University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The Concept Of Sexual Identity In Normals And Transvestites: Its Relationship To The Body-Image, Self-Concept And Parental Identification

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The Concept Of Sexual Identity In Normals And Transvestites: Its Relationship To The Body-Image, Self-Concept And Parental Identification

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Content T h is d isserta tio n has b een 64-3098 m icrofilm ed ex a ctly as r e c e iv e d GOLDFARB, Jack Harold, 1931- THE CONCEPT OF SEXUAL IDENTITY IN NORMALS AND TRANSVESTITES: ITS RELA TIONSHIP TO THE BODY— IMAGE, S E L F - CONCEPT AND PARENTAL IDENTIFICATION. U n iversity of Southern C aliforn ia, P h .D ., 1963 P sych ology, clin ica l University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan THE CONCEPT OF SEXUAL IDENTITY IN NORM ALS A N D TRANSVESTITES: ITS RELATIONSHIP TO THE BODY-IMAGE, SELF-CONCEPT AN D PARENTAL IDENTIFICATION by J a c k H arold G o ld farb A D is s e r t a tio n P re s e n te d to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e R equirem ents f o r th e D egree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (P sychology) A ugust 1963 UNIVERSITY O F SOU TH ERN CALIFORNIA GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES 7, CALIFORNIA This dissertation, written by .............Ja c k H aroId Go1d fa rb ..................... nnder the direction of h%$—.Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Dean TATION/COMMITTEE DI Chairman To T a k i, Mom, and "The Mashe" ACKNOWLEDGMENTS T h is stu d y c o u ld n o t have been co m p leted w ith o u t th e g en e ro u s a s s is ta n c e o f many in d iv i d u a ls . I would l i k e to e x p re s s my a p p r e c ia tio n to th e members o f my com m itte e f o r t h e i r c o n s tr u c tiv e e v a lu a tio n and s u g g e s tio n s . I am in d e b te d to my ch airm an , D r. Herman H arvey, who made tim e a v a ila b le when such tim e was e x c e e d in g ly p r e c io u s , and b ro u g h t th e stu d y i n t o s h a rp fo cu s w ith th o u g h tf u l s u g g e s tio n s and s tim u la tin g com m ents. Among th o s e who p la y e d a r o l e in th e fo rm u la tio n and c u lm in a tio n o f th e s tu d y , I am e s p e c ia lly g r a t e f u l to D r. Jo se p h G e n g e r e lli, D r. M aurice D eig h , D r. C a r r o ll C a rls o n , and D r. W illiam M ic h a e l. The stu d y was su p p o rte d in p a r t by a r e s e a r c h g r a n t from th e D epartm ent o f M ental H ygiene, S ta te o f C a li f o r n i a , u n d er P r o je c t Number 6 0 -2 1 d -2 , M u riel Huggins and C a ro l Jo n e s o f th e UCLA M edical c e n te r B i o s t a t i s t i c s U n it g r e a t ly f a c i l i t a t e d th e a n a ly s is o f th e d a ta . A ls o , my th a n k s a r e ex ten d ed t o Mae Z is k in , D r. J a y Z is k in , and D r. S tephen Howard, a l l o f whom d ev o ted much tim e and en erg y to s e rv e a s ju d g e s . D r. C. V. P rin c e , a t r a n s v e s t i t e and e d i t o r o f th e m agazine " T r a n s v e s tia ," a c c e p te d th e ta s k o f o b ta in in g t r a n s v e s t i t e s t o s e rv e as s u b je c ts . W ith h i s p e r s u a s iv e pow ers and b o u n d le ss e n e rg y , and w ith no th o u g h t o f p e r s o n a l g a in , he se c u re d th e c o o p e ra tio n o f s u f f i c i e n t s u b je c ts to make th e stu d y p o s s ib le . By v i r t u e o f t h e i r p a tie n c e and u n d e rs ta n d in g , my f r ie n d s and members o f my fa m ily eased th e tr y in g tim e s , and p ro v id e d h e lp when su ch h e lp was n e e d ed . The c o n tin u o u s s u p p o r t, encouragem ent, and f a i t h o f my w ife tu rn e d a dream in to r e a l i t y . TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNO W LEDG M EN TS i v LIST OF TABLES ix C h ap ter I . THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION I I d e n t it y and S ex u al I d e n ti t y I d e n t i f i c a t i o n The Body-Image The S e lf-C o n c e p t S exual I d e n t i t y D is tu rb a n c e and T ra n sv e s tism The T h e r o r e tic a l Framework o f P sy c h o lo g ic a l Meaning A S tatem e n t o f th e Problem I I . SURVEY OF THE RESEARCH LITERATURE . . . 24 S tu d ie s R e la tin g to I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and S ex u al I d e n tit y S tu d ie s R e la tin g to th e S e lf-C o n c e p t S tu d ie s R e la tin g to th e Body-Image Summary o f th e Review o f R esearch L i t e r a t u r e I I I . RESEARCH M ETH O D AND PROCEDURE 49 S u b je c ts M a te ria ls P ro ced u re IV. RESULTS 64 A n a ly s is o f th e D ata v i C h a p ter vii Page Combining th e E x p e rim e n ta l Groups The Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n o f S c a le s H ypotheses I and I I H y p o th esis I I I H ypotheses IV and V A d d itio n a l S em antic D i f f e r e n t i a l D ata The T hem atic A p p erce p tio n T e st The R a tin g S c a le s I d e n t i f i c a t i o n a s D eterm ined by S o c ia l D is ta n c e The Rem aining R a tin g S c a le s The G uilford-Zim m erm an Temperament Survey The Background In fo rm a tio n Q u e s tio n n a ire V. DISCUSSION ............................................................. 116 The R e la tio n s h ip betw een th e Body- Im age, S e lf-C o n c e p t and S ex u al I d e n tit y P a r e n ta l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and S ex u al I d e n t i t y The T r a n s v e s tite P o p u la tio n Some T h e o r e tic a l Im p lic a tio n s o f th e F in d in g s R e la tin g to T ra n sv e s tism Some T h e o r e tic a l S p e c u la tio n s and S u g g estio n s f o r F u rth e r R esearch V I. SU M M A R Y A N D CONCLUSIONS ................................... 138 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................ 144 APPENDICES ................................................................................ 157 A ppendix A. Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l ........................... 158 A ppendix B. G uilford-Zim m erm an Temperament S urvey G ross F a l s i f i c a t i o n and M a s c u lin ity S c a le s . . . 162 viii Chapter Page A ppendix C. Q u e s tio n n a ire .................................. 169 A ppendix D. A n a ly s is o£ Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l D S co res betw een A ll C oncepts W ithin Body-Im age and S e lf - Concept C a te g o rie s .................... 175 A ppendix E. TAT R a tin g S c a l e s .................... 180 A ppendix F . A n a ly s is o f Q u e s tio n n a ire D ata . 185 LIST OF TABLES T a b le Page 1 . Com parison o f Groups on B a sis o f Age . . . 50 2 . Com parison o f G roups on B a sis o f E d u c a tio n a l L ev el ................................................. 51 3 . Com parison o f Groups on B a sis o f O c c u p a tio n a l L evel .......................................... 52 4 . Com parison o f I n d iv id u a lly T e ste d and W rite - In Groups o f T r a n s v e s tite s on Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l C oncepts ................................. 66 5. Com parison o f I n d iv id u a lly T e ste d and W rite - In G roups o f T r a n s v e s tite s on th e G u ilf o r d - Zimmerman Temperament Survey M a s c u lin ity and G ross F a l s i f i c a t i o n S c a le s . . . . . . 67 6 . C o r r e la tio n C o e f f ic ie n ts betw een A ll S c a le s o f Body-Im age C oncepts Based on A ll S u b je c ts C o m b in e d ........................ 68 7. C o r r e la tio n C o e f f ic ie n ts betw een A ll S c a le s o f S e lf-lin a g e C oncepts Based on A ll S u b je c ts C o m b in e d ........................ 69 8 . Com parison o f Male and Fem ale C o n tro l S u b je c ts on C oncept: MI B O D Y .......... 72 9 . Com parison o f Male and Fem ale C o n tro l S u b je c ts on C oncept: THE KIND OF PERSON I A M ............................................................. 74 10. Com parison o f T r a n s v e s tite s and Male C o n tro l S u b je c ts on C oncept: M Y BO D Y . . 75 ix X Table Page 11. C om parison o f T r a n s v e s tite s and Male C o n tro l S u b je c ts on C o n cep t: THE KIND OF PERSON I A M ..................................................... 76 12. C om parison o f T r a n s v e s tite s and Fem ale C o n tro l S u b je c ts on C o n cep t: My BODY . 77 13. C om parison o f T r a n s v e s tite s and Fem ale C o n tro l S u b je c ts on C o n cep t: THE KIND OF PERSON I A M ..................................................... 78 14. D egree o f C ongruence o f Body-Im age and S e lf-C o n c e p t Com paring G roups ................... 82 15. D ir e c tio n and R e la tiv e S tre n g th o f P a r e n ta l Body-Im age I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . . 86 16. D ir e c tio n and R e la tiv e S tre n g th o f P a r e n ta l S e lf-C o n c e p t I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . . 87 17. R e la tiv e S tre n g th o f I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e M ale and Fem ale B o d y -Im a g e ................... 90 18. R e la tiv e S tr e n g th o f I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e M ale and Fem ale S e lf-C o n c e p t . . . 91 19. R e l i a b i l i t y o f R a tin g TAT P ro to c o ls on F o u r R a tin g S c a le s ................................. 95 20. C o r r e la tio n s betw een TAT R a tin g S c a le s Summing O v er-A ll R a tin g s f o r Each S u b je c t on Each C ard ................................. 95 21. I n t e n s i t y o f P a r e n ta l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n D eriv ed from th e TAT S o c ia l D is ta n c e R a tin g S c a le ......................................................... 98 22. D ir e c tio n o f I d e n t i f i c a t i o n D eriv ed from th e TAT S o c ia l D is ta n c e S c a l e ................... 100 23. C om parison o f G roups on TAT S e l f - C oncept R a tin g S c a le ........................................... 102 xi Table Page 24. Com parison o f Groups on TAT C o n f lic t R a tin g S c a le ........................................................ 103 25. Com parison o f Groups on TAT E m otional Tone R a tin g S c a le .......................................... 104 26. D is tr ib u ti o n o f S co res on th e G u ilf o rd - Zimmerman Temperament Survey M a s c u lin ity S c a le .......................................... 106 27. D is tr ib u ti o n o f S co res on th e G u ilfo rd - Zimmerman Temperament Survey G ross F a l s i f i c a t i o n S c a le .......................................... 108 28. G uilford-Zim m erm an Temperament Survey M a s c u lin ity S c a le : A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e and t T e s ts betw een Groups . . 109 29. G uilford-Zim m erm an Temperament Survey G ross F a l s i f i c a t i o n S c a le : A n a ly s is o f V aria n c e and t T e s ts betw een G roups . I l l 30. P a r e n ta l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n : Com parison o f G roups on P e rso n a l H is to ry Q u e s tio n n a ire Item s .......................................... 114 A woman s h a l l n o t w ear t h a t w hich p e r t a i n e t h u n to a man, n e i t h e r s h a l l a man p u t on a woman's garm ent f o r w hosoever d o e th th e s e th in g s i s an ab o m in atio n u n to th e Lord th y God D eu t. 2 2 :5 CHAPTER I THEORETICAL INTRODUCTION I d e n t it y and S ex u al I d e n tit y The stu d y o f th e co n c ep t o f i d e n t i t y has assum ed a c e n t r a l p o s itio n in c u r r e n t p s y c h o lo g ic a l th e o ry . T h is was s u c c in c tly e x p re sse d by E rik so n (1950, p. 2 4 2 ), who s t a t e d , " th e s tu d y o f i d e n t i t y becomes as s t r a t e g i c in o u r tim e as th e stu d y o f s e x u a lity was in F re u d 's tim e ." D e s p ite th e a tte m p ts made by v a rio u s w r i t e r s to d e f in e th e c o n c e p t o f i d e n t i t y and i n t e g r a t e i t in to a t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew ork, i t rem ains a somewhat e lu s iv e and o f te n co n fu se d c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n . T here i s , as L ic h te n s t e i n (1961, p . 185) p o in ts o u t, a " la c k o f c l e a r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n betw een th e c o n c e p ts o f i d e n t i t y and th e s o - c a lle d s e n se o f i d e n t i t y , as w e ll as th e co n cep t o f th e s e l f . " E i s s l e r (1 9 5 8 ), f o r exam ple, s t r e s s e s a co n cep t o f th e s e n se o f i d e n t i t y and d e fin e s i t as an e x p e rie n c e o f " s e l f - c o g n iz a n c e ," w h ile G reen acre (1958) d e s c r ib e s i d e n t i t y as b o th th e " lik e n e s s " o r "g e n u in e o n en e ss" o f a p e rso n a s 2 w e ll as th e f e a tu r e s w hich d i s t i n g u i s h him from o th e r s im ila r p e rs o n s . W ith in E rik so n * s (1956, p . 57) fo rm u la t i o n , i d e n t i t y i s view ed as a b ro a d ly d e fin e d c o n c e p t. He s t a t e s : At one tim e , th e n , i t w i l l a p p e a r to r e f e r to a c o n s c io u s se n se o f in d iv id u a l i d e n t i t y ; a t a n o th e r , to an u n co n sc io u s s t r i v i n g f o r a co n t i n u i t y o f p e rs o n a l c h a r a c te r ; a t a t h i r d a s a c r i t e r i o n f o r th e s i l e n t d o in g s o f ego s y n th e s i s ; an d , f i n a l l y , a s a m a in ten an ce o f an in n e r s o l i d a r i t y w ith a g ro u p ’s i d e a ls and i d e n t i t y . E rik so n (1956, p . 71) d e s c r ib e s th e fo rm a tio n o f i d e n t i t y a s a: . . . c o n f ig u r a tio n g r a d u a lly in t e g r a t i n g co n s t i t u t i o n a l g iv e n s , id io s y n a c r a t ic l i b i d i n a l n e e d s, fa v o re d c a p a c i t i e s , s i g n i f i c a n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , e f f e c t i v e d e f e n s e s , s u c c e s s f u l su b lim a tio n s , and c o n s is te n t r o l e s . A d o lescen ce i s h ig h lig h te d by E rik so n (1956, pp. 66-67) a s th e p e rio d d u rin g w hich c o n s o lid a tio n o f th e in d i v i d u a l 's i d e n t i t y ta k e s p la c e . The r e s u l t o f th e fo rm a tio n o f an i d e n t i t y f o r an in d iv id u a l th e n i s : . . . an a s s u re d s e n s e o f in n e r c o n tin u ity and s o c i a l sam eness w hich w i l l b r id g e w hat h e was as a c h i ld and w hat h e i s a b o u t to becom e, and w i l l r e c o n c ile h is c o n c e p tio n o f h im s e lf and h is com m unity' s r e c o g n itio n o f him . The co n cep t o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y i s in c lu d e d by E rik so n (1956) among th e com ponents o f th e " t o t a l i d e n t i t y ." The im p o rtan ce o f t h i s co n c ep t h as been s t r e s s e d by a number o f w r i t e r s . C ooley (1959, p . 1 6 5 ), f o r exam ple, s t a t e s , " th e re i s no human i d e n t i t y u n co m p lic ate d by s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . P e r s o n a lity e v o lv e s e i t h e r m a sc u lin e o r fe m in in e o r a s some co m b in atio n o f th e tw o ." In a somewhat b ro a d e r c o n te x t, M arg aret Mead (1949, p . 7) has p o in te d o u t, " th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e two se x e s i s one o f th e im p o rta n t c o n d itio n s upon w hich we have b u i l t th e many v a r i e t i e s o f human c u l t u r e . . . . " S exual i d e n t i t y h as g e n e r a lly been d e fin e d as in c lu d in g b o th b i o l o g i c a l l y , a s w e ll as c u l t u r a l l y , d e t e r m ined m a n if e s ta tio n s o f sex m em bership (Mead 1949, M alinow ski 1927, Honigman 1 9 4 7 ). Cooley (1959, p . 167) d e f in e s s e x u a l i d e n t i t y a s : . . . th e p a t t e r n o f p o s itio n s on th e b i o l o g i c a l , s o c io lo g ic a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l c o n tin u a o f th e m a le n e ss-fe m a le n e ss dim ension w hich c h a r a c t e r i z e s an in d iv id u a l in r e l a t i o n to o th e rs in h is s o c i o - c u l t u r a l m ilie u . I Among th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w hich d e l in e a te an i n d i v i d u a l 's s e x u a l i d e n t i t y , C ooley in c lu d e s h e r e d ita r y and o rg a n ic s t r u c t u r e , g ro ss b e h a v io r! c l o th in g , i n t e r e s t s , a t t i t u d e s , and ways o f p e rc e iv in g o n e 's own i n t e r a c t i o n w ith o th e rs who a r e i d e n t i f i e d as b e in g o f th e same o r o f th e o p p o s ite s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . 4 The p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y i s to exam ine a number o f p e r s o n a lity p ro c e s s e s w hich have been r e l a t e d c o n c e p tu a l l y to th e fo rm a tio n o f a s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . T hese in c lu d e th e p ro c e s s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , th e fo rm a tio n o f th e body- im age, and th e developm ent o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t. T h is stu d y fo c u se s upon th e i n t e r a c t i o n betw een th e s e th r e e p ro c e s s e s as th e y a p p ly to th e developm ent o f a s e x u a l i d e n t i t y w ith in a norm al p o p u la tio n a s w e ll a s a d e v ia n t p o p u la tio n . The rem ain d er o f t h i s c h a p te r d e s c r ib e s th e a d d i t i o n a l c o n c e p ts and o f f e r s a t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew ork w ith in w hich th e r e la t i o n s h i p s betw een c o n c e p ts w i l l b e exam ined. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n The co n c ep t o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h as o f te n been co n fu s e d w ith t h a t o f i d e n t i t y and o c c a s io n a lly th e term s have been u sed in te rc h a n g e a b ly . W ith in a p s y c h o a n a ly tic fram ew ork, how ever, th e s e term s have been d e fin e d e x p l i c i t l y . G rin k e r (1957, p . 379) d e s c r ib e s i d e n t i f i c a tio n a s an: . . . u n co n scio u s s t a t e o f h av in g become p a r t o r t o t a l th e sam e, in t h a t a p erso n th in k s , f e e l s and a c ts a f t e r th e fa s h io n . . . o f th e one ta k e n a s a m odel. In d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g th e c o n c ep t o f i d e n t i t y from i d e n t i f i c a tio n , E rik so n (1956, p . 68) s t a t e s : C h ild re n , a t d i f f e r e n t s ta g e s o f t h e i r d e v e lo p m ent i d e n ti f y w ith th o s e p a r t a s p e c ts o f p e o p le by w hich th e y th e m selv es a r e m ost im m ed iately a f f e c t e d , w h eth e r in r e a l i t y o r f a n ta s y . T h e ir i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s w ith p a r e n ts , f o r exam ple, c e n te r s in c e r t a i n o v e rv a lu e d and il l - u n d e r s t o o d body p a r t s , c a p a c i t i e s , and r o l e a p p e a ra n c e s . . . . The f i n a l i d e n t i t y , th e n , a s f ix e d a t th e end o f a d o le sc e n c e i s s u p e ro rd in a te d to any s i n g l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith in d iv id u a ls o f th e p a s t: i t in c lu d e s a l l s i g n i f i c a n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , b u t i t a ls o a l t e r s them in o rd e r to make a u n iq u e and a re a s o n a b ly c o h e re n t w hole o f them . In h is w r i ti n g s , F reud (1923, 1925) su g g e ste d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e p ro c e s s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and th e fo rm a tio n o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . He in c lu d e d b o th "m a scu lin e and fe m in in e s e x u a l d is p o s i t i o n s " a s w e ll as th e d o m in atio n o f one p a re n t o v e r th e o th e r as d e te rm in in g w h eth er th e m ajo r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i l l b e w ith t h e m other o r f a t h e r . Jaco b so n (1954, p p . 104-105) e la b o r a te d on t h i s them e, s t a t i n g : . . . th e aw akening o f c o m p e titiv e , i n s t i n c t u a l s t r i v i n g s and f u r t h e r on, d u rin g th e o e d ip a l p h a s e , o f g e n i t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e o e d ip a l r i v a l n o t o n ly s tim u la te th e developm ent o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s in g e n e r a l, b u t a l s o in f lu e n c e t h e i r d ir e c t i o n : w ith th e d is c o v e ry o f th e s e x u a l d if f e r e n c e s th e f a t h e r becomes th e c e n t r a l o b je c t o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n to th e l i t t l e boy, on th e grounds o f a n a to m ic a l likeness. . . . As the 6 o e d ip a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n sh a p es u p , h e r o e d ip a l r i v a l , th e m o th e r, w i l l become th e l i t t l e g i r l ' s m ain m odel and th e s e x u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith h e r w i l l h e lp h e r e v e n tu a lly to a c c e p t h e r fem a le anatom y. In r e c e n t y e a r s , a number o f t h e o r i s t s have d e s c rib e d th e co n c e p t o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith in a le a r n in g th e o ry fram e o f r e f e r e n c e . Seward (1954) p o in ts o u t t h a t w h ile p s y c h o a n a ly s is p la c e s th e em phasis upon th e " i n s t i n c t i v e o r ig in " o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and th e r o le o f f r u s t r a t i o n in i t s o r i g i n , b e h a v io r th e o ry se e s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as a " h ig h l e v e l a b s tr a c ti o n from numerous im i ta t iv e h a b i t s . " Mowrer (1950, p . 5 9 6 ), a ls o w orking w ith in a le a r n in g th e o ry fram ew ork, d e s c r ib e s th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and th e fo rm a tio n o f a se x u a l i d e n t i t y a s f o llo w s : In th e id e a l fa m ily c o n s t e l l a t i o n , a l i t t l e boy f in d s i t v ery n a t u r a l and h ig h ly rew ard in g to m odel h im s e lf in h is f a t h e r 's im age. The f a t h e r i s g r a t i f i e d t o s e e t h i s r e - c r e a t i o n o f h i s own q u a l i t i e s , a t t i t u d e s , and m a s c u lin ity ; and th e m o th e r, lo v in g th e f a t h e r , fin d s su ch a c o u rs e o f developm ent a c c e p ta b le in h e r so n . T e n ta tiv e e x p lo r a tio n s , c o n s c io u s and u n c o n sc io u s, in th e d i r e c t i o n o f b e in g " l i k e m o th er" q u ic k ly co n v in ce th e boy t h a t t h i s i s n o t h i s p ro p e r o r approved d e s tin y ; and h e s p e e d ily r e v e r t s t o h is i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith f a t h e r . In th e w e ll-o r d e r e d , psycho l o g i c a l l y h e a lth y h o u se h o ld , much th e same p i c t u r e , in r e v e r s e , h o ld s f o r th e l i t t l e g i r l . 7 In M ow rer's fo rm u la tio n , a w e ll a d ju s te d in d iv id u a l w i l l i d e n t i f y w ith th e sam e-sexed p a r e n t; a n e u r o tic i n d i v id u a l i s one who, w h ile n o t i d e n tif y in g f u l l y w ith th e sam e-sexed p a r e n t, h a s n o t i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e o p p o s ite - se x ed p a r e n t. Mowrer f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t i f th e m ajo r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h as ta k e n p la c e w ith th e o p p o s ite -s e x e d p a r e n t, th e outcom e i s l i k e l y to le a d t o a " p e r v e r s io n ." By p e r v e r s io n , Mowrer r e f e r s t o th e s e le c tio n o f th e "sam e-sex ed p e rs o n s " as lo v e o b je c ts , and s u g g e s ts s tr o n g ly t h a t th e s e le c tio n o f a s e x u a l o b je c t i s an outcom e o f th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p ro c e s s . Mowrer p o in ts o u t t h a t in th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic v ie w p o in t, th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e s e x u a l o b je c t i s th e fo re ru n n e r o f l a t e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s . His p o s i t i o n , th e n , i s a r e v e r s a l o f th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic view p o in t . The Body-Image Of th e p ro c e s s e s d is c u s s e d th u s f a r , p e rh a p s th e m ost b a s ic to p e r s o n a lity developm ent i s th e fo rm a tio n o f th e body-im age. In p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o r y , th e developm ent o f th e body-im age th ro u g h th e i n f a n t 's aw aren ess o f b o d ily s e n s a tio n s , i s p rim ary and c r u c i a l t o th e developm ent o f a se n se o f r e a l i t y and th e su b se q u en t developm ent f th e 8 ego (F reu d 1 9 2 3 ). The body-im age h as been d e s c rib e d by a number o f w r i t e r s (Murphy 1947, Zuger 1952, R ubins 1962, and F is h e r and C lev elan d 1958) a s s e rv in g a s th e fo u n d a tio n o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t and as a d i s t i n c t a s p e c t o f th e fu n c tio n in g s e l f . S c h ild e r (1 9 5 0 ), in an e x te n s iv e tre a tm e n t o f th e s u b j e c t , d e s c r ib e s th e body-im age a s th e " p ic tu r e " we have o f o u r b o d ie s composed b o th o f a s t r u c t u r a l model as w e ll as a f f e c t la d en a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e body. He s t r e s s e s th e p o in t t h a t w h ile e a r l y i n f a n t i l e e x p e rie n c e s a r e o f g r e a t im p o rtan ce in th e developm ent o f th e body-im age, l a t e r e x p e rie n c e s can b rin g ab o u t m o d ific a tio n s in th e m odel. The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e fo rm a tio n o f a s e x u a l i d e n t i t y and th e developm ent o f th e body-im age has been d e s c rib e d by a number o f w r i t e r s . S c h ild e r s u g g e s ts th a t d is tu rb a n c e s in th e s e x u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p ro c e s s w i l l b rin g ab o u t a d is tu rb a n c e in th e body-im age w hich in tu rn w i l l p re v e n t an in d iv id u a l from assum ing a s a t i s f a c t o r y se x u a l r o l e . G reen acre (1953) s t r e s s e s th e r o l e o f e a r ly body-im age d is tu rb a n c e s in th e l a t e r developm ent o f a d e v ia n t se x u a l i d e n t i t y . As exam ples o f body-im age d i s t u r b a n c e s , G re en a cre d e s c r ib e s su ch c o n d itio n s as sudden, g ro s s changes in s u b je c tiv e f e e l in g s o f body s iz e and in tra b o d y p r e s s u r e ; th e f re q u e n t o c c u rre n c e o f "o verpow er- ; in g m assiv e body s tim u la tio n " ; and an in c re a s e d n eed to " v i s u a l l y i n t r o j e c t " th e body and e s p e c ia lly th e g e n i t a l s o f o th e r s . M ahler (1958) d e s c r ib e s th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e s e x u a l i d e n t i t y as em erging from th e body-im age r e p r e s e n ta ti o n s o f th e s e x u a l p a r ts o f th e body. T his comes a b o u t, in M a h le r's fo rm u la tio n , as a r e s u l t o f m a tu ra tio n a l c h a n g e s; w ith th e f i n a l i n te g r a tio n ,o f body-im age and i d e n t i t y depen d in g upon a s u c c e s s io n o f e a r ly " g e n i t a l and p r e g e n i t a l d e v e lo p m e n ts." S c h ild e r h as a ls o made a p o in t o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e body-im age and s o c ia l- c u l t u r a l s e x - r o le e x p e c ta tio n s . He s u g g e s ts t h a t in th e p ro c e s s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , th e in d iv id u a l a s s im il a te s i n to h is own body-im age th e a t t i t u d e s s i g n i f i c a n t f ig u r e s in h i s environm ent h av e tow ard h is body a s w e ll a s t h e i r own. In t h i s way, c u l t u r a l l y d e fin e d s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e s a r e p a sse d on and become p a r t o f th e s e x u a l i d e n t i t y o f th e i n d i v i d u a l . The S e lf-C o n c e p t The co n cep t o f th e s e l f has ta k e n many form s in i t s h i s t o r y a s a p e r s o n a lity c o n s tr u c t. I t has ap p e ared 10 : a s th e " s e lf - c o n c e p t" and " s e l f - s t r u c t u r e " (R ogers 1 9 5 1 ), | | th e "self-d y n am ism " (S u lliv a n 1 9 4 7 ), th e " id e a liz e d s e l f - i I im age" (Horney 1 9 5 0 ), and th e " s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n " ; (Hartman 1 9 5 1 ). W hile m u ltip le m eanings have been a tta c h e d to th e s e te rm s , th e y a p p e a r t o have th e common n o tio n t h a t th e human o rg an ism has th e c a p a b i l i t y o f b e in g aw are o f h im s e lf a s an o b je c t. R ogers (1 9 5 1 ), p p . 136-137) o f f e r s th e fo llo w in g d e f i n i t i o n : The s e lf - c o n c e p t, o r s e l f - s t r u c t u r e , may be th o u g h t o f as an o rg a n iz e d c o n f ig u r a tio n o f p e rc e p tio n s o f th e s e l f w hich a r e a d m is s ib le to a w a re n e ss. I t i s composed o f such elem en ts as th e c o n c e p ts o f th e s e l f in r e l a t i o n to j o th e r s and to th e en v iro n m en t; th e v a lu e q u a l i t i e s w hich a r e p e rc e iv e d as a s s o c ia te d w ith e x p e rie n c e s and o b je c ts ; and g o a ls and id e a l s w hich a r e p e rc e iv e d as h av in g p o s it iv e o r n e g a tiv e v a le n c e . The i n i t i a l p h ases o f developm ent o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t, o r th e " s e n s e o f s e l f , " h as been tr a c e d by S p itz (1957, p . 121) t o around th e f i f t e e n t h m onth o f l i f e . S p itz f u r t h e r s t r e s s e s th e f a c t t h a t th e developm ent o f th e s e l f i s "on th e one hand c l o s e ly co n n e cte d to th e body I and i t s f u n c tio n s , on th e o th e r to th e exchanges in th e j i j c o u rse o f o b je c t r e l a t i o n s . " Jaco b so n (1954) a l s o s tre s s e s ! i th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e developm ent o f " s e lf -im a g e s " to i th e e a r l y developm ent o f body f e e l i n g s . In h e r d is c u s s io n j 11 o f th e developm ent o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t , Ja co b so n em p h asizes th e r o l e o f e a r l y p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s in m o d ify in g th e em erging p i c t u r e o f th e s e l f . R ubins (1962) h as a ls o d e s c r ib e d th e s e lf - c o n c e p t a s an o u tg ro w th o f th e b o d y - im age, and S a rb in (1952, p . 17) h y p o th e s iz e s t h a t one a s p e c t o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t , th e " s o c i a l s e l f , " c o n s i s t s o f th e c h i l d 's p e r c e p tio n o f th e " o rg a n iz e d a c ts o r r o le s " o f th e f ig u r e s aro u n d him . He s u g g e s ts t h a t " d i f f e r e n t i a l r o l e s [ th e c o n v e n tio n a l r o l e s o f m o th er and f a th e r ] a r e p e rc e iv e d and i n te g r a t e d i n t o th e c o g n itiv e s t r u c t u r e . " In g e n e r a l, th e s e lf - c o n c e p t has b een c o n c e p tu a l iz e d a s r e f l e c t i n g th e r o l e s r e l a t i n g to s e x m em bership t h a t h av e become a p a r t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l 's p ic tu r e o f h im s e lf . In a d d i tio n to th e s e a s p e c ts o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y , p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s (Jaco b so n 1954) c o u ld be e x p e c te d to be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t . S ex u al I d e n t i t y D is tu rb a n c e and T ra n s v e s tis m The d is c u s s io n up t o t h i s p o in t h a s c e n te r e d aro u n d a number o f c o n c e p ts t h a t h av e been u se d as a means o f u n d e rs ta n d in g th e developm ent o f a s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . T hese c o n c e p ts p resu m ab ly p ro v id e a t h e o r e t i c a l b a s is f o r 12 u n d e rs ta n d in g th e d ev elo p m en t o f a s e x u a l i d e n t i t y w ith in a norm al p o p u la tio n . I t i s a l s o c o n c e iv a b le t h a t a d i s tu rb a n c e o r d e v ia n c y in th e s e x u a l i d e n t i t y o f an in d i v i d u a l c o u ld b e tr a c e d t o a d is tu r b a n c e in th e fo rm a tio n o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t , b o d y -im ag e , o r p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n . G re e n a c re (1 9 5 3 ), f o r exam ple, h y p o th e s iz e s a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een an u n s ta b le body-im age and f e tis h is m , and Mowrer (1950) lin k s h o m o se x u a lity to o p p o s ite -s e x e d p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . In o r d e r to t e s t th e m e a n in g fu l n e s s o f t h e s e c o n c e p ts i t w ould seem a d v is a b le to in c lu d e , th e n , a g ro u p o f in d iv i d u a ls w ith m a n if e s ta tio n s o f d e v ia n t s e x u a l i d e n t i t i e s a lo n g w ith a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g ro u p o f no rm al i n d i v i d u a l s . S in c e , a s Mead (1949) h a s p o in te d o u t, we can e x p e c t a w id e v a r i a t i o n in s e x u a l r o l e s in any g iv e n s o c i e t y , i t i s o f p rim e im p o rta n c e to s e l e c t a g ro u p o f in d iv i d u a ls w hose d is tu r b a n c e i s c l e a r and u n e q u iv o c a l. Mead h as s u g g e s te d v iew in g s e x - r o l e b e h a v io r a s e x i s t i n g on a co n tin u u m w ith a m ost m a s c u lin e g ro u p and m ost fe m in in e g ro u p on e a ch e n d , and o th e r s f a l l i n g somewhere betw een t h e e x tre m e s . I n d iv id u a ls w ith d e v ia n t s e x u a l i d e n t i t i e s w ould b e th o s e who by v i r t u e o f t h e i r o rg a n ic 13 s t r u c t u r e b elo n g tow ard one end o f th e continuum , b u t b e c a u se o f m arked b e h a v io r a l m a n if e s ta tio n s can b e p la c e d tow ard th e o th e r en d . T h is ty p e o f r e v e r s a l in s e x u a l i d e n t i t y can be found in a la r g e number o f s o c i e t i e s (B e ttle h e im 1954; Mead 1949, p . 129; F ord and Beach 1951). Mead has su g g e s te d : . . . one f in d s in m ost g ro u p s o f any s i z e t h a t th e r e a r e v ery few in d iv id u a ls who i n s i s t on p la y in g th e r o l e o f th e o p p o s ite sex in occu p a t i o n , o r d re s s o r in te r p e r s o n a l sex a c t i v i t i e s . Ford and Beach (1951) r e p o r t some form o f r e v e r s a l o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y in 49 (64 p e r c e n t) o f th e 76 s o c i e t i e s s tu d ie d . The " b e rd a c h e , sham an, o r saro m b av y ," a s th e y a r e c a l le d by th e v a rio u s s o c i e t i e s , g e n e r a lly p u t on women's c l o th in g , p erfo rm women's ta s k s , and o f te n ta k e th e fem ale r o l e in hom osexual r e l a t i o n s h i p s . In w e ste rn c i v i l i z a t i o n , t h i s b e h a v io r p a t te r n has r o o ts e x te n d in g back to a n t i q u i t y (L ukianow icz 1 9 5 9 ). I t s c u r r e n t name, tr a n s v e s tis m ( th e p r a c t i c e o f c r o s s - d r e s s in g ) , was in tro d u c e d by H irs c h fe ld (1 9 1 0 ). Benjam in (1954, p . 219) d e f in e s th e term as in c lu d in g th o s e i n d i v id u a ls who, . . c ro s s d re s s in an atm o sp h ere o f emo t i o n a l p r e s s u r e , som etim es to th e p o in t o f com pulsion and 14 accom panied by s e x u a l s a t i s f a c t i o n . " The term tr a n s s e x u a l i s re s e rv e d f o r th e in d iv id u a l who d e s ir e s to underg o a co m p lete sex r e v e r s a l in c lu d in g a n a to m ic a l s t r u c t u r e . Karpman (1957, p . 597) d e f in e s tr a n s v e s tis m a s " th e assu m p tio n o f c lo th in g o f th e o p p o s ite se x f o r s e x u a l p u rp o s e s ." L ukianow icz (1959, p . 37) u s e s th e term tr a n s v e s tis m f o r : . . . a s e x u a l d e v ia tio n c h a r a c te r iz e d by: (a) a d e s i r e to w ear th e d r e s s o f th e o p p o s ite s e x , and (b) le s s o f te n a w ish to b e looked upon, and to b e s o c i a l l y a c c e p te d , a s a member o f t h i s s e x . T h ere a r e no c u r r e n t r e l i a b l e e s tim a te s a s to th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t r a n s v e s t i t e s in th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n ; E l l i s (1 9 3 6 ), how ever, has s t a t e d t h a t tr a n s v e s tis m comes n e x t in fre q u e n c y to h o m o se x u a lity . Cases o f tr a n s v e s tis m in fe m a le s , w h ile o c c a s io n a lly e n c o u n te re d , a r e r e l a t i v e l y r a r e (L ukianow icz 1959); c o n s e q u e n tly , th e a tte m p ts to u n d e rs ta n d t h i s b e h a v io r has been d ir e c te d la r g e ly to w ard |t h e m ale t r a n s v e s t i t e . T ra n sv e s tism i s u s u a lly view ed a s a com plex symptom p a t t e r n . G u th e il (1954, p . 233) view s i t a s composed o f th e fo llo w in g p sy c h o p a th o lo g ic f a c t o r s : 1. L a te n t (o r m a n ife s t) h o m o se x u a lity w ith an u n re so lv e d c a s t r a t i o n com plex. 15 2 . S ad o m a so ch istic com ponent. 3 . N a r c i s s i s t i c com ponent. 4 . S c o p to p h ilic com ponent. 5. E x h i b i t i o n i s t i c com ponent. 6. F e t i s h i s t i c com ponent. L ubianow icz (1959, p . 60) s t r e s s e s th e im p o rta n ce o f re g a rd in g tr a n s v e s tis m a s a u n iq u e e n t i t y , a lth o u g h he a ls o s t a t e s , "e lem e n ts o f o th e r p e rv e rs io n s may be found in a lm o st a l l c a s e s ." T h ere h av e been a number o f a tte m p ts to o f f e r an e x p la n a tio n o f tr a n s v e s tis m . S e v e ra l w r i t e r s (Hamburger 1953, Benjam in 1954, G u th e il 1954) su g g e st t h a t c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f a c t o r s p la y a m ajo r r o l e in i t s e tio lo g y ; how ever, : B a rr and Hobbs (1954) h av e d em o n strate d t h a t t r a n s v e s t i t e s ; h av e th e t y p i c a l m ale sex-chrom osom es. A n o th er stu d y r e le v a n t to th e r o l e o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l f a c t o r s in se x r o l e ; r e v e r s a l was co n d u cted by Money, Hampson and Hampson (1957). T hese w r i t e r s u t i l i z e d a fram ew ork o f th e fo llo w in g f i v e p h y s ic a l b a se s f o r s e x u a l a ssig n m e n t: (1 ) chrom osom al s e x , (2) g o n ad al se x , (3) horm onal sex and p u b e r ta l f e m in iz a tio n o r v i r i l i z a t i o n , (4) i n t e r n a l a c c e s s o ry r e p r o d u c tiv e s t r u c t u r e s , and (5 ) e x te r n a l g e n i t a l morphology. 16 A f te r exam ining 105 c a s e s o f h e rm a p h ro d itism , th e y co n c lu d e d t h a t sex o f assig n m en t and r e a r in g was more r e l i a b l e in d e te rm in in g th e p r e s e n t sex i d e n t i t i e s o f th e s e i n d i v id u a ls th a n any o f th e f i v e p h y s ic a l m a n if e s ta tio n s . The p s y c h o a n a ly tic p o s it io n view s tr a n s v e s tis m , as w e ll a s th e o th e r p e r v e r s io n s , a s an a tte m p t to co p e w ith c a s t r a t i o n a n x ie ty (F e n ic h e l 1945, 195 3 ). F e n ic h e l (1945, p . 344). s u g g e s ts t h a t th e t r a n s v e s t i t e , " . . . f a n t a s i e s t h a t th e woman p o s s e s s e s a p e n is , and th u s overcom es h is c a s t r a t i o n a n x ie ty , and i d e n t i f i e s h im s e lf w ith t h i s p h a l l i c woman." S tu d y in g th r e e c a s e s o f tr a n s v e s tis m in b o y s, F rie n d e t_ _ a l.(1 9 5 4 , p . 572) found in th e m others o f a l l th r e e boys "a s e v e re n a r c i s s i s t i c o r i e n ta t i o n in p h a l li c women who c o n s ta n tly e n a c te d c a s t r a t i o n t h r e a t s to th e b o y s1 .' The w r i t e r s p la c e d s p e c ia l s t r e s s on th e p a th o l o g i c a l m o th e r-c h ild r e l a t i o n s h i p s and d is tu rb a n c e s in th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p ro c e s s e s o c c u rrin g b e fo re th e p h a l l i c p e r io d . G re e n a c re 's (1953) em phasis upon body-im age d i s tu rb a n c e s in f e tis h is m , w hich sh e f e e l s h as common r o o ts w ith tr a n s v e s tis m , has im p o rta n t t h e o r e t i c a l im p lic a tio n s . She s u g g e s ts t h a t th e developm ent o f an in s e c u r e and u n s ta b le body-im age le a d s t o an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e fem ale and s e t s th e s ta g e f o r th e s tr o n g r e a c tio n to th e t h r e a t o f c a s t r a t i o n d u rin g th e O e d ip a l p h ase. The im p o r- : ta n c e o f h e r c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n i s th e s u g g e s tio n th a t t h e d is tu r b a n c e i s p r im a r ily a p re o e d ip a l o n e, and th u s th e r e a c tio n to a t h r e a t o f c a s t r a t i o n i s se co n d ary to th e e a r l i e r body-im age d is tu r b a n c e . The co m b in atio n o f an e a r ly body-im age d is tu r b a n c e and th e t h r e a t o f c a s t r a t i o n le a d s t o a s p l i t t i n g o f th e ego (F reu d 1938, G i ll e s p ie 1952) w hich a llo w s th e in d iv id u a l to b o th d e v e lo p r e l a t i v e l y n o rm ally in th e n o n se x u al s p h e re w h ile a t th e same tim e deny th e t h r e a t o f c a s t r a t i o n by means o f f e t i s h i s t i c o r t r a n s v e s t i c b e h a v io r. The c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e on tr a n s v e s tis m i s composed la r g e ly o f t h e o r e t i c a l d is c u s s io n s and i s o l a t e d c a se h i s t o r i e s (B ark er 1961; B a rr 1954; Benjam in 1954; E d e ls te in 1960; E l l i s 1936; F e n ic h e l 1953, 1948; F rie n d e t a l . 1954; Glynn and H arper 1961; G u th e il 1954; H arn ik 1932; H irs c h - f e l d 1948; Hamburger 1953; Hamburger e t a l . 1953; Karpman 1957; London 1957; L ukianow icz 1959; McKenzie 1961; P rin c e 1957; W ilson 1 9 4 8 ). The t h e o r e t i c a l e x p la n a tio n s , w hich g e n e r a lly stem from p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o r y , have been d e v e l- ; oped from a lim ite d sam pling o f c l i n i c a l c a s e s . S in c e t r a n s v e s t i t e s g e n e r a lly do n o t seek p s y c h ia tr ic a s s is ta n c e i u n le s s th e r e h as been a breakdow n in t h e i r fu n c tio n in g r e s u l t i n g from e n v iro n m e n ta l p r e s s u r e s , i t w ould seem th a t o th e r symptoms c o n c o m ita n t w ith th e breakdown in fu n c tio n in g would c o n fu se th e is s u e s . W hile t h e r e a r e d isa g re e m e n ts among w r i te r s in th e f i e l d a s t o th e e tio lo g y o f tr a n s v e s tis m (Lukianow icz 1 9 5 9 ), t h e r e i s g e n e r a lly some acknow ledgm ent t h a t i t r e p r e s e n ts a d is tu rb a n c e in s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . I f th e s e x u a l i d e n t i t y o f an in d iv id u a l d ev e lo p s from th e body-im age, s e lf - c o n c e p t, and p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s , th e fo rm a tio n o f t r a n s v e s t i c u rg e s can w e ll be e x p e c te d to r e s u l t from d is tu rb a n c e s in th e s e d ev e lo p m e n tal p ro c e s s e s . The o v e r - a l l r e s u l t , in a d d itio n to t h e t r a n s v e s t i c d r iv e , may be se en as a d is tu r b a n c e o r i n s t a b i l i t y in th e i d e n t i t y o f th e in d iv i d u a l. The T h e r o r e tic a l Framework o f | P s y c h o lo g ic a l M eaning Osgood (1957, p . 7) has p ro p o sed a t h e o r e t i c a l : m odel o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l m eaning t h a t h a s re le v a n c e t o th e in v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e c o n c e p ts o u tlin e d in t h i s s tu d y . A cco rd in g t o h is fo rm u la tio n w o rd s, s e rv in g as s ig n s , " r e p r e s e n t th in g s b e c a u se th e y p ro d u ce in human organism s some r e p l i c a o f th e o r i g i n a l b e h a v io r tow ard th e s e th in g s as a m e d ia tio n p r o c e s s ." I t fo llo w s t h a t m eanings tow ard any p a r t i c u l a r s ig n f o r d i f f e r e n t in d iv id u a ls w i l l v ary d ep en d in g upon th e b e h a v io rs a s s o c ia te d w ith th e o r i g i n a l o b je c t. F o r exam ple, th e word FATHER w i l l evoke in d i f f e r e n t in d iv id u a ls a v a r i e t y o f m eanings depending upon th e com plex b e h a v io rs o c c u rrin g w h ile th e s ig n was b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d . Words r e l a t i n g d i r e c t l y to th e s e l f can th e n evoke m eanings to w ard th e s e l f w hich can b e r e l a t e d to th e developm ent o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t. S im ila r ly , words r e l a t i n g to th e body could evoke m eanings a s s o c ia te d w ith th e body- im age. The sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l i s a te c h n iq u e o f m easu r in g m eaning th a t c o u ld be a p p lie d t o th e th e o ry o f m eaning d e s c rib e d above (Osgood e t a l . 1 9 5 7 ). I t c o n s is ts o f r a t i n g a word (o r c o n c e p t) on a s e r i e s o f seven p o in t b ip o la r a d j e c t iv e s c a le s w hich a r e r e p r e s e n ta ti v e o f th e ways in w hich m eanings can v a ry . Osgood h y p o th e s iz e s t h a t u s in g t h i s te c h n iq u e , m eaning f o r any p a r t i c u l a r word can 2 0 b e d e fin e d by i t s p o s itio n in m u ltid im e n s io n a l sp a c e . T his p o s itio n i s lo c a te d by th e judgm ents made on th e a d j e c t iv e s c a l e s . Osgood (1957, p . 26) f u r t h e r s t a t e s : D iffe re n c e in th e m eaning betw een two c o n c e p ts i s th e n m erely a fu n c tio n o f th e d if f e r e n c e s in t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e a l l o c a t i o n s w ith in th e same sp a c e , i . e . , i t i s a f u n c tio n o f th e m u l t i d i m e n sio n a l d is ta n c e betw een th e two p o in ts . The a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f th e sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l to th e m easurem ent o f c e r t a i n a s p e c ts o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t has been d is c u s s e d by Osgood. The s c a le p o s itio n s on su ch c o n c e p ts a s M E o r MYSELF can be i n t e r p r e t e d a s r e p r e s e n tin g f e e lin g s a b o u t th e s e l f , and a t th e same tim e th e bod y - im age can b e d e fin e d as th e s c a le p o s itio n s d e riv e d from re s p o n s e s t o th e co n c e p t M Y BODY. The co n c ep t o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a l s o has been in v e s tig a te d u sin g th e sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l te c h n iq u e (Lazow ick 1955, B i e r i e t _ a l . 1959, B e itn e r 1 9 6 1 ). The ap p ro ach to th e problem h a s been to o b ta in th e s u b j e c t 's r a t i n g s o f th e c o n c e p ts ME, MOTHER, and FATHER o v er s im ila r a d j e c t iv e s c a l e s . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s d e fin e d a s th e d e g re e o f p r o f i l e s i m i l a r i t y betw een th e s u b j e c t 's r a t i n g s o f M E and MOTHER, and M E and FATHER. W ith i d e n t i f i c a t i o n view ed a s s i m i l a r i t y o f m eanings betw een m odel and s u b je c t (Lazow ick 1955), we would e x p e c t a c lo s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n to b e r e p r e s e n te d by g r e a te r p r o f i l e s i m i l a r i t y betw een r a t i n g s o f s u b je c t and m odel, w h ile l e s s in te n s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n r e p r e s e n te d by d i s s i m i l a r p r o f i l e s . A S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem The developm ent o f a w e ll i n t e g r a t e d , s t a b l e i d e n t i t y depends to a g r e a t e x te n t upon c e r t a i n c o n s is te n t p a t te r n s in th e d e v elo p m en tal h i s t o r y o f an in d iv id u a l. Among th e s e p a t t e r n s , th e developm ent o f th e body-im age and p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s p la y a m ajor r o l e by s e rv in g as th e fo u n d a tio n f o r th e fo rm a tio n o f th e a p p r o p r ia te s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . The body-im age and s e lf - c o n c e p t o f norm al m ales and fem a les sh o u ld r e f l e c t c o n s is te n t p a t te r n s t h a t b o th m a in ta in th e i d e n t i t y o f th e g ro u p as w e ll as d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een th e g ro u p s. The m a jo r p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s sh o u ld be w ith t h e sam e-sexed p a re n t and t h i s in tu r n sh o u ld b e r e f l e c t e d in th e body-im ages and th e s e lf - c o n c e p ts o f th e g ro u p s. T ra n sv e s tism can be view ed as an exam ple o f a d i s tu rb a n c e in i d e n t i t y m a n ife s te d by a r e v e r s a l in th e s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . T h is r e v e r s a l stem s in p a r t from an e a r ly in te r f e r e n c e in th e developm ent o f th e body-im age and in p a r t from a r e v e r s a l in th e p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n . I f t h i s i s t r u e , th e n th e p a t te r n s o f p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s sh o u ld be r e f l e c t e d in th e body-im age and th e s e lf - c o n c e p t o f th e t r a n s v e s t i t e a s an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e in a p p r o p r ia te sexed p a r e n t. In a d d itio n , th e d is tu r b a n c e sh o u ld b e r e f l e c t e d by a d e v ia tio n in th e body-im age and th e s e lf - c o n c e p t when t r a n s v e s t i t e s a r e com pared t o w e ll a d ju s te d m a le s. I t i s p o s s ib le to t e s t th e above s ta te m e n ts by p la c in g them in th e fram ew ork o f a p s y c h o lo g ic a l th e o ry o f m eaning. U t i l i z i n g a te c h n iq u e o f c o n tr o ll e d a s s o c ia ti o n s to k ey c o n c e p ts , c e r t a i n a s p e c ts o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t, b o d y -im ag e, and p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s can b e e l i c i t e d and m easu red . The v a l i d i t y o f th e s e assu m p tio n s w i l l b e t e s t e d by com paring a group o f m ale t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ith norm al m ale and fe m a le c o n t r o l s u b je c ts on th e fo llo w in g h y p o th e s e s : I . A. The s e x u a l i d e n t i t y o f norm al m ales and fe m a le s i s r e f l e c t e d in t h e i r b o d y -im ag es. B. The s e x u a l i d e n t i t y o f norm al m ales and fe m a le s i s r e f l e c t e d in t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p ts . I I . A. T r a n s v e s tite s w i l l form d e v ia n t body-im ages when com pared to norm al m a le s. B. T r a n s v e s tite s w i l l form d e v ia n t s e l f - c o n c e p ts when com pared to norm al m a le s. 23 I I I . T r a n s v e s tite s w i l l show le s s c o n g ru e n c e betw een b ody-im age and s e lf - c o n c e p t th a n norm al m a le s . IV . The a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f an i n d i v i d u a l 's s e x u a l i d e n t i t y i s r e f l e c t e d by a c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t io n w ith th e sam e-sex ed p a re n t in term s o f t h e b o d y -im ag e. A. The body-im ages o f no rm al m a les w i l l r e f l e c t a c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith f a t h e r . B. The body-im ages o f norm al fe m a le s w i l l r e f l e c t a c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith m o th e r. C. The body-im ages o f t r a n s v e s t i t e s w i l l r e f l e c t a c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith m o th e r. V. The a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f an i n d i v i d u a l 's s e x u a l i d e n t i t y i s r e f l e c t e d by a c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e sam e-sex ed p a re n t in te rm s o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t . A. The s e lf - c o n c e p t o f norm al m ales w i l l r e f l e c t a c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith f a t h e r . B. The s e lf - c o n c e p t o f norm al fe m a le s w i l l r e f l e c t a c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith m o th e r. C. The s e lf - c o n c e p t o f t r a n s v e s t i t e s w i l l r e f l e c t a c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith m o th e r. CHAPTER II SURVEY OF THE RESEARCH LITERATURE S tu d ie s R e la tin g t o I d e n t i f i c a t o n and S ex u a l I d e n t i t y C o n c u rre n t w ith th e developm ent o f p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o ry h av e been a tte m p ts to p la c e i t s t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p ts i n t o a fram ew ork o f e x p e rim e n ta l p sy c h o lo g y . T he c o n c e p ts o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and s e x u a l i d e n t i t y have n o t been e x c e p tio n s t o th e a tte m p te d m erg er o f p s y c h o a n a ly s is w ith th e m ethodology o f e x p e rim e n ta l p sy c h o lo g y . S tu d ie s e x p lo rin g th e s e c o n c e p ts h av e u t i l i z e d p r o j e c t i v e t e c h n iq u e s a s w e ll a s o b j e c t i v e , s e l f - r e p o r t i n v e n to r i e s . The u se o f p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s a s a m ethod f o r s t u d y in g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and s e x u a l i d e n t i t y i s b a s e d upon c e r t a i n a ssu m p tio n s u n d e rly in g p r o j e c t i v e t e s t i n g in g e n e r a l; n am ely , t h a t am biguous s t i m u l i e l i c i t r e s p o n s e s from a n in d iv id u a l w hich c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y i n d i c a t e h is b a s ic c o n f l i c t s , d r i v e s , and a s p e c ts o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y o r g a n iz a t i o n . The R o rsch ach te c h n iq u e , f o r ex am p le, h as been u t i l i z e d a s a m ethod f o r s tu d y in g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s . 24 .. """".... 25. ! : i S in g e r (1960) d e s c r ib e s th e human c o n te n t re s p o n s e s in th e R o rsch ach a s in d ic a tio n s o f f a n ta s ie d p a r e n ta l im ages w hich in tu r n s e rv e as i d e n t i f i c a t i o n m odels f o r th e c h i l d . ; S c h a fe r (1954) has s u g g e s te d t h a t a number o f them es can be found in R orschach re c o rd s t h a t a r e in d ic a tio n s o f fe m in in e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in men and m a sc u lin e i d e n t i f i c a tio n in women. S in ce problem s in s e x u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n have com monly been a s s o c ia te d w ith h o m o se x u a lity , th e b u lk o f th e R orschach s tu d ie s r e l a t i n g t o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n have fo cu se d on e s ta b li s h in g d if f e r e n c e s betw een hom osexuals and n o rm a ls. For exam ple, F e in (1950) u sed a number o f s ta n d a rd R orschach s ig n s t o exam ine d if f e r e n c e s betw een hom osexual, n e u r o tic , and norm al m ale c o lle g e s tu d e n ts . Among th e s i g n i f i c a n t i n d i c a t o r s , h e found t h a t re s p o n s e s o f fe m in in e c l o th in g and men w ith fem in in e a t t r i b u t e s w ere : more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e hom osexual group th a n th e o th e r s . However, re s p o n s e s in d ic a t in g c o n fu sio n o f s e x u a l i d e n t i ty ( e .g . n o t knowing w h e th e r a f i g u r e was m ale o r fem a le) d id n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e th e hom osexuals from t h e c o n t r o ls . D avids e t a l . (1956) a l s o found a number o f t h e commonly a c c e p te d R o rsch ach s ig n s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e hom osexual from n e u r o tic and norm al c o l le g e s tu d e n ts . Somewhat ' 26 c o n tr a d ic to r y f in d in g s w ere r e p o r te d by H ooker (1 9 5 7 ). She a d m in is te re d a b a t t e r y o f t e s t s , in c lu d in g th e R o r sc h a c h , TAT, and M APS to a group o f "w ell fu n c tio n in g " hom osexuals and n o rm a ls, and found t h a t ju d g e s w ere u n a b le to r e l i a b l y i d e n t i f y w h eth e r th e re c o rd s came from t h e hom osexual group o r th e n o rm a ls. In a d d itio n , and j u s t a s s t r i k i n g , sh e found th e ju d g es r a te d two t h i r d s o f b o th th e n o rm al and hom osexual groups a s b ein g a v e ra g e o r b e t t e r in term s o f o v e r - a l l a d ju s tm e n t. W hile t h e r e is l i t t l e d o u b t th a t t h e R orschach c o u ld b e u sed t o stu d y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s , th e r e a r e a number o f problem s t h a t a r i s e in i t s u s e . A side from th e p roblem in d e r iv in g r e l i a b l e r a t i n g s , t h e p re se n c e o r a b se n c e o f in d ic a t io n s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a tte r n s i s lim ite d by th e s tim u lu s " p u l l " o f th e c a rd s p lu s th e re s p o n s iv e n e s s o f th e s u b je c t. T h e re fo re , t h e ab sen ce o f re s p o n s e s in d ic a tin g p a r e n ta l o r se x u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s can n o t b e in t e r p r e t e d . The T hem atic A p p ercep tio n T e s t (M urray 193 8 ), a l s o h as been w id ely u s e d as a m easure o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The I r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e s u b j e c t 's re sp o n se t o a TAT I p ic tu r e and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s a p ro c e s s o f t h e s u b j e c t 's 27 a t t r i b u t i n g a s p e c ts o f h is own s e lf - c o n c e p t to th e c e n t r a l f i g u r e , o r h e ro o f th e s t o r y , and th e re b y id e n tif y in g w ith t h a t f i g u r e . R o tte r (1 9 4 6 ), f o r exam ple, found t h a t th e " i d e n t i f i e d f ig u r e " in TAT s t o r i e s ( th e h e ro ) h a s a h i s t o r y s im ila r to th e s u b j e c t 's own. Hartman (1949) u se d a f i v e p o in t r a t i n g s c a le a s an in d ic a t io n o f th e fre q u e n c y and i n t e n s i t y o f "fe m in in e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " them es in th e TAT s t o r i e s o f m ale a d o le s c e n t p s y c h ia tr ic c l i n i c c a s e s . C o r r e l a t i n g th e s c o re s w ith in d e p e n d e n tly d e riv e d b e h a v io r a l r a t i n g s , Hartman found " h ig h f e m in in ity " s c o re s t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to th e fo llo w in g : im p u ls iv ity , a s th e n ic a p p e a ra n c e , poor t o t a l a d ju s tm e n t, many n erv o u s symptoms, f e e l i n g i n f e r i o r , and f e e l in g s e lf - c o n s c io u s . In r a t i n g th e TAT s t o r i e s , Hartman c o n s id e re d a s s ig n s o f fem in in e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n th e fo llo w in g : th e am biguous f ig u r e s a r e i d e n t i f i e d as fe m a le , u n c e r ta in ty w ith r e s p e c t t o sex i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and s tro n g em pathy shown w ith fem ale c h a r a c t e r s . A somewhat d i f f e r e n t , and p e rh a p s more p ro m isin g te c h n iq u e f o r m easu rin g p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n from TAT p r o to c o ls was d e v is e d by B i e r i , Lobeck, and G a lin sk y (1 9 5 9 ). T hese w r i te r s w ere i n t e r e s t e d in in v e s tig a tin g ! ~ ~ 28 | i two a s p e c ts o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ; nam ely, d e g re e o f p e rc e iv e d 1 i (by th e s u b je c t) s i m i l a r i t y betw een s u b je c t and m odel, ' j and d e g re e o f in v o lv e m e n t, o r th e c lo s e n e s s o f th e r e l a - t i o n s h ip betw een s u b je c t and m odel. TAT re s p o n s e s u sed a s a " f a n ta s y " m easure o f p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ere com pared to th e r e s u l t s o f an in te rv ie w as a " d i r e c t m e a s u re ," and th e se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l as an " i n d i r e c t m easure" o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . TAT c a rd s s e le c te d on th e b a s is o f s tim u lu s p u l l to e l i c i t r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een m o th er and so n , and f a t h e r and son w ere a d m in is te re d to m ale u n d e rg ra d u a te s ; s i m i l a r l y , c a rd s d e p ic tin g m other and d a u g h te r, and f a t h e r and d a u g h te r w ere a d m in is te re d to fem a le u n d e rg ra d u a te s . R a tin g s on th e c lo s e n e s s o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e f ig u r e s in th e s t o r i e s e l i c i t e d w ere i n te r p r e t e d as a m easure o f th e "in v o lv em e n t a s p e c t" o f p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . I t was p o s s i b le , th e r e f o r e , by com paring s c o re s on th e "M other" c a rd to th o s e on th e " F a th e r" c a rd f o r e ach group o f s u b j e c t s , t o d e te rm in e th e m a jo r p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . T h e ir r e s u l t s in d ic a te d t h a t th e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een "in v o lv em e n t" a s p e c ts o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n f o r m a le s, b u t n o t f o r fe m a le s . The w r i t e r s s u g g e s t t h a t th e TAT s ti m u li may n o t have been ! I |a d e q u a te to e l i c i t t h i s m easure o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in fe m a le s, o r p erh ap s fem ales have le s s c o n s is te n t p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s th an m a le s. A nother te c h n iq u e w hich has been used to stu d y th e r e la tio n s h i p betw een i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and se x u a l i d e n t i t y i s th e D raw -a-Person te c h n iq u e (Machover 1949). Machover (1951, p . 360) s t a t e s : In com paring th e m ale and fem ale f ig u re s done by th e same s u b je c t, we o b ta in in fo rm a tio n re g a rd in g th e s u b j e c t 's a t t i t u d e tow ard th e o p p o s ite s e x , tow ard h is own sex r o l e , tow ard p a r e n ta l f ig u r e s in s o f a r as th e y r e p r e s e n t th e b a s is o f s e x u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , and tow ard th e w ider sp h e re o f a u th o r ity . W hile th e te c h n iq u e ap p ears to have a sound t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s , a tte m p ts to t e s t o u t h y p o th eses r e l a t i n g to i d e n t i f i c a t i o n have y ie ld e d d is a p p o in tin g r e s u l t s (Reed 1957, C u tte r 1956, T olor 1957). Swensen (1957, p. 460) s t a t e s , "M achover's h y p o th eses a r e n o t su p p o rted by e v id e n c e , in f a c t , th e r e a r e g ro ss c o n tr a d ic tio n s ." In a rev ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e , Brown and T o lo r (1957) a ls o p o in t o u t th e la c k o f ev id en ce w hich would su p p o rt th e u se o f human f ig u r e draw ings as r e f l e c t i o n s o f p sy ch o sex u al i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o r a d ju stm e n t. One a d d itio n a l p r o je c tiv e te c h n iq u e d eveloped to stu d y se x u a l i d e n t i t y in c h ild re n i s c a lle d th e " I t S c a le " ................ ... ............ .......................... ...... 30 | i (Brown 1956, 1 9 5 7 ). The te c h n iq u e c o n s is ts o f a d m in is te r - j in g a s e r i e s o f c a rd s d e p ic tin g a c t i v i t i e s t y p i c a l l y a s s o - : I c ia te d w ith m a scu lin e o r fem in in e r o le s and a s k in g th e s u b je c t to make a c h o ic e betw een two such a c t i v i t i e s f o r an am biguous f i g u r e . Brown fo u n d , in g e n e r a l, a g r e a t e r c o n s is te n c y among boys to s e l e c t m a sc u lin e a c t i v i t i e s and , ! . ! o b je c ts ; how ever, t h i s c o n s is te n c y was n o t found w ith g i r l s i W hile a t l e a s t 50 p er c e n t o f th e g i r l s t e s t e d showed : j fe m in in e r o le p r e f e r e n c e s , a g r e a t e r p e rc e n ta g e s e le c te d m a sc u lin e a c t i v i t i e s th a n boys s e le c tin g fem in in e a c t i v i t i e s . The a tte m p t to o b je c ti f y th e c o n c e p ts o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n alo n g a s e l f - r e p o r t dim ension le a d s t o th e in c lu s io n o f m a s c u lin ity - fe m in in ity s c a le s : w ith in th e fram ework o f o b je c tiv e p e r s o n a lity in v e n to r ie s . T h is i s e x e m p lifie d by su ch m easures as th e Terman -M iles M-F s c a le (1 9 3 6 ), th e M-F s c a le o f th e MMPI (Hathaway 194 4 ), th e M-F s c a le on th e C a lif o r n ia P s y c h o lo g ic a l In v e n to ry (Gouph 1 9 5 1 ), and th e M a s c u lin ity s c a le on th e G u ilf o rd - Zinmerman Temperament Survey (1 9 4 9 ). These m easures seem t o r e f l e c t s o c i a l - c u l t u r a l s e x - r o le a t t i t u d e s and can r e l i a b l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e m ales and fe m a le s, a lth o u g h n o t w ith * !o u t a good d e a l o f o v e rla p (B e ie r 1953). 31 In an a tte m p t to u t i l i z e t h i s ty p e o f s c a le a s a i I I m easu re o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , B e ie r (1953) a d m in is te r e d th e ] i I ! MMPI to m ale and fem a le u n d e rg ra d u a te s and a sk ed them to i re sp o n d t o th e ite m s as th e m s e lv e s , th e n a s t h e i r f a t h e r :and m o th er w ould. D e fin in g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a s th e d e g re e j ; o f s i m i l a r i t y betw een th e t h r e e a d m in is tr a tio n s o f t h i s ! ! t e s t , he found t h a t th e m ales i d e n t i f i e d m ore c lo s e ly w ith t h e i r f a t h e r s , and th e fe m a le s more c l o s e l y w ith t h e i r ] ; | m o th e rs . Payne and Mussen (1956) a d m in is te re d th e C a li- ! i i f o r n i a P s y c h o lo g ic a l In v e n to ry t o m ale a d o le s c e n ts a s w e ll ! i ! a s o b ta in in g re s p o n s e s t o a " p r o j e c t i v e in c o m p le te s t o r i e s t e s t . " The CPI was a l s o a d m in is te r e d to th e p a r e n ts o f th e j s u b j e c t s . They fou n d a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e f a t h e r and p e r c e iv in g th e f a t h e r j ! i i i a s a re w a rd in g f i g u r e . T h e ir r e s u l t s a l s o in d ic a te d t h a t " r e l a t i v e l y m a s c u lin e m o th e rs" te n d to i n h i b i t s tr o n g i | f a t h e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s in t h e i r s o n s . The se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l can be d e s c r ib e d a s an I i 1 ! iin s tru m e n t t h a t com bines some o f th e s u b t l e t i e s and th e ! j I i 5 1 j d e p th o f p r o j e c t i v e te c h n iq u e s w ith th e o b j e c t i v i t y o f j I ! I ! i s e l f - r e p o r t in v e n t o r i e s . "The M easurem ent o f M eaning" j (Osgood e t_ _ a l.1957) d e s c r ib e s , w ith p r e c i s io n and a good t d e a l o f d o c u m e n ta tio n , th e t h e o r e t i c a l b ack g ro u n d , r a t i o n - j a l e , te c h n iq u e , r e l i a b i l i t y and a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f th e I se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l . S in ce i t s in tr o d u c t io n , th e sem an- j I | t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l h as been a p p lie d to a w ide ra n g e o f p ro b - i j lem s. T hese in c lu d e such d iv e r s e a r e a s a s m eanings o f j v a lu e s (Osgood e t a l . 196 1 ), s tu d ie s o f t h e s tim u lu s v a lu e o f R orschach in k b l o t s (R abin 1959, Zax and L o is e lle 1 9 6 0 ), c r o s s - c u l t u r a l s tu d ie s o f m eaning (Rosen 1959, T r ia n d is and Osgood 1 9 5 8 ), changes in m eaning d u rin g p sy c h o th e ra p y (E n d le r 1961), and changes in m eaning r e l a t e d to an LSD in d u ced " d i s s o c i a ti v e s t a t e " (K orot 195 9 ). The r a t i o n a l e f o r i t s a p p lic a tio n to th e stu d y o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was d is c u s s e d in C h ap ter I . In h i s stu d y on i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , Lazowick (1955, p . 182) sum m arized h is f in d in g s by s t a t i n g : In view o f th e s e f in d in g s , i t a p p e a rs t h a t th e se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l may be u sed to i n v e s t i g a t e th e n a tu r e o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a s th e o r iz e d h e r e , and t h a t i t y ie ld s r e s u l t s t h a t a r e b o th c o n v in c in g and m e a n in g fu l. ! In o r d e r to t e s t M owrer' s (1950) h y p o th e s is t h a t norm al j i p e rso n s te n d t o i d e n ti f y w ith th e p a r e n ts o f th e same s e x , i and n e u r o tic p e rso n s show a co n fu se d and d iv id e d i d e n t i - ; i | 1 f i c a t i o n , Lazow ick s e le c te d norm al and n e u r o tic g ro u p s o f i m ale and fem ale c o lle g e s tu d e n ts on th e b a s is o f t h e i r ...................... 33.... '] j s c o re s on th e T a y lo r M a n ife st A n x iety S c a le . He a d m in is- ; te r e d a sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l composed o f te n c o n c e p ts and j I | l n in e b ip o la r s c a le s r e p r e s e n tin g th e th r e e f a c t o r s i s o l a te d by O sgood's s tu d i e s : th e e v a lu a tiv e , p o te n c y , and a c t i v i t y ; d im e n sio n s. In a d d itio n to t e s t i n g th e s u b je c ts , he was a b le t o t e s t a number o f th e s u b j e c t s ' p a r e n ts . The com p a ris o n o f p r o f i l e s betw een s u b je c ts and p a r e n ts was d e fin e d a s " d i r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " w h ile th e s u b j e c t s ' in te r - c o n c e p t com parisons ( e . g . , th e c o n c e p t: MYSELF and th e c o n c e p t—FATHER) w ere d e fin e d a s " in f e r r e d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . " H is r e s u l t s can be sum m arized a s fo llo w s : in term s o f d i r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , low a n x ie ty men i d e n t i f y ! more c l o s e ly w ith t h e i r same se x p a re n t th a n h ig h a n x ie ty m a le s, b u t th e same d id n o t h o ld t r u e f o r th e women; in term s o f in f e r r e d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , b o th low a n x ie ty men and women i d e n t i f i e d more c lo s e ly w ith t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e i sam e-sexed p a re n ts th a n th e h ig h a n x ie ty s u b je c ts . L azo w ick a l s o fo u n d , in term s o f in f e r r e d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , t h a t ; : th e low a n x ie ty m ales i d e n t i f i e d more c lo s e ly w ith t h e i r * # ! f a t h e r s th a n t h e i r m o th e rs, w h ile th e r e v e r s e was n o t t r u e i f o r th e low a n x ie ty fe m a le s; and f i n a l l y , low a n x ie ty j s u b je c ts o f b o th se x e s te n d to i d e n t i f y more w ith b o th ! i p a re n ts th a n n e u r o tic s u b je c ts . A s tu d y com paring i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t te r n s o f h o s - : p i t a l i z e d m ale p a ra n o id s c h iz o p h re n ic s w ith m ale h o s p i t a l i z e d tu b e r c u lo s is p a t i e n t s , and m ale a n x ie ty n e u r o tic o u tp a tie n ts w ith norm al m ales was r e p o r te d by B e itn e r (1 9 6 1 ). U sing a sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l te c h n iq u e s im ila r to Lazow ick*s h e found t h a t th e p a ra n o id s c h iz o p h re n ic group i d e n t i f i e d le s s w ith e i t h e r sex th a n th e c o n tr o l g ro u p . The same r e s u l t s w ere o b ta in e d when th e n e u r o tic group was com pared to th e norm al m a les. In a d d itio n , he found t h e c o n t r o l group to i d e n t i f y more c lo s e ly w ith t h e i r f a t h e r s th an t h e i r m o th ers when com pared to th e n e u r o tic g ro u p . He co n clu d ed t h a t "c o n fu sio n in s e x u a l i d e n t i f i c a tio n " was found in th e n e u r o tic group b u t n o t in th e p a ra n o id s c h iz o p h re n ic g ro u p . As d is c u s s e d p r e v io u s ly , B ie r i e t a l . (1959) u sed th e se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l in an e f f o r t t o d e te rm in e th e c o n s is te n c y betw een d i f f e r e n t m easures o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . On th e se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l , B ie r i ask ed each o f h is su b j e c t s t o r a t e h im s e lf , h i s m o th e r, and h is f a t h e r on th e same a d j e c t i v e s s c a le s u sed by Lazowick (1 9 5 5 ). By su b - j t r a c t i n g th e d if f e r e n c e s c o re s betw een th e s e l f - r a t i n g and p r o f i l e r a t e d f o r m other and f a th e r f o r b o th m ales and fe m a le s , B i e r i found t h a t th e fem ale showed g r e a t e r 35 p r o f i l e s i m i l a r i t y w ith t h e i r f a t h e r s th a n m o thers w h ile ; th e m ales w ere ev e n ly d iv id e d . He found t h i s " d if f e r e n c e s c o re " to be a more s e n s i t i v e i n d ic a t o r o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n th a n s c o re s r e l a t i n g to e i t h e r p a r e n t a lo n e . B ecause o f th e in c o n s is te n t r e s u l t s when th r e e m easures o f i d e n t i f i c a tio n w ere com pared and th e s h i f t s in p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s when one m easure was com pared to a n o th e r f o r a g iv e n s u b j e c t , h i s s tu d y i s an in d ic a t io n o f th e need f o r more th a n one a p p ro a c h to th e o v e r - a l l problem o f stu d y in g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . S tu d ie s R e la tin g to th e S e lf-C o n c e p t In r e c e n t y e a rs , th e r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g t o th e s e lf - c o n c e p t h a s , a s one w r i t e r (W ylie 1961) p u t i t , grown in " c h a o tic p r o f u s io n ." In W y lie 's (1961) com p re h e n s iv e re v ie w o f r e s e a r c h in th e a re a o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t, two g e n e ra l ap p ro ach es t o th e problem a r e d e l i n e a t e d . The f i r s t she b r o a d ly la b e ls as s tu d ie s o f th e "p h en o m en o lo g ical s e l f " and i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by o b je c ti v e , s e l f - r e p o r t in v e n to r ie s ; th e second ap p ro ac h , o r "non- phenom enal s e l f " r e s e a rc h i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by th e u se o f p r o j e c t i v e te c h n iq u e s . The l a t t e r i s d ir e c te d tow ard u n c o v e rin g a s p e c ts o f th e "u n c o n scio u s s e l f - c o n c e p t ," and 36 " has th e ad v a n tag e o f m in im isin g th e re sp o n se s e t s and p ro b lem s o f f a l s i f i c a t i o n t y p i c a l o f th e o b je c tiv e m easu res; how ever, a t th e same tim e in tr o d u c in g problem s o f r a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y and c o n s tr u c t v a l i d i t y in h e re n t in p r o je c tiv e te c h n iq u e s . W hile n o t u se d e x te n s iv e ly in th e stu d y o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t, th e R o rsch ach te c h n iq u e can be a d a p te d to t h i s problem . K lo p fe r e t a l . (1954, p . 264) d e s c r ib e th e "M" re s p o n s e , th e human movement re s p o n s e as r e f l e c t i n g th e s e lf - c o n c e p t s in c e , " th e q u a l i t y o f th e em pathy an i n d i v id u a l d i r e c t s tow ard h i s s o c i a l environm ent te n d s to r e f l e c t h is p i c t u r e o f h im s e lf ." The u se o f th e "M" re s p o n s e a s a c lu e to th e s e lf - c o n c e p t i s a l s o proposed by S c h a fe r (1954) and S in g e r (1 9 6 0 ). D i l l e r and R ik lan (1957) found th e number o f "M" re sp o n se s to c o r r e l a t e p o s i t i v e l y w ith n e g a tiv e s e l f - s t a t e m e n t s . U sing th e "M" s c o r e , a lo n g w ith o th e r R o rsch ach i n d i c i e s , S a rb in and F arberow (1952) found t h a t s e lf - p e r c e p tio n i s more s t a b l e th a n r o l e p e rc e p tio n u n d er h y p n o tic age r e g r e s s io n . O th er a tte m p ts to s tu d y th e s e lf - c o n c e p t u s in g th e R orschach te c h n iq u e have been made by Haim owitz and Haim owitz (1 9 5 2 ), Cohen (1 9 5 4 ), and L in to n and Graham (1 9 5 9 ). The TAT h a s been o f somewhat g r e a t e r u s e in in v e s - 37 t i g a t i n g th e s e lf - c o n c e p t th a n th e R o rsch ach . R a th e r th a n s p e c i f i c s c o re s a s a p p lie d to th e R o rsch ach , g lo b a l r a t i n g s o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t a r e g e n e ra l d e riv e d from TAT them es. An exam ple o f t h i s ap p ro ach i s a stu d y by Mussen and Jo n e s (1957) who i n t e r p r e t e d n e g a tiv e s ta te m e n ts a b o u t th e TAT h e ro a s th e " n e g a tiv e s e l f - c o n c e p t ." They found t h a t l a t e "m a tu rin g b o y s" showed more " n e g a tiv e s e lf - c o n c e p ts " th a n " e a r ly m a tu rin g b o y s ." Changes in th e s e lf - c o n c e p t w ere e v a lu a te d by means o f TAT r a t i n g s by R ogers and Diamond (1 9 5 4 ), M alek (1 9 6 1 ), and B a rr (1 9 5 2 ). The s tu d i e s u s in g th e R o rsch ach and TAT a s m easu res o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t g e n e r a lly seem to b e p ro m isin g , a lth o u g h as W ylie (1961) p o in ts o u t, th e w ide v a r ie ty o f s c o rin g te c h n iq u e s and r a t i n g s , th e in c o n s is te n c y o f p ro c e d u re s u s e d , and th e v ag u en ess o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l fo rm u la tio n s in d ic a t e th e need f o r f u r t h e r e x p lo ra to ry a tte m p ts . By f a r , th e g r e a t e r b u lk o f s tu d ie s o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t a r e o f th e s e l f - r e p o r t ty p e , o r s tu d ie s o f th e p h en o m en o lo g ical s e l f . T y p ic a l o f th e ap p ro ac h es a r e th e s tu d i e s u t i l i z i n g "Q" s o r t s (S tep h en so n 1935, 1 9 5 2 ), c h e c k l i s t s o f s e l f - d e s c r i p t i o n , su ch a s th e I n te r p e r s o n a l C heck l i s t (L eary 195 7 ), and a d j e c t i v e c h e c k l i s t s (S a rb in and 'J o n e s 1955, S arb in and R osenberg 195 5 ), and q u e s tio n n a ir e s (B erg er 1952, P h i l l i p s 1 9 5 1 ). The se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l can be c o n s id e re d a s one o f th e o b je c tiv e s e l f - r e p o r t ap p ro ac h es to s tu d y in g th e s e lf - c o n c e p t. R a tin g s o f th e s e l f h av e been com pared t o r a t i n g s g iv e n f o r p a r e n ts a s m easu res o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ( B ie r i e t a l . 1959, Lazow ick 1955, B e itn e r 1 9 6 1 ). C h o ices on th e e v a lu a tiv e f a c t o r w ere used a s a d i r e c t m easure o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t by S o lle y and S ta g n e r (1 9 5 6 ). T hese t e s t e r s found t h a t Ss w ith low s e lf - e v a lu a t io n in c re a s e d problem s o lv in g speed a f t e r f a i l u r e f a s t e r , made more s e l f - r e f e r e n t com ments, and on n e g a tiv e ly to n ed w ords showed in c re a s e d palm ar sw e a tin g w ith in s o lu b le problem s a s com pared to a d e c re a s e in palm ar sw e a tin g f o r th e h ig h e v a lu a tio n g ro u p . Bronson (1959) u se d an in te rv ie w te c h n iq u e and a sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l to t e s t a s p e c ts o f E r ik s o n 's " i d e n t i t y d if f u s io n " c o n c e p t. He found t h a t s u b je c ts low on m easu res o f i d e n t i t y c o n fu sio n im p ressed r a t e r s a s h av in g a s t a b l e se n se o f s e l f , w ere r e l a t i v e l y f r e e from a n x ie ty , w ere c e r t a i n ab o u t dom inant p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and showed g r e a t e r s t a b i l i t y in th e s e lf - c o n c e p t o v e r tim e . G rigg (1959) had a group o f s u b je c ts r a t e th e c o n c e p ts : SELF, IDEAL SELF, and NEUROTIC on a d j e c t iv e s c a le s r e p r e s e n tin g th e e v a lu a tiv e , p o te n c y , and a c t i v i t y f a c t o r s . He "" 39 found t h a t c o lle g e s tu d e n ts p la c e t h e i r i d e a l s e l f s i g n i f i c a n t l y f u r t h e r from t h e i r co n c ep t o f n e u r o tic th a n th e y p la c e t h e i r co n cep t o f s e l f . An a tte m p t to m easure th e g r o u p 's r a t i n g s o f a c a s e h i s t o r y o f a "M iss X" b e fo re and a f t e r n e u r o tic m a te r ia l was in tro d u c e d d id n o t y ie ld s i g n i f i c a n t s h i f t s tow ard th e n e u r o tic m eaning. A se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l , composed o f c o n c e p ts r e le v a n t t o p sy c h o th erap y and a d j e c t iv e s c a le s r e p r e s e n tin g th e t h r e e m ajor f a c t o r s , was a d m in is te re d t o a r e l a t i v e l y la r g e number o f in d iv id u a ls in th e ra p y and c o n tr o ls by L u ria (1 9 5 9 ). R a tin g s on th e c o n c e p ts "ME," "My MOTHER," and "My FATHER" s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e two groups, w h ile su c h c o n c e p ts as "MENTAL SICKNESS, HATRED, PEACE OF MIND, CONFUSION and SEX" d id n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e th e g ro u p s. Of th e th r e e c o n c e p ts w hich d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e g ro u p s, o n ly th e s e lf - c o n c e p t ( th e co n c ep t M E) showed a " s i g n i f i c a n t im provem ent" a t th e c o n c lu s io n o f th e ra p y . A no th er stu d y r e l a t i n g change in th e s e lf - c o n c e p t t o im provem ent in p sy ch o th erap y was d e s c rib e d by E n d le r (1 9 6 1 ). He a d m in is te re d a sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l to a group o f s e v e n te e n c o lle g e s tu d e n ts b o th b e fo re e n te r in g th e ra p y and a f t e r th e ra p y had b een te rm in a te d , as w e ll a s r a t i n g them in re g a rd t o th e r a p e u tic im provem ent. He found a ................................. 40 s i g n i f i c a n t change in th e s e lf - c o n c e p t on th e e v a lu a tiv e f a c t o r b u t changes in th e s u b j e c t s ' p e rc e p tio n o f t h e i r f a t h e r s and m o th ers w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . E n d le r a ls o found a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t io n betw een changes in th e s e lf - c o n c e p t and th e t h e r a p i s t 's e s tim a tio n o f im provem ent. H is s tu d y , a lo n g w ith L u r i a 's r e s u l t s , s u p p o rts b o th th e im p o rtan ce o f changes in th e s e lf - c o n c e p t a s a m ean in g fu l c r i t e r i o n o f im provem ent in p sy c h o th erap y a s w e ll a s th e u s e fu ln e s s o f th e se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l in e v a lu a tin g th e ch an g es o c c u rrin g in th e s e lf - c o n c e p t. S tu d ie s R e la tin g to th e Body-Image A lth o u g h th e r e has been an in c re a s e in i n t e r e s t in th e co n c ep t o f th e body-im age and in c re a s e d agreem ent a s t o th e im p o rta n ce o f i t s r o l e in p e r s o n a lity f u n c tio n in g , th e r e h av e been s u r p r i s in g ly few s y s te m a tic ap p ro ach es to w ard s tu d y in g i t s m a n if e s ta tio n s . R ep o rts in th e l i t e r a t u r e c e n te r around two m ajo r a r e a s ; th e f i r s t i s th e phantom lim b phenomenon and th e n e u r o lo g i s t s ' i n t e r e s t in th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i t and th e h y p o th e siz e d c o r t i c a l body-im age schema (Head 1926, Mahoney 1950, Simmel 1 9 5 6 ). The second d e a ls w ith th e d i s t o r t i o n s in b o d y -fe e lin g s r e p o r te d by s c h iz o p h re n ic s , and t o a le s s e r d e g re e by o th e r d is tu r b e d in d iv id u a ls (Bychowski 1943, B le u le r 1950, S c h ild e r 1 9 5 0 ). P erhaps th e m ost o r i g i n a l and p ro d u c tiv e , b u t m ost q u e s tio n a b le ap p ro ach to w ard th e o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f body-im age d a ta h as been s u g g e s te d by F is h e r and C lev elan d (1 9 5 8 ). T hese w r i t e r s a d a p te d a s c o rin g ap p ro ach to th e R orschach te c h n iq u e w hich th e y f e e l d e lin e a te s a s i g n i f i c a n t dim ension o f th e b o d y -im ag e; nam ely, body b o u n d a rie s . T h e ir system i s to a p p ly one o f two s c o re s to R orschach re s p o n s e s w here a p p l ic a b le . T hese s c o re s a r e a s fo llo w s : (1) th e B a r r ie r s c o r e , w here th e em phasis i s upon th e p o s itiv e n e s s and d e f i n i t e n e s s o f b o u n d a rie s ( e .g . c l o th in g , a n im a ls w ith d i s t i n c t i v e s k in s , e n c lo se d o penings in th e e a r t h , c o n t a in e r s , and a rm o r); and (2) th e P e n e tra tio n o f Boundary s c o r e , w here th e em phasis i s on th e la c k o f p r o t e c t i o n a ffo rd e d by th e body e x t e r i o r ( e .g . d is r u p tio n o f s u r f a c e s on th in g s , c h a n n e ls f o r p a s s in g from i n t e r i o r to e x t e r i o r o f th in g s , and s u r f a c e s a s b e in g f r a g i l e o r e a s i l y p e rm e a b le ). S in c e th e s c o re s a r e a d d i tiv e and th e re b y a f f e c t e d by t o t a l r e s p o n s e s , th e w r i t e r s c o n tr o l re sp o n se t o t a l by r e q u e s tin g a f ix e d number o f re sp o n se s f o r each c a r d , o r by u s in g a p re d e te rm in e d c u t o f f p o in t. .................................42 T h is te c h n iq u e h as been u sed to com pare re s p o n s e s o f num erous g ro u p s. F o r exam ple, th e h y p o th e s is was t e s t e d t h a t p e rs o n s whose p sy ch o so m atic symptoms in v o lv e th e body e x t e r i o r w ould c o n c e iv e o f t h e i r b o d ie s as h a v in g a r e l a t i v e l y s tr o n g b a r r i e r , and th o s e w ith symptoms in v o lv in g th e body i n t e r i o r would s e e t h e i r body b o u n d a rie s as b e in g e a s i l y p e n e tr a te d . Com paring th e R orschach re c o rd s o f stom ach d is tu r b a n c e and c o l i t i s g ro u p s (symptoms in v o lv in g body i n t e r i o r ) w ith th e re c o rd s o f a r t h r i t i s , n eu ro d erm a t i t i s , and c o n v e rs io n h y s t e r i a groups (symptoms in v o lv in g body e x t e r i o r ) , th e y found th e form er to have s i g n i f i c a n t l y : h ig h e r " P e n e tr a tio n o f Boundary s c o re s " and s i g n i f i c a n t l y lo w er " B a r r ie r s c o re s " th a n th e l a t t e r . T hese r e s u l t s w ere i n t e r p r e t e d a s s u p p o rtin g t h e i r h y p o th e s is . In a n o th e r s tu d y , F is h e r and C lev elan d (1958) a d m in is te re d th e R o rsch ach and TAT t o 87 u n d e rg ra d u a te s . They found t h a t n e i t h e r o f th e body-im age in d ic e s d is c rim in a te d betw een th e s e x e s . U sing b lin d r a t i n g s o f th e TAT, th e y a l s o found in d iv id u a ls w ith h ig h B a r r ie r R orschach s c o re s t o show h ig h a s p i r a t i o n , and more d e f i n i t e a t t i t u d e s (b o th | p o s i t i v e and n e g a tiv e ) t o p a r e n ta l f i g u r e s . However, th e d e g re e o f h o s t i l i t y tow ard th e m o th e r-fig u re and tow ard i : th e f a t h e r - f i g u r e w ere n o t r e l a t e d e i t h e r to t h e B a r r ie r s c o re o r to th e P e n e tra tio n o f Boundary s c o r e . A c ro s s v a l id a t io n stu d y in v o lv in g 38 fem ale g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts su p p o rte d th e TAT f in d in g s . The a u th o rs s u g g e s t th e r e l a t i o n s h ip betw een h ig h B a r r ie r s c o re s and d e f in it e n e s s o f a t t i t u d e s tow ard p a r e n ta l f ig u r e s in d ic a te s t h a t firm body-im age b o u n d a rie s r e p r e s e n ts an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith p a r e n ts who p ro v id e " a w e ll d e fin e d m o d e l." The w ide v a r i e t y o f v a r ia b le s in v e s tig a te d by F is h e r and C le v e la n d in c lu d e ach iev em en t m o tiv a tio n , ta s k c o m p le tio n , s u g g e s t i b i l i t y , r e a c tio n to s t r e s s , d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s , p sy c h o n e u ro sis and p s y c h o s is , c r o s s - c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s , and p h y s io lo g ic a l r e a c t i v i t y . For th e r e s u l t s o f th e s e and o th e r s tu d ie s th e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d to t h e i r book "Body Image and P e r s o n a lity " (1 9 5 8 ), as w e ll a s s tu d i e s p u b lis h e d e lse w h e re ( F is h e r , 1959a, 1 9 5 9 b ). W hile t h e i r work i s h ig h ly p ro v o c a tiv e and th e r e i s l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t th e y have i s o l a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t Ror sch ach v a r i a b l e s , th e r e i s some q u e s tio n a b o u t t h e i r m ajo r p rem ise t h a t th e y a r e m easu rin g body-im age v a r i a b l e s . The q u e s tio n can be r a i s e d w h eth er th e dynamic p ro c e s s e s d e t e r m in in g th e re s p o n s e s : "p e rso n b e h in d a t r e e , " "p re g n a n t i woman," " i g l o o ," and " r i v e r " a r e s im ila r in t h a t th e s e re s p o n s e s a r e r e f l e c t i o n s o f body-im age b o u n d a rie s . F u rth e rm o re , i t seem s d o u b tf u l t h a t re s p o n s e s su c h as "body c u t open" and "window" r e p r e s e n t e q u a l d e g re e s o f " P e n e tr a tio n o f B a r r ie r " a s th e s c o rin g w ould i n d i c a t e . A f u r t h e r e x a m in a tio n o f t y p i c a l re s p o n s e s f i t t i n g i n t o th e tw o c a te g o r ie s i n d ic a t e s t h a t many re s p o n s e s r e c e iv in g a B a r r i e r s c o r e w ould a l s o r e c e iv e a h ig h form l e v e l r a t i n g (K lo p fe r e t a l . 1954) w h ile many " P e n e tr a tio n o f B oundary" re s p o n s e s w ould b e r a te d c o n s id e r a b ly lo w e r. T h is r a i s e s th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t much o f t h e i r d a ta c o n c e iv a b ly c o u ld b e m e a n in g fu lly r e i n t e r p r e t e d in te rm s o ffo rm l e v e l , r a t h e r th a n u t i l i z i n g a c o n c e p t o f b o d y -im ag e. B e fo re th e f u l l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e i r te c h n iq u e can be r e a l i z e d , i t w ould a p p e a r n e c e s s a ry t o u n d e rta k e f u r t h e r b a s ic r e s e a r c h i n to th e m e a n in g fu ln e s s o f th e s c o r in g c a te g o r ie s a s th e y a p p ly t o th e re s p o n s e p r o c e s s . The D raw -a-P erso n te c h n iq u e can be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a g ra p h ic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an i n d i v i d u a l 's b o d y -im ag e. As in th e p r e v io u s ly m en tio n ed s tu d i e s r e l a t i n g to f i g u r e d raw in g s and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , a tte m p ts t o t e s t body-im age h y p o th e s e s h av e y ie ld e d d is a p p o in tin g r e s u l t s . S i l v e r s t e i n and R obinson (1 9 5 6 ), f o r exam ple, w ere u n a b le to d i f f e r e n t i a t e norm al c h ild r e n from c h ild r e n w ith p o lio m y e li tis on th e b a s is o f f ig u r e d ra w in g s. Woods and Cook (1954) found in t e s t i n g e ig h th - g r a d e r s , t h a t th e m anner o f r e p r e s e n tin g th e hands was a fu n c tio n o f p r o f ic ie n c y o f d raw in g . S e v e ra l a tte m p ts have been made to v ary th e b a s ic t e c h n iq u e . F or exam ple, G o ite in (1 9 4 2 ), and Brown and G o ite in (1943) b lin d f o ld t h e i r s u b je c ts , and T a it and A sch er (1955) a s k t h e i r s u b je c ts to draw th e in s id e o f th e body. M achover (W itk in e t a l . 1954) found a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een f i g u r e draw ing and p e r c e p tu a l p erfo rm an ce. Com paring th e d raw in g s o f in d iv id u a ls who r e l y on k i n e s t h e t i c cu es f o r p e rc e p tio n w ith th o s e o f in d iv id u a ls who r e l y on e n v iro n m e n tal c u e s , sh e found th e fo rm er have h ig h e r body c o n f id e n c e , a h ig h e r d e g re e o f n a r c i s s i s t i c in v e stm e n t in t h e i r b o d ie s , more m atu re body s e x u a l f e a t u r e s , and in c lu d e d more m ale and fem ale f e a tu r e s in t h e i r draw ings th a n th e l a t t e r . S tu d ie s u s in g s e l f - r e p o r t in v e n to r ie s to i n v e s t i g a te body-im age v a r ia b le s a r e r e le v a n t t o th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . The m ajo r e f f o r t in t h i s d ir e c t i o n was c o n tr ib u te d by J o u ra rd e t a l . (J o u ra rd and S ecord 1954, 1955; J o u ra rd and Remy 1957; S ecord and J o u ra rd 1953). Body c a th e x is was d e fin e d a s " th e d e g re e o f s a t i s f a c t i o n r e p o r te d by a 46 p erso n w ith a s p e c ts o f h is own body" (S ecord 1953) and m easured by r a t i n g s on a f i v e - p o i n t s c a le from " s tro n g p o s i t i v e f e e l in g s " t o " s tro n g n e g a tiv e f e e l i n g s . " T h e ir f in d in g s have d e m o n stra te d : (1) a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een low b o d y -c a th e x is and f e e l in g s o f in s e c u r i t y (1 9 5 3 ); (2) t h a t women show g r e a t e r v a r i a b i l i t y in t h e i r b o d y -re sp o n - s iv e n e s s th a n men, w h ile men show more v a r ia n c e in c a th e c - t i n g s e lv e s (1 9 5 7 ); and (3) a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een s i z e o f body p a r ts and b o d y -c a th e x is f o r th o s e p a r t s in b o th m ale and fem ale s u b je c ts (1 9 5 4 ). The se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l would a p p e a r to b e a re fin e m e n t o f th e above te c h n iq u e and o f f e r s th e a d v a n tag e s o f (1) g r e a t e r f l e x i b i l i t y by u s e o f a number o f p o la r a d j e c t i v e s , (2) e x te n s iv e r e l i a b i l i t y s t u d i e s , and (3) r e l a t e d v a l i d i t y r e p o r t s . To th e p r e s e n t w r i t e r 's know l ed g e, th e sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l has n o t been u sed to i n v e s t i g a t e body-im age v a r i a b l e s . In o rd e r to t e s t i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y to body-im age c o n c e p ts an e x p lo ra to ry stu d y was co m p leted by th e w r i t e r in w hich a se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l was a d m in is te re d to 21 m ale and 22 fe m a le c o lle g e s tu d e n ts . In o rd e r t o t e s t th e h y p o th e s is t h a t m ales and [fem ales w ould a t t a c h s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t m eanings to t h e i r body-im age, r a t i n g s f o r each group w ere com pared on ea ch o f te n b ip o l a r a d j e c t iv e s c a le s f o r th e c o n c e p t M Y BODY. The r e s u l t i n g c h i sq u a re s in d ic a te d t h a t g ro u p s d i f f e r e d a t th e .0 5 le v e l o r b e t t e r on f i v e o f th e te n s c a l e s . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s e x p lo ra to ry stu d y w ere h e lp f u l in s e l e c t i n g th e s c a le s and c o n c e p ts u sed in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . Summary o f th e Review o f R e sea rc h L i t e r a t u r e A number o f d i f f e r e n t ap p ro ach es to th e s tu d y o f th e c o n c e p ts o f p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , s e x u a l i d e n t i t y , th e s e lf - c o n c e p t, and th e body-im age have been d e s c r ib e d . The te c h n iq u e s have in c lu d e d b o th p r o j e c t i v e m ethods as w e ll a s s e l f - r e p o r t in v e n to r ie s . Among th e p r o je c t i v e in s tru m e n ts , th e TAT seems to be th e m ost s e n s i t i v e in d e l in e a tin g p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s , w h ile o f th e s e l f - r e p o r t te c h n iq u e s th e se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l a p p e a rs to be u s e f u l in stu d y in g b o th p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t te r n s as w e ll as th e s e lf - c o n c e p t. S tu d ie s r e l a t i n g to th e body-im age g e n e r a lly have f a i l e d to y i e l d a m e an in g fu l ap p ro ach to th e problem , a lth o u g h s e v e r a l p ro m isin g te c h n iq u e s have been d e s c r ib e d . 48 The p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s in g a se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l a s a m easure o f th e body-im age was s u g g e s te d , and th e r e s u l t s o f an e x p lo ra to ry stu d y u s in g t h i s ap p ro ach was d e s c r ib e d . The r e s u l t s o f r e s e a r c h seem to in d ic a t e t h a t th e p r o j e c t i v e ap p ro ach and th e s e l f - r e p o r t ap p ro ach may w e ll be y ie ld in g in fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e same phenom ena, b u t a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . A com p reh en siv e stu d y o f th e s e problem s w ould th e r e f o r e become more m e an in g fu l i f b o th p r o je c tiv e and s e l f - r e p o r t d a ta w ere u t i l i z e d . W hile th e m ajor h y p o th e se s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y w i l l b e t e s t e d by th e u s e o f a sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l , d a ta from o th e r s o u rc e s , nam ely: th e TAT, s c a le s s e le c te d from th e G u ilf o r d - Zimmerman Temperament S u rv ey , and a q u e s tio n n a ir e , w i l l b e i n te g r a te d in to th e r e s u l t s w here a p p r o p r ia te . CHAPTER III RESEARCH M ETH O D A ND PROCEDURE S u b je c ts T h ree groups o f s u b je c ts w ere t e s t e d . T hese g ro u p s w ere composed o f m ale t r a n s v e s t i t e s , norm al m ales and norm al fem ales and w ere e q u a te d on th e b a s is o f a g e , e d u c a tio n , and o c c u p a tio n a l l e v e l . The e d u c a tio n a l and o c c u p a tio n a l le v e l w ere r a t e d by th e w r i t e r u s in g a te c h n iq u e d e s c rib e d by H o llin g s h e a d and R e d lic h (1 9 5 8 ). The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f g ro u p s on each o f th e v a r ia b le s a r e sum m a riz ed in T ab les 1, 2 and 3 . The r e s u l t s o f th e m edian t e s t on each m easure w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ; th e r e f o r e , a t l e a s t on th e s e v a r i a b l e s , th e groups w ere c o n s id e re d c o m p a tib le . The s e l e c t i o n o f th e t r a n s v e s t i t e g ro u p was made w ith in th e fram ew ork o f a s e r i e s o f p re d e te rm in e d c r i t e r i a . F or th e p u rp o ses o f t h i s s tu d y , a t r a n s v e s t i t e was d e fin e d a s an in d iv id u a l who h as th e d e s i r e to d re s s in g arm en ts o f th e o p p o s ite sex f o r p u rp o ses o th e r th a n 50 TABLE 1 COMPARISON OF GROUPS O N BASIS OF AGE Age T r a n s v e s tite s f M ales f Fem ales f 49-50 1 47-48 5 1 45-46 3 2 1 43-44 3 3 3 41-42 7 3 6 39-40 4 5 37-38 3 4 2 35-36 7 4 33-34 6 3 2 31-32 5 1 29-30 6 1 27-28 5 3 2 25-26 3 5 2 23-24 21-22 1 1 1 1 N 60 26 29 M edians 3 5 .4 3 3 .2 3 9 .1 R esuI t s o f Median T e s t Above m edian 26 12 18 Below m edian 34 14 11 d f - 2 Chi s q u a re 2 .8 4 (N .S .) 51 TABLE 2 COMPARISON OF GROUPS O N BASIS OF EDUCATIONAL LEVEL* Rank T r a n s v e s tite s M ales Fem ales f f f 7 6 2 5 1 4 20 4 2 3 11 7 10 2 16 9 13 1 11 6 3 N 60 26 29 M edians 2.77 2 .2 8 2 .3 8 R e s u lts o f Median T e s t Above m edian 33 11 13 Below m edian 27 15 16 d f = 2 Chi s q u a re 1 .5 2 (N .S .) * Based upon th e fo llo w in g ra n k in g s (H o llin g sh e a d and R e d lic h 1 9 5 8 ): (1) g ra d u a te p r o f e s s io n a l t r a i n in g , (2) s ta n d a rd c o lle g e o r u n i v e r s i ty g ra d u a tio n , (3) p a r t i a l c o lle g e t r a i n i n g , (4) h ig h s c h o o l g ra d u a t i o n , (5) p a r t i a l h ig h s c h o o l, (6) ju n io r h ig h s c h o o l, (7) l e s s th an se v en y e a rs o f s c h o o l. 52 TABLE 3 COMPARISON OF GROUPS O N BASIS OF OCCUPATIONAL LEVEL* Rank T r a n s v e s tite s f M ales f Fem ales f 7 1 6 3 5 7 1 1 4 14 1 3 12 4 3 2 12 9 9 1 9 1 N 58 16 13 M edians 2 .1 7 2 .2 8 2.22 R e s u lts o f Median T e st f o r T r a n s v e s tite s and M ales Above m edian 37 6 Below m edian 21 10 d f = 1 Chi s q u a re 2 .5 6 (N .S .) Based upon th e fo llo w in g ra n k in g s (H o llin g sh e a d and R e d lic h 1 9 5 8 ): (1 ) e x e c u tiv e s and p r o p r ie to r s o f la r g e c o n c e rn s , and m ajo r p r o f e s s io n a ls , (2) m anagers and p r o p r i e to r s o f m edium -sized b u s in e s s e s and l e s s e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s , (3) a d m in is tr a tiv e p e r s o n n e l o f la r g e c o n c e rn s , ow ners o f sm a ll in d e p en d en t b u s in e s s , and s e m ip r o f e s s io n a ls , (4) owners o f l i t t l e b u s in e s s e s , c l e r i c a l and s a l e s w o rk e rs , and te c h n ic ia n s , (5) s k i l l e d w o rk e rs , (6) s e m is k ille d w o rk e rs , and (7) uns k i l l ed w o rk e rs. (1) e n t e r ta in i n g th e p u b lic , and (2) a t t r a c t i n g a s e x u a l p a r t n e r . S u b je c ts w ere in c lu d e d in th e stu d y o n ly i f th e y c r o s s - d r e s s e d a t l e a s t once d u rin g th e y e a r p re c e d in g th e stu d y and in d ic a te d th e y met th e above d e f i n i t i o n by re s p o n s e to d i r e c t q u e s tio n in g d u rin g an in te rv ie w , o r , w here an in te rv ie w was n o t h e l d , by re s p o n s e s to th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n n a ir e ite m s : 1. How o f te n do you c r o s s - d r e s s a t th e p r e s e n t tim e? 2 . What a r e y o u r u s u a l a c t i v i t i e s w h ile d re s s e d in fem ale c lo th in g ? 3 . What a r e y o u r m ost t y p i c a l th o u g h ts o r daydream s when d re s s e d in fem ale c lo th in g ? 4 . When a r e you m ost l i k e l y to c r o s s - d r e s s ? The t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ere a l l s u b s c r ib e r s to th e n a t i o n a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d m agazine " T r a n s v e s tia .1 1 T ra n s v e s t i t e s known to th e e d i t o r o f t h i s m agazine who w ere l i v i n g in th e Los A ngeles a r e a , o r w ere p a s s in g th ro u g h t h i s a r e a , w ere c o n ta c te d by th e e d i t o r , and i f w i l li n g t o s e rv e as a r e s e a r c h s u b je c t w ere t e s t e d in d iv i d u a lly by th e w r i t e r . A t o t a l o f 23 s u b je c ts w ere t e s t e d in t h i s m anner. A d d itio n a l d a ta w ere o b ta in e d by m a ilin g a t o t a l o f 96 t e s t b a t t e r i e s t o s u b s c r ib e r s to th e m agazine a f t e r th e y had been inform ed v ia an e d i t o r i a l in th e m agazine t h a t su ch a stu d y was u n d er way. A t o t a l o f 71 (74 p e r c e n t) re s p o n s e s w ere o b ta in e d . In o rd e r to in s u r e t h a t th e gro u p w ould be r e l a t i v e l y hom ogeneous, o n ly re s p o n s e s o f C a u ca sian s u n d er 50 y e a rs o f age w ere in c lu d e d in th e f i n a l g ro u p . S u b je c ts w ere a l s o e lim in a te d i f th e y f a i l e d to co m p lete th e se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l o r d id n o t m eet th e c r i t e r i a o f tr a n s v e s tis m a s d e s c rib e d ab o v e. The f i n a l group c o n s is te d o f 18 in d iv i d u a ll y t e s t e d s u b je c ts and 42 s u b je c ts t e s t e d by m a il, m aking a t o t a l o f 60 s u b je c ts in th e t r a n s v e s t i t e g ro u p . B e fo re com bining th e two groups^ s ig n i f ic a n c e t e s t s w ere o b ta in e d on re s p o n s e s to s e le c te d sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l item s and to th e G uilford-Zim m erm an Temperament Survey S c a le s . S in c e th e g ro u p s d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y (s e e C h a p ter IV) th e y w ere com bined and h e r e a f t e r , u n le s s o th e rw is e s p e c i f i e d , r e f e r e n c e to th e t r a n s v e s t i t e group w i l l r e f e r to th e com bined i n d i v id u a lly t e s t e d and w r i t e - i n g ro u p s. In o rd e r to s e l e c t b o th a r e p r e s e n ta t i v e g roup o f c o n tr o ls a s w e ll as g ro u p s t h a t would ap p ro x im a te th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s in a g e , e d u c a tio n , and o c c u p a tio n a l l e v e l , 55 s e v e r a l s o u rc e s o f s u b je c ts w ere u s e d . The f i r s t g roup c o n s is te d o f s tu d e n ts e n r o lle d in in tr o d u c to r y p sy ch o lo g y c o u rs e s a t Los A ngeles S t a t e C o lle g e . T hese s tu d e n ts , as a c o u rs e re q u ire m e n t, w ere re q u e s te d to p a r t i c i p a t e in a p s y c h o lo g ic a l e x p e rim e n t. Only s tu d e n ts 23 y e a rs o f ag e and o ld e r w ere t e s t e d . N in eteen m ale and 13 fe m a le s, s e le c te d from th e above s tu d e n ts , w ere t e s t e d in d iv id u a lly by th e w r i t e r . A second s o u rc e o f s u b je c ts w ere two g ra d u a te c l a s s e s in e d u c a tio n a t Los A ngeles S ta te C o l le g e , w here p a r t i c i p a t i o n was re q u e s te d on a v o lu n te e r b a s i s . T e s t b a t t e r i e s w ere d i s t r i b u t e d and th e s tu d e n ts w ere re q u e s te d to f i l l o u t th e m a t e r i a l , p la c e i t in a s e a le d en v e lo p e to be p ic k e d up by th e w r i t e r th e fo llo w in g w eek. Of th e 40 t e s t b a t t e r i e s d i s t r i b u t e d , 26 w ere r e tu r n e d , 12 by m ales and 14 by fe m a le s . A t h i r d s o u rc e o f s u b je c ts was a lo c a l women's c lu b , w here 24 b a t t e r i e s w ere d i s t r i b u t e d to c lu b members and t h e i r sp o u ses t o be f i l l e d o u t and r e tu r n e d d i r e c t l y to th e w r i t e r by m a il. Of th e s e , 22 t e s t b a t t e r i e s w ere r e tu r n e d , 13 by fem a le s and 9 by m a le s. A f i n a l s o u rc e o f s u b je c ts was a g ro u p o f P u b lic H e a lth N u rses. Of th e 10 t e s t b a t t e r i e s d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h i s g ro u p , 4 w ere r e tu r n e d . A t o t a l o f 44 56 fem ale s u b je c ts , and 40 m ale s u b je c ts w ere t e s t e d . The background in fo rm a tio n q u e s tio n n a ir e was a d m in is te re d t o a l l s u b je c ts a s a rou g h s c re e n in g d e v ic e , as w e ll as to o b ta in p e rs o n a l h i s t o r y in fo rm a tio n . Sub j e c t s w ere e lim in a te d i f g ro s s problem s w ere in d ic a te d , o r i f o v e rt hom osexual te n d e n c ie s w ere e v id e n t. W hile t h i s ty p e o f s c re e n in g can o n ly p ic k up th e more extrem e o r o v e r t ty p e o f p roblem , i t was f e l t t h a t e r r o r s would b e in th e " s a f e " d i r e c t io n ; t h a t i s , e r r o r s would work a g a in s t th e h y p o th e se s a s s t a t e d . S u b je c ts w ere a ls o e lim in a te d i f th e y f a i l e d to co m p lete t h e se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l , w ere 50 y e a rs o f age o r o ld e r , o r i f th e y w ere n o n -C au c asia n . A fte r th e s c re e n in g , th e number o f c o n tr o l s u b je c ts rem a in in g f o r th e f i n a l d a ta a n a ly s is was 26 m ales and 29 fe m a le s. M a te ria ls The t e s t b a t t e r y c o n s is te d o f t h e fo llo w in g : (1) a se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l , (2) s c a le s from th e G u ilf o r d - Zimmerman Temperament S u rv ey , (3) c a rd s s e le c te d from th e j T hem atic A p p erce p tio n T e s t, and (4) th e background inform a-i ti o n q u e s tio n n a ir e . 57 A se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l composed o f f i f t e e n co n c e p ts was u sed in t h i s s tu d y . T hese c o n c e p ts w ere d iv id e d in to body-im age and s e lf- im a g e c o n c e p ts , w ith two a d d i t i o n a l n e u t r a l c o n c e p ts . The body-im age c o n c e p ts in c lu d e d th e fo llo w in g : M Y CHEST, THE M ALE BODY, M Y GENITALS, M Y MOTHER'S BODY, M Y MUSCLES, M Y FATHER'S BODY, THE FEMALE BODY, and M Y BODY. The s e lf- im a g e c o n c e p ts in c lu d e d th e fo llo w in g : THE KIND OF PEOPLE M EN ARE (THE W A Y I SEE THEM), THE KIND OF PERSON M Y M OTHER IS (THE W A Y I SEE HER) , THE KIND OF PEOPLE W O M E N ARE (THE W A Y I SEE THEM) , THE KIND OF PERSON M Y FATHER IS (THE W A Y I SEE HIM), THE KIND OF PERSON I A M (THE W A Y I SEE MYSELF) . The n e u t r a l c o n c e p ts w ere M Y HOUSE, and A TREE. Each s e t o f c o n c e p ts was r a t e d on 10, s e v e n -p o in t b ip o la r a d j e c t i v e s c a l e s . The s e t s o f s c a le s d i f f e r e d to some e x te n t in o rd e r to u t i l i z e m ore m e an in g fu l s c a le s f o r each group o f c o n c e p ts a s w e ll a s to h e lp b re a k up re s p o n s e s e t s w hich may r e s u l t from r e p e t i t i v e r a t i n g s on th e same s c a l e s . The fo llo w in g a d j e c t i v e s c a le s w ere u se d to r a t e th e body-im age c o n c e p ts and th e co n c ep t M Y HOUSE: stro n g -w e a k , d e lic a te - r u g g e d , s u f f i c i e n t - i n s u f f i c i e n t , s o f t - h a r d , e x c ita b le - c a lm , sm o o th -ro u g h , i n s e n s i t i v e - s e n s i t i v e , im p o rta n t-u n im p o rta n t, te n s e - r e la x e d , and p u b l i c - p r i v a t e . The s e lf-im a g e c o n c e p ts a lo n g w ith th e c o n c e p t A TREE w ere r a te d on th e fo llo w in g b ip o la r a d j e c t iv e s c a le s : stro n g -w e a k , d a n g e ro u s -s a fe , s u f f i c i e n t - i n s u f f i c i e n t , p le a s u r a b le - p a in f u l, e x c i t a b le - calm , c l e a n - d i r t y , s e n s i t i v e - i n s e n s i t i v e , a c t i v e - p a s s iv e , p e rs o n a l-im p e rs o n a l, and p u b l i e - p r i v a t e . W hile th e s e s c a le s a r e n o t e q u a lly r e p r e s e n ta t i v e o f O sgood's th r e e m ajo r f a c t o r s ( e v a lu a tio n , a c t i v i t y , and p o te n c y ), each o f th e f a c t o r s i s r e p r e s e n te d by a t l e a s t one s c a l e . I t was f e l t t h a t th e m e a n in g fu ln e ss o f th e a d j e c t iv e s was o f prim e im p o rta n ce in t h i s stu d y r a t h e r th a n th e f a c t o r i a l co m p o sitio n o f th e s c a l e s . The s c a le s f o r each s e t o f c o n c e p ts w ere i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d to d e te rm in e w h eth e r th e s c a le s c o u ld b e t r e a t e d in d e p e n d e n tly . The r e s u l t s o f th e i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e d is c u s s e d in C h a p te r IV. The sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l was a d m in is te re d in b o o k le t form w ith s ta n d a rd i n s t r u c t i o n s (s e e A ppendix A ). The two g ro u p s o f c o n c e p ts w ere ran d o m ized , and th e b ip o la r a d je c tiv e s random ized from page t o page t o m in i m ize fo rm a tio n o f re s p o n s e s e t s . ” ......... " 59... Item s from th e M a s c u lin ity S c a le ^ and th e G ross F a l s i f i c a t i o n S c a le (Jaco b s and S c h la f f 1955) o f th e G uilford-Z im m erm an Temperament Survey w ere random ized and p re p a re d in b o o k le t form (s e e A ppendix B ). The M a scu lin i t y S c a le was s e le c te d b e c a u se o f i t s h ig h d is c r im in a to r y in d e x f o r se x m em bership, and i t s low c o r r e l a t i o n w ith o th e r p e r s o n a lity t r a i t s . The G ross F a l s i f i c a t i o n S c a le i s a m easure o f t e s t ta k in g a t t i t u d e s . I t c o n s is ts o f item s fa k e a b le u n d er d i r e c t io n s and was s e le c te d b o th as a m easure o f th e ten d en cy to p r e s e n t a good f r o n t a s w e ll a s to s e rv e a s b u f f e r ite m s f o r th e M s c a l e . The u s u a l fo rm at o f th e t e s t was a l t e r e d in o rd e r to a b s t r a c t th e ite m s , an d th e l,? lt re sp o n se was e lim in a te d . The q u e s tio n n a ir e was d e sig n e d t o e l i c i t p e rs o n a l h i s t o r y in fo rm a tio n from a l l s u b je c ts (s e e A ppendix C ). S p e c ific q u e s tio n s r e l a t i n g to p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ere in c lu d e d . T hese q u e s tio n s w ere s im ila r t o th o s e u se d by B ie r i e t a l . (1 9 5 9 ). The o n ly v a r i a t i o n in th e c o n te n t o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e was th e a d d itio n o f s e v e r a l q u e s tio n s r e l a t i n g to c r o s s - d r e s s in g b e h a v io r in c lu d e d f o r th e g roup ^Used by p e rm issio n o f th e p u b lis h e r s : The S h erid an Supply Company, B e v e rly H i l l s , C a lif o r n i a . 6 0 o f w r i t e - i n t r a n s v e s t i t e s o n ly (se e A ppendix C ). W hile th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s ty p e o f q u e s tio n n a ir e i s acknow l ed g ed , i t w ould seem t h a t any problem s re g a rd in g u n d e r s ta n d in g th e q u e s tio n s , m o tiv a tio n in re s p o n d in g , and v a l i d i t y o f th e re s p o n s e s w ould a p p ly e q u a lly to a l l groups. W hile any s ta te m e n ts g e n e r a liz in g th e q u e s tio n n a ir e d a ta t o th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n m ust be q u i t e g u a rd e d , co m p ari so n s betw een groups in t h i s stu d y w ould seem to have some j u s t i f i c a t i o n . C ards 1, 7GF, 6BM, 7BM, and 16 o f th e Them atic A p p e rc e p tio n T est w ere a d m in is te re d in t h a t o rd e r to 8 m ale c o n t r o l s u b j e c ts , 8 fem a le c o n t r o l s u b j e c ts , and 17 t r a n s v e s t i t e s . A b r i e f d e s c r ip tio n o f each c a rd and r a t i o n a l e f o r i t s in c lu s io n fo llo w s : C ard 1. A young boy i s c o n te m p la tin g a v i o l i n w hich r e s t s on a t a b l e in f r o n t o f him . T h is c a rd was s e le c te d to s e rv e as a n e u t r a l in tr o d u c tio n to th e ta s k . C ard 7GF. An o ld e r woman i s s i t t i n g on a s o fa c lo s e b e s id e a g i r l , sp e ak in g o r re a d in g E t o h e r . The g i r l , who h o ld s a d o ll in h e r la p , i s lo o k in g away. T h is c a rd was 61 s e le c te d to e l i c i t f e e l in g ab o u t th e m o th e r-d a u g h te r r e l a t i o n s h i p . Card 6BM. A s h o r t e l d e r ly woman s ta n d s w ith h e r back tu rn e d t o a t a l l young man. The l a t t e r i s lo o k in g downward w ith a p e r p le x e d e x p re s s io n . T h is c a rd was s e le c te d to e l i c i t th e m o th er-so n r e l a t i o n s h i p . Card 7BM. A g r a y - h a ir e d man i s lo o k in g a t a y o u n g er man who i s s u l l e n ly s t a r i n g in to s p a c e . T h is c a rd was s e le c te d to e l i c i t th e f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p . C ard 16. B lank c a rd . T h is i s th e l e a s t s t r u c t u r a l TAT c a rd and was s e le c te d la r g e ly on an e x p lo ra to ry b a s i s . The s u b j e c t s ' re s p o n s e s w ere re c o rd e d v e rb a tim by th e w r i t e r in th e u s u a l m anner. P ro ced u re The t e s t b a t t e r y was a d m in is te re d in th e fo llo w in g o rd e r: (1) se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l , (2) G uilford-Zim m erm an S c a le s , (3) q u e s tio n n a ir e , and (4) T hem atic A p p erce p tio n T e s t. S in c e a l l t e s t s , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e TAT, - " 62.... a re s e l f - a d m in i s t e r i n g , th e w r i t e r sim p ly p re s e n te d th e m a te r ia l to th e s u b je c t and l e f t th e room. Q u e stio n s re g a rd in g t e s t m a te r ia l w ere answ ered w here n e c e s s a ry by going o v e r th e i n s t r u c t i o n s w ith th e s u b je c t. The TAT was a d m in is te re d a f t e r a l l o th e r m a te r ia l had been com p le te d . The w r i t e - i n g ro u p s re c e iv e d t h e i r m a t e r i a l , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e TAT, s ta p le d to g e th e r in th e p r e v i o u sly m en tio n ed o r d e r . B ecause o f a number o f f a c t o r s , i t was n o t p o s s ib le to t e s t a l l in d iv i d u a ll y t e s t e d s u b je c ts in th e same s e t t i n g . T e s tin g th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s p re s e n te d th e g r e a t e s t problem b ec a u se o f th e need f o r maximum s e c u r i t y , and s in c e t h i s v a r ie d w ith th e s u b j e c t , th e t e s t i n g had to ta k e p la c e a t a m u tu a lly a g r e e a b le lo c a tio n . T ra n s v e s t i t e s w ere th e r e f o r e t e s t e d a t th e Los A ngeles S ta te M ental H ygiene C l i n i c , th e Los A n g eles S ta te C o lle g e C o u n selin g C e n te r, th e U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n i a P s y c h o lo g ic a l S e rv ic e C e n te r an d , in some c a s e s , th e homes and a p a rtm e n ts o f th e s u b je c ts th e m s e lv e s . The in d iv id u a lly t e s t e d c o n t r o l s u b je c ts w ere a l l t e s t e d a t th e Los A ngeles S ta te C o lle g e C o u n selin g C e n te r. In o rd e r t o a llo w a l l s u b je c ts t o resp o n d to th e t e s t ite m s w ith m inim al r e s t r a i n t , th e y w ere re q u e s te d to ....... 63.. a v o id w r itin g t h e i r names on th e t e s t m a te r ia l . A t no tim e d id th e w r i t e r have a c c e s s t o th e names o f th e w r i t e - in g ro u p s. The e d i t o r o f " T r a n s v e s tia " a d d re s s e d a l l o u t g o in g t e s t b a t t e r i e s and th e m a te r ia l was r e tu r n e d d i r e c t l y to th e w r i t e r by means o f a stam ped, a d d re s se d e n v e lo p e . The m o tiv a tio n s t o ta k e p a r t in t h i s stu d y v a r ie d c o n s id e ra b ly from s u b je c t to s u b je c t . The t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ere m ost l i k e l y m o tiv a te d , in p a r t , by t h e i r d e s i r e to prom ote g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g in th e community o f t h e i r problem th ro u g h r e s e a r c h . In o rd e r to in c r e a s e th e i n t e r e s t o f th e c o n tr o l s u b je c ts in th e p r o je c t th e y w ere t o l d th e w r i t e r would d is c u s s th e r e s e a r c h w ith them and a tim e was a rra n g e d f o r a group d is c u s s io n a t th e c o n c lu s io n o f t e s t i n g . The e x c e ll e n t tu rn o u t a t t h i s m eetin g and th e an im ated d is c u s s io n t h a t fo llo w e d c o u ld b e i n t e r p r e te d a s an in d ic a tio n o f a t l e a s t some in v o lv em en t in th e r e s e a r c h . The same a p p ro ach was used w ith th e Women's Club w here o v er 30 members and sp o u se s w ere p r e s e n t a t th e d is c u s s io n . CHAPTER IV RESULTS A n a ly s is o f th e D ata The m ajo r s e c tio n s o f t h i s c h a p te r c o n ta in d a ta a n a ly s e s f o r s p e c i f ic t e s t in s tru m e n ts . The h y p o th e se s w ere te s t e d by u se o f th e se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l ; c o n s e - q u e n tly , th e s e d a ta w i l l be d e s c rib e d f i r s t . The r e s u l t s o f th e rem a in in g t e s t s w i l l be a p p lie d to th e h y p o th e se s w here a p p r o p r ia te . The se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l re s p o n s e s on each o f th e te n s c a le s f o r each c o n c e p t w ere a s s ig n e d s c o re s from one to seven d ep en d in g upon t h e i r s c a l e p o s i t i o n s . By t h i s m ethod, th e n e u t r a l p o s it io n on th e s c a le r e c e iv e d a s c o re o f 4 , w h ile th e ex trem e p o s itio n s r e c e iv e d s c o re s o f 1 o r 7. The in te rm e d ia te p o s itio n s w ere a s s ig n e d s c o re s o f 2 , 3, 5 , and 6 . The s c o re s w ere t r a n s f e r r e d to d a ta s h e e ts and th e n punched o n to IBM c a rd s f o r d a ta p ro c e s s in g . The i n t e r s c a l e c o r r e l a t i o n s , m u ltip le r e g r e s s io n c o e f f i c i e n t s , D s c o r e s , and th e s ig n i f ic a n c e t e s t s u se d to t e s t h y p o th e s e s 4 and 5 w ere com puted by th e IBM 7094 com puter lo c a te d ....................................... ........... 64 ....... ............................... . ................ 65.......! i a t th e H e a lth S c ie n c e s Com puting F a c i l i t y o f th e U n iv e rsity ! o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A ngeles M edical C e n te r. The d a ta w ere p re p a re d and program ed f o r th e above a n a ly s e s by th e B i o s t a t i s t i c s U n it o f th e UCLA M edical C e n te r. Com bining th e E x p erim e n ta l G roups In o rd e r to d e te rm in e w h eth er s y s te m a tic d i f f e r en ces e x is te d betw een th e re s p o n s e te n d e n c ie s o f th e i n d i v id u a lly t e s t e d e x p e rim e n ta l s u b je c ts and th e w r i t e - i n group o f e x p e rim e n ta l s u b je c ts , com parisons w ere made on th e c o n c e p ts : THE KIND OF PERSON I AM, M Y BODY, M Y HOUSE, | and A TREE. The m edian t e s t was u sed to com pare th e two g roups on each o f th e te n s c a le s f o r each c o n c e p t. As in d ic a te d by T ab le 4 , o n ly 2 o f th e 40 c h i s q u a re t e s t s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t . S co res on th e G uilford-Zim m erm an Tem peram ent S urvey M a s c u lin ity S c a le and G ross F a l s i f i c a t i o n S c a le f o r th e same two groups a ls o w ere com pared u s in g th e m edian t e s t . N e ith e r o f th e 2 c h i s q u a re s o b ta in e d was s i g n i f i c a n t (T ab le 5 ) . S in c e th e two e x p e rim e n ta l g roups d id n o t d i f f e r m arkedly on th e above m e a su re s, i t was d e c id e d to com bine th e g ro u p s f o r f u r t h e r a n a ly s e s o f th e d a ta . TABLE 4 COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUALLY TESTED AN D WRITE-IN GROUPS OF TRANSVESTITES O N SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL CONCEPTS* Body-Im age C oncepts M Y HOUSE M Y B O D Y S c a le C hi s q u a re C hi s q u a re 1. Strong-W eak 2 .4 9 .26 2 . D e licate-R u g g ed 1 .7 0 .00 3 . S u f f i c i e n t - I n s u f f i c i e n t .93 1.41 4 . S o ft-H ard .00 .82 5 . E x c ita b le -C a lm .05 .00 6 . Smooth-Rough 3 .7 1 .22 7 . I n s e n s i t iv e - S e n s i t i v e 6 .2 1 * * .00 8 . Im p o rta n t-U n im p o rtan t 2 .6 8 .00 9 . T en se-R elax ed .39 1 .8 5 10. P u b lie - P r iv a te 1 .7 1 .16 S e lf-Im a g e C oncepts A TREE KIND OF PERSON I A M S c a le Chi s q u a re C hi sq u a re 1. Strong-W eak .00 .00 2 . D an g ero u s-S afe .03 .00 3 . S u f f i c i e n t - I n s u f f i c i e n t 3 .5 2 2.17 4 . P le a s u r a b le - P a in f u l 1 .3 1 .46 5 . E x c ita b le -C a lm .46 •63** 6 . C le a n -D irty .55 4 .8 5 * * 7 . S e n s i t i v e - I n s e n s i t i v e .00 .20 8 . A c tiv e -P a s s iv e .33 .00 9 . P e rs o n a l-Im p e rs o n a l 1 .1 5 .41 10. P u b lie - P r iv a te 1 .4 1 .01 means o f th e m edian t e s t . S ig n if le a n t, a t „ o r beyond . 05 l e v e l . .. 67 TABLE 5 COMPARISON OF INDIVIDUALLY TESTED A N D WRITE-IN GROUPS OF TRANSVESTITES O N THE GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN TEM PERAM ENT SURVEY MASCULINITY AND GROSS FALSIFICATION SCALES S c a le M edian T e s t C hi sq u a re S ig n if ic a n c e le v e l M a s c u lin ity .03 N .S. G ross F a l s i f i c a t i o n .00 N .S. The S em antic D i f f e r e n t i a l I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n o f S c a le s B e fo re p ro c e e d in g to t r e a t each o f th e te n s c a le s c o re s as in d e p en d en t s c o r e s , i t was n e c e s s a ry to d e t e r m ine th e e x te n t to w h ich th e s c a le s w ere i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d . T h is was acco m p lish ed by com bining s c a le s c o re s o v er c o n c e p ts f o r e a c h s u b je c t and i n t e r c o r r e l a t i n g th e s c a l e s . The r e s u l t s o f i n t e r c o r r e l a t i n g th e body-im age s c a le s a r e r e p o r te d in T ab le 6 . The r e s u l t i n g P earso n r ' s ran g ed from .00 t o .70 w ith an a b s o lu te mean r o f .2 4 . As seen in T ab le 7 , th e r ’s f o r th e s e lf- im a g e v a r ia b le s ran g ed TABLE 6 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETW EEN ALL SCALES OF BODY-IMAGE CONCEPTS BASED O N ALL SUBJECTS COMBINED* (N = 115) S c a le 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 . Strong-W eak -.3 6 .60 -.3 1 .06 -.0 3 -.2 4 .37 -.1 7 -.0 5 2. D elicate-R u g g ed -.1 0 .69 .27 .55 -.2 6 .01 .05 -.1 9 3. S u f f i c i e n t - I n s u f f i c i e n t .03 .07 .25 -.2 9 .43 -.2 0 -.1 1 4 . S o ft-H ard .27 .70 -.2 1 -.0 4 .16 -.3 0 5. E x c itab le -C a lm .34 -.3 7 .14 .41 -.1 2 6. Smooth-Rough -.4 0 .17 .02 -.2 5 7. I n s e n s itiv e - S e n s it iv e -.3 9 .03 .36 8 . Im p o rtan t-U n im p o rtan t -.1 7 00 i “l • a 9. T ense-R elaxed r— 1 O • 1 10. P u b lie - P r iv a te ^ C o r re la tio n c o e f f i c ie n t o f r = .20 s i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 le v e l C o r r e la tio n c o e f f i c i e n t o f r = .25 s i g n i f i c a n t a t .01 le v e l 68 TABLE 7 CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETW EEN ALL SCALES OF SELF-IMAGE CONCEPTS BASED O N ALL SUBJECTS COMBINED* (N = 115) S c a le 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. Strong-W eak -.3 6 .50 .33 -.0 2 .38 .14 .47 .19 - .0 8 2. D an g ero u s-S afe -.5 2 - .46 .14 -.4 8 -.2 1 -.0 3 -.0 9 .07 3 . S u f f i c i e n t - I n s u f f i c i e n t .60 -.0 1 .62 .41 .40 .33 -.1 0 4 . P le a s u ra b le - P a in f u l .01 .54 .49 .35 .34 -.1 6 ! 5. E x citab le -C alm -.0 2 .17 .19 .29 .00 6 . C le a n -D irty .31 .14 .21 - .1 4 7. S e n s itiv e - I n s e n s it iv e .26 .56 -.2 3 8 . A c tiv e -P a s s iv e .22 .03 9. P ers o n a l- Im personal -.2 8 10. Pub l i e - Pr i v a t e C o r r e la tio n c o e f f i c ie n t o f r= .2 0 s i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 le v e l C o r r e la tio n c o e f f i c i e n t o f r= .2 5 s i g n i f i c a n t a t .01 le v e l ov ... 70... from .00 to .62 w ith an a b s o lu te mean r o f .2 6 . W hile th e c o r r e la t i o n s a r e n o t so low a s would b e d e s i r a b l e , no s in g l e s c a le i s c o n s i s t e n t l y h ig h ly c o r r e l a t e d w ith th e o t h e r s . W hile o r th o g o n a lity i s d e s ir e d , Osgood e t a l . (1957) have p o in te d o u t t h a t th e d e g re e o f r e l a t io n s h i p s among s c a le s v a r ie s w ith th e c o n c e p ts b e in g ju d g e d . In a d d i tio n , th e f a c t o r lo a d in g s o f in d iv id u a l s c a le s v ary w ith th e c o n c e p ts ju d g e d . I t was d e c id e d , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t s in c e l i t t l e was to b e g a in e d by a r b i t r a r i l y e lim in a tin g one o r more s c a l e s , a l l s c a le s f o r ea ch group o f c o n c e p ts sh o u ld be r e t a i n e d . H ypotheses I and I I The f i r s t h y p o th e s is s t a t e s t h a t th e s e x u a l id e n tity o f norm al m ales and norm al fem ales i s r e f l e c t e d in t h e i r body-im age (IA ) and t h e i r s e lf - c o n c e p t (IB ). R e s ta te d in term s o f th e se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l r e s p o n s e s , th e h y p o th e se s a r e a s fo llo w s : IA. M eanings a tta c h e d by norm al m ales to th e c o n c e p t M Y BODY w i l l d i f f e r from th e m eanings a tta c h e d to th e same co n c ep t by norm al fe m a le s. IB. M eanings a tta c h e d by norm al m ales to th e c o n c ep t THE KIND OF PERSON I A M (THE W A Y I SEE MYSEIF) w i l l d i f f e r from th e m eanings a tta c h e d to th e same c o n c e p t by norm al fe m a le s . .............. ""....71 ; The second h y p o th e s is s t a t e s t h a t m ales w ith a d is tu r b e d s e x u a l i d e n t i t y w i l l form a d e v ia n t body-im age (IIA ) and a d e v ia n t s e lf - c o n c e p t (IIB ) com pared to norm al m a le s . In term s o f th e se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l , th e h y p o th e s e s a r e as fo llo w s : IIA . M eanings a tta c h e d by th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s t o th e co n c ep t M Y B O D Y w i l l d i f f e r from th e m eanings a tta c h e d to th e same c o n c e p t by norm al m a le s. IIB . M eanings a tta c h e d by th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s t o th e co n c ep t THE KIND OF PERSON I A M (THE W A Y I SEE MYSELF) w i l l d i f f e r from th e m eanings a tta c h e d to th e same c o n - ! c e p t by norm al m a le s. H ypotheses I and I I w ere t e s t e d by com puting r e g r e s s io n c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r th e te n s c a le s f o r each c o n c e p t. The m ale and fem ale groups w ere u sed a s c r i t e r i o n groups f o r h y p o th e s is I , and th e m ales and t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ere u se d a s c r i t e r i o n g ro u p s f o r h y p o th e s is I I . The s i g n i f i ca n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e betw een groups f o r each co n cep t was d e te rm in e d by means o f an a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e f o r th e m u ltip le r e g r e s s io n s o f th e s c a le s u sed f o r each c o n c e p t. H y p o th esis IA, th e body-im age m easure f o r th e m ale and fem a le c o n t r o l s , was su p p o rte d by an F r a t i o ; s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .001 l e v e l (T able 8 ) . However, th e F s TABLE 8 COMPARISON OF MALE AND FEMALE CONTROL SUBJECTS ON CONCEPT: MY BODY S c a le Means Reg. C o e f. t P ro p . o f V ar. Fem ales M ales S o ft-H a rd 2.00 4 .4 2 - . 16 -3 .6 3 * * .55 Smooth-Rough 2.10 4 .3 5 -.1 1 -2 .0 9 * .05 S u f f i c i e n t - I n s u f f i c i e n t 2 .3 4 2 .1 2 .05 1.32 .02 I n s e n s i tiv e - S e n s it iv e 5.79 5 .1 9 .03 .60 .00 E x citab le -C a lm 2 .7 2 3 .6 5 .03 .59 .00 D elicate-R u g g ed 3 .5 5 5 .00 .01 .30 .00 Strong-W eak 3 .1 0 2 .5 4 .02 .32 .00 T en se-R elax es 4 .0 0 4 .0 0 .01 .34 .00 i Im portant-U n im p o rta n t 1.86 2 .19 .01 .18 .00 P u b lic - P r iv a te 5.52 4 .8 8 .00 .07 .00 * S ig n if ic a n t a t o r beyond th e . 05 le v e l. ** S ig n if ic a n t a t o r beyond th e .01 le v e l M u ltip le R = .79 A n a ly s is o f V arian ce f o r M u ltip le R e g re ssio n Sum o f Mean S ig . S ource o f V a ria tio n d f sq u a re s sq u a re s F le v e l Due to r e g r e s s io n 10 8 .5 1 .85 7 .2 0 .001 D e v ia tio n ab o u t r e g r e s s io n 44 5 .2 1 .12 T o ta l 54 13.71 ' 73 r a t i o t e s t i n g h y p o th e s is IB , th e s e lf - c o n c e p t com parison f o r th e same g ro u p s, was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t (T a b le 9 ); th e r e - ; f o r e , h y p o th e s is IB m ust b e r e j e c t e d . As in d ic a te d in T ab le s 10 and 11, h y p o th e se s IIA and IIB w ere b o th s u p p o rte d . The body-im age m easure d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e m ales and t r a n s v e s t i t e s a t th e .02 l e v e l , and th e s e lf - c o n c e p t m easure d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e g ro u p s a t th e .05 l e v e l . A lth o u g h s p e c i f i c h y p o th e se s w ere n o t t e s t e d , s im ila r co m p ariso n s w ere made f o r th e t r a n s v e s t i t e and fem ale c o n t r o l g ro u p s. T hese groups d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y on th e body-im age m easu re, w ith an F r a t i o s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .001 le v e l (T a b le 1 2 ). The t r a n s v e s t i t e s and fe m a le s , how ever, d id n o t d i f f e r a t a s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l on th e s e lf - c o n c e p t m easure (T a b le 1 3 ). The s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is u se d to t e s t th e f i r s t two h y p o th e se s had th e e f f e c t o f p a r t i a l i n g o u t th e e f f e c t s o f th e c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een s c a l e s . B ecause o f t h i s , th e c o n tr ib u tio n s made by th e in d iv id u a l s c a le s t o th e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n betw een g ro u p s a r e u n iq u e , and y i e l d i n t e r e s t i n g in fo rm a tio n . I t i s a p p a re n t upon ; exam ining T ab le s 8 , 10, 11, and 12 t h a t w h ile th e s c a le s ! u sed a s a w hole s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d th e g ro u p s, TABLE 9 COMPARISON OF MALE AND FEMALE CONTROL SUBJECTS ON CONCEPT: THE KIND OF PERSON I AM S c a le Means Reg. C o e f. t P rop, o f V ar. M ales Fem ales S e n s it iv e - I n s e n s it iv e 2.50 1 .9 0 - .1 4 -1 .7 5 . .09 S u f f i c i e n t - I n s u f f i c i e n t 2.39 3 .0 4 .13 2 .2 5 * .08 P u b lie - P r iv a te 3.97 4 .5 9 .06 1.35 .03 D an g ero u s-S afe 5.16 5 .4 9 .08 1.59 .02 A c tiv e -P a s s iv e 2 .5 4 2 .5 2 - .0 6 -.9 2 .02 P le a s u r a b le - P a in f u l 2 .6 2 2.97 .06 .94 .01 C le a n -D irty 1 .9 3 2 .0 4 -.0 4 -.5 3 .00 Strong-W eak 2 .8 1 2 .8 6 -.0 4 -.4 9 .00 E x c ita b le -C a lm 3 .6 6 3 .1 4 -.0 1 -.2 5 .00 P e rso n a l-Im p e rso n a l 3.27 2.76 .01 .14 .00 ^ S ig n if ic a n t a t o r beyond th e .05 le v e l . M u ltip le R = .50 A n a ly s is o f V arian c e f o r M u ltip le R e g re ssio n Sum o f Mean S ig . S ource o f V a r ia tio n d f sq u a re s sq u a re s F le v e l Due to r e g r e s s io n 10 3 .4 9 .35 1.50 N .S. D e v ia tio n ab o u t r e g r e s s io n 44 10.22 .23 T o ta l 54 13.71 TABLE 10 COMPARISON OF TRANSVESTITES A N D M A LE CONTROL SUBJECTS O N CONCEPT: M Y BO D Y S c a le Means T ra n s . M ales Reg. C o ef. t P rop, o f V ar. D elicate-R u g g ed 3 .7 2 5.00 -.0 7 -1 .5 1 .14 S u f f i c i e n t - I n s u f f i c i e n t 3 .6 5 2 .1 2 .05 1.5 8 .06 P u b lic - P r iv a te 5 .6 0 4 .8 8 .04 1.19 .02 E x citab le -C a lm 3 .0 3 3 .6 5 - .0 4 -1 .1 5 .01 Im p o rtan t-U n im p o rtan t 1.93 2 .1 9 -.0 3 -.6 6 .01 Smooth-Rough 3 .1 2 4 .2 5 - .0 3 -.6 2 .00 Strong-W eak 3 .7 0 2 .5 4 .02 .57 .00 S o ft-H a rd 3.57 4 .4 2 .02 .44 .00 Tens e-R elax ed 3 .6 2 4 .0 0 .01 .34 .00 I n s e n s i tiv e - S e n s it iv e 5 .7 3 5.19 .01 .12 .00 M u ltip le R = .50 A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e f o r M u ltip le R e g re ssio n Sum o f Mean S ig . S ource o f V a r ia tio n d f sq u a re s sq u a re s F le v e l Due to r e g r e s s io n D e v ia tio n ab o u t r e g r e s s io n 10 75 4 .6 2 13.52 .46 .18 2.57 .02 T o ta l 85 18.14 TABLE 11 COMPARISON OF TRANSVESTITES AND MALE CONTROL SUBJECTS ON CONCEPT: THE KIND OF PERSON I M Means Reg. P rop, o f S c a le T ra n s . M ales C oef. t V ar. S e n s it iv e - I n s e n s it iv e 1.73 2 .5 0 -.1 3 -2 .1 4 * .14 S u f f i c i e n t - I n s u f f i c i e n t 3.1 0 2 .3 9 .05 1 .3 9 .04 P u b lic - P r iv a te 4 .7 5 3.97 .03 .93 .01 Strong-W eak 3.57 2 .8 1 .03 .64 .01 D an g ero u s-S afe 5 .6 0 5.1 6 .03 .79 .01 E x citab le -C alm 3.2 7 3 .6 6 .03 .90 .00 P ers o n a l- Im p erso n al 2.47 3 .2 7 - .0 3 -.8 0 .00 Ac t i ve - Pas s i ve 3.47 2 .5 4 .01 .37 .00 P le a s u ra b le - P a in f u l 2.4 3 2 .6 2 -.0 2 - .4 4 .00 C le a n -D irty 1.83 1 .9 3 .02 .31 .00 * S ig n if ic a n t a t o r beyond th e .05 le v e l M u ltip le R = .47 A n a ly s is o f V a rian c e f o r M u ltip le R e g re ssio n Sum o f Mean S ig . S ource o f V a ria tio n d f i sq u ares sq u a re s F le v e l Due to r e g r e s s io n 10 4 .0 9 .41 2.18 .05 D e v ia tio n ab o u t r e g r e s s io n 75 14.05 .19 T o ta l 85 18.14 TABLE 12 COMPARISON OF TRANSVESTITES AND FEMALE CONTROL SUBJECTS ON CONCEPT: MY BODY S c a le Means T ra n s . Fem ales Reg. C oef. t P rop, o f V ar. S o ft-H ard 3.57 2.0 0 .20 ■ i- i- 4 .85** .22 Strong-W eak 3.70 3 .1 0 .05 1 -51* .10 D elicate-R u g g ed 3 .7 2 3 .5 5 -.0 8 -2 .1 4 .04 S u f f i c i e n t - I n s u f f i c i e n t 3 .6 5 2 .3 4 .04 1.51 .01 Im p o rtan t-U n im p o rtan t 1.93 1.86 -.0 6 -1 .4 9 .01 I n s e n s i tiv e - S e n s it iv e 5 .7 3 5 .7 9 - .0 4 - .9 4 .01 P u b lic - P r iv a te 5 .6 0 5 .5 2 .02 .55 .00 Smooth-Rough 3 .1 2 2.10 .02 .38 .00 T ense-R elax ed 3 .6 2 4 .0 0 -.0 0 -.0 2 .00 Exc ita b le -C a lm 3 .0 3 2 .7 2 .00 .02 .00 S ig n if ic a n t a t o r beyond th e .05 l e v e l. diji S ig n if ic a n t a t o r beyond th e .01 l e v e l. M u ltip le R = .63 A n a ly sis o f V a rian c e f o r M u ltip le R e g re ssio n Sum o f Mean S ig . S ource o f V a ria tio n d f sq u a re s sq u a re s F le v e l Due t o r e g r e s s io n 10 7 .8 2 .78 5.20 .001 D e v ia tio n ab o u t r e g r e s s io n 78 11.73 .15 T o ta l 88 19.55 TABLE 13 COMPARISON OF TRANSVESTITES AND FEMALE CONTROL SUBJECTS ON CONCEPT: THE KIND OF PERSON I AM S c a le Means T ra n s . Fem ales Reg. C oef. t P ro p . o f V ar. A c tiv e -P a s s iv e 3.47 2 .5 2 .05 1 .5 3 .06 P le a s u r a b le - P a in f u l 2 .4 3 2.97 -.0 6 -1 .5 3 .04 Strong-W eak 3.5 7 2.8 6 .04 .98 .01 P e rso n a l-Im p e rso n a l 2.47 2 .7 6 -.0 2 -.5 6 .00 E x citab le -C alm 3.27 3 .1 4 .02 .66 .01 C le a n -D irty 1.8 3 2 .0 4 -.0 2 -.3 6 .00 S e n s it iv e - I n s e n s it iv e 1.73 1.90 -.0 2 -.3 2 .00 P u b lie - P r iv a te 4 .7 5 4 .5 9 - .0 1 -.2 6 .00 S u f f i c i e n t - I n s u f f i c i e n t 3 .1 0 3 .0 4 -.0 0 - .1 8 .00 D an g ero u s-S afe 5 .6 0 5.49 - .0 1 - .1 6 .00 ! M u ltip le R = .36 A n a ly s is o f V arian ce f o r M u ltip le R e g re ssio n Sum o f Mean S ig . Source o f V a r ia tio n d f sq u a re s sq u a re s F le v e l Due to re g r e s s io n 10 2 .4 9 .25 1 .1 4 N .S. D e v ia tio n ab o u t r e g r e s s io n 78 17.06 .22 T o ta l 88 19.55 79 th e m a jo rity o f th e in d iv id u a l s c a le s c o n tr ib u te d l i t t l e to t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . F or exam ple, T ab le 8 shows t h a t j o n ly two o f th e te n s c a le s c o n tr ib u te d a p p re c ia b ly to th e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f th e g ro u p s. The s o f t- h a r d s c a le c o n t r i b u t e d 55 p e r c e n t o f th e v a r ia n c e , and th e sm ooth-rough - s c a le c o n tr ib u te d 5 p e r c e n t. The re m a in in g e ig h t s c a le s c o n tr ib u te d a t o t a l o f 2 p e r c e n t o f th e v a r ia n c e , w hich in d ic a t e s th e y had l i t t l e r e le v a n c e in d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g th e g ro u p s on t h i s c o n c e p t. O th er s i g n i f i c a n t s c a le s a r e as fo llo w s : s u f f i c i e n t - i n s u f f i c i e n t (T ab le 9 ) , s e n s i t i v e - i n s e n s i t i v e (T a b le 1 1 ), and s o f t - h a r d , d e l i c a t e - ; rugged (T a b le 1 2 ). The norm al m ales s e e t h e i r b o d ie s as h a rd e r and ro u g h e r th a n th e fe m a le s , and th e s e l f a s more s u f f i c i e n t th a n th e fe m a le s . The t r a n s v e s t i t e s s e e t h e i r b o d ie s a s h a rd e r and more ru g g ed th a n th e fe m a le s , and th e s e l f a s more s e n s i t i v e th a n th e m a le s. H y p o th esis I I I The t h i r d h y p o th e s is s t a t e s t h a t m ales w ith a d i s - tu rb e d s e x u a l i d e n t i t y w i l l show le s s co n g ru e n c e , o r a g r e a t e r d is c re p a n c y betw een t h e i r body-im age and t h e i r s e lf- im a g e th a n norm al m a le s . The e x p e c ta tio n h e re i s t h a t th e m eanings a tta c h e d by t r a n s v e s t i t e s to th e ■ 80 body-im age co n c ep t w ould d i f f e r from th e m eanings a tta c h e d by th e same group t o th e s e lf - c o n c e p t by a w id e r m argin th a n w ould be e x p e c te d from th e norm al m ales m aking th e same r a t i n g s . In o rd e r t o t e s t t h i s h y p o th e s is , i t i s n e c e s s a ry to d e te rm in e th e m ag n itu d e o f th e d if f e r e n c e in m eanings o f th e two c o n c e p ts f o r each g ro u p , o r , e x p re s se d in a n o th e r w ay, th e d e g re e o f se m a n tic s i m i l a r i t y betw een c o n c e p ts . As a m easu re o f p r o f i l e s i m i l a r i t y , Osgood e t a l . (1957) s u g g e s t th e u s e o f a D s t a t i s t i c d e riv e d by u se o f th e fo llo w in g fo rm u la: Where i s th e l i n e a r d is ta n c e betw een th e p o in ts in th e se m a n tic sp ace r e p r e s e n tin g c o n c e p ts i and 1 and d-Q i s th e a lg e b r a ic d if f e r e n c e betw een th e c o o r d in a te s o f i and 1 on th e same d im en sio n o r f a c t o r , j . Summation i s o v er ; th e k d im e n sio n s. In term s o f th e se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l , th e t h i r d h y p o th e s is can be s t a t e d a s fo llo w s : I I I . The D s c o re s betw een th e c o n c e p ts M Y BODY and THE KIND OF PERSON I A M (THE W A Y I SEE MYSELF) w i l l be la r g e r f o r th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s th a n th e norm al m ale s u b je c ts . S in ce a number o f b ip o la r a d je c tiv e s c a le s w ere u se d o n ly f o r body-im age c o n c e p ts and some f o r s e lf-im a g e c o n c e p ts , th e D s c o re s w ere com puted u s in g th e f i v e s c a le s common to b o th c o n c e p ts . The M ann-W hitney U T e s t (S ie g e l 1956) was u sed a s a m easure o f s ig n i f ic a n c e . The r e s u l t s , a s r e p o r te d in T ab le 14, a r e in th e p r e d ic te d d i r e c t i o n and a r e s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .07 l e v e l . W hile th e s e r e s u l t s a r e n o t c o n c lu s iv e , th e y c o u ld p o s s ib l y be c o n s id e re d m o d e ra te ly s u g g e s tiv e o f th e h y p o th e s iz e d r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e body-im age and th e s e l f - im age. S im ila r a n a ly s e s w ere made betw een th e c o n c e p ts com paring th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s t o th e norm al fem a les and th e fem ales t o norm al m a le s. As in d ic a te d by T a b le 12, n e i t h e r o f th e s e com parisons was s i g n i f i c a n t . H ypotheses IV and V H y p o th esis IV s t a t e s t h a t in d iv id u a ls who have form ed an a p p r o p r ia te s e x u a l i d e n t i t y w i l l have i d e n t i f i e d w ith body-im age a s p e c ts o f t h e i r lik e - s e x p a r e n t, and h y p o th e s is V s t a t e s t h a t th e m ajo r s e lf - c o n c e p t i d e n t i f i c a - TABLE 14 DEGREE OF CONGRUENCE OF BODY-IMAGE A N D SELF-CONCEPT COM PARING GROUPS Mann-W hitney U T e st G re a te r Groups Compared C ongruence N U z S ig . L evel T r a n s v e s tite s and m ales M ales 86 625 1 .4 6 .07* T r a n s v e s tite s and fem ales Fem ales 89 861 0 0 o • N .S. M ales and fem ales M ales 55 298 1.33 .18** O n e -ta ile d t e s t i T w o -ta ile d t e s t 0 0 t io n o f in d iv id u a ls who have form ed th e a p p r o p r ia te s e x u a l i d e n t i t y w i l l b e w ith th e l ik e - s e x p a r e n t. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s d e fin e d by th e p r o f i l e s i m i l a r i t y , a s m easured by D, betw een a co n c ep t r e l a t i n g t o th e r a t e r , o r s u b j e c t , and a c o n c e p t r e l a t i n g to th e s i g n i f i c a n t f ig u r e b e in g r a te d . T hus, th e D s c o re betw een th e c o n c e p ts M Y BO D Y and M Y FATHER'S B O D Y i s d e fin e d as body-im age i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith f a t h e r . Two a s p e c ts o f each h y p o th e s is w ere a n a ly z e d ; nam ely, th e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and th e d i r e c t io n o f th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The s t r e n g t h o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was d e te rm in e d by com paring D s c o re s betw een g ro u p s. Thus, in term s o f h y p o th e s is IV, we w ould e x p e c t, when t e s t i n g body-im age i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith f a t h e r , th e fo llo w in g D s c o re r e l a t i o n s h i p s : D: M ales <C D: Fem ales D: M ales < D: T r a n s v e s tite s A s m a lle r D s c o re f o r m ales com pared to fem ales im p lie s a c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith F a th e r f o r th e m a le s. In o rd e r t o d e te rm in e th e s ig n i f ic a n c e o f th e o b se rv e d d i f f e r en ces in D s c o re s betw een th e g ro u p s, a n o n p a ra m e tric s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t was d ev e lo p ed by th e B i o s t a t i s t i c U n it o f th e UCLA M ed ical C e n te r, w hich p e rm its a sim u lta n e o u s 84 com parison o f a l l th r e e g ro u p s. The te c h n iq u e i s b a s i c a l l y a ra n k sum t e s t m o d ified j t o in c lu d e m u ltip le c o m p a riso n s. I t can b e d e s c rib e d as f o llo w s : ^ The d if f e r e n c e Tj. T n . n . J i s c o n s id e re d t o be a p p ro x im a te ly n o rm ally d i s t r i b u t e d u n d er th e n u l l h y p o th e s is w ith z e ro mean and v a ria n c e N (N + 1) n^ + n j 12 (n*) (n^) w here T^ r e p r e s e n ts th e ra n k sum f o r group i o f n^ c a s e s . Z n ± = N. Sam ples a r e j o i n t l y ran k ed and th e ran k s a s s ig n e d to each o b s e rv a tio n o f th e i*” * 1 sam ple sum to T^. A m easure o f th e d i r e c t i o n o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was s u g g e s te d e a r l i e r as a seco n d te c h n iq u e o f t e s t i n g th e h y p o th e s e s . R e ly in g once a g a in on th e D s c o re s a s a m easure o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , d i r e c t i o n was d eterm in ed by com paring th e D 's f o r one s e t o f c o n c e p ts f o r a g iv e n P e rs o n a l com m unication, B i o s t a t i s t i c s U n it, UCLA M ed ical C e n te r. The te c h n iq u e was d ev elo p ed by D r. O liv e Je a n Dunn in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e B i o s t a t i s t i c s U n it. 85 g ro u p w ith t h e i r D 's f o r a n o th e r s e t o f c o n c e p ts . The d i r e c t i o n o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n would be w ith th e s e t o f co n c e p ts c o n ta in in g s i g n i f i c a n t l y low er D s c o r e s . R e tu rn in g t o h y p o th e s is IVA, th e p r e d ic tio n f o r norm al m ales would b e : D: (M Y BODY-FATHER'S BODY) < D: (M Y BODY-MOTHER' S BODY) The W ilcoxan M atched F a ir s S igned Ranks T e st ( S ie g e l 1956) was u sed t o d e te rm in e th e s ig n i f ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e s betw een s e ts o f D s c o re s f o r each g ro u p . T ab le s 15 and 16 r e s t a t e h y p o th e se s IV and V in term s o f th e se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l o p e ra tio n s and r e p o r t th e r e s u l t s &£ a n a ly s e s o f th e d a ta . A ll o f th e s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h ip s a r e in th e p r e d ic te d d i r e c t i o n . H y p o th esis IV was s tr o n g ly su p p o rte d by th e r e s u l t s . When th e body-im age c o n c e p ts a r e u sed as m easures o f p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , in d iv id u a ls who h av e form ed an a p p r o p r ia te s e x u a l i d e n t i t y have i d e n t i f i e d more c l o s e ly w ith t h e i r lik e - s e x p a r e n t, w h ile in d iv id u a ls w ith a d is tu r b e d s e x u a l i d e n t i t y i d e n t i f i e d more c lo s e ly w ith t h e i r u n lik e - s e x p a r e n t. When i r e l a t i v e s tr e n g t h o f p a r e n t a l body-im age i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s d e te rm in e d , th e r e s u l t s in d i c a t e t h a t th e norm al m ales i d e n t i f i e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more c lo s e ly w ith t h e i r f a th e r s TABLE 15 DIRECTION A N D RELATIVE STRENGTH OF PARENTAL BODY-IMAGE IDENTIFICATION R e la tiv e S tre n g th o f I d e n t i f i c a t i o n C oncepts Hypoth. P re d ic te d R e la tio n s h ip S ig . le v e l Lower^ group M Y BODY: M Y FATHER'S M Y BODY: M Y MOTHER'S IV A BO D Y IV C BO D Y IV B IV C D: M ales < D: Fem ales D: M ales < D: T r a n s v e s tite s D: M ales > D: Fem ales D: M ales > D: T r a n s v e s tite s .001 .001 N .S. N .S. Males Males D ire c tio n o f I d e n t i f i c a t i o n Group H ypoth. P re d ic te d R e la tio n s h ip S ig . le v e l P a re n t i d e n t i . w ith * M ales IV A D:(MY BODY-FATHER'S BODY) < D:(MY BODY-MOTHER'S BODY) .002 F a th e r Fem ales IV B D:(MY BODY-FATHER'S BODY) > D:(MY BODY-MOTHER' S BODY) .01 M other T ra n s . IV C D:(MY BODY-FATHER'S BODY) > D:(MY BODY-MOTHER'S BODY) .05 M other I n d ic a te s c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n 00 O' TABLE 16 DIRECTION A N D RELATIVE STRENGTH OF PARENTAL SELF-CONCEPT IDENTIFICATION C oncepts R e la tiv e S tre n g th o f I d e n t i f i c a t i o n H ypoth. P re d ic te d R e la tio n s h ip S ig . le v e l Lower^ group PERSON I AM : PERSON FATHER PERSON I AM : PERSON M O TH ER V A D: M ales < D: Fem ales IS V B D: M ales < D: T r a n s v e s tite s IS V A D: M ales D: Fem ales V B D: M ales D: T r a n s v e s tite s N .S. .05 N .S. N .S. M ales Group H ypoth. D ir e c tio n o f I d e n t i f i c a t i o n P re d ic te d R e la tio n s h ip S ig . le v e l P a re n t id e n £ i. w ith M ales V A D:(PERSON I AM-PERSON D:(PERSON I AM-PERSON FATHER IS) M OTHER IS) N .S. Fem ales V B D:(PERSON I AM-PERSON > D:(PERSON I AM-PERSON FATHER IS) M OTHER IS) N.S. T ra n s . V C D: (PERSON I AM-PERSON > D: (PERSON I AM-PERSON FATHER IS) M OTHER IS) N .S. I n d ic a te s c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o o ' " " " 88 ...................... th a n th e norm al fe m a le s , and th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s i d e n t i f i e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y le s s w ith t h e i r f a t h e r s th a n norm al m a les. However, n e i t h e r h y p o th e s is r e l a t i n g to th e s t r e n g t h o f body-im age i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith m other was s u p p o rte d . T h u s, ; w h ile fem a les te n d to i d e n t i f y more c lo s e ly w ith m other in term s o f th e body-im age th a n f a t h e r , t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith m o th er i s n o t as s tro n g a s th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f norm al m ales w ith t h e i r li k e - s e x p a r e n t. In c o n t r a s t to th e b ody-im age, th e s e lf - c o n c e p t d id n o t s u p p o rt th e p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h y p o th e s e s . i None o f th e th r e e groups i d e n t i f i e d m ore c lo s e ly w ith one p a r e n t th a n th e o th e r . In term s o f th e r e l a t i v e s tr e n g th o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , th e norm al m ales i d e n t i f i e d s i g n i f i c a n tly m ore c lo s e ly w ith t h e i r f a t h e r s th a n th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s . However, th e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een norm al m ales and fem ales in th e s tr e n g th o f e i t h e r f a t h e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and no d if f e r e n c e ap p eared betw een m ales and fe m a le s, o r m ales and t r a n s v e s t i t e s i n th e s tr e n g t h o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith m o th e r. A d d itio n a l Sem antic D i f f e r e n t i a l D ata The rem ain in g sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l c o n c e p ts w ere a n a ly z e d u s in g th e ra n k sum t e s t a s a means o f com paring ' ....................................." .................................................... ~ ..............................................................................................................89 th e D s c o re s o f each g ro u p . A ppendix D c o n ta in s th e r e s u l t s o f th e a n a ly s e s o f th e body-im age c o n c e p ts and s e lf - c o n c e p t s t i m u l i . A lth o u g h n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e m ajo r h y p o th e s e s , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te th e d i f fe re n c e s betw een th e g ro u p s in th e m eanings a s s o c ia te d w ith th e c o n c e p ts m ale and fe m a le . T hese r e s u l t s a r e r e p o r te d in T ab le s 17 and 18. A lth o u g h th e fem ale c o n tr o ls d id n o t i d e n t i f y more c l o s e ly w ith m other th a n th e norm al m ales on th e body-im age c o n c e p t, th e y d id i d e n t i f y m ore c l o s e ly w ith th e co n c ep t "THE FEMALE BODY" th a n th e m a le s. The t r a n s v e s t i t e s d id n o t i d e n t i f y w ith e i t h e r th e m ale o r fem ale in term s o f th e body-im age o r th e s e lf - c o n c e p t. However, th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s p la c e g r e a t e r d is t a n c e betw een t h e i r own body- im age and th e co n c ep t FEMALE B O D Y th a n norm al fem a les (.0 0 1 l e v e l ) , and g r e a t e r d is ta n c e betw een t h e i r own body- image and th e co n c ep t M A LE BODY th a n norm al m ales (.0 0 1 l e v e l ) . L ik e w ise , th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s p la c e g r e a t e r d is ta n c e ;betw een t h e i r s e lf-im a g e and th e c o n c e p t THE KIND OF PEOPLE W O M E N ARE th a n norm al m ales (.0 5 ) and g r e a t e r d is ta n c e ■between t h e i r s e lf-im a g e and th e c o n c e p t THE KIND OF PEOPLE M EN ARE th a n norm al m ales ( .0 0 1 ) . Once a g a in , th e body- Iimage c o n c e p ts d i f f e r e n t i a t e norm al m ales from norm al RELATIVE TABLE 17 STRENGTH OF IDENTIFICATION WITH THE M A LE A N D FEMALE BODY- IM AGE S ig . Lower C oncepts P re d ic te d R e la tio n s h ip le v e l group* M Y BODY: D M ales < D: Fem ales .001 M ales M A LE BO D Y D M ales D: T r a n s v e s tite s .001 M ales D Fem ales = D: T r a n s v e s tite s [ N .S. M Y BODY: D M ales > D: Fem ales .001 Fem ales FEMALE BO D Y D M ales > D: T r a n s v e s tite s N .S. D Fem ales = D: T r a n v e s tite s .001 Fem ales * f c Indicates closer identification TABLE 18 RELATIVE STRENGTH OF IDENTIFICATION WITH THE M A LE A N D FEMALE SELF-CONCEPT C oncepts P re d ic te d R e la tio n s h ip S ig . le v e l Lower * group PERSON I AM : PEOPLE D: M ales < D: Fem ales N .S. M EN ARE D: M ales < D: T r a n s v e s tite s .001 Males D: Fem ales = D: T r a n s v e s tite s N .S. PERSON I AM : PEOPLE D: M ales > D: Fem ales N .S. W O M E N ARE D: M ales D: T r a n s v e s tite s .05 Males D: Fem ales = D: T ran sv es t i t e s N .S. Indicates closer identification fem ales a t a h ig h le v e l o f s ig n if ic a n c e w hereas th e s e l f image c o n c e p ts do n o t d is c r im in a te betw een th e g ro u p s a t a s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l . The T hem atic A p p erce p tio n T e st The R a tin g S c a le s R esponses t o th e TAT s t o r i e s w ere r a te d by th r e e ju d g e s on fo u r s e p a r a te r a t i n g s c a l e s . The s c a le s have been u se d p re v io u s ly in s tu d i e s r e l a t i n g to th e TAT (B arr 1952, M alek 1961) and w ere s e le c te d b ecau se o f t h e i r a p p a re n t re le v a n c e to th e p re s e n t s tu d y . Each s c a le p r e se n te d th e r a t e r w ith 5 c a te g o r ie s w ith s c o re s ra n g in g from -2 t o +2. The s c o re s tow ard th e n e g a tiv e p o le i n d i c a te d a "p o o r" r a t i n g w h ile a "good" r a t i n g re c e iv e d s c o re s tow ard t h e p o s i t i v e p o le . The co m p lete s c a le s w i l l be found in A ppendix E. F o llo w in g a r e b r i e f d e s c r ip tio n s * E m o tio n al to n e - T h is s c a le e v a lu a te s th e g e n e ra l mood o f th e s t o r i e s ra n g in g from " h o p e le s s r e s ig n a tio n " to "co m p lete s a t i s f a c t i o n and h a p p in e s s ." S e lf-C o n c e p t - T his i s a m easure o f s e l f estee m as d e te rm in e d by th e tre a tm e n t o f th e h e r o . S o c ia l D is ta n c e - T h is s c a le e v a lu a te s i n t e n s i t y o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e h e ro and o th e r f i g u r e s . I t i s im p o rta n t to 93 n o te t h a t th e s c a le r a t e s i n t e n s i t y r a t h e r th a n th e p o s i t i v e o r n e g a tiv e a s p e c ts o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . C o n f lic t - T his i s a m easure o f th e q u a l i t a t i v e a s p e c ts o f s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , in d ic a t in g th e d e g re e o f c o n f l i c t p r e s e n t. The ju d g e s c o n s is te d o f two Ph.D . c l i n i c a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s and one advanced g ra d u a te s tu d e n t in c l i n i c a l p sy ch o lo g y who h as had a good d e a l o f c l i n i c a l e x p e rie n c e on a p r o f e s s io n a l l e v e l . A ll ju d g e s w ere am ply f a m il ia r w ith th e TAT, b u t w ere e q u a lly u n a c q u a in te d w ith th e r a t i n g s c a l e s . T h e ir p a r t i c i p a t i o n e n t a i l e d th e fo rm id a b le ta s k o f m aking 600 in d e p en d e n t r a t i n g s . They w ere each aw arded a s tip e n d as a p a r t i a l com pensation f o r th e tim e r e q u ir e d f o r th e ta s k . The s u b j e c t s ' TAT p r o to c o ls had been ty p e d u s in g th e o r i g i n a l n o te s . Each p r o to c o l was a s s ig n e d a code number from a t a b l e o f random numbers and th e o rd e r o f p r o to c o ls f o r a l l s u b je c ts was random ized. The ju d g e s : w ere t o l d th e s t o r i e s had been g iv en by e x p e rim e n ta l, i m ale c o n t r o l , and fem ale c o n tr o l s u b je c ts , and w ere aw are t h a t th e e x p e rim e n ta l group c o n s is te d o f m ale tr a n s v e s t i t e s . They d id n o t know th e group to w hich a g iv en ! p r o to c o l b e lo n g e d , th e number o f s u b je c ts in a g iv e n g ro u p , n o r th e h y p o th e ses t o b e t e s t e d by th e r a t i n g s . They w ere i n s t r u c t e d to r a t e th e f i r s t s to r y f o r each s u b je c t on th e f i r s t s c a le , th e n th e second s to r y f o r each s u b je c t and so on u n t i l th e f i r s t r a t i n g s c a le had been u se d to r a t e a l l s t o r i e s . The same p ro c e d u re was th e n t o b e f o l lowed w ith th e o th e r r a t i n g s c a l e s . B oth th e o rd e r o f r a t i n g s and th e ra n d o m iz a tio n o f s u b je c ts d i f f e r e d f o r each ju d g e . The r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f th e r a t i n g s w ere com puted u s in g E b e l's m ethod (G u ilfo rd 1954) and a r e r e p o r te d in T ab le 19. The c o e f f i c i e n t s ra n g e from .39 to .95 and g e n e r a lly f a l l in to th e a c c e p ta b le ra n g e . The c a rd r a t i n g s w ere th e n summed o v er s u b je c ts f o r each s c a le f o r a " t o t a l " s c o re w hich was th e n i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d w ith th e rem a in in g s c a l e s . The c o r r e l a t i o n m a trix (T a b le 20) i n d ic a t e s t h a t th r e e o f th e s c a l e s , E m o tio n al T one, Con f l i c t , and S e lf-C o n c e p t, w ere h ig h ly i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d , w ith c o r r e l a t i o n s ra n g in g from .68 to .7 6 . The S o c ia l D is ta n c e S c a le was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith any o f th e o th e r s c a le s and may w e ll have m easured an in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . The re m a in in g s c a le s p ro b a b ly m easure some g e n e ra l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e m o tio n a l w e ll b e in g . TABLE 19 RELIABILITY OF RATING TAT PROTOCOLS O N FOUR RATING SCALES R a tin g S c a le 1 TAT 7GF c a rd 6BM 7BM 16 C o n f lic t .76 .70 .55 .86 .84 S o c ia l D is ta n c e .79 .76 .43 .39 .83 E m o tio n al Tone .89 .82 .58 .80 .95 S e lf-C o n c e p t .81 .66 .77 .92 .76 TABLE 20 CORRELATIONS BETW EEN TAT RATING SCALES SUM M ING OVER ALL RATINGS FOR EACH SUBJECT O N EACH CARD (N = 33) R a tin g S c a le S o c ia l D is ta n c e C o n f lic t S e lf - C oncept E m otional Tone .06 .71* .76* S o c ia l D is ta n c e .00 .29 C o n f lic t .68* £ S ig n if ic a n t a t o r beyond .01 le v e l ................................................... ■...... ................................................... - ........ 96 .......... I d e n t i f i c a t i o n a s D eterm ined by S o c ia l D is ta n c e The r e s u l t s o f th e S o c ia l D is ta n c e r a t i n g s w ere u sed a s in d ic a tio n s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s . The assu m p tio n h e re i s t h a t th e i n t e n s i t y o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p a re n t and c h ild i s an in d ic a tio n o f th e d eg re e o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n betw een th e tw o. By d e f in in g th e r a t i n g s on th e S o c ia l D is ta n c e S c a le a s a m easure o f i n t e n s i t y o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s and com paring th e r a t i n g s o f th e groups on th e m o th e r-so n , f a th e r - s o n , and m o th e r-d a u g h te r c a r d s , i t sh o u ld be p o s s ib le t o d i s t i n g u is h i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t te r n s . In term s o f th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h y p o th e s is , a number o f r e l a ti o n s h i p s betw een th e groups on th e S o c ia l D is ta n c e S c a le w ere p r e d ic te d . A h ig h e r s c o re in d ic a te s c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . C ard 7GF (m o th e r-d a u g h te r r e l a t i o n s h i p ) : norm al m ales < norm al fem ales norm al m ales ■ = : t r a n s v e s t i t e s C ard 6BM (m o th er-so n r e l a t i o n s h i p ) : norm al m ales c t r a n s v e s t i t e s Card 7BM ( f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p ) norm al m ales : = = » norm al fem ales norm al m ales r*. t r a n s v e s t i t e s The Mann-W hitney U T e st was u sed to t e s t t h e s i g n if ic a n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e g ro u p s f o r each c a rd on S o c ia l D is ta n c e . The r e s u l t s o f th e s e a n a ly s e s a r e r e p o r te d in T ab le 21. Of th e th r e e co m p ariso n s made r e l a t i n g to th e p r e d i c t i o n s , o n ly th e r e s u l t s o f c a rd 7GF, th e m o th e r-d a u g h te r c a rd f o r th e norm al m ales and t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t (.0 2 l e v e l ) . The im p lic a tio n o f t h i s r e s u l t i s t h a t th e m o th e r-d a u g h te r r e l a t i o n s h i p e l i c i t s more in te n s e f e e lin g s from t r a n s v e s t i t e s th a n i t does from norm al m a le s, b u t th e r e a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f fe re n c e s betw een th e groups when th e m o th e r-so n r e l a t i o n s h ip , o r th e f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p i s d e p ic te d . U sing th e same ap p ro ac h to exam ine th e d if f e r e n c e betw een norm al m ales and norm al fe m a le s , and t r a n s v e s t i t e s and norm al fe m a le s , we fin d no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s f o r th e th r e e c a r d s . However, some s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s a r e a p p a re n t on c a rd s 1 and 16. In ea ch c a s e th e norm al fem ales gave s t o r i e s in d ic a t in g g r e a t e r e m o tio n a l in v o lv em en t betw een ; th e f i g u r e s . The S o c ia l D is ta n c e s c a le was a ls o u sed t o d e t e r - i m ine th e d i r e c t i o n o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . T h is in v o lv e d th e i co m p u tatio n o f a d if f e r e n c e s c o re betw een r a t i n g s on two TABLE 21 INTENSITY OF PARENTAL IDENTIFICATION DERIVED FROM THE TAT SOCIAL DISTANCE RATING SCALE TAT Card M ales and T r a n s v e s tite s (N = 25) Groups Compared (Mann-Whitney U T e st) Fem ales and T r a n s v e s tite s (N - 25) M ales and Fem ales (N - 16) U S ig . le v e l H igher group U S ig . le v e l H igher group U S ig . le v e l H igher group 1 50 N .S. M 43 N .S. T 9 .01** F 7GF 34 .02* T 60 N .S. T 23 N .S. F 6BM 64 N .S. M 62 N .S. F 32 N .S. T ie 7BM 58 N .S. T 78 N .S. T 28 N .S. M 16 62 N .S. T 31 .03** F 12 .04** F T o ta l 59 N .S. T 69 N .S. T 26 N .S. F O n e -ta ile d t e s t T w o -ta ile d t e s t \o 00 ........... 99. c a rd s f o r a g iv e n g ro u p . The d i r e c t i o n o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s in d ic a te d by th e c a rd e l i c i t i n g th e h ig h e s t r a t i n g s . The p r e d ic tio n s f o r th e g ro u p s a r e as fo llo w s : Norm al m ales - (m o th er-so n ) 6BM < ( f a th e r - s o n ) 7BM (m o th e r-d a u g h te r) 7GF < ( f a th e r - s o n ) 7BM Normal fem ales - (m o th e r-d a u g h te r) 7GF :> (m o th er-so n ) 6BM (m o th e r-d a u g h te r) 7GF ;> ■ ( f a th e r - s o n ) 7BM T r a n s v e s tite s - (m o th er-so n ) 6BM : > ( f a th e r - s o n ) 7BM (m o th e r-d a u g h te r) 7GF : > ( f a th e r - s o n ) 7BM The W ilcoxon M a tc h e d -P a irs Signed-R anks T e st ( S ie g e l 1956) le n d s i t s e l f e s p e c i a l l y w e ll to t h i s ty p e o f a n a ly s is and was u se d as th e t e s t o f s ig n i f ic a n c e . The r e s u l t s (T able 22) in d i c a t e t h a t t r a n s v e s t i t e s show s i g n i f i c a n t l y more in v o lv em en t in th e m o th e r-d a u g h te r r e l a t i o n s h i p th an th e f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p , and show a s tr o n g tre n d to w ard g r e a t e r in v o lv em en t in th e m o th e r-so n r e l a t i o n s h i p th a n th e f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p . Of th e two p r e d ic tio n s re g a rd in g th e fem ale c o n t r o l s , o n ly th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een m o th e r-d a u g h te r v e rs u s f a th e r - s o n was s i g n i f i c a n t in th e p r e d ic te d d i r e c t i o n . In a d d i tio n , fe m a le s showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r in v o lv em en t in th e m o th e r-so n r e l a t i o n s h i p th a n th e f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p . The m ale c o n tr o ls c o m p le te ly r e v e r s e th e t h i r d p r e d i c t i o n , TABLE 22 DIRECTION OF IDENTIFICATION DERIVED FROM THE TAT SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALE (W ilcoxon M atch ed -P airs Signed-R anks T e st) GROUP T r a n s v e s tite s M ales Fem ales TAT Cards Compared T H igher c a rd S ig . le v e l H igher T c a rd S ig . le v e l T H igher c a rd S ig . le v e l 6BM (m o th er-so n ) : 7BM ( f a th e r - s o n ) 2 9 .5 6BM .07* 0 6BM .05 1 6BM .02* 7GF (m o th e r-d a u g h te r) : 7BM ( f a th e r - s o n ) 2 4 .5 7GF .05** 14.5 N .S. 2 .5 7GF .03* 7GF (m o th e r-d a u g h te r : 6BM (m o th er-so n ) 46 N .S. 0 6BM .02 10 N .S. O n e -ta ile d t e s t T w o -ta ile d t e s t 100 ' ' 101 ; i i show ing s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r in v o lv em en t in th e m o th er-so n j c a rd th a n th e f a th e r - s o n c a r d . The s tim u lu s p u l l o f th e m o th e r-so n c a rd f o r th e m ales h o ld s up when t h e i r re s p o n s e s on i t a r e com pared to th e m o th e r-d a u g h te r c a rd , in w hich c a se in v o lv em en t i s once a g a in w ith th e m o th e r-so n . The R em aining R a tin g S c a le s The r e s u l t s o f th e E m o tio n al T one, C o n f lic t and S e lf-C o n c e p t r a t i n g s w ere q u it e s i m il a r (T ab les 23, 24 and 2 5 ); how ever, t h i s was n o t u n ex p e cte d in view o f t h e i r h ig h i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t t r a n s v e s t i t e s d id n o t r e c e iv e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t s c o re s th a n norm al m ales on any o f th e th r e e s c a l e s . The norm al fe m a le s , how ever, sc o re d h ig h e r ( i . e . tow ard th e " h e a lt h i e r " p o le ) th a n th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s on c a rd 16 f o r a l l j th r e e s c a l e s . The fem ales a l s o s c o re d h ig h e r th a n t r a n s v e s t i t e s on c a rd 6BM and th e t o t a l s c o re s on th e C o n f lic t o and E m o tio n al Tone S c a le s . The norm al fem ales a l s o sc o re d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r th a n norm al m ales on c a rd 16 on th e C o n f lic t and E m o tio n al Tone S c a le s . 2 B ecause o f th e s m a ll number o f s u b je c ts u sed in th e TAT s tu d y , th e .10 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e was a c c e p te d as i n d ic a t i v e o f s tro n g t r e n d s . TABLE 23 COMPARISON OF GROUPS ON TAT SELF-CONCEPT RATING SCALE TAT Card M ales and T r a n s v e s tite s (N = 25) Groups Compared (Mann-Whitney U T e st) Fem ales and T r a n s v e s tite s (N = 25) M ales and (N = Fem ales 16) U S ig . le v e l H igher group U S ig . le v e l H igher group U S ig . le v e l H igher group 1 56 N .S. T 59 N .S. T 32 N .S. F 7GF 64 N .S. T 63 N .S. F 28 N .S. F 6BM 45 N .S. M 48 N .S. T 28 N .S. F 7BM 66 N .S. T 64 N .S. T 26 N .S. M 16 59 N .S. M 24 .02 F 20 N .S. F T o ta l 68 N .S. T ie 55 N .S. F 24 N .S. F 102 TABLE 24 COMPARISON OF GROUPS ON TAT CONFLICT RATING SCALE Groups Compared (M ann-W hitney U T e st) M ales and T r a n s v e s tite s (N = 25) Fem ales and T r a n s v e s tite s (N = 25) M ales and (N = Fem ales 16) TAT Card U S ig . le v e l H igher group U S ig . le v e l H igher group U S ig . le v e l H igher group 1 63 N .S. M 52 N .S. T 22 N .S. M 7GF 62 N .S. T 56 N .S. F 22 N .S. F 6BM 46 N .S. M 38 .08 F 26 N .S. F 7BM 64 N .S. M 68 N .S. T ie 30 N .S. M 16 64 N .S. T 26 .01 F 9 .01 F T o ta l 68 N .S. M 26 .06 F 20 N .S. F o C O TABLE 25 COMPARISON OF GROUPS ON TAT EMOTIONAL TONE RATING SCALE TAT Card M ales and T r a n s v e s tite s (N = 25) Groups Compared (M ann-W hitney U T e st) Fem ales and T r a n s v e s tite s (N = 25) M ales and (N = Fem ales 16> U S ig . le v e l H igher group U S ig . le v e l H igher group U S ig . le v e l H igher group 1 66 N .S. M 63 N .S. T 31 N .S. M 7GF 64 N .S. T 62 N .S. F 30 N .S. F 6BM 42 N .S. M 26 .01 F 27 N .S. F 7BM 54 N .S. M 54 N .S. F 29 N .S. F 16 58 N .S. T 34 .04 F 6 .004 F T o ta l 58 N .S. M 37 .06 F 18 N .S. F o -P- The G uilford-Zim m erm an Temperament Survey The re sp o n se s t o th e G uilford-Zim m erm an Tem pera m ent Survey M a s c u lin ity S c a le and G ross F a l s i f i c a t i o n S c a le w ere sc o re d u s in g th e s ta n d a rd k e y s . The r e s u l t s , in th e form o f a fre q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r each s c a l e , 3 a r e p re s e n te d in T ab le 26. The P r o f i l e C h a rt re c o rd s a mean s c o re o f 2 0 .5 f o r m ales in th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n and 1 0 .5 f o r fem ales in th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n on th e M -sca le. N e ith e r th e m ale c o n tr o ls n o r th e fem ale c o n tr o ls u se d in th e p r e s e n t stu d y d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e means o f th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n . On th e o th e r h an d , th e t r a n s v e s t i t e 's mean o f 1 2.45 f e l l c lo s e to 2 s ta n d a rd d e v ia tio n s from th e mean o f m ales in th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n . The t r a n s v e s t i t e s ' s c o re s p la c e d them m arkedly tow ard th e "fe m in in e " p o le o f th e s c a l e . The stu d y y ie ld in g th e norm f o r th e G .F . s c a le (Jaco b s and S c h le ff 1955) p ro v id e s fre q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r m ales and fe m a le s. The w r i t e r com puted a mean o f 1 0 .4 3 f o r m ales and 13.30 f o r fem ales u t i l i z i n g th e d a ta 3 P r o f i l e C h a rt f o r th e G uilford-Z im m erm an Tem pera m ent Survey (B ev e rly H i l l s : S h erid a n Supply Company, 1 9 5 5 ). 106 TABLE 26 DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES O N THE GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN TEM PERAMENT SURVEY MASCULINITY SCALE Group S co re T r a n s v e s tite s M ales Fem ales 28-29 26-27 1 3 24-25 1 5 22-23 2 10 20-21 3 4 18-19 8 4 16-17 6 2 2 14-15 2 1 5 12-13 6 1 3 10-11 6 7 8 -9 12 5 6-7 10 1 4 -5 1 2 -3 2 1 0-1 N 60 26 28 Mean 1 2.45 2 1 .3 8 1 2.25 cr 5 .6 3 3 .5 6 3 .9 2 107 p u b lis h e d by th e a u th o r s . The mean s c o re s f o r a l l th r e e groups in th e p r e s e n t stu d y f e l l below th e means f o r th e n o rm a tiv e group (T ab le 2 7 ). T his i s an in d ic a tio n t h a t th e s u b je c ts in t h i s stu d y w ere somewhat le s s in c lin e d to resp o n d to th e ite m s r e a d i l y fa k e a b le u n d er i n s t r u c t i o n s th a n th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n . To th e e x te n t t h i s s c a le m easu res t e s t ta k in g a t t i t u d e s n e i t h e r th e c o n tr o l groups n o r th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s ap p e ared to be p a r t i c u l a r l y d e f e n s iv e . In o rd e r t o e v a lu a te th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e m ale c o n t r o l s , fem a le c o n t r o l s , and t r a n s v e s t i t e s on th e two G uilford-Z im m erm an s c a l e s , an a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e was com puted f o r each s c a l e . The r e s u l t s o f th e a n a ly s is o f th e M s c a le a r e sum m arized in T a b le 28. The F t e s t i s h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t (beyond th e .001 l e v e l ) . The t t e s t u sed to t e s t th e s ig n i f ic a n c e o f d if f e r e n c e betw een m eans, in d ic a t e s t h a t th e m ale c o n tr o l and t r a n s v e s t i t e g ro u p s d i f f e r beyond th e .001 l e v e l , w h ile t h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e betw een th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s and fe m a le s. As e x p e c te d from th e d e s ig n o f th e M s c a l e , th e m ale and fem ale c o n tr o ls d i f f e r beyond th e .001 l e v e l . The mean s c o re s o f a l l t h r e e groups a r e in th e p r e d ic te d d i r e c t i o n . 108 TABLE 27 DISTRIBUTION OF SCORES O N THE GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN TEM PERAMENT SURVEY GROSS FALSIFICATION SCALE Group S co re T r a n s v e s tite s M ales Fem ales 18-19 1 16-17 1 1 14-15 2 2 1 12-13 2 5 9 10-11 8 4 3 8 -9 13 4 6 6-7 10 7 6 4 -5 19 2 3 2-3 4 0 -1 1 N 60 26 28 Mean 7 .1 0 9.69 9 .2 5 o - 3 .2 5 3.69 2 .8 5 109 TABLE 28 GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN TEM PERAM ENT SURVEY MASCULINITY SCALE: ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE A N D t TESTS BETW EEN GROUPS A n a ly s is o f V arian ce Components d f Sums o f sq u a re s V arian ce S ig . F le v e l Between groups 2 1625 812.50 2 9 .1 4 .001 W ith in groups 111 3095 2 7.88 T o ta l 113 4720 R e s u lts o f t T est Groups N t S ig . le v e l T r a n s v e s tite s and M ales 86 7.38 .001 T r a n s v e s tite s and Fem ales 88 .17 N .S. M ales and Fem ales 54 8 .8 6 .001 110 T a b le 29 sum m arizes th e r e s u l t s o f th e G ross F a l s i f i c a t i o n s c a le a n a ly s is . Once a g a in , th e F i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l . The t t e s t s o f s ig n i f ic a n c e betw een th e th r e e g ro u p s in d ic a t e th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s * s c o re s d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from b o th th e m ale and fem ale c o n t r o ls , w h ile th e l a t t e r two g ro u p s do n o t d i f f e r . I t i s im p o rta n t to n o te t h a t th e mean s c o re o f th e tr a n s v e s t i t e g roup i s low er th a n th e c o n t r o l s , in d ic a t in g le s s o f a te n d en cy to a tte m p t t o "lo o k good" on th e t e s t . In g e n e r a l, th e m ale and fem ale c o n t r o l s u b je c ts resp o n d ed t o b o th th e M and GF s c a le s as would be ex p e cte d from a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ple o f th e g e n e ra l p o p u la tio n . The t r a n s v e s t i t e s , on th e o th e r h an d , sc o re d d r a m a tic a lly low er th a n th e c o n tr o ls on th e M s c a l e , in d ic a t in g a r a t h e r s tro n g p rep o n d eran c e o f " fe m in in e " s o c i a l - c u l t u r a l a t t i tu d e s . The Background In fo rm a tio n Q u e s tio n n a ire The q u e s tio n n a ir e was d e sig n e d to e l i c i t in fo rm a tio n r a t h e r th a n t o t e s t s p e c i f i c h y p o th e s e s . The m a jo rity o f th e q u e s tio n s w ere open ended and w h ile th e y do n o t le n d th e m se lv e s r e a d i l y to d a ta a n a ly s e s , can y i e ld a good Ill TABLE 29 GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN TEMPERAMENT SURVEY GROSS FALSIFICATION SCALE: ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE AN D t TESTS BETW EEN GROUPS A n a ly s is o f V a ria n c e Components d f Sums o f sq u a re s V arian c e S ig . F le v e l Between groups 2 162 8 1 .0 0 7 .4 0 .01 W ith in groups 111 1214 10.94 T o ta l 1 1 3 1376 R e s u lts o f t T est Groups N t S ig . le v e l T r a n s v e s tite s and M ales 86 3 .2 4 .01 T r a n s v e s tite s and Fem ales 88 2 .9 9 .01 M ales and Fem ales 54 .48 N .S. ' " " " 112 : d e a l o f c l i n i c a l in fo rm a tio n . In o rd e r to p r e s e n t a s much j o f th e s e d a ta a s p o s s ib le w ith in th e c o n fin e s o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , th e w r i t e r sum m arized th e in fo rm a tio n so t h a t i t c o u ld be p re s e n te d in ta b u la r form . A lth o u g h a good d e a l o f th e c l i n i c a l im p o rt o f th e d a ta i s l o s t , t h i s ap p ro ach e n a b le s tr e n d s to em erge w hich can b e h ig h ly s u g g e s tiv e o f a r e a s f o r f u r t h e r e x p lo r a tio n . The q u e s t i o n n a i r e item s r e l a t i n g d i r e c t l y to th e m a jo r h y p o th e ses w i l l be r e p o r te d in t h i s s e c tio n , w h ile th e rem ain in g ite m s w i l l be found in A ppendix F. The q u e s tio n n a ir e item s to be d is c u s s e d a r e r e l a t e d to what B i e r i e t a l . (1959) c a lle d " d i r e c t m easures o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . " The s u b je c t i s asked t o r e p o r t h is p a r e n t a l p re fe re n c e s b o th a t th e p re s e n t tim e as w e ll as f o r h is c h ild h o o d . R e fe rrin g to th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h y p o th e s e s th e m ale c o n tr o ls can be e x p e c te d to show p re fe re n c e f o r f a t h e r and to f e e l p r e f e r r e d by f a t h e r , w h ile th e fem ale c o n tr o ls and t r a n s v e s t i t e s to show p re fe re n c e f o r m o th er and f e e l p r e f e r r e d by m o th e r. The f o u r th q u e s tio n r e f e r s t o p e rc e iv e d p h y s ic a l s i m i l a r i t y . We would e x p e c t, in term s o f th e body-im age h y p o th e s e s , t h a t th e m ale and fem ale c o n t r o ls would s e l e c t t h e i r sam e-sexed p a r e n t, .... ... ...' ........ 113 w h ile th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ould s e l e c t t h e i r m other a s th e ; p a re n t th e y re se m b le . The r e s u l t s o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e item s and th e c h i sq u a re s a n a ly s e s a r e sum m arized in T ab le 30. The r e s u l t s in d ic a t e t h a t o f th e f o u r ite m s , o n ly th e item s r e l a t i n g to c u r r e n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n f e e l in g s and th e body-im age w ere s i g n i f i c a n t . On q u e s tio n 3 , th e m ale c o n tr o ls and t r a n s v e s t i t e s sc o re d in th e p r e d ic te d d i r e c t i o n , w h ile th e fem ales w ere d iv id e d betw een p a r e n ts . On q u e s tio n 4 , o v er one t h i r d o f th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s view ed th e m se lv e s as re se m b lin g t h e i r m o th e rs , w h ile alm o st a l l o f th e m ale c o n tr o ls s e le c te d t h e i r f a t h e r s . S u r p r is in g ly , th e fem a le s a re once a g a in d iv id e d betw een m other and f a t h e r . A lthough th e f i r s t two q u e s tio n s w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , th e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t i n t e r e s t i n g tr e n d s . On q u e s tio n 1 , th e g r e a t e r p r o p o rtio n o f a l l th r e e g ro u p s o f s u b je c ts f e l t th e y w ere c l o s e r to m other as a c h i ld th a n f a t h e r . I t seemed much m ore d i f f i c u l t f o r th e s u b je c ts to s e l e c t th e p a r e n t th e y f e l t fa v o re d them a s a c h i l d ; h e n c e , th e la r g e number o f re s p o n s e s in th e " b o th " and " n e ith e r " co lu m n s. TABLE 30 PARENTAL IDENTIFICATION: COMPARISON OF GROUPS ON PERSONAL HISTORY QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 1. As a c h i l d , w hich p a re n t w ere you c l o s e r to ? Group M other F a th e r B oth N e ith e r Chi d f S ig . e q u a lly sq u a re le v e l M ales 17 3 1 5 4 .9 6 6 N .S. Fem ales 22 3 0 4 T r a n s v e s tite s 42 3 6 6 2. Group By w hich p a re n t w ere M other F a th e r you p r e f e r r e d Both e q u a lly a s a c h ild ? N e ith e r Chi sq u a re d f S ig . le v e l Males 6 3 7 10 8 .5 0 6 N .S. ' Fem ales 6 5 8 10 T r a n s v e s tite s 28 7 12 13 TABLE 30 (continued) 3 . A t th e p r e s e n t tim e , w hich p a re n t do you f e e l you a r e m ost lik e ? Group M other F a th e r Both N e ith e r Chi d f S ig . e q u a lly sq u a re le v e l M ales 2 13 2 9 22.98 6 .001 Fem ales 12 10 5 2 T r a n s v e s tite s 28 18 10 4 4 . Group Which p a re n t do you rese m b le m ost p h y s ic a lly ? M other F a th e r B oth N e ith e r e q u a lly Chi * sq u a re d f S ig . le v e l M ales 2 22 1 1 8 .5 3 2 .02 Fem ales 12 13 2 2 T r a n s v e s tite s 20 35 4 1 B oth and n e i t h e r c a te g o r ie s e lim in a te d b ecau se o f sm a ll c e l l fre q u e n c ie s CHAPTER V DISCUSSION The R e la tio n s h ip betw een th e B ody-Im age. S e lf-C o n c e p t and S ex u al I d e n ti t y The r e s u l t s o f th e stu d y in d ic a te d t h a t th e s e l f - c o n c e p t a s m easured by th e se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l d id n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e th e m ale and fem ale c o n t r o l s . T h u s, f e e l in g s ab o u t th e s e l f do n o t ap p e ar to d i f f e r a s a f u n c tio n o f th e s e x u a l i d e n t i t y o f an in d iv i d u a l. The t r a n s v e s t i t e s , how ever, d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e m a le s, b u t n o t from th e fe m a le s . S in c e th e s e lf - c o n c e p t d id n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e th e norm al m ales and fe m a le s , i t i s d o u b tf u l t h a t th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ere d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from th e m ales on th e b a s is o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . The body-im age c o n c e p t, on th e o th e r h an d , ap p e a re d to b e c l o s e ly lin k e d w ith s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . The sem an tic m eanings a tta c h e d to th e body-im age; s tim u lu s by th e norm al m ales w ere m ark ed ly d i f f e r e n t th a n th e sem an tic m eanings a tta c h e d by th e fe m a le s . In a d d i t i o n , in d iv id u a ls w ith d is tu r b e d s e x u a l i d e n t i t i e s d id n o t fo llo w th e p a t te r n o f e i t h e r g ro u p . _ 116_____________ 117 In g e n e r a l, th e a n a ly s is o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t d a ta r a i s e s a q u e s tio n re g a rd in g th e re le v a n c e o f th e s e l f - co n c ep t a s a m easure o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . I t seems p o s s ib le t h a t in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s in s e lf - p e r c e p tio n w ith in s e x - ty p e d g ro u p s may confound w h atev er s e x - r e l a t e d d if f e r e n c e s : e x i s t . I t i s a p p a re n t, how ever, t h a t when p a r t o f th e co n c e p tu a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t, nam ely th e body- im age, i s i s o l a t e d and m easured in d e p e n d e n tly , sex d i f fe r e n c e s become q u i t e c l e a r . Of s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t h e re i s t h a t t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t can b e d e fin e d and m easured in a m e a n in g fu l way by means o f th e sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l . P a r e n ta l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and S ex u al I d e n t i t y In o rd e r t o e v a lu a te th e c o n c e p t o f p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o s e x u a l i d e n t i t y , we tu r n f i r s t to th e m ale and fem ale c o n t r o l s . H ypotheses IV and V s t a t e d t h a t th e m ajo r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n sh o u ld ta k e p la c e w ith th e same se x p a r e n t and t h i s sh o u ld b e r e f le c te d ; in b o th th e s e lf - c o n c e p t and th e b ody-im age. T hese p r e d ic t i o n s w ere su p p o rte d when th e body-im age was u sed a s th e m easure o f p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . T hus, in term s o f th e b ody-im age, m ales i d e n t i f i e d m ore c l o s e ly w ith t h e i r f a t h e r s th an fe m a le s. A lso , a s p r e d ic te d , th e m ale c o n tr o ls i d e n t i f i e d m ore c l o s e ly w ith f a t h e r when th e d i r e c t i o n o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was d e te rm in e d . S u r p r is in g ly , th e fem ale c o n tr o ls d id n o t id e n t i f y s i g n i f i c a n t l y c l o s e r w ith m other when com pared t o m ale c o n t r o ls ; how ever, when th e d i r e c t i o n o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was d e te rm in e d , th e fem ales i d e n t i f i e d more c l o s e ly w ith m other a t a h ig h l e v e l o f s i g n i f ic a n c e . When th e body-im age was ta p p e d d i r e c t l y by th e q u e s tio n n a ir e , th e m ale c o n tr o ls o v e r w helm ingly s t a t e d th e y f e l t th e y re se m b le f a t h e r a t th e p r e s e n t tim e , w h ile th e fem ales w ere ev e n ly d iv id e d betw een m other and f a t h e r . The r e s u l t s a r e q u i t e s u r p r i s in g when th e s e l f - co n c ep t was u sed as th e m easure o f p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . C o n tra ry to e x p e c ta tio n s , m ales d id n o t i d e n t i f y more c lo s e ly w ith f a t h e r th a n th e fem ale c o n t r o ls ; n o r was t h e i r d e g re e o f f a t h e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n g r e a t e r th a n m other i d e n t i f i c a t i o n when th e two w ere com pared. A t th e same tim e th e fem ale c o n tr o ls d id n o t d e m o n stra te a p a t te r n o f m other i d e n t i f i c a t i o n when s im ila r co m p ariso n s f o r th e g roup w ere m ade. P re v io u s s tu d ie s u s in g th e s e lf - c o n c e p t 119 a s m easured by t h e sem an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l to d e te rm in e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t te r n s h av e su p p o rte d th e h y p o th e s is t h a t m ales and fem a le s g e n e r a lly i d e n t i f y w ith th e same se x p a r e n t when d e g re e o f f a t h e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s com p a re d t o d e g re e o f m other i d e n t i f i c a t i o n (Lazow ick 1955, B e itn e r 1 9 6 1 ). In a d d itio n to th e d if f e r e n c e s in w ording on th e c o n c e p ts and s c a le s u sed in th e v a rio u s s t u d i e s , Lazow ick u sed " c o lle g e s tu d e n ts " and B e itn e r u se d "em ployees o f b u s in e s s firm s " a s s u b j e c t s . The u se o f a somewhat o ld e r g ro u p in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , w ith p e rh a p s a h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a l l e v e l , p lu s t h e w ording o f th e c o n c e p ts and s c a le s c o u ld a l l have had a b lu r r i n g e f f e c t on th e s e l f - co n c ep t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s . P re v io u s s tu d ie s h av e g e n e r a lly fo c u se d upon th e w ords "ME" o r "MTSELF" as s ti m u li f o r th e s e lf - c o n c e p t. The v ag u en ess o f th e s e term s makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o d e te rm in e e x a c tly w hat a s p e c t o f th e s e l f th e in d iv id u a l was r e f e r r i n g to in h is re s p o n s e s . The in c re a s e d s p e c i f i c i t y o f th e w ording o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y may h av e o b scu red th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t te r n s found in th e p re v io u s s t u d i e s , j ; T hese c o n f l i c t i n g f in d in g s seem t o u n d e rs c o re th e im p o r- i ta n c e o f th e w o rd in g o f se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l c o n c e p ts . The in fo rm a tio n g a in e d from a n a ly s is o f th e TAT S o c ia l D is ta n c e r a t i n g s r e f l e c t s th e same m anner o f p a r a d o x ic a l r e s u l t . The fem a le c o n tr o ls i d e n t i f i e d m ore c l o s e ly w ith th e m o th e r-d a u g h te r r e l a t i o n s h i p when compared! t o th e f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p and w ith th e m o th er-so n th a n f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p . In th e l a t t e r , th e fem ales m ost l i k e l y w ere i d e n tif y in g w ith th e m o th er on c a rd 6BM. However, th e m ale c o n t r o ls a l s o i d e n t i f i e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore c lo s e ly w ith th e m o th e r-so n th an th e f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p . One p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n o f th e s e r e s u l t s i s t h a t th e i n t e n s i t y , o r c lo s e n e s s , o f th e p e rc e iv e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een f ig u r e s was d ep en d en t to a g r e a t e r e x te n t upon c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e s tim u lu s p u ll o th e r th a n th e i d e n t i t i e s o f th e c h a r a c te r s i l l u s t r a t e d . T hus, b e c a u se o f th e e x p r e s s io n , o r p o s it io n o f th e f i g u r e s , c a rd 6BM (m o th er-so n c a rd ) may have evoked f e e l in g s o f " c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s " in th e v iew er th a n p erh a p s c a rd 7BM, and th e s e f e e l in g s o c c u rre d i r r e s p e c t i v e o f th e r e l a - I tio n s h ip s o r i d e n t i t i e s p o rtra y e d by th e f i g u r e s . When q u e s tio n e d d i r e c t l y ab o u t t h e i r own p e rc e p tio n ; o f p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s , b o th th e m ale c o n tr o ls and fem a le c o n tr o ls showed a te n d en cy to s e l e c t m other a s th e p a r e n t th e y w ere c l o s e r to a s a c h i l d . When ask ed ab o u t 121 th e p r e s e n t tim e , th e m ales p r e d ic ta b ly s e le c te d f a t h e r , w h ile th e fem a les w ere s u r p r i s i n g l y s p l i t betw een m other and f a t h e r . One o f th e m ajo r q u e s tio n s to b e e v a lu a te d in t h i s stu d y was w h eth e r th e d is tu r b a n c e in s e x u a l i d e n t i t y m ani f e s te d by t r a n s v e s t i t e s i s r e f l e c t e d in a p a r e n t a l i d e n t i - : f i c a t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f no rm al m a les. The r e s u l t s in d ic a t e d , a t a s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l , t h a t when th e body-im age was fo c u se d upon th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s d id n o t i d e n t i f y a s c l o s e ly w ith f a t h e r a s norm al m a le s. They d id n o t , how ever, d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e m ales in term s o f m o th er i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . In s u p p o rt o f th e h y p o th e-; s e s , th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s i d e n t i f i e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more c l o s e ly w ith m other when d i r e c t i o n o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was d e te rm in e d . T h is p a t t e r n was s im ila r t o th e norm al fem a les b u t th e r e v e r s e o f norm al m a le s , who, in th e same co m p ariso n , i d e n t i f i e d m ore c l o s e ly w ith f a t h e r . The s e lf - c o n c e p t r e s u l t s f o r t h e t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ere a g a in am biguous. W hile th e norm al m a le s, as p re d ic te d , i d e n t i f i e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more c l o s e ly w ith f a t h e r th a n th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s , th e y a l s o showed a tr e n d tow ard id e n tif y in g more c l o s e ly w ith m other th a n th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s . The 122. l a t t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p , how ever, was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t . F u rth e r^ th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s d id n o t i d e n t i f y m ore c l o s e ly w ith m other when d e g re e o f m o th er i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was com pared to d e g re e o f f a t h e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . When th e c o n c e p ts PEOPLE W O M E N ARE and PEOPLE M EN ARE w ere com pared to th e s e lf - c o n c e p t, th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s p r e d ic ta b ly d id n o t i d e n t i fy a s c l o s e ly w ith men as th e m ale c o n t r o l s . But a t th e same tim e , th e m ale c o n t r o ls i d e n t i f i e d more c l o s e ly w ith women th a n th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s . T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t t r a n s v e s t i t e s saw th e m se lv e s a s d i f f e r e n t from p e o p le in g en e r a l r e g a r d le s s o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . The TAT d a ta p a r t i a l l y s u p p o rt th e h y p o th e siz e d p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t te r n s o f th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s . When com pared to th e m ale c o n t r o l s , th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s i d e n t i f i e d more c l o s e ly w ith th e m o th e r-d a u g h te r r e l a t i o n s h ip . However, when com pared to th e norm al m a le s, th e y d id n o t i d e n t i f y s i g n i f i c a n t l y le s s w ith th e f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p , n o r d id th e y i d e n t i f y m ore w ith th e m o th e r- son r e l a t i o n s h i p . When th e d i r e c t i o n o f in v o lv em en t was e v a lu a te d , th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s , a s d id th e m ale and fem ale c o n t r o l s , showed a te n d en cy tow ard g r e a t e r in v o lv em en t in t h e m o th er-so n th a n th e f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p . When .................'123" th e f a th e r - s o n r e l a t i o n s h i p was com pared to th e m o th e r- d a u g h te r r e l a t i o n s h i p , th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s showed s i g n i f i c a n tly g r e a t e r in v o lv em en t w ith th e l a t t e r . Once a g a in , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s th e m e a n in g fu ln e ss o f th e s e r e s u l t s s in c e th e s tim u lu s p u ll o f t h e c a rd s in r e l a t i o n t o s o c i a l d is ta n c e i s unknown. In term s o f th e d i r e c t a sse ssm e n t o f p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , t h e t r a n s v e s t i t e s showed a s tr o n g te n d en cy t o f e e l c l o s e r t o t h e m other as a c h i l d and f e l t p r e f e r r e d by m other a s a c h i l d , a lth o u g h n e i t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p was s i g n i f i c a n t . When q u e s tio n e d ab o u t th e p a r e n t th e y f e e l m ost l i k e a t th e p r e s e n t tim e , a s i g n i f i c a n t l y la r g e r p r o p o rtio n s e le c te d m other a s opposed to th e s e l e c t i o n o f f a t h e r by m ales. T hese r e s u l t s te n d to s u p p o rt th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n h y p o th e s e s ; how ever, i t sh o u ld be n o te d t h a t re s p o n s e s t o open ended q u e s tio n s a r e e a s i l y in flu e n c e d by re s p o n s e s e ts an d th e s o c i a l d e s i r a b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n r e s p o n s e s . For exam ple, th e m ale c o n tr o ls may have f e l t i t more s o c ia ll y a c c e p ta b le to r e p o r t f e e l in g c l o s e r to f a t h e r th a n m o th e r, w h ile f o r fe m a le s in o u r c u l t u r e i t may be somewhat m ore a c c e p ta b le t o i d e n t i f y m ore c l o s e l y w ith f a t h e r . 124 O v e r - a ll, th e r e s u l t s I n d i c a te , a t l e a s t f o r th e s u b je c ts u sed in t h i s s tu d y , t h a t an in c lu s iv e m easure o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t does n o t te n d to d i f f e r e n t i a t e norm al m ales and fem a les on th e b a s is o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . At th e same tim e , one a s p e c t o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t, nam ely th e b ody-im age, a p p e a rs to ac c o m p lish th e ta s k in a m ean in g fu l m anner. In term s o f an a sse ssm e n t o f th e com plex co n cep t o f p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , we f in d th e ex p e c te d r e l a t i o n s h ip s o n ly when th e body-im age i s u s e d . An a l t e r n a t i v e e x p la n a tio n o f th e o b ta in e d r e s u l t s c o u ld b e t h a t se m an tic m eanings evoked by th e body-im age f i t w ith in a c irc u m s c rib e d s e t o f re s p o n s e s t h a t would be g e n e ra liz e d to any m ale f ig u r e f o r m ales and fem a le f ig u r e f o r fe m a le s . T hus, i t w ould n o t be f a t h e r o r m o th er w ith th e im p lie d p e rs o n a l r e f e r e n c e t h a t s e rv e as s t i m u l i f o r a ssig n m e n t o f m ean in g s, b u t f a t h e r o r m other as m ales o r fem ales t h a t evoke m eanings s i m i l a r t o th e s u b j e c t 's body- im age. T h ere i s e v id e n c e , how ever, t h a t more was o p e ra tin g in th e re s p o n s e s to th e m other and f a t h e r c o n c e p ts . A c l o s e r ex a m in a tio n o f A ppendix D s u g g e s ts t h a t norm al m ales showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r se m an tic s i m i l a r i t y betw een t h e i r r a t i n g s o f th e M ALE BO D Y and MOTHER'S BODY th a n fe m a le s . However, when th e se m an tic d is ta n c e s betw een th e c o n c e p ts M A LE BODY and FEMALE BO D Y w ere com pared f o r th e m ales and fe m a le s , no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e em erged. In f a c t , th e a v e ra g e ra n k s o f th e groups a r e e x tre m e ly c l o s e . P erhaps even more c o n c lu s iv e i s th e f in d in g t h a t w h ile fem ales d id n o t show s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r se m an tic s i m i l a r i t y betw een M Y BO D Y and M Y MOTHER'S BODY th a n m ales ( th e r e was a c t u a l l y a te n d en cy f o r th e fem a les to p la c e g r e a t e r d is ta n c e betw een th e c o n c e p ts ), th e fem ales showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y more sem an tic harmony th a n m ales a t a h ig h l e v e l o f s ig n i f ic a n c e when th e c o n c e p ts M Y BODY and th e FEMALE BO D Y w ere com pared. T hus, w h ile fem ales d id n o t resp o n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more th a n m ales to th e m other s tim u l u s , th e c o n c e p t "fe m a le" te n d e d to evoke q u i te d i f f e r e n t and s i g n i f i c a n t r e s p o n s e s . T hese r e s u l t s te n d to su p p o rt th e c o n te n tio n t h a t th e s tim u lu s w ords M OTHER and FATHER evoke m eanings t h a t can be a f u n c tio n o f more th a n th e sex m em bership o f th e s tim u lu s o b je c t a lo n e . The t r a n s v e s t i t e s s e rv e d , in p a r t , a s a g roup to t e s t th e h y p o th e s is t h a t in d iv id u a ls w ith a d is tu r b e d s e x u a l i d e n t i t y w i l l te n d to i d e n t if y more c l o s e ly w ith th e o p p o s ite -s e x e d p a r e n t. When th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n 126 p a t te r n s o f th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ere e v a lu a te d , th e e v id e n c e in d ic a te d t h a t in te rm s o f th e b o d y -im ag e, th e tr a n s v e s t i t e s d id n o t i d e n t i f y w ith e i t h e r p a r e n t a s c lo s e ly a s norm al m ales b o th in term s o f th e body-im age an d , in p a r t , in term s o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t. I t a p p e a rs t h a t th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ere l e s s a b le th a n norm al m ales to in c o r p o r a te m ajo r a s p e c ts o f e i t h e r p a re n t i n t o t h e i r i d e n t i t y ; b u t o f th e a s p e c ts w hich have been a s s im il a te d , th e body-im age o f m other a p p e a rs to p re d o m in a te . The i n a b i l i t y o f in d iv id u a ls w ith v a rio u s k in d s o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l d is tu rb a n c e s to i d e n t i f y c l e a r l y w ith e i t h e r p a re n t h as been in d ic a te d by p re v io u s i n v e s t i g a t o r s . L a u ria (Osgood 1957) fo u n d , f o r exam ple, t h a t " n e u r o tic " m ales and fem a les p e rc e iv e d g r e a t e r se m an tic d is ta n c e betw een th e m se lv es and m other and f a t h e r when com pared to norm al m ales and fe m a le s. A lso , B e itn e r (1961) found t h a t b o th " a n x ie ty n e u r o tic s " and " p a ra n o id s c h iz o p h re n ic s " d e m o n strate d le s s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith e i t h e r sex p a re n t on th e se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l th a n t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e c o n tr o l g ro u p s. The r e s u l t s o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y in d i c a t e th e n t h a t in term s o f th e " q u a n ti t a t i v e " a s p e c ts o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , o r " i n t e n s i t y o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " t r a n s v e s t i t e s 127 b eh av e much l i k e o th e r d e v ia n t groups com pared to c o n tr o l " n o rm a ls ." T hat i s , th e r e i s l e s s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith e i t h e r p a r e n t. But when view ed in term s o f th e " q u a l i t a t i v e " a s p e c t o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , o r " d ir e c tio n o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ," th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s have made t h e i r m ajo r i d e n t i f i c a tio n w ith c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e o p p o s ite -s e x e d p a r e n t. The r e s u l t s , th e n , o f f e r e v id e n c e t h a t th e form a tio n o f th e a p p r o p r ia te se x u a l i d e n t i t y depends to some e x te n t upon th e a b i l i t y o f th e in d iv id u a l to in c o rp o r a te in to h is own bo d y -im ag e, th e body-im age f e a tu r e s and f e e l in g s he a s s o c ia te d w ith th e sam e-sex p a r e n t. I f , p erh ap s b ec au se o f d is tu rb a n c e s in e a r ly p a r e n ta l r e l a t i o n s h ip s , th e in d iv id u a l te n d s to in c o rp o r a te a s p e c ts o f th e body-im age o f th e o p p o s ite -s e x e d p a r e n t, th e outcom e i s l i k e l y to b e r e l a t e d to a marked d is tu rb a n c e in s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . The T r a n s v e s tite P o p u la tio n The m ajo r fo c u s o f t h i s s tu d y was on a number o f t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p ts r e l a t i n g t o s e x u a l i d e n t i t y ; a i d e t a i l e d a n a ly s is o f tr a n s v e s tis m was n o t th e i n t e n t . However, a good d e a l o f in fo rm a tio n has been g a th e re d w hich c o u ld add to an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h i s p roblem . A 128 number o f tr e n d s w hich h av e emerged w i l l be d is c u s s e d in t h i s s e c tio n . The c r o s s - d r e s s in g b e h a v io r o f t r a n s v e s t i t e s was i n t e r p r e t e d a s a m a n if e s ta tio n o f a need t o c o m p le te ly assum e th e fem ale r o l e , in e f f e c t , t o r e v e r s e t h e i r s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . S in ce t h i s d is tu rb a n c e in s e x u a l i d e n t i t y seems c l e a r c u t b e h a v io r a lly , th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s a p p e a re d to be e s p e c i a l l y w e ll s u it e d f o r t h i s s tu d y . The r e s u l t s o f th e G uilford-Z im m erm an M s c a le su p p o rts t h i s assu m p tio n by p ro v id in g e v id e n c e t h a t in a d d itio n t o th e o v e r t b e h a v io ra l m a n if e s ta tio n s , th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s d is p la y th e p s y c h o s o c ia l a t t i t u d e s and f e e l in g s t h a t have come to b e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e fem ale s e x u a l i d e n t i t y in th e c o n te x t o f o u r c u l t u r e . T hus, in term s o f th e t e s t m easu res o f e m o tio n a l r e s p o n s iv e n e s s , em phathic c a p a b i l i t y , s e n s i t i v i t y , a c t i v i t i e s , and i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n s , t r a n s v e s t i t e s s c o re d a good d e a l c l o s e r to th e fem in in e p o le th a n to th e m a scu lin e p o le , and te n d e d t o resp o n d to th e item s in much th e same way t h a t norm al fem ales re sp o n d . The q u e s tio n can a l s o be r a is e d a s t o w h eth er th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s m a n ife s t th e d is tu rb a n c e in s e x u a l i d e n t i t y by t h e i r c h o ic e o f s e x u a l o b je c t. The r e s u l t s o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e (A ppendix F) in d ic a t e s t h a t 55 o u t o f 60 t r a n s v e s t i t e s (92 p e r c e n t) r e p o r te d th e y had e x p e rie n c e d s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s w ith fe m a le s . A t th e same tim e , 22 o u t o f 59 (37 p e r c e n t) o f th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s r e p o r te d h a v in g one o r more hom osexual r e l a t i o n s h i p s . When ask ed ab o u t t h e i r p r e s e n t a t t i t u d e s tow ard hom osexual r e l a t i o n s , 14 o f 58 (24 p e r c e n t) in d ic a t e th e y e i t h e r do engage in homo s e x u a l a c t i v i t i e s , o r would i f g iv e n th e o p p o r tu n ity , w h ile 37 (64 p e r c e n t) e x p re s se d n e g a tiv e f e e lin g s ab o u t su ch a c t i v i t y . In view o f th e e x p e c ta tio n t h a t c lo s e to 37 p e r c e n t o f th e m ale p o p u la tio n h as had some o v e rt hom osexual e x p e rie n c e (K insey 1 9 4 8 ), th e f in d in g s r e l a t i n g to t r a n s v e s t i t e s do n o t in d ic a t e s tro n g tr e n d s tow ard hom osexual b e h a v io r. A t l e a s t on an o v e r t l e v e l , t h e i r d is tu rb a n c e in s e x u a l i d e n t i t y does n o t n e c e s s a r ily in c lu d e th e c h o ic e o f se x o b je c t. In fo rm a tio n r e l a t i n g t o some a s p e c ts o f th e s o c i a l a d ju stm e n t o f th e t r a n s v e s t i t e group i s a v a i l a b l e from th e d a ta . T ab le 2 ( s u p r a , p . 5 1 ), f o r exam ple, in d ic a t e s t h a t th e e d u c a tio n a l le v e l o f th e g roup was q u i t e h ig h . A t o t a l o f 27 o f th e 60 t r a n s v e s t i t e s (45 p e r c e n t) had a t l e a s t a c o lle g e d e g re e , and o f th e s e 11 (18 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l group) co m p leted g ra d u a te p r o f e s s io n a l t r a i n i n g . A s i m i l a r breakdown o f th e o c c u p a tio n a l l e v e l (T ab le 3 , s u p r a , p . 52) in d ic a t e s t h a t o f th e g ro u p , 11 (19 p e r c e n t) would be c l a s s i f i e d in th e low er th r e e o c c u p a tio n a l s c a le c a t e g o r i e s , w h ile 33 (58 p e r c e n t) w ould f a l l in th e to p t h r e e c a te g o r ie s . A ppendix F in d ic a t e s t h a t 36 (60 p e r c e n t) o f th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s a r e c u r r e n t l y m a rrie d , and o f th e s e 5 (8 p e r c e n t) had been m a rrie d more th a n o n ce. Of th e group 7 (11 p e r cent) a r e c u r r e n t l y d iv o rc e d o r s e p a r a te d , and 17 (28 p e r c e n t) had rem ained u n m a rrie d . A lth o u g h a s e l e c t i v e f a c t o r may w e ll h av e been o p e r a tin g f o r th e w r i t e - i n g ro u p o f t r a n s v e s t i t e s ( i . e . , t h e i r i n t e r e s t in r e tu r n in g th e t e s t m a te r ia l r e f l e c t e d some d e g re e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a t ta i n m e n t) , th e r e s u l t s te n d t o r e f l e c t a r a t h e r h ig h l e v e l o f ach iev em en t b o th in te rm s o f e d u c a tio n a l and o c c u p a tio n a l l e v e l . In a d d i tio n , th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s ap p e ared to fo llo w c o n v e n tio n a l p a t te r n s o f m a r i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T hese f in d in g s seem e s p e c i a lly s u r p r i s in g in view o f th e o b v io u s p r e s s u r e s p r e s e n t when th e t r a n s v e s t i t e f e e l s th e n eed t o e x p re s s a s p e c ts o f h is fem ale i d e n t i t y o v e r tly in a c u l t u r e t h a t p r o h ib i t s t h i s ty p e o f b e h a v io r. 131 F u rth e r c lu e s o f th e o v e r - a l l a d ju stm e n t o f th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s can b e e l i c i t e d from th e TAT r a t i n g s . I t was s u g g e s te d in th e p re v io u s c h a p te r t h a t th e S e lf-C o n c e p t, E m o tio n al T one, and C o n f lic t r a t i n g s c a le s may m easure some g e n e r a l f a c t o r o f e m o tio n a l h e a l t h , o r a d ju s tm e n t. S in c e r e l a t i v e l y few c o n t r o l s u b je c ts to o k p a r t in th e TAT s tu d y , th e r e s u l t s , a t b e s t , can o n ly be c o n s id e re d as s u g g e s tiv e o f tr e n d s . The im p lic a tio n o f th e s i m i l a r i t y o f r a t i n g s f o r th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s and th e m ale c o n tr o ls w ould seem to be t h a t th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s d id n o t m a n ife s t g ro s s d is tu rb a n c e s in th e s e m easu res o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l a d ju s tm e n t. T hese r e s u l t s a r e s im ila r t o th o s e o f Hooker (1957) who d e m o n stra te d t h a t w e ll f u n c tio n in g hom osexuals a p p e a re d a s " w e ll a d ju s te d " a s norm al c o n tr o ls on a s e r ie s o f p r o j e c t i v e t e s t s . Her s u g g e s tio n t h a t a s e v e re m al a d ju stm e n t to s o c ie ty in th e s e x u a l s e c to r o f b e h a v io r does n o t n e c e s s a r il y im ply a m a lad ju stm e n t in o th e r a r e a s o f b e h a v io r may w e ll be a p p lie d h e r e . However, b e fo r e t h i s k in d o f g e n e r a liz a ti o n can b e m ade, i t w ould be n e c e s s a ry t o e v a lu a te m ore in te n s iv e ly th e c u r r e n t p s y c h o lo g ic a l a d ju stm e n t o f t r a n s v e s t i t e s . 132 Some T h e o r e tic a l Im p lic a tio n s o f th e F in d in g s R e la tin g to T ra n sv e s tism The r e s u l t s o f th e stu d y te n d to s u p p o rt th e em phasis G re en a cre p la c e s on th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n betw een th e e a r ly p re s e n c e o f a f a u l t y body-im age and th e l a t e r d i s tu rb a n c e in th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s . In d e s c r ib in g th e developm ent o f a b is e x u a l i d e n t i t y , sh e s u g g e s ts t h a t b e c a u se th e body-im age i s u n s ta b le , th e c h i ld d ev e lo p s in c re a s e d s e n s i t i v i t y to and dependence upon body c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f o th e rs f o r a p ro lo n g e d p e rio d o f tim e . Where th e s i g n i f i c a n t " o th e r" i s th e m o th e r, w hich i s u s u a lly th e c a s e , th e groundw ork h as been l a i d f o r w hat G re e n a c re r e f e r s to a s a " b is e x u a l s p l i t t i n g o f th e body im a g e," and th e su b se q u en t developm ent o f a "fe m in in e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . " We m ight s p e c u la te t h a t th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ould i d e n t i f y w ith th e body c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m o th er, a s th e p e rso n m ost r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , in o rd e r to m a in ta in s t a b i l i t y and a se n se o f in n e r harm ony. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y s u g g e s te d , a lth o u g h n o t a t a s ig n f ic a n t l e v e l , t h a t th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s saw t h e i r body a s b e in g le s s s u f f i c i e n t th a n norm al m ales and fe m a le s ; t h i s c o u ld be i n t e r p r e te d a s a f e e l in g o f d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e body. A lso th e somewhat g r e a t e r s p l i t betw een s e lf - c o n c e p t and 133 b o dy-im age f o r th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s c o u ld b e view ed as th e la c k o f " in n e r h arm o n y ." G re e n a c re h a s a l s o p o in te d o u t th e im p o rta n c e o f v is io n and to u c h in t h e fo rm a tio n o f t h e bo d y -im ag e. She s u g g e s ts t h a t i f th e fo rm a tio n o f th e body-im age i s f a u l t y , th e in d iv i d u a l m ust p la c e in c r e a s e d em phasis upon th e s e s e n s e m o d a litie s to m a in ta in h i s own body i d e n t i t y . The s tr o n g em phasis p la c e d by t r a n s v e s t i t e s on m ir r o r g a z in g and s e lf - p h o to g r a p h s when in th e p ro c e s s o f c r o s s - d r e s s i n g (A ppendix F , S e c tio n G -8 ), an d th e im p o rta n c e p la c e d on t a c t u a l s tim u la tio n (A ppendix F , S e c tio n G-12) a p p e a r t o s u p p o rt G re e n a c re 1s f o r m u la tio n s . The t r a n s v e s t i t e i s g e n e r a lly n o t c o n te n t in j u s t f a n ta s y in g a ch an g e o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y , b u t b r in g s ab o u t t h e change b e h a v io r a lly w ith as much p r e c is io n a s p o s s i b l e . T hen, p e rh a p s in o rd e r t o a f f ir m th e c h a n g e , t h e t r a n s v e s t i t e f r e q u e n tly goes o u t in p u b lic (A ppendix F , S e c tio n G-8) o r f a n t a s i e s lo o k in g l i k e a " r e a l " fem a le and " f o o lin g p e o p le " (A ppendix F , S e c tio n G -9 ). P s y c h o a n a ly tic w r i t e r s g e n e r a lly view th e s e b e h a v io r a l m a n if e s ta tio n s a s a tte m p ts t o re d u c e c a s t r a t i o n a n x i e ty . As an a l t e r n a t i v e , o r p e rh a p s co n c o m ita n t 134 e x p la n a tio n , i t i s p o s s ib le to view t h e i r o v e rt se x u a l ; i d e n t i t y r e v e r s a l and th e a s s o c ia te d lo o k in g , to u c h in g , and p h o to g ra p h in g as a tte m p ts to s t a b i l i z e th e " f l u c t u a tin g " b ody-im age. The t r a n s v e s t i c a c t ca n th e r e f o r e be view ed as s e rv in g a d u a l p u rp o se ; th e f i r s t , in th e t r a d i t i o n a l p s y c h o a n a ly tic fram ew ork, would b e th e r e d u c tio n o f c a s t r a t i o n a n x ie ty by an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e " p h a llic woman" and s e c o n d ly , th e r e d u c tio n in th e a n x ie ty a s s o c i a t e d w ith an u n s ta b le body-im age by r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g th e b o d y -b o u n d a rie s by th e o v e r t a c t o f c r o s s - d r e s s in g and th ro u g h th e s e n s e m o d a litie s o f " lo o k in g " and " to u c h in g ." Some T h e o r e tic a l S p e c u la tio n s and S u g g e stio n s f o r F u rth e r R esearc h The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y su g g e st a number o f in t r i g u i n g p o in ts t h a t in d ic a t e a need f o r f u r t h e r e x p lo ra tio n and r e s e a r c h . F or exam ple, th e in d ic a tio n t h a t s e x u a l i d e n t i t y and p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s a r e g e n e r a lly r e f l e c t e d o n ly by th e body-im age a s p e c t o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t r a t h e r th a n by a more " g e n e r a liz e d " s e lf - c o n c e p t i s somewhat s u r p r i s in g in view o f th e c u r r e n t tr e n d s in th e l i t e r a t u r e d e s c r ib in g th e s e lf - c o n c e p t as c o n s is tin g o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t te r n s and s e x u a l r o le 3 . The q u e s tio n can b e r a i s e d a s t o why th e s e p a t t e r n s a r e m a n ife s te d o n ly ; in t h a t s p e c i f i c a r e a o f s e lf-a w a re n e s s r e l a t i n g to body f e e l in g s and body a t t i t u d e s . I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t th e s e lf - c o n c e p t, a s d e fin e d in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , e l i c i t e d re s p o n s e s w hich w ere lin k e d to su ch f a c e ts o f th e s e l f a s , in R o g e r's (1951, pp. 136-137) te rm s , in c lu d in g " v a lu e q u a l i t i e s , " and " g o a ls and id e a ls w hich a r e p e rc e iv e d as h av in g p o s i t i v e o r n e g a tiv e v a le n c e ." Such f e e l in g s ab o u t th e s e l f , w h ile p o s s ib ly r e l a t e d to m eanings a s s o c ia te d w ith p a r e n ta l m o d els, a r e n o t n e c e s s a r ily r e l a t e d to sexual! i d e n t i t y o r to th e sex o f th e p a r e n ta l m o d els. T his h i g h li g h ts th e n e c e s s ity o f d e r iv in g m e an in g fu l o p e r a tio n a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f th e s e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p ts a s w e ll as th e need t o stu d y th e d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f v a r i a t i o n s in su ch d e f i n i t i o n s . A second p ro v o c a tiv e f in d in g was th e m arked d i f f e re n c e betw een th e norm al m ales and fem ales in th e i n t e n s i t y o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h e i r sam e-sexed p a r e n t. T h is r a i s e s th e q u e s tio n o f what happens in th e d e v e lo p - i m e n tal p ro c e s s t o b rin g ab o u t t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l d e g re e o r i n t e n s i t y o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The m ajor s o u rc e o f v a r ia t i o n ap p eared to be th e r e l a t i v e l y low er i n t e n s i t y 136 o f th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p ro c e s s fo r fe m a le s a s com pared to th e m a le s. The d if f e r e n c e can be f u r t h e r narrow ed to th e body i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b etw een th e fe m a le s and t h e i r m others w hich a p p e a rs even l e s s in te n s e th a n th e m a le 's i d e n t i f i c a t io n w ith t h e i r m o th e rs. The e v id e n c e p re s e n te d by t h e p re s e n t s tu d y , a lo n g w ith th e f in d in g s o f Brown (1956, 1 9 5 7 ), and Lazowick (1955) s u g g e s ts t h a t th e low er i n t e n s i t y o f th e sam e- sesced p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f fe m a le s may w e ll be lin k e d to a l e s s c l e a r l y d e fin e d s e x u a l i d e n t i t y in fem a les a s com pared to m a le s. The q u e s tio n can be r a i s e d as to w h eth er t h i s i s r e l a t e d t o th e d i f f e r e n t i a l e a r l y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t te r n s a s s u g g e s te d in p s y c h o a n a ly tic th e o ry (F reud 1925, 1931 and Ja co b so n 1 9 5 4 ), o r to th e c u l t u r a l l y in d u ced changes a p p a re n t in th e in c r e a s in g d if f u s iv e n e s s o f fe m in in e r o l e s . And f i n a l l y , a la r g e number o f r e s e a r c h p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e p re s e n te d by th e developm ent o f what a p p a re n tly i s a m e an in g fu l m easure o f th e bo d y -im ag e. F or exam ple, i t w ould be im p o rta n t t o e v a lu a te t h e e f f e c t s o f s u b s t i t u t i n g d i f f e r e n t a d j e c t i v e s c a le s f o r th o s e t h a t c o n t r i b u te d l i t t l e to th e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n betw een th e se x e s in 1 3 7 th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . By u t i l i z a t i o n o f th e se m an tic d i f f e r e n t i a l te c h n iq u e , i t would a p p e a r to be p o s s ib le to in v e s t i g a t e in b o th norm al and d e v ia n t p o p u la tio n s th e dim en s io n s o f m eanings a tta c h e d to th e body-im age and s p e c i f ic body p a r t s ; and to i n v e s t i g a t e th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e s e p ro c e s s e s to p e r s o n a lity d ev elo p m en t. A la r g e body o f d a ta r e l a t i n g to th e body-im age h as been g a th e re d f o r th e p r e s e n t stu d y and f u tu r e r e p o r ts w i l l fo c u s on a number o f th e s e q u e s tio n s . CHAPTER VI SU M M A R Y AND CONCLUSIONS In r e c e n t y e a r s , in c r e a s in g em phasis h as been p la c e d upon th e c o n c e p ts o f i d e n t i t y and s e x u a l i d e n t i t y in p e r s o n a lity th e o r y . W rite rs in th e f i e l d have th e o r iz e d t h a t th e p ro c e s s e s le a d in g to th e developm ent o f th e body- im age, s e lf - c o n c e p t, and p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t te r n s d e te rm in e to a g r e a t e x te n t th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an i n d i v i d u a l 's s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . I t h as been su g g e ste d in th e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t in d iv id u a ls who have form ed a s e x u a l i d e n t i t y t h a t i s a p p r o p r ia te f o r t h e i r g en d er have l i k e l y form ed t h e i r m ajo r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith t h e i r sam e-sexed p a r e n t, and t h a t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e o p p o s ite -s e x e d p a re n t c o u ld le a d to a d is tu rb a n c e in an i n d i v i d u a l 's s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . I t has been th e o r iz e d t h a t th e p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a tio n p a t te r n s a r e im p o rta n t in th e fo rm a tio n o f th e i i n d i v i d u a l 's s e lf - c o n c e p t and rem ain an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e s e l f . The body-im age h as been d e s c rib e d a s a p rim ary 138 139 a s p e c t o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t t h a t p la y s an im p o rta n t r o le in th e developm ent o f th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n and th e f i n a l s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . The p u rp o se o f t h i s r e s e a r c h was t o stu d y th e c o n c e p t o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y by e v a lu a tin g i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e b o d y -im ag e, s e lf - c o n c e p t, and p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t te r n s in norm al m ales and fe m a le s, a s w e ll as in d iv i d u a ls w ith m a n if e s ta tio n s o f a d is tu r b e d s e x u a l I d e n t i t y . I t was h y p o th e siz e d t h a t th e s e x u a l i d e n t i t y o f an in d iv id u a l i s r e f l e c t e d in th e s e lf - c o n c e p t and in th e body-im age. I t was a ls o h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t in d iv id u a ls who have form ed an a p p r o p r ia te s e x u a l i d e n t i t y , nam ely norm al m ales and no rm al fe m a le s , w i l l have form ed c l o s e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s w ith t h e i r lik e - s e x e d p a re n t and t h i s w i l l be r e f l e c t e d in th e s e lf - c o n c e p t and body-im age. And f u r t h e r , i t was h y p o th e siz e d t h a t in d iv id u a ls who m a n ife s t a d is tu rb a n c e in t h e i r s e x u a l i d e n t i t y w i l l show a p a t t e r n o f i d e n tif y in g w ith th e o p p o s ite -s e x e d p a r e n t, and t h i s w i l l b e r e f l e c t e d in th e s e lf - c o n c e p t and b o d y -im ag e. In a d d i tio n , th e d is tu r b e d s e x u a l i d e n t i t y w i l l b e r e f l e c t e d by s e lf - c o n c e p t and body-im age d i f f e r en ces when com pared to norm al in d iv id u a ls o f th e same s e x . 140 In o rd e r to t e s t th e s e h y p o th e s e s , a g ro u p o f 26 norm al a d u lt m a le s, 29 norm al a d u lt fe m a le s , and 60 m ale t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ere t e s t e d . The l a t t e r group was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f in d iv id u a ls w ith m a n if e s ta tio n s o f d is tu r b e d s e x u a l i d e n t i t i e s . The g ro u p s w ere e q u a te d on th e b a s is o f a g e , e d u c a tio n , and o c c u p a tio n a l l e v e l . A se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l , a te c h n iq u e o f e v a lu a tin g c o n tr o lle d a s s o c i a t i o n s to key c o n c e p ts w ith in th e fram ew ork o f a p sy ch o l o g i c a l th e o ry o f m eaning, was d e sig n e d to t e s t th e above h y p o th e s e s , and was a d m in is te r e d - to th e s u b je c ts . As a means o f g a in in g a d d i t i o n a l in fo rm a tio n , a p a r t i a l TAT, th e M a s c u lin ity and G ross F a l s i f i c a t i o n s c a le s from th e G uilford-Z im m erm an Temperament S u rv ey , and a P e rs o n a l H is to ry Q u e s tio n n a ire w ere a l s o a d m in is te re d to th e g ro u p s. The r e s u l t s can b e sum m arized a s fo llo w s : 1. W hile m eanings a s s o c ia te d w ith th e s e lf - c o n c e p t d id n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e norm al m ales and fe m a le s , th e g ro u p s w ere d i f f e r e n t i a t e d when th e body-im age was u sed a s a s tim u lu s . 2 . M ale s u b je c ts w ith d is tu r b e d s e x u a l i d e n t i t i e s d if f e r e d m arkedly from norm al m ales in b o th s e l f - co n c ep t and body-im age m ean in g s, and w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from norm al fem a les in term s o f body-im age m eanings. 3 . T h ere was a s u g g e s tio n o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een a d is tu r b a n c e in s e x u a l i d e n t i t y and a d is c re p a n c y betw een s e lf - c o n c e p t and body-im age. 4 . The p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s o f th e norm al m ales and fem ales w ere n o t r e v e a le d when th e s e lf - c o n c e p t was u se d a s th e s tim u lu s . However, th e norm al m ales and fem a les d id i d e n t i f y c l o s e r t o t h e i r sam e-sexed p a r e n t when th e body-im age a s p e c ts o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ere e l i c i t e d . 5 . I n d iv id u a ls w ith a d is tu r b e d s e x u a l i d e n t i t y i d e n t i f i e d c l o s e r to th e o p p o s ite -s e x e d p a re n t in term s o f body-im age i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , b u t d id n o t r e v e a l a s i g n i f i c a n t p a t te r n o f p a r e n ta l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n when th e s e lf - c o n c e p t was e l i c i t e d . A d d itio n a l r e s u l t s r e l a t i n g d i r e c t l y to t r a n s v e s tis m w ere d is c u s s e d . Of th e tr e n d s t h a t em erged, th e fo llo w in g ap p e a re d to b e th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t : 1. When su ch ite m s as e d u c a tio n , o c c u p a tio n a l l e v e l , and m a r i t a l s t a t u s a r e exam ined, th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s , a s a 'r o u p , seemed to h av e made a s u r p r i s in g ly 142 good s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t. 2 . TAT r a t i n g s r e l a t i n g to c e r t a i n a s p e c ts o f emo t i o n a l h e a l t h d id n o t r e v e a l g ro s s d is tu rb a n c e s in th e t r a n s v e s t i t e group when com pared t o c o n tr o l s u b je c ts . 3 . The p s y c h o s o c ia l f e e l in g s and i n t e r e s t s o f t r a n s v e s t i t e s w ere g r e a t l y d i f f e r e n t from th e norm al m ales b u t s im ila r to th e norm al fe m a le s . 4 . When com pared to th e c o n t r o l g ro u p s, th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s d id n o t i d e n t i f y a s in te n s e ly w ith e i t h e r p a r e n t, and te n d e d to s e e th e m se lv e s a s d i f f e r e n t from p e o p le in g e n e r a l. 5 . The re s p o n s e s o f th e t r a n s v e s t i t e s d id n o t i n d i c a te t h a t o v e r t s e le c tio n o f a hom osexual p a r tn e r p la y e d a m ajo r r o l e in th e r e v e r s a l o f s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . The r e s u l t s o f th e stu d y r a i s e d some q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e u s e o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t a s m easured by th e se m a n tic d i f f e r e n t i a l as an in d ic a tio n o f p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p a t t e r n s . The u s e f u ln e s s o f th e m easurem ent o f th e s e lf - c o n c e p t was d is c u s s e d in terras o f th e need f o r in c re a s e d s p e c i f i c i t y o f co n cep t s e l e c t i o n . The stu d y 143 d em o n strate d a m e an in g fu l ap p ro ach tow ard m easurem ent o f th e co n c e p t o f th e body-im age and h ig h lig h te d i t s im por ta n c e in th e developm ent o f th e s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . In a d d i tio n , th e s tu d y h as o f f e r e d e v id e n c e o f th e im p o rta n ce o f th e r o l e o f p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s in th e developm ent and m ain ten an ce o f a s e x u a l i d e n t i t y . 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A P P E N D I C E S I APPENDIX A SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL INSTRUCTIONS The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y i s t o m easure th e m ean in g s p e o p le a t t a c h t o im p o rta n t a s p e c ts o f th e m se lv e s and o th e r s by h a v in g them ju d g e them a g a in s t a s e r i e s o f d e s c r i p t i v e s c a l e s . In ta k in g t h i s t e s t , p le a s e make y o u r ju d g m e n ts on th e b a s is o f w hat th e s e th in g s mean t o y o u . On ea ch page o f t h i s b o o k le t you w i l l f in d a d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t t o b e ju d g e d and b e n e a th i t a s e t o f s c a l e s . You a r e t o r a t e e a c h c o n c e p t on ea c h s c a l e in o r d e r . F o r exam ple, i f th e c o n c e p t a t th e to p o f t h e page i s "M Y HAND," and you f e e l t h a t th e c o n c e p t i s v ery c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o one end o f th e s c a l e , you sh o u ld p la c e y o u r ch e ck m ark as f o llo w s : M Y H A N D l a r g e X :____ :_____:____ :_____ :____ :_____ s m a ll o r la r g e ____ :_____ :_____:____ :_____ :____ : X sm a ll I f you f e e l t h a t th e c o n c e p t i s q u i t e c l o s e ly r e l a t e d to one o r a n o th e r end o f th e s c a l e (b u t n o t e x tr e m e ly ) , you sh o u ld p la c e y o u r ch eck -m ark a s fo llo w s : M Y H A N D la r g e : X :_____:____ :_____ :____ :_____ sm a ll o r l a r g e ____ :_____:_________ : : X :_____ sm a ll 159 1 6 0 I f th e co n c ep t seems o n ly s l i g h t l y r e l a t e d to one s id e a s opposed to th e o th e r s id e (b u t i s n o t r e a l l y n e u t r a l ) , th e n you sh o u ld ch eck a s f o llo w s : M Y A RM cu rv ed ____ :____ :__X :_____:_____:____.:_____ s t r a i g h t o r cu rv ed ____ :____ :_____ :_____ : X :____:_____ s t r a i g h t The d i r e c t i o n w hich you c h e c k , o f c o u rs e , depends upon w hich o f th e two ends o f th e s c a le seems m ost char** a c t e r i s t i c o f th e th in g y o u ’r e ju d g in g . I f you c o n s id e r th e c o n c e p t t o be n e u t r a l on th e s c a l e , b o th s id e s o f th e s c a le e q u a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e c o n c e p t, o r i f th e s c a l e i s c o m p le te ly i r r e l e v a n t , u n r e la te d to th e c o n c e p t, th e n you sh o u ld p la c e y o u r check-m ark in th e m id d le sp a c e : M Y A RM th ic k ____ : _____:_____ : X :____ :_____:_____ th in IMPORTANT: (1) P la c e y o u r check-m arks in th e m id d le o f s p a c e s . n o t on th e b o u n d a rie s : t h i s n o t t h i s : X : X (2) Be s u re you check ev e ry s c a le f o r ev e ry c o n c e p t—do n o t om it a n y . (3) N ever p u t m ore th a n one check-m ark on a s in g l e s c a le . 161 Sometimes you may f e e l a s th o u g h y o u 'v e had th e same ite m b e fo re on th e t e s t . T h is w i l l n o t b e th e c a s e , so do n o t lo o k b ack and f o r t h th ro u g h th e ite m s . Do n o t t r y to remember how you chekced s im i l a r item s e a r l i e r in th e t e s t . Make each ite m a s e p a r a te and in d ep en d en t ju d g m en t. Work a t f a i r l y h ig h speed th ro u g h t h i s t e s t . Do n o t w orry o r p u z z le o v e r in d iv id u a l ite m s . I t i s y o u r f i r s t im p re s s io n s , th e im m ediate " f e e lin g s " ab o u t th e item s t h a t we w an t. On th e o th e r h an d , p le a s e do n o t be c a r e l e s s , b e c a u se we w ant y o u r t r u e im p re s s io n s . M Y CHEST im p o rtan t^ i n s e n s i t i v e smooth_ e x c ita b le ' strong_ d e lic a te _ so ft_ s u f f ic ie n t^ tense_ p u b lic_ _un im p o rta n t s e n s i t i v e jrough calm weak _rugged h ard i n s u f f i c i e n t re la x e d jp r iv a te APPENDIX B GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN TEM PERAM ENT SURVEY GROSS FALSIFICATION AND MASCULINITY SCALES GUILFORD-ZIMMERMAN TEM PERAMENT SURVEY GROSS FALSIFICATION AND MASCULINITY SCALES INSTRUCTIONS: Read each o f th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n ts c a r e f u l l y , I f th e s ta te m e n t seems t o b e t r u e , o r i f you a g re e w ith i t , p la c e an "X" u n d er th e column headed "Y es" in th e sp a ce fo llo w in g th e s ta te m e n t. I f th e s ta te m e n t i s more f a l s e th a n t r u e , o r i f you d is a g r e e w ith i t , p la c e th e "X" u n d er th e column headed "N o ." Be s u re to answ er ev e ry ite m . YES NO 1. You l i k e lo v e sc e n e s in a m ovie o r p la y . ____ ___ 2 . O ther p e o p le re g a rd you as a l i v e l y i n d i v i d u a l . ____ 3 . O th ers a r e o f te n amazed by th e amount o f w ork you tu r n o u t. 4 . You a r e so n a t u r a l l y f r i e n d l y t h a t p e o p le im m ed iately f e e l a t e a se w ith y o u . 5 . The s i g h t o f an unshaven man d is g u s ts you. 6 . When th in g s go w rong, i t u p s e ts you v e ry l i t t l e . 7 . You l i k e to re a d t r u e s t o r i e s ab o u t lo v e and rom ance. 8 . You l i k e to have p le n ty o f tim e to s to p and r e s t . 9. You e n jo y a p p ly in g f o r a jo b in p e rs o n . ........................ 1 6 3 .... ............................................................... 164 YES NO 1 0 * 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 2 0 . 2 1 . 22. 23. The th o u g h t o f m aking a sp e ech f r i g h t e n s y o u . I t i s d i f f i c u l t to h u r t y o u r f e e l i n g s . O th er p e o p le th in k o f you a s b ein g v e ry s e r io u s m inded. When you f in d t h a t so m ething you h av e bought i s d e f e c tiv e , you h e s i t a t e to demand an exchange o r a re fu n d . You w ould r a t h e r b e a f o r e s t ra n g e r th a n a d r e s s d e s ig n e r . You f e e l d e e p ly s o r r y f o r a b ir d w ith a bro k en w in g . You a r e in c lin e d to ponder o v er y o u r p a s t . You w ould r a t h e r stu d y m ath em atics and s c ie n c e th a n l i t e r a t u r e and m u sic. You g e t o v er a h u m ila tin g e x p e rie n c e v e ry q u ic k ly . You a r e to u ch y ab o u t some th in g s . You a r e s a t i s f i e d t o l e t someone e l s e h av e th e le a d in group a c t i v i t i e s . You w ould l i k e to b e lo n g t o a s many c lu b s and s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n s as p o s s i b le . When a p a r e n t, te a c h e r , o r b o ss s c o ld s y o u , you f e e l l i k e w eeping. You f in d daydream ing v ery e n jo y a b le . YES 24. You a r e w il l i n g to ta k e a ch an ce a lo n e in a s i t u a t i o n w here th e outcom e i s d o u b tf u l. 25. You f e e l s o r r y f o r a f i s h t h a t i s ca u g h t on a hook. 26. You f e e l v e ry b ad ly i f someone does n o t ap p ro v e o f w hat you a r e w e a rin g . 27. You would l i k e to go h u n tin g w ith a r i f l e f o r w ild game. 28. You a r e som etim es b u b b lin g o v e r w ith en erg y and som etim es v ery s lu g g is h . 29. You can lo o k a t sn ak es w ith o u t s h u d d e rin g . 30. F a r to o many p eo p le t r y to ta k e as much as th e y can and g iv e as l i t t l e a s p o s s ib le back to s o c ie ty . 31. P eo p le th in k o f you a s b e in g a v ery s o c i a l ty p e o f p e rs o n . 32. You would l i k e to b e a h o s t o r h o s te s s f o r p a r t i e s a t a c lu b . 33. You alw ays seem to have p le n ty o f v ig o r and v i t a l i t y . 34. You f e e l s tr o n g ly a g a in s t k is s in g a f r ie n d o f y o u r own sex and ag e . 35. You ta k e th e le a d in p u ttin g l i f e in to a d u l l p a r ty . 36. C r itic is m d is tu r b s you v e ry l i t t l e . 166 YES NO 37. When you th in k you re c o g n iz e someone you s e e in a p u b lic p la c e , you a sk him w h eth er you h av e met him b e f o r e . ____ ___ 38. You a r e in c lin e d t o th in k ab o u t y o u r s e l f much o f th e tim e . ____ ___ 39. The s i g h t o f rag g ed o r s o ile d f i n g e r n a i l s i s r e p u ls iv e t o you. 40. You w ould r a t h e r b e an i n t e r i o r d e c o ra to r th a n an a r c h i t e c t u r a l e n g in e e r . 41. Most g ro u p s o f p e o p le behave l i k e a bunch o f sh e e p , t h a t i s th e y b lin d ly fo llo w a le a d e r . 4 2 . You w ould r a t h e r b e a m iner th a n a f l o r i s t . 43. T here a r e tim e s when y o u r m ind seems t o work v e ry slo w ly and o th e r tim e s when i t works v ery r a p id ly . 44. T h ere a r e some p e o p le whose a c tio n s seem c o n tin u a lly t o i r r i t a t e you. 45. I t b o th e rs you to h av e p e o p le w atch you a t y o u r w ork. 46. You e s p e c i a l l y d i s l i k e to g e t y o u r hands d i r t y o r g re a s y . 47. When you w ere a c h i l d , many o f your p lay m ates n a t u r a l l y ex p e c te d you to be th e le a d e r . 4 8 . You can h a n d le a lo a d e d gun w ith o u t f e e l in g a t a l l j i t t e r y . 167 YES NO 4 9 . The sound o f f o u l lan g u ag e d is g u s ts y o u . ____ ___ 50. The id e a o f f in d in g a bug o r a worm c ra w lin g on you makes you sh u d d e r. ____ ___ 51. You c ry r a t h e r e a s i l y . ____ ___ 52. You would l i k e to ta k e on im p o rta n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s such a s o rg a n iz in g a new b u s in e s s . ____ ___ 53. You w ould r a t h e r b e a b u ild in g c o n t r a c to r th a n a n u r s e . ____ ___ 54. When p e o p le become b o ssy o r d o m in e erin g , you w ant t o do th e o p p o s ite o f e v e ry th in g th e y t e l l you to do.___________ ____ ___ . 55. You f e e l d e e p ly s o r r y f o r a m is tr e a te d h o r s e . ____ ___ 56. When you become e m o tio n a l you come to th e p o in t o f t e a r s . 57. I f you w ant a th in g done r i g h t , you m ust do i t y o u r s e lf . 58. You w ould r a t h e r go to an a t h l e t i c e v e n t th a n to a d an c e. 59. You have f re q u e n t u ps and down3 in mood, som etim es w ith and som etim es w ith o u t a p p a re n t c a u s e . 60. The s i g h t o f b lo o d f r ig h t e n s you. 61 . You a r e in c lin e d t o ponder o v er y o u r p a s t . 6 2 . You l i k e to s e l l th in g s ( t h a t i s , to a c t as a s a le s m a n ). YES NO 63. Odors o f p e r s p i r a t i o n d is g u s t y o u . 64. You som etim es make q u ic k d e c is io n s t h a t you l a t e r w ish you h a d n ’t made. 65. A t th e sc en e o f an a c c id e n t, you ta k e an a c t i v e p a r t in h e lp in g o u t. 66. You pay l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n to s t y l e s in c l o th in g . 67. You a r e o n ly m id ly d is tu r b e d when you se e o r h e a r o f a n im als b e in g t r e a t e d c r u e l l y . 68. D isa p p o in tm e n ts a f f e c t you so l i t t l e t h a t you seldom th in k ab o u t them tw ic e . 69. You l i k e to speak in p u b lic . 70. You have f r e q u e n tly f e l t l i k e t e l l i n g "n o sey " p e o p le t o mind t h e i r own b u s in e s s . 71. The s ig h t o f la r g e bugs and s p id e r s g iv e s you a " c re e p y " f e e l in g . 72. You have days in w hich i t seem s t h a t e v e ry th in g goes w rong. 73. You a r e o f te n th e " l i f e o f th e p a r t y ." 74. You a r e a b le to w ork f o r u n u s u a lly lo n g h o u rs w ith o u t f e e lin g t i r e d . 75. I t ta k e s a l o t to g e t you e m o tio n a lly s t i r r e d up o r e x c ite d . APPENDIX C QUESTIONNAIRE QUESTIONNAIRE D ate o f b i r t h Age Sex Race_______ E d u ca tio n (h ig h e s t sc h o o l g ra d e co m p leted ) _____________ R e lig io n ___________________ H eig h t W eight_________ What i s y o u r p r e s e n t o c c u p a tio n ? _________________________ In o rd e r o f c h o ic e , l i s t f i v e o c c u p a tio n s t h a t seem d e s i r a b l e . 1 .____________________ 2._________________ 3 . ________________________ 4 . ________________________ 5 . ________________________ What i s y o u r ap p ro x im ate y e a r ly incom e? _________________ What i s y o u r p r e s e n t m a r it a l s t a t u s ? ______________________ I f r e m a rr ie d , how many p re v io u s m a rria g e s have you had? I f you have any c h i ld r e n , l i s t them by se x and ag e : ___ What was y o u r f a t h e r 's m ajo r o c c u p a tio n ? _________________ What was h i s a t t i t u d e to w ard you when you w ere a c h ild ? (How d id h e t r e a t you?) ____________________________________ 170 ' "..... 171.i What was y o u r a t t i t u d e tow ard him? (How d id you f e e l ab o u t him ?) ___ | i B r ie f ly d e s c r ib e y o u r f a t h e r (w hat k itid o f p e rso n was !:e, w hat w ere h is s tr o n g e s t p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ) ? ______ I f y o u r f a t h e r i s d e c e a se d , how o ld w ere you when he d ie d ? _____________________________ _______________________________ What was y o u r m o th e r's a t t i t u d e tow ard you when you w ere a c h i ld (how d id sh e t r e a t y o u )? _____________________________ What was y o u r a t t i t u d e tow ard h e r (how d id you f e e l ab o u t h e r)? _____________________________________________________ B r ie f ly d e s c r ib e y o u r m other (what k in d o f p e rso n was s h e , w hat w ere h e r s tr o n g e s t p e r s o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ) ._____ I f y o u r m other i s d e c e a se d , how o ld w ere you when sh e d ie d ? ________________________________________________________ Were your p a r e n ts d iv o rc e d o r s e p a ra te d ? I f s o , how o ld w ere you a t th e tim e? _________ W ith w hich p a r e n t d id | you th e n liv e ? ___________ I f s o , w hat was y o u r a t t i t u d e tow ard y o u r s t e p f a th e r ? ( o r ste p m o th e r) _____ _______________ As a c h i l d , w hich p a r e n t w ere you c l o s e r to ? _______________ In w hat ways? ___________________________________________________ 172 At th e p r e s e n t tim e , w hich p a re n t do you f e e l you a r e | most lik e ? __________ In w hat ways?__________________ Which p a re n t do you re se m b le m ost p h y s ic a lly ? _____________ In w hat ways? By w hich p a re n t w ere you p r e f e r r e d a s a c h ild ? ___________ In w hat ways? _____________________________________________ _ What was your f a t h e r 's a t t i t u d e tow ard r e l i g i o n (was h e a r e l i g i o u s p e rso n )? ______________________________________ ' What was your f a t h e r 's a t t i t u d e tow ard d rin k in g ? _________ What was y our m o th e r's a t t i t u d e tow ard d rin k in g ? _________ L is t y o u r b r o th e r s and s i s t e r s by sex and y e a r o f b i r t h : __________________________________________________________ j - Which o f y o u r b r o th e r s o r s i s t e r s d id you l i k e th e most and why? ______ _____________________________________________ Which o f your b r o th e r s o r s i s t e r s d id you l i k e th e l e a s t and why? _______ ; ______________________________________ . Did any member o f y o u r fa m ily s e rv e a p r is o n se n te n c e ? _ _ Were any members o f y o u r fa m ily c o n fin e d in a m e n tal h o s p ita l? I f an sw ers t o e i t h e r q u e s tio n above i s y e s , p le a s e d e s c r ib e th e c irc u m s ta n c e s . ________________ j What s e r io u s i l l n e s s e s d id you have as a c h ild ? ___________ Were you p la c e d in an i n s t i t u t i o n o f any k in d a s a i c h ild ? __________ I f answ er to above i s y e s , p le a s e 173 d e s c r ib e th e c irc u m s ta n c e s .____________________________________ Were you a n erv o u s c h ild ? __________ Did you w et th e bed a f t e r s t a r t i n g sch o o l? _____________ D id you h av e problem s w ith e a tin g as a c h ild ? ______________ What w ere y o u r s tr o n g e s t f e a r s a s a c h ild ? ___________________________________ Did you s le e p in th e same bed a s y o u r p a r e n ts when you w ere a c h ild ? ____________ I f s o , up to w hat age? ___________ Did you s le e p in th e same room a s y o u r p a r e n ts (b u t n o t in th e same bed? ___________ I f s o , up to w hat age? _________ Did you s le e p in th e same bed a s y o u r b r o th e r s o r s i s t e r s ? ______________ I f s o , w ith whom and up to w hat age?____________ How o ld w ere you when you f i r s t m a stu rb a te d ? _______________ How was th e id e a o f m a s tu rb a tio n in tro d u c e d ? _______________ What a r e y o u r f e e lin g s a b o u t m a s tu rb a tio n a t th e p r e s e n t tim e?_____________________________________ ______________ Have you had s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s w ith p e rso n s o f th e o p p o s ite sex? ___________ I f s o , how o ld w ere you when you had your f i r s t s e x u a l r e la tio n s h i p ? ___________ Have you had s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s w ith p e rso n s o f th e same sex? __________ I f s o , how o ld w ere you? _____________________ i A t t h e p r e s e n t tim e , w hat i s y o u r a t t i t u d e ab o u t h av in g | s e x u a l r e l a t i o n s w ith p e rso n s o f th e same sex? As a c h i l d o r a d o le s c e n t, d id you e v e r d r e s s up in th e c lo th e s o f th e o p p o s ite sex? __________ I f s o , how o ld w ere j you? ___________ How o f te n d id i t o ccu r? _____________________ I What w ere y o u r f e e l in g s ab o u t i t ? ____________________________ Did you e v e r have th e f e e l i n g you sh o u ld have been b orn a member o f th e o p p o s ite sex? _________ I f s o , how o ld w ere you? _____________ What a r e y o u r f e e l in g s ab o u t y o u r se x a t th e p r e s e n t tim e?_________; _____ ______ ___________________ The fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s w ere in c lu d e d o n ly in th e q u e s - ; t i o n n a i r e su b m itte d to t r a n s v e s t i t e s : How o f te n do you c ro s s d r e s s a t th e p r e s e n t tim e? _________ , Has i t in c re a s e d in fre q u e n c y in th e l a s t th r e e y e a rs ? _ _ What a r e y o u r u s u a l a c t i v i t i e s w h ile c r o s s d re sse d ? What a r e y o u r m ost t y p i c a l th o u g h ts o r daydream s when d re s s e d in fem ale c lo th in g ? ______________________________ When a r e you m ore l i k e l y to c r o s s d r e s s ? ________________ I f m a rrie d , how does y o u r w ife f e e l a b o u t y o u r c r o s s d re s s in g ? ___________________________________________________ What do you f e e l a r e th e m ajo r re a s o n s f o r y o u r d e s ir e to c r o s s d r e s s ? ___________________________________________ APPENDIX D ANALYSIS OF SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL D SCORES BETW EEN ALL CONCEPTS WITHIN BO D Y IM AGE A N D SELF CONCEPT CATEGORIES APPENDIX D ANALYSIS OF SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL D SCORES BETWEEN ALL CONCEPTS WITHIN BODY IMAGE AND SELF CONCEPT CATEGORIES CONCEPTS GROUPS COMPARED AVERAGE RANK Trans. & Trans. & Male & Male Female Female Trans. Male Female MY CHEST AND MALE BODY .001 .001 63.09 29.87 72.69 MY CHEST AND MY HOUSE .01 .01 61.90 37.87 67.98 MY CHEST AND MY GENITALS .01 64.56 60.35 42.33 MY CHEST AND MOTHER'S BODY 63.33 50.00 54.14 MY CHEST AND MY MUSCLES .001 .001 63.17 32.77 69.91 MY CHEST AND MY FATHER'S BODY .001 .01 67.45 30.90 62.74 MY CHEST AND FEMALE BODY .01 .05 64.55 64.60 38.53 MY CHEST AND MY BODY 64.31 46.75 55.03 FEMALE BODY AND MY BODY .001 .001 68.48 64.00 30.93 MALE BODY AND MY HOUSE .01 .05 63.81 38.75 63.24 t MALE BODY AND MY GENITALS .05 62.63 41.65 63.09 ! MALE BODY AND MOTHER'S BODY .05 .05 63.34 40.71 62.45 APPENDIX D (continued) GROUPS COMPARED AVERAGE RANK CONCEPTS Trans. & Male Trans. & Male & Female Female Trans. Male Female MALE BODY AND MY MUSCLES .001 .001 65.33 25.94 71.57 MALE BODY AND MY FATHER1S BODY 62.67 44.06 60.83 MALE BODY AND FEMALE BODY .001 .01 71.62 41.27 44.88 MALE BODY AND MY BODY .001 .001 65.48 28.81 68.69 MY HOUSE AND MY GENITALS .05 .05 61.66 42.02 64.76 MY HOUSE AND MOTHER'S BODY •01 59.43 41.08 70.21 MY HOUSE AND MY MUSCLES .01 .01 64.08 36.46 64.72 MY HOUSE AND FATHER'S BODY .001 .05 66.21 35.29 61.38 MY HOUSE AND FEMALE BODY 63.17 44.88 59.07 MY HOUSE AND MY BODY .01 .001 62.51 35.23 69.09 MY GENITALS AND MOTHER'S BODY 61.51 53.04 55.19 MY GENITALS AND MY MUSCLES 61.09 49.06 59.62 MY GENITALS AND FATHER'S BODY .05 63.52 44.77 58.43 MY GENITALS AND FEMALE BODY .05 .001 71.22 51.54 36.45 APPENDIX D (continued) GROUPS COMPARED______ AVERAGE RANK CONCEPTS Trans. & Trans. & Male & Male Female Female Trans. Male Female MX GENITALS AND MY BODY 61.89 58.12 49.84 MOTHER'S BODY AND MY MUSCLES 63.07 51.73 53.12 MOTHER'S BODY AND FATHER'S BODY .05 65.38 42.58 56.55 MOTHER'S BODY AND MY BODY 63.49 48.63 55.03 MOTHER'S BODY AND FEMALE BODY 62.02 52.73 54.41 MY MUSCLES AND FATHER'S BODY .01 65.30 38.79 60.12 FATHER'S BODY AND FEMALE BODY .01 .001 70.88 47.48 40.79 MY MUSCLES AND FEMALE BODY .001 68.91 54.06 38.97 FATHER'S BODY AND MY BODY .001 .001 67.38 29.21 64.40 MY MUSCLES AND MY BODY .001 .001 64.79 32.83 66.52 PEOPLE MEN ARE AND PERSON MOTHER IS .01 67.43 44.33 50.74 PEOPLE MEN ARE AND PEOPLE WOMEN ARE .001 .001 74.57 38.12 41.53 PEOPLE MEN ARE AND PERSON FATHER IS 62.34 45.31 60.40 PEOPLE MEN ARE AND A TREE 54.44 58.92 64.53 178 APPENDIX D (continued) GROUPS COMPARED AVERAGE RANK CONCEPTS Trans. & Male Trans. & Male & Female Female Trans. Male Female PEOPLE MEN ARE AND PERSON I AM .001 70.79 34.04 53.02 PERSON MOTHER IS AND PEOPLE WOMEN ARE .01 67.45 39.46 55.07 PERSON MOTHER IS AND PERSON FATHER IS .05 63.97 45.17 57.16 PERSON MOTHER IS AND A TREE 54.62 56.08 66.72 PERSON MOTHER IS AND PERSON I AM 63.48 47.69 55.90 PEOPLE WOMEN ARE AND PERSON FATHER IS .001 .01 71.72 40.67 45.16 PEOPLE WOMEN ARE AND A TREE 60.37 53.54 57.10 PEOPLE WOMEN ARE AND PERSON I AM .05 64.83 45.31 55.24 PERSON FATHER IS AND A TREE 54.45 52.63 70.16 PERSON FATHER IS AND PERSON I AM .05 64.41 45.10 56.31 A TREE AND PERSON I AM 60.07 47.08 63.52 APPENDIX E TAT RATING SCALES TAT RATING SCALES S o c ia l D is ta n c e D e s c rip tio n The o n ly p erso n m en tio n ed in th e s to r y i s th e h e ro . H e ro 's th o u g h ts o r a c tio n s in v o lv e no p e o p le o th e r th a n h im s e lf . W ithdraw al in to u n r e a l i t y . O th er p e o p le a r e used in a rem o te way. Use o f f i c t i o n a l c h a r a c te r s o r g r e a t d is ta n c e s (p h y s ic a l o r te m p o ra l) betw een h e ro and o th e r p e o p le . R e la tio n s h ip s betw een h e ro and o th e r p e o p le a r e on a s u r f a c e l e v e l , w ith no em o tio n al t i e s . I n t e l l e c t u a l i z a t i o n r a t h e r th a n f e e lin g m o tiv a te s h e r o 's s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . No p e o p le m entioned o r in v o lv e d in s t o r y . Mere d e s c r ip tio n o f sc e n e ry o r o b je c ts . I n s u f f i c i e n t d a ta f o r ju d g in g . M ild r e la t i o n s h i p s e x i s t betw een h ero and o th e r s . D e s ire f o r s tro n g r e l a t i o n s . D is ag reem en t betw een h e ro and o th e r s . V ery s tr o n g p o s it i v e o r n e g a tiv e r e l a t io n s h i p s e x i s t betw een h e ro and o th e r p erso n o r p e rs o n s . Very s tr o n g i n t e r a c t i o n , c o n f l i c t . E m otional Tone D e s c rip tio n C om plete f a i l u r e , su b m issio n to f a t e , d e a th , m u rd er, s u i c i d e , i l l i c i t se x w ith v io le n c e , re v e n g e , a g g r e s s iv e h o s t i l i t y , s e v e re g u i l t , co m p lete h o p e le s s n e s s . C o n f lic t w ith a tte m p t a t a d ju s tm e n t, r e b e l l i o n , f e a r , w o rry , d e p a r tu r e , r e g r e t , i l l n e s s , p h y s ic a l e x h a u s tio n , r e s ig n a tio n to w ard d e a th , lo n e lin e s s . D e s c r ip tio n , la c k o f a f f e c t , b a la n c e o f p o s i t iv e and n e g a tiv e f e e l i n g s , r o u tin e a c t i v i t i e s , im p e rso n a l r e f l e c t i o n . A s p ir a tio n , d e s i r e f o r s u c c e s s and d o u b t ab o u t outcom e, co m p en satio n f o r lim ite d endowment. D e s c rip tio n w ith c h e e r f u l f e e l i n g , re u n io n w ith f r i e n d s , co n ten tm en t w ith w o rld , f e e lin g o f s e c u r i t y . J u s t i f i a b l y h ig h a s p i r a t i o n . Com plete satis** f a c t io n and h a p p in e s s . R eunion w ith lo v ed o n e s . S e lf C oncept a s R ev ealed by T reatm en t o f Hero D e s c rip tio n E x trem ely low s e lf - e s te e m . S tro n g f e e l in g s o f i n s e c u r i t y , in a d e q u a c y , i n f e r i o r i t y , la c k o f s e lf - c o n f id e n c e , u n c e r ta in ty in co p in g w ith f r u s t r a t i o n s . A ccep tan ce o f f a i l u r e , la c k o f i n s i g h t . Low s e lf - e s te e m . M ild in d ic a tio n o f i n s e c u r ity o r in a d e q u a c y . No e v id e n c e o f grow th in s e l f e ste e m , o r in ch an g in g view s tow ard s e l f . A m bivalence to w ard s e l f . S e l f - a t t i t u d e s n o t e x p re s s e d . D ata i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r ju d g in g . M oderate s e lf - e s te e m . D e s ire f o r s e l f - im provem ent, e v id e n c e o f co p in g w ith in a d e q u a c ie s in a h e a lth y way. E v id en ce o f e m o tio n a l m a tu r ity , h ig h s e l f e ste e m , c o n fid e n c e in a b i l i t y t o cope w ith f r u s t r a t i o n s s u c c e s s f u lly . 184 C o n f lic t R a tin g D e s c rip tio n -2 Hero seems t o be in s tr o n g c o n f l i c t w ith o th e r s . He r e l a t e s t o o th e rs in a n e g a tiv e , im m ature m anner, i . e . , dependency, r e j e c t i o n , h o s t i l i t y , o v e r a g g r e s s iv e n e s s , s u b m is s iv e n e s s , dom inance, re v e n g e . H ero i s a n x io u s in p re se n c e o f o th e r s , f e a r s o t h e r s . S e rio u s d is tu rb a n c e s in i n t e r p e rs o n a l r e l a t i o n s . -1 S u rfa c e r e l a ti o n s h i p s good, b u t e v id e n c e o f u n d e rly in g n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e s tow ard p e o p le o r s o c ie ty . Lack o f o v e r t c o n f l i c t w ith o th e rs b e c a u se o f re p re s s e d h o s t i l i t y . Some c o n f l i c t p r e s e n t, b u t n o t s e v e r e . 0 S to ry d o e s n 't r e v e a l n a tu r e o f h e r o 's r e l a t i o n s h ip s w ith o th e r p e o p le . O th er p e o p le a r e r e l a t e d to h e ro in an a m b iv a le n t way. I n s u f f i c i e n t d a ta f o r ju d g in g . +1 M idly d is tu r b e d s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . E vidence o f d e s i r e t o im prove in te r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s . No e v id e n c e o f s e v e re c o n f l i c t a t any l e v e l . +2 Hero h as p o s i t i v e , m a tu re r e l a ti o n s h i p s and p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s to w ard o th e r p e o p le . APPENDIX F ANALYSIS OF QUESTIONNAIRE D A TA APPENDIX F ANALYSIS OF QUESTIONNAIRE DATA Section A 1. Religion Group Protestant Catholic Jewish None Total Male Controls 13 3 1 9 26 Female Controls 21 1 2 5 29 Transvestites 37 15 1 7 60 2. Marital Status (Code: M-Married, U-Unmarried, S-Separated, D-Divorced, R-Remarried) Group M U S D R Total Male Controls 17 6 0 2 1 26 Female Controls 20 3 2 2 2 29 Transvestites 31 17 1 6 5 60 3. Number of children (For subjects who are, or have been married) Group No. of child. Possible parents Mean No. child. Male Controls 29 20 1.45 Female Controls 49 26 1.72 Transvestites 63 43 1.47 o o ov Section B Questions relating to father. 1. What was his attitude toward you when you were a child? (How did he treat you?) Positive Responses Negative Responses Neutral Responses Male Controls 14 9 3 Female Controls 16 11 2 Transvestites 27 25 8 2. What was your attitude toward him? (How did you feel about him?) Positive Responses Negative Responses Neutral Responses Male Controls 13 12 1 Female Controls 13 13 3 Transvestites 20 29 1 3. Briefly describe your father (what kind of person was he, what were his strongest personality characteristics). Positive Responses Negative Responses Neutral Responses Male Controls 17 7 2 Female Controls 14 11 4 Transvestites 29 27 4 4. If your father is deceased, how old were you when he died? Younger than 13 13 or Older Still Living Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 2 1 1 6 10 21 18 18 38 5. What was your father's attitude toward religion? (Was he a religious person?) Positive Responses Negative Responses Neutral Responses Male Controls 39 20 1 Female Controls 14 10 2 Transvestites 18 10 1 6. What was your father's attitude toward drinking? Father a heavy Accepted drinking Disliked No drinker but not a heavy Drinking Respoi drinker Male Controls 3 16 6 1 Female Controls 8 11 7 3 Transvestites 6 33 21 Section G Questions related to mother. 1. What was your mother's attitude toward you when you were a child? (How did she treat you?) Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites Positive Responses 16 18 46 Negative Responses 5 10 9 2. What was your attitude toward her? (How did you feel about her?) Positive Responses Negative Responses Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 16 12 48 8 14 9 Neutral Responses 5 1 5 Neutral Responses 2 3 3 3. Briefly describe your mother (what kind of person was she, what were her strongest personality characteristics). Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites Positive Responses 16 11 41 Negative Responses 5 12 9 4. If your mother is deceased, how old were you when she died? ' Younger than 13 13 or Older Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 2 2 3 2 4 7 Neutral Responses 5 6 10 Still Living 22 23 50 5. What was your mother's attitude toward drinking? Mother a heavy Accepted drinking Disliked No drinker but not a heavy Drinking Response drinker Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 0 14 10 2 0 9 15 5 3 24 31 Section D Family History 1. Were your parents divorced or separated? Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites Divorced 7 6 10 2. If so, how old were you at the time? 10 years or under 11 through 15 years Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 2 0 5 1 2 3 Separated 1 1 1 16 years or over 5 2 3 3. With which parent did you then live? Father Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 1 0 2 Mother 4 4 5 No Response 3 3 4 4. What was your attitude toward your stepfather? (or stepmother) Positive Negative No Response Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 1 1 3 1 2 2 No Response 1 1 1 5. List your brothers and sisters by sex and year of birth. Frequency distribution of number of siblings Number of Siblings Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites Over 7 1 7 2 1 6 1 3 5 4 2 3 5 3 4 4 12 2 5 7 10 1 8 9 21 0 5 4 8 Number of Subjects in each group with only male siblings. Male Controls 4 Female Controls 8 Transvestites 13 Number of Subjects in each group with only female siblings. Male Controls 4 Female Controls 7 Transvestites 17 6. Which of your brothers or sisters did you like the most and why? Sibling preferred where choice of both sexes is possible. Selected Male Sib. Selected Female Sib. Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 3 4 6 4 4 9 7. Which of your brothers or sisters did you like the least and why? Siblings disliked where choice of both sexes is possible. Selected Male Sib. Selected Female Sib. Male Controls 5 2 Female Controls 3 5 Transvestites 7 6 8. Did any member of your family serve a prison sentence? Yes No Male Controls 0 26 Female Controls 0 29 Transvestites 0 60 9. Were any members of your family confined in a mental hospital? Yes No Male Controls 0 26 Female Controls 3 26 Transvestites 5 55 193 Section E Developmental History 1. Were you placed in an institution of any kind as a child? Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 2. Were you a nervous child? Yes 2 0 0 Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites Yes 5 11 23 No 24 29 60 No 21 16 35 3. Did you wet the bed after starting schooli Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites Yes 3 1 5 4. Did you have problems eating as a child? Yes Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 6 7 17 No 22 27 54 No 26 21 42 No Response 0 2 2 No Response 1 1 1 No Response 194 5. What were your strongest fears as a child? (Summarized and presented as frequency of response occurring for each group.) Fear Group Transvestites Male Female Dark 12 6 6 Animals 4 4 Rej ection 13 3 2 Parents 1 4 Aggression 6 2 3 Loneliness 3 3 Heights 2 4 1 Of being caught cross dressing 5 Death 3 2 Spankings 3 Other 2 7 No fear indicated 12 3 8 6. Did you sleep in the same bed as your parents when you were a child? Yes No No Response Male Controls 3 23 Female Controls 2 26 1 Transvestites 13 45 2 7. Did you sleep in the same room as your parents (but not in the same bed)? Yes No No Response Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 5 6 11 21 18 48 2 1 8. Did you sleep in the same bed as your brothers or sisters? With Male Sibling Male Controls Female Controls Transvestites 8 1 13 With Female Sibling With Neither 0 10 8 18 18 34 Section F Sexual History 1. How old were you when you first masturbated? distribution for each group.) Group (Results are in form of a frequency Age 26-27 24-25 22-23 Transvestites 1 Males Females 1 20-21 1 1 18-19 5 1 16-17 2 1 1 14-15 9 10 3 12-13 25 10 10-11 7 1 2 8-9 5 1 1 6-7 I 1 1 4-5 1 3 Median Score 12.7 13.3 11 2. How was the idea of masturbation introduced? (Responses were summarized and recorded as frequency of response for each group.) Group Response Transvestites Male Control Female Control Same sex peer 12 10 3 Self exploration 19 6 5 Cross dressing 10 Dreams 1 2 Miscellaneous 8 4 No response 10 8 17 3. What are your feelings about masturbation at the present time? (Note: Responses were coded as follows: Positive * * Subject either masturbates currently or indicates a favorable attitude toward masturbation. Negative = Subject either does not masturbate or indicates an unfavorable attitude toward masturbation.) Positive Negative No Response Male Controls 12 13 1 Female Controls 10 13 6 Transvestites 49 3 8 4. Have you had sexual relations with persons of the opposite sex? Yes No No Response Male Controls 24 1 1 Female Controls 24 2 3 Transvestites 55 5 5. Age of first heterosexual relationship (presented as frequency of occurrence for each group). Group Transvestites Male Controls Female Controls 31-32 1 29-30 2 2 27-28 1 25-26 5 2 23-24 5 3 5 21-22 9 2 7 19-20 11 2 2 17-18 10 7 4 15-16 7 4 2 13-14 1 11-12 2 9-10 1 1 1 7-8 1 1 5-6 2 Median Age 19.68 17.64 21.08 i - » vo 00 6. Have you had sexual relations with persons of the same sex? Yes No No Response Kale Controls 1 25 Female Controls 1 28 Transvestites 22 37 1 7. At the present time, what is your attitude about having sexual relations with persons of the same sex? (Note: Responses were coded as follows: Accepting = Willingness to accept behavior in others, but not necessarily self. Favorable = Currently engages in practice or would if given the opportunity. Unaccepting = Disapproves for self and others.) Accepting Favorable Unaccepting No Response Male Controls 1 0 25 Female Controls 4 0 24 1 Transvestites 7 14 37 2 :ion G Transvestic Behavior 1. As a child or adolescent, did you dress up in the clothes of the opposite sex? Yes No No Response Male Controls 6 20 Female Controls 7 22 Transvestites 56 3 1 2. Age of first cross-dressing experience? Group Age Transvestites Male Controls Female Controls 23-24 1 21-22 19-20 17-18 1 15-16 3 13-14 10 1 11-12 10 1 1 9-10 12 1 7-8 7 1 1 5-6 8 3 3-4 3 Median age for transvestites = 10.42 3. Did you ever have the feeling you should have been born a member of the opposite sex? Yes No No Response Male Controls 2 24 Female Controls 13 16 Transvestites 45 14 1 200 4. At what age did the feeling you should have been born a member of the opposite sex occur? Group Age Transvestites Male Controls Female Controls 23-24 21-22 2 19-20 17-18 2 15-16 10 13-14 9 1 11-12 3 1 9-10 5 1 2 7-8 4 1 5-6 2 3-4 1 Median age for transvestites 1 3 13.38 5. What are your feelings about your sex at the present time? Positive Feelings Negative Feelings Ambivalent No Response Male Controls 21 0 5 Female Controls 20 3 2 4 Transvestites 12 20 24 4 (Note: The remaining questions were included only in questionnaires submitted to transvestites.) 6. How often do you cross dress at the present time? Time Span Frequency of Response Daily 21 More than weekly 9 Weekly 9 Bi-monthly 9 Monthly 9 Less than monthly 3 7. Has It increased in frequency in the last three years? Yes No No Response 21 23 16 8. What are your usual activities while cross dress? Activity Frequency Going out in public 22 Household tasks (cleaning, sewing, etc.) 14 Reading or writing 14 Taking photographs 9 Mirror gazing 9 Masturbation 8 Intercourse 3 Frequent changing clothes 3 Fantacizing 2 9. What are your most typical thoughts or daydreams when dressed in female clothing? Fantasy Frequency Looking like a female 17 Fooling people (passing as a female) 10 Being forced to cross dress by a dominant female 4 Having a male, or female transvestite make love to him 4 ■ Being with an understanding female 2 Being with another transvestite 1 Clothing 1 Intercourse with a female 1 ] 202 10. When are you more likely to cross dress? Response Frequency Whenever possible 11 When alone 9 Evenings 7 When seeing a female 3 At all times 3 When sexually aroused 2 When pressure has increased 2 .When abstaining from sex 2 When in the mood 2 When on vacation 2 11. If married, how does your wife feel about your cross dressing? Attitude Freaueni Strongly negative 14 Indifferent but unaccepting 3 Positive 13 Indifferent but accepting 4 Wife doesn't know 6 12. What do you feel are the major reasons for your desire to cross dress? Response Frequency A. Responses based upon feelings of Inadequacy or rejection Rejected by father 5 Uncomfortable and inadequate around females 4 To avoid rejection 1 Boys were rough 1 Anatomically more female 2 To be different than most men 2 203 Response B. Early experiences Mother (or other female) dressed him like a girl Tried on mother's clothes alone Tried on girl's clothes alone Wanted to be like sister Surrounded by women Was mother's favorite Idealization of mother and sister C. Responses relating to stimulation Tactual stimulation of clothing Stimulated by particular item of clothing Desire for feeling of delicacy, look of clothing For sexual stimulation, excitement Emphasis on olfactory stimulation Frequency 7 3 2 6 4 5 1 20 9 13 6 3 204

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Creator Goldfarb, Jack Harold (author)

Core Title The Concept Of Sexual Identity In Normals And Transvestites: Its Relationship To The Body-Image, Self-Concept And Parental Identification

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Harvey, Herman M. (committee chair), Jacobs, Alfred (committee member), Lasswell, Thomas E. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-309074

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Rights Goldfarb, Jack Harold

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