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Personality factors in reading disability: a psychodynamic approach

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Personality factors in reading disability: a psychodynamic approach

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Content PERSONALITY FACTORS IN READING DISABILITY:
A PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
by
John Jam es F i l i p e l l i
A D is s e r ta tio n P re s e n te d t o th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e
R equirem ents f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Biology)
A ugust 1964
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANOELES, CALIFORNIA 9 0 0 0 7
ThisJissertajion, w rittenby
umrer the direction of h /Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
Dean
Date...........
^ S E R T A T IO N COM MI'
P&Wrr.Trlf.....
TABLE O F CONTENTS
C h a p te r Page
I . INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM.................................................. 1
I I . LITERATURE......................................................................................... 5
The P s y c h o a n a ly tic C o n trib u tio n s
E x p e rim e n ta l S tu d ie s
H ypotheses
I I I . M ETHOD........................................................................................................13
S u b je c ts
In s tru m e n ts
P ro c ed u re
IV . RESULTS........................................................................................................19
D i s t r ib u t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s an d
S t a t i s t i c a l P ro c e d u re
T e s ts o f th e H y p o th eses
V. D IS C U S SIO N .............................................................................................. 32
F i r s t H y p o th e sis
Second H y p o th e sis
T h ird H y p o th e sis
C o n c lu sio n s
V I. SUMMARY........................................................................................................42
REFERENCES........................................................................................................... * + 5
LIST OF TABLES
T a b le Page
1 . R eading A b i l i t y in Number o f G rade L ev e ls Above
o r Below C u rre n t G rade P lacem en t ............................... 15
2 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f R o rsch ach Dependency
S c o re s o f R e ta rd e d and N orm al R eaders........................ 20
3. M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f R o rsch ach O ra l D ependency
S c o re s o f R e ta rd e d and Norm al R ead ers .................. 21
M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f R orschach O ra l H o s t i l i t y
S c o re s o f R e ta rd e d and N orm al R ead ers .................. 21
5 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f R o rsch ach D e p re ssio n
S c o re s o f R e ta rd e d and Norm al R ead ers .................... 22
6 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f R orschach M is c e lla n e o u s
( N e u tr a l) O ra l S c o re s o f R e ta rd e d and
N orm al R eaders ........................................................................ 22
7 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f W ebb-H arris Word M eaning
T e s t R a tin g s o f "Me" on th e " A c t iv ity ” F a c to r • 23
8. M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f R o rsch ach H o s tile A n x iety
S c o re s o f R e ta rd e d and N orm al R eaders 2 3
9 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f R orschach S e x u a l A n x iety
S c o re s o f R e ta rd e d and N orm al R e a d e r s ......................... 24
10. M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f W ebb-H arris Word M eaning
T e s t D is ta n c e S c o re s Between "Me" and "M other" 25
11. M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f W ebb-H arris Word M eaning
T e s t R a tin g s o f "M other" on th e "P o ten cy "
F a c t o r ................................................................................................. 26
1 2 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f W ebb-H arris Word M eaning
T e s t R a tin g s o f "M other" on th e " E v a lu a tiv e "
F a c to r • • • . . ................................................................... 26
i i i
T a b le
i
Page
1 3 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f W ebb-H arris Word M eaning
T e s t R a tin g s o f " F a th e r" on th e " E v a lu a tiv e "
F a c t o r ..................................................................................................27
m . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f W ebb-H arris Word M eaning
T e s t R a tin g s D is ta n c e S c o re s Betw een "Me"
an d " B o y " ............................................................................ 28
1 5 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f W ebb-H arris Word M eaning
T e s t R a tin g s o f "Boy" on th e "P o te n c y "
F a c t o r ..................................................................................................28
1 6 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f W ebb-H arris Word M eaning
T e s t R a tin g s o f "Boy" on th e " E v a lu a tiv e "
F a c t o r ..................................................................................................29
1 7 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f W ebb-H arris Word M eaning
T e s t D ista n c e S c o res Betw een "Me" and " G ir l" • 29
1 8 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f W ebb-H arris Word M eaning
T e s t R a tin g s o f " G ir l" on th e "P o te n c y "
F a c to r • • • • • • • • • ................................................. 30
1 9 . M ann-W hitney U T e s t o f W ebb-H arris Word M eaning
T e s t R a tin g s o f " G ir l" on th e " E v a lu a tiv e "
F a c t o r ..................................................................................................30
iv
TO M Y WIFE
CHARLOTTE
A C K N O W L ED G E M EN T S
To t h e many h ig h s c h o o l s t a f f m em bers, s t u d e n t s ,
and s p e c i a l e d u c a tio n p e r s o n n e l who c o n t r ib u t e d t o t h i s
s tu d y , I e x te n d my w arm est a p p r e c i a t i o n . D e s p ite a lre a d y
dem anding s c h e d u le s t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s r e a d i l y re sp o n d e d t o
my v a r ie d r e q u e s ts f o r a s s i s t a n c e , and f r e q u e n tly o f f e r e d
w ords o f e n c o u ra g e m e n t. F or my co m m ittee members who
p ro v id e d p r o f e s s i o n a l g u id a n c e and human u n d e r s ta n d in g , an d
i n m a n ifo ld ways en h an ced t h i s e f f o r t , I r e s e r v e a l a s t i n g
in d e b te d n e s s • F i n a l l y , t o my w i f e , C h a r l o t t e , w hose
d e v o tio n and p a tie n c e form ed a c o n s ta n t r a l l y i n g f o r c e , I
d e d ic a te t h i s w ork. H o p e f u lly , i t j u s t i f i e s h e r c o n tin u e d
b e l i e f and s u p p o r t by a d v a n c in g u n d e rs ta n d in g o f s p e c i a l
l e a r n in g p ro b lem s p r e v e n tin g p o t e n t i a l l y c a p a b le young
p e o p le from e x p e r ie n c in g r i c h e r acad em ic and p e r s o n a l
l i v e s .
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM
T h is s tu d y e x p lo re s p o s s ib le r e l a ti o n s h i p s betw een
e a r l y d e v e lo p m e n ta l d is tu rb a n c e s and r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y .
P a s t e x p e rim e n ta l s t u d i e s have e v a lu a te d r e l a t i o n s h i p s
betw een p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s and r e a d in g s , b u t few have
ap p ro ach ed th e q u e s tio n from a s p e c i f i c and d y n a m ica lly
o r ie n te d t h e o r e t i c a l s ta n d p o in t. A d d itio n a lly , th e
f in d in g s have been i n c o n s i s t e n t . Some i n v e s t ig a t o r s (Boyd,
1953; S p a c h e , 195H; F a u ls , 1960) s u b m itte d t h a t c e r t a i n
p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s o r c o n f ig u r a tio n s a r e a s s o c ia te d w ith
re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y , w h ile o th e r s ( S ie g e l, 1954; H olm es,
195*0 found no d i s t i n c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
R e s u lts from th e tw o o th e r m ajo r a r e a s o f re a d in g
r e s e a r c h , o rg a n ic and p e r c e p tu a l , a l s o f re q u e n tly have been
c o n t r a d ic t o r y . S e v e ra l a u th o rs ( T a i t , 1956; G o ld b erg ,
M a rs h a ll, an d S im s, 1960; Cohn, 1961) r e p o r te d s u b c l i n i c a l ,
g e n e r a liz e d n e u r o lo g ic a l d is tu rb a n c e a s a s a l i e n t
e t i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r i n re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . E s p e c ia lly
c h a lle n g in g t o an e x c lu s iv e ly " o r g a n ic th e o ry " o f re a d in g
d i s a b i l i t y i s th e s t a t i s t i c t h a t m ales com prise o v er 80 p e r
c e n t o f r e a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n c a s e s . An o rg a n ic e x p la n a tio n
1
o f t h i s d is p r o p o r tio n a te in c id e n c e o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y
b etw een th e se x e s se em in g ly r e q u ir e s e v id e n c e o f a g e n e t i c ,
s e x - li n k e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . R esearch on p h y s io lo g ic a l
f a c t o r s i n r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y (G ray , 1 9 6 2 ), how ever, has
n o t d is c lo s e d e v id e n c e t h a t m ales a r e in h e r e n tly more
s u s c e p t i b l e t o m ild , d i f f u s e , n e u r o lo g ic a l d is tu rb a n c e th a n
a r e fe m a le s . F u rth e rm o re , th e p e r c e p tu a l s t u d i e s , w hich
p a r t i a l l y o v e rla p w ith th e o rg a n ic b r a in s t u d i e s , o f te n
h a v e p ro d u ced c o n tr a d ic to r y r e s u l t s . F o r exam ple, Coleman
(1953) fo u n d t h a t r e a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n c a s e s w ith norm al
i n t e l l i g e n c e w ere r e l a t i v e l y d e f i c i e n t i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g
a n d i n t e g r a t i n g p e r c e p tu a l e x p e rie n c e s . S ince p e r c e p tu a l
d e f i c i e n c i e s o f te n a re a s s o c ia te d w ith o rg a n ic b r a in
in v o lv e m e n t, h i s r e s u l t s a re c o n s is te n t w ith an o rg a n ic
th e o r y . Lachmann (1 9 5 5 ), on th e o th e r h a n d , found t h a t
r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y was n o t a s s o c ia te d w ith a la g o r
r e t a r d a t i o n in p e rc e p tu a l-m o to r f u n c tio n in g . K e n d a ll
(1948) a l s o f a i l e d t o f i n d a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p
b etw een re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y and p e rc e p tu a l-m o to r d i s t u r b
a n c e s . Y e t, p e rc e p tu a l-m o to r d i f f i c u l t i e s were c i t e d by
T a i t (1956) as one o f th e m a n ife s ta tio n s o f m ild and
g e n e r a liz e d c o r t i c a l im p airm en t in r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s .
D if fe re n c e s in sam ple p o p u la tio n s and m easurem ent
te c h n iq u e s used i n th e s e s tu d i e s p ro b a b ly c o n tr ib u te to
th e s e d is c r e p a n c ie s . An a l t e r n a t i v e and e q u a lly p la u s ib le
c o n c lu s io n , h o w ev er, i s t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t o rg a n ic f a c t o r s
o f te n a r e a b s e n t in re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y .
To sum m arize, e x p e rim e n ta l e v id e n c e from th e th r e e
c e n t r a l a r e a s o f r e a d in g r e s e a r c h — p e r s o n a l i t y , o r g a n ic ,
and p e r c e p tu a l— rem ain s c o n t r o v e r s i a l . The p e r s i s t i n g
q u e s tio n o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s w hich many
w r i t e r s c la im f o r r e a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n h as n o t been re s o lv e d
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y .
P s y c h o a n a ly s is p ro v id e s th e most com prehensive
dynam ic th e o ry o f th e d ev e lo p m e n tal p r o c e s s , in c lu d in g
s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o re a d in g d i f f i c u l t y . S in ce th e th e o ry
c u r r e n tly a c h ie v e s s u p p o rt p r im a r ily from c a se s tu d i e s
r a t h e r th a n e x p e rim e n ta l i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a d e q u a te v e r i f i c a
t i o n o f th e th e o ry i s la c k in g . The need e x i s t s , t h e r e f o r e ,
t o t e s t p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o ry f u r t h e r , th e re b y a m p lify in g
th e c o n tin u in g c o n tro v e rs y o v e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p e r s o n a lity
f a c t o r s in re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . S e c o n d a rily , th e r e rem ain s
th e u n re s o lv e d dilemma o f f in d in g an e f f e c t i v e re m e d ia l
ap p ro ac h t o th e m ounting e d u c a tio n a l and s o c i a l problem
posed by r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s . Not o n ly do some o f th e s e
s tu d e n ts a p p e a r u n re sp o n siv e t o o rth o d o x c la ssro o m
te c h n iq u e s , b u t many o f h ig h s c h o o l age become "d ro p o u ts "
an d d e l i n q u e n t s .1 A m p lif ic a tio n o f p e r s o n a li t y dynam ics
w ould p ro v id e v a lu a b le g u id e lin e s f o r fo rm u la tin g m eaning
f u l and p r a c t i c a l re m e d ia l te c h n iq u e s .
B ecause p s y c h o a n a ly tic t h e o r i s t s a r e n o t i n
co m p lete a c c o r d » a re v ie w o f th e p re d o m in a n t t h e o r e t i c a l
tr e n d s a s s o c ia te d w ith r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y i s p r e s e n te d .
T h is in c lu d e s a b r i e f h i s t o r i c a l b ack g ro u n d o f th e th e o r y ,
an d e s t a b l i s h e s th e f o u n d a tio n f o r d e v e lo p in g th e
t h e o r e t i c a l h y p o th e s e s . R e le v a n t e x p e rim e n ta l s t u d i e s a l s o
a r e in c lu d e d .
R e ad ers i n t e r e s t e d i n a more g e n e ra l rev iew o f th e
h i s t o r i c a l b ack g ro u n d o f t h e o r i e s , and e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d i e s
o f r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y , a r e r e f e r r e d t o T a i t (1 9 5 6 ). W.
Gray (1962) p r e s e n ts a c o n v e n ie n t a n n u a l rev ie w o f r e s e a r c h
on r e a d in g p ro b le m s .
^ J . S t e l l e m , P e rs o n a l C om m unication, 1962
CH APTER I I
LITERATURE
The P s y c h o a n a ly tic C o n trib u tio n s
The b a s i c a l l y b i o l o g i c a l t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f
p s y c h o a n a ly s is em p h asizes g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f e a r l y n u r tu r a n t
and a f f e c t i o n a l needs t o a s s u r e h e a lth y eg o and p e r s o n a lity
d ev elo p m en t. W ith o u t such e a r l y s u p p o r t F reud (1936)
in d ic a t e d t h a t th e e g o 's a b i l i t y t o cope w ith s i t u a t i o n s
may become s e r i o u s l y lim i t e d . O th ers ( R ib b le , 1943; S p i t z ,
1945; G o ld fa rb , 1945; E s c a lo n a , 1945) a l s o have s u g g e s te d
t h a t t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een e a r l y m a te rn a l
d e p r iv a tio n and d e f ic ie n c ie s in th e c h i l d 's g e n e ra l
d ev elo p m en t, in c lu d in g s p e c i f i c le a r n in g p ro b lem s. W ith
s p e c i f i c r e f e r e n c e t o th e p ro b lem o f r e a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n ,
many p s y c h o a n a ly tic t h e o r i s t s a re i n ag reem en t ab o u t a
c o n n e c tio n betw een e a r l y d e v e lo p m e n ta l e x p e rie n c e s and
l a t e r r e a d in g a b i l i t y .
The f i r s t , a lm o st c u rs o ry c o n c e rn w ith re a d in g by a
p s y c h o a n a ly s t was shown by G lo v er (1 9 2 5 ). He d e s c rib e d th e
o r a l c h a r a c te r o f re a d in g by com paring r e a d in g as a
p r e p a r a tio n f o r s le e p t o in g e s tio n o f a " n ig h t c a p ." The
o r a l n a tu re o f r e a d in g was s i m i l a r l y em p h asized by Abraham
(1927) when he t r a c e d th e c o n n e c tio n betw een e a t i n g and th e
"im b ib in g " o f know ledge. I t was S tra c h e y (1 9 3 0 ), how ev er,
who f i r s t expanded and r e f i n e d th e s e fo rm u la tio n s . He
com pared r e a d in g t o th e f e e d in g p r o c e s s ; re a d in g was a way
o f " e a tin g " a n o th e r ’ s w o rd s , o r in c o r p o r a ti n g a n o t h e r 's
th o u g h ts . He c o n s id e re d t h e d r iv e s t r e n g t h b e h in d re a d in g
a s d e r iv in g from s u b lim a tio n s o f u n c o n s c io u s t r e n d s ,
p r im a r ily o r a l o n e s . I f t h e r e w ere an u n s ta b le su b lim a
t i o n , o r a l a g g r e s s iv e im p u lse s w ould be r e le a s e d and th e s e
w ould i n h i b i t r e a d in g by a r o u s in g o r a l f e a r s .
E. K le in (19U9) an d B la n c h a rd (19**6) e la b o r a te d
S tr a c h e y 's a p p ro a c h . K le in s u g g e s te d t h a t i n boys a s tr o n g
f i x a t i o n on an a m b iv a le n t o r a l a g g r e s s iv e l e v e l i s m ost
o f te n a s s o c ia te d w ith a dem anding and f r u s t r a t i n g m o th er
who w eaned e a r l y . T hese bo y s have u n co n sc io u s h o s t i l e
f a n t a s i e s to w a rd th e m o th er as w e ll a s d ep en d en t s t r i v i n g s ,
and t h e i r h o s t i l e f a n t a s i e s a re u s u a lly accom panied by f e a r
o f r e t a l i a t o r y o r a l d e s t r u c t i o n . T h u s, le a r n in g t o r e a d ,
w hich K le in p e rc e iv e d as r e q u i r i n g a p r o g re s s io n from a
p a s s iv e - r e c e p tiv e t o a more s e l f - a s s e r t i v e p o s i t i o n , w ould
evoke a n x ie ty c o n n e c te d w ith a g g r e s s iv e f e e l i n g s .
R eading d i f f i c u l t y f r e q u e n tly a l s o r e p r e s e n ts a
p r o t e s t a g a in s t th e s h i f t from a p a s s iv e t o an a c tiv e
p o s i t i o n , and c o rre sp o n d s t o w eaning d i f f i c u l t i e s . In
b o y s , t h i s accom panies a d ep en d en t a tta c h m e n t t o th e
m o th e r, o r th e developm ent o f p a s s iv e hom osexual f e e l in g s
t o th e f a t h e r . T hese d ep e n d en t boys a r e f u r t h e r d e s c r ib e d
a s im p a tie n t an d r e l u c t a n t t o p u t f o r t h th e s u s ta in e d
e f f o r t r e q u ir e d i n l e a r n in g t o r e a d . To s u p p o rt h i s
t h e o r e t i c a l c o n te n tio n s K le in (1949) d e s c r ib e s a group o f
boys who e x p e rie n c e d r e a d in g d i f f i c u l t i e s e a r l y a n d ,
a d d i t i o n a l l y , showed a c lo s e d ep e n d en t a tta c h m e n t t o th e
m o th e r, and f e a r o f a s t e r n f a t h e r . As th e s e boys advance
i n age and ap p ro ach s e x u a l m a tu r i ty , s e x u a l a n x ie ty
th r e a te n s them , and th e y r e g r e s s t o a s a f e r d ep en d en t
p o s i t i o n . In so d o in g th e y ren o u n ce m a s c u lin ity and
d ev e lo p p a s s iv e hom osexual w is h e s .
The p o in t em p h asized by B lan c h a rd (19 46) was t h a t
re a d in g p ro v id e s s u b lim a tio n o f a g g r e s s iv e f e e l in g s i n
norm al c h i ld r e n . In e m o tio n a lly c o n f l i c t e d c h ild r e n who
have h e a v ily r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s iv e im p u ls e s , ev en s u b lim a te d
e x p re s s io n th ro u g h r e a d in g may p ro v e to o th r e a t e n in g .
The focuB h as b een c e n te r e d on th e a p p a re n t
re le v a n c y w hich th e e a r l y d e v e lo p m e n ta l p e r io d and u n s ta b le
s u b lim a tio n o f h o s t i l e im p u lse s have f o r l a t e r re a d in g
d i f f i c u l t i e s . O th er l i n e s o f ag reem en t among F re u d ia n
w r i te r s r e l a t e t o s e x u a l c u r i o s i t y and th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
p r o c e s s . The p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t f e a r and g u i l t a s s o c ia te d
w ith " lo o k in g " c o u ld i n t e r f e r e w ith r e a d in g and le a r n in g ,
was m entioned b r i e f l y by S tra c h e y (1 9 3 0 ). T h is id e a was
e la b o r a te d by F e n ic h e l (1945) who em p h asized th e o r a l
a s p e c t o f s e e in g as a form o f in c o r p o r a tio n by way o f th e
e y e , and lin k e d o r a l a g g re s s iv e im p u lse s w ith " lo o k in g ."
T h is view in tim a t e s t h a t f e a r and g u i l t a s s o c ia te d w ith
o r a l h o s t i l i t y , a s w e ll a s s e x u a l f e a r and g u i l t , c o u ld
i n t e r f e r e w ith lo o k in g , a n d , h e n c e , r e a d in g . S ex u al
c u r i o s i t y ab o u t a n a to m ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s , p a r e n t a l i n t e r
c o u r s e , and c h i l d b i r t h , a c c o rd in g t o K le in (1 9 4 9 ), becom es
s u b lim a te d i n t o c u r i o s i t y as a m o tiv e f o rc e f o r le a r n in g .
Too much r e p r e s s i o n o f s e x u a l c u r i o s i t y can le a d t o
le a r n in g and r e a d in g p ro b lem s.
C o n c e p tu a liz a tio n s s i m i l a r t o K le i n 's a r e p r e s e n te d
by S y lv e s te r an d K unst (1943) i n a s e r i e s o f c a se s t u d i e s .
In one c a se p r e s e n t a t i o n th e y d e s c r ib e a young boy w ith an
e a r l y f e e d in g d is t u r b a n c e . He se e m in g ly had t o i n h i b i t h i s
c u r i o s i t y a b o u t h i s m o th e r's p reg n an cy b ec au se o f h e r
f o r b id d in g a t t i t u d e , and b ec au se i n r e lin q u i s h in g c u r i o s i t y
he hoped m a g ic a lly t o deny th e t h r e a t e n i n g , im pending b i r t h
o f a s i b l i n g . H is i n h i b i t i o n s o f c u r i o s i t y , as m a n ife s te d
i n h i s re a d in g d e f e c t , stemmed from th e s e f a c t s . A n o th er
boy e q u a te d c u r i o s i t y w ith a g g r e s s iv e e x p lo rin g o f h i s
m o th e r's b o d y . S in ce h is m o th e r's body was a lre a d y in
s e r io u s d a n g e r from h e a r t d is e a s e t h i s te n d en cy had t o be
i n h i b i t e d . H is r e a d in g d e f e c t was an a s p e c t o f t h i s
b lo c k in g .
R eg ard in g th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s , S y lv e s t e r and
K unst (1943) s u g g e s t t h a t i f p a r e n t a l p r o h ib iti o n s to w ard
s e x u a l c u r i o s i t y a r e s e v e r e , a n x ie ty i s d i r e c t e d to w ard
th o s e upon whom th e c h i l d i s m ost d e p e n d e n t, and th e
a n x ie ty im p a irs sm ooth and s a t i s f y i n g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
I n t e l l e c t u a l developm ent and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a r e d e s c rib e d
by S chm ideberg (1938) a s b e in g f o s te r e d most i d e a l l y by
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith "a good m o th er who d is p e n s e s fo o d and
k n o w led g e, and— on th e g e n i t a l l e v e l — w ith a p o te n t
f a t h e r . * * T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t , i f th e c h i l d 's p e rc e p tio n o f
h i s p a r e n ts w id e ly d e v ia te s from t h i s i d e a l , f o r ex am p le,
m o th er i s s e e n a s d o m in e erin g and u n g iv in g , and f a t h e r as
r e l a t i v e l y weak and i n e f f e c t i v e , th e r e w i l l be d i f f i c u l t i e s
i n i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , a n d , p o s s i b ly , i n le a r n in g . An
e l a b o r a t i o n o f a s i m i l a r view i s p r e s e n te d by Gruenbaum,
H u rw itz , P r e n t i c e , and S p e rry (1 9 6 2 ).
To sum m arize, p s y c h o a n a ly tic t h e o r i s t s g e n e ra lly
c o n c u r t h a t r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y , a lo n g w ith many o th e r form s
o f d e v i a t i o n , o r i g i n a t e s i n e a r l y p h ases o f p e r s o n a lity
d ev e lo p m e n t. W ith s tr o n g o r a l f i x a t i o n s , a m b iv a le n t
f e e l i n g s a r e a ro u se d w hich make developm ent t o more
ad v an ced l e v e l s o f ego and p e r s o n a lity o r g a n iz a tio n more
d i f f i c u l t and u n s ta b le . S u b s e q u e n tly , th e r e i s i n t e r f e r
en c e w ith th e le a r n in g and r e a d in g p r o c e s s .
E x p e rim e n ta l S tu d ie s
R eading r e s e a r c h o f th e p a s t s e v e r a l y e a rs h as
in c lu d e d o n ly two e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d i e s w hich a re d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . One was a d i s s e r t a t i o n
10
c o m p le te d by Boyd (1 9 5 3 ). W orking from a p s y c h o a n a ly tic
o r i e n t a t i o n , h e a d m in is te r e d th e B lack y p i c t u r e s t o 23
f o u r t h and f i f t h g ra d e bo y s r e t a r d e d in r e a d i n g , an d 23 who
w ere n o t r e t a r d e d i n r e a d in g a b i l i t y . H is r e s u l t s d id n o t
s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e p s y c h o a n a ly tic t h e o r e t i c a l a s su m p tio n t h a t
s i g n i f i c a n t l y more d is tu r b a n c e a ro u n d d ependency w ould b e
show n by r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s . To th e c o n t r a r y , n o rm al o r good
r e a d e r s w ere ju d g e d d i s t u r b e d more o f te n on d ep en d en cy .
R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w ere ju d g e d more d i s t u r b e d on o r a l s a d is m
b u t n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y s o . R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w ere ju d g e d
s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore d i s t u r b e d on t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s .
B o y d 's (1 9 5 3 ) f i n d i n g o f g r e a t e r d is tu r b a n c e a ro u n d
d ep en d en cy i n n o rm a l r e a d e r s c o n f l i c t s w ith s e v e r a l
e x p e r im e n ta l s t u d i e s ( V e l t f o r t , 1 9 5 6 ; S i e g e l , 195**; B a rb e r,
1 9 5 2 ; F a u l s , 1960) r e v e a l i n g g r e a t e r dependency i n r e t a r d e d
r e a d e r s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , Boyd l i m i t e d h im s e lf t o t h e s tu d y
o f m ild ly r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s . Though t h i s f e a t u r e o f h i s
s tu d y s e e m in g ly le a v e s u n e x p la in e d th e c o n f l i c t i n f in d in g s
a s s o c i a t e d w ith d e p e n d e n c y , i t may h av e f u n c tio n e d t o
o b s c u re o t h e r p o s s i b l e p e r s o n a l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een
r e t a r d e d an d n o rm al r e a d e r s . In m a tc h in g i n d i v i d u a l s , an d
n a rro w in g th e d i f f e r e n c e b etw een e x p e r im e n ta l an d c o n t r o l
g ro u p s on th e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e - d r e a d i n g a b i l i t y — Boyd
made h i s g ro u p s r e l a t i v e l y hom ogeneous.
U sin g p e r c e p t u a l t a s k s , a m u lt ip le c h o ic e
a p p a r a t u s , a p a r e n t p r e f e r e n c e t e s t , and f a n ta s y m a t e r i a l ,
W a lte r s 9 Van L oan, an d C ro fts (1 9 6 1 ) i n v e s t i g a t e d some o f
th e f a c e t s o f th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o z y o f re a d in g
d i s a b i l i t y . R e s u lts fro m th e c o g n itiv e ta s k s p a r t i a l l y
s u s t a i n e d t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t io n s o f s i g n i f i c a n t l y more
" f e a r o f lo o k in g ," more h o s t i l i t y to w a rd th e same se x e d
p a r e n t , an d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d i f f i c u l t y i n male r e ta r d e d
r e a d e r s . B ecause th e f a n ta s y d a ta s u p p o rte d n e i t h e r th e
" f e a r o f lo o k in g " n o r th e h o s t i l i t y and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
h y p o th e s e s , h o w e v e r, th e a u th o rs fa v o re d an a l t e r n a t i v e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n te rm s o f p a r e n t a l c o n d itio n in g o f
e x p lo r a to r y and s e x u a l r e s p o n s e s . E s s e n t i a l l y , th e y
p r e f e r r e d th e e x p la n a tio n t h a t s e x u a l a n x ie ty o r i n h i b i t i o n
i s n o t a c a u s a tiv e f a c t o r i n r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . R a th e r,
i t i s th e outcom e o f th e same p a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e s and
p r o h i b i t i o n s w hich im bue g e n e r a l e x p lo r a to r y b e h a v io r in
c h ild r e n w ith a n x i e ty .
S in c e W a lte r s , e t a l . (1 9 6 1 ), d id n o t t e s t th e
h y p o th e s is o f dependency d is tu r b a n c e i n r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y ,
and b e c a u s e l i k e Boyd (1 9 5 3 ), th e y r e s t r i c t e d th e m se lv e s t o
s tu d y in g m ild ly r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s , f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s
i n d i c a t e d b e f o r e d is c a r d in g th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o ry o f
dependency d is tu r b a n c e s i n r e a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n .
H y p o th eses
C o n s is te n t w ith th e p re d o m in a n t tr e n d s in th e
p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o r y o f r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y , th e fo llo w in g
h y p o th e s e s a r e p o s t u l a t e d :
1 . R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more
dependency th a n w i l l n o rm al r e a d e r s .
2 . R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more
a n x ie ty a s s o c i a t e d w ith h o s t i l i t y th a n w i l l n o rm al r e a d e r s .
3 . R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more
d is tu r b a n c e i n th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p ro c e s s th a n w i l l norm al
r e a d e r s : ( a ) R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l shown s i g n i f i c a n t l y
more s e x u a l a n x i e ty , (b ) R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l be more
c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w ith a m o th e r- f ig u re p e r c e iv e d a s
f r u s t r a t i n g and r e l a t i v e l y more m a s c u lin e , (c ) R e ta rd e d
r e a d e r s w i l l show a r e l a t i v e l y p o o r e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith
b o th p a r e n t s .
CHAPTER I I I
M ETHOD
Subi e c ts
The s u b j e c t s w ere 53 g ra d e s 10 an d 11 boys from a
l a r g e , m odern u rb a n h ig h s c h o o l i n s o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a .
The so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s o f 60 p e r c e n t o f th e s tu d y
p o p u la tio n was m id d le c l a s s , e i g h t p e r c e n t u p p e r c l a s s ,
f o u r p e r c e n t lo w e r c l a s s , and th e re m a in in g 28 p e r c e n t
r e p r e s e n te d w o rk in g c l a s s f a m i l i e s . S o cio eco n o m ic s t a t u s
was e s t a b l i s h e d on th e b a s i s o f th e f a t h e r 's o c c u p a tio n a l
an d e d u c a ti o n a l l e v e l ( H o ilin g s h e a d , 1 9 5 7 ).
To r u l e o u t t h e e f f e c t s on r e a d in g a b i l i t y o f
e x tra n e o u s v a r i a b l e s w h ich m ig h t h av e m asked t h e h y p o th e
s i z e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e s u b j e c t s w ere f u r t h e r l i m i t e d a s
f o l l o w s :
1 . C. A .: 1 5 -1 8
2 . I . Q .: N orm al ra n g e (9 0 -1 1 7 )
3 . S ch o o l A tte n d a n c e : n o rm al
> * • E d u c a tio n a l B ackground: s i m i l a r
5 . V is u a l an d A u d ito ry F u n c tio n in g : n o rm al
6 . G e n e ra l H e a lth : n o rm al
7 . G ross N e u r o lo g ic a l Im p a irm e n t: a b s e n t
13
1 1
8 . E th n ic G ro u p in g : A m erican -b o rn C a u c a sia n s
9 . L anguage: E n g lis h
10 . B roken Homes: none
On th e b a s is o f r e s u l t s from a r e c e n t l y a d m in is
t e r e d Wide Range R ead in g A chievem ent T e s t , 28 s u b j e c t s w ere
c l a s s i f i e d a s r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s , an d 25 a s n o rm al r e a d e r s .
The minimum r e a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n was tw o g rad e l e v e l s below
c u r r e n t g ra d e p la c e m e n t. D egree o f r e a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n
ra n g e d from 2 t o 7 .5 g rad e l e v e l s , w ith an a v e ra g e
r e t a r d a t i o n o f 4.H1 g ra d e le v e ls below c u r r e n t g rad e
p la c e m e n t. The c e n t r a l r a t i o n a l e f o r in c lu d in g a r e l a
t i v e l y w ide ra n g e o f r e a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n was t h a t i t w ould
in c r e a s e th e g e n e ra l a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e r e s u l t s . N orm al
r e a d e r s w ere r e a d in g a t grade l e v e l : r e a d in g a t g ra d e
l e v e l c o n s is te d o f r e a d in g a b i l i t y w hich was n o t more th a n
one g ra d e l e v e l below o r above t h e s u b j e c t 's c u r r e n t g rad e
p la c e m e n t. T a b le 1 p ro v id e s more d e t a i l e d in f o r m a tio n on
th e r e a d in g a b i l i t y o f e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s .
I n t e l l i g e n c e q u o tie n ts w ere b a s e d on a r e c e n t
a d m in is t r a tio n o f th e 1946 R e s ta n d a r d iz a tio n o f th e R e v ise d
B e ta E x a m in a tio n . A n o n v e rb a l i n t e l l i g e n c e s c a l e was u sed
t o c irc u m v e n t th e r e a d in g h a n d ic a p o f t h e e x p e rim e n ta l
s u b j e c t s .
In s tru m e n ts
The R o rsch ach E x am in atio n was u se d p r im a r il y t o
15
TABLE 1
READING ABILITY IN NUMBER OF GRADE LEVELS
ABOVE OR BELOW CURRENT GRADE PLACEMENT
G roup Range Mean SD
R e ta rd e d R e ad e rs - 2 .0 t o - 7 .5 - 4 .4 1 1 .6 5
N orm al R e a d e rs - 1 .0 t o + 1 .0
o >
CM
•
O
1
0 .4 9
o b ta in d a t a n ee d ed f o r t e s t i n g th e t h e o r e t i c a l h y p o th e s e s
on d e p e n d e n c y , an d a n x ie ty a s s o c i a t e d w ith h o s t i l i t y . I t
was a l s o u se d t o g e t in f o r m a tio n on s e x u a l a n x i e t y , o n e o f
th e s u b h y p o th e s e s r e l a t i n g t o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d i s t u r b a n c e .
De V os' (1 9 5 2 ) p s y c h o a n a l y tic a lly o r i e n t e d c o n te n t a n a l y s i s
schem a f o r th e R o rsc h a c h was em ployed a s a q u a n t i t a t i v e
m easu re o f d e p e n d e n c y , h o s t i l e a n x i e t y , a n d s e x u a l a n x i e t y .
T h ese c o n c e p ts a r e o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f in e d i n De V os' m anual
w hich a l s o c o n ta in s i l l u s t r a t i v e R o rsch ach re s p o n s e s f o r
e a c h o f t h e v a r io u s c o n te n t a n a l y s i s c a t e g o r i e s . I n t h i s
r e s e a r c h De V os' 1961 r e v i s i o n 2 was u s e d . Each R o rsc h ac h
re s p o n s e was s c o r e d by one o r more o f m u lt ip le s u b s c o re s
u n d e r s e v e n m a jo r a f f e c t i v e c a t e g o r i e s : n e u t r a l , h o s t i l e ,
a n x io u s , b o d y , p o s i t i v e , d e p e n d e n t, and m is c e lla n e o u s .
P re v io u s r e s e a r c h (De V o s ', 1952; S peism an and S i n g e r ,
2G. De V o s, P e r s o n a l C om m unication, 1961.
16
1961) h a s d e m o n s tra te d t h a t t h i s c o n te n t a n a l y s i s s y s te m
i s a s e n s i t i v e an d r e l i a b l e p ro c e d u re f o r d i s c r i m i n a t i n g
p e r s o n a l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s *
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h y p o th e s e s
was m e d ia te d l a r g e l y th ro u g h t h e u se o f t h e W e b b -H a rris
Word M eaning T e s t (Webb an d H a r r i s , 196 1 )* T h is t e s t u s e s
s t a n d a r d s e m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e s (O sg o o d , S u c i , and
T annenbaum , 1 9 5 7 ) t o m easu re o b j e c t i v e l y t h e c o n n o ta tiv e
m ean in g o f c o n c e p ts * T w elve b i p o l a r a d j e c t i v e s c a l e s
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e t h r e e c o n n o t a ti v e f a c t o r s — e v a l u a t i v e ,
a c t i v i t y , an d p o te n c y — i s o l a t e d i n f a c t o r y a n a l y t i c s t u d i e s
by O sgood ( 1 9 5 2 ) , w ere u se d t o r a t e f i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
c o n c e p ts ("M e," " M o th e r," " F a t h e r ," " B o y ," " G i r l " ) on a
se v e n s t e p s c a l e . S e m a n tic s i m i l a r i t y o f D v a lu e b etw e en
t h e s u b j e c t ("M e") an d th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " m o d e l," a n d h ig h
a n d low r a t i n g s f o r e a c h c o n c e p t on t h e t h r e e c o n n o ta tiv e
f a c t o r s , p r o v id e d an o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f i d e n t i f i c a
t i o n d is tu r b a n c e * The u se o f s e m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e s
f o r r e s e a r c h on i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h a s a m o d e ra te ly le n g th y
h i s t o r y (L a z o w ic k , 1 9 5 5 ) , an d an e s t a b l i s h e d u t i l i t y .
! P ro c e d u re
S u b se q u e n t t o l i m i t i n g th e g ro u p s a s p r e v io u s l y
d e s c r i b e d , an a s s i s t a n t u s e d a t a b l e o f random num bers t o
a s s ig n a code num ber t o e a c h s u b j e c t . T h is a s s i s t a n t th e n
ran d o m ly s c h e d u le d t h e s u b j e c t s f o r t e s t i n g . S in c e th e
17
a u th o r p r e v io u s ly h a d n o t h a d p e r s o n a l c o n t a c t w ith th e
s u b j e c t s , an d th e y h a d b e e n i n s t r u c t e d t o w ith h o ld t h e i r
names fro m h im , n u m e ric a l c o d in g o b s c u re d t h e i r i d e n t i f i
c a t i o n a s e x p e r im e n ta l o r c o n t r o l s u b j e c t s . As a f u r t h e r
p r e c a u tio n a g a i n s t p o s s i b l e e x a m in e r b i a s , c o m p le te d t e s t
p r o to c o ls w ere im m e d ia te ly s u b m itte d t o an a s s i s t a n t who
r e t a i n e d them u n t i l t e s t i n g was c o m p le te d on a l l s u b j e c t s .
T e s tin g was c o m p le te d w i t h i n a th r e e -m o n th p e r io d .
I n d iv id u a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e R o rsc h ach
a c c o rd in g t o th e s ta n d a r d K lo p f e r (1 9 5 4 ) p ro c e d u re was done
by t h e a u t h o r . The W e b b -H arris Word M eaning T e s t was g ro u p
a d m in is te r e d by th e a u t h o r . I n s t r u c t i o n s w ere r e a d a lo u d
t o th e s tu d e n ts a s th e y fo llo w e d on t h e i r t e s t c o p i e s , and
v i s u a l exam ples w ere p r e s e n te d a c c o r d in g t o s ta n d a r d
a d m i n i s t r a t io n p r o c e d u r e . Two e x p e r ie n c e d a s s i s t a n t s a id e d
w ith t h i s group a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
T e s tin g was done d u r in g r e g u l a r s c h o o l h o u r s , an d
s c h e d u lin g was a r r a n g e d t o m in im iz e c o n f l i c t s w ith s c h o o l
a s s o c i a t e d e x a m in a tio n s , a n d " s o l i d " c o u r s e s . P r i o r t o a l l
t e s t i n g th e s u b j e c t s w ere r o u t i n e l y t o l d t h a t th e y w ere
p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a t e s t i n g p ro g ram w hich w ould h e lp th e
s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d some o f t h e th in g s
im p o r ta n t t o r e a d i n g . They w ere a s s u r e d o f th e an o n y m ity
o f th e r e s u l t s a s f a r a s i n d i v i d u a l s w ere c o n c e rn e d . The
s u b s t i t u t i o n o f code num bers f o r t h e i r nam es h e lp e d t o
em p h asize t h i s p o i n t t o th e m . O nly one o f th e i n i t i a l 56
18
s u b j e c t s m e e tin g th e s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a r e f u s e d t o
p a r t i c i p a t e • A n o th er s u b j e c t w as l a t e r l o s t t o th e s tu d y
th ro u g h an in ju x y in c u r r e d i n a t h l e t i c c o m p e titio n . A
t h i r d s u b j e c t made some c r u c i a l o m is s io n s i n re s p o n d in g t o
th e g ro u p t e s t i n g , and s u b s e q u e n tly was d i s q u a l i f i e d when
th e e r r o r s w ere r e v e a le d d u r in g d a t a p r o c e s s in g .
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
D i s t r i b u t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
and S t a t i s t i c a l P ro c e d u re
S in c e R o rsch ach s c o r e s i n g e n e r a l a r e n o t n o rm a lly
d i s t r i b u t e d (F is k e and Baughman, 195 3 ) , and b e c a u se o f
in d e p e n d e n t g ro u p s o f u n e q u a l s i z e , th e R o rsch ach d a ta w ere
a n a ly z e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y w ith a n o n p a ra m e tric te c h n iq u e , th e
M ann-W hitney U T e s t ( S i e g e l , 1 9 5 6 ). In d e p e n d e n t and
u n e q u a l g ro u p s and th e unknown d i s t r i b u t i o n o f D (L azo w ick ,
1 9 5 5 ), a l s o made th e W eb b -H arris Word M eaning T e s t d a ta
m ost s u i t a b l e f o r s t a t i s t i c a l tr e a tm e n t w ith th e Mann-
W hitney U T e s t . S in ce n o t a l l s u b j e c t s gave re s p o n s e s
w hich c o u ld be c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r th e R o rsch ach c o n te n t
c a te g o r ie s b e in g i n v e s t i g a t e d , th e R o rsch ach d a ta o f te n
show v a r i a b i l i t y in num ber o f s u b j e c t s in th e d i f f e r e n t
c o n te n t c a t e g o r i e s .
T e s ts o f th e H y p o th eses
The f i r s t m a jo r h y p o th e s is c o n te n d s t h a t r e t a r d e d
r e a d e r s w i l l show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more dependency th a n w i l l
n o rm al r e a d e r s . R e fe re n c e t o T a b le 2 d i s c l o s e s t h a t t h i s
19
20
p ro p o se d r e l a t i o n s h i p f a i l e d to m a t e r i a l i z e , A s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e i n am ount o f dependency was n o t o b se rv e d betw een
r e ta r d e d and n o rm al r e a d e r s . Q uick d is m is s a l o f th e
dependency f a c t o r a s i n s i g n i f i c a n t t o re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y *
how ever* i s n o t en c o u ra g ed by o th e r r e s u l t s . Though
e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n t r o l s u b je c ts d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i
c a n tly on t o t a l dependency (T a b le 2 ) , o r a l dependency
(T a b le 3)* o r o r a l H o s t i l i t y (T a b le *+)* th e y d id show
s i g n i f i c a n t l y more d e p r e s s iv e a f f e c t (Table 5)* more
m is c e lla n e o u s o r n e u t r a l o r a l i t y (T a b le 6)* and more
p a s s i v i t y (T a b le 7 ) . The im p lic a tio n s o f th e s e f in d in g s
w i l l be d is c u s s e d i n th e fo llo w in g c h a p te r .
TABLE 2
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST OF RORSCHACH DEPENDENCY
SCORES OF RETARDED AND NO RM A L READERS
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R eaders
(N = 21) * ♦ 2 4 203 18 i+286
N orm al R eaders
(N = 20) *+27
(N = 20)
21
TABLE 3
MANN-WHITNEY
SCORES
U TEST OF RORSCHACH ORAL DEPENDENCY
OF RETARDED AN D NORMEirKEADERS
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R ead ers
(N = 8) 90 26 < .0 5
N orm al R ead ers
(N = 10) 81
TABLE 4
MANN-WHITNEY
SCORES
U TEST OF RORSCHACH ORAL HOSTILITY
OF RETARDED A N D NORMAirKEADERS
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R ead ers
(N = 11) 128 37 > .05
N orm al R ead ers
(N = 9) 82
22
TABLE 5
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST OF RORSCHACH DEPRESSION
SCORES OF RETARDED AND NORM AL READERS
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U
R e ta rd e d R e ad e rs
(N = IS ) 286 7>t * { .0 5
N orm al R e ad e rs
(N = 16) 210
*Where N = 420 i n t h e l a r g e r g ro u p , P i s d e r iv e d
d i r e c t l y from U w ith o u t f i r s t co m p u tin g Z.
TABLE 6
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST OF RORSCHACH MISCELLANEOUS (NEUTRAL)
ORAL SCORES OF RETARDED AND NORM AL READERS
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U
R e ta rd e d R ead ers
(N = 9) 121 23 . . .0 2 5 *
N orm al R e a d e rs
(N « 11) 88
* S i g n i f i c a n t a t l e s s th a n .05 l e v e l .
23
TABLE 7
M ANN-W HITNEY U TEST O F WEBB-HARRIS W O R D M EANING
TEST RATINGS OF "M E" O N THE "ACTIVITY" FACTOR
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R eaders
(N = 28) 634 228 - 2 .2 .0132*
N orm al R ead ers
(N * 25) 797
* S ig n if ic a n t a t .0 1 l e v e l
The se c o n d m a jo r h y p o th e s is p ro p o se s t h a t r e t a r d e d
r e a d e r s w i l l show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more a n x ie ty a s s o c ia t e d
w ith h o s t i l i t y th a n w i l l norm al r e a d e r s . As e v id e n c e d i n
T ab le 8 , r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s c o u ld n o t be d is c r im in a te d from
norm al r e a d e r s on th e b a s i s o f am ount o f h o s t i l e a n x ie ty
show n.
TABLE 8
MANN-WHITNEY
SCORES
U TEST OF RORSCHACH HOSTILE ANXIETY
OF RETARDED AND NORM AL READERS
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R eaders
(N = 24) 490 161 .2 1 .4 1 6 8
N orm al R ead ers
(N - 17) 400
The t h i r d m a jo r h y p o th e s is p r e d i c t s t h a t r e t a r d e d
24
r e a d e r s w i l l show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more d is tu r b a n c e i n th e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p ro c e s s th a n w i l l n o rm al r e a d e r s . T h ree
su b h y p o th e se s a r e in v o lv e d i n t h i s p r e d i c t i o n an d a r e a s
f o llo w s :
The f i r s t s u b h y p o th e s is h o ld s t h a t r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s
w i l l show more s e x u a l a n x ie ty th a n n o rm al r e a d e r s . T a b le 9
shows t h a t t h i s s u b h y p o th e s is was n o t b o rn e o u t. The tw o
g ro u p s o f s u b je c ts w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i s s i m i l a r i n th e
am ount o f s e x u a l a n x ie ty w hich th e y m a n ife s te d .
TABLE 9
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST OF RORSCHACH SEXUAL ANXIETY
SCORES OF RETARDED AND NORM AL READERS
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R ead ers
(N = 18) 289 116 ? .05
N orm al R ead e rs
(N = 13) 207
*Where N = <20 i n th e l a r g e r g ro u p , P i s d e r iv e d
d i r e c t l y from U w ith o u t f i r s t co m p u tin g Z.
The se c o n d s u b h y p o th e s is p r e d i c t s t h a t r e ta r d e d
r e a d e r s w i l l be more c l o s e ly i d e n t i f i e d w ith a f r u s t r a t i n g
and r e l a t i v e l y more m a sc u lin e m o th e r - f ig u r e . On th e
s u r f a c e , a t l e a s t , t h i s p r e d i c t i o n was o n ly p a r t i a l l y
s u s t a i n e d . Though th e r e s u l t s w ere i n th e p r e d ic te d
d i r e c t i o n . T ab le 10 i n d i c a t e s an i n s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e
|b etw een e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n t r o l s u b je c ts in th e d eg ree o f
;s i m i l a r i t y w hich th e y p e rc e iv e d betw een th e m se lv e s and
i
m o th e r. The .0735 p r o b a b i l i t y le v e l in T ab le 11 does
s u g g e s t a tr e n d f o r r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s t o s e e m other as a
r e l a t i v e l y more p o te n t o r m a sc u lin e f i g u r e . The f in d in g
t h a t r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s re g a rd m o th er a s a s i g n i f i c a n t l y le s s
d e s ir a b le p e rso n th a n do norm al r e a d e rs (T a b le 12) s u g g e s ts
i
t h a t sh e does r e p r e s e n t a more f r u s t r a t i n g m a te rn a l f ig u r e
to th em , a s u g g e s tio n a l s o im p lie d in t h e i r te n d e n cy t o se e
h e r as r e l a t i v e l y more m a s c u lin e . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
d im in ish e d d e s i r a b i l i t y i s n o t re s e rv e d e x c lu s iv e ly f o r
m o th e r. T ab le 13 in d i c a t e s t h a t r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s a ls o f in d
f a t h e r to be a l e s s d e s i r a b l e , and p resu m ab ly , a more
f r u s t r a t i n g p a r e n t th a n do norm al r e a d e r s . The im p lic a
ti o n s o f th e s e f in d in g s a re e x p lo re d in th e n e x t c h a p te r .
TABLE 10
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST OF WEBB-HARRIS W O R D MEANING TEST
DISTANCE SCORES BETW EEN "ME" A N D "MOTHER"
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R eaders
(N = 28) 674 310 - .7 1 .2389
Normal Readers
(N = 25) 715
26
TABLE 11
M ANN-W HITNEY U TEST OF WEBB-HARRIS W O R D M EANING TEST
RATINGS O F "M O TH ER ” O N THE "POTENCY" FA C TO R
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R ead ers
(N = 28) 827 268 -1.U 5 • 0735
N orm al R e ad ers
(N = 25) 593
MANN-WHITNEY U
RATINGS OF
TABLE 12
TEST OF WEBB-HARRIS W O R D MEANING TEST
"MOTHER" O N THE "EVALUATIVE" FACTOR
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R ead ers
(N = 28) 574 168 - 3 .2 3 .0007*
Norm al R ead ers
(N = 25) 857
* S i g n i f i c a n t a t l e s s th a n .0 1 l e v e l .
27
TABLE 13
M ANN-W HITNEY U TEST OF WEBB-HARRIS W O R D M EANING TEST
RATINGS OF "FATHER” O N TH E "EVALUATIVE" FACTOR
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R ead ers
(N = 28) 6**U 239 - 1 .9 8 .0 2 3 9 *
N orm al R ead e rs
(N = 25) 786
* S i g n i f i c a n t a t l e s s th a n .05 le v e l*
The e a r l i e r comment t h a t on th e s u r f a c e t h e m o th e r
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h y p o th e s is a p p e a re d t o be s u s t a i n e d o n ly
p a r t i a l l y , n ee d s c l a r i f y i n g . I n s p e c t i o n o f th e s u b j e c t s '
r a t i n g s o f t h e "Boy" and " G ir l" i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o n c e p ts
r e v e a le d t h a t n o rm al r e a d e r s p e r c e iv e s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r
s i m i l a r i t y b etw e en th e m s e lv e s an d "Boy" th a n do r e t a r d e d
r e a d e r s (T a b le 1 4 ) . N orm al r e a d e r s a l s o p e r c e iv e "Boy" a s
a s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore m a s c u lin e f i g u r e (T a b le 1 5 ) . A ddi
t i o n a l l y , th e "Boy" i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o n c e p t i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y
more d e s i r a b l e t o them th a n i t i s t o th e r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s
(T a b le 1 6 ) . The r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s a r e i n c l i n e d t o s e e them
s e l v e s as more s i m i l a r t o " G ir l" (T a b le 1 7 ) , and p e r c e iv e
" G ir l" a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y more m a s c u lin e th a n do n o rm al
r e a d e r s (T a b le 1 8 ) . R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s a l s o m a n if e s t a
s t r o n g te n d e n c y t o a s s o c i a t e l e s s d e s i r a b i l i t y w ith " G ir l"
(T a b le 1 9 ) .
28
TABLE 1 « *
M ANN-W HITNEY U TEST OF WEBB-HARRIS W O R D M EANING
TEST DISTANCE SCORES B E T W E E N "M E" AND "BOY"
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R eaders
(N = 28) 8>t2 219 -2 .3 H .0096*
Norm al R ead ers
(N s 25) 5 * + * +
* S ig n if ic a n t a t l e s s th a n .0 1 l e v e l .
TABLE 15
MANN-WHITNEY
TEST RATINGS
U TEST OF WEBB-HARRIS W O R D
OF "BOY" O N THE "POTENCY"
MEANING
FACTOR
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R ead ers
(N = 28) 612 207 -2 .5 U .0055*
N orm al R ead ers
(N = 25) 818
* S ig n if ic a n t a t l e s s th a n .0 1 l e v e l
29
TABLE 16
M ANN-W HITNEY U TEST OF WEBB-HARRIS W O R D M EANING
TEST RATINGS OF "BOY" O N TH E "EVALUATIVE" FACTOR
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R ead e rs
(N = 28) 658 252 - 1 .7 4 .0409*
N orm al R ead ers
(N = 25) 773
* S ig n if ic a n t a t l e s s th a n .05 l e v e l .
TABLE 17
MANN-WHITNEY U TEST OF WEBB-HARRIS W O R D MEANING
TEST DISTANCE SCORES BETW EEN "ME" AND "GIRL"
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R ead e rs
(N = 28) 683 277 - 1 .2 9 .0985
Normal R eaders
(N = 25) 748
30
TABLE 18
M ANN-W HITNEY U TEST O F WEBB-HARRIS W O R D M EA N IN G
TEST RATINGS O F "GIRL" O N TH E "POTENCY" FA C TO R
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R eaders
(N = 28) 7W 238 -1 .9 8 .0239*
Normal R eaders
(N = 25) 563
* S ig n if ic a n t a t le s s th a n .05 l e v e l .
MANN-WHITNEY U
RATINGS OF
TABLE 19
TEST OF WEBB-HARRIS W O R D MEANING TEST
"GIRL" O N THE "EVALUATIVE" FACTOR
S u b je c ts Sum o f Ranks U Z P
R e ta rd e d R eaders
(N = 28) 667 261 -1 .5 8 .0571
Normal R eaders
(N = 25) 761*
31
The fo re g o in g r e s u l t s from th e W ebb-H arris Word
M eaning T e s t r a t i n g s o f th e "Boy” and " G ir l" i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
c o n c e p ts r a i s e some q u e s tio n a b o u t th e se em in g ly i n s i g n i f i
c a n t s t a t i s t i c s c o n n e c te d w ith some a s p e c ts o f th e m o th er
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h y p o th e s is . T h is q u e s tio n w i l l be p u rsu e d
i n th e d is c u s s io n c h a p te r w hich f o llo w s .
The t h i r d s u b h y p o th e s is a s s e r t s t h a t r e ta r d e d
r e a d e r s w i l l show a r e l a t i v e l y p o o r e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith
b o th p a r e n t s . S in ce r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs p e rc e iv e t h e i r
p a r e n ts as s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s d e s i r a b l e , a n d , p resu m a b ly ,
le s s re w a rd in g p e rso n s th a n do norm al r e a d e r s , t h i s
s u b h y p o th e s is e s s e n t i a l l y was s u s t a i n e d . A s t a b l e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n t y p i c a l l y i s h a r d e r t o a c h ie v e w ith p a r e n ts
se e n a s r e l a t i v e l y u n d e s ir a b le and f r u s t r a t i n g th a n w ith
p a r e n ts p e rc e iv e d in a more p o s i t iv e l i g h t . The r e s u l t s
from th e "Boy” and " G ir l" c o n c e p ts i n d i r e c t l y a l s o s u p p o rt
t h i s s u b h y p o th e s is .
CH APTER V
DISCUSSION
In th e in tr o d u c tio n th e p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y was
e x p la in e d a s an a tte m p t t o illu m in a te th e q u e s tio n —»Are
t h e r e s u g g e s te d r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een e a r l y d ev elo p m e n tal
d is tu r b a n c e s and re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y ? T hree h y p o th e s e s , one
o f w hich was com posed o f t h r e e su b h y p o th e s e s , w ere t e s t e d
i n an e f f o r t t o answ er t h i s q u e s tio n . The r e s u l t s r e l a t e d
t o each o f th e s e h y p o th e se s a re now d is c u s s e d .
F i r s t H y p o th esis
The f i r s t h y p o th e s is w as: R e ta rd e d r e a d e rs w i l l
show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more dependency th a n norm al r e a d e r s .
The h y p o th e s is was n o t s u p p o rte d ; e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l
s u b je c ts e x h ib ite d an i n s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e in amount o f
dependency a s m easured by th e De Vos R orschach c o n te n t
a n a ly s is schem a. As m en tio n ed p r e v io u s ly , how ev er, o th e r
f in d in g s m o d erate an u n e q u iv o c a l r e j e c t i o n o f d if f e r e n c e s
i n dependency betw een r e ta r d e d and n o rm al r e a d e r s . The
show ing o f s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r d e p re s s iv e a f f e c t and
m is c e lla n e o u s ( n e u t r a l ) o r a l re s p o n s e s by r e ta r d e d re a d e rs
opens o th e r avenues o f s p e c u la tio n . F i r s t , th e s e l a t t e r
32
33
i
i
f in d in g s s u g g e s t t h a t p o s s i b le d if f e r e n c e s i n dependency
i
, b etw een th e two g ro u p s o f r e a d e r s a r e more q u a l i t a t i v e th a n
1 i
i q u a n t i t a t i v e i n n a t u r e . The com bined g r e a t e r em p h asis on
I d e p r e s s iv e e f f e c t and m is c e lla n e o u s o r a l c o n te n t s u g g e s t s ,
w ith in th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew o rk , t h a t
| r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s h av e more c o n f l i c t and a n x ie ty a s s o c ia te d
| w ith d ep en d en cy . T h is r e a s o n in g i s s u p p o rte d by W ie n e r's
I (1956) r e s u l t s from a R o rsch ach c o n te n t a n a l y s i s s tu d y o f
i
■ n e u r o t i c d e p r e s s iv e s an d a l c o h o l i c s . One o f h i s f in d in g s
j was t h a t th e d e p r e s s iv e s re sp o n d e d w ith more n e u t r a l o r a l
i
re s p o n s e s th a n th e a l c o h o l i c s . W iener (1 9 5 6 ) o f f e r e d th e
i
e x p la n a tio n t h a t c o n f l i c t b etw een p a s s iv e an d a g g r e s s iv e
' n ee d s c a u s e s a d is p la c e m e n t o f th e o r a l i t y o n to more
n e u t r a l c o n te n t. T h e r e f o r e , t h e p re o c c u p a tio n w ith
■ dependency n eed s e m e rg e s , b u t w ith o u t th e c o n f l i c t u a l ,
a n x ie ty - a r o u s in g c o n n o ta tio n s . P erh ap s a s i m i l a r e x p la n a
t i o n i s a p p l ic a b le t o th e p r e s e n t r e t a r d e d r e a d in g g ro u p .
They to o f a i l e d t o show s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s from n o rm al
r e a d e r s i n o r a l dependency and o r a l h o s t i l i t y , b u t showed
s i g n i f i c a n t l y more m is c e lla n e o u s o r n e u t r a l o r a l i t y . The
p r e s e n t a u t h o r 's s p e c u la tio n a b o u t g r e a t e r dependency
| c o n f l i c t i n r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s , a s w e ll as W ie n e r's s i m i l a r
i s p e c u la tio n s a b o u t n e u r o t i c d e p r e s s iv e s c a n n o t, o f c o u r s e ,
!
t
be re g a rd e d as c o n c lu s iv e . They do u n d e rs c o re t h a t th e
a s s e s s m e n t o f dependency n ee d s i s a c o m p lic a te d m a tte r .
P erh ap s u n r e f in e d m easu rem en t, d if f e r e n c e s i n sam ple
3H
p o p u la tio n s and m easurem ent te c h n iq u e s , and narrow
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f d a ta a r e r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e d is c r e p a n t
f in d in g s w hich f r e q u e n tly have been r e p o r te d i n r e s e a r c h on
th e dependency need s o f r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s . A f u tu r e
r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t m ig h t p r o f i t a b l y c o n fin e i t s e l f t o a
r e f i n e d and e x te n s iv e e x p lo r a tio n o f t h i s p ro b lem . W ithout
su ch a c o n c e n tr a te d r e s e a r c h e f f o r t th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic
th e o ry t h a t re a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n i s p a r t i a l l y r e l a t e d t o
dependency d is tu r b a n c e s n e i t h e r can be d e f i n i t i v e l y
co n firm ed n o r d e n ie d .
Second H y p o th esis
The se co n d h y p o th e s is w as: R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l
show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more a n x ie ty a s s o c ia te d w ith h o s t i l i t y
th a n w i l l norm al r e a d e r s . T h is h y p o th e s is was n o t
s u s t a i n e d ; r e ta r d e d and norm al r e a d e r s d id n o t m a n ife s t
s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s in am ount o f h o s t i l e a n x ie ty . T h is
r e s u l t can be i n t e r p r e t e d a s e v id e n c e a g a in s t a r e l a t i o n
s h ip b etw een a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h l e v e l o f h o s t i l e a n x ie ty and
r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y w hich p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o ry p ro p o s e s . As
w ith th e dependency h y p o th e s is , h o w ev er, c a u tio n i s
w a rra n te d i n i n t e r p r e t i n g th e r e s u l t s . The show ing o f
s i g n i f i c a n t l y more d e p re s s iv e a f f e c t by r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs
s u g g e s ts an a l t e r n a t i v e t o r e j e c t i n g th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic
h o s t i l e a n x ie ty h y p o th e s is . An a l t e r n a t i v e c o n c lu s io n , and
one w hich i s r e in f o r c e d by th e f in d in g t h a t r e ta r d e d
35
r e a d e r s s e e th e m s e lv e s as s i g n i f i c a n t l y more p a s s iv e th a n
n o rm al r e a d e r s (T a b le 7 ) , i s t h a t th e r e t a r d e d r e a d e r h a s
r e t r e a t e d t o a r e l a t i v e l y im p o te n t, s u b m is s iv e , o r r e s ig n e d
d e fe n s e a g a i n s t h o s t i l e f e e l in g s * In e s s e n c e , a " d e p r e s
s iv e r e a c t i o n ” h a s b o u n d , a n d , s u b s e q u e n tly , i s m asking
a n x ie ty w hich o r i g i n a l l y was a s s o c i a t e d w ith h o s t i l e
f e e l i n g s . F u tu re r e s e a r c h m ig h t c l a r i f y w hich o f th e s e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c o n c e rn in g h o s t i l e a n x ie ty i n r e t a r d e d
r e a d e r s i s th e more t e n a b l e .
Some a u th o r s (R o th an d M e y e rsb u rg , 1 9 6 3 ), on th e
s t r e n g t h o f c o u n s e lin g in te r v ie w m a t e r i a l , a rg u e t h a t th e
p sy ch o d y n am ics o f n o n a c h ie v e rs o r ”slo w l e a r n e r s " c l o s e ly
re s e m b le a " d e p r e s s iv e sy n d ro m e .” They d e s c r ib e th e s e l f
s t r u c t u r e o f th e s e i n d i v i d u a l s as a v u ln e r a b le o n e ; w h e th e r
t h e s e l f i s a t t a c k e d from o u ts id e o r w i t h i n , a n x ie ty and
d i s t r e s s a r e r e a d i l y e x p e r ie n c e d . G u ilt and d e p r e s s io n a r e
o b s e rv e d t o b in d th e a n x i e t y , and th e s e l f - s t r u c t u r e r e
e s t a b l i s h e s i t s dynam ic e q u i li b r i u m . C on so n an t w ith t h i s
o b s e r v a tio n th e y h a v e o u t l i n e d a c o u n s e lin g a p p ro a c h aim ed
a t d i s r u p t i n g th e s e l f - d e f e a t i n g p a t t e r n o f s e l f - d i s p a r a g e
m ent i n "slo w l e a r n e r s " m a n if e s tin g th e " d e p r e s s iv e
syndrom e*" P a r t o f t h i s c o u n s e lin g in v o lv e s h e lp in g th e
s t u d e n t u n d e r s ta n d t h a t t h e p o o r a c ad e m ic p e rfo rm a n c e i s
b a s i c a l l y d e s ig n e d t o g e t a t t e n t i o n from p a r e n ts who can
36
r e l a t e o n ly th ro u g h h o s t i l i t y . In t h i s way an i d e n t i t y
w ith th e fa m ily i s s o u g h t th ro u g h th e o n ly c h a n n e l
a v a i l a b l e , t h a t i s , s e l f - d e v a l u a t i o n .
The c a r d i n a l symptom o f th e p r e s e n t e x p e rim e n ta l
s u b j e c ts was r e a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n . N e v e r th e le s s , th e
a v e ra g e s e v e r i t y o f r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y was o f s u f f i c i e n t
m ag n itu d e t o im p a ir g e n e r a l acad em ic p e rfo rm a n c e as w e ll .
T h e r e f o r e , R o th 's and M e y e rsb u rg 's (1 9 6 3 ) s p e c u la tio n s
a b o u t a " d e p r e s s iv e syndrom e" i n n o n a c h ie v e rs a l s o may be
a p p l ic a b le t o s e v e r e ly r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s . I t w ould be
i n t e r e s t i n g an d w o rth w h ile t o com pare a g roup o f r e ta r d e d
r e a d e r s su ch a s th o s e i n t h i s s tu d y w ith a c l i n i c a l group
o f a d o le s c e n ts show ing a d e p r e s s iv e r e a c t i o n , b u t who a r e
n o rm a l r e a d e r s . A c o m p a ra tiv e a n a l y s i s o f t h i s ty p e sh o u ld
a m p lify w h e th e r m o d erate t o s e v e r e r e a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n can
be re g a rd e d as a v a r i a n t o r s p e c i a l c a se o f d e p r e s s io n .
C l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e " d e p re s s iv e syndrom e" h y p o th e s is w ould
be h e l p f u l i n d e v e lo p in g o r r e v i s i n g a s p e c i a l i z e d t h e r a
p e u t i c ap p ro a c h su ch a s t h a t o u tli n e d by Roth and
M eyersburg (1 9 6 3 ),
T h ird H y p o th e s is
T h is h y p o th e s is , w hich p o s i t e d t h a t r e t a r d e d r e a d
e r s w ould show a s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o o r e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith
b o th p a r e n t s , was com posed o f t h r e e s u b h y p o th e s e s . A c c o rd
in g t o th e f i r s t s u b - h y p o th e s is , r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s w i l l
37
I show more s e x u a l a n x ie ty th a n n o rm al r e a d e r s . T h is
:s u b h y p o th e s is was n o t e x p e r im e n ta lly v e r i f i e d ; th e d i f f e r
en ce i n am ount o f s e x u a l a n x ie ty b etw een th e tw o re a d in g
g ro u p s was i n s i g n i f i c a n t . T h is r e s u l t s u g g e s ts t h a t l e v e l
o f s e x u a l a n x ie ty i s n o t m e a n in g fu lly r e l a t e d t o r e a d in g
d i s a b i l i t y . From a p s y c h o a n a ly tic s ta n d p o in t t h i s
;c o n c lu s io n w ould s u g g e s t t h a t s e x u a l a n x ie ty was n o t a
s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n im p a ir in g th e c h i l d 's i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
w ith h i s p a r e n t s , and s u b s e q u e n tly , h i s own i d e n t i t y as a
m a le . T h is view may be c o r r e c t ; i t i s , a t l e a s t , c o n s i s t
e n t w ith o th e r f in d in g s ( W a lte r s , e t a l . , 1 9 6 1 ), w hich
f a i l e d t o r e v e a l s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e x u a l a n x ie ty
b etw een r e t a r d e d and n o rm al r e a d e r s on th e b a s is o f
p r o j e c t i v e d a t a . T h ere a r e , h o w ev e r, some a l t e r n a t i v e
e x p la n a to r y v ie w s.
F i r s t , t h e r e i s th e phenom enon t h a t a re sp o n se
v a r i a b l e su c h as s e x u a l a n x ie ty may n o t a r i s e a t a l l in
p r o j e c t i v e m a t e r i a l . T h is c o u ld mean t h a t t h i s re s p o n s e
v a r i a b l e h a s l i t t l e dynam ic s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r th e i n d i v i d
u a l . On th e o th e r h a n d , i t c o u ld mean t h a t i t h a s dynam ic
s i g n i f i c a n c e b u t i s a n x ie ty - p r o v o k in g , and s o s tr o n g ly
r e p r e s s e d , t h a t i t i s n o t p e r m itte d e x p r e s s io n when th e
i n d i v i d u a l h a s th e re s p o n s e freed o m w hich c h a r a c t e r i z e s
r e l a t i v e l y u n s tr u c t u r e d p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s . P erh ap s t h i s
e x p la in s why W a lte r s , e t a l . , (1961) found s i g n i f i c a n t l y
more s e x u a l a n x ie ty i n r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s on a s t r u c t u r e d
38
f o rc e d c h o ic e ty p e o f c o g n itiv e t a s k , b u t d id n o t f in d t h i s
d if f e r e n c e when th e y com pared no rm al and r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs
on th e b a s is o f f a n ta s y o r p r o je c tiv e m a t e r i a l . I t w ould
be i n s t r u c t i v e t o i n v e s t i g a t e w h e th e r th e d is c re p a n c y
betw een th e more c o n s c io u s , s t r u c t u r e d m a te r ia l an d f a n ta s y
d a ta w hich W a lte r s , e t a l . , r e p o r te d i s a g e n e r a liz e d
phenom enon, o r an a r t i f a c t o f t h e i r t e s t i n g p ro c e d u re .
C l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s is s u e c o u ld illu m in a te t h e i r argum ent
f o r an a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o th e s is t o th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o ry
o f r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y .
S e c o n d ly , one s t i l l m ust co n ten d w ith th e s i g n i f i
c a n tly g r e a t e r d e p r e s s iv e a f f e c t w hich th e e x p e rim e n ta l
s u b je c ts i n t h i s s tu d y show ed. The r e t r e a t to a r e l a t i v e l y
im p o te n t and su b m is s iv e p o s i t i o n c o u ld c o n s t i t u t e a d e fe n s e
a g a in s t s e x u a l a s w e ll a s , o r in a d d itio n t o , h o s t i l e
a n x ie ty . T h e r e f o r e , th e " d e p re s s io n " m ight be m asking
s e x u a l as w e ll a s h o s t i l e a n x ie ty . T h is v ie w p o in t g a in s
some s u p p o rt from th e p r e s e n t f in d in g s u g g e s tin g t h a t
r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs e x p e rie n c e c o n s id e r a b le d i f f i c u l t y in
a s s im i l a t i n g m a sc u lin e and fem in in e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t o
t h e i r p e r s o n a lity f u n c tio n in g . I t i s re a s o n a b le t o assume
t h a t some o f t h e i r s u g g e s te d i n a b i l i t y t o a c h ie v e a s t a b l e
m a sc u lin e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d e r iv e s from th e s e x u a l c o n n o ta
t io n s o f f e m in in ity and m a s c u lin ity .
The se co n d s u b h y p o th e s is was t h a t r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs
w i l l be more c lo s e ly i d e n t i f i e d w ith a f r u s t r a t i n g and
39
r e l a t i v e l y more m ascu lin e m o th e r- f ig u re . In th e p re c e d in g
c h a p te r i t was s t a t e d t h a t a t f i r s t g la n c e t h i s h y p o th e s is
was s u s ta in e d o n ly p a r t i a l l y . C o n s is te n t w ith th e
p r e d ic te d r e l a t i o n s h i p s r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs p e rc e iv e d "M other"
as a s i g n i f i c a n t l y le s s d e s i r a b l e , a n d , p resu m a b ly , le s s
g r a t i f y in g p e rso n th a n d id norm al r e a d e r s . A lthough
d is c lo s in g a tr e n d t o p e rc e iv e "M other" as a r e l a t i v e l y
more m ascu lin e f i g u r e , r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs d id n o t show a
c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith h e r . R e s u lts from r a t i n g s o f
th e "Boy" and " G ir l" i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o n c e p ts , how ever,
su g g e ste d a more e x te n s iv e and d e f i n i t i v e s u p p o rt f o r th e
h y p o th e s is . Here th e r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs showed a tr e n d t o
i d e n t i f y c l o s e r w ith th e fem ale f ig u r e " G ir l," and
re g a rd e d " G ir l” as s i g n i f i c a n t l y more m ascu lin e th a n d id
norm al r e a d e r s . A d d itio n a lly , r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs m a n ife ste d
a s i g n i f i c a n t l y more rem ote i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e mascu
l in e f ig u r e "B oy," and p e rc e iv e d "Boy" as s i g n i f i c a n t l y
le s s m ascu lin e and d e s i r a b l e . A p la u s ib le e x p la n a tio n f o r
th e seem ing d is c re p a n c y in r a t i n g s betw een th e "Boy— G irl"
and " F a th e r- M o th e r" i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o n c e p ts , may be th e
" t h r e a t v a lu e " a s s o c ia te d w ith th e s e c o n c e p ts . S p e c if ic
a l l y , th e c o n c e p ts "M other" and " F a th e r" p erh ap s a re
r e l a t i v e l y more p e r s o n a liz e d and e m o tio n a lly ch a rg e d .
T h e re fo re , th e y may have e l i c i t e d a s tr o n g e r d e fe n s e , and a
su b se q u e n t a c q u ie se n c e t o s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y i n th e
s u b j e c t s ' r a t i n g s . On th e o th e r h an d , th e co n c ep ts "Boy"
1(0
and " G ir l" p e rh a p s a r e r e l a t i v e l y l e s s p e r s o n a liz e d and
a n x ie ty - p r o v o k in g * a n d , h e n c e , p e r m itte d g r e a t e r re s p o n s e
freed o m .
I n l i g h t o f th e t o t a l e v id e n c e i t i s c o n c lu d e d t h a t
th e m o th e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h y p o th e s is i s l a r g e l y s u p p o rte d .
The e x c e p tio n t o co m p lete s u b s t a n t i a t i o n i s th e la c k o f
c l e a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t e v id e n c e t h a t r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s a r e more
c l o s e ly i d e n t i f i e d w ith m o th e r th a n a r e norm al r e a d e r s .
The t h i r d s u b h y p o th e s is w as: R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l
show a r e l a t i v e l y p o o re r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith b o th p a r e n t s .
E x p e rim e n ta l s u p p o r t f o r t h i s h y p o th e s is was r e f l e c t e d in
th e f in d in g t h a t r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s p e r c e iv e d t h e i r p a r e n ts
as s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s d e s i r a b l e , a n d , p re su m a b ly , l e s s
g r a t i f y i n g i n d i v i d u a l s . I t s u b s e q u e n tly was re a s o n e d t h a t
t h i s r e l a t i v e l y n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e to w ard th e p a r e n ts w ould
make i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith them an a m b iv a le n t and u n s ta b le
p r o c e s s . I f t h i s i s a v a l i d a s su m p tio n th e n s u p p o r tiv e
e v id e n c e s h o u ld b e a v a i l a b l e . The m a n if e s ta tio n o f g r e a t e r
d e p r e s s iv e a f f e c t , w hich p a r t i a l l y s u g g e s ts an a m b iv a le n t
a t t i t u d e to w a rd th e p a r e n t s , and th e s u g g e s te d d i f f i c u l
t i e s i n i n t e g r a t i n g fe m in in e and m a sc u lin e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
shown by th e e x p e rim e n ta l g ro u p , a p p e a r t o p ro v id e su ch
s u p p o r tiv e e v id e n c e . I t i s p ro b a b le t h a t w ith b o th p a r e n ts
p e r c e iv e d a s l e s s g r a t i f y i n g p e r s o n s , th e c h i l d n o t o n ly
1* 1
would e x p e rie n c e g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t y i n a c h ie v in g a s t a b l e
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith them , b u t a l s o w ould become more
s u s c e p tib le t o d e p r e s s io n .
C o n clu sio n s
As e la b o r a te d in th e fo re g o in g d is c u s s io n , th e d a ta
i n v i t e s p e c u la tio n t h a t m ale r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs e x p e rie n c e
more c o n f l i c t o v e r p a s s iv e and a g g re s s iv e needs th a n m ale
norm al r e a d e r s . A d d itio n a lly , th e d a ta s u g g e s t t h a t a
" d e p re s s iv e syndrom e" c h a r a c te r iz e s s e v e r e ly r e ta r d e d
r e a d e r s , and t h a t d e p re s s io n p a r t i a l l y r e p r e s e n ts a d efen se
a g a in s t a n x ie ty em an atin g from a p a s s iv e - a g g r e s s iv e
c o n f l i c t . T here was some s u g g e s tio n t h a t d e p re s s io n a l s o
c o n s titu t e s a d e fe n se a g a in s t a n x ie ty a s s o c ia te d w ith
s e x u a l c o n f l i c t . P ending f u r t h e r e x p e rim e n ta l c l a r i f i c a
t i o n o f th e s e i s s u e s , th e d i r e c t c o n c lu sio n w hich can be
drawn from t h i s s tu d y i s t h a t r e ta r d e d re a d e rs s u s t a i n
s i g n i f i c a n t l y more d is tu rb a n c e i n th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
p ro c e s s th a n norm al r e a d e r s . The f in d in g o f g r e a t e r
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d is tu rb a n c e in r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs i s
c o n s is te n t w ith p s y c h o a n a ly tic t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d ic tio n s and
o th e r (B oyd, 1953; W a lte rs , e t a l . , 1961) e x p e rim e n ta l
r e s e a r c h . In g e n e r a l, t h e r e f o r e , th e d a ta a re i n t e r p r e t e d
as p r e s e n tin g lim ite d s u p p o rt f o r th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o ry
o f re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y , and a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s and re a d in g d i s a b i l i t y .
CH APTER VI
SU M M A R Y
R esearch on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p e r s o n a lity
f a c t o r s and r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y o f te n h as r e s u l t e d in
c o n tr a d ic to r y f in d in g s . M oreover* i t g e n e ra lly h as
n e g le c te d a s y s te m a tiz e d dynam ic t h e o r e t i c a l ap p ro ach to
th e p ro b lem . P s y c h o a n a ly s is h as d ev e lo p ed a com prehensive
dynam ic th e o ry o f r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y em p h asiz in g e a r ly
d e v e lo p m e n ta l d is tu rb a n c e s * b u t c h i e f l y h as r e l i e d on i l l -
c o n t r o ll e d c a se s tu d i e s t o s u p p o rt th e th e o r y . T here was a
need* t h e r e f o r e , f o r s u p p le m e n ta l e x p e rim e n ta l i n v e s t i g a
t i o n o f th e th e o r y . In e x p lo r in g p o s s ib le r e l a t i o n s h i p s
betw een e a r l y d e v e lo p m e n ta l d is tu r b a n c e s and l a t e r re a d in g
d i s a b i l i t y * t h i s s tu d y a tte m p te d t o b e g in m e etin g t h i s
n e e d , and t o e l u c i d a t e th e c o n t r o v e r s i a l q u e s tio n o f an
a s s o c ia tio n betw een p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s and re a d in g
d i s a b i l i t y . T hree m ajo r h y p o th e s e s d e riv e d from
p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o ry w ere t e s t e d i n th e e f f o r t t o answ er
t h i s q u e s tio n . T hese h y p o th e se s w ere as fo llo w s :
1 . R e ta rd e d r e a d e rs w i l l show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more
dependency th a n w i l l norm al r e a d e r s .
43
2 . R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more
a n x ie ty a s s o c ia te d w ith h o s t i l i t y th a n w i l l n o rm al r e a d e r s .
3 . R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more
d is tu r b a n c e i n th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p ro c e s s th a n w i l l n o rm al
r e a d e r s : (a ) R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l show more s e x u a l
a n x i e ty , (b ) R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l be more c l o s e ly
i d e n t i f i e d w ith a f r u s t r a t i n g and r e l a t i v e l y more m a sc u lin e
m o th er f i g u r e , ( c ) R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s w i l l show a
s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o o r e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith b o th p a r e n t s .
The sam p le c o n s is te d o f 53 g ra d e s 10 and 11 boys o f
p re d o m in a n tly m id d le c l a s s so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . On th e
b a s is o f Wide Range R eading A chievem ent T e s t s c o r e s , 28
s u b j e c t s w ere c l a s s i f i e d a s r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s , and 25 a s
no rm al r e a d e r s . I n t e l l i g e n c e Q u o tie n ts from th e 1946
R e s ta n d a r d iz a tio n o f th e R e v ise d B e ta E x am in atio n w ere i n
th e n o rm al ra n g e (9 0 -1 1 7 ), and c o n t r o ls w ere e s t a b l i s h e d
f o r o t h e r e x tra n e o u s v a r i a b l e s w hich m ig h t have o b s c u re d
th e h y p o th e s iz e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
D ata from w hich t o a s s e s s th e p r e d ic te d r e l a t i o n
s h ip s c o n s is te d o f De V os' p s y c h o a n a ly tic a lly o r i e n t e d
R o rsch ach c o n te n t a n a l y s i s , and W eb b -H arris Word M eaning
T e s t r a t i n g s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o n c e p ts . T h is l a t t e r
in s tru m e n t u se d s ta n d a r d s e m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e s t o
m easure i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d is tu r b a n c e .
The f i r s t tw o p r i n c i p a l h y p o th e s e s w ere n o t
c o n firm e d ; r e t a r d e d r e a d e r s d id n o t e x c e e d norm al r e a d e r s
i
i n amount o f dependency and h o s t i l e a n x ie ty a s was
p re d ic te d * Two o f th e th r e e su b h y p o th e se s c o m p ris in g th e
t h i r d m a jo r h y p o th e s is e s s e n t i a l l y w ere s u b s t a n t i a t e d .
R e ta rd e d r e a d e r s p e rc e iv e d m o th er as more f r u s t r a t i n g and
r e l a t i v e l y more m a s c u lin e , and th e y a ls o d e m o n stra te d a
l e s s s t a b l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith b o th p a re n ts * They d id
n o t , h o w ev er, m a n ife s t more s e x u a l a n x ie ty th a n norm al
r e a d e r s .
P r im a r ily b e c a u se r e ta r d e d r e a d e r s show s i g n i f i
c a n tly more d e p r e s s iv e a f f e c t and p a s s i v i t y th a n n o rm al
r e a d e r s , a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s were o f f e r e d f o r th e
u n co n firm ed h y p o th e s e s . R e sea rc h t o c l a r i f y w hich
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w ere th e more te n a b le was d is c u s s e d .
*
The r e s u l t s w ere i n t e r p r e t e d as o f f e r i n g lim ite d
s u p p o rt f o r th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o ry o f re a d in g
d i s a b i l i t y , and a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p e r s o n a lity f a c t o r s
and r e a d in g d i s a b i l i t y . In a d d i tio n t o i n d i c a t i n g g r e a t e r
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d is tu r b a n c e i n r e ta r d e d r e a d e rs a s
p r e d i c t e d , th e f in d in g s s u g g e s te d t h a t a " d e p re s s iv e
syndrom e" m ig h t be a s s o c ia te d w ith re a d in g r e t a r d a t i o n .
R esearch was s u g g e s te d f o r c l a r i f y i n g t h i s p o s s ib le r e l a
t i o n s h i p , and p erh ap s c o n t r ib u t in g t o th e fo rm u la tio n o f a
s p e c i a l i z e d t h e r a p e u t i c p ro c e d u re .
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This dissertation has been 65— 1281
m icrofilm ed exactly a s received
FILIPELLI, John Jam es, 1925-
PERSONALITY FACTORS IN READING DISABILITY
A PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH.
U niversity of Southern California, Ph.D ., 1964
Biology-G enetics
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan

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Asset Metadata

Creator Filipelli, John James, 1925- (author)

Core Title Personality factors in reading disability: a psychodynamic approach

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

School Graduate School

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Biology

Degree Conferral Date 1964-08

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, psychobiology

Language English

Advisor Seward, Georgene H. (committee chair), Lasswell, Thomas E. (committee member), Longstreth, Langdon E. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-355460

Unique identifier UC11359109

Identifier 6501281.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-355460 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6501281.pdf

Dmrecord 355460

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Filipelli, John James

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA