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An Analysis Of Differences Of Opinion Among Legislators, College Professors, And Business Teachers Regarding Business Teacher Preparation

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An Analysis Of Differences Of Opinion Among Legislators, College Professors, And Business Teachers Regarding Business Teacher Preparation

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Content This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 68-17,024 GLASSER, Helen, 1925- AN ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENCES OF OPINION AMONG LEGISLATORS, COLLEGE PROFESSORS, AND BUSI NESS TEACHERS REGARDING BUSINESS TEACHER PREPARATION. University of Southern California, Ph.D., 1968 Education, teacher training University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan © Copyright by Helen Glasser 1968 AN ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENCES OF OPINION AMONG LEGISLATORS, COLLEGE PROFESSORS,, AND;; BUSINESS ' ‘ TEACHERS , ’ . REGARDING BUSINESS TEACHER PREPARATION • by ■ 'v. _ . Helen Glasser A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE . GRADUATE SCHOOL:'- . UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) June 1968 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by Helen G lasser under, the direction of h$F..... Dissertation Com m ittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y r Dean Date. DISSERTATION COMMITTEE Q t L j Q . e iirma TABLE OP CONTENTS Chapter Page LIST OP TABLES................................ iv I. THE PROBLEM............ ' . 1 Statement of the Problem Background of the Problem Importance of the Problem Limitations Procedures Definition of Terms Organization of the Study II. REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE..................... 13 Introduction Literature Related to Teacher Education Literature Related to Business Teacher Education Literature Related to Certification Summary , III. FINDINGS......................................... 104 Introduction Legislation and State Department Dicta Practices in the California State Colleges Questionnaires--State Colleges Questionnaires— Out-of-state Colleges and Universities IV. AN ANALYSIS OP FINDINGS.......................... 176 Introduction An Analysis of Findings with Regard to the Opinions of Legislators An Analysis of Findings with Regard to the Opinions of Business Educators An Analysis of Findings with Regard to the Opinions of Business Teachers— McCullough's Study Summary ----------------: --------ii--------------------------- Chapter Page V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . .215 Summary Findings Conclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY............... 227 APPENDIX....................... 241 iii_____ LIST OP TABLES Table Page 1. Undergraduate Teacher Preparation............. 24 2. Prevailing Practices in 1932 .................. 38 3. Comparison of Graham*s Suggested Curricula from the 1933 Study and the 1949 Study............................... 65 4. Comparison of Credential Requirements............133 5. Comparison of Credential Requirements............ 136 6. Major Requirements California State Colleges ' Accounting and .Data Processing............... l4l 7. Major Requirements California State Colleges Mathematics and Statistics....................142 8. Major Requirements California State Colleges Economics and Marketing........................ 143 9. Major Requirements California State Colleges Finance, Law, and Miscellaneous Business Courses.......................... 144 10. Major Requirements California State Colleges Management..................................... 145 11. Major Requirements 'California State Colleges Business Communications, Principles of Business Education and Business Experience.......... 146 12. Major Requirements California State Colleges Skill Subjects.................................147 ----------------------------iv - ____________________ _ Table Page 13. Major Specialization Options California State Colleges Business Education ....................148 14. Professional Education Requirements California State Colleges..................... 1 5 0 15. Curricula Changes California State Colleges........... 152 16. Changes in Business Content Subjects California State Colleges..................... 153 1 7. Aims, Curricula, Procedures in Secondary Business Education California State Colleges........... 157 18. Research in Business Education California State Colleges..................... 158 19. Personality and Human Relations California State Colleges..................... 159 20. Data Processing California State Colleges..................... 160 21. Social and Economic Environment California State Colleges . l6l 22. Business Experience • California State Colleges;. . . ...............163 2 3. Length of Experience California State Colleges...................... 163 24. Methods Courses California State Colleges...................... 164 2 5. Aims, Curricula, Procedures in Secondary Business Education Out-of-state Institutions. ............. . 1 68 2 6. Research in Business Education Out-of-state Institutions...................... 168 2 7. Personality and Human Relations Out-of-state Institutions...................... 1 6 9 ________ v____________________ _ . . . . _____ _ Table Page 28. Data Processing Out-of-state Institutions..................... 17 0 2 9. Social and Economic Environment Out-of-state Institutions..................... 171 30. Business Experience Out-of-state Institutions..................... 172 31. Length of Experience Out-of-state Institutions..................... 172 3 2. Methods Courses Out-of-state Institutions.......... 173 3 3. A Comparison of Opinions of Legislators, Business Educators, and Business Teachers................................... 212 _vi___ CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study is threefold: first to • collect the opinions about business teacher preparation of legislators, state college professors, and business teach ers; second to see in which areas agreement and differences occur; and third to analyze the implication of these areas of agreement and difference for the development of a pro gram for business teacher preparation in California. Background of the Problem ...if a teacher commands the respect of his students, if he envisions his central task as that of impart ing knowledge to advance human freedom, if he is willing to sacrifice himself for the principles he teaches, then he is a great teacher, whether he . teach in a rural one-room elementary school, in an august university, or in a slum school in Harlem. He may go unheralded in literature, uncodified in textbooks, unobserved by outsiders, but by the strength of a democracy he shall be known. (64:454) Such is the tribute a great teacher can command. How does one fulfill these requirements? How does one acquire the background to accomplish this goal? Hutchins has said, "All there is to teaching can be learned through a good education and being a teacher." (12:56) On the other hand, Conant says that "an AB in mathematics or chemistry or English, ... who has had no introduction to the realities of-school teaching, should not be hired by a local board.” (3:204) Jacobs in his study, The Relation of the Teacher’s Education to Her ' ' - ' ■ T " I I > Effectiveness, found that Hutchins’ plan works to the detriment of a teacher's- first students. Perhaps it is in these early years that, at the expense of her pupils, the poorly pre- . pared teacher acquires by one means or another the knowledge, skill, and ideals that she should have acquired in the course of her professional education.r (1 3:9 2) It seems that teacher education should come prior to teaching.. If then, one decides that a program of profes sional education is necessary, what does that program include? Conant would stress practice teaching (3:245), Combs would change the traditional organization of the teacher's preparation program to reflect the shift in emphasis from content to the learner. (2:11'3) A group of unidentified principals in the state of Washington were not worried about the subject matter preparation of their teachers but said: What we need are teacher s who understand children, who understand the school and its role in society, who know how to organize learning, and who know how to evaluate growth and learning. (90:447) Although, on the one hand, Conant feels: The leaders of our schools and colleges of education are not in agreement, and cannot reach an agreement about the amount and kind of training that should be required of those who seek 3 certification as teachers, Childs feels this assumption is invalid. (47:265) McMahon in comparing the proposals for the preparation of teachers of the past and the present, found an agreement in the majority of the proposals with differences in emphasis. (8 3: 6 9) In fact she found: One of the most fascinating aspects of this whole problem of what should constitute the best preparation for a secondary school teacher is the amazing similarity of present-day proposals to those' that -were made during the last decade of the nineteenth century. ( 8 3: 7 1) If there is a variety of opinions concerning the best teacher-preparation program on the part of the educators who train teachers— be it merely a matter of emphasis or more--what can be said of the others who are involved in the setting of standards— the representatives of the people, the legislators? Is their opinion of the desirable quali fications in line with, that of the educators? What is their view and why is it important? Because the United States Constitution failed to list education within the realm of national power, this respon sibility fell to the states. And although the states vary in the exercise of this responsibility, one way they can directly influence the educational field is through.the certification of teachers. Mayes' quote of Benjamin W. Frazier (Development of State Programs for the Certifica tion of Teachers, U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1938, 4 No. 12, p. 5) is a comprehensive picture of the purpose of certification as traditionally administered. The primary purpose of teacher certification, as traditionally administered, is to protect the State against incompetent teachers. It protects the State against waste in the expenditure of public school funds, protects pupils against ill- prepared teachers; and protects qualified teachers against unfair competition of those not qualified. Properly administered, certification may be made a positive force, for educational advancement, as well as a protective device. Within limits it may be made to advance teacher competency, as well as to prevent manifest incompetency. It may be used not only to advance the qualifications of beginning teachers, but also to improve the quali fications of teachers in service....Properly admin istered, certification is one of the most effective means to raise the qualifications of teachers. (1 2 8: 2 ) But what happens if the situation ceases to be a "positive force for educational advancement"? What happens when the "overall purpose or integrating theme is no longer evident in the fifty-nine garden variety of credential requirements now in effect" (106:230) as in California? What happens to the teacher education program in an area such as business education? . . '-■ Importance of the Problem The California Superintendent of Public Instruction, recognizing the existence of this problem, in 1951 appointee, a statewide committee representing administrators, class room teachers, and representatives from professional organ izations, teacher-education institutions, and the State Department of Education to "establish a factual basis for '5 the revision of credential requirements." (67:443) From that date until the passage of The Licensing of Certifi cated Personnel Law of 1 9 6 1, commonly referred to as The Fisher Bill, this problem was studied by all organizations concerned with teacher certification. In 1954, The Commit tee on Revision of the Credential Structure in California was appointed jointly by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction and the California Council on Teacher Education. From 1954 its exhaustive study of the credential structure in California culminated in a final report made in the spring of 1 9 5 7* which proposed "the most revolutionary change in the credentialing structure in the history of the state." (67:444) The law, as originally passed, brought forth a deluge of sharp criticism from many quarters in the educational field. Not the least affected by the bill was the area of business education. Tonne penetrated the heart of the matter when he said: The latest evidence of the hysteria for academic subject matter has come forth in Calir- fornia. The legislature, the state educational authorities, and the executive decided that only an academic major would be accepted for teaching in California. Non-academic subjects (among which business subjects are classified) would be permitted a minor for preparation. In other words, a teacher of business would have a major of 45 points in some academic subject, but only a minor of 21 to 24 points in the total area in which he was to teach. In a small school this would mean that he would have to be prepared to teach all business subjects in 24 points! Fortunately, by quick action on the part of leadership in nonacademic . • 6 subjects this move was countered. The new legis lation provides that a prospective teacher must have either a major or a minor in an academic subject. (110:224) Therefore, in spite of many years of study by numer ous groups so that.all involved in a subsequent revision would be heard, no sooner was the law passed than it had to be revised to the extent that finally it reached a point to warrant Stone’s comment, "to change the concept of the law every month makes a mockery of its majesty and a yo-yo of its practice." (105:287) In addition, at a November 1966 meeting in Southern California of representatives of California's three branches of higher education--the public junior colleges, the state colleges, and the state univer- sity--who studied the credentialing process in business education, the general consensus was that confusion exists in the credentialing requirements. The Chief of the Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification of the.State Depart ment of Education, Carl Larson, a participant in the discussion, most emphatically agreed with this evaluation of the credentialing situation in business education. This study, therefore, is an investigation of the facets that led to the present status of business education teacher training in California. If, as Frazier said, that the purpose of credentialing can be made a "positive force for educational advancement, as well as a protective device," a study of the legislator's 7 views of the proper qualifications for business teacher preparation would givei: an insight to their opinions. If, in addition, the views of the college professors who train business teachers could be determined, together with a con sensus of the business teachers in the classroom of the most desirable teacher preparation program for the business teacher, an area of agreement leading to such a program might be evolved. Limitations This study is limited to the state of California, its state college professors of business education, and the programs in those state colleges that offer business education teacher preparation. In addition, the programs of interest to this study will be limited to the prepara tion of high-school teachers, either in a 9 -1 2 or a 1 0 -1 2 system. The term legislator is limited to a member of the California State Legislature at the time of the hearings, investigations, and the passage of the Fisher Bill and its amendments. Procedures The opinions of the legislators-were derived from a study and analysis of legislation and state department dicta. This material was made available through the Secretary of the Senate, Mr. Joe Beek, and the State Libraiy 8 in Sacramento. Additional information was obtained from the California Teachers Association. To study the effect of the legislation on the state college business teacher preparation programs, an investi gation of the practices in effect was made through a deter mination of their programs as listed in their respective catalogs. A questionnaire, an adaptation of the one used in the Jessie Graham study in 1933> The Evolution of Business Education in the United States, was sent to the chairmen of the state college departments of business education and secondary education. If an institution did not have a business education department, the questionnaire was sent to the chairman of the department of business Ldministration. The questionnaire and the letter of transmittal appear in the Appendix, together with the follow-up letter, which was sent one month later. The questionnaire sought to determine the changes that have taken place since 1957j some relevant information concerning! jthe programs at the state colleges, and the views of those reporting concerning specific aspects of a teacher prepar ation program and desired changes to be effected. Although letters Were sent to two departments in each state college, to ensure a response from that college, it was not expected that both departments would so conform. Of the eighteen state colleges, four replied that they had no specific program for business teacher preparation; one 9 ‘ replied it offered only a minor field preparation in busi ness .education; nine returned one completed questionnaire, and one returned two completed questionnaires. Of the fourteen state colleges with a program of business teacher preparation, ten reported their programs. In addition, similar material was sent to the chair men of the departments of business education of eighteen out-of-state teacher preparation institutions. The list, which appears in the Appendix, was chosen as a representa- i , ' tive group of state-sponsored teacher-education.institutions throughout the United States. This information was sought as a measure against which to compare the programs in the state colleges of California. Six of these questionnaires were returned-completed. A recently completed dissertation at the University of Southern California by Edith McCullough, "Opinions of Beginning High School Business Teachers Regarding Their College Preparation for Teaching," was the basis for the opinions of the business teacher in the classroom. Through a careful study of the opinions of the three contributors, areas in which agreement and differences occurred were determined to analyze the implication of these areas of agreement and differences for the develop ment of a program for business teacher preparation in California. .10 Definition of Terms Academic subject matter area: refers exclusively to the natural sciences, the social sciences (other than education and the educational methodology) the humanities, mathematics and the fine arts'. The State Board of Education may consider a given subject matter major, whatever its title, to be an academic subject matter major if it finds that at the specific institution the required courses and the content of such courses within the major are equivalent to those of an academic subject matter major. (The Education Code, Section 13188(a)) Business teacher: denotes a person engaged full time in the practice of teaching at the high school such subjects as Typewriting, Stenography, Bookkeeping, General Business, and Office Practice. Credential: that which authorizes the holder to teach at a certain level or in certain subject matter areas. Designated Subjects Credential: is a credential applicable to the teaching of "special subjects for which the teaching competence or preparation are generally acquired through experience other than collegiate training, or through a combination of practical experience and formal education." (24) General business methods course: a course in classroom procedures that may be used to teach any business 11 subject in the high school curriculum. General methods course: a course in classroom procedures that may be used to teach any course in the secondary t. • curriculum. Non-academic subject matter area: those subject matter areas not included in the Education Code’s definition of ’ 'academic" cited above. Business education is therefore an example of a non-academic subject matter area. Specific business methods course: a course in classroom procedures that may be used in the teaching of one specific business subject (i.e., shorthand, type writing, or bookkeeping). Standard Teaching Credential: is a credential applicable to all levels of teaching in the public schools and is issued with a specialization in elementary teaching, secondary teaching, and junior college teaching, the preparation for which is acquired through collegiate training. The Standard Teaching Credential with a Specialization in Secondary Teaching authorizes the holder to teach the major and minor subjects named on the credential (see Appendix for complete authorization). 12 Organization of the Study This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter I starts.with a statement of the problem, which is then discussed as to background and importance. The limitations of the study are then enumerated. A description of the methods and procedures is followed by a definition of terms and the organization of the study. Chapter II is devoted to a review of the literature dealing with teacher education in general and business education in particular. In addition, the literature covering the history of credentialing and studies of credentialing practices, as well as articles concerning the California credentialing situation, are included. Chapter III is devoted to the findings with regard to the legislation and state department dicta; the practices at the state colleges; and the opinions of business educa tors gathered from the questionnaries. Chapter IV analyzes the findings enumerated in Chapter III. Chapter V contains a summary of the analysis of the findings from which conclusions are drawn and recommenda tions are made. CHAPTER II REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE Introduction Chapter I contained a description of the state of confusion which exists in the credentialing of business education teachers in California. Since part of this study includes an,investigation of the facets that brought about this situation, it is necessary to understand some phases of teacher education and the credentialing process. In addition, the development, philosophy, and objectives of business education, in particular, should be reviewed in order to enable an appreciation of the situation as it relates specifically to this field. Through a review of the relevant literature in the three areas of teacher education, business education, and credentialing, this chapter forms the background necessary for this compre hension. Literature Related to Teacher Education We have come far from the time when teachers had only twelve weeks of normal school instruction beyond the bigh school, as remembered by Paul Woodring, to the five or six years of college now required. But he warns, "...there nay be a danger in that we are emphasizing time spent in _______________________________13____' _________________________ 14 college rather than the quality of instruction." (16:524) Jacobs's study to find significant differences between the education of the better and poorer teachers sought to find this difference in clock hours because of the objectivity of the method and.because "it was fair to assume that the greater amount of education would reveal itself in greater effectiveness." (13:88) He found the number of hours of preparation, however, makes relatively little difference after five years or more of experience. (1 3:9 1-2 ) We then must look to other means of improving the quality of teacher education. Some specific proposals that have been made by educational leaders follows. Specific Programs - . Woodring in setting down "Basic Principles for Development of State Certificate Programs," also recom mends a college teacher education program. It includes: a liberal education; a scholarly knowledge of the subject area to be taught; professional knowledge, as distinguished from professional skills; and skills in managing a classroom, planning instruction, working with children and young people and in the supervision of the learning process. (1 6: 5 2 5) Woodring expresses his belief that although the relative emphasis and balance are yet to be achieved, all of these phases are important when he says: The scientist who knows his subject but is unable to teach it effectively is a professional scientist but not a professional teacher. If he is a skilled teacher but does not know science he cannot 15 probably be a professional science teacher. If he lacks a liberal education he is not a profes sional at all, but at best a skilled technician. (16:525) He says the negative criticism coming from students about their education courses stems from poor organization. His recommended program in education is very similar to the Master of Arts in Teaching started at Harvard in 1 9 3 6* which "has been well tested over the years." (1 6:5 2 7) His program would reorganize all preteaching courses, in education into the following three units: I. Introduction to Education - the historical and philosophical foundations II. The Nature of the Learner and the Learning Process III. Methods and Materials of Instruction - flexible as to level and subject (1 6:5 2 6-7) Trump1s recommendations of guidelines for teacher education stresses a more systematic selection and recruitment of teachers, striving for a better image of the teaching profession. (112:448) He suggests a different pype of academic and professional education which would have the students in a five-year program engaged concur rently in work experiencej in courses in his subject spe cialty as well as in general liberal arts; and in profes sional education lectures, seminars, and activities. 16 The on-the-job experience needs to start when the prospective teacher enters college. As a paid teacher- assistant, he should devote five hours a week during the first year, ten hours--the second and third years, and fifteen hours— the fourth and fifth years. During these first two years, he would work as a clerk and general aide} from the second through the1third year, there should be a gradual transition to the level of instructional assistant} and in the fourth and fifth years there should be a transi tion from instructional assistant to professional teacher. The pace of change.will vary with individual students. (112:44$') The subject coursesvfor teachers, Trump feels, need to be different from those for researchers or students in other professions. His college program reflects the organizational features of the Trump Plan for the public schools. Professional education courses will include large group presentations to give background information and assign work to be read, listened to, or viewed in learning resource centers on the campus and in the schools where students work. The students will also meet regularly in classes of fifteen or less to discuss what they are learning on campus and in schools. Both educa tion and subject specialty professors need to meet with these seminars. (112:449) He sums up his program in the following manner: Over a five-year period, the essential knowledge in liberal arts, subject matter, and in education will be studied and disucssed by the prospective professional teachers in conjunction with actual______ IT on-the-job experience. These teachers can be taught as they will be expected to teach. The program will bring together realistically the various ingredients for the making of a professional teacher: the schools\ the universitiesj state education . agencies,; and the United States Office of Educationi and the various related professional organizations. (112:449) Combs feels that because of our change in the conception of'the learning process which shifts the empha sis from content to learner, "the traditional organization of the teacher-preparation program is no longer adequate." (2:113) This new program must provide flexibility through permitting students to move at different speeds, providing content and experience in response to student needs, providing simultaneous experiences, and placing much more responsibility on the student himself. (2:115) To achieve the latter goals, the teacher-training program will need: to expect and demand that the students take an active part in their own education. • ...to involve students ultimately in the planning and direction of their education experiences and programs. ...to provide the administrative, instruc tional, and physical facilities for encouraging individual and small group communication and experimentation in every way possible. ( 2 :1 1 7) Combs believes the professional aspects of teacher education should be organized so that "each student would be engaging in three kinds of experiences all the time: exposure to ideas, involvement in practice, and the discovery of meaning." ( 2 :1 1 9) 18 This discovery of personal meaning would be explored through a seminar of formal meetings of two hours a week for the entire period of the student's professional training. The purpose of the seminar would be to provide a group small enough for students to have adequate . opportunities for discussion* and stable enough so that there would be ample opportunity for them to get to know each other and to be known by their seminar professon-advisers. (2:119) The needs of the students in the group would form the basis for the seminar program. (2:120) Combs feels further benefits would be gained if these seminars were organized so "that beginners would be entering a group already in existence." ( 2 :1 2 1) The exposure to ideas would be provided by a college-wide lecture series of effective faculty speakers* imported outside speakers* panel discussions* and audio- visually geared programs. Limited group presentations* special workshops* exhibits and trips would round out the experiences. (2:122-4) Practical experiences would be provided through practice teaching which a student ideally would start at the very beginning of the- program as a teacher-helper for a half day a week. He would gradually increase his role and responsibility "until by the time of internship he would be in full charge of a classroom for a four-month period.” (2:125) Further practical experience can be 19 afforded through a program of observation to help raise questions, "provide important opportunities to see how other.people handle events,' and develop in the observers sensitivity to problems of the chssroom." (2:125-6) The use of closed-circuit television is recommended for these observations. Involvement in young people's groups and involvement in educational research can round out a future teacher,’ .s .'practical experience. ( 2 :1 2 6-7) In a teacher-education program of this kind, Combs suggests that "the important problem is to fit the peculiar talents and contributions of each faculty member into a smoothly operating team." ( 2 :1 2 8) / Although Conanttdid not investigate the educa tion of business teachers (3:viii), his book has had such an impact on the teacher education field that it warrants review here. Conant's plan involves three stages: "The first stage is an undergraduate program, the second a period of induction into the work of a school, the third an in-service program of further education leading to a master's degree." (6 : 2 5 6) He feels that, The undergraduate student is immature and inexperienced; therefore, some .of the difficult theoretical problems confronting the teaching profession can only be touched on lightly in undergraduate courses. What should be accomplished, I believe, is the laying of the foundation for further study in the graduate years. (6:25*5) His specific suggestions were divided in an article,.- "The Famous Twenty Seven," in Phi Delta Kappan 20 of June 1964, into five categories. Group D involves recommendations requiring action by the faculties, adminis trative officers, and trustees of an institution engaged in educating teachers for the public elementary and secondary schools. Those that pertain to the education of high school teachers include: 2. It's the college or university's respon sibility to develop its own program, to set up a state-approved practice teaching program and for the president to certify the candidate is prepared. (63:441) 13. There should be an all-university approach to teacher training. (63:441) 14. The requirements for a bachelor's degree for future teachers should be justified. (6 3: 4 4 1) 15. There should be evidence of foreign language competence if such courses are required in a degree. (63:441) 1 6. Every institution awarding a special teaching certificate for secondary school teachers should have on the staff a clinical professor for each field or combination of-closely related fields. (3:177) The clinical professors must be master teachers who themselves periodically teach at the level of those being supervised, and who are given by the college full recognition in salary and rank of their essential function...The clinical professor must be a master of teaching methods and materials1 he must also be up to date on advances in the educa tional sciences and know how to apply this knowledge to the concrete work in which his student teacher is involved. ( 3 : 6 2) 20. There should be a single-field diploma for secondary school teachers. (6 3: 4 4 1) 21. There should be clinical professors for eact field or combination of closely related fields. 22. There should be a teaching diploma for art, music, and physical education teachers with no grade 21 level specified. The unique feature of Conant's recommended master’s degree program is that it would give no credit for courses taken while working. The program should be accomplished during summer sessions or time taken from teaching. It would also give credit for elementary courses provided they were needed to increase the competence of the teacher. (6 3:442) When Conant limits the requirements that should be required for certification to a bachelor’s degree, evidence of practice teaching in an approved program, and a specially institution-endorsed-' teaching certificate, (3:6 0) he stresses his belief in the importance of practice teaching. He suggests this experience should include enough time: to participate in the overall planning of the semester’s work, to observe critically for a week or so, with the guidance of someone who can tell him what to look for, to begin with simple instructional tasks involving individuals, and small groups of children; ... and, ultimately, to assume full responsibility for an extended period of instruction which he plans, executes and evaluates. ( 3 : 6 1) "Nearly all of the twenty-seven steps have been opposed; nearly all have been defended." (63:441) What are some of the criticisms? In describing the effect of The Education of American Teachers, Phi Delta Kappan quoted a Colorado reporter saying: c 22 y It has helped to support the hands of admission officers and other seeking to strengthen teacher education. It has made the public more aware of teacher education problems and has stimulated self-study in the institutions. It is ' reminding people of the importance of a commitment by the entire institution. The fact that a man of Conant’s eminence makes such a study raises the prestige of teacher education. (73:434) In others it developed a feeling of hypersensitivity in that Conant presumes to be an authority in something he is not— "the taking over of free public education by the academicians is as absurd as if I told a surgeon how to operate." (73:434) Education deans report that "the most worthwhile of his suggestions are already being practiced and are gaining institutional form." (54:436) Robinson in comparing Conant’s report to Flexner’s said they were similar in that both were supported by the Carnegie Foundation to strengthen the bond between a specialty and the total university. "Both reports are sig nificant because they were timely contributions by authority figures, rather than great intellectual contributions with inherent value." (93:426) Robinson describes Conant’s book as a critical diag nosis of teacher education and a prescription for the ills discovered. However, he says, "he [Conant] still reflects a refusal to recognize the psychological imperative in learning as equivalent in importance to the scholarly content imperative," (93:428) and Conantfailed to place I 23 his findings in a philosophical or historical background." (93:429) In concluding his criticism, Robinson comments: "It fails to touch the basic area of the recruitment of able teachers. It fails to tackle the herculean task of (how to implement the proposals he does offer." (93:432) Childs in a 1 9 6 7 article reviewing the response of educationalists to Conant's report includes such comments as: it deals more with "certification" than education; ( 4 7: 2 6 5) it reduces teaching to a craft; ( 4 7: 2 6 6) it places the academic controversy at the.aheart of the teacher education problem instead of discovering ways in which our schools and colleges of education can be- strengthened. (47:268) In regard to this last criticism, Childs himself comments: They [the professors of education] recognize that an emphasis in education on "process" should be associated with an emphasis on "product;" and that a concern with the ^'how" of learning should be grounded in a concern with the "what" of learn ing. They find nothing antagonistic between respect for the child and respect for knowledge. (47:270) Childs feels that Conant's emphasis on practice teaching tends to reduce teaching to a skill that can be acquired through apprenticeship training under qualified teaching. (47:272) Thus- a special responsibility of the educational profession is the discovery and wise use of knowledge about the nature of the child and of the process by which he matures, learns, and becomes a respon sible and self-directing human being. Unless teachers have systematic opportunity to acquire knowledge of this kind, their educational activities will be blundering and imitative even 24 though marked by skills and techniques attained by practice teaching. (47:273) ••• experience* especially during the present century* has . shown that various scientific and philosophic disciplines can and have made "gigantic strides forward" in that complex process of providing and directing experience* which is the heart of education. It is the promise of these maturing disciplines* together with the knowledge already accumulated by their use* that leads me to con clude that the future lies with the professional education of teachers* not with recommendations whose tendency is to supplant it by a program of skill-development and apprenticeship learning* known as "practice teaching." (47:274) General Studies In a 1963 N. E. A. Research Division study of a cross section of public school teachers* high school teachers answered the question: "In terms of your actual teaching needs* to what extent did your undergraduate teacher preparation program prepare -you in the following areas?" in this proportion: TABLE 1 UNDERGRADUATE TEACHER PREPARATION (88:34) Too Little About Right Too Much Subject Knowledge 22 fo \ 75$ 3 $ General Education 2 1 74 5 Psychology of Learning 26 62 12 Human Development 24 7 0 6 Teaching Methods 39 49 12 History & Philosophy 17 55 28 Use of Audiovisual 62 36 2 25 In contrast to the much voiced criticism of the i. overload of methods courses in the teacher preparation curriculum, this area was designated inadequate by 39 per cent and about right by 49 per cent., A symposium on teacher education in The Journal of Teacher Education asked leaders in the field to discuss these three aspects of the subject: significant develop ments., unsolved problems, and looking ahead twenty-five years. Some of their views are especially relevant to a background understanding of teacher education. Wendell C. Allen hopes that the trends of an emphasis on a basic liberal education for all teachers and the growing recognition of the fact that the amount of a teacher's subject matter knowledge does not ensure that he will teach well, will be accentuated in the years ahead. He looks forward to a joint effort in the preparation of teachers who are liberally educated and who have a thorough understanding of the learner, the learning process, and the art of teaching. (1 0 8:9) Hollis L. Caswell feels that the significance of the professional preparation of teachers needs to be accepted and that the optimum relationship and proportion of liberal arts to professional courses needs to be estab lished. (108:10) There needs> to be more emphasis on what a student can do, not what he can recall. He deplores the "undue and unjustified overlapping of professional courses," 26 and concludes: It is my view, shared with many educators, that the heart of good education is a well-educated teacher and that for this to be achieved a program must provide a) vital and meaningful general educa-r.i. > ■ tion, b) professional preparation involving both systematic study and guided laboratory experience, and c) subject matter specialization directly related to the teaching to be undertaken. (1 0 8:1 3) Earl W. Anderson cites two significant develop ments in teacher education: 1) the great increase in the extent and depth of concern for the upgrading of the teaching profession through improved teacher education programs and high professional . standards and 2) the great increase in academic preparation of teachers and of teachers of teachers. He looks toward an increase in the length of preparation and to more money being available for education, (1 0 8:1 6) Walter W. Cook finds the establishment of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) a significant development (108:16) and foresees: ’ ’Preparation for teaching will be considered not as a course which may be complted in four or five years, but one which will continue throughout the professional life of the teacher.” (1 0 8:1 7) T. M Stinnett feels that teacher education has achieved a respected place in higher education. However, the obsession with quantity instead of quality poses a problem. The future will see a fifth year devoted to 27 student teaching and a sixth year to a full-time paid internship. (108:18) Donald P. Cottrell lauds the establishment of the NCATE, (108:19) finds we need to add dimension to the curriculum to create value orientation not mere acquisition of knowledge, (1 0 8: 2 0) and looks towards the time when: Tv.The profession will have organized at state and local levels much more representative machinery for authoritative participation in the determination of standards governing the certification of teachers and educational spe cialists than exist today... [and] the substan tive content of the field of education will have become established and recognized as a discipline in its own right and no longer subject to the presently largely superficial charge of lack of clarity and complete dependence upon other scholarly disciplines. (1 0 8: 2 2) George W. Denemark mentions two problems: the need to determine the proper blend between the practical and the theoretical, and the need to insure an effective general education for every teacher. (1 0 8: 2 2) Finis E. Englemann finds the establishment of NCATE and TEPS (National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards) a significant development. He mentions the problems of teacher recruiting and says "teacher education should provide an education and experi ence program designed to teach understanding and appreci ation." (108:24) He recommends that in the future: Group dynamics, specilized knowledge as well as broad general education, deep understanding of human relations, and facility in operating within various types of organizational structures 28 must be part of the instructional program in good teacher education programs. (1 0 8: 2 5) Alvin C. Eurich cites as a significant developr ment the liberal education of teachers and the cooperation . between universities and school systems in the development of internship programs "now widely recognized as the most effective way of relating theory to practice." (1 0 8: 2 6) While at present recruitment is still a problem, he looks towards a teacher' education program which will be flexible, nongraded, and use the team approach. (1 0 8: 2 6) Willard E. Goslin sees in the future a need for six years of college including one or two years of pro fessional education and experience. He further predicts that we will turn to a needed emphasis on the social and behavioral sciences. (1 0 8: 2 9) Lucien B. Kinney recognizes the need for the profession to take over the control of teacher education instead of leaving it to the certification requirements. (108:33) J. Paul Leonard feels a need to revolutionize the balance between the academic and the professional in teacher education, the need for teachers to learn how to handle differentiated talents, and he fears the present trend toward unionization. (1 0 8: 3 4) 29 ' ' I ; John R. Mayor believes there should be a program approach instead of an amassing of credits to the certifi cation of teachers. He suggests the internship method of student teaching. In a somewhat idealistic manner he views the future: Prospective teachers will be the most ’ scholarly students on campus, admission will be a great honor and teachers in service will be in attendance at regular intervals in academic year programs especially planned for them, including both formal course and research opportunities. Teachers of all courses for teachers will be master teachers. (1 0 8: 3 6) Mortimer Smith finds a major problem in how to reorganize the power structure in education to give liberal arts the central role in teacher training. (108:38) Agnes Snyder finds it significant that teacher education has achieved nationwide scope and recognition; out feels that establishing the dignity of teaching as a profession a pressing problem. She also is concerned with replacing quantitative with qualitative standards. Professor Snyder looks to cordial relations between the academic and education faculties, to your people striving to enter the teaching profession, to the raising of the status of the classroom teacher, and to a "teacher educa tion curricula based on broad life experiences, exacting scholarship, problem solution, [and] the potentialities and needs of the individual students." (108:40) 30 Ruth A. Stout cites many significant develop ments. She mentions the NCATE, improved identification methods, improved teacher preparation, improved institution- wide commitment to teacher preparation, to better school- college cooperative effort, and marked increase in minimum certification requirements. She feels a need for flexi bility in the program, to be able to .adapt to change. ( 108: 42) Florence Stratemeyer finds that the "breaking down of artificial barriers separating professional educa tion from the large academic community" (108:44) a significant development. She looks towards a program which in addition to providing the balance in general, special, and professional education will include a period of study in, another culture, work experience outside the teaching field, early professional laboratory experience, goals achieved through varied means of auditing and inde pendent study, and college teaching that stimulates and opens doors. (108:46) J. B. White feels we need good selective proce dures and more research, on where to build content in teacher education and we have failed to provide for individ ual differences in undergraduate work. He looks towards a minimum of a five-year preparation period when the number ]of courses will be drastically reduced and with experience 31 ' closely integrated with practical work. (108:47) In 1 9 6 1, the Commission of Teacher Education of the California Teachers Association published a statement of policy regarding teaching education, "Preservice Prepara- ♦ tion of Teachers in California." In setting out their proposed program, the Association reaffirmed its support of the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Educa tion emphasizing the fact that "Accreditation, licensure, and teacher-education program development are interrelated processes." (30:2) As an underlying principle the state ment said: No maximum number of years or units finds support in this statement. These decisions need to be made in terms of levels of competence beginning practitioners should achieve in order to safeguard the quality of educational experi ences and to assume other responsibilities of membership in a profession. Teachers, upon receiving the license of the profession, should have achieved levels of competence meriting public and professional confidence. Only as the teaching profession recognizes this fact and lifts its sights will teaching find its fundamental position among the professions. (30:3) The proposed program is divided into the following recommendations: 1. "Teacher preparation should provide professional competence." (30:4) 2. "Teacher preparation must interrelate theory with practice." ( 3 0:9) 32 3* "Teacher preparation must provide for teaching-field specializations." ( 3 0^1 1) 4. "Teacher preparation should include a liberal education." (3. 0:1 3) '5- "Teacher preparation should be staffed » by highly competent teachers." ( 3 0:1 4) 6 . "Teacher preparation should be recognized as a cooperative responsibility." "Determining the goals* developing programs of teacher education and evalu ating their effectiveness are cooperative responsibilities shared among faculties from all divisions of the college or university* classroom teachers in the public schools* and other practitioners in education." (3 0: 1 6) 7* "Teacher education should be adequately financed." ( 3 0:1 8) The responsibilities of memberhip in a profession* the knowledge of research skills and the disciplines supporting education* the greater initial competence are essential teacher-education goals; ... but distinction in a special field of scholarly interest does not* in itself* make an individual a competent teacher. The 33 Association urges development of programs of preparation designed to produce skill in teaching as well as depth of scholarship. ( 30: 8) Summary The proposals of W.oodring, Combs, and Trump all j call for a reorganization stressing flexibility in the teacher education program. All three stress an organiza tion, which, quite different from the usual course break down, emphasizes an integration of knowledge. Combs and Trump feel there should be a blend of theory and practice enabling the prospective teacher to be a part of the teach ing experience as he learns. Both recommend procedures which would depart from the normal lecture and include a wide variety of learning experiences. Conant, on the other hand, seems more concerned with the credentialing process and stresses the university- approved approach, placing great emphasis on the practice teaching experience. He finds an important aspect of this experience.the quality of the supervising teacher and i 'recommends explicit qualifications for this "clinical professor." His plan goes beyond the undergraduate years and includes an on-the-job training experience and a master’s program. >•>. : ' : : _______ 34 Conant’s book on teacher education elicited much criticism* both positive and negative. And* if it did no / more than "make the public more aware of teacher education problems and ... stimulated self-study in the institutions*1 it has made a worthy contribution. Even the negative criti cisms have evolved through a restudy of. the problem and have themselves formed the basis for valid recommendations. A symposium on teacher education brought forth leading educator's views on the past accomplishments* present problems* and future outlook of teacher education. They found that the past accomplishments which are signif icant include: improved teacher preparation* increasing liberal education;' a concern for improving teacher educa tion; the establishment of NCATE and TEPS; and the estab lishment of the internship program widely recognized as the most effective way of relating theories to practice. The problems they cited include: a determination of the current balance between liberal and professional education; the overlapping of courses calling for better organization; a need for a value orientation* not a mere acquisition of knowledge; a need for better recruiting practices; a need for more emphasis on the social and behavioral sciences; a 35 need to replace quantitative standards with qualitative standards. They foresee in the future teacher education as a joint effort of the academic and education circles; a five- Or six-year program; the professional determination of standards; the need for flexibility in the program to adapt to change; and the establishment of an early profes sional laboratory experience. Literature Related To Business Teacher Education Development During the colonial period business education took the form of lessons in handwriting, arithmetic, bookkeeping and merchants accounts from private teachers. (8:22) The apprenticeship system rounded out the necessary training for bookkeepers and accountants. However, the development of colonial evening schools with courses in writing, arithmetic, and bookkeeping, and the publication of text books by private teachers "treating of accounts" evidenced the inadequacy of this system. (8:22-3) The first insti tutions definitely established for the purpose of training for business were the private business colleges, starting in 1 8 2 7. The addition of bookkeeping to the curriculum of the nineteenth century schools is described by Graham: In 1 8 2 3, bookkeeping was added to the — curriculum of-fche English Classical School for Boys in Boston, which in 1824, became the 36 English High School. The Massachusetts High School Law of 1 8 2 7. , specified single-entry bookkeeping as a high school subject. The Board of Regents of the State of New York in 1 8 2 9 recognized bookkeeping as a subject appropriate to an'English education. In 1 8 5 1* the California state law specified bookkeeping •■- as a subject for high school instruction. (8 : 2 6) Hogancamp cited the inadequate training held by business teachers as compared with the training of teachers in traditional areas as being detrimental to the develop ment of prestige. Moreover, "this inferior training held by early:.business teachers," he felt, "made an impression upon the minds of educators that was difficult to change." (1 2 2:1 8) The first collegiate school of business in the United * States was established by the University of Pennsylvania in 1881— the Wharton School of Finance and Commerce. Business teachers, according to Graham, were recruited either from the office and the business college or from the liberal arts college. Those with the academic training acquired the business skills as best they could. (8 : 2 9) The Drexel Institute in 1898 established the first train ing for teachers of business subjects.(8 :29) Graham in describing the early business teacher training programs stated: These early curricula reflect: (1) the dominance of the college-preparatory aim in the secondary education program of the period; ( 2 ) the importance of the clerical arts, encouraged by occupational demand; and (3) emphasis upon individual rather than upon social 3? welfare, in harmony with prevailing business philosophy. (8:45) In contrasting the aims in business education of the period prior to 1 9 1 9 to the..period from 1 9 1 9 to 1933 as enumerated by Graham, the following differences are noted: While the prior period strove to preparej^ students for specific office positions, the later period changed the objective to "simple office Jobs.” The earlier period included the aim of providing an "opportunity for mental discipline," a reflection, no doubt, of the trend in educa tional beliefs of the time. This aim is not included in the later period. This more recent period adds the follow ing objectives: to fulfill the general objectives of all secondary education; to give necessary business information and skills to all pupils for use in personal, social, and civic life; and to prepare for university work in commerce. (8: < ?8) Graham further summarized the trends in business teacher training curricula which her study indicated. She felt that the prpspective business teacher should be made more aware of the interrelationship among the various courses. Also she recommended that, "Because of the trend toward the requirement of more social-business subjects, the prospective business teacher should be prepared to :..n teach these subjects in addition to the technical-business courses." (8:75) The prospective teacher should also be 38 prepared to teach office practice-business machines in line with the demands of the business worlds as well as other business courses so indicated by occupational surveys. (8: 75) Graham summarized the prevailing practices of 45 institutions in 1932 as indicated by their catalogs. TABLE 2 7 . ' PREVAILING PRACTICES IN 1932 Business content subjects General academic subjects Social sciences General education courses Business education courses Practice teaching Free electives Total Average Semester Units 41.6 32.7 14.9 13.2 5.2 4.8 17.1 1 2 9 .5 (8 :1 0 5) Bell in her study, "Background and Development of Business Education in California Public Schools," found that originally the purposes of business education were largely vocational. The academic pattern took over and as a result of the depression of 1 9 3 1 -3 5 the objectives became (1) to provide business education for every member of 3§' society, and ( 2 ) to provide specialized instruction for occupations. (114:58-9) The development of business education was assumed by private business schools in California, beginning in 1862. Bookkeeping was the primary subject. Private colleges, the University of California in 1900, and the University of Southern California in 1880 offered business education^ but progress was slow in the development of business subjects/in public high schools. (114:92) In 1917* all but 37 high schools out of 2 8 5 were '"Xu teaching business courses. (114:119) The first chief of the Bureau of Business Education, Ira W. Kibby, appointed in 1928, worked to put business majors on a par with academic majors in fulfilling gradu ation requirementsj to provide business teacher education in the state (by 1934 it was offered at seven recognized institutions)j and to show the importance of social busi ness subjects in the high school curriculums. (114:177-8) The School Law of l8 8l provided for certification of teachers of "special branches," and the School Law of 1901 provided for certification of business teachers in examin ation by county boards of education. (114:256) Business education teacher training in California has had difficulty in becoming recognized as an important phase of education in the colleges and universities within the state. Similar difficulties were experienced in other states. (114:302-3) The first California state conference on business teacher 4o training was held in 193^-• Annual state conferences have been continued with the support of the California Business Education Association. (114:306) In 1951> Bell found business teacher education was available throughout the state. (114:308) The National Business Teachers Association in its eighth yearbook in 1942 recorded the modern philosophy of business education. Historically, business education has been thought of as being entirely vocational in nature. While this occupational function is often thought of as the peculiar contribution of business education to society, it is not, by any means, the sole contribution. An equally important function is that of developing eco nomic literacy and providing exploratory exper iences and basic business information for all students, as well as for students who intend to make business their vocation. The importance of this latter function has been pointed out repeatedly within recent years by specialists in the field of business education as well as by others. This type of business education has been variously called social business, pre- volcational business, socio-economic, general business, personal use business, basic business, non-vocational business, and consumer business education. (1 5: 7 ) Studies in Dissertations, Theses, and Monographs There have been numerous studies of various aspects of business teacher education. In 1933* Graham studied the evolution of business education and found trends with implications for a business-teacher education program. In stressing the social aspects and general education value of business education, she recommended the program should lead 41 the prospective teacher to be aware of the relationships existing among business education, all other education, and economic life. The program should include a rich concen tration of social studies to help in carrying out the aim of "adapting business education to social and civic life;" the program should include a study of problems in secondary education to the end that the prospective teacher partici pates in business education as an integral part of all education; and the program should include the findings of social surveys so that business education becomes a part of a liberal education for all pupils. (8 :7 5) Her recommended curriculum for business-teacher education is compared to a later-recommended curriculum program on pages 6 5-6 9. Graham made the following recommendations relative to findings of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers and the requirements of administrators in employ ing institutions: a. Credentials should require bachelor degrees. b. Graduate degrees are recommended for business teachers. c. Provisions should be made in the business- teacher education program to include material to acquaint "the student teacher with the progressive aims, curricula, and procedure in secondary business education." d. "Courses in secondary education, principles of education, and business education should provide for close contact between .secondary education and business-teacher education." (8:194) 42 As a final recommendation, Graham stated: '"'Prospective teachers of business subjects should be required to have actual business experience, if possible, for a period of at least one year.' (8:193) Graham concluded that a program of business education should be based upon educational, sociological, and psycho logical research which is itself based on the foundation of the "contributions made by philosophers and 'pioneer thinkers’ who organized this material into a system of basic assumptions and beliefs." (8 :1 8 6-7) In 1933, Lane studied the status of California high school business teachers. He mentioned that as late as 1911 the state university and other institutions of higher learning in California did not recognize business courses as meeting the requirements for admission to college. Lane found a significant feature of his data was th&t more than half of the teachers were being trained in state universities and land grant colleges and one third were trained in private colleges. (125:31-r33) He found that practically all of the California high school business teachers had training in education (1 2 5: 3 8); eighty to ninety per cent had practice teaching (125:42); and as a whole business teachers had approximately one year of college work in the field of business (125:43). He found evidence of a serious problem in teacher turnover because of frequent job shifts. (125:74) • • 43 Rowe* in studying the business teacher education program in liberal arts and state teachers colleges, in 1 9 4 6, found:'at.trend toward the teaching of vocational skills at the post-high school level. He felt the resulting shift in emphasis on the high school level in social business subjects would necessitate requiring at least twenty semes ter hours in the general business background courses in the teacher-education program. He stressed the importance of businessrexperience for the prospective teacher, for he believed that because of the lack of experience on the part of the high school business teacher which made him unaware of the duties and requirements in business offices, there was a general lack of employability on the part of beginning workers. (1 3 0: 122^124). As compared to other vocational education fields, he felt that business education made a poor showing in the practical experience phase of teacher education. He recommended credit be given for the business experience received under the direct supervision of college officials. (130:127) In 1940, Gustafson studied "Business Experience as a Factor in the Successful Teaching of Business Subjects." Certain findings are relevant to a consideration of the best type of business teacher-education program. She found that there was unanimous agreement of both high school principals and Junior college directors in the 44 preference of business teachers with business experience; and also unanimous agreement of business executives that business courses taught by teachers who had both business and teaching experience were of greater value to students than courses taught by teachers without business experience. (121:133) There was almost unanimous agreement: of busi ness education leaders and the heads of teacher training institutions that business experience was of sufficient value "to compensate the teacher for the time and effort expended in obtaining such experience;" (1 2 1:1 3 0) of . business teachers that business experience had made them better business teachers. (1 2 1:1 3 6) Business executives felt that the training period of new business employees could be shortened if practical bus iness experience were required of secondary school business teachers. They also believed that, in general, business employees would be willing to furnish temporary employment to prospective business teachers. (1 2 1:1 3 5) Gustafson recommended that all prospective business teachers obtain at least one year’s business experience of a general nature before or directly after receiving a teaching credential. Proper employment sought and obtained by the teacher, later supervised and approved by school authorities, is considered superior to "in-service" training or experience organized by the school. (121:139) She also recommended that: Educational credit up to eight 45 units should be allowed; business experience should be an allowable substitute for educational credits that are periodically required by many systems after employment; (121:140) and that business teachers should keep up to date in their knowledge of local business requirements. Some studies were made regarding the general charac teristics and qualifications making for a good business teacher. Conner suggested that actual business experience gives the teacher pertinent information concerning the latest practices and requirements of business. This * i-v. . enables her, in turn, to provide her students with the kind of knowledge to perform well in interviews, to know what to expect in looking for a job, and to succeed in the jobs when placed. She stated: Training to be an efficient teacher of . business requires more time than usually is devoted to the preparation of teachers because the candidate must have economic understanding, professional education, and occupational exper ience in addition to her general education. (1 1 8: 6 9) Dettman, in 1 9 5 5> studied beginning business teachers in and close to Wisconsin to determine factors related to success in teaching high school business subjects. He found the overall grade point average at college the most ■ practical and most acceptable all-around academic factor associated with teaching success. (119:148) Grades in business education methods courses are also related to teaching success. (119:147) He found the rank order . 46 comparison of student teachers "based on their practice teaching superior to the practice teaching grade and concluded: The necessity for assigning a letter grade for practice teaching appears to inject a bias which reduces the value of the practice teaching grade for a predictive purpose. (119:149) The factors in Dettman’s study showing the greatest relationships with teaching success were those "based on subjective evaluations. He concluded that the success of business teachers can be predicted and he suggested: When several factors are used in combination, the rankings of practice teaching performance provided by supervisors and rankings of leader ship ability provided by faculty members who have worked closely with the students are the best factors of those studied in this investi gation for predicting business teacher success. (119:149) Thompson, in looking for the competences of secon dary school business teachers, found no special ability required except skill in the particular subject field. In stressing that the general overall characteristics required by any teacher were those required by a good business teacher, he found: The list of competences supports the contention that effective [business ] teachers are not only skillful in guiding the learning process, but are also sympathetic and understanding in their relationships with young people. They know how to motivate the students and recognize the importance and means of developing desirable personal behavior and social attitudes. The teacher who is competent has a broad background of understanding with respect both to the sub ject matter in which he teaches and to the general cultural materials. (1 3 1:1 2 1) 47 Poison found that "practice teaching, and methods courses in the major subject area, .were considered the most helpful classes in preparing the business teacher for his first year of teaching." (129:134) He recommended that separate methods courses in the various major areas be provided. (129:137) His respondents most frequently recommended that more time be spent in information concern ing classroom situations and less time on philosophy^, history, and school law and that more time be provided for classwork in areas of finance, banking, marketing, econom ics, in teaching methods for general business and in evaluation. (1 2 9:1 3 1) Two studies relating to collegiate business education, one supported by the Carnegie Foundation and the other by the Ford Foundation, sought to improve the deficiencies which were found to exist in these college programs. These studies were most concerned with the low admission require ments, low standards, low caliber students, excessive vocationalism and proliferation of courses and inadequate faculties. Both the Pierson (l4) and Gordon and Howell (7) reports advocated the raising of academic standards and admission requirements. They recommended that vocation alism be reduced and that 50 per cent of undergraduate programs be in the liberal arts. Their report had a great influence on many collegiate schools of business in their eliminating skills subjects as credit courses in the ___ - ■ ' 48 . curriculum. Hogancamp in 1957 analyzed research in business teacher education. He concluded that the research did not disclose what the nature and composition of business teacher education should be. (122:109) He found these programs influenced by ...the state certification requirements, the training needed for specific types of business teaching, and the philosophy of business teacher education held by the faculty and administrative staffs of the teacher-training institutions. (122:23) Business education, since the early days, has stressed the need for increased preparation in the business administra tion subjects. Nevertheless, many are graduated without adequate preparation. Hogancamp suggested that since busi ness teacher education institutions are criticized for weak preparation in the teaching of business subjects, it is apparent that many times office skills have been emphasized at the expense of business administration and economics and a satisfactory methods course in the teaching of general business subjects has not been provided. In discussing methods courses, he concluded that although of value, a general methods course is no longer considered adequate "unless followed by one or more special methods courses in the teaching of business subjects." (122:49) In dealing with the research about business experi ence, Hogancamp found that it is accepted as important in 49 training, "but not accepted by all business teacher- training institutions. (122:37) He found that although a great majority of business educators agree that business experience is desirable for business teachers, many felt there were too many organizational problems involved. (122:70-1) However, there were other educators who believed these problems were solved. He cited unanimous agreement that college credit be granted for business experience. (122:75-6) and recom mended that the experience precede teaching and be renewed periodically. (122:88) Business experience is valuable because it: a acquaints the teacher with standards of performance expected in business familiarizes the teacher with techniques used in business offices gives the teacher greater confidence about his knowledge of business education subject matter provides a basis for commanding the respect of pupils when instruction is given helps the teacher to make the subject matter more meaningful and practical gives the teacher examples from practical experience helps to bring about a working relationship ■between businessmen and the teacher brings the teacher into contact with business operations (122:77) There were some studies which endeavored to relate problems of beginning business teachers to a specific part of the teacher training program. Bell felt that by study ing the problems of these teachers who were graduates of Ball State Teachers College, specific suggestions could be 50 made to improve the program there. He suggested this type of follow-up study would be advantageous to all teacher- training institutions, (115:178) and for Ball State, recommended "providing greater coordination of content, objectives and activities in the over-all professional education of a prospective business teacher than currently exists." (1 1 5:1 7 8) Blanford studied the relationship of the problems of beginning business teachers with their experiences in the general and special methods courses at Iowa State Teachers College. • He found insufficient time allocated to the special method courses. The courses were not so effective as they might have been because of lack of coordination with student teaching courses and a shift in emphasis on topics included. (116:196) He recommended the Iowa State Teachers College could improve the effectiveness of the special methods courses in business by: (1) increasing instruction time from two to three class meetings per week; (2) assigning business instructors to supervise student teaching in business to coordinate the two, and (3) including suggested activities in the following units: instructional materials, facilities and supplies, and visual aids; scheduling and planning in teaching; evaluation of student achievements; and classroom teaching procedures. (1 1 6:1 9 6) 51 From a study of the teaching difficulties of begin ning business teachers, Gress made recommendations to improve the teacher-training program. Some relevant recommendations were that the program include courses in tests and measurements (9:99)> a definite sequence of basic business (9:100) and practice in classroom organi zation and management. (9:101) Greater stress should be placed in the professional courses in discipline problems (9:99) and on preparing prospective teachers to teach junior business training. (9:100) The content of the business subject matter courses should be brought up to date and the prospective business teacher should demon strate proficiency in the skills taught. (9:100) He further recommended that: "Supervised business experience should be provided the business-teacher trainee and such experience should be a prerequisite to teaching." (9:101) He felt a minimum of 90 class hours should be devoted to methods, both general and special methods coursesj special methods on both basic business and skill subjects should be offered, (9:101) and the particular methods of subjects to be taught should be completed as a prerequisite to student teaching. The student teacher should be required to: 1) carry the full teaching schedule for an extended teaching period 2) teach a variety of business subjects 3) handle actual classroom discipline problems 4) teach business subjects in different grade levels (9:104) 52 Gress concluded: A five-year teacher-training program therefore is recommended as a possible solution to the problem of providing a broader and more .thorough type of training in the basic business and skill subjects, professional, and methods courses. (9:104-5) Cameron surveyed the opinions of secondary school business teachers of Texas about their undergraduate professional education. He commented that since Gress*s study was confined to teachers who were in their first year of teaching, a comparison of the two studies might reveal "that experience might change the attitude of teachers concerning the importance of the problems which they face." (117:11-12) He compared the recommendations for improvement of these teachers by dividing them into five groups. Group I, with from one to four years1 experience, felt the more specialized the course, the greater value that course had for teachers. They were "pleading for practicality," for methods courses and philosophy courses to meet problems as they are found in the secondary school. (117:231) Groups II, III, and IV, with from five to fifteen years* experience, echoed this request for practicality. Group II also were critical of college staffs and demanded more work in subject matter, and less in professional education classes. (117:231-4) Cameron believed that the requests of beginning _teachej^s_f.or—ins.truc±i.on-in-how_tO—ke.ep_dlsclpline as 53 contrasted to the more experienced teachers’ request for more course work in guidance ... indicates a changing attitude with experi ence from the disciplinarian attitude of younger teachers to a helpful attitude of guidance on the part of the older teachers. (1 1 7: 2 3 2) He concluded that the business teachers of Texas felt that topics relating to standards of achievement for the business skill courses most important. Specific methods courses in subjects most frequently taught were most valu able as compared to general secondary methods courses which were considered least valuable. (117:247) He suggested: Institutions should give methods courses which are correlated with the major areas of secondary education which teachers teach rather than methods courses- theoretically designed to cover all areas in one course. (1 1 7: 2 6 8) These teachers felt that the history and philosophy of business education and secondary education were least valuable. In psychology, the guidance principles and practices and their relation to business education were considered of highest value to teachers. And one of the most important problems to be considered was pupil .control and discipline. (117:247) Cameron recommended that institutions periodically survey their graduates to determine whether the student needs are being met and to prevent a static curriculum. He suggested coordination among the departments to see that 54 there was an opportunity for a proper emphasis of the var ious topics. (1 1 7: 2 6 6) Through an opinionnaire received from 154 California "beginning business teachers (taught less than 5 years) and an in-depth interview of 10 teachers, Edith McCullough col lected the data for her 1966 study, "Opinions of Beginning Business Teachers Regarding Their College Preparation for Teaching." She chose the beginning teacher as he is closer to the teacher-education experience and therefore would be better qualified to evaluate the program and suggest improvements. Her belief in the value of the beginning ^ ■ •teachers’ opinions was corroborated by Bell and Gress. McCullough’s respondents are especially suitable for comparison with California legislators and state college educators since these (beginning) teachers all had received their degrees since i9 6 0, "a little over one-half had completed the major portion of their course work in Califor nia," (1 2 6: 7 1-2 ) and during their'junior and senior years most of them had attended a state college. (1 2 6:7 2) Of these teachers, 80 per cent of whom had majored in business education, and 6 per cent—had minored in business education or business administration, "only 2 9 per cent rated their preparation as very good, while 60 per cent rated it as being adequate." (1 2 6: 7 2) The relevant findings can more readily be seen in the following format. Professional Education (126:74-129) 55 Student Teaching Percentage 1. Student teaching is the most worthwhile experience as a 78 preparation for teaching. 2. Student teaching: . a) should he placed in senior year b) should he placed immediately 31 preceding full employment. 35 3. Student teachers should take "few, if any," courses while student teaching. 80 4. Conferences with a college coordin ator, a person specialized in business education, should he on a weekly, or hi-weekly basis. 75 5. Student teaching in both basic business and skills should be required. 86 6. An internship program (full year, full-time supervised experience on advanced level with pay) is more valuable than tradiitional plans for student teaching. 44 a) agree b) undecided 34 c) disagree 22 7. The most frequently suggested improve ments were that: ... students be given more respon sibility and control in the classroom, that the experience be made as practical as possible, and that more guidance and help be given the student teacher by both the master teacher and the college coordinator. (1 2 6:1 1 9) Methods Courses 1. Methods courses are an indis pensable part of teacher preparation 2. Methods courses stress "too much theory, and not enought of the practical aspects of teaching." 3. These aspects should be emphasized: a) Specific methods of teaching the various subjects b) How to deal with individual differences c) Teaching demonstrations 4. Plan for methods courses: a) There should be two methods courses--one in the skill subject and one in the basic business subjects. b) There should be a separate course for each subject matter area. Education Courses 1. Education courses were not the most helpful in teacher preparation. 2. Greater emphasis should be placed on the measurement and evaluation of students. 3. The most frequently mentioned suggestions for improvement were: a) education courses should be more specific and realistic, and b) there is too much repetition or duplication in education courses General Education (126:121-134) 1. Hated: a) Excellent b) Adequate c) Inadequate 57 General Education (continued) Percentage 2. General education should be taken: a) During first two years 43 b) Throughbut;all four or five years 53 3. The time devoted to general education should be: a) Two and one-half years 3 8 b) One and one-half years 37 4. Regarding the total general education program: a) Required courses included English, speech, the natural sciences, the humanities, and physical education 8 0+ b) The amount of course work in each of these areas was satisfactory. 50+ c) More course work in English, speech, the humanities, advanced mathematics, and statistics, and foreign language should be included. 2 5+ Specialized Education (126:135-180) 1._____Felt adequately qualified to teach business subjects 85 2. ___Desired better preparation in data processing and basic business 40 3 . ___Felt that a course in data processing should be required of all business education majors. 77 4. ___Disagreed with the Pierson and Gordon and Howell reports’ recom mendation that "skill subjects, such as shorthand and typewriting, are not college caliber courses and thus should not be taught in colleges and universities. (126:159) 90 5. A bachelor’s degree with a major in business administration or economics, leaving professional education primarily to graduate study should be required. Agree 27 -Disagree-------------------------------- - j4q___ 1 ). 58 Specialized Education (continued) Percentage 6. Business, , education majors should have a teaching minor 68 7. The amount of work in economics, business law, business communi cations, office management, finance, marketing, principles of business education, business machines, short hand, accounting, and typewriting was satisfactory. 8. More work in economics, statistics, insurance, and human relations should be included. 9. The most frequently suggested improve ment of courses in business was that because of the different vocational objectives of the business education majors and business administration majors, they should not necessarily be in the same classes. The teachers interviewed : ... were most critical of professional education courses and most appreciative of their student teaching experience and of methods courses they had taken ... their overall evaluation of their preparation for teaching tended to be more favorable than critical ... i ; (1 2 6:1 6 9) Conclusions 1. In general, beginning business teachers feel adequately qualified to teach when they enter the profession. Teacher education institutions are doing a better job of preparing business teachers to teach type writing, shorthand, and bookkeeping, however, than they are to teach socio economic subjects. 2. Beginning business teachers tend, in general, to be satisfied with their prepar ation for teaching. They are more critical of their professional education than they 50+ 25 59 Conclusions (continued) are of either their general or specialized education, however. (1 2 6:1 8 1) 3- Some of the most valuable experience in their preparation for teaching is provided by methods courses and student teaching. The major criticism of methods courses was that there is too much theory and not enough stress on practical aspects of teaching. (126: 181) 4. State colleges prepare the majority of business teachers who teach in California. This is true at the graduate level as well as of undergraduate work. 5. Business teachers need as great a depth of subject matter in the area of business as can possibly be provided in the time available. Both content and methods courses are of utmost importance to the prospective business teacher. ( 126: 182) Relevant Recommendations 1. California state colleges should realize their important position in the education of business teachers. They need to recognize this responsibility and accept it by providing the very best educational program that can be provided. 2. The proliferated professional courses should be replaced by two or three well-organized and well-taught introductory courses in educational psychology, the philosophy of education and the social foundations of education which are designed to help the student make the transition from his liberal to his professional studies. These education courses should be made as meaning ful as possible. 3. Methods courses should be planned and taught in such a way as to provide the prospective teacher with as many of the specifics of teaching as possible. The case method of teaching might contribute realism to the courses. There should also be emphasis on demonstrations, curriculum planning, evaluation techniques, and specific -techniques-and—teaching -methods____( - 126. : . 1 8- 3- )____ —_ 60 Relevant Recommendations (continued) 4. ... Books or pamphlets describing demon strations that could be used in basic business or consumer education courses might be helpful to beginning teachers and could be used in methods courses to provide prospective teachers with some of the specific teaching techniques that they want. 6. There should be enrichment of business teacher education in the areas relating to socioeconomic subjects. Simply requiring more business administration and economic courses is not recommended as the complete answer. Prospective teachers should have some courses specifically designed to provide them with subject matter background and specific methods in how to teach basic business subjects. 7. Student teaching should continue to be part of the preparation of business teachers. 9. Skill subjects should be taught in colleges and universities that have, a business teacher education program. These courses, however, should not be required of students who can pass proficiency examinations in these subjects. 10. Colleges and universities should do a better job of supervising student teachers than has been done in the past. If this is not done, it is possible that supervision will be taken over by state authorities in the future, as has already been recommended, by at least one authority. (126:186) Relevant Implications; 1. If methods courses need to be more practical, special methods courses in business education should be required rather than general methods courses. This infers that the new California credentialing law which requires only some course work in "curriculum and instructional procedures and materials used in teaching in secondary schools" will not promote improve ment in the teaching of business subjects. (126: 187) 61 Relevant Implications (continued) 3. The skill subjects should and could he taught in less time than many schools are doing at the present time. This would allow for greater depth of subject matter in other areas of business. Periodical Literature Much has been written in the form of recommendation and criticism of business teacher education in the periodi cals concerned with this subject. Enterline in 19^9 compiled trends of thought in business education. Those conclusions that pertain to teacher training suggested that because of the expansion of the field, business teachers need to receive specialized training. They should also receive a broad background training in business and eco nomics, adequate professional education, and a liberal education comparable to that of teachers in other areas. Also suggested was the inclusion in the curriculum of both general and special supervised practice teaching methods courses, business experience, and training beyond the bachelor’s degree. (57:29-30) In 1964, Tonne amassed the current thinking of 2 6 0 business teachers in the United States who suggested requirements include more business experience and a course or two in data processing. He said: However, except for teachers in California, they do not seem to be aware of the current ten dency toward drastically reducing the number of education and business education courses and also reducing the number of content courses in business, 62 particularly shorthand and typing, and toward increasing the number of courses in academic subjects to be required. (111:141) These teachers are in a dilemma because of the criticism of instruction in the vocational subjects from academic circles on the one hand and the knowledge that there are several office Jobs available for every compe tently trained student on the other hand. This situation, according to Tonne, is "an unjustified attack from those in power who have not thought through the problem in terms of the facts of the case." (111:142) Musselman, in 1949* declared that we need research to indicate what would be the most desirable program for business teacher education] whether one certificate for teaching all business subjects or one for the separate subjects is better] and research as to which methods courses are most valuable. (86:31-3) The qualifications of business teachers were reviewed by Kessel in 1959* and Eyster in 1 9 6 5. Kessel’s require ments were based upon an analysis of critical incidents. He found that the effective secondary school business teacher: 1. Assumes leadership in working for new areas of study 2. experiments with new teaching methods 3 . provides for varying abilities and interests of students 4. assumes responsibility for the academic and vocational guidance of business students 5 . takes a personal interest in students 6. maintains effective classroom control employing disciplinary measures that encourage 63 the rehabilitation of problem students 7. willingly accepts extrardass. assignments 8. personally supports the school program*of extra-class activities 9. works for a harmonious working relation ship among the teaching staff, the administrators, and the community at large. (75:21-6) Eyster concluded that tomorrow’s business teacher needs to be thoroughly knowledgeable in business adminis tration and economics. He must also have a philosophy of the whole of business education because A deterrent to advancement of business education throughout the years has been the narrow image • of business education held by many business teachers. (6 2: 2 2 6) The teacher of vocational business subjects must perform the skills he teaches for "a teacher is not truly a voca tional teacher who could not earn his living in the occu pation for which he is given training." ( 6 2: 2 2 6) Tomorrow's business teacher must be creative, flexible, adaptable, and alert to the every-changing needs of labor, business and people. (62:227) He should be a highly capable scholar and teach in both -general business educa tion and in one of the skills. And ... tomorrow's business teacher must conceive of his Job and responsibility with the lower fifty per cent in learning ability not as "baby sitters," but as creative teachers of youth who have great need for education. (6 2: 2 2 7) The business-teacher education curriculum has been the subject of many articles which include recommendations for the improvement of existing programs. Howe, in 1955, 64 said there should he differentiated business teacher curriculums which meet the needs of the community served by the teacher education institution. (9^:35) In 19^9* Graham surveyed l4l experienced teacher trainers and accumulated their recommmendations into a program for business teacher training. A comparison of Graham’s 1933 curriculum and this later one proves inter esting. One can see a shift in the requirements (Table 3). In the 1949 program some education courses are dropped as is the science requirement. More practice teaching and psychology courses seem to be included now. Also a noticeable shift from a general methods course to more specific methods courses is indicated as is a shift in the type of business classes offered. Graham’s defini- • tion of an educational philosophy mirrors her belief in the business teacher who sees beyond his field of specializa tion. An Educational Philosophy: a broad under standing of the purpose of life and the conflicting issues presently in it. An under standing of the function of the school, the general objectives of' education, the place and function of business education, in the total picture, the objectives of business education in general and of its specific segments, and the curricular organization that most effec tively aids in the realization of objectives. (68:11-12) She concluded with a guide for those who would build a business teacher education program. TABLE 3 COMPARISON OF GRAHAM'S SUGGESTED CURRICULA FROM THE 1933 STUDY AND THE 1949 STUDY Semester ■ Suggested Program 1949 (6 8) Units 1933 (8:127) Comments 1 3th and l4th years A. ! b . ;c. p. |E. F. G. English Composition & Literature Public speaking Social studies 1. Economics (required) 2. History 3. Geography 4. Consumer economics 5. Political science (required) Fundamental skills remedial Physical education 1. Personal development 2. Comparative religions or The Bible Business skills 1. Accounting 2. Typewriting 3. Business machines & filing 4. Shorthand (elective) 5 . Salesmanship (elective) 6 2 12 6 4 2 6 3 x x History Ec. History x x x x 1933 Econ.Geog.( 3 ) 1 semester ( 2 ) 1 9 3 3-senior year 1 9 3 3-study allows for 2 0 units of electives in m business in ui first two years TABLE 3 (Continued) Suggested Program 19^9 (68) Semester Units .1933 (8:127) Comments J H. Busine s s Community ! I One semester on the local business community I. Business Experience Electives Personal Fitness for Teaching i(Included in Counseling Program) i 3 10 Wo credit Supervised part- time office or store experience j 15th year K. Current Economic Problems lL. Introduction to Education M. 1. Psychology-Human Relations 3 3 3 (2) V 2. Psychology-Learning N. 1. Business Law 2. Business Organization 3- Business Writing 3 Educ. Psych 3 3 3 X X (6) (^9) CT\ Methods courses 0. Methods Teach. Typewriting 3 General methods in business suggested (2) TABLE 3 (Continued) Semester Suggested Program 1949 (68) Units 1933 (8:127) Comments Q. Business Research-communications 2 R. Electives (15 th & l6th years) 1. Motion and time study 2. Domestic and foreign trade 3. English and American literature 4. Office management and store management 5. Lator-management problem 6. Survey business education and education magazines to include 2 days each week obser vation of experi enced business teachers at work Senior year (2) (1949) Surveys consumer prefer ence surveys elementary stat.2 6 units business 14 units free l6th year S. Principles of Business Education 3 x (2) Including business education CTi -<] TABLE 3 (Continued) Suggested Program 19^-9 (68) Semester •Units 1933 (8:127) , Comments T. Guidance and counseling 3 X in local commun * ity and state In 15th yr.(1933) U. Tests and testing 3 In bus. ed. (2) V. Methods Courses in field of speciality 3 (2) Shorthand ! Bookkeeping i Salesmanship |¥. Student Teaching 10 1 semester (5) 1 semester in i each of two sub i 1 ject - at least one class daily - recommend 1 class in general-busi ness should be included , X. Electives 13 Additional Items in the Suggested Program of 1933 Orientation 1 X First two _ Physical or hiological science 12 X semesters in oo General Psychology 3 X l4th year • TABLE 3 • (Concluded) Suggested Program 19^-9 (68) Semester Units 1933 (8:127) Comments Business math or Money and Banking 2 X History of education 2 X Secondary education 2 X Extra curricular activities 2 X Business curriculum 2 X Office practice 2 X Principles3 Philo. Education 2 X Educational sociology 2 X I CTv VO 70 The builders of a curriculum for business- teacher education should consult the research reports already available, secure advice from experienced teacher trainers, study state certification laws, and conduct investigations to gear the curriculum to conditions in the area served. (68:l4) Blast in 1953 analyzed the common practices in business-teacher training programs in 90 state-supported teacher training institutions of the United States. He found the work divided with an average of 51 units for general education, 14 to 18 units of professional education and 6 units for student teaching^ and 3 8 units of business information and skills. The majority of the colleges required both a methods course in the general problems of teaching and in teaching of specific business subjects. (40:22) Seventeen required actual business experience. (40:24) He recommended a study should be undertaken "to determine the extent to which business experience contri butes to the effectiveness of teaching in the field of business." (40:26) He further recommened that because of the number of teachers required to teach general business subjects, and the limited time devoted to the study of this subject natter in the 9 0 colleges in the study, the business teacher training program should "specifically include" the study of general business and consumer economics with appropriate methods courses and opportunities to student teach in this area. (40:26) 71 In 19555 Blackstone analyzed recent research for implications for revisions in the business-education teacher curriculum. He stressed the importance of basing such a curriculum on research findings. ( 3 8:1 7) "With the increased recognition of business educ&tion;" he said, "comes a duty to serve the aims of general education in business education classes." ( 3 8:1 8) He stressed the need for understanding and an attitude of cooperation with other departments. He concluded, "teacher education institutions should require, according to this study, at least a minimum vocational experience in the area in which the business teachers are to teach." (38:20) The National Association for Business Teacher Educa tion sponsored workshops in 1961 and 1 9 6 2, which attempted to identify and evaluate the subject matter elements of business teacher education, came up with.certain relevant generalizations: Undergraduate special methods courses should stress the practical rather than the theoretical; •less importance was attached to the historical and the past; and there was more interest in the present and future applications of topics. (43:19) Also ...a knowledge of economic principles was considered somewhat more important than knowledge and competences related to the employee and the consumer and to business management principles. (43:19) Howard, in 1 9 6 5* suggested a business-teach prepar ation curriculum, which seeks to keep up with our age of 72 automation and the need of being able to adapt to change. The 154-semester hour, 5-year program may be broadly divided into: Semester Hours General Education and Liberal Arts 84 Major in Economics 24 Major in Business Education 28 Professional Education Courses and Teaching l4 Physical Education __4 Total l ^ He recommends: To take best advantage of this curriculum, ' the student must have a solid academic high school education. Pre-supposing this background, he will be better able to study more deeply in many areas of the arts and sciences. He should, if possible, acquire the basic skills of type writing and shorthand on an elective basis near the end of his high school career. Barring this, these skills must be learned apart from his college education, possibly in a business school during the summer, or in evening classes. It is doubtful that we can afford the time to teach these basic skills in colleges and universities. To do so might prolong a student*s entry into his profession unnecessarily or cause him to be inadequately prepared in some other area that would be of benefit to him. The furtherance of these skills which will, of course, prepare him to teach, have a definite place in his preparation for college. ( 7 2:9*1 0) In the December,1955* issue of The National Business Education Quarterly three aspects of the business teacher education curriculum were discussed. Reynolds suggested the program of general.education, if it is to be effective, should be flexible. She warned that general education can be-acquix-ed-.e-ven-in_professional-educati-on_or— in-courses-in- 73 one’s major. (91:30) Blanford suggested that professional education include an exploration of the teaching profession* fundamentals of teaching--human growth and development, the psychology of learning, and the school in society; and problems of teachers. Student teaching is recommended on a full-time basis during the senior year. (39:27) Tate suggested that in addition to the broad business background so necessary for business teachers, certain skills must be achieved, including competency at the approximate level required of students or more. He recommends two semesters of college typing and three semesters of shorthand; office machines, secretarial machines and practice; and two or three semesters in accounting. (1 0 9: 3 2) Two articles written in 1964 concerned the work experience of business teachers. Dabkowski’s survey with a 46 per cent return found that 9 1 .3 2 per cent of general business education teachers had some form of business work experience. (5 2:9 6) Dittman advocated work experience as a means of keeping business teaching keyed to current □usiness practice, of taking the material into the realms of reality, and of giving better examples for class work. (53:350) Malsbary suggested techniques for evaluating the business teacher education curriculum. By determining whether the existing curriculum is meeting the needs of our beginning teachers and by determining which areas of the 74 curriculum do not meet these needs, an improved program can be developed. (85:50) Through contacting supervisory personnel, teacher success on the job.'Can be determined. These beginning teachers can inform us of the strong points that contributed to their success and the weak points in which they feel they need additional training. (8 5: 5 1) These latter may be determined by an analysis of difficul ties encountered during their first year of work. Finally there should be an instrument which would enable teacher trainers to evaluate the curriculum. (8 5:5 2) gummary There has been a change in the philosophy of business teacher education. The narrow, vocational, individualistic philosophy of the past has been replaced by a more general, interrelated, and socially-minded philosophy. The narrow training of a skill teacher has been supplanted by a pro gram which endeavors to give a broad cultural background, as well as the necessary practical background, to the pros pective business teacher. This program further attempts to put the business teacher's education on a par with all beacher education, for they share the same goal. Surveys of beginning teachers, business educators, business executives, and business teacher training insti tutions have been made. More practical education and methods courses have been requested by business teachers; 75 more education in the general business subjects and specific methods classes for this field.and other business fields have been recommended. Most studies indicate the desir ability of business experience as a valuable asset for the beginning business teacher. Literature Related to Certification General Studies As previously quoted (128:2), the primary purpose of teacher certification "is to protect the State against incompetent teachers." Because of the effect certification has on teacher education, there has been much controversy as to the role of the state in the setting of standards for entering the teaching profession. Stone, in.1956* developed fundamental principles upon which a state system of licen sing should be based. Seven Cardinal Principles of Certification 1. Teaching is a profession and the certificate should be the badge of membership in the profession. 2. The credential should recognize and emphasize that we are first and foremost teachers of children and youth. 3. A teaching credential should require five years of general professional education. 4. The credential structure should provide for several advanced credentials. 5. The credential should permit the holder to practice as long as he is able to find and keep a position. 7 6 6. The credential should place increasing responsibility at the local level. 7. The credential should recognize that ‘ achieving competence is a shared respon sibility increasing as we move closer and closer to those who know the teacher as a person. (104:155-8) Woodring suggested that the essential criteria of state certification programs include: protecting children against incompetent teachers ; attracting the,most able to the profession; basing certification on some direct measure of teaching competence (not courses and credits); making provision for experimental teacher-education programs; and allowing for individual differences among teachers through such means as encouraging team teaching. He concluded: It should be administered by professional people who have authority to make decisions and to adapt requirements to individual and changing circumstances. It should not be administered by clerks and bookkeepers who, because of lack of authority, must act upon technicalities. (16:522-3$:; A symposium on the "Desirable Policies for the Certification of Teachers" was reported in The Educational Record of July, 1958. Tyler warned that because of the changing American school curriculum, it was necessary for teacher education "to see the interrelationships of what has been divided up into general education, education for the teaching field, and professional education." (113:254) Frederick described the four ways states have exer cised their responsibilities for education. Some have adopt ed-enabling-legislati on; _ . . others, have ..set ...minimum_____ 77 standards; others have imposed uniform requirements; and still others have operated various phases of the program directly. The trend is for the state to play an increas ingly important role. (65:263-4) He cited some general problems in professional licensure as: conflict between the public interest and the interest of the group; detailed requirements for licensing; the effectiveness of the licensing process; and possible undue reliance upon the license as a method for determining competence. (6 5: 2 6 7) Engleman declared that certification authority in most states is lodged by the legislature in the state board of education. He recommended that standards and qualifi cations for certification be determined through the cooper ative study of successful teachers, scholars, and profes sional leaders; that common standards be set among the states; and that programs include breadth and depth in shcolarship and competence in both subject matter and pedagogy. (5 6: 2 7 9) Freeman stated that certification based on credits is meaningless. Institutions should set up specific pro grams, which are approved by those in the fields and the state agencies, and finally certification should be made by the state of those who have completed the approved program. (66:283) Conant suggested in The Education of American Teachers that the certification process is too cumbersome, and if the 78 teaching profession wants to be recognized as such, they must take over a large part of the responsibility. He recommended the state-approved program approach as the best teacher certification method. The program, which is deter mined by the teacher-education institution, is approved through examination - of standards and procedures by the state department or the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. If Judged adequate, the institution's graduates are automatically certified. Conant further claimed it was "the hope of those supporting NCATE ... that it will eventually be used as a major basis for certifying teachers for initial employment, whether they have been prepared within' or without the state." (3 : 2 0) Stinnett enumerated in May, 1955* trends in certifi cation reflected by new requirements in at least ten states. Included were: the bachelor's degree as a minimum require ment for the lowest regular certificate; the issuance of only one certificate at each level of preparation; author ized teaching levels, fields or positions endorsed on the certificate; prescription of common cores; renewal require ments; abandonment of permanent or life certificates; reduction in specificity; broad fields rather than simple subject prescriptions; certificates of eligibility; and he concluded: It seems clear to the writer that there is a growing trend to decentralize the certification process to place more responsibility on the 79 profession and the preparing institution... In the final analysis, the preparing institution is in the best position to evaluate the competences of its newly graduated product. (1 0 1: 2 6 7-7 0) As recently as March, 1967* Kinney noted there was a trend toward a growing emphasis on academic preparation; the establishment of more rigid requirements in teacher assignment; academic majors for administration credentials, all of which, "as straws in the wind ... reveal the contin ued influence of Sputnik on our programs of education." (79:316-7) He deplored the fact that the current requirements still did not assure quality teacher-education programs. Improvements in these programs, he felt, must come from what has been learned from research, but unfortunately, " ... it is notable that neither in the stages of planning and discussion, or in the completed requirements, have the findings of research influenced certification requirements." (79:319) Kinney claimed that the NCATE has not become an inte gral part of the certification process. Of 1,173 teacher- training institutions, 4l4— which prepare JO per cent of the certified teachers— are accredited by NCATE. (79:320) And in discussing the relationship of teaching as a profession and certification he declared: "Certification is a civil service operation, not a process of professional Jlicensure." (79:322) He said it remains to be seen whether—'tjeaohing-Will-iLeatab.lish-its&lf_aa_a.. profession 80 with licensure, or revert to the status,of a craft under Civil Service. The choice will depend on the quality of professional leadership that emerges in the next few years." (79:323) Business Teacher Certification Several surveys have been made of the certification requirements of business teachers throughout the United States, while other studies deal specifically with Califor nia- or stress the comparison of California to other states'. In 1932, Kelley studied the state certification of business teachers in the United States. He found that the required professional courses, which ranged from the six states requiring no professional courses to the two states requir ing twenty-one semester hours, showed "that some of the states are far below a reasonable standard in their require ments for teachers of business education." (123:40) Kelley was concerned about the general credential as it allowed the holder to teach any subject in the secondary school regardless of training. The resultant lack of specific training in subject fields he deemed unprofessional,, He claimed, "It goes back to the old assumption that a general education is all that is needed for teaching." (123:123) The state of California, at that time, issued only the life certificate, while the county issued all other certificates- Also. .California-did. not_accept.out-of-_s.tate 81 credentials but required "original verification of all professional training and successful teaching experience." (123:114) Kelley believed that the use of certification to improve teaching was successful when he said: The constant enacting of new laws, increasing the minumum requirements that are enacted annually, over a period of years, is of increasing importance “"in teacher certification. Many states have found this method of raising requirements to be very successful and no difficulty as yet has been encountered because of the lack of teachers as qualifications are raised. (1 2 3:9 1) He recommended: the elimination of exam-method only for certification; the elimination of life certificates; more uniformity and reciprocity among the states; the up-. grading of certificates through recognition of successful experience and further training; the granting of the special certificate only, for the teaching of all secondary school subjects (licensed to teach only the subject named on the certificate); and "states should issue certificates upon institutional recommendations rather than upon examination or transfer." (123:129) Kelley concluded business education teachers were approaching their tasks as educators and not merely as trainers, but that "we are not throwing into the discard, as some would have you believe, the 'how to do things,1 ' but we are recognizing the responsibilities of mind development in connection with 'how to do'." (123:127) Finally he said: . 82 This study shows that the standards for business education certification are rapidly increasing. The students, now in training, as well as the teachers in service are being forced, through public d.emand, competition, and better educational facilities to continue their training. (1 2 3:1 2 9) Kokanour evaluated the business teacher certification laws in the United States. She found "the trend toward the abolition of blanket certificates and the issuance of certificates for the particular subjects named is contin uing." (124:122) Although the majority of the states issued special certificates to teachers of business subjects "California, Colorado, and Florida subdivide the field of business education and issue certificates valid only in the particular field named." (124:122-3) Although Kokanour noticed a trend toward higher scholarship for business teachers, she concluded: "The results of this investigation show ... in the majority of cases the training requirements for business teachers are still inadequate." (124:223-4) A comparison of the requirements for business teacher certification and for general or academic teacher certification "brings out the fact that the majority of states have set up higher require ments for general than for special certificates." (124:224) Her recommendations reinforce those made by Kelley in 1932: certificates should not be issued upon examination alone; life-certificates should be discontinued; there should be uniformity and reciprocity among the states. In addition 83 she recommended raising the certification standards of a business teacher to equal the general or academic standards; further centralization of the certification authority in the state; fewer certificates; and the elimination of "blanket" certificates for special certificates in subjects named. (124:226-7) In 1940* Mayes compared the California business teacher certification requirements with those of other states in the United States. At that time business educa tors and teachers criticized the California credential saying* "The Special Secondary Credential in Business Education is as much too limited as the General Secondary Credential is too broad." (128:93) They felt the special credential offered the following advantages: better specialized preparation including the appropriate methods courses; practice teaching* vocational skills* and the assurance that the teacher would be teaching only the subjects she was prepared to teach. (128:94) The General Secondary Credential* on the other hand* allowed teaching outside of the major and minor fields; did not ensure voca tional skill or background business courses* and did not give credit for or require business, experience. They felt no person could be equipped to teach all courses from the seventh to the fourteenth grade. (128:95-6) The general credential* however* had its advantages in that it made it easier to secure a job and assured that the teacher had a _ _ 84 » wider educational background in general education. (1 2 8:9 6) Mayes concluded with recommended qualifications necessary for a commercial credential: a. Graduation from an accredited institution and twenty-four semester hours of graduate work. b. A minimum of sixteen semester hours in the fields of science, social studies and English. c. A minimum of eighteen semester hours of professional work in education including four semester hours of directed teaching and a course in educational psychology. d. A minimum of twenty semester hours of work in subjects basic to business and commerce, including courses in economics, business law and current economic problems. e. A minimum-of fifteen semester hours of work in one of the commercial teaching subfields. f. A minimum of four semester hours of practice teaching in business subjects. g. A minimum of six semester hours of credit in professional work in the teaching of business subjects (methods, organization, curriculum, etc.). (1 2 8:1 0 7) Garver, in 19^9> made a study to determine the desirable requirements for certification of California business education teachers. He felt the problem was especially significant, because of the fact that the General Secondary Credential allowed ill-prepared teachers to teach business subjects. (120:4) He cited Martin's "State Certification of Business Instructors" as recommending actual business experience as a requirement for certifi cation or at least for renewal of certificates. (1 2 0: 2 2) 85 In comparing the California general credential requirements with the special credential requirements, Garver noted that the special credential listed require ments not included for the general credential. They in cluded: "Not less than six semester hours" in English; educational psychology; major requirements: economics, business law, economic geography or foreign trade, and consumer education or current economic problems; and six months of practical experience in the subfields to be named on the credential (1 ,0 0 0 hours). (120:42-3) Regarding methods courses, he commented: Current practice would recommend rather than specific methods and practice teaching, general methods in Business Education and practice teaching in the area of Business Education, but not in each specific subject to be taught. (1 2 0: 3 6) Regarding business experience he concluded: Without exception the previous research studies here reviewed recommend that business experience be a requirement for certification of a commercial teacher. They do not, however, recommend that additional business experience be a requirement for the renewal of the certi ficate. (1 2 0:1 5 0) Garver recommended uniformity in the certification requirements throughout the states and for California: In California, where the five-year require ment is already in effect as a prerequisite for the securing of a General Secondary Credential, it would seem that a similar requirement should be in effect in the field of business teacher certification also. (1 2 0: 2 1 6) 86 Jacksqn^in 19^9* surveyed the requirements of business teachers in the United States and recommended: Minimum certification requirements for business teachers should be based upon a bachelor's degree issued by an accredited teacher training institution with perhaps eighteen semester hours of professional education, forty semester hours in the field of business. The remaining work may be earned in any field. (7^:47) As a result of McKinney's 19^9 study of certification in selected states, he recommended: a five-year program, better training in the basic subjects, reciprocity among the states, and specific certificates. In summary he said that certification should be based on a program which included a core curriculum in general education, profes sional teacher training courses in education and "specific teacher training and experience in the field of business education." (1 2 7:l8l) Helen Smith, in'reviewing the certification require ments of business teachers in the United States in 1958, found the raising of standards had not lessened the attrac tiveness of teaching, "and the states with higher standards are preparing more teachers in proportion to their replace ment needs than are the other states." (9 6:1 7) In this 1958 study, five states mentioned requiring business experience compared to only one state that was found by Mayes in 19^0. Smith noted that several state boards preferred the business experience requirement or found it 'd e s i r ab 1 e-.--- —----------------------------------------- --- 87 Selden,- in 1966, noted that business education would be served better by certificates in individual subjects, rather than subject-matter fields. Discernible trends he found were the issuance of certificates by teacher-training institutions, and the requirement of satisfactory work experience for prospective business teachers. (9 5: 5) McCullough stated in her 1966 study that the current trend in California as a result of the new credential law (which went into effect in January 1964) was to require prospective business teachers to take almost the idential program that is required by business administration majors. The prospective business teacher must, in addition, take education courses which are tending to be shifted to the graduate level. (1 2 6:1 3 7) The California Credential Situation In the dialogue which follows The California Teachers Association Journal in a tongue-in-cheek manner describes the national situation which, in California, culminated in credentialing legislation and accompanying controversy. ~ • Placing The Blame (a dialogue) October 4, 1957: "Dear oh dear, the Russians just launched their first Sputnik. How come they did it ahead of us"? '"The fault, I’m sure, lies with our high schools." 88 October 2, i960: "That report of Conant on The American High School surely absolves secondary edu cation of blame for the Soviet being ahead of us." "Well, then, where could the fault lie?" "Obviously, it's the way our teachers are trained." October 5j 19^3: ' "This new book of Conant's certainly lifts the responsibility from the teacher training colleges. But somebody must have goofed. "Of course, the whole trouble is the way teachers are certified." (8 9:1 2) In Conant's opinion the development of events leading up to credential reform occurred in the following manner: In California the conflict between the aca demic professors and the public school interest, including the professors of education, has for many years been particularly acute but confined largely to the college campuses. There has also been widespread controversy over a number of other educational issues. By i9 6 0, however, there was nearly unanimous agreement that the teacher certification picture had become overly complicated, and that something had to be done to simplify it. The California Teachers Associ ation was preparing legislation, as was the Cali1 * : ■ fornia unit of the American Federation of Teachers (AFL-CIO), and a Legislature-sponsored citizen's committee had proposed action to upgrade the academic preparation of teachers and school administrators. The stage was set for some kind of reform. Various groups had studied the problem and had made recommendations to the State Board of Education and the Legislature. But, according to Conant, the following political situation lead to the passage of the Fisher Bill. 89 By autumn of i960 it was clear that the reform of teacher certification could "be made a profit able political issue; and Governor Brown, his appointed state Board of Education, and legislative leaders seized upon it. The upshot was the Fisher Bill, which became law in 1961 and which was designed first, to raise the requirements for academic subject preparation at the expense of professional education, and second, to prevent teachers who had no major in an academic area from moving into administrative positions. The political lines were clearly drawn and the professional education group suffered a clear-cut defeat. Yet even in California, it seems probable that the establishment still has enough power to maintain marked influence over certification policies. "(3:24-5) The wheels were set in motion at an annual meeting in Long Beach, California, of the California School Adminis trators when Roy E. Simpson, State Superintent of Public Instruction, announced that as there was strong feeling ■ that a careful review of the credentialing structure should be made, with particular emphasis upon the need to reduce the number of credentials, he had asked the California Council on Teacher Education "to accept as one of its major long term projects” a re-study of the California Credential ing structure. In April 1953* an Exploring Committee of the Council recommended ”a committee be appointed to examine the basic credentialing structure in the state and to recommend guidelines for the development of a revised structure." (49:26) A special committee, The Committee on Revision of the Credential Structure in California, was appointed by Roy Simpson and the President of the California Council on Teacher Education, Arnold Joyai, in the fall of 90 1 95^-* consisting of "l4 persons of recognized standing in educational circles who had at some time in their profes sional career displayed an active interest in teacher education-certification work." (103:17) (See Appendix for the list of members.) The directives to the Committee called for a basic framework for the credentialing system, not specific requirements. Such questions as "What purpose should be served by a licensure system in education'?’ ! and "What are the desirable characteristics of a certification structure?" were suggested. (1 0 3:1 7) In August 1955* °ne week of open meetings were held at Stanford University "hearing representatives from various professional groups who had opinions to express, points of view to share, or axes to grind." The Committee had the benefit of the services of four consultants. (See Appendix) In addition, Jack Archer, a doctoral candidate at Stanford University, researched a survey of practices and trends in the various states, a historical review of the certification movement in California and the nation, and an analysis of certification and accreditation practices of other well- known professions. (1 0 3:1 8) Because no finances were made available, the Committee arranged to save the members1 time by having written proposals and summaries of research sent to each member in time for him to study them prior to the meeting. Also they agreed to work in the meetings for consensus on basic ideas 91 rather than specific wording, assigning an individual member the task of writing it up for later review. (1 0 3:1 9) There were progress reports furnished to the public and the final recommendations in the spring of 1957 called for two teaching credentials and two advanced credentials. (See Appendix for a summary of the report.) Presentation meetings were held with the California Council on Teacher Education which agreed to "endorse and support" the recommendations. (103:19) Similar meetings were held with the State Superintendant and key staff members. The State Superintendant asked for study groups to react and report, stating: We have lived with our old certification system for many years, and when we do make a change we want to be sure that the profession is behind us and that we have moved in the right direction. (103:19) Charles Hamilton, Secretary of the CTA Commission on Teacher Education, was asked by the California Teachers Association to devote a major portion of his time to explain the Committee’s work to 93,000 CTA members. In the process he informed the members that an overlapping of functions jbetween credentialing processes and accreditation had been jnoted by the Committee which recognized the related problems It brought to bear on teacher educators. (7 0: 2 6) In a symposium reported in The California Journal of Secondary Education in April 1957* the issues and problems [involved in the revision of the California credentialing 92 structure were discussed. Lucien B. Kinney mentioned two additional questions that were defined by the committee as: "How shall credential requirements be stated?" and "What basic principles should be recognized in the creden tial structure?" He claimed the Committee undertook to define the issues that go beyond certification and to refer them for consideration to the professional organizations and institutions. Before this was accomplished, no frame work for certification could be established. ( 7 8: 2 3 8) Kinney further claimed that the best way to assure proper assignment of teachers was to leave this matter to the local administration, and that "accreditation at the secondary level is the proved and accepted method of checking on performance." ( 7 8: 2 3 6) Hamilton’s contribution to the symposium recommended that as evidence of maturation the teaching profession must assume the responsibility of. guaranteeing the proper assign ment of teachers; the state should issue credentials only on the recommendation of accredited teacher education institutions; and that both accrediting and credentialing agencies should include "a broad representation of the organized teaching profession." (69:2^3) He reported that the response of 1 6 ,0 0 0 teachers was that the certifi cation system should do its part in promoting high profes sional standards; that there was too much red tape in the processing of credentials; and that even faculty experts were confused as to the credential requirements. (69:243-4) The views of a shcool board member* Mrs. Katherine MacMillan* member of the Sacramento City Schools Board of Education* suggested that since a credential should verify that "a candidate has been selected* screened* and educated for the profession in an approved institution*" it would place the responsibility for establishing such a program on the university. The administration in the local com munity should take care of the proper staff assignment. (84:247-8) Two English professors from the state university declared that the three purposes of certification were: to bring competent teachers to the public schools; to make certain that "every teacher is a master of his subject;" and to properly apply a teacher’s preparation. (61:249-51) In discussing the advantages and disadvantages of the institutional approach and direct application approach to credentialing* Stone reported that after two years of study the Committee on Revision of the Credential Structure in California recommended that all California credentials be issued only on institutional recommendation. (106:256) . Bush* after contrasting the institution recommendation and the direct application credentialing procedures* recom mended that as a unified profession "we should move to the point where all but the basic license is handled directly 94 by the profession itself, not by the State." (42:387-8) He claimed that it was also within the realm of professional responsibility to control the assignment of teachers. He called for the cooperation of the profession to eliminate arguments over minor details so that the revision could bring about "great strides in upgrading the profession of teaching." (42:389) In January 1959j after three years of study, the California Teachers Association Committee on Teacher Education submitted a revision policy to the State Council of Education. In essence the policy summarized the views previously brought forth in the professional articles and said: The authority to license is given by the Legislature to the State Board of Education. This basic license to practice identifies the professional career teacher. Frame work for licensure should be based on recommendations of the profession, include breadth and depth of academic and professional preparation, and include study beyond the baccalaureate degree. Institutions of higher education should develop specific programs, which would be accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) or the California State Board of Educa tion. Accreditation would also take care of the evaluation at the local level, including the adequacy of professional assignments. The three recommended credentials— Teaching Credential,Pupil-Personnel Credential,and Administration- 95 Supervision Credential require five years of college work. As the teaching level rises, more academic preparation should be included in the -155 semester units. "The credential structure will outline the requirements of the credential in broad terms of competences needed rather than specify the details of courses that must be taken by candi dates." Although application may be made through an accred ited institution or the Commission on Credentials, verifica tion of fitness and successful completion of the legal requirements should be made by the executive head of teacher education at the institution where the prospective teacher had completed preparation. (5 1:1 0-1 1) Kinney warned in i960 that we could not proceed with the development of a sound credential program until we recognized that the control of teacher assignment and certification are two separate and distinct problems. The function of certification is "the identification of the qualified member of the profession." When we try to design "certification to perform functions for which it is unsuitec, ... we introduce factors that inevitably lead to multipli city, inflexibility, and inefficiency." (7 6:1 3) Such were the recorammendations and comments prior to the passage of the bill. What happened when the bill was passed? According to The California Teachers Association Journal the Licensing of Certified Personnel Law of 1961 was the "most hotly contested education issued of the 1961 96 California legislature." It was signed by the Governor on June 24, and was to become operative July 1, 1963* The > article further stated that the new law: ... does not parallel CTA policy as represented by five years of study led by the Teacher Education committee of the State Council on Education . Although the law will provide for exceptions, the effect will be to remove local determination of secondary and junior college assignments and make the teacher’s state-issued license an almost specific determiner of teacher assignment. This is considered a significant departure from state and nationwide trends toward less restrictive licenses supported by increased reliance on professional decisions at the local level ... Instead of reducing the number of credentials the law has increased the complexity of the system. (8 7:1 3) The manner in which this bill affected business- teacher preparation has already been quoted from Tonne (111:142), and although he stated that the original legis lation would have been an abomination and he was grateful and proud of those who prevented it, he felt that the attack on nonacademic subjects would continue. He claimed the basis for the attack is that the whole teacher-education program needed streamlining. He suggested that in business education, education courses and skill courses needed to be reduced to prevent duplication; prospective business teach-r:. ers needed a better cultural background; and they needed to be prepared to teach and to accept the assignment to teach the general business and economics classes as well as the business subjects. (1 1 0: 2 2 5) 97 Erickson questioned the "second class citizen" status afforded business teachers as a result of the'Fisher Bill’s exclusion of business education as academic subject matter, the need for an academic major or minor for a teaching credential, and the need for an academic major for the administrative ranks. (59:136-7) He also deplored the fact it was possible to teach business under the new law without every having completed a specific business methods course, which was contrary to the philosophy of business educators. Dean Robert R. Smith, Dean of Education at San Francisco State College, in May 1964 declared that 6 3 .6 per cent of all candidates receiving instruction within the state were recommended for a teaching credential by the state colleges. Because he predicted this percentage would increase, he felt the state colleges were vitally concerned with the new credential legislation. He sent a question naire to the deans of education or division chairmen at the ten state colleges in existence at the time and asked them to forward a copy of the questionnaire to a dean or chairman of a department other than education. He concluded, "The attempt to define ’academic' by the interpreters of the legislation is reported as ’ ... one of the most sorrowful ' actions in the whole cpntroversy.'" There was great con fusion as to the programs because of the need to wait for the State Board of Education to write the requirements 98 under which the colleges were to plan programs by July 1 9 8 3. The requirements were not ready until May 1 9 6 3* and although the time was extended and they were allowed a semester for the preparation of programs, some hasty decisions were made because of deadlines for the 1964-65 catalogs. (97:6) Additional confusion was brought about -by the State College Trustees' unexpectedly adopting on February 26, 1964, A Policy on Teacher Educationa which required that state college programs be approved by the Trustees in addition to the State Board of Education. The purpose was to "insure uniformity of application" of the regulations. "By translating the minima.included in the May 1963 State Board regulations into maxima in general education, majors, minors, and professional education including student teaching," Smith felt the Trustees acted counter to the spirit of the basic law which was to "emphasize academic and subject-matter preparation, professional preparation and student teaching, or its equivalence in teaching experience." (97:7*40) One effect was to reduce the major requirement to 24 upper division semester units, when the long-established bachelor's degree majors required between 36 and 6 0 semester units. Smith concluded that all the talk of upgrading teacher preparation through a new certification law was revealed as "a mask for massive attack on the profession alizing of teaching ..." and advised: 99 The State Board should begin to sense that (a) the law and the current implementing regulations are unworkable and impossible to administer in a rational way by the colleges, the State Department of Education, and the school districts and counties, (b) a prime objective for improvement of quality of teacher preparation, the simplification of certification, has been lost in the shuffle, (c) the notion that the new certification law will produce better-prepared teachers is a myth, and (d) the explosive resulting chaos is being disguised from parents and other interested citizens of the state. (97:^2) Elam commented in Phi Delta Kappan in January 1 9 6 5: But there is little doubt of one thing: non educators with decision making authority have made decisions for California schools without understanding the consequences of their acts. (55:209) And Epperson in September 1965 wrote of his concern that California legislators have, taken the stand that teachers who are: more expert in a special subject matter field ... will be better able to contribute to the development of the experts that are required in modern industry and in the technological and military competition with the Soviet Union. (58:287) He was concerned about the reduced professional education of teachers that would result and concluded: Might not urban social problems be intensified by the politician’s decision to legislate a training program in which so little time is' spent learning ways of making abstractions meaningful to the diverse population of children found in metro politan schools? (5 8: 2 8 8) Stone in 1966 summarized the whole situation in his article, "Teacher Education by Legislation." The California 100 teacher education situation, which was described as in a "state of confusion" (1 0 5: 2 8 7) in i9 6 0, had now arrived at the point where "licensure ... appears to be in a state of increasing confusion." (105:290) A "Citizen’s Advisory Committee on Education," appointed by the state legislature after Sputnik brought about "a great concern over educa tion," made recommendations for the next regular legislative session. The i9 6 0 session’s chief concern was education, and among the 3 8 8 laws passed was the Fisher Act. Stone commented: The net result of these actions, taken as a group was to place greater responsibility in the hands of the state at the expense of local control of schools, and in the case of the Fisher Act, at the expense of college and university control of their own teacher educa tion curriculums. (1 0 5: 2 8 7-8 ) Through the elimination of education and educational methodology as subject matter and the exclusion from the classification "academic" all subjects which appear to include principles of application, such as business, the fields of study in colleges and universities were thereby arranged into "respectable versus nonrespectable groups" and the public school teachers were "labeled first-class or second-class citizens." (1 0 5: 2 8 8) Although prior to 1961 the Education Code provided that changes in credential requirements "must remain in effect for four years," the 1 961 legislative session modified the time provision to "any time," which resulted ir. 101 eighty-one credential requirement changes from the time the act became effective (January 1, 1964) to the writing of this article. Some of the changes included the passage of the Rodda Act* which modified elementary teacher require ments to alleviate recruiting problems experienced by administrators and the "growing shortage of elementary school teacher candidates since the Fisher Act became effective." State colleges reported 40 to 50 per cent fewer trainees. (1 0 5: 2 9 0) Stone found some definite advantages in the Fisher Act as originally conceived and implemented: the encour-. agement of five-year programs allowing for undergraduate concentration of liberal education and adequate professional concentration at the graduate levels the achievement of a better balance between subject matter and.professional education; the development of post-baccalaureate internship programs of teacher education; the upgrading of elementary teacher preparation; the establishment of basic curricular reforms and the development of new and experimental courses and sequences; and the improvement in staff assignment to teach majors and minors. On the minus side was the fact that the high standards "have been watered down by subse quent legislation and the acts of the State Board." The simplicity and the high standards sought in the credential ing system had not been achieved because Stone felt, "certification standards wax and wane according to the 102 winds of teacher supply and demand ... Thus in hoth pre- and post-Fisher Act periods, the State Board has adjusted the standard to the availability of personnel.’ 1 (1 0 5: 2 9 1) Summary Studies have been made for many years comparing the various state certification requirements as well as speci fically comparing California's business teacher credential ing requirements with those of other states. As far back as 1932 certain recommendations have been made and are continually being reinforced by more recent studies. These recommendations included reciprocity among the states, a five-year program, the inclusion of business experience and special methods courses in business, and the naming of specific subjects on the credential. It was also recom mended that institutions be responsible for establishing proper teacher education programs, based on research; that the institution approach to credentialing be followed; and that teacher assignment was a proper function of the local district. The controversy in credentialing in California was brought about by many factors. To the original purpose of certification, as stated by Frazier, of protecting the state against incompetent teachers, have been addded the purposes of proper teacher assignment and the degree of competence to be achieved. It was felt that these additional purposes cloud the issue. Also, although it was recommended that the 103 profession be utilized to establish training for all teachers, business educators felt that specific subject matter training in business including special methods courses and business experience should not be sacrificed. The great concern of many educators was that the setting of standards for entrance to the teaching profession, which has been taken out of the hands of the profession, has caused serious damage to the profession and that the original purpose of simplifying the credentialing system has, in fact, been overlooked. CHAPTER III FINDINGS Introduction In order to compare the opinions of legislators, state college professors, and business teachers as to what constitutes the best preparation for business education teachers, certain information was gathered. Through the Secretary of the Senate, The California State Library, the Bureau of Business Education of the California State Depart ment of Education, and The California Teacher's Association various publications concerning teacher education legisla tion were obtained. These materials, evidencing the legislators’ wishes, would form the basis of their opinions for the, purposeof this study. The opinions of business educators, on the other hand, were obtained through a study of the catalogs of the thirteen state colleges offering programs in business education. It was felt that the programs in effect would reflect, to some extent, the wishes of the educators. In addition, through a questionnaire sent to the heads of the departments of business education, the specific beliefs and recommendations of these state college business educators were obtained, also enabling a determination of the differ ences between the practices, in effect and the wishes stated. I ------ ------- ---- -----104_______ _________ _________ 105 Questionnaires from out-of-state business educators presents a point of comparison and contrast with California state college practices and recommendations. The opinions of business teachers were gathered by McCullough in her 1 9 6 6 study, "Opinions of Beginning High School Business Teachers Regarding Their College Preparation for Teaching." Her findings provide the basis for the thirc part of this study. Legislation and State Department Dicta Studies Prior to Legislation The Committee on Revision of the Credential Structure in California was formed in 1954 to search for a method of simplifying the complicated California credentialing process without jeopardizing expertness in performance. The find ings of the Committee (see Appendix) were expressed at public hearings .called by the State Superintendent to obtain the reactions of both the public and the profession to the recommendations. The State Superintendent in 1959 presented his recommendations for a certification framework to the State Board of Education, which, after careful study, adopted some basic principles upon which a credential structure approved by the state board was introduced in 1 9 6 1, "and following numerous modifications was enacted." (81:249) The public's belief "that the future of the free world was largely dependent upon the excellence of its 106 educational system, as compared to that of the Iron Curtain Nations," (19:5) resulted in other reactions at the state level. In the 1958 Budget Session of the California Legis lature by unanimous decision of both houses Resolution No. 20 was passed. This Act, which authorized a Joint . Interim Committee on the Public Education System (see Appendix for membership) and provided for the assistance of a Citizens Advisory Commission, gave the Committee "full I responsibility to study every phase of California educa tion." (19:5) The Committee’s unanimous belief that the Commission "should become a truly advisory body" was based on their conviction that: ... for years various interested groups had been giving advice on education and that it was time that a true citizens [sic] group made a study to recognize any changes which they might believe necessary to strengthen the public education system in California. (19:5) The regard they held for the membership .of this Commission (see Appendix) was voiced by one legislator in labeling the Commission "the most representative, talented and consciencious group of people ever gathered on one citizens’ commission." (1 9:5) Over 5° public hearings produced over 5 , 0 0 0 pages of testimony and a Commission report "composed essentially of suggestions calling for a number of positive steps to be taken within the structure of education in California." (19:15) With a procedure "designed to produce as concrete a list of recommendations as possible, compromise was 107 seldom present." (19:15) A Minority Report was filed by four Commission members and special attention was "called to the fact that dissent was not only present but was respected and preserved as essential to an accurate report." ( 19: 16) The Commission’s belief that the .California public school should provide every individual with the opportunity to become educated to the maximum of his ability was the basis of their report. Their belief "that the classroom teacher is the key to education. He is the one who actually does the educating," (1 9:8) lead to the following state ment on the importance of sharing the responsibilities of both attracting able people to the profession and of certi fying as to the adequacy of their preparation and perfor mance . The attracting of able individuals into the teaching profession is the joint responsibility of the public, the teaching profession itself, school systems, professors of the liberal arts, subject . matter departments and professors of education, in colleges and universities. Since the college profes sor is in a unique position to encourage able students to enter the teaching profession, such encouragement should be given in terms of the profes sion as being of primary importance... High intel ligence, good character and desirable personality characteristics are all important criteria to use in the selection of prospective teachers ... Professors in the academic disciplines should certify as to the adequacy of the student's prepar ation in his teaching field or fields. Professors of education should certify as to the adequacy of his professional preparation. Master teachers in the public schools should certify as to his adequacy of performance in the classroom. (1 9: 2 2-2 3) 108 According to the Commission’s findings, the factors considered "by teachers to be of major importance included, among others, salaries, social status of the profession, education policy, and requirements for credentials. "In order to provide teachers and teaching of the best possible quality for all classrooms," the Commission proposed "a number of measures to increase the attractiveness of teach ing in the public schools and the efficiency of classroom teachers." (19:8) Those recommmendations relevant to teacher education include: 1. Secondary school teachers teaching in their minor field should be transferred as soon as possible to their major field or secure train ing in their minor field until they achieve major field competence. (1 9:1 9) 2. The abilities of superior career teachers should be utilized in the most effective way possible, such as by making them heads of teams of teachers and by providing teaching aides and clerical assistance. (1 9: 2 0) 3. . The salaries of teachers be set at a high enough level to attract and hold the best talent in the profession. [There were nine dissenting votes.] (1 9: 2 1) 4. All teacher education institutions keep courses on methods to a minimum and encourage early observation and practice teaching. (1 9: 2 3) 5. Fifth year teacher education programs based on a paid internship for those who have received a bachelor's degree with little or no work in professional education should be expanded. (19:23) 6 . QFor elementary teachers] A year of post graduate study. A subject matter major other than education appropriate for elementary school teaching [were recommended]. (1 9: 2 3) 109 7. The standard secondary teaching credential shall be issued upon the completion of: 1. A properly executed application. 2. A bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university. 3. A year of postgraduate study. 4. A program of teacher education including directed teaching or its equivalent in teaching experience in the secondary schools;.and 5. A subject matter major appropriate for secondary school teachers other than education, an area of special ization or subject matter minor; and 6. A teaching major of at least 3 6.semester units and a teaching minor of at least 20 semester units. This credential shall qualify the holder for appointment as a teacher: 1. In grades 7 through 12. Any assign ment in Grades 7 through 12 of the holder of this credential to teach a subject which is not in that teacher’s major or minor field of preparation, shall be made only with the specific approval of the governing board of the district. 2. In classes of adults; and 3. In the subject matter of his major and minor or other area of specialization, as specified on the credential, in grades kindergarten through six; and 4. In the subject matter of his major and minor or other area of specialization, as specified on the credential, in Grades 13 and 14. (19:24) 8 . The governing boards of all secondary schools and junior colleges shall submit annual reports to the State Board of Education identi fying the teaching assignment given to each teacher under their jurisdiction. (1 9: 2 5) ' 9. The Commission recommends to the new governing board for state colleges: A reduction in the number of courses in education offered in the state colleges be instituted. (1 9: 2 6) 10. The Commission recommends to the Trustees of the University of California and the state colleges—that-:- _All-teacher-education_programs____ 110 should stress a basic liberal education, depth of knowledge in subject or subjects to be taught and professional preparation. (19: 26) The Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 1961 pro vided for five credentials: a. A standard teaching credential with special izations in elementary teaching, secondary teaching, or junior college teaching b. A standard designated subjects teaching credential c. A standard designated services credential d. A standard supervison credential e. A standard administration credential The Education Code, Section 13188 (a) defines academic as: "Academic subject matter area" refers exclusively to the natural sciences, the social sciences (other than education and educational methodology), the humanities, mathematics and the fine arts. The State'Board of Education may consider-a given subject matter major, whatever its title, to be an academic subject matter major if it finds that at the specific institution the required courses and the content of such courses within the major are equivalent to those of an academic subject matter major. The Law raised the elementary teaching credential requirements to include one; year of college and university work beyond the baccalaureate in addition to the require ment of "a major and a minor, one of which shall be in an academic subject matter and one of which may be in a non- academic subject matter area normally taught in the public schools I!" (1 7:1 3 1 9 1( 0-)) The secondary teaching credential requirements included the same two provisions. Ill Section 13192 specifically enumerated the levels at which the holder of the secondary credential is authorized to teach, with great emphasis placed on the teaching of the major and minor subjects. Similar sections applied to the elementary and junior college levels. The administration credential required "an approved undergraduate or graduate major in an academic subject matter area';" (1 7:1 3 1 9 7. 2 ) Section 13197-^ required reports to be made by the govern ing board of - each school district listing the assignments of all teachers and the assignments requiring board resolu tions together with the reasons for the assignments. California State Central Coordinating Committee on ICredential Revision The steps taken to implement the law were described in a letter which accompanies the reports of the California State Central Coordinating Committee on Credential Revision to all persons and groups concerned with the development of 'credential requirements. Recognizing the need to establish procedures for the development of requirements to be recom mended to the State Board of Education, Father Darrell F. X. Finnegan, President of the Calif ornia Council on Teacher Education (the organ ization advisory to the State Superintendent of Public Instruction and the State Board of Educa tion on matters of teacher education and certification) and Dr. Roy E. Simpson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, jointly appointed a ten-member State Central. Coordinating Committee on Credential Revision, to structure Phase II of Credential Revision and to nominate persons for appointment to any committees needed ... (23) 112 Approximately sixty-five persons were appointed to membership in four resource committees "whose function is to develop credential requirements for recommendation to the State Board of Education". The Standard Teaching Credential Resource Committee and the Standard Designated Subjects Teaching Credential Resource Committee are relevant to this study. All interested individuals .and groups in California were asked to react to the reports of these groups. The report of the Standard Teaching Credential Resource Committee concerned with the Standard Teaching Credential with Specialization in Secondary Teaching made on November 10, 11, 1961* included the following recommended requirements: 1. General Education Forty-five ... semester hours of general education with a specified minimum number of semester hours in each of the following areas: a. Science b. Mathematics c. Practical Arts d. Fine Arts e. Social Science f. The Communicative Arts, including English composition, and such additional fields as foreign languages, literature, speech arts, etc. 2. Professional Education Twenty-two semester hours of professional work in education to include 8 (perhaps 6) semester hours of directed teaching; and . preparation in each of the following areas: a. Function of the Secondary School in the 1 otal_sy s.tem -Qf_e duca ti on_.in..mpdern_„spci_ety.__ b. Psychological and Social foundations of education. c. Curriculum development and teaching procedures including instructional materials- (recommended preparation studies in these areas should be directed toward developing our under standing of the learner and the theories of learning). ( 2 8) According to the Standard Designated Subjects Teaching Credential Resource Committee in a report made on November 10, 11, 1 9 6I: - The Designated Subjects Teaching Credential is intended to cover special subjects for which the teaching competence or preparation are generally acquired through experience other than collegiate trainings or through a combination of practical experience and formal education. This credential provided for full-time and part-time instruction in the fields of trade technical, business, agriculture, semi-professional and pre-professional subjects: limited purpose assignments'^ assignments to classes for adults: and "credentials for persons of recognized eminence in subject fields commonly taught in the public schools." ( 26) This committee developed a report at its second meeting in San Mateo on January 5j 6, and 7 , 1 9 6 2. The outline for the requirements for the credential with specialization in business education which "shall not authorize the teaching of typewriting, shorthand, or bookkeeping," included: A. A Bachelor's Degree or its equivalent. B. Twelve semester hours of professional 114 courses appropriate for teaching the . subject or the subjects named in the credential, including supervised teaching. One year of successful teaching in the public school may be substituted for the supervised teaching requirement. C. Pour semester units of professional courses in the coordination of business occupational' performance with classroom instruction. D. Mastery of the subject or subjects to be named in the credential. E. Three years of successful experience in an occupation in which a knowledge of the subject named in the credential is needed for job performance. ( 2 7) The 1966 summary of the requirements for the Standard Teaching Credential with a Specialization in Secondary Teaching and the Standard Designated Subjects Teaching Credential in Business Education appear in the Appendix. A comparison of the recommendations of the various commit tees which functioned prior to and after the passage of the Law and the requirements in effect will be made in Chapter IIV. The Restoration of Teaching In direct response to various legislative proposals ^during 1 9 6 5 which would have effectively repealed the Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 1 9 6 1, had they been enacted, the Assembly Education Subcommittee on School Personnel and Teacher Qualifications held extensive hearings for a two-year period "on the subject of the qual ity and quantity of teachers now being prepared by our co lie gej3__and junivers it ie s.."____________________________ _____ 115 The report of the Subcommittee on School Personnel and Teacher Qualifications (see Appendix for membership), The Restoration of Teaching, is divided into three sections. The first section, "Teacher Licensing in Califomia," covers findings, recommendations and a section named "The Red Tape Jungle," which is subdivided into a part dealing with the Fisher Act and a part dealing with Teacher Supply and Demand. Section Two refers to the "Procedures of the Committee of Credentials" (not entirely relevant to this report except for the legislators’ philosophy of the teaching profession) and Section Three covers "A Study of Methods of Upgrading and Improving the Teaching Profession.1 1 The topics covered, dealing directly with the opinions of the legislators on this subcommittee on teacher qualifi cations, and the recent publication date— January 1 9 6 7— make this report extremely timely and relevant to this study. Therefore a detailed summary will be made of all subjects particularly concerned with teacher education. The Fisher Act: As a direct legislative response to the recommmendations of the "noted" (adjective used in the report) Citizens Advisory Commission, which advocated a broad liberal education "with leeway for vocational prepar ation for vocational teachers," the 1 9 6 1 credential law insures "that every future teacher will have spent at least 40 percent of his college years studying liberal arts and sciences." (18:11) Its flexibility is noted in allowing 116 "those persons who wish to teach in vocational fields to take major course work in these fields, while at the same time becoming educated in broad cultural fields." (1 8:1 1) The quantity of teacher education was affected through the raising of the required number of years of preparation from four to five. Dr. Max Rafferty, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, in 19^2, wrote Suffer Little Children and expressed the view that teacher preparation professors actually believed that "WHAT was taught was far less important than HOW it was taught." (18:15) He also des cribed the teaching profession of a generation ago: ... People admired and respected and looked up to our predecessors as the cultural leaders of their communities. They represented education magnificently because they WERE educated. (18:15) . The report then comments on this quote: We think Dr. Rafferty, as well as others we might have quoted, has admirably expressed the fundamental concept inherent in California's 1961 credential law. For all practical purposes, these beliefs expressed in Suffer Little Children in 1962 were enacted by 1961 Legislature because of the general public demand and the specific recommendation of the Citizens Advisory Committee [Commission], (l8 :l6 ) The stress on academic preparation, or "those subjects traditionally associated with true scholarship and research," (1 8:1 2) the report concludes, would no doubt be ratified by the people of California. In addition, special leeway is allowed for recognizing as academic those majors at_specific_ins-ti-tutiQns_which-have_shawn-schQlarly—quality-. 117 Admitting the controversy raised by the 1 9 6 1 creden tial law (Senate Bill 5 7)* the report declares that the controversy existed on the outside, rather than within, the Legislature. Senate Bill 57 passed the Assembly 66 to 11 and the Senate 26 to 2 with support from heavy majorities of both parties. (1 8:1 2) Major opposition to the legislation was expressed by the State Department of Education, teacher preparation institutions, and several major statewide organizations of educators. At issue was, and still is occasionally, the dichotomy of views as to whether the proper preparation of teachers is one of broad education [the view of the Citizens Advisory Commission] or narrow vocational training. (1 8:1 2) Proponents of the "shortage theory" (the Fisher Act has caused a shortage of teachers) are, according to the report, "essentially in conflict with the basic spirit of the law itself, rather than primarily concerned with its practical effects." (18:11) The criticism now seems to have changed because of the flexibility provided by the law and the rulings of the state board. The serious problems of initiation and administration, are, however, being felt in the areas of: "the immense complexity and instability of the official regulations, and the degree to which teacher preparation institutions moved to implement the law effect ively." (18:12) The testimony revealed that the problem exists with those that are responsible for implementing the law, not with the law itself. It is difficult for an individual teacher to get reliable information from the 118 'credentials office of the State Department of Education. ' The renumbering of practice teaching courses to the graduate level makes it impossible for elementary teachers to teach after four years of preparation— which is now allowed by subsequent legislation. Other colleges get around the minimum professional education requirements by requiring prerequisites to these courses, which leads prospective teachers to avoid being recognized as potential teachers so they.may work for the state minimum. (1 8:1 3) In concluding this section the report continues: Seldom in the history of California has a public mandate of such a proportion, heavily supported by both parties, been subjected to so much bureaucratic frustration ... Our basic recommendation, therefore, is that the 1961 Legislature make no substantial changes in the Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 1 9 6 1... Because of the witnesses' declarations that the State Board of Education's rules and regulations have changed so rapidly, adding to the anfusion in the situation, the report recommends a moratorium on rule changes and that the present law be amended to provide a simplification of the present rules. Each prospective teacher, in order to properly prepare a program of study, should have a copy of these rules and regulations. In addition, the report suggests: ... rather than tying state rules to specific college terms, our credential law might be rewritten to speak of general concepts like percentages ... The State Board of Education could be directed to recognize various depart- _ments_wl±hin_coJ,leges_and_univ_ersities_as_____________ 119 suitable for the designation of ’ ’academic" ... if simplicity is achieved, we think it might be well to authorize each recognized college or university in California to issue state teaching or administrative credentials in the name of the State Department of. Education, subject to random postaudit by the department. (18:15) The defeated school tax and bond proposals during the past years reflects the general lack of public confidence in the school systems and "public respect will not be restored until school administrators, as well as teachers, are again the broadly and liberally educated people of past generations"',' (1 8:1 6) Teacher Supply and Demand: There is no shortage of Teachers in California, merely a dislocation of teachers according to the desirability of a geographic area. "The Committee believes that the relative shortage of teacher applicants depends almost exclusively on the specific [problems of employment— not on the state credential struc ture1 ;." (18:18) These employment problems include living conditions in the area and professional working conditions. Since small districts (under 250 ADA) are not required to extend job protection to their teachers--this might be another cause of the lack of applications in that district. The study also shows that "those districts which requested permission to hire provisionally credentialed teachers have substantially lower salary schedules than average." The committee therefore recommended a state-wide minimum salary schedule— . (_l 8. : . l 8_ ) ____________________________________________ 120 Lack of authority. , according to the report, keeps highly qualified persons out of the teaching field. The 1965 session gave teachers two professional rights— to assign final grades and to suspend unruly students temporarily. (1 8:1 9) The report requests extraordinary steps be taken by the trustees of the state colleges and the regents of the University of California :,tc- ... to impress upon their respective institutions the need for active and positive cooperation with the spirit, as well as the letter, of the law- even though the committee notes that our emphasis on sound academic preparation for teachers is still offensive to some in the ranks of professional education schools. (18:20) Teacher Licensing in California— Findings: 1. With respect to the Fisher Act, we find that: 1. All major organizations of educators support the basic credentialing law, known as the Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 1 9 6 1, and regard substantive change as undesirable and unnecessary. 2. The implementation of the 1961 reforms has been poorly handled by the responsible persons in the Department of Education and various public college and university campuses. 3. The wording of credential rules and regu lations implementing the law is unnecessarily complicated, and that this serves only to confuse legitimate applicants for credentials. 4. The Department of Education has provided only the most limited information to applicants and inquirers from within and without the state, and does not attempt to simplify the credentialing procedures. 5. The California credential law is very typical of those which now exist in other major states, in terms of its emphasis on broad training in the libera], arts and sciences for all future teachers and administrators. 121 II. With respect to the alleged teacher shortage, we find that: 1. There is no shortage of credentialed teachers in California. There are at least 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 fully credentialed persons not employed in school districts, and yet some individual districts experience a lack of applications for open positions. 2. Any relative shortage of teacher appli cants is proportional to the salary schedule, professional conditions, and living conditions offered by individual school districts. 3. Surpluses of teacher applicants are found in many more favored areas and districts in California, and a major problem in recruiting school personnel is one of dislocation, rather than shortage. 4. Out-of-state private teacher placement agencies are not used for teacher recruitment in California, and they are.: largely unaware of the 1 9 6 1 credential changes emphasizing basic academic preparation of teachers. 5 . Many school districts rely too heavily on recent graduates--primarily female— from out of state, and since teacher turnover in this group is extremely high, this requires repeated duplication of effort in recruitment. 6. The issue of an adequate supply of public school teachers is a national problem, and not one peculiar to California alone. 7. The Department of Education issued 60,000 initial teaching credentials in 19b4-b5— the same year when the same departments official projections indicated a new supply of less than 7^ 000 new teachers. 8" ] The increasing rate of enrollment in higher education, combined with a decreasing rate of growth in elementary school enrollment, should result in a more adequate supply of teachers in terms of quantity and quality in future years. III. With respect to the characteristics of school districts experiencing teacher recruitment difficulties, we find that: 1. Salaries for teachers in districts requesting provisionally credentialed teachers in 1966 are substantially lower than in adequately staffed districts but this is not necessarily caused by a lack of local:ability to finance adequate salaries.._______ __________________ __________ ___________ 122 2. District effort to provide adequate educational programs and teachers varies widely, but the greatest shortage of applicants is found in districts where school tax rates are significantly below the statewide average tax rates. 3. Unified school districts, with single districtwide salary schedules, are far better off to attract elementary teachers than are separate elementary districts. IV. With respect to implementation of the Fisher Act by the colleges and universities, we find that: 1. Several schools or departments of education in the California State Colleges and the University of California have adopted restrictive rules requiring prospective teachers to enroll in excessive courses in education and educational methodology, in unreasonable excess of state requirements. 2. Serious confusion exists, as between the definitions of a "major" for state credentialing purposes and the definition for degree-granting purposes. 3. Serious misunderstanding exists on the minimum requirements for elementary teachers, and many persons do not understand that an elementary teacher may receive a valid credential after four years of college preparation, with the fifth year to be'-earned within the next seven years.- 4. Numerous prospective teachers are avoiding schools of education within college and universities in an effort to satisfy minimum state credentialing requirements without being forced to enroll in excessive education courses. Teacher Licensing in California— Recommendations: We recommend that: 1.’ The Legislature make no substantive changes in the philosophy of the Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 1 9 6 1, and the basic reforms of that law— fully operative only on September 15, 1 9 6 6— ■ be continued. 2. Either: A.------------The State Board of Education be directed by legislative resolution to declare a ------------ one-^year-moratorium-on. all-.change s_and___ 123 amendments to the rules and regulations implementing the credential law, with a view toward stabilizing public under standing of the law, and to provide sufficient time for simplification and rewriting of the credential administra tive regulationsj or alternatively B. The Legislative amend the law to make substantive simplifications in the technical terms used therein (see the text of our report), so that ease of understanding will be permitted by both prospective teachers and their college advisers. If this alternative is adopted, only the mechanical terms used by the law should be changed, not the broad state policy contained therein. Additionally, if this alternative is adopted, an amendment should be included which will direct the State Board of Education to make as few regulation changes as possible in the future. 3. In order to assure an adequate supply of teachers in all districts— and contingent on sub stantial increases in state aid to improverished districts— that a minimum statewide salary schedule for teachers be enacted to provide not less than $9j0 0° per year for fully prepared, experienced and successful teachers with at least 10 years of teaching experience and an M. A. degree. The trustees of the state colleges and the regents of the university be requested to review their teacher credential policies carefully and critically to determine whether campus rules and regulations comply with the spirit, as well as the letter of the law. 5. The trustees and the regents be strongly urged by legislative resolution*to provide a basic curriculum whereby an undergraduate may obtain a teaching credential without taking unnecessary courses which are not required by state law. 6 . If various state college and university campuses persist in requiring excessive units of credit in education courses, that legislation be adopted requiring the State Board of Education to withdraw recognition of such campuses where it finds violations for teacher preparation purposes. 7. To simplify the procedures for obtaining a state teaching or administrative credential, each campus recognized by the State Board of Education for teacher preparation purposes be required by 124 law to issue* in the name of the Department of Education and. the college, an appropriate credential, subject to a postaudit by the Board of Education. 8 . Contingent upon the transfer of duties to the individual college campuses, the excess credential personnel in the Department of Educa tion be proportionately reduced, or assigned to other functions if necessary. 9. The Legislature direct a comprehensive study be made during the next biennium to survey the quantity and quality of teachers, supervisors, and administrators who may be expected to serve the public school system during the next decade, as well as the broad question of teacher supply and demand. The Committee of Credentials: The report finds both the membership and the procedures of the Committee of" Credentials inadequate and in need of change. The rotating membership of four state department members and the state superintendent should be changed to a committee of seven members, four of whom are full time teachers in the public schools of California, which "will provide for objective, fair-minded, self-policing of the teaching profession1 ." (18:25) This recommendation stems from the committee’s finding: ... that teaching is the only profession requiring a college degree plus substantial graduate study and experience which does not police itself for malpractice and offenses repugnant to continuance in the profession. Self-policing by the bar and the medical profession have long been recognized and have, by and large, worked well in California. We see no reason why teachers and other certifi cated employees should not be permitted to govern the conduct within, and admittance to or denial from their profession. We are convinced that selfrpolicing by teachers would result in a high degree of self-discipline and 125 professional conduct, but with a greatly improved measure of fairness and orderly procedure than is presently available under the Committee of Credentials, none of whose members are practicing teachers. (1 8: 2 1-2 2) The committee’s attitude toward the procedures can be viewed in their summary of the situation: In Summary, we have concluded that the Committee of Credentials exists without policy guidelines from either the Legislature or the State Board of Education, and tends to ignore the typical American rules of fair play and legal rules of evidence. The result is often intimidation of school teachers into silence or their acceptance of the committee’s , own views of proper conduct. (1 8: 2 3) A Study of Methods of Upgrading and Improving the Teaching Profession: This committee has consistently supported excellence in the classroom with more than platitudes. We do not take the word profession” lightly. We are striving to find an acceptable way to raise the public status of a career teacher to its proper position. On the basis of this philosophy the committee is disturbed at the great increase in supervisory and adminis trative personnel, while class sizes remain the same. The number of certificated nonteachers per 100 classroom teachers has risen from 4 in 1 9 2 2 -2 3 to 14 in 1964-65 and the "committee adamantly rejects the implication that classroom teachers [without all the consulting and adminis trative help] are inherently incapable of providing ade quate, even excellent, education to children." (18:40) They also add: "We can statistically demonstrate that smaller classes mean higher achievement, and thereby justify the added_expense_per_child.il (.18:42) They_ar.e_equally________ 126 disturbed because: "Teachers often take the public censure for an increase in total taxes, while 2 0 percent and more of the raise goes to nonteachers." (18:42) The problem of keeping qualified personnel in the classroom exists because of not having the proper means of rewarding good teaching. Merit pay systems are rejected by teachers because of "a deep and pervasive lack of trust £whichT exists between classroom teachers and their local supervisors who make the merit decisions." (18:44) There fore the committee proposed a premium pay system. The following excerpt from the report explains some of their other views of today’s teaching profession. ... The committee has been most favorably impres sed by the individual teachers— all of long experience and all, oddly enough, men— who testified in favor of this proposal ... Yet, they fthe men teachers] are in the minority. The employment practices of school districts virtually ensure they will be outvoted by the transient individuals passing through the classroom on the way to the maternity ward or the district office... "Miss Dove," ... the symbol of the past generation of teachers, ... was a spinster whose only interest was her work. We do not have many "Miss Doves" today, and to that extent, the professional caliber of teachers has been diminished. (18:44) • Methods of Upgrading and Improving the Teaching Profession— Recommendations: 1. Teaching pay must be made attractive, so that the truly competent are drawn into the profession, and drawn in to stay— not to be recruited into nonteaching educational positions ... The sub committee again endorses the concept of a minimum statewide salary schedule ... [under which] a fully qualified teacher with 10 years of experi ence and the training represented by a master’s 127 degree should be guaranteed an annual income of at least $9*000. 2. ... The subcommittee endorses future state- funded reductions in the too-high sizes of California classes ... 3. ... we endorse the concept of "premium pay"— governed by a commission of teachers and thus administered from without the system, without the danger of favoritism. 4. ... we demand that the proliferation of nonteachers and the supposed "services" which they allegedly provide come to an endI ... This should occur because the child will again receive the individual instructionwwhich is his right, the parent will regain lost confidence in the responsibil ity of the school system, and the taxpayer finally achieves what he has already paid for— the highest quality education in the nation. He is already paying the highest price. 5. ... we recommend the adoption of a statute which declares the Legislature’s intent to encourage such teacher remuneration plans [premium pay programs], but which also establishes an advisory commission charged with the duty of formulating an acceptable premium pay plan for presentation to the 1968 Regular Session of the Legislature ... (1 8: 3 8) Senate Bill 1132— Rodda Despite the recommendation of the Subcommittee on School Personnel and Teacher Qualifications that a morator ium on bills to modify the Fisher Act be established, two such bills were passed by the 1 9 6 7 legislature. Senate Bill 1132, which was signed by the Governor on September 4, 1 9 6 7* was to take effect immediately for, as stated in the Education Code, Section 13191.9* Section 2: "In order to facilitate teacher recruitment and staffing of necessary personnel for the 1 9 6 7 -1 9 6 8 school year it is necessary that this act take immediate effect'.".1 It provided for the granting of a standard teaching cxejdential_wi.th_a_spaciallzation_in...seaondary__teaching_on-a_ 128 partial fulfillment of requirements basis, allowing post ponement of completion of the entire fifth year to within a five-year period. The circumstances to be met for such authorization included: a statement of the applicant showing intention to complete the requirements within five years; a statement of an official of a school district that the applicant will beemployed if such a credential is granted; and a declaration of the county board of education in which the school district is located that a shortage exists in that district in the teaching field or fields of the applicant’s major or minor. (17:13191*1) The measure carried a provision automatically ending its effect, if not extended, on September 30* 1961. Senate Bill 1^79— Rodda, Teacher Education Internship Act of 19^*7 This bill, signed by the Governor on August 30, 1967* became effective on November 8, 1967* The purpose of the bill is disclosed in Section 13222 of the Education Code as follows: The intent of the Legislature in enacting this article is to increase the effectiveness of teachers and other professional school service personnel in the public schools .of California by placing theory and practice as closely together as possible in college and university programs for the preparation of teachers and professional school service personnel. The Teacher Education Internship Act of 1967 is enacted to encourage the develop ment and maintenance of preparation programs that are realistic and practical in content and theory and are directly related to the individual functions and responsibilities practitioners in 129 the public schools of California face. The desir ability of joining theory and practice during the learning period has been demonstrated amply in teaching internship programs during the past several years both''within and without the state. The Legislative Counsel’s digest summarizes the provisions of the bill as follows: Authorizes school districts, in cooperation with public and private universities and colleges, to establish teacher education' intern ship programs restricted to out-of-state recruits. Requires State Board of Education to issue intern ship credentials to qualified applicants securing recommendations from a school district. Authorizes salaries for the college and university supervisors to be paid by school districts by reducing salaries of interns by not more than 1/8, and limits the number of interns which may be supervised by one supervisor to 8 . Provides that each year of internship counts toward tenure, but prohibits acquisition of tenure by interns while serving on an internship credential. ( 2 2) The California Teachers Association (31) summarized the provisions of this bill as follows: Among the many permissive and mandated provisions are the following: (1 (2 (3 & (5 (6 (7 The internship program is intended for "non-California residents" and only out-of- state degrees are recognized (Sections 13223-24), Internships are available for teaching, pupil personnel, supervision, and administration (Section 13223). Cooperative planning of the internship program between districts and teacher education • institutions is mandated (Section 13225). Districts of any size may establish a program (Section 13224). Districts may enter into agreement to employ college personnel for supervisory purposes (Section 13236-37). Special supervision for interns beyond that given other newly certificated personnel is mandated (Section 13240). There are no provisions for State financing of -the-program._______________________________ ________ 130 Proposed' Teaching Credential and Graduate Internship Teacher Education Act of the California Teachers Association This act provides for the extension of involvement of public school personnel in teacher education and includes financial underwriting by the state for pre-service teacher- education expenses incurred by school districts. The proposal establifeh.es three levels of credentials: Intern (with two Options), Resident, and Professional. The Intern classification is for both those students who are enrolled in a graduate internship education program in a California college or university while teaching and for those who are a product of an approved pre-service teacher- education program. The stipulations of this proposed legislation provide for the orderly progression from the novice status to the career status with status changes recognized by similar changes in credentials. The novice is assured appropriate assignment and expert assistance together with a period of service in actual practice to complete full professional requirements and demonstration of teaching competence. With the completion of collegiate and experience require ments, the recognition of career status is similarly established. ( 3 3) Proposed Professional Responsibilities Act of the California Teachers Association The purpose of this Act is: ... to establish by statute the responsi- ------bi-lities-of_the_teaching-profession-for-.............. 131 development of standards of preparation and practice for members of the profession who render education services under state license. It is further proposed to establish this profession’s responsibility for application and enforcement of such standards. It provides for the establishment of A Standards and Practices Board to care for licensure, accreditation, and related’ standard responsibilities. The eleven member board, appointed by the Governor, shall be composed of: A. 1 - lay member B. 10 - who hold valid licenses to teach in the state (1) 6 - from the public schools with at least (a.) 2 - elementary (b) -1 - secondary (c) 1 - employed under the designated services credential (d) 1 - employed under'the designated services credential (2) (At least) 2 from accredited higher education institutions (3) (At least) 2 shall hold administrative or supervisory positions in the public schools. The duties and powers of the Board shall include: 1. The Board shall adopt rules and regulations ... for carrying out its legally assigned duties. 2. The Board shall establish requirements for credentials and permits to render professional services in the public schools of the State ... 3. The Board shall issue credentials and permits for professional service in the public schools ... 4. The Board shall establish procedures for develop ment, adoption, enforcement of codes or standards of ethics and professional competence for credentialdd and permit personnel serving in the public schools ... 132 ' 5. The Board shall establish procedures for receiving and acting upon charges and recommend ations regarding violations of its standards of ethical conduct and professional competence for personnel serving in the public schools insofar as the violation may affect the suspension or revocation of a credential or permit. 6 . The Board shall issue subpoenas to compel the attendance of witnesses before the Board, or any member thereof, in the same manner as any court in this state ... 7. The Board shall accredit any California higher education institution and may approve any other higher education institution that meets such standards as shall be prescribed by the Board as an institution authorized to maintain programs of preparation required for credentials and to recommend to the Board the issuance of credentials to persons who have completed "prescribed requirements. ( 3 7) A Comparison of Credential Requirements To facilitate determining what changes were effected through the legislation passed and which changes were still in effect, a comparison of the credential requirements as of 1959 and 1 9 6 6 follows in chart form. The source of the 1 9 5 9 requirements is Armstrong and Stinnett’s A Manual on Certification Requirements, 1959. The source of the 1966 requirements is the sheets printed by the California State Department of Education Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification, which appear in more complete form in the Appendix. 133 TABLE 4 COMPARISON OF CREDENTIAL REQUIREMENTS ' 1959 GENERAL SECONDARY (l) 1966 THE STANDARD TEACHING CREDENTIAL WITH A SPECIALIZATION IN SECONDARY TEACHING (Appendix) I. Requirements a. A bachelor’s degree a. A bachelor's degree b. Graduate work - 30 units c. General Education: 40 units (at least 6 in the field of communica tive arts, sciences and/ or mathematics, social studies, practial and/or fine arts). d. Major field of concen tration - 3 6 units Minor field of concen tration - 20 units b. A fifth year of col lege or university postgraduate course work taken at the upper division or graduate level. c. General Education: 45 semester hours of course work in four of the areas listed below as items (1) through (6) including, in every case, the English and the Eng lish composition requirement in the humanities area. (Complete details appear in the Append! dix). (1} Humanities (2) Social sciences (3) Natural sciences (4) Mathematics (5) Fine arts (6) Foreign languages d. Ma.jors (Professional education is excluded by law.) 24 semester hours of upper divi sion or graduate level wo rk_..r equi red __for__a 1L_ 13^ TABLE 4 (Continued) [1959 .GENERAL SECONDARY Professional preparation to include: 1. 6 units of directed teaching with at least 3 in grades 7 through 12. 2. 16 hours to include (a) No comparative requirement (h) Growth and Devel opment; Educational Psychology; Guidance |1 9 66 |THE STANDARD TEACHING CREDENTIAL WITH A SPECIALIZATION IN SECONDARY TEACHING (Appendix) majors. Minors (All must "be commonly taught in thd public high schools.) (See Appendix for complete details.) ,e. Professional prepara tion to include:both of the following: 1., 120 clock hours of ' actual teaching in a course in student teaching...At least 1/2; of this require ment shall he completed in any grades 7 through 12. 2. 9 semester hours course work to include: of (a) The sociologi cal or histor- ! ical or philo sophical foundations of education or any combina tion of these courses. (b) The psycho logical foundations of education. 135 TABLE 4 (Concluded) 1959 I GENERAL SECONDARY |(c) Secondary prin ciples Curriculum methods and evaluation of instruction 1966 |THE STANDARD TEACHING CREDENTIAL WITH A SPECIALIZATION IN SECONDARY TEACHING (Appendix) !(c) (Curriculum and instructional procedures and materials used in teaching in secondary schools. II. Authorization for Service 1 Valid for 2 years; renewable Issued for life. for five-year periods; life diploma upon completion of 48 months of successful teaching experience including 20 in the public schools of California. Authorizes teaching in grades 7 through 14. See Appendix for the complete authorization. 136 TABLE 5 COMPARISON OP CREDENTIAL REQUIREMENTS 1959 SPECIAL SECONDARY WITH A SPECIALIZATION IN BUSINESS EDUCATION (1) 19661966 THE STANDARD DESIGNATED SUBJECTS TEACHING CREDENTIAL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION (Appendix) I. Requirements a. Bachelor’s degree I . No general education requirement Professional education: 1 5 -1 8 units Principles of secondary education Method of teaching specialization subject Directed teaching (4-6 units) d. 1 ,0 0 0 clock hours of business,experience a. Bachelor's degree or higher from an approved institution. b. No general education requirement c. Professional education: 6 units in an approved institution methods and materials curriculum development in business education Techniques of evaluating pupil occupational performance and of relating such perform ance to classroom instruction. 1 2 0 clock hours of stud dent teaching, teaching in business education under the direction of an approved institu tion . .. (See Appendix for complete details).' d. Three years of successful experience in an occupa tion in which a knowledge of the subject named on the_cr_edential is needed 137 TABLE 5 (Concluded) 1959 1966 SPECIAL SECONDARY WITH A THE STANDARD DESIGNATED SPECIALIZATION IN BUSINESS SUBJECTS TEACHING EDUCATION (1) CREDENTIAL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION (Appendix) for job performance e. Business education - 45 units. IIf Authorization a. b. Issued for 1-5 years. c. Authorizes teaching in all grades of the public schools. a. Fields— (See Appendix for complete details). b. Issued for life. c. (See Appendix for com plete details). 138 Practices in the California State Colleges Thirteen of the state colleges offer major programs in business education leading to a standard teaching creden tial with a specialization in secondary teaching. A summary of these requirements will enable a determination of trends, similarities, and differences in the programs. The follow ing information was gathered from an examination of the 1 9 6 7 -6 8 catalogs of these institutions. In general the basic credential requirements as listed in these catalogs followed the same format and included: Requirements for the Standard Teaching Credential With a Specialization in Secondary Teaching 1. Bachelor’s degree from an accredited college or university 2. Thirty semester units— or fifth year of postgraduate work at upper-division level, including six units of work in the major or minor. 3 . Forty-five semester units of general education (only six units of major or minor to apply) in four of the following six areas, but always including the English and U. S. Constitution requirements:' a. Humanities— including one year of English, and one course in English composition or the passing of a competency exam b. Social Science— including the U. S. Constitution requirement c. Natural Science d. Mathematics— beyond high school algebra and geometry e. Fine arts f. Foreign language 139 Major--twenty-four upper division or graduate units (semester) Minor--(for the Business Education Major) academic— twenty semester units in a subject commonly taught in the public schools Professional education requirements with the following exceptions: 1. Hayward--does not list general education require ments, presupposing a bachelor's degree 2. Cal-Poly, Pomona— does not include foreign languages. It lists the number of units in each division and the courses from-which to chose. (The material was-obtained from a printed sheet, forwarded by the college, entitled "Standard Teaching Creden tial Requirements Secondary Specialization.") 3. Chico— does not list the credential general education requirements as on the previous page. However, there is a degree requirement of forty- five semester units including psychology, health, and physical education among the other previously mentioned divisions. 4. Fresno and San Franciso--allow the foreign language requirement to be met by exam without college credit. 5. • Humbolt--lists the requirements in the general ■ education degree requirements, which does not include foreign language. It requires seventy quarter units divided among Communications (to include Reading and Composition--four units and Speech— four units), Natual Science, Social Science, the Humanities, and Personal"-Living (Psychology, Health, Physical Education). 6 . San Francisco--states the following policy in their Credential Program bulletin: ...College policy permits secondary candidates with nonacademic majors, who must complete academic minors, to meet only State minimums under certain circumstances. The policy states that a secondary credential candidate may, with the approval of both major and minor departments, fulfill the require ments for a minor which (1) excludes the l4o curriculum and instruction course and student teaching in the minor, and ( 2 ) requires a GPA of only 2.0 in the minor. In this instance, the college will not recommend the student for teaching in his minor, and an appropriate statement will he included in the student’s professional papers. The major requirements in the field of business edu cation were listed in the catalogs by upper and lower division requirements or by major requirements and prereq uisites. In order to be able to evaluate programs and requirements on the overall scale, an inclusion of all the courses specifically required of the business major seemed indicated. Therefore no mention will be made of level or prerequisite in this sense. TABLE 6 MAJOR REQUIREMENTS CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES ACCOUNTING AND DATA PROCESSING State College ACCOUNTING DATA PROCESSING Units Course Title Units Course Title* 1. Fullerton 3, 3 or r - 1 1 i 2. Hayward 4, 5 4 4 1 4 Managerial 3. Long Beach 3> 3 3 Intermediate Cost Los Angeles 4, 4 55. Pomona 3) 3) 3 3 3 Managerial 6. Chico 3) 3 3 77. Fresno 3 , 3 3 8. Humholdt 3, 3 2 • 3 Principles of 3 Bus. Elect. Data Machine Acct. Processing 9. Sacramento 3) 3 10. San Diego 2, 2 1 4 Cost 3 11. San Fernando 3> 3 t _> 4 Cost r1 4=* 12. San Francisco 3s 3 13. San Jose 3 , 3 . *The Basic, elementary. or introductory course is indicated if the title is not stated. 142 TABLE 7 MAJOR REQUIREMENTS. CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES MATHEMATICS AND STATISTICS State College MATHEMATICS Units Course Title BUSINESS STATISTICS Units Course Title* 1. Fullerton 2. Hayward 3. Long Beach 4. Los Angeles 5. Pomona 6 . Chico 7. Fresno 8 . Humboldt 9. Sacramento 10. San Diego 11. San Fernando 12. San Francisco 13. San Jose 4(5) ** 5 Basic Analysis 3-5 Additional course 3 Math Statistics 3.3 Basic Analysis 3 *** 3 Elementary Analysis II 4 **** 3.3 Basic Analysis 3 Basic Analysis 3 College Algebra 1 Finite Math 3 5 3 3,3 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 or Quantitative Analysis Business Forecasting Quantitative Business Analysis *The basic, elementary, or introductory course is indicated if the title is not stated. **Four or five units depending on the choice: Analytical Geometry, Calculus, or Finite Math. ***Introduction to Modern Math or Elementary Analysis I ****Business Applications of Finite Mathematics 143 TABLE 8 MAJOR REQUIREMENTS CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES ECONOMICS AND MARKETING .ECONOMICS MARKETING State College Units Course Title Units Course Title* 11. Fullerton 3>3(5) Ec 3 3 Economic History 4 2. Hayward 4.4 4.4 Micro & Macro Economic Analysis 3. Long Beach 3,3 3 Micro. Econ. Theory-Bus. 3 4. Los Angeles 4,4 4 5. Pomona 3 3 3 Marketing Principles and Cons. Behavior 6 . Chico 3,3 3 7. Fresno 3,3 3 8 . Humboldt 4 4 Intro, to Micro Analysis 3 9. Sacramento 3 3 Citizen & the Economy 3 10. San Diego 3,3 3 11. San Fernando 3,3 12. San Francisco 3,3 3 13. San Jose 3,3 3 *The "basic, elementary, or introductory course is indicated if the title is not stated. **Business Cycles or National Income or Money and Banking TABLE 9 MAJOR REQUIREMENTS CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES FINANCE, LAW, AND MISCELLANEOUS BUSINESS COURSES -_/ ' State College LAW* FINANCE** MISCELLANEOUS BUSINESS COURSES Units Units Units Course Title | 1. Fullerton 3 3 3 Seminar in Business Policies j 2. Hayward 4 4 4 Multinational Business | 3• Long Beach ! 4. Los Angeles 3 3 4 3 Introduction to Business i 5 * Pomona 3,3 3 3 Introduction to Business ! ! 6. Chico 7* Fresno 3 3 3,3 3 2 2 ,2 Undergraduate Seminar Senior Project 8 . Humboldt 9- Sacramento 10. San Diego 11. San Fernando 3.3 3*** 3 3 Q**** 3.3 3 3 3 Historical & Social Environment of Business 12. San Francisco 3 i 13. San Jose i 3 3 3 Philosophy (Logic or^Ethics in general education)+ *A11 business law courses were included in tms category. **The basic,elementary,or introductory course is indicated if the title is not stated. ***0r Investment Analysis ****Personal Finance H tAlthough this is majors. not a business course, it is specifically required of business ^ TABLE 10. MAJOR REQUIREMENTS CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES MANAGEMENT State College Principles Business Office Personnel Industrial Other 1. Fullerton 3 • 2. Hayward 4 4 3• Long Beach 3 4. Los Angeles 4 4 5. Pomona 3,3 4 3 3 Problems of Small Business Management 6. Chico 3 3 7. Fresno 3 3 3 3 Records Management 8. Humboldt 3 or * 9. .Sacramento 3 3 10. San Diego 3 3 3 3 Office Systems and Automatics 11. San Fernando 3 12. San Francisco 13. San Jose 3 * Office Management TABLE 11 MAJOR REQUIREMENTS CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS* PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS EDUCATION AND BUSINESS EXPERIENCE. State College BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS* Units Course Title PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS EDUCATION BUSINESS EXPERIENCE 1. Fullerton 2. Hayward 3. Long Beach 3 Composition 4. Los Angeles 4 i ! 4 Administrative Business . Reports | 5* Pomona 3 Report Writing 6. Chico 3 Business Computations 3 3 Public Speaking Report Writing ;7. Fresno 3 8. Humboldt 3 2 Report Writing 9. Sacramento 3 3 Business & Professional Speech • 10. San Diego 3 11. San Fernando 3 12. San Francisco 3 13- San Jose 3 3,3 3 3 2 H - f = " o\ 0** | *A course in Business communications is indicated if the title is not stated. **lfEvidence of six months (or 1*000 clock hours) of experience in an acceptable business job. For candidates without acceptable work experience* requirement may be satisfied by completing Business l8l Business Internship.1 1 (San Jose State catalog* pg. 137) TABLE 12 ‘ MAJOR REQUIREMENTS CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES SKILL SUBJECTS State College TYPEWRITING OFFICE MACHINES COMMUNICATION MACHINES Units Course Title PRACTICE 1. Fullerton No secretarial, typing, or business machines offered but allowed up to 12 units transferred. 2. Hayward 4 3. Long Beach 2 2 4. Los Angeles 3 Advanced Typing and 3 3 Duplicating Skills* 5. Pomona 1 6. Chico 2 7. Fresno ** 4 8. Humboldt 3 j 9. Sacramento 2 2 10. San Diego ** 2 2 11. San Fernando *** 12. San Francisco ** 13. San Jose i i ** ** ^Shorthand option must show proficiency equivalent to 210B. **Proficiency "by exam or course •***Proficiency test in skill subject related to major H -£■ 148 TABLE 13 MAJOR SPECIALIZATION OPTIONS CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES BUSINESS EDUCATION State College bO •p o o o M O o g o W pti ( 1 ) > •H bDP W •H -P O •P »H , c l bD C D P -P fl ^ g (U CD 3 ( D O •H c d «n a <p o p £ H cd c3 S *H d ) p bD d d -P P i C D C D > ■H P d P •H P P CQ •H P £ o •H P C C J r H o d U i w C D PI H CO _ 3 W Pi PQ C D P Comments 1. Fullerton x x x xx x 2. Hayward x x x 3. Long Beach 4. Los Angeles x x x 5. Pomona 6. Chico 7. Fresno 8. Humboldt x x x x x x 9. Sacramento 10. San Diego 11. San Fernando x x 12. San Franciscox x** x x x x x x x x x x X X X X X X X 12 hrs. adv. work in one area. 12 hrs. ,2 areas, one either accounting or secretarial* One, Business Com.,Office Management req. of both 8 units in 2, one must be accounting or secretarial At least 21 units from suggested courses • X " X " X - Elect 1 series A total of 18 units, minimum 7 in each of 2 Two.'subfields One area 15 units in either acct. or office adm., 6 units**** Two areas(20-22 units) TABLE 13 (Concluded) 0 -P 0 bO -P -H 0 r i ! »H B CQ ' CQ S3 b O - P CQ g -H 0 -P -H CQ O 0 S3 a? t3 0 S-t o 2 -P 0 •3 1^9 - P . H 0 g r l P O b0 o3 fl’P 0 3 H S3 S 3 S O 0 - P * H fC j 0 a J - P 0 - H O c c 5 * H 3 0 3 M0P-P O f! 0rl h 3 Sh t f l O s 3 c ^ c s 5 ^ J s 3 ’0 * H o 3 S h O - P ' 0 - 0 :3 oo a c ^ ssms ow w|xi sin „, , „ 1 n ■ O O . H S d 3 < h 0 - H 0 _ , State College <^Hix,ggG? o m o cu Comments 13. San Jose x x x And Merchan dising^ areas 9 units each or 3 of 6j one must he acct. or secretarial * At least 8 in one area. ** Or Business Economics *** A minimum of 12 units in courses most supportive of those taught at the secondary or junior college level. ****From another field TABLE UN PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION REQUIREMENTS CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES Social* Histor- STATE COLLEGE Princ. & ical & Curricula Philos. Psych. METHODS COURSES Obser vation Seminar MISCELLANEOUS COURSES of Second. Found- Found- General General Specific Labora- Education ations ations Secondary Business Business tory Princ. of Business Student Teaching Education Units Course Title 1. Fullerton 2. Hayward I: Long Beach Los Angeles 5- Pomona 6. Chico I: Fresno Humboldt 9. Sacramento 10. San Diego 11. San Fernando 12. San Francisco 13. San Jose 3 6 3 6*** 3 3 3 5 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 3,3 3 4 3 3 4 5 3 3** 2 2**** 3 3 2 1* 2 $ ■ 3 2 1,1 6 10 6 5,5 12 6 9 8 6 8 ♦Business requirement ! ***Curriculum materials seminar Methods in maior, minor, and secondary school ****General business methods-2; teaching plans and Techniques______________________ Skill subjects methods-2 1 Field Work in Methods of Teaching 4 3 Classroom prob lems of beginning teachers 3,3* 0 Admission tocred. program 1 Inst. Materials Prep. Laboratory 3 Counseling and Guidance 2 Adolescent in Secondary School 2 Practicum in Secondary Teach. 2 Education Meas. & Evaluation I 3 Curr. Develop, in B.E. (bus. req.) 3 Seminar in Secon. Stud i Teaching 2 Health Education 3 H Bus. Req. ' q 3-4 Sec. School Stud. Teach. Seminar 2 2 Education Meas. & Evaluation * * l TSpecific methods offered, no note $Met£o3s^$nmgeneral bus, .and skills! 151 Questionnaires— State Colleges Questionnaires were sent to the chairmen of both the business education departments and the education depart ments of the eighteen state colleges. Answers were received from fourteen of the colleges, with but one dupli cation. In all cases where the questionnaire was completed; it was done by someone in the business department. The questionnaires of four state colleges with no business- • education teacher preparation program were returned with a note from' the chairmen of the education departments to that effect. Only one state college returned the questionnaire filled out by both chairmen; however, since the one filled • out by the education department was done with the help of the chairman of the business education department (as was , noted on the questionnaire)-and only duplicated it, this questionnaire will not be counted separately. — Of the ten questionnaires completed, seven were completed by the and 2 units in methods in minor $The Three-Semester Program is listed. San Francisco State also offers a Two-Semester Program, starting after the baccalaureate degree is earned. It includes: Units Seminar in Secondary Education 6 Advanced Seminar in Secondary Education 6 Student Teaching (4,4) 8 Curriculum and Instruction (Methods) in subject field taken concurrently with student teaching and the accompanying seminar 2-6 22-26 Methods in the minor are also required. 152 chairmen of the department of business education, one by an assistant professor, one by an instructor of business teacher training, and one by a professor of business teacher training, and one by a professor of business admin istration. A question-by-question summary of the findings will follow. I. Changes in curricula since 1957 a. Have any changes been made in your business- teacher curricula since 1 9 5 7? TABLE 15 CURRICULA CHANGES CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES Yes 7 No 1 No answer 2* Total 10 b. Please indicate changes in semester units (S) or quarter units (Q). c. Please indicate names of courses added or dropped. Two c>f the state colleges responding said their catalogs were available in the library. The information was therefore obtained from a study of the catalogs. * These colleges reported that since their institution was not established in 1957 > they could not answer. However, others in the same predicament answered on the basis of change since their program went into effect. ___ 153 Two of the state colleges did not answer this section because they had no program in 1 9 5 7 (see note on previous page). Six of the state colleges enumerated the changes. These will be reported together with the findings obtained from the catalog study of the two state colleges previously mentioned. 1. Business Content Subjects TABLE 16 CHANGES IN BUSINESS CONTENT SUBJECTS CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES 11 No 1-5 6-10 or more* change Add 3 1 . 1 No change 3 Drop 3 1 *semester unit equivalents Three reported no changes; four reported additions and deletions; and one reported a deletion only. One college reported no change in the business core subjects but a change in the requirements for the office administra tion major to add Business Communications, Records Manage ment , Office Management, Data Processing, and Office Production. The courses in Duplicating, Machine 154 Transctiption, and Applied Typing were dropped as these are now included in Office Production. One college dropped Economic Geography and added a management course, a business writing course, and both office machines and office practice courses. In addition it dropped the number of units in the specialized field from 20 semester units to 16 quarter units. One college added a one unit (semester) data processing course and dropped a money and banking course. In addition, skill subjects were no longer offered at this college, although up to 12 hours of credit is allowed for these subjects. One college added courses in business finance, personnel management, and business communications and • dropped a third semester typing class. One college added a course in data processing and dropped a course in introduction to business. Another college dropped a three-unit course from one of the following: Economic Geography, Consumer Economics, or Consumer Education. 2., 3., 4. General "Academic” Subjects Of the eight colleges on which information was available, three colleges reported no changes. One college showed the addition of eight-quarter units in the general education requirement. Also the previous stipulations required a minimum of six semester units to be taken in 155 each of four fields. One college reported although there was no change in the number of units, there was more flex ibility in some selections and the requirements were not so rigid. One college showed the addition of mathematics to the general education requirement. Previous require ments did not list mathematics specifically. One college reported allowing the math require ment in the business core to meet part of the 45-unit general education requirement. One college reported adding Intermediate Algebra and Intermediate Economic Theory to the requirements. 5. General "Education” Courses Five of the eight .colleges surveyed evidenced no changes in the general "education" course requirement. One college, where the material was obtained by a study of the catalogs, did not list the credential requirements for secondary education in the early catalog. One college showed the reduction of approximately 8 semester units and one college reported the number of required education courses reduced because of the 'Fisher Bill. The college which showed the reduction of eight semester units, dropped the courses in audio visual instruc tion, counseling and guidance, and problems in secondary teaching and added a' quarter unit in instructional preparation laboratory. 156 6. Business "Education*1 Courses Similarly five of the eight state colleges surveyed evidenced no changes in the business "education" course requirements. One college showed the addition of units to Principles of Business Education--from three semester units to six quarter units in two semesters. Also this college previously required "six months practical experience of 1*00.0 clock hours in a business occupation*" which it no longer requires. One college dropped from its 'Undergraduate curriculum: Objectives and Curriculum in Business Education* Methods in Typewriting* Bookkeeping* Secretarial Subjects* and Basic Business. It added to the graduate curriculum Instructional Procedures in Business Education and increased the units from two to three in Seminar in Business Education and Principles of Business Education. One college dropped the requirement of Principles of Business Education and noted the most relevant change was the change from a four-year to a five- year program. 7. Practice Teaching Seven colleges showed no changes in the practice teaching requirement. One college added two units to practice teaching. 157 8. Electives Six colleges showed no changes in elective allowance and two colleges reported an increase in elective allowance* one mentioning more of a "free choice" accom panying this increase. II. What provision is made for acquainting students with the aims* curricula* and procedures in secondary business education? TABLE 17 AIMS* CURRICULA* PROCEDURES IN SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES Schools Reporting Through courses in: 1 2 3 ^ - 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL Teaching Business in Secondary Schools or Methods ' x x Principles of Busi ness Education x National* State* Local Publications Counseling Professional Courses Curriculum, and• Instruction Current Developments in Business Educa tion 2 x x x x 5 x 1 x 1 x x x 3 x 1 x 1. 158 III. What provision the findings in is made for acquainting students with research in business education? TABLE 18 RESEARCH IN BUSINESS EDUCATION CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES Schools Reporting Throught courses in: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL Teaching Business in Secondary Schools or Methods X x x x* X 5 Principles of Busi ness Education x x 2 Research course x x 2 Seminar in Business Education x x x 3 Library work (required) x 1 Membership and attendance in professional organizations x 1 Graduate courses x 1 Trends and Issues X 1 Others X x 2 * Research studies in methods classes 159 IV. What provision is made for acquainting students with the increasing emphasis in business on personality and human relations: TABLE 19 PERSONALITY AND HUMAN RELATIONS CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES Through courses in: Schools Reporting 1 2 * 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 TOTAL No provision x x 2 Principles of Management x 1 Industrial Manage ment x 1 Secretarial Proce dures X X 2 Office Management X 1 Seminar in Business Education X 1 Human Relations x m x 2 Throughout several major requirements x x 2 Summer workshops x 1 Others- x x 2 * These are required, course— Behavioral ** Required L___ . There is discussion of adding a Sciences for Business. 160 V. "What provision is made for acquainting students with the increasing emphasis on data processing and auto mation in the field of business? TABLE 20 DATA PROCESSING CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES Schools Reporting Through courses in: 1 2* 3 4 5# 6 78 9 io*^ total Data Processing and Computer Program ming Offered Required X X X X X X x 4 x xpc x 6 Business Office Practice X 1 Office Management X X 2 Systems and Proce dures X 1 Special Yearly Work shops x 1 * Currently considering introducing data processing in two or three required accounting courses. ** Many students take several courses. *** Urge majors to take at least three units in data. processing. The chairman stated, "I feel at least one half of the majors are getting ’exposed' to EDP.1 ' 161 VI. Recognizing the increasing importance of giving secondary school pupils an adequate picture of our present social and economic life5 what provision is made to give the teacher a basis for presenting such a picture? TABLE 21 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES Through courses in: 1 Schools 2 3 4 5 6 Reporting 7 8* 9** 10***T0TAL Required in Eco- omics:6 - 8 units x X X X x 5 Intermediate Micro X 1 Intermediate Macro X 1 Business and Public Policy X 1 Macro-Marketing X 1 Industrial Relations X 1 Multinational Busi ness X 1 Introduction to Business X 1 Consumer Education X 1 Methods of General Business X x 2 General Education X 1 Major Course Require ment X 1 1 Background of both Economic and Social Responsibilities X 1 TABLE 21 (Concluded) 162 0 Schools Reporting Through courses in: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8* 9** 10***T0TAL Business Economics x 1 Economics of Con sumption x 1 Summer workshops in economic education x 1 * Three courses deal specifically with this area. ** More Business Education majors are minoring in Economics. *** Urge Business majors to minor in Economics. VII. Please list here any problems which you consider important in preserving a close relationship between business-teacher education and the secondary school curriculum. 1. "The former should have its current program on what the latter will need 5* 15 years hence and not simply on the current school curriculum." 2. "The problem of 'pressure to remove* typewriting and shorthand from the college curriculum." 3* "The quarter system has created many problems." 4. The problem of— "maintaining a good relationship between the student teacher and the master teacher during the period of directed teaching." 5. "No problem— excellent relationship with schools in area-~work through workshops, professional meetings, and visitations." 6 . "Professors have had little or no secondary teaching experience." 163 7. The problem of— "time for college profs and for busy high school teachers to get together. The ’rat race’ for all seems to get worse." 8 . Three colleges did not answer the question. VIII. Recommendations— Busines s Expe rlence TABLE 22 BUSINESS EXPERIENCE CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES "-7 YES NO RECOM. TOTAL a. Do you think business experi ence should be required of a prospective business teacher? 4 3 3 10 b. Should credits be given for actual business experience? 1 9 10 c . Would you specify kind of experience in field of teacher's specialization? 1 6 7 d. What should be the minimum length of time required for such experience? 1 TABLE 23 LENGTH OF EXPERIENCE CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES No answer 5 Six months 1 1 ,0 0 0 hours . 1 Depends on experience 1 Three months 1 Other* 1 * "I would provide opportunity for business internships for teachers during summer sessions— for pay and for credit. We have been doing this for the last 6-7 years." IX. Recommendations— Methods Courses 164 Which should he required: a. general secondary methods courses? b. general methods courses in business subjects? c. Specific methods courses in business subjects? One college did not answer; seven made one choice; and two made two choices in the following manner: TABLE 24 METHODS COURSES CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES General Secondary 1 General Business 2 Combination of General Secondary and General Business 2 Specific Business 4f_ TOTAL 9 *One recommendation included: specific business fields (not subjects) such as secretarial subjects, merchandising field, socio-economic field, and bookkeeping and account ing, and business math combined. X. What other recommendations for changes in the business- teacher curriculum would you make to strengthen the program? 1. "They cannot be enumerated here." 2. "Same comment as in question seven." (Answer #1, above) 3. "More subject matter courses and limit the education courses to about 9 units." 165 . 4. "Business education should be given 'academic' stature and not termed 'non-academic.'" 5. "Give credit and priority to business internship (work experience) courses in each subfield of business desired by candidate; we need to tighten up in accrediting business-teacher education programs in colleges— some colleges have meager programs and inferior business education librar ies." Questionnaires— Out-of-state Colleges and Universities Questionnaires were sent to the chairmen of the business education departments of eighteen out-of-state colleges or universities. (See Appendix for list.) Answers were received from eight of them. One university no longer offers business education; it was phased out three or four years ago. One university did not answer the questionnaire but sent a sheet of the requirements for the business-teacher preparation program. Therefore only six questionnaires will be summarized here. The question naires were answered by four chairmen of the department of business education, one professor of Business Education, and one dean of the College of Business Administration. I. Changes in curricula since 1957 a. Have any changes been made in your business-teacher curricula since 1 9 5 7? All six colleges reported a change in curricula. b. Please indicate changes in semester units (S) or quarter units (Q). c. Please indicate names of courses added or dropped. 166 1. Business Content Subjects One university reported adding six units: Data Processing and Economics II, and dropping three units: Auditing. One university reported adding Human Relations and Organizational Behavior, and dropping Economic Geog raphy and Beginning Typewriting. One university reported adding twelve hours: Principles of Management, Business Finance, and Economic Geography (quarter units). One university reported adding Dictation and Transcription three-quarter units and dropping Intermediate Accounting three-quarter units. One college reported no changes and stated- they are now in the process of developing four curriculums in areas of specialization in business education. One university reported adding seven semester units: Executive Secretarial Procedures, Marketing, and one of three: Administrative Management, Records Manage ment, Personnel; and one of three: Accounting II, Money and Banking, Public Finance and Tax. 2., 3-/4. General “Academic" Sub.jects One university reported requiring eight semes4j'- ter hours in biology ordphysics instead of six semester hours in each. Introduction to Theatre and Art History were added and Foreign Language 1 and II were dropped from 167 the Humanities requirement. World Geography was added to the Social Science requirement. One university changed its requirement to nine semester hours in either science or math, and added four units in Social Science in World in 20th Century and U. S. in 20th Century. One university reported requiring two units less in each of the science and math categoryj humanities, and social sciences. The names of the courses dropped were not disclosed. The others reported no change in general "academic’1 requirements. 5. General "Education" Courses One university reported decreasing the require ment by two units, not mentioning the course dropped. The others reported not changes. 6 . Business "Education" Courses One university reported adding Evaluative Techniques in Business Education. No other changes were reported. 7. Practice Teaching One college reported raising the requirements in student teaching from 8 or 12 hours to 9 or 13 hours full-time student teaching. One college reported adding nine quarter units of practice teaching. No other changes were reported. 168 8 . Electives One college reported dropping twelve quarter units of electives. No other changes were reported. II. What provision is made for acquainting students with the aims* curricula, and procedures in secondary "business education? TABLE 25 AIMS, CURRICULA, PROCEDURES IN SECONDARY BUSINESS EDUCATION OUT-OP-STATE INSTITUTIONS Schools Reporting Through courses in: 1 2 3 4 5 6 TOTAL Professional Education Courses x x 2 Participation in laboratory school, methods, student teaching integrated x 1 Methods in Business Education 5c x x X 4 III. What provision is made for acquainting students with the findings in research in business education? TABLE 26 . RESEARCH IN BUSINESS EDUCATION OUT-OP-STATE INSTITUTIONS Schools Reporting Through courses in: 1 2 3 4 5 6 TOTAL Methods Courses x x x 3 Evaluation Techniques in Business Courses x 1 1 6 9 TABLE 26 (Concluded) Schools Reporting Through courses in: 1 2 3 4 5 6 TOTAL Student subscriptions to current publications • x 1 No answer . X 1 IV. What provision is made for acquainting students with the increasing emphasis in business on personality and human relations? TABLE 27 PERSONALITY AND HUMAN RELATIONS OUT-OP-STATE INSTITUTIONS Schools Reporting Through courses in: 1 2 3-4 5 6 TOTAL Principles of Management X 1 Human Relations X X* 2 Organizational Behavior X 1 pusiness Communications X 1 Secretarial Practice X X X 3 Business Methods X X X 2 Executive Secretarial Procedures X 1 Office Management X 1 Personnel X 1 t ____ _________________________________ £_Added_at—the~graduate-_level. 170 V. What provision is made for acquainting students with the increasing emphasis on data processing and auto mation in the field of business? TABLE 28 DATA PROCESSING OUT-OF-STATE INSTITUTIONS Through courses in: 1 Schools Reporting 2 3 4 5 6 TOTAL Data Processing Required x* 1 Offered X xW -x 3 New course planned ' x 1 Administrative Management X 1 Records Management X 1 Little X 1 * Added* will add computer science sequence--12 semester credit hours. ** Students are encouraged to take it. 171 VI. Recognizing the increasing importance of giving secondary school pupils an adequate picture of our present social and economic life, what provision is made to give the teacher a basis for presenting such a picture? TABLE 29 SOCIAL. AND ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT OUT-OF-STATE INSTITUTIONS Schools Reporting Through courses in: 1 2 3 4 5 6 TOTAL General Education Requirement x 1 Economics--2 courses x x 2 Business Law--2 courses x 1 Special methods--teaching the basic business courses x 1 Personal and Social Adjustment x . x 2 'No answer x 1 VII. Please list here any problems which you consider important in preserving a close relationship between business-teacher education and secondary school curriculum. 1. "make use of area coordinators." 2. a. "Supervision of Business Education students by a business education college supervisor." b. "Adequate in-service programs attended by high school and college teachers." 3 . "Secondary teachers cooperate in the development and change of the school (Secondary) curriculum." 172 4. "Specialized supervision from university during student teaching experience." 5. Two teacher-preparation institutions did not answer this question. VIII. Recommendations— Business Experience TABLE 30 BUSINESS EXPERIENCE OUT-OF-STATE INSTITUTIONS YES NO RECOM. TOTAL a. Do you think business experi ence should he required of a prospective business teacher? 4 1 1 6 h . Should credits he given for actual business experience? 2 4 6 c . Would you specify kind of experience in field of teacher’s specialization? 4 2 6 a. What should he the minimum length of time required for such experience? TABLE 31 LENGTH OF EXPERIENCE OUT-OF-STATE INSTITUTIONS No answer 1 None 1 Twelve weeks 1 2000 hours— can he made up of part-time work 1 One year--in connection with an office practice class 1 173 IX. Recommendations— Methods Courses Which should he required: a. general secondary methods courses? b. general methods courses in business subjects? c. specific methods courses in business subjects? TABLE 32 METHODS COURSES OUT-OF-STATE INSTITUTIONS General Secondary only 0 General Business only 1 Specific Business only 3 Combination— General and Specific Business 1 All three in combination 1 TOTAL 6 X. What other recommendations for changes in the business- teacher curriculum would you make to strengthen the program? 1. "Add computer course." 2. "Strengthen grammar and improve manners and social grace." 3. "Use at least four areas of specialization." 4. "Methods class in teaching basic business and economics." Summary Relevant teacher-education,legislation from 1 961 to 1 9 6 7 was reviewed as the source of the opinions of the 174 California Legislators. The reports of the committees formed prior to the passage of the legislation, namely— the Committee on Revision of the Credential Structure in California and the Joint Interim Committee on the Public Education System— were studied. The legislation resulting from these studies, The Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 1 9 6 1, was examined as were the reports of the commit tees established to recommend methods of implementing the provisions of this law. A detailed summary was made of The Restoration of Teaching, the report of the Assembly Subcom mittee on School Personnel and Teacher Qualifications. Other legislation which modified provisions of the 1961 Law for some applicants was passed in 1 9 6 7. These laws as well as the California Teachers Association's recommendations for legislation in the fields of internship and professional responsibilities were also examined. A comparison of the credential requirements as of 1 9 5 9 a^d 1966 was made in order to facilitate determining what changes were effected and which ones were still in effect. The second section of this chapter reviewed the practices in effect at the California state colleges which offered major programs in business teacher education. A comparison of the practices was made possible through a systematic area-by-area grouping and chart presentation. This analysis will be made in the next chapter. 175 The answers to the questionnaires by California state college educators formed the next section of this chapter. An examination of the practices in effect determined by a study of the catalogs and through the questionnaire answers together with recommendations made in the questionnaire answers will form the basis for the .opinions of business educators at the California state colleges. Additional information furnished by questionnaire answers of out-of-state business educators enabled a furthei comparison which will be made in the next chapter. The opinions of the business teachers, which were gathered by McCullough and reviewed in Chapter II, will round out the opinions to be compared and analyzed in the next chapter. CHAPTER IV AN ANALYSIS OP FINDINGS Introduction This chapter will analyze the findings reviewed in Chapter III. Comparisons will be made between prelegisla tion committees as to their memberships * their reports, and the effect of these reports on the subsequent legislation. Evaluations of the legislation with respect to the desires evidenced will also be made. Additional comparisons between the proposed California Teacher Education and existing legislation and the 1 9 5 9 and 1966 credential requirements will be drawn. The practices in the state colleges offering programs in business teacher education will be compared, as will their methods of achieving certain goals in the programs. The recommendations of the California state college business educators will be analyzed and compared with each other in addition to those of the out-of-state business educators. . Finally a synthesis will be made to enable the deter mination of the opinions of the California legislators as evidenced by the legislation passed, the California state college business educators as evidenced by practices found and responses to questionnaires, and the business teachers in the secondary schools of California as evidenced by the __________________ _________ .176 ___________________ _ 177 findings in McCullough's study surveying their opinions to allow a comparison of these opinions. This comparison of opinions will form the basis of a recommended business teacher education program* if agreements and differences indicate such a program. An Analysis of Findings with Regard to the Opinions of Legislators Events Leading to Legislation Carl Larson* Chief of the Bureau of Teacher Education of the California Department of Education* analyzed the situation leading to the certification legislation in the following manner. Although credential revision had formally begun prior to Sputnik* this event caused Americans to turn "the microscope on the public schools." (81:250) Moreover, because the 43 teacher-education institutions in the state placed different values on the various aspects of their programs* the public felt that the resulting variations in programs signified a confusing situation in teacher educa tion. Also the public erroneously believed that public educators felt "how to teach" courses were more important to teacher preparation than subject matter preparation. Larson suggested the question was not an either-or- proposition* but one of proper balance since many attempts have been made to determine the effectiveness of course work in pedagogy and "past studies seem to show that 'professional' preparation does make a difference." (8 1: 2 5 2] 178 The national mood, reinforced hy the situation in California, affected legislators who acted on the conviction "that one important way to improve expertness in teaching was to eliminate from teacher education the great excess of 'how to teach' courses and require more preparation in subject matter." (81:250) The certification legislation therefore sought expertness in teaching through a more rigorous subject matter preparation and the restriction of teaching assignments to subject matter majors and minors. Although some members of the Legislature also believed there was a need to reduce the amount of professional education prescribed by the State Board of Education and a college or university, a legal ceiling on professional courses did not become part of the new law. (8 1: 2 5 0) However, by including the requirement that either the major or the minor had to be "academic," the age-old debate of what education is of the most worth was now settled for California certification by legislation. (81:251) More committees were formed to advise the State Board of Education of certification requirements needed so that the Board could develop the necessary regulations to imple ment the law. The major purpose of the 1961 Certification Law— that the academic preparation of teachers be given high priority— was reinforced by the decisions of these commit tees . 179 The Pre-Legislation Committees. The Committee on Revision of the Credential Structure in California was appointed jointly by the California State Superintendent of Public Instruction and the President of the California Council on Teacher Education. The member ship was composed of fourteen persons who, in the words of James C. Stone, Director of Teacher Education, University of California, Berkeley, were ’ ’persons of recognized standing in education circles” interested in teacher education-certification work. (103:17) The members of the Citizens Advisory Commission were chosen by the Joint Interim Committee on the Public Educa tion System. An analysis of the membership of the Commission indicates that the twenty-seven members repre sented the professions, the executives of business and industry, and farmers. Six members presently or formerly served on school boards, two were superintendents of school iistricts, and seven were either presently or formerly teachers. Two persons resigned, one was inactive, and one had no committee service recorded to his credit. Stone described this group as "a diverse group of people, mostly Laymen, with a wide variety of opinions and competences on matters of education.” (1 0 5: 2 8 7) Although three members held leadership positions in institutions of higher education, only one could qualify as a person connected with teacher education. And although this commission was 180 appointed to study all of education in California, its implications for teacher education— the interest of this study— and the apparent weakness of the qualifications of its membership in this field are important to a consider ation of the effect of its report on the subsequent legislation. The report of the Committee on Revision of the Credential Structure in California, which appears in sum mary form in the Appendix, included as major inadequacies in the pre-1 9 6l credential structure the multiplicity of credentials and the high degree of specificity in require ments. The source of these inadequacies they felt could be. traced to attempting to control'professional assignments through certification, the limiting of experimentation in teacher education programs, and the inclusion in the credential structure positions not requiring a preparation program in professional education. Among the assumptions the Committee felt were basic to a sound credential structure were establishing the profession's responsibility in the determination and main tenance of standards of professional competence; establish ing the teacher preparation institution’s responsibility for determining standards of teacher education programs\ and establishing the local school district's responsibility for the proper assignment of staff. The high quality of teacher education programs could most effectively be 181 controlled, they felt, through the accreditation process. Finally they suggested that it was essential to a good credential system that statements of the credential require ments should he as broad as possible. Recommendations based on these principles and assumptions were made by this Committee. In recommending only four credentials— two basic teaching credentials and one ifor administration-supervision, and one for pupil per sonnel, they followed their belief in the need to simplify the varieties of credentials. They were broad in their recommendation of professional and liberal education re quirements, limited their major and minor requirements to subjects commonly taught in the public schools; and pro vided for the electing of completion of the fifth year within the five-year period following the start of teaching. The report of the Citizens Advisory Commission, which formed the basis of the report of the Joint Interim Commit tee on the Public Education System, reviewed in the last chapter, enumerated specific recommendations in the field of teacher education and certification. Through recom mending a 'reduction in the number of methods courses, a reduction in the number of education courses offered at the state colleges, and by excluding professional education as a major for either elementary or secondary teaching, the Commission’s report emphasized a shift in the function of professional education from the central focus of teacher 182 training to an auxiliary role. On the other hand, through recommending that secondary teachers teach in their major field of specialization, through enumerating the specific authorizations of teaching according to major and minor preparation at the various secondary levels, and through requiring reports of the assignment of teachers the Commission emphasized the importance of subject matter preparation. The recommendation of the year of post graduate study for both the elementary and secondary teachers evidence the desire to upgrade teacher- preparation programs for all teachers. The Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 19bl and Its Implementation The provision in the Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 1961 for five credentials with the inclu sion of the Standard Designated Subjects Teaching Credential allowing the teaching of any subjects named on the credential, is in direct contrast to the recommendation of the Committee on Revision of the Credential Structure for simplifying the variety of credentials. The provision for major and minor requirements, the specific authorizations to teach, and the necessity of reporting teachers' assign ments follows directly the recommendations and emphasis of the Citizens Advisory Commission in subject matter prepar ation. The Licensing Law of 1 9 6 1 went one step further. It included the word "academic1 1 in the provisions 183 for the major or minor requirements further evidencing the importance of the role of subject matter preparation as compared to professional education preparation. The recommendations of the resource committees for the implementation of the provision of the 1961 Law were included in the new requirements. For the standard teaching credential the 45-semester hour general education requirement was adopted, however, without the specified number of hours in each area. The professional education recommendation was adopted as to the topics to be studied and the directed teaching requirements, but the number of semester hours was reduced from 14 or 16 to 9, in addition to the directed teaching. The Standard Designated Subjects Teaching Credential Resource Committee’s recommendations were adopted except for the provision of professional courses in the coordination of business occupational per formance with classroom instruction. And although the recommendations specifically stated the credential "shall not authorize the teaching of typewriting, shorthand, or bookkeeping," the summary issued by the State Department of Education (see Appendix) included: Notice the field is not placed on the credential unless sufficient experience is verified in all subjects to the field. Example: the subject "typing" is placed on the credential rather than the broad field entitled "office and secretarial." 184 The Restoration of Teaching This report of the Assembly Subcommittee on School Personnel and Teacher Qualifications reinforces the report of the Citizens Advisory Commission and the resulting credentialing law of 1961 in its strong emphasis on academic preparation. In addition this report looks back' at the previous generation of teachers as the exemplifica tion of what the profession's goal should be, a view stressed by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Dr. Max Rafferty. The legislators place the blame for the controversy on the State Department of Education, teacher preparation institutions, and statewide organizations of teachers, a controversy which they say is based on the profession's concern with methodology and vocational training rather than on a broad education. The difficul ties in the implementation are also blamed on the State Department and the teacher preparation institutions. ' There seem to be contradictions evidenced in this report. On the one hand they laud the flexibility of the law--which actually was made possible by the State Depart ment of Education's rules for implementation— and on the other complain because of the complexity of the rules. They do not understand that complex regulations were required to keep to the "spirit of the law" and also make for flexibility. Then the legislators are concerned on the one hand with the "proliferation" of education or methodology 185 courses which exceed the state minimum required by law and on the other hand they strongly recommend the profession "be permitted to govern the conduct within, and admittance to or denial from their profession." The problem is a basic one of recognizing the purpose of setting a minimum requirement in the law. This purpose is not to exclude the additional requirements; it is to ensure a basic program. The problem also arises from the stipulation in the regulation of nine semester units (exclusive of student teaching) to cover the sociological or historical or philosophical foundations of education, the psychological foundations of education, and curriculum and instructional procedures and materials used in teaching in secondary schools. Achieving the first two requirements does not seem to raise the difficulties encountered in achieving the last requirement.. For example, it was specifically found in this study that business educators and business teachers recommend special methods courses in business; it is therefore difficult to fulfill the methods knowledge applicable to the business major and the minor (or general secondary subjects) within just three semester units of credit and allow for observation, which is an important prerequisite to student teaching. The legislators' belief that a few more education units would, of necessity, limit the subject matter prep aration to the point that the broad academic background of the teacher is in jeopardy makes them suspicious of 186 education courses. Their belief that educators are not in agreement with their desire for subject matter background and a broad liberal background makes them suspicious of educators. If the legislators rw.ould have the faith to place the responsibility in the profession for-setting programs as well as self-policing as they recommend in the repprt, then much of the controversy can be eliminated. The report further offers arguments to support the legislators* belief that the credential law did not cause a shortage of teachers, their claim being that shortages exist in districts offering poor salaries, poor living conditions, and poor working conditions. They recommend a statewide minimum salary schedule and a premium pay program to offset these inadequacies. Finally they are disturbed at the.great increase in supervisory personnel, while class, sizes have not been decreased. This section evidences theii sincere concern for a sound educational system and in their basic faith in the ability of the classroom teacher. Post-1961 Legislation Dr. Julian Roth, Associate Dean of Academic Planning of the Office of the Chancellor of the California State Colleges, at a PI.. Lambda Theta meeting on December 2, 1 9 6 7, spoke on "The Teaching Profession and the Struggle it Faces for Survival." As the Chancellor's representative for teacher education who attends all State Board of Education me.etings_and_legisJ,ativ£._meetings_..deaiing_wi_th_t.eacher______ 187 education his timely review of the subject of teacher educa tion legislation is appropriate to this study. Dr. Roth suggested the 1 9 6 1 certification legislation was brought about in part as a result of the lay citizen's committee's dissatisfaction with the performance of the public schools. They felt the ills of the school were attributable to poor teacher education practices; therefore the teacher preparation programs should be changed. The dominant point of view in the legislature was that teachers need more "subject matter preparation" and less "how to do it preparation." The belief was accomplished in fact by legislating degree requirements (a bachelor's degree in subject matter exclusive of education). In effect the legislators were putting into law what they felt would alleviate the situation because "Schools of Education had done nothing about bringing forth better public education." Although specific results of the Law may not be dis cernible., the Legislature is not quite sure they did not create a teacher shortage by increasing.the requirements in the 1 9 6 1 Law. The fifth year required of elementary teachers is believed by some to have been responsible for this shortage. Some legislators may even feel they were not reelected or lost popular support because of their relationship to the "Fisher Bill." Dr. Roth reported the Legislature was in the process of seeking ways of changing the "Fisher Bill." Thirty bills. 188 in the last legislative session were designed solely to "bring about some change in the teacher credentialing laws. The Rodda bills were a reflection of this trend. The effect of Senate Bill 1132 (Rodda) was to postpone the completion of the fifth year to within a five-year period in situations where ashortage of fully qualified personnel exists. This provision echoes the recommendation of the Committee on Revision of the Credential Structure. Opposition to this bill was voiced by the California Teachers Association: ... on the basis that it was still another attempt to lower credential standards and that it was unnecessary legislation. The State Board of Education already possessed the authority to set Secondary Credential Standards at the baccalaureate degree level but had resisted doing so. Now, the Board may no longer have a choice in this matter. (35) Attempts to specify requirements through legislation falls into Stone’s category of "teacher education by legislation" instead of following the Revision Committee’s recommendation of leaving standard regulations to the profession and teacher education to the teacher education institutions. jThis bill and Senate Bill 1479 (Rodda), Teacher Education ilnternship Act of 1 9 6 7, in effect modify the strict regu lations of the 1 9 6 1 Law. The Internship Act is in accor dance with one of the recommendations of the Citizens Advisory Commission. The California Teachers Association feels its usefulness, however, is curtailed because of 189 limiting the Act to non-residents and out-of-state degrees and the failure to finance the program through the state. (31) In contrast the proposed internship legislation of the California Teachers Association provides a program for both those students who are entrolled in a graduate intern ship education program and those who have graduated with an approved teacher education program. The Association’s credential proposal provides for the orderly progression from the novice status to the career status with recog nition in changes of credentials. This professional type of program is more in keeping with the assumptions made by the Revision Committee. The proposed Professional Responsibilities Act of the California Teachers Association in calling for the estab lishment of a board made up of members of the profession to set credential standards, to issue credentials, and to accredit teacher-education programs, definitely establishes the basis for a teaching profession in the state of California. A Comparison of Credential Requirements Stone describes the comparison of requirements by saying: The worst that can be said of the pre-Fisher standards--and it often was--is that the requirements were too specific, too cumber some, too rigid, too unintelligible to any but the technical personnel in the Creden tials Office in Sacramento. Then the over specificity ^t al, were in professional 190 requirements. In the post-Fisher standards we have merely traded professional specificity and rigidity for academic specificity and rigidity. Neither is the answer. (105:291) A comparison indicates that professional education requirements were reduced. Great emphasis is now placed on the major and minor, one of which must he academic. Now specific major and minor requirements are enumerated as are the authorizations for levels of teaching of the major and minor subjects. The special credential change also reduces the professional education requirement. The new credentials are issued for life. The Opinions of California Legislators Regarding Teacher Education The opinions of the California legislators for the purpose of this study are based solely on the legislation and the committee reports reviewed. The Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 1 961 and its implementation shows an interest in upgrading teacher preparation through an increase in length of program (for elementary teachers), an emphasis on the requirement of either an "academic” major or minor, the requirement that teachers should teach in their major field, and through reducing the unit require ments in professional education. In direct contrast to the recommendations of the Committee on Revision of the Creden tial Structure the specificity of the requirements indicate the legislators1 lack of faith in the ability of the profession to set standards, of the teacher-education 191 Institutions to formulate programs, and of the local district to make staff assignments. Subsequent legislation,- modifying some of these provisions, indicate the legislators are not quite sure that these earlier provisions achieved the desired effect of preparing better teachers. However, the fact that they change one law for another shows their belief that better teacher education can be achieved through legislation. An Analysis of Findings with Regard to the Opinions of Business Educators Credential Requirements from the Catalogs There is a general concensus in credential require ments in the thirteen state colleges offering programs with a major in business education. All reflect the require ments listed by the State Department of Education (see Appendix). 'The general education requirement of foreign language seems to show the most variation. Major requirements all include the equivalent of at least one year of accounting. Three colleges require an additional course in cost accounting, two in managerial accounting, and one in principles of machine accounting. Only seven colleges list a data processing requirement — and one of these requires only a one unit course. Two of these colleges require two courses. Eight colleges have a mathematics requirement, one of which requires only one unit, the rest varying from 192 three semester units to twelve quarter units. Twelve colleges require a course in business statistics, one of which also requires a math statistics course and one a course in quantitative business analysis. All thirteen colleges require course work in ecojr-- nomics, twelve requiring at least the equivalent of a year’s work, one an additional year and two an additional course. Twelve colleges require at least one course in marketing; two are required by the college that only requires one economics course. Twelve colleges require at least one course in law, four requiring two courses. Eleven colleges require at least one course in finance, one requiring two courses. Four colleges require an additional business course and one college requires three additional courses. One college specifically requires a course in logic or ethics in the general education requirement of its business majors. Twelve colleges require courses in management, four in personnel management, four in industrial management, one in problems of small business management, one in records management, and one in office systems and automation. Of the twelve colleges requiring management courses, one requires five courses, two require four courses, four require two courses, and five require only one course. Eleven colleges require course work in business communications or writing. One requires three courses, 193 four require two courses, and six require only one course. Two colleges require a speech course and three list report writing as a requirement. Only five colleges require a course in principles of business education, one of which requires two courses. Only one college lists business experience as a require ment with no course credit allowed. Three of the state colleges offer no courses in typewriting, one allowing up to twelve units of transfer credit in the skills area. Four colleges require typing proficiency exhibited by exam or by taking a course, one college requires a proficiency test in the skill subject related to one’s major, and five colleges require a course in typing. Two colleges require a course in office practice, five in office machines, and one required proficiency in office machines exhibited by exam or course, and two colleges require a course in communication machines. One state college offers six major specialization options, four offer four options, five ..offer three options, and three offer two options. Six colleges require one option. Of the six that require two options or the one which requires two or three options at least one option must be either in the accounting or the secretarial field. All the state colleges require courses covering the sociological, historical, or philosophical field; the psychological foundations; and student teaching. Ten of 194 the thirteen state colleges listed require a course in the principles and curriculum of secondary education. Three require a course which includes observation. Five require Principles of Business Education, one of which lists this as a business requirement, rather than as an education requirement. The methods course requirement includes one college < requiring a general secondary methods course only (the state requirement). Eight require a general business methods course only, two requiring both a methods course in general business subjects and skill subjects, while three require minor methods in addition to the general business methods requirement. Two colleges require both general secondary methods and general business methods, one requiring minor methods in addition. While one college requires both general business methods and at least two, preferably three, specific business methods, one college requires'.;, specific business methods only. The practices show an emphasis in the general business methods require ment with some colleges breaking this down to the two divisions of general business and skill subjects and two other colleges seeing the need for more specific business methods. I • I The additional professional education requirements listed varied from Classroom Problems of Beginning Teachers to Counseling and Guidance, Educational Measurement and 195 Evaluation, and Health Education. There was no apparent trend evident in the variety of additional requirements. State College Practices Evidenced by Questionnaire Responses Of the eight colleges reporting an answer to the question of curricula changes, only one reported no change. The changes in the business content subjects appear to favor a trend toward the reduction in courses in typewriting, an elimination of economic goegraphy, and the addition of courses in data processing, management, and business communications. The general "academic" course requirements appear to favor more flexibility of choice and the addition of mathematics to requirements. Although five of the eight colleges reporting listed no changes in general "education" course requirements, one listed a reduction of eight units, and one mentioned there was a reduction in unit requirements because of the "Fisher Bill." It is surprising that the five colleges which reported no changes were not also similarly affected by the legislation. In the business "education" requirements five colleges again reported no changes, one college dropped the Principles of Business Education requirement while two increased the unit requirement of this course. One college dropped its business experience requirement; one college dropped specific methods courses in the undergraduate curriculum and added to the graduate curriculum a general 196 methods course in "business education; and one college noted that the most relevant change was the change from the four- year to the five-year program. On the whole there were no changes in practice teaching and a trend toward more flexibility in electives is reported. ' The aims, curricula, and procedures in business education are conveyed by various means in the ten reporting colleges. The most popular method is through the course, Principles of Business Education, followed by professional courses and methods courses. The findings in research in business education is made known to students at the state colleges reporting through methods classes— most frequently— followed by seminar courses, principles of business education courses and research courses. Although the.'increasing emphasis in business on personality and human relations is most frequently offered through courses in human relations, management, secretarial procedures, summer workshops, and various major requirements, two of the ten reporting state colleges made no provision for this area. All of the ten reporting state colleges make provi sions for the increasing emphasis in business on data processing, six through required data processing courses and four through offering courses in data processing. It appears that three of the colleges are interested in this i 197 phase of business as there are considerations of adding data processing units to required accounting courses; many ■ t students are taking several courses; and one chairman feels that at least one half of the major "are getting ’exposed’ to E.D.P." Social and economic factors in the environment are provided by various means, most frequently in requiring from six to eight units in. economics. Two colleges report that students are either minoring in economics or urged to minor in economics. One college reports three courses deal specifically with this subject; one reports it is a major requirement; one lists six courses covering this area; one, four. Two colleges report that this information is covered in their methods course in general business. State College Business Educators’ Opinions From Questionnaire Responses Three colleges did not report problems in preserving a close relationship between business-teacher education and the secondary school curriculum. Although one college reported excellent relationships afforded by workshops, professional meetings, and visitations, in contrast another college reported there was a problem of finding time for these meetings. The problem of professors with little or no secondary teaching experience was mentioned as was the problem of maintaining a good relationship between the student teacher and the master teacher during the period of 198 directed teaching. The quarter system has also presented a problem— this no doubt in the aligning of student- teacher assignments in a high school set up on the semester system as opposed' to a college set up on the quarter system. All these problems relate to the directed teaching aspect of the business teacher preparation program and show the importance this phhse of the program has in the minds of the educators. Two other problems were reported which deal with the content of the business teacher preparation program in its connection with the seondary school curriculum. The problem of developing a teacher preparation program based on the future needs of the secondary school curriculum instead of its current needs was considered important to one college educator. Another educator was concerned with the "pressure to remove" typewriting and shorthand from the college curriculum. This last suggested problem no doubt is felt because of the need to have secondary school teachers properly prepared in these fields because of their popularity in the secondary school curriculum in contrast to the alternatives advocated by Pierson and Gordon and Howell; in their desire to upgrade the college business curriculum and make it more "academic." Business experience, an important phase of the teacher preparation program according to many educators as revealed through the literature— especially Gustafson’s study* was 199 deemed important enough to be required of prospective business teachers by four college educators and recommended for prospective business teachers by three college educa tors, or seven out of ten of those reporting. Only three college educators felt business experience should not be required. Nine of the educators reporting felt that no college credit should be given this experience, and six of r seven answering this question felt that no specification should be made as to the kind of experience required. There were such varied opinions as to the recommended length of time of this business experience that no general ization can be drawn. Methods courses--an aspect of the business teacher preparation program receiving much attention from legis lators, business educators, and business teachers--were divided into three categories: a general methods course relevant to all aspects of the secondary curriculum; a general business methods course, which would consider all aspects of the business curriculum; and a series of methods courses, each dealing with a specific aspect of the business curriculum. Of the nine answers received, seven made one choice and two made two choices. Only one educator felt the general secondary methods course appropriate; and only two felt a combination of a general secondary methods course and a general business methods course most appro priate, whereas four educators felt that the specific 200 business methods courses were the recommended approach for * v methods courses in the business teacher preparation program. The greatest 'consensus is on the choice of the specific business methods course as being most appropriate in contrast to a single vote for the general secondary type of methods course. It would seem that the choices indicate a definite trend in belief towards the necessity of a knowledge of methods in business subjects, whether presented generally or specifically. The final recommendations which were requested sought to determine methods of strengthening the business teacher preparation program. Only five educators of the ten reporting chose to answer this question, and one of these felt there were too many recommendations to allow them to be made in this form. One educator felt his answer to question number eight (answer #1) would be- more appropriate here. The recommendation that business education be given "academic" stature no doubt results from the definition of the word "academic" in the Education Code which eliminates business education and results in a situation which Stone describes: ... thus fields of study in colleges and univer sities not only are arranged into respectable versus nonrespectable groups but, on the basis of their majors, teachers in the public schools are labeled first-class or second-class citizens. (-10-5:2 Bo.)________ ____________ ____________________ 201 The recommendation that education courses be limited to about nine units and that subject matter courses be increased* seems to echo the suggestions of those on the Citizens Advisory Commission whose recommendations empha sizing subject-matter preparation while changing the role of professional education to an ancilliary one in the teacher preparation program brought forth these emphases in the 1 961 law. It may reveal a concern on the part of the educator for the seemingly limitless number of courses in the field of business and economics which are necessary to provide the proper background for the business teacher. The recommendation that credit and priority be given to business internship courses was made by a chairman who surprisingly in the question covering this subject only recommended business experience as valuable to the prospec tive business teacher and who also recommended not giving credit for this experience. Perhaps* in rethinking the problem* he is contemplating a kind of work experience program which would not fit his recommendations--such as an approved* college-supervised work experience. His last recommendation that there is a need to "tighten up accrediting of business-teacher education programs in colleges" because of meager programs and inferior business education libraries has important impli cations for the field of business teacher preparation. It is directly connected to the status problem previously 202 mentioned. How can one achieve status for teachers who are either products of inadequate programs or programs based on inferior and l'ess-than-adequate libraries? The heart of the matter, therefore, is the program. The Opinions of California State College Business Educators Regarding Teacher Education The opinions of the business educators for the purpose of this study are based solely on the questionnaire answers. Their answers show a desire to keep typewriting and shorthand in the curriculum; the need for the college program to be based on the future needs of secondary teachers not only current needs; and the desire for aca demic status, for limited professional education courses, for increased subject matter courses. Business educators are especially interested in the directed teaching phase of the teacher education program as evidenced by their concern with the problem of super visors— the need of using those properly qualified in business education and those with secondary school exper ience. The problem of relationships also concerns the business educator— the relationship between student teacher and the master teacher during the period of directed teaching and between the high school teachers and the college professors. Business educators stress the importance of courses in methods of teaching business subjects in contrast to a . - 203 course in methods in secondary subjects. Almost all of those reporting believed in ■-.■the desirability of some combination of methods courses in business, while slightly / less than half definitely recommended the methods courses in the specific business subjects. With their knowledge of the problems inherent in the teaching of the various business subjects, this kind of recommendation is most valuable. Business educators stress the prospective business teacher's need for business experience. Seven out of ten of those reporting either would require business experience or recommend it as valuable. One business education chairman recognizes the need of giving this facet of the preparation program priority and recommends credit should be given for a type of business internship program. Great concern was felt by a department chairman about the need to tighten up accreditation of business education programs so that only those programs that are adequate and are based on adequate business education libraries would be accredited. Out-of-State Practices from Questionnaire Responses Although only six out-of-state questionnaire results are summarized in this study, an analysis is made for the purposes of comparison and contrast with the California state college programs. It is an indication— if nothing more— of. _wha t i s-g oin g - on-in other s t at e s -in-busines s— --- 204 teacher preparation programs. The out-of-state institutions are also experiencing changes in curricula. In the business content subjects one university reports the addition of a course in data processing and one university the addition of a course in human relations as was similarly reported by the state colleges. On the one hand, one university reported dropping Economic Geography and Beginning Typewriting, while another reported adding Economic Geography, and still another reported adding typewriting courses. However, two universities reported dropping an accounting requirement (post-elementary level) and two of adding a management requirement. It would seem, as all research in business curricula indicate, these changes, which vary from one institution to the next, are reflections of the needs of the schools served by these universities. The changes reported in the general "academic" subjects reveal a decrease in the science, mathematics, and foreign language requirements and an increase in some institutions of the social science requirement. There was no mention of more flexibility of choice which was evident in the state college responses. The changes in general "education" and business education courses were reported by only one university in each instance and would therefore reveal a trend of no change in these categories. As two universities reported 205 an increase in units or hours for student teaching* this would indicate that where a change is evidenced* student teaching is given increasing importance in the program. The only elective change reported* a decrease of twelve quarter units* reinforces the conclusion reached ahove that increasing flexibility of choice in program is not in evidence. The aims* curricula* and procedures in secondary business education are most frequently discussed through courses in methods in business education and professional education courses— procedures used by the state colleges— with* however* no mention being made of the course* Principles of Business Education* the most popular method of the state colleges. The findings in research in business education are disclosed most frequently through methods courses as was similarly reported by the state colleges. As was reported by the state colleges the increasing emphasis on personality and human relations in business is most frequently provided through courses in human relations* secretarial practice* and management courses. It is also provided in the out-of-state institutions" through business methods courses. Although all reporting institutions make some provision* the increased emphasis on-data processing is met most often by offering courses in this field* only one institution reporting requiring such a course. This is in 206 direct contrast to six of ten reporting state colleges which require such a course. Two institutions include data processing information in management courses. Knowledge of the social; and economic environment is most often provided through the general education require ment, economics courses, or courses in personal and social adjustment. The economic emphasis is not as much in evidence in these out-of-state institutions as was reported hy the state colleges. Opinions of Out-of-State Business Educators As with the state colleges, the problems most frequently mentioned dealt with the student teaching program. Proper supervision, hy the use of a person qualified in business education^ the use of area coordin ators j and specialized supervision of the student teaching experience were mentioned. The recommendation of service programs for both high school and college teachers would also influence the student teaching program. The recom mendation that secondary teachers cooperate in the develop- ment and change of the secondary school.curriculum has implications for the teacher preparation program to include the background necessary for the proper participation in this function. Pour of the six educators, favored requiring business experience and one suggested it be recommended of all PJCP_spe.cti_ve_business_teachers_,.._with^onlyL_one^dissenting____ 207 opinion. This is a slightly higher percentage favoring "business experience than was evidenced in the opinions of state college educators. Only four of the six out-of-state educators felt no credit should "be given compared to nine of the ten of the state college educators, and four of the i ? out-of-state educators felt that a specification should be made as to type of experience in direct contrast to six of seven of the state college educators who felt no speci fication should be made. Again the opinions of the length of experience recommended varied too greatly to allow any generalization. None of the out-of-state educators favored the general secondary methods course only* one educator recommended a combination of all three types, but three or one half of those reporting favored a combination of both ' the general and specific business methods courses. This corroborates the view of the state college educators which tended toward a business methods orientation. And although the out-of-state educators are more emphatic in their belief in the value of the specific methods courses, every choice included some kind of business methods course. This view reinforces Erickson’s concern that the Certification Law of 1961 makes it possible to teach business without ever having completed a specific business methods course. (59:137) 208 The recommendations to improve business-teacher programs include adding a computer course and a methods course in teaching basic business and economics, both frequently mentioned in the literature. The recommendation to strengthen grammar and improve manners and social grace perhaps reflect more of a local situation than one of more general application. The use of at least four areas of specialization is an indication of the need to expand from the two traditional areas: secretarial and accounting. An Analysis of Findings With Regard to the Opinions of Business Teachers— McCullough's Study McCullough's respondents, 154 California beginning business teachers, had received their degrees since i9 6 0, slightly more than half had completed a major portion of their course work in California, and most of them had attended a state college during their junior and senior years. Therefore, their opinions compiled in this 1966 study concerning their college preparation for teaching are particularly relevant here. The total preparation program was felt to be adequate by 60 per cent of the respondents while 2 9 per cent rated their preparation as very good. The general education portion of the program was rated adequate by 62 per cent and excellent by 19 per cent. 209 v. Student teaching was deemed the most valuable experience as a preparation for teaching by 78 per cent of the respondents. Requiring student teaching in both basic business and skills was recommended by 86 per cent, and 75 per cent recommended a weekly conference be held with a college coordinator: "a person specialized in busi ness education." Recommendations were made that the stu dent teaching experience be made as practical as possible and that more guidance and help be given the student teacher by both the master teacher and the college coordi nator. Although only 44 per cent of the respondents felt that methods courses were an indispensible part of the preparation program, this may result from the fact that 71 per cent of them felt that the methods courses were not practical enough and covered too much theory. The respondents (5 8 per cent) felt specific methods of teaching various subjects should be emphasized'. It was felt by 47 per cent that there should be two methods courses— one |in the skill and one in basic business subjects, while p2 per cent felt there should be a separate methods course for each subject matter area. In general it was recommended that professional "education" courses be made more specific and realistic, and duplication should be avoided. . 210 In specialized education (major field) 85 per cent of the respondents felt ‘ ‘ adequately prepared to teach business subjects; 77 per cent favored requiring a data processing course of all business majors; and 90 per cent disagreed with the recommendations of Pierson and Gordon and Howell that skill subjects should not be taught in colleges and universities. McCullough found that the state colleges prepared the majority of California business teachers and concluded that in general beginning business teachers feel adequately qualified to teach business subjects on entering the profession, are satisfied with their preparation— being more critical cf the professional education aspect of the program than any other, find that student teaching and methods courses provide some of the most valuable prepara tion experience,-.and feel that both content and methods courses in business of utmost importance. McCullough recommended: 1. In recognizing their important position in the preparation of business teachers, the California state colleges should provide the best possible program. 2. The proliferated professional education program should be reduced to meaningful introductory courses in educational psychology, the philosophy of education and the social foundations of education. 3 . Methods courses should be as specific as possible. 211 4. "There should "be enrichment of business teacher education in the areas relating to socioeconomic subjects." 5. Student teaching should continue to be a part of business teacher preparation. 6. Skill subjects should be taught in those colleges r and universities offering business teacher education pro- - « n/ grams. Proficiency examinations should be allowed in lieu of course work for those qualifying. 7 . Supervision of student’ teachers by colleges and universities needs -to be improved. Two of the implications of McCullough’s study are especially relevant to this study. By implying that skill subjects could be taught in less time* thus allowing more time for greater depth in other areas of business, she is allowing for the emphasis in subject matter preparation desired by the legislators and the business educators. By implying that special methods courses in business education be required, she is reinforcing the desires evidenced by both state college educators and out-of-state educators. Her specific referral'to the inadequacy of the present requirements of the standard teaching credential stresses the views brought out in the literature and in the question naire responses. TABLE 33 A COMPARISON OP OPINIONS- OF LEGISLATORS, BUSINESS EDUCATORS, AND- BUSINESS TEACHERS AREA LEGISLATORS BUSINESS EDUCATORS BUSINESS TEACHERS 1. General Education 2. Professional Education 3. Major Preparation 4. Business Experience 45 semester units in 6 areas no specific disagreement Reduced to: a. Student teaching b. 1. curricula and methods of secondary education 2. psychological founda tions of education 3. sociological or histor ical or philosophical foundations of educa tion a. More in-depth preparation b. Academic minor c. Tend to view any practical or applied art as non- academic or "second-class" No mention in the standard teaching credential a. agreement* b. 1. special methods in business f'Z. no disagreement 3. no disagreement a. agreement 1. urging business majors to minor in economics 2. data processing should be required b. disagree with nonacademic status of ibusiness educa tion c. feel thatjskill subjects have a place in the college curriculum rated adequate or excellent by 8l# a. agreement* b. 1. special methods in business 2. no disagreement 3. no disagreement a. agreement 1. socio-economic background needs emphasis 2 _ data processing should be required b . -- c. feel that skill subjects have a place in the college curriculum 70% felt it -should be required Not covered or recommended *Both the business educators and the business teachers agree in the provision that the supervision of student teachers should be done by a person qualified in business education. In addition the business educators feel j _i the supervisor should have secondary school experience. ro 213 Summary An analysis was made of events leading to the Licensing of Certificated Eersonnel Law of 1 9 6 1— the committees, their memberships, and their reports. The Law and the reports of the committees formed to develop pro- - cedures for implementing the Law were analyzed. A synthe sis of the provisions of the Law, the practices involved, subsequent legislative committee reports, and subsequent legislation was used as the basis for the opinions of the legislators. An analysis was made of the questionnaire responses of the California state college business educators. The questionnaire responses indicating recommendations and preferences in procedures were used as the basis for the opinions of the business educators. The results of McCullough’s 1966 study surveying the opinions of begin ning business teachers regarding their teacher preparation were used as the basis for the opinions of business teachers. The responses of out-of-state business educators were analyzed for the purpose of comparison with both the practices and recommendations of the responses made by the California state college business educators. A final comparison was made of the opinions of legislators, business educators, and business teachers as to the best teacher preparation program for business teachers. Areas of agreement were pointed out as were those special recom- 214 mendati'ons which were not in evidence in the present certification qualifications. CHAPTER V SUMMARY* CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary From 1951i when the California State Superintendent of Public Instruction appointed a committee "to establish a factual basis for the revision of credential requirements*" until today the credentialing system in California has been studied* commented on* changed* attacked* and praiSed. Although the recognition of the problem of the complicated credentialing process and the initiating of the study for its solution occurred prior to Sputnik* this event caused 0 u additional pressure for reform. The Committee for Revision of the Credential Structure in California was appointed jointly in 1954 by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction and the President of the California Council on Teacher Education. It recom mended means of simplifying the credential structure thrcugji limiting the number of credentials* by recognizing the responsibility of the profession in determining and main taining standards of professional competence* by recog nizing the responsibility of the teacher preparation insti tution in determining standards of teacher education pro grams* and by recognizing the responsibility of the local school district in assigning the staff properly. ---------- 215-......... ...................... . 216 After Sputnik the Joint Interim Committee on the Public Education System was established by the 1958 legis lature, which also provided for the assistance of a Citizens Advisory Commission. The report of this commission emphasized their belief that the means of improving California education was to improve the training of its teachers, and the best means of improving teacher training was to stress subject matter preparation and limit "how to teach" courses. The resulting legislation, The Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 1 9 6 1, commonly referred to as The Fisher Bill, echoed these recommendations. Its added emphasis on "academic" subject matter preparation and the assignment of teaching to major fields (preferably) or minor fields resulted in a specificity in content require ments which replaced the former specificity of professional education requirements. This new complexity called for additional legislation and additional regulations of the State Department of Education. The result was'called a state of confusion in the credentialing requirements of business education teachers-at a meeting of business educators representing the three branches of the higher education system in California by Carl Larson, Chief of the Bureau of Teacher Education of the California Department of Education. The implication of this situation for the specific field of business education was described in the following manner by McCullough in her 1966 study: 217 Business teacher education is apparently in a period of transition and change. Some of this change seems to he in the direction of de-emphasis of business teacher education, as evidenced by the new credentialing law in California. This has come about after thirty years of tremendous growth in the number of people in business occupations and during a decade which is supposed to see greater growth in the number of jobs in the clerical and sales field than in any other occupational classifi cation. (1 2 6:1 7 0) The present study investigated the facets leading to the status of business education teacher training in Cali fornia at the present time. In addition the opinions concerning the business teacher preparation of California legislators, state college business educators, and business teachers were sought to identify areas of agreement and difference and to analyze these areas for the development of a program for business teacher preparaticjn in California. A review of the related literature in the fields of teacher education, business teacher education, and creden tialing provided the background necessary for the develop ment of a program of business teacher preparation. The opinions of legislators-were derived from a study and analysis of legislation and state department dicta. The opinions of business educators were derived from a questionnaire, an adaptation of the one used in the 1933 Jessie Graham study, The Evolution of Business Education in the United States, which was sent to the department chairmen of both the business education and the .education—departments of—the__. ei ght een_Calif ornia-S.tate______ 218 colleges. The practices at the state colleges offering majors in business education were analyzed for possible trends. Additional questionnaires were sent to the busi ness education chairmen of eighteen out-of-state teacher preparation institutions for comparison purposes. The opinions of business teachers were derived from the McCullough study, "Opinions of Beginning High School Business Teachers Regarding Their College Preparation for Teaching." McCullough’s belief in the validity of the opinions of beginning teachers as the basis for a proposed teacher preparation program stemmed from her conviction that: Teachers are the product of teacher education. Their opinions and suggestions should contribute in making logical, well-conceived changes in teacher education— changes which could lead ultimately to improvement of business teacher education, improvement of legislation pertaining to business teacher education, and improved inservice and graduate programs. (1 2 6:1 7 0-1 7 1) The opinions of the three groups interested in busi ness teacher education in California were gathered, analyzed, and resulted in the following findings, conclusions, and recommendations. Findings Findings: Opinions of Legislators 1. The Committee on Revision of the Credential Structure in California (representing the profession's view) felt that establishing the following responsibilities was basic to a sound credential structure: the profession*s responsibility in the determination and maintenance of standards of professional competence; the teacher preparation institution's responsibility in the determination of standards of teacher education programs; the local school district's responsibility in the determination of the proper assignment of staff. 2. The Citizens Advisory Commission (representing the' public) felt that good education can be achieved through good teaching. Good teaching would be ensured by stressing the subject matter preparation of teach-\ ers, extending the period of preparation, and by hav ing teachers teach in their major fields of special ization. 3. „ The Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 1961 emphasized the recommendations of the Citizens Advisory Commission. 4. Legislators believe that teachers should have a broad • general education background. 5 . Legislators believe that student teaching is a valuable part of teacher training. ♦ 6 . The original legislation (The Fisher Bill) emphasized subject matter preparation and de-emphasized profes sional education. 7 . The original legislation lengthened the period of preparation for elementary teachers. 220 8 . The original legislation regulated the assignment of teachers5 emphasizing,teaching in major fields of preparation. 9. The inclusion of the word "academic" in the original legislation; the allowing of "leeway for vocational preparation for vocational teachers"; and the stress on academic preparation (the 19^7 subcommittee's report) in "those subjects traditionally associated with true scholarship and research^" seems to indicate a belief on the part of legislators in the inferior position of non-academic subjects--including business education. 10. The public and the legislators believe that educators are more concerned with methods than with content. 11. This belief causes legislators to distrust the educa tor's ability to determine adequate teacher- preparation programs. 12. There have been many changes in the original legisla tion. The amendments which attempted to provide for flexibility have tended to negate some of the original provisions. 13. There has been much,dissatisfaction in educational circles with the original legislation. 14. The resulting changes in the original legislation have brought about a complexity of provisions and regulations leading to confusion in the credentialing 221 process. Findings; Opinions of Business Educators 1. A broad liberal education for teachers is important. 2. Student teaching is important and valuable in the teacher training program. 3. The supervisor of business-education student teachers should be a person qualified in business education. 4. There is a need to include data processing in the preparation program of business education teachers. 5. An emphasis in economics is recommended for prospec tive business education teachers. 6 . The nonacademic status of business education is questioned. 7. Skill subjects have a place in the college curriculum. 8 . Methods courses are important because they offer the means to convey the aims, curricula, and procedures in business education] the research in business education; and the social and economic factors in the environment. 9. Specific methods, or at least a combination of general business methods and general secondary methods, are recommended as preferable to general secondary methods. 10. Business experience should be required, or at least recommended, for prospective business education teachers. 222 Findings: Opinions of Business Teachers 1. Methods courses should be more practical. 2. Methods courses should be for specific subjects. 3. Student teaching is a most valuable experience for prospective teachers. 4. The supervisor of the student teacher in business should be a person specialized in business education. 5. Data processing should be required. 6 . Skill subjects should be taught in those colleges and universities offering business teacher education programs. 7. The proliferation of education courses should be reduced. 8 . There should be enrichment of business teacher education in the areas relating to socio-economic subjects. Conclusions 1. The influence of the report of the Citizens Advisory Commission on The Licensing of Certificated Personnel Law of 1 9 6 1 shows the high regard legislators have of the public's view as opposed to that of the profession. 2. The constant need to legislate changes and to include minute details of the teacher preparation program indicates the legislator's lack of faith in the ability of the profession to regulate itself. |3. The report of the 1 9 6 7 subcommittee, The Bestoration of ! 1 Teaching ^evidences the.legislators' desire on the one_ 223 hand to establish this responsibility with the profes sion, but on the other hand of taking this responsi bility into their own hands through further regulations. There is general agreement among legislators, business educators, and business teachers as to the value for a good teacher preparation program of: a broad educa tional background; in-depth subject matter preparation; student teaching; and the streamlining of course offerings in professional education. There is disagreement between legislators and business educators as to .the nonacademic status of business 4 education. There is agreement between legislators and business educators as to the value of business experience in the designated subjects teaching credential, where it is required; but not in the standard teaching credential, where it is not mentioned. Business educators and business teachers agree on the value of an emphasis on economics, of including data processing, of including skill subjects in the college curriculum, and of the need for more specific business methods preparation in the business education teacher preparation program. Legislators tend to disagree with the business educa tors and the business teachers as to the value of methods courses in general and specific methods courses 224 in particular. Recommendations As recommended in the report of the Committee on n Revision of the Credential Structure in California, and as stated in The Restoration of Teaching, "We see no reason why teachers and other certificated employees should not be permitted to govern the conduct within, and admittance to or denial from their profession," (1 8: 2 1) it is therefore recommended: r The teaching profession should have the responsibility for determining the qualifications for entrance into the profession, with the teacher-education institution sharing this responsibility in the setting up of teacher training programs. As there is much confusion regarding the wishes of all those interested in the education of teachers as revealed in the various meetings and the report of the different committees, it is therefore recommended: Communication lines need to be established so that the public, the legislators, the educators, and the teachers can exchange their views on the subject of teacher preparation on an equal status basis, not on a reporting or an evidence-giving basis. If this opportunity is _______ p r.o.vi de d , . . . . t h e . . . . . a r eas of. agre emen.t_ _can__b e...vi ewjed _ 225 i more readily and this, in turn, will facilitate the solution of the differences. 3. As the recommendations of the business educators con firm those that were found in the literature as to the value of business experience for prospective business education teachers, and as the value of this experience is already recognized by the legislators in the requir ing of this experience for the designated subjects teaching credential, it is therefore recommended: Business experience should be required of all prospective business education teachers. 4. As the importance of the student teaching process is recognized by all three groups and both the business I. educators and the business teachers^hote the need for having a person qualified in business education super- a ■ • / vise business education student teachers, it is there fore recommended: Only persons qualified in business education should supervise business education student teachers. 5 . As revealed in the literature and as corroborated by, ■ both the business educators and the business teachers, there is a need for more practical and specific- methods courses in business education, it is therefore recom mended: More specific methods courses in business 226 subjects should be required of prospective ■t business education teachers. As revealed in the literature, and as corroborated by both the business educators and the business ,teachers, there is a need for including more of an emphasis on economics and course work in data processing in the subject matter preparation of prospective business education teachers, it is therefore recommended: The subject matter preparation of business education teachers should include an emphasis on economics and course work in data processing. a B I B L I O G R A P H Y 227 BIBLIOGRAPHY k : BOOKS 1. Armstrong, ¥. Earl, and Stinnett, T. M.; A Manual on Certification Requirements.. Washington, D.C.: National Education Association of the U.S., 1959 2. Combs, Arthur W. The Professional.Education of Teachers. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965- 3. Conant, James Bryant. The Education of American Teachers- . New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964 4. ______ . "Teacher Certification:- The Restricted State Approved Program Approach." as reprinted in The Education of American Teachers. New York! McGraw-Hill Book Co., 19&4 (221-244). 5. ______ . "Teacher Education and the Preparation of Secondary School Teachers." as reprinted in The Education of American Teachers. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 19b4 (245-255). ‘ ' 6 . ______ . "The Theory and Practices of Teaching." as reprinted in The Education of American Teachers. • New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 19b4 (256-262). 7. Gordon, Robert Aaron, and Howell, James Edwin. Higher Education for Business. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959. 8 . 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Commission of Teacher Education. "Preservice Preparation of Teachers in California— A Statement of Policy." Bulletin No. 11, (1 9 6 1). 28. 29. 26. 27. 231 31. . Letter from J. Alden Vanderpool and Charles E. Hamilton of the Teacher Education Committee re: Teacher Education Internship Act of 1 9 6 7 (SB 1479— Rodda) October 4, 1 9 6 7. 32. _______. nA Professional Responsibilities Act ... To Advance Our Standards of Practice." as reprinted from The California Teachers Association Journal (May, 19t>7) by the California Teachers Association. September* 1967. 33. _______. "Proposed Content of Legislation for Teaching Credentials and Graduate Internship Teacher Education Act." October 19* 19^7* 34. , _______ . Teacher Education Committee. "Teacher Licensure." A Policy Statement adopted by the State Council of Education, November 12, 1 9 6 6. 35* • Teacher Education Department. Letter from J. Alden Vanderpool concerning Secondary Credential Standards. September 19* 19^7* 3 6; . Teacher Education Department. "Outline of Proposed Teaching Credential and Graduate Intern ship Teacher Education Act." October 19* 19^7. 37. . Teacher Education Department. "Proposed Content of a Professional Responsibilities Act." April, 1 9 6 7* C. PERIODICALS 3 8. Blackstone, Bruce I. "An Analysis of Recent Research to Determine Implications for Revision of the Business Education Teacher Curriculum." The National Business Education Quarterly, XXIV (December, 1955)* 17-20. 3 9. Blanford, James T. "Professional Content of the Business Teacher Education Curriculum." The National Business Education Quarterly, XXIV (December, 1955) 24-7. 40. Blast, Milton L. "Curriculums for the Preparation of Business Teachers." The National Business Education Quarterly, XXI (March, 1953)* 21-6. * 232 41. Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification. "New Certification Laws and Regulations." California Education3 III, (October' 1 9 6 5 )3 29-30. 42. Bush* R. N. "Credential Revision— The Heart of the Matter." The California Journal of Secondary Education3 XXXIV (November, 1959), 365-9} 43. "The Business Teacher Education Curriculum— A Study of Subject-Matter Elements (Part 1)," : i The National Business Education Quarterly3 XXXII (December3 19&3)• 44. Carman, Harry J. "The Historical Development of Licensing for the Profession." in "Desirable Policies for the Certification of Teachers: A Symposium," The Educational Record, XXXIX (July, 1958)3 253-86: 45. Central Committee of the National Association for Business Teacher Education, Lewis R. Toll,.Chair man. "The Business Teacher Education Curriculum — A Study of Subject-Matter Elements (Part 1)." The National Business Education Quarterly, XXXII (December, 1 9 6 3). 46. ______ . "The Business Teacher Education Curriculum— A Study of Subject-Matter Elements (Part 2)." The National Business Education Quarterly, XXXIII (December, 1963). 47. Childs, John L. "A Second Look at Dr. Conant's Report." The Educational Forum, XXXI (March, 1967), 265-274. 48. "The Committee on Revision of the Credential Structure in California." The California Journal of Secondary Education, XXX (November, 1955), 410. 49. The Committee on Revision of the Credential Structure in California. "Progress Report." The Cali fornia Journal of Secondary Education, XXXI (January, 1956), 2 5-2 9. 50. "The Conant Emphasis," Phi Delta Kappan, XLV (June, 1 9 6 4), 442—3. 51. "Council to Act on Proposed License Revision." The California Teachers Association Journal, LV (January, 1959)^ 10-13. 233 52. Dabkowski, Elaine. "Business Teacher Work Experience. The Balance Sheets XLVI (October, 1964), 9 6. 53. Dittman, Nancy A. "Spend This Summer in an Office." The Journal of Business Education, XXXIX (May, 1964), 350. 54. "Education Deans Report Important Changes— Some as Result of Conant Influence." Phi Delta Kappan, XLV (June, 1964), 436-7. 55. Elam, Stanley E. "California’s Legislature Bypasses the Schoolmen." Phi Delta Kappan, XLVI (January, 1 9 6 5), 2 0 9?2 1 0. 5 6. Engleman, Finis E. "A Forward Look." in "Desirable Policies for the Certification of Teachers: A Symposium." The Educational Record, XXXIX (July, 1958), 253-8^ 57. Enterline, H. G. "Trends of .Thought in Business Education." The National Business Education Quarterly, XVII (March, 1949), 24-30. 5 8. Epperson, David C. "Competing Social Forces and Certification Legislation." The Journal of Teacher Education, XVI (September, 19b5), 2 8 6-9. 59- Erickson, L. W. "California Business Teacher Education and the New Credential Law." The Journal of / Business Education, XXXIX (January, 1964), 13^7.' 6 0. ______. "California Credential Program Statement." The Journal of Business Education, XXXIX (January, 1954), 153-4. 61. Evans, Betrand, and Lynch, James J. "Certification:-.A Measure of Mastery or of Mediocrity?" in "Issues and Problems in Revising the Credential Structure in California: Symposium." The California Journal of Secondary Education, XXXII (April, 1957), 2 3 0-5b. 62. Eyster, Elvin S. "Toramorrow’s Business Teacher." The Journal of Business Education, XL (March, 196517 225-7. r 6 3. "The Famous Twenty Seven." Phi Delta Kappan, XLV (June, 1964), 440-1. t 234 64. Farrell5 Edmund J. "Toward the Definition of a Great Teacher." Phi Delta Kappan* XLV (June, 1964) 453-4. 6 5. Frederick* William L. "Education as a Responsibility. of the States." in "Desirable Policies for the Certification of Teachers: A Symposium*" The Educational Record* XXXIX (July* 1958)* 2 5 3^ . 6 6. Freeman* Stephan A. "A Forward Look— Continued." in "Desirable Policies for the Certification of Teachers: A Symposium." The Educational Record, XXXIX (July* 1958)* 2 5 3-8F; I ” 6 7. Georgiades* William. "Recent Developments in Creden- tialing in California." The Journal of Teacher Education* XI (September* I960)* 443-5- 6 8. Graham* Jessie. "Training the Ideal Business Education Teacher." The National Business Education Quarterly* XVII (March* 1949)5 8-14. 6 9. Hamilton* Charles E. "Credential Revision--As Viewed by Teachers." in "Issues and Problems in Re vising the Credential Structure in California: Symposium." The California Journal of Secondary Education * XXXII (April* 1957)> 230-5b. 70. _. "Revision of Credentials is a Major Study." The California Teachers Association Journal* LII (March* 1956)* 2b. 71. Hedge* Lesslie W. "Issues and Problems in Revising Credentials— As Viewed by a Secondary School Administrator." in "Issues arid Problems in Revising the Credential Structure in California: Symposium." The California Journal of Secondary Education* XXXII (April* 1957)* 2 3 0-5 6. : 72. Howard* Milton. "Suggested Curriculum for the Preparation of Business Teachers." Business Education World* XLVI (December* 1 9 6 5)* 9-1°• 73. "Is the Education of American Teachers INFLUENCING the Education of American Teachers?" Phi Delta Kappan * XLV (June* 1964)* 434-35- 74. Jackson* John Kendall. "A Survey of the Certification Requirements for High School Business Teachers Effective in the Forty-Eight States." The I ational Business Education Quarterly* XVII [.March.*. 1949)>......................... ...... 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 8 0. 8 1. 8 2. 83. 84. 85. 235 Kessel, Robert M. "The Critical Requirements for Secondary School Business Teachers Based upon an Analysis of Critical Incidents." The Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, II (September, 1959), 1-32. Kinney, Lucien B. "Assignment and the Teaching Credential." The California Teachers Association Journal, LVI (May, I960), 11-13. _. "Certification and Professional Autonomy." (Chapter 9 of Certification in Education) School and Society, XCI (December, 1963), 434-9. _. "Issues in Certification." in' "Issues and Problems in Revising the Credential Structure in California: Symposium." The California Journal of Secondary Education, XXXII (April, 1957), 2 3 0-5 6. _. "Trends in Certification Practices for Secondary Schools." The High School Journal, L (March, 1 9 6 7), 316-23. Larson, Carl A. "California Plans to Simplify Certification Structure." The Journal of Teacher Education, VIII (December, 1957), 420-1. _. "The State Legislature, The State Department of Education, and Expertness." The Journal of Secondary•Education, XXXVIII (April,' 1963), 248-52. Lawrence, Paul P. "New Credential Proposals." California Education, I (February, 1964), 1 5-1 6. McMahon, Clara P. "Proposals for Preparation: Past and Present." The Journal of Teacher Education, XIV (March, 1963), 6 9-7 1. MacMillan, Katherine. "The Credential Problem— As Viewed by a School Board Member." in "Issues and Problems in Revising the Credential Struc ture in California: Symposium." The California Journal of Secondary Education, XXXII (April, 1 9 5 7), 2 3 0-5 6. Malsbary, Dean R. "Techniques for Evaluating the Business Teacher Education Curriculum." The National Business Education Quarterly, XXIV _______(December, 1955). 50-53. ____________ 236 8 6. Musselman, Vernon A. "Significant Research Needed in Business Teacher Education." The National ^Business Education Quarterly, XVII (March, 1949) j - 31-33. 8 7. "The New Licensing Law." The California Teachers Association Journal, LVII (November, 19bl), 1 3. t 8 8. "On Teacher Preparation." The National Education Association Journal, LII (December, 1 9 6 3), 34. 8 9. "Placing the Blame." (A Dialogue) The California Teachers Association Journal, LX (May, 1964), 12. 90. "Quotable Quotes on Teacher Education." Phi Delta Kappan3 XLV (June, 19.64), 447. 91. Reynolds, Helen. "General Education Content of the Business Teacher Education Curriculum." The National Business Education Quarterly, XXIV (December, 1955)a 2ti~30. 92. Robinson,. Donald'W. "Comes the Revolution in Teacher Education." Phi Delta Kappan, XLV (June, 1964), • 425. 93. . "Education's Plexner Report?" Phi Delta Kappan, XLV (June, 1964), 426-32. 94. Rowe, John L. "Guiding Principles for Differentiated Business Teacher Education Curriculums." The National Business Education Quarterly, XXIV (December, 1955) 3 34-37. 95- Selden, William. "State Department of Education Responsibilities Relative to Business Education ' 1 Certification." The National Business Education Quarterly, XXXIV (May, 1 96b), 5-7 . 9 6. Smith, Helen M., C.P.A. "Requirements for Business Teacher Certification, State by State." Business Education World, XXXVIII (February, 1 95a )> 16-22. 97* Smith, Robert R. "Teacher Preparation Curbed and Confused." The California Teachers Association Journal, LX (May, 1964), 5-7f. 9 8. "State Superintendents Dissent." Phi Delta Kappan, XLV (June, 1964), 439. 237 99- 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 1 0 6. 107. 1 0 8. 109. 110. Stinnett, T. M. "Certification Requirements and Procedures Among the States in i9 6 0." The Journal of Teacher Education, XI (June, i9 6 0), 173-184. . "Standards are Still Going Up." The National Education Association Journal, XLIV (December, 1955), 541-2. . "Trends in Teacher Certification." The California Journal of Secondary Education, XXX (May, 1955), 287-72. Stone, James C. "Introduction" to "Issues and Problems in Revising the Credential Structure in California: Symposium." The California Journal of Secondary Education, XXXII (April, 1957), 2 3 0-5 8. J. "Procedure Used by the California Committee on Credential Revision." The Journal of Teacher Education, IX (March, 1 9 5 8), 17-19. . "Seven Cardihal Principles of Certification." The Journal of Teacher Education, VII (June, 195^), 155-56. 4 "Teacher Education by Legislation." Phi Delta Kappan, XLVII (February, 1 9 6 6), 287-91. . "Who Should Credential— The State or the Teacher Education-Institution?" in "Issues and Problems in Revising the Credential Structure in California: Symposium." .The California Journal of Secondary Education, XXXII (April, 1957), 2 3 0-5 6. "Superior Teachers Evaluate Their Preparation." Phi Delta Kappan, XLV (June, 1 9 6 4), 445- "A Symposium on Teacher Education." The Journal of Teacher Education, XIV (March, 1983), 9-50. Tate, Donald J. "Skill Content of the Business Teacher Education Curriculum." The National Business Education Quarterly, XXIV (December, 1955), 31-33. Tonne, Herbert A. "California Attack on Business Teacher Certification." The Journal of Business Education, XXXVII (March, 1952), 224-5. 238 111. 112. 113. 114. 115- 116. 117. 118. 119. ______ . "Current Thinking About the Future of Business Education. The Journal of Business Education5 XXXIX (January, 1964), 140-42. Trump, J. Lloyd. "The .Education of a Professional Teacher." Phi Delta Kappan, XLV (June, 1964), 448-9. Tyler, Ralph W. "The Education of Teachers: A Major Responsibility of Colleges and Univer sities." in "Desirable Policies for the Certification of Teachers: A Symposium." The Educational Record, XXXIX (July, 1958), 253-86. D. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS Bell, Mary Bernadine. "Background and Development of Business Education in California Public Schools." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1951. Bell, Robert Paul. "The Relationship Between the Problems Encountered by Selected Beginning Business Teachers and the Learning Experiences Provided in Their Professional Education Courses." Unpublished Ed.D. Dissertation, Indiana University, 1952. Blanford, James Tracy. "The Relationship Between the Problems of Beginning Business Education Teachers and Their Experiences in General and Special Methods Courses." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, -Indiana University, 1951. Cameron, Harrison James, Jr. "A Survey of Opinions of Secondary School Business Teachers of Texas Relative to Their Undergraduate Professional Education." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1953. Conner, Phyllis Lucille. "Desirable Characteristics and Qualifications of Business Teachers." Unpublished project, University of Southern California, 1951. Dettman, John Albert. "Factors Related to Success in Teaching the Business Subjects in the Secondary School." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1955. 239 120. Garver, Myron J. VA Study to Determine Desirable Requirements for Certification of Teachers of Business Education in the State of California." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation', University of Southern California, 1949. 121. Gustafson, Jessie Charlotte. "Business Experience as a Factor in the Successful Teaching of Business Subjects." Unpublished M.S. (Ed.) Thesis, University of Southern California, 1940. 122. Hogancamp, Thomas Boone. "A Comprehensive Analysis and Synthesis of Research Findings and Thought on Business Teacher Education." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1957* 123. Kelley, Earl Lewis. "The State Certification of Business Education Instructors in the United States." Unpublished thesis, University of Southern California, 1932. 124. Kokanour, Edith Agnes. "An Evaluation of Certifica tion Laws in the United States as They Pertain to Teachers of Business Subjects." Unpublished thesis, University of Southern California, 1936. 125. Lane, John R. "The Present Status of Business Teachers in the High Schools of California." Unpublished thesis, University of Southern California, 1933* 126. McCullough, Edith Lenore. "Opinions of Beginning High School 'Business Teachers Regarding Their College'Preparation for Teaching." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Southern California, 1 9 6 6. 1 2 7. McKinney, Chester Arthur. "A Study of the Develop ment of the Certification of Business Teachers from 1900 to 1948 in the States of Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylva-. nia." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Teachers College, Temple University, 1949* 128. Mayes, John Frederick. "A Comparison of the Certifi cation Requirements for Teachers of Business Subjects in California Secondary Schools with the Requirements of other States and Suggestions for Change." Unpublished thesis, University of Southern California, 1940. 240 <129. 130. 131. Poison, James Perry. "Pre-Service Factors Contrib uting to the Effectiveness of Business Teachers." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1 9 6 1. Rowe, John L. "Business Teacher Education in Twenty- Six Selected Liberal Arts Colleges and Twenty- Eight Selected State Teachers Colleges." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Teachers College Columbia University, 1946. Thompson, Robert James. "The Competences of Second ary School Business Teachers." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1956. APPENDI X 2itl_ Citrus College 18824 E. Foothill Boulevard Axusa, Calif. 91702 October 2, 1967 Dear The enclosed questionnaire is being sent to you as a person who is in volved in the training of business teachers. The questionnaire is an adaptation of one formerly devised by Graham in 1933. It is part of the doctoral study which is attempting to assess the recent changes which have been made in the programs of training business teachers and also the changes which should be made in such programs. You undoubtedly have a great deal of paper work detail to take care of in your daily work. However, it is hoped that you will see the potential benefit that such a study can have for the field of teacher education and will realise the importance which the reactions of a person in your particular position can have for the success of the study. In order to help you respond at the earliest opportunity a stamped, addressed envelope has been enclosed for your convenience. Thank you very much for your cooperation in this endeavor. If you would care to have a report of the findings of this study, please check the box next to your name in the questionnaire. Yours truly, Helen Glasser BuslnassTeachars , i ■ I.’ 'Changes^ in'Curricula since 1957: f l i ’ t v * i If* T / t e f I* ! , W , I u * - ' k r , v *■ ’ ' f , K , I . ’ t * / <V 'C-i v ’' r»"' "J% " ; - ' 1 ’ ’ > " ' «. Have any changes been aade in your buslness-teacher curricula since 19577 (Please check) Yes ' Mo___ b. -Please indicate changes in ssaeester units (S) or quarter units (01 Number of* Additional Units .,' Number of Fewer Units - (1). Business content subjects (accounting, business organisation, salesmanship, stehoaraDhv. business law. etc.) (2) General "academic" subjects— physical and biological sciences (chemistry, biology.'astronomy. etc.) (3) General "academic” subjects— humanities (languages, literature, philosophy, etc.) (4) General Uacademlc'V subjects— social sciences (economics, history,: psychology, sociology, etc.) (5) General "education" courses (educational psychology, history, philosophy, methods, curriculum, administration, etc.) (6). Business "education^ courses (principles, methods, curriculum in business education, etc.) ........ (7) Practice teaching (8) Electives (free choice allowed) c. Please indicate names of courses added to or dropped from list of courses required for graduation since 1957: Titles of Courses Added to Requirements Titles of Courses Dropped from Requirements (1) Business content subjects (2) Physical and biological sciences s . ' r - ,v ’ r i i ' wvv , * - - - , f is i . i f * (M 1 V 4 - ir t ” V * \ i * (3); Huaanltles . J O ' - • i , 1 1 . * * % i * > 4 H * r ' iv r * ^ ^ -v. jy,: . f , . - t . . r ‘ - j ' r j ' A - ; v , ' ? , ■ * » r V > , , 5 4 V * . •■■■■■'■ - J , ' ■ * * 1 . ^ * ' (4) Social Sclencaa (5) General "educational" courses .: (6) Business "education" courses (7) Practice teaching ■ . What provision Is made for acquainting students with the aims, curricula, and procedures In secondary business education? .What provision is mads for acquainting students with the findings In research in business education? ■■■■■.■■ IV. What provision is auula' for acquainting atudents with ths Increasing emphasis In business on personality and human relations? V. What provision is made for acquainting students with the Increasing emphasis oh data processing and automation in the field of business? VI. Recognising the increasing importance of giving secondary school pupils an adequate picture of our present social and economic life, what provi sion is made to give the teacher a basis for presenting such a picture? i • VII. Please list here any problems which you consider important in preserving a close relationship between business-teacher education and the secondary, school curriculum: ' • _______ . _____________ VIII. Recommendations— Business Experience (a) Do you think that business experience should be required of a prospective business teacher? Yes Wo (b) Should credits be given for actual business experience? Yes No (c) What should be the minimum length of time required for such exper- ience? (d) Would you specify kind of experience— (stenographic, bookkeeping, etc.) in field of teacher's specialisation? Yes No IX. Recommendations— Methods courses Do you think that (a) general secondary methods courses or (b) general methods courses in business subjects or (c) specific methods courses in business subjects should be required? Please check (a)..^ fl>) (c)__ X. What other recommendations for changes in the business-teacher curri culum would you make to strengthen the program? (All information will be reported in summary form. Neither names of indi viduals nor of institutions will be used without special permission.) Person Reporting: ‘ /*7 Title: Date Institution: • Please return in the enclosed stamped, addressed envelope to: Mrs. Helen Glasser Citrus College 18824 E. Foothill Blvd. Aausa, Calif. 91702 254 FOLLOW-UP LETTER Citrus College 18824 E. Foothill Boulevard Azusa, California 91702 November 3> 19^7 Dear Some weeks ago you were sent a copy of a questionnaire surveying practices in' your business teacher preparation program. No doubt at that time you were quite busy with' the beginning of the new college year. Therefore, I am enclosing another copy, hoping that you will now have time to read it over, fill it out, and mail it back to me at your earliest convenience. I am sure that you realize how valuable, your contribution will be to the study which I am making. Sincerely yours, Helen Glasser 245 CALIFORNIA STATE COLLEGES Mr. Glenn S. Dumke, Chancellor 5 6 7 0 Wilshire Boulevard Los Angeles, California 90036 1. California State College, Dominguez Hills 8 0 9 East Victoria Gardena, Califomia 90247 2. California State College, Fullerton 800 North State College Boulevard Fullerton, California 92631 3. California State College, Hayward 2 3 8OO Hillary Street Hayward, California 95452 4. California State College, Long Beach 6101 East Seventh Street Long Beach, California 90804 5 . California State College, Los Angeles 5151 State College Drive Los Angeles, California 90032 6. California State College, San Bernadino 3500 State College Parkway San Bernadino, California 92407 7. California State Polytechnic College, Kellogg-Voorhis Pomona, California 91766 8.. California State Polytechnica College San Luis Obispo,'California 93401 9. Chico State College First and Normal Streets Chico, California 95927 LO. Fresno State College Shaw and Cedar Avenues Fresno, California 93726 11. Humboldt State College Areata, California 95521 12. Sacramento State College 6000 Jay Street Sacramento, California 95^19 13. San Diego State College 5402 College Avenue San Diego, California 92115 14. San Fernando Valley State College 18111 Nordhoff Street Northridge, California 91324 1 5. San Francisco State College 1600 Holloway Street San Francisco, California 94132 1 6. San Jose State College 145 South Seventh Street San Jose, California 95114 1 7. Sonoma State College 235 College View Drive Rohnert Park, California 94928 18. Stanislaus State College 800 Monte Vista Turlock, California OUT-OF-STATE INSTITUTIONS .1. Alabama A & M College Normal, Alabama 2. Arizona State University Tempe, Arizona 3. Ball State Teachers College Muncie, Indiana 4. Bernard M. Baruch School of Business and Public Administration The City College 17 Lexington Avenue New York, New York 5. Bowie State College Bowie, Maryland 6. Colorado State College Greeley, Colorado 7. Florida State University Talahasse, Florida 8. Idaho State University Pocatello, Idaho 9. Illinois State University Normal, Illinois 10. Indiana University of Pennsylvania Indiana, Pennsylvania 11. Kent State University Kent, Ohio 12. Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 13. State College of Iowa Cedar Falls, Iowa 14. Tennessee Technological University Cookville, Tennessee 248 15. Virginia State College Petersburg, Virginia 16. University of Texas Austin 12, Texas 1 7. University of Vermont Burlington, Vermont 18. Washington State University Pullman, Washington THE MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE ON REVISION OF THE CREDENTIAL STRUCTURE IN CALIFORNIA (178:234) .1. Kinney, Lucien B., Professor of"Education, Stanford Univer si ty— Chai rman 2. Addicott, Irwin, Fresno State College 3 . Brown, Reverand James N., Archdiocese of San Francisco 4. Fielstra, Clarence, School of Education, University of California at Los Angeles 5. Hamilton, Charles, California Teachers Association 6 . Hedge, Leslie, Bakersfield High School 7. Hogan, George E., State Department of Education 8 . Jarvis, Ellis A., Los Angeles City Schools 9. Lorenzo, L. L., Watsonville City Schools 1 10. Lundberg, Carl, Ashland Elementary School, San Lorenzo 11. MacMillan, Mrs. M. D., California Congress of Parents and Teachers 12. Parks, D. Russell, Fullerton Elementary Schools 13. Stone, James C., University of California at Berkeley 14. Williams, Mrs. Lois, Montebello Unified School District Consultants (103:17-18) 1. Armstrong, W. Earl, Executive Director of NCATE 2. Allen, Wendell C., Assistant Superintendent of Public Instruction, State of Washington 3. Stinnett, T. M., Executive Secretary of NEA’s NC— TEPS (National Commission on Teacher Education and ---------— Rr-of.es.sional-Standar.ds-)--------------------------- 250 Morgan, Herschel, Credential expert from the California State Department of Education 251 Report of the Committee on the Revision of the Credential Structure in California A Summary (80:420-21) Major Inadequacies of the Present Credential Structure and Their Sources 1. There is a multiplicity of teaching credentials. 2. There is a high degree of specificity in credential requirements. 3. There are definite shortcomings in current require ments and procedures connected with the issuance of credentials upon direct application of the candidate to the State Department of Education. 4. There are certain apparent sources or reasons for the major inadequacies in the current credential structure. 4.1 Attempt to control professional assignments through certification. 4.2 Limitation upon experimentation in teacher education by teacher education institutions. 4.3 Including in the credential structure positions which do not call for a program of preparation in professional education. Assumptions Essential to a Sound Credential Structure 1. Principles basic to professional standards. 1.1 Responsibility for the performance of a func tion should be assigned to the agency that can most reasonably be expected to perform it. 1.2 It is the responsibility of the membership of the profession to establish and maintain standards of professional competence. 1.3 To be effective for its purposes in the over all program of professional standards, each process must support and be supported by others. 1.31. The process of teaching education program building. 1.32. The process of accreditation. 1.33. The process of effective use of prepared., personnel at the local level. 2. A credential should serve as a badge of membership in the teaching profession. 252 Report of the Committee on the Revision of the Credential Structure in California (Continued) ~~ 3. Teacher preparation institutions should accept responsibility for careful selection and screening of candidate's and for establishing standards for and programs of teacher preparation. 4. Proper assignment of staff should be the responsi bility of the governing body and its professional staff in the local school district. 5 - A credential structure should include only the positions that call for the preparation of an accredited program in professional education. 6 . The accepted and most effective method of main taining standards of quality in collegiate prepara tion is accreditation of such programs. 7 . A credential structure should not specify the pattern of the program of preparation. 8 . Most of the weaknesses inherent in the direct application for credentials can be corrected. 9. Statements of credential requirements should be as general as possible. Recommendations for Action Based upon the principles and assumptions outlined above the Committee recommends that the State Board of Education establish a new credential structure consisting of four credentials as follows: - 1'. The General Teaching Credential. 2. The Vocational Teaching Credential. 3. The Pupil Personnel Credential. 4. The Administration-Supervision Credential. The first two credentials are the basic teaching creden tials. The administration-supervision function and the pupil personnel function are based on the teaching function and these credentials are available only to holders of one or both teaching credentials. The areas of preparation common to all should include the following: 1. A core of liberal education. 2. The psychological foundations of education. 3. The sociological foundations of education. The areas of major-minor preparation should include any subject field commonly taught in California elementary and 'secondary schools. Three minors should substitute for a major and a minor. 253 Report of the Committee on the Revision of the Credential Structure in California (Concluded) The professional areas of preparation should include the following: 1. Elementary education. 2. Secondary education. 3. Education of exceptional children. The general teaching credential should encompass five years of collegiate preparation, with the alternative for the candidate at the end of his fourth collegiate year (bachelor’s degree), of electing either to continue a fifth year of preparation or to begin teaching and complete the equivalent of his fifth year of preparation within the ensuing five years. THE JOINT INTERIM COMMITTEE ON THE PUBLIC EDUCATION SYSTEM (19) Members of the Committee SENATORS George Miller, Jr., Vice Chairman Hugh M. Burns Paul L. Byrne Nelson S. Silworth Hugh P. Donnelly Donald L. Brunsky Fred S. Far2? ASSEMBLYMEN Gordon H. Winton, Chairman Ernest R. Geddes Richard T. Hanna Frank Lanterman Harold Sedgwick Joseph C. Shell Carlos Bee 255 THE MEMBERS OP THE’CITIZENS ADVISORY COMMISSION (19:7-10) MRS. JANET L. ALLEN of Sutter Creek is a housewife, mother of two young children, and a school teacher in Sacramento County. Her husband is a cattleman. Served on Sub-committee on Curriculum. MRS. IRMGARD B. BEARD of Glenville, Kern County, is a former school teacher and is presently a member of the Kern County Board of Education. Served on Sub-committee on Textbooks. JAMES L. BEEBE of Los Angeles is a partner in a Los Angeles Law firm, belongs to the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce and various Bar Associations. Served on Sub-committee on Finance. DR. ROBERT J. BERNARD of Claremont is President of Claremont College, has been associated with education for over 30 years, and is a trustee of Claremont College and Harvey Mudd College. Served as Chairman of Sub committee on Teachers and Teaching. WILLIAM N. BUCKNAM of Klamath River, Siskiyou County, is a former farmer and a former member of the California State Board.of Education. He is active in the American Legion and is a Mason. Served on Sub committee on Standards. PRANK BURRILL of Fullerton is Vice-President and Assistant to the President of a Brea, California, industrial firm. He has long been active in civic affairs of Orange County. Resigned for business reasons— 1959. Now living in Prance. ■ JUDGE W. JOHN BUSSEY of San Francisco is a municipal court judge for the City and County of San Francisco. , He is a member of the State Bar of California and the American Bar Association and a long time member of the NAACP. Non-active. FORDYCE V. COWING of Arcadia is president of a Vernon, California, industrial firm. He was a member of the Board of Education of the Arcadia Unified School District. Former Chairman of the Commission, Resigned..f or^busines s.. r.eas ons 1959. Now_living___ 256 THE MEMBERS OP THE CITIZENS ADVISORY COMMISSION (Continued) in Arkansas. DONALD D. DOYLE of Walnut Creek is an insurance broker. During hjs term in the California Assembly he served as Vice Chairman of the Assembly Education Committee for four years, served as the first Chairman of the Joint Interim Committee on Education and upon retir ing from the Assembly was appointed to the Citizens Advisory Commission. Served on the Sub-committee on Standards. EDWARD PRANK of Daly City, formerly City Manager for eight years in Petaluma, and recently City Manager of Dais- City . He is a former teacher and holds both the general secondary and administrative California credentials. JOSEPH GENSER of El Cerrito is an attorney-at-law, and is presently attorney for the California State Federation of Teachers (APL-CIO). Served on Sub committee on Textbooks. NORMAL C. HAYHtJRST of Glendale is president of a savings and loan association in Glendale, formerly the Superintendent of the Glendale Unified School District. He is active in the State Chamber of Commerce, the Kiwanis Club, is a Mason, and a member of Phi Delta Kappa. Served as Chairman of Sub-committee on Finance. DR. JOEL H. HILDERBRAND of Berkeley is Professor, Chemistry Emeritus,in the University of California at Berkeley Where he served as Dean of the College of Letters and Science, and Dean of the College of Chemistry. He is the member of various professional societies and President of the American Chemical Society, was a delegate to the White House Confer ence on Education. Served on Sub-committee on .Teachers and Teaching. Served on Editing Committee for Pinal Commission Report. DR. WILLIAM V. LAWLOR of Glendale is a dentist in Glendale, California. He was a delegate to the White House Conference on Education, the Governor’s Conferences on Education, and Juvenile Delinquency and Youth. Served as Chairman of Citizens Advisory Commission, Chairman of Sub-committee on Teachers and Creden- _________tialing, ..Editing ■.Committee for Final Commission___ 257 THE MEMBERS OP THE CITIZENS ADVISORY COMMISSION (Continued) Report. MRS. BARBARA M. MCCARTHY of North Hollywood is a junior high school teacher and a member of the Junior League of Los Angeles. Served as Vice Chairman of Citizens Advisory Commission, and on Sub-committee on Curriculum. MRS. MYRTHIS MYERS of Fallbrook,'San Diego County, is aj member of the Committee for School District Organ ization for San Diego County. She is a member of the Order of Eastern Star and is active in the Farm Bureau. Served on Sub-committee on Finance. LUTHER A. NICHOLS of Pasadena is Executive Vice President of the California Manufacturers Association. Served on Sub-committee on Finance. DEAN I. JAMES QUILLEN of Stanford is Dean of the School of Education of Stanford University. He is a member of the Accreditation Committee of the State Board of Education and a trustee of the Council for Advan cement of Secondary Association. He belongs to various professional organizations including the American Association of School Administrators. Served on Sub-committee on Teachers and Teaching. CHARLES RANDOLPH of Oroville, Butte County, is an Assistant Publisher of a local newspaper and a member of the Butte County Board of Education and is Chairman of the Education Committee of the Oroville Chamber of Commerce.• Served as Vice Chairman of Citizens Advisory Commission, Chairman of Sub-committee on Organization, on Editing Committee for Final Commission Report. JACK D. REES of Hayward is District Superintendent of the Hayward Elementary School District and past State President of the California Teachers Association and the member of various associations of school administrators. Served on the Sub-committee on Curriculum, Editing Committee for Final Commisssion Report. 258 THE MEMBERS OF THE CITIZENS ADVISORY COMMISSION (Concluded) GILFORD G. ROWLAND of Sacramento is an attorney and is a member of various Bar Associations where he held leadership positions: as a member of the Board of Governors of the State Bar of California and as President of the State Bar of California. Served as Chairman of Sub-committee on Textbooks. ' JAMES W. SHORT of Turlock is the owner of the Goodrich Oil Company of Turlock. Served on Sub-committee•on Standards. DR. ROBERT G. SPROUL of Berkely is President Emeritus of the University of California and a member of various professional organizations. MRS. MARTHA SNOWDEN of Alhambra is a former president of the Califomia Congress of Parents and Teachers, and has an interest in education, not only from the standpoint of a parent but as to how it affects teachers of the State. Served on Sub-committee on Finance. MRS. LYNN THOMPSON of Arcadia is Consultant on Education for the League, of Women Voters and holds a general secondary credential for the California schools and is a former teacher. Served on Sub-committee on Finance. MRS. MARGARET TRIMBLE of Roseville is an elementary shhool teacher. Served on Sub-committee on Teachers "and Teaching. MRS. PHYLLIS WAINWRIGHT of Martinez is an elementary school teacher, mother of four children. She is a member of the governing boards of the Martinez Elementary School District and the Alhambra Union High School District, and past President of the Contra Costa School Boards Association. She is a member of the Contra Costa Taxpayers Association Education Commit tee. Served as Chaiman of the Committee on Stan-"- dards. 259' California State Department of Education Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification March 1 966 Z-2 THE STANDARD TEACHING CREDENTIAL WITH A SPECIALIZATION IN SECONDARY TEACHING* (Issued for Life**) REQUIREMENTS An applicant for the standard teaching credential with a specialization in secondary teaching shall have successfully completed in approved institutions a program including the following: (a) A bachelor’s degree (b) a fifth year of college or university postgraduate work at the upper division or graduate level. (c) Forty-five semester hours of course work in four of the areas listed below as items (1) through (6) including, in every case, the English and the English composition requirement in the humanities area. A maximum of six semester hours of this work may be applied toward the requirement for either a major or a minor. (1) Humanities. Either three semester (four quarters] of English including a course in composition must be completed, or two semesters (three quarters) of English, and in addition, the passing of a special examination, in English composition (not the college entrance examination) given by an • institution. (2) Social sciences. Two semester hours in course work, or an examination given by any approved institution, on the provisions and principles of the United States Constitution, must be com pleted before this credential will be issued. (3) Natural sciences. ( 4 ) Mathematics requiring a knowledge of high school algebra and geometry as prerequisites. (5) Fine Arts. (o) vForeign languages. 260 (d) One of the combinations of majors or minors in the table below entitled "Majors and Minors." (e) Professional preparation to include: (1) Both of the following: (A) One hundred and twenty clock hours of actual teaching in a course in student teaching. Successful full-time teaching experience in public schools or private shcools of equiva lent status in California or elsewhere may be substituted for course work in student teaching at the rate of one year of teaching for one-half of the requirement. At least one-half of this requirement shall be com pleted in any grades 7 through 12. (B) Nine semester hours of course work to in-, . elude: ^ 1. The sociological or the historical or the philosophical foundations of educa tion or any combination of these courses. 2. The psychological foundations of education. 3. Curriculum and instructional procedures and materials, used in teaching in secondary schools. . ■ . MAJORS AND MINORS Each section of the table below (A,B,C, or D) contains an acceptable combination of majors and minors. MAJORS (Professional education MINORS (All must be com- is excluded by law.) 24 semester monly taught in public hours of upper division or grad- high schools.) uate level work required for all maj ors. _________________________________________________________ A. Acadmic subject commonly No minor is required (See taught in public high Authorization for Service, schools. item (d) on reverse), but if desired one or more of the following: 1. 20 semester hours in a single academic or non- academic subject OR 2 6 1 MAJORS AND MINORS (Concluded) MAJORS (Professional education is excluded by law.) 24 semester hours of upper division or grad uate level work required for all majors. MINORS (All must be com monly taught in public high schools.) 2. 20 semester hours in an academic inter departmental group, including 12 semester hours in one subject OR 3. An area of specialized preparation. B. Nonacademic subject com monly taught in public high schools. 1. 20 semester hours in a single academic sub4 Ject, including 12 semester hours at the upper division or grad uate level OR 2. 20 semester hours in ar acadmic inter-depart- mental group, including 12 semester hours in one subject of which 6 semester hours must be upper division or grad uate level. 4 C. Academic subject not commonly taught.' TWo minors of 20 semester hours each. One must be academic. The other may be nonacademic or an area of specialized preparation. D. Nonacademic subject not commonly taught. Two minors of 20 semester hours each in academic subjects are required. 20 semester hours in a single academic subject, or 20 semester hours in an inter departmental group with 12 semester hours in one sub ject constitutes a minor. 262 EXPLANATION OF MAJORS 1. An academic major commonly taught in the public high schools is one of the following: (a) A single academic subject of 24 semester hours of upper division and/or graduate course work in one of the subjects within one of the following fields: Physical sciences (chemistry, geology, etc.); social sciences (history, political science, etc.); humanities (English, speech, a single foreign language, etc.); and the fine arts which are music, art, and drama; or in the single subjects of mathematics or biological sciences. All the biological sciences (botany, zoology, biology, etc.) are a part of the single subject designated as "biological sciences". At least 6 of the 24 hours required for the major must be graduate level course work completed after the bachelor’s degree in an institution accredited to offer graduate work. (Six semester hours of such course work in the minor may be substituted.) (b) When an applicant holds a degree with a major in an academic interdepartmental area such as social sciences, 24 semester hours of upper division or graduate course work must be offered, including 15 semester hours in one of the subjects making up one of the following interdepartmental majors: physi cal sciences; social sciences; humanities, biolo gical sciences and mathematics; a single physical science and mathematics; and fine arts. The -single subject in which the applicant has completed 15 semester hours will be listed on the credential (e.g., history, not.social sciences). 2. A nonacademic single subject major commonly taught in the public high schools is 24 semester hours of upper division or graduate course work, including 6 semester hours at the graduate level, in subjects such as agriculture and physical education. (Six semester hours of graduate hours of graduate course work in the minor may be substituted for the above graduate requirement.) 3. A major not commonly taught in the public high schools (excluding professional education) may be either aca demic or nonacademic. It consists of 24 semester hours of upper division or graduate course work in a single subject or in a subject which is part of an interdepart mental major. EXPLANATION OF MINORS (all must be commonly taught in public high schools) 263 1. A single subject minor, academic or nonacademic, con sists of 20 semester hours in one subject. 2. An academic interdepartmental minor refdrred to under sections (A), (B), (C), in the preceding table consists of 20 semester hours including 12 semester hours in one of the subjects which is part of one of the following interdepartmental minors: physical sciences; social sciences; humanities; biological sciences and mathe matics; a single physical science and mathematics and fine arts. Only the single subject in which 12 semes ter hours are offered is listed on the credential (e.g.;, history, not social sciences). 3. The areas of specialized preparation are librarianship and teaching exceptional children in the areas of the deaf and severely hard of hearing; mentally retarded; orthopedically handicapped, including cerebral palsied; speech and hearing handicapped; and visually handi capped. Separate leaflets give requirements for these specialized areas. AUTHORIZATION FOR SERVICE The standard teaching credential with specialization in secondary teaching authorizes the following service: (a) Teaching in grades 7 through 12 any subjects named as majors or minors on the credential. (b) Teaching-any subjects in classes1 organized primarily for adults. (c) Teaching in kindergarten and grades 1 through 14 any courses,in which the holder has°a minor in an area of specialized preparation named on the credential. (d) If the credential lists bdth a major and a minor, the district governing board may by resolution, on a yearly basis, authorize the teaching of any subjects In grades 7 through 12 except in classes for exceptional children, c If the credential does not list a minor, -the governing board may by resolution, on a yearly basis, authorize the teaching of any subjects in grades 7 through 12, except in classes for exceptional children, in which the holder has completed 9 more semester hours of upper division or graduate course work. (e) The district governing board may by resolution, on a yearly basis, authorize the teaching in grades 13 and 14 of the major or minor listed on the credential. (f) Serving as a librarian in kindergarten and grades 1 through—l4-if—the-specialized-area-of—librarianship-is_ 2 64 listed on the credential as a minor. (g) Teaching music or art in the elementary grades if the subject is listed as a major or minor on the standard teaching credential with specialization in secondary teaching. *A summary adapted from California Education Code and Administrative Code, Title 5 **The standard teaching credential with a specialization in secondary teaching is issued on the basis of a partial fulfillment of requirements, as explained in leaflets Z-2a and Z-2b. Rev. 3-66 8M MU-1096 /Z^2J California State Department of Education Bureau of Teacher Education and Certification 265 Z-12 THE STANDARD DESIGNATED SUBJECTS TEACHING CREDENTIAL IN BUSINESS EDUCATION* An applicant for the standard designated subjects teaching credential in business education shall have completed the specific requirements to teach business subjects in the following fields: Accounting Advertising Communicative Arts in Business Data Processing Economics Finance and Investments Foreign Trade Insurance Law Management Marketing Mathematics Merchandising Office and Secretarial Purchasing Real Estate Retailing Sales Statistics Taxation Transportation Notice the field is not placed on the credential unless sufficient experience is verified in all subjects to the field. Example: The subject "typing” is placed on the credential rather than the broad field entitled "Office and Secretarial". REQUIREMENTS FOR THE FULL-TIME CREDENTIAL ISSUED FOR LIFE All of the following: (1) A bachelor’s or higher degree from an approved insti tution. (2) Six semester hours of professional course work in an approved institution, including methods and materials and curriculum development in business education tech niques of evaluating pupil occupational performance and of relating such performance to classroom instruction. ( 3 ) One hundred twenty clock hours of student teaching in bushess education under the direction of an approved institution or, in lieu thereof, one year of successful full-time teaching of business education subjects in the public schools or private schools of equivalent status. (4) Three years of successful experience in an occupation in which a knowledge of the subject named on the cre- dential is needed for job performance. *A summary adapted from California Administrative Code, Title 5 266 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE FULL-TIME CREDENTIAL ISSUED UPON PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS Prior to September 1, 1967* a credential authorizing full time employment, valid for two years, may be issued to an applicant who meets the following requirements. (1) A bachelor's or higher degree from an approved insti tution. (2) Three years of successful experience in an occupation in which a knowledge of the subject named on the credential is needed for job performance. (3) A Statement made by an official of a school district to the effect that the applicant will be employed in that district to teach the subject or subjects to be named .on the credential, or furnishes a comparable statement made by a county superintendent of schools. (4) A written statement by the applicant that he intends to complete all of the requirements for the credential. The credential so issued may be renewed for successive two year periods upon the completion of six semester hours of the remaining course requirements during the life of the credential to be renewed. If teacher experience is offered for the directed teaching requirements, it cannot be counted as semester hours for renewal purposes. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PART-TIME CREDENTIAL ISSUED FOR LIFE All of the following: (1) An associate degree from, or 60 semester hours of course: work in approved institutions and three years of suc cessful occupational experience appropriate for teach ing the subject or subjects named on the credential. Additional experience may be substituted for the college preparation at the rate of two years of success ful experience for each 3 0 semester hours of course work. (2) Four semester hours of course work appropriate for teaching the subject or subjects named on the credential two semester hours thereof being in a subject named on the credential and two semester hours in methods of teaching business education, or general secondary methods, or methods of teaching adults. 267 REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PART-TIME -CREDENTIAL ISSUED UPON PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS An associate degree from, or 60 semester hours of course work in, an approved institution, and three years of suc cessful occupational experience appropriate for teaching the subject or subjects named on the credential. Additional experience may be substituted for the college preparation on the basis of two years of successful experience for 3 0 semester hours of course work. The credential so issued is valid for two years and is not renewable. By completing course work under it.em (2) for the PART-TIME CREDENTIAL ISSUED FOR LIFE, application may be filed for that credential. AUTHORIZATION The full-time credential authorizes -teaching (including the evaluation of pupil occupational performance and the relating of such performance to classroom instruction) in secondary schools and in classes for adults (including, but not being limited to, classes reimbursed from vocational education funds) the subject or subjects in business educa tion designated on the credential. This credential is intended to permit a business specialist to teach a subject and is not intended to replace the standard teaching creden tial for the employment of full-time teachers of business education in the high school. The part-time credential authorizes such teaching in classes, for adults and in a junior college, limited, however, pursuant to Education Code Section 13l4l, to teaching under assignment. * Rev. 1-55 .5M M'-1073 /Z-12/ SUBCOMMITTEE ON SCHOOL PERSONNEL AND TEACHER QUALIFICATIONS (18) Assembly Interim Committee on Education Members Leo J. Ryan* Chairman E. Richard Barnes Willie L. Brown* Jr. Edward E. Elliott Charles B. Garrigus George W. Milias James E. Whetmore Gordon H. Winton* Jr.

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Creator Glasser, Helen (author)

Core Title An Analysis Of Differences Of Opinion Among Legislators, College Professors, And Business Teachers Regarding Business Teacher Preparation

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Teacher Training,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Kelly, Edward C. (committee chair), Hickerson, Nathaniel (committee member), Himstreet, William C. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-628127

Unique identifier UC11360974

Identifier 6817024.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-628127 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6817024.pdf

Dmrecord 628127

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Glasser, Helen

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA