University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Effects Of Differential Presentation Of Story Theme Concerning A Minority Member On Preadolescent Attitudes Towards That Minority

(USC Thesis Other)

The Effects Of Differential Presentation Of Story Theme Concerning A Minority Member On Preadolescent Attitudes Towards That Minority

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Content j 7 0 -1 6 ,8 5 5
J CASS, Tim othy Edmund, 1934-
i THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL PRESENTATION OF
j STORY THEM E CONCEDING A MINORITY M EM BER O N
| PREADOLESCENT ATTITUDES TO W A RD S THAT MINORITY.
!
• U n iv e rs ity o f S o u th ern C a l if o r n ia , P h .D ., 1970
; E d u c a tio n , g e n e ra l
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
© Copyright by
TIMOTHY EDMUND CASS
1970
THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED
TH E E F F E C T S O F D IF F E R E N T IA L PR ESEN TA TIO N O F STORY
TH EM E CONCERNING A MINORITY M E M B E R ON P R E A D O
LE SC E N T A TTITU D ES TOWARDS THAT MINORITY
by
T im o th y E dm und C ass
A D is s e rta tio n P r e s e n te d to the
FA C U LTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CA LIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t of the
R e q u ire m e n ts fo r the D e g re e
DOCTOR O F PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
J a n u a ry 1970
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ERN CALIFORNIA
TH E GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALI FORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
T im othy E dm und C ass
under the direction of his..... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Gradu
ate School, in partial fulfillment of require
ments of the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
Dean
D a tel^ ^ n J .ll? .
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
F'favtjct t a t
TA B L E O F CONTENTS
P a g e
LIST O F T A B L E S ....................................................................................... iv
C h ap ter
I PR ESEN TA TIO N O F THE P R O B L E M ........................... 1
In tro d u ctio n
O b jectiv es
H y p o th eses
S ignificance of the P r o b le m
A ssu m p tio n s and L im itatio n s
D efinitions
P r e v ie w of the B alan ce of the Study
II REV IEW O F R E L A T E D L I T E R A T U R E ........................... 14
In tro d u ctio n
R e je c tio n of O utgroups
V a ria b le s in C h ild re n A ffecting A ttitu d es
C ontent F a c to r s in R e a d e rs W hich Could
A ffect A ttitu d es
The Influence of W ritten C ontent on B ia se d
Opinions
M e a s u rin g C h ild re n 's R a c ia l and E thnic
A ttitude s
S u m m a ry
HI TECHNIQUES AND P R O C E D U R E S .................................. 39
In tro d u ctio n
The In s tru m e n ts
T he P ilo t Studies
T he S ubjects fo r the M ain E x p e rim e n ts
T he E x p e rim e n ts
ii
C h a p te r P a g e
IV RESULTS O F TH E STUDY 75
In tro d u ctio n
A n ticip ated O u tco m es
H y potheses
P ic tu r e T e s t D ata
S o cial D ista n c e D ata
S tereotyping and E th n o c e n tric is m D ata
F in d in g s f r o m a T h ird E x p e rim e n t
D isc u ssio n of the F in d in g s
V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IM PLICATION S AND . .114
RECOM MENDATIONS
S u m m a ry
C onclusions
Im p licatio n s
R eco m m en d atio n s
BIBLIOGRAPHY 126
A PPE N D IC ES 137
iii
TA BLE
LIST O F TA BLES
P a g e
1 BREAKDOWN OF P IL O T P O P U L A T IO N ........................... 48
2 G EN ER A L READING D I F F I C U L T Y ................................. 51
3 LENG TH O F S E N T E N C E S ...................................................... 51
4 D IFFIC U L T Y OF WORDS............................................................. 51
5 SIZE O F P R I N T ................................................................................. 52
6 EASE O F UNDERSTANDING...................................................... 53
7 HOW MUCH LEARNED F R O M ............................................... 53
8 IN T E R E S T FO R STO R Y ................................................................ 54
9
IN T E R E S T FO R C H A R A C TE R S............................................... 54
10 CHARACTER MEAN S C O R E S--T W O ITEM S . . . 55
11 ANALYSIS OF V A R IA N C E --T W O IT E M S, . . . .
TH R E E GROUPS
56
12 CHARACTER MEAN S C O R E S --A L L IT E M S. . . . 56
13 ANALYSIS OF V A R IA N C E --A L L IT E M S, . . . .
T H R E E GROUPS
57
14 P R O JE C T IV E P IC T U R E T E S T RESU LTS . . . . 59
15 CHANGE IN SCORES B E T W E E N THE SCHOOL AND.
B A T T L E GROUPS ON TH E STORY TEST
60
16 D ESCRIPTION O F TH E SCHOOL PO PU LA TIO N S. . 63
17 SCHOOL SA M PLES --S E X , A G E , M ODE O F . . . .
SELE C TIO N
iv
64
T A B L E P a g e
18 E X P E R IM E N T A L D E S I G N - - S C H O O L S ............................. 67
19 ORDER O F T E S T S --S C H O O L S ................................................. 68
20 COMPARISON O F SCHOOLS A AND B ON P IC T U R E 73
AND COMBINATION SCORES
21 P IC T U R E T E ST SCO RE R E S U L T S --G E N E R A L . . 78
M EAN TRENDS
22 ANALYSIS OF P IC T U R E SCORE R ESU LTS: SHORT . 78
AND LONG TER M
23 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FO R PIC T U R E S SCORES: 79
G RO U P, TIM E AND AGE
24 ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FO R PIC T U R E S SCORES: 80
G RO U P, TIM E AND SEX
25 SOCIAL DISTANCE R E S U L T S --G R O U P MEANS . . 81
26 ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL D ISTANCE: SHORT, AND . 82
LONG TER M
27 ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FO R SOCIA L D ISTAN CE:. 83
G RO U P, TIM E AND AGE
28 SHORT TERM D IFF E R E N C E S FO R YOUNGER. . . 83
CHILDREN FRO M SCHOOL A: SOCIA L DISTANCE
29 ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FO R SOCIAL DISTANCE . 85
TIM E, GROUP AND SEX
30 DATA BREAKDOWN FO R BOTH SCHOOLS: GROUP, 86
TIM E AND SEX
31 ANALYSIS O F BOYS' R ESU LTS: SHORT AND LONG 86
TERM
32 ANALYSIS OF SCHOOL B G IRLS' RESU LTS: SHORT 87
AND LONG TERM
v
T A B L E P a g e
33 SCHOOL B CH ILD REN 'S T E ST SCORES WHEN . .
G ROUPED BY SEX ALONE
34 STER E O T Y PIN G AND ETHN O CEN TRICISM : SHORT
AND LONG TERM
35 ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FOR STER E O T Y PIN G .
AND ETHN O CEN TRICISM : E F F E C T S O F GROUP,
TIM E AND AGE
36 ANALYSIS OF DATA CHANGE ACCORDING TO AGE:
SCHOOL A
37 ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FO R S T E R E O T Y P E AND
ETHN O CEN TRICISM : E F F E C T S OF GROUP TIM E
AND SEX
38 ANALYSIS O F DATA CHANGE ACCORDING TO SEX:
SCHOOL A
39 COMPARISON O F SCHOOLS A AND C ON S T E R E O
T Y P E AND STORIES TESTS
40 MEAN S T E R E O T Y P E AND STORIES SCORES: . .
SCHOOL C
41 ANALYSIS O F V ARIANCE, SCHOOL C: T IM E , . .
G RO U P, AGE
42 BREAKDOWN BY AGE O F SCHOOL C DATA . . .
43 ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FO R SCHOOL C: G RO U P,
TIM E AND SEX
44 BREAKDOWN BY SEX OF SCHOOL C DATA . . .
45 DIRECTION O F SCORES FROM IN ITIAL POSITIO N .
46 ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE: INVENTORY . . . .
vi
88
89
90
91
92
93
96
97
97
98
99
99
101
102
T A B L E P a g e
47 D IF F E R E N C E IN INVENTORY SCORES B ET W EEN 103
TH E TWO INDIAN STORIES
48 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: REVISED SCORING O F 104
INVENTORY
49 C E L L MEANS FO R GROUPS: REV ISED INVENTORY 104
50 COMPARISON B E T W E E N TWO INDIAN STORIES: 105
REVISED INVENTORY
1
C H A PT E R I
PRESEN TA TIO N O F TH E PR O B L E M
In tro d u ctio n
M uch r e s e a r c h has been devoted to the concept of so c ia l d ista n c e
and neg ativ e stereo ty p in g as m e a s u r e s of d e g re e of re je c tio n o r a c c e p
ta n ce of m in o ritie s . Both a p p e a r to be im p o rta n t com ponents in the
m e a su rin g of p re ju d ic e (12, 16, 37, 39, 51, 58, 106, 107).
W hat have not been c la rifie d , h o w ev er, a r e the re la tio n s h ip s
am ong c e rta in v a ria b le s a ttrib u te d to p re ju d ic e and the w ay m in o rity
groups a r e p re s e n te d in p rin t. P sy c h o lo g ic a l stu d ie s have ev alu ated
the effect of e x p e rim e n ta l o r a s sig n e d tre a tm e n ts (13, 36, 39, 44, 45,
52, 61, 62), to see if p u p ils' attitu d e s w e re affected as a re s u lt, but
no lite r a tu r e w as found w hich a tte m p te d to m e a s u r e the im p a c t of
read in g m a te r ia ls on the a ttitu d e s of g r a m m a r school age pupils t o
w a rd m in o ritie s .
The r e s e a rc h in g of this p ro b le m is c r u c i a l- - p a r t ic u la r ly so in
the 6 - 1 2 age b ra c k e t. Studies have re v e a le d th a t by the tim e c h ild
re n have co m p leted the sixth g ra d e th e ir p re d isp o s itio n s to w ard o u t
groups have a lm o s t c ry s ta lliz e d (3:304-310). A s they get o ld e r th e ir
m e n ta l s e ts a r e m o re difficult to change. R adke and T r a g e r (74, 96)
have fu rth e r shown th a t m o s t of th e se p re ju d ic e s a r e le a rn e d fro m
2
au th o rity and not th ro u g h lo g ical o r e m p iric a l deduction.
Though pupils gain m a n y of th e ir affectiv e b ia se s fro m the hom e
(28:46), they a lso a c q u ire so m e fro m p e e r s , te a c h e rs and reading
m a te r ia ls . T his la tte r m ode of co m m u n icatio n could have c o n s id e r
able influence on attitu d e building (1, 45, 79), e sp e c ia lly fo r th o se p u
pils who re a d w idely.
W hat m ig h t e le m e n ta ry r e a d e rs of today co m m u n ica te to ch ild
re n about m in o rity g ro u p s? Studies of this decade (18, 54, 60, 71, 98,
99, 102) su g g e st th at m in o ritie s have been p re s e n te d in a d ista n t, r e
m o te m a n n e r. The In d ian s, in p a rtic u la r w e re u su a lly d e s c rib e d as
se lf contained g ro u p s, p la ced in locations rem o v e d fro m m o d e rn
m iddle c la ss u rb a n so c ie ty p h y sically , te m p o ra lly , and c u ltu ra lly .
F e w if any s to rie s have d ealt w ith m in o rity c h a r a c te r s w hose p r o b
le m s s te m fro m th e ir co n tact w ith the dom inant c u ltu re itse lf. F o r
ex am p le, one would not find a s to ry of an Indian boy who had tro u b le
in a w hite c la s s r o o m b e c a u se he did not engage in " n o rm a l" c o m p e t
itive b eh av io r.
T ra d itio n a lly , then, the textbooks have handled the p ro b le m of
c u ltu ra l d iffe re n c e s a s if it did not e x ist (18, 54). T hey tended to
a s s u m e th a t if a p e r s o n c a m e to know m o re about people
(Knowledge c a te g o ry of the C ognitive D om ain) (1<1) he would tend to
have le s s p r e j u d i c e d f e e l i n g s a b o ut th e m (R esponding c a te
gory of the A ffective D om ain) (10). In sh o rt, knowledge tr a n s f e r s
3
d ire c tly to resp o n d in g . W ith r e g a r d to read in g m a te r ia ls , this h y p o th
e s is h a s la rg e ly been u n te ste d .
O bjectives
The ob jectiv es of this study w e re to find out if a p a rtic u la r co n
te x tu a l p re s e n ta tio n of a m in o rity s to ry c h a r a c te r had any effect on
c h ild re n 's attitu d es to w ard th a t m in o rity , and to ex p lo re the th e o r e t
ic a l im p lic atio n s for the change should it o c c u r. T he m in o rity group
in q u estio n w as the A m e ric a n In d ian s. T hey w e re s e le c te d fo r s e v
e r a l re a s o n s . F i r s t , m an y r e a d e r s e r ie s a lre a d y have se c tio n s on
the In d ian s. The ch ild re n read in g the s to rie s , then, would not p e r
ceive th e m as ra d ic a lly d iffe re n t fro m w hat they had re a d b e fo re . A
second fa c to r w as know ledge. A lthough Indians have been the objects
of study in e le m e n ta ry so c ia l stu d ies u n its, they g e n e ra lly a r e not
s e rio u s ly c o n sid e re d as co m p o site elem en ts of the p r e s e n t A m e ric a n
scen e. A s such, th e ir u s e as e x p e rim e n ta l objects would not as li k e
ly s tir up c o n tro v e rsy w ithin the co m m u n ities se le c te d for the p r o
po sed r e s e a r c h .
The independent v a ria b le s w e re defined by the two types of
s to r ie s p re s e n te d --o n e giving an in tra c u ltu ra l and the o th e r an i n t e r -
c u ltu ra l p ro b le m . The groups read in g th e se s to rie s w e re sam p led
fro m a p red o m in en tly w hite m id d le c la ss school population in the
Los A ngeles a r e a , g ra d e s th re e to six, and a ll having at le a s t a
4
fo u rth g rad e read in g c o m p re h e n sio n s c o re as m e a s u re d by the
S tan fo rd R eading T e s t.
The dependent v a ria b le s w e re defined as the m e a n s c o re d iffe r
en ce s of the p re and p o st tre a tm e n t p erio d s of in s tru m e n ts m o re fully
d e s c rib e d la te r , w hich w e re desig n ed to m e a s u r e c e rta in com ponents
of p re ju d ic e d attitu d e s.
H ypotheses
A lto g e th er, th e re w e re nine null h y p o th eses to be te s te d . T h e se
a r e sta te d fully in C h ap ter IV (page 76 ). F o r p u rp o se s of b re v ity ,
th ey can be e x p re s s e d as four p o stu la te s by com bining Ho 1 and 2,
Ho 3, 4, 5 and 6, and Ho 7 and 8 so as to yield the following:
1. T h e re w ill be no s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t lo w erin g o r r a i s
ing of p a s t im ag e s c o re s as m e a s u re d by the P ic tu r e S tereo ty p e P r o
je c tiv e T e s t by any of the g roups involved.
2. T h e re w ill be n e ith e r a s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t p o sitiv e
n o r neg ativ e change in attitu d e s c o re s to w ard s Indians as m e a s u re d
by e ith e r the S o cial D ista n c e T e s t o r the com bined S tereo ty p e and
S to rie s T e s ts for any of the groups involved.
3. The dependent v a ria b le s a r e not re la te d to age o r sex .
4. The am ount of p re fe re n c e o r re la te d n e s s as m e a s u re d by
the In v en to ry w ill not be sig n ifican tly h ig h e r s ta tis tic a lly fo r the in tra-
c u ltu ra l conflict s to ry w hen c o m p a re d to the in te rc u ltu ra l conflict
5
sto ry .
The s ta tis tic a l le v el of confidence chosen w as .0 5 .
S ignificance of the P r o b le m
A t a tim e when p ro b le m s in hum an re la tio n s have re c e iv e d m u ch
d is c u ss io n and publicity, it is cu rio u s to note the a lm o s t co m p lete
lack of r e s e a r c h on the affectiv e im p a c t of c h ild re n 's re a d in g m a t e r
ia l (43:210). A u th o ritie s in reading have called in a "no m a n 's land. . .
in the language a r ts a r e a " (6:326).
T h at schools a r e not only p la ces to le a r n the th re e R 's h a s been
a b a s ic te n e t of educational so ciology (19, 25, 28, 33). Y et, little
attention h as been given to an a r e a w h e re p e rh a p s a v e ry sig n ifican t
con trib u tio n could be m a d e - - c h ild r e n 's books. Som e r e s e a r c h e r s
(2 2 ,2 7 ,4 2 ) have attem p ted to show how c h ild re n 's r e a d e r s have r e f le c t
ed c u ltu ra l values of the p a st, but to w hat ex ten t can p r e s e n t m a te r ia ls
be analyzed fo r the effect they m a y have on the fu tu re ? E v id en ce
s e e m s to show th at s to rie s can influence so c ia l attitu d e s (45). It
would only s e e m a d v isab le, then, fo r e d u c a to rs to hav e a m o re p r e
c ise id e a of w hat fa c to rs w ithin a s to ry have the g r e a te s t affectiv e
pow er. W ithout such knowledge b e h a v io ra l co n seq u en ces m a y w ell be
the opposite of those an ticip a ted . Y et, little e ffo rt s e e m s to have
b een m a d e am ong te a c h e rs and a d m in is tr a to r s to a c c o m p lish th is on
even a s u p e rfic ia l le v e l (104:211).
6
S e v e ra l fa c to rs have p ro b ab ly c o n trib u ted to such an evident la ck
of e ffo rt in e x p e rim e n t and evaluation. M o st obvious is the p o ssib ility
of o v e rsig h t. T h is, h o w ev er, only r a is e s the q u estio n of "W hy?"
Long te r m - r e a s o n s m u s t have been a t w ork. M o st sig n ifican t m ig h t
be the conflicting philosophies and th e o rie s w hich u n d e rlie m an y b a s ic
a s su m p tio n s in attitu d in a l r e s e a r c h . E d u catio n , as a sc ie n c e , for
in sta n c e , h as c o n s id e re d and m ad e u s e of two quite d iffe re n t data
g ath erin g m ethodologies a s in fo rm a tio n s o u rc e s - -c a s e w o rk fro m in
div id u als, and e x p e rim e n ta l evidence fro m g ro u p s. While both s o u r c
es can be quite u se fu l, they a r e often a re fle c tio n of confusion and .
conflict as w ell. T hus, an e x p e rim e n te r with a p s y c h ia tric b a c k
ground, o r w ith an e x tre m e id e a lis t o r e x is te n tia lis t philosophy could
extol the c a se study ap p ro a c h w hile d en ig ra tin g o th e r kinds of m e th o d s.
A m o re so c ia l-o rie n te d re c o n s tru c tiv is t could look on group e x p e r i
m e n tatio n as the only a n s w e r. W hen ideology d ic ta te s r e s e a r c h le a d s,
effo rt and thought a r e d iv e rte d fro m p o te n tially sig n ifican t b r e a k
th ro u g h s. T hus, w hen H o m ze, a s e rio u s student on the effects of
read in g on attitu d es s ta te s that
. . . We re a lly cannot be s u re w hat c h a r a c te r
or plot w ill e lic it a change in a c h ild 's a t
titude o r b e h a v io r. No book w ill p ro d u ce
the s a m e effects on any two ch ild re n
(43:214). . .
she is saying two things. F i r s t , she stro n g ly im p lie s th a t r e s e a r c h
into the a r e a of d iffe re n tia l tre a tm e n t of th e m e , plot and c h a ra c te r
7
w ill n o t yield m e an in g fu l d ata as to change in attitu d e. T his s p rin g s
fr o m a seco n d and d e e p e r im p lic a tio n --th a t the individual su b ject is
the p rim e unit of c o n c e rn , and m u s t be studied in te n siv e ly and in
iso la tio n . W hat g e n e ra l im p a c t a th e m a tic p re s e n ta tio n m a y have on
a group h as b een to ta lly o v erlooked. M o re o v e r, ex istin g e x p e rim e n t
a l evidence su g g ests th a t d iffe re n tia te d tr e a tm e n t of w ritte n in f o r m a
tion does yield v a rie d effects (52, 64, 62, 65, 68, 78, 79, 84, 89,
101, 105, 106).
R e lated to th is co n flict o v e r m ethodology and philosophy is a
b attle o v er th e o ry . A lthough s e v e r a l com peting th e o rie s h av e held
the stag e in the field of le a rn in g and m e n ta l h e a lth , two h av e had a
stab le and f a irly la rg e c o n stitu en cy o ver s e v e r a l d e c a d e s --th e N eo-
F re u d ia n , a s ex em p lified by E rik s o n and S ten d ler (29, 90) and the
Sym bolic In te ra c tio n is t positio n s of M ead e, D ew ey, F o o te and
T h o m as (23, 31, 66, 93).
F o r the f o r m e r , em p h a sis is on the individual a p a r t fro m s o
ciety. E v e ry p e r s o n 's view points have re c e iv e d th e ir b a sic s tr u c tu re
e a rly in life th ro u g h h e re d ity and p r im a r y group in flu en ce. T h ese
change and r e in te g ra te during c r itic a l d ev elo p m en tal sta g e s b e fo re
m a tu rity is re a c h e d . F a ilu r e to cope w ith a new le v e l, o r solve the
p ro b le m it b rin g s, r e s u lts in fixation (29:94) o r r e g r e s s io n . The
sc h o o l's job is e s s e n tia lly to an aly ze the p a r tic u la r n e e d s of each in
dividual and help h im on to the next stag e. W ith la rg e c la s s r o o m s ,
8
m o re o v e r, such a s s is ta n c e m u s t be sup p lem en ted by sp e c ia l p e r s o n
n e l, sin ce the te a c h e r often has h e r hands full m ain tain in g o r d e r and
getting a c r o s s the th re e R 's . It is doubtful th a t u n d er this s c h e m e ,
any sp ecific kind of c la s s r o o m situ atio n o r read in g m a te r ia l could
a s s i s t too w ell in changing a ttitu d e s. R a th e r, individual, sp e c ia l
group and fa m ilia l th e ra p y would be re c o m m e n d e d as m o re effica^
cious.
No doubt, the influence of this type of th e o re tic a l o rie n ta tio n
could v e ry w ell have d isc o u ra g e d r e s e a r c h e r s fro m exam ining this
p ro b le m thoroughly. A fter a ll, would it not s e e m th a t one little
sto ry o r book could have e x tre m e ly u n p re d ic ta b le influence a t b e s t
and none a t a ll a t w o rst?
The Sym bolic In te ra c tio n is t a p p ro ac h , though le s s g rap h ic in
its sc h e m a , h as had a continued following for m an y th e o re tic ia n s in
s o c ia l psychology and education. P e rh a p s the m o s t b a s ic d iffere n ce
b etw een it and the N e o -F re u d ia n ap p ro ac h is in the ro le of th e group.
A Sym bolic In te ra c tio n is t would a rg u e th a t a ttitu d e s a r e n e v e r fo rm e d
in e a rly childhood to the extent th a t fu tu re change is n il o r dependent
on som e in te rn a l m e c h a n istic fo rc e . T his is b e c a u se the individual
can n e v e r be studied a p a r t fro m his so c ia l en v iro n m en t. The way he
m a tu re s is to a la rg e extent dependent upon h is ab ility to red efin e a
p a rtic u la r situ a tio n so th a t it w ill not be in e x c e ss iv e conflict with
his own in n e r s e n s e of value (93:316), w hile being able to a lte r the
9
b a sic value to so m e d e g re e so as to m ak e h im fe e l in h a rm o n y w ith
the situ atio n . T h u s, to explain b eh av io r and attitu d e by stag es is
m e a n in g le s s . The individual grow s and m a tu r e s along a path w hich
is p a rtly defined fo r h im by h is p e rs o n a lity and value o rien tatio n ,
and p a rtly by how he p e rc e iv e s and in te ra c ts w ith e v e ry situ atio n as
it co m es along. A ttitude co m es thro u g h le a rn in g . L ea rn in g in any
tru e se n se can only com e thro u g h d is c o v e ry (31:351). The individual
finds m ean in g not thro u g h so m e defined c r itic a l point of m a tu rity ,
but th ro u g h c o rre sp o n d e n c e or a p ro c e s s of re la tin g new id e as and
e x p e rie n c e s to the value com m unity he h as a lre a d y ac q u ire d .
I t is only b e c a u se one co n ceiv es h im se lf,
via a c e rta in id en tity , as a m e m b e r of a
c la s s w hich in clu d es o th e rs , th a t he can
enjoy o r su ffer the s u c c e s s e s or fa ilu re s
of a group (32:352).
A change in attitu d e to w ard an o u t-g ro u p , then, would not n e c
e s s a r ily need a to ta l re s tr u c tu r in g of p e rs o n a lity through in ten siv e
th e ra p y s e s s io n s . It could com e about w hen any kind of situ atio n
a r o s e w hich would m a k e it p o ssib le fo r a s u b je c t to include the p a r
tic u la r p ro b le m s of the o u t-g ro u p into his own f ra m e of re fe re n c e and
take this group m e m b e r s ' ro le s a s a m eaningful and valid ex p e rie n c e
fo r h im . Such a taking of ro le s can be te rm e d id en tificatio n . A n o r
m a l c la s s r o o m situ atio n or a sittin g in a li b r a r y m ig h t be sufficient
ca u se fo r this to o c c u r. Often id en tificatio n can take place m o re
e a sily in the context of a s to ry situ atio n for
10
A s he re a d s fo r h im s e lf, w ithout the in tru sio n
of a n o th e r p e rs o n betw een h im and h is id e a s,
th e ch an ces fo r id en tificatio n a r e m u ltip lied
m an y tim e s (79:398).
Should th e Sym bolic In te ra c tio n is t a p p ro a c h be c o r r e c t, then
read in g m a te r ia ls in g e n e ra l and c h ild re n 's s to rie s in p a rtic u la r
could have a stro n g influence on pupil a ttitu d es - -n o t only to w ard
m in o ritie s , but to m a n y o th e r so c ia l p ro b le m s a s w ell. The m a t e r i
als then b eco m e a fo rc e fo r influence a s w ell as a r e fle c to r of w hat
h a s been. On the o th e r hand, if the N e o -F re u d ia n ap p ro ac h is e s
se n tia lly c o r r e c t, then one would expect to find v e ry little change in
attitu d es a fte r e x p e rim e n ta l tre a tm e n t. T he stim u li in a ll c a s e s
would be too w eak.
The th e o re tic a l im p lic a tio n s thus beco m e as in te re s tin g as the
p r a c tic a l ones. T he re m a in d e r of this study w ill an aly ze and explain
the data fro m the S ym bolic In te ra c tio n is t fra m e w o rk , as it s e e m s to
hold g r e a te r p ro m is e as an an aly tic tool. H o w ev er, should the e m
p ir ic a l r e s u lts be w eak o r c o n tra ry to the g uidelines laid out by this
th e o ry , an a lte rn a tiv e ap p ro a c h m ig h t be c o n s id e re d c o r r e c t.
A ssu m p tio n s and L im itatio n s
This study m u s t be in te r p r e te d with full c o n s id e ra tio n of its
assu m p tio n s and lim ita tio n s:
A ssu m p tio n s
1. It is a s s u m e d th a t the population d e s c rib e d in C h ap ter III
11
is re p re s e n ta tiv e of m id d le and lo w er m iddle c la s s c h ild re n .
2. It is a s s u m e d th a t the te s ts and q u e s tio n n a ire s a r e valid.
Two of the tech n iq u es h ad b een v alidated on adult p opulations. Two
o th e rs w e re developed and p ilo ted by the e x p e rim e n te r h im se lf.
L im itatio n s
1. A ll ethnic groups w e re not included in the s a m p le . The
b a s ic ta rg e t w as W hite A nglo-S axon M iddle C la s s , with a s m a ll r e
p re s e n ta tio n of N e g ro e s and M ex ica n s.
2. T he schools s e le c te d w e re in the Los A n g eles a r e a . Thus,
the a p p licab ility of the findings m ig h t be so m ew h at lim ite d .
3. S am pling p ro c e d u re s w e re as rig o ro u s a s a d m in is tra tiv e
and e x p e rim e n ta l conditions would allow . In one school the sa m p le
w as ra n d o m ly s e le c te d f r o m th e w hole student body, g ra d e s 4 - 6 .
With two o th e rs , c la s s ro o m s w e re se le c te d fo r the in itia l s a m p le s .
A ll e x p e rim e n ta l g roups w e re ra n d o m ly a ss ig n e d .
4. Only su b jects fo r w hom co m p lete d ata w e re a v a ila b le fo r
a ll v a ria b le s w e re included in the study.
D efinitions
A ttitude: It is a s s u m e d th a t the in s tru m e n ts w ill be m e a s u rin g
this fa c to r, defined as
. . . a m e n ta l and n e u tra l sta te of re a d in e s s , o rg a n
iz ed thro u g h e x p e rie n c e , e x e rtin g a d ire c tiv e or
dynam ic influence upon the in d iv id u al's re s p o n s e to
a ll o bjects and situ a tio n s with w hich it is re la te d (2:805).
12
C u ltu re; F o r p u rp o s e s of this study the te r m r e f e r s to a u n i
v e rs e of life w ays and valu es held by a p a r tic u la r group of people as
a b a s is fo r m a in tain in g th e ir in te rn a l c o h e re n c e . A m o re d e sc rip tiv e
definition w as given by T y lo r;
A c u ltu re is a com plex w hole w hich in clu d es know
ledge, b elief, a r t , m o r a ls , law , cu sto m , and any
o th e r c a p a b ilitie s a c q u ire d by m a n as a m e m b e r of
so ciety (97:1).
D iffe re n tia te d C ateg o ry ; The opposite of a s te re o ty p e 3; 173).
E th n o c e n tric is m : T endency to r e g a rd o th e r c u ltu ra l v alu es and
life-w a y s as having no value a t a ll. Som e r e s e a r c h e r s have a s sig n e d
an even s tro n g e r definition;
E th n o c e n tric is m is an id e o lo g ica l s y s te m in w hich
outgroups a r e ob jects of ste re o ty p e d neg ativ e o pin
ions and h o stile a ttitu d es and in g ro u p s a r e the o b
je c ts of p o sitiv e opinions and u n c ritic a lly su p p o rtiv e
a ttitu d e s (16:186).
Identification; T aking the ro le of the o th er v ic a rio u sly and i m
a g in ativ ely . (95:496).
In te r-c u ltu ra l; B etw een two c u ltu re s .
In tr a - c u ltu r al: W ithin the s a m e cu ltu re .
P re ju d ic e ; An ir r a t io n a l p re ju d g e m e n t. R elev an t evidence
co u n ter to such a ju d g em en t is d is re g a rd e d . T he qu ality of the
jud g em en t is h o stile (3:190).
P ro je c tiv e ; R e fe rs to a te stin g technique in w hich an e x a m
inee is given an u n s tru c tu re d ta s k to do and is sc o re d on p re v io u sly
13
w orked out c r i t e r i a in te rp re tin g the way in w hich the ta s k is a c c o m
p lish e d . (95:666).
S o cia l D istance: D e g re e of in tim a c y o r d ista n c e betw een a c to r
and object. The t e r m w as f i r s t o p e ra tio n a liz e d and m e a s u r e d by
B o g ard u s (12) and is often u se d w hen m e a s u rin g com ponents of p r e
judice o r attitu d e.
S tereo ty p e: A m e n ta l p ic tu re o r s e t, not n e c e s s a r ily d e s c r ip
tive of the object, but com m only h eld (3:191).
P re v ie w of the B alan ce of the Study
The su b seq u en t c h a p te rs in this study hav e been o rg a n iz e d as
follow s:
C h ap ter II rev ie w s the lite r a tu r e re la tin g p re ju d ic e and attitudes
to the se le c tiv e v a ria b le s c o n sid e re d in this study. In addition, it
p re s e n ts a lite r a tu r e on m e a s u rin g a ttitu d e s.
C h ap ter III d etails the p ro c e d u re s u se d in w ritin g and piloting
the s to r ie s , te s ts and in v e n to rie s , the lo catio n s of the schools and
the n a tu re of the population.
The findings a r e re p o rte d and d is c u s s e d in C h ap ter IV.
C h ap ter V p re s e n ts a s u m m a ry of the p ro c e e d in g s and findings
of this study: conclusions a r e d raw n , im p lic a tio n s in fe rre d , and r e c
om m en d atio n s m ad e.
14
C H A P T E R II
R EV IEW O F R E L A T E D LIT E R A T U R E
In tro d u ctio n
T his ch a p te r contains a re v ie w of r e s e a r c h stu d ies and l i t e r a
tu r e on p re ju d ic e d attitu d es and attitu d e change. It fu rth e r ex am in es
stu d ie s w hich have e x p lo re d the th e o re tic a l and e m p iric a l effects of
w ritte n co m m u n ica tio n upon a se le c te d ta rg e t sa m p le . T he contents
a r e o rg an iz ed u n d e r six m a in h eadings: (1) re je c tio n of outgroups;
(2) v a ria b le s in c h ild re n affecting a ttitu d es; (3) content of c h ild re n 's
r e a d e r s w hich could affect attitu d e s; (4) the influence of w ritte n c o n
te n t on b ia se d opinions; (5) m e a s u re m e n t of c h ild re n 's a ttitu d e s to
w a rd s o u t-g ro u p s; (6) s u m m a ry .
R ejectio n of O utgroups
P e rh a p s the m o s t ex h au stiv e r e s e a r c h on p re ju d ic e , s te re o ty p e ,
e th n o c e n tric is m and attitu d e h as been c a r r ie d out by A llp o rt (2, 3).
H is d ata has b u ilt an e m p iric a l p ic tu re of o u t-g ro u p re je c tio n w hich
h a s been su p p o rted by o th e r w r ite r s (7, 13, 16, 20, 44, 51, 55, 61,
69, 74, 96). A llp o rt m en tio n ed m a n y p o ssib le s o u rc e s and m a n if e s ta
tions of outgroup re je c tio n . T h ey se e m e d to c lu s te r aro u n d the f a c
to r s of o v er c a te g o riz in g (3:8) and e rro n e o u s g e n e ra liz a tio n leading to
n eg ativ e stereo ty p in g (3:18). Such ste re o ty p e s could e ith e r be d iffe r
15
en tiated o r su b je c t to re c a te g o riz a tio n as f r e s h evidence p re s e n te d
its e lf to the su b ject (3:173), o r m o n o p o listic (3:202). The s tre n g th of
the s te re o ty p e a c c e p te d would depend on the p e rs o n a lity of the h o ld e r,
the stre n g th of his p r im a r y group re la tio n s h ip , and th e so c ia l m ilie u
he found h im se lf in a t any m o m en t. T his evidence would g e n e ra lly
s e e m to uphold two th e o re tic a l p o sitio n s a t once. It su p p o rts the view -’
point th at the in te ra c tio n of situ a tio n w ith values c u rre n tly held by the
su b ject c re a te s the s te re o ty p e . Should in te rn a l c a te g o rie s have no
c o rre s p o n d e n c e to new in fo rm a tio n , change is not likely to take p la ce.
It a lso su p p o rts the N e o -F re u d ia n position to a d e g re e . T his
co m es fro m A llp o rt's d istin ctio n betw een p re ju d ic e and m isc o n c e p tio n
(3:9). P re ju d ic e d opinions a r e m o n o p o listic . T hey re ta in e rro n e o u s
c a te g o rie s to w ard s o u t-g ro u p s even w hen objective evidence is c le a rly
p re s e n te d to the c o n tra ry . A m isc o n c e p tio n , on the o th e r h an d , can
be c o rre c te d . T his would tend to m a k e a p re ju d ic e d opinion an u n
changeable phenom enon cau sed by b a s ic p e rs o n a lity fa c to rs la rg e ly
u n re la te d to so c ia l in te ra c tio n . W hat then can the school do for a
tru ly p re ju d ic e d pupil? A llp o rt su g g ested th a t v e ry little could be
done ex cep t through in ten siv e th e ra p y (3:295-296). B ut tru ly p re ju -
diced ch ild re n a r e r a r e . In ste a d , m o s t a r e im bued w ith m is c o n c e p
tio n s, w hich if le ft untended could develop and h a rd e n into p re ju d ic e s .
P re ju d ic e d a ttitu d e s, then, depend on s e v e r a l v a ria b le s fo r th e ir
grow th and d e v e lo p m e n t--o th e rw is e they re m a in e a s ily ex tin g u ish ab le
16
m isc o n c e p tio n s. W hat v a ria b le s in c h ild re n re la te d to re a d in g m a t e
ria ls m ig h t develop o r re d u c e p re ju d ic e ?
V a ria b le s in C h ild re n A ffecting A ttitu d es
F a c to rs in a c h ild 's m a k eu p and background w hich m ig h t have
a b e a rin g on how h is attitu d es h a rd e n o r change a fte r ex p o su re to
read in g m a te r ia l have re c e iv e d s c a n t atten tio n . W aples (101:114) is
one of the few who gave the m a tte r s e rio u s sc ru tin y . He liste d th e se
v a ria b le s as the m o s t re le v a n t: ag e, sex , education, occupation,
incom e le v el, and group m e m b e rs h ip . O th e r r e s e a r c h e r s have in
cluded in tellig en ce and r a c e (61:90).
Age
P re ju d ic e d a ttitu d e s s e e m to c o r r e la te quite h eav ily w ith age.
T he o ld e r the child the le s s able w ill h e be to change his opinion.
A llp o rt rev iew ed r e s e a r c h w hich in d icate d th a t the f i r s t p e rc e p tio n s
of ra c e o c c u rre d a t age 2 1/2 y e a rs (3:304-310). By age six c h ild re n
could be seen ca te g o riz in g b ro a d c la s s e s of people into p o sitiv e and
negative s te re o ty p e s . F r o m this stag e th e re follow ed a p erio d of
to ta l re je c tio n in w hich the o u t-g ro u p w as tr e a te d in a to ta lly n eg ativ e
way (3:304-310). F in a lly , b e c a u se th is often b e c a m e in c re a s in g ly u n
re a lis tic and a n ti-s o c ia l, the re je c tio n w as e ith e r dropped a s a m i s
conception with a c c ep tan c e taking its p la c e , o r a m o r e h a rd e n e d
p osition re a c h e d (3:304-310). A t about age 12 c h ild re n le a rn e d how
17
to a c c o m m o d a te th e ir p re ju d ic e d opinions w ithout m aking th e m ap p eal
in c o n siste n t w ith re a lity . T h is A llp o rt te rm e d refen cin g . I r r a tio n a l
re je c tio n of a c a te g o ry of people w as m a d e to a p p e a r m o re acc ep tab le
and ra tio n a l to the p e rs o n m ak in g this ju d g em en t. A t any tim e th e re
could be a p o ssib ility of changing u n fav o rab le s te re o ty p e s , b e c a u se
the child s till did not know how to cope w ith in fo rm a tio n c o n tra ry to
his p re c o n c e p tio n s, and could identify w ith o r a c c e p t the new in fo rm a
tion into his value s tr u c tu re . A fter age tw elv e, h o w ev er, th is a p
p e a re d to be m o re d ifficult to do, b e c a u se the child had le a rn e d how
to ra tio n a liz e , r e je c t or r e n d e r " ir r e le v a n t" a ll view points w hich
th re a te n e d h is own b ia s e s .
Sex
E m p ir ic a l evidence so f a r s e e m s n e ith e r to c o n firm n o r re je c t
the sex fa c to r a s d e c isiv e in the le a rn in g of p re ju d ic e . L eh m an
(61:90) found th a t am ong a co lleg e stu d en t body th e re w e re no sig n if
ic a n t d iffe re n c e s in r a te of opinion change betw een m e n and w om en.
Z eligs (108: 429) found a v e ry low c o rre la tio n betw een sex and so c ia l
d ista n ce s c o r e s with sixth g ra d e c h ild re n as su b je c ts.
On the o th er hand, w ith r e fe re n c e to read in g m a te r ia ls , the sex
of a student could have a v e ry im p o rta n t b e a rin g . E vidence fro m
T h o rn d ik e (94:18) has su g g ested th a t g irls tend to identify m u c h m o re
h eav ily w ith c e rta in s to ry to p ics than boys. T his would im p ly th a t if
18
the id en tificatio n fa c to r is c r u c ia l fo r attitu d e change as sta te d by-
F o o te and R u s s e ll (31, 79), g irls could v e ry w ell be sig n ifican tly
affected in th e ir attitu d e s by a s to ry w hich would le av e boys unm oved,
and vice v e rs a .
E du catio n
E v id en ce fro m S te m b e r (88:3) in d icate d th a t le v el of education
did n o t c o r r e la te highly w ith le v e l of p re ju d ic e am ong an adult p o p u la
tion. With a younger group Z elig s found th a t re a d in g ab ility (110) had
no re la tio n sh ip to s o c ia l d ista n c e s c o re . In g e n e ra l w ith e le m e n ta ry
age c h ild re n education and age le v e l a r e c lo se ly in te rlin k e d so a s to
be v irtu a lly in d istin g u ish ab le. A n ex am in atio n of th e g ra d e p ro m o tio n
p o licies of e le m e n ta ry school d is tr ic ts p ro v id es co n firm in g evidence
of th is.
O ccupation
E v id en ce of th is h as b een so m ew h at in c o n clu siv e. (88). L andis
(58) found th a t th e re w as a re la tio n s h ip betw een s o c ia l d ista n ce and
so c ia l c la s s . F o r ch ild re n of e le m e n ta ry school ag e, the v a ria b le
h as little m ean in g , b e c a u se occupation is v irtu a lly the sa m e fo r all:
stu d en ts.
G roup M e m b e rs h ip
The au th o r could find no lite r a tu r e b e a rin g on th e re la tio n sh ip
19
betw een group m e m b e rs h ip of e le m e n ta ry age c h ild re n and th e ir
change in a ttitu d e s. A gain, it would a p p e a r th a t such m e m b e rs h ip s a t
this age le v el do not pro v id e the sa m e d iffere n tiatin g fa c to r th a t they
would fo r ad u lts.
In tellig en ce
When defined as a s c o re on a te s t of in te llig e n c e , this v a ria b le
h as been found to be u n re la te d to the fa c to r u n d e r c o n sid e ra tio n .
S te m b e r p o stu lated that m o re highly in te llig e n t people could be m o r e
s u c c e s s fu l in guarding th e ir p re ju d ic e s than th o se le s s gifted (88:179)j
w hile L ehm an (61:90) and Z elig s (108:429) found th a t th e re w as little
re la tio n s h ip betw een te ste d I. Q. s c o re and s c o r e s on in s tru m e n ts
m e a su rin g d e g re e of p re ju d ic e .
R ace and E thnic G roup
The lite r a tu r e su g g ests th a t the r a c ia l and ethnic o rig in of the
stu d en t (19, 58, 79, 108) could v e ry w ell have som ething to do w ith
a ttitu d e change a fte r co n tact with read in g m a te r ia ls . Sym bolic I n t e r -
a c tio n is m would hold th a t the su b je c t would m o r e lik ely id en tify with
a c h a r a c te r of his own r a c e . So f a r , h o w e v e r, e x p e rim e n ta l evidence
on this point h as been w eak. Only one study could be found p e rtin e n t
to the p ro b lem . It w as lim ite d to one c la s s r o o m of th irty p r im a r y
age p u p ils, and dealt w ith illu s tra tio n s r a th e r than w ith effect of
w ritte n text. (78).
20
C ontent F a c to r s in R e a d e rs W hich Could A ffect A ttitu d es
F r o m 1946 to the p r e s e n t s e v e r a l stu d ie s have b een m a d e of
c h ild re n 's te x ts and trad e b o o k s (s to r y books found in li b r a r ie s and
book s to r e s but not tex ts). T h rough a n a ly sis of th e m a e , sp e c im e n
quotations and plot s tr u c tu r e s , th e s e stu d ie s have re v e a le d the p o s
sib ility that such m a te r ia l m ig h t be c re a tin g im a g e s of so c ia l re a lity
of m u c h g r e a t e r sig n ifican ce than th e ir m o re obvious cognitive m e a n
in g s. In g e n e ra l, the findings can be b ro k en down into the follow ing
c a te g o rie s : im a g e s of so ciety in g e n e ra l and im a g e s of m in o ritie s .
Im a g e s of S ociety
In g e n e ra l, the a n a ly se s p re s e n te d by th e s e stu d ie s w ith r e g a rd
to the p o r tr a i t c h ild re n 's s to r ie s give of A m e ric a n s o c ie ty as a w hole
re v e a l m an y fa c to rs of a g re e m e n t.
U n re a lis tic O p tim is m , F r e e d o m f r o m S tr e s s and F r u s tr a tio n . - -
C hild, P o tte r and L evine (17) is o la te d this fa c to r out of th e ir a n a ly sis
of th ird g ra d e r e a d e r s published betw een 1930 and 1946. V e ry few
s to rie s ended in fa ilu re fo r the m a in c h a r a c te r , and if they did, the
fa ilu re w as not of a se rio u s s o r t, fu r th e r m o r e life w as p ic tu re d as
gay, an x iety fre e and so m ew h at u n in te lle c tu a l. K lin e b erg noted the
phenom enon in h is study of a sa m p le of r e a d e r s e r ie s w hich cam e out
in the la te 1950's and e a rly 1960's (54:75). W argney, in a la te r and
m o re co m p lete study co n firm e d this finding (102).
21
P re d o m in a n c e of a S u c c e ss fu l M iddle C la ss Life P a tte r n . - -
A gain, C hild, P o tte r and L evine noted the la ck of re fe re n c e to th o se
who w e re not s u c c e ss fu l. K lin e b erg in d icate d th at r e a d e r s p o rtra y e d
a s ty p ic a l a fam ily living in a la rg e , c o m fo rta b le su b u rb an h o m e w ith
w hite pick et fence, beau tifu l g re e n law n w ith s y c a m o re tr e e s and two
new c a r s . F u r th e r d ata fro m T ennyson (92) re v e a le d th a t am ong f i r s t
g ra d e re a d in g te x ts, fre q u e n c y of job c a te g o rie s m en tio n ed m ig h t be
producing a d is to rte d im a g e of the w o rld of w ork. A s an ex am p le, the
a c tu a l d is trib u tio n of jobs n atio n -w id e as re p o rte d by the I960 U .S .
C en su s lis te d 19. 9% of the w orking population as p ro fe ss io n a l, te c h n i
cal o r m a n a g e ria l, w hile the sa m e ca te g o ry w as m en tio n ed 41% of the
tim e in the r e a d e r s .
A ll-W hite M iddle C la ss A tm o s p h e re . - - T he two fa c to rs p r e v i
o usly m e n tio n ed a r e in a s e n s e coupled w ith a m o r e in c lu siv e c a te g o ry
w hich m ig h t be te rm e d w hite m id d le c la ss e th n o c e n tric ism . A s
L a r r i c k sta te d
T h e re s e e m s little chance of developing the h u m ility
so u rg e n tly needed fo r w o rld co o p era tio n in ste a d of
w o rld conflict as long a s o u r c h ild re n a r e b ro u g h t up
on gentle doseS of r a c i s m th ro u g h th e ir books (60:53).
The o p tim istic , s u c c e s s fu l fam ily a tm o s p h e re em p h asizin g
executive type jobs is la rg e ly a w hite m id d le c la ss id e a l at odds w ith
the living r e a litie s - -e s p e c ia lly th o se of m a n y m in o ritie s . In addition,
th e re is the p ro b le m of u n d e rre p re s e n ta tio n . F a m ilie s o th e r than
__________________________________________________________________________________
22
C a u c a sia n did not e x ist. W aite and Z im et (8, 9, 98, 99, 112) in d ic a t
ed in a n a ly se s of m o r e re c e n t publications th a t as fa r as illu s tra tio n s
w e re co n c e rn e d , th e re w e re m o re N eg ro fig u re s than in the e a r l ie r
s e r i e s , but th e ir p a rtic ip a tio n w ithin a m o d e rn w hite m iddle c la ss
m ilie u w as s till lacking. T he values w e re of the dom inant group.
Im a g e s of M in o ritie s
Of the content a n a ly sis studies con cern in g m in o ritie s , the e v i
dence tends to co n v erg e onto th re e g e n e ra l a r e a s : ste re o ty p in g , r e
m o te n e ss of settin g , and tre a tm e n t.
S te re o ty p in g . - - S e v e ra l studies of c h ild re n 's and o ld e r stu d e n ts'
read in g m a te r ia ls have re v e a le d the p re s e n ta tio n of m in o rity c h a r
a c te r s in a ste re o ty p e d or d e ro g a to ry fashion. M o st r e s e a r c h e r s have
noted, h o w ev er, th a t in re c e n t y e a rs the m o re obvious fo rm s of
d ero g atio n have been e lim in ated (21, 86), though no doubt "gentle
d o se s" re m a in . K lin eb erg found one obvious c a s e of stereo ty p in g of
so u th e rn E u ro p e a n s in a Ginn f ir s t r e a d e r (54:76), but this w as the
only one the lite r a tu r e re v e a le d in the m o re re c e n t r e a d e r s e r ie s .
R em o te S ettin g . - -M any of the stu d ies rev ie w e d noted th a t sto rie s
con cern in g m in o ritie s w e re re m o te a s to settin g , and had v e ry little
re la te d n e s s to in t e r r a c i a l and in te r c u ltu ra l p ro b le m s . C o llie r and
K lin eb erg (18, 54) in d icate d th a t Indian s to rie s w e re in the re m o te
p a s t, and d e s c rib e d a c tiv itie s w hich could have m ean in g only to the
23
c u ltu re p ra c tic in g them . L a r r i c k noted the sa m e phenom enon in h e r
a n a ly sis of tra d e books (60:63). Of the c h ild re n 's books she an aly zed ,
only 4 /5 of one p e rc e n t told s to rie s of N e g ro e s, while 60% of th e se
w e re p la ced outside the U nited S ta te s , o r took place b efo re W orld W ar
II.
C h a r a c te r T r e a t m e n t .- - M o re re c e n t stu d ies have co n
c e n tra te d on s to ry th e m a e . P lo t outcom es w e re in v e stig a te d by W aite,
Blorn and Z im e t (8, 98, 99, 112). T hey w e re c a te g o riz e d as ending
e ith e r in fa ilu re , h elp o r s u c c e s s , depending on the c h a r a c te r 's
ab ility to solve w h atev er p ro b le m the s to ry p re s e n te d to h im . D is
c re p a n c ie s w e re im m e d ia te ly noted. S to rie s in m u l ti- r a c ia l r e a d e r s
ended m uch m o re freq u en tly in fa ilu re than did those fro m an o v e r - a ll
n atio n al sa m p le w h e re little in te g ra tio n ex isted . In an o th er r e a d e r
s e r ie s , w h ere the s to rie s w e re changed fro m an a ll-w h ite to m ix ed
fo rm a t, th e re w as a m a rk e d in c re a s e in fa ilu re ending of the s to r ie s .
The au th o rs contended th a t this could build a p ic tu re of N e g ro e s or
in te g ra te d situ a tio n s e s s e n tia lly negative in connotation to a w hite
child.
S um m ation. - - L a rg e d iffe re n c e s in te rm in o lo g y , m e th o d
ology and sam p lin g p ro c e d u re s ex isted betw een th e se stu d ie s. The
r e a d e r s ch osen w e re not the sa m e , the sam pling units w e re often not
c le a rly sp ecific (17) o r b u ilt on u n ifo rm c r it e r ia , and the r e p r e s e n t a
tiv e n e s s of the sa m p le s w as e ith e r questio n ab le or not c le a rly sta te d
24
(54, 60). C o llie r b ased h e r r e s e a r c h a ro u n d 72 q u e stio n s, the origins
of w hich she did n o t specify.
D espite th e se d iffe re n c e s and so m e m ild ly conflicting evidence
by S aw yers (80) who found th at m in o ritie s w e re n o t punished m o re
often for the sa m e type of m isd e e d s than C a u c a sia n s , the g re a t bulk
of evidence a m a s s e d by the re v ie w e r show ed a c o n siste n tly c r itic a l
a s s e s s m e n t of the way c h ild re n 's texts and lite r a t u r e have handled
m in o ritie s . K lin eb erg se e m e d to e x p re s s this c r itic a l tone w ell w hen
he said:
The p r e s e n t w r ite r e x p re s s e s no opinion as to the
contribution of th e se r e a d e r s to the ab ility to
re a d , but this a n a ly sis of th e ir content r a is e s ,
in h is m ind, som e r e a l q u estio n s re g a rd in g th e ir
con trib u tio n to the c h ild re n 's p ic tu re of A m e ric a n
so ciety , the attitu d e and m ode of thinking w hich
a r e p re s u m a b ly developed, and the d e s ir e to re a d
fu rth e r (54:75).
The Influence of W ritten C ontent on B ia se d O pinions
W hat r e s e a r c h is av ailab le w hich show s the effect of c e rta in
types of s to rie s on c h ild re n 's s o c ia l a ttitu d e s? T he data g a th e re d so
fa r has c o n c e n tra te d on id en tificatio n of c h ild re n 's attitu d es and a n a
lyzing c e rta in types of s to r ie s as to th e ir p ro b ab le effect on those
attitu d es. V e ry little w ork, h o w ev er, h as b een expended on exploring
the effect such s to rie s a c tu a lly have on c h ild re n in the age group
6 - 12. In fo rm atio n having som e re la tio n to this p ro b le m w as taken
fro m p sy ch o lo g ical stu d ie s of students in u n iv e rs itie s , co lleg es and
25
high sch o o ls. The r e s e a r c h s e e m e d to c e n te r on th re e c a te g o rie s;
so u rc e p e rc e p tio n , p r io r in fo rm a tio n effect, and d iffe re n tia l p r e s e n t a
tion of in fo rm atio n .
S o u rce P e rc e p tio n Studies
T he r e p o r ts cited below illu s tr a te how in fo rm atio n given u n d er
c e rta in conditions p e rc e iv e d by the re c ip ie n t can have a sig n ifican t in
fluence on the re c ip ie n t's le a rn in g of the in fo rm a tio n and his i n t e r
p re ta tio n of it.
On the m a n n e r of le a rn in g , two e x p e rim e n ts w e re conducted by
Jo n es and K ohler (49) on the h y p o th esis th a t those who w e re p r o - s e g r e
gation would le a rn p la u sib le s e g re g a tio n a rg u m e n ts and im p la u sib le
a n ti-s e g re g a tio n a rg u m e n ts b e tte r than p la u sib le a n ti-s e g re g a tio n and
im p la u sib le p ro -s e g re g a tio n a rg u m e n ts . It w as also p o stu la ted th a t
those who w e re a g a in st se g re g a tio n would tend to re m e m b e r the m o s t
p la u sib le a n ti-s e g re g a tio n a rg u m e n ts and the le a s t plausible p r o - s e g
re g a tio n a rg u m e n ts . In o th er w o rd s, those p re ju d ic e d fo r a c e rta in
point of view tend to r e ta in th o se a rg u m e n ts th a t su p p o rt it, w hile at
the s a m e tim e re m e m b e rin g the w e a k e st a rg u m e n ts of th e ir opponents
to b o ls te r th e ir b ia s e s . T he e x p e rim e n t involved beginning college
psychology stu d en ts s p lit into th re e g ro u p s on the b a s is of how they
a n sw e re d an a ttitu d e q u e s tio n n a ire on se g re g a tio n . A fte r given s t a t e
m e n ts e ith e r p ro o r a n ti-s e g re g a tio n (with so m e being p la u sib le and
26
o th e rs im p la u sib le a rg u m e n ts ), it w as found th a t the o rig in a l h y p o th
e s e s had b een co n firm ed .
One p e rtin e n t im p lic a tio n of the findings is th a t lo g ical a rg u m e n t
m a y not by its e lf affect p re ju d ic e d view s. T his does not ru le out
o th er v a ria b le s w ithin the m a te r ia l having the effect of causing the
su b je c t to identify w ith the ro le of the m in o rity in q u estio n , but only
a s s e r t s th a t the re a so n in g and logic of a s ta te m e n t does not n e c e s s a r
ily p e rs u a d e . C ognitive in fo rm a tio n does n o t n e c e s s a r ily e lic it r e
sponding b eh av io r.
B e sid e s m e s s a g e lo g ic, a n o th e r v a ria b le w hich could affect
re c ip ie n t's a ttitu d e to w ard s the m a te r ia l and the m e s s a g e w ithin is
the know ledge of the a u th o r. M anis and Z agona (65, 106) in v e stig a te d
this in two s e p a ra te stu d ie s. It w as h y p o th e sized th a t m e s s a g e s given
in a context su g g estin g the a u th o rs had low p re s tig e would a lso have
low influence p o ten tial. T he s a m e m e s s a g e s a ttrib u te d to high so u rc e
p re s tig e (or c re d ib ility in the c a s e of Zagona) would a lso have low
influence po ten tial. The su b jects w e re college u n d e rg ra d u a te volun
te e r s who w e re a ss ig n e d to th re e g roups on the b a s is of th e ir s e m a n
tic d iffe re n tia l s c a le s c o r e s on the a s s ig n e d opinion object.
In g e n e ra l, in sp ite of m e s s a g e content, su b je c ts who fa v o re d
the ob ject tended to a s s u m e th a t high p re s tig e would be m o re p r o
object than th o se of low p re s tig e . S ubjects who opposed the ob ject
in itia lly tended to r e v e r s e this a ss u m p tio n . High c re d ib ility so u rc e
27
m e s s a g e s tended to be le a rn e d b e tte r than those fro m a low c r e d ib il
ity s o u rc e . T h u s, in an e x p e rim e n ta l situ a tio n w ith c h ild re n 's r e a d
ing m a te r ia ls , it would be im p o rta n t to e sta b lish if the c h ild re n knew
the e x a m in e r w ro te the s to rie s o r not. Should they know and lik e and
b eliev e in the e x a m in e r, and p e rc e iv e the e x a m in e r as identifying
w ith the s to ry object, it is likely th a t th e ir m e a s u r e d a ttitu d e s could
be affected.
P r i o r In fo rm atio n E ffec t
The p rev io u s stu d ies m en tio n ed tr ie d to is o la te the production
of s c o re changes by an in te ra c tio n of s to rie s and re c ip ie n t b ia s. W hat
about u n b ia sed in fo rm a tio n and in itia lly u n b ia sed re c ip ie n ts ? W hat
kind of effect could this b rin g ? L ew an and Stotland (62) a d d re s s e d
th e m s e lv e s to th e se q u estio n s. They h y p o th esized th a t p e rs o n s who
re c e iv e d n e u tra l in fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g a given ob ject would low er
th e ir evaluation of the object to a l e s s e r ex ten t a fte r re c e iv in g an
em o tio n al ap p ea l a g a in st it than p e rs o n s who had n o t a c q u ire d such
in fo rm atio n .
S ubjects w e re 12th g ra d e students fro m four c la s s r o o m s . N e u
t r a l in fo rm atio n w as given concerning A n d o rra n s to h a lf the pupils
and ir r e le v a n t in fo rm a tio n to the o th e r half. O pinion s c a le s on the
A n d o rra n s w e re then a d m in is te re d to both g ro u p s. In itia l m e a n d if
fe re n c e s betw een the groups w e re not sig n ifican t. S ubsequently, all
28
the students w e re given an em o tio n al a n ti-A n d o rra n tira d e by the e x
p e rim e n te r, followed im m e d ia te ly by a p o s t-m e a s u re m e n t. T he
h y p o th esis w as co n firm ed . T h o se re c e iv in g n e u tra l in fo rm a tio n did
not lo w er th e ir opinion to w ard s A n d o rra n s as m uch as the ones r e
ceiving ir r e le v a n t in fo rm atio n .
Though this su p p o rts the contention th a t n e u tra l in fo rm atio n
m a y have value in fighting in cip ien t p re ju d ic e , o th e r situ a tio n s o u t
side of the stu d y 's v e ry sp e c ia l conditions would c o m p lica te i n t e r p r e t a
tion of the data. In the e x p e rim e n t the n e u tra l in fo rm a tio n had been
given b efo re the em o tio n al tir a d e - - p r e s u m a b ly b efo re the c h ild re n
knew o r had any opinion about A n d o rra at a ll (which w as the re a s o n
A n d o rra was picked as the a ttitu d in a l ob ject in the f i r s t p lace). In a
context when som ething is a lre a d y known about a so c ia lly s tig m a
tiz e d m in o rity group, the value of n e u tra l in fo rm atio n as a m e a n s of
com bating n eg ativ e s te re o ty p e and e th n o c e n tric is m h a s y et to be c o n
vincingly d e m o n stra te d .
The Way In fo rm atio n is P r e s e n te d
F o u r stu d ies w ere found in the lite r a tu r e w hich had so m e d ire c t
b e a rin g on the question of w h e th e r o r not the way in fo rm a tio n is p r e
sen ted h a s any effect. Two of th e se e x p e rim e n ts a tte m p te d to e s ta b
lish a re la tio n sh ip betw een fa v o ra b le tr e a tm e n t of a m in o rity in a
s to ry o r book w ith a m o re fav o rab le change in the r e a d e r 's opinion
29
of th a t m in o rity a fte rw a rd s . S ubjects w e re te e n - a g e r s in both c a s e s .
A gnes (1) u se d an ex p o st facto desig n to show th a t those g irls who
re a d about N eg ro es a lso had m o r e fav o rab le attitu d es to w ard s th e m
than th o se who did n o t re a d about th e m . A sso c ia tio n w as esta b lish e d
but not cau satio n .
In a s tro n g e r p r e - p o s tte s t e x p e rim e n t Ja c k so n (45) show ed th a t
teen age w hite so u th e rn c h ild re n who re a d a s to ry fav o rab le to a N egro
c h a r a c te r would tend to change th e ir opinions fav o rab ly to N e g ro e s as
a group. In the e x p e rim e n t the c o n tro ls took a p r e te s t- p o s tte s t only,
w hile the e x p e rim e n ta ls re a d the s to ry b efo re the p o s tte st. The
change in attitu d e was s h o rt te r m only. W hen p o s tte ste d a second
tim e s e v e r a l w eeks la te r the e x p e rim e n ta ls ' m e a n s c o re s had r e
g re s s e d to th e ir p o s tte s t n o rm . No a tte m p t was m ad e to find out
w hat fa c to r o r com bination of fa c to rs in the s to ry could hav e in flu
enced the c h ild re n 's opinion. A followup e x p e rim e n t on an o th er s a m
ple showed no significant change fo r the e x p e rim e n ta ls a t all.
A th ird e x p e rim e n t by K atz, S arn o ff and M cC lintook u tilizin g
college g irls as su b jects d ire c te d atten tio n to the d iffe re n tia l effects
w ithin the m a te r ia l its e lf (52). T he sa m p le w as sp lit into th re e
groups: a co n tro l and two e x p e rim e n ta ls . The co n tro ls w e re not e x
posed to any e x p e rim e n ta l tr e a tm e n t a t all. They w e re m e re ly p r e and
p o s t-te s te d . T he f ir s t e x p e rim e n ta l group w as to re a d one se t of
m a te r ia ls te rm e d in fo rm atio n a l. T he second group would re a d
30
m a te r ia ls te rm e d in te rp re tiv e . In both se ts the object w as the A m e r
ic an N e g ro . The in fo rm a tio n a l m a te r ia ls on the N eg ro w e re c a s t in a
slig h tly fav o rab le bias w hich
. . .a tte m p te d to evoke a fra m e of re fe re n c e , c u l
tu r a l re la tiv ity , in w hich the a ttitu d in al object
and in fo rm atio n concerning it could be p e rc e iv e d
in a new way (52:33).
The in te rp re tiv e m a te r ia ls , on the o th e r hand
. . . d e s c rib e d in g e n e ra l te rm s the dy n am ics of
scapegoating, p ro je c tio n , and co m p en satio n with
r e s p e c t to the developm ent of a n ti-m in o rity
attitu d e s. We then p re s e n te d a c a se h is to r y of
a college g ir l to illu s tr a te how th e se m e c h a n ism s
of defense w e re b a sic to h e r ethnic p re ju d ic e s.
In doing th is, we a ttem p ted to m a x im iz e id e n tifi
cation of the su b jects with the h y p o th etical c a se .
(53:32-33).
A w eek a fte r p re te stin g on a B o g ard u s S o cial D istan ce S cale,
N eg ro S tereo ty p e S cale and F Scale the e x p e rim e n ta ls w e re given the
m a te r ia ls . Im m e d ia te ly a fte r reading th e m the su b jects w e re r e
qu ested to fill out an o th er s e t of the sa m e attitu d e q u e stio n n a ire they
had re sp o n d ed to a w eek e a r l ie r . Six w eeks la te r a ll su b jects w e re
given a second p o s tte s t to m e a s u r e long te r m effects of the d iffe re n t
ia l tre a tm e n ts .
When using the c h i-s q u a re te s t fo r d ire c tio n of change b efo re
and a fte r e x p e rim e n ta l tre a tm e n t sig n ifican tly m o re people changed
in the d ire c tio n of fav o rab le b eliefs about N e g ro e s a fte r e x p o su re to
the in te rp re tiv e ap p ro ac h . The d ifferen ce w as positive but not sign-
31
ifican t for th o se exposed to the in fo rm a tio n a l m a te r ia ls . A fter six
w eeks the group w hich had re c e iv e d the in te rp re tiv e m a te r ia ls c o n
tinued to hold its advantage w hile the in fo rm a tio n a l group r e g r e s s e d .
Sam pling m ethod and a s s ig n m e n t w e re not c la rifie d by the
a u th o rs , and the d iffere n tiatin g c h a r a c te r is tic s of the m a te r ia ls w e re
n o t c le a r in a ll re s p e c ts . It is sig n ifican t to no te, h o w ev er, th a t the
m a te r ia l w hich a tte m p te d to b rin g the r e a d e r in o r expand the p o s
sib ilitie s fo r h e r to m a k e an id en tificatio n c re a te d the g r e a te s t change
in attitu d e.
One o th er study of so m ew h at m o re lim ite d a p p licab ility , though
s till re le v a n t to the p ro b le m u n d e r in v e stig atio n , should now be m e n
tioned. If two s to rie s of equal identifying pow er w e re p re s e n te d to
two g ro u p s, but v a rie d in so m e o th e r way such as d e g re e of a m b ig u
ity w hich would be m o re in flu en tial in changing attitu d e s to w ard s the
object?
M anis (64) h y p o th e sized th a t w ith an am biguous s ta te m e n t of
opinion the a v e ra g e p e rs o n would be m o re s trik in g ly influenced by
his own opinions than if he w e re in te rp re tin g a n o n -am b ig u o u s s ta t e
m e n t. T he technique fo r g ath erin g data w as the sa m e as in the o th e r
M anis study (65) a lre a d y m e n tio n ed in this rev ie w , ex ce p t th a t the
so u rc e v a ria b le w as re m o v e d and am b ig u ity of m e s s a g e s su b stitu ted
as the independent v a ria b le : T he su b jects w e re a sk e d to p re d ic t how
each w r ite r had d e s c rib e d f r a te r n itie s on a s e r ie s of ev alu atio n r a t
32
ing s c a le s p re s e n te d below each m e s s a g e . It w as found a f te r a n a ly
sis th a t the am biguous m e s s a g e s did not enhance d iffe re n c e s betw een
in te rp re ta tio n s . T hey in ste a d d isp la c e d c o n siste n tly to w ard th e m id
point of the s c a le . T he au th o r in te rp re te d this to m e a n th a t the effect
of am b ig u ity s e rv e d to tone down the e x tre m ity of the sta te m e n ts .
T h u s, am biguous sta te m e n ts w e re not su sc e p tib le to attitu d e re la te d
d isto rtio n s as w e re non -am b ig u o u s s ta te m e n ts.
"A m biguous" was o p era tio n a liz e d in the tr e a tm e n t s ta te m e n ts
by deleting e v e ry th ird w ord. It m a y v e ry w ell be th a t such " a m b ig
uous" m e s s a g e s did n o t re a lly tone down the e x tre m ity of the s t a t e
m e n ts , but sim p ly c re a te d such a p ro b le m of b a sic m ean in g e x t r a c
tion th a t m an y of the su b jects read in g th e m tended to a ttrib u te n e u tra l
m e an in g s. A b e tte r p ro c e d u re m ig h t have been to r e w rite the t r e a t
m e n t sta te m e n ts in a way c o n sid e re d am biguous to the r e s e a r c h e r ,
and then have th e m judged so by an im p a rtia l trib u n a l.
N otw ithstanding th e se m e th o d o lo g ical d ifficu lties, h o w ev er, the
M anis study does in d icate th at c la rity of sty le and in ten t can have an
a ttitu d in al effect. It would not do, fo r in sta n c e , to give a p o o rly
w ritte n in fo rm a tio n a l s to ry to one group and a s ty lis tic a lly s u p e rio r
in te rp re tiv e p a s sa g e to an o th er in an e x p e rim e n ta l situ a tio n . iThe
sty le of w ritin g r a th e r than the o rg a n iz a tio n of the in fo rm a tio n m a y
be the c ru c ia l influence.
33
M e a su rin g C h ild re n 's R a c ia l and E th n ic A ttitude
S tudies s p e c ific a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith m e a su rin g c h in d re n 's ethnic
a ttitu d e s have been re la tiv e ly r a r e . A p e ru s a l of B u r o s 1 Sixth M en tal
M e a s u re m e n t Y earb o o k (15) found no p ublished s e t of s c a le s , in v e n
to rie s or te s ts fo r attitu d e m e a s u r e m e n t of su b jects below the age of
tw elve. Som e m odified s c a le s have been u se d fo r younger c h ild re n
by individual r e s e a r c h e r s , h o w ev er. T h e s e have tak en p rio rity in
the choice of in s tru m e n ts to be c o n sid e re d . The s e a rc h finally n a r
row ed down to a se t of e sta b lis h e d techniques and so m e n e w e r m e th
ods th a t se e m e d to have m a x im u m s u c c e s s fo r the population the
e x p e rim e n te r w as co n sid erin g . B elow a r e the tech n iq u es and the
ra tio n a le fo r th e ir use:
M odified B o g ard u s S cale
In a s e r ie s of stu d ie s fro m 1933 to 1937 Z eligs developed a
m odified B o g ard u s S o cia l D ista n c e S cale to be u s e d in m e a su rin g the
ra c ia l attitu d es of sixth g ra d e ch ild ren . She found that the re s u lts
w ith h e r sa m p le c o m p a re d quite c lo se ly to the n atio n al ran k in g s c o m
piled by B o g ard u s in 1926 (108). W hat v a ria tio n s th e re w e re could be
la rg e ly explained by the tim e d iffe re n c e s betw een the p erio d s w hen the
sc a le s w e re a d m in is te re d and the n a tu re of the group of c h ild re n
Z eligs w as w orking w ith. B e c a u se h e r sam p le w as m o re than h alf
Je w ish , Jew s ran k ed h ig h e r on the m odified s c a le than they did on the
34
o v e r - a ll n atio n al ranking.
T his v e rs io n of the S o cial D ista n c e S cale w as f u r th e r valid ated
in a second study (109). It would s e e m fro m Z e lig 's acco u n t th a t this
technique would be p ro m isin g as an attitu d e m e a s u r e fo r younger
ch ild ren . T he validation study showed th a t younger c h ild re n 's r e
sp o n se s w e re m eaningful.
S tereo ty p e S cale
When u se d in m e a s u rin g change in attitu d e the B o g ard u s S cale
w as found to be quite stab le am ong a young adult fe m a le population.
K atz, S arn o ff and M cC lintock (52) found the ste re o ty p e sc a le to be a
m o re se n sitiv e in d ic a to r h o w ev er. In this in s tru m e n t ste re o ty p e d
sta te m e n ts about N e g ro e s w e re u se d w ith a s c a le of re s p o n s e ite m s
to be checked o r la rg e lis ts of p r e s c o r e d a d je c tiv e s (51) w e re util:-:; .
ized w ith the su b ject fre e to choose any am o u n t he fe lt a p p ro p ria te .
C am p b ell a n d M c C a n d le ss (16) sim p lifie d this technique fo r a younger
population by giving a sen ten c e and a group of ad je c tiv e s to fin ish it
o v er a L ik e rt-ty p e scalin g device. T his la tte r ap p ro a c h was th e one
chosen fo r this p r e s e n t study. F r e e choice of a la rg e l i s t of a d je c
tiv es s e e m e d m o r e a p p ro p ria te fo r an o ld e r group of su b je c ts.
S to rie s T e s t
In h is C om ing of A ge in A m e ric a (33), F r ie d e n b e rg u se d a
v e ry in te re s tin g ap p ro a c h w hich se e m e d to offer p o s s ib ilitie s for
35
young ch ild ren . He would give his su b je c ts a p ro b le m s to ry to re a d .
The students would choose fro m am ong s e v e r a l a lte rn a tiv e endings.
E a c h w as ra te d on the b a s is of d e g re e of co n fo rm ity o r c re a tiv ity .
F o r younger ch ild re n this se e m e d to show p ro m is e . T he r e
s e a r c h e r had p r a c tic a l e x p e rie n c e u sin g s to rie s of this kind and knew
they provoked in te re s te d re s p o n s e s . T he s to rie s in this te s t would
c e n te r around in te rc u ltu ra l p ro b le m s betw een Indians and C a u c a sia n s.
The a n s w e rs would be sc a le d fro m e x tre m e e th n o c e n tric is m to e x
tr e m e a n ti-e th n o c e n tric is m .
P ro je c tiv e T e s t
S e v e ra l r e s e a r c h e r s have av ailed th e m se lv e s of v ario u s p r o
je ctiv e techniques to get a ro u n d inhibiting fa c to rs w hich a p a p e r and
pen cil device (95:168) m ig h t b rin g unknow ingly. T ra d itio n a lly , a r t
h as b een looked on as a m o r e p e rm is s iv e a c tiv ity and could re v e a l
fa c e ts not a n tic ip a te d in the sc a le s and q u e s tio n a ire . Such te c h
niques would a lso allo w fo r m o re flexibility.
S e v e ra l tech n iq u es w e re d is c a rd e d as p o ssib le m eth o d s of m e a
s u re m e n t. Som e, such as the one u s e d by T r a g e r (96) em ploying
v e rb a l re a c tio n s to p ic tu re s w ith r a c ia l th e m e s , would h av e been in
a p p ro p ria te fo r u s e in an e x p e rim e n ta l design. T im e in a d m in is te r
ing and sco rin g th e m would have red u ce d sh a rp ly the population w hich
could have been included, and would hav e s p re a d the e x p e rim e n t out
36
o v er too m any su b je c ts. A lso , the technique had n e v e r been designed
to m e a s u re attitu d e change as had s e v e r a l of the in s tru m e n ts adopted
fo r u se .
On the o th e r hand, a technique a p p ro p ria te for group u s e such
as the P in tn e r-C u n n in g h a m w as a lso c o n s id e re d and re je c te d . Q u e s
tions cam e up as to how re lia b le ju dgem ents could be m ade a t this
age le v e l on scalin g ite m s . T he ad jectiv e techniques cited e a r l ie r
se e m e d to be s im p le r and ju s t as effective.
The lite r a tu r e rev ie w e d h e r e s e e m s to have ra is e d a s m an y
questions as it has solved. In the a r e a of a ttitu d in al r e s e a r c h fo r
younger ch ild ren in re la tio n to read in g m a te r ia ls , it has tended to
focus on a r e a s w hich fu rth e r r e s e a r c h m ig h t la te r c le a r up. W ith r e
g a rd to the n a tu re of outgroup re je c tio n th e re is s till the p ro b le m of
how m uch a given situ a tio n w ill h elp e ra d ic a te b ia se d b e lie fs. Then,
the v a ria b le s w hich acco u n t for a change in valu es a re s till fa r fro m
p r e c is e . D oes in te rn a liz a tio n and id en tificatio n take p lace s im u lta
n eo u sly o r a r e they two d iffere n t fa c to rs c o m p lete ly (41)? W hat o th e r
fa c to rs e n te r into the identifying re la tio n sh ip ? What o th er v a ria b le s
in w ritte n m a te r ia ls could co n trib u te to attitu d e fo rm atio n ? How
m ig h t th e se v a ria b le s in te r a c t with the identifying fa c to rs the child
b rin g s to the m a te r ia l? W hat fa c to rs in p re ju d ic e and a ttitu d es have
37
yet to be m e a s u re d ?
Som e of th e s e q u estio n s a r e p ro b le m s w hich have b een tak en up
in the body of this study. O th e rs a r e fo r fu tu re in q u iry . What has
been e s ta b lish e d a p p e a rs to be the following: T h e re is evidence of
e th n o c e n tric is m in ch ild ren at a fa irly young age. T his is le a rn e d
and not in h e rite d . T he d e g re e of p re ju d ic e d b eh av io r depends on the
quality of the c h ild 's so cia liz a tio n , his age, sex and p o ssib ly his
ethnic group and so c ia l c la s s . O th er fa c to rs such as in tellig en ce ,
read in g ab ility , education, c o r r e la te v e ry slig h tly if a t all.
C ontent stu d ies have re v e a le d th a t the g lo rificatio n of m iddle
c la ss im a g e s beyond the bounds of re a lity w hile dealing w ith o th er
values and c u ltu re s in an in freq u e n t, re m o te way could help c o n trib
u te to e th n o c e n tric is m and "g en tle d o ses of r a c is m " in w hite m id d le
c la s s c h ild re n 's a ttitu d e s. It is not in co n ceiv ab le th a t this is a c o n
trib u tio n to the n atio n al failing o b se rv e d by H all:
A s a co u n try we a r e apt to be guilty of g re a t eth n o
c e n tric is m . In m any of our fo reig n aid p ro g ra m s
we em ploy a h eav y -h an d ed technique in dealing with
lo c a l n a tio n a ls. We in s is t th at ev ery o n e e lse do
things our way. . . m o s t of our b eh av io r does not sp rin g
fro m m a lic e but fro m ig n o ran c e. . . (40:1).
Such ig n o ran c e m ig h t s te m not only fro m la c k of in fo rm a tio n but
la ck of identity. C h ild ren in e le m e n ta ry and high schools a r e exposed
to facts about o th e r lands and peoples in th e ir read in g and so c ia l s tu d
ie s le s s o n s . T he m a in p ro b le m would then s e e m to be th a t the m a t e
38
r ia ls in m any c a s e s a r e n o n -m o tiv atin g . O th er c u ltu re s a r e s u p e r
ficially seen but not u n d e rsto o d by the r e a d e r as having any r e a l value.
T he pupil is unable to see how d iffe re n t m o r e s a r e as e s s e n tia l for
the s u rv iv a l and lifecof a p a r tic u la r alien c u ltu re a s the highw ay, r e
f r ig e r a to r , plum bing and te le v isio n a r e fo r o u rs.
T he one study (52) w hich did a tte m p t to get su b jects to identify
w ith the m a te r ia l b rin g s this la tte r point out quite m a rk e d ly . But
w hile identification w as pointed out as being of g r e a t im p o rta n c e ,
m an y o th er v a ria b le s w e re left u n ex p lo red . In te ra c tiv e effects w e re
not studied, and the sa m p le w as lim ite d to college age fe m a le su b je c ts.
The te rm s in te rp re tiv e and in fo rm a tio n a l w e re quite lo o se , and the
qu estio n of w hat types of s to rie s would have the sa m e affectiv e pow er
or w hat fa c to rs w ithin the s to rie s w as not studied.
The in s tru m e n ts s e le c te d w e re tak en on th re e c r i t e r i a - - e s t a b -
lish e d value, re c e n c y and sim p lic ity . T he B o g ard u s technique is
fa irly w ell e sta b lish e d though quite old. The ste re o ty p in g i n s t r u
m e n ts a r e of som ew hat m o re re c e n t o rig in and se e m e d w ell su ited
fo r younger ch ild ren as w ell as being se n sitiv e in d ic a to rs of change.
T he s to rie s and p ro je c tiv e tech n iq u es have a lso been em ployed in
r e s e a r c h and a p p e a r to be valid in d ic a to rs fo r m e a s u rin g o th er face ts
of stereo ty p in g and eth n o cen tric a ttitu d e s.
39
C H A PT E R H I
TECHNIQUES AND PRO CED U RES
In tro d u ctio n
The re v ie w of the l i te r a t u r e h a s shown m an y a r e a s in the field
of attitu d e r e s e a r c h w hich s till n eed ex p lo ra tio n and c la rific a tio n .
F iv e g e n e ra liz a tio n s have e m e rg e d , h o w ev er, w hich hav e fa irly su b
sta n tia l e m p iric a l backing.
F i r s t , c h a r a c te r is tic s of the population s u b je c t to the e x p e r i
m e n t m u s t be c o n sid e re d . Included h e r e a r e ag e, sex and s o c io
econom ic, r a c ia l and ethnic com position.
The lite r a tu r e h as been m u c h le s s sp ecific about a second se t of
v a ria b le s - -th o se contained w ithin the p rin te d co m m u n icatio n . K atz
found an a p p a re n t d iffere n ce in e ffe c tb e tw e e n in te rp re tiv e and in fo rm a
tio n al types of m a te r ia l, but how this could apply to c h ild re n 's s to
rie s w as som ew hat u n c le a r. C ontent c r itic is m s have in d icate d th a t
s to rie s about m in o ritie s lean too m u ch on re m o te , d e s c rip tiv e settin g s
w hich could lead to neg lig ib le a ttitu d in a l im p a c t on a C a u c a sia n r e a d e r .
Such c r itic is m sounds a c o rre sp o n d in g note in S ym bolic I n t e r -
a c tio n is t th e o ry w hich d e s c rib e s attitu d e d ev elo p m en t in te rm s of
in te ra c tio n and id e n tificatio n . R em o te settin g of a m in o rity in a c u l
tu r a l m ilie u co m p lete ly u n re la te d to any v alu e a C a u c a sia n r e a d e r
40
could s e le c t for a c o rre sp o n d e n c e in m eaning would r e s u lt in no
id e n tificatio n , and th e re fo re no value change. A s F o o te h as r e
m a rk e d :
If the concepts h av e no c o n c re te re fe re n c e fo r a p e rs o n ,
o r if thro u g h fau lty co m m unication and connection b e
tw een a b s tr a c t v alu es the a c tu a l e x p e rie n c e is n o t m a d e ,
the a b s tra c tio n s a r e not m otivating to h im , as e v e ry
p a re n t finds out daily. O ur le a rn in g is im m e n s e ly e x
p ed ited th ro u g h being d ire c te d by m e a n s of th e se n a m e s
fo r e x p e rie n c a b le values to u n d erg o and a c q u ire th e m .
A lso , if thro u g h id en tificatio n with m o re ex p e rie n c e d
m e n to rs upon w hose jud g em en t we depend, we hold to
the ex p ectatio n of re a liz in g re c o m m e n d e d valu es e v e n
tu a lly . . . N e v e rth e le s s , a ll sig n als pointing to w h ere
value m a y be found in e x p e rie n c e p ro b a b ly m u s t be
c o rro b o ra te d by its a c tu a l d is c o v e ry , a t le a s t by so m e
m e m b e r s of any group th a t s h a re s th e m . . . (31:351).
When a w hite m id d le c la ss child re a d s about a m e m b e r of a n o th
e r c u ltu re in the a b s tr a c t, o r a s to ry about h im in a re m o v e d settin g ,
such concepts have little connection w ith h is daily c o n c re te e x p e rie n c
e s . In a s to ry having as a th e m e a p ro b le m a ris in g b e c a u se of an
in te ra c tio n betw een two c u ltu re s th e re would be in v o lv em en t b e c a u se
m id d le c la ss values a r e involved. The is s u e is now fo rc e d to the
c h ild 's c o n sc io u sn e ss and ch allen g es c e rta in b eliefs he had h e re to fo re
alw ays ta k en fo r g ra n te d . D epending on the th ru s t and fo rc e of th is
challenge th e re could be r e a l id en tificatio n and p o sitiv e change.
R e la te d to a rra n g e m e n t of fictio n al content is the m a n n e r in
w hich it is w ritte n . The M anis study in d ic a te d th a t d iffe re n c e s in
c la rity of sty le could be an in flu en ce. T his co m p lica tio n w as con-
41
s id e re d and h as b een one of the fa c to rs studied la te r in this c h a p te r.
A fo u rth fa c to r, the m a n n e r of a d m in is tra tio n , was not touched
on ex ten siv ely in the lite r a tu r e , but Jo n es (49) in d icate d th a t the e x
a m in e r could play a v e ry im p o rta n t ro le in the fin al o u tc o m es. C h ild
re n could identify w ith the e x a m in e r and if they d etecte d b ia s could
slan t th e ir a n s w e rs .
F in a lly , th e re w as the qu estio n of tim in g . R e s e a r c h h as in
d ic ated th at the sen sitiz in g effect of a p r e te s t, if in flu en tial, is s t a t
is tic a lly in sig n ifican t (57:300). The effect of the o r d e r of the s u b
te s ts w as ex p lo red in the lite r a tu r e rev ie w e d . Steps w e re tak en to
n e u tra liz e this effect.
The re m a in d e r of this c h ap ter d e s c rib e s th e v a rio u s i n s t r u
m e n ts u se d , th e ir re fin e m e n t through pilot r e s e a r c h , the su b jects of
the e x p e rim e n t, the d esig n of the e x p e rim e n t, and the tr e a tm e n t of
the data.
The In s tru m e n ts
U nder this heading a r e included a ll the m a te r ia ls u se d fo r pilot
study and e x p e rim e n t, including dependent and independent v a ria b le
fa c to rs . T h re e b a s ic types of in s tru m e n ts w e re s e le c te d , w ritte n and
d ev elo p ed —the s to r ie s , the sp e c ia l pilot in s tru m e n ts , and the te s ts .
The S to rie s
A ll the s to rie s w e re w ritte n by the e x p e rim e n te r h im se lf. P a r
tic u la r atten tio n w as given to v o cab u lary and co n cep tu al difficulty.
42
T h e se in s tru m e n ts w e re p r e r e a d and checked by o th e r adults u n a w a re
of the e x p e rim e n ta l o b jectiv es b efo re th ey w e re even piloted and r e
visions m a d e as a re s u lt. T he o b je ct of a ll re v is io n s was to m a k e
s u re a ll c h ild re n of a fo u rth g ra d e re a d in g le v e l o r above, as m e a
s u re d by the S tanford R eading T e s t, would have no tro u b le read in g
and u n d e rsta n d in g th em . P ilo tin g p ro c e d u re s w ill be d e s c rib e d in
m o re d e ta il la te r .
F i r s t E x p e rim e n ta l S to ry (A ppendix A). -- T h is s to ry w as u se d
in the f i r s t two e x p e rim e n ts. It w as about an Indian boy in a c u ltu r a l
ly, h is to ric a lly and g eo g ra p h ic a lly re m o te settin g . It c e n te re d on a
p ro b le m th a t would be of g r e a t c o n c e rn to Indian boys of th a t p a r ti c u
la r tr ib e , but would not h av e m u c h re le v a n c e fo r boys and g ir ls in
a m o d e rn w hite A nglo-S axon c u ltu re . The boy h ad ru n aw ay fro m
the en em y in b a ttle , and now had to find a way b ack into fav o r with
h is p e e r s and p r im a r y group. N ot to do so would a u to m a tic a lly r e l e
gate h im to the statu s of a w om an. The s to ry ended p ro b le m a tic a lly .
In the e x p e rim e n ts , this w as r e f e r r e d to a s the b attle sto ry .
A lte rn a te F i r s t E x p e rim e n ta l S to ry (A ppendix B). - -T h is s to ry
w as u se d in the th ird e x p e rim e n t in p la ce of the b attle sto ry . It was
a lso about an Indian boy in a c u ltu ra lly , h is to r ic a lly and g e o g ra p h ic
ally re m o te settin g . It c e n te re d a ro u n d a p ro b le m betw een fa th e r
and son. T he fa th e r w as educating the boy to b eco m e a h u n te r and
w a r r io r . The boy w ished to b eco m e a canoe b u ild e r. Both w e re
43
m e n 's ro le s w ithin the tr ib e , but the fa th e r b eliev ed a h u n te r had
h ig h e r s ta tu s . The s to ry ended p ro b le m a tic a lly . It w as r e f e r r e d to
as the canoe sto ry .
Second E x p e rim e n ta l S to ry (Appendix C ) . - -T h is was about a
m o d e rn P u eb lo Indian boy who c a r r ie d the dom inant values of his
village to an a ll-w h ite b oarding school w hich he attended fo r one y e a r.
Soon, h e w as to get into tro u b le b e c a u se of h is g ra d e s . T h ese low
m a rk s did n o t r e s u lt fro m low in tellig en ce or poor attitu d e, h o w ev er,
but fro m a h e a v ie r e m p h asis placed by h im on frie n d sh ip and group
h a rm o n y . By getting h ig h e r g ra d e s the boy m ig h t alie n a te so m e of
h is b e s t frie n d s who have n o t been doing so w ell. The ending w as
p ro b le m a tic a l. It w as n am ed the school s to ry during the c o u rs e of
the d isc u s sio n and a n a ly sis .
C o n tro l S to ry (Appendix D). - - H aving nothing to do with Indians
a t a ll, this s to ry w as about two C a u c a sia n boys involved in an apple
picking co n test. T he plot and th e m e w e re intended to be sim p le and
to s ta te a d ir e c t m o r a l fa m ilia r to the ch ild ren read in g it. It was
r e f e r r e d to as the apple sto ry .
P ilo tin g In s tru m e n ts
F o r the pilot stu d ies only th e se sp e c ia l in s tru m e n ts w e re u se d .
T h e ir p u rp o se w as to c o m p a re the effects of the s to rie s on c r it e r ia
such a s v o cab u lary and conceptual difficulty, in t e r e s t in s to r ie s ,
44
q u alities of the m a in c h a r a c te r s , etc. T hey w e re a lso developed to
see how w ell q u e stio n n a ire type fo rm s would w ork on a population
this young.
Q u estio n n a ire on S to rie s (Appendix E ). - -T h e se co n siste d of
q u estio n s and sta te m e n ts to be a n sw e re d a n d /o r co m p leted by c h e c k
ing one of th re e re s p o n s e s to each. T h e ir p u rp o se w as to a s s e s s the
c h ild re n 's p e rc e p tio n of how difficult the s to rie s w e re on both thel
phonic and cognitive le v el, and to get a g ro ss evaluation of the s u b
je c ts ' in te r e s t in th em .
C h a ra c te r Q u e stio n n a ire (A ppendices F , G, H, 1). - - E ac h
s to ry had a s e p a ra te c h a r a c te r q u e stio n n a ire . T h e ir p u rp o se s w e re
tw ofold. F i r s t , the e x p e rim e n te r w anted to know how w ell ch ild ren
could resp o n d to th e d ire c tio n s of this type of fo rm a t. S econdly, a
c o m p a ra tiv e evaluation of eac h c h a r a c te r w as d e s ire d . The r e s e a r c h
e r an ticip ated that such evaluations m ig h t influence o th e r p e rc e p tio n s .
T h e se q u e stio n n a ire s w e re sc o re d on the L ik e rt m o d el, w ith s c o re s
on each ite m ranging fro m 0 to 4 o r 4 to 0, depending on the f a v o r -
a b ility or u n fav o rab ility of each ad jectiv e.
The T e s ts
C h ap ter II gave so m e of the background and ra tio n a le fo r c h o o s
ing the in s tru m e n ts m e a s u rin g change in ethnic attitu d e. B elow a r e
b rie f d e sc rip tio n s of each, including an in v en to ry w hich had a le s s
45
d ire c t b e a rin g on the dependent v a ria b le s .
P ro je c tiv e P ic tu r e s T e s t (A p p e n d ix J).- - T h is w as given to m e a
s u re the am ount of p a s t im a g e ry a pupil a s s o c ia te d with Indians of
today. A ppendix J gives the in s tru c tio n s fo r a d m in is te rin g and s c o r
ing this device. In g e n e ra l, a high s c o re could be in te r p r e te d as a
high s te re o ty p e im ag e.
M odified S o cia l D ista n c e S cale (Appendix K).^-T h e s c a le w as
d esig n ed to m e a s u r e d e g re e of so c ia l d ista n ce betw een the su b je c t
and the In d ian s. It w as m odified by the au th o r to a llo w fo r m o re v a r i a
tion. T h u s, fo r each line o r se n te n c e , th e re would be five c h o ices,
s c o re d fro m z e ro to four. E a c h ite m a l s o h a d a w eight fro m a low of
1 to a high of 7 depending on d e g re e of so c ia l in tim a c y it re p re s e n te d .
The s c o re w as ta llie d by m ultip ly in g each re s p e c tiv e w eight of r e
sp o n se by the ite m w eight and then su m m in g . T o tal s c o r e s could
ra n g e fro m 0 to 112.
W ord S tereo ty p e T e s t (Appendix L). - -T h is w as desig n ed to
m e a s u r e the d e g re e of n eg ativ e or p o sitiv e a ttrib u te s c h ild re n m ig h t
have for Indians as a group. F o u rte e n ad je c tiv e s w e re ch o sen . Seven
w e re p o sitiv ely and sev en n e g a tiv e ly d e s c rip tiv e . The n eg ativ e a d je c
tiv e s , in p a r tic u la r , w e re ch o sen on the b a sis of m an y im a g e s old
m o v ies and t. v. show s hav e p re s e n te d --u n e d u c a te d , u n frien d ly , etc.
A d jectiv e lis ts fro m o th e r r e s e a r c h on a ttrib u te s of Indians could not
be found. T he sc o rin g w as by m e a n s of a E ik e rt technique. E a c h
46
a d jectiv e could re c e iv e s c o re s ranging fro m 0 to 4. M ax im u m
s c o re for the w hole te s t w as 56. M in im u m s c o re w as z e ro .
S to rie s T e s t fo r E th n o c e n tric is m (Appendix M ). - -
T his o rig in a lly c o n siste d of th re e s to rie s p re s e n tin g situ atio n s
of p o te n tia l c u ltu ra l conflict o r m isu n d e rsta n d in g betw een Indians and
C a u c a sia n s . F o r c le v e r e r ch ild ren this technique had an advantage
o v er the S tereo ty p e T e s t b e c a u se each s to ry w as about a p a rtic u la r
situ atio n . No one could c r itic iz e it on the ground th a t Indians as a
group in re a lity do not e x is t- -e x c e p t in th e ste re o ty p e s m a d e of th em .
F o r the fin al e x p e rim e n t two m o r e s to rie s w e re added. E a c h s to ry
had five to six r e s p o n s e s , with the a n s w e rs le a s t fa v o ra b le to the
Indian c h a r a c te r a s sig n e d a s c o re of z e ro , and the m o s t fav o rab le a
four o r five. The to tal s c o re ra n g e d fro m 0 to 21 fo r the fin al fo rm ,
and 0 to 12 in the f i r s t two e x p e rim e n ts.
A ttitude In v en to ry T o w ard s the S to rie s T h e m se lv e s (A ppen
dix N ). - -
T his in s tru m e n t w as u s e d only in the final e x p e rim e n t. It w as
only in d ire c tly re la te d to the dependent v a ria b le . Its p u rp o se w as to
p ro v id e th e o re tic a l le ad s m o re fully explained in C h a p te r IV. The
p u p ils' feeling of in v o lv em en t w ith th e ir tre a tm e n t s to ry w e re to be
m e a s u r e d and c o m p a re d with th e ir change of attitu d e. The technique
w as m o d e led a fte r th e one u se d by D utton (26).
47
T he P ilo t Studies
T his r e s e a r c h had th re e m a in o b je ctiv e s. F i r s t , th e s to rie s
w e re to be ra te d on difficulty le v e l and in te re s t. S econdly, the m e a
s u re m e n t in s tru m e n ts n eed ed evaluation. F in a lly , the stu d ies se rv e d
as a p re lim in a ry ch eck on p ro b ab le outcom es of the th r e e e x p e rim e n ts
com ing la te r .
S am p les and G roups
S ubjects w e re 25 in n u m b e r, g ra d e s 4 thro u g h 6 fro m two p r e -
dom inently m iddle c la ss schools in the Los A ngeles a r e a w hose s tu
dent bodies w e re p red o m in en tly C a u c a sia n . Included w e re 15 boys
and 10 g ir ls .
The two stu d ies w e re tak en a t d iffe re n t p e rio d s . T he f i r s t took
p la ce fro m F e b r u a r y 4 to F e b r u a r y 6, 1969, 1:15 to 2:20 P .M . The
second study took p lace A p ril 25, 9:00 to 10:00 A .M . T he f i r s t study
w as co n ce rn ed w ith the b a ttle , school and apple s to r ie s , while the
second co n ce rn ed its e lf w ith the canoe s to ry only. E a c h s to ry was
re a d on a d iffe re n t day by a d iffe re n t group. B e c a u se the f ir s t th re e
s to rie s w e re re a d by g roups ra n d o m ly a s sig n e d fro m the sa m e s a m
p le, s ta tis tic a l te s ts w e re a d m in is te re d on so m e of the s c o re s o b
tain ed . T he second pilot study group had a d iffe re n t co m p o sitio n and
w as v isite d a t a d iffe re n t tim e , so th a t s ta tis tic a l c o m p a riso n s w e re
no t m a d e betw een it and the f i r s t th re e g ro u p s. F o r p u rp o se s of
48
v isu a l c o m p a ris o n and econom y of s p a c e , h o w e v e r, th e r e s u lts of
this la tte r g ro u p h av e been included in the ta b le s w ith th o se of the
o th e r th re e .
S electio n of the su b jects was b ia se d to w ard s c h ild re n who w e re
read in g so m ew h at below th e ir g rad e n o rm . A lso included w e re
c h ild re n c o n s id e re d "b e h a v io r" p ro b le m s . T he p u rp o se of this b i a s
ing w as to te s t to the m a x im u m re a d a b ility of the s to rie s and se c o n d
ly to a c q u ire good co o p era tio n fro m the te a c h e r s involved in the
p ro je c t. B elow is a tab le e n u m e ra tin g the b reakdow n of the two pilot
sa m p le s:
TA B LE 1
BREAKDOWN O F P IL O T PO PU LA TIO N
T im e and P la c e G roup Boys G irls G ra d e
F e b r u a r y 4, 5, 6 A pple 3 2 4 -6
School 1 School 4 2 4 -6
B attle 4 2 4 -6
A p ril 25
School 2
Canoe 4 4 4 -5
T o ta l 15 10
N ote should be taken th a t the canoe sa m p le b e sid e s being a t a
d iffe re n t tim e and p la ce w as so m ew h at la r g e r than any of the o th e r
th re e g roups and ca m e fro m a n a r r o w e r g ra d e ra n g e .
49
P ro c e d u re s
The p ro c e d u re s fo r the f i r s t th re e groups w e re a lm o s t id e n tic a l.
F i r s t , the c h ild re n in each group w e re a sk ed to re a d the d ire c tio n s of
the s to ry o ra lly . T hey w e re then re q u e s te d to re a d the s to rie s and
questions s ile n tly a fte r w hich they re c e iv e d the q u e stio n n a ire (A ppen
dix H).
E a c h of the su b jects then re a d th e s to ry o ra lly by tu rn . The
e x a m in e r checked a ll th e w ords m is s e d and su b stitu te d e a s ie r w ords
fo r th o se not u n d e rsto o d . The ch ild re n then o ra lly re a d the q u estio n s
th e m s e lv e s . T he e x a m in e r a sk e d the c h ild re n if th e re w as anyone
who had an a n s w e r. E a c h child w as given a chance to e x p re s s his
opinion. T he p ro cee d in g s w e re kept as n e u tra l as p o ssib le .
A fte rw a rd s , new questionnaire® s id e n tic a l to th o se p re v io u sly
m en tio n ed w e re handed out to be filled . T he re a s o n fo r this r e s u b
m is s io n w as to see if the d is c u s s io n su b sta n tia lly a lte re d the c h ild
r e n 's r e s p o n s e s .
Follow ing this the su b je c ts w e re given the S to rie s T e s t (A ppen
dix M ), the C h a r a c te r Q u e stio n n a ire (A ppendices F , G, H , I) and the
P ic tu r e T e s t (Appendix J) in th a t o r d e r . In addition the groups who
had the Indian s to rie s in the f i r s t study w e re given the S to rie s T e s t
b efo re read in g th e ir s to ry . T his w as done to c o m p a re the d e g re e of
change in th e se su b je c ts ' attitu d es as a r e s u lt of the tre a tm e n t given
th em .
50
The D ata
S to rie s . - - B e c a u se of the o r a l re s p o n s e s to the s to rie s and end
q u e stio n s, the author m a d e som e m o d ificatio n s. W ords frequently-
m is s e d w e re e ith e r given s im p le r su b stitu te s or included in the
1 'V o c a b u la ry '1 sectio n follow ing the beginning d ire c tio n s . O th er chang
es included a d iffe re n t ending fo r the b attle s to ry to m a k e it m o re
c lo se ly p a r a lle l the school sto ry . The o rig in a l b attle s to ry had
L ittle S c a re fo o t stealin g off to w ard the enem y cam p with a tro u b le d
c o n sc ie n c e . The p ro b le m was w h eth er he should go and diso b ey o r
stay and re m a in a cam p h e lp e r. T he d ecisio n w as le ft to h im . In
the changed v e rs io n S c a re fo o t1 s fa th e r had to decide fo r his s o n - -
ju s t as M iss W illiam s, also an ad u lt a u th o rity fig u re in the school
sto ry , and not S teve, had to m a k e the decisio n .
Q u e s tio n n a ire on S to rie s (Appendix E). - -T he c h ild re n 's r e
sp o n se s to this fo rm w e re b ro k en down into difficulty evaluation,
concept evaluation, and in t e r e s t evaluation.
D ifficulty E valuation. - -Included in this ca te g o ry w e re G e n e ra l,
W ord and L e tte r Size D ifficu ltie s. On the n ex t two pages a r e the
tab u late d r e s u lts .
No s ta tis tic a l te s t w as a tte m p te d for th e se ta b le s b e c a u se the
n u m b e r of su b je c ts p e r c a te g o ry w e re too s m a ll fo r a c h i-s q u a re
te s t, the one se e m in g ly m o s t a p p ro p ria te for this desig n . A s they
stan d , h o w ev er, the ta b le s re v e a le d so m e im p o rta n t g e n e ra liz a tio n s:
51
TA B LE 2
G EN ER A L READING D IFFIC U LTY
A pple
P r e P o s t
School
P r e P o s t
B attle
P r e P o s t
C anoe
H ard 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E a sy 4 3 2 2 4 4 1
About R ight
1 2 4 4
TA B LE 3
2 2 7
LENGTH O F SENTEN CES
A pple
P re . P o s t
School
P r e P o s t
B attle
P r e P o s t
C anoe
Too Long 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
Too S h o rt 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
A bout R ight 5 5 6 6
TA BLE 4
5 5 8
D IFFIC U L T Y OF THE WORDS
A pple
P r e P o s t
School
P r e P o s t
B attle
P r e P o s t
C anoe
Too H a rd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Too E a sy 2 2 2 0 3 3 0
A bout R ight 3 3 4 6 3 3 8
52
T A B L E 5
SIZE O F PR IN T
A pple
E r e P o s t
School
P r e P o s t
B attle
P r e P o s t
Canoe
Too S m a ll 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Too L a rg e 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
J u s t R ight 4 4 5 6 5 5 8
1. F u ll d is c u s s io n of a s to ry did not s e e m to a lte r a ch ild 's
opinion of its difficulty. T h e re w as v irtu a lly no change in the choices
betw een p r e - a n d p o s tte s t fre q u e n c ie s fo r the f i r s t th re e groups in any
of the c a te g o rie s . The one exception to this w as the apple s to ry
(T able 2).
2. None of the su b je c ts thought any s to ry w as too h a rd to re a d .
3. Only one s u b je c t thought the se n te n c e s w e re too long.
None thought th ey w e re too s h o rt.
4. None of the su b jects thought the w ords w e re too difficult
(T able 4). L e s s than h alf of th e m on the p o s tte s t thought they w e re
too e a sy . M o st thought the w o rd s w e re about rig h t. T h e re w e re d if
fe re n c e s w ithin each group, h o w ev er. Though th e r e w as no change in
opinion on w ord difficulty fo r the apple or b attle g ro u p s, the school
group had two changing fro m "too e a sy " to "about rig h t" .
C oncept E v alu atio n . - -Included w e re two c a t e g o r ie s - - e a s e of
u n d erstan d in g and am o u n t of le a rn in g fro m .
53
TA B LE 6
EA SE O F UNDERSTANDING
A pple School B attle
P r e P o s t P r e P o s t P r e P o s t
C anoe
H a rd 0 0 1 1 0 0 2
E a s y 4 4 4 2 4 4 3
About R ight 1 1 1 3 2 2
TA B LE 7
HOW MUCH LEARN ED FROM
3
A pple School B attle
P r e P o s t P r e P o s t P r e P o s t
Canoe
V e ry L ittle 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
A L ittle 1 3 3 3 4 4 4
V e ry M uch 3 2 3 3 2 2 4
The two ta b le s lis te d above su g g ested the following:
1. N one of the s to r ie s a p p e a re d too difficult fo r the su b jects to
u n d e rsta n d . T he school s to ry had one h a rd ra tin g and the canoe tv^o.
Both th e se s to r ie s , h o w ev er, a lso had m o re "ab o u t rig h t" ra tin g s .
T h at the canoe group would hav e one m o re h a r d ra tin g th a t the school
group could be explained by population d iffe re n c e s , the g r e a te r size
of the group and the lo w er a v e ra g e g ra d e le v e l of th e ch ild ren r e a d
ing this s to ry .
2. T he " le a rn in g fro m " c a te g o ry show ed s im ila r r e s u lts .
54
Only one child c la im e d he le a rn e d v e ry little , and this opinion w as
changed a fte r d is c u s s io n . T he data in d icated th a t the school and
canoe s to rie s w e re p e rc e iv e d as having the m o s t to o ffer, w hile the
apple s to ry show ed a lo s s .
I n te r e s t E v alu atio n . - -Tw o c a te g o rie s w e re in c lu d e d - - in te r e s t
fo r a s to ry and in t e r e s t fo r c h a r a c te r s in the sto ry .
T A B L E 8
IN T E R E S T FO R STORY
A PPle
P r e P o s t
U n in te re stin g 1
In te re stin g 3
V e ry in t e r e s t- 1
ing
0
4
1
School
P r e P o s t
0 0
5 5
1 1
B attle
P r e P o s t
2 2
3
1
2
2
TA B L E 9
IN T E R E S T FO R CHARACTERS
A pple School B attle
P r e P o s t P r e P o s t P r e P o s t
N ot I n te r e s t- 0 1 0 0 0 1
ing
In te re s tin g 4 3 5 5 4 2
V ery in t e r e s t- 1 1 1 1 2 3
ing
C anoe
0
6
2
C anoe
1
4
3
T his data as p re s e n te d a p p e a re d to show th e following:
1. The b attle s to ry c o m p a re d u n fav o rab ly w ith the o th e r th re e .
55
It w as ra te d u n in te re s tin g by two c h ild re n w hile only one such ratin g
w ent to the apple s to ry on the p r e te s t (w hich w as la te r changed).
2. The c h a r a c te r s w e re ra te d a t about the s a m e in t e r e s t le v e l
in a ll fo u r s to r ie s . W hile the b a ttle s to ry c h a r a c te r s got th re e " v e ry
in te re s tin g " ch o ices on the p o s tte s t, one child a ls o ra te d th e m u n in
te re s tin g .
C h a r a c te r Q u e stio n n a ire (A ppendices F , G, H, I). - - T h e s e
p ro v ed to be the m o s t difficult in s tru m e n ts to a d m in is te r. The e x
a m in e r w as p ro m p te d , a s a re s u lt, to m a k e som e changes in the
W ord S tereo ty p e T e s t (A ppendix L) w hich this q u e s tio n n a ire clo sely
r e s e m b le d in fo rm a t. D ire c t a d m in is tra tio n of the ste re o ty p e te s t
p roved to be u n feasib le a t the tim e .
B e sid e s an in d ire c t a s s e s s m e n t of the W ord S tereo ty p e T e s t,
this in s tru m e n t could give a d e e p e r ev aluation of the c h ild re n 's r e a c
tions to th e c h a r a c te r s th an the e a r l i e r S to ry Q u e s tio n n a ire . Two
ad je c tiv e s w e re com m on to a ll the s c a le s - -frie n d ly and s m a r t. T h e se
w e re , th e re fo re , pulled out to see how each c h a r a c te r c o m p a re d with
re s p e c t to the sa m e ite m s . The r e s u lts have been tab u late d below:
T A B L E 10
CHARACTER M EAN S C O R E S --T W O ITEM S
G roup M ean
A pple 6. 8
School 7.0
B a ttle 5. 8
C anoe 5 .4
A n a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e re v e a le d the following:
56
TABLE 11
ANALYSIS O F V A R IA N C E--TW O IT E M S, TH R E E GROUPS
S o u rce SS df MS F F . 05 F . 01
B etw een 16. 79 2 8. 39 5. 21 3. 74 6. 51
W ithin 22. 64 14 1. 61
T h e re w as a sig n ifican t d ifferen ce betw een the s c o re s of the
c h a r a c te r s w ith re s p e c t to th e se two a d je c tiv e s . T he re a s o n m ig h t
s te m in p a r t fro m content. S c a re fo o t a c te d cow ardly. T his is what
m ig h t have stu ck in the c h ild re n 's m in d s. One of the am en d m en ts to
the b a ttle sto ry , then, w as to p lace a little m o re e m p h a sis on S c a r e -
fo o t's own kind of b ra v e ry .
On the w hole, w hich c h a r a c te r s w e re fav o red the m o s t as to the
c h a r a c te r ra tin g s? It would a p p e a r fro m T able 10 th a t the P ueblo boy
had the lead. W hen a ll the s c o re s w e re to taled and a v e ra g e d fo r each
c h a ra c te r q u e s tio n n a ire , h o w ev er, this p ic tu re e m erg ed :
T A B L E 12
CHARACTER M EAN S C O R E S --A L L ITEM S
G roup M ean
A pple 27. 8
School 26. 7
B attle 18. 5
C anoe 21. 7
A fu rth e r a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e fo r the r e s u lts of the f i r s t th re e
57
groups brought this out:
TABLE 13
ANALYSIS O F V A R IA N C E --A L L ITEM S, TH REE GROUPS
S ource SS df MS F F . 05 F . 01
B etw een 306. 76 2 153. 38 ' 6. 35 3. 74 6. 51
W ithin 338.30 14 24. 16
When all ite m s w e re c o n sid e re d , then, e x tre m e s w e re m o re
m a rk e d .
In s tru m e n t E valuation. - -Tw o questions w e re c o n sid e re d h e re :
1. Did the ch ild ren m ak e m eaningful re s p o n s e s ?
2. Was th e re evidence th a t th e se te sts m e a s u r e d w hat they in
tended to m e a s u re ?
R e s e a rc h lite r a tu r e su p p o rts the contention th at c h ild re n can
m ak e m eaningful and valid re s p o n s e s to opinion type in s tru m e n ts .
F o r d and K oplyay (32) ind icated th at p r im a r y age c h ild re n could m a k e
m eaningful re s p o n s e s to attitude ite m s , w hile D utton (26) and N ila
S m ith (84) have developed L ik e rt-ty p e q u e stio n n a ire w hich yielded
valid s c o re s . Z eligs (108) show ed with sixth g ra d e c h ild re n th a t the
a ttitu d es th e se su b je c ts e x p re s s e d on a m odified B o g ard u s sc a le w e re
su b stan tially the sa m e as th o se fro m a n atio n al sam p le.
In this study w ritte n re s p o n s e s w e re a lso re q u e s te d fro m the
ch ild re n who co m p leted the S to ry T e s t (A ppendix M ). T h e re w as no
58
in c o n siste n c y betw een the re s p o n s e s on the m u ltip le ch'oice and subjects'
sta te m e n ts of why they chose the ite m . F o r ex am p le, no child a g re e d
with M a ry (S tory B) and a t the sa m e tim e put as a re a s o n th a t S am
had a ll the rig h t in the w orld to dance.
T he te sts a lso re v e a le d a wide ran g e of s c o re s . T h e re a p p e a re d
to be no s e t re s p o n s e s cued by the ite m s th e m s e lv e s . Both the S to ry
and P ic tu r e T e s ts se e m e d to show re a s o n a b le stab ility w hile a t the
sa m e tim e a se n sitiv ity to d iffe re n c e s in g roups and tr e a tm e n ts . T he
only s u b sta n tia l a lte ra tio n in th e se in s tru m e n ts w as in the S to rie s
T e s t. B e c a u se the m a x im u m s c o re for this w as o rig in a lly only 8, and
b e c a u se m an y m o re ch ild ren would be involved in the e x p e rim e n t
a fte rw a rd s , it w as an ticip a ted th a t th e re would be a q u estio n of v a lid
ity and v a rie ty of re s p o n s e . T he validity q u estio n a r o s e fro m the
c o n sid e ra tio n that sam pling of w hat w as m e a s u re d (e th n o c e n tric ism )
w as not adequate w ith only two ite m s . It w as decided, th en , to add a
th ird ite m (sc o re d 0 to 4) so as to b ro a d e n the o v e r - a ll te s t ran g e to
12 points.
F o r the la s t e x p e rim e n t (M ay 8, 1969), this te s t w as fu rth e r e x
panded. Two m o re s to rie s w e re added w ith a p o ssib ility of 9 m o re
points to in c re a s e the ran g e fro m 0 to 21. T h e se two ite m s w e re
piloted A p ril 9 and 11 in the two e x p e rim e n ta l schools a fte r a ll o th er
data h ad been a c q u ire d . T h re e s to rie s w e re ac tu a lly trie d , but one
w as dropped b e c a u se it did n o t c o r r e la te as w ell with the o th e r te s t
59
r e s u lts of the pupils taking th e se m a te r ia ls . In o th e r w o rd s, in the
ite m d is c a rd e d v e ry often th o se c h ild re n who s c o re d low on it s c o re d
highly in th e ir S ocial D istan ce , S te re o ty p e T e s ts and vice v e rs a .
Study E v alu atio n . --A q u estio n often a sk ed the r e s e a r c h e r w hile
he w as m aking in q u irie s into s e v e r a l d is tr ic ts fo r p e rm is s io n to
u tiliz e schools as d ata s o u rc e s w as: "W ill th e re be any sig n ifican t
c h a n g e ? " P r e li m in a r y data fro m this p ilo t study yielded m u c h p r o m
is e .
One of the m o s t enco u rag in g signs w as the d iffe re n c e in s c o re s
yielded fro m the p ic tu re p o s tte s ts . A o n e-w ay a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e
w as u se d to see if th e re w as any sig n ifican t d iffere n ce betw een groups
a fte r ex p o su re to the s to r ie s . T he r e s u lts w e re as follow s:
T A B L E 14
P R O JE C T IV E P IC T U R E T E ST RESU LTS
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05 F . 01
B etw een 2 15. 52 7 .7 6 5.6 9 3. 74 6. 51
W ithin 14 19. 18 1. 36
G roup: A pple School B attle
M ean: 1. 60 1. 16 3. 33
B e c a u se no p r e te s t w as given in this in s tru m e n t, in itia l d iffe r
en ce s m ig h t have accounted in p a r t for d iffe re n c e s in th e se s c o r e s .
T he evidence a lso did not show w h eth er the b a ttle s to ry c a u se d p a st
im ag e stereo ty p in g o r only failed to re m o v e w h atev e r stereo ty p in g
60
e x iste d in the f i r s t p lace. The f o r m e r in te rp re ta tio n is p ro b ab ly the
m o s t valid. T he group th a t re a d the apple s to ry had a lm o s t the sa m e
m e a n s c o re as the school group. It would a p p e a r, then, th at a ll th re e
groups began with about the sam e s te re o ty p e im a g e s , and th a t th e re
w as som ething about the battle s to ry w hich in c re a s e d this s te re o ty p
ing.
P a r t of the cau satio n p ro b le m w as fo re s e e n . It w ill be r e m e m
b e re d th a t both the school and battle groups w e re given the s to ry te s t
b efo re and a fte r th e read in g of th e ir s to rie s . The m e an s of th e se
groups w e re com puted, co m p a re d and an aly zed for sig n ifican ce of
change. T he following w as the re s u lt:
TA B LE 15
CHANGE IN SCORES B ETW EEN THE SCHOOL AND
B A T T L E GROUPS ON STORY TEST
G roup B efo re
X s
A fte r
X s
D ifferen ce
X s t
School 3. 5 10. 6 4. 3 10. 6 .8 10. 6 3. 32*
B attle 4 17. 6 4. 1 17. 5 . 1 17. 5 . 12
D ifferen ce
t
. 5
. 06
. 2
*p .02
T he d ata h e re have gone quite fa r in indicating how fu tu re r e
s e a r c h on this p ro b le m m ight lead to fru itfu l r e s u lts , as the group
61
read in g the school s to ry w as the one showing p o sitiv e sig n ifican t
change as to e th n o c e n tristic attitu d e s.
F in a l S u m m a ry
N otw ithstanding lim ita tio n s of sam p le s iz e and e x p e rim e n ta l
conditions (including the p re s s in g n eed for te stin g sp ace), s e v e r a l d is
c o v e rie s w e re m a d e w hich could be quite valuable as le a d s.T h e y y w e re r
1. The s to rie s w e re found to be e a sy enough fo r a v e ra g e fo u rth
g ra d e read in g ab ility . T h o se difficult w ords d isc o v e re d w e re e ith e r
elim in ated o r p laced w h ere th ey could be p rev iew ed . It w as a n tic ip a t
ed th a t the e x p e rim e n ta l su b je c ts would have no p ro b le m read in g the
s to rie s .
2. C onceptually, none of the s to rie s w e re found to be too d iffi
cult. T h e re a p p e a re d to be no fa c to rs w hich could p re v e n t a child
fro m u n d erstan d in g and re a c tin g to the co n ten ts.
3. The in s tru m e n ts d ev ised s e e m e d to in d icate r e a l d iffe re n c e s
as a r e s u lt of the independent v a ria b le effect. T h is a p p e a re d to be
tru e of both the P ro je c tiv e P ic tu r e and S to rie s T e s ts . F u r th e r m o r e ,
th e re did not s e e m to be any b a s ic difficulty of m ean in g in h e re n t in a
q u e stio n n a ire fo rm w hich w ould lead to confused o r in v a lid re s p o n s e
on the p a r t of the p a r tic u la r age group of c h ild re n p a rtic ip a tin g .
4. D isc u ssio n did n o t a lte r the c h ild re n 's ra tin g s on the fa c to rs
of difficulty o r in te r e s t. Its function would a p p e a r to be u se fu l sim p ly
62
in clarify in g and b rin g in g out c e rta in points in the sto ry . T he su b
j e c t s ' opinion of w hat they had re a d w as s e t b e fo re , not a fte r d is c u s
sion. T his could have wide im p lic a tio n s in s o fa r as m any planned
read in g le ss o n s in te a c h e r 's m a n u a ls a r e desig n ed to r a is e in te r e s t
in a s to ry a fte r it h as b een re a d .
The author decided to re ta in the q u estio n s a t the end of each
sto ry . He did this not fo r the p u rp o se of m a x im izin g affectiv e i m
p act, but fa cilitatio n of re te n tio n . D uring the c o u rs e of e x p e rim e n ts
this m ig h t p ro v e valuable b e c a u se a t that tim e th e re would be no
chance fo r o ra l read in g and thus le s s chance fo r re te n tio n r e in f o r c e
m e n t except through d isc u s sio n of the q u e stio n s.
5. T h e re a p p e a re d to be a d iffere n ce in affective im p a c t on
the p a r t of the b attle and school s to r ie s . It w as a n tic ip a te d th at
s im ila r re s u lts would a r i s e in the e x p e rim e n ts to co m e.
The S ubjects for the M ain E x p e rim e n ts
T h re e schools a lto g e th e r w e re involved in the m a in e x p e r i
m e n ts . A ll w e re in th e Los A ngeles a r e a , although in w idely s p re a d
out lo c a litie s . T he f i r s t two e x p e rim e n ts w e re u n d e rta k e n in a p a r a l
le l situ a tio n so th at the e x p e rim e n te r g a th e re d d ata fro m one school
on one day and fro m the o th e r the n e x t day. T he th ird e x p e rim e n t
w as u n d e rta k e n a m onth la te r in an o th er school.
63
A ll the schools w e re in w hite m id d le -c la s s n eig h b o rh o o d s. The
p a r tic u la r s can b e s t be s u m m a riz e d in the c h a rt below:
T A B L E 16
D ESCRIPTIO N O F TH E SCHOOL PO PU LA TIO N
School N eighborhood R a c ia l C om position
A W h ittier - -M iddle C la ss 95% C a u c a sia n
M iddle In co m e ($7, 000-$20,000) 5% M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n ,
U rb a n --S in g le H o m es, so m e O rie n ta l
A p a rtm e n ts
B N ew h all--M id d le C la ss 90% C a u c a sia n
M iddle Incom e ($8, 000-$15, 000) 10% M e x ic a n -A m e ric a n ,
R u ra l-S u b u rb a n --S in g le H om es O rie n ta l
C Los A n g eles-H o lly w o o d --M id d le 90% C a u c a sia n
C la s s , M iddle In co m e ($ 7 ,0 0 0 - 10% N e g ro , M ex ica n -
$ 2 0 ,0 0 0 ), U rb a n , A p a rtm e n t A m e ric a n , O rie n ta l
D w elling, Som e Single H om es
A ll su b jects w e re f i r s t checked to see if they could re a d a t the
fo u rth g ra d e le v el or above. T his w as done by in sp ectio n of c u m u la
tive r e c o rd s o r, as in the c a s e of School C, the a c tu a l read in g o rg a n
iz atio n p lan u se d .
T he e x p e rim e n ta l su b je c ts w e re then chosen. M ethods for doing
this v a rie d depending on lo c a l a d m in is tra tiv e and p h y sic a l conditions.
In school A p e rm is s io n fro m p a re n ts had to b e obtained th ro u g h a
signed note b efo re the final sa m p le could be d ra w n --a situ a tio n unlike
the o th e r two sch o o ls. C h ild ren in school A w e re ran d o m ly chosen
64
fro m a ll c la s s ro o m s g ra d e s 4 through 6. In School B the sam p le
population w as taken fro m four c la s s ro o m s in such a way th at one
c la s s r o o m w as re p re s e n ta tiv e of the sixth g ra d e , one of the fifth grade,
and two s m a lle r ro o m s re p re s e n tin g the fo u rth g rad e. T he selec tio n
of each of th e se ro o m s w as a r b it r a r y with the only stip u latio n being
th a t one be picked fro m each g ra d e le v el so as to have a m a x im u m
age s p re a d . In School C the se le c tio n was by read in g lev el. The table
below d e s c rib e s each sam p le population m o re fully:
TA B LE 17
SCHOOL S A M P L E S --S E X , A GE, SELEC TIO N
School Boys G irls T o tal M ean A ge S electio n A ssig n m e n t
A 49 53 102 10 y r 5 m o R andom S c o re s
B 40 50 90 10 8 S tra tifie d by R andom
G ra d e L ev el
C 37 41 7 8 1 0 0 S tra tifie d by R andom
R eading le v e l
T o ta l 126 144 270
A ss ig n m e n t to e x p e rim e n ta l g roups w ill be c la rifie d fu rth e r. In
School A the o rig in a l sam p le population w as se le c te d on a ra n d o m
b a s is fro m a ll the ro o m s. A d m in istra tiv e ly it p ro v ed a ll but im p o s
sib le to give the stip u late d tre a tm e n t in any but a g ro u p m eth o d . If
the c h ild re n had been pulled fro m c la s s ro o m s ran d o m ly , a ll the te a c h
e r s would have had to send ch ild ren to the e x p e rim e n t th re e tim e s in
65
one d a y --e ffe c tiv e ly stopping a ll in s tru c tio n fo r ch ild re n not p a r t i c i
pating in the e x p e rim e n t, and m aking fo r a c o m p lica ted scheduling
p ro b le m which the te a c h e rs m ig h t not have been able to cope w ith. To
sim p lify this p ro b le m the e x p e rim e n te r a s sig n e d the groups f i r s t on
a ra n d o m b a s is , then on an equal s c o re and sex b a s is . Soon a fte r
p re te stin g , the s c o re s w e re tab u lated and a rra n g e d so th a t the th re e
e x p e rim e n ta l groups would be a p p ro x im a te ly equal on the th re e c r i t e
ria m entioned. C h ild ren could then be sen t in blocks r a th e r than as
individuals. T h u s, ro o m s who n o rm a lly se n t m any c h ild re n would
only have to send and re c e iv e tw ice, w hile ro o m s who had only five
o r six c h ild re n involved would only have to send th e m once. T his
would m a k e fo r le s s com p licatio n s am ong the te a c h e rs doing the send
ing and rece iv in g .
The m ethod for se le c tio n in School B w as by ro o m and g rad e
le v el. C h ild ren w hose re a d in g ab ility was too low to p a rtic ip a te w e re
known by the te a c h e rs and identified for the e x p e rim e n te r in advance.
W ithin each ro o m , the su b jects w e re ra n d o m ly a ss ig n e d to the th re e
gro u p s.
School C a s s ig n m e n t w as s im ila r to th a t of School B, except
read in g le v el w as the c rite rio n . D uring the noon a fte r-lu n c h h o u r
(1 - 2 P .M . ) the c h ild re n in g ra d e s 3 - 6 w e re p laced in read in g
ro o m s depending on th e ir ability. In this c a s e th re e ro o m s w e re
p ic k e d --a fo u rth g ra d e , fifth g ra d e and sixth g ra d e ab ility ro o m .
66
The m e a n age w as slig h tly low er fo r this population b e c a u se it in c lu d
ed so m e v e ry b rig h t th ird g r a d e r s who w e re read in g a t the fourth
g ra d e level.
The g r e a te r n u m b e r of g irls p a rtic ip a tin g o v e r - a ll is explained
by the g r e a te r n u m b e r of g irls who re a d a t fo u rth g ra d e le v el o r above
in a ll the sch o o ls. In the equal celled s ta tis tic a l desig n , then, s e v e ra l
g irls had to be dropped in the a n a ly sis when the d ata w e re a rra n g e d
w ith sex as the th ird c r ite r ia . T his w ill be gone into in g r e a te r d etail
la te r in this ch a p te r.
The E x p e rim e n ts
T h e e x p e r im e n ts w e r e co n d u cted b e tw e e n M a r ch 6 and M ay 8,
1969. T h ey w e r e a ll o f a p r e - t e s t - p o s t t e s t m o d e l. T h e su b je c ts w e r e
g iv e n a p r e te s t , a s s ig n e d to th e ir e x p e r im e n ta l g r o u p s , and g iv en a
tr e a tm e n t s to r y fo llo w e d by a p o s t te s t. T he f ir s t tw o e x p e r im e n ts
a ls o in c lu d ed a se c o n d p o s t te s t a m on th la te r to m e a s u r e fo r long
t e r m e f f e c t s . T h e c h a r t on the n e x t p a g e g iv e s th e e x p e r im e n ta l d e
s ig n in m o r e d e ta il.
In a ll th re e c a s e s b e c a u se the e x p e rim e n ta l g roups w e re s e le c t
ed a fte r te stin g th e re w as no d iffere n tiatin g u n til then. T h u s, in
School A in itia l te stin g in the li b r a r y w as by g ra d e le v el to fa c ilita te
scheduling, and the breakdow n by groups cam e only during the second
p e rio d . In the c a s e of School B p re te stin g took place in the c l a s s
67
ro o m s. The e x a m in e r g a th e re d h is data in one ro o m and then m oved
to the next. D uring the tr e a tm e n t- p o s tte s t p e rio d ch ild ren w e re b r o k
en down by group and sen t in th re e sh ifts to the school lib r a r y as is
shown in the tab le below . H e re each group w as equally re p re s e n te d
in a ll four c la s s ro o m s involved. T he la s t p o stte stin g w as done in the
c la s s ro o m s when a ll the g roups w e re again m ix ed .
T A B L E 18
E X P E R IM E N T A L DESIGN - -SCHOOLS
G roup S to ry P e r io d I P e r io d II P e rio d HI
E x p e rim e n ta l 1 B attle M a rc h 6 M a rc h 14 A p ril 11
9:00-1:00 9:00-10:00 9:00-1:00
L ib ra ry L ib ra ry L ib ra ry
E x p e rim e n ta l 2 School M a rc h 6 M a rc h 14 A p ril 11
9:00-1:00 10:30-11:30 9:00-1:00
L ib ra ry L ib ra ry L ib ra ry
C o n tro l A pple M a rc h 6 M a rc h 14 A p ril 11
9:00-1:00 12:00-1:00 9:00-1:00
L ib r a r y L ib ra ry L ib ra ry
E x p e rim e n ta l 1 B attle M a rc h 7 M a rc h 13 A p ril 9
9:00-12:00 11:00-12:00 9:00-12:00
C la s s ro o m L ib ra ry C la s s ro o m
E x p e rim e n ta l 2 School M a rc h 7 M a rc h 13 A p ril 9
9:00-12:00 10:00-11:00 9:00-12:00
C la s s ro o m L ib ra ry C la s s ro o m
C o n tro l A pple M a rc h 7 M a rc h 13 A p ril 9
9:00-12:00 9:00-10:00 9:00-12:00
C la s s ro o m L ib ra ry C la s s ro o m
E x p e rim e n ta l 1 Canoe M ay 1, 2 M ay 6, 7, 8
1:00-2:00 1:00-2:00
C la s s ro o m C la s s ro o m
E x p e rim e n ta l 2 School M ay 1, 2 M ay 6, 7, 8
1:00-2:00 1:00-2:00
C la s s ro o m C las s ro o m
C o n tro l A pple M ay 1, 2 M ay 6, 7, 8
1:00-2:00 1:00-2:00
C la s s ro o m C la s s ro o m
In School C the p ic tu re w as so m ew h at s im p le r. B e c a u se of
changes in e x p e rim e n ta l p ro c e d u re , it w as p o ssib le to p re te s t, give
68
tr e a tm e n t and p o s tte s t in the sa m e settin g . B eca u se of sp ace lim ita
tions of a c la s s r o o m settin g , h o w ev er, and b e c a u se of the tim e
lim ita tio n s, the tr e a tm e n t could not be given a ll in one day. R a th e r,
one day w as given o v er to the tre a tm e n t and im m e d ia te p o stte stin g of
each c la s s r o o m in tu rn .
P ro c e d u re s
P r o c e d u r e s v a rie d as to the d istrib u tio n of the te s ts and the
tr e a tm e n t of the independent v a ria b le am ong the th re e sch o o ls.
D istrib u tio n of T e s ts . - -Schools A, B and C w e re given te sts
in a d iffe re n t o rd e r so a s to n e u tra liz e this effect on the o u tco m es.
B elow is tab u late d the o r d e r in w hich the in s tru m e n ts w e re p re se n te d :
T A B L E 19
O RDER O F T E S T S --S C H O O L S
School
A P ro je c tiv e , S to rie s , B o g ard u s, S tereo ty p e A djective
B S tereo ty p e A d jectiv e, B o g a rd u s, S to rie s , P ro je c tiv e
A, B P e r io d HI o n ly -- A fte r conclusion of e x p e rim e n ta l
te stin g , the tim e rem a in in g w as u se d to pilot the
In v en to ry (A ppendix N) and so m e m o r e ite m s fo r
the S to rie s T e s t. Both w e re to be u s e d in the
School C e x p e rim e n t.
C S te re o ty p e A d jectiv e, S to rie s , In v en to ry (P e rio d
II only).
No B o g ard u s o r P ro je c tiv e d evices w e re u se d in School C.
T his o m issio n w as on grounds of expediency and d ata outcom es as
69
explained in C h ap ter IV. The expediency fa c to r w as re la te d to o b
je ctio n s v ario u s P . T . A. m e m b e rs m ig h t m a k e to the ite m s as " in v a
sion of p riv a c y . " T his w as not a p ro b le m in the o th e r two sch o o ls.
T he la ck of a p ro je c tiv e device in this in sta n ce w as due to tim e li m it a
tions and q u estio n ab le u s e fu ln e ss fo r the p u rp o se s of this p a rtic u la r
e x p e rim e n t.
T re a tm e n t. - -A fte r the su b jects had been p r e te s te d they w e re
b ro k e n down into th re e tre a tm e n t g roups th ro u g h ra n d o m a ss ig n m e n t.
E a c h of th e se g roups w as fu rth e r ad ju sted so th a t th e ir m e a n ages
w e re a p p ro x im a te ly equal and th e ir sex u al re p re s e n ta tio n about the
sa m e .
With r e g a r d to age each group had a r e p re s e n ta tiv e a ss ig n m e n t
fro m a ll age groups in the sa m p le . A fte r the m e d ia n for each group
w as com puted fo r age a ll ch ild ren above th a t m e d ian w e re p la ced in
the o ld er c a te g o ry fo r th a t group. A ll su b jects below th at m e d ian
w e re p laced in the younger c ateg o ry . C h ild ren w ith id e n tic a l, o r n e a r
id e n tic a l, age w e re p laced in the c a te g o ry w h ere th e re w as a m in o rity
of c a s e s , or by a flip of a coin.
With r e g a r d to sex each group w as given about the s a m e p r o
p o rtio n of boys and g ir ls . B e c a u se g irls o u tn u m b ered boys th e re w e re
slig h tly m o re g irls than boys in each group.
S u b c a te g o rie s w e re a lso c o n sid e re d . T h u s, p ro p o rtio n s of
younger g ir ls , o ld e r g ir ls , younger boys, and o ld e r boys w e re equal-
70
iz ed as w ell as p o ssib le betw een a ll the e x p e rim e n ta l g roups w ithout
changing the m e a n te s t s c o re of eac h group.
In addition th e re w as so m e m o re a rra n g in g of in itia l data fo r
School A so th a t scheduling p ro b le m s could be sim p lified . T h u s, if
a child in a c e rta in su b cate g o ry h ad about the sa m e te s t s c o re as a
child in itia lly a s s ig n e d to a d iffe re n t group but in the sa m e s u b c a te
g o ry in a ll o th e r re s p e c ts , th e se two ch ild re n could be exchanged if
the scheduling situ a tio n w as th e re b y sim p lified .
A fter this in itia l a ss ig n m e n t and breakdow n e x p e rim e n ta l
tre a tm e n t w as a d m in is te re d as d e s c rib e d by T ab le 18. A fte r read in g
the s to ry pupils in Schools A and B had a p erio d im m e d ia te ly a f t e r
w ard s to d isc u s s the questions at the end of the s to rie s b e fo re taking
the f i r s t p o s tte st. T he p u rp o se of this w as as sta te d a t the end of the
pilot r e s e a r c h - - t o re in fo rc e knowledge of the s to ry and h elp c le a r up
any m isc o n cep tio n s w hich m ig h t hav e a r is e n w hen read in g it. T his
d isc u s sio n w as not conducted by the r e s e a r c h e r but by a n o th e r co o p
e ra tin g p e rso n who did n o t know the p u rp o se of the e x p e rim e n t.
In the th ird e x p e rim e n t th e re w as no need to is o la te the e x p e r i
m e n ta l and c o n tro l groups during tr e a tm e n t b e c a u se no d is c u s s io n of
the s to rie s took p lace b e fo re th e p o s tte st. T he m eth o d h e r e was
sim p ly to p r e te s t a ll the ch ild ren during the f ir s t two days. A w eek
la te r tre a tm e n t w as a d m in is te re d in an id e n tic a l w ay to ea c h c l a s s
ro o m one day a t a tim e . O n e -th ird of each ro o m ,re a d one of the
71
th re e s to rie s . As soon as a ll su b jects had finished read in g they w e re
te s te d a second tim e a fte r w hich they w e re given an additional In v en
to ry to m e a s u r e d e g re e of id en tificatio n with th e ir sto ry . B ecau se
the th re e groups te s te d w e re a ll in the sam e ro o m , e x p e rim e n te r's
bias could not have any d ecisiv e influence. H is ro le w as sim p ly to
p ass out m a te r ia ls and c la rify d ire c tio n s w hen not u n d ersto o d . In
s tru c tio n s w e re p rin te d above the s to rie s and te s ts , had been piloted
e a r l ie r , and w e re the sa m e fo r a ll th re e gro u p s. T he ch ild ren th e m
selv es w e re not co n scio u s of being in a sp e c ia l group. Only a few
n oticed they w e re read in g d iffe re n t s to r ie s , but when they ask ed about
it they w e re given an a n s w e r having nothing to do w ith the p u rp o se s of
the e x p e rim e n t.
T re a tm e n t of the D ata
S co rin g the D ata. - -M o st of the data could be s c o re d in a m e
ch an ical m a n n e r. F o r this p u rp o se sco rin g m a sk s w e re m ad e and
applied to in c re a s e speed and a c c u ra c y .
F o r the P ro je c tiv e P ic tu r e s T e s t, h o w ev er, th e re w as an e l e
m e n t of judgem ent involved leading to p o ssib le b ia s. To a v e rt this
the r e s e a r c h e r and h is w ife (who had been given thorough in stru c tio n s
b efo reh an d on how to s c o re the p ic tu re s ) tu rn ed a ll the te s t fo rm s
o v er and m ixed th e m up. T he ch ild ren had d raw n the p ic tu re s on the
b ack of th e ir te s t fo rm s . W ith th e se fo rm s u p sid e down and shuffled
72
it w as not p o ssib le to know w hich child d re w the p ic tu re , o r w hich
group he w as fro m . A fte r the p ic tu re s w e re sc o re d they could be
tab u late d along with the o th e r te s t r e s u lts .
G rouping the D a ta . - -T h e o rig in a l intent of the r e s e a r c h e r w as
to com bine the data fro m Schools A and B. T his would m a k e a n a ly sis
sim p le r. A t f ir s t, h o w ev er, it se e m e d b e s t to find out if the two
populations w e re a p p ro x im a te ly the s a m e fo r the v a ria b le s u n d er in
vestig atio n . If they w e re not it would be a p p ro p ria te to an aly ze the
re s u lts s e p a ra te ly .
T he populations of th e se two schools w ere thus c o m p a re d on
the b a sis of two se ts of s c o re s : the S tereo ty p e P ic tu r e s T e s t and a
com bined s c o re of the o th e rs on the b a tte ry . T he re a s o n for not
com bining a ll the s c o re s w as th a t the P ic tu r e s T e s t m e a s u r e d a c o m
ponent quite d ifferen t fro m the o th e rs in the b a tte ry . T he S tereo ty p e
A d jectiv e, B o g ard u s, and S to rie s T e s ts a ll m e a s u re d d e g re e of
fa v o ra b le n e ss. The p ic tu re in s tru m e n t a ttem p ted to a s s e s s only the
p a s t im a g e ry .; T his im a g e ry need not re fle c t fav o rab le o r u n fav o rab le
feelin g s. Indians in a m o d e rn settin g could be c o n s id e re d in an u n
fav o rab le light, w hile th o se in a p a st settin g could be thought of in an
opposite way. T he re a s o n fo r including this p a rtic u la r te s t in the
f i r s t p lace w as b a se d on the id ea th at p a s t im ag e ste re o ty p in g is m o re
lik ely to le a d to p re ju d ic e d attitu d es w hen com bined with o th e r le a r n -
73
ing e x p e rie n c e s .
The in itia l s c o re s of the two schools w e re an aly zed with r e s p e c t
to th e se two in s tru m e n ts . B elow a r e the r e s u lts :
TA B LE 20
COMPARISON O F SCHOOL A AND B ON PIC T U R E
AND COMBINATION SCORES
School N P ic tu r e V a ria n c e C om bined V a ria n c e
M ean M ean
A 102 2 .1 4 3.3 4 123.5 4 6 6 .6
B 90 2 .0 7 2.0 1 116.3 5 6 7 .7
t = . 37 t = 2. 822#
*p .01 (tw o-tailed)
W ith r e s p e c t to the P ic tu r e T e s t the two schools had a lm o s t
id e n tic a l m e a n s and a v ery low t value betw een them . A s fo r the r e s t
of the b a tte ry , h o w ev er, the d iffere n ce w as highly significant. T h e r e
fo re , it w as decided to com bine the s c o r e s in the s ta tis tic a l a n a ly sis
only fo r the p ic tu re te s ts . T he o th er te s ts would be an aly zed s e p
a ra te ly .
T ab u latio n and A n aly sis of D ata. - -S co rin g of data w as by hand.
The r e s u lts w e re p laced on sh eets along w ith coded id en tificatio n i n
fo rm a tio n . T his la tte r in fo rm atio n w as to enable the e x p e rim e n te r to
efficien tly o rd e r and s o r t the data by individual, group, tim e , age and
74
sex. E a c h s e t of s c o re s w as punched onto a d iffere n t c a rd .
The in itia l s ta tis tic w as a th re e -w a y a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e as
u se d on the BIOMED p r o g r a m n u m b e r 02V at the U n iv e rsity of S o u th
e rn C a lifo rn ia C o m p u ter S cie n ces L a b o ra to ry . The com putation of
this p ro g ra m w as p e rfo rm e d a t the la b o ra to ry .
F u r th e r a n a ly sis w as done by hand. U sed h e r e w e re t - t e s ts
fo r d iffe re n c e s betw een m e a n s and c o r r e la te d d iffe re n c e s.
In both th e se a n a ly se s the data w as s o rte d tw ic e --o n c e by age
and the o th e r by sex. B e c a u se of the la r g e r n u m b e r of g irls in the
o rig in a l population, and b e c a u se of the e q u a l-c e lle d a n a ly sis p e r
fo rm e d by the BIOMED p ro g ra m , s e v e r a l su b jects had to be dropped
fo r the a n a ly sis by sex. T his w as done on a ra n d o m b a s is , so th a t
the a c tu a l n u m b e r of su b jects fo r the second s o r t w as as follow s:
School A, 84 to 84 (no change); School B, 78 to 72; School C, 78 to
72.
It w ill be noted th a t the in itia l n u m b e rs of th e se schools a r e
a lso d iffere n t fro m th o se on T ab le 17. T his a lso w as the r e s u lt of
red u ctio n to p r e s e r v e eq u ality of c e lls. P r i m e ca u se of this w as a b
se n c e of so m e pupils fro m one o r m o re sta g e s of the e x p e rim e n t.
75
C H A PTE R IV
RESU LTS O F TH E STUDY
In tro d u ctio n
H e re a r e p re s e n te d the an ticip a ted and ta b u late d outcom es of
the data a c q u ire d fro m the e x p e rim e n ts d e s c rib e d in the p rev io u s
c h a p te r. T he p re s e n t c h a p te r is divided into the following sectio n s:
(1) a n tic ip a te d o u tc o m es, (2) h y p o th e se s, (3) p ic tu re te s t data, (4)
so c ia l d ista n c e d ata, (5) s te re o ty p e and e th n o c e n tric is m data, (6)
data fro m School C, (7) d is c u s s io n of the findings.
A n tic ip ate d O utcom es
' I f Sym bolic In te ra c tio n is t th e o ry is c o r r e c t th e re would be
little if any p o sitiv e change in the s u b je c ts ' a ttitu d e s to w ard s Indians
a fte r read in g the co n tro l or apple sto ry . T he b attle or canoe s to rie s
m ig h t c re a te so m e p o sitiv e fe e lin g s , but not enough to be sig n ifican t.
The re m o te n e s s of th e se two s to rie s in tim e , p lace and c u ltu re to
the values and sym bols of the child p e rc e iv in g th e m would m ak e the
r e a d e r unable to identify w ith the ob ject in any r e a lis tic way.
T he effect of the school s to ry would be s tro n g e r. T he setting
is in tune with e v e ry day life. T he conflict re v o lv e s about a d iffe r
ence of c u ltu re --w h ite m id d le c la s s co m p e titiv e n e ss v e rs u s the
P ueblo id e a l of p e rs o n a l s a c r if ic e fo r the p re s e rv a tio n of group h a r -
76
m ony. S p ecifically , it c e n te rs on m a rk s o r g r a d e s - - a v e ry c o n c re te
is s u e w ith w hich v irtu a lly a ll c h ild re n have had to live.
It is a lso a n tic ip a te d th a t change in attitu d e would depend in
p a r t on the age and sex of the r e a d e r. O ld er c h ild re n would be lik ely
to identify in a d iffe re n t way and fo r d iffe re n t re a s o n s than th e ir ju n
io r s . The sam e m ig h t be sa id for sex.
W ith r e g a rd to the p ic tu re te s t it would be expected to show
sco rin g tre n d s the opposite fro m th o se on the r e s t of the b a tte ry .
T h u s, th e re would be little change w ith the b attle and apple s to rie s
and a sig n ifican t low ering of s c o r e s fo r the school group. In fo rm atio n
fro m the pilot stu d ie s su g g ested th a t for the b a ttle s to ry im ag es
m ig h t actu ally be ra is e d .
H y p o th eses
The following h y p o th e ses as sta te d below w e re to be exam ined
and tested :
1. T h e re w ill be no s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t low ering of p a st
im ag e s c o re s a s m e a s u r e d by the P ic tu r e S tereo ty p e P ro je c tiv e T e s t
by any of the groups involved.
2. T h e re w ill be no s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t ra is in g of p a st
im ag e s c o re s as m e a s u r e d by the P ic tu r e S tereo ty p e P ro je c tiv e T e s t
by any of the g roups involved.
3. T h e re w ill be no s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t p o sitiv e change in
77
attitu d e s c o re s to w ard s Indians as m e a s u r e d by the S o cial D istan ce
T e s t fo r any of the th re e g ro u p s.
4. T h e re w ill be no s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t p o sitiv e change in
attitu d e s c o re s to w ard s Indians as m e a s u re d by the com bined S te r e o
type and S to rie s te s ts fo r any of the th re e g roups involved.
5. T h e re w ill be no s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t negative change in
attitu d e s c o re s to w ard s Indians as m e a s u re d by the S ocial D istan ce
T e s t fo r any of the th re e g ro u p s.
6. T h e re w ill be no s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t neg ativ e change in
attitu d e to w ard s Indians a s m e a s u r e d by the s c o re s of the com bined
S tereo ty p e and S to rie s T e s ts for any of the th re e g roups involved.
7. The dependent v a ria b le is not re la te d to age.
8. The dependent v a ria b le is n o t re la te d to sex.
9. T he am ount of p re fe re n c e o r re la te d n e s s as m e a s u re d by
the In v en to ry w ill not be sig n ifican tly h ig h e r s ta tis tic a lly fo r the
school s to ry (in te rc u ltu ra l conflict) when co m p a re d to the canoe s to ry
(in tra c u ltu ra l co n flict).
H y p o th eses 1, 2, 3, 5 applied only to the su b jects of schools
A and B. H y p o th eses 4, 6, 7 and 8 applied to the su b jects of a ll th re e
sch o o ls, w hile h y p o th e sis 9 applied only to the su b jects of school C.
P ic tu r e T e s t D ata
T he data h e r e re p r e s e n te d the com bined s c o re s fro m Schools
A and B. A s with a ll the o th e r te s ts a g e n e ra l a n a ly sis w as given
78
f i r s t to d e te rm in e the d ire c tio n of each group followed by a breakdow n
by age and sex. H y p o th eses 1, 2, 7, 8 w e re to be te ste d by this data.
T he following ta b le re v e a le d g e n e ra l tre n d s:
TA B L E 21
PIC T U R E TEST SCORE RESU LTS -G E N E R A L M EAN TRENDS
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 P o s tte s t 2
B attle 2. 13 2. 56 2. 39
School 1. 82 1. 82 1.26
A pple 2. 34 2. 04 1. 65
It would a p p e a r fro m this th a t th e re w as a co n tra d ic tio n betw een
the data and the f i r s t two h y p o th e ses. A n aly sis of s h o rt and long te r m
changes re v e a le d the following:
TA B L E 22
ANALYSIS O F P IC T U R E SCORE RESULTS
SHORT AND LONG TERM
S h o rt T e r m Long T e r m
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 t P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 2 t
B attle 2. 13 2. 56 1. 70* 2. 13 2 .3 9 1 .04
School 1. 82 1. 82 . 00 1. 82 1.26 -2 .5 9 * *
A pple 2. 34 2. 04 -1. 20 2. 34 1.65 -3 .0 7 * * *
*p .05 **p .025 ***p .01
In the s h o rt run, then, h y p o th esis 2 had to be re je c te d , w hile
79
acc ep tab le fo r long t e r m effect. T h e re w as a sig n ifican t in c re a s e
for the b attle group im m e d ia te ly a fte r e x p e rim e n ta l tre a tm e n t, but
this d ifferen ce did not hold for the la te r te stin g .
H ypothesis 2 had to be a cc ep ted in the s h o rt run, though r e j e c t
ed for the second p o stte stin g . T h e re w e re no sig n ifican t d e c re a s e s
im m e d ia te ly a fte r tre a tm e n t, but a m onth la te r the school and apple
groups d e c re a s e d significantly fro m th e ir o rig in a l p r e te s t s c o re s .
When b ro k en down by age and sex a th r e e way a n a ly sis of v a r i
ance w as u se d to m e a s u re single and in te ra c tin g effects. On this and
the following page a r e p re s e n te d the r e s u lts . With r e g a r d to ag e,
the following w as found:
TA BLE 23
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FO R P IC T U R E SCORES
GROU P, TIM E AND AGE
S ource df SS MS F F . 05
T im e (A) 2 13. 89 6. 95 2. 38 3. 01
G roup(B ) 2 40. 82 20.41 6.99 3. 01
A ge (C) 1 8.43 8.43 2. 88 3. 84
A X B 4 16. 17 4. 04 1. 38 2. 37
A X C 2 7. 23 3. 61 1. 23 3. 01
B X C 2 5 .24 2. 62 .8 9 3. 01
AXBXC 4 3. 63 .91
W R's 468 1368.55 2. 92
A s can be seen h e re the age fa c to r, though re la tiv e ly high, w as
fa r s h o rt of the significance le v el re q u ire d . N one of the in te ra c tio n s
ap p ro ac h ed sig n ifican ce e ith e r. F o r this re a s o n , h y p o th esis 7 had to
80
be a c c e p te d with r e g a r d to this in s tru m e n t.
T he tab le below p re s e n ts the data w ith r e g a r d to sex as the s u b
dividing fa c to r. As can be seen the s e x f a c to r , when taken alone, w as
b a re ly s h o rt of the significance le v el re q u ire d . In in te ra c tio n with
the g ro u p fa c to r, h o w ev er, it w as sig n ifican t. H ypothesis 8 w as
th e re fo re re je c te d w ith r e g a rd to this in s tru m e n t.
T A B L E 24
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FO R P IC T U R E SCORES
G ROU P, TIM E AND SEX
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05 F . 01
T im e (A) 2 14. 89 7.44 2. 56 3. 02
G roup (B) 2 39.40
19. 70 6. 77 3. 02 4. 66
Sex (C) 1 9.59 9.5 9 3. 29 3. 86
A X B 4 15. 56 3. 89 1. 33 2. 39
A X C 2 2. 13 1. 07 . 37 3. 02
B X C 2 19. 31 9. 66 3. 32 3. 02 4. 66
AXBXC 4 4. 67 1. 09 . 38 2. 39
W R 's 450 1311.69 2. 91
In g e n e ra l, then, co m p a riso n s of m e a n s and a n a ly sis of v a r i
an ce h as u n co v ere d re la tio n s h ip s w hich have r e je c te d a ll the h y p o th e
se s u n d e r c o n sid e ra tio n except the age fa c to r. A p p aren tly , age had
re la tiv e ly little to do w ith ste re o ty p in g of this kind.
S o cia l D ista n c e D ata
M ethod of p re s e n ta tio n w as s im ila r to th a t of the P ic tu r e data.
B e c a u se the s c o r e s w e re not com bined, h o w ev er, two s e ts of data
81
w e re p re s e n te d in each c h a r t- - o n e fro m School A and the o th er fro m
School B. H y p o th eses 3, 5, 7 and 8 w e re re le v a n t for this p a rtic u la r
te s t. In g e n e ra l, the following m e a n p a tte rn w as o b serv ed :
T A B L E 25
SOCIAL DISTANCE RESULTS
GROUP MEANS
School A School B
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 P o s tte s t 2 P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 P o s tte s t2
B attle 79.56 8 1 .1 7 82.99 76. 11 76.07 80.52
School 79.32 8 1 .0 6 8 2 .6 4 73.05 71.59 75.96
A pple 8 1.46 78.39 80.92 75.62 7 6 .4 7 80.10
T his se e m e d to in d icate s m a ll in c re a s e s fo r the Indian groups
in School A and a s m a ll d e c r e a s e fo r the c o n tro ls, w hile the opposite
w as the ca se in School B. F u r th e r a n a ly sis re v e a le d the following:
T able 26 on n ex t page).
None of the t-v a lu e s for c o r r e la te d m e a n s w e re sig n ifican t at
the . 05 le v el of confidence. H y p o th eses 3 and 5 could not be re je c te d .
A full a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e w h ere the data w e re s u b s o rte d by
age is p re se n te d on page 83. W ith both schools the age fa c to r did not
a p p e a r to h av e a sig n ifican t b e a rin g on the v a ria b le involved. The
highly sig n ifican t in te ra c tio n betw een age and group for School A , how
e v e r, su g g ested th a t fo r this p a r tic u la r population the age v a ria b le
did have an influence on group s c o re o r vice v e r s a . F o r this group,
82
TA B L E 26
ANALYSIS O F SOCIAL DISTANCE
SHORT AND LONG TERM
School A
S h o rt T e r m Long T e r m
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 t P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 2 t
B attle 79.56 8 1 .1 7 .8 5 79.56 82.99 .9 8
School 79.32 8 1 .0 6 .7 9 79.32 8 2 .6 4 .8 6
A pple 8 1 .4 6 78.39 - .9 7 81.46 78.39 -.7 1
School B
S h o rt T e r m Long T e r m
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 t P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 2 t
B attle 76.11 7 6 .0 7 - .0 2 76.11 8 0.52 1.57
School 73.05 71.59 -.6 1 73.05 75. 96 .7 6
A pple 75.62 7 6 .4 7 .3 7 75.62 80.10 1.42
then, a f u rth e r breakdow n se e m e d in o rd e r. It is im p o rta n t to note
th at in r e g a r d to th is in te ra c tio n , th e re was no c o rre sp o n d in g ly high
F for betw een g ro u p s. T his m e a n t th a t the likelihood of age being an
in flu en tial fa c to r w as not high. It w as th e re fo re decided to an aly ze
the c o r r e la te d m e a n s betw een the groups w h ere d iffe re n c e s w e re
g r e a te s t on p r e - and p o s tte s t s c o r e s . T his p ro v ed to be the younger
c h ild re n on a s h o rt t e r m a n a ly sis . T able 27 shows the r e s u lts of
both a n a ly se s.
A s in d icate d by T ab le 28, w hen the younger ch ild ren of School A
w e re an aly zed fo r s h o r t - t e r m changes none of the t 's ap p ro a c h e d
sig n ifican ce p o sitiv e ly o r n eg ativ ely . A ge did not s e e m to influence
83
TA B L E 27
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FOR SOCIAL DISTANCE
G RO U P, TIM E AND AGE
School A
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05
T im e (A) 2 229. 75 114.87 . 30 3. 04
G roup (B) 2 44. 67 22. 34 .05 3. 04
A ge (C) 1 4 11 .4 4 4 1 1 .4 4 1.09 3. 89
A X B 4 240. 37 60.09 . 16 2.4 1
A X C 2 9 1.46 45. 73 . 12 3. 04
B X C 2 4851. 25 2425.62 6.45 3. 04
AXBXC 4 462. 13 115. 53 . 31 2.41
W R 's 234 87926. 57 375.75
S c h o o lB
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05
T im e (A) 2 1118.88 559.44 1. 38 3.0 4
G roup (B) 2 95 8 .3 7 4 7 9 .1 8 1. 18 3. 04
A ge (C) 1 89. 85 89. 85 . 22 3. 89
A X B 4 67. 25 16. 81 . 04 2.41
A X C 2 110.26 55. 13 . 13 3. 04
B X C 2 97. 75 48. 88 . 12 3. 04
AXBXC 4 1028.32 257. 08 . 63 2.41
W R's 216 87149.08 4 0 3 .4 7
TA B L E 28
SHORT T E R M D IF F E R E N C E S FO R YOUNGER CHILDREN
FRO M SCHOOL A: SOCIAL DISTANCE
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 t
B attle 74.42 75.92 .6 3
School 8 1 .5 7 8 5 .2 8 .9 5
A pple 9 0 .1 4 83.71 - .8 6
84
r a te of change.
Why the high in te ra c tio n fo r school A , then? C r o s s - c o m p a r i
sons se e m e d to hold the key. F o r ex am p le, th e re w e re v e ry la rg e
d iffere n ces betw een younger and o ld e r b attle g ro u p s, o ld e r and young
e r school g ro u p s, and o ld er and younger apple g ro u p s, w ith the
younger groups s c o rin g c o n siste n tly h ig h e r in m e a n s. T his kind of
in te ra c tio n had no b e a rin g on the independent v a ria b le , b e c a u se it did
not influence d iffe re n c e s in s c o r e s , but only s c o re s betw een c a te g o
r ie s . B etw een age sig n ifican ce ra n v e ry high. F o r in sta n c e , the
d iffere n ce betw een the younger and o ld e r apple g roups fo r in itia l
s c o r e s w as 17. 36 and a t value of 4. 89--s ig n ific a n t beyond the . 01
le v el of confidence. T h u s, the in te ra c tio n was indicating only a la rg e
d is p a rity betw een group d iffe re n c e --n o t a c o rre la te d d iffere n ce w ithin
one group o v er a p e rio d of tim e . T his a lso explains the e x tre m e ly
low value of F for groups in the School A a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e
(T able 27).
When the data w e re r e s o r te d on the sex v a ria b le (T able 29) a
d iffe re n t p ic tu re w as a p p a re n t as can be seen by the ta b le s on the
n ex t page. H e re , both schools showed sig n ifican t F values on sex and
c o m p a ra tiv e ly high F values on the g ro u p -se x in te ra c tio n . H ypothesis
8 w as, th e re fo re , not co n firm ed . Sex had an im p o rta n t re la tio n s h ip
to the v a ria b le u n d e r d isc u ss io n . To d e te rm in e the d ire c tio n of this
re la tio n sh ip m o r e p re c is e ly , h o w ev er, a m o re d etailed breakdow n
85
TA B L E 29
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FO R SOCIAL DISTANCE
T IM E, GROUP AND SEX
School A
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05
T im e (A) 2 229. 75 114.87 . 30 3. 04
G roup (B) 2 44. 67 22. 34 . 05 3. 04
Sex (C) 1 2414. 29 2414. 29 6. 32 3. 89
A X B 4 240.37 60. 09 . 15 2.41
A X C 2 274 .6 7 137. 33 . 36 3. 04
B X C 2 900. 50 450. 25 1. 17 3. 04
AXBXC 4 847. 55 211. 89 . 55 2.41
W R 's 234 89305.86 381.65
School B
T im e (A) 2 845.48 4 2 2 .7 4 1. 13 3. 04
G roup (B) 2 839.84 419.92 1. 38 3. 04
Sex (C) 1 1884.46 1884.46 5. 03 3.89
A X B 4 51. 38 12. 84 . 03 2.41
A X C 2 279. 37 139.69 . 37 3. 04
B X C 2 1012.06 506. 03 1. 61 3. 04
AXBXC 4 426. 10 106. 53 . 28 2.41
W R 's 198 74196. 33 374.73
w as m a d e for both schools (T able 30). A glance a t this table re v e a le d
th a t w hen grouped by sex m an y m e a n s showed a s h a r p e r change than
p re v io u sly . In school A , fo r ex am p le, th e boys of the school group
show ed a six point in c re a s e w hile th e g irls d e c re a s e d th re e p o in ts.
The g ir ls ' change in this c a s e could v e ry w ell have m a d e the o v e r - a ll
group p e rfo rm a n c e in sig n ifican t. A n o th er v e ry in te re s tin g r e la tio n
sh ip w as th e d iffe re n tia l re s p o n s e m a d e by boys and g irls on the
b a ttle s to ry in School B --a g a in enough to c an c el out any gain fo r the
86
T A B L E 30
DATA BREAKDOWN FOR BOTH SCHOOLS
G RO U P, TIM E AND SEX
School A
Boys G irls
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 P o s tte s t 2 P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 P o s tte s t 2
B attle 84.20 85. 50 9 0 .0 7 74.80 75. 70 75. 70
School 7 7 .0 7 83.90 86. 10 8 1 .5 7 78.20 79. 10
A pple 86.00 77.20 84. 07 76. 90 79. 50 77.70
School B
Boys G irls
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 P o s tte s t 2 P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 P o s tte s t 2
B attle 76. 75 70. 75 81.75 77. 91 83. 17 80. 67
School 73. 17 70. 50 75. 67 73. 50 74. 33 76.58
A pple 70. 17 70.75 74.25 8 0 .8 3 81.83 88. 08
T A B L E 31
ANALYSIS O F BOYS' R ESU LTS: SHORT AND LONG TERM
School A
G roup P r e t e s t
S h o rt T e r m
P o s tte s t 1 t P r e t e s t
Long T e r m
P o s tte s t 2 t
B attle 84.20 86. 50 . 511 84. 20 90. 07 1. 738
School 77.07 83. 90 1.860* 77. 07 86. 10 2.051
A pple 86. 00 77.20 -1 .2 2 5 86. 00 84. 07 -.4 8 2
S c h o o lB
S h o rt T e r m Long T e r m
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 t P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 2 t
B attle 76. 75 70. 75 -. 757 76. 75 81. 75 . 813
School 73. 17 70.50 -. 776 73. 17 75. 67 . 254
A pple '7 0 .1 7 70. 75 . 05 70. 17 74. 03 . 813
*p . 05
g roup a s a w hole.
F o r the m o re d etaile d a n a ly sis of s h o rt and lo n g - te r m r e s u lts
87
(T ab les 31, 32) the g irls fro m school A w e re excluded fro m tabulation
b e c a u se a p re lim in a ry check show ed th at th e ir p r e - p o s tte s t s c o re
d iffe re n c e s w e re too slig h t to m e r i t fu rth e r attention
T A B L E 32
ANALYSIS O F SCHOOL B GIRLS' RESU LTS
SHORT AND LONG TERM
S h o rt T e r m Long T e r m
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 t P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 2 t
B attle 77. 91 83. 17 1. 110 77. 91 80. 67 . 845
School 73. 50 74. 33 .232 73. 50 76. 58 . 674
A pple 80. 83 81. 83 .400 80. 83 8 6 .4 3 1. 582
The only d iffe re n c e s of any sig n ifican ce w e re am ong the boys
who re a d th e school sto ry . T h e ir change in attitu d e s a s m e a s u r e d by
this in s tru m e n t r o s e sig n ifican tly a fte r tre a tm e n t and continued to
hold this advantage a fte r the second p o stte st. T his added a c o n firm a
tion to the re je c tio n of h y p o th e sis 8, and fu rth e r re je c te d h y p o th esis 3
w hen the stip u latio n w as added th at the r e a d e r s w e re boys. T re n d s
fo r School B did not show any c la rity as to the se x -g ro u p in te ra c tio n .
F u r th e r a n a ly sis fo r a ll School B c h ild re n show ed an in te re s tin g r e
la tio n sh ip w hen se x w as tr e a te d as a d e te rm in in g v a ria b le .
I r r e s p e c tiv e of the kind of s to ry boys and g irls show ed m a rk e d
d is s im ila r itie s during the tre a tm e n t p e rio d and s till re ta in e d a dif-
88
TA B LE 33
SCHOOL B CH ILD REN 'S TEST SCORES
WHEN GROUPED BY SEX ALONE
P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 P o s tte s t 2
Boys
v a ria n c e
73. 36
445
70. 67
602
77.21
448
G irls 77.41
252
1. 310
79. 78
254
2.602*
81. 78
211
1.491
v a ria n c e
t
*p . 02
fe re n c e a fte rw a rd s la r g e r than the o rig in a l p r e te s t p e rio d . T he c o r
re la te d d iffe re n c e s w e re not sig n ifican t. The betw een sex d iffe re n c e s
w e re . T his acco u n ts fo r the sig n ifican t in te ra c tio n F fo r School B
pupils on T ab le 29.
S u m m atio n
W ith r e g a r d to S o cia l D is ta n c e , then, School A show ed a g r e a te r
change of re s p o n s e to the tr e a tm e n t than School B . In g e n e ra l the
change in re s p o n s e s w ithin each group w as not sig n ifican t. A ge did
not s e e m to be an influencing fa c to r. B reakdow n by sex did show
sig n ifican t changes for one p a r tic u la r group acc o rd in g to th e o re tic a l
expectation.
S tereo ty p in g and E th n o c e n tric is m D ata
The data fro m the com bined s c o r e s of the W ord S tereo ty p in g
and S to rie s T e s ts w e re to te s t h y p o th e ses 4, 6, 7 and 8. A gain,
two se ts of data a r e p re s e n te d fo r each school.
89
In analyzing the c o r r e la te d d iffe re n c e s fo r s h o rt and long t e r m
effects w ithin the m a in g ro u p s, the following w as found:
TA B L E 34
STER E O T Y PIN G AND ETHN O CEN TRICISM
SHORT AND LONG TERM
School A
S h o rt T e r m Long T e r m
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 t_ P r e t e s t P o s t t e s t _2______t_
B attle 43. 67 4 4 .8 9 1.08 43. 67 4 6 .9 2 2.41**
School 42. 38 4 4 .4 6 1. 900* 42. 38 4 6 .5 3 3.03***
A pple 4 4 .0 6 42. 60 -1. 306 4 4 .0 6 43. 53 -. 67
S c h o o lB
S h o rt T e r m Long T e r m
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 t P r e t e s t P o s t t e s t 2 t
B attle 4 1 .9 2 4 1 .2 6 - .4 9 4 1 .9 2 4 3 .2 0 .8 1
School 42. 03 41. 88 -. 11 42. 03
4 1 .9 9 . 03
A pple 41. 34 4 0 .4 9 -. 68 41. 34 42. 15 . 63
*p . 05 **p . 025 ***p . 01
H ypothesis 4 w as n o t su p p o rted by data f r o m th e School A
g roup, w hile School B show ed v e ry little change f r o m any group.
H ypothesis 6 w as co n firm ed . T h e re w e re no sig n ific a n t n eg ativ e
ch an g es, though the c o n tro l group in School A show ed a negative
s h o rt te r m change with a p ro b a b ility of le s s than .2 0 .
E x a m in a tio n fo r the influence of age a s a fa c to r b ro u g h t this
out:
90
TA B LE 35
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FO R S T E R E O T Y P E AND ETH N O -
CENTRICISM , E F F E C T S O F G RO U P, TIM E AND AGE
School A
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05 F . 01
T im e (A) 2 235.50 117. 75 1. 64 3. 04
G roup (B) 2 132.17 66. 08 .9 2 3. 04
A ge (C) 1 383.81 383. 81 5. 35 3. 89 6. 70
A X B 4 186. 55 46. 64 . 65 2 .4 1
A X C 2 112.25 56. 12 . 78 3. 04
B X C 2 591. 72 295.86 4. 12 3. 04 4 .6 6
AXBXC 4 14. 90 3. 72 . 05 2.4 1
W R's 234 16776.07 71. 69
S c h o o lB
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05 F . 01
T im e (A) 2 59.29 29. 64 . 46 3. 04
G roup (B) 2 27. 73 13. 86 .21 3. 04
A ge (C) 1 . 15 . 15 . 00 3. 89
A X B 4 26. 32 6. 58 . 11 2.41
A X C 2 62. 18 31. 09 .4 8 3. 04
B X C 2 21. 64 10. 82 . 17 3. 04
AXBXC 4 98.41 24. 60 .4 0 2 .4 1
W R 's 216 13766.00 63. 73
F o r School A, age w as c le a rly re la te d to the independent v a r i
ab le. Both the age fa c to r and the in te ra c tio n of age and group w e re
sig n ifican t. W ith School B, a ll re la tio n sh ip s w e re v e ry w eak. H y
p o th e sis 7 w as th e re fo re , re je c te d fo r School A . F u r th e r an aly sis
fo r d ire c tio n of change w ith School A d ata re v e a le d w hich age groups
m a d e the m o s t sig n ifican t changes (T able 36).
In g e n e ra l this la tte r data re v e a le d th a t m o s t of the positive
91
TA B LE 36
ANALYSIS O F DATA CHANGE ACCORDING TO AGE: SCHOOL A
Y ounger
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 t
B attle 4 2 .5 0 4 4 .7 8 1.403
School 4 1 .9 2 4 5 .4 2 1. 905*
A pple 4 6 .7 1 4 6 .0 7 -. 546
O ld er
P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 2
4 2 .5 0 44 7i 92 3.223**
4 1 .9 2 4 7 .2 8 1.950*
46. 71 47. 57 .4 5 6
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 t
B attle 44. 85 45. 00 . 727
School 42. 85 43. 50 . 50
A pple 4 2 .4 2 39. 14 -1 .1 5 5
*p .0 5
P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 2
4 4 .8 5 45. 92 .781
4 2 .8 5 45. 78 1. 838*
4 2 .4 2 39.50 -. 372
**p .005
change a p p e a re d to com e fro m the younger c h ild ren . Only one s ig n
i f i c a n t t w as evident for the o ld e r c h ild re n --th e long te r m effects of
the school sto ry . On the o th e r hand, the la r g e s t d e c re a s e in s c o re
cam e fro m the o ld e r c h ild re n in the apple group.
W hen the data w e re re -a n a ly z e d with sex as the th ird v a ria b le ,
(T able 37) it w as found th a t data f r o m School A did not su p p o rt h y p o th
e s is 8, w hile school B did not r e je c t it. D e g re e of re la tio n s h ip b e
tw een sex and the independent v a ria b le could be even m o re c le a rly
se e n on T able 38, w h ere a d etailed c o r r e la te d a n a ly sis w as c a r r ie d
out w ith School A c h ild re n . An ex am in atio n of the m e a n s re v e a le d
sh a rp e n e d re la tio n s h ip s . F o r ex am p le, m u ch of the sig n ifican t in
c r e a s e for the school group could be accounted fo r by the bo y s'
s c o re s on the im m e d ia te effect, and the boys and g irls on the long-
92
T A B L E 37
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE FO R S T E R E O T Y P E AND E T H N O -
CEN TRICISM , E F F E C T S O F GROUP TIM E AND SEX
School A
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05 F . 01
T im e (A) 2 235.50 117. 75 1. 58 3. 04
G roup (B) 2 132.17 66. 08 . 90 3. 04
Sex (C) 1 308.89 308. 89 4. 15 3. 89 6. 76
A X B 4 186. 55 46. 64 . 62 2 .4 1
A X C 2 6. 17 3. 08 . 04 3. 81
B X C 2 4 4 .4 5 22. 23 .2 9 3. 04
A X B X C 4 91.02 22. 76 . 31 2.4 1
W R 's 234 17428.21 74.48
S c h o o lB
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05 F . 01
T im e (A) 2 71. 12 35. 56 . 54 3. 04
G roup (B) 2 44. 59 22. 30 . 35 3. 04
Sex (C) 1 14. 52 14. 52 . 22 3. 89
A X B 4 31.41 7. 85 . 11 2.4 1
A X C 2 52. 68 26. 34 .4 0 3. 04
B X C 2 40. 70 20. 35 . 31 3. 04
A X B X C 4 99.52 24. 88 . 37 2.4 1
W R 's 198 12913.56 65.22
t e r m effects. A lso n o ticeab le w as the bo y s' sig n ifican t decline in
the apple group, and long ru n sig n ifican t in c re a s e fo r th e b attle sto ry .
T h u s, u n d e r c e rta in conditions, hypoth e s is 6 w as uns u p p o rted .
In the c a se of the boys the apple s to ry had a negative effect on th e ir
a ttitu d e s. T his was n o t the c a se w ith the s o c ia l d ista n c e in s tru m e n t.
S um m ation
D ata f r o m the com bined S tereo ty p e and S to rie s T e s ts have
93
TA B LE 38
ANALYSIS O F DATA CHANGE ACCORDING TO SEX: SCHOOL A
Boys
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 1 t _ P r e t e s t P o s tte s t 2 t
B attle 4 4 .4 3 45. 71 .7 4 4 4 4 .4 3 4 8 .3 6 2.946*
School 4 2 .1 4 46. 14 2.2 5 7 * 42. 14 4 7 .0 7 2.386*
A pple 46. 36 43. 36 -2 .0 9 4 * 4 6 .3 6 45. 57 .410
G irls
B attle 42. 93 4 4 .0 7 . 748 4 2 .9 3 45. 50 1.436
School 42. 64 42. 79 .011 4 2 .6 4 46. 00 2.345*
A pple 41. 79 4 1 .8 6 .001 4 1 .7 9 41. 57 -. 180
*p .0 2 5
shown tre n d s s im ila r to th o se f r o m the S o cial D istan ce data. In the
f o r m e r c a s e , h o w ev er, th e s e d iffe re n c e s a r e s h a r p e r and m o re c l e a r
ly m a rk e d --b o th in the o v e r - a ll p ic tu re and when b ro k en down by sex
and a g e . In addition it w as shown th a t u n d e r c e rta in conditions neg--
ative re a c tio n s can be elic ite d w hen none w e re p u rp o sefu lly intended.
F in d in g s fro m a T h ird E x p e rim e n t
W hile the data fro m School A se e m e d to show a re la tio n s h ip b e
tw een s to ry content and attitu d e fo rm a tio n , m any p ro b le m s b eca m e
evident: School B d ata, in p a r tic u la r , show ed v e ry little s tre n g th in
d iffe re n c e s a t a ll, ex ce p t to v e rify School A 's re je c tio n of h y p o th esis
8 w ith r e g a r d to the S o cial D ista n c e T e s t and com bine w ith School A
data to show f a irly c o n s is te n t d iffe re n c e s w ith r e g a r d to the P ic tu r e
94
T e s t. M uch of this can be explained by the in itia l d iffe re n c e s in th e ir
populations (C h ap ter III), but could o th er fa c to rs h av e b een a t w ork
as w ell?
E x p e rim e n ta l conditions w e re one p o ssib ility . T he r e s e a r c h e r
w as a s tr a n g e r in both sch o o ls. In School A p e rm is s io n slip s w e re
n eed ed . In School B shifts of lo catio n , tr e a tm e n t tim e and i n t e r r u p
tions in the e x p e rim e n t its e lf could have had independent effects.
T hen, the o rd e r in w hich the te s ts w e re p re s e n te d could have also
been influential.
A n o th er s e t of fa c to rs w hich m ig h t h av e c re a te d p ro b le m s w e re
the two Indian s to r ie s . The b attle sto ry could have had ele m e n ts in
it w hich p ro d u ced a stro n g showing independent of the v a ria b le s to be
m e a s u re d , - -e s p e c ia lly in the long te r m . A lthough the th em e w as
re m o te in tim e and sp a c e , it did n o t p o r tr a y a conflict w ithin a c u l
tu re but r a th e r a bo y 's s tru g g le to re ta in fav o r in it. T he b attle s to ry
a lso had re la tiv e ly little spoken dialogue. The p ro b le m s c e n te re d on
a c ts r a th e r than concepts as w as the c a s e of the schoolbstory.
T hus, it w as decided to w rite and pilot a s to ry w hich would be
even m o re p a r a lle l to the school s to ry in a ll r e s p e c ts ex cep t the r e
m o te n e s s of settin g , tim e and c u ltu re . T he b a sic s to ry would then
r e m a in the s a m e - - d is a g r e e m e n t betw een pupil and te a c h e r o v er som e
thing the pupil values but which is in conflict with the v alu es the
te a c h e r r e p r e s e n ts . One b a s ic d iffere n ce should be noted, h o w ev er.
95
W hite D e e r 's te a c h e r w as a lso h is fa th e r. T he e x p e rim e n te r felt
this could not be avoided w ithout a lo ss of r e a lis m . O ld e r pupils
knew th a t Indian c h ild re n of long’ ago w e re not taught by s a la r ie d civ il
s e rv a n ts .
The design of the e x p e rim e n t h as a lre a d y been d e s c rib e d in
C h ap ter III. The in ten t is now d is c u s s e d .
F i r s t , the e x p e rim e n te r knew the su b jects and w o rk ed with
th e m in a le ss fo rm a l m a n n e r. T he p e rio d s w e re m o r e in the n a tu re
of a read in g le ss o n . The c h ild re n who re c e iv e d th e m a te r ia ls , then,
p ro b ab ly did not think of th e m s e lv e s as a group a p a r t a s w as v e ry
c le a rly the c a se w ith the c h ild re n in Schools A and B. T estin g took
place im m e d ia te ly a fte r a ll the s to rie s w e re fin ish ed . T h e re w as no
d is c u s sio n . T his m a d e it u n lik ely th a t any fa c to r o th e r th an the s t o r
ies th e m se lv e s could play a ro le in attitu d e fo rm a tio n .
B e c a u se the e x p e rim e n ta l groups w e re evenly s p re a d th ro u g h
e v e ry ro o m , th e re w as not a s g r e a t a likelihood th a t the e x p e rim e n t
e r could influence o u tco m es thro u g h n o n v e rb a l b ia s. The pupils w e re
pro b ab ly a lso le s s co nscious of being d iffe re n tia te d into g ro u p s. Som e
re a liz e d they w e re read in g d iffe re n t s to rie s but took no m o r e n o tice
of it. In the o th e r two schools the g roups w e re a c tu a lly s e p a ra te d
during tre a tm e n t and m ig h t have built a com m on id en tity a ro u n d th e ir
s to ry . W hen re in fo rc e d by p o s ttre a tm e n t d is c u s s io n , this m ig h t have
accounted for so m e of the la rg e shifts in d icate d by the th ird te stin g .
96
T he su b je c ts of School C show ed m a n y c h a r a c te r is tic s m o re in
com m on w ith the School A than the School B group. W hen an aly zed
on in itia l s c o re s for ite m s co m m o n to both on the S tereo ty p in g and
S to rie s T e s ts , the follow ing w as found:
T A B L E 39
COMPARISON O F SCHOOLS A AND C ON
S T E R E O T Y P E AND STORIES TESTS
School N M ean V a ria n c e
A 84 43. 38 59
t = 1.644*
C 78 44. 78 79. 5
*p .1 0 (tw o-tailed)
T his su g g ested th a t if the r e s u lts of School A w e re s im ila r to th o se
of School C, w hile the la tte r had s im ila r o rd e r of p re s e n ta tio n of i n
s tru m e n ts as School B and e x p e rim e n ta l conditions m o r e rig o ro u s
th an th o se of School A and B, the d iffe re n t r e s u lts obtained by School
B could be m a in ly c o n sid e re d d iffe re n c e s of population. In o th e r
w o rd s, the n o n -s ig n ific a n t r e s u lts of School B would n o t c a r r y the
d e c isiv e w eight. If, on the o th e r hand, School C r e s u lts w e re a lso
in d e c isiv e , th en School A 's r e s u lts would look w eak.
Only two in s tru m e n ts w e re u se d fo r the School C e x p e r im e n t- -
an e n la rg e d v e rs io n of the S te re o ty p e and S to rie s T e s t and an e n d -o f-
e x p e rim e n t In v en to ry to tie up th e o re tic a l en d s. T he findings a r e
shown in T able 40, as follow s:
97
TA B LE 40
M EAN S T E R E O T Y P E AND STORIES SC O R E S--SC H O O L C
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t t
Canoe 50. 31 51. 62 1.407
School 4 9 .0 5 52. 15 1.900*
A pple 50.00 48. 85 -1 . 167
*p . 05
In g e n e ra l this p ic tu re w as s im ila r to the one shown concerning
School A (T able 34). T he apple s to ry had a lm o s t the sa m e negative
influencing s tre n g th and the school t value w as id e n tic a l. The canoe
g roup had a slig h tly h ig h e r t - s c o r e than the b attle g roup, but n e ith e r
r e p r e s e n te d a sig n ifican t change. D iffe re n tia l tr e a tm e n t of th em e
did s e e m to h av e a c o rre sp o n d in g effect on a ttitu d e s.
School A data a lso show ed a sig n ifican t ro le played by the age
fa c to r on the independent v a ria b le . W hen School C d ata w as s o rte d
by age and an aly zed in the s a m e m a n n e r the following w as obtained:
T A B L E 41
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE, SCHOOL C: TIM E, G RO U P, AGE
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05 F . 01
T im e (A) 1 26. 26 26. 26 .2 9 3. 91
G roup (B) 2 84. 15 42. 08 .4 6 3. 06
A ge (C) 1 1088.10 1088.10 12. 05 3. 91 6. 82
A X B 2 82.51 41. 26 .4 6 3. 06
A X C 1 2. 56 2. 56 .0 3 3.91
B X C 2 590.98 2 95.49 3. 27 3. 06 4. 75
A X B X C 2 7 4.06 37. 03 .4 1 3. 06
98
If anything the re la tio n s h ip s cam e out m o re stro n g ly h e r e than
they did w ith the School A group (T able 35). T he e x tre m e ly high F on
the age fa c to r w as e sp e c ia lly n o ticeab le. H y p o th eses 4 and 7 could
not be upheld on the b a s is of th e se fingings.
When the fig u re s w e re b roken down f u r th e r , this p ic tu re .
e m e rg e d :
TA B L E 42
BREAKDOWN BY AGE O F SCHOOL C DATA
Y ounger O lder
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t t P r e t e s t P o s tte s t t
Canoe 49. 38 50. 38 . 612 5 1 .2 3 52. 85 1. 670
School 47. 31 51. 77 2.3 9 9 * 52. 38 52.44 . I l l
A pple 45. 15 42. 92 -1 . 500 54. 85 54. 77 -. 053
*p .0 2 5
T his p a ra lle le d the s h o r t - t e r m evidence of School A. R e fe re n c e
to T able 36 in d icate s th at h e r e too younger c h ild re n read in g the
school s to ry w e re m o s t fa v o ra b ly affected. On the o th e r hand, the
apple s to r y 's neg ativ e effect w as s tro n g e s t w ith the o ld er c h ild re n ,
w hile w ith School C the younger group e x p e rie n c e d the g r e a te r d e
clin e. N otice w as also m a d e to the n e a r-s ig n ific a n t p o sitiv e change
in attitu d e s on the p a r t of the o ld e r c h ild re n in School C a fte r read in g
the canoe s to ry (T able 42). A ll this would s e e m to c e m e n t fu rth e r
the re la tio n sh ip betw een the influence of a c e rta in s to ry th e m e on the
a ttitu d es of an age group.
99
With r e g a r d to sex, a m o re m ix ed p ic tu re em erg ed :
TA B L E 43
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE, SCHOOL C: GROUP, TIM E AND SEX
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05
T im e (A) 1 31. 17 31. 17 . 31 3. 91
G roup (B) 2 36. 85 18.42 . 18 3. 06
Sex (C) 1 76. 56 76. 56 . 77 3. 91
A X B 2 83. 01 41. 51 .4 2 3. 06
A X C 1 . 17 . 17 . 00 3. 91
B X C 2 58. 52 29. 26 .2 9 3. 06
AXBXC 2 56.42 28. 21 .2 8 3. 06
WR 's 132 13121.98 9 9.41
This se e m e d to follow the p a tte rn shown by School A in T able
37 except the re la tio n s h ip s w e re m u ch w e a k e r. Sex did not s e e m to
have the sa m e in flu en ce in School C. A fu rth e r breakdow n, h o w ev er,
re v e a le d th e following:
T A B L E 44
BREAKDOWN BY SEX OF SCHOOL C DATA
Boys G irls
G roup P r e t e s t P o s tte s t t P r e t e s t P o s tte s t t
Canoe 52. 58 52.92 . 206 48. 58 50. 83 1. 900*
School 50. 25 52. 17 1. 910* 49. 67 52. 92 1.444
A pple 50. 50 51.25 .4 5 4
*p . 05
50.92 48. 00 -1. 834*
In te rm s of significanc e, the g irls 1 gain in the canoe s to ry w as
about as g r e a t a s the bo y s' gain fo r the school s to ry , w hile the g irls
a lso re g is te re d a n e a r sig n ifican t gain in the school sto ry . T his p a t-
100
te r n w as quite d iffe re n t fro m the s h o rt te r m r e s u lts of School A as
re v e a le d in T ab le 38. C o m p a riso n of apple g ro u p s re v e a le d som e
e s p e c ia lly in te re s tin g d ata. G ir ls ' s c o re s d ropped sig n ifican tly in
the c a se of School C, w hile b o y s' s c o re s did so in School A.
In m any in s ta n c e s (T ables 34, 40, 42), it a p p e a re d th a t groups
w hich s ta rte d w ith a low m e a n tended to in c re a s e sig n ifican tly . Was
th is in c re a s e a function of each s u b je c t's in itia l te s t s c o re ? T h e o r e t
ic a lly , this se e m e d im p ro b a b le . T h o se m o s t lik ely to change to a
m o re fav o rab le re a c tio n would be the ones w ith in itia l s c o re s h ig h e r
than the g ran d m e a n . T hey would m o s t lik ely hav e a m o re lib e r a l
outlook to begin w ith and th e re fo re be m o re su sc e p tib le to p e rs u a s io n .
To d isp e l f u rth e r doubt, h o w ev er, a s c o r e a n a ly sis was u n d e r
taken. S u b je c ts' in itia l s c o re s on the S tereo ty p e and S to rie s te s ts
w e re p laced into six c a te g o rie s . High s c o re s w e re defined as a ll
in itia l s c o r e s above the g ran d m e a n , w hile low in itia l s c o r e s w e re
th o se re m a in in g . T h e re w e re 162 s c o re s fro m the two schools c o n
s id e re d . School B was le ft out of the a n a ly s is , s in c e its r e s u lts
show ed v e ry little sig n ifican ce of change at all. S h o rt t e r m effect
w as a ll th a t w as c o n sid e re d in this a n a ly sis.
A p p aren tly , in itia l s c o re s had a m in im a l influence on la te r r e
su lts. If atten tio n is paid to the In c re a s e d colum n, one n o tic e s th a t
high beginning s c o re s a c tu a lly in c re a s e d m o re than chance (the f r e
quency in p a re n th e s is ), w hile low beginning s c o r e s in c re a s e d le s s _____
101
T A B L E 45
DIRECTION O F SCORES FRO M IN ITIA L POSITION
I n c re a s e d D e c re a s e d S tayed S am e T otal
H igh B eginning 38 25 6
69
(35. 3) (27. 6) (5.9)
Low B eginning 45 40 8 93
(47. 7) (37. 4) (8 .1 )
T o ta l 83 65 14 162
chi s q u a re = .8 1
p .9 0
than the ch ance fig u re.
The In v en to ry
T his fo rm w as d esigned to te s t h y p o th esis 9. It had been
e a r l ie r p o stu la ted th at the school s to ry w as desig n ed to m a x im iz e
the s e n s e of c u ltu ra l re la te d n e s s to the r e a d e r (o th er fa c to rs being
equal) w hile m in im iz in g it in th e c a se of the canoe s to ry . D id the
c h ild re n actu ally a c q u ire this s e n s e ? If such a fa c to r could be m e a
su re d and s c o re d , then an im p o rta n t th e o re tic a l link could be o p e r a
tio n alized . Should the link e x ist then the explanation fo r th e effects
of the independent v a ria b le would be m o re p la u sib le e m p iric a lly .
S p ecifically , if the ch ild ren of the school group s c o re d highly on the
In v en to ry w hile th o se of the canoe group did not, then m u ch could be
c la rifie d con cern in g th e re la tio n s h ip betw een id en tificatio n and change
of attitu d e.
102
S eventy-tw o s c o r e s fro m School C w e re u tiliz e d in an equal
celled th re e w ay a n a ly s is . E a c h c e ll contained the m e a n of six
s c o re s . The r e s u lts a r e tab u lated below:
TA B L E 46
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: INVENTORY
S o u rce df SS MS F F . 05
G roup (A) 2 178.53 89. 26 1. 05 3. 15
A ge (B) 1 37. 56 37. 56 .4 7 4. 00
Sex (C) 1 9.39 9. 39 . 11 4. 00
A X B 2 476. 19 238. 10 2. 84 3. 15
A X C 2 309.36 154.68 1. 83 3. 15
B X C 1 76. 06 76. 06 . 90 4. 00
AXBXC 2 59. 67 29. 84 . 35 3. 15
W R 's 60 5067. 64 8 4 .4 6
The fa c to r clos e s t to sig n ifican ce w as the g r oup-age
action. T his e a r l ie r show ed a sig n ifican t re la tio n s h ip in attitu d e
change (T able 41). T he g ro u p -s e x in te ra c tio n w as quite a bit w eak er
- - in line with the findings of T able 43.
A lthough the b etw ee n -g ro u p s F - r a t i o w as below sig n ifican ce ,
it was decided to an aly ze the e x tre m e m e a n d iffe re n c e s . In te r e s tin g
ly enough, the m e a n s c o r e s of the two Indian s to r ie s w e re the w id est
a p a rt. R e s u lts a r e shown on T able 47.
B e c a u se it was hy p o th esized th a t the school s to ry would not
show g r e a te r r e la te d n e s s , a d ire c tio n w as im p lie d . T h u s, a o n e
ta ile d te s t w as u se d w ith the r e s u lts as seen on this T ab le. B a se d on
103
T A B L E 47
D IF F E R E N C E IN INVENTORY SCORES B ETW EEN
THE TWO INDIAN STORIES
S to ry M ean N V aria n c e t
Canoe 37. 0 24 86
1. 821
School 4 0 .5
P
24
. 05
82
this in v en to ry th en , hyp o th esis 9 w as u n co n firm ed .
A lthough a link a p p e a re d to be fo rg ed h e r e , th e re w e re fa c to rs
w hich m a y have c a s t so m e doubt on the findings. None of the F ra tio s
w e re la rg e enough fo r sig n ifican ce , and s e v e r a l ite m s on the In v e n
to ry fo rm its e lf a p p e a re d to be w eak. T hose w hich se e m e d to have
the le a s t to do w ith the fa c to rs of id en tificatio n and in v o lv em en t tended
to load v e ry h eav ily on one o r two re s p o n s e c a te g o rie s . It w as d e c id
ed, then to re a n a ly z e the data.
In v en to ry ite m s 1, 2, 7 and 9 w e re d ropped b e c a u se they show ed
re la tiv e ly high inefficiency to d is c rim in a te and a p p e a re d to be u n
re la te d to the id en tificatio n fa c to r. S tro n g e r ite m s (4, 6, 8, 10 and
13) w e re re ta in e d and s c o re d as b e fo re . T he m o s t d is c rim in a tin g
ite m s (3, 5, 8, 11, 12 and 14) w e re a ss ig n e d a w eight of two.
A fte r re s c o rin g the a n a ly sis of v a ria n c e w as ag ain applied with
the following r e s u lts :
104
TA B L E 48
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE:
REVISED SCORING O F INVENTORY
S o u rce df SS MS F T FQ'05
G roup (A) 2 4 5 0 .8 6 225.43 1. 65 3. 15
A ge (B) 1 264.50 264.50 1.94 4. 00
Sex (C) 1
2 6.89 26. 89 . 19 4. 00
A X B 2 860.08 4 3 0 .0 4 3. 15 3. 15
A X C 2 265. 19 132. 60 .9 7 3. 15
B X C 1 174.22 174.22 1.27 4 .0 0
AXBXC 2 93. 83 46. 92 .3 4 3. 15
W R 's 60 8190.96 136. 52
A s can be quickly se e n , the re s c o rin g tended to s tre n g th e n the
te n d en cie s e a r l i e r shown in T ab le 46. The in te ra c tio n w as now s ig t
n ifican t a t the .0 5 le v e l of confidence and b etw ee n -g ro u p d iffe re n c e s
in c re a s e d . W hen c e ll m e a n s w e re tab u late d the following em erg ed :
TA BLE 49
C E L L MEANS FO R GROUPS: REVISED INVENTORY
C anoe School A pple A ge G roup
M ean
Boys 40. 67 36. 00 48. 17
Y oung 43. 78
G irls 4 0 .6 7 48. 33 48. 83
Boys 39. 33 48. 83 36. 50
Old 39.94
G irls 33. 50 47. 17 36. 33
G roup M ean 38. 54 44. 58 4 2 .4 6
S e v e ra l re la tio n s h ip s e m e rg e d w hich could help explain e a r l ie r
findings. F i r s t , th e re w e re the la rg e d iffe re n c e s betw een th e canoe
105
and school m e a n s and apple m e a n s . T hen, th e re w e re the d ifferen ces
betw een younger and o ld e r c h ild re n a s seen on the m a rg in a l m e a n s
to th e rig h t. T his la tte r finding could account in p a r t fo r the g e n e r
ally g r e a te r change am ong younger c h ild re n in th e ir attitu d e s c o re s
o v er o ld er c h ild re n . R u s s e ll's contention co n ce rn in g th e g r e a te r
difficulty of an o ld e r child to identify w ith a s to ry a p p e a rs to have
so m e co n firm atio n h e r e . In te re stin g ly enough, h o w ev er, id e n tific a
tion s c o re s fo r o ld e r c h ild re n read in g the school s to ry w e re r e la tiv e
ly high.
When a s ta tis tic a l c o m p a ris o n w as m ad e betw een the two
Indian groups fo r this d ata, the following w as found:
TA B L E 50
COMPARISON B ET W EEN TWO INDIAN STORIES
REVISED INVENTORY
S to ry M ean V a ria n c e t
C anoe 3 8 .3 4 136
2. 537
School 4 4 .5 8 126
p . 025
When c o m p a re d w ith the r e s u lts of T able 47, the le v e l of
sig n ifican ce w as even g r e a te r . T his could only c o n firm the r e j e c
tion of h y p o th e sis 9. The school s to ry did ap p ea r to have a m uch
g r e a te r d e g re e of id en tificatio n pow er than did the canoe sto ry .
106
D isc u ssio n of the F in d in g s
In g e n e ra l an ticip a ted outcom es have been co n firm e d . The
p ic tu re p re s e n te d by the data g e n e ra lly fits the th e o re tic a l m o d e l r e
cap itu la ted a t the beginning of this c h a p te r. M o re d etaile d d is c u s
sion of the findings including a p p a re n t deviations fro m th e o ry a r e
now d isc u ss e d .
P ic tu r e S tereo ty p in g R esu lts
A s w as an ticip a ted the d eg ree of p ic tu re ste re o ty p in g a ctu ally
r o s e sig n ifican tly fo r th o se ch ild re n who re a d a s to ry p re se n tin g the
Indian in a re m o te m a n n e r. D eg ree of extinction of p a s t im ag e was
s tro n g e s t w ith the apple g roup, h o w ev er, r a th e r than the school
group. P e rh a p s the b e s t explanation fo r this finding is th a t fo r the
school s to ry v e ry little in specific w as said about m o d e rn life w ays
w ithin a P u eb lo village. T hus, w hen the c h ild re n re a d it, m an y had
to in fe r a m o d e rn o r old settin g . F o r som e the in fe re n c e was fo r a
p a s t settin g . C h ild ren m ig h t have concluded th a t b e c a u se of S te v e 's
re lu c ta n c e to give up his v a lu e s, the v e ry c u ltu re th a t he ca m e fro m
w as d iffe re n t not only in its w orld outlook but a lso in the condition
of its plum bing. O th ers could in fe r the o p p o s ite --th a t S te v e 's p h y s
ic a l w o rld a t h om e w as no d iffere n t fro m the w hite m id d le c la s s .
A fte r a ll, w as he not a t h om e in his school ex cep t fo r the value
fa c to r?
107
A s to the findings of the apple s to ry g ro u p on th is m a tte r , th e re
p ro b ab ly o c c u rre d a n o rm a l extinction c u rv e . T he c h ild re n w e re
le s s involved w ith Indians than e ith e r of the o th e r two g ro u p s. M any
c h ild re n began to ru n out of im a g e s by the tim e of the f i r s t p o stte st.
F o r the Indian g ro u p s this did n o t so re a d ily o c c u r b e c a u se the s to
r ie s su g g ested id e a s . T h o se read in g the b a ttle s to ry could d ra w a
buffalo hunt, w hile th o se read in g about Steve could d ra w a P u eb lo
Indian v illag e. T hose re a d in g the apple sto ry , h o w ev er, w e re th ro w n
onto th e ir own r e s o u r c e s - -th e r e s u lt being th a t they d rew le s s .
T he sig n ifican t fa c to r of g ro u p -s e x in te ra c tio n noted in T able
24 could be explained by the situ atio n . G irls s e e m e d to w ant to
p le a se to a g r e a t e r d e g re e . T hey v/ere in te re s te d in putting m o re
d e ta il into the p ic tu re s . When th e se w e re p la ced in a p a s t setting
s c o re s could r i s e ra p id ly . M o st of the e x tre m e ly high s c o re s w e re
m ad e by g ir ls .
S o cia l D ista n c e R e su lts
F o r the B o g ard u s findings the ou tco m es w e re le s s d e c isiv e .
Such an outcom e w as fo re s e e n . K atz had in d icate d a s im ila r p ro b le m
w hen u tiliz in g th is in s tru m e n t (52). T he p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h e r a tte m p t
ed to o v e rc o m e this difficulty befo reh an d by designing the in s tru m e n t
in such a w ay th a t only a slig h t shift in so m e c a te g o rie s could have a
h eav y effect on s c o re change. W hat a c tu a lly o c c u rre d , h o w ev er,
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w as a cancelling p r o c e s s . S om e s c o re s ro s e v e ry quickly, w hile
o th e rs san k a lm o s t as fa s t. T h u s, a v e ra g e s c o r e s fo r so m e g ro u p s,
though ris in g so m ew h at, did not r is e enough to co m p e n sa te fo r a ll
the w ith in -g ro u p change.
N e v e rth e le s s , so m e p ro m isin g leads w e re u n c o v e re d . The
g ro u p -a g e in te ra c tio n w as highly sig n ifican t fo r School A, though h a v
ing no d e c isiv e b e a rin g on th e independent v a ria b le . School A boys
show ed a sig n ifican t change in attitu d e fo r th o se read in g the school
sto ry . T his tre n d w as continuous. None of the o th e r groups showed
the s a m e d e g re e of c o r r e la te d p o sitiv e change.
S tereo ty p e and S to rie s T e s ts R e s u lts
T he S tereo ty p e and E th n o c e n tric is m T e s ts gave c l e a r e r evidence
of p o sitiv e attitu d e change on the p a r t of the sch o o l s to ry o v er the
b attle and canoe s to r ie s . S om e of this d ata n eed s explaining, h o w
e v e r. F i r s t , why did so m an y s c o re s continue to r is e a f te r the f i r s t
p o stte stin g ? O th er r e s e a r c h evidence (45,52) show ed a r e g r e s s io n .
It has a lre a d y been su g g ested th at e x p e rim e n ta l conditions th e m
selv es could have acco u n ted fo r this r is e . R eading of the Indian s to
r ie s and th e ir su b se q u en t d is c u s s io n a f te r d is m is s a l fro m th e e x p e r i
m e n ta l situ atio n of the second p e rio d could have c re a te d an in te r e s t
not ex istin g b e fo re . T he sch o o l settin g could h av e kept this in t e r e s t
a liv e --w ith a li b r a r y n e a rb y and r e s o u r c e p e rs o n n e l to w hom to talk.
109
T he r e s e a r c h e r h e a rd e x p re s s io n s of in c re a s e d in t e r e s t about the
p u rp o se s of the e x p e rim e n t fro m p u p ils, te a c h e rs and a d m in is tr a to r s
alik e , e sp e c ia lly a fte r the tre a tm e n t sta g e . Such conditions w e re n o t
the s a m e in the K atz study w h e re su b je c ts w e re d raw n f r o m a la rg e
college stu d en t body, o r the J a c k s o n study w h ere su b jects w e re s e le c t
ed fro m a m u ch la r g e r high school.
T h e re is also th e o re tic a l and e x p e rim e n ta l evidence to the e f
fect th a t long t e r m r e s u lts m a y be the m o s t im p o rta n t. E vidence
f r o m F a r i s (30) Stephens (91) and W eiss (103) in d icate th a t u n d e r c e r
ta in conditions s tro n g e s t effects can b e of a delayed, r a th e r than i m
m e d ia te n a tu re , th ro u g h such d ev ices as re m in is c e n c e , in tro sp e c tio n
and the " s le e p e r effect".
A second finding of in t e r e s t w as the lo w erin g of s c o re s fo r the
apple groups fo r both Schools A and C. B oth ap p ro a c h e d sig n ifican ce
when in te ra c tin g w ith the sex o r age f a c to r s . T h e o re tic a lly , this can
be explained. B e c a u se the su b je c ts w e re w hite m iddle c la ss A m e r
ic a n s, and b e c a u se the s to ry had e a s ily id en tifiab le C a u c a sia n value
e le m e n ts , the s to ry could be r e la te d to quite ea sily . T ab le 49 in
d ic a te s th a t this w as the c a s e fo r the apple group in School C. T his
id en tificatio n would ten d to re in fo rc e c e rta in ele m e n ts of p re e x istin g
values w hich could m a k e the r e a d e r m o r e re je c tin g to w ard an alien
c u ltu re .
A th ird difficulty w as the n e a r sig n ific a n t p o sitiv e change for
110
the o ld e r c h ild re n and a sig n ifican t change for the g irls a fte r read in g
the canoe s to ry (T ab les 42, 44). T h is can a lso be explained. O ld er
c h ild re n in School C show ed a stro n g in d ependence of m ind. T hey
w e re a t an age w hen a u th o rity in c re a s in g ly b e c a m e an ob ject of c r i t i
c ism . T h u s, m a n y could identify quite re a d ily w ith White D e e r.
T hey p e rc e iv e d h im as a v ic tim w hose b e s t im p u lse s w e re being u n
re a s o n a b ly c ru s h e d by a fa th e r who did not u n d e rsta n d . L ack of
id en tificatio n to w ard s the c u ltu ra l situ a tio n only h elp ed this s e n tim e n t
b e c a u se v e ry few of th e se ch ild ren could show any em pathy fo r the
f a th e r 's point of view . T he g ir ls , in p a r tic u la r , se e m e d to feel this
m o s t s tro n g ly , fo r to th e m a m a le fig u re would be even a m o re r e
m o te id e n tificatio n ob ject than a fe m a le in the sa m e s to ry situation.
S e v e ra l who a n s w e re d the qu estio n to w hat "White D e e r 's fa th e r should
do sta te d th a t the boy should be le ft alone. F o r boys this w as n o t so
m u ch the c a s e . M any felt W hite D e e r w as sim p ly a fra id to fight w ith
the r e s t of the m e n .
On the o th e r hand, the sig n ifican ce of change am ong boys and
not g irls on the school s to ry (T able 44) r e q u ir e s f u r th e r ex p lan atio n .
F i r s t of a ll, it should be re m a r k e d th a t the g e n e ra l affectiv e im p a c t
of the sch o o l s to ry w as g r e a te r . B oys w e re h a rd ly touched a t a ll by
the canoe s to ry , w h e re a s the g ir ls , though not sig n ifican tly affected
by the school s to ry a t the . 05 le v e l of confidence, w e re s till affected
a t the . 10 le v el. In te re s tin g ly enough, too, the m e a n change of the
I l l
g irls w as g r e a te r in the c a s e of the school than the canoe sto ry . The
d iffere n ce in t-v a lu e s w as a d iffere n ce in e r r o r te r m s . A m ong the
g irls who re a d the: school s to ry th e re w as a w id e r fluctuation of in
dividual s c o r e s . C hanges in the g ir ls ' canoe group w e re m o r e m o d e r
ate and le s s conflicting. In te r m s of id e n tificatio n , the low er showing
of the g irls in the school group can be explained by id e n tity conflict.
The w ritte n re s p o n s e sectio n of the In v en to ry in d icate d th a t the g irls
identified w ith the boy and situ a tio n to so m e extent. M any, h o w ev er,
a lso iden tified with the te a c h e r to a g r e a te r d e g re e than the boys who
re a d the sa m e sto ry . T hus th e re w as an a m b iv a le n c e --s y m p a th y fo r
i
Steve and the c u ltu re he belonged to on the one hand, id en tificatio n
w ith the te a c h e r and the valu es she re p r e s e n te d on the o th e r. Such a
la tte r em pathy w as e a sy b e c a u se the te a c h e r w as a w hite fe m a le fig
u r e who handled the p ro b le m sy m p a th e tic a lly . M any g irls in the
school group could th e re fo re fe e l th a t Steve w as being u n re a s o n a b le
and n eed ed to change h is " a ttitu d e ". It w as in te re s tin g to note th a t,
d esp ite this fa c to r of c h a r a c te r iden tificatio n , th e re w as s till enough
s c o re in c re a s e s on the p o s tte s t to b ring the t-v a lu e n e a r sig n ifican ce .
W hat about the g ir l s ' sig n ifican t d e c r e a s e in attitu d e to w ard s
the Indians (School C) a fte r read in g the apple sto ry ? T his could be
p a rtia lly acco u n ted for by the re la tiv e ly high id en tificatio n g irls had
w ith this s to ry as re fle c te d by th e ir m e a n s c o r e s in T ab le 49. By
identifying w ith the situ a tio n w hite Anglo values w e re re in fo rc e d
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w hich tended to lo w er attitu d e s c o re s to w ard s Indians on the p o stte st.
A n o th er look a t this ta b le , h o w ev er, show ed th a t the boys' id e n tific a
tion s c o re s fo r the apple s to ry w e re a lm o s t as high. Why w e re th e ir
a ttitu d e s not a lso lo w e re d at the sa m e ra te ?
A gain, th e re w e re p ro b ab ly two fo rc e s a t w ork. The g irls could
identify w ith the situ a tio n of the s to ry but n o t w ith the m a le c h a r a c te r s
and th e m e . S om e of the o ld e r g irls in p a rtic u la r thought the whole
outcom e so m ew h at obvious and s u p e rfic ia l. W hat re m a in e d , then w as
a c u ltu ra l id e n tificatio n but not a p e rs o n a l one. When the p o s tte st
cam e the g irls could connect even le s s w ith Indians than boys. They
tended to ste re o ty p e th e m into m o re u n fav o rab le c a te g o rie s b e c a u se
they w e re not p e rc e iv e d as hum an beings but m e re ly v io la to rs of
"c iv iliz e d " n o rm s .
T his does not explain the findings of T ab le 38, h o w ev er, w h ere
opposite re s p o n s e s a r o s e . H e re in the School A sa m p le , the boys'
a ttitu d e s w e re changed in a sig n ifican tly n eg ativ e d ire c tio n a fte r r e a d
ing the apple s to ry w hile the g i r l s 1 feelings re m a in e d unchanged. U n
fo rtu n ately , data w as lacking as to d e g re e of id en tificatio n on the p a rt
of boys and g irls in th is in s ta n c e . M o st lik ely the boys o v e r-id e n tifie d
w ith the c h a r a c te r s and b eca m e m o re re je c tiv e of the Indians as a r e
su lt w hile the g irls had m o re n e u tra l feelings about the s to ry than w as
the c a se of School C. D iffe re n c e s of population, e x p e rim e n ta l s itu a
tion, and techniques a ll m ig h t have co n trib u ted . Included in the School
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A boys' apple group fo r in s ta n c e , se e m e d to be m a n y who could have
b een b eh av io r p ro b le m s in a r e g u la r c la s s r o o m situ a tio n . The effect
of this type of s to ry on th e se kinds of boys would lik ely be quite difr-
fe re n t than with the boys in School C. In te re stin g to n o te , h o w ev er,
w as the fa c t th a t in both schools th e re w as som ething about the apple
s to ry w hich cau sed m a n y c h ild re n to r e v is e th e ir g e n e ra l opinion of
Indians dow nw ard.
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C H A PT E R V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IM PLICATION S
AND RECOM M ENDATIONS
In this fin al c h a p te r a r e p re s e n te d a s u m m a ry of the n a tu re and
p ro cee d in g s of the in v e stig a tio n , conclusions b ased on th e se findings,
im p lic atio n s th a t th e se findings s e e m to in d icate , and re c o m m e n d a
tions fo r f u rth e r c o n sid e ra tio n .
S u m m a ry
P ro b le m and E x p e rim e n ta l S ubjects
T he o b jectiv es of this study w e re to ex p lo re the effects of d if
f e re n tia l th e m atic p re s e n ta tio n in a s to ry about a m in o rity group on
the attitu d e s of p re d o m in a n tly C a u c a sia n m id d le c la s s c h ild re n as
m e a s u re d by a defined b a tte ry of te s ts and in v e n to rie s , and to ex p lo re
the th e o re tic a l im p lic a tio n s of the fa c to rs re s p o n sib le fo r the changes
should they o c c u r. T he v a ria b le s of age and sex w e re a lso included
in the a n a ly sis .
T he re la te d li te r a t u r e on change in attitu d e through read in g w as
rev iew ed . Included w as a d is c u s s io n of the n a tu re of outgroup r e j e c
tion, v a ria b le s in c h ild re n affectin g a ttitu d e s , the content of ch ild ren 's
r e a d e r s which could affect outlooks, how w ritte n content b ia s e s o p in
ion, and fin ally a d is c u s s io n of so m e of the m ethods u se d in m e a s u r
ing ethnic a ttitu d e s.
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T he e x p e rim e n ta l population w as ch osen f r o m th re e e le m e n ta ry
schools lo c ated in the Los A ngeles a r e a . Two w e re in the m o r e i m
m e d ia te m e tro p o lita n com m u n ity and one in a m o r e re m o te r u r a l
lo catio n . P u p ils ran g ed in age fro m 7 to 13 y e a r s , g ra d e s 3-6, and
w e re re p re s e n ta tiv e of a b a s ic a lly w hite m id d le c la s s population.
A final sa m p le of 270 c h ild re n w as se le c te d w ith som e ra n d o m
re d u c tio n to eq u alize cell siz e in the s ta tis tic a l a n a ly s is . A p p ro x
im a te ly 10% of the sa m p le w e re n o n -w h ite. One h u n d red and tw enty
six w e re boys and one h u n d red fo rty four w e re g ir ls . The sa m p le
w as divided evenly into two age c a te g o rie s - -y o u n g er and o ld e r, d e
pending upon w h eth er the c h ild 's age w as above o r below the group
m e d ian .
P r o c e d u r e s
F o u r s to rie s w e re w ritte n by the r e s e a r c h e r fo r the th re e e x
p e rim e n ts . Two of th e se w e re to be u se d fo r the f i r s t e x p e rim e n ta l
group: the b attle s to ry in the f i r s t two sch o o ls and the canoe s to ry in
the th ird school. S e v e ra l in s tru m e n ts w e re s e le c te d fo r te stin g b a se d
on the c r it e r ia of u sa b ility , p ra c tic a lity , and evidence of validity.
Som e of th e se in s tru m e n ts w e re u s e d only in the pilot study, w hile
o th e rs , a f te r re v isio n s w e re u n d e rta k e n , w e re u s e d in the e x p e rim e n t
A ll of the s to rie s and m an y of the in s tru m e n ts re c e iv e d w e re
p r e r e a d by a s e p a ra te pilot sa m p le of 25 c h ild re n fro m two schools
116
m an y of w hom w e re e ith e r read in g ex ac tly a t o r a little below fo u rth
g ra d e le v e l as m e a s u r e d by the S tan fo rd R eading T e s t. The s to rie s
p ro v ed to be a t the le v e l of v irtu a lly a ll th e se pupils. In addition,
c h ild re n 's evaluation of the m a in c h a r a c te r s show ed d iffe re n c e s
w hich the au th o r took into acco u n t w hen p re p a rin g the fin al d ra fts of
the s to rie s fo r the e x p e rim e n t. T he pilot study a lso in d icate d th at
d iffe re n tia l effects on a ttitu d e s could v e ry w ell e x ist when m e a s u r e d
by the e x p e rim e n ta l s to r ie s te st.
P ilo te d as w ell w e re the P ic tu r e s and S to rie s T e s ts . The
S to rie s T e s t w as f u rth e r expanded fo r u s e w ith the th ird e x p e rim e n t
at School C when two ad d itio n al ite m s w e re p iloted a t Schools A and
B and included. The S o cial D ista n c e S cale w as s im ila r to the one u se d
by Z elig s with c e rta in re v isio n s m a d e to in c re a s e the s p re a d of
s c o re s . The ste re o ty p in g technique w as v e ry m u c h like the one u se d
by C am p b ell and M c C a n d le ss.
T he stu d ie s w e re e s s e n tia lly a p r e te s t - tr e a t m e n t - p o s t te s t type
design w ith two g ro u p s actin g as e x p e rim e n ta ls and one group as a
co n tro l. The f i r s t two schools w e re given a seco n d p o s tte s t as w ell.
A n aly sis of v a ria n c e ( P r o g r a m BMD 02Y a t the U .S .C . C o m p u ter
S cie n ces L a b o ra to ry ) and t - t e s ts w e re given to d e te rm in e d e g re e of
change w ithin and betw een eac h group and su b g ro u p . To an aly ze
change betw een subgroups the data w as fu rth e r a r r a n g e d by age for
one s o r t, then r e a r ran g ed and eq u alized fo r sex on a n o th e r s o rt.
117
C onclusions
B efo re conclusions m a y be d raw n fro m the p r e s e n t study s e v
e r a l im p o rta n t q u alificatio n s m u s t be c o n sid e re d . T he findings a r e
n e c e s s a r ily r e s tr ic te d by such fa c to rs as the h y p o th e ses s e le c te d ,
the d e lim ita tio n s, and a ssu m p tio n s of the study, the r e s e a r c h i n s t r u
m e n ts and the population. T h e re is also the p o ssib ility th a t so m e
v a ria b le s not accounted for in the e x p e rim e n ta l d esig n m ig h t have
had an influence on the o u tc o m e s. With the re a liz a tio n th a t m o re i n
v estig atio n is need ed b efo re ap p licatio n s can be m a d e on the p r e s e n t
findings, the following conclusions a p p e a r viable:
1. The read in g of s to rie s can lead to sig n ifican t change of
attitu d es am ong younger C a u c a sia n m iddle c la s s c h ild re n . T h e se
changes can have long te r m effects.
2. D iffe re n tia l th e m a tic tre a tm e n t of s to r ie s about a m in o rity
group does have a d iffe re n tia l effect on the attitu d e of the m a jo rity
m e m b e r r e a d e r to w ard s th a t m in o rity . M a te ria l on m in o ritie s w hich
se e k to gain r e a d e r id en tificatio n by p re se n tin g situ a tio n s w hich have
a re la tio n sh ip to the r e a d e r 's e x p e rie n c e s and values w ill have a
g r e a te r chance of c re a tin g a m o re fav o rab le attitu d e than m a te r ia l
w hich is m o re re m o te fro m his own e x p e rie n c e s and v a lu e s.
3. A re la tio n s h ip e x ists betw een r e a d e r id e n tificatio n and
change of attitu d e. R e a d e rs who identify highly w ith a s to r y g e n e ra lly
show g re a te r attitu d e change to w ard the sp ecific o r g e n e ra l o b je ct of
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th a t s to ry . H o w ev er, if the r e a d e r id e n tifies highly w ith a s to ry
w hich exalts so m e p a r tic u la r is tic value of h is own c u ltu re e x clu siv ely ,
and th is value is p e rc e iv e d to be in d ish a rm o n y w ith those of the alien
c u ltu re the r e a d e r is a s k e d to ev alu ate, re je c tio n of this o th e r c u ltu re
m ig h t take p lace even if th e re is nothing sp e c ific a lly d e ro g a to ry r e
vealed in the s to ry about the o u t-c u ltu re .
4. Id en tifica tio n a p p e a rs to w o rk on at le a s t two le v els - - c h a r
a c te r and situ a tio n a l o r c u ltu ra l. A c h a r a c te r in a re m o te settin g can
s till be iden tified w ith if the r e a d e r can see how h is own w o rld of
re a lity re la te s to th a t of the p e rs o n he is read in g about. T h u s, even
if a conflict re v o lv e s about a c a v e -m a n and his son, the them e of the
conflict could s till be g e n e ra liz e d and m a d e applicable by the p e rc e iv -
e r . On the o th er hand, the s itu a tio n a l o r c u ltu ra l fa c to r s e e m s to
have an equal if not s tro n g e r pulling pow er. E v id en ce fro m th e school
s to ry se e m e d to in d icate this quite w ell.
5. Age and sex a r e both fa c to rs w hich m u s t be c o n s id e re d when
evaluating the effect of p rin te d m a te r ia l on c h ild re n 's a ttitu d e s . O ld er
c h ild re n a p p e a r to identify le s s w ith c h a r a c te r and situ a tio n than
younger c h ild re n and s e e m to e x p e rie n c e m uch le s s of an attitu d e
change a fte r re a d in g one sp ecific sto ry .
Sex of the r e a d e r a lso plays a stro n g ro le . Sex of the c h a r a c
te r s in the s to ry and the ro le played by each could have a v e ry stro n g
in flu en ce. T h u s, a g ir l read in g about an Indian g ir l in a c u ltu ra l
conflict w ith a m a n te a c h e r would m o re lik ely change h e r a ttitu d e s in
a fav o rab le d ire c tio n to w ard s Indians a fte rw a rd s than if the s to ry
situ a tio n w e re about an Indian boy in conflict w ith the valu es re p re so n i
sen ted by a w om an a u th o rity fig u re who w as kind and u n d e rsta n d in g .
6. E x p e rim e n ta l m an ip u latio n fo r this kind of r e s e a r c h is
p ro b ab ly m o s t valid when done in the setting of a n o rm a l school l e s
son. T his tends to re m o v e p o ssib le b ia se s and halo effects w hich
could lead to the d is to rtio n of outcom es - -e s p e c ia lly in long te r m
r e s u lts .
7. D isc u s sio n of a s to ry a fte r it h a s been re a d to c la rify in
fo rm a tio n a l m a tte r s does not n e c e s s a r ily b rin g about a g r e a te r
change in a ttitu d e and m ig h t a c tu a lly d e p re s s change.
8. T he B o g ard u s S o cial D istan ce technique does not a p p e a r to
be as effective an in d ic a to r of a ttitu d in al change a s does the S te r e o
typing and S to rie s technique.
T he evidence fro m this study h as c o n siste n tly pointed out one
sa lie n t finding- - ch ild ren take on m o r e than fa c tu a l content and new
v o c a b u la ry w hen they re a d a sto ry . A ttitu d in a l ele m e n ts a r e also
p re s e n t. F u r th e r m o r e , th e re h as been v e ry little r e s e a r c h to in d i
c ate how m u ch of an attitu d e change the child u n d e rg o e s as a re s u lt
of re a d in g , how this in te ra c ts w ith h is own p re v io u sly h eld opinions,
120
and how it m ig h t change w ith fu tu re com m u n icatio n re c e iv e d .
It has been a s s u m e d th a t a highly b ia se d com m u n icatio n would
d is to r t p e rs o n a l opinion in a p re d ic ta b le m a n n e r. Y et, if such w e re
the c a s e , it is h a rd to see how hum an so c ie ty could have evolved the
way it h a s . Too often in the p a s t c e rta in p riv ile g e d g roups and in s t i
tutions h av e h eld the re in s of com m u n icatio n , only to lo se th e m to
rev o lu tio n a n d /o r com peting ideologies.
T he effect of w ritte n com m u n icatio n m u s t be p ro b ed with g r e a t
e r depth. It cannot be a s s u m e d th at b e c a u se an a r tic le ad v o ca tes a
c e rta in cau se or is slan ted to w ard s a c e rta in point of view, th a t this
in its e lf w ill in d icate how the re c ip ie n t w ill be influenced. T h e re
m ig h t be o th e r fa c to rs in and outside the co m m u n icatio n its e lf w hich
could re s u lt in effects opposite to the ones an ticip a ted . Such fa c to rs
m u s t be is o la te d , iden tified and w eighed .
T h u s, content a n a ly sis and c r itic a l re v ie w of s to rie s and o th e r
fo rm s of com m u n icatio n s fo r ch ild ren a r e valuable tech n iq u es but
in su fficien t. In m any c a s e s the evaluation of a s to r y 's effect can only
be judged by m e a s u rin g how it ac tu a lly g rip s the r e a d e r. It is i n t e r
esting to note th a t so m e m a s s m e d ia do this a lre a d y . N ew T. V .shbw s
and a d v e rtis e m e n ts a r e piloted with sam p le au d ien ces b e fo re they
a r e put on the a i r . T he p ro d u c e rs a r e not s a tisfie d w ith th e ir own
hunches and c r itic a l p o w ers of a n a ly sis in p re d ic tin g how the g e n e ra l
au dience w ill r e a c t- - a n d w ith good re a s o n . Too often in the p a s t they
121
have se e n th e ir shows and a d v e rtis e m e n ts fa il a t the c o s t of m illio n s
of d o lla rs .
Y et, in the c a s e of c h ild re n 's re a d e rs w h e re it would a p p e a r
th a t m u ch m o re is a t s ta k e , this type of ev alu atio n does n o t take
p lace. H e re , s to rie s a r e g ra d e d fo r v o cab u lary difficulty and judged
by adults acc o rd in g to re la tiv e ly s u p e rfic ia l c r i t e r i a of in t e r e s t (32,
47, 75, 104, 105). T h e re h a s been little o r no a tte m p t to find out
w h eth er the s to rie s a c tu a lly have had the in te r e s t o r the a ttitu d in a l
effects the e d ito rs h av e c la im e d fo r them .
A nother im p lic a tio n of this study h a s to do w ith its p o te n tial fo r
g en era tin g high le v e l ed u ca tio n a l th e o ry . E d u c a to rs s till have little
idea of the lo n g -te rm effects of a school s y s te m o r a c u r r ic u lu m or a
p a rtic u la r textbook on the u ltim a te adult b eh av io r of p u p ils. N ew
textbooks a r e com ing out in a b u n d a n c e --so m e w ith ra d ic a lly d iffe re n t
ap p ro a c h e s. Y et, the r e s e a r c h e r could find none having e m p iric a l
data backing any c la im s they m ig h t have for fu tu re b e h a v io ra l im p a c t
on the r e a d e r s . D o c to rs do not u s e a new d rug u n til it h a s been
thoroughly te ste d . E n g in e e rs do n o t build an a irp la n e u n til its g e n e r
a l fe a tu re s have been sp ecified and a p ro to ty p e flow n. Y et, e d u c a tio n
al m a te r ia ls a r e n o t s c ie n tific a lly evaluated fo r th e ir p o s sib le im p a c t
on p r e s e n t and la te r so ciety .
U ntil such data a r e g a th e re d th e re w ill be no w ay of knowing in
any b ro a d se n se w hat ro le the school can play in the la r g e r s o c ia l
122
scen e. Is it c o r r e c t th a t sp ecific s tr u c tu re d situ a tio n s and settin g s
can p ro d u ce la stin g effects on b e h a v io r, o r would it be m o r e c o r r e c t,
taking a N e o -F re u d ia n sta n c e , to a s s e r t th a t c h ild re n 's outlooks and
b eh av io r p a tte rn s a r e la rg e ly out of the re a c h of such in stitu tio n a l
fo rc e s as public sch o o ls? It would a p p e a r th a t this la tte r opinion has
been the m o st p re v a le n t in ed u ca tio n a l c irc le s o v er the p a s t decad e.
Schools and school textbooks s till s e e m to be re g a rd e d p r im a r ily as
in c u lc a to rs of p a s t value sy s te m s and v eh icles fo r the teaching of
b a sic s k ills. How e lse could the r e s e a r c h e r acco u n t for the g e n e ra l
s k e p tic is m he m e t f r o m a lm o s t e v e ry a d m in is tr a to r as to the p ro b ab le
sig n ifican ce of attitu d e im p a c t any one s to ry would h av e? Y et, the
r e s u lts of this r e s e a r c h c a s t m u c h doubt on this s k e p tic is m . C h ild ren
a p p e a r to be m o re ch angeable than m a n y N e o -F re u d ia n s would lik e to
a d m it.
R eco m m en d a tio n s
It is re c o m m e n d e d th a t m o re study and thought be given to the
evaluation of the effects of w ritte n m a te r ia ls on c h ild re n 's a ttitu d e s
to w ard s re le v a n t so c ia l o b je c ts, and th a t this ev aluation be a fa c to r
fo r se le c tio n and w ritin g of c h ild re n 's tex tb o o k s. So fa r a s the w r ite r
knows th is has not been u n d e rta k e n . T he ex istin g stu d ies of the e f
fects of read in g m a te r ia ls have n o t b ro u g h t about a th o ro u g h o r s y s
te m a tic effo rt to r e w rite s to rie s and te x ts acc o rd in g to b ro a d s o c io
lo g ic a l, p sy ch o lo g ical and p h ilo so p h ical g o als. S p e c ific a lly the_______
123
following should be im p lem en ted :
1. M o re r e s e a r c h should be devoted to the m e a s u r e m e n t of
c h ild re n 's a ttitu d e s w ith r e fe re n c e to a ll types of so c ia l o b je c ts - -
including ra c e re la tio n s , v o catio n al o b jectiv es and b ro a d philosophical
g o als. R eliab le and valid te s ts should be developed and sta n d a rd iz e d .
D iffe re n t kinds of te s ts should be developed fo r d iffere n t kinds of
p o p u la tio n s.
2. R ep licatio n stu d ie s should be m a d e . In th e se s e v e r a l se ts
of v a ria b le s could be com bined or is o la te d fo r th e ir effect. If one
s to ry could be as in flu en tial as this study has in d icated , the effect
could be even m o re sig n ifican t if s e v e r a l s to r ie s of a c e rta in type
w e re p re s e n te d . F u r th e r m o r e , w hat would the effect be of students
f i r s t read in g about a fe m a le c h a r a c te r in an in te r c u ltu r a l conflict
follow ed by a m a le c h a r a c te r in the sa m e type of c o n flic t--o f two
s to rie s about m a le ! c h a r a c te r s or two fe m a le c h a r a c te r s ? T he c o m
b inations a r e a lm o s t e n d le ss . P e rh a p s the cu m u lativ e effect would
be s tro n g e r am ong som e com binations than am ong o th e rs . A t any
r a te , not only would effective com binations be found in this w ay, but
a lso a s y ste m a tic is o la tio n of v a ria b le s m o s t re le v a n t fo r inducing
change could be d isc o v e re d .
3. T he e x p e rim e n ts alluded to in the p rece d in g reco m m en d a-:
tion could be m a d e w ith sp ecific populations taken as an independent
v a ria b le . H ow would c e rta in types of In d ian o r o th er m in o r ity s to rie s
124
a ffect c h ild re n of the u p p e r and lo w er so cio eco n o m ic c la s s e s ? How
would th ey affect the a ttitu d e s of p re d o m in a n tly N e g ro o r M ex ica n -
A m e ric a n c h ild ren ?
4. A fo u rth a r e a of r e s e a r c h could be in tr a n s f e r effect. How
w ell does a s to ry fav o rab le to Indians r e s u lt in a m o r e fav o rab le
attitu d e to w ard s an o th er ethnic group such as Je w s, o r an o th er ra c e
such as N e g ro e s? D oes change in attitu d e to w ard s one alien c u ltu re
r e s u lt in a m o re g e n e ra l lib e r a l a ttitu d e to a ll c u ltu re s and p e o p le s,
o r is it confined to th a t one c u ltu re only?
5. O th e r attitu d in a l a r e a s could be studied usin g this m ethod.
D iffe re n tia l th e m a tic p re s e n ta tio n could a tte m p t to is o la te w hich kinds
of s to rie s m o s t effectiv ely change a ttitu d e s to w ard s m a n y p ro b le m s
of v ital im p o rta n c e to our p r e s e n t so c ia l o rd e r such as w ork, w o rk
m a n sh ip , m a n u a l v s. n o n -m a n u a l la b o r, confusion of fem in in e and
m a sc u lin e ro le s in a m a ch in e and c o m p u te r so ciety , the p o sitio n of
c h ild re n in a m o d e rn fam ily , and fin ally the q u estio n of m a n in r e l a
tio n sh ip to his n a tu ra l and s o c ia l en v iro n m en t. Do we w ish to b rin g
up c h ild re n p r im a r ily as c o n su m e rs and w a s te rs o r as r e s p e c te r s
and g u ard ia n s of th e ir c u ltu ra l and en v iro n m e n ta l h e rita g e and c r e a t
o rs of an im p ro v e d qu ality of living?
6. M o re e x p e rim e n ts could be m a d e along lin es of te x t r e v i
sion w ith the c h ild 's sex as w ell as age a fa c to r. It m ig h t v e ry w ell
be th a t m o d e rn tre n d s to w ard s co -ed u c atio n do not s e r v e the b e st
125
in te r e s ts of le a rn in g . P e rh a p s boys could le a rn to re a d m u c h m o re
rap id ly and w ith a g r e a te r feeling of su c c e s s if te x ts w e re c e n te re d
p re d o m in a n tly aro u n d is s u e s w hich affect boys as a group. T he sa m e
m ig h t be said of g irls . R eading le sso n s could be given to a ll m a le
and a ll fe m a le read in g groups w ith texts c e n te rin g ex clu siv ely on .
th e ir p a r tic u la r in te r e s ts to see if this b ro u g h t about m o re to le ra n c e
and open m in d e d n e ss and se n se of inv o lv em en t than the p re s e n t b i
sex u al a p p ro a c h w hich the r e a d e r s of today r e p r e s e n t.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
126
127
1.
2 .
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.1
12.
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131
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A P P E N D I C E S
1 3 7
138
A PPE N D IX A
DIRECTIONS: P le a s e re a d this s to ry care fu lly . A t the end a r e
six q u estio n s. S om e q u estio n s do not have the a n s w e rs you can find
in the s to ry . W ith th e se q u e stio n s, decide on your own w hich a n sw e r
is b e st. A fte r you hav e re a d the q u e stio n s, be re a d y to ta lk about
them .
VOCABULARY: S c a re fo o t, C o m a n c h e s , explained, d ism o u n t,
decided.
A N eed for B ra v e ry
L ittle S c a re fo o t had indeed a n am e to be a sh a m e d of. Here he
w as, son of one of the b r a v e s t chiefs of the C o m a n c h e s --a trib e w ell
known for its b r a v e r y in b a ttle . R e c e n tly , the boy had begged Big
B e a r, h is fa th e r, to go with h im on a ra id . Though he was only
fifteen y e a rs old, he fe lt he w as big enough and b ra v e enough to help
out. H is fa th e r had fin ally given in. T w elve w a r r io r s w e re to rid e
out on a scouting p a rty . T he boy could com e. T he chief explained
th a t th e re m ig h t be fighting. A s tra n g e , u n frien d ly trib e had been
se e n m oving into C om anche hunting g ro u n d s.
B e fo re the group had gone v e ry fa r fro m cam p , th e re w e re
shouts and flying a r r o w s . T he enem y w as upon th e m ! Big B e a r
o rd e re d the b ra v e s to d ism o u n t and take c o v e r. A ll of th e m got off
139
th e ir h o r s e s -a ll but the c h ie f's son. Though he did not u n d e rs ta n d
why. the boy could not co n tro l his fe a r. W ithout thinking, he g a l
loped aw ay in the d ire c tio n of the cam p, leaving the r e s t of the b ra v e s
to hold off the enem y.
O u r s o -c a lle d "h e ro " w as in the fa m ily tepee w hen Big B e a r
e n te re d . W ithout saying anything to h is son, the chief told Singing
W ater, the b o y 's m o th e r, about the b a ttle . H is m en had done w ell
and had held the enem y off. T o m o rro w , he would go out w ith a la r g e r
group and find out w here the enem y cam p w as.
T he next m o rn in g , Big B e a r called h is son to him .
" F r o m now on, your n a m e w ill be L ittle S carefo o t. You have
shown th a t you can not fight. F ig h tin g is a m a n 's job. W hile we go
out on our scouting, I w ant you to w o rk in cam p and help the w om en. "
L ittle S carefo o t felt g re a tly sh am ed . T his w as the w o rs t thing
th a t could happen. T he n am e w as bad enough, but to w ork w ith
w om en and c h ild re n w as to be a w om an. What could be w o rse ? A bout
the only good thing F a th e r did not do w as to m ak e h im d r e s s as a
w om an.
B ut L ittle S carefo o t had an o th er kind of co u rag e. In ste a d of
cry in g and sulking, he kept h is m outh shut and did as he w as told. He
cleaned buffalo h id e s, ground co rn , m a d e clothes and b a s k e ts - - a l l
w o m en 's w ork. Som ehow , L ittle S c a re fo o t had to o v erco m e his
e a r l ie r a c t of fe a r and e a rn back fo r h im s e lf the rig h t to b e a m an .
140
When S c a re fo o t's fa th e r c a m e back, h e se e m e d v e ry tire d .
E v e ry o n e in th e cam p w as w o rrie d . Soon the w o rd got out. Big B e a r
and h is w a r r io r s had sco u ted the enem y cam p, and found th e m p r e
p a rin g for a big a tta c k a g a in st th e C om anche v illag e. T he enem y
fo rc e w as about six tim e s the siz e of th o se of Big B e a r 's . T he village
would be w iped out u n le ss it could be m oved im m e d ia te ly to a place
e a s ie r to defend. T he chief o rd e re d the villag e to be packed up. T he
trib e would have to m ove during the d a rk . Not a m in u te could be
sp a re d .
L ittle S carefo o t ra n up to Big B e a r.
" F a th e r , I have a plan. I know th a t if it w e re u s e d , the enem y
c o u ld n 't a tta c k us."
" P le a s e d on't talk to m e now of plans to b e a t the enem y, " re p lie d
the chief. "Only the o th e r day you a sk ed to go w ith m e and I liste n e d .
A t th a t tim e , your plan w as to ru n . "
"I p ro m is e I w ill go thro u g h w ith m y plan this tim e , F a th e r.
P le a s e le t m e try . "
" I 'm s o r r y , L ittle S c a re fo o t, but I b eliev e you w ill be of m u c h
m o re u se to the trib e helping the w om en and c h ild re n than you p o s s ib
ly could by running aw ay fro m the enem y. Now h u r r y along and help
take down the te n ts. We have to m o v e. "
L ittle S c a re fo o t did as he w as told. Soon, the trib e w as m oving
onto a high h ills id e . H e re , a d efen se would be m uch e a s ie r .__________
141
S e v e ra l w eeks w ent by. T he enem y had not a tta c k e d , but they
w e re w aiting below . T he C om anches w e re running low on food, and
could not go out a fte r buffalo. Som ething had to be done fa irly soon.
L ittle S carefo o t ta lk ed even m o re about his plan w ith the chief. A gain,
Big B e a r re fu se d to le t h im try .
T he boy decided to go ahead on h is own. L ate a t night, he
sneak ed into the c o r r a l and q u ietly led out a pony. H e would rid e
n e a r the enem y cam p , tie his pony, and s ile n tly slip p ast.th e g u ard s.
T hen, he would s c a r e aw ay the e n e m y 's h o r s e s . T he enem y could
not fight as w ell on foot.
Unknown to S carefo o t, som eone w as w atching. H is fa th e r had
been aw akened by h is s o n 's m o v e m en t in sid e the tent. S e c re tly , Big
B e a r v e ry m uch w anted the boy to show h is b ra v e ry . A t the sam e
tim e , h o w ev er, the chief w as a fra id S c a re fo o t would e ith e r g et caught
by the enem y o r would ru n aw ay again. Big B e a r had only a m o m e n t
to think. Soon it would be too la te to c a ll his son back.
QUESTIONS
1. How did L ittle S c a re fo o t get h is n am e?
2. Why did S c a re fo o t's fa th e r w ant h im to w o rk in cam p?
3. W hat kind of c o u rag e did L ittle S c a re fo o t show in cam p?
4. W hat s e e m s to be a v e ry im p o rta n t thing fo r C om anche boys?
5. Was L ittle S c a re fo o t w ise in disobeying his fa th e r? (Give
r e a s o n s . )
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6. W hat should Big B e a r do a t the end of the sto ry ?
T e ll his son to tu rn back.
L e t h is son go.
Jo in h is son.
S om ething e lse (You te ll w hat. )
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A P P E N D IX B
DIRECTIONS: P le a s e re a d this s to ry c a re fu lly . A t the end
a r e six q u estio n s. Som e q u estio n s do not hav e the a n s w e rs you can
find in th e sto ry . W ith th e se q u e stio n s, decide on your own w hich
a n sw e r is b e st. A fte r you have re a d the q u e stio n s, be re a d y to ta lk
about them .
VOCABULARY: defended, tr o p h ie s , s o ld ie r , a rg u e , d is g ra c e .
The Canoe
Long b efo re the w hite m en had co m e, th e re lived in the woods
and la k e s of w hat is now the n o r th e a s te rn U nited S tates a s m a ll
Indian trib e . F o r m a n y m onths now the m e n had been v e ry busy.
H o m es and canoes had to be built, food to be hunted and tra p p e d ,
a n im a ls to be sk in n e d --a n d m o s t im p o rta n t of a l l- - th e v illag e its e lf
to be defended. U n frien d ly trib e s n e a rb y m ig h t a t any m o m e n t a tta c k
the v illag e o r tr y to s te a l som e of the valuable m e a t o r fu rs th a t had
been s to re d aw ay.
S ilv e r F o x w as a h u n te r and w a r r io r . He w as proud to be the
son of an o th er fam ous chief who had a lre a d y b eco m e a legend am ong
the v illa g e rs . S ilv e r F o x hoped th a t during his life he too would
b ecom e a s fam o u s. O nly a w eek ago he had led a w a r p a rty of b ra v e s
a g a in st an enem y v illag e and had won a g re a t v ic to ry . H is people had
ju s t had a g re a t fe a s t to c e le b ra te the m a n y tro p h ie s c ap tu red .
144
One thing w o rrie d S ilv e r F o x , h o w ev er. T his had to do with
W hite D e e r, his son. E v e ry o n e had high hopes th a t the boy would a lso
b eco m e a g re a t h u n te r and fig h te r. Y et, W hite D e e r w a s n 't doing w ell
a t all. H is le sso n s w e re showing little if any im p ro v e m e n t.
S ilv e r F o x spent m uch tim e and p atien ce w orking w ith h is son
b ut it did no good. F in a lly , a fte r the boy had m a d e a v e ry p oor a r r o w
h e a d and had b ro k e n a s p e a r point w hile putting it on the sh aft, S ilv e r
F o x d ecid ed th a t the tim e had co m e to speak.
"W hite D e e r, " began the fa th e r. "W hat is w rong? You a r e a
big, stro n g boy. Som e day you could be the b e s t h u n te r and w a r r io r
in the trib e . Y et, you a r e not le a rn in g . If you keep this up, you w ill
n e v e r do a good job. "
" F a t h e r , " began W hite D e e r, "I know how m u c h this is w o rry in g
you and I a m s o r r y for it. B ut I a m not re a lly in te re s te d in y our kind
of w ork. I would r a th e r re m a in by the la k e sid e and m ak e c a n o e s ."
"B u t White D e e r ," o bjected S ilv e r F o x . " T h e re is nothing th at
c a r r i e s as m uch honor as being a h u n te r and w a r r io r . C anoe building
is v e ry o rd in a ry . You w ill be sitting aro u n d th e village a ll day at
your w o rk w ith h a rd ly anyone to talk to but w om en and c h ild re n . The
r e s t of the m e n w ill be off hunting or in b attle. T hey w ill com e h om e
w ith tro p h ie s and g am e. W hat kind of h o n o r could you get fro m
m aking c a n o e s ? "
"I c a n 't h elp it, F a th e r, " r e p li e d W hite D e e r. "A few m o n th s
145
ago, a tr a d e r fro m an o th e r tr ib e ca m e paddling to our village. He
had the la r g e s t and m o s t beautiful canoe I have ever seen . It w as
tw ice th e size of any in our v illag e, and could hold m u c h m o re . Its
sid es w e re p ainted w ith beau tifu l blue and b la ck d e s ig n s, w hich could
only p le a se the G re a t S p irits above and help guide the c r a f t and its
c re w to the b e s t hunting g ro u n d s. I w ant to h elp the trib e by m aking
canoes like the one I saw . The tr a d e r w as even kind enough to show
m e how to build it. The so o n er I g et s ta rte d , the b e tte r. "
" D o n 't you w ish to c a r r y on o u r g re a t fa m ily h is to r y of m ighty
w a r r io r s and h u n te rs ? F o r you to b eco m e a canoe b u ild er would
m a k e o u r fam ily the joke of the whole village. "
"I d o n 't like w a r , F a th e r . I d o n 't like hunting e ith e r. The
tr ib e would do m uch b e tte r w ith a good canoe b u ild e r than w ith a poor
s o ld ie r. I know I a m big and stro n g . T his w ill only h elp m e bend the
la rg e poles I w ill need in m a k in g the canoe fra m e . "
"B ut th e re a r e m a n y things about hunting and w ar th a t a r e v e ry
in te re s tin g , W hite D e e r. A rro w h e a d m aking, like canoe building, is
a lso a n a r t and is a lso need ed . "
" T h e re a r e m any o th e rs in this trib e who a r e good a t m aking
a rr o w s and s p e a r s , F a th e r . I d o n 't w ish to. I would be m u c h h a p p ie r
planning and building c a n o e s ."
S ilv e r F o x saw th a t it w as u s e le s s to a rg u e fu rth e r. It.w as tru e
th a t th e re w e re a few m e n in the trib e who did nothing but m a k e canoes
146
but this w as n o t a v e ry h o n o red type of w o rk . M any b ra v e s even felt
th at canoe m a k e rs w e re ju s t try in g to stay out of d an g er by doing
so m eth in g n e a r h o m e . The w hole village expected S ilv e r F o x 's son
to b eco m e a g r e a t w a r r io r . W hen the tru e new s got a ro u n d , th e re
would be m u c h ta lk and laughing. T he sh a m e would be too m u ch for
the fa m ily to take.
W hite D e e r sim p ly had to be talk ed out of h is id e a. Y et, S ilv e r
F o x could not m ak e fun of h im . H e would have to m a k e h im u n d e r
stand in a d iffere n t w ay. T he g re a t w a r r io r and h u n te r stopped
aw hile to plan h is n e x t m ove.
Q u estio n s
1. W hat w e re so m e of th e m e n 's jo b s?
2. W hich jobs w e re looked on w ith the m o s t fa v o r? Why?
3. W hat m a d e S ilv e r F o x proud of h is job?
4. Do you think W hite D e e r w as sim p ly try in g to get out of a
m o re d an g ero u s job? G ive re a s o n s for your a n sw e r.
5. W as S ilv e r F o x sim p ly thinking of h im s e lf when h e tr ie d to
ta lk W hite D e e r out of his plan? Give re a s o n fo r your
a n s w e r.
6. W hat should S ilv e r F o x do?
Laugh a t W hite D e e r.
P u n ish W hite D e e r for n o t doing w hat he w anted h im
to do.
T alk it o ver w ith W hite D e e r 's m o th e r.
L e t W hite D e e r do w hat h e w ants.
F o r c e W hite D e e r to go out w ith h im on h u n ts.
(Y our own answ er)___________________________________
147
A P P E N D IX C
DIRECTIONS: P le a s e re a d this s to ry c a re fu lly . A t the end a r e
six q u estio n s . S om e questions do not have the a n s w e rs you can find
in the sto ry . With th e se q u e stio n s, decide on y our own w hich a n sw e r
is b e st. A fte r you have re a d th e q u estio n s, be re a d y to ta lk about
them .
VOCABULARY: P u e b lo , u n fo rtu n ately , g e n e ro u s , i l l , b eliev ed ,
bo ard in g sc h o o l.
Two W orlds
A t f ir s t, S teve S uncorn had been happy. He re m e m b e r e d his
f a th e r 's p artin g w ords a t his own P u eb lo Indian villag e ju s t b efo re he
left fo r a y e a r a t the boarding school. F a th e r had sa id , "B e p le a sa n t
and g e n e ro u s. M ake s u re you do everything p o s sib le to stay out of
tro u b le . R e m e m b e r--o n e of the w o rs t things you can do is to cau se
h u r t feelings am ong your frie n d s . "
Steve had follow ed th e se sim p le ru le s , and soon w as w ell liked
by h is new school m a te s , m o s t of w hom w ere n o t In d ian s.
U n fo rtu n ately , S te v e 's m a rk s w ere not good. M is s W illiam s,
the te a c h e r, w as w o rrie d . She liked S teve, and thought he w as a
s m a r t boy. H is spelling and a rith m e tic te s t s c o re s did not show th is,
h o w ev er.
F o r a long tim e the te a c h e r said nothing. F in a lly , though,
148
S te v e 's g ra d e s got so p oor th a t it looked like he would n o t p a s s . M iss
W illiam s decided to have a p riv a te ta lk w ith the boy.
"S teve, " began M is s W illiam s, "I a m quite w o rrie d about your
school w ork. You a r e a v e ry n ic e , frie n d ly boy. I fe e l you a r e quite
s m a r t a s w ell. Y et, u n le ss y our m a rk s im p ro v e , I w ill not be ab le to
p a ss you on to the n ex t g ra d e . I know you would not like th at, and I
a m s u re your fa th e r would be v e ry disap p o in ted . W hat is w ro n g ? "
F o r a w hile, Steve did not a n s w e r. H e se e m e d to be thinking
o v er som ething. F in a lly he said:
"M iss W illiam s, I think it would b e b e tte r if I w ent h om e now. "
"School w ill be o v er in a few m o n th s, S teve. W ouldn't it be
b e tte r to stay to the end and tr y to im p ro v e ? " ask ed M is s W illiam s.
"I could get h ig h e r g ra d e s rig h t now if I w anted to, " re p lie d
S teve.
"W hy d o n 't you get them , th e n ? " a n sw e re d M is s W illiam s in
a sto n ish m e n t.
" It's a little h a rd to explain. "
" P le a s e tr y to te ll m e a s b e s t you can, " re p lie d M is s W illiam s.
"I so m e tim e s feel like I a m living now in a n o th e r w o rld fro m the
one of m y v illa g e ," began S teve. " H e re , the school te a c h e s things
th a t would have little w o rth a t the P u eb lo . On the o th e r hand, things
w hich the P u eb lo and I value g re a tly d o n 't s e e m to be too im p o rta n t
h e r e . I fe e l unhappy, b e c a u se the things I have been taught a s good
149
a r e now being pushed a s id e . "
"C ould you explain w hat you m e a n ? "
"Y es. A good exam ple is m y g ra d e s . H e re , the te a c h e rs a ll
say th a t the b e s t way to g et ah ead in life is to do w ell in school. By
this they m e a n getting good g ra d e s . In m y v illag e, a p e rs o n does not
do w ell by showing how m uch m o re he knows than so m eo n e e lse . He
gets along by showing kindness and thoughtfulness to the o th e r p e rs o n .1
"B ut S teve, " a n sw e re d M iss W illia m s, "H ow a r e you h u rtin g
so m eo n e e l s e 's feelin g s by getting h ig h e r g ra d e s ? How is this being
unkind and th o u g h tle s s? "
"T h a t is ju s t w hat it is , " a n s w e re d S teve. "I have so m e frie n d s
in o u r c la s s who a r e n 't too s m a r t. T hey do p o o rly in th e ir spelling
and a rith m e tic , and m ig h t have to re p e a t a y e a r. If I w e re to get
high g ra d e s , I would be doing m u c h b e tte r than they. M y frie n d s
w ould soon know th is. T h ey would a ls o know th a t th e ir own ch an ces
of catching up would be h o p e le ss . T hey would fe e l h u rt. "
"Why should they fe e l h u rt? "
" B e c a u se m y g ra d e s w ould show how m u c h m o re I know. Soon,
m y frie n d s would fe e l je a lo u s. T his feeling w ould only g ro w w o rse
n ex t y e a r w hen they saw m e in a h ig h e r g ra d e than they. "
M iss W illiam s now began to u n d e rsta n d . F o r S teve, getting
good g ra d e s w as not the m o s t im p o rta n t thing about school. R a th e r,
it w as m o re im p o rta n t to ca u se no h u r t feelin g s to a r i s e am ong his
150
frie n d s . G etting b e tte r g ra d e s m ig h t m ak e his frie n d s s e e m even
w o rse by c o m p a riso n .
Steve w as rig h t. H e w as a m e m b e r of a d iffe re n t w o rld . The
P u eb lo Indian valu es w e re not a ll the sa m e as the v alu es of the w hite
people. F o r th e m , to live to g e th e r w ithout ill feeling w as even m o re
im p o rta n t th an it w as am ong w h ite s. To a P u eb lo , getting high g ra d e s
w as not a sign of a b e tte r p e rs o n . It show ed, r a th e r , a la ck of
r e s p e c t for th e fe e lin g s of th o se who w e re not doing w ell. Such a way
of behaving w as th e re fo re a sign of tho u g h tless s e lfis h n e s s .
M is s W illiam s knew she h ad a r e a l p ro b le m . She could not
ju s t laugh a t S teve and te ll h im th a t w hat he believ ed only held h im
back. A t the sa m e tim e , the boy w as failing in school. S te v e 's
te a c h e r w anted to help . Y et, she had to do it in such a way as to m a k e
th e boy fe e l a t hom e in both w o rld s.
Q u estio n s
1. W hat w as F a t h e r 's ad v ice b e fo re Steve left school?
2. Why w as S teve getting low g ra d e s ?
3. W hat can you say about so m e of S te v e 's frie n d s?
4. How do you feel w hen y our frie n d does b e tte r than you on a
te s t?
j happy fo r y our frien d ?
Sad th a t you could not do as w ell?
both happy and sad a t the sa m e tim e
sad but hoping to be b e tte r than h im la te r
o th e r feeling (p le a se give it when asked)
5. Why co u ld n 't M iss W illiam s ju s t laugh a t S teve and telU him he
w as being h eld b ack by h is b e lie fs?
6. W hat do you think M iss W illiam s should do?
151
A P P E N D IX D
DIRECTIONS: P le a s e re a d this s to ry c a re fu lly . A t the end a r e
six q u e stio n s. S om e q u estio n s do not have the a n s w e rs you can find in
the s to ry . W ith th e se q u e stio n s, decide on y our own w hich a n s w e r is
b e s t. A fte r y o u h av e re a d the q u e s tio n s , be re a d y to ta lk about them .
VOCABULARY: s t r i c t , chew , p isto l, ra p id ly , c r a te .
A pple P ick in g T im e
F r a n k had looked fo rw a rd to this d a y --th e day of the apple p ic k
ing c o n te st. It w as a s p e c ia l c o n test w ith v e ry s t r i c t r u le s . Boys
w o rk ed in te a m s of two. One would do the picking and to ss the ap p les
to h is te a m m a te who would catch and c ra te the ap p le s. If an apple w as
d ropped and h it the ground, it would not be counted. S am w as F r a n k 's
te a m m a te , and one of the b e s t o u tfie ld e rs on the school b a s e b a ll te a m
N eith er boy planned to m is s m an y apples today.
T he m o rn in g w as cool and beautiful. The sky w as a c le a r blue
w ith high, fluffy clouds s c a tte r e d about. The boys w e re to get together
in M ill e r 's A pple O rc h a rd . E a c h te a m had two tr e e s to pick. The con
t e s t w as tim ed . U su a lly , none of the te a m s had enough tim e to pick
both of th e ir t r e e s .
F r a n k re m e m b e re d w hat his fa th e r told h im b e fo re the co n test.
H e had said th a t the w o rs t thing to do w as to ru s h too quickly. If too
m a n y ap p les w e re picked and throw n a t one tim e , not a ll of th e m
152
could be counted. E v en so m eo n e as good as S am would not be able to
keep up. How w ell F a th e r r e m e m b e re d m any y e a rs ago w hen he w as
F r a n k 's age and had lo s t an apple picking co n test h im s e lf b e c a u se he
had been o v e r-h a s ty !
B efo re F r a n k le ft h o m e , he bro u g h t along an apple to chew fo r
la te r in the m o rn in g . A ny one caught picking an apple fo r eating o r
playing with a t M ill e r 's O rc h a rd would be taken out of the co n test.
A fter an h o u r's w alk, he a r r iv e d a t the o rc h a rd . A lm o s t rig h t
aw ay, he sp o tted h is c a tc h e r.
"H i, S a m ," g re e te d F r a n k . "A re you s e t fo r the c o n te s t? "
"S u re a m , " re p lie d S am . "I w ish I had m y f ie ld e r 's m itt, though.
I 'm u se d to catching w ith it. "
"B u t S am , th o se ap p les a r e m uch big g er than a b a s e b a ll. The
m itt would not do any good. B e s id e s , it 's a g a in st the r u le s . "
"I know ," said S am . "And yet, I s till m is s it. W ell, I g u e ss I
should p ra c tic e catching a p p le s. Do you have one with you, F r a n k ? "
"S u re , " a n s w e re d F r a n k and took his sn ack out of h is ja c k e t
pocket.
T he two boys p ra c tic e d throw ing the apple b ack and fo rth fo r a
few m in u te s.
"I g u ess I 'm as re a d y as I 'l l e v e r be, " said S am .
J u s t then, the judge announced the te a m s and show ed w h ere
th e ir tr e e s would be. E a c h te a m had a s e p a ra te c o lo r, and the tr e e s
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to be picked had so m e paint on th e m of the s a m e c o lo r. T h e re w e re
ten te a m s in a ll, and the f i r s t p riz e would be two b ra n d -n e w b ic y c le s.
B oth boys w anted bikes v e ry m u ch . F r a n k had a p a p e r ro u te , and he
could d e liv e r m o re p a p e rs and m ak e m o re m oney if he had a bike.
S a m w anted a S a tu rd a y job, but he co u ld n 't w alk and get to w o rk on
tim e . B oth boys thought they could win. . .Y e t, th e re w as an o th er
te a m fro m the sa m e school w hich w as a lso quite good. T h e se boys
w e re S al and D ave. T hey w e re both on the b a s e b a ll te a m and w orked
v e ry w ell to g e th e r. S al and D ave w e re tw ins.
T he boys got re a d y . F r a n k stood n ex t to the tr e e . S am w aited
n e x t to the c r a te s . A t the "bang" of the s t a r t e r 's p isto l, the ra c e w as
on. F r a n k w orked rap id ly but c a re fu lly . He s ta r te d with the apples
n e a r e s t h im f i r s t and w o rk ed to w ard s th e tr e e . E a c h one w as picked
gently and to ss e d to S a m who quickly placed it in the c ra te .
A t the o th er t r e e s , the te a m s w e re a lso w orking v e ry quickly.
T he tw ins se e m e d to be going tw ice as fa s t as ev ery o n e e lse , but som e
of th e ir ap p les had been d ropped. So f a r, F r a n k and S a m had dropped
n o n e .
T he picking w as to la s t an h o u r. A lre a d y it se e m e d lik e ten
h o u rs to F ra n k . H e no lo n g e r thought of how w ell the o th e rs w ere
doing. H e only re m e m b e r e d w hat his fa th e r had told him : "W ork
quickly but c a re fu lly . " H e w as s u re the tw ins had won.
T he 60 m in u tes w e re now o v e r. A second gun w ent o ff--th e
154
sig n al to stop. Ju d g es n e a r the tr e e s m a d e s u re the boys would no
lo n g e r pick.
T he m a in judges now counted the c r a te s filled . T o F r a n k 's
a m a z e m e n t, h e and S a m had one m o r e c r a te filled th an the tw ins !
T hey had won!
Both boys could not b eliev e it w hen they ro d e th e ir p riz e bicy-i-
cles h om e th a t night. T hey w e re s u re the tw ins h ad b e a te n th em . Yeii
S am had n o ticed som ething th a t told h im why S al and D ave had not
won. U n d ern eath the tw in s' tr e e s w e re a t le a s t enough ap p les to fill
th re e m o re c a rto n s . T he boys h ad picked so ra p id ly th a t m a n y ap p les
w e re dropped. T h u s, though the tw ins did w o rk f a s te r , they w asted
tim e picking m o r e than they n eed e d to.
F r a n k and S am w e re both v e ry happy. T hey could now do things
they co u ld n 't do w ithout th e ir b ik e s. F r a n k 's fa th e r had been right:
H a s te m a k e s w aste.
Q u estio n s
1. W hat w as so s p e c ia l about this day?
2. W hat had F r a n k 's fa th e r said ?
3. Why did the boys n eed b ik e s?
4. W hat m ig h t have h elp ed the boys b e s id e s F r a n k 's fa th e r 's
advice?
5. How do you think the tw ins fe lt a f te r the co n test? Why?
6. Why do you think d ro p p ed ap p les w e re n o t to be c ra te d ?
155
A PPE N D IX E
N am e of S to ry :______________________________________
1. The s to ry w as ( ) h a rd , ( ) easy , ( ) about rig h t, to re a d .
2. The s to ry w as ( ) h a r d , ( ) about rig h t, ( ) e a sy , to u n d e rs ta n d .
3. T he se n te n c e s w e re ( ) too long, ( ) about rig h t, ( ) too sh o rt.
4. The s to ry w as ( ) u n in te re stin g , ( ) in te re s tin g , ( )very in te re s tin g .
5. H ave you le a rn e d anything fro m the sto ry ?
( ) v e ry m u ch , ( ) a little , ( ) v e ry little .
6. W hat do you think of the p e rso n s in the sto ry ?
( ) not in te re s tin g , ( ) in te re s tin g , ( ) v e ry in te re s tin g .
7. The w ords of the s to ry a re :
( ) too h a rd , ( ) about rig h t, ( ) too easy .
8. The p rin t w as ( ) too sm a ll, ( ) too la rg e , ( ) ju s t rig h t.
156
A P P E N D IX F
N A M E______________________________________
(A N EED FO R BRAVERY)
B elow a r e so m e w ords w hich m ig h t sa y som ething about little
S c a re fo o t. A fte r th e m a re so m e sp a c e s . C heck th e sp ace u n d e r the
heading you a g re e w ith. If you stro n g ly a g re e , check the s p a c e th e re .
If you a g r e e , check it th e re . If you d on't know, d is a g re e o r stro n g ly
d is a g re e , check it th e re . Be re a d y to give re a s o n s fo r each choice.
Do n o t s h a re your a n s w e rs w ith your frien d s:
L ittle S c a re fo o t was
a boy who w as: S tro n g ly A g re e D o n 't D is a g re e S tro n g ly
A g re e Know D is a g re e
1. b ra v e ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
2. frie n d ly ___ ____ ____ ____ ____
3. thoughtful ___ ____ ____ ____ ____
4. helpful ___ ____ ____ ____ ____
5. s m a r t ___ ___ ____ ___ ____
6. fo o lish ___ ____ ____ ____ ____
7. la zy ___ ____ ____
8. a q u itte r ___ ____ ____ ____ ____
157
A PPE N D IX G
NAME
(TH E CANOE)
Below a r e som e w ords w hich m ig h t say so m eth in g about W hite
D e e r. A fter th e m a re som e s p a c e s . C heck the sp a c e u n d e r the h e a d -
ing you a g re e w ith. If you s tro n g ly a g re e , ch eck the sp a c e th e re . If
you a g re e , check it th e re . If you d o n 't know, d is a g re e o r s tro n g ly d i s
a g re e , check it th e re . Be re a d y to give re a s o n s fo r each choice. Do
not s h a re your a n s w e rs w ith your frie n d s .
W hite D e e r w as a
boy who w as: S tro n g ly A g re e D o n 't D is a g re e S tro n g ly
A g re e Know D is a g re e
1. b ra v e
... ._ ..
2. a fra id
. . . . . . . . .
3. d iso b ed ien t
. . .
4. frien d ly
------ ------ ------ ------ ------
5. s m a r t
... -
6. foolish
,
7. lazy
------ ------ ------ ------ ------
8. a q u itte r
158
A P P E N D IX H
N AM E_________________________________________
(TWO WORLDS)
B elow a r e so m e w ords w hich m ig h t say so m eth in g about S teve.
A fte r th e m a r e so m e s p a c e s . C heck the sp ace u n d e r the heading you
a g re e w ith. If you stro n g ly a g re e , ch eck the sp ace th e re . If you
a g re e , check it th e re . If you d o n 't a g re e , d is a g re e or stro n g ly d i s
a g re e , check it th e re . Be re a d y to give re a s o n s for each choice. Do
not s h a re y our a n s w e rs w ith your frie n d s .
Steve w as a
boy who w as: S tro n g ly A g re e D o n 't D is a g re e S tro n g ly
A g re e Know D is a g re e
1. b ra v e ___ ____ ____ ____
2. a fra id ___ ___ ____ ____
3. thoughtful -
4. frie n d ly ___ ____ ____ ____
5. s m a r t ____ ____ ___ ____
6. foolish ___ ____ ____ ____
7. la zy ____ ____
8. a q u itte r ___ ____ ____ _____
159
A P P E N D IX I
N A M E_________________________________________
(A P P L E PICKING TIM E)
Below a r e so m e w ords w hich m ig h t say som ething about F r a n k
and S am . A fte r th e m a r e so m e sp a c e s . C heck the sp ace u n d e r the
heading you a g re e w ith. If you stro n g ly a g re e , check the sp ace th e re .
If you a g re e , check the sp ace th e re . If you d o n 't know, d is a g re e o r
stro n g ly d is a g re e , ch eck it th e re . Be re a d y to give re a s o n s fo r each
choice. Do not give a n s w e rs to your frie n d s .
F r a n k and S a m w ere:
S tro n g ly A g re e D o n 't D is a g re e S tro n g ly
A g re e Know D is a g re e
1. p eac efu l_____________ ___ ____ ____ ____
2. s m a r t ____ ___ ____ ____ ___
3. frie n d ly __________ ____ ____ ___ ____ ____
4. rude ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
5. helpful ____ ____ ___ ___ ___
6. s e lfish ____ ____ ____ ___ ____
(Note: T o co m p e n sa te for the two le s s ite m s on th is in s tru m e n t as
c o m p a re d to the o th e rs , each ite m w as m u ltip lie d by 8 /6 to yield a
c o m p a ra b le sc o re ).
160
A PPE N D IX J
DIRECTIONS FO R ADMINISTERING AND SCORING
AND P R O JE C T IV E PIC TU R ES TEST
A d m in istra tio n
- - (M ake s u re e v e ry child has a box of c ray o n s).
- - S a y : P le a s e tu rn your te s t p a p e rs o v e r. (C heck to se e that
this is done). --S ay : Now we a r e going to do som ething th a t m an y of
you look fo rw a rd to a t the end of the d a y --d ra w . T h e re is only one
thing you m u s t re m e m b e r to do, h o w ev er. You m u s t d ra w s o m e
thing about the Indians of today. Som e of the things you d ra w about
m ig h t be the following:
H om es T ra n s p o rta tio n Cooking G etting F o o d
W ork P la y C lothes O th er A ctiv ities
- - Say: You have 20 m in u tes to fin ish your p ic tu re . P le a s e do
n ot d is c u s s your p ic tu re with your frie n d s , n o r a s k your frie n d s about
th e ir s . A re th e re any q u estio n s? (T im e should be allow ed to a n sw e r
any q u estio n s the ch ild ren m ig h t b rin g up).
--S ay : A ll rig h t, you m a y begin now. (As the p ic tu re s a r e
being draw n, the e x a m in e r c irc u la te s aro u n d the ro o m . If the p ic
tu re shows som ething that is n o t im m e d ia te ly c le a r to h im , the child
should be a sk ed to say w hat he is draw ing, o r w hat is going on. The
c h ild 's explanation can then be w ritte n onto the p ic tu re i t s e l f . )________
161
--S ay : V e ry good. Now stop and quickly put y our cray o n s
back into the boxes.
S coring
1. M ake s u re th e re is so m e w ay of identifying the p ic tu re s .
2. A fte r the p ic tu re s a r e c o llected , m ix th e m up. T his w ill
e lim in a te th e p o ssib ility of sco rin g b ia s , since the c h ild 's n a m e and
group should a p p e a r on the te s ts which a r e face down.
3. In g e n e ra l, two things should be looked for and s c o r e d - -
d e g re e of ste re o ty p in g to a p a st im a g e , and p ro je c te d a ttitu d e s of
h o s tility or d isfa v o r. S p ecifically , h e r e a r e so m e of the things
w hich should be sc o re d :
skin co lo r - - Is it re d or light brow n? If re d or so m e other
"off" c o lo r, one point stereo ty p in g should be s c o re d ?
type of activity- - A r e the Indians engaged in violence or th re a ts
to w ard s each o th e r o r to w ard s w hites ?(one point)
4. O th e r a r e a s fo r sc o rin g should be the following:
h o m e s: Though it is tru e th a t m a n y Indian h o m es a r e built the
w ay they w e re h u n d red s of y e a rs ago, this p robably i s n 't so ty p ical
any m o r e . Indians u su a lly do not live in tents or b irc h b a rk h o m e s,
though P u eb lo s in N ew M exico s till live in adobe buildings. T h u s, if
the p ic tu re show s a village with g r a s s huts o r te p e e s, s c o re one
point. If cooking is done o utside, one point.
______ tra n s p o rta tio n : P rim itiv e m e a n s of tra n s p o rta tio n a r e p robably
162
n ot ty p ical any m o r e am ong the In d ian s. T h u s, if the p ic tu re s show
Indians on h o rs e b a c k , one point should be sc o re d . U se of dugout,
b irc h b a rk o r re e d canoes a lso would get one point. B a re fo o t w alking
o r ru n n in g --o n e point.
cooking: Ite m s th at w ould re c e iv e one point would be cooking
o ver an open f ir e , o r w ith hot ro c k s .
getting food: A c tiv itie s su ch as hunting w ith bows and a rro w s,
sp e a rin g fish , g ath erin g a c o rn s o r b e r r i e s , trap p in g ra b b its would
each re c e iv e one point.
kinds of w ork: A c tiv itie s such as m aking a r r o w h e a d s and
s p e a rs would s c o re a point. B a s k e t w eaving and p o tte ry m aking
would not count b e c a u se m a n y trib e s still do this (though n o t as f r e
quently a s p rev io u sly ). Skinning a n im a ls fo r c lo th e s, pounding a c o rn
m e a l w ith s to n e s , le a rn in g to w eave, m aking h u ts, a r e types of
a c tiv itie s th a t would get one point ap iece.
tools: E x tr a points would be added if w eapons and tools such as
bows and a rro w s and sto n e im p le m e n ts w e re u se d .
d r e s s : Indians u s u a lly d r e s s like o th er people, ex cep t on
sp e c ia l o c c a sio n s. Should the c h ild re n d ep ict the Indians in a ty p ic a l
villag e scen e as h alf n aked (one point), with fe a th e re d h e a d d re s s
(one m o re point) o r w ith le a th e r clothes and g ra s s s k ir ts (one point)
th e se w ould a ll be s c o re d , u n le ss it was fu rth e r explained in the
p ic tu re o r by the child th a t such clothes w e re being w o rn a s a p a r t of
163
a s p e c ia l c e re m o n y .
o th e r a c tiv itie s : T h e se m ig h t include education, e n te rta in m e n t,
play, sm oking p eac e p ip e s, etc. F o r ex am p le, if m o s t Indian c h ild re n
now go to school, a point should be s c o re d if the child draw ing the
p ic tu re say s an Indian boy w as being educated by being shown how to
m a k e a rro w h e a d s .
5. T h e re should be no duplication of sc o rin g . If a village h a s
five g r a s s h u ts, fo r in sta n c e , each hut does n o t re c e iv e one point.
R a th e r, one point is s c o re d for the g e n e ra l ste re o ty p e of the village
having g r a s s h u ts. On the o th e r hand, a fa th e r showing his son how
to m ak e a rro w h e a d s could be s c o re d two points: one for the kind of
w o rk being p e rfo rm e d and one fo r the kind of education the boy is
re c e iv in g . If Indians a r e p ic tu re d galloping on th e ir h o r s e s going
a fte r buffalo w ith re d skin and fe a th e rs in th e ir h a ir , five points could
be s c o r e d - - o n e fo r skin c o lo r, one fo r d r e s s , one fo r m ode of t r a n s
p o rta tio n , one for the m ethod u se d in getting food, and one fo r w e a p
ons if bows and a rro w s a r e u se d . T he c a te g o ry is w hat is being
s c o re d , not the am ount of the sa m e a c tiv ity going on.
164
A PPE N D IX K Code__
Gp__
NAM E_______ ; _____________________________ A G E________
Boy_______ G irl_______ G rad e_______ School______________________________
DIRECTIONS: E a c h of the sev en q u estio n s below h as five a n s w e rs .
P ic k the a n s w e r you think is rig h t. C h eck only one sp a c e for each
question. Y our f ir s t a n sw e r is p ro b ab ly the b e s t one, so don't
change once you have m a rk e d a sp ace.
1. Would you like an Indian as a cousin?
v e ry m u ch , y e s, d o n 't know, no, not a t all.
2. Would you like an Indian as a ro o m m a te ?
v e ry m u ch , y e s , d o n 't know, no, not a t all.
3. Would you like an Indian as a good frien d ?
v e ry m u ch , y e s, d o n 't know, no, not at all.
4. Would you like an Indian as a n eig h b o r?
v e ry m u ch , y e s , d o n 't know, no, n o t a t all.
5. Would you like an Indian as a p la y m ate ?
v e ry m u ch , y e s , d o n 't know, no, not a t all.
6. W ould you like an Indian as a m e m b e r of your c la ss ?
v e ry m u ch , y e s, d o n 't know, no, ^ n ot a t all.
7. Would you like an Indian to be in your school?
v e ry m u ch , y e s, d o n 't know, no, not a t a ll
When you a r e fin ish ed , p le a se c o v e r this page. Do not le t
your frie n d s see your a n s w e rs.
165
A P P E N D IX L
N AM E_____________________________________A G E _
Boy G irl G ra d e R oom ________ School
DIRECTIONS: H e re a r e so m e w o rd s w hich m a y o r m a y not
d e s c rib e the Indians of today. To the rig h t of each w o rd a r e five
s p a c e s . A bove th e se sp a c e s a r e h e a d in g s. T he h eadings go fro m
"S trongly A g re e " to "S tro n g ly D is a g r e e " . If you stro n g ly a g re e ,
p lace a check on the sp a c e u n d e r this p h ra s e and to the rig h t of the
w ord you a r e a n sw e rin g . If you a g re e , o r d o n 't know, o r d is a g re e
o r stro n g ly d is a g re e , place a check on th o se s p a c e s u n d e r one of
the head in g s w hich say the w ay you fe e l about it. No one w ill talk
about your ch o ic e s. C o v er your p a p e rs to keep your frie n d s fro m
looking.
In g e n e ra l, Indians
of today a r e : S tro n g ly A g re e D o n 't D is a g re e S tro n g ly
A g re e Know D is a g re e
1. p eacefu l ___ ____ ___ ____ ___
2. fo o lish ___ ____ ____ ____ ___
3. b ra v e ____ ___ ____ ___ ____
4. la zy ___ ____ ____ ___ ___
5. not polite ___ ____ ____ ____ ____
6. s m a r t ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
7. s tra n g e ____ ____ ____ ____ ___
8. u n educated ____ ____ ____ ____ ___
9. helpful ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
10. d ish o n e st ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
11. frien d ly ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
12. g en ero u s ____ ____ ____ ____ ___
13. b rag g in g ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
14. a r ti s tic ____ ____ ___ ___
P le a s e do n o t le t your frie n d s look!
code
g p;
166
code_____
A PPE N D IX M Gp_____
N A M E______________________________________ A G E__________
Boy G irl G rad e R oom School_________________________ ____
DIRECTIONS: On the n e x t four pages a r e five s to r ie s . A fte r each
s to ry a r e so m e s ta te m e n ts . P le a s e ch eck the s ta te m e n t a fte r each
s to ry you a g re e w ith the m o s t.
A
B illy S w ifta rro w w as a Sioux Indian boy. H is c la s s m a te s w e re
a ll w hite. O ften, B illy w as te a se d .
One day, B illy did n o t show up in the c la s s r o o m a fte r r e c e s s .
The ja n ito r found h im in the h e a te r ro o m . B illy d id n 't s e e m to be
h im s e lf. W hen the ja n ito r c alled h im , B illy a c te d as though he w a s n 't
th e re . In ste a d , the boy se e m e d to be talking to im a g in a ry people. He
c alled th e m the dead s p ir its of his fam ous w a r r io r g re a t-g ra n d p a re n ts .
'.'B illy," c alled the ja n ito r. "Stop th a t! G et hold of y o u rse lf.
P e o p le w ill think you a r e out of your m ind. "
C heck the sp a c e in fro n t of the se n te n c e s below you a g re e with
m o s t. M ake only one choice.
______ B illy w as re a lly out of his m ind.
______ B illy could be out of h is m ind.
______I d o n 't know if B illy is out of his m in d o r not.
______ B illy is not out of h is m ind.
______ B illy is not out of h is m ind a t all.
167
B
S a m w as a H opi Indian boy. He w ent to school w h e re th e re
w e re no In d ian s. T he w hite c h ild re n u s e d to w onder about S a m s o m e
tim e s . O ften he would be ab se n t. J o e , S a m 's b e s t frie n d , told the
c h ild re n why: S a m had to go to sp e c ia l d a n c e s. T oday, h e w as ta k
ing p a r t in a ra in dance.
"E v e ry o n e knows dancing d o e s n 't b rin g r a i n , " said Sue.
"O ur te a c h e r ju s t told u s clouds m a k e r a i n , " added R ed.
"S am is ju s t w asting his tim e dancing when he should be l e a r n
ing im p o rta n t things like sp ellin g and reading,", sta te d M a ry .
C heck the sp ace in fro n t of the sen ten c e below you a g re e w ith
m o s t. Do not check m o re than one.
______I s tro n g ly a g re e w ith M a ry .
I a g re e w ith M a ry .
______I have no opinion about w hat M a ry said.
I d is a g re e with M a ry .
I stro n g ly d is a g re e w ith M a ry .
C
J i m and Jo e w e re lo st. T h e ir c a r h ad b ro k en down on the h ig h
w ay. T he boys had gone for h elp when th e ir fa th e r had tw iste d his
foot w hile stepping into a hole.
T he ro ad se e m e d to be w ithout end. F in a lly , the boys saw a
168
town. W hen they got th e re , h o w ev er, they saw only a few em pty
buildings. J i m h e a rd a n o ise behind h im . T u rn in g , he saw a ta ll
f i g u r e - - a m a n . T his s tr a n g e r w o re a re d s h ir t, blue je an s and had
s tra ig h t, b la ck h a ir and s h a rp , b la ck e y e s. J im w as s u re he w as an
A pache Indian.
" L e t's g et out of h e r e , " said J im .
"W ait a m in u te ," re p lie d Jo e . "M aybe this m a n can h elp u s .
L e t's a s k h im . "
"You go a h e a d ," a n s w e re d J im . " I 'm leaving now. "
C heck the space in fro n t of the sen ten c e you a g re e w ith m o st.
Do not check m o re than one.
I s tro n g ly a g re e w ith Jim .
I a g re e with J im .
I d o n 't a g re e with e ith e r J i m o r Jo e .
I a g re e w ith Jo e .
I stro n g ly a g re e with Jo e .
D
Jo e and S tu a rt w e re th e b e s t of frie n d s . Jo e w as an Iro q u o is
Indian. One day, S tu a rt did not fe e l w ell. He decided not to go to
school. A w eek w ent by and his illn e s s w o rse n e d . E v e ry o n e at
school knew about it.
One night, w hile S tu a rt w as lying in bed, he looked out the
169
window and saw a te rrib le -lo o k in g face . H uge yellow eyes and a
giant re d m outh looked in at h im . T he boy w as frig h ten ed , and gave
a shout. H is fa th e r h e a rd h im and ru s h e d o u tsid e. He found th a t
this face w as only a m a s k w hich had b een w o rn by Jo e . How do you
think S tu a rt should fe e l to w ard s his frie n d ?
C heck the space in fro n t of the sen ten ce below you a g re e with
m o s t. Do not check m o re than one.
S tu a rt should be a n g ry enough to h it J o e fo r w hat he had
done.
He should be a n g ry b e c a u se Jo e w as th o u g h tless.
He should be n e ith e r a n g ry o r happy about it.
He should be a little happy about th is, b e c a u se of J o e 's
atten tio n .
He should be v e ry happy b e c a u se Jo e m ig h t be try in g to
help h im .
E
M a ria w as a little N avajo Indian g ir l who w ent to a w hite school
n e a r h e r re s e rv a tio n . She liked m o s t of h e r s u b je c ts , but h e r
fa v o rite w as a r t.
M iss J o n e s , h e r te a c h e r, w as glad to s e e M a ria show so m u c h
effo rt and p rid e in h e r painting. A t the sa m e tim e , h o w ev er, she
w anted to see h e r tr y d iffe re n t th in g s. In p a r tic u la r , M a r ia 's co lo rs
alw ays se e m e d to be the s a m e --b ro w n s and b lu e s --a n d no re d s a t all.
W ouldn't so m e re d give ju s t the liv ely touch M a r ia 's a r t needed?
170
" M a ria , " began M iss J o n e s . "W hy d o n 't you t r y d iffe re n t c o lo rs
in y our p ic tu re s b e sid e s blue and brow n? T r y a little r e d - - i t would
m a k e your p ic tu re s m uch m o re in te re s tin g . "
"I c a n 't do th a t, " re p lie d M a ria . "R ed is a bad c o lo r. It is
n e v e r u s e d in o u r tr i b e . "
C heck the sp ace in fro n t of the sen ten c e below you a g re e w ith
m o s t. Do not ch eck m o re than one.
M a ria is stupid and should do w hat the te a c h e r sa y s.
M a ria is su p e rs titio u s and should be taught to u s e a ll
c o lo rs .
M a r ia sim p ly d o e s n 't know any b e tte r .
I d o n 't know w hat to think about w hat M a ria said .
M a r ia is not s u p e rs titio u s .
M a r ia is not su p e rs titio u s a t a ll. C o lo rs have d iffe re n t
m e an in g s to h e r.
A fte r you hav e finished a ll five of th e se s to r ie s , co v er th e m up
so th a t y our n e ig h b o rs can not see your a n s w e rs . M ak e s u r e you
h av e a n s w e re d eac h sto ry . T hen, if you have som e e x tra tim e , you
m a y get so m e c ra y o n s w ith your te a c h e r 's p e r m is s io n , and d ra w on
the b a c k of this p a p e r an o th e r scen e of w hat you think Indians a r e like
today.
171
A PPE N D IX N
NAME___________________________________________
DIRECTIONS: B elow a r e so m e q u estio n s about the s to r y you w e re
given to re a d . R e m e m b e r th a t you re a d one of th e se th re e s to rie s :
A pple P ic k in g .T im e , T he C a n o e , and Two W o rld s . R e c a ll as m u ch as
you can about it, then re a d th e s e sta te m e n ts below . D ecide w h eth er
you s tro n g ly a g re e (SA), a g re e (Ag), a r e u n d ecid ed (Und), d is a g re e
(Dis) o r stro n g ly d is a g re e (SD). T hen put a check over the blank
u n d e r th o se a b b re v ia tio n s. P le a s e do n o t le t your frie n d s look!
SA Ag Und Dis SD
1. T his s to ry w as fun to re a d . _ _
2. T his s to ry w as a w a ste of tim e . __ __
33 I thought a lo t about this s to ry __ __ __ __
a fte rw a rd s .
4. T h is s to ry w as tirin g and dull. __ __ __ __ __
5. T his s to ry had no m ean in g fo r m e __ __ __ __
in m y own life.
6. T his s to ry w as v e ry in te re s tin g . __ __ __ __ __
7. T his s to ry w as too long. __ __ __ __
8. T his s to ry w as good b e c a u se it __ __ __ __
m a d e m e think.
9. T his s to ry w as too h a rd to re a d . __ __ __ __ __
10. The p e rs o n s in the s to ry w e re ____________ __ __ __
v e ry in te re s tin g .
172
SA Ag Und Dis SD
11. I le a rn e d v e ry m u ch fro m read in g __
this s to ry .
12. T he s to ry w as too sim p le . I knew __ __ _ _ __ __
w hat would happen ah ead of tim e
13. I d id n 't g et anything out of this __ __ __ __ __
sto ry .
14. I would lik e to re a d this s to ry __ __ __ __ __
ag ain so m e tim e .
15. Two things I liked about the s to ry w e re :___________________________
16. Two things I d islik ed about the s to ry w ere:

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Asset Metadata

Creator Cass, Timothy Edmund (author)

Core Title The Effects Of Differential Presentation Of Story Theme Concerning A Minority Member On Preadolescent Attitudes Towards That Minority

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, general,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Martin, David W. (committee chair), Brown, Charles M. (committee member), Larue, Gerald A. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-401130

Unique identifier UC11361382

Identifier 7016855.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-401130 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 7016855.pdf

Dmrecord 401130

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Cass, Timothy Edmund

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA