The Influence Of Artificial Atmospheric Ionization On Human Motor Performance

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Content THE INFLUENCE OF ARTIFICIAL ATMOSPHERIC
IONIZATION O N H U M A N M O TO R PERFORM ANCE
by
David Lyndon K e lle y
A D is s e r ta tio n P re se n te d to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t o f th e
R equirem ents f o r th e D egree
D O C TO R OF PHILOSOPHY
(P h y s ic a l E d u catio n )
Ja n u a ry 1963
UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA
GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES 7 , CALIFORNIA
This dissertation, written by
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y
UJ the direction of nation Com-
Deatt
Date.. JANUARY. . JL$63.
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST O F TABLES
Page
iv
LIST O F FIGURES y
C hapter
I . INTRODUCTION 1
The Problem
S tate m en t of th e problem
Scope o f th e problem
P ro c e d u ra l o u tlin e f o r th e stu d y
S ig n ific a n c e of th e S tudy
L im ita tio n s of th e S tudy
D e fin itio n s of Terms
O rg a n iza tio n of th e Rem ainder of th e
D is s e r ta tio n
I I . REVIEW O F RELATED LITERATURE..................................... 10
A Summary o f th e P h y s ic a l C o n s id e ra tio n s
of Io n iz a tio n
Summary
A Summary of B io -m ed ical S tu d ie s In v o lv in g
I o n iz a tio n
Summary
A Summary of I o n iz a tio n S tu d ie s and Motor
Perform ance
Summary
I I I . PROCEDURE.............................................................................. 35
S u b je c ts
S e le c tio n of s u b je c ts
P re p a ra tio n o f s u b je c ts
Grouping of s u b je c ts
E x p erim en tal D esign
Order of environm ents
S chedule of assig n m en ts
S t a t i s t i c a l d e sig n
E x p erim en tal A pparatus
Io n g e n e ra to rs
Io n co u n te rs
Reaction-m ovem ent tim e r
i i
C hapter
P u rs u it r o to r
S te a d in e s s e r r o r c o u n te r
Hand dynamometer
T e stin g P ro ced u res
T e stin g chamber
S u b je c ts ' a t t i r e
Grounding of s u b je c ts
A d m in isterin g th e environm ents
S e le c tio n o f t e s t s
R e ac tio n and movement tim e t e s t s
P u rs u it r o to r t e s t
S te a d in e s s t e s t
G rip s tr e n g th t e s t
XV. ANALYSIS O F THE DATA.................................................
R e a c tio n Time I n v e s tig a tio n
Movement Time I n v e s tig a tio n
P u rs u it R o to r I n v e s tig a tio n
S te a d in e ss I n v e s tig a tio n
G rip S tre n g th I n v e s tig a tio n
V. DISCUSSION O F RESULTS ..........................................
D isc u ssio n o f R e a c tio n Time I n v e s tig a tio n
D isc u ssio n o f Movement Time I n v e s tig a tio n
D isc u ssio n o f P u r s u it R o to r I n v e s tig a tio n
D isc u ssio n o f S te a d in e s s I n v e s tig a tio n
D isc u ssio n of G rip S tre n g th I n v e s tig a tio n
D isc u ssio n of P ro c e d u ra l E ffe c tiv e n e s s
VI. SU M M A R Y A N D CONCLUSIONS.....................................
Summary
The problem
The in v e s tig a tio n s
The s u b je c ts
E x p erim en tal d e s ig n
F in d in g s
C onclusion
Recommendations f o r F u rth e r Stv.dy
BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................
LIST O F TABLES
T able Page
1. R eaction. Time I n v e s tig a tio n :
F in a l F iv e T est T r ia ls . .
Means of th e
2 . R e a c tio n Time I n v e s tig a tio n :
A n a ly sis o f V ariance . . .
Summary of
. . 79
3. Movement Time I n v e s tig a tio n :
F in a l F ive T est T r i a ls . .
Means of th e
4. Movement Time I n v e s tig a tio n :
A n a ly sis o f V ariance . . .
Summary of
5.
P u r s u it R otor I n v e s tig a tio n :
B e st o f Four T est T r ia ls .
S co res of th e
. . 83
6 . P u r s u it R o to r I n v e s tig a tio n :
A n a ly sis o f V ariance . . .
Summary of
. . 85
7.
S te a d in e s s I n v e s tig a tio n : S co res of th e
B est o f F ive T est T r ia ls ..................................... . . 86
8 . S te a d in e s s I n v e s tig a tio n : Summary of
A n a ly s is o f V ariance . . . ................................
9. G rip S tre n g th I n v e s tig a tio n :
B est o f S ix T e st T r i a ls .
S co res of th e
. . 89
10. G rip S tre n g th I n v e s tig a tio n :
A n a ly sis o f V ariance . . .
Summary of
iv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
F ig u re Page
1. E nvironm ental O r d e r s ............................................................. 40
2. A ssignm ents S c h e d u le ............................................................. 41
3* Reaction-M ovem ent T im er, E l e c t r i c a l S chem atic . 48
4 . P u rs u it R o t o r ........................................................................... 52
5* S te a d in e s s T estin g .................................................................. 53
6. G rip S tre n g th T e stin g .................................. 55
7* Io n A d m in is tr a tio n .................................................................. 60
8 . Ion L evel M e a s u r e m e n t......................................................... 64
9* R eact ion-Movement T i m e r .................................................... 68
v
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Among th e a re a s o f s c i e n t i f i c in v e s tig a tio n most
in tim a te ly r e la te d t o s u p e r s t i ti o n and h e a rs a y i s th e stu d y
of th e com plex i n t e r a c t i o n betw een man and h is p h y s ic a l
environm ent. The problem s o f m an's i l l s , h is h a b i ts ,
tem peram ent, b e h a v io r, and d is p o s itio n have a l l been lin k e d
to th e p h y s ic a l environm ent. But u n t i l r e c e n tly , m ost of
t h a t w hich was known or su sp e c te d co n cern in g th e s e f a c to r s
o f human e x is te n c e rem ained in th e realm of s u p e r s t itio n
and was p assed on by th e ac ce p ta n c e of h e a rsa y .
One a re a o f stu d y to re c e iv e c o n s id e ra b le s c i e n t i f i c
a t t e n t i o n has been th e m y sterio u s in flu e n c e s e x e rte d upon
man by c o n tin u a l and c y c l i c a l w eath er and c lim a te v a r ia
tio n s (2 0 ). T em perature, h u m id ity , a l t i t u d e , w in d s, b aro
m e tric p r e s s u r e s , a i r p o l l u t a n t s , and atm o sp h eric e le c
t r i c a l a c t i v i t y a l l seem to prom ote changes in human
fu n c tio n s w hich le ad to v ary in g human d is p o s itio n s . Berke
and W ilson p re s e n t an i n t e r e s t i n g acco u n t of th e i n t e r
a c tio n o f l i f e and i t s p a tte r n s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e w eath er
(2 ) . S p e c ia l em phasis i s p laced upon th e f a l l i n g of
b aro m e tric p re s s u re s and th e in c re a s e in s o c ia ll y im proper
1
2
and e r r a t i c b e h a v io r. The ty p e s o f Im proper b e h a v io r have
ranged from In c re a s e s o f s u ic id e a tte m p ts to In c re a s e s In
th e p o o rer conduct o f sc h o o l c h ild re n . Numerous o th e r
ac co u n ts o f s im ila r o ccu rren c es a re a v a ila b le In c lim a to l
ogy l i t e r a t u r e (4 , 8 , 13, 18, 52, 7 0 ).
The In flu e n c e o f atm o sp h eric e l e c t r i c a l a c t i v i t y on
human fu n c tio n s has been s c i e n t i f i c a l l y s tu d ie d sin c e th e
b eg in n in g of th e p re s e n t c e n tu ry . I t was g ra d u a lly d i s
covered t h a t a l l o f th e c lim a tic and w eath er f a c to r s
m entioned above were c lo s e ly r e la te d and t h a t a p ro b ab le
u n ify in g lin k e x is te d betw een th e human p e c u l i a r i t i e s d i s
p lay ed and atm o sp h eric I o n iz a tio n . A f a l l i n g b aro m eter i s
accom panied by an In c re a s e in p o s itiv e atm o sp h eric io n s ,
w h ile r i s i n g p re s s u re s a re accom panied by In c re a s e s In
n e g a tiv e io n s . H ot, d ry , se a s o n a l w inds a s w e ll as a i r
p o l l u t a n t s , such as smog, produce In c re a s e s in p o s itiv e
io n s w h ile n e g a tiv e io n s in c re a s e as a l t i t u d e in c re a s e s
and as a r e s u l t of e l e c t r i c a l d is c h a rg e s in th u n d e rsto rm s.
W ith such an abundant so u rce of n a t u r a l ca u ses f o r v a r i a
tio n s in th e e a r t h 's atm o sp h eric io n iz a tio n l e v e l s , i t i s
n o t d i f f i c u l t t o u n d erstan d th e c o n fu sio n w hich has
e x is te d co n cern in g th e fo rm u la tio n of p la u s ib le answ ers to
th e q u e s tio n s posed by o b se rv a b le changes in human a c t i v i t y
and b e h a v io r.
P o s itiv e io n c o n c e n tra tio n s in r e g u la r outdoor a i r
a re alm o st alw ays g r e a te r th a n n e g a tiv e io n c o n c e n tra tio n s .
P o s itiv e io n s predom inate in c i t i e s b u t a re low er in th e
c o u n try and a t se a . N egative io n c o n c e n tra tio n s o fte n
predom inate in th e a i r c lo s e t o w a t e r f a l l s , r e s u lt in g from
th e a to m iz a tio n of th e f a l l i n g w ater (53)• Thus i t i s
c le a r t h a t changes in atm o sp h eric io n c o n c e n tra tio n s occur
n a t u r a l l y , and g e n e ra lly show a ten d en cy to fa v o r p o s itiv e
io n s over n e g a tiv e io n s by a r a t i o o f ap p ro x im a tely 5 to
4 . A t y p i c a l m easurem ent o f outdoor a i r m ight th e n show
500 p o s itiv e io n s and 400 n e g a tiv e io n s p er c c . o f a i r .
These q u a n t itie s o f io n s a re ex tre m e ly sm all when th e
numbers o f m o lecu les in a c c . of a i r a re c o n s id e re d .
K o lle r g iv e s th e number as 2 .7 x 10^9 m o lecu les p er cc .
of atm o sp h eric a i r a t sea le v e l (51*358). N a tu ra lly
produced io n c o n c e n tra tio n s seldom exceed 1000 to 1500
io n s p er c c . o f a i r e x c ep t under extrem e c o n d itio n s such
a s v e ry h ig h a l t i t u d e s .
A r t i f i c i a l l y produced io n c o n c e n tra tio n s o f e i th e r
p o l a r i t y can be ach iev ed in s u b s t a n ti a l l y g r e a te r quan
t i t i e s . A number o f m ethods o f producing io n s a r t i f i c i a l l y
have been u sed . M artin l i s t s th e rm io n ic em issio n (h o t
w ir e s ) , r a d io a c tiv e s o u rc e s , X -ra y s, u l t r a v i o l e t pho to
io n iz a tio n , h ig h v o lta g e b ru sh d is c h a rg e , and h ig h f r e
quency c u r r e n ts as commonly used methods (65*280). He
a ls o s t a t e s t h a t : "Any method w hich produces ozone or
th e o x id es o f n itr o g e n a s b y -p ro d u c ts I s u n d e s ira b le from
th e b io lo g ic a l v ie w p o in t0 (65*280). S e v e ra l of th e se
m ethods o f io n p ro d u c tio n a re now in use in com m ercially
a v a ila b le io n g e n e ra to rs . T h e ir m anufacture i s , how ever,
r ig o r o u s ly c o n tro lle d to e n su re freedom from d e trim e n ta l
b y -p ro d u c ts .
The a r t i f i c i a l c o n tr o l of a i r io n c o n c e n tra tio n s has
been used in a long s e r ie s o f ex p erim en ts in v o lv in g i t s
m e d ic a l, c llm a to lo g ic a l, p h y s io lo g ic a l, and p sy c h o lo g ic a l
im portance in Germany, S c a n d in a v ia , R u s s ia , and th e
U nited S ta te s . The r e s u l t s o b ta in e d from th e se in v e s tig a
t i o n s , b o th o b je c tiv e and s u b je c tiv e , a re n o t in com plete
agreem ent. However, th e g r e a t m a jo rity of th e p u b lish ed
fin d in g s and o p in io n s p o in t to th e n o rm alizin g and bene
f i c i a l e f f e c t s produced when a i r c o n ta in in g an abundance
of n e g a tiv e ly charged io n s i s b re a th e d . A ir w ith an
abundance o f p o s itiv e io n s i s sa id to have n e a rly th e
o p p o site e f f e c t s w hich le ad to v ary in g c o n d itio n s of
d isc o m fo rt.
On th e b a s is o f th e in fo rm a tio n c ite d h e re in and
from r e c e n t developm ents w hich allo w man t o e n te r space
and c o n fin e h im s e lf f o r p rolonged p e rio d s in submerged
subm arines (9 1 ), i t a p p e ars a p p ro p ria te to experim ent
f u r th e r w ith m an's r e a c tio n s t o io n iz e d a i r of d if f e r in g
d e n s itie s and p o l a r i t i e s . The e f f e c t o f io n iz a tio n , b o th
5
p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e , upon human m otor perform ance
elem en ts I s , th e r e f o r e , th e s u b je c t o f th e p re s e n t l n v e s t l
g a tio n s .
The Problem
S tate m e n t o f th e problem . —The purpose of t h i s
stu d y was to d eterm in e w hether or n o t th e in h a la tio n of
la rg e q u a n t itie s o f io n iz e d a i r f o r a p e rio d o f tw enty
m inutes would r e s u l t in im m ediate and m easurable changes
in su b seq u en t le v e ls o f m otor perform ance o f th e upper
lim b. Three d i f f e r e n t environm ents were a p p lie d w hich
re q u ire d th e ! ( 1) in h a la tio n o f la rg e q u a n titie s of nega
t i v e l y io n iz e d a i r ; ( 2) in h a la tio n of la rg e q u a n t itie s o f
p o s it iv e l y io n iz e d a i r ; and ( 3 ) in h a la tio n o f r e g u la r
atm o sp h eric a i r as a c o n tro l m easure. The m otor perfo rm
ance elem en ts w hich th e stu d y in c o rp o ra te d w ere: ( 1) re a c
tio n tim e; (2 ) movement tim e; (3 ) ac c u ra c y o f planned
movement; (4 ) s te a d in e s s ; and (5) g r ip s tr e n g th .
Scone o f th e problem . —The stu d y was so arran g ed
t h a t each o f th e p ro c e d u re s , u n d ertak en to o b ta in m easures
o f th e motor perform ance e le m e n ts, a c tu a l ly re p re s e n te d
s e p a ra te in v e s tig a tio n s . F iv e in v e s tig a tio n s , th e r e f o r e ,
were u n d e rta k e n , each o f w hich used th e same ex p e rim e n ta l
s u b je c ts and atm o sp h eric en v iro n m en ts, b u t d if f e r e d w ith
r e s p e c t t o th e motor perform ance elem en ts te s te d . I n each
o f th e I n v e s tig a tio n s p rim ary em phasis was p la ced upon th e
immediacy o f th e e f f e c t s of th e e x p e rim e n ta l environm ents
v e rs u s th e c o n tr o l en v iro n m en t.
P ro c e d u ra l o u tlin e f o r th e s tu d y . —The stu d y was
conducted as fo llo w s :
1. A v a ila b le l i t e r a t u r e co n cern in g io n iz a tio n and
perform ance s tu d ie s was review ed to d eterm in e:
( 1) te c h n iq u e s f o r g e n e ra tin g , c o n t r o ll in g , and
c o u n tin g io n iz a tio n le v e ls w ith in c lo se d rooms;
( 2 ) c r i t e r i a to be met d u rin g e x p e rim e n ta tio n ;
( 3 ) an a c c e p ta b le r a tio n a le from w hich to p ro ceed ;
(4 ) a re a s w ith in th e broad f i e l d o f m otor perform
ance s u ita b le f o r th e in v e s tig a tio n s ; ( 5) methods
of p ro c ed u re; and (6 ) an u n d ersta n d in g of th e
t e s t i n g equipm ent n e c e s s a ry to p ro v id e th e m easures
fo r a n a ly s is .
2. A ll n e c e s s a ry en v iro n m e n tal and t e s tin g equipm ent
was assem b led , and p re lim in a ry t e s t s were ru n fo r
f a m il ia r iz a tio n and r e l i a b i l i t y p u rp o ses.
3. The e x p e rim e n ta l chamber was p rep ared so t h a t i t
p ro v id ed th e n e c e s s a ry f a c i l i t i e s fo r smooth opera
tio n .
4. The s u b je c ts and a s s i s t a n t s were ch o sen , and t h e i r
d u tie s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s were d e sig n a te d
a c c u r a te ly .
7
5. The te s t i n g program was u n d erta k en and th e f in d in g s
com piled.
6 . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is was u n d erta k e n t o t e s t th e
w orking h y p o th e s is : T hat in h a la tio n of la rg e
q u a n t itie s of io n iz e d a i r fo r p e rio d s o f tw enty
m in u te s, b o th p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e in p o l a r i t y ,
p r io r to th e o n se t o f m otor p erfo rm an ce, can p ro
duce s ig n i f i c a n t changes from t h a t c o n sid ered to
be norm al p erform ance.
7. The r e s u l t s of th e a n a ly s is were d is c u s s e d .
8 . C onclusions re g a rd in g th e im portance o f th e f in d
in g s were draw n, and recom m endations were g iv e n fo r
f u tu r e stu d y .
S ig n ific a n c e of th e S tudy
The dom inant in fe re n c e d e riv e d from p rev io u s io n i
z a tio n s tu d ie s i s t h a t m otor perform ance should be
improved by th e a p p lic a tio n of n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d a i r , and
p o s s ib ly th e o p p o site c o n d itio n should occur by th e a p p l i
c a tio n of p o s it iv e l y io n iz e d a i r . I f methods could be
found w hich w ould, in a b r i e f p e rio d of tim e , improve th e
m otor perform ance of th e human body, th e co u rse o f a th
l e t i c tr a in in g c o n c e iv a b ly could be g r e a t ly im proved.
L im ita tio n s o f th e S tudy
T his stu d y was lim ite d to th e im m ediate e f f e c t s of
8
th e a p p lic a tio n o f io n iz e d a i r on m otor perform ance o f th e
upper lim b. The d e te rm in a tio n o f th e e f f e c t s o f io n iz e d
a i r upon g ro s s m otor perform ance i s ex trem ely d i f f i c u l t
because of th e la rg e t e s t in g a re a s r e q u ire d . The t e s tin g
chamber used in t h i s stu d y lim ite d extrem es in body move
m ents. F u r th e r , th e stu d y was lim ite d to th e m otor p e r
form ance elem en ts o f r e a c tio n tim e , movement tim e , ac c u rac y
o f planned movement, s te a d in e s s , and g r ip s tr e n g th . No
a tte m p t was made to e v a lu a te any of th e more s u b je c tiv e
e f f e c t s claim ed in many o f th e c l i n i c a l s tu d ie s w hich have
preceded t h i s stu d y .
D e f in itio n s o f Terms
In th e i n t e r e s t o f c l a r i t y , th e term s w hich fo llo w
a re d e fin e d w ith r e s p e c t to th e manner in w hich th e y a re
used in th e p re s e n t stu d y .
R e a c tio n tim e . —R e a c tio n tim e i s t h a t m easured
i n te r v a l o f tim e betw een th e a c tu a tio n o f th e stim u lu s
l i g h t and th e movement w hich b eg in s th e movement tim e
a c tio n .
Movement tim e. —Movement tim e i s t h a t m easured
i n te r v a l o f tim e re q u ire d to move th e hand v e r t i c a l l y a
d is ta n c e o f tw elve in c h e s a f t e r th e c o n c lu sio n of th e
r e a c tio n tim e sequence.
Io n . —An io n i s a group o f atm o sp h eric p a r t i c l e s
w hich c a r r y a s in g le u n i t , e l e c t r i c a l c h a rg e . The charge
may be e i t h e r p o s itiv e or n e g a tiv e in p o la r it y .
F o re p e rio d . — The fo re p e rio d is th e p e rio d o f tim e a
s u b je c t i s h eld in th e "re a d y p o s itio n " p r io r to re c e iv in g
th e stim u lu s to r e a c t .
C h ro n ax ie. --"T h e tim e re q u ire d f o r a c u r r e n t tw ice
th e s tr e n g th o f th e th re s h o ld c u r r e n t to cause a resp o n se
is c a lle d th e ch ro n ax ie" ( 21: 50) .
O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e Remainder of
th e D is s e r ta tio n
In C hapter I I , a rev iew o f th e s e le c te d l i t e r a t u r e
s p e c i f i c a l l y r e la te d to t h i s stu d y is p re s e n te d . In
C hapter I I I , a d e ta ile d d e s c r ip tio n o f th e p ro ced u res
Involved in th e s e le c tio n and a d m in is tra tio n o f th e te s t in g
phases o f th e stu d y i s p re s e n te d . S t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is of
th e d a ta i s p re se n te d in C hapter IV. C h ap ter V c o n s is ts
of a d is c u s s io n o f th e r e s u l t s . F in a lly , in C hapter VI i s
p re se n te d a summary of th e stu d y and c o n c lu sio n s based
upon th e f in d in g s .
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The l i t e r a t u r e d isc u sse d in t h i s c h a p te r has been
s e le c te d from a volum inous q u a n tity f o r th e purpose of
p ro v id in g summaries w ith in th e a re a s s p e c i f i c a l l y r e la te d
t o th e p re s e n t stu d y . These a re a s a r e : (1 ) a summary of
th e p h y s ic a l c o n s id e ra tio n s o f io n iz a tio n ; ( 2) a summary
o f th e b io -m e d ic a l s tu d ie s in v o lv in g io n iz a tio n ; and
(3 ) a summary o f io n iz a tio n s tu d ie s in v o lv in g m otor p e r
form ance.
A Stinrniflr v o f th e P h y s ic a l C o n s id e ra tio n s
o f I o n iz a tio n
Io n s o f th e atm o sp h eric v a r ie t y a re produced n a tu r
a l l y or a r t i f i c i a l l y . As d isc u sse d in C hapter I , a number
of n a t u r a l means e x i s t f o r th e p ro d u c tio n o f th e s e io n s .
The same is tr u e f o r a r t i f i c i a l l y produced io n s . Two
m ethods o f a r t i f i c i a l io n p ro d u c tio n w hich lend th em selv es
w e ll to e x p e rim e n ta l u se s a re th e r a d io a c tiv e (66) and
corona d isc h a rg e ty p e s becau se th e io n s th e y produce a re
p red o m in an tly th e d e s ir a b le sm all io n s , and because t h e i r
p o l a r i t y i s e a s i ly c o n tr o lle d .
B e c k e tt e f f e c t iv e l y summarized in fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e
10
11
th r e e g e n e ra l k in d s o f atm o sp h eric io n s as fo llo w s:
T here a r e th r e e g e n e ra l groups of atm o sp h eric
io n s : 1. S m all io n s a re m o lecu lar com plexes o f a
dozen or so gas m o lecu les a s s o c ia te d w ith one e le c
t r i c a l l y charged m o le cu le: 2 . In te rm e d ia te io n s
g e n e r a lly e x i s t in q u a n tity n ea r c i t i e s and a re a s of
a i r p o llu t io n . They a re su b m lcro sco p ic p a r t i c l e s
b e lie v e d to be formed w here s u lp h u ric a c id p a r t i c l e s
from smokes a re p r e s e n t or from h y d rate d io n s ; 3 . Large
io n s c o n s is t o f c l u s t e r s o f sm all io n s su rro u n d in g con
d e n s a tio n n u c le i or s in g le charged p a r t i c l e s of
smokes. ( 28 : 161)
B e c k e tt f u r th e r s ta te d t h a t :
I t sh o u ld be k e p t in mind t h a t , though io n s have
been grouped in th e s e th r e e s iz e ran g es fo r conven
ie n c e , th e re i s no c l e a r l i n e o f d em ark atlo n . ( 28: 161)
F re y s ta te d t h a t io n s a re fo rm a lly d e fin e d by t h e i r
m o b ility in a sta n d a rd f i e l d o f one v o l t p er c e n tim e te r
(9 1 ). S m all io n s a re th o s e w hich move 1 t o 2 c e n tim e te rs
p e r second p er v o l t p er c e n tim e te r. In te rm e d ia te io n s a re
la r g e r and th u s move more slo w ly , from .0 1 to 1 c m ./s e c ./
v o lt/c m . Large io n s a re th o se w hich t r a v e l slow er th a n
.0 1 c m ./s e c ./v o lt/c m .
Kingdom n o te d :
• . . t h a t th e l i f e o f th e sm a ll io n i s ab o u t two
m inutes so t h a t th e re i s tim e f o r i t to be in h a le d by
humans and to i n t e r a c t w ith th e e p i t h e l i a l membranes
o f th e upper r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t . (4 9 :2 )
Brown, Cook, Key, and H atch e x p la in e d t h a t p e n e tra
t io n to th e lu n g s i s a s e le c tiv e m a tte r and th a t only
th o se p a r t i c l e s whose p h y s ic a l s iz e i s below f iv e m icrons
a r e a p t to be d e p o s ite d (3 1 ). Even s m a lle r p a r t i c l e s , one
12
m icron in s i z e , a re th o se w hich were observed to re a c h th e
lu n g s m ost e a s il y . Thus th e p ro d u c tio n o f sm all io n s i s ,
in th e o ry , d e s ir a b le from th e s ta n d p o in t of t h e i r a r t i f i
c i a l o r ig in .
Kranz and R ich e x p la in e d th e method of io n m eterin g
as fo llo w ss
A modern io n c o u n te r . . . m easures th e t o t a l flow
of c u r r e n t th ro u g h a w e ll in s u la te d and s e n s itiv e
system . An am pere, th e u n i t m easure o f c u r r e n t, can
be d e fin e d as 6 z 1OI8 e le c tr o n s p er seco n d , ana i s
th e b a s is w ith w hich we c o n v e rt c u r r e n t re a d in g s t o
io n flo w . In an io n m eter we a ls o know th e a i r flow
p er second w hich can th e n y ie ld th e av erag e io n con
c e n tr a tio n in th e a i r s
6 x 10l 8 ions/am p sec x am peres o f io n c u rre n t B io n s .
A ir flow in cc/se co n d
(9 6 j 3)
The problem of m a in ta in in g s u f f i c i e n t io n iz a tio n
le v e ls in av erag e s iz e d rooms was a ls o c o n sid e re d by Kranz
and R ich . They s ta te d :
L osses of u n ip o la r sm a ll a i r io n s a re ex trem ely
ra p id and c o n s is t of th r e e p r in c ip le m echanism s; space
charge lo s s to th e w a lls , d if f u s io n lo s s to th e w a lls ,
and c o l l i s i o n lo s s to sm all d i r t p a r t i c l e s in th e a i r .
(9 6 :1 )
In c o n c lu sio n th e y n o ted f u r th e r :
Even in id e a l c a s e s , we b e lie v e i t w i l l be v ery
d i f f i c u l t to ac h iev e u n ip o la r sm all io n le v e ls above
5000- 1 0, 000/ c c , ex c ep t in sm a ll lo c a liz e d a i r strea m s.
(9 6 :1 )
N ie lse n and H arper ex p la in e d t h a t th e average
m o b ilitie s of n e g a tiv e ly charged io n s a re g r e a te r th a n
th o se f o r p o s itiv e io n s (73)• T his f a c to r le a d s to th e
13
problem o f n e g a tiv e Ion lo s s e s In ex cess o f th o s e of th e
p o s itiv e p o l a r i t y . T his f a c t e x p la in s th e g e n e r a lly low er
n e g a tiv e io n d e n s itie s w hich a re c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f io n iz a
t io n s tu d ie s .
Smrnnnrv. —A tm ospheric io n s a re v ery sm all p a r t i c l e s
w hich c a r r y e l e c t r i c c h a rg e s , e i th e r n e g a tiv e or p o s itiv e
in p o l a r it y . High io n iz a tio n le v e ls a re d i f f i c u l t to m ain
t a i n e x c e p t in sm all lo c a liz e d a i r stre a m s. I f la rg e
q u a n titie s o f io n s a re d e s ire d fo r e x p e rim e n ta tio n p u rp o ses,
th e use o f sm all lo c a liz e d a i r stream s ap p e ars a p p r o p r ia te .
k Summary o f B io-M edical S tu d ie s
In v o lv in g Io n iz a tio n
In o rd er to p ro v id e a background f o r th e r e a d e r ,
th e r e s u l t s of t y p ic a l b io -m e d ic a l s tu d ie s in v o lv in g io n i
z a tio n a re review ed h ere b r i e f l y even though some a re n o t
d i r e c t l y r e la te d to th e problem o f th e p re s e n t in v e s tig a
tio n s and even though some r e s u l t s a re now c o n sid ered
q u e s tio n a b le .
D essau er, in a long s e r ie s of ex p erim en ts u sin g
su p p o sed ly p h a rm o c o lo g ica lly i n e r t , sub m lcro sco p ic magne
sium oxide p a r t i c l e s as th e io n iz a tio n s o u rc e , re p o rte d a
number of s u b je c tiv e and th e ra p e u tic r e s u l t s ( 7 ). P o s itiv e
io n iz a tio n le v e ls of 10^ io n s p er c c . appeared t o produce
a f e e lin g of n au se a, d iz z in e s s , h ead ach es, and f a tig u e
w h ile s im ila r n e g a tiv e io n le v e ls seemed to produce
14
f e e lin g s o f e x h ila r a ti o n and w e ll being* B e lie f was
re p o rte d a s a r e s u l t o f n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n fo r hay f e v e r ,
h ig h blood p r e s s u r e , rheum atism , g o u t, a r t h r i t i s , b ro n
c h i t i s , n e u r a lg ia , and n e u r i t i s . Blood p re s s u re was
re p o rte d t o be d e c re a se d 5 t o 15 mm. of Hg. in a h a l f hour
to one hour p e rio d o f ex p o su re.
Blerm an re p o rte d d e c re a se s in blood p re s s u re in
p a t ie n t s w ith e s s e n t i a l h y p e rte n s io n a f t e r being tr e a te d
w ith n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d a i r ( 30) .
I t i s of i n t e r e s t to n o te t h a t W indsor and B e c k e tt
(8 4 ), u sin g a i r io n s o f low er d e n s itie s a s c o n tra s te d w ith
th e magnesium oxide io n s o f D essauer and B ierm an, d id n o t
observe in any o f t h e i r p a tie n t s a f e e lin g o f e x h ila r a tio n
a s re p o rte d by D essauer.
E dstrom , u sin g th e D essauer io n iz a tio n a p p a ra tu s ,
re p o rte d th e fo llo w in g :
Prom th e in d iv id u a ls who re a c te d was o b ta in ed th e
fo llo w in g p h y s io lo g ic a l e f f e c t :
On in h a lin g n e g a tiv e ly u n ip o la r ly charged a i r of
th e c o n c e n tra tio n exam ined:
1) low ered b lo o d -p re s s u re ;
2 ) low ered b asalm etab o llsm ;
3 ) in c re a s e d a lv e o la r carb o n d io x id e te n s io n ;
4) sh o rten e d m uscle and s e n s itiv e c h ro n a x ie .
On in h a lin g p o s i t i v e l y u n ip o la r ly charged a i r of
th e c o n c e n tra tio n exam ined:
1) in c re a s e d b lo o d -p re s s u re ;
2 ) In c re a s e d b asalm etab o llsm ;
15
3) In c re a s e d volume o f th e h e a r t p er m inute;
4) low ered a lv e o la r carb o n d io x id e te n s io n :
5) len g th en ed m uscle and s e n s itiv e c h ro n a x le .
(39*68)
R u s sia n s tu d ie s re p o rte d n e a rly t h i r t y y e a rs l a t e r ,
u sin g d i f f e r e n t m ethods, c o rro b o ra te d E d stro m 's fin d in g
co n cern in g c h ro n a x le . V a s ilie v re p o rte d t h a t r a b b it
s tu d ie s by K u n ev ltsch show a l t e r e d c h ro n a x ie s by b re a th in g
Io n s (8 3 ). The Im portance o f b re a th in g th e Ions was made
e s p e c ia lly c l e a r . B lagodatova d em o n strated t h a t n e g a tiv e
Io n s e x e r t an In flu e n c e upon th e e x c i t a b i l i t y of th e n eu ro
m uscular a p p a ra tu s b e fo re and a f t e r th e e lim in a tio n o f th e
blood su p p ly to th e p a r ts o f th e body b ein g te s t e d . Quot
ing B lag o d ato v a, V a s ilie v continued*
I n b o th c a se s th e e x c i t a b i l i t y of th e m uscle
In c re a s e d . The ab sen ce o f blood su p p ly to th e m uscle
d id n o t e x tin g u is h th e e f f e c t o f th e In h a le d a e ro lo n s
on I t s e x c i t a b i l i t y . T h is f a c t co n firm s once more th e
Im p o rtan t r o le of th e r e f l e x mechanism on th e a c tio n
o f th e In h a le d a e ro lo n s . . . . The In tro d u c tio n of
n e g a tiv e a e ro lo n s I n to th e r e s p i r a t o r y system e x e rts
a tem porary n o rm alizin g e f f e c t on th e f u n c tio n a l s t a t e
o f s k e l e t a l m uscles d isc o n n e c te d from th e c e n tr a l
nervous system . (8 3 *125)
The e x is te n c e o f th e r e f l e x mechanism has been
In d ic a te d by th e f a c t t h a t th e r e I s a w e ll-d e fin e d
d e c re a se In th e e f f e c t o f a e ro lo n s on th e e x c i t a b i l i t y
o f s k e l e t a l m uscle a f t e r e x c lu s io n of th e r e f l e x
a c tio n by s e c tio n in g th e pulm onary b ran ch es o f th e
v ag u s. The e x is te n c e of th e r e f l e x a c tio n of a e ro lo n s
has been f u r th e r confirm ed even a f t e r th e e x c lu s io n o f
blood c i r c u l a t i o n by s e c tio n in g o f th e co rresp o n d in g
blood v e s s e ls . ( 83 : 127)
E xperim ents on r a b b i t s w ith c ro sse d blood c i r c u l a
tio n have confirm ed th e s e b e l i e f s . In th e s e ex p e rim e n ts,
16
a donor r a b b i t and a r e c i p i e n t r a b b it were so p la ced t h a t
only th e donor r a b b it b re a th e d th e io n iz e d a i r . A low ered
ch ro n ax le r e s u lte d in b o th donor and r e c i p i e n t r a b b it even
though o n ly one o f th e r a b b its b re a th e d th e io n iz e d a i r .
I n ex p erim en ts on humans, blood tr a n s f u s io n s have been
g iv e n from a p erso n who has been s u b je c te d to io n iz e d a i r ;
th e r e s u l t s show t h a t th e r e c i p ie n t s o f th e s e tr a n s f u s io n s
e x h ib ite d th e same changes.
From th e in fo rm a tio n g iv e n above, i t can be seen
t h a t th e R u ssian s c i e n t i s t s have shown t h a t a t l e a s t two
d i f f e r e n t mechanisms may be in v o lv e d . The f i r s t i s r e f l e x
nervous c o n tr o l p ro b ab ly due to i r r i t a t i o n o f th e pulm onary
in te r o c e p to r s , and th e second i s d i r e c t hum oral tr a n s p o r ta
t i o n w hich p ro b ab ly occurs by p e n e tr a tio n of th e c e l l u l a r
la y e r o f a lv e o la r e p ith e liu m by th e io n s . I t i s a ls o
p o s tu la te d , b u t n o t co n firm ed , t h a t an e le c tro -c h e m ic a l
s tim u la tio n o f in te ro c e p to r s o f blood v e s s e ls may be
in v o lv e d . "These s tim u li a re conveyed by means o f th e
c e n t r i p e t a l f ib e r s of th e n erv es to th e vasom otor and
o th e r c e n te r s o f th e m ed u lla" (83*126) .
Kingdon o u tlin e d a th e o ry o f io n a c tio n in th e
b re a th in g p a s sa g e s, as fo llo w s*
I t i s p o in te d o u t . . . th a t th e mucus may c o l l e c t
and tra n s m it th e io n en erg y in th e form o f ch e m ic a lly
r e a c tiv e m olecules w hich f i n a l l y re a c h more s e n s itiv e
b io lo g ic a l m a te r ia l, such as th e re c e p to r c e n te r s
17
th ro u g h w hich v ir u s g a in a c c e s s t o e p i t h e l i a l c e l l s ,
and th u s th e Io n en erg y may have some e f f e c t on a i r
borne r e s p i r a t o r y I n f e c tio n s . The tra n s m is s io n o f
th e io n en e rg y i s an alo g o u s t o th e 'i n d i r e c t e f f e c t '
o f r a d i a t i o n c h e m istry . (49*9)
Puck and S ag ik su g g ested t h a t f o r v ir u s e s to a tta c h
th em selv es t o or invade a h o s t c e l l , th e y m ust have th e
c o r r e c t or fa v o ra b le e l e c t r o s t a t i c ch a rg es (7 9 ). C harging
th e c e l l w ith th e same n e g a tiv e p o l a r i t y as th e v ir u s
ap p e ars to p r o te c t them from v ir u s in v a s io n . The p o s itiv e
p o l a r i t y seems to red u ce th e r e s is ta n c e of th e c e l l s ag ain st
su b seq u en t v ir u s a tta c k .
E rb a n , in 1959, d em o n strated a n o th e r o f E d stro m 's
fin d in g s (4 0 ). Under re p e a te d c o n d itio n s o f p o s itiv e io n i
z a tio n over a p e rio d o f th r e e m onths, an In c re a s e in
s y s t o lic blood p re s s u re was n o ted in men. D ecreases in
c h o le s te r o l and album in in th e blood w ere re p o rte d w h ile
in c re a s e s in g lo b u lin were n o te d .
H icks re p o rte d two fin d in g s w hich were d e riv e d from
th e use o f e x p e rim e n ta l a n im a ls:
D an fo rt in v e s tig a te d th e e f f e c t o f a i r io n s on th e
grow th o f c h ic k e n s. He found an in c re a s e in th e r a t e
of grow th o f ch ick en s under n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n w hich
was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a s compared w ith th o se
under p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n and c o n tr o l. (44:212)
S ta n le y compared th e en erg y o f io n iz e d and un
io n iz e d r a t s in s e lf - p r o p e lle d re v o lv in g c a g e s. R ats
in th e n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d cages showed g r e a te r a c t i v
i t y th a n th o se in th e c o n tr o l cages or in th e p o s i
t i v e l y io n iz e d c a g e s. (4 4 :2 1 4 )
N ie lse n and H arper d em o n strated t h a t in an atm os
p h ere of 12,000 to 17,000 p o s itiv e io n s p e r c c . f o r fo u r
h o u rs , th e su c c in o x id a se c o n te n t, an o x id iz in g enzyme, of
r a t a d re n a l g la n d s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y red u ced (73)* Nega
t i v e io n iz a tio n le v e ls o f 4 ,5 0 0 t o 6 ,0 0 0 io n s p er c c .
produced a s l i g h t b u t i n s i g n i f i c a n t r i s e in su c cin o x id a se
le v e ls .
Worden and Thompson found s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n i f i c a n t
d if f e r e n c e s in th e p r o l i f e r a t i o n r a t e o f c e l l s in v i t r o
(8 7 :5 0 0 ). These c o n d itio n s were a c c e le r a te d under n e g a tiv e
io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s and d e c e le ra te d under p o s itiv e io n i
z a tio n c o n d itio n s .
Worden n o ted t h a t grow th of g olden h am sters and c e r
t a i n organs o f th e h am sters were s tim u la te d by th e a p p lic a
tio n of n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d a i r (86) . The h e a r t , a d re n a l
g la n d s , k id n e y s, t e s t e s , sem in al v e s i c l e s , and ep id erm is
showed In c re a s e s above norm al. The s p le e n and l i v e r were
found to be u n a lte re d by th e io n iz a tio n tre a tm e n ts .
Kingdon experim ented w ith E s c h e ric h ia c o l i b a c te r ia
in io n iz e d a i r (4 9 :8 ). He found t h a t E s c h e ric h ia c o l i can
be k i l l e d by charged p a r t i c l e s , b o th n e g a tiv e and p o s itiv e .
He p o in te d o u t t h a t th e e x te n t o f k i l l i n g i s dependent on
th e so u rce and ch em ical n a tu re o f th e io n s and n o t on th e
s ig n o f t h e i r ch arg e.
K ru eg er, S m ith , and Go a ls o noted th e e f f e c t s of
19
Io n ize d a i r on b a c te r ia . They s ta te d :
In sm og-contam inated atm ospheres m oderate concen
t r a t i o n s o f p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e a i r Ions e x e rte d a
p r o te c tiv e e f f e c t on s ta p h y lo c o c c i by d e la y in g th e
drop In pH c u s to m a rily observed and by d im in ish in g th e
r a t e of e v a p o ra tio n . In c le a n a i r , h ig h e r c o n c e n tra
tio n s o f p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e io n s a c c e le r a te d th e
r a t e o f d e a th o f s ta p h y lo c o c c i a p p a re n tly by d i r e c t
a c tio n on th e c e l l s and by in c re a s in g th e r a t e of
e v a p o ra tio n . (6 2 :3 5 9 )
K rueger and Sm ith (5 7 , 58, 59, 60) and K ru eg er,
S m ith , and M illa r (63) e x p e r tly d em o n strated th e p h y sio
l o g ic a l c o n tr o l o f io n iz e d a i r on th e tra c h e a of an im a ls.
T ra c h e a l s t r i p s from r a b b its were exposed to p o s itiv e and
n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n . Exposure to p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n
r e s u lte d in a c i l i a r y r a t e d e c re a se to 1100 b e a ts p er min
u te as compared w ith th e norm al av erag e o f 1400 t o 1500
b e a ts p er m in u te. In some c a s e s , c i l i a r y a c t i v i t y ceased
e n t i r e l y . N egative io n iz a tio n produced an in c re a s e in
c i l i a r y r a t e to 1600 to 1700 b e a ts p er m in u te. I f n e g a tiv e
io n iz a tio n was a d m in iste re d to tr a c h e a l t i s s u e w hich had
f i r s t been exposed to p o s itiv e io n s to low er i t s c i l i a r y
r a t e , norm al or above r a te s o f c i l i a r y a c tio n were r e s to r e d
alm o st im m ediately. The changes a l l o ccu rred w ith in a
p e rio d of tw enty m inutes of exposure tim e.
P o s itiv e io n s caused mucus flow and c le a r in g a b i l i t y
to d e c re a se or to sto p c o m p le te ly . The o p p o site o ccu rred
w ith n e g a tiv e io n s . Under p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n , smooth
m uscle t i s s u e of th e tra c h e a was noted to c o n tra c t and
20
p e r i s t a l s i s could n o t th e n be e l i c i t e d by s tr e tc h in g .
A gain th e o p p o site a c tio n came ab o u t under n e g a tiv e io n iz a
tio n . The smooth m uscle ti s s u e re la x e d and p e r i s t a l s i s
could th e n be e l i c i t e d . P o s itiv e io n iz a tio n caused th e
tr a c h e a l tis s u e to become d ry or n o n -g lo ssy in ap p earan ce.
N egative io n iz a tio n e i t h e r had no e f f e c t or caused a w atery
f lu id to form on th e s u rfa c e . I t was f u r th e r noted th a t a
p o s itiv e io n In c re a s e ren d e re d th e c i l i a v u ln e ra b le to
m echanical traum a and t h a t t h i s c o n d itio n d isa p p eare d upon
th e in tr o d u c tio n o f n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n .
By u sin g th e tracheotom y te ch n iq u e in experim ents
w ith liv in g mammals, th e s e in v e s tig a to r s found th e same
g e n e ra l c o n d itio n s to occur and e x p la in e d i t as fo llo w s:
"The a i r io n e f f e c t s re p o rte d in our e a r l i e r work on th e
e x tir p a te d tr a c h e a l s t r i p have been found to o ccu r, w ith
few e x c e p tio n s , in th e liv in g anim al" (5 8 :8 0 ). In a d d i
ti o n , i t was found t h a t r e s p i r a t o r y r a t e In creased in
u n o p erated anim als under c o n d itio n s o f p o s itiv e a i r and th e
re v e rs e was a g a in th e r e s u l t o f n e g a tiv e a i r c o n d itio n s .
K reuger and Sm ith l a t e r in v e s tig a te d th e a c tio n of
c e r t a in ch em ical a g e n ts w ith re fe re n c e t o t h e i r s i m ila r it y
to io n iz a tio n in producing th e e f f e c t s m entioned above (6l)l
A ll o f th e tr a c h e a l e f f e c t s w hich were a t t r i b u t e d t o p o s i
tiv e a i r can a ls o be produced by th e in tra v e n o u s in je c tio n
of 5 -h y d ro x y try p tam in e. C o n v e rse ly , a l l of th e n e g a tiv e
21
io n e f f e c t s can be produced by th e a c c e le r a tio n o f th e
r a t e a t w hich 5 -h y d ro x y try p tam in e can be o x id iz e d . From
th e s e o b s e rv a tio n s , an h y p o th e s is was s e t up t o p ro v id e a
b a s is f o r f u r th e r in v e s tig a tio n . The h y p o th e s is proposed
t h a t p o s itiv e io n e f f e c t s a re m ediated by th e r e le a s e of
f r e e 5-h y d ro x y try p ta m in e w h ile th e o p p o s ite , n e g a tiv e io n
e f f e c t s were dependent on th e a b i l i t y of n e g a tiv e io n s to
a c c e le r a te enzym atic o x id a tio n o f 5-h y d ro x y try p ta m in e .
Eddy, S tr e ltz o v , W illia m s, and S c io r tin o c o n sid e re d
th e e f f e c t s of n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n on th e grow th of t r a n s
p la n te d carcinom a 175-G and mouse adenocarcinom a E 0771
( 38) . C o n sid erab le in h i b i t i o n of th e 175-G r a t carcinom a
was n o te d . Three weeks a f t e r th e t r a n s p l a n ts , th e tum ors
w ere 5»2 c c . in n e g a tiv e a i r as compared to 9 .9 c c . f c r
th e c o n tr o l. A fte r fo u r w eeks, th e y were 6 .5 c c . fo r nega
ti v e a i r and 12.5 cc . f o r th e c o n tr o l. I t was a l s o found
t h a t th e a d d itio n of calciu m l a c t a t e d u rin g th e n e g a tiv e
io n a d m in is tra tio n h eld th e tum ors n e a rly s ta tio n a r y a f t e r
fo u r weeks of tre a tm e n t. S o k o lo ff, in h is book C an cer.
New A pproaches— New Hope, e la b o r a te s on th e s e to p ic s (2 3 ).
A number o f s tu d ie s have been c a r r ie d out t o
d eterm in e th e e f f e c t s o f atm o sp h eric io n iz a tio n on man.
G o r r i t i and Medina (4 1 ), in a stu d y re le a s e d by th e
N a tio n a l M in is try o f P u b lic H e a lth of Buenos A ire s ,
re p o rte d t h a t 29 o u t of 30 h ig h blood p re s s u re p a tie n ts
22
s u b je c te d to n e g a tiv e a i r io n iz a tio n r e a c te d fa v o ra b ly
w ith an av erag e re d u c tio n of a r t e r i a l p re s s u re s o f 3 .9 cm.
of Hg. (39 mm. of Hg).
K ornblueh and G r i f f in make i t c l e a r t h a t th e
re sp o n se to e x p e rim e n ta l io n iz a tio n depends a t l e a s t in
p a r t on th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l ty p e , th e m en tal s t a b i l i t y , and
th e in d iv id u a l s e n s i t i v i t y o f th e p a t ie n t (53*625)* They
e x p la in f u r th e r t h a t n e u r o tic s do n o t respond w e ll to a i r
io n iz a tio n tre a tm e n t. I f r e l i e f from symptoms does o c c u r,
i t i s alm o st alw ays n o ted w ith in te n to t h i r t y m in u tes o f
th e s t a r t of th e io n iz a tio n s e s s io n s .
E x tra o rd in a ry exam ples o f r e l i e f from p o lli n o s is
w ere n o ted by K ornblueh, P i e r s o l , and S p eic h er (55)* In
environm ents o f n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d a i r l e v e l s , w hich ranged
betw een 1200 and 2600 io n s p er c c . , a group o f 54- p a t ie n t s
were t r e a t e d . Of t h i s group 6 2 .9 # re c e iv e d p a r t i a l t o
com plete r e l i e f . P s y c h o lo g ic a l in flu e n c e s were ru le d out
by c a r e f u l placem ent and concealm ent o f th e a p p a ra tu s
used in th e e x p e rim e n ts. P a tie n ts re p o rte d no r e l i e f from
p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n . The a u th o rs s ta te d :
H undreds o f in d iv id u a ls have been exposed, a t
d i f f e r e n t tim e s , to s in g le and re p e a te d exposures o f
a few m in u tes to many hours d u r a tio n w ith o u t d ev elo p
ing untow ard symptoms. The h ig h p e rc e n ta g e of p a t ie n t s
who e x p e rien ce d s u b je c tiv e and o b je c tiv e improvement
a f t e r exposure to n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n h o ld s g r e a t
p ro m ise. ( 55*26)
23
D avid, M in eh art, and K ornblueh in v e s tig a te d th e
use o f n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n as a th e ra p e u tic a d ju n c t in th e
tre a tm e n t of b u rn s. They s ta te d ; " I t was noted th a t a
s u b s ta n tia l number of p a tie n ts w ith th e rm a l burns of a l l
d e g re e s , who were su b je c te d to n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n s h o r tly
upon a r r i v a l in th e a c c id e n t w ard, re q u ire d none or much
sm a lle r amounts of n a r c o tic s th a n th o se tr e a te d p re v io u s ly
w ith o u t ionization** (3 6 ; 112).
A lso noted d u rin g th e s e s tu d ie s was th e marked
d e o d o riz in g e f f e c t produced by th e io n iz a tio n tre a tm e n ts
(6 9 ). O ther im p o rta n t b e n e f its a s c rib e d to t h i s tre a tm e n t
were a low ering o f lo c a l in f e c tio n , and ra p id d ry in g of
th e burned a re a s .
In th e S o v ie t U nion, e x te n siv e re s e a rc h concerning
io n iz a tio n has been u n d ertak en . M alysheva-K raskevich, fo r
exam ple, re p o rte d th a t most of th e u su a l problem s of th e
mouth commonly a re tr e a te d in th a t c o u n try w ith io n iz ed
a i r over extended p e rio d s (6 4 ). A p p lic a tio n p e rio d s were
re p o rte d to extend fo r ap p ro x im ately f i f t e e n m in u tes, fo r
tw enty to tw e n ty -fiv e c o n se c u tiv e days. The r e s u l t i s th e
g e n e ra l s tim u la tio n of h e a lin g p ro c e s s e s , p a r ti c u l a r l y
th o se wounds o f th e face and mouth. A nother r e s u l t of
io n iz a tio n tre a tm e n ts w hich he re p o rte d i s a r i s e of
e ry th ro c y te count, as w e ll as a r i s e in hem oglobin c o n te n t.
S ilverm an and K ornblueh noted changes in
24
en cep h alo g rap h ic alp h a waves in p erso n s who have been sub
je c te d to c o n d itio n s of io n iz e d a i r o f e i t h e r p o l a r i t y
(8 0 ). These a u th o rs commented on a tr a n q u iliz in g e f f e c t
w hich seems t o appear in p a t ie n t s exposed to n e g a tiv e
io n iz a tio n .
P rey attem p ted to fo rm u la te a r a t i o n a l fram ework
f o r th e in t e r p r e t a t i o n of b e h a v io ra l e f f e c t s w hich a re due
t o atm o sp h eric io n s (9 1 ). The h y p o th e sis he p re se n te d
e x p la in s th e s e e f f e c t s by c o r r e la tin g them w ith e s ta b lis h e d
a d re n a l c o rte x fu n c tio n s . S i m i l a r i t i e s betw een n e g a tiv e
io n and g lu c o -c o rtic o id e f f e c t s and p o s itiv e io n and
m in e ra lo -c o rtic o id e f f e c t s a re th e b a s is f o r th e h y p o th e sis.
The h y p o th e sis th e n i s H. . . t h a t n e g a tiv e io n s s tim u la te
th e s e c r e tio n o f th e g lu c o - c o r tic o id s , and p o s itiv e io n s
e i t h e r s tim u la te th e s e c r e tio n of th e m in e ra lo - c o r tic o ld s
or i n h i b i t th e g lu c o -c o rtic o id s e c r e t i o n .”
Summary. — B io -m ed ical re s e a rc h has shown ev id en ce of
a number of e f f e c t s of io n iz e d a i r on liv in g organism s.
Animal grow th and a c t i v i t y i s a c c e le r a te d , c a n ce r tum or
grow th i s r e ta r d e d , tr a c h e a l c i l i a r y r a t e s and fu n c tio n s
a re a l t e r e d , and b a c te r ia a re k i l l e d . I n humans, n e g a tiv e
io n iz a tio n has been shown to p ro v id e r e l i e f from p o llin o -
s l s , produce a low ering of blood p re s s u re and c h ro n a x ia ,
and p ro v id e e f f e c tiv e tre a tm e n t f o r p a t ie n t s w ith th e rm a l
b u rn s.
25
A Siimmarv o f I o n iz a tio n S tu d ie s and
Motor Perform ance
I t i s im m ediately a p p a re n t when rev iew in g th e
re s e a rc h l i t e r a t u r e in t h i s a re a t h a t v e ry l i t t l e has been
p u b lish ed concern in g th e e f f e c t s of io n iz e d a i r on man’ s
m otor perform ance. In fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e perform ance of
man in a h e a lth y s t a t e i s a ls o la c k in g s in c e much o f th e
em phasis in io n iz a tio n s tu d ie s has had m edical su p p o rt and
d ir e c tio n . The fo llo w in g d is c u s s io n i s lim ite d , th e r e f o r e ,
to a c o n s id e ra tio n of th o se s tu d ie s w hich r e le v a n tly b ear
upon th e p re s e n t stu d y w hich was lim ite d to th e e f f e c t of
io n iz a tio n on motor perform ance.
McGurk in v e s tig a te d th e e f f e c t s o f io n iz a tio n on
sim ple m a n ip u la tiv e ta s k s in 1957 (67)* Ten male c o lle g e
s tu d e n ts were p laced under p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n
c o n c e n tra tio n s of ap p ro x im ately 8000 io n s p e r cc . o f a i r .
N a tu ra l room a i r was used as a c o n tro l m easure. The work
ta s k s in v o lv ed were th e p la c in g of f iv e d i f f e r e n t l y
c o lo re d ir o n w ashers on a sta n d a rd 5/16 in ch b o l t , in a
m o d erately com plex p a tte r n . A fte r th e w ashers were in
p la c e , th e s u b je c ts were to f a s te n them s e c u re ly . When th e
ta s k s were com pleted, each was in sp e c te d and th e sc o re con
s is te d o f th e number of p ro p e rly com pleted p ie c e s minus
th e number of im p ro p erly com pleted p ie c e s . Score computa
tio n s were made ev ery f i f t e e n m in u tes. The s u b je c ts
26
worked f o r a one h o ar p e rio d d u rin g each s e s s io n .
The mean sc o re f o r th e n e g a tiv e s e s s io n s was th e
h ig h e s t, b ein g 6 3 .0 2 , w h ile th e c o n tro l was 62.45 and th e
mean f o r th e p o s itiv e s e s s io n s was 6 1 .8 1 . A s t a t i s t i c a l
a n a ly s is showed no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s among th e th re e
c o n d itio n s . T em perature and h u m id ity were n o t c o n tr o lle d ,
and i t was re p o rte d t h a t th e s e c o n d itio n s were o fte n
u n co m fo rtab le w ith r e l a t i v e h u m id ity o fte n b ein g 100 p er
c e n t and te m p e ra tu re s g e n e r a lly above 8 5 ° F. I t w as,
th e r e f o r e , d i f f i c u l t to a t t r i b u t e c r e d i t f o r th e sm all
d if f e r e n c e s w hich o ccu rred t o io n iz a tio n . The stu d y was
done d u rin g th e summer m onths.
K n o ll, R h e ln s te ln , L eonard, and H ighberg I n v e s ti
g ated th e e f f e c t s o f io n iz e d a i r on v is u a l r e a c tio n tim e
(9 4 ). S e v e ra l hundred s u b je c ts were te s te d w ith in atm os
p h e re s o f p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n as w e ll as
under norm al atm o sp h eric a i r c o n d itio n s . Io n d e n s itie s
ranged betw een 1,000 and 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 io n s p e r c c . o f a i r .
Three h a lf- h o u r t e s t i n g p e rio d s in th e o rd e r o f p o s it iv e ,
n e g a tiv e , and p o s itiv e a g a in w ere s e p a ra te d by h a lf-h o u r
nnorm alH p e rio d s in w hich no io n s were g e n e ra te d . T his
p ro ced u re to o k a t o t a l o f th r e e and o n e -h a lf hours to
com plete.
Ten m easurem ents w ere ta k e n of th e s u b j e c t 's
r e a c tio n tim e a t in te r v a ls o f f iv e m in u tes. The d a ta
27
shewed c o n s id e ra b le v a r i a t i o n w hich reach ed a maximum of
ab o u t 13 p e r c e n t, and ap p eared random . The in fo rm a tio n
was p lo tte d as cu rv es w hich w ere compared s t a t i s t i c a l l y
iw lth th o s e p lo tte d f o r norm al atm o sp h eric c o n d itio n s . The
:fo llo w in g r e s u l t s w ere found: (1 ) io n is a ti o n e f f e c t s on
1
r e a c tio n tim e , b o th p o s it iv e and n e g a tiv e , a r e v e ry s m a ll, |
(2 ) in c re a s e s and d e c re a s e s in r e a c tio n tim e were n o ted
a s th e r e s u l t o f b o th p o l a r i t i e s , and (3 ) io n s o f th e same
p o l a r i t y may even d e c re a se a p e r s o n 's r e a c tio n tim e and
in c re a s e i t f o r t h a t p erso n a few h o u rs l a t e r . The io n
e f f e c t s were lik e n e d to th o se produced by th e a p p lic a tio n
of c o ffe e or to b acco a s e x p e rim e n ta l v a r ia b le s .
In a l a t e r s e r i e s o f ex p erim en ts by th e same in v e s ti
g a to r s , i t was found t h a t th e r e w ere s i g n i f i c a n t changes
in r e a c tio n tim e a f t e r in h a la t io n o f io n iz e d a i r o f e i t h e r
p o l a r i t y , b u t no p r e d ic tio n a s to in c re a s e s or d e c re a s e s
could be made. The r e a c tio n t e s t , as in th e p re v io u s ly
m entioned e x p e rim e n ts, was th e s ta n d a rd key l i f t t e s t in
w hich th e s u b je c t r e a c ts to a v i s u a l s tim u lu s by r e le a s in g
a d e p ressed key a s q u ic k ly a s p o s s ib le . F iv e t e s t s w ere
g iv en e v e ry f iv e m in u te s, and th e f iv e s c o re s were av erag ed
and re c o rd e d . E xperim ents c o n s is te d of ab o u t tw elve s e ts
of f iv e r e a c tio n t r i a l s , l a s t i n g ab o u t tw elv e m inutes in
a l l .
D uring th e t e s t s , th e io n g e n e ra to rs w ere on f o r
28
two p e rio d s o f ab o u t th r e e m in u tes e a c h , and o ff f o r th e
same tim e . S t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s were p lo tte d from
th e d a ta and w ere th e n compared to r e s u l t s o f t e s t s when
no io n s were a r t i f i c i a l l y g e n e ra te d . S e v e ra l o f th e
p lo tte d d i s t r i b u t i o n cu rv es had bim odal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in
c o n t r a s t t o th e s in g le peaks p lo tte d f o r norm al a i r co n d i
tio n s .
A g ain , p o s itiv e io n s som etim es in c re a se d or
d e c re a se d r e a c tio n tim e as was tr u e f o r n e g a tiv e io n s . No
p r e d ic tio n co u ld be made as to w hether r e a c tio n tim e would
be in c re a se d or d ec re ase d even though s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f
ic a n t d if f e r e n c e s in th e p lo tte d d i s t r i b u t i o n s d id o ccu r.
Of s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t i s th e f a c t t h a t d i f f e r e n t c o n c e n tra
tio n s o f a r t i f i c i a l l y g e n e ra te d io n s have d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t s
becau se as c o n c e n tra tio n s d e c re a s e d , th e m easured r e a c tio n
tim e d e c re a se d . A nother im p o rta n t fin d in g was th a t f o r
th e e f f e c t s to occur as d e s c rib e d , th e io n s had to be
in h a le d th ro u g h th e mouth and n o t th ro u g h th e n o se. D is
t r i b u ti o n s f o r r e a c tio n tim e w ith io n s b ein g in h a le d
th ro u g h th e nose were n e a rly i d e n t i c a l w ith th o se fo r
norm al a tm o sp h eric c o n d itio n s .
Minkh f i r s t d e s c rib e d work by two of h is co-w orkers
and th e n h is own in v e s tig a tio n s w ith re g a rd to th e e f f e c t
of io n iz e d a i r on th e work c a p a c ity o f sportsm en (9 9 ).
He c r e d ite d L epekhina w ith d eterm in in g a s tim u la tin g e f f e c t
on work o a p a c ity , w eig h t l i f t i n g , and s ta tio n a r y c y c lin g
by th e a p p lic a tio n o f p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n * Lepekhina
found t h a t n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n produced no fa v o ra b le
e f f e c t s . A ll o f th e ex p erim en ts were conducted under con
d itio n s of low io n iz a tio n . K havklna, a s re p o rte d by M lnkh,
used s im ila r p ro ced u res b u t a p p lie d h ig h e r io n c o n c e n tra
t io n s . He s tu d ie d th e e f f e c t o f io n iz e d a i r on m uscular
a c t i v i t y by u sin g an erg o g rap h to m easure th e work done
i n a f in g e r l i f t t e s t w ith lo ad s o f 3 to 5 kg. a t a r a t e
o f one movement p er second u n t i l com plete f a tig u e . In
t h i s in s ta n c e , n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n was n o ted to produce an
in c re a s e d s ta y in g power a s compared to c o n tro l c o n d itio n s .
I n Mlnkh1s own in v e s tig a tio n s , te s tin g p e rio d s were
n o t d i r e c t l y connected w ith th e p h y s ic a l work perform ed.
The in h a la tio n s e s s io n s of f i f t e e n m inute d u ra tio n s were
h e ld each morning fo r tw e n ty -fiv e d a y s, and t h e i r e f f e c t s
were d eterm in ed n in e to te n days and tw e n ty -fiv e to
tw e n ty -s ix days a f t e r io n iz a tio n s e s s io n s began. Io n iz a
t i o n l e v e l s , n e g a tiv e in p o l a r i t y , were 1 .5 m illio n p er c c .
of a i r . S e v e ra l s e r ie s o f ex p erim en ts were c a r r ie d o u t.
Two k in d s o f t e s t s were a d m in iste re d to tw e n ty -fo u r
male s u b je c ts ; th e s e in c lu d ed b o th s t a t i c and dynamic
work. The s t a t i c work was reco rd ed by th e le n g th o f tim e
a m odified hand dynamometer could be h eld com pressed.
A fte r th e f i r s t n in e d a y s, p r a c t i c a l l y no change o c c u rre d ,
30
w hereas fcy th e end o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l p e r io d , s t a t i c
endurance had Improved toy 46 p e r c e n t on th e av e ra g e . Con
t r o l group a v e ra g es a c t u a l l y d e c re a se d . Dynamic w ork,
w hich was a m easure o f ru n n in g In p la c e a t th e speed of
180 s te p s p e r m inute u n t i l com plete f a t i g u e , showed
in c re a s e s o f 5 9 .5 p er c e n t a f t e r n in e days and 87 p er c e n t
a t th e end of th e te s t in g regim en. No c o n tr o l co m p ariso n s,
how ever, were made in th e dynamic work t e s t s .
A second s e r ie s o f e x p e rim e n ts, s im ila r to th o se
above, b u t made on e ig h te e n g ir 1 - s tu d e n ts who were h ig h ly
s k il le d in t r a c k - a n d - f ie l d , were d e s c rib e d . S t a t i c work
of m a in ta in in g th e hand dynamometer com pressed showed a
33 p e r c e n t av erag e in c re a s e a f t e r n in e d a y s , and an a v e r
age in c re a s e o f 192 p er c e n t a t th e end o f th e regim en.
These r e s u l t s d if f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th o se of th e
c o n tro ls who showed no change a f t e r n in e days and a 40 p er
c e n t in c re a s e a t th e end o f th e regim en. Endurance on
dynamic work was d eterm in ed from e x e rc is e s on a b ic y c le
erg o m eter. A fte r n in e days th e av erag e in c re a s e was 86 p e r
c e n t w ith 240 p er c e n t o c c u rrin g a f t e r th e tw e n ty -fiv e day
p e rio d . These r e s u l t s a g a in d if f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from
th o se of th e c o n tro ls w hich in c re a se d by 8 and 24 p er c e n ts
r e s p e c tiv e ly .
P a r a l l e l s tu d ie s were a l s o u n d e rta k e n to d eterm in e
th e e f f e c t s of n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n on g r ip s tr e n g th ,
31
v is u a l r e a c tio n tim e , and b alan c in g (o r th e a b i l i t y to
m a in ta in e q u ilib riu m in p o s itio n s o f v ary in g d i f f i c u l t y ) .
G rip s tr e n g th in c re a s e s of ap p ro x im ately 16 per c e n t were
found a f t e r tw e n ty -fiv e d ay s. The c o n tro l gro u p , how ever,
in c re a se d n e a rly as much, th a t being 11 p er c e n t. R e a c tio n
tim e, under n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n , in c re a se d on th e average
by 16 p er c e n t w hereas th a t of th e c o n tro l group d ecreased
by 1 .5 p er c e n t. In c re a s e s in e q u ilib riu m tim e were noted
w hich were as h ig h as 393 p er c e n t w h ile th e h ig h e s t con
t r o l group in c re a s e was 82 p er c e n t.
De V ries and K la fs in v e s tig a te d th e ergogenic
e f f e c ts of io n iz e d a i r (9 0 ). F o rty - f iv e c o lle g e s u b je c ts ,
tw enty-one male and tw e n ty -fo u r fem ale, were te s te d fo r
maximal endurance in b en c h -step p in g onto a tw en ty -in c h
bench a t th e r a te o f 36 s te p s p er m inute. A ll s u b je c ts
were te s te d fo u r tim e s , in each of th e fo u r e x p e rim en ta l
c o n d itio n s employed in th e stu d y . These c o n d itio n s were
n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n , p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n , p laceb o m achine,
and a c o n tro l where no d ev ice was p re s e n t a t a l l .
L ength of exposure to io n iz e d or n a tu r a l a i r was
f i f t e e n m in u tes; t h i s was follow ed by im m ediate e x e rc is e
b o u ts. Io n le v e ls were m easured a t a d is ta n c e o f tw elve
in ch es in f r o n t of th e g e n e ra to rs and proved to be 225,000
to 450,000 io n s p er c c . of a i r in b o th n e g a tiv e and p o s itiv e
s e s s io n s . S u b je c ts were c lo th e d in c o tto n wear and were
32
grounded to p rev en t th e c o lle c tio n of s u rfa c e ch arg es in
o rd er to en su re c o n s ta n t io n iz a tio n le v e ls .
None o f th e d e riv e d mean d if fe re n c e s ach iev ed s ig
n if ic a n c e a t th e .05 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e. I t was o b serv ed ,
how ever, th a t th e mean d if fe re n c e s fo r th e tw en ty -fo u r
women s u b je c ts were in th e d ir e c tio n p re d ic te d by th e
e x p e rim e n te rs' h y p o th e s is , t h a t being an improved endurance
sco re should be expected under c o n d itio n s of n e g a tiv e ly
io n iz ed a i r .
C h ile s , C lev elan d , and Fox in v e s tig a te d th e behav
i o r a l a s p e c ts r e s u ltin g from th e a p p lic a tio n of io n iz ed
a i r (3 4 ). E xcesses of u n ip o la r io n s were used as e x p e ri
m en tal v a r ia b le s fo r a com plex m ental ta s k , a v ig ila n c e
t a s k , and m easures of a t t i t u d e s . P o s itiv e io n le v e ls were
as h ig h as 26,000 io n s p er cc. of a i r w h ile n e g a tiv e io n
le v e ls were as h ig h as 21,000 io n s p er c c . of a i r . F if te e n
s u b je c ts were d iv id e d in to f iv e groups o f th re e s u b je c ts
each fo r te s tin g pu rp o ses in a m odified L atin -S q u are
m a trix . A c c lim a tiz a tio n p e rio d s o f one h o u r, in w hich th e
s u b je c ts were exposed to io n iz e d a i r , preceded th e t e s tin g
p e rio d s w hich were of an h o u r 's d u ra tio n .
In th e experim ent d e a lin g w ith th e measurement of
a t t i t u d e s , two m a n ip u la tiv e ta s k s were u n d erta k en . The
f i r s t was a L ight-Sequence Task w hich re q u ire d th e s u b je c t
t o p re s s b u tto n s to illu m in a te a s e r ie s of l i g h t b u lb s in
33
a p ro p er sequence. The second was a B a ll- a n d - S p ira l Task
w hich re q u ire d th e s u b je c t to m an ip u late a h e l i c a l s p i r a l
g ro o v e, mounted on a b a s e , so t h a t a g o lf b a l l p la ced a t
th e bottom would be made to clim b to th e to p of th e s p i r a l
i f th e c o rn e rs of th e b ase were l i f t e d a c c u r a te ly and in
th e c o r r e c t sequence.
The use of th e s e m a n ip u la tiv e ta s k s in th e stu d y
a p p a re n tly was n o t t o o b ta in o b je c tiv e d a ta fo r a n a ly s is ,
b u t m erely a s an a tte n tio n - h o ld in g maneuver w h ile io n iz a
t i o n was b ein g a d m in is te re d p r io r to th e a t t i t u d e t e s t i n g .
None o f th e d if f e r e n c e s found among th e io n c o n d itio n s f o r
th e s e t e s t s was s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t .
S lo te conducted s tu d ie s of sim ple v is u a l r e a c tio n
tim e , f in g e r ta p p in g , and f l i c k e r fu s io n d is c rim in a tio n
on s ix te e n male s u b je c ts whose ages ranged betw een tw en ty -
fo u r and f i f t y - s i x y e a rs (1 0 3 ). I o n iz a tio n le v e ls of
20,000 sm all io n s p er c c . of a i r of b o th p o l a r i t i e s were
used as e x p e rim e n ta l c o n d itio n s . Normal atm o sp h eric a i r
was in c o rp o ra te d as a c o n tr o l. Each of th e a c c lim a tiz a tio n
s e s s io n s w ere o f f i f t e e n m inute d u r a tio n s .
R e a c tio n tim e was m easured by th e M a rie tta A pparatus
u sin g a v is u a l s tim u lu s . F in g e r ta p p in g was m easured as a
t e s t of apeed of movement w hich was re co rd ed as th e number
of ta p s w hich co u ld be produced in te n and s ix t y second
p e rio d s . L in d q u is t's " tre a tm e n ts x s u b je c ts te c h n iq u e " of
34
a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e was a p p lie d as th e s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t
m ent. For r e a c tio n tim e , s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s o ccu rred
betw een a l l o f th e p o s s ib le com binations a t th e .05 le v e l
o f c o n fid e n c e . The s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is of th e te n second
f in g e r ta p p in g t e s t as a fu n c tio n of th e io n c o n d itio n s
f a i l e d to re a c h s ig n if ic a n c e . An a d d itio n a l f in g e r ta p p in g
t e s t o f s ix t y second d u ra tio n s was employed and i t was
found t h a t d if f e r e n c e s betw een n e g a tiv e and n a tu r a l a i r
means were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 le v e l of c o n fid e n ce.
From th e in fo rm a tio n d isc u sse d above, th e a u th o r
concluded th a t io n p o l a r i t y c o n s titu te d a s ig n i f i c a n t
so u rce of v a ria n c e in a l l t e s t s employed ex c ep t th e te n
second f in g e r tap p in g t e s t . The t e s t s used th en were
c o n sid e re d s u f f i c i e n t l y s e n s itiv e to d e te c t th e e f f e c t s of
io n iz e d a i r .
Summary. —R e a c tio n tim e , speed of movement, and
s tr e n g th and endurance have been a l te r e d by th e a c tio n of
io n iz e d a i r . F u rth e rm o re, p e rio d s of io n iz a tio n a p p lic a
t io n of f i f t e e n m in u tes a p p e a r, in th e s tu d ie s rev iew ed ,
to be long enough to produce s i g n i f i c a n t changes in th e s e
m otor perform ance elem e n ts.
CHAPTER I I I
PROCEDURE
The purpose o f th e stu d y was to d eterm in e w hether
or n o t th e a p p lic a tio n of environm ents o f io n iz e d a i r
would r e s u l t in changes in human p h y s ic a l p erfo rm an ce.
M easurem ents were made o f r e a c tio n tim e , movement tim e ,
a c cu ra c y o f planned movement, s te a d in e s s , and g r ip s tr e n g th
under c o n d itio n s o f norm al a i r , p o s it iv e l y io n iz e d a i r ,
and n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d a i r .
S u b je c ts
The same tw e n ty -fo u r s u b je c ts p a r tic ip a t e d in each
In v e s tig a tio n * T h e ir ages ranged from f i f t e e n y e a rs to
e ig h te e n y e a rs and t h e i r c la s s placem ents ranged from h ig h
sch o o l sophomores to c o lle g e freshm en. Tw enty-tw o o f th e
s u b je c ts were s e le c te d from th e male s tu d e n t body o f
S outh Pasadena High S chool w h ile th e rem ain in g two w ere
freshm en a t Q lendale C o lle g e . T h irte e n s u b je c ts w ere h ig h
sc h o o l s e n io r s , s ix w ere h ig h sc h o o l ju n i o r s , and th r e e
w ere h ig h sc h o o l sophom ores.
S e le c tio n o f s u b je c ts . — T hree members o f th e coach
in g s t a f f a t S outh Pasadena High S chool w ere s e le c te d as a
p a n e l o f e x p e rts f o r th e purpose o f choosing th e
35
tw e n ty -fo u r o u tsta n d in g s t u d e n t- a t h l e t e s . The members of
th e coaching s t a f f w ere cho sen because t h e i r backgrounds
i n p h y s ic a l e d u c a tio n and a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t i e s were b o th
e x te n s iv e and e x c e lle n t an d , in a d d itio n , t h e i r in tim a te
knowledge of th e a t h l e t i c a b i l i t i e s a p p a re n t w ith in th e
s tu d e n t body p ro v id ed th e m ost a c c u ra te a p p r a is a ls of
s tu d e n t a b i l i t y .
The p a n e l o f ju d g es was in s tr u c te d t o make t h e i r
c h o ic e s on th e b a s is o f th e fo llo w in g c r i t e r i a s (1 ) th e
v e r s a t i l i t y in p r io r a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t i e s , d is re g a rd in g age
a s much as p o s s ib le ; (2 ) e x p e rtn e s s in a t l e a s t one a c t i v
i t y ; and (3 ) p e rs o n a l r e l i a b i l i t y or d e p e n d a b ility of th e
s tu d e n ts . S p e c ia l em phasis was p la ced upon th e making of
u n b iased d e c is io n s ab o u t a t h l e t i c a b i l i t y w ith o u t allo w in g
o th e r f a c to r s to c o lo r th e c h o ic e s .
The in d iv id u a l c h o ic e s o f th e p a n e l w ere compared
and a l l th e names m entioned tw ic e or more w ere l i s t e d
a g a in . A fte r t h i s p ro c e s s was co m p leted , th e p a n e l c o l l e c
t i v e l y an a ly se d th e l i s t to rev iew th e s u i t a b i l i t y of a l l
th o se l i s t e d . T h e ir f i n a l s e le c tio n s were th e n a c ce p te d
a s th o se who met or exceeded a l l o f th e c r i t e r i a l i s t e d
above. Only tw en ty -tw o o f th o se co n sid e re d from th e h ig h
sch o o l co u ld m eet th e c r i t e r i a s e t up. The rem aining two
s u b je c ts were th e n chosen in th e same manner from r e c e n t
h ig h sc h o o l g ra d u a te s in n e a rb y c o lle g e s .
37
A th le te s w ere s e le c te d in p re fe re n c e to n o n - a th le te s
becau se o f t h e i r in n a te ly g r e a t e r r e l i a b i l i t y in m otor
a c t i v i t i e s . I t was f e l t t h a t th e p r io r e x p e rie n c e and
e x te n s iv e p r i o r tr a in in g w hich a t h l e t e s in v a r ia b ly have
would r e s u l t in an e f f e c t iv e re d u c tio n of th e number o f
b ro a d ly v a r ia b le perform ances w hich a re commonly a s s o c ia te d
w ith s u b je c ts o f v e ry lim ite d a t h l e t i c tr a in in g backgrounds.
In a d d itio n , i t was b e lie v e d t h a t i t would r e q u ir e le s s
tim e f o r th e s u b je c ts , being a t h l e t e s , to become a c q u a in te d
w ith th e e x p e rim e n ta l p ro c ed u res and equipm ent and th u s
a r r iv e a t a s u ita b le le v e l o f com petence e a r l i e r .
P re p a ra tio n o f s u b je c ts . —Bach of th e tw e n ty -fo u r
s u b je c ts , a l l b ein g m in o rs, was in s tr u c te d t o se c u re p e r
m issio n from h is p a re n ts t o p a r t i c i p a t e in th e in v e s tig a
tio n s . Bach was c a r e f u l l y o rie n te d co n cern in g th e s a f e ty
of th e p ro ced u re s to be u n d erta k en and was to ld t h a t th e
la c k o f p a r e n ta l a p p ro v a l a u to m a tic a lly would p re v e n t h is
p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e stu d y . A fte r p e rm issio n had been
g ra n te d f o r a l l tw e n ty -fo u r s u b je c ts , th e y were c a r e f u l ly
b r ie f e d on th e e x p e rim e n ta l p ro ced u res In v o lv ed in th e
t e s tin g program .
The s u b je c ts were g iv e n a p e rio d o f one week to
p r a c tic e and become th o ro u g h ly a c q u a in te d w ith th e eq u ip
ment th e y were to u se . Care was ta k e n to r e g u la te t h e i r
p r a c tic e tim e w ith each p ie c e o f equipm ent so t h a t each
s u b je c t had v e ry n e a rly th e same d u r a tio n o f p r e - te s t in g
p ra c tic e * F in a lly , th e s u b je c ts were p o lle d in o rd e r to
d eterm in e co n v e n ien t tim es f o r t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n w hich
would n o t c o n f l i c t w ith a t h l e t i c p r a c tic e s or leag u e
sc h ed u le s and s t i l l rem ain w ith in th e d i c t a t e s of th e
d e s ig n o f th e stu d y . W ith t h i s in fo rm a tio n a t hand, a
te s t i n g sch ed u le was drawn up and d i s t r ib u t e d .
Grouping o f s u b je c ts . — S u b je c ts w ere a s sig n e d t o
e x p e rim e n ta l s e c tio n s a t random. The t o t a l o f tw e n ty -fo u r
s u b je c ts was d iv id e d in to s i x s e c tio n s , each s e c tio n con
ta in in g fo u r s u b je c ts . The s i x s e c tio n s were th e n
a s s ig n e d , a g a in a t random , to th e t e s tin g sch ed u le and t o
th e o rd er o f e x p e rim e n ta l en v iro n m en ts. Only one change
had to be made in th e random ness j u s t d e s c rib e d ; t h i s con
s is te d of allo w in g th e two s u b je c ts who w ere c o lle g e
s tu d e n ts to be p laced in th e same s e c tio n because t h e i r
sc h ed u les d if f e r e d m arkedly from th o se o f th e h ig h sc h o o l
s tu d e n ts .
E x p erim en tal D esign
Each in v e s tig a tio n in v o lv ed a s im p le , b alan ced
d e s ig n in w hich each s u b je c t a c te d as h is own c o n tr o l w ith
r e s p e c t to tre a tm e n ts and o rd e r. However, s in c e a c e r t a i n
amount of g a in in perform ance was a n tic ip a te d due to p ra c
t i c e w h ile te s ti n g in e x p e rim e n ta l a s w e ll as c o n tr o l
39
en v iro n m e n ts, th e s i x s e c tio n s were a rran g ed In a c o u n te r
balan ced b o rd e r. I t was assumed t h a t th e c o u n te rb a la n c in g
of th e te s t i n g o rd e r would o f f s e t th e e f f e c t of p r a c tic e
a s th e program p ro g re sse d .
Order o f en v iro n m en ts. — Three environm ents were
In c o rp o ra te d In th e s tu d y . They in c lu d e d : (1 ) a i r w ith a
la rg e q u a n tity o f p o s it iv e l y charged a i r Io n s a r t i f i c i a l l y
In tro d u c e d ; (2 ) a i r w ith a la rg e q u a n tity o f n e g a tiv e ly
charged a i r io n s In tro d u c e d ; and (3 ) norm al atm o sp h eric
a i r . The arrangem ent o f en v iro n m e n ta l v a r ia b le s may be
seen In F ig u re 1 w hich i l l u s t r a t e s th e s i x p o s s ib le o rd e rs
t o w hich th e s i x s e c tio n s were a s sig n e d a t random.
S chedule o f a s sig n m e n ts. — The s i x s e c tio n s w ere
a ssig n e d to th e t e s tin g sc h ed u le a t random. S p e c ific t e s t
in g h o u rs w ere chosen—6 :1 5 P.M. and 7:15 P.M. T his hour
provided an o p p o rtu n ity f o r th e s u b je c ts t o have t h e i r
evening m eal p r io r to t e s t i n g and th e y w ere in s tr u c te d to
do so . A lso , th e s ta n d a r d iz a tio n of h o u rs o f t e s tin g was
used a s a method o f c o n tr o llin g th e d iu r n a l v a r ia tio n s
w hich o fte n c h a r a c te r iz e m otor p erfo rm an ces. The com plete
arrangem ent o f th e t e s t i n g sch ed u le i s shown In F ig u re 2.
There was b u t one e x c e p tio n t o th e p a t te r n o f random ness
in d ic a te d . I t was deemed d e s ir a b le to b e g in th e te s t i n g
under c o n d itio n s o f n a tu r a l a i r because th e p ro c e ss o f
m easuring io n iz a tio n le v e ls i s a co m p licated one. A lthough
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p re v io u s t e s t s were made to s ta n d a rd iz e th e io n m easuring
p ro c e d u re , th e p r a c tic e w hich was o b ta in ed d u rin g th e f i r s t
t e s tin g p e rio d gave v a lu a b le p ro c e d u ra l c lu e s re g a rd in g
p o s s ib le f u tu r e problem s when a l l fo u r o f th e s u b je c ts
w ere p re s e n t a t th e same tim e . Care was ta k e n to c o n c e a l
th e f a c t t h a t no a c tu a l m easurings o f io n iz a tio n le v e ls
w ere being undertaken* The su c c e ss o f p ro ceed in g w ith
th e s e p re c a u tio n s was v e r i f i e d a f t e r a l l t e s tin g was com
p le te d ; when s u b je c ts w ere q u e s tio n e d , i t was found t h a t
none o f them was even aware t h a t th e r e was more th a n one
en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n In v o lv ed in th e stu d y .
S t a t i s t i c a l d e s ig n . —Each o f th e s e p a ra te i n v e s t i
g a tio n s was tr e a te d in an i d e n t i c a l m anner. The d e s ig n o f
th e in v e s tig a tio n s in c o rp o ra te d th e use o f th e a n a ly s is o f
v a ria n c e te c h n iq u e w hich has th e e f f e c t o f h o ld in g th e
v a ria n c e betw een th e s u b je c ts c o n s ta n t w h ile p ro v id in g a
t e s t o f th e v a ria n c e r e s u lt in g from th e d if f e r e n c e s c r e a te d
by th e e x p e rim e n ta l en v iro n m en ts. By u sin g th e d e s ig n j u s t
d e s c rib e d , a more u s e f u l and more s p e c if ic h y p o th e s is , a
n u l l h y p o th e s is , may be fo rm u la te d . The d if f e r e n c e s
betw een means o b ta in ed f o r th e e x p e rim e n ta l environm ents
have o ccu rred as th e r e s u l t o f mere chance and th u s do n o t
d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from z e ro t o r e p r e s e n t a n y th in g o th e r
th a n random sam pling f l u c tu a tio n s . I t was d ec id ed t h a t i f
th e o b ta in ed d if f e r e n c e s reach ed th e .0 5 le v e l of
43
c o n fid e n c e , th e n u ll h y p o th e sis would tie ac ce p ted a s te n
a b le . I f th e n u l l h y p o th e sis were found to be u n te n a b le ,
th e a p p r o p r ia te t e s t s o f s ig n ific a n c e would be a p p lie d to
d eterm in e w hich e x p e rim e n ta l environm ents e x e rte d th e
in flu e n c e .
E ^ .er iffle q ^ Apparatus
Two ty p e s o f a p p a ra tu s were used in t h i s stu d y .
The f i r s t ty p e pro v id ed th e means f o r g e n e ra tin g th e io n s
w hich w ere added t o th e atm osphere o f th e te s ti n g chamber
and th e means f o r m easuring th e q u a n titie s o f io n s p ro
duced. The p ie c e s of equipm ent needed t o make th e s e d e t e r
m in a tio n s w ere: (1 ) th e io n g e n e ra to rs ; and (2) th e io n
c o u n te rs .
The second ty p e of a p p a ra tu s p ro v id ed th e d a ta fo r
th e t e s tin g phase of th e stu d y . These p ie c e s of equipm ent
in c lu d e d : ( l ) a reaction-m ovem ent tim e r; (2 ) a p u r s u it
r o t o r ; (3 ) a s te a d in e s s e r r o r c o u n te r; and (4) a hand
dynamometer.
Io n g e n e ra to r s . —Nine io n g e n e ra to rs were o b ta in ed
f o r th e stu d y by th e g enerous and g r e a t ly a p p re c ia te d lo a n
from th e Tubln E le c tr o n ic s Company o f Los A ngeles. The
g e n e ra to rs a re m arketed under th e name "Ion-O -M atic A ir
Im p ro v er," No. T-5000, and p ro v id e n e g a tiv e io n s e x c lu
s iv e ly . Upon r e q u e s t, th e g e n e ra to rs were m odified to
44
produce a c o n s id e ra b ly g r e a te r o u tp u t as w e ll as to p ro v id e
b o th p o l a r i t i e s of io n s , nam ely, p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e .
S e p a ra te g e n e ra to rs were secu red to produce th e d i f f e r e n t
p o l a r i t i e s , f iv e n e g a tiv e io n g e n e ra to rs and fo u r p o s itiv e
io n g e n e ra to rs . In a d d itio n , fo u r more g e n e ra to rs were
su p p lie d w hich were m odified i n t e r n a l l y so t h a t no io n s
were produced and only room a i r was c ir c u la te d . Each of
th e g e n e ra to rs had i d e n tic a l e x te r n a l ap p earan ces so t h a t
th e s u b je c ts were n o t a b le to n o te any d if fe re n c e s betw een
them. Each had fa n mechanisms w hich were v e ry n e a rly
id e n t i c a l and produced sounds w hich were in d is tin g u is h a b le
from one a n o th e r. Two r a te s o f fa n b lad e r o ta ti o n were
a v a ila b le and th e h ig h e r r a t e of r o ta ti o n was used in a l l
c a se s to ex h au st th e g r e a te r q u a n tity o f io n s . A b so lu te ly
no d if fe re n c e s could be d e te c te d in th e odor of th e a i r
exhausted by any of th e g e n e ra to rs . The g e n e ra to rs them
s e lv e s had an odor w hich i s c h a r a c te r i s t i c o f a l l e le c
tr o n ic equipm ent. However, t h i s was of l i t t l e im portance
because th e s u b je c ts were lim ite d to mouth b re a th in g only
by th e use of nose c l ip s .
The g e n e ra to rs o p erate on th e "corona d isc h a rg e
p r in c ip le " w ith c a r e f u lly re g u la te d power and c u rre n t
s u p p lie s to avoid th e p ro d u c tio n of unwanted b y -p ro d u cts
such as th e oxides of n itro g e n and ozone in p a r t i c u l a r .
P o te n tia l d iffe re n c e s betw een th e g e n e ra tin g elem ents and
45
th e p a ssin g a i r were so c o n tro lle d t h a t no v i s i b l e d i s
c h a rg e s o ccu rred and ozone p ro d u c tio n was k e p t to an
ex tre m ely low p e rc e n ta g e . A b s o lu te ly no odor o f ozone was
e v e r d e te c te d by any o f th o se p erso n s In v o lv ed In th e
I n v e s tig a tio n s a s f a r a s co u ld be d eterm in ed .
Io n c o u n te rs . —Two Io n c o u n te rs w ere employed in
th e stu d y . The f i r s t was a p o rta b le K e lth le y E le c tro m e te r
No. 200 wJ^ch was equipped w ith a B e c k e tt io n c u r r e n t
probe (8 8 ). The e le c tro m e te r u t i l i z e d a m lcrom icroam m eter
in c o n ju n c tio n w ith a c a lib r a te d sh u n t and p ro v id ed two
le v e ls o f s e n s i t i v i t y . The l e a s t s e n s itiv e s e ttin g was
used th ro u g h o u t th e in v e s tig a tio n s s in c e th e le v e ls o f
io n iz a tio n produced were so h ig h and th e m easurem ents were
made so c lo s e to th e g e n e ra to rs th a t th e more s e n s itiv e
s e t t i n g would cause an o f f - s c a le n ee d le d e f le c tio n . Both
p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e ch a rg e s could be m easured.
The B e c k e tt io n c u r r e n t probe i s a rem ovable rod
w hich te rm in a te s in a c i r c u la r m e ta l, c h a rg e -c o lle c tin g
e le c tr o d e . The e le c tro d e i s a d is c w ith a d ia m eter o f
one in c h and a th ic k n e s s o f a p p ro x im a te ly 1/32 in c h . I t s
circ u m feren ce i s b o rd ered by a heavy gauge m e tal rin g
w hich i s m ain tain ed e l e c t r i c a l l y n e u t r a l. The rin g i s
se p a ra te d from th e d is c by a p p ro x im a te ly 1/16 in c h and a l s o
a c ts to p r o te c t th e d is c from damage. The p ro b e 's rod I s
connected to th e body o f th e e le c tro m e te r by a plug and i s
46
th u s rem ovable to d is ta n c e s o f n e a rly fo u r f e e t . The rod
rem ained fix e d to th e body o f th e e l e c t r cane t e r d u rin g th e
p re s e n t I n v e s tig a tio n s . Heavy s h ie ld e d c a b le co n n e cts
th e e le c tro d e to th e e le c tro m e te r e l e c t r i c a l l y .
A ll d i a l re a d in g s d e riv e d from th e K e ith le y E le c
tro m e te r were p r e c is e ly c a lib r a te d w ith a Beckman m lc ro -
m icroam m eter w hich was equipped w ith a W esix P a r a l l e l
P la te Io n C o lle c to r . The c o l le c to r draws a i r in m etered
q u a n t itie s th ro u g h th e p la te s w here th e e l e c t r i c a l ch arg es
of th e a i r a r e d is c h a rg e d . The use o f th e Beckman and
W esix a p p a ra tu s was g e n e ro u sly p rovided by H u rley L.
M otley, M .D ., o f th e Good S am aritan H o s p ita l o f Los A ngelea
The K e ith le y E le c tro m e te r was pro v id ed by th e Tubln E le c
tr o n ic s Company in c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e io n g e n e ra to rs .
S in ce a l l th e io n le v e ls were m etered to a p re
determ ined n e e d le d e f le c tio n , only one c a l ib r a t i o n was
n e c e s s a ry and t h i s to o k p la c e im m ediately a f t e r a l l o f th e
t e s tin g s e s s io n s had been com pleted. The io n iz a tio n
le v e ls th u s d e riv e d w ere: (1) 12,360,000 p o s itiv e io n s
p e r c c . o f a i r ; and (2) 12,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 n e g a tiv e io n s per c c .
of a i r .
R eactlon-m ovem ent tim e r . —T his e le c tro m e c h a n ic a l
d ev ice was c o n s tru c te d so t h a t i t was s im ila r to th e one
d e s c rib e d by P ie rs o n and Montoye (7 6 ), and c o n s is te d o f
th r e e p rim ary p a r t s . They w ere: (1) th e tim e rs ; (2 ) th e
47
c o n tr o l boxj and (3) th e p h o to e le c tr ic mechanism. The
e l e c t r i c a l d e s ig n of th e in te g r a te d system i s i l l u s t r a t e d
in F ig u re 3 .
The two tim e rs u se d , one to m easure r e a c tio n tim e
and th e o th e r to m easure movement tim e , w ere Model S - l
P r e c is io n T im ers, m anufactured by The S tan d ard E le c tr ic
Time Company, S p r in g f ie ld , M a ssa c h u se tts. Each tim e r was
equipped w ith a d i r e c t c u r r e n t c lu tc h mechanism. The
tim e rs a r e d riv e n by synchronous m otors o p e ra tin g on 115
v o lt s a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t, 60 c y c le s . R e s e ttin g mechan
ism s w ere m an u ally o p e ra te d . The s m a lle s t d i a l g ra d u a tio n
i s .0 1 second b u t .005 second g ra d u a tio n s can be i n t e r
p o la te d w ith a c cu rac y . The o v e r a ll a c c u ra c y o f th e D.C.
c lu tc h o p erate d tim e r i s 4.005 second p er o p e ra tio n . The
m a n u fa ctu rer claim s t h i s ac c u ra c y r a tin g to be a c o n se rv a
ti v e one.
The c o n tro l box c o n s is te d of a fu sed and sw itc h e d ,
d i r e c t c u r r e n t power su p p ly , a c o n tro l r e l a y , a stim u lu s
l i g h t s o u rc e , and a s e r i e s of o u tp u t ja c k s f o r th e connec
t i o n o f e x te r n a l p a r ts such a s tim e r s , s w itc h e s , and re la y s .
The power su p p ly in c o rp o ra te d a step-dow n tra n sfo rm e r to
drop th e l in e v o lta g e from 115 t o 6.3 v o l t s . This c u r r e n t
was th e n r e c t i f i e d by a h a l f wave r e c t i f i e r and a c a p a c ito r
to produce 6.3 v o lts d i r e c t c u r r e n t to su p p ly th e tim in g
m echanism s.
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48
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49
A #49 lamp and an amber co lo re d p l a s t i c je w el were
used as a s tim u lu s l i g h t so u rc e . The #49 lamp was used
because o f I t s ex tre m ely s h o r t fila m e n t h e a tin g tim e
w hich i s n e c e s s a ry to av o id tim ing la g s . I t was n e c e ss a ry
to red u ce i t s o p e ra tin g c u r r e n t s in c e i t s fila m e n t i s q u ite
f i n e . T his was done by in s e r t in g a 56 ohm r e s i s t o r in
s e r ie s w ith th e lamp.
The c o n tr o l r e la y used was a Sigma 41F 200S /S IL
w hich re q u ire d a 100 ohm r e s i s t o r in s e r ie s and e x h ib its
an e x tre m e ly ra p id o p e ra tio n . T his r e la y had th e fu n c tio n
o f te rm in a tin g th e o p e ra tio n of tim e r No. 2 th ro u g h th e
h o ld in g a c tio n o f th e p h o to re la y .
A S w itc h c ra ft E -903, p u sh b u tto n sw itc h was used as
a s t a r t sw itc h w hich a c tu a te d th e s tim u lu s l i g h t . I t s
o p e ra tio n i s a b s o lu te ly s i l e n t and th e r e f o r e does n o t p re
m a tu re ly s ig n a l th e s u b je c t b ein g te s te d by any a u d ib le
sounds. A Unimax 2HBJ-1, s n a p -a c tio n sw itc h was used as
th e h o ld sw itc h . I t s r a p id a c tio n and r e l a t i v e l y low
h o ld in g -fo rc e re q u ire m e n t o f 9 ounces made i t s u ita b le f o r
t h i s u se . The a c tio n o f t h i s sw itc h te rm in a te s th e o p era
t i o n o f tim e r No. 1 and i n i t i a t e s th e o p e ra tio n of tim e r
No. 2.
The p h o to e le c tr ic mechanism c o n s is te d o f a v a r ia b le
fo c u sin g l i g h t so u rce and th e p h o to e le c tr ic r e la y i t s e l f .
The l i g h t so u rce was an A u to tro n Model L3A w h ile th e
p h o to e le c tr ic r e la y was an A u to tro n Model S1A. The r e c e iv
in g le n s o f th e p h o to re la y was m odified by a tta c h in g a
co v er w hich had an a p e rtu re d ia m eter o f a p p ro x im a te ly 1 /1 6
in c h to c u t down th e s iz e o f th e beam of l i g h t e n te rin g
th e c e l l . T his had th e e f f e c t o f p in p o in tin g th e e x a c t
p o s itio n a t w hich th e l i g h t beam was in te r r u p te d . Two
A.C. o u tle ts were p ro v id ed f o r th e a ttac h m en t of th e l i g h t
so u rce and p h o to e le c tr ic r e l a y to th e c o n tr o l box. The
e n t i r e system i s r e s e t fo r su b seq u en t o p e ra tio n by r e l e a s
ing th e s t a r t sw itch to i t s n o rm ally open p o s itio n .
P u r s u it r o t o r . —The p u r s u it r o to r used was m anufac
tu re d by th e L a fa y e tte In stru m e n t Company, L a fa y e tte ,
In d ia n a and had th re e r a t e s of r o ta ti o n . They w ere:
(1) 90 re v o lu tio n s p er m in u te; (2 ) 60 r e v o lu tio n s p e r min
u te ; and (3 ) 30 re v o lu tio n s p er m in u te. An I n te r n a l
mechanism p ro v id e s o p e ra tiv e p e rio d s of tw enty seconds
d u ra tio n in te rs p e r s e d w ith in o p e ra tiv e p e rio d s of e q u a l
d u ra tio n s . T his sequence o f o p e ra tio n o ccu rred a t a l l
th re e r a te s o f r o t a t i o n m entioned above. The r a t e of
r o ta ti o n used e x c lu s iv e ly in th e p re s e n t stu d y was 60 rev o
lu tio n s p er m inute.
The r o to r o p erated on 115 v o lts a l te r n a ti n g c u r r e n t.
The tim in g c i r c u i t o p erate d on 6 v o lts d i r e c t c u r r e n t to
a c tu a te th e c lu tc h mechanism o f one o f th e tim e rs m entioned
e a r l i e r . A 6 v o lt d ry c e l l was used fo r t h i s o p e ra tio n .
The r o t o r 's tu r n ta b le had a m e ta l d is c Imbedded In I t , and
th e c i r c u i t was c lo s e d by making c o n ta c t w ith t h i s d is c
w ith th e tra c k in g probe shown in F ig u re 4 . The tim e r
o p erated w h ile th e s e two com ponents were in c o n ta c t o n ly }
an d , th e r e f o r e , th e p ro c e s s o f making and b rea k in g c o n ta c t
serv ed to c lo s e and open th e tim e r c i r c u i t . Thus th e
ela p se d tim e re c o rd ed by th e tim e r r e p r e s e n ts th e t o t a l
c o n ta c t tim e w hich o ccu rred in tw en ty seconds of tr a c k in g
a t a r o t a t i o n r a t e of 60 re v o lu tio n s p e r m in u te.
S te a d in e s s e r r o r c o u n te r. — T his d e v ic e , c o n s tru c te d
by th e w r i te r to f i t th e req u ire m e n ts of t h i s s tu d y , con
s is te d of fo u r component p a r t s . They w ere: (1 ) a p e r f o r
a te d aluminum c o n ta c t p l a te ; (2 ) a m e tal s ty l u s ; (3 ) an
e l e c t r i c c o u n te r; and (4 ) a 6 v o lt d ry c e l l . The c o n ta c t
p l a t e 's dim ensions were 8 x 5 1 /4 in c h e s . H oles o f v a rio u s
d ia m e te rs were d r i l l e d th ro u g h i t w ith th e s m a lle s t h o le
being 7/64 in c h in d ia m e te r. A ll of th e s te a d in e s s
m easures were o b ta in ed by u sin g t h i s h o le .
The m e ta l s ty lu s had a p l a s t i c g r ip s le e v e w hich
resem bled a p e n c il as can be seen in F ig u re 5* A sim ple
so le n o id o p erated c o u n te r was employed to re c o rd th e number
of c o n ta c ts w hich were made betw een th e m e ta l s ty lu s and
th e w a lls of th e h o le in th e aluminum c o n ta c t p l a t e . The
c o n ta c t p l a t e , th e s t y l u s , th e c o u n te r, and d ry c e l l were
arran g ed in a s e r ie s c i r c u i t . The tim in g i n t e r v a l was
w----------------- — --------- \JI
v r o
F ig . 4 . — P u r s u it R o to r

54-
c o n tro lle d m anually by d e p re s s in g a p u sh b u tto n sw itc h
w hich was i d e n t i c a l w ith th e one d e s c rib e d e a r l i e r w ith
re fe re n c e t o th e reaction-m ovem ent tim e r. The tw en ty
second tim in g i n te r v a ls w ere a c c u r a te ly d e lim ite d by th e
use o f a sto p w atch .
Hand dynam om eter. — The dynamometer used th ro u g h o u t
th e stu d y was a Sm edley Hand-Dynamometer. T his d e v ic e i s
an example o f th e dynamic k in d w hich a llo w s movement d u rin g
th e sq u eezin g o p e ra tio n . I t s d i a l , F ig u re 6 , i s c a lib r a te d
in to k ilo g ram in c re m e n ts. The hand g r ip has a n .a d ju s ta b le
s t i r r u p so t h a t th e re q u ire m e n ts o f d i f f e r e n t hand s iz e s
can be accommodated. The dynamometer works on a sp rin g
r e s is ta n c e p r in c ip l e .
T e s tin g P ro ced u res
I t was n o ted in th e r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e (103) t h a t
c o n tra d ic to r y r e s u l t s o c c u r, and t h a t th e y u s u a lly a re
b ro u g h t ab o u t by th e la c k o f s ta n d a r d iz a tio n o f e x p e ri
m e n tal methods and te c h n iq u e s employed (5 2 ). C h ief among
th e s e a re v a ry in g methods o f io n g e n e ra tio n , io n c o u n tin g ,
io n d o sa g e s, and th e le n g th of exposure in v o lv e d . A more
re c e n t developm ent co n cern s th e d e s i r a b i l i t y of grounding
th e s u b je c ts w h ile th e y a re b ein g s u b je c te d t o th e io n iz e d
environm ents to av o id th e b u ild in g up of s u rfa c e ch a rg e s
s u f f i c i e n t t o ce ase th e flow of io n s in to th e s u b je c ts ’

m ouths. I f a s u f f i c i e n t l y la rg e s u rfa c e ch arg e accumu
l a t e s , b ein g o f th e same p o l a r i t y a s th e io n s produced by
th e g e n e ra to r , e l e c t r i c a l re p u ls io n fo rc e s could a c tu a l l y
cau se th e s u b je c t to in h a le no io n s a t a l l (9 6 ). Only a
v e ry few o f th e s tu d ie s a v a ila b le f o r c o n s id e ra tio n to
d a te In c o rp o ra te d t h i s te c h n iq u e .
A nother problem has been th e method o f m easuring
th e io n iz a tio n le v e ls d e liv e re d to th e s u b je c t. A ty p i c a l
method i s t h a t of allo w in g th e io n g e n e ra to rs t o b u ild up
th e io n iz a tio n in a sm all room or chamber t o a peak le v e l
and th e n m easure th e io n d e n s ity fo r th e room a s a w hole.
A p p aren tly i t was assumed th a t th e s e io n iz a tio n le v e ls h eld
tr u e fo r th e s u b je c ts a s w e ll as th e room. I t would seem
d e s ir a b le , how ever, to ta k e th e s e m easurem ents from a
grounded s u b je c t by p la c in g th e c o lle c tin g e le c tro d e o f
th e io n c o u n te r in th e s u b je c t ’s mouth w h ile he i s b r e a th
in g .
A l a s t problem , w hich a r i s e s when t e s t s a r e made
over a p e rio d of tim e , i s t h a t of m a in ta in in g c o n s ta n t and
a c c u ra te io n le v e ls d e liv e re d to th e s u b je c ts from one
t e s tin g s e s s io n t o th e n e x t and from one s u b je c t to th e
n e x t d u rin g th e same te s t in g s e s s io n . As has been th e
c a s e , m easurem ents a re o fte n ta k en from day t o day o f th e
io n g e n e r a to r 's o u tp u t only or from some s p e c ia l lo c a tio n
w ith in th e te s tin g room w hich may n o t even be n ear th e
57
s u b je c t a t a l l . A lso a b s e n t from th e l i t e r a t u r e i s ad e
q u ate ev id en ce of how th e io n le v e ls d e liv e re d to each of
many s u b je c ts in a s in g le t e s t i n g chamber a t once was
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y c o n tr o lle d .
S u b s ta n tia l e f f o r t s were re q u ire d in th e p re s e n t
stu d y to overcome th e w eaknesses j u s t re p o rte d and each o f
th e s e rem edies i s d e s c rib e d as i t a p p lie s to th e a s p e c t o f
th e t e s t i n g pro ced u re being co v ered .
T e stin g cham ber. —The t e s t i n g chamber was lo c a te d
under a c o n c re te f o o t b a l l stad iu m and had f lo o r dim ensions
o f fo u rte e n by tw elve f e e t . The c e ilin g formed th e u n d er
s id e o f th e stadium s te p s and th e re fo r e was e ig h t f e e t a t
i t s h ig h e s t p o in t and s ta ir s te p p e d down to a b o u t th r e e
f e e t a t i t s lo w est p o in t. The c e i l i n g , f l o o r , and two end
w a lls were c o n c re te . The two s id e w a lls were tem p o rary
u n its c o n s tru c te d o f wooden fram es and covered w ith w ire
mesh. These p a r t i t i o n s were covered c o m p letely by th ic k
p h o to g rap h ic background p aper and f irm ly a tta c h e d to p re
v e n t th e flow o f a i r i n to th e cham ber. Each s id e w a ll had
a sm a ll door w hich led to a s im ila r chamber beyond. One
o f th e s e a d jo in in g chambers was used as a d re s s in g room.
The main chamber had a la rg e double door in i t s h ig h e s t
perm anent w a ll w hich le d to an outdoor c o r r id o r . A ll of
th e c o n c re te s u rfa c e s e x c ep t th e f lo o r w ere p a in te d a f l a t
w h ite c o lo r to o b ta in g r e a te r lig h tin g th ro u g h r e f l e c t i o n .
58
T h is chamber was chosen f o r a number o f re a s o n s .
F i r s t , th e m assive c o n c re te s tr u c tu r e of th e f o o tb a ll
stad iu m p ro v id ed e x c e lle n t te m p e ra tu re s t a b i l i z a t i o n .
Second, ad e q u ate e l e c t r i c a l f i x t u r e s w ere a v a ila b le fo r
th e o p e ra tio n o f th e e l e c t r i c a l equipm ent used in th e
stu d y . And l a s t l y , a co ld w ater p ip e co u rsed th ro u g h th e
chamber n e a r th e s h o r te s t w a ll w hich p ro v id ed an e x c e lle n t
means f o r grounding th e s u b je c ts . No a tte m p ts were made
t o c o n tr o l h u m id ity o f th e cham ber.
L ig h tin g was p ro v id ed by a f lu o r e s c e n t f ix t u r e
w hich, w ith th e r e f l e c t i o n s from th e w h ite w a lls and c e i l
in g , was a d e q u a te . The o n ly o th e r f u rn is h in g s in th e
chamber were a te n by th r e e fo o t te s tin g ta b le and fo u r
c h a irs to accommodate th e fo u r s u b je c ts o f each te s tin g
s e s s io n . The t e s tin g ta b le was o u t f i t t e d w ith a s lid in g
fram e w hich a c te d to c a r r y th e io n iz e r s a t th e c o r r e c t
h e ig h t above th e ta b le and th e c o r r e c t d is ta n c e from th e
s u b je c ts .
S u b je c ts 1 a t t i r e . —E very s u b je c t in th e stu d y was
c lo th e d in a c o tto n , s u r g ic a l gown, c a p , and tr o u s e r s
d u rin g h is tim e in th e t e s t i n g cham ber. The purpose of
t h i s c lo th in g was to p re v e n t th e b u ild in g of s u rfa c e
ch arg es on exposed p a r ts o f th e body. The s u r g ic a l cap
covered th e h a i r of th e head ex c ep t f o r a sm a ll p o r tio n of
th e sid e b u rn . The s u r g ic a l gown tie d in th e back and had
59
k n itte d c u f f s w hich f i t t e d s e c u re ly ab o u t th e w r i s t s . The
tr o u s e r s serv ed a second purpose o f c o v e rin g th e le g s fo r
added w arm th.
T here i s ev id en ce to su p p o rt th e b e l i e f t h a t d i f f e r
in g r e s u l t s come ab o u t from th e in h a la tio n o f io n iz e d a i r
th ro u g h th e mouth as c o n tra s te d w ith in h a la tio n th ro u g h
th e nose (9 4 ). To o f f s e t th e e f f e c t of any in te r a c ti o n
betw een th e tw o, a l l b r e a th in g , e x c ep t f o r t h a t w hich was
done d u rin g io n co u n tin g p ro c e d u re s , was lim ite d to mouth
b re a th in g by th e use o f nose c l i p s . T his arrangem ent can
be seen in F ig u re 7»
Grounding o f s u b je c ts . —A copper ground clamp was
firm ly a tta c h e d to th e w ate r p ip e in a c e n t r a l l y lo c a te d
p o s itio n t h a t had been sanded to remove any oxide c o a tin g
or d i r t w hich m ight i n t e r f e r e w ith good e l e c t r i c a l conduc
tio n . Four long s tra n d s of in s u la te d lamp cord were
so ld e re d to th e ground clam p. The fre e ends o f th e lamp
cord s tra n d s were a tta c h e d to th e c o n ta c t p l a t e s . The
c o n ta c t p la te s were made of s e m i- fle x ib le copper s h e e t
w hich could be f o r m - f itte d to th e s u b je c t’ s le g f o r
in tim a te e l e c t r i c a l c o n ta c t. The c o n ta c t p la te s w ere h e ld
to th e s u b j e c t 's le g by heavy ru b b e r bands. The sp o t o f
a c tu a l c o n ta c t on th e le g was shaved and th e c o n ta c t
betw een i t and th e p la te was augmented by th e a p p lic a tio n
of H-R E le c tro d e C o n tact J e l l y .

61
P ro o f o f th e grounding e f f e e t produced by t h i s p ro
ced u re was e a s i l y o b ta in e d by th e u se o f th e p o rta b le io n
c o u n te r w hich f a i l e d t o r e g i s t e r a c u r r e n t flow when th e
grounding c i r c u i t f a i l e d to fu n c tio n p ro p e rly . S in ce th e
s a l t c o n te n t o f th e c o n ta c t j e l l y i s c o rro s iv e to c o p p e r,
th e c o n ta c t p la te s were p o lis h e d c le a n w ith s t e e l w ool
betw een each t e s tin g s e s s io n .
A d m in isterin g th e en v iro n m en ts. —Four s u b je c ts were
te s te d a t a tim e . They w ere c lo th e d in s u r g ic a l a t t i r e and
s e a te d c o m fo rta b ly a t th e te s ti n g t a b l e . A ll were
grounded. The io n iz e r fram e was moved forw ard so t h a t th e
io n g e n e ra to rs were ap p ro x im a te ly one fo o t from th e sub
j e c t s ' m ouths. W ith nose c l i p s rem oved, th e s u b je c ts were
asked t o p r a c tic e in h a lin g th ro u g h th e mouth and e x h a lin g
th ro u g h th e n o se . T his p ro ced u re serv ed to li m i t th e
amount o f c o n d e n sa tio n d r o p le ts w hich formed on th e c o l
le c tin g e le c tro d e o f th e io n c o u n te r w h ile i t was in th e
s u b je c ts ' m ouths. The h ig h ly m o is tu riz e d a i r le a v in g th e
lu n g s th e n p assed out o f th e body th ro u g h th e n o se. When
t h i s b re a th in g te ch n iq u e was accom plished to s a t i s f a c t i o n ,
th e io n le v e l in th e s u b j e c t 's mouth was th e n m easured
d u rin g in h a la tio n . The io n c o u n te r was alw ays allow ed t o
warm up f o r a t l e a s t te n m inutes p r io r t o any m easuring.
One io n g e n e ra to r a t a tim e was tu rn e d on and
allow ed t o a r r iv e a t a s ta b le output* The c o lle c tin g
62
e le c tro d e o f th e io n c o u n te r was th e n p la c e d h o r iz o n ta lly
in th e s u b je c t’s mouth and h eld m o tio n le s s by an a s s i s
t a n t . The p o s itio n o f th e io n g e n e ra to r on th e io n iz e r
fram e was th e n a d ju s te d u n t i l th e m eter re a d in g reach ed
th e p red eterm in ed p o in t and rem ained th e re th ro u g h a t
l e a s t f iv e in h a la tio n s and e x h a la tio n s . I f th e re a d in g
was to o low , th e g e n e ra to r was moved c lo s e r to th e sub
j e c t ’s mouth by a n o th e r a s s i s t a n t . I f th e o p p o site
o c c u rre d , th e g e n e ra to r was moved f a r t h e r away from th e
s u b j e c t 's m outh. The p o s itio n in g o f t h a t io n g e n e ra to r
was th e n com plete and i t was tu rn e d o f f . The id e n t i c a l
p ro ced u re was th e n re p e a te d w ith each o f th e th re e rem ain
ing s u b je c ts . The s u b je c ts th e n p laced th e c l ip s on t h e i r
n o ses in a co m fo rta b le p o s itio n . A fte r t h i s had been com
p le te d , a l l o f th e io n g e n e ra to rs were tu rn e d on and
rem ained on f o r an a c c lim a tiz a tio n p e rio d of e x a c tly
tw en ty m in u te s. A fte r th e co m p letio n o f t h i s p e rio d , th e
io n iz e r fram e was moved back to th e r e a r o f th e te s t i n g
ta b le where th e io n iz e r s rem ained on d u rin g th e ad m in is
t r a t i o n o f th e t e s t s .
The c h o ice o f th e tw en ty m inute d u r a tio n f o r th e
a c c lim a tiz a tio n p e rio d was based upon a compromise betw een
th o se p e rio d s d e s c rib e d in th e re s e a rc h l i t e r a t u r e , w hich
u s u a lly v a rie d betw een f i f t e e n and t h i r t y m in u te s, and th e
tim e a v a ila b le w ith in th e t e s t i n g sc h e d u le . I t was
63
assumed t h a t t h i s le n g th of exposure tim e was ad eq u ate
s in c e th e I o n iz a tio n le v e ls were In th e m illio n s o f Ions
p er c c . o f a i r . P e rio d ic checks of io n iz a tio n le v e ls
d e liv e re d to th e s u b je c ts w ere made d u rin g th e tw en ty min
u te p e rio d to en su re t h a t no changes above or belcw th o se
s ta te d o c c u rre d . D uring th o s e t e s tin g s e s s io n s w hich d id
n o t in c lu d e th e g e n e ra tio n o f io n iz e d a i r b u t o n ly c ir c u
la te d atm o sp h eric a i r , th e p ro ced u res j u s t d e fin e d were
re p e a te d e x a c tly to p ro v id e th e a p p ro p ria te p s y c h o lo g ic a l
c o n tr o l. At no tim e were th e s u b je c ts allow ed to se e th e
io n c o u n te r d i a l d u rin g th e io n m easurem ents. An a p p ro x i
m atio n of t h i s p ro ced u re can be seen in F ig u re 8.
S e le c tio n of t e s t s . — F iv e s e p a ra te t e s t s were
s e le c te d to r e p r e s e n t f iv e d i f f e r e n t elem en ts w ith in w hat
i s b ro a d ly known as m otor perform ance (1 , 5 , 10, 12, 19,
2 2 ). The f iv e s e p a ra te t e s t s , w hich were a d m in iste re d in
ran d an o rd e r, were chosen because th e y m et th e s p e c ia l
re q u ire m e n ts d ic ta te d by th e t e s tin g p ro c e d u re , such as
th e lim ite d space a v a ila b le in th e chamber and th e le n g th
of tim e w hich could be a l l o t t e d to them. Each t e s t was
g iv e n under each o f th e th re e en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n s .
The t e s t s were* (1) a r e a c tio n tim e t e s t f o r th e speed o f
r e a c tio n elem en t in m otor p erform ance; (2 ) a movement tim e
t e s t f o r th e speed of movement elem en t; (3 ) a p u r s u it
r o to r t e s t f o r th e ac c u ra c y o f planned movement elem ent;
S '
- Io n L ev el M easurem ent
(4 ) a s ty lu s - a p e r tu r e c o n tr o l t e s t f o r th e s te a d in e s s
elem en t; and (5) a hand dynamometer t e s t f o r th e g rip
s tr e n g th elem ent o f m otor p erform ance. Being governed by
th e r e s t r i c t i v e space re q u ire m e n ts of th e t e s t cham ber,
th e s e le c tio n of t e s t s had to be lim ite d to th o se w hich
gave m easures of upper lim b fu n c tio n s o n ly .
R e a c tio n and movement tim e t e s t s . —R e a c tio n tim e and
movement tim e have been found to be r e l a t i v e l y in d ep en d en t
e n t i t i e s . Henry found no c o r r e la tio n betw een th e two
m easures when u sin g c o lle g e s tu d e n ts a s s u b je c ts (43) .
P ie rs o n found a low b u t s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e la tio n when th e
s u b je c ts te s te d ranged in age from e ig h t to e ig h ty - th r e e
y e a rs (75)* G u ilfo rd (42) and M iles (68) c o n s id e r r e a c tio n
tim e and movement tim e to be s e p a ra te motor perform ance
elem e n ts. The two e le m e n ts, th e r e f o r e , w ere In clu d ed in
th e p re s e n t stu d y as s e p a ra te a re a s of in v e s tig a tio n .
R e a c tio n and movement tim e t e s t s w ere g iv e n on a
d ev ice th ro u g h w hich i t was p o s s ib le t o secu re a c c u ra te
m easures o f b o th elem en ts sim u lta n e o u sly . The combined
t e s t c o n s is te d of th e d e p re s s io n of th e hold sw itc h p lu n g er
w ith th e in d ex f in g e r of th e a th le t ic a lly - f a v o r e d hand.
The r e a c tio n o ccu rred a t th e o n se t o f a v is u a l stim u lu s by
r e le a s in g th e p lu n g e r of th e hold sw itc h a s soon a s p o s
s i b l e , and th e n r a is i n g th e hand v e r t i c a l l y a d is ta n c e of
tw elve in c h e s to i n t e r r u p t a l i g h t beam w hich te rm in a te d
th e t e s t . The r e a c tio n tim e m easure c o n s is te d o f th e tim e
i n t e r v a l betw een th e a c tu a tio n o f th e amber stim u lu s l i g h t
by th e in v e s tig a to r and th e r e le a s e o f th e hold sw itc h by
th e s u b je c t. The movement tim e m easure c o n s is te d o f th e
tim e i n t e r v a l betw een th e r e le a s e o f th e h o ld sw itc h and
th e in te r r u p ti o n o f th e l i g h t beam w hich te rm in a te d th e
tim in g p e rio d . A v a r ia b le fo re p e rio d (5 0 ), w hich ranged
from one t o f iv e se co n d s, was in c lu d e d . The fo re p e rio d s
w ere d is t r ib u t e d a t random around a p e rio d o f th r e e
seco n d s.
The tim e rs were read to th e n e a re s t .005 second.
I f th e t i m e r 's sweep hand sto p p ed e x a c tly betw een two
g ra d u a tio n s on th e d i a l f a c e , i t was r e a d , fo r exam ple,
•125 second. I f th e hand stopped s h o r t o f b ein g e x a c tly
h a l f way betw een two g ra d u a tio n s , i t was re a d a s .1 2 0
second. I f i t exceeded th e h a l f way p o s itio n , i t was read
.121 second.
P ie rs o n and R asch ( 78) in v e s tig a te d r e a c tio n and
movement tim in g to d eterm in e th e most r e p r e s e n ta tiv e sc o re
f o r use in a n a ly s is . They n o ted t h a t th e mean of th e l a s t
f iv e o f tw en ty t r i a l s p ro v id ed th e most r e p r e s e n ta tiv e
m easure. The tim e a v a ila b le f o r th e r e a c tio n and movement
tim e t e s t s in th e p re s e n t stu d y would n o t accommodate th e
use o f tw en ty t r i a l s f o r each s u b je c t. T h e re fo re , each
s u b je c t com pleted th e sequence tw elve tim e s , in th e
67
sta n d in g p o s it io n , under each of th e th re e en v iro n m e n tal
c o n d itio n s . The l a s t f iv e a tte m p ts o f th e tw elve w ere
th e n averaged in o rd er to a r r iv e a t a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e sc o re
f o r r e a c tio n tim e and movement tim e. The f i r s t seven
t r i a l s were co n sid ered as warm up t r i a l s , b u t t h i s was
unknown to th e s u b je c ts .
Care was e x e rc is e d to en su re th e c o n s is te n c y of
each t e s t t r i a l as to th e s t a r t i n g p o s it io n , upper lim b
movements, m ech an ical o p e ra tio n of th e t e s t equipm ent, and
f a ls e s t a r t s or " f l i n c h i n g .M Any t e s t t r i a l w hich gave
ev id en ce o f b ein g a b ia se d m easure was d is c a rd e d , and th e
t r i a l was re p e a te d . F ig u re 9 i l l u s t r a t e s th e s t a r t in g
p o s itio n on th e reaction-m ovem ent tim e r.
P u r s u it r o to r t e s t . — Gagn6 and F leishm an have n o ted
t h a t th e p u r s u it r o to r t e s t was found t o have c o n s id e ra b le
p r e d ic tin g su c c e ss in p i l o t and bom bardier tr a in i n g d u rin g
World War I I (1 0 ). I t s su c c e ss was a t t r i b u t e d to i t s being
an e x c e lle n t m easure of p r e c is io n c o n tr o l a b i l i t y in le a r n
ing te c h n ic a l ta s k s . I t was f o r t h i s re a s o n t h a t th e
t e s t was in c lu d ed as a t e s t of th e a c cu rac y of planned
movement elem ent of m otor perform ance in th e p re s e n t
stu d y .
A rev iew of a number o f s tu d ie s in w hich th e p u r s u it
r o to r was u t i l i z e d was made to d eterm in e th e mode o f o p era
t io n w hich was most o fte n employed (2 4 , 25, 26, 37, 47,

69
4 8 ). I t was found t h a t in th e m a jo rity of th e s tu d ie s th e
60 re v o lu tio n s p er m inute mode o f o p e ra tio n was u sed .
T e sts were ru n p r io r to th e p re s e n t stu d y to v e r if y t h i s
mode o f o p e ra tio n and i t was found t h a t t h i s r o t a t i o n a l
r a t e was in d eed th e b e s t. The 30 r e v o lu tio n s p e r m inute
mode of o p e ra tio n was to o sim ple w h ile th e 90 re v o lu tio n s
p er m inute mode was to o d i f f i c u l t . T h e re fo re , th e 60 re v o
lu tio n s p er m inute mode of o p e ra tio n was used e x c lu s iv e ly
th ro u g h o u t t h i s stu d y .
The t e s t p e rio d s ra n f o r tw enty seconds and w ere
s e p a ra te d by tw en ty second r e s t p e rio d s . Four tim ed t r i a l s
w ere g iv e n , in th e sta n d in g p o s itio n , to each s u b je c t under
each of th e th r e e en v iro n m e n tal c o n d itio n s . One p r a c tic e
t r i a l preceded th e s e f o u r. The t r i a l w hich produced th e
g r e a t e s t t o t a l c o n ta c t tim e reco rd ed on th e tim e r was
s e le c te d f o r a n a ly s is .
I t was n o tic e d , d u rin g p r e t e s t t r i a l s , t h a t a c e r
t a i n amount of e l e c t r i c a l a rc in g o ccu rred betw een th e m e ta l
d is c imbedded in th e tu r n ta b le and th e end of th e tra c k in g
p ro b e. I t was a ls o found th a t s e rio u s e r r o r s in th e t o t a l
c o n ta c t tim e reco rd ed o ccu rred i f th e a rc in g p ro d u c ts were
allow ed to b u ild up f o r th r e e to f iv e t r i a l s w ith o u t b ein g
rem oved. T h e re fo re , th e sequence of fo u r t r i a l s was
b roken up in to two s e c tio n s of two t r i a l s each . The m e tal
d is c and tr a c k in g probe were scoured c le a n w ith s t e e l w ool
70
a f t e r each s e c tio n o f two t r i a l s . T hat t h i s tre a tm e n t was
e f f e c t iv e was shown by th e f a c t th a t no ev id en ce co u ld be
found in th e t e s t r e s u l t s t h a t any lo s s o f t o t a l c o n ta c t
tim e a c t u a l l y o ccu rred because o f c i r c u i t in te r r u p tio n s by
th e a rc in g p ro d u c ts .
The tra c k in g probe was h eld in th e a t h l e t i c a l l y
p r e f e r re d hand as one would hold a p e n c il. In o rd er t o
s ta n d a rd iz e th e h o ld in g o f th e p ro b e, a ru b b er band was
secu red around th e p ro b e 's h an d le to mark th e lim itin g
p o s itio n f o r th e f in g e r s . I f i t was found t h a t t h i s p o s i
tio n was n o t m a in tain ed s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d u rin g a t r i a l , th e
t r i a l was d is c a rd e d . S in ce th e p r a c tic e e f f e c t was m ost
e v id e n t in th e p u r s u it r o to r t e s t s , a n o th e r t r i a l was n o t
p e rm itte d to r e p la c e th e b ia s e d one. The tim er was read
in e x a c tly th e same manner t h a t was d e s c rib e d in th e r e a c
tio n tim e movement tim e s e c tio n .
S te a d in e s s t e s t . —To t e s t th e s te a d in e s s of th e
upper lim b , a s te a d in e s s e r r o r c o u n te r was u t i l i z e d . The
purpose of th e t e s t was to hold th e m e tal s ty lu s w ith in a
h o le whose d ia m e te r was 7/64 in c h w ith o u t making c o n ta c t
w ith th e w a lls o f th e h o le . A g r e a te r d eg ree of d i f f i c u l t y
was added by r e q u ir in g t h a t th e lim b be h eld s t r a i g h t a t
th e elbow and d i r e c t l y o u t from th e sh o u ld e r. W ith th e
s u b je c t s e a te d , t h i s p ro ced u re th e n in v o lv ed th e e n t i r e
upper lim b and n o t j u s t p a r t o f i t .
71
F iv e t r i a l s of tw enty seconds each were g iv en under
each of th e th re e en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n s . The te s tin g
d ev ice was c a r e f u l ly s itu a te d so t h a t i t was d i r e c t l y in
f r o n t of th e sh o u ld e r on th e a t h l e t i c a l l y p re fe rre d s id e
and a t sh o u ld e r h e ig h t. T his p o s itio n in g lin e d up th e
long a x is of th e s ty lu s w ith th e c e n te r of th e h o le w hich
avoided th e a n g lin g of th e s ty lu s in th e h o le .
Each s u b je c t was in s tr u c te d to hold th e s ty lu s as
one would hold a p e n c il, ta k e in a deep b r e a th , l e t a
l i t t l e o f i t out to r e lie v e te n s io n , and sim u lta n e o u sly
p la c e th e s ty lu s in to th e h o le so th a t i t p ro tru d e d th ro u g h
th e aluminum c o n ta c t p la te . When th e s u b je c t appeared
s te a d y , th e p u sh b u tto n sw itc h was p ressed to c lo se th e
c i r c u i t and th e stopw atch was s ta r te d a t th e same tim e.
When th e tw enty second p erio d was com pleted, th e p u sh b u tto n
sw itc h was r e le a s e d , opening th e c i r c u i t and te rm in a tin g
th e tim in g p e rio d . The t o t a l number of c o n ta c ts made
d u rin g th e tw enty second p e rio d was th en read from th e
co u n ter and re c o rd e d . The s u b je c ts were a ls o in s tr u c te d
t o allo w th e arm to r e s t betw een t r i a l s fo r ap p ro x im a tely
f i f t e e n seconds.
The problem of th e b u ild in g up of a rc in g p ro d u cts
durin g th e o p e ra tio n of th e d ev ice occu rred j u s t as i t
d id w ith th e p u r s u it r o to r . The s ty lu s and th e in s id e
w a lls of th e h o le were th e re fo re c le a re d of th e se p ro d u cts
72
a f t e r th e second and l a s t o f th e t e s t t r i a l s . The t r i a l
w hich produced th e few est e r r o r s or c o n ta c ts w ith th e
aluminum p l a t e was chosen f o r a n a ly s is . F ig u re 5 i l l u s
t r a t e s th e p ro ced u re fo llo w ed d u rin g t h i s t e s t .
G rip s tr e n g th t e s t . —B e c h to l e x p la in s some of th e
problem s o f g r ip s tr e n g th te s t i n g (29*823). A v a r ia tio n
i n g r ip s tr e n g th of as much a s 30 p er c e n t d u rin g th e day
may o cc u r. The low g rip p in g power o ccu rs in th e e a r ly
m orning w h ile th e maximum g r ip s tr e n g th occurs betw een
4 :0 0 and 8 :0 0 in th e ev e n in g . He a ls o n o ted th a t in a
hypoglycaem ic s u b je c t, j u s t b e fo re a m eal i s d u e, th e g r ip
s tr e n g th may be reduced by 10 p er c e n t. A ttem pts to con
t r o l th e s e v a r ia tio n s w ere u n d e rta k e n by th e e a r ly evening
sc h ed u lin g and th e r e q u e s t t h a t th e s u b je c ts ta k e t h e i r
evening m eal p r io r to r e p o r tin g to th e te s tin g s e s s io n s .
The squ eezin g o f th e hand dynamometer was th e only
t e s t in w hich th e a t h l e t i c a l l y n o n -p re fe rre d hand was
u t i l i z e d . A lthough th e re i s a s l i g h t lo s s of g rip p in g
power and a c o n c u rre n t lo s s of r e l i a b i l i t y , t h i s was done
to make su re th a t th e e f f o r t in v o lv ed in th e maximal con
tr a c ti o n s a g a in s t th e in s tr u m e n t's r e s is ta n c e d id n o t
i n t e r f e r e w ith th e d e l ic a te c o o rd in a tio n s re q u ire d in th e
o th e r m otor perform ance t e s t s . H unsicker and G reey have
re p o rte d t h a t th e re is o n ly a s l i g h t d if fe re n c e in th e
s tr e n g th o f th e two s id e s o f th e body so i t would ap p ear
73
t h a t th e p ro ced u re u n d erta k en in th e p re s e n t stu d y would
have l i t t l e o v e r a ll e f f e c t (4 5 ).
The Smedley Hand-Dynamometer had an a d ju s ta b le hand
g r ip s t i r r u p . Each s u b je c t determ ined th e b e s t s e ttin g of
th e s t i r r u p fo r h is hand and t h i s p o s itio n was noted and
used in ev e ry succeeding t e s t t r i a l under a l l of th e
en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n s . The s u b je c ts were in s tr u c te d to
extend th e arm downward from th e sh o u ld er in th e s i t t i n g
p o s itio n so t h a t th e elbow was s t r a i g h t ; th e arm , th e r e
f o r e , d id n o t touch th e body and a c t as an a d d itio n a l
le v e r . H unslcker and G reey, r e f e r r in g to a stu d y by Erb
and R ab in o w itsch , s ta te d t h a t s u b je c ts squeeze to b e t te r
advantage w ith th e elbow extended th an w ith th e elbow a t
r i g h t a n g le s (4 5 ). The s u b je c ts were a ls o in s tru c te d to
squeeze th e d ev ice and to avoid Je rk in g or moving i t d u rin g
th e t e s t t r i a l s . S ix t r i a l s were g iv en each s u b je c t w ith
r e s t p e rio d s between t r i a l s w hich d id n o t exceed t h i r t y
seconds. The b e s t sc o re of th e s ix t r i a l s was chosen fo r
a n a ly s is . A ll kilogram d e s ig n a tio n s were co n v erted in to
pounds in o rd er to use th e more f a m ilia r term in th e
a n a ly s is .
In c o n c lu sio n , th re e p erso n s were used as a s s i s t a n t s
in a d m in iste rin g th e t e s tin g program . Each a s s i s t a n t had
s p e c if ic d u tie s w hich had been o u tlin e d f o r him. One
a s s i s t a n t was in charge of th e s te a d in e s s t e s t s , a n o th e r
a s s i s t a n t was in charge of th e g r ip s tr e n g th t e s t , and th e
l a s t was re s p o n s ib le fo r th e p u r s u it r o to r t e s t s . The
in v e s tig a to r o p erated th e r e a c tiv e tim e and movement tim e
t e s t s . P r io r to th e tim e th e t e s t s a c tu a l ly began, th e
a s s i s t a n t s were c a r e f u l ly b r ie f e d as to th e perform ance of
t h e i r d u tie s and had p re v io u s ly p ra c tic e d th e p ro ced u res
f o r w hich th e y were h eld re s p o n s ib le .
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE D A TA
The purpose o f th e stu d y was t o d eterm in e w hether
or n o t th e in h a la tio n o f la rg e q u a n t itie s of io n iz e d a i r
would r e s u l t in im m ediate changes in su b seq u en t m otor p e r
form ance o f th e upper lim b. F iv e m otor perform ance
elem en ts w ere t e s t e d . They w ere: (1) r e a c tio n tim e;
(2 ) movement tim e; (3 ) a c c u ra c y o f planned movement;
(4 ) s te a d in e s s ; and (5 ) g r ip s tr e n g th . Three d i f f e r e n t
environm ents w ere a p p lie d p r io r t o t e s t i n g of th e s e m otor
perform ance e le m e n ts. They w ere: (1 ) in h a la tio n o f la rg e
q u a n titie s o f p o s it iv e l y io n iz e d a i r ; (2 ) in h a la tio n of
la r g e q u a n t itie s o f n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d a i r ; and (3) in h a la
t i o n of r e g u la r atm o sp h eric a i r a s a c o n tr o l m easure. T his
c h a p te r d e a ls w ith th e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is of th e d a ta
g a th e re d from th e t e s t i n g p hases of th e stu d y . S in ce th e
t e s t s u n d e rta k e n in each o f th e f iv e in v e s tig a tio n s d i f
fe re d w h ile th e e x p e rim e n ta l and c o n tr o l environm ents in
each in v e s tig a tio n were i d e n t i c a l , t h i s c h a p te r i s d iv id e d
in to s e c tio n s w hich d e s c rib e th e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is of
each in v e s tig a tio n s e p a r a te ly .
As may be seen in T ab les 5 , 7 , and 9 , th e b e s t o f
75
76
th e t e s t t r i a l s I s reco rd ed l a each case* The b e s t s c o re ,
r a th e r th a n th e mean or t o t a l , was used because In s p e c tio n
o f th e d a ta showed t h a t a more s ig n i f ic a n t outcome prob
a b ly would r e s u l t from t h i s p ro ced u re. T his h y p o th e sis
was confirm ed by tr e a tin g th e d a ta In two d i f f e r e n t ways.
As a r e s u l t , a n a ly se s of th e p u r s u it r o t o r , s te a d in e s s ,
and g r ip t e s t d a ta were made on th e b e s t o f th e t e s t
t r i a l s .
R e ac tio n Time I n v e s tig a tio n
I t can be se e n , by r e f e r r in g to T able 1 , t h a t th e
means fo r a l l s u b je c ts under each en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n
show .1883 second under c o n d itio n s of re g u la r atm o sp h eric
a i r , .1853 second under c o n d itio n s of p o s itiv e ly io n iz e d
a i r , and .1797 second under c o n d itio n s of n e g a tiv e ly
io n iz e d a i r . In t h i s c a s e , th e s h o r te s t mean r e a c tio n
tim e i n t e r v a l , a f t e r th e a p p lic a tio n o f n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d
a i r , does n o t d i f f e r g r e a tly from th e lo n g e s t mean r e a c tio n
tim e i n t e r v a l , w hich occu rred under norm al atm ospheric a i r
c o n d itio n s . The d if fe re n c e betw een th e se two means was
.0086 second. The o th e r two mean d if fe re n c e s were even
s m a lle r, being .0030 second betw een n a tu r a l and p o s itiv e
io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s and .0056 second betw een p o s itiv e
and n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s .
A n aly sis o f v a ria n c e was a p p lie d to t e s t th e n u ll
77
TAB LB 1
REACTION TDK INVESTIGATION M EANS OF THE
FINAL FIVE TEST TRIALS
S u b je c t
P o s itiv e N egative N a tu ra l
I o n iz a tio n I o n iz a tio n A ir
1 •171 s e c .
.1 4 9 se c . •160 s e c .
2 .164
.178
.202
3 .195 .198
4
• 193 .163
.2 0 0
5
.204 .1 7 4 • 214
6
.179
.195
.208
7 .172 .1 8 4 .2 1 1
8 .1 9 4 .1 9 0 .218
9 .163 .1 6 7 .165
10 .185 .2 0 0 .178
11 .203
.1 7 9 .186
12 • 184
.173
.166
13
.182
.175 .183
14
.189 .215 .216
.190 .168 .1 8 0
16
.163 .1 7 7 .175
xl
.181
.173 .1 9 1
18 .164 .194 .1 7 0
19 • 184
.1 6 5
.166
20 • 224 .211
.237
21 .183 .1 7 4 .1 7 0
22 .168 .172
23 .189 .1 9 0 .196
24 .178
.1 7 7 .157
Means fc r a l l s u b je c ts un d e r each e n v irc ran en tal c o n d itio n
•1853 sac* •1797 se c . .1883 se c .
78
h y p o th e s is : t h a t th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een means o b ta in ed
f o r th e e x p e rim e n ta l en v iro n m en ts o ccu rred as th e r e s u l t
of mere chance and th u s do n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from
th e h y p o th e tic a l p o p u la tio n 's mean d if f e r e n c e o f z e ro to
r e p r e s e n t a n y th in g o th e r th a n random sam pling f lu c tu a tio n s .
L in d q u is t's " tre a tm e n ts by s u b je c ts d e sig n " was used as
th e a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e te c h n iq u e (1 4 :1 5 6 ).
T able 2 p re s e n ts a summary o f th e a n a ly s is . I t can
be seen th a t f o r 2 and 46 d e g ree s o f freedom , an F o f 3*20
i s n e c e ss a ry to re a c h th e .0 5 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . The F
of .0095 w hich r e p r e s e n ts th e d if f e r e n c e s due to e n v iro n
m e n tal c o n d itio n s does n o t even ap p ro ach t h a t w hich is
n e c e ss a ry to a tta c h s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e . I t was th e n
a p p ro p ria te to a c c e p t th e n u ll h y p o th e s is s ta te d above f o r
w hich th e observed v a r ia tio n s betw een o b ta in e d means were
h eld as chance sam pling v a r i a ti o n s .
Movement Time I n v e s tig a tio n
T able 3 p re s e n ts th e means f o r movement tim e f o r
a l l s u b je c ts under each e n v iro n m e n tal c o n d itio n . A gain,
th e s h o r te s t mean movement tim e o ccu rred under c o n d itio n s
of n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d a i r , as d id r e a c tio n tim e In th e
p rev io u s in v e s tig a tio n . I t was .1045 seco n d , fo llo w ed by
.1963 second fo r norm al atm o sp h eric a i r c o n d itio n s and
.1072 second fo r p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s . The
TABLE 2
REACTION TIME INVESTIGATION* SU M M A R Y OF
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
S ource d . f . 33 ms F S ig n if
T reatm en ts (A) 2 .0092 .0046
.0095
No
S u b je c ts (S)
23 .0137
.0006
T reatm en ts x
S u b je c ts (AS) 46 2 2 .2304
.4833
T o ta l
71 22.2533
80
TABLE 3
M O V EM EN T TIME INVESTIGATION! M EANS OP THE
FINAL FIVE TEST TRIALS
S u b je c t
P o s itiv e
I o n is a tio n
N egative
I o n iz a tio n
N a tu ra l
A ir
1 • 113 se c . •100 s e c . •110 s e c .
2 • 110 .112 .104
3 .105
.108 .104
4
.103 .103 • 112
5
.106 .106 .109
6
.117
.108 .113
7
.1 0 0 .0 9 0 .096
6 .102 .103 .093
9
.106 .094 .103
10
.107 .107
• 112
11 .106 .094 .100
12 .108 .106 .103
13
.106 .089 .100
14 .112 .102 .109
15 .1 0 7
.104 .120
16 .11.5 .115 • 117
1 1
.116 .114 .104
18
.1 1 7 .113
.118
19 .099 .095
.106
20 .106 .110 .103
21 .116 .1 1 7 • 117
22 .098 .103
.101
23 .095
.105 .080
24
.103 .111 .116
Means f o r a l l s u b je c ts under each en v iro n m e n tal c o n d itio n
.1072 se c . •1045 se c . .1063 s e c .
81
g r e a t e s t d iffe re n c e betw een any of th e means occurred
betw een p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e c o n d itio n s and was .0027
second. The d iffe re n c e betw een p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n co n d i
tio n s and re g u la r atm o sp h eric a i r were th e s m a lle s t, being
.0009 second. The rem aining d iffe re n c e o f .0018 second
occurred betw een c o n d itio n s of re g u la r atm o sp h eric a i r and
n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d a i r .
By ap p ly in g a n a ly s is of v a ria n c e , as summarized in
T able 4 , an F of .0003 was determ ined fo r 2 and 46 d eg rees
of freedom . To re a c h th e .05 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e , an F of
3 .2 0 i s re q u ire d and th e re fo r e th e n u ll h y p o th e sis was
h eld te n a b le and th e o b tain ed mean d if fe re n c e s were a t t r i h
u ted to chance sam pling v a r ia tio n s .
P u rs u it R otor In v e s tlE a tio n
By r e f e r r in g to T able 5) i t can be seen th a t th e
mean c o n ta c t tim e f o r norm al atm ospheric a i r c o n d itio n s
was th e h ig h e s t, a t 8.9530 seconds. This was follow ed by
a mean c o n ta c t tim e of 8.6344 seconds f o r th e n e g a tiv e
io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s , and f i n a l l y , a mean c o n ta c t tim e of
8.3835 seconds fo r th e p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n s c o n d itio n s .
The g r e a t e s t d iffe re n c e occurred between th e means fo r
norm al atm ospheric a i r c o n d itio n s and p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n
c o n d itio n s , th a t being .5695 second. The s m a lle s t mean
d iffe re n c e occu rred betw een norm al atm o sp h eric a i r co n d i
tio n s and n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s , being .2509
TABLE 4
M O V EM EN T TIME INVESTIGATION: SU M M A R Y OF
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
S ource d . f . s s ms F S ig n if .
T reatm en ts (A) 2 .0001 .00004 .0003 No
S u b je c ts (S)
23
.0028 .0001
T re atm en ts x
S u b je c ts (AS) 46 7-3209
.1592
T o ta l
71
7.3238
83
TABLE 5
PURSUIT ROT® INVESTIGATIONS SC®ES OP THE
BEST OF FOUR TEST TRIALS
S u b je c t
P o s itiv e
I o n iz a tio n
N egative
I o n iz a tio n
N a tu ra l
A ir
1 9*750 se c . 9..110 se c . 6 .8 9 0 s e c .
2 11*640 8 .7 0 0
4 .635
3 12*970
10.655
9 .190
4
11.795 10.330 9.610
5
6 .9 4 0 7.910 2 .3 7 0
6 6 .9 4 0 12.240 6 .9 7 0
7 8.465
9 .680 5 .610
8 11.630 12.710 9 .650
9 13*510 4 .9 9 0 8 .7 3 0
10 13. 68O 7.990 12.840
11 8 .1 4 0 5.530 7 .570
12 13.540 2 .5 1 0 8 .0 1 0
13
5.670 12.430 9 .090
14 5.870 13.290 10.560
15
1.440 10.590 7.490
16 3 .620 11.166 10.790
5.900 9.010 9 .630
18 4 .8 5 0 5.560 8 .4 1 0
19 5.320 9.040 11.090
20 5.000 7.820 9 .090
21 10.830 9.490 12.410
22 8 .6 0 0 6 .0 6 0 13.040
23
6 .3 7 0 2 .6 4 0 8 .6 0 0
24
8.735
7.780 12.400
Means f o r a l l s u b je c ts under each en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n
8*3835 sec* 8.6344 sec* 8.9530 s« c .
84
seco n d . The d if f e r e n c e o f .3186 second o ccu rred betw een
p o s it iv e and n e g a tiv e I o n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s .
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e a re g iv e n
In T able 6 . For 2 and 46 d eg re e s o f freedom , an F o f 3 .2 0
i s re q u ire d to show s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e a t th e .0 5
le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . The F d e riv e d from th e a n a ly s is o f
th e p u r s u it r o to r d a ta was .5 4 3 8 . I t was a g a in n e c e s s a ry
to a c c e p t th e n u l l h y p o th e sis as te n a b le as d e s c rib e d p re
v io u s ly because th e F f o r a p p lie d environm ents was f a r
l e s s th a n re q u ire d and th e mean d if fe re n c e s n o ted a re
n e c e s s a r ily a s c rib e d to chance a lo n e .
S te a d in e s s In v e s tig a tio n
T ab le 7 shows th e means fo r s te a d in e s s f o r a l l sub
j e c t s under each en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n . In t h i s c a s e ,
th e s m a lle s t sc o re was th e m ost d e s ir a b le one as was th e
c a se f o r r e a c tio n tim e and movement tim e . The lo w est mean
number o f e r r o r s produced in t h i s in v e s tig a tio n o ccu rred
under c o n d itio n s of p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n . T h is mean was
32.875 e r r o r s . I t was fo llo w ed by 32.958 e r r o r s and
34.500 e r r o r s f o r n a t u r a l atm o sp h eric a i r and n e g a tiv e ly
io n iz e d a i r r e s p e c tiv e ly . Means f o r n a t u r a l a i r and p o s i
t i v e io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s b ein g alm o st i d e n t i c a l , produced
a d if f e r e n c e o f o n ly .083 e r r o r . The in te rm e d ia te mean
d if f e r e n c e o ccu rred betw een c o n d itio n s o f n e g a tiv e
TABLE 6
PURSUIT ROTOR INVESTIGATION* S U M M A R Y OP
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
S ource d . f . ss ms F S ig n if .
T reatm en ts (A) 2 10.1616 5.0808 .5438 No
S u b je c ts (3 )
23 200.0651 8.6985
T re atm en ts x
S u b je c ts (AS) 46 429.7508 9.34-24
T o ta l
71 639.9775
86
TABLE 7
STEADINESS INVESTIGATION* SCORES OF THE
BEST OF FIVE TEST TRIALS
S u b je c t
P o s ltv e
I o n is a tio n
N egative
I o n is a tio n
N a tu ra l
A ir
1 15 e r r o r s 31 e r r o r s 28 e r r o r s
2 24
27 45
3 33 35
41
4
39
26 49
5
18
15 29
6
25
21
30
Z
54
65
60
8 22 32 38
9
13
34
z i
10
25
32 28
11 26 54 28
12 20 34 36
13 39 24 16
14
49 43
18
28 42 30
16 40 32 17
31
30 35
18
33
22 28
19 32 22
23
20
53 35 38
21 34 30
2l
22 38 28 28
23
48 60 46
24 50 54 50
Means f o r a l l s u b je c ts under each en v iro n m e n tal c o n d itio n
32,875 e r r o r s 34.500 e r r o r s 3 2 .9 5 8 e r r o r s
io n iz a tio n and n a tu r a l a i r and was 1.542 e r r o r s . The
g r e a t e s t mean d if f e r e n c e w hich o ccu rred in t h i s in v e s tig a
tio n came betw een p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n c o n d i
tio n s and was 1.625 e r r o r s .
In o rd er to re a c h s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n ific a n c e a t th e
.05 le v e l of c o n fid e n c e , an F o f 3*20 i s re q u ire d .
T able 8 sum m arizes th e a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e a p p lie d t o th e
d a ta of t h i s in v e s tig a tio n . W ith 2 and 46 d eg rees of free<
dean, th e F f o r d if fe re n c e s due to th e a p p lie d environm ents
was .2548. The n u l l h y p o th e s is was ac ce p ted a g a in as
being te n a b le and th e mean d if fe re n c e s w hich r e s u lte d from
t h i s in v e s tig a tio n proved to be to o sm all to w a rra n t f u r
th e r tre a tm e n t.
G rip S tre n g th I n v e s tig a tio n
R e fe rrin g to T able 9 , i t can be seen t h a t th e mean
g r ip s tr e n g th under n a tu r a l atm o sp h eric a i r c o n d itio n s was
th e g r e a t e s t , b ein g 108.304 pounds. Mean g r ip s tr e n g th
f o r n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d a i r fo llo w ed w ith 107.050 pounds.
P o s itiv e io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s produced th e s m a lle s t mean
f o r g r ip s tr e n g th w hich was 105.050 pounds. Mean d i f f e r
ences betw een th e th re e en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n s were as
follow s* (1) 1.796 pounds fo r p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e con
d itio n s } (2) 3»254 pounds fo r p o s itiv e and n a tu r a l a i r
c o n d itio n s ; and (3) *458 pound f o r n e g a tiv e and n a tu r a l
TABLE 8
STEADINESS INVESTIGATION* S U M M A R Y OF
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
S ource d . f . ss ms F S lg n lf .
T re atm en ts (A) 2 4 0 .1944 20.0972 .2548 No
S u b je c ts (S)
23 6233.7778
271.0338
T reatm en ts x
S u b je c ts (AS) 46 3627.8056
78.8653
T o ta l 71
9901.7778
89
TABLE 9
GRIP STRENGTH INVESTIGATIONS SCORES OF THE
BEST OF SIX TEST TRIALS
S u b je c t
P o s itiv e
I o n iz a tio n
N egative
I o n iz a tio n
N a tu ra l
A ir
1
1 24.3 lb s . 1 32.0 lb s . 1 33.1 I t s .
2 9 9 .0 9 6 .8 103.4
3 8 4 .7
9 2 .4 9 2 .4
4 8O.3 8 1 .4 79.2
5
114.4 118.8 123.2
6 9 0 .2 103.4
7
96.8 9 9 .0 101.2
8 132.0
126.5
129.8
9 116.6
126.5
129.8
10 112.2 121.0 114.4
11 9 9 .0 101.2
106.7
12 110.0 118.8
119.9
13
1 0 0 .1
113.3
105.6
14
104.5 9 7 .9
8 6 .9 7 9.2
93.5
16 101.2 9 9 .0 101.2
91 .3
9 2 .4 8 8 .0
18 1 14.4 136.4
139.7
19 143.0 136.4 132.0
20 94.6 94.6 94.6
21 96.8 100.1 94.6
22 136.4 127.6 119.9
23
122.1 116.6 114.4
24
7 5 .9 8 3 .6 8 1 .4
Means f o r a l l s u b je c ts under each en v iro n m en tal c o n d itio n
105.050 lb s . 107.846 lb s . 108.304 lb s .
90
atm o sp h eric c o n d itio n s .
As in a l l o f th e p re v io u s i n v e s tig a tio n s , s t a t i s t i
c a l s ig n if ic a n c e a t th e .0 5 le v e l o f co n fid e n c e was n o t
a t ta i n e d . T able 10 shows th e a n a ly s is o f v a ria n c e a p p lie d
t o t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n 's d a ta . For 2 and 46 d eg rees of
freedom , an F o f 3»20 i s re q u ire d a t th e .0 5 le v e l of con
fid e n c e . The d e riv e d F o f .0463 fo r th e mean d if f e r e n c e s
due to th e en v iro n m e n tal c o n d itio n s was d e c id e d ly below
th e le v e l re q u ir e d . The n u l l h y p o th e s is , w hich was th e
same as t h a t used in a l l th e p re v io u s i n v e s t ig a t i o n s , was
accep ted a s te n a b le and th e n e c e s s ity o f a s c r ib in g th e
d e riv e d d if fe re n c e s due to environm ents t o chance sam pling
f lu c tu a tio n s was a g a in n e c e s s a ry .
To sum m arize, F r a t i o s o b ta in ed from th e s t a t i s t i c a l
tre a tm e n t in each o f th e f iv e s e p a ra te in v e s tig a tio n s
f a ile d to re a c h th e re q u ire d .0 5 le v e l o f c o n fid e n c e . I t
was n e c e s s a ry to a c c e p t th e n u ll h y p o th e sis fo r each
in v e s tig a tio n as te n a b le and a s c r ib e th e s l i g h t d if fe re n c e s
noted to chance a lo n e .
TABLE 10
GRIP STRENGTH INVESTIGATION* S U M M A R Y O F
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
S ource d . f . s s ms F S lg n if .
T re atm en ts (A) 2
15309.755
7654.878 .0463
No
S u b je c ts (S)
23
29892.793 1299.687
T reatm en ts x
S u b je c ts (AS) 46
7606513.732
165358.994
T o ta l
71
7651716.280
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
The r e s u l t s o f each of th e f iv e s e p a ra te in v e s tig a
tio n s a re d isc u sse d in t h i s c h a p te r. In a d d itio n , sin c e
s u b s t a n tia l e f f o r t s were u n d ertak en to overcome p ro c e d u ra l
w eaknesses of p rev io u s s tu d ie s , th e r e s u l t of th e se e f f o r t s
a re d isc u sse d b r i e f l y . The purpose of th e stu d y was to
determ ine w hether or n o t th e a p p lic a tio n of io n iz ed a i r
p r io r to m otor a c t i v i t y would r e s u l t in im m ediate and
m easurable changes in perform ance elem ents of th e upper
lim b.
D iscu ssio n o f R eactio n Time I n v e s tig a tio n
S e v e ra l s tu d ie s have shown th a t r e a c tio n tim e can
be a lte r e d by th e a p p lic a tio n of ex cesses of atm ospheric
io n iz a tio n le v e ls . S lo te found th a t im m ediate changes in
sim ple v is u a l r e a c tio n tim e occurred w hich were s t a t i s
t i c a l l y s ig n if ic a n t ( 103) . Minkh a ls o m entioned changes
w hich took p la c e w ith r e s p e c t to r e a c tio n tim ing a f t e r
long term a p p lic a tio n s o f io n iz a tio n (9 9 ). In b o th o f th e
c a ses c ite d above, n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n had th e e f f e c t of
red u cin g th e d u ra tio n o f r e a c tio n tim e as could be p re
d ic te d g e n e ra lly from th e l i t e r a t u r e , e s p e c ia lly th e work
92
of E dstrom , who f i r s t found t h a t n e g a tiv e Io n s low ered
ch ro n ax ia and h eig h ten e d m u scle-n erv e i r r i t a b i l i t y (39)*
The p re s e n t I n v e s tig a tio n r e s u lte d In no co n firm a
t i o n of an h y p o th e sis w hich would p r e d ic t a s ig n i f i c a n t
lo w erin g or r a is i n g o f r e a c tio n tim e as a r e s u l t o f th e
a p p lic a tio n of environm ents o f p o s it iv e l y or n e g a tiv e ly
io n iz e d a i r . By r e f e r r in g to T able 1 , i t may be seen th a t
th e mean r e a c tio n tim e f o r n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n was Indeed
th e s m a lle s t o f th e th r e e ; how ever, th e d if fe re n c e s
betw een t h i s mean and th o s e f o r th e c o n tr o l and p o s itiv e
io n c o n d itio n s were n o t of s u f f i c i e n t m agnitude to even
approach a s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l . Thus i t would ap p ear t h a t
t h i s in v e s tig a tio n gave ev id en ce of th e la c k o f s i g n i f i
c a n t e f f e c t s r e s u lt in g from th e a p p lic a tio n o f e n v iro n
m ents of io n iz e d a i r .
I t seems p o s s ib le t h a t th e d isc re p a n c y betw een th e
fin d in g in t h i s stu d y and th o se s i g n i f i c a n t fin d in g s in
th e q u ite s im ila r stu d y by S lo te may be due to th e d i f
fe re n c e in th e tre a tm e n t o f th e d a ta . In th e S lo te s tu d y ,
a l l raw sc o re s fo r r e a c tio n tim e were tran sfo rm ed by th e
sq u are ro o t p ro c e ss to av o id a ten d en cy tow ard h e te r o
g e n e ity . T his p ro cess te n d s to g iv e th e a n a ly s is of v a r i
ance te ch n iq u e th e b e n e f it o f more homogeneous d a ta and
th e re fo r e Im proves th e chances of s i g n i f i c a n t fin d in g s .
In th e p re s e n t s tu d y , how ever, th e o r ig in a l raw s c o re s in
94
m illis e c o n d s were used e x c lu s iv e ly . T his was done because
in s p e c tio n o f th e d a ta d is c lo s e d i t s a p p a re n t h e te ro g e n e
i t y ; to make i t more homogeneous would have d is t o r te d i t s
n a tu re by p ic tu r in g i t in a more fa v o ra b le b u t in a c c u ra te
l i g h t . S in ce t h i s was c o n sid e re d an in a p p ro p ria te s t a t i s
t i c a l p ro c e d u re , i t was n o t used. A com parison o f th e two
s tu d ie s was th e n im p o ssib le ; fu rth e rm o re , t h i s re a so n in g
c a s ts d oubt upon th e c o n c lu sio n s drawn by S lo te .
D isc u ssio n of Movement Tima I n v e s tig a tio n
No s tu d ie s could be found in w hich movement tim e,
as d e fin e d in t h i s s tu d y , was te s te d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith
environm ents o f io n iz e d a i r as e x p e rim e n ta l v a r ia b le s .
S lo te chose f in g e r ta p p in g as h is m easure o f speed of
movement and found t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s occu rred
in f in g e r ta p p in g o f s i x t y seconds d u ra tio n due to io n iz e d
a i r (1 0 3 ). S in c e in t h i s in v e s tig a tio n f in g e r ta p p in g was
used as a t e s t of speed w h ile in th e c u r r e n t stu d y movement
tim e was em ployed, th e re was no o p p o rtu n ity to make d i r e c t
com parisons.
The d a ta summarized in T ables 3 and 4 show t h a t th e
means f o r movement tim e fo llo w ed th e same p a tte r n as d id
th o se fo r r e a c tio n tim e . I n each c a s e , th e s h o r te s t mean
tim e was re c o rd e d under n e g a tiv e io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s ,
follow ed in ascen d in g o rd er by th o se re co rd ed under
95
n e g a tiv e I o n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s , follow ed in ascending
o rd er by th o se reco rd ed under n a tu r a l a i r and p o s itiv e
io n iz a tio n . This i s th e p a tte r n w hich would be hypothe
siz e d i f th e dominant im p lic a tio n from p rev io u s io n iz a tio n
s tu d ie s were ta k e n in to ac co u n t. However, no w eig h t of
im portance can be p laced upon t h i s tendency sin c e th e
r e s u l t s of th e a n a ly s is were so co m p letely la ck in g in s ig
n if ic a n c e .
S ince re a c tio n tim e and movement tim e a re measured
on th e same ap p a ra tu s and occur in n e a rly a sim u ltan eo u s
p e rio d o f tim e , b u t a re c o n sid ered as s e p a ra te elem ents
(4 2 ), i t would be expected t h a t th e y would show t h i s type
of s im i l a r i t y . The d if fe re n c e s in v a r i a b i l i t y betw een
them would in d ic a te th a t th e i n i t i a t i o n of th e r e a c tio n -
movement tim e sequence was th e p o in t where th e g r e a t e s t
v a ria n c e o ccu rs. The ex trem ely low c o r r e la tio n s betw een
r e a c tio n tim e and movement tim e re p o rte d in th e l i t e r a
tu r e (43, 75) m ight w e ll be due to th is r e la tio n s h ip .
The movement tim e in v e s tig a tio n , when co n sid ered in
r e l a t i o n to th e p re v a ilin g h y p o th e sis of th e stu d y , p ro
vided c o n c lu siv e evidence only of th e absence o f e f f e c t s
of io n iz e d a i r .
D isc u ssio n of P u r s u it R otor I n v e s tig a tio n
The d a ta from th e p u r s u it r o to r in v e s tig a tio n show
a c o n s id e ra b le amount o f v a r i a b i l i t y . The sm all d i f f e r
ences betw een th e means f o r th e th r e e en v iro n m e n tal c o n d i
t i o n s , th e la r g e s t being betw een norm al a i r and p o s itiv e
io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s , w ere n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y la rg e to
approach s ig n if ic a n c e . The mean f o r norm al a i r proved to
be th e h ig h e s t and was fo llo w ed in d escen d in g o rd er by
means f o r n e g a tiv e and p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s .
S in ce no s tu d ie s co u ld be found in w hich th e p u r
s u i t r o to r a p p a ra tu s was used in c o n ju n c tio n w ith e n v iro n
m ents of io n iz e d a i r , no com parisons w ith p rev io u s d a ta
could be made. W ith sm all mean d if f e r e n c e s and g e n e ra l
v a r i a b i l i t y , i t m ust be concluded t h a t t h i s in v e s tig a tio n
p rovided no ev id en ce to su p p o rt an h y p o th e s is w hich would
p r e d ic t s i g n i f i c a n t changes in planned movement as m easured
by p u r s u it r o to r perform ance a f t e r th e a p p lic a tio n of
environm ents o f io n iz e d a i r .
D isc u ssio n o f S te a d in e s s I n v e s tig a tio n
I t i s o f i n t e r e s t to n o te th a t th e s te a d in e s s
in v e s tig a tio n was th e o n ly one in w hich th e m ost s k i l l f u l
perform ance o ccu rred d u rin g p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s .
I t was a ls o th e only in v e s tig a tio n in w hich th e mean f o r
p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s d id n o t ran k lo w est in term s
of th e m ost s k i l l f u l perform ance o f th e m otor perform ance
ta s k u n d e rta k e n . By r e f e r r i n g to T able 7 , i t can be seen
t h a t ra v sc o re s v a rie d c o n s id e ra b ly th ro u g h o u t th e th re e
te s tin g s i t u a t i o n s . A gain, how ever, th e sm a ll mean d i f
fe re n c e s p roduced, r e s u lte d in in s i g n i f i c a n t a n a ly s is
fin d in g s .
As was th e ca se f o r th e movement tim e and p u r s u it
r o to r in v e s tig a tio n s , no s tu d ie s could be found in w hich
io n iz e d a i r was used as an e x p e rim e n ta l v a r ia b le when
s te a d in e s s was being t e s t e d , and a g a in no com parisons
could be made. C o n sid erin g th e I n te r a c tio n betw een sm all
mean d if f e r e n c e s and th e v a r i a b i l i t y n o te d , no evidence
was found in t h i s in v e s tig a tio n to w a rra n t a b e l i e f t h a t
th e b re a th in g o f io n iz e d a i r p r io r to m otor perform ance
would s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r s te a d in e s s o f upper lim b.
D isc u ssio n o f G rip S tre n g th I n v e s tig a tio n
Minkh found th a t en d u ran ce, as m easured by h o ld in g
a m odified hand dynamometer com pressed, improved s i g n i f i
c a n tly a f t e r p e rio d s o f tw e n ty -fiv e days o f b re a th in g
n e g a tiv e ly io n iz e d a i r (99)* Minkh a ls o m entioned, b u t
d id n o t co v er th o ro u g h ly , s tr e n g th in c re a s e s w hich r e s u lte d
in h is s u b je c ts being a b le to e x e r t g r e a te r g r ip fo rc e s
as m easured by th e hand dynam ometer. No s tu d ie s were
a v a ila b le w hich were d i r e c t l y r e la te d to th e g r ip s tr e n g th
p ro ced u res u n d ertak en in t h i s stu d y .
Means f o r g r ip s tr e n g th fo llo w ed th e same g e n e ra l
98
p a tte r n a s th o se fo r th e p u r s u it r o to r in v e s tig a tio n . The
g r e a t e s t m agnitudes of g r ip s tr e n g th o ccu rred under n a t u r a l
a i r c o n d itio n s , follow ed in descending o rd e r by th o se under
n e g a tiv e and th e n p o s itiv e io n iz a tio n c o n d itio n s . G rip
s tr e n g th g e n e r a lly fo llo w ed th e body s iz e and b u ild p a t te r n
o f th e s u b je c ts t e s t e d , th e g r e a t e s t m easured fo rc e s being
produced by th e l a r g e s t and more m ature s u b je c ts . T his
p a t te r n has been d e s c rib e d by Jones (1 1 ). S in ce th e age
ran g e of th e chosen s u b je c ts corresponded to th e tim e o f
l i f e when p h y s ic a l m a tu ra tio n proceeds a t an a c c e le r a te d
r a t e , th e r a th e r wide range of v a r i a b i l i t y of sc o re s i s
u n d e rs ta n d a b le . Because o f th e i n te r a c ti o n betw een sm a ll
mean d if f e r e n c e s and th e v a r i a b i l i t y noted in th e s c o re s ,
t h i s in v e s tig a tio n gave ev id en ce of th e la c k o f e f f e c t s
due to th e environm ents of io n iz e d a i r .
D isc u ssio n of P ro c e d u ra l E ffe c tiv e n e s s
The v a lu e s o f th e p ro ced u res w hich were u n d ertak en
to overcome th e w eaknesses o f io n iz a tio n a d m in is tra tio n
and c o n tr o l w hich were e x h ib ite d in p rev io u s s tu d ie s could
n o t be a s c e r ta in e d from th e r e s u l t s of any of th e f iv e
p re s e n t I n v e s tig a tio n s . Evidence was fo u n d , how ever, of
th e v a lu e of th e s e p ro c e d u ra l m o d ific a tio n s in p ro v id in g
an e f f e c t iv e r a tio n a le fo r io n iz a tio n a d m in is tra tio n and
c o n tro l w hich r e s u lte d from th e ex p e rien ce of a d m in is te rin g
99
and m easuring io n le v e ls . The p ro c e d u ra l d i f f i c u l t i e s
n o ted in a number of p re v io u s s tu d ie s l a r g e ly were o v er
come in th e p re s e n t stu d y . The ta s k of m a in ta in in g con
s ta n t le v e ls o f io n iz a tio n , as o u tlin e d , w ere n o t a t a l l
d i f f i c u l t . The method o f grounding th e s u b je c ts i s a
common one and i s c o n tro lle d e f f e c t i v e l y by u sin g th e io n
c o u n te r to s ig n a l th e lo s s o f a ground c o n n e c tio n . The
method o f m easuring th e io n le v e ls in th e s u b j e c t 's mouth
i s recommended. The method o f moving th e io n g e n e ra tin g
so u rce t o c o n tr o l th e io n le v e ls d e liv e re d to th e s u b je c t
in e x p e rim e n ta l in v e s tig a tio n s i s h ig h ly recommended.
Though no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t f in d in g s r e s u lte d and
though no c o rro b o ra tio n or r e f u t a t i o n o f form er s tu d ie s
was p o s s ib le , a s i g n i f ic a n t c o n tr ib u tio n a p p e ars to be
in h e re n t in th e m o d ific a tio n s of p ro ced u res w hich were
v a lid a te d in th e p re s e n t stu d y .
CHAPTER VI
SU M M A R Y A M D CONCLUSIONS
Summary
The problem *—The purpose o f th e stu d y was to
d eterm in e w hether or n o t th e in h a la tio n o f la rg e q u a n t itie s
of io n iz e d a i r over a p e rio d of tw enty m in u tes would r e s u l t
in im m ediate and m easurable changes in su b seq u en t m otor
perform ance elem ents of th e upper lim b . The io n iz e d a i r
environm ents included* (1) 1 2 ,3 6 0 ,0 0 0 p o s itiv e io n s p er
c c . of a i r ; (2 ) 1 2,000,000 n e g a tiv e io n s p e r c c . of a i r ;
and (3) r e g u la r atm o sp h eric a i r used in p la c e b o form as a
c o n tro l m easure. The m otor perform ance elem en ts w ere:
(1) r e a c tio n tim e; (2 ) movement tim e} (3 ) a c c u rac y of
planned movement; (4) s te a d in e s s ; and (5 ) g r ip s tr e n g th .
The in v e s tig a tio n s . — F iv e s e p a ra te in v e s tig a tio n s
were u n d erta k en and th e y a re p re se n te d h ere in th e o rd er
o f th e m otor perform ance elem en ts l i s t e d d i r e c t l y above.
The in v e s tig a tio n s w ere: (1 ) R e a c tio n Time I n v e s tig a tio n ;
(2) Movement Time I n v e s tig a tio n ; (3 ) P u r s u it R otor I n v e s t i
g a tio n ; (4 ) S te a d in e s s I n v e s tig a tio n ; and (5) G rip S tre n g th
I n v e s tig a tio n .
The s u b je c ts . —Each in v e s tig a tio n in v o lv ed th e same
100
101
tw e n ty -fo u r s u b je c ts . Twenty-tw o of th e t o t a l were
s tu d e n ts o f th e S outh Pasadena High S chool; th e rem aining
two s u b je c ts were r e c e n t h ig h sch o o l g ra d u a te s a tte n d in g
n earb y c o lle g e s . A ll of th e s u b je c ts were s k il le d a t h
l e t e s .
E x p e rim e n tal d e s ig n . — The th re e environm ents were
used in a m o d ified L a tin -s q u a re d e sig n in w hich th e a n a ly
s i s o f v a ria n c e te ch n iq u e was employed to t e s t th e n u ll
h y p o th e s is : t h a t th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een means o b ta in ed
f o r th e e x p e rim e n ta l environm ents o ccu rred as th e r e s u l t
of mere chance and th u s do n o t d i f f e r s ig n i f i c a n t l y from
th e h y p o th e tic a l p o p u la tio n 's mean of z e ro to r e p r e s e n t
an y th in g o th e r th a n random sam pling f lu c tu a tio n s .
F in d in g s
1. No ev id en ce was found in any o f th e f iv e se p a
r a t e in v e s tig a tio n s t o su p p o rt th e s tu d y 's w orking h y p o th e
s i s : t h a t in h a la tio n o f la rg e q u a n t itie s of io n iz e d a i r
fo r tw en ty m inute p e r io d s , b o th p o s itiv e and n e g a tiv e in
p o l a r i t y , p r io r to th e o n se t o f motor p erform ance, can p ro
duce s i g n i f i c a n t changes from t h a t c o n sid ered to be norm al
perform ance.
2 . P r a c t i c a l ev id en ce am ounting to a s u b s t a n tia l
c o n tr ib u tio n was o b ta in e d , th e r e s u l t s o f w hich recommend
them h ig h ly as p ro ced u res to be follow ed d u rin g th e
102
a d m in is tr a tio n and c o n tro l o f I o n iz a tio n In e x p e rim e n ta l
in v e s tig a tio n s .
C onclusion
On th e b a s is o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s is of th e
d a ta and th e d is c u s s io n of th e r e s u l t s , th e fo llo w in g con
c lu s io n a p p e ars to be j u s t i f i e d : The e f f e c t s of in h a lin g
la rg e q u a n t itie s of io n iz e d a i r over p e rio d s of tw enty
m inutes a re to o s u b tle to r e s u l t in im m ediate changes of
s ig n if ic a n c e in su b seq u en t m otor perform ance of th e upper
lim b.
Rftenmmflnqations f o r F u rth e r Study
The in c o n s is te n c ie s w hich e x i s t in th e re s e a rc h
l i t e r a t u r e co n cern in g th e e f f e c t s of b re a th in g io n iz e d a i r
rem ain u n re so lv e d . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s stu d y , and th e
in fo rm a tio n d e riv e d from th o s e p reced in g i t , c e r t a i n ques
tio n s o f i n t e r e s t a r i s e . These a re :
1. I s th e mechanism by w hich io n iz e d a i r e x e r ts an
in flu e n c e a fu n c tio n of a s u rfa c e charge as th e r e s u l t of
th e absence of ad eq u ate g ro u n d in g , or is th e in flu e n c e due
to th e in h a la tio n o f io n iz e d a i r w h ile b ein g grounded?
2 . What a re th e m e rits of exposures w hich a re
extended over p e rio d s as long as s e v e r a l months as compared
w ith s h o r te r exposure d u ra tio n s o f m in u te s, h o u rs, and
days?
103
3. What a re th e e f f e c t s of d i f f e r e n t io n iz a tio n
dosages or le v e ls ?
4. Do th e p h y s io lo g ic a l e f f e c t s , w hich have been
d e ta ile d in th e re s e a rc h l i t e r a t u r e , have p a r a l l e l psycho
lo g ic a l and perform ance e f f e c ts ?
What d if f e r e n c e s , i f any, do th e d if f e r e n t
methods of s t a t i s t i c a l tre a tm e n t have on co n clu sio n s
reg ard in g io n iz a tio n e f f e c ts ?
6. What a re th e e f f e c t s of io n iz e d a i r upon
p sy c h o lo g ic a l f a c to r s w hich could in flu e n c e human motor
perform ance?
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Creator Kelley, David Lyndon (author)

Core Title The Influence Of Artificial Atmospheric Ionization On Human Motor Performance

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Physical Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Physical,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Advisor Lockhart, Aileene (committee chair), Cooper, John M. (committee member), Morris, Royce (committee member)

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Rights Kelley, David Lyndon

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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses