rem ained a t h i s old jo b u n t i l May, 1872. He th e n l e f t government employ and sp e n t some tim e as a gentlem an farm er in C h ia p a s. He r e p r e s e n te d t h a t s t a t e as a s t a n d - i n S e n a to r in 1875. He was a l s o d e p u ty f o r the f i f t h d i s t r i c t of Oaxaca in 1876. When D iaz*s r e v o l u t i o n trium phed in th e l a t t e r p a r t of t h a t y e a r , M a tia s Romero was i n v i t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e new gov ernm en t, b u t r e f u s e d . He went on an ex tended t r i p th ro u g h J a l i s c o , Colim a, and M ichoacan in 1877, th e n r e tu r n e d to h i s p o s t as head of the M i n i s t e r i o de H acien da, rem ain in g th e r e u n t i l 1879. Romero n e x t went to th e U n ited S t a t e s and formed a company to b u ild a r a i l r o a d from Mexico C ity t o Oaxaca and th en ce th ro u g h the Isthm u s o f T ehuantepec to G uatem ala. But he s h o r t l y r e t u r n e d to h i s c a r e e r w ith the 144 M i n i s t r y of F o re ig n R e l a t i o n s . He became Ambassador E x t r a o r d in a r y to th e U n ited S t a t e s midway i n the G onzalez admin i s t r a t i o n (1 8 8 2 ), and in te r v e n e d i n th e M exico-G uatem ala boundary d i s p u t e d u rin g th e same y e a r . The n e x t y e a r was p a r t i a l l y s p e n t in a t r i p to E u ro p e. Romero ren o u n ced h is o f f i c e i n 1884 when Diaz r e t u r n e d to power, " p e ro se lo r a t i f i c a e l G r a l. D i a z . ” He became M i n is te r o f H acienda i n 1892-1893, th en r e t u r n e d t o the U n ite d S t a t e s a s Mexican Am bassador, d y in g a t t h a t p o s t i n 1898. He was th e a u th o r o f s e v e r a l books in S panish and E n g li s h . His e x p e r ie n c e s i n C hiapas y ie ld e d C u ltiv o d e l c a fe en l a c o s t a m e r i d io n a l de C h iap a s ( f o u r t h e d i t i o n , 1893), Mexico and th e U n ite d S t a t e s (1 8 9 8 ), C o ffee and I n d i an Rubber C u ltu r e i n Mexico (1 8 9 8 ), and G e o g ra p h ic a l and S t a t i s t i c a l N otes on Mexico (1 8 9 8 ). H is e x p e rie n c e s i n W ashington d u rin g th e F ren ch I n t e r v e n t i o n y ie ld e d th e monu m e n ta l ten-volum e C o rre s p o n d e n c ia de l a L eg acio n M exicana en 17 W ashington d u r a n te l a I n t e r v e n c i o n E x t r a n j e r a (1 8 7 0 -1 8 9 2 ). For some u n e x p la in a b le r e a s o n , e v e r y t h in g Romero w ro te i n E n g lis h was p u b lis h e d i n 1898, im m ed iately b e fo r e h i s d e a t h . Two of th e s e books w i l l be d i s c u s s e d h e r e . The f i r s t i s G e o g ra p h ic a l and S t a t i s t i c a l N o tes on Mexico and th e second i s Mexico and th e U n ite d S t a t e s . T hroug hou t b o th 17 . .* ' * D ic c i o n a r i o P o rru a de h i s t o r i a , b i o g r a f i a y geo- g r a f i a de Mexico (M exico: E d i t o r i a l Porrua', S. A. , L1 9 6 4 ]). p.' l23i. ' 145 books, Romero was h ig h ly c r i t i c a l of m a n u fa c tu rin g d u rin g the D£az reg im e. P erhaps t h i s u n fa v o ra b le view was due to the f a c t t h a t Romero a p p a r e n tly d i s l i k e d D iaz, su g g e ste d by the f a c t t h a t he f i r s t r e f u s e d to c o l l a b o r a t e w ith th e Diaz regim e when i t came to power, h e ld a jo b under G on zalez, r e t i r e d once D iaz resumed power, and s p e n t v i r t u a l l y th e r e m ainder of h i s l i f e in W ashington. T h e re , w r i t i n g a s a p r i v a te c i t i z e n , he co uld speak h i s mind. Romero e v in c ed c o n s id e r a b le concern over th e s t a t e of m a n u fa c tu rin g i n Mexico in G e o g ra p h ic a l and S t a t i s t i c a l N o te s . He had no d oub ts about i t s f u t u r e , b e l i e v i n g in i t s 18 g r e a t n e s s . But th e p r e s e n t was a d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r . Manu f a c t u r i n g had an o b s t a c l e of "supreme im p o rta n c e " to o v e r come in Mexico, th e problem of o b ta in in g a cheap f u e l . Waterpower was n o t the answ er, sin c e i t was r e l a t i v e l y 19 sc a rc e and u n d ep en d ab le. Nor was wood the answ er. P eople had been u sin g wood fo r f u e l and b u i ld i n g f o r c e n t u r i e s , to the p o in t t h a t th e most d e n s e ly p o p u la te d s e c t i o n s of Mexico were now c o m p le te ly d ev oid of t r e e s . T h is s t a t e o f a f f a i r s r a i s e d "a v e ry s e r i o u s o b j e c t i o n " to any i n c r e a s e i n manu f a c t u r i n g , f o r i t was im p o s sib le to m a n u fa ctu re c h e a p ly u s ing wood_as a f u e l , when the wood i t s e l f was e x p e n s iv e . 18 M a tia s Romero, G eo g rap h ica l and S t a t i s t i c a l N otes on Mexico (New York: G. P. Putnam ’s Sons,' T898J, p . §0 . 19Ibid., p. 107. 146 Of c o u r s e , c o a l cou ld be and was u se d t o power some M exican f a c t o r i e s , b u t i t had t o be t r a n s p o r t e d th o u s a n d s of m ile s a t tim e s , and i t th u s became e x tr e m e ly e x p e n s iv e t o o . At p r e s e n t , wood c o s t f o u r t e e n d o l l a r s a cord i n Mexico C i t y , and c o a l ra n g e d from s i x t e e n to tw e n ty -tw o d o l l a r s p e r to n i n th e same a r e a , d e p e n d in g on th e g rad e o f c o a l . A f u e l made from co m p ressed c o a l d u s t , im p o rte d fro m E n g la n d , was i n use on th e V e ra c ru z R ailw ay and i n some m a n u fa c tu r in g p l a n t s a s w e l l . C o al i t s e l f was im p o rted from t h a t c o u n tr y , West V i r g i n i a , and A labam a. The high p r i c e o f c o a l , i n f a c t , th e s c a r c i t y o f o r d i n a r y f u e l s in g e n e r a l , led t o a tte m p ts to f i n d a s u i t a b l e , c h e a p e r s u b s t i t u t e . For exam ple, i n th e T l a h u a l i l o D i s t r i c t of C o a h u il a , due to th e d i s t a n c e to th e n e a r e s t c o a l m in e s, th e q u e s t i o n of f u e l f o r m a n u fa c tu rin g became p a ra m o u n t, e s p e c i a l l y a s m a n u fa c tu rin g r e q u i r e d e v e r i n c r e a s i n g amounts of c o m b u s ti b l e s . The m ain s u p p ly of f u e l i n t h e s e c irc u m s t a n c e s was th e m e s q u ite b u s h , w hich was c l e a r e d from new la n d s as t h e y w ere p ut u nder c u l t i v a t i o n . C o tto n s e e d h u l l s were a l s o em ployed; th e y made a h o t b u t q u ic k - b u r n in g f u e l f o r some o f the s t a t i o n a r y e n g in e s . W heat, s t r a w , and c o t to n b u sh e s were u t i l i z e d i n b ric k m a k in g and f o r t h e d o m e s tic n eed s of th e l a b o r e r s . Those a c q u a in t e d w ith th e c o n d i t i o n s o f m a n u f a c tu r ing i n Mexico who were making i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w i t h an eye to th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of new c o n c e rn s t h e r e were im p re ss e d w ith 147 th e f a c t t h a t , i n s p i t e o f th e a d v a n ta g e s o f in e x p e n s iv e l a b o r , good c l i m a t e , and f a v o r a b le home m a r k e ts , th e l a c k of cheap f u e l was " e x c e e d i n g ly d e t r i m e n t a l to a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of th e i n d u s t r i e s i n t h i s c o u n t r y . " F o r t u n a t e l y , l a r g e c o a l m easu res were now b e in g d i s c o v e r e d w i t h i n M exico. At S a l i n a s , C o a h u il a , the I n t e r n a t i o n a l R a il r o a d Company was now w orking a l a r g e bed o f c o a l , w hich f u r n i s h e d f u e l f o r t h a t c o n c e rn as w e l l as f o r some of th e f a c t o r i e s i n M o n te r r e y . In th e T la x ia c o D i s t r i c t o f O axaca, a r i c h c o a l f i e l d had been fo u n d , b u t was p r e s e n t l y i n a c c e s s i b l e and would r e m ain u n u s a b le u n t i l a r a i l r o a d c o u ld be b u i l t to ta p i t , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o s t s b e in g to o h ig h o t h e r w i s e . Sonora a l s o c o n ta in e d a c o al a r e a s e v e r a l m i l e s i n e x t e n t . The c o a l h e re was a n t h r a c i t e , e q u a l to th e b e s t W elsh p r o d u c t . The f i e l d was i n the form o f a le d g e , t h i r t y m ile s long and a b o u t s i x t e e n f e e t t h i c k . T h ere was enough c o a l i n t h i s one a r e a t o s u p p ly th e e n t i r e P a c i f i c C o a st w i t h f i r s t - q u a l i t y c o a l f o r y e a r s to come. I t was c o m p a r a t i v e l y e a sy t o w ork, due to th e shape o f th e s t a t e and th e r e l a t i v e n e a r n e s s of th e s e a . A t J i q u i l p a n , M ichoacdn, a lm o st im m e d ia te ly s o u th of th e N e g re te s t a t i o n on th e M exican C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d , a l a r g e c o a l f i e l d had r e c e n t l y b e e n fo u n d . I t s c o a l was p ro b a b ly o f s e c o n d - c l a s s q u a l i t y o n ly , b u t th e g r e a t v a lu e of ev en o r d i n a r y c o a l would be a p p r e c i a t e d by anyone who was inform ed o f m a n u fa c tu r in g c o n d i t i o n s in M exico. Coal was a l s o found i n th e C h a p ala a r e a o f J a l i s c o . E x p l o r a t i o n had 148 shown t h a t th e c o a l and l i g n i t e o f t h i s s tr a tu m ex te n d ed over an a r e a o f p e rh a p s t h i r t y sq u a re m i l e s . The v e i n s in th e bed v a r i e d from two to f i f t y in c h e s i n w id th . A f a c t o r w hich c o n s i d e r a b ly added to th e v a lu e o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r d e p o s i t was an e x te n s i v e bed of bog i r o n n e a rb y . These were th e main c o a l b e d s w hich had been d i s c o v e r e d . They meant much f o r th e f u t u r e o f Mexican i n d u s t r i e s f o r , when cheap c o a l c o u ld be employed i n s t e a d of wood as a t 20 p r e s e n t , c o s t s o f m a n u f a c tu r in g would d e c l i n e . S t i l l sp e a k in g g e n e r a l l y , Romero w rote t h a t th e d e p r e c i a t i o n o f Mexican c u rr e n c y in r e c e n t y e a r s a c te d as a po w e rfu l p r o t e c t i o n to home co m m o d ities, " i n fa v o r of our m a n u f a c tu r e r s to th e d is a d v a n ta g e o f the g r e a t body of con- 21 su m e rs." O ther than a s ta te m e n t on th e g e n e r a l d i s h o n e s t y of Mexican m a n u f a c tu r e r s i n c o n c e a lin g p r o d u c tio n f i g u r e s to 22 a v o id j u s t payment o f t a x e s , Romero con cluded h i s g e n e r a l p i c t u r e a t t h a t p o i n t . He now d e s c r ib e d s e v e r a l s p e c i f i c m a n u fa c tu rin g a r e a s i n d e t a i l , and a g a in p a in te d a g e n e r a l l y n e g a tiv e p i c t u r e . For exam ple, Romero p r e s e n te d a f a i r l y long d e s c r i p t i o n of i r o n f o u n d r i e s . T here were seven la r g e ones i n the c i t y of Mexico a t t h a t tim e , i n a d d i t i o n to s e v e r a l sm a ll c o n c e rn s . Two o f th e la r g e p l a n t s were owned by r a i l r o a d s ; 20 Ibid., pp. 23-5. 22Ibid., p. 243. 21Ibid., p. 143. 149 th e o th er f i v e were owned by p eo p le or companies s p e c i a l i z ing in foundry w ork. Large f o u n d r ie s were a l s o to be found i n Pachuca, P u e b la , Durango, Chihuahua and M o n te rre y , as w e ll as s m a lle r ones a t G u a n aju a to , I r a p u a t o , Z a c a te c a s , V e ra c ru z , M a z a tla n , Oaxaca, M o re lia and G u a d a la ja ra . At t h a t tim e , he a v e r r e d , th e p r i n c i p a l su p p ly o f " " p ig ir o n used in the f o u n d r i e s came from n a tiv e o r e s , th e main ir o n m ines th e n under e x p l o i t a t i o n b eing lo c a te d a t Durango, Zimap^n, Z a c u a l t ip a n , T u la n c in g o , and Leon. For th e most p a r t , th e s e mines were lo c a te d in w id e ly f o r e s t e d r e g i o n s , and a cheap f u e l was th u s a v a i l a b l e i n th e form of c h a r c o a l. The i r o n r e s u l t i n g was of a v e ry s u p e r i o r q u a l i t y , f r e e from p h o spho ro us. P r ic e and o th e r f a c t o r s b e in g e q u a l, t h i s i r o n was alw ays p r e f e r r e d to im ported p ig i r o n . The m anufacture of the i r o n i n t o p ig s was always done i n c h a rc o a l f u r n a c e s . Y et, n o tw ith s ta n d in g th e s u p e r i o r i t y of t h i s n a ti v e i r o n , ’’q u i te a c o n s id e r a b le amount of p i g ’’ was im p orted, m ainly from Alabama and n o r t h e r n E ng land. P r e v io u s ly , the s c r a p i r o n w hich had accum ulated i n Mexico over th e c e n tu r i e s was the g r e a t drawback to such im p o r t a t i o n s . By now i t was becoming e x h a u s te d , ’’and f o r t h a t re a s o n th e demand fo r im ported p ig i s Iwas] i n c r e a s i n g , the n a t i v e o u tp u t not k e ep in g pace w ith th e need f o r i t . ” Much s c ra p i r o n had p r e v io u s ly come from r a i l r o a d s as w e l l , ’’a n o th e r so u rc e of su p p ly which i s Iwas] n o t i n c r e a s in g w i t h the demand." 150 Romero e x p re s s e d optim ism f o r th e f u t u r e , how ever. Once th e c o a l m ines of Mexico were d e v e lo p e d , th e i r o n i n d u s t r y would have cheap, abun dant f u e l , would make g r e a t s t e p s fo rw a rd , and ’'we w i l l [would] be a b le to m an u factu re m ost of a t l e a s t th e low g ra d e s of th e i r o n goods r e q u i r e d f o r our consump- 23 t i o n . ” Romero co n clu d ed h is p a s s a g e s on i r o n m a n u fa c tu r ing h e r e , c o n tin u in g to a n o th e r commodity, s u g a r . The s i t u a t i o n o f sugar m a n u fa c tu rin g was an u n e n v i a b le one. Mexico h e ld " b u t an i n s i g n i f i c a n t p la c e " i n th e ra n k of c o u n t r i e s e x p o r tin g sugar to th e U n ite d S t a t e s . M exican su g a r p r o d u c tio n could be expanded " v e ry l a r g e l y , " and she could su p p ly th e U n ited S t a t e s w ith alm o st a l l of th e sugar n eed ed , e x c e p t f o r u n f a v o r a b le f a c t o r s . F i r s t , L o u is ia n a produced s u g a r . Secondly, so did H aw aii, w hich a t t h a t tim e was n o t y e t a p a r t of th e U n ited S t a t e s , b u t was c e r t a i n l y l i k e l y to become one. In b o th c a s e s , the p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f o f th e U n ited S t a t e s would n ot " a llo w u s to su p p l y th e U n ite d S t a t e s w i t h t h a t commodity on a la r g e 24 s c a l e . " Mexico had many l o c a l i t i e s where su g a r c o u ld be r a i s e d a t a v e ry low c o s t and w ith g r e a t p r o f i t s a c c r u in g to the p r o d u c e r , y e t "we h a rd ly produce [p ro d u c e d ] enough f o r 25 our own c o n s u m p tio n ." In t h e way of c o t t o n , a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h a t 23Ibid., pp. 21-2. 24Ibid., p. 186 25 Ibid., p. 45. 151 m anu factu red i n t o c l o t h in Mexico was im ported from th e U n ited S t a t e s , becau se o f the i n c r e a s e of c o tt o n m a n u f a c tu r ing i n M exico. T h is in c r e a s e was l a r g e l y due to th e p r o t e c t i o n which th e s i l v e r d e p r e c i a t i o n a ffo rd e d t o home-made p r o d u c t i o n s . Since m a n u fa c tu rin g had expanded, Mexico was now growing o n ly about h a l f of th e c o tto n she needed, and th e U n ite d S t a t e s c o n t r i b u t e d th e b a la n c e . T h is s i t u a t i o n was e x p e c te d to change f o r the b e t t e r i n the n e ar f u t u r e , and Mexico would h o p e f u lly grow enough c o tt o n f o r her own 26 n eed s and have some l e f t over f o r e x p o rt. Romero saw a g r e a t f u t u r e f o r s i l k m a n u fa c tu rin g in M ex ico --a f u tu r e which would r e v o l u t i o n i z e th e i n d u s t r i e s of th e c e n t r a l p l a t e a u . T his was due to two f a c t o r s . F i r s t , the m u lb e rry t r e e could be grown in Mexico to an alm ost u n lim ite d e x t e n t . Second, wages in m a n u fa c tu rin g were so low t h a t the f a b r i c a t i o n of the raw s i l k could be done " a t a g r e a t p r o f i t . " S e v e ra l e x p e rim e n ts had a lr e a d y been c a r r i e d 27 out on a sm a ll s c a l e , and r e s u l t s had been f a v o r a b l e . I n o th e r a r e a s of t e x t i l e m a n u fa c tu rin g , a s e r i o u s weakness of th e w oolen i n d u s t r y was t h a t Mexican wool was so c o a r s e , i n f e r i o r , and l i g h t t h a t even the sheep owners wore goods spun from im p o rted w ool, and the wool t e x t i l e m anufac t u r e r s i n Mexico were o b lig e d to im po rt wool f o r t h e i r m i l l s , a t l e a s t f o r th e making of woolens of f i n e r q u a l i t y . 26Ibid., p. 48. 27Ibid., p. 53. 152 Mexico p o ss e s se d n a tu r a l r e s o u r c e s t o produce enough wool of e v e ry g rade f o r i t s own u s e , as w e l l as a s u r p lu s f o r e x p o r t . The sheepmen were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e f a c t t h a t i t 28 was n o t . F i n a l l y , in th e way o f m an u factu red s i l v e r , Romero w rote t h a t Mexico was e x p o r tin g a l i t t l e i n th e f i r s t 29 term o f Diaz and by the m id -1 8 9 0 , s was e x p o r tin g none. Romeroi's Mexico and the U n ite d S t a t e s ( a l s o 1898) showed a somewhat d i f f e r e n t a p pro ach to th e q u e s tio n of man u f a c t u r i n g . H e re, Romero a d m itte d t h a t "o u r f a c t o r i e s are [w ere] n o t o n ly in o p e r a t i o n ,— b u t th e y a re [w ere] b e in g g r e a t l y e x te n d e d , and new p l a n t s and i n d u s t r i e s a re [were] 30 b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d . ” But the f a c t o r s c a u s in g t h i s expan s io n were n o t P o r f i r i o D ia z , th e Diaz governm ent, or anyone e l s e . R a th e r , th ey were f a c t o r s e s s e n t i a l l y o u t s i d e the c o n t r o l of th e Diaz governm ent: th e s t a t e of s i l v e r and th e p r i c e of la b o r . The s i l v e r s ta n d a r d was "a g r e a t s tim u lu s to the developm ent of home m a n u f a c tu r e s ," s in c e f o r e i g n man u f a c t u r e s had to be paid f o r in g o ld . Owing to the high r a t e of exchange, p r i c e s f o r th e s e com m odities were so out of re a c h t h a t i t seemed w ise to m an u fa ctu re some of them a t home. The p r i c e of la b o r a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d , s in c e low wages could be p a id in the f a c t o r y . 28I b i d . , p. 58. 2 9I b i d . , p. 188. 30 , M atias Romero, Mexico and the U n ited S t a t e s (New York: G. P. Putnam ’ s SonsT^ 1898), p p . 610-11. 153 For t h e s e r e a s o n s , Mexico was " i n c r e a s i n g c o n s i d e r a b ly " i t s f a c t o r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y c o t t o n m i l l s and s m e l t e r s , and i t was now b e g in n in g t o f a b r i c a t e s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s w hich w ere f o r m e r l y im p o r te d . A l l t h i s was t a k i n g p l a c e , i n s p i t e o f th e m o u n ta in o u s c h a r a c t e r o f th e c o u n t r y , th e la c k o f i n t e r i o r n a v ig a b le r i v e r s , and th e s c a r c i t y o f f u e l - - a l l of w h ich made M exican m a n u f a c tu r in g e x p e n s i v e . The p ro b le m of f u e l would be " c o n s i d e r a b l y d i m i n i s h e d " once th e l a r g e c o a l d e p o s i t s w h ich had r e c e n t l y b een found w ere e x p l o i t e d by means of r a i l r o a d s . T h is i n f a c t had a l r e a d y b e g u n . An exam ple o f th e i n c r e a s e i n m a n u f a c tu r in g w hich s i l v e r and ch ea p l a b o r b r o u g h t c o u ld be s e e n i n th e r a i l r o a d i n d u s t r y . Ten y e a r s b e f o r e , th e s u p p l i e s im p o rte d by th e M exican C e n t r a l R a i l r o a d f o r i t s o p e r a t i o n am ounted t o 60 p e r c e n t o f a l l th e m a t e r i a l i t u s e d . T h i s , of c o u r s e , c a u se d a l o s s on f o r e i g n e x c h a n g e . In o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h i s l o s s , th e ro a d began to m a n u fa c tu re e v e r y t h i n g i t p o s s i b l y c o u ld f o r i t s o p e r a t i o n i n M exico. As a r e s u l t , by 1897 th e company o n ly needed t o im p o rt 20 p e r c e n t of i t s g o o d s. One o f th e d i r e c t o r s o f th e r a i l r o a d in fo rm e d Romero t h a t th e company in te n d e d t o u s e M exican made r a i l s a s soon as th e y c o u ld be p ro d u c e d , w h ich would f u r t h e r re d u c e im p o r t s . As i t p r e s e n t l y s t o o d , some m a n u f a c t u r in g p l a n t s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s were moving t o M exico. T h is d e v e lo p m e n t o f m a n u f a c tu r in g i n Mexico had b r o u g h t a b o u t an i n c r e a s e i n home p r o d u c t i o n o f th e raw 154 m a t e r i a l s w hich such i n d u s t r i e s r e q u i r e d . P r e v i o u s l y , M exi co had bought th e s e goods from f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s , b u t a g a i n , th e s i l v e r problem i n t e r v e n e d . They had to be p a id f o r i n g o l d , which made them so c o s t l y t h a t i t was c h e a p e r to r a i s e 31 them a t home. Such goods in c l u d e d c o t t o n . The a u th o r made one f i n a l r e f e r e n c e t o th e s i l v e r q u e s t i o n . S i l v e r was a lo w - p r ic e d commodity a b ro a d . S ince t h i s was t r u e , i t was u n p r o f i t a b l e to e x p o r t . At th e same t im e , i t had v a lu e a t home, w hich made i t u s e f u l t o i n v e s t i n m a n u f a c tu r in g . Mexico e x p o rte d i t s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c ts t o pay f o r i t s im p o rts and i t s o b l i g a t i o n s i n g o ld . S i l v e r was r e t a i n e d a t home, and th u s i n c r e a s e d th e c i r c u l a t i o n of money in M exico, so t h a t bank s now had an ample s u p p ly . T hat f a c t s t i m u l a t e d i n d u s t r y , k e p t p r i c e s h ig h , and i n - 32 c r e a s e d th e demand f o r l a b o r . But a n o th e r f a c t o r was r e t a r d i n g M e x ico ’s econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t, a t th e same tim e , the F re e Zone. The F re e Zone was a s t r i p o f la n d o f v a ry in g l e n g t h and d e p th th ro u g h tim e on th e M ex ico -U n ited S t a t e s b o r d e r . Goods w ere to be im p o rte d i n t o t h i s a r e a more c h e a p ly th a n i n t o th e r e s t o f M exico. The r e s u l t s were somewhat u n f o r e s e e n , and were d e t r i m e n t a l t o m a n u f a c tu r e r s and p r o p e r t y owners i n the a r e a , whose l o s s e s amounted i n t o th e 31Ibid., pp. 597-9. ^^Ibid., pp. 603-4. 155 m i l l i o n s . 33 By A r t i c l e 696 of th e t a r i f f a c t o f June 12, 1891, Mexico d e c re e d t h a t goods m a n u fa c tu re d i n th e Zone, w heth er from f o r e i g n or d o m e s tic raw m a t e r i a l s , had t o pay im p o rt d u t i e s upon e n t e r i n g th e r e s t o f Mexico from t h i s r e g io n . T his a c t i o n was e x tr e m e ly d e t r i m e n t a l to th e i n h a b i t a n t s and th e Zone, so d e t r i m e n t a l in f a c t t h a t th ey would have had to g iv e up any p r i v i l e g e s w hich th e F re e Zone t h e o r e t i c a l l y gave them i n o r d e r t o have s im p ly b een on th e same l e v e l a s o t h e r M exican c i t i z e n s a s f a r a s t h e i r p ro d u c ts and m a n u fa c tu r e s were c o n c e rn e d . On O ctober 31, 1896, the M exican T r e a s u r y lo o se n e d t h e p r o v i s i o n s somewhat, b u t the p e o p le o f th e F re e Zone were s t i l l n o t on an e q u a l f o o t - 34 ing w ith o t h e r M exicans i n m a n u f a c tu r in g . In any e v e n t , by t h a t tim e th e damage had been d o n e . The e x i s t e n c e of t h e F ree Zone " w ith i t s p r o h i b i t o r y law s as to m a n u fa c tu re d a r t i c l e s " p r e v e n te d th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f f a c t o r i e s . W ith o u t the law of 1891 i t was c e r t a i n t h a t b e fo re t h i s tim e s m e l t e r s , g l a s s f a c t o r i e s , soap f a c t o r i e s , p a c k i n g - h o u s e s , m a c h in e -s h o p s , c r a c k e r f a c t o r i e s , c an d le f a c t o r i e s , f u r n i t u r e f a c t o r i e s , b r i c k f a c t o r i e s , w hiskey d i s t i l l e r i e s , and o t h e r e n t e r p r i s e s would have been e s t a b ^ l i s h e d a lo n g th e f r o n t i e r . As i t w as, econom ic c o n d it i o n s were so bad t h a t many th o u s a n d s o f i n h a b i t a n t s had gone 33Ibid., p. 451. 34Ibid., p. 441. 156 35 e ls e w h e re , s in c e t h e r e was no w ork. But even i f t h e r e was work, i t was l i k e l y to be work f o r low pay. Romero had p r e v i o u s l y n o te d t h a t the c h ea p n ess of la b o r fo r f a c t o r i e s was a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n t h e i r e s ta b lis h m e n t i n M exico, and he now d i s c u s s e d la b o r c o n d it i o n s in g r e a t e r d e t a i l . Not a l l l a b o r e r s w ere p a id low w ages. S k i l l e d m a n u fa c tu rin g l a b o r e r s r e c e iv e d b e t t e r wages th a n t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s in many a r e a s of th e U n ited S t a t e s , sim p ly because th e y had to be a t t r a c t e d from th e U n ited S t a t e s , t h e r e not b e in g w o rk ers w ith t h e s e s p e c i a l i z e d s k i l l s among the Mexican la b o r in g p o p u l a t i o n . These s k i l l e d w o rk e rs r e c e iv e d abou t the same wages as d id th o se w ith th e same p o s i t i o n s in E ng lan d , and a t l e a s t a s much or more as d id th o se in E u ro pe. They d id n o t o b t a i n a s much pay as d id th o se i n a g i g a n t i c e n t e r p r i s e l i k e th e C arnegie Works, sim p ly b e cause such e n t e r p r i s e s d id n o t e x i s t in M exico. Thus, th e r e was no need fo r th e e x tre m e ly s p e c i a l i z e d w o rk e rs and s k i l l s 36 w hich one e n c o u n te re d t h e r e . The h i g h ly p a id were th e e l i t e m in o r i t y among f a c t o ry w o rk e rs. In th e m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s , wages i n M exican f a c t o r i e s were " f a r low er" th an th e y would have b een i f th o se f a c t o r i e s were i n the U n ite d S t a t e s . On th e o th e r hand, M exican w ork ers were a ls o l e s s e f f i c i e n t th a n were th o se e ls e w h e re . For exam ple, i n an American t e x t i l e m i l l , th e 35Ibid., pp. 451-2. 36Ibid., p. 514. 157 w orker was a b le to o p e ra te and care fo r e i g h t looms. I n E n gland, th e la b o r e r in th e same jo b could work s i x looms, in Belgium , f i v e , in F ra n c e , f o u r . But th e M exican in a M exican f a c t o r y was o n ly c a p a b le of o p e r a tin g two looms. Why t h i s i n e f f i c i e n c y v i s - a - v i s th e North Am erican? Romero n oted th e r e a s o n s in v o lv e d , which in c lu d e d th e f a c t t h a t the Mexican l a b o r e r was i l l - f e d ; t h a t he worked u n t i l he was e x h a u s te d , and was t h e r e f o r e l e s s p r o d u c tiv e ; t h a t he was n o t as w e ll e d u c a te d ; t h a t he had few er wants and t h e r e f o r e had l e s s inducem ent to work; t h a t he la b o re d i n a c l i mate which may have been e n e r v a t i n g . In some c a s e s , Mexican f a c t o r y w o rk ers were paid "ab o u t a s i x t h o f what i s [was] paid h e re I in the U n ited S t a t e s ] f o r s i m i l a r w o rk .” Y e t, due to th e f a c t o r s above, p r o d u c tio n in Mexico was ”a g r e a t d e a l more c o s t l y th a n th e 37 p r o d u c tio n of s i m i l a r a r t i c l e s in the U n ited S t a t e s . ” The p re v io u s low n a tu r e of wages in Mexico may have been accou nted f o r by th e f a c t t h a t "our p ro d u c ts d id n o t use to compete w ith f o r e i g n m an u factu re i n our home mark e t s . ” Given the n a s c e n t m a n u fa c tu rin g which was p r e s e n t l y d e v e lo p in g , l a r g e l y c e n te re d i n c o a r s e r t e x t i l e s and i r o n , by t h i s argum ent wages would r i s e . In f a c t , th ey ought to be h ig h e r in Mexican m a n u fa c tu rin g c o n cern s th an th e y were in s i m i l a r p l a n t s in the U n ite d S t a t e s , s in c e the Mexican 37Ibid., pp. 521-2. 158 t a r i f f was h i g h e r . D e s p ite th e t h e o r y , wages rem ained low i n M exican f a c t o r i e s . High im p o rt d u t i e s had n o t i n c r e a s e d m a n u fa c tu rin g w ages. Such d u t i e s had n o t in c r e a s e d m anufac t u r i n g p r o d u c tio n , n o r had th e y made M exican m an u fa ctu red 3 8 goods any cheap er f o r th e consum er. From h i s d i s c u s s i o n of wages i n m a n u f a c tu r in g , Romero tu rn e d to v a r i o u s m anufac t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s which were i n an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a t e a t the tim e of h i s w r i t i n g . Romero c i t e d su g a r as an example of an a i l i n g manu f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y . I t s u f f e r e d from a la c k of w o rk e rs and h ig h t r a n s p o r t c o s t s . As a c o n seq u en ce, su g a r was so ld i n New York C ity a t fo u r and o n e - h a lf c e n ts a pound. In Mexico C i ty i t c o s t from tw elve to e i g h t e e n c e n ts a pound, even though i t was grown w i t h i n th e c o u n tr y . M oreover, i t was 39 n o t n e a r l y as w e l l r e f i n e d . A l l t h i s was the case i n s p i t e of th e f a c t t h a t th e L o u is ia n a p ro d u c e rs p aid t h e i r w o rk e rs high w ages, w h ile the M exican p r o d u c e rs d id n o t. Paper showed a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n . Common p r i n t i n g - p a p er c o s t a b o u t t h r e e c e n ts a pound i n th e U n ited S t a t e s . I t c o s t f i v e tim e s t h a t i n M exico, even, though abundant raw m a t e r i a l s and w a ter-p o w e r were p r e s e n t . To en courage p a p e r- m aking, the governm ent e s t a b l i s h e d an im p o rt d u ty on f o r e i g n - p r o d u c e d , u n s iz e d and h a l f - s i z e d p ap er of t e n c e n ts per k ilo g ra m , e q u i v a l e n t to a lm o st one hundred p e r c e n t ad 38Ibid., p. 504. 39Ibid., pp. 508-9. 159 v a lo re m . The p r e s e n t t a r i f f reduced t h i s d u ty to f i v e c e n ts per k ilo g ra m f o r u n s iz e d p a p e r, r e t a i n i n g th e o ld r a t e f o r h a l f - s i z e d . In s p i t e of a l l t h i s , Mexico s t i l l im ported p r i n t i n g paper from th e U n ited S t a t e s . Something s i m i l a r happened to c o t t o n and c o tto n p r i n t s . C o tto n s o ld fo r f i v e c e n ts a yard in th e U nited S t a t e s and from t e n to f i f t e e n c e n ts per v a ra ( t h i r t y - t h r e e in c h e s) i n Mexico. C otton p r i n t s b ro u g h t e i g h t c e n ts per yard i n theJLJnited S t a t e s , 40 tw enty in Mexico. As i f to give the f i n a l r e b u t t a l to th e argument t h a t low wages meant lo w -p ric e d m anu factured goods, Romero p re s e n te d a t a b l e showing p r i c e s of v a r io u s com m odities in Mexico and th e U n ited S ta te s f o r 1891. As i t p e r t a i n e d to s t r i c t l y m anu factured goods, i t has been in c lu d e d a t t h i s 41 p o i n t . (See page 160.) Mexican V is t a s r e s u l t e d from a t r i p made by the au- 42 th o r and her husband d u rin g 1898, im m e d ia te ly b e fo re th e 43 o u tb re a k of th e Spanish-A m erican War. O ther than th o se two f a c t s , g lea n ed from th e body of th e t e x t , n o th in g was found re g a r d in g the a u th o r . T h e r e f o r e , th e r e was no way of e x p la in in g h e r u n fa v o ra b le t r e a tm e n t of m an u fa c tu rin g under 4 0I b i d . , pp. 524-5. 4 1I b i d . , p . 553. 42 H a r r i o t t Wight S h e r r a t t , Mexican V i s t a s (C h icago: Rand, McNally & C o ., P u b l i s h e r s , 1899), p. 9. 43Ibid., p. 282. 160 PRICES OF VARIOUS COMMODITIES, MEXICO AND UNITED STATES, 1891 P r i c e i n the U nited Type of goods P r ic e i n Mexico S t a t e s _________ C o tto n p r i n t s lO - l/2 0 /y d . 3 - 4 / 5 0 /y d . C o tto n s 1 9 0 /lb . 100/ lb . F lo u r 5$/lb. 1- 1/ 20/ lb . Pig i r o n $ 3 2 /ton $ 1 9 /ton Lard 1 8 0 /lb . 8 - 1 / 3 0 / lb . P r i n t i n g paper 1 5 0 /l b . 5 0 / l b . P r i n t s 8- l / 20/y d . 6 - 1 / 4 0 / y d . S a l t 7 0 / l b . 4 0 / l b . Sugar 210/ l b . 5 0 / l b . T allow 1 5 0 /lb . 4 - 3 / 5 0 / l b . Whiskey 800 / g a l l o n 3 6 0 /g a llo n N .B .- - I n each c a s e , th e com m odities were produced i n Mexico i n th e Mexican column and the U n ite d S t a t e s in th e U n ited S t a t e s column. T his t a b l e i s a f i t t i n g p la c e to le a v e the w r i t i n g s of M a tia s Romero. Romero’s books were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l u c i d i t y , an a tte m p t to p r e s e n t in fo r m a tio n in a s c i e n t i f i c m anner, and by g r e a t le n g th of coverage g iv e n to m a n u fa c tu rin g . H a r r i o t t Wight S h e r a t t ’ s Mexican , V is t a s (1899) embraced none of th e s e t h i n g s , and was m ere ly a t r a v e l book which i n c i d e n t a l l y m entioned m an u fa c tu rin g under D iaz. 161 D ia z . She seemed t o e x h i b i t a g e n e r a l d i s t a s t e f o r M e x ico , 44 ho w ev er, and c o n s i d e r e d i t e x tr e m e ly p r i m i t i v e , w h ich may have p a r t i a l l y e x p la in e d h er v ie w s on th e p ro b lem a t h a n d . M rs. S h e r r a t t d e v o te d m ost o f h e r c o v e ra g e o f manu f a c t u r i n g to th e c o t t o n i n d u s t r y . I n t h e c i t y o f Q u e r e t a r o was found th e " H e r c u l e s ” c o t t o n f a c t o r y , th e l a r g e s t i n Mex i c o . The c o u n tr y a ro u n d th e p l a n t was a w a s t e l a n d , y e t i t was c o u n tr y " w o n d e r f u ll y a d a p te d t o t h e r a i s i n g of c o t t o n . " I n e x p l i c a b l y , i t rem a in e d u n c u l t i v a t e d w h ile th e f a c t o r y im p o r t e d more th a n h a l f o f th e c o t t o n w h ic h i t u se d from th e 45 U n ite d S t a t e s . The a u th o r moved on i n her d e s c r i p t i o n t o O r i z a b a , V e r a c r u z , s e a t of c o t t o n and s u g a r m a n u f a c t o r i e s . The O riz a b a c o t t o n i n d u s t r y was i n a s i m i l a r s t a t e a s t h a t i n Q u e r e t a r o . A lth o u g h l o c a t e d i n a c l i m a t e w e l l a d a p te d to r a i s i n g c o t t o n , th e O riz a b a m i l l s o b t a i n e d m ost o f t h e i r s u p p ly from New O r l e a n s . The m i l l s w ere l a r g e , modern and had " a l t o g e t h e r a m ost un-M ex ican n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a i r ” a b o u t them . Then M rs. S h e r r a t t and h e r husband v i s i t e d one of th e O riz a b a s u g a r m i l l s . She commented t h a t , w h ile th e f i n is h e d p r o d u c t o f th e f a c t o r i e s was " v e r y sw ee t and p u r e , " i t was p r e s s e d i n t o d a r k - c o l o r e d c a k e s w e ig h in g s e v e r a l pounds 46 e a c h , and lo o k ed r a t h e r u n a p p e t i z i n g t o h e r . M rs. 44Ibid., p. 159. 45Ibid., p. 80. 46 Ibid., p. 159. 162 S h e r r a t t ended h e r c o v e ra g e o f m a n u f a c tu r in g on t h a t n o t e . Betw een h e r book and th e n e x t t h e r e was a gap o f n in e y e a r s . N o th in g was found p u b l is h e d b e tw e e n 1899 and 1908. I n th e l a t t e r y e a r and onward, h o w e v er, s e v e r a l books a p p e a r e d , r e a c h i n g a c lim a x w i t h T u r n e r 's B a rb a r o u s M e x ic o . The f i r s t o f t h e s e books was T hrough S o u th e r n M e x ic o . T hrough S o u th e rn Mexico a p p e a re d i n 1908, th e p r o d u c t o f a n a t u r a l i s t and e x p l o r e r , Hans Gadow. The c a r e e r of Gadow was a long and d i s t i n g u i s h e d one. He was b o rn i n P o m eran ia e a r l y i n ^ l 8 5 5 . H is s t u d i e s w ere c o m p le te d a t F r a n k f u r t - o n - O d e r , B e r l i n , H e i d e l b e r g , and J e n a u n i v e r s i t i e s , h i s chosen f i e l d th e s t u d y o f v e r t e b r a t e b i o l o g y . Gadow s p e n t two y e a r s i n th e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y D e p a rtm e n t o f th e B r i t i s h Museum, from 1880 t o 1882. Two y e a r s l a t e r he became S t r i c k l a n d C u r a to r t h e r e , e x e c u ti n g t h a t o f f i c e u n t i l h i s d e a t h . He was a l s o a r e a d e r i n th e m orph olog y o f v e r t e b r a t e s a t C am bridge and was e l e c t e d a F e llo w o f th e Royal S o c i e t y i n 1892. Much of h i s l i f e was s p e n t i n t r a v e l i n g t o v a r i o u s p a r t s o f th e w o rld and d o in g v e r t e b r a t e s t u d i e s . T h is r e s u l t e d i n s e v e r a l b o o k s, su c h a s I n N o r th e r n S p a in ( 1 8 9 7 ) , A C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f V e r t e b r a t a ( 1 8 9 8 ) , The L a s t L in k by E. H a ek e l ( 1 8 9 8 ) , Through S o u th e r n M exico ( 1 9 0 8 ) , and The Wan d e r i n g s of A n im a ls , and many p a p e r s i n th e R o y a l S o c i e t y P h i l o s o p h i c a l T r a n s a c t i o n s and o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c 163 47 p e r i o d i c a l s . Hans Gadow d ie d i n 1928. Through S o u th e rn Mexico r e s u l t e d from two t r i p s w hich Gadow and h i s w ife made to Mexico i n Ju n e t o Septem ber o f 1902 and 1904, a t o t a l o f e i g h t m o n th s T t r a v e l in w hat Gadow c a l l e d "some w ild and l i t t l e - k n o w n d i s t r i c t s " o f the 48 s o u t h e r n p a r t o f th e c o u n tr y . Gadow*s comments on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f M exican m a n u f a c tu r in g w ere u n f a v o r a b l e i n ways w hich have n o t been p r e s e n t e d p r e v i o u s l y . The r e a s o n s f o r th e im p r e s s io n s w ith w hich he l e f t h i s r e a d e r s c o u ld n o t be d e te r m in e d , how ever. He f i r s t viewed th e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y a t O r iz a b a , d e s c r i b i n g th e making of s e r a p e s , th e q u a l i t y o f w hich had d e c l i n e d owing to t h e i r m a n u fa c tu re by m a c h in e ry . When th e y were " o f j genuin e n a t i v e make" from good w o o l, w h ich was e i t h e r b l a c k , brown, w h ite o r dyed w ith r e a l n a t i v e d y e s , th e s e r a p e was " p r a c t i c a l l y i n d e s t r u c t a b l e ” and i t s dy es r e mained p e r f e c t l y f a s t . M oreov er, t h i s ty p e o f garm ent r e mained w a te r p r o o f f o r a long tim e . I t spoke w e l l f o r th e t a s t e of th e p e o p le t h a t none of th e d e s i g n s employed i n th e b l a n k e t s was e v e r j a r r i n g o r u g l y . Each seemed t o be o ld e r th a n th e c i v i l i z a t i o n o f th e I n d i a n s who made i t , and was alw ays g e o m e t r i c a l . 4 7Who, s Who, 19 2 8 , p . 1082. 48 Hans Gadow, Through S o u th e rn M exico: Being an A ccount o f th e T r a v e l s of a N a t u r a l i s t (London; Wi't'he'rby & C'oY, 1 9 0 8 ), P- v- 164 U n f o r t u n a t e ly , th e w h ite m an 's c i v i l i z a t i o n , "w ith i t s many f r a u d u l e n t d e v i c e s , " had in v ad ed t h i s i n d u s t r y . There were now l a r g e f a c t o r i e s d e v o te d to th e w eaving of s e r a p e s , i n P u e b la , f o r i n s t a n c e . Here poor or l i t t l e wool and much a n i l i n e dye were em ployed. Some o f th e s e f a b r i c a t i o n s were f a i r l y good, e x c e p t t h a t th ey la c k e d th e s o f t e f f e c t s p ro v id e d by the n a t i v e d y e s . Many o t h e r s were o n ly " f i n e - w e a t h e r g a rm e n ts , as th e f i r s t so a k in g r a i n c au se s [c a u se d ] th e p a t t e r n t o r u n , " w hich s t a i n e d the w e a r e r 's o th e r g a rm e n ts. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , th e s e w o r t h l e s s p r o d u c tio n s co uld be made c h ea p er th an th o s e of th e n a t i v e a r t i s t , as co u ld th e b e t t e r q u a l i t y m a n u fa c tu re d s e r a p e s . C o nseq uent l y , th e I n d ia n was a l s o f o r c e d to r e s o r t to a n i l i n e d y e s, and th e c u l t u r e o f th e old n a t i v e d y e s t u f f s such as in d ig o and c o c h in e a l had "alm o st d ie d out w i t h i n th e l a s t te n ..49 y e a r s ." Gadow d e v o te d s e v e r a l pages to th e sugar p l a n t a t i o n of M otzorongo, l o c a t e d i n V e ra c ru z , an example o f D ia z ’s f a v o r i t i s m in a m a n u fa c tu rin g s e t t i n g . M otzorongo was a la r g e h a c ie n d a , w ith "an i n t e r e s t i n g h i s t o r y , t y p i c a l of many such h a c i e n d a s ." C a r lo s P a c h eco , a Mexican g e n e r a l d u r in g th e I n t e r v e n t i o n , d e a l t th e F ren ch in v a d e r s a heavy blow a t P u e b la . He had th e m i s f o r t u n e , o r , as i t tu rn e d o u t, p e rh a p s th e r a t h e r good f o r t u n e , o f l o s i n g an arm and a 49 Ibid., p. 32. 165 leg d u rin g the engagem ent. T his made him a n a t i o n a l h e ro , and, a f t e r the f i n a l e v i c t i o n of th e F ren ch , P o r f i r i o Diaz rew arded him w ith "enormous g r a n ts of l a n d , ” much or most o f w hich had been ta k e n from th e Church a f t e r th e J u a r e z r e fo rm s. One o f th e s e g r a n t s was M otzorongo. Diaz b u i l t Pacheco a ho u se, "and a t g r e a t c o s t a f a c t o r y w ith a l l the p l a n t f o r th e r e f i n i n g of s u g a r . " To crown the e f f o r t , a r a ilw a y was c o n s t r u c t e d from Cordoba to M otzorongo, which e v e n t u a l l y became the " F e r r o c a r r i l de Vera Cruz a l P a c i f i c o . ” With t h i s p h y s i c a l p l a n t , Pacheco e n t e r e d the su g a r b u s i n e s s . But he was a g e n e r a l , n o t a sugar c a p i t a l i s t , and he d id not do w e l l f i n a n c i a l l y . T h e r e f o r e , D ia z , who n ever abandoned h i s old c o m ra d e s -in -a rm s , "had to see him th ro u g h h is t r o u b l e s . " A huge c e ib a t r e e was p l a n t ed by the P r e s i d e n t "d u rin g one of th e s e sy m p a th e tic v i s i t s ." Heavy m ortgages had to be met when old Pacheco f i n a l l y d ie d , and the e s t a t e " f e l l i n t o u t t e r r u i n , th e c o s t l y su gar f a c t o r y along w ith the r e s t . " A f o r e i g n company bought i t , and i t s e n t an a d m i n i s t r a t o r to t r y and put th e p la c e back in sh ap e. The la n d s of Motzorongo were o r i g i n a l l y ta k e n away from the In d ia n s by th e r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s , and, when th e l a t t e r were d i s e s t a b l i s h e d , " t h e i r bad t i t l e s w ere, of c o u rs e , ta k e n over as good t i t l e s by the new Pacheco c o n c e r n ." Con s e q u e n tly , the n a t i v e s s t i l l had to pay r e n t , i n c a sh , to M otzorongo. Those In d ia n s l i v i n g on J o s e f i n e s and La Raya, 166 d e p e n d e n c ie s o f M otzorongo, a ls o had to p a y c a s h , b e s i d e s d o in g fro n d e s e r v i c e i n th e form o f w orkin g two days p e r week ” f o r v e ry sm a ll p a y ." D uring the p a t r i a r c h a l , e a s y g o in g r e i g n o f P a c h eco , t h i s s o r t o f t h in g went on w e ll eno ugh , a s i t had f o r s e v e r a l h u nd red y e a r s . B ut the lo n g in te r r e g n u m a f t e r h i s d e a th " u t t e r l y d e m o ra liz e d the n a t i v e s , " who became s h i f t l e s s l o a f e r s who co u ld o n ly be i n du ced t o work f o r s i x or sev en r e a l e s per d ay , and th e n only o c c a s i o n a l l y . A f t e r midweek th e y were now accustom ed t o t u r n up s i x t y o r e i g h t y s t r o n g , t h i s number c o n tin u in g t o work u n t i l S a tu r d a y , when th e y w ere p a id . The f o l lo w in g Monday p e rh a p s th r e e or f o u r showed up f o r w ork, a few more on T u esday, and so on, t o th e d e s p a i r of th e h a c ie n d a adm in i s t r a t o r , who n e v e r knew how many w o rk e rs he c o u ld e x p e c t.^ Gadow co n clu d ed h i s im p r e s s io n of m a n u fa c tu rin g on t h a t n o t e . H is o p in io n s on th e s u b j e c t s t r e s s e d ite m s n o t p r e v i o u s ly e n c o u n te r e d among th e w r i t e r s i n c lu d e d in t h i s s e c t i o n , such as c o r r u p t i o n and an u n f o r t u n a t e c u r t a i l m e n t of n a t i v e h a n d i c r a f t s due t o th e m ach in e. M e x ico , p u b l is h e d in 1909, was a ls o somewhat d i f f e r e n t from th e m a j o r i t y o f books se e n i n t h i s c h a p t e r : w h ile a d m i t ti n g t o an e x p a n s io n o f m a n u f a c tu r in g , i t gave D iaz l i t t l e or no c r e d i t f o r i t . The a u th o r o f M e x ico , C h a r le s R e g in a ld Enock, was b o r n l a t e in 1868, a n d , so f a r a s I could d e te r m i n e , i s 50Ibid., pp. 79-81. s t i l l a l i v e . H is e d u c a ti o n seems to have b e e n n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l , b u t he became a s o c i o l o g i s t and was f i n a l l y a d m itte d as a F e llo w o f th e R oyal G e o g r a p h ic a l S o c i e t y . He s p e n t many y e a r s abroad i n p r o f e s s i o n a l work and i n th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n N o rth and South A m erica and v a r i o u s p a r t s o f th e B r i t i s h E m pire. Enock a ls o c a r r i e d o u t s c i e n t i f i c work f o r th e Mexican and P e r u v ia n governm ents and gave p a p e r s and l e c t u r e s b e f o r e such l e a r n e d g ro u p s as th e R oyal G e o g r a p h ic a l S o c i e t y , th e R oyal S o c ie ty o f A r t s , and th e S o c i e t y of E n g i n e e r s . He l i v e s i n H a m p s h i r e . E n o c k was th e a u th o r of s e v e r a l books, a l l of them on N orth and South A m erican s u b j e c t s . T hese i n c lu d e d P eru (1 9 0 8 ), Mexico ( 1 9 0 9 ) , F a r t h e s t W est, L if e and T r a v e l i n the U n ited S t a t e s ( 1 9 1 0 ) , E cuad or ( 1 9 1 4 ), and The Panama C an al ( I t s P a s t , P r e s e n t , and F u tu r e ) (1 9 1 4 ). He a l s o e d i t e d The Putumayo: The D e v i l Ts P a r a d i s e , by W. E_ H ardenburg ( 1 9 1 2 ) . ^ Enock l e f t l i t t l e i n d i c a t i o n a s t o why h i s s tu d y of m a n u fa c tu rin g u nd er D iaz i n Mexico was u n f a v o r a b l e . The o n ly g lim p se g iv e n of a p o s s i b l e m o tiv e was h i s announcem ent t h a t he d i d n o t in te n d " t o in d u lg e i n th e f l a t t e r y w hich i n some c a s e s h as Ihad] b een g iv e n to him i D i a z ] , e s p e c i a l l y 51Whot s Who, 1960, p. 943. in M exican b o o k s." Whatever h i s r e a s o n s , E no ck 1s c o v erag e o f Diaz and m a n u fa c tu rin g i n Mexico was u n f a v o r a b l e , s i n c e he gave Diaz l i t t l e im po rtan ce i n the m a n u fa c tu rin g develop m en t of M exico. He h in te d t h a t o th e r f a c t o r s were o f f a r g r e a t e r im p o rta n c e . For exam ple, th e f a l l i n th e p r i c e of s i l v e r was to a c e r t a i n e x te n t b e n e f i c i a l to M exican i n d u s t r y . I t "had th e e f f e c t of s t i m u l a t i n g home m a n u fa c tu re i n a c o u n try whose raw m a t e r i a l and la b o u r was p a id f o r i n s i l v e r . " T h is would have been a perm anent b e n e f i t e x c e p t f o r th e c o n t i n u ous f l u c t u a t i o n i n th e p r i c e o f s i l v e r , which had an u n f a v o r a b le e f f e c t on commerce. C o n se q u e n tly , a m onetary commis s i o n f i n a l l y d e c id e d t h a t Mexico sh o u ld ad opt th e gold s t a n - 53 d a r d . L im antour was a l s o c i t e d as an im p o rta n t f a c t o r in the grow th of m a n u fa c tu rin g . As S e c r e t a r y o f th e D epartm ent of F in a n c e , t h i s " c a u t io u s and a b le s ta te s m a n " had been " th e i n s tr u m e n t f o r h i s c o u n tr y ’ s f i n a n c i a l p r o g r e s s . " S t a b i l i t y in t h i s a r e a "im pulsed th e ad v en t of f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i n t o th e c o u n t r y ," i n th e form o f in v e s tm e n ts in m a n u fa c tu rin g 54 m in in g , and r a ilw a y e n t e r p r i s e s . Cheap la b o r and ab und an t raw m a t e r i a l were "co n d u c iv e t o M ex ico ’ s developm ent i n man u f a c t u r i n g . " A f u r t h e r elem en t was t h a t of th e "ab u n d an t 52 R e g in a ld Enock, Mexico (New Yorkt C h a rle s S c r i b n e r ’ s Sons, 19 09), p . 132n. 53Ibid., p. 335. 54Ibid., p. 329. 169 w ater-pow er which e x i s t s [ e x i s t e d ] in c e r t a i n s e c t i o n s of 55 - the c o u n t r y . ” The only r e f e r e n c e by Enock to D la z Ts r o l e con cern in g m an u fa ctu rin g was found in a b r i e f passag e s t a t ing t h a t s p e c i a l exem ptions and f r a n c h i s e s were g iv en by h i s government ”fo r th e e s t a b l i s h i n g of new m a n u fa c tu rin g in d u s t r i e s , w hich a re [were] encou raged by th e D epartm ent of Fom ento.” The f i e l d was ”n o t w ith o u t a t t r a c t i o n f o r f o r e i g n 56 c a p i t a l . ” From the f o r e g o in g , i t was u n c le a r w hether Enock meant D ia z , the government as a w ho le, th e D epartm ent o f Fomento, or somebody e l s e , p o s s i b l y L im anto ur. Ju d g in g from th e r e s t of h i s s ta te m e n ts , i t seems c l e a r t h a t Enock a tta c h e d l i t t l e im portance t o th e r o l e o f D iaz in m anufac t u r i n g . P a s s in g from th e s e g e n e r a l s t a te m e n t s , Enock now d e s c r ib e d Mexican m anufacture o f v a r io u s com m odities. In r e c e n t y e a r s , Mexico had p assed th e p o in t of su p p ly in g home demands i n s u g a r, and was now e x p o r tin g sugar ” to a c o n s id e r a b le v a lu e , a lth o u g h a f a l l i n g - o f f in the l a s t year or so . . . r e s u l t e d upon d i s t u r b e d m arket c o n d itio n s 57 a b ro a d .” Mexican c i g a r e t t e f a c t o r i e s were among the l a r g e s t and b e s t equipped i n the w o rld , a lth o u g h t h e i r p ro d u c t s , as w e ll as M e x ic a n - f a b r ic a te d c i g a r s and s n u f f , could n o t compete a g a in s t the Cuban b ra n d s as y e t . T urning to the t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , Enock n o ted t h a t the c o tto n m i l l s were 55Ibid., p. 336. 57Ibid., p. 289. 56Ibid., pp. 339-40. "among th e fo re m o st i n th e w o r l d ," t h e i r la r g e s i z e and " s p l e n d i d l y - b u i l t f a c t o r i e s " a so u rc e o f a s to n is h m e n t to th e v i s i t o r from Europe o f A m erica. A l a r g e number o f th e s e m i l l s were h y d r o e l e c t r i c a l l y or h y d r a u l i c a l l y pow ered. The R e p u b l i c ’s i r o n and s t e e l f a c t o r i e s were r e p r e s e n te d m ainly by th e M onterrey com plex, which owned e x te n s i v e d e p o s i t s of c o a l and i r o n . The f irm was founded i n 1900, and had a cap i t a l o f £ 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 . The p r o d u c tio n o f th e r o l l i n g p l a n t in 1906 was s t r u c t u r a l i r o n , b a r i r o n , s t e e l r a i l s , and w ire to th e amount o f 24,500 m e t r i c t o n s . The company had s u f f e r e d s e v e re h a r d s h i p s , how ever, and t h i s o u tp u t r e p r e s e n t e d only a q u a r t e r of t h a t o f w hich i t was c a p a b le . I t was e x p ec te d t h a t m a t t e r s would e v e n t u a l l y improve and t h a t th e e n t e r - p r i s e -" would be a f i n a n c i a l s u c c e s s - The meat packing and cold s to r a g e b u s i n e s s was r e p r e s e n t e d by th e Mexican N a tio n a l Packing Company, c o n t r o l l e d by th e B r i t i s h . I t was l o c a te d i n the s t a t e of M ichoacan, th e c e n t e r of a l i v e s t o c k i n d u s t r y . I t had been opened i n 1908, and was " th e o nly modern e s t a b l is h m e n t of i t s k in d " in M exico, " a n im p o rta n t e n t e r p r i s e . " An i n d u s t r y o f r e c e n t o r i g i n was t h a t o f the e x t r a c t i n g o f crude ru b b e r from th e gu ay u le s h ru b , which grew w ild over v a s t a r e a s i n n o r t h e r n M exico. "There a re [w ere] more th a n tw enty f a c t o r i e s engaged i n t h i s new i n d u s t r y , and . . . q u a n t i t i e s of th e sh ru b a re [were] 171 58 e x p o r t e d . ” Enock ended h i s coverage o f m a n u fa c tu rin g by ty p e of commodity produced a t t h i s p o in t and now tu rn e d to a d e s c r i p t i o n of m a n u fa c tu rin g i n v a r i o u s c e n t e r s . One of th e s e was the c i t y of P u e b la . P u e b la had a c q u ir e d ” a c o n s id e r a b le com m ercial and i n d u s t r i a l im portance of r e c e n t y e a r s , ” p r i m a r i l y due to i t s l o c a l c o tt o n - m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s and to i t s g e n e r a l f l o u r i s h i n g r e so u rc e s i n a g r i c u l t u r e . T h is m a n u fa c tu rin g elem ent d id not r u i n the ap p earan ce of the b e a u t i f u l c i t y , however. An i n d u s t r i o u s p o p u la tio n o f over 93,000 found s u p p o rt h e re , ”m ainly by the n a t u r a l p ro d u c ts and m a n u fa c tu re s of i t s en- 59 v ir o n m e n t.” From th e c i t y o f P u e b la , Enock proceeded to a d e s c r i p t i o n of the s t a t e of J a l i s c o , which p o ss e s se d "more th an f i f t y sugar m i l l s ” w i t h in i t s b o u n d a r ie s , along w ith ”a s i m i l a r number of f l o u r m i l l s . ” Huge q u a n t i t i e s of m o la sses and t e x t i l e s were produced in t h i s s t a t e . T here were a ls o many tobacco f a c t o r i e s . F i n a l l y , m a n u fa c tu rin g of o th e r a r t i c l e s , such as food p ro d u c ts and c l o t h i n g , showed ”a 60 c o n s id e r a b le and ra p id d e v e lo p m e n t.” Enock moved f u r t h e r n o r t h in h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of man u f a c t u r i n g c o n d it i o n s . M a n u fa c tu rin g , he w ro te , had p ro g re s s e d ”w e l l of l a t e y e a r s ” i n Chihuahua, and f a c t o r i e s p roducing i r o n , s t e e l , c l o t h e s , food p r o d u c t s , f u r n i t u r e , 58Ibid., pp. 337-9. 6°Ibid., p. 301. 59 3 Ibid., p. 209. 172 and o t h e r goods c o u ld now be found ” i n a c t i v e o p e r a t i o n ” in th e s t a t e . The same c o n d i t i o n s h e ld t r u e f o r C o a h u il a , where m a n u f a c tu r in g i n d u s t r i e s had ’’i n c r e a s e d r a p i d l y o f l a t e y e a r s , ” e s p e c i a l l y th o s e p r o d u c in g t e x t i l e s from c o t t o n 6 X grown in th e a r e a . C o n c lu d in g t h i s r e g i o n a l a p p ro a c h w i t h a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e s t a t e o f H id a lg o , Enock n o te d th e b e g in n in g o f a cem ent w orks t h e r e w i t h a 6 2 p r o j e c t e d p r o d u c t i o n o f 5 0 ,0 0 0 t o n s o f cem ent p e r y e a r . R eview ing E n o c k Ts b o o k , one m ig h t s a y t h a t i t was g e n e r a l l y f a v o r a b l e t o m a n u fa c tu r in g i n M exico, b u t t h a t i t m in im iz ed D i a z ’ s r o l e i n i t . D ia z , C z ar o f M e x ic o , w h ich was a l s o p u b lis h e d i n 1909, was u n f a v o r a b l e b o t h to th e m a n u f a c tu r in g and to D ia z . T h is book was w r i t t e n by C a r lo de F o r n a r o . The a u th o r had an e x tr e m e l y i n t e r e s t i n g l i f e . He was b o rn i n I n d i a of I t a l i a n p a r e n t a g e i n 1871, w hich t e c h n i c a l l y made him a B r i t i s h s u b j e c t . He was b r o u g h t to M exico t o s e r v e as th e a r t d i r e c t o r o f E l D i a r i o , a r e p u t a b l e n ew spaper of th e c a p i t a l . He was t h u s e n a b le d t o o b s e rv e th e D iaz governm ent a t c lo s e r a n g e . The e x p e r i e n c e o f a r e s i d e n c e i n D i a z ’ s M exico had two e f f e c t s on F o r n a r o : he became v i o l e n t l y a n t i - D i a z i n a l l r e s p e c t s , and he w r o te a b o o k , D ia z , C zar 6 1I b i d . , pp . 3 0 9 -1 0 . 62I b i d . , p . 339. 6 3 H enry B a e r l e i n , M ex ico , th e Land o f U n r e s t ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : J . B. L i p p i n c o t t Co'.', [ 1 9 T 3 ] ) , pp. 1 2 -1 3 . o f M e x ico . His e x p e r ie n c e i n new spaper work i n M exico C ity 64 l a s t e d two y e a r s . He th e n l e f t Mexico f o r th e U n ite d S t a t e s f o r th e p u b l i c a t i o n o f h i s boo k , w hich he had a p p a r - 6 5 e n t l y w r i t t e n in M exico. T here h i s t r o u b l e s b e g a n . He had to p r i n t th e book h i m s e lf b e c a u s e he c o u ld n o t f i n d a r e g u l a r p u b l i s h e r . I t was r e f u s e d c i r c u l a t i o n i n M exico, and a c t i o n f o r c r i m in a l l i b e l a g a i n s t i t s a u th o r was immedi a t e l y begun i n th e c o u r t s of-New Y ork. In o r d e r to b r i n g t h i s s u i t , th e e d i t o r o f th e l e a d i n g D iaz n e w sp a p e r, E l I m p a r c i a l , alo ng w ith J o a q u in C a s a s u s , th e m ost p ro m in e n t law yer i n Mexico and fo rm e r M exican am bassador t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s , h a s te n e d from Mexico C i t y to New Y ork. S e v e ra l Am erican la w y e rs were employed as s p e c i a l p r o s e c u t o r s , among them Henry W. T a f t , b r o t h e r o f th e P r e s i d e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s and c o u n s e l of th e N a t i o n a l R a i l ways o f M exico. Since F o rn a ro la c k e d th e money t o b r i n g w i t n e s s e s from Mexico t o s u p p o r t h i s c h a r g e s , he was con v i c t e d and s e n te n c e d to a y e a r ’ s im p riso n m e n t. The book was n o t c i r c u l a t e d t h e r e a f t e r i n th e o r d i n a r y way. I n f a c t , im m e d i a t e ly a f t e r F o r n a r o ’ s a r r e s t , f o r some u n e x p la in e d r e a son th e New York book s t o r e s , a t l e a s t , r e f u s e d t o h a n d le 64 /* John K enneth T u r n e r , B a rb a ro u s Mexico (C h ic a g o : C h a r le s H. K e rr & C o ., 19 1 1 ), pi 246. 6 5 B a e r l e i n , op. c i t . 174 A f \ the w ork. The f o r e g o in g o c c u rre d i n 1909. Im prisonm ent d i d n o t end th e l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t i e s of C a rlo de F o rn a ro . A Modern P u r g a to r y r e s u l t e d from th e y e a r , s im p riso n m e n t, w hich to o k p l a c e i n Tombs P r i s o n and 67 th e New York C ity p e n i t e n t i a r y on B l a c k w e ll ’ s I s l a n d . F o rn aro a l s o w ro te C a rra n z a and Mexico (1 9 1 5 ; p r o - C a r r a n z a ) , Jo hn Wenger (1 9 2 5 ), and The A ra b ia n D r o l l S t o r i e s Rendered i n t o E n g li s h (1 9 2 9 ). I was u n a b le to l e a r n th e y e a r of F o rn a ro * s d e a t h . A r e a d in g of D ia z , Czar of Mexico would show why F orn aro s u f f e r e d a l i b e l s u i t . W ith th e p o s s i b l e e x c e p tio n o f T u rn er (1 9 1 1 ), i t was th e most v i o l e n t l y a n t i - D i a z , i n flam m atory book which I found i n my r e s e a r c h . T h is g e n e r a l to n e ex te n d ed to m a n u f a c tu r in g . F orn aro f i r s t w ro te t h a t th e ’’lucky c ir c u m s ta n c e ’’ t h a t th e p r o g r e s s in Mexico ’’went hand in h an d ’’ w ith th e i n c r e a s i n g fame o f D iaz le d th e su p e r f i c i a l o b s e rv e r o f M exican p o l i t i c s t o th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e d i c t a t o r was th e o n ly one r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l of th e b e n e f i t s a c c ru in g from t h i s g r e a t p r o s p e r i t y . T h is was n o t th e c a s e , f o r Diaz and th e c l i q u e around him w hich r e f l e c t e d h i s b e l i e f s w ere ’’s h o r t s i g h t e d , puny, s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t , p e t t y and l o c a l p o l i t i c i a n s , w ith o u t p a t r i o t i c i d e a l s ; th e y a re [w ere] o n ly b ig f r o g s i n a l i t t l e T u rn e r, op. c l t . , pp. 2 4 6 -7 . fi 7 C a r lo s de F o rn a ro , A Modern P u r g a to r y (New York: M. K e n n e rly , 1 9 1 7 ), p . v i i . 175 pond."68 What th e Diaz c liq u e had r e a l l y done was to " sq u e ez e Mexico l i k e a lemon; a l l th e y th o u g h t ab out was to s e l l con c e s s i o n s " and make d e a l s , l o a n s , and schem es, to p l o t , to p la y t h e i r "narrow -m inded g r a f t i n g game." They d isc o u ra g e d im m ig ra tio n , f o r t h a t would have r e q u i r e d an o u t la y o f money and a p e r f e c t o rg a n iz a tio n ', n e i t h e r of w hich th e y were w i l l ing to p u t f o r t h . T h e r e f o r e , th ey i n s t e a d encouraged the coming o f th e r i c h c a p i t a l i s t and f o r e i g n e r , men who paid 6 9 w e ll f o r c o n c e ssio n s and who did n o t meddle i n p o l i t i c s . The f o r e i g n e r s became D ia z f s p re s s a g e n ts . In exchange f o r c o n c e ssio n s and p r i v i l e g e s , th e y r e t u r n e d f l a t t e r y , l i e s , or m ean ingful s i l e n c e . A t home and abroad D ia z f s m arsh als VO " d iv id e d t h e i r s p o i l s among th e m se lv e s l i k e p a s h a s .” With th e s e happy g e n e r a l i t i e s b ehin d him, th e r e a d e r was now ready t o e n t e r F o r n a r o Ts co verage o f Mexican manu f a c t u r i n g under Diaz p e r s e . T his app eared l a r g e l y i n the form of a d e t a i l e d accoun t o f the O riz a b a c o tto n s t r i k e of 1907. A ccording to th e a u t h o r , a b o u t two y e a rs b e fo r e the is s u e of h i s book a r e p o r t was te le g r a p h e d to Mexico C ity t h a t some s t r i k e r s i n O riz a b a had lo o te d and burned a s t o r e . ^ C arlo de F o rn a ro , D ia z , Czar o f Mexico: An Ar- raignm en t ( [ P h i l a d e l p h i a ] : I n t e r n a t i o n a l P u b lis h in g C o., 1 9 09;, p. 140. 69Ibid., pp. 151-2. 70Ibid., p. 11. 176 The r e p o r t c o n tin u e d t h a t , a f t e r th e t r o o p s s e n t in by th e Diaz governm ent had " s h o t a few a g g r e s s i v e w orkingm en," peace r e ig n e d once m ore. Not everyon? i n Mexico C ity was co nvin ced t h a t t h i s was what had r e a l l y ta k e n p l a c e , and F o rn a ro was one of th e d o u b t e r s . T h e r e f o r e , he began "a v e ry c a r e f u l i n v e s t i g a t i o n , " by w hich he was a b le " t o g e t the d e t a i l s of th e whole a f f a i r . " The s t r i k e in O riz a b a was a s t r i k e by th e c a p i t a l i s t s , n o t th e w o rk e rs . In 1907, t h e r e were around n i n e t y - two t e x t i l e m i l l s in M ex ico ? betw een them th e y p a id over two and o n e - h a l f m i l l i o n p e so s in t a x e s a n n u a lly to th e g o v e rn m ent. The m i l l owners c o n s id e re d t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n e x c e s s i v e . A c c o rd in g ly , th e y r e s o lv e d t o f o r c e a s t r i k e , so as t o be i n a p o s i t i o n e i t h e r to c lo s e t h e i r m i l l s and d i c t a t e t h e i r own c h o ic e of wages to th e m i l l h a n d s, or "goad the workingmen i n t o such d e s p e r a t e s t r a i t s t h a t th e y m ight p ro voke a r e v o l u t i o n . " A r e v o l u t i o n would e v i c t th e Diaz gov ernm ent and h o p e f u l l y b r i n g l i g h t e r t a x e s . The e v e n ts le a d in g to th e blo o d sh ed i n O riz a b a now beg an . A s t r i k e by th e P u e b la m i l l w o rk e rs b e g a n , and the l o c a l union was a s s i s t e d w ith money by th e w o rk e rs i n the O riz a b a m i l l s , who a t t h a t tim e were s t i l l a t w ork. The owners of th e P u eb la m i l l com plained t o the p r o p r i e t o r s of the O riz a b a f a c t o r i e s , and the l a t t e r sh u t down t h e i r m i l l s as w e l l . T hus, th e so u rce of h e lp to th e workingmen of P u e b la was c u t o f f , and th e P uebla u n io n was "b ro u g h t to 177 t e r m s .” A f t e r t h i s , the O riza b a m i l l s were reopened f o r work. But a new d i f f i c u l t y a r o s e . The members of th e O rizab a u n io n demanded b e t t e r term s of la b o r b e fo re r e t u r n ing to work. This was r e f u s e d , and th e s t r i k e was resum ed. ■ Meanwhile, th e f a c t o r y w orkers s e n t a commission to P r e s i dent Diaz t o get h i s h e lp and in f lu e n c e i n o b ta in in g t h e i r demands. The P r e s i d e n t prom ised to h e lp them, and to t h i s end he se n t a commission t o O riz a b a . A m eetin g was c a l le d by t h i s body in a l o c a l t h e a t e r , and th e commission prom is e d t h a t th e w o rk e rs would g et t h e i r demands i f th e y r e tu rn ed to t h e i r j o b s . The s t r i k e r s a g re e d and r e tu r n e d to w ork. On th e fo llo w in g m orning, some of the women went to the s t o r e o f a Frenchman named G a rc in , who gave the f a c t o r y w orkers c r e d i t on f o o d s t u f f s in exchange f o r checks g iv en in l ie u o f money by th e m i l l owners. As th e hungry women e n t e r e d h is shop, ” t h i s man G arcin began i n s u l t i n g them and t h e i r f a m i l i e s w ith v i l e and in d e c e n t l a n g u a g e .” The women duly r e p o r t e d t h i s t r e a tm e n t to t h e i r h u sb a n d s, u rg in g them to avenge t h e i r h o n o r. The w o rk ers had had enough. They were i n f u r i a t e d by the h unger, th e h u m i l i a t i o n s , th e s a c r i f i c e s which t h e y had undergone f o r the sake of th e s t r i k e , and t h e i r anger vented i t s e l f on th e man who had made t h e i r cup of b i t t e r n e s s ov er flo w . They became unm anageable. C ursed by t h e i r women as 178 cowards and d ogs, th e y headed f o r G ardin *s shop, and, once th ey a r r i v e d , lo o te d and burned i t . Even so , th e p o l ic e had no d i f f i c u l t y i n d i s p e r s i n g th e crowd. Through th e e f f o r t s of C a rlo s H e r r e r a , the p o p u la r j e f e p o l i t i c o ( th e l o c a l po l i t i c a l and c i v i l b o ss d u rin g t h i s p e r i o d ) i n t h i s l o c a l i t y , the w o rk ers were persuaded to go back to work p e a c e f u l l y . Q u ie t r e ig n e d , and th o se r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e damage to G a rc in * s shop were put under a r r e s t . The p a p er w ith w hich F o rn a ro was w orking ( E l D i a r i o ) was th e only one which had d a re d to give th e t r u e a c c o u n t of th e r i o t and f i x r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i t on th e c o r r e c t man, G a rc in . The l a t t e r h u r r i e d to th e p a p er* s o f f i c e and had " th e impudence t o o f f e r $5,000 f o r a n o th e r e d i t o r i a l which would r e h a b i l i t a t e h im .’* N eed less to sa y , h i s r e q u e s t was p o l i t e l y r e f u s e d . N o tw ith sta n d in g th e f a c t t h a t m a t t e r s were back to norm al, the "two o f f i c i a l e x e c u ti o n e r s " of the Diaz g o v e rn m ent, G eneral R o sa lin o M a rtin e z and C olonel R u iz, h a ste n e d to O riz a b a . Upon t h e i r a r r i v a l , th e y p o ste d th e s o l d i e r s under t h e i r command b e h in d th e p i l l a r s and w a l ls of th e t e x t i l e m i l l s . Mien th e men and women e n te r e d th e v a r i o u s f a c t o r i e s to go to w ork, the s o l d i e r s " s t a r t e d a m urderous f u s i l l a d e , mowing down th e h e l p l e s s mass of hum anity, l i k e a pack o f r a b id d o g s ." The n o ise was t e r r i f i c , th e u p ro a r beyond human power to d e s c r i b e , the clamor of h o r r o r and d e s p a i r from th e wounded and dying beyond human c o n c e p tio n . 179 A co m p lete pandemonium re ig n e d ,, " n o t o f b a t t l e , b u t o f c r u e l , r e l e n t l e s s , c o ld - b l o o d e d m a n h u n t." I t was a m a s s a c re o f i n n o c e n t , h e l p l e s s men, women, and c h i l d r e n . The s c e n e was h o r r i b l e . R i f l e s c r a c k e d ; t h e r e was smoke from them and d u s t a r i s i n g from s t r a y b u l l e t s . Those b u l l e t s w hich fo u n d t h e i r mark l e f t g a p in g wounds, from w hich th e b lo o d flo w ed f r e e l y . H ere and t h e r e were f a l l e n b o d i e s , w ith t h e i r h e a d s a lm o s t s h o t o f f - " a p i c t u r e , s i c k e n i n g , r e v o l t i n g and u n p a r a l l e l e d i n t h e h i s t o r y of c i v i l i z a t i o n . " But C o lo n e l R u iz and G e n e r a l M a rtin e z were n o t y e t c o n t e n t . They o r d e re d th e s o l d i e r s t o f o l l o w up t h e i r " v i c t o r y , " and th e m u rd ero u s s h o o t i n g c o n tin u e d i n t o th e s t r e e t s . The r a k i n g f i r e o f th e s h a r p s h o o t e r s was d i r e c t e d i n t o th e homes o f th e w o r k e r s who had f l e d t h e r e f o r s a f e t y , and th e s l a u g h t e r o f i n n o c e n t women and c h i l d r e n was p u r s u e d . The r u r a l e s w ere g iv e n o r d e r s to h u n t th e f l e e i n g workmen i n t o t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , i n t o t h e f i e l d s , even i n t o th e m o u n ta in s . T hese o r d e r s to p u rs u e and k i l l s ic k e n e d even th e h a rd e n e d r u r a l e s , who w ere u se d t o ro u g h w ork. How many d ie d a t O r iz a b a ? The c a s u a l t i e s amounted to 650 or 700. On th e same n i g h t o f th e m u r d e r s , 450 t o 500 m angled b o d ie s o f th e s l a u g h t e r e d men and women w ere s t e a l t h i l y t a k e n t o t h e r a i l r o a d s t a t i o n , p i l e d on f l a t c a r s and c o v e re d w ith s t r a w . The c o n d u c to r who was o r d e re d to d r i v e t h i s f u n e r a l t r a i n r e f u s e d . A n o th e r l e s s s c r u p u lo u s e n g in e e r was fo u n d , and he d ro v e th e t r a i n to th e V e ra c ru z 180 w h a rf. The b o d i e s were t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e r e onto b o a t s , ta k e n o u t i n t o th e b a y , "and t h e r e th ro w n i n t o th e s e a as food f o r th e s h a r k s [ i t a l i c s i n o r i g i n a l ] So ended " th e m ost b r u t i s h , th e m ost c ra v e n and th e w i l d e s t o r g ie [ s i c ] o f b lo o d p e r p e t r a t e d i n th e a n n a l s o f h u m a n ity ." I t was a s e n s e l e s s H o lid a y o f G ore, " th e l u x u r i ous ra g e o f an im p o te n t, c o w a rd ly , s a d i c o ld d e s p o t , " P o r f i r i o D i a z . ^ A cco rd in g to F o r n a r o , m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D iaz a l s o saw the r i s e o f a p o w e rfu l p a p e r m onopoly, c r e a t e d by D iaz h i m s e l f . T h is monopoly was b u i l t by p u t t i n g a h ig h t a r i f f on im p o rted p a p e r . As a r e s u l t , th e p r i c e of p a p er i n Mexico was n e a r l y t h r e e tim e s as h ig h as i t was i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s , and t h a t p a p e r d o m e s t i c a l l y produ ced was " o f v e ry i n f e r i o r q u a l i t y . " T h is monopoly on Mexican p a p e r was i n the hands o f th e governm ent c a m a r i l l a ( c l i q u e ) , w hich p r a c t i c a l l y d i c t a t e d to M exican n e w s p a p e rs . I t was a sim p le m a t t e r f o r them to k i l l a n e w sp a p e r. A l l th e y had t o do was t o say t h a t th e y were e x tr e m e ly s o r r y , b u t th e y could n o t f u r n i s h a r e c a l c i t r a n t j o u r n a l w ith p a p e r on a c e r t a i n d a y , 72 and t h a t was " u s u a l l y th e end of th e p u b l i c a t i o n . " F o rn a ro gave an exam ple o f th e p r e s s u r e w hich th e monopoly co uld b rin g to b e a r . "When T e l e s f o r o G a r c i a , a k e e n , u n s c ru p u lo u s S p a n ia r d , " a t y p i c a l f i n a n c i a l b a n d i t , " 71Ibid., pp. 51-5. 72Ibid., p. 104. 181 was a r r e s t e d on a c h a rg e of em b ezzlem en t, E l D i a r i o r e c e i v e d a v i s i t from t h e m anager of th e p a p e r monopoly i n q u e s t i o n , th e San R a f a e l p a p er company. The manager c a u tio n e d th e p a p e r n o t t o p r i n t th e news o f th e a r r e s t o f G a r c ia , and i t c o m p lie d , ’’f e e l i n g t h a t t h i s r e q u e s t was p r a c t i c a l l y a 73 t h r e a t . ” F o rn a ro end ed h is im p r e s s io n o f m a n u fa c tu rin g u n d er Diaz w ith t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n . H is e x tre m e ly v i r u l e n t , a n t i - P o r f i r i a n view s w ere fo llo w e d two y e a r s l a t e r by th o s e of Joh n K enneth T u r n e r , w hich a p p e a re d in B a rb a ro u s Mexico ( 1 9 1 1 ) . Of a l l the a u t h o r s c i t e d i n t h i s s t u d y , o n ly T u rn er m atch ed , and p e rh a p s e v e n s u r p a s s e d , F o r n a r o , as f a r as a n t i - D i a z v iew s were c o n c e rn e d . R e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e i n f o r m a ti o n was o b ta in e d on T u r n e r . I n B a rb aro u s M exico, he w ro te t h a t he f i r s t became i n t e r e s t e d i n Mexican c o n d i t i o n s in 1908, when he came i n t o c o n t a c t w ith some M exican r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s j a i l e d i n Los A n g e le s . T hese p r i s o n e r s t o l d him o f the e x i s t e n c e o f w id e s p re a d s l a v e r y i n M exico. T u rn e r t o l d them th e y m eant wage s l a v e r y , n o t c h a t t e l s l a v e r y . But t h e p r i s o n e r s i n s i s t e d t h a t th e y d id mean c h a t t e l s l a v e r y , and th e y d e s c r ib e d a few exam ples o f i t s o p e r a t i o n i n M exico. T his f i r e d T u rn er t o go down and see f o r h i m s e l f . He a c t u a l l y made two v i s i t s , one i n 1908 and th e o t h e r in 1909. L az aro G u t i e r r e z de L a r a , c o -a u th o r o f a n o th e r a n t i - D i a z p u b l i c a t i o n , 73Ibid., p. 109. 182 accom panied him on th e f i r s t j o u r n e y . Most o f T u r n e r ’ s ma t e r i a l was g a th e r e d on th e s e two e x c u r s i o n s ; th e re m a in d e r came from " a r e a d in g o f v a r i o u s w r i t i n g s on M exico, b o th in 74 S p a n ish and E n g l i s h , and from o t h e r s o u r c e s . ” T u r n e r ’ s e x p e r ie n c e i n Mexico in c lu d e d a s t i n t as a r e p o r t e r f o r th e M exican D a ily H e r a ld i n th e s p r i n g o f 1909. O th e r t h a n th e a b o v e, l i t t l e was found c o n c e rn in g T u r n e r . I l e a r n e d , how ever, t h a t he p la y e d a p a r t i n th e s e c e s s i o n movement o f th e F l o r e s Magon i n B a ja C a l i f o r n i a e a r l y in th e R e v o lu t i o n . He p la y e d a d o u b le r o l e , t h a t o f a p r o p a g a n d i s t f o r i t i n th e p r e s s and t h a t o f i t s a g e n t and c o u n s e l , p l a y i n g b o th r o l e s w i t h ’’a rd o r y e f i c a c i a . ” He v i s i t e d M e x i c a l i , San D ie g o , Los A n g e le s and San F r a n c is c o i n t h i s a c t i v i t y , i n a l l of w hich he la b o r e d "con t e s o n y empeno" i n th e S o c i a l i s t c e n t e r s f o r th e f o r m a tio n of an i n d e p e n d e n t c o u n tr y i n B a ja C a l i f o r n i a . He w ent a b o u t o f f e r in g land i n th e a r e a t o be s e t f r e e i n exchange f o r p e c u n i a r y h e lp t o c o n tin u e th e armed s t r u g g l e . He s u c c e e d e d , and s p e n t th e money on arm s, e q u ip m e n t, s u p p l i e s , o r g a n i z a t i o n , 76 and m o b i l i z a t i o n . A f t e r t h a t , T u rn e r a lm o s t v a n is h e d from 74 T u r n e r , op. c i t . , p . 1. 7 5 I b i d . , p . 264. R. V e la sc o C e b a l l o s , ISe a p o d e ra E s ta d o s U nidos de A m erica de B a ja C a l i f o r n i a ? ~ (.lLa I n v a s i o n f i l i b u s ' t e r a de 1911) (M exico? Im p re n ta M a c io n a l, S.' A.', 1 9 2 0 ), pp. 6 3 -4 . 183 h i s t o r y . I found l i s t i n g s f o r s e v e r a l more books p u b lis h e d under h i s name ( B a rb a ro u s Mexico was a p p a r e n t l y h i s f i r s t ) , in c l u d i n g Hands O ff Mexico (1 9 2 0 ), S h a l l I t Be A gain? (1 9 2 2 ), and C h a llen g e t o K a rl Marx (1 9 4 1 ). I found n o th in g e l s e , how ever, n o t even th e y e a r s o f h i s b i r t h and d e a t h . B u t, i f h i s l i f e was a shadowy one, he a t l e a s t t o l d h i s r e a d e r s why he w ro te B a rb a ro u s M exico. He w ished to g iv e them a " c o r r e c t im p r e s s io n " of D iaz and h is economic and p o l i t i c a l sy ste m . He w anted to t e l l them what M exicans were r e a l l y l i k e . F i n a l l y , he w ished t o in fo rm h i s r e a d e r s o f " th e D iaz-A m erican p a r t n e r s h ip w hich has [h ad ] h e lp e d to e n s la v e th e M exican n a t i o n , on th e one hand, and k e p t th e A m erican p u b l i c i n ig n o ra n c e of the r e a l f a c t s " r e g a r d in g Diaz and M exico, on th e o t h e r . The a u th o r m o d e stly added t h a t " c u r r e n t i l l u s i o n s of Mexico and P o r f i r i o D iaz a re [w ere] ex p lo d ed and th e Am erican d e f e n d e r s o f s l a v e r y and a u to c r a c y a re [w ere] made to a p p ea r 77 i n t h e i r tru e l i g h t . " G iven t h i s d e s i r e and a d m issio n of a p p ro a c h , g iv en T u r n e r ’ s e x p e r ie n c e i n M exico, and g iv en h i s back g ro u n d , w hich was a l e f t - w i n g o ne, i t was p e rh a p s u n d e r s ta n d a b le t h a t th e e n t i r e book B a rb aro u s Mexico was c r i t i c a l of D ia z , in c lu d in g th o s e p o r t i o n s of i t d e v o te d to m anufac t u r i n g . A nother p o s s i b l e c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r to T u r n e r ’ s b i a s was h i s f r i e n d s h i p w ith th e v i o l e n t l y a n ti - D i a z "^Turner, op. cit., p. 1. 184 G u tie r r e z de L ara . The l a t t e r a id e d T u rn er in g a th e r in g in f o r m a tio n on D iaz and M exico, a s T urner n oted on pages e le v e n and tw elve o f B arb aro u s M exico. A t the same tim e , T u rn er a d m itte d t h a t h i s f r i e n d was b i a s e d , and d e n ie d t h a t he was a so u rc e f o r th e book. In h i s pages on th e s u b j e c t of Diaz and m a n u fa c tu r ing in B arb arou s M exico, T u rn er f i r s t w ro te i n a g e n e ra l v e i n . He posed th e q u e s t i o n , ,rDid Diaz ’make’ modern M exico?" T u r n e r Ts answ er-w as a s tro n g n e g a t iv e . I n the f i r s t p la c e , Mexico was h a r d l y modern. I n d u s t r i a l l y , i t was " a t l e a s t a q u a r t e r o f a c e n tu ry behind th e t i m e s . " In th e a r e a of p u b lic e d u c a tio n i t was a t l e a s t f i f t y y e a rs behind th e p r e s e n t ; i n i t s system o f government i t was "w orthy of th e Egypt of t h r e e tho usand y e a rs a g o ." Nor d id Diaz make M exico. To be s u r e , Mexico had s e e n some advancem ent, e s p e c i a l l y in the realm o f m anufac t u r i n g , d u rin g th e y e a r s s in c e 1876. But t h a t one f a c t d id n o t prove any p r o p e l l i n g f o r c e on D ia z Ts p a r t . In o rd e r to prove t h a t Diaz was th e a u th o r of Mexican advancem ent, one would have to p ro v e ” t h a t Mexico had advanced f a s t e r th a n o th e r c o u n tr i e s w hile he was P r e s i d e n t . J u s t supposing t h a t , on th e c o n t r a r y , i t was shown t h a t Mexico had ad vanced more slo w ly th a n alm ost any o th e r la r g e c o u n try in th e world d u r in g the D iaz reg im e, would i t n ot be l o g i c a l to a t t r i b u t e a t l e a s t some of t h a t slow ness of p r o g r e s s io n to D iaz? 185 C o n s id e r th e U n ite d S t a t e s o f A m erica in 187 6, co n s i d e r i t i n 19 1 0 , th e n c o n s i d e r M exico. C o n s id e r a l s o t h a t th e w orld had b e e n b u i l t o v e r, i n d u s t r i a l l y s p e a k in g , i n th e p a s t t h i r t y - f o u r y e a r s . To make th e c o m p a riso n p e r f e c t l y u n a s s a i l a b l e , d i s r e g a r d E u ro p ea n c o u n t r i e s and th e U n ite d S t a t e s , and compare t h e p r o g r e s s of Mexico w i t h o t h e r L a t i n - A m erican c o u n t r i e s i n s t e a d . Among t r a v e l e r s to M ex ico, A r g e n t i n a , B r a z i l , C h i l e , even C uba, t h e r e was "a p r e t t y good a g re e m e n t” t h a t M exico was th e l e a s t advanced o f th e f i v e — i n g o v e rn m e n t, p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n , ev en i n i n d u s t r y . Who made A r g e n t i n a , or B r a z i l , or C h ile ? Why were N o rth A m erican s o f t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y n o t a c c u s tomed t o f i n d i n g a ” m aker” f o r them? The f a c t was t h a t " w h a te v e r m o d e r n i z a t io n M exico h a s [h a d ] had d u r in g th e p a s t t h i r t y - f o u r y e a r s m ust be a t t r i b u t e d t o e v o l u t i o n , " t h a t i s , t o " t h e g e n e r a l p r o c e s s of th e w o r l d , " c e r t a i n l y n o t to P o r f i r i o D iaz had b e e n was a r e a c t i o n a r y f o r c e . H is c la im s f o r b e in g p r o g r e s s i v e w ere a l l b a se d on one f a c t - - 78 upon h i s e n c o u ra g e m e n t o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l . Much o f T u r n e r Ts s u b s e q u e n t c o v e ra g e of m a n u f a c t u r in g d u r i n g th e D ia z e r a was d e v o te d to show ing u n s a t i s f a c t o r y l a b o r c o n d i t i o n s i n th e f a c t o r i e s o f M exico. As w i l l be s e e n , T u rn e r saw t h e f a c t o r y l a b o r e r s a s b e in g o v e r w o rk ed, u n d e r p a i d , and o p p r e s s e d . In th e l a t t e r a r e a , one 78Ibid., pp. 302-4. 186 in s tr u m e n t f o r o p p r e s s io n was the army. For exam ple, the a u th o r v i s i t e d s e v e r a l army b a r r a c k s , i n c l u d i n g t h a t a t Rio B lanco, scen e o f th e t e x t i l e s t r i k e a lr e a d y d e s c r i b e d by F o rn a ro . S ince t h a t s t r i k e s i x hundred s o l d i e r s and two hundred r u r a l e s had been q u a r t e r e d n e ar th e m i l l , in b a r ra c k s and upon la n d f u r n i s h e d by th e company, " a n h o u r ly 79 menace t o th e m is e r a b ly e x p l o i t e d w o rk e rs t h e r e . " The a c o rd a d a was a l s o used t o o p p re s s f a c t o r y work e r s . I t was " a n o r g a n i z a t i o n of s e c r e t a s s a s s i n s , a s o r t o f s e c r e t p o l i c e , a t t a c h e d t o th e governm ent o f each o f the Mexican s t a t e s . " I t c o n s i s t e d of a j e f e de a c o rd a d a and anywhere from s i x t o f i f t y s u b o r d i n a t e s . Two n o t a b l e c a s e s where t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n was r e p o r t e d to have m urdered e x t e n s i v e l y were th o s e of th e days f o llo w in g th e la b o r s t r i k e s , 80 a t Cananea and Rio B lan co . The p r i s o n o f San J u a n de U lua was u sed a g a i n s t w o rk ers i n f a c t o r i e s . To i t was s e n t M a r g a r ita M a r tin e z , a fem ale l e a d e r o f th e Rio B lanco s t r i k e . Once a p r i s o n e r was s e n t to t h i s j a i l , he was n e v e r allo w ed to communicate w ith 81 th e o u t s i d e . By t h i s tim e , i t i s e v id e n t t h a t much o f T u r n e r ’s coverage o f m a n u fa c tu rin g und er Diaz co ncerned a l l e g e d ex p l o i t a t i o n of f a c t o r y w o rk e rs . In t h i s r e g a r d , he d e v o te d 79Ibid,, pp. 143-4. 80Ibid.» p. 150 81 Ibid. , p. 156. \ 187 s e v e r a l p a g es to a d e s c r i p t i o n of th e union movement as i t was i n Mexico a t t h a t tim e . Union members were "by f a r th e b e s t paid w orkers i n the c o u n tr y ." O w ing.to the o p p o s itio n of th e D iaz government and th e em ployers, as w e ll a s the p i t of d e g r a d a t i o n o u t o f which th e Mexican must clim b i f he were " to p lu c k th e f r u i t s o f [un ion ] o r g a n i z a t i o n , " unionism was s t i l l i n an i n f a n t s t a g e . Under p r e s e n t c o n d it i o n s , i t s grow th was "slow and f r a u g h t w ith g r e a t h a r d s h i p s . ” There was no n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n such as th e American F e d e r a t io n of L a b o r. As s e t f o r t h by th e p r e s i d e n t of th e Grand League of Railway W orkers, F e l i x V era, th e main Mexican u n io n s in 1908 were V era’ s , w ith 10,000 members, the M echan ic’s U nion, w ith 500 members, the B o ile r m a k e r1s Union, 800, C ig a rm a k e rs’ U nion, 1 ,5 0 0 , C a r p e n t e r ’s U nion, same, Shop B la c k s m ith ’s U nion, 800, S t e e l and Sm elter W ork ers’ Union, 500. These were the only, perm anent M exican u n io n s , and t o g e t h e r th e y counted l e s s th a n 16,000 members. O ther u n io n s had a r i s e n in t h e p a s t , as a t Rio B lanco, Cananea, T iz ap a n and o th e r p l a c e s , " i n re sp o n se to a p re s s in g n e e d ," b u t th e y were c ru s h e d , e i t h e r by D iaz or by the em p lo y ers. U s u a lly , th e two worked in c o n ju n c tio n , and the governm ent a c te d as th e s e r v a n t o f the management. S ince 1908 th e r e had been alm o st no advance i n la b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n . In d e e d , th e l a r g e s t u n io n , t h a t o f th e ra ilw a y w o rk e rs, was b e a te n by a s t r i k e and alm ost d is a p p e a r e d . 188 R e c e n tl y i t had r e v i v e d and was now a lm o s t a s s tr o n g a s b e f o r e . A l l of t h e u n io n s u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n w ere e x c l u s i v e l y M exican. The o n ly U n ite d S t a t e s u n io n e x te n d e d to M exico was t h a t of r a i l w a y w o r k e r s , b u t i t i n c lu d e d o n ly N o rth A m ericans w o rk in g on th e M exican l i n e s . I n r e g a r d t o p a y , t h e b o i l e r m a k e r s r e c e i v e d a m in i mum o f t w e n ty - s e v e n and o n e - h a l f c e n t s an hour i n A m erican money. The c a r p e n t e r s w ere o r g a n iz e d o n ly i n Mexico C i t y , and a s y e t had no s e t s c a l e . They w ages v a r i e d from s e v e n t y - f i v e c e n t s t o $ 1 .7 5 p e r d a y . C ig a rm a k e rs g o t s l i g h t l y more— fro m $ 1 .7 5 to $ 2 . 0 0 . Shop b l a c k s m it h s r e c e iv e d tw e n ty -tw o and o n e - h a l f c e n t s p e r h o u r , and s t e e l and s m e l t e r w o r k e r s t w e n t y - f i v e c e n t s . These t r a d e s had s e e n s e v e r a l s t r i k e s . In 1905 th e c ig a r m a k e r s e n f o r c e d t h e i r own sh o p r u l e s . S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r , u n io n m e c h a n ic s i n th e A g u a c a l i e n t e s r a i l r o a d shops s t r u c k b e c a u s e t h e y w ere b e in g g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e d b y c h e a p e r , n o n u n io n H u n g a ria n l a b o r . The s t r i k e r s won t h i s ro u n d , and g o t a f i v e - c e n t r a i s e i n t h e i r d a i l y wage a s w e l l . T h is so e n c o u ra g e d th e b o i l e r m a k e r s t h a t th e y to o w ent o u t on s t r i k e th r o u g h o u t M exico f o r a s i m i l a r d a i l y pay r a i s e , and g o t i t . In a d d i t i o n t o s e v e r a l s h o r t s t r i k e s of l e s s e r im p o r t a n c e , t h e s e w ere th e t o t a l v i c t o r i e s of th e l a b o r move ment i n M exico. V i c t o r y was th e e x c e p t i o n ; go vern m en t i n t e r v e n t i o n , " w i t h b lo o d and p r i s o n f o r th e s t r i k e r s , " was 189 82 t h e r u l e . To back u p t h i s p o i n t , T urner c i t e d s e v e r a l exam ples of s t r i k e s w hich f a i l e d . One w h ic h was not c o n c e rn e d w ith m a n u f a c tu r in g was t h a t a t th e G reene c o p p er h o l d i n g s i n Cananea i n 1906. The s t r i k e r s l o s t , o f c o u r s e . Dozens o f s t r i k e r s were s h o t , and a le g a c y o f h a t r e d was b o rn . T u rn e r n o te d t h a t t h i s was th e f a t e t h a t the "C zar o f M exico" m eted out to th o s e w o rk e rs who demanded a g r e a t e r s h a re i n th e goods w hich t h e i r la b o r 83 — " / p ro d u c e d . T u rn e r a l s o d e v o te d a long p a ssa g e to th e Rio B lanco t e x t i l e s t r i k e , in w h ic h th e same a l l e g a t i o n s made by F o rn a ro and th e same d e s c r i p t i o n o f e v e n ts were n o t e d , in somewhat g r e a t e r d e t a i l . The o n ly p o i n t s w o rth m e n tio n in g h e re a r e t h a t T u rn e r made a p e r s o n a l v i s i t to th e p l a c e in th e company o f L az aro G u t i e r r e z de L a ra , who o f c o u rs e i n clu d e d a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the s t r i k e in h i s book, as w i l l be s e e n , and the a l l e g a t i o n t h a t D iaz had o rd e r e d M iguel Gomez, one of t h e m i l l o w ners, to c e n s o r th e r e a d in g m a t e r i a l of th e w o rk e rs and to " a l l o w no r a d i c a l n ew sp ap ers or L i b e r a l l i t e r a t u r e " to g e t i n t o th e w o r k e r s 1 h a n d s. D iaz a l s o o r d e re d Gomez to k i l l anyone whom he (Gomez) s u s p e c te d o f h a r b o rin g e v i l i n t e n t i o n s , a s o r t of c a r t e b la n c h e e x e c u ti o n p r i v i l e g e . Gomez was f u l f i l l i n g t h a t o rd e r on th e m ost 8 4 s p e c io u s p r e t e n s e s . 82Ibid., pp. 206-8. 84Ibid., pp. 197-206. 83Ibid., p. 219. 190 Up t o t h e tim e o f h i s w r i t i n g , s a i d T u r n e r , M exican s t r i k e s had b e e n more th e end r e s u l t o f " a s p o n ta n e o u s un w i l l i n g n e s s on t h e p a r t o f t h e w o r k e r s t o go on w ith t h e i r m i s e r a b l e l i v e s ” th a n o f th e e f f o r t s o f l a b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s or of a p p e a ls by a g i t a t o r s . The s t r i k e a t T iz a p a n was n o te d a s an ex am p le . T u rn e r w ro te t h a t he m en tio n ed i t b e c a u s e he happened t o v i s i t th e a r e a when th e s t r i k e was s t i l l i n p r o g r e s s and t h e w o r k e rs w ere s t a r v i n g to d e a t h . By th e n th e s t r i k e had l a s t e d a m onth. A lth o u g h s i x hund red w o rk e rs w ere in v o lv e d and T iz a p a n was o n ly a b o u t tw e n ty m ile s from M exico C i t y , ” n o t a d a i l y new sp ap er i n th e c a p i t a l . . . m e n tio n e d th e f a c t t h a t t h e r e was a s t r i k e , ” as f a r a s c o u ld be l e a r n e d . T u rn e r f i r s t h e a r d of th e d i s p u t e from P a u l in o M a r t i n e z , a new spaper e d i t o r who l a t e r f l e d M exico. Mar t i n e z c a u t io n e d T u rn e r n o t t o m e n tio n t h a t he had t o l d him, s i n c e he f e l t t h a t t h i s m ig h t le a d t o h i s a r r e s t . On th e f o l lo w in g d a y , th e a u t h o r v i s i t e d T iz a p a n f o r h i m s e l f . He lo o k ed a t th e s i l e n t m i l l , v i s i t e d th e s t r i k e r s i n t h e i r m i s e r a b le homes, and f i n a l l y t a l k e d w ith t h e s t r i k e comm it t e e . W ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f th e V a l le N a c i o n a l , where w o rk e rs c u l t i v a t e d to b a c c o u n d e r b a r b a r o u s c o n d i t i o n s , " I n e v e r saw so many p e o p le - - m e n , women and c h i l d r e n - - w i t h th e mark o f a c u t e s t a r v a t i o n on t h e i r f a c e s . ” A lth o u g h t h e r e was no f e v e r among them and t h e i r e y e s w ere n o t g la z e d w ith t o t a l e x h a u s t i o n from to o much work and t o o l i t t l e s l e e p , 191 y e t " t h e i r c h e e k s w ere p a l e , t h e y b r e a t h e d f e e b l y and t h e y w alked u n s t e a d i l y from l a c k of f o o d . " They had b e e n w o rk in g e le v e n h o u r s a d a y f o r w ages r a n g in g from f i f t y c e n t s to t h r e e d o l l a r s a week i n A m e ric an money. They w ould d o u b t l e s s have c o n tin u e d to work f o r i t had th e y r e a l l y r e c e i v e d t h a t much. But t h e f a c t o r y b o s s e s c o n s t a n t l y d e v is e d new ways to c h e a t th e w o rk e rs o u t o f th e m eager wages t o w h ich th e y were e n t i t l e d . D i r t s p o t s on th e c a l i c o made i n th e m i l l m eant a l o s s o f o ne, tw o, e v e n t h r e e p e s o s from th e w o r k e r 's wages f o r t h a t w eek. P e t t y f i n e s w ere n u m b e r le s s . F i n a l l y , eac h l a b o r e r was ta x e d t h r e e c e n ta v o s w eek ly t o pay f o r th e food o f t h e dogs w h ich b e lo n g e d to th e f a c t o r y ! T h a t was th e l a s t s tr a w . The w o rk e rs r e f u s e d to a c c e p t w hat w ere o n ly p a r t i a l w ages, th e m i l l was c lo s e d down, and th e tim e o f t r i a l b e g a n . When T u r n e r saw t h e p l a c e , t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of th e a d u l t m ale w o rk e rs had l e f t t o s e e k food and work e ls e w h e r e . S in c e th e y were p e n n i l e s s , i t was p r o b a b le t h a t many of them f e l l i n t o th e h a n d s of l a b o r a g e n t s , t o be s o ld i n t o s l a v e r y i n th e h o t c o u n t r y . A few men and th e women and c h i l d r e n w ere s t a y i n g - - a n d s t a r v i n g . The s t r i k e co m m ittee b egged th e D iaz governm ent t o r e d r e s s t h e i r w ro n g s, b u t to no a v a i l . They asked Diaz t o r e s e r v e a s m a ll p o r t i o n o f th e la n d w hich he was c o n s t a n t l y g i v in g t o f o r e i g n e r s by th e m i l l i o n s o f a c r e s f o r them , b u t he n e v e r a n s w e re d . They w ere w i t h o u t hope o f w in n in g t h e s t r i k e , b u t th e y d id n o t c a r e . D e ath in th e open a i r was p r e f e r a b l e t o th e t r e a tm e n t r e c e i v e d i n t h a t f a c t o r y . They s e n t an a p p e a l t o m i l l c e n t e r s i n o th e r p a r t s o f M exico, c h a rg in g th e "La H orm iga" c o t t o n m i l l , th e m i l l a g a i n s t w h ich t h e y were s t r i k i n g , w i t h b r u t a l , a v a r i c io u s t r e a t m e n t o f w o rk e rs and s t a r v a t i o n w ages. They asked f o r a b i t of la n d to c u l t i v a t e , so t h a t t h e y need n o t c o n t i n u e t o be e x p l o i t e d f o r th e sake o f th e f o r e i g n e r . They p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t th e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , and r e f u s e d t o r e t u r n to work u n t i l th e f i n e s and o th e r e x a c t i o n s were a b o l i s h e d , and u n t i l t h e y s h o u ld be d e c e n t l y t r e a t e d . They a p p e a le d f o r a i d from t h e i r f e l l o w w o r k e r s . T h is p le a was d a te d M arch 7 , 1909. These w ere b ra v e w o rd s, b u t th e s t r i k e a t T iz a p a n was l o s t by th e w o rk e r s . The company sim p ly r e f u s e d to t r e a t o r re o p e n th e m i l l , and th e y o f c o u rse co uld o u t l a s t th e s t r i k e r s . When th e management was r e a d y to do s o , i t re o p e n e d i t s m i l l w i t h o u t any d i f f i c u l t y a b o u t p a y , f o r , as e v ery o n e knew, t h e r e was " l a b o r a p l e n t y i n Mexico and i t i s 85 [was] v e r y , v e r y c h e a p ." T here w ere t h i r t y th o u sa n d c o t t o n m i l l o p e r a t i v e s i n M exico, whose wages a v e ra g e d l e s s th a n t h i r t y c e n t s d a i l y i n A m erican money. T h is s o r t o f a f f a i r s was c o n s t a n t th r o u g h o u t M exican m a n u f a c tu r in g . Wages w ere so poor t h a t an o f f e r o f f i f t y c e n t s a day would b r i n g f i f t y th o u sa n d a b le - b o d ie d 85Ibid., pp. 210-13. 193 l a b o r e r s s tre a m in g i n t o Mexico C i t y from the h i n t e r l a n d s w i t h i n t w e n ty - f o u r h o u r s . But s im p ly b e c a u se wages were a b y sm a lly low, i t d id n o t f o l lo w t h a t p r i c e s w ere in th e same c o n d i t i o n . The n e c e s s i t i e s o f l i f e i n M exico, such as c o rn and b e a n s , were a c t u a l l y h ig h e r as a r u l e th a n th e y were i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . In f a c t , i t c o s t n e a r l y tw ice as much money t o buy a hun dred pounds o f corn i n Mexico as i t d id i n C h ica g o . And c o rn was t h e c h e a p e s t s t a p l e food upon w hich th e p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n Mexican co u ld l a y h i s h a n d s. As t o s h e l t e r and c l o t h i n g , th e common Mexican p o s s e s s e d ’’a b o u t a s l i t t l e of e i t h e r as can be im a g in e d .” Compared w i t h th e Mexico C ity t e n e m e n ts , th o s e of New York w ere p a l a t i a l homes. Those M exican slums were n o t se e n " i n any c i t y w o rth y of th e 86 name o f c i v i l i z e d . ” In many c a s e s , th e old sy ste m of d e b t peonage (w hich T u rn er c a l l e d " s l a v e r y ” ) s t i l l o b t a i n e d . In th e a r e a of m a n u f a c tu r in g , t h i s i n c lu d e d th e su g a r i n d u s t r y . On th e su g a r p l a n t a t i o n s of V e ra c r u z , O ax aca, and M o relo s, a l l la b o r was done by d e b t s l a v e s ( p e o n s ) . W hile minor c o n d i t i o n s v a r i e d somewhat from p l a c e t o p l a c e , th e g e n e r a l s y s tem was the same e v e ry w h e re — a sy ste m composed of e n fo r c e d s e r v i c e a g a i n s t th e l a b o r e r ’ s w i l l , of s e m i s t a r v a t i o n , of 87 th e w h ip . And a l l over t r o p i c a l M exico, where th e 86Ibid., pp. 114-15. 87Ibid., p. 110. 194 s u g a r - c a n e grew and men sw eated i n th e su n , one c o u ld see A m e ric a n s, t o o , o n ly th e y w ere b u y in g , b e a t i n g , im p r i s o n i n g , 88 and k i l l i n g th o s e l a b o r e r s . T here was a n o th e r re m in d e r o f th e Yankee i n Mexico i n th e t r u s t s which d o m in ated s e v e r a l f i e l d s o f i n d u s t r i a l e n d e a v o r. The same f i n a n c i a l r i n g w hich m o no p o lized th e g i a n t i n d u s t r i e s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s m ono polized them in 89 M e x ico . For i n s t a n c e , a g e n t s o f th e A m erican su g a r t r u s t had j u s t s e c u re d from th e M exican f e d e r a l and s t a t e g o v e rn m ents c o n c e s s io n s f o r th e p r o d u c t i o n o f s u g a r b e e t s and b e e t s u g a r . T hese term s were so f a v o r a b l e as t o i n s u r e th e t r u s t a co m p lete m onopoly o f th e Mexican su g a r b u s i n e s s u n t i l 1920. A m ericans were a l s o in v o lv e d i n th e m eat and f l o u r t r u s t s of M exico. Why d id M exicans f a i l to g e t i n on th e ground f l o o r and c o n t r o l th e s e a r e a s ? One v e r y good re a s o n was t h a t Diaz " d e l i v e r e d h i s c o u n try i n t o th e hands o f A m e ric an s" b e c a u se th e y had more money to pay f o r s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e s . They had more money b e c a u s e , w h ile M exicans were g iv in g a l l th e y had i n th e war a g a i n s t th e F re n c h , t h e i r N o rth A m erican c o u n t e r p a r t s w ere making f o r t u n e s by 90 means o f g r a f t i n g C i v i l War army c o n t r a c t s . On t h a t n o t e , T u rn e r c lo s e d h i s co v erag e o f D iaz* s m a n u f a c tu r in g . The m a g n if ic e n t b l a s t s of F o rn a ro and T u r n e r , 88Ibid., p. 260. 89Ibid., p. 242. 90 Ibid., pp. 257-9. 195 o c c u r r i n g so c lo s e to th e end of th e p e r io d and of t h i s c h a p t e r , m ight se rv e to o b sc u re th e f a c t t h a t many o th e r a u th o r s had p r e v i o u s l y been c r i t i c a l of m a n u fa c tu rin g under D ia z . I n the a g g r e g a t e , t h e s e e a r l i e r w r i t e r s e x p re s s e d o p in io n s which were sum m arized n i c e l y i n F o rn a ro and T u rn e r. E lem en ts o f th e s e o p in io n s w ere D i a z ’ s u n im p o rtan ce i n the phenomenon o f m a n u fa c tu rin g developm ent i n M exico; i r r a t i o n a l , c o s t l y developm ent of i n d u s t r i e s ; p r i m i t i v e methods in and m ediocre p r o d u c ts of some of th e i n d u s t r i e s d e v e lo p e d , and an e x p l o i t a t i o n o f la b o r in th e m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s c u lm in a tin g a t tim es in b lo o d y s t r i k e s , i n w hich th e g o v e rn ment in te r v e n e d on th e s id e of management. I f i t i s tr u e t h a t th e s e o p in io n s must be b a la n c e d a g a i n s t th e w i l d l y f a v o ra b le ones se en in th e p r e v io u s two s e c t i o n s , i t i s a ls o n e c e s s a r y t h a t th o se f a v o r a b l e o p in io n s be b a la n c e d a g a i n s t th e gloomy im p r e s s io n s j u s t re a d t o s e c u re an a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e of m a n u fa c tu rin g i n th e d ays o f D ia z . CHAPTER IV UNFAVORABLE SOURCES IN SPANISH I e n c o u n te r e d v e ry few books u n f a v o r a b l e to D iaz p u b l i s h e d i n S p a n is h b e f o r e th e R e v o lu t i o n . By way o f e x p l a i n i n g t h i s s c a r c i t y o f m a t e r i a l , i t must f i r s t be n o te d t h a t a l l of th e book s found w ere p r i n t e d in M exico d u r in g th e D iaz re g im e . S e c o n d ly , D ia z c e n s o re d w h a te v e r bo o k s he c o u ld w hich w ere u n f a v o r a b l e t o him. A lm ost a l l h i s t o r i a n s w ould a g r e e on t h i s p o i n t , as on th e p o i n t t h a t t h i s c e n s o r s h i p w o rsen e d w i t h tim e . F i n a l l y , i t has a l r e a d y b e e n e x p l a i n e d t h a t r e l a t i v e l y few b o o k s on D iaz i n S p a n is h seem to have a p p e a re d d u r i n g h i s reg im e w ith a p l a c e o f p u b l i c a t i o n o t h e r th a n M exico. T aking t h e s e f a c t s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , i t i s s u r p r i s i n g t h a t any b o o k s w ith an u n f a v o r a b l e view o f D iaz or an a s p e c t o f Mexico u n d e r his. r u l e sh o u ld h ave a p p e a r e d , e s p e c i a l l y when two o f th e boo k s w ere p u b l is h e d n e a r th e end o f t h a t r u l e , when c e n s o r s h i p was a t i t s h e i g h t . The f i r s t o f th e t h r e e books d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n was by B e n ito E s p a r z a . I t was e n t i t l e d C uadro g e n e r a l de Paso de S o t o s , p u b l is h e d i n 1879. N o th in g w h a te v e r was l e a r n e d a b o u t th e a u t h o r , e x c e p t f o r th e f a c t t h a t he was 197 a p p a r e n t l y a r e s i d e n t o f th e town o f P aso de S o to s and was com m issioned by th e town governm ent to ta k e a g e n e r a l c e n s u s of th e p l a c e . H is c e n s u s f i n a l l y saw p u b l i c a t i o n i n the form o f t h i s work.'*' W ith t h i s b a c k g ro u n d , h i s book o f f e r e d a u n iq u e g lim p s e i n t o a t y p i c a l s m a ll M exican town a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e D iaz p e r i o d . I t s i n c l u s i o n i n my r e s e a r c h came a b o u t by a c c i d e n t . I was l e a f i n g t h r o u g h an 1879 e d i t i o n o f s p e e c h e s by B e n ito J u a r e z when I found t h i s l i t t l e b o o k , w h ich had somehow b e e n bound w i t h th e w ork by J u a r e z . P aso de S o to s was a s m a ll town l o c a t e d i n th e e l e v e n t h c a n to n o f th e s t a t e o f J a l i s c o , w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of 2 5 ,0 2 8 i n h a b i t a n t s . E s p a r z a 's comments on i t s s t a t e of man u f a c t u r i n g w ere u n f a v o r a b l e and to th e p o i n t . A g r i c u l t u r e was t h e m ain a c t i v i t y o f t h e p l a c e ; w i t h o u t i t , Paso de S o to s w ould n o t e x i s t . I n d u s t r y and commerce had a c t u a l l y a v o id e d i t . O nly a g r i c u l t u r e was f l o u r i s h i n g , " d a n d o le v i d a y s e r [ s i c ] a l m i s e r a b l e M u n ic ip io , p u es c o n s t i t u y e l a 3 a g r i c u l t u r a su r i q u e z a . " The e le m e n t w hich m ig h t be g e n e r o u s l y c a l l e d i n d u s t r i a l c o n s i s t e d o f a few sh o e m a k e rs, w e a v e rs o f s h a w ls , j o r o n g o s , and palm h a t s , m akers of i r o n and c a r p e n t r y g o o d s , c a n d le m a k e r s , s o a p - m a k e rs , and a c o l l e c t i o n o f p o t t e r s who ^"[Benito E s p a r z a ] , Cuadro g e n e r a l e s t a d i s t i c o de P aso de S o to s ( G u a d a l a j a r a : T i p o g r a f l a de S. Banda, 1 8 7 9 ), p T n 2Ibid., pp. 5-8. 3Ibid., p. 13. 198 made e v e ry d a y g o o d s.^ P o tte r y m a k in g , a c c o rd in g t o E s p a r z a , was the most im p o r ta n t i n d u s t r y of the town. The goods were made from c la y which was found n e a rb y , and c o n s i s t e d of p o ts and o th e r cooking a n d -h o u seh o ld o b j e c t s . T h ere was l i t t l e money in th e b u s i n e s s , f o r th e u t e n s i l s were very common. The goods were s o ld in l o t s of one c a rg a e a c h , w hich c o n ta in e d tw e n ty - f o u r p i e c e s . Bought a l t o g e t h e r , a c arg a c o s t f i f t y c e n ta v o s ; i n d i v i d u a l u t e n s i l s so ld f o r t h r e e c e n ta v o s a p ie c e . Around 2 ,1 9 4 c a rg a s o f t h i s p o t t e r y were m a n u fa c tu re d each y e a r by th e p e o p le o f th e b a r r i o s o f A rroyo Seco, C e rro B lan c o , and San I g n a c io . The p o t t e r y was e x p o rte d t o Z a c a t e c a s , Alamo de P a r r a s , Laguna, and many o th e r p l a c e s . I t found a r e a d y m a rk e t, f o r i t was d u r a b le w are, owing to th e n a tu r e o f th e c la y from which i t was made. I f o n ly the p o t t e r s would lea v e t h e i r r o u t in e and ig n o ra n c e and make b e t t e r o b j e c t s , t h i s i n d u s t r y would d o u b t l e s s be th e b e s t i n th e M u n i c ip a li d a d . ^ E sp a rz a c o n tin u e d h i s resume of t h e v a r i o u s i n d u s t r i e s o f Paso de S o to s . T here were t h r e e t a n n e r i e s , b u t a t t h i s tim e th e y were o n ly p ro d u cin g and e x p o r tin g c u t cow h id e . T h is b ra n c h o f i n d u s t r y produced rev en u e am ounting to ^ I b i d . , p. 11. 5 I b i d . , cuadro 11. These t a b l e s a r e n o t numbered by p a g e , and a re found a f t e r th e main t e x t . ,199 3,747 pesos y e a r l y . Were the p la n ts * two b o i l e r s in o p e ra t i o n , t h i s f i g u r e would re a c h 4,000 pesos per y e a r .^ I n th e case o f t e x t i l e s , n o t a s i n g l e machine was em ployed. E v ery th in g was done by hand. O rd in a ry hand-loom s produced s t r i p e d goods, reb ozos and a few s a s h e s , i n a d d i t i o n to some w o o len s, b l a n k e t s , and o th e r goods; the whole i n d u s t r y r e a l - 7 iz e d s a l e s am ounting to e i g h t hundred p esos per y e a r . For o th e r i n d u s t r i e s , E sp a rz a employed a p e c u l i a r t a c t i c , one which alm ost convinced the r e a d e r t h a t he d e s i r e d to show m an u fa c tu rin g in as u n f a v o ra b le a l i g h t a s p o s s i b l e . He l i s t e d v a r io u s ty p es o f m a n u fa c tu rin g , and th e n noted t h a t t h e r e were none in Paso de S o to s. For exam ple, under ir o n 8 f o u n d r i e s , he w rote "no hay f u n d i c i o n e s . M The same was 9 t r u e f o r g l a s s ("No e x i s t e n i una s o la f a b r i c a " ) and paper ("No e x i s t e ninguna m a q u in a r ia ,T ) . ^ He a l s o gave a le n g th y t a b l e w ith h e a d in g s f o r v a r i o u s m an u factu red goods o f Paso de S o to s and th e v a lu e of t h e i r p r o d u c tio n in p e so s. E sp a rz a * s c a t e g o r i e s in c lu d e d brown and w h ite s u g a r, a g u a r d i e n t e , grape b ra n d y , f r u i t b ra n d y , m ezcal b ra n d y , and h a t s . Only th e l a s t c a te g o ry had any p r o d u c tio n f i g u r e (300 palm h a t s ) or v a lu e (150 p e s o s ) . ’ * " ’ * ’ The a u th o r con cluded h is rem arks on m a n u fa c tu rin g w ith t h a t summation. I b i d . , p. 1 2. I b i d . , cuadro 8 . 8I b i d . , cuadro 1 2 . 9 I b i d . , cuadro 1 0 . 10I b i d . , cuadro 9. 11I b i d . , cuadro 13. 200 W hatever t h e r e a s o n s f o r su c h an a p p ro a c h , E s p a r z a ’ s c o v e r age of a t i n y segment o f m a n u f a c tu r in g i n th e b e g in n in g o f th e Diaz p e r i o d was d i s t i n c t l y u n f a v o r a b l e . T h ere was a h i a t u s o f e x a c t l y a q u a r t e r o f a c e n tu r y betw een th e p u b l i c a t i o n of E s p a r z a t s book and the a p p e a ra n c e o f the n e x t volume t o be ex am ined— G o b ie rn o s m i l i t a r e s de Mexico (1 9 0 4 ), by J u a n Pedro D id a p p , some o f whose work has b een d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y . The book p r e s e n t l y u n d e r exam i n a t i o n was n o t a n t i - D i a z i n th e s e n s e t h a t T u r n e r * s and P o rn a ro * s w e re , b u t was u n f a v o r a b l e t o Diaz i n t h a t D idapp gave c r e d i t f o r an i n c r e a s e i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g f e n t i r e l y to someone e l s e . The o n ly r e f e r e n c e to m a n u fa c tu rin g found i n t h i s book n o te d c o n d i t i o n s i n Nuevo Leon. D idapp a p p a r e n t l y adm ired th e s t a t e ’ s g o v e rn o r , B e rn ard o R ey es, f o r he gave Reyes f u l l c r e d i t f o r th e m a n u fa c tu rin g d ev elo p m en t of M o n te rre y , w i t h n e v e r a m en tio n o f D i a z ’ s r o l e . R ey es, s a i d D id ap p , had p u t M o n te rre y T ta l a a l t u r a " among p o w e rfu l man- 12 u f a c t u r i n g c e n t e r s o f th e A m erican c o n t i n e n t . D idapp*s im p re s s io n o f M exican m a n u fa c tu rin g u n d e r D iaz was e x tr e m e ly b r i e f . The same co uld be s a i d a b o u t t h a t o f A n to n io G a rc ia Cubas, a p p e a rin g in G a r c i a ’ s book o f m em oires, E l L ib ro de m is r e c u e r d o s (1 9 0 4 ). G a r c ia Cubas was b o rn in Mexico C i ty in 1832. H is J u a n Pedro D id ap p , G o b ie rn o s m i l i t a r e s de Mexico (M exicot T i p o g r a f i a de J . I . G u e rre ro y Compania, 1 9 0 4 f, p. 398. 201 p a r e n t s d ie d when he was a c h i l d , and he was r a i s e d by an a u n t, tte' was soon on h i s own, becoming an employee o f th e D ir e c c i o n G e n e ra l de I n d u s t r i a , s tu d y in g f o r a d eg ree a t th e same tim e . He f i r s t a t t e n d e d th e C o le g io de San G re g o rio and l a t e r th e C o leg io de I n g e n i e r o s , whence he r e c e iv e d a d e g re e i n g e o graphy . M a x im ilia n made him a member o f the O rder o f G uadalupe. G a rc ia a l s o b elo n g e d to s c i e n t i f i c s o c i e t i e s in Mexico and e ls e w h e r e . He h e ld many p u b l i c p o s t s , m a in ly in th e S e c r e t a r i a de Fomento, i n which he drew up and d i r e c t e d numerous maps o f h i s c o u n tr y . He was a p r o f e s s o r i n th e E s c u e la de I n g e n i e r o s , in th e E s c u e la S u p e rio r de Com ercio y A d m in is tr a - c io n , and in o th e r te a c h i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . He p u b lis h e d v a r i o u s te x tb o o k s f o r use i n p u b lic s c h o o l s , among them Curso de g e o g r a f i a e le m e n t a l (1 8 5 7 ). G a rc ia Cubas was a d e d ic a t e d w orker i n the s c i e n t i f i c e x p l o r a t i o n o f th e c o u n tr y , w id en in g th e g e o g ra p h ic a l and g e o d e t i c knowledge o f M exico, w hich u n t i l th e n were i n a ru d im e n ta ry s t a t e . He c o n t r i b u t e d to th e p la n n in g o f Mexi can highways and l e f t s e v e r a l s t a t i s t i c a l w orks. H is E l L ib ro de mis r e c u e r d o s was h i s b e s t known w ork, how ever. He d ie d i n F e b ru a ry , 1912. E l L ib r o de m is re c u e rd o s was an i n t e r e s t i n g 13 H e r ib e r to G a rc ia R iv a s , 150 B i o g r a f i a s de m exi- canos i l u s t r e s ( l a e d . ; M exico: Ed i t o r l a l t) 1 a n a , S .' A . , i W 4 j , pp. 233 -4 . 202 hodgepodge o f m a t e r i a l s on v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s ra n g in g from p e r s o n a l r e m in is c e n s e s and e x p e r i e n c e s to p i c t u r e s of l i f e i n Mexico of th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t o s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l t o p i c s o f th e d ay . In th e l a t t e r c a te g o r y t h e r e was a b r i e f r e f e r e n c e to m a n u f a c tu r in g - in Mexico under D ia z . The r e f e r ence was v e i l e d , b u t i t was n o t f a v o r a b l e , f o r r e a s o n s w hich I cannot e x p l a i n . G a rc ia w ro te t h a t he could n o t u n d e rs ta n d th e p r o s p e r i t y o f a c o u n try w ith o u t th e developm ent of m a te r i a l im provem ents w i t h i n i t . A r o a d , b r i d g e , or c a n a l w ere w o rth more to a n a t i o n th a n m i l l i o n s of p e s o s . T h e r e f o r e , i t h u r t him to see th e a p a th y , the e g o tism which one no t i c e d i n Mexican s o c i a l c l a s s e s , w ith a few e x c e p ti o n s . M exicans were i n th e p o s i t i o n of b e in g a b le t o do much f o r t h e i r c o u n tr y , and th e y looked r,con i n d i f e r e n c i a ” a t M exico’ s i l l s . In M exico, th e e f f o r t s of c o l o n i z a t i o n and m anufac t u r i n g com panies were n o t known as th e y were in th e U n ite d S t a t e s on a r e l a t i v e s c a l e . I n i t i a t i v e was b o rn , and i t d ie d i n i t s c r a d l e f o r la c k o f e n t e r p r i s i n g c a p i t a l i s t s . The a u th o r looked fo r th e cause of th e slum ber of Mexican p a t r i o t i s m , w ith o u t f i n d i n g anyone who could awaken i t . Then, as i f to change a p o t e n t i a l l y d a n g ero u s s u b j e c t , G a rc ia Cubas added ,T p a ra e v i t a r e s t a d i g r e s i o n en que empezaba a e n g o lfa rm e , . . . " a n d moved on to som ething e l s e , p e rh a p s s a f e r f o r him. I t seems as i f he f e a r e d 203 14 r e p e r c u s s i o n s . R easons fo r th e lack of more u n fa v o ra b le so u rc e s i n S p a n ish d u r in g th e Diaz p e rio d have a lr e a d y been advan ced . To r e p e a t them here w ould, i t seems to me, be to b e la b o r th e o b v io u s. However, i n my judgm ent, th e few so u rc e s which I found and in c lu d e d h e re were v a lu a b le f o r s tu d y . T h is was e s p e c i a l l y tr u e o f E s p a r z a ’ s book. E s p a r z a ’s document was fo r me one of th e most i n t e r e s t i n g books covered in the e n t i r e s tu d y . I can o n ly wish f o r many more E s p a rz a s , s c a t te r e d th ro u g h th e towns and v i l l a g e s o f the R e p u b lic , w r i t ing on m a n u fa c tu rin g c o n d itio n s on th e lo c a l s c a l e i n the e a r l y D iaz p e r i o d . I f th e r e were more of t h e s e , t h e i r r e p o r t s could not be l o c a te d . E s p a r z a ’ s o p in io n s on m an u fa c tu rin g were unique i n some c a s e s , as when he w rote t h a t t h e r e was no i r o n m anufac t u r i n g , no c o tt o n e l a b o r a t i o n , and no g lassm ak in g ; b u t o th e r o b s e r v a t i o n s , as on th e p r i m i t i v e s t a t e of p o t t e r y m anufac t u r e , f i t t e d i n f a i r l y w e ll w ith o th e r u n fa v o ra b le o p in io n s seen e lsew h e re i n t h i s s tu d y . The same could be s a id con c e rn in g Ju a n Pedro D id ap p ’ s o p in io n on the s u b j e c t : the assig n m en t of a growth i n f a c t o r i e s to e le m e n ts o th e r th a n Diaz was a f a i r l y common o c cu rren ce among a u th o r s b o th b e f o r e and a f t e r th e Madero r e v o l u t i o n . Nor were th e id e a s of ■^Antonio G a rc ia Cubas, El L ib ro de mis r e c u e rd o s (M exico: Im p ren ta de A r tu r o G a rc ia Cubas, Mermanos, S u c e s o re s , 1904), p. 606. G a r c ia u n iq u e w i t h him. The c h i e f i n t e r e s t of t h e s e t h r e e a u t h o r s i s n o t t h e i r o p i n i o n s , b u t th e v e ry f a c t o f t h e i r e x i s t e n c e i n th e Mexico of P o r f i r i o D ia z . POST-REVOLUTIONARY MATERIAL CHAPTER V FAVORABLE SOURCES IN ENGLISH The old o r d e r p a sse d and D iaz went h i s way. The R e v o lu tio n came, a heady brew composed o f a s p i r a t i o n s , h a t r e d , o ld s c o r e s t o be e v e n e d , x e n o p h o b ia , and a new b e l i e f i n th e w o r th o f th e brown man who worked in th e f i e l d , th e m ine, th e f a c t o r y . D iaz was gon e, and , c o n f r o n te d w i t h th e system w h ic h r e p l a c e d him , many mourned f o r th e good old d ay s o f Don P o r f i r i o , when M exicans behaved and c a p i t a l was s e c u r e . Some o f th e s e w ro te books in E n g l i s h , and one can se e th e n o s t a l g i a , th e so rro w i n some m inds a s th e y lo oked g r a t e f u l l y back t o th e o ld day s as a s o r t o f g o ld e n a g e , and p r a i s e d th e works o f P o r f i r i o D ia z . T h is f a c t o r o f t e n showed i n th e c o v erag e t h e s e a u t h o r s gave t o m a n u f a c tu r in g . The f i r s t o f t h e s e bo oks c o v e re d in t h i s s e c t i o n a p p e a re d i n 1913, and was c a l l e d The Coming M ex ico , th e work o f J o s e p h King G o o d ric h . G o o d rich was b o rn in 1850 and d ie d in 1921. He was e d u c a te d a t Yale U n i v e r s i t y and The D e la ware L i t e r a r y I n s t i t u t e . He s e c u re d employment w ith th e U n ite d S t a t e s N a t i o n a l Museum i n W a sh in g to n , where he worked from 1881 t o 1884, o r g a n iz in g th e D epartm en t o f E th n o lo g y . 206 207 For th e n e x t two y e a r s he s e rv e d as A s s i s t a n t E d i t o r of th e S m ith so n ia n I n s t i t u t i o n . I n 1886 he became a p r o f e s s o r of E n g lis h a t The I m p e r i a l Government C o lle g e i n O saka, J a p a n . He s e rv e d h ere and i n Kyoto i n th e same c a p a c i ty u n t i l 1910, and became a l i f e member o f th e A s i a t i c S o c ie ty o f Ja p a n . He w rote e x t e n s i v e l y , making many c o n t r i b u t i o n s to j o u r n a l s and re v ie w s on J a p a n e s e and C hinese a r t , la n g u a g e , and l i t e r a t u r e . G o odrich a ls o w ro te s e v e r a l b o oks: The Coming China ( 1 9 1 1 ), A f r i c a of T o-day (1 9 1 2 ), R u s s ia in Europe and A s ia ( 1 9 1 2 ), The Coming Mexico (1 9 1 3 ), and Our N e ig h b o rs : The J a p a n e s e ( 1 9 1 3 ) . At th e tim e of h i s d e a th he was C h ief of th e Far E a s t e r n D i v i s i o n o f the. N a tio n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f M a n u f a c t u r e r s .^ G oodrich*s f i r s t a c q u a in ta n c e wi±h Mexico came w ith a t r i p t h e r e i n 1866. He n o te d th e g e n e r a l u n p r o g r e s s iv e n a t u r e of th e c o u n tr y a t t h a t tim e . A few y e a r s l a t e r , he made a s i m i l a r t r i p and was s i m i l a r l y u n im p re sse d . T h is was b e f o r e D ia z. A f t e r th e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f th e g e n e r a l as P r e s i d e n t of M exico, G oodrich made s e v e r a l a d d i t i o n a l v i s i t s to th e c o u n tr y . W ith D iaz i n pow er, he was a t l a s t f a v o r a b l y im p re ss e d . He t a l k e d , he s a i d , to many M exicans and f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s and p ro m o te rs who were d e v e lo p in g th e n a t i o n . He a d m itte d t h a t h i s own o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n had • t‘ Who*s Who i n A m erica, XI (1 9 2 0 -1 9 2 1 ), 1115. 208 not been as e x h a u s tiv e a s he d e s i r e d , b u t he f e l t t h a t what he had seen had g iv e n him ,fa c e r t a i n a b i l i t y to s i f t the evidence of o t h e r s . ” The o t h e r s in q u e s t i o n were s i m i l a r l y v 2 im pressed w ith the c o u n tr y under D iaz. When th e s e t h in g s are ta k e n u n d er c o n s i d e r a t i o n , s e v e r a l p o s s ib le r e a s o n s f o r G o o d ric h ’ s f a v o r a b le im p re s s io n of m an u fa ctu rin g i n D ia z ’ s Mexico may be advanced. The f a c t t h a t G oodrich was im p o r ta n t in th e N a tio n a l A s s o c ia t io n of M a n u fac tu re rs m ight have connoted a c e r t a i n c o n s e r v a tiv e tu rn o f mind, one which m ight i n tu rn have looked f a v o r a b ly upon a c o n s e r v a tiv e P r e s i d e n t , D ia z, e s p e c i a l l y i n th e l i g h t of th e u p heaval underway s in c e h i s f a l l . T h is p o s s i b i l i t y was a ls o su g g e ste d by a p a ssag e in The Coming Mexico in which G oodrich s a i d t h a t Mexico had s lip p e d back to i t s form er c h a o tic s t a t e a f t e r the p a s s in g of D ia z. I t would rem ain th u s u n t i l M exicans r e a l i z e d t h e i r d u ty to th e s t a t e and to each o t h e r , t h in g s which th ey a p p a r e n t l y had f o r g o t - 3 te n s in c e 1911. M oreover, G o o d ric h ’s f a v o r a b le a t t i t u d e could be e a s i l y e x p la in e d by the ty p e s o f p ro m oters and f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s w ith whom he t a l k e d . Had th e y been f a v o r a b le to Diaz and m a n u fa c tu rin g , la c k in g much a d d i t i o n a l in f o r m a tio n , 2 Jo sep h King G oodrich, The Coming Mexico (C hicago: A. C. McClurg & C o ., 19 13), p. vTT. 3Ibid., p. 121. 209 G o o d rich m ig h t have a c c e p t e d t h e i r d a t a and h av e emerged w ith a f a v o r a b l e p i c t u r e o f m a n u f a c tu r in g h i m s e l f . For w h a te v e r r e a s o n s , G o o d r i c h Ts c o v e ra g e o f Diaz and m anu fac t u r i n g was h i g h l y f a v o r a b l e . He s t a t e d t h a t M e x ic o ’ s d e v e lo p m e n t fro m th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f the R e p u b li c i n 1824 t o 1878 "was r e a l l y i n s i g - n i f i c a n t . ,t G iven th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s th ro u g h w hich th e n a t i o n was t r a v e l i n g , i t c o u ld h a r d l y have b e e n o t h e r w i s e . B ut in 1878 D ia z su c c e e d e d i n c o n v in c in g h i s f e l l o w M exicans t h a t i t w as ’'a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y " t o p r o v id e M exico w ith t e l e g ra p h s and r a i l r o a d s , "and th e n b e g a n th e r e a l l y a c t i v e d e v elo p m en t o f M e x ic o ." As f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g , G o o d rich w ro te t h a t M ex ico , which had b e en c o n s i d e r e d a n o n m a n u fa c tu r in g c o u n tr y p r i o r to D ia z , had " re s p o n d e d s u r p r i s i n g l y to P r e s i d e n t D i a z ’ s e f f o r t s t o d e v e lo p p r o d u c t i o n i n t h i s l i n e . " M exicans a n sw ered D i a z ’s c a l l by m aking u se o f t h e i r own raw m a t e r i - 4 a l s . S on ora c o u ld be ta k e n a s an exam ple o f m a n u f a c tu r in g d ev elo p m en t u n d e r D ia z . I t s p r o g r e s s had b een r a p i d i n man u f a c t u r i n g and r a i l w a y s b o t h , "d ue m a in ly t o A m erican e n t e r p r i s e . " ^ L ea v in g g e n e r a l c o n d i t i o n s o f m a n u f a c t u r in g , th e a u th o r t u r n e d to a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e R io B lan co t e x t i l e s t r i k e . H is r e p o r t was somewhat a t v a r i a n c e w i t h most ^Ibid., pp. 224-5. 5Ibid., p. 170. 210 d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h a t e v e n t . D iaz s u r p r e s s e d c rim e w i t h an i r o n h a n d , even to t h e p o i n t o f o c c a s i o n a l b r u t a l i t y , w rote G o o d ric h . In t h e c a se o f t h e Rio B lan c o s t r i k e , th e s t r i k e r s "were so f o o l i s h a s to d i s p l a y th e r e d f l a g o f t h e an a r c h i s t s . ” T hey d e s t r o y e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of p r o p e r t y and m urdered some w o r k e r s who r e f u s e d to j o i n them.-"' D iaz p ro m p tly s e n t ” a r e g im e n t o r two" o f r e g u l a r s o l d i e r s i n t o O r i z a b a . They a r r e s t e d some o f t h e l e a d e r s of th e s t r i k e r s and s to p p e d t h e o u t b r e a k . I n one d a y , o v e r two h u n d re d of th e r i o t e r s were p u t i n p r i s o n ; t h e n e x t d a y , t h e y had d i s a p p e a r e d . " I t was u s e l e s s t o ask q u e s t i o n s a b o u t them , b u t th e f a c t had a m ost s a l u t a r y e f f e c t th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n t r y . ” T h is was a r a t h e r m ild way o f d e s c r i b i n g a s t r i k e w h ic h most a u t h o r s a g re e was an e x t r e m e l y b lo o d y a f f a i r . As G o o d rich saw i t , t h e s t r i k e r s w ere e n t i r e l y r e s p o n s i b l e , and w ere a n a r c h i s t s t o b o o t . Few w r i t e r s , e v en i f th e y ad m ired D ia z , w ould have gone t h a t f a r ._ G o o d ric h c l o s e d h i s a c c o u n t of m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D iaz w i t h t h e s e w ords on th e O riz a b a t e x t i l e s t r i k e . C o n te m p o ra ry w i t h t h e G o o d ric h book was the a p p e a ra n c e of one o f t h e two w orks b y G eorge B e v e r ly W inton co v ered i n t h i s p a p e r , M exico T o - d a y i S o c i a l , P o l i t i c a l and R e l i g i o u s C o n d itio n s ( 1 9 1 3 ) . W inton f o llo w e d th e d o u b le c a r e e r of c le rg y m a n and e d u c a t o r . He was b o rn i n S p r i n g f i e l d , M i s s o u r i , e a r l y i n 6Ibid., pp. 118-19. 211 1861. He r e c e i v e d a M a s te r o f A r t s d e g re e from M o r r i s v i l l e ( M is s o u r i) C o lle g e a t t h e age o f tw e n ty , was a s t u d e n t a t V a n d e r b i l t U n i v e r s i t y d u r in g th e n e x t two y e a r s , and r e c e iv e d D octo r o f D i v i n i t y d e g r e e s from S o u th w e s te rn U n i v e r s i t y , S o u th e rn U n i v e r s i t y , and R andolph Macon ( V i r g i n i a ) C o l l e g e . W inton was o r d a in e d t o th e m i n i s t r y in th e s o u t h e r n b r a n c h of th e M e th o d is t E p is c o p a l C hurch i n 1883, and m a r r ie d th e f o l lo w in g y e a r . He eng ag ed i n h i s p r o f e s s i o n in h i s n a t i v e s t a t e d u r in g 1883 and 1884 and i n Mexico C i ty d u r i n g th e l a t t e r y e a r . In 1885 W inton r e t u r n e d t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s . He became a L a t i n p r o f e s s o r a t P a c i f i c M e th o d is t C o lle g e in S a n ta R osa, C a l i f o r n i a . He l e f t t h i s p o s t i n 1887, becom ing a p a s t o r i n S a c ra m e n to . He r e t u r n e d to Mexico in 1888, s t a y i n g t h e r e i n a v a r i e t y o f m i n i s t e r i a l p o s i t i o n s u n t i l 1902. He was P r e s i d e n t o f th e T h e o l o g ic a l Sem inary o f San L u is P o t o s i from 1889 u n t i l 1897, e d i t o r o f th e E v a n g e l i s t a m exicano from 1892 t o 1896. On h i s r e t u r n t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s , W inton s e t t l e d i n N a s h v i l l e , becom ing e d i t o r - i n - c h i e f o f th e N a s h v i l le C h r i s t i a n A d v o c a te , a p o s i t i o n w hich he h e ld f o r e i g h t y e a r s , u n t i l 1910. S i m i l a r p o s i t i o n s fo llo w e d w ith a v a r i e t y o f ch u rc h p a p e r s u n t i l 1926. In th e m ean tim e, W inton s e r v e d as e d i t o r i a l s e c r e t a r y o f th e Com m ittee on C o o p e ra t i o n in L a t i n A m erica d u r i n g and a f t e r th e war y e a r s , from 1917 t o 1921. 212 H is a t t e n t i o n t h e n s h i f t e d t o th e academ ic f i e l d . He became a l e c t u r e r i n H is p a n ic A m erican h i s t o r y and B i b l i c a l l i t e r a t u r e a t V a n d e r b i l t in 1927, a t ah age when most men r e t i r e . Two y e a r s l a t e r he was r a i s e d to p r o f e s s o r s t a t u s i n B i b l i c a l l i t e r a t u r e and h i s t o r y , s e r v in g a l s o as dean o f th e School of R e l i g i o n from 1930 to 1936. Mean w h ile , he had b e e n chairm an of th e Pan-A m erican I n s t i t u t e of Geography and H is to r y i n Mexico C ity i n 1929. W inton w ro te s e v e r a l books. These in c lu d e d a few i n S p a n ish , such as Metodo p a r a e l i n g l e s (1 9 0 2 ) , and N otas e x p l i c a t i v a s (1 9 1 9 -1 9 2 1 ), and o t h e r s i n E n g l i s h , i n c lu d in g A New E ra in Old Mexico (1 9 0 4 ), Mexico T o-day (1 9 1 3 ), A Study o f E d u c a tio n a l C o n d itio n s i n Mexico (1 9 1 6 ), M exico, P a s t and P r e s e n t (1 9 2 8 ), and P l e a d e r s f o r R ig h te o u s n e s s ( 1 9 2 9 ) .7 He d ie d i n 1938. W in to n ’ s co v erag e of m a n u fa c tu rin g under D iaz was r a t h e r f a v o r a b l e , th e r e a s o n s f o r which could n o t be d e t e r mined w i t h c e r t a i n t y . My judgm ent i s t h a t , i n common w ith many o th e r U nited S t a t e s m i s s i o n a r i e s w orking in Mexico un d e r D iaz, Winton was g r a t e f u l f o r th e t o l e r a n c e or a s s i s t ance w hich D iaz g r a n te d to P r o t e s t a n t s , and th u s viewed him and h is regim e w i t h f a v o r . W inton w ro te i n Mexico To-day t h a t , even d u rin g h i s f i r s t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , G e n e ra l D iaz o p e n ly b id f o r th e 7Who’s Who in America, XIX (1936-1937), 2641. 213 in v e stm e n t of f o r e ig n c a p i t a l i n M exico. To th o s e M exicans opposed to such a c o u rse of a c t i o n D iaz argued t h a t th e land was so poor from i t s long s t r u g g l e s , and i t s sm a ll rem aining c a p i t a l was h e ld so l a r g e l y by p e o p le i n love w ith th e o ld , r e a c t i o n a r y way of l i f e and opposed t o p r o g r e s s , t h a t i f M exico’ s g r e a t r e s o u r c e s were to be develop ed and h e r c i t i zens made " i n d u s t r i a l l y c o m fo rtab le and in d e p e n d e n t," i t would have to be done l a r g e l y by f o r e i g n c a p i t a l . T h e r e f o r e , D iaz went ahead w ith h is p o l i c y , " o p e n ing wide the d o o rs f o r c a p i t a l . " The governm ent gave su b s i d i e s f o r th e c o n s t r u c t in g of r a i l r o a d s , b o th an economic and a m i l i t a r y m easure, and exem ption from im p o rt d u t i e s fo r f a c t o r y m achin ery. I t o f f e r e d r e l i e f from t a x a t i o n f o r c e r t a i n p e rio d s to p ro d u c tiv e i n d u s t r i e s . F i n a l l y , i t a f f o r d e d ample p r o t e c t i o n f o r th e l i f e and p r o p e r t y o f f o r e i g n e r s . These p o l i c i e s gained a d h e r e n ts . I n the e l e c t i o n of 1892, among the m ost outsp o k en , v ig o ro u s a d v o c a te s o f D i a z 's r e - e l e c t i o n were " th e f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s - - m e c h a n i c s , m a n u fa c tu r e r s , r a ilw a y m anagers and o t h e r s - - t h e n r e s i d e n t in M exico." The r e s u l t of D i a z ’s p o l i c i e s was th e developm ent of manu f a c t u r i n g . For t h a t m a t t e r , h is a d m i n i s t r a t i o n should a ls o r e c e i v e c r e d i t f o r the s u p p re s s io n o f b a n d i t r y , the im prove ment of com m unication, the a b o l i t i o n of p eonage, the e n c o u r agement o f e d u c a tio n , the s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f th e c u rre n c y , and th e m aintenance o f l i b e r t y and e q u a l i t y b e f o r e the 214 g law . The n e x t w r i t e r , R o b e rt J o s e p h MacHugh, w h ile f a v o r a b le t o Diaz would h a r d l y go a s f a r as W inton in h i s p r a i s e of th e old d i c t a t o r . MacHugh w ro te a book d u r in g 1914 c a l l e d Modern M exico. T h is a u t h o r Ts b ackg ro und was p a r t m i l i t a r y , p a r t j o u r n a l i s t i c . He was a war c o rre s p o n d e n t on th e s t a f f o f th e D a ily T e le g ra p h (L ondon), r e p r e s e n t i n g t h a t new spaper in th e Cuban Campaign d u rin g th e S p a n ish -A m e ric an War, 1898; in th e Boer War, 1899-1901; and i n th e R u ss o -Ja p a n e se War, 1904. D uring th e l a t t e r war he was a t t a c h e d to G e n e ra l Baron K u r o k iTs s t a f f and accom panied th e F i r s t Ja p a n e se Army from Korea to the S ha-ko. He was p r e s e n t a t the b a t t l e s of th e Y alu, M o - t i e n - l i n g P a s s , To-wan, A n -p ing and L ia o -y u n g , and was d e c o r a te d by the J a p a n e s e . He accom panied th e S e r b ia n f o r c e s i n th e B alkan War o f 1912, and was d e c o r a te d th e r e to o . MacHugh v i s i t e d M exico in 1913 and w it n e s s e d th e e v e n ts of th e e a r l y p a r t of t h a t y e a r . He a l s o t r a v e l e d e x t e n s i v e l y i n the U n ited S t a t e s , C anada, th e West I n d i e s , A f r i c a , and th e O r i e n t . The a u th o r jo in e d th e F i r s t C i t y of London Royal G a r r is o n A r t i l l e r y i n 1895; he t r a n s f e r r e d t o the Q George B [ e v e r ly ] W inton, Mexico T o -d ay : S o c i a l , P o l i t i c a l , and R e lig io u s C o n d itio n s (New Y ork: M is s io n a r y E d u c a tio n ^Movement of th e U n ite d S t a t e s and Canada, 1 91 3), pp. 54-6. 215 T e r r i t o r i a l Army i n 1908. He s e rv e d -with the S ix th London B rig a d e , R oyal F ie ld A r t i l l e r y , i n France d u rin g th e F i r s t World War, and a t h i s d e a th in 1925 was i t s commander, w ith th e ra n k of l i e u t e n a n t c o lo n e l. MacHugh's p u b l i c a t i o n s i n clud ed Modern M exico, The Siege o f L ad y sm ith , i n t r o d u c t i o n s t o v a r i o u s w orks, and numerous m onographs on m i l i t a r y and 9 h i s t o r i c a l s u b j e c t s . As MacHugh h im s e lf i n d i c a t e d , p a r t of the c h a p te r s i n Modern Mexico o r i g i n a l l y saw p u b l i c a t i o n in th e D a ily T e le g r a p h . He a d m itte d t h a t he may have appeared t o some to be a n ti-M a d ero and a n ti- W ils o n v i s - a - v i s the regim e o f V ic to ria n o H u e rta , b u t t h a t h is o p in io n s were a r r i v e d a t " o n ly a f t e r a c a r e f u l i n v e s t i g a t i o n of th e evid en ce a v a i l a b le i n Mexico i t s e l f . " He b e lie v e d t h a t W ils o n 's r e f u s a l to re c o g n iz e H uerta was a d e f i n i t e m is ta k e , t h a t , no m a tte r what would have r e s u l t e d from su c h a r e c o g n i t i o n , i t would have been " i n f i n i t e l y l e s s e v i l " than th e e v e n ts which had o c c u rre d . He e x p re sse d pessim ism about M exico’s f u t u r e . MacHugh r e c e iv e d h e lp f o r h is a r t i c l e s from f u n c t i o n a r i e s of the H u e rta governm ent and th e B r i t i s h d ip lo m a ts r e s i d e n t in 10 11 th e c o u n try . He was p r o - H u e r ta . ^Who Was Who, 1916-1928 (London? A. & C. B lack, 1928), p. VTF. ^ R . J . MacHugh, Modern Mexico (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1914), pp. v i i - v i i i . 1:LIbid., p. 101. 216 These n o te s on MacHugh*s background may give some c lu e s a s to why h is c ov erage of D i a z ’ s m a n u fa c tu rin g was f a v o r a b l e . P ro -H u e rta and a n ti-M a d e ro , one m ight e x p e c t him to have b e en p ro -D iaz a s w e l l. M oreover, i f he r e c e iv e d i n f o r m a tio n from one c o n s e r v a tiv e government (H u e rta * s ) upon a n o th e r ( D ia z * s ) , one m ight p o s s ib l y e x p e c t su c h in fo rm a t i o n , i f i t in c lu d e d p a s s a g e s on m a n u f a c tu r in g , to have been f a v o r a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e the H u e rta governm ent showed so many a f f i n i t i e s toward the Diaz reg im e. In Modern M exico, MacHugh s t a t e d t h a t a c a r d i n a l f e a t u r e o f D i a z 's p o l i c y th ro u g h o u t h i s r u le was ’’th e e n couragem ent o f f o r e i g n e n t e r p r i s e in th e developm ent of th e b o u n d le s s re s o u r c e s o f th e R e p u b l i c . ” Diaz promoted the b u i l d i n g o f r a ilw a y s by l a r g e s u b s i d i e s . By means o f p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s Diaz encouraged th e e s t a b lis h m e n t of Mexican i n d u s t r i e s such as c o tt o n and s i l k m a n u fa c tu rin g and th e 12 p r o d u c tio n of w in e , cocoa, and q u i n in e . MacHugh d a te d th e b e g in n in g of a l l t h i s a t 1886. At t h a t tim e , Diaz e s t a b l i s h e d peace and ra ilw a y s were begun , w ith th e r e s u l t t h a t t h e r e o c c u rre d ” a v a s t and r a p id developm ent o f commerce, 13 i n d u s t r y and n a t i o n a l w e l l - b e i n g . ” When Madero e n te r e d o f f i c e , th e p r o g r e s s in m a n u fa c tu rin g was e i t h e r checked or 14 abandoned e n t i r e l y . Under H u e rta , m a tte r s were im p ro vin g, 12Ibid., p. 61. 14Ibid., p. 135. 13Ibid., p. 261. 217 however, and some sp in n in g and weaving m i l l s were i n p ro c e s s 15 of c o n s t r u c t io n around P ueb la. MacHugh gave an example of a m an u fa ctu rin g p l a n t e s t a b l i s h e d under Diaz and in o p e ra t i o n under H u e rta , the ’’Santa G e r tr u d i s J u t e M i l l s . ” T h is combine was lo c a te d two m ile s from Tuxpungo, V e rac ru z. I t was ’’one o f the most s u c c e s s f u l t e x t i l e f a c t o r i e s i n Mexi c o . ” The m il l employed 1,300 hands and was ”a model in ev ery w ay.” The b u i l d i n g s were a l l one s t o r y in h e ig h t , c o v erin g a t o t a l space of over t h r e e a c r e s . They were i l lum inated and v e n t i l a t e d i n a way w hich would s a t i s f y ’’the most e x ig e a n t of f a c t o r y i n s p e c t o r s . ” Almost a l l employees were housed i n ’’model d w e llin g s ” on th e company’ s la n d , houses which were ’’incom parably s u p e r i o r ” to the o r d in a r y accommodations o f th e Mexican w o rk e r. They were c le a n , roomy, and s a n i t a r y , and each had an abundant su p p ly of p u re , runn ing w ater and e l e c t r i c l i g h t s . The company p r o vided houses and u t i l i t i e s fo r ’’th e v ery m oderate r a t e of 3 s [ro u g h ly one p eso , f i f t y c e n ta v o s i n th o se days] per w eek.” E xcept f o r a few model v i l l a g e s i n E ngland, th e re were no _ i n d u s t r i a l d w e llin g s to s u rp a s s th o se of th e ’’S anta G e r tr u d is J u te M i l l s . ” The m an u factu rin g concern was o r i g i n a l l y begun in 1892 by two Englishm en. For a tim e i t d id n o t p r o s p e r , b u t was th en tak e n over by Wheetman P e a rs o n , Lord Cowdray. He 15Ibid., p. 218. 218 r e b u i l t th e p la c e on a much l a r g e r s c a le and r e o r g a n iz e d the b u s i n e s s , w hich then " e n te r e d on a c a r e e r of g r e a t p r o s p e r i t y . " ^ MacHugh c lo s e d h e r e . The n e x t book, B en ighted Mexico a ppeared i n 1916. I t was w r i t t e n by Randolph W eIl fo rd Sm ith. B e n ig h ted Mexico was p e rh a p s most s i g n i f i c a n t as an i n d i c a t i o n of th e h e ig h ts to w hich a n ti - R e v o l u t io n a r y f e e l i n g had r i s e n in th e U n ited S t a t e s by t h i s tim e and i t seemed to be an a tte m p t to prove t h a t the Mexico of 1916 was indeed b e n ig h te d . I found v e ry l i t t l e in f o r m a tio n r e g a rd in g th e a u t h o r . He a p p a r e n tly o n ly w ro te one book; a t l e a s t , I found no o th e r t i t l e s l i s t e d under h i s name. He was v i o l e n t l y a n t i - C a r r a n z a , r a t h e r p r o - C a t h o l i c , and l a i d the blame f o r M exico’s i l l s on th e U n ited S t a t e s , s in c e t h a t c o u n try r e c - 17 ognized th e C a rra n z a governm ent. He accused th e German R eich of a id in g f i r s t V i l l a , th e n C a rra n z a , and lam ented the 18 la c k of p r o t e c t i o n f o r Am ericans i n M exico. Sm ith e x h ib i t e d an e x tre m e ly c o n s e r v a tiv e o r i e n t a t i o n th ro u g h o u t h i s book. I f e e l t h a t th e s e f a c t s may have e x p la in e d S m ith ’s f a v o r a b le o p in io n of Diaz and m a n u fa c tu rin g . Smith g e n e r a l l y adm ired Diaz (a n o th e r p o s s ib l e 16I b i d . , pp. 222-23. 17 Randolph We I l f o r d Sm ith, B e n ig h ted Mexico (New Y ork: John Lane Company, 1916), ppl 5-6. 18 Ibid., pp. 14-15. e x p l a n a t i o n f o r th e f a v o r i t i s m w i t h w h ich he t r e a t e d t h e D iaz reg im e and m a n u f a c tu r in g d u r in g i t ) , and b e l i e v e d t h a t , o f th e f o u r M exican " s t r o n g men” ( J u a r e z , S a n ta Anna, Comon- f o r t and D i a z ) , th e l a s t- n a m e d was " e a s i l y th e p re m ie r i n t h o u g h t , i d e a l s , p u rp o se and a c c o m p lis h m e n t." R e g a rd in g m a n u f a c t u r in g . Sm ith n o te d t h a t D iaz i n v i t e d f o r e i g n c a p i - 19 t a l and i n d u s t r i e s w ere t h u s e s t a b l i s h e d i n M ex ico . He d id n o t e l a b o r a t e on t h i s p o i n t , and th e o n ly o t h e r r e f e r ence t o m a n u f a c tu r in g i n h i s book was an o b liq u e one some p ag es l a t e r . A t t h i s p o i n t , th e a u th o r gave a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of th e Rio B lan c o t e x t i l e s t r i k e , c a l l i n g i t a m inor r e b e l l i o n , w h ich i t became n e c e s s a r y f o r D iaz t o q u e l l . He gave th e e n t i r e a f f a i r a p o l i t i c a l t o n e , n o t t h a t o f a d i s p u t e b e tw e e n l a b o r and m anagem ent. M o re o v er, t h e i n d i c a t i o n was g iv e n t h a t D iaz was a v i c t i m of c i r c u m s ta n c e s i n h i s a c t i o n a g a i n s t th e s t r i k e r s , t h a t he was f o r c e d t o 20 r e a c t and d id n o t a c t o f h i s own f r e e w i l l . Somewhat more s u b s t a n t i a l m e n tio n o f m a n u f a c t u r in g under D ia z t h a n t h a t i n S m ith*s book was made by C asp ar W hitney i n a l i g h t w e i g h t book p u b l is h e d d u r in g t h e same y e a r , e n t i t l e d W hat*s th e M a tte r w i t h M exico? W hitney was b o rn i n B o sto n i n 1864. He p a sse d h i s e n t r a n c e e x a m in a tio n s a t H a rv a rd U n i v e r s i t y , b u t d i d n o t a t t e n d . I n s t e a d , he ob t a i n e d h i s s c h o o l i n g a t S t . M a r tin * s C o l l e g e . He s p e n t much 19Ibid., p. 94. 20Ibid., p. 105. 220 of h i s tim e t r a v e l i n g , h u n tin g , and e x p lo r in g , i n M exico, th e E a s t and West I n d i e s , Siam, M alaya, and I n d i a — t r i p s w hich l a s t e d f o r a t o t a l of te n y e a r s . He tu r n e d to w r i t i n g , c o n t r i b u t i n g m a t e r i a l on o u t door s p o r t s to H a r p e r * s and s e r v in g on th e s t a f f of t h a t p u b l i c a t i o n from 1888 to 1900. He covered the S p a n ish - Am erican War i n Cuba, and f i n a l l y became e d i t o r o f O uting M agazine, a p o s t w hich he h e ld from 1900 t o 1909. W hitney a l s o e d it e d Outdoor A m e ric a , a p u b l i c a t i o n of th e C o l l i e r i n t e r e s t s (1909) and R e c r e a tio n (1 9 1 3 ). He sp e n t some tim e in Mexico i n 1914, was a member of th e Commission f o r R e l i e f i n Belgium d u rin g th e su c c e e d in g two y e a r s , and f i n a l l y b e came a war c o rre s p o n d e n t d u rin g th e l a s t two y e a rs of the w ar. He d ie d i n 1929. W hitney*s p u b l i c a t i o n s in c lu d e d s e v e r a l books i n a d d i t i o n to What*s th e M atter w ith M exico?, such as A S p o r tin g P ilg rim a g e (1 8 9 5 ), On Snow-Shoes to th e B a rre n Grounds (1 8 9 6 ), H aw aiian America (1 8 9 9 ), The C r i t i c a l Y e a r, 1918— S h a l l We Be Too L ate? (1 9 1 8 ), and The Tempering of th e Doughboy (1 9 1 9 ). He a ls o e d i t e d the Am erican 21 S p o r ts m a n ^ L i b r a r y . W hitney d e d ic a te d h i s book " to t h a t abused group of my C ountrym en," th e poor American i n v e s t o r s , d riv e n from t h e i r Mexican homes and d e n ie d th e p r o t e c t i o n of th e U n ited 21Whot s Who i n A m erica, XV (1 9 2 8 -1 9 2 9 ), 2212. 221 22 S t a t e s govern m en t by ’ Woodrow W ils o n . In th e b o o k , W hitney showed s c a n t r e g a r d f o r M exicans i n g e n e r a l , and t h e i r 23 r u l e r s i n p a r t i c u l a r . An e x c e p t i o n was D ia z , whom th e a u th o r seemed t o g e n u i n e l y a d m ire . A c c o rd in g t o W h itn ey , D iaz had v i s i o n and a d e s i r e t o b u i l d u p M e x ic o 's m a n u f a c tu r in g p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . T h is r e q u i r e d two t h i n g s : f i r s t , a c u rb in g o f M e x ico ’ s l a w l e s s n e s s and la c k o f r e s p e c t f o r p r o p e r t y ; s e c o n d l y , t h e e n t r a n c e o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l . By d i n t o f much e f f o r t , th e f i r s t c o n d i t i o n was f u l f i l l e d ; th e seco n d was a l s o , b e c a u s e 24 A m e ric an s e n t e r e d t o d e v e lo p th e c o u n t r y . C o n c e rn in g man u f a c t u r i n g , u n d e r D ia z Mexico saw a ’’f o r e i g n i n d u s t r i a l i n v a s i o n . I n t h i s l i n e , i n f a c t , D iaz had s t a r t e d an ” i n - 2 6 d u s t r i a l boom .” U nder h i s r u l e , m a n u f a c tu r in g was ’’b u i l t u p ," W hitney u s i n g t h e d r a m a tic c o n t r a s t " fro m hand looms to m i l l s and f o u n d r i e s and f a c t o r i e s " t o d e s c r i b e th e p r o g r e s s i n m a n u f a c t u r in g from th e b e g in n in g o f th e D iaz p e r i o d to 27 i t s en d. T h is a u t h o r co n clu d ed w i t h t h a t f a v o r a b l e im p r e s s i o n . S i m i l a r v ie w s were fou nd i n a volume a p p e a r i n g i n 1917, e n t i t l e d M exico o f th e M e x ic a n s , w r i t t e n by Lewis 22 C a sp a r W h itn e y , W hat’ s th e ~ M a tte r w i t h M exico? (New Y ork: The M a c m illa n Company,' 1 9 T 6 ), p. v. 2 3 I b i d . , pp. 2 4 - 5 . 2 4I b i d . , pp. 7 6 - 9 . 25Ibid., p. 90. 26Ibid., p. 80. ?7 Ibid., p. 83. 222 S p e n c e. Spence was b o rn i n F o r f a r s h i r e , S c o t l a n d , i n 1874 and d i e d i n 1955. He was p r i v a t e l y e d u c a te d and l a t e r a t te n d e d E d in b u rg h U n i v e r s i t y . He became s u b e d i t o r of The Scotsm an i n 1899 and h e ld t h a t jo b u n t i l 1904, when he b e came e d i t o r o f The E d in b u rg h M a g a z in e . A t h r e e - y e a r em ploy ment w ith The B r i t i s h W eekly (1 9 0 6 -1 9 0 9 ) rounded out S p e n c e ’ s work in t h i s a r e a u n t i l he became e d i t o r of The A t l a n t i s Q u a r t e r l y i n 1932, a p o s t a t w hich he rem ained u n t i l h i s d e a t h . T h is change i n e d i t o r i a l work i n d i c a t e d one of S p e n c e ’ s l o n g - l a s t i n g i n t e r e s t s , th e s tu d y of m y th s, th e o c c u l t , and th e su p p o sed c o n t i n e n t o f A t l a n t i s . H is s t u d i e s of m y th o lo g y had s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e to Mexico and C e n t r a l A m erica. Spence was a F e llo w o f th e Royal A n t h r o p o l o g ic a l I n s t i t u t e o f G re a t B r i t a i n and I r e l a n d , as w e ll a s v i c e - p r e s i d e n t of th e S c o t t i s h A n t h r o p o l o g ic a l and F o lk lo r e S o c i e t y . He r e c e i v e d a r o y a l p e n s io n from George VI f o r h i s s e r v i c e s t o l i t e r a t u r e i n 1951. S p e n c e ’ s books w ere num erous. They in c lu d e d The M y th o lo g ie s o f M exico and P eru ( 1 9 0 7 ) , The Popol Vuh ( 1 9 0 8 ), A D i c t i o n a r y o f M ythology (1 9 1 0 ) , The C i v i l i s a t i o n of A n c ie n t Mexico ( 1 9 1 1 ) , Myths of Mexico and Peru ( 1 9 1 3 ), A D i c t i o n a r y o f M ed iaev al Romance and Romance W r i t e r s (1 9 1 3 ), Myths and Legends of B a b y lo n ia and A s s y r i a ( 1 9 1 6 ) , The Gods of Mexico (1 9 2 3 ), and The O c c u lt C auses o f th e P r e s e n t War ( 1 9 4 0 ), a s w e l l a s many books on th e a u t h o r ’ s f a v o r i t e 223 28 s u b j e c t , A t l a n t i s . I t i s im p o s s ib le f o r me t o s t a t e why Spence t r e a t e d m a n u fa c tu rin g u n d e r Diaz f a v o r a b l y i n Mexico of th e M e x ic a n s. He, how ever, seems to have been one o f th o se w r i t e r s who, fa c e d w i t h th e chaos of a n a t i o n in r e b e l l i o n , looked b a c k to t h e "good old d a y s ” o f Diaz w ith lo n g in g and a p p r o v a l . T h is was th e im p r e s s io n a f f o r d e d by S pence*s p a s s a g e s on m a n u fa c tu rin g u n d er D ia z . He w ro te t h a t , p r i o r to th e R e v o lu t i o n , ’'Mexico was r a p i d l y g a in in g a p la c e among th e m a n u f a c tu r in g c o u n t r i e s of th e w o r l d . ” In d e e d , com p eten t o b s e r v e r s p r e d i c t e d t h a t Mex ic o would be a b le t o m a n u fa c tu re a lm o s t e v e r y t h in g she n e e d ed w i t h i n a few y e a r s . To some e x t e n t , t h i s s t a t e of a f f a i r s was due to M exican e n t e r p r i s e . Most m a n u f a c tu rin g c o n c e rn s were in th e hands o f German and A m erican f i r m s , how ever, and were a lm o st b r a n c h e s o f l a r g e r com panies i n Germany and th e U n ite d S t a t e s . But t h e r e were f a c t o r i e s , and many o f them had " s u f f e r e d s e v e r e l y ” from the u n r e s t f o l lo w in g D i a z ’ s o v e rth ro w . F a c t o r i e s had been r a i d e d by v a r i o u s c o n te n d in g p a r t i e s , " p r a c t i c a l l y sa c k e d , or a t l e a s t g u t t e d " o f a l l s e l l a b l e m a t e r i a l s , " r e q u i s i t i o n e d ” by th e s e v e r a l eph em eral g o v e rn m ents c la im in g t o r u l e Mexico s i n c e th e f a l l of Don P o r f i r i o . Many of th e s e m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s had b e en p r o t e c t e d d u rin g D i a z ’ s r u l e by "more or l e s s s u b s t a n t i a l " 28 Who’s Who, 1955, p. 2785. 224 t a r i f f s . Spence a d m itte d t h a t th e t a r i f f s m ig h t have b e e n to o h ig h in some c a s e s , g iv e n th e c h e a p n e s s o f l a b o r and th e 29 s c a n t s u p p ly o f th e t a x e d a r t i c l e . From t h a t p o i n t Spence moved to a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e p a p e r m a n u f a c tu r in g i n d u s t r y . T h is t r a d e was i n t r o d u c e d by Thomas B r a n i f f , "whose f o r e s i g h t and a b i l i t y d i d so much f o r M e x ic o ." Along w i t h a M exican p a r t n e r , B r a n i f f b u i l t a p a p e r f a c t o r y a t th e f o o t of I x t a c c i h u a t l ; th e f i r m l a t e r m erged w ith th e P r o g r e s s P a p e r F a c t o r y , a p u r e l y M exican e n t e r p r i s e . T h is was i n 1893. I n 1910, th e San R a f a e l w o rk s, th e name w h ich th e B r a n i f f h o l d i n g s assum ed , w ere p r o d u c in g a b o u t s e v e n ty to n s o f p a p e r p e r day;. T hey were " v e r y l a r g e l y " s u p p ly in g th e M exican p a p e r m a rk e t, and w ere e m ploying th e f i n e s t f o r e i g n p a p e r m akers a s heads o f d e p a r t m e n t s . The s i t u a t i o n had d e c l i n e d s i n c e t h a t t i m e , and p a p e r and p a p e r s to c k w ere now l a r g e l y im p o rte d to m ee t th e grow ing demands f o r them by th e p r i n t i n g and a l l i e d t r a d e s i n M exico, ev en thou gh th e coun t r y had v a s t s t a n d s o f tim b e r and f i b e r p r o d u c in g p l a n t s 30 s u i t a b l e f o r p a p e r m a n u f a c t u r e . The n e x t book c o v e re d i n t h i s s t u d y a p p e a re d in 1919. I t would have b e e n n o t a b l e f o r i t s t i t l e a l o n e . I t was e n t i t l e d Mexico u n d e r C a rra n z a ? A L aw y e r *5 I n d ic tm e n t 29 Lewis S p e n c e, Mexico o f th e M exicans (L ondon: S i r I s a a c P itm an & S o n s, L t d ~ 1 9 1 *7) , p p . 1 4 4 -5 . 30 Ibid., p. 150. 225 o f the Crowning Infam y o f Pour H undred Y e ars o f M i s r u l e , th e p r o d u c t o f a Thomas Edward G ibbon. Gibbon was b o rn n e a r D e v a ll B l u f f , A rk a n s a s , i n 1860 and d ie d i n 1921. He was e d u c a te d p r i n c i p a l l y a t home, and was a d m itte d t o th e A rk a n sa s b a r i n 1883. F iv e y e a r s l a t e r he moved t o Los A n g e le s , where he s p e n t m ost o f t h e re m a in d e r of h i s l i f e . He o rg a n iz e d th e Los A n g e les T e rm in a l R ailw ay Company in 1891, and s e rv e d as i t s v i c e - p r e s i d e n t and g e n e r a l a t t o r n e y u n t i l 1901. He th e n o r g a n iz e d th e San P e d ro , Los A n g e les & S a l t Lake R ailw ay Company, s e r v i n g as i t s second v i c e - p r e s i d e n t and g e n e r a l c o u n s e l u n t i l 1905. Gibbon a ls o s e rv e d i n s e v e r a l p u b l ic c a p a c i t i e s . He was a member o f the A rk a n sa s House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , 1884- 1885, o f the Los A ng eles P o l i c e C om m ission, 1897-1898, and o f the Los A n g e les H arbor Com m ission, 1910-1914. He a l s o se rv e d a s chairm an o f a com m ission s e t up to p la n a sy stem 31 f o r a m u n ic ip a l te r m in a l r a i l w a y i n Los A n g e le s . Gibbon a p p a r e n t l y o n ly w ro te one b o o k , Mexico u n d e r C a r r a n z a . T h is book was p e rh a p s th e m ost v i o l e n t polem ic a g a i n s t C a rra n z a t h a t I have e v e r s e e n , a q u a l i t y w hich b e gan a t th e t i t l e and c o n tin u e d th r o u g h o u t th e re m a in d e r of th e w ork. But t h e r e was so m e th in g e l s e . In t h e words o f L. J . d e B ek k e r, nhe [G ibbon] h a s [h ad ] w r i t t e n th e t e x t - b o o k 31Who1s Who i n A m e ric a, XI (1 9 2 0 -1 9 2 1 ), 1 07 4-75. f o r th e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s , r e g a r d l e s s o f f a c t or o f c o n se - 32 qu en ces [ i t a l i c s i n o r i g i n a l ] . ” T h is was r e i n f o r c e d by a f r a n k s t a te m e n t on th e p a r t o f Gibbon t h a t i n t e r v e n t i o n by an o u t s i d e power was th e o n ly rem edy f o r M exico*s t r o u - 33 b l e s , and t h a t , f o r c e b e in g th e o n ly law th e H is p a n ic A m erican u n d e r s to o d , th e U n ite d S t a t e s sh o u ld have i n t e r vened e i g h t y e a r s b e f o r e , as soon as A m erican p r o p e r t y s u f - 34 f e r e d from th e R e v o lu t i o n . A r e c t f r r i n g p o i n t i n G i b b o n ^ book was how b a d ly A m erican i n v e s tm e n ts had f a r e d u n d e r C a r- 3 5 a: ^ r a n z a . These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s may th ro w some l i g h t i n t o why Gibbon f a v o r e d D i a z I s Mexico a s r e g a r d e d m a n u f a c tu r in g . Damning a governm ent w hich he b e l i e v e d n o t o n ly ig n o re d A m erican p r o p e r t y r i g h t s b u t a c t u a l l y d e s t r o y e d o r took A m erican p r o p e r t y , he would n a t u r a l l y have looked w ith ap p r o b a t i o n on a P r e s i d e n t such a s D ia z , a P r e s i d e n t who, he s t a t e d , a llo w e d the e n t r y of th e f o r e i g n e r , who d e v elo p ed 36 m in e s, f a c t o r i e s and r a i l r o a d s , a P r e s i d e n t who p r o t e c t e d 3^L. J . de B e k k e r , The P l o t A g a in s t Mexico (New Y ork: A l f r e d A. K nopf, 1 9 1 $ ), p . 69. 33 Thomas Edward G ibbon, Mexico u n d e r C a r r a n z a : A Lawyer *s I n d ic tm e n t o f th e Crowning Inifa'm'y' of Eour Hundred Years' of M is r u le (.Garden C i t y , New Y o rk : D o u b le d ay , Page & Company, 1919.), p . 232. 34 I b i d . , p p . 2 3 6 -7 . 35 I b i d . , see page 147, among many o t h e r p l a c e s , f o r a sam ple of Gibbon * s view s of th e s u b j e c t . 36Ibid., pp. 93-4. 227 th e v e ry t h i n g s which Gibbon f e l t C a rra n z a d id n o t . T h is i n t u r n m ight have g iv e n Gibbon a f a v o r a b l e t u r n o f mind con c e r n in g D iaz and m a n u f a c tu r in g . A t any r a t e , a c o n s e r v a t i v e , p ro m o tio n -m in d ed c o r p o r a t i o n law y er such a s he would have had a n a t u r a l te n d e n c y t o lo o k upon m a n u f a c tu rin g a c t i v i t i e s un der D iaz w ith f a v o r . Gibbon w ro te t h a t , p r e v io u s to th e D iaz e r a , M exi cans were p r i m a r i l y engaged i n farm in g and s t o c k r a i s i n g , to a l i m i t e d e x t e n t i n m in in g , "and h a r d l y a t a l l i n m an u fac t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s . " Then came D ia z . H is o u t s t a n d i n g ach iev em en t was " a trem endous d ev elo p m e n t of . . . m an u fac t u r i n g i n d u s t r i e s of v a r i o u s k i n d s , " p u b l i c s e r v i c e i n s t a l l a t i o n s , and m ining and sifte ltin g . Under th e s t i m u l u s o f ample jo b s and "wages v e ry much h ig h e r th a n e v e r b e f o r e know n," th e p o p u l a t i o n d o ubled d u r in g th e t h i r t y - f o u r y e a r s o f h i s r u l e . Much o f t h i s p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e was con cen t r a t e d i n th e c i t i e s w hich had become t h e c e n t e r s o f manu f a c t u r i n g . IVhen the R e v o lu tio n b ro k e o u t, t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s c o n t r i b u t e d l a r g e l y t o th e m is e r y o f Mexico a f t e r D ia z . When th e common p e o p le p ro d u ce d t h e i r own fo o d , as t h e y d id b e f o r e th e Diaz p e r i o d , th e endem ic r e v o l u t i o n a r y s i t u a t i o n a f f e c t e d them b u t l i t t l e . M oreover, i n th o s e d ays t h e r e w e r e - f a r few er p e o p le to f e e d . C o n s e q u e n tly , s t a r v a t i o n or even hun ger d id n o t o f t e n r e s u l t from th e f r e q u e n t r e v o l u t i o n a r y d i s t u r b a n c e s . 228 But when Diaz became P r e s i d e n t , th e economic d e v e l opment produced ’’hundreds o f th o u sa n d s" o f l a b o r e r s engaged i n a c t i v i t i e s such as m a n u fa c tu rin g , p eo p le who d id n o t p ro duce food f o r th e m se lv e s or t h e i r f a m i l i e s . When th e e v i l C a r r a n c i s t a s d e s tro y e d t h e i r b a se s o f s u p p o r t, f a c t o r i e s and p u b lic s e r v i c e e n t e r p r i s e s , t h i s g r e a t w orking p o p u la tio n became i d l e . Being w ith o u t r e s o u r c e s , i t was fo rc e d to sub m it to s t a r v a t i o n or seek an in s e c u r e l iv e l i h o o d "by j o in i n g th e p r e d a to r y t h a t sc o u r [sc o u re d ] th e c o u n tr y ." No one would ev er be ab le to t e l l how many th o u san d s of women and c h i l d r e n , to say n o th in g o f a b le - b o d ie d men, a c t u a l l y had s ta r v e d t o d e a th as a r e s u l t of th e "alm ost com plete s t o p page of i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y " under C a rra n z a , b u t t h e r e must 37 have been many th o u san d s in d e e d . Gibbon concluded h e re . U n lik e Gibbon, the n e x t w r i t e r c i t e d in t h i s s tu d y , W allace Thompson, p u b lis h e d s e v e r a l books on M exico, most o f them f a v o ra b le to D iaz. Two of th e s e bo o k s, The P eople o f Mexico and T rad in g w ith M exico, d a te d from 1921. I have in c lu d e d them a t t h i s p o in t. Thompson was born in 1883 i n Topeka, K an sas, and d ie d in 1936. He re c e iv e d a B achelor of S c ien ce d e g re e from Washburn C o lle g e in Topeka i n 1903, and o b ta in e d a D octor of L e t t e r s d e g re e from th e same sc h o o l i n 1927. Thompson b e came an a s s i s t a n t e d i t o r of a magazine c a l l e d Modern Mexico * ^ I b i d ., pp. 4-6 . 229 th e y e a r he g ra d u a te d from c o l l e g e . He h e ld t h i s p o s i t i o n u n t i l 1904. He th e n became news e d i t o r o f an E n g li s h l a n guage new spap er o f M exico C i t y , The M exican H e r a l d , w ork ing in t h i s c a p a c i t y u n t i l 1910. He t h e n r e t u r n e d t o th e U n ite d S t a t e s . Upon h i s a r r i v a l , he s e c u r e d employment w ith th e K ansas C i t y J o u r n a l (1 9 1 0 -1 9 1 1 ) and th e n w orked a s a P a r i s c o rr e s p o n d e n t f o r v a r i o u s n e w sp a p e rs d u r i n g th e f o l l o w i n g two y e a r s . He s e rv e d a s m anaging e d i t o r o f Town and C o u n try (1 9 1 4 -1 9 1 5 ) and P o p u la r S c ie n c e M o n th ly ( 1 9 1 5 - 1 9 1 6 ) . Thompson was a member o f th e Doheny R e se a rc h Founda t i o n in Mexico i n 1917. He r e t u r n e d to th e U n ite d S t a t e s d u r i n g th e f o llo w in g y e a r f o r a b r i e f s e r v i c e i n th e War and S t a t e D e p a rtm e n ts of t h e U n ite d S t a t e s g o v e rn m e n t, c u l m i n a t ing i n h i s s e r v i c e as v i c e - c o n s u l i n M o n te rre y d u r in g 1918 and 1919. He became e d i t o r i n c h i e f o f I n g e n i e r i a i n t e r n a t i o n a l in 1927 and h e ld t h i s p o s i t i o n u n t i l h i s d e a t h . He a l s o a c t e d a s B u s in e s s Week*s c o r r e s p o n d e n t on t h e NRA i n 1933-1934 i n W a sh in g to n . Thompson w ro te s e v e r a l b o o k s, most of them d u r in g th e t w e n t i e s : The P e o p le o f Mexico ( 1 9 2 1 ) , T ra d in g w i t h M exico ( 1 9 2 1 ) , The M exican Mind ( 1 9 2 2 ) , and Rainbow C o u n t r i e s o f C e n t r a l A m erica ( 1 9 2 6 ) . He s p e n t h i s 38 l a s t y e a r s i n New York C i t y . I n The P e o p le o f M e x ic o , one of t h e two books by oo Who*s Who in America, XVIII (1934-1935), 2348. 230 t h i s a u th o r which w i l l be d i s c u s s e d h e r e , Thompson n o te d a "trem endous demand f o r la b o r betw een 1890 and 1 9 1 0 ," due to th e opening o f new i n d u s t r i e s and p l a n t a t i o n s . The su p p ly 39 of w o rk e rs became in a d e q u a te t o t h e demand. Thompson i n c lu d e d some f u r t h e r th o u g h ts on wages and la b o r c o n d it i o n s un der D ia z . C h ild la b o r had been employed i n Mexico fo r many y e a rs and s t i l l was i n 1921, " i n a s m a ll w ay," b u t th e l e g a l l i m i t f o r such f a c t o r y work was alw ays tw elv e y e a r s , and th e r e was some e f f o r t to e d u c a te th e c h i l d r e n w orking in th e m a n u fa c tu rin g c o n c e rn s . I t was d i f f i c u l t to ju d g e c h il d la b o r i n M exico, sin c e a d e e p - s e a te d t r a d i t i o n of w orking e x i s t e d among M exicans. But p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n " c o v e r in g a c o n s id e r a b le p e rio d of the norm al y e a r s of Mexico under D iaz" i n many s t a t e s and m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s b o re out th e common b e l i e f t h a t Mexican c h i l d r e n were n o t overw orked, " d e s p i t e i s o l a t e d a b u s e s ." They were n o t d r i v e n to t a s k s f o r which th e y were u n f i t t e d ; above a l l , th e y did n o t w aste t h e i r y o u th on " s o u l l e s s m a c h in e s ." Such a c h il d la b o r problem a s e x i s t e d was one where p r e v e n t io n c o u ld be e f f e c - , 40 t i v e , and th e law s of Diaz had been a d e q u a te f o r t h i s . As a g e n e r a l r u l e , h o u rs i n f a c t o r i e s v a r i e d from te n to f o u r t e e n d a i l y d u rin g th e Diaz p e r io d . Under th e 39 W allace Thompson, The P eo p le of Mexico (New York: H arper and B r o th e r s , P u b l i s h e r s , 1.1921]), p. 325. 40Ibid., pp. 342-3. 231 b r i e f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of F ra n c is c o de l a B a rra (1 9 1 1 ), a b a s i c e ig h t- h o u r w orking day was p ro cla im e d i n th e c o tto n t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y . C a r r a n z a Ts government e xten ded t h i s to a l l m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s , an unwise move, in Thompson’ s o p in io n . T his was unwise becau se the p iecew o rk , or t a r e a , system had ’’long o f f e r e d a more a c c e p ta b le s o l u t i o n to the 41 human problem of l a b o r ” i n Mexico. Wages in f a c t o r i e s went s t e a d i l y upward d u r in g th e Diaz reg im e. For exam ple, wages i n c o tt o n m i l l s in the F e d e ra l D i s t r i c t , J a l i s c o , and P ueb la in c r e a s e d from 1879 to 1909. At th e same tim e wages fo r a l l f a c t o r y w o rk e rs were 42 r i s i n g . These f i g u r e s are shown in th e fo llo w in g t a b l e s : DAILY WAGES IN COTTON MILLS Year In F e d e ra l D i s t r i c t In J a l i s c o In P ueb la In P esos In "Pesos In Pesos 1879 0 .6 8 0 .5 2 0.47 1896 0 .9 1 0 .6 2 0 .8 4 1909 1.00 1.00 1.00 41Ibld., pp. 333-4. 4^Ibid., pp. 355-6. 232 WAGES FOR ALL MEXICAN MILL-HANDS, DAILY, IN PESOS _____________________________ 1880_________ 1895_________1905________ 1910 Minimum 0 .1 2 0 .1 2 0 .2 5 0 .5 0 Maximum 0.50 1.00 2 .0 0 3.0 0 From these, th o u g h ts on wages and w orking c o n d i t i o n s , Thompson pro ceed ed to a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of th e b e e r i n d u s t r y under D ia z . Thompson s t a t e d t h a t th e Diaz p e r io d saw a growing consum ption of b e e r . The governm ent en co u rag e d i t s m an u fa ctu re as a m easure a g a i n s t the Mexican consum ption of p u lq u e . The t o t a l amount of b e e r consumed, how ever, was r e l a t i v e l y low when c o n t r a s t e d w ith t h a t o f pulqu e and d i s - 43 t i l l e d l i q u o r s . But Diaz began th e tem perance movement i n h i s e f f o r t to woo th e Mexican away from pu lqug "and ’’th e more v i o l e n t d r i n k s which a re [w ere] used i n th o se s e c t i o n s of th e c o u n tr y where pulque could n o t be o b ta in e d ” by th e su b s t i t u t i o n of e x c e l l e n t b e e r o f c o m p a ra tiv e ly low a l c o h o l i c p o te n c y . 44 With t h i s , Thompson co nclu ded h i s im p r e s s io n o f — m a n u fa c tu rin g d u r in g th e Diaz regim e i n The P eo p le o f Mex i c o . In T rad in g w ith M exico, Thompson’ s o p in io n s r e g a r d i n g th e s u b j e c t were b r i e f e r , b u t more o u tsp o k e n , th a n th o s e in The P eople of M exico. Thompson now b l u n t l y s t a t e d t h a t such f a c t o r i e s as 43Ibid., p. 377. 44 Ibid., p. 379. 233 e x i s t e d i n 1921 were " b u i l t and s e t i n t o o p e r a tio n " d u rin g the Diaz p e r i o d . 4* * F a c to ry b u i l d i n g came to Mexico in the t r a i n of th e developm ent of s c i e n t i f i c m ining under P o r f i r i o D iaz, fo r t h a t developm ent b ro u g h t "more f o r e i g n c a p i t a l of e v ery s o r t , " i n v e s te d i n a g r i c u l t u r e , m a n u fa c tu rin g , o i l , and p u b lic u t i l i t i e s . The f o r e i g n c a p i t a l developed M exico’s h id den w e a lth , opened her to th e w orld o u t s i d e , and 46 "b ro u g h t f o r t h h e r g r e a t prom ise of th e f u t u r e . " The prom ise was d e la y e d , a t l e a s t as p e r t a in e d to m a n u fa c tu rin g . I n 1911 M exico’ s m an u fa c tu rin g was "budd ing " and her f a c t o r i e s "bore com parison w ith th o se of the U n ited S t a t e s . " Ten y e a r s l a t e r , th e y were " v i r t u a l l y non- 47 e x i s t e n t . " M an ufactu rin g had f a l l e n upon e v i l tim e s sin c e the e x i t of Diaz te n y e a rs b e f o r e . M onterrey was an example of t h i s t r e n d . There was m an u fa c tu rin g " o f a k in d " i n M onterrey i n 1921. In the time o f Diaz th e r e were "two g r e a t s m e lt e r s , f o r e i g n owned, a s t e e l p l a n t and a brew ery, b e s id e s . . . m is c e lla n e o u s o th e r f a c t o r i e s . " Most o f the l a t t e r had c lo se d d h rin g th e R e v o lu tio n , y e a rs b e f o r e . The s m e lte r s and s t e e l m i l l " k e p t going In good o r d e r - - a s long r i 48 as [ F i r s t World] war p r i c e s s u s ta in e d them ." Thompson 45 W allace Thompson, T rad in g w ith Mexico (New York? Dodd, Mead and C o ., 1921), p . 46. 46 47 I b i d . , p. 44. I b i d . , p. 128. 48Ibid., p. 74. 234 concluded w ith t h i s u n fav o ra b le pronouncement on th e M onter re y of 1921, compared w ith t h a t of the Diaz e r a . Thompson’ s two books of 1921 were follo w ed by two o th e rs by d i f f e r e n t a u th o rs in 1923. The f i r s t o f th e s e was Mexico: Prom C o rte s to C a r ra n z a (1 9 2 3 ), by Louise Seymour H asbrouck. Mrs. H asbrouck was born in Ogdensburg, New York, in 1883. She a tte n d e d W e lle sle y i n 1900-1902, m arried i n 1919, and had one so n . During 1911 and 1912 she was employed by Good Housekeeping as i t s a s s i s t a n t e d i t o r . She was a p r o f e s s i o n a l g e n e a lo g i s t , a c o n t r i b u t i n g member of the New York G e n e a lo g ic a l and B io g r a p h ic a l S o c ie ty , and a member of the New York S ta te H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c ia tio n . I was unable to fin d the year of her d e a th . Her main a c t i v i t y seems to have been the w r i t i n g of c h i l d r e n ’ s books and the r e d u c t io n of c l a s s i c a l works to an i n t e l l i g i b l e , ex purgated form fo r the v e ry young. Her e f - f o r t s in th e s e l i n e s in c lu d e d The Boy’ s Parkman (1 9 1 2 ), 49 La S a lle (19 16), I s r a e l Putnam (19 1 6 ), e t c . Mexico: From C o rte s to C arran za was somewhat in t h i s l i n e ; a t l e a s t i t s s t y l e was an e x trem ely sim ple one, as was i t s pronouncement r e l a t i v e to Diaz and m a n u fa c tu rin g . The a u th o r w rote t h a t , under the long D iaz regim e, ’’c o tto n m i l l s , tobacco 49Who’s Who in America, XXI (1940-1941), 1189. 235 50 f a c t o r i e s , su g a r r e f i n e r i e s sp ra n g up a s i f by m a g i c ." She l e f t h e r a u d ie n c e a t t h i s p o i n t . T h ere was no way o f d i s c e r n i n g why she w ro te i n t h i s m an n er. I n my ju d g m e n t, she p r o b a b l y u se d a f a v o r a b l e s o u rc e i n c o m p ilin g h e r bo ok. The second volume d a te d from 1923 was by N evin O tto W in te r , and was c a l l e d M exico and Her P e o p le of T o - d a y . W in ter was b o rn i n B e n to n , O h io , i n 1869. He r e c e i v e d a B a c h e lo r o f A r t s d e g re e from Ohio W esleyan U n i v e r s i t y i n 1891, and a D o c to r o f L e t t e r s d e g re e from th e same s c h o o l i n 1916. W in te r p r a c t i c e d law i n T oledo from 1897 u n t i l h i s d e a t h in 1936. B e s id e s e x e r c i s i n g h i s l e g a l p r o f e s s i o n , he t r a v e l e d f a i r l y e x t e n s i v e l y a s a new spaper c o r r e s p o n d e n t . H is work i n t h i s a r e a i n c l u d e d t h r e e m onths of t r a v e l i n c e n t r a l and e a s t e r n E urope a s a c o r r e s p o n d e n t f o r a news p a p e r s y n d i c a t e , L e s l i e * s W eek ly, and th e C h r i s t i a n H e r a l d ; a n o th e r t r i p f o r a s y n d i c a t e d u r i n g 1922, t h i s tim e i n th e P ar E a s t , and a f i n a l t r i p th r o u g h e a s t e r n Europe i n 1926. He l e c t u r e d on E a s t e r n E u ro p ea n and L a t i n A m erican a f f a i r s . W in ter w r o te s e v e r a l b o o k s, i n c l u d i n g M exico and Her P e o p le o f T o -d ay (1 9 0 7 ; r e v i s e d 1912, 1918, 1 9 2 3 ), G uatem ala and Her P e o p le o f T o -d ay ( 1 9 0 9 ) , B r a z i l and Her P e o p le of T o-day (1 9 1 0 ; r e v i s e d 1 9 2 8 ), A r g e n ti n a and Her P e o p le of To day ( 1 9 1 1 ) , C h i l e and Her P e o p le o f T o -d ay ( 1 9 1 2 ) , P o lan d L o u is e S. H a sb ro u c k , M exico? From C o r te s t o C a r r a n z a (New Y ork: D. A p p le to n & Company, 1923) , pi 29'1‘. 236 and Her P eo ple o f T o-day ( 1 9 1 3 ), and many o t h e r s . He a l s o 51 c o n t r i b u t e d to m ag a zin es. These f a c t s i n th e m se lv e s to ld ' th e r e a d e r l i t t l e c o n c e rn in g th e a u th o r and th e r e a s o n f o r h i s f a v o r a b le tr e a tm e n t o f Diaz and m a n u fa c tu rin g i n Mexico and Her People of T o -d a y . Somewhat more co u ld be g le a n e d from th e p r e f a c e s which th e a u th o r gave t o the s e v e r a l e d i t i o n s of th e book. In th e p r e f a c e to th e 1907 e d i t i o n he w ro te t h a t h i s aim in w r i t i n g was to be f a i r and u n b ia s e d , ’’r a t h e r th a n to advance r a d i c a l view s c o n c e rn in g and h a rs h c r i t i c i s m s of our n e x t 52 door n e i g h b o u r s .” "Winter v i s i t e d Mexico f o r th e w r i t i n g of t h e book, saw D ia z , and came away w ith a d m ir a tio n f o r 53 t h a t g e n e r a l . The w r i t e r v i s i t e d Mexico betw eep t h a t tim e and 1923, h i s w a n d e rin g s in c l u d i n g jo u r n e y s t o V i l l a and C a rra n z a h e a d q u a r t e r s . Of th e l a t t e r , W inter s t a t e d t h a t 54 h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was one of "pronounced r a d i c a l i s m . ” Given s ta te m e n ts such a s t h e s e , and th e c o n s e r v a t iv e b a c k ground w hich t h e y i n d i c a t e d , i t was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y s u r p r i s i n g t h a t W i n t e r ’ s view s r e g a r d in g D ia z , h i s M exico, and m a n u fa c tu rin g d u rin g the Diaz e r a w ere f a v o r a b l e . W inter w rote o f m a n u fa c tu rin g p r i m a r i l y a s i t was 51Who’s Who i n A m e ric a , XIX (1 9 3 6 -1 9 3 7 ), 2641. ^^Nevin O tto W in te r, Mexico and Her P eo p le of To-day (new r e v . e d . ; B o sto n : L. C. Page and Company, 192 3), p"I x i . f < 3 ■ . Ibid., pp. 389-92. Ibid., pp. vi-vii. 237 d u rin g th e c lo s in g y e a r s o f th e D iaz p e r i o d . At t h i s tim e , he s a i d , new meat p a ck in g p l a n t s e x i s t e d , b u i l t u n d er con c e s s i o n s from th e D iaz governm ent. M oreover, t h e r e were 55 many new to b a c c o f a c t o r i e s . Apropos o f th e s e v e r a l m is s io n a r y a u th o r s p r e v i o u s l y examined i n t h i s s tu d y , W inter s t a t e d t h a t D iaz "had no warmer s u p p o r t e r s th a n the P r o t e s t a n t m i s s i o n a r i e s and t h e i r l i t t l e bands o f a d h e r e n t s , ” fo r he "en c o u rag ed th e s e m i n i s t e r s when th e y were d o w n h e art- 56 e d , " w hich may shed l i g h t on why th e a c c o u n ts of th e s e gentlem en which I e n c o u n te re d r e g a r d in g Diaz were o r d i n a r i l y f a v o r a b le o nes. As was th e c ase among many o f th e a u th o r s review ed in t h i s s e c t i o n , W i n t e r ’ s view s on D iaz and m a n u fa c tu rin g as e x p re s s e d in p r i n t were b r i e f . A somewhat lo n g e r im p re s s io n on th e s u b j e c t was a f f o r d e d by Jam es Fred R ippy, i n The U n ited S t a t e s and M exico , w hich saw p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1926. Rippy has had a long and d i s t i n g u i s h e d c a r e e r i n the p r e s e n t a t i o n of H is p a n ic A m erican h i s t o r y . He was b o rn in Sumner C ounty, T e n n e sse e , i n 1892. He jrp c e iv e d h i s B achelor of A r t s d eg ree from S o u th w e ste rn U n i v e r s i t y in 1913, h i s M a ste r of A r t s d e g re e from V a n d e r b ilt two y e a r s l a t e r , and h i s D octor o f P h ilo s o p h y d e g re e from th e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e le y , in 1920. Rippy was a Guggenheim F e l low i n 1927, a C a rn e g ie F e llo w in 1928. 55Ibid., p. 515. ^6Ibid., pp. 325-6. 238 He has d e v o te d many y e a r s to th e c la s s ro o m . He b e gan as an a s s i s t a n t i n the h i s t o r y d e p artm e n t o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , a r o l e he h e ld from 1917 to 1920. During th e n e x t t h r e e y e a rs he was an i n s t r u c t o r in h i s t o r y a t the U n i v e r s i t y of C h ica g o , moving up t o th e r a n k of a s s o c i a t e p r o f e s s o r by 1926. I n t h a t y e a r he "was h i r e d by Duke U n i v e r s i t y as a f u l l p r o f e s s o r , a p o s t he h e ld u n t i l 1936, when he r e t u r n e d to th e U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago a s a p r o f e s s o r in Am erican h i s t o r y . He rem ained in t h a t p o s i t i o n u n t i l 1958, when he was made p r o f e s s o r e m e r itu s i n th e same d i s c i p l i n e , an honor w hich he s t i l l e n jo y s . Rippy h as l e c t u r e d e x t e n s i v e l y , as an A l b e r t Shaw l e c t u r e r i n Am erican d iplom acy a t John s Hopkins (1 9 2 8 ), a t th e I n s t i t u t o I n te r a m e r ic a n o of th e N a tio n a l U n i v e r s i t y o f Mexico (1 9 2 9 ), and a t o th e r i n s t i t u t i o n s . He has been on th e e d i t o r i a l s t a f f o f th e H is p a n ic Am erican H i s t o r i c a l Review s in c e 1926, on t h a t o f th e American H i s t o r i c a l Review from 1933 to 1938, and was e d i t o r of th e Duke U n i v e r s i t y P re ss from 1929 to 1936. Rippy se rv e d a s a d e l e g a t e to th e Pan-Am erican C o n feren ce on H i s t o r y and Geography in 1935. He was th e a u th o r or c o -a u th o r o f numerous books. These in c lu d e d The U n ite d S t a t e s and M exico, o f which e d i t i o n s of 1926 and 1931 e x i s t , H i s t o r i c a l E v o lu tio n o f H is - p a n ic Am erica (1 9 4 5 ), L a t in A m erica; Land of C onquest and 239 57 Turm oil (1 9 5 8 ), and Modern L a t in America (1958). As fo r R ip p y Ts o p in io n on Diaz and m an ufacturin g ex p re s se d in The U n ited S t a t e s and M exico, i t was a fa v o ra b le one. I am not c e r t a i n why t h i s should have been th e c a se , b u t, i n my judgm ent, Rippy i s n o t the most l i b e r a l of L a tin American h i s t o r i a n s , and m ight have been in c lin e d to view Diaz somewhat f a v o r a b ly from a g e n e r a l c o n s e rv a tiv e view p o i n t. Those under whom*he s tu d ie d i n h is u n d e rg rad u ate and g rad u a te days, a p e rio d which c o in c id e d w ith the w ild e r phases of the R e v o lu tio n , may have had in flu e n c e h e re . I t was perhaps s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t he viewed U nited S t a t e s c i t i z e n s ’ p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o Mexico under Diaz in a v ery f a v o rab le way. He noted t h a t " th e American movement i n t o Mex ico r e s u l t e d i n many a d v an tag e s to the Mexican p e o p le ," i n c lu d in g " u n p a r a l le l e d p r o s p e r i t y , " h ig h e r s ta n d a rd s of l i v in g , some s t i m u l a ti o n of the a m b itio n s o f M exicans, and, in one p h r a s e , th e c o n t r i b u t i o n of "a very la rg e share toward p la c in g Mexico . . . among the g r e a t n a tio n s of th e modern w o rld ," an advantage which was, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , only tempo- 58 r a r y . " With t h i s v ie w p o in t, h i s fa v o ra b le o pin ion of Diaz and m an u fa ctu rin g as e x p re ss e d in The U nited S ta te s and Mexico seemed u n d e rs ta n d a b le . 57Who’s Who in A m erica, XXXII (1962-1963), 2618. Fred Rippy, The U nited S t a t e s and Mexico (New York: A lfre d A. Knopf, 1926), pi 320. 240 Rippy w ro te t h a t " a s e a r l y a s 1902” an o f f i c i a l r e p o r t l i s t e d m a n u f a c tu r e r s and o p e r a t o r s o f f o u n d r i e s as hav- i n t e r e s t s i n n i n e t e e n d i f f e r e n t M exican s t a t e s , i n t e r e s t s which were v a lu e d a t ’’n e a r l y t e n m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . ” D uring the n e x t few y e a r s of th e D iaz p e r i o d , in v e s tm e n ts ” in most o f th e s e l i n e s showed a r a p i d i n c r e a s e . ” New e n t e r p r i s e s were added. To m en tio n o n ly a few , th e soap i n d u s t r y was in tr o d u c e d in to Mexico a f t e r 1902, a n d , j u s t a t th e s t a r t o f th e Madero r e v o l u t i o n , U n ite d S t a t e s c a p i t a l i s t s were se n d in g i n e x p e r t s from A m erican u n i v e r s i t i e s to i n tr o d u c e th e c i t r u s f r u i t and b e e t su g a r i n d u s t r i e s i n t o M exico. Under D ia z , th e f i n a n c i a l w iz a r d , th e c a p t a i n o f i n d u s t r y , th e c o l o n i s t , a l l came to Mexico from th e R e p u b lic to th e 59 n o r t h . The f i n a l book whose d e s c r i p t i o n i s in c lu d e d i n t h i s c h a p te r was p u b lis h e d i n 1928, two y e a r s a f t e r Rippy*s study. I t was th e p ro d u c t of George B e v e rly W inton, whose Mexico To-day was d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r . The book now under exam ina t i o n wa4 e n t i t l e d Mexico P a s t and P r e s e n t . H ere, W inton*s d e s c r i p t i o n of th e s u b j e c t of t h i s s tu d y was e x tre m e ly b r i e f . He m e re ly s t a t e d t h a t m in in g , a n d , to a c e r t a i n d e g r e e , m a n u fa c tu rin g , were g iv e n a " s t r o n g im p u ls io n ” by th e D iaz governm ent. T hat regim e t r e a t e d in v e s tm e n ts of t h i s 59Ibid., pp. 316-18. 241 n a tu re l i b e r a l l y -^ 0 In a n o th e r s e c t i o n of h is book, Winton w rote o f the r a p i d economic developm ent of f a c t o r i e s d u rin g , 61 th e Diaz p e r io d , f a i l i n g to e l a b o r a t e upon t h i s o b s e rv a t i o n . B efore le a v in g t h i s s e c t i o n , I s h a l l make s e v e r a l comments about th e a u th o r s whose works I have in c lu d e d in i t . F i r s t , th e y g e n e r a l l y gave l e s s space to Diaz and manu f a c t u r i n g th an d id t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s b e fo re the R e v o lu tio n . P erh ap s t h i s was o nly l o g i c a l . The D iaz p e rio d rec ed ed from them as th ey do from th e re a d e r o f the p r e s e n t , and i n t e r e s t grew i n o th e r f a c e t s of Mexican h i s t o r y . The e s s e n t i a l l y n ond ram atic Diaz p e rio d had the m is fo rtu n e of a p p e a rin g im m e d ia te ly b e fo re the- most d ra m a tic epoch of Mexican h i s t o r y , the Mexican R e v o lu tio n . T his b ein g th e c a s e , one f e e l s t h a t anybody s h o r t o f a Madero or a V i l l a could n o t have g e n e r a te d much i n t e r e s t up a g a in s t th e s h i f t i n g canvas o f b a t t l e s and the l e a d e r s o f a decade of c i v i l w ar. And Diaz was no Madero, nor was he a V i l l a . S eco n d ly , i t seems to be a law of h i s t o r y t h a t h a tr e d l a s t s lo n g e r th an good f e e l i n g s . The a n ti - D i a z au th o r s w r i t i n g i n E n g lis h and S pan ish a f t e r D ia z ’ s f a l l had long m em ories; th ey k e p t h a tr e d of a p a s t regim e a l i v e , a t a J 60 George B e v e rly W inton, Mexico P a st and P r e s e n t ( N a s h v i l le : C okesbury P r e s s , 1928.), p . 149. 61Ibid., p. 155. 242 tim e when th o s e w r i t i n g f a v o r a b l y w ere b e g in n i n g t o . f o r g e t , t o w r i t e l e s s . T h is phenomenon w i l l be m a n i f e s te d i n s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n s ; h e r e , l e t i t o n ly be n o te d t h a t , w h ile he was P r e s i d e n t , D iaz m e r i te d e n t i r e books by f a v o r a b l e a u t h o r s . Now he o n ly m e r i te d s c a t t e r e d p a r a g r a p h s , and th o s e l e s s o f t e n th a n b e f o r e . T h i r d l y a s i d e from c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f l e n g t h or f r e q u e n cy , many o f t h e o p in io n s o f th e f a v o r a b l e a u t h o r s se e n i n t h i s c h a p t e r w ere i d e n t i c a l to t h o s e o f w r i t e r s l i k e them a t th e t u r n of th e c e n t u r y . T h ere w ere th e same s t a t e m e n t s on t h e g r e a t r o l e p la y e d by D iaz i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f m an u fac t u r i n g . The s t a t e m e n t s as to th e r o l e o f th e D iaz p eace and th e D iaz r a i l r o a d s i n th e u p su rg e o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g , th e rolLe o f h i s t a r i f f s and h i s c o n c e s s i o n s , a l l of t h e s e phenomena seem to have b e en q u i t e a s common among th e f a v o r a b l e w r i t e r s a f t e r th e D iaz p e r i o d a s among t h o s e d u r in g i t . Above a l l , p e r h a p s , t h e r e was th e same g e n e r a l a g re e m e n t on th e f l o u r i s h i n g c o n d i t i o n o f m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D iaz among th o s e w r i t i n g a f t e r h i s f a l l a s among th o s e w r i t i n g b e f o r e i t . One e le m e n t w hich was r a r e l y s e e n b e f o r e , how ever, was th e d e s c r i b i n g o f th e c o n d i t i o n o f la b o r i n th e f a c t o r i e s o f D ia z . S e v e r a l w r i t e r s i n t h i s c h a p t e r d e v o te d some sp ace i n l a b o r , and th e y n o te d t h a t w a g es, h o u s i n g , and w orkin g c o n d i t i o n s w ere q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y . The v e ry men t i o n o f la b o r c o n d i t i o n s was e x tr e m e ly i n t e r e s t i n g ^ - I t 243 p o i n te d to a c o n c e rn f o r la b o r among th e s e l a t e r w r i t e r s w hich h a r d l y seemed t o have e x i s t e d among t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s . T h is i n t e r e s t was p e rh a p s g e n e r a te d by th e a l l e g a t i o n s of such men as F o rn a ro and th o se who came a f t e r him . I t was more l i k e l y to have b een cau sed by o r g a n iz e d l a b o r ’ s i n c r e a s i n g im p o rtan c e i n th e e n t i r e s o c i o - e c o n o m i c - p o l i t i c a l sp e c tru m o f th e w e s te r n w orld as th e new c e n tu r y w ent on. CHAPTER VI FAVORABLE SOURCES IN SPANISH Once Diaz was o ut o f pow er, i t would be a m is ta k e to t h in k t h a t a l l S p a n is h - s p e a k in g a u t h o r s , or even a l l M exi c a n s , im m e d ia te ly r e v e r s e d th e m se lv e s and began w r i t i n g a n t i - D i a z m a t e r i a l i n th e f a s i o n a b l e mode of th e d a y s o f C a r r a n z a . To be s u r e , many o f them d i d . Far more u n f a v o r a b le books in S p a n ish a b o u t Diaz w ere w r i t t e n a f t e r th a n d u rin g h i s p e r i o d - - t h e l i f t i n g o f c e n s o r s h i p was an o b v io u s f a c t o r h e r e . But many o th e r a u t h o r s , some of them M e x ica n s, c o n tin u e d to view D iaz f a v o r a b l y . T h is becomes a p p a r e n t when t h e i r o p in io n s of th e r o l e of D iaz i n m a n u f a c tu r in g a re exam ined. The a u th o r s i n t h i s s e c t i o n spanned th e y e a r s from 1912, when th e R e v o lu tio n was t e m p o r a r i l y q u i e s c e n t e x c e p t f o r s c a t t e r e d r e v o l t s , and Madero was f a i r l y f i r m l y i n pow er, t o 1930, by w hich tim e th e f i r s t b a s i c laws stemming from th e u p h e a v a l had b een w r i t t e n , th e f i r s t lan d had been d i s t r i b u t e d , a c a t a c ly s m ic s t r u g g l e w ith th e Church had b een waged and won, and th e f i r s t f o r t u n e s had been made from th e R e v o lu tio n . By now th e R e v o lu tio n was i n one o f i t s s e v e r a l 245 r e s t i n g p h a s e s . Four y e a r s l a t e r , i t would move i n t o w hat may have been i t s most f a r - r e a c h i n g , c o n s t r u c t i v e p h a s e , th e y e a rs of C a rd e n a s. The a u th o r s rev ie w ed here came from s e v e r a l c o u n trie s b e s i d e s M exico, such as Cuba and S p a in . They had d i f f e r e n t ~ em ploym ents. Some were la w y e rs, o t h e r s p o l i t i c i a n s , s t i l l o t h e r s e n g in e e r s , j o u r n a l i s t s , or w r i t e r s o f boo ks. M a t e r i a l on t h e i r l i v e s was d i f f i c u l t to l o c a t e . Many of them were e x tr e m e ly o b s c u re ; o t h e r s were m entioned in p a s s in g in v a r i o u s books o f th e p e r i o d . From th e s p o t t y m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e , I en d ea v o re d to r e c o n s t r u c t w hat I c o u ld . In some c a s e s , p o l i t i c a l a lig n m e n ts of th e s e a u th o r s h e lp e d to e x p l a i n t h e i r view s on D iaz. For exam ple, i f an a u th o r su p p o r te d H u e rta , i t was p ro b a b le t h a t he fa v o re d D ia z . The f i r s t book in t h i s c h a p te r a pp eared i n 1912, w r i t t e n by L uis L ara P a rd o . I t s t i t l e was De P o r f i r i o D iaz a F r a n c is c o M adero, and i t was p u b lis h e d i n New Y ork. The a u th o r was b orn i n Mexico C ity i n 1873 and d ie d t h e r e in 1959. He fo llo w ed th e c a r e e r of a j o u r n a l i s t and e d i t o r . L ara Pardo was e d u c a te d f o r one of th e p r o f e s s i o n s , b u t he abandoned work i n t h i s f i e l d to d e d ic a t e h im s e lf to news pap er work and l e t t e r s . He was a c o n t r i b u t o r on E l Im par- c i a l and E l Mundo i l u s t r a d o . He th e n w ent to F rance as a c o rre s p o n d e n t o f E x c e l s i o r , a n o th e r Mexican d a i l y . He e v e n t u a l l y found h i s way to New York, where he found employment 246 from 1919 to 1921 on La P re n s a as t h a t p a p e r* s c h i e f e d i t o r . * • L ara Pardo was th e a u th o r o f s e v e r a l books i n Span i s h and F re n c h . He c o l l a b o r a t e d on th e D i c c i o n a r i o de geo- g r a f i a , h i s t o r i a y b i o g r a f i a M exicanas (1 9 1 0 ) , and w ro te La P r o s t i t u c i o n en Mexico (1 9 1 0 ), De P o r f i r i o Diaz a F r a n c is c o Madero (1 9 1 2 ), Madero: Esbozo p o l i t i c o ( 1 9 3 7 ), M atcha de d i c t a d o r e s : W ilson c o n tr a H u e rta , C a rra n z a c o n tr a W ilson (1 9 4 2 ), and Le R hin, f a c t e u r d e c i s i f de p a ix ou de g u e rr e (1 9 4 5 ). W rite rs * o p in io n s on L ara Pardo v a r i e d . On th e one hand, Humberto T e j e r a , i n C u l to r e s y f o r j a d o r e s de M exico, w rote t h a t L ara Pardo was o u ts ta n d in g "en l a pro p ag an d a por 2 l a v erdad y l a c i e n c i a . " On th e o th e r hand, G u t i e r r e z de L a ra and P in ch o n , w r i t i n g in The M exican P e o p le : T h e ir S tr u g g le f o r Freedom , r e f e r r e d to him as b e in g " c l o s e l y a s - < ■ ’ 2 s o c i a t e d w ith Diaz th ro u g h o u t h i s c a r e e r . " I f th e l a t t e r view were t r u e , L ara Pardo m ight be i n c l i n e d t o be f a v o r a b le ~ 4 )ic c io n g .rio P o rru a de h i s t o r i a , b i o g r a f i a , y g e o g r a f i a de Mexico (M exico: E d i t o r i a l P o r r u a , S. A. t l ’ 9'6, 4 J ) , p.' '8T0':------ o Humberto T e j e r o , C u l to r e s y f o r j a d o r e s de Mexico (M exico: T a l l e r e s G r a f ic o s de l a Naciori^ 1929')', p’- x i . 3 / L. G u t i e r r e z de L ara and Edgcumb P in c h o n , The M exican P e o p le : T h e ir S tr u g g le f o r Freedom (G arden C i t y , New Y ork: D oub leday, Page and Company, 1 9 1 5 ), p. 273. 247 toward D iaz, and tow ard m a n u fa c tu rin g under him as w e ll. As in th e case of many o th e r a u t h o r s , I sim ply do n o t know enough abou t him to make a p o s i t i v e s ta te m e n t. L ara P a r d o 's acco u n t of m a n u fa c tu rin g under Diaz ex p re s s e d i n De P o r f i r i o Diaz a F r a n c is c o Madero re v o lv e d p r i m a r ily around the to b a c c o i n d u s t r y . In th e s i x t e e n y e a r s from 1893 to 1909, L ara c a l c u l a t e d t h a t th e number o f f a c t o r i e s concerned w ith to b ac co i n c r e a s e d from f o r ty -o n e to 437, a t e n f o l d grow th. He added t h a t t h i s bran ch of m a n u fa c tu r ing and t h a t concerned w ith th e p ro d u c tio n of a lc o h o l p ro g re s s e d to D i a z 's l i k i n g . ^ A b r i e f r e f e r e n c e to m a n u fa c tu r ing under D iaz, even s h o r t e r th a n t h a t o f L a ra P ard o , ap peared d u rin g the fo llo w in g y e a r . I t s a u th o r was M ario G u ir a l Moreno, who m ere ly n o ted t h a t , under D ia z, m anufac tu r in g i n d u s t r i e s " d e s a r r o l l a r o n s e de un modo p r o d i g i o s o . T his sta te m e n t appeared i n El Regimen p o r f i r i s t a en M exico: Su a p o te o s i s (1 9 1 3 ). The a u th o r o f t h i s o b s e r v a tio n was born in Havana, Cuba, in 1882. He r e c e iv e d a p r e lim in a r y deg ree in s c ie n c e s and l e t t e r s from th e I n s t i t u t o de l a Habana in 1902, and a t tend ed t h a t c i t y ' s u n i v e r s i t y , where he o b ta in e d an advanced ^L uis L ara P a rd o , De P o r f i r i o Diaz a F ra n c is c o Madero: La S u cesio n d i c t a t o r i a l de 1911 ( New York: P o ly g lo t P u b lis h in g and Commercial C o ., 1912), p. 56. 5 + Mario G u i r a l Moreno, E l Regimen p o r f i r i s t a en Mexico: Su a p o te o s i s (M exico: L i b r e r i a de A ndres B otas v M iguel, 1913)", P- 27. 248 de g re e i n e l e c t r i c a l e n g in e e r in g in 1906. He serv ed a s an e n g in e e r f o r v a r i o u s Cuban governm ents f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s , and was a c t i v e i n many o r g a n i z a t i o n . For exam ple, he se rv e d as a d e le g a t e to s e v e r a l o f th e League o f N a t i o n s ’ I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour C o n fe re n c e s. From th e age of s i x t e e n he a ls o fo llo w e d a c a r e e r in j o u r n a l is m , w hich seems to have been-w here h i s c o n t a c t w ith Mexico o r i g i n a t e d . G u ir a l c o l l a b o r a t e d on E l D i a , E l Tiempo, D ia r io de l a Manana, E l F i g a r o , and many o th e r p a p e r s , a p p a r e n t l y b o t h in Mexico and Cuba. He se rv e d as e d i t o r o f Cuba contem poranea from 1921 to 1927, and w ro te books on v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s ; h i s l a b o r in t h i s re a lm in c lu d e d Auge y d e c a d e n c ia d e l vanguardism o l i t e r a r i o en Cuba. He was s t i l l l i v i n g in 1957. T here i s no c lu e h e re a s t o why h i s b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f m a n u fa c tu rin g i n E l Regimen p o r f i r i s t a should have been f a v o r a b le . A somewhat lo nger s ta te m e n t on th e same s u b j e c t ap p e a re d i n a book b e a r in g th e h o rre n d o u s t i t l e IDe l a d i c t a - d u ra a l a a n a r q u i a l , p r i n t e d i n E l P a so , T ex as, i n 1914. I t s a u th o r was Ramon P r i d a , a b o u t whom I l o c a te d a f a i r amount of b i o g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l . He was b o rn i n 1862. D ur in g much of th e D iaz p e r i o d , P r id a was a member o f th e Ferm in P e ra z a S a r a u s a , P e r s o n a lid a d e s c u b a n a s . I I I (La H abana: E d ic io n e s A n u a rio B i b l i o g r a f i c o Cubano, T957), 79. 249 C l e n t i f i c o c l i q u e . He was a law yer by p r o f e s s i o n . He b e longed to th e C i e n t i f i c o group f o r many y e a r s , b u t , toward the end o f th e Diaz p e r i o d , tu rn e d a g a i n s t i t , e s p e c i a l l y a g a i n s t i t s l e a d e r , L im an to u r. In 1910, P r id a d i r e c t e d a p u b l i c a t i o n from the c i t y o f P u e b la , c a l l e d La V erdad, ” que con gran e n e r g i a a ta c a b a a l r a s p u tin is m o e s t a b l e c i d o en ✓ 8 Mexico por e l senor L im antour.*' T h is was unw ise, as was the f a c t t h a t P r i d a , who had a ls o been e d i t o r of El U n i v e r s a l , d id n o t w ish to r e c e iv e a su b v e n tio n from th e Diaz government f o r th e s u p p o r t of h i s p a p e r. He f e l t t h a t such a payment would compromise him, and assumed an i n d e pendent a t t i t u d e . Rumor had i t t h a t he was th r e a te n e d f o r ta k in g t h i s p o s i t i o n , and th e rumor seemed to p o sse ss some elem ent of t r u t h , f o r P r i d a l e f t h i s p ap er behind and f l e d 9 to th e U n ited S t a t e s . He became a w r i t e r of th e o p p o s itio n . He opposed D iaz and, when H u e rta s e iz e d power in 1913, opposed him as w e l l , i n v a r i o u s new spapers on th e Texas s id e of the b o r d e r , B ias U rrea [L u is C a b r e r a ] , O bras p o l i t i c a s (Mexico: Im prenta N a c io n a l, S. A ., 1921), p . 7. 8 / F r a n c is c o B u ln e s , E l V erdadero Diaz y l a R evolucion (Mexico: E useb io Gomez de l a 'Puente , E d ito r , 1 9 2 0 ] ) p. 218. ^Jose Lojjez P o r t i l l o y R o ja s , E le v a c io n y c a id a de P o r f i r i o Diaz (M exico: E d ita d a por L ib r e r 1 a E spano'la, [ 1 9 2 1 ] ;, p. 219. 250 10 such as E l P aso d e l N o r t e . H is l a t e r c a r e e r i s unknown. P r i d a was th e a u th o r o f s e v e r a l b o o k s, d i s c o u r s e s , and th e l i k e . These i n c lu d e d G e n e ra l U ly s s e s S. G ra n t ( 1 8 8 5 ), La Ley de d o m i c i l i o ( 1 8 8 8 ), E l A r b i t r a j e en A m erica ( 1 9 0 2 ) , " J u a r e z ” [ s i c ] como lo d e s c r i b e l a H i s t o r i a y como lo p i n t a e l d i p . B uln es ( 1 9 0 4 ) , La Nueva l e y e l e c t o r a l ( 1 9 1 1 ) Una O jeada a l a l i t e r a t u r a m u n d ia l ( 1 9 1 9 ), and "La Pena de m u e rte . iDebe r e i m p l a n t a r s e en e l Codigo p e n a l m e x ic a n o ? ," a p r i n t e d a d d r e s s d e l i v e r e d i n 1933, th e l a s t m en tio n o f him w hich I e n c o u n te r e d . I t would be g r a t i f y i n g i f I c o u ld e x p l a i n why P r id a * s o p in io n of m a n u fa c tu rin g u nder D iaz i n IDe l a d i c - t a d u r a a l a a n a r q u la ! was f a v o r a b l e . T h is would be f a r e a s i e r i f th e a u th o r rem ain ed i n th e c li q u e s u r ro u n d in g Diaz r a t h e r th an le a v in g i t and w r i t i n g a g a i n s t th e re g im e . P e r hap s one co u ld sa y t h a t , from th e y e a r s w hich he s p e n t i n harmony w i t h th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , he r e t a i n e d f a v o r a b l e im p r e s s i o n s o f some of i t s n o n p o l i t i c a l f a c e t s a t l e a s t , such a s m a n u f a c tu r in g . In IDe l a d i c t a d u r a a l a a n a r q u i a ! , P r id a spoke of th e developm ent of f a c t o r i e s f o r making Mauser r i f l e s and ■ ^ F ra n c isc o N a r a n jo , D i c c i o n a r i o b i o g r a f i c o r e v o l u c i o n a r i o (M exico: Im pren'ta E d i t o r i a l "C osm os," T O 'O T T , p.' 'f&9. 11 Ramon P r i d a , From D esp o tism t o A narchy ( E l P a s o , T ex a s: E l Paso P r i n t i n g Company, T c*l! 1 9 i 4 J j , p. 2 6 6 . 251 - sm ok eless powder. T h is a c t i v i t y o c c u rre d und er P o r f i r i o D fa z, when R o sa lin o M a rtin e z was S u b s e c r e ta r y of War. P r i d a u n d e r l i n e d th e im p o rtan c e o f t h i s a c t i o n . When f a c t o r i e s of t h i s s o r t d e v elo p ed w e l l , th e y s e t f o r t h th e b a s e s of an i n d ep en d e n t l i f e f o r a n a t i o n , f o r , w h ile a n a t i o n depended e x c l u s i v e l y upon f o r e i g n s o u rc e s f o r " l a a li m e n ta c io n de sus b o c as de f u e g o ," i t was v e ry d i f f i c u l t f o r i t to p r e s e r v e i t s fre e d o m .^ 2 E lsew here i n h i s b ook, P r id a w ro te of c o n t r a c t s f o r th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of s a l i n a s , or s a l t f a c t o r i e s , d u rin g the t 13 Diaz re g im e , sev en of w hich were g r a n t e d . R egarding la b o r in th e f a c t o r i e s o f th e P o r f i r i a n p e r i o d , P r i d a was n e g a t i v e , s t a t i n g t h a t T ,se h a b lo . . . de l a t i r a n i a d e l c a p i t a l 14 so bre e l o b re ro " i n th e O riz a b a m i l l s . A f t e r a la p s e of s i x y e a r s , P r id a * s s tu d y was fo llo w e d by two books by th e famous V icen te B lasco Ib a n e z . B lasco Ibanez was p r i m a r i l y known f o r h i s n a t u r a l i s t i c n o v e ls , fo rem o st of which were Blood and Sand and The Pour Horsemen of the A p o c a ly p s e . He a l s o in d u lg e d in p o l i t i c a l w r i t i n g , however, such as h i s two books to be cov ered a t t h i s p o i n t i n t h i s s e c t i o n , A r t i c u l o s so b re Mexico and E l M i l it a r is m o m e jic a n o , b o th p u b lis h e d in 1920. B lasco 1 O Ramon P r i d a , IDe l a d i c t a d u r a a l a a n a r q u i a l , I (E l P aso, T ex as: Im p re n ta de " E l Ras'o d e l f r o r te ," 1^14), 287. l3Ibid♦, I, 128. 14Ibid., I, 174. 252 I b a n e z was b o rn i n 1867 and d i e d i n 1928. A S p a n ish c r i t i c h a s s a i d t h a t B la s c o was th e ,fr e p r e s e n t a n t e en n u e s t r a l i t - e r a t u r a d e l apogeo n a t u r a l i s t a , se g u n l a m anera de Z o l a . ” H is w orks b r o u g h t much d i s c u s s i o n , n o t a l i t t l e o f w h ich was due t o th e f r a n k l y r a d i c a l p ro p a g a n d a w h ic h he i n j e c t e d i n t o many of them , so m e th in g w h ich was h a rm fu l t o t h e i r a r t i s t i c 15 q u a l i t y . C o n s e q u e n tly , one m ig h t ask why B la s c o t r e a t e d D iaz f a v o r a b l y r e g a r d i n g m a n u f a c t u r in g . The answ er seems t o have b e en p a r t i a l l y g iv e n by th e a u th o r h i m s e l f i n E l M i l i t a r i s m o m e j i c a n o . B la s c o w ro te t h a t he came to Mexico " c o n e l p r o p o s i t o de e s t u d i a r de c e r c a e s t e p a i s t a n i n t e r e s a n t e por su h i s t o r i a p a s a d a y su s r e v u e l t a s p r e s e n t e s . ” T hese s t u d i e s w ere f o r a new n o v e l , * t e n t a t i v e l y to be c a l l e d E l A g u i l a y l a s e r p i e n t e . B la s c o a r r i v e d i n M exico i n M arch, 1920. At t h a t tim e , a l l was s e r e n e . C a r r a n z a was f i r m l y i n p o w er, and h i s p e r s o n a l i t y seemed t o f l o a t above c r i t i c ism and h a t r e d . "Within a few w e e k s, Sonora r e v o l t e d , O bregon d e c l a r e d h i m s e l f i n r e b e l l i o n , and C a r r a n z a f l e d Mexico C i t y . By th e tim e th e a u t h o r l e f t M exico, i n May, 1920, C a rra n z a was a lm o st d e f e a t e d . A r r i v i n g i n New Y ork, B la s c o was p e rs u a d e d t o w r i t e h i s i m p r e s s i o n s of th e Mexico he had s e e n , w hich form ed th e b a s i s f o r th e two books u n d e r • ^ J o s e R o g e rio S a n c h e z , A u t o r e s e s p a n o l e s e h i s p a n o - a m e ric a n o s (M a d rid : P er l a d o , Paez y Com pania, S u c e s o re s de H ern an d o , 1 9 1 1 ), p . 167. 253 d i s c u s s i o n . H is a r t i c l e s a p p e a re d i n th e New York T im e s, th e C hicago T r i b u n e , and d o z en s o f o th e r U n ite d S t a t e s news- 16 p a p e r s . As B la sc o c o n tin u e d , one emerged w i t h a c lu e a s to why Dfaz was t r e a t e d f a v o r a b l y in h i s b o o k s. The a u th o r was i n v i t e d to Mexico t o o b se rv e how w e l l e v e r y t h in g was g o in g , C a rra n z a h i m s e l f g iv in g th e i n v i t a t i o n . When th e a u th o r a r r i v e d , a l l d id a p p e a r p e a c e f u l . The p o s s i b i l i t y of a r e v o l t seemed d i s t a n t to th e man i n th e s t r e e t and to th e a u th o r as 17 w e l l . When one b ro k e o u t , B lasco found he was m is ta k e n . T h is seems to have cau sed a r e a c t i o n on th e a u th o r * s p a r t . He r e f e r r e d to th e c u rs e of m i l i t a r i s m , and s t a t e d t h a t one r e a s o n f o r p u b l i s h i n g h i s a r t i c l e s on M exico was to se rv e th e M exican p e o p le by a d e n u n c i a t i o n b e f o r e th e w orld of M e s t o s t i r a n u e l o s de p i s t o l a ” who r e v o l t e d a g a i n s t C a r r a n z a , th e s e men who had no more m o ra ls th a n th o s e e n co u n - 18 t e r e d i n a m i l i t a r i s t i c , p e r s o n a l i s t i c movement. The c i v i l war o f t e n y e a r s T d u r a t i o n i n Mexico was a f a l s e r e v o l u t i o n . The governm ent o f D ia z was r i c h ; th e R e v o lu tio n had s t r i p p e d s u b s e q u e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s of money and had plun ged M exico i n t o m is e r y . The o n ly way i n w hich M exican g o v e rn m ents would r e t u r n to th e r i c h n e s s o f th e D iaz governm ent ■ ^V icente B la sc o I b a n e z , E l M i l i t a r i s m o m e jic a n o ( V a le n c ia ! P rom o teo , [ c . 1 9 2 0 ]) , pp . 7 -1 1 . 17Ibid., pp. 27-9. 18Ibid., p. 11. 254 " ' 19 was by f o r g e t t i n g th e memory o f t h i s " r e v o l u t i o n . ” In s p i t e o f h i s d e f e c t s , C a r r a n z a was a man who was a c t u a l l y i n power f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . A round him he e s t a b l i s h e d a c e r t a i n calm w hich could a lm o s t be c a l l e d a p e a c e . A f t e r h i s a s s a s s i n a t i o n , t h e r e was a f r e s h o u t b r e a k of a n - 20 a r c h y . Here one a r r i v e d a t th e c ru x of th e m a t t e r and a p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n o f how a r a d i c a l w r i t e r , V i c e n te B la s c o I b a n e z , c o u ld have view ed a m ost u n r a d i c a l P r e s i d e n t , P o r f i r i o D ia z , f a v o r a b l y . B la s c o c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f a t r u e r e v o l u t i o n i s t , and th e men o f th e M exican R e v o l u t i o n , who d e s t r o y e d a r i c h c o u n t r y , f a l s e r e v o l u t i o n i s t s . They d e - 21 s t r o y e d , t h e y s t o l e , t h e y am assed huge f o r t u n e s . W ith an e x p r e s s e d view o f th e R e v o lu t i o n su c h a s t h i s , i t would be p o s s i b l e f o r t h i s a u th o r t o view th e p e a c e f u l D iaz p e r io d w i t h f a v o r , i n c l u d i n g m a n u f a c tu r in g d u r in g i t . I have a l s o b e e n in fo rm e d t h a t B la s c o was a c l o s e f r i e n d o f C h a r le s F l e t c h e r Lummis, a u th o r o f th e n o t o r i o u s l y p r o - D ia z boo k, The Awakening o f a N a t i o n . Lummis may have i n f l u e n c e d * 22 B l a s c o Ts view o f D ia z . B l a s c o Ts c o v e ra g e o f D iaz and m a n u f a c tu r in g in A r t i c u l o s so b re M exico was e x tr e m e l y b r i e f . He m e r e ly t o l d 19I b i d . , pp . 1 6 - I 7 n . 2° I b i d . , p . 39. 2 1 I b i d . , p . 31. 22 I n f o r m a t io n com m unicated— t o me by D r. M anuel P. S e r v i n , A ugu st 1, 1967. 255 h i s r e a d e r s t h a t D iaz ” se empeho en d e s a r r o l l a r " th e s o u r c e s of r i c h n e s s i n h i s c o u n tr y , f a v o r in g th e c r e a t i o n o f new 23 m a n u fa c tu rin g and o th e r i n d u s t r i e s . The a u th o r went i n t o g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n E l M i l i t a r i s - mo m e j i c a n o . He spoke o f B e n ito J u a r e z ’ s p o l i c y o f i s o l a t in g M exico; P o r f i r i o Diaz " h iz o lo c o n t r a r i o . ” He c r e a t e d p o r t s which p u t Mexico i n more c o n tin u o u s c o n t a c t w ith E u ro p e. He s t r e t c h e d o u t r a ilw a y l i n e s w hich lin k e d Mexico w ith th e n e ig h b o r in g U n ite d S t a t e s . He p r e o c c u p ie d h i m s e lf w ith augm enting th e r i c h e s of th e R e p u b lic , f a v o r i n g th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f new m a n u f a c tu r in g , fo m en tin g m in in g , and d i r e c t l y s u p p o r tin g th e d i s c o v e r y of o i l - w e l l s . D uring t h i s p e r i o d , Mexico had no l i b e r t y , i t was t r u e , b u t she d id have peace and w e a lth . C o n t r a s te d to th e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts , th e governm ents of th e R e v o lu tio n had done n o th in g new i n a m a t e r i a l s e n s e . E v e ry th in g e x t a n t i n 1920 was t h e r e a l r e a d y under D ia z . Un f o r t u n a t e l y , i t was o l d e r now, a lm o st i n a s t a t e o f r u i n , l i k e a b u i l d i n g w hich d ecayed f o r th e la c k o f someone to 24 c a re f o r i t and f i x th e i m p e r f e c t i o n s cau se d by th e y e a r s . The few m o d e r n iz a tio n s and m a t e r i a l im provem ents i n Mexico were b ro u g h t abo ut by th e f o r e i g n e le m e n t, a t t r a c t e d to 2 3 v ic e n te B la sc o I b a n e z , A r t i c u l o s so b re Mexico (M exico: T a l l e r e s L i n o t i p o g r a f i c o s de "El H o g a r,1 1 1 9 2 0 ), p. 79. ^ B l a s c o , E l M i l i t a r i s m o m e jic a n o , p p . . 1 5 1 -2 . 256 Mexico by Don P o r f i r i o . What i n d u s t r y was s t i l l g oing on, th e y s u s t a i n e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , th e f o r e i g n e r s were le a v in g and few er would a r r i v e eac h y e ar i f t h e r e were no peace and 25 s e c u r i t y . B la sc o ended h i s comments on m a n u fa c tu rin g a t t h a t p o i n t . B efo re going on t o H i s t o r i a de M ex ico , by R ica rd o G a rc ia G ranados, l e t me add t h a t B la sc o * s p o s i t i o n was a c u r io u s one in d ee d f o r a s e l f - s t y l e d r e v o l u t i o n a r y in the a n a r c h i s t t r a d i t i o n to e s p o u s e . But t h e n , th e R evolu t i o n was a c u rio u s movement. G a rc ia G ranados was an e n g in e e r , w r i t e r and h i s t o r i an, b o rn i n th e c i t y o f Durango i n 1851. He s tu d ie d on the h a c ie n d a ”La N o ria " i n G u a n a ju a to , i n th e L ic e o F ra n co - Mexicano in Mexico C i t y , and i n Bremen, Germany, i n t h a t c i t y * s Lyceum of Commerce. He com pleted h i s e d u c a tio n i n the p o l y te c h n i c s c h o o ls in K a rls r u h e and A achen. Upon c o m p letin g th e s e s t u d i e s , G a r c ia became v i c e - c o n su l f o r th e Mexican R e p u b lic i n Hamburg. He was a d e l e g a te from Mexico t o th e Pan-A m erican C o n feren ce i n Rio de J a n e i r o i n 1906. He t h e n became ch arg e d * a f f a i r e s in E l S alv ad o r (1907 and 1908) and i n Cuba (1908 and 1909 ). I was u n a b le to l e a r n when G a rc ia G ranados l e f t governm ent employ m ent. He se rv e d a s g o v ern o r of th e F e d e r a l D i s t r i c t in 1911, in w hich c a p a c i t y he b ro k e a s t r i k e by th e s t r e e t c a r 25Ibid., p. 222. 257 2 6 employees of Mexico C i ty . E r n e s t G ruen ing, the so u rce of t h i s in f o r m a tio n , d id n o t s t a t e under whose a d m i n i s t r a t i o n G a rc ia G ranados se rv ed when he q u e lle d t h i s s t r i k e ; i t may have been D ia z ’ s , de l a B a r r a ’ s , or M adero’ s . C o n sid e rin g th e la b o r p o l i c i e s o f the th r e e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s , I am con v in ce d t h a t t h i s a u th o r was gov erno r d u r in g the l a s t days of th e Diaz regim e. G a rc ia G ranados l e f t governm ent employment, tu rn in g to jo u r n a lis m . He had c o l l a b o r a t e d on La R e p u b lic a as e a r l y as 1867. He now l e f t Mexico e n t i r e l y , s e t t l i n g in Guatemala, where he became e d i t o r - i n - c h i e f of two new spapers p u b lis h e d f o r th e l o c a l German c o lo n y , E l I c o Aleman and La C olonia Alemana (1915 to 191 7). He a l s o w rote s e v e r a l books, i n - 27 elu d in g H i s t o r i a de M exico, p u b lis h e d i n 1923. F u rth e r in fo r m a tio n on t h i s a u th o r was im p o s sib le to o b t a i n . The a u t h o r ’s background as a D iaz o f f i c i a l could have e a s i l y e x p la in e d h is views on D iaz and m a n u fa c tu rin g , e x p e c i a l l y i f G ruening w a s _ c o rr e c t r e g a r d in g G a r c i a ’ s r o l e in th e s t r e e t c a r s t r i k e of 1911. Such cond uct would app ear to i n d i c a t e an e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e , c a p i t a l i s t i c l e a n in g , one in harmony w ith much of th e e s s e n c e of the Diaz p e rio d and governm ent. 26 E r n e s t G ru ening , Mexico and I t s H e r ita g e (New York: The C en tury C o ., Lc. 1928j ) , p. 361. .......... 27 * * M iguel Angel P e r a l , D ic c io n a r io b i o g r a f i c o M exicano, I (Mexico: E d i t o r i a l P. A. C ., I n . d. J), 310-11. 258 In H i s t o r i a de M exico, G a rc ia s t a t e d t h a t m anufac t u r i n g had been im p o rta n t i n Mexico u n t i l 1857. The n i n e te e n y e a rs of c i v i l war from t h a t d a te u n t i l 1876 had a d i s a s t r o u s e f f e c t upon i t , however. The r e s u l t was t h a t i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c tio n was a c t u a l l y lower in 1876 than i t had been i n 1857; in d e e d , i t was even lower th an th e l e v e l of p ro d u c tio n in 1845. Changes came around 1880. R a ilr o a d s p e n e tr a te d Mexico from the U n ited S t a t e s . At the same tim e , p e a c e f u l c o n d itio n s were e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h in th e c o u n try . The m ajor o b s ta c le s to d o m estic t r a d e w e r e .rem oved. Confidence' r e tu r n e d . The new r a i l r o a d s , th e new p e a c e , and the new con f id e n c e a t t r a c t e d c a p i t a l , ready f o r in v estm en t in Mexico. With t h i s s e t of c o n d i t i o n s , i t was p o s s ib l e to d e v elo p man u f a c t u r in g on more s o l i d b a s e s th a n ev er b e f o r e , b a se s which were r e a l , not a r t i f i c i a l , as th e y had been p r e v i o u s ly . The r e s u l t was t h a t the o b se rv e r w itn e s s e d the r i s e of enormous m an u fa c tu rin g e s t a b l is h m e n t s i n the Mexico of P o r f i r i o D iaz, g iv in g employment to th o u sa n d s of l a b o r e r s . C o tto n m i l l s had in c r e a s e d to 133 by 1901, employing 27,000 w o rk e rs, produ cing some 6 ,9 0 0 ,0 0 0 p ie c e s of c lo t h p e r y e a r . 2 8 The sugar in d u s t r y a l s o made much p r o g r e s s . As one can n o te by the p r o g r e s s o f t h i s s e c t i o n , R icard o G a rc ia G ranados, H i s t o r i a de Mexico: Desde l a r e s t a u r a c i o n de R e p u b lic a h a s t a la c a id a de P o r f i r i o b i a z , I I I (hfexicor E d i t o r i a l A ndres B otas e H iio . 1'9'2'3')" , ' 136-8. 259 bo oks on th e s u b j e c t u n d e r e x a m in a tio n a p p e a re d s p o r a d i c a l l y a f t e r 1911, a n i n d i c a t i o n , o f c o u r s e , t h a t i n t e r e s t i n P o r f i r i o D iaz d e c l i n e d a f t e r h i s f a l l - T h is i s f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d by th e f a c t t h a t th e n e x t volume d e s c r i b e d h e r e , ✓ x E l A g u ila de C h a p u l t e p e c , was n o t p u b lis h e d u n t i l 1929. E l A g u ila de C h a p u lte p e c was th e work o f M ario A p p e l i u s , an I t a l i a n j o u r n a l i s t . A p p e l iu s was b o r n i n 1892 in A r r e z z o d a G iu s e p p e , I t a l y . At th e age o f f i f t e e n , he i n t e r r u p t e d h i s s t u d i e s and r a n away to s e a . He w andered th r o u g h A f r i c a and th e Far E a s t , e n g a g in g i n su c h d i v e r s e o c c u p a tio n s a s s a i l o r and t r a v e l i n g s a le s m a n . By th e tim e he was tw e n ty , he had found h i s p r o f e s s i o n , j o u r n a l i s m , h i s f i r s t p o s t b e in g t h a t o f a s t a f f member o f an E g y p tia n p a p e r , M e ssag g e ro E g i z i a n o . He r e t u r n e d t o I t a l y d u r in g t h e F i r s t World War and jo i n e d th e n a v y . When M u s s o l i n i m arched on Rome i n 1922, A p p e liu s j o i n e d th e movement, and soon found h i m s e l f on th e e d i t o r i a l s t a f f o f th e F a s c i s t o rg a n , I I Popo lo d TI t a l i a . Owing e i t h e r to th e p r o t e c t i o n of M u s s o lin i o r to h i s g i f t s a s a p r o s e w r i t e r , A p p e liu s a c q u ir e d a h ig h p l a c e i n j o u r n a li s m d u r in g M u s s o l i n i ’ s r e g im e . He was e d i t o r , c o l l a b o r a t o r , or c o r r e s p o n d e n t on many o f th e b e s t n e w sp a p e rs and m a g a z in e s i n I t a l y a t th e t im e , such a s L ’l l l u s t r a z i o n e I t a l i a n a , La N azione and La G a z z e tta d e l M e s s a g io r n o . A p p e liu s a l s o p u b l is h e d num erous t r a v e l books and e x o t i c n o v e l s , w h ich e n jo y e d g r e a t p o p u l a r i t y . In 1930 he was 260 i n v i t e d to Buenos A i r e s to found an I t a l i a n n e w sp a p er t h e r e , I I M a ttin o d * I t a l i a , w hich he d i r e c t e d u n t i l 1933. — - He th e n r e t u r n e d t o I t a l y . When th e c o n q u e s t of E t h i o p i a b e g a n , A p p e liu s went t h e r e a s a war c o r r e s p o n d e n t f o r I I P o p o lo d * I t a l i a ; he s e r v e d i n th e same c a p a c i t y in S p a in d u r i n g th e C i v i l War. He l a t e r t r a v e l e d in th e F ar E a s t , e c h o in g th e p l a t f o r m o f th e I t a l i a n F a s c i s t s a t a l l t ime s . D u rin g th e Second World War, he was c o r r e s p o n d e n t i n P o la n d and F ra n c e f o r th e A g e n zia S t e f a n i and l a t e r had a r a d i o program on th e home f r o n t . I n h i s j o u r n a l i s m , he p u t h i m s e l f t o t a l l y a t th e s e r v i c e o f th e p ro p a g a n d a n e e d s o f F a s c is m , and w ro te a " s i s t e m a t i c a d e fo rm a z io n e d e l f a t t i b e l l i c i T I f o r home c o n su m p tio n . A p p e liu s * work as a p r o p a g a n d i s t w ent a s f a r a s w r i t i n g a c o m p le te ly e r r o n e o u s r e p o r t o f t h e B a t t l e of S k a g e rra k i n A p r i l , 1940. When th e war e n d e d , he n a t u r a l l y f e l l i n t o d i s f a v o r w ith t h e new a u t h o r i t i e s . He was t r i e d and condemned f o r h i s a p o l o g i e s o f F a s c is m , b u t r e c e i v e d a m n esty . He d i e d in Rome l a t e i n 1 9 4 6 .29 B e s id e s E l A g u ila de C h a p u l t e p e c , A p p e liu s a l s o w ro te s e v e r a l n o v e ls and t r a v e l b o o k s , as a l r e a d y n o t e d . T hese i n c lu d e d I I c i m i t e r o d e g l i e l e f a n t i ( 1 9 2 8 ) , The Condor 29 • ' D i z i o n a r i o B i o g r a f i c o d e g l i I t a l i a n i (Roma: I n s t i t u t o d e l l a E n c i c l o p e d i a I t a l l a n a , 1 9 6 1 ), I I I , 6 1 3 -1 4 . 261 S t r i k e s ( 1 9 3 1 ), A1 d i l a d e l l a g rand e m u r a g lia . . . ( 1 9 4 0 ) , Una g u e r r a d i 30 g i o r n i , l a t r a g e d i a d e l l a P o lo n ia ( 1 9 4 1 ) , La t r a g e d i a d e l l a P r a n c i a ( 1 9 4 l [ ? ] ) , and . . . Canoni e c i l i e g i i n f i o r i (1 9 4 2 ). A p p e l i u s 1 f a v o r a b l e r e p o r t on m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D iaz may have p e rh a p s b een e x p la in e d by h i s a d h eren c e to and a d m i r a t i o n o f F a sc ism . A p a r t i s a n of one d i c t a t o r i a l form o f governm ent and th e n a t i o n u n d e r i t , he may have b e en f a v o r a b ly im p re ss e d w ith a n o t h e r , t h a t i s , th e governm ent of Diaz and Mexico d u r in g h i s r u l e . M o reo v er, m ost of A p p e l i u s 1 f a v o r a b l e s tu d y was d e v o te d to t h e f o r t u n e s of an I t a l i a n i n M exico d u r in g th e D iaz re g im e . As su c h , t h i s p o r t i o n of th e a u t h o r Ts a c c o u n t m ig h t be e x p la in e d a s p u re n a t i o n a l i s m . In E l A g u ila de C h a p u lt e p e c , A p p e liu s f i r s t w ro te t h a t , d u r in g th e long P r e s i d e n c y o f P o r f i r i o D ia z , Mexico 30 c r e a t e d "una i n d u s t r i a p r o m e t e d o r a ." B e fo re th e a d v e n t t o power o f P o r f i r i o D ia z , econom ic d ev elo p m e n t in Mexico was 31 alm o st n i l . By th e end o f h i s re g im e , a n a t i o n a l t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y ”ya . . . c o r t a b a e l p a so a l a c o n c u r r e n c i a e x t r a n j e r a y se a r r o j a b a a l a s p r im e ra s t e n t a t i v a s de 4 . • ' . T 3 2 e x p o r t a c i o n . M ario A p p e liu s , E l A g u ila de C h a p u lt e p e c , t r a n s . G onzalo Calvo ( B a r c e lo n a : Casa E d i t o r i a l M aucci, 1 1 9 2 9 ]), p . 83. 31Ibid., ,p^ 369. 32Ibid., p. 374. 262 I n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D ia z , A p p e liu s in c lu d e d th e s t o r y of one of h i s own countrym en, D ante C u s i. C usi was a Lombard, b o rn i n 1848. D uring th e D iaz r e g im e , he came to Mexico i n s e a r c h o f a new l i f e , and s e t t l e d in M ichoacan. F avored by th e " t e n d e n c i a g e n e r a l d e l g o b ie r n o p o r f i r i s t a , " he a sk ed f o r an a g r i c u l t u r a l c o n c e s s i o n i n t h a t a r e a , r e c e i v e d i t , and b e g an a f i f t e e n - y e a r b a t t l e t o grow r i c e from th e v i r g i n s o i l . He su c c e e d e d . T here th u s grew up two g r e a t fa rm in g c o lo n i e s i n C u s i 's a r e a , w hich e a rn e d him th e s o b r i q u e t o f th e "R ice K i n g ." A modern f a c t o r y f o r d r y in g th e r i c e and two o t h e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s f o r d e h u l l i n g i t p e r m i t t e d th e e l a b o r a t i o n of th e p r o d u c t w i t h i n th e c o n f i n e s o f C u s i ’ s h a c i e n d a . S i l o s , m achine s h o p s , and o t h e r b u i l d i n g s co m p lete d " e s t a g ra n obra 3 3 de p r o d u c c io n y de c i v i l i z a c i o n . " A p p e liu s th u s con clu d ed h i s a c c o u n t w ith a b i t of n a t i o n a l i s t i c f e r v o r . The l a s t book d i s c u s s e d in t h i s s e c t i o n o f th e s t u d y was p u b lis h e d d u r in g th e f o llo w in g y e a r , 1930. I t was th e p r o d u c t of Ramon B e l a u s t e g u i g o i t i a , and was e n t i t l e d Mexico de c e r c a . W ith a surname l i k e t h a t , th e a u th o r had to be o f Basque d e s c e n t . O th e r w is e , I e n c o u n te r e d l i t t l e c o n c e rn in g him. He h i m s e l f w ro te t h a t he made t r i p s t o Mexico from 34 Spain i n 1925 and 1926. He may have b e e n a j o u r n a l i s t . 33I b i d . , pp. 30 6 -8 . 3^R. de B e l a u s t e g u i g o i t i a , Mexico de c e r c a (M adrid: 263 At any r a t e , he w ro te s e v e r a l b o o k s: Con Sandino en N ic a ra g u a (1 9 3 4 ), La T ra n sfo rm a c io n de a g r i c u l t u r a en Mexico (un program a de a c c io n ) ( 1 9 4 7 ) , La Sombra d e l m ez q u ite (1 9 5 1 ), and £1 V a lle in e x p lo r a d o (1 9 6 0 ). S ince th e l a s t t h r e e o f th e fo u r books c i t e d were p u b lis h e d i n M exico, I deduce t h a t t h e i r a u th o r e m ig ra te d t o t h a t c o u n try from S p ain . I n sp e ak in g of th e developm ent of m a n u fa c tu rin g d u r ing th e Diaz p e r i o d , B e l a u s t e g u i g o i t i a advanced the id e a t h a t th e i n f l u x o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l d u rin g t h i s epoch s u c ceeded i n s e t t i n g f o r t h th e b a s e s o f a t e x t i l e and fo u n d ry i n d u s t r y of w hich Mexico co u ld be p ro u d , as w e l l as i n c r e a t i n g a very p o w e rfu l su g a r i n d u s t r y . In g e n e r a l , f o r e i g n c a p i t a l under D iaz succeed ed i n aw akening "con enorme 35 f u e r z a " a l l o f th e c o u n try * s e le m e n ts of r i c h n e s s . The a u th o r con clu d ed h i s a c c o u n t w i t h t h a t o b s e r v a t i o n . In c o n c lu s io n to t h i s c h a p t e r , w hat was s a id r e g a r d in g th e p o s t- D ia z a u th o r s in E n g li s h may be r e p e a te d h e r e , w ith one r e s e r v a t i o n : among th o s e a u th o r s whose im p r e s s io n s of m a n u fa c tu rin g under D iaz com prise the b a s i s of t h i s s e c t i o n , th e c o n c e rn f o r la b o r m a n if e s te d by such w r i t e r s as W allace Thompson seemed t o be l a r g e l y a b s e n t . O th e rw is e , s i m i l a r p a t t e r n s were d e m o n s tra te d by b o th s e t s of w r i t e r s : Sindicato de Publicidad, 1930), p. 10. 35_... Ibid., p. 45. 264 a r e p e t i t i o n o f many o f th e o p in io n s of e a r l i e r a u th o r s , b u t on a much s h o r t e r s c a l e ; an assig n m en t a t tim e s of f u l l c r e d i t f o r th e in c r e a s e o f i n d u s t r y to P o r f i r i o D iaz, and a n o s t a l g i c look back to th e "good old days of Don P o r f i r i o , ” in com parison w ith l a t e r tim e s . T hat th e o p in io n s now e x p re s s e d were l e s s le n g th y i n many c a se s th an th o se m ani f e s t e d d u rin g D i a z ’s r u l e may be a s s ig n e d to s i m i l a r c au se s to th o se o p e ra tin g on the men and women covered in th e p r e ceding s e c t i o n . The c h i e f o f th e s e c au ses was sim ply a r e l a t i v e d e c re a s e i n i n t e r e s t i n Diaz as time p r o g r e s s e d . CHAPTER VII UNFAVORABLE SOURCES IN ENGLISH In t h i s s e c t i o n , I s h a l l d e a l w ith acco u n ts in E n g lis h , w r i t t e n a f t e r D ia z Ts f a l l , which were c r i t i c a l of m anufacturing duxing the Diaz p e rio d and of the r o l e of the d i c t a t o r in i t . I s h a l l in c lu d e a h ig h ly d i s p a r a t e group of a u th o r s , from r e v o l u t i o n a r i e s o f the type of Lazaro G u t i e r re z de L ara t o p u b lic o f f i c i a l s such as E rn e s t G ru e n in g . Many of the a u th o rs d is c u s s e d here d i s l i k e d D iaz, sometimes on g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e , sometimes f o r more p e rs o n a l re a s o n s . O f te n , t h i s was m a n ife s te d i n t h e i r o p in io n s of him and h is regim e, in c lu d in g th e a sp e c t of mamrfa'cturing d u rin g i t . Many of th e a u th o r s f e l t very d eep ly and, as w ith t h e i r c o u n te r p a r t s i n S p an ish , t h e i r books sometimes reached the p o i n t of becoming sim ple p olem ics. I f th e a u th o rs had d i f f e r e n t re a so n s fo r r e a c t i n g u n fa v o ra b ly toward D ia z, t h e i r o p in io n s re g a rd in g manufac tu r in g d i f f e r e d a ls o . To some, m an u factu rin g under Diaz r e p r e s e n te d th e tu rn in g over of a v i t a l p o r t io n of M exicoTs w e a lth to the f o r e i g n e r . O thers a s s a i le d Diaz in the la b o r - management sp here of m a n u fa c tu rin g ; the old h o r r o r s of Rio 265 266 B lan c o and o t h e r e x am p le s o f l a b o r e x p l o i t a t i o n u n d e r D ia z w ere d u s t e d o f f and r e i t e r a t e d fro m tim e to tim e . S t i l l o t h e r a u t h o r s a s s ig n e d c r e d i t f o r an i n c r e a s e i n m a n u fa c t u r i n g t o o t h e r p e rs o n s and f a c t o r s , to t h e e x c l u s i o n o f D ia z . The p i c t u r e v a r i e d , b u t th e im p r e s s io n s o f e a c h a u t h o r w ere u n iq u e and v a l i d b i t s o f h i s t o r y , e ac h i n f l u e n c e d b y th e w e ig h t of p r e v i o u s e v e n t s in th e l i f e of t h e i r w r i t e r . The f i r s t of t h i s gro u p o f w r i t e r s was C h a r le s M o r r i s , whose The S t o r y o f M exico saw p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1914- M o r r is was b o rn i n 1833 and d i e d i n 1922. He was e d u c a te d i n C h e s t e r , P e n n s y l v a n i a , h i s b i r t h p l a c e . He t a u g h t i n p u b l i c s c h o o l s and l a t e r em erged a p r o f e s s o r i n th e Academy o f A n c ie n t and Modern L anguages i n P h i l a d e l p h i a . From 1860 to 1878 he w orked w i t h a m a n u f a c tu r in g c o n c e rn ; from t h a t d a t e on he d e v o te d h i m s e l f e x c l u s i v e l y t o w r i t i n g . H is works in c l u d e d e x t e n s i v e t r e a t i s e s on s c i e n t i f i c su b j e c t s , and he was th e e d i t o r o f th e New S c ie n c e Review i n 1895. M o rr is w ro te an immense number o f b o o k s, m o st o f them on p o p u l a r s u b j e c t s , su c h a s The War w i t h S p a i n , Our N a tio n * s N avy, Famous Men and G r e a t E v e n ts o f th e N i n e t e e n t h C e n tu ry (1 8 9 9 ) , New C e n tu ry H i s t o r y o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s (1 9 0 0 ) , L i f e of W illia m M cK inley ( 1 9 0 1 ) , L i f e of Queen V i c t o r i a (1 9 0 1 ) , The V o lc a n o Ts D e ad ly Work ( a r e v ie w of th e M t. P e le e d i s a s t e r , 1 9 0 2 ), Our N aval H e ro e s ( 1 9 0 2 ) , The S t o r y o f Mexico ( 1 9 1 4 ) , The N a tio n s o f E urope ( 1 9 1 4 ) , H e ro e s 267 of t h e Army in A m erica ( 1 9 1 9 ) , and others.'*' M o r r i s 1 u n f a v o r a b l e a c c o u n t of m a n u fa c tu r in g u n d er D iaz may have p ro c e e d e d from t h i s v e ry p r o l i f i c n a t u r e of h i s w r i t i n g . He n e v e r seems to have v i s i t e d Mexico p e r s o n a l l y , or e v en to have v e n tu r e d o u t s i d e P e n n s y lv a n ia . He m ust have t h e r e f o r e r e l i e d on o t h e r s o u r c e s , f o r th e r a p i d i t y w ith w hich he w ro te seems t o have p r e c lu d e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n on h i s p a r t . I f t h i s w ere th e c a s e , and i f he u sed a n o th e r u n f a v o r a b l e a u t h o r , t h e n h i s own p ag es r e g a r d i n g th e — s u b j e c t u n d e r e x a m in a tio n h e re would a l s o be u n f a v o r a b l e . My i n v e s t i g a t i o n s u n c o v ered s u s p i c i o u s s i m i l a r i t i e s i n s t y l e and c o n t e n t , r a t h e r to o c l o s e f o r mere c o in c id e n c e , betw een th e a c c o u n t o f th e s t r i k e s a t T iz a p a n and Rio B lanco w r i t t e n by M o rris and th e s t o r y o f th e same two s t r i k e s w r i t t e n f o u r y e a r s b e f o r e by Jo h n K enneth T u r n e r . M o rris d id n o t c i t e T u rn er b u t , in l i g h t o f th e s i m i l a r i t i e s m e n tio n e d , I am c o n v in c ed t h a t T u rn e r was in d e e d th e s o u rc e o f much o f M o r r i s ’ u n f a v o r a b l e o p i n io n r e g a r d i n g th e D iaz p e r i o d . M o rris d id n o t deny t h a t th e p e r i o d saw an i n c r e a s e in m a n u f a c tu r in g , nor d id he deny t h a t much o f i t was due to ’’h i s [ D i a z ’ s] s ta u n c h c h a r a c t e r and w ise f o r e s i g h t . ” At th e same tim e , ”we c a n n o t [ c o u ld _ n o t] giv e P o r f i r i o Diaz a l l th e c r e d i t , ” f o r t h e r e w ere o t h e r f a c t o r s in v o lv e d i n th e grow th of M exican m a n u f a c tu r in g . T h ere were a d d i t i o n a l r e a s o n s f o r ^Who’s Who in America, XII (1922-1923), 2245. 268 th e developm ent which took p la c e in t h i s a r e a , such as th e g e n e r a l l y f o r t u n a t e n a tu r e of th e p e rio d d u rin g which Don P o r f i r i o took c h a rg e . T h is was a tim e when th e abundant r e s o u r c e s o f Mexico had become a p p a r e n t to th e man of c a p i t a l , and a movement i n t o th e v a r io u s e n t e r p r i s e s in Mexico was rea d y to m a n ife s t i t s e l f on a l a r g e s c a l e . A tim e had a r r i v e d in th e e v o lu t i o n of Am erica when even th e most d i s o rd e re d n a t i o n s , i n c lu d in g Mexico, were b e in g c a l l e d upon to 2 perfo rm t h e i r f u n c t i o n and d e s t i n y in th e w o rld . In a d d i t i o n , i n d u s t r i a l developm ent d u r in g th e D iaz p e rio d was ’’v e ry l a r g e l y due" to f o r e i g n in v e s tm e n ts in m ines, r a i l ways, and o th e r l i n e s o f e n g in e e r i n g . S i l v e r ’ s f a l l in 3 v a lu e was a l s o a f a c t o r of some im p o rta n c e . W hatever th e f a c t o r s in v o lv e d , i t was im p o s s ib le to deny t h a t m a n u fa c tu rin g d id i n c r e a s e under P o r f i r i o D iaz. The M o nterrey i r o n and s t e e l works were founded in 1900 and by 1914 had a c a p i t a l o f f i v e m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . The company owning th e complex a l s o had l a r g e i r o n and c o a l d e p o s i t s . The works in c lu d e d a r o l l i n g m i l l ( b u i l t in 1906), w hich produced s t r u c t u r a l i r o n , b a r i r o n , s t e e l r a i l s , and w ire " t o a la r g e an n u al t o t a l . " 4 While m an u fa ctu rin g i n c r e a s e d , la b o r s u f f e r e d . At ^ C h a rle s M o rr is , The S to ry of Mexico [ P h i l a d e l p h i a : U n i v e r s a l Book and B ib le House, c . 19T4'] , P- 223. 3Ibid., pp. 134-5. 4Ibid., p. 119. 269 t h i s p o i n t , M o rris dev oted s e v e r a l pages to th e T izapan s t r i k e . His d e s c r i p t i o n need n o t be examined h e r e , f o r i t 5 has a lr e a d y been seen in T u rn e r, down t o m inute d e t a i l s . The same h e ld t r u e fo r M o r r i s 1 account of th e R io Blanco s t r i k e . T u rn e r, whom M o rris p l a g i a r i z e d , n e v e r seems to have p u b lis h e d a n y th in g f u r t h e r on Diaz a f t e r D i a z ’ s f a l l . But a n o th e r e a r l y a n t i - P o r f i r i a n a u th o r , C a rlo de F o rn a ro , c o n tin u e d to w r i t e P o r f i r i o Diaz a f t e r 1911. A case i n p o i n t was a p o r t i o n of F o r n a r o ’s C a rra n za and M exico, d a ti n g from 1915- S ince the a u t h o r ’ s background was examined e a r l i e r in c o n n e c tio n w ith D ia z , Czar of M exico, I s h a l l say l i t t l e more about i t h e r e . I only add t h a t by t h i s tim e th e 7 a u th o r had become e x tre m e ly p r o -C a rra n z a , w h ile none of h i s v i r u le n c e a g a i n s t Diaz had a b a te d . Speaking in g e n e r a l te rm s, F o rn aro charged t h a t I b i d . , pp. 6 4 -5 . For a com parison, see T u rn er, B arbaro us Mexico (C hicago: C h a rle s H. K e rr & C o ., 1911), pp. 210-13. I b i d . , pp. 6 5 -6 . For a com parison w ith t h i s p a s sa g e , see T'urner, B arbaro us M exico, pp. 197-206. In p a s s in g , one m ight note t h a t the s t y l e of M o rris in h i s acco u n t of th e Rio Blanco s t r i k e c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l e d T u r n e r ’ s d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e same e v e n t. M o rris in c lu d e d a q u o t a t i o n i d e n t i c a l w ith one found in T u rn e r, w ith o u t acknowledgment, and f i n a l l y began a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e V a lle N acion al on page 67, c i t i n g T urner f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r b i t of in fo rm a t i o n . 7 C a rlo de Fornaro- and o t h e r s , C a rra n z a and Mexico (New York: M itc h e ll K e n n e rly , 1915), pi 9"! A l l of th e p a s s a g e s under c o n s i d e r a ti o n h e re were w r i t t e n by F o rn a ro . 270 "D iaz so ld o u t h i s c o u n tr y to f o r e i g n e r s f o r a p i tt a n c e ,* " m aking them r i c h . He u se d M exican l a b o r , M exican fre e d o m , M exican s u f f e r i n g , to r a i s e h i m s e l f "on a p i n n a c l e o f fame u n h e a rd o f t o any o t h e r man o f h i s t i m e s . " Mexico was j u s t M exico, b u t Dfaz was p u t fo rw a rd as " i t p r o p h e t , i t s s a v i o r , 8 i t s c r e a t o r , i t s superm an, and d e m i^ g o d ." Most o f F o r n a r o Ts c o v e ra g e of D iaz and m a n u f a c tu r in g i n C a rra n z o and Mexico c e n t e r e d around a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f f a c t o r y l a b o r . For e x a m p le , he now a l l e g e d t h a t 750 w o rk e rs w ere " a s s a s s i n a t e d " i n th e s t r i k e a t th e O r i z a b a c o t t o n m i l l s . W orkers "were k i l l e d i f th e y a t - 9 tem p ted t o u n i o n iz e or t o s t r i k e . " As r e g a r d e d one s e c t o r of t h e p o p u l a t i o n , th e I n d i a n p e o n s, D ia z * s p o l i c y was to' e l i m i n a t e them f o r v a l u a b l e l a n d s t h e y f o r m e r l y p o s s e s s e d and fro m an in d e p e n d e n t econom ic l i f e i n th e M exican s o c i e ty . They w ere d i v e r t e d i n t o a l i f e o f peonage on th e g r e a t h a c i e n d a s , m in e s, and f a c t o r i e s . T h e i r w ages w ere k e p t as low a s p o s s i b l e . At th e same tim e , p r i c e s o f fo o d and o t h e r n e c e s s a r y c o m m o d ities r o s e , a id e d by h i g h D iaz t a r i f f s . The f o r e i g n owners of f a c t o r i e s and m in e s , " th e same ones who w ere r e a p i n g a g o ld e n h a r v e s t and s i n g i n g t h e p r a i s e s of D ia z 1s r u l e , " w ere b u y in g l a b o r in M exico a t a v e r y low r a t e in M exican s i l v e r and w ere s e l l i n g th e f r u i t of t h i s l a b o r 8Ibid., p. 49. 9Ibid., pp. 39-40. 271 10 a t a g o ld r a t e — w hich m eant huge p r o f i t s . A l l o f th e a d v a n ta g e s i n Mexico w ere on th e s id e of th e f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r , and " s c o r e s o f c a s e s " c o u ld be c i t e d to prove i t . The s a l a r i e s of M exican w o rk e rs w ere n o t r a i s e d ; th e p r i c e s o f th e c o m m o d ities w hich th e y had to buy w ere n e v e r lo w e re d . The g r e a t O riz a b a m i l l s , a l l f a c t o r i e s in f a c t , had alw ays p a id th e lo w e s t w ag es. Whenever t h e r e was a s t r i k e f o r h ig h e r pay o r b e t t e r w orking c o n d i t i o n s , th e f o r e i g n e r s w ere i n v a r i a b l y p r o t e c t e d by th e g o v ernm en t, and th e s t r i k e r s were " m a s sa c re d . . . a t th e s l i g h t e s t p r e t e x t . " These c o n d i t i o n s w ere t r u e in th e days o f H u e rta as w e ll as d u r in g th o s e o f D ia z . C o n s e q u e n tly , w ith the M exi can w o rk er i t had become an a r t i c l e of f a i t h t h a t f o r e i g n i n t e r e s t s were alw ays on th e s id e o f th e d i c t a t o r as a g a i n s t th e p e o p le o f M e x i c o . ^ The a u th o r c o n clu d ed w i t h t h a t th o u g h t. The n e x t book, The M exican P e o p le t T h e i r S tr u g g le fo r Freedom , spoke i n a s i m i l a r v e i n . I t was p u b lis h e d i n 1915 and 1917, and was th e work of L a z a ro G u t i e r r e z de L a ra and Edgcumb P in c h o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e was no way of t e l l i n g who w ro te w hich s e c t i o n s of t h e book nor was t h e r e much i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e r e g a r d ing P in c h o n . A l i b r a r y in d e x c a rd in fo rm ed me t h a t P incho n was b o rn i n -1883, t h a t he may be s t i l l a l i v e , and t h a t he w ro te t h r e e b o o k s, The M exican P e o p le? T h e ir S tr u g g l e f o r ^Ibid. , pp. 45-6. ^Ibid. , pp. 206-7. 272 Freedom (1 9 1 5 ), in c o n ju n c tio n w ith G u tie r r e z de L ara, and two b i o g r a p h i e s , Z a p a ta , The U nconquerable (1941) and Dan S i c k l e s , Hero of G e tty sb u rg and ’’Yankee King of S p a in ” (19 45). P in c h o n fs b io g ra p h y o f Z apata was a f a v o r a b l e one, which m ight i n d i c a t e t h a t he would have tended to d i s l i k e D iaz. Somewhat more in f o r m a tio n was found r e g a r d in g G u t i e r r e z . He a p p a r e n tly o n ly w rote one book, th e work under e x a m in a tio n h e r e . T h is was l o g i c a l , fo r L azaro G u t i e r r e z de L ara seems to have been f a r more a com bative man of a c t io n th an a calm , c o l l e c t e d w r i t e r . T h is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c was r e f l e c t e d in h i s book, which o f te n ro se to th e dim en sion s of an im passioned a t t a c k upon D ia z. I t was a l s o m a n ife s te d in h is l i f e , some of the e v e n ts of w hich seemed to show why th e a u th o r h a te d D iaz and w ro te so n e g a t i v e l y about him. G u tie r r e z h im s e lf d e s c r ib e d some o f th e s e e v e n ts i n h is book. He was a member of the J u n t a R e v o lu c io n a r ia d e l P a r t id o L i b e r a l M exicano, a p o l i t i c a l group formed in the e a r l y 1890‘ s in Mexico. E n c o u n te rin g o p p o s itio n from th e Diaz governm ent, i t s members l e f t th e c o u n try and reg ro u p ed in S t. L o u is, where th ey p u b lis h e d R e g e n e ra c io n . I t was to t h i s grou p t h a t th e F lo r e s Magon b e lo n g e d . T h e ir t r o u b l e s d id not end when th e y e n te r e d the U nited S t a t e s . P u rs u a n t to o rd e rs from W ashington, S e c r e t S e rv ic e men threw th e members of th e p a r t y i n t o j a i l in 273 S t. L ouis, San A ntonio and E l Paso. Upon t h e i r r e l e a s e th e y were hounded a c ro s s th e U nited S t a t e s to Los A n geles, where one n i g h t , " w ith o u t p ro c e ss of law or w a rra n t of any k i n d , " the S e c re t S erv ice s e t upon the p a r ty * s l e a d e r s , L ibrado R iv e ra , R icardo F lo r e s Magon, A ntonio V i l l a r e a l , Manuel S a r a b ia , and Lazaro G u tie r r e z de L ara , " s e v e r e l y b e a tin g them and a g a in throw ing them i n t o j a i l . " They were r e le a s e d f o r lack of e v id e n c e , but new c h arg es were q u ic k ly p r e f e r r e d a g a i n s t them. F i n a l l y , V i l l a r e a l , R iv era and F lo re s Magon were sen ten c ed to th e 12 Yuma p e n i t e n t i a r y f o r a b re a c h of the laws of n e u t r a l i t y . A nother major source of in fo rm a tio n on t h i s a u th o r was h i s f r i e n d , John Kenneth T u rn e r. T urner r a r e l y c i t e d d a t e s , so i t was somewhat d i f f i c u l t to connect h is s c a t t e r e d r e f e r e n c e s in to any coherent n a r r a t i v e . In any e v e n t, he w rote t h a t , d u rin g the e a r l y s ta g e s of th e l e g a l f i g h t a g a i n s t Magon and the o t h e r s , a g e n ts of Diaz were s u r p r e s s - ing the g ro u p 1s new spaper, R e v o lu c io n , " i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t y l e . " A f te r th re e e d i t o r s were a r r e s t e d , th e emergency was met by G u t i e r r e z , "who had n o t p r e v io u s ly been in any way i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e L i b e r a l P a r t y . " Two weeks l a t e r G u tie r r e z was in j a i l along w ith the r e s t . The e x t r a d i t i o n of t h i s a u th o r to Mexico was sought on th e ground t h a t he 12 * G u tie r r e z de Lara and Edgcumb Pinchon, The Mexican P eo p le: Thei r S tru g g le f or Freedom (Garden C i t y , N f. Y .: Doubleday, Page & G o ., 1^15,), pp. 341-3. 274 had com m itted an a c t o f r o b b e r y on t h e b la n k day of th e b l a n k month o f 1906, i n th e b l a n k s t a t e o f M exico. The t r o u b l e s o f G u t i e r r e z e x e m p l i f i e d th e D e p a rtm e n t of J u s t i c e f s p r a c t i c e o f r o b b in g D i a z 's en em ies o f t h e i r l i b e r t y i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , w o rk in g i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h M exican a g e n t s in th e w e s t e r n U n ite d S t a t e s . T h is p r a c t i c e had gone on s i n c e 1905. G u t i e r r e z was j a i l e d on Septem ber 27, 1907, on t e l e g r a p h i c i n s t r u c t i o n s from A t t o r n e y G e n e r a l C h a r le s J o s e p h B o n a p a r te . As m e n tio n e d , th e c h arg e was l a r c e n y , com m itted on th e b l a n k day o f th e b la n k month o f 1906 i n th e b la n k s t a t e o f th e M exican R e p u b li c . G u t i e r r e z Ts e x t r a d i t i o n to Mexico was so u g h t on t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h i s i n d i c t m e n t . The t r e a t y of e x t r a d i t i o n b e tw e e n M exico and t h e U n ite d S t a t e s p r o v id e d t h a t the c o u n tr y a s k i n g e x t r a d i t i o n m ust f u r n i s h s u f f i c i e n t e v id e n c e of g u i l t w i t h i n f o r t y d a y s of th e a c c u s e d 's a r r e s t . For G u t i e r r e z , t h i s t e c h n i c a l i t y w as i g n o r e d ; a t th e end o f th e f o r t y d a y s a f t e r h i s a r r e s t a new c o m p la in t was f i l e d . T h is tim e th e c o m p la in t s t a t e d t h a t th e d e f e n d a n t 's crim e had t a k e n p l a c e i n S o n o ra . T h is was c o n s id e r e d ground enough t o h o ld him f o r a n o th e r f o r t y d a y s . By th e end o f th e secon d p e r i o d , n o t h in g f u r t h e r had h a p p e n ed , and G u t i e r r e z ' s a t t o r n e y a p p l i e d f o r a w r i t o f h a b e a s c o r p u s . The w r i t was d e n ie d and th e p r o s e c u t i o n was g iv e n a d d i t i o n a l tim e i n w hich t o f i l e a t h i r d c o m p la in t. The d e f e n d a n t was th e n a c c u se d of s t e a l i n g u n c u t stove-w ood in Sonora on A ugust 13, 1903. A h e a r in g was now h e l d . A c co rd in g to T u r n e r , d u r in g t h a t h e a r in g " s e v e r a l p e c u l i a r f a c t s ” w ere u n c o v e re d . One was t h a t th e a c c u se d had b een t r i e d and a c q u i t t e d of th e same crim e i n Mexico over fo u r y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y . A nother was t h a t , w h ile d u r in g th e M exican t r i a l th e w oodTs v a lu e was f ix e d a t fo u r d o l l a r s by th e p r o s e c u t i o n , a t th e h e a rin g in Los A n g e les i t s v a lu e was p u t a t tw e -n ty -e ig h t d o l l a r s . "Because a t h i e f c a n n o t tc o u ld n o t ] be e x t r a d i t e d f o r s t e a l ing l e s s th a n t w e n t y - f i v e d o l l a r s th e wood m ark et had ta k e n a s p e c t a c u l a r ju m p ." U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r th e p r o s e c u t i o n , the m arket d id n o t jump q u i t e h ig h enough. By d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t th e p r i c e of Mexican s i l v e r was s l i g h t l y lower t h a n a v e ra g e t h a t y e a r , G u t i e r r e z Ts a t t o r n e y was a b le to show t h a t th e a l l e g e d v a lu e of th e s t o l e n g o o d s, f i f t y - s i x p e s o s , d id n o t come to t w e n t y - e i g h t d o l l a r s i n A m erican money, b u t to s l i g h t l y l e s s th a n t w e n t y - f i v e . C o n s e q u e n tly , th e accu sed c o u ld n o t be e x t r a d i t e d , a f a c t w h ich saved h i s l i f e . The r e a l f a c t s o f th e c a s e , s a id T u r n e r , were t h a t G u t i e r r e z had n e v e r s t o l e n any wood, b u t t h a t , w h ile a c t i n g as an a t t o r n e y f o r a widow whom a r i c h A m erican mine owner was t r y i n g to sw in d le out o f a p ie c e o f la n d , G u t i e r r e z had g iv e n h er p e r m is s io n t o c u t some wood on th e lan d un der d i s p u te f o r h e r own u s e ! Were i t n o t f o r th e f a c t t h a t the case was on r e c o r d , i t would be u n b e l i e v a b l e . He was r e l e a s e d , b u t only a f t e r one hundred and fo u r d a y s of h i s l i f e 276 had b e e n s p e n t i n an A m erican j a i l . M oreov er, R e v o lu c io n 13 had b e e n s u r p r e s s e d . T u r n e r f s a c c o u n t o f th e m i s f o r t u n e s o f G u t i e r r e z de L ara s e r v e d t o b u i l d up o n e Ts sym pathy f o r th e l a t t e r . M oreov er, i f i t was t r u e , i t p e rh a p s e x p la in e d why G u t i e r r e z d i s l i k e d D iaz so i n t e n s e l y , com m unicating t h a t h a t r e d to th e p a g e s o f h i s b o o k . The s t o r y w hich G u t i e r r e z h i m s e l f r e l a t e d would a p p e a r t o g iv e a f u r t h e r b a s i s f o r t h a t h a t r e d and a r e a s o n f o r i t s i n c l u s i o n i n h i s book. But on h i s s i d e , D iaz may have had s u f f i c i e n t c au se t o h a te G u t i e r r e z as w e l l . T h is s o r t o f a t r i a l would be bad p u b l i c i t y , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e th e a cc u sed won. The a u th o r a l s o had a h a b i t of r e t u r n i n g to Mexico to s t i r up l o c a l a f f a i r s . Somewhat b e f o r e h i s t r i a l , he r e t u r n e d to M exico from th e U n ite d S t a t e s and to o k p a r t i n th e Cananea copper s t r i k e , a d d r e s s i n g th e m in e r s . He was j a i l e d w ith th e c o l la p s e of th e s t r i k e , and o rd e re d to be s h o t . The o r d e r f o r h is e x e c u ti o n came d i r e c t l y from Mexico C i t y . G u t i e r r e z had i n f l u e n t i a l f r i e n d s i n M exico, how ever, and t h e s e , r e c e i v i n g word o f h i s m i s f o r tu n e s th ro u g h th e t e l e g r a p h o p e r a t o r and th e p o s tm a s te r o f C ananea, su c ce ed e d i n o b t a i n i n g a r e p r i e v e f o r t h e i r w an d erin g f r i e n d . N o tw ith s ta n d in g h i s b r u s h w ith d e a t h in t h i s and h i s 13 John K enn eth T u r n e r , B a rb a ro u s M exico (C h ic a g o i C h a r le s H. K err & C o ., 1 9 1 1 ), pp.' 2 8 9 -9 1 . r ' 14Ibid., p. 218. 277 l a t e r e x t r a d i t i o n t r i a l , G u t i e r r e z accom panied T u rn e r on h i s f i r s t t r i p t o M exico, made i n th e c l o s i n g m onths of 1908. The two had met and become f r i e n d s i n Los A n g e le s . I n p a s s in g , even T u rn e r a d m itte d t h a t h i s f r i e n d was " a b i a s s e d s o u r c e 1' of i n f o r m a t i o n , a d d in g n a i v e l y t h a t he "was opposed to t h e e x i s t i n g governm ent i n M e x ic o .” At th e same tim e , he d id h e lp T u rn e r g a t h e r h i s m a t e r i a l . He knew th e la n d , th e p e o p le , and th e w h e re a b o u ts of " v a l u a b le s o u r c e s o f in f o r m a - ,,15 t i o n a l l o v e r th e c o u n t r y . " A cco rd in g t o T u r n e r , G u t i e r r e z a g a in r a n a f o u l o f the law f o r th e h e l p w hich he gave T u rn e r in th e p r e p a r a t i o n of B a rb a ro u s M e x ico . The Im m ig ra tio n D epartm ent s e iz e d him f o r d e p o r t a t i o n i n O c to b e r, 1909, a c c u s in g him of b e in g "an a l i e n a n a r c h i s t . ” G u t i e r r e z had r e s i d e d in th e U n ite d S t a t e s f o r more th a n t h r e e y e a r s , " y e t u n d o u b te d ly he would have been s e n t t o h i s d e a t h , " t h a t i s , d e p o r t e d , had th e c o u n tr y n o t r a i s e d such a p r o t e s t t h a t th e " c o n s p i r a t o r s " were f r i g h t e n e d o f f - The background o f the c o n s p i r a t o r s in q u e s t i o n was n o t m en tio n ed by T u rn e r . He d id s t a t e t h a t i t was supposed t h a t G u t i e r r e z * s l i f e was so u g h t a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r moment b e c a u se o f h i s accom panim ent o f T u rn e r t o Mexico and h i s a id i n o b t a i n i n g m a t e r i a l f o r th e l a t t e r * s "expo se o f M exican c o n d i t i o n s . L az aro G u t i e r r e z de L a ra now fa d e d from h i s t o r y . He 15Ibid., pp. 11-12. 16Ibid., p. 275. 278 r e tu r n e d t o th e s u r f a c e w ith h i s book in 1915, th e n faded a g a in , and t h i s tim e d id n o t r e t u r n . "Whatever h i s u l t i m a t e f o r t u n e s , he seems to have had ample grounds f o r h a tin g Diaz from h i s own backg ro und , a h a tr e d w hich, a s a lr e a d y n o te d , he communicated to th e pages of The Mexican People? T h e ir S tru g g le f o r Freedom. T h is h a tr e d may have r e s u l t e d in an u n fa v o ra b le coverage of m a n u fa c tu rin g under Diaz i n the pages o f t h a t book. In t h e i r s k e tc h of Mexican m a n u fa c tu rin g i n The Mexican P e o p le : T h e ir S tr u g g le f o r Freedom, the a u th o rs began w ith th e J u a r e z p e r i o d . The French had j u s t been o u ste d . A b le e d in g b u t triu m p h a n t Mexico stood u n a id e d , her eyes f ix e d upon th e h o r iz o n . In Mexico C ity , a r u l e by law e x i s t e d , and the r u l e r was th e w ise and j u s t B e n ito J u a r e z . The new freedom o f the l a s t p e rio d of h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s tim u la te d i n d u s t r i e s , s a id G u tie r r e z and Pinchon. Mining and t e x t i l e weaving began to be im p o rta n t a g a in . J u a r e z re c o g n iz e d t h a t r a i l r o a d s and t e l e g r a p h s c o m p le te ly con t r o l l e d i n d u s t r y , and t h a t , i f th e p eo ple c o n t r o l l e d the government and i t in t u r n owned th e r a i l r o a d s and t e l e g ra p h s , th e n the p eop le would be i n a p o s i t i o n to impose t h e i r term s upon i n d u s t r i a l c o r p o r a t i o n s . T h is would m erely be a tem p o rary s t a t e of a f f a i r s , ’'pending th e u l t i m a t e ex p r o p r i a t i o n of a l l th e means of w e a lth p r o d u c tio n by the 17 c o l l e c t i v i t y . ” J u a r e z Ts r a i l r o a d p o l ic y was grounded upon t h i s con s i d e r a t i o n . I t was n o t meant m erely to save th e c o u n tr y from th e o r d e a l o f f o r e i g n s p e c u l a t i o n in r a i l r o a d s , b u t to save i t "from th e whole n e e d le s s o r d e a l of c a p i t a l i s m , ” to lead i t in th e l i g h t o f th e e x p e rie n c e won under t h a t e c o nomic system by o th e r n a t i o n s d i r e c t l y , g r a d u a l ly " i n t o the prom ised lan d of c o l l e c t i v i s m . " T hat t h i s " g l o r i o u s consum m a tio n " was n e v er a ch iev ed was " a b s o l u t e l y and e n t i r e l y " due to th e Am erican ra ilw a y and i n d u s t r i a l c o r p o r a t io n s of 1867 18 "and t o P o r f i r i o D iaz, t h e i r t o o l . " Two t h in g s in p a s s in g . F i r s t , the c i t i n g of th e year 1867 have been a m is p r i n t . I f i t r e f e r r e d to D ia z ’ s a c h ie v in g o f power, backed by th e e v i l g e n iu s e s of American f i n a n c e , i t should c e r t a i n ly have been 1876. Second, one i s accustom ed th e s e days to h e a rin g such s ta te m e n ts of purpose as I have j u s t c i t e d a t t r i b u t e d to M ao-Tse-Tung, L en in , or even C a s tr o . I t s a p p l i c a t i o n to an In d ia n P r e s i d e n t of M exico, imbued w ith the p r i n c i p l e s of n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu ry l i b e r a l i s m , was somewhat d i f f i c u l t t o a c c e p t and added a new d im ension to th e myth of B e n ito J u a r e z . — J u a r e z d ie d in 1872 and " th e p a t r i o t i c Lerdo de T e ja d a " succeeded him as P r e s i d e n t of M exico. The a c c e s s io n ■ ^ G u tie rre z de Lara and P inchon , op. c i t . , p . 278. 18 Ibid., p. 280. 280 of t h i s man " b l i g h t e d th e hopes o f A m erican r a i l r o a d s p e c u l a t o r s , " i n th e se n se t h a t th e y would n o t have a t r a c t a b l e M exican f i r s t e x e c u tiv e to do t h e i r b i d d in g . As a r e s u l t , th e y p ic k e d D iaz i n s t e a d , and he was "summoned to h i s famous t h r e e m o n th sT c o n fe re n c e w ith them a t B r o w n s v ille , T e x a s ." He r e tu r n e d t o Mexico f u l l y eq uip ped and fin a n c e d f o r h i s 19 f i n a l a s s a u l t upon th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l governm ent. The a u th o rs e l a b o r a t e d somewhat on t h i s " c o n f e r e n c e ." I t was h e ld a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e T u x te p ec r e v o l t , when Diaz c ro s s e d over th e b o r d e r to th e s a f e t y o f f e r e d by B r o w n s v ille , T exas. Here he rem ained from Decem ber, 1875, to March 12, 1876, and he was " i n d a i l y c o n fe re n c e w ith th e a g e n ts o f th e Am erican r a i l r o a d s p e c u l a t o r s , the e m i s s a r i e s 20 o f W all S t r e e t , and of W ash in g to n ." They n e x t e x p la in e d how L e r d o ’ s governm ent was u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y o v e rth ro w n . A d i s a f f e c t e d f a c t i o n composed o f " d e f e a te d i m p e r i a l i s t s , th e d i s g r u n t l e d c l e r g y , the p e r v e r t e d s o l d i e r y , and th e f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i s t a g e n t s " made D iaz t h e i r f i g u r e h e a d . They r e c e iv e d th e d i r e c t m o ral and f i n a n c i a l su p p o rt o f the A m erican i n d u s t r i a l , r a i l r o a d and land s p e c u l a t o r s , and " th e d e l i b e r a t e c o g n izan ce and c o n n iv a n ce " o f th e government o f the U n ited S t a t e s . W ith th e s e s u p p o r t s , th e P o r f i r i s t p a r t y to o k a d v an tag e of th e s t i l l u n re c o v e re d c o n d i t i o n of th e Mexican common p e o p le , t h e i r 19Ibid., p. 277. 20Ibid., p. 290.. 281 g r e a t d e s i r e f o r p e a c e , and t h e i r h o r r o r of renewed f o r e i g n in v a s io n to ov erthrow Lerdo*s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l government and ’’e n lig h te n e d d em ocracy,” u sin g ’’the infam ous m ethods of th e 21 c u a r t e l a z o [ b a r r a c k s r e v o l t j . ” And so th e Diaz r e v o l t su c ce ed e d . There now ensued a p e rio d of c o n s o l i d a t i o n w hich l a s t e d u n t i l the s u c c e s s f u l q u e l l i n g of th e l o y a l army r e v o l t of 1879. The w inning c o a l i t i o n was composed of Am erican and Mexican la n d , r a i l r o a d , and i n d u s t r i a l s p e c u l a t o r s , b e h in d whom stood th e Diaz gov ernm ent and i t s U n ited S t a t e s c o u n t e r p a r t . With th e f a i l u r e of th e army r e v o l t and the J u c h i t a n m a s sa c re , t h i s group had t e s t e d i t s s o l i d a r i t y , had f u l l y r e a l i z e d i t s power, and now drew th e bonds of u n io n w i t h in i t c l o s e r s t i l l . Once t h i s had been acc o m p lish e d , i t proceed ed to ’’th e d e l i b e r a t e w h o le sa le d e m o litio n of the Mexican a g r a r i a n d em ocracy ,” an a c t accompanied by s w if t e l i m i n a t i o n of a l l t r a c e s of oppo- 22 s i t i o n . Speaking o f the e n t i r e p e rio d from 1876 to 1910, th e a u th o r s s t a t e d t h a t , from th e day Diaz came i n t o power as ’’the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ' of American i n t e r e s t s in 1876, to the day t h a t he f l e d t o P a r i s in 1910 [ s i c ! ] , ” o rg a n iz e d c o rru p t i o n ru le d u n c h a lle n g e d i n th e a f f a i r s of th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Not one case of m a lfe a s a n c e , em bezzlem ent, g r a f t or m is a p p r o p r ia tio n i n c o n n e c tio n w ith th e p u b lic funds was Ibid., pp. 295-96. Ibid., p. 302. 282 e v e r p r o s e c u t e d i n th e c o u r t s . I n t h i s m anner a w i d e ly s p r e a d and i n f i n i t e l y r a m i f i e d c o l l u s i o n o f i n t e r e s t s was e s t a b l i s h e d b e tw e e n th e s p e c u l a t o r s , m e r c h a n t s , m a n u f a c t u r - 23 e r s , and la n d o w n e rs o f t h e p e r i o d and t h e o f f i c i a l c l a s s . For M exico, m a n u f a c t u r i n g u n d e r D iaz m eant s e v e r a l t h i n g s . I t m eant " t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e m ost a b j e c t . . . wage s l a v e r y , " a c h a rg e t o w h ic h I s h a l l soon r e t u r n - I t s i g n i f i e d a " w h o l e s a l e s e q u e s t r a t i o n o f th e n a t i o n a l r e - O A s o u r c e s . " I t was a l s o p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r " p l u n g in g th e p e o p le i n t o th e d e p th s o f ig n o r a n c e and s l a v e r y " and h o l d i n g them t h e r e . T h is was b e c a u s e an e d u c a te d M exico was an i n t o l e r a b l e menace to t h e A m e ric an r a i l r o a d s p e c u l a t o r s and m a n u f a c tu r in g c o r p o r a t i o n s who w ere i n t e r e s t e d i n e x p l o i t i n g M exican n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s and l a b o r . T hrough t h e i r " p e r s o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , P o r f i r i o D i a z , " t h e y k e p t 25 M exican s i g n o r a n t and e x p l o i t e d . F i n a l l y , i t m eant " a t r o c i t i e s p e r p e t r a t e d upon . . . 26 t h e i n d u s t r i a l p r o l e t a r i a t b y th e D iaz g o v e r n m e n t." I t i s p o s s i b l e to exam ine t h i s c h a r g e i n d e t a i l , f o r t h e a u t h o r s p ro p o s e d to g iv e one or two e x a m p le s w h ic h i l l u s t r a t e d th e way i n w hich D iaz " d e g r a d e d th e i n d u s t r i a l p r o l e t a r i a t to th e m ost a b j e c t wage s l a v e r y . ” The ex am p le s w ould a l s o s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e " t h e f e r o c i t y o f t h e e x p l o i t e r s - - e v e n i n 23Ibid., p. 304. 25Ibid., pp. 281-2. 24Ibid., p. 313. 26Ibid., p. 337. 283 f e a r o f r e v o l t . " W ith t h e s e o b j e c t i v e s , G u t i e r r e z and P in c h o n f i r s t w ro te a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e O r iz a b a c o t t o n m i l l s s t r i k e o f 1907. S in c e t h e i r a c c o u n t d i f f e r e d w id e ly from t h a t o f any s o u rc e p r e v i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d , I have in c l u d e d i t a t t h i s p o i n t i n d e t a i l . F o r ty th o u sa n d men, women, and c h i l d r e n , employed by th e O riz a b a m i l l s , s t r u c k f o r a wage o f s e v e n t y - f i v e c e n t s a day f o r men, f o r t y c e n t s f o r women, and t h i r t y f o r c h i l d r e n . T hey a l s o demanded a r e d u c t i o n o f th e w orkday from s i x t e e n h o u rs to f o u r t e e n h o u r s . From th e tim e th e s t r i k e was d e c l a r e d , th e f a c t o r y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , a id e d by th e p e t t y o f f i c i a l s o f th e company, " r e s o r t e d t o p r o v o c a t i v e t a c t i c s i n th e hope o f c r e a t i n g a d i s t u r b a n c e , and t h u s p r o v i d in g an ex cu se f o r c a l l i n g i n th e s o l d i e r y . " F a i l i n g i n t h i s , t h e b o s s e s c u t th e s t r i k e r s o f f from th e u se o f th e l o c a l w e l l s , on th e p r e t e x t t h a t th e w a te r from them b e lo n g e d t o th e company. C ra z e d w i t h t h i r s t , th e p e o p le to o k t h e w a te r t h e y n eeded b y f o r c e . T h is was c o n s i d e r e d a s u f f i c i e n t d i s t u r b a n c e " f o r th e p u r pose a t h a n d ," and th e m i l l * s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w ir e d P o r f i r i o D ia z . The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w arned t h a t a d a n g e ro u s r i o t was i n p r o g r e s s and he r e q u e s t e d th e h e l p o f th e D iaz g o v e rn ment . S in c e D ia z was " e v e r prom pt t o comply w i t h su ch r e q u e s t s , " he s e n t a d i v i s i o n o f "no l e s s t h a n f i f t e e n t h o u sand t r o o p s " i n t o th e a r e a . U nder s p e c i a l o r d e r s t h e s e 284 tr o o p s d e t r a i n e d d u r in g th e n i g h t o u t s i d e O r iz a b a and h id th e m se lv e s i n th e f a c t o r y and d om in an t p o s i t i o n s of th e s u r ro u n d in g a r e a . The n e x t m orn in g , th e s t r i k e r s w ere s u r p r i s e d to h e ar th e r i n g i n g of th e f a c t o r y b e l l . They c o n clu d ed t h a t th e company had d e c id e d t o a c c e p t - t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s , and t h a t i t was now c a l l i n g them b ack t o w o rk . They, t h e r e f o r e , g a th e r e d o u t s i d e th e f a c t o r y g a t e s — a v a s t th ro n g of them, in c lu d in g men, women, and c h i l d r e n . F i n a l l y a minor company o f f i c i a l , G a r c in , came out o f th e f a c t o r y door and p ro ce ed e d to h ara n g u e them i n th e m ost i n s u l t i n g f a s h i o n . E nraged by th e s e i n s u l t s , th e p e o p le e n d ea v o re d t o s e i z e t h i s o f f i c i a l who r e v i l e d them . G a rc in f l e d b ack i n t o th e m i l l . Of c o u r s e , th e s t r i k e r s were a s y e t unaw are o f th e p re s e n c e of th e s o l d i e r s . T hat f a c t was soon made m a n i f e s t to them , f o r th e whole e p is o d e was a s i g n a l t o th e s o l d i e r y . " I n a f l a s h e v e ry window o f th e f a c t o r y b e lc h e d f i r e . " V o lle y a f t e r v o l l e y was f i r e d i n t o th e p a n i c - s t r i k e n m ass, and th e a i r was r e n t w ith th e s h r i e k s o f women and c h i l d r e n , th e g ro an s of men, p i e r c i n g th e c o n t i n u a l r o a r o f g u n s. The s t r i k e r s f e l l i n d ro v e s un der th e h a i l of b u l l e t s , or tra m p le d each o th e r to d e a t h in a mad e f f o r t to e s c a p e . The g u n f i r e con t i n u e d , f o r th e t r o o p s were u rg e d on by th e owners of th e m i l l . The t o t a l number o f v i c t i m s would n e v e r be known. A 285 rough i d e a m ight be o b ta in e d from the f a c t t h a t "two f u l l f r e i g h t - t r a i n I s i c ] lo a d s of dead and wounded" were rushed t o V eracru z d u r in g th e n i g h t and dumped i n t o the s e a to be e a t e n by th e s h a r k s . The s t r i k e was b ro k e n . The s h a r e h o ld e r s of th e m i l l s f i l l e d th e columns o f the p a id p r e s s i n th e U n ited S t a t e s and Mexico " w ith enconium s upon th e e f f i c i e n c y 27 of the army and the m a s te r ly d i s c i p l i n e of P o r f i r i o D ia z ." W ith t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of la b o r c o n d i t i o n s , th e w r i t e r s con c lu d e d t h e i r m a t e r i a l on m a n u f a c tu rin g u nder D ia z . The f o l lowing y e a r w itn e s s e d th e p u b l i c a t i o n of th e n e x t source d is c u s s e d in t h i s s e c t i o n , The M exican P eople and T h e ir De t r a c t o r s ( 1 9 1 6 ) . Fernando Gonzalez Roa, th e a u th o r o f t h i s w ork, was b o rn around 1883 and d ie d in 1936. He was a p r o f e s s o r of p u b l ic law a t th e U n i v e r s i t y of Mexico a t th e tim e he w rote t h i s book, and was f o rm e r ly a p r o f e s s o r of com m ercial law a t th e Free Law Scho ol of Mexico C i t y . I m p o r ta n tl y , he was 28 a l s o A s s i s t a n t S e c r e t a r y of th e I n t e r i o r u n d er Madero. Presum ably under the same re g im e , he se rv e d as a p u b l ic o f f i c i a l i n th e s t a t e of G u a n a ju a to , where he worked f o r ta x re fo rm f o r the r e l i e f o f th e s m a ll fa rm e r. He p r e s s e d fo r p r o p o r t i o n a t e t a x a t i o n of la n d o w n ers, an e f f o r t in th e 2 7 I b i d . , pp. 327 -9 . 28 > Fernando G onzalez Roa, The M exican P eo p le and T h e ir D e t r a c t o r s (New Y ork: L a t i n A m erican tfew's A s s o c ia t i o n ,' [ 19'l'6j‘) , p . 1. 286 d i r e c t i o n of the s i n g l e t a x . A b i l l which he proposed to 29 the l o c a l l e g i s l a t u r e w ith t h i s p r o v is io n was p a sse d . on Gonzalez was d e f i n i t e l y pro-M adero. A ll o f th e s e f a c t s may have had b e a rin g on how he saw th e Diaz reg im e, i n c l u d ing a s p e c ts o f m a n u fa c tu rin g d u rin g th o se tim e s . F r a n c is c o N aran jo in c lu d e d a d d i t i o n a l in f o rm a tio n on t h i s a u th o r . Gonzalez was b o rn i n G u a n ju a to . A lthough he w rote f a i r l y e x t e n s i v e l y , he was p r i m a r il y known as a d i p l o mat. For exam ple, he was th e o f f i c i a l in charge of the Mex ic a n n e g o t i a t i o n s in th e B u c a r e li t r e a t i e s o f 1923 betw een the U n ited S t a t e s and M exico. From t h a t tim e u n t i l h i s d e a th he serv ed i n s e v e r a l a d d i t i o n a l d ip lo m a tic p o s ts of im p o rtan c e . Along w ith B e n ito F l o r e s , Gonzalez was the Mex ic a n d ip lo m a t to the 1928-1929 I n t e r n a t i o n a l American Con f e re n c e on C o n c i l i a t i o n and A r b i t r a t i o n . In the l a t t e r year he se rv e d in th e same c a p a c i ty on th e commission f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n and c o n c i l i a t i o n betw een B o l iv i a and P aragu ay . He was th e Mexican Ambassador to th e U nited S t a t e s d u rin g th e P r e s i d e n t i a l term of A belardo R o d rig u ez, and a ls o se rv ed as th e Mexican d e le g a te to the London Economic C onvention in 1933 b e fo re a c c e p tin g a p o s i t i o n w ith the C ardenas govern- 31 ment as ambassador to G uatem ala. As m entioned, he a ls o 2 9I b i d . , p. 43. 30I b i d . , p. 39. F ra n c is c o N a ra n jo , D ic c io n a r io b i o g r a f i c o r e v o l u - c i o n a r i o (M exico: Im prenta E d i t o r i a l V iCosmos," tl0351Jj"7 p. 96. 287 w ro te . T his book seems to have been th e only one le a v in g h is pen in E n g lis h . Among h i s o th e r works were E l Problema f e r r o c a r r i l l e r o y l a compania de lo s f e r r o c a r r i l e s n a c io n e s de Mexico (1 9 1 5 ), E l A sp ecto a g r a r i o de la re v o lu c io n Mexi- cana (1 9 1 9 ), and E l C a r a c te r de l a l e g i s l a c i o n e s p a n o la en America (1 9 3 3 ). S e v e ra l p o s s ib l e re a s o n s f o r th e a u t h o r Ts tr e a tm e n t of Diaz and m an u fa ctu rin g have a l r e a d y been m entioned. These in c lu d e d such f a c t o r s as h i s e a r l y p o l i t i c a l alig nm ent --p ro -M a d ero . But th e r e was a n o th e r v e ry p o s s i b l e re a so n fo r G o n z a le z ’s t r e a tm e n t o f th e s u b j e c t : as w i l l be shown, he d e s i r e d a r e t u r n to th e o ld , h a n d c r a f t way o f producing com m odities. He may have r e a c t e d a g a i n s t Diaz and m anufac t u r i n g p a r t i a l l y b ecause he f e l t t h a t th e y s i g n i f i e d an end to t h i s o ld method of p r o d u c tio n and an i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new p ro b lem s. Gonzalez Roa began h is coverage of th e s u b j e c t by inform ing th e r e a d e r t h a t , in th e Mexico of P o r f i r i o D iaz, the army became "an in s tru m e n t of o p p re s s io n a g a i n s t th e p r o l e t a r i a t . ” For exam ple, th e s t r i k e s of m ill-w o r k e rs in 32 Veracruz ’’were drowned i n b lo o d ” by th e army. He th en moved on to o th e r u n fa v o ra b le a s p e c t s of m an u fa ctu rin g d u r ing the Diaz p e r io d . As i n a g r i c u l t u r e , so in m a n u fa c tu rin g , th e p o l ic y 32 ✓ Gonzalez Roa, op. cit., pp. 56-7. 288 of Diaz "was to s u rre n d e r to c a p i t a l i s t s th e l a r g e r sh a re of p r o d u c t i o n .” I t m a tte re d o nly s l i g h t l y t h a t th e Mexican people rem ained in t o t a l a b j e c t i o n , t o t a l m is e ry . The mem b e rs of D ia z ’ s o f f i c i a l fa m ily "were g u i l t y of t r u l y t e r r i b le e x c e s s e s . ” In o rd e r to f a v o r c o tt o n m i l l s , M exicans were o b lig e d t o pay e ig h t e e n m i l l i o n p eso s per y e a r . To p r o t e c t p aper m i l l s , th e p r i n t i n g and e n g rav in g i n d u s t r i e s were bound hand and f o o t , p u b l ic e d u c a tio n was p a r a ly z e d , and the p r e s s f e l l under th e h e e l of th e paper m a n u fa c tu re r. To p r o t e c t a p rod ucer of a c i d s , M exico’ s i n d u s t r i a l f u t u r e was s u rre n d e re d to a s p e c u l a t o r . D u tie s on m anufactured im p o rts were g r o s s l y u n j u s t . C o tto n c l o t h p aid 230 p e r c e n t , o r d in a r y w ines 80 p e r c e n t , champagne o nly 5 p e r c e n t , c o s t l y la c e s n o th in g a t a l l . The e n t i r e burden of the t a r i f f f e l l on th e s h o u ld e rs of the p o or. The pow erfu l Mexican m ere ly gave l i p - s e r v i c e to the n a t i o n a l t r e a s u r y , as f a r a s th e d u t i e s which he p a id on th e im ported goods he purchased were con cern ed . Since th e n a tiv e h o l d e r s of c a p i t a l , th e h a c e n d a d o s, re fu s e d to tu r n to i n d u s t r y , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o throw Mex ico open t o f o r e i g n c a p i t a l , "which has [had] been m e rc i l e s s , and in many c a se s most p i t i l e s s and h a r d . " But the r e s u l t s of such a p o l ic y were v a r i e d . Among v a r i o u s l i n e s of m a n u fa ctu rin g under D iaz, th e number of t e x t i l e f a c t o r i e s and employees was alm ost the same a t a l l tim e s. There was o nly one i n d u s t r y which was alw ays i n th e ascendency^ the m anufacture of a lc o h o l. The v a lu e of th e o u tp u t of th e s e a r t i c l e s was about s i x m i l l i o n d o l l a r s in 1892 and over f o r t y - e i g h t m i l l i o n i n 1906. In the b r i e f space of f iv e y e a r s , the v a lu e of the p ro d u c tio n per year of corn a lc o h o l in c r e a s e d from $430,000 to $ 2 ,5 8 4 ,9 2 3 . U n f o rtu n a te ly , the g r e a t e r the h o p e le s s n e s s and w re tc h e d n e ss of M exicans, the g r e a t e r was the consum ption of a lc o h o l. The Diaz government g ra n te d ta x exem ptions to t h i s i n d u s t r y T ,under th e p r e t e x t t h a t i t i s w e ll to h e lp new i n d u s t r i e s , even i f th ey poison 33 th e p o p u l a t i o n . ” Having a llu d e d to th e problem of conces s i o n s , Gonzalez now tu rn e d to an e x p lo r a ti o n o f the s u b je c t in some d e t a i l . C oncessions were a v i t a l p a r t o f m an u factu rin g under D iaz, s a id th e a u th o r . Governments founded upon c a p i ta l is m needed to g r a n t e x tr a o r d in a r y p r o t e c t i o n to c a p i t a l . In a n a ti o n when such c a p i t a l d id not e x i s t or would only be i n v e ste d in a g r i c u l t u r e , t h i s p r o t e c t i o n had to be g ran te d to f o r e i g n c a p i t a l . U nless a t t r a c t e d by g r e a t p r o f i t s , f o r e i g n c a p i t a l would n o t come to a c o u n try such as M exico. The g e n e ra l p o v e rty of the people and d e f i c i e n c i e s in s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n were th e re a so n s why c a p i t a l i s t s c o n sid ere d them selves p r i v i l e g e d b e in g s and re f u s e d to subm it to th e o rd in a ry laws of th e la n d . In th e case of Mexico under D iaz, i f to th e s e f a c t o r s one added ” the r a p a c i t y of c e r t a i n 33 Ibid., pp. 31-3. 290 p o l i t i c i a n s to amass w e a l t h , ” even though M exico were s o ld out f o r a p i t t a n c e , th e n one c o u ld u n d e r s ta n d why th e c o n c e s s i o n sy ste m was founded i n th e c o u n tr y . A c c o rd in g to t h i s sy ste m , m o tiv e pow er, w a te r f lo w s , s tr e a m s , p u b l i c u t i l i t i e s , and m a n u f a c tu r in g w ere g r a n t e d to f o r e i g n e r s , " f r e q u e n t l y u n d e r . . . m o n o p o lie s and . . . s p e c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n w hich in e v e ry c ase p la c e d th e c o n c e s s i o n a i r e o u t s i d e th e common l a w .” The e v i l was g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d b e c a u se of D i a z ’ s g e n e r o s i t y tow ard h i s f r i e n d s . G onzalez r e c a l l e d t h a t he e n c o u n te re d a s e n te n c e i n a M exi can new spaper w h ich s a id t h a t D iaz ” d id n o t h e s i t a t e t o d e c l a r e t h a t he had g iv e n a c o n c e s s io n t o a Mr. P r i e t o f o r mere f r i e n d s h i p ’ s s a k e . ” A c co rd in g to M aca u lay , any r u l e r who g r a n te d a l l t h a t th e y asked t o h i s f r i e n d s was n o t f i t t o r u l e . D iaz gave so many d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f c o n c e s s i o n s , w ro te G o n z ale z, t h a t i t was i m p o s s i b l e — t o r e f e r t o them a l l i n d e t a i l . But a few exam ples would be g i v e n . As a ” t y p i - c a l monopoly exam ple” G onzalez c i t e d th e c a s e of th e Mexico C i t y s l a u g h t e r h o u s e s . The p r i v i l e g e o f m anaging them was g r a n te d t o a f o r e i g n company, w h ic h had th e r i g h t to ch arg e a c e r t a i n sum f o r e a c h a n im al k i l l e d . The c o r p o r a t i o n s e t up und er th e term s o f th e c o n c e s s io n had l e s s th a n two m il l i o n p eso s i n v e s t e d , b u t i t o v e r c a p i t a l i z e d i t s e l f to th e tu n e o f t h i r t y - f i v e m i l l i o n . N a t u r a l l y , i t had to r e s o r t to e v e r y e x p e d ie n t to pay i n t e r e s t on t h i s huge q u a n t i t y o f 291 " w a t e r . ” I t s e c r e t l y b ro u g h t i n a n im als from the h i n t e r l a n d s , to th e d e tr im e n t of Mexican b u t c h e r s , a g a i n s t whom i t waged a war to th e d e a t h . I t made a monopoly of th e b lo o d , h a i r , and b r i s t l e s of a n im a ls , and made th e consum ption of l a r d i n Mexico C ity im p o s s ib le b y . r e s t r i c t i n g the s a l e and s l a u g h t e r of h o gs. M aster o f th e f i e l d , i t th en began to s e l l as l a r d " a n o x io u s g re a se which was d e t r i m e n t a l to th e d i g e s t i v e o r g a n s ." Much could be s a id of th e c o n c e s s io n s f o r making dynam ite and many o t h e r p r o d u c t s , "b u t we would n e v er e n d ." The r e s u l t of th e c o n c e s s io n system was t h a t Mexico was c o n s id e re d a co lony i n h a b i t e d by v e ry i n f e r i o r b e in g s , s u b j e c t to th e demands and c a p r i c e of c a p i t a l i s m . F o re ig n c a p i t a l f r e q u e n t l y re g a rd e d M exicans as i f th ey were i n th e Congo, where la r g e amounts of iv o r y were r e q u i r e d , "even i f th e s h o u ld e r s o f s l a v e s should re e k w ith b l o o d ." E v e ry th in g was a llo w a b le a g a i n s t M exicans, and t h e i r r i c h e s could be tr a d e d f o r a few g l a s s b e a d s . I t was th e men of c a p i t a l who a p p li e d th e code o f m o r a ls , "one f o r th e m se lv e s i n f o r e i g n 34 p a r t s , and one f o r us [M exicans]' in our own c o u n tr y ." U n lik e o th e r a u t h o r s , G onzalez Roa advanced a d e f i n i t e remedy f o r th e s e i l l s . D i a z 's p o l i c i e s had been d i s a s t r o u s . I t was u s e l e s s t o e x p e c t t h a t M exican c a p i t a l i s t s would d e v o te th em se lv e s h o n e s t ly to b u s i n e s s and 34Ibid., pp. 53-5. 292 m a n u fa c tu rin g . The sm a ll landow ners would n o t be a b le to c r e a t e la r g e f a c t o r i e s e x c e p t th ro u g h c o r p o r a t i o n s ; th ro u g h sad e x p e rie n c e M exicans knew t h a t i t was b e t t e r t h a t such c o r p o r a t io n s n o t be o rg a n iz e d w h ile p r e s e n t laws were in f o r c e . No one c o u ld c a l c u l a t e how many e v i l s "our r u l e r s ” could have saved Mexico had th ey fa v o re d s m a ll i n d u s t r i e s . As i t w as, huge sums had b een in v e s te d in Mexican f a c t o r i e s , and the c a p i t a l had b een w a te re d g r e a t l y . I t had been n e c e s s a r y t o g rin d th e M exican p e o p le down by c h a rg in g e x o r b i t a n t p r i c e s to pay f o r th e i n t e r e s t c h a rg e s on th e c a p i t a l in v o lv e d i n m a n u fa c tu rin g e n t e r p r i s e s . N a t u r a l l y , i t was im p o s sib le to e x te n d m a rk e ts f o r m a n u fa c tu re d goods i n Mex i c o , a lan d where " t h e f a c t o r i e s th e m se lv e s have [had] co n t r i b u t e d to re n d e r th e p e o p le d a i l y more m i s e r a b l e . " Sm all i n d u s t r i e s were r e q u i r e d to le a d Mexico o ut of th e w ild e r n e s s i n t o which she had w andered. To d e v elo p them, Mexico had most abundant raw m a t e r i a l s , more or l e s s i m p e r f e c tl y d i s t r i b u t e d . Labor was " e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c h e a p ," to o cheap in f a c t ; "our workmen sh o u ld r e c e i v e a re a s o n a b le sh a re of th e p r o f i t . " As r e g a rd e d th e q u a l i t y of Mexican h a n d c r a f t s , M exicans had alw ays sto o d out a s s k i l l f u l a r t i s a n s . Mexican n a t i v e s had p re s e rv e d a l l of th e s m a ll i n d u s t r i e s which th e S p a n ish l e f t them , even though many of them had n e a r l y d ie d o u t, due to th e e s t a b l is h m e n t of m a n u fa c tu r in g on a l a r g e s c a l e . But Mexico c o u ld and needed t o r e t u r n t o the p a s t , and t h i s was th e remedy t h a t G onzalez Roa 293 35 f a d v is e d . G o n z a le z Ts long a c c o u n t of m a n u fa c tu rin g was fo llo w e d s i x y e a rs l a t e r b y a much s h o r t e r one, a p p e a rin g i n The M exican Mind: A Study of N a tio n a l P sy ch o lo g y (1 9 2 2 ). T h is book was by W allace Thompson, a w r i t e r whom th e r e a d e r has p r e v i o u s ly seen w r i t i n g f a v o r a b l y ab o u t D ia z . No re a s o n can be g iv en f o r Thompson’ s t a k i n g an a n t i - D i a z approach in t h i s book, when he was p r e v i o u s l y g e n e r a l l y f a v o r a b l e . Thompson’ s im p re s s io n o f m a n u f a c tu r in g d u rin g th e Diaz p e rio d as e x p re ss e d i n The M exican Mind was b r i e f in th e e x tre m e , b u t i n t e r e s t i n g . The o n ly n o t a t i o n of m anufac t u r i n g under Diaz was in r e g a rd to th e c o tt o n w o r k e r s ’ s t r i k e i n O riza b a in 1907, to w hich Thompson r e f e r r e d as " th e sudden c r u e l t i e s of h i s [ D i a z ’ s] m urder of the s t r i k i n g workmen in th e O riza b a c o t t o n m i l l s " - - a charg e a t l e a s t as c l e a r as any e x p re s s e d by T u r n e r , G u t i e r r e z de L a ra , or F o rn a ro . Thompson added t h a t t h i s m urder was one of the f a c t o r s b r i n g in g abo ut th e f a l l from power o f P o r f i r i o Dfaz < 3 A s e v e r a l y e a r s l a t e r . He l e f t h i s r e a d e r s a t t h a t p o i n t . The f o llo w in g y e ar saw th e a p p e a ra n c e o f a much lo n g e r s tu d y , c o n ta in e d in one of C a r le to n B e a l s ’ e a r l i e r b oo k s, M exicot An I n t e r p r e t a t i o n (1 9 2 3 ). B e als i n n o ted as an a u th o r and l e c t u r e r . He was ~^I b i d . , pp. 34-6. A W allace Thompson, The Mexican Mind: A Study of N a tio n a l P sychology (B o sto n : L i t t l e , Brown, and Company, 1 9 2 2 ;, p. 238. 294 b o rn i n M e d icin e Lodge, K a n sa s, i n 1893- He r e c e i v e d a B a c h e lo r o f A r t s d e g re e cum la u d e from th e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a (1 9 1 6 ) and h i s M a s te r o f A r t s d e g re e from C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y i n th e f o l l o w i n g y e a r . He a l s o s t u d i e d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of M adrid i n 1920, th e J I n i v e r s i t y o f Rome i n 1922, and t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M exico i n 1923. B e a ls s e rv e d a s d i r e c t o r o f th e E n g l i s h P r e p a r a t o r y I n s t i t u t e , M exico C i t y , i n 1919, and as p r i n c i p a l o f th e A m erican High S c h o o l, M exico C i t y , i n 1919-19 20. I n th e l a t t e r y e a r he was a l s o an i n s t r u c t o r on th e p e r s o n a l s t a f f o f V e n u s tia n o C a r r a n z a . In 1924, he s e r v e d a s a l e c t u r e r o f th e New York Board o f E d u c a t i o n . I n th e f o l lo w in g y e a r he a c c e p te d a p o s i t i o n a s a s s o c i a t e d e d i t o r o f M exican F o l k ways , a p o s t w hich he h e ld u n t i l 1937. He was a l s o a s s o c i a t e e d i t o r o f t h e L a tin -A m e ric a n P r e s s S y n d ic a te (1 9 3 3 - 1 9 3 4 ), and p r e s i d e n t o f th e e d i t o r i a l b o a rd o f L a t i n - A m erican D i g e s t (1 9 3 4 -1 9 3 6 ) . D u rin g t h e s e y e a r s he a l s o foun d tim e to be c o n t r i b u t i n g e d i t o r o f Common Sense (1 9 3 3 - 1 9 4 1 ), Modern M on thly ( 1 9 3 5 - 1 9 3 7 ) , and C u r r e n t H i s t o r y ( 1 9 3 9 ) . He was a l s o a member o f th e a d v i s o r y b o a rd o f L iv in g Age (1 9 3 3 - 1 9 3 5 ) , and a d v i s o r y e d i t o r o f C o n tr o v e r s y i n th e l a t t e r y e a r . Y et he s t i l l fo u n d s u f f i c i e n t tim e f o r o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s i n t h r e e a r e a s , new spaper w o rk , l e c t u r i n g , and w r i t i n g . In th e fo rm er f i e l d , B e a ls began a s a c o r r e s p o n d e n t in I t a l y (1 9 2 0 - 1 9 2 2 ) , t h e n s e rv e d s u c c e s s i v e l y in M exico (1 9 2 3 , 295 1925-1928, 1930-1932, 1937, 1946, 1 9 6 1 ), C e n t r a l Am erica (1 9 2 7 -1 9 2 8 ; i n th e l a t t e r y e a r he was i n N ic a ra g u a w ith S a n d i n o ) , S p a in , N orth A f r i c a , I t a l y , T u rk ey , R u s s i a , Germany (1 9 2 9 ), Cuba (1 9 3 2 -1 9 3 3 , 1935, 1957, 1 9 5 9 -1 9 6 1 ), Panama, C olom bia, E cu a d o r, and P e ru (1 9 3 4 , 1946, 1961). He was a l s o a r e s e a r c h e r f o r th e H ousing A u t h o r i t y i n New Haven, C o n n e c tic u t (1 9 5 4 -1 9 6 0 ), a s p e c i a l c o r r e s p o n d e n t f o r th e New York P o s t a t th e S c o t t s b o r o (Alabam a) t r i a l (1 9 3 6 ), a member of e x p e d i t i o n s t o v a r i o u s I n d i a n r e g i o n s i n Mexico ( 1 9 3 0 -1 9 3 1 ), and s p e c i a l c o rr e s p o n d e n t t o A r g e n ti n a , C h i le , B o l i v i a , and Peru (1 9 4 6 ) , t o H a i t i (1 9 5 7 , 1959, 1961), and to C olom bia, B r a z i l , P a ra g u a y , V e n e z u e la , B r i t i s h C olum bia, and U ruguay (1 9 6 1 ). B e a ls has done much i n th e f i e l d o f l e c t u r i n g - He spoke on M exican-A m erican r e l a t i o n s ( 1 9 2 7 ) , c o n d u cted a sem inar on r e l a t i o n s w ith Mexico (1 9 2 5 -1 9 2 8 , 1 9 3 0 -1 9 3 1 ), l e c t u r e d on C e n tr a l A m erica a t th e N a t io n a l U n i v e r s i t y of Mexico. (1 9 2 8 ) , was a f a c u l t y l e c t u r e r on modern Mexico and th e C a rib b e a n a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a ( 1 9 3 3 ), and 37 l e c t u r e d i n L a t i n A m erican u n i v e r s i t i e s (1 9 6 1 ) . B e a ls h as w r i t t e n an immense number of b o o k s. These w r i t i n g s began i n th e 19 20Ts and have c o n tin u e d up to th e p r e s e n t tim e . They i n c lu d e d th e p r e s e n t book, as w e l l a s ~ M exico: An I n t e r p r e t a t i o n ( 1 9 2 3 ), Rome or D e ath : The S to ry 37Who*s Who in America, XXXIII (1964-1965), 132. 296 of Fascism (1 9 2 3 ), B rim stone and C h i l l t A Book of P e r s o n a l E x p e rie n c e s i n th e S outhw est and i n Mexico (1 9 2 7 ), D e s tro y ing V ic to r (n o v el} 19 29), Mexican Maze (1 9 3 1 ), P o r f i r i o D iaz, D i c t a t o r of Mexico (1 9 3 2 ) , The Crime of Cuba (1 9 3 3 ), A m erica South (1 9 3 7 ), The Coming S tr u g g le f o r L a t i n A m erica (1 9 3 8 ), Pan A m erica (1 9 4 0 ), Rio Grande to Cape Horn ( 1 9 4 3 ), Our Yankee H e r ita g e (1 9 5 5 ), and Wfar “ W ith in a War; The Con f e d e r a c y A g a in s t I t s e l f (1 9 6 5 ). B e als assumed a g e n e r a l a n t i - P o r f i r i a n to n e in M exicoi An I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a phenomenon a ls o seen in M exican Maze and P o r f i r i o D ia z . The l a t t e r was a s t y l i s t i c m a s te rp ie c e and one o f th e f i n e s t s t u d i e s of D iaz, b u t t h i s b i a s p r e v e n te d i t , i n my judgm ent, from b e in g a g r e a t b io g ra p h y . Why B e a ls sh o u ld have been a n t i - D i a z i s somewhat d i f f i c u l t t o e x p la in w ith th e f a c t s a t hand. His v i - s i ts to r e v o l u t i o n a r y M exico, in c l u d i n g h i s s t u d i e s in th e U n i v e r s i ty and h i s d u t i e s w ith th e C a rra n z a governm ent may have p r o v id e d a n sw e rs. At any r a t e , B e a ls was c r i t i c a l o f m anufac t u r i n g under Diaz i n M exico: An I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a s w e l l as in o th e r books o u t s i d e th e scope of t h i s s tu d y . Speaking of m a n u fa c tu rin g d u rin g th e Diaz epo ch , B e a ls began by s t a t i n g t h a t th e P r e s i d e n t ’’was i n th e g r i p of a b e l a t e d i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n t h a t no man could have f o r e s t a l l e d . ” He d id n o t s t a r t a n y th in g , b u t "m ere ly a c c e l e r a t e d an i n e v i t a b l e p r o c e s s . ” The v i r t u e s of th e D iaz ad m i n i s t r a t i o n were o n ly i n c i d e n t a l t o th e e v i l s i t in tro d u c e d . 297 The d i c t a t o r a tte m p te d to f i x w e s te rn i n d u s t r i a l i s m on a people of I n d i a n - O r i e n t a l r o o t s , s te e p e d i n the t r a d i t i o n s of communalism. He d e li v e r e d th e c o u n try over t o the e x p l o i t e r from a b ro a d . But now B eals seemed t o change h i s ap pro ach, f o r he added t h a t , in d oing th e above, Diaz M must to -d a y re c e iv e the c r e d i t f o r th e i n d u s t r i a l e x p a n sio n o f Mexico, f o r . . . the e s ta b lis h m e n t of f a c t o r i e s . " S t i l l , Diaz f a i l e d to couple tr a n s f o r m a tio n i n t h i s sp h e re w ith a p r o g r e s s iv e r e a d ju stm e n t of n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , e d u c a tio n o f the Mexi can psychology , and b ro ad e n in g o f p o l i t i c a l p r i v i l e g e . The r e s u l t was t h a t most of th e b e n e f i t s in tro d u c e d by h is ad m i n i s t r a t i o n were "sw allowed up in th e h u r r ic a n e of te n y e a rs of r e v o l u t i o n ." * ^ Diaz a c c e l e r a t e d the i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n in Mexi co, b u t t o such an e x te n t t h a t he d i s a s t r o u s l y s h a t t e r e d the s o c i a l o r d e r . N e ith e r s o c i a l l y , r a c i a l l y , te m p e ra m e n ta lly , nor e d u c a t i o n a l l y were th e p e o p le of Mexico p re p a re d f o r the "trem endous b reak w ith the t r a d i t i o n s of c e n t u r i e s " which 39 D ia z t s p o l i c i e s s i g n i f i e d . One o f the most im p o rta n t of th e s e p o l i c i e s was the g r a n tin g of c o n c e ssio n s t o w ould-be i n v e s t o r s . The Diaz T O C a r le to n B e a ls , Mexicot An I n t e r p r e t a t i o n (New York: B. W. Huebsch, I n c . ” 1923.), pp. 49-50 . 39 Ibid., pp. 83-4. g r a n t s in c lu d e d i n d u s t r i a l c o n c e s s io n s , l o a n s , g u a r a n te e s , and s u b s i d i e s . D uring th e Diaz regim e ’'American [ f i n a n c i a l ] 40 c o n t r o l was l a r g e l y g a in e d ” i n M exico. Not t h a t A m ericans were th e only f o r e i g n e r s r e s i d e n t i n M exico. O th e rs were t h e r e t o o , in c lu d in g th e F re n c h . The p r o p r i e t o r of "E l Buen T ono," th e l a r g e s t to b a c c o -m a n u fa c tu rin g c o r p o r a t i o n in Mex ic o , d id r a t h e r w e l l . He became "one of th e g u id in g s p i r i t s " among th e shadowy c liq u e su rro u n d in g Diaz known as th e C i e n t i f i c o s . He s u rv iv e d th e R e v o lu tio n and in 1923 was 41 s t i l l " a la r g e em ployer of l a b o r . " M a n u fa c tu rin g under D iaz saw th e su b m ersio n o f th e w o rk e r. S ta n d in g a t " th e t u r n i n g - p o i n t of h i s c o u n t r y 's economic l i f e , " D iaz, by h i s o l i g a r c h i c r u l e , u nd u ly h a s ten ed an i n e v i t a b l e economic p r o c e s s , an economic r e v o l u t i o n . But t h i s r e v o l u t i o n b ro u g h t s e v e r a l changes in i t s t r a i n . I t b ro u g h t a grow th o f i n d u s t r y , to be s u r e . But i t a ls o b ro u g h t " r u t h l e s s e n c l o s u r e s , " and such sudden c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n th e n a t i o n a l system t h a t th e M adero-Obregon r e v o l u t i o n e r u p t e d . Along w ith t h a t r e v o l u t i o n , th e econom i c p r o c e s s under Diaz b ro u g h t about th e c r e a t i o n of a m is e r a b le M exican p r o l e t a r i a t . T h is was only l o g i c a l . The ad v en t o f th e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n had alw ays been accom panied by " th e w o rs t t r e a t ment o f l a b o r . " A new i n d u s t r y in a n o n - i n d u s t r i a l n a t i o n 4°Ibid., p. 233. 41Ibid., p. 221. 299 i n v a r i a b l y g a th e r e d i t s em ployees from th e r a n k s o f th e d i s p o s s e s s e d , u n s k i l l e d a g r a r i a n w o rk e rs, th e o n ly so u rce of la b o r a v a i l a b l e to i t . S ta n d a rd s o f low pay were fu rth er^ low ered by a r e l e n t l e s s p r o c e s s of economic e v o l u t i o n , by l a n d - e n c l o s u r e s , by th e c o m p e titio n o f a g l u t t e d la b o r - m a rk e t. Such a new p r o l e t a r i a t as r e s u l t e d from th e i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s r e q u i r e d tim e and e x p e r ie n c e i f i t were to l e a r n m ethods of o r g a n i z a t i o n . H i s t o r y i n d i c a t e d t h a t p o o rly p a id la b o r was th e l e a s t a g g r e s s iv e and th e s lo w e s t t o o rg a n iz e among a l l s e c t o r s of l a b o r . The c o n d it i o n s of Mexican f a c t o r y l a b o r in th e tim e of D iaz "clam ored f o r b e tte r m e n t th ro u g h some form of w o r k in g - c la s s o r g a n i z a t i o n . " U n f o r t u n a t e l y , needed a c t i v i t i e s on th e p a r t of th e w orking c l a s s were p r e v e n te d , b o th by th e v e ry im m a tu rity of t h a t c l a s s and by " th e a b s o lu tis m o f th e G overnm ent." The D iaz regim e was q u ic k to stamp out s t r i k e s among f a c t o r y w o rk e rs " w ith b loo d and i r o n , " as in th e case o f th e t e x t i l e w orkers i n O r iz a b a . The road to la b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n was re n d e re d even more d i f f i c u l t by th e L a t in o p p o s i t i o n to a c e n t r a l i z e d la b o r a s s o c i a t i o n , by r a c i a l tem peram ent, and by m utual s u s p i c i o n caused by th e d a n g er of a r r e s t , a r b i t r a r y c o n s c r i p t i o n , or even a s s a s s i n a t i o n by th e governm ent. A l l of th e s e f a c t o r s le d t o a " d i s t r u s t o f a g g r e s s iv e l a b o r - s p i r i t s , " to f r e q u e n t schism s i n th e ra n k s of l a b o r , and to a p a u c ity o f e n th u s ia sm f o r and s u s ta i n e d 300 i n t e r e s t i n l a b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s . The few u n io n s o r g a n iz e d p r i o r t o 1910 had no p o w e r, no im p o r t a n c e , no i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Had l a b o r b e e n c a p a b ly o r g a n i z e d , th e s t o r y o f th e 1910-1920 d e ca d e m ig h t n o t have r e a c h e d th e s o r d i d d e p t h s o f d e g r a d a t i o n w hich i t d i d . The r e v o l u t i o n o f M adero c u t lo o s e " e v e r y s o c i a l f o r c e w h ic h had b e e n d e n ie d e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h i r t y y e a r s . " I n th e c a se of t h e p r o l e t a r i a t , t h i s 42 m eant t h a t i t was s u d d e n ly f r e e to o r g a n i z e . B e a ls b r i e f l y m en tio n ed two e x am p le s i l l u s t r a t i n g _ m a n u f a c tu r in g c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r D ia z . One o f t h e s e was th e c o n c e s s i o n - g r a b i n th e s t a t e of M exico. The ite m i n c o n t e n t i o n h e re was t i m b e r . The p a p e r f a c t o r i e s o f San R a f a e l and A nexas o b ta in e d tim b e r c o n c e s s io n s fro m th e s t a t e , and "w renched away" th e v i l l a g e h o l d i n g s o f t h a t commodity i n 43 th e a r e a . The c a se o f su g a r cane i l l u s t r a t e d l a b o r p r o b lem s u n d e r D ia z . The c o n d i t i o n s o f l a b o r i n t h i s i n d u s t r y w ere " t o o n o t o r i o u s t o m e n t i o n ." The w o rk e rs who p ro d u c e d th e su g a r were u n a b le t o consume i t , s i n c e w ith t h e i r wages 44 t h e y co u ld n o t a f f o r d t o p u r c h a s e i t . B e a ls c l o s e d on t h a t n o t e . The n e x t work c i t e d a l s o d a te d from 1923. I t was by E . J . D i l l o n , and c a r r i e d t h e a l t o g e t h e r u n l i k e l y t i t l e o f P r e s i d e n t O bregon--A W orld R e f o rm e r . Em ile J o s e p h D i l l o n was b o r n i n 1855 and d ie d i n 42Ibid., pp. 131-3. 44 . Ibid., p. 104. 43 Ibid., p. 48. 301 1933. He was b o rn in I r e l a n d , and was o f E n g l i s h - I r i s h d e s c e n t . D i l l o n was e d u c a te d i n P a r i s and a t th e u n i v e r s i t i e s o f I n n s b r u c k , L e i p z i g , T u b ig e n , P e t r o g r a d (fro m w hich he ob t a i n e d th e d e g re e o f M a ste r o f O r i e n t a l L a n g u a g e s ), L ouvain (w here he r e c e i v e d a d e g re e a s D o cto r o f O r i e n t a l Languages and L i t e r a t u r e ) , and th e U n i v e r s i t y of K harkov (where he was awarded th e d e g r e e s of M a ste r and D o ctor o f C om parative P h i l o l o g y ) . Much o f D i l l o n 1s l i f e was s p e n t i n C z a r i s t R u s s ia . He founded Le Museon t h e r e in 1885, th e n became f o r e i g n ed i t o r o f th e O d e ssa M essenger i n 1888, and l a t e r e d i t o r of th e O dessa News. He s e rv e d as a s p e c i a l c o r r e s p o n d e n t in A rm enia d u rin g 1894 and 1895, in S p a in b e f o r e and d u r in g th e S p a n ish -A m e ric an War, i n C r e t e , i n F ran ce d u r in g th e D re y fu s A f f a i r , and i n C h in a, a p p a r e n t l y d u r in g th e Boxer R e b e l l i o n . D uring th e P o rtsm o u th Peace C o n fe re n c e he was employed as th e a d v i s o r to Count W itte - D i l l o n w ro te in a v a r i e t y o f la n g u a g e s , p ro d u c in g w orks in German, F rench and R u s s ia n , e s p e c i a l l y on la n g u a g e , r e l i g i o n , p h i l o l o g y , and th e F i r s t World War. At an u n d e te rm in e d p e r i o d , he l e f t R u s s ia f o r th e l a s t tim e and s p e n t h i s f i n a l y e a r s -in L o n d o n . D i l l o n fs books in c lu d e d Rus s i a n T r a i t s and T e r r o r s ( w r i t t e n u nder th e pseudonym E. J . L a n in , 189 1 ), The E c l ip s e o f R u s s ia (1 9 1 8 ) , The Peace 45WhoTs Who, 1933, p. 893. 302 C o n fe re n ce ( 1 9 1 9 ), The I n s i d e S t o r y of th e Peace C o n fe re n ce ( 1 9 2 0 ) , Mexico on th e Verge ( 1 9 2 1 ) , and t h e book now under r e v ie w , P r e s i d e n t O bregon—A W orld R eform er (1 9 2 3 ). Why d id a m a s te r o f c o m p a ra tiv e p h i l o l o g y , e d u c a te d and long employed i n R u s s ia , b o t h e r t o w r i t e a b o u t P r e s i d e n t Obregon and m a n u fa c tu rin g u n d e r D iaz i n M exico? In d e e d , why d id such an a u th o r a d o p t a p ro -O b re g o n , a n t i - D i a z a p p ro ach ? P a r t o f th e answer was found i n D i l l o n ’ s e a r l i e r w ork, Mex ic o on th e V e rg e . H e re, D i l l o n m a n if e s te d a d i s l i k e f o r C a r r a n z a , whom he c o n s id e r e d a d i c t a t o r . Under h i s re g im e , f o r e i g n i n t e r e s t s b r i b e d M exican p o l i t i c i a n s f o r t h e i r own p u r p o s e s . The a u th o r heaved a s i g h o f r e l i e f , f o r Obregon was now in power, a man whom he a d m ire d . Now m a t t e r s were b e in g r e p a i r e d i n M exico. He accom panied Obregon on h i s e l e c t o r a l cam paign th r o u g h c e n t r a l and s o u th e r n M exico, and he showed t h a t he was im p re ssed w ith O b re g o n ’ s t r a v e l i n g in s e c o n d - c l a s s r a i l road accom m odations and m in g lin g w i t h th e common p e o p le . How d i f f e r e n t t h i s was from th e C a rra n z a p e r i o d w hich D i l l o n had s e e n , when t r a i n s had to be e s c o r t e d , when th e p e o p le were ground down by heavy e x a c t i o n s , t e r r o r i z e d by g o v e rn - 46 ment s o l d i e r s and r e b e l s a l i k e , when s t a g n a t i o n r u l e d ! I f D i l l o n d i s l i k e d C a r r a n z a , whom he c o n s i d e r e d to be a ^ E . J . D i l l o n , Mexico on th e V erge (New Y ork: D oran, 1921), pp. 1 5-1 9 . 303 d i c t a t o r , and th e Mexico of h i s re g im e , m ight n o t th e same have h e ld t r u e f o r P o r f i r i o D iaz and th e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of h i s p e r i o d , i n c lu d in g t h a t of m a n u fa c tu rin g ? In my ju d g m ent, t h i s was in deed th e c a s e . I n P r e s i d e n t O bregon--A World R e fo rm e r, D i l lo n w ro te t h a t , u n d er D ia z , th e p o r t s o f Mexico were b u i l t or r e p a i r e d and th e n throw n open t o commerce. F o re ig n money was i n v e r t ed' in v a r i o u s e n t e r p r i s e s , and Mexican c r e d i t " th r o v e and waxed g r e a t . " Due p a r t l y to th e b ack w ard n ess of th e n a t i v e i n h a b i t a n t s , b u t due m ain ly t o th e s o l i d a r i t y w hich e x i s t e d among th e f o r e i g n e lem en t i n M exico, many o f the m a n u f a c tu r ing and o th e r c o n c e rn s w hich were e s t a b l i s h e d under Diaz "to o k on th e a p p ea ra n c e o f f o r e i g n m o n o p o lie s of c a p i t a l and of l a b o r . " M exicans were n o t e x c lu d e d from th e s e u n d e r t a k i n g s , b u t were c h i e f l y employed in th e lower and lo w e st jo b s 47 and w ere t r e a t e d as i n f e r i o r s . D i l l o n co n clu ded h e re . A somewhat lo n g e r r e f e r e n c e t o th e problem of m a n u fa c tu rin g under Diaz may be found i n The S o c ia l R e v o lu tio n i n Mexico (1 9 2 3 ), by Edward A lsw o rth R o ss. Ross was b orn i n 1866 and d ie d in 1951. H is b i r t h p la c e was V ird e n , I l l i n o i s . He r e c e i v e d h i s B ach elo r o f A r t s d e g re e from Coe C o lle g e (Iow a) i n 1886, a tte n d e d th e U n i v e r s i t y of B e r l i n d u r in g 1888 and 1889, and o b ta in e d a 47 E. J . D i l l o n , P r e s i d e n t O bregon--A World Reform er - fB o s to n : S m a ll, Maynard and Company, P u b l i s h e r s , 1923.), p . 56. 304 D octo r o f P h ilo so p h y d e g re e from Jo h n s H opkins in 1891. D uring th e fo llo w in g y e a r he m a r r i e d . Ross was p r i m a r i l y n o ted as a s o c i o l o g i s t . He began h i s c a r e e r , however, as a p r o f e s s o r o f econom ics a t In d ia n a U n i v e r s i t y (1 8 9 1 -1 8 9 2 ). From I n d i a n a , he moved on to become an a s s o c i a t e p r o f e s s o r o f economy and f in a n c e a t C o r n e ll (18 92-18 93) and a p r o f e s so r of s o c i o lo g y a t S ta n fo r d ( 1 8 9 3- 1 9 0 0) and the U n i v e r s i t y o f N ebraska (1 9 0 1 -1 9 0 6 ). In th e l a t t e r y e a r Ross became a p r o f e s s o r o f s o c io lo g y a t th e U n i v e r s i t y of W isco n sin , a p o s i t i o n w hich he h e ld u n t i l 1937. Ross was d i r e c t o r o f e d u c a ti o n on "The F l o a t i n g U ni v e r s i t y 1 ' d u rin g 1928 and 1929. He was employed in th e same c a p a c i ty a t N o rth w e ste rn U n i v e r s i t y te n y e a r s l a t e r . He a l s o se rv e d as p r e s i d e n t of th e A m erican S o c io lo g y S o c ie ty i n 1914 and 1915, and was a d v is o r y e d i t o r o f th e Am erican J o u r n a l of S o c io lo g y from 1895 u n t i l h i s d e a t h . H is f i r s t book was H onest D o l l a r s , p u b lis h e d i n 1896. O th e rs f o l lowed, in c lu d in g South o f Panama (1915) and New Age S o c io lo gy (1 9 4 0 ), h i s l a s t b o o k . I n a d d i t i o n , he c o n tr i b u te d nu merous a r t i c l e s t o economic and s o c i o l o g i c a l j o u r n a l s and 48 l i t e r a r y p e r i o d i c a l s . Ross l i v e d i n M adison, W isco n sin . U n f o r t u n a t e ly , no r e a s o n can be g iv e n w ith any a s s u ra n c e as t o why h i s acco u n t of m a n u fa c tu rin g d u rin g Diaz was g e n e r a l ly u n f a v o r a b le . 4R Who's Who in America, XXVI (1950-1951), 2361. 305 Ross s t a t e d t h a t Diaz ru le d from 1884 to 1911. The r e a d e r was given no i n d i c a t i o n as to who r u le d d u rin g 1876- 1880. D iaz d i d , of c o u rs e , b u t the r e a d e r would never r e a l iz e t h i s from th e w r i t i n g s o f Mr. R oss. At any r a t e , d u rin g th e f i r s t h a l f of th e p e rio d ru n n in g from 1884 to 1911, D iaz ’'co n ceiv ed of th e p r o g r e s s o f Mexico i n m a t e r i a l t e r m s . ’* A c c o rd in g ly , he d i r e c t e d h is a t t e n t i o n to economic d e v e lo p m ent, s u b o r d in a tin g e v e r y th in g to th e c o n s t r u c t i o n of r a i l ways, h a r b o r s , d o c k s, and o t h e r p u b l ic w orks. He a ls o made g r e a t e f f o r t s to lu r e f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i n t o Mexico to open m ines and m u lt i p ly th e number of f a c t o r i e s a lr e a d y e x i s t - 49 m g . But what happened? In the D iaz q u e s t fo r d e v e lo p m ent, th e v i l l a g e s of Mexico were no lo n g er se c u re in th e p o s s e s s io n of ’’th e tim e -h a llo w e d common l a n d s , ” g ran te d to them by the King of S p a in two or t h r e e hundred y e a rs b e f o r e . For exam ple, in th e s t a t e of M o re lo s, s a id R o ss, he was shown a v i l l a g e up in th e h i l l s which had p r e v i o u s ly owned a f i n e sta n d o f f o r e s t . During the D iaz p e r i o d , th e owner of a la r g e e s t a t e b o r d e r in g the v i l l a g e s e t up a saw m ill. S ince he lack ed s u f f i c i e n t tim b e r o f h i s own to keep i t bu sy, he made the v i l l a g e r s an o f f e r f o r t h e i r woods. I t was r e j e c t e d , f o r " th e In d ia n s hang [hung] on to th e s e 49 Edward A lsw o rth R o ss, The S o c i a l R e v o lu tio n i n Mexico (New York: The C en tu ry Company^ 1923) , pp. 150-1. a n c ie n t g r a n t s w i t h a d e a th g r i p . ” Now the governm ent i n t e r v e n e d . I t so happened t h a t the G overnor of M orelos was a n a ti v e o f th e same v i l l a g e . Having r i s e n to th e p o i n t of becoming a companion in h u n tin g to P r e s i d e n t D ia z , he b ro u g h t p r e s s u r e t o b e a r . C o nsequ en t l y , th e head men of th e v i l l a g e , ”a f t e r t r y i n g in v a in t o o b ta in l e g a l p r o t e c t i o n of t h e i r r i g h t s , ” f e l t c o n s tr a in e d to a c c e p t th e p a l t r y sum o f f e r e d to them by th e owner o f the a d ja c e n t m i l l . E verybody supposed t h a t the m a tte r was now c lo s e d , b u t th e y were m is ta k e n . Some tim e l a t e r th e governor s e n t word t h a t he d e s i r e d t o see th e tw elve head men p e r t a i n i n g to some a f f a i r r e l a t e d to t h e i r v i l l a g e . They came, th e m a tte r was d is c u s s e d and d isp o se d o f, and th e y were a l l a r r e s t e d and sh ip p e d o f f to th e V a lle N a c io n a l, ’'t h a t n a t u r a l p r i s o n where e n t i c e d or kidnapped men s la v e d t h e i r l i v e s away on th e c o f f e e - p l a n t a t i o n . " No one h eard of them a g a i n.^ Ross l e f t h i s r e a d e r s w ith t h a t im p re ssio n o f man u f a c t u r i n g under D iaz. A s h o r t e r rev ie w o f th e s u b je c t was found in The P eo p le Next D o o r, w r i t t e n by George C reel i n 1926. C r e e l was b o rn in 1876. He was l a r g e l y s e l f - e d u c a te d . At th e age of t w e n ty - t h r e e , he a c c e p te d a p o s t as e d i t o r of the K ansas C ity (M is s o u r i) In d e p e n d e n t, se rv in g in ~^Ibid., pp. 58-9. 307 t h i s p o s i t i o n u n t i l 1909. He th en became e d i t o r of the Denver P o st (1909-1910) and th e Rocky Mountain News (1911- 1913). When W ilson became P r e s id e n t in 1913, C re e l, a Demo c r a t , e n te re d i n t o government s e r v i c e . He became th e c h a i r man of the Committee on P u b lic In fo rm a tio n on A p r i l 14, 1917, rem aining in t h i s o f f i c e u n t i l March, 1919. During the fo llo w in g f o u r t e e n y e a r s , he b u sie d h im s e lf w ith w r i t in g . With th e f i r s t e l e c t i o n of F r a n k lin Delano R o o se v e lt, however, C re e l a g a in e n te r e d government employ, as chairman of the San F ra n c is c o R eg io n a l Labor Board in 1933. He l a t e r became chairm an of the N a tio n a l A dvisory Board of the W PA (1935) and U nited S t a t e s com m issioner f o r th e Golden Gate I n t e r n a t i o n a l E x p o s itio n , held i n 1939. He w rote s e v e r a l books, a l l of them t y p i f i e d by a p o p u la r, sim ple s t y l e , s u b je c t m a tte r , and approach. These in c lu d e d Q u a tra in s of C h r i s t , a p p a r e n tly C r e e l ’ s f i r s t book (1 9 0 7 ), C h ild re n in Bondage ( w r i t t e n in c o n ju n c tio n w ith Edwin Markham and B. B. L in d sey , 1913), W ilson and the Is s u e s (1 9 1 6 ), I r e l a n d ’ s F ig h t f o r Freedom (1 9 1 9 ), How W e A d v e rtis e d America (1 9 2 0 ), The War, the World and Wilson (1 9 2 0 ), The People Next Door (1 9 2 6 ), Sons o f th e Eagle (19 27), Sam Houston (1 9 2 8 ), War C rim in a ls (1 9 4 4 ), and R u s s ia ’ s Race f o r A sia (1949). He a ls o c o n tr ib u te d a r t i c l e s to v a rio u s m agazines. C re e l sp e n t h is f i n a l y e a rs in , V 308 51 San F r a n c is c o , where he d ie d i n 1953. Some i n s i g h t i n t o th e o r i g i n o f The P eo p le Next Door app eared in th e b o o k 's p r e f a c e . F i r s t , C re e l r e tu r n e d to p r i v a t e l i f e a f t e r th e end of th e F i r s t World War, resum ing h i s c a r e e r o f w r i t i n g . In 1920 P r e s i d e n t W ilson s e n t him to Mexico as "an u n o f f i c i a l a g en t f o r the c o m p o sitio n of d i f f i c u l t i e s betw een the two r e p u b l i c s " ; i t was a t t h i s time t h a t C r e e l began th e stu d y and r e s e a r c h f o r th e book. Seco ndly , C re e l had p r e v i o u s ly "campaigned w id e ly f o r . . . c h ild la b o r laws and i n d u s t r i a l r e f o r m s ." In Denver in 1909, C re e l jo in e d a " p r o g r e s s iv e group headed by Ben B. L in d s e y ," and "gave pen and tongue to i n s p i r i n g s u c c e s s f u l p o p u lar r e v o l t a g a i n s t e v i l c o n d i t i o n s . " S t i l l e a r l i e r , he had fo u n d ed h i s own new spaper in K ansas C i ty ( t h e In d e p e n d e n t) , and c a r r i e d on " a b i t t e r f i g h t in b e h a l f of c le a n government and 52 s o c i a l j u s t i c e . " The f i r s t o f th e s e f a c t s b ro u g h t out in th e p r e fa c e e x p la in e d how C re e l g ot to M exico, where he had an o p p o r t u n it y to stu d y p r e v io u s Mexican h i s t o r y . I m ain t a i n t h a t th e second f a c t , C r e e l 's p r o g r e s s iv e o r i e n t a t i o n , m ight have e x p la in e d h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h a t h i s t o r y , i n c lu d in g the Diaz p e rio d . W ith such a P r o g r e s s iv e 51Who, s Who i n A m erica, XXVII (1 9 5 2 -1 9 5 3 ), 546. George C r ee l, The People Next Door; An In te r p r e t i v e H istory o f Mexico an5" the Mexicans (New York: ¥h'e* ‘ J o h n Day Company, 1926>, p. v i . 309 b a c k g ro u n d , I m a i n t a i n t h a t C r e e l was u n l i k e l y t o have view ed D i a z 1s M exico i n g e n e r a l or m a n u f a c tu r in g d u r in g i t f a v o r a b l y . I n The P eo p le Next D o o r, C r e e l f i r s t n o te d accom p l i s h m e n t s d u r i n g th e D iaz p e r i o d , and t h e n i n j e c t e d a word o f c a u t i o n . Even had a l l t h e s e a c h ie v e m e n ts b e en " f a i r and f i n e and c h i l d r e n o f th e P r e s i d e n t * s b r a i n , " e v en when a l l th e m i l e s o f t e l e g r a p h l i n e s and r a i l r o a d s were c o u n te d , e x p o r t s and im p o r ts d u l y added u p , th e g ro w th o f m a n u f a c tu r in g a d m i t te d , and a f u l l t r e a s u r y commended, s t i l l , what o f i t ? The f i n a l t e s t o f any a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and " t h e one t r u e c r i t e r i o n o f a n a t i o n ' s p r o s p e r i t y , " s a i d C r e e l , was th e h a p p i n e s s o f t h a t n a t i o n ’ s i n h a b i t a n t s d u r i n g th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n q u e s t i o n . On t h i s p o i n t t h e D iaz regim e f a i l e d . T h ere could be "no more t e r r i b l e a r r a i g n m e n t of P o r f i r i o D ia z " th a n a resum e o f p r e v a i l i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n th e Mexico o f 1910. Peonage was t h e common l o t o f th e M exican w orker in th o s e d a y s . Even i f he w ere f o r t u n a t e enough t o e sca p e i t , D iaz had ways of t e a c h i n g him h i s p r o p e r p la c e i n s o c i e t y . A n o t a b l e c a se was h i s fam ous s e t t l e m e n t o f th e O riz a b a t e x t i l e s t r i k e i n 1907. S u b v e r s iv e i d e a s e n t e r i n g M exico from th e U n ite d S t a t e s c a u se d th e f a c t o r y w o rk e rs i n th e d i s t r i c t aro und R io B lanco to form a u n io n f o r th e p u rp o se of p r o t e s t i n g a g a i n s t th e w ages and w orking c o n d i t i o n s to w hich th e y w ere s u b j e c t e d . D iaz r e p l i e d by s e n d in g two th o u sa n d 310 s o l d i e r s of th e f e d e r a l army i n t o th e a r e a . In the b lo o d b a th w hich fo llo w e d , " n o t even old men, women, or c h i l d r e n were s p a r e d . " Those e s c a p in g d e a th a t th e hands of D i a z l s s o l d i e r s were d r i v e n to th e hunger and co ld o f th e s u r r o u n d - 53 ing h i l l s . C r e e l ended h i s a c c o u n t a t t h a t p o i n t . A much lo n g e r stu d y may be found in one of th e f i n a l books co vered i n t h i s c h a p t e r , Mexico and I t s H e r ita g e (1 9 2 8 ), by E r n e s t G ruening. Few o f th e p e rs o n s co vered i n t h i s s tu d y have had a more i n t e r e s t i n g , busy l i f e th a n h as G ru en in g , whose c a r e e r spans more th an a h a l f c e n tu r y . E r n e s t G ruenin g was b o rn in New York C ity e a r l y in 1887. He g ra d u a te d from th e H o tch k i s s School in L a k e v i l l e , C o n n e c tic u t, in 1903, th e n went on to H a rv a rd , whence he too k a B a c h e lo r o f A r ts d e g re e in 1907 and a d e g re e in m ed icine in 1912. W hile q u a l i f i e d t o p r a c t i c e m e d ic in e , how ever, he n e v e r d id so . I n s t e a d , he began working a s a r e p o r t e r and w r i t e r of s p e c i a l a r t i c l e s f o r th e B oston Am erican i n 1911, w h ile s t i l l i n m e d ic a l s c h o o l. Two y e a rs l a t e r he became a s s i s t a n t e d i t o r o f th e B oston H e r a l d , th e n managing e d i t o r o f th e B oston T r a v e l e r (1 9 1 4 -1 9 1 6 ), and managing e d i t o r and f i n a l l y e d i t o r o f th e B oston J o u r n a l (1 9 1 6 -1 9 1 7 ). S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r G ruening a s s i s t e d i n o rg a n i z i n g the Bureau o f Im p o r ts , p a r t o f th e s t r u c t u r e o f the W ilso n ian War T rade Board in W ashington. 53 Ibid., pp. 281-2. 311 In 19T8 he became managing e d i t o r of th e New York T r ib u n e , th e n l e f t t h i s p o s t in o rd e r to f i g h t in the w ar. Upon h i s r e t u r n home he became p r e s i d e n t of The P re n sa P r i n t i n g C o r p o r a tio n and g e n e r a l manager o f La P r e n s a , in 1919-1920. G ruening th e n h e ld th e p o s i t i o n o f managing e d i t o r of The N atio n (1 9 2 0 -1 9 2 3 ), and of N a tio n a l d i r e c t o r o f p u b l i c i t y f o r La F o l l e t t e ^ u n s u c c e s s f u l P r e s i d e n t i a l cam p a ig n i n 1924. He founded th e P o r tla n d (Maine) Evening News in 1927, s e r v in g as i t s e d i t o r u n t i l 1932. He a l s o e d ite d The N a tio n d u rin g 1933 and 1934, d i r e c t e d th e New York P o st b r i e f l y in 1934, and se rv e d a s a member o f th e Cuba Commis sio n o f the F o re ig n P o lic y A s s o c i a t i o n , a ls o in 1934. With th e advent of th e R o o se v e lt a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , G ruening, a Dem ocrat, e n te r e d p u b lic o f f i c e . T h irty -o d d y e a rs l a t e r , he s t i l l l a b o r s i n t h i s c a p a c i t y . H is f i r s t gov ernm en tal p o st was t h a t o f D ir e c t o r of th e D iv is io n of T e r r i t o r i e s and I s l a n d P o s s e s s io n s in th e D epartm ent of th e I n t e r i o r , from 1934 to 1939. H ere, he had j u r i s d i c t i o n over A la sk a , H aw aii, P u e rto R ico , th e V ir g in I s l a n d s , th e South Sea and E q u a t o r i a l I s l a n d s , and, in 1939, th e P h i l i p p in e I s l a n d s . From 1935 to 1937 he a ls o se rv e d as a d m i n i s t r a t o r of th e P u e rto Rico R e c o n s tr u c tio n A d m in is tr a tio n and, d u rin g 1935 and 1936, a d m in is te r e d f e d e r a l emergency r e l i e f fo r P u e rto R ico as w e l l . By t h i s tim e, G ruening had a ls o long been i n t e r e s t e d in Mexico and th e r e s t of L a tin A m erica. As I m entioned, he 312 managed La P r e n s a s h o r t l y a f t e r th e F i r s t World War. D u rin g 1922 he was s e n t to M exico a s a c o r r e s p o n d e n t o f C o l l i e r *s and v a r i o u s o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s , and o f c o u rs e p u b l is h e d M exico and I t s H e r i t a g e i n 1928. A p p a r e n t l y owing to G ru e n in g * s e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e a r e a , P r e s i d e n t R o o s e v e lt ap p o i n t e d him a s a s o r t of g e n e r a l a d v i s e r to th e U n ite d S t a t e s D e l e g a t i o n to th e S e v e n th Pan A m erican C o n f e re n c e , 54 h e ld i n M on tev id eo i n 1933. I n my ju d g m e n t, i t would be e x tr e m e l y i n t e r e s t i n g i f one c o u ld a s c e r t a i n how much i f any o f t h e s h i f t tow ard t h e f u l l a d o p ti o n o f th e Good N eighbor P o l i c y i n th e 1 9 3 0 ’ s was due t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s man. By th e end o f t h e t h i r t i e s , G ru e n in g * s i n t e r e s t had s h i f t e d from L a t i n A m erica t o A l a s k a , w here i t h a s rem a in e d up to th e p r e s e n t . In h i s p o s t w i t h t h e D ep artm en t o f th e I n t e r i o r , he o f c o u rs e had j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r A la s k a , b u t h i s e x c l u s i v e c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s t a t e d a t e s from 1 93 8 , th e y e a r b e f o r e he l e f t h i s o ld p o s t . From 1938 t o 1942 he s e r v e d a s a member o f th e A la s k a I n t e r n a t i o n a l Highway C om m ission. By now he had a l s o b e en e l e c t e d a s G overn or of th e T e r r i t o r y ( 1 9 3 9 ) , a p o s i t i o n w h ic h he h e ld u n t i l 1953. Two y e a r s a f t e r l e a v in g th e g o v e r n o r ’ s o f f i c e , he s e r v e d a s k e y n o te s p e a k e r a t th e A la s k a C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n tio n , and became U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a to r from A la s k a i n 1956, a p o s i t i o n w h ic h 54Who’s Who in America, XXII (1942-1943), 962. 313 55 he s t i l l h o l d s . He i s a p p a r e n t l y s t i l l a c t i v e , f o r I have b een in fo rm ed t h a t G ru en in g i s a t p r e s e n t a s t r o n g , v o c i f e r ous c r i t i c o f our c u r r e n t V ie t Nam p o l i c y . G r u e n i n g has w r i t t e n o r e d i t e d s e v e r a l b o o k s, among them The U n ite d S t a t e s : A Symposium (tw o volum es, 1 9 2 3 -1 9 2 4 ), The P u b lic P a y s; A S tu d y o f Power P ro p ag an d a (1931; r e v i s e d e d i t i o n 1 9 6 4 ), and The S t a t e of A la s k a ( 1 9 5 4 ) , i n a d d i t i o n to Mexico T and I t s H e r i t a g e ^ I n s e e k in g to e x p l a i n why G ru en in g was c r i t i c a l of th e Diaz reg im e i n i t s m a n u f a c tu r in g and o th e r a s p e c t s in t h i s book, one would do w e l l to r e c a l l th e a u t h o r ' s l i b e r a l , P r o g r e s s i v e b a ck g ro u n d . W ith view s w hich f i t t e d him i n w ith th e W ilson and F r a n k l i n D elano R o o s e v e lt a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s , w ith views w hich p e rs u a d e d him to become a k e y s to n e o f the P r o g r e s s i v e cam paign o f 1924, G ru e n in g , i n my ju d g m e n t, was h a r d l y l i k e l y to have r e g a r d e d th e D iaz governm ent and manu f a c t u r i n g c o n d i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y w orking c o n d i t i o n s i n f a c t o r i e s , w i t h a n y th in g b u t a c r i t i c a l v ie w p o in t. G ru ening beg an h i s r e v ie w o f m a n u f a c tu r in g u nder P o r f i r i o D iaz w ith a d e s c r i p t i o n o f some o f the m ethods em plo yed by th e d i c t a t o r i n o r d e r to i n c r e a s e m a n u fa c tu rin g a c t i v i t y . Such m ethods in c l u d e d th e g r a n t i n g o f m o n o p o lie s" 55Who's Who in A m e ric a , XXXIV (1 9 6 6 - 1 9 6 7 ) , 844. ^ I n f o r m a t i o n comm unicated t o me b y Mr. C h a r le s H. McGee, May 9, 1967. 314 and th e b e n e f i t t i n g o f f o r e i g n e r s . The p aper m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r y i l l u s t r a t e d b o th o f th e s e t a c t i c s . A monopoly on p a p er making was g iv e n to a S p a n ia r d , J o s e Sanchez Ramos, a c t i n g i n p a r t n e r s h i p w ith Thomas B r a n i f f , a N o rth A m erican. A p r o h i b i t i v e d u ty was e r e c t e d by th e Diaz governm ent a g a i n s t im ported p a p e r , w hich e x c lu d e d i t from M exico. T hus, th e uSan R a f a e l Paper Company,” the f irm owned by Sanchez and B r a n i f f , w h o lly c o n t r o l l e d th e su p p ly o f paper in M exico. O n e - e ig h th of th e company’ s s to c k was p r e s e n te d to Don P o r f i r i o as a g i f t . G ruening w ro te t h a t a n o th e r case i l l u s t r a t i n g D i a z ’ s m ethods was t h a t o f an E n g li s h c o t t o n f a c t o r y , ”E1 T l a h u a l i l o ," to which was handed th e w ater su p p ly of th e Nazas R iv e r. The f a c t o r y w a s_ en ab led to d e f l e c t th e stre am f o r i t s own u s e s , and th e s m a ll f a rm e rs of th e a r e a were r u i n e d . T h is took p la c e i n th e Laguna d i s t r i c t o f s o u th e r n C o a h u ila , and i t was ’’b u t one i n s t a n c e among many” under Diaz of m onopolies from th e governm ent f o r th e b e n e f i t o f f o r e i g n e r s . In th e case o f a d i f f e r e n c e betw een Mexican and f o r e i g n e r , th e l a t t e r won in th e M exican c o u r t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y were he p o w e rfu l. The o p e r a t io n o f th e c o n c e s s io n , w hich of c o u rse e n te r e d i n t o th e c a s e s a l r e a d y c i t e d , was a l s o o f im p o r ta n c e i n t h i s c o n ju n c ti o n . I f a Mexican of l im i t e d c a p i t a l d e s i r e d a c o n c e s s io n from th e D iaz governm ent to c u t wood, to d e v e lo p th e power o f a s m a ll w a t e r f a l l , t o e x p l o i t 315 a mine or o th e r n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e , he had to ap p ro a ch ’’some fa v o re d i n te r m e d i a r y ” and ask f o r h i s s e r v i c e s , pay in g an e x h o r b i t a n t f e e . Were he u n ab le to pay th e p r i c e , ”he would see th e wanted c o n c e s s io n p a ss i n t o f o r e i g n h a n d s .” But i f a Mexican o u t s i d e th e m agic c i r c l e succeed ed by d i n t of hard work i n d e v e lo p in g a n y th in g , ” he was a t the mercy o f th o s e who s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e n ric h e d th e m s e lv e s w ith o u t l a b o r ” i n 57 P o r f i r i a n M exico. G ruen ing ended h i s d e s c r i p t i o n of f o r e i g n e r s , m o n o p o lie s, and c o n c e s s io n s i n m a n u fa c tu rin g a t t h a t p o i n t . He n e x t d e v o te d s e v e r a l pages t o d i s c u s s i n g la b o r c o n d it i o n s in m a n u fa c tu rin g d u r in g P o r f i r i a n d a y s. When modern m a n u fa c tu rin g came t o M exico, he w r o te , th e c o n d it i o n of th e l a b o r e r d e t e r i o r a t e d , and ’’th e o p p r e s siv e c o n d it i o n s [found in Mexico p r i o r to th e i n f l u x of man u f a c t u r i n g ] were e x ten d ed and i n t e n s i f i e d . ” The w orking day o f a f a c t o r y l a b o r e r ran g e d from n in e hours to f o u r t e e n . The wages p a id v a r i e d , and a v erag ed betw een t w e n ty - f iv e and s e v e n t y - f i v e c e n ta v o s a d a y . These s a l a r i e s were le s s e n e d by f i n e s , by th e o b l i g a t i o n to buy from th e company s t o r e , and by th e o u tra g e o u s r e n t s charged f o r th e company-owned shacks in w hich th e w o rk e rs were f o r c e d to l i v e . I f the l a b o r e r l o s t an arm or le g in th e u n p r o t e c te d m ac h in e ry , he was sim p ly tu rn e d lo o se t o b e g . I f he were u n f o r t u n a t e 57 E r n e s t G ru e n in g , Mexico and I t s H e r it a g e (New York: The C e n tu ry Company, [ c. 1 9 2 8 ]) , pp. 6 0 -1 . 316 enough to lo s e h is l i f e , h i s fa m ily l o s t i t s shack. The p e n a l code b lo ck ed any improvement of t h i s s i t u a t i o n . D uring 1907, t e x t i l e w orkers t o i l i n g f o r t h i r t e e n ho urs a day in the h o t , damp, l i n t - f i l l e d rooms of a f a c to r y humbly p e t i t i o n e d f o r b e t t e r c o n d i t i o n s . They were locked o u t, s ta r v e d i n to su b m iss io n . When a group o f w orkers c razed w ith hunger r a i d e d th e company s t o r e a t the Rio Blanco m i l l s i n V e ra c ru z , th e tro o p s i n the a re a m assacred some two hundred men, women, and c h i l d r e n . Some o f tho se who escaped "im m ediate s l a u g h t e r " were hunted down i n the n earby h i l l s . O th e rs were s e n t to th e dungeons of San Ju an de U lua. Over th e se w o rk e rs, who were t h e o r e t i c a l l y f r e e b e in g s , "hung th e c o n s ta n t menace of d ow n right s l a v e r y . " One word from th e forem an, and a troub lesom e la b o r e r was p laced under a r r e s t , to s w e ll the n e x t consignm ent o f la b o r to th e hot la n d s . Many j e f e s p o l i t i c o s d e a l t d i r e c t l y w ith "Rancha" R ob les, a n o to r io u s woman from T u x te p ec . She purchased the enganchado ( l i t e r a l l y , he who was sn a re d ) a t f o r t y pesos from th e j e f e p o l i t i c o , and so ld him f o r s i x t y - f i v e , d e l i v ered a t the p l a n t a t i o n . Once t h e r e , th e u n f o r t u n a t e e n te re d i n t o a c o n t r a c t w ith h i s new em ployer, which s t a t e d th at_ he- was engaged f o r s i x months a t so much per day^ The terms were o n ly a p p a re n t on es: when he a tte m p te d t o c o l l e c t h is wages he was inform ed of h i s d e b t f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n or f o r c l o t h i n g . I f he p r o t e s t e d , he was w hipped; i f he a tte m p te d 317 t o e s c a p e , th e p o l i c e who t r a c k e d him down were c h a rg e d a g a i n s t h i s a c c o u n t. The p l i g h t o f the e n g a n c h a d o "was sy m b o lic o f th e p l i g h t o f a l l l a b o r . ” The p e o n was t r a p p e d f o r l i f e . He t o i l e d . He s w e a te d . He was d i s e a s e d . He was h a l f - s t a r v e d . He and h i s b r o t h e r s swarmed i n h u ts b u i l t from r u b b i s h or i n te n e m e n ts t h a t would shame a s e l f - r e s p e c t i n g p i g . H is o n ly s o la c e l a y in t h e prom ise o f a b e t t e r e x i s t e n c e i n th e n e x t 58 w o rld . But f o r now he d ra n k , to s h u t o f f th e p r e s e n t one. To be s u r e , v a r i o u s l a b o r u n io n s o f a m u t u a l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r e x i s t e d i n Mexico b e f o r e th e e c l i p s e o f D ia z . A m e c h a n i c s 1 o r g a n i z a t i o n found i t s b i r t h i n P u e b la i n 1900; t h e t e x t i l e w o r k e r s o f O r iz a b a form ed a b e n e v o l e n t s o c i e t y i n 1903. T here w ere a d d i t i o n a l g r o u p s , b u t none o f them ob s c u re d th e c e n t r a l f a c t : to a l l i n t e n t s o r g a n iz e d l a b o r was t 59 n o n - e x i s t e n t i n D ia z * s M ex ico . G ru e n in g ended h i s s tu d y by d i s c u s s i n g s e v e r a l m a n u f a c tu r in g i n d u s t r i e s u n d e r D ia z . As b e f o r e , h i s e m p h a sis c e n t e r e d on. w o rk in g c o n d i t i o n s and w ages. H is common a p p ro a c h was a r e c i t a t i o n of wages and h o u rs a s t h e y s to o d i n v a r i o u s i n d u s t r i e s a t a b o u t th e time o f h i s w r i t i n g , and a co m p ariso n o f them w i t h th o se i n th e same i n d u s t r i e s under D ia z . For e x am p le, i n th e case o f th e t o b a c c o - m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y , ”E1 Buen Tono" was. p a y in g $ 2 .2 5 t o $ 8 .0 0 p er d a y f o r women, $ 3 .0 0 t o $ 2 5 .0 0 f o r 58Ibid., pp. 335-6. ^Ibid. , p. 336, n. 2. 318 men, a s a g a i n s t l e s s th a n h a l f t h a t b e f o r e th e R e v o lu t i o n . These f i g u r e s w ere in p e s o s . B e fo re th e R e v o lu t i o n , th e w orking day was tw elv e h o u r s . In 1912 i t was low ered to t e n h o u r s , i n 1917 f u r t h e r re d u c e d to e i g h t . ^ The s u g a r i n d u s t r y was a p r o f i t a b l e one i n th e D iaz p e r i o d , a l t h o u g h , e x c e p ti n g c e r t a i n c e n t r a l e s ( s u g a r - r e f i n i n g p l a n t s ) i n th e S t a t e s o f V e rac ru z and S i n a l o a , " i t 61 was c o n d u cted a c c o r d in g to o b s o l e t e m e th o d s ." T u rn in g to th e s o f t - d r i n k i n d u s t r y , G ruening n o te d t h a t the l a r g e s t p r o d u c e r , " S i d r a l M u n d e t," was e s t a b l i s h e d in 1903 and was th e p r o p e r t y o f A r tu r o M undet, A S p a n ia r d . Wages w ere a v e ra g in g a t l e a s t two p e s o s d a i l y f o r a w orking day o f e i g h t h o u rs i n 1917, a s a g a i n s t one peso f o r n in e h o u rs i n D i a z ’ s tim e . I n th e c a s e of b re w in g , w o rk e rs i n th e Moctezuma b e e r f a c t o r y were now w orking e i g h t h o u rs a day f o r an a v e ra g e d a i l y wage o f two p e s o s , f i f t y c e n ta v o s . In D i a z ’ s tim e , 6 2 th e y worked t e n h o u rs a day f o r one p e so . G ruening f a i l e d to n o te t h a t , i n th e i n t e r i m b etw een D i a z ’ s f a l l and th e w r i t i n g o f Mexico and I t s H e r i t a g e , th e v a lu e o f t h e peso had s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c l i n e d , e l i m i n a t i n g much o f th e i n c r e a s e in r e a l wages t h a t h i s f i g u r e s seemed t o i n d i c a t e . At any r a t e , w i t h t h i s , G ruening c o n c lu d e d h i s a c c o u n t o f m anufac t u r i n g d u r in g t h e tim e o f P o r f i r i o D ia z . 60Ibid., p. 351. 61Ibid., p. 132, n. 3. 62 --r Ibid., pp. 352-5. 319 About t h a t a c c o u n t, s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s m ight be em phasized, i n c l u d i n g th e a u t h o r ’ s t r e a tm e n t of m a n u fa c tu r ing as a whole and i n d e t a i l , h i s v eh em en tly a n t i - P o r f i r i a n r e f e r e n c e s , h i s l i b e r a l , P r o g r e s s iv e b ackg roun d, which seems to have been r e f l e c t e d i n th e s e p a s s a g e s , and th e sh e e r l e n g t h o f h i s co v erag e of th e s u b j e c t a s a g a i n s t th e amount o f space d e v o te d to i t by o th e r a u th o r s of th e 1920’ s e n c o u n te re d in t h i s s e c t i o n . For exam ple, d u rin g th e f o l lo w ing y e ar (1 9 2 9 ), th e I n te r - A m e r ic a I n s t i t u t e a t C larem ont C o lle g e is s u e d a book sim p ly t i t l e d M exico. A lthough the I n s t i t u t e cov ered D iaz and m a n u fa c tu rin g in i t s book, th e co v erag e g iv e n was o n ly a f r a c t i o n as long a s t h a t of G ru e n in g . I s h a l l make no a tte m p t to d i s c u s s the background o f th e a u t h o r s , f o r none w ere g iv e n in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e book. The r e p o r t s t a t e d t h a t Mexican m a n u fa c tu rin g was fo reig n -o w n e d c i r c a 1900. "Very few" M exican e n t e r p r i s e s had e n te r e d th e f i e l d , "th o u g h t h e r e was a sm a ll b e g in n in g 6 3 in e v e ry l i n e . " T a x a tio n in r e l a t i o n to m an u fa ctu red com m o d itie s was i n e q u i t a b l e d u r in g th e s e y e a r s . " P r a c t i c a l l y a l l " o f the t a x e s c o l l e c t e d were i n d i r e c t ones which f e l l on th e consum er. C o n se q u e n tly , th e y were " n o t o r i o u s l y u n j u s t : " a lth o u g h t h i s k ind o f an e x a c t i o n weighed on th e manufacturer f\ * 3 In te r - A m e r ic a I n s t i t u t e , Mexico (C lare m o n t, C a l i f o r n i a : In te r- A m e r ic a I n s t i t u t e ^ 1929), p. 31. 320 and th e m erch an t, th e y d is c h a r g e d the burden onto t h e con sumer, who, i n th e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , was th e man who p a id i t . T h is system of t a x a t i o n was w e l l - f i t t e d to th e Diaz governm ent. While i t was u n j u s t , i t a l s o had the v a lu a b le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t he who p a id th e ta x was unaware of i t , w hile he who a ppeared to pay i t was the one who p r o t e s t e d . I f th e la rg e f o r e i g n m erch an ts who c o n t r o l l e d m an u fa ctu rin g in Mexico and the la r g e la n d h o ld e r s paid l e s s than t h e i r share of ta x e s and unlo ad ed what l i t t l e th ey d id pay on the consumer, why were th e y th e ones who p r o t e s t e d most lo u d ly a g a in s t ta x e s ? There co uld be o n ly one answ er: th e mer ch an ts r i g h t f u l l y b e lie v e d t h a t , by making n o i s e s ab out t a x e s , th e people who a c t u a l l y paid them would n o t n o t i c e t h a t th ey th em selv es were the v ic tim s of t a x a t i o n , and would con tin u e to b e li e v e t h a t th e la rg e h o ld e r s were those paying ta x e s in M e x i c o . ^ The book n e x t tu r n e d to th e l o t of th e m an u fa ctu rin g worker d u rin g th e Diaz p e r i o d . D iaz n e g le c te d f a c t o r y work e r s , a n e g le c t now f o r t u n a t e l y a t an end. B e fo re , th e r a r e p r o l e t a r i a n who somehow emerged from h i s c l a s s was p a tr o n iz e d . T his p a t r o n i z i n g o f i s o l a t e d w orkers had d is a p p e a re d by th e time o f w r i t i n g , under th e e x p e c ta ti o n t h a t th e en t i r e c l a s s would d e v e lo p s o c i a l c o n s c io u s n e s s and a c o n d i ti o n of w e ll- b e in g which were unheard o f d u rin g th e Diaz 64 Ibid., p. 25. , . 65 reg im e. The l o t of th e f a c t o r y w o rk ers in Mexico was an un e n v ia b le one a t th e t u r n of the c e n tu ry . Most of them were ig n o r a n t and s u p e r s t i t i o u s . They were in v e ry poor p h y s ic a l and m oral c o n d itio n . T h e ir wages were e x tre m e ly low, a v e r aging p ro b a b ly about f i f t e e n c e n ts a day in U n ited S t a t e s c u rre n c y . They were fo r c e d to work long h o u r s , sometimes t h i r t e e n or f o u r t e e n , and th e y seldom had any type of r e s t , e i t h e r d u rin g th e week or d u rin g th e y e a r . The d e p lo r a b le c o n d itio n s in which th e y were hou sed, as w e ll a s the lack of p ro p e r food and l i v i n g c o n d it i o n s , k e p t them " a t the p o in t o f d e g e n e r a t io n ." T h e ir s o c i a l make-up was such t h a t they could n o t be c o n sid e re d an a c t i v e , t h in k in g , p r o d u c tiv e e l e - 6 6 ment in s o c i e t y . The a u th o rs c lo se d t h e i r a cco u n t w ith t h a t th o u g h t. The l a s t volume d is c u s s e d in t h i s s e c t i o n was a ls o p u b lis h e d in 1929. I t was e n t i t l e d M e x ic o ^ C a p a c ity to P a y , and was the p ro d u c t o f G uillerm o B u t le r S h e rw e ll. S herw ell was obscure in the e x trem e: no b i o g r a p h i c a l d a ta could be lo c a te d c o n c e rn in g him, and h i s w r i t i n g was a p p a r e n t l y c e n te re d in t h i s book. But he devoted s e v e r a l pages of i t to d e s c r i b i n g m an u fa c tu rin g c o n d itio n s under D faz. For i n s t a n c e , he noted t h a t , in 1909-1910, th e l a s t - f u l l y e a rs of th e D iaz p e r io d , m an u fa ctu rin g i n Mexico was 65Ibid., p. 18. 66Ibid., pp. 30-1. s t i l l o n ly i n a " ru d im e n ta ry s t a g e " of d e v elo p m en t. The rem a in d e r o f h i s a c c o u n t was o r i e n t e d t o th e f i n a n c i a l a s p e c t o f m a n u f a c tu r in g . H e re , S h e rw e ll began by b l u n t l y s t a t i n g t h a t th e much v a u n te d f a v o r a b le b a la n c e of M exican tr a d e d u r in g th e D iaz p e rio d was a l i e . The p r i n c i p a l ite m s making f o r what r e a l l y amounted to an u n fa v o r a b le b a la n c e of tr a d e were th o s e o f r e m i t t a n c e s abroad f o r d e b t s e r v i c e s and th e sending abroad o f e a r n i n g s from fo reig n -o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s d o in g b u s i n e s s in M exico. These l a t t e r in c lu d e d such b u s i n e s s e s as c o t t o n f a c t o r i e s , b r e w e r i e s , o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l c o n c e rn s , b a n k s, p u b l i c u t i l i t i e s , and r a i l w a y s . S h e rw e ll e l a b o r a t e d on t h i s p o i n t . He s t a t e d t h a t f o r e i g n - h e l d c o tto n and woolen m i l l s , p r i n c i p a l l y owned by th e F re n ch , r e p r e s e n t i n g a t o t a l c a p i t a l “in v e s tm e n t o f 1 1 2 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 p e s o s , produced an income i n 1910 a v e ra g in g e i g h t p e r c e n t per y e a r . T h is r e p r e s e n te d an i n v i s i b l e d e b i t ite m of 8 ,9 6 0 ,0 0 0 p e so s a n n u a lly in M e x ic o ’ s b a la n c e o f t r a d e . The c o u n t r y ’ s b r e w e r ie s w ere l a r g e l y owned by F rench and Germans. They r e p r e s e n te d a t o t a l i n v e stm e n t o f se v e n m i l l i o n p e s o s . At th e tim e , t h i s l i n e of i n d u s t r y was more p r o f i t a b l e th an most o th e r b ra n c h e s i n which f o r e i g n money was i n v e s t e d , and a c a l c u l a t i o n a t th e tim e a v eraged t h i s p r o f i t a t over tw enty p e r c e n t , or G. B u t l e r S h e rw e ll, M exico’ s C a p a c ity to Pay (W ashington! [n . p . ] , - 1929), p. 13. 323 1.40 0.000 p e so s p er y e a r on th e c a p i t a l in v e s te d i n 1910. Among o th e r m an u fa c tu rin g e n t e r p r i s e s in which f o r e ig n c a p i t a l p la y e d a r o l e in M exico, the most im p o rta n t in 1910 were th o se concerned w ith to b a c c o , l i q u o r , and f l o u r . D iv id en d s p a id on a t o t a l f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i z a t i o n of f o r t y m i l l i o n p e so s ranged from fo u r p e rc e n t per year in th e case o f a B ritish -o w n e d j u t e f a c t o r y to tw elve p e rc e n t f o r a F rench c i g a r e t t e f a c t o r y and tw e n ty - f iv e p e rc e n t in the case of th e l a r g e s t so a p -m a n u fa c tu rin g c o n c e rn , owned j o i n t l y by A m ericans and M exicans. Supposing t h a t one averaged th e i n come from th e s e s o u r c e s a t e i g h t p e r c e n t , an a d d i t i o n a l 3.200.000 p e so s each year would have to be p laced on the 68 d e b i t s id e o f th e Mexican b a la n c e of payment. S h e rw e ll ended h i s account a t t h a t p o i n t . B efore p ro ceed in g to th e n e x t d i v i s i o n of t h i s stu d y , I s h a l l make a few g e n e r a l o b s e r v a tio n s on th e a u th o r s to which t h i s s e c t i o n was d e v o te d . F i r s t , the d e c l i n e of i n t e r e s t in the ways of Don P o r f i r i o in m a n u fa c tu rin g was e v id en ced much l e s s h e re th an among th e f a v o r a b le so u rc e s e n c o u n te re d in th e p re v io u s two s e c t i o n s , p e rh ap s because i t was e a s i e r to keep d i s l i k e and d i s t a s t e f o r a bygone system a li v e ~ t h a n a love f o r i t . As a -ase in p o i n t , i t i s o n ly r e c e n t l y t h a t th e o f f i c i a l Mexican governm ent l i n e on Diaz has s o f te n e d to any c o n s id e r a b le d e g re e on P o r f i r i o Diaz and h is 68Ibid., pp. 19-21. 324 a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . M oreover, s e v e r a l o f the a u th o r s which I have in c lu d e d in t h i s c h a p te r had c o n n e c tio n s w ith e a r l y p o s t-D ia z gov ernm en ts, h a r d ly the b e s t p la c e in which to g e n e ra te a sob er judgment o f an old regim e. Secondly', among the w r i t i n g s of a u th o r s th e m s e lv e s , I found many s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een u n fa v o ra b le a c c o u n ts of m a n u fa c tu rin g under Diaz by w r i t e r s of 1910 and by th o s e of 1925. There was the same d e n i a l o f D ia z l s r o l e i n the e s s e n t i a l scheme of t h i n g s , the same charge of a giveaw ay of M exicoTs r i c h e s t o the f o r e i g n e le m e n t, th e same d is p a r a g in g comments on th e s t a t e o f m an u fa ctu rin g under D iaz, the same a c c u s a tio n s o f la b o r e x p l o i t a t i o n and s u p p r e s s io n in th e f a c t o r i e s . In d e e d , were the r e a d e r no su re which was w hich, i t would be f a i r l y e asy f o r him to confuse the acco u n t of C a rlo de F o rn a ro , of 1909, w ith t h a t of E r n e s t G ru e n in g , of 1928. In t h i s sm a ll f a c e t of Mexican h i s t o r i o g r a p h y , v e ry l i t t l e had changed, e i t h e r in c o n te n t or in to n e , betw een the a n ti - D i a z w r i t e r o f 1910 and h i s c o u n te r p a r t on th e o th e r sid e o f th e opening phase in the Mexican R e v o lu tio n , D i a z r s overth ro w . CHAPTER VIII UNFAVORABLE SOURCES IN SPANISH T h is s e c t i o n c o n c lu d e s t h e m ain body o f t e x t i n my s tu d y . The books o f t h i s p o r t i o n of t h e p a p e r , c o v e r in g t h e y e a r s from 1913 to 1929, w e r e , w i t h few e x c e p t i o n s , t h e p r o d u c ts o f M exican w r i t e r s . The b a c k g ro u n d s o f t h e s e a u t h o r s v a r i e d , from t h a t of a s u c c e s s f u l R e v o l u t i o n a r y p o l i t i c i a n , L u is C a b r e r a , to t h a t o f an e x tr e m e l y o b s c u re w r i t e r , J o s e R. d e l C a s t i l l o . A few o f t h e s e a u t h o r s , su c h as J u a n P e d ro D id ap p, w ere mem b e r s o f th e o ld D iaz g o v e rn m e n t. O t h e r s , as L u is C a b r e r a , fo u g h t a g a i n s t t h a t g o v e rn m e n t. These men c o v e re d t h e gamut of p e r s o n a l i s t i c M exican p o l i t i c s from P o r f i r i o Diaz onward. W hatever th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r p o l i t i c a l b e l i e f s , b a c k g ro u n d s , and p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s , h ow ev er, t h e y a l l had one c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n common. T h is common l i n k was t h e i r c r i t i c a l r e a c t i o n r e g a r d i n g m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r P o r f i r i o D ia z , and t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h i s f e e l i n g in p r i n t . As i n th e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , l a b o r e x p l o i t a t i o n in m a n u f a c tu r in g i n d u s t r i e s w as a p o p u la r i n g r e d i e n t o f c r i t i c ism . O th e r c h a r g e s were a l s o a i r e d , among them t h o s e of 325 326 c o r r u p t i o n , m onopoly, and th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of n o n b e n e f i c i a l i n d u s t r i e s u n d e r D ia z . The view s p r e s e n t e d by th e s e a u t h o r s , w h a te v e r t h e i r c o n t e n t , w ere n o t calm ly r e a s o n e d , u n b i a s e d r e p o r t s on a h i s t o r i c a l p ro b le m . To r e a d them i n th e e x p e c t a t i o n o f s u c h an a p p ro a c h would o n ly a s s u r e th e d i s a p p o in tm e n t of th e r e a d e r . ^Whatever e l s e th e y w e re , th e a u t h o r s o f t h e s e view s were n o t d i s p a s s i o n a t e o b s e r v e r s o f th e M exican scene in t h e d ays o f Don P o r f i r i o . Los ^Estados Unidos y n u e s t r o s c o n f l i c t o s i n t e r n o s (1 9 1 3 ), th e f i r s t of th e books to be exam ined i n t h i s c h a p t e r , was an e x c e l l e n t i l l u s t r a t i o n of th e s o r t o f im p a ssio n e d w r i t i n g common among t h e s e w r i t e r s . Los E s ta d o s U nidos was th e l a s t book w r i t t e n by th e u b i q u i t o u s J u a n P edro D idapp. By th e tim e of t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n , D idapp had t u r n e d f u l l y a g a i n s t th e D iaz g overn m en t. C o n s id e r in g h i s e x p e r ie n c e w ith t h a t re g im e , i t seemed l o g i c a l to f i n d t h i s g e n tle m a n w r i t i n g e x tr e m e ly u n f a v o r a b l e comments a b o u t i t , i n c l u d i n g i t s p o l i c i e s r e g a r d i n g m an u fac t u r i n g , in 1913. C e r t a i n l y , D idapp *s t r o u b l e s in th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e D iaz a d m i n i s t r a t i o n must have l e f t him w ith l i t t l e good f e e l i n g f o r i t . In Los E s ta d o s U n id o s , D idapp began h i s im p r e s s io n o f m a n u f a c tu rin g u n d e r D iaz by n o t in g t h a t th e f o r e i g n i n t e r e s t s n e v e r had a more f a i t h f u l p r o t e c t o r th a n th e g o v e rn ment o f P o r f i r i o D ia z . T h is was e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i n th e case o f N o rth A m e ric a n s. The D iaz regim e handed th e Y ankees - 327 such g e n e ro u s p r i v i l e g e s t h a t th e Yankees th e m s e lv e s w ere alm o st to o e m b a rra ss e d to a c c e p t them . I f the r e a d e r d e s i r e d p r o o f o f t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , w ro te D idapp, he need o n ly go to th e S e c r e t a r i a s o f Fomento and C om u nicaciones in Mexico C i t y . T h ere he would u n d o u b te d ly f in d r e v e a l i n g d o c um ents r e i n f o r c i n g D idapp*s s t a t e m e n t . T here was no N orth A m erican e n t e r p r i s e i n Mexico which had n o t r e c e iv e d ,fc i e r t o s f a v o r e s " from D iaz and h i s go vern m en t. E very new m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r y p l a n t e d in Mexico by th e Yankees e n - 1 jo yed p o w e rfu l h e lp from th e D iaz a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . D idapp n e x t drew a p i c t u r e o f th e l a s t days o f t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I t was a tim e when th e members o f t h e gov e rn m e n t, "con p o c as y h o n ro s a s e x c e p c i o n e s ," had no o th e r w ish e s th a n th o s e o f L im a n to u r. Even D iaz obeyed him . I t a p p e a re d t h a t Diaz had f o r g o t t e n h i s r o l e of th e g r e a t d i c t a t o r , t h a t he had l e f t th e s h i p of s t a t e i n th e hand s of a sm a ll c i r c l e o f p o l i t i c a l t r a f f i c k e r s . In th e b a n k s, i n th e m a n u fa c tu rin g e n t e r p r i s e s , i n th e r a i l r o a d s y s te m s , i n th e g r e a t m ining b u s i n e s s e s , in th e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f M e x ic o 's n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , i n e v e r y p u b l i c im p u ls e , th e C i e n t l f i c o s , f r i e n d s of L im a n to u r, were f e l t . The g r e a t u t i l i t y sy ste m s of th e c i t i e s , th e enormous i r o n and s t e e l f o u n d r i e s , th e im provem ent o f M exican p o r t s , th e d e p o s i t o r y w a re h o u se s, in Ju a n P e d ro D idapp, Los E s ta d o s U nidos y n u e s t r o s c o n f l i c t o s i n t e r n o s (M exico: T i p o e r a f i a "E l K e o u b lic a n o . " !9 T 3 ) ,' p . 15”. 328 f a c t , e v e r y th in g which i n d ic a t e d a b r e a t h o f m a t e r i a l move m ent, was a c o n c e s s io n to L im antour*s f r i e n d s . Every i n t e l l e c t u a l who d id n o t su p p o rt th e s e f i n a n c i a l and p o l i t i c a l m aneuvers e i t h e r went to j a i l or to an h o n o ra b le e x i l e , w ith 2 a c l e r k ’ s s a l a r y . As i n the case of Ju a n Pedro D idapp, many o f the a u t h o r s who w i l l be c i t e d in t h i s s e c t i o n were f a i r l y o b sc u re . An o u ts ta n d in g example was J o s e R. d e l C a s t i l l o , who w rote H i s t o r i a de l a r e v o lu c io n s o c i a l de Mexico i n 1915. V i r t u a l l y n o th in g was found c o n ce rn in g C a s t i l l o i n h i s own book or anywhere e l s e . He w rote a c o u n t e r b l a s t to E l V erdadero J u a r e z , by F r a n c is c o B ulnes, in 1904. T his book was pub l i s h e d in Mexico C ity , a f a c t w hich su g g e ste d to me t h a t C a s t i l l o liv e d in Mexico d u rin g th e l a s t y e a rs of th e Diaz reg im e. T h is s u p p o s itio n was r e i n f o r c e d by C a s t i l l o him s e l f , who w rote t h a t he w itn e s s e d th e c e n t e n n i a l c e l e b r a - 3 t i o n s in Mexico C ity in 1910. F u r th e r d e t a i l s which m ight have a ff o r d e d i n s i g h t i n t o C a s t i l l o ’ s coverage of m anufac t u r i n g in H i s t o r i a de l a r e v o lu c io n s o c i a l de Mexico were im p o ssib le to l o c a t e . *n H i s t o r i a de l a r e v o lu c io n s o c i a l de M exico, C a s t i l l o devo ted c o n s id e r a b le space to a d i s c u s s i o n o f 2 I b i d . , p . 13. 2J o s e R. d e l C a s t i l l o , H i s t o r i a de l a r e v o lu c io n s o c i a l de Mexico; P rim era e t a p a : La c a id a d e l g e n e r a l D iaz (M exico: [nT p.']', 1915), p. 8. 329 m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d er D ia z . He b e g an by s t a t i n g t h a t i t was c e r t a i n t h a t Mexico i n th e l a t e D iaz p e r i o d had g r e a t manu f a c t u r i n g c e n t e r s , such a s th o s e o f Rio B la n c o , N o g a le s , S a n ta R o sa, P u e b l a , and t e n p l a c e s m ore. But i n t h e s e c e n t e r s , c a p i t a l had i t s way i n d e s p o tis m s w hich a u g u re d i l l f o r th e f u t u r e and w h ic h t u r n e d th e m is e r a b le w o rk e r i n t o l e s s t h a n a p ie c e o f g a r b a g e . To t h e s e p l a c e s D iaz s e n t h i s c r u e l s o l d i e r s , w i t h th e m is s i o n o f p u t t i n g an end to th e j u s t p e t i t i o n s of th e m i s e r a b le l a b o r e r s w ith b u l l e t s . T h is s t a t e of a f f a i r s confoun ded th o s e who b e l i e v e d t h a t th e l i f e o f a p e o p le d epended s o l e l y on th e i n c r e a s e o f th e 'b u rg u e s ia e g o i s t a y c r u e l . " The o n ly t h in g w h ic h m a t t e r e d to th e men who d i r e c t e d M e x ic o Ts f o r t u n e s was t h a t m a n u f a c t u r e r s pay enorm ous d i v i d e n d s t o t h e i r s t o c k h o l d e r s . S u p p o s e d ly , t h e y a l s o p a id r a p i d l y grow ing w ages. The t r u t h was t h a t t h e s e wages were o n ly enough to p e r m it th e unhappy w o rk e rs to r e n d e r t h e i r h u n g e r, t h e i r m is e r y , t h e i r a b a se m e n t, and t h e i r h o p e l e s s n e s s e t e r n a l . In th e D iaz way o f t h i n k i n g , i f c a p i t a l i s t s a c h ie v e d such e x t r a o r d i n a r y m a t e r i a l r e w a r d s , i f th e p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y o f b re a d and c i r c u s e s o b t a i n e d such s p l e n d i d r e s u l t s , why s u p p o r t freedo m o f th e p r e s s , why make s o c i a l r e fo rm s? The im p o r ta n t t h i n g was t h a t f o r e i g n c a p i t a l o b t a i n enorm ous, e x c e s s i v e r e t u r n s . M exican b u s i n e s s e s w ere t r u l y r i c h , c o n tin u e d C as t i l l o . T here were th e i n c r e d i b l e p r i c e s q u o te d f o r s t o c k of 330 th e "Dos E s t r e l l a s , " " E l Buen T o n o ," " E l B o l e o ," and "Oro N o la n " m a n u f a c tu r in g c o n c e rn s t o p ro v e i t . They w ere a l s o b r u t a l . R o s a lin o M a r t in e z , head o f th e army d e ta c h m e n t s e n t t o th e R io B lan co s t r i k e , k i l l e d f o r s p o r t , t o s u s t a i n " l a s i n i c u a s a r b i t r a r i e d a d e s " o f th e ow ners o f th e p l a c e . I n i g o N o r ie g a , a n o t h e r c a p i t a l i s t , d e p r i v e d poor I n d i a n s o f t h e i r 4 p r o p e r t y . But what d id t h a t m a t t e r ? A c l o s e u n io n e x i s t e d i n th o s e d a y s b e tw e e n c l e r i c s , g r e a t la n d o w n e rs , p o w e rf u l c o n c e s s i o n a i r e s , o m n ip o te n t manu f a c t u r e r s , a m b itio u s f i n a n c i e r s , and s p e c u l a t o r s i n t h e pub l i c w e a l t h . T o g e th e r t h e y p ro d u ce d a c a t a c ly s m , th e e r a d i - 5 c a t i o n o f j u s t i c e in M exico. C a s t i l l o c o n c lu d e d w i t h t h a t a c c u s a t i o n . From t h i s o b sc u re f i g u r e , I now move t o a f a r more w e ll-k n o w n one, " B ia s U r r e a , " o r , t o - 'use h i s r e a l name, L u is C a b r e r a . C a b re ra w ro te two boo k s o f im p o rta n c e t o t h i s s t u d y , b o t h u n d e r th e pseudonym o f " B ia s U r r e a . " C a b re ra was b o rn in Z a c a t l a n , P u e b la , i n 1876, th e y e a r D ia z came to pow er. By p r o f e s s i o n he was a la w y e r , by p o l i t i c a l i n c l i n a t i o n an a n t i - r e e l e c t i o n i s t , a member o f th e p a r t y o p p o sin g P o r f i r i o D i a z Ts l a s t P r e s i d e n t i a l b i d . L a t e r he j o i n e d f o r c e s w ith th e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s . As s u c h , he s e r v e d a s a member of th e c o n v e n tio n w h ic h drew up th e Con s t i t u t i o n o f 1917 and a s a d e l e g a t e t o th e T w e n ty -S e v e n th C o n g r e s s . C a b r e r a was a ls o a f i e r y j o u r n a l i s t , s i g n i n g h i s 4Ibid., pp. 9-10. 5Ibid., p. 30. 331 a r t i c l e s w ith th e pseudonyms o f " B ia s U r r e a " and "L ucas R i v e r a . " He rounded out h i s c a r e e r by a t t e n d i n g c o n f e r e n c e s on v a r i o u s a f f a i r s and by p u t t i n g h i s name fo rw a rd a s a c a n d i d a t e f o r th e P r e s id e n c y on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s . N e e d le ss to s a y , he n e v e r a c h ie v e d t h a t o f f i c e . H is w orks in c lu d e d E l B alan ce de l a R e v o lu c io n ( 1 9 3 1 ), Los P ro b lem as t r a n s c e n d e n - t a l e s de M exico ( 1 9 3 4 ), and o t h e r books in p r o s e and v e r s e , i n c l u d i n g a t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e "Song o f Songs" i n t o Span i s h . 6 He d ie d i n 1954. C a b r e r a ’ s p a s s a g e s on m a n u f a c tu r in g u nder D iaz in La H e re n c ia de C a rra n z a (1 9 2 0 ), th e f i r s t of h i s books to a p p ea r i n my s tu d y , would seem to stem from h i s d i s l i k e of D iaz and h i s re g im e . T h is d i s l i k e was m a n if e s te d d u r in g th e D iaz d i c t a t o r s h i p by th e a u t h o r ’ s a d h e re n c e t o th e f o r c e s of th e o p p o s i t i o n , and a f t e r i t by C a b r e r a ’ s d e n u n c i a t i o n of th e regim e i n p r i n t . In La H e r e n c ia de C a r r a n z a , C a b re ra s t a t e d t h a t a l l of th e m a n u f a c tu r in g , c o m m ercial, m in in g , p e tro le u m , and b an k in g b u s i n e s s e s o rg a n iz e d i n th e D iaz e r a on a b a s i s o f c o n c e s s io n s p l u s p r i v i l e g e s were " c o n s c i e n te y v o lu n ta r ia m e n t e un s o s t e n de l a d i c t a d u r a p o r f i r i a n a . " The g r e a t la n d o w n e rs, th e l a r g e m a n u f a c tu r in g , c o m m ercial, and b a n k in g c o n c e s s i o n a i r e s , and th e c l e r g y were t h e t h r e e main s u p p o r ts of th e P o r f i r i a n d i c t a t o r s h i p , a s th e y were of th e 6 ^ F r a n c is c o N a ra n jo , D i c c i o n a r i o b i o g r a f i c o r e v o l u - c i o n a r i o (M exico: Im p renta E d i t o r i a l "C osm os," [1 9 3 5 J ) , p . 42. 332 * 7 regim e o f H u e rta somewhat l a t e r . C a b rera n e x t b r i e f l y d i s cussed t a x a t i o n in P o r f i r i a n M exico, w r i t in g t h a t many of th e im posts adopted d u rin g the D iaz a d m i n i s t r a t i o n were mere o b s t a c l e s to commerce and m a n u fa c tu rin g , M s i n p r o d u c ir c a s i 8 nada" o f b e n e f i t . C a b r e r a f s coverage o f Diaz and m anufac t u r i n g i n La H e re n c ia de C a rra n z a ended t h e r e . However, in th e fo llo w in g year he p u b lis h e d a n o th e r book ( Obras p o l i t i - c a s ) under the same pseudonym, in w hich he gave an expanded coverage to t h i s problem . Here he w rote t h a t , in th e f a c t o r y , th e s la v e to the m achine, t h a t i s , th e f a c t o r y w o rk er, liv e d th e l i f e o f a condemned man. He was f a t e d to d ie ig n o m in io u sly betw een th e t e e t h of th e ir o n b e a s t s which crush ed him, th e ma c h in e s . I f a com plaint escaped from h i s l i p s , he re c e iv e d 9 the b u l l e t s of a f i r i n g squad as the only answ er. F a b r i - quismo ( t h e r e i s no adequ ate t r a n s l a t i o n in E n g lish ? i t ro u g h ly s i g n i f i e s m a n u fa ctu rin g i n th e complete sense of the word) under Diaz meant p e rs o n a l and economic s e r v i t u d e , to which th e f a c t o r y w orker was s u b m itte d . T his was a r e s u l t of th e p r i v i l e g e d s i t u a t i o n which the f a c t o r y owner enjoyed r j B ias U rrea [L u is C a b r e r a ] , La H e re n c ia de C a rra n za (M exico: [im p re n ta N a c i o n a l ] , 1920), pp. 2 6 -V. g I b i d . , p. 45- In p a s s i n g , C a b r e r a Ts r e f e r e n c e to t a r i f f s as o b s t a c l e s pure and sim p le was u n iq u e. 9 B ias U rrea [L u is C a b r e r a ] , Obras p o l i t i c a s (M exico: Im p ren ta N a c io n a l, S. A ., 1921), p. 360. i n econom ic and p o l i t i c a l m a t t e r s . T h is i n t u r n was a r e s u l t o f th e s y s t e m a t i c p r o t e c t i o n w hich t h e D iaz governm ent 10 b e l i e v e d i t n e c e s s a r y to g iv e m a n u f a c t u r in g . M a n u f a c tu rin g u n d e r D iaz a l s o s i g n i f i e d m o n o p o lie s . By 1909, m o n o p o lie s had b een e s t a b l i s h e d in th e t e x t i l e i n d u s t r y , i n th e p r i n t i n g p a p e r i n d u s t r y , a s w e l l a s i n th e n o n - i n d u s t r i a l p u r s u i t s o f e l e c t r i c l i g h t and power and p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . The name of some C i e n t i f i c o , be he b a n k e r , p u b l i c f u n c t i o n a r y , b u s in e s s m a n o r la w y e r, was n e v e r a b s e n t from th e b o a rd s o f d i r e c t o r s o f th e m onopoly s y n d i c a t e s . ^ L ooking o v e r m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D iaz a s a w h o le, C a b r e r a c o n c lu d e d t h a t i t was one d e f i n i t e f a c t o r i n th e 12 o u tb r e a k o f th e M exican R e v o l u t i o n . For so m e th in g had t o be d o n e . A t th e v e ry tim e t h a t th e D iaz regim e was f i n a l l y c o l l a p s i n g , th e m ost u r g e n t econom ic need of th e c o u n tr y was th e r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f th e e q u i l i b r i u m b e tw ee n th e many s m a ll i n t e r e s t s , th o s e i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g , a g r i c u l t u r e and commerce, w hich had b een d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s l y o p p r e s s e d , and th e few g r e a t i n t e r e s t s i n th e same s p h e r e s , w hich found 13 th e m s e lv e s s i n g u l a r l y p r i v i l e g e d . T h a t, i n d e e d , was t o be M exico*s p ro b lem f o r many d e c a d e s . I t was n o t s o lv e d i t s t i l l , nor h a s anyone e l s e . In th e same y e a r i n w hich 10Ibid., p. 177. 12Ibid., p. 177. 11Ibid., p. 25. 13Ibid., p. 208. 334 C a b rera* s Obras p o l l t i c a s a p p e a re d , Jo se Lopez P o r t i l l o y R ojas p u b lis h e d a book which a l s o d e a l t w ith m a n u fa c tu rin g in P o r f i r i a n M exico, E le v a c io n y c a id a de P o r f i r i o D iaz (1 9 2 1 ). T h is a u th o r was from G u a d a la ja r a , and was b orn in 1850. He was p r i m a r i l y a n o v e l i s t , a lth o u g h he was a l s o a c t i v e i n o th e r s p h e re s of w r i t i n g as w e l l a s in s e v e r a l gov ern m e n ts. He s tu d ie d in h i s b i r t h p l a c e and in Mexico C ity , becoming a law yer i n 1871. He th e n t r a v e l e d th ro u g h th e U nited S t a t e s and E u ro p e, and p u b lis h e d h i s f i r s t book, E g ip to y P a l e s t i n a , a p u n te s de v i a j e , upon h i s r e t u r n in 1874. Lopez now tu rn e d t o e d u c a tio n and t o th e e x e r c i s e of h i s l e g a l p r o f e s s i o n . He s h o r t l y e n te r e d th e governm ent as w e l l , f i r s t becoming a d e p u ty to th e f e d e r a l c o n g re ss in 1875. He h e ld t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n f o r two y e a r s . He became a d e p u ty fo r th e second tim e i n 1880, s e r v in g u n t i l 1882, when he became a s e n a t o r . In h i s l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t i e s , he formed p a r t of th e J a l i s c a n w r i t e r s * g ro u p , o th e r members of which were Manuel A lv a re z d e l C a s t i l l o , A n to n io Z arag o za, Manuel * * Puga y A c a l, and S alvado A lv a re z . He c o n t r i b u t e d to v a r i o u s p e r i o d i c a l s of the s t a t e and founded La R e p u b lic a l i t e r a r i a * i n 1885, w ith th e h e lp of A lv a re z d e l C a s t i l l o and E s t e r T ap ia de C a s t e l l a n o s . La R e p u b lic a l i t e r a r i a was a l i t e r a r y 14 rev iew , p u b lis h e d u n t i l 1890. Lopez P o r t i l l o y R ojas was an a c t iv e worker on b e h a l f o f P o r f i r i o D iaz. When th e P a r t i d o N a cio n a l P o r f i r i s t a was formed in 1892 to se c u re D iaz*s r e - e l e c t i o n , the a u th o r serv ed as th e s e c r e t a r y of th e p a r ty * s board of d i r e c t o r s.^ In J u l y , 1909, he was a ls o v i c e - p r e s i d e n t of th e P a r t i d o R e y is ta . T h is p o l i t i c a l g ro u p -su p p o rte d Diaz f o r the P r e s i - 16 dency and B ernardo Reyes f o r th e V ic e - P r e s id e n c y in 1910. With the f a l l of D ia z , the a u th o r s u c c e s s f u l l y man aged to le a p onto the w in nin g s i d e . In 1911, he became gov e rn o r of h i s home s t a t e . W ith the advent of H u e rta , he sw itched a g a in , t h i s tim e becoming M in is te r of P u b lic Educa t i o n and F o re ig n R e la ti o n s . But i t was to o much fo r him. The i n s t a b i l i t y o f the tim es put an end to h i s p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r , and he su b s e q u e n tly d e v o te d h im s e lf to q u i e t e r p u r s u i t s , to e d u c a tio n and to h i s w r i t i n g . He se rv ed as d i r e c t o r of th e Academia de l a Lengua from 1916 u n t i l h is d e a th in 1923. He produced works of j u r i d i c a l , p h i l o s o p h i c a l , h i s t o r i c a l , p o l i t i c a l , and r e l i g i o u s c h a r a c t e r . He c u l t i v a te d p o e tr y , s t o r i e s , the n o v e l, drama, t r a v e l l i t e r a t u r e , ^ D ic c io n a r io P o rru a de h i s t o r i a , b i o g r a f i a y g e o g r a f ia de Mexico (Mexico* E d i t o r i a l iPorrua, A . , [ 1 9 6 4 ] ; , pp. 8 4 7 - ’ 8 . ■^Lopez P o r t i l l o y R o jas, E le v a c io n y c a id a de P o r f i r i o Diaz (M exico: E d ita d a poF L i b r e r i a Espafio'la, 1 1 9 2 1 ];, p. 420. l6Ibid., p. 418. 336 j o u r n a l i s m , and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , b u t h is fame r e s t e d i n h i s p r o d u c tio n i n th e n o v e l and th e s t o r y . He had an i n c l i n a t i o n tow ard S p a n ish a u t h o r s , e s p e c i a l l y P e r e d a , t o whom he d e d i c a t e d La P a r c e l a ( 1 8 9 8 ), h i s b e s t n o v e l. A long w ith A s t u c i a , by I n c l a n , t h i s n o v e l r e p r e s e n t e d th e r u r a l theme to be found i n M exican l i t e r a t u r e . Los P r e c u r s o r e s a p p e a re d t h r e e y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1901. I t s s u b j e c t was th e problem of s o c i a l c l a s s . F u e r t e s y d e b i l e s was p u b lis h e d in 1919. H e re, in h i s l a s t n o v e l , Lopez P o r t i l l o y R o jas p a in t e d an o b j e c t i v e p i c t u r e s of th e r e l a t i o n s betw een th e s m a ll fa rm e r 17 and th e g r e a t lan d o w n e r. Lopez P o r t i l l o y R o j o s ’ p ag es on m a n u f a c tu r in g d u r ing th e D iaz p e r i o d found i n E le v a c io n y c a i d a de P o r f i r i o D iaz were u n l i k e any w hich have b e en p r e v i o u s l y se e n in t h i s s e c t i o n . The a u th o r s t a t e d t h a t i n d u s t r y grew d u r in g th e p e r i o d , b u t he a s c r i b e d most of th e c r e d i t f o r t h i s to B e r n ard o R eyes, n o t D ia z . IWhen he m en tio n ed D i a z ’ s r o l e , he was som etim es c r i t i c a l . T h is u niq u e a s p e c t o f th e a u t h o r ’ s c o v erag e o f m a n u fa c tu r in g u n d er D iaz may have been due to one f a c t : Reyes and Lopez P o r t i l l o y R o jas were c lo s e f r i e n d s , had b e en s i n c e c h ild h o o d , and c o n tin u e d th u s u n t i l 1 8 R e y e s ’ d e a t h . A r e f l e c t i o n o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p was th e w r i t e r ’ s s u p p o r t of R eyes i n th e p o l i t i c a l arena,. In my 17P i c c i o n a r i o P o r r u a . . . , p . 848. 18 + Lopez Portillo y Rojas, op. cit., pp. 300-1. 337 ju d g m en t, t h i s f r i e n d s h i p m ight have i n f lu e n c e d th e a u th o r * s t r e a t m e n t o f m a n u f a c tu r in g in th e D iaz p e r i o d so t h a t i t was l a r g e l y f a v o r a b l e to R eyes, n o t D ia z . Lopez P o r t i l l o y R o ja s beg an h i s a c c o u n t by g iv in g an o v e rv ie w o f th e D iaz p e r io d as a w h o le , in com p arison w ith p r e v i o u s y e a r s . B e fo re D ia z , t h e r e was s im p ly no money to i n v e s t in m in e s, f a c t o r i e s , r a i l r o a d s , and v a c a n t l a n d s . In " e l p e rio d o de l a p a z , " th e p e r io d o f D ia z , th e o p p o s ite 19 , t was th e c a s e . D uring D ia z* s f i r s t te rm , e x te n d in g from 1877 to 1880, th e n a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e s were f o s t e r e d . D iaz d i c t a t e d p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s to t h i s end , w h ic h , w h ile n o t alw ays w e l l - a d v i s e d , a t l e a s t showed e f f o r t on h i s p a r t to " f a v o r e c e r n u e s t r a p r o d u c c io n n a c i o n a l . He r e t i r e d i n 1880 and h e ld a v a r i e t y o f p o s t s , i n c lu d in g t h a t of th e g o v e rn o r o f h i s n a t i v e s t a t e of O axaca. As su c h , he d im in is h e d th e t a x on s u g a r , an im p o rta n t p r o d u c t of th e r e g i o n , b u t made th e t a x e f f e c t i v e . The sug ar f a c t o r i e s , th e d i s t i l l a t i o n p l a n t s f o r making a l c o h o l , th e f l o u r m i l l s , th e p o t t e r y f a c t o r i e s , and th e m ining d e v e lo p m e n ts, a l l r e c e i v e d a g r e a t im p u lse u n d er h i s a d m i n i s t r a - 2 1 t i o n . The m a j o r i t y o f th e re m a in d e r of Lopez P o r t i l l o y Rojas* co v erag e on m a n u fa c tu rin g c o n cern ed B ern ard o R eyes. 19Ibid., p. 270. 21 Ibid., p. 193. 2°Ibid.. p. 154. 338 The a u th o r f i r s t to o k h i s r e a d e r s b ack to t h e y e a r 1898. D iaz was t r a v e l i n g a b o u t th e c o u n tr y a t t h i s tim e , and one of h i s ” j i r a s i n t e r m i n a b l e s ” to o k him t o M o n te r re y , c a p i t a l of R e y e s ’ b a i l i w i c k . W hile t h e r e , he and L im an to u r w ere g u e s t s o f ho n o r of th e s t o c k h o l d e r s of M o n t e r r e y ’ s new f o u n d r y . The s t o c k h o l d e r s t r e a t e d them i n t h i s way so t h a t th e y c o u ld be shown th e g i g a n t i c i n s t a l l a t i o n s of th e p l a n t w h ich had b e e n b u i l t and w hich w ere b e g in n i n g t o o p e r a t e , M l a s c u a l e s c o n s t i t u i a n en v e r d a d , un g r a n a d e l a n t o en n u e s - t r a s i n d u s t r i a s f a b r i l e s . ” The a u th o r im p lie d t h a t h i s 22 f r i e n d Reyes was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l o f t h i s . A t a n o th e r tim e , c a p i t a l i s t s had a tte m p te d to o b t a i n c o n c e s s i o n s i n th e s t a t e o f C o a h u il a . They w ere r e f u s e d . R eyes t h e n i n v i t e d them t o come to Nuevo L eon, and t h e y a c c e p t e d . So i t was t h a t r i c h e n t e r p r i s e s e n t e r e d the s t a t e , e s t a b l i s h i n g new and g r e a t i n d u s t r i e s , g i v i n g employment to th o u s a n d s o f w o r k e r s . P r o s p e r i t y c i r c u l a t e d th r o u g h o u t Nuevo L eon. P o w e rfu l e n t e r p r i s e s , su c h as th e ”F u n d ic io n de H i e r r o y A cero de M o n t e r r e y , ” th e " C e r v e c e r i a de C u a u h te m o c,” t e x t i l e f a c t o r i e s , g l a s s f a c t o r i e s , and many o t h e r s o f many d i f f e r e n t k in d s su rg e d f o r w a r d . In a s h o r t tim e t h e y d i f f u s e d l i f e , movement, and p r o s p e r i t y among a p e o p le w hich was f o r m e r l y a b j e c t . The good f o r t u n e w hich th o s e new i n d u s t r i e s e n jo y e d , r u l e d over i n a lm o s t a l l c a s e s by 22Ibid., pp. 225-6. 339 M e x ic a n s, p ro duced a n o t h e r b r i l l i a n t r e s u l t , which was th e d e m o n s tr a tio n of th e a p f i t u d e s of th e M exican p e o p le i n an i n d u s t r i a l s i t u a t i o n . They proved t h a t th e y were i n f e r i o r to no one when i t came t o th e d i f f i c u l t b u s i n e s s o f ru n n in g f a c t o r i e s . The S a d a s, who owned th e "Cuauhtemoc” b re w e ry , th e t e c h n i c a l d i r e c t o r s o f th e M o n te rre y fo u n d ry , in d e e d , th e heads o f a l l of th e o th e r new m a n u fa c tu rin g e n t e r p r i s e s of M o n te rre y , knew how t o d i r e c t and manage t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e b u s i n e s s e s w ith such s k i l l t h a t th e y r a i s e d them— w i t h i n a s h o r t tim e to th e s t a t u r e of th e b e s t - e q u i p p e d , m ost famous f a c t o r i e s a b ro a d . For ex am p le, th e b rew ery i n M o n te rre y made p r o d u c ts w hich w ere so good t h a t th e y in v ad e d th e m ar k e ts o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , and the M o n te rre y fo u n d ry made r a i l s and m a c h in e ry o f su c h p e r f e c t workm anship t h a t M exi cans p r e f e r r e d them to th e im p o rted p r o d u c t s , t h e r e b y a lm o st e l i m i n a t i n g th e i n v a s i o n of s i m i l a r p r o d u c ts from e ls e w h e r e i n t o th e M exican m a rk e t. M o n te rre y was th e c h i e f c e n t e r of th e s e new f a c t o r i e s . I t was c o n v e r te d i n t o a most im p o rta n t w orkers* and m e r c a n t i le emporium, a f a c t w hich r a p i d l y made th e c i t y more i m p o r ta n t, im proved i t s m a t e r i a l a s p e c t , and g r e a t l y i n c re a s e d th e number o f i t s i n h a b i t a n t s . The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was so r a d i c a l and q u ic k t h a t i t f i l l e d a l l th e w o rld w ith a d m ir a tio n and won th e a t t e n t i o n of th e f r o n t i e r S t a t e s i n 340 23 / the U n ite d S t a t e s of A m erica. With t h a t , Lopez P o r t i l l o y R o jas co n clu d ed . The fo llo w in g y ear saw th e appearance o f La E v o lu cio n d e l pueblo m ex ican o, by Jo s e M aria B o n i l l a . B o n illa * s book marked a r e t u r n t o the o rth o d o x , u n fa v o ra b le coverage o f m a n u fa c tu rin g under Diaz by w r i t e r s i n Mexico a f t e r 1911. B o n i ll a was a r a t h e r obscu re c h a r a c t e r . He was a p r o f e s s o r a t th e E s c u e la Normal i n Mexico C i t y , and seems to have s p e c i a l i z e d in w r i t i n g te x tb o o k s . Such works in c lu d e d E ducacion c i v i c a t Los D erechos c i v i l e s , E ducacion c £ v ic a t Los D erechos p o l i t i c o s , and E ducacion c i v i c a t Los D erechos i n d i v i d u a l e s , a l l w r i t t e n fo r a l e v e l ro u g h ly e q u iv a le n t to 24 t h a t of an Am erican h ig h sc h o o l. O ther books by t h i s a u th o r were Derecho de g e n te s p o s i t i v i o n ica rag iien se . . . (two volum es, Managua, 1909-1922), H i s t o r i a n a c i o n a l i Or£gen y d e s a r r o l l o economico d e l pu eb lo mexicano (second e d i t i o n , 1931), and In d iv id u a lis m o y s o c ia lis m o (1 9 3 5 ). La E v o lu c io n d e l p u e b lo m exicano was a ls o a t e x t , p re p a re d f o r th e se co n d a ry sch o o l l e v e l . C o n seq u en tly , i t s a u th o r would be u n l i k e l y to t r e a t c o n d it i o n s d u rin g th e Diaz p e rio d f a v o r a b ly , g iv e n th e c o n t r o l over Mexican e d u c a tio n assumed by th e N a tio n a l governm ent, g iv en th e o r i e n t a t i o n of 23I b i d . , p. 307. 24 / ^ J o s e M aria B o n i ll a , La E v o lu c io n d e l pueblo m exi cano (M exico: H e rre ro Hermanos S u c e so re s , 1922;, pPj._4-5. 341 t h a t government and i t s m in i s t r y of e d u c a tio n in 1922. In my judgm ent, th e tone o f B o n i l l a Ts book re g a r d in g manufac t u r i n g under Diaz may be u n d e rsto o d in t h a t l i g h t . In La E v o lu c io n d e l pueblo m exicano, B o n i ll a w rote t h a t , d u rin g the Dfaz p e r i o d , m a n u fa c tu rin g i n c r e a s e d . S t a t i s t i c s from t h i s branch of the economy were a s to u n d in g , i f th e y were compared w ith s i m il a r ones ta k e n a t the b e g in ning of M exicoTs in d ep e n d en t c a r e e r . By th e same to k e n , th e r a i l r o a d s were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s grow th. Diaz was n o t a 25 f a c t o r in i t - In d ee d , B o n i ll a l a t e r went so f a r as to s t a t e t h a t Mexico*s m a t e r i a l and economic p r o s p e r i t y d u rin g ” lo s u ltim o s t r e i n t a anos de su prim er c e n t e n a r i o , ” say, from 1880 to 1910, were d o u b tle s s a consequence o f w orld p r o g r e s s d u rin g th e same p e rio d .* ^ At th e same tim e , la b o r c o n d itio n s were bad. The b r u t a l p e r s e c u t io n of the Y aquis and the Mayas, th e a s s a s s i n a t i o n s and th e b u rn in g of Tomochic, th e s l a u g h t e r s of Rio Blanco and Cananea, a l l had t h e i r p u rp o se . T h is was to i n t im i d a t e th e rem ainder of Mexican p e a s a n ts and w o rk e rs, so t h a t th e y would r e f r a i n from f o r m u la tin g p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t th e b o s s e s , landow ners, and m a n u f a c tu re r s . So i t was t h a t , by means of t h i s p o l i t i c a l regime of r e p r e s s i o n i n th e name of peace and p r o g r e s s , th e government of P o r f i r i o D iaz r e s t o r e d th e r i g h t s and p r e r o g a t iv e s of th e o ld C o n se rv a tiv e 25Ibid., p. 326. 26Ibid., p. 328. 342 p a r t y , now c a l l e d th e P a r t i d o C i e n t i f i c o . Perhaps t h i s r e s t o r a t i o n was u n c o n s c io u s ly p erfo rm ed , b u t i t was done n e v e r - 27 t h e l e s s . The r a t h e r s h o r t B o n i ll a acco u n t ended t h e r e . Some y e a rs l a t e r , L u is A r a q u i s t a i n p u b lis h e d La R evo lu cio n m exicana: Sus o r i g e n e s , sus hom bres, su o b r a . The book d id n o t have a d a te o f p u b l i c a t i o n p r i n t e d on th e t i t l e p age, b u t I found t h a t i t was p u b lis h e d i n 1929. How e v e r , I d is c o v e re d l i t t l e r e g a r d in g i t s a u th o r . A r a q u i s t a i n was b o rn in 1886, d ied in 1959, and, from th e t i t l e s of some of h i s boo k s, seems to have been som ething o f a p r o f e s s i o n a l Y ankee-phobe. The m a jo r ity of h i s books were w r i t t e n i n the 1 9 2 0 ’ s , and in c lu d e d such t i t l e s as E l P e l i g r o yanqui (1 9 2 1 ), . . . Las Columnas de H e rc u le s (1 9 2 1 ), E l A r c h i p i - e la g o m a r a v illo s o (1 9 2 3 ), Remedios h e ro ic o s (1 9 2 3 ), La V u e lta d e l m uerto (n o v e l, 1924), E l A rea de Noe (1 9 2 6 ), and La A gonia c a s t e l l a n a : E l Im p e ria lism o yanqui en e l mar c a r ib e (1 9 2 8 ). The a u th o r c o n tin u e d to produce books w e l l i n t o th e 1940’ s . One of h i s l a s t was La G uerra desde L ondres (1 9 4 2 ). T h is t i t l e im p lied t h a t A r a q u i s t a i n had a background in jo u r n a lis m , p e rh a p s as a f o r e i g n c o rr e s p o n d e n t . A r a q u is t a i n was c r i t i c a l of m an u fa c tu rin g under Diaz i n La R e v o lu c io n m ex ican a. T h is could be e x p la in e d by th e a u t h o r ’ s a n ti - U n i te d S t a te s b i a s , co up led w ith th e f a c t t h a t 27 Ibid., p. 335. 343 much U n ited S t a t e s money found i t s way i n t o m an u fa ctu rin g d u rin g th e Diaz p e rio d , in some c a se s amounting to the con t r o l of v a rio u s b ran c h es of f a b r i c a t i o n . A r a q u is t a i n d is c u s s e d v a r io u s myths about th e Diaz regim e. One of th e s e was the myth o f maquinismo (which one m ight t r a n s l a t e as a mania fo r m achinery and th e machine a g e ) , of i n d u s t r i a l tec h n o lo g y , something which p le a s e d sim p le m e n t a l i t i e s . As a good In d ia n , P o r f i r i o Diaz b e lie v e d in m aquinism o; so, p ro b a b ly , d id a m a jo r ity of the Mexican people a t th e tim e. They reasoned t h a t i f so many wars and c o n s t i t u t i o n s had n o t improved t h e i r c o n d itio n , p erh ap s the f o r e ig n e n t e r p r i s e s which Diaz fa v o re d , tho se e n t e r p r i s e s who were a r r i v i n g i n t h e i r c o u n try to e x p l o i t m ines, r a i l ro a d s , t e x t i l e , to b a c c o , and beer f a c t o r i e s , would b rin g them a measure of h a p p in e s s , in the form of new, s a l a r i e d l a b o r . North Am erican, E n g lis h , F ren ch , and S pan ish c a p i t a l found t h e i r golden age i n Mexico d u rin g th e regim e of Don P o r f i r i o . A b r u t a l , i r r e s p o n s i b l e d i c t a t o r s h i p of th a t s t r i p e would n o t have been t o l e r a t e d in the U nited S t a t e s , E ngland, or F ra n c e . Yet how b e n e f i c i a l th e g r e a t f o r e ig n c a p ta in s of i n d u s t r y found i t in Mexico? Democracy and l i b e r a l is m were n o t found i n c o lo n i a l c o u n t r i e s , and, d u rin g the Diaz p e r io d , Mexico a c t u a l l y was a c o lo n y - -o f European and U n ited S t a t e s c a p i ta l is m . The n a t i o n ’ s w e a lth was u n fo ld e d in the shadow of the easy co n ce ssio n s and th e modest 344 t r i b u t a r y im p o s ts o f th o s e d a y s , and th e p u b l i c t r e a s u r y was d r a i n e d of i t s w e a l t h - W hile m a n u f a c t u r in g and m in in g im p r o v e d , a g r i c u l t u r e , th e b a s i s o f th e n a t i o n , d e c a y e d . T h is d e c a y r e a c h e d such a p o i n t t h a t , i n th e f i r s t y e a r s o f th e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o im p o rt c o rn and o th e r 28 g r a i n s ” por muchos m i l l o n e s de p e s o s . ” The In d ia n a l s o s u f f e r e d in th e m a n u f a c tu r in g o f th e D iaz p e r i o d . In common w i t h th e i d e a s c u r r e n t in o t h e r Mex i c a n d i c t a t o r s h i p s , an o l i g a r c h i c c o n c e p ti o n o f th e In d ia n h e ld sway d u r i n g th e P o r f i r i a n e r a . A c c o rd in g to t h i s t h e s i s , th e I n d i a n b e lo n g e d t o an i n f e r i o r r a c e , p e r p e t u a l l y f a t e d t o be s u b m itte d to th e d o m in an t c l a s s e s ( t h e m an u fac t u r e r s , th e m i l i t a r y e le m e n t, th e c l e r g y , th e p u b l i c f u n c - 29 t i o n a r i e s , th e l a n d h o l d e r s , and th e co m m ercial p e o p l e ) . The I n d i a n s a t l a s t r o s e a g a i n s t th e P h a r a o n i c d i c t a t o r s h i p o f D ia z , b e c a u se t h e y w ere r u i n e d by th e r u b b e r c o n c e s s i o n s g iv e n by D iaz t o R o c k e f e l l e r and A l d r i c h i n th e S t a t e o f D u rang o, b e c a u s e the p a p e r f a c t o r i e s w h ic h w ere s e t up d i s - 30 p o s s e s s e d them o f t h e i r communal w o o d la n d s . L eavin g A r a q u i s t a i n Ts c o v e r a g e , th e r e a d e r f i n d s a s i m i l a r u n f a v o r a b le i m p r e s s io n o f m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D iaz i n C u l t o r e s y f o r j a d o r e s de M e x ico , th e work o f Hum berto T e j e r a . I t was t ^ L u i s A r a q u i s t a i n , La R e v o lu c io n m e x ic a n a ; Sus o r i g e n e s , su s hom b res, su o b ra ( S a n tia g o ' de C h ile s R d i- c i o n e s Ulam, I 1929J , p p . ffO-'l. 29Ibid., pp. 47-8. 30Ibid., p. 51. 345 p u b lis h e d i n 1929, and i s th e l a s t book c o v ered on t h i s p o r t i o n o f th e s t u d y . • L i t t l e b i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a was found c o n c e rn in g 1 T e j e r a . He was b o rn i n 1890 i n M erid a de V e n e z u e la , and i s s t i l l l i v i n g . He seems to have come from V e n ez u ela t o Mexico d u r in g t h e Gomez reg im e in h i s own c o u n tr y , a r u l e which l a s t e d fro m 1908 t o 1935. H is f i r s t work was a pam p h l e t a g a i n s t t h e d i c t a t o r , Los Gomez y e l poder j u d i c i a l de V e n e z u e la , p r i n t e d in Panama i n 1919. He fo llo w e d t h i s w ith 12 Anos de r e h a b i l i t a c i o n ( a c o m p i l a t io n o f ju dgm en ts by " e s c r i t o r e s n o t a b l e s ’* on the Gomez r e g i m e ) , p r i n t e d in Mexico C ity in 1920, E l A rb o l que c a n t a (poem s, M exico C i t y , 19 2 1 ), La Mujer de n ie v e (sa m e p la c e o f p u b l i c a t i o n , 19 2 2 ), Q u e t z a l c o a t 1 (T am pico, 1924), and B i o g r a f i a de don M iguel H id a lg o y C o s t i l l a (M exico C i t y , 1 9 2 5 ). The m ost r e c e n t book by T e j e r a w hich I e n c o u n te re d was B o l i v a r , g u i a demo- c r a t i c o de A m erica ( C a r a c a s , 19 6 2 ). The p la c e o f p u b l i c a t i o n im p lie d t h a t T e j e r a r e t u r n e d t o V e n ez u ela w i t h an im provem ent i n p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a f t e r th e d e a th o f Gomez. W ith th e l i m i t e d knowledge o b t a i n e d r e g a r d i n g t h i s a u t h o r , i t would be h a z a rd o u s f o r me to v e n tu r e a g u e ss as to why h i s r e p o r t on m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D faz was an ■^Humberto T e j e r a , C u l to r e s y f o r j a d o r e s de Mexico (M exico: T a l l e r e s G r a f ic o s de l a N a c io n , 1 929 ), p i 94. 32Ibid., p. 152. 346 u n fa v o ra b le one. P erh ap s h i s h a tr e d o f Gomez was th e cause of a d i s l i k e f o r o th e r s tr o n g men in L a t i n A m erican p o l i t i c s , in c lu d in g D iaz. T e je ra * s s ta te m e n t on th e problem was f a i r l y le n g th y , c o n s id e rin g t h a t h is book was a s e r i e s of b io g ra p h i c a l s k e tc h e s . He sa id t h a t , a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e twen t i e t h c e n tu r y , Mexico was a land of f a i r l y r e t a r d e d a g r i c u l t u r a l developm ent. M an u fac tu rin g had h a r d l y rea ch e d th e em b ry o n ic s t a g e . Almost no one in Mexico could re a d . I t seemed t h a t Mexico was d e p a r t in g from i t s g ra n d io se t r a d i t i o n s , was r e s i g n i n g i t s e l f to b e in g a f i e l d of e x p l o i t a t i o n f o r f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i s t s . I t a p peared t h a t th e c o u n try was f o r g e t t i n g i t s c o n t i n e n t a l d e s t i n y . During th e l a s t t h i r d o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y , r a i l r o a d s and o th e r m a t e r i a l works had been b u i l t , f a c t o r i e s had been s e t up, d iv id e n d s were s e n t t o London, P a r i s , and New York, and th e people slum bered in a peace of p r i s o n s and - 3 3 s i l e n c e . **Eso e r a t o d o , ’* a f i t t i n g q u o t a t i o n w ith which to end a c h a p te r and, so f a r as s o u rc e s a re co n ce rn e d , a d i s s e r t a t i o n . I s h a l l s h o r t l y rev ie w th e m a t e r i a l i n t h i s paper as a w hole; l e t me b e g in on a s m a lle r s c a le a t t h i s p o i n t , and draw a c o n c lu s io n to t h i s d i v i s i o n of my s tu d y . The r e a d e r has seen the argum ents employed by th e se a u th o r s many tim es b e f o r e , in th e pages o f a u th o r s in 33 Ibid., p. 145. 347 E n g lis h and S p a n ish , w r i t i n g d u rin g D iaz and a f t e r him. The c h a rg e s were alm ost always s i m i l a r : i r r a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i a l develo p m en t, g r o s s e x p l o i t a t i o n of l a b o r , developm ent due to f a c t o r s o th e r th a n D£az, in r o a d s of f o r e i g n c a p i t a l , e t c . , e t c . The vehemence of many o f th e s e a u th o r s seemed undimmed by D ia z ’ s overthrow and th e y e a rs and e v e n ts p a s s in g sin c e th e n . In th e case of the w r i t e r s o f t h i s s e c t i o n , th e s e un f a v o r a b le view s on Diaz must c e r t a i n l y have found a f a v o r a b le m ilie u i n which to s u r v iv e and t h r i v e i n th e Mexico of th e 1911 to 1930 p e r io d , when Diaz and h i s regim e were f r e q u e n tly branded as r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l of M exico’ s i l l s . I t would have been easy f o r a w r i t e r to have r e t a i n e d u n f a v o r a b le view s of a p re v io u s man and e r a a l i v e when many of th o se around him, in p u b lic o f f i c e and i n p r i v a t e c a p a c i t i e s , h e ld th e same o p in io n s . CHAPTER IX CONCLUSION At t h i s p o i n t , I s h a l l a tte m p t to draw some c o n c lu sio n s from a l l the m a t e r i a l which has gone b e f o r e . Since a l l of th e a u th o rs c i t e d were d e s c r i b i n g m a n u fa c tu rin g under D iaz, I s h a l l a tte m p t to s e t down a p i c t u r e , done i n broad s t r o k e s , of what m a n u fa c tu rin g was r e a l l y l i k e under D iaz. A d e s c r i p t i o n a t t h i s p o in t seems n e c e s s a r y , sim p ly because none of th e w r i t e r s whose coverage h a s been re a d t o l d the com plete t r u t h , t h i s w ith a l l due a p o lo g ie s to them. G ra n t ed th e f a c t s which a re known about them, th e f a c t t h a t th e y l iv e d and w rote d u rin g th e p e rio d or r e l a t i v e l y c lo se to i t , i t could h a r d ly have been o th e r w is e . F a i t h f u l r e p o r t i n g of a complex phenomenon such as t h i s ta k e s tim e, time to f in d a l l the e v id e n c e , time to l e t i t s component p a r t s s e t f i r m ly , t r u t h f u l l y in r e l a t i o n to one a n o th e r . Above a l l e l s e , p e rh a p s , i t ta k e s a w i l l i n g n e s s to a c c e p t the t r u t h as i t i s , n o t as i t i s se e n , a w i l l i n g n e s s to a c c e p t and r e p o r t t o t a l t r u t h . F i r s t th e n , m an u fa c tu rin g d id i n c r e a s e under P o r f i r io D ia z . I have seen the p a r t i a l m a n u fa c tu rin g p r o d u c tio n 348 349 f i g u r e s d a tin g from im m ed iately b e f o r e the b e g in n in g of the d i c t a t o r s h i p ; I have se e n th o se which were is s u e d im m ediate ly a f t e r i t . "While th e y were n o t in c lu d e d in t h i s p a p e r, due m ain ly to l i m i t a t i o n s o f s p a c e , th e y d id p o in t to an i n c re a s e i n m anufacturing under D iaz, i n many c a se s a g r e a t 1 i n c r e a s e . S eco n d ly , the k in d s o f goods produced expanded as w e l l . I n the case of t e x t i l e s , th e old Mexican sta n d b y , the end of th e D iaz p e rio d saw th e p r o d u c tio n o f s e v e r a l more ty p e s o f c o tto n and w oolen c l o t h th a n a t i t s b e g in n in g . S i l k was b ein g produced a g a in , som ething w hich had n o t been seen s in c e the days of th e e a r l y v i c e r o y a l t y . In o th e r l i n e s , th e expansio n o f t h e l i s t o f m anu factu red goods was more n o t i c e a b l e , sim ply b e cau se t e x t i l e s w e re, in th e p e r i od b e fo re D iaz, v i r t u a l l y the only k in d of goods p ro d u c e d . The p r o d u c tio n of beer began d u rin g th e Diaz p e rio d , as did t h a t of guayule and s t e e l . Many o th e r com m odities, of ex tre m e ly minor im p o rtan ce b e f o r e , such as c i g a r e t t e s and o th e r to b acco p r o d u c ts , sh o e s, and iro n -w o rk , found a huge For e a r l i e r f i g u r e s , see th e Memoria of 1873, pub li s h e d by the S e c r e t a r i a de E sta d o o f the Mexican R e p u b lic . G a rc ia C u b as* r e p o r t of c o n d it i o n s i n 1876 may a l s o be of u s e . The most complete ru n o f e a r l y s t a t i s t i c s may be found in E m ilian o B u s to Ts E s t a d i s t i c a de l a R e p u b lic a M exicana, p u b lis h e d in t h r e e volumes in 1879'. “ P o st-D ia z f i g u r e s may be lo c a te d more e a s i l y , and a re l i k e l y to be more com p lete. A u s e f u l p u b l i c a t i o n i s Genso i n d u s t r i a l de lo s E sta d o s Unidos M exicanos (1 9 2 9 ), a resume of a f a r more d e t a i l e d , m ulti-v o lu m e stu d y p u b lis h e d by th e C a l l e s government from 1925 to 1928. 350 expansio n o f p r o d u c tio n d u rin g the D iaz p e rio d . They now e n te re d th e l i s t s o f im p o rta n t m an u factu red p ro d u c ts f o r the f i r s t tim e. T h ir d ly , th e r e was a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e in th e u se of powered m achinery to m an u fa ctu re goods. One of th e a u th o r s c i t e d n oted t h a t th e hand loom was b e in g r e p la c e d by th e powered loom d u r in g the Diaz e r a . T h is judgment h eld i n the p r o d u c tio n of many o th e r com m odities b e s i d e s . In any la r g e m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r y , a g e n e r a l r u l e of thumb would be t h a t i t used more m ach inery , more m echanized p ro c e s s e s a t the end of th e D iaz p e r io d th an b e fo r e i t . F o u r th ly , the f a c t o r i e s th em selv es expanded. Be s i d e s a l a r g e number of new m a n u fa c tu rin g p l a n t s which were b u i l t d u rin g the epoch, th e o ld , e s t a b l i s h e d ones grew i n s i z e . T his was i n resp o n se to g r e a t e r m ark ets f o r t h e i r p r o d u c tio n s , new p r o s p e r i t y , and an e x p a n sio n in th e volume and ty p e s o f goods produced. Of c o u r s e , th e s e t h i r d and f o u r t h p o in ts a ls o tend ed to h o ld t r u e fo r f a c t o r i e s e s t a b lis h e d on a modest s c a le d u rin g the Dfaz p e rio d . F i n a l l y , m an u fa c tu rin g d u r in g the Diaz p e rio d a p p e a rs to have follo w ed a p ro c e s s w hich i s common among newly i n d u s t r i a l i z i n g n a t i o n s . T his p r o c e s s , w hich one m ight c a l l an e v o lu t i o n to more complex p r o d u c t i o n , to o k i t from l i g h t i n d u s t r y , such as t e x t i l e s , a t i t s b e g in n in g , to heavy i n d u s t r y , in c lu d in g the p r o d u c tio n of s t e e l , a t i t s end. I t must be c a u tio n e d t h a t t h i s p r o c e s s was n o t com plete by the 351 end o f th e D iaz e r a , i n d e e d , i s n o t y e t , and t h a t i t o n ly f u n c t i o n e d on a m odest s c a l e . So f a r , a l l th e d e v e lo p m e n ts t h a t I have e n u m erated were su c h t h a t t h e y l e n t c r e d i t to th e D iaz a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . But t o le a v e th e s t u d y a t t h i s p o i n t would be to le a v e as p a r t i a l a c o n c l u s i o n a s t h a t o f C re elm a n . T here was a n o th e r s id e t o m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D ia z . F i r s t and f o r e m o s t , D ia z d id n o t c au se a l l o f t h i s i n c r e a s e . I n th e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , s e v e r a l f a c t o r s c o i n c i d e d w h ic h p r o b a b ly would have m eant a m a n u f a c tu r in g i n f l u x i n t o M exico no m a t t e r who r u l e d . For i n s t a n c e , w e s t e r n c a p i t a l i s m i n E n g la n d , F ra n c e , and th e U n ite d S t a t e s found i t s e l f w i t h s u r p l u s c a p i t a l t o i n v e s t e ls e w h e r e t h a n i n i t s home c o u n t r i e s . Most e m p h a t i c a l l y , one m ust n o t be m is le d i n t o b e l i e v i n g t h a t the o n ly r e c i p i e n t o f t h i s mixed l a r g e s s was M exico. I t went i n many d i r e c t i o n s and t o many c o u n t r i e s . In E urope th e s e in c lu d e d I t a l y , G re e c e , and th e B a lk a n s , and C z a r i s t R u s s i a . In A s i a i t i n c l u d e d C h in a and , most n o t a b l y , J a p a n . In A f r i c a i t in c lu d e d E g y p t. I n H is p a n ic A m e ric a , i t i n c l u d e d M exico, b u t a l s o A r g e n t i n a , B r a z i l , and C h i l e , a s w e ll a s a h a l f - dozen o t h e r c o u n t r i e s t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t . I f M exico g o t th e l i o n * s s h a r e of t h i s f o r e i g n c a p i t a l , w hich was q u e s t i o n a b l e , one m ust remember t h a t , f o r b e t t e r or w o rs e , Mexico b o r d e r e d t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , a c o u n tr y r i c h in e x c e s s c a p i t a l . I n c i d e n t a l l y , th e c a p i t a l i n v e s t e d w ent i n t o many 352 o th e r a r e a s b e s i d e s m a n u f a c t u r i n g . Here was w here D iaz e n t e r e d th e p i c t u r e . Most n o t a b l y , he e s t a b l i s h e d p e a c e , w i t h o u t w h ic h c a p i t a l would n o t have s e t i t s f o o t i n M exico. He a l s o b u i l t r a i l r o a d s , a l tho ugh many o f them w ere begun d u r i n g th e G onzalez a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The two f a c t o r s l u r e d c a p i t a l t o come t o M exico, would have l u r e d i t e v e n i f D ia z and h i s governm ent had done n o t h i n g e l s e . But t h e y d i d . T hey s e t up a s e r i e s o f c o n c e s s io n s and o t h e r in d u c e m e n ts to o b t a i n m a n u f a c tu r in g , and th e y e n a c te d t a r i f f s w hich w ere h i g h l y p r o t e c t i v e to home m a n u f a c t u r e r s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e l a s t two m ea su re s o f t e n seemed t o do more harm t h a n goo d. The I n d i a n s i n whose a r e a s m a n u f a c t u r e r s o b t a i n e d t h e i r c o n c e s s i o n s were o f t e n h u r t , f o r t h e i r r i g h t s w ere g e n e r a l l y i g n o r e d . In th e c a s e o f th e p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s , i f f o r e i g n c o m p e ti t io n were k e p t away, many M exican m a n u f a c t u r e r s c o u ld pro d u ce shoddy goods and s e l l them a t h ig h p r i c e s , s e c u re i n th e know ledge t h a t b e t t e r , c h e a p e r goods from o u t s i d e were c lo s e d o f f . I n e f f e c t th e y had l i m i t e d m o n o p o lie s . M o re o v er, th e D iaz g overnm ent i n c lu d e d o t h e r f i g u r e s th a n D ia z . Most n o t a b l y , i t i n c l u d e d L im a n to u r, who gave th e a i l i n g D iaz reg im e a f i n a n c i a l s t a b i l i t y w hich i t had n e v e r b e f o r e known. Mexico became s o l v e n t and t r u s t w o r t h y . T h is c o n d i t i o n and th e man who c a u se d i t c a n n o t be d i s c o u n te d a s f a c t o r s i n th e i n f l u x o f m a n u f a c tu r in g i n t o P o r f i r i a n M ex ico . P e rh a p s i t was no c o in c id e n c e t h a t 353 L im a n to u r ’ s r i s e to pow er, M ex ico ’ s f i n a n c i a l s t a b i l i t y , and th e b e g in n in g of th e r e a l i n c r e a s e i n m a n u f a c tu rin g a l l o c c u rr e d a t a b o u t th e same tim e , i n th e m id -1 8 9 0 ’ s. A n o th e r f a c t o r d i s c u s s e d by s e v e r a l a u t h o r s in t h e c o u rs e of th e d i s s e r t a t i o n u n d o u b te d ly had im p o rta n c e in th e s t o r y o f th e i n c r e a s e in m a n u f a c tu r in g . T h is was th e f a l l i n th e v a lu e of s i l v e r . To some e x t e n t , D iaz was r e s p o n s i b l e , i n t h a t h i s en co urag em en t o f m ining b r o u g h t a s o r t o f m inin g r e v o l u t i o n , i n w hich more s i l v e r was mined more c h e a p ly th a n b e f o r e . But th e p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d w ere d i s cov ered e ls e w h e re and d id n o t o b scu re a c e n t r a l f a c t : th ro u g h o u t th e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w orldw ide p r i c e s f o r s i l v e r d e c l i n e d . I n c o n se q u e n c e , M exicans had to pay f o r t h e i r im p o rte d goods in g o ld , w hich was f i n a l l y w o rth tw ic e as much as th e same f a c e v a lu e i n s i l v e r o u t s i d e M exico. I n s i d e M exico , gold and s i l v e r were a t p a r . I n p r a c t i c e , t h i s meant t h a t im p o rt e x p e n se s in g o ld c o u ld be c u t i f one m a n u fa c tu re d a t home, pay ing o n e ’ s l a b o r in s i l v e r . T h is was w hat h ap p en e d . M a n u f a c tu rin g in Mexico d u r in g th e D iaz p e r io d was p a r t i a l l y a r e f l e c t i o n of th e g o ld and s i l v e r p rob lem . T here were a d d i t i o n a l com ponents in m a n u fa c tu rin g u n d er D ia z . One was th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of f o r e i g n o w n e rsh ip and c o n t r o l i n many or m ost o f M e x ico Ts m a n u f a c tu r in g i n d u s t r i e s . The c a p i t a l f o r t h e s e e n t e r p r i s e s had to come from a b ro a d , s im p ly b e c a u se t h e r e was l i t t l e c a p i t a l i n M exico, 354 and most of t h a t was t i e d up in la n d . The lo cu s of m anufac t u r i n g ow nership and c o n t r o l was i n e v i t a b l y o u ts id e M exico. A nother component was th e e s t a b l is h m e n t of monopo l i e s . One f a c t o r in t h e i r o r i g i n has b een a lr e a d y n o t e d , th e high p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f s of th e D iaz p e r i o d . E v e n ts i n Mexico to some e x te n t m irro re d th o se i n th e U nited S t a t e s , and by the end of th e Diaz p e rio d Mexico saw m onopolies in meat p a c k in g , dynam ite, ru b b e r, and in s e v e r a l o th e r p ro d u c t s . U n q u e stio n a b ly , an o th e r im p o rta n t f a c e t of m anufac t u r i n g under Dfaz was la b o r e x p l o i t a t i o n . U n q u e stio n a b ly , a l s o , th e P r e s i d e n t and h i s a d v is o r s d is r e g a r d e d th e r i g h t s of la b o r - These f a c t s were f a i r l y p r e d i c t a b l e . When manu f a c t u r i n g g e t s s t a r t e d in a c o u n try , la b o r o r d i n a r i l y s u f f e r s , w h eth er in th e U nited S t a t e s , E n g la n d , Ja p a n , or Com m u n ist C hin a. Men have le a rn e d to b u i l d m achines t o produce goods, b u t th e y have not y e t le a rn e d how to l iv e w i t h them, or to a s s u r e t h a t o t h e r s can. When a machine i n c r e a s e s a w orker*s p r o d u c tio n a h u n d r e d - f o ld , g reed e n t e r s i n , and the n a t u r a l i n c l i n a t i o n of h is employer i s to work him a s long as p r a c t i c a b l e . The w orker on h i s p a r t has no s t r e n g t h , f o r he i s alo n e and d e p en d e n t. At t h i s tim e , th e employer has no la b o r c o n sc ie n c e as su ch , and th e w orker h as no s k i l l s of o r g a n i z a t i o n . In th e s e c o n d it i o n s , o p p r e s s io n of la b o r i n a new m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r y becomes th e r u l e . This was se en in m a n u fa c tu rin g d u rin g th e Diaz p e rio d in Mexico. 355 F u r t h e r , th e e n t i r e to n e o f th e n in e - te e n th c e n t u r y , th e n e x u s i n w hich m a n u f a c tu r in g grew up i n M exico, was a d i s t i n c t l y a n t i - l a b o r , i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c and c a p i t a l i s t i c one. With t h i s b a c k g ro u n d , i t was u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t th e P o r f i r - ia n y e a r s w ere h a rd ones f o r l a b o r i n th e f a c t o r i e s . In t h i s and th e p r e v i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n , one m ust a lw a y s remem b e r t h a t M exico d u r i n g th e D iaz p e r i o d was n o t u n i q u e , and t h a t one can h a r d l y blame i t f o r c o n d i t i o n s w hich e x i s t e d i n our own h i s t o r y a t one tim e or a n o t h e r . The P u llm an and Hom estead s t r i k e s a r e common k n o w le d g e , a s i s th e f a c t t h a t w e l l o v e r one h u n d red w o rk e rs l o s t t h e i r l i v e s i n a s w e a t shop f i r e i n New York in 1911. M a t te r s w ere n o t r o s y n o r t h o f th e b o r d e r , e i t h e r . A l l t h i s sh o u ld n o t o b s c u r e th e c e n t r a l f a c t , ho w ev er: m a n u f a c tu r in g l a b o r s u f f e r e d h a r d s h i p d u r in g th e D ia z p e r i o d . I t s members w orked u n g o d ly h o u r s , f o r minimum w ages w hich p r o b a b l y d id n o t r i s e i n a r e a l se n se t h r o u g h th e p e r i o d , i n u n s a f e c o n d i t i o n s . I t sh o u ld n o t o b s c u r e t h e f a c t t h a t D iaz c o u ld have im proved c o n d i t i o n s had he d e s i r e d . But he to o was r o o t e d i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . F i n a l l y , r e l a t i v e to th e number o f M exicans and t o w hat th e y b o u g h t, r e l a t i v e t o th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f m a n u f a c t u r ing i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s and s e v e r a l E u ro p ean c o u n t r i e s such as E n g lan d and F r a n c e , th e i n c r e a s e o f m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D iaz was a s m a l l - s c a l e t h i n g . T here w ere new f a c t o r i e s to be s u r e . But how many M ex icans u sed t h e i r p r o d u c t s ? F a i r l y 356 few , m a in ly b e ca u se th e y c o u ld n o t a f f o r d them . T h is s t a t e ment h as q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . Most M exicans wore m a n u fa c tu re d c l o t h by th e end of th e p e r i o d , a t l e a s t th o s e l i v i n g in towns or c i t i e s . But few er o f them u se d o t h e r m a n u fa c tu re d p r o d u c t s , and t h e m a j o r i t y o f o b j e c t s i n t h e i r l i v e s were s t i l l made by hand, e i t h e r a t home or i n s m a ll sh o p s. H/hen I see th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a f a c t o r y f o r making s i l k f a b r i c s or b o n b o n s, I wonder how many M exicans would u se t h e i r p r o d u c t s , or had even h e a rd o f them. A c a p i t a l i s t i c - m a n u f a c t u r in g economy w elded o n to a b a se w hich i s n o t r e a d y t o r e c e i v e i t i s a f a t a l l y weak s t r u c t u r e . F u r t h e r , how g r e a t was th e i n c r e a s e i n m a n u fa c tu rin g r e l a t i v e to i t s grow th in th e U n ite d S t a te s - or o th e r p r e e m in en t m a n u fa c tu rin g c o u n t r i e s d u r i n g th e D iaz p e r io d ? The answer seems t o have been t h a t i t was f a r g r e a t e r i n th e s e c o u n t r i e s , th a n i n M exico, a b s o l u t e l y o r r e l a t i v e l y . For th e more advanced c o u n t r i e s had the a d v a n ta g e o f a much g r e a t e r m a n u fa c tu rin g base upon w hich t o b u i l d i n 1876 th a n d id M exico. T h is f a c t o r was a l l - i m p o r t a n t , f o r th e g r e a t e r th e b a se upon w h ich a c o u n try b u i l d s , th e g r e a t e r i t s d e v e lo p ment i n any l i n e d u r in g any g iv en sp ace o f tim e , a l l o th e r t h i n g s b e in g e q u a l . M e x ico Ts d e v elo p m e n t u n d e r Diaz was a s p e c t a c u l a r one, as f a r a s m a n u fa c tu rin g was c o n c e rn e d , a t l e a s t i f one looked a t i t s u p e r f i c i a l l y . I t was much l e s s i f one compared i t w i t h th e grow th in th e U n ite d S t a t e s and s e v e r a l o th e r c o u n t r i e s a t th e same t im e . But b e c a u se th e 357 developm ent i n t h i s and o th e r l i n e s in Mexico d u rin g the Diaz p e rio d o p e ra te d i n much more o f a vacuum th a n i n the U n ite d S t a t e s , Mexico got a M aker, a man -who le d h i s p e o p le out o f th e w i l d e r n e s s , a m e s tiz o Moses, i f you l i k e , and th e U n ite d S t a t e s d id n o t. T hese, i n b r i e f , a re th e im p re s s io n s on m a n u fa c tu r in g w hich I have r e c e iv e d from s i x y e a r s of r e s e a r c h w ith h u n d red s of s o u r c e s . I s h a l l now t u r n t o th e im p re ss io n s of th e a u th o r s covered i n t h i s p a p e r. By and l a r g e , th e same view s w hich I have e x p re s s e d were a ls o e x p re s s e d by th e w r i t e r s w hich were re v ie w e d . However, th e y were n o t a l l e x p re s s e d a t once and, most im p o r t a n t l y , b o th s i d e s of th e q u e s t i o n w ere n o t g iv en by any one a u th o r . For i n s t a n c e , Lummis d id n o t d e s c r i b e la b o r c o n d i t i o n s , nor d id C reelm an. Both w ere i n t e r e s t e d o n ly in th e in c r e a s e of m a n u fa c tu rin g u n d e r D ia z . F o rn a ro , T u rn e r, and G u t i e r r e z de L ara and P in ch o n only d i s c u s s e d th e n e g a t i v e s id e of th e p i c t u r e , d w e llin g on m o n o p o lie s, la b o r e x p l o i t a t i o n , and g r a f t . These exam ples were e x tre m e , p e r h a p s , b u t l e s s e r v e r s i o n s of them r e c u r r e d c o n s t a n t l y in t h i s p a p e r. F a v o ra b le a u th o r s s a id t h a t m a n u f a c tu r in g in c r e a s e d un der D ia z , i n pure o u tp u t, in q u a l i t y , in v a r i e t y ; t h a t o ld p l a n t s grew , t h a t new ones were e s t a b l i s h e d ; t h a t m ach in ery im proved; t h a t more and more M exicans found employment in m a n u fa c tu rin g i n d u s t r i e s , and t h a t Diaz was somehow 358 r e s p o n s i b l e f o r much o r a l l o f t h i s . One saw t h e s e s t a t e m ents in th e e a r l y , m id d le , and l a t e r y e a r s o f th e Diaz r e gim e; one saw them beyond i t . L i t t l e changed i n f i f t y y e a r s o f r e p o r t i n g on P o r f i r i o D iaz among f a v o r a b l e a u t h o r s . On th e u n f a v o r a b le s i d e , th e r e a d e r e n c o u n te r e d statem ents* a l l e g i n g t h a t had l i t t l e or n o th in g to do w i t h th e gro w th of m a n u f a c tu r in g ; t h a t i t in f a c t grew l i t t l e i f a t a l l ; t h a t , e v e n i f i t d id grow, i t e x a c te d to o h ig h a p r i c e i n term s o f l a b o r e x p l o i t a t i o n , m o n o p o lie s, c o r r u p t i o n , c o n t r o l fro m a b ro a d , f a v o r i t i s m , and uneconom ic p r o d u c t i o n ; t h a t the goods i t p ro duced were i n f e r i o r , h ig h - p r i c e d , and t h a t i t was a l l a g r e a t m is ta k e , t h a t th e o ld ways w ere b e t t e r . T hese view s changed l i t t l e , e i t h e r . I t i s p e r h a p s - s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t th e p a s s a g e s o f B lake and S u l l i van and G ru e n in g , though p u b lis h e d f o r t y y e a r s a p a r t , b o th c o n ta in e d r e f e r e n c e s to l a b o r e x p l o i t a t i o n . p T here w ere m inor c h a n g e s, o f c o u r s e , th e main one b e in g t h a t f a v o r a b l e a c c o u n ts i n E n g li s h and S p a n ish g e n e r a l l y seemed to be s h o r t e r and p u b lis h e d l e s s f r e q u e n t l y a f t e r 1911 t h a n b e f o r e . M oreo ver, th e p o s t- 1 9 1 1 f a v o r a b l e a c c o u n ts i n E n g li s h c o n ta in e d s c a t t e r e d r e f e r e n c e s t o - l a b o r , so m eth in g n o t in c lu d e d p r e v i o u s l y . But by and l a r g e , th e c o n t i n u i t y of f a c e t s o f b o th f a v o r a b l e and u n f a v o r a b le a c c o u n ts was s t r i k i n g , one of th e c h i e f a t t r i b u t e s o f th e ma t e r i a l u n d e r e x a m in a tio n . Having d u ly sum m arized m a n u f a c tu r in g u n d e r D iaz and 359 th e r e p o r t s o f s c o r e s of a u th o r s c o n c e rn in g i t , a c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n re m a in s to be an sw e red . Of what v a lu e i s such a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t ? To answer t h i s , one of th e c e n t r a l t e n e t s of p ro -D ia z a u t h o r s , t h a t th e D iaz regim e was u n iq u e , m ust be r e j e c t e d . In some ways i t w as, o f c o u r s e , in th e s e n s e t h a t a l l t h i n g s a r e u n iq u e , even r o c k s or m ass-p ro d u ced man u f a c t u r e d g o o d s. But i n i t s g e n e r a l a p p e a ra n c e , e s s e n c e , and com ponents, i t was h a r d l y u n iq u e , b u t v e ry much l i k e many o t h e r d i c t a t o r s h i p s . E s p e c i a l l y , m a n u f a c tu rin g d u r in g i t was n o t u n i q u e , and t h e r e , p e r h a p s , l i e s the v a lu e of t h i s s tu d y . — F o r , from a r e a d in g o f m a t e r i a l s on m a n u fa c tu rin g un der D ia z , th e s t u d e n t can o b t a i n i n f o r m a ti o n o f use i n exam ining and u n d e r s ta n d in g th e phenomenon of m a n u fa c tu rin g i n o t h e r tim e s and p l a c e s . He can l e a r n w hich com m o dities a re commonly m a n u fa c tu re d f i r s t , w h ich l a t e r . He can l e a r n w hich s t i m u l i make m a n u fa c tu rin g move i n t o a s p e c i f i c a r e a a t a s p e c i f i c tim e , w h ic h a g g r e g a t i o n s of c a p i t a l , la b o r and te c h n o lo g y p ro d u ce w hich i n d u s t r i e s . He can d i s c e r n common r e l a t i o n s b e tw e e n th e s e t h r e e p a r t s o f m a n u f a c tu r in g , th e f o r t u n e s of th e w o rk er when m a n u f a c tu r in g g e t s s t a r t e d , p i t f a l l s common to a grow ing i n d u s t r y , and ways in w hich to avoid them. Of c o u r s e , he can n e v e r p r e d i c t what w i l l h a p pen e ls e w h e r e w ith one hundred p e r c e n t a c c u ra c y by a r e a d in g of m a t e r i a l on m a n u f a c tu r in g u nder D ia z , b u t he w i l l have some f a i r l y t r u s t w o r t h y t o o l s w ith w hich t o exam ine and - 360 u n d e rs ta n d th e problem s h o u ld he choose to i n v e s t i g a t e i t i n a n o th e r tim e and n a t i o n - T h a t, i n s h o r t , i s what I hope my s tu d y w i l l a f f o r d the r e a d e r , i f o n ly i n a sm a ll way. BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY SOURCES A p p e liu s , M ario. E l A g u ila de C h a p u lte p e c . T r a n s l a t e d by G onzalo Cal'vd. 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B lak e , Mary E liz a b e th , and M a rg are t F. S u l l i v a n . M exico: P i c t u r e s q u e , P o l i t i c a l , P r o g r e s s i v e . B o sto n : Lee and fih'e'pher'd, P u b lis h e r s , 1888'. B lasco Ib a n e z , V ic e n te . A r t i c u l o s so b re M exico. M exico: T a l l e r e s L in o t i p o g r a f i c o s de ''E l llogar , ,f 1920. E1 M i l it a r is m o m e jic a n o . V a le n c ia : Prom oteo. [ c .“ 192UT.------------------------------- B o n i l l a , J o s e M a ria. La E v o lu c io n d e l p u e b lo m exican o. M exico: H e rre ro Hermanos S u c e s o r e s , 1922. 362 363 B r o c k l e h u r s t , Thomas U n e tt. Mexico Todays A C ountry w ith a G reat F u t u r e . London! John M urray, 1883. B u ln es, F ra n c is c o . E l V erdadero Diaz- y l a R e v o lu c io n . M exico: E usebio Gomez de l a P u e n te , 1920. Bureau o f th e Am erican R e p u b lic s . M exico: A G e o g rap h ica l S ketch . . . . W ashington: [ n . p.'J , 19'0 O'. 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Mexi'co':' ' i'ipo'gr'a'fia de l a S e c r e t a r i a de Fom ento, 1885. __________ . The R e p u b lic o f M exico i n 1 8 7 6 . T r a n s l a t e d by George I*. H e n d e rso n . M e x ico : "Th. E n se n a n z a ” P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1876. G o n z a le z -O b re g o n , L u i s . Las C a l l e s de M e x ic o . 2 v o l s . 3rd e d . M ex ico : i m p r e n i a Manuel' Leon S a n c h e z , 1 9 2 7 ^ , _ __________ . Mexico v i e j o y a n e c d o t i c o . P a r i s : L i b r e r i a de l a V iuda de Ch. B o u r e t , 1909. H a g a r, G eorge J . P l a i n F a c t s a b o u t M e x ic o . New Y ork : H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s P u b l i s h e r s , Tc. 1 916 ]. H a le , S u san . The S to r y o f M e x ico . New Y o rk : G. P . P utnam Ts Sons, 1894. H a r p e r , Henry H. A J o u r n e y i n S o u t h e a s t e r n M exico: N a r r a t i v e of E x p e r i e n c e s and O b s e r v a t i o n s on A g r i c u l t u r a l and' I n d u s t r i a l C o n d i t i o n s ^ b o sto n ': P r i n t e d P r i - v a t e l y f o r th e A u th o r by t h e De V inne P r e s s , N. Y . , 1910. H e rn a n d e z , F o r t u n a t o . Mas a l i a n d e l d e s a s t r e . M e x ico : [ n . p . ] , 1913. 371 H e r r in g , H u b e rt C . , and K a th e r in e T e r r i l l , e d s . The G enius of M exico: L e c tu r e s D e liv e r e d B efore th e F i f t h Sem inar in M exico, 1930. New Y ork: The Committee on C u l t u r a l R e l a t i o n s w i t h L a t i n A m erica, 1931. L u m h o ltz, C a r l . New T r a i l s in M ex ico . New Y ork: C h a r le s S c r i b n e r ’ s Sons, 1912. __________ . Unknown M e x ico . 2 v o l s . London: M acm illan and C o ., L im i te d , 1903. M cG roarty, Jo h n S te v e n , e d . H i s t o r y o f Los A n g e le s C o u n ty . 3 v o l s . C h ic a g o : The A m erican H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , I n c . , 1923. McLean, R o b e r t. T h a t M exican! New Y ork: Flem ing H. R e v e l l Company, Lc. 1 9 2 8 J . M acedo, P a b lo . La E v o lu c io n m e r c a n t i l ♦ ■ M exico: J . B a l l e s c a y Gompania, S u c e s o r e s , E d i t o r e s , 1905. M a r t in , P e rc y F . M e x ico 1s T re a su re -H o u se ( G u a n a j u a t o ) . New Y ork: The C heltenh am P r e s s , 1906. M exican C e n t r a l R ailw ay Company, L im ite d . F a c ts and F i g u r e s a b o u t M e x ic o . 3rd ed. C i ty o f M exico: The M exican C e n t r a l R ailw ay Company, L im ite d , 1900. M exico. S e c r e t a r x a de E s ta d o y d e l Despacho de Fomento, C o l o n iz a c i o n , I n d u s t r i a y C om ercio. Memoria . . . . M exico: Im p re n ta en l a C a ll e de T ib u r c io Numero T8,. 1873. Mexico B e fo re th e W orld: P u b lic Documents and A d d re ss e s o f P l u t a r c o IfflTas C a l l e s . T r a n s l a t e d and e d i t e d by R o b e rt Hammond M urray. New Y ork: The Academy P r e s s , 1927. M id d le to n , P h i l i p H arv ey . I n d u s t r i a l Mexico i n 1 9 1 9 . New Y ork: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1919. M oses, J a s p e r T. Today i n th e Land of Tomorrow. 2nd e d . I n d i a n a p o l i s ': The C h r i s t i a n Woman*s Board of M i s s io n s , 1909. N o rth , A r th u r W a lb rid g e . Camp and Camino in Lower C a l i f o r n i a . New York:" The Baker and T a y lo r Company, 1910. __________ . The M other o f C a l i f o r n i a . San F r a n c i s c o : P a u l E ld e r and Company, T cT 19o8]. 372 Ober, F r e d e r ic k A lb io n . T r a v e ls i n Mexico and L ife among the M exicans. B o sto n : E s t e s , 1884. Obregon, A lv a ro . Ocho m il k ilo m e tr o s en campana. Mexico: L i b r e r i a de l a Viuda de Ch. Bour'e't,' '1917. Pan A m erican Union. M exico: A G e n e ra l S k e tch . W ashington: 3.91L P a v ia , L az aro . Los E sta d o s y sus g o b e r n a n te s . Mexico: T ip o g r a f ia de l a s E s c a l e r i l l a s , 18W 7 P ow ell, F red W ilb u r. The R a il r o a d s of M exico. B oston : The S t r a t f o r d C o., P u b l i s h e r s , 1921. Quinn, Vernon. B e a u t i f u l M exico. New York: F r e d e r ic k A. S to kes Company, l92'4. R ogers, Thos. L. Mexico? S i , S e n o r . Rev. e d . B osto n: [ C o l li n s Pre's'sT, 1894. R o jas, L uis M anuel. Epocas de P o r f i r i o Diaz y F r a n c is c o I . Madero en e l p r o c e s b h i s t o r i c o de n u e s t r a n a c io n . Mexico': [ E d i t o r i a l l'C v l t v r a " j , 1931. R u s s e l l , Thomas H. Mexico i n Peace and War. C hicago: R e i l l y and B r i t t on S y n d ic a te , TcT 1914]. Saenz, M oises. M exico: An A p p r a is a l and a F o r e c a s t . New York: The' Committee on C u l t u r a l R e la ti o n s w ith L a tin A m erica, [ c . 1929]. Saenz, M oises, and H e rb e rt 1. P r i e s t l e y . Some Mexican P ro b lem s. C hicago: The U n i v e r s i ty of Chicago - P re ss ', 1926. S a n tib a n e z , E n rig u e . Mexico y sus r e l a c i o n e s i n t e r n a c i o n - a l e s . M exico: L i b r e r i a de l a Viuda de Ch. B o u re t, 1 9 1 7 . S t a r r , F r e d e r i c k . In In d ia n M exico. C hicago: Forbes and Company, 1908. S t e r r e t t , J o s e p h Edmund, and Jo se p h S t a n c l i f f e D a v is. The F i s c a l and Economic C o n d itio n o f M exico. [N. P . J :' [ k e p o rt Submitt'e'd t ’ o the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Committee of Bankers on M e x ic o ], 1928. S t r e e t , George G. Che! Wah! Wah!, or th e Modern Montezumas i n M exico. R o c h e s te r , New York: E. R. Andrews, P r i n t e r and B ookbinder, 1883. 373 T a b la d a , J o s e J u a n . 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Creator Doty, Richard George (author)

Core Title Manufacturing Under Porfirio Diaz

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Latin American Studies

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, Modern,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Servin, Manuel P. (committee chair), Hadley, Paul E. (committee member), McMahon, Dorothy Elizabeth (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-650299

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Rights Doty, Richard George

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