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Experimenter Expectancy Effect Examined As A Function Of Task Ambiguity And Internal Versus External Control Of Reinforcement

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Experimenter Expectancy Effect Examined As A Function Of Task Ambiguity And Internal Versus External Control Of Reinforcement

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Content 70-19,114 FELTON, Gary Spencer, 1940- EXPERIMENTER EXPECTANCY EFFECT EXAMINED AS A FUNCTION OF TASK AMBIGUITY AND INTERNAL VERSUS EXTERNAL CONTROL OF REINFORCEMENT. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1970 Psychology, clinical University Microfilms, A X E R O X Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan © Copyright by G A RY SPENCER FELTON 1970 THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED EXPERIMENTER EXPECTANCY EFFECT EXAMINED AS A FUNCTION OF TASK AMBIGUITY AND INTERNAL VERSUS EXTERNAL CONTROL OF REINFORCEMENT by Gary SpenceT F e lto n A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R equirem ents f o r th e Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY CPsychology) June 1970 UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA TH E GRADUATE SCH O O L UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFO RNIA S 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by Gary Spencer F e lto n under the direction of Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Gradu ate School, in partial fulfillment of require ments of the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y Dean Date„.JPPP.A.J±19............ DISSERTATION COMMITTEE j v~- e* -, Chairman ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For t h e i r v alued a s s i s t a n c e i n th e c o m p letio n of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , d e e p l y - f e l t a p p r e c i a t i o n i s extended to Norman T ib e r , P h .D ., P e r r y London, P h .D ., and Murray W exler, Ph.D. For her lo v e and warmth, t h i s w r i t i n g i s d e d ic a te d to Lynn. i i TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............................................................................................. i i LIST OF T A B L E S ............................................................................................. v i C h a p te r I . INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1 I I . REVIEW OF THE L IT E R A T U R E ................................. 4 E x p e rim e n te r E x p ectan cy E f f e c t .......................... 4 Example and D is c u s s io n ......................................... 5 F u r t h e r D i s c u s s io n and E l a b o r a t i o n . . . 11 T h e o r e t i c a l C o n s i d e r a t io n s of S u b je c t C o n f o r m i t y ...................................................... 13 R e se a rc h on E x p e rim e n te r E x pectan cy E f f e c t : M o tiv a tio n L e v e l ............................... 16 R e se a rc h on E x p e rim e n te r E x p ec ta n cy E f f e c t : C o n fo rm ity B e h a v io r .................... 22 R e se a rc h on E x p e rim e n te r E x pectancy E f f e c t : V e r b a l C o n d itio n in g .................... 25 I n t e r n a l V e rsu s E x te r n a l C o n tr o l of R e in fo rc e m e n t ................................................................... 28 G e n e ra l T h e o r e t i c a l C o n s i d e r a t io n s . . . 28 D evelopm ent o f M easures of I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l C o n t r o l ...................................... 30 I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l C o n tr o l as a P e r s o n a l i t y D im ension ......................................... 33 I n d i c e s o f M a la d ju stm e n t ............................... 33 P e r s o n a l i t y C o r r e l a t e s ..................................... 35 C o n s tr u c t V a l i d i t y o f th e I n t e r n a l - E x te r n a l S c a l e ........................................... 36 C o n tr o l o f t h e E n v i r o n m e n t ............ 36 C o n tr o l o f t h e S e l f ................................. 38 R e s i s t a n c e to S u b t l e S u g g e s tio n . . . . 39 O verview o f R e s e a rc h I m p l i c a t i o n s ..................... 41 G e n era l T h e o r e t i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s . . . 41 S p e c i f i c R e s e a rc h I m p le m e n ta tio n s . . . . 44 i i i C h a p ter P age I I I . METHOD.......................................................................................... 48 D e s i g n ...................................................................................... 48 H y p o t h e s e s ............................................................................ 49 S u b j e c t s ................................................................................. 51 A p p a r a t u s ............................................................................ 54 P i l o t R e se a rc h : D e r i v a t i o n of th e T a s k ................................................................................. 54 P i l o t R e se a rc h : V a l i d a t i o n o f th e T a s k ................................................................................. 57 P r o c e d u r e ............................................................................ 58 I n s t r u c t i o n s .................................................................. 58 E x p e rim e n ta l T r i a l s .............................................. 61 IV. R E S U L T S ...................................................................................... 65 P i l o t R esearch and S u b j e c t - S e l e c t i o n P r o c e d u r e ....................................................................... 65 D e r iv a t io n o f th e P h o to -R a tin g Task: P a r t 1 ............................................................................ 65 D e r i v a t i o n of th e P h o to -R a tin g T ask: P a r t 2 .............................. 66 V a l i d a t i o n of th e P h o to -R a tin g T ask: Phase 2 ....................................................................... 69 A d m in is tr a tio n o f th e I n t e r n a l - E x te r n a l S c a l e ........................................................ 71 P rim ary R e se arch : A d m i n is tr a t io n o f th e P h o to -R a tin g T a s k ................................................... 76 A d d i t i o n a l S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly se s : F i r s t V ersus Second H a lf o f S co res . . 85 A d d i t io n a l S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly s is : Emphasis on I n s t r u c t i o n s ............................... 90 V. DISCUSSION................................................................................. 101 P i l o t R ese arch and S u b j e c t - S e l e c t i o n P r o c e d u r e ....................................................................... 102 D e r i v a t i o n o f th e P h o to -R a tin g Task . . 102 I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le .................................... 104 P rim ary R e se a rc h : A d m i n is tr a t io n of the P h o to -R a tin g Task . ......................................... 105 H y p o th e sis 1: Main E f f e c t f o r A m b i g u i t y .............................. 105 H y p o th e sis 2 : Main E f f e c t f o r E xp erim en ter C o n tr o l ......................................... 105 H y p o th e sis 3: Main E f f e c t f o r S u b je c t C o n tro l ................................................... 105 i v C h a p ter P age V. DISCUSSION (CONTINUED) H y p o th e s is 4 : I n t e r a c t i o n E f f e c t f o r A m b iguity, E xp erim en ter C o n t r o l , and S u b j e c t C o n t r o l ..........................................................106 D i s c u s s i o n ...................................................................................106 S u b je c ts * Response P a t t e r n s ....................................... 110 E x p erim e n ters* I n f l u e n c e .......................................... 113 V I. SUMMARY.......................................................................................................117 A P P E N D IC E S ..................................................................................................................122 A. I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . . . . . . . . . 123 B. Raw D a t a ................................................................................................. 128 C. P o s t - E x p e r im e n ta l Q u e s tio n n a ir e f o r E x p e rim e n te rs ...............................................................134 D. P o s t - E x p e r im e n ta l I n te r v ie w s w ith E x p e rim e n te rs ............................................................................. 136 LIST OP REFERENCES.............................................................................................146 v LIST OF TABLES T ab le Page 1. Summary D a ta, O btain ed from th e I n i t i a l P i l o t R e se a rc h , f o r th e Ambiguous- Rated P h o t o g r a p h s ............................................................. 68 2. Summary D a ta , O btain ed from th e I n i t i a l P i l o t R e se a rc h , f o r th e S u ccess-R ated P h o t o g r a p h s ............................................................................ 70 3- Summary D a ta , O b ta in e d from th e F i n a l P i l o t R e se arch , f o r Both Am biguous-Rated and S u c c ess-R ate d P h o to g rap h s ........................................ 72 4. Summary D ata O b tain ed from A d m in is tr a tio n of th e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le to A l l S u b j e c t s ................................................................................. 75 5. Summary o f Means and S ta n d ard D e v ia tio n s f o r D i f f e r e n c e S co res Between S u b j e c t ’ s P h o to -R a tin g Task S c o re and E x p e rim e n te r’ s E xpectancy Score ( S u b je c t-E x p e rim e n te r D i f f e r e n c e S core) . . 77 6. Summary of A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e o f D if f e r e n c e Between S u b j e c t ’s P h o to - R a tin g Task Score and E x p e rim e n te r’s E xpectancy S co re (S u b je c t-E x p e rim e n te r D if f e r e n c e S c o re) ............................................................. 78 7. Summary o f Means and S ta n d ard D e v ia tio n s f o r D i f f e r e n c e S co res Between S u b j e c t ’s P h o to -R a tin g Task S co re and Mean R atin g (from P i l o t R ese arch ) f o r Ambiguous- Rated and S u c c e ss-R a te d P h otog rap hs ( S u b j e c t - P i l o t D if f e r e n c e S c o re ) .................... 80 v i Table 8 . 9. 10. 11. 1 2. 13. 14. 15. 16. Summary of A n a ly s is of V a ria n c e of D i f f e r e n c e Between S u b j e c t 's P h o to -R a tin g T ask Score and Mean R a tin g (from P i l o t R e se a rc h ) f o r Ambiguous-Rated and S u c c e ss-R a te d P h o to g rap h s ( S u b j e c t - P i l o t D i f f e r e n c e S c o re ) . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Means and S ta n d a rd D e v ia tio n s f o r F i r s t - H a l f and S econ d-H alf S c o re s of a l l S u b je c ts under High A m biguity and Low A m biguity C o n d itio n s ................................... Summary of A n a ly s is of V a ria n c e of S u b je c ts * S c o res O b tained on th e P h o to - R a tin g T a s k - - F i r s t - H a l f S c o re s V ersus E a s t - H a l f S cores Under C o n d itio n s of High A m biguity ............................................................ Summary of A n a ly s is o f V a ria n ce o f S u b je c ts* S c o re s O btain ed on th e P h o to - R a tin g T a s k - - F i r s t - H a l f S c o res V ersus L a s t- H a l f S c o re s Under C o n d itio n s of Low A m biguity .................................................................. P a i r s of Means Which D i f f e r S i g n i f i c a n t l y i n A n a ly s is o f V a ria n ce o f S c o re s O btain ed on th e P h o to -R a tin g T a sk — F i r s t - H a l f S c o res V ersus L a s t- H a l f S c o re s Under C o n d itio n s of High A m biguity ............................................................................ Summary o f D a ta f o r E x p e rim e n te rs ' Reading I n s t r u c t i o n s to S u bjects--N um ber of P a ra g ra p h R eadings Recorded p e r E x p erim e n ter .................................................................. Summary D ata f o r R a tin g s of Emphasis on I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r th e -1 0 , +10, No D i f f e r e n c e Grouping .......................... .................... Summary D ata f o r R a tin g s o f Emphasis on I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r th e - 3 , +3, No D i f f e r e n c e Grouping ................................................... Summary o f A n a ly s is of V a ria n c e of Emphasis o f I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r P o s i t i v e V ersu s N e g a tiv e V alu es w ith the No D if f e r e n c e C ate g o ry E xcluded . . . . ................................... P age 81 . 86 87 89 91 94 96 97 98 v i i T ab le Page 17. C o e f f i c i e n t of C oncordance and A verage Rank C o r r e l a t i o n f o r R a tin g s of Em phasis o f I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r th e - 1 0 , +10, No D i f f e r e n c e G rouping .............................................................. 99 18. C o e f f i c i e n t of C oncordance and A verage Rank C o r r e l a t i o n f o r R a tin g s of Emphasis o f I n s t r u c t i o n s f o r th e - 3 , +3, No D i f f e r e n c e G rouping .............................................................. 100 19. Com parison o f F i r s t - and S e c o n d -H a lf P h o to - R a tin g Task S c o re s f o r I n t e r n a l and E x te r n a l S u b j e c t s Under C o n d itio n s o f High and Low A m b i g u i t y ..........................................................108 20. Raw D a ta Showing I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c o re , F i r s t - H a l f P h o to - R a tin g T a sk S c o re , S e c o n d -H a lf P h o to - R a tin g T ask S c o re , T o t a l P h o to - R a tin g T ask S c o r e , and E x p erim e n ter C o n d itio n s T e s te d Under . . . . 129 21. Raw D a ta Showing Mean I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c o r e , Mean P h o to -R a tin g Task S c o r e , and C a te g o ry G roupings f o r A m biguity and I n t e r n a l ! t y - E x t e r n a l i t y .................................................... 133 22 . P o s t - E x p e r im e n ta l I n t e r v i e w s w ith E x p e r im e n te r s : E x p e rim e n te rs* W ritte n Comments ab o u t th e E xperim ent .................................... 137 2 3 . P o s t-E x p e r im e n ta l I n t e r v i e w s w ith E x p e r i m e n te r s : E x p e rim e n te rs* E x p ressed Comments a b o u t th e E xperim ent ( T r a n s c r i p t from A u d io -R e c o rd in g o f I n t e r v i e w ) .............................'...........................................................140 v i i i CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION I n r e c e n t y e a r s , b e h a v io r a l r e s e a r c h e r s i n c r e a s i n g l y have become concerned w ith th e p s y c h o s o c ia l a s p e c t s o f th e l a b o r a t o r y e x p erim e n t. They a re aware t h a t b o th s u b j e c t s and e x p e rim e n te rs e n te r an experim ent w ith e x p e c t a t i o n s , n e e d s, f e e l i n g s , e t c . t h a t a f f e c t th e r e s u l t s o f th o s e ex p e rim e n ts i n complex and v a ry in g w ays. S in ce b o th th e sub j e c t and the e x p e rim e n te r adopt r o l e s when th e y p a r t i c i p a t e i n an e x p e rim e n t, i t o f te n i s q u e s tio n a b le to assume t h a t one m easures sp ontan eo u s or n a t u r a l b e h a v io r i n th e l a b o r a t o r y ( i . e . , i t o f te n i s d o u b tf u l t h a t th e laws d is c o v e re d i n l a b o r a t o r y e x p erim e n ts can be g e n e r a liz e d to s i t u a t i o n s in which s u b j e c t s a r e n o t s u b m ittin g v o l u n t a r i l y to th e whims of an e x p erim e n ter f o r some s p e c i f i e d amount o f tim e i n a s p e c i f i e d s e t t i n g ) . I t could be a rg u e d , th e n , t h a t e x p e r i ments n e c e s s a r i l y g iv e c o lo re d or somewhat b ia s e d r e s u l t s b e cau se th ey in v o lv e th e s tu d y of p e rs o n s who a r e p la y in g a c e r t a i n r o l e . Some p s y c h o l o g is ts who a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n th e s o c i a l psychology of th e exp erim en t have rea ch e d t h i s r a t h e r d i s t u r b i n g c o n c lu s io n (Lyons and K l e in , 1966; Schulman, 1 2 1967; S p ie lb e r g e r and DeNike, 1963). A lthough th e p e r v a s i v e n e s s of p s y c h o s o c ia l f a c t o r s in p s y c h o lo g ic a l ex p erim e n ts c e r t a i n l y b r in g s i n fo c u s s e r i ous m e th o d o lo g ic a l p ro b lem s, r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e i r p r e s e n c e p ro v id e s an opening f o r new avenues o f r e s e a r c h . The e v i dence o b ta in e d from v a r i o u s d i r e c t i o n s of r e s e a r c h s u g g e s ts t h a t a s u b j e c t ’s b e h a v io r i n any p s y c h o lo g ic a l e x p erim e n t can be in f lu e n c e d by th e b e h a v io r of th e p e o p le w ith whom he i n t e r a c t s in t h a t e x p e rim e n t. T his s ta te m e n t has two im p o rta n t i m p l i c a t i o n s . F i r s t , i t a p p l i e s i n an obvious way t o r e s e a r c h ( i . e . , su b j e c t s g e n e r a l l y w i l l fo llo w th e d i r e c t i o n s given t o them i n an e x p e rim e n t). T hus, an ex p erim e n ter can a f f e c t a s u b j e c t ’s b e h a v io r sim p ly by i n s t r u c t i n g him to do c e r t a i n t h i n g s . A seco nd, and much more e x te n s iv e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e s ta te m e n t r e l a t e s to l e s s obvious form s o f s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e , which r e c e n t l y have been s tu d ie d by p s y c h o l o g i s t s . I n f l u e n c e a tte m p ts i n t h i s second c l a s s v a ry i n d e g re e o f s u b t l e t y . In some e x p e rim e n ts, e . g . , th e Asch s o c i a l - p r e s s u r e t e s t , b o th th e i n f l u e n c e r s and th e i n f lu e n c e e s a re aware of th e s o c i a l p r e s s u r e toward c o n fo rm ity t h a t i s b e in g g e n e r a te d . In o th e r e x p e rim e n ta l a rra n g e m e n ts, e . g . , v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n ing s t u d i e s , th e e x p e rim e n te r makes d e l i b e r a t e a tte m p ts to i n f l u e n c e s u b j e c t s , b u t th e s u b j e c t s presum ably a r e unaware o f the i n f lu e n c e e f f o r t s . F i n a ll y , i n some e x p e rim e n ts , e . g . , th o se d e a l i n g w ith e x p e rim e n te r e x p ec ta n cy , n e i t h e r 3 th e i n f l u e n c e r n o r th e i n f l u e n c e e i s presum ed to be aware o f th e i n f l u e n c e a tt e m p t s t h a t a re made. I t i s w ith t h i s t h i r d and m ost s u b t l e form of s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e t h a t t h e p r e s e n t d i s s e r t a t i o n i s c o n c e rn e d . CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE E x p erim e n ter E xpectancy E f f e c t There a r e s e v e r a l ways i n w hich an e x p e rim e n te r can i n f l u e n c e a s u b j e c t w ith n e i t h e r p e r s o n b e in g aw are o f th e p r o c e s s . For exam ple, S a n d e rs and C le v e la n d (1 9 5 3 ) found t h a t when e x p e r im e n te rs who were r a t e d h ig h on m easured c o v e r t h o s t i l i t y a d m in is te r e d th e R o rsc h ac h t e s t , t h e i r s u b j e c t s * r e s p o n s e s in c l u d e d a g r e a t e r amount o f h o s t i l i t y than d i d th o s e s u b j e c t s whose e x p e r im e n te r s w ere r a t e d low on m easured c o v e r t h o s t i l i t y - P re su m a b ly , th e more h o s t i l e e x p e r im e n te r s i n t h i s e x p e rim e n t somehow behaved i n a s u b t l y d i f f e r e n t way th a n the l e s s h o s t i l e o n e s , t h e r e b y i n f l u e n c in g t h e s u b j e c t s d i f f e r e n t l y . In a re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e , R o s e n th a l (1966) shows t h a t e x p e r im e n te r b i o s o c i a l a t t r i b u t e s ( s e x , age, r a c e ) , e x p e rim e n te r p s y c h o s o c i a l a t t r i b u t e s ( a n x i e t y l e v e l , need fo r a p p r o v a l, a u t h o r i t a r i a n ism , i n t e l l i g e n c e , warmth, h o s t i l i t y ) , and v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n a l f a c t o r s ( e x p e r i m e n t e r ^ e x p e r i e n c e , e x p e rim e n te r f s a c q u a in t a n c e s h i p ) a l l can a f f e c t t h e p e rfo rm a n c e o f s u b j e c t s i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r im e n ts . 4 5 Example and D is c u s s io n R o se n th a l (1964; 1965; 1966; 1967; 1968) h as c l a r i f i e d our u n d e rs ta n d in g o f s u b t l e s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e p r o c e s s e s by stu d y in g th e e f f e c t s o f e x p e c ta n c ie s of e x p e rim e n te rs on the p e rfo rm an ces o f t h e i r s u b j e c t s . The abundant l i t e r a t u r e he has p ro v id e d conveys t h e c o n s i s t e n t f i n d i n g s t h a t th e e x p e rim e n te r i n some way s e r v e s to communicate h i s e x p e r i m ental h y p o th e s is to h i s s u b j e c t s . The in s tr u m e n t s p e c i f i c a l l y used i n th e s e s t u d i e s i s a s e r i e s of s ta n d a r d iz e d ph oto g rap h s o f f a c e s ( p h o t o - r a t i n g t a s k ) which i s d e sig n ed to a s s e s s a p e rso n * s p e r c e p t i o n . These p h o to g ra p h s a r e shown to the s u b j e c t and he i s asked to a s s i g n from th e ran g e -10 (ex tre m e f a i l u r e ) to +10 (extrem e s u c c e s s ) a r a t i n g of how s u c c e s s f u l or u n s u c c e s s f u l he b e l i e v e s the photographed p e rs o n r e c e n t l y to have b e e n .* A ccording to R o se n th al (1 9 6 6 ), th e r a t i o n a l e f o r u s in g such a scheme i s t h a t n e u t r a l p h o to g rap h s w i l l , b e ca u se o f t h e i r n e u t r a l i t y , compel s u b j e c t s to b e 1 p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e and r e c e p t i v e to e x p erim e n ter cues which m ight f a c i l i t a t e or g uide t h e i r r a t i n g . E xpectancy e f f e c t can be s t u d i e d i n th e p h o t o - r a t i n g t a s k by le a d in g e x p e rim e n te rs to a n t i c i p a t e c e r t a i n k in d s o f re s p o n s e s from t h e i r s u b j e c t s . In one s tu d y , f o r example ( R o s e n th a l, 1967), h a l f th e e x p e rim e n te rs s e l e c t e d were *When th e s e r i e s of p h o to g ra p h s i s a d m in is te re d to many s u b j e c t s , th e grand mean r a t i n g i s 0. 6 in fo rm e d t h a t t h e i r s u b j e c t s had been s e l e c t e d b e c a u se th e y te n d e d to se e p h o to g ra p h s of p e o p le a s r e f l e c t i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount of p r e v i o u s s u c c e s s . The re m a in in g e x p e r i m e n te rs w ere in fo rm ed t h a t t h e i r s u b j e c t s had b e e n s e l e c t e d f o r t h e i r g e n e r a l p e r c e p t i o n of f a i l u r e i n p h o to g r a p h s o f o th e r p e o p l e d f a c e s . The e x p e r im e n ta l s u b j e c t s s u b s e q u e n t l y were a s s ig n e d to th e e x p e rim e n te rs i n a random f a s h i o n . R o s e n th a l found t h a t s u b j e c t s of t h e form er e x p e r im e n te r s gave s i g n i f i c a n t l y more p o s i t i v e r a t i n g s th an th e s u b j e c t s o f th e l a t t e r e x p e r i m e n t e r s . A p p a r e n tly , th e n , th e e x p e rim e n te rs s u b t l y communicated t h e i r e x p e c ta n c i e s to t h e s u b j e c t s i n such a way t h a t th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f th o s e su b j e c t s who were e x p e c te d to be s u c c e s s p e r c e i v e r s a llo w ed t h e i r d e s i g n a t i o n as s u c c e s s p e r c e i v e r s and t h e p erfo rm an c e o f s u b j e c t s who were e x p e c te d to be f a i l u r e p e r c e i v e r s a llo w e d t h e i r d e s i g n a t i o n as f a i l u r e p e r c e i v e r s . The com m unication p r o c e s s e s whereby s u b j e c t s l e a r n o f e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c t a t i o n s a r e s u b t l e and e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r such p r o c e s s e s a re f a r from c o m p le te . Thorough r e s e a r c h and a n a l y s i s o f v i d e o - r e c o r d i n g f i l m s o f such r e s e a r c h have shown c l e a r l y t h a t b o th v i s u a l and a u d i t o r y cu es p la y a r o l e i n th e com m unication p r o c e s s to s u b j e c t s . Com m unication of e x p e c ta n c ie s can o c cu r b e fo r e th e f i r s t r e s p o n s e i s made by th e s u b j e c t , e l i m i n a t i n g as the w ho le e x p l a n a t i o n v e r b a l or n o n - v e r b a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t s of d e s i r e d r e s p o n s e s . T h e re a r e some i n d i c a t i o n s ( R o s e n th a l, 1967) t h a t 7 e x p e rim e n te r s l e a r n how to b e t t e r com m unicate t h e i r e x p e c t a n c i e s d u r in g t h e c o u rs e o f an e x p e rim e n t. I n t h i s r e g a r d , s u b j e c t s c o n ta c te d l a t e r i n th e e x p e rim e n t te n d to g iv e r e s p o n s e s w hich a r e more b ia s e d i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e e x p e rim e n te r* s h y p o t h e s i s . T hus, a number of e x p l a n a t i o n s have been p ro v id e d f o r t h e e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t , b u t t h e r e seems to be no f u l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h i s complex com m unication p r o c e s s . A l l o f th e r e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a h a s c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y to t h e l i t e r a t u r e and c o n c o m ita n tly has r a i s e d some im p o r ta n t q u e s t i o n s . Among such q u e s t i o n s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t m e th o d o lo g ic a l i s s u e s w hich d e r i v e from R o s e n t h a l fs r e s e a r c h groundw ork. W ith h i s f i n d i n g s i n mind, t h e n , one r e a s o n a b l y co uld demand r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f a lm o s t a l l th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h which h a s been c o n d u c te d . Among o th e r p e o p le , R o s e n th a l i s a c u t e l y aware o f th e lo n g - r e a c h i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s o f h i s r e s e a r c h on e x p e r i m e n t a t io n , and he d e v o te s a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f h i s w r i t i n g to d i s c u s s i o n o f th e d i f f e r e n t ways i n w hich th e e x p e r im e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t can be c o n t r o l l e d by r e s e a r c h e r s . In an a sse ss m e n t of th e im p o r ta n c e o f R o s e n t h a l f s work t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h m ethod olog y, one must n o te t h a t R o s e n th a l has s t u d i e d th e e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t i n o n ly a few , l i m i t e d ty p e s of e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n s . In t h i s a u th o r * s o p i n io n , t h e s e e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n s a r e v e ry s i m i l a r i n c r u c i a l r e s p e c t s . For exam ple, 8 th e s u b j e c t s w ere n o t p r e s e n t e d w ith t a s k s i n w hich t h e r e were c l e a r l y r i g h t and c l e a r l y wrong a n sw e rs. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e was no p a r t i c u l a r e f f o r t made to g e t th e s u b j e c t s eg o - in v o lv e d i n th e t a s k s w hich th e y were p e rf o rm in g . One s tu d y of e x p e r im e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t s ( W e s s le r , 1966) p ro v id e d an e g o - in v o lv in g t a s k and one w hich d id have c l e a r l y r i g h t and c l e a r l y wrong a n s w e rs . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h a r e im p o r ta n t f o r th e y show t h a t i f t h e e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n i s v a r i e d , one can o b t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t c o n c lu s i o n s . The a r e a o f i n q u i r y was t h a t of t a s k - a b i l i t y p r o b lems where th e e f f e c t s of e x p e r im e n te r e x p e c ta n c y upon t h e psychoraotor p e rfo rm a n c e o f s u b j e c t s w ere e v a l u a t e d . W essler hoped to d e te r m in e w h eth er t a s k s o t h e r th a n th e p h o t o - r a t i n g i n s t r u m e n t a r e s u s c e p t i b l e to e x p e r im e n te r e f f e c t s . The p a r t i c u l a r t a s k he s t u d i e d r e q u i r e d s u b j e c t s to e x t i n g u i s h one of two l i g h t s by p r e s s i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e b u t t o n . The main h y p o t h e s i s , t h a t s u b j e c t s ru n by f a s t - p e r f o r m a n c e - e x p e c ta n c y e x p e r im e n te r s would show g r e a t e r r e a c t i o n tim e s th a n s u b j e c t s ru n by s lo w - p e rf o rm a n c e -e x p e c ta n c y e x p e r i m e n te rs , was n o t s u p p o r te d . H y p o th eses a b o u t th e e f f e c t s o f fee d b ac k and c a u t i o n w ere n o t s u p p o r te d e i t h e r . W essler co n clu d ed t h a t f o r e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y t o o c c u r , th e t a s k s h o u ld be ambiguous w ith r e g a r d t o c r i t e r i o n r e s p o n s e . Having to c o n f r o n t such am biguity* th e s u b j e c t i s d e p en d e n t upon th e e x p e rim e n te r f o r i n f o r m a ti o n a b o u t w hat r e s p o n s e i s c o n s id e r e d m ost a c c e p t a b l e . 9 I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e , th e n , t h a t th e e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t would be re d u c e d or e l i m i n a t e d a l t o g e t h e r i f s u b j e c t s a r e g iv en e g o - i n v o l v in g , maximum p e rfo rm an c e t a s k s . One re a s o n why one o n ly can s p e c u l a t e a b o u t th e r e l e v a n c e o f t a s k v a r i a b l e s to th e e x p e r im e n te r e x p e c ta n c y i s t h a t p s y c h o l o g i s t s who have s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t u s u a l l y have n o t r e l a t e d t h e i r f i n d i n g s t o more g e n e r a l i s s u e s i n s o c i a l p s y c h o lo g y . I n th e a b sen c e o f a d e l i n e a t e d th e o r y a b o u t th e e x p e r im e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t , one o n ly can g u e ss a t th e im p o rta n c e o f v a r i o u s v a r i a b l e s t o i t . I t i s t h i s w r i t e r * s o p in io n t h a t th e e x p e r im e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t i s a s i m p o r t a n t to t h e o r i e s of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n a s i t i s to r e s e a r c h m eth o d o lo g y . Inasm uch as e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c i e s can be m a n ip u la te d e a s i l y and t h e i r e f f e c t s can be o b se rv ed e a s i l y , th e phenomenon p r o v i d e s an e x c e l l e n t v e h i c l e f o r s tu d y in g s u b t l e form s o f s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e p r o c e s s e s . Our knowledge o f s o c i a l p sy c h o lo g y would be expanded by a d e e p e r u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e p r o c e s s e s in v o lv e d i n th e e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t and o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een t h e s e p r o c e s s e s and th o s e t h a t o p e r a t e i n o t h e r k i n d s of s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e e x p e rim e n ts . For exam ple, i n th e o p in io n o f t h i s w r i t e r th e e x p e rim e n ts ru n by R o s e n th a l a r e , i n im p o r ta n t w ays, s i m i l a r to v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g e x p e r im e n ts . Some o f t h e s e s i m i l a r i t i e s a r e : ( 1 ) T h ere i s a d y a d ic i n t e r a c t i o n b etw een a s u b j e c t and an e x p e r im e n te r . 10 ( 2 ) The e x p e rim e n te r g e n e r a l l y has v e ry weak r e i n f o r c e r s or s a n c t i o n s a t h i s d i s p o s a l . ( 3 ) The e x p e rim e n te r c a n n o t t e l l th e s u b j e c t d i r e c t l y w hat he " w a n ts " th e s u b j e c t to do. (4 ) The r e s p o n s e s b e in g s t u d i e d a r e ones t h a t su b j e c t s g e n e r a l l y have n o t i n v e s t e d much i n ( i . e . , th e y have no s t r o n g m o ti v a ti o n e i t h e r to g iv e or n o t to g iv e th e r e s p o n s e s ) . (5 ) I t i s r e l a t i v e l y d i f f i c u l t f o r s u b j e c t s to know how t o conform . A lth o u g h th e s e s i m i l a r i t i e s would s u g g e s t t h a t th e p r o c e s s e s by w hich th e b e h a v io r o f s u b j e c t s i s a f f e c t e d i n a v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g stu d y a r e th e same a s th o se o p e r a t i n g i n an e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y s tu d y , R o s e n th a l (1 9 6 6 ) has g a th e r e d d a t a which i n d i c a t e t h a t th e p r o c e s s e s d i f f e r . In t h i s r e g a r d , he compared th e mean v a lu e o f th e r a t i n g s f o r th e f i r s t p h o to g ra p h t o th e mean v a lu e o f th e r a t i n g s f o r s u b s e q u e n t c a r d s . Inasm uch as t h e s u b j e c t s showed as much c o n fo rm ity on t h e f i r s t c a rd a s th e y d id on l a t e r o n e s, he co n clu d ed t h a t th e e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t c o u ld n o t be e x p la in e d e n t i r e l y i n term s o f v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g . A lthough t h i s stu d y of R o s e n t h a l Ts i s im p o r t a n t , i t i s n o t c o n c l u s i v e . I t s u g g e s ts t h a t s u b j e c t s " g e t t h e m essage" from e x p e rim e n te rs i n th e e a r l y p h a s e s o f an e x p erim e n t and b e g in t o conform im m e d ia te ly . However, one m ust c o n s id e r th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t e x p e r im e n te r s m a in ta in conform ing 11 b e h a v io r i n s u b j e c t s by t h e i r r e i n f o r c i n g i t . I n R o se n th a l's e x p e rim e n ts , e x p e r im e n te r s w ere a b l e to o b s e rv e how each s u b j e c t resp o n d ed to each c a rd su c h t h a t t h e y were i n a p o s i t i o n to r e i n f o r c e con fo rm in g r e s p o n s e s . T h is p o s s i b i l i t y c o u ld be e v a l u a t e d i f e x p e r im e n te r s do n o t i n t e r a c t w ith s u b j e c t s a f t e r t h e b e g in n in g o f th e e x p e rim e n t, and r e c e i v e no fe e d b a c k from them . F u r th e r D is c u s s io n and E la b o r a t i o n On th e b a s i s of the above e x p e r im e n ts , R o s e n th a l e x p la in s th e e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t i n th e f o l lo w in g manner. When an e x p e rim e n te r i s in fo rm e d w hat t o e x p e c t from h i s s u b j e c t s , he g e n e r a l l y w ants th e s u b j e c t s to p e r form a t t h a t e x p e c te d l e v e l . T h is d e s i r e on th e p a r t of e x p e rim e n te rs r e f l e c t s t h e i r b e l i e f t h a t a good e x p e r im e n te r i s one who can g a t h e r th e " c o r r e c t ” d a t a . When the e x p e r i ment b e g in s , an e x p e rim e n te r com m unicates h i s e x p e c ta n c y to th e s u b j e c t p a r a l i n g u i s t i c a l l y ( i . e . , th ro u g h v o c a l i n f l e c t i o n s and s e l e c t i v e em p h ases). I f th e s u b j e c t u n d e r s ta n d s th e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's com m unication, th e e x t e n t to which he i s l i k e l y to conform d e p en d s, i n g r e a t m ea su re , on h i s a s s e s s ment of th e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's p e r s o n a l i t y . The i n f lu e n c e a t tem p ts of th e e x p e rim e n te r and th e r e s p o n s e s t o them by h i s s u b j e c t b o th o p e r a t e s u b l i m i n a l l y . In f a c t , i f th e e x p e r i m enter becomes t o o obvious i n h i s e f f o r t s to i n f l u e n c e th e s u b j e c t , the s u b j e c t g e n e r a l l y w i l l conform l e s s ( R o s e n th a l, 12 1966). R o s e n th a l h a s c o n d u cted e x p e rim e n ts to a s s e s s and v a l i d a t e p a r t s of t h i s t h e o r y . H is works on th e manner i n which e x p e c ta n c i e s a r e communicated from e x p e r im e n te r to s u b j e c t a r e land m ark s i n the f i e l d of s o c i a l p sy c h o lo g y . However, many o f h i s h y p o th e s e s i n t h i s t h e o r y have n o t been t e s t e d or p ro v e n . I f one c o n s i d e r s f i r s t t h e e x p e r im e n te r , he may a sk w h eth er h i s ( t h e e x p e r im e n te r * s ) i n f l u e n c e a t tem p ts a r e i n f a c t u n i n t e n t i o n a l . T h ere has been no r e p o r te d r e s e a r c h w hich aims to d e te rm in e w h e th e r e x p e r im e n t e r s a r e aware o f t h e i r com m unications t o s u b j e c t s . R e se a rc h i n th e a r e a s o f v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g and p e r c e p t u a l d e fe n s e shows t h a t a w aren ess i s n o t an a l l - o r - n o t h i n g c o n d i t i o n , and t h a t o n e 's c o n c l u s i o n s as to w h eth er s u b j e c t s a r e aware depend i n l a r g e p a r t on th e p a r t i c u l a r t e s t f o r aw are n ess t h a t one u s e s ( S p i e l b e r g e r and DeNike, 1 9 6 6 ). A ls o , R o s e n th a l (1966) found i n one stu d y t h a t even when s u b j e c t s were n o t aware o f th e p u rp o se of th e e x p e rim e n t, th e y w ere a b le to g e n e r a t e p l a u s i b l e h y p o th e s e s a b o u t i t s p u r p o s e . I t i s l i k e l y , t h e n , t h a t c a r e f u l t e s t s would r e v e a l t h a t e x p e r im e n te r s i n R o s e n t h a l 's s t u d i e s would have some a w aren ess o f th e p u rp o se o f th e e x p e rim e n ts and o f th e i n f l u e n c e a tte m p ts t h a t th e y made. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no c a r e f u l a tt e m p t s have been made to a s s e s s th e d e g re e of aw are n ess o f e x p e r im e n te r s S im ila r q u e s t i o n s can be r a i s e d a b o u t th e a w are n ess o f s u b j e c t s . S in c e s e v e r a l c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d e x p e rim e n ts 13 in th e a r e a of v e rb a l c o n d itio n in g have shown t h a t s u b j e c t s show c o n d itio n in g o n ly when th e y a re aware of the r e i n f o r c e ment c o n tin g e n c ie s i n an e x p erim e n t, one m ight e x p e c t aware ness on th e p a r t o f s u b j e c t s to be a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r th e o c c u rre n c e of th e e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t . In o th e r w ords, i n order f o r a s u b j e c t to conform to an e x p e r i m enter, he must be aware of th e w ishes o f th e e x p e rim e n te r. A .s i s t r u e f o r e x p e rim e n te rs i n R o s e n t h a l f s s t u d i e s , no d a ta a re a v a i l a b l e which r e l a t e to th e aw areness l e v e l s of sub j e c t s . T h e o r e t i c a l C o n s id e r a tio n s of S u b je ct C onform ity T hree major l i n e s of r e s e a r c h have fo cu sed on why s u b j e c t s conform. These s t u d i e s have pro bed th e d e g re e of m o tiv a tio n i n s u b j e c t s and e x p e r im e n te r s , th e d e g re e o f sub j e c t c o n fo rm ity i n g ro u p s, and th e n a t u r e o f v e r b a l c o n d i t io n in g i n e x p e rim e n ta l s i t u a t i o n s . I n c o n s id e r in g th e f i r s t o f th e s e a r e a s of r e s e a r c h , one can r a i s e q u e s tio n s about th e m o tiv a tio n s of th e e x p e r i m en ter. Such q u e s tio n s a re l e g i t i m i z e d f o r th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i n t h a t i n r e s e a r c h o f t h i s n a t u r e , e x p e rim e n te rs who a re b e in g m a n ip u la te d by p r i n c i p a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s a re th em selv es se rv in g a s e x p e rim e n ta l s u b j e c t s . T hus, i n con s i d e r in g the m o tiv a tio n s of e x p e r im e n te r s , one a ls o i s con s i d e r in g th e m o tiv a tio n s o f s u b j e c t s . As d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r , R o se n th a l (1966) makes the 14 re a s o n a b le assu m p tio n t h a t e x p e rim e n te rs w ant t o o b ta in th e e x p ec te d d a ta so t h a t th e y w i l l be a b le to c o n s id e r them s e l v e s "good" e x p e r im e n te r s . However, t h i s assu m p tio n needs q u a l i f i c a t i o n i n l i g h t o f th e e x p e rim e n ts t o be d is c u s s e d in which th e m o tiv a tio n s o f e x p e rim e n te rs have been m an ip u lated d i r e c t l y . I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t th e m o tiv a tio n which an e x p e rim e n te r d e r i v e s from a w ish or need to enhance h is s e l f - e s t e e m i s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e m o tiv a tio n he d e r i v e s from th e p ro m ise of money. In o n e 's c o n s id e r in g e x p e rim e n ta l s u b j e c t s , t h e r e rem ain many u n re s o lv e d i s s u e s around the l e v e l of m o tiv a t i o n . For exam ple, a lth o u g h R o se n th a l assum es t h a t s u b je c ts a r e n o t aware of th e n a t u r e o f e x p e rim e n te r e x p ectan cy ex p e rim e n ts and of th e i n f l u e n c e a tte m p ts b e in g made by e x p e r im e n te r s , t h e r e i s a lm o st no d i r e c t e v id e n c e on t h i s q ues t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , l i t t l e i s known abo ut th e re a s o n s why s u b j e c t s respo nd to i n f l u e n c e e f f o r t s t h a t a re made by e x p e rim e n te rs . The concept o f s u b j e c t s e t and a c o n s i d e r a t i o n of th e v a r io u s m o tiv a tio n s a s s o c i a t e d w ith o n e 's b eing an e x p e rim e n ta l s u b j e c t have been review ed e x t e n s i v e l y and w e ll (Bakan, 1953; C r i s w e l l , 1958; Friedm an, 1964; J o n e s , 1965; M i l ls , 1962; Orne, 1962; R ieck en , 1962; R osenberg, 1965; Tuddenham, 1960; and V e r o f f , 19 6 0 ). G e n e r a lly , however, r e s e a r c h e r s have assumed t h a t t h e r e a r e two m ajor so u rc e s of m o tiv a tio n fo r s u b j e c t s i n an e x p erim e n ter e x p ec ta n cy 15 e x p erim e n t. The f i r s t so u rc e i s t h e d e s i r e to p l e a s e th e e x p e rim e n te r. The second so u rc e i s th e d e s i r e t o ap p ear i n t e l l i g e n t or to give th e c o r r e c t answ er. T hese two f a c t o r s v ary i n v e r s e l y ( i . e . , when a s u b j e c t i s v e ry concerned about g iv in g th e c o r r e c t answ er, he p r o b a b ly w i l l n o t w orry about p l e a s i n g th e e x p e r im e n te r ) . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between d e s i r e to p l e a s e th e e x p e r im e n te r and c o n fo rm ity i s d i r e c t — th e more a s u b j e c t w ants to p l e a s e , th e more l i k e l y he i s to conform . The s t r e n g t h of th e d e s i r e to p l e a s e th e e x p e rim e n te r i s a f u n c t i o n of a) th e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e x p e rim e n te r and su b j e c t , b) th e amount o f i n t e r a c t i o n betw een e x p e rim e n te r and s u b j e c t , and c) th e o b v io u sn e ss of th e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's i n f l u ence e f f o r t s . The d e s i r e to be c o r r e c t i s assumed to be a f f e c t e d p r i m a r i l y by th e e x te n t t o which a s u b j e c t becomes ego- in v o lv e d i n a t a s k , and by th e rew ard c o n ti n g e n c i e s t h a t a re e s t a b l i s h e d i n th e e x p e rim e n t. The e x t e n t to which d e s i r e to be c o r r e c t le a d s t o c o n fo rm ity depends on o th e r v a ria b le s. I f a s u b j e c t does n o t c a r e about w hether h i s r e s p o n s e s a re c o r r e c t , he w i l l be m o tiv a te d presum ably p r i m a r i l y by h i s d e s i r e to p l e a s e or d i s p l e a s e th e e x p e rim e n te r. I f h i s d e s i r e to be c o r r e c t i s s t r o n g , he w i l l be l i k e l y to conform i f the problem c o n f r o n tin g him i s ambiguous and i f th e answ ers r e q u i r e d o f him c o n ta in l i t t l e in f o r m a ti o n . How e v e r , i f th e ta s k i s unambiguous and i f the answ ers r e q u ir e d 16 c o n ta in a l o t of in f o r m a tio n , th e s u b j e c t w ith a g re a t d e s i r e to be r i g h t w i l l be u n l i k e l y to conform. E x am in atio n of c o n fo rm ity b e h a v io r a ls o can d e r i v e from th e t h e o r e t i c a l e x p l o r a ti o n s and e m p ir ic a l r e s e a r c h on v e r b a l c o n d itio n in g and aw aren ess. In t h i s r e g a r d , th e c o g n it i v e model of v e r b a l c o n d itio n in g ( S p i e lb e r g e r and DeNike, 1966) a s s e r t s t h a t th e im p o r ta n t v a r i a b l e s i n t e r vening betw een an e x p e rim e n ta l s tim u lu s and a s u b je c t* s r e s p o n s e a r e th e c o g n it i v e s t a t e s of th e s u b j e c t ( i . e . , th e h y p o th e s e s t h a t he i s f o r m u la tin g ) and th e a f f e c t i v e s t a t e s o f th e s u b j e c t ( i . e . , h i s d e s i r e to g e t th e r e i n f o r c e m e n t ) . A ccording to t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l m odel, s u b j e c t s u t i l i z e b o th an i n f o r m a ti o n a l component and an i n c e n t i v e component i n th e p ro c e s s o f t h e i r re sp o n d in g i n e x p e rim e n ts. As w i l l be se en i n th e d i s c u s s i o n to f o llo w , th e s e components a r e q u i te s i m i l a r t o th e d e s i r e to be c o r r e c t ( i n f o r m a t i o n a l compon e n t) and th e d e s i r e to p l e a s e ( i n c e n t i v e com ponent). R esearch on E x perim en ter E xpectancy E f f e c t : M o tiv a tio n L evel In rev iew in g th e l i t e r a t u r e c o m p re h en siv e ly , one f i n d s t h a t few r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s have t r e a t e d th e r e l a t i o n sh ip o f m o tiv a tio n to e x p e rim e n te r e x p ec ta n cy e f f e c t s . Those r e p o r t s which have i n v e s t i g a t e d th e c o n cep t have d i r e c t e d q u e s tio n s i n term s of th e e f f e c t , i n e x p e rim e n ta l r e s e a r c h , of p r o v id in g v a rio u s i n c e n t i v e or e x c e s s iv e rew ard 17 o p p o r t u n i t i e s to e x p e r im e n te r s or s u b j e c t s . For exam ple, R o s e n th a l, Fode, and V ik a n -K lin e (1960) i n v e s t i g a t e d th e e f f e c t s o f v a ry in g i n c e n t i v e s on e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t s . The m o ti v a ti o n l e v e l o f th e e x p e r im e n te r s was d e fin e d by th e k in d o f i n c e n t i v e o f f e r e d f o r a "good j o b 1* ( i . e . , o b t a i n i n g h ig h r a t i n g s o f p h o to s from th e s u b j e c t s ) . M o d e ra te ly m o tiv a te d e x p e r im e n te r s were p a id $2 p e r hour f o r a good j o b , more h i g h l y m o tiv a te d '^ e x p e rim e n te rs were p a id $5 p e r hour f o r a good j o b . I n a d d i t i o n to v a ry in g m o ti v a ti o n l e v e l among e x p e r im e n te r s , th e w ork ers f e l t t h a t m o ti v a ti o n l e v e l of s u b j e c t s co u ld be an im p o r ta n t v a r i a b l e a f f e c t i n g e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t s . S u b je c ts random ly w ere a s s ig n e d p a id or u n p a id s t a t u s (50<i f o r f i v e m in u te s p a r t i c i p a t i o n ) . TSxperimenters had been le d t o e x p e c t a mean r a t i n g from t h e i r s u b j e c t s o f - 7 . The r e s e a r c h e r s th o u g h t t h a t more h i g h ly m o tiv a te d e x p e r im e n te r s c o n t a c t i n g p a id s u b j e c t s sh o u ld show t h e g r e a t e s t e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y . The f i n d i n g s d id n o t s u p p o r t t h i s b e l i e f and i n f a c t s u g g e s te d t h a t an i n c r e a s e i n m o ti v a ti o n l e v e l ( o f b o th s u b j e c t and e x p e r im e n te r ) m ig h t d e c r e a s e th e e f f e c t s o f t h e e x p e r i m enter e x p e c ta n c y .* D is r e g a r d in g t h e m o tiv a tio n o f s u b je c ts , th e r e s e a r c h e r s d is c o v e r e d t h a t more m o d e ra te ly m o tiv a te d *The m ag nitude o f e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y a l s o was d e fin e d i n term s o f th e d e g re e o f c o r r e l a t i o n betw een th e d a ta s p e c i f i c a l l y p r e d i c t e d by e x p e r im e n te r s and th e d a t a o b ta in e d s u b s e q u e n tly by them ( h i g h e r p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n = g r e a t e r e x p e c ta n c y ). 18 e x p e rim e n te rs b ia s e d t h e i r s u b j e c t s 1 re s p o n s e s more than did the more h i g h ly m o tiv a te d e x p e r im e n te r s . In f a c t , th e more h ig h ly m o tiv a te d e x p e rim e n te rs showed a tr e n d tow ard th e n e g a tiv e or " r e v e r s e " e x p ec ta n cy e f f e c t , a lth o u g h t h i s d i f f e r e n c e was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i c a l l y - The i n t e r e s t i n g t r e n d to the d a t a o b ta in e d i n the above exp erim en t g e n e ra te d such s i g n i f i c a n t and unanswered q u e s tio n s t h a t a second e x p erim en t was conducted ( R o s e n th a l, 1966) to i n v e s t i g a t e f u r t h e r th e e f f e c t o f e x p e r i m e n t e r 's m o tiv a tio n l e v e l , th e d e g re e of e x p l i c i t n e s s of th e i n s t r u c t i o n s t o o b t a i n e x p e c ta n c y -b ia s e d d a ta (w hich p r e v i o u s l y had been r e l a t i v e l y i m p l i c i t ) , and th e d e g re e to w hich e x p e r i m enter e x p e c ta n c ie s could o ccur i n a s i t u a t i o n where one e x p e rim e n te r works w ith s e v e r a l s u b j e c t s c o n c u r r e n t l y . In t h i s second e x p e rim e n t, th e e x p e rim e n te rs were p a r t i a l l e d o u t i n t o f i v e tr e a tm e n t groups o f s i x e x p e rim e n te rs each. Four of th e s e groups were to a n t i c i p a t e h ig h p o s i t i v e r a t i n g s (+5) of th e p h o to s by t h e i r s u b j e c t s , w hereas th e rem ain in g group ex pected h ig h n e g a tiv e r a t i n g s ( - 5 ) from the s u b j e c t s . M o tiv a tio n was t e s t e d by p a y in g h a l f o f th e e x p e r im e n te r s who expected h ig h p o s i t i v e r a t i n g s a d o l l a r and in fo rm in g them t h a t i f th e y o b ta in e d c l o s e r - t o - e x p e c t e d r a t i n g s than t h e i r unknown p a r t n e r th e y co u ld keep th e d o l l a r and g e t th e p a r t n e r ' s d o l l a r a l s o . I f th e p a r t n e r p e r formed b e t t e r , th e c o n v erse a p p l i e d . The rem a in in g h a l f of th e e x p e rim e n te rs e x p e c tin g h ig h p o s i t i v e r a t i n g s were n o t 19 in v o lv e d i n t h i s " re w a rd " c o n d i t i o n and i n t h i s r e g a rd w ere c o n s id e re d l e s s m o tiv a te d . E x p l i c i t n e s s o f i n s t r u c t i o n s t o b i a s s u b je c ts * r e sp o n se s was t e s t e d by t e l l i n g h a l f o f th e e x p e r im e n te r s e x p e c tin g h ig h p o s i t i v e r a t i n g s to p e rfo rm i n w h a te v e r way th ey d e s i r e d t o o b t a i n e x p e c te d d a t a , b u t n o t to d e v i a t e from w r i t t e n i n s t r u c t i o n s p ro v id e d t o s u b j e c t s . The o th e r h a l f o f e x p e r im e n te r s e x p e c tin g h ig h p o s i t i v e r a t i n g s w ere m ere ly to a n t i c i p a t e th e r a t i n g s o n ly and i n t h i s se n se w ere viewed as l e s s b i a s e d . The e x p e r im e n te r s who w ere to a n t i c i p a t e h ig h r a t i n g s were g iv e n th e more e x p l i c i t i n s t r u c t i o n s to b i a s t h e i r s u b j e c t s and a l s o w ere g iv e n a s p e c i a l (tw o - p e rs o n , sum -zero game) c o n d i t i o n o f m o t i v a t i o n . As i n th e p r e v i o u s e x p e rim e n t, e x p e r im e n te r s w ere asked to p r e d i c t the s p e c i f i c mean p h o to r a t i n g s th e y would o b t a i n . The r e s u l t s show t h a t more m o tiv a te d e x p e r im e n te r s showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t th a n d id l e s s m o tiv a te d exp erim enters. The e x p l i c i t n e s s of i n s t r u c t i o n s to o b t a i n b i a s e d d a t a a t b e s t showed o n ly an e q u iv o c a l e f f e c t . Inasm uch as t h e t r e a tm e n t c o n d i t i o n i n each o f th e two e x p e rim e n ts d e a l t w ith more and l e s s m o tiv a te d e x p e r i m e n te rs who w ere s e t i m p l i c i t l y to b i a s r e s p o n s e s o f u n p a id s u b j e c t s and inasm uch a s s i m i l a r c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere o b ta in e d u n d e r t h e two c o n d i t i o n s , R o s e n th a l co n clu d ed t h a t " e x c e s s i v e " rew ard s f o r e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y a c t u a l l y may le a d to d im in is h e d e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y u n d er th e p a r t i c u l a r 20 c o n d itio n s of th e two ex p erim e n ts d e s c r i b e d . More e x p l i c i t l y - i n s t r u c t e d - t o ~ b i a s and more h ig h ly m o tiv a te d e x p e rim e n te rs e x p e c tin g -5 r a t i n g s o b ta in e d h ig h e r r a t i n g s than th o se i n any tr e a tm e n t c o n d itio n imposed on e x p e r i m enters e x p e c tin g +5 mean r a t i n g s . T his f i n d i n g and t h a t of n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g m agnitude o f ex p erim e n ter e x p e c ta n c ie s i n more h ig h ly m o tiv a te d tr e a tm e n t c o n d itio n s su g g e sts i n p a r t t h a t th e s e e x p e rim e n te rs a c t i v e l y were b i ased i n t o a r e v e rs e d d i r e c t i o n . S e v e ra l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e s e f i n d i n g s have been o f f e r e d . K e lm a n ^ (1953) f i n d i n g t h a t s u b j e c t s who a r e r e warded more may f e e l b rib e d t o conform f o r th e b e n e f i t of th e e x p e rim e n te r, th u s making them s u s p ic i o u s , r e s e n t f u l , and l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e to i n f l u e n c e by the e x p e rim e n te r, was a p p lie d by R o se n th al to th e above f i n d i n g s . S i m i l a r l y ap p l i c a b l e may be th e c o n c lu s io n o f F e rb er and Wales (1952) t h a t i f , i n an i n t e r v i e w s i t u a t i o n , th e i n t e r v i e w e r i s b ia s e d and knows i t , he may r e f l e c t a n e g a t iv e b ia s as p a r t of a r e a c t i v e e f f o r t t o overcome h i s known b i a s . F u rth e r s u p p o rtin g t h i s th o u g h t i s t h e r e s e a r c h o f M i l ls (1958) which showed t h a t h o n e s t s t u d e n ts became more a n t i - c h e a t i n g under c o n d itio n s of h ig h m o tiv a tio n to c h e a t. A d d i t i o n a l l y , he found t h a t under c o n d itio n s of h igh r e s t r a i n t a g a i n s t c h e a tin g , s u b j e c t s became more a n t i - c h e a t i n g th a n d id s i m i l a r l y h ig h ly m o tiv a te d s u b j e c t s under c o n d it i o n s of low r e s t r a i n t a g a i n s t c h e a ti n g , i n t e r p r e t e d to mean t h a t th e 21 high r e s t r a i n t group f e l t more su s p e c te d and th u s denounced c h e a tin g more v ehem ently. The f i n d i n g s a ls o may be i n t e r p r e t e d i n l i g h t o f comments by Rosenberg (1965) re g a rd in g e v a l u a t i o n a p p re h e n s io n . Inasmuch as th e e x p e rim e n te rs i n th e s e s t u d i e s i n e f f e c t were s p e c i a l k in d s o f s u b j e c t s , th e y may have e x p e r i enced a p p re h e n sio n about what th e p r i n c i p a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s m ight t h i n k of them . ' Both th e autonomy and h o n e s ty o f th e e x p e rim e n te rs may have been c h a lle n g e d by o f f e r i n g l a r g e i n c e n t i v e s f o r a f f e c t i n g th e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r r e s e a r c h . The bending over backward v e ry w e ll may s i g n i f y c o u n te r b e h a v io r to f e e l i n g b r i b e d , e t c . No s i n g l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e above r e s u l t s i s p o s s i b l e , p r i n c i p a l l y b e ca u se th e lo c u s of r e v e r s a l of ex p e c ta n c y e f f e c t s cannot be d e te rm in e d from th e d a ta a t hand, a lth o u g h to d a te th e lo c u s has been assumed t o f a l l w i t h in th e p u rv iew o f t h e e x p e rim e n te r. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t th e r e v e r s a l o f th e e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t n o te d l i e s w i t h i n th e s u b j e c t , an ex pected f i n d i n g i f th e more h i g h ly m o tiv a te d e x p e rim e n te r made to o much e f f o r t to i n f l u e n c e h i s s u b j e c t s . T his s e l f a s s e r t i o n th fo u g h noncom pliance may o p e ra te i n th e s e r v i c e of e v a l u a t i o n a p p re h e n s io n i f th e s u b j e c t f e e l s t h a t th e e x p e rim e n te r would th in k l e s s of him were he to comply. Orne (1 9 6 2 ), Schw artz (1 9 6 3 ), and S ilv erm an (1965) a l l have d e m o n stra te d t h a t when i n f l u e n c e e f f o r t s become more obvious s u b j e c t s become l e s s i n f l u e n c a b l e . 22 R ese arch on E x p erim e n ter E xpectancy E f f e c t : C onform ity B ehavior C onform ity b e h a v io r and p s y c h o s o c ia l i n f l u e n c e p r o c e s s e s b o th have c o n c e p tu a l r o o t s i n th e work o f S h e r i f (1935; 1951; 1953; 1955) and Asch (1951; 1952; 1955; 1956). In th e approach which d e r i v e s from th e b a s i c work o f S h e r i f , th e s tim u lu s s i t u a t i o n and th e m a t e r i a l b o th a r e ambiguous, e l i c i t e d b e h a v io r r e l a t e s to a d e f i n i t i o n o f th e s tim u lu s m a t e r i a l , and new l e a r n in g o ccu rs which form s th e backdrop f o r judgment i n s i m i l a r su b seq u en t s tim u lu s s i t u a t i o n s . These c o n s i d e r a ti o n s d i f f e r from th e work o f Asch where th e s tim u lu s s i t u a t i o n but n o t th e m a t e r i a l i s ambiguous, where e l i c i t e d b e h a v io r ( f o r n a iv e s u b j e c t s ) c e n t e r s around r e s i s t a n c e or com pliance to s o c i a l p r e s s u r e , and g e n e r a l l y no new l e a r n in g o c c u rs (judgm ent in su b seq u e n t s i m i l a r s tim u lu s s i t u a t i o n s rem ain s u n a f f e c t e d ) . B a s i c a l l y , t h e S h e r i f ap p ro a c h f u n c t i o n s a s a l a b o r a t o r y paradigm of p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r o c e s s e s u n d e rly in g norm fo rm a tio n i n ” r e a l l i f e ” s i t u a t i o n s . The Asch approach i s a l a b o r a t o r y paradigm of ” r e a l l i f e ” s i t u a t i o n s w h erein th e p e rso n i s p r e s s u r e d by o t h e r s to commit h im s e lf to one d e c i s i o n or judgment which opposes h i s d e f i n i t i o n of th e s i t u a t i o n . The s i g n i f i c a n t work of D eu tsch and G erard (1955) n o ted t h a t e a r l i e r s t u d i e s had f a i l e d to d i f f e r e n t i a t e two fund am ental k in d s of s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e . The f i r s t , in fo rm a t i o n a l s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e , o c cu rs when a p e rs o n i s le d to 23 a c c e p t i n f o r m a ti o n o b ta in e d from a n o th e r p e rs o n as evid en ce about r e a l i t y . T h is c o n c e p t r e l a t e s to t h a t one e a r l i e r d i s c u s s e d as th e d e s i r e to be c o r r e c t . In t h e c o n te x t o f g ro u p s , t h i s n o t i o n may be view ed i n te rm s of o n e ’ s d e s i r i n g to g iv e r e s p o n s e s w hich a g re e w ith th o s e of o t h e r group mem b e r s . I n th e d y a d ic r e s e a r c h e x p e rim e n t th e r e f e r e n t i s o n ly one o th e r p e r s o n , th e e x p e r im e n te r . The second ty p e o f i n f l u e n c e , n o rm a tiv e s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e , o c c u rs when a s u b j e c t a c c e p t s i n f l u e n c e from a n o th e r p e rs o n b e c a u s e of h i s m o ti v a ti o n to conform to t h a t p e r s o n ’ s e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h is c o n cep t r e l a t e s to t h a t one e a r l i e r d i s c u s s e d as th e d e s i r e to p l e a s e . In th e c o n te x t o f g ro u p s , t h i s n o t i o n may be viewed i n term s o f o n e ’s d e s i r i n g t o g iv e r e s p o n s e s w hich p l e a s e o th e r gro up members. In th e d y a d ic r e s e a r c h e x p e rim e n t t h e r e f e r e n t i s only th e e x p e r i m e n t e r . In t h e i r s tu d y , D e u tsc h and G erard a llo w e d b o th ty p e s o f s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e t o o p e r a te s e p a r a t e l y . One f i n d in g was t h a t n o rm a tiv e s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s can o p e r a t e 'to i n c r e a s e th e in d ep e n d en c e o f i n d i v i d u a l judgm ent (Bachman and S e c o rd , 1966 ). Schulman (1967) h a s p r o v id e d f u r t h e r r e f in e m e n t to t h i s body o f l i t e r a t u r e by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t f o r b o th m ales and fe m a le s t h e r a t e o f c o n fo rm ity re s p o n s e i n t h e Asch s i t u a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n a l c o n fo r m ity , norma t i v e c o n fo rm ity t o th e g ro u p , and n o rm a tiv e c o n fo rm ity t o 24 th e e x p e rim e n te r. T here a re s e v e r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s from th e s e d a ta which add to th e r e s e a r c h and comment i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e e x p e rim e n ta l s i t u a t i o n i t s e l f must be c o n sid e re d as a s o c i a l system which c o n ta in s e x p e c ta ti o n s and r o l e r e l a t i o n s h ip s betw een th e e x p e rim e n te r and s u b j e c t t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t l y may a f f e c t r e s u l t s o b ta in e d . A d d itio n a l a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s may be f o r t h coming from th e s e d a t a . Schulman b e li e v e s t h a t th e numerous s t u d i e s which have used th e Asch fo rm at may need to be r e - e v a l u a t e d . For exam ple, i t has been found t h a t p e rs o n s o f m iddle s t a t u s i n a p a r t i c u l a r group show a g r e a t e r r a t e o f c o n fo rm ity re sp o n d in g th an p e rs o n s o f high s t a t u s and in tu r n t h i s has been i n t e r p r e t e d to mean t h a t m iddle s t a t u s p e o p le conform more to the g ro u p . The d a t a o b ta in e d by Schulman su g g e s t t h a t p e rh a p s m id dle and h ig h s t a t u s p e rso n s a r e in f lu e n c e d e q u a lly by th e e f f e c t of th e g ro u p !s e v a lu a t i o n o f them, but h ig h s t a t u s p e rs o n s a r e in f lu e n c e d more th an m id dle s t a t u s p e o p le by e v a l u a t i o n from a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e s ( e x p e r i m e n te r s ) . Thus, i n t h e Asch s i t u a t i o n i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t th e h ig h s t a t u s p e rs o n g iv e s few c o n fo rm ity re s p o n s e s n o t becau se th e group has l e s s n o rm ativ e in f lu e n c e over him b u t becau se th e e x p e rim e n te r e x e r t s more. The Asch s i t u a t i o n , th e S h e r i f m odel, or v a r io u s m o d if i c a t io n s o f t h e s e fo rm a ts c o n tin u o u s ly have been used by r e s e a r c h e r s to d e te rm in e th e n a tu r e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , e . g . , p e r s o n a l i t y , s t a t u s in 25 th e g ro u p , r e l a t i v e t a s k com petence, t a s k v a lu e , d e g re e o f p r e s s u r e to conform , e t c . , and th e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e con f o r m i t y . Only i n r e c e n t y e a r s have i n v e s t i g a t o r s moved away from i n t e r p r e t i n g a l l th e f i n d i n g s i n term s of c o n fo r m ity to th e g ro u p , and to w ard th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e ty p e s o f i n f l u e n c e o p e r a t in g w i t h i n th e a g g r e g a te u n i t , as enum erated e a r l i e r . I n c r e a s i n g l y , e x p e r im e n ta l v a r i a t i o n s i n th e c l a s s i c and i n n o v a t i v e c o n fo rm ity s i t u a t i o n a r e b e in g a s s e s s e d to d e te r m in e e x a c t l y w hat c o n fo rm ity r e s p o n s e s i n t h i s k in d of s i t u a t i o n i n d i c a t e . The f i n d i n g s s t r e s s th e im p o rta n c e o f r e - e v a l u a t i n g su ch f i n d i n g s i n term s o f th e s u b j e c t - e x p e r i m e n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t h e e x p e r im e n ta l d e s ig n and f o r p o s s i b l y r e - i n t e r p r e t i n g th e l a r g e number o f s t u d i e s w h ic h have t r i e d t o r e l a t e su ch v a r i a b l e s as s t a t u s and p e r s o n a l i t y to c o n fo rm ity to th e group u s in g t h e r a t e of c o n fo rm ity r e s p o n s e s i n th e e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n as th e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . R e s e a rc h on E x p e rim e n te r E x p e c ta n c y E f f e c t ? V e r b a l C o n d itio n in g As d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r , i n f o r m a ti o n about c o n fo rm ity b e h a v io r a ls o may be d e r i v e d from r e s e a r c h i n th e a r e a of v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g . In one s tu d y , f o r exam ple, DeNike (1 9 6 4 ) r e i n f o r c e d s u b j e c t s f o r g iv in g human noun r e s p o n s e s . T h ese s u b j e c t s w ere asked to g iv e t h e i r th o u g h ts abo ut th e e x p e rim e n t a f t e r e v ery b lo c k of t w e n t y - f i v e w ords. A f t e r 26 th e s u b j e c t s w ere given two b lo c k s w ith o u t r e in f o r c e m e n t, to e s t a b l i s h an o p e ra n t l e v e l , th e y were c o n d itio n e d ; s u b j e c t s in a c o n t r o l group were g iven random r e in f o r c e m e n t d u rin g the c o n d itio n in g b lo c k s . The s u b j e c t s were r a t e d as b e in g aware or unaware on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r w r i t t e n n o te s . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t aware s u b j e c t s showed more c o n d itio n in g th an e i t h e r c o n t r o l s or unaw are s u b j e c t s . The l a t t e r two groups were s i m i l a r i n t h a t th e y showed marked improvement in th e b lo c k a t which th e y became aw are. N e v e r th e le s s , even in th e t e n t h b lo c k they gave th e r e i n f o r c e d re sp o n se o n ly 35% of th e tim e , on th e a v e r a g e . S p ie lb e r g e r and DeNike (1966) s u g g e s t t h a t the r e a s o n f o r t h i s f i n d i n g i s t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s were n o t m o tiv a te d h i g h ly to g e t t h e r e in f o r c e m e n t. S p i e lb e r g e r and o t h e r s (1966) co n d u cted a study s i m i l a r t o t h a t d e s c r ib e d above. A fte r t h e se v en th b l o c k , however, th e y inform ed s u b j e c t s to t r y to g e t th e e x p e r i menter to say "Mmm-hmm*1 as o f t e n as p o s s i b l e . These su b j e c t s were d iv id e d i n t o fo u r g ro u p s: (1 ) P r e - a w a r e : s u b j e c t s who were aware of th e c o n tin g e n c y b e f o r e th e e ig h t h b lo c k . (2) P o s t- a w a r e : s u b j e c t s who became aware o f t h e c o n tin g en c y a f t e r being g iv e n th e m o tiv a tin g i n s t r u c t i o n s . (3) Aware i n t e r v i e w : s u b j e c t s who d id n o t show aw areness when w r i t i n g t h e i r th o u g h ts on t h e ex p erim e n t, b u t who d id show aw areness i n t h e 27 p o s t - e x p e r im e n ta l i n t e r v i e w . ( 4 ) Unaware: s u b j e c t s who n e v er showed aw areness o f th e c o n tin g e n c y . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t group 1 was a b le t o p erfo rm b e t t e r th a n the o th e r t h r e e d u rin g th e f i r s t seven b lo c k s ; s u b j e c t s i n t h i s group showed marked improvement in th e b lo c k when th e y became aware. The p e r c e n ta g e s of r e i n f o r c e d r e s p o n s e s in c r e a s e d from about 30% on b lo c k 7 to a b o u t 90% on t h e l a s t t h r e e b lo c k s . T his f i n d i n g showed t h a t th e s u b j e c t s were m otivated by th e i n s t r u c t i o n s . Groups 2 and 4 were s i m i l a r i n perform ance through b lo c k 7. I n th e l a s t t h r e e b l o c k s , s u b j e c t s i n group 2 gave about 60% r e i n f o r c e d r e s p o n s e s . S u b je c ts i n group 3 showed some improvement d u rin g th e l a s t t h r e e b lo c k s ; s u b j e c t s i n group 4 showed no ne. On t h e b a s i s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h S p i e lb e r g e r and DeNike (1966) p ro p o se d a c o g n it i v e model o f v e r b a l c o n d it i o n in g a f t e r having r u le d out such p o s s i b l e n o n - c o g n itiv e e x p la n a t io n s f o r th e f i n d in g s as s u g g e s tio n , l a b e l i n g , se c o n d a ry m e d iatio n , and j o i n t c o n d i t i o n i n g . The model a s s e r t s t h a t th e im p o rta n t v a r i a b l e s i n t e r v e n i n g betw een an e x p e rim e n ta l stim u lu s and a s u b j e c t Ts re s p o n se a re th e c o g n i t i v e s t a t e s of the s u b j e c t ( i . e . , th e h y p o th e s e s t h a t he i s f o r m u la tin g ) and the a f f e c t i v e s t a t e s of th e s u b j e c t ( i . e . , h i s d e s i r e to get the r e i n f o r c e m e n t ) . In o th e r words, s u b j e c t s u t i l i z e both an in f o r m a ti o n a l component and an i n c e n t i v e component in the p r o c e s s o f t h e i r re sp o n d in g i n e x p e rim e n ts . The 2 8 i n f o r m a t i o n a l component i s q u i t e s i m i l a r to t h o s e c o n c e p ts d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r as th e d e s i r e to be c o r r e c t and as i n f o r m a tio n a l c o n f o r m ity . The i n c e n t i v e component i s q u i t e sim i l a r to th o s e c o n c e p ts d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r a s th e d e s i r e to p le a s e and as n o rm a tiv e c o n fo r m ity . I n t e r n a l V e rsu s E x te r n a l C o n tr o l bf R e in to rc e m e n t G e n eral T h e o r e t i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s The n a t u r e o f m a n 's a b i l i t y to c o n t r o l h i s p e r s o n a l env iro nm ent r e p e a t e d l y has been th e m ajor f o c u s o f beh av i o r a l i n v e s t i g a t o r s . P r i m a r i l y , t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t o r s have so u g h t to l e a r n th e d e g re e to which an i n d i v i d u a l can con t r o l th e im p o r ta n t e v e n ts which o ccu r i n h i s l i f e . A lf r e d A.dler w ro te of and t h e o r i z e d ab o u t th e overcom ing o f h e l p l e s s n e s s and th e developm ent o f m a s te ry (A n sb ach er and A nsbacher, 19 5 6 ). Through h i s p o s i t i o n s o f " s t r i v i n g f o r s u p e r i o r i t y " and " i n i t i a l i n f e r i o r i t y " A d l e r 's c o n c e rn r e mained w ith marife becom ing more e f f e c t i v e a t c o n t r o l l i n g h i s own p e r s o n a l l i f e s p a c e . The m ajor c o n s t r u c t s term ed "com petence" and " e f f e c t a n c e P by R o b e rt W hite (W h ite, 1959) d e s c r i b e e s s e n t i a l l y th e same r e f e r e n t s as t h e s u p e r i o r i t y s t r i v i n g of A d l e r . R i c h t e r (1959) and Mowrer and T ic k (1948) have a p p lie d t h e i r i n t e r e s t s i n t h i s a r e a t o r e s e a r c h on an im al b e h a v io r . R i c h t e r r e p o r t e d t h a t even l i v e l y a n im a ls which 29 a r e p la c e d i n s i t u a t i o n s from w hich e x t r i c a t i o n i s im p o s s i b le c e a se e f f o r t s to e sc a p e and r a p i d l y d i e . A f t e r h a v in g c o n t r o l l e d f o r p o s s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o th e s e s , he con clu d ed t h a t th e im p o r ta n t v a r i a b l e was th e l o s s o f hope of b e in g a b le to e f f e c t a c h an g e. Mowrer and T ic k ( 1 9 4 8 ) , i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e c o n c e p t of h e l p l e s s n e s s , le a r n e d t h a t r a t s m atched f o r sh o c k - c o n t r o l l i n g and s h o c k - n o n c o n t r o l li n g c o n d i t i o n s d i f f e r e d i n e a t i n g i n h i b i t i o n f o llo w in g the shock c o n d i t i o n s . T hese i n v e s t i g a t o r s con cluded t h a t an u n c o n t r o l l a b l e p a i n f u l s tim u lu s a r o u s e s an a p p re h e n s io n t h a t th e s t im u lu s i s i n t e r m i n a b l e or can w o rsen . I f th e same s tim u lu s i s co n t r o l l a b l e , a t most l i t t l e a p p re h e n s io n i s a ro u s e d . T his a p p re h e n s io n o f n o n - c o n t r o l l e d p a in was term ed by Mowrer 1ff e a r from a se n se o f h e l p l e s s n e s s ” ( L e f c o u r t , 196 6). A d le r, W hite, R i c h t e r , and Mowrer and Vick a l l em phasize i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y , th e s t r e n g t h o f c o n tin g e n c y betw een a c t s and t h e i r c o n se q u e n c e s, and i t s im p o rta n c e f o r s u r v i v a l and a d a p tiv e b e h a v i o r . The c o n s t r u c t term ed i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l o f r e in f o r c e m e n t has f a c i l i t a t e d th e u n d e r s ta n d in g of th e c o n tin g e n c y betw een a c t and c o n se q u ence. U n lik e th e c o n c e p ts o f h e l p l e s s n e s s , h o p e le s s n e s s , com petence, or s t r i v i n g , t h e c o n s t r u c t o f i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l ( h e r e a f t e r term ed " c o n t r o l " ) i s a c r u c i a l f a c e t o f a w e l l - d e l i n e a t e d th e o r y and i s an e x p e c ta n c y v a r i a b l e r a t h e r th an a m o t i v a t i o n a l one. As e l a b o r a t e d i n R o t t e r * s s o c i a l 30 l e a r n i n g t h e o r y ( R o t t e r , 1954, 1955, 1960) t h e p o t e n t i a l o c c u r r e n c e o f any b e h a v io r i n a g iv en s i t u a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n o f a) th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s e x p e c ta n c y t h a t t h e b e h a v io r w i l l s e c u r e th e r e i n f o r c e m e n t a v a i l a b l e and o f b ) th e v a le n c e , f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l , of t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t s a v a i l a b l e . The c o n t r o l c o n s t r u c t i s c o n s id e r e d a g e n e r a l i z e d e x p e c ta n c y , o c c u r r in g i n many s i t u a t i o n s , w hich r e l a t e s to w hether th e i n d i v i d u a l p o s s e s s e s or l a c k s power over how he i s a f f e c t e d . R o t t e r , Seeman, and L i v e r a n t (1 9 6 2 ) e l a b o r a t e d th e c o n s t r u c t and d e s c r i b e d i t s d i s t r i b u t i n g i n d i v i d u a l s a lo n g th e d im e n sio n o f th e d e g re e t o w hich t h e y a c c e p t p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r how th e y a r e a f f e c t e d . S t a t e d as a g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e , . . . i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l r e f e r s to th e p e r c e p t i o n o f p o s i t i v e a n d /o r n e g a t i v e e v e n ts as b e in g a c o n se quence of o n e ’s own a c t i o n s and t h e r e b y u n d e r p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l ; e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l r e f e r s to t h e p e r c e p t io n o f p o s i t i v e a n d /o r n e g a t i v e e v e n ts as b e in g u n r e l a t e d t o o n e ’s own b e h a v i o r s i n c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s and t h e r e f o r e beyond p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l . ( L e f c o u r t , 1966) Development o f M easures o f I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l C o n tr o l In a s tu d y of chance and s k i l l e f f e c t s on e x p e c ta n c i e s f o r r e i n f o r c e m e n t , P h a re s (1 9 5 7 ) a tte m p te d to m easu re i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n a g e n e r a l i z e d e x p e c ta n c y , or b e l i e f i n e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l as a p s y c h o l o g i c a l v a r i a b l e . T h is r e s e a r c h was th e f i r s t p u b l is h e d r e p o r t o f t a s k s t r u c t u r i n g of c o n t r o l from a s o c i a l l e a r n i n g t h e o r y fram ew ork. 31 On a p r i o r i g rou nds, P h a res develop ed a L i k e r t - t y p e s c a l e which in c lu d e d t h i r t e e n ite m s s t a t e d as e x t e r n a l a t t i t u d e s and t h i r t e e n item s s t a t e d as i n t e r n a l a t t i t u d e s . He le a rn e d t h a t th e ite m s s t a t e d i n an e x t e r n a l d i r e c t i o n a f f o r d e d low p r e d i c t i o n s , a p p ro ach in g s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c an c e, t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s whose a t t i t u d e s w ere e x t e r n a l would behave s i m i l a r l y to a l l p e rs o n s when i n a chance s i t u a t i o n , as opposed to a s k i l l s i t u a t i o n ( R o t t e r , 1966). James (1957) r e v i s e d th e..P h are s s c a l e s , s t i l l em p lo y in g th e L i k e r t fo rm a t, to in c lu d e tw e n ty - s ix ite m s based on th e ite m s of t h e P h a re s s c a l e which appeared t o be most d i s c r i m i n a n t in th e P h a re s s c a l e . He found s i m i l a r low b u t s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een h is s c a l e and b e h a v io r i n th e t a s k s i t u a t i o n . The Ja m es-P h are s form of s c a l e has been employed i n r e s e a r c h which r e l a t e s to c o r r e l a t e s o f i n d i v id u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n a g e n e r a liz e d e x p e c ta n c y f o r i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , L i v e r a n t , R o t t e r , and Seeman expanded th e s c a l e to in c lu d e s u b s c a le s a s s e s s i n g such a r e a s as ach iev e m e n t, a f f e c t i o n , s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s , and to c o n t r o l f o r s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y . The i n i t i a l fo rm at of t h i s s c a l e in c lu d e d one hundred f o r c e d - cho ice ite m s , each com paring an i n t e r n a l b e l i e f w i t h an e x t e r n a l b e l i e f . A f t e r s e v e r a l m o d if i c a t io n s and r e v i s i o n s su b seq u e n t to f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , abandonment of a tt e m p t s to measure more s p e c i f i c su b a re a s o f i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l , e t c . , th e s c a l e was redu ced to t w e n ty - t h r e e ite m s . The 32 f i n a l v e rs io n o f th e s c a l e i s a f o r c e d - c h o i c e fo rm at u s in g th e tw e n ty - th r e e ite m s p lu s s i x f i l l e r ite m s in te n d e d t o make more ambiguous the pu rp ose o f th e s c a le ( R o t t e r , 1966). H e r e a f te r , th e s c a l e w i l l be r e f e r r e d to as th e I - E S c a le . The ite m s r e l a t e d only to th e p e r s o n Ts b e l i e f about th e n a tu r e o f th e w orld ( i . e . , th e p e r s o n Ts e x p e c ta ti o n s a bo ut th e c o n t r o l o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t ) . In t h i s r e g a r d , th e s c a l e i s a m easure o f a g e n e r a liz e d e x p e c ta n c y . T h is g e n e r a l i z e d e x p ectan cy may c o r r e l a t e w ith th e v a lu e th e s u b j e c t g iv e s t o i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l b u t th e ite m s do n o t m easure p r e f e r e n c e f o r i n t e r n a l or e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l . M easures of i n t e r n a l c o n s is te n c y a re r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e and m o d e ra te ly h ig h , v a ry in g betw een .65 and .79 ( F r a n k l in , 1963; R o t t e r , 1 9 66). T e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t i e s a re c o n s i s t e n t , m o d e ra te ly h ig h , and ran g e from .43 and .84 f o r d i f f e r i n g sam ples and p e r io d s of tim e (H ersch and S c h e ib e , 1967; R o t t e r , 1966). C o r r e l a t i o n s between th e I -E S c a le and i n t e l l i g e n c e a r e n e g l i g i b l e , as d e m o n stra te d by S t r i c k l a n d (1962) u sin g fem ale c o lle g e s t u d e n t s , by Ladwig (1963) u sin g m ale p r i s o n e r s , by C ardi (1962) u sin g male and fem ale c o ll e g e s t u d e n t s , and by Hersch and S c h e ib e (1967) u s in g m ale and fem a le c o l leg e s tu d e n ts and c o ll e g e - a g e , n o n - c o lle g e p e rs o n s as sub j e c t s . The d a ta from th e s e s t u d i e s s u g g e s t a low b u t i n s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n ( i . e . , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p may be weakly n e g a tiv e ,, w ith i n t e r n a l s c o r e r s h ig h e r i n i n t e l l i gence) . 33 The c o r r e l a t i o n s o f th e 2 9 - ite m I - E S c a l e w ith th e Marlowe-Crowne S o c i a l D e s i r a b i l i t y S c a le (Crowne and Marlowe, 1964) a re low and i n s i g n i f i c a n t , r a n g in g from - . 0 7 to - . 3 5 , w ith a m edian o f - . 2 2 (L adw ig, 1963; R o t t e r , 1966; Schw arz, 1963; S t r i c k l a n d , 1962; W a tt, 19 62). The mean and s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n v a lu e s f o r th e I - E S c a le s c o r e s have b een r e p o r t e d f o r a v a r i e t y o f p o p u la t i o n s ( F r a n k l i n , 1963; Gore and R o t t e r , 1963; L adw ig, 1963; R o t t e r , 1966; S ta c k , 1963). Means ra n g e from 7 .3 1 to 1 0 .0 0 , w h ile s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s ra n g e from 2 .7 8 t o 4 .7 3 (H ersch and S c h e ib e , 1967; R o t t e r , 1 9 6 6 ). The s i n g l e m ost compre h e n s iv e r e p o r t i s t h a t o f R o t t e r (1 9 6 6 ) w hich r e p r e s e n t s summary d a t a fo r t e s t s , o b ta in e d a t d i f f e r e n t tim e s of th e y e a r , o v e r a tw o -y ea r p e r io d i n a v a r i e t y o f e x p e r im e n ts . A lth o u g h t h e r e c o n s i s t e n t l y a r e h i g h e r s c o r e s f o r f e m a le s , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e n o t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t (H e rsc h and S c h e ib e , 1967; R o t t e r , 1 9 6 6 ). I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l C o n tr o l as a P e r s o n a l i t y D im ension I n d i c e s o f M a la d ju s tm e n t. R o tte r (1 9 6 6 ) r e p o r t s t h a t s e v e r a l sam ples o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s h av e b een examined t o a s s e s s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een t h e I-E S c a le and th e R o t t e r In c o m p le te S e n te n c e s B lank ( R o t t e r and R a f f e r t y , 1950) and t h a t g e n e r a l l y , l i n e a r c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . H ersch and S c h e ib e ( 1 9 6 7 ), u s in g c o l l e g e m ales and f e m a le s and c o l l e g e - a g e , n o n - c o l l e g e p e r s o n s , found a 34 s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n betw een th e s e two i n s t r u m e n t s . As r e p o r t e d by R o t t e r (1 9 6 6 ), Ware (1964) found a c o r r e l a t i o n , s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e f i v e - p e r c e n t l e v e l , betw een th e I - E S c a le and th e T a y lo r M a n ife st A n x ie ty S c a le . S im i l a r l y , H ersch and S cheib e (1 967 ) a s s e s s e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een the I - E S c a le s c o re and l e v e l o f a n x i e t y , as meas u re d by the P t s c a l e of th e M. M. P. I . , and found a p o s i t i v e , s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n . Two o th e r c o r r e l a t e s o f i n t e r e s t have been r e p o r te d by B u t t e r f i e l d (1 9 6 4 ). In an e l a b o r a t e c o r r e l a t i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n he found s t r o n g , s i g n i f i c a n t , p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een th e I-E S c a le and The C h ild and W aterhouse F r u s t r a t i o n - R e a c t i o n I n v e n to r y (1 9 5 3 ), and th e A lp e rt-H a b e r F a c i l i t a t i n g - D e b i l i t a t i n g T e s t A n x iety Q u e s tio n n a ir e (1 9 6 0 ). W ith re g a rd t o th e F r u s t r a t i o n - R e a c t i o n I n v e n t o r y , as th e p e rc e iv e d lo c u s of c o n tr o l became more e x t e r n a l i z e d , th e number of c o n s t r u c t i v e r e s p o n s e s to f r u s t r a t i o n d e c re a se d and t h e number o f i n t r o p u n i t i v e re s p o n s e s i n c r e a s e d , when th e o th e r r e s p o n s e s c o r e s w ere p a r t i a l l e d o u t. T h is f in d in g i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e l e s s e x t e r n a l p e rs o n s t a t e s t h a t he r e a c t s i n a more p r o b le m - s o lv in g d i r e c t i o n d e s p i t e f r u s t r a t i o n , spending l e s s tim e on g u i l t y r u m in a tio n and s e l f - a c c u s a to r y b e h a v io r s t h a t hamper p ro b le m -s o lv in g e f f o r t s . With r e g a r d to th e A lp e rt-H a b e r m easure, B u t t e r f i e l d found a s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een f a c i l i t a t in g a n x ie ty and e x te r n a l c o n t r o l s c o re s ( i . e . , f a c i l i t a t i n g 35 a n x ie ty d e c r e a s e d and d e b i l i t a t i n g a n x ie ty in c r e a s e d as th e lo c u s o f c o n t r o l became more e x t e r n a l i z e d ) . P e r s o n a l i t y C o r r e l a t e s . H ersch and S c h e ib e (1967) a s s e s s e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een t o t a l I - E s c o r e and th e tw e n ty -fo u r s e l f s c a l e s o f th e A d j e c t iv e Check L i s t (Gough and H e ilb r u n , 1965) and t h e e ig h te e n s e l f s c a l e s o f th e C a l i f o r n i a P s y c h o lo g ic a l I n v e n to r y (Gough, 1 964 ). These r e s e a r c h e r s found t h a t t w e n ty - t h r e e a d j e c t i v e s were checked s i g n i f i c a n t l y more o fte n by t h e i n t e r n a l i n d i v i d u a l . On the A. C. L ., th e i n t e r n a l s c o r e r s c o re s h ig h e r on th e m easures o f D e f e n s iv e n e s s , A chievem ent, Dominance, E ndurance, and O rd e r, w h ile on th e C. P. I . he s c o r e s h ig h e r on the Dominance, T o le r a n c e , Good Im p re s s io n , S o c i a b i l i t y , I n t e l l e c t u a l E f f i c i e n c y , A chievem ent v ia Conform ance, and W ell- Being s c a l e s . The e x t e r n a l s c o r e r , who g e n e r a l l y checks more u n f a v o r a b le s e l f - d e s c r i p t i v e a d j e c t i v e s th a n does th e i n t e r n a l s c o r e r , checked o n ly one a d j e c t i v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y more o f te n t h a n d id the i n t e r n a l s c o r e r , namely ” s e l f - p i t y i n g . 1 ' The p a t t e r n of re s p o n d in g by e x t e r n a l s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a d i f f u s e n e s s o f q u a l i t y w hereas i n t e r n a l s c o r e r s p r e s e n t c o n s i s t e n t l y a more homogeneous t e s t p e rfo rm an c e . In a s tu d y of t h e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f co n fo rm e rs, O d e ll (1959) found a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e I - E S c ale s c o r e and B arron*s (1953) Independence of Judgment S c a l e , w ith p e rs o n s h ig h i n e x t e r n a l i t y showing 36 g r e a t e r te n d e n c y to conform - I n a s e p a r a t e s tu d y c o n c e rn in g c o n f o r m ity , Crowne and L i v e r a n t (1963) r e p o r t e d e v id e n c e w hich s u p p o r ts th e f i n d i n g s o f O d e l l. P e rso n s w ere p la c e d i n A sc h -ty p e c o n fo rm ity s i t u a t i o n s and w ere r e q u i r e d t o make b e t s as to t h e i r a c c u ra c y and th o se i n d i v i d u a l s who were h ig h s c o r e r s on e x t e r n a l i t y conform ed s i g n i f i c a n t l y more th a n p e rs o n s low i n e x t e r n a l i t y . C o n s tr u c t V a l i d i t y of t h e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le C o n t r o l of th e E n v ir o n m e n t. To a s s e s s t h e c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y of t h e i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l d im e n sio n , one can view the b e h a v io r o f p e r s o n s who a r e a tte m p tin g to c o n t r o l t h e i r e n v iro n m en t i n i m p o r t a n t l i f e s i t u a t i o n s ( i . e . , who a r e t r y i n g t o b e t t e r t h e i r l i f e c o n d i t i o n s ) . R e se a rc h i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e I - E S c a le a p p e a rs to be m e a su rin g h e re a s e n s e of p o w e r le s s n e s s ( R o t t e r , 1 9 6 6 ). That e x t e r n a l s f e e l more p o w e rle s s to c o n t r o l t h e i r e n v iro n m en t i s e v id e n c e d i n t h e r e s u l t s o f s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . The f i r s t s tu d y of t h i s ty p e was co ndu cted by Seeman and Evans (1 9 6 2 ) who i n v e s t i g a t e d th e b e h a v io r o f p a t i e n t s i n a t u b e r c u l o s i s h o s p i t a l . They found t h a t i n t e r n a l s w ere more in fo rm e d a b o u t t h e i r own c o n d i t i o n , w ere more i n q u i s i t i v e o f th e m e d ic a l s t a f f , and e x p re s s e d g r e a t e r d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n a t th e amount o f fe e d b a c k or i n f o r m a ti o n a b o u t t h e i r c o n d i t i o n they- w ere r e c e i v i n g from h o s p i t a l m e d ic a l p e r s o n n e l . 37 Seeman (1963) s u b s e q u e n tly s tu d ie d re f o r m a to ry in m a te s , i n v e s t i g a t i n g memory f o r v a r io u s ty p e s o f in fo rm a t i o n to w hich th e s e men had been exposed i n c i d e n t a l l y - He found a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n betw een i n t e r n a l ! t y ~ e x t e r n a l i t y and th e amount of in f o r m a tio n remembered about im m ediate and lo n g -ra n g e f a c t s which m ight a f f e c t the p e r s o n 1s l i f e su b seq u e n t to r e l e a s e from the r e f o r m a to r y . T h is c o r r e l a t i o n was in d e p e n d e n t o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . Gore and R o t te r (1963) s tu d i e d s t u d e n ts of a s o u th e rn , Negro c o ll e g e r e g a rd in g a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d to th e C i v i l R ig h ts movement. S tu d e n ts who committed th em se lv e s by s i g n a t i r e to p a r t i c i p a t e i n a march on th e s t a t e c a p i t o l or j o i n a freedom r i d e r * s group were c l e a r l y and s i g n i f i c a n t l y more i n t e r n a l th an th o s e who o n ly would a tt e n d a r a l l y or were d i s i n t e r e s t e d . The w i l l i n g n e s s of some o f th e s e s tu d e n ts to p a r t i c i p a t e i n a c t i v e e f f o r t s to change, and o th e r s t u d e n t s n o t to p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e s e e f f o r t s , most l i k e l y was a f u n c t i o n of t h e i r own g e n e r a liz e d ex p ec ta n cy t h a t t h e i r b e h a v io r could e f f e c t a change in th e p r e j u d i c e e x ta n t around them. S t r i c k l a n d (1965) s tu d ie d a s i m il a r group of a c t i v i s t s i n a Negro C i v i l R ig h ts movement and found them s i g n i f i c a n t l y more i n t e r n a l on th e I - E S c a le than n o n - a c t i v i s t N egroes who were m atched f o r e d u c a tio n and socioeconom ic s t a t u s . F i n a l l y , P h a re s (1965) s t u d i e d two sam ples o f c o l leg e s t u d e n t s , one i n t e r n a l and one e x t e r n a l on the I-E 38 S c a le , b u t m atched f o r a t t i t u d e s tow ards m a in te n a n c e of s o r o r i t i e s and f r a t e r n i t i e s on th e campus. Both groups w ere i n s t r u c t e d to a c t as e x p e r im e n te r s to change th e a t t i t u d e s of o t h e r s t u d e n t s . He found t h a t i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t - e x p e r im e n te r s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y more s u c c e s s f u l i n changing a t t i t u d e s o f o t h e r s th an w ere e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t - e x p e r i m e n t e r s . C o n tr o l o f th e S e l f . S e v e r a l s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t th e d im e n sio n of p e r c e i v e d l o c u s o f c o n t r o l r e l a t e s t o o n e fs f e e l i n g t h a t he can c o n t r o l h i m s e l f . Ja m es, W oodruff, and W erner (1 9 6 5 ), and S t r a i t s and S e c h r e s t ( 1 9 6 3 ) , i n s tu d y in g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l t o smoking, found t h a t n o n -sm o kers w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y more i n t e r n a l th a n sm okers. A d d i t i o n a l l y , Ja m e s, W oodruff, and Werner r e p o r t e d t h a t su b s e q u e n t to th e S u rg e o n G e n e ra l* s r e p o r t on smoking, male sm okers who q u i t and n e v e r r e t u r n e d t o smoke were more i n t e r n a l th a n w ere m ale sm okers who p u t c re d e n c e i n th e r e p o r t b u t c o n tin u e d to smoke. Inasmuch as f e m a le s , i n t h i s c o n t e x t , a p p a r e n t l y a re m o tiv a te d by many v a r i a b l e s , t h i s d i f f e r e n c e was n o t s u p p o rte d among them . F i n a l l y , M arston (1964) s t u d i e d c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s who had been g iv en th e I-TS S c a le and s u b s e q u e n tly l e a r n e d a s e t o f v e r b a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s t o c r i t e r i a w h ile b e in g r e i n f o r c e d f o r c o r r e c t c h o ic e s w ith a g re e n l i g h t . When t h e e x p e r im e n te r - p r o v id e d r e i n fo rc e m e n t was d i s c o n ti n u e d i n fa v o r o f s u b j e c t - r e g u l a t e d 39 r e i n f o r c e m e n t , i n t e r n a l s i n c r e a s e d and e x t e r n a l s d im in is h e d th e f r e q u e n c y of c o r r e c t c h o ic e s . R e s i s t a n c e to S u b t l e S u g g e s t i o n . One a d d i t i o n a l a re a o f c o n s t r u c t v a l i d i t y has been s t u d i e d c a r e f u l l y . T h is a re a r e l a t e s to th e v a r i a b l e s 1 in d e p e n d e n c e , s u g g e s t i b i l i t y , and c o n fo r m ity as th e y r e l a t e to i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l . I t would a p p e a r t h a t i n t e r n a l s would r e s i s t more t o e x t e r n a l m a n ip u la tio n when t h e y a r e aware o f t h i s m a n i p u l a t io n , f o r f e a r t h a t t h e i r c o n t r o l o f th e en v iro n m en t was b e in g ta k e n from them . E x t e r n a l s w ould ap p ear t o r e s i s t l e s s inasmuch as th e y e x p e c t such e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l . The r o l e o f conform i t y i s im p o r ta n t to t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , how ever, f o r i f th e i n t e r n a l p e rs o n view s i t a s a d v a n ta g e o u s to conform , he c o n s c i o u s ly may do so w i l l i n g l y , n o t a t th e expense of p e r c e iv e d l o s s of any c o n t r o l . Were he to p e r c e i v e su c h b e h a v io r a s d is a d v a n t a g e o u s , he p r o b a b ly would r e s i s t con f o r m ity p r e s s u r e . Crowne and L i v e r a n t (1963) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h i s l a t t e r h y p o th e s is w i t h u n s e l e c te d c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s i n an Asch c o n fo rm ity s i t u a t i o n . In th e norm al Asch c o n d i t i o n t h e r e w ere no d i f f e r e n c e s between i n t e r n a l s and e x t e r n a l s in th e amount of y i e l d i n g . Under th e im posed c o n d i t i o n s o f b e t t i n g on t h e i r ju d g m e n ts , the i n t e r n a l s y i e l d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s th an th e e x t e r n a l s and b e t more on th e m s e lv e s when g o in g a g a i n s t t h e m a j o r i t y th a n d i d e x t e r n a l s . A lso , th e i n t e r n a l s had no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een t h e i r 40 b e ts on conform ing and in d e p e n d e n t t r i a l s , w hereas th e e x t e r n a l s on in d e p e n d e n t t r i a l s b e t s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s t h a n on t r i a l s i n which t h e y y i e l d e d . O th er s t u d i e s s u g g e s t a n e g a t i v i s m t o e x t e r n a l m a n ip u la tio n on t h e p a r t o f i n t e r n a l p e r s o n s . S t r i c k l a n d (1962) r e l a t e d s c o r e s on t h e I - E S c a le to v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n in g and found l a r g e , s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een s u b j e c t s who were aw are o f th e r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n tin g e n c y b u t d id n o t c o n d itio n and th o s e s u b j e c t s who w ere aware and d id c o n d i t i o n . Those s u b j e c t s who w ere aware and d i d n o t c o n d i t i o n w e re much m ore i n t e r n a l th a n th o s e who w ere aware and d id c o n d i t i o n . G e t t e r ( 1 9 6 2 ), i n a s i m i l a r s tu d y r e l a t i n g I - E S c a l e s c o re s t o v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g , found a l a r g e num ber o f l a t e n t c o n d i t i o n e r s ( i . e . , p e rs o n s who d id n o t c o n d i t i o n d u r i n g t r a i n i n g t r i a l s b u t d u r in g e x t i n c t i o n t r i a l s ) in t h e a b s e n c e of e x t e r n a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t , showed a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e in th e r e i n f o r c e d r e s p o n s e . T hese s u b j e c t s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y more i n t e r n a l th a n s u b j e c t s who gave no e v i d en ce o f l a t e n t c o n d i t i o n i n g a s n o n - c o n d i t i o n e r s or s u b j e c t s who c o n d itio n e d d u r i n g th e t r a i n i n g t r i a l s . Gore ( 1 9 6 2 ) , i n a s tu d y b a se d on an e x p e r i m e n t e r - i n f l u e n c e p a ra d ig m , p r e s e n t e d T h em atic A p p e rc e p tio n T e s t p i c t u r e s to t h r e e g ro u p s o f u n s e l e c t e d s u b j e c t s , o s t e n s i b l y t o d e te r m in e w h ich p i c t u r e gave a lo n g e r r e s p o n s e s t o r y . In one c o n d i t i o n ( o v e r t i n f l u e n c e ) she s p e c i f i e d th e c a rd sh e f e l t was the b e s t . In th e seco n d c o n d i t i o n ( s u b t l e 41 i n f l u e n c e ) when she p r e s e n te d th e same card she s t a t e d "now l e t ’s se e what you do w ith t h i s o n e ." The t h i r d c o n d it i o n (no i n f l u e n c e ) was t h e c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n . She found no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between i n t e r n a l s and e x t e r n a l s under th e c o n d itio n s o f o v e r t i n f l u e n c e and no i n f l u e n c e . Under th e s u b t l e i n f l u e n c e c o n d itio n th e s t o r i e s o f i n t e r n a ls were s i g n i f i c a n t l y s h o r t e r th a n th o se of e x t e r n a l s or of c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s . A l l fou r s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t th e p e rso n who p e r c e i v e s t h a t he rem ain s i n c o n t r o l o f what hap pens to him may conform when he w ish e s to and when t h e r e i s a c o n sc io u s a l t e r n a t i v e . When th e p e rs o n p e r c e iv e s t h a t e x te r n a l a tte m p ts t o m a n ip u la te him a re d isa d v a n ta g e o u s or r e p r e s e n t s u b t l e e f f o r t s to m a n ip u la te him a t an u n c o n scio u s l e v e l , he r e s i s t s . Overview o f R esearch I m p li c a t io n s G e n eral T h e o r e t i c a l C o n s id e r a tio n s The e x is te n c e o f an e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t on th e p a r t of e x p e rim e n te rs c l e a r l y has been e s t a b l i s h e d from numerous d i r e c t i o n s examined by b e h a v i o r a l r e s e a r c h e r s . E xp erim en ter b i o s o c i a l a t t r i b u t e s ( s e x , age, r a c e ) , e x p erim e n ter o v e r t p s y c h o s o c ia l a t t r i b u t e s ( a n x i e ty l e v e l , need f o r a p p ro v a l, warmth, a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , h o s t i l i t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e ) , and v a rio u s s i t u a t i o n a l f a c t o r s ( e x p e r i m e n te r ’s e x p e rie n c e , e x p e r im e n te r ’ s s t a t u s , e x p e r im e n te r ’ s a c q u a in ta n c e s h ip ) , a l l 42 have been e v a l u a t e d and have been shown to a f f e c t th e p e r form ance o f s u b j e c t s i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r im e n ts . T hese s t u d i e s have shown t h a t e x p e c ta n c ie s a b o u t th e outcome o f an e x p erim e n t a f f e c t e d th e judgm ents made by s u b j e c t s who view ed p h o to g ra p h s of f a c e s and i n f l u e n c e d t h e v e r b a l c o n d i t i o n i n g o f p r o n o u n s . G e n e r a ll y , o th e r t y p e s of t a s k s p e r form ed by s u b j e c t s , e . g . , psychom otor p e rfo rm a n c e or maximum p e rfo rm a n c e t a s k s , have n o t p ro v ed s u s c e p t i b l e to such e f f e c t s . T hese l a t t e r f i n d i n g s r a i s e an i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n about t h e m eaning o f e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t s . S p e c i f i c a l l y , one can ask w h e th e r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t i s a f u n c t i o n of th e ty p e of t a s k em ployed. The e v id e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t such an e x p la n a t i o n i s n o t co m preh en sive enough. I t seems c l e a r t h a t in o r d e r f o r b i a s to o c cu r th e e x p e r im e n ta l t a s k sh o u ld be ambiguous w ith re g a r d to th e c r i t e r i o n r e s p o n s e . Faced w ith such a m b ig u ity , th e s u b j e c t i s d e p e n d e n t upon th e e x p e r im e n te r f o r i n f o r m a tio n a b o u t what r e s p o n s e w i l l be con s i d e r e d m ost a c c e p t a b l e . P e r h a p s , t h e n , e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t i s a f u n c t i o n o f t a s k a m b ig u ity . Based on r e s e a r c h t o d a t e , a l l one can s t a t e i s t h a t when th e e x p e r im e n ta l t a s k i s ambiguous w ith r e g a r d to c r i t e r i o n r e s p o n s e , e . g . , r a t i n g of a s e r i e s o f n e u t r a l - v a l u e p h o to g ra p h s , t h e r e i s a c l e a r l y o bserved e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t . T here has b e e n no c o m p a ra tiv e r e s e a r c h w hich i n v e s t i g a t e s th e n a t u r e o f th e a m b ig u ity . I s th e c o n s i d e r a t i o n one o f t a s k s which a r e e i t h e r ambiguous or n o n -a m b ig u o u s, or i s t h e r e a g r a d i e n t e f f e c t where th e d e g re e of a m b ig u ity i s im p o r ta n t to th e m easured e x t e n t o f e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t ? P e rh a p s t h e r e i s an e f f e c t n o te d from b o th low and h ig h ambiguous t a s k s . A lth o u g h t h i s q u e s t io n has n o t b e en i n v e s t i g a t e d , i t would a p p e a r from a v a i l a b l e r e p o r t s t h a t one would f i n d a more p o w e rfu l e x p e c ta n c y ef^- f e c t f o r a t a s k r a t e d a s " h ig h am biguous" th a n f o r one r a t e d as "lo w am b ig u o u s." The above d i s c u s s i o n r e l a t e s t o th e n a t u r e of th e t a s k . A second m ajor c o n s i d e r a t i o n h as been t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e rim e n te r a t t r i b u t e s which may r e l a t e to or d e te r m in e th e s t r e n g t h o f th e e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t . A lth o u g h b i o s o c i a l , p s y c h o s o c i a l , and s i t u a t i o n a l a t t r i b u t e s on th e p a r t o f e x p e r im e n te r s have been s t u d i e d , t h e r e has been l i t t l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e a r e a of e x p e rim e n te r p e r s o n a l i t y and c o g n i t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y as th e s e f a c t o r s m ight r e l a t e to o n e ’ s r o l e a s e x p e r im e n te r . T h ere have b een no m ajor s t u d i e s of th e l e v e l o f e x p e r i m e n t e r ’s a w a re n e ss o f h i s e x p e c tin g an e f f e c t and how he f e e l s h i s u n d e rs ta n d in g and a w are n ess o f th e e x p e r ie n c e " b e in g an e x p e r im e n te r " r e l a t e t o th e f i n d i n g s he r e p o r t s . The work c e n t e r i n g around th e c o n c e p t of th e i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e r n a l i t y d im e n sio n and th e p e r c e i v e d lo c u s o f c o n t r o l o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t may r e l a t e v e ry c l o s e l y to th e c o n c e p t o f e x p e r im e n te r e x p e c t ancy e f f e c t . One s tu d y c l e a r l y h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n t e r n a l s can e x e r t a more p o w e rfu l e x p e rim e n te r e f f e c t th a n can ex t e r n a l s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e now i s c o n s i d e r a b l e e v id e n c e 44 t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s own g e n e r a l i z e d b e l i e f s or e x p e c ta n c i e s a b o u t c o n t r o l of r e in f o r c e m e n t a r e im p o r ta n t d e t e r m i n a n ts o f how he w i l l behave. I t may be i m p o r t a n t to b e g in to t h in k of t h e e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t n o t s o l e l y as a d e r i v a t i v e of th e l e v e l o f a m b ig u ity of t a s k , b u t a l s o as a f u n c t i o n o f th e e x p e r i m e n t e r ’ s p e r c e i v e d o r i g i n o f l o c u s o f c o n t r o l . F i n a l l y , t h e r o l e of t h e s u b j e c t i n e x p e r im e n ta l r e s e a r c h n e ed s t o be c l a r i f i e d . L i t t l e h a s been r e p o r t e d of th e a t t r i b u t e s which s u b j e c t s p o s s e s s w hich may r e l a t e t o th e o b t a i n i n g o f an e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t i f , in f a c t , s u b j e c t a t t r i b u t e s a r e im p o r ta n t to t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . Some r e s e a r c h has been conducted which t r e a t s su ch s t r u c t u r a l v a r i a b l e s as s u b j e c t r s se x , s u b j e c t ’ s a n x i e t y , s u b j e c t ’s need f o r a p p r o v a l, s u b j e c t ’s a c q u a i n t a n c e s h i p , e t c . , b u t t h e r e h as been no r e p o r t e d s tu d y o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s u b j e c t i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e r n a l i t y and e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t . As f o r th e e x p e r i m e n t e r , i t may be im p o r ta n t to b e g in t o e x p l a i n e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t s p a r t l y as a f u n c t i o n of th e s u b j e c t ’ s p e r c e i v e d o r i g i n o f lo c u s o f c o n t r o l . S p e c i f i c R e se a rc h Im p le m e n ta tio n The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s d i r e c t e d a t i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e n a t u r e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e e x p e r im e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t , th e l e v e l o f a m b ig u ity o f th e t a s k , th e e x p e r i m e n t e r ’ s p e r c e iv e d o r i g i n o f lo c u s o f c o n t r o l o f 45 r e in f o r c e m e n t, and the s u b j e c t ’ s p e rc e iv e d o r i g i n of locus o f c o n tr o l o f r e in f o r c e m e n t. The p h o t o - r a t i n g t a s k of p e rso n p e r c e p t i o n allow s a good d im e n s io n a liz in g of a m b ig u ity and w i l l be employed h e r e . The a ssu m p tio n u n d e r l y i n g i t s use i s t h a t under con d i t i o n s of h ig h am b ig u ity , th e s u b j e c t w i l l be u n c e r t a i n about the r e s p o n s e which i s to be most a c c e p t a b l e and, as a r e s u l t , w i l l depend' upon th e e x p e rim e n te r f o r t h e n e c e s s a ry in fo rm a tio n o r c u e s. Under c o n d itio n s of low a m b ig u ity , th e s u b je c t w i l l be more c e r t a i n ab out th e re s p o n se which i s to be most a c c e p t a b l e and w i l l depend l e s s on th e e x p e rim e n te r f o r g u i d e l i n e s . The I - E S c a le a llo w s a good d im e n s io n a liz in g o f t h e p e rc e iv e d o r i g i n o f lo cu s o f c o n t r o l of r e in fo r c e m e n t and w i l l be employed here to r a t e e x p e rim e n te rs and s u b je c ts as e i t h e r i n t e r n a l or e x t e r n a l . In term s of R o t t e r ' s s o c i a l le a r n in g t h e o r y , th e p o t e n t i a l f o r any b e h a v io r to occur i n a given s i t u a t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n of th e i n d i v i d u a l ’s e x p e c t ancy t h a t th e g iv e n b e h a v io r w i l l se cu re th e r e in f o r c e m e n t a v a i l a b l e and a f u n c tio n o f th e v a lu e , f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l , o f th e r e in f o r c e m e n t a v a i l a b l e . In an e x p e c ta n c y e x p e ri m ent, fo r th e e x p e rim e n te r one can c o n s id e r t h e e x p e r im e n te r’ s e f f o r t to o b ta in th e expected r e s u l t as th e g iv en b e h a v io r and the o b t a i n i n g of r e s u l t s commensurate w ith t h a t e x p e c te d r e s u l t a s th e r e in fo r c e m e n t- Under the c o n d itio n s p ro p o se d fo r t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , i t i s 4 6 re a s o n a b le t o assume t h a t th e e x p e rim e n te r w i l l n o t be working under e v a l u a t i o n a p p re h e n s io n , w i l l n o t f e e l b r i b e d , and c o n s e q u e n tly w i l l want to o b ta in th e ex p ec te d d a t a so t h a t he can be c o n sid e re d or can c o n s id e r h im s e lf a "good" e x p e rim e n te r- T h e r e fo r e , i f th e e x p e rim e n te r i s an i n t e r n a l i n d i v i d u a l , he p e r c e iv e s th e o b ta in in g of th e d e s i r e d r e s u l t as a d i r e c t consequence of h i s a c t i o n s and th e re b y under p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l , he p l a c e s high v a lu e on th e r e in f o r c e m e n ts a v a i l a b l e , and c o n se q u e n tly should show r e s u l t s w ith h i s s u b je c ts w hich h ig h ly appro xim ate th e expected d a t a . Thus, he d e s i r e s an a v a i l a b l e g o a l and b e l i e v e s t h a t h i s r e p e r t o i r e c o n ta in s b e h av io r which w i l l a llo w h is b e in g e f f e c t i v e i n s e c u r in g t h a t g o a l— an i n t e r n a l - c o n t r o l e x p e c ta n c y . I f th e e x p e rim e n te r i s an e x t e r n a l i n d i v i d u a l , he p e r c e iv e s th e o b ta in in g o f th e d e s i r e d r e s u l t as n o t con t i n g e n t on any e f f o r t on h i s p a r t , th e r e b y beyond p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l , he p la c e s h ig h v a lu e on th e r e in f o r c e m e n ts a v a i l a b le , and c o n se q u e n tly shou ld show r e s u l t s w ith h i s s u b j e c t s which o n ly m o d era te ly approxim ate t h e exp ected d a t a . Thus, a lth o u g h he d e s i r e s an a v a i l a b l e g o a l, he b e l i e v e s t h a t h i s r e p e r t o i r e does n o t c o n ta in b e h a v io r which w i l l a llo w h i s b ein g e f f e c t i v e i n s e c u r in g t h a t g o a l — an e x t e r n a l - c o n t r o l e x p ec ta n cy . F i n a l l y , i n th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h an e f f o r t w i l l be made to examine th e n a t u r e of th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e r n a l i t y o f s u b j e c t s and i n t e r n a l i t y - 47 e x t e r n a l i t y o f e x p e r im e n te r s , as th e s e f a c t o r s r e l a t e to e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t and l e v e l o f a m b ig u ity o f th e t a s k . I f th e s u b j e c t i s an i n t e r n a l i n d i v i d u a l , he p e r c e i v e s th e o b t a i n i n g o f the d e s i r e d r e s u l t ( t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e , e t c . ) as a d i r e c t consequence o f h i s a c t i o n s , t h e r e b y under p e r so n a l c o n t r o l , and he p l a c e s h ig h v a lu e on w hat he c o n s i d e r s th e i m p o r t a n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t s a v a i l a b l e ( c o n s i s t e n t p e rfo rm ance, f e e l i n g t h a t h e i s c o r r e c t , e t c . ) and t h e r e f o r e s h o u ld n o t be u n d u ly i n f l u e n c e d tow ard th e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e by t h e e x p e r im e n te r . I f t h e s u b j e c t i s an e x t e r n a l i n d i v i d u a l , h e p e r c e i v e s th e o b t a i n i n g o f th e d e s i r e d r e s u l t ( t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e , e t c . ) as n o t c o n ti n g e n t on any d i r e c t e f f o r t on h is p a r t , th e re b y beyond p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l , and he p l a c e s high v a l u e on what he c o n s i d e r s th e i m p o r t a n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t s a v a i l a b l e C e x p erim en ter 1s s u b t l e cues t h a t th e s u b j e c t i s c lo s e to or d i s t a n t fro m th e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e [ i . e . , t h e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e ] ) , w h ich s u g g e s ts t h a t he sh o u ld be g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d toward t h e e x p e c ta n c y s c o re by t h e e x p e r im e n te r . I n fo r m a tio n o f t h i s n a t u r e may be i n s t r u m e n t a l i n f a c i l i t a t i n g , on th e p a r t o f r e s e a r c h s u b j e c t s , an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f r e s p o n s i v e n e s s to s u b t l e s u g g e s t i o n , r e s p o n s i v e n e ss t o c o v e r t , e x p e r im e n te r a t t r i b u t e s , and r e s p o n s i v e n e s s to e x p e r im e n ta l b i a s . CHAPTER I I I METHOD D esig n The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h was d i r e c t e d a t i n v e s t i g a t i n g th e e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t as a f u n c t i o n of t h e l e v e l o f am biguity of th e ta s k and as a f u n c t i o n of e x p e r i m e n t e r ^ and s u b j e c t Ts p e r c e iv e d o r i g i n o f lo c u s o f c o n t r o l o f r e in f o r c e m e n t. The e x p e rim e n ta l t a s k r e q u i r e d th e s u b j e c t to a s s i g n a s i n g l e r a t i n g , r e f l e c t i v e o f th e d e g re e o f s u c c e s s / f a i l u r e he p e rc e iv e d i n a ph otographed f a c e , to each o f te n such p h o to g ra p h s shown to him by an e x p e rim e n te r. The s u b j e c t s were a d m in is te r e d th e t a s k under one o f th e fo llo w in g e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s ; 1 Low a m b ig u ity - - t e n c a rd s which had been s t a n d a rd iz e d i n p i l o t r e s e a r c h as unam biguously in d i c a t i n g r e c e n t s u c c e s s e x p e r ie n c e o f th e person p i c t u r e d . High a m b ig u ity - - t e n c a rd s which had been s t a n d a rd iz ed in p i l o t r e s e a r c h as ambiguous w ith re g a rd to t h e d e g re e o f r e c e n t s u c c e s s / f a i l u r e e x p e rie n c e o f the p e rs o n p i c t u r e d . 48 49 The a ssig n m en t o f s u b j e c t s was made such t h a t each s u b j e c t was a d m in is te re d th e p h o t o - r a t i n g t a s k by an e x p e rim e n te r who had been a s s ig n e d to one o f t h e fo llo w in g e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s : I n t e r n a l — the e x p e rim e n te r had been r a t e d as i n t e r n a l on th e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le . E x t e r n a l - - t h e e x p e rim e n te r had been r a t e d as e x t e r n a l on th e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le . To c o n t r o l f o r p o s s i b l e sex d i f f e r e n c e s , a l l e x p e rim e n te rs and a l l s u b j e c t s who were t e s t e d were m ale. W ith in each e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d it i o n d is c u s s e d above, o n e - h a l f of each group o f s u b j e c t s had been r a t e d a s i n t e r n a l and o n e - h a l f had been r a t e d a s e x t e r n a l on th e c o n t r o l o f re in f o rc e m e n t d im en sio n . These assign m en t p a t t e r n s allow ed th e a p p r o p r i a te s t a t i s t i c a l e v a lu a tio n o f th e h y p o th e s e s p r e d i c t i n g t h a t i n t e r n a l p e rs o n s and e x t e r n a l p e rs o n s p e rfo rm d i f f e r e n t l y under v a ry in g c o n d it i o n s o f t a s k a m b ig u ity . H ypotheses 1. T here w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t f o r a m b ig u ity . The mean s c o r e s o b ta in e d by th e su b j e c t s i n re s p o n se to h ig h a m b ig u ity p h o to g ra p h s w i l l r e f l e c t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r a p p ro x im atio n to th e e x p e r i m e n t e r Ts ex p ec te d sc o re th a n w i l l th e mean s c o r e s o b ta in e d by th e s u b j e c t s f o r low a m b ig u ity p h o to g ra p h s ( i . e . , th e mean s c o r e of d e v i a t i o n from th e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's e x p ected s c o r e w i l l be l e s s f o r a l l s u b j e c t s und er h ig h a m b ig u ity c o n d it i o n s th an under low am b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s ) . 2. T here w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t f o r e x p e rim e n te r c o n t r o l . The mean s c o r e s o b ta in e d by th e s u b j e c t s of i n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs w i l l r e f l e c t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r ap p ro x im a tio n to th e e x p e r i m e n t e r f s e x p e c te d sc o re th a n w i l l th e mean s c o r e s o b ta in e d by th e su b j e c t s of e x t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs ( i . e . , th e mean s c o r e o f d e v i a t i o n from th e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's ex p e c te d s c o r e w i l l be l e s s f o r a l l s u b j e c t s under i n te r n a l - e x p e r i m e n t e r c o n d it i o n s th a n under e x te r n a l - e x p e r im e n te r c o n d i t i o n s ) . 3. T here w i l l be a s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t f o r s u b j e c t c o n t r o l . The mean sco yes o b ta in e d by th e e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s w i l l r e f l e c t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r a p p ro x im a tio n to th e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's e x p ected s c o re th an w i l l th e mean s c o r e s o b ta in e d by th e i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s ( i . e . , t h e mean s c o r e of d e v i a t i o n from th e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's ex p ec te d s c o re w i l l be l e s s f o r e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s than f o r i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s ) . 4. T h ere w i l l be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s fo r a m b ig u ity , e x p e rim e n te r 51 c o n t r o l , and s u b j e c t c o n t r o l . S u b je c ts The e x p e r im e n ta l s u b j e c t s c o n s i s t e d o f 116 m a le s t u d e n ts who were r e c r u i t e d on a v o l u n t e e r b a s i s from a l l of th e u n d e r g r a d u a te i n t r o d u c t o r y p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s a t th e U n i v e r s i t y of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a . T h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e r e s e a r c h was n e i t h e r a c o u rse r e q u ir e m e n t nor w e re t h e r e any c o n t i n g e n c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i n g . S u b j e c t s were r e c r u i t e d by th e a u th o r who v i s i t e d fo u r c l a s s e s and asked t h e m ale s t u d e n t s who had v o l u n te e r e d to se rv e a s s u b j e c t s i n th e e x p erim e n t to com plete t h e I n t e r n a l - 'E x t e r n a l S c a le a t t h a t tim e . He was i n t r o d u c e d by name by t h e i n s t r u c t o r who inform ed t h e c l a s s members t h a t he was a g r a d u a te p sy c h o lo g y s tu d e n t d o in g r e s e a r c h . He ( t h e a u t h o r ) th e n v o c a l l y p ro v id e d t h e f o llo w in g in f o r m a t i o n : X would a p p r e c i a t e y o u r c o o p e r a t i o n i n c o m p letin g t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e w hich i s b e in g u s e d f o r e x p e r i m e n ta l p u rp o s e s . Those o f you who do co m p lete th e fo rm w i l l be a sk ed to p a r t i c i p a t e i n one a d d i t i o n a l b r i e f phase o f th e e x p e rim e n t i n th e n e x t t h r e e w eeks. I t w i l l ta k e abou t f i v e to te n m in u te s to co m p lete t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Are t h e r e any q u e s t io n s ? For s u b j e c t s who com p leted th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , a t t h e end of i t th e y w ere asked t o c o m p le te th e f o l l o w i n g fo rm a t: P l e a s e p r o v id e th e i n f o r m a ti o n r e q u e s t e d below so t h a t a tim e can be a rr a n g e d f o r y o u r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e second p a r t o f th e e x p e rim e n t which ta k e s t e n 52 m in u t e s : Name L ocal A d d re ss________________________________________________ T elephone num ber where you c an b e re a c h e d : (d a y tim e )__________________( e v e n i n g s ) _______________________ Times you c o u ld come in f o r t h e e x p e rim e n t: M T W T F betw een 1 1 & 1 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) betw een 12 & 1 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) betw een 1 & 2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) betw een 2 & 3 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) betw een 3 & 4 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) A d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n t e r n a l - e x t e r n a l s c o r e s f o r th e s t u d e n t s s u b s e q u e n t l y was made. W ith in t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n , a s o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d f o r th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h , p e rso n s w hose sc o re a p p e a r e d in the I - E S c a l e sc o re r a n g e o f 12 or ab o v e (upper 40.52% ) were d e s i g n a t e d a s e x t e r n a l s . P ersons w hose sc o re a p p e a r e d in th e I-'E S c a l e sc o re ra n g e o f 8 or b e lo w (low er 39.66% ) were d e s i g n a t e d as i n t e r n a l s . These f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t t h e c u t o f f s c o r e s w hich e l i m i n a t e th e m id d le 19.83% o f s c o r e s . F o r t y - s e v e n p e rso n s w ere r a t e d as e x t e r n a l s and f o r t y - s i x p e rso n s w e re r a t e d as i n t e r n a l s . A l i s t i n g of t h e s e p e r s o n s then was a rr a n g e d f o r eac h of the two groups and t h e y were o rd ere d n u m e r i c a l l y . Twelve of t h e s e p e rso n s w e re s e l e c t e d from t h e e n t i r e l i s t i n g th ro ugh a random ized p r o c e d u r e ( s i x p e r s o n s from th e l i s t i n g of i n t e r n a l s and s i x p e rs o n s from t h e l i s t i n g o f e x t e r n a l s ) . T hey th en were a s s i g n e d a ra n k in g fro m a t a b l e o f random 53 num bers. The names o f th e rem ainin g s tu d e n ts ( f o r t y - o n e e x t e r n a l s and f o r t y i n t e r n a l s ) th e n w ere o rd ere d through a p ro c e d u re of ra n d o m iz a tio n and a ssig n m e n t to one of t h r e e e x p e rim e n ta l groups was made, a g a in th ro u g h a p ro c e d u re o f r a n d o m iz a tio n . A l l s t u d e n ts were t h e n te le p h o n e d by the a u th o r and were g iv e n th e fo llo w in g i n f o r m a tio n : T h is i s Gary F e l t o n c a l l i n g . I*m runn in g th e p s y c h o lo g y e x p erim en t w hich you began in D r. _______ fs c l a s s l a s t week. I want to make s u re you*re s t i l l going to p a r t i c i p a t e and i f so t o a rra n g e an ap p o in tm e n t f o r you. A ll e ig h ty - o n e s t u d e n t s i n d ic a t e d t h a t they would p a r t i c i p a te i n th e r e s e a r c h and were g iv e n an a p p o in tm e n t. The n ig h t b e f o r e th e s c h e d u le d a p p o in tm en t th e a u th o r p la c e d a te le p h o n e c a l l to eac h s u b j e c t who was sch ed u led f o r th e fo llo w in g day to rem ind him of th e ap pointm ent tim e . T here were no s u b j e c t s who f a i l e d to keep t h e i r a p p o in tm e n t. Thus, a t o t a l of e ig h ty - o n e s u b j e c t s were t e s t e d i n th e r e s e a r c h . From th e c o m p ila tio n of t h e tw elve random ly s e l e c t e d and random ly o rd e re d names, th e s u b j e c t s were asked, in n u m e r ic a l o rd e r, w h e th e r, i n l i e u of th e te n - m in u te p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e r e s e a r c h , t h e y would be w i l l i n g to se rv e a s an e x p e rim e n te r , a p ro c e d u re r e q u i r i n g l e s s th a n s i x t y m in u te s . S ix e x p e rim e n te rs ( t h r e e e x t e r n a l s and t h r e e i n t e r n a l s ) f o r the f i n a l r e s e a r c h th e n were s e l e c t e d th ro u g h t h i s p r o c e d u r e . T h ere were no r e f u s a l s . 54 A p p a ra tu s The e x p e rim e n ta l t a s k c o n s is te d o f two s e t s o f te n p h o to g rap h s e a c h , termed h ig h am biguity p i c t u r e s and low a m b ig u ity p i c t u r e s . These c o n s i s t e d of s t a n d a r d , c a n d id , i n f o r m a tio n a l- m e d ia p h o to g ra p h s of C au casian m ales, shown from t h e s h o u ld e r s upward, fro m a f r o n t a l view . The p h o to g ra p h s a l l m easured 3.5 by 4 . 3 c e n tim e te r s and were r e p r o duced i n b l a c k and w hite on s t a n d a r d r a g - m a t t e p a p e r . Each p h o to g ra p h was c e n te re d and mounted w ith t r a n s p a r e n t book b in d in g ta p e on a yellow , 5 i n c h by 8 i n c h u n ru led c a r d . A d d i t i o n a l l y , th e p h o t o - r a t i n g s c a le was rep rod uced f o r d i s p l a y on w h i t e , u n ru led p o s t e r - b o a r d m ea su rin g 4 .5 in c h e s by 14 i n c h e s . The T ra n s-A rty p e r e p r o d u c tio n p ro c e s s u s in g u p p e r- and lo w e r- c a s e l e t t e r i n g was employed fo r t h i s d i s p la y . P i l o t R e se a rc h : D e r iv a tio n of th e Task The two f i n a l - v e r s i o n , 10-card s e t s o f p h o to g ra p h s were d e riv e d and v a lid a te d i n p i l o t r e s e a r c h . T his p i l o t r e s e a r c h was conducted in two major s e q u e n t i a l p h a s e s , each o f w hich, in t u r n , was s u b d iv id e d in to two p a r t s . In P hase 1, P a rt 1, t h e author s e l e c t e d , on a p r i o r i g ro u n d s, 125 pho to g rap h s w hose mean r a t i n g s he b e lie v e d would range from -10 to +10 when a d m in is te re d to many su b j e c t s . The f u l l ta s k was a d m in is te re d t o tw enty s u b j e c t s who were r e c r u i t e d on a v o l u n t e e r b a s i s from i n t r o d u c t o r y 55 p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a . The a u th o r r e a d th e f o llo w in g i n s t r u c t i o n s to t h e s e p a r t i c i p a n t s : I am going t o re a d you some i n s t r u c t i o n s . We a r e i n th e p r o c e s s o f d e v e lo p in g a t e s t of empathy. T h is t e s t i s d e s ig n e d to show how w e l l a p e rs o n i s a b le t o p u t h i m s e l f i n t o someone e l s e * s p l a c e . I w i l l show you a s e r i e s o f p h o to g r a p h s . For each one I w ant you t o judge w h e th e r th e p e rs o n p i c t u r e d , r e c e n t l y h a s been e x p e r ie n c in g s u c c e s s or f a i l u r e . To h e lp you make more e x a c t judgm ents you a r e t o u s e t h i s r a t i n g s c a l e . As you can s e e , t h e s c a l e ru n s from -10 to +10. A r a t i n g o f -10 means t h a t you ju d g e th e p e rs o n to have e x p e rie n c e d e x trem e f a i l u r e r e c e n t l y . A r a t i n g of +10 means t h a t you judg e th e p e rs o n t o have e x p e r ie n c e d extrem e s u c c e s s r e c e n t l y . A r a t i n g of -3 means t h a t you judg e th e p e rs o n to •. have e x p e r ie n c e d m ild f a i l u r e r e c e n t l y , w h ile a r a t i n g o f +3 means t h a t you judge th e p e rs o n to have e x p e rie n c e d m ild s u c c e s s r e c e n t l y , e t c . You a r e t o r a t e each p h o to as a c c u r a t e l y as you c an , b u t do n o t spend an e x c e s s iv e amount of tim e d e l i b e r a t i n g ab o u t any p a r t i c u l a r p h o to g ra p h . On th e accom panying answer s h e e t j u s t w r i t e down th e r a t i n g you a s s i g n to each p h o to g ra p h . I f , in th e p r o c e s s o f r e c o r d in g your a n sw e rs, you w ish to change y ou r o r i g i n a l r e s p o n s e or have re c o rd e d i t i n c o r r e c t l y , f e e l f r e e t o change i t by p u t t i n g a s l a s h th ro u g h i t and w r i t i n g your c o r r e c t e d r e s p o n s e to th e r i g h t o f i t . The l e t t e r s you se e i n th e low er l e f t c o rn e r o f each c a rd a r e m e re ly to i d e n t i f y th e c a rd you a r e r a t i n g . Ready? Here a r e t h e p h o to g ra p h s . C a l l me when you have f i n i s h e d . t l f Q u e s tio n s A s k e d ]: I am p e r m i t t e d only to r e - r e a d th e i n s t r u c t i o n s . I c an n o t say a n y th in g w hich i s n o t i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s n o r can I answer any q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h i s e x p e rim e n t. Each s u b j e c t was l e f t a lo n e i n a q u i e t room w h ile he com p l e t e d th e r a t i n g s . When he had f i n i s h e d , h i s r a t i n g s w ere c o l l e c t e d by th e a u t h o r . A l l r a t i n g s from th e s e tw e n ty s u b j e c t s th e n were a n a ly z e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y t o d e te rm in e th e mean r a t i n g f o r each c a rd as w e l l as th e fre q u e n c y o f 56 o c c u rre n c e f o r each card i n each r a t i n g - s c o r e c a te g o r y . Based on t h i s in f o r m a tio n , te n c a r d s whose mean r a t i n g was between +7 and +10 and which were r a t e d i n t h i s ran ge by g r e a t e r th an 65% of a l l th e r a t e r s , were s e l e c t e d as low am b ig u ity c a r d s . S i m i l a r l y , f i f t e e n c a r d s whose mean r a t i n g was betw een -2 and +2 and which were r a t e d i n t h i s ran g e by g r e a t e r th an 65% of a l l th e r a t e r s , were s e l e c t e d as h ig h a m b ig u ity c a r d s . In P hase 1, P a r t 2, th e s e 125 p h o to g ra p h s were th e n r a t e d by t e n a d d i t i o n a l v o lu n ta r y s u b j e c t s who were s e l e c t e d a t random from i n t r o d u c t o r y p sych olo gy c l a s s e s and s u b j e c t e d t o th e e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d it i o n s d e s c r ib e d above. In t h i s p a r t o f th e p i l o t r e s e a r c h , r a t h e r th an r a t e each p h o to g rap h n u m e r ic a lly from th e -10 to +10 continuum , each s u b j e c t was i n s t r u c t e d to a s s ig n a r a t i n g o f " s u c c e s s , 1 1 "a m b ig u o u s,” or " f a i l u r e " t o th e p i c t u r e . T hese s u b j e c t s were given t h e fo llo w in g i n s t r u c t i o n s : I am going to rea d you some i n s t r u c t i o n s . We a r e i n th e p r o c e s s o f d e v e lo p in g a t e s t o f empathy. T his t e s t i s d e sig n e d to show how w e l l a p e rs o n i s a b le t o p u t h im s e lf i n t o someone e l s e * s p l a c e . I w i l l show you a s e r i e s of p h o to g ra p h s . For each one I want you to ju d g e w hether th e p e rs o n p i c t u r e d , r e c e n t l y has been e x p e rie n c in g s u c c e s s , or f a i l u r e , or th e p i c t u r e i s ambiguous and you can * t say . You a re to r a t e each photo as a c c u r a t e l y as you can b u t do n o t spend an e x c e s s iv e amount of tim e d e l i b e r a t i n g about any p a r t i c u l a r p h o to g ra p h . On th e accompanying answer s h e e t j u s t w r i t e down th e r a t i n g you a s s ig n to each p h o to g ra p h . I f , i n th e p r o c e s s of re c o r d in g your an sw ers, you w ish to change your o r i g i n a l re s p o n s e or have re c o rd e d i t i n c o r r e c t l y , f e e l f r e e to change i t by p u t t i n g a s l a s h th ro u g h i t and w r i t i n g your c o r r e c t e d re s p o n s e 57 t o t h e r i g h t of i t . The l e t t e r s you s e e i n t h e low er l e f t c o rn e r of e ach c a rd a r e m e re ly t o i d e n t i f y t h e c a rd you a re r a t i n g . Ready? Here a r e th e p h o to g r a p h s . P le a s e c a l l me when you have f i n i s h e d . [ I f Q u e s tio n s A sk e d ]: I am p e r m i t t e d o n ly to r e - r e a d th e i n s t r u c t i o n s . I c a n n o t say a n y th in g w hich i s n o t i n th e i n s t r u c t i o n s nor can I answer any q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h i s e x p e r im e n t. P i l o t R e s e a r c h : V a l i d a t i o n of th e Task From th e r a t i n g s ( b o th n u m e r ic a l and c a t e g o r i c a l ) made i n P a r t 1, two s e t s o f t e n c a rd s e a c h th e n w ere s e l e c t e d . I n P hase 2, P a r t 1, each of th e two s e t s of p h o to g rap h s were r a t e d by te n a d d i t i o n a l v o l u n t a r y s u b j e c t s who were s e l e c t e d a t random from i n t r o d u c t o r y p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s . T hese s u b j e c t s were i n s t r u c t e d i n th e same f a s h io n as were t h o s e s u b j e c t s who r a t e d th e 125 p h o to g r a p h s n u m e ri c a l l y . T h is p ro c e d u re a llo w e d a v a l i d a t i o n o f th e r a t i n g s p r e v i o u s l y a s s ig n e d ( i n P hase 1) t o th e tw e n ty c a r d s which were s e l e c t e d f o r f i n a l im p le m e n ta tio n i n th e p r im a r y r e s e a r c h , by c o n t r o l l i n g f o r any p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e from com p a r a t i v e a n c h o rin g which m ig h t o c c u r i n o n e ’ s re v ie w in g 125 p h o t o g r a p h s . S i m i l a r l y , f o r Phase 2 , P a r t 2, an a d d i t i o n a l te n v o l u n te e r s u b j e c t s from i n t r o d u c t o r y p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s were i n s t r u c t e d , as p r e v i o u s l y , to r a t e c a t e g o r i c a l l y , t h e s e f i n a l 1 0 -c a r d s e t s o f p h o to g r a p h s . T h us, th e f o llo w in g o u t l i n e sum m arizes th e o rd e r o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e p h o to g r a p h s i n b o th th e d e r i v a t i o n and v a l i d a t i o n of th e t a s k : 58 Sequence # of P h o to g ra p h s # of S u b je c ts R a tin g Phase 1, P a r t 1 125 20 N um erical Phase 1, P a r t 2 125 10 C a te g o r ic a l Phase 2, P a r t 1 10 10 ambiguous su c c e s s 10 N um erical Phase 2, P a r t 2 10 10 ambiguous su c c e ss 10 C a te g o r ic a l P ro c ed u re I n s t r u c t i o n s The a u th o r g r e e te d each s u b j e c t i n d i v i d u a l l y i n a p r e v i o u s l y a rra n g e d r e c e p t i o n a re a lo c a te d i n th e D epartm ent of P sychology of th e U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a . Those p e rs o n s who had been s e l e c t e d random ly as e x p e rim e n t e rs and had a g re e d t o f u l f i l l t h i s r o l e were met w ith i n d i v i d u a l l y by th e a u th o r f o r f i f t e e n m in u te s p r i o r to th e a c t u a l t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e , d u rin g which tim e th e a u th o r p r o v id ed th e fo llo w in g in f o r m a tio n : You have been asked to p a r t i c i p a t e i n a r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t d e v e lo p in g a t e s t of empathy. You may have seen t h i s p r o j e c t w r i t t e n up i n th e D a ily T r o ja n . T here i s a n o th e r re a s o n f o r your p a r t i c i p a t i o n m th e p r o j e c t - - n a m e l y to g iv e you p r a c t i c e i n d u p l i c a t in g e x p e rim e n ta l r e s u l t s . In p h y s ic s l a b s , fo r exam ple, you a re asked to r e p e a t e x p e rim e n ts to see i f your f i n d i n g s a g re e w ith th o s e a lr e a d y w e ll e s t a b l i s h e d . The e x p e rim e n ta l p ro c e d u re h a s been typed out f o r you on t h i s [d e m o n s tra te d ] page and i s s e l f - e x p la n a to r y . You w i l l be given two s e t s o f ten 59 p h o to g r a p h s each [ d e m o n s t r a t e d ] , and you w i l l b e asked t o run a s e r i e s o f tw elve s u b j e c t s , each o f whom i n d i v i d u a l l y you w i l l ask t o r a t e th e p h o t o g ra p h s from only one o f th e two s e t s . The s u b j e c t s w i l l be asked to u s e t h i s [ d e m o n s tr a te d ] r a t i n g s c a l e to r a t e the d e g r e e o f s u c c e s s or f a i l u r e th e y f e e l th e p e rso n p i c t u r e d , r e c e n t l y h a s been e x p e r i e n c in g . As you can s e e , th e s c a l e r u n s from -10 to +10. A r a t i n g o f -1 0 means t h a t you judge t h e p e rs o n to have e x p e r i e n c e d e x trem e f a i l u r e r e c e n t l y . A r a t i n g of +10 means t h a t you ju d g e th e p e r s o n to have e x p e rie n c e d e x tre m e su c c e ss r e c e n t l y . A r a t i n g o f -3 means t h a t you ju d g e the p e r s o n to have e x p e r i e n c e d m ild f a i l u r e r e c e n t l y , w h i l e a r a t i n g o f +3 means t h a t you ju d g e th e p e rs o n to have e x p e r ie n c e d m ild s u c c e s s r e c e n t l y , e tc . F o r e a c h s u b j e c t , i n an o rd e r w hich has b e e n p r e d e te r m in e d , you w i l l b e g iv e n e i t h e r s e t #1 o r s e t #2 and i t s c o rr e s p o n d in g answ er s h e e t . A l l t h a t you need t o do i s r e c o r d on th e answer s h e e t h i s t e n r e s p o n s e s . A l l o f the s u b j e c t s you a r e ru n n in g sh o u ld a v e ra g e about a + 3 .1 7 r a t i n g on t h e p h o to g r a p h s . J u s t r e a d th e a t t a c h e d i n s t r u c t i o n s to the s u b j e c t s and sa y n o th in g e l s e t o them e x c e p t h e l l o and good b y e . I f they sh o u ld a s k you any q u e s t io n s a b o u t th e e x p e rim e n t j u s t r e a d t h e s ta te m e n t a t th e b o tto m of th e i n s t r u c t i o n s p a g e . You s h o u ld be a b le to ru n a l l tw e lv e s u b j e c t s i n l e s s th a n one hou r. PLEASE DO NOT DISCUSS THIS PROJECT WITH ANYONE. Do you have any q u e s t io n s ? Each p e rs o n who was o n l y a s u b j e c t was asked by t h e a u th o r t o w a i t i n th e r e c e p t i o n a r e a u n t i l h i s i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i m en ter was re a d y to w ork w ith him. Each e x p e rim e n te r ran a l l tw e lv e o f h is s u b j e c t s i n one s i t t i n g . The e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u r e was con d u cted i n a s o u n d - i n s u l a t e d , w e l l - l i g h t e d , s m a ll , l a b o r a t o r y room w h ich was d e v o id of e q u ip m e n t. Both s u b j e c t and e x p e rim e n te r w ere s e a te d a t a sm all wooden t a b l e , d i r e c t l y a c r o s s fro m and f a c i n g one a n o t h e r . The d i s p l a y s c a l e was p l a c e d t o the r i g h t o f the m id d le o f th e t a b l e , f a c i n g th e s u b j e c t , and th e p h o to g ra p h s w ere handed 60 to him, one a t a tim e, by th e e x p e r im e n te r. The i n s t r u c t i o n s to be r e a d to each s u b j e c t w ere p la c e d to th e r i g h t of each e x p e r im e n te r . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a sm all m icrophone a t tached t o a m i n i a tu r i z e d ta p e r e c o r d e r was p la c e d a t th e extrem e l e f t c o rn e r o f t h e t a b l e i n an obvious but non- i n t r u s i v e p o s i t i o n . The b la n k answer s h e e ts and a l t e r n a t e s e t of p h o to g ra p h s were p la c e d out o f the v i s u a l f i e l d o f th e s u b j e c t on a s e p a r a t e t a b l e . A f t e r having been g r e e te d by th e a u th o r and e s c o rte d t o th e e x p e rim e n ta l room, each s u b j e c t was re a d th e fo llo w in g i n s t r u c t i o n s by th e e x p e rim e n te r: I am going to re a d you some i n s t r u c t i o n s . We a r e i n th e p ro c e s s o f d e v e lo p in g a t e s t o f empathy. T his t e s t i s d e sig n e d to show how w e ll a p e rs o n i s a b le to p u t h im s e lf i n t o someone e ls e * s p l a c e . I w i l l show you a s e r i e s o f p h o to g ra p h s . For each one I want you to judge w hether th e p e rs o n p i c t u r e d , r e c e n t l y h as been e x p e r ie n c in g s u c c e s s or f a i l u r e . To h e lp you make more e x a c t judgm ents you a r e to use t h i s r a t i n g s c a l e . As you can s e e , the s c a l e runs from -10 to +10. A r a t i n g of -10 means t h a t you ju dge th e p e rso n t o have e x p e rie n c e d extrem e f a i l u r e r e c e n t l y . A r a t i n g o f +10 means t h a t you judge th e p e rs o n to have e x p e rie n c e d extrem e su c c e ss r e c e n t l y . A r a t i n g of -3 means t h a t you judge th e p e rs o n to have e x p e rie n c e d m ild f a i l u r e r e c e n t l y , w h ile a r a t i n g of +3 means t h a t you judge th e p e rs o n to have e x p e rie n c e d m ild s u c c e s s r e c e n t l y , e tc . You a re to r a t e each p ho to as a c c u r a t e l y as you can b u t do n o t spend an e x c e s s iv e amount o f tim e d e l i b e r a t i n g about any p a r t i c u l a r p h o to g ra p h . J u s t t e l l me th e r a t i n g you a s s ig n to each p h o to g ra p h . I f , i n th e p r o c e s s o f g iv in g your an sw ers, you wish to change your o r i g i n a l r e s p o n s e , f e e l f r e e to change i t by t e l l i n g me. The l e t t e r s you s e e i n th e low er l e f t c o rn e r a re m erely t o i d e n t i f y th e card you a r e r a t i n g . Ready? Here a r e th e p h o to g ra p h s . [ i f Q u e stio n s A s k e d ] : I am p e r m itte d o n ly to r e - r e a d th e i n s t r u c t i o n s . I can n o t say a n y th in g which i s n o t i n th e i n s t r u c t i o n s nor can I answer 61 any q u e s tio n s about t h i s e x p e rim e n t. The e x p e rim e n te r re c o rd e d th e ten re s p o n s e s p ro v id e d by each s u b j e c t and a f t e r each s u b j e c t had f i n i s h e d he was thanked f o r p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n the r e s e a r c h and d is m is s e d . E x p erim e n tal T r i a l s Each e x p e rim e n te r a d m in is te r e d both h ig h and low a m b ig u ity c a rd s t o b o th i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s . Thus, t h e r e were th e f o llo w in g a rran g em en ts of e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s : 1 . I n t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r , i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , h igh a m b ig u ity c a r d s . 2. I n t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r, i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low a m b ig u ity c a r d s . 3. I n t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r , e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , hi gh am b ig u ity c a r d s . 4. I n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te r, e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low a m b ig u ity c a r d s . 5. E x te r n a l e x p e r im e n te r, i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , h i gh am b ig u ity c a rd s . 6. E x te r n a l e x p e rim e n te r, i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low am b ig u ity c a rd s - 7. E x te r n a l e x p e r im e n te r , e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , high a m b ig u ity c a r d s . 8. "External e x p e rim e n te r, e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low am b ig u ity c a r d s . The o rd e r in which each e x p e rim e n te r conducted h i s e x p e r i m ental t r i a l ru n s was d e te rm in e d th ro u g h a random ized a r rangem ent of th e f o u r c o n d it i o n s to o b v ia te o rd e r e f f e c t s * The f o llo w in g o r d e r s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n were employed i n t h i s m anner* 1 . I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 1. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , h ig h am b ig u ity low a m b ig u ity 2 . E x te rn a l s u b j e c t , 2. E x te r n a l s u b j e c t , low am b ig u ity high am b ig u ity 3. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 3- I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low am b ig u ity high am b ig u ity 4. "External s u b j e c t , 4. E x te r n a l s u b j e c t , high a m b ig u ity low a m b ig u ity 5. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 5. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , h igh am b ig u ity low am b ig u ity 6. E x te r n a l s u b j e c t , 6 . E x te r n a l s u b j e c t , low am b ig u ity high am b ig u ity 7. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 7. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low am biguity high a m b ig u ity S. E x te rn a l s u b j e c t , 8. E x te rn a l s u b j e c t , h igh am b iguity low a m b ig u ity 9- I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 9. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , h ig h a m b ig u ity low a m b ig u ity 10. E x te r n a l s u b j e c t , 10. E x te rn a l s u b j e c t , low am b igu ity high a m b ig u ity 11. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 11. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low a m b ig u ity h ig h am b ig u ity 12. E x te r n a l s u b j e c t , 12. E x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , h ig h a m b ig u ity low a m b ig u ity 1. E x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 1. E x te r n a l s u b j e c t , h ig h a m b ig u ity low a m b ig u ity 2. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 2 . I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low a m b ig u ity h ig h a m b ig u ity 3. E x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 3. E x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low a m b ig u ity h ig h a m b ig u ity 4. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 4. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , h ig h a m b ig u ity low a m b ig u ity 5- E x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 5. E x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , h ig h a m b ig u ity low a m b ig u ity 6. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 6 . I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low a m b ig u ity h ig h a m b ig u ity 7 . E x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 7. E x te r n a l s u b j e c t , low a m b ig u ity h ig h a m b ig u ity 8. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 8. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , h ig h a m b ig u ity low am b ig u ity 9. E x te r n a l s u b j e c t , 9. E x t e r n a l s u b j e c t , h ig h a m b ig u ity low a m b ig u ity 10. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 10. I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low a m b ig u ity h ig h a m b ig u ity 11. 12. E x te r n a l s u b j e c t , 11. low am b ig u ity I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , 12. hig h am biguity 64 E x te rn a l s u b j e c t , h ig h am biguity I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t , low am big uity CHAPTER IV RESULTS The r e s u l t s can be d is c u s s e d u n d e r two m ain h e a d i n g s . The f i r s t h e ad in g r e l a t e s to th e p i l o t r e s e a r c h con d u c te d i n which th e p h o t o - r a t i n g i n s t r u m e n t was d e r i v e d and v a l i d a t e d , and to th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e I n t e r n a l - E x te r n a l S c a le to d e te r m in e s u b j e c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r th e p rim a ry r e s e a r c h . The second h e ad in g r e l a t e s t o t h e p rim a ry r e s e a r c h c o n d u cted i n w hich were examined a l l f o u r main h y p o th e s e s , con cern ed w ith e x p e rim e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t , and two a d d i t i o n a l a r e a s of im p o rta n c e . P i l o t R e se a rc h and S u b j e c t - S e l e c t i o n P ro c e d u re D e r iv a t io n of th e P h o to - R a tin g T ask: P a r t 1 The p i l o t r e s e a r c h f o r d e r i v a t i o n of t h e p h o t o r a t i n g i n s t r u m e n t was c o n d u cted i n two p a r t s . F i r s t , th e 125 p h o to g r a p h s w ere shown t o tw e n ty m ale s t u d e n t s from i n t r o d u c t o r y p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s , who v o l u n te e r e d t o p a r t i c i p a te i n th e p r o c e d u r e . T hese tw e n ty s u b j e c t s were asked to 65 66 r a t e the p h o to g ra p h s i n d i v i d u a l l y i n th e manner d e s c r ib e d p r e v io u s ly . An a n a l y s i s o f the r e s u l t s th e n was p e rfo rm ed . Of the 125 p h o to g ra p h s , s i x t y - f i v e (52.0% ) were a s s ig n e d a mean p o s i t i v e r a t i n g , f i f t y - e i g h t (46.4% ) were a s s ig n e d a mean n e g a tiv e r a t i n g , and two (1.6%) were a s s ig n e d a mean zero r a t i n g . The mean mean r a t i n g f o r t h e s e p h o to g ra p h s was +0.556, th e mean median r a t i n g f o r t h e s e p h o to g ra p h s was +0.276, and th e mean ra n g e r a t i n g f o r th e p h o to g ra p h s was +11.500. From th e s e r a t i n g s , an a n a l y s i s was made o f th e ph oto g rap h s w hich had been r a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n th e two ranges "ambiguous** ( - 2 , - 1 , +1, +2) and " s u c c e s s " (+7, +8, +9, +10). T here were f i f t e e n p h o to g ra p h s w hich had been assig n e d t o one of th e "am biguous" r a t i n g s by 65% or more of the r a t e r s . O v e r a l l , f o r th e f i f t e e n ambiguous p i c t u r e s , th e mean p e r c e n t o f t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r card i n th e ambiguous * range was 7 0 .6 7 . S i m i l a r l y , t h e r e w ere ten p h o to g ra p h s which had been a s s ig n e d to one o f t h e su c c e s s r a t i n g s by 65% or more o f th e r a t e r s . O v e r a l l , f o r th e te n s u c c e s s p i c t u r e s , th e mean p e rc e n t of t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c a rd i n th e success ra n g e was 7 0 .5 0 . D e r iv a tio n o f th e P h o to -R a tin g Task: P a r t 2 When th e f i r s t p h ase o f th e d e r i v a t i o n p ro c e d u re was com pleted, a second group o f te n m ale v o lu n te e r s u b j e c t s was r e c r u i t e d from i n t r o d u c t o r y p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s and, i n th e 67 same i n d i v i d u a l i z e d f a s h i o n , was asked to r a t e t h e p h o to g ra p h s . T h is tim e , r a t h e r th a n a s s i g n n u m e ric a l r a t i n g s to each p i c t u r e , th e s u b j e c t s w ere i n s t r u c t e d to a s s i g n a r a t i n g o f " s u c c e s s , " " a m b ig u o u s," or " f a i l u r e " t o each p h o to g ra p h . An a n a l y s i s o f th e r e s u l t s of t h i s seq u en c e of th e p i l o t r e s e a r c h shows t h a t , f o r th e f i f t e e n ambiguous p h o to g ra p h s , 16% o f th e r a t i n g s w ere in c lu d e d i n t h e " s u c c e s s " c a t e g o r y , 63% o f th e r a t i n g s were i n c l u d e d i n th e "am biguous" c a t e g o r y , and 21% o f t h e r a t i n g s were in c lu d e d i n th e " f a i l u r e " c a t e g o r y . Of t h e s e f i f t e e n p h o to g r a p h s , f i v e had been r a t e d such t h a t 60% or few er o f t h e r a t i n g s were in c lu d e d i n th e "am biguous" c a t e g o r y . These f i v e p h o to g ra p h s were e x c lu d e d from th e f i n a l s e t of t e n p i c t u r e s b e c a u s e o f t h i s low agreem en t among r a t e r s . For th e re m a in in g t e n p h o to g r a p h s , 14% of th e r a t i n g s were i n c lu d e d i n t h e " s u c c e s s " c a t e g o r y , 73 % o f th e r a t i n g s w ere i n c lu d e d i n th e "am biguous" c a t e g o r y , and 13% o f th e r a t i n g s w ere i n c l u d e d i n t h e " f a i l u r e " c a t e g o r y . The mean mean r a t i n g ( + 0 .0 9 ) , mean m edian r a t i n g ( + 0 .1 5 ) , and mean ra n g e r a t i n g ( + 7 .2 0 ) f o r t h e s e t e n p h o to g r a p h s , i n ad d i t i o n to th e above d a t a , a l l a r e sum m arized i n T a b le 1. For th e te n s u c c e s s p h o to g r a p h s , 97% o f th e r a t i n g s w ere in c lu d e d i n th e " s u c c e s s " c a t e g o r y , 3% of th e r a t i n g s were in c lu d e d i n th e "am biguous" c a t e g o r y and t h e r e w ere no r a t i n g s i n th e " f a i l u r e " c a t e g o r y . The mean mean r a t i n g ( + 7 .1 2 ) , th e mean m edian r a t i n g ( + 7 .9 0 ) , and t h e mean ran g e 68 TABLE 1 SUMMARY DATA, OBTAINED FROM THE INITIAL PILOT RESEARCH, FOR THE AMBIGUOUS-RATED PHOTOGRAPHS 15 Ambiguous C ards 10 Ambiguous Cards Mean mean of r a t i n g s + 0 .0 4 + 0 .0 9 Mean m edian o f r a t i n g s + 0 .2 3 + 0 .1 5 Mean r a n g e of r a t i n g s +10.00 + 7 .2 0 Minimum p e rc e n t o f t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c a r d in t h e ambiguous ra n g e 65.00 65 .0 0 Maximum p e rc e n t o f t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c a r d i n t h e ambiguous ra n g e 80.00 80.00 Mean p e r c e n t of t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c a rd i n the am biguous ra n g e 70.67 70.50 Mean p e r c e n t of c a r d s r a t e d “ s u c c e s s 1 1 16.00 1 4.0 0 Mean p e r c e n t of c a r d s r a t e d “am biguous" 63-00 73.00 Mean p e r c e n t o f c a r d s r a t e d " f a i l u r e " 21-00 13.00 69 r a t i n g (+ 1 0 .1 0 ) f o r t h e s e p h o t o g r a p h s , in a d d i t i o n to t h e above d a t a , a l l a r e summarized i n T a b le 2. V a l i d a t i o n o f th e P h o to -R a tin g T ask: P hase 2 The second m ajor p h a se o f t h e p i l o t r e s e a r c h on th e p h o t o - r a t i n g t a s k in v o lv e d th e v a l i d a t i o n of t h e tw e n ty p h o to g ra p h s s e l e c t e d f o r u se in t h e p rim a ry r e s e a r c h . Ten male v o l u n te e r s u b j e c t s w ere r e c r u i t e d from i n t r o d u c t o r y p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s , and, a s p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d , were i n s t r u c t e d t o r a t e n u m e r i c a l l y th e tw e n ty p h o to g ra p h s w hich were p r e s e n t e d t o them i n a random ized o r d e r . For th e t e n am biguous p i c t u r e s , th e mean mean r a t i n g was - 0 . 7 7 , th e mean m edian r a t i n g was - 0 . 8 0 , and th e mean ra n g e r a t i n g was + 7 .2 0 . The minimum p e r c e n t o f t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r card i n th e ambiguous ra n g e was 5 0 .0 , t h e maximum p e r c e n t was 9 0 .0 , and t h e mean p e r c e n t was 6 9 .0 . For t h e t e n s u c c e s s p i c t u r e s , t h e mean mean r a t i n g was + 7 .1 2 , t h e mean m edian r a t i n g was + 7 .6 5 , and t h e mean ra n g e r a t i n g was + 7 .3 0 . The minimum p e r c e n t o f t o t a l r a t in g s p e r c a rd i n t h e s u c c e s s ran g e was 5 0 .0 , th e maximum p e r c e n t was 8 0 .0 and th e mean p e r c e n t was 70.0%. Tn a se co n d p a r t o f t h i s second m ajo r p h a se o f th e p i l o t r e s e a r c h , th e tw e n ty p h o to g ra p h s were shown to a f o u r t h group o f te n m ale v o l u n t e e r s u b j e c t s who w ere i n s t r u c t e d to r a t e th e p i c t u r e s on t h e b a s i s o f " s u c c e s s , ” " a m b ig u o u s," o r " f a i l u r e . " For t h e a m b ig u ity p i c t u r e s , 7% 70 TABLE 2 SUMMARY DATA, OBTAINED PROM THE INITIAL PILOT RESEARCH, FOR THE SUCCESS-RATED PHOTOGRAPHS 10 S u ccess C ard s Mean mean o f r a t i n g s + 7 .1 2 Mean m edian o f r a t i n g s + 7 .90 Mean ra n g e of r a t i n g s +10.10 Minimum p e r c e n t o f t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c a r d i n th e s u c c e s s ran g e 65.00 Maximum p e r c e n t o f t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c a r d i n th e s u c c e s s ra n g e 90.00 Mean p e r c e n t o f t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c a rd i n th e s u c c e s s ra n g e 70.50 Mean p e r c e n t of c a r d s r a t e d " s u c c e s s " 9 7 .0 0 Mean p e r c e n t o f c a rd s r a t e d "am biguous" 3 .0 0 Mean p e r c e n t o f c a rd s r a t e d " f a i l u r e " 0 .0 0 71 of th e r a t i n g s were in c lu d e d i n th e “ s u c c e s s " c a te g o r y , 90% of th e r a t i n g s w ere in c lu d e d i n th e "am biguous" c a te g o r y , and 3% w ere in c lu d e d i n th e " f a i l u r e " c a te g o ry . For t h e su c c e ss p i c t u r e s , 94% of th e r a t i n g s were in c lu d e d i n th e " s u c c e s s " c a te g o r y , 6% were in c lu d e d i n th e "am biguous" c a te g o r y , and t h e r e were no r a t i n g s i n th e " f a i l u r e " c a t e gory. A l l o f t h e s e d a ta f o r th e f i n a l ten s u c c e s s p h o to graphs and te n ambiguous p h o to g ra p h s a re summarized i n T able 3. A d d i t i o n a l l y , i n t h i s t a b l e , th e d a ta f o r th e s e tw e n ty p h o to g ra p h s , o b ta in e d i n th e second phase o f th e p i l o t r e s e a r c h , a re compared w ith th o s e d a t a o b ta in e d i n th e f i r s t p h a se . Inasmuch as th e mean r a t i n g o b ta in e d f o r s u c c e s s c a rd s was +7.12 and t h a t f o r ambiguous c a rd s was - 0 . 7 7 , th e e x p ectan cy s c o re of + 3 .1 7 , to be used i n th e p rim a ry r e s e a r c h , was d e te rm in e d by u sin g th e m id p o in t betw een th e two v a lu e s . A d m in is tra tio n o f th e I n t e r n a l - E x te r n a l S c a le The f i r s t m ajor p hase of th e p rim a ry r e s e a r c h i n c lud ed th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of th e I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le to a l l 116 v o l u n te e r s u b j e c t s . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of s c o r e s on th e s c a l e ranged from 1 to 19 ( p o s s i b l e ra n g e : 0 t o 23) f o r th e s e s u b j e c t s . The mean f o r a l l s c o re s was 9 .9 4 8 , th e median f o r a l l s c o r e s was 1 0 .0 0 0 , and th e s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n fo r a l l s c o r e s was 3 .8 8 3 . For r e s e a r c h p u rp o s e s , th e sc o re 72 TABLE 3 SUMMARY DATA, OBTAINED FROM THE FINAL PILOT RESEARCH, FOR BOTH AMBIGUOUS-RATED AND SUCCESS-RATED PH <DTOGRAPHS 10 Ambiguous C ards Change From I n i t i a l P i l o t R e se arch 10 S u c c e ss C ard s Change From I n i t i a l P i l o t R e se a rc h Mean mean o f r a t i n g s - 0 .7 7 - 0 .8 6 . 7 . 1 2 + 0 .0 0 Mean m edian o f r a t i n g s - 0.8 0 - 0 .9 5 7 .6 5 - 0 .2 5 Mean ra n g e o f r a t i n g s + 7 .2 0 0 .0 0 7 .3 0 - 2 .8 0 Minimum p e r c e n t of t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c a rd i n th e ambiguous ra n g e 5 0 .0 0 -15 -0 0 Minimum p e r c e n t of t o t a l r a t i n g s p er c a r d i n th e s u c c e s s ra n g e 50.00 -1 5 .0 0 Maximum p e r c e n t of t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c a rd i n th e ambiguous ra n g e 9 0 .0 0 +10.00 Maximum p e r c e n t of t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c a rd i n th e s u c c e s s ra n g e 80.00 -1 0 .0 0 Mean p e r c e n t o f t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c a rd i n th e ambiguous ran g e 69 .0 0 - 1 .50 ------ ------ TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) 73 10 Ambiguous C a rd s Change From I n i t i a l P i l o t R e se a rc h 10 Success Cards Chang e From I n i t i a l P i l o t R e s e a r c h Mean p e r c e n t o f t o t a l r a t i n g s p e r c ard i n t h e su c c e s s r a n g e Mean p e r c e n t of c a rd s r a t e d " s u c c e s s " Mean p e r c e n t o f c a r d s r a t e d "am biguous" Mean p e r c e n t of c a r d s r a t e d " f a i l u r e " 7.00 9 0 .0 0 3 .0 0 - 7.00 +17.00 - 10.00 70.00 94.00 6.00 0.00 - 0 .5 0 - 3 .0 0 + 3 .0 0 0.00 74 ra n g e 1-19 was s u b d iv id e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s , nam ely t h a t in c l u d i n g s u b j e c t s d e s ig n a te d " i n t e r n a l s , " t h a t i n c l u d i n g s u b j e c t s d e s ig n a te d " e x t e r n a l s , " and th e range o f s c o re s betw een th e s e two c a t e g o r i e s , i n c l u d i n g s u b j e c t s who were exclud ed from f u r t h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e r e s e a r c h . From t h i s arrangem ent of sc o re c a t e g o r i e s , th e i n t e r n a l and ex t e r n a l s u b j e c t s were s e l e c te d f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e second m ajor p h a se o f th e p r im a r y r e s e a r c h , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e p h o t o - r a t i n g t a s k . The mean s c o r e fo r th e i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s , whose s c o r e s ranged from 1 -8 , was 6 .0 7 , th e median s c o r e was 7, t h e sta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n was 2 .0 8 , and the number o f s u b j e c t s i n t h i s grouping was f o r t y - s i x (39.66% ). The mean sc o re f o r the e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s , whose s c o r e s ranged from 12-19, was 13.74, th e median sc o re was 13, th e s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n was 1.88 , and th e number o f s u b j e c t s i n t h i s g ro u p in g was f o r t y - s e v e n (4 0 .5 2 % ). The mean sc o re f o r th e e x clu ded sub j e c t s , whose s c o r e s ranged from 9 -1 1 , was 9 .9 6 , th e median s c o r e fo r t h i s group was 1 0 .0 0 , the s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n was 0 .8 1 , and t h e r e were tw e n ty - th r e e such s u b j e c t s (19.83% ). A l l of th e s e d a t a a re summarized i n T ab le 4. The t h r e e p e rso n s who were i n t e n a l e x p e rim e n te rs had o b ta in e d I-T2 s c o r e s of 3, 4, and 8 (mean 5 .0 0 ) . The t h r e e p e rs o n s who w ere e x t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs had o b ta in e d I-E s c o r e s of 12, 13, and 19 (mean 1 4 .6 7 ) . 75 TABLE 4 SUMMARY DATA OBTAINED FROM ADMINISTRATION OF THE INTERNAL-EXTERNAL SCALE TO ALL SUBJECTS S core Range 1-8 ( i n t e r n a l ) S core Range 9-11 (E x clu d ed ) S core Range 12-19 ( E x t e r n a l ) T o ta l Score Range 1-19 Mean s c o r e 6.07 9.96 13.74 9 .9 5 Median . s c o re 7.00 10.00 13 .00 10.00 S ta n d a rd d e v ia t i o n 2 .0 8 0 .8 1 1 .8 8 3.88 Number of s u b j e c t s 46.00 23.00 47.00 116.00 P e r c e n t of s c o r e s in c lu d e d 39.66 ■ 19.83 4 0 .5 2 100.00 76 Prim ary R e se a rc h : A d m in is tr a tio n of th e P h o to -R a tin g Task The t h r e e v a r i a b l e s under i n v e s t i g a t i o n were th e l e v e l o f a m b ig u ity o f th e t a s k , i n t e r n a l v e rs u s e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l o f re in f o r c e m e n t f o r e x p e r im e n te r s , and i n t e r n a l v e rs u s e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l o f r e in f o r c e m e n t f o r s u b j e c t s . The f i r s t h y p o th e s is to be t e s t e d was co n cerned w ith th e l e v e l of am bigu ity of th e t a s k . I t was p r e d i c t e d t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e would be o b ta in e d betw een th e d i f f e r ence o f s u b j e c t s a c t u a l s c o re and e x p e rim e n te r 1 s ex p ectan cy s c o r e , f o r s u b j e c t s t e s t e d u n der high am b ig u ity c o n d it i o n s as compared w ith s u b j e c t s t e s t e d u n d e r low a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s ( a main e f f e c t f o r a m b ig u ity ) . F i r s t , an a n a l y s i s of th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een s u b j e c t ’s a c t u a l sc o re and e x p e r im e n te r ’s ex p ec ta n cy sc o re ( s u b j e c t- e x p e r im e n te r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e ) was p e rfo rm ed . The means and s ta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n s f o r th e s u b je c t- e x p e r im e n te r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s a re summarized i n T ab le 5. An a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e f o r th e s u b je c t- e x p e r im e n te r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s was perform ed and the r e s u l t s a r e summarized i n T ab le 6. The f i r s t h y p o th e s is t h a t t h e r e would be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n th e s u b j e c t - e x p e rim e n te r d i f f e r e n c e sc o re f o r h ig h am b ig u ity and low am b ig u ity c o n d itio n s was s u p p o r te d . The r e s u l t i n g F of 2 1 .7 9 , f o r a m b ig u ity , was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .001 l e v e l . The mean s u b je c t- e x p e r im e n te r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e f o r low a m b ig u ity c a rd s was 3.10 and f o r h igh a m b ig u ity c a rd s was 77 TABLE 5 SUM MARY OF MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR DIFFERENCE SCORES BETWEEN SUBJECT'S PHOTO RATING TASK SCORE AND EXPERIMENTER'S EXPECTANCY SCORE (SUBJECT- EXPERIMENTER DIFFERENCE SCORE) I n t e r n a l E x p erim e n ters High A m biguity Low A m biguity (E xpectancy S core= + 3 .1 7) (E xpectan cy S core= + 3.17) I n t e r n a l S u b je c ts m - 2 .5 5 S.D. = 0 .6 8 m = 3-11 S.D. = 0.5 4 E x te r n a l S u b je c ts m = 1.39 S.D. = 0.62 m = 2.65 S.D. = 0 .7 4 E x te r n a l Experim< High Am biguity (E x pectan cy S core= +3.17) e n te rs Low A m biguity (E xpectancy Score= +3.17) I n t e r n a l S u b je c ts m - 2 .6 8 S.D. = 0 .9 2 m = 3.45 S.D. = 0.76 E x te r n a l S u b je c ts m = 2.27 S.D. = 0 .9 8 m = 3 . 1 7 S.D. = 0 .5 4 78 TABLE 6 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUBJECT’ S PHOTO-RATING TASK SCORE AND EXPERIMENTER’S EXPECTANCY SCORE ( SUBJECT- EXPERIMENTER DIFFERENCE SCORE) . . . . ' Source d f Mean Squares F A m biguity (A) 1 13-3990 21.79* E x p erim e n ters (E) 1 3.7813 6.15** S u b je c ts (S) 1 6.1836 10.06*** A x S 1 0.6998 1.14 A x E 1 0.0401 0 .0 7 E x S 1 0.8667 1.41 A x E x S 1 0 .4 204 0 .6 8 W ithin r e p l i c a t e s 64 0.6148 T o ta l 71 ---------------- - - - * p < .001 ** p < -025 *** p < .005 79 2.22. In a d d i t i o n to e v a l u a t i n g th e d i f f e r e n c e between s u b j e c t ’s a c t u a l sc o re and e x p e r im e n te r ’s e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e , th e d a t a could be an aly ze d by lo o k in g a t th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tween s u b j e c t ’ s a c t u a l s c o re and th e p i l o t r e s e a r c h s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n s c o r e ( s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e ) . The means and s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r th e s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r ence s c o r e s a re summarized i n T a b le 7. An a n a l y s i s o f v a r i ance f o r th e s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e s c o re s was perform ed and th e r e s u l t s a r e summarized i n T a b le 8. The r e s u l t i n g F of 2 1 .2 9 , f o r a m b ig u ity , was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .001 l e v e l . Thus, t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n th e mean s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e sc o re f o r low a m b ig u ity c a rd s (0 .8 6 ) and th e mean s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e sc o re f o r h ig h am b igu ity c a r d s ( 1 .7 2 ) , The second h y p o th e s is to be t e s t e d was concerned w ith i n t e r n a l v e rs u s e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l of r e in f o r c e m e n t f o r e x p e rim e n te rs . I t was p r e d i c t e d t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ence would be o b ta in e d betw een th e d i f f e r e n c e o f s u b j e c t ’ s a c t u a l s c o r e and e x p e r im e n te r ’s ex p ec ta n cy s c o r e , f o r s u b j e c t s whose e x p e rim e n te r was r a t e d i n t e r n a l a s compared w ith s u b j e c t s whose e x p e rim e n te r was r a t e d e x t e r n a l (a main e f f e c t f o r e x p e rim e n te r c o n t r o l ) . F i r s t , an a n a l y s i s o f th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een s u b j e c t ’s a c t u a l sc o re and e x p e r im e n te r ’s e x p ectan cy s c o re ( s u b j e c t - e x p e r im e n te r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e ) was pe rfo rm ed . The means and s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r th e TABLE 7 80 SUMMARY OP MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR DIFFERENCE SCORES BETWEEN SUBJECT’S PHOTO RATING TASK SCORE AND MEAN RATING (FROM PILOT RESEARCH) FOR AMBIGUOUS-RATED AND SUCCESS-RATED PHOTOGRAPHS (SUBJECT-PILOT DIFFERENCE SCORE) I n t e r n a l E x p erim e n ters High A m biguity ( S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n M ean=-0.77) Low A m biguity ( S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n Mean=+7.12) I n t e r n a l S u b je c ts m = 1 . 3 9 S.D. = 0 .6 8 m - 0 .84 S.D. = 0 .5 4 E x te rn a l S u b je c ts m = 2 .5 5 S.D. = 0 .6 2 m = 1.30 S.D. = 0 .7 4 E x te r n a l E x p e rim e n te rs High A m biguity ( S t a n d a r d i z a t ion Mean=-0.77) Low A m biguity ( S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n Mean=+7.12)' I n t e r n a l S u b je c ts m = 1 . 2 6 S.D. = 0 .9 2 m = 0.50 S.D. = 0 .76 E x te rn a l S u b je c ts m = 1 .67 S.D. = 0 .9 8 m = 0 . 82 S.D. = 0 .5 4 81 TABLE 8 SUMMARY OP ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUBJECT’S PHOTO-RATING TASK SCORE AND MEAN RATING (FROM PILOT RESEARCH) FOR AMBIGUOUS-RATED AND SUCCESS-RATED PHOTOGRAPHS (SUBJECT-PILOT DIFFERENCE SCORE) Source d f Mean Squares F Am biguity (A) 1 13.0902 2 1 .29* E x p erim e n ters (E) 1 3.7813 6.15** S u b je c ts (S) 1 6.1835 10.06*** A x S 1 0.7001 1.14 A p E 1 0.0401 0 .0 7 E x S 1 0.8668 1 .4 1 A x E x S 1 0.4201 0 .6 8 W ithin r e p l i c a t e s 64 0.6148 ------ T o ta l 71 ------ ------ * p < .001 ** p < .025 *** p < .005 82 s u b j e c t - e x p e r im e n te r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s a r e summarized i n T able 5. An a n a l y s i s of v a r ia n c e f o r the s u b j e c t - e x p e rim e n te r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s was perform ed and th e r e s u l t s a re summarized i n T ab le 6. The second h y p o th e s is t h a t t h e r e would be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n th e s u b j e c t - e x p e rim e n te r d i f f e r e n c e sc o re f o r i n t e r n a l v e rs u s e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l o f re in f o r c e m e n t f o r e x p e rim e n te rs was s u p p o rte d . The r e s u l t i n g F o f 6 .1 5 , f o r e x p e r im e n te r s , was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .025 l e v e l . The mean s u b j e c t - e x p e r im e n te r d i f f e r e n c e s c o re f o r i n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs was 2 .4 2 and fo r e x t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs was 2 .8 9 . In a d d i t i o n to e v a l u a t i n g th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een s u b j e c t ' s a c t u a l s c o r e and e x p e r i m e n t e r 's ex p ec ta n cy s c o r e , the d a ta could be a n aly ze d by lo o k in g a t th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tween s u b j e c t 's a c t u a l sc o re and th e p i l o t r e s e a r c h s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n sc o re ( s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e ) . The means and s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r th e s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r ence s c o r e s a re summarized i n T a b le 7. An a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e f o r th e s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s was p e r formed and th e r e s u l t s a r e summarized in T a b le 8. The r e s u l t i n g F of 6 .1 5 , f o r e x p e r im e n te r s , was s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .025 l e v e l . T hus, t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n the mean s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e f o r i n t e r n a l e x p e r i m en ters ( 1 .5 2 ) and th e mean s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e sc o re f o r e x t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs ( 1 . 0 6 ) . The t h i r d h y p o th e s is to be t e s t e d was co n cerned w ith 83 i n t e r n a l v e rs u s e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l o f r e in f o r c e m e n t f o r su b j e c t s . I t was p r e d i c t e d t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e would be o b ta in e d b etw een t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f s u b j e c t ' s a c t u a l s c o r e and e x p e r i m e n t e r *s e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e , f o r s u b j e c t s who were r a t e d i n t e r n a l a s compared w i t h s u b j e c t s who w ere r a t e d e x t e r n a l ( a main e f f e c t f o r s u b j e c t c o n t r o l ) . F i r s t , an a n a l y s i s o f th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een s u b j e c t ' s a c t u a l s c o r e and e x p e r i m e n t e r 's e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e ( s u b j e c t - e x p e r i m e n t e r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e ) was p e rfo rm e d . The means and s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r th e s u b j e c t - e x p e r i m e n t e r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s a r e summarized i n T a b le 5- An a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r th e s u b j e c t - e x p e r i m e n t e r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s was p e rfo rm e d and th e r e s u l t s a re sum m arized i n T a b le 6. The t h i r d h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e would be a. s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n th e s u b j e c t - e x p e r im e n te r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e fo r i n t e r n a l v e r s u s e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r s u b j e c t s was s u p p o r te d . The r e s u l t i n g F of 1 0 .0 6 , f o r s u b j e c t s , was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .005 l e v e l . The mean s u b j e c t - e x p e r i m e n t e r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e f o r i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s was 2 .9 5 and f o r e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s was 2 .3 7 . I n a d d i t i o n to e v a l u a t i n g th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een s u b j e c t ' s a c t u a l s c o r e and e x p e r i m e n t e r 's e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e , th e d a t a could be a n a ly z e d by lo o k in g a t th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een s u b j e c t ' s a c t u a l s c o r e and th e p i l o t r e s e a r c h s t a n - d a r i z a t i o n s c o r e ( s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e ) . The means and s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s f o r t h e s u b j e c t - p i l o t 84 d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s a r e sum m arized i n T a b le 7. An a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e f o r th e s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s was p e r formed and th e r e s u l t s a r e summarized i n T a b le 8. The r e s u l t i n g F o f 1 0 .0 6 , f o r s u b j e c t s , was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .005 l e v e l . T h u s, t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n th e mean s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e f o r i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s ( 1 .0 0 ) and the mean s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e sc o re f o r e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s ( 1 . 5 8 ) . The f o u r t h h y p o t h e s is t o be t e s t e d was co n ce rn e d w ith i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s o f th e v a r i a b l e s a m b ig u ity , s u b j e c t ' s i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e r n a l i t y , and e x p e r i m e n t e r 's i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e r n a l i t y . I t was p r e d i c t e d t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s would be o b ta in e d f o r t h e s e v a r i a b l e s . F i r s t , an a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e of th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een s u b j e c t ' s a c t u a l s c o re and e x p e r i m e n t e r 's e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e ( s u b j e c t - e x p e r i m e n t e r d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e ) was p erform ed and th e r e s u l t s a r e summarized i n T a b le 6. The f o u r t h h y p o th e s i s t h a t th e r e would be s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s f o r a m b ig u ity , s u b j e c t ' s i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e r n a l i t y , and e x p e r i m e n t e r 's i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e r n a l i t y was n o t s u p p o r te d . The r e s u l t i n g F ' s o f 1 .1 4 ( a m b i g u i t y - s u b j e c t s ) , 0 .0 7 ( a m b i g u i t y - e x p e r i m e n t e r s ) , 1 .4 1 ( e x p e r i m e n t e r s - s u b j e c t s ) , and 0 .6 8 ( a m b i g u i t y - e x p e r i m e n t e r s - s u b j e c t s ) were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l . In a d d i t i o n to e v a l u a t i n g th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een s u b j e c t ' s a c t u a l s c o re and e x p e r i m e n t e r 's e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e , 85 th e d a t a co uld be a n aly zed by lo o k in g a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tween s u b j e c t ’s a c t u a l sc o re and th e p i l o t r e s e a r c h s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n sc o re ( s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e ) . An a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e f o r th e s u b j e c t - p i l o t d i f f e r e n c e s c o r e s was p erfo rm ed and th e r e s u l t s a r e summarized i n T a b le 8. The r e s u l t i n g F 's o f 1.14 ( a m b i g u i t y - s u b j e c t s ) , 0 .0 7 ( a m b i g u it y - e x p e r i m e n t e r s ) , 1 .4 1 ( e x p e r i m e n t e r s - s u b j e c t s ) and 0 .6 8 ( a m b i g u it y - e x p e r i m e n t e r s - s u b je c ts ) w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . A d d itio n a l S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly s e s : F i r s t V ersu s Second H a lf of S cores Two a d d i t i o n a l a re a s of im p o rtan c e were examined s t a t i s t i c a l l y , a lth o u g h no h y p o th e s e s had been fo rm u la te d fo r them. F i r s t , t h e a u th o r compared th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e card r e s p o n s e s (n = 5) w ith th e l a s t h a l f of th e c a rd r e sp onses (n = 5 ) . The means and s ta n d a rd d e v i a t i o n s f o r th e f i r s t - and s e c o n d - h a lf s c o r e s under b o th h ig h a m b ig u ity and low am b ig u ity c o n d itio n s a re summarized i n T able 9. An a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e between f i r s t - and s e c o n d - h a lf s c o r e s , under c o n d it i o n s of h ig h am b ig u ity was perform ed and the r e s u l t s a re summarized i n T able 10. The r e s u l t i n g F of 2 2 .1 0 , f o r h a l f o f s c o r e s , was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .001 l e v e l . The mean f i r s t - h a l f s c o re was 0 .4 2 and the mean s e c o n d - h a lf s c o re was 9 .0 5 . A second a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e 86 TABLE 9 SUMMARY OF MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR FIRST-HALF AND SECOND-HALF SCORES OF ALL SUBJECTS UNDER HIGH AMBIGUITY AND LOW AMBIGUITY CONDITIONS I n t e r n a l S u b j e c t s High A m biguity F i r s t - h a l f Score S e c o n d - h a lf S co re I n t e r n a l E x te r n a l I n t e r n a l E x te rn a l E xperim enter E x p erim en ter E x p e rim e n te r E xperim en ter m = - 1 .6 7 S.D. = 6 .2 4 m = -6 .5 6 S.D . = 3-50 m = 7 . 8 9 S.D . = 7 .6 2 m - 11.44 S . D.= 10.66 E x te r n a l S u b je c ts m = 6 .6 7 S.D . = 6 .9 9 m = 3.22 S.D . = 10.55 m =11.11 S.D . = 5 .84 m = 5.78 S .D . = 3.85 I n t e r n a l S u b j e c t s F i r s t - h Low Ambigui a I f S core t y S econd-ha I f S core I n t e r n a l E xperim enter E x te r n a l I n t e r n a l E x te rn a l E x p erim en ter E x p e rim e n te r E x p erim en ter m =30.22 S.D. = 3.29 m = 3 2 . 7 8 S.D. = 6 .2 1 m -3 2 .5 6 S.D . = 2 .9 1 m =32.33 S .D . = 5.72 E x te r n a l S u b je c ts m =27.78 S.D . = 4 .5 2 m = 29 .0 0 S .D . = 4 .9 4 m =30.44 S .D . = 4 .8 1 m =34-00 S .D . = 4.22 TABLE 10 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SUBJECTS* SCORES OBTAINED ON THE PHOTO-RATING TASK— FIRST-HALF SCORES VERSUS LAST-HALF SCORES UNDER CONDITIONS OF HIGH AMBIGUITY Source d f Mean S q u a re s F fialf o f s c o r e s (A) 1 1343-3472 22.10* E xperim enters (E) 1 115.0139 1.89 S u b je c ts <S) 1 276.1250 4.56** A x S 1 475.3472 7.82*** A x E 1 48.3472 0.80 E x S 1 62.3472 1.03 A x E x S 1 120.1251 1.98 W ithin r e p l i c a t e s 64 60.7397 --------- T o ta l 71 --------- —— * p < .001 ** p < .05 *** p < .01 88 betw een f i r s t - and s e c o n d - h a lf s c o r e s , u n d er c o n d it i o n s of low a m b ig u ity , was perform ed and th e r e s u l t s a re summarized Ln T able 11. The r e s u l t i n g F of 4 .2 3 , f o r h a l f of s c o r e s , was s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .0 5 l e v e l . The mean f i r s t - h a l f sc o re was 29.94 and th e mean s e c o n d - h a lf s c o re was 32 .3 3 . In t h e a n a l y s i s o f v a ria n c e f o r f i r s t - v e rs u s se c o n d -h a lf s c o r e s , un der c o n d itio n s o f h ig h am b ig u ity (Ta b le 10), an a n a l y s i s of th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een e x p e rim e n te rs was c a l c u l a t e d . The r e s u l t i n g F of 1 .8 9 was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .05 l e v e l . S i m i l a r l y , in th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r ia n c e fo r f i r s t - v e r s u s s e c o n d - h a lf s c o r e s , u n d er c o n d it i o n s of low am b ig u ity (T ab le 1 1 ), an a n a l y s i s o f th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tween e x p e rim e n te rs was c a l c u l a t e d . The r e s u l t i n g F of 2.34 was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . In a d d i t i o n , com parisons were made f o r s u b j e c t s f o r f i r s t - v e rs u s s e c o n d - h a lf s c o r e s . The r e s u l t i n g F o f 4.56 (T able 10 ), u n d e r high am b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s , was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . The mean sc o re f o r i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s was 2.78 and th e mean sc o re f o r e x te r n a l s u b j e c t s was 6 .7 0 . The r e s u l t i n g F o f 2 .0 6 , u n d er low am b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s , was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . A ls o , i n th e s e a n a l y s e s , com parison s were made fo r i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s ( h a l f o f s c o r e s - e x p e r i m e n t e r s , h a l f of s c o r e s - s u b j e c t s , e x p e r i m e n t e r s - s u b je c t s , and h a l f o f s c o r e s - e x p e r i m e n t e r s - s u b j e c t s ) . Under h ig h a m b ig u ity c o n d it i o n s , the r e s u l t i n g F of 7 .8 2 , f o r h a l f of s c o r e s - s u b j e c t s TABLE 11 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SUBJECTST SCORES OBTAINED ON THE PHOTO-RATING TASK— FIRST-HALF SCORES VERSUS LAST-HALF SCORES UNDER CONDITIONS OF LOW AMBIGUITY S ource ___________ d f ___________Mean S q u a re s_________F H a lf o f s c o r e s (A) 1 102.7222 4 .2 3 * E x p e rim e n te rs (E) 1 56.8889 2 .3 4 S u b je c ts (S ) 1 50.0000 2 .0 6 A x S 1 0 .2 2 2 2 0 .0 1 A x E 1 37.5556 1 .5 5 E x S 1 6 .7 2 2 2 0 .2 8 A x E x S 1 29 .3 8 8 9 1 .2 1 W ithin r e p l i c a t e s 64 24.2986 ------ T o ta l 71 ------ ------ * p < .05 90 i n t e r a c t i o n , was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l . In o rd e r to d e te rm in e th e s p e c i f i c so u rc e s o f s i g n i f i c a n t mean d i f f e r ences among c o n d i t i o n s , a s e p a r a t e a n a l y s i s of p a i r - w i s e m u ltip le com parisons was made. T a b le 12 l i s t s th o s e p a i r w ise com parisons which were s i g n i f i c a n t . The mean f o r f i r s t - h a l f s c o r e s o f i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s was - 4 .1 2 , th e mean f o r f i r s t - h a l f s c o r e s o f e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s was 4 .9 4 , th e mean f o r s e c o n d - h a lf s c o r e s o f i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s was 9 .6 6 , and th e mean f o r s e c o n d - h a lf s c o r e s o f e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s was 8 .4 4 . The rem ain in g r e s u l t i n g F*s o f 0.80 ( h a l f o f s c o r e s - e x p e r i m e n t e r s ) , 1 .0 3 ( e x p e r i m e n t e r s - s u b j e c t s ) , and 1.98 ( h a l f o f s c o r e s - e x p e r i m e n t e r s - s u b j e c t s ) a l l w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . Under low am b ig u ity c o n d it i o n s (T ab le 1 1 ), th e r e s u l t i n g F*s of 0 .0 1 ( h a l f of s c o r e s - s u b j e c t s ) , 1.55 ( h a l f of s c o r e s - e x p e r i m e n t e r s ) , 0 .2 8 ( s u b j e c t s - e x p e r i m e n t e r s ) , and 1.21 ( h a l f of s c o r e s - e x p e r i m e n t e r s - s u b j e c t s ) a l l were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 l e v e l . A d d itio n a l S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s i s : Emphasis on I n s t r u c t i o n s A nother a s p e c t of th e p rim a ry r e s e a r c h which was examined was th e re a d in g of i n s t r u c t i o n s to th e s u b j e c t s by th e i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r im e n te r s . In t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s re a d to each s u b j e c t was t h e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t: A r a t i n g o f -10 means t h a t you judge th e p e rs o n to have e x p e rie n c e d extrem e f a i l u r e r e c e n t l y . A r a t i n g o f +10 means t h a t you judge th e p e rso n to have TABLE 12 PAIRS OF MEANS WHICH DIFFER SIGNIFICANTLY IN ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF SCORES OBTAINED ON THE PHOTO-RATING TASK— FIRST-HALF SCORES VERSUS LAST-HALF SCORES UNDER CONDITIONS OF HIGH AMBIGUITY I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s / f i r s t h a l f I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s / f i r s t h a l f I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s / f i r s t h a l f I n t e r n a l s u b je c ts /s e c o n d h a l f E x te rn a l s u b j e c t s / f i r s t h a l f E x te r n a l s u b je c ts /s e c o n d h a l f ' O S —1 92 e x p e rie n c e d extrem e s u c c e s s r e c e n t l y . A r a t i n g of -3 means t h a t you judge t h e p e rso n to have e x p e r i enced m ild f a i l u r e r e c e n t l y , w h ile a r a t i n g o f +3 means t h a t you judge th e p e rs o n to have e x p e rie n c e d m ild s u c c e s s r e c e n t l y , e t c . The a u th o r w ished to examine th e n a tu r e o f th e v o c al emphat i c q u a l i t y p la c e d on the fo u r numbers c o n ta in e d i n t h i s p a ra g ra p h ( i . e . , -1 0 , +10, - 3 and + 3 ), inasm uch as one of t h e s e numbers (+ 3) was c lo s e to th e v a lu e of th e e x p e r im e n te r f s ex p ec ta n cy s c o r e ( + 3 .1 7 ) . I n t h i s r e g a r d , a l l r e a d in g s of i n s t r u c t i o n s to th e s u b j e c t s were c o l l e c t e d on a u d io - r e c o r d in g ta p e s . From th e s e t a p e s each r e a d in g of th e above s ta te m e n t was e x t r a c t e d and p l a c e d i n a random ized sequence on a s e p a r a t e ta p e , i n a manner which would a llo w i t s b e in g e v a lu a te d by a r a t e r l i s t e n i n g to th e t a p e . A l thou gh r e c o r d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s p re c lu d e d th e o b ta in in g o f a l l se v e n ty -tw o r e a d i n g s , f i f t y - s i x r e c o r d i n g s were o b ta in e d from f i v e o f th e s i x e^ sp erim e n ters. T a b le 10 r e p r e s e n t s th e n a t u r e and s o u rc e o f th e s e d a t a . R a tin g s on th e s e s t a te m e n ts were made by f i v e i n d e p e n d en t r a t e r s , each of whom i s a p r o f e s s i o n a l c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g is t or a c e r t i f i e d sp eech and h e a rin g i n s t r u c t o r . The r a t e r s were u n f a m i li a r w ith th e n a t u r e and p u rp o se of th e r e s e a r c h . T hese r a t e r s were p r e s e n t e d w ith f i f t y - s i x of th e f o llo w in g p a i r e d c a te g o r y c h o ic e s : (-1 0 +10 no d i f f e r e n c e ) ( - 3 +3 no d i f f e r e n c e ) Each was asked i n d i v i d u a l l y to l i s t e n t o th e ta p e and re c o rd on p a p e r w hether he b e lie v e d t h e r e to be s e l e c t i v e v o c a l 93 em phasis p l a c e d on th e n e g a t i v e c a t e g o r y or th e p lu s c a t e g ory or t h e r e to be no d i f f e r e n c e i n em ph asis. No f u r t h e r in f o r m a ti o n was p r o v i d e d . T h is p r o c e d u re was conducted f o r a l l 112 s t a t e m e n t s . The r e s u l t s a r e summarized i n T a b l e s 11 and 12. For th e - 1 0 , +10, no d i f f e r e n c e g ro u p in g ( T a b le 11),, r a t e r s a s s ig n e d no d i f f e r e n c e b etw een em phasis on t h e +10 and -1 0 , 53-92% o f th e tim e . They a s s ig n e d s e l e c t i v e em p h a s i s on t h e +10 f i g u r e 36.08% o f t h e tim e , and on t h e -1 0 f i g u r e 10% o f th e t im e . S i m i l a r l y , f o r t h e - 3 , +3, no d i f f e r e n c e g ro u p in g ( T a b le 1 2 ), r a t e r s a s s ig n e d s e l e c t i v e em p h a s i s on t h e +3 f i g u r e 43.58% o f th e tim e , a ssig n e d no d i f f e r e n c e betw een em phasis on t h e -3 and +3, 41.42% o f t h e tim e , and a s s ig n e d s e l e c t i v e em p h a sis on t h e -3 f i g u r e 15% o f th e tim e . For b o th s e t s of r a t i n g s , r a t e r s a s s ig n e d no d i f f e r e n c e i n em phasis 47.67% o f th e tim e , w h ile th e y a s s ig n e d a s e l e c t i v e em phasis on t h e p o s i t i v e v a lu e 39.83% o f th e tim e , and on th e n e g a t i v e v a l u e 12.5% o f the tim e . I f th e no d i f f e r e n c e c a t e g o r y i s e x c lu d e d from a n a l y s i s , r a t e r s a s s ig n e d an em phasis on th e p o s i t i v e v a lu e 76.1% of t h e tim e , and on th e n e g a t i v e v a lu e 23.9% of th e tim e. A two-way a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e was c a l c u l a t e d f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een s e l e c t i v e em phasis on th e n e g a t i v e and on th e p o s i t i v e v a lu e f i g u r e (no d i f f e r e n c e c a t e g o r y e x c lu d e d ) f o r i n t e r n a l v e rs u s e x t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s . The r e s u l t s a r e sum m arized i n T ab le 13. The r e s u l t i n g F o f 1 1 .9 2 , f o r v a lu e , was s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .005 l e v e l . The TABLE 13 SUM M ARY OF DATA FOR EXPERIMENTERS* READING INSTRUCTIONS TO SUBJECTS— NUMBER OF PARAGRAPH READINGS RECORDED PER EXPERIMENTER Number of R eadings E x p e rim e n te r C ategory R ecorded I n t e r n a l #1 8 I n t e r n a l . . . ^ ____ 12 E x t e r n a l #1 12 E x t e r n a l #2 12 E x t e r n a l #3 12 T o t a l : 5 56 95 mean number of p o s i t i v e r a t i n g s was 22-3 and the mean number of n e g a tiv e r a t i n g s was 7 - 0 . The r e s u l t i n g F of 0 - 1 2 , fo r e x p e rim e n te rs , was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e -05 l e v e l . The r e s u l t i n g F of 0 .3 0 , f o r th e v a lu e -e x p e rim e n te r i n t e r a c t i o n was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t the .0 5 l e v e l . R a te r r e l i a b i l i t i e s were c a l c u l a t e d u sin g K e n d a l l ’s c o e f f i c i e n t o f concordance (H ays, 1963) and the m ethod of d e te rm in in g agreem ent betw een p a i r s of jud ges d e s c r i b e d by S p ie lb e r g e r and DeNike (1 9 6 6 ). The mean c o e f f i c i e n t o f concordance f o r a l l f i v e r a t e r s r a t i n g th e -10, +10, no d i f f e r e n c e g ro u p in g was c a l c u l a t e d (T a b le 14 ). The mean v a lu e of .64 r e p r e s e n t s a m o d e ra te ly h ig h degree o f co n c o rd a n c e ; th e mean ran k c o r r e l a t i o n f o r r a t e r s r a t i n g t h i s group was -55, a m o d e ra te ly h ig h c o r r e l a t i o n . The mean c o e f f i c i e n t o f concordance f o r a l l r a t e r s r a t i n g t h e -3 , +3, no d i f f e r e n c e g ro u p in g a ls o was c a l c u l a t e d (T ab le 1 5 ) . The inean v a lu e of .51 r e p r e s e n t s a m o d e ra te ly high d e g r e e of conco rd an ce; th e mean rank c o r r e l a t i o n f o r r a t e r s r a t i n g t h i s group was .3 9 , a f a i r c o r r e l a t i o n . When th e no d i f f e r ence r a t i n g i s excluded from t h e s e a n a ly s e s , th e p e rc e n ta g e agreem ent among judge p a i r s i s 7 0 .2 , a very high d e g r e e of a g re e m e n t. 96 TABLE 14 SUMMARY DATA FOR RATINGS OF EMPHASIS ON INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE -1 0 , +10, NO DIFFERENCE GROUPING Mean # o f R a tin g s f o r -10 Mean # of R a tin g s f o r +10 Mean # o f R a tin g s For No Difference I n t e r n a l E xperim enter #1 I n t e r n a l E xp erim enter #2 E x te r n a l E x p erim e n ter #1 E x te r n a l E x p erim e n ter #2 E x te rn a l E x p e rim e n te r #3 T o ta l P e rc e n t 1.8 1.2 1 .4 0.6 0.6 5.6 10.00 2.2 4 .8 3.0 7 .4 2.8 20.2 36.08 4 .0 6.0 7.6 4 .0 8.6 30.2 53.92 97 TABLE 15 SUMMARY DATA FOR RATINGS OF EMPHASIS ON INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE -3 , +3, NO DIFFERENCE GROUPING Mean # o f R a tin g s f o r -3 Mean # of R a tin g s f o r +3 Mean # of R a tin g s For No D if f e r e n c e I n t e r n a l E x p erim e n ter #1 I n t e r n a l E x p e rim e n te r #2 E x te r n a l E x p erim e n ter #1 E x te r n a l E xperim enter #2 E x te r n a l E x p e rim e n te r #3 T o ta l P e r c e n t 2.6 0 .4 2.8 0.2 2 .4 8.4 15.00 3 .2 5 .8 4 .0 9 .2 2.2 2 4 .4 4 3 .5 8 2.2 5.8 5 .2 2.6 7 .4 2 3 .2 41.42 TABLE 16 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF EMPHASIS OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR POSITIVE VERSUS NEGATIVE VALUES WITH THE NO DIFFERENCE CATEGORY EXCLUDED Source d f Mean S q u ares F E x p erim e n ters (A) 1 0 .0 9 0 .1 2 Value (B) 1 8.82 11.92* A x B 1 0 .2 2 0.30 W ithin r e p l i c a t e s ( a d j . ) 16 0 .7 4 ------ T o ta l 19 ------ ------ * p < .005 TABLE 17 COEFFICIENT OF CONCORDANCE AND AVERAGE RANK CORRELATION FOR RATINGS OF EMPHASIS OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE -1 0 , +10, NO DIFFERENCE GROUPING E xperim enter E xperim enter E xperim enter E xperim enter E x p erim enter 1 2 3 4 5 Mean C o e f f i c i e n t of concordance f o r r a t e r s 1-5 0 .1 3 0 .7 9 0 .7 9 0.91 0 .5 7 0 .6 4 Rank c o r r e l a t i o n f o r r a t e r s 1-5 0.0 9 0 .7 4 0 .7 4 0.89 0.46 0 .5 5 vO v O TABLE 18 COEFFICIENT OF CONCORDANCE AND AVERAGE RANK CORRELATION FOR RATINGS OF EMPHASIS OF INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE - 3 , +3, NO DIFFERENCE GROUPING E xperim enter E x p erim en ter E x p erim en ter E xperim enter E xperim enter 1 2 3 4 5 Mean C o e f f i c i e n t o f concordance f o r r a t e r s 1-5 0 .1 6 0 .1 2 1.0 0 0 .5 2 . 0 .7 6 0-51 Rank c o r r e l a t i o n f o r r a t e r s 1-5 - 0 .0 5 -0 .1 0 1.00 0.40 0.70 0 .39 100 CHAPTER V DISCUSSION The p rim a ry p u rp o se of the p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h was to i n v e s t i g a t e th e n a tu r e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e ex p e rim e n te r ex p ectan cy e f f e c t , th e l e v e l of am b ig u ity o f th e t a s k , th e e x p e rim e n te r *s p e rc e iv e d o r i g i n of lo c u s o f con t r o l of r e in f o r c e m e n t, and th e s u b j e c t * s p e rc e iv e d o r i g i n of lo c u s of c o n t r o l o f r e in f o r c e m e n t. The a u th o r h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t u n d e r th e two v a ry in g c o n d itio n s o f t a s k a m b ig u ity (h ig h and low ), i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs would d i f f e r i n the d e g re e to which t h e i r s u b je c ts * p h o t o - r a t i n g ta s k s c o r e s would ap p ro x im ate t h e i r ( t h e e x p e r im e n te rs * ) e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e , and i n t u r n , t h a t i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s would d i f f e r i n th e d e g re e to w hich t h e i r p h o t o - r a t i n g t a s k s c o r e s would a p p r o x i mate the e x p e rim e n te rs* e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e . S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t was h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t : ( a ) The mean s c o r e of d e v i a t i o n from th e e x p e r i m enter *s e x p e c te d s c o re w i l l be l e s s f o r a l l s u b j e c t s under h ig h a m b ig u ity c o n d itio n s than under low a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s (a s i g n i f i c a n t m ain e f f e c t f o r a m b ig u ity ). 101 102 (b ) The mean s c o r e of d e v i a t i o n from th e e x p e r i m e n te r ’s e x p ec te d s c o r e w i l l be l e s s f o r a l l s u b j e c t s under i n t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r c o n d it i o n s th a n u n d e r e x t e r n a l e x p e r i m enter c o n d i t i o n s ( a s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t f o r e x p e r i m enter c o n t r o l ) . ( c ) The mean s c o r e o f d e v i a t i o n from t h e e x p e r i m e n te r ’ s e x p ec te d s c o r e w i l l be l e s s f o r e x te r n a l s u b j e c t s th an f o r i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s (a s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t f o r s u b j e c t c o n t r o l ) . (d ) T h ere w i l l be s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s f o r a m b ig u ity , e x p e r im e n te r c o n t r o l , and s u b j e c t c o n t r o l . P i l o t R e se a rc h and S u b j e c t - S e l e c t i o n P ro c ed u re D e r i v a t i o n o f th e P h o to - R a tin g ^fask I n Phase 1 o f th e d e r i v a t i o n r e s e a r c h , th e t e n ambiguous c a rd s ( r a t e d w ith a l l 125 a v a i l a b l e ) w ere s e l e c t e d by r a t e r s whose mean p e r c e n t agreem ent f o r r a t i n g them n u m e r i c a l ly was 7 0 .5 0 . The mean f o r t h e s e c a rd s was + 0 .0 9 . S i m i l a r l y , th e te n s u c c e s s c a rd s ( r a t e d w ith a l l 125 a v a i l a b l e ) w ere s e l e c t e d by r a t e r s whose mean p e r c e n t a g reem en t f o r r a t i n g them n u m e r i c a l l y was a l s o 7 0 .5 0 . The mean f o r t h e s e c a r d s was + 7 .1 2 . The minimum p e r c e n t agreem ent among r a t e r s i n b o th c a s e s was 65, when th e r a t i n g s w ere n u m e ri c a l . T h is d e g re e o f agreem ent i s h i g h , p a r t i c u l a r l y when one c o n s i d e r s t h a t th e ran g e from w hich r a t i n g s c o u ld be 103 chosen c o n s i s t e d o f tw enty p o s s i b l e c h o ic e s . When th e r a t i n g system was a c a t e g o r i c a l one, th e mean p e r c e n t of agreem ent f o r th e te n ambiguous c a rd s (when r a t e d w ith a l l 125 a v a i l a b l e ) i n c r e a s e s s l i g h t l y to 73. For th e rem aining 27%, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t th e success c a te g o ry was chosen 14%, and th e f a i l u r e c a te g o ry 13% of th e tim e . T his even d i v i s i o n of s c o r e s a s s ig n e d to t h e p i c t u r e s n o t c l e a r l y ag reed upon as ambiguous i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s no d i r e c t i o n a l b i a s to th e te n c a rd s . When th e su c c e s s c a rd s were r a t e d c a t e g o r i c a l l y , along w ith th e re m a in in g 115 c a r d s , th e mean p e rc e n t agreem ent among r a t e r s f o r th e su c c e s s c a rd s s o a r s to 97%, i n d i c a t i n g n e a r l y p e r f e c t a g re e ment. Inasmuch as th e s e tw e n ty c a rd s were embodied i n an a g g re g a te of 125, a llo w in g a b road com parison among many c a r d s , th e s e p e r c e n t agreem ent f i g u r e s f o r n u m e ric a l and c a t e g o r i c a l assig n m en ts may be s p u r i o u s l y h ig h . To c o n tr o l f o r such co m p arativ e an ch o rin g which may have o c c u r r e d , th e second p h a se , or v a l i d a t i o n p ro c e d u r e , was conducted on d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t s . When th e tw en ty c a rd s were r a t e d by them s e l v e s , a g a in th e mean p e r c e n t agreem ent ( c a t e g o r i c a l ) f o r ambiguous c a r d s i s e le v a t e d , to 90%, w h ile th e mean sc o re r a t i n g f o r them i s lowered s l i g h t l y to - 0 .7 7 . The mean p e r c e n t agreem ent ( c a t e g o r i c a l ) f o r s u c c e s s c a r d s d e c r e a s e s s l i g h t l y to 94%, but the mean s c o re r a t i n g rem a in s unchanged a t + 7.12 . T hus, th e n u m e r ic a l, c a t e g o r i c a l , and mean 1 0 4 p e rc e n t agreem ent r a t i n g s of th e c a r d s , when a s s e s s e d i n d e p e n d e n tly o f th e o th e r 115 c a r d s , te n d s to rem ain r a t h e r c o n s ta n t and h ig h , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e c a rd s do a llo w a v a lid d im e n s io n a liz in g o f a m b ig u ity . I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e I-E s c o r e s o b ta in e d allow ed a c o n v e n ie n t d ic h o to m iz in g of i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e r n a l i t y i n t o th e lower 39.66% and th e upp er 40.52%, e l i m i n a t i n g th e m id d le 19.83%, w ith n e a r ly even numbers o f i n t e r n a l s (4 6 ) and e x t e r n a l s ( 4 7 ) . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s c o r e s f o r th e o v e r a l l s c a l e was skewed s l i g h t l y tow ard th e m id d le . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e means (6 .0 7 v e rs u s 1 3 .7 4 ) and m edians (7 v e rs u s 13) of th e two extrem e ra n g e s w ere s u f f i c i e n t l y d i s c r e p a n t to p r e v e n t s t a t i s t i c a l problem s or m e th o d o lo g ic a l c o n c e rn s. The s i x e x p e r im e n te r s , s e l e c t e d th ro u g h a p ro c e d u re of ra n d o m iz a tio n , a ls o d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t h e i r means ( i n t e r n a l s 5 .0 0 , e x t e r n a l s 1 4 .6 7 ), and had s i m i l a r enough ra n g e s ( i n t e r n a l s 5, e x t e r n a l s 7) to p re v e n t s t a t i s t i c a l problem s or m e th o d o lo g ic a l c o n c e rn s . The mean of th e i n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs was 1.07 p o i n t s below t h a t f o r th e i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s w h ile t h a t f o r th e e x t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs was 0 .9 3 p o i n t s above t h a t f o r th e e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s , a g a in i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e p o s i t i o n o f t h e i r mean, r e l a t i v e to t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e g r o u p in g s , was com parable. 105 P rim a ry R e s e a r c h : A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e P h o to - R a tm g Task H y p o th e s is 1: Main E f f e c t f o r A m biguity T here was a s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t o b ta in e d f o r am b i g u i t y , i n th e p r e d i c t e d d i r e c t i o n . C l e a r l y , t h e s c o r e s of s u b j e c t s who r a t e d low a m b ig u ity p h o to g ra p h s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y more d i s c r e p a n t from t h e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e of th e e x p e r i m e n t e r s th a n w ere th e s c o r e s o f s u b j e c t s who r a t e d h ig h a m b ig u ity p h o to g r a p h s . H y p o th e s is 2: Main E f f e c t . f o r E x p erim e n ter C o n t r o l T here was a s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t o b ta in e d f o r e x p e rim e n te r c o n t r o l i n t h e p r e d i c t e d d i r e c t i o n . C l e a r l y , t h e s c o r e s o f s u b j e c t s of e x t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y more d i s c r e p a n t from th e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e o f th e e x p e r im e n te r s th a n w ere th e s c o r e s o f s u b j e c t s o f i n t e r n a l exp e r i m e n t e r s . H y p o th e s is 3: Main E f f e c t f o r S u b j e c t C o n tr o l T here was a s i g n i f i c a n t main e f f e c t o b ta in e d f o r s u b j e c t c o n t r o l i n th e p r e d i c t e d d i r e c t i o n . C l e a r i y , th e s c o r e s o f i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more d i s c r e p a n t from th e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e o f th e e x p e rim e n te r th a n th o s e o f e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s . 106 H y p o th e s is 4 ; I n t e r a c t i o n 'E ffe c t t o r A m b ig u ity , E x p e rim e n te r C o n t r o l , and S u b je c t C o n tr o l T h ere w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s . D is c u s s io n When s u b j e c t s a r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a t a s k o f t h i s n a t u r e , w hich can be d im e n s io n a liz e d i n term s o f l e v e l of a m b ig u ity , th e y c o n s i s t e n t l y p e rfo rm more i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e e x p e r i m e n t e r ’s e x p e c t a t i o n ( c o n s c io u s or u n c o n s c io u s ) when th e t a s k c r i t e r i o n r e s p o n s e i s h i g h ly am biguous. I f th e e x p e r im e n te r i s an i n t e r n a l p e rs o n he i s more e f f e c t i v e w ith h i s s u b j e c t s i n a p p ro x im a tin g h i s e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e th a n i f he i s an e x t e r n a l p e r s o n . H is e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s h e i g h t ened i f th e s u b j e c t s a re e x t e r n a l p e r s o n s . T h u s, th e m axi mal e f f e c t w i l l be o b ta in e d from i n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te r s w orking w ith e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s u n d e r c o n d it i o n s o f high a m b ig u ity . The m inim al e f f e c t w i l l be o b ta in e d from e x t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s w o rk in g w ith i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s und er con d i t i o n s of low a m b ig u ity . To c l a r i f y th e s e f i n d i n g s one must look a t re s p o n s e p a t t e r n d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e p h o t o - r a t i n g t a s k . Under b o th h ig h and low a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s , t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e v a lu e o f th e f i r s t f i v e r e s p o n s e s and th e v a lu e o f th e l a s t f i v e r e s p o n s e s . Under c o n d i t i o n s of h ig h a m b ig u ity , i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s and e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n te rm s o f f i r s t - and l a s t - h a l f 1 0 7 r e s p o n s e s . Under c o n d itio n s o f low a m b ig u ity t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t s u b j e c t d i f f e r e n c e a lth o u g h t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t was m easured i s d i r e c t i o n a l l y s i m i l a r to e a r l i e r f i n d i n g s ( i . e . , e x t e r n a l s were c lo s e r t o t h e e x p e c ta n c y sc o re t h a n w ere i n t e r n a l s und er low a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s ) . The p a i r w i s e com parison f o r h a l f o f s c o r e s - s u b j e c t s i n t e r a c t i o n u n d e r low a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s i s shown in T a b le 19. Here i t can be seen t h a t t h e r e i s a n o t a b l e d i f f e r e n c e i n th e f i r s t - h a l f s c o re s of i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s ; e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s sc o re lower t h a n do i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s . B oth groups i n c r e a s e t h e i r s c o r e s from f i r s t - t o l a s t - h a l f re s p o n s e s a l t h o u g h th ey a t t a i n a lm o s t i d e n t i c a l l a s t - h a l f s c o r e s . T h i s means t h a t e x t e r n a l s i n c r e a s e t h e i r s c o r e s c o n s i d e r a b ly more th an do i n t e r n a l s . Inasm uch as lower s c o r e s h e r e mean g r e a t e r a p p ro x im a tio n to t h e e x p ectan cy s c o r e , th e f i r s t - h a l f r e s p o n s e s o f e x t e r n a l s b e t t e r a p p r o x i m ate th e e x p e r im e n te r Ts e x p e c ta n c y sc o re t h a n do th o s e o f i n t e r n a l s . T h u s, under low a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s , a lth o u g h i n i t i a l l y t h e e x p e rim e n te r i s m ore e f f e c t i v e w ith e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s , i n t h e c o u rse of t h e e x p erim e n t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s g r e a t l y r e d u c e d and he g e n e r a l l y becomes l e s s e f f e c t i v e w i t h a l l s u b j e c t s . In t h e c a se of h a l f o f s c o r e s - s u b j e c t i n t e r a c t i o n under h ig h a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s a d i f f e r e n t f i n d i n g i s e v id e n t, a s shown i n Table 1 9 . As w ith s u b j e c t s under low am b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s , th e r e i s a n o ta b le d i f f e r e n c e in t h e 108 TABLE 19 COMPARISON OF FIRST- AND SECOND-HALF PHOTO- RATING TASK SCORES FOR INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SUBJECTS UNDER CONDITIONS OF HIGH AND LOW AMBIGUITY Low A m b ig u ity H igh A m biguity F i r s t H alf Second H a l f F i r s t H a lf Second H a lf I n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s 567 584 -7 4 174 E x te r n a l s u b j e c t s 511 580 89 152 1 0 0 f i r s t - h a l f s c o r e s of i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s ; i n t e r nal s u b j e c t s s c o r e lower th a n do e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s . Both groups i n c r e a s e t h e i r s c o r e s from f i r s t - to l a s t - h a l f r e sp o n s e s , a lth o u g h they a t t a i n r e a s o n a b ly c lo s e l a s t - h a l f s c o r e s . T h is means t h a t i n t e r n a l s i n c r e a s e t h e i r s c o re s s i g n i f i c a n t l y more than do e x t e r n a l s . Inasmuch as lower sc o re s h e re mean l e s s e r a p p ro x im a tio n t o th e e x p e c ta n c y s c o re , th e f i r s t - h a l f r e s p o n s e s of e x t e r n a l s b e t t e r a p p r o x i mate t h e e x p e rim e n te r* s e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e th an do th o s e of i n t e r n a l s , w hereas the l a s t - h a l f s c o r e s of i n t e r n a l s b e t t e r app ro x im ate th e e x p e c ta n c y sc o re th an do th o s e of e x t e r n a l s . Thus, u nder h ig h am b ig u ity c o n d it i o n s , a lth o u g h i n i t i a l l y the e x p e rim e n te r i s more e f f e c t i v e w i t h e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s , in t h e co u rse o f th e e x p erim e n t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s r e v e r s e d such t h a t he becomes more e f f e c t i v e w i t h i n t e r n a l s i n th e l a s t - h a l f s c o r e s . The n e t e f f e c t i s t h a t o v e r a l l t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l su b j e c t s , b u t the s i g n i f i c a n c e stems p r i m a r i l y from th e dram a t i c a l l y lower f i r s t - h a l f s c o r e s f o r i n t e r n a l s . In b o th h ig h and low am biguity c o n d i t i o n s , th e n , i n t e r n a l s b e g in f a r t h e r away from th e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e than do e x t e r n a l s . Under low am b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s , th e l a s t - h a l f perform ances a r e e q u i v a l e n t . Under h ig h am b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s , th e l a s t - h a l f p e rfo rm a n c e s a r e m o d e ra te ly c l o s e , w ith i n t e r n a l s b e t t e r a p p ro x im a tin g th e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e . 110 S u b je c ts Response P a t t e r n s One m ight s p e c u l a t e about th e o r i g i n o f th e s e su b j e c t d i f f e r e n c e s . As was d is c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y , g r e a t e r th an o n e - h a lf of th e s ta te m e n ts re a d by e x p e rim e n te rs to t h e i r s u b j e c t s c o n ta in e d s e l e c t i v e em phasis. S e v e n ty - s ix p e r c e n t of th e emphases were on p o s i t i v i t y , w h ile only 24 p e r c e n t were on n e g a t i v i t y , a h i g h ly s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . T h is means t h a t s u b j e c t s a r e r e c e iv in g a t l e a s t t h i s in f o r m a tio n about what t h e i r e x p e rim e n te rs e x p e c t. R esearch d is c u s s e d e a r l i e r has i n d i c a t e d t h a t s u b j e c t s T ,g e t the m essage" e a r l y and t h i s f i n d i n g p ro b a b ly i s tr u e f o r th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h . One e x p la n a tio n f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e s n o te d above can come th ro u g h c o n s i d e r a ti o n of r e s i s t a n c e t o s u b t l e s u g g e s tio n . I n t e r n a l s r e s i s t e x t e r n a l m a n ip u la tio n more than do e x t e r n a l s , when th e y a re aware o f t h i s m a n ip u la tio n , f o r f e a r t h a t t h e i r c o n t r o l of th e environm ent i s b e in g ta k e n from them. E x te r n a ls r e s i s t l e s s , inasm uch a s th e y e x p e c t such e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l . The r o l e of c o n fo rm ity i s im p o rta n t to t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , however, f o r i f th e i n t e r n a l p e rs o n views i t as advantag eo us to conform , he c o n s c io u s ly may do so w i l l i n g l y , n o t a t th e expense of p e r c e iv e d l o s s o f any con t r o l . Were he to p e r c e i v e such b e h a v io r as d is a d v a n ta g e o u s , he p ro b a b ly would r e s i s t c o n fo rm ity p r e s s u r e . T hus, when the p e rs o n p e r c e i v e s t h a t e x t e r n a l a tte m p ts to m a n ip u la te him a r e d is a d v a n ta g e o u s or r e p r e s e n t s u b t l e e f f o r t s t o manip u l a t e him a t an u n c o n sc io u s l e v e l , he r e s i s t s . na As was s e e n ab ove, i n b o th h ig h and low a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s i n t e r n a l s * f i r s t - h a l f s c o r e s a r e f a r t h e r away from e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e s th a n a re e x t e r n a l s * f i r s t - h a l f s c o r e s . I f t h e s e i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s have ’’g o t t e n th e mes s a g e ” from th e e x p e r i m e n t e r s , then t h e y w i l l be e x p e c te d to r e s i s t , w hereas e x t e r n a l s a r e e x p ec te d to r e s i s t l e s s b e cau se th e y a n t i c i p a t e such e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l . What may o c c u r , th e n , u n d er c o n d i t i o n s of h i g h am b i g u i t y , i s t h a t b e c a u se th e c r i t e r i o n r e s p o n s e i s am bigu o u s, e x t e r n a l s a r e c o n te n t to be m a n ip u la te d by e x p e r im e n t e r s . I n t e r n a l s , who show such a d r a m a tic change i n s c o r e , l i k e l y have c o n clu d ed n e a r th e end o f th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e e x p e rim e n t t h a t inasm uch a s t h e c r i t e r i o n re s p o n s e i s so am biguous, i t i s a d v a n ta g e o u s to conform and c o n s c i o u s ly may do so w i l l i n g l y , n o t a t th e e x pense o f p e r c e i v e d l o s s o f any c o n t r o l . They th e n may move s t r o n g l y i n th e d i r e c t i o n o f c o n fo rm in g . They p e r c e i v e t h i s b e h a v io r a s a d i r e c t con seq u en c e of t h e i r a c t i o n s , t h e r e b y under p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l . The e x t e r n a l s a r e e x p e r ie n c in g a s i m i l a r i n c r e a s i n g a p p ro x im a tio n to th e E xpectancy s c o r e . For them i t i s l o g i c a l to acc ed e t o th e e x p e r im e n te r * s e f f o r t s to m a n ip u la te them and i n t h e f i r s t h a l f of th e e x p e rim e n t th e y have l e a r n e d what th e " c o r r e c t " r e s p o n s e s a r e and th e n can p r o v id e them . Under th e low a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n , as w ith th e h igh a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n , i n th e f i r s t h a l f of th e e x p e rim e n t i n t e r n a l s l i k e l y a r e r e s i s t a n t more th a n a r e e x t e r n a l s who 112 e x p e c t c o n t r o l m ore. Near th e end o f th e f i r s t h a l f of the e x p erim en t i n t e r n a l s l i k e l y have concluded t h a t th e c r i t e r io n re s p o n s e i s unam biguous, e a s i l y d e te rm in e d , and f o r t h i s re a s o n w i l l r e s i s t any e f f o r t to be m an ip u lated in an "am b ig u o u s” d i r e c t i o n . Most d i f f i c u l t to e x p la in i s why e x t e r n a l s , under low a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s , i n c r e a s e t h e i r sc o re s i n a d i r e c t i o n away from the ex p ec ta n cy s c o r e , se em in g ly r e s i s t i n g e x p e rim e n te r e f f o r t s to p ro v id e c o n t r o l . P erhaps th e e x p la n a tio n r e s t s i n th e f a c t t h a t , a s w ith th e i n t e r n a l s , th e t a s k i s p e rc e iv e d as so unambiguous t h a t th e y d e te rm in e t h a t th e c o r r e c t re s p o n se can be c o n ti n g e n t on e f f o r t on t h e i r p a r t and th u s th e y r e s i s t e f f o r t s to be i n f lu e n c e d s u b t l y . Prom t h e i r rem arks a f te r w a r d s i n a p o s t - e x p e rim e n ta l group i n t e r v i e w (T a b le 2 3 ) , e x p e rim e n te rs i n d i c a t e d t h a t s u b j e c t s who were asked t o r a t e th e low am b ig u ity c a rd s l e s s f r e q u e n t l y looked a t the e x p e rim e n te r b e f o r e making a r a t i n g , h e s i t a t e d l e s s i n t h e i r r a t e of re s p o n d in g , seemed more c o n fid e n t i n t h e i r an sw e rs, appeared more r e l a x e d d u rin g th e e x p e rim e n t, and g e n e r a l l y so u g h t any k in d of re in fo rc e m e n t l e s s f r e q u e n t l y th a n d id s u b j e c t s who r a t e d h ig h a m b ig u ity c a r d s . T hese o b s e r v a tio n s s u p p o r t the c o n te n tio n t h a t e x t e r n a l s p e r c e i v e th e low a m b ig u ity c a rd s a s unambiguous and t h e i r resp o n d in g as f u l l y w i t h i n t h e i r c o n t r o l . 113 E xperim enters* I n f l u e n c e A l l the r e s u l t s o f a n a ly s e s o f e x p e rim e n te r- in f lu e n c e p a t t e r n s a r e c o n s i s t e n t and i n th e p r e d i c t e d d i r e c t i o n . Thus, f o r d i f f e r e n c e - f r o m - e x p e c t a n c y - s c o r e s c o re s , th e mean s c o r e s o f i n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs* s u b j e c t s are c l o s e r to the e x p e c ta n c y sc o re th a n a re th e mean s c o r e s of e x t e r n a l e x p erim e n ters* s u b j e c t s und er b o th h ig h ambigu i t y c o n d it i o n s and low am bigu ity c o n d i t i o n s . For change-from -card-m ean s c o r e s ( i . e . , th e d e g re e of m a n ip u la tio n of s u b j e c t s ) th e mean sc o re s o f i n t e r n a l ex p erim e n ters* s u b j e c t s a re more d i s c r e p a n t th a n a re th e mean s c o r e s o f e x t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs* s u b j e c t s under b o th high and low am b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s . When the e x p e rim e n te r p a t t e r n s a re examined by . i n d i v i d u a l c o n d itio n of am b igu ity th e y s t i l l a r e c o n s i s t e n t ly i n th e p r e d i c te d d i r e c t i o n . Under c o n d itio n s o f high a m b ig u ity , the mean s c o r e s o f i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s o f i n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs a re f u r t h e r from th e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e th a n a re th e mean s c o r e s o f e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s o f i n t e r n a l e x p e r i m e n te rs . S i m i l a r l y , t h e mean s c o r e s o f i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s of e x t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs a r e f a r t h e r from th e e x p e c ta n c y sc o re than a r e th e mean s c o r e s of e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s o f e x t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s . / Under c o n d i t i o n s of low a m b ig u ity , th e mean s c o re s of i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s o f i n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs a r e f a r t h e r from th e ex p ectan cy s c o r e than a r e th e mean s c o r e s of 1 1 4 e x t e r n a l s u b je c ts o f th e s e same e x p e r im e n te r s . S i m ila r ly , th e mean sco res o f i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s of e x t e r n a l e x p e ri m en ters a re f a r t h e r from the e x p e c ta n c y s c o re th a n are t h e mean s c o r e s of e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s o f th e se e x p e r im e n te r s . F i n a ll y , u n d e r low a m b ig u ity c o n d it i o n s the mean f i r s t - h a l f sc o re s o f s u b j e c t s o f i n t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s a r e c l o s e r to the e x p e c ta n c y sc o re t h a n are th e mean f i r s t - h a l f s c o r e s of s u b j e c t s o f e x te r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s . A lso, th e mean l a s t - h a l f s c o r e s of s u b j e c t s o f i n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs a re c lo s e r to t h e ex p ec ta n cy s c o r e s than a r e t h e mean l a s t - h a l f sc o re s of s u b j e c t s of e x t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s . Under h ig h a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s , t h e mean f i r s t - h a l f s c o r e s o f s u b j e c t s o f i n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs a r e c lo s e r to th e expectancy s c o r e th an a re t h e mean f i r s t - h a l f s c o re s o f s u b j e c t s of e x t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s . The mean l a s t - h a l f s c o r e s of s u b j e c t s o f i n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs a r e c lo s e r t o th e expectancy s c o r e th an a re t h e mean l a s t - h a l f sco res o f s u b j e c t s of e x t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s . From t h e i r co n clu d in g rem arks in th e p o s t - e x p e rim e n ta l, group in te r v ie w (T a b le 23), and p o s t - e x p e rim e n ta l w r i t t e n q u e s t i o n n a i r e (Table 2 2 ) , the e x p e r i m en ters (two i n t e r n a l s and two e x t e r n a l s ) w ere unaware o f th e purpose of t h e experim ent or o f t h e i r a c t u a l r o l e . They g e n e r a l l y b e lie v e d th e r e s e a r c h to have been concerned w ith s o c i a l judgm ent, a b i l i t y to e m p a th iz e , or o p i n io n f o r m a tio n . From th e w r i t t e n comments a l o n e , th e e x t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs 115 were unaware o f any s p e c i f i c b e h a v io r s th ey may have been engaging i n or d e m o n s tra tin g t o th e s u b j e c t s d u rin g th e e x p e rim e n t, which may have had some b e a rin g on th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d . The e x t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs s t a t e d only t h a t they wanted t h e i r s u b j e c t s to be r e l a x e d and f e e l f r e e to g iv e any r a t i n g th ey w ish e d . The i n t e r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs answered t h i s q u e s tio n i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l and e la b o r a te d on an aw are n e ss o f some of th e c o n tin g e n c ie s in v o lv e d i n th e r e s e a r c h . They b o th s t a t e d t h a t b e h a v io r of t h e i r s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e i r f e e l i n g an x io u s) could have had some d i r e c t i n f lu e n c e on the r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n s of th e s u b j e c t s . T hese comments were a m p lif ie d i n the group i n te r v ie w (T ab le 23) which was le d by the a u th o r who assumed a n o n - r e v e a l i n g , c a t a l y t i c , m oderator r o l e . Here i t seemed c l e a r t h a t th e e x p e rim e n te rs were s e n s i t i v e to the c o n s t a n t se e in g o f re in fo rc e m e n t or a s s i s t ance on th e p a r t o f s u b j e c t s who were r a t i n g high a m b ig u ity c a r d s . They s p e c u la te d t h a t f a c i a l g e s tu r e s and movements on t h e i r p a r t m ight have in f lu e n c e d th e s u b j e c t s 1 re s p o n d i n g . A d d i t i o n a l l y , th e y e x p re sse d an aw areness o f t h e i r each hav in g d e term in ed e a r l y what t h e i r own s u b j e c t i v e r a t i n g s of the c a rd s were and how th e y were a l e r t e d i n t e r n a l l y when the s u b j e c t s * re s p o n s e s d i f f e r e d c o n s id e r a b ly from th e s e i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t i v e r a t i n g s . They p o s i t e d then t h a t t h i s i n t e r n a l p uzzlem en t may have in f lu e n c e d th e r e sp o n se p a t t e r n s o f t h e s u b j e c t s tow ard t h e i r ( t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r s ’ ) i n t e r n a l norms. I n t e r n a l s e x p re sse d more of 116 an aw aren ess o f th e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a n d id e x t e r n a l s . N e v e r th e le s s , a l l of th e e x p e r im e n te r s w ere unaware o f any e f f o r t s on t h e i r p a r t to c o n t r o l f o r t h i s phenomenon. They a l s o b e lie v e d t h a t one s e t o f p i c t u r e s (lo w a m b ig u ity ) r e p r e s e n t e d p o s i t i v e r a t i n g s and th e o th e r s e t (h ig h a m b ig u ity ) r e p r e s e n te d n e g a t i v e r a t i n g s . T hus, t h e e x p e r im e n te r s (m oreso t h e i n t e r n a l e x p e r i m e n te rs ) were aw are of t h e i r having e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e r n a l r a t i n g norms f o r th e p h o to g ra p h s and t h e i r f e e l i n g i n t e r n a l l y a l e r t e d t o d i s c r e p a n c y between t h e s e norms and th e s u b j e c t s ' r a t i n g s . They w e re unaware o f any e f f o r t t o m inim ize t h e s e i n t e r n a l r e s p o n s e s w h ic h , th ey f e e l , c o u ld have a f f e c t e d t h e s u b j e c t s ' re s p o n s e s i n an e x p e c ta n c y d i r e c t i o n . The r e s u l t s of t h i s re s e a r c h s u p p o r t th e b e l i e f t h a t an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e p s y c h o s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e tween an e x p e rim e n te r and a s u b j e c t m ust d e r iv e i n p a r t from th e m easured i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e r n a l i t y of b o th p a r t i c i p a n ts and from th e l e v e l o f t a s k a m b ig u ity em ployed. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY The m ain p u rp o s e o f th e r e s e a r c h was to i n v e s t i g a t e th e n a t u r e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e e x p e r im e n te r e x p e c ta n c y e f f e c t , th e l e v e l o f a m b ig u ity of th e t a s k , th e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's p e r c e i v e d o r i g i n o f lo c u s o f c o n t r o l o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t, and th e s u b j e c t ' s p e r c e i v e d o r i g i n of lo c u s of c o n t r o l o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t . I t was h y p o th e s iz e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t h a t th e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e would be a p p ro x im a te d b e t t e r by s u b j e c t s who w ere t e s t e d un der h ig h a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s th a n by s u b j e c t s t e s t e d u n d e r low a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s , p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e o f a g r e a t e r dep en d en ce on t h e e x p e r im e n te r f o r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t th e more ambiguous c r i t e r i o n r e s p o n s e . A ls o , i t was h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t s u b j e c t s of i n t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s would a p p ro x im a te b e t t e r th e e x p e r i m e n t e r ’ s e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e th a n would s u b j e c t s o f e x t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s , p r i m a r i l y b e c a u se i n t e r n a l e x p e r i m e n te r s , a s compared w i t h e x t e r n a l e x p e r i m e n t e r s , would p e r c e i v e th e o b t a i n i n g o f th e d e s i r e d r e s u l t s ( s u b j e c t ' s s c o r e c lo s e to e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e ) as a d i r e c t co n seq u e n ce of 117 118 t h e i r a c t i o n s and t h e r e b y u n d e r p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l . In a d d i t i o n , i t was h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s , as compared w ith i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s , would ap p ro x im ate b e t t e r th e e x p e r i m e n t e r 's e x p ectan cy s c o re p r i m a r i l y b e cau se th ey p e r c e iv e d th e o b ta in in g of th e d e s i r e d r e s u l t ( c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e ) as n o t c o n tin g e n t on any d i r e c t e f f o r t on t h e i r p a r t and th e r e b y beyond p e r s o n a l c o n t r o l - - t h e y would a n t i c i p a t e e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l . F u rth e rm o re , i t was h y p o th e s i z e d t h a t t h e r e would be s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s f o r a m b ig u ity , i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e m a l i t y of e x p e r im e n te r s , and i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e r n a l i t y o f s u b j e c t s . The I n t e r n a l - E x t e r n a l S c a le was a d m in is te re d to a l l 116 v o lu n te e r m ale s u b j e c t s whose s c o r e s th e n were d i c h o t o mized f o r i n t e r n a l i t y and e x t e r n a l i t y , w ith th e m idd le 20% of s c o r e s e x c lu d e d . The names o f the rem a in in g n i n e t y - t h r e e s u b j e c t s were l i s t e d i n random f a s h io n from which were s e l e c t e d , a g a in random ly, t h r e e i n t e r n a l and t h r e e e x te r n a l e x p e rim e n te rs . These e x p e rim e n te rs random ly were a ssig n e d to groups .of tw elv e s u b j e c t s each ( s i x i n t e r n a l and s i x e x t e r n a l ) a ls o random ly a s s ig n e d . Each e x p e rim e n te r admin i s t e r e d to each s u b j e c t one t e n - c a r d s e t of h igh am b ig u ity or one t e n - c a r d s e t of low am b ig u ity p h o to g ra p h s o f f a c e s such t h a t s i x s u b j e c t s ( t h r e e i n t e r n a l s and t h r e e e x t e r n a l s ) were asked t o r a t e h ig h a m b ig u ity c a r d s , and s i x s u b j e c t s ( t h r e e i n t e r n a l s and t h r e e e x t e r n a l s ) were asked t o r a t e low am b ig u ity c a r d s . 119 The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e p r e d i c t i o n s w ere c o r r e c t . S u b je c ts t e s t e d un der c o n d i t i o n s of h igh a m b ig u ity s i g n i f i c a n t l y a p p ro x im a te d b e t t e r t h e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e th a n d id s u b j e c t s t e s t e d u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f low a m b ig u ity . Sub j e c t s o f i n t e r n a l e x p e r im e n te r s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a p p ro x im a te d b e t t e r th e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e th a n d id s u b j e c t s o f e x t e r n a l e x p e r i m e n t e r s . E x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s s i g n i f i c a n t l y a p p ro x im a te d b e t t e r th e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e th an d id i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s . T here w ere no s i g n i f i c a n t m ajor i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s . S e p a ra te a n a l y s e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t f i r s t - h a l f and l a s t - h a l f r e s p o n s e s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y u nder b o th h ig h a m b ig u ity c o n d it i o n s and low a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s . Under h ig h a m b ig u ity c o n d i t i o n s e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s s i g n i f i c a n t l y ap p ro x im ate d b e t t e r t h e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e th a n d id i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s . The s i g n i f i c a n t h a l f o f s c o r e s - s u b j e c t s i n t e r a c t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n c e can be a t t r i b u t e d t o a s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower f i r s t - h a l f s c o r e f o r i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s th a n f o r e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s . T hat i s , f i r s t - h a l f s c o r e s o f i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s w ere more d i s t a n t from th e e x p e c ta n c y sc o re th a n were f i r s t - h a l f s c o r e s o f e x t e r n a l s . N e v e r th e l e s s , t h e l a s t - h a l f s c o r e s o f i n t e r n a l s w ere c l o s e r t o t h e e x p e c ta n c y s c o r e th a n th e l a s t - h a l f s c o r e s of e x t e r n a l s . T his f i n d i n g i s i n t e r p r e t e d to r e f l e c t t h e e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t Ts a n t i c i p a t i o n of e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l and the i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t * s r e s i s t a n c e to i t d u rin g th e f i r s t h a l f o f th e e x p e rim e n t. The d r a m a tic r e v e r s a l o f s c o r e s f o r t h e second 120 h a l f i s i n t e r p r e t e d to mean a w i l l i n g a c c e p ta n c e , on th e p a r t of i n t e r n a l s u b j e c t s , to be c o n t r o l l e d b e c a u se o f t h e i r i n a b i l i t y to d e f in e t h e ambiguous c r i t e r i o n r e s p o n s e . Under low am b ig u ity c o n d it i o n s th e s e e f f e c t s were not e v i d e n t . H ere, e x te r n a l s u b j e c t s i n i t i a l l y w ere c lo s e r t o th e e x p e c t ancy s c o r e b u t l a s t - h a l f sc o re s f o r i n t e r n a l s and e x t e r n a l s were i d e n t i c a l . T h is f in d in g i s i n t e r p r e t e d to mean t h a t un der c o n d itio n s where the c r i t e r i o n re sp o n se i s c l e a r l y d e f i n a b l e , n e i t h e r i n t e r n a l nor e x t e r n a l s u b j e c t s w i l l be m a n ip u la te d w i l l i n g l y . In f a c t , t h e y i n c r e a s e t h e i r r e s i s t ance to s u b tle s u g g e s tio n . A nalyses o f r e a d in g o f i n s t r u c t i o n s by e x p e rim e n te rs i n d i c a t e d t h a t , i n t h e i r re a d in g t o s u b j e c t s , t h e y empha s iz e d p o s i t i v e num bers s i g n i f i c a n t l y more o f t e n th a n th ey em phasized n e g a tiv e num bers. T h is f in d in g i s o f i n t e r e s t inasm uch as th e e x p ec ta n cy sc o re was p o s i t i v e and c lo s e i n v a lu e to one of th e fo u r numbers r e a d to s u b j e c t s . F i n a l l y , i n p o s t - e x p e r i m e n t a l w r i t t e n and d i s c u s s i o n i n t e r v i e w s , e x p e rim e n te rs showed an awareness of h aving e s t a b l i s h e d i n t e r n a l norms f o r th e m a t e r i a l th e y w ere ashing s u b j e c t s to r a t e . They were aware o f f e e l i n g i n t e r n a l l y a l e r t e d when s u b j e c t s 1 re s p o n s e s d i f f e r e d from t h e s e norms, and t h a t th ey may have conveyed t h i s f e e l in g t o t h e su b j e c t s . A lso, th e y w ere s e n s i t i v e t o the s u b je c ts * se e k in g re in fo rc e m e n t or a s s i s t a n c e from them under c o n d i t i o n s of h igh am b ig u ity . They ex p re ssed no aw areness o f e f f o r t s on 1 2 1 t h e i r p a r t to m in im ize th e ir i n f l u e n c i n g s u b j e c t s . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h su p p o rt t h e b e l i e f t h a t an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e p s y c h o s o c ia l i n t e r a c t i o n between an e x p e rim e n te r and a s u b j e c t must d e r i v e in p a r t from the m easured i n t e r n a l i t y - e x t e r n a l i t y o f both p a r t i c i p a n t s and from t h e le v e l of t a s k am biguity employed. 122 APPENDIX A INTERNAL-EXTERNAL QUESTIONNAIRE 123 T his i s a q u e s t i o n n a i r e to f i n d out th e way i n which c e r t a i n im p o r ta n t e v e n ts i n our s o c i e t y a f f e c t d i f f e r e n t p e o p le . Each ite m c o n s i s t s of a p a i r o f a l t e r n a t i v e s l e t t e r e d “a ” or ’’b . ” P le a s e s e l e c t th e one s ta te m e n t of each p a i r (and o nly one) which you more s t r o n g l y b e l i e v e to be th e c ase as f a r as y o u ’r e co n ce rn e d . Be s u r e to s e l e c t th e one you a c t u a l l y b e li e v e to be more t r u e r a t h e r th an th e one you th in k you shou ld cho ose or th e one you would l i k e to be t r u e . T his i s a m easure o f p e r s o n a l b e l i e f : o b v io u sly t h e r e a re no r i g h t or wrong answ ers. P l e a s e answer t h e s e ite m s c a r e f u l l y b u t do n o t spend to o much tim e on any one ite m . Be s u re to f i n d an answer f o r every c h o ic e . C i r c l e ite m ’’a" or "b” on th e s e p a r a t e answer s h e e t —w hichever you choose as th e more t r u e s t a t e ment f o r you. In some i n s t a n c e s you may d i s c o v e r t h a t you b e l i e v e b o th s ta te m e n ts o r n e i t h e r one. In such c a s e s , be s u re t o s e l e c t th e one you more s t r o n g l y b e l i e v e to be th e c a se as f a r as you*re c o n c e rn e d . A lso t r y to resp o n d to each ite m in d e p e n d e n tly when making your c h o ic e ; do n o t be in f lu e n c e d by your p r e v io u s c h o ic e s . (1 ) a. C h ild r e n g e t i n t o t r o u b l e b e cau se t h e i r p a r e n t s p u n is h them to o much, b . The t r o u b l e w ith most c h i l d r e n nowadays i s t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s a r e to o easy w ith them. (2 ) a. Many of th e unhappy th in g s i n p e o p l e rs l i v e s a re p a r t l y due to bad lu c k , b. P e o p l e ’s m is f o r tu n e s r e s u l t from th e m is ta k e s th e y make. ( 3 ) a. One of the m ajor r e a s o n s why we have w ars i s b e cause p e o p le d o n ’t ta k e enough i n t e r e s t i n p o l i t i c s . b. T here w i l l alw ays be w a rs, no m a tte r how hard p e o p le t r y to p r e v e n t them. 124 125 (4 ) a . In th e long ru n , p e o p le g e t th e r e s p e c t th e y d e s e rv e i n t h i s w o rld , b . U n f o r t u n a t e ly , an i n d i v i d u a l 's w o rth o fte n p a s s e s u n re c o g n iz e d no m a tte r how hard he t r i e s . (5 ) a . The id e a t h a t t e a c h e r s a r e u n f a i r t o s t u d e n t s i s n o n s e n s e . b. Most s t u d e n ts d o n 't r e a l i z e th e e x te n t to which t h e i r g ra d e s a re in f lu e n c e d by a c c i d e n t a l happen in g s . (6) a . W ithout th e r i g h t b re a k s one c a n n o t be an e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r . b . C apable p e o p le who f a i l to become l e a d e r s have n o t ta k e n a d v an tag e of t h e i r o p p o r t u n i t i e s . (7 ) a . No m a tte r how h a rd you t r y , some p e o p le j u s t d o n 't l i k e you. b. P eo p le who c a n 't g e t o t h e r s to l i k e them d o n 't u n d e rs ta n d how to g e t alo n g w ith o t h e r s . (8 ) a . H e r e d ity p l a y s the m ajor r o l e i n d e te rm in in g o n e 's p e r s o n a l i t y , b. I t i s o n e 's e x p e rie n c e s i n l i f e which d e te rm in e what t h e y 'r e l i k e . (9 ) a . I have o f t e n found t h a t what i s going to happen w i l l happen. b. T r u s tin g to f a t e has n e v e r tu rn e d out as w e l l fo r me as making a d e c i s i o n t o ta k e a d e f i n i t e c o u rse o f a c t i o n . (1 0 ) a . In th e case of th e w e ll- p r e p a r e d s t u d e n t t h e r e i s r a r e l y , i f e v e r, such a t h in g as an u n f a i r t e s t . b. Many tim e s exam q u e s t io n s tend to be so u n r e l a t e d to th e c o u rse work t h a t s tu d y in g i s r e a l l y u s e l e s s . (11) a . Becoming a su c c e ss i s a m a tte r o f h ard work; lu ck has l i t t l e or n o th in g to do w ith i t - b . G e ttin g a good jo b depends m ainly on b e in g i n the r i g h t p l a c e a t th e r i g h t tim e. (12) a . The av erag e c i t i z e n can have an i n f l u e n c e i n gov ernment d e c i s i o n s . b . T h is w orld i s ru n by th e few p e o p le i n pow er, and t h e r e i s n o t much th e l i t t l e guy can do a b o u t i t . 126 (1 3 ) a b (1 4 ) a b (1 5 ) a b (1 6 ) a b (1 7 ) a b (1 8 ) a b ( 1 9 ) a ■b (2 0 ) a b (2 1 ) a (22) When I make p l a n s , I am alm o st c e r t a i n t h a t I can make them w ork. I t i s n o t alw ays w is e to p la n to o f a r ahead b e c a u s e many t h i n g s t u r n o u t to be a m a tte r o f good o r bad f o r t u n e anyhow. T h e re a r e c e r t a i n p e o p le who a r e j u s t no g o o d . T h e re i s some good i n everybody. I n my c a s e , g e t t i n g w hat I w ant h as l i t t l e or n o th in g to do w ith l u c k . Many tim e s we m ig h t j u s t as w e l l d e c id e w hat to do by f l i p p i n g a c o i n . Who g e t s to be th e b o s s o f te n depend s on who was lu c k y enough t o be i n th e r i g h t p l a c e f i r s t . G e t ti n g p e o p le t o do t h e r i g h t t h i n g depends upon a b i l i t y ; lu c k h as l i t t l e or n o t h i n g to do w ith i t . As f a r as w orld a f f a i r s a r e c o n c e rn e d , m ost o f us a r e th e v i c t i m s of f o r c e s we can n e i t h e r u n d e r s t a n d nor c o n t r o l . By ta k in g an a c t i v e p a r t i n p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l a f f a i r s th e p e o p le can c o n t r o l w o rld e v e n t s . Most p e o p le d o n ’ t r e a l i z e th e e x t e n t to which t h e i r l i v e s a r e c o n t r o l l e d by a c c i d e n t a l h ap p en i n g s . T h e re r e a l l y i s no such th in g a s ’’l u c k ." One sh o u ld alw ays b e w i l l i n g t o ad m it m is ta k e s . I t i s u s u a l l y b e s t t o co ver up o n e 's m is ta k e s . I t i s h a rd to know w h e th e r or n o t a p e rs o n r e a l l y l i k e s y o u . How many f r i e n d s you have dep en ds upon how n i c e a p e r s o n you a r e . I n th e long ru n th e bad t h in g s t h a t happen t o us a r e b a la n c e d by t h e good o nes. Most m i s f o r tu n e s a r e th e r e s u l t o f la c k o f a b i l i t y , ig n o r a n c e , l a z i n e s s , or a l l t h r e e . W ith enough e f f o r t we can w ipe o u t p o l i t i c a l c o r - u p t i o n . > . I t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r p e o p le to have much c o n t r o l o v e r th e t h i n g s p o l i t i c i a n s do i n o f f i c e . 127 (23) a b (24) a b (2 5 ) a b (2 6) b (27) ( 2 8 ) (29) Sometimes X c a n ’t u n d e rs ta n d how te a c h e r s a r r i v e a t th e g ra d e s th e y g iv e . T here i s a d i r e c t c o n n e c tio n betw een how hard I s tu d y and th e g rad e s I g e t . A good l e a d e r e x p e c ts p e o p le to d e c id e f o r them s e lv e s what th e y should do. A good l e a d e r makes i t c l e a r t o everybody what t h e i r jo b s a r e . Many tim e s I f e e l t h a t I have l i t t l e in f lu e n c e over th e t h i n g s t h a t happen to me. . I t i s im p o s s ib le fo r me to b e l i e v e t h a t chance or lu c k p la y s an im p o rta n t r o l e i n my l i f e . People a r e l o n e l y because th e y d o n ’t t r y to be f r i e n d l y . T h e r e ’ s n o t much use i n t r y i n g too hard to p l e a s e p e o p le ; i f t h e y l i k e you, th e y l i k e you. T h e r e ’s to o much emphasis on a t h l e t i c s i n h ig h sc h o o l. Team s p o r t s a r e an e x c e l l e n t way t o b u ild c h a r a c t e r . What happens to me i s my own d o in g . Sometimes I f e e l t h a t I d o n ’t have enough c o n t r o l over the d i r e c t i o n my l i f e i s t a k i n g . Most of th e tim e I c a n ’ t u n d e rs ta n d why p o l i t i c ia n s behave th e way th e y do. In th e lon g ru n th e p e o p le a re r e s p o n s ib le f o r bad governm ent on a n a t i o n a l as w e l l as on a l o c a l l e v e l . APPENDIX B RAW DATA 128 TABLE 20 129 RAW DATA SHOWING INTERNAL-EXTERNAL SCORE, FIRST-HALF PHOTO-RATING TASK SCORE, SECOND-HALF PHOTO-RATING TASK SCORE, TOTAL PHOTO-RATING TASK SCORE, AND EXPERIMENTER CONDITIONS TESTED UNDER Group I - E Score F i r s t - h a l f Score S ec o n d -H alf S c o re T o t a l S c o re E x p eri menter C o n d itio n I SLA* 2 35 30 65 e x te r n a l I SLA 7 42 32 74 e x te r n a l I SLA 7 33 36 69 e x te r n a l I SLA 7 29 42 71 e x te r n a l I SLA 7 43 32 75 e x te r n a l I SLA 8 32 37 69 e x te r n a l I SLA 8 - 30 34 64 e x te r n a l I SLA 7 22 27 49 e x te r n a l I SLA 7 29 31 60 e x te r n a l ISLA 3 27 27 54 i n t e r n a l ISLA 3 29 31 60 i n t e r n a l ISLA 6 30 36 66 i n t e r n a l ISLA 6 30 35 65 i n t e r n a l ISLA 3 33 33 66 i n t e r n a l ISLA 8 35 36 71 i n t e r n a l ISLA 8 35 33 68 i n t e r n a l ISLA 8 25 33 58 i n t e r n a l ISLA 7 28 29 57 i n t e r n a l ^ I n t e r n a l S u b je c t, Low Am biguity C o n d itio n TABLE 20 (CONTINUED) 130 Group I -E Score F i r s t - H a l f Score S econd-H aIf S core T o ta l Score E x p e ri m enter C o n d itio n ISHA* 6 - 6 - 4 -10 e x t e r n a l ISHA 8 - 6 7 1 e x t e r n a l ISHA 5 -13 16 3 e x t e r n a l ISHA 8 - 5 13 8 e x t e r n a l ISHA 7 - 5 14 9 e x t e r n a l ISHA 4 - 1 1 0 e x te r n a l ISHA 8 - 6 28 22 e x t e r n a l ISHA 5 - 5 1 - 4 e x t e r n a l ISHA 5 -12 27 15 e x t e r n a l ISHA 8 - 3 20 17 i n t e r n a l ISHA 7 - 5 4 - 1 i n t e r n a l ISHA 1 - 1 16 15 i n t e r n a l ISHA 8 - 9 5 - 4 i n t e r n a l ISHA 7 - 7 12 5 i n t e r n a l ISHA 3 14 - 6 8 i n t e r n a l ISHA 7 - 3 13 10 i n t e r n a l ISHA 4 1 6 7 i n t e r n a l ISHA 8 - 2 1 - 1 i n t e r n a l ^ I n t e r n a l S u b je c t , High A m biguity C o n d itio n TABLE 20 (CONTINUED) 131 Group I-E Score F i r s t - h a l f Score S e c o n d -h a lf Score T o ta l Score E x p e ri m enter C o n d itio n ESLA* 14 33 32 65 e x t e r n a l ESLA 15 33 29 62 e x t e r n a l ESLA 12 32 36 68 e x t e r n a l ESLA 15 24 33 57 e x t e r n a l ESLA 16 22 37 59 e x t e r n a l ESLA 18 27 36 63 e x t e r n a l ESLA 13 38 34 72 e x t e r n a l ESLA 13 25 42 67 e x t e r n a l ESLA 15 27 27 54 e x t e r n a l ESLA 12 25 20 45 i n t e r n a l ESLA 12 24 26 50 i n t e r n a l ESLA 15 38 31 69 i n t e r n a l ESLA 13 24 35 59 i n t e r n a l ESLA 17 22 31 53 i n t e r n a l ESLA 15 29 29 58 i n t e r n a l ESLA 12 30 37 67 i n t e r n a l ESLA 12 29 34 63 i n t e r n a l ESLA 13 29 31 60 i n t e r n a l ^ E x te rn a l S u b je c t , Low A m biguity C o n d itio n TABLE 20 (CONTINUED) 132 Group I - E Score F i r s t - h a l f Score S e c o n d -h a lf Score T o ta l Score E x p e ri m enter Condi t i on ESHA* 13 - 7 2 - 5 e x t e r n a l ESHA 15 1 8 9 e x t e r n a l ESHA 12 - 6 4 - 2 e x t e r n a l ESHA 16 -12 8 - 4 e x t e r n a l ESHA 13 13 2 15 e x t e r n a l ESHA 13 10 10 20 e x t e r n a l ESHA 14 24 - 1 23 e x t e r n a l ESHA 12 2 9 11 e x t e r n a l ESHA 13 4 10 14 e x t e r n a l ESHA 12 4 9 13 i n t e r n a l ESHA 18 15 14 29 i n t e r n a l ESHA 15 - 2 20 18 i n t e r n a l ESHA 13 7 5 12 i n t e r n a l ESHA 17 18 - 1 17 i n t e r n a l ESHA 12 4 13 17 i n t e r n a l ESHA 12 - 5 13 8 i n t e r n a l ESHA 14 10 16 26 i n t e r n a l ESHA 13 9 11 20 i n t e r n a l *E xter n a l S u b je c t , High Ambig u i t y C o n d itio n 133 TABLE 21 RAW DATA SHOWING M EAN INTERNAL-EXTERNAL SCORE, MEAN PHOTO-RATING TASK SCORE, AND CATEGORY GROUPINGS FOR AMBIGUITY AND INTERNALITY-EXTER]NALITY Group Mean I-E Score Mean PRT S co re I -E Category- A m biguity C o n d itio n E x perim enter C o n d itio n Ss 1- 9 6.67 6 .6 2 i n t e r n a l low e x te r n a l Ss 10-18 5.77 6 .2 8 i n t e r n a l low i n t e r n a l Ss 19-27 6 .2 2 0 .4 9 i n t e r n a l high e x t e r n a l Ss 28-36 5.88 0 .6 2 i n t e r n a l high i n t e r n a l Ss 37-45 14.56 6.3 0 e x t e r n a l low e x t e r n a l Ss 46-54 13.45 5 .82 e x t e r n a l low i n t e r n a l Ss 55-63 13.45 0 .9 0 e x t e r n a l high e x te r n a l Ss 64-72 14.00 1.78 e x t e r n a l high i n t e r n a l APPENDIX C POST-EXPERIMENTAL QUESTIONNAIRE FOR EXPERIMENTERS 134 135 Name (1) Have you ever b e f o r e heard or r e a d any l i t e r a t u r e about t h i s k in d of e x p e r im e n t? Yes No I f you have, what was the n a t u r e o f what you h e a r d or r e a d ? (2) What do you t h i n k t h e s u b j e c t s f e l t was th e p u rp o s e of t h i s e x p e rim e n t? (3) What do you t h i n k was the p u r p o s e o f t h i s e x p e rim e n t? (4) A re you aware o f a n y s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r ( s ) you w ere d e m o n s tr a tin g t o t h e s u b j e c t s - - e i t h e r c o n s c io u s or u n c o n s c i o u s - - d u r i n g th e e x p e rim e n t which may have had some b e a r in g on t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d ? Yes No I f you a r e , p l e a s e e l a b o r a t e . APPENDIX D POST-EXPERIMENTAL INTERVIEWS WITH EXPERIMENTERS 136 137 TABLE 22 POST-EXPERIMENTAL INTERVIEWS WITH EXPERIMENTERS r EXPERIMENTERS * WRITTEN COMMENTS ABOUT THE EXPERIMENT Have t h i s what you k in d was e v e r b e f o r e h e a rd of or r e a d any l i t e r a t u r e a b o u t of e x p e rim e n t? Yes No. I f you hav e, t h e n a t u r e o f what you h e a rd or r e a d ? IE* # 1 : No. IE #2; No. EE** # 1 : No. EE #2: Yes. As I r e c a l l a D o c to r o f P sy c h o lo g y a t U .C .L .A . gave me a t e s t o f t h i s s o r t . I am a f r a i d I c a n Tt q u i t e r e c a l l th e n a t u r e o f th e t e s t b u t I t h i n k i t had p i c t u r e s and em o tio n s i n v o l v e d . What do you t h i n k th e s u b j e c t s f e l t was th e p u rp o s e of t h i s e x p e rim e n t? IE # 1 : I t h i n k t h e s u b j e c t s f e l t t h a t th e e x p e rim e n t was t e s t i n g t h e i r a t t i t u d e to w a rd s o th e r p e o p le and how th e y r e l a t e p h y s i c a l a p p e a ra n c e w ith s u c c e s s . IE # 2 : They seemed t o f e e l t h a t t h e y w ere r e q u i r e d to p a s s v a lu e judgm ents on th e c h a r a c t e r s i n th e p i c t u r e s . Many o f them d i d n ’ t l i k e th e i d e a a t a l l . One s u b j e c t was a c t u a l l y so u p t i g h t he f e l t he c o u ld n ’ t f o l lo w th ro u g h w ith th e e x p e r im e n t. EE # 1: Most p r o b a b ly a t e s t o f t h e i r em pathy, a r t i f i c i a l l y e x p re s s e d w ith th e p i c t u r e s shown them . EE # 2 : I would assum e th e y w ere q u i t e p u z z le d a b o u t i t b u t I am n o t s u r e what th e y t h o u g h t. P o s s i b l y som ething to do w ith r e l a t i n g o n e ’s own em otions t o th e ones o f t h e p e rs o n p i c t u r e d . * I n t e r n a l E x p e rim e n te r ** E x te r n a l 'E xperim enter 138 TABLE 2 2 (CONTINUED) What do you t h in k was th e p u rp o se o f t h i s e x p erim e n t? IE* #1: I t h i n k th e e x p erim en t in v o lv e d th e s o c i a l o v e r to n e s t h a t s o c i e t y has had on th e s u b j e c t s . In^ o th e r words, th e ex perim en t t e s t e d how much s o c i e ty h as i n f lu e n c e d p e o p le i n t h e i r manner o f ob s e r v a t i o n and t h e i r manner o f a s s o c i a t i n g w ith o th e r p e o p le . IE #2: I t seemed to me t h a t th e ex p erim en t was t r y i n g to show how p e o p le g e n e r a l i z e and form o p in io n s about p e o p le when th e y f i r s t meet on a p p ea ra n c es a lo n e . EE** # 1 : To t e s t my empathy i n a l e s s - a r t i f i c i a l s i t u a t i o n w ith t h e s u b j e c t s . EE #2: Som ething to do w ith r e l a t i o n of o n e ’s own emo t i o n s to th o s e of th e p e rs o n s i n th e p h o to g ra p h . Are you aware of any s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r ( s ) you were demon s t r a t i n g to th e s u b j e c t s - - e i t h e r c o n sc io u s or u n c o n s c io u s — d u rin g th e e x p erim en t which may have had some b e a r in g on the. r e s u l t s o b ta in e d ? Yes No. I f you a r e , p l e a s e e l a b o r a t e . IE #1: At f i r s t , as I was r e a d in g th e i n s t r u c t i o n s I was a l i t t l e n e rv o u s . I th o u g h t t h i s m ight have some i n f l u e n c e s i n c e th e s u b j e c t s m ight have sensed th e a n x ie ty and th e y th em se lv e s m ight have become s u f f i c i e n t l y nerv o u s to a l t e r t h e i r r e s p o n s e s . IE # 2 : I t r i e d t o a c t a s though t h e e x p erim e n t w a sn ’t som ething to w orry about so th e s u b j e c t would be r e l a x e d . I d id t h i s m a in ly by t r y i n g t o keep a b la n k , e m o tio n le s s f a c e - - a l m o s t as though I was d i s i n t e r e s t e d i n th e outcome of th e e x p e rim e n t. I d o n ’ t know what type o f e f f e c t t h i s would have on th e s u b j e c t - - i t could have made him more r e lax e d or i t c o u ld a ls o have made him f e e 1 t h a t he co u ld ru sh th ro u g h th e r e s u l t s w ith o u t t h in k i n g . ^ I n t e r n a l E x p e r im e n te r * * E x t e r n a l E x p e r im e n te r 139 TABLE 2 2 (CONTINUED) Are you aware o f any s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r ( s ) you were demon s t r a t i n g to th e s u b j e c t s — e i t h e r c o n sc io u s or u n c o n scio u s d u rin g th e e x p erim e n t which may have had some b e a r in g on th e r e s u l t s o b ta in e d ? Yes No. I f you a r e , p l e a s e e l a b o r a t e . EE** #1: I wanted to l e s s e n the s u b j e c t s ’ t e n s i o n m ainly by c u t t i n g down on t h e f o r m a l i t y of my r e s p o n s e s to them i n th e i n i t i a l r e a d in g o f i n s t r u c t i o n s . Most o f my c o n sc io u s a c t i o n s were to i n no way p r e s s u r e th e p e rs o n and h o p e f u l l y to r e l a x him. EE #2: J u s t th e freedom to r a t e any p i c t u r e a t any r a t i n g th ey f e l t . ** E x te r n a l E xp erim enter 140 TABLE 23 POST-EXPERIMENTAL INTERVIEWS WITH EXPERIMENTERS: EXPERIMENTERS* EXPRESSED COMMENTS ABOUT THE EXPERIMENT (TRANSCRIPT FROM AUDIO RECORDING OF INTERVIEW) What I would l i k e to do i s spend a l i t t l e tim e w i t h you w h ile you d i s c u s s what you t h i n k th e e x p erim e n t was a b o u t, b e f o r e I a c t u a l l y t e l l you. Do you hav e any c l u e s as to what we w ere d o in g or what i t was a l l a b o u t? IE* # 1 : Seemed to me t h a t by j u s t th e v e ry f a c t o f th e s u b j e c t s * coming i n and s i t t i n g down and lo o k in g a t th e p i c t u r e s , I got th e i m p r e s s io n t h a t th e y w ere p e r h a p s , l i k e supposed to make v a lu e ju d g m ents and t r y t o g e n e r a l i z e i t a l l t o p e r s o n a l i t i e s in v o lv e d a t lo o k in g a t th e p i c t u r e s , s o r t o f l i k e t h e f i r s t tim e you s e e som ebody--w hat k in d of i m p r e s s io n s you g e t about him — a lo n g t h a t l i n e . Did you wonder a t any p o i n t w h eth er t h e r e may have b e en so m eth in g e l s e t o th e e x p e rim e n t? EE** # 1 : Yes I d i d . E s p e c i a l l y why you had us as e x p e r i m e n te r s . IE # 1 : Yeh, I was w ondering ab o u t t h a t to o . EE #2: So was I . EE # 1 : See i t was s e t up f o r them and th e y knew th e y were b e in g b r o u g h t i n t o an e x p e rim e n t and i t was p r e t t y fo rm a l and maybe a r t i f i c i a l i n t h e i r ju d g in g th o se p i c t u r e s . . . b u t we w ere a t th e b e g in n i n g , we were p r o b a b ly a l i t t l e more t e n s e th a n a t th e end . . . b u t we w e ren * t so a r t i f i c i a l . . . maybe i t was t o t e s t somehow how we r e l a t e d t o t h e s e p eople a lth o u g h I th o u g h t . . . * I n t e r n a l E x p e r im e n te r * * E x t e r n a l E x p e r im e n te r 141 TABLE 23 (CONTINUED) Did you wonder a t any p o i n t w h e th e r t h e r e may have been so m e th in g e l s e t o th e e x p e r im e n t? EE** # 2 : Yeh, I th o u g h t maybe i t was t o e a s e t h e p e rs o n b e in g t e s t e d , maybe he would be a b l e t o t a k e the t e s t e a s i e r . EE # 1 : But d id th e y know t h a t we w ere n o t a r e a l e x p e r i m e n te r i n th e se n se t h a t you w e re ? They knew t h a t you were s t u d e n t s h e re fro m t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s . What e l s e o c c u rre d t o you a s i d e from making v a lu e judgm ents a b o u t t h e p i c t u r e s ? Do you f e e l in any way t h a t maybe we were m e a su rin g a n y th in g e l s e ? EE # 1 : Yeh, I don*t know what b u t . . . IE* # 1 : Could i t be p o s s i b l y be t h a t , l i k e . . . th e y were p r o b a b ly a l s o w a tc h in g us too . . . our r e a c t i o n s a s we gave them t h e p i c t u r e s . . . and s a y i f on one p i c t u r e we . . . sa y you had a stom ach cramp or som ething l i k e t h a t you know, so you grim aced when you handed him th e p i c t u r e you know . . . t h a t c o u ld i n f l u e n c e , maybe j u s t s u b c o n s c io u s ly b u t he w eig h ted t h a t re s p o n s e . . . C a rry t h a t i d e a f u r t h e r . IE #1: W e ll, I was j u s t t h i n k i n g l i k e when I was lo o k in g a t some of th o s e p i c t u r e s I s o r t o f r a t e d some of them m y se lf j u s t by lo o k in g a t them . And . . . p l u s , t h i s was a f t e r I had gone th ro u g h them so I d i d n * t t r y to lo o k a t t h e s u b j e c t s th e m s e lv e s b u t I j u s t t r i e d to lo o k a t th e p i c t u r e as I was h a n d in g i t to them and I n o t i c e d a l o t of tim es my judgm ent was l i k e r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from what t h e y b e lie v e d and uh . . . I c o u ld have p o s s i b l y made l i k e some k in d o f eyebrow movement or some t h i n g l i k e t h a t . . . maybe t h a t i n f l u e n c e d th e n e x t p i c t u r e a lo n g . . . you know a lo n g t h i s id e a . I d on * t know. * I n t e r n a l E x p e rim e n te r ** E x te r n a l E x p e rim e n te r 142 TABLE 23 (CONTINUED) Did anyone e l s e n o t ic e a n y th in g l i k e t h i s ? IE* #2: Yes I d id , m o s tly what he j u s t s a i d . You know a co u p le o f tim e s I a c t u a l l y asked th e s u b j e c t . . . I th o u g h t I h e a rd th e wrong number I j u s t c o u l d n 't b e li e v e i t . . . I d o n 't know, t h a t m ight have in f lu e n c e d them. You mean when t h e i r r a t i n g d i f f e r e d a l o t from what you th o u g h t i t should be you asked them th e q u e s tio n ? IE # 2 : R ig h t. IE # 1 : Yes, b ecause t h e i r number was so much d i f f e r e n t . EE** # 1 : A l o t of tim e s on #9 and #10 I would say " y o u 'r e alm o st f i n i s h e d now" and th e y 'd alm o st speed up a t the end . . . I g uess maybe t h a t in f lu e n c e d the tim e t h a t th e y sp e n t on th e c a rd s . . . maybe I s h o u l d n 't have s a id t h a t . So what y o u 'r e sa y in g i s t h a t maybe in some way you could have had an e f f e c t on what t h e i r r a t i n g s w ere. IE # 1 : A lso , som etim es how we d i d n ' t r e a c t . . . n o t only how we r e a c t e d b u t even how we d i d n 't r e a c t to som ething . . . you know i f th ey p u t down 10 on som ething l i k e t h a t you know th e y e x p e c te d maybe t h a t I ' d lo o k some way or som ething l i k e t h a t t h a t could have a f f e c t e d th e o th e r r a t i n g s . So you may have i n f lu e n c e d them a ls o by n o t d o in g som ethin g. IE # 1 : You know, th e way th e y come i n t h e r e . . . l i k e I had one s u b j e c t t h a t e v e ry tim e he looked a t me s o r t of l i k e f o r re in f o r c e m e n t i n some way and I was tr y in g n o t t o g iv e i t to him you know . . . t r y i n g t o k eep a b la n k e x p re s s io n on my f a c e . * I n t e r n a l E x p e rim en te r * * E x t e r n a l E x p e r im e n te r TABLE 23 (CONTINUED) 143 Oo you t h in k any o th e r s u b j e c t s may have been lo o k in g a t you guys f o r some k in d o f re s p o n s e or r e in f o r c e m e n t? EE** # 2 : Yeh, every once i n a w h ile . . . I n o tic e d one th in g i n l i k e when I ' d rea d th e i n s t r u c t i o n s and I was g e t t i n g so f a r ahead and I ’d alm ost memorized what to sa y and I ’d g e t ahead and I ’d s k ip a word or som ething so I ’d laugh and th e n go back and l i k e i n th e s e t of p i c t u r e s maybe t h e r e were a few f a c e s t h a t could e i t h e r be ta k e n as sad or happy . . . i f I ’d cough i n r e a d in g th e i n s t r u c t i o n s t h e y ’d alw ays ta k e i t as happy . . . you know most of th e answ ers w ere you know, r a t e d w ith a p lu s and th e n i f I was r e a l l y j u s t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s o l emn about i t and l i k e I ’d lo o k down and w ouldn’t even look a t th e p e rso n th en i t was always kind of sorrow t h a t th ey would p u l l out of th o s e p i c t u r e s . EE #1: One guy had j u s t about a whole s t r a i g h t row of about +2*s or som ething l i k e t h a t and about #7 or so he s a id you know ”How come t h e y ’r e a l l th e same way” and I s a id n o th in g and so he co n tin u ed on w ith 2 ’s. IE* # 1 : I was j u s t going t o say d id a l l th e s e same s u b j e c t ta k e t h a t same p e r s o n a l i t y t e s t t l - E S c a le ] or w hatever i t was t h a t we took b e fo r e ? Y es. IE # 1 : W ell, I was j u s f wondering co uld i t be . . . could t h i s have a r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h a t l i k e the way th ey th o u g h t about . . . say th ey had a r e a l l y n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e or som ething l i k e th a t maybe t h e y ’d look a t th e p i c t u r e s and th e y saw everybody down and th e y gave them n e g a tiv e s c o re s or som ething l i k e t h a t . . . t h a t ’ s a p o s s i b i l i t y Did anyone e l s e wonder w hat r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t t e s t m ight have t o th e whole e x p e rim e n t? * I n t e r n a l E x p er im e n ter * * E x t e r n a l E x p e rim en te r 144 TABLE 23 (CONTINUED) EE** # 1 : What I s u s p e c te d was t h a t you had th e s i x e x p e r i m en ters ta k e t h a t t e s t . . . I had no id e a t h a t th e y too k i t . Yes, everybody took i t . Does a n y th in g we’ve been t a l k i n g about b r in g any o th e r a s s o c i a t i o n f o r anyone? Did you n o t i c e t h a t what y o u ’ve been t a l k i n g ab o u t was t r u e f o r a l l th e s u b j e c t s ? EE # 2 : No. Some would go r i g h t th ro u g h . EE # 1: Yes. IE* #1: Yeh, some would go r i g h t th ro u g h w ith o u t you know, seeming to w orry about i t . . . I had one s u b j e c t t h a t went r i g h t th ro u g h i t . . . I j u s t handed him th e c a rd s . . . he d id n * t even loo k a t me . . . He was lo o k in g a t th o s e c a rd s and he whipped them o f f j u s t l i k e t h a t . . . he d i d n ’ t seem to v a c c i l a t e i n any way or o th e r . . . he j u s t p u t i t r i g h t down . . . he knew what he w anted to say and he s a id i t . . . b u t most o f them d id seem to say you know ’’W ell, I ’d g iv e him a +10” or som ething l i k e t h a t . . . th ey d i d n ’ t seem to be r e a l l y su re . . . and a co u p le of my f r i e n d s came i n and k e p t lo o k in g a t me_ . . . you know, l i k e how am I su p posed to resp ond to t h e s e , you know, and I t r i e d n o t sa y in g a n y th in g . . . p o s s i b l y I d i d , I d o n ’t know. Now t h e r e were two s e t s of p i c t u r e s . Have you th o u g h t about t h a t a t a l l ? EE # 2 : Yes, t h e r e were two s e t s o f p i c t u r e s to g iv e you two d i f f e r e n t s e t s of t e s t i n g . IE # 1 : Yes, t h a t ’ s what I was th in k i n g to o . Were you aware of any d i f f e r e n c e In t h e p i c t u r e s ? * I n t e r n a l E x p erim en ter * * E x te r n a l E x p e r im e n te r 1 4 5 TABLE 23 (CONTINUED) EE** # 2 : Not a w hole l o t . IE* # 1 : And t h e r e s p o n s e s , a t l e a s t on my s u b j e c t s , seemed to v a ry f o r e ac h s e t . . . th e y d i d n ft seem t o be a l l n e g a t i v e o r a l l p o s i t i v e . . .' th e y seemed t o v a ry back and f o r t h . EE # 1 : They seemed t h a t way w ith me to o b u t when I j u s t lo o k ed them over f o r t h e f i r s t tim e each tim e th e y seemed a l l to be o f one ty p e . • . th e two s e t s I th o u g h t w ere c o m p le te ly d i f f e r e n t . . . one seemed to be on t h e p l u s s i d e and one seemed to be on th e n e g a t i v e s i d e . EE # 2: Yeh, one s e t sp a rk e d o f f n e g a t i v e answ ers and th e o th e r s e t s p a rk e d o f f p o s i t i v e a n sw e rs. 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Creator Felton, Gary Spencer (author)

Core Title Experimenter Expectancy Effect Examined As A Function Of Task Ambiguity And Internal Versus External Control Of Reinforcement

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, clinical

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Tiber, Norman (committee chair), London, Perry (committee member), Wexler, Murray (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-410337

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Legacy Identifier 7019114.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

Rights Felton, Gary Spencer

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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