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Social Factors Related To Dentistry As A Career

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Social Factors Related To Dentistry As A Career

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Content This dissertation has been 64-5161
microfilmed exactly as received
NILAND, BiUyanna Mary, 1918-
SOCIAL FACTORS RELATED TO DENTISTRY AS A
CAREER.
University of Southern California, Ph. D ., 1963
Sociology, general
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan.
SOCIAL FACTORS RELATED TO DENTISTRY
AS A CAREER
by
BiXlyanna Mary Niland
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the *
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Sociology)
August 1963
UNIVERSITY OF SO U TH ERN CALIFORNIA
OftADUATC SCH OOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES 7 , CALIFORNIA
This dissertation, written by
......... -BAUyaAna.JvLajr.y.JTiilAnd............
under the direction of hex....Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dtmm
Dafr. A U & W J ? . t , . J . 9 . 6 . 3 . ...........
DIS8ERTATLpN COMMITTEE ,
^ ^ Chminuur
PLEASE NOTE:
Soma tables are not original copy. Pages tend to "curl".
Filmed in the best possible way.
UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS, INC
TABLE OP CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF T A B L E S ........................................ iv
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM.................................... 1
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Definitions
Significance of the Problem
Hypotheses
Organization of the Study
II. HISTORY OF DENTISTRY AND REVIEW OF
THE LITERATURE............................. 20
History of Dentistry as a Profession
Review of the Literature
Summary
III. METHODOLOGY.................................... 48
Selection of the Universe
Description of the Questionnaire
Rationale of the Questionnaire
Electronic Data Processing
Summary
IV. THE RESULTS..................................... 74
Background Information
Career Choice
Satisfactions and Dissatisfactions
Chapter Page
V. , SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...................... 145
Summary of the Investigation
Summary of Major Findings
Conclusions
Suggestions for the Future
APPENDIX............................................... 159
BIBLIOGRAPHY................. 172
51
75
78
79
80
82
84
85
•
86
88
90
91
93
95
LIST OF TABLES
Total Class Memberships and Respondents . . .
Age of Respondents at Time of Survey .........
Birthplace of Respondents ....................
Marital Status of Respondents at Time of
Survey ........................................
Years of Marriage for Respondents at Time
of Survey ...................................
Number of Children of Respondents ...........
Years of Undergraduate College Work
Completed Be fore Entering Dental
College .....................................
Years of Graduate Work Completed Before
Entering Dental College ....................
Educational Level of Selected Family
Members .....................................
Time of Decision to Enter Dentistry .........
Marital Status at Time of Decision to
Enter Dentistry .............................
Other Careers Seriously Considered Prior
to Decision to Enter Dentistry .............
Time at which Careers Other than Dentistry
Were Seriously Considered .................
Reasons Given for Changing Career Choice
from Medicine to Dentistry .................
iv
Table Page
15. Reasons Given for Changing Career Choice
from Teaching to Dentistry.................. 96
16. Important Factors in the Selection of
Dentistry as a C a r e e r ...................... 98
17. Differences in Ratings between Groups I,
II, and III Concerning Important Factors
in the Selection of Dentistry as a Career,
Using chi-square Tests ...................... 99
18. Differences in Ratings between Groups I,
II, and III Concerning Important Factors
in the Selection of Dentistry as a Career,
Using Kolmogorov-Smirnov Tests............. 101
19. Differences between Groups I, II, and III
as to the Relationship between the Strength
of the Motivations "Desire to Be in a
Profession" and "Opportunity to Be of
Service to Others"........................... 102
20. Differences between Groups I, II, and III
as to the Relationship between the Strength
of the Motivations "Security" and "Desire
to Be in a Profession"...................... 104
21. Differences between Groups I, II, and III
as to the Relationship between the Strength
of the Motivations "Desire to Be Own Boss"
and "Desire to Be in a Profession"......... 106
22. Personal Preferences for Area of Practice
in Field of Dentistry...................... 108
23. Dental Specialty of Choice .................... Ill
24. Important Influences in Decision to
Enter Dentistry............................. 112
25. Most Important Influence in Decision to
Enter Dentistry............................. 114
v
Table Page
26. Evaluation of Accuracy of Information
Given Respondent Regarding Dentistry
as a C a r e e r ................................. 117
27. Respondents' Evaluations of Extent of
Career Satisfaction ......................... 120
28. Attitudes of Respondents toward Reselection
of Dentistry as a Career C h o i c e ........... 122
29. Respondents' Present Career Choice, if Not
Dentistry.................................... 123
30. Comments of Respondents Relating to Favored
Career Choice, if Not Dentistry.... 124
31. Respondents' Ranking of Qualities Important
to a Young Dentist in His Efforts to
"Get A h e a d " ........................... 127
32. Differences between Groups I, II, and III
as to the Ranking of Qualities Important
to a Young Dentist in His Efforts to
"Get Ahead"— Chi-square Values ............. 130
33. Differences between Groups I, II, and ill
as to the Ranking of Qualities Important
to a Young Dentist in His Efforts to
"Get Ahead"— Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test .... i31
34. Respondents' Estimations of Expected
Income for a Dentist after One Year and
after Ten Years of Private Practice .... 132
35. Respondents' Ratings of Activities Most
Important in Giving Satisfaction in
Life................................... 134
36. Respondents' Ratings of Requirements for
the "Ideal Career".................... 136
37. Requirement Considered Most Important
vi
Table Page
for Ideal Career............................. 138
38. Respondents' Ratings of Extent of Dissat
isfactions Anticipated or Experienced
in Dental Career............................. 139
39. Sums of Respondents' Rankings of Selected
Professions, Giving Respondents' Personal
Rankings and the Rankings They Perceived
to Be Those of the General P u b l i c ......... 142
40. Respondents' Rank Orders of Selected Pro
fessions, Giving Respondents' Personal
Rank Order and the Rank Order They
Perceived to Be That of the General
Public........................................ 143
vii
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
In Western society, many of the paths a man may
follow in the course of a lifetime are paths which he may
choose for himself. Unlike some societies, where such a
decision as occupational choice may be predetermined for the
individual by caste or class, in the United States, this
decision is to a large extent of the individual's own mak
ing. Occupation is a voluntary decision, an outgrowth of
his existing set of attitudes and values as well as those
of others who may have influenced his choice.
* Although the decision-making process is voluntary,
once made, the effects of the decision will exert a strong
continuing influence on the individual throughout the
course of his life. His decision also influences to some
degree the fabric of his society as a whole. Merton, in
The Student Physician, points out the accumulative effect
of these individual decisions:
2
Occupations in general and the professions in par
ticular have come to be recognized as one of the more
significant nuclei in the organization of society. A
great share of men's waking hours is devoted to their
occupational activities; the economic supports for
group survival are provided through the pooled work of
socially interrelated occupations . . . ^
Statement of the Problem
The present investigation is concerned with the
occupational category, specifically, with the field of den
tistry. Its purpose is to consider certain social factors
as they may relate to the profession of dentistry as an oc
cupational choice and career.
In the case of a choice of a professional career,
the outlay in time and effort and the expense of prepara
tion emphasize the seriousness of the decision for the in
dividual. In dentistry, particularly, the specialized
character of the training, coupled with the relative non
transferability of the skills acquired to a second career
choice, highlight the "lifelong" nature of the first career
decision.
The study has been divided into three parts. Part
I is a summary of background information concerning the
1Robert Merton, The Student Physician (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1957), p. 37.
respondent and selected family members. Part II is an at
tempt to ascertain What social factors may have played de
termining roles for the subjects in their selection of den
tistry as a career choice. Part III is concerned with pos
sible changes in attitudes and values which may occur in the
individual from the time he has begun this professional den
tal training through his first five years as a graduate
licensed dentist. The study is concerned with the social
factors which may have been responsible for chafige or ab
sence of change in attitudes and values. It explores pos-
r
sible areas of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, either an
ticipated or experienced, by the individual in the pursuit
of his career.
Sociologists have pointed out that work itself has
a particular meaning in our society:
In our society, a man's occupational choice repre
sents more than simply his way of making a living. His
particular category of work will importantly influence
diverse aspects of his life.^ . : . The individual who
makes an occupational choice also commits himself to a
certain pattern of thought and behavior for years to
come . . .3
Friedman and Havighurst have stated that "the job—
^Morris Rosenberg, Occupations and Values (Glencoe:
The Free Press, 1957), p. 2.
3Ibid.. p. 3.
or work activity, can be regarded as an axis along which the
worker's pattern of life is organized,”4 and they continue
to describe a job as "a tag which marks the person, both at
his place of employment and in the world outside."5
Anderson and Davidson agree that "a man's social
position, his economic welfare, and perhaps most of his
daily habits are determined by the kind of work he does."
Gross emphasizes the status factor and declares that
in present day, Western society, occupation has become a
fundamental index of status and a standard of self-respect,7
while Super is even more emphatic:
In a fluid, industrial society occupation is the
principal determinant of social status. The work a man
does tells more about him that is significant in this
culture than any other single item of information.®
4Eugene A. Friedman and Robert J. Havighurst, The
Meaning of Work and Retirement (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1954), p. 3.
5Ibid., p. 4.
^Dewey Anderson and Percey E. Davidson, "Occupations
and Welfare Levels," Social Foundations of Education, ed.
William 0. Stanley, et al. (New York: The Dryden Press,
Inc., 1956), pp. 191-192.
7Edward Gross, "The Occupational Variable as a Re
search Category," American Sociological Review. XXIV (Octo
ber, 1959), 640.
®Donald E. Super, The Psychology of Careers (New
York: Harper and Bros., 1957), p. 18.
5
Definitions
Webster defines an occupation as "the principal bus-
9
mess of one's life."
He describes a profession as:
. . . a calling requiring specialized knowledge and of
ten long and intensive preparation including instruc
tion in skills and methods as well as in the scientific,
historical, or scholarly principles underlying such
skills and methods, maintaining by force of organization
or concerted opinion high standards of achievement and
conduct, and committing its members to continued study
and to a kind of work which has for its prime purpose
the rendering of a public service.
The American Dental Association^ reaffirms the
m
above definition in its Principles of Ethics when it lays
down three unfailing characteristics of a profession:
1. education beyond the usual level
2. the primary duty of service to the public
3. the right of self-government^2,
^Webster's Third New International Dictionary
(Springfield: G. and C. Merriam Co., 1961).
10Ibid.
1^-The American Dental Association, the national pro
fessional association of dentists, consists of fifty-four
state and territorial societies and more than four hundred
local societies (Wilfred E. Belleau, Dentistry as a Career
[Milwaukee: Park Publishing House, 1961], p. 2).
12John C. Brauer and Richard E. Richardson, The Den
tal Assistant (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1960), p.
12.
"Each profession receives from society the right to
regulate itself, to determine and judge its members."33
Blauch lists essentially the same three necessary
criteria of "those occupations widely and commonly recog
nized as professions":
1. Study and training
Preparation for a profession requires an ex
tended period of specialized study and training
to learn the methods of service and develop
skill in their application. The principal dis
tinguishing characteristic of a profession is
the possession of a body of knowledge, a set of
attitudes, and a group of skills, collectively
called a technique, which enables the members to
perform a particular type of service. A pro
fession involves essentially intellectual oper
ations, although in some instances like surgery
and dentistry, a high degree of manual skill
may also be required.
2. Measure of success
Although the services rendered by the members
33Ibid., p. 13.
of a profession are performed for a fee or a
I
salary, their success is not measured by finan- |
cial standards but rather by accomplishment in
serving the needs of people. The true measure
of their success is the quality of the service
they render, not the financial gain they amass.
This is one of the reasons why the professions
are generally held in high esteem. A truly pro
fessional man is a dedicated man who espouses
the high ideal of service to his fellow man; who
is devoted to his art.
3. As sociat ions
Members of a profession organize associations
through which they act collectively to maintain
and improve their service. These associations
distinguish the qualified from the unqualified
by admitting to membership only those who meas-
14
ure up to acceptable standards.
Lewis and Maude give these attributes of the pro
fessional:
l^Lloyd e . Blauch, ed., Education for the Profes
sions (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office,
1955), p. 3.
1. Body of knowledge
2. Educational process
i
3. Standard of professional qualifications
4. Standard of conduct
5. Recognition of status
1 5
6. Organization of the professional group.
Professional status is therefore an implied contract;
to serve society over and beyond all specific duty to
client or employee in consideration of the privileges
and protection society extends to the profession.^®
A specialist in dentistry is "a dentist who does but
1
one type of work in contrast to the 'general' dentist who
17
practices in more than one field of dentistry.” Each
specialty has qualifications and examinations to be met be
fore an individual can announce himself as a specialist (a
list and definitions of the seven specialties currently rec
ognized by the American Dental Association are contained in
the Appendix).
l^Roy Lewis and Angus Maude, Professional People
(London: Phoenix House, Ltd., 1952), p. 56.
16Ibid.
17L. H. Schwarzrock and Shirley P. Schwarzrock,
Effective Dental Assisting (Dubuque: William C. Brown Co.,
1959), p. 4.
Significance of the Problem
The problem of occupational choice in general and as
i
it relates to dentistry specifically is a very important one
iin our society today.
The general problem of
occupational choice
In our culture, there are no institutional struc
tures facilitating occupational choice. Many investigators
have commented on the inability of most youth to describe
the motives and factors influencing their choice of voca
tional objectives. They receive little vocational guidance,
18
and "arrive at decisions haphazardly on their own."
Ginzberg has pointed out that most students, includ
ing college students, have a limited knowledge of the real
ity factors that will influence their eventual work adjust-
4 - 19
ment.
Rosenberg concurs:
The individual must usually make career choice on the
basis of a very vague and tenuous knowledge of the
relevant facts. In the first place, the individual
l®Donald E. Super, -The Dynamics of Vocational Ad
justment (New York: Harper and Bros., 1942), p. 148.
l^Eli Ginzberg et al., Occupational Choice: an
ftpproach to a General Theory (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1956), p. 252.
10
tends to be unclear about his own talents, since many of
these can only find expression in actual occupational
practice. . . . His picture of the requirements and re
wards of an occupation is seldom based on actual exper
ience; more often it represents a series of haphazard
impressions gained from diverse sources.20
The pattern of free vocational choice characteristic
of American society is calculated to enable people to real
ize their highest potentialities. However, it may also spin
21
a complex web of psychological conflict.
In 1944, after a survey of the literature, Carter
remarked:
There have been repeated and many-sided studies support
ing the conclusion that undue optimism characterizes
the vocational ambitions of young persons and that the
processes of education and vocational adjustment in
early adult life include, in no small component, a ser
ies of adjustments which require lowering of aspiration
levels and undoubtedly involVes disillusionment, dis
couragement and emotional malady.22
Korner feels that unrealistic vocational goals stem
from such outside sources as encouragement by school per
sonnel or family pressure, or from emotional factors within
the person. She points out that the origin is usually
20Rosenberg, o p . cit.. p. 3. 2^Ibid.
22H. D. Carter, "Vocational Interests and Job Orien
tation," Applied Psychological Monographs, 1944, No. 2,
quoted in Anne Roe, The Psychology of Occupations (New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1956), p. 251.
11*
2 ^
multiple and that the m'otivation is mixed.
Levin has stressed the point that when anxiety over ,
social status is a major determinant of occupational choice
inappropriate goals are likely to be selected.24
The above observations emphasize the point that it
is not enough to supply just vocational information; self-
understanding and self-acceptance are in fact more impor
tant. With these, it is a relatively simple matter to ob
tain factual vocational information; without them all the
2 S
information in the world is an inadequate guide.
Significance of. the problem in
relation to dentistry
The problem of occupational choice is one of which
the dental profession has become increasingly aware. De
spite the consistent overselection of professions that is
2 £ %
noted in studies in all groups at all ages, there is an
23
A. G. Korner, "Origins of Impractical and Unreal
istic Vocational Goals," Journal of Consulting Psychology.
1946, No. 10, pp. 328-334, quoted in Roe, Ibid., p. 267.
24M. M. Levin, "Status Anxiety and Occupational
Choice," Educational Psychological Measurement. 1949, No. 9,
pp. 29-37.
2^Anne Roe, The Psychology of Occupations (New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1956), p. 267.
26Ibid.
12
existing need for more dentists in the United States. In
mid-1960 there were approximately 93,000 dentists active in
27 7ft
the profession. ' There is a ratio of one dentist to
29
approximately 2,100 people, hut the rate of population
increase is proportionately greater than the increase in
graduating dentists, and it is doubtful that the existing
30
ratio of dentists to population can be maintained.
Despite this need, there has been a decrease in the
number of applicants for available positions in dental
schools. Whereas a few years ago, the ratio of predental
27U. S., Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Sta
tistics, Occupational Outlook Handbook. Bulletin No. 1300
(Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961),
p. 61.
2®0f these, approximately 90 per cent were engaged
in the private practice of dentistry. Of the remainder, ap->
proximately 5,500 served as Commissioned Officers in the
Armed Forces; 1,800 held full-time positions in schools,
hospitals, or State or local health agencies; and 1,200 had
other types of Federal government positions, chiefly in the
hospitals and clinics of the Veterans’ Administration and
Public Health Service. Ibid.
2^In 1959, 40 per cent of practicing dentists were
in the four most populous States (New York, California,
Pennsylvania, and Illinois), whereas 21 States had less than
10 per cent. Ibid., p. 61.
2^Walter E. Dundon, "The Advantages to be Gained by
Utilizing Advisory Services and Auxiliary Help," Paper read
for a panel discussion, "The Profession You Are About to
Enter," sponsored by the Chicago Dental Society for junior
and senior dental students and their wives, Chicago, Illi
nois, February 8, 1959. (Mimeographed.)
13
applicants to dental students was about five to one, pres
ently the availability of qualified applicants is dangerous-^
0*1
ly low, in the order of two to one.
Hollinshead has stated that if dentistry is to im
prove its status as a health science it must induce a larger
number of high quality students to apply to dental schools.
There are difficulties to be overcome. The number of stu
dents with strong interests in the biologic sciences is not
large, and there is intense competition for top students in
every field. He expresses the opinion that dental schools
and organized dentistry have not made sufficient efforts in
the past to provide information to those who influence stu-
32
dent career decisions.
Claycomb concurs:
In addition to predental scholarship, there is a strong
impression among admission personnel that for some
reason dental education has not been able to present to
■^Keith Claycomb, "Trends in Predental Availability
and Vocational Counseling," Abstract of speech given at the
Vocational Guidance Conference, "A Study of Vocational
Guidance Methods and Influences Mutually Affecting High
School and Dental School Faculties in the Vocational Orien
tation of Young Men and Women Interested in a Dental Ca
reer, " University of Oregon Dental School, Portland, Oregon,
1961. (Mimeographed.)
22Byron S. Hollinshead, "Philosophic Problems of
Dentistry— 1959," Journal of Dental Education. XXIV (June,
1960), 150.
14
high school students the true facts of dental education,
the personal nature of the dental student, and the op
portunities for service in dental practice. It is par
ticularly at the high school level that a communication
breakdown occurs.33
This may be the result of complacency on the part of
dentistry during the years following World War II when re
turning veterans supplied a large pool of available and
34
qualified applicants.
In any event, it is of utmost importance to dentis
try to strengthen the position of the profession, and any
investigation which might offer information on social fac
tors as they relate to occupational choice is particularly
pertinent at this time.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses have been formulated in an
effort to examine certain theories which may have a bearing
on the field of occupational choice. They are concerned
with (1) the relationship, if any, between certain motiva
tional factors which are operative in the selection of den
tistry as a career, and (2) possible changes in attitudes
and values which may occur as the individual pursues his
professional life.
■^Claycomb, op. cit.
15
One of the ethical principles of the dental profes-
j
sion is the primary duty of service to others. Do persons
l i
who choose dentistry because they have a strong desire to
be in a profession also have a strong desire to be of ser
vice to others? The study will attempt to determine whether
or not there is a correlation between these two motivations,
and, if so, if it is a positive or negative one.
Hypothesis li Among persons who select dentistry as
a career, the stronger the desire to
be in a profession, the stronger the
desire to be of service to others.
Present-day youth have been described as security-
minded, and unwilling to yenture on their own. In this
health-insurance age, has the desire for security become the
primary motivating force in the selection of the dental pro
fession, or is the independence factor, the desire to be
one's own boss, a more compelling motivation? Were the mem
bers of the graduate group, who entered dental college some
years before the other subjects, influenced to the same
degree by the security and independence factors?
A second objective of the investigation is to exam
ine the motivations of the participants to determine if
there is a correlation between these two other possible
16
factors, and if it exists, whether it is a positive or
negative one.
Hypothesis 2: Among persons who select dentistry as
a career, the stronger the desire for
security, the stronger the desire to
be in a profession.
Hypothesis 3: Among persons who select dentistry as
a career, the stronger the desire to
be one's own boss, the stronger the
desire to be in a profession.
In our culture, the importance of personality de
velopment and the possession of social skills are emphasized
from early childhood. At the same time, study and training,
which entail hard work and diligence, are among the criteria
emphasized by the dental profession. The investigator was
interested in the evaluation by the respondents of factors
influential in attaining professional success. Do persons
in dentistry place a high or low value on "personality" as
a success factor? Does the evaluation remain constant, or
do the attitudes of beginning students differ from those of
men longer in the field? The following hypothesis was for
mulated:
Hypothesis 4: The more recent the individual in the
17
field of dentistry, the higher his
ranking of personality as a success
factor.
Ginzberg has stated that most young people enter
careers with little knowledge of the reality factors in
volved. ^ Then, as the "halo effect" fades, previously un
known or unthought of dissatisfactions make themselves felt.
The participants in this study were given a list of
factors which could be sources of career dissatisfaction.
They were asked to indicate which, if any, of these factors
were a source of dissatisfaction, and, if so, to what ex
tent. The study proposed to find out if there is any rela
tionship between the length of time an individual has been
in dentistry and the extent of satisfaction or dissatisfac
tion he experiences. If there is a relationship, does he
experience more or less dissatisfaction as he continues in
the profession?
Hypothesis 5; The longer the individual continues
in the field of dentistry, the
greater the extent of his dissatis
faction.
35Ginzberg et al., op. cit.
18
North and Hatt have observed that most persons, when)
asked to rate their own occupation, will tend to place it
higher than will others who are not of the same or similar
36
occupation.
This study is interested in how prospective and
actual members of the dental profession rate the profession,
and how they perceive it to be rated by the general public.
Is there a significant difference in these two evaluations
or are they perceived to be the same? If they are judged
to be different, what factors may lead the evaluators to
reach such conclusions? is length of time in the profession
a determinant in the evaluators' attitudes? If so, does it
result in ratings exhibiting more or less disparity?
Hypothesis 6: The longer the individual has been in
the field of dentistry, the greater
the disparity between his evaluation
of the status of dentistry and his
perception of its evaluation by the
general public.
36"Jobs and Occupations: A Popular Evaluation,"
National Opinion Research Center, Opinion News, IX, No. 4
(September 1, 1947), 3-13.
19
Organization of the Study
This chapter has set forth the nature of the prob
lem, its significance, and the hypotheses to be tested.
The following chapter begins with a short history of den
tistry as a profession, and then presents a review of per
tinent studies in the general field of the sociology of
occupations and in the field of dentistry specifically.
Chapter III describes the selection of the universe to be
studied, and a description and rationale of the material
included in the questionnaire. Chapter IV contains the re
sults of the investigation and the conclusions reached in
the testing of the hypotheses. The final chapter includes
a summary of the major findings, conclusions which may be
drawn from this study, and suggestions for further research.
CHAPTER II
HISTORY OF DENTISTRY AND REVIEW OF
THE LITERATURE
History of Dentistry as a Profession
The beginnings of dentistry are lost in the dim
past, but available evidence indicates it was practiced in
some form in all the ancient civilizations. It appears
that in Egypt and Rome dentistry was included as a part of
surgery, reaching its height in Egypt where it is said den
tists took the Hippocratic Oath as did other specialists in
medicine.
During the Middle Ages, surgery and medicine de
clined steadily; physicians did no surgery, and this field,
including its dental phases, was left open to others. In
the medieval guilds, there were barber-surgeons who limited
themselves to dental surgery, although undoubtedly there
were many of what were then called "tooth-drawers" who con
ducted their practice outside the guild regulations.^"
^■John T. O'Rourke and Leroy M. S. Miner, Dental
Education in the United States (Philadelphia: W. B.
20
0
21
Progress of the dental art from the fourteenth
through the eighteenth centuries may be credited principally
to French influence. The surgeons of Paris made repeated
appeals to the faculty of medicine for the right to control
the situation and to eliminate the widespread quackery. The
year 1728 signifies the beginning of scholarly and profes
sional activity in dentistry when Pierre Fauchard published
the first complete work on dentistry. His two-volume Le
Chirurqien Dentiste gave him recognition as the father of
modern dentistry, and was considered to be the authoritative
treatise on dentistry until the beginning of the nineteenth
century.
American dentistry was transplanted from France and
England, and was practiced in the Colonial era both as a
trade and as a profession. In its beginning stage, training
was secured through apprenticeship.
Barbers, mechanics, blacksmiths, wig-makers, and hait-
dressers pulled teeth and crudely treated dental ills.
Paul Revere, primarily a goldsmith and ivory turner by
trade, took up copper-plate engraving, printing, and
dentistry as sidelines.^
Saunders Co., 1941), pp. 5-8.
^Harlan H. Horner, Dentistry as a Professional Ca
reer (Chicago: Council of Dental Education of the American
Dental Association, 1946), p. 8.
22
It is estimated the number of dental practitioners
in the United States did not greatly exceed one hundred.
3
Fifteen years later, there were about six hundred. The
view was expressed that the financial difficulties of 1835-
1836 had caused many persons to enter a field wide open to
all, and one which, it was assumed, required little or no
4
preparation. Whatever the cause, dentistry was overrun
with quacks and unqualified practitioners. The conditions
were such that they attracted the serious attention of
leaders in the field. As a result, the year 1840 marks the
beginning of formal dental education in America. In this
year, the first dental school in the world, the Baltimore
College of Dental Surgery, now the Dental School of the Uni
versity of Maryland, was incorporated under the proprietary
school system.
The number of schools increased slowly, and the en
rollment was never large. In 1865 there were only four
schools in existence, with a total of sixty-one graduates.
■^O'Rourke and Miner, op. cit. . p. 17, quoting Chapin
A. Harris, Principles and Practices of Dental Surgery (Phil
adelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston, 3d ed., 1948), pp. 36, 37.
40'Rourke and Miner, Ibid.. quoting American Jour
nal of Dental Science. First Series, 7: 207, 1847.
23
i
None of these was operated as a division of the universi
ties; all were independent, though not commercially motiva
ted. By 1870, there were ten schools, and one of these,
Harvard, had been founded as a university-affiliated insti
tution (1867).
At present there are forty-seven dental schools in
the United States, forty-five of which are integral parts
5
of universities. To be admitted to one of these schools,
the applicant must have been graduated from an accredited
high school, completed at least two years of predental
work, and passed a series of aptitude tests.
The course leading to the Doctor of Dental Surgery
(D.D.S.) or Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.) degree re
quires four years of study at an accredited dental school.
No distinction is made between these two degrees by the pro
fession or by any licensing agency. After graduation
from a school of dentistry, a person is required to pass the
state board licensing examination before being granted a
license to practice in the state of his choice.
■ ’Wilfred E. Belleau, Dentistry as a Career (Milwau
kee: Park Publishing House, 1961), p. 2.
^Seven schools require three years of predental
training.
24
Review of the Literature
;General studies of occupation
The sociology of occupations has attracted the in
terest of many investigators. Their studies have covered a
wide range of occupations and have been concerned with many
diverse aspects.
Occupational prestige.— George Counts's study of
the social status of occupations is generally regarded as
the first major attempt to measure the prestige of occupa
tion. Counts questioned six groups of raters— a total of
45 0 high school students, college students, and teachers, in
Minnesota and Connecticut--in order to rank forty-five oc
cupations in terms of the social standing they thought so
ciety accorded each occupation. He obtained a correlation
of .90 or higher for the rank-orders of any two of the six
groups and found that the social-background variable he in
vestigated had little effect on the ranking of the occupa-
7
tion. The Counts study occupies a position of prominence
in the literature of social stratification because it serves
^George S. Counts, "The Social Status of Occupa
tions: a Problem in Vocational Guidance," School Review,
XXXIII (January, 1925), 16-27.
25
as a model for a large number of investigations.
In 1943, Mapheus Smith undertook an investigation of
the prestige status of occupations. He asked 345 high school
£nd college students in Kansas to rank 100 occupations in
order of status. Smith's work was a departure of earlier
investigations in two ways. First, he used a more elaborate
rating procedure. Second, he placed each of the 100 occupa
tions in one of ten major occupational strata, using an in
terval of ten points to define a stratum. He viewed this as
an attempt to derive social strata consisting of occupations
g
with similar prestige.
Alba Edwards of the Bureau of the Census constructed
an index consisting of a classification of occupations re
ported by the census. The index was based on the conception
that each occupational category represented "a somewhat dis
tinct standard of life, economically, and to a considerable
Q 10
extent, intellectually and socially."^'
8Mapheus Smith, "An Empirical Scale of Prestige Sta
tus of Occupations," American Sociological Review. VIII
(April, 1943), 185-192.
g
Alba E. Edwards, Comparative Occupational Statistic^
for the United States. Sixteenth Census, 1940 (Washington,
P. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1943).
10The occupational categories were: professional
persons; proprietors, managers, and officials; clerks and
26
Edwards presented data that showed a rough correla
tion between these "socioeconomic classes" and amount of
income and education. Although it was assumed that these
occupational categories represented distinct standards of
economic, intellectual, and social life and no direct index
of prestige was given, subsequent research has indicated
that occupations are ranked in a fashion approximating this
hierarchy.
Probably one of the most methodically refined and
most important studies on occupational rank was made in 1946
by the National Opinion Research Center (NORC). A nation
wide cross-section of the American public was asked to rank
ninety different jobs at all occupational levels on the ba
sis of the "general standing" the job had in their "own
personal opinion." People interviewed were asked to evalu-,
ate occupations as "excellent, " "good, 1 1 "average, " "somewhat
below average," and "poor" in accordance with a five point
rating scale. The results of this study were analyzed by
C. C. North and P. K. Hatt who found that a prestige scale
seemed to exist in the public mind, and that there was con
siderable consensus on the relative position of the various
kindred workers; skilled workers and foremen; semiskilled
workers; and unskilled workers.
27
occupations on this scale.11 The North-Hatt ranking of
occupations has been widely accepted as affirming a rank-
structure of the prestige status of occupations.
Interviewees in the North-Hatt study gave the fol-
12
lowing evaluation of dentistry:
Somewhat
Excellent Good Average Below Average Poor Don’t Know
42% 48% 9% 1% * *
♦indicates less than 0.5% response.
Other studies have confirmed the general outline of’
*
this prestige ranking, and there appears to be considerable
stability in ranking of occupations over time.13
Inkeles and Rossi concluded that industrial socie
ties show significant similarities in occupational ranking.
They compared the NORC findings with other studies made in
Great Britain, New Zealand, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet
Union. Although the samples and occupations were not
^National Opinion Research Center, "Jobs and Occu
pations: A Popular Evaluation," Opinion News. IX (Septem
ber, 1947), 3-13.
12Ibid.
13Henry C. Bredmeier and Richard M. Stephenson, The
Analysis of Social Systems (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1962), p. 344.
28
precisely comparable, they found remarkable agreement among
these foreign studies and also between them and the American
study.
McDonagh, Wermlund, and Crowther did not find
agreement in their study of relative professional status as
perceived by American and Swedish students. Eight profes
sional occupations were ranked in terms of prestige, use
fulness to society, intellectual ability, and censure of
members for moral deviancy. They found clear and distinct
differences in the statuses accorded these professional oc
cupations in the two countries when various aspects of sta-
15
tus were considered.
The wide scope of the sociology of occupations is
indicated by the range of interests of the investigators.
16
In addition to Merton's study of The Student Physician,
there is Gerstl's inquiry into the determinants of occupa-
■^Alex inkeles and Peter H. Rossi, "National Com
parisons of Occupational Prestige," American Journal of
Sociology. LXI (January, 1956). 329-339.
l^Edward c. McDonagh, Sven Wermlund, and John F.
Crowther, "Relative Professional Status as Perceived by
American and Swedish University Students," Social Forces.
XXVIII (October, 1959), 65-69.
16Robert K. Merton, The Student Physician (Cam
bridge: Harvard University Press, 1957).
29
1 7
tional community in selected high status occupations,
Hubbard's recently completed investigation of the career
18
business executive, and the Geiser study of the relation
of selected social factors in reference to social work.l^
Prestige derived from status appears to be a need
more of persons in the higher level than in the lower level
20
of occupations. Stone has noted that almost every study
of the occupational group, and particularly of professions,
deals with prestige. If success in the prestige realm is
the ethos of professional life, it is small wonder that many
professionals look upon the ideology of group participation
and solidarity as indicative of a weakening moral fiber.
Some professionals even look upon their occupational groups
Joel E. Gerstl, "Determinants of Occupational
Community in High Status Occupations," The Sociological
Quarterly. II, 1 (1961), 37-48.
10Harold G. Hubbard, "The Career Business Executive
as a Definitive Occupational Type," (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Southern California, 1960).
19Peter Gaiser, "Some Social Factors Affecting the
Power Structure and Status of a Professional Association
in Reference to Social Work," (unpublished Ph.D. disserta
tion, University of Southern California, 1960).
20Donald E. Super, The Psychology of Careers (New
York: Harper and Bros., 1957), p. 6.
30
21
as the last bastions for the defense of individualism. x
Factors involved in the occupational decision pro
cess .— Various theories have been advanced regarding the
factors involved in the occupational decision process.
Ginzberg focused his attention on the way in which
individuals cope with the problem of occupational choice at
successive stages in their development. He concluded that
it is impossible for an individual to crystallize his choice
until his goals and values are clearly defined. Therefore,
the individual never reaches the ultimate decision in a
single moment of time, but proceeds through three successive
periods of development during which his choices are made on
the fantasy, tentative, and realistic levels. The process
22
is largely irreversible and ends in a compromise.
Anne Roe, ir* Psychology of Occupations, indicates
*
her feeling that both individuals and society are more
flexible than Ginzberg considers them:
It is true that there are irreversible elements: one
type of education cannot be exchanged for another in
21Robert C. Stone, "The Sociology of Bureaucracy and
Professions," Readings in Contemporary American Sociology
(Paterson, New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams, and Co., 1961),
p. 496.
22Eli Ginzberg et al., Occupational Choice: An Ap-
proach to a General Theory (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1956).
31
retrospect; time spent on one job means that there is
that much less time to spend on another, and so on. . .
. . Individual occupational histories show shifts.
Some of these may seem minor at the time, but they may
mean personally significant changes, even within the
framework of a superficially similar job, that lead to
more congenial activities. . . . People are not static.
23
* • *
Rosenberg visualizes the occupational decision pro
cess as a series of progressive delimitation of alternatives.
The occupational choice is not a value, but it is made on
the basis of values. When an individual chooses an occupa
tion, he does so because he thinks there is something "good"
about it, and this conception of the "good" is part of an
internalized mental structure which establishes priorities
regarding what he wants out of life.
Rosenberg surveyed 4,585 Cornell college students in
a study of their attitudes, values, and personality needs
as related to the occupational choice process. He found
that they emphasized self-fulfillment, interpersonal satis
faction, and security rather than money and status as satis
factions they considered important1 when making the career
decision.
2^Anne Roe, The Psychology of Occupations (New York:
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1956), p. 253.
2^Morris Rosenberg, Occupations and Values (Glencoe:
The Free Press, 1957). «
32
Carter holds that vocational attitudes develop in
the attempt to make a practical adjustment to environmental
conditions. The external realities of the individual's
familial and social situation, and his own capacities,
needs, and motives, limit the possible solutions open to
him. During his life he makes some identification with a
respected occupational group. If all goes well, he may
continue in this line, or, if serious discrepancies or ob
stacles occur, he must become reorientated toward a differ
ent group. Eventually a pattern of vocational interests
emerges which becomes closely identified with the self, and
forms a basis for many decisions and a guide for long-time
planning.^
If Carter's assumptions are correct, perhaps the
aspirations of young people have been a reflection of the
uncertainties of the post-war years. Havighurst and Tapa
concluded from their study of the aspirations of sixteen-
year-old boys that the desire for security far outstripped
26
the hope for adventure, and Fortune Magazine, in reporting
^H. D. Carter, "The Development of Vocational Atti
tudes," Journal of Consulting Psychology. 4 (1940), 185-191,
quoted in Roe, op. cit., p. 268.
^Robert J. Havighurst and Hilda Tapa, Adolescent
Character and Personality (New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., 1949), pp. 29-30.
33
the results of researchers who interviewed graduating col
lege seniors of the class of 1949 noted that "what they
don't want is risk. . . . Above all else security has be-
27
come the great goal."
Super discusses vocational development and the self-
concept. He states that in choosing an occupation one is,
in effect, choosing a means of implementing a self-concept,
and the degree of satisfaction the individual attains from
his work is related to the degree to which he has been able
28
to implement his self-concept in his work.
His adherence to the occupational multipotentiality
of the individual presents a positive outlook for the possi
bilities for occupational success:
Although each occupation requires a characteristic
pattern of abilities, interests, and personality
traits, the tolerances are wide enough to allow both
for some variety of individuals in each occupation and
some diversity of occupations for each individual.^9
Roe agrees, stating:
Even though it is obvious that there are many more
^7"The Class of *49," Fortune Magazine, June, 1949,
pp. 84-87.
^Donald Super, et al., Vocational Development. A
Framework for Research (New York: American Book-Stratford
Press, Inc., 1957).
^9Super, The Psychology of Careers, o p . cit., p.
196.
34
occupations unsuitable for one person than suitable for
him, it is still true that everyone has the potential
for success and satisfaction in a number of occupations
or in a number of positions.
Hoppock's Theory of Occupational Choice proposes
that occupations are chosen to meet needs. "The occupation
that we choose is the one that we believe will best meet the
31
needs that most concern us."
Satisfaction depends upon the extent to which the
job meets the needs which the individual feels it should
meet. The degree of satisfaction is determined by the ratio
between what the individual has and what he wants.
Needs and values do change, and an occupation may
appear either more or less desirable than it seemed at first.
If changes in needs and values are anticipated, they may
affect the original choice of an occupation.
Some persons never do find an occupation which meets
enough of their needs to give them any real feeling of sat
isfaction. On the other hand, some persons achieve satis
faction without ever having made an occupational choice in
32
the sense in which counselors usually think of choice.
30Roe, op. cit.. p. 253.
3lRobert Hoppock, Occupational Information (New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1957), p. 74.
32Ibid.. pp. 75-82.
35
Nancy Morse makes very similar statements. She
agrees that satisfaction depends basically upon what an in
dividual wants from the world, and what he gets. The least
satisfied person is the one who wants a great deal and gets
very little. The most satisfied is the one who wants a
great deal and gets it.
The more skilled the work an employee is doing, the
greater the likelihood that he will feel highly satisfied
with the content of his job. Morse lists three factors
associated with "intrinsic job satisfaction":
1. The opportunity for variety and the opportunity
to use one's skills and abilities,
2. The opportunity for continued challenges to ”
occupy a high level of aspiration,
3. The extent of satisfaction provided by suppor
tive environmental factors.33
Studies relating to dentistry
Only limited investigative work was carried on in
dentistry during most of the nineteenth century. However,
during the last two decades and the early years of the
twentieth, new forces began to exert themselves in dentis-
34
try and dental education. This interest was renewed
33Nancy Morse, Satisfactions in the White Collar Job
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1953), p. 66.
34W. D. Miller and G. V. Black made outstanding con
tributions to American dentistry during these years.
after World War I, and several studies were undertaken.
In 1920, a five-year survey of dental education in
the United States and Canada was begun under the auspices oi*
the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. It
presented the history and evolution of dental education in
America, including detailed records of all existing dental
schools in the United States and Canada. The report seri
ously questioned the adequacy of the limited technical ap
proach and contended that dentistry should become the equiv
alent of an oral specialty of medicine.^
In 1930 the Curriculum Survey Committee of the Amer
ican Association of Dental Schools was appointed to carry
out the study of dental curriculum in the United States.
There was a desire for greater uniformity in dental educa
tion, and a recognition of the need for bringing the curri
culum up-to-date in terms of the new knowledge and its im
plications in the field of dentistry. This study was like
wise supported by the Carnegie Corporation. It was then
decided to use an existing balance of Carnegie funds to pre
pare a report to deal with the processes of teaching in
35William J. Gies, Dental Education in the United
States and Canada. The Carnegie Foundation for the Ad- •
vancement of Teaching, Bulletin 19 (New York: The Carnegie
Foundation, 1926), pp. 14-15.
37
colleges and universities, with special reference to den
tistry. It was felt that the study of teaching processes,
based upon scientific theory and practice, was of particular
interest to dentistry in its effort to improve the effective
ness of dental education in an already overcrowded schedule.
This material was later published in book fornu36
A history of dental education in the United States
was completed by O'Rourke and Miner in 1941. They suggested
modifications based on a belief that dental education was
entering a new cycle, characterized by (1) greater universi
ty interest and control, (2) expansion of research activity,
and (3) intensification of interest in the public health as
pects . ^
The following year, the Council of Dental Education
of the American Dental Association set out to conduct a sur
vey of dental schools by measuring the accomplishments of
the various schools on a comparative basis. Horner's Dental
Education Today, published in 1947, presents the Council's
•^Lloyd E. Blauch and Associates, Teaching in Col
leges and Universities with Special Reference to Dentistry
(Chicago: American Association of Dental Schools, 1945).
^John T. O'Rourke and Leroy M. S. Miner, Dental
Education in the United States (Philadelphia: W. B. Saun
ders Co., 1941).
38
38
findings in factual form.
Other studies were undertaken, using various samp
ling techniques to obtain first-hand data from students,
practitioners, and the general public.
In 1951, a group of University of California faculty,
representing six professional curricula, conducted a cross-
sectional study of motivating factors of the students en
rolled within their curricula.3^'40 Of the 1,569 students
involved, 259 were in the field of dentistry.
An attempt was made to discover any differences in
the attitudes of those beginning a particular professional
course and those at the end. "Interest and aptitude" was
given as the leading motivation of the entering student,
with "Expectations of substantial financial income and eco
nomic security" ranked second. There was a reversal of the
rank order of these items among those men leaving school.
Wylie suggested this might be due to inherent differences
38Harlan H. Horner, Dental Education Today (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1947).
38Wendell L. Wylie, "Factors Motivating Choice of
Profession," Journal, of Dental Education. XIX (May, 1955),
159-172.
48The six professional curricula included dental hy
giene, dentistry, medicine, nursing, pharmacy, and public
health.
between the samples. The senior class had a relatively high!
percentage of veterans who had a higher average age at the
i
beginning of the course. It is also valid to consider that
as young people mature and come closer to the period in
which they must earn a living, they tend to attack more im
portance to economic income and financial security. The
cTental students also displayed a marked desire to work in-
41
dependently of other people.
In 1953-1954, the Council of Dental Education of the
American Dental Association, in cooperation with the United
States Public Health Service, conducted a survey of dental
students. The findings of this study contradict the state
ment which has been made that dental students frequently
come from families of non-professional backgrounds and are
motivated primarily to study in order to obtain prestige and
status.42 It indicated that dental students generally come
from families in which the father has had considerably more
schooling than have other men of roughly comparable a g e . 4 3 * 44
41Wylie, op. cit.. pp. 162-164. 42Ibid_ p>
43council on Dental Education of the American Dental
Association and the United States Public Health Service,
Division of Dental Resources, How Students Finance Their
Dental Education (Chicago: American Dental Association,
1956).
44only 25 per cent of all dental student fathers had
40
One of the most comprehensive of all the investiga
tions was the Survey of Dentistry in the United States,
undertaken in 1958 by the American Council of Education of
45
the American Dental Association. There were four areas
of consideration: dental health, practice, education, and
research.
As part of the Survey of Dentistry, the Section on
Dental Education engaged in collecting information from
various groups that influence, or are influenced by, dental
education. Mann and Parkin have reported the results of a
detailed study of the dental school applicant. Five thou
sand, two hundred forty-seven applicants for the academic
year 1958-1959 participated.
One phase was devoted to an attempt to gain insight
into the motivations and attitudes relating to the career
decision. The six factors most frequently mentioned by this
group were: service, interest, freedom, prestige, money,
and the desire to work with hands. The last mentioned was
had no training beyond elementary school, whereas in the
United States at large, 69 per cent of all men ages 45 to
64 have had this little schooling. In all, about 26 per
cent of the dental student fathers were in the professions,
as compared with seven per cent of all men 45 to 64 years.
Ibid.
^5Hollinshead, Byron S., The Survey of Dentistry
(Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1961).
41
noted by sixty per cent of the subjects.***’
Among the outside influences which affected the
career decision, the family dentist was rated as the most
important influence, while parents were listed next.^
Books, counseling, aptitude tests, and career days had had
little effect on the group.
Over fifty per cent of the applicants indicated they
believed they had decided to study dentistry before they
were graduated from high school. Less than one-third be
lieved they had made the decision while in college.
The study also sought to determine the rating given
by these applicants of various occupations compared with
dentistry in their own communities. According to their
48
judgment, of the occupations presented, the physician, and
the minister, priest, or rabbi were the only persons who
definitely exceeded the dentist in prestige.
^William R. Mann and Grace Parkin, "The Dental
School Applicant," Journal of Dental Education. XXIV (March,
1960), 16-37.
^Forty-nine per cent of the subjects listed the
family dentist as the most important influence. "Father"
was rated second by 35 per cent of the subjects, and "moth
er" by 29 per cent.
4.8
Architect; businessman; college professor; drug
gist; dentist; engineer; lawyer; minister, priest, or rabbi;
osteopath; physician; and school teacher.
42
In an effort to determine how applicants compared
dentistry with medicine as occupations, each applicant was
|
asked if he thought most people would prefer to be a den
tist or a physician. Seventy-three per cent answered that
most people would prefer to be a physician, and twenty-
seven per cent replied that being a dentist would be pre
ferable. These data, with other data regarding attitudes
toward various occupations, indicate that most dental ap
plicants and students probably believe medicine has more
prestige and is preferable to dentistry, and the attitude
is formed before entrance into a dental school. Such an
attitude may be a reflection of opinions of people of this
country, for it is generally agreed that the physician
49
holds a place of very high esteem m our society.
Similar results were obtained by Moore and Kahn in
their analysis of the motivating factors affecting the
3,578 dental students who entered colleges in the fall of
1958. Their findings included the same factors listed by
Mann and Parkin, but the need for autonomy appeared to be
the central dominating force.
Medicine and teaching were the two careers most
^Mann and Parkin, op. cit., p. 20.
43
frequently considered previous to entrance into dentistry,
and were also the careers most often selected as the ones
students would want if they were to choose again.50
In 1959, the National Opinion Research Center of
the University of Chicago conducted a national survey of
public attitudes and practices concerning dentists and den
tal care. Through the use of a stratified, multi-stage
probability sample, 1,862 adults and 340 teenagers were in
terviewed. Kriesberg and Treiman have reported the results
in their article, "The Public's Views on Dentistry as a
51
Profession."
Among the adult respondents, the most frequently
mentioned advantage of being a dentist was the income one
earned, although the respondents varied widely in their
c y
guesses of the average dentist's earnings. 6 Prestige of
dentists was generally considered to be one of the advan-
tages of being a dentist. -
50D. m . Moore and Nathan Kahn, Jr., "Some Motives
for Entering Dentistry," American Journal of Sociology.
LXVT (July, 1960), 48-53.
51
Louis Kriesberg and Beatrice K. Treiman, "The
Public's Views on Dentistry as a Profession," Journal of
Dental Education. XXV (September, 1961), 247-268.
52Ibid.. p. 248.
44
Few teenagers said they would want 1 o be dentists
i
(fourteen per cent of the boys, and three per cent of the
girls). Most of the reasons boys gave referred to various
aspects of the dentist’s tasks. Most girls said they did
not want to be dentists because they could not be.
Dental students and dentists were compared with boys
who said they would want to become dentists. The former
were more likely to mention autonomy and the desire to work
with one’s hands as the features of dentistry which were
particularly attractive or advantageous. Income, service,
prestige, and regular hours were considered attractive by
both groups.
A 1959 survey of dental practice conducted by the
American Dental Association calculated national average
yearly incomes for dentists. In the previous year (1958)
the average yearly incomes had ranged from $9,128 to
$21,244. The self-employed specialist was the highest paid
private practitioner, while the'salaried general practition-
53
e r w a s i n t h e l o w e s t c a t e g o r y o f t h e s i x p o i n t s c a l e .
That same year, the Council of Dental Education also
53Belleau, o p . cit., p . 19, quoting American Dental
Association, The 1959 Survey of Dental Practice (Chicago:
American Dental Association, 1960).
45
surveyed 1,585 freshman dental students. Data indicated the'
continuance of a noticeable trend favoring increased pre
dental training beyond minimal requirements. Although forty
of the forty-seven dental schools in the United States re
quire only two years of professional predental work, approx
imately seventy-five per cent of the freshmen in this study
had had more than the required two years, and about thirty
54
per cent had a Bachelor's or Master's degree.
It has been estimated that eighty-nine per cent of
dental students expect to enter private practice. Greep
calls attention to the expansion of graduate dental educa
tion, and the increasing emphasis on specialization and
specialty practice. In 1952, twenty-two dental schools were
offering graduate programs. By 1962, thirty-five schools
were doing so.^
Summary
This chapter has presented (1) a review of general
-^Council on Dental Education of the American Dental
Association, "The Freshman Dental Student," The Journal of
the American Dental Association. LVIII (Chicago: American
Dental Association, March, 1959), 132-136.
C C
Roy 0. Greep, "Graduate Education in Dentistry,"
Journal of Dental Education, XXVI (September, 1962), 206-
209.
46
studies of occupational prestige and the occupational de
cision process, and* (2) a summary of recent studies relating
to the selection of dentistry as a career.
A rank structure of prestige status of occupations
exists in the public mind, and there is considerable con
sensus on the relative position of the various occupations.
Prestige derived from status appears to be a need
more of persons in the higher level than in the lower level
of occupations.
The occupational decision process proceeds through
several distinguishable phases, and may be visualized as a
progressive delimitation of alternatives.
The occupational choice is made on the basis of
needs, and job satisfaction depends upon the extent to which
the occupation meets these needs.
The principal motivations for the selection of den
tistry as a career include: service, interest, freedom,
prestige, money, and the desire to work with one's hands.
Most dental applicants and dental students accord
the profession of medicine more prestige than dentistry,
and this attitude is formed before entrance into dental
school. *
An estimated eighty-nine per cent of dental
47
students expect to enter the private practice of dentistry.
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Selection of the Universe
The purpose of the investigation is to obtain infor
mation concerning selected social factors relating to den
tistry as an occupational career. The universe studied was
composed of three distinct groups of young men who had al
ready selected dentistry as their career choice. Each
group selected represented a different level of training and
experience. The range of this training and experience was
sufficiently wide to allow for clear-cut definitions of the
three categories. The three groups have been designated as:
Group I: Freshman Group
Group II: Senior Group
Group III: Graduate Group
The composition of each group is as follows:
•t
The Freshman Group is composed of first year dental
students, Class of 1965, University of Oregon Dental Col
lege. At the time of their participation in the survey,
48
49
these students were in the first quarter of their first year
pf undergraduate study, and so had had very little formal
training or experience in their chosen field.
The Senior Group is composed of fourth year under
graduate dental students, Class of 1961, also at the Univer
sity of Oregon Dental College. When contacted, these sub
jects were completing their last month as undergraduates,
just prior to graduation and examination for licensure.
The Graduate Group is composed of members of the
graduating classes of 1956 and 1957, University of Oregon
Dental College. These particular classes were selected be
cause of the time element. There is a span of eight to nine
years between their entry and that of the Freshman Group
into dental school, and, at the time of the survey, these
participants had had approximately five years' experience as
practicing members of the dental profession.
Participation in the study was voluntary. A ques
tionnaire was developed which was to be completed by each
subject. The Freshman and Senior classes were contacted
through their class presidents. Those who chose to partici
pate were given a copy of the questionnaire, which they were
then free to complete or disregard. The individual class
members were unknown to the investigator, and no attempt was
made to identify them.
Names and addresses of the Graduate Group were ob
tained from college records and the questionnaire sent by
mail. Covering letters from the Head of the Department of
Sociology, University of Southern California, and from the
investigator, explaining the purpose of the study and re
questing cooperation, were enclosed. A stamped, return en
velope was also included. Again, no effort was made to
identify individual respondents. (Samples of the letters
and of the questionnaire may be found in the appendix.)
Table 1 shows the total class membership of each group and
the number and per cent of respondents.
Description of the Questionnaire
The questionnaire was divided into three major sec
tions :
1. Background information: Sought data relating to
respondent’s personal and educational history
and the educational level of selected family
members.
2. Career choice: Contained items relating to the
choice of dentistry as an occupational career.
3. Career satisfactions and dissatisfactions;
TABLE 1
TOTAL CLASS MEMBERSHIPS AND RESPONDENTS
Respondents
Class Membership
Number Per cent
65 84.4 Freshmen 77
Seniors 72 79.7 57
Graduates
64 1956
63.7 137 87
73 1957
209 Total
52
Sought information relating to satisfaction of
expectations, and additional satisfactions and
dissatisfactions, anticipated or experienced.
Background information
It was deemed desirable to obtain selected back
ground information from the participants of each group in
order to be able to determine similarities or differences
which exist in their histories.
Personal and educational history.— The respondent
was asked to indicate the following:
1. Date and state of birth
2. Date of marriage
3. Number of children
4. Number of years of college completed before
entering dental college.
Educational level of selected family members.— As
noted in Chapter II, there has been a lack of uniformity in
reports of the family backgrounds of dental students, as
well as diverse conclusions regarding the effect of family
background on career choice. Independent conclusions will
be drawn on the basis of the data obtained herein. "Educa
tional level" is based solely upon the amount of formal ed
ucation attained by these family members. The respondent
was asked to indicate the degree obtained or the number of
school years completed by his paternal grandfather, parents,
brothers, sisters, spouse, and spouse's father.
Career choice
Members of the universe had already made a definite
career choice. The first question in this section asked
the interviewee to designate the age of decision. Six re
sponse categories were provided:
1. Before going to high school
2. During the first two years of high school
3. During the last two years of high school
4. While in college
5. After leaving college
6. In military service.
Because of the large number of men who are married
before entrance to dental school, the next question asked:
Were you married at the time of this decision?
It is assumed that the decision to enter dentistry
was not made lightly, but that the advantages and disadvan
tages as they were perceived by the subject were carefully
54
l
weighed. It is also assumed that for at least some of the
subjects, dentistry was not the only career considered dur
ing the occupational choice process. The following open-end
questions were posed:
What careers did you seriously consider entering
besides dentistry?
When considered?
Most important reason for changing.
The next question was designed to provide some of
the most pertinent data in the study. These responses were
used to test Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3. These hypotheses are
concerned with the relationship, if any, between certain
motivational factors which are operative in the selection
of dentistry as a career.
Hypothesis 1: Among persons who select dentistry
as a career, the stronger the desire
to be in a profession, the stronger
the desire to be of service to oth
ers .
Hypothesis 2: Among persons who select dentistry
as a career, the stronger the desire
for security, the stronger the desire
to be in a profession.
55
Hypothesis 3: Among persons who select dentistry
as a career, the stronger the desire
to be one's own boss, the stronger
the desire to be in a profession.
A list of thirteen items was given and the subject
asked: What factors were important to you in selecting
dentistry as a career? Each potential factor was to be
evaluated as "Very Important," "Relatively Important," or
of "Little or No Importance." The thirteen factors pre
sented were:
1. Desire to work with people
2. Dissatisfaction with previous career choice
3. Interest in scientific content of profession
4. Desire to be own boss
5. Desire to work with hands
6. Desire to be in a profession
7. Monetary advantages
8. Because own teeth poor
9. Accepted in dental school before other accep
tances received
10. Security
11. Opportunity to arrange own time
12. Opportunity for service to others
56
13. Opportunity to give family advantages.
Data from other dental studies indicate that most
students plan to enter private practice, and that there is
an increasing interest in specialization.
Do students entering dental school plan on a career
in a specialized area, or do these interests de
velop after some experience in the field?
The respondent was given the following list of six
possible avenues of practice, to be rated in order of pre
ference :
1. Private practice of general dentistry
2. Private practice in a specialty
3. Public health
4. Teaching
5. Advertising dentist
6. Health insurance group plan (as Kaiser Plan).
If he indicated his preference to be "private prac
tice in a specialty," he was asked to indicate his choice.
The problem of recruitment of qualified candidates
for admission to dental college was discussed in Chapter I.
It would be very advantageous to the profession to know
what sources of information or influence are important in
the career decision at present or have been important in
57
the past. Such information might suggest what sources could
be better utilized in the future.
Other studies have indicated that prospective dental
students are influenced in their career decision more by
individuals than by impersonal avenues of information.
The next question was formulated in order to obtain
this information from the universe of the study, as well as
to determine if the same factors had been important for each
of the three groups.
Did the married students feel the wives were influ
ential in this decision?
Several possible sources of information were listed
for evaluation as "Very Important," "Relatively Important,"
and of "Little or No Importance." Impersonal factors in
cluded high school and college courses; counseling services
and aptitude tests; and experience in military service.
Possible influential individuals were parents, wife,
friends, and family dentist. A final choice was "Decision
largely on my own."
The respondent was then asked to assess the accur
acy of the information he had received from each of the
possible sources listed in the previous question.
58
Career satisfactions and
dissatisfactions
The next series of inquiries sought information re
lating to satisfaction of expectations.
Had the career choice been a satisfactory one, or
had these young men embarked upon their life-work
with so little knowledge of the reality factors
involved that they had or would suffer disillu
sionment later?
What were their attitudes at the time of the survey?
An attempt was made to assess the extent to which
the subject felt dentistry was a satisfactory career for
him. Possible answers were:
1. The only satisfactory career
2. A satisfactory, but not necessarily the only
satisfactory career
3. One of several possible satisfactory careers
4. A fairly satisfactory career choice
5. It has not been a satisfactory career choice.
Did the subject find dentistry so satisfying that
he would make the same choice again?
Five possible answers ranged in intensity of feeling
from "Definitely yes," to "Definitely no."
59
The area of competing career choices was again in
troduced with the open-end question:
If you would not make the same choice again, what
career would you select? Why?
Blauch has called attention to the criteria of know
ledge, attitudes, and skills which are required by a pro
fession. He has stressed the fact that the true measure of
professional success is quality of service, not financial
gain.
Do the members of the study reaffirm these attitudes
in their rating of factors influential in deter
mining professional success?
Is there a difference in the attitudes of beginning
students as compared with those in the last period
of undergraduate training, or as compared with men
who have had five years 1 experience in private
practice?
The respondents were asked to rank these qualities
in the order of their importance to a young dentist in his
effort to "get ahead":
1. Pleasing personality with patients
2. Manual dexterity
3. Hard work
60
4. Being a "good mixer"
5. Up-to-date knowledge of scientific theory and
facts in the field
6. Active participation as a citizen in community
projects.
Hypothesis 4 states; The more recent the individual
in the field of dentistry, the
higher his ranking of person
ality as a success factor.
Wylie's study indicated that dental students have a
greater expectation of substantial financial income and
economic security when they are finishing their education
than when they are beginning their training.
Does either group display a practical knowledge of
dental economics?
Do student estimates differ from those of private
practitioners ?
Failure to obtain anticipated income" could be a
source of later dissatisfaction. It is of interest to com
pare the income expectations of the three groups. The
question was asked:
What income do you think a dentist should expect
after one year and after ten years of practice?
61
The levels of income given ranged from a low of
"About $5,000" to "More than $25,000."
The practice of dentistry is necessarily confining.
The statement is often made that many members of the health
professions display excellence in their chosen specialties,
but are somewhat indifferent to community needs.^ The next
query was presented to obtain more information relating to
this observation, and also to further determine career sat
isfaction. It asked:
How important have the following activities been in
giving you satisfaction in life?
The activities included some which were career-oriented,
personal pursuits, and community projects, and were as fol
lows :
1. Career
2. Fraternal organizations outside dentistry
3. Family relationships
4. Leisure time recreation
5. Religious beliefs and activities
6. Participation in community projects
^■Russell S. Poor, "The Social, Economic, and Polit
ical Responsibilities of a Health Profession," Journal of
Dental Education. XXV (March, 1961), 23.
62
7. Participation in activities directed toward
national and international betterment.
As indicated, all of the members of the study had
taken at least initial steps toward finalizing the career
choice. Prior to this step, each must have decided it was
best for him. From his present position, what does he now
consider to be the "ideal career"? Have his values changed
with time?
The next question gave a list of requirements for
the "ideal career." The subject was asked to indicate the
extent to which he felt a career should satisfy each of
these requirements before he would consider it to be ideal:
1. Provide an opportunity to use special abilities
2. Provide the chance to earn a great deal of
money
3. Permit creativity and originality
4. Award social status and prestige
5. Enable a person to look forward to a secure
future
6. Enable a person to be relatively free of super
vision of others
7. Enable a person to regulate his leisure time
8. Provide the opportunity to be of service to
others
9. Provide for personal growth and development
10. Provide for career development through training
These factors correspond closely to those included
in the question relating to factors deemed important in
selecting dentistry as a career. If the respondents have
been consistent in the expression of their attitudes and
values, there should be agreement between these two ques
tions.
An open-end question next asked the respondent to
give the one requirement he considered to be the most im
portant.
The next question was concerned with possible
sources of career dissatisfaction.
The participant was given a list of possible dis
satisfactions for his evaluation as having caused "Much dis
satisfaction," "Relative dissatisfaction," or "Little or no
dissatisfaction." If he indicated he had suffered dissat
isfaction with respect to any of these items, it is of in
terest to determine if these conditions were apparent early
in career education, did they become apparent or manifest
themselves as the individual progressed in dental college,
or were they felt after he had become established in the
profession?
The dissatisfactions presented were:
1. Desire for greater income
2. Limited opportunity for advancement in career
3. Negative evaluation by fellow dentists
4. Negative evaluation by public
5. Negative evaluation by physicians
6. Physical demands of work
7. Insufficient status and prestige
8. Nature of work itself
9. Limited opportunity for personal advancement
Hypothesis 5 attempted to determine the relation
ship, if any, between the length of time the individual had
been in the field of dentistry and the extent of dissatis
faction experienced. It states:
Hvpothesis 5: The longer the individual continues
in the field of dentistry, the great
er the extent of his dissatisfaction.
The final question was composed of two parts: Part
(1) was interested in the respondents' own evaluations of
the dental profession in comparison to various other given
professions; Part (2) sought to ascertain how the respon
dents perceived dentistry to be rated in reference to the
65
other given professions by the general public.
Significant differences in these two evaluations
could be a source.of either great satisfaction or dissatis
faction, depending on the relative position accorded dentis
try in each instance.
Participants were instructed:
Place the following occupations in rank order, high
est to lowest, according to the amount of prestige
you personally feel that each commands. Then rank
the same occupations they way you think the gen
eral public would rank them.
The occupations to be ranked were:
Architect Lawyer
Business executive Minister
Dentist Physician
Engineer Social worker
High school teacher
Rationale of the Questionnaire
The statistical analysis is concerned with the data
obtained from the questionnaire and the affirmation or re
futation of the six hypotheses in the study.
Tables were constructed in order to present
66
frequency distributions by number and per cent. Where it
was felt to be indicated, means and medians were given. In
all cases, the data were presented for each of the three
groups, as one of the principal objectives of the investi
gation was to compare the attitudes within these categories.
The hypotheses were first examined from the stand-
2
point of null hypotheses. Chi-square and Kolmogorov-Smir-
nov tests were applied to Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 to deter
mine if there was a difference in the distributions of re
sponses which might be expected to occur by chance. Com
parisons were made for each group with the other two groups.
Where differences were found, the level of significance was
determined.
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 1 proposes that among persons who select
dentistry as a career, the stronger the desire to be in a
profession, the stronger the desire to be of service to
others. This hypothesis was applied to each of the three
2J. P. Guilford, Fundamental Statistics in Psycholo
gy and Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
1956), pp. 228-247.
3s. Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics for the Behav
ioral Sciences (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
1956), pp. 127-137.
67
groups comprising the universe.
The respondent was presented with several items
which he was asked to evaluate regarding their importance
as motivations in career choice. Two of these items were
listed as "desire to be in a profession" and "opportunity
to be of service to others." The number of persons of each
group rating these two items as "Very Important" provided
the data for testing this hypothesis.
It was found that the number of responses to the
alternatives "Relatively Important" and "Little or No Im
portance" was often too small to allow for accurate use of
chi-square. Therefore, in the analysis, these two evalua
tions were combined under the single category "Not Very Im
portant." This completed the four-fold table, and provided
for the alternate response to the one being tested.
The four following evaluations of responses were
then possible:
1. Both factors rated "Very Important"
2. "The desire to be in a profession" rated as
being very important, while "Opportunity to be
of service to others" rated as not being very
important
3. The reversal of the attitudes expressed in (2)
68
4. Neither of the factors rated as being very im
portant.
The chi-square test was applied to the responses
made by each of the three groups to the two motivations
under consideration. The function of chi-square is to indi
cate whether the differences observed between the two fac
tors within each group were greater than chance expectation.
The uniqueness of the response pattern of each group was
demonstrated. Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were also applied.
Where significant differences were found, these were pre
sented.
If the data were supportive of Hypothesis 1, the
results would be in the direction predicted: that among
persons who select dentistry as a career, the stronger the
desire to be in a profession, the stronger the desire to be
of service to others.
Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 2 states that among persons who select
dentistry as a career, the stronger the desire for security,
the stronger the desire to be in a profession. This hypo
thesis was tested in the same manner as Hypothesis 1.
Chi-square and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were
69
applied to the responses made by each of the three groups
to determine if there was a statistical difference in the
response patterns for the factors "security*' and "desire to
|be in a profession." Where significant differences were
found to exist, the level of statistical significance was
determined.
Hypothesis 3
Hypothesis 3 proposes that among persons who select
dentistry as a career, the stronger the desire to be one's
own boss, the stronger the desire to be in a profession.
Chi-square and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were applied
in the same manner as has been described for the first two
hypotheses, and the presence of levels of statistical signi
ficance were described.
Hypothesis 4
Hypothesis 4 states that the younger the entrant in
to the field of dentistry, the higher his ranking of "per
sonality" as a success factor.
Chi-square and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were used to
determine if the differences in the responses of the three
groups were significantly greater than those due to chance.
The response pattern of each group was compared with the
70
patterns of the other two groups. Where significant dif
ferences were found, the level of significance was stated.
If the responses of the youngest entrants into the
field, the Freshman Group, were found to be most favorable
to the personality factor, and the Graduate Group the least
favorable, the data would be an affirmation of the above
hypothesis.
Hypothesis 5
Hypothesis 5 is concerned with the relationship, if
any, between the length of time the individual has been in
the field of dentistry and the amount of dissatisfaction ex
perienced or anticipated.
It states: The longer the individual continues in
the field of dentistry, the greater the
extent of his dissatisfaction.
Chi-square and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were used
to determine if the differences in the responses of the
three groups were significantly greater than those which
could occur due to chance. Each group was compared with the
other two groups. Where significant differences were found,
the level of significance was demonstrated.
A preponderance of factors resulting in "Much
71
dissatisfaction" could indicate that the career had not
lived up to expectations. If the responses present evidence
of increasing dissatisfaction from the Freshman through the
Graduate categories, these data would lend support to the
stated hypothesis. If the three groups experienced no dis
satisfaction, or approximately the same extent of dissatis
faction, or if the younger subjects appear to be less satis
fied than the graduates, these attitudes would lead to re-
*
jection of Hypothesis 5.
Hvpothes is 6
Hypothesis 6 states; The longer the individual has
been in the field of dentis
try, the greater the disparity
between his evaluation of the
status of dentistry and his
perception of its evaluation
by the general public.
The rank difference correlation method was applied
in the analysis of these data. The sums of the rankings of
the individual respondents were determined for each of the
three groups. The rank difference correlation Tau was ob
tained for each respondent, and the average rank correlation
72
between the two rankings of the individuals within each
group was obtained.
If greater disparity between the two rankings is
found to exist among the graduate respondents than among the
student groups, with the greatest disparity between the
graduates and the freshmen, these results would lend sup
port to the above hypothesis. If the graduate group evi
dences the same amount or less disparity than is demonstrat
ed by the student groups, this result would lend support to
the conclusion that the length of time an individual spends
in the dental field is not a significant factor in his eval
uation of the status of the dental profession. This would
lead to the rejection of Hypothesis 6.
Electronic Data Processing
Most of the analysis of the data and the related
statistical computations were performed by the IBM-709
electronic data processing system at the Western Data Pro
cessing Center, University of California at Los Angeles.
The format of Questionnaire Analysis Program 1 was used.
QAP 1 is a pre-written program for analysing questionnaire
data which provides frequency counts, percentage counts,
chi-square and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests, and levels of
73
significance. The analysis of the final question, using the
rank difference correlation method, was programmed separate
ly. Other calculations were accomplished by hand tabula
tions .
Summary
It was stated earlier that the purpose of this re
search is to obtain information concerning selected social
factors relating to dentistry as a career. It has been hy
pothesized that there is a positive correlation between the
desire to be in a profession and each of the following mo
tivational factors: the desire to be of service to others,
the desire for security, and the desire to be one's own
boss. Additional hypotheses relating to career satisfac
tions and dissatisfactions have also been formulated. They
propose- to test the importance of personality as a success
factor in dentistry, the relationship between the length of
time in the profession and the extent of career dissatis
faction, and finally, length of time in the field as it
affects the prestige accorded the profession. The results
of the testing of these hypotheses and supplemental data
will be presented in the following chapter.
CHAPTER IV
THE RESULTS
This chapter presents an analysis of the question
naire data, with the focus of attention upon comparisons be
tween the three groups. Presentation of the data will fol
low the outline used in the description of the questionnaire*
1. Background information
2. Career choice
3. Career satisfactions and dissatisfactions
The results obtained which are pertinent to the
testing of the hypotheses will be discussed as they are con
tained within this structure.
Background Information
Personal and educational
history
Examination of the data revealed that the members of
the Freshman, Senior, and Graduate groups possessed certain
similarities in background.
Table 2 shows that the universe was composed almost
74
TABLE 2
AGE OF RESPONDENTS AT TIME OF SURVEY
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
Age
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
44-46 1 1.8
42-44 2 2.3
40-42 1 1.8 1
■
1.1
38-40 2 3.7 10 11.5
36-38 10 11.5
34-36 4 7.4 6 6.9
32-34 1 1.6 3 5.5 16 18.4
30-32 1 . 1.6 10 18.5 20 22.9
28-30 1 1.6 9 16.7 22 25.3
ui
TABLE 2— Continued
Age
Freshmen
Number Per cent
Seniors
Number Per cent
Graduates
Number Per cent
26-28 10 16.4 10 18.5
24-26 11 18.0 14 26.0
22-24 15 24.6
20-22 22 36.1
Total 61
---
54
---
87
Mean 23.7
---
31.3
---
33.1
Median 23.1
---
28.6
---
33.1 ---
77
entirely of men under forty years of age. Only five members
of the entire sample of 202 subjects exceeded this age lev
el. Median ages of the three groups at the time of the sur
vey were:
Freshman 23.1 years
Senior 28.6 years
Graduate 33.1 years
It can be seen from these figures that the majority
of the subjects bad entered dental college before their mid
twenties.
The sample was even more homogeneous when consid
ered by place of birth. As indicated in Table 3, over 90
per cent of the members were born in the United States, with
approximately one-half of these persons native to Oregon.
Slightly over one-third of the entering freshmen
were married, and over one-half of these men had one or more
children. The large majority of the other two groups were
married— 90.9 per cent of the seniors and 96.5 per cent of
the graduates. More than one-half of these seniors and all
but three of these graduates were fathers. The figures al
so indicate that over 5 0 per cent of the married seniors and
graduates were married at the beginning of their formal den
tal training (Tables 4, 5, and 6).
TABLE 3
BIRTHPLACE OF RESPONDENTS
Place of Birth
Freshmen
Number Per cent
Seniors
Number Per cent
Graduates
Number Per cent
Oregon 29 45.3 23 41.0 37 43.0
Out of state 32 50.0 33 59.0 42 48.8
Out of country 3 4.7
—
---
7 8.1
Total 64
---
56
---
86
---
TABLE 4
MARITAL STATUS OF RESPONDENTS AT TIME OF SURVEY
Marital
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
Status
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
Married 24 37.5 50 90.9 83 96.5
Single 40 62.5 5 9.1 3 3.5
Total 64
---
55
---
86
---
TABLE 5
YEARS OF MARRIAGE FOR RESPONDENTS AT TIME OF SURVEY
Years of
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
Marriage
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
20-22 1 1.2
18-20 1 2.0 1 1.2
16-18 3 3.6
14-16 5 6.0
12-14 2 4.0 6 7.1
10-12 3 6.0 15 18.1
8-10 1 4.2 12 24.0 16 19.3.
6- 8 3 12.5 9 18.0 12 14.5
4- 6 6 25.0 5 10.0
18
21.7
CO
O
TABLE 5— Continued
Years of
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
Marr iage
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
2-4 9 37.5 10 20.0 5 6.0
0-2 5 20.8 8 16.0 1 1.2
Total 24
---
50
---
83
---
Mean 3.4
---
8.4
---
8.9
---
Median 3.5
---
6.3
---
8.6
---
TABLE 6
NUMBER OF CHILDREN OF RESPONDENTS
Number of
Children
Freshmen
Number Per cent
Seniors
Number Per cent
Graduates
Number Per cent
8
7 1 1.2
6 3 3.65
5 2 4.0 3 3.65
4 2 8.3 4 8.0 11 13.4
3 1 4.2 7 14.0 19 23.2
2 4 16.6 7 14.0 28 34.1
1 7 29.2 8 16.0 12 14.6
0 10 41.7 22 44.0 5 6.1
Total 24
---
50
---
82
---
The growing percentage of dental students with pren
i * '
dental training beyond the minimal preprofessional require- j
' I
i i
ment has been noted in recent years. Tables 7 and 8 further*
demonstrate this trend. Approximately 90 per cent of the
total sample reported having had three or more years of
college completed prior to entrance to dental college, while
almost 40 per cent of the total sample held bachelor's or
master's degrees prior to entering formal training.
Educational level of
selected family members ,
Table 9 indicates that less than one-half of the
father in each group had pursued their education beyond
high school, although they had more education than is found
among men of comparable age in the United States as a
whole (see Chapter II). The per cent of fathers who had
finished college was approximately the same for each group.
There were fewer fathers with advanced or professional de
grees in the senior category than in the other two classi
fications, and no category reached the figure of 26 per cent
found in the American Dental Association study of 1953-1954.
The mothers were not so well educated as their
spouses. Again, less than one-half had continued after
high school, although 41 per cent of freshman mothers had
TABLE 7
YEARS OF UNDERGRADUATE COLLEGE WORK COMPLETED
BEFORE ENTERING DENTAL COLLEGE
Undergraduate
Years Completed
Freshmen
Number Per cent
Seniors
Number Per cent
Graduates
Number Per cent
1 0 0 0
2 7 10.6 5 8.9 9 10.5
3 28 42.4 28 49.1 36 42.3
4 31 46.9 24 42.8 37 43.5
Received B.A.
or B.S. degree 25 37.8 22 38.6 33 40.2
o o
■ I *
TABLE 8
YEARS OF GRADUATE WORK COMPLETED BEFORE
ENTERING DENTAL COLLEGE
Graduate Years
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
Completed
Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent
1 0 2 3.5 2 2.4
2 1 1.5 1 1.8 3 3.5
3 0 1 1.8 1 1.2
4 0 0 0
Received M.A.
or M.S. degree 1 1.5 2 3.5 5 4.8
00
ui
nocA T U M M . u n o r s i l s ct i d n n u
Educational
Laval
Pater M l Oread father
r* S o* r
Father
s 0 P
Mother
8 0 P s e P
s m s 's rather
S G
Professional or 4 2 2 10 4 * 1 3 1 3 0 1 7 1 7 4
Advanced Degras 8.3 4.5 3.1 15.4 7.0 17 4 4.7 1.8 3.4 0 2.0 8.5 4.2 15.9 5.3
4-Year 4 2 3 6 8 12 8 9 5 13 20 1 6' 10
College Degree S.3 4.5 4.7 9.2 14.0 5 8 18.8 14.3 10.3 20.0 26.5 24.4 4.2 13.6 13.2
1-3 Years 3 3 1 16 10 1 13 10 14 IS 22 35 6 4 12
College 4.8 1.6 24.6 17.5 15 1 20.3 17.9 16.1 60.0 44.9 42.7 25.0 9.1 15.8
High School 13 9 9 15 11 1 20 19 30 4 12 16 11 15 29
Graduate 27.1 20.5 14.1 23.1 19.3 20 9 31.3 33.9 34.5 16.0 24.5 19.5 45.8 34.1 38.2
1-3 Years 4 » 3 11 11 1 9 10 12 0 1 3 3 5 6
High School 8.3 13.6 4.7 16.9 19.3 14 0 14.1 17.9 13.8 0 2.0 3.7 12.5 11.4 7.9
S Years or Lees 20 22 46 7 13 2 7 8 19 0 0 0 1 7 14
Elsasantary School .41.7 50.0 71.9 10.8 22.8 26. 7 10.9 14.3 21.8 0 0 0 4.2 15.9 18.4
‘Difference in education of paternal grandfather we* significant at tha .01 l m l .
87
had some years of college work. The freshman group had the
smallest, and the graduate group the largest, per cent of
jparents and paternal grandparents who had only attended ele
mentary school. This difference in the educational level of
the freshman and graduate paternal grandparents was found
to be significant at the .01 level.
Seventy to eighty per cent of the spouses had had
some years of college training, and none of the spouses had
terminated her education at the elementary school level.
This was the only family category in which this was true.
Spouses' fathers had slightly less college training
than the fathers of the respondents, but fewer of the former
had terminated their education prior to high school gradua
tion than was the case with the fathers of the respondents.
. In the analysis, the categories "brothers" and "sis
ters" were omitted, because it was found that in many in
stances these persons were still of school age, and their
ultimate educational level could not be estimated.
Career Choice
The next section of the investigation was concerned
with career choice.
Table 10 reveals that approximately 40 per cent of
TABLE 10
TIME OF DECISION TO ENTER DENTISTRY
Time of Decision
Freshmen*
Number Per cent
Seniors*
Number Per cent
Graduates
Number Per cent
Before High School 4 6.3 0 0 3
1
3.7 |
During First Two
Years of High School 6 9.4 2 3.6 5 6.1
During Last Two
Years of High School 16 25.0 8 14.5 15 18.3
While in College 28 43.8 22 40.0 33 40.2
After Leaving College 3 4.7 9 16.4 14 17.1
In Military Service 7 10.9 14 25.5 12 14.6
Total 64
---
55 82
---
♦Difference in time of decision was significant at the .025 level.
00
00
jthe members of each group indicated that they had made their
career decision while in college. This is somewhat later
than has been reported in other studies.
: There was a significant difference in the time of
decision of the other 6 0 per cent of the Freshmen and the
Senior Groups. Whereas approximately 40 per cent of the
s
freshmen had decided to enter dental college before leaving
high school, only 18 per cent of the seniors had made the
decision before that time. Fifteen per cent of the freshmen
had not decided until after leaving college or while in mil
itary service, while 40 per cent of the seniors had selected
dentistry during this period. The level of the significance
for the difference of these response patterns was establish
ed at .025.
Graduate group responses fell approximately midway
within the ranges described above.
Despite the large number of married students begin
ning formal dental training, the majority indicated they had
been single at the time they made their career decision
(Table 11).
Table 12 indicates that medicine was the career most
frequently mentioned by all groups as the career they had
seriously considered prior to the decision to enter dentis-
TABLE 11
i
MARITAL STATUS AT TIME OF DECISION TO ENTER DENTISTRY
Marital Status
Freshmen
Number Per cent
Seniors
Number Per cent
Graduates
Number Per cent
Married 5 7.7 11 19.3 19 22.1
Single 60 92.3 46 80.7 67 77.9
Total 65
«
57
---------
86
---------
vO
O
TABLE 12
OTHER CAREERS SERIOUSLY CONSIDERED PRIOR TO DECISION TO ENTER DENTISTRY
Other Careers
Considered
Freshmen
Number Per cent
Seniors*
Number Per cent
Graduates *
Number Per cent
Medicine 15 27.8 13 24.5 30 40.0
Teaching 10 18.5 5 9.4 14 18.7
Engineering 7 13.0 10 18.9 2 2.7
Business 2 3.7 1 1.9 8 10.7
Pharmacy 3 5.6 3 5.7 2 2.7
Law 3 5.6 4 7.5 2 2.7
Architect 1 1.9 4 7.5 1 1.3
Chemist 3 5.6 1 1.9 2 2.7
Other 10 18.5 12 22.6 14 18.7
Total 54
---
53
---
75
---
♦Difference in career selection was significant at the .025 level.
92
try. Teaching and engineering were the second and third
selections of the freshmen, while the seniors also chose
i
i
these two occupations, but ranked them in reverse order.
[Teaching and business were accorded second and third place
I
by the graduates.
There was a significant difference at the .025 level
in the pattern of choice between the seniors and the grad
uates. Approximately 25 per cent of the seniors most often
mentioned medicine, whereas it had been the most favored
selection of 40 per cent of the older group. Teaching was
accorded a strong second place among the graduates, but was
listed by less than ten per cent of the Senior Group, who
i
rated engineering second only to medicine. Ten per cent of
the graduates favored a career in business, which was men
tioned by only one senior.
Table 13 shows that medicine was a serious consid
eration when many of the subjects were in high school and
college, whereas teaching did not become a strong choice
until the college years.
Anticipated dissatisfaction with environmental con
ditions associated with the medical profession accounted
for almost half of the reasons given by all groups for
their final selection of dentistry. Such dissatisfactions
TABLE 13
TIME AT WHICH CAREERS OTHER THAN DENTISTRY WERE SERIOUSLY CONSIDERED*
When Considered
Medicine Teaching !
Freshmen Seniors Graduates Freshmen Seniors
I
Graduates
!
1
Before
High School 2 5
j
1
j
Dur ing
High School 7 8 13 2 3 5
While
in College 6 7 12 9 8 7
After College
(Working) 2 2 1
While in
Military Service 1 1 4
Total 18 16 36 12 11 12
♦Returns were too meager to include more than first and second choices of careers.
< £ >
u>
94
included long hours, irregular hours, and lack of family
v *
life. Other reasons listed referred to the length of the
course of study and the finances involved (Table 14).
Lack of anticipated adequate financial return was
the reason most often mentioned for the change from teach
ing to dentistry, although these returns were meager (Table
15) .
The ranking of the factors which played a part in
the selection of dentistry as a career was one of'the most
important items of the questionnaire. It provided data on
the career motivations of each of the three groups and dem
onstrated the differences between each of the groups. This
information was utilized in testing the first three hypo
theses.
In the analysis, five key factors were abstracted
from the original list of thirteen categories, as the sample
was too small to validate drawing any conclusions from the
many possible answers in the original form. The five fac
tors selected were:
1. Desire to be own boss
2. Desire to work with hands
3. Desire to be in a profession
4. Security
95
TABLE 14
REASONS GIVEN FOR CHANGING CAREER CHOICE
FROM MEDICINE TO DENTISTRY
i .
Reasons Given for
Change from
Medicine to Dentistry
Freshmen Seniors Graduates Total
i
Environmental Condi
tions (no family
life, hours) 7 5 13 25
Length of Course of
Study 1 2 3 6
Finances 2 3 5
Content of Course
of Study 1 2 3 '
High Qualifications
in Medicine 2 1 3
Age 1 2 3
Not Admitted to Med
ical School 1 1 1 3
Influence of Father,
and Friends 3 3
World War II 1 1
Marriage 1 1
Health 1 1
Politics 1 1
Less Responsibility
in Dentistry 1 1
Total 11 13 32 56
96
TABLE 15
REASONS GIVEN FOR CHANGING CAREER CHOICE
FROM TEACHING TO DENTISTRY
Reasons Given for
Change from
Teaching to Dentistry
Freshmen Seniors Graduates Total
Inadequate
Financial Return 3 3 3 9
Dentistry
More Rewarding 2 4 6
High Qualifications 1 2 3
Not Own Boss 1 1
Total 5 5 9 19
5. Opportunity to be of service to others
As indicated in Table 16, the most conclusive result
concerned the factor, "Desire to be own boss." It was rat
ed by more members of each group as having been "Very Im
portant" in the decision to enter dentistry than was any
other item. It was the only factor which enjoyed the same
ranking by all three groups.
The greatest difference in attitudes was found for
the motivation, "Opportunity to be of service to others."
Group I, Freshman, ranked this in second place as a "Very
Important" factor, while it was relegated to fifth place by
Group II, with only 26 per cent of the seniors considering
this to be a "Very Important" factor. The chi-square values
in Table 17 illustrate that this difference in response pat
terns of the freshmen and seniors with regard to the
strength of "Service" as a motivational force was statisti
cally significant at the .005 level.
The "Service" factor was ranked in fourth place by
the Graduate Group, although in this case 48 per cent of
the group deemed it "Very Important." The difference in
attitude of the graduates and seniors with respect to the
service factor had a lower level of significance, which was
established at the .05 level.
*
TABLE 16
IMPORTANT FACTORS IN THE SELECTION OF DENTISTRY AS A CAREER
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
Important Factors
V.I.
L. or
K-1* N.I.
V.I. R. I.
L. or
N.I.
V.I. R.I.
u •
O H
J -
Desire to be own boss 43 15 5 41 15 1 69 15
!
0 1
68.3 23.8 7.9 71.9 26.3 1.8 82.1 17.9 o !
Desire to work with hands 21 29 12 30 22 5 54 21 10 ;
33.9 46.8 19.4 52.6 38.6 8.8 63.5 24.7 11.8
Desire to be in a profession 34 24 5 33 20 4 55 22 8
54.0 38.1 7.9 57.9 35.1 . 7.0 64.7 25.9 9.4
Security 31 23 8 16 33 7 36 32 ' 16
50.0 37.1 12.9 28.6 58.9 12.5 42.9 38.1 19.0
Opportunity for service 37 26 0 15 37 5 41 35 9
to others 58.7 41.3 0 26.3 64.9 8.8 48.2 4.1.2 10.6
V.I.— Very Important
R.I.— Relatively Important
L. or N.I.— Little or No Importance
TABLE 17
DIFFERENCES IN RATINGS BETWEEN GROUPS I, II, AND IIIa CONCERNING
IMPORTANT FACTORS IN THE SELECTION OF DENTISTRY AS A CAREER,
USING CHI-SQUARE TESTS
Differences in Ratings of Important Factors
in Selection of Dentistry
1
- *
Chi-Square Values
I and II I and III II and III
Desire to be own boss .457 2.777 1.416
Desire to work with hands 4.180 12,613c 1.620
Desire to be in a profession .184 1.668 .633
Secur ity 5.404 .727 2.742
Opportunity to be of service to others 12.576c 1.622 6.557b
aGroup I— Freshman; Group II— Senior;
bp < . 05
cp < . 005
Group III—-Graduate.
VO
vo
"Desire to be in a profession" was the third most
important motivating force for the Freshman Group, whereas
I
this was second only to "Desire to be own boss" among the
iseniors and graduates.
"Security" was checked as "Very Important" by 50 per
cent of the freshmen, giving it fourth place in their rat
ing. It was also marked fourth by the seniors, although
only 28 per cent did so, while the fewest number of gradu
ates considered it as having been very important in their
career decision. These results were not statistically sig
nificant.
"Desire to work with hands" was the least important
to the freshmen, but was ranked third by the other two
groups. The difference in the response patterns of the
freshmen and the graduates was significant at the .005 level.
Results of application of Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests
are shown in Table 18.
pypothes is 1
Hypothesis 1 states: Among persons who select den
tistry as a career, the
stronger the desire to be in a
profession, the stronger the
TABLE 18
DIFFERENCES IN RATINGS BETWEEN GROUPS I, II, AND III CONCERNING
IMPORTANT FACTORS IN THE SELECTION OF DENTISTRY AS A CAREER
USING KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV TEST
t
Differences in Ratings of Important Factors
in Selection of Dentistry
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Statistic
I and II I and III II and III
Desire to be own boss -6.18 •13.89 10.21
Desire to work with hands -18.76 -29.66b 10.90
Desire to be in a profession -3.93 -10.74 6.81
Security 21.43 7.14 14.29
Opportunity to be of service to others 32.41b 10.59 21.92a
ap < . 05
bp < .005
o
102
desire to be of service to
others.
It was found that there was a difference in the
response patterns of the three groups (Table 19).
TABLE 19
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS I, II, AND III
AS TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE STRENGTH OF
THE MOTIVATIONS "DESIRE TO BE IN A PROFESSION" AND
"OPPORTUNITY TO BE OF SERVICE TO OTHERS"
CHI-SQUARE VALUES
Group I Group II Group III
1.496 4. 02a 5. lla
ap < .05
The data provided by the Freshman Group was not
statistically significant. There did not appear to be any
positive relationship among the freshmen between the
strength of the motivation to be in a profession and the
strength of the desire to be of service to others. The
number of respondents who indicated that both of these fac
tors had been "Very Important" was no greater than could
have been obtained by chance distribution. The same cir
cumstance applied to the other possible response patterns.
103
Responses of the Senior and Graduate Groups were
significant at the .05 level, with chi-squares of 4.02 and
i
5.11 respectively. It appears that respondents in these
groups had been strongly influenced by both factors con
tained in the hypothesis, and the number who were so af
fected was significantly greater than would be expected to
occur by chance.
This might suggest that the most recent dental col
lege aspirants did not appear to equate service as a part
of professional ethics to as great a degree as had been the
case with the older respondents.
The conclusion may be drawn that there is a differ
ence in the motivational patterns of the three groups. In
the case of the freshmen, the desire to be in a profession
was not strongly associated with a desire to be of service
to others as a career motivation. The senior and graduate
group data indicate that the strong association of these
two factors occurs more often than could be expected to oc
cur by chance.
HVpothes is 2
Hypothesis 2 states; Among persons who select den
tistry as a career, the
104
stronger the desire for secure
ity, the stronger the desire
to be in a profession.
The data demonstrate a marked difference in the
response patterns of the three groups (Table 20).
TABLE 20
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS I, II, AND III AS TO THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE STRENGTH OF THE
MOTIVATIONS "SECURITY" AND "DESIRE TO BE IN A PROFESSION"
CHI-SQUARE VALUES
Group I Group II Group III
12.20b 8.91a 2.727
ap . 01
bp < .001
The strongest association among the two factors was
found among the Freshman Group, where 22 per cent of the 61
respondents indicated they had considered both motivations
"Very Important" when making their career decision. This
response frequency was greater than can be attributed to
chance distribution. A chi-square of 12.20 was obtained,
with the level of significance established at .001.
105
The number of seniors who indicated the desire to be
in a profession and the desire for security had been "Very
Important" was also significant, although not at the level
established by the freshmen. For this second group, the
chi-square was 8.91, and the significance level was placed
at .01.
In the case of the graduates, the response pattern
was not statistically conclusive, and the number evaluating
the factors as "Very Important" was no greater than could
have been obtained by chance.
The data indicated that the more recent the dental
applicant, the greater the association between the desire
for security and the desire to be in a profession.
Hypothesis 2 is upheld for the two student groups,
and must be rejected when tested by graduate response.
hypothesis 3
The hypothesis states: Among persons who select
dentistry as a career, the
stronger the desire to be
one's own boss, the stronger
the desire to be in a pro
fession.
106
Again, the response patterns varied according to
group membership (Table 21).
TABLE 21
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS I, II, AND III AS TO THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE STRENGTH OF THE MOTIVATIONS
"DESIRE TO BE OWN BOSS" AND "DESIRE TO BE IN A PROFESSION"
CHI-SQUARE VALUES
Group I Group II Group III
12.53b 3.86a .322
ap < . 05
bp < . 005
A strong association between factors was demonstrat
ed by the Freshman Group. Thirty of the 6 2 respondents
stated that each factor had been "Very Important" to him in
his decision. This was greater than could be expected to
have occurred by chance, and obtained a level of signifi-
cance of .005.
Among the seniors, 27 of the 57 respondents reported
evaluations of "Very Important," establishing a level of
significance of .05.
The relationship of these factors was not signifi
107
cant for the graduates.
These data suggest that while the factor "Desire to
i
i
be own boss" was the one most often evaluated as "Very Im-
jportant" by every group, only the student groups, and par
ticularly the freshmen, showed evidence of relating this to
the desire to be in a profession. In the case of the grad
uates, it is suggested that the two motivations were consid
ered independently and no relationship established.
The data favor the acceptance of Hypothesis 3 for
the Freshman and Senior Groups, and its rejection when ap
plied to the Graduate category.
Respondents were next asked to give their personal
preferences for specific areas of dental practice within the
general field of dentistry. These results are shown in
Table 22.
"Private practice in general dentistry" was the
first preference of the greatest number of subjects in every
group, ranging from over 50 per cent of the freshmen to 73
per cent of the graduates. No freshman ranked it lower than
fourth place, and no senior or graduate gave it a position
lower than third on his list of preferences.
The only significant difference in the evaluations
!of these possible areas of practice occurred with relation
Araa of twtmoM
falnra
1 2 3 4 5 4 1 3 3 4 5 4 1 2 3 4 5 4
Private pnctioa la f m n l 35 24 2 3 0 0 40 14 2 0 0 0 43 15 0 0 0 0
Iwtlitiy 53.0 40.0 3.1 3.1 0 0 71.4 25.0 3.4 0 0 0 72.0 17.4 0.4 0 0 0
Private fractioi vita a 20* 34* • 1 1 0 17 30 4 4 0 0 10* 40* 0 3 2 0
apaeialty 45.3 37.5 14.1 1.4 1.4 0 30.0 53.4 10.5 7.0 0 0 23.5 40.5 0.0 3.7 2.5 0
Mltc kHltl 0 3 13 31 13 4 0 0 11 20 13 3 1 1 14 44 14 2
0 4.7 30.3 40.4 30.3 4.3 0 0 10.4 51.0 33.2 5.4 1.2 1.2 30.0 55.0 30.0 2.5
T— cfclng 1 10 34 13 5 1 0 11 33 0 2 1 4 IS 30 17 7 1
1.4 15.4 53.1 30.3 7.0 1.4 0 30.0 40.0 14.5 3.4 1.0 4.0 10.3 44.3 30.7 0.5 1.2
MMTtUlu dvatlSt 0 0 0 4 4 51 0 0 0 2 5 44 0 0 V 1 2 44
■aalth laooraaoa profr— 0 1 4 14 40 3 0 1 3 12 34 4 0 3 10 12 47 4
0 1.4 0.5 33.3 43.5 3.3 0 1.0 5.4 31.4 40.7 10.7 0 3.0 13.2 15.0 01.0 5.3
HiffwMBM la rartHf of t a f H mt pritof of "private praetlaa «it* a folilty feat laval of ilplfUom of .05.
X08
to the second item— "Private practice with, a specialty."
Forty-five per cent of the freshmen listed it as their first}
i
preference, while 37 ranked it as their second choice.
Twenty-three per cent of the graduates indicated a specialty
as their first preference, while 60 per cent ranked this in
second place. The level of significance was established at
.05.
The three groups displayed uniformity in their rat
ing of the four remaining choices, and indicated their pre-
/
ferences in the following order: (3) teaching, (4) public
health, (5) health insurance, and (6) advertising dentist.
Several respondents abstained from assigning ranks
to the last two categories.'
No respondent awarded "Health insurance" first posi
tion.
No freshman or senior gave "advertising dentist" a
place within the first three choices, and only one graduate
gave it the third position. Eighty-six per cent of the
freshmen and 91 per cent of the graduates listed "advertis
ing dentist" as their last choice. Three graduates and
seniors also made such comments as "couldn't do it," "nev
er," and "would not consider." One senior asked, "Was this
a choice?"
Table 23 describes the specific preferences of those'
persons who favored "Private practice with a specialty."
Among those men who so indicated, 54 selected orthodontics,
45 chose oral surgery, and 34 preferred pedodontics.
When these data were examined by group category,
orthodontics was found to be the specialty of choice of over
50 per cent of the freshmen, while a small majority of sen
iors and graduates selected oral surgery in preference to
orthodontics. Pedodontics was the third choice of all three
groups.
The next question sought to obtain information re
garding certain given factors as important influences in the
decision to enter dentistry. Table 24 shows the ratings
assigned these factors by the participants.
There was almost general agreement between the three
groups as to the strength of these influences.
The most complete agreement occurred with regard to
the last item on the list, "Decision largely on my own."
Eighty-seven per cent of the freshmen, 77 per cent of the
seniors, and 81 per cent of the graduates scored this as;
"Very Important." No other factor approached these percent
ages.
Approximately 25 per cent of both the freshmen and
TABLE 23
DENTAL SPECIALTY OF CHOICE
Specialty of Choice
Freshmen
Number Per cent
Seniors
Number Per cent
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - r
Graduates
Number Per cent
Oral Surgery 12 24.5 *14 31.8 19
i
30.6 j
i
Orthodontics 26 53.1 10 • 22.7 18 29.0 '
Pedodontics 10 20.4 12 27.3 12 19.4
Periodontics 1 2.0 1 2.3 1 1.6
Pros thodont ics 0 0 6 13.6 7 11.3
t
Other 0 0 1 2.3 5 8.1
Total 49
---
44
---
62
----
m u 24
xmmmmt w u w c b xo uocioxoo to o r b oamonar
friilaiH taniora Oradaataa
Important Xafloaocaa
V.I. ft.X. L. or
M.X.
V.X. O.X. L. or
O.X.
V.X. O.X. L. or
O.X.
t^a and Col logo
Coaraaa
»
15.0
30*
50.0
21*
35.0
f t
10.3
10*
31.f t
33*
57.9
11
13.1
32
30.1
41
40.0
CnnaaaUng Oaraicaa and
Optitada Paata
11
17.7
17
27.4
34
24.0
0
0
IS
2 f t . 3
42
73.7
f t
7.1
20
23.5
59
09.4
■rporlaaca ia Military
lanrlet
3
3.7
5
3.4
44
04.f t
11
1C.9
f t
9.2
40
73.0
f t
7.37
2
3.1
so
09.2
faroata f t
9.7
31
50.0
25
40.3
7
12.3
IS
2 f t . 3
39
01.4
14
1C.3
31
3ft.5
40
47.1
Wifo 1
4.3
11
47.0
11
47.0
4
12.9
11
35.5
1 f t
51.f t
f t
15.0
14
35.0
19
47.5
rrioada 7
11.7
24
40.0
29
40.3
11
19.3
7
12.3
39
f t f t . 4
19
22.C
17
20.2
40
57.1
Faaily Daatiat 14
23.0
22
3t.l
25
41.0
7
15.0
17
29.0
31
54.4
21
24.4
24
27.9
41
47.7
Daciaioa Largaly on My
Omb
55
07.3
7
11.1
1
1.6
44
77.2
11
19.3
2
3.5
f t f t
01,0
13
15.5
3
3.4
*lml of aigaifieaaea w tibllilod at .09 laval.
\
V.I-— Vary XmportMmt
a.i.— lolativoly iQQortonfr
L. or V.I.— Llttlo or l> laportaaea
\
112
113
!the graduates ranked the family dentist as "Very Important,"
and 30 per cent of the seniors felt his influence had been
"Relatively Important."
Approximately half of the freshmen students ranked
"Parents" and "Wife" as "Relatively Important" influences,
but these persons were felt to have had little or no influ
ence by the majority of the other two groups.
Friends were not considered determining influences
for any group, although they were ranked higher than the
family dentist by the seniors.
Experience in military service and counseling ser
vices and aptitude tests had had little or no importance in
the career decisions.
The only significant difference was found regarding
the influence of high school and college courses. Fifty per
cent of the freshmen felt that these had been relatively im
portant, whereas only approximately 30 per cent of the sen
iors so considered them. Approximately 60 per cent of the
seniors felt these courses had been of little or no impor
tance. The level of significance of the attitudes between
these two groups was established at the .05 level.
Returns in response to the open-end request for the
"Most important influence" were scattered (Table 25). Five
TABLE 25
MOST IMPORTANT INFLUENCE IN DECISION TO ENTER DENTISTRY
Most Important Influence Freshmen Seniors Graduates
High School and College
Courses
Counseling Services and
Aptitude Tests
Experience in Military
Service
Parents
Wife
Fr iends
Family Dentist
(teacher)
(worked in
dental
office)
1
1
0
0
1
1
5
(brothers) 2
1
6
2
(teacher)
1
1
0
1
(other den
tists) 9
(tour of
dental
school) 1
(family
physician) 1
TABLE 25— Continued
Most Important Influence Freshmen Seniors Graduates
Content of Work 3 4 4
Work with Hands 0 3 1 i
i
Service to Others 3 2 5
L
Type of Life
i
3 0
)
4
i Own Boss
i
2 4
6 (
i Stability 1 1
9 i
i
Status 1 1
I
5 j
i
Unhappy in Previous Situation 0
"To be able to repay
by serving others
for kindness
shown me."
"Work with people
who will appre
ciate work."
2
"Own view of
profession."
3 i
1
116
I
freshmen listed the family dentist. Six of the seniors men
tioned friends, while five others indicated that their ex-
[
perience in military service had been most important to
them. There was no accord among the graduates except among
the nine in this category who had been influenced by den
tists other than the family dentist.
Some respondents volunteered additional factors as
having been "Most important influence." These included some
which had been introduced in previous questions, e.g., ser
vice to others, own boss. One factor, hitherto unmentioned,
which was volunteered by nine graduates was “Stability."
One freshman elaborated on his attitude. He stated
that it was most important to him "to be able to repay by
serving others for kindness shown me." Another wished to
"work with people who will appreciate work."
Table 26 presents the respondents' evaluation of the
accuracy of the information which had been given them re
garding dentistry as a career. Most subjects felt that the
books and periodicals, the high school and college courses,
and the counseling and aptitude services were relatively
accurate in the information they provided. The majority
felt their experience in military service had not been an
laccurate indicator of dentistry as a career.
TABLE 26
EVALUATION OF ACCURACY OF INFORMATION GIVEN RESPONDENT
REGARDING DENTISTRY AS A CAREER
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
Sources of Information
Very
Acc.
Rel.
Acc.
Very
Inacc.
Very
Acc.
Rel.
Acc.
Very
Inacc.
Very
Acc.
Rel.
Acc.
Very
Inacc.
Books and Periodicals 7
12.9
40
74.0
7
12.9
2
4.1
35
71.4
12
24.5
5
7.4
48
71.6
14
20.9
High School and College
Courses
1
1.8
42
75.0
13
23.2
-
34
72.3
13
27.6
5
7.7
46
70.7
14
21.5
Counseling and Aptitude
Tests
9
16.9
32
60.3
12
22.6
2
4.0
32
64.0
16
32.0
6
8.4
51
71.8
14
19.7
Experience in Military
Service
4
14.3
9
32.1
15
53.6
9
23.7
12
31.5
17
46.8
3
7.3
12
29.2
26
63.4
Parents * 2
4.08
34
69.4
13
26.5
3
6.38
21
44.6
23
48.9
8
12.5
35
54.7
21
32.8
TABLE 26— Continued
Sources of Information
i
t
Freshmen Seniors
i
Graduates 1
l
Very
Acc.
Rel.
Acc.
Very
Inacc.
Very
Acc.
Rel.
Acc.
Very
Inacc.
Very
Acc.
Rel.
Acc.
\
Veiy I
Inacc. i
1
!
Wife 1 11 11 2 16 20 3 18
I
25
4.3 47.8 47.8 5.2 42.1 52.6 6.5 39.1 54.3 :
Friends 8 22 18 5 21 22 13 23 26
16.6 45.8 37.5 10.4 43.7 45.8 20.9 •37.1 41.9
Family Dentist 35 19 3 11 29 11 31 27 10
61.4 33.3 5.3 21.5 56.9 21.5 45.5 39.7 14.7
119
Freshmen and graduates indicated that the family
dentist had been an accurate source of information for them;:
seniors evaluated his .information as having been "relatively
I accurate."
Satisfactions and Dissatisfactions
The third section of the investigation was concerned
with attitudes relating to satisfaction of expectations, and
attitudes toward any additional satisfactions or dissatis
factions, anticipated or experienced. The questionnaire
sought information in these areas.
When the subjects were asked to evaluate the extent
of their satisfaction with their choice of dentistry as a
career, the overwhelming majority expressed satisfaction
with their career choice (Table 27). Most respondents indi
cated that they considered dentistry to be one of several
possible satisfactory careers, although 18 per cent of the
practicing dentists felt it to be the only satisfactory ca
reer for them. Only two students, one in each class, felt
dissatisfaction. No graduate expressed this opinion.
There were significant differences in the response
patterns to the next question— "If you had the choice to
make again, would you select the career of dentistry?" The
TABLE 27
RESPONDENTS' EVALUATIONS OF EXTENT OF CAREER SATISFACTION
4
Extent of Satisfaction
Freshmen
Number Per cent
Seniors
Number Per cent
" 1 i
j
Graduates j
Number Per cent
The only satisfactory
career 6 9.4 4 7.0 16
t
18.4 i
One of several satis
factory careers 57 89.1 52 91.2 69 79.3
Not a satisfactory
career 1 1.6 1 1.8 0 0
Total 64
---
57
---
85
---
121
attitudes of the seniors differed markedly from those of the!
other subjects.
As shown in Table 28, the Senior Group expressed the
greatest doubt as to whether or not they would select den
tistry if they could make the choice again. Although the
majority had previously stated it had been a satisfactory
choice, only 16 per cent indicated they would definitely
make the same decision. Forty-three per cent felt they
probably would, 23 per cent were uncertain, while 16 per
cent stated that they would probably not do so. These re
sponses differed significantly from those of the freshmen
and graduates, and fell beyond what would be expected to
occur by chance. In each case, the level of significance
was established at .005.
When the participants were asked to specify what
their career choice would be if it would not be dentistry,
medicine proved to be the occupation of choice. It was
ranked in first place by seniors and graduates, and second,
after education, by the freshmen. Business occupied the
third position. The wide range of occupations which were
mentioned is shown in Table 29. Varied comments that were
offered as explanations for the shifts in attitudes can be
ifound in Table 30.
TABLE 28
ATTITUDES OF RESPONDENTS TOWARD RESELECTION
OF DENTISTRY AS A CAREER CHOICE*
Attitude Toward
Reselection of
Dentistry
Freshmen
Number Per cent
Seniors
Number Per cent
-----------------------r
!
Graduates |
Number Per cent
Definitely Yes 31 47.7 9 16.1
. 38
i
43.7 i
1
Probably Yes 23 35.4 24
•
42.9 40 46.0 !
Uncertain 7 10.8 13 23.2 2
1
2.3
Probably No 3 4.6 9 16.1 6 6.9
Definitely No 1 1.5 1 1.8 1
Total 65
--
56
---
87
--
*The level of significance between responses of Seniors and Freshmen and between
Seniors and Graduates was established at the .005 level.
TABLE 29
RESPONDENTS' PRESENT CAREER CHOICE> IF NOT DENTISTRY
Present Career
Choice
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
;
Medicine 6 12
!
i
li
i
Education 8 5 2 I
Business 2 3 2
Law 2 2
3
Engineering 1 2 2 !
Veterinary 1 1 2
Forestry 1 0 1
Other: Architecture— 1
Music— 1
Pharmacy— 1
Political Science— 1
Psychology— 1
Electronics— 1
Physics— 1
Agriculture— 1
Army— 1
Carpenter— 1
Chemist— 3
Commerce and
Foreign Trade— 1
Religious— 2
Space Research— 2
Social Work— 1
TABLE 30
COMMENTS OF RESPONDENTS RELATING TO FAVORED CAREER
CHOICE, IF NOT DENTISTRY*
Favored Career
Choice
Freshmen Seniors Graduates i
i
!
i
Medicine Satisfaction— 3 Better school rela
i
Treatment of whole
Service— 2 tionship— 3 body— 4
Enjoyment of work— 2 Status— 3 Interest— 3 j
More diversified More satisfaction— 2 More public esteem— 2 i
activity— 1 Less expensive— 2 "Different"— 1
Personal rewards— 1 Type of work— 1
"More economic gain
for less hard
work"— 1
More specialties— 1
More rewarding— 1
"Maintain your
training"— 1
"No more effort to
graduate"— 1
S
Service— 1
Better monetary return
sooner— 1
"Limitations of den
tistry— also feel
ing of 'inferiority'
to medical profes
sion whi'ch we admit
only when not sign
ing name, as now. "— 1
M
* > >
TABLE 30— Continued
Favored Career
Choice
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
i
Education
1
1
Enjoy young people— 5
Amount of work— 3
Service— 2
Environment— 1
Association with
basic science— 1
"Tired of student
end of school."— 1
Very satisfying— 1
Poor work— 1
"No money matters" — lj
i
. {
i
* 1
Business
i
"Prefer not to be
limited to what I
individually can
produce."— 1
♦Given for Medicine, Education, and Business.
■ “ 126
The subjects were presented with a list of six fac
tors which they were asked to rank in the order they con-
I
: i
sidered them to be of importance to a young man in his ef
forts to "get ahead." Examination of the data reveals
there were significant differences in the attitudes ex
pressed (Table 31).
The majority in each of the groups agreed that a
"Pleasing personality with patients" was the most important
quality, although there were significant differences in the
unanimity of expression. Approximately 55 per cent of the
freshmen, 78 per cent of the seniors, and 76 per cent of
the graduates ranked this quality in first place.
"Manual dexterity" was accorded second place by 38
per cent of the freshmen. Only 16 per cent of seniors did
so, while 25 per cent ranked it fifth. The difference be
tween these rankings was statistically significant at the
.005 level.
"Hard work" was ranked fourth by the freshmen, third
by the seniors, and second by the graduates. Although the
difference between the groups was not statistically impor
tant, this provided an interesting comparison of value
judgments.
More members of each group listed "Being a 'good
MU 31
' nmam or aoBkLxnis ntomir to a toom dootxst xr n o mfom i to "or m o w
rr— . Im Ib h Orwd— f
#1
2 3 4 5 0
01
2 3 4 5 0 #1 2 3 4 5 0
tlauiat m»o» 34 11 12 4 2 0 44 0 3 3 0 0 00 13 3 4 0 0
allty 55.4 10.9 10.5 0.2 3.1 0 70.0 10.7 5.4 5.4 0 0 70.7 .15.1 3.5 4.7 0 0
Good Mimr 0 1 0 4 11 43 0 7 4 11 10 23 1 12 10 11 24 20
0 1.5 9.2 0.2 10.9 00.2 0 12.7 7.3 20.0 10.2 41.0 1.2 14.0 u.o 12.0 27.9 32.0
Cn— iiHty fwrti- 1 0 7 0 29 14 0 10 11 7 10 12 1 - U 10 10 23 25
cipwtiaw 1.5 9.2 10.0 12.3 44.0 21.5 0 20.0 19.0 12.5 17.9 21.4 1.2 12.0 u.o 10.0 25.7 29.1
Miwl Dntirity 7 25 IS 12 0 0 5 9 10 10 14 0 0 21 20 12 12 9
10. • 30.5 23.1 10.5 9.2 0 0.9 10.1 17.9 17.9 25.0 14.3 7.0 24.4 30.2 14.0 14.0 10.5
Bftrd Work 11 13 13 19 7 2 0 13 14 11 9 3 14 22 14 13 10 7
10.9 20.0 20.0 29.2 10.0 3.1 10.7 23.2 25.0 19.0 10.1 5.4 10.3 25.0 10.3 15.1 10.0 0.1
Op-to-dlU Mow 12 7 13 10 9 0 1 5 14 14 13 9 4 13 10 27 7 17
lodgo 1 b rlold 10.5 10.0 20.0 27.7 13.0 9.2 1.0 0.9 25.0 25.0 23.2 10.1 4.7 15.1 20.9 31.4 0.1 19.0
127
mixer'" in sixth place than in any other position, but there|
i !
were differences in the group strength of this opinion.
Whereas two-thirds of the freshmen expressed this attitude,
i
I only 41 per cent of the seniors and 32 per cent of the gradn
I i
iuates did so. The level of significance of the difference
between freshmen and seniors was established at the .05 lev
el, while between the freshmen and graduates, the level was
found to be beyond .005.
"Up-to-date knowledge of scientific theory and fact
in the field" was assigned middle values by all the respon
dents .
Differences were also found concerning the factor
"Active participation as a citizen in community projects."
This was considered fifth in importance by the freshmen,
second by the seniors, and slightly more graduates rated it
sixth than in any other position. The levels of signifi
cance between the freshmen and seniors was .025 and between
seniors and graduates, .05.
,Hvpothesis 4
Hypothesis 4 states: The younger the entrant into
the field of dentistry, the
higher his ranking of person-
ality as a success factor.
j
As the percentages listed above indicate, this
statement was not upheld. The percentage of the freshmen
j/ho ranked this quality in first place was lower than that
I
Of either of the other two groups. The difference between
{their attitude and that of the seniors and graduates was
Statistically significant, with chi-squares of 6.469 and
6.71 respectively, and with a level of significance in both
cases of .05 (for these results and the data of the Kolmogo-
rov-Smirnov tests, see Tables 32 and 33).
The conclusion is reached that a "Pleasing personal
ity with patients" is considered more important by the older
groups', and only slightly less so by the practicing dentists
than by the graduating students.
Hypothesis 4 must be rejected.
The respondents were asked to give their estimations
of expected income for a dentist after one year and after
ten years of private practice. Table 34 shows that the
jnajority of each group estimated the income after one year
|at about $10,000. The graduates had the largest per cent
1(14.8) who felt the income should reach the $15,000 level.
fThere was a definite trend among the graduates to estimate
i
(higher incomes after ten years than was the case with the
130
TABLE 32
I
j
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS I, 11, AND 111 AS TO THE RANKINcj
OF QUALITIES IMPORTANT TO A YOUNG DENTIST IN
HIS EFFORTS TO "GET AHEAD"
CHI-SQUARE VALUES
Differences in Rankina
Chi--Square Values
of Qualities
I and II I and III II and III
Pleasing Personality
with Patients 6.469a 6.755a .089
Manual Dexterity 10.869° 4.710 4.779
Hard Work .691 2.463 .853
Being a "Good Mixer" 7.057a 16.713d 1.150
Up-to-date Knowledge
of Scientific Theory
and Facts in the
Field 4.125 2.824 1.756
Active Participation
as a Citizen in Com
munity Projects 8.686b 1.583 6.949a
aP
< .05
bP
< .025
°P
< .005
cU
P
< .0005
131
TABLE 33
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS I, II, AND III AS TO THE
RANKING OF QUALITIES IMPORTANT TO A YOUNG DENTIST
IN HIS EFFORTS TO "GET AHEAD"
KOLMOGOROV- SMIRNOV TEST
Differences in Ranking
of Qualities
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Statistic
I and II I and III II and III
Pleasing Personality
with Patients -23.19a -21.36a -2.57
Manual Dexterity 30.05c 17.84 -18.77
Hard Work 7.58 12.90 -7.93
Being a "Good Mixer" -24.34a -3 3.6 0d -9. 26
Up-to-date Knowledge
of Scientific Theory
and Facts in the
Field 18.52 13.81 -11.38
Active Participation as
a Citizen in Commun
ity Projects -26.87b -10.34 22.63a
ap < .05
bp < .025
cp < .005
dp < .0005
TABLE 34
RESPONDENTS' ESTIMATIONS OF EXPECTED INCOME FOR A DENTIST AFTER
ONE YEAR AND AFTER TEN YEARS OF PRIVATE PRACTICE
I
Expected Level
i of Income
I
i
1
After One Year
■
After Ten Years
Freshmen Seniors Graduates Freshmen Seniors Graduates
i
| About §5,000 23 22 29
I
35.94 36.6 35.8
i
| About §10,000 39 34 39 1 2
i 60.94 56.6 48.1 1.5 3.8
i §15,000 2 3 12 25 22 18
i
3.12 5.0 14.8 39.1 42.3 22.2
§20,000 1 1 18 14 27
1.6 1.2 28.1 26.9 33.3
§25,000 15 12 19
23.4 23.1 23.5
More than 5 2 17
§25,000 7.8 3.8 20.9
Total 64 60
t
81 64 52 81 w
to
133
i
other two groups.
Table 35 presents the respondents' rankings of the
|
activities which were most important in giving them satis
faction in life. It is shown that in all cases "Family re
lationships" received the most votes for being "Very impor
tant." The seniors and graduates ranked "Career" second
and "Leisure time activities" third, while the freshmen
chose the same items in reverse position. The differences
between the groups were significant in only one instance.
The graduates rated "Participation in community projects"
significantly higher than did the seniors, with the estab
lishment of a level of statistical significance at .025.
The subjects were asked to indicate their evalua
tions of the requirements for the "ideal career." There
were no significant differences in the ratings of the three
groups. "Provide opportunity to use special abilities" was
most frequently ranked "Very Important." "Opportunity to
be of service to others" was accorded second place in this
question by the freshmen and graduates, and third in impor
tance by the seniors, while "Security" was ranked in reverse
order (Table 36). Replies were fragmented in answer to the
request to name the one most important requirement for an
("ideal career." The freshmen mentioned "service to others"
TABLE 35
RESPONDENTS' RATINGS OF ACTIVITIES MOST IMPORTANT IN GIVING
SATISFACTION IN LIFE
Satisfying Activities
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
V.I. R. I. Ij. or
N.I.
V.I. R.I. L. or
N.I.
V.I. R.I. L. or
N.I.
Career 28
56.0
17
34.0
5
10.0
31
58.5
18
34.0
4
7.5
62
77.5
16
20.0
2
2.5
Fraternal Organizations
Outside Dentistry
7
10.9
24
37.5
33
51.6
4
7.1
16
28.6
36
64.3
10
11.8
25
29.4
50
58.8
Family Relationships 44
68.8
19
29.7
1
1.6
43
75.4
11
19.3
3
5.3
73
84.9
10
11.6
3
3.5
Leisure Time Activities 30
46.9
27
42.2
7
10.9
23
41.8
30
54.5
2
3.6
36
42.2
44
51.8
5
5.9
Religious Beliefs and
Activities
15
23.8
26
41.3
22
34.9
14
24.6
20
35.1
23
40.4
26
30.2
29
33.7
31
36.0
TABLE 35— Continued
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
Satisfying Activities
f
V.I. R.I. L. or
N.I.
V.I. R.I. L. or
N.I.
V.I. R.I. L. or
N.I.
Participation in Community
Projects^
2 29
3.2 46.8
31
50.1
3
5.4
16
28.6
37
66.1
9 42
10.5 48.8
35
40.7
Participation in National
and International Programs
2 24
3.2 38.1
37
58.7
1
1.8
13
22.8
43
75.4
3 36
3.5 41.9
47
54.7
♦There was a level of significance of .025 between the rankings of the seniors
and the graduates of the activity.
V.I.— Very Important
R.I.— Relatively Important
L. or N.I.— Little or No Importance
TABLE 36
RESPONDENTS' RATINGS OF REQUIREMENTS FOR THE "IDEAL CAREER"
Requirements for Ideal Career
Freshmen Seniors Graduates
v .; e. R.I. L. or
N.I.
V.I. R.I. L. or
N.I.
V.I. R.I. L. or
N.I.
Free of Supervision of Others 25 30 9 25 27 4 41 38 8
39.1 46.9 14.1 44.6 48.2 7.1 47.1 43.7 9.2
Provide Opportunity to Use 51 14 0 39 17 1 70 16
i ;
Special Abilities 78.5 21.5 0 68.4 29.8 1.8 80.5 18.4 l.i
Award Social Status and 15 37 12 15 37 5 18 53
16
Prestige 23.4 57.8 18.8 26.3 64.9 8.8 20.7 60.9 18.4;
1
Look Forward to a Secure 40 22 3 36 20 1 53 33
1
1
Future 61.5 33.8 4.6 63.2 35.1 1.8 60.9 37.9
Opportunity for Service to 44 21 0 27 26 4 55 29 3
Others 67.7 32.3 0 47.4 45.6 7.0 63.2 33.3 3.4
w;
ov
;........ ' " : '■ ' 137
i
Imost frequently, as did the seniors, while this was second
i
to "Use of special abilities" in the evaluations of the
graduates (Table 37) .
The next question was one of the most important of
{the study. The respondents were asked to give ratings on
icertain factors as possible sources of dissatisfaction in
Itheir dental careers (Table 38). They were asked to indi
cate the extent of their anticipated or experienced dissat-
| ;
is fact ions as "Much dissatisfaction, 1 1 "Relative dissatisfac
tion, " or "Little or no dissatisfaction." There were no
significant differences between any of the groups with re
spect to any of the factors listed. The vast majority indi
cated they felt "Little or no dissatisfaction" for any of
these items. The two items "Negative evaluation by physi
cians" and "Negative evaluation by public" were considered
the greatest sources of dissatisfaction, but only less than
half of the freshmen and seniors. Forty per cent of the
graduates listed "Physical demands of work" as their great
est source of trouble, while only one student anticipated
this problem, and this was a senior.
This question was asked to obtain information to
i
test Hypothesis 5, which states:
The longer the individual continues in
TABLE 37
REQUIREMENT CONSIDERED MOST IMPORTANT
FOR IDEAL CAREER
Most Important Requirement Freshmen Seniors Graduates
Use of Special Abilities 7 9 18
A Good Deal of Money 1 1
Creativity and Originality 6 10 3
Social Status and Prestige 1
Secure Future 11 9 14
Free of Supervision 1 6 8
Leisure Time 2 1 1
Service to Others 13 11 16
Personal Growth and Devel
opment 10 5 14
Career Development 1
Personal Independence 3
Challenge 1
Total 53 55 75
TMLI M
• R M nat or n i t or H M n M e n n i w h k m m b o r n m i t o D n m bbil o u b
a
til ora
UlMtUtetlOM
Madb
Diaaat.
Balatiwa
Diaaat.
u m a or
■» Diaaat.
ttb
Diaaat.
Dalatlwa
Diaaat.
Littla or
Do Diaaat. Diaaat.
dalattoB
Diaaat.
Littla or
Do Diaaat.
Daaira (or Or— tar laco— 3 • 4* 1 9 44 4 21 99
S.O 13.3 41.7 l.f 14.7 01.9 4.0 29.0 70.2
Liaitad Ufortadty for 1 14 49 1 0 47 2 13 49
Caraar M u m ..... 1.7 23.3 79.0 1.9 14.3 03.9 2.4 19.9 02.1
Bagatiwa Baalaatioa by 2 • 90 1 13 42 9 4 73
rallaw Baatiata 3.3 13.3 43.3 1.0 23.2 79.0 fa" 7.1 04.9
Oafotiva Baalaatioa by 2 23 39 10 14 31 4 29 99
fbyalnl— 3.3 Id. 3 90.3 17.9 20.1 94.4 4.0 29.0 *9.9
Bayatiaa Baalaatioa by 4 19 42 0 14 33 23 93
Oablic t.i 34.4 40.0 14.0 20.1 97.9 9.9 27.4 43.1
Ibyaical Daaaii of Mock 0 17 44 1 14 37 7 24 91
0 27.* 72.1 1.0 32.1 44.1 0.3 31.0 40.7
laaafficiaat Statao arid 1 7 93 9 4 49 2 10 72
Praatiya 1.4 11.9 •4.* 0.* 10.7 00.4 2.4 11.9 •9.7
Batara of work Xtaolf 0 • 93 0 9 91 0 9 79
0 13.1 04.4 0 0.9 91.1 0 4.0 *4.0
Oyyortaaity for 2 • 91 0 2 94 1 10 72
raraoaal ,nr' ,lirr“T“r
3.3 13.1 03.4 0 3.4 94.4 1.2 12.0 •4.7
6Ct
140
i
!
! the field of dentistry, the greater the
extent of his dissatisfaction.
i
I
After examination of the data, the conclusion is
reached that among all three groups, there is little evi-
i
dence of serious dissatisfaction with the dental career.
I
In only one instance was as high a figure as 17.5 per cent
:of a group experiencing "Much dissatisfaction." This was
,in the case of the seniors and the negative evaluation
which they felt was accorded to dentistry by physicians.
Statistically, there was no difference in the ans
wers of the three groups which could not have occurred by
I chance. Therefore, Hypothesis 5 must be rejected.
In the final question, a list of nine professional
careers was presented. The respondents were instructed (1)
to place these careers in rank order, highest to lowest,
according to the amount of prestige they personally felt
that each commanded, and (2) to rank the same professions
in the order they perceived them to be ranked by the gener-
!al public. These careers were: architect, business execu-
1
itive, dentist, engineer, high school teacher, lawyer, minis
i
|ter, physician, and social worker.
The investigator was interested (1) in the re
spondents' own evaluations of dentistry in comparison with
i
[
other given careers, and (2) how the respondents perceived
dentistry to be ranked by the general public.
In the analysis of the data, the rank difference
! correlation method was applied. The sums of the rankings
lof each respondent were determined by group. The rank dif
ference correlation coefficient Tau was obtained for each
respondent, thus obtaining the average rank correlation be
tween the two rankings of the individuals within each group.
The mean Tau correlation ratio was computed for each group
(Table 39).
Table 40 presents the rank order of the selected
professions, by group, giving the respondents' personal
i
rank order and the rank order they perceived to be that of
the general public.
It can be seen that there was almost complete agmo-
ment in the rankings of the three groups of respondents.
The physician was accorded first place in every category.
:This was true for the minister in fourth position, and for
the high school teacher and social worker in positions eight}
land nine, respectively.
j
| All groups personally ranked the dentist second and
ithe lawyer third, although the students differed from the
i
graduates by reversing this order in their evaluation of
142
M
«
I
i i
pi
ill
S s X s I 2 S S S
SI5S52332
I
1
!
j i !
ill
» * • • • • •
I
i
!
?V “
**
*1
I
*8
ill
• • t
s*S8 *ss5s
I
1
1
3
£
?
2
TABLE 40
RESPONDENTS' RANK ORDERS OF SELECTED PROFESSIONS, GIVING RESPONDENTS' PERSONAL RANK
ORDER AND THE RANK ORDER THEY PERCEIVED TO BE THAT OF THE GENERAL PUBLIC
Selected
Professions
Group I Group II Group III
Personal
Rank Order
Publics'
Rank Order
Personal
Rank Order
Publics'
Rank Order
Personal
Rank Order
Publics'
Rank Order
Lawyer 3 2 3 2 3 3
Architect 6 7 6 7 7 7
Business
Executive 7 5 7 6 6 5
Physician 1 1 1 1 1 1
Engineer 5 6 5 5 5 6
Social Worker 9 9 9 9 9 9
Dentist 2 3 2 3 2 2
Minister 4 4 4 4 4 4
High School
Teacher 8 8 8 8 8 8
......... 144
the rating by the general public. There were some varia
tions in positions five, six, and seven, although in all
cases, the occupations in question were engineering, archi
tecture, and business. The graduate group assigned a high-
jer prestige rating to the last-mentioned profession than
i
was given by the student groups.
This study would suggest that the prestige rating
iof dentistry is high and remains stable with experience in
the field. What variation there is appears to be in the
perception of the general public's attitude toward this
profession. All groups ranked only the physician higher
than the dentist in the status structure. These results
i
reinforce the attitude of general satisfaction toward their
professional choice that was demonstrated by the respon
dents in the previous question.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary of the Investigation
The purpose of this study was to obtain information
concerning certain social factors as they may relate to the
profession of dentistry as an occupational choice. An at
tempt was made to ascertain which of the factors play deter
mining roles in the selection of dentistry as a career, and
to examine possible changes in attitudes and values which
occur in the individual from the time he has begun profes
sional training through his first five years as a graduate
licensed dentist. In addition to the examination and anal
ysis of the obtained data, the following hypotheses were
formulated and tested:
1. Among persons who select dentistry as a career,
the stronger the desire to be in a profession,
the stronger the desire to be of service to
others.
2. Among persons who select dentistry as a career,
the stronger the desire for security, the
_______ 145.. .........
146
I !
i |
1 stronger the desire to be in a profession.
! !
I '
j 3. Among persons who select dentistry as a career, ’
the stronger the desire to be one's own boss,
the stronger the desire to be in a profession.
4. The mere recent the individual in the field of
dentistry, the higher his ranking of personality
as a success factor.
5. The longer the individual continues in the field
of dentistry, the greater the extent of his dis
satisfaction.
6. The longer the individual has been in the field
of dentistry, the greater the disparity between
his evaluation of the status of dentistry and
his perception of its evaluation by the general
public.
The universe was composed of three selected groups
of young men who represented distinct levels of training
land experience in the dental field. The youngest group in
i
i
iage and professional experience was the entering Freshman
jClass of 196 5 at the University of Oregon Dental College.
1
iAn intermediate group was composed of the graduating seniors
i
|from the same institution, who were at that time preparing
i
(for licensure to practice in their chosen profession. The
147
third group was made up of dental graduates who had had five
or six years experience in the profession at the time they
!
participated in the investigation.
! Participation in the study was voluntary, and the
I i
i
data were obtained by questionnaire. The statistical anal-
iysis was carried out by an IBM-709 electronic data proces-
»
sing system, and by hand tabulation.
Summary of Major Findings
Background information
Examination of the data revealed that the members
of the Freshman, Senior, and Graduate Groups possessed cer
tain similarities in background. Almost all of the respon
dents were under forty years of age, had entered dental
school before their mid-twenties, and were native-born citi
zens. Most had completed at least three years of college
prior to entrance to dental college, and had at that time
exceeded the educational level of their parents. The major
ity of freshmen were unmarried, while almost all of the par
ticipants in the other two groups were married men.
I
I
I Career choice
The subjects presented the following information
148 ,
concerning career choice:
i
i
I Approximately forty per cent of the respondents
!from each group indicated that they had made their career
lchoice while in college. There was a significant differ
ence in the time of decision of the remaining freshmen and
seniors. The majority of the former indicated that their
career decisions had been made before leaving high school,
whereas the majority of seniors had decided after leaving
college or while in military service.
Private practice in general dentistry was the first
preference of the majority of respondents in each group.
A significant number of freshmen indicated their preference
for a specialty practice. There was almost complete unani
mity in the rejection of advertising dentistry as a profes
sional choice.
r
Medicine was the career most frequently mentioned
by all groups as the career they had considered prior to
the decision to enter dentistry. Teaching was the second
ichoice of freshmen and graduates, and the third choice,
following engineering, of the senior group.
i
Some differences occurred in the rankings of five
!
!possible motivations in the selection of dentistry as a
jcareer. All groups indicated that the "Desire to be one's
own boss" was the most decisive factor. However, there were1
i
! j
jsignificant differences in the responses of the seniors and
| i
jthe other two groups to "Opportunity to be of service to
iothers." The seniors ranked this motivation in last place,
i
j
though it was accorded increasing importance by the gradu
ates and freshmen, in that order.
The freshmen differed significantly from the other
groups by ranking "Desire to work with hands" as the least
important of the given factors.
Responses to the motivations "Desire to be in a pro
fession" and "Security" were not statistically important.
Hypothesis 1 stated: Among persons who select den
tistry as a career, the
stronger the desire to be in
a profession, the stronger
the desire to be of service
to others.
Analysis of the data led to the rejection of this
hypothesis by the Freshman Group, and to its affirmation by
the seniors and graduates. The freshmen indicated that
they had established no relationship between these motiva
tions, while the older groups indicated a strong, statisti
cally significant association between these*two stated
150
factors.
Hypothesis 2 stated: Among persons who select den
tistry as a career, the
stronger the desire for secure
ity, the stronger the desire
to be in a profession.
This hypothesis was upheld by both student groups,
with the freshmen demonstrating the stronger association.
It was rejected by the graduates, whose response patterns
were inconclusive.
Hypothesis 3 stated: Among persons who select den
tistry as a career, the
stronger the desire to be
one's own boss, the stronger
the desire to be in a profes-
s ion.
This hypothesis was likewise supported by both stu
dent groups, with the freshmen evidencing the stronger as
sociation. No relationship between factors was shown for
the graduates, who appeared to have considered the motiva
tions independently.
There was almost general agreement among the re
spondents that they had made the career decisions largely
"on their own," although half of the freshmen felt that high
i
I
school and college courses had heen relatively important [
i
I
;influences.
|
Satisfactions and dissatis-
fagttepg
i
4
The overwhelifting majority. of subjects expressed
V
satisfaction with their career choice, with most respondents
considering dentistry to be one of several possible satis-
factory careers. However, although the majority of seniors
stated that dentistry was a satisfactory choice, this group
differed significantly from the others in the number who
expressed doubt regarding the reselection of this career if
it were possible to make the choice again. Among those who
indicated they would not reselect dentistry, medfcine was
the occupation of choice.
A pleasing personality was felt to be the most im
portant quality for a young man in his efforts to "get
ahead."
Hypothesis 4 stated: The younger the entrant into
the field of dentistry, the
higher his ranking of person
ality as a success factor.
! Analysis of the data by group led to the rejection
152
I
jof this statement. The percentage of freshmen who ranked
this quality in first place was significantly lower than
that obtained from the other two groups.
A significantly greater number of freshmen than
seniors placed a high value on manual desterity, while
i "Active participation in community projects" was accorded
■ more importance as a success factor by the seniors than by
the other subjects.
"Being a good mixer" was given the least considera
tion on any factor by all groups.
The majority of subjects felt that a dentist's in
come after one year of practice should approximate the
$10,000 level. Graduates anticipated higher incomes after
ten years of practice than did the other subjects.
Respondents, regardless of category, found that
family relationships were the most satisfying area in their
lives. Career and leisure time activities also rated high
ly. A significantly greater number of graduates compared
with seniors found satisfaction in participation in commun-
i
ity projects.
There were no significant differences in the evalu-
j
; ations of the requirements for the "ideal career." The
| opportunity to use special abilities was most frequently
ranked as being "Very important."
i
The vast majority of respondents indicated that j
they had experienced or anticipated little dissatisfaction
j
in their careers.
Hypothesis 5 stated: The longer the individual con-*-
tinues in the field of den
tistry, the greater the ex
tent of his dissatisfaction.
The data led to the rejection of this hypothesis,
since there was little evidence of serious dissatisfaction
among any group.
Conclusions
The following conclusions were drawn on the basis
of this investigation;
1. The desire to be one's own boss was the most
important single motivation in the selection of
dentistry as a career.
Only the student groups, and particularly the
freshmen, manifested evidence of relating this
factor to the desire to be in a profession.
The two motivations appeared to have been con
sidered independently by the graduates.
154
The freshmen indicated that the opportunity for
service had been a strong motivating force.
However, they did not appear to have established,
|
an association between the ideal of dental ser-;
vice and the concept of a profession. The sen- :
iors and graduates gave evidence of feeling a
strong association between these factors.
The data indicated that the more recent the
dental applicant, the greater his association
between the desire for security and the desire
to be in a profession.
Private practice in general dentistry was the
area of choice of the majority of respondents.
Advertising dentistry suffered almost unanimous
repudiation.
The majority of respondents felt they had made
their career decision on their own.
Most subjects indicated that dentistry had
proved to be a satisfactory choice. Medicine
was the selection of those who would have pre-
C s
ferred another occupation.
The majority of respondents rated a pleasing
personality with patients the most important
155
| quality to a young dentist in his efforts to
j
| attain success. This factor was accorded more
i
importance by the older group than by the
| freshmen.
8. Family relationships were considered to be more
important than a dental career as the greatest
source of satisfaction in life.
9. All groups expressed little anticipated or ex
perienced dissatisfaction with dentistry as a
career.
10. The majority of respondents accorded the dentistt
a prestige ranking second only to that of the
physician. High school teachers and social
workers were accorded the least prestige.
11. The majority of respondents perceived the pres
tige rank accorded the dentist by the general
public to be second only to that of the physi
cian.
Suggestions for the Future
The following suggestions for future research are
| proposed:
1. There should be an increased effort to attract
high quality students into the dental field.
, i
The shortage of qualified dental applicants has
been pointed out by many investigators. Efforts
should be exerted to find ways to improve com
munication between the dental profession and
those persons influential in vocational guid
ance.
The respondents in this study did not indicate
that such guidance nad played a determining role
in their decisions.
2. It is suggested that increased emphasis be given
to the humanities and the behavioral sciences ini
the dental curriculum.
The emphasis on specialization to the disadvan
tage of liberal education has been a matter of
concern to many educators. Johnson has cau
tioned against the emphasis on technology and
feels that "time has revealed its limitations."^
Durocher has summed up the problem as follows:
The purpose of dental social sciences and
electives is to imbue the student with a social
1A. Leroy Johnson, Dentistry as I See It Today
(Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1955), pp. 4-5.
consciousness, that is, an awareness of the re
lations he must, in moral obligation, establish
toward his patient, his professional colleague,
the dental profession, and the community he
serves. We feel that this objective can be ob
tained through the proper orientation in empha
sis and time of the traditional subjects . . .,
and through university cultural disciplines
Which we hope will preserve or develop the
template from which will evolve the desire for
social sensitivity.^
! *Roy T. Durocher, "Dental Social Science and Elec-
itives," Journal of Dental Education. XXVI (December, 1962),
| 414.
j
A P PE N DI X
; APPENDIX |
SPECIALTIES IN DENTISTRY
The seven specialties currently recognized by the
j
{American Dental Association are as follows:
1. Oral Pathology: The diagnosis and study of dis
eases of the mouth, both local and systemic (to
body as a whole).
2. Oral Surgery: The treatment of conditions of
the mouth and jaws which can be corrected by
surgical operations.
3. Orthodontics: The prevention or straightening
i
of crooked or malformed teeth and malformation
of the jaws.
4. Pedodontics: The treatment of children's teeth,
from two years of age until they have acquired
their adult teeth.
5. Periodontics; The prevention and treatment of
disease of the gums and supporting tissues of
the teeth.
6. Prosthodontics: The restoration of missing
teeth by artificial means, such as crowns, ;
bridges, and dentures.
7. Public Health Dentistry; The field of dentistry
under city, state, or federal government admin
istration for the purpose of maintaining public
health by preventing and controlling dental dis-t
ease and promoting general health.1
Wilfred E. Belleau, Dentistry as a Career (Milwau
kee: Park Publishing House, 1961), p. 17.
University of Southern California
University Park
Los Angeles 7, California
i
!
Dear Doctor,
I
In the Department of Sociology we have been con
ducting a series of studies on selected professions. Den-
' tistry has been selected as one of these professions, with
particular emphasis on the social factors influencing ca
reer choice, individual expectation, and resulting satis
factions and dissatisfactions,
j As Director of this project at the University of
Southern California, it is my hope that we may have your
cooperation and help in this group effort. The question
naire will take only a few moments of your time and your
reactions will greatly help us to understand dentistry as
one of the major professions. Dr. Niland who is in charge
S
of this study is a dentist.
Thank you for your cooperation.
Sincerely,
Professor of Sociology
161
!Dear Doctor,
]
As a participating member of this Project in Oregon
and a graduate dentist, may X enlist your cooperation in
i
completing this questionnaire? All information received
i
will be kept strictly confidential, and we are not inter-
;ested in identifying individual participants.
This questionnaire has already been answered by two
undergraduate classes at the University of Oregon Dental
School. Members of two graduate classes, 1956 and 1957,
are now being contacted, as we hope to compare the reaction
of the students for four or five years.
Thank you for your consideration, and I hope to
hear from you at your earliest possible convenience.
Sincerely,
Billyanna Niland, D.D.S.
j SOCIAL FACTORS RELATING TO DENTISTRY AS
!
AH OCCUPATION
QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Personal History
Date of birth______________ State of birth________
Date of marriage___________ Number of children___
2. Educational History
Years of college completed before entering dental col
lege:
Undergraduate: 1 2 3 4 Graduate: 1 2 3 4
Degrees received: Date: Major: Name of Insti
tution:
B.A. or B.S.
M. A. or M.S.
Ph.D.
Specialty Boards
Educational level of:
Prof. 4-yr. 1-3 High 1-3 8 Yrs.
or Coll. Yrs. Sch. Yrs. or Less
Adv. Degr. Col. Grad. High Elem.
Degr. Sch. School
!Paternal
I Grandfather
I 163
164
Father
Mother
Brother(s)
Sister(s)
Spouse
Spouse1s Father
Decision to Enter Dental Profession
3. When did you definitely decide to become a dentist?
Was this—
Before going to high school
During the first two years of high school
During the last two years of high school
___________While in college
___________After leaving college
___________In military service
4. Were you married at the time of this decision? ________
5. What careers did you seriously consider entering be
sides dentistry?
Career When Most Important
Considered Reasons for Chang
ing
1.
2 .
6. What factors were important to you in selecting dentis
try as a career? (Do not list the same item as being
both "Very Imp." or "Relatively Imp." etc.)
Very Relatively Little or No
Important Important Importance
Desire to work with
people ____________________________
165
Dissatisfaction with previous
career choice
Interest in scientific content
of profession
Desire to be own boss
Desire to work with hands
Desire to be in a profession
Monetary advantages
Because own teeth poor
Accepted in dental school
before other acceptances
received
Security
Opportunity to arrange own
time
Opportunity for service to
others
Opportunity to give family
advantages
How important were the following influences in your de
cision to enter dentistry?
Very Relatively Little or No
Important Important Importance
High School and
College courses
Counseling services
and aptitude tests
Experience in mili
tary service
Parents
Wife
Friends
Family dentist
Decision largely on
my own
Describe the most important influence in your decision
to enter dentistry:
■" “ . " 166
Career Satisfactions and Dissatisfactions
8. How accurate were the following influences in providing
the correct information and facts regarding the career
of dentistry?
Very Relatively Very
Accurate Accurate Inaccurate
Books, periodicals,
and magazines
High school and college
courses
Counseling services and
aptitude tests
Experience in military
service
Parents
Wife
Friends
Family dentist
9. To what extent do you feel that dentistry is a satis
factory career for you?
___________The only satisfactory career
___________A satisfactory, but not necessarily the only
satisfactory career
___________One of several possible satisfactory careers
___________A fairly satisfactory career choice
___________It has not been a satisfactory career choice
J.O. If you had the choice to make again, would you select
the career of dentistry?
! Definitely yes Probably no
.Probably yes Definitely no
Uncertain
If you would not make the same choice again, what ca
reer would you select? _________________________
Why?
167
11. Please rank from ”1" to "6" the qualities that you
think will get a young dentist ahead. (Rank the most
important quality "1,” etc.)
Pleasing personality with patients
Manual dexterity
^ard work
_____ Being a "good mixer"
_____ Up-to-date knowledge of scientific theory and
facts in the field
Active participation as a citizen in community
projects
12. What income do you think a dentist should expect after
one year and after ten years of practice?
Level of Income After One Year After Ten Years
About $5,000
About $10,000
About $15,000
About $20,000
About $25,000
More than $25,000
13. How important have the following activities been in
giving you satisfaction in life?
Very Relatively Little or No
Important Important Importance
Career
Fraternal organiza
tions outside
dentistry
Family relationships
Leisure time activ
ities
Religious beliefs
and activities
Participation in
community projects
Participation in activ
ities directed to
ward national and
international betterment___
j " 168
14. Below is a list of requirements for the "ideal" career.
To what extent do you feel a career should satisfy each
of the requirements before you would consider it to be
j ideal? |
] 1
Very Relatively Little or Noj
Important Important importance |
Provide an opportunity
to use special abil
ities
Provide the chance to
i
earn a good deal of
money
Permit creativity and
originality
Award social status
and prestige
Enable a person to
look forward to a
secure future
Enable a person to be
relatively free of
supervision of
others
Enable a person to reg
ulate his leisure
time
Provide the opportunity
to be of service to
others
Provide for personal
growth and development
Provide for career devel
opment through train
ing
What is the one requirement you consider the most im
portant?
15. What dissatisfactions have you experienced or do you
anticipate in your dental career?
169
Much Relative Little or No
Dissat. Dissat. Dissat.
Desire for greater income
Limited opportunity for
advancement in career
Negative evaluation by
fellow dentists
Negative evaluation by
public
Negative evaluation by
physicians
Physical demands of work
Insufficient status and
prestige
Nature of work itself
Limited opportunity for
personal advancement
16. Please rank from "1" to "6" your personal preferences
in the field of dentistry. (Rank your first prefer
ence as "1," etc.)
_____ Private practice of general dentistry
_____ Private practice of a specialty. Name specialty
_____ Public health
_____ Teaching
_____ Advertising dentist
_____ Health insurance group plan (as Kaiser Plan)
17. Place the following occupations in rank order, highest
to lowest, according to the amount of prestige you
personally feel each commands. Then rank the same
occupations the way you think the general public would
rank them.
Lawyer Physician Dentist
Architect Engineer Minister
Business Executive Social Worker High School
Teacher
VOCD'nIONUi ^ C J I O H
My Ranking;
170
Public's Ranking;
1._________________________
2. ____________
3 ._____________________
4 ._____________________
5 ._____________________
6 . _______________
7 ._____________________
8 .______________________
9._________________________
*
I
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
!
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOka
i
jAnderson, Dewey, and Davidson, Percey E. "Occupations and
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Edited by William 0. Stanley et al. New York:
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Belleau, Wilfred E. *Dehtistrv as a Career. Milwaukee:
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Blauch, Lloyd E. (ed.). Education for the Professions.
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1955.
_________, et al. Teaching in Colleges and Universities witlj
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Brauer, John C., and Richardson, Richard E. The Dental
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Bredmeier, Henry C., and Stephenson, Richard M. The Analy
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Edwards, Alba E. Comparative Occupational Statistics for
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.Friedmann, Eugene A., and Havighurst, Robert J. The Mean
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i
Gies, William J. Dental Education in the United States and
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; '.....“ ' ” “....." 173
i
Ginzberg, Eli, et al. Occupational Choices An Approach to
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Guilford, J. P. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and
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i
Havighurst, Robert J., and Tapa, Hilda. Adolescent Charac
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i
jHollinshead, Byron S. The Survey of Dentistry. Washington,
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, Occupational Information. New York: McGraw-Hill
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Horner, Harlan H. Dentistry as a Professional Career. Chi
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j ________. Dental Education Today. Chicago: University of
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Johnson, A. Leroy. Dentistry as I See It Today. Boston:
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Lewis, Roy, and Maude, Angus. Professional People. London:
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Merton, Robert K. The Student Physician. Cambridge: Har
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Morse, Nancy C. Satisfactions in the White-Collar Job. Ann
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lO'Rourke, John T., and Miner, Leroy M. S. Dental Education
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Roe, Anne. The Psychology of Occupations. New York: John
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174
Rosenberg, Morris. Occupations and Values. Glencoe: The
Free Press, 1957.
Schwarzrock, L. H., and Schwarzrock, Shirley P. Effective
Dental Assisting. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown
Co., 1959.
Siegel, S. Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
1956.
Super, Donald E. The Dynamics of Vocational Adjustment.
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Creator Niland, Billyanna Mary (author)

Core Title Social Factors Related To Dentistry As A Career

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Sociology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,sociology, general

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor McDonagh, Edward C. (committee chair), Chen, Theodore H. (committee member), Lasswell, Thomas E. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-316687

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Identifier 6405161.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-316687 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6405161.pdf

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Rights Niland, Billyanna Mary

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