University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Transfer And Retention Of Selected Balance Skills

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Transfer And Retention Of Selected Balance Skills

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Content T his d isserta tio n has been 64— 2599
m icrofilm ed exactly as received
PENMAN, Kenneth A lbert, 1931-
TRANSFER AND RETENTION OF SELECTED
BALANCE SKILLS.
U n iversity of Southern C alifornia, P h.D ., 1963
Education, physical
U niversity Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, M ichigan
TRANSFER AND RETENTION OF
SELECTED BALANCE SKILLS
By
Kenneth Albert Penman
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Physical Education)
June 1963
UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES 7. CALIFORNIA
This dissertation, written by
................. ile.nne.th. -AIb.e_rt. J?.enmarL.................
under the direction of his Dissertation C o m
mittee, and a p p ro v ed by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
fo r the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
D ate...... I un.e *.. .1 .9 .6 .3 .
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES....................................... iv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS................................ vi
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION.................................. 1
The Statement of the Problem
Importance of the Problem
Scope and Limitations of the Study
Procedure
Weaknesses of the Study
Definitions of Terms
Hypotheses and Assumptions
Organization of the Remaining Chapters
II. REVIEW OF RELATED INVESTIGATIONS............. 14
Investigations Related to Balance
Transfer of Training
Retention
III. THE BALANCE MECHANISM......................... 67
The Stretch Reflex
The Cerebrum
The Cerebellum
Vision
Voluntary Adjustment
The Bony Labyrinth
Strength
Endurance
Summary
ii
Chapter Page
IV. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE....................... 76
Subjects
Experimental Apparatus
Experimental Design
Summary
V. ANALYSIS OF THE D A T A ......................... 100
Improvement within Groups
Improvement between Groups
Training Results
Reliability of the Tests Used
Incidental Findings
Summary of the Findings
VI. DISCUSSION................................... 115
Motivation and Competition
Transfer
Retention
Low Wire Performance
Dynabalometer Performance
Incidental Findings
VII. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDA
TIONS ....................................... 129
Summary
Findings
Conclusions
Recommendat ions
BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................... 137
APPENDIX A. Test Scores.......................... 154
APPENDIX B. Directions to Subjects................ 193
APPENDIX C. Data Record Sheet.................... 200
APPENDIX D. The Bass Circle Test Pattern.......... 202
APPENDIX E. The Electric Metronome................ 204
• • •
nx
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Reliability Coefficients Reported on Tests of
Balance...................................... 25
2. Group Means on the Initial, Second, and Final
Balance Performance Tests and Percentages of
Transfer and Retention........................103
3. Differences between Means within Groups on the
Initial, Second, and Final Balance Perform
ance T e s t s .................................... 104
4. Differences in Mean Gains between Groups during
the Initial, Second, and Final Balance Per
formance T e s t s ................................ 106
5. Group Means for Practice Periods on the Low
Wire and the Dynabalometer................... 108
6. Initial Balance Performance Test Scores--Group
A ...............................................155
7. Second Balance Performance Test Scores--Group A 158
8. Final Balance Performance Test Scores--Group A 161
9. Initial Balance Performance Test Scores--Group
B ...............................................164
10. Second Balance Performance Test Scores--Group B 167
11. Final Balance Performance Test Scores--Group B 170
Table Page
12. Initial Balance Performance Test Scores--Group
C ..........................................173
13. Second Balance Performance Test Scores--Group C 176
14. Final Balance Performance Test Scores--Group C 179
15. Individual Mean Scores for Low Wire Practice
Periods--Group A ..... ................. 182
16. Individual Mean Scores for Low Wire Practice
Periods--Group B ......................... 185
17. Individual Total Scores for Dynabalometer
Practice Periods--Group A ................... 187
18. Individual Total Scores for Dynabalometer
Practice Periods--Group B ................... 189
19. Learning Scores for the Low Wire and Dynabal
ometer ........................................ 191
v
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. A Schematic Diagram of the Balance Mechanism . 72
2. The Low Wire................................. 82
3. The Dynabalometer........................... 84
4. Comparative Learning Curves for Groups A and B
on the Low W i r e ................. 109
5. Compai'ative learning curves for Groups A and B
on the Dynabalometer..........................110
6. The Bass Circle Test Pattern „ ...................203
7. The Electric Metronome..........................205
CHAPTER X
INTRODUCTION
Balance has been used as a general descriptive
term of a type of behavior observable in all animals for
centuries. Examination of the term balance reveals many
meanings and interpretations.
Though very few studies have been conducted that
are concerned with balance as a function of human perform
ance, many tests have been constructed to measure balance.
These tests can be classified into four categories as fol
lows: tests measuring dynamic balance, tests measuring
static balance, tests measuring rotational balance, and
tests measuring steadiness. Static balance and steadiness
are often used synonymously. Although there are several
types of balance tests and several tests of each type, the
exact nature of the term balance is still not clear.
Langley and Cheraskin (10) provide a biological explanation
of that which is involved in balance as follows:
2
Maintaining the body in a desired position or
action requires the coordination of the following
mechanisms: functional reflexes, an uninterrupted
flow of proprioceptive impulses to the cerebral
and cerebellar cortices, vision, voluntary adjust
ments, and impulses originating from the bony
labyrinth. (10:159)
Very little experimentation has been conducted
regarding the relationship of the various types of balance
as measured by overt behavior or by physiological and ana
tomical measures. Studies that have been completed relat
ing balance to human performance, however, indicate that
balance is an important factor in efficient motor perform
ance .
The occurrence whereby a learned balance skill is
transferred to another similar balance skill is a phenome
non that is easy to demonstrate. After one learns to ride
a bicycle he finds it quite easy to learn to ride a scoot
er. Learning balance stunts on the ground aids in the per
formance of these same stunts on the balance beam, et
cetera. It can be assumed, then, that balance skills may
be transferable. However, whether the specific learning
action of one balance activity facilitates the learning of
another balance activity apparently has not been determined
experimentally.
A closely related assumption implicit in the teach-
ing of gross motor skills is that students retain, at
least to some degree, previously learned skill. In pro
gressive (step by step) teaching it is assumed that previ
ous learning will facilitate the next phase of learning.
If, for example, a group of young adults wanted to learn
to ride a unicycle, the instructor probably would not
start with instruction on how to ride a tricycle and bicy
cle. Rather he would assume that these skills have been
retained regardless of how long ago they were last prac
ticed, and he hopes that this previous learning will aid in
developing the new skill.
It may be observed from the previous examples that
the distinction between transfer and retention is often
difficult to discern. It is not known whether a person
transfers identical elements from some recent activity to
another or whether memory traces from other past experi
ences aid performance. Neurologically, this problem may
never be solved. Psychologists, however, have distin
guished between the two terms mainly on the basis of the
time involved between the events.
Empirically, physical educators know that a person
who has learned to ride a bicycle or throw a ball may
attain his former degree of skill after a relearning
period which is very brief in comparison with the original
learning period. Also sometimes the latter performance
exceeds previous performance, even though a long interval
of time has lapsed between the tasks.
Although these terms, transfer and retention, are
not always clearly distinguishable, they are accepted
descriptive terms used in educational psychology to assist
in describing and understanding the learning process.
The Statement of the Problem
The problem of this study was to examine the trans
fer effect of learning teachable balance skills on the per
formance of another group of balance skills, and to deter
mine the amount of retention of this transfer, if any,
after an eight-week period of no specific practice on bal
ance activities.
Importance of the Problem
While balance seems to be an important factor in
efficient motor performance, very little scientific re
search has been directed toward investigating this observa
tion. If gross motor performance can be improved by im
proving the various components assumed to be involved in
it (eg., balance, strength), then as much information as
possible should be acquired to aid in the development of
these individual components.
Since studies about balance have been reported so
spasmodically and no one has ferreted out exactly what
balance is, whether or not it can be transferred to other
activities, how much of a learned balance skill can be
retained after long periods of no practice, et cetera, more
studies of this phenomenon are needed.
Scope and Limitations of the Study
One hundred and eighteen normal male college stu
dents served as subjects for this study. The subjects
were general college students who were enrolled in nine
classes offered by the physical education department at the
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.
The subjects were obtained from two Handball classes, two
Body Conditioning classes, and five Basic Skills classes,
which included body conditioning and handball.
The subjects who participated in the study for one
'I
semester were male students who were participating concur
rently in developing the body, particularly the lower ex
tremities. It was possible, therefore, that some transfer
of strength as well as transfer of balance might have
resulted because of the nature of the physical activity the
subjects were exposed to in their physical education
classes. However, it was assumed that the use of a control
group negated this criticism.
Theoretically this group of 136 men was an inci
dental sample, since they were the most readily available
group; therefore, any predictions made from the data should
be directed toward similar groups.
Procedure
One hundred and thirty-six subjects were given a
balance test consisting of three items. Based on the
results of this initial test, the total group was divided
into three equated groups. Two of these were designated
as experimental groups. These groups learned to perform
two different balance skills over a two-week period, those
of walking on a low wire and performing on a dynabalometer.
The third group acted as the control group; its members did
not participate in any specific balance type activity dur
ing the two-week period. At the conclusion of the learning
period all of the subjects were retested on the original
balance tests.
All of the subjects were asked not to participate
in specific balance-type activities for eight weeks follow
ing Test Two. At the end of this period all of the sub
jects were retested on the original balance tests. One
hundred and eighteen subjects completed the experiment.
Class changes, drop outs, and a few minor injuries caused
a reduction of the original number of 136 to 118, a 12 per
cent loss.
The t-test for significance was used to determine
the differences among: (1) initial test means between the
groups; (2) second test means between the groups; (3) final
test means between the groups; and (4) mean gains within
the groups. Comparative amounts of learning for the two
experimental groups was determined by the Per Cent Gain of
Possible Gain Method.
Weaknesses of the Study
The following weaknesses were apparent and the
degree to which they affected the study could not be deter
mined. When the subjects were tested on the three balance
tests, the investigator recorded the scores as the tests
were administered; however, during the two-week learning
period, each of the eighty subjects had 120 trials, making
it impossible for the investigator to record the data.
Therefore, the subjects recorded their own scores.
Because of the large number of subjects and the
limited number that the learning devices could accommodate,
scheduling was a problem, and it was necessary for some of
the subjects to have their learning periods following
their physical education class. Some of these subjects
felt that their learning was inhibited because of this
fact.
At the conclusion of the semester when the 136 sub
jects were retested in order to measure retention, it be
came rather difficult to contact each subject, and as a
result, the last test (which was to measure retention after
an eight-week period) was spread over a two-week period.
However, the majority of the subjects were tested within a
three-day period.
Definitions of Terms
For the purposes of this study, the terminology
used herein should be interpreted on the basis of the fol
lowing definitions.
Balance.---The ability of the human body to adjust
itself efficiently to external forces in order to maintain
a desired position or action is called balance.
Transfer.--Transfer is implied when training in
one situation or one form of activity affects the ability
to perform in other types of activity or in different situ
ations .
Retention.--Retention is the ability to remember
how to perform learned physical skills effectively.
Reminiscence.--An increment in performance of a
partially learned act which cannot be attributed to prac
tice of that skill is known as reminiscence.
Balance mechanism.--The balance mechanism consists
of the directly related organs and systems that contribute
to the ability to perform well on tests of balance.
Dynamic balance.--Dynamic balance is the ability of
the human body to adjust itself efficiently to external
forces while participating in a desired action.
Static balance.--Static balance is the ability of
the human body to adjust itself efficiently to external
forces while maintaining a desired position.
Rotational balance.— Rotational balance is the
ability of the human body to recover equilibrium after
10
being spun in a rotary chair.
Steadiness.--Steadiness is a type of static balance
in which there is minimal movement of parts of the body.
Initial balance performance test score.--The com
bined scores of the Bass circle test and two Bass stick
tests administered to all the subjects initially (referred
to as Test One in the tables) is the initial balance per
formance test score.
Second balance performance test score.--The com
bined scores of the Bass circle test and two Bass stick
tests administered to all the subjects after the two weeks
learning period for the experimental groups (used to de
termine transfer and referred to as Test Two in the tables)
is the second balance performance test score.
Final balance performance test scores.--The com
bined scores of the Bass circle test and two Bass stick
tests administered eight weeks after the second balance
performance test (used to determine retention and referred
to as Test Three in the tables) is the final balance per
formance test score.
11
Percentage of gain during training score.— Per
cent gain of possible gain method (sum of all trials minus
the first trial divided by the highest possible score on
all trials minus the first trial) is the percentage of
gain.
Percentage of transfer. Percentage of transfer is
the percentage increase of the experimental group(s) Test
One and Test Two, minus the percentage increase of the
control group, Test One and Test Two.
Percentage of retention.--Percentage of retention
is the percentage increase of the experimental group(s)
Test One and Test Three minus the percentage increase of
the control group, Test One and Test Three.
Nystagmus.--Nystagmus is the rhythmic oscillation
of the eyeballs as a result of disequilibrium.
Hypotheses and Assumptions
The following hypotheses and assumptions were
established prior to experimentation.
Hypotheses
1. A positive transfer in all three groups (two
experimental and one control) will occur, and
the transfer obtained in the experimental
groups will exceed the transfer of the control
group.
The retention found in the experimental groups
will exceed the retention found in the control
group because of overlearning by the experi
mental groups.
None of the subjects had previous recent exper
ience specifically related to the tasks in
volved in the study.
All of the subjects were past the adolescent
growth spurt.
There were no external physical environmental
distractions such as noise, poor light, extreme
temperatures, et cetera.
All of the subjects were generally healthy and
free from physical handicaps since they had
been given a physical examination prior to
being admitted to their activity classes.
The incidental sample of subjects closely
13
approximates a true random sample of American
college men.
Organization of the Remaining Chapters
Chapter II contains a review of related investiga
tions which are pertinent to a study of balance, transfer,
and retention of gross motor skills.
A discussion of the term balance, including overt
measures, physiological and anatomical relationships is
presented in Chapter III.
A description of the experimental procedure, in
cluding an explanation of the selection and grouping of
subjects, discussion and illustration of the apparatus
used, testing and training methods, and how the data were
treated is presented in Chapter IV.
Chapter V, the analysis of the data, includes test
results of the initial, second, and final balance perform
ance tests, learning curves, and scores for the training
period, and reliability measures.
Presented in Chapter VI is a discussion of the
results with interpretations of the findings.
The summary, conclusions, and recommendations which
were drawn from this study may be found in Chapter VII.
CHAPTER IX
REVIEW OF RELATED INVESTIGATIONS
A review of selected literature deemed pertinent
to the present study is presented in this chapter; the
review is summarized in three parts: (1) a review of inves
tigations related to balance, (2) a review of related
investigations pertaining to transfer of motor skills, and
(3) a review of related investigations pertaining to the
retention of motor skills.
Investigations Related to Balance
Balance has been a concern of man for countless
centuries. There is an almost instinctive urge during
childhood toward the development of this ability in coor-
dinative movements. Everyone has noted the apparent chal
lenge to children existing in such things as rails, logs,
curbing, and stepping stones. Although man has observed
this phenomenon for centuries, only within the last seventy
14
15
years has balance been investigated as an area of motor
performance and have formal experiments been conducted to
expand knowledge of this phenomenon.
In the process of investigating balance, it was
found that studies have been conducted on three basic types
of balance apparatus, namely, those purported to measure
dynamic, static, and rotational balance. A discussion of
these types is presented here briefly and a detailed
description is given later in this chapter.
The balance beam, the balance platform, and circle
hopping tests have been used to measure dynamic balance
(25; 26; 27; 28; 31; 41; 55; 60; 66; 98; 102; 104; and
133). Several types of balance beams have been employed,
each with unique dimensions and scoring procedures; how
ever, they all require the subject to walk on a beam over a
specified distance and in a specified manner. The balance
platforms also vary in their details. Each, however, con
sists of a platform that is basically unstable, and the
subject attempts to maintain the platform in as stable a
position as possible. The circle tests involve hopping on
one foot at a time through a prescribed pattern of circles.
Tests used to measure static balance usually are
conducted on the ataxiaraeter which, in various forms,
16
measures gross body steadiness (28; 31; 32; 52; 53; 67; 99;
113; 121; and 133).
A rotating chair is used to measure rotational
balance. After being spun in a chair with the head in
varying specified positions, so that the functions of all
three semicircular canals can be measured, the subject is
tested for horizontal nystagmus, past pointing, and vari
ous forms of vertigo (43; 61; 72; and 133).
Specificity of balance performance
A discussion of whether or not a distinction be
tween fine motor skills and gross motor skills exists is
beyond the scope of this investigation; however, in one
study specific mention of a particular type of skill was
discussed. Seashore (99), in his original study on speci
ficity, concluded that there is no interrelatedness of fine
and gross motor abilities. He pointed out, however, that
his data also showed that there is little interrelatedness
between the so-called fine motor skills. Seashore used
the Miles ataxiameter for measuring steadiness of fine
motor performance in his battery of tests; it has been
noted previously that this device customarily is employed
to obtain a measure of gross motor steadiness. Seashore
17
claimed that "This test of postural steadiness is classed
as a measure of fine motor coordination because it involves
control of minimum contractions and depends so slightly
upon strength or speed of large-muscle contraction"
(99:260).
An abundance of studies indicates that learning
motor skills is very specific (8; 26; 69; 94; and 99).
However, apparently only one study specifically designed to
determine the generality or specificity of balance ability
has been conducted. Bachman (26) conducted an experiment
involving 320 subjects who learned to perform on a stable-
ometer and to climb a free-standing ladder. He found that
learning involving balance activities was remarkably task
specific. Birren (31) correlated post rotational nystagmus
time (rotational balance) with body sway. He reported,
"None of the correlation coefficients obtained between
body-sway measurements, eyes open or closed, and nystagmus
time were significantly greater than zero"(31:132). Travis
(105) correlated results of dynamic and rotational balance
tests conducted on the stableometer and the rotary chair
and found no significant correlation between the two. In
the study by Seashore (99) a correlation of -.09 was found
between performance on the ataxiaraeter and the balance
18
platform. Fisher (55) correlated results of performance
on the balance beam with performance on the ataxiameter.
He also found that the correlation was near zero (55:328).
Penman (133) , conducted a study involving intercor-
relations among all three types of balance tests. One
steadiness test, four dynamic balance tests, and one rota
tional test were used. The correlations between the re
sults of the steadiness test and dynamic balance tests were
.03, -.05, .06, and -.03. Intercorrelations among the
various dynamic tests were somewhat higher although not
significantly higher than chance. The four dynamic tests
used were the Bass circle test, a balance beam, climbing a
free-standing ladder, and performing on a dynabalometer.
Performance on the balance beam correlated .41, .15, and
.13 with the Bass circle test, ladder test, and dynabal
ometer respectively. The Bass circle test correlated .15
and .25 with the ladder test and the dynabalometer respec
tively. The correlation between the ladder test and the
dynabalometer was .44 (133:38).
In addition to finding correlations among tests of
balance, Penman converted the scores obtained in each test
to standard "T" scores and then totaled the "T" scores to
form a "balance complex" score. Correlations were then
determined between individual tests and the "balance com
plex" score. The steadiness test correlated .51 with the
"balance complex" score, and a correlation of .65 was found
between the "balance complex" score and the rotary chair
test. Correlations of .90, .81, .91, and .87 were obtained
between the "balance complex" score and the circle test,
balance rail, ladder test, and dynabalometer respectively.
A conclusion was reached that "Although individual test
intereorrelations are specific, it seems that some subjects
possess a greater number of specifics than others" (133:59).
Learning factors and balance
There are numerous factors such as motivation and
motor educability that are related to learning motor skills.
Only a review of those factors which, according to the
literature, are related specifically to balance are pre
sented here.
Competition and varying degrees of motivation were
noted in studies by Cron and Pronko (41), and Beebe (28).
Cron and Pronko tested 501 children on school playgrounds.
They used the balance beam to measure balance ability. The
tests were conducted on playgrounds where there were many
observers. The investigators felt that by having the
20
subjects watch each other they would have a greater sense
of competition. They noted, however, that this idea
reversed itself with adolescent girls. They found that
when the older girls were tested while others were watch
ing, their performance decreased. The investigators
attributed this to the fact that the girls were beginning
to feel that excelling in a physical skill was not "lady-
like, , (41:34-37). Beebe (28) found it very difficult to
maintain motivation with the younger children she tested.
Her subjects ranged in age from 4 to 23 years. She felt
that there was a need for an easier balance test for small
children that would maintain their interest; therefore, it
was reasoned, more success could be realized in prolonged
experiments (28:226).
Kingsley (8) listed three factors as necessary for
motivation during motor learning tasks. The three factors
are:
1. Reinforcement of the learning of a motor
skill will facilitate learning whether the
reinforcement is in the form of reward or
punishment, although emphasis on right response
is more effective.
2. As a general rule, motivation is greater at
the beginning of a practice period than during
the latter part of the practice period.
3. An important motivating factor for the direc
tion of the learning activity (practice) is
knowledge of results. (8:327)
21
Perhaps when conducting experiments with young children
some type of pertinent reward should be provided for suc
cessful performance.
Closely related to motivation and competition in
motor performance is the measurable phenomenon of arousal,
Ryan (98) compared dynamic balance on the stableometer with
galvanic skin response, which gives an indication of stress.
Forty male college students were given twelve trials on the
stableometer. Galvanic skin response for each subject was
measured before and after each trial. Ryan concluded that
a measurable quantity of arousal precedes performance
(98:287).
Motor educability is a term which has been used to
describe how well a subject can learn motor tasks. Accord
ing to evaluation in the field of physical education, the
possession of "good balance" and the ability to learn bal
ance skills quickly determines to a great extent general
motor educability. Probably the most familiar motor edu
cability test was designed by Brace and modified subse
quently at Iowa University. This Iowa Brace test of motor
educability, according to analyzations by McCloy (83),
consists of many balance type stunts. The total test con
sists of twenty-one stunts; a loss of balance on any one
22
of sixteen constitutes failure on that stunt. Another test
of motor educability, that of Johnson and its revision,
known as the Metheny-Johnson, involves all three types of
balance.
Only one investigator has reported a relationship
between balance ability and a measurable quantity of
"intelligence." Seashore (83) tested thirty-nine adults,
aged nineteen and above, on a balance beam. Their intel
ligence quotients were correlated with the scores obtained
on the balance test. The coefficient of correlation was
only .04 (83:253).
Another possible pertinent factor in learning bal
ance skills is rate of learning. There seem to be several
characteristics of general motor skill learning curves.
Initially, the curves are negatively accelerated; that is,
skill increases rapidly at the beginning of the practice,
but as a higher degree of skill is reached progress is
retarded. Learning curves of individuals are erratic from
day to day because of varying degrees of attention, chance,
expectancy, insight, emotional disturbance, fatigue, et
cetera. Curves of learning for motor skills often tend to
reach a plateau; that is, they tend to show no increase in
performance for several days, and then increase again
23
occurs (6; 8; and 19).
Bachman (25) conducted a study involving 320 sub
jects ranging in ages from six to twenty-six. The curves
obtained in this study were negatively accelerated, and
there was no difference in rate of improvement between men
and women. Fisher (55) also found that performance scores
on the rail walking test followed the normal curve for
learning motor skills (55:322). Fearing (53) discussed
the learning rate of static balance as follows:
Station, like all types of neuromuscular per
formances, is subject to improvement with training,
but the improvement is less than for certain other
types of motor activities. Improvement in sway is
accompanied by no conscious "plan" or choice of
method, but is relatively independent of voluntary
control. (53:181)
Reliability of balance tests
Most reliability figures for balance tests seem to
fall between .45 and .95 (27; 52; 55; 86; and 99). The
methods used to obtain the reliability figures are as vari
able as the reliability figures themselves. A few of the
methods follow:
1. Balance test scores compared with subjective
ratings of "experts."
2. Initial scores correlated with final scores.
24
3. Correlation of trials 2 and 3 with the elimin
ation of trial 1 because of the assumption
that it is a practice trial.
4. Finding initial reliability by correlating
early trials and final reliability by correlat
ing latter trials.
5. Correlating specified odd trials with even
trials.
A summary of reliability coefficients that have been re
ported on tests of balance may be seen in Table 1, page
25. Methods used to obtain the reliability coefficient
are not always reported in the literature and therefore are
not included in Table 1.
Tests of dynamic balance
Dynamic balance tests can be classified into three
distinct types: (1) balance beams, (2) balance platforms,
and (3) circle hopping tests. The balance beam tests
(31; 41; 55; 60; 66; 99; and 133), sometimes called rail
walking tests, are all essentially the same. The width of
the walking surface, the length of the beam, the height of
the beam, the position of the arms, and the method of scor
ing varies from test to test. Norms have not been estab-
25
TABLE 1
RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS REPORTED ON TESTS OF BALANCE
Investigator
Where
Reported
Apparatus
Type of
Balance
Reliability
Mumby (86) Stableometer Dynamic .75
Estep (52) Ataxiameter Static .92
Seashore (99) Ataxiameter Static .83
Seashore (99) Balance beam Dynamic .91
Fisher (55)
Ataxiameter Static .89
Fisher
(55)
Balance beam Dynamic .77
Bass
(27)
Circle test Dynamic .95
Bass (27) Stick test Static .82
Alden (27) Balance beam Dynamic .45
Graybeal (27) Balance beam Dynamic .52
Collins (27) Balance beam Dynamic .70
Trial
Travis (104) Balance
platform
Dynamic .86
.85
.80
1 & 2
1 & 3
2 & 3
Note: This table should be read as follows:
Mumby reported a reliability coefficient for the stable
ometer, which measures dynamic balance, of .75.
26
lished for any of these tests; however, Heath (66) has
established limited standards for Army personnel.
Cron and Pronko (41) conducted an experiment on the
balance beam involving 501 children ranging in age from
four to fifteen. Determination of the rate of improvement
in relation to growth and sex differences was the object of
this investigation. Fisher (55) measured learning rate on
the balance beam and found that the data followed the nor
mal curve for learning motor skills (55:322). As previous
ly noted, Seashore (99) used the balance beam as one factor
in the investigation of specificity of motor skills.
Birren (31) and Graham (60) used the balance beam to meas
ure performance of subjects with physical defects. On the
basis of the results of the study conducted by Graham (60)
determination was made of which type of artificial leg
would provide the best balance.
Balance platforms vary in their dimensions; how
ever, most of them involve essentially the same motion.
The platform is the surface on which the subject mounts.
This platform is generally pivoted on the axis, and the
subject attempts to prevent the platform from tilting.
This allows measurement in one direction at a time, usually
lateral. If it is desirable to measure anterior-posterior
27
balance ability, the subject turns his body 90° on the
platform (25; 26; 28; 98; 99; 102; 104; and 112). The com
plexity of the balance platform ranges from the simple
teeter board to the complex, electrically-connected balance
board developed by Renolds and reported by Slater-Hammel
( 102)
Beebe (28) conducted a study on growth and health
as it relates to balance on a platform which had a kymo
graph attachment. Exact amounts of deviation could be
measured during the trials. Ryan (98) tested forty male
subjects on the stableometer and related their performance
to the galvanic skin responses. Bachman (25; 26) also
used the stableometer in his studies of balance. Penman
(133) developed a triaxial unstable platform called a dyna
balometer, which is a platform supported by a ball and
socket joint. Lateral, anterior-posterior, circular, and
any combination thereof are the motions that are recorded
on an electrical meter. This balance platform was used in
the current investigation.
The circle hopping test of dynamic balance as de
signed by Bass (27) has been used by several investigators
(133; 27; and 86). The reliability of .95 and the valida
tion originally reported by Bass have been substantiated by
28
Penman (133). The test consists of hopping on alternate
feet through a prescribed pattern of circles. This test
was also used in the present investigation.
Tests of static balance
There are several pieces of apparatus used to
measure static balance. Miles (85) developed the ataxi
ameter which measures lateral and anterior-posterior body
sway. Kelso and Hellebrant (74) developed a type of
ataxiameter, called the Kelso-Hellebrant oscillograph,
that measures anterior-posterior sway only. This ataxi
ameter is attached to a kymograph so that the sway may be
recorded directly on a graph. Probably the original idea
for the construction of the oscillographs and ataxiameter
began with Hinsdale (70) in 1887. He described his appar
atus as follows:
Sway was recorded by means of a silk thread
passing through a fillet attached at the forehead
and passing over a pulley. This end was attached
to a rod moving vertically and carrying an index.
This index marked a smoked paper attached to a
drum which revolved laterally by means of clockwork.
A downward movement of the index and a fall of the
line scratched on the smoked paper, indicated a
foreward movement of the head; and an upward line
recorded the backward movement. A silk thread was
attached to the side of the head and was carried
at right angles to the backward and foreward line.
This recorded lateral movement. (70:478)
29
The Miles ataxiameter (85) has been used most fre
quently in static balance studies (31; 32; 48; 52; 53; and
99). It consists of a light frame approximately four feet
square that is suspended from the ceiling. At each corner
of the square there is a pulley. Each pulley has a string
attached at one end to a head harness and the opposite end
to an accumulative meter. As the subject sways, regardless
of direction, the total movement is recorded.
The Kelso-Hellebrant oscillograph is also frequent
ly used and often is called an ataxiagraph (113; 121; and
133). This apparatus is very similar to Hinsdale's except
that the subject generally wears some type of helmet. The
strings are attached to this helmet rather than to the
subject's skin. Often this apparatus is set up to measure
sway in one direction only.
Bass (27) did considerable experimentation in es
tablishing a reliable balance test called the stick test.
The original test consisted of 12 items. The sticks were
one inch by one inch by twelve inches long. The subject
was tested in the following positions: standing straight,
eyes open; straight standing, eyes closed; bent standing
(eyes even with hips), eyes open; bent standing, eyes
closed. While in these positions the subject was directed
30
to maintain balance up to sixty seconds if-possible. Bal
ance in each of these four situations was tested while the
subject was standing crosswise on the stick, standing on
the floor, and standing lengthwise on the stick.
Tests of rotational balance
The rotating chair is used to measure rotational
balance. Commercially built chairs with special gear boxes
to regulate speed and acceleration are available (72:570).
Investigators (7; 43; 61; 72; and 133) have studied the
effects of rapid or constant rotation and several phenomena
consistently appear. Nystagmus, past pointing at a target
after being spun, and various types of vertigo are findings
that are consistent in rotational balance tests.
Balance studies related to athletic
performance
Gross (62) conducted a study to determine whether
ability in dynamic balance is related to speed and to
ability in swimming. Seventy-eight advanced swimmers were
given the Bass circle test (27). The swimming ability of
the subjects was rated by several instructors. Then the
subjects were timed on three separate occasions on a 30-
yard sprint. These two scores, one subjective and one
31
objective, were correlated with the subject's ability on
the Bass dynamic balance test. A correlation of .65 was
found between swimming ability and performance on the Bass
dynamic balance test. A. correlation of -.75 was obtained
between speed in swimming and the Bass test; that is, the
better the balance score the lower the time for the sprints
(62:343).
Mumby (86), as a result of studying dynamic bal
ance ability in relation to wrestling ability, states that
" . . . good wrestlers are somewhat better performers at
balance activity and at learning balance skills than poorer
wrestlers" (86:332). Mumby, with the help of two assistant
coaches, subjectively rated twenty-one students on their
wrestling ability. The subjects were then tested on a
modified stableometer. The stableometer was modified so
that the task was easier and the subjects could be meas
ured while supported on their hands and knees. The good
wrestlers received a mean score of 71.2, and the poor
wrestlers received a mean score of 58.9. This difference
in means was significant at the 5 per cent level of confi
dence .
Robichaux (134) investigated performances on five
unfamiliar gross motor activities; these were compared with
32
performance on familiar activities such as volleyball, et
cetera. She found that the highly-skilled group in known
skills also scored highest on the unfamiliar skills. One
of the five unfamiliar skills was maintaining balance on
the bongo board (a balance platform). From the very begin
ning of the investigation, the previously selected general
highly-skilled group scored highest on the balance test.
Crutcher (121) determined the static balance
ability of sprinters. His control and experimental groups
each consisted of twenty-nine subjects. The experimental
group was made up of members of the junior high school
track team, and students from regular physical education
classes comprised the control group. He found that ath
letes were significantly superior to non-athletes in static
balance performance at the 5 per cent level of confidence.
He also found that the balance ability of athletes is less
affected by running one hundred yards than that of non
athletes (121:57).
White (113) made a study of ninety-nine high school
boys and divided them into three groups: athletes, non
athletes, and students who were medically excused from
physical education. The ataxiameter was used to measure
their static balance ability. His findings are paraphrased
33
as follows: Athletic training did not seem to improve
balance and non-athletes seemed to have poorer postural
integrity than the athletic group. The medically-excused
group scored lower than the athletic group; however, lit
tle difference could be noted between the non-athletes and
the medically-excused group (113:100).
Breitenbach (120) correlated dynamic balance, as
measured on the bongo board, with athlete and nQn-athlete
groups and found correlations of .15 and .40, respective
ly. Athletes were classified as anyone on, or who had
been on, an athletic team during his four years in high
school. Winning a letter was not a prerequisite to being
tested with the athlete group.
Penman (133) compared the dynamic balance perform
ance, as measured by the dynabalometer, of the University
of Southern California gymnastics team (1961-62) and a ran
dom sample of college men. Only two subjects in the gym
nastic group scored lower than the best performer in the
random sample group. It was noted that the relative scores
acquired by the gymnastic team correlated perfectly with
their national and team rankings as gymnasts.
Estep (52) compared static balance with gross
motor ability of women, using the Miles ataxiameter as the
34
measure of balance. One hundred girls were rated subjec
tively by judges and objectively by performance in a vari
ety of sports skills. The thirty-three highest scoring
subjects were classified as high in motor ability and the
thirty-four lowest scoring subjects were considered to be
low in motor ability. The high motor ability group had
better static balance, and the difference in ability was
significant beyond the 5 per cent level of confidence
(52:13).
Seashore (99) mentioned a study completed by Adrian
where there was no difference in postural sway of known
athletes and non-athletes (99:264). He also mentioned a
study by Wollenberger which was conducted to determine if
a difference existed between athletes and physical educa
tion major students in various types of balance. Compari
sons on the ataxiagram, balance beam, and balance platform
resulted in t-test figures of .63, 3.02, and 1.19, respec
tively (99:266). In another study comparable to the one
completed by Wollenberger, similar results were obtained.
Slater-Haramel (102) used the Renolds balance platform to
measure the balance ability of sixty-three male college
students. Twenty-one were varsity athletes, twenty-one
were physical education majors, and twenty-one were
35
enrolled in the school of liberal arts. Their respective
mean scores on the balance test were 56.81, 66.82, and
75.97. A low score was better since the unit of measure
ment was time to complete a sequence. All differences
were significant beyond the 5 per cent level of confidence
(102:350).
In a study reported by Espenschade, et al. (51),
physical education teachers singled out the best ten ath
letes in their classes and the ten poorest athletes. These
students were then given a balance beam test. The better
athletes’ mean score was 56.7, and the poorer students
received a mean score of 49.1. This mean difference was
significant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. In the
same study the grades of 278 physical education students
and their scores on balance, measured on the balance beam,
were obtained. The correlation coefficient between the two
was .62 (51:274).
It has often been thought that dancers and ice
skaters "spot" when engaging in a pirouette. Tschiassny
(108) found this to be true with dancers but found normal
post rotatory nystagmus and past pointing. McCabe (82),
however, found the opposite to be true for ice skaters.
His results were as follows:
36
After each spin, the subject was able to stop
suddenly, holding a graceful pose for as long as
required. Post rotational nystagmus was absent.
This applied whether the horizontal or vertical
canals were stimulated. This was borne out more
clearly in the Barany spins, where closer scrutiny
was possible. Slow-motion photography provided
the examiner five seconds to examine one rotation.
The head turned with the body at all times, the
eyes were half closed, with the gaze slightly upward.
No attempt to spot with the head or fractionally
with the eyes was detectible. Visual fixations
of any kind were absent; instead, wandering, auto
genous eye movements were at times present. Sub
jects were able to tape-walk after a Barany spin
equally well whether blindfolded or not. Nystagmus
was absent. Perhaps the most surprising effect of
all was the response to the caloric test using 20
cc. of ice water. Neither vertigo nor nystagmus could
be elicited by stimulation of the vertical or hori
zontal canals. (82:267)
On the basis of this experiment, McCabe hypothesized that
it is possible to attain’ complete vestibular suppression
by physiological means. The results that McCabe found were
substantiated by Dodge (43) and Griffith (61). Griffith
found that daily practice on the rotary chair reduces the
duration of the after-nystagmus, the number, duration, and
amplitude of the ocular movements, and the past pointing.
He concludes that:
In general, we have found the organic effects
of rotation to be highly variable in their appear
ance and, moreover, so amenable to practice that
they may entirely disappear within a relatively
short time, provided rotation is repeated from day
to day. (61:46)
37
Not specifically related to athletic performance
but interesting to note is the relationship of the phenom
enon to outer space exploration. On a Columbia Broadcast
ing System television news conference (140) astronaut John
Glenn and Russian cosmonaut Titov were discussing their
relative vestibular disturbances. Titov noticed a slight
vestibular disturbance when moving about freely in a weight
less condition in the cabin of the space ship on orbits
six and seven. Glenn did not report any disorientation in
the four-and-one-half-hour flight in weightlessness; how
ever, he was not involved in free gross movements. Ac
cording to the findings of Dodge (43), Griffith (61), and
McCabe (82) adaptation of the vestibular changes in outer
space will be a minor problem.
Balance and vision
If one closes his eyes and tries to perform a task,
he readily realizes the relationship between vision and
balance. Lowman calls the eye an organ of balance (11:4).
Beebe in her comprehensive study of balance claims that
. experimental control of lighting seems fruitful"
(28:227). In studying vision in relation to static and
dynamic balance, Travis (105) concluded that "Both static
38
and dynamic balance are aided greatly when visual cues are
present; the finer the visual points of reference the bet
ter the performance" (105:233). This observation has been
made by many investigators (17; 28; 48; 105; and 112).
In a study completed by Warpner and Witkin (112)
maintenance of balance on an unstable platform was deter
mined under four different visual situations: (1) a full
visual field that was highly structured, (2) a limited
visual field in which the field was of limited structure,
(3) no visual field where the subjects were blindfolded,
and (4) an unstable or moving field of vision. The inves
tigators found that as the field of vision weakened, balance
ability became progressively worse (112:408).
An extremely thorough and comprehensive study of
the effects of varying degrees of light on the ability to
balance was done by Edwards (48). Edwards administered
static balance tests which lasted one minute to each of his
subjects. Critical ratios were used to determine the sig
nificance of the differences and his results are as fol
lows. Subjects who were congenitally blind were tested
with their eyes open and with their eyes closed; no differ
ence was found in their performances. Normal subjects
with eyes open were then compared with normal subjects with
39
their eyes blindfolded and a significant difference
resulted. Edwards then compared two blind subjects with
five normal subjects and found a highly significant differ
ence in favor of the blind. The remaining portions of the
experiment consisted of testing subjects with normal sight
under varying degrees of light. All of the following con
ditions resulted in a statistically significant difference
in performance: daylight with the eyes open opposed to the
eyes closed, daylight with the eyes open opposed to one
candle power of light with the eyes open, daylight with the
eyes open opposed to complete darkness with the eyes open,
and one candle power of light with the eyes open opposed
to complete darkness with the eyes open (48:20).
In the same study Edwards measured the amount of
sway encountered when visual fixation varied. He found
that there was no statistically significant difference in
sway when the subjects fixed their eyes on a near object or
on a distant object (48:21)
Maxwell found in experimenting with dogs that
". . . removal of one labyrinth or loss of nerve VIII on
one side causes many disturbances immediately; however,
after a few months there are hardly any noticeable effects"
(14:33). He also found that removal of both semicircular
40
canals caused inability to function for a while; then com
pensation occurred and normality reappeared. However, if
the animal was blindfolded, he was completely lost (14:33).
Birren, however, did not find this much compensation in
the human subject he tested who was deaf as a result of
meningitis. Static equilibrium was greatly restored, but
dynamic balance remained critically retarded (31:132).
Physical characteristics and
balance
Several studies have been conducted in which either
the main or an incidental purpose was to determine the
influence of various physical factors on the ability to
balance. These factors included sex, age, height, weight,
center of gravity, and physical health.
It has been assumed empirically that women have
better balance than men because of their lower center of
gravity. The results of studies designed to investigate
this subject show conflicting results. The results of
three studies (53; 104; and 105) indicate a slight advan
tage in balance ability for women; in one study an advan
tage for men was found (112); in three others (25; 26; and
28) no difference was discovered; one investigator (41)
found that the ability to balance in'both sexes is related
to the growth process.
Fearing (53), conducting an investigation with the
Miles ataxiameter, found that "Men sway somewhat more than
women and have a greater dispersion from the mean"
(53:118). Travis conducted two studies (104; 105), one
using the rotary chair and the stableometer, and the other
using only the stableometer. He found no difference in
results for different sex as measured by the rotary chair;
however, a small sex difference in favor of the women was
indicated on the stableometer (105:233). In an earlier
study by Travis in which the stableometer was used, a sex
difference was indicated favoring the women by 9 per cent
(104:423).
The only study in which the results indicated that
men have better balance was completed by Wapner and Witkin
(112). Women were much poorer in maintaining balance on an
unstable platform than men when the field of vision was
unstable; that is, when the field of vision was moving.
Two studies reported by Bachman (25; 26), involv
ing 320 subjects, indicate that there is no difference in
balance ability between men and women between the ages of
six and twenty-six. Similar results were found by Beebe.
She found no sex differences in balance ability between the
42
ages of four and twenty-three (28:225).
Cron and Pronko (41) tested 501 children between
the ages of four and fifteen. Three hundred and twenty-two
were male. The subjects were tested on the balance beam.
Girls between the ages of four and eight averaged slightly
better than boys. Between the ages of eight and fifteen
the boys averaged slightly better than the girls (41:34).
These fluctuations correspond with the sex differences
found in the normal growth of pubescent children.
The differences in balance ability with regard to
sex and age are closely associated. Espenshade, et al.,
claim that "A decrease in rate of growth in the ability to
balance should occur at adolescence" (51:273). However, in
a previous study by Espenshade (50) little change in bal
ance ability was noticeable in girls between the ages of
11.3 and 16.3. However, "All tests for boys in which
dynamic balance is a factor show a marked ’adolescent lag'"
(50:42). Bachman (25) found for both sexes between twelve
and seventeen a significant upward trend in the amount of
learning of balance skills; this was followed by a decline
to age nineteen, and after that age no systematic change
was found (25:136). White noticed a decrease in body sway
up to the age of fifteen; however, the difference was not
43
statistically significant (113:100). Avery slight increase
in performance on the balance platform was also noticed by
Beebe. She noted a ", . . slight irregular increase of
skill in balance, with perhaps a more rapid rise from six
to eight years" (28:225).
A very comprehensive study relating age, height,
and weight to balance ability on the balance beam was con
ducted by Seashore (100). Seashore tested 100 adults, 240
children aged five to twelve, and 180 adolescents ranging
in age from thirteen to eighteen. Correlation coefficients
between the various age groups and balance ability were
.30, .34, and .47 respectively.
Espenshade stated that "Dynamic balance is not
related to height or weight" (51:275). Her hypothesis is
supported not only for dynamic balance, but also for rotary
and static balance (53; 100; 105; and 133). Travis, test
ing subjects on the stableometer and the rotary chair,
found a negative relationship between height, weight, and
balance, respectively (-.75 with height and -.65 with
weight). The rotary chair scores correlated -.06 with
height and -.09 with weight (105; 233). The dynamic bal
ance experiment completed by Seashore (100), using the
balance beam to test adults, children, and adolescents,
resulted in similar findings. In the adult group balance
scores correlated only .22 with height and .01 with weight.
In the children's group balance scores correlated .15 with
height and .20 with weight. More significant relationships
were noted in the adolescent group, balance scores corre
lating .61 with height and .59 with weight (100:253). This
latter finding and that of Bachman (25), which indicated
that learning seems to spurt between the ages of twelve and
seventeen, seem to indicate that man's ability to balance
and learn to balance may be most efficient between the ages
of fifteen and eighteen.
Fearing (53), testing subjects on the Miles ataxi-
ameter, found that static balance scores correlated
between .10 and .19, depending on the various foot posi
tions assumed in the tests, with height. Static balance
scores correlated between .15 and .22, depending on the
various foot positions which were included in the tests,
with weight (53:106).
Penman (133) correlated height and weight with
balance complex scores. The balance complex score was
determined by summing the standard scores for six different
tests of balance, involving static, dynamic, and rotary
types. Sixty-three college male subjects were involved in
45
the study. Balance complex scores correlated .01 with
height and -.15 with weight.
The relationship of the center of gravity of the
body to the ground is a critical element in any type of
human performance (1). Morehouse and Cooper (17) illus
trated how this principle can apply to a balance skill
with the following example:
A tightrope walker uses a limber pole weighted
at both ends to lower his center of gravity. If
the pole is held low and the pole weights sag to
foot level, the center of gravity of man and pole
are lowered considerably. If the tightrope walker
carries another acrobat on his shoulders, the
center of gravity of the two performers is raised,
thus increasing the difficulty of the feat.
(17:133)
Travis investigated the relationship between static bal
ance, as measured by the stableometer, and foot length.
The obtained correlation was -.48 (105:233).
Pathological conditions and
balance ability
Beebe (28) conducted an intensive study to deter
mine the relationship between dynamic equilibrium in chil
dren and their nutrition. She found a slight positive
relationship between these factors (28:228). Jones (7)
used several similar terms related to balance disturbances.
Mal-de-mer, menieres1 disease, vertigo, and labyrinthitis
46
all may have technical differences; however, they all have
similar symptoms. They are all inner ear disturbances
which cause violent giddiness, nausea and vomiting, diar
rhea, and perspiration. Only within the last sixty years
have all these been associated with the inner ear and
cranial nerve VIII. Jones also noted that "... syphi
litic toxin shows a marked affinity for the VIII cranial
nerve" (7:47).
The balance beam was used by three investigators
to study pathologically related phenomena. Lowman (11)
recommended the use of the sloped balance beam he designed
as a corrective exercise for foot pronation. A balance
beam was used by Graham (60) to determine which type of
artificial leg would give amputees the best balance with
the least discomfort. Myklebust (89) studied the balance
ability of deaf children on the balance beam. His most
outstanding finding was that children who were deaf as a
result of meningitis had approximately one fourth the
ability to balance as other deaf children. Myklebust ex
plained this by the following:
The inferior motor performances of meningitis
cases might not be attributed to the loss of hear
ing per se, but rather to the destruction of the
semicircular canals or nonacoustic portion of the
labyr inth. (89:25 0)
47
Birren (31) examined a 19-year-old male who had
lost all nerve function of cranial nerve VIII following an
attack of acute meningococcus meningitis. Rotation chair
tests did not produce any normal effects. There was no
past pointing, nystagmus, or vertigo. Though the subject
swayed markedly on a static balance test, he was able to
maintain balance, but on a dynamic balance beam test he was
unable to score above zero.
Summary
Related literature concerned with the measurement
of balance and the relation of balance to human performance
was discussed in this portion of this chapter. Balance
tests are classified into three types: dynamic balance,
static balance, and rotational balance. Dynamic balance is
generally measured on a balance beam, a balance platform,
or on a circle hopping test. Investigators whose purpose
is to measure static balance usually employ the Miles
ataxiameter. Rotational balance is measured by specially
constructed rotating chairs. Reliabilities of balance
tests were indicated in addition to methods used to obtain
the reliability coefficients.
Tests of balance seem to be highly specific;
48
however, the results of one investigation indicate that
certain subjects have more specifics than others.
Learning factors related to balance development
were also noted. Motivation, competition, arousal, motor
educability, and rate of learning were discussed. Specific
studies related to dynamic balance, static balance, and
rotational balance were reviewed followed by studies relat
ing balance to athletic performance. Subjects who were
rated as "better athletes" seemed to have better balance
regardless of the type of balance test they were measured
on.
Several studies relating varying degrees of vision
to balance were reviewed. Other physical characteristics
such as sex, height, and weight were found to have little
relation to the ability to balance. Balance ability seems
to improve with minor fluctuations following the "normal
growth curve," with the prime age for balance performance
and ability to learn balance skills between fifteen and
eighteen.
The uses of balance tests to diagnose and correct
pathological conditions were discussed.
Transfer of Training
Since the turn of the century many studies have
been conducted in laboratories and in classrooms concern
ing transfer of training. Theories proposed by different
schools of psychology have been developed to explain this
phenomenon, and the educational system in America was com
pletely revised because of the recognition of transfer
(8; 93; and 106). Kingsley (8) points out that "A funda
mental premise on which the school is based is that the
training obtained in school will be useful outside of
school--in short, that it is transferable" (8:495).
Studies specifically designed to investigate motor
skills appear in the literature more frequently each year.
In the past, experimentation in the area of learning motor
skills was carried on chiefly in the psychological labora
tories and involved the investigation of "fine motor
skills" such as typing,maze tracing, etc. Recently, how
ever, professional journals have been reporting experi
ments involving transfer of a variety of types of motor
skills.
Although there are few formal studies specifically
related to transfer of balance skills, the effect is
widely assumed. Gagne' and Fleishman provide an example
50
with the following:
When a person has learned one motor skill, the
learning of a new but similar one will usually be
faster and easier. It is easier to learn to drive
a motorcycle after one has ridden a bicycle, be
cause the habits of turning and balancing have some
similarity. (2:253)
Orata (93) analyzed a great majority of the trans
fer studies that have been conducted and stated that,
While it is true that the evidence is positive
in the majority of the studies, nevertheless, the
fact remains that the amount of transfer from the
various subjects is very much smaller than has
been generally believed. (93:276)
i/'
He also states that the fact of transfer can no longer be
doubted, but it is not an automatic process--it must be
taught (93:276). Trow (106), in generalizing about the
problem of transfer, also explains the need for closer
teaching specifically for transfer to life situations
(106:23).
Most of the studies that have been conducted by psy
chologists on transfer of motor skills are bilateral
studies or "cross education" (5; 8). Bray (33) proposes
the following explanation for bilateral transfer:
The explanation of this form of transfer probably
lies, in part at least, in the transfer of methods
which having been learned for one part of the body
are carried over without practice to some other
51
part. Mere familiarity with the setting of the
experiment is probably also important in transfer.
(33:467)
Theories and laws of transfer
Although all psychologists recognize transfer,
there are three popular theories which have been proposed
to explain the phenomenon. Judd supported the conscious
generalization theory. He stated that a subject transfers
the general idea from one task to another rather than the
specifics involved. Thorndike and Hull advanced the iden
tical elements theory. This theory essentially explains
transfer as the degree or number of specifics that are
transposed from one situation to another. A third theory,
that of functional similarity, is the explanation used by
Gestalt psychologists to explain transfer. Proponents of
this school believe essentially that transfer occurs when
subjects recognize a new situation as being similar to one
in which the original behavior was learned (34).
Bruce, as a result of an extensive experimental
study, developed a set of laws concerning the conditions
of transfer which are:
1. Learning to make an old response to a new stim
ulus results in a marked degree of positive
transfer.
52
2. Learning to make a new response to a new
stimulus results in a slight degree of posi
tive transfer.
3. Learning to make a new response to an old stim
ulus results in a slight degree of negative
transfer.
4. Introducing similarities between two or more
of the S]R;lS2R2 terms increases positive trans
fer and decreases negative transfer. (35:360)
Experimental designs of transfer
studies
A point often overlooked in the transfer of train
ing is the fact that experiments can be designed to provide
a desired amount of transfer. Orata (93:282) and Gagne* and
Fleishman (2:255) give examples of this by demonstrating
experiments where nearly 100 per cent transfer was found by
specifically designing the experiment to provide for a
large amount of transfer. In the present investigation,
for example, if the subjects had been initially tested on
balance beams and then had practiced and learned to per
form on the tight rope, a very high amount of transfer of
learning to walking on the balance beam would probably have
occurred.
Transfer studies
An effective design to investigate the transfer of
learned verbal skills was established by Kittell (75). He
determined the relative effects of three amounts of direc
tion to the learners. Three different combinations of
clues to the principles determining correct responses to
the training items were incorporated into three sets of
written tests. The group given minimum assistance was
told there was a like principle for the responses. The
group which received intermediate assistance was told what
the principle for the responses was. The group which re
ceived maximal direction was given the principle and the
correct answer to the item. Kittell found that the middle
group, which was provided statements of underlying relation
ships without specifying answers, fostered learning, re
tention, and transfer to different situations better than
the other two groups (75:402-405). The design of the pres
ent investigation followed this principle somewhat by
establishing two experimental groups. One group was merely
told the objective and worked by itself, while the other
group was given every possible aid.
Nelson (90) developed an interesting design to
determine the transfer of "gross motor skills." He deter
mined transfer under three different learning situations.
In each case similar activities were used to determine
transfer effects. He first attempted to determine transfer
of activity when similar elements were learned at the same
time. To determine this, the badminton volley against a
wall was learned at the same time as a tennis volley against
a wall. He then attempted to determine transfer of activ
ity when similar activities were learned at different
times. The volleyball tip for accuracy was developed and
this was followed by learning to tip a basketball. The
third phase of the experiment was designed to determine
the extent of transfer when the object was to teach for
transfer. The track starting stance and the football
starting stance were used to determine transfer in this
situation. Nelson stated that "Some transfer was found in
the various combinations; however, no transfer value was
statistically significant at the 570 level" (90:372).
Nelson concluded that:
1. Skills and activities which involve similar
elements and patterns should not be learned at
the same time.
2. The method of deliberate teaching for transfer
of learning (at the beginning levels of learn
ing) appears to be ineffective in the subse
quent learning of skills with similar patterns
and movements. (90:372)
In 1924 Dowd (45) conducted a study on the rela
tive transfer of supervised play and formal gymnastics.
55
She equated two groups on the basis of performance on a
battery of motor ability tests involving speed, accuracy,
balance, et cetera. As a result of the investigation,
Dowd concluded that:
. . . under the conditions of this experiment
Formal Gymnastics given for a period of 20 minutes
a day for a period of one week, followed by a
period of one-half hour daily for four weeks, pro
duced no greater effect than the same amount of
time spent in play and games. If anything the Play
Group was slightly superior to the Formal Gymnas
tics Group but the difference is so small as to be
practically negligible. (45:224)
Lindenburg (80) also found a high degree of
specificity in transfer of motor skills. Forty-seven high
school boys and girls were tested on three skills: finger
press, peg shifting, and modified peg shifting (a more
gross movement). The students were tested during the first
three weeks of the school year and placed into four groups
based on their scores on the initial battery of tests.
During the following two months one group played table
tennis, one group practiced special arm and quickening
exercises, and a third group participated in regular physi
cal education. The fourth group, which did not participate
in any specific activity, was used as a control group.
Following the two-month period, all groups were retested.
Transfer figures ranging from 0 per cent to 7 per cent were
found. Lindenburg also found that ”... quickening exer
cises do not improve an individual's general coordination
even though learning takes place" (80:182). He believed
that the reason that all of the groups increased equally
was the immediate practice effect of performing the move
ments of the original test. He found reminiscence also
(80:182).
Henry found that even with forced motivation, in
the form of an electric shock, only a maximum of 12 per
cent transfer occurred (69:228). Studies by many other
investigators (8; 45; 77; 90; 91; 94; 99; 101; and 115)
support a theory of specificity of learned motor tasks.
Two studies by Duncan (46; 47) indicate a positive trans
fer; however, specific details of the studies were not
presented.
The only study which was found which was specifi
cally designed to determine the amount of transfer in a
balance skill was conducted by Dodge (43). Dodge, after
noting that the human could become adapted to repeated
rotation, attempted to determine if accommodation, as a
result of being rotated in one direction, would transfer
to being rotated in the opposite direction. The essence
of his experiment is summarized as follows:
57
Training had taken place and post nystagmus
was absent (conditioned so). The next day after
the training series ended we took a series of
records exactly like the training series except
for the last two. In these two records, the
direction of physical rotation was reversed. We
hoped in this way to discover whether the habitu
ation to rotation had transferred from the counter
clockwise rotation of the main experiment to clock
wise rotation. The resulting curves correspond
with the curves of the mid-training period. They
indicate that about half the training in one
direction had transferred to the other. (43:21)
Thorough studies by Twining (109) and Vandall
(110) have indicated that transfer in motor tasks can be
improved by mental practice; however, there have been no
studies specifically designed to determine the effect of
mental practice on the transfer of balance skills.
Summary
There have been many experiments conducted by
psychologists on transfer; however, few have been designed
to determine the transfer effect in learning ’’gross motor
skills,” and only one study has been specifically designed
to determine transfer of a balance skill. In the majority
of the studies, the phenomenon of bilateral transfer, some
times referred to as cross-education, has been investi
gated.
The three most popular theories of transfer
58
(conscious generalization, identical elements, and func
tional similarity) were briefly discussed; this was fol
lowed by a summary of laws concerning the conditions of
transfer.
A critique of the design of experiments used to
measure transfer of motor skills was presented.
Retention
It is generally assumed that most motor skills,
once they have been learned, are retained better than
other types of skills (2; ;8; 39; 79; and 111). Having
once learned to walk, ride a bicycle, roller skate, ice
skate, et cetera, these tasks can be performed even after
a long period of no practice. Gagne' and Fleishman (2)
believe that this retention may be explained by the fact
that motor skills are greatly overlearned (2:173).
Experimental designs of retention
studies
Gillette (59) described three types of experimental
design used to measure retention: the method of equal op
portunity to learn, the method of equal amount learned,
and the method of adjusted learning. In the method of
"equal opportunity to learn," learning time of all subjects
59
is held constant and the amount of learning is recorded.
This is the type of experimental design used in the pres
ent investigation. This type of design seems to favor the
fast learner. The second type of design described by Gil
lette is the "method of equal amount learned." In this
case the subjects all learn the subject or task completely,
and the time it takes to learn the task is measured. This
type of design seems to favor the slow learner. In the
third type of design, the "method of adjusted learning,"
all of the subjects learn the same amount of material but
there is no overlearning. Gillette conducted a retention
study to determine the relative value of these three ex
perimental designs. She found that none of the three
types of designs contradicted each other and that the fast
learner is the better retainer (59:35).
Kittell’s study (75), previously discussed under
the subject of transfer, was designed to determine the
relative effects of three amounts of direction to learners.
It was discovered that the most effective method, that
which resulted in the greatest amount of transfer, also
yielded the most amount of retention. Kittell's study,
however, involved verbal skills (75:402).
Retention curves
Examination of retention curves for learned motor
skills indicates a slight variance in results. Tsai (107)
generalized regarding motor skill retention curves as fol
lows :
It is well known to every student of psychol
ogy that Ebbinghaus has demonstrated that the rate
of forgetting, being very rapid at first and
slower later, follows a logarithmic law. That is,
the majority of the studies for the retention of
memory materials are characterized by negative
acceleration. Very few studies have been conducted
systematically on the retention of motor habits.
(107:1)
Tsai conducted a retention study involving ninety-six men
and women. The task was learning to solve a stylus maze.
In all of the sub-groups in the experiment negatively ac
celerated curves appeared (107:27). Tsai's results concur
with the Ebbinghaus curve for retention. Leavitt and
Schlosberg (79) and Gagne7 and Fleishman (2), however, found
varying degrees of zero acceleration. The former used the
pursuit rotor with forty-eight subjects who were retested
after one, seven, twenty-eight, and seventy days. Gagn^
and Fleishman used the airplane control test with 150 sub
jects who were tested twenty-four hours, one month, six
months, one year, and two years after initial learning.
The retention curves for the first three retention periods
61
were practically linear. The latter, however, were nega
tively accelerated indicating that more was forgotten as a
result of the longer intervals between tests (2:261).
Retention of verbal and motor
skills
Debate is continually being conducted regarding
relative retention attainable from verbal and motor learn
ing. Leavitt and Schlosberg (79) compared performance on
the pursuit rotor with learning nonsense syllables. The
two tasks were learned to roughly equivalent stages. The
retention score in their study was the time required to
regain the level that had been reached on the last trial of
the original learning period. The subjects were tested
one, seven, twenty-eight, and seventy days after the orig
inal learning. The retention curve for the pursuit rotor
exhibited a zero acceleration, whereas the nonsense syl
lable retention curve followed the classic Ebbinghaus
curve. Five years later Van Dusen and Schlosberg (111)
conducted a similar study with an experimental design
specifically intended to result in similar retention of
verbal and motor responses. Fifty-one subjects learned to
locate and actuate ten pairs of switches, so connected that
a buzzer sounded when each pair was turned on correctly.
62
At the same time they learned ten pairs of nonsense syl
lables, attached as labels to the switches. Retention was
measured after intervals of one, seven, and twenty-eight
days. The investigators reported that "There was no sig
nificant difference in retention between the two types of
materials after any of the retention intervals" (111:534).
Van Dusen and Scholsberg, therefore, concluded that:
The actuation of the paired switches is believed
to be a perceptual-motor activity, fairly free from
verbal elements. Therefore, the results disprove
the hypothesis that motor materials are retained
better than are verbal ones if both are organized
in the same manner. (111:534)
Mental practice
Mental practice cannot be eliminated as a phenom
enon pertinent to the study of retention of motor skills.
A review of typical studies is given briefly below.
Twining (109) tested thirty-six college men on the ring
toss. After the initial test the group was divided into
three equated groups. The first group had no practice for
twenty-one days. Group two practiced the skill for twenty-
one days, and group three mentally rehearsed the skill for
twenty-one days. After retest on the twenty-second day,
amounts of 4.3 per cent, 137 per cent, and 37 per cent
respectively were retained (109:435). Vandall, et al.,
63
reported a similar study in which junior high school through
college men were tested and retested on dart throwing and
free throwing in basketball. In each situation the group
involved in mental practice attained nearly the scores of
those who were continually practicing, whereas the group
which did no practicing showed only approximately 2 per
cent improvement (110:243).
Munro (87) conducted a study to measure the amount
of retention as a result of forced motivation. This was a
follow-up study of the transfer study reported by Henry
(69), which was discussed previously in this chapter.
Munro found that:
A period of seven weeks is required for the
increase in speed transferred from a motivated sim
pler response to significantly retrogress toward
the initial speed of movement. (87:233)
Balance studies
Two studies have been reported pertaining to reten
tion and balance. Beebe (28) reported that:
One hundred per cent retention after an inter
val of 3.5 months was recorded by an adult and a
five year old boy, the latter in three trials mak
ing a 2% gain over former best efforts. (28:227)
Details of retention of the other subjects, however, were
not reported. Dodge (43), who found 50 per cent transfer
64
in the ability to accommodate to rotation in opposing
directions, also measured retention of this ability. One
week lapsed in which the subjects had no rotation. At the
end of this period six trials were taken in the same manner
«
as during the training period and in the same direction.
He noted that:
The first record of this post-training series
lies between the first records of the last day and
that of the next to the last day of the training
period. The second and succeeding records would
rank with the best records of the main experimental
period. That is to say, while the first record of
this post-training series showed a slight loss of
training this loss was immediately made up in the
subsequent records. (43:20)
Reminiscence
In many retention studies involving motor skills
(29; 39; 49; 79; 80; and 96) scores on the latter tests
have exceeded the scores received on the best trial of the
original training. Leavitt and Schlosberg present two
theories to explain this phenomenon of reminiscence:
1. Preservation due to mental practice.
2. Performance decrement. This theory assumes
that the actual amount that has been learned
does not show up in the score on a given trial.
The score is lowered by such factors as fatigue,
tension, interfering habits, and inhibition and
reinforcement. It is further assumed that these
decremental factors are dissipated rapidly, un
masking the actual amount that has been learned.
Thus the performance after an interval may be
higher, although there has been some forgetting,
because the subject has lost the factors which
had depressed performance during the latter
trials on the original learning. (79:414)
Purdy and Lockhart reported a retention study
involving thirty-six college women. One year after the
original learning a retest was given and 89 per cent of the
subjects displayed reminiscence on one or more skills.
These investigators concluded that "Gross motor skills may
be retained to a high degree by all levels of skill ability
after long periods of no practice, and relearning to previ
ous levels of proficiency can be rapid" (96:271).
Summary
It is commonly assumed that motor skills are re
tained longer than other types of learning. Three experi
mental designs that are used in retention studies were pre
sented and this discussion was followed by several repre
sentative studies.
A review of retention curves indicated that motor
skill retention curves vary from zero acceleration to nega
tive acceleration.
Studies comparing motor skill retention curves to
retention curves for other types of learning were reviewed;
this was followed by reports of typical retention studies
involving mental practice and forced motivation. Two
retention studies specifically related to balance were
reported, and their similarity to other investigations
involving reminiscence, including a possible explanation
for reminiscence, was noted.
CHAPTER III
THE BALANCE MECHANISM
Balance can be measured by various means. Dynamic,
static, and rotational tests are commonly used to measure
quantities of balance.
Balance was previously defined as the ability of
the human body to adjust itself to external forces in main
taining a desired position or action. This definition is
actually the external manifestation of the balance mecha
nism. By exposing briefly some of the aspects involved in
the balance mechanism the meaning of the general term
"balance1 1 may better be understood.
Maintaining the body in a desired position or action
requires the coordination of the stretch reflex, the
cerebrum, the cerebellum, vision, voluntary adjustments,
the bony labyrinth, strength, endurance, and various psy
chological factors such as motivation, attention, et cetera.
67
68
The Stretch Reflex
The stretch reflex is extremely important in main
taining equilibrium. If a muscle is stretched it usually
responds by contracting. Without this reflex action, man
would be unable to maintain equilibrium (10:72).
Contained within muscle tissue and tendon are
specialized receptors (proprioceptors) that are sensitive
to a specific change in their environment. These proprio
ceptors include the following: muscle spindles that are
found in the muscle belly; Golgi bodies that are found in
the tendon; and pacinian corpuscles which are located near
the muscle or tendons (10:72).
These proprioceptor nerves are of the "A Alpha"
type. The "A Alpha" type nerve is the largest diameter
nerve of the body and the rate at which an impulse travels
is related directly to its diameter (64). Therefore, the
proprioceptors send very rapid impulses which are conducted
by afferent neurons to the spinal cord.
This simple stretch reflex generally only involves
the lower portion of the central nervous system, the spinal
cord. A monosynaptic junction in the spinal cord connects
the afferent nerve to an efferent nerve; this stimulation
69
of the muscle tissue causes contraction of the stretched
muscle. This is known as the reflex arc (10:65).
The Cerebrum
Harrison described the cerebral cortex as follows:
There are approximately ten billion neurons in
the human cortex. Each neuron receives connections
from perhaps a hundred other neurons, and connects
to still a hundred more. These interconnections
are so comprehensive that the whole cortex can be
thought of as one great unit of integrated activ
ity. (65:63)
Besides these billions of cells in the cortex,
there are millions of cells in the midbrain. Certain areas
of the midbrain seem to be "seats” of learning. These
areas are the caudate nucleus, thalmus, hypothalmus, and
che hypocampus (133:8). There is a constant interflow of
electrical currents between these areas of the brain.
The Cerebellum
The cerebellum is the lower posterior portion of
the brain, highly developed in man, which is a "seat" of
equilibrium. The cerebellum is divided anatomically into
three areas: the anterior lobe, the posterior lobe, and the
focculondular lobe. The anterior lobe seems to control
posture or static equilibrium, and the focculondular lobe
seems to control dynamic equilibrium. The cerebellum has
70
connections to the brain, midbrain, pons, medulla, and the
spinal cord. The role of the cerebellum in the balance
mechanism is explained by Langley and Cheraskin (10) as
follows:
The proprioceptors, the semicircular canals,
and the utrical maintain ever-constant watch over
the body’s position and movement. The information
which they gather is utilized for reflex compensa
tion, is fired into the sensory cortex, thus making
the subject conscious of his position at all times,
and is also directed to the cerebellum. The cere
bellum, it will be recalled, is also kept constant
ly informed of plans for voluntary movement. In a
sense, the cerebellum previews things to come.
Therefore, before the movement is actually under
taken, necessary adjustments, in the light of posi
tion, muscle and tendon tension, and the movement,
are made. The cerebellum then conveys this inte
grated information back to the motor cortex which
can now execute the planned movement with smooth
ness and efficiency. (10:165-166)
Vision
"The sense of vision is employed in maintaining
balance by establishing relationship among objects" (18:
135). "Impulses which arise in the semicircular canals are
conducted by a two-neuron chain to the nuclei of cranial
nerves III, IV, and VI" (10:162). These nerves complete a
reflex arc with the ocular muscles of the eye, producing
the rhythmic oscillation of the eyeballs termed nystagmus
(10:162). Therefore, there are connecting neurons between
71
the semicircular canals, the eye, the cerebral hemispheres,
the cerebellum, the autonomic nervous system, and inhibit
ory and facilitory nervous bodies between some of these.
This interaction is illustrated in Figure 1 on page 72.
Voluntary Adjustment
There is little doubt that motivation is the most
essential element in executing any physical or mental
task. Buchwald and others have done extensive experimenta
tion on cats in regard to this phenomenon. They summarized
their findings as follows:
The existence of an inhibitory circuit is pro
posed in which the caudate nucleus figures prom
inently in the roles of wakefulness, attention,
integration, discrimination, and learning. The
balance can be maintained or shifted in a given
direction, independently of the total imput to
the brain. (36:335)
The subconscious control plus willed or conscious movement
combine to elicit voluntary adjustments to perception.
Thus, if a subject sees that he is losing balance, he will
try to regain it based upon his deep-seated motivation to
complete the task and his neuromuscular capacity to do so.
The Bony Labyrinth
The semicircular canals, part of the inner ear,
are three in number and are located in three planes:
72
Inner Ear Eye
Central Nervous
System
1
.......... 1 1"
A
Autonomic
Nervous
System
Spinal Cord
Muscles and
Proprioceptors
Spinal Cord
(cross section)
Fig. 1.--A Schematic Diagram of the
Balance Mechanism.
73
frontal, sagital, and horizontal. These canals are filled
with a fluid, and at one end of each there is an enlarge
ment called the ampulla. Within the ampulla are sensory
receptors that are activated by the movement of the fluid
in the canals, which is in turn activated by a movement of
the head. This organ measures, primarily, change in the
velocity of motion.
The utricle is an area where one end of each of the
three canals join (the opposite end to the ampulla). Here,
within this same endolymph, there is a small organ called
the otolith. This organ is stimulated by movement and
registers a change in position of the head. These two
organs are innervated by the auditory nerve, cranial VIII,
which also responds for the act of hearing (12:329).
We are indebted to Sherrington for the physiolog
ical experiments by which proof was found of the function
of the semicircular canals in influencing the maintenance
of muscle tone and action for controlling body position.
In addition, Sherrington established the fact that we pos
sess a sort of extra sense called proprioception, by which
we judge special relations. The ability to balance is now
commonly associated with this sense, as in the following
example:
74
The kinesthetic sensations arising from the
muscles and tendons of the foot aid in maintaining
balance. When the feet are numbed by poor circu
lation or cold these sensations are lost and the
ability to maintain balance is reduced. (17:94)
If a person is rotated in a chair and then attempts
to stand up, he should fall to one side. This is not the
result of a reflex arc, rather an error in voluntary move
ment. The subject's balance mechanism has been disturbed
by the rotation. As a result, when he stands erect he is
under the impression that he is falling to one side, when
actually he is not. Consequently, he throws himself in the
opposite direction in an attempt to compensate for the
imagined movement (10:163).
Strength
The previously described sensory pathways are for
the one purpose of eliciting action. If the muscles at
the end of these nerves are not structurally sound, the
nerve action will be futile. This soundness is naturally
a matter of degree and depends upon the muscle viscosity,
chemistry at the nerve end plates, fiber strength, et
cetera.
Endurance
Where sustained balance is required, endurance is
an important factor. Even a short bout of intensified bal
ancing for one minute can produce extreme fatigue in the
organs involved.
Summary
Maintaining the body in a desired position or in a
desired action involves the coordination of functional
reflexes, an uninterrupted flow of proprioceptive impulses
to the cerebral and cerebellar cortices, vision, impulses
originating from the bony labyrinth, voluntary adjustments
and psychological adjustments such as attention, motivation,
et cetera.
Balance, regardless of whether it is measured as
dynamic, static, or rotational, depends on a type and
degree of neuromuscular efficiency. Whether differences
in addition to the specific organs and pathways described
above exist and account for some of the three measurable
types of balance remains for future investigations to
uncover.
CHAPTER IV
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The problem of this study was to examine the trans
fer effect of learning teachable balance skills on the
performance of another group of balance skills and to
determine the amount of retention of this transfer after an
eight-week period of no specific practice on balance activ
ities .
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the
design of the investigation and to enumerate the steps
taken in an effort to solve the problem of the study. This
chapter includes: (1) a description of the subjects who
were used and an explanation of how they were selected and
grouped; (2) an explanation of the experimental apparatus
that was employed; (3) an explanation of the experimental
design, including the testing procedure, training program,
method of treatment of the data; and (4) a chapter summary.
76
77
Subjects
Selection
The original group of subjects who participated in
this study consisted of 13 8 normal male college students.
These students were enrolled in nine physical activity
classes at the University of Southern California, Los Ange
les, California. Five of the nine classes consisted of a
required course for all college freshmen. This "Basic
Skills" course includes a body conditioning program, in
volving primarily strength and endurance, accompanied by a
skill development program in which the game of four-wall
handball is learned. Two additional classes were elective
"Body Building" courses in which the main objective is
strength development. The remaining two classes involved
in the study were courses exclusively designed to learn the
game of four-wall handball.
Grouping
All 138 subjects were given the initial balance
performance test. Based on these initial balance perform
ance scores, the total group was divided into three sub
groups. The subjects were placed in a particular group so
that the group means and standard deviations would be
78
nearly equivalent. After the groups were equated, there
was no statistically significant difference between the
group means. A detailed description of the initial balance
performance test is given later in this chapter.
Of the three groups involved in the study, two were
experimental and one was a control group. The two experi
mental groups participated in learning two additional bal
ance skills (walking a low wire and performing on a dyna-
balometer) over a two-week period. One of these experi
mental groups was given the objectives, rules, cues, sug
gestions, demonstration, et cetera. This group hereafter
is designated as group A. The other experimental group was
given only the objectives and rules, and they "learned on
their own." This group hereafter is designated as group B.
Group C was the control group which participated only in
the initial, second, and final balance performance tests.
One hundred and eighteen subjects (88 per cent of
the initial group) completed the experiment.
Experimental Apparatus
Bass tests of balance
The items used as the initial balance performance
test, second balance performance test, and final balance
79
test were taken from a battery of balance tests designed by
Bass (27). Bass's battery includes the circle test, which
purports to measure dynamic balance, the stick tests, which
purport to measure static balance, and a rhythm test.
The Bass circle test was used exactly as Bass
described it. It consists of a series of ten circles
strategically located on the floor. The circles are 8.5
inches in diameter and 33 inches apart. The circles are
located at specific angles to each other (see Appendix D).
The subject hops from one circle to another using alternate
feet.
The stick tests used by Bass consist of balancing
on a 1-inch by 1-inch by 12-inch wooden stick under various
conditions. With the body in the following positions:
straight standing, eyes open; straight standing, eyes
closed; bent standing (eyes even with hips), eyes open;
bent standing, eyes closed, the subject was directed to
maintain balance up to sixty seconds if possible. Perform
ance in each of these four conditions was tested while the
subject was standing crosswise on the stick, on the floor,
and standing lengthwise on the stick. In each situation
body weight was on the ball of the foot. Statistically
Bass found her test 1 (straight standing, eyes open, foot
80
crosswise on the stick) and test 9 (straight standing,
eyes open, foot lengthwise on the stick) to be the two
most valid items in her battery and the best predictors of
static balance. Therefore, these two tests were used in
this study to measure static balance.
The rhythm test was not used.
Low wire
The apparatus used in this portion of the study,
the learning or training phase, had to be an unfamiliar
task. The assumption was made that few, if any, students
would have ever performed on a tight wire.
The low wire was a 3/8-inch aircraft cable, capable
of withstanding 14,000 pounds. The cable consisted of
seven strands with nineteen single wires in each strand.
At one end the cable was tied around a supporting pillar
in the laboratory and secured by two aircraft cable clamps.
The opposite end was attached to a partial pillar. A steel
strap bracket, one-quarter inch by three inches by eight
inches long, was attached to the partial pillar with two
3/8-inch lag screws attached to cement anchor nuts. This
bracket attached to a large turnbuckle which in turn was
clamped to the end of the cable. The turnbuckle allowed
control of the tension of the wire. The total usable
length of the wire was twenty-one feet. The floor and sur
rounding pillars were generously covered with mats. The
height of the wire was twenty-nine inches from the floor.
This height was decided upon for several reasons: (1) it
was necessary to assure safety of the groin in the event
that a subject might straddle the wire when falling; (2)
fatigue from climbing up to a higher wire ten times each
practice period would possibly inhibit performance; (3) if
the wire were too high, acrophobia might have affected
some subjects' performances; and (4) the fifteen-foot lab
oratory ceiling would not permit a much higher wire.
At the starting end of the wire, a two-step mount
ing platform was constructed. This enabled the subject to
become completely balanced before he began traversing the
wire. The wire was marked with a numbered tag every
eighteen inches, which enabled the subjects to see how far
they had progressed (see Figure 2). Each morning, prior to
the beginning of the practice periods, the cable tension
was checked. The following criterion was adherred to: with
a 175-pound weight at marker number 6, the wire could not
be closer than twenty-seven inches to the floor, thus allow
ing a maximum of two inches of sag over a span of twenty-one
i U '
Fig. 2.--The Low Wire.
CO
t o
83
feet.
Dynabalometer
The dynabalometer (see Figure 3) was developed in
a pilot study related to balance by this investigator. It
has two basic parts: a base and the balance platform. The
base is made from a 3/4-inch piece of plywood, approxi
mately thirty-seven inches in diameter, with a protruding
portion to mount a steady bar, meter, and cord. This base
is supported on five 3/4-inch plywood legs. In the center
of the 37-inch diameter is a trailer hitch that is bolted
securely to the base. A grab bar is constructed from 3/4-
inch water pipe and corresponding fittings; this is present
mainly to prevent extreme forward loss of balance, which
could harm the recording meter. The meter is a standard
electric clock with the minute hand, hour hand, and face
removed. A special face calibrated counterclockwise in
seconds replaces the original face. A combination of a
sheet metal ring and wires provides the electric conduc
tance to the timer.
The balance platform consists of a 36-inch diameter
piece of 3/4-inch plywood. It has a four- by six-inch
block of mahogany bolted to the center on the underside
Fig. 3.— The Dynabalometer.
85
with a concave spherical radius cutout which matches the
spherical radius of the ball of the trailer hitch. On the
top surface of the platform, nonskid abrasives are cemented
in place to prevent slipping. A sheet metal contact ring
is attached to the underside of this platform, and a cir
cuit is completed through spring steel wires connecting
the platform to the base in the form of a commutator.
In this apparatus the platform is connected to the
base by a ball and socket joint. The following motions can
be obtained: forward, backward, lateral, rotational, and
any combination of these motions. When the subject is
balanced, no electricity is being conducted to the timing
meter; when the subject is not balanced, current is flowing
and a quantity is being measured. To eliminate having to
subtract unbalanced time from the total time being tested
in order to determine the total amount of time actually
balanced, the timing meter was calibrated counterclock
wise. A manual, single-pole, single-throw switch opens and
closes the circuit. This action is coordinated with a
stop watch. After a time period of one minute, the score
is read directly from the meter.
86
Experimental Design
It will be recalled that the problem of this study
was to examine the transfer effect of learning teachable
balance skills on the performance of another group of bal
ance skills, and to determine the amount of retention of
this transfer after an eight-week period of no specific
balance activity. This section of the chapter describes
the specific testing procedures given to the subjects, the
specific procedures used in the training program, and the
treatment of the data.
Testing procedure
All of the testing and practicing was conducted in
the William Ralph La Porte Research Center, Department of
Physical Education, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, California. The area was well lighted and was
free from extraneous noises.
When the investigator began to organize the sub
jects, he contacted each one of them in their respective
classes. The experiment was explained briefly and individ
ual appointments were, made for testing so that no more than
four subjects would be in the testing area at one time.
When the subject came into the laboratory he pro-
87
vided the following information on a Data Record Sheet
(see Appendix C): name, age, height, weight, shoe size,
class, hour, and the name of the instructor with whom he
was associated. Printed directions (see Appendix B) gave
the subjects additional instructions.
It was necessary in the experiment for the fric
tion surfaces between the sole of the shoes and the walking
surfaces to be the same for all subjects. Tennis shoes,
all made by the same manufacturer were provided, therefore,
in sizes ranging from 7 to 12-1/2, including half-sizes.
This supply was adequate for all subjects except one with
a shoe size of 15. This subject wore the tennis shoes he
normally used in his physical education class. The fric
tion surface of the size 15 shoe was quite similar to the
shoes provided by the investigator, and it was not felt
justifiable to eliminate the subject because of this single
factor.
After the subjects had filled out the Data Record
Sheet, they put on the special shoes and read the direc
tions which were posted (see Appendix B).
In both tests, the Bass circle and stick tests,
time was an important factor in scoring. A custom-made
88
electric metronome was constructed which produced a "beep"
each second (see Appendix E).
Circle test.--The object of the circle test was to
hop from circle to circle losing balance as little as pos
sible. The directions were read by the students and re
peated by the investigator prior to the testing. The sub
ject started the test by standing on the right foot in the
circle marked "start." He then leaped to the left foot,
landing inside circle number one. When he landed in the
circle the following rules applied: (1) land and stay on
the ball of the foot--do not lower the heel; (2) land with
in the circle--do not touch the circle; (3) keep the weight
on the landing foot only--do not let the other foot touch
the floor; (4) keep the foot in contact with the floor--do
not hop; (5) keep the supporting foot still--do not slide
or wriggle it along the floor in order to maintain balance;
(6) maintain balance up to, but not exceeding five seconds
in each circle. The electric metronome was "beeping" con
tinually during the testing, and each subject counted the
five seconds to himself in rhythm with the metronome. The
subject continued leaping into the remaining circles with
alternate feet, remaining in each circle up to five sec
89
onds, including the last circle--number ten. The subjects
were particularly instructed not to stop if they made an
error.
Each subject, after reading the directions and
prior to being tested, participated in one practice trial.
During this practice trial the subject familiarized himself
with the motions involved, the rhythm of counting, and the
pattern of circles. After the practice trial the subjects
were asked if they had any questions regarding the objec
tives or procedure. The scoring was based on the total
time plus a constant of fifty minus three times the number
of errors made. Bass designed this scoring method in order
to place a special penalty on errors. The investigator
recorded all errors and timed all of the subjects using a
stop watch in order that maximum uniformity might be
attained.
Stick test.--With the electric metronome and four
sticks it was possible to test a maximum of four subjects
on the stick test at one time. This was accomplished by
starting all subjects together and the investigator count
ing aloud the lapsed seconds in rhythm with the metronome.
When a subject fell off the stick he made note of the num
90
ber that was called last, which was his score. The inves
tigator continued counting until all subjects had fallen
off or a maximum count of sixty seconds had been reached.
The object of the two stick tests were: (1) to
maintain balance standing crosswise on the stick on the
ball of the foot for a maximum of sixty seconds, and (2) to
maintain balance standing lengthwise on the stick on the
ball of the foot for a maximum of sixty seconds. In both
tests the eyes were open.
The directions given were to "place the ball of the
foot on the stick (crosswise and then lengthwise) at the
command 'ready'; at the command 'go' lift the supporting
foot and attempt to maintain balance on the stick for sixty
seconds." If the subject fell off before five seconds
had elapsed, he was given a second chance.
The subjects were allowed to practice for approxi
mately fifteen seconds prior to each test. They were then
asked if they had any questions regarding the objectives
or procedure. The scoring began as the command "go" was
given. Time balanced on the stick was recorded in seconds
until the free foot or a hand touched the floor.
91
Training program
The two experimental groups participated in a two-
week training program in which two different balance skills
were learned. The two skills on which the experimental
groups practiced were walking a low wire and performing on
a dynabalometer. This apparatus has been described previ
ously in this chapter.
After all 136 subjects had taken the initial bal
ance performance test the groups were equated. When the
subjects took this initial test they also signed up for a
practice period, a time each day during the two-week train
ing period when they could come to the laboratory to prac
tice. The first time the subjects appeared for practice
they were told to which group they had been assigned (A, B,
or C). Those who were designated in the C group were asked
to come back in two weeks and repeat the balance perform
ance test. Those who were assigned to the A or B group
remained and began to practice the two skills.
The objectives in the two skills were identical
for group A and group B. The method of learning, however,
was different and is discussed later in this chapter.
Low wire.--The objective of this task was to walk
92
the length of the wire, turn on the wire, return past the
red marker (number 6) and perform a "swan” for five sec
onds. The swan consisted of balancing on the wire while
standing on one foot, arms abducted 90°, with the back and
free leg parallel to the wire.
The subject started from the platform at one end
of the wire. He walked as far as possible; when he lost
balance and fell off of the wire, he noted the number that
he had passed. This was his score for that trial. Each
subject took ten trials each practice period and recorded
his scores on his Data Record Sheet.
After the subject passed the last tag on the wire,
number 14, he turned on the wire without assistance of any
kind and proceeded to return and pass tag number 22. This
tag was also number 6 when the subject was going the other
direction, and was colored red. At this point the subject
had acquired twenty-two points. He then attempted to per
form the swan and hold it for five seconds. Following the
swan, scoring was completed and the subject could jump off
the wire or return to the starting platform. If he com
pleted the prescribed course, he earned 22 plus 5, totaling
27 points each trial. Each subject had ten practice trials
93
each practice period and ten practice periods, thus pro
viding a total of 100 trials.
Dynabalometer.--The objective of this task was to
maintain the balance platform level so that the metal rings
on the edge of the platform and the base did not touch. As
soon as the subject became off balance and the rings
touched, he immediately tried to regain his balance, thus
separating the contact rings. The meter measured the total
time the subject had control of the balance platform in
the 60-second time limit; when the subject did not have
control of the balance platform it touched the base (an
angle of 15°) and this completed a circuit.
The subject mounted the dynabalometer and adjusted
his feet to a comfortable position. He then indicated to
the timer that he was ready to start. With the meter clock
at zero and the manual switch off, the person who was tim
ing, simultaneously said "go,1 1 turned on the manual meter
switch, and started a stop watch. The subject attempted to
keep the platform level, thus preventing the platform from
contacting the base and completing a circuit. After one
minute, the meter manual switch was turned off and a direct
reading from the meter indicated the actual number of
seconds the subject was balanced during the designated
trial.
Each subject had two practice trials on the dyna
balometer for ten practice periods, providing a total of
twenty trials. The person who timed the subject initially
was the investigator; however, the subjects quickly learned
how to test each other. The variance of reaction time in
operating the stop watch and manual meter switch with dif
ferent people was not felt to be a significant factor over
a period of sixty seconds for the purpose of this learning
period.
Varied means of training.--The main problem of this
study was to determine the transfer effect of learned bal
ance skills. It was felt that if the balance skills were
learned under two different situations and possibly two
different degrees of learning, some difference in transfer
might also occur. Both experimental groups learned the
same skills, but Group A had the following advantages over
Group B: (1) cues provided by the investigator, based on
pilot studies, that possibly would aid performance; (2)
discussion, demonstration, and coaching by the investiga
tor; (3) a decided psychological advantage because they
95
were a member of a group that was given special attention;
(4) knowledge that they were competing individually within
their group and that their group was competing against
group B; and (5) members of Group A had daily knowledge of
their improvement since their scores were added daily.
Group B received no help at all except what they could get
from each other and by observing some members of Group A
perform.
After the initial sign-up for practice times, it
became -obvious that the two experimental groups could not
possibly practice at separate times. Three controls,
therefore, were established to minimize communication
between the two groups while they were practicing together:
(1) the subjects wore a tag attached to a string which was
worn around the neck to indicate which group they were in;
(2) the cues to aid performance were concealed in covered
boxes which only Group A could look at; and (3) the inves
tigator was always present and watching for "illegal"
communication. Specific directions which were given to
the subjects during practice periods may be examined in
Appendix B.
The following cues were provided for Group A. They
were placed in a covered box adjacent to the apparatus.
96
Low Wire
1. Be sure the wire is "steadied" before you begin.
2. Begin with your preferred foot.
3. Try looking at the wire.
4. Try looking at the red square on the wall.
5. Keep the preferred foot parallel (centered) on
the wire and the other foot diagonal to the wire
(approximately 45°).
6. Vary speed.
7. If you begin to lose balance, bend knees (lower
center of gravity).
8. Vary stride length.
9. Observe and analyze the performance of others.
10. Ask the instructor questions.
11. Discuss with others in Group A only.
12. Compete with someone in Group A only.
13. Observe the increase of your mean score each
day (these will be computed by the instructor).
14. Walk pigeon-toed on the wire.
15. See the instructor about how to turn at the
end of the wire.
REVIEW THESE CUES FREQUENTLY
The following cues were provided for Group A on the
dynabalometer. They were placed in a covered box adjacent
to the apparatus.
Dynabalometer
Experiment with the following cues to increase
your performance.
1. Look at the edge of the board.
2. Keep feet about shoulder width apart and toes
slightly pointed outward.
3. Keep knees slightly flexed (bent).
4. Keep arms in front and outward about 45°.
5. Immediately when edge of board touches plat
form try to regain balance.
97
6. Ask the instructor questions.
7. Discuss with others in Group A only.
8. Compete with someone in Group A only.
9. Observe and analyze performance of others.
10. Observe the increase of the total score each
day.
11. Keep the center of gravity of your body slightly
forward. It is easier to regain balance from
the forward position than when balance is lost
backward.
12. Group A as a whole is competing against Group B.
13. It helps some people to put one foot a little
forward and the other foot back slightly.
REVIEW THESE CUES FREQUENTLY
Treatment of the data
The initial balance performance test, the second
balance performance test, and the final balance perform
ance test were actually composed; of three individual tests
of two types. The Bass circle test was used as a measure
of dynamic balance and the Bass stick tests as measures of
static balance. It was desirable to have these two types
of balance receive an equal weight in the final scores.
The maximum possible number of points in the Bass circle
test was 100. The maximum possible number of points in
the Bass stick test was 60 on each test, making a total of
120. In order to have the two scores (100 and 120)
equally weighted,- it was necessary to find the percentage
each raw score was of the total possible in that test,
98
then multiply that percentage by constants .454 and .546
respectively. These scores were then added to provide the
balance performance scores. Individual balance performance
scores were added to provide group means for comparison.
The transfer and retention values were computed by
determining the percentage of increase of the experimental
group minus the percentage of increase of the control
group.
The t-test for statistical significance was used
to determine the difference among: (1) initial test means
between the groups; (2) second test means between the
groups; (3) final test means between the groups; and (4)
mean gains within the groups.
The coefficients of reliability for the low wire
and dynabalometer were determined by using the Pearson
Product Moment Method of Correlation. Initial reliability
was determined on the low wire by correlating the sum of
the first and third trials with the sum of the second and
fourth trials during the first practice period. Final re
liability on the low wire was determined by correlating the
sum of the first and third trials with the sum of the
second and fourth trials during the final practice period.
The reliability of the dynabalometer was determined
99
initially by correlating trial 1 with trial 2 of the first
practice period. Final reliability was determined by cor
relating trial 1 with trial 2 of the final practice period.
Summary
In this chapter was presented a description of the
subjects and how they were selected and grouped. The ex
perimental apparatus, which included the Bass circles and
sticks, the low wire, and the dynabalometer were illustrated
and described. The experimental design, including the
testing procedure for the circle test and stick test, the
training program of learning to perform on the low wire
and on the dynabalometer, and the method of treatment of
the data, were reported.
CHAPTER V
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
The problem of this study was to examine the trans
fer effect of learning teachable balance skills on the per
formance of another group of balance skills, and to deter
mine the amount of retention of this transfer after an
eight-week period of no specific balance activity.
The purpose of this chapter is to present the
findings from the various groups on balance ability,
learning ability, transfer of training and retention of
training. In addition, the general procedure of the sta
tistical analysis is presented. At the conclusion of the
chapter, a brief summary of the major findings is given.
Overall interpretations and discussion of the findings
presented in this chapter are discussed in detail in Chap
ter VI.
The raw data, including test scores and converted
standard scores for the three balance performance tests,
100
101
and the learning scores received on the dynabalometer and
the low wire for the two experimental groups are presented
in Appendix A. Included in this chapter are tables which
indicate the differences between the means accompanied by
graphic presentation of the learning curves for performance
on the dynabalometer and the low wire.
Means were computed from the individual scores
within the various groups. These means were compared in
various ways. One set of comparisons of the means con
trasts the groups on the basis of initial test scores since
it was necessary to show their initial equivalence. In
order to compare amounts of transfer, initial balance per
formance test scores had to be compared with the second
balance performance test scores. A third contrast was made
in order to measure the amount of retention by comparing
the initial balance performance scores with the final bal
ance performance scores. Improvement in the learning tasks
was compared by mean increase differences and a percentage
of gain during training score.
Generally, the statistical treatment of the data
involved the use of the t-test for significance in order to
determine the differences among (1) initial test means
between the groups, (2) second test means between the
102
groups, (3) final test means between the groups, and (4)
mean gains within the groups. Two formulas were used, one
for procedures involving uncorrelated means and the other
for correlated means. The formula for uncorrelated means
recommended by Garrett (3:223) was used for the t-test for
significance between the means for the initial balance per
formance test, the second balance performance test, and the
final balance performance test. This formula was also used
to test for the significance between the mean gains between
the groups. The formula for determining the t-test for
significance between correlated means, as recommended by
Garrett (3:230), was used to determine the significance of
differences between the mean gains within the groups.
Coefficients of reliability and other intercorrela-
tions were determined by using the Pearson Product Moment
Method of Correlation.
Improvement within Groups
The results of the differences between means within
the groups on the three balance performance tests are shown
in Tables 2 and 3, on pages 103 and 104 respectively. By
examining Table 2 it may be seen that each group improved
its mean score on all of the balance performance tests,
TABLE 2
GROUP MEANS ON THE INITIAL, SECOND, AND FINAL BALANCE PERFORMANCE
TESTS AND PERCENTAGES OF TRANSFER AND RETENTION
Group A Group B Group C
Test
Mean
% In- _ _
Transfer
crease
Retention Mean
7° In- f
Transfer
crease
Retention
7° In"
Mean
crease
1 44.00 43.20 42.65
2 55.59
26.4 6.5%
52.54
21.6 1.7%
51.13
19.9
3 58.60
33.2
1.4%
58.39
35.2
3.4%
56.23
31.8
Note: This table should be read as follows: Group A received mean scores on tests 1, 2,
and 3 of 44.00, 55.59, and 58.60 respectively. The per cent increase from test 1
to test 2 was 26.4. The per cent Increase from test 1 to test 2 of Group A minus
the per cent increase from test 1 to test 2 of the control group (group C) yielded
a transfer value of 6.5 per cent for Group A. The per cent increase from test 1
and test 3 of Group A minus the per cent increase from tests 1 to test 3 of
Group C yields a retention value of 1.4 per cent for Group A.
104
TABLE 3
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS WITHIN GROUPS
ON THE INITIAL, SECOND, AND FINAL
BALANCE PERFORMANCE TESTS
Gain Group A Group B Group C t
Signif
icance
1st and
2nd test
11.59 5.76 1%
9.34 5.13 1%
8.48 4.96 1%
1st and
3rd test
14.60 7.05 1%
15.19 8.00 1%
13.58 6.76
1%
Note: This table should be read as follows: the mean gain
of 11.59 shown by Group A between the initial and
second balance performance test resulted in a t of
5.76, which was significant at the 1 per cent level
of confidence.
105
including the final balance performance test which was
administered two months after test 2. Analysis of Table 3
on page 104 indicates that the improvement of the groups on
all of the tests was statistically significant beyond the
1 per cent level of confidence.
Improvement between Groups
Further analysis of Table 2 shows that Group A
transferred 6.5 per cent of its learned skill, which was
acquired by practicing on the low wire and the dynabal-
ometer, to the second balance performance test. Group B
transferred 1.7 per cent of its learned skill, which was
acquired by practicing on the low wire and the dynabal
ometer. The retention score for Group B of 3.4 per cent,
however, was slightly greater than the retention score of
1.4 per cent for Group A. The statistical significance of
the mean differences are tabulated in Table 4, on page 106.
It is clearly evident that none of the differences in mean
gains were significant at the 5 per cent level of confi
dence, which was the standard of accuracy demanded by the
original design of this study.
TABLE 4
DIFFERENCES IN MEAN GAINS BETWEEN GROUPS DURING THE INITIAL,
SECOND, AND FINAL BALANCE PERFORMANCE TESTS
Between
Test Gains
Group A Group B Group C
Mean Gain
Difference
t
Signif
icance
Tests 1-2 11.59 9.34 2.25 1.01
JU
A
Tests 1-3 14.60 15.19 .59 .25
Tests 1-2 11.59 8.48 3.11 1.21
Tests 1-3 14.60 13.58 1.02 .38
Tests 1-2 9.34 8.48 . 86 .32
Tests 1-3 15.19 13.58 1.61 .69
* None of the mean gain differences yielded a _t which was significant at the
5 per cent level of confidence.
Note: This table should be read as follows: the mean gain between the initial and
second balance performance test is 11.59 for Group A. When compared with the gain
of 9.34 between the initial and second balance performance tests for Group B, a
mean gain difference of 2.25 was found which yielded a _t of 1.01 that was not £
significant. &
107
Training Results
After the initial balance performance test was
given and the three groups were equated, the two experi
mental groups participated in a training period which con
sisted of learning to perform on the low wire and on the
dynabalometer. Experimental Group A received numerous cues
to aid performance and Group B was given only the objec
tives of the tasks. Table 5 on page 108 presents the mean
scores of the daily practice periods for both experimental
groups. Graphic presentation of these data is presented in
Figures 4 and 5 on pages 109 and 110. Figure 4 illustrates
the comparable learning curves for the two experimental
groups on the low wire. Figure 5 illustrates the learning
curve for the two experimental groups on the dynabalometer.
All of the learning curves are negatively accelerated.
Table 5 also shows the mean gains on the low wire
and the dynabalometer from practice period 1 to practice
period 10. Since the two groups are equated for the bal
ance performance tests, it was not possible to have them
also initially equated on the low wire and the dynabal
ometer. Therefore, the mean gains as a result of training
can not be compared. In order to measure the relative
amounts of training in the two experimental groups, a
\
TABLE 5
GROUP MEANS FOR PRACTICE PERIODS ON THE LOW WIRE
AND THE DYNABALOMETER
Group Apparatus
Practice Period
Mean
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Gain
A
Low
4.97 5.66 6.76 7.34 7.73 8.14 8.83 8.72 8.65 9.03 4.06
B
Wire
5.51 5.89 6.41 7.00 7.38 7.52 7.77 7.96 7.99 8.38 2.87
A
Dynabal
23.0 25.7 31.1 34.4 36.6 38.4 40.0 39.6 40.4 42.4 19.4
B
ometer
26.2 28.8 32.9 35.9 39.1 39.6 42.0 42.0 42.6 41.6 15.4
Note: This table should be
for practice period
i read
1 was
as follows:
4.97.
the mean score for' Group A on the low wire
O
00
M ea n Raw
Score
9 _J
8 _J
Group A
Group B
O
P ractice
Period
1
1 0
Fig, 4.--Comparative learning curves for groups
A and B on the low wire.
109
M ean Raw
Scar e
42
4 0
3 8_
. /
3 6_
Group A
34
Group B
3 2_
30
28 _
26
24 _
Practice
Period
10
Fig. 5.--Comparative learning curves for Groups A
and B on the dynabalometer.
110
Ill
percentage of gain during training score was computed for
each subject. The ’’ per cent gain of the possible gain"
method, in which the sum of all trials minus the first
trial is divided by the highest possible score on all
trials minus the first trial, was used. According to
McCraw (129), this method of scoring tasks involving the
learning of motor skills, is the most valid method to use
when the initial scores are not equated.
Learning scores were computed for each subject and
appear in Table 19 in Chapter VII. The mean learning
score on the low wire for Group A was 26.8, which may be
compared to a mean learning score of 25.1 for Group B. The
mean learning score on the dynabalometer was 28.1 for
Group A while that of Group B was 29.1. Therefore, even
though mean raw score differences appear to be large,
according to the learning scores there was very little
difference in the degree of learning between the two exper
imental groups.
Reliability of the Tests Used
The reliability of the balance performance tests,
which consist of the Bass circle test and the Bass stick
tests, have been previously discussed in Chapter II. The
112
reliability of the low wire test and the dynabalometer were
determined in two different manners.
Initial reliability was determined on the low wire
by correlating the sum of the first and third trials with
the sum of the second and fourth trials during the first
practice period. Final reliability on the low wire was
determined by correlating the sum of the first and third
trials with the sum of the second and fourth trials during
the tenth (last) practice period. The coefficients of re
liability were found to be .63 and .90 respectively.
The reliability of the dynabalometer was determined
initially by correlating trial 1 with trial 2 of the first
practice period. Final reliability was determined by cor
relating trial 1 with trial 2 of the final practice period.
The coefficients of reliability were found to be .65 and
.72 respectively.
Incidental findings
In order to relate certain phases of balance per
formance found in other studies of balance with the present
investigation, interrelationships between several factors
were computed. The final balance performance test was used
as a criterion and was related to age, height, weight, and
113
shoe size. The correlations obtained were -.31, .48, .18,
and .03 with age, height, weight, and shoe size respective
ly.
Summary of the Findings
The groups were found to be equivalent at the be
ginning of the study. All three groups, including the
experimental and control groups, showed statistically
significant gains on subsequent balance performance tests.
A transfer value of 6.5 per cent from the training
tasks to the second balance performance test was found for
Group A, which had benefit of cues, compared with a trans
fer of 1.7 per cent for Group B which had no cues. The
retention score for Group B of 3.4 per cent, however,
slightly exceeded the retention score of 1.4 per cent for
Group A. All of the comparative transfer and retention
values were statistically insignificant.
The results of the training period in which the
experimental groups participated were compared. Although
raw score mean gains appeared to be large, learning scores
indicated that both experimental groups learned relatively
the same amounts.
Initial and final reliability of the two training
114
tasks, the low wire and the dynabalometer, were computed.
Reliability coefficients of .63 and .90 were obtained for
the low wire, and coefficients of .65 and .72 were obtained
for the dynabalometer.
CHAPTER VI
DISCUSSION
The problem of this study was to examine the trans
fer effect of learning teachable balance skills on the per
formance of another group of balance skills, and to deter
mine the amount of retention of this transfer after an
eight-week period of no specific practice on balance activ
ities.
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss and to
make interpretations of the findings of the study. Motiva
tion, transfer, retention, low wire performance, and dyna
balometer performance are considered; this is followed by
a discussion of the incidental findings of the study.
Contradictory evidence was found in the literature
regarding transfer and retention of motor skills, includ
ing transfer and retention of balance skills. The fact
that better athletes have better balance, however, seems
to be irrefutable. The possibility of improving athletic
performance by improving performance on specific balance
skills, according to the findings of this study, seems to
be doubtful. In order to determine if balance skills are
transferable and retained for a two-month period, two
hypotheses were established.
At the beginning of this investigation the follow
ing hypotheses were stated:
1. A positive transfer in all three groups would
be found after they had been administered the
second balance performance test, and the trans
fer obtained in the experimental groups would
exceed the transfer found for the control
group.
2. The retention found in the experimental groups,
as a result of taking the third balance per
formance test, would exceed the retention found
in the control group because of overlearning
by the experimental groups on the two training
tasks.
These hypotheses were held tenable; however, the
degree of transfer and retention was so slight that they
were statistically insignificant. A detailed discussion of
these findings is presented later in this chapter.
Motivation and Competition
At the beginning of this investigation, when the
subjects were informed about the general nature of the ex
periment, the enthusiasm for the assignment was question
able. From the very beginning of the initial balance per
formance test, however, it seemed obvious that the subjects
were trying to do their best. Generally there were several
students observing the subjects being tested, which created
an atmosphere of competition. Insuring that the subjects
reported for their daily practice session was no problem
after the skills were introduced.
High motivation was also noted after the total
group was divided into equated groups on the basis of the
initial balance performance test. Many subjects who were
assigned to the control group were disappointed because
they could not learn to perform on the low wire and on the
dynabalometer.
Within the two experimental groups, members of one
group (A) were told they were competing against the other
group and were asked also to pick a partner in their own
group to compete with during the training period.
Performance on the low wire, for safety’s sake, had
to be inhibited. Many subjects were so intent on acquiring
118
a better score that they were running or taking too large
steps so that it was necessary to restrain them in order to
prevent injury. Performance on the dynabalometer was also
highly competitive. The gain from one trial to the next
was not as great numerically as on the low wire, but the
subjects seemed to work much harder to gain upon and exceed
their rivals. Many of the subjects in Group B soon uncon
sciously began competing with someone, though they were
never told to do so. The maximum score attained on the two
tests was frequently announced to both groups, and this
seemed to stimulate some of the performers to improve.
Group A, in addition to individual and group compe-
tion, competed with its previous scores. Each day mean
scores on the low wire and the total score on the dynabal
ometer were computed and the subjects could study their
progress. Group B, however, was not apprised of its prog
ress from one practice period to the next.
Transfer
The findings of this investigation indicate that
balance ability as well as the ability to learn balance
skills is very task specific. Group A was found to have
119
transferred 6.5 per cent of the "common elements" from the
two learning tasks to the second balance performance test
and Group B transferred 1.7 per cent. Analysis of Table 4,
page 106, indicates that these differences are not great
enough to be statistically significant at the 5 per cent
level of confidence. It may be inferred that Group A,
which had instruction, transferred more because the sub
jects had assistance in analyzing the motions on other tests
of balance. This explanation coincides with Bray's explan
ation of bilateral transfer (33:467). Based on the experi
mental evidence, however, it cannot be concluded that
Group A transferred more because of overlearning on the
training tasks since the mean difference in the learning
scores of the two groups was practically zero.
These findings are consistent with other studies
on transfer of motor skills (45; 77; 80; and 90). However,
the results do conflict with the study conducted by Dodge
involving rotational balance transfer. Dodge found 50 per
cent transfer from adaptation to rotation in one direction
to adaptation to rotation in the opposite direction (43).
The explanation for transfer most compatible to
this investigator is the theory proposed by Thorndike
whereby the extent to which a response transfers to a new
120
situation depends on the degree to which the new situation
resembles the practiced one. In the present investigation,
the similarity between the balance skills was not great;
thus, according to Thorndike's explanation, the transfer
was small. Had the original test been administered on a
balance beam, then the subjects trained on the low wire,
perhaps a large amount of transfer back to the balance beam
would have occurred. However, in the present investigation
a design was utilized in an attempt to avoid a bias in the
type of balance tests used. In addition, transfer of skill
was not intentionally taught.
Retention
All of the groups involved in the experiment showed
_ ^
an increase on the final balance performance test which was
given two months after the second balance performance test.
Group A received a retention score of 1.4 per cent and
Group B received a retention score of 3.4 per cent. This
small amount of gain over the control group retention was
not statistically significant; however, since all three
groups received higher scores on the final test, support
for the phenomenon of reminiscence in learning motor skills
was gained.
121
There are four possible explanations for the remi
niscence that occurred in this investigation. The possi
bility of mental practice cannot be overlooked. Although
controls were not established in the design of this study
to measure this factor, it is highly possible that it did
occur. Other studies (109 and 110) have clearly established
that mental practice is beneficial, and many subjects in
volved in this experiment mentioned the fact that they had
been thinking about the experiment and of ways to improve
their performance.
A second explanation for the reminiscence observed
in this study is explained by Leavitt and Schlosberg
(79:414) and referred to as a performance decrement. Essen
tially this theory explains reminiscence by the fact that
learning may not show up in a given trial. The learning
has to "sink in" and, therefore, a repeated performance may
appear to be improved even though some forgetting has
occurred.
It would not be realistic to assume that all of
the subjects completely understood the exact directions on
the initial balance performance test, even though precau
tions were taken to avoid a lack of understanding. If a
more thorough understanding of the directions did occur on
122
subsequent balance performance tests, then this could be an
explanation for the reminiscence that was found.
The final possible explanation for the occurrence
of reminiscence was an increase in the subjects' leg
strength. The exact relationship between balance and leg
strength is not known; however, so many subjects, after
performing on the low wire and particularly the dynabal-
ometer, complained of soreness in the leg adductors, foot
dorsi-flexors, and intrinsic foot muscles, that it is rea
sonable to suspect that muscle tone in the legs has some
bearing on balance ability. Since all of the subjects were
enrolled in either Handball, Body Building, or in a Funda
mental Conditioning class, which consisted of body build
ing and handball, it is entirely possible that leg strength
was developed in these classes. Analysis of the balance
mechanism discussed in Chapter III also substantiates the
possibility of a relationship between leg strength and bal
ance ability.
The exact reason for the occurrence of reminis
cence in this study cannot be determined. Whether there
was one cause or whether all of the aforementioned were
involved can only be speculated upon. The fact is, how
ever, that it did occur and that its occurrence is not
123
unusual in studies involving the learning of motor skills
(29; 39; 49; 79; 80; and 96).
If retention curves were plotted, they would be
negatively accelerated since performance on the final bal
ance performance test was greater than performance on the
second balance performance test. These findings are not in
accord with the findings of Tsai (107) nor with the Ebbing-
haus curve of retention; however, they do agree with the
findings of Leavitt and Schlosberg (79) and Gagne' and
Fleishman (2). Further tests to measure retention at later
periods were not possible since the subjects were dispersed
at the termination of the semester.
Low Wire Performance
Analysis of Figure 4 on page 109 indicates the
relative learning on the low wire for Groups A and B.
Although the mean raw score for Group B was initially
higher, Group A, which was receiving instruction, passed
the performance of Group B by the third practice period.
Although both curves are negatively accelerated, the curve
for Group B indicates a nearly zero acceleration. Trials
seven, eight, and nine for both groups seem as though they
are "leveling off" since both groups increase on trial ten.
It is difficult to determine whether this is a plateau or
whether progress is being retarded because of the higher
degree of skill being developed by the subjects; however,
if the learning period had been extended for another ten
practice periods, this could have been determined. It may
be that the increase in performance at trial ten for both
groups was an "all out last effort" since the subjects
knew that it was their last chance.
The largest contributing factors to the slightly
increased performance of Group A were an initial "spurt"
in performance on trials one and two, which was probably
due to familiarization with the cues, and the coaching
received on how to make the turn at the end of the low
wire. Members of Group B seemed to be puzzled regarding
the manner of making the turn and maintaining balance so
that they could continue back on the wire. Those in Group
A who managed to reach the turn had much more rapid success
after they were coached on how to turn.
The reliability of the low wire was .63 initially
and .90 finally. This extremely variable reliability is
understandable on such a difficult task as walking on the
low wire. One slight error and balance is lost. There is
very little opportunity to regain balance once an error has
125
been committed. With practice, however, the subject antic
ipates potential errors and begins to compensate sooner.
As a result, his performance becomes more consistent.
Consistency of performance, that is, reliability of per
formance, increases with improved ability; in fact, one
definition of high-level performance is consistent perform
ance .
Dynabalometer Performance
Analysis of Figure 5 on page 110 indicates the rel
ative learning on the dynabalometer for Groups A and B.
The learning curves for both groups are quite similar. A
slight gain in rate of learning can be noticed for Group A
on trial 2. Thereafter, the rate of learning is fairly
consistent until trial 10. Trials 7, 8, and 9 appear to
"level off" on the dynabalometer similar to the learning
curves for the low wire. Whether this is a true plateau
or whether the curve is decelerating because of the high
degree of skill reached could be determined only by extend
ing the number of practice periods. On the final trial,
Group A increased by two seconds whereas Group B decreased
by one second. An explanation for this may be that Group A
experienced a plateau and was increasing and that Group B
126
had reached its maximum performance level.
For all practical purposes, however, both groups
learned approximately the same amount and at approximately
the same rate.
Physical performance on the dynabalometer was
noticeably different for different subjects. Subjects with
lower scores seemed to have erratic, spastic type gross
body movements; whereas the better performers had better
control of their bodies. Beebe (28) also noticed this and
stated that:
Integrated movement apparently associated with
less effort tends to accompany control in equili
bration. Extreme body and limb contractions, dis
tal contractions and other extraneous tensions
appear more noticeable in less skilled performers.
(28:228)
Incidental Findings
The incidental findings reported in Chapter V were
sought so that additional data could be obtained regarding
such factors as the relation of height, age, et cetera, to
the ability to balance. Although the subjects participat
ing in this study ranged in age from 17 to 27, the most
frequent age was 19. A correlation of -.31 was obtained
between age and the ability to perform on the final balance
performance test. It may be that as a person becomes older
127
his balance ability decreases. This finding corresponds
with findings in studies conducted by Seashore (100) and
Bachman (25); however, a wider range of ages would be
needed before this observation could be verified. The low
negative correlation may also simply indicate a lack of
relationship between these two variables.
Since all of the subjects involved in this study
were male, sex differences and balance ability could not be
determined. Many women who came into the laboratory during
the experiment, however, were eager to try the balance
tests.
Height and weight, with correlations of .48 and .18
respectively with the final balance performance test, seem
to be very slightly related to balance ability. These
findings support the findings of many other investigators
(51; 53; 100; 105; and 133) regarding the relationship
between height and weight to balance ability.
Travis (105) hypothesized that possibly the length
of the foot has a positive relationship with the ability to
balance. He used the balance platform to test this hypoth
esis and found a correlation of -.48. The data of the
present investigation were also used to determine the rela
tionship between shoe size and the ability to perform on
128
the final balance performance test. The obtained correla
tion of .03 lends support to Travis' hypothesis that any
relationship between foot length and balance ability is by
chance only.
After reviewing the studies in which attempts were
made to relate physical factors to the ability to perform
on various balance tests, it seems that very few, if any,
have found statistically significant relationships with
age, sex, height, weight, or foot size. It seems more
logical that the key to the ability to perform balance type
Lctivities, or any other type of motor skill, is the neuro
muscular efficiency described in Chapter III and not by
external anatomical features.
CHAPTER VII
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The problem undertaken in this study was to examine
the transfer effect of learning teachable balance skills on
the performance of another group of balance skills, and to
determine the amount of retention of this transfer after an
eight-week period of no special practice on balance activi
ties .
One hundred and thirty-six male students enrolled
at the University of Southern California were used as sub
jects in this investigation. The students were volunteers
from nine physical activity courses offered by the Univer
sity, which included courses in Handball, Body Building,
and a Fundamental Skills course including handball and body
conditioning. The subjects ranged in age from 17 to 27.
At the beginning of the experiment all 136 subjects
129
130
were given an initial balance performance test which con
sisted of the Bass circle test and two of the twelve Bass
stick tests. Composite scores for this initial test were
used to equate the total group into three subgroups. The
subgroups were equated on the basis of their means and
standard deviations. The three subgroups were then assigned
randomly the letters A, B, and C. Groups A and B were
designated as experimental groups and Group C was the con
trol group.
Atfter the initial balance performance test was
given and the groups were established, members of the ex
perimental groups participated in a two-week training period
during which they learned to perform on two different pieces
of balance apparatus. The two tasks were learning to walk
on a low wire and learning to perform on the dynabalometer.
Two experimental groups were established since it
was felt that if one group could learn the skills to a
higher degree, more transfer and retention might occur in
that group. Group A was given many cues, knowledge of
results, coaching, and increased motivation in order to in
crease the degree of learning. Group B was given only the
essential directions and objectives for accomplishing the
tasks.
131
After the experimental groups had trained on the
two tasks for two weeks, all three of the groups were given
the second balance performance test. Data were then anal
yzed to determine if the experimental groups, as a result
of learning to perform on two other difficult balance
tasks, would transfer a portion of this learned ability to
the second balance performance test. The increase in per
formance of the experimental groups was compared with the
increase in performance of the control group.
Subsequent to the second balance performance test,
none of the subjects in any of the three groups practiced
on any specific balance activity for eight weeks. After
the eight-week period had lapsed, all of the subjects were
given a final balance performance test. Data from this
final test were compared with the initial balance perform
ance test to determine which group had retained more as a
result of the various degrees of learning and practicing
on other balance apparatus.
The statistical treatment of the data involved the
use of the Fisher t-test for determining the significance
of the differences among (1) initial test means between the
groups, (2) second test means between the groups, (3) final
test means between the groups, and (4) mean gains within
132
the groups. The Pearson Product Moment Method of Correla
tion was used to determine the relationship between balance,
as measured by the final balance performance test, and age
height, weight, and shoe size. Pearson's r was also used
to determine reliability coefficients for the tests used
in the study.
Findings
The results obtained from the testing of 118 sub
jects who completed all phases of the study were analyzed.
The major findings were:
1. The three groups were equated at the beginning
of the experiment based on their means and
standard deviations.
2. All three of the groups attained greater scores
on the second balance performance test than
they attained on the initial balance perform
ance test. The mean gains were all statis
tically significant beyond the 1 per cent level
of confidence.
3. The mean gain differences among the experiment
al and control groups from the initial to the
second balance performance test were not great
enough to be statistically significant at the
5 per cent level of confidence.
Each of the three groups improved its mean
scores on the final balance performance test
over the second balance performance test. This
occurrence introduced the phenomenon of remi
niscence into the study. The mean gains be
tween the initial balance performance test and
this final balance performance test were statis
tically significant beyond the 1 per cent level
of confidence.
The mean gain differences among the experi
mental and the control groups from the initial
balance performance test to the final balance
performance test were not great enough to be
statistically significant at the 5 per cent
level of confidence.
Group A learned slightly more on the low wire
than Group B; however, Group B learned slightly
more than did Group A on the dynabalometer.
The net result indicated practically identical
amounts of learning for the two groups.
134
7. Group A transferred 6.5 per cent of the skill
developed as a result of the training on the
low wire and the dynabalometer to the second
balance performance test, whereas Group B
transferred 1.7 per cent. This difference in
amount of transfer, however, was not statis
tically significant at the 5 per cent level of
confidence.
8. Group A retained 1.4 per cent more than the
control group and Group B retained 3.4 per cent
more than the control group when initial and
final balance performance test results were
compared. This difference in the amount of
retention, however, was not statistically sig
nificant at the 5 per cent level of confidence.
9. Age, height, weight, and shoe size had little
relation to balance, as measured by the final
balance performance test.
Conclusions
If the findings of this investigation may be gener
alized, it may be concluded that the ability to balance
may be learned but this learning is very task specific. It
135
is further concluded that learned balance ability is
retained over long periods of time and performance after
an interval of no specific practice may exceed previous
performance.
Recommendations
As a result of the findings, implications, and
conclusions of this investigation, many interesting ques
tions arise. A few of the studies which appear to be
needed pertaining to the investigation of balance are
listed below:
1. More studies are needed that relate performance
on various types of balance tests and that re
late performance on the same type of balance
tests. There are few standard devices on which
similar studies can be duplicated and there have
been no norms established for balance tests.
2. Additional studies correlating athletic abil
ity in specific sports with balance are needed
in order to determine the importance of balance
ability as a component in successful motor per
formance .
3. Studies relating to the learning of balance
skills are practically nonexistent. The areas
of mental practice, transfer, retention, rate
of learning, mechanical guidance, incentive,
motivation, demonstration, and verbalization,
knowledge of results, directed learning op
posed to independent (trial and error) learn
ing, et cetera, have not been explored in rela
tion to balance.
It would be beneficial to know more conclusive
ly about the relation of such physical factors
as age, sex, height, weight, maturation, sided
ness, vision, and hearing ability to perform
ance on balance type activities.
Studies should be conducted in which the rela
tionship between leg strength, reaction time,
perception time, stamina, et cetera, and bal
ance ability are investigated.
It might also be profitable to study the ef
fects of external conditions such as ambient
temperature, humidity, light, and noise on the
ability to maintain balance.
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APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A
TEST SCORES
TABLE 6
INITIAL BALANCE PERFORMANCE TEST SCORES--GROUP A
Subject
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
Raw Score
% of
Possible
Score
Raw Score
% of
Possible
Score
% of
Possible
Score
Crosswise Lengthwise Total
1 41 18.65 6 4 10 4.55 23.20
2 42 19.22 7 7 14 6.38 25.60
3 52 23.72 3 2 5 2.27 25.99
4 78 35.40 17 8 25 11.38 46.78
5 60 27.25 4 20 24 10.92 38.17
6 60 27.25 15 20 35 15.92 43.17
7 ■ 93 42.30 27 10 37 16. 88 59.18
8 87 39.50 25 15 40 18.25 57.75
9 74 33.60 6 17 23 10.50 44.10
10 37 16.70 14 8 22 10.00 26.80
11 66 30.00 3 12 15 6.84 ^36.84
12 79 35.90 21 4 25 11.38 47.28
13 85 38.60 6 6 12 5.46 44.06
14 72 32.70 9 47 56 25.55 58.25
15 78 35.40 43 22 65 29.60 65.00
16 66 30.00 9 5 14 6.38 36.38
17 92 41.80 44 42 86 39.20 81.00
18 77 35.00 47 19 66 30.00 65.00
19 35 15.87 5 9 14 6.38 22.25 h
t .
155
TABLE 6--Continued
Subject
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
7 o of
Possible
Score
% of
Raw Score Possible
Score
Raw Score
% of
Possible
Score
Crosswise Lengthwise Total
20 31 14.20 5 6 11 5.00 19.20
21 100 45.40 43 58 101 46.00 91.40
22 45 20.42 3 4 7 3.20 23.62
23 73 33.20 3 11 14 6.38 39.58
24 94 42.70 7 12
19 8.65 51.35
25 48 21.80 13 7 20 9.10 30.90
26 50 22.70 4 4 8 3.64 26.34
27 98 44.40 5 32 37 16.88 61.28
28 66 30.00 10 12 22 10.00 40.00
29 67 30.04 9 28 37 16.88 46.92
30 93 42.30 5 10 15 6.84 49.14
31 60 27.23 7 10 17 7.75 34.98
32 49 22.24 6 24 30 13.65 35.89
33 89 40.04 18 23 41 18.65 58.69
34 70 31.80 13 8 21 9.58 41.38
35 96 43.60 7 31 38 17.32 60.92
36 68 30.08 5 6 11 5.00 35.08
37 33 15.00 3 3 6 2.73 17.73
38 67 30.04 36 60 96 43.90 73.94
39 87 39.45 3 3 6 2.73 42.18
40 78 35.40 8 10 18 8.20 43.60
t-
Cr
a
156
TABLE 6--Continued
Subject
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
% of
Raw Score Possible
Score
Raw Score
7 o of
Possible
Score
% of
Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total
41 67 30.04 13 23 36 16.33 46.37
42 57 25.85 5 5 10 8.20 34.05
Mean 44.00
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1 received a raw score on the Bass
Circle test of 41. This score was 18.65 per cent of the total possible score.
On the Bass Stick tests raw scores of 6 and 4, total 10, which is 4.55 per cent
of the total possible score. The per cent of possible on the circle test (18.65)
combined with the per cent of the possible on the stick test (4.55) total 23.20
per cent of the total number of possible points on the balance performance test.
157
TABLE 7
SECOND BALANCE PERFORMANCE TEST SCORES--GROUP A
Subject
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
Raw Score
% of
Possible
Score
Raw Score
% of
Possible
Score
% of
Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total
1 49
22.22 10 11 21 9.58 31. 80
2 86 39.05 7 11 18 8.20 47.25
3 52 23.60 3 8 11 5.00 28.60
4 86 39.05 44 10 54 24.27 63.32
5 75 34.06 6 8 14 6.38 40.44
6 70 31.78 15 8 23 10.50 42.28
7 94 42.70 9 14 23 10.50 53.20
8 84 38.18 60 24 84 38.30 76.48
9 82 37.20 12 17 29 13.40 50.60
10 82 37.20 10 10 20 9.10 46.30
11 73 33.18 4 17 21 9.58 42.76
12
91 41.30 18 11 29 13.40 54.70
13 94 42.70 15 12 27 12.60 55.30
14 72 32.70 11 45 56 25.55 58.25
15 95 43.18 27 23 50 22.80 45.46
16 88 40.00 13 55 68 30.90 70.90
17 96 43.70 60 35 95 43.20 86.90
18 97 44.00 60 51 111 50.55 94.55
19 42 19.15 3 6 9 4.10 23.25 h
L
C
1 5 8
TABLE 7--Continued
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
Subject
% of
Raw Rnnrp Possihlp
Raw Score
% of
Possible
% of
Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total Score Score
20 35 15.90 6 7 13 5.92 21.82
21 94 42.70 60 40 100 45.45 88.15
22 89 40.40 7 7 14 6.38 46.78
23 70 31.78 4 8 12 5.46 37.24
24 88 40.00 8 8 16 7.28 47.28
25 79 35.90 29 8 37 16.88 52.78
26 46 20.90 3 8 11 5.00 25.90
27 99 45.00 60 60 120 54.60 99.60
28 90 40.86 15 11 26 11.82 52.68
29 84 38.18 7 22
29 13.40 51.58
30 88 40.00 60 10 70 31.82 71.82
31 96 43.70 8 5 13 5.92 49.62
32 82 37.20 15 32 47 21.42 58.62
33 94 42.70 20 60 80 36.42 79.12
34 87 39.50 11 15 26 11.82 51.32
35 91 41.30 60 38 98 44.60 85.90
36 85 38.60 11 9 20 9.10 47.70
37 73 33.18 6 4 10 4.55 37.73
38 90 40.86 12 45 57 26.00 66.86
39 73 33.18 6 21
27 12.60 45.78
40 96 43.70 60 33 93 42.45 86.15
i —1
Cn
UD
159
TABLE 7--Continued
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
Subject
% of
Raw Score Possible
Score
Raw Score
7o of
Possible
Score
7c of
Possible
Score
Crosswise Lengthwise Total
41
42
88 40.00
90 40.86
36 19
10 17
55
27
25.00
12.60
65.00
53.46
Mean 55.59
Note: This table should be read as follows: Subject 1 received a raw score on the Bass
Circle test of 49. This score was 22.22 per cent of the total possible score.
On the Bass Stick tests raw scores of 10 and 11, total 21, which is 9.58 per cent
of the total possible score. The per cent of possible on the circle test (22.22)
combined with the per cent of the possible on the stick test (9.58) total 31.80
per cent of the total number of possible points on the balance performance test.
160
TABLE 8
FINAL BALANCE PERFORMANCE TEST SCORES--GROUP A
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick: Tests Total
Subject
7c of
T ? ot.i C n n v a Pr» c o i V> 1 a
Raw Score
7o of
Possible
% of
Possible jlvclw ^JU C i. UL3UO.UI.S.
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total Score Score
1 55 25.00 9 5 14 6.38 31.38
2 75 34.06 10 7 17 7.75 41.81
3 58 26.35 8 10 18 8.20 34.55
4 86 39.05 60 7 67 30,50 69.55
5 69 31.35 10 12 22 10.00 41.35
6 90 40.86 19 23 42 19.12 59.98
7 94 42.70 21 18 39 17.76 60.46
8 82 37.20 35 60 95 43.20 80.40
9 77 35.00
6
8 14 6.38 41.38
10 79 35.90 12 17 29 13.40 49.30
11 86 39.05 8 10 18 8.20 47.25
12 84 38.18 16 19 35 15.92 54.10
13 100 45.40 27 22 49 22.30 67.70
14 72 32.70 8 24 32 14.56 47.26
15 100 45.40 38 57 95 43.20 88.60
16 100 45.40 42 15 57 26.00 71.40
17 100 45.40 60 56 116 52.75 98.15
18 100 45.40 53 60 113 51.40 96.80
19 84 38.18 10 12 22 10.00 48.18 m
CT\
I —1
161
TABLE 8--Continued
Subject
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
7o of
Raw Score Possible
Score
Raw Score
% of
Possible
Score
% of
Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total
20 30 13.62 7 9 16 7.28 20.90
21 98 44.50 60 60 120 54.60 99.10
22 76 34.55 6 12 18 8.20 42.75
23 66 30.00 7 18 25 11.38 41.38
24 90 40. 86 15 8 23 10.50 51.36
25 83 37.70 10 8 18 8.20 45.90
26 32 14.52 7 3 10 4.55 19.07
27 100 45.40 60 39 99 45.10 90.50
28 90 40.86 22 15 37 16. 88 57.74
29 71 32.25 5 18 23 10.50 42.75
30 85 38.60 23 12 35 15.92 54.52
31 93 42.20 12 9 21 9.58 51.78
32
79 35.90 39 30 69 31.40 70.90
33 100 45.40 60 60 120 54.60 100.00
34 74 33.60 16 6 22 10.00 43.60
35 93 42.20 25 60 85 38.70 80.90
36 72 32.70 28 24 52 23.60 56.30
37 94 42.70 6 6 12 5.46 48.16
38 62 28.20 9 60 69 31.40 59.60
39 90 40.86 7 27 34 15,47 56.33
40 97 44.00 20 45 65 20.60 73.60 £
162
TABLE 8--Cont inued
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
Subject % of
Raw Score % of % of
Raw Score Possible Possible Possible
Score
Crosswise Lengthwise Total
Score Score
41 74 33.60 37 60 97 44.20 77.80
42 81 36.80 12 8 20 9.10 45.90
Mean 58.60
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1 received a raw score on the Bass
Circle test of 55. This score was 25.00 per cent of the total possible score. On
the Bass Stick tests raw scores of 9 and 5 total 14, which is 6.38 per cent of the
total possible score. The per cent of possible on the circle test (25.00) com
bined with the per cent of the possible on the stick test (6.38) total 31.38 per
cent of the total number of possible points on the balance performance test.
163
TABLE 9
INITIAL BALANCE PERFORMANCE TEST SCORES--GROUP B
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
Subject
7o of
D «v - _ t Crtrt v« Dr» n - « K i «
Raw Score
% of
Possible
Score
% of
Possible
Score
j j _ e XUOOJLUJ.C:
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total
1 55 25.00 50 16 66 30.00 55.00
2 97 44.00 7 5 12 5.46 49.46
3 90 40.09 10 7 17 7.75 47.84
4 85 38.60 6 9 15 6.82 45.42
5 50 22.75 23 20 43 19.60 42.35
6 54 24.55 12 8 20 9.10 33.65
7 88 40.00 7 32 39 17.80 57.80
8 93 42.20 18 13 31 14.10 56.30
9 50 22.70 2 6 8 3.64 26.34
10 72 32.60 30 31 61 27.80 60.40
11 70 31.80 18 12 30 13.68 45.48
12 45 20.45 3 5 8 3.64 24.09
13 67 30.04 9 10 19 8.65 38.69
14 56 25.40 8 7 15 6.85 32.25
15 60 27.25 4 4 8 3.64 30. 89
16 63 28.80 7 12 19 8.65 37.45
17 45 20.42 12 10 22 10.00 30.42
18 96 43.60 14 9 23 10.50 54.10
19 50 22.75 3 4 7 3.20 25.95 m
o\
■ p "
164
TABLE 9--Continued
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
Subject % of Raw Score % of % of
D nr.i C n i* Dr» « ■ » ^ * t 1^ 1 rt
Possible Possible JJ.G i U O O J.U1C
Score
Crosswise Lengthwise Total
Score Score
20 85 38.50 14 4 18 8.20 46.70
21 50 22.72 10 10 20 9.10 31.82
22 83 37.70 10 5 15 6.84 44.54
23 75 34.10 5 9 14 6.38 40.48
24 85 38.80 59 36 95 43.20 82.00
25 60 27.22 14 11 25 11.38 38.60
26 73 33.22 33 12 45 20.05 53.25
27 75 34.08 16 4 20 9.10 43.18
28 70 31.80 7 6 13 5.92 37.72
29 73 33.11 7 7 14 6.38 39.49
30 96 43.50 15 11 26 11.82 55.32
31 64 29.00 9 8 17 7.75 36.75
32 58 26.40 1 3 4 1.82 28.22
33 77 35.00 10 16 26 11.82 46.82
34 90 40.08 39 44 83 37.75 77.83
35 41 18.60 9 11 20 9.10 27.70
36 81 36.80 26 24 50 22.80 59.60
37 64 29.00 9 37 46 20.87 49.87
38 39 17.70 9 4 13 5.92 23.62
39 48 21.80 6 7 13 5.92 27.72
t->
ON
U1
165
TABLE 9--Continued
Total
% of
Possible
Score
Mean 43.20
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1 received a raw score on the Bass
Circle test of 55. This score was 25.00 per cent of the total possible score.
On the Bass Stick tests raw scores of 50 and 16 total 66, which is 30.00 per cent
of the total possible score. The per cent of possible on the circle test (25.00)
combined with the per cent of the possible on the stick test (30.00) total 55 per
cent of the total number of possible points on the balance performance test.
TABLE 10
SECOND BALANCE PERFORMANCE TEST SCORES--GROUP B
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
Subject
Raw Score
% of
Possible
Raw Score % of
Poss ible
7o of
Possible
Score Score
Crosswisei Lengthwise Total
Score
1 67 30.40 21 45 66 30.00 60.40
2 70 31.78 18 12 30 13.65 45.43
3 79 35.90 31 8 39 17.76 53.66
4 84 38.18 32 14 46 20.87 59.05
5 68 30.85 25 12 37 16.88 47.73
6 63 28.60 5 12 17 7.75 36.35
7 79 44.00 8 10 18 8.20 52.20
8 94 42.70 60 18 78 35.60 78.30
9
62 28.20 12
9 21 9.58 37.78
10 74 33.60 21 12 33 14.90 48.50
11 66 30.00 8 24 32 14.56 44.56
12 81 36.80 4 17 21
9.58 46.38
13 77 35.00 12
9 21 9.58 44.58
14 75 34.06 18 6 24 10.92
44.98
15 61 27.70 5 4 9 4.10 31.80
16 72 32.70 39 14 53 24.03 57.73
17 55 25.00 6 8 14 6.38 31.38
18 82 37.20 15 14 29 13.40 50.60 ^
ON
bj-
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
TABLE 10--Continued
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests
7o of Raw Score % of
Raw Score Possible ------------------------------ Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total Score
81 36.80 11 43 54 24.27
93 42.20 12 16 28 12.70
50 22.70 17 6 23 10.50
84 38.18 5 6 11 5.00
83 37.70 13 16 29 13.40
85 38.60 60 55 115 52.25
75 34.06 9
12 21 9.58
95 43.18 20 42 62 28.22
86 39.05 22 60 82 37.30
85 38.60 10 5 15 6.84
88 40.00 16 12 28 12.70
100 45.40 36 38 74 33.70
72 32.70 8 8 16 7.28
76 34.55 7 9 16 7.28
84 38.18 9 7 16 7.28
100 45.40 60 60 120 54.60
82 37.20 19 18 37 16.88
98 44.50 13 38 51 23.20
91 41.30 50 21
71 32.30
TABLE 10--Continued
Subject
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
% of
Raw Score Possible
Score
Raw Score 7o of
Possible
Score
% of
Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total
38 52 23.60 4 3 7 3.20 26.80
39 43 19.52 5 3 8 3.64 23.16
Mean 52.54
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1 received a raw score on the Bass
Circle test of 67. This score was 30.40 per cent of the total possible score.
On the Bass Stick tests raw scores of 21 and 45 total 66, which is 30.00 per cent
of the total possible score. The per cent of possible on the circle test (30.4Q)
combined with the per cent of the possible on the stick test (30.00) total 60.40
per cent of the total number of possible points on the balance performance test.
a s
so
bj'
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
TABLE 11
FINAL BALANCE PERFORMANCE TEST SCORES--GROUP B
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests
7 o of Raw Score ° / 0 of
Raw Score Possible ------------------------------ Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total Score
70 31.78 28 40 68 30.90
87 39.50 16 29 45 20.50
94 42.70 10 14 24 10.92
91 41.30 10 60 70 31.82
80
36.32 22 39 61 27.70
85 38.60 6 8 14 6.38
80 36.32 10 7 17 7.75
87 39.50 60 28 88 40.00
93 42.20 6 10 16 7.28
96 43.70 6 33 39 17.76
74 33.60 6 8 14 6.38
66 30.00 5 12 17 7.75
89 40.14 6 9 15 6.84
90 40. 86 28 10 38 17.32
78 35.40 8 5 13 5.92
72 32.70 42 10 52 23.60
84 38.18 11 23 34 15.47
100 45.40 41 60 101 46.00
TABLE 11--Continued
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
Subject
Raw Score
% of
Possible
Score
Raw Score
% of
Possible
Score
% of
Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total
19 91 41.30 14 60 74 33.70 75.00
20 100 45.40 40 10 50 22.80 68.20
21 76 34.55 8 12
20 9.10 43.65
22 78 35.40 17 14 31 14.10 49.50
23 76 34.55 7 9 16 7.28 41.83
24 88 40.00 60 55 115 52.25 92.25
25 78 35.40 8 17 25 11.38 46.78
26 81 36.80 45 17 62 28.22 65.02
27 87 39.50 16 36 52 23.60 63.10
28 91 41.30 10 8 18 8.20 49.50
29 86 39.05 51 8 59 26.84 65.89
30 94 42.70 15 54 69 31.40 74.10
31 94 42.70 6 20 26 11.82 54.52
32 82 37.20 8 5 13 5.92 43.12
33 83 37.70 37 34 71 32.30 70.00
34 100 45.40 60 60 120 54.60 100.00
35 42 19.15 30 60 90 41.00 60.15
36 77 35.00 34 24 58 26.40 61.40
37 79 35.90 20 60 80 36.42 72.32
38 60 27.24 7 4 11 5.00 32.24
i —1
- v j
i-1
171
TABLE 11--Continued
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
Subject ! • >
Raw Score Possible
Raw Score % of
Possible
% of
Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total Score Score
39 48 21.80 7 11 18 8.20 30.00
Mean 58.39
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1 received a raw score on the Bass
Circle Test of 70. This score was 31.78 per cent of the total possible score.
On the Bass Stick tests raw scores of 28 and 40 total 68, which is 30.39 per cent
of the total possible score. The per cent of possible on the circle test (31.78)
combined with the per cent of the possible on the stick test (30.90) total 62.68
per cent of the total number of possible points on the balance performance test.
172
bj<
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
TABLE 12
INITIAL BALANCE PERFORMANCE TEST SCORES--GROUP C
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests
% of Raw Score % of
Raw Score Possible ------------------------------ Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total Score
72 32.72 32 12 44 20.00
85 38.50 26 6 32 14.58
29 13.35 4 6 10 4.56
87 39.45 18 11 29 13.20
33 15.00 8 14 22 10.00
68 30.85 5 7 12 5.46
73 33.10 24 14 38 17.28
38 17.50 5 6 11 5.00
58 26.30 1 3 4 1.82
69 31.30 2 10 12 5.46
15 6. 80 5 8 13 5.90
26 11.80 4 4 8 3.64
85 38.60 26 60 86 39.10
96 43.60 35 36 71 32.40
76 34.60 11 9 20 9.10
95 43.00 7 11 18 8.20
72 32.75 8 8 16 7.27
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
2.9
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
TABLE 12--Continued
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests
7o of Raw Score X of
Raw Score Possible ------------------------------ Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total Score
83 37.70 11 30 41 18.65
55 25.00 34 60 94 42.80
74 33.80 50 23 73 33.30
100 45.40 11 17 28 12.73
48 21.80 4 9 13 5.90
96 43.60 6 17 23 10.47
52 23.60 9 3 12 5.46
96 43.60 13 20 33 15.00
55 25.00 8 10 18 8.20
41 18.60 9 19 28 12.82
36 16.70 5 3 8 3.64
24 11.80 4 4 8 3.64
82 37.22 13 6 19 8.65
78 35.42 49 17 %
66 30.00
100 45.40 8 60 68 31.00
77 35.00 6 60 66 30.00
50 22.65 10 10 20 9.10
74 33.60 5 8 13 5.92
76 34.45 9 8 17 7.75
46 20.90 12 10 22 10.00
TABLE 12--Continued
Total
% of
Possible
Score
Mean 42.65
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1 received a raw score on the Bass
Circle test of 72. This score was 32.72 per cent of the total possible score.
On the Bass Stick tests raw scores of 32 and 12 total 44, which is 20.00 per cent
of the total possible score. The per cent of possible on the circle test (32.72)
combined with the per cent of the possible on the stick test (20.00) total 52.72
per cent of the total number of possible points on the balance performance test.
TABLE 13
SECOND BALANCE PERFORMANCE TEST SCORES--GROUP C
Subject
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick; Tests Total
% of
Raw Score Possible
Score
Raw Score
% of
Possible
Score
% of
Possible
Score
Crosswise Lengthwise Total
1 95 43.18 9 36 45 20.50 63.68
2 97 44.00 16 17 33 14.90 58.90
3 62 28.20 5 4 9 4.10 32.30
4 85 38.60 22 60 82 37.30 75.90
5 30 13.62 29 15 44 20.00 33.62
6 65 29.50 12 11 23 10.50 40.00
7 72 32.70 16 6 22 10.00 42.70
8 57 25.80 6 7 13 5.92 31.72
9 37 16.80 7 11 18 8.20 25.00
10 76 34.55 10 12 22 10.00 44.55
11 38 17.25 3 3 6 2.73 19.98
12 52 23.60 2 3 5 2.27 25.87
13. 100 45.40 60 60 120 54.60 100.00
14 96 43.70 23 36 59 26. 84 70.54
15 75 34.06 8 16 24 10.92 44.98
16 86 39.05 20 31 51 23.20 62.25
17 88 40.00 5 13 18 8.20 48.20
18 94 42.70 60 55 115 52.25 94.95
19 43 19.52
39 60 99 45.10 64.62 M
ON
176
bj-
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
TABLE 13--Continued
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests
7o of Raw Score % of
Raw Score Possible ------------------------------ Possible
Score Crosswise Lengthwise Total Score
84 38.18 26 60 86 39.20
91 41.30 35 34 69 31.40
58 26.35 6 10 16 7.28
92 41.75 20 21 41 18.65
78 35.40 7 7 14 6.38
97 44.00 16 60 76 34.60
42 19.15 5 . 8 13 5.92
41 18.62 2 5 7 3.20
76 34.55 10 9 19 8.65
49 22.22 5 . 5 10 4.55
91 41.30 16 17 33 14.90
65 29.50 60 9 69 31.40
96 43.70 6 0 60 120 54.60
100 45.40 19 60 79 36.00
33 15.00 10 14 24 10.92
79 35.90 7 15 22 10.00
57 25.80 18 16 34 15.47
33 15.00 10 3 13 5.92
Mean
TABLE 13--Continued
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1 received a raw score on the Bass
Circle test of 95. This score was 43.18 per cent of the total possible score.
On the Bass Stick tests raw scores of 9 and 36 total 45, which is 20.50 per cent
of the total possible score. The per cent of possible on the circle test (43.18)
combined with the per cent of the possible on the stick test (20.50) total 63.68
per cent of the total number of possible points on the balance performance test.
178
TABLE 14
FINAL BALANCE PERFORMANCE TEST SCORES--GROUP C
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
Subject
% of Raw Score % of
Possible
Score
% of
Possible
Score
ttaw score russiDie
Score
Crosswise Lengthwise Total
1 81 36.80 24 27 51 23.20 60.00
2 94 42.70 12 25 37 16.88 59.58
3 66 30.00 6 6 12 5.46 35.46
4 94 42.70 60 60 1 2 0 54.60 97.30
5 71 32.25 17 9 26 11.82 44.07
6 68 30.85 22 13 35 15.92
46.77
7 94 42.70 22 6 28 12.70 55.40
8 78 35.40 4 9 13 5.92 41.32
9 42 19.15 10 6 16 7.28 26.43
10 91 41.30 8 10 18 8.20 49.50
11 50 22.70 6 6 12 5.46 28.16
12 65 29.50 6 5 11 5.00 34.50
13 97 44.00 60 60 120 54.60 98.60
14 94 42.70 60 32 92 41.85 84.55
15 89 40.40 11 22 33 14.90 55.30
16 86 39.05 13 16 29 13.40 52.45
17 85 38.60 14 27 41 18.65 57.25
18 97 44.00 60 60 120 54.60 98.60
19 69 31.35 40 60 100 45.45 76.80
vO
179
TABLE 14--Continued
Subject
Bass Circle Test Bass Stick Tests Total
% of
Raw Score Possible
Score
Raw Score
Crosswise Lengthwise Total
% of
Possible
Score
7o of
Possible
Score
20 97 44.00 21 57 78 35.60 79.60
21 100 45.40 24 60 84 38.30 83.70
22 65 29.50 7 3 10 4.55 34.05
23 100 45.40 28 43 71 32.30 77.70
24 75 34.06 5 5 10 4.55 38.61
25 92 41.75 41 36 77 35.00 16.75
26 62 28.20 4 9 13 5.92 34.12
27 40 18.16 3 32 35 15.92 34.08
28 81 36.80 7 21 28 12.70 49.50
29 74 33.60 7 6 13 5.92 39.52
30 97 44.00 26 23 49 22.30 66.30
31 74 33.60 21 17 38
17.32 50.92
32 100 45.40 60 60 120 54.60 100.00
33 97 44.00 20 11 31 14.10 58.10
34 54 24.50 16 7 23 10.50 35.00
35 84 38.18 20 8 28 12.70 50.88
36 62 28.20 15 11 26 11.82 40.02
37 40 18.16 15 10 25 11.38 29.54
Mean 56.23
180
TABLE 14--Continued
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1 received a raw score on the Bass
Circle test of 81. This score was 36.80 per cent of the total possible score.
On the Bass Stick tests raw scores of 24 and 27 total 51, which is 23.20 per cent
of the total possible score. The per cent of possible on the circle test (36.80)
combined with the per cent of the possible on the stick test (23.20) total 60.00
per cent of the total number of possible points on the balance performance test.
bj<
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
TABLE 15
INDIVIDUAL MEAN SCORES FOR LOW WIRE PRACTICE PERIODS--GROUP A
Practice Period
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.8 5.4 7.8 6.2 7.8 6.9 7.3 7.5 9.3
5.8 5.0 5.9 6.4 6.3 6.1 6.7 7.6 5.9
5.1 5.8 6.2 6.4 7.6 8.5 7.4 7.9 6.9
4.6 5.0 6.6 7.8 5.9 8.1 10.9 9.6 8.3
4.3 4.4 4.2 3.4 5.1 6.2 6.7 6.0 4.9
6.1 5.4 8.1 8.5 7.4 7.1 7.7 6.2 6.7
5.3 4.8 3.6 5.8 6.4 7.8 10.1 9.4 7.7
6.4 7.0 9.2 9.9 9.4 8.9 9.1 8.9 9.2
5.1 5.2 6.3 5.2 6.9 7.1 5.4 5.6 4.1
4.6 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.7 7.4 7.4 8.2 7.3
4.7 7.6 6.5 9.6 9.8 6.4 9.7 10.8 8.4
3.7 5.9 7.2 6.4 6.3 8.4 7.2 8.7 7.2
4.2 4.4 5.3 5.8 4.7 6.3 6.5 5.5 6.2
3.3 5.4 5.2 4.6 6.0 5.9 7.4 6.9 8.0
7.8 10.3 14.4 10.7 11.9 15.8 17.2 18.1 16.1
3.3 4.1 7.7 9.7 12.0 12.4 14.4 12.8 18.8
5.2 5.8 6.4 7.8 8.1 6.8 10.6 10.4 12.1
4.9 11.3 12.9 15.4 18.2 20.9 20.1 24.5 23.8
2.9 3.0 3.7 3.7 4.0 3.9 3.1 3.2 4.2
4.3 6.3 7.0 7.6 7.1 7.3 8.5 7.2 7.6
6.9 9.7 8.7 10.6 9.5 9.1 11.5 9.7 7.7
bj‘
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
TABLE 15--Continued
Practice Period
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4.3 4.5 5.3 5.9 4.1 5.1 5.3 5.2
5.9
8.2 5.8 8.3 8.6 6.8 8.9 9.8 10.5 10.3
6.1 7.4 7.6 8.8 8.9 7.4 9.6 8.0 10.3
4.0 3.4 7.5 7.3 8.2 8.6 7.5 9.0 6.5
4.4 4.4 3.7 3.9 4.3 3.9 4.2 4.3 3.7
8.0 9.6 9.8 13.1 14.6 12.9 15.8 13.4 16.4
5.0 5.8 6.3 7.4 8.9 8.2 8.7 10.9 9.0
2.5 3.2 2.9 3.8 6.1 5.4 5.7 6.0 5.0
4.5 2.8 3.3 5.2 6.5 6.1 7.9 8.1 9.1
3.0 5.0 5.9 7.1 8.0 6.3 8.2 8.3 8.5
5.1 6.9 8.5 8.9 9.4 12.3 9.2 8.8 9.6
5.8 5.2 8.3 9.4 11.4 8.0 11.3 8.7 12.0
5.1 7.0 5.2 5.4 6.5 8.8 7.6 5.4 5.9
4.4 5.3 9.1 5.0 7.6 10.3 12.5 11.2 9.5
2.4 3.2 4.4 7.1 7.3 8.1 6.4 6.7 7.8
3.6 4.0 4.9 5.4 6.3 6.2 6.1 5.4 5.4
6.2 5.5 8.1 7.3 5.3 7.5 7.8 7.1 6.1
4.1 4.7 4.5 6.7 4.6 5.1 6.6 5.2 4.8
4.7 5.0 7.5 9.2 7.2 7.8 7.6 9.6 8.1
6.7 4.6 5.7 6.3 7.8 10.9 10.9 12.4 13.0
5.9 6.0 7.2 7.2 5.4 6.5 7.9 7.1 5.5
4.97 5.66 6.76 7.34 7.73 8.14 8.83 8.72 8.65
TABLE 15--Continued
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1 received a mean score of 5.8 for
practice period one.
TABLE 16
INDIVIDUAL MEAN SCORES FOR LOW WIRE PRACTICE PERIODS--GROUP B
Jubject
* '
Practice Period
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 5.2 5.8 6.3 9.0 7.7 8.0 9.7 7.9 10.4 8.4
2 3.5 3.8 4.1 5.0 6.0 5.2 5.1 5.0 6.0 6.9
3 5.7 5.7 6.3 7.1 7.7 10.0 9.2 9.3 9.8 10.8
4 6.2 4.3 5.2 6.2 7.6 9.3 8.8 8.5 5.7 6.7
5 7.6 8.8 7.5 10.0 8.2 8.7 9.2 11.2 12.7 13.7
6 5.2 4.4 4.9 7.0 6.8 4.5 8.2 4.8 6.3 5.9
7 3,.l 4.3 3.5 5.0 4.1 4.8 7.7 6.4 5.1 6.7
8 6.8 7.9 8.1 6.4 7.7 6.4 6.3 5.9 5.4 7.9
9 7.2 7.0 8.2 7.9 9.5 10.1 9.4 9.3 10.3 10.7
10 5.5 7.9 8.9 9.3 12.0 10.4 11.1 10.3 12.1 10.3
11 5.7 5.2 6.0 6.1 7.5 7.6 7.8 6.2 8.3 8.3
12 4.0 4.3 5.1 5.7 5.3 5.5 5.1 7.7 6.5 5.4
13 4.8 4.8 4.9 6.3 4.2 5.2 5.5 5.3 4.8 7.0
14 4.1 3.9 5.5 5.6 5.2 4.9 4.4 5.3 5.6 5.4
15 3.4 3.6 3.4 3.1 4.1 3.2 3.0 3.9 2.8 3.7
16 3.1 4.4 6.9 6.0 5.7 5.6 4.9 4.9 5.2 5.1
17 6.6 7.8 7.8 6.9 8.0 7.5 7.1 8.4 7.7 6.7
18 7.1 6.5 6.5 6.7 6.6 7.5 9.9 9.2
9.8 9.3
19 9.3 8.6 9.7 7.1 9.3 11.5 12.4 12.9 15.4 13.5
20 8.8 8.0 7.7 9.4 8.3 8.3 8.6 8.6 9.1 8.5
21 6.7 6.6 5.3 6.4 5.9 6.1 6.2 5.1 6.7 6.0
22 6.3 6.2 7.5 5.0 10.5 12.1 8.0 7.9 9.3 6.7
185
TABLE 16--Continued
Practice Period
Subject
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
23 5.7 5.2 6.1 5.9 5.4 6.4 6.8 7.7 8.1 10.0
24 4.4 4.9 6.1 7.5 7.6 8.0 9.8 9.8 8.5 9.4
25 4.6 4.6 4.9 5.3 4.7 5.9
6.2
4.9 7.4 6.7
26 5.7 6.7 7.3 10.3 9.4 7.4 11.0 7.9 8.0 11.3
27 4.4 5.6 6.4 7.0 6.8 7.0 7.7 9.1 9.0 8.7
28 6.2 8.0 7.1 9.6 9.8 7.0 7.8 8.2 9.2 11.2
29 6.5 7.9 8.5 7.7 9.1 8. 8 8.1 11.2 9.2 9.5
30 7.4 7.9 11.2 10.4 13.5 11.5 12.3 13.2
14.0 17.0
31 5.1 4.5 4.0 5.3 6.5 8.0 8.3 5.8 6.5 5.6
32 5.1 6.0 7.9 10.0 8.5 8.6 8. 0 8.0 8.6 7.9
33 5.3 5.3 5.9'
7.2 7.2 6.2 6.8 7.9 7.0 8.2
34 5. 3 6.4 7.0 8.7 9.8 11.4 11.0 9.6 10.9 10.1
35 5.3 6.4 5.1 7.5 6.0 8.8 7.8 10.5 7.2
9.9
36 4.3 5.4 5.8 7.2
7.9
8.2 7.0 11.3 6.9 7.8
37 6.9 9.3 10.5 9.6 10.2 10.6 9.5 13.2 8.7 11.7
38 3.4 4.0 3.7 3.9 4.6 4.2 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.3
39
2.2
1.9 3.1 2.8 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.6 3.3 3.6
lean 5.51 5.89 6.41 7.00 7.38 7.52 7.77 7.96 7.99 8.38
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1 received a mean score of 5.2 for
practice period one.
186
bj«
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
187
TABLE 17
INDIVIDUAL TOTAL SCORES FOR DYNABALOMETER
PRACTICE PERIODS--GROUP A
Practice Period
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11 15 20 22 30 31 33 34 34 30
13 12 14 17 21 32 25 26 29 32
22 23 31 31 35 40 34 33 37 34
23 22 34 44 47 41 38 37 48 43
26 31 27 26 36 29 48 40 32 32
23 21 20 22 23 26 25 26 29 33
19 24 30 30 41 40 41 43 38 42
26 34 36 32 35 43 48 44 47 50
15 26 21 28 22 27 35 32 38 43
18 23 27 28 31 49 45 42 36 41
29 40 46 43 41 48 49 45 44 47
31 39 47 42 45 44 49 45 48 44
18 18 14 22 27 37 32 36 33 36
15 19 37 36 42 39 41 4.0 45 47
32 31 31 34 33 37 39 38 44 41
19 27 32 40 44 42 50 51 49 50
32 28 35 35 42 35 39 33 51 43
15 19 29 31 30 40 42 40 48 50
13 6 12
19 24 24 27 27 33 33
17 26 28 32 38 39 40 38 38 39
33 33 45 44 49 53 59 56 54 59
19 27 28 39 40 39 43 40 39 37
25 29 33 53 46 45 44 48 40 43
27 30 29 31 32 38 37 36 43 42
21 28 35 33 36 32 39 39 42 41
26 26 29 31 35 35 30 28 25 26
37 32 39 57 39 45 51 44 45 51
16 24 37 46 46 46 41 41 39 43
20 18 34 35 31 30 30 29 29 30
20 21 32 33 33 39 38 41 40 46
21 26 34 37 38 38 44 44 41 38
20 27 30 33 33 33 35 32 40 36
39 40 43 48 49 45 50 51 53 48
29 21 27 25 29 33 34 35 34 34
TABLE 17--Continued
188
Subject
Practice Period
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
35 33 40 35 35 35 33 37 48 42 49
36 23 28 35 43 44 51 42 47 39 48
37 11 16 32 30 34 33 34 36 35 40
38 33 24 35 39 46 36 38 42 40 38
39 17 16 24 31 33 38 43 42 38 42
40 25 35 38 51 46 51 48 47 51 55
41 28 25 34 30 40 45 50 46 48 42
42 29 30 28 27 34 29 33 40 34 40
Mean 23.0 25.7 31.1 34.4 36.,6 38.4 40.0 39.6 40.4 42.4
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1
received a total of 11 for practice period one.
189
TABLE 18
INDIVIDUAL TOTAL SCORES FOR DYNABALOMETER
PRACTICE PERIODS--GROUP B
Practice Period
Lbject
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 25 31 36 36 44 47 47 46 49 49
2 20 34 51 50 53 58 54 54 59 52
3 33 27 33 23 30 27 33 33 36 37
4 42 41 34 42 53 45 43 35 45 42
5 24 25 36 37 38 31 29 36 34 32
6 23 30 38 38 44 41 48 45 46 45
7 24 28 32 32 25 29 31 27 27 26
8 29 32 40 47 47 46 49 41 42 41
9 24 27 30 38 41 42 42 48 46 41
10 39 27 35 48 51 47 49 48 55 52
11 32 26 23 32 34 39 30 42 34 38
12 23 22 18 26 53 29 34 42 45 43
13 25 22 28 34 30 28 43 36 37 39
14 30 27 35 28 36 32 36 40 38 39
15 29 34 35 34 31 29 32 36 38 37
16 24 26 30 31 34 35 43 42 37 38
17 17 20 25 28 36 44 48 47 51 46
18 35 30 38 38 38 46 47 43 47 45
19 27 27 29 34 48 51 40 50 48 43
20 28 25 27 26 37 39 45 47 57 45
21 30 30 37 32 36 38 35 42 35 47
22 26 35 43 40 45 41 40 44 41 37
23 23 24 26 32 34 30 45 40 45 51
24 33 33 37 32 33 31 40 37 40 38
25 24 28 29 34 34 36 40 41 44 36
26 27 38 37 42 44 50 49 49 51 47
27 31 32 31 35 34 42 38 39 43 31
28 17 25 38 40 45 46 44 42 38 42
29 23 32 34 40 38 36 46 41 43 41
30 39 42 48 54 48 48 51 56 50 49
31 13 26 28 38 34 35 39 34 42 40
32 21 19 25 28 30 37 37 26 35 38
33 30 31 30 33 31 39 40 40 44 41
34 37 48 48 50 55 64 69 61 54 58
190
TABLE 18--Continued
Subject
Practice Period
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
35 16 20 28 46 47 49 49 55 47 56
36 20 28 28 28 37 38 39 40 37 36
37 24 27 38 41 40 39 45 44 37 42
38 19 27 24 30 30 34 36 38 40 37
39 15 19 20 20 27 25 29 27 22 24
Mean 26.2 28.8 32.9 35.9 39.1 39.6 42.0 42.0 42.6 41.6
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1
received a total of 25 for practice period one.
191
TABLE 19
LEARNING SCORES FOR THE LOW WIRE AND DYNABALOMETER
Group A Group B
Subject ------------------------- ------------------------
Low Wire Dynabalometer Low Wire Dynabalometer
1 25 21 28 33
2 22 17 18 39
3 25 25 29 34
4 28 30 24 33
5 18 26 34 25
6 24 19 20 32
7 24 28 18 22
8 31 31 24 33
9 19 23 31 30
10 26 27 35 35
11 29 34 24 26
12 26 35 19 27
13 19
22 18 25
14 22 29 17 27
15 49 28 12 26
16 41 33 18 27
17 31 29 26 29
18 68 28 27 32
19 12 21 39 30
20 25 27 29 30
21 33 39 21 28
22 18 28 28 31
23 31 33 23 28
24 29 27 27 28
25 24 28 19 22
26 14 23 30 35
27 46 35 25 28
28 29 31 29 30
29 17 23 30 30
30 21 27 42 38
31 24 29 21
27
32 31 35 28 23
33 33 37 23 28
34 22 23 32 44
35 31 30 26 34
192
TABLE 19--Continued
Group A Group B
Subject ------------------------ ------------------------
Low Wire Dynabalometer Low Wire Dynabalometer
36 21 32 25 26
37 18 24 36 30
38 23 29 14 25
39 18 26 10 18
40 27 36
41 32 31
42 23 25
Mean 26.8 28.1 25.1 29.1
Note: This table should be read as follows: subject 1 in
Group A received a learning score of 25 on the low
wire and 21 on the dynabalometer.
APPENDIX B
DIRECTIONS TO SUBJECTS
BALANCE EXPERIMENT
EXPLANATION TO SUBJECTS
Past experiments in balance have shown that better
athletes have better balance. The purpose of the experi
ment you are participating in is to determine if learning
specific balance skills will aid performance in other
skills involving balance. This study will also determine
how well these learned balance skills are retained.
Everyone will be given a preliminary test. Based
on the results of this preliminary test the total popula
tion tested (approximately 140 subjects) will be divided
into three groups. These three groups, A, B, and C are
equated. In order to make a study of this type valid, the
selection of these groups must be random, therefore,
please accept the group you are assigned to without ques
tion.
Two groups, A and B, will learn two other balance
skills in various prescribed ways. Group A will receive
many clues to aid performance. Group B will be told the
objective of the task but will not be given clues. Group
C is the control group. After this two week learning per
iod the total population will be retested on the initial
test. (Monday or Tuesday March 12 or 13) Then after a
lapse of approximately ten weeks the three groups will be
tested a third time. (Monday or Tuesday May 21 or 22)
In order to have valid results, each person's co
operation is essential. Please follow the instructions
that are given to you and do not miss practice periods or
retests. If for some reason you cannot make the scheduled
practice, by all means come at some other time, do not
miss a practice period. It is essential that each subject
have ten practice periods within the two weeks.
194
195
Wear your street clothing. Wear the special shoes
provided in the laboratory. Please appear for the second
and third tests (circle and stick tests) at the same hour
you took the first test.
DIRECTIONS FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS
1. Find your data record sheet (filed in alphabetical
order).
2. Put appropriate tag "A" or "B" around your neck.
3. Perform 10 trials on the Low Wire and record your
scores. Group A only look in cue box.
4. Perform two trials on the dynabalometer and record
your scores. Group A only look in cue box.
5. Return data record sheet in alphabetical order.
6. Return tag.
BE SURE TO COMPLETE ALL 10. PRACTICE PERIODS
WITHIN TWO WEEKS
196
DIRECTIONS— BASS CIRCLE TEST
OBJECTIVE:
DIRECTIONS:
To hop from circle to circle losing balance
as little as possible.
1. Stand on the right foot in the circle
marked "start."
2. Leap to the left foot in the circle
marked one.
a. In landing in the circle observe the
following:
1) Land and stay on the ball of the
foot— do not lower heel.
2) Land within the circle--do not
touch the boundary of the circle.
3) Keep the weight on the landing
foot only--do not touch the other
foot to the floor.
4) Keep the foot in contact with the
floor— do not hop.
5) Keep the supporting foot still—
do not slide or wriggle it along
floor in an attempt to keep
balance.
6) Maintain balance up to, but not
exceeding 5 seconds in each circle.
3. Continue leaping into the remaining cir
cles with alternate feet.
197
PRACTICE:
SCORING:
198
a. Balance should be kept for 5 seconds
in all circles including #10.
4. Do not stop if you error.
1. Start as directed and perform test once.
2. Study the pattern of circles.
ANY QUESTIONS ? ? ?
Total time plus 50 minus three times the
total number of errors.
DIRECTIONS--BASS STICK TEST
OBJECTIVE:
DIRECTIONS:
PRACTICE:
SCORING:
To maintain balance:
1. Standing crosswise on a stick on the ball
of one foot for 60 seconds.
2. Standing lengthwise on a stick on the
ball of one foot for 60 seconds.
1. Place ball of dominant foot crosswise
(perpendicular) on the stick at command,
"GO."
2. At command, "GO," lift supporting foot and
attempt to maintain balance for 60 sec
onds .
3. Place ball of dominant foot lengthwise
(parallel) on the stick at command,
"READY."
4. At command, "GO," lift supporting foot
and attempt to maintain balance for 60
seconds.
Proceed as directed for 15 seconds (maximum)
in each position.
ANY QUESTIONS ? ? ?
From the command, "GO," time is recorded in
seconds until the free foot (or a hand)
touches the floor (maximum--60 points for
each position).
199
APPENDIX C
DATA RECORD SHEET
TRANSFER AND RETENTION OF BALANCE SKILLS
DATA RECORD SHEET
Last Name First Age Ht. Wt, Shoe Sig&
Class Hour Instructor
ABC
Group
BASS CIRCLE TEST
BASS STICK TEST + = 1
+ - + -
+ - 1 + = 1
+ -
Practice Period
LOW
WIRE
DYNABAL-
OMETER
Trial 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Total
1
2
Total
201
A P P E N D I X D
THE BASS CIRCLE TEST PATTERN
7 W . 5 6 . 2 5
67.5
4 0 k 6 7 1
Circles - 8 . 5 " Dia.
X - S ta rtin g Circle
1 8 " From X To Circle 1
3 3 " Betw een O th e r
Circles
56
0
112
o
^^■S* 6.--The Bass Circle Test Pattern.
APPENDIX E
THE ELECTRIC METRONOME
O N -O F F Switch
Transformer
Buzzer 6 V,
110 V
Cam
Switch
Motor - 60cps
Fig. 7.--The Electric Metronome.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Penman, Kenneth Albert (author)

Core Title Transfer And Retention Of Selected Balance Skills

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Physical Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Physical,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Lockhart, Aileene (committee chair), Cooper, John M. (committee member), Hall, J. Tillman (committee member), Logan, Gene A. (committee member), Morris, Royce (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-303863

Unique identifier UC11359048

Identifier 6402599.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-303863 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6402599.pdf

Dmrecord 303863

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Penman, Kenneth Albert

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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