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The Company Town As A Feature Of Western American Development

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The Company Town As A Feature Of Western American Development

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Content T his d issertation has been 64— 3089 m icrofilm ed exactly as received ALLEN, Jam es Brown, 1927— THE COMPANY TOWN AS A FEATURE OF WESTERN AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT. U n iversity of Southern C alifornia, P h.D ., 1963 H istory, m odem University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan Copyright by Jares Brown A llen 196^ THE CO M PA N Y TO W N AS A FEATURE OF WESTERN AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT by James Brown A llen A D is s e r ta tio n P re se n te d to th e FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t o f th e Requirem ents f o r th e degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (H ia to ry } August, 1963 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA GRADUATE SC H O O L UNIVERSITY PARK LOS A N G E L E S 7, C A LIFOR N IA This dissertation, written by ...........JAMES. .BROWN.. ALLEN........ under the direction of hi3....Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y D a te. A n g U S . t . . . l 9-& 3 FRONTISPIECE KORBEL, CALIFORNIA as i t appeared in 1949* Owned by th e N orthern Redwood Lumber Company, Korbel e x is te d o n ly to su p p o rt th e o p e ra tio n s o f the la rg e lumber m ill* On th e l e f t s id e o f th e p ic tu r e can be seen th e main housing a r e a , lo g pond, lumber m i l l , and company o f fic e s * Across th e Mad R iver i s lo c a te d th e d ry in g y ard s and an a d d itio n a l housing a re a used p rim a rily f o r company o f f i c i a l s and foremen* The r e c ta n g u la r b u ild in g a t th e r i g h t o f the lo g pond i s a bunk house f o r s in g le men. The p o st o f f i c e , company s t o r e , t h e a t e r , e t c , a re lo c a te d alo n g w ith the company o f f ic e s in th e lower l e f t hand c o rn e r, (Photograph c o u rte sy Ed C, M o rris o n ,) TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS....................................................................... v Chapter Page I . DEFINITION A N D INTRODUCTION................................. 1 I I . SOM E EARLY CO M PA N Y TOW NS................................................ 13 I I I . CO M PA N Y TOW NS IN THE LUM BER INDUSTRY................. 27 IV. COM PANY-OW NED TO W N S IN THE COPPER INDUSTRY . . 30 V. COM PAN Y TO W N S A N D COAL M IN IN G ................................113 V I. CO M PA N Y TO W N S IN OTHER INDUSTRIES . . . . . . . 166 V II. SOCIAL ASPECTS OF THE COM PAN Y TOWN- COM M UNITY PLANNING A N D HOUSING .... . . . 196 V II I. OTHER SOCIAL ASPECTS OF THE COM PANY T O W N . . . 232 IX. M ANAGEM ENT OF THE COM PANY TOWN...................................260 X. ECONOMICS, POLITICS, A N D PATERNALISM ..................... 271 XI. THE COM PANY STORE ..................... . . . . . . . . 295 EPILOGUE................................ .3 2 1 iv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FRONTISPIECE P la te I . I I . I I I . IV. V„ VI. V II. V III. IX. X. XI. X II. X III o XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. • • 6 0 0 6 0 6 6 0 6 6 0 6 6 0 • 6 6 6 Company Forem an's Home, Hayden, A rizona R e c re a tio n H a ll, F r o n ti e r , Wyoming "Boleta" used a t Tubac ....................... . The Old M ining Camp o f H e lv e tia , Arizona . . M etal Tokens used fo r S crip a t W ilark, Oregon Rockport, C a lifo r n ia . . . . . . Main S tr e e t , McCloud, C a lifo rn ia Hayden, Arizona . . . . . . . M orenci, Arizona . . . . . . . Lavender P it , Near B isb e e, Arizona Company S tore a t Hanna, Wyoming . . . . Dawson, New Mexico . . ..................................... Entrance to L itc h f ie ld Park, Arizona . . nA Dying Company Town”— Climax, Colorado Westpark and L e a d v ille , Colorado . "Stargo" Housing Area a t Morenci Company H ousing, McCloud, C a lifo rn ia . . G eneral S u p erin ten d en t's Home, Hayden, Arizona ....... ... . . . o . . . . i n Page 21 6 6 6 6 0 0 21 33 60 77 . . 94 . . 108 . . 113 . . 135 . . 160 . . 181 . . 185 . . 187 . . 203 . . 211 221 223 245 0 6 0 V XIX. P helps Dodge Company S to re , M orenci, A rizona . 301 XX. Phelps Dodge Coupon Book ( P h o to s ta tic copy) . 316 XXI. M etal Tokens Once used f o r S c rip a t K o rb el, C a lif o rn ia . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 313 v i CHAPTER I DEFINITION A ND INTRODUCTION An im p o rta n t phase o f American economic and s o c ia l h i s t o r y which has re c e iv e d l i t t l e fo rm al a t t e n t i o n from h i s t o r i a n s i s t.hr s to r y o f th e company-owned town, Hun d red s o f th e s e r e l a t i v e l y i s o l a t e d , o n e - in d u s try communi t i e s have d o tte d a l l p a r ts o f th e American map, and many a re s t i l l p la y in g im p o rta n t r o l e s in th e economic l i f e o f t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s e c tio n s a The lumber towns o f th e g r e a t N orthw est and o f C a lif o r n i a , th e New England t e x t i l e tow ns, th e c o tto n m il l communities o f the S outh, and the company- owned m ining towns o f such s t a t e s as P en n sy lv a n ia , New M exico, A rizo n a, Colorado, and Utah have c o n trib u te d s i g n i f i c a n t l y to the growth o f t h e i r r e g io n s , y e t a com posite s to r y o f t h e i r developm ent never has been to ld * How and why d id company towns develop? How e x te n s iv e has been th e e x is te n c e o f such tow ns, and how many a r e s t i l l fu n c tio n in g ? Was th e development o f p a r t i c u l a r in d u s t r i e s in any way dependent upon company-owned communi t i e s ? What s p e c ia l problem s came to th e companies by v i r t u e o f t h e i r p o s itio n s as la n d lo rd s and town govern m ents? What e f f e c t has changing economic c o n d itio n s had 1 upon th e company town as an i n s t i t u t i o n ^ With such q u e stio n s in mind a study o f th e company town in one o f th e la rg e geographic re g io n s o f th e U nited S ta te s seems s ig n if ic a n t* To study a l l such towns in th e country would be an overwhelming ta sk * To stu d y o n ly a few would l i m i t th e tre a tm e n t to such an e x te n t th a t i t would be r e l a t i v e l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t in th e co n tex t o f Ameri can h is to ry ,, Taking a p a r tic u la r r e g io n , however, g iv es o p p o rtu n ity to develop a p ic tu r e w ith some n a tio n a l s i g n i f ic a n c e , b u t more space may also be devoted to sane o f th e more i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c ts o f p a r t i c u l a r communities* The Far West seems to form a n a tu r a l geographic s e c tio n f o r t h i s studyo The s t a t e s o f W ashington, Oregon, C a lif o rn ia , Nevada, Idaho, Montana, U tah, Wyoming, Arizona, and New Mexico w i l l th e r e f o r e be considered* I t must be p o in te d o u t, how ever, t h a t th e company- owned town is n o t p e c u lia r to th e U nited S ta te s * In m ining, f o r example, th e v ery n a tu re o f the in d u s try o fte n compels th e e r e c tio n of company towns in rem ote s e c tio n s th ro u g h o u t the world* Reported one re c e n t stu d y o f th e economic problems o f the m in e ra l i n d u s t r i e s ; A problem o f p a r t i c u l a r concern to the m ining in d u s try i s r a is e d by t h e r e l a t i v e rem oteness v erg in g on a c tu a l i n a c e s s i b i l i t y of many m ining r e g io n s . The c o n s tru c tio n o f i n d u s t r i a l v i l l a g e s or towns i s f a m ilia r to many in d u s tr ie s and may be governed by a c c e ss to la b o r , m a rk e t, or raw m a t e r i a l s ; b u t in few i f any o th e r i n d u s t r ie s i s the lo c a le so l i k e l y to be in u n derpopulated re g io n s as in mining* Examples a re th e copper and o th e r b ase-m etal d e p o s its o f th e B elgian 3 Congo and th e Andes o f C hile and Peru, th e t i n m ining re g io n s o f B o liv ia ., th e c r y o lit e m ining c e n te r s in G reenland, the A lpine v i l l a g e s surrounding th e le a d - zin c d e p o s its o f northern I t a ly and A u str ia , and the raining towns on the A r tie C ir c le in the iro n d i s t r i c t s o f northern Sweden. These lo c a t io n s , fa r from o th er p r e - e x is t in g p o p u la tio n c e n te r s , compel the co n stru c tio n o f whole v i l l a g e s or tow n s, w ith th e ir s c h o o ls , h o s p i t a ls , w ater su p p ly , and food d e p o ts, r e p le te w ith ro a d s, r a ilr o a d s , and lan d in g f i e l d s . Even in th e U nited S ta te s t h i s may be n ece ssa r y where a la r g e ore d e p o s it in a new area i s b ein g opened.^ An example o f a la r g e company town o u ts id e th e U nited S ta te s i s one e s ta b lis h e d in Mexico by the El Boleo Mining Company. The company employed 2&00 workers in 1916, m aintain ed the s c h o o ls , owned 1,551 d w e llin g s which ren ted a t r a te s va ry in g from one d o lla r per month to $ 1 2 .5 0 , and op erated company s t o r e s .2 Problems o f D e fin itio n I r o n ic a lly , the f i r s t q u estio n to a r is e i s th a t o f d e f in i t i o n , and t h i s must be d isc u sse d a t len g th in order to i l l u s t r a t e by example the many problems which have com p licated t h is stu d y . What i s a company town? I t was f i r s t n a iv e ly 1 Char.les A. B eher, Jr., and N a th a n iel A r b ite r , "D is t i n c t i v e F eatures o f th e M ineral I n d u s tr ie s ," in Edward H. Robie (ed.), Economics o f th e M ineral I n d u s tr ie s . A S e r ie s o f A r t ic le s by S p e c i a l i s t s . (New York; The American I n s t i - tu t e o f M ining, M e ta llu r g ic a l and Petroleum E n g in eers, I n c . , 1959), pp* 75-76. 2"Wages and Cost o f L iv in g i n M ining D i s t r i c t s o f S anta R o s a lia , Lower C a lif o r n i a , M exico," Monthly Labor Review . V ol. V II, No. 4 (O ctober, 1916), pp. 121-122. k assumed t h a t I t could be d e fin e d sim ply as; any community which has been b u i l t w holly to su p p o rt th e o p e ra tio n s o f a s in g le company, in which a l l r e a l - e s t a t e , homes and o th e r b u ild in g s a re owned by t h a t company, having been e r e c te d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r the b e n e f i t o f i t s em ployees, and in which th e company p ro v id e s most p u b lic s e r v i c e s . V ast d if f e r e n c e s in th e 1S& com munities s tu d i e d , how ever, made many r a m if ic a tio n s n e c e ss a ry and soon re v e a le d th e in a d e quacy o f any sim ple d e f i n i t i o n , 3 The company towns o f th e Phelps Dodge C o rp o ra tio n , f o r exam ple, d is c lo s e a wide range o f c o n d itio n s which would a f f e c t the d e f i n i t i o n . The town of M orenci, A rizo n a, most c e r t a i n l y f i t s th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s g iv en above. I t i s w holly owned by th e company, in c lu d in g a l l h o u se s, th e h o t e l , a l l b u s in e s s b u ild in g s , and a l l p u b lic u t i l i t i e s . The company s t o r e dom inates th e b u sin e ss l i f e of th e tow n. Although p r iv a te b u s in e sse s e x i s t , t h e i r prem ises a re le a s e d from th e company and i t allo w s o n ly th o se b u s i n e s se s which i t c o n sid e rs n e c e ssa ry to th e f u n c tio n in g o f the community. At th e o th e r end o f the s c a l e , how ever, i s th e town o f B isb ee , which many people c la s s as a company town<A T rue, the l i f e of B isbee i s alm ost w holly 3A b r i e f sta te m e n t on each o f th e company towns i d e n t i f i e d d u rin g t h i s stu d y i s in c lu d e d in th e ap p en d ix . 4-When th e w r i te r was doing h i s r e s e a r c h , alm ost everyone who knew an y th in g about A rizona i n s i s t e d t h a t he must go to B isb ee, f o r i t was o b v io u sly a " ty p ic a l* s u s ta in e d by Phelps Dodge o p e ra tio n s , and the company s to r e i s th e dominant b u sin e ss in town. The company, fu rth e rm o re , m a in ta in s a l i b r a r y in a company-owned b u ild in g which a ls o houses th e p o st o f f i c e . A ll th e land in B isbee i s owned by the company, but th e homes a re alm ost a l l p r iv a te ly owned. Home owners le a s e lan d from th e company a t a nominal r a t e o f one d o lla r per y e a r, which keeps them from claim ing s q u a tte r r i g h t s . There a re many b u sin e ss e s ta b lish m en ts in Bisbee which compete d i r e c t l y w ith the company s t o r e . Bisbee has i t s own c i t y governm ent, p o lic e f o r c e , chamber o f commerce and p u b lic u t i l i t i e s , a l l o f which a c t in d ep en d en tly from th e company. The f a c t o f p r iv a te owner sh ip o f homes, self-g o v ern m e n t, and th e dominance of independent m erchants and u t i l i t i e s r a i s e s th e q u estio n as to w hether Bisbee can r e a l l y be d efin e d as a "company tow n," even though i t i s c e r t a in ly "company dominated" in many r e s p e c t s . Communities such as Bisbee have re c e iv e d only b r i e f c o n s id e ra tio n h e re , f o r the main view o f t h i s stu d y i s upon towns th a t a re com pletely owned and c o n tro lle d by p a r t i c u l a r com panies. Two a d d itio n a l examples o f towns o f te n r e f e r r e d to as company towns but which have been excluded from t h i s stu d y a re Douglas and Jerom e, A rizona. The l a t t e r , which company town. A fte r h is v i s i t , however, th e w r ite r determ ined t h a t Bisbee was n e ith e r " ty p ic a l" nor a f u l l - fled g ed company town. i s now abandoned, is one of th e W est’s most u nusual m ining camps, and has achieved n a tio n a l fame. I t was c a lle d in to e x is te n c e by th e o p e ra tio n s o f th e U nited Verde Copper Company, and Phelps Dodge l a t e r came to dominate the tow n’s l i f e . The town, however, was d e f i n i t e l y n o t a company- owned community. R esid en ts owned t h e i r own lan d and homes. The town was in c o rp o ra te d and i t c o n tro lle d i t s own govern ment and p u b lic u t i l i t i e s .5 i n th e case of D ouglas, t h i s community was founded in 1.9011 by James Douglas o f Phelps Dodge. Douglas and h is a s s o c i a t e s , however, formed th e I n te r n a tio n a l Land and Improvement Company, a c q u irin g a l l p ro p e rty in Douglas and s e l l i n g i t as a p r o f i t making v e n tu re to p r iv a te homeowners and b u sin e ss men.6 I t seems ap p a re n t t h a t such a s e ttle m e n t should not be in clu d ed w ith in the d e f i n i t i o n o f a company town, even though company o p e ra tio n s alm ost w holly s u s ta in th e l i f e of th e town. Another Phelps Dodge community ra m if ie s f u r th e r th e q u estio n o f d e f i n i t i o n . This is A jo, which i s somewhere between th e two extrem es j u s t d isc u sse d as f a r as company c o n tro l i s concerned. Here th e company owns o nly about "For th e h is t o r y o f Jerom e, see J . C arl Brogdon, The H isto ry of Jerom e. A rizona (unpublished M a ste r’s t h e s i s , Dept".~of H is to ry , U n iv e rsity o f A rizona, 1952). ^Robert S. J e f f r e y , The H isto ry o f D ouglas, A rizona (unpublished M a ste r’s t h e s i s , D ept, of H is to ry , U n iv e rs ity o f A rizona, 1951), pp. 1-17. h a l f th e lan d upon which re s id e n c e s and o th e r b u ild in g s a re lo c a te d . Homes and o th e r s t r u c t u r e s on company prop e r ty a re n e a rly a l l company-owned, except fo r th e h o te l, a few county government b u ild in g s , sch o o ls and ch u rch e s. The downtown p la z a i s owned by th e company, but c e r ta in b u sin ess men a re allow ed to le a s e the b u ild in g s ac co rd in g to company s t i p u l a t i o n s . Homes o u ts id e of company p ro p e rty a re a l l p r iv a te ly owned. New housing u n its a re c u r r e n tly going up, as w ell as p r iv a te m o te ls, r e s t u r a n t s and o th e r b u sin e ss f a c i l i t i e s having no d i r e c t co nnection with th e company. Housing in the company s e c tio n i s com pletely c o n tro lle d by Phelps Dodge, which m a in ta in s a l l r i g h t s o f determ in in g who moves i n , r e n t a l r a t e s , e t c . , b u t th e re i s a b s o lu te ly no company c o n tro l of th e o th e r h a l f o f the town. The f a c t , however, t h a t such a la r g e p o rtio n of th e town is company-owned, t h a t a l l employment in th e town depends on th e company, th a t Ajo is so is o l a te d th a t a c lo sin g o f th e p la n t would d r iv e away a l l r e s i d e n t s , t h a t b a s ic d ir e c tio n o f community l i f e and s p i r i t rem ains in th e hands of th e company, a l l combine to compel i t s in c lu s io n w ith in th e d e f i n i t i o n of a company town. S e v e ra l a d d itio n a l communities have been p a r t l y company-owned and p a r tly p riv a te ly -o w n e d , such as R oslyn, Washington and S t i r l i n g C ity , C a lif o r n ia , and have been in clu d ed in t h i s s tu d y . The conmunity o f D avenport, C a lif o rn ia , ra m ifie s s t i l l f u r th e r th e d e f i n i t i o n o f a company town. The com m unity was b u i l t in 1906 by th e Coast D a irie s and Land Company and contained a l l th e f e a tu r e s o f a tr u e company town, in c lu d in g a company s t o r e . The town was b u i l t , how e v e r, not fo r the employees of t h i s company, but fo r w orkers o f th e S anta Cruz P o rtla n d Cement Company, which had b u i l t a p la n t on th e p ro p e rty of the Coast D a irie s and Land Company. Only cement w orkers were housed in the town, but th e d a iry company owned, o p e ra te d , and c o n tro lle d i t . This continued u n t i l 1921, when the houses were s o l d . 7 I t seems obvious t h a t Davenport should be co n sid ered a s a company town. A q u estio n of d e f i n i t i o n sometimes a r is e s when towns such as Longview, W ashington, a re c o n sid e re d . B u ilt by th e Long-B ell Lumber Company in th e e a rly 1920*s as th e c e n te r o f i t s f a r - f lu n g a c t i v i t i e s , th e town achieved n a tio n a l fame as one o f A m erica's .o u tstan d in g planned com m unities. Longview had been b u i l t , however, w ith th e express in t e n t o f making i t a f in e community of home ow ners. No attem p t was made to go in to th e p a t e r n a l i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s u s u a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith company tow ns, alth o u g h th e company d id b u ild th e Columbia R iver M e rc a n tile s t o r e , w ith o f f ic e s u p s ta ir s f o r th e company, which was th e ^ In te rv ie w w ith C harles J . B e lla , S anta Cruz, C a lif o rn ia , May 4 , 1962. b eginning of th e b u sin e ss d i s t r i c t . The e n t ir e town was b u i l t to be s o ld , n o t to be o p e ra te d by the company. O ther in d u s t r i e s , in c lu d in g o th e r lumber com panies, were encouraged to come to Longview. Even though the town i s s t i l l la r g e ly dependent upon th e I n te r n a tio n a l Lumber Company (which took over Long-Bell o p e r a tio n s ), i t would be d i f f i c u l t to c a ll i t a company tow n.# The s iz e and permanence of a town have a lso had som ething to do w ith d eterm in in g what communities should be s tu d ie d . No attem p t has been made to lo c a te th e hundreds of t in y s e ttle m e n ts o f te n b u i l t by r a i l r o a d companies n ear ju n c tio n s , alth o u g h i t should be reco g n ized h ere t h a t th ey have played a s i g n i f i c a n t r o le in th e developm ent o f the W est. Tiny v i l l a g e s such as E le c tro n , W ashington, which houses f a m ilie s of only tw enty-tw o employees of th e Puget Sound Power and L ig h t Company,9 have n o t been so u g h t. A study o f th e se m in ia tu re conm unities m ight prove most in te r e s t i n g and w o rth -w h ile . Excluded a ls o have been th e many tem porary la b o r camps e s ta b lis h e d by o i l com panies, a g r i c u l t u r a l w orkers and o t h e r s . Logging camps have been ^For th e com plete and i n t e r e s t i n g s to r y of Longview, see John B. M cC lelland, J r . , Longview. . . The Remarkable Beginnings o f a Modern W estern C ity (P o rtla n d : B in fo rd s & M ort, V949)"------ -------------------------- ^Works P rogress A d m in is tra tio n , W r ite r ’s Program, W ashington. A Guide to the E vergreen S ta te (P o rtla n d ; B infords & M ort, 1941), p . 388. 10 in c lu d e d only i f th e y were o f th e more permanent ty p e . F in a ll y , i t was n o t f e l t t h a t government-owned tow ns, such as Los Alamos, New Mexico, should come w ith in the scope o f t h i s s tu d y . Towns such as Henderson, Nevada, and D ragerton, U tah, however, were b u i l t d u rin g World War I I by th e government f o r th e express purpose o f housing employees o f p a r t i c u l a r p r iv a te companies and th e re fo r e come v e ry c lo se to being company tow ns. In view o f th e s e v a r i a t i o n s , i t becomes ap p a re n t th a t th e re i s no sim ple d e f i n i t i o n o f th e company town. For g e n e ra l purposes h e re , however, i t w ill be d e fin e d as any community which i s w holly owned and c o n tro lle d by a p a r t i c u l a r company. The s e v e r a l m o d ific a tio n s w ill serv e to add i n t e r e s t and s ig n ific a n c e to th e s to r y . Sources o f In fo rm atio n The problem o f lo c a tin g company-owned towns was s u r p r is in g ly com p licated , and i t i s a c e r t a i n t y t h a t not a l l of them have been fo u n d . R e sid e n ts and managers o f e x is tin g towns were c o n ta c te d and asked f o r s u g g e s tio n s , as were tr a d e a s s o c ia tio n s , s t a t e m ining d ep artm en ts, s t a t e h i s t o r i c a l s o c i e t i e s , u n io n s, th e f e d e r a l governm ent, f o r e s t r y and m ining departm ents o f v a rio u s u n i v e r s i t i e s , and a v a r ie ty of in d iv i d u a ls « » Few people could name more than s i x o r seven such tow ns. I t i s obvious t h a t many company towns have long s in c e d isa p p ea re d and l i t t l e i f any t r a c e rem ains as time and n a tu re have combined to e ra s e t h e i r memory. In th e lumber in d u s tr y , f o r exam ple, e v i dence in d ic a te s t h a t many sm all m ills were once e s ta b lis h e d in th e f o r e s t v a lle y s o f th e P a c if ic C oast, and t h a t s m a ll, r u s t i c , company-owned v i l l a g e s sp ran g up around them . These e a r ly o p e r a tio n s , how ever, rem ained in one lo c a le f o r o nly a s h o r t p e rio d o f tim e , th e n moved on, le a v in g behind the abandoned shacks which s in c e have com p letely d is a p p e a re d . Such towns a re most d i f f i c u l t to l o c a t e , alth o u g h a few w i l l be m entioned h e r e . A f u r t h e r c o m p lic a tio n i s th e f a c t th a t many people know ledgeable in t h e i r f i e l d s were n o t c e r t a i n w hether some towns were company-owned or n o t , and each town had to be "checked o u t" th o ro u g h ly . B rie f m ention should be made of th e problem o f so u rce s f o r th e stu d y o f the company town. I d e a l l y , o f f i c i a l company re c o rd s would seem to be th e b e s t so u rce o f in fo rm a tio n . S e v e ra l problem s, how ever, co m p licate th e use o f such m a te r ia l . F i r s t , in la r g e c o rp o ra tio n s th e re c o rd s p e r ta in in g to th e o p e r a tio n o f th e company town a r e in te g r a te d w ith a co m p licated mass o f documents which could be made m eaningful only th ro u g h th e long and p a in s ta k in g e f f o r t s o f a p r o f e s s io n a l a u d ito r or a c c o u n t a n t . Such r e c o r d s , f u rth e rm o re9 r e v e a l l i t t l e of th e p e rs o n a l and s o c i a l a s p e c ts of th e company town, which a re im p o rta n t to t h i s s tu d y . F i n a l l y , c o rp o ra tio n documents 12 a r e seldom a v a ila b le f o r use in co n n ectio n w ith t h i s kind o f stu d y , not only because c o rp o ra tio n p o lic y o f te n f o r b id s such re c o rd s b ein g made a m a tte r o f p u b lic inform a t i o n , but a ls o because many re c o rd s p e r ta in in g to company towns have been l o s t o r d e s tro y e d . The g e n e ra l manager o f th e Union P a c if ic Coal Company, f o r example, was unable to remember where th e re c o rd s p e r ta in in g to th e o p e ra tio n o f some o f i t s form er company towns m ight be lo c a te d , and suggested t h a t company s to r e re c o rd s and o th e rs which m ight have been open f o r stu d y probably had been b u r n e d .^ An example o f what m ight happen to re c o rd s o f abandoned m ining towns i s seen in Arizona* Some o f th e re c o rd s o f th e o ld Twin B u ttes Mining Company a re lo c a te d a t th e P ioneer H is to r ic a l S o c ie ty o f A rizona a t Tucson* This m a te r ia l was brought to th e s o c ie ty in 1959 by two b ro th e rs who had found i t in an abandoned b u ild in g w hile rock h u n tin g . A la r g e r p o r tio n o f th e Twin B u ttes re c o rd s a re lo c a te d a t th e l i b r a r y o f th e U n iv e rs ity o f A rizo n a. Dr. Bernard L. F ontana, f i e l d h i s t o r i a n a t th e U n iv e rs ity , heard o f th e re c o rd s from a f r ie n d who had been h u n tin g in th e a re a and had seen a “p i l e o f junk" in an o ld b u ild in g . O btaining p erm issio n from th e p re s e n t owners o f ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith V. 0 . M urray, P re s id e n t and G eneral M anager, Union P a c if ic Coal Company, Rock S p rin g s, Wyoming, J u ly 6, 1961s 13 th e p r o p e r ty , Dr. F ontana to o k much of th e m a te r ia l to th e u n i v e r s i t y . Much more, how ever, h ad undoubtedly been a p p r o p r ia te d by s o u v e n ir h u n te rs .^ ^ Documents ta k e n to th e l i b r a r y were in a poor s t a t e of p r e s e r v a tio n , many were in co m p lete, an d a l l w ere so d is o rg a n iz e d t h a t i t has ta k e n many months o f p a in s ta k in g e f f o r t s to put them in a form t h a t is u s e f u l a t a l l t o th e r e s e a r c h e r . Records p e r ta in in g to o p e ra tio n s a t M orenci, A ri zona, b e fo re i t was taken o v er by Phelps Dodge C o rp o ra tio n w ere once lo c a te d i n a basem ent a t M orenci, but were o f l i t t l e v a lu e or i n t e r e s t to anyone. D r. Fontana le a rn e d o f th e s e o n ly by chance and was able to o b ta in p e rm issio n to ta k e th e n to th e l i b r a r y . At th e tim e t h i s s tu d y was b ein g made the w r i t e r was allo w e d to work w ith th e s e docum ents, which f i l l e d an e n t i r e room in the u n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r y and had n o t y e t been o rg a n iz e d o r arran g ed in any m e an in g fu l way. T hree days o f study produced a l i t t l e rew ard in g in fo rm a tio n concerning the economic im p lic a tio n s o f company town ow nership and th e o p e r a tio n o f th e o ld company s t o r e . I t a l s o made th e w r i te r aware t h a t th e company town was in r e a l i t y an i n s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f th e t o t a l o p e ra tio n s o f any la r g e c o r p o r a tio n , and t h a t much tim e could be w asted in any a tte m p t to g le a n th e s t o r y 11 In te rv ie w w ith Dr. B ernard L. F ontana, F ie ld H is to r ia n , U n iv e rs ity o f A riz o n a , Tucson, A rizona, March 2 0, 1962. 14 from such r e c o r d s , even i f they were r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . At S e a t t l e , W ashington, th e U n iv e rs ity of W ashington l i b r a r y houses th e pap ers o f th e W ashington M ill Company, b u t two a fte rn o o n s o f stu d y h e re re v e a le d p r a c t i c a l l y n o th in g on th e o p e ra tio n o f th e company town o f S eabeck. So l i t t l e work has been done on th e s to r y of the company town t h a t s t a t e h i s t o r i c a l s o c i e t i e s g e n e r a lly a re ig n o ra n t of such towns which may have e x is te d w ith in t h e i r s t a t e s . C lip p in g f i l e s , how ever, a r e sometimes u s e f u l i f one knows th e name o f a company o r town to be s tu d ie d . Company p e r io d ic a ls and h i s t o r i e s a re a ls o h e l p f u l , and many are r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . No n atio n -w id e su rv e y has ev e r been ta k e n o f company-owned tow ns, a lth o u g h th e D epartm ent o f Labor has f re q u e n tly s tu d ie d c e r t a i n s o c i a l a s p e c ts and p u b lis h e d th e r e s u l t s i n b r i e f a r t i c l e s . These have proved h e l p f u l . In 1947 th e Coal Mines A d m in is tra tio n made a m edical su rv ey o f th e bitum inous c o a l in d u s t r y , which in c lu d e d s e l e c t company towns in th e W est. A la r g e summary r e p o r t was p u b lis h e d , b u t no company towns were s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s ig n a te d , which made the r e p o r t d i f f i c u l t to u s e . A r e q u e s t in 1962 f o r a c c e ss to th e documents su p p o rtin g t h i s su rv ey re v e a le d t h a t th e d a ta was se cu red under p led g e o f c o n f i dence and could n o t be r e le a s e d f o r a t l e a s t f i v e y e a rs and p o s s ib ly lo n g e r. The m ost f r u i t f u l so u rce o f in fo rm a tio n has been 15 correspondence and in te rv ie w s w ith people who have liv e d in company towns and who have been a s s o c ia te d w ith th e management o f such towns® The sc o re s of q u e s tio n n a ire s and l e t t e r s o f in q u iry s e n t out re c e iv e d approxim ately 75 p er cen t response® Seven of th e elev en w estern s t a t e s were to u re d , and dozens o f form er company town r e s i d e n t s , re p re s e n tin g a f a i r c r o s s - s e c tio n of management and la b o r p e rso n n e l, were interview ed® Why the Company Town? The s ig n if ic a n c e of th e company town i s seen p a r tly in th e alm ost unanimous answer given to two q u e s tio n s : "Why did the company town come in to e x is te n c e ? " and "Why a re company towns so r a p id ly d isa p p e a rin g from th e scene?" Almost in v a ria b ly th e answer to th e f i r s t q u e stio n was th a t th e company town was an economic n e c e s s ity to th e company in v o lv e d . Mining companies e s ta b lis h in g them selves in i s o l a te d a re a s o f te n found i t n e c e ssa ry to p ro v id e housing f o r w orkers in o rd e r to g e t them to come. The company, fu rth e rm o re , would n o t s e l l p ro p e rty , f o r i t m ight some day prove w orth developing® A ll t h i s le d in v a ria b ly to a need f o r th e company to p rovide a system of community r e g u la tio n as w ell as f a c i l i t i e s f o r r e c r e a t i o n , m edical c a re , and a l l o th e r s e rv ic e s re q u ire d in a r e s i d e n t i a l area® Lumber companies, to o , o fte n s e t up o p e ra tio n s in rem ote f o r e s t a re a s so f a r from c i v i l i z a t i o n t h a t i t would 16 be im p ra c tic a l f o r men to commute, even on weekends. The company town, t h e r e f o r e , became e s p e c ia lly s i g n i f i c a n t in th e s u c c e s s fu l expansion o f th e lumber and m ining in d u s t r i e s o f the W est. The answer to th e second query, "Why a re company towns so r a p id ly d isa p p e a rin g from th e scen e?” only se rv e s to emphasize th e s ig n if ic a n c e o f the f i r s t . True, d e p le te d ore and tim ber s u p p lie s have e lim in a te d many tow ns. O th e rs, however, have been sim ply s o ld to employees as management has been convinced t h a t company ow nership is no lo n g e r needed. E qually s i g n i f i c a n t i s th e f a c t t h a t few new company towns a re being e r e c te d . Modern highw ays, a u to m o b ile s, and o th e r developm ents in tr a n s p o r ta t i o n have brought th e communities o f th e West much c lo s e r to g e th e r . No lo n g e r i s i t im p ra c tic a l to commute tw enty o r t h i r t y m iles to work. No lo n g e r a re even th e more is o l a te d v i l l a g e s so f a r from c i v i l i z a t i o n th a t the company i s com pelled to p rovide s t o r e s , ch u rch es, and o th e r n e c e s s i t i e s . Many companies are fra n k to adm it th a t company towns a re an economic burden which th e y would g la d ly r e l i n q u i s h . Some com panies, such as Phelps Dodge, see good economic reaso n s fo r m a in ta in in g b a s ic c o n tro l o f t h e i r com m unities. O ther com panies, such as American S m elting "and R e fin in g Company, which owns the l i t t l e town o f S ilv e r B e ll, A rizona, s t i l l o p e ra te in v ery rem ote a re a s and expect t h e i r o p e ra tio n s to be o f a tem porary n a tu r e . Here th e company-owned town i s s t i l l co n sid ered e s s e n tia l* Except f o r such c a s e s , however, th e company town i s slow ly being e lim in a te d from the W estern American sc en e. In s h o r t, th e g rad u al d isa p p ea ra n ce of the company town i s in p a r t a r e f l e c t i o n of th e d ram atic economic e v o lu tio n of th e c o u n try . As economic n e c e s s ity com p e lle d i t s o r i g i n , so economic c o n s id e ra tio n s demand i t s e v e n tu a l a b s o rb tio n in to th e main stream of American community l i f e . H erein l i e s th e s to ry of th e company town as a f e a tu r e of W estern American development,, CHAPTER II SOME EARLY C O M PA N Y TO W N S Although development of a company town was u su a lly the r e s u l t of a conscious e f f o r t on th e p a r t o f the company, many e a r ly m ining and lum bering communities sim ply grew haph azard ly a t th e s i t e o f th e new mine or m ill* Simple workmen's s h a n tie s would be s c a tte r e d h ere and th e re on company p ro p e rty , although f re q u e n tly the company would b u ild a d d itio n a l housing f a c i l i t i e s . Most e a rly mining camps would not be c a lle d company tow ns, fo r no sin g le firm owned a l l th e p ro p e rty or provided housing and o th e r f a c i l i t i e s , but a few such communities came to be wholly dominated by a s in g le company and m ight le g itim a te ly be co n sid ered e a rly v e rs io n s o f the w estern company town,, An example o f such a camp was Tubac, in southern A rizona ( a t th a t tim e p a r t o f the T e rrito ry o f New M exico) * In 1656 th e Sonora E xploring and Mining Company was o rganized in New York, w ith Major S»P, H eintzelm an as P re sid e n t and C harles D« Poston as "Commandant and Managing a g e n t," Convinced th a t th e Gadsden Purchase re g io n was r ic h in m in e ra l w e a lth , Poston headed a group which s e t out to open mines in th e a r e a , Tubac, a 16 19 p r e s id io o r i g i n a l l y lo c a te d by th e S p an iard s on th e S anta R ita R iv e r, had been abandoned by Mexican tro o p s because o f Apache danger* Poston and h is group took o v er the abandoned s e ttle m e n t . R e p a irin g d o o rs , windows, and f u r n i t u r e ,t h e y soon p rep ared accom odations f o r 300 men* Mexican w orkers flo c k e d to th e new m in es, c a lle d th e H eintzelm an m in es, and o th e rs re o c c u p ie d abandoned farms in th e a r e a . Poston became alm o st a co u n try b a ro n , p r e s id in g over th e e n t i r e v a l l e y , as w e ll as th e p re s id io * He opened a book o f r e c o r d s , perform ed m a rria g e s , b a p tiz e d c h ild r e n , and g ra n te d d iv o r c e s *1 He re c o rd s t h a t such a u t h o r it y was n o t always looked upon w ith fa v o r by a l l co n c ern ed : By th e way, X narro w ly escaped g e ttin g in to tro u b le w ith th e ch u rch . I had been m arry in g and d iv o rc in g , b a p tiz in g c h ild re n and g r a n tin g a b s o lu tio n as A lcalde o f Tubac but th e v ic a r s a id t h a t would never do. He r e f u s e d to re c o g n iz e my l e g a l m a rria g e s ac c o rd in g to th e laws of M exico, and i n s i s t e d on th e r i g h t s o f the c h u rch . The dom estic s i t u a t i o n on th e S an ta Cruz b o rdered on r e b e l l i o n , and th e o n ly way o u t o f the dilemma was to advance the d is c o n s o la te husbands n e a r ly a thousand d o l l a r s to pay f o r th e s a n c tio n o f th e church on t h e i r m atrim o n ia l v e n tu re s , and to have t h e i r l i t t l e C arlos* and C a r lo tta s b a p tiz e d w ith Holy W ater in s te a d o f W hiskey.2 ^A.W. G re ssin g e r, C harles D. P o sto n . Sunland Seer (G lobe, A rizo n a: Dale S tu a r t K ing, P u b lis h e r, 1961), pp. 22-35. o C harles D. P o sto n , M S f o r a speech a p p a re n tly d e liv e r e d in 1896, ty p e w r itte n copy on f i l e a t th e P io n eer H is to r ic a l S o c ie ty o f A rizo n a, Tucson. 20 Although a company s t o r e a p p a re n tly was n o t o p e ra te d a t Tubac, the company com pletely dom inated the economic l i f e o f i t s w o rk e rs. I t p ro v id ed lo d g in g fo r th o se who sta y ed a t the p r e s id i o , and i t paid i t s w orkers in " b o le ta s ," o r s c r ip issu e d by th e company and accep ted by th e m erchants who came in . This stra n g e money was made of cardboard about 2^ by fo u r inches in s iz e on which were p r in te d p ic tu r e s o f anim als (a p p a re n tly to h elp i l l i t e r a t e Mexican workers id e n t i f y t h e i r v a lu e ) . The v a rio u s denom inations w ere: 12g cen ts (a p ig ) ; 25 cen ts (a c a l f ) ; 50 c e n ts (a r o o s t e r ) ; one d o l l a r (a h o r s e ) ; f iv e d o lla r s (a b u l l ) ; te n d o lla r s (a l i o n ) . Tubac showed every s ig n of c o n tin u in g p r o s p e r ity , but in 1361 renewed Apache a tta c k s fo rc e d i t s abandonment.3 I t i s n o t assumed t h a t th e s e ttle m e n t would have evolved in to a f u ll - f l e d g e d company town, b u t i t s s to r y i s s i g n i f i c a n t h e re as an example o f e a r ly te n d e n c ie s toward com plete single-com pany c o n tro l of m ining communities in th e W est. I t was not uncommon f o r a haphazard l i t t l e commu n ity to s p rin g up around s p e c if ic m ining a re a s on p ro p e rty owned by th e company. A m otley asso rtm en t o f p r iv a te ly owned shacks would a p p e a r, and a s to r e would come in to 3 ^B ernice C o su lich , "When Old Tubac was Young and P ro sp e ro u s," A rizona D aily S t a r , F ebruary 21, 1932. 21 PLATE I "BOLETA” USED AT TUBAC. This one was w orth f i f t y c e n ts . (Photograph c o u rte sy P ioneer H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty of A rizo n a.) PLATE I I THE OLD MINING CAM P OF HELVETIA, ARIZONA.. Not a f u l l - fle d g e d company town, H e lv e tia was an e a r ly s e ttle m e n t which had te n d e n c ie s in t h i s d i r e c t i o n . P riv a te ly owned t e n t s and h u ts composed th e s e ttle m e n t. (Photo graph c o u rte sy P ioneer H is to r ic a l S o c ie ty o f A rizo n a.) 22 o p e r a tio n , but the company would c o n tro l th e town, such as i t w as. Such a s e ttle m e n t was H e lv e tia , in A rizona, which f lo u ris h e d about the tu rn of th e c e n tu ry . I t s shacks a re d e s c rib e d as "not much o f a th in g and made o f b ear g r a s s . While th e company d id not com pletely r e g u la te th e town, i t d id have enough i n t e r e s t t 6 make an agreem ent w ith th e county su p e rin te n d e n t o f sch o o ls to e r e c t a school house Thus H e lv e tia m ight be co n sid ered as an e a rly camp w ith a few of th e m arkings of th e company town. M orenci, A rizona, is an example of a f lo u r is h in g copper m ining camp which e v e n tu a lly evolved in to a f u l l blown company town. The a re a was s e t t l e d in ^8^2 by W illiam Church o f th e D e tr o it Copper Mining Company and was f i r s t c a lle d J o y ’s Camp. Church developed th e m ining claim s and in 1880 began c o n s tru c tio n o f a m ill and s e v e r a l b u ild in g s in th e a d jo in in g s e ttle m e n t o f C lif to n . Here he a lso c o n s tru c te d a com bination s to r e and b o ard in g house as w e ll a s two c o tta g e s fo r h im s e lf and h is b r o th e r . 6 C lifto n did not become a company town, but M orenci, a f t e r th e D e tr o it Copper Mining Company was tak en o ver by ^■Jose d e l C a s t i l l o , M S c o l le c tio n on A rizona, f i l e d a t th e l i b r a r y o f th e P ioneer H is to r ic a l S o ciety o f A rizona, Tucson. From in te rv ie w w ith Joe Kirby by Jose d e l C a s t i l l o , March 4 , 7, 1939o ^The A rizona R e p u b lic an . January 13, 1900, p . 3* ^R oberta W att, "H isto ry of M orenci, A rizona” (unpub lis h e d M a ste r’s t h e s i s , D ept, of H is to ry , U n iv e rsity of A rizona, 1956), pp. 20-24. 23 th e Phelps Dodge C o rp o ratio n i n 1&97, e v e n tu a lly came under th e com plete c o n tro l o f P helps Dodge, At th is tim e , how e v e r, M orenci r e p r e s e n te d th e ty p ic a l rough-and-tum ble m ining camp. The r e s i d e n t i a l s e c tio n , c a lle d "Old Town" by th e la d ie s b u t dubbed "H ell Town" by everyone e l s e , c o n s is te d of d w ellin g s thrown to g e th e r w ith adobe, t i n c a n s, d ry goods boxes, b a r r e l s ta v e s , and alm ost a n y th in g e ls e which could be h e ld to g e th e r w ith n a i l s o r p l a s t e r , 7 The b u sin e ss s e c tio n was composed m ainly o f s a lo o n s , dance h a l l s , and gam bling h o u se s, a l l o f which were fo rb id d e n in most genuine company tow ns, and Morenci was re p u te d to be th e to u g h e st town in th e a r e a . One r e s id e n t d e s c rib e d e a r ly Morenci t h i s way: You see M orenci as I r e c a l l i t was th e M orenci o f about f o r ty y e a rs ago—a crude Spanish speaking community w ith two Mexican s e ttle m e n ts —w ith few w h ite s , th e one b ig company s t o r e —th e o n ly le v e l s t r e t c h where a boy and g i r l could go w alking was a s h o r t p ie c e o f r a i l r o a d grade le a d in g to t h e ceraetary— and th e w h ite S p an iard s bought a keg o f w ine—l a i d i t a c ro s s th e r a i l r o a d tr a c k and r o l l e d i t on the tr a c k around th e sp u rs to t h e i r sh a c k s. B efore t h a t — in th e te n y e a rs p re c e d in g 1900—M orenci and Tombstone were c a lle d th e to u g h e st w ild e s t m ining camps in th e w est— and i t was s a id one could s te p out any m orning-and se e a corpse down a t the f o o t o f th e dump. Even w hile I was t h e r e — s h o o tin g s , k n if in g s , and braw ls w ere conmon o c c u rra n c e s . . . .8 S h o rtly a f t e r th e a c q u is it io n by Phelps Dodge, f i r e 7 I b i d . , p . 4 9 . ^ I b i d , , p . 136, P o rtio n o f a l e t t e r w r itte n by John M, B outw ell, 24 d e stro y e d "Old Town" and a new to w n site was graded by th e company. A new company s to r e was b u i l t in 1901, a h o te l was soon com pleted, and th e Morenci Club was e r e c te d fo r the use o f company em ployees. The M orenci Water Company was o rg an iz ed to b rin g more w ater to the town, and th e Morenci Improvement Company was e s ta b lis h e d to b u ild h o u ses. The rough-and-tum ble m ining conmunity o f th e old D e tr o it Copper Company had th u s evolved in to an a u th e n tic company town. At the same tim e t h a t Tubac was beginning to prosper in the Southw est, the lumber in d u s try was b eg in ning to th r iv e in th e N orthw est. In 1S53 the f i r s t lumber company town to be b u i l t in th e West was founded a t P o rt Gamble, Washington T e r r ito r y , by th e Puget M ill Company. t This p ic tu re s q u e and com fortable m ill town was w e ll planned from th e b eg in n in g , p a tte rn e d f a i t h f u l l y a f t e r a ty p i c a l New England tow n.9 S c o tia , C a lif o rn ia , on th e o th e r h an d , alth o u g h a model company town to d ay , began as a r u s t i c f o r e s t camp w ith cab in s b u i l t wherever th e r e was a c l e a r i n g . S t r e e t alignm ent came much l a t e r , about 1915, when th e company moved some o f th e cabins and g o t r i d o f the "saw tooth r o u te " through t o w n j 0 As with P o rt Gamble, ^Edwin T. Coman, J r . , and Helen M. Gibbs, Time» Tide and Timber (S ta n fo rd : S tan fo rd U n iv e rsity P re s s , T'949J|" pp 49, 54-55. ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith Alden B a ll, p u b lic r e l a t i o n s 25 S c o tia was a company town from the beg in n in g , b u t i t took a p erio d o f e v o lu tio n fo r i t to develop from th e f o r e s t camp atm osphere to a w e ll planned town. In th e coal m ining a r e a , Sunnyside, U tah, sta n d s as a good example of a haphazard m ining camp which even t u a l l y developed in to a ty p ic a l company town* Coal was d isc o v ered th e re about 1330, and p ro d u ctio n began in th e 1390’s . The f i r s t b u ild in g s in th e a re a were p r iv a te ly owned, but when th e Utah Fuel Company ac q u ired t i t l e to th e immense t r a c t o f la n d i t demanded t h a t a l l s e t t l e r s move* The company began to e r e c t houses but could not keep up w ith th e f a s t growing p o p ulation* Many r e s i d e n t s , th e r e f o r e , b u i l t t h e i r own homes, which th e company l a t e r p u rch ased . In a d d itio n , many p u t up te n t s in th e so u th e rn p a r t of th e canyon, and t h i s s e c tio n became known as ”Rag Town” by lo c a l r e s id e n ts * Company-owned houses were h a s t i l y e r e c te d frame s t r u c t u r e s , not p la s te r e d in s id e , but about 1915 th e company began a program o f b u ild in g b e t t e r homes and m odernizing th e to w n .^ This b r i e f rev ie w of a few e a rly company towns o f th e West sim ply i l l u s t r a t e s th e v a r i e t y of ways in which a r e p r e s e n ta ti v e , The P a c if ic Lumber Company, S c o tia , C a li f o r n i a , A p ril 13, 1962. If L u c ile R ic h in s , ”A S o c ia l H isto ry of S unnyside” (Utah H is to r ic a l Records Survey, March, 1940, MS f i l e d a t th e Utah S ta te H is to r ic a l S o c ie ty , S a lt Lake C ity ), pp. 2-3 o company town may d ev e lo p . I t is im portant now to d isc u ss th e company town in connection with s p e c if ic i n d u s t r i e s , f o r such is o l a te d examples as have been p re se n te d give no c le a r p ic tu re of the r o le played by t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n in the economic development of th e W est, CHAPTER III CO M PA N Y TO W N S A N D THE LUM BER INDUSTRY A rev iew o f company towns e s ta b lis h e d in th e f o r e s ts of W estern America does n o t give a com plete p ic tu re o f th e development o f the lumber in d u s tr y , f o r n o t every m ajor lumber m an u factu rer found i t n ecessary o r even d e s ir a b le to go to t h e expense o f b u ild in g and o p e ra tin g such communities® Many companies lo c a te d m ills n ear w e ll- ro o te d c e n te rs of p o p u la tio n , and th u s sim ply c o n trib u te d to th e growth of economies a lre a d y established® In Oregon, fo r example, th e F isc h e r Lumber Company was founded in 1903 and became one of many companies o p e ra tin g near Marcola® M arcola had long e x is te d , but a t th is tim e th e lumber in d u s try began to c o n trib u te s i g n i f i c a n t l y to the tow n's grow th« For n e a rly f i f t y y e a rs alm ost h a l f th e fa m ilie s r e s id in g in M arcola were supported by th e F isc h e r Lumber Company, and in th e e a rly days many workers walked th e fo u r m iles to and from th e m ill each day,^ M arcola i s m entioned h ere because some people have m istak e n ly 1 L e tte r from Dale F is c h e r, Eugene, Oregon, May 24, 1962. 27 23 c la s s e d i t as a company town when, in r e a l i t y , i t is only one o f many o rd in a ry communities which have depended upon th e lumber in d u s try f o r t h e i r ex isten c e* On the o th e r hand, many lumber companies found i t to t h e i r advantage to go in to th e p a te rn a lism of company town ownership* A review of some of th e s e w ill prove v a lu a b le in two r e s p e c t st (a) I t w ill dem onstrate th e s ig n ific a n c e of th e company town in a m ajor p o rtio n of th e lumber in d u s tr y , and (b) the s t o r y o f th e g ra d u a l d is a p pearance o f company-owned conm unities w ill dem onstrate c e r t a in economic re v o lu tio n s which have a f fe c te d n o t only th e towns them selves but a lso th e e n tir e in d u stry * Lumbering has been im p o rtan t in American economy sin c e c o lo n ia l tim es* For a t l e a s t two c e n tu rie s th e in d u s try c e n te re d in M aine, which accounts fo r th e m u lti tu d e o f nS ta te -o f-M a in e rs n who found t h e i r way to th e lumber company towns o f th e P a c if ic Northwest* By 1350 th e c e n te r o f lumber m anufacturing had s h i f t e d to New York, where e ig h t b i l l i o n board f e e t were produced annually* I t was a t t h i s tim e th a t m ills were beginning to sp rin g up on th e west c o a s t. The fo c a l p o in t g ra d u a lly s h if te d westward to M ichigan and W isconsin, but a t th e beginning o f th e tw e n tie th ce n tu ry i t had moved to the South* By m id -cen tu ry th e west c o a st was th e lumber c e n te r o f th e n a tio n and Oregon was the c h ie f p ro d u cer, follow ed in o rd e r by C a lifo rn ia and Washington* T h irty p er c e n t o f 29 th e n a t i o n s lumber i s now produced in th e se th r e e states® Lumber a ls o p la y s an im p o rtan t ro le in th e economies of Idaho and Montana, and i t i s in th ese f i v e s t a t e s th a t most lumber company-owned towns of th e West have been located® Logging Camps Although most company towns in th e lumber in d u s try were e s ta b lis h e d in co n n ectio n with sa w m ills, th e need to p ro v id e housing and o th e r f a c i l i t i e s f o r logging crews must be mentioned® With few e x c e p tio n s, logging camps d id n o t become company-owned tow ns, fo r th e n atu re o f logging i t s e l f demanded th a t crews keep moving to new c u ttin g a r e a s . P r a c t i c a l l y every la r g e lumber company found i t n e c e ssa ry to provide cook h o u se s, bunk houses, and a commissary f o r i t s logging crew s, but because o f t h e i r tem porary, m obile n a tu re th e s e logging camps cannot be c la s s e d as company-owned towns® Many shacks were b u i l t so t h a t wheels could be a tta c h e d f o r easy movement to new locations® O thers were b u i l t on s k id s . In some c a s e s , when o p e ra tio n s tended to fo llo w r i v e r s , lo g g e r’s cabins were b u i l t as crude barges and simply f lo a te d downstream. R e c re a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s were n o t u s u a lly p ro v id ed , f o r as soon as th e r e was no work th e e n tir e camp would be empty® These camps were n o t fam ily camps b u t, r a t h e r , sim ply tem porary re s id e n c e s f o r th e lo g g e r, whose fa m ily , i f he 30 had one, was l i v i n g i n a n e a r-b y non-company town* An o u ts ta n d in g e x c e p tio n to th e above r u l e i s th e town o f S h e v lin , O regon. A p p aren tly a JTamily camp, i t was ■owned by th e S hevlin-H ixon Company. S h e v lin had a p o st o f f i c e , b u t re c e iv e d fre q u e n t p u b l i c i t y because o f i t s c o n tin u a l movement from one lo c a ti o n to a n o th e r. R eports one Oregon w r i t e r : From tim e to tim e S h e v lin p o st o f f i c e was i n th e news b ecause o f i t s m o b il ity . I t se rv e d lo g g e rs f o r th e S hevlin-H ixon Company, and when lo g g in g was com pleted f o r th e lo c a l a r e a , th e camp b u ild in g s were p u t on c a rs and moved to a new l o c a t i o n . Most o f th e b u ild in g s were g l o r i f i e d t r a i l e r s . When th e com piler f i r s t knew th e camp, i t was about te n m iles so u th o f Lava B u tte and two or th r e e m iles e a s t o f The D a lle s - C a lif o r n ia Highway. I t was l a t e r moved to a p o in t about th r e e m iles s o u th e a s t o f L ap in e. Both o f th e se s i t e s were in D eschutes County. The n ex t move was to Summit S ta tio n on th e Fremont Highway in th e v ery extrem e e a s t b o rd e r o f Klamath County. S h e v lin p o st o f f i c e . . . . was d isc o n tin u e d A p ril 1., 1951, w ith busness t r a n s f e r r e d to Chumult.2 A few lo g g in g camps, how ever, d id become perm anent company-owned tow ns. In n o rth e rn C a lif o r n ia , f o r exam ple, th e town o f Tennant was e s ta b lis h e d by th e Weed Lumber Company in 1921. In a d d itio n to fam ily r e s id e n c e s i t had good rooming h o u se s, a s t o r e , b a rb e r shop, church, and t h e a t e r . The town was p rovided w ith steam h e a t and e l e c t r i c l i g h t s . I t co n tin u ed to o p e ra te as a lo g g in g h e a d q u a rte rs u n t i l 19 5 0 , when th e e n t i r e town was donated ^ Lewis A. M cArthur, Oregon G eographic Names (P o rt la n d ? B in fo rd s & M ort, 1952), p . 547. 31 to th e V eterans of Foreign W a r s „ 3 W ilark , Oregon, was a ls o a lo g g in g h e a d q u a rte rs which must be co n sid ered a f u l l - f l e d g e d company town* E sta b lis h e d in th e 1920's by th e Clark and W ilson Lumber Company, i t s name was tak en from the name o f th e company© M ill o p e ra tio n s were oonducted a t a non-company town near P o rtla n d , w hile W ilark housed over 300 men, m ostly s i n g l e , in th e company's Columbia County logging area© The s e ttle m e n t c o n s is te d of bunkhouses, a conm issary, p o st o f f ic e (the su p e rin te n d e n t was p o s tm a s te r), a la rg e cook house, machine shop, and a few sm all fam ily h o u se s0 Loggers were tr a n s p o r te d to th e woods in "m ulligan c a r s ." About 1929 th e company was merged w ith a sawm ill company a t P r e s c o tt, Oregon, and W ilark was moved to a nev.r lo g g in g o p e ra tio n on th e r a i l r o a d . By th e n i t c o n s is te d o f about t h i r t y fam ily houses and bunk houses f o r 150 s in g le men© O ther employees came to th e woods from n ear-b y non-company com m unities. The company iss u e d s c r ip f o r use in the company s t o r e , but l a t e r s t a r t e d to use m etal to k e n s, o r "dummy money," ranging in v a lu e from f iv e cen ts to one d o l l a r . In 1944 the company liq u id a te d and W ilark became e x t i n c t .^ ^ In te rv ie w w ith J.M . W hite, form er p r e s id e n t, Long- B e ll Lumber Company, Weed, C a lif o r n ia , A p ril 20, 1962. 4 L e tte r from W .W © C lark, P o rtla n d , Oregon, May 22, 1962. PLATE III METAL TOKENS USED FOR SCRIP AT WILARK, OREGON * This ndummy mo n e ya s some c a lle d i t , was good in th e company s to r e o f C lark and W ilson Lumber Company® The company iss u e d tokens in denom inations o f f i v e , te n , tw e n ty -f iv e , and f i f t y cen ts and one dollar® (Tokens c o u rte sy W. W ® C la rk .) F i r s t Permanent M ill Town The f i r s t l a r g e - s c a le o p e r a tio n to r e s u l t in th e fou n d in g o f a permanent oompany-owned town on th e West Coast was conducted on Puget Sound by the firm o f Pope and T alb o t * The background i s i n t e r e s t i n g as f a r as developm ent of th e lumber in d u s try is co ncerned, and a few d e t a i l s a re a p p r o p r ia te h ere * On December 1, 1&49, Andrew Jackson Pope and F re d e ric T a lb o t, young b u sin e ss a d v e n tu re rs from E ast M achias, M aine, landed a t the c ru d e , s o r ry -lo o k in g s e ttle m e n t o f San F ra n c is c o , C a lif o r n i a , The new c i t y was j u s t b eg in n in g to grow and Pope and T albot were d eterm ined to grow w ith i t —n o t in th e se a rc h fo r g o ld , but in b u s in e s s . At f i r s t th ey found them selves engaged in lig h te r a g e o p e r a tio n s . By Jan u ary th e y had gone in to th e lumber b u sin e ss under th e name o f Pope & T a lb o t, s e l l i n g lumber purchased from v a rio u s s a i l i n g v e s s e ls which came to San F ra n c is c o , I r o n i c a l l y , th e dense f o r e s t s o f C a lif o r n ia and th e Northwest were y e t v i r t u a l l y untapped, and most o f San F ra n c is c o fs lumber came, not c h e a p ly , from th e E a s t, In March, f o r exam ple, C aptain W illiam C, T a lb o t, F r e d e r i c k b r o th e r , a r r iv e d from Maine w ith h is b r i g , th e O r i e n t a l . loaded w ith 60,000 f e e t o f lum ber, two house fra m es, an a sso rtm e n t o f j o i s t s and tim b e rs , and a few s h in g l e s . The T albot b r o th e r s , Pope, and C aptain J , P . K e lle r were soon o p e r a tin g a b u sin e ss which in c lu d ed 35 a v a r i e t y of a c t i v i t i e s - - t r i p s o f th e O r ie n ta l to th e i s l a n d s , lig h te r a g e o p e ra tio n s , and sp o ra d ic lumber s a l e s . Lumber sh ip p ed from th e E a s t, how ever, was o b v io u sly to o expensive to r e l y upon p erm an en tly . At th e h e ig h t o f th e g o ld r u s h , p r e v a ilin g p r ic e s ra n from one hundred d o l l a r s to f iv e hundred d o l l a r s p e r th o u sa n d . I f San F ra n c isc o were to grow, common lumber a t around tw e n ty -fiv e d o lla r s p er thousand was needed. From th e C a lif o r n ia redwood re g io n and from Oregon t e r r i t o r y good lumber was a v a ila b le , and Pope and T albot became i n t e r e s t e d in su p p ly in g i t . Since th e y wanted to s h ip a s w e ll as m anufacture lum ber, t h e i r proposed saw m ill would have to be lo c a te d a t tid e w a te r a t a p o in t where s a i l i n g v e s s e ls would have good anoorage and a s a fe h a rb o r . Thus th ey d ecid ed to b u ild t h e i r m ill somewhere on Puget Sound. Such c o n s id e r a tio n s are most s i g n i f i c a n t h e r e , f o r th e same f a c t o r s le d to th e e r e c tio n o f s e v e r a l company towns along th e P a c if ic C o ast. E arly lumber m a n u fa c tu re rs owned and o p e ra te d n o t o nly th e m i l l , b u t a ls o th e h arb o r and sh ip s by which t h e i r p ro d u ct could be tr a n s p o r te d to San F ra n c is c o . On November 29, 1#51, A. J . Pope, W. C. T a lb o t, and J . P. K e lle r sig n ed t h e i r p re lim in a ry agreem ent f o r c o n s tru c tio n and o p e ra tio n o f a steam saw m ill in th e v i c i n i t y o f Puget Sound. This was the fo u n d a tio n o f th e 36 Puget M ill Company, a s u b s id ia ry of Pope & T a lb o ta Some lum ber, m eanw hile, had begun to a r r iv e in San F ran cisco from Puget Sound, e s p e c ia lly in the form o f p ilin g s f o r the network of p ie r s which was s tr e tc h in g out in to th e bay. Ambitious s k ip p e rs , such as S ta te -o f-M a in e r C aptain L a fa y e tte B alch, were s a i l i n g up the Sound in se a rc h o f tin y s e ttle m e n ts which might supply t h e i r ca rg o s. A fte r c u ttin g th e t r e e s , s e t t l e r s would drag them to th e w a te r ’s edge by hand o r w ith th e use of oxen. Balch p aid e ig h t c e n ts a running fo o t fo r p i l e s d e liv e re d a lo n g sid e h is v e s s e l and so ld them in San F ran cisco fo r one d o lla r a f o o t . Balch was e n th u s ia s tic about th e Puget Sound, and i t was from him and o th e r sk ip p e rs t h a t Pope and Talbot h eard of th e m a g n ific e n t tim ber re so u rc e s of th e re g io n . In th e summer o f 1&53 C aptain T albot s a ile d in to th e d en sely wooded S t r a i t of Juan de Fuca on h is search fo r an adequate c o a s ta l m ill s i t e . Inclu d ed in h is cargo were a few thousand f e e t of E a ste rn boards f o r use in b u ild in g a cabin and cook house f o r h is men w hile th e new saw m ill was being b u i l t . Many f a c t o r s had to be ta k en in to c o n s id e ra tio n s His m ill would need workmen as w ell as lo g s , and he th e re fo r e did not want to s e l e c t a lo c a tio n too f a r away from th e s e ttle m e n ts a lre a d y e s ta b lis h e d in th e v i c i n i t y o f S e a t tle and Olympia. But he did not in te n d to make fo r those p la c e s . He wanted a good anchorage in a h arbor clo se to the open ro a d ste a d of 37 th e w aters of San Ju a n , S a ilin g v e s s e ls , dependent upon th e b re e z e s , could w aste hours and even days reac h in g a m ill lo c a te d on one o f th e i n l e t s o f the lower S ound,5 This re g io n e v e n tu a lly was to h arb o r sc o re s o f lumber o p e r a tio n s , but a t th is tim e T albot had p r a c t i c a l l y u n lim ite d c h o ic e . I t was only in March of t h i s y e a r t h a t Y e s le r ’ s , the f i r s t steam saw m ill in the T e r r ito r y o f W ashington, had opened, T albot f i n a l l y lo c a te d a sm all p e n in su la in a s h e lte r e d bay about f iv e m ile s from th e en tra n c e o f Hood C anal. Here was a le v e l, sandy s p i t p e r f e c t f o r a m i l l , and m a g n ificen t tim ber grew c lo s e to th e w a te r ’s edge. The In d ian s c a lle d i t " T e e k a le t," or ’’B rig h tn ess o f th e noonday s u n ,” and th e re T albot decided to found h is s e ttle m e n t. I t was c a lle d T eek alet u n t i l th e 1 8 6 0 's, when the name was changed to P o rt Gamble.6 Leaving te n men a t the new lo c a tio n , T albot s a ile d to S e a t tle f o r a cargo of p ile s from Y e s le r ’s m i l l . By September the m ill frame was u p . Talbot headed back f o r San F ra n c is c o , and only a few hours out from P o rt Gamble met C aptain K e lle r in th e schooner L. P. F o s t e r . K e lle r was given d e t a i l s about the lo c a tio n of th e m ill and in a few hours he e n te re d Gamble Bay. He brought with him an en g in e, b o i l e r s , m ill m achinery, m erchandise f o r th e s t o r e , and o th e r s u p p lie s , p ro v id in g th e goods e s s e n ti a l to the 5Coman and G ibbs, Timet Tide and Tim ber, p . 53 • 6 n port Gamble” w ill be used h e r e a f t e r . 36 l i f e o f th e in f a n t company town. He a lso brought h is w ife and one o f h is d a u g h te rs, who became the f i r s t w hite women to s e t f o o t on shore a t P o rt Gamble* There i s no space to go in to th e d e t a i l s of th e b u sin e ss of t h e Puget M ill Company, fo r the main concern h e re i s w ith th e tow n. P o rt Gamble f lo u ris h e d because o f th e sound b u sin ess sen se of Pope, T a lb o t, and K e lle r , as w e ll as Cyrus W . W alker, who became a p a rtn e r and r e s id e n t manager* A fte r 1&54 cargo was being shipped r a p id ly from Puget Sound to San F ra n c isc o , and then ce to v a rio u s p a r ts o f th e w o rld . Pope, who ran th e San F ran cisco o f f i c e , n a tu r a lly bought and so ld lumber from any so u rc e , but th e o p e ra tio n a t P o rt Gamble was h is m ajor s in g le sou rce and the backbone o f the company. The Puget M ill Company soon developed a tr a d e la r g e r th a n th a t of any o th e r m ill on Puget Sound, and i t w eathered w ell th e o c c a sio n a l p erio d s of o v e r-p ro d u c tio n and d e p re ssio n in th e now th r iv in g West Coast lumber in d u s tr y . In 1S5S a second m il l was c o n s tru c te d a t P o rt Gamble and t h i s brought in th ir ty - tw o new m ill h an d s. In a d d itio n , th e company’s expanded o p e ra tio n s c a lle d f o r more w orkers in the company s to r e (which served not o nly P o rt Gamble b ut also surro u n d in g s e ttle m e n ts ) , machine shop, and b lack sm ith shop. The company a ls o fu rn is h e d ’’choppers” and te a m ste rs to the lo g g e rs who had c o n tra c te d to f u rn is h th e m ill w ith lo g s , hence th e need f o r many a d d itio n a l 39 workmen. Those who had begun th e o p e r a tio n in 1853 had come from M aine, and now th e p a r tn e r s began to induce more men from E a st Machias and o th e r Maine towns to come. Common la b o r a t the m ills was o f te n perform ed by I n d ia n s , who were found to be com petent w o rk ers. T h eir numbers grew and the company b u i l t a v i l l a g e fo r th a n , c a lle d L i t t l e B oston, a c ro s s Gamble Bay, I t became common in company towns to p ro v id e s e p a ra te v i l l a g e s o r s e p a r a te s e c tio n s of town f o r non-w hite r a c e s , u s u a lly because each ra c e sim ply p r e f e r r e d to l i v e s e p a r a te ly and c a rry o u t i t s own s o c i a l customs w ithout d is tu r b a n c e . In t h i s and many o th e r ways the s e ttle m e n t a t P o rt Gamble seems r e p r e s e n ta ti v e o f the g e n e ra l developm ent o f company towns in th e W est, For a tim e P o rt Gamble was a p p a re n tly the most prom inent s e ttle m e n t in th e r e g io n . Coman a n d Gibbs g iv e th e fo llo w in g d e s c r ip tio n o f i t s s ig n if ic a n c e and a c t i v i t i e s : N ear-by s e ttle m e n ts a lso fu rn is h e d r e c r u i t s , men who were in need o f a cash income, some o f them te m p o ra rily . During th e In d ian s c a r e , dozens o f people in S e a t t l e went over to P o rt Gamble. Y e s le r ’s m ill had been fo rc e d to c lo s e , and S e a t t l e g o t a s e t back from which i t d id not re c o v e r f o r y e a r s . In 1858, th e s e ttle m e n t had few er people th a n in 1853* Fred Drew, who had j u s t a r r iv e d a t P o rt Gamble, l a t e r re c o rd e d t h i s t e r s e d e s c r ip tio n o f what th e imm ediate v i c i n i t y was l i k e in 1858: When th e steam boat "B ro th er Jo h n a th an ” landed a t V ic to r ia in A p r il, 1858, the o n ly b u ild in g th e r e o u ts id e o f th e Hudson Bay Company sto c k a d e was a p a r t l y f in is h e d h o t e l . 40 At t h a t tim e Whatcom was a sm all c o a l m ine— P o rt Townsend a c o l le c tio n o f sa lo o n s and s a i l o r b o ard in g houses k e p t by Enoch S. Flower o f E a s t- p o r t , and Fred A. W ilson o f E ast M achias. P o rt Gamble was a saw m i l l o f 25 M (thousand) tw elve hour d a i ly c a p a c ity — S e a t t l e a ham let c o n ta in in g n in e ty odd w h ite i n h a b i t a n t s . Small wonder t h a t men, e s p e c ia lly th o s e w ith fa m i l i e s , we r e a t t r a c t e d to th e th r iv in g m i l l town o f P o rt Gamble, The m il ls and r e l a t e d o p e r a tio n s o f fe re d employment f o r more th a n 175 men, and th o se who were m a rrie d liv e d in n e a t l i t t l e frame houses t h a t th e company had b u i l t . The s to r e c a r r ie d th e l a r g e s t sto c k on th e Sound and d id a cash b u sin e ss o f $50 a day. A. J . Pope, who d id most o f th e b u y in g , each month s e n t up goods and s u p p lie s v alu ed a t from $15,000 to $20,000 f o r th e s to r e and m il l a t P o rt Gamble• At P o rt Gamble a man could be su re o f $30 a month f o r an 11^-hour day t h a t s t a r t e d a t s i x in th e m orning and ended tw elv e hours l a t e r . Ke could a ls o be su re o f a ro o f o ver h i s head and h o t m e als. As a r e s u l t , th e m il l w h is tle a t tw enty m inutes p a s t f i v e in th e m orning serv ed a s an alarm clo ck f o r s e v e r a l men who l a t e r became prom inent on Puget Sound. The cook " tu rn e d o u t" a t fo u r o 'c lo c k to g e t a b r e a k f a s t t h a t c o n s is te d o f b o ile d corn b e e f, p o ta to e s , baked b ean s, h a sh , h o t g r id d le c a k e s, b i s c u i t s , b u t t e r , and c o f f e e . A second w h is tle blew a t tw enty m inutes to s i x , summoning th e crew so t h a t th ey could e a t and be in th e m ill by s i x o ' c l o c k . 7 The 1 $70's was a p e rio d o f s i g n i f i c a n t expansion f o r th e Puget M ill Company. In 1377 th e company purchased The Cranney and Grannan m i l l a t U tsaladjr, which p re v io u s ly had f a i l e d . This m i l l soon brought th e company's lumber p o t e n t i a l to se v en ty m illio n f e e t a n n u a lly . The fo llo w in g y e a r th e P o rt Ludlow M ill Company was p u rc h a se d , b u t o p e ra tio n s were n o t opened th e r e f o r a n o th e r f iv e y e a rs . 7Coman and G ibbs, Time. Tide and Tim ber, pp. 69-70. Located a t th e head of Hood C anal, th e o r ig in a l s e ttle m e n t c o n s is te d of a saw m ill, an empty h o t e l , a cook h o u se, a sh ip y a rd , a few cabins f o r workmen in Hie sh ip y a rd , and two o r th r e e houses* A fter 1S44, however, P ort Ludlow became an o th er f lo u r i s h in g company town of Pope & T a lb o tT s Puget M ill Company* The town o f P o rt Gamble became unique among company towns* Conceived and n u rtu re d by S ta te -o f-M a in e rs , th e town took on a New England atmosphere* The o r d e r ly la y o u t and the tr im , w h ite ,co m p a n y -b u ilt houses resem bled alm ost e x a c tly a New England v illa g e * Many of th e homes were w ell fu rn is h e d , in c lu d in g many a n tiq u e s . By th e 1 88 0 ’s a l l houses had running w a te r, and the town took p rid e in i t s w ell kept homes and y a rd s . The com pany-built church was a r e p l i c a o f the C ongregational Church a t E ast M achias, M aine, P o rt Gamble is s t i l l a company-owned town and Pope & T albot has no in te n tio n o f com pletely e lim in a tin g i t as su ch , Some o f th e homes are being e lim in a te d , and some new s u b -d iv is io n s w i l l be developed f o r s a l e . The p ic tu re sq u e main s t r e e t , however, lin e d w ith shade tr e e s and th e b e t te r New England s t y l e homes, w i l l be p re se rv e d by th e company as a landm ark.& In most company towns th e r e was a d e f i n i t e c la s s ft In te rv ie w w ith Cyrus T, W alker, Vice P re s id e n t, Pope & T alb o t, I n c . , P o rtla n d , Oregon, A p ril 26, 1962, 42 consciousness among th e r e s i d e n t s . This i s d ra m a tic a lly i l l u s t r a t e d in alm ost every case by th e l a r g e r , more commodious and sometimes o s te n ta tio u s house b u i l t fo r th e r e s id e n t m anager. P o rt Gamble and P o rt Ludlow were no e x c e p tio n s . At P o rt Gamble Cyrus W alker, c h ie f of lo c a l o p e r a tio n s , n a t u r a lly had th e f i n e s t house in tow n. In 1#85, however, th e home burned, and Walker decided to b u ild ag a in a t P o rt Ludlow. The new house was com pleted in 1S67. For i t , th e c h o ic e s t lumber a t th e m ill was s e le c te d , and th e i n t e r i o r was f in is h e d w ith f i r o f the f i n e s t q u a lity and g r a in . The huge f r o n t doors were made lik e th o se of a s h i p 's c a b in ; th ey s l i d in s te a d o f opening as do o rd in a ry d o o rs. In sid e A dm iralty H a ll, as Cyrus Walker c a lle d h is f in e new home, sp acio u s rooms opened o f f la rg e h a l l s . The dominant f e a tu r e o f th e main f lo o r was a m assive sta irw a y t h a t branched to th e r i g h t and l e f t . The fu rn is h in g s were in keeping w ith the house, th e m a jo rity of them being handmade from p ie c e s o f s o lid black w alnut t h a t had been brought around th e Horn from M aine. In the d in in g room stood a m assive s id e board made in Dresden about 1750. . . , The mansion was on a r o l l i n g slo p e t h a t looked out over Ludlow Bay tow ard A dm iralty I n l e t . In f r o n t was a g r e a t cro q u et ground, and a cannon on the lawn thundered s a lu te s to fav o red sh ip s as th ey e n te re d th e h a rb o r. For many y e a r s , i t was loaded and f i r e d a t s u n ris e on th e F ourth o f J u ly . At one s id e o f A dm iralty H all were e x o tic gardens and t r e e s , and som ething o f a m e n a g e rie .9 The home se rv e d not only as a re sid e n c e f o r Walker and h is fa m ily , but a lso to e n t e r t a i n b u y ers, t r a v e l l e r s , and anyone e ls e o f im portance who could f u r th e r th e 9Coman and G ibbs, Time, Tide and Timber, pp. 170- 171 . 43 b u sin e ss o f th e company* O ther r e s id e n ts liv e d i n le s s p re te n tio u s h o u ses, alth o u g h e x e c u tiv e s and foremen were g e n e ra lly b e t t e r o f f th an th e common m ill hand* Snobbish n e s s , however, was n o t a p p a re n t, f o r th e F ourth of J u ly , C hristm as, and o th e r town c e le b r a tio n s were p a r tic ip a t e d in e q u a lly by a lio The in h a b ita n ts of P o rt Gamble and P o rt Ludlow c o n s is te d n o t only of th e s ta b le p o p u la tio n , but a ls o o f f l o a t i n g , t r a n s i e n t w orkers, who made up about a t h i r d o f th e employees* This was common in m ill towns* I t was t h i s elem ent t h a t was u s u a lly re s p o n s ib le f o r such rough ness and b o is te ro u s n e s s as e x isted * Cyrus W alker, as r e s id e n t manager, had com plete c o n tro l of most of th e town* A t e e t o t a l e r , he opposed th e s a le o f liq u o r , alth o u g h liq u o r was so ld a t th e company s to re * The b ig g e s t problem came, however, a t th e h o t e l , which was not owned by th e company* Here a lc o h o l flow ed f r e e ly and t h i s , to g e th e r w ith week-end poker p a r t i e s , o fte n made th e m ill hands l a t e f o r work on Monday morning* The company f i n a l l y purchased th e h o te l in o rd e r to c o n tro l th e s itu a tio n * R igid c o n tro l o f liq u o r s a l e s , and o f te n com plete p r o h ib itio n , was common in company towns th ro u g h o u t th e West* W alker was a ls o concerned about th e m orals of h is town, and th u s re fu s e d to perm it women of "q u e stio n a b le 44 ch aracter® to e n te r company p ro p erty ,, Such a c t i v i t i e s a s th e y m ight c a r r y o u t, how ever, could n o t com pletely be c o n t r o ll e d , f o r i t was a common s ig h t • • • to see a s t r i n g o f row boats making t h e i r way a c ro s s Gamble Bay, f i l l e d w ith s a i l o r s i n t e n t on a p p r a is in g th e charms o f th e squaws o f L i t t l e Boston* 0 The s to r y o f P o rt Gamble and P o rt Ludlow, th e n , i s r e p r e s e n ta ti v e o f th e s to r y o f many company towns in th e lum ber in d u s t r y . They were lo c a te d a t h a rb o rs because o f th e need to p ro v id e sh ip p in g a s w e ll a s c u ttin g f a c i l i t i e s * They grew because o f th e company’s need to p ro v id e h o u sin g f o r i t s expanding number o f employees* The s t a b l e p o p u la t i o n came la r g e ly from th e s t a t e o f M aine, which i s t y p i c a l o f many o f th e N o rth w est’s e a r l i e s t m i l l s i t e s , and which sym bolizes th e westward jump ta k e n by th e M aine-born American lum ber in d u s tr y . The s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e company town i s se en p a r t l y in th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e Puget M ill Company a t th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry . While i t cannot be m a in ta in ed t h a t ow nership o f a town was th e o n ly f a c t o r in th e s u r v iv a l o f th e company, i t must n e v e rth e le s s be o bserved t h a t e i g h ty - s ix m illio n f e e t o f lumber is s u e d from th e th r e e saw m ills in P o rt Gamble and P o rt Ludlow in th e y e a r 1901, and company- owned v e s s e ls c a r r ie d cargoes from th e s e s p o ts to a l l 1Q Ibid*. p. 172. 45 p a r ts o f th e w o rld * In th e sense th a t th e company town was a p a r t o f th e growing lumber in d u s try of th e West, i t was indeed s i g n i f i c a n t * Town With a D if fe re n t H isto ry The Puget M ill Company was n o t th e only concern to e s t a b l i s h e a rly company towns in th e re g io n of Puget Sound* In 1#57 th e Washington M ill Company began to o p e r a te a t Seabeck, f u r th e r up Hood Canal* The h is t o r y of Seabeck p re s e n ts q u ite a d i f f e r e n t p ic tu r e from t h a t o f P o rt Gamble, and se rv es to i l l u s t r a t e th e d if fe re n c e s which may e x i s t in a company and i t s town, depending upon th e p o lic ie s of r e s id e n t managers* Although th e company owned the to w n s ite , i t ap p ar e n tly d id n o t c o n tro l i t as r i g i d l y a t f i r s t as d id some o th e r companies* I t i s re p o rte d t h a t in 1&76 th e re were 400 r e s i d e n t s , two s t o r e s , two h o t e l s , and fo u r s a l o o n s ^ Seabeck b ein g co n sid ered th e " l i v l i e s t p la c e on th e S ound,” The m ill company owned one s t o r e , but a p p a re n tly the o th e r was p r iv a te ly owned and operated* The company a ls o d id n o t own th e f i r s t h o te l in town, M arsh all B lin n , the f i r s t r e s id e n t manager, was a p r o h i b i t i o n i s t , and attem p ted to p r o h ib it th e s a le o f liq u o r a t th e h o t e l . When the ^ E * E , R id d e ll, ”H isto ry o f S eab eck ,” mimeographed M S (re v is e d , 1952)* 46 managers o b ta in ed a county lic e n s e , he im m ediately bought th e h o te l and l o t and d e c la re d th a t i f anyone e l s e owned a saloon he would sto c k h is h o te l w ith w ines, liq u o r s , and c ig a r s , fre e o f charge,, B lin n T s aims were f i n a l l y d e fe a te d , however. Under M arshall B linn th e company seemed to p ro s p e r. Even Edward C layson, who l a t e r became th e companyT s most v o ca l c r i t i c , was glowing in h is p r a is e fo r Seabeck in i t s e a r l i e s t d a y s. Clayson was one of th e p r in c ip le lo g g ers o f th e Sound who s o ld lo g s to Washington M ill Company and o th e r s . He owned p ro p e rty ju s t o u ts id e th e town, b u i l t a sm all h o t e l , and o p erated h is own l i t t l e sloop by which he c a rr ie d passen g ers and f r e i g h t up and down th e Soundo D escribing th e ro b u s t e a r ly days o f Seabeck, he s a id : W e had a good l i b r a r y a t Seabeck, a Sunday School, a b ra ss band, two h o te ls , th r e e s a lo o n s , a b a s e b a ll ground a t C la y so n 's; th e common sch o o l ran s i x months in th e y e a r; a tr a v e lin g show would come alo n g two or th re e tim es a y e a r, and a p reach er about once a month. F ourth o f Ju ly o r C hristm as and e le c tio n days were " e v e n ts ” t h a t were always f u l l o f l i f e ; in o u r l i t t l e m e tro p o lis a t Seabeck we had about s ix te e n f a m ilie s , and as f in e and ro b u st a l o t of h e a lth y c h ild re n as could be found. . . . "Race s u i c i d e , ” th a t a t r o c i t y from th e low est depths o f h e l l , had not y e t put us to th e b lu sh ; t h a t v ile n e s s came w ith th e advent o f th e r a i l r o a d s , and w ith i t came the quack d o c to rs , the Y. M. Co A .s, th e "M ental S c i e n t i s t s , " b a rb e r c o lle g e s , e t c . , and a l l t h i s keg-meg and com bination o f in fa m ie s, conducted by im p o ste rs, as they a r e , w ith diplom as g a lo re th ey c a l l p ro g ress 5 i f t h i s i s 47 p r o g re s s , th e n what i n h e l l i s dam nation?12 C layson a p p a re n tly p r e f e r r e d p io n e e r l i f e to some o f th e " b le s s in g s ” o f c i v i l i z a t i o n * In 1B70 B lin n s o ld h is i n t e r e s t in th e company to h i s b ro th e r* R ich ard Holyoke, an indep en d en t lo g g e r, became a p a r t o f th e company and was ap p o in ted m ill d ir e c t o r s Holyoke was e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t from B lin n , and u nder him th e W ashington M ill Company began to lo s e th e r e s p e c t and p r e s ti g e p r e v io u s ly e s ta b lis h e d * O ther companies began to make c o m p e titio n more d i f f i c u l t by o f f e r in g lo g g e rs more money, and th e W ashington M ill Company began to lo s e g ro u n d * ^ Perhaps th e most a n ta g o n is tic o f a l l th e lo g g e rs a g a in s t th e Holyoke regim e was Edward C layson, who began to re g a rd Holyoke as a t y r a n t r u lin g th e company town o f Seabeck l i k e a p en al colony* For a s h o r t tim e C layson p u b lis h e d a l i t t l e new spaper c a lle d th e Rebel B a tte r y , w ith the avowed purpose o f waging war on th e W ashington M ill Company* In l a t e r y e a rs he p u b lish e d h is memoirs, and some e x c e rp ts a re g iv e n h ere o nly to i l l u s t r a t e th e 12gdward C layson, S r.« H i s t o r i c a l N a rra tiv e o f Puget Sound* Hoods Canal* 1#65-1885* The E x p erien ces o f an Only F ree Man i n a P enal Colony ( S e a t t l e : R* L» Davis P r in tin g Co*,- 1911), P* 13J u d ith M. Johnson, "Some M a te r ia ls f o r P a c if ic N orthw est H is to r y , W ashington M ill Company P a p e r s ,” P a c if ic N orthw est Q u a r te r ly . V ol, V, No. 3 (J u ly , I9 6 0 ), pp* 136-138* 46 extrem es to which some people have gone in c r i t i c i z i n g companies t h a t owned and c o n tr o lle d t h e i r own com m unities. P a in tin g a p ic tu r e q u ite d i f f e r e n t from t h a t under th e management o f B lin n , Clayson d e c la re d : In t h a t p en al colony— Seabeck—was a p u b lic b rid g e , b u i l t w ith th e p u b lic fu n d s. • . . This b rid g e cro sse d a creek about 200 f e e t w ide, connecting t h i s "penal colony" w ith r e b e l t e r r i t o r y ( t h i s lo n e ly r e b e l r e b e lle d a g a in s t th e King o f Hoods C a n a l). This t e r r i t o r y com prised some 133 a c re s o f la n d , w ith 450 yard s o f w a te r f r o n t, and i t belonged to Edward C layson. . • • To be f lo u te d by th e King o f Hoods Canal was to be o s tr a c iz e d by every v e n a l sla v e in town<> T h is, th e n , was th e p o s itio n f o r many y e a rs , of an only f r e e man in a p en al colony, whose "a b sen te e la n d lo rd " occupied a p lace c a lle d th e G recian C ro ss, i n Menlo P ark, C a lif o r n ia . . . . «ao «e <>o 9o ooo oao o9e oee ooo ooo For many long y ea rs th e r e was never a sch o o l m eeting in Seabeck—th e re was th e form of a m eeting, t h a t 's all® This " fo rm a lity " had to be com plied w ith . . . in o rd e r to g e t th e annual a p p ro p ria tio n o f sch o o l money f o r th e payment of th e te a c h e r s . A n o tic e of th e annual school m eeting, as re q u ire d by law, was always stu c k up on th e o u tsid e o f the W ashington M ill Company's s t o r e , and j u s t enough o f Holly-Hawke*s " s u b je c ts " used to assem ble in th e company's h a l l ev e ry y e a r to form a "sc h o o l com m ittee." One " s u b je c t" would make a m otion and a n o th e r " s u b je c t" would second i t . The m otion was put to an empty h a l l , and th e m otion always c a r r ie d unanim ously to an empty school house. What a damn mockery to be su re I In 1076 o r 1679. . . . th e r e was a school m eeting f o r th e f i r s t tim e in th e tw enty y e a r s ' h is t o r y o f Sea beck, and i t was a " v io le n t d em o n stratio n , to o ," being as i t was t h a t o f a " fo re ig n born c i tiz e n " championing (s in g le handed and a lo n e) " f r e e speech"; and the " l o i l s u b je c t" —n a tiv e born American s la v e s — opposing i t . This shows to what d ep th s o f d e g re d a tio n a community can be reduced to in is o l a t e d p a r ts of the 49 c o u n try under c o rp o ra te dominion and th e d e s p o tic r u le o f a l o c a l ag en t o f an "a b sen te e l a n d l o r d ." '^ W hatever th e t r u t h may have been, Seabeck remained under company c o n tr o l u n t i l 1SS6 , when th e m ill burned. I t was n ev er r e b u i l t and th e employees s c a tte r e d to o th e r m ills in th e a r e a . In 1912 th e p ro p e rty was purchased from th e W ashington M ill Company by A. B. Newell and Son, who so ld i t two y e a rs l a t e r to Lawrence Coleman. Coleman planned to develop i t as a slimmer conference and r e c r e a t i o n a l a re a fo r in te rd e n o m in a tio n a l church g roups, and i t i s p r e s e n tly used f o r t h i s purpose. T his development i s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f what has happened to many choice s i t e s once occupied by company tow ns„ The S h o r t- liv e d M ill Town The lum ber in d u s try fre q u e n tly has been c r i t i c i z e d f o r i t s form er p o lic y o f going i n to an a re a o f v ir g in tim b e r, e s ta b li s h in g a m i l l , and w antonly c u ttin g out an e n t i r e a r e a . Much tim b er was w asted as only th e choice t r e e s and th e choice p a r ts of t r e e s were m ille d , th e r e s t being burned o r l e f t to r o t . As soon as an a re a was " c u t o u t" th e s e ttle m e n t around th e m i l l s i t e would be abandoned and th e lumbermen would move on to new sta n d s of tim b e r. In t h i s manner many abandoned m il l s e ttle m e n ts have d o tte d 14ciayson, H is to r ic a l N a rra tiv e o f Puget Sound, pp. 27- 2S, 460 th e lum ber re g io n o f th e P a c if ic Northwest* Some o f them were undoubtedly f u ll- f le d g e d company towns o f v arying siz e so O thers were sim ply sm all s e ttle m e n ts n e a r farm ing a re a s o r o th e r communities and th e re f o r e d id n o t become company towns© Some were com pletely abandoned, and are th e r e f o r e d i f f i c u l t to lo c a te to d a y , w hile th e rem nants o f o th e rs may s t i l l e x i s t as sm all s e ttle m e n ts su p p o rtin g farm ing communities© In Mendocino County, C a lif o r n ia , f o r example, th e t i n y s e ttle m e n t o f Navarro was once a sm a ll, company-owned community© There a saw m ill was b u i l t by th e Wendling M illin g and Lumber Company in 1905> and th e town was c a lle d Wendling© A fte r p a ssin g to v a r i ous ow ners, o p e ra tio n s ceased in 1927o There was once f i f t e e n or tw enty houses in t h i s sm all company town, as w e ll as a company s to r e and a cookhouse©15 Today th e re a re only a few ranches and an I t a l i a n cafe in th e area* A few examples must be c ite d o f the s h o r t- liv e d company m ill towns which f lo u ris h e d in th e e a r ly p a r t o f t h i s century* Such a community was Montezuma, Washington© Montezuma was a f u ll- f le d g e d company town w ith bunk h o u ses, c o tta g e s , company s t o r e , r e c r e a tio n h a l l , and a p o p u la tio n o f f iv e or s i x hundred people* I t su p p o rted th e o p e ra tio n s o f th e Manley-Moore Lumber Company, which had a m ill th e re ^ U n io n Lumber Company Museum, F o rt Bragg, C a li f o r n ia , c a p tio n w ith p ic tu r e o f o ld Navarro© from 1910 to 1935. The town was e s ta b lis h e d because of tr a n s p o r ta tio n d i f f i c u l t i e s o f th e tim e . Only a logging r a ilr o a d le d in to th e a re a , and th e re was no means o f d a ily tr a n s p o r tin g men back and f o r th to th e m i l l from any o th e r town. The c lo s e s t p o p u la tio n c e n te r was Tacoma, which was f o r ty m ile s away. "We needed employees fo r our o p e ra tio n s and we had to b u ild p laces f o r them to liv e and p ro v id e the n e c e ssa ry s e r v ic e s f o r them ," re p o rte d th e company’s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .^ In a d d itio n to the m i l l town, Manley-Moore a lso had many o f the u s u a l mobile logging camps in th e woods. For i t s day the m i l l was a most s ig n i f i c a n t o p e ra tio n , c u ttin g t h i r t y - f i v e to f o r ty m illio n board f e e t o f lumber per y e a r . The company so ld an a d d itio n a l t h i r t y m illio n f e e t o f lo g s a n n u a lly . In the company town o f Montezuma a c o tta g e could be re n te d f o r e ig h t d o lla r s p e r month, in c lu d in g fre e l i g h t s . Fuel wood could be purchased from th e company a t the nom inal r a t e o f se v e n ty -fiv e c e n ts a c o rd . With these and o th e r a d v a n ta g e s, th e company f e l t t h a t i t s employees were w e ll tr e a te d and s a t i s f i e d . The company ^ I n f o r m a tio n on Montezuma was o b tain ed in a t e l e phone in te rv ie w w ith Mr. R. R, R oberts o f P o rtla n d , Ore gon, on May 29, 1962, S p e c ia l g r a tit u d e is ex p ressed to Mr. R o b e rts, who, in resp o n se to a l e t t e r of in q u ir y , made a lo n g d is ta n c e te lep h o n e c a ll from P o rtlan d to Garden Grove, C a lif o r n ia , to give th e w r ite r th e in fo rm atio n so u g h t. Mr. R oberts was su p e rin te n d e n t a t Montezuma. p ro v id ed few form al r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s , f o r th e very lo c a tio n o f th e o p e ra tio n provided p le n ty o f outdoor a c t i v i t i e s . At th e company s to r e a c r e d i t system was used which allow ed employees to have t h e i r purchases deducted from th e p a y r o ll, alth o u g h no e f f o r t was made to fo rc e employees to tra d e i n th e company s t o r e e Some employees purchased goods a t a mining camp n o t f a r away, w h ile o th e rs sometimes had them shipped in by r a i l * The m ill was c lo se d when th e company clo sed in 1935» and th e town e v e n tu a lly was abandoned. A s m a lle r town w ith a s im ila r h is t o r y was M etro p o l i t a n , C a lif o r n ia , o p erated by th e M etro p o lita n Lumber Company0 Located n e a r th e p re s e n t lo n g -tim e company town o f S c o tia , th e m ill a t M e tro p o lita n was e s ta b lis h e d about 1.905o The su p p o rtin g community c o n s is te d o f about tw en ty - f iv e h o u se s, a company s to r e and a " h o te l1 1 f o r b a c h e lo rs . As most company tow ns, i t was c o n s tru c te d b a s ic a lly f o r th e m il l hands, alth o u g h a few m arried woodsmen a ls o liv e d t h e r e . Workmen paid f iv e to seven d o lla r s p e r month f o r h o u sin g , which in c lu d ed w ate r and wood, alth o u g h foremen re c e iv e d t h e i r d w ellin g s r e n t f r e e . The g r e a t o u td o o rs, a g a in , p rovided most o f th e r e c r e a tio n , w ith f is h in g and swimming r e a d i ly a v a ila b le . O ther e n t e r t a i n ment m ight be found a t F o rtu n a, which was not too f a r away. A ll n e c e s s i t i e s o f l i f e were o b ta in a b le a t th e 53 company s t o r e , and c r e d i t was a v a ila b le * The company a ls o allow ed a g ro cery man from F ortuna to come in about tw ice a week. T his was one company town, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t was lo c a te d c lo se enough t o o th e r communities to p r o f i t from them . An elem entary school e x is te d in M e tro p o lita n , b u t high school s tu d e n ts went to F o rtu n a . The m ill was clo sed in 1923 because th e lumber m arket was becoming d e p re s se d , alth o u g h one man rem ained to c lo se th e yard and d isp o se o f rem aining lum ber. He sta y ed f o r s e v e r a l y e a rs ta k in g care o f th e cows and h o rse s which s t i l l belonged to th e company. Wien th e m ill clo sed th e houses were purchased by a lo g g in g c o n tra c to r who moved them to R y d e rv ille , and M e tro p o lita n became an o th e r abandoned m il l s i t e * . ^ Economic Changes A ffec t Company Towns Although th e fre q u e n t d isb an d in g o f saw m ills and th e abandonment o f a d ja c e n t communities has brought charges o f w aste and poor management a g a in s t th e lumber in d u s tr y , i t seems t h a t th e r e have been some good re a s o n s , i f n o t t o t a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n , f o r i t . A 1946 stu d y o f th e abandonment o f lumber m ill towns in th e Puget Sound re g io n ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith Emil T a lv o la , Eureka, C a lif o r n ia , A p ril 16, 1962. Mr. T alv o la in d ic a te d th a t he i s p robably one o f th e l a s t two men rem aining a l i v e who worked in M e tro p o lita n from i t s e a r l i e s t d ay s. 54 reach ed some i n t e r e s t i n g c o n c lu s io n s ,1 6 The f o r e s t in d u s tr y , s t a t e d th e a u th o r, began w ith a p io n e e r e x p lo i t a t i o n sta g e which could not have been d i f f e r e n t because o f c o n d itio n s e x is tin g a t th e tim e , In te n s iv e co m p e titio n , th e expense o f sa lv a g in g poor q u a lity tim b e r, th e pro fu se n e ss o f th e f o r e s t s , th e la c k of modern sa lv a g in g and u t i l i z a t i o n te c h n iq u e s , and th e la c k o f p u b lic concern tow ard s c i e n t i f i c f o r e s t p r a c tic e s a l l c o n trib u te d to t h i s co n d itio n * A "m ature f o r e s t economy,” he s a id , had been reach ed by 1937-38, based on s u s ta in e d y ie ld f o r e s t p r a c t i c e s , In e a r l i e r days th e p io n e e r economy lack ed p o p u la tio n , tr a n s p o r t a t i o n , l o c a l m arkets and s e ttle m e n ts . I t was th e re fo r e n e c e ssa ry f o r tim b er o p e ra to rs to e s ta b l i s h camps o r company tow ns. In t h i s p io n e e r sta g e th e in d u s try was d esigned to h a rv e s t only th e one crop o f v ir g in tim b e r, and such c o n d itio n s made th e l i f e o f a m i l l town very u n c e r ta in . The f a c t t h a t th e towns have been abandoned and th a t no new ones a re being b u i l t i s a s ig n o f th e m a tu rity o f th e in d u s tr y . So f a r two f a c t o r s have been suggested which h e lp account f o r g ra d u a l d isap p earan ce o f th e company town in th e lumber in d u s tr y : (1) V a stly improved tr a n s p o r ta tio n ^ C l a r k Irw in C ro ss, "F a c to rs In flu e n c in g the Abandonment of Lumber M ill Towns in th e Puget Sound Region" (unpublished M a ste rT s t h e s i s , School o f F o re s tr y , Uni v e r s i t y o f Oregon, 1946), passim . c o n d itio n s have e lim in a te d much o f th e need f o r e s ta b l is h i n g m i l l s i t e s in i s o l a t e d a r e a s , and have made fo rm erly i s o l a t e d a re a s more e a s ily a c c e s s ib le , th u s e lim in a tin g th e need f o r company tow ns; (2) th e modern p r a c tic e o f s u s ta in e d y ie ld f o r e s t r y has developed a more permanent type o f economy in c e r t a in f o r e s t areas® This developm ent has a f f e c te d th e h is t o r y o f company towns in a t l e a s t two ways: I t has e lim in a te d th e need f o r company towns in some p la c e s , w hile in o th e r a re a s i t has brought about th e co n v ersio n o f towns from dependent company-owned s t a t u s , f u l l y aware t h a t some day th e y must be e lim in a te d , to modern permanent communities o f home owners who have every reaso n to a n t ic i p a te s ta b le economy and employment in t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r areas® The c o n se rv a tio n movement has long been a p a r t o f th e American scen e, but i t became e s p e c ia lly im p o rta n t in th e lumber in d u s try in th e 1920's® By t h i s tim e i t had become ap p a re n t n o t only to tr a in e d f o r e s t e r s but a ls o to Congress and to th e p u b lic t h a t th e c u ttin g o f tim b er re so u rc e s fo u r tim es f a s t e r th an th e y could re p la c e them selves would soon e lim in a te th e in d u s try from our economy® Under th e prodding o f W illiam B« G reeley, C hief F o r e s te r in th e Department of th e I n t e r i o r , Congress passed l e g i s l a t i o n d esig n ed to encourage commercial r e f o r e s t a t i o n among p r iv a te tim b e r g ro w e rs*19 G reeley was convinced t h a t th e most im p o rta n t s te p in t h i s d ir e c tio n would be a f i r e p re v e n tio n program , so t h a t th e p r iv a te in v e s to r could be re a so n a b ly assu re d t h a t h is new f o r e s t s would mature* Tax in c e n tiv e s were a ls o to be used in encouraging r e f o r e s t a t i o n , as w e ll as a program o f ed u c a tio n in o rd e r to g e t p u b lic support* In Ju n e, 1924, G re e le y ’s program was adopted and th e p o lic y o f c o n se rv a tio n and r e f o r e s ta t io n was on i t s way* The e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f th e program i s seen in th e f a c t t h a t in 1923 th e annual c u t o f saw -tim ber was four* tim es g r e a t e r than th e y e a rly grow th, but by T94& the r a t e o f e x tr a c tio n had been d e c re a se d to only 1^ tim e s the annual r e f o r e s t a t i o n . 20 The c o n se rv a tio n movement has added new elem ents to the lumber in d u stry * For one th in g , la r g e companies now h ir e tr a in e d f o r e s t e r s f o r th e exp ress purpose o f planning and su p e rv is in g a perm anent f o r e s t program on company p ro p erty * Large ’’tr e e fa rm s” are sp rin g in g up in every p a r t of th e lumber re g io n , as c u t-o v e r areas a re ^ F o r th e v i t a l and i n t e r e s t i n g s t o r y o f G re e le y ’s f i g h t w ith G iffo rd P inchot over th e p r in c ip le o f p r iv a te versus p u b lic c o n tro l o f com mercial c u t tin g , as w e ll as G re e le y ’s t i r e l e s s e f f o r t s to persuade Congress to pass h is c o n s e rv a tio n program, see George T. Morgan, J r . , W illiam B* G reeley, A P r a c tic a l F o re s te r ( S t. P au l: F o re st H isto ry S o c ie ty . In c .'. 1961). p assim * ^ I b i d * , p , 66* 57 re p la n te d w ith s e e d lin g s which p re v io u sly have been n u rtu re d in company n u rs e rie s # In many a re a s h e lic o p te r s are used in re^-seeding c u t-o v e r lands# C u ttin g and o th e r f o r e s t p r a c tic e s are s c i e n t i f i c a l l y planned to e lim in a te d e s tr u c tio n o f fu tu re commercial tim ber# S c i e n t i f i c developm ents, fu rth e rm o re , have made much o f th e wood which fo rm e rly was w asted assume r e a l commercial v a lu e 0 A d ram atic i l l u s t r a t i o n o f th e changing p a t te r n o f th e lumber in d u s try i s seen in th e s to r y of R ockport, C a lif o r n ia , th e s i t e o f th e Rockport Redwood Company's, t r e e farm in Mendocino County# The town began in th e iS&O's as a t y p i c a l haphazard lumber camp# The m il l was lo c a te d n e a r an i n l e t from th e ocean so t h a t tim b er could be shipped v ia company v e s s e l to San Francisco# The town has passed through th e hands of v a rio u s owners, b u t th e f i r s t modern fa m ily d w ellin g s were c o n s tru c te d in 1925 by th e F in k b in e-G u ild Lumber Company, and a t t h i s tim e the s e ttle m e n t began to ta k e on th e a s p e c ts of a r e a l town# In 193S th e p re s e n t company took o v er, and a l i t t l e a d d itio n a l housing was c o n s tru c te d la te r # When th e saw m ill sh u t down in 1957 th e re was a p o p u la tio n o f about f iv e hundred people in the town# A ll th e a s p e c ts of a ty p i c a l company town, in c lu d in g th e company s t o r e , community h a l l , company d o c to r, e t c . , were p re s e n t a t R o ck p o rt.21 Today, however, p r a c t i c a l l y a l l th e houses are d e s e rte d and Rockport could no lo n g e r be c a lle d a le g itim a te "tow n." The b u sin e ss o f th e Rockport Redwood Company has developed now to t h a t of a tim b e r s u p p lie r , and th e Rockport a re a has become a g ia n t t r e e farm 0 Here i s lo c a te d a company n u rs e ry , and th e m ountains surro u n d in g th e form er community are covered w ith an imposing new growth o f redwood which e v e n tu a lly w i l l be so ld f o r h a r v e s tin g . The only homes m a in tain ed now a re f o r th e few people n e c e ss a ry to th e management o f th e t r e e farm and th e 30,000 a c re s owned by th e company.22 i t i s a r a t h e r s t a r t l i n g and humbling th o u g h t to r e a l i z e t h a t th e s e e d lin g s p la n te d now w i l l be h a rv e s te d by a g e n e ra tio n y e t unborn, f o r i t w i l l tak e from e ig h ty to 100 y e a rs f o r th e redwoods to achieve a s iz e p r a c t i c a l f o r commercial m illin g . Such i s th e n a tu re and d e d ic a tio n , however, of th e c o n se rv a tio n movement. The r i s e and d e c lin e o f th e town o f R ockport, t h e r e f o r e , u n iq u ely dem onstrate th e e v o lu tio n o f th e lumber in d u s tr y , from the e a r l y days o f a c u ttin g and 21 L e tte r from B. Z. Agrons, G eneral Manager, Rockport Redwood Company, R ockport, C a lif o r n ia , May 5, 1962. ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith B. Z. Agrons, A p ril 13s 1962o PLATE IV ROCKPORT, CALIFORNIA— .an example o f how economic and geog rap h ic c o n d itio n s determ ined th e la y -o u t and lo c a tio n o f a company town. The m ill was lo c a te d on an i n l e t from th e ocean so th a t lumber could e a s i l y be shipped in company-owned v e s s e ls to San F ra n c is c o . The town was b u i l t up two arms o f th e canyon above th e m i l l . (A d d itio n a l housing i s lo c a te d j u s t o u t o f th e p ic tu r e on th e r i g h t . ) Rockport i s p r a c t i c a l l y abandoned today as th e Rockport Redwood Company now o p e ra te s th e e n t i r e a re a as a t r e e farm . (Photograph c o u rte sy B. Z. A grons.) 60 ■ ;f/iIplS fp 61 sh ip p in g o p e ra tio n to th e p re s e n t management o f su sta in e d y ie ld f o r e s t s . The town, o f c o u rse , was only an i n c i d e n ta l f a c t o r in th e t o t a l developm ent o f th e company. I t s s ig n if ic a n c e to th e company i s touched on in a l e t t e r from th e g e n e ra l manager o f th e Rockport p r o p e r tie s : I would c o n sid e r t h a t th e town i t s e l f had l i t t l e s ig n if ic a n c e in th e development o f our Company,* Our Company developed because o f th e ow nership of a s iz e a b le t r a c t o f tim b e r la n d . The town and th e saw m ill e x is te d f o r th e purpose o f m anufacturing lum ber from th e tim b e r on t h i s t r a c t . The manufac tu re o f lumber and the e x is te n c e o f th e town were phases in th e development o f th e Company. Now t h a t th e saw m ill o p e ra tio n i s te rm in a te d and th e town no lo n g e r occupied, th e Company liv e s on and f lo u r is h e s in th e p ro d u ctio n o f tim b e r on th e same t r a c t of la n d . Towns come and go and we a re the f o u r th company to have o p e ra te d here b u t th e la n d i s e t e r n a l .23 The changing p a tte r n of the lum ber in d u s try has had q u ite a d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t upon th e town o f M cCleary, W ashington. McCleary had i t s beginning in 189# as a saw m il l and lo g g in g camp, and s h o r tly a f t e r th e tu r n of th e ce n tu ry th e o p e ra tio n was ta k e n over by th e Henry McCleary Timber Company, w ith Henry McCleary dominant owner and manager o f th e town. The w o rld ’s l a r g e s t f i r door p la n t came to McCleary in 1912, which s t a r t e d the s u b s t a n t i a l growth of th e town. Although th e town was e n t i r e l y owned by th e company, McCleary allow ed o u ts id e i n t e r e s t s to o p e ra te th e s t o r e s , h o te l, and o th e r b u s in e s s e s , and th e re were no r e s t r i c t i o n s on d rin k in g and gambling as in th e ^ L e t t e r from B.Z. Agrons, May 5» 19620 62 case of m ost com pany-controlled to w n s.24 In 1942 M cCleary’s tim b e r re so u rc e s had g iv en o u t, and th e company so ld th e m i l l , to g e th e r w ith th e town, to the Simpson lo g g in g Company of S h e lto n , W ashington. The Simpson company, however, had long been i n te r e s te d in s u s ta in e d y ie ld f o r e s t p r a c t ic e s , and was a lre a d y in th e b u sin e ss of t r e e farm ing, as w e ll as o th e r methods o f c o n s e rv a tio n . The company a ls o encouraged o th e r producers which su p p lie d i t w ith logs to adopt s im ila r p r a c t i c e s S i m p s o n , m oreover, was not i n t e r e s t e d in th e problems o f company town ow nership, and th e company’s p o lic y o f m a in ta in in g a permanent supply of tim b e r made p o ssib le th e assu ran ce of a permanent economy a t McCleary. The Simpson company th e re fo re o ffe re d th e town’s homes f o r s a le to i t s te n a n ts a t a p ric e e q u iv a le n t to e ig h te e n m onths’ r e n t , and McCleary became an in c o rp o ra te d , s e l f - governing community. Simpson a ls o improved th e tow n’s w ater and l i g h t system , s e l l i n g th ese u t i l i t i e s back to th e town f o r le s s th a n th e c o s t o f th e im provem ents. In t h i s c a s e , th e n , th e changing f o r e s t economy r e s u lt e d in th e e v o lu tio n of a company town from a p a t e r n a l i s t i c ’’one-man” community w ith no f u tu r e , to a s e lf-g o v e rn in g , 2^The McCleary S tim u la to r . S p e c ia l e d i tio n , December 4, 195#. A lso, l e t t e r from E rn e st C. T eagle, McCleary, W ashington, June, 1962. 63 p ro g re s s iv e community of home owners w ith new l i f e and a b r ig h t new f u t u r e . The s ig n if ic a n c e o f th e new p o lic y o f f o r e s t p la n n in g , e s p e c i a l l y as i t r e l a t e s to a company town, i s seen in th e 1944 Annual R eport o f Lyle F, W a tts, C h ief o f th e U nited S ta te s F o re s t S e rv ic e . With re fe re n c e to th e McCleary s to r y he s t a t e d : What lo n g -ra n g e f o r e s t planning can mean to lo c a l people and com m unities may be i l l u s t r a t e d by th e re c e n t r e ju v in a tio n o f one sm all town in th e W est. This community, e s ta b li s h e d around a saw m ill as a "company tow n," had p ro sp e re d d u rin g th e boom p e rio d o f lum bering in th e v i c i n i t y . A la r g e rem a n u fa ctu rin g p la n t added to th e i n d u s t r i a l a c t i v i t y . But th e n tim b e r became s c a r c e , th e o r i g i n a l owner d ied and th e b u s in e s s came alm ost to a s t a n d s t i l l d u rin g th e d e p r e s s io n . Houses and s to r e s were u n p a in te d and d i l a p i d a t e d . P u b lic u t i l i t i e s were in a d e q u a te . The whole atm osphere was one o f d e p re s sio n and d is c o u ra g e m ent. T his a p p a re n tly h o p e le ss scene was changed when a f a r - s i g h t e d company o p e ra tin g a saw m ill in an a d ja c e n t community d ec id ed to purchase th e e n t i r e e n t e r p r i s e , in c lu d in g th e town i t s e l f . Over 100,000 a c re s o f c u t-o v e r la n d s and young growth have been o rg an iz ed as a t r e e farm on which to grow a new crop o f tim b e r to re p la c e in p a r t th e su p p ly t h a t c a r r ie d t h i s town through i t s p io n e e r boom p e rio d . M eanwhile, th e town i s to become th e c e n te r o f rem a n u fa ctu rin g o p e ra tio n s in a w e ll - in t e g r a te d i n d u s t r i a l program based upon s u s ta in e d - y ie ld f o r e s t management p la n s . Permanence o f o p e ra tio n has been th e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r la r g e e x p e n d itu re s f o r im prove ments o f p la n t and tow n. M anufacturing f a c i l i t i e s have been m odernized. Some o f th e m ost u n s ig h tly b u ild in g s have been d em olished. The company’s o f f ic e and s t o r e b u ild in g s have been p a in te d . P ublic u t i l i t i e s have been im proved. D w ellings have been so ld t o a r e a l - e s t a t e company f o r r e s a l e to the w orkers under a c o n tr a c t t h a t p r o te c ts th e u ltim a te p u rc h a s e r from p r o f i t e e r i n g . The people have ta k e n a new i n t e r e s t in t h e i r community and have o rg an iz ed to h a n d le t h e i r own a f f a i r s . With generous co o p e ra tio n 64 from th e company, th e town was In c o rp o ra te d f o r the f i r s t tim e e a r l y in 1943s Thus a p o te n tia l "ghost town” has been r e ju v in a te d and given a f r e s h and c o n fid e n t o u tlo o k as a concom itant o f th e lo n g -ran g e f o r e s t r y program of a m ajor o p e ra tin g company# I t i s in such sound com m unities, firm ly g eared to t h e i r b a s ic re s o u rc e s , t h a t th e s tr e n g th of American democracy lie s ,, Here, stemming from p la n s to keep f o r e s t s and la n d p ro d u c tiv e , a re th e elem ents of both n a tio n a l and in d iv id u a l s e c u r ity # 2? Along w ith changing f o r e s t p r a c tic e s an o th e r modern elem ent has been in tro d u c e d in to th e lumber in d u s try : c o n s o lid a tio n and the developm ent o f g ia n t c o rp o ra tio n s# This m ight be co n sid ered a t h i r d f a c t o r in th e p ro cess o f th e g ra d u a l e lim in a tio n o f company towns in th e West# The Simpson Logging Company (now th e Simpson Timber Company), f o r example, not only took over th e McCleary o p e ra tio n s , but in 1956 purchased th e p r o p e r tie s o f th e N orthern Redwood Company a t K orbel, C a lifo rn ia # K orbel was an o ld -tim e m ill town founded in 1&S2 by the Korbel B rothers# The Simpson company, fo llo w in g i t s p o lic y o f n o t becoming in v o lv ed in p a t e r n a l i s t i c company town problem s, i s g ra d u a lly e lim in a tin g th e company-owned re sid e n c e s# The h o te l and rooming houses have been c lo s e d , as w e ll as th e few m e rc a n tile e s ta b lish m e n ts which were th e re when Simpson took over# R esid en ts a re encouraged to purchase homes in n ea r-b y communities and e v e n tu a lly ^Quoted in S tew art H olbrook, Green Commonwealth (P u b lish ed by th e Simpson Logging Company, S h e lto n , W ashington, 1950), p# 155® 65 th e re w i l l be no more re s id e n c e s on th e Korbel p r o p e r t y . 2 6 I t i s ap p a re n t t h a t th e re i s p r e s e n tly no need f o r a company town a t K orbel, and soon a n o th e r such community w i l l have passed in to o b liv io n » One o f A m erica’s g ia n t c o rp o ra tio n s i s th e G eorgia- P a c ific C o rp o ra tio n , which holds v a s t tim b er re s e rv e s n o t only in th e West b u t a lso in th e S o u th e a st, where the company o r i g i n a l l y s t a r t e d e^7 The company began in A ugusta, G eorgia, in 1927, and by 1940 i t owned and o p era te d s ix lum ber m il ls in th e South and had s a le s c e n te rs i n A ugusta, New York, P h ila d e lp h ia and Houstona By 194# i t had expanded to th e West Coast and was o p e ra tin g f iv e plywood p la n ts o By I960 i t had tak en over many sm a lle r companies both in th e S o u th ea st and th e W est, th e w estern companies in c lu d in g F e a th e r R iver Pine M ills Co0 o f F e a th e r F a l l s , C a lif o r n ia , Coos Bay Lumber Company of Coos Bay, Oregon, Booth K elly Lumber Company o f S p rin g f i e l d , Oregon, and Hammond Lumber Company a t Samoa, C a li f o r n ia < > F e a th e r F a lls and Samoa, C a lif o r n ia , were both ^ L e t t e r from Dave Jam es, D ire c to r o f P ublic A f f a ir s , Simpson Timber Company, S e a t t l e , W ashington, March 12, 19o3o ^?For an in t e r e s t i n g and comprehensive account o f th e G e o rg ia -P a c ific C o rp o ratio n and i t s phenominal grow th, see John McDonald, ”Georgi® P a c if ic : I t grows Big on T re e s ,” F o rtu n e . Vole LXV, No. 5 (May, 1962), pp. 111 f f . company tow ns. The developm ent o f g ia n t c o rp o ra tio n s in th e lumber in d u s try has made a d if fe re n c e as f a r as company towns are concerned. In most ca ses th e o r ig in a l fo under o f a m ill town had a p e rso n a l i n t e r e s t in th e town. His company was n o t so la rg e t h a t he d id n o t know th e people o f th e town, and i f he d id n o t l iv e in town he fre q u e n tly v i s i t e d th e m i l l . Normally a s in g le company d id n o t own more th an one m ill town, which tended to give th e r e s id e n ts o f th e town a h ig h ly p e rso n a l f e e lin g tow ard th e company. With th e modern tr e n d toward c o n s o lid a tio n , however, has come a la c k o f p e rso n a l i n t e r e s t . As p r o p e r tie s are a c q u ired in g r e a t ly se p a ra te d a r e a s , th e p re s id e n t of th e board has l i t t l e to do d i r e c t l y w ith th e r e s id e n ts o f any town which may happen to be a c q u ire d along th e way<> I t i s n o t in t h e i r i n t e r e s t , fu rth e rm o re , f o r th e c o rp o ra tio n s to continue to provide s e rv ic e s once o ffe re d in the company town, f o r th e advancement o f c i v i l i z a t i o n has given easy access to th e se towns and employees can e a s ily li v e elsew here aid commute to work. E x is tin g housing can be so ld to th e te n a n ts , f o r th e new s e c u r ity g iv en by th e lo n g -term n a tu re o f th e b u sin e ss of the c o rp o ra tio n prom ises co ntinued l i f e to th e community. I f the company town i s r e ta in e d , i t i s only as a r e s i d e n t i a l a re a f o r key p e rso n n e l, w ith th e m a jo rity o f w orkers l iv i n g in n ea r-b y 67 com m unities. I t i s n o t u su a l in th e se s it u a ti o n s f o r s t o r e s , boarding h o u ses, o r o th e r b u sin e ss o r r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s to be m a in ta in e d . In s h o r t , th e company town i s n o th in g more th a n a p a ssin g d e t a i l when compared w ith th e v a s t o p e ra tio n s o f some o f to d a y ’s huge e n t e r p r i s e s . They have had t h e i r p la ce in th e development o f th e in d u s try as a w hole, but company towns a re only in c id e n ta l to th e c o rp o ra tio n s which a re te n d in g now to swallow them, A case in p o in t in G e ro g ia -P a c ific ’s ta k e -o v e r of Hammond Lumber Company in 1956, Two C a lifo rn ia company towns were involved in t h i s tr a n s a c ti o n : C rannell and Samoa, In C ra n n e ll, G e ro g ia -P a c ific im m ediately did away w ith th e s t o r e s . I t soon decided to e lim in a te th e m i l l , along w ith th e company town, and ev e ry th in g ex cep t a few o f th e newer houses was d ism a n tle d . One company town, 2 A th e r e f o r e , was com pletely removed from the sc e n e , ° Samoa, on the o th e r hand, which was th e c e n te r of the Hammond o p e r a tio n s , was m a in ta in e d , but w ith a changed atm osphereo A, B, Hammond, fo under o f Hammond Lumber Company, i s d e sc rib e d by lo n g -tim e r e s id e n ts as a kind man w ith a rough e x t e r i o r , but as having a p e rso n a l i n t e r e s t in th e town and i t s p e o p le ,^9 Today, however, th e re ^ I n te r v ie w w ith George Knab, Areata Redwood Company, A reata, C a lifo r n ia , A p ril 1A, 1962, ^ in te r v ie w w ith Mrs, E ls ie M ille r , A reata, C a li fo r n ia , A p ril 19, 1962, seems to be l i t t l e p e rso n a l i n t e r e s t in th e town as such on th e p a r t o f to p management p e rso n n e l, alth o u g h company o f f i c i a l s a t th e s i t e who were once a p a r t o f th e Hammond o rg a n iz a tio n s t i l l ta k e a g r e a t d e a l o f p rid e in th e community* The town today i s m aintained b a s ic a lly f o r key p e rso n n e l, and low c o s t housing i s p a r t o f t h e i r i n c e n t i v e . 30 & la r g e r p o rtio n o f th e employees l iv e out o f town th an in form er y e a rs , and th e company no lo n g e r m a in ta in s s t o r e s , r e c r e a tio n h a l l , o r o th e r f a c i l i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of tr u e company towns* I t should be observed, however, t h a t th e se changes r e f l e c t n o t only G e o rg ia -P a c ific p o lic y , b u t a ls o th e changing economic needs o f th e tim e, f o r the Hammond company, in i t s l a t e r y e a rs , had e lim in a te d su p e rflu o u s s e rv ic e s such as th e company s t o r e . Although no o f f i c i a l p o lic y te n d in g toward e lim in a tio n of th e town has been h in te d a t , one who d riv e s through th e a re a today re c e iv e s a d e f i n i t e , alm ost u n ex p lain a b le f e e lin g th a t Samoa i s an o th er company town t h a t may n o t e x i s t f o r many more y e a rs to come.31 ■ ^In terv iew w ith James A* McArthur, J r . , Samoa, C a lif o r n ia , A p ril 19, 1962. -^T h is should n o t be ta k en to imply th a t Samoa i s an u n p le a sa n t p la ce to l i v e , f o r th e company-owned houses appear u n u su a lly com fortable and w e ll b u i l t , and th e town i s w e ll m a in ta in e d . The la c k of any normal "town” a c t i v i t i e s , however, th e in c re a s in g c lo se n e ss to o th e r commu n i t i e s , and th e f a c t t h a t th e r e i s no r e a l need f o r th e company to s ta y in th e town b u sin e ss e x p la in th e f e e lin g suggested above. 69 A nother c o r p o r a tio n which has grown la rg e in r e c e n t y e a rs th ro u g h ta k in g o v er s m a lle r companies i s th e I n t e r n a tio n a l Paper Company« In 1956 I n te r n a t i o n a l Paper a c q u ire d a l l th e h o ld in g s o f the L ong-B ell Lumber Company, which in c lu d e d th e company town o f Weed, C alifo rn ia® The new owner had no company towns o f i t s own, and took s te p s im m ediately to g e t r i d o f t h i s one by s e l l i n g company homes to i t s employees® I n t e r n a t i o n a l Paper Company s t i l l o p e ra te s a la r g e m i l l a t Weed, b u t o nly a few houses are m a in ta in e d f o r key management p e r s o n n e l ®32 The sm all town o f Vaughn, Oregon, however, which was a ls o Long-B ell p ro p e rty , i s in a more i s o l a t e d a re a and has been r e ta in e d as a company-owned community0 I t would be d i f f i c u l t to say t h a t c o n s o lid a tio n o f lum ber i n t e r e s t s u n iv e r s a lly le a d s to e lim in a tio n of company tow ns, b u t th e tendency seems to be in t h i s d ir e c tio n o The same economic f a c t o r s , a t l e a s t , which have aided t h i s c o n s o lid a tio n tre n d have a ls o c o n trib u te d to a le s s e n in g need f o r company-owned com m unities in th e lum ber industry® Towns Which Endure In s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t no new company-owned towns a re d ev elo p in g in th e lumber in d u s tr y and t h a t th e ^ ^ In te rv ie w w ith J® M0 W hite, A p ril 20, 1962® g e n e ra l tendency seems to be toward e lim in a tio n o f p re s e n t company tow ns, i t i s im p o rta n t to n o te t h a t many lo n g -tim e company towns which show no immediate p ro sp e c ts o f being s o ld o r e lim in a te d s t i l l e x i s t in th e West© Many com p an ies have found i t to t h e i r advantage over th e y e a rs to own and o p e ra te such towns and see no reaso n to u p se t lo n g -s ta n d in g p r a c tic e s a t t h i s tim e , These com panies, through sound management p o l i c i e s , are s t i l l on firm f in a n c i a l grounds and w i l l undoubtedly remain so f o r y e a rs to come. Reasons f o r co n tin u in g to o p erate th e towns in c lu d e : (1) company d e s ire to r e t a i n firm c o n tro l o f th e p ro p e rty a d jo in in g i t s m ills ; (2) th e s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y i s o l a t e d p o s itio n o f a few communities which would ten d to d isco u rag e a d e s ire f o r home ow nership; (3) th e f a c t t h a t low c o st b u t d e s ir a b le housing can be an added in c e n tiv e in a t t r a c t i n g d e s ira b le p e rso n n e l, e s p e c ia lly in management p o s itio n s . In W ashington, p re se n t-d a y company towns in c lu d e only P o rt Gamble, e s ta b lis h e d in 1353 by th e Puget M ill Company and r e ta in e d p a r tly as a company town today, and Sappho, e s ta b lis h e d as lo g g in g h e a d q u a rte rs f o r B lo e d e ll- Dbnavan in 1924 anc* now owned by R ayonier, In c , Company towns in Oregon in c lu d e : G i l c h r i s t , e s ta b lis h e d in T93& by th e G ilc h r is t Timber Company; Kinzua, founded in 1927 and owned by th e Kinzua C o rp o ratio n ; 71 V alsetz,, e s ta b lis h e d in 1919 and owned by th e V a ls e ta Lumber Company; Vaughn, e s ta b lis h e d in th e 1 920's and now owned by I n te r n a ti o n a l Paper Company; Wauna, founded in 1912 by th e Wauna Lumber Company; W e s tfir, founded about 1925 by th e W estern Lumber Company and now owned by th e Edward Hines Lumber Companyo P re se n t day C a lif o r n ia company towns a re as fo llo w s: F e a th e r F a l l s , e s ta b lis h e d in 1936 by the F e a th e r F a lls B iver Pine M ills Company and now owned by G e o rg ia -P a c ific ; H ilt, founded about 1912 and owned by F r u it Growers Supply Company; Johnsondale, e s ta b lis h e d in 1936-37 by Mt„ Whitney Lumber Co«, now a d iv is io n of American F o re st P roducts C o rp o ratio n ; K orbel, founded by th e Korbel b ro th e rs in th e iSSO's and now a p a r t of Simpson Timber Company, alth o u g h g ra d u a lly being e lim i n a te d ; McCloud, th e p ro p e rty o f the McCloud R iver Lumber Company s in c e th e 1$90’s; Samoa, e s ta b lis h e d in th e 1S 90's by th e Vance Lumber Company and now a p a r t of G eorgia- P a c ific ; S c o tia , th e p ro p e rty o f The P a c if ic Lumber Company sin c e th e 1 6 6 0 's; S tan d ard , e s ta b lis h e d by th e S tandard Lumber Company in 1910 and now owned by th e P ick erin g Lumber C orporation* In A rizona th e town o f McNary has been in o p e ra tio n by th e McNary Lumber Company sin c e 1935» The town of Bonner, Montana, was e s ta b lis h e d in the 16S0's by the 72 Hammond Lumber Company and i s c u r r e n tly owned by The Anaconda Company’s lumber departm ent* In Idaho th e community o f P o tla tc h was founded in 192# and i s s t i l l th e p ro p e rty o f P o tla tc h F o re s ts , Inc* Of a l l the lumber company towns in the W est, S c o tia , C a lif o r n ia , probably has re c e iv e d th e most p u b l i c i t y 033 The h is t o r y of S c o tia began about 1iSS5 when The P a c if ic Lumber Company b u i l t a r a i l r o a d in to F o r e s t v i l l e , as S c o tia th e n was known, and th e fo llo w in g y e a r c o n s tru c te d a m ill* The se ttle m e n t was lo c a te d on a la rg e bend o f th e E el River* By th e company was th e to p producer of redwood in Humboldt County, and th e name o f th e s e ttle m e n t was changed to S c o tia , r e f l e c t i n g th e Nova S c o tia n h e r ita g e of i t s founders* Over th e y e a rs S c o tia grew from a haphazard arrangem ent of shacks to a w e ll o rd ered community of n ic e ly p a in te d homes* The company o p erated i t s own s t o r e , sa lo o n , bank, h o te l, th e a t e r , h o s p i t a l , and a l l o th e r f a c i l i t i e s n e c e ssa ry to th e su ccess o f a town* Only th e h o te l i s s t i l l o p erated by th e company today, however, sin ce i t le a s e s out th e commercial b u ild in g s to p r iv a te o p erato rs* R e sid e n ts in S c o tia seem to ta k e a g re a t d e a l o f p rid e in t h e i r town, and r i g h t l y so* The town has 304 ■^For a popular a r t i c l e on S c o tia , see Frank J* T a y lo r, "P a ra d ise With a W aiting L i s t , ” S aturday Evening P o s t* F ebruary 24, t95i« 73 h o u se s, a l l o f which are f u l l a t a l l tim es w ith a w a itin g l i s t read y to come in as soon as a home i s v acated * A th r e e bedroom home, w ith g a ra g e , e l e c t r i c i t y , and w ater fu rn is h e d and garbage c o l l e c t e d , r e n t s f o r s i x t y d o lla r s p e r month* The town i s w e ll m a in ta in e d , and a l l te n a n ts seem to have a g r e a t i n t e r e s t in keeping up t h e i r lawns and g a rd e n s . Company p o lic y o f awarding p r iz e s each y e a r c e r t a i n l y c o n trib u te s to t h i s . No union e x i s t s in S c o tia , a lth o u g h m inor a tte m p ts have been made to o rg a n iz e , f o r employees seem p e r f e c t ly happy w ith th e p o lic ie s o f th e company. The company u se s modern methods o f f o r e s t management in i t s v a s t tim b e r h o ld in g s and i t appears t h a t th e f u tu re o f S c o tia i s a ssu re d f o r many y e a rs to come. S c o tia , however, has been a f f e c te d by th e changing economic p a tte r n o f th e modern a g e . S c o tia i s no lo n g e r th e i s o l a t e d community i t once was, sin c e U„ S. Highway 101 runs p a s t th e tow n. O ther com munities a re w ith in d riv in g d is ta n c e and th e company th e r e f o r e f in d s i t no lo n g e r as n e c e ss a ry to p ro v id e a l l th e f a c i l i t i e s i t once did* The t h e a t e r has been c lo s e d , th e h o s p it a l has been e lim in a te d , and a l l com m ercial b u sin e ss has been tu rn e d over to o th e r o p e r a to r s . The company has c o n s c io u sly t r i e d to make S c o tia a t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n , f o r t h i s h e lp s g r e a t l y w ith ad v er 74 t i s i n g . In th e c e n te r o f town an e x c e lle n t sm all museum i s m ain tain ed which t e l l s th e s to r y n o t only of S c o tia b u t a lso o f redwood lum bering in g e n e ra l. In a d d itio n , any t o u r i s t may tak e a s e lf- g u id e d to u r through th e g ia n t m il l a t S c o tia . Catwalks have been c o n s tru c te d above th e m ill o p e ra tio n s and e x p la n a to ry sig n s p laced a t s t r a t e g i c p la c e s so t h a t th e t o u r i s t may w atch what happens to a g ia n t redwood log from th e tim e i t e n te rs th e pow erful "b a rk e r" u n t i l i t becomes f in is h e d lum ber. The p u b lic ity a tta c h e d to S c o tia , however, should n o t overshadow o th e r o u tsta n d in g examples o f modern company tow ns. McCloud, C a lif o r n ia , i s w orth s p e c ia l n o tic e h ere f o r s e v e r a l re a s o n s . I t s lo c a tio n , in th e f i r s t p la c e , makes i t i d e a l . N e stle d in a f o r e s t c le a rin g a t th e base of Mount S h a sta , McCloud o f f e r s i t s r e s id e n ts choice r e c r e a t i o n a l o p p o r tu n itie s . At the r i g h t season of th e y e a r an h o u r’s d riv e in one d ir e c tio n w i l l ta k e a fam ily w ate r s k iin g in Lake S h a s ta , w hile an h o u r’s d riv e in. th e o th e r d ir e c tio n w i l l fin d them snow s k iin g on Mount S h a s ta . F ish in g , h u n tin g and o th e r outdoor s p o rts a re e a s ily a c c e s s ib le . The company has b u i l t a n in e -h o le g o lf course which i s open to a l l em ployees, and a lso sponsors a r id in g club which anyone can jo i n . McCloud i s over tw enty m ile s from th e n e a re s t s e ttle m e n t, b u t i s s t i l l n o t so i s o l a t e d t h a t the people cannot g e t o u t to o th e r a r e a s . The community, however, p ro v id e s a l l t h a t i s n e c e s s a ry f o r an abundant l i f e . The company owns a d a ir y , which i s le a s e d to p r iv a te o p e ra to rs but in which th e company o f f i c i a l s s t i l l ta k e p e rs o n a l i n t e r e s t . A w e ll-s to c k e d company s t o r e , a s e rv ic e s t a t i o n , and a h o s p i t a l a re a ls o o p e ra te d by th e company. Leased to p r iv a te o p e r a to rs i s th e h o t e l , a movie t h e a t e r , and a r e s t a u r a n t . A ll s o c ia l a c t i v i t i e s a re ta k e n c a re o f as s e v e r a l lodges and clu b s a r e f u n c tio n in g in th e town w ith such company su p p o rt a s i s needed to keep them o p e r a tin g . Three c h u rch e s, one o f which was b u i l t by th e company, a re fu n c tio n in g in tow n. The McCloud r e c r e a t i o n a l c o u n c il p u ts on an a n n u a l lu m b e rja c k ’s f i e s t a which i s u s u a lly one o f th e h i g h li g h ts o f th e y e a r . Company ho u sin g in McCloud i s u n u su a lly a d e q u a te . The homes a re co m fo rtab le and w ell m a in ta in e d . I f any th in g goes wrong, a te n a n t m erely needs to c a l l th e company and i t w i l l be f ix e d . Houses a r e p a in te d ev ery f iv e y e a rs and papered in s id e every e ig h t y e a r s , and a v a r i e t y o f c o lo rs a re used so t h a t t h e drab n ess o f form er company town days w i l l not be a p p a re n t. Average r e n t i s tw e n ty -e ig h t d o l l a r s p e r m onth, in c lu d in g w ater and garbage c o l l e c t i o n . Although th e o p e ra tio n o f th e to w n s ite i s d i s t i n c t l y PLATE V MAIN STREET , McCLOUD, CALIFORNIA» N estled a t th e base o f Mt. S h a sta , McCloud i s in an id e a l lo c a tio n f o r one who l i k e s o u tdoor a c t i v i t i e s . This lumber m ill town i s a d ja c e n t to th e m il l o f th e McCloud R iver Lumber Company, which owns th e town, m i l l , and f o r e s t . 77 an economic l o s s , th e company sees c e r ta in d e f in it e advantages f o r keeping i t # For one th in g , l i f e i s good in town because o f th e company's concern f o r keeping i t so , and p ro sp e c tiv e employees want to l i v e there# The company, th e r e f o r e , can sc re en more c a r e f u lly the r e s id e n ts of th e town, f o r i t has th e f i n a l say as to who w i l l come# I f i t were not f o r th e b e n e fits o ffered , thro u g h th e company town, th e managers f e e l t h a t i t would be d i f f i c u l t to r e t a i n th e perm an en t-ty p e, r e l i a b l e employee which i t now enjoys# The obvious advantage to an employee i s t h a t he can save enough money to purchase: a l i t t l e home in an o th er community when he r e t i r e s u n le s s , perchance, he rem ains in McCloud l iv i n g w ith a son who a ls o works f o r th e company# I McCloud, in s h o r t, i s today th e id e a l example o f a company town# Unlike S c o tia , i t s t i l l i s an is o l a t e d community# The company depends upon th e community to s u s t a in i t s o p e r a tio n s , and th e se o p e ra tio n s are expected to endure because o f th e modern f o r e s t management p o l i c i e s o f th e McCloud R iver Lumber Company# The community, on th e o th e r hand, i s com pletely dependent upon th e saw m ill f o r i t s l i f e — a f a c t which i s sym bolized as. one views th e town from a f a r and observes th e m ill as th e dom inant landmark# In summary, th e company town has had an im p o rtan t r o le t o play in developm ent of th e West*s lumber in d u s t r y * In e a rly y e a rs many companies found i t n e c e ssa ry to p ro v id e housing and community s e rv ic e s f o r t h e i r employees as. th ey e s ta b lis h e d saw m ills and logging h e a d q u a rte rs in i s o l a t e d a re a s a . Company towns o fte n were s h o r t liv e d as tim ber la n d s were cu t away and m ills moved on to o th e r lo c a tio n s * With th e b u ild in g of modern highways, and o th e r advance ments in t r a n s p o r ta tio n , th e need f o r company towns h a s g ra d u a lly been e lim in a te d < ► M ill s i t e s may now be lo c a te d f a r t h e r away from lo g g in g o p e ra tio n s and c lo s e r to p o p u la tio n c e n te r s , w hile fo rm erly is o l a te d a re a s are now clo se enough to a town to allo w employees to commute by autom obileo Changing f o r e s t p r a c tic e s have elim inated, some company tow ns, w hile th ey have c o n trib u te d to th e e v o lu tio n o f o th e rs in to econom ically in te g r a te d , in c o rp o ra te d communities o f home ownerso Many com panies, however, s t i l l f in d i t to t h e i r advantage to o p erate to w n site s in connection w ith t h e i r m illin g o p e ra tio n s , and a t l e a s t n in e te e n company-owned towns con tin u e to e x i s t today in th e lumber re g io n s of th e West* CHAPTER IV COM PANY-OW NED TO W N S IN THE COPPER INDUSTRY The copper mines and sm e lte rs o f A rizona, New Mexico, and Utah have been th e s i t e s of some o f th e W estT s l a r g e s t and most permanent company towns# For n e a rly th e e n t ir e ce n tu ry th e Phelps Dodge C orporation has owned M orenci and Ajo, A rizona, and th e s e communities undoubtedly w i l l continue f o r many decades# Towns long owned by K ennecott Copper C orporation in A rizona, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah have r e c e n tly been " s o ld ” to K ennecott em ployees, b u t many o f th e s e w ill rem ain as permanent com m unities, alth o u g h w holly dependent upon K ennecott o p e ra tio n s # The copper in d u s try has a lso accounted f o r numerous: s h o r t- liv e d company towns# S ilv e r B e ll, A rizona, f o r example, was a b u s tlin g m ining town o f 3,000 in h a b ita n ts in th e e a rly decades o f t h i s c e n tu ry , but a f t e r 1922 th e high grade o re had been worked o u t and th e town d is a p peared# In re c e n t y e a rs , as modern technology has made p r o f it a b le th e re co v e ry o f low grade o r e , a new S ilv e r B e ll has been b u i l t by American Sm elting and R efin in g Company only th re e m ile s from th e o ld s i t e , SO S 1 The Mining Town While not a l l towns connected w ith copper mines and sm e lte rs have been company-owned, i t i s c l e a r t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t p o rtio n f i t in to t h i s c a te g o ry . The d ev elo p ment o f towns was, in many c a s e s , alm ost in d is p e n sa b le to th e su c cess o f th e companies in v o lv e d . In a speech a t H ighlands U n iv e rsity of Las Vegas, New Mexico, the d i r e c t o r o f p u b lic r e l a t i o n s f o r K ennecott C o p p e r^ Chino Mines D iv isio n made some a p p ro p ria te comments on th e development of th e modern m ining town: The complex m achinery and th e b ig sm e lte rs which began to grow toward th e end of the l a s t ce n tu ry meant jo b s f o r o th e rs who went w est and towns began to s p rin g up and grow. So an o th er dim ension i s added to the c h a ra c te r o f th e m iner: The need to work w ith o th e r men— e i t h e r to dig and pro cess ore o r to fin a n c e the b ig job of opening a m ine. W e may th in k ro m a n tic a lly o f th e p ro sp e c to r as a man who i s a f t e r s o li tu d e , and some may very w e ll be t h a t , b u t th e man who develops a mine needs o th e r p e o p le . To g e t t h e i r h e lp , he has to know how to t r e a t them. A g rico la Cwho p u b lish ed a s c i e n t i f i c t r e a t i s e on m ining as e a r ly as I 556J ag ain o f f e r s a d v ic e . He ca u tio n e d th e mine o p e ra to r to know many th in g s — a r ith m e tic , law, surveying and a r c h i t e c t u r e . He a ls o s a id he must know m edicine ”. . . t h a t he may be a b le to look a f t e r h is d ig g e rs and o th e r work men. . . . ” He a ls o ad v ised t h a t mine owners look f o r a s i t e (assuming th e re i s a choice) where th e re are good roads and access to what we m ight c a ll c i v i l i z a t i o n . . . . Whether n e c e s s ity o r t r a d i t i o n d ic ta te d i t , th e n , th e m ining town was born. Q uite o fte n i t was owned lock sto c k and b a r r e l by th e company which owned th e mine f o r the sim ple reaso n t h a t th e company b u i l t th e town. The houses were re n te d , u s u a lly f o r nom inal p r ic e s , to th e mine w o rk ers. A s to r e was needed: The company b u i l t one and ra n i t , alth o u g h th e way was open f o r o th e r m erchants w ith a yen to w mine th e 32 miners®” H o s p ita ls , ch u rch es, sc h o o ls , th e a te r s and h o t e l s —a l l were provided w ith th e company fo o tin g th e b i l l i f necessary® Many o f th e se f a c i l i t i e s were th e b e s t a v a ila b le a t th e time® The h o t e l s , in p a r t i c u l a r , some o f which are s t i l l in o p e ra tio n , were r ic h and ornate® The towns grew up w ith an a t t i t u d e o f d e fia n c e as i f to say to t h e i r r e l a t i v e s back e a s t, ”We*re doing n ic e ly , thank you, and we*11 tak e care of our own as w e ll as you can do*” Abuses and p o v erty ? C orruption and d ic ta to r s h ip ? V iolence and in tim id a tio n ? C e rta in ly , th e se were p r e s e n t, too® But th e s t o r i e s which I have heard in d ic a te to me q u ite s tr o n g ly t h a t of th e men who ran th e s e tow ns, th e overwhelming m a jo rity f e l t t h e i r sense o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y more keenly th a n t h e i r sense o f power® So the m ining man—fo rc e d by the n a tu re o f th in g s to need th e h elp o f o th e rs —has t r a d i t i o n a l l y f e l t re s p o n s ib le f o r h is people® I t i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of him t h a t he i s a tough businessm an who w ill f i g h t w ith ® But he i s a s o f t touch to a copper company towns has been th e reaso n f o r t h e i r longevity® M orenci, A jo, B isbee, and Ray, A rizona, a l l would have long sin c e d isa p p ea re d i f circum stances surro u n d in g t h e i r o r ig in a l founding had co ntinued to pertain® When copper was f i r s t mined a t th e se lo c a tio n s i t was only h ig h -g rad e o re , u s u a lly mined in tu n n e ls , th a t could be reco v ered p ro fitab ly ® By th e tu r n of th e c e n tu ry , however, D aniel C ® J a c k lin g , th e young, im agi n a tiv e p re s id e n t of Utah Copper Company, was p io n e erin g in o p e n -p it copper m ining and in th e recovery o f 2 p e r cen t man A p e c u lia r f e a tu r e in th e h is to r y o f s e v e ra l R* P ® S a ffo ld , J r . , speech d e liv e re d b efo re High la n d s U n iv e rsity Workshop a t Las Vegas, New Mexico, August 3, 1961. ore* Due to h i s su c c e ss th e copper in d u s tr y soon u n d er went a d ram atic r e v o lu tio n as th e m ining o f o res c a rry in g even le s s th a n 1 per c e n t copper became p r a c t i c a l „ E n tir e m ountains, once thought w o r th le s s , were now con v e rte d in to g ig a n tic m ines which b re a th e d new l i f e in to some com m unities and c re a te d o th e rs * In A rizona, alm ost 90 p e r cent o f th e copper produced comes from th e s t a t e ' s la rg e low -grade mines a t M orenci, A jo, B isb ee , Ray, I n s p i r a t i o n , G lobe, Miami, S ilv e r B e ll, and San Manuel*^ I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t to n o te t h a t a l l o f th e se com m unities e x c e p t Globe and Miami may be c la s s e d as company towns»3 P a rtly because o f t h i s phenomenon, a few copper communities have become company towns of u n u su al siz e * At A jo, f o r exam ple, Phelps Dodge employs 1400 people and su p p o rts a town of about 7,000 p o p u la tio n , w h ile a t Morenci 2,000 people are employed su p p o rtin g a community of ab o u t 10,000*4- Low-grade m ining te n d s to ^Frank J e Tuck, S to r ie s o f A rizona Copper Mines (Arizona D epartm ent o f M ineral R e so u rces, n . p . , n . d » ), p. 1 o ^San Manuel, by s t r i c t e s t d e f i n i t i o n , m ight n o t be c a lle d a company town, f o r i t was b u i l t by Magma Copper Company fo r th e ex p re ss purpose o f s e l l i n g houses to em ployees, and Magma h as n ev er c o n sid e re d p ro v id in g any o f th e u su a l company town s e rv ic e s * B isbee i s a h ig h ly m odified v e r s io n o f th e company town* 4-Interview w ith H* E„ Moore, O ffice M anager, Phelps Dodge C o rp o ra tio n , D ouglas, A rizona, March 12, 1962* 84 demand la r g e - s c a l e o p e ra tio n and when a mine and s m e lte r are lo c a te d a t th e same p ro p e rty a good s iz e town w i l l n a t u r a l l y r e s u l t . The Anaconda Company The developm ent of A m erica’s modern copper in d u s tr y took im a g in a tio n , la r g e c a p i t a l , and a g r e a t d e a l o f enthusiasm and h ard work. The in d u s tr y g o t i t s s t a r t in M ichigan i n 1845, b u t g r a d u a lly s h i f t e d to th e West*. By 1955 A rizo n a, Utah, Montana, Nevada, and New M exico, in t h a t o r d e r , were th e le a d in g s t a t e s in copper m ining, w ith M ichigan ru nning s i x t h . Copper became M ontana’s c h ie f m e ta l p ro d u c t w ith th e d isc o v e ry in 1881 o f th e famed Anaconda lo d e by Marcus D aly. D aly, an I r i s h im m igrant who had fo llo w ed th e g old ru sh to th e Nest and had become a m ining e x p e rt, e v e n tu a lly became w ea lth y by owning s i l v e r mines in M ontana. Copper, however, was a c h a lle n g e to him, and a f t e r spending h is own fo rtu n e as w e ll as a l l he could o b ta in from o th e r b a c k e rs, he f i n a l l y d isc o v e re d th e bonanza which made B utte H i l l known as th e " r i c h e s t h i l l on e a r t h . " An e x p e rim e n ta l s m e lte r was soon c o n s tru c te d by W illiam A0 C lark , who a ls o became a c tiv e in A rizona m ining and a f t e r whom A riz o n a ’s company town o f C lark d ale was named. In 1884 a la r g e re d u c tio n works was com pleted a t Anaconda, tw e n ty -s ix m ile s w est o f B u tte . In 1895 th e Anaconda 35 Copper Mining Company was o rg a n iz e d , which became th e p re s e n t Anaconda Company in 1955© T o ta l m in e ra l p ro d u c tio n o f t h i s company by 1956 exceeded f iv e b i l l i o n d o lla r s in valu e * The d isc o v e ry o f th e Anaconda lode was re s p o n s ib le f o r th e founding o f B u tte , Montana. While n o t a company- owned town, i t was lo c a te d on D aly’s o r ig in a l claim , and i s s t i l l dom inated by th e company. B utte follow ed no o rd e rly developm ent, and th e company took l i t t l e i n t e r e s t in any kind o f p a te rn a lis m o r community p la n n in g . B utte became a ty p ic a l rough-and-tum ble mining community, "grimy and c o rru p t, dem oralized by fre q u e n t shut-dow ns, c y n ic a lly proud of i t s s le a z y c l i p j o i n t s *"5 S hooting, ly n c h in g s, s t r e e t b a t t l e s , and c o n tin u a l feuds between o p e ra to rs and m iners seemed to be th e o rd e r of th e day. Only a f t e r a c o s tly s t r i k e in 1946 d id Anaconda h ir e an e n g in e e rin g firm to f in d out what a i le d th e town. The r e p o r t sh a rp ly c r i t i c i z e d th e company f o r i t s n e g le c t of th e community and Anaconda soon backed a housing program which provided homes f o r 650 f a m il ie s , in v e s te d in a h o s p it a l, and backed numerous r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s . By 1956 th e human clim a te in B utte had changed com pletely as lo c a l m erchants and r e s id e n ts were proud to c a l l i t t h e i r home. Like most ^"Company Town, 1956,” Time. A p ril 1 , 1956, p . 100. 66 o th e r la rg e c o rp o ra tio n s , Anaconda has made s im ila r c o n trib u tio n s to o th e r communities where i t o p e r a te s *6 More l ik e a company town was Anaconda, which was th e p rid e and joy o f Marcus Daly* The c i t y was w e ll planned from th e b eg in n in g , w ith a p la t com pleted in. June, 1i$£2* I t was n o t, however, to become a t y p ic a l company-owned town, f o r Daly determ ined to make i t a permanent community of home owners* Houses were b u i l t f o r s a le to w o rk ers, m erchants purchased l o t s in th e p re-d eterm in ed b u sin e ss a r e a , and Daly sp e n t a h a l f m illio n d o lla r s in an u n su c c e ssfu l c o n te s t a g a in s t W0 A0 C lark tr y in g to make h is town th e c a p i t a l o f MontanaJ From an o r ig in a l t e n t colony, Anaconda gradu a l l y became a w e ll o rg a n iz e d , a t t r a c t i v e community0 Daly b u i l t and o p erated th e lu x u rio u s h o te l, and th e company continued to show i n t e r e s t in community develop ment by e r e c tin g the h o s p i t a l , s e llin g church l o t s f o r one d o l l a r , b u ild in g a stadium , and endowing o th e r community p ro je c ts * AnacondaT s town o f Anaconda, th e r e f o re , developed away from th e company town atm osphere, but only w ith c o n tin u a l company i n t e r e s t and support* Anaconda Copper, however, d id develop a few 6Ibid* 7 lsa a c F. Marcosson., Anaconda (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1957), p . 54« 87 f u l l - f l e d g e d company towns in t h i s century* Such a community was Conda, Idaho, which was b u i l t in 1921! to house employees a t th e company's phosphate mine, n in e m iles n o rth o f Soda Springs* The town became a model v illa g e d iv id e d in to blocks each of which in c lu d ed e ig h t 60 by SO fo o t lo ts * This ty p ic a l company town c o n s is te d o f modern four-room c o tta g e s , a la rg e re sid e n c e f o r th e s u p e rin te n d e n t, a boarding house f o r s in g le men, o f f ic e b u ild in g , r e c r e a tio n h a l l , te n n is c o u r ts , b a l l f i e l d , sc h o o l, and a company s to r e which was o p erated on a p r o f i t sh a rin g b a s i s I n 1959 th e e n t ir e town was so ld to th e J* R* Sim plot Company, which s t i l l owns it* One o f th e most modem and a t t r a c t i v e company-owned towns o f today i s Anaconda's Weed H eig h ts, Nevada, which su p p o rts th e o p e ra tio n o f the company's Y errin g to n mine and p ro cessin g p lan t* Here an 87 per cen t pure copper p r e c i p i t a t e i s produced which i s shipped by r a i l to th e company's huge sm e lte r a t Anaconda* The Weed H eights p ro p e rty was f i r s t le a se d by The Anaconda Company in 1941®. With th e outbreak of h o s t i l i t i e s in Korea in 1950, the government asked f o r in c re a se d copper p ro d u c tio n th ro u g h o u t the c o u n try , and Anaconda decided to go a l l - o u t in developing th e Y errin g to n mine* rt °"Anaconda Copper has Model Town a t Conda, Id a h o ," E ngineering and Mining J o u r n a l, Vol* CXXX (September 1930), p* 240* In 1951 A0 E» M illa r , th e new g e n e ra l m anager, a r r iv e d to begin opening th e p i t , c o n s tru c tin g th e m e ta llu r g ic a l p la n t, and b u ild in g the r e s i d e n t i a l to w n site which would be n e c e ssa ry in b rin g in g employees to the m iddle of th e Nevada d e s e rt* The company made a t o t a l e x p e n d itu re o f f o r ty m illio n d o lla r s on th e s e p ro je c ts b e fo re a s in g le pound o f copper could be produced*9 The to w n site was named in honor of th e chairman of Anaconda’s Board of D ir e c to rs , and employees began to move in to th e homes in May, 1952*. The w e ll planned s t r e e t s are named a f t e r Nevada c i tie s * The 250 company- owned houses a re w ell m a in tain ed and re n t f o r tw enty to t h i r t y d o lla r s p e r month, w ith w ater fu rn is h e d fre e o f charge and e l e c t r i c i t y and gas c o s tin g le s s th a n the amount paid by r e s id e n ts o f th e near-by community o f y e rrin g to n * About 70 per c e n t o f the company’s employees l iv e in Weed H eig h ts. At Weed H eights th e company m ain tain s a nine h o le g o lf course f o r i t s em ployees, as w ell as a swimming p o o l, bowling a l l e y s , and o th e r r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s * Follow ing th e tr e n d in most modern company tow ns, Anaconda does n o t o p erate a s to re o r o th e r commercial f a c i l i t i e s , b u t p erm its p r iv a te m erchants to provide th e s e s e rv ic e s * ^You and Your Company (pamphlet p u b lish e d by The Anaconda Company, Weed H e ig h ts, Nevada, n .d * ) , p» 5® The s to r y o f Anaconda and i t s company towns i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r i t re p r e s e n ts a t l e a s t two broad phases o f th e s to ry o f company towns in g e n e ra l. F i r s t , i t can be seen t h a t i n t e r e s t in community planning has been a n e c e ss a ry p a r t o f th e development o f th e company i t s e l f , w ith towns such as Anaconda, Conda, and Weed H eights becoming e s s e n t i a l to th e o p e ra tio n of th e company® S econdly, th e v a rio u s k in d s of company-owned or company- dom inated towns are re p re s e n te d ! th e com pany-built town o f Anaconda, e re c te d s p e c i f i c a l l y to be so ld ; th e f u l l - fle d g e d company town o f Conda; and th e h ig h ly a t t r a c t i v e , modern company-owned community o f Weed H eig h ts, which s t i l l p ro v id es many community s e rv ic e s but has e lim in a te d n o n - e s s e n tia l o p e ra tio n s such as th e company store® K ennecott Copper and i t s P red ecesso rs Another o f th e W estfs la rg e copper producers i s K ennecott Copper C o rp o ratio n , which once owned a t l e a s t e ig h t company towns in A rizona, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah, The development o f K ennecott Copper i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t h ere f o r one of i t s p re d e c e s s o rs , Utah Copper Company, was re s p o n s ib le f o r developing th e famed o p e n -p it mine a t Bingham.* The su c cess o f t h i s e f f o r t has helped account f o r th e long e x is te n c e o f many company towns in th e W est, even though Bingham i t s e l f was n ev er such a town® K ennecott i s s i g n i f i c a n t to th e h is t o r y of company 90 towns a ls o because i t s s to r y r e p r e s e n ts th e f u l l cy cle o f company town h i s t o r y : from th e random m ining community, t o th e planned s m e lte r town, to th e p ro c e ss o f s e l l i n g e n t i r e towns to r e s id e n ts and p r iv a te m e rc h a n ts „ K ennecott towns in A rizona were Ray and Hayden, b oth lo c a te d about e ig h ty m ile s s o u th e a s t o f P hoenixe Large s c a le o p e ra tio n s began a t Ray in 1399 u nder an E n g lish company, b u t th e p ro p e rty passed thro u g h s e v e r a l shut-dow ns and th rough th e hands of s e v e r a l owners u n t i l K ennecott Copper C o rp o ratio n a c q u ire d i t in 1933* M ining was resumed in 1937 and o p e n -p it o p e ra tio n s began in 195 0 a The v a rio u s owners of Ray a p p a re n tly w o rrie d l i t t l e about planned community developm ent, p ro b ab ly because th e mine was f r e q u e n tly s h u ttin g down and th e p ro p e rty was n ev er c o n sid e re d a lo n g -term o p e r a tio n » The b u sin e ss s e c tio n o f town, which i s s e p a ra te d from th e r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , was le a s e d t o p r iv a te o p e ra to rs * The r e s i d e n t i a l a re a i s s c a tte r e d in random fa s h in g around th e ev e r expanding pit® V arious s e c tio n s o f town were o b v io u sly b u i l t a t d i f f e r e n t tim e s , and g iv e th e appearance o f having been squeezed between th e la rg e p i l e s o f o v e r burden which dom inate th e t e r r a i n and seem to be in u n d a tin g th e town* A fte r K ennecott s o ld i t s company towns to John W o G alb rea th & Company in 1955* many r e s id e n ts a t Ray purchased t h e i r own homes from t h i s r e a l e s t a t e f i r m 0 91 I t i s g e n e ra lly u nderstood now t h a t th e e n t ir e town, o r , a t l e a s t , th o se homes t h a t have been purchased, w i l l soon be moved to th e G alb reath developm ent a t Kearny* The co ntinued expansion of th e p i t has made th e pre-em ption o f th e to w n site i n e v i t a b l e , and a person looking a t Ray today can a c tu a lly v is u a liz e th e d eath o f an o ld -tim e company town* The Mexican s e c tio n o f Ray, c a lle d Sonora, t y p i f i e s a s i t u a t i o n common to many company tow ns. The homes, n e s tle d on a h i l l s i d e a l i t t l e f u r th e r from th e mine, g iv e th e appearance o f being much more p o orly b u i l t th a n o th e rs in town, and were a p p a re n tly e re c te d by Mexican workmen them selves* They are b u i l t w ith l i t t l e room betw een, in marked c o n tr a s t to th e r e s t of th e homes in Ray which have about as much space between them as o rd in a ry sm all t r a c t houses. The f a c t t h a t a Mexican s e c tio n e x i s t s , and t h a t th e Mexicans were allow ed to b u ild t h e i r own homes, i s not uncommon among company towns in th e Southwest*. While Ray sim ply grew in a r a t h e r d e s u lto ry f a s h io n , th e town o f Hayden was c o n s tru c te d in 1911 by th e Ray C o n so lid ated Copper Company as th e c e n te r of i t s m illin g o p e r a tio n s . The fo llo w in g y e a r American S m elting and R efin in g Company b u i l t a s m e lte r a t Hayden. Ownership o f most of th e p ro p e rty , however, rem ained w ith Ray 92 C o n so lid ated u n t i l i t s m erger w ith o th e r com panies, f i n a l l y coming in to th e hands o f K ennecott Copper in 1933 o In th e 1950?s K ennecott e n larg ed i t s o p e ra tio n and e re c te d a new s m e lte r. Two d i f f e r e n t companies th e r e fo r e had s m e lte r o p e ra tio n s in th e town, but Hayden rem ained b a s ic a lly a K ennecott community. When Hayden was f i r s t planned by Ray C o n so lid ated i t was p u b lic iz e d as th e "model town of A rizo n a." The b u sin e ss and r e s i d e n t i a l s e c tio n s were determ ined ahead of tim e , and a Mexican s e ttle m e n t was provided f o r . This s e c tio n s t i l l e x i s t s , and appears to be ty p ic a l o f th e p o o rly c o n s tru c te d , run-down "sh an ty tow n," alth o u g h p u b lic ity o f 1911 determ ined t h a t somehow such a p ic tu r e would be e lim in a te d .10 The r e s t of th e town was w e ll l a i d o u t w ith an underground sewage system (som ething unique in company towns o f t h a t d a y ), s t r e e t lig h t i n g , and graded th o ro u g h fa re s . No company s to r e o p e ra te d , but m erchants were allow ed to le a s e p ro p e rty f o r p riv a te b u sin e ss of any s o r t , th e only r e s t r i c t i o n being t h a t b u t one salo o n could o p e ra te in th e community. Ray C o n so lid ated o r i g i n a l l y planned to s e l l homes to em ployees. This a p p a re n tly d id n o t work o u t, f o r when K ennecott took over th e town was s t i l l company-owned. I t IQA rizona D aily S t a r . August 13, 1911, p» 6 . (A rtic le found in c lip p in g f i l e of P ioneer H is to r ic a l S o c ie ty of A rizona, Tucson.) PLATE VI HAYDEN, ARIZONA. The g ia n t sm e lte r o f th e K ennecott Copper C o rp o ratio n com pletely dom inates t h i s company town. The town r e c e n tly has been tts o ld l® f o r K ennecott by John W. G albreath & Company. 94 95 was i r o n i c , th e r e f o r e , t h a t in 1954 th e homes a t l a s t should be so ld to r e s id e n ts under K en n eco tt’s new p o lic y o f g e ttin g out o f th e company town b u s in e s s 0 Today Hayden sta n d s as a th r iv in g l i t t l e in c o rp o ra te d community th a t i s prom ised continued l i f e because of th e sm elting o p e ra tio n s which draw from th e Ray mine as w e ll as o th e r sourceso K ennecott Copper C o rp o ratio n was th e owner of two Nevada tow ns, Ruth and McGill* Both began about 190$, belonging f i r s t to Nevada C on so lid ated Copper C orporation and l a t e r being ta k e n over by Kennecott* When K ennecott r e t i r e d from town ow nership, housing a t Ruth was in danger o f becoming a f f e c te d by th e new underground o p e ra tio n of the "Deep Ruth" p r o je c t, and was th e re fo r e so ld f o r rem oval, as was th e case a t Ray«J^ M cGill, on th e o th e r hand, and th e housing p r o je c t known as New Ruth were so ld w ith th e land* S an ta R ita , a mining town, and H urley, where th e sm e lte r i s lo c a te d , were K en n eco tt’s New Mexico company townso The s to ry o f Santa R ita d ra m a tic a lly i l l u s t r a t e s th e v iv id h i s t o r i c a l background of some company town lo c a tio n s * Copper was d isc o v ered th e re in 1300 by th e Spanish commandant in charge o f m il ita r y p o sts in th e a r e a , ^ The S a lt Lake T rib u n e , December 15, 1955* 96 L ie u te n a n t C olonel Manuel Carrisco® Santa R ita became a Spanish p en al colony, and t r a d i t i o n holds th a t co n v ict la b o r was used by i t s owners to develop the p ro p e r ty . The m e ta l, a p p a re n tly of e x tr a f in e q u a l ity , was t r a n s p o rte d by mule to Mexico C ity and thence to th e Royal Mint to be used in c o in a g e ,12 Mining co ntinued in Santa R ita only s p o ra d ic a lly f o r more than a hundred y ears u n t i l an American company, th e Chino Copper Company, began o p e n -p it m ining in 1909o Guiding l i g h t s in t h i s o p e ra tio n were g e n e ra l manager D aniel C0 J a c k lin g , who had a lre a d y proven th e f e a s i b i l i t y of o p e n -p it mining a t Bingham, and r e s id e n t manager John M o S u lle y 0 The o p e ra tio n q u ic k ly became a s u c c e s s, and by 1913 some 6,000 to n s of ore per day were being processed a t Santa Rita® A town grew up which in clu d ed a company s t o r e , h o s p it a l, sc h o o l, s o c ia l h a l l , and t h e a t e r 3 The p r o p e r tie s of th e Chino Copper Company e v e n tu a lly became th e Chino Mines D iv isio n of K ennecott Copper Corporation-^ Like so many o th e r o p e n -p it copper m ining tow ns, S anta R ita e v e n tu a lly was alm ost b u ried by i t s own excavations® The expansion of th e mine le d 12T Works P rogress A d m in istra tio n , W r ite r ’s Program, New Mexico, A Guide to th e C o lo rfu l S ta te (New York: H astings House, 1953), p . 264® ^3"Santa R ita :1 909-1913," K ennecott Chinorama, July -A u g u st, 1961, pp. 5-11. 97 to th e i n e v ita b le e lim in a tio n o f th e town and when company houses were s o ld th e p ro p e rty d id n o t go w ith them . The houses w i l l be moved as th e mine co n tin u e s to e a t away th e h i l l s o f S an ta R i ta , The s m e lte r town f o r th e S anta R ita mine i s H u rley , Here a m il l was b u i l t in 1910 by th e Chino Copper Company, which l a t e r became th e p ro p e rty o f K en n e co tt, I t l i e s about te n m ile s so u th of S an ta R ita and i s connected d i r e c t l y by r a i l r o a d . At th e peak of i t s h i s t o r y as a company town H urley c o n s is te d o f 463 h o u se s, a s m e lte r, and s e v e r a l s t o r e s . In 1950 th e p o p u la tio n was o ver 2 ,0 0 0 . I t was s o ld along w ith th e r e s t o f K e n n e c o ttT s tow ns, and in 1956 became an in c o r p o ra te d community. When K ennecott Copper C o rp o ratio n took over th e Utah Copper Company, i t i n h e r i t e d th e famed o p e n -p it mine a t Bingham, U tah. Bingham was n o t a company town b u t th e community o f Copperton was a company-owned s e ttle m e n t which had been b u i l t in th e 1920T s to p rovide f o r th e o verflow p o p u la tio n from Bingham,14 Houses were modern, a t t r a c t i v e fo u r and f iv e room d w e llin g s . An i n t e r e s t i n g and d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e was th e w idespread use o f copper to i l l u s t r a t e to t o u r i s t s how t h i s m etal could be used ^ H rillia m S pen cer, ”C opperton--A Model Home Town f o r Utah Copper E m ployees,” E n g in eerin g and Mining J o u r n a l. V ol. CXXV (March 3, 1926), p, 3&9» 9* in th e b u ild in g o f homes. The town was lo c a te d on a highway o ver which 28,000 t o u r i s t s an n u a lly were t r a v e l lin g to view Bingham Canyon, House s p e c if ic a tio n s c a lle d f o r th e fo llo w in g item s as a d em o n stratio n of co p p e rT s e v e r la s tin g q u a l i t i e s : H oofing: C opper-clad s t r i p s h in g le s w ith copper n a i l s V a lle y s: Sheer copper placed w ith copper n a i l s Hips and r id g e s : Cut from copper s t r i p s h in g le s F la sh in g and co u n te r f la s n in g : S ixteen-ounce sh e e t copper Downsprouts: S ixteen-ounce sh e e t copper Downsprout s ta y s : Ornamental copper c a s tin g s Chimney s a d d le s : S ixteen-ounce sh e e t copper K itchen v e n ts : Copper globe v e n t i l a t o r and pipe T o ile t v e n ts : Covered w ith genuine bronze f l y sc re en Plumbing: A ll pipe o f b ra ss w ith b ra ss f i t t i n g s Showers: A ll b ra ss com bination shower and needle b ath T o ile ts : Brass hinges and f lo o r fla n g e s Door and window s c re e n s : S ix te e n mesh genuine bronze B u ild in g Hardware: Bronze p l a t e d , ^5 Copperton rem ained a company town u n t i l K ennecott announced th e s a le of such p r o p e r tie s in 1955, and by 1957 a l l homes had been s o ld . The sm e lte r town o f G a rfie ld , Utah, was begun in 1906 and f o r a w hile served both Utah Copper Company and American Sm elting and R efin in g Company, K ennecott Copper succeeded to th e ow nership o f t h i s town, but when t h i s company so ld th e houses and disposed of th e p ro p e rty a l l homes were e i t h e r moved or abandoned. The sm e lte r was clo sed and th e s i t e of th e form er a c tiv e community o f G a rfie ld rem ains n o th in g more th an a g h o st town. 15I b i d . , P* 372, 99 F requent re fe re n c e has been made to th e move tak en by K ennecott in 1955 to s e l l i t s company-owned towns to r e s id e n ts and o th e r p r iv a te c i t i z e n s * S ev eral im portant f a c t o r s undoubtedly c o n trib u te d to t h i s move. Of prime c o n s id e ra tio n i s th e f a c t t h a t company towns were an economic burden and th e r e f o r e whenever p o ssib le th e company would be g la d to g e t out o f th e business* There was a f e e l in g , to o , th a t in many cases th e re was something m o rally wrong about the continued p a te rn a lis m , f o r i t did n o t seem to a t t r a c t or develop f i r s t c la s s c itiz e n s * One company o f f i c i a l , a t l e a s t , f e l t t h a t th e re was no p e rso n a l i n t e r e s t in e i t h e r th e town or in th e upkeep of houses and yards u n t i l a f t e r people became home owners* Then, he s a id , p rid e of ownership developed, th e camps became c le a n e r and n e a te r , and la b o r r e la tio n s were g r e a t ly im proved.16 a t h i r d f a c t o r may have been th e m u ltitu d in o u s problems o f community management which only d e tra c te d from th e m ajor goal o f the company, th e p ro d u ctio n o f copper* F in a lly , i t was f e l t t h a t th e need f o r th e company town had d isa p p ea re d w ith th e f a s t tr a n s p o r ta tio n a v a ila b le in new c a rs and on b e t t e r roads* Commuting to th e mine or sm e lte r was no lo n g e r a problem* ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith C harles D* M ichaelson, G eneral Manager, W estern Mining D iv isio n , K ennecott Copper C o rp o ratio n , S a lt Lake C ity , Utah, August S, 1961* 100 The e lim in a tio n o f K e n n e c o ttT s company tow ns, th e r e f o r e , i s in many ways a symbol of ra p id economic changes which have a f f e c te d th e e n t i r e West® As s t a t e d by one news paper e d i t o r i a l : The d iffe re n c e ,b e tw e e n th e d e a th of G a r fie ld and most g h o st towns o f th e In te rm o u n ta in West i s t h a t in s te a d o f being th e v ic tim o f a company's b ankruptcy o r th e p la y in g o u t o f a n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e , t h i s town, on th e sh o re s of G reat S a l t Lake i s bowing out in r e c o g n itio n o f th e age o f f a s t autom obile t r a n s p o r ta ti o n , th e u r b a n is a tio n tr e n d , G a r f i e l d 's r e s id e n ts a re r e s e t t l i n g elsew here in th e wake of K ennecott Copper Company's d e c is io n to d isp o se of th e p r o p e r ty . The company town i s as passe in most a re a s as th e mule-drawn mine c a r , 17 The s a le o f K e n n e c o tt's company towns was accom p lis h e d th ro u g h John W, G a lb re a th & Company o f Columbus, Ohio, The G alb rea th company had p re v io u s ly " s o ld " s e v e r a l company towns th ro u g h o u t the c o u n try , and c o n tin u e s to make t h i s u nusual fu n c tio n one o f i t s s p e c i a l i t i e s & On December 15, 1955, th e announcement was made, and th e fo llo w in g day G a lb re a th r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s took over i n each o f th e com pany's fo u r d i v i s i o n s , G alb reath had purchased each town in i t s e n t i r i t y , ex cep t f o r m ining p r o p e r tie s 17The S a lt Lake T rib u n e , August 19, 1956, ‘ t&For a cogent a r t i c l e on th e a c t i v i t i e s o f th e G alb rea th company, see J , P, B lank, "He Turned Company Towns in t o Home Towns," American B u s in e ss. V ol, XXVIII {Septem ber, 195&), The w r i t e r i s a ls o d eep ly in d e b te d to Mr* G erald H, G a lb re a th , J r ., who h an d les t h i s company's W estern t r a n s a c t i o n s , and Mr, H arold P o tte r , p r o je c t manager a t Kearny, A rizo n a, f o r a day o f t h e i r tim e in e x p la in in g th e i n t e r e s t i n g G a lb re a th o p e r a tio n s . 101 which th e company o b v io u sly had n o t d e s ire d to s e l l , and now began s y s te m a tic a lly to d isp o se o f i t * Both companies are n a t u r a lly r e lu c ta n t to re v e a l th e s a le p r ic e , but newspaper accounts place t o t a l a s s e ts a t th e Ray and Hayden to w n site s a t $600,000, w hile Hurley and S anta R ita were valu ed to g e th e r a t $1 , 500, 000,^9 In A rizona, th e G alb reath company has gone even f u r t h e r and e re c te d a housing p r o je c t o f i t s own in th e b a rre n h i l l s n e a r Ray and Hayden® This w e ll planned v i l l a g e , named Kearny, c o n s is ts of b ric k homes to s e l l to K ennecott employees as th ey may decide to le av e Hayden or Ray® The town has a l l modern f a c i l i t i e s , good w a te r, adequate sew erage, a sm all shopping c e n te r , an e x c e lle n t m o te l, and i s f a r enough away from th e sm e lte r th a t fumes and smoke a re no problem® No p a te rn a lis m i s f e l t h e re , f o r homeowners are s t r i c t l y on t h e i r own as f a r as m aintenance and upkeep i s concerned, Kearny i s indeed an i n t e r e s t i n g development in an a re a so c lo se to two o ld -tim e company tow ns, Phelps Dodge C o rp o ratio n The copper towns owned by Phelps Dodge C orporation have had h is t o r y d i f f e r e n t from th o se of K ennecott in a t l e a s t two r e s p e c ts . F i r s t , w hile K ennecott seemed to own 19The S a lt Lake T rib u n e, December 15, 1955° 102 b oth a m ining town and a sm e lte r town in th e same g e n e ra l v i c i n i t y , th e two m ajor company towns of Phelps Dodge, Ajo and M orenci, have th e mine and sm e lte r a t th e same lo c atio n ,, One town, th e r e f o r e , se rv e s b o th . Secondly, w hile K ennecott developed a philosophy which brought about th e e lim in a tio n o f i t s company towns, Phelps Dodge has no such in t e n t i o n . Plans c a l l f o r continued o p e ra tio n o f both Ajo and Morenci as f u ll- f le d g e d company tow ns. Thus two o f th e W est’s g ia n t copper c o rp o ra tio n s have d if f e r i n g views on th e c u rre n t need f o r company-owned com m unities. While Phelps Dodge C orporation today i s reco g n ized p rim a rily as one of Am erica’s l a r g e s t copper p ro d u cers, i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t to n o te t h a t th e company re c e iv e d i t s s t a r t over 150 y e a rs ago as a m e rc a n tile and tra d in g v e n tu re , and found i t s way in to copper m ining q u ite by a c c id e n t.20 Copper in th e C lifto n -M o ren ci a re a o f A rizona was f i r s t d isc o v e re d in 1&64, and w ith in a few y e a rs mine o p e ra tio n s were proceeding w e ll. The A rizona Copper Company and th e D e tr o it Copper Company came to be th e two ^ F o r a. c o n c ise , re a d a b le h is t o r y o f Phelps Dodge, see Robert G lass C lelan d , A H isto ry o f Phelps Dodge, 1834- 1950 (New York: A lfred A. Knopf, 1952). Most of th e fo llo w in g in fo rm a tio n about Morenci i s based on t h i s source and on W att, "H isto ry o f M orenci.” main o p e ra to rs in th e a r e a . By 1881 th e D e tro it Copper Company found i t a d v isa b le to move i t s s m e lte r from th e C lifto n a re a to Morenci but d isc o v ered a need f o r supplem entary f in a n c in g . W illiam Church, p re s id e n t of th e company, went to New Tork to fin d th e n e c e ssa ry c r e d i t and soon c o n ta c te d W illiam E* Dodge, J r . , a p a r tn e r in th e Phelps Dodge C orporation,, Church f a i l e d to o b ta in th e lo a n , but he won Dodge’s r e s p e c t and aroused in him an i n t e r e s t in A rizona. Not long a f t e r t h i s W illiam Douglas, who e v e n tu a lly became a le a d e r in Phelps Dodge’s W estern o p e r a tio n s , had h is f i r s t m eeting w ith Phelps Dodge o f f i c i a l s . Upon le a rn in g th a t Douglas planned a t r i p to A rizona, Dodge im m ediately commissioned him to 6 examine Church’s h o ld in g s a t M orenci. T his was a tu rn in g p o in t in th e h is t o r y o f Phelps Dodge, f o r D ouglas’ r e p o r t was so fa v o ra b le t h a t th e company agreed to purchase $30,000 w orth of sto c k in th e D e tr o it company. By 1897 Phelps Dodge had assumed c o n tro l o f th e D e tro it Copper Company, to g e th e r w ith a la rg e sh are of th e growing mining camp o f M orenci. A lready Morenci had some o f th e marks of a company town, w ith a company s t o r e , h o s p i t a l , and some company-owned d w e llin g s. I t was a ty p ic a l rough-and-tum ble mining camp w ith th e b u sin e ss s e c tio n composed la r g e ly of sa lo o n s, dance h a l l s , and gambling h o u ses. The r e s i d e n t i a l are a was la r g e ly a 104 d e s u lto ry c o l le c tio n o f m in e r’s ’’s h a n t i e s F i r e soon d e stro y e d th e old town and a new to w n site was graded a t th e lo c a tio n o f M orenci’s p re se n t b u sin e ss se ctio n ,, In 1901 a $61,000 company s t o r e , which s t i l l s ta n d s , was com pleted, as w e ll as th e e la b o ra te H otel Morencio Also e re c te d about the same tim e was th e Morenci Club, which provided th e tow n’s in h a b ita n ts w ith b i l l i a r d and pool rooms, bowling a l l e y s , b a th s , l i b r a r y , read in g room, card room, gymnasium, and club roomso The company was making d e f i n i t e e f f o r t s to improve th e l i f e of th e community beyond t h a t o f o th e r old f r o n t i e r mining campso By t h i s time Morenci had become s i g n i f i c a n t enough in A rizo n a’s economy t h a t th e G ila V alley Bank determ ined to e s ta b li s h a branch th e r e , as w e ll as in th e n e a r-b y non-company town of C l if t o n 8 In so u th e rn A rizona, th e young bank a t Bisbee had r e c e n tly demon s t r a t e d what a bank could do in a copper town by in c re a s in g i t s d e p o s its from $13^,000 to $403,000 and r i s i n g in a s in g le y ear from te n th to fo u rth place among A rizona banks< > 2 1 . G e ttin g th e bank in to Morenci was not a d i f f i c u l t ^ E r n e s t J* Hopkins, Financing th e F r o n t i e r » A F i f t y Year H isto ry o f th e V alley N atio n al Bank (Phoenix: A rizona P r i n t e r s , I n c », 1950), p 0 49• ta s k , due la r g e ly to th e f a c t t h a t i t was a company town, C harles E. M ills , su p e rin te n d e n t of th e D e tr o it Copper Mining Company (then a s u b s id ia ry o f Phelps Dodge), im m ediately in v e s te d $10,000 f o r one hundred sh a re s of th e new s to c k , making him th e la r g e s t s in g le sto c k h o ld e r in th e expanded bank® O ther company o f f i c i a l s a ls o su b sc rib ed f o r a d d itio n a l s h a r e s 0 I t was arran g ed fo r th e bank to be housed in the new h o te l and to occupy th e same o f f ic e as th e Morenci Water Company and the Morenci Improvement Company, both of which were owned by th e m ining companyo Me EG Thorpe, s e c r e ta r y to the fo re g o in g com panies, was chosen to run th e bank* This convenient arrangem ent was indeed an economic boon to th e bank f o r i t s q u a rte rs were r e n t f r e e , i t paid th e manager n o th in g , and th e only expense to th e bank was th e h ir in g of an ac co u n ta n t to keep th e books o f a l l th re e concerns The e f f o r t s o f Phelps Dodge to improve l iv i n g and working c o n d itio n s a t Morenci were not w ith o u t problem s„ I t was a p p a re n tly more d i f f i c u l t to s a t i s f y th e working man in a town lik e M orenci, which had grown from th e t r a d i t i o n of an unplanned mining camp, th an in a community such as Tyrone, New Mexico, which was b u i l t from "scratch™ by Phelps Dodge as a c o a l m ining town. As ex p la in e d by ^ I b i d . . pp„ 4^-61, 106 th e a u th o r o f a 1918 a r t i c l e on Tyrone: The p o lic ie s of th e P helps Dodge C o rp o ratio n in i t s r e l a t i o n to th e m iner a re th e same a t Tyrone as elsew h ere, alth o u g h d i f f e r e n t methods o f c a rry in g them out have produced d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s „ At the M orenci b ran ch , th e pro cess o f community improvement s t a r t e d much l a t e r in th e l i f e of th e m ine, and was c a r r ie d on sp a sm o d ic ally , dependent upon th e a t t i t u d e and w illin g n e s s o f d i f f e r e n t managers* For t h i s re a so n , alth o u g h many th in g s have been accom plished, th e e f f e c t on th e la b o r s i t u a t i o n has been s l i g h t 0 There are in s ta n c e s o f men who have been in th e camp f o r 20 y e a rs o r more who s t i l l h a rb o r resen tm en t owning to th e f a c t th a t some perhaps v ery m inor th in g s t h a t were wanted have not y e t been secured and o th e rs took y ears to get* Less has a c tu a lly been done in Tyrone th a n in M orenci, b u t in th e l a t t e r p lace i t i s n e i th e r seen n or a p p rec iated * This i s due p a r tly to th e f a c t th a t much of th e work was done many y e a rs ago, b efo re th e q u e stio n o f community developm ent had assumed i t s p re se n t im portance* T r a d itio n , and w ith o u t good reaso n , h u r ts Morenci as a p la ce to l i v e and work i n , alth o u g h th e company i s doing ev e ry th in g in i t s power to b e t t e r c o n d itio n s by means o f a c o n s ta n t program o f developm ent,23 In 1921 Phelps Dodge took over A rizona Copper Company’s h o ld in g s , which gave i t v i r t u a l l y com plete c o n tro l o f Morenci and th e surro u n d in g area* In te n s iv e developm ent took p lace over th e n ex t decade, and in th e 1930’s i t became n e c e ssa ry to provide a d d itio n a l h o u sin g . Many new homes were c o n s tru c te d a t Morenci i t s e l f and an e n t i r e l y new a r e a , c a lle d S ta rg o , was developed f o r a d d itio n a l housing* R e c re a tio n a l and school f a c i l i t i e s were a ls o expanded and and th e company e re c te d a $100,000, ^ C h a r l e s F, W i llis , "The L ife o f a Mining Community," E n gineering and Mining J o u r n a l, Vol. CVI (O ctober 2 6 , 1918), p. 733« PLATE VII MORENCI, ARIZONA- This town i s s t i l l completely- owned by th e Phelps Dodge C o rp o ratio n - Seen in th e photograph i s th e downtown a r e a , in c lu d in g th e t h e a t e r , shopping c e n te r , and te a c h e r ’s dorms lo c a te d behind th e shopping area* The town sp read s o u t o v er th e h i l l s * On th e r i g h t i s th e Phelps Dodge o f f ic e b u ild in g * 108 109 t h i r t y - f o u r bed h o s p i t a l 0 In c re a s e d p ro d u c tio n d u rin g and a f t e r World War I I demanded f u r t h e r housing and a n o th e r new a r e a , c a lle d P l a n t s i t e , was developedo At both P l a n t s i t e and S ta rg o a branch o f th e Phelps Dodge M e rc a n tile Company was e s t a b l i s h e d » By th e c lo se of World War I I i t was e s tim a te d t h a t Phelps Dodge had sp e n t about $42,000,000 on th e e n t i r e M orenci u n d e rta k in g and th e f e d e r a l Defense P la n t C o rp o ra tio n had supplem ented t h i s w ith an a d d itio n a l $ 2 6 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . Morenci today i s one o f th e l a r g e s t and most a c tiv e company-owned towns in th e W est. I t has come a long way from th e mining camp o f th e 1B90’s o At th e tim e t h a t Phelps Dodge became i n t e r e s t e d in th e M orenci p ro p e rty i t was a ls o becoming in v o lv e d w ith r ic h copper d e p o s its n e a r B isb e e 0 Here th e fab u lo u s Copper Queen mine was a lre a d y producing r ic h o re , and when Phelps Dodge re c e iv e d th e o p tio n to buy some a d ja c e n t p r o p e r t i e s , i t d id so w ith l i t t l e h e s i t a t i o n . In 1B&5 th e company a c q u ire d most o f th e s to c k of th e Copper Queen and a la rg e s c a le o p e ra tio n was begun under th e name o f th e Copper Queen C o n so lid ated Mining Company. For th e n e x t two decades Phelps Dodge was th e only im p o rta n t m ining company in t h i s d i s t r i c t and th e town o f Bisbee was v i r t u a l l y dependent upon i t s o p e r a tio n s . 24-Cleland, A H is to ry o f P helps Dodge, p . 253o 110 A Tew sm a lle r com panies, however, did have claim s ad jacen t t o th o se o f Phelps Dodge, B isb ee became the most im portant m ining town in A rizona, L ike many o th er m ining camps, B isb ee did n ot develop as a c o n sc io u s ly planned company town, althou gh Phelps Dodge l a t e r acquired a l l the p rop erty upon which th e community was b u i l t . P riv a te s a lo o n s , s t o r e s , lumber yard s, and o th er b u sin e sse s found t h e ir way in to tow n. The la y - o u t of th e town could h a rd ly be w e ll p lan n ed , f o r i t s lo c a ti o n in a narrow canyon com pelled th o se who b u i l t houses to lo c a te them w herever convenience d i c t a t e d . The company, however, e a r l y took some i n t e r e s t in Bisbee and a p p a re n tly d id much to make l i f e somewhat more p le a s a n t th a n in th e e a r l y days o f g u n fig h tin g and la w le ssn e s which once t y p i f i e d th e camp, A Y0W,CPA, and a Y,M.C,A,, la r g e ly su p p o rted by th e companyT s d i r e c t o r s , were o rg an iz ed around 1906o A new sc h o o l and h o s p i t a l were b u i l t , and a company-owned l i b r a r y was e s ta b li s h e d . Not f a r from B isb ee, where w a te r was a v a ila b le and an a t t r a c t i v e community could be c r e a te d , th e town o f Warren was begun in 1906, Today homes a t Warren are p r iv a te ly owned, and r e s id e n ts may b u ild t h e i r own homes, although th e p ro p e rty i s le a s e d from th e company a t a nominal y e a r ly r a t e . The most infamous e v e n t in the h is t o r y o f Bisbee 111 took p lace in 1917 when over 1250 men were rounded up by th e lo c a l s h e r i f f 's posse and deported in boxcars to Hermanas, New Mexico, w ith a w arning never to r e tu r n to B isbee, This w ar-tim e la b o r d istu rb a n c e was brought on w ith th e a g i t a t i o n o f th e I.W .W ., which was s t i r r i n g up s t r i k e s and d is o rd e r th roughout the copper camps. The "B isbee d e p o rta tio n " re c e iv e d w idespread p u b lic ity and s t i l l rem ains in th e memory o f many as th e most n o ta b le event in the c o lo r f u l h is to r y o f B isb e e .25 Although Bisbee never became a fully-ow ned company town in th e sense th a t a l l homes, b u sin e ss h o u ses, etc., were company p ro p e rty , th e p r a c t i c a l l y com plete dominance o f Phelps Dodge in th e ow nership o f the la n d , th e l i b r a r y , th e new spaper, and th e most prom inent s to r e in town has m e rited f o r i t b r i e f m ention h e r e . In re c e n t y e a rs th e company has ta k en in c re a se d i n t e r e s t in p ro v id in g more homes. In 1954 th e new low grade mine, the Lavender P i t , was opened j u s t o u ts id e B isbee, which brought a new in f lu x o f w orkers. The company b u i l t 140 homes in Bisbee a t th a t tim e . This was th e f i r s t tim e in B isb e e ’s h is t o r y th a t any la rg e number o f company-owned homes had e x i s t e d . 26 2$For an account of th e Bisbee d e p o rta tio n , see I b i d . . pp. 165-192. ^ i n t e r v i e w w ith H. E, Moore, March 12, 1962. PLATE VIII LA VEN D ER PIT, N E A R BISBEE, ARIZONA. This huge open- p i t copper m ine, opened in th e 1 9 5 0 's, h elp s provide employment fo r r e s id e n ts o f B isbee* Most copper m ining in th e West now depends on th e low-grad© ore: taken from such mines* 113 114 Two a d d itio n a l copper towns have been p a r t o f th e Phelps Dodge em pire: A jo and C la rk d a le , Arizona,, At Ajo, m ining began as e a r ly as 1#54, and a ty p ic a l f r o n t i e r mining camp w ith adobe b u ild in g s and sh a ck s, s e v e ra l p r iv a te ly owned s t o r e s , a bank, and a p o st o f f ic e grew u p 0 About th e tu rn o f the ce n tu ry th e New C o rn e lia Copper Company was formed and th e p re s e n t town o f Ajo g r a d u a lly came in to being* With th e proven su ccess o f o p e n -p it copper m ining, th e low grade ore a t Ajo became p r o f it a b le and th e community p ro sp e re d . A fte r w ate r was o b ta in ed through a deep w e ll, t r e e s and ornam ental bushes were p la n te d , a p le a s a n t p u b lic p la z a and shopping a re a was c re a te d , and Ajo became a th r iv in g , a t t r a c t i v e d e s e r t community. In 1931 th e o p e ra tio n was purchased by th e Phelps Dodge C o rp o ratio n . People in a l l p a r ts of th e co u n try have heard o f th e now abandoned m ining camp o f Jerom e, A rizona, and many have v i s i t e d i t as a t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n . I t s winding roads and p r e c a rio u s ly perched h i l l s i d e houses have given i t a q u a in t and p ic tu re sq u e appearance* Fewer p eo p le, however, have heard of th e company-owned town of C la rk d a le , which provided th e s m e lte r f o r copper tak en from Jerome. C lark d ale was th e p rid e o f W . A. Clajrk, s e n a to r from Montana, who was one of th e owners of th e U nited Verde Copper Company. Founded in 11911, th e town was w ell 115 d esigned and l a i d o u t. W ithin f iv e y e a rs i t had achieved wide p u b lic ity as a " s p o tle s s tow n.” 27 About 1.935 th e U nited Verde sto c k passed in to the hands of Phelps Dodge. C lark d ale rem ained a company town u n t i l about 1953 when th e ore a t Jerome had given out and th e s m e lte r was fo rc e d to c lo s e . The town was l a t e r purchased by a la rg e cement company, which so ld th e homes b u t continued to o p erate a cement p la n t th e r e . I t w i l l be observed t h a t Phelps Dodge developed an a t t i t u d e d i f f e r e n t from K ennecott in the m a tte r o f " s e l l i n g ” i t s company towns. While Kennecott became convinced t h a t i t would be b e t t e r f o r employees as w e ll as management to g e t r i d o f i t s la n d lo rd r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , Phelps Dodge has made j u s t th e o p p o site d e c is io n w ith r e s p e c t to i t s la rg e o p e ra tio n s a t Morenci and Ajo© The company i s q u ite co n ten t w ith th in g s as they a r e . The manager o f th e M ew C o rn e lia Branch a t Ajo in d ic a te s t h a t th e re i s a b s o lu te ly no thought on th e p a r t of th e company to s e l l homes to em ployees, f o r th e p re se n t program i s co n sid ered to be th e b e s t way to m a in ta in a s t a b l e , d e s ir a b le work force,, The company a c tu a lly s u s ta in s a y e a rly lo s s on i t s housing but t h i s i s co n sid ered w ell 27 "S p o tle ss Town,” A rizona, Vol. VI, No. 6 (A p ril, 1916). 116 w orth i t in o rd e r to m ain tain s t a b i l i t y and s a t i s f a c t i o n . ^ I t i s d i f f i c u l t to e x p la in why th e se two co rp o ra tio n s should come to such d iv e rs e co n clu sio n s w ith re g a rd to t h e i r company tow ns. The obvious d if fe re n c e between t h e i r economics i s th e f a c t t h a t a t M orenci and Ajo both a s m e lte r and a mine a re in o p e ra tio n , and much o f . th e land upon which th e towns a re lo c a te d i s marked f o r f u tu re m in in g . This p r o h ib its th e company from s e l l i n g much of i t s p ro p e rty . Another c o n s id e ra tio n m ight be in v o lv ed w ith th e f a c t th a t P hslps Dodge seems to have become more in v o lv ed w ith p a t e r n a l i s t i c e n t e r p r is e s such as company s t o r e s , r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s , e x te n siv e h o s p it a l s e r v ic e s , etc«, and t h i s may have developed a. philosophy o r a t t i t u d e which would be h ard to b re a k . Again, th e f a c t th a t Ajo and Morenci a re much l a r g e r th an any K ennecott town could p re se n t more problems th an K ennecott ex p e rien ce d i f the towns should be put up f o r s a l e . W hatever th e re a so n , b o th c o rp o ra tio n s claim t h a t t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r p o lic y tow ard company towns b rin g s b e t t e r employee s a t i s f a c t i o n , and i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g th a t v i s i t s w ith employees of both companies r e v e a ls no g re a t d i s p a r i t y in a t t i t u d e toward management o r in g e n e ra l co n ten tm en t. I t may w e ll be t h a t company town liv i n g o e In te rv ie w w ith J . A.. B rig g s, Manager, New C o rn elia Branch, Phelps Dodge C o rp o ra tio n , Ajo, A rizona, March 23, 1.962. 117 in th e modern age i s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t from th a t in o th e r communities o f eq u al s iz e and s im ila r lo c a tio n ,. S ince d if fe re n c e s would be only in d e g re e , i t would be p r o f i t l e s s here to d is c u s s o th e r copper tow ns« . In c o n c lu sio n , however, i t should be e v id e n t t h a t th e s e towns have played a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t in th e economic developm ent o f th e tfest® Company towns have been im p o rta n t to th e developm ent o f many copper producing companieso These com panies, in t u r n , have played a v i t a l r o le in th e economy o f th e West® In A rizona, th e mining in d u s try pays an average o f $16,000,000 a n n u a lly in ta x e s , c a rry in g about 22 p e r c e n t of th e t o t a l s t a t e ta x load® In some l o c a l i t i e s , such as Morenci and Ajo, th e company pays w e ll over h a l f th e county ta x e s and th u s becomes a c h ie f su p p o rte r of sch o o ls and o th e r lo c a l p r o j e c t s . The company town i s th e r e f o r e s i g n i f i c a n t in much th e same degree th a t th e copper i t produces i s s i g n i f i c a n t to th e county, s t a t e , o r nation® CHAPTER V CO M PA N Y TO W N S A N D COAL MINING The in d u s try which has re c e iv e d perhpas th e most u n fav o rab le p u b lic ity in co n n ectio n w ith i t s company towns i s c o a le Events le a d in g to th e u n fo rtu n a te 1914 m assacre a t Ludlow, C olorado, d e p lo ra b le s a n ita r y c o n d itio n s found in co al camps throughout th e n a tio n by f e d e r a l commissions in 1923 and 1947 , p u b lic ity g iv en by unions to th e r e f u s a l o f management to n e g o tia te on housing and o th e r s o c ia l problem s, and th e f a c t t h a t most c o a l camps, a t l e a s t in th e West, were lo c a te d in a re a s which were a t b e s t d i f f i c u l t to make a t t r a c t i v e , have a l l c o n trib u te d to th e poor p u b lic image o f company-owned towns in th e c o a l f i e l d s • The company town has played a v i t a l r o le in th e development of th e c o a l in d u s tr y , although communities owned by co al companies in th e West a re p r a c t i c a l l y n o n e x is te n t today* In e a rly y ea rs o f W estern co al m ining, la b o r e r s could be o b ta in e d only i f th e company provided s h e l t e r f o r them* Many m iners came from fo re ig n c o u n trie s , e s p e c ia lly from so u th e rn Europe, a r r iv in g in th e co al f i e l d s p r a c t i c a l l y p e n n ile s s . There was no 118 119 in c e n t iv e , furtherm ore, f o r home ownership near the m in es, fo r th ere Was l i t t l e assurance th a t the m ines would n ot someday c lo s e and the workers be requ ired to move* Modern highways and autom obiles d id not then e x i s t , making i t h ig h ly im p ra ctica l t o l iv e in n eigh borin g com m unities, I t had become t r a d it io n a l, furtherm ore, fo r c o a l m ining companies to provide h o u sin g , s c h o o ls , and o th er community f a c i l i t i e s f o r such had been th e p r a c tic e fo r years in E astern c o a l f i e l d s . These c o n sid e r a tio n s, to g e th e r w ith the f a c t th a t mining companies wanted to m aintain c o n tr o l o f property surrounding th e mines fo r p o s s ib le fu tu re developm ent, a l l h elp e x p la in th e developm ent o f company- owned towns in the W estern co a l in d u str y . The manager o f th e Albuquerque and C e r r illo s Coal Company o f Madrid, New M exico, put the is s u e t h is way: I t would have been d i f f i c u l t to op erate the p rop erty oth er than as a Company town. M iners were more or l e s s o f an it in e r a n t group and g e n e r a lly w ith ou t much fin a n c e s . Many men came to work thru th e in s t ig a t io n o f fr ie n d s and came d ir e c t from I t a l y , C zech oslovak ia, e t c , to Madrid and in most in s ta n c e s w ith p r a c t ic a lly no funds w h atever. I f th e m ines were to work t h is was about th e on ly c la s s o f h elp th a t was a v a ila b le , so somebody had to provide a p la ce fo r them to l i v e and fin a n c e them u n t il such tim e as th e y produced c o a l, , » , A fter Mr, Kaseman took over the b u sin e ss in crea sed and th e camp began t o grow and many new houses went up. I f anyone would have su g g ested a t t h i s tim e th a t a m iner purchase h is own home th e m iner would have thought i t r id ic u lo u s , and th e company, o f co u rse, 120 wanted to m aintain the town as a u n it which th ey c o n t r o lle d .1 In s p it e o f th e n eg a tiv e op in ion which many have o f c o a l company tow ns, a study o f th e se com m unities r e v e a ls a broad d iv e r s it y o f c o n d itio n s , both good and bad. Towns e s ta b lis h e d e a r ly by the Colorado Fuel and Iron C orporation and i t s p red ecesso rs seem to have been n o ta b ly d ir t y and u n s ig h tly , w ith poor sa n ita r y c o n d itio n s , few o p p o r tu n itie s f o r c o n str u c tiv e s o c ia l a c t i v i t y , and h ig h ly o p p ressiv e company c o n tr o l. At the oth er extrem e was Phelps Dodge*s c o a l town o f Dawson, New M exico, where good homes, f in e community s e r v ic e s and a h ea lth y community s p i r i t seemed to be the r u le . Towns which developed a f t e r th e 1920*s seem to have been more r e sp o n sib ly planned and managed. S ev er a l co a l m ining com m unities, such as Gamerco, New M exico, Hiawatha, Utah, and Mount H a rris, C olorado, became noted as model m ining tow ns. Older tow ns, to o , g ra d u a lly became more d e s ir a b le as the centu ry p ro g ressed . Colorado F uel and Ir o n , fo r exam ple, made commendable e f f o r t s to improve h o u sin g , ed u ca tio n a l o p p o r tu n itie s , s a n ita r y c o n d itio n s, e t c . To g e n e r a liz e , i t can on ly be sa id th a t w h ile many c o a l company towns rep resen ted the w orst c o n d itio n s among a l l 1 L e tte r from Oscar Huber, G eneral Manager, Albuquerque and C e r r illo s Coal Company o f Madrid, New M exico, Albuquerque, New M exico, June 17, 1962. 121 company tow ns, many o th e rs could be c l a s s i f i e d as d e s ir a b le com m unities w ith good h o u sin g , r e sp o n sib le management, and r e la t iv e ly con ten ted em ployees* In t h e ir h i s t o r ic a l p e r sp e c tiv e th e c o a l company towns a ls o p resen t a v a ried p ic tu r e e Some com m unities, such as Madrid, New M exico, grew slo w ly from ty p ic a l n o n -p a te r n a lis tic f r o n tie r m ining camps, w h ile o th ers were c o n sc io u sly planned and b u il t along w ith th e b eginning o f m ining o p eration s* Some com m unities became f u ll- f le d g e d company towns w h ile o th ers remained as se ttle m e n ts o f p rivately-ow n ed d w ellin g s on company p roperty w ith few p a t e r n a lis t ic e n te r p r is e s * Before d is c u s s in g th e se tr e n d s, however, i t i s appropriate to review b r ie f ly th e s ig n ific a n c e o f c o a l mining in the West* W estern Coal Mining Coal production in th e West has been r e la t iv e ly sm all when compared w ith th e r e s t o f th e n a tio n , w ith the tr a n s -M is s is s ip p i s t a t e s combined producing on ly about 10 per cen t o f th e n a tio n a l output* W ithin the s t a t e s o f C olorado, New M exico, Utah, and Wyoming, however, c o a l has played a prominent economic r o le , and in each o f th e se s t a t e s a s ig n if ic a n t number o f c o a l company towns have come and gone* In C olorado, c o a l o p era tio n s were f i r s t undertaken 122 in 1664*. Coal became in c r e a s in g ly im portant u n t i l, in the f i r s t quarter o f t h is cen tu ry , i t h eld f i r s t p o s itio n in C oloradof s m ineral p rod u ction . Between 1905 and 1930 t h is s t a t e produced an average o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ton s a n n u a lly , although output has d e c lin e d s in c e m id-century to 4 }000,000 to n s . The developm ent o f th e Colorado c o a l in d u stry was noted e s p e c ia lly fo r i t s la b o r d i f f i c u l t i e s , some o f which became d ir e c t ly in v o lv ed w ith c o n d itio n s in company tow ns. The most e x te n s iv e d e p o sit o f coking c o a l in th e West i s found in th e Colorado-New Mexico border area in what are knox*m as th e T rinidad and Raton f i e l d s * 2 I t i s here th a t a la r g e number o f company towns have been lo c a te d . Coal m ining in New Mexico i s no lo n g er s ig n i f ic a n t , but in th e 1930f s and 1940*s t h is s t a t e produced approxim ately one and a h a lf m illio n ton s a n n u a lly . Almost th e e n tir e southw estern quarter o f Wyoming i s covered w ith a huge c o a l f i e l d known as th e Green R iver R egion. Here mining began as e a r ly as th e 1B60*s when th e Union P a c ific R ailroad needed c o a l to r a keep th e b lack smoke b elc h in g in to th e sky from th o se e a r ly Union P a c if ic lo c o m o tiv e s .n3 Wyoming c o a l mining g ra d u a lly reached a 2a . T. S h u rick , The Coal In du stry (B oston: L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1 9 2 4 ), p . 2 6 . ^H isto ry o f th e Union P a c ific Coal M ines, 1896 to 1940 (Omaha: The C olonia Press," 1 9 4 0 1 'p . 2&. 123 peak, in 1944, o f 9 ,# 4 6 ,0 0 0 to n s a n n u a lly , but dropped to 2 ,1 1 7 p000 to n s by 1957o I t has been sin c e th e 1940's th a t Wyoming's c o a l company towns have disappeared* South o f t h is huge Wyoming f i e l d i s th e U inta c o a l r e g io n , w ith major d e p o s its in Carbon and Eknery c o u n tie s , Utah, The economy o f th e se c o u n tie s , e s p e c ia lly Carbon County, has been la r g e ly dependent upon co a l m ining, and numerous company-owned towns have co n trib u ted to the m aintenance o f t h is f i e l d . Other Western s t a t e s which have produced s i g n i f ic a n t amounts o f c o a l are Montana and W ashington, Montana produced n ea rly n ine m illio n ton s o f co a l in i t s peak year o f 1944, but has sin ced d e c lin e d to around one m illio n to n s a n n u a lly . F if t y o f t h is s t a t e ' s f i f t y - s i x c o u n tie s produce t h is m in era l, and th e C o lstr ip m ine, where th e company town o f C o lstr ip i s lo c a te d , i s one o f the w o r ld 's la r g e s t o p e n -p it c o a l m ines. An in t e r e s t in g sid e li g h t on t h is in d u stry i s th e f a c t th a t a la r g e p o rtio n o f the c o a l produced in th e West has come from consumer-owned m in es. The obvious reason fo r t h is i s th e n e c e s s it y some companies have fo r an assured source o f f u e l in order to keep t h e ir primary o p era tio n g o in g . The Union P a c ific R ailroad Company, fo r exam ple, e a r ly e s ta b lis h e d th e Union P a c ific Coal Company, w ith mines p r in c ip a lly in Wyoming, in order to provide c o a l fo r i t s e n g in e se At one tim e every tr a n sc o n tin e n ta l r a ilr o a d system mined p r a c t ic a lly a l l o f i t s own c o a l.^ Large m etal m ining companies did th e same. Dawson, New M exico, fo r exam ple, fu rn ish ed c o a l f o r the copper m ines and sm elters o f th e Phelps Dodge Corporation# In the 1920's i t was estim ated th a t approxim ately tw o -th ir d s o f th e c o a l output o f W ashington, Montana, and New Mexico came from t h is c la s s o f m ines, as w e ll as about 40 per cent o f th e production from Colorado and Wyoming.^ Many o f th e company towns in th e se s t a t e s , th e r e fo r e , were b u ilt to support th e primary o p era tio n o f companies whose in t e r e s t s vjere in e n te r p r is e s o th er than c o a l, but which have been e s s e n t ia l to th e economic developm ent o f th e W est. The Union P a c ific Coal Company When th e Union P a c ific R ailroad began to cro ss th e c o n tin e n t, i t n a tu r a lly became n ecessa ry to fin d a source o f co a l to supply i t s e n g in e s. This le d to opening o f m ines in th e Wyoming c o a l f i e l d s and to esta b lish m en t o f a number o f company-owned towns® In t h is way th e company town made a s ig n if ic a n t c o n trib u tio n to the su c c e ss o f the tr a n sc o n tin e n ta l r a ilr o a d . The f i r s t m ining town to be e s ta b lis h e d by Union ^Shurick, The Coal In d u stry , p . 263. 5 lb id . 125 P a c if ic was Carbon, Wyoming, where se ttle m e n t began as e a r ly as 1363* Although Carbon did n ot become a company town in th e f u l l sense o f th e term , i t was a t y p ic a l f r o n t ie r co a l m ining community and c e r ta in ly had some o f th e marks o f a company town* I t r e p r ese n ts th e f i r s t ste p in th e developm ent o f company towns in Wyoming and th e r e fo r e h old s some s ig n ific a n c e h e r e *6 E sta b lish e d by th e r a ilr o a d , Carbon was b u ilt on company property* P r iv a te ly owned r e s id e n c e s , however, sprang up r a p id ly , many o f them c o n s is tin g o f caves covered in fr o n t w ith boards and e a r th , w ith sto v e p ip e s poking out o f h o le s in th e roofs* The r a ilr o a d hauled vrater from M edicine Bow, dumping i t in to a wooden c is t e r n which served th e town* I t became an a c t iv e , l i v e l y community w ith a b u sin ess d i s t r i c t c o n s is tin g o f se v e r a l s a lo o n s , th ree g en era l m erchandise s to r e s (in c lu d in g a company s t o r e ) , a shoe sh op, a barber shop, and a b lack sm ith* I t a ls o had ch u rch es, a dance h a ll, and a sch ool* L ife was d escrib ed as "strenuous but gay," w ith cowboys o fte n " sh ootin g up the tow n," m iners d rin king h e a v ily , and dancing p rovid in g much o f the tow n 's recrea tio n * Carbon had a peak p op u lation o f approxim ately 3*000* A fte r t h ir t y - f iv e years t h i s rough-and-tum ble fr o n tie r ^Most o f th e in form ation about Carbon i s taken from H istory o f th e Union P a c ific Coal M ines* pp» 23-36* 126 community was c lo s e d , le a v in g th e area d e s o la te ,,7 Cumberland, Wyoming, was a ls o e s ta b lis h e d by Union P a c ific and i t was more t y p ic a l o f th e tru e company town than Carbon* Cumberland was opened around 1900 w ith te n ts and bunk houses s e t up around the p ro sp ectin g area* A town was b u i l t , a commissary was opened, and c o a l m ining was ca r rie d on u n t il 1930* Hundreds o f people were on hand fo r th e c lo s in g c e le b r a tio n o f th a t year* A number o f oth er Wyoming com m unities were e s ta b lis h e d by the Union P a c ific Coal Company to support the m ines n ecessa ry to the o p era tio n o f the railroad® The town o f Hanna was founded in I &69 and s t i l l e x is ts * The t in y town o f Dana, however, la s t e d fo r on ly th ree y e a r s0 S up erior was opened around 1906, and the m ines th ere operated u n t il 1962* R eliance was founded in 1910, and when th e m ines c lo se d in 1954 i t ceased to be operated as a company town® W inton, founded in 1917 by th e Megeath Coal Company, was purchased by Union P a c ific in 1921 and operated fo r many years as a model company town® In o th e r a r e a s, such as Rock S p rin g s, th e company a ls o c a r r ie d on e x te n siv e co a l m ining, but did n ot fin d i t n ecessa ry to op erate company towns* 7 'Works P rogress A d m in istra tio n , W riter*s Program, Wyoming. A Guide to i t s H isto r y . Highways and People (New Tork: Oxford tftiiv e r sity P r e ss, 1948J, p* 350* 127 The community which b e s t r e p r ese n ts th e developm ent o f company towns by th e Union P a c ific Coal Company i s Hannao Hanna passed through alm ost every sta g e p o s s ib le in th e r i s e and d e c lin e o f a company town, from a community o f t e n t s , through th e f u l l y d evelop ed , p a te r n a l i s t i c town o f company-owned homes and company managed a c t i v i t i e s , to i t s p resen t s ta tu s as a sm a ll, d e c lin in g v ill a g e o f homeowners® I t th e r e fo r e m erits a b r ie f review here o f i t s history® The sto r y o f Hanna began when ore a t th e Carbon mine d e c lin e d and e x c e lle n t new d e p o s its were d isco v ered near th e p resen t s i t e o f Hannae Two m ines were opened in 1 and a camp was e s ta b lis h e d w ith th e u su a l prim i t iv e liv in g conditions® W inter co ld and heavy snow, to g e th e r w ith the f a c t th a t Hanna was as y e t sim ply a te n t town, made l i f e d i f f i c u l t th a t f i r s t season® S e t t le r s in Hanna came la r g e ly from th e Carbon m ine, and fo r th e f i r s t year most o f them were b ach elors,, The few m arried men who came continued to m aintain homes a t Carbon and v i s i t t h e ir fa m ilie s on week-ends® When Carbon c lo s e d down com p letely in 1902, Hanna provided new employment fo r many o f i t s miners® At Hanna th e Union P a c ific ap p aren tly determ ined to b u ild a town which was som ething more than th e t y p ic a l f r o n tie r c o a l camp0 S tr e e ts were la id o u t, and r e la t iv e ly com fortable homes were q u ick ly e r e c te d . These rented fo r tw elve d o lla r s per month, in c lu d in g w a ter. In la t e r yea rs th ey were m odernized or rep laced w ith more modern d w e llin g s . The town was named fo r the w ealthy in d u s t r i a l i s t and p o l i t ic i a n , Marcus Hanna, who once d ecla red th a t th ere was s u f f ic ie n t co a l in th e Hanna mine to supply th e n a tio n fo r a cen tu ry .^ P opulation in th e community remained a t approxim ately 1500. The Union P a c ific Coal Company owned and c o n tr o lle d ev ery th in g in Hanna, in clu d in g the s c h o o l. The town was o p era ted , however, w ith a kind o f " en lig h ten ed 1 9 p atern alism which developed an unusual attachm ent to th e town, i f n ot to th e company, among many o f i t s r e s id e n ts . P resen t in h a b ita n ts o f Hanna are la r g e ly form er company em ployees who have r e tir e d but have purchased t h e ir homes because Hanna i s th e p lace th ey want to l i v e . One such man i s a form er " sta tio n a r y en g in eer," whose job i t was to bring c o a l out o f the mine a f t e r i t had been loaded in to cars® In 1961 he rep orted th a t he had liv e d in Hanna f o r sev en ty y ea rs and had given f if t y - t h r e e years o f s e r v ic e to th e company. A fter th e mines clo sed and th e company began s e l l i n g homes, he and h is w ife decided th ey lik e d the town and wanted to remain th ere the r e s t o f t h e ir d a y s, so th ey purchased th e home th ey had been ren tin g fo r so many y e a r s . &Ibid.. p. 354« 129 Hanna was home to them, and they d id n 't care to move, even though th e town showed no r e a l p ro p sects fo r again becoming th e flo u r is h in g se ttle m e n t i t once w a s.9 Another lo n g -tim e r e s id e n t, who worked in Hanna fo r over f i f t y y e a r s, now l i v e s in Laramie but s t i l l d e c la r e s th a t "someday Hanna w i l l come back," i f not as a m ining town a t le a s t as th e prominent community i t once was©^® When queried about employee lo y a lt y to th e company, he d eclared th a t t h is was th e stran ge th in g about the company towne There was l i t t l e a c tu a l lo y a lt y to th e company, but ev ery one r e a liz e d th a t i t was t h e ir bread and b u tte r so went alon g w ith w hatever was estab lish ed © Community l i f e , however, was "w onderful," he said© "W e fou gh t lik e c a ts and dogs amongst o u r s e lv e s , but we d id n 't want anybody coming in and in te r fe r in g w ith us©** S o c ia l l i f e in Hanna was ap paren tly ra th er f u l l . The company w illi n g l y allow ed fr a te r n a l s o c i e t i e s , such as the K nights o f P y th ia s, th e Moose Lodge, and o th ers to function© In a d d itio n , the company provided a community r e c r e a tio n h a ll which was th e scen e o f freq u en t Saturday dances and parties© In d iv id u a ls could a ls o ren t the h a ll ^ In terview w ith 0© C, B uehler, Hanna. Wyoming, Ju ly 6 , 1961© ^ I n te r v ie w w ith Henry Jon es, Laramie, Wyoming. Ju ly S, 1961© 130 fo r p r iv a te ly sponsored a f f a i r s , and on s p e c ia l o cca sio n s one o f th e lo d g es m ight sponsor a community dance and b rin g in a s p e c ia l o rch e stra from Rock Springs or Laramie® On other o c c a sio n s th e lo c a l o r c h e str a , made up o f em ployees, would se rv e adequately® The company a ls o b u ilt a lodge h a l l , which was le a se d to a p riv a te p arty fo r operation® I t c o n sis te d o f a movie h ou se, p ool h a l l , b a r, candy k itc h e n , and lodge room® The company a ls o con trib u ted tw e n ty -fiv e d o lla r s per month to a community fund, which was supplemented by the r e n ta l re c e iv ed from p riv a te p a r t ie s a t th e community hall® This fund provided, among oth er th in g s , an annual Christmas p arty a t which ev ery c h ild in th e community receiv ed candy, oran ges, and a gift® In a d d itio n to housing and r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s , th e company a ls o operated a company s t o r e , a h o t e l, and a h ospital® The s to r e gave c r e d it through the s c r ip system , but i t does n o t appear th a t th e company attem pted to be o p p ressiv e in t h is regard® W hile i t i s tru e th a t many people found th em selves p e r p e tu a lly in debt to the company s t o r e , i t i s a ls o tru e th a t th e company w illi n g l y c a r r ie d them on the books during p eriod s o f d ep ressio n and unemployment, lim itin g t h e ir c r e d it on ly to the n e c e s s itie s ® I t does not appear th a t th e company forced tra d e at th e company s t o r e , fo r a g ro cer from Laramie was 131 allow ed to come in to Hanna and s o l i c i t b u s in e s s , Sometimes he would g e t h a lf a ca rlo a d o f o r d e r s, w hich would be 11 shipped by t r a in in to Hanna and p icked up a t th e s t a t i o n . When th e problem o f union o r g a n iz a tio n a ro se in th e e a r ly y ea rs o f th e tw e n tie th cen tu ry , th e Union P a c if ic Goal Company attem pted to use i t s ow nership o f p rop erty around th e m ines to f r u s tr a te union e f f o r t s . O rganizers were n ot allow ed on company p ro p erty , hence n ot p erm itted to e n te r th e town, and d e t e c t iv e s were h ired to keep them o u t. The m iners n e v e r th e le s s were determ ined to o r g a n iz e , and when union men l e t i t be known th a t th ey would be in a h orse and buggy on a county road, o f f company p ro p erty , th e m iners a l l took a day o f f , met th e o r g a n iz e r s , and r e c e iv e d union c a r d s ,12 Thus th e union was e s ta b lis h e d in Hanna, and the company e v e n tu a lly was fo rce d to reco g n iz e i t . I t ap p ears, however, th a t th e union had l i t t l e e f f e c t upon th e a c tu a l o p era tio n o f the tow n. Mine c o n d itio n s and wages were n e g o tia te d and ad ju sted to th e b e n e fit o f th e em ployee, but th e community remained under th e com plete c o n tr o l o f th e co m p a n y .^ 3 Company in flu e n c e on sc h o o ls in company-owned towns i s i l l u s t r a t e d by th e s to r y o f Hanna. The sc h o o l was 11I b id . ^ in t e r v ie w w it h 0 . C. B u eh ler, Ju ly 6 , 1961, ^ I n t e r v i e w w it h Henry J o n es, J u ly 1961, 132 l e g a lly a p art o f the county sc h o o l d i s t r i c t , although 65 per ce n t o f th e su pp ortin g ta x e s was paid by Union P a c if ic « The lo c a l sc h o o l board was e le c t e d , but fo r many y ears i t was p r a c t ic a lly a foregone co n clu sio n th a t th e company su p erin ten d en t would be a member© The company thu s had a stro n g v o ice in sc h o o l p o l i c i e s , and was e s p e c ia lly in te r e s te d when p rop osals fo r new co n str u c tio n came a lo n g * In a d d itio n to b ein g rep resen ted on th e sch ool board, th e company p a r tic ip a te d d ir e c t ly in sc h o o l a f f a ir s in oth er ways© The f i r s t sc h o o l b u ild in g , fo r exam ple, liras e r e c te d by th e company» L ater i t was turned over to th e sch o o l d i s t r i c t fo r $15,000© That th e company was n ot m a licio u s in i t s obvious a b i l i t y to c o n tr o l sc h o o l p o lic y and exp en d itu res i s seen in th e problem which aro se in th e 1940*s r e la t iv e to th e e r e c tio n o f a new high schoolo Henry Jon es, a company em ployee, was e le c te d to the sc h o o l board in 1940, and soon became p resid en t o f the board© Over-crowded con d i tio n s p rev a iled in th e sc h o o l, but th e company had lon g opposed th e expense o f e r e c tin g a new plant© O f f ic ia ls argued th a t continued o p era tio n o f the mines was n ot assu red and, i f th ey c lo s e d down, the expense o f a sc h o o l would not have been ju s tifie d © Jon es, however, again p resen ted th e problem to th e p r e sid e n t o f the company, who 133 agreed th a t i f Jones cou ld j u s t i f y th e need th e company would go along* A new h ig h sc h o o l was f i n a l l y a u th o rized and b u i l t a t a c o s t o f $ 1 4 6 ,0 0 0 , but w ith in e ig h t y e a r s , n oted J o n es, th e m ines were c lo s e d and nwe were f l a t t e r than pancakes and d id n * t need a l l th a t room." 14 In 1936 Hanna saw a p o l i t i c a l developm ent which was n ot common in company tow ns, f o r in th a t year i t became an in co rp o ra ted community* The in c o r p o r a tio n mad© l i t t l e d iffe r e n c e as f a r as community a c t i v i t i e s were con cern ed , but i t d id g iv e th e town governm ent, s t i l l under de f a c t o c o n tr o l o f th e company, th e p r iv ile g e o f lic e n s in g sa lo o n s and oth er b u s in e s s e s in w hich th e company d id n ot want to become d ir e c t ly in v o lv e d , Henry J o n es, who was company c le r k a t th e tim e , r e p o r ts th a t one reason fo r th e in c o r p o r a tio n was to b rin g sa lo o n s in to Hanna so th a t men would n ot lo s e work tim e by g o in g to th e l i t t l e town o f Elmo to drink* W hatever th e in t e n t , th e lo c a l govern ment was formed and e le c t io n s were r e g u la r ly h e ld . As m ight be su sp e c te d , th e company su p erin ten d en t somehow was u s u a lly e le c t e d mayor. About 1950 th e l a s t c o a l mine a t Hanna c lo s e d , but th e town, co n tra ry to what m ight be ex p ec ted , d id not co m p letely d isa p p e a r. Many lo n g -tim e em ployees were ready f o r retirem en t and wanted to s ta y on . O thers were a b le H lb i d , PLATE II C O M P A N Y STO RE AT H ANNA, W Y O M IN G . The o ld s to r e b u ild in g stan d s id le today as a s i l e n t reminder o f the days when t h is company town flourished*. to fin d new employment which did n ot req u ire t h e ir moving away* The company o ffe r e d th e houses fo r s a le a t approxim ately $100 per room, and many in d iv id u a ls pur chased t h e ir homes in t h is manner* The land s t i l l rem ains as property o f th e company, and i t i s le a se d to th e home owner fo r one d o lla r per year* Hanna i s not th e a c tiv e m ining community i t once w as, but i t co n tin u es to e x i s t as a sm a ll, q u ie t town which g iv e s th e appearance o f gradual d e c lin e * The company s to r e , th e community r e c r e a tio n h a l l , th e company o f f i c e s , se v e r a l unsold company h o u ses, and th e h igh sch o o l b u ild in g a l l stand vacant as s i l e n t rem inders o f the town*s flo u r is h in g past* In the h ea rts o f some, however, the p a st s t i l l l i v e s , as o ld -tim e r s such as Henry Jones remain determ ined th a t "Hanna w i l l come back*" Southern Colorado—A S e n s itiv e S itu a tio n The most in te n s e c r it ic is m o f company-owned tovms in th e West has cen tered around the c o a l f ie ld s o f southern Colorado* Here th e Colorado Fuel and Iron C orporation c o n tr o lle d more company towns than any o th er company in the West* Charges and co u n ter-ch a rg es, e s p e c ia lly p erta in in g to th e period p r io r to th e unfor tu n ate s t r ik e o f 1 9 1 3 - 1 9 1 confuse th e tru e p ic tu r e , but a b r ie f review o f th e se arguments i s e s s e n t ia l to an understanding o f the r o le played by th e company town in 137 th e s o c i a l u n rest p r e v a ilin g in th e c o a l f i e l d s in th e e a r ly y ea rs o f th e tw e n tie th century* Coal o p era tio n s began in Colorado as e a r ly as 1364, and Colorado F uel and Iron C orp oration , a conglom erate o f many sm a lle r com panies, became th e la r g e s t producer b efo re th e end o f th e century* Some o f i t s m ines were lo c a te d n ear e s ta b lis h e d com m unities such as Walsenburg* In m ost c a s e s , how ever, m ines were lo c a te d in area s n ot e a s ily a c c e s s ib le by roads* O ften th e y were in canyons, and th e su p p ortin g com m unities would be b u ilt on h i l l s i d e s or in narrow ra v in es* By th e end o f th e centu ry numerous such company-owned camps d o tte d Colorado* As c o a l m ining expanded, so d id th e a c t i v i t i e s o f union o r g a n iz e r s , and th e U nited Mine Workers was e s ta b lis h e d in th e s t a t e in 1399* Demanding an e ig h t hour day and b e tte r working c o n d itio n s , th e m iners won union r e c o g n itio n in th e n orthern f ie ld s * In sou th ern C olorado, how ever, where Colorado Fuel and Iron dom inated, th e is s u e remained u n s e ttle d fo r many years* W hile th e union c r i t i c i z e d c o a l o p era to rs fo r many th in g s n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y connected w ith th e o p era tio n o f company tow n s, company a t tit u d e toward and management o f th e s e com m unities a ls o came under harsh scrutiny® Management was charged w ith m a in ta in in g com plete econom ic and p o l i t i c a l c o n tr o l, denying freedom o f sp eech , p rovid in g 138 o n ly th e m ost w retched l i v i n g c o n d itio n s and g e n e r a lly r e fu s in g to do an yth in g to a id in th e s o c i a l b etterm en t o f company employees® The fo llo w in g ex cerp t from an a v id ly p ro-u n ion p u b lic a tio n o f 1943 i s r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e union view o f C olorad o's c o a l com panies, and Colorado F uel and Iron in P articular® CCompany em ployeesJ liv e d in w retch ed , is o la t e d camps stru n g alon g th e s lo p e s o f tw is tin g canons on e it h e r s id e o f th e c o a l mine w ith i t s unpainted s h a f t - h o u se, b reaker b u ild in g s and powerhouse® The s in g le men liv e d in company-owned boarding h ouses and th o se w ith f a m ilie s in company-owned s h a n t ie s , barren l i t t l e homes th a t reared t h e ir w eath er-b eaten boards above p i l e s o f ash es and t i n cans® P u b lic roads ran through th e can on s, but a t th e approach to each camp a g a te and a s ig n , “P r iv a te P rop erty— Keep O u t,1 * barred th e way® Armed guards, employed by th e c o a l company and d ep u tized by th e s h e r i f f o f th e county watched over th e g a te s and k ep t order in th e camps® The term “t o keep order" had an in te r p r e ta tio n a l l i t s own in th e c o a l camps® Men could g e t as drunk as th ey p lea se d in a company sa lo o n , carouse about w ith daughters o f jo y . and braw l w ith f i s t s or k n iv es w ith ou t undue in te r fe r e n c e s from th e camp m arshal or h is deputies® I t was o n ly when str a n g e r s made t h e ir way in to camps on b u sin e ss th a t th e su p erin ten d en t in h is g r e a t wisdom co n sid ered in im ic a l t o the company, or when th e m iners found f a u l t w ith t h e ir way o f l i f e th a t th e m a rsh a l's brand o f ord er was r i g id ly enforced® F a u lt- fin d e r s , in d iv id u a l or c o l l e c t i v e l y , were n ot t o le r a te d in th e s e c lo s e d camps® In tru d ers and mal co n te n ts were fe r r e te d out by an in t r ic a t e esp ion age system and tr e a te d by h eavily-arm ed guards to th e kangaroo, th e c o a l d i s t r i c t term fo r a p r o fe s s io n a l beating® Along w ith th e kangaroo went th e dread sen ten ce o f “Down th e canon®" And to go "down th e canon" meant b la c k lis t in g and s ta r v a tio n — or e x ile ® 15 ^ ^Barron B eshoar, Out o f th e Depths® The S tory o f John R ® Lawson a Labor Leader (Denver: The Colorado Labor and H is to r ic a l Committee o f th e Denver Trades and Labor A ssem bly, 1943)* p» 21® 139 I t was charged th a t c o a l o p era to rs m aintained p o l i t i c a l c o n tr o l o f t h e ir com m unities through s t r i c t r e g u la tio n o f v o tin g , and th a t anyone v o tin g a g a in s t th e in t e r e s t s o f th e company was in danger o f lo s in g h is job* D eclared George P. West in a rev iew o f a fe d e r a l i n v e s t i g a tio n o f th e 1914 s t r ik e : Even th e p o llin g p la c e s in th e c lo s e d camps were lo c a te d on ground owned by th e Company® I f th e v o te s o f t h e i r em ployees were n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y numerous to o f f s e t th o se o f o u ts id e r s in th e same p r e c in c t, en tran ce to th e c lo se d camps and th e p o llin g p la c e s could be d en ied to v o te r s n ot under th e Company*s c o n tr o l, or th e t e r r it o r y cou ld be p r e c in c te d in such fa sh io n as to ex clu d e th e se v o t e r s , ! 6 I f th e se ch arges are tr u e , i t i s apparent th a t one reason f o r th e con tinu ed m aintenance o f company towns cou ld have been t h e ir u s e fu ln e s s as a p o l i t i c a l t o o l . The method by which companies m ight dominate e le c t io n s was i l l u s t r a t e d in a M onthly Labor Review d is c u s s io n o f the 1914 e le c t io n in Huerfano County,^? Incumbent s h e r i f f was J , D, F arr, who had lon g been accused o f b ein g under company c o n tr o l and running the county s t r i c t l y accord in g to company in s t r u c t io n s , Farr was ■ ^George P, W est, U nited S ta te s Commission on I n d u s tr ia l R e la tio n s Report on th e Colorado S tr ik e (C hicago: Barnard & M ille r , 1915)» P* 57• 17» sI n d u s tr ia l N e c essity * fo r P o l i t i c a l C ontrol: An In c id e n t in th e Colorado M iner’ s S t r i k e ,” M onthly Labor Review , V o l. I l l , No. 2 (A ugust, 1-91-6), pp 35-37* 140 o s te n s ib ly r e - e le c t e d , but h is opponent, as w e ll as th e opponents o f o th er county o f f ic e r s e le c t e d a t th e same tim e , co n tested th e r e s u lt s in c o u r t. The s t a te supreme cou rt found th a t not lon g b efore the e le c t io n new v o tin g p r e c in c ts were crea ted w ith boundaries p r a c t ic a lly id e n t ic a l w ith th e borders o f " clo sed camps," or company tow ns. P erm ission o f company o f f i c i a l s was req u ired b efore anyone could e n te r th e se p rem ises. In o th er ca ses p r e c in c ts were so gerrymandered as to make i t n ecessa ry f o r q u a lifie d v o te r s to go as fa r as e ig h tee n or tw en ty m ile s to c a s t t h e ir b a llo t s . I t was charged, and the cou rt ap p aren tly b e lie v e d th e charge, th a t union o r g a n iz er s, m erchants, d e liv e r y men, and fr ie n d s were excluded from company camps during th e e le c t io n and th a t p o l i t i c a l m eetings were p r a c t ic a lly im p o s sib le , Farr was running on a "law and order" p la t f o m , which m eant, s p e c i f i c a l l y , o p p o sitio n to th e s t r ik e . Voluminous testim on y was g iv en concerning co ercio n and in tim id a tio n , although much o f t h is was q u e stio n a b le . An im portant p o in t, however, was th a t i l l i t e r a t e v o te rs were fu rn ish ed w ith cards which enabled them to v o te the way th e company d e s ir e d . The r e s u lt , d eclared th e c o u r t, was not an ex p re ssio n o f op in ion or an i n t e l l i g e n t e x e r c is e o f s u ffr a g e , but p la in ly a d ic ta te d c o a l company v o te , "No more fra u d u len t or infamous p r o s titu tio n o f th e 141 b a l l o t i s co n ceiv ab le* ” In th e f i n a l a n a ly s is , th e c o u r t ru le d t h a t th e v o te o f th e clo sed p r e c in c ts should be thrown o u t and t h a t th e e l e c t io n should be d ecid ed by th e r e s u l t s i n o th e r p re c in c ts o f th e county* F a r r and o th e r company su p p o rted c o n te s ta n ts were th u s e lim in a te d and t h e i r opponents i n s t a l l e d i n o ffic e * P rio r to th e 1914 s t r ik e th e union made many a d d i t io n a l charges a g a in st th e company* John R0 Lawson, c h ie f union o rg a n iz er, h eld s e c r e t m eetin gs o f f company p rop erty, and slo w ly persuaded many workers o f th e need fo r o rg a n i zation * Among th e abuses which he named was th e s c r ip system w hich, he s a id , com pelled m iners to a ccep t company s c r ip and to buy on ly in company-owned s to r e s a t ex o rb ita n t p rices* He d ecried th e requirem ent th a t m iners buy t h e ir powder from the company a t high p ric es* ( I t was standard procedure in co a l f i e l d s fo r m iners to fu r n ish th e ir own powder, f u s e s , and oth er to o ls * ) Lawson a ls o c r it ic iz e d coron erT s J u ries w hich, under company dom ination, were sa id to fin d deaths a c tu a lly caused by lack o f proper company s a f e t y p reca u tio n s as due t o a m iner’ s own n eg lig en ce* He d ecried company r e s t r ic t io n s on p erson al lib e r ty * The m a ils , he charged, were w atched, and th o se who r e c e iv e d l e t t e r s , m agazines, or newspapers from so u rces con sid ered in im ic a l to management were in danger o f a t r ip 142 "down the canon*”13 i t i s l i t t l e wonder th a t Colorado F uel and Iron was anxious to g e t r id o f Lawson, and th e union charged th a t S h e r iff Farr had orders from the company to g e t him out o f town* I t was a ls o charged th a t th e company d en ied th e r ig h t o f fr e e speech through d isch arge o f em ployees who spoke to o soon , and th a t even m in is te r s and sc h o o l tea ch er s were sh ack led by company censoring® W est’ s rep o rt o f th e 1914 in v e s t ig a t io n tended to confirm t h is by quoting a l e t t e r w r itte n by J® F ® W elbora, p resid e n t o f th e company, to an a tto rn ey o f John D ® R o c k e fe lle r in New York® With re fe ren ce to D an iel McCorkle, m in iste r o f th e company- owned town o f S u n rise, Wyoming, Welbora s ta te d : At th e tim e o f the Ludlow a f f a ir the m in iste r was very outspoken in h is c r it ic is m o f th e c o a l com panies, but seemed to r e g r e t h is a c tio n when informed o f th e f a c t s concerning th a t disturbance® He has s o c i a l i s t i c te n d e n c ie s , however, and I have been informed th a t h is w ife i s a Greek, y e t th ey may both be p e r f e c tly honest® ® « ® W e have thought some o f changing th e m in is te r a t S u n rise , but have r e fr a in e d from tak in g a. course th a t would be u n fa ir to him or would in c it e a p reju d ice a g a in st him because o f what may have been sim ply in d is c r e e t sta tem en ts in con n ection w ith th e Ludlow outbreak® ” *9 I t i s c le a r ly e v id e n t th a t th e company co u ld , i f i t w ish ed , d ism iss th e m in is te r , and th a t management would have f e l t no moral repugnance a t such a move® On th e o th er ^ B e sh o a r , Out o f th e D epths, pp® 9-10® 1% e s t, Report on th e Colorado S tr ik e , p® 56. 143 hand, i t i s a ls o e v id e n t th a t W elbom was making every e f f o r t , w ith in th e framework o f company p o lic y , to be fa ir-m in d ed about th e s it u a tio n s Another com plaint fr e q u e n tly heard concerned th e r a c ia l a n im o s itie s w hich e x is te d in th e Colorado c o a l fie ld s ® I t was charged th a t company su p erin ten d en ts and company c o n tr o lle d m arsh als a c tu a lly encouraged antagonism . The fo llo w in g r e p r e se n ts th e extrem e in such c r it ic is m : Hatred and d e sp a ir grip p ed th e p o ly g lo t p eo p les o f th e Colorado c o a l d i s t r i c t s a s th e v io le n t W inter o f 1907 gave way t o a mountain excu se fo r Spring® Far underground, in la b y r in th s o f gaseou s s h a f t s , thousands o f men t o i l e d lo n g hours each day w ith a s u lle n n e s s matched o n ly in th e sq u a tty m ules th a t tugged a t overload ed c o a l cars® « ® ® The m iners hated th e m u les, and th e y h ated each o th e r , but most o f a l l th e y h ated t h e ir em ployers w ith a l l th e in t e n s it y o f sim p le men who ran k le under abuses which th ey f e e l p o w erless e it h e r to c o r r e c t or escape® The S co tch , th e W elsh and th e I r is h m in ers, who had seen thousands o f blood b ro th ers d riv en from th e c o a l f i e l d s a f t e r th e s t r ik e o f 1903, lo a th ed th e hordes o f fo r e ig n e r s ga th ered by e n te r p r is in g la b o r agen ts o f the c o a l barons from th e M editerranean c o u n tr ie s and th e f a r corn ers o f Europe and A sia to take th e p la c e s o f th e r e b e ls o f 1903* The newcomers, in tu rn , d e sp ise d each o th e r , accord in g to race® The I t a lia n s look ed down on th e G reeks, th e Greeks scorned th e P o les as s o c i a l in f e r i o r s , and th e l a t t e r had o n ly contem pt fo r th e skinny-arm ed Mexicans® They were u n ited o n ly in t h e ir h a tred f o r t h e ir em ployers and t h e ir b e l i e f th a t Japanese were scum o f th e w orst s o r t . . . . » Both su p erin ten d en ts and m arshals encouraged r a c ia l d i s l i k e s and a n im o s itie s on th e th eo ry t h a t th e more th e men were d iv id e d th e l e s s l i k e l y th ey were to exchange id e a s and d is c u s s p o s s ib le g rie v a n ce s o20 20Be s h oar, Out o f th e D ep th s, pp® 1 -2 . 144 The fo reg o in g c r it ic is m s were le v e le d p rim arily a g a in st the Colorado F uel and Iron Corporation* Company c o n tr o lle d c o a l camps a ls o e x is te d , however, in the domain o f th e V ictor-A m erican Fuel Company and th e Rocky Mountain Fuel Company* From th e p o in t-o f-v ie w o f th e company th ese charges were w ith ou t v a lid fo u n d a tio n , or were made w ith ou t understanding o f the problems fa cin g management in the o p era tio n o f m ining p ro p erties* George K indel, Congressman from C olorado, d eclared in a speech to th e House o f Repre s e n ta tiv e s on June 13, 1914 • The mine owner i s n e ith e r a brute nor a fo o l; he w i l l n ot knowingly su b je c t h is property to d e str u c tio n nor h is men to unnecessary danger* S e lf is h in t e r e s t alon e d ic t a t e s a con trary p o licy * Aside from t h i s , I may say th a t I am p erso n a lly acquainted w ith many o f th e op erators o f my S t a t e , and I know them to be honorable and humane men, who e n te r ta in a keen s o lic it u d e fo r the w elfa re o f t h e ir employes* They have done, and are d oin g, much lo o k in g to th e h e a lth and w e ll-b e in g o f t h e ir men and the s a f e t y o f t h e ir p r o p e r tie s . That the m iners knew and a p p recia ted t h is i s evidenced by th e te n a c ity w ith which more than 1 0 .000 continue to work in the fa ce o f in tim id a tio n , v io le n c e , and p erson al danger to th em selves and t h e ir fa m ilie s* I t was th e a g it a to r , not the m iner, who com plained and who has wrought a l l t h i s havoc. And fo r what?— sim ply and s o le ly to compel the op era to rs to recogn ize th e U nited Mine Workers o f A m erica.2 ' During th e 1913-14 la b o r d i f f i c u l t i e s , th e op erators 2^The S tru g g le In Colorado f o r I n d u s t r i a l Freedom (B u lle tin is s u e d p e r io d ic a ll y by c o a l o p e ra to rs in Colorado d u rin g th e 1914 la b o r d i f f i c u l t i e s ) , B u lle tin No. 4 (J u ly 6 , 191 4 ), p . 2* 145 r e p lie d to union c r it ic is m w ith a co u n te r-a tta ck upon th e union it s e lf ® S ev era l companies independent o f Colorado Fuel and Iron w rote a l e t t e r to th e P resid en t d ep lo rin g the s t r ik e as w e ll as th e p erson al a tta c k s upon John D ® fio c k e fe lle r , J r ., and th e c r it ic is m o f C. F ® . & I® The op erators d ecla red th a t the s o le purpose o f the s t r ik e was to fo r c e r e c o g n itio n o f th e U nited Mine W orkers, which a c tu a lly had the membership o f o n ly about 10 per cen t o f th e men employed in th e area® Furthermore, management com plained, th e union had d ev ia ted from t h is o r ig in a l purpose in making other n e e d le ss demands, and the s t r ik e was now sim ply la w le ssn e ss and anarchy® Other pretended demands® . « were f u l l y guaranteed by our sta tu tes® The co a l m ining code o f Colorado i s th e most s t r i c t and com prehensive o f th a t o f any S ta t e , and was prepared and approved by a com m ittee, one o f whom was John Lawson, le a d e r o f th e p resen t s t r i k e , and another o f whom was James D alyrim ple, S ta te c o a l mine in sp e c to r and a member o f organized labor® Our s t a tu t e s are en fo rcea b le and have been and are b ein g e n f o r c e d a 2 2 In December, 1901, Colorado Fuel and Iron began p u b lic a tio n o f Camp and P la n t, a company organ d esign ed fo r employee consumption® The p e r io d ic a l la s t e d only a few y e a r s, but a glan ce through i t s pages r e v e a ls q u ite a d iff e r e n t p ic tu r e o f company a ttitu d e toward i t s towns than th a t p resen ted by th e union and oth er c r itic s ® The ^ I b i d . . B u lle tin Wo. 1 (June 2 2 , 1914)» p® 3® 146 opening is s u e ca rried th e fo llo w in g announcement about the o b je c tiv e s o f th e p u b lic a tio n : Promotion o f th e work o f th e S o c io lo g ic a l Depart ment i s another o b je c t o f w Camp and P la n t This departm ent has helped to e s ta b lis h n ig h t s c h o o ls , k in d er g a rten s, c ir c u la tin g and permanent lib r a r ie s , cooking s c h o o ls , clu b s and m u sical o rg a n iz a tio n s a t many o f th e camps and a t the Minnequa p la n t. Apart from the g en er a l news o f each o f the camps and o f clu b s and s c h o o ls , a c e r ta in p art o f every is s u e w i l l be devoted to sh ort a r t ic l e s or s t o r ie s in German, Spanish and I t a l i a n .23 Succeeding is s u e s o f Camp and P lan t d escrib e in g re a t d e t a il th e variou s p r o je c ts conducted by th e company fo r th e s o c ia l betterm ent o f i t s em ployees. The S o c io lo g ic a l Department had g en era l charge o f a l l m atters p er ta in in g to ed u cation and sa n ita r y c o n d itio n s, and i t was rep orted th a t ten s o f thousands o f d o lla r s were being sp en t on making company camps more p lea sa n t p la ces in which to l i v e .2 4 Night sc h o o ls were conducted in many camps, in a d d itio n to th e reg u la r p u b lic sc h o o l being supported by th e company* Reading rooms and lib r a r ie s were provided and c ir c u la tin g a rt c o lle c t io n s were fu rn ish ed fo r sc h o o l rooms in company camps. K indergartens were conducted by the company and en rollm en t was rep orted as high© A cooking tea ch er tr a v e le d from camp to camp 23Camp and P la n t. V o l. I , No. T (December 1.4, 1901), p. 1» ^ I b i d . . V o l. I , No. 6 (January 18, 190 2 ), p . 73. 147 g iv in g in s tr u c tio n not on ly to women but a ls o to in t e r este d men, and company surgeons c ir c u la te d among the camps g iv in g le c tu r e s on p h y sio lo g y and hygiene® L ectures on tr a v e l and a r t were a ls o sp onsored e The S o c io lo g ic a l Department fu r th e r promoted s o c ia l g a th erin g s and clu b s o f a l l s o r t s , th e l a t t e r in clu d in g sewing c lu b s , boys' c lu b s, c h ild stu d y c lu b s , g i r l s ’ and m oth ers’ c lu b s, and an I t a lia n Clubs The department d eclared th a t i t was w illin g to encourage and promote such a c t i v i t i e s wherever and whenever th e people o f th e camps were w illin g to co o p era tee The charge th a t th e company promoted h atred among the v a rio u s n a t io n a lit ie s i s seen in a d iff e r e n t l i g h t in the pages o f Camp and P la n t« One o f th e b a sic reasons fo r e s ta b lis h in g k ind ergarten s was to attem pt to overcome n a tio n a l d iffe r e n c e s « I t was hard to change th e ways o f a d u lts , i t was rep o rted , but not so w ith th e young« The k ind ergarten had fa r more su c c e ss than any o th er in s t i~ tu tio n in d ea lin g w ith fo r e ig n elem en ts, fo r th e kinder*" g a rten er had no su sp icion s® He was p atron ized by a l l n a t io n a lit ie s , and the exchange o f languages helped him become com p a tib le8 The problem vjas in tr y in g to make th e parents understand®25 2gI b id ». Volo I I , M o ® 6 (August 23, 190 2 ), p„ 176, and Noo 9 (August 30, 190 2 ), p ® 2020 14# Camp and P la n t a ls o r e v e a ls e f f o r t s o f the company c o n sta n tly to improve h ousing and sa n ita r y co n d itio n s in th e v a rio u s camps0 Improvement o f o ld homes, cle a n in g w e lls and c i s t e r n s , and o th er community improvement p r o je c ts are fr e q u e n tly d escrib ed in an obvious e f f o r t to combat th e barrage o f c r it ic is m which c o a l camps had begun to r e c e iv eo Company r e la tio n s h ip s to th e p u b lic sc h o o ls are a ls o d is c u s s e d « , Company p o lic y , readers were t o ld , was not to in te r f e r e w ith th e normal op era tio n o f p u b lic s c h o o ls , b u t, r a th e r , to a id theme. ”W e tak e th e lib e r ty ,® sa id th e company, r a o f su g g estin g th a t good sch o o l b u ild in g s be e r e c te d , b e st tea ch ers chosen, and fr e e te x t books g iv en p u p ils« w 26 Because many fa m ilie s were bein g moved from one camp to a n o th er, the company had su c c e s s f u l l y urged th e s t a t e su p erin ten d en t o f p u b lic in s tr u c tio n to adopt a uniform course o f study fo r a l l th e camps so th a t ch ild re n would n ot be em barrassed in e n te r in g new sch o o lso The company continued to emphasize i t s in t e r e s t in good e d u ca tio n , and even provided n ig h t sc h o o ls fo r young men who worked in th e m ines during th e day® The p ic tu r e p resen ted in company p u b lic a tio n s was a fa r cry from th a t g iv en by c r i t i c s , but th ere was s t i l l 2l i b i d o . V o l. I I , No* 8 (August 23, 1902), p* 1780 149 undoubtedly much company d ic ta tio n in th e s e le c t io n o f tea ch erso The Reverend Eugene S» G addis, who was super in ten d en t o f th e S o c io lo g ic a l Department u n t il February, 1915, la t e r t e s t i f i e d b efore th e U nited S ta te s I n d u s tr ia l Commission th a t company o f f i c i a l s d ic ta te d th e s e le c t io n o f tea ch ers and ob tain ed th e d is m is s a l o f th o se to whom th ey o b je c te d , even i f i t meant ap p oin tin g incom petent t e a c h e r s * 2 ? The e x te n t o f such a rb itra r y a c tio n , however, and th e s p e c if ic cause o f such d is m is s a ls i s n ot c le a r 0 In r e p ly to th e a lle g a tio n th a t the company used camp m arshals to brow -beat r e s id e n ts in to subm ission to a r b itr a r y p o l i c i e s , Colorado F uel and Iron, again p resen ted a com p letely co n tr a stin g story® Camp m arsh als, sa id th e company, were o fte n r e g u la r ly e le c te d c o n sta b le s and were employed o n ly in th e la r g e r camps* P rio r to th e 1913 s t r ik e , 5,000 to 6 ,0 0 0 men were employed in tw enty-tw o camps, re p r ese n tin g a p op u lation o f about 15,000* Never t h e le s s on ly seven m arshals were employed, or one fo r every th r ee camps. T heir g en era l d u tie s are very much th e same as th o se o f th e peace o f f ic e r in v ill a g e s and sm all towns throughout th e U nited S t a t e s 0 In a d d itio n , th ey have charge o f th e s a n ita r y c o n d itio n s o f the camps and th e g en era l r e p a ir and care o f ten a n t houses* The camp m arshals are n e ith e r ”gunmen“ nor th u g s, and are chosen fo r th e d u tie s a ssig n ed to them w ith 27w©st, Report on th e Colorado S tr ik e , p* 56 150 th e same view to t h e ir f it n e s s fo r th a t work th a t i s e x e r c ise d in th e s e le c t io n o f oth er em ployes fo r p a r tic u la r work* The m arshal i s o fte n th e one man in th e camp to whom th e employes t e l l t h e ir tr o u b le s , both r e a l and imaginary* He does n o t, as i s charged, a s s a u lt th e m iners, and th ey are fr e e to com plain o f him or anyone e ls e w ith ou t danger o f b ein g discharged*^® D efending the s c r ip system , which was sa id to keep r e a l money away from em ployees and to p r o h ib it them from purchasing goods anywhere but a t the company s t o r e , J* F* Welborn s ta te d th a t during th e f i s c a l year preceding th e s t r ik e em ployees a t th e c o a l m ines r e c e iv ed 60*9 per cen t o f t h e ir earn in gs in cash* During the same year m iners worked an average o f days a t $4*02 per day and re c e iv e d an average o f over $800 in ca sh *29 I t seems apparent th a t th e tr u th about company towns in southern Colorado l i e s somewhere between th e two o p p o site view s ju s t describ ed * I t i s undoubtedly tru e th a t liv in g co n d itio n s l e f t much to be d' s ir e d , and th a t many em ployees f e l t oppressed by co n d itio n s which could have been improved* The company, on the oth er hand, o b v io u sly took some in t e r e s t in community betterm ent and i t may w e ll be th a t economic and s o c ia l problems helped p revent more rapid progress* In th e m atter o f p o l i t i c a l p ft lC O The S tru g g le in Colorado fo r In d u s tr ia l Freedom, B u lle tin No* 15 (September 4 S 1 9 1 4 ), pp* 1 -2 • 29Ibid* j p® 2* 151 c o n tr o l o f v o tin g , s c h o o ls , and p u b lic in fo rm a tio n , abuses may w e ll have e x is t e d , but in t h is age o f f ie r c e in d u s tr ia l com p etition one m ight alm ost ex p ect such a company to do ev ery th in g w ith in i t s power to sq uelch c r it ic is m o f th e economic p o lic ie s which seemed to m aintain th e company0 In s p it e o f th e con troversy on th e fo reg o in g problem s, i t was on ly n a tu ra l th a t th e company would r e s is t a l l e f f o r t s a t union o rg a n iz a tio n , and i t i s apparent th a t th e company town was a u s e fu l t o o l in t h is b a t t l e 0 In r e p ly to a query about th e d i f f i c u l t i e s in v o lv ed in o rg a n izin g m iners in company-owned tow ns, as opposed to th ose liv i n g elsew h ere, one union o f f i c i a l made t h is statem en t: These company-owned towns were b a rrica d ed , e ith e r by wood or w ire w ith a guard a t every entrance and eg r e ss and u n le ss th e miner and h is fa m ily were id e n t if ie d th ey had no entrance nor e g r e ss to th e op eration * Persons not connected w ith th e company. . 0 were n ot p erm itted in th e se company towns w ith ou t p erm ission o f the su p erin ten d en t o f the camp* T h is, o f co u rse, made i t e s p e c ia lly d i f f i c u l t in tr y in g to organ ize m iners who liv e d in company-owned tow ns, sin c e union o rg a n iz ers were p ro h ib ited from en te rin g any company camp and th e on ly co n ta cts w ith th e miners would be when th e m iners were perm itted o f f the p ro p erty , u s u a lly on a Sunday when they went to th e towns n ea re st th e c o a l camps and t h is was n o t very o fte n .3 0 In Septem ber, 1913> the sm oldering d isc o n te n t f i n a l l y b u rst in to a g en era l s tr ik e in southern Colorado* 30jjSt t e r from Fred K » H e ffe r ly , S ecreta ry -T rea su rer, United Mine Workers o f America, Denver, C olorado, A p ril 1S, 1962* Miners on s t r ik e were now req u ired to le a v e t h e ir homes in company-owned tow ns, and thousands packed up a few. b elon gin gs and f i l e d in to te n t c o lo n ie s e s ta b lis h e d by th e union* The s t a te m i l i t i a was soon c a lle d in to keep ord er, but v io le n c e occurred on both sid e s* The union charged Colorado Fuel and Iron w ith h ir in g s t r ik e breakers and in c it in g v io le n c e , w h ile the company made s im ila r charges a g a in st th e union* Numerous armed sk irm ish es took p lace but th e high p o in t in the s tr u g g le was in A p r il, 1914, a t th e union*s te n t colony o f Ludlow* Here an armed c la sh occurred between the m i l i t i a and th e m iners which r e s u lte d in a te n t ca tch in g f i r e and burning to death two women and e le v e n ch ild re n who had taken refuge in a p it under th e ten to At l e a s t tw enty-one people were k ille d th a t day® Enraged s t r ik e r s now took c o n tr o l o f alm ost th e e n tir e southern co a l f i e l d , and f ig h t in g did not cea se u n t il June, when fe d e r a l troop s a rriv ed on th e scene® The nLudlow m a ssa cre,” as i t was c a lle d , was w id ely p u b lic ise d throughout th e n a tio n , w ith union and management again making charges and co u n ter-ch a rg es© 31 The outcome, 31 For th e union s id e o f th e argument, se e United Mine Workers J o u rn a l, V o l. LX, No* 7 (A p ril 1 , 194 9 ), in which i t i s c la im e d th a t th e a tta c k on Ludlow was an “un provoked a ssa u lt" o f s t r ik e breakers and company thugs® For management*s s id e , s e e The S tru g g le in Colorado fo r I n d u s tr ia l Freedom. B u lle tin N o® 8 (J u ly 25, 1914) in which i t i s d ecla red th a t s t r ik e r s p r e c ip ita te d the b attle® 153 as f a r as i t a p p lied to company tow ns, was th e coming o f John D „ R o c k e fe lle r , J r . , to Colorado to i n s t i t u t e an employee r e p r e se n ta tio n plan in the company which was d esign ed to g iv e the worker more easy a cc ess to management. This plan was w id ely h a ile d and cop ied by o th er companies in th e n a tio n , u n t il i t was outlawed in 1933 as a "company u nion ."32 The " In d u s tr ia l R ep resen tation Plan and A greem ent,” as i t was named by th e company, did not com p letely soothe th e tro u b led w a ters, and th e union continued s t e a d ily in i t s attem pt to o rg a n iz e. S ta te o f f i c i a l s g ra d u a lly began opening up company towns to perm it entrance and e g r e ss o f non-company p erso n n el. By 1933 p r a c t ic a lly a l l the m iners o f th e U nited S ta t e s , in c lu d in g th ose in C olorado, had jo in ed John L. Lewis* United Mine Workers o f America. The union ta k es c r e d it fo r thus e lim in a tin g th e s c r ip system and i t s a lle g e d a b u ses, and fo r n e g o tia tin g on o th e r ite m s, such as house r e n t, p e rta in in g to company camps. 33 Under i t s new r e p r e se n ta tio n p la n , m eanwhile, i t appears th a t the company was making s ig n if ic a n t s t r id e s in i t s improvement o f company tow n s. I t should not be assumed 32yjorks P rogress A d m in istra tio n , W riter’s Program, C olorado. A Guide to th e H ighest S ta te (New Tork: H astin gs House, 19M ) s p® 59 o 3 3 L etter from Fred K. H e f fe rly , A p ril 13, 1962. 154 th a t th e v a rio u s com m ittees were concerned p rim a rily w ith th e towns a s su ch , fo r th e towns were o n ly a sm a ll p a rt o f th e company1s t o t a l o p e r a tio n , but i t i s o n ly th e community a sp e c ts o f th e com m ittee work th a t in t e r e s t s us h e r e 0 In 1917 th e company rep o rted on the f i r s t two y ea rs o f p ro g ress under th e new. system ,, Concerning th e im prove ment o f homes, i t was rep o rted th a t 164 new houses had been b u ilt fo r m iners and th a t 250 were in course o f co n stru c tio n * Each house l o t had been fen ced by th e company and every house was to be screen ed b efore th e end o f th e summer* Improvement o f w ater su pp ly and drainage system s a t s e v e r a l camps was r e p o r te d , and a ‘ ‘‘s a n ita r y t o i l e t ” had been adopted fo r u se in a l l camps® New d is p e n s a r ie s had been e r e c te d a t Priraero, C olorado, and S u n r ise , YJyoming, as g i f t s from R o c k e fe lle r , and a d d itio n a l d is p e n s a r ie s were planned a t s e v e r a l o th e r camps* With r e fe r e n c e to s c h o o ls , f iv e new b u ild in g s or a d d itio n s had been e r e c te d , and company sponsored tr a in in g in th e manual a r t s , dom estic s c ie n c e , and f i r s t a id had been extended® The company was a ls o c o o p e ra tin g w ith th e Y®M„C*A» i n p ro v id in g E n g lish c l a s s e s f o r fo re ig n e rs * C om pany-built clu b houses had been tu rn e d o ver t o th e I 0M«C.A®., which now o p e ra te d s ix te e n branch a s s o c ia tio n s * R e lig io u s a c t i v i t y was being encouraged and th e company a ls o 155 co n trib u ted f in a n c ia lly to th e Boy S cou ts and Camp F ire G irl3 a t company camps* Company-sponsored sp o rts and s o c ia l a f f a ir s had in c r e a se d , and b a se b a ll lea g u es and community bands were a c t iv e ly 3ponsored034 From la t e r is s u e s o f company p e r io d ic a ls , i t seems apparent th a t Colorado F uel and Iron continued to make s ig n if ic a n t and commendable s t r id e s in im proving a l l a sp e c ts o f community l i f e * In 191# i t was rep orted th a t 2 ,0 0 0 shade tr e e s had been p lan ted th a t sp rin g in company m ining camps. In 1923 th e company began to encourage and sponsor reg u la r community m eetin g s, and fo u r y ea rs la t e r i t was reported th a t th e se xvere a popular s u c c e s s . S p e c ia l sp eak ers and d is c u s s io n s o f community problems were in clu d ed on m eeting agendas. The company a ls o made e f f o r t s to "Americanize" i t s fo r e ig n workers through c la s s e s in E n g lish , c la s s e s in American id e a ls and governm ent, and o rg a n iza tio n o f "America F ir s t S o c ie t ie s ," I t was reported in 1919 th a t th e company was making s u b s ta n tia l p rogress in i t s e f f o r t to e lim in a te u n s ig h tly , p r im itiv e d w e llin g s and re p la ce them w ith more com fortab le, modern f a c i l i t i e s . I llu s t r a t in g th e improvement o f camp c o n d itio n s , as w e ll as the new p o lic y o f b argain in g w ith 3^Colorado F uel and Iron I n d u s tr ia l B u lle t in « V ol, I I , No, 5 (J u ly 3 1 , 1 9 1 7 ), pp* 3 -6 . 1 56 em ployees on such th in g s a s h ousing r a t e s , i s th e fo llo w in g n o tic e put out by th e company in May, 1927* N o tice to a l l em ployees o f f u e l m in es, ir o n mines and q u a r ries : The memorandum o f agreem ent between t h i s company and th e em ployees o f th e f u e l m in es, ir o n m ines and q u a r rie s n e g o tia te d in O ctober, 191 5» c o n ta in s the fo llo w in g p r o v is io n s : "The fo llo w in g s t ip u la t io n s r e sp e c tin g employment, l i v i n g and working c o n d itio n s s h a ll govern th e p a r t ie s h ereto from th e d a te o f t h e i r s ig n a tu r e , d ated hereon Jan . 1 , 1913, and s h a ll co n tin u e t h e r e a fte r su b je c t to r e v is io n upon 90 days n o tic e by e it h e r o f th e p a r t ie s ." In conformance w ith t h is agreem ent th e company now fo rm a lly g iv e s n o tic e o f i t s d e s ir e to n e g o tia te w ith i t s em ployees a t th e d i s t r i c t co n feren ces sch ed u led f o r May, 1927* in T rin id a d , W alsenburg, Canon, W estern, S u n r is e , O r ien t, C a lc ite and Lime d i s t r i c t s an adjustm ent o f such o f th e term s o f th e agreem ent on ly as r e fe r r e d to r e n t o f d w e llin g s . S in ce th e sig n in g o f th e o r ig in a l agreem ent in 1915 th e company has fa ced a c o n tin u a l lo s s in ca rry in g out th e agreem ent. In order t h a t f u l l and f a i r c o n sid e r a tio n o f th e m atter may be had th e company o f f e r s th e fo llo w in g f a c t s : 1 . At tim e o f sig n in g o f th e agreem ent in 1915* few o f th e houses were fe n c e d , w a ter was d is tr ib u te d to about every th ir d h o u se, and th e r e was no sy ste m a tic c le a n in g o f camps and no garbage and ash cans fu rn ish ed and em p tied . Walks were not as w e ll taken care o f , c o a l and ch ick en houses as a r u le were n o t p ro v id ed . S in ce sig n in g th e agreem ent a l l o f th e se f a c i l i t i e s have been provided and in a d d itio n p r ic e s o f b u ild in g m a te r ia l and la b o r have p r a c t ic a lly d oub led . 2 . R equests f o r a d d itio n a l new houses have f a i le d to r e c e iv e th e approval o f th e o p era tin g o f f ic e r s f o r th e reason th a t th ey d id n ot w ish to recommend t h is in vestm en t on account o f th e l o s s s u s ta in e d . The company does not b e lie v e th a t th e employee should bear th e w hole c o s t o f th e housing program, but i t does f e e l because o f th e many in c r e a s e s in expense th ere should be an adjustm ent o f th e r e n ts to m eet th e p resen t s it u a t io n . The lo s s to th e company on i t s h ouses during th e l a s t te n y ea rs amounted to s e v e r a l hundred thousand d o lla r s , in a d d itio n to lo s s e s o f 157 o v e r a hundred thousand d o lla r s on u n d e p re c ia te d v a lu e of te n a n t houses s it u a te d in abandoned m ines, 3 . The company f e e l s th a t i t i s e n t i t l e d to a r e t u r n on th e investm ent in houses occupied o f 5$ p e r annum and should be enabled to charge o f f 3% per annum fo r d e p r e c ia tio n on th e c o s t o f h o u se s. The investm ent i n houses occupied in 1926 was $ 1 ,7 62,353,64 and the c o s t of r e p a i r s was as fo llo w s: r e p a ir s to houses $49,292.61 c le a n in g camp 13,403.46 p a in tin g and c a lc im in in g 23,313.34 ro a d s, walks and fen ce s 4 ,3 9 4 .9 5 drain ag e and sewage 1*992.34 c o a l, chicken houses and t o i l e t s 992.03 f i r e p ro te c tio n 1,039.10 plumbing 2,361.3# law ns, gardens and c e l l a r s _ _ Below i s given th e c a lc u la tio n which would in d ic a te th e re n t n e c e ss a ry to provide f o r the item s enum erated a b o v e . This amount d i s t r i b u t e d o ver 7,626 rooms, th e averag e o f rooms occupied in 1926, shows th a t r e n t a l sh o u ld be $36.00 per room per y e a r, or $3.00 p e r room per m onth. This in d ic a te s c l e a r ly th a t r e n t a l s o f $3.00 p e r room p e r d w ellin g should be f ix e d , w ith such v a r ia tio n s as ch arg es fo r s in k s , b a th s , t o i l e t s , e t c . as now e x is t a t th e d i f f e r e n t p r o p e r tie s due to lo c a l c o n d itio n s . I t is proposed to make th e new r e n t s e f f e c t iv e September 1, 1927. The company asks a f a i r and c a r e f u l c o n s id e ra tio n o f the employees to th e fo re g o in g f a c t s and recom m en d atio n s, and ex p ects to conclude th e m a tte r of changing th e agreement in the co n feren ces h eld in th e d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i c t s in August o r Septem ber, 1927. T o ta l 3% d e p re c ia tio n on 1 ,762,353.64 Expense account tax 3% d e p re c ia tio n on 1,762, 5% i n t e r e s t on in v estm en t T o ta l Colorado Fuel and Iro n Co» J . F. W elborn, P r e s i d e n t 3 5 A s e r ie s o f j o i n t co n feren ces were h eld in th e 35i b i d . . V ol. XI, No. 5 (June, 1927), pp. 13-14. 153 v a rio u s mine d i s t r i c t s and a compromise agreem ent was reached to in c r e a se th e r e n t to $ 2 .5 0 per room in ste a d o f th e $ 3 .0 0 o r ig in a lly s o u g h t .^ In s p it e o f th e se im provem ents, i t seems e v id e n t th a t l i f e in many c o a l towns s t i l l l e f t much to be d esired * In 1923 a fe d e r a l com m ission was ap p oin ted to in v e s t ig a t e th e e n tir e c o a l in d u str y . The volum inous re p o r t which fo llo w ed ^ ? r e v e a le d th a t shabby h o u sin g , u n sa n ita ry community f a c i l i t i e s , and o th e r abuses s t i l l e x is te d throughout th e n a tio n , and Colorado seemed to be no e x c e p tio n . In 1947 a m ed ical su rvey was made o f th e bitum inous co a l in d u stry by th e Coal Mines A d m in istra tio n . A v a r ie ty o f co n d itio n s was re p o r te d , but i t was apparent th a t poor c o n d itio n s s t i l l e x is te d in many camps, in c lu d in g th o se o f th e W est, alth ou gh no s p e c i f i c company or town was m en tion ed .3^ I t must be o b serv ed , how ever, th a t by t h is tim e th e company-owned towns in th e West were on t h e ir way o u t, and in not too many y ea rs th ey had p r a c t ic a lly d isa p p ea red . 36i b id .« V o l. XI, No. 3 (O ctober, 1 9 2 7 ), p . 14. 37unit e d S ta te s Coal Commission (John Hays Hammond, Chairman), Report o f th e U nited S ta te s Coal Commission, D ec. 10. 19^3 (W ashington: Government P r in tin g O ffic e , 1925). ^ U n ite d S ta te s Coal Mines A d m in istra tio n , A M edical Survey o f th e Bitum inous Coal In d u stry . Report o f th e Coal M ines A d m in istration (W ashington: Government P r in tin g O f f ic e , 1 9 4 7 ). PLATE X DAW SON, N EW MEXICO. This company town, now e x t i n c t , was once th e f lo u r is h in g c e n te r of Phelps Dodge C o rp o ra tio n 's c o a l m ining o p e r a tio n s . In the f o r e ground can be seen th e coke ovens. The la rg e b u ild in g l e f t o f c e n te r i s the Phelps Dodge company s t o r e . A church may be seen a t th e f o o t of th e h i l l , and on to p o f the h i l l i s the h ig h s c h o o l. In th e h i l l s beyond th e sch o o l can be seen o th e r r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s , o r camps, which were a l l p a r t o f Dawson. Nothing rem ains today o f t h i s once a c tiv e company-owned coimiunity. (Photograph c o u rte sy M rs. Mary S can lo n .) 09 1* 161 O th er Towns T here i s no need h e re to c i t e a l l th e c o a l company tow ns d is c o v e re d in t h i s re s e a rc h * I t i s a p p a re n t, fu rth e rm o re , t h a t su ch an a tte m p t would n o t in c lu d e a l l such tow ns w hich have e x i s t e d , f o r many have come and gone o f w hich v i r t u a l l y no a v a ila b le re c o rd s seem to rem ain* I t w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t to m en tio n h e re o n ly a few exam ples o f s p e c i a l s ig n if ic a n c e o r i n t e r e s t * As su g g e ste d e a r l i e r , many o f th e W est1s c o a l company tow ns w ere owned by com panies whose p rim ary i n t e r e s t i n c o a l was f o r m ain ten an ce o f t h e i r own m ajo r o p e ra tio n s * Such a community was Dawson, New M exico, w hich s u p p lie d f u e l f o r th e co p p er m ines and s m e lte rs o f th e P h elp s Dodge C o rp o ra tio n * Dawson was u n u su a l in i t s f in e community s p i r i t 0 W orkers seemed t o a p p r e c ia te th e company, and P h elp s Dodge a p p a re n tly d is p la y e d a b e n e v o le n t p a te rn a lis m t h a t was n e i t h e r o p p re s s iv e n o r o v e r- s o l i c i t o u s * Form er r e s i d e n t s o f Dawson s t i l l h o ld a n n u a l s o c i a l s i n v a rio u s p a r ts o f th e c o u n try t o w hich th e y have s c a tte r e d * S e v e ra l consum er-ow ned m ines have e x i s te d in U tah, and have been th e s i t e o f company-owned tow ns i n t h i s s ta te * Colum bia was owned, u n t i l 1946, by Colum bia S te e l C o rp o ra tio n * S unnyside was o r i g i n a l l y owned by th e Utah F u e l Company, b u t in 1951 was p u rch ased by K a is e r S te e l 162 C o rp o ra tio n and i s s t i l l a company town* D ra g e rto n had a r a t h e r u n iq u e h i s t o r y . I t was b u i l t d u rin g W orld War I I u n d er c o n tr a c t from th e D efense P la n t C o rp o ra tio n to p ro v id e h o u sin g f o r th e in c re a s e d number o f c o a l m iners in th e a r e a . In 1947 i t was p u rch a se d by Geneva S te e l Company and was th e n tu rn e d o v e r to th e John W, G a lb re a th company f o r th e purpose o f s e l l i n g homes to company em ployeeso In th e e a r ly p a r t o f t h i s c e n tu ry a num ber o f m odel c o a l m ining com m unities w ere b u i l t , w hich a p p a re n tly im proved g r e a t l y upon c o n d itio n s th o u g h t t y p i c a l o f company to w n s. Such a community was Gamerco, New M ex ico ,39 The G allu p Am erican Coal Company, w hich owned th e tow n, was owned by th r e e la rg e copper com panies and s u p p lie d c o a l f o r t h e i r p la n ts and sm elters® The town was founded in 1921, a lth o u g h company o p e ra tio n s had been g o in g on f o r y e a r s . I t was p lan n ed now to d ev elo p a community which w ould e v e n tu a lly c o n s o lid a te th e th r e e o ld , t y p i c a l c o a l camps th e n e x i s tin g in company f i e l d s . An e n g in e e rin g firm was h ir e d to do th e d ev elo p in g and Gamerco became a w e ll p la n n e d , model com m unity. Modern sch o o l f a c i l i t i e s , deep w e lls f o r w a te r, s a n ita r y sewage d is p o s a l, m ovies, ^^M ost o f th e fo llo w in g in fo rm a tio n i s ta k e n from H, B, C ooley, S to ry o f a Com plete Modern Coal M ine, r e p r i n t in b o o k le t form o f a s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s in C oal Age, A u g u st-S ep tem b er, 1923, 163 a b a l l p a rk , and a clu b house were a l l p ro v id ed by th e company* Gamerco co n tin u e d to e x i s t as a company town u n t i l 1945o D isap p earan ce o f th e C oal Town As w ith o th e r k in d s o f company to w n s, v a s t econom ic changes i n Am erica have la r g e ly acco u n ted f o r th e d is a p p e a ra n c e o f company-owned c o a l towns*, I t i s i n t e r e s tin g to n o te th e d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s w hich have been p la c e d on t h i s g ra d u a l e lim in a tio n * The p r e s id e n t o f th e Union P a c if ic Coal Company, w ith th e obvious f e e l in g t h a t th e company was r e a l l y doing th e em ployee a fa v o r in th e o p e ra tio n o f company to ira s , d e c la re d t h a t th e u n io n cau sed company towns to come to an end* H aggling o v e r r a t e s , p r ic e s , h o u sin g r e n t a l s , e t c . , in th e 1930T s , he s a id , made th e company sim p ly d e c id e to g e t o u t o f th e town b u sin e ss* He em phasized, how ever, t h a t th e company d id n o t work a h a rd s h ip on i t s em ployees by s e l l i n g them th e hom es, f o r i t gave them v e ry good p r ic e s and c a r r ie d t h e i r n o te s f o r many y e a r s oA -0 A C olorado u n io n o f f i c i a l , on th e o th e r h an d , o b v io u sly f e l t t h a t company towns w ere d e tr im e n ta l to th e w e lfa re o f w o rk e rs, and to o k p rid e i n a t t r i b u t i n g th e e lim in a tio n o f th e s e towns p a r t l y to u n io n in flu e n c e * He 4-O lnterview w ith V0 0* M urray, J u ly 6 , 1961* 164 e x p la in e d t h a t a f t e r th e s c r ip system was d is c a rd e d so t h a t m in ers began r e c e iv in g r e a l money, and a f t e r a ” d e c e n t wage s c a le ” had been ad o p te d , m in e rs began to save some o f t h e i r money and g r a d u a lly moved o u t o f company tow ns in to homes o f t h e i r ow n< > As a r e s u l t , he s a i d , th e re was a ”g r e a t t e a r in g down o f o ld company to w n s, ”41 I t seems a p p a re n t, how ever, t h a t two b a s ic econom ic changes a c c o u n t c h ie f ly f o r th e d isa p p e a ra n c e o f c o a l company to w n s. F i r s t , th e c o a l b u sin e ss i t s e l f h as seen a d e c lin e i n r e c e n t y e a rs , due la r g e ly to changes in f u e l dem ands. O il and n a t u r a l gas a re used l a r g e ly f o r i n d u s t r i a l as w e ll a s home u s e , a lth o u g h s t e e l com panies s t i l l demand good coking c o a l. R a ilro a d s have sw itc h ed to d i e s e l f u e l , th u s e lim in a tin g t h e i r need f o r company- produced c o a l . The d e c lin e in demand f o r c o a l has n a t u r a ll y le d to a d e c lin e in th e number o f men em ployed and to th e c lo s in g o f many s m a ll, more i s o l a t e d m ining o p e r a tio n s . In C o lo rad o , f o r exam ple, th e number o f men em ployed in c o a l m ining d e c lin e d from a peak o f 13,117 i n 1923 to 3 ,2 3 ^ a decade l a t e r ,42 W ith th e c lo s in g o f c o a l 41 L e tt e r from F red K* H e f fe rly , A p ril 1.3, 1962, ^ H u b e r t E , R is s e r , The Economics o f th e C oal I n d u s tr y . (Law rence, K ansas: Bureau o f B u sin ess R esea rch , S ch o o l o f B u s in e ss , U n iv e rs ity o f K ansas, 195 # ), p« 106, 165 m in es, th e company tow ns n a t u r a ll y d is a p p e a re d < > A second econom ic change w hich h as h e lp e d e lim in a te th e c o a l company town i s , o f c o u rs e , th e im provem ent in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s w hich h as a ls o a f f e c t e d th e tow ns o f o th e r in d u s trie s ® The c u r r e n t p u b l ic i t y d i r e c t o r f o r C olorado F u el and I ro n C o rp o ra tio n in d ic a te d h is b e l i e f t h a t t h i s i s th e m ost o v e r - r id in g re a s o n why company tow ns have alm o st d i s a p p e a r e d * ^ A few company-owned tow ns s t i l l rem ained in th e c o a l f i e l d s i n 1962® In M ontana, C o ls tr ip , o r i g i n a l l y e s ta b lis h e d in 1923 by th e N o rth ern P a c if ic R ailw ay, was p u rch ased in 1959 by th e M ontana Power Company, itfhich p la n s to use th e c o a l in m a n u fa ctu rin g pow er® ^ M adrid, New Mexico i s s t i l l company-owned, a lth o u g h o n ly a few m ain ten an ce p e rs o n n e l l i v e th e r e a t th e p r e s e n t time® The same th in g i s t r u e in S p rin g Canyon, U tah. S u n n y sid e, U tah, i s s t i l l p ro d u cin g c o a l and i s owned by K a is e r S te e l C orporation® W ith few e x c e p tio n s , how ever, th e company-owned c o a l town in th e West h as become a th in g o f th e past® ^ L e t t e r from A lg ird C ® P o c iu s, D ir e c to r o f P u b l ic i t y , The C olorado F u el and Iro n C o rp o ra tio n , P u eb lo , C o lo rad o , Septem ber 11, 1962® ^ • L e tt e r from O bert E ® Rye, C o l s tr ip , M ontana, A u g u st, 1962® CHAPTER VI C O M PA N Y TO W N S IN OTHER INDUSTRIES A lthough company towns i n th e West have been m ost s i g n i f i c a n t in th e p ro d u c tio n o f c o a l, co p p er, and lu m b er, o th e r b u s in e s s e s have a ls o c r e a te d a few such com m unitiesc W hile th e s e tow ns a re o f o n ly m inor s ig n if ic a n c e to th e in d u s t r i e s in v o lv e d , th e t o t a l number o f com m unities j u s t i f i e s b r i e f c o n s id e r a tio n o f t h e i r p la c e i n th e g e n e ra l s to r y o f company tow ns in th e West* T h e ir i s o l a t e d lo c a ti o n , t h e i r dependence upon a s in g le e n t e r p r i s e , and th e f a c t t h a t t h e i r e x is te n c e was u s u a lly e s s e n t i a l to company su c c e ss in t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e lo c a tio n s gave them much in common w ith o th e r company-owned v illa g e s * Gold A lthough th e g o ld ru sh produced no company tow ns, a t l e a s t two company-owned com m unities have been co n n ected w ith g o ld m ining in t h i s cen tu ry * In H905 th e tovm o f Hammonton, C a lif o r n ia , sp ran g up when Yuba C o n so lid a te d Gold F ie ld s began d re d g in g f o r g o ld in th e Yuba R iv er bottom s* The v ill a g e was named f o r W * P« Hammon, b u ild e r 166 167 o f th e f i r s t s u c c e s s f u l dredge and fo u n d e r o f th e town*"* The company owned e v e ry th in g in th e town and from th e b e g in n in g i t to o k c a re to d ev e lo p an a t t r a c t i v e community* The town was b u i l t on a fo rm e r ra n c h s i t e an d , a s f a r as p o s s i b l e , o r i g i n a l shade t r e e s w ere l e f t sta n d in g * Rows o f b la c k w a ln u t and palm t r e e s w ere p la n te d on e i t h e r s id e o f th e m ain th o r o u g h fa re . ^ A fo rm e r r e s i d e n t o f Hammonton, who h as a ls o liv e d in s e v e r a l o th e r company to w n s, d e c la re d i t to be one o f th e n i c e s t l i t t l e com m unities he had known*3 Today th e a r e a i s c o m p le te ly abandoned* S t i b n i t e , Id a h o , was th e s e ttle m e n t o f B ra d le y M ining Company*s Y ellow P in e Mine from 1932 to 1952* The m ine produced g o ld , s i l v e r , an tim o n y , and tu n g s te n * A fte r th e mine c lo s e d a l l f a c i l i t i e s , in c lu d in g h o u s in g , w ere s o ld f o r rem oval from th e p re m is e s *4- % o rk s P ro g re s s A d m in is tra tio n , W r it e r 's Program , C a l i f o r n i a , A G uide t o th e G olden S ta te (New Y ork: H a stin g s H ouse, 1*954), p® 468* 2DT Arcy W eath erb e, D redging f o r Gold in C a li f o r n i a (San F ra n c is c o : M ining and S c i e n t i f i c P r e s s , 1 9 0 7 ), p . 26* ^ In te rv ie w w ith Ra B* N ic h o ls , M anager, A re a ta & Mad R iv e r R a ilr o a d , B lue L ake, C a l i f o r n i a , A p ril 16, 1962* ^ L e tt e r from Jam es P* B ra d le y , P r e s id e n t, B rad ley M ining Company, San F ra n c is c o , C a l if o r n i a , J u ly 2 6 , 1962* 163 O il Company Towns The o i l f i e l d s o f Wyoming have been th e home o f two s i g n i f i c a n t company towns® M idwest was a la rg e s e ttle m e n t in th e S a lt Creek o i l re g io n , owned by M idwest R e fin in g Company# S e v e ra l a u x i lia r y camps were a l s o p a r t o f th e com pany's o p e ra tio n # At M idwest th e company n o t o n ly o p e ra te d o i l w e lls b u t a ls o ra n a huge re fin e ry # H ousing, h o s p i t a l s e r v ic e , and a l l o th e r community f a c i l i t i e s w ere p ro v id ed by th e r e f in in g company d u rin g th e f i r s t h a l f o f t h i s cen tu ry * These o p e ra tio n s have now l a r g e l y s h u t down# S i n c l a i r i s c u r r e n tly th e home o f th e l a r g e s t r e f i n e r y in th e s t a t e o f Wyoming* I t had i t s b eg in n in g in 1922 when th e P ro d u cers and R e fin e rs C o rp o ra tio n began c o n s tr u c tio n o f an e ig h te e n m illio n d o l l a r p la n t c lo s e to th e o i l f ie ld s * By 1924 th e r e f in e r y was ru n n in g a t f u l l c a p a c ity * The fo llo w in g y e a r th e town was com pleted and a th r e e day c e le b r a tio n was h e ld as th e p la n t and s e ttle m e n t were fo rm a lly d e d ic a te d * The town was i n i t i a l l y named Parco* In 1934 S i n c l a i r p u rch ased i t a t an a u c tio n , and in 1942 i t s name was o f f i c i a l l y changed# Homes in S i n c l a i r a i« c o m fo rta b le , n ic e ly s ty l e d , and w e ll m aintained® C o n tra ry to th e r u le in m ost company to w n s, a v a r i e t y o f a r c h i t e c t u r e and b u ild in g m a te r ia ls i s 1.69 evident® 5 The company a ls o p ro v id e s a t h e a t e r , r e c r e a tio n h a l l , l i b r a r y , g o l f c o u rs e , and s e v e r a l o th e r r e c r e a t io n a l f a c i l i t i e s ® The company-owned S i n c l a i r H o te l b o a s ts s i x t y - f i v e g u e s t room s, c o ffe e sh o p , b a llro o m , lo u n g e , b a rb e r sh o p , and drug s t o r e 0 A nother d i s t i n c t i v e f e a tu r e o f S i n c l a i r i s i t s form o f government® W hile m ost company tow ns a re ru n by th e m anagem ent, t h i s v i l l a g e i s governed by an e le c te d m ayor and a fo u r man town c o u n c il. Founded in 1950, New Cuyama, C a lif o r n i a , i s n o t a t r a d i t i o n a l company town b u t i s t y p i c a l , r a t h e r , o f th e modern tr e n d in community building® Here R ic h f ie ld O il C o rp o ra tio n b u i l t a model town o f 201 homes a t th e scen e o f one o f th e r i c h e s t o i l s t r i k e s in decades® The homes ifere s o ld a t c o s t to em ployees, and th e company e re c te d a shopping c e n te r , le a s in g i t to in d ep en d en t m erchants® A community h a l l , p la y g ro u n d , and la n d f o r two ch u rch es w ere p ro v id ed by th e company® New Cuyama r e p r e s e n ts th e m odem a tte m p t to av o id p a te rn a lis m b u t s t i l l m a in ta in a c tiv e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in c e r t a i n e s s e n t i a l community a ffa irs ® 50n t h i s w r i t e r ’s to u r s th ro u g h s e v e r a l company to w n s, i t was h is im p re ssio n t h a t th e homes in S i n c l a i r w ere p ro b a b ly th e m ost w e ll c o n s tru c te d and w e ll m a in ta in e d he had seen® S i n c l a i r lo o k ed l e s s l i k e a ^ t y p i c a l ” company town th a n m ost com m unities v isite d ® 170 Cement B ecause cem ent p la n ts a re i d e a l l y lo c a te d some d is ta n c e from p o p u la tio n c e n te r s , t h i s in d u s tr y h as g iv e n r i s e to a few company-owned towns® D avenport, C a lif o r n i a , and B o e ttc h e r, C o lo rad o , a re exam ples* The l a t t e r town was founded in 1926 by C h a rle s B o e ttc h e r, p r e s id e n t o f I d e a l Cement Company, w hich s t i l l owns th e s e ttle m e n t* D avenport was u n iq u e among company tow ns in t h a t th e company f o r w hich i t was b u i l t d id n o t own it® The S an ta Cruz P o rtla n d Cement Company b u i l t i t s p la n t on p ro p e rty le a s e d from th e C oast D a ir ie s and Land Company in 1905* I t was th e l a t t e r company w hich b u i l t th e tow n, re n te d h o u ses to em ployees o f th e cement company, and c o n tr o lle d a l l o th e r town s e rv ic e s * The h o t e l , w hich in c lu d e d a b a r and r e s t a u r a n t , was le a s e d to a p r iv a te operator® The d a ir y company b u i l t a company s t o r e , w hich se rv e d n o t o n ly r e s id e n ts o f D avenport b u t a ls o su rro u n d in g farm ers® These farm ers le a s e d la n d from th e company, and i t i s s a id t h a t th e y w ere com pelled to tr a d e a t th e company s to r e o r fa c e th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f lo s in g t h e i r Xeases®6 Even though D avenport was a cem ent w o rk e rT s tow n, th e cem ent company d id n o t co n cern i t s e l f w ith management o f th e community® I t had an agreem ent w ith th e d a iry ^ In te rv ie w w ith C h a rle s J® B e lla , May 4 , 1962® 171 company t h a t th e l a t t e r w ould p ro v id e enough h o u ses f o r p la n t em p lo y ees, b u t i t to o k no f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t in th e to w n s ite * The d a ir y company c o n tin u e d to o p e ra te th e town u n t i l 1921, when h o u se s w ere s o ld to re sid e n ts® An I ro n M ining Town E ag le M ountain, C a l i f o r n i a , i s a modern company town owned by K a is e r S te e l C orporation® Here i r o n o re i s m ined and sh ip p e d to th e company*s p la n t a t Fontana® E ag le M ountain i s lo c a te d on th e d e s e r t ab o u t s i x t y m ile s from e i t h e r o f th e c l o s e s t c e n te r s o f p o p u la tio n , In d io and B lytheo I t r e p r e s e n ts th e c o n tin u in g need f o r company- owned tow ns in a few i s o l a t e d , o n e - in d u s tr y a r e a s 0 When th e o re g iv e s o u t th e town i n e v i t a b l y w i l l be abandoned® C re a te d d u rin g W orld War I I , K a is e r S te e l C o rp o ra tio n began slo w ly to expand i t s o p e r a tio n s a f t e r h o s t i l i t i e s w ere ended* P a r t o f t h i s e x p a n sio n was th e p u rc h a se o f th e E ag le M ountain area* In 1947 th e f i r s t camp was e s t a b l i s h e d , w hich in c lu d e d s in g le men*s dorm i t o r i e s , a wash h o u se , and a m ess hall® The f i r s t o re was sh ip p e d to F o n tan a in O c to b e r, 194#, The community now c o n s is ts o f a p p ro x im a te ly th r e e h u n d red hom es, w ith a i r c o n d itio n in g , w hich r e n t f o r an a v e ra g e o f s i x t y d o l l a r s p e r month® N in e ty t r a i l e r sp a c e s a re a ls o a v a i l a b l e , w ith u t i l i t i e s and sewage f a c i l i t i e s provided® As i n th e c a se o f a l l m odern company to w n s, 172 b u s in e s s f a c i l i t i e s a re p r iv a te ly o p erated * For r e c r e a t i o n a l p u rp o ses th e company has p ro v id ed a swimming p o o l, illu m in a te d b a s e b a ll diam onds, and o u td o o r b a s k e tb a ll and te n n is c o u rts* Government o f th e town i s th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e m ine m anager, a lth o u g h a R iv e rs id e County d ep u ty s h e r i f f ta k e s c a re o f such p o lic in g as may be n e c e ssa ry * A verage employment a t th e mine i s a p p ro x im a te ly 48 5 , and t o t a l v i l l a g e p o p u la tio n i s ab o u t 1800* A s m a ll number o f em ployees commute from B ly th e and In d io The M anufacture o f E x p lo siv e s I t i s o n ly n a t u r a l t h a t com panies engaged in th e m an u factu re o f h ig h e x p lo s iv e s sh o u ld make some e f f o r t to keep t h e i r p la n ts away from p o p u la tio n c e n te rs * T his has le d to th e fo u n d in g o f a few company tow ns, th r e e o f w hich w i l l be m entioned here® L o u v ie rs , C o lo rad o , and Du P o n t, W ashington, w ere p a r t o f a c h a in o f company towns once owned by E ® I® du Pont de Nemours & Company® P la n t lo c a tio n in i s o l a t e d a r e a s was c o n s id e re d n e c e s s a ry b ecau se o f th e n a tu re o f th e com pany's b u s in e s s , and t h i s c re a te d th e need f o r company- b u i l t housing® As e x p la in e d by a c u r r e n t company o f f i c i a l : The company town was an econom ic n e c e s s ity d u rin g th e e a r ly p a r t o f th e 2 0 th C en tu ry when th e n a tu re o f ^ In fo rm a tio n b ased on l e t t e r from F red R e ic k e r, A d m in is tra tiv e A s s is ta n t, P u b lic R e la tio n s , K a ise r S te e l C o rp o ra tio n , F o n ta n a , C a lif o r n i a , A ugust 13, 1962® 173 an o p e r a tio n d i c t a t e d t h a t i t be i s o l a t e d from popu l a t e d a re a s o The em ployees w ere u n ab le t o t r a v e l f a r t h e r th a n a few m ile s from home to p la c e o f w ork, u n le s s s p e c ia l t r a i n s e rv ic e c o u ld be a rra n g e d and was j u s t i f i e d * E x p lo siv e p l a n t s r e q u ir e d i s o l a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e , a company v i l l a g e f o r a l l em ployees was an a b s o lu te n e c e s s ity * When Du Pont p l a n t s co u ld be lo c a te d n e a r u rb a n c e n te r s no company v i l l a g e was provided*® In a l l i t s company v i l l a g e s Du Pont alw ays in c lu d e d a c e n t r a l l y lo c a te d s c h o o l, s t o r e , p o s t o f f i c e , and c lu b house* I t i s r e p o r te d t h a t th e company gave ev ery c o n s id e r a tio n to em ployee n e e d s, and th a t m o rale in i t s com m unities was alw ays h ig h , even i n tim es o f econom ic re c e s s io n * The p la n t a t L o u v ie rs , C o lo ra d o , tw e n ty m ile s so u th o f D enver, was c o n s tr u c te d in 1906»07 and s t a r t e d o p e r a tio n i n 190#® The company town c o n s is te d o f a p p ro x im a te ly s i x t y homes and was b u i l t a t th e same tim e a s th e p la n t* Homes w ere s o ld to o c c u p a n ts in 1961* The community d id n o t in c o r p o r a te , b u t now governs i t s e l f as a community e n te rp ris e ® C o n s tru c tio n a t Du P o n t, W ash in g to n , a l s o began in 1906 and was com p leted i n 1909® The town i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g i n W estern h is t o r y f o r i t i s lo c a te d on th e s i t e o f o ld F o rt N is q u a lly , a H udsonfs Bay Company p o s t b u i l t i n %&33° D u rin g c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e Du Pont p la n t ^ L e tt e r from E ® E ® S te w a rt, S p e c ia l A s s is ta n t t o P ro d u c tio n M anager, E* I* du Pont de Nemours & Company, W ilm in g to n , D elaw are, June 6 , 1962* 174 th e f a c t o i d s house se rv e d a s a s o c i a l h a l l f o r th e tem p o rary c o n s tr u c tio n v i l l a g e a rra n g e d around th e s i t e . In 1934 t h i s house and a g ra n a ry b u ild in g w ere moved to P o in t D efian ce P ark in Tacoma where F o rt N is q u a lly has been c o m p le te ly r e s t o r e d . The town o f Du P ont c o n s is te d o f 107 h o u s e s . I t was b e a u t i f u l l y lo c a te d in a f o r e s t o f D ouglas f i r s n e a r a sm a ll l a k e . Homes were p la c e d on l o t s w hich av era g ed ab o u t 100 by 300 f e e t . D uring th e e a r l y 1950’s th e homes and p r o p e r ty w ere s o ld to o c c u p a n ts , and in 1951 th e town was in c o r p o r a te d . The home o f H e rc u le s Powder Company’s Utah p la n t i s B acchus, tw en ty m ile s so u th w e st o f S a l t Lake C i ty .9 T h is a t t r a c t i v e l i t t l e v i l l a g e o f f o r ty - o n e homes was b u i l t i n 1915 to s u p p o rt th e o p e r a tio n o f an e x p lo s iv e s p l a n t 0 I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t Bacchus was made p o s s ib le p a r t l y b ec a u se o f th e need f o r e x p lo s iv e s in v a rio u s co p p er m ines in U tah and N evada. In t h i s way company tow ns from d i f f e r e n t i n d u s t r i e s have had an i n d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p to each o t h e r . Bacchus was n e v e r in te n d e d to house a l l workmen a t th e p l a n t . I t w as, i n s t e a d , b u i l t f o r ^The fo llo w in g in fo rm a tio n sum m arized from The S a l t Lake T rib u n e . May 14, 1954; The D e s e re t News. December 12, I9 6 0 ; H e rc u le s Powder Company, Bacchus Works (p am p h le t, W ilm ington, D elaw are, n.d.). 175 s u p e rv is o ry p e rs o n n e l who m ust be c lo s e in case o f emergencyo The to w n s ite a t Bacchus was t r i a n g u l a r in sh a p e , w ith a clu b h o u se lo c a te d i n th e center® T h is c e n t r a l b u ild in g was m a in ta in e d by th e company and f u rn is h e d a l i b r a r y , dance f l o o r , s t o r e , b a rb e r sh o p , bow ling a l l e y , and th e a te r® A two-room sc h o o l was a ls o b u i l t w hich, a t i t s p eak , had an e n ro llm e n t o f f o r t y s tu d e n ts . In 1935 a g e n e ra l im provem ent program was c a r r ie d o u t. I t became a p p a re n t to th e company by 1940 t h a t town m ain ten an ce was to o ex p e n siv e and i n t h a t y e a r te n homes w ere s o ld and moved o u t o f th e v illa g e ® A nother tw e n ty -fo u r w.ere removed in 1954® Today Bacchus c o n s is ts o f a s in g le row o f h ouses f o r key p e rs o n n e l who m ust be on c a l l a t a l l times® The u ltra m o d e rn p la n t a t Bacchus n o t only p ro d u ces h ig h e x p lo s iv e s , b u t a ls o now c o n tr ib u te s s i g n i f i c a n t l y to th e Am erican m is s le complex® S in ce 195& i t h as been engaged in th e developm ent o f th e t h i r d - s t a g e s o li d p r o p e lla n t ro c k e t m otor f o r th e ICBM Minuteman® I f th e town o f Bacchus was im p o rta n t a t a l l to th e o r i g i n a l su c c e s s o f th e company, i t has b ee n , alo n g w ith th e l a r g e r Du Pont v i l l a g e s , o f some s ig n if ic a n c e in th e developm ent o f th e new m i l i t a r y - i n d u s t r i a l economy o f th e West® G oodyearT s A rizo n a C otton Towns Unique in i t s h i s t o r y i s L i t c h f i e l d P ark , A riz o n a, 176 b u i l t by th e S outhw est C o tto n Company, a s u b s id ia r y o f Goodyear T ire and Rubber C o m p a n y L o c a t e d o n ly e ig h te e n m ile s w est o f P h o en ix , t h i s p ic tu re s q u e company town was b u i l t in a day when ru g g ed , unpaved ro a d s made commuting h ig h ly im p ra c tic a lo L itc h f i e l d Park grew o u t o f th e n e c e s s i t i e s o f World War I 0 I t s p a r t i c u l a r s ig n if ic a n c e to A rizo n a l i e s in th e f a c t t h a t th e su c c e s s o f th e Goodyear ex p erim en t th e r e was l a r g e l y r e s p o n s ib le f o r making c o tto n p ro d u c tio n a m ajo r in d u s tr y in th e s t a t e . D uring th e f i r s t World War, home p ro d u c tio n o f lo n g - s ta p le c o tto n became im p o rta n t to th e U nited S t a t e s . The ru b b e r t i r e in d u s tr y , in p a r t i c u l a r , r e l i e d upon th e a d d itio n a l s tr e n g th and f l e x i b i l i t y o f th e e x tr a le n g th f ib e r s ., y e t in 1916 t h i s c o tto n co u ld be o b ta in e d only from E gypt o r from th e c o a s ta l a re a s o f G e o rg ia , F lo r id a , and th e C a ro lin a s . Goodyear had d eveloped a new cord t i r e , b u t th e su c c e s s o f th e t i r e and th e com pany's le a d e r s h ip in th e in d u s tr y depended upon an ample su p p ly o f th e s tr o n g e s t c o tto n p o s s ib le . I t was a p p a re n t t h a t E g y p tian c o tto n m ig h t become u n a v a ila b le a t any tim e , and th e c o s t 10Most o f th e in fo rm a tio n on L it c h f i e l d Park i s sum m arized from two s o u rc e s : Hugh A lle n , The House o f Good y e a r . A S to ry o f Rubber and o f Modern B u sin ess ( C le v e la n d : The Cord ay & G ross Company, 1943)'; Susan M 0 S m ith, " L itc h f i e ld P ark and V ic in ity ” (u n p u b lish e d M a s te r's t h e s i s , D epartm ent o f H is to r y , U n iv e rs ity o f A rizo n a, 1943)* 177 o f American c o tto n was b eg in n in g to so ar* Government ex p erim en t s t a t i o n s had a lre a d y e s ta b lis h e d th e f a c t t h a t c o tto n com parable t o t h a t grown alo n g th e Wile co u ld be produced in Arizona® Goodyear soon a c q u ire d 2 6 ,0 0 0 a c re s o f land® One t r a c t was named L itc h f i e ld Ranch, a f t e r P au l W ® L i t c h f i e l d , chairm an o f th e board o f d i r e c t o r s and l a t e r p r e s id e n t o f th e company® The to v m s ite , L it c h f i e l d P a rk , became th e c e n te r o f a c t i v i t i e s and housed th e g e n e ra l o f f ic e s o f th e S outhw est C o tto n Company, w hich h as s in c e been renam ed Goodyear Farms® The company q u ic k ly assem bled a g ia n t ta s k fo rc e o f two th o u san d men, one th o u san d m u le s, and a f l e e t o f c a t e r p i l l a r tra c to rs ® By p ic k in g tim e th e fo llo w in g y e a r, f o u r th o u san d a c re s o f d e s e r t la n d had y e ild e d th o u san d s o f b a le s o f s u p e r io r c o tto n w ith even g r e a t e r s ta p le le n g th th a n t h a t w hich came from th e W ile Valley® Over a m illio n d o l l a r s had been made th e f i r s t y e a r, and th e f u tu r e o f th e c o tto n in d u s tr y in A rizo n a had been assured® A h i s t o r y o f Goodyear d e s c rib e s th e m u ltitu d in o u s a c t i v i t i e s o f th e company as i t engaged in c o tto n farm in g and town b u ild in g , showing how th e developm ent o f towns and camps w ere an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h i s v a s t operation® The n e x t y e a rs w ere busy ones® Only a sm a ll p a r t o f th e p ro p e rty was w ith in th e R o o sev elt Dam a r e a , b u t th e r e was w a te r f o r th e d r i l l i n g , and s c o re s o f w e lls w ere su n k , pumps p u t i n , and h undreds o f m ile s 173 o f d itc h e s p ro v id e d . Towns were l a i d o u t on th e two ra n c h e s , w ith s t o r e s , s c h o o ls , c h u rc h e s , an o f f ic e b u ild in g , homes f o r th e ran ch o f f i c i a l s . C o tto n g in s and c o tto n -s e e d o i l m i l l s were b u i l t , tu rn e d in a handsome p r o f i t . S p e c ia l a t t e n t i o n was d ev o te d to th e to w n s ite s a G re at b ro ad s t r e e t s were l a i d o u t, fla n k e d w ith t r e e s , p alm s, oran g es, p ep p er t r e e s , cottonw ood* The y a rd s w ere la n d sca p e d and flo w e rs s e t out* At th e town o f L itc h f i e ld Park an a t t r a c t i v e b u ild in g , th e Wigwam, was b u i l t f o r v i s i t i n g o f f i c i a l s from Akron and o th e r ra n c h v i s i t o r s who had to s ta y o v e rn ig h t* A wide ro a d , fo u r m ile s lo n g , fla n k e d a g a in by t r e e s and i r r i g a t i o n d itc h e s , le d in to L i t c h f i e l d P ark from th e main Phoenix-L os A ngeles highw ay. In tim e 154 m ile s o f highw ay had been b u i l t w ith in th e b o u n d a rie s o f th e r a n c h e s . M exican v i l l a g e s w ere b u i l t a t s t r a t e g i c p o in ts o v er th e p ro p e rty f o r th e ran ch employees© These w ere in n a tiv e s t y l e , ram adas, a s e r i e s o f houses w ith la tic e w o rk v e ra n d a , sh ad ed by v in e s . The M exicans who s ta y e d p erm an en tly liv e d in th e s e h o u s e s . Those who came in te m p o ra rily d u rin g th e p ic k in g se aso n s b ro u g h t t e n t s and camped o u t, th e m ild w e a th e r m aking t h i s no h a rd sh ip o G oodyear o f f i c i a l s from Akron r a t h e r r a is e d t h e i r eyebrow s a t th e b ru sh ram adas and adobe h u ts , f i n a l l y i n s i s t e d t h a t b e t t e r h o u sin g be p ro v id e d . Three m odel ho u ses w ere b u i l t , w ith beds t h a t fo ld e d a g a in s t th e w a ll s , community t o i l e t s and b a th s , s c re e n s and cem ent f l o o r s . But th e s c re e n s were soon k ic k ed th ro u g h , th e b a th tu b s u sed f o r s to r a g e , th e c o ts burned f o r f i r e wood. No one w anted to s le e p in a house w ith a c o n c re te f l o o r 0 The d e s e r t M exicans and In d ia n s w ere used to s le e p in g on s tra w and on b la n k e ts throw n on th e g ro u n d , d i d n 't w ant to have t h e i r h a b its changed. As no one would li v e i n th e -m o d ern ized h o u s e s , th e y f i n a l l y knocked o u t th e p a r t i t i o n s and made th e b u ild in g o v e r in to a r e c r e a tio n hall© The l a t e r y e a rs w ere to se e s u b s t a n t i a l r a is i n g o f l i v i n g s ta n d a r d s . The sc h o o ls and ch u rch es h elp ed in t h i s . But th e p ro c e s s had to be g r a d u a l. As in d ic a t e d , a number of v i l l a g e s , o r camps, w ere e s ta b lis h e d o u ts id e th e m ain town f o r t r a n s i e n t p ic k e rs and o th e r l a b o r e r s . Today two la rg e la b o r camps a re s t i l l ^ A l l e n , The House o f G oodyear, pp. 122-123. 179 m a in ta in e d on th e Goodyear farm s* No r e n t i s c h a rg e d , m ost o f th e houses have been m o d ern ized , and a S en ate su b com m ittee on h o u sin g r e c e n tly com plim ented th e company on th e s e camps a f t e r a h o u sin g i n s p e c t i o n , ! 2 The to w n s ite o f L it c h f i e ld P ark i t s e l f was p lan n ed and begun in 1916, Over th e y e a rs th e community h as ev o lv ed in to an a t t r a c t i v e , q u ie t v i l l a g e . O rnam ental t r e e s and s h ru b s , in c lu d in g g ia n t palm t r e e s , g ra c e th e tow n. For a s h o r t tim e a company s t o r e o p e ra te d i n th e v i l l a g e , b u t th e company e a r ly began th e a l t e r n a t i v e p o lic y o f le a s in g o u t b u s in e s s s p a c e . The ty p e s o f b u sin ess, houses needed w ere s e le c te d by th e company, and th e s e have re m a in e d ,! 3 New b u s in e s s e s w ere added as th e town expanded. B u sin ess h ouses o ccu p ied one s id e o f a c e n t r a l b lo ck and in th e 1940*s th e e n t i r e fro n ta g e o f th e b lo ck was remodeled® A ll th e b u ild in g s were jo in e d w ith one la rg e f r o n t o f S p an ish d e s ig n , f in is h e d in cream s tu c c o and re d tile ® L i t c h f i e l d Park i s s t i l l company-owned, alth o u g h many f e a tu r e s o f a non-company town now c h a r a c te r iz e i t . P re s e n t te n a n ts a re n o t a l l company em ployees, A few o f ! 2In te rv ie w w ith W ® N ew ell K rin g , V ic e -P re s id e n t, Goodyear Farm s, L itc h f i e l d P a rk , A rizo n a, March 1 6 ,1 9 6 2 , ! 3 lb id . PLATE XI ENTRANCE TO LITCHFIELD PARK, ARIZONA. O p erated by Goodyear F arm s, a s u b s id ia r y o f Goodyear T ire and Rubber Company, L i t c h f i e l d Park i s one o f th e m ost o r n a te company tow ns in th e W est. The s u c c e s s o f th e c o tto n ex p e rim en t h e r e d u rin g W orld War I made c o tto n an im p o rta n t p a r t o f A riz o n a ’s economy. 181 m ? 182 th e new er h o u ses have been s o ld to r e s i d e n t s , and an a t t r a c t i v e p r iv a te r e s i d e n t i a l a re a i s b e g in n in g to s p rin g up j u s t o f f company property® The company c e r t a i n l y does n o t dom inate th e town in q u ite th e same way a s th e t r a d i t i o n a l company tow n, alth o u g h i t ta k e s g r e a t p r id e in m a in ta in in g an a t t r a c t i v e , s ta b le community® Most u n iq u e i s th e e le g a n t h o t e l , th e Wigwam® O rig in a lly b u i l t as q u a r te r s f o r v i s i t i n g company o f f i c i a l s from A kron, i t h as d ev elo p ed in to a n a t io n a l ly known r e s o r t c a te r in g la r g e ly to non-company guests® Molybdenum One o f th e m ost im p o rta n t m in e ra ls used in th e m an u factu re o f to d a y ’s to u g h , h e a t - r e s i s t a n t s t e e l i s molybdenum® The s t a t e o f C olorado p ro d u ces 18 p e r c e n t o f th e w o rld ’s su p p ly o f t h i s r a r e product® V ir tu a ll y a l l o f i t comes from C lim ax, th e scen e o f an e x tra o rd in a ry mine h ig h in th e m ountains o f Lake County® W hile i t was a company tow n, Clim ax was th e lo c a tio n o f th e h ig h e s t p o s t o f f ic e in th e U n ited S ta te s (1 1 ,3 2 0 feet), and C o lo ra d o 's m ost p ro sp ero u s m ining community® Clim ax was founded in th e 1920’ s as th e use o f molybdenum was b e g in n in g r a p id ly t o in c re a s e in i n d u s t r i a l im portance® At i t s peak th e town housed 2500 in h a b ita n ts® F u lly owned by th e Clim ax Molybdenum Company, a l l community s e r v ic e s , in c lu d in g th e h o s p i t a l , w ere p ro v id ed th ro u g h th e 183 companyo C lim ax was lo c a te d o n ly tw elv e m ile s from L e a d v ille , b u t t h i s was s t i l l to o f a r , in th e e a r l y d a y s , f o r em ployees g e n e r a lly to commute on th e h ig h m ountain r o a d s , e s p e c i a lly in th e winter<> As l a t e as 1954 Clim ax was s t i l l expanding i t s community f a c i l i t i e s « At th e same tim e , many em ployees w ere fin d in g i t d e s ir a b le to l i v e o u ts id e o f town* Commuting had become l e s s d i f f i c u l t and th e d e s ir e f o r home ow nership lu r e d some to L eadville® In 1957 th e company p u rch ased W estp ark , a h o u sin g developm ent f o r Clim ax w o rk ers o u ts id e L eadville® The p r o je c t p re v io u s ly had n o t been d oing w e ll and even a f t e r two y e a rs o f Clim ax o p e ra tio n o n ly tw e n ty -e ig h t houses had been occupied® 14 W estpark had been p ic k e te d because i t was b u i l t w ith n o n -u n io n la b o r , and t h i s made i t d i f f i c u l t to s e l l houses® In 1960 Clim ax Molybdenum s o ld th e e n t i r e town o f C lim ax, to g e th e r w ith th e h o u sin g developm ent a t W estp ark , to th e John W ® G a lb re a th company® Employees were th e n g iv e n th e o p p o rtu n ity to p u rch ase Clim ax homes and have them moved to W estpark f o r a s l i t t l e as $200 down® New homes a t W estpark were a ls o s o ld to Clim ax workers® The town o f Clim ax was abandoned a s company o f f i c i a l s d e c id e d th e tim e had come f o r e lim in a tin g th e expense and p a t e r n a lism o f community ownership® I t was in th e i n t e r e s t o f 1^-The H erald D em ocrat, J u ly 7 , T959o PLATE XII "A DYING C O M PA N Y TO W N ”— -CLIMAX, COLO RA D O * This photograph was ta k e n o f Climax a f t e r John W ® G alb reath & Company h ad so ld th e homes and w ere b eg in n in g to move them to th e new h o u sin g a re a o f W estpark, n e a r L e a d v ille * (P hotograph c o u rte s y H arold L« P o t t e r .) 185 PLATE XIII W ESTPARK A N D LEADVILLE, COLORADO. The h o u sin g a re a o f W estpark p ro v id e s p r iv a te homes f o r em ployees o f th e Clim ax Molybdenum Company. When th e company- owned town o f Climax was s o ld , homes w ere moved to W estp ark . W estpark i s n o t a company tow n. I t i s a new, modern h o u sin g developm ent, c r e a te d a s a su b u rb o f L e a d v ille , and i l l u s t r a t e s th e m odern tr e n d away from company-owned h o u s in g . (P hotograph c o u rte s y H arold L. P o t t e r .) 167 b e t t e r em ployee-em ployer r e l a t i o n s h i p s , e x p lain e d Edward E isen ach , r e s id e n t manager of th e Climax m ine, "The tr e n d n a tio n a lly i s away from company owned tow ns," he s a id , " I t was our b e l i e f t h a t our employees would respond fa v o ra b ly to a chance to own t h e i r own home i n an a re a away from t h e i r p la ce o f work y e t c lo se enough to make commuting e a s y , " '5 A g ia n t moving o p e ra tio n q u ic k ly g o t underway in which a l l homes were so ld and tra n s p o r te d to Westparko Even do rm ito ry u n its were so ld and moved by d iv id in g them each in to th r e e p a r t s . Although m ining o p e ra tio n s a t Climax have continued to expand, th e company town i s no lo n g e r n e c e ssa ry and th e re fo r e has been e lim in a te d . Towns f o r Pumping B rines For th e purpose o f producing p o ta sh , b o ric a c id , and s im ila r chem ical p ro d u c ts, s e v e r a l companies have e s ta b lis h e d e la b o ra te pumping and m anufacturing p la n ts to p ro c e ss b rin e s drawn from ben eath la k e b ed s. In th e e a r ly days of t h i s c e n tu ry such p la n ts re q u ire d th e b u ild in g o f su p p o rtin g tow ns, f o r th ey were u s u a lly lo c a te d in v ery remote a r e a s . Such a town was C artag o , C a lif o r n ia , b u i l t a t Owens Lake by th e C a lif o r n ia A lk a li C om pany,^ The p la n t began 1^The Denver P o s t. J u ly 31, 1960. 1 6 'I n f o r m a t i o n on C artago tak en from in te rv ie w w ith John W o M a rsh a ll, C alim esa, C a lif o r n ia , February 19, 1962, and l e t t e r from John W0 M a rsh a ll, F ebruary, 1962. 189 o p e ra tin g in 1917» p a r t l y to su p p ly China, Ja p an , and A u s tr a lia w ith soda ash needed i n World War I . I t was a sm all town, c o n s is tin g o f t h i r t y - s i x fam ily homes, a g i r l ' s d o rm ito ry , and s e v e ra l bunk houses f o r b a c h e lo rs . Peak p o p u la tio n o f th e v i l l a g e w hile i t was company-owned was about 350, m o stly b a c h e lo rs . In 1932 the company shut down because o f b an k ru p tcy , and th e town e v e n tu a lly was so ld a t a u c tio n . Across th e lake from C artago was the town of K e e le r, which was th e r a i l r o a d te rm in a l fo r th e a re a . K eeler was not a company town, but i t p rovided a sh ipping p o in t f o r C artago and f o r two sm all company-owned s e ttle m e n ts n ea rb y . North o f K eeler was th e Inyo Development p la n t, a lso owned by C a lif o rn ia A lk a li. The company-owned s e ttle m e n t which grew up around i t was sim ply c a lle d th e " I . D. P l a n t .” South o f K eeler was a p la n t and s e ttle m e n t belonging to th e N atu ral Soda P ro d u cts Company. Both s i t e s sin ce have been abandoned. Chemical p la n ts s t i l l o p e ra te in San B ernardino County a t Trona and Westend, b oth lo c a te d in the Mohave D ese rt about 170 m iles from Los A ngeles. Westend was founded in 1919 by the West End Chemical Company, now a d iv is io n of S ta u f f e r Chemical Company, A sm all v i l l a g e , peak p o p u la tio n was o nly about 200. The company owned a l l housing f a c i l i t i e s , fu rn is h in g w ate r and e l e c t r i c i t y . In 190 1962 th e town was in th e p ro c e ss o f being s o ld and moved, f o r i t was no lo n g e r e s s e n t i a l to company o p e r a tio n s 7 Trona i s th e home o f a la r g e p la n t o p e ra te d by American P o tash and Chemical C o rp o ra tio n . T ro n a’s s to r y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t as a p a t te r n f o r th e stu d y o f company tow ns, f o r t h i s d e s e r t community has run th e f u l l s c a le o f e v o lu tio n from a rough-and-tum ble la b o r camp, th ro u g h th e fu lly -o w n e d , p a t e r n a l i s t i c company town, to th e modern company-dominated b u t p r iv a te ly owned m u n ic ip a lity . The C a lif o r n ia Trona Company was formed in 1906, b u t i t so ld o u t to th e B ritish -o w n e d American Trona Company in 1912. T his firm was re o rg a n iz e d i n 1926 as th e American P otash and Chemical C o rp o ra tio n . When th e p la n t began to p ro sp e r th e B r i t i s h s o ld to a Dutch s y n d ic a te , w hich was a c tu a l ly a f r o n t f o r a German p o tash c a r t e l . During World War I I th e U nited S ta te s A lien P ro p e rty C u sto d ian se iz e d th e company, re o rg a n iz e d i t , and d i s t r i b u t e d th e sto c k to American s to c k h o ld e r s , th e p r e s e n t management ta k in g o v er in 1947« The company’s c h ie f Trona-made p ro d u cts a re p o ta s h , b o rax , b o ric a c id , soda a s h , s a l t cake, brom ine, and lith iu m c a rb o n a te , a l l o f which a re produced from b r in e s pumped from b en eath th e 17 I b i d . A lso, l e t t e r from J . V. Wiseman, West End Chemical C o rp o ra tio n , W estend, C a lif o r n i a , A p ril 14, 1962. 191! c ru s te d bed o f S e a rle s Lake. In 1916, s h o r tly a f t e r th e American Trona Company began i t s o p e r a tio n s , th e f i r s t permanent r e s i d e n t i a l b u ild in g , A ustin H a ll, was com pleted by th e company. S ince th e re were no fa m ilie s in Trona, th e h a l l was p r i m a rily a l i v i n g q u a rte rs f o r s in g le men. I t a lso co n tain ed th e company o f f i c e s , d in in g h a l l , m e rc a n tile u n i t s , pool h a l l , and th e po st o f f i c e , which shared q u a rte rs w ith th e b a rb e r shop.1^ P rio r to th e com pletion o f A ustin H a ll, te n ts had been used to house most o f th e f i f t y or s ix t y men then employed. E arly days in Trona were probably ty p ic a l o f th e rugged, womanless p io n eer s e ttle m e n t. ^r„ H. R. Evans, who occupied th e company’s f i r s t tin y m edical o f f ic e in 1914, r e c a l l s th a t i t was a "poor weekend indeed" th a t th ey did not have a t l e a s t a dozen f i g h t s .19 By th e end o f th e decade th e company town o f Trona began to assume a somewhat more o rg an ized e x is te n c e . A few f a m ilie s were liv in g in the area and a one-room school was in o p e ra tio n . In 1923 th e Trona P o ta sh , a weekly p ap er, was begun by th e company. For over t h i r t y y e a rs , however, Trona rem ained e s s e n t i a l l y a b ac h elo r community. ^ The S e a rle s Review. A p ril 3, 1953. The B r in e lin e . J u ly , 1956’, p. 10. ^ T h e Trona A rgonaut. January 29, 1943, p. 3. 192 As l a t e as T951 more th a n 75 p e r c e n t o f th e companyfs em ployees were u n m a rrie d .20 The d e s e r t h e a t, th e f a c t t h a t few ro ad s connected Trona w ith o u ts id e c i t i e s , and th e m inim al m aintenance p ro v id ed f o r e x i s t i n g company houses were n o t conducive to fa m ily -ty p e l i v i n g . An i s o l a t e d community such as Trona w i l l o f te n dev elo p a s o r t o f p ro v in c ia lis m which makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o b reak any lo n g -s ta n d in g t r a d i t i o n . T his i s i l l u s t r a t e d , i n p a r t , by th e s to r y o f th e naming o f th e new t h e a t e r in 194&. P r a c t i c a l l y every e n t e r p r i s e i n town, in c lu d in g th e Trona T h e a te r, had th e name o f T rona. The Trona A rgonaut ra n a huge c o n te s t f o r th e purpose o f naming th e new t h e a t e r soon to be e r e c te d . So e n t h u s i a s t i c was th e re sp o n se , re p o r te d t h i s company p a p e r, t h a t an e x t r a week was r e q u ir e d to judge th e e n t r i e s and award th e p r i z e s . When th e " s e v e r a l hundred" e n t r i e s had a l l been judged th e name f i n a l l y chosen w as, of c o u rse , "T ro n a ." I t o n ly proved, commented th e A rgonaut. t h a t " th e re i s n o th in g new under th e d e s e r t su n ."21 American P o tash and Chemical C o rp o ra tio n was f u l l y p a t e r n a l i s t i c a t Trona, p ro v id in g a l l h o u sin g , goods, and s e r v ic e s needed by i t s em ployees. The sw itc h away from 2^"S w itch Away from P a te rn a lism Pays o f f f o r Company, W orkers, Town," Chem ical Week. November 16, 1957, p . 2^The Trona A rgonaut. Septem ber 9 , 194#, p . 1 ® 193 p a te rn a lis m was a m ile sto n e in th e tow nrs h is t o r y and must be d isc u sse d here as a sample o f what has happened to many company towns in th e West® Improved t r a n s p o r ta tio n f a c i l i t i e s , th e g ra d u a l development of fa m ily l i f e in Trona, the developm ent of th e d e s e r t c o o le r, th e h igh tu rn o v e r o f unm arried em ployees, and the d e s ir e of the company to s t a b i l i z e i t s p a y r o ll by b rin g in g in a h ig h e r r a t i o o f m arried men a l l In flu e n c e d th e f i n a l d e c is io n to make th e change. The f i r s t move took p lace in 1946 when American P otash and Chemical C o rp o ratio n org an ized th e S e a rle s V alley Development Company, a wholly-owned s u b s id ia r y . Ten houses were soon b u i l t a t “ P ioneer P o in t” and so ld to employeeso So s u c c e s s fu l was t h i s experim ent t h a t s ix t y a d d itio n a l homes were b u i l t and soldo In 1953 th e d e c is io n was made to s e l l a l l company-owned houses in Trona, and w ith in a y e a r th e s a le s were complete,, Trona became a county s e rv ic e a re a o f San B ernardino C ounty.22 To f a c i l i t a t e th e change-over, th e company donated a l l e x is tin g s t r e e t l i g h t s , f i r e p r o te c tio n f a c i l i t i e s , and o th e r p u b lic s e rv ic e i n s t a l l a t i o n s 0 In th e meantime, th e company began to s e l l i t s v a rio u s M e rc a n tile Departm ent e n t e r p r i s e s . The s e rv ic e s t a t i o n was th e f i r s t to go, w ith th e company 2 2Lqs Angeles Times. August 20, 1954o Note: A county s e rv ic e a re a i s a s p e c ia l purpose s u b -u n it o f lo c a l governm ent. 194 ag ree in g to c lo s e down only when i t was a ssu re d t h a t new o p e ra to rs would give as good o r b e t t e r s e r v ic e * The r e s u l t was b e t t e r s e rv ic e f o r th e c i tiz e n s o f Trona and th e e v e n tu a l opening o f th r e e s ta tio n s # The same p a tte r n was follow ed w ith r e s p e c t to a l l o th e r b u sin esses# As a r e s u l t of t h i s g e n e ra l sw itc h , a l l p o te n tia l advantages a n tic ip a te d by th e company a re being re a liz e d # Employee tu rn o v e r i s down, th e a c c id e n t r a t e i s down, la b o r g rie v a n c e s have d e c lin e d , f r i c t i o n t h a t came w ith assignm ent of houses by th e company has been e lim in a te d , and more c a p i t a l funds are a v a ila b le f o r in v estm en t in money-making p ro je c ts # In a d d itio n , th e number o f fam ily men in Trona has in c re a se d to about 75 p er c e n t o f th e em ployees, th u s p r a c t i c a l l y re v e rs in g th e form er r a t i o between m arried men and b ach elo rs# Today*s Trona i s a modern, company-dominated community of about 4500 people# A few g e n e r a liz a tio n s may be drawn from th e s to ry o f Trona which r e f l e c t th e g e n e ra l development o f many company towns in W estern America# F i r s t , th e company town was a. n a tu r a l developm ent when a s in g le in d u s try began to o p e ra te in an i s o l a te d s e c tio n o f th e country# Second, th e company, p rim a rily i n t e r e s t e d in i t s b u s in e s s , a t f i r s t developed only minimal f a c i l i t i e s f o r i t s employees# T h ird , th e company town was a t f i r s t la r g e ly a b a c h e lo r community, x^ith fa m ilie s coming only a f t e r improved c o n d itio n s made i t more conducive to fam ily liv in g * F o u rth , h o u sin g , goods, and s e rv ic e s were provided through com pany-operated e n te r p ris e s * The n e t r e s u l t , however, was a lo s s f o r th e company® F i f t h , w ith improved t r a n s p o r ta tio n f a c i l i t i e s making b e t t e r in te g r a tio n w ith surro u n d in g communities p o s s ib le , b oth th e employees and th e company saw many b e n e f its in th e move away from p a te r nalism® F in a lly , th e modern company town i s a c o o p e ra tiv e v e n tu re , w ith th e company s t i l l p ro v id in g some r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s f o r i t s em ployees, b u t having n o th in g to do w ith h o u sin g , s a le o f goods, or o th e r com mercial services® CHAPTER YII SOCIAL ASPECTS OF THE COM PAN Y TO W N — COM M UNITY PLANNING A N D HOUSING C o n sid e ra tio n o f th e so c io lo g y o f th e company town r a i s e s a v a r ie ty o f q u e s tio n s » How w e ll was th e town planned and l a i d out? What kind o f housing d id th e company p ro v id e , and how w e ll was i t m aintained? What were th e g e n e ra l liv in g c o n d itio n s? Did th e company town d w e lle r r e p re s e n t a p a r t i c u l a r "ty p e ? " What p ro v isio n s were made f o r p u b lic h e a lth and g e n e ra l w e lfa re ? Did r a c i a l problems e x i s t? What kind o f s o c ia l a c t i v i t y was th e r e , and how f a r d id the company go in p ro v id in g s o c ia l h a l l s , club h o u se s, e tc ? Did th e company f o s t e r r e lig io u s a c t i v i t i e s ? Was th e re any "community s p i r i t ? " F in a lly , d id th e f a c t t h a t most company towns were i n r a th e r i s o l a t e d lo c a tio n s c r e a te any unusual o r d i s t i n c t i v e s o c ia l problem s? Such q u e stio n s as th e s e a re a l l w orth more d e t a il e d s tu d ie s by p ro fe s s io n a l s o c i o l o g i s t s , but i t i s im p o rta n t here a t l e a s t to c o n sid e r them b r i e f l y e I f a person suddenly found h im s e lf in th e m iddle o f a company»owned town, he would probably have l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y id e n tif y in g i t as such, f o r c e r t a in g e n e ra l 196 f e a t u r e s would u s u a lly sta n d out» F i r s t to be n o te d would be a u n ifo rm ity o f a r c h i t e c t u r e , w ith a l l houses fo llo w in g th e same g e n e ra l f l o o r p la n and outw ard ap p e a ra n c e . In a prom inent l o c a t i o n , however, would sta n d a l a r g e r , more im posing s t r u c t u r e , th e home o f th e company m anager o r s u p e r in te n d e n t. N ext, w h ile th e g e n e ra l la y - o u t o f th e s t r e e t s would n o t g iv e i t away, i t would be observed t h a t th e town seemed to c e n te r around a f o c a l p o in t where a s t o r e , community h a l l , s c h o o l, and perhaps one o r two a d d i t i o n a l p u b lic b u ild in g s would be lo c a te d . In l a r g e r towns a c l u s t e r o f b u sin e ss b u ild in g s m ight f o r a a community c e n te r , b u t th e company s t o r e would dom inate th e g ro u p . C ir c lin g th e s e ttle m e n t, i t would be observed t h a t i t had no tts u b u r b s ,” o r no g ra d u a l b u ild in g up from a few s c a t t e r e d homes to a c e n te r o f p o p u la tio n . E a th e r, one would n o te th e com plete i s o l a t i o n o f th e community and th e d e f in it e n e s s o f i t s b o u n d a rie s. F i n a l l y , i t would be a p p a re n t t h a t th e e x is te n c e o f th e community was s o le ly dependent upon a s in g le e n t e r p r i s e , f o r a m ine, m i l l , o r s m e lte r would seem to dom inate th e e n t i r e sc e n e . Looking a t Hayden, A rizona, f o r exam ple, th e r e i s no q u e s tio n b u t t h a t th e g ia n t s m e lte r , which s ta n d s im posingly a g a in s t th e h i l l s i d e w ith th e community f i g u r a t i v e l y c lu s te r e d a t i t s f e e t , i s th e s o le su p p o rt o f th e town. I t would ta k e l i t t l e im a g in a tio n f o r a r o m a n tic is t to th in k o f th e 196 lum ber m il l in H i l t , C a lif o r n ia , as a f a t h e r sp re a d in g h is p r o te c tiv e in flu e n c e o v er a com pletely dependent group o f d w e llin g s . In s p it e o f th e fo re g o in g , however, i t would be im p o ssib le to d is c o v e r a com pletely " ty p ic a l* company town, f o r g r e a t d if f e r e n c e s have always e x is te d in ty p e s o f h o u sin g , community management, r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s , and o th e r a s p e c ts o f company town l i v i n g . I t i s reco g n ized , th e r e f o r e , th a t to o many g e n e r a liz a tio n s on th e s o c ia l a s p e c ts o f th e company town would te n d to m is le a d 0 I t i s n e v e rth e le s s i n s t r u c t i v e to d e s c rib e c e r t a in o f th e se a s p e c ts , p o in tin g to s i m i l a r i t i e s which most commonly e x i s t as w e ll as some o f th e e s s e n t i a l d iffe re n c e s between th e towns. Community Lay-out The la y -o u t o f company towns n a t u r a lly v a rie d ac co rd in g to geographic lo c a tio n , p erio d o f tim e , and th e c o n s c ie n tio u sn e ss o f th e company in community p la n n in g . E a rly com munities tended to be more haphazard in t h e i r arrangem ent, many of them having grown from ty p i c a l m ining camps w ith houses lo c a te d w herever th e m iner happened to f e e l l i k e s e t t l i n g , and th e company coming in l a t e r to ta k e over© Modern company towns a re l a i d out as d e f i n i t e planned com m unities. A " ty p i c a l” company town would have i t s la y -o u t 199 d eterm ined la r g e l y by i t s geog rap h ic lo c a ti o n . I f th e t e r r a i n were f l a t enough, r e c ta n g u la r blocks could be l a i d o u t when the p ro p e rty was f i r s t s e t t l e d and a uniform community could be b u i l t . Although many may suppose t h a t most co a l m ining camps were sim ply unplanned arrangem ents o f h o u se s, i t i s a f a c t th a t by th e 1920*s most o f th e c o a l m ining com m unities in th e U nited S ta te s were a rra n g e d a lo n g r e c ta n g u la r l i n e s o f su rv ey , and were c h a ra c te r iz e d by wide s t r e e t s and ample l o t s .^ Hanna, Wyoming, where c o a l m ining began in 1S99» was a p p a re n tly one o f th e e a r l i e s t communities in t h a t a re a in which r e a l a t t e n t i o n was given to community p la n n in g . D eclares th e o f f i c i a l h i s t o r y o f th e Union P a c if ic Coal Company: The s t r e e t s were l a i d o u t a t th e opening o f th e town w ith somewhat more c o n s id e ra tio n th an had been given in the m a jo rity o f o th e r c o a l tow ns. In s te a d o f d ig g in g in to th e most convenient g u lch bank to make a dugout home, o r e r e c tin g a b u ild in g on th e most co n venient s p o t, th e b u ild e r s la i d o u t an o r d e r ly scheme o f s t r e e t s and a l l e y s , c o n ta in in g two c o n c e n tra tio n s o f b u ild in g s , one near each o f the m in es. The main s t r e e t ra n n o rth of and p a r a l l e l to th e r a i l r o a d . South o f th e tr a c k s th e b u ild in g s were c a lle d No. One Camp, and n o rth of th e tr a c k s th e y were c a lle d No, Two Camp, alth o u g h each was a p a r t o f H anna.2 I t w i l l be observed t h a t a prime c o n s id e ra tio n was n e a rn e ss ^ L eifu r Magnusson, "Company Housing in th e B itum i nous Coal F i e l d s ." M onthly Labor Review, V ol. X, No. 4 (A p r il, 1920), p . 2TSZ ^H isto ry of th e Union P a c if ic Coal M ines, p . 115. 200 t o th e m ine, hence th e s p l i t t i n g o f Hanna i n to two s e c tio n s . Even though many company towns c o n s is te d o f a s in g le r e s i d e n t i a l s e c tio n , th e r e are numerous exceptions® Sometimes th e towns w ere d iv id e d in to two o r more camps, l i k e Hanna, i n o rd e r t o accomodate company operations® In o th e r cases geography demanded t h a t a number o f s e c tio n s be constructed® This seems g e n e r a lly to be t r u e o f the m ining com m unities. M ill tow ns, on th e o th e r hand, seemed g e n e ra lly t o be more c o n s o lid a te d i n t h e i r lay-out® In many p la ces th e geo g rap h ic lo c a tio n o f th e m ine, m i l l , or s m e lte r made an o r d e rly la y - o u t im p o s s ib le , and th e company town th e r e f o r e fo llo w ed th e te rra in ® Some o f th e old lum ber m il l com m unities seem to be m ost t y p i c a l o f this® At F a lk , C a lif o r n i a , f o r exam ple, th e E lk R iver M ill and Lumber Company began o p e r a tio n s in 1.8&A and co n tin u ed u n t i l 1937* The m i l l was i n a narrow canyon, and th e town was b u i l t a l l o ver th e h i l l s and th e canyon, w ith the company s to r e lo c a te d n e a r th e m ill© At F alk , however, a la r g e p o r tio n o f th e homes were p r i v a t e l y owned, th e w orkers h av in g le a s e d th e la n d from th e company, and t h i s may have c o n trib u te d to th e la c k o f e x te n s iv e community p la n n in g . I t was n e v e rth e le s s t y p i c a l in appearance o f many o f th e e a r ly lum ber m ill com m unities b u i l t in canyons n e a r th e c e n te r o f lo g g in g operations® In R ockport, C a l i f o r n i a , th e lum ber m i l l was b u i l t on an 20T i n l e t from th e ocean, so t h a t lum ber could be shipped by sc h o o n ers. Im m ediately behind th e m ill were la rg e wooded h i l l s , and th e town was b u i l t in th e sm all canyon, somewhat away from th e m i l l , A s in g le row o f houses, dubbed " s t a f f row ," occupied one arm o f th e canyon, w hile th e r e s t o f th e d w ellin g s occupied th e o th e r . The t e r r a i n around M orenci, A rizona, has produced a d i f f e r e n t kind of town which m ight be c a lle d a "community in th e h i l l s , ” The lo c a tio n o f th e o p e n -p it copper mine in very h i l l y country has n e c e s s ita te d the b u ild in g o f a r a th e r i n t e r e s t i n g community. The o ld e r p a r t o f th e town p re s e n ts a random arrangem ent o f s t r e e t s w inding up th e m ountains to v a rio u s d w e llin g s. The problem o f fin d in g enough f l a t t e r r i t o r y upon which to b u ild i s i l l u s t r a t e d by th e elem entary s c h o o l. The playground i s lo c a te d on to p of th e sch o o l b u ild in g and may be reach ed , w ith o u t clim bing s t a i r s , from th e s t r e e t running behind th e b u ild in g , P la n t s i t e and S ta rg o , th e newer a re a s o f M orenci, a re b u i l t on h i l l s i d e s which have been te rr a c e d by th e company, each te r r a c e c o n s is tin g o f a s in g le row o f houses and an access ro a d . C onsidering th e problem of lo c a tio n , th e s e a re e x c e lle n tly planned r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s , A s p e c ia l problem in community plan n in g may be seen in p la c e s where th e company m ight e v e n tu a lly mine o r o th e r w ise develop th e a re a s e t a sid e f o r residences® The e n t i r e PLATE XIV "STARGO" HOUSING AREA AT MORENCI. This new housing a re a dem onstrates how t e r r a i n d eterm ines th e la y -o u t o f company tow ns. Here th e company has te r r a c e d th e h i l l s i d e s in o rd e r to p rovide housing a r e a s 0 203 204 town o f Ray, A rizona, f o r example, w ill e v e n tu a lly be abandoned as te c h n o lo g ic a l advances have made i t in c r e a s in g ly p r o f it a b le to mine low -grade copper ore* With th e expansion o f th e o p e n -p it m ine, t h e r e f o r e , the r e s i d e n t i a l a re a mu3t be e lim in a ted * In t h i s case th e homes have been so ld and e v e n tu a lly w i l l be moved to the John W * G alb rea th development a t Kearny* At b oth Morenci and Ajo, A rizona, Phelps Dodge i s c o n s ta n tly expanding i t s p i t s f o r th e same re a so n , and o ld e r s e c tio n s of town are g ra d u a lly being e lim in a te d . At Midwest, Wyoming, th e problem o f f u tu r e developm ent, to g e th e r w ith th e company’s aw areness o f poor s a n ita r y c o n d itio n s in th e tow n’s o ld e r s e c tio n s where a number o f non-company houses e x is te d , le d in 1924 to a new p o lic y f o r th e b u ild in g o f new camps* The announcement read as fo llo w s: The housing o f th e employees o f th e Midwest R efin in g Co* in th e f i e l d i s a d i f f i c u l t problem , as th e re i s always to be ta k en in to c o n s id e ra tio n th e f u tu re development o f th e p ro p e rtie s * The n in e hundred odd houses a lre a d y b u i l t by th e company f u rn is h accom odations f o r perhaps o nly 75$ o f th e employees who d e s ire homes f o r t h e i r fa m ilie s * S e v e ra l y e a rs ago a p lo t o f ground was surveyed on S e c tio n s 25 and 3 6 , upon which th e le s s e e s were p e rm itte d to b u ild t h e i r own h o u ses, a sm all r e n t a l being charged to cover th e c o s t o f gas and w a te r i n s t a l l a t i o n , . , • b u t as f u r th e r e x te n tio n would only h in d e r Company o p e ra tio n , no more th an 125 p erm its were is s u e d . The s a n ita r y c o n d itio n s in such camps le a v e much to be d e s ir e d , and f o r th a t reaso n th e Company has in a u g u ra te d a new p o lic y . The p re se n t nRagtown" w ill be c u t down to 50 le a s e s , p re fe re n c e being g iv en to Gas P la n t employees and th o se w orking in t h a t v ic in ity * Seven o th e r camps have been surveyed and in no event 205 w i l l on© e v e r exceed 50 l o t s . S u p e rin te n d e n t Lewis announces t h a t th e Company w i l l c o n s tru c t l a t r i n e s , t o in s u re them being s a n ita r y and o f uniform appearance, w i l l b u ild a shower b ath a t each camp, an i n c i n e r a t o r , w i l l i n s t a l l gas l i n e s and e r e c t s o f t w a te r ta n k s . L essees may b u ild t h e i r houses o f w hatever m a te r ia l th e y w ish , b u t th e b u ild in g s must be e x a c tly te n f e e t from th e s t r e e t l i n e and as n ear th e c e n te r o f th e l o t as p o s s ib le , and no u n s ig h tly outhouses w i l l be p e rm itte d . S a n ita ry re g u la tio n s w i l l be v ig o ro u sly e n fo rc e d ,3 The lo c a tio n o f r e s i d e n t i a l a re a s im m ediately a d ja c e n t to th e companyT s o p e ra tio n s was n a t u r a l l y a b e n e f i t to th e employee in allo w in g him to g e t t o work q u ic k ly and e a s i l y . In some c a s e s , however, th e houses were lo c a te d w ith o u t th o u g h t f o r h e a lth and co m fo rt, and problem s o c c u rre d . Some c o a l m ining com m unities, fo r exam ple, were lo c a te d n e a r coking ovens on h i l l s i d e s which had been denuded by th e noxious g a se s. I n some cases i t i s re p o rte d t h a t towns were lo c a te d so th a t p re v a ilin g winds kept them c o n s ta n tly enveloped i n smoke In C a lif o r n i a , p a r t o f th e town o f Davenport was b u ilt on th e wrong sid e of th e cement p la n t, and th e wind from th e ocean blew d u st o ver the houses making th e a re a d i r t y and u n d e s ira b le as a p la c e to l i v e ,5 •^ The Midwest Review. V ol. V, No, S (Septem ber, 1 9 2 4 ), p, 36, ^Magnusson, "Company Housing i n the Bitum inous Coal F i e l d s ," p* 216, This was a su rv ey o f company housing throughout th e U nited S ta te s i n g e n e ra l, but i t i s assumed t h a t h is g e n e r a liz a tio n s apply a ls o to the W estern s t a t e s . ^ In te rv ie w w ith C harles J , B e lla , May i+9 1962, 206 B e a u tif ic a tio n P ro je c ts S ince th e la y -o u t o f a town in c lu d e s n o t o n ly th e lo c a tio n o f s t r e e t s and houses but a ls o p ro v is io n f o r b e a u t i f i c a t i o n , i t would be w ell to in q u ire in to t h i s a s p e c t o f th e " t y p i c a l " company tow n. Here again th e p o lic y v a rie d w ith th e company as w e ll as w ith th e p e rio d o f tim e c o n sid e re d . Modern company towns g e n e ra lly have paved s t r e e t s , t r e e s , s h ru b s , and lawns and p re s e n t them selves as r a th e r i n v i t i n g p la c e s in which to liv e * E a rly company towns were n o t g e n e ra lly planned w ith an eye to b e a u ty . S tr e e ts were wide but unpaved. Lawns, t r e e s , and o th e r p la n ts were a r a r i t y and p u b lic parks were few . This was e s p e c ia lly tr u e in c o a l m ining com m unities. R a in s, U tah, i s one example o f a co al m ining town which p rovided n o th in g to b e a u tif y th e town o r y a rd s , th e town ap p earin g sim ply as a wide d i r t road w ith shacks and unimproved yard s on e i t h e r s i d e .^ Such com m unities, however, were by no means com pletely r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f a l l company tow ns, f o r many companies were v ery conscious of b e a u t i f i c a t i o n p r o je c ts in t h e i r o r i g i n a l p la n n in g , w hile o th e rs g ra d u a lly developed an aw areness o f t h i s need and took s te p s to meet i t . H iaw atha, U tah, lo c a te d o n ly a few m iles from ^ In te rv ie w w ith W illiam Goldman, Los A ngeles, C a lif o r n ia , June 24, 1961. Mr. Goldman showed p ic tu r e s o f th e town which v e r i f i e d t h i s . 207 R ain s, i s p ic tu r e d as a v ery a t t r a c t i v e community, alm ost g iv in g th e appearance o f a community o f co n ten te d p ro p e rty owners® Lawns, t r e e s , flo w e rs , and gardens were a l l encouraged by s p e c ia l inducem ents from th e company®? At A jo, A rizona, a d e s e r t was tran sfo rm ed in to an o a s is when Jack Greenway o f th e Calumet and A rizona Mining Company o b ta in e d w a te r by d r i l l i n g a huge well® Trees and g ra s s appeared as Greenway made a conscious e f f o r t to b e a u tify th e town, and th e sp acio u s p la za in th e c e n te r of th e community was lin e d w ith c o lo r f u l oleanders® ^ Many companies went f a r to encourage town r e s id e n ts to b e a u tify t h e i r yards by g iv in g annual p riz e s f o r th e most a t t r a c t i v e l o t s , and by fu rn is h in g t r e e s and shrubs to any te n a n t who would p la n t them* At Hanna, Wyoming, f o r exam ple, th e Union P a c if ic Coal Company began in 1915 to encourage such a c t i v i t y and hauled in tr e e s by the ca rlo ad f o r th o se who would p la n t them* Trees were fu rn is h e d f r e e to th e te n a n t, and p r iz e s were g iv en f o r th e b e s t yards* P riz e s were a ls o given f o r v eg e ta b le g a rd e n s*9 The same th in g was tr u e in many lumber m ill ?Thursey Jensen Reynolds (comp*), C e n te n n ia l Echos From Carbon Countv (Carbon County, Utah: D aughters o f th e Utah P io n e e rs, 194#), p* 214o d A rthur T ra in , J r * , A.io (p u b lish e d p r iv a te ly by Phelps Dodge C o rp o ra tio n , 1941), p* 15o ^ In te rv ie w w ith Henry Jo n es, Ju ly &, 1961* 203 communities along th e P a c if ic C o a s t* ^ By 1919 th e C olorado F uel and Iro n C o rp o ratio n was ta k in g d e f i n i t e s te p s to improve th e appearance o f i t s many communities* House l o t s had been fen ce d , s t r e e t s grad ed , t r e e s p la n te d , and te n a n ts were given every encouragement to c u l t i v a t e lawns and g a rd e n s «^ One o f th e most a t t r a c t i v e and unusual company towns in th e West i s G oodyear's community o f L itc h f i e ld Park, Arizona* As th e town was being developed in 191S, e x te n siv e p la n s f o r lan d sca p in g were l a i d o u t 0 T rees and shrubs were p rovided th ro u g h o u t, and two rows o f tr e e s were s e t along th e wide main s tr e e t* C itru s and palms were l a t e r added f o r d e c o ra tiv e purposes* In 1919 s id e walks were l a i d and th e main s t r e e t was graded and provided w ith a wide c e n te r a re a where a d d itio n a l t r e e s were p la n te d to make i t more a t t r a c t i v e * ^ a f e a tu r e which makes th e town unique i s th e "Wigwam,” an e x c lu siv e r e s o r t h o te l which i s b e a u t i f u l l y landscaped and has lu x u rio u s commercial accom odations f o r 1S0 p e rs o n s 0 F a c i l i t i e s ^ I n th e sp rin g o f 1962 th e w r i t e r made an e x te n s iv e t r i p th ro u g h o u t C a lif o r n ia , Oregon, and W ashington, v i s i t i n g s e v e r a l company towns and in te rv ie w in g many form er re s id e n ts * When th e q u e s tio n was asked about town b e a u t i f i c a t i o n p r o je c ts th e alm ost in v a r ia b le answer was th a t th e company encouraged them in th e manner described* ^ Colorado Fuel and Iro n I n d u s t r i a l B u l l e t i n . Vol, IV, No* 3 (A p ril 30, 1919), p. 9« 12Sm ith, " L itc h f ie ld Park and V ic i n ity ," pp* 59-61* 209 in c lu d e an e ig h te e n h o le g o lf c o u rse , two swimming p o o ls, te n n is , s h u f fle b o a r d , c ro q u e t and badminton c o u r ts , and rid in g s t a b l e s . Housing The owners o f W estern AmericaT s company towns v a rie d c o n s id e ra b ly in th e type o f housing provided f o r t h e i r employees and in t h e i r m aintenance p o l i c i e s . The outward appearance o f company h o u ses, f o r in s ta n c e , in c lu d ed th e d ra b , u n p ain ted wood o f C aspar and Westwood, C a lif o rn ia ; th e p la in cement block o f some o f th e c o a l mining com m unities; th e uniform red houses o f Weed, C a lif o r n ia ; th e w e ll k e p t w h ite homes o f Bacchus, Utah; th e m u lti- c o lo r e d stu c c o d w ellin g s of Tyrone, Hew Mexico; th e w e ll p a in te d frame s tr u c t u r e s o f p re se n t-d a y McCloud, C a lif o r n ia , As a g e n e ra l r u l e , companies which p a in te d t h e i r houses a t a l l u s u a lly p r e f e r re d to p a in t them a l l th e same c o lo r, most o fte n red o r g ra y , th u s adding to th e drab u n ifo rm ity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of th e company town0 The p o lic y o f many companies g ra d u a lly changed, however, as management became more conscious o f p u b lic and community r e l a t i o n s . Homes i n McCloud were once a l l a uniform g ra y , b u t the p o lic y now i s to s t r i v e f o r a t t r a c t i v e n e s s by p a in tin g them a v a r ie ty o f c o l o r s © In o rd e r to avoid b ic k e rin g , th e te n a n ts a re n o t allow ed to chose t h e i r own c o l o r s . PLATE XV COM PAN Y HOUSING, McCLOUD, CALIFORNIA. Note th e board sid e w a lk s. Few company towns had any s id e walks a t a l l . 211 212 In H i l t , C a lif o r n ia , th e homes o r i g i n a l l y were n o t p a in te d , fo r th e company planned a s h o r t l i f e f o r th e community® The lo g g in g b u sin e ss im proved, however, so th e company began th e p o lic y o f fu rn is h in g th e p a in t and compressed a i r s p r a y e r, allow ing te n a n ts to p a in t t h e i r own d w ellin g s and g iv in g them a choice o f c o l o r s 3 One r id in g through th e town today would observe many houses p a in te d th e sta n d a rd drab re d , o th e rs p a in te d d i f f e r e n t c o lo r s , and a few n o t p a in te d a t all® Most company towns s t i l l fu n c tio n in g as such to d ay have moved away from s in g le c o lo r uniform ity® Although most companies attem pted to provide com fortable l i v i n g q u a r te rs f o r t h e i r em ployees, economic c o n s id e ra tio n s n a t u r a l l y k ep t them from p ro v id in g more than th e bare n e c e s s itie s * A " t y p i c a l 1 * f l o o r p lan m ight in c lu d e a k itc h e n , l i v i n g room, two bedrooms, and bath* Sometimes a porch would be p ro v id ed , which m ight be screened in and double a s an a d d itio n a l s le e p in g area* B u ild in g m a te r ia ls were u s u a lly th o se which were most a v a ila b le and inexpensive® Coal m ining camps were c o n s tru c te d o f vrood, cement b lo c k , o r crude b r ic k , some tim es covered w ith s tu c c o , w h ile lumber m ill towns were always frame* Every b u ild in g in S c o tia , C a lif o r n ia , f o r ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith Ire n e F® T a l l i s , H i l t , C a lif o r n ia , May 2, 1962® in s ta n c e , ex cep t th e new shopping c e n te r , i s c o n s tru c te d o f redwood, th e company product* S ince ty p e s of l i v i n g q u a r te rs v a rie d so g r e a t l y , i t would he im p o ssib le to d e s c rib e a com pletely " ty p ic a l" company house* A few r e p r e s e n ta tiv e examples w i l l t h e r e fo re b r i e f l y be describ ed * Much debate has tak en p lace over th e adequacy o f company housing in th e camps o f Colorado Fuel and Iro n C orporation* An avid p ro -u n io n book d e sc rib e d th e company d w ellin g s o f th e e a r ly 1900fs as "houses and s h a n tie s , b a rre n l i t t l e homes th a t re a re d t h e i r w e a th e r-b e a te n boards above p ile s of ashes and t i n c a n s . " ^ Company p e r i o d i c a l s , however, d e c la re d in 1902 t h a t th e company was spending thousands o f d o lla r s in re n o v a tio n and t h a t in th e newer s e ttle m e n ts a l l company houses were "model workingmen’s d w e llin g s, n e a tly p a in te d , th o ro u g h ly s a n i t a r y , co n v en ien t and hom elike*” 15 A supposedly unbiased govern ment commission in 1915 re p o rte d th a t housing c o n d itio n s f o r th e m iners a re e x c e p tio n a lly w e ll p ro v id e d , and ev ery camp t h a t we saw appeared to be doing much f o r the com fort o f i t s em ployees. I f th e t r u t h were f u l l y known i t would probably be ^ B e s h o a r , Out o f th e D epths, p* 2* ^Camp and P l a n t » Vol. I , No. 12 (March 1, 1902), p. 180. l6»R eport o f th e Colorado Coal Commission," Monthly Labor Review. Vol* I I , No* 4 (A p ril, 1916), p* 45. 214 seen t h a t c o a l companies provided only t h a t which was e s s e n t i a l to keep employees th e r e , and t h a t homes of th e o rd in a ry m iner were very cheaply constructed© Foremen and managers had somewhat b e t t e r houses© The fo llo w in g atte m p t by A ® T. S hurick t o d e s c rib e th e g e n e ra l U nited S ta te s m ining camp of th e 1920T s p robably r e f l e c t s th e t y p ic a l a t t i t u d e o f la rg e mining com panies, in c lu d in g Colorado F uel and Iro n , tow ard employee h o u sin g : CThel o p e ra to r cannot a ffo rd t o l e t h i s enthusiasm f o r som ething e x c e p tio n a l along t h i s l i n e have to o much re ig n o r he may be su b je c te d to d isa p p o in tm e n ts. There have been cases where th e occupants of some o f th e b e t t e r c la s s houses have u t i l i z e d th e b ath tu b f o r a c o a l b in and knocked h o le s in th e fo u n d atio n to provide a d o m icile f o r th e fam ily pig© These are a l l f a c t o r s t h a t m ust be ta k en in t o c o n s id e ra tio n in stu d y in g th e housing c o n d itio n in m ining communities. In th e w e ll-d e s ig n e d m ining camp to d a y , re c o g n itio n i s ta k e n o f th e se v a ry in g needs and houses b u i l t accordingly® F i r s t th e r e w i l l be a few s u b s t a n t i a l , w e l l - b u i l t houses, equipped w ith modern conveniences th ro u g h o u t and com parable w ith th e b e t t e r type o f modest town house, f o r th e s u p e rin te n d e n t, c l e r i c a l f o r c e s , d o c to r, s to r e manager, etc® Next th e re i s a l a r g e r group o f s im ila r houses along le s s p r e te n tio u s l i n e s f o r forem en, sub-forem en, and some o f th e p r e f e r re d c la s s o f men such as th e e l e c t r i c i a n , m a ster m echanic, etc® The b alance of th e houses which go to make up th e bulk o f th e camp w i l l be d iv id e d roughly in to two g e n e ra l classes® The f i r s t o f th e s e w i l l be of a f a i r l y s u b s t a n t i a l and w e ll- b u i l t ty p e , u s u a lly f o u r o r f iv e rooms and equipped w ith running w a te r and p o ssib ly a b a th and in s id e t o i l e t f a c i l i t i e s ® T his house i s designed f o r th e more perm anent m iners who a p p re c ia te som ething o f a b e t t e r c la s s and i t i s u s u a lly p la s te r e d in s id e and equipped w ith some e x t r a s , such as a p o rch , t h a t ten d to l i f t i t above th e n e x t c la s s below® The i n f e r i o r houses are d esigned t o meet th e req u irem en ts o f th e low er c la s s o f im provident m iner who would be i n d i f f e r e n t to an y th in g above the c ru d e s t type of house and probably abuse an y th in g b e t t e r . These houses may 215 be b u i l t somewhat along th e l i n e s o f th e n e x t c la s s above, b u t would be f in is h e d w ith wood c e ili n g in s i d e , have outdoor t o i l e t s , and be dependent on an o u tsid e s p ig o t f o r i t s w ater s u p p ly .17 No m ention i s made o f how i t was determ ined who were of th e "low er c l a s s ," b u t in th e West i t was u s u a lly th e non-w hite and f o re ig n elem ents t h a t were so s e g re g a te d . Even Phelps Dodge, probably th e most e n lig h te n e d o f th e la rg e company town la n d lo rd s , s t i l l p ro v id es l e s s p re te n tio u s l i v i n g q u a r te rs f o r Mexican and In d ia n w orkers th an f o r w h ite Am ericans. In th e 1920*3 a survey o f company houses in co al mining communities th ro u g h o u t th e U nited S ta te s re v e a le d t h a t 95 p e r c e n t o f the houses were c o n s tru c te d o f wood. Over tw o -th ird s were f in is h e d o u ts id e w ith w eatherboard, u s u a lly n a i le d d i r e c t l y to th e frame w ith no sh e a th in g o r, som etim es, w ith paper s h e a th in g . Com position paper composed tw o - th ir d s of th e r o o f s . Foundations were g e n e ra lly o f p o sts and no c e l l a r s were in c lu d e d . Most h o u ses, ex cep t th e p o o re st " s h a n tie s ," had p o rch es. In s id e f i n i s h c o n s is te d o f wood sh e a th in g f o r h a l f th e houses and p l a s t e r f o r an a d d itio n a l 3& p er c e n t. As f a r as u t i l i t i e s were concerned, 13oS p e r cen t had running w a te r, 2 .4 p e r c e n t had b a th tu b s , and 3 p e r cen t had f lu s h t o i l e t s i n s i d e . A w ate r system o f some s o r t e x is te d 1 7 sh u rick , The Coal I n d u s tr y , pp. 312-313□ 216 in only 49 p e r cent o f th e com m unities, and 66,3 p e r cen t had e l e c t r i c i t y o r g a s , '° I f th e f ig u r e s given above h eld g e n e ra lly tr u e in th e West, th e “model workingmen*s com m unities” d e s c rib e d by some z e a lo u s company spokesmen l e f t som ething s t i l l to be d e s ir e d . On th e o th e r hand, i t should be observed t h a t company towns in th e West were newer th a n most o f th e coal towns s tu d ie d in th e fo re g o in g su rv e y , th e m a jo rity o f which were lo c a te d in th e E a ste rn co al f i e l d s . In a le s s e x te n siv e survey in 1916 by th e Monthly Labor Review, one la r g e company o p e ra tin g tw elve camps in Colorado and Wyoming r e p o r te d t h a t 74 p er c e n t o f i t s houses were o f frame c o n s tru c tio n and f iv e o u t o f s i x (S3 per c e n t) were w eath erb o ard ed . Seventeen per cen t o f the houses were f in is h e d w ith p e b b le d -a sh , and 10 p er c e n t were b u i l t o f p la in cement b lo c k ^ ^ Colorado Fuel and Iro n , fu rth e rm o re , d e c la re d in 1919 t h a t i t had been making ste a d y improvements in housing c o n d itio n s . A ll o f th e u n s ig h tly and u n s a n ita r y “s q u a t t e r ” shacks b u i l t by in d iv id u a ls had been removed from company camps, and th e company was th e n in th e pro cess o f g ra d u a lly re p la c in g th e o ld e s t company-owned shacks w ith more modern homes, loU nited S ta te s Coal Commission, R eport o f th e U nited S ta te s Coal Commission, V ol. I l l , pp. 1429-1430, 1%agnusson? “Company Housing in the Bituminous Coal Fields,3 p, 21g. 217 R eported th e company: A number o f y e a rs ago a com fortable and co n v en ien t ty p e o f fo u r room c o tta g e was adopted by the Company and became a s o r t o f sta n d a rd f o r m iners d w e llin g s s As in c re a s e d wages and h ig h e r sta n d a rd s o f l i v i n g caused a demand f o r a s t i l l b e t t e r type o f house, numerous improvements were made. Many o f th e d w ellin g s e re c te d w ith in th e l a s t few y e a rs a re provided w ith b a th s and some have fu rn a c e s and p r a c t i c a l l y every convenience enjoyed by r e s id e n ts o f c i t i e s . The e r e c tio n o f frame houses has la r g e ly sto p p ed , most o f th e newer type homes b ein g b u i l t o f cement blocks o r b r ic k . 0 As f a r as s a n ita r y conveniences were concerned, however, th e 1916 survey checked 1214 company d w ellin g s in Colorado and Wyoming and found t h a t none of them had in s id e t o i l e t s . Of 642 o th e r m ining communities in A rizona, C olorado, and New Mexico, 45 per c e n t were so eq u ip p e d .^1 I t i s w orthy of n o te t h a t in th e e a r ly p a r t o f t h i s cen tu ry a number o f model c o a l mining communities were c o n s tru c te d in which th e companies in v o lv ed gave d e f i n i t e a t t e n t i o n from th e beginning to much improved housing c o n d itio n s . Such a town was Spring Canyon, Utah ( o r ig i n a ll y named S t o r r s ) , begun i n 1912 by th e S pring Canyon Coal Company. Here th e homes were s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o n s tru c te d o f sa n d sto n e . W ater, sew erage, and o th e r Colorado F uel and Iro n I n d u s t r i a l B u l l e t i n . Vol< IV, No. 3 f l p r i l 3 0 , 1919) , p . 9 .-------------------------------- 21 Magnusson, nCorapany Housing in th e Bituminous Coal F i e l d s ,w p . 21 9 . 218 modem conveniences were a v a ila b le in most o f them .^2 O ther such Utah towns in c lu d e d K ee tly , H iaw atha, and S ta n d a rd v ille * 2 3 In Wyoming, th e town o f Winton i s d e s c rib e d as "model company town#”24- At Gamerco, New Mexico, a p r o fe s s io n a l e n g in e e rin g firm was h ir e d to p lan and c o n s tru c t a new community which was g ra d u a lly to re p la c e th e o ld camps o f th e G allup American Coal Company? The town was com pletely p re-p lan n e d w ith s t r e e t la y - o u t, pole l i n e s , sew ers, and w a te r lin e s * Houses were con s tr u c te d o f b r ic k w ith stu c co i n te r i o r * The sta n d a rd p lan in c lu d e d liv in g room, k itc h e n , two bedrooms, b ath (w ith tu b , b a s in , and t o i l e t ) , two la rg e c l o s e t s , p a n try , and porch*25 In th e lumber c o u n try , company houses always were c o n s tru c te d of wood* S ize and f a c i l i t i e s n a t u r a lly v a r ie d , b u t th e ty p ic a l sm all m il l town u s u a lly c o n s is te d o f houses w ith two bedrooms, k itc h e n , and liv i n g room, alth o u g h more e la b o r a te q u a rte rs were provided f o r management ^ 2Je sse W illiam K night, The Je sse Knight Family ( S a lt Lake C ity : D eseret News P re s s , 1941)* P« 70* 2^A„ L. M urray, "W elfare and S a fe ty in C onnection w ith Mining in U tah," The Mining Congress J o u rn a l (O ctober, 1925), p . 47#o 24yeima L in fo rd , Wyoming. F r o n te ir S ta te (Denver: The Old West P u b lish in g C o., 1.947), p® 355V"""" ^ C o o le y , S to ry o f a Complete Modern Coal M ine. p assim . 219 p e rs o n n e l. At C aspar, C a lif o r n ia , f o r example, th e rows o f sm all um painted houses make th e p re te n tio u s w h ite , tw o -sto ry house o f th e manager sta n d o u t in marked c o n tr a s t * E a r l i e s t houses b u i l t , w hile an are a was s t i l l in th e p io n e e rin g s ta g e , were n a t u r a lly le s s com fortable th an th o se which came l a t e r , b u t th e average r e s id e n t o f a lumber m ill town seemed to be com fortable and s a t i s f i e d w ith th e f a c i l i t i e s . The newer houses in K orbel, C a li f o r n i a , f o r exam ple, were d e sc rib e d by a lo n g -tim e r e s id e n t as nv ery n i c e , ” each having f iv e rooms and a b a th , and O A r e n tin g f o r e ig h te e n d o lla r s p er month. Among th e most o u ts ta n d in g m il l towns a re Samoa, S c o tia , and McCloud, C a lif o rn ia and V a ls e tz , Oregon, In each o f th e se communities th e homes a re p re s e n tly w e ll con s tr u c t e d , w ell p a in te d and m a in ta in e d , and in c lu d e a l l modern f a c i l i t i e s . Houses in many o f th e m il l towns which have long sin c e d isa p p e a re d a ls o seem to have been w e ll b u i l t and m a in ta in e d . The l a s t house b u i l t in Newburg, C a lif o r n ia , f o r exam ple, went up in 1912, The town no lo n g e r e x i s t s , b u t th e house i s s t i l l in good c o n d itio n and i s owned by th e daughter o f th e o r i g i n a l r e s i d e n t , 27 L e tte r from Ed C, M orrison, H o rn ito s, C a lif o r n ia , May 27, 1962, ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith George N elson, Eureka, C a lif o r n ia , A p ril 16, 1962, PLATE 271 GENERAL SUPERINTENDENT'S HOME, HAYDEN, ARIZONA. This i s th e l a r g e s t home in Hayden. 22T PLATE XVII COM PANY FOREMAN’S HOME, HAYDEN, ARIZONA, This h o u se, l e s s p r e te n tio u s th a n th e g e n e ra l s u p e r in te n d e n t’s home, was somewhat more co m fo rtab le th an homes p ro v id ed f o r common l a b o r e r s 0 The home was purchased by i t s r e s i d e n t when th e town was s o ld . 223 224 As a g e n e ra l r u l e , company towns in o p e ra tio n today may b o a st o f liv i n g q u a r te rs com parable in every way to th e average home in o th e r sm all communities® W ater, sew erage, e l e c t r i c i t y , and gas a re s u p p lie d , re g u la r m aintenance i s tak en ca re o f , te lep h o n e s e rv ic e i s a v a ila b le , and th e modern n e c e s s ity o f te l e v i s i o n i s u s u a lly a c c e s s ib le through cab le service® In S c o tia , C a lif o r n ia , The P a c if ic Lumber Company has adopted th e p o lic y of re n o v a tin g and m odernizing a l l old houses when a te n a n t moves out so th a t th e y w i l l have s h e e t rock in s id e and be equipped w ith a l l modern conveniences® This p r o je c t was p r a c t i c a l l y com plete in 1962®26 R en tal R en tal o f company houses has always been r i d i c u lo u s ly low when compared w ith r e n t a l c o s ts in o th e r communities® Cheap r e n t i s an a d d itio n a l subsidy to th e employee, in many cases in te n d e d as an added inducement to l iv e in an is o l a te d area® In most cases r e n t a l charges w ere, and s t i l l a r e , deducted from th e em ployeeT s pay check* In th e c o a l f i e l d s o f Colorado and Wyoming in 1916, r e n t v a rie d from f iv e to e ig h te e n d o lla r s per month, w ith 76*5 p e r c e n t r e n tin g a t le s s th a n nine ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith Alden B a ll, A p ril 16, 1962® 225 d o l l a r s . Rent u s u a lly in c lu d e d w a te r. In camps where e l e c t r i c i t y was a v a ila b le charges f o r t h i s s e rv ic e v a rie d from t h i r t y - f i v e c e n ts p er l i g h t p e r month to th r e e d o lla r s p er house®^9 was common to base r e n t a l s on th e number o f rooms in th e d w e llin g . Tenants a t M adrid, New Mexico, f o r example, were charged two d o lla r s per room p er month f o r an o rd in a ry house, in c lu d in g c o a l f o r h e a tin g and cooking. An e x tra charge of f i f t y c e n ts p er drop was added f o r e l e c t r i c l i g h t s ,30 in Climax, C olorado, r e n t v a rie d from f iv e d o lla r s p e r room p er month f o r log cabins to $12,50 f o r steam h ea ted houses, u n t i l 1957, when i t went up to a minimum o f $6,75 and a maximum o f $ 14,75o An e x tra charge o f $2,50 p er month was made f o r an a tta c h e d g a ra g e ,31 Modern company towns ten d n a t u r a lly to charge h ig h e r r a t e s . Homes a t American Sm elting and R efining Company’s l i t t l e community o f S ilv e r B e ll, A rizona, r e n t f o r f o r t y - f i v e d o lla r s p er month f o r two bedrooms, and f i f t y - f i v e d o lla r s f o r th r e e bedrooms. This in c lu d e s a l l 29Magnusson, ’ ’Company Housing in the Bituminous Coal F i e l d s , ” pp. 221-222, 3 0 L e tte r from Oscar Huber, June 17, 1962, 3'*Moly Mountain News. V ol, V III, No. 23 (December 3 , 1956), p , U 226 u t i l i t i e s ® ^ i n S c o tia , C a lif o r n ia , The P a c ific Lumber Company charges s ix t y d o lla r s p e r month f o r a th re e bedroom home w ith g a ra g e , e l e c t r i c i t y , w a te r, and garbage c o lle c tio n f u r n is h e d . Even th e se r a t e s , however, seem modest when compared w ith modern wages and w ith charges in o th e r communities f o r com parable f a c i l i t i e s 0 M aintenance G eneral m aintenance o f houses was a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y assumed by th e com panies, alth o u g h w ith v ary in g degrees o f a t t e n t i o n . This w i l l be d isc u sse d in th e c h a p te r on management® A tte n tio n should be drawn h e re , however, to th e f a c t t h a t upkeep and appearance o f in d iv id u a l homes o fte n depended n o t only upon company p o lic y b u t a ls o upon th e c h a ra c te r and a t t i t u d e of th e employee h im s e lf. L e ifu r Magnusson, in h is g e n e ra l survey o f c o a l company housing i n 1916, found evidence th a t once th e company provided adequate housing and s ig h t ly prem ises the employees and t h e i r w ives took new i n t e r e s t in home maintenance® He observed, however, t h a t employees were o fte n r e l u c t a n t to demand p roper m aintenance because o f keen job co m p etitio n and th e p o s s ib le t h r e a t of eviction® 33 3^ In te rv ie w w ith Donald R ® Jameson, P la n t S u p e rin - te n d e n t, American Sm elting and R efin in g Company, S ilv e r B e ll, A rizona, March 22, 19620 ■^Magnusson, w Company Housing in th e Bituminous Coal F i e l d s , “ pp. 221-222® 227 The Colorado F uel and I ro n C o rp o ratio n found t h a t improved housing c o n d itio n s had a g r e a t e f f e c t upon th e g e n e ra l s o c i a l and m oral developm ent o f i t s com m unities*34 On th e o th e r hand, th e r e p o r t o f th e Coal Mines A d m in is tr a tio n ^ m ed ical su rv ey o f 1946 made th e fo llo w in g comment w ith re g a rd to th e w ife o f a c o a l m in er: And th e in c e s s a n t d i r t , a n a tiv e b len d o f c o a l d u s t from th e t i p p l e , smoke from th e r a i l r o a d , d u s t from th e ro a d s , san d , g rim e, and a c rid fumes from th e b u rn in g s la g h e a p s, perm eates and c lin g s te n a c io u s ly t o th e s t r u c t u r e s and fu r n is h in g s o f houses and to human b o d ie s » I t ta k e s w i l l power, d e te rm in a tio n , and p e r s is te n c e on th e p a r t o f th e m in e rfs w ife to hold h e r own i n t h i s unending s tr u g g le , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e camp where th e houses may be a k in to s i e v e s e Many housew ives g iv e up a f t e r y e a rs o f f r u i t l e s s b a t t l e * Many, w ith o u t any co n c ep tio n o f b e t t e r s ta n d a rd s o r t r a i n i n g in homemaking, n ev e r t r y , even where th e c o n d itio n s in t h e i r fa v o r a re o f th e best© O th e rs, sp u rre d by s e l f r e s p e c t , p r id e , and d e v o tio n t o t h e i r f a m i l i e s , m a in ta in t h e i r homes and ca re f o r t h e i r h o u se -h o ld s w ith a z e a l t h a t i s lim ite d o n ly by t h e i r energy* T h e ir housekeeping and homemaking a r e m odels o f e x c e lle n c e , r e g a r d le s s o f th e sh a b b in ess o r a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f th e house s t r u c t u r e i t s e l f *35 The r e p o r t in c lu d e s many c o n tr a s tin g photogrpahs i l l u s t r a t i n g t h i s p o in t, alth o u g h i t does in d ic a t e t h a t th e r e i s a g e n e ra l c o r r e l a t i o n between good m aintenance p o l i c i e s by management and good housekeeping* 34colorado F u el and Iro n I n d u s t r i a l B u l l e t i n . V ol. IV, W o* 3 tA p ril 30, 1919), p® 9 35»The Coal M iner and His F a m ily ,” Supplement to U nited S ta te s Coal Mines A d m in is tra tio n , A M edical Survey o f th e Bitum inous Coal I n d u s tr y , pp. 24“27* 22£ An extrem e example o f th e f a c t t h a t poor liv in g c o n d itio n s were o fte n la r g e ly due to th e h a b its o f a poor c la s s o f people i s seen in one lo n g -tim e r e s i d e n t fs account o f S unnyside, Utah* She was a p p a re n tly r a th e r p re ju d ic e d a g a in s t th e fo re ig n elem ent, but th o u g h t she had good re a so n f o r th a t f e e l in g : At one tim e , about 1915* when Sunnyside was booming i t s g r e a t e s t , a few of th e s e so u th e rn European im m igrants liv e d in New Town n ex t door to u s . They hollow ed out one sid e of th e fo u n d a tio n of t h e i r house and i n s t a l l e d s e v e r a l hogs. The sm ell was aw fu l. Complaining n eig h b o rs were re s p o n s ib le f o r them b ein g o rd ered to g e t r i d o f them . They b u tch ered them on th e k itc h e n f l o o r , and when th e la d y o f th e house decid ed to cle a n th e e n t r a i l s to s t u f f them w ith sau sag e, she t i e d one end o f them s e c u re ly to th e f a u c e t of th e only w ate r h y d ran t in th e neig h b o r hood and tu rn ed on th e w a te r, , . . Dr© Dowd t o l d me a s to r y about a fam ily o f th e se im m ig ran ts. He was c a lle d i n to a tte n d a very s ic k woman. He opened th e f r o n t door and chickens flew in a l l d i r e c t i o n s . B efore he reached th e door o f th e room where th e s ic k woman la y n e a r d e a th , he had to d riv e s e v e r a l m ilk g o a ts o u t o f th e way. To cap i t a l l , she had a r a b b i t w arren under th e bed. I t d id n o t ta k e th e d o c to r long to make h e r husband u n d erstan d he had to c lean up th e mess im m ediately. When S ta n d a rd v ille was b u i l t th e S tandard Coal Company b u i l t a v ery modern town© Every house had i t s bathroom . W ithin two y e a rs th ey had to remove most o f th e b ath tu b s from th e houses, and from a l l th e houses th ey re n te d to th e s e im m igrants. They clogged up th e plumbing by u sin g th e b ath tu b s to sc a ld t h e i r hogs a t b u tc h e rin g tim e ,3 ° In s p it e o f t h i s extrem e exam ple, however, i t would be sa fe to g e n e ra liz e t h a t th e appearance and upkeep of company houses depended upon th e com bination o f employee ^ R i c h i n s , "A S o c ia l H isto ry of S u n n y sid e," pp, 10 11. 229 a t t i t u d e and company policy® I t i s o f te n r e p o r te d t h a t c e r t a i n f o re ig n groups were n o t accustom ed to l i v i n g s ta n d a rd s as h ig h as th o se o f American w o rk e rs, and were th e r e f o r e g iv e n l e s s d e s ir a b le l i v i n g q u a r te r s i n th e f i r s t place® The same i s tr u e w ith American I n d ia n s , At Tyrone, New M exico, f o r exam ple, P helps Dodge p ro v id ed two-room ap artm en ts w ith no modern f a c i l i t i e s f o r Mexican w o rk e rs, w hile fo u r-ro o m l iv i n g q u a r te r s w ith ru n n in g w a te r, b a th s , and e l e c t r i c i t y were p ro v id ed f o r Americans®37 E d u c a tio n and exposure to modern sta n d a rd s seems to improve younger generations® At Ajo, A rizo n a, th e Phelps Dodge r e n t a l ag e n t i s in th e p ro c e ss o f an i n t e r e s tin g ex p e rim en t© He r e c e n tly com pleted a su rv ey o f th e to w n 's In d ia n s w ith r e fe re n c e to how w e ll th ey took ca re o f t h e i r l i v i n g q u a r te r s , r a t i n g them as good, f a i r , o r poor® Most te n a n ts were r a te d p o o r, b u t i t was n o te d t h a t th e younger g e n e ra tio n , which had been exposed from c h i ld hood to th e w h ite m an's e d u c a tio n , t a s t e s , and h a b i t s , g e n e r a lly r a te d much h ig h e ro F e e lin g t h a t th e younger g e n e ra tio n i s beg in n in g to demand b e t t e r th in g s , th e company i s now moving th o se who r a te d h ig h e s t i n t o new and much b e t t e r homes® I f th e experim ent w orks, more w i l l 0 7 L ei f u r Magnusson, W A Modern Copper M ining Town*" M onthly Labor Review. V ol, V III, No® 3 (Septem ber, 191» p p ® 2 7 - 2 8 ® 230 be allow ed to move i n t o such homes as th e o ld e r s e c tio n o f town where th e y now l iv e i s g r a d u a lly e lim in a te d B achelor Q u a rte rs and P r iv a te Housing In a d d itio n t o th e fa m ily l i v i n g u n i t s co n sid e re d above, every company town p ro v id ed a h o t e l , b o ard in g h ouse, o r c a b in s f o r s in g le men* In companies w ith s e v e r a l camps, a s in g le b o arding house o r g a n iz a tio n o fte n would extend from a c e n tr a l lo c a ti o n to th e o th e r camps0 At M idw est, Wyoming, th e b o ard in g house fe d seven hundred s in g le employees a t th e c e n t r a l camp and extended i t s o r g a n iz a tio n to in c lu d e s i x o u ts id e camps< > At th e home camp th e b o arding house a ls o se rv e d as a h o te l f o r te a c h e r s and f o r people t r a v e l i n g through on b u sin ess* The b u s in e s s was la r g e enough t h a t i t h ir e d 120 p e o p le , in c lu d in g a t r a v e l i n g c h e f, head c h e f, m atro n s, cooks, b a k e rs , and o f f ic e employees»39 At Climax, C olorado, th e Climax Molybdenum Company owned a h o t e l and d in in g room which p ro v id ed f o r 425 unm arried m in e rs, c o n s tr u c tio n w o rk e rs, and m il l hands* These were o p e ra te d by a p r iv a te - ^ In te rv ie w w ith Ted S h e lto n , R en tal A gent, Phelps Dodge C o rp o ra tio n , A jo, A rizo n a, March 23, 1902« I t m ight be n o ted t h a t t h i s i s j u s t one example o f th e very re a s o n a b le a t t i t u d e w ith t h i s w r i t e r f e e l s th e Phelps Dodge C o rp o ra tio n h as tow ard i t s employees* ^ T h e Midwest Review. Vol* VI, No* 11 (November, 1925), Po 17. 231 c o n tr a c to r , b u t th e company i n s i s t e d upon good q u a l ity food and g u a ra n te e d a p r o f i t to th e c a te r in g c o n tra c to r* Employees p aid $2,60 p er day f o r board and lo d g i n g * ^ In many com m unities, e s p e c i a lly th o se e s ta b lis h e d e a r l y , th e company d id n o t p ro v id e a l l th e housing* I n d iv id u a l employees o f te n would be allow ed to b u ild t h e i r own shacks on company p ro p e rty le a s e d to them a t one d o l l a r p e r year* As a g e n e ra l r u l e , however, company housing proved to be s u p e r io r to t h a t b u i l t by in d iv id u a ls , and most companies which rem ained v ery long a t a p a r t i c u l a r lo c a tio n t r i e d g ra d u a lly to e lim in a te p r iv a te housing from company p ro p erty * An e x c e p tio n i s seen in th e case of B isb ee , A rizo n a, where p r a c t i c a l l y a l l th e homes a re p r iv a te ly owned, alth o u g h on company p ro p erty * A com parison o f th e homes i n B isb ee, however, w ith th o se o f f u l l - f l e d g e d Phelps Dodge company towns in A rizona re v e a ls a marked c o n t r a s t , w ith th e company homes in M orenci and Ajo ap p earin g to be much more s u b s t a n t i a l and b e t t e r m aintained* ^ M A S a lu te to Climax Molybdenum,” S p e c ia l su p p le ment to E m pire„ th e m agazine of th e Denver P o s t. Sunday, May 23, 1954, p« 37o CHAPTER VIII OTHER SOCIAL ASPECTS OF THE CO M PA N Y T O W N L ife in th e "typical** company town d if f e r e d l i t t l e from t h a t in any o th e r sm a ll and r a t h e r i s o l a t e d American community® E n te rta in m e n t was of th e "home made” varietyo. D ancing, b a s e b a ll, and sch o o l a c t i v i t i e s provided the m ain community r e c r e a tio n a l program,. News and g o ssip tr a v e le d f a s t , and everyone seemed to know th e b u sin ess o f everyone e ls e in town® In some w ays, however, company towns were d i s t i n c t i v e * Community r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s were provided and m aintained by th e company, company p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s p e c ia l h o lid a y c e le b r a tio n s was n o t u n u su al, and company c o n tro l of h e a lth and w e lfa re f a c i l i t i e s was alm ost u n iv e rs a le S in ce r e s id e n ts of company towns paid no ta x e s and had no e le c te d governm ent, i t f e l l th e l o t of th e company to c o n s tr u c t and o p e ra te community f a c i l i t i e s which a c i t y government m ight o th erw ise p ro v id e 0 I t i s th e purpose h e re to o u tlin e b r i e f l y some o f th e s o c ia l problems which m ight e x i s t in any community, as w e ll as th o se somewhat p e c u lia r to company tow ns, and to show how th ey were handled by a few r e p r e s e n ta tiv e f ir m s 0 232 233 The Problem of I s o la t io n S ince many company towns were lo c a te d in remote a re a s th e y were f re q u e n tly w ith o u t re g u la r c o n ta c t w ith th e o u tsid e w o rld . I t should be n o te d , however, t h a t th e v e ry i s o l a t i o n o f a town was in some cases an adv an tag e. Employees had few p la c e s to spend t h e i r money, f o r exam ple, and th e re fo r e o fte n saved enough to purchase homes in o th e r communities upon re tire m e n t.^ As f a r as. r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s were concerned, th e most remote company towns were u s u a lly th o se w ith th e most company- p rovided f a c i l i t i e s . In a d d itio n , many of th e se i s o l a t e d com m unities, e s p e c ia lly in th e lumber a r e a , happened to be id e a ll y lo c a te d w ith r e s p e c t to n a tu r a l f a c i l i t i e s . H unting, f i s h i n g , h ik in g , and w in te r s p o rts a l l were r e a d ily a v a ila b le alm ost w ith in w alking d is ta n c e o f town. I s o l a t i o n , th e r e f o r e , was not always th e un p le a s a n t s i t u a t i o n o fte n thought o f . The problem o f p ro v id in g goods and s e r v ic e s not a v a ila b le through th e company s to r e was u s u a lly tak en c a re of by p e rm ittin g o u ts id e m erchants to come i n on a p e rio d ic b a s i s . V a ls e tz , Oregon, i s s t i l l an is o l a te d company town and h ere th e company allow s g ro c e ry , la u n d ry , • ) In t h i s w r i t e r ’s in te rv ie w s w ith company town r e s id e n ts from many r e p r e s e n ta tiv e a r e a s , t h i s fre q u e n tly was v o lu n te e re d as an example o f th e advantages o f th e company town. 234 and o th e r s e rv ic e tru c k s to come over th e m ountains from D a lla s , Salem, and o th e r communities* One departm ent s to r e tru c k makes d o o r-to -d o o r d e l i v e r i e s th re e tim es a week, sometimes being th e f i r s t v e h ic le to b reak t r a i l in to th e v a lle y a f t e r a snow s to rm .2 Some companies used to allow th e use o f t h e i r t r a i n s and s t a t i o n s to in d iv id u a ls who wanted to b rin g in su p p lie s from o th e r tow ns. Such p r iv ile g e s were given only when th e company d id n o t demand t h a t a l l tra d in g ta k e place in or through th e company s t o r e . In many cases th e company s to r e took i t upon i t s e l f to provide e v e ry th in g . The most s e rio u s problems a r i s i n g from i s o l a t i o n were m edical care and p u b lic school s e r v ic e s . As w ill be se e n , th e r e f o r e , companies u s u a lly made every e f f o r t to provide adequate m edical and sch o o l f a c i l i t i e s . P ro v isio n f o r H ealth and G eneral W elfare The owners o f company towns found them selves re s p o n s ib le f o r many expensive s e rv ic e s o u tsid e th e realm o f normal company o p e ra tio n s . Among th e se s e rv ic e s were m edical and h o s p it a l c a re . The e x te n t of t h i s ca re n a t u r a lly v a rie d w ith th e s iz e and lo c a tio n o f th e town. In some in s ta n c e s only a nurse was p ro v id ed , and cases which she could n o t handle were tak en a t company expense ^Herman Edwards, "Typo Scram bles V a ls e tz — But Town W ins," The Sunday O regonian. November 21, 1954* 235 to h o s p it a ls in o th e r towns# In o th e r in s ta n c e s e la b o ra te h o s p ita l and m edical f a c i l i t i e s were provided a t th e town, w ith company d o c to rs perform ing needed se rv ic e s# I t was custom ary f o r employees to have from one d o lla r to two d o lla r s p er month a u to m a tic a lly deducted from t h e i r wages to h elp pay f o r th e s e s e r v ic e s , b u t in most ca ses th e company h o s p it a l o r d isp e n sa ry o p erated a t a lo ss# Such f r in g e b e n e f its a re s t i l l among th e advantages o f company town l i v i n g , even though th e monthly d ed u ctio n i s s l i g h t l y h ig h e r. At Ajo, A rizona, one r e s id e n t re p o rte d t h a t h is fa m ily h o s p ita l dues a re $4.50 p er month. In 195& h is w ife had a m ajor o p e ra tio n , rem aining in the h o s p ita l f o r e ig h t days# His t o t a l b i l l , in c lu d in g a p riv a te room, was only $13«50.3 In some e a r ly towns th e owners d id n o t im m ediately begin to p ro v id e m edical s e r v i c e s . Local managers o fte n found them selves a c tin g as c a re ta k e rs o f a l l community need s, in c lu d in g t h a t o f d o c to r, A r a t h e r humorous account i s r e la te d by th e foreman o f th e e a rly c o a l mining camp o f Cumberland, Wyoming, The s to r y took p lace i n th e s p rin g o f 1901° The m a jo rity o f my bunch o f h u sk ie s to o k i l l , a l l in th e space o f a few d ay s, and th e y were r e a l s i c k , I had a hunch t h a t a co n tag io u s d is e a s e was p r e v a le n t, b u t I could n o t f ig u r e out th e t r o u b le , , , , ■ 3 ■'Interview w ith Ivan K, W illa rd , Ajo, A rizona, March 22, 1962, 236 M y b r a in was f a s t becoming scram bled in tr y in g to a s s o c ia te symptoms w ith a n y th in g I*d known, when an old f e llo w named Ned L ark in came in t o th e o f f i c e , and as Ned was p l e n t i f u l l y pock-m arked, i t dawned on me t h a t th e s o lu tio n was stamped on Ned*s f a c e . Q u estio n in g him as to th e symptoms, I found th e y checked f a i r l y w e ll w ith th o se o f my p a t i e n t s , so we booked th e d is e a s e as sm allpox,. W e were a d v ise d t h a t th e o n ly su re cure was good w hiskey, a p p lie d l i b e r a l l y b oth i n t e r n a l l y and e x t e r n a l l y . I o rd ered a te n - g a llo n keg from Kemmerer, and Ned, being immune, was p la c e d in charge o f th e s i c k . In th e meantime p ra c t i c a l l y th e whole p o p u la tio n o f th e camp had gone to t h e i r bunks, b u t by l i b e r a l a p p lic a tio n s o f w hiskey, p lu s Ned*s e x p e rie n c e , we had in a s h o r t tim e th e upper hand, w ith v ery few of th e boys b e a rin g marks from th e d is e a s e . The p i l e o f w hiskey r e q u i s i t i o n s w r i t t e n looked as though each p a t ie n t took a d a ily b a th i n t h a t d e le c ta b le f l u i d , b u t as we came o u t w ith o u t any s e rio u s r e s u l t s th e r e were no r e g r e t s . N ed's r e q u i s i t i o n s would g e n e r a lly re a d : "P le a se d e l i v e r to 'h o s p i t a l ' one g a llo n Old H ickory, cured in wood, f o r b a th in g Sw edes."^ In c o n t r a s t to th e se p r im itiv e m ethods, many companies developed e la b o r a te and w e ll-r u n system s o f m ed ical c a r e . The I n d u s t r i a l M edical Plan o f th e Midwest R efin in g Company c o s t th e employee o nly one d o l l a r p e r month f o r which he and h is fa m ily were e n t i t l e d t o a l l norm al h o s p i t a l and m edical s e r v i c e s , in c lu d in g X -rays and o p e r a tio n s . An e x tr a f e e of t h i r t y - f i v e d o l l a r s was charged f o r m a te rn ity c a s e s . 5 The Colorado Fuel and Iro n C o rp o ratio n a ls o made ^•H istory o f th e Union P a c if ic Coal M ines, p . 133 * ^The Midwest Review. V ol. V II, No. 1 (Jan u a ry , 1926), p . 26. 237 m edical s e rv ic e s a r e g u la r p a r t o f i t s o p e ra tio n s . Some c r i t i c i s m was le v ie d a g a in s t th e perform ance of th e s e s e r v ic e s , however, as r e f le c te d i n an anti-com pany r e p o r t on th e 1914 s t r i k e : Evidence i s abundant t h a t the system o f company h o s p it a ls and company d o c to rs o ffe re d j u s t cause f o r g rie v a n c e s . At S u n ris e , Wyoming, where th e Colorado Fuel and Iro n Co. o p e ra te s an iro n m ine, th e company d o c to r a c te d w ith shocking b r u t a l i t y and c a re le s s n e s s in h is tre a tm e n t o f m iners and t h e i r f a m il ie s , according to th e im p ressiv e testim ony o f the Reverend D aniel McCorkle, p a s to r o f th e Sunrise chu rch . Not only t h a t , b u t th e company p erm itted him to deduct fe e s a r b i t r a r i l y fix e d by h im s e lf from th e wages o f employees b efo re th o se wages were p a id , th e se f e e s being f o r s e r v ic e s not covered by the r e g u la r fe e o f $1.00 p e r month.v In s p i t e o f such adverse comments, i t should be reco g n ized t h a t Colorado F uel and Iro n a t l e a s t made re aso n ab le e f f o r t s to provide f o r th e g e n e ra l h e a lth o f i t s tow ns. In 1902 i t was re p o rte d th a t a p h y sic ia n was lo c a te d in every company camp, t h a t w ater, s t r e e t s , and houses were in sp e c te d r e g u la r ly f o r s a n ita r y c o n d itio n s , and th a t d o c to rs le c tu r e d to sc h o o l c h ild re n on s a n ita r y h a b i t s . 7 By 1917 d is p e n s a r ie s had been e r e c te d in many camps and were planned a t s e v e r a l o th e rs , and the company's main h o s p i t a l a t Minnequa was u s in g the most modern m ethods. O c c u lis ts and d e n t i s t s w ere a lso on 6 u W est, R eport on th e C olorado S t r i k e , pp. 73-74. ?Camp and P l a n t . V ol. I , No. 12 {March 1, 1902), pp. 130-1$1. 23 S company p a y ro lls An id e a of th e n o t- to o - s a n it a r y c o n d itio n s which p re v a ile d in some e a r ly mining towns i s given by a lo n g tim e r e s id e n t of S unnyside, U tah. The m ilk supply o f Sunnyside came from th e Big S pring Ranch. &ach forenoon th e milkman came around, d riv in g a le a n hungry lo o k in g h o rse h itc h e d to a l i g h t sp rin g wagon which co n tain ed s e v e r a l f iv e - g a ll o n cans o f m ilk . W e would go to th e sid e o f th e wagon and hold up a la r d b u ck e t, pan, o r some o th e r c o n ta in e r, and sa y , ” 1*11 tak e a q u a rt to d ay ” o r " I *11 have two q u a rts today p le a se " and he would remove th e l i d o f a can (which served as a q u a rt m easure) f i l l i t w ith m ilk and pour i t in to our c o n ta in e r. Sometimes th e can was not to o c le a n . O ften h is hands were n o t to o c le a n . In w in te r he g e n e ra lly had a bad cold and th e n he wiped h is nose on h is s le e v e s . But t h i s had i t s a d v a n t a g e s . 9 No adequate survey has been ta k en o f such s a n ita r y procedures as w ater in s p e c tio n , garbage c o l l e c t i o n , sewage d is p o s a l, e t c . , alth o u g h one re c e iv e s th e g e n e ra l im p ressio n t h a t most companies e x e rc is e d adequate concern o ver th e s e m a tte rs , e s p e c ia lly when a company d o c to r liv e d in th e town. A gain, th e c o a l towns of Colorado have come in f o r th e most c r i t i c i s m in th e se m a tte r s , w ith a wide v a r ie ty of c o n d itio n s , from su b -sta n d a rd to h ig h ly a c c e p ta b le , a p p a re n tly p e r ta in in g . In 1919 a su rv ey o f th e frequency o f garbage c o lle c tio n in c o a l towns of Colorado and Wyoming was attem p ted , b u t only a Colorado Fuel and Iro n I n d u s t r i a l B u l l e t i n f V ol. I I , No. 5 (Ju ly 31, 1917), p. 5. q R ic h in s, "A S o c ia l H isto ry o f S u n n y sid e," p . 4 . 239 few towns responded® One community re p o rte d d a ily c o l l e c t i o n . Another re p o rte d sem i-weekly c o l l e c t i o n , b u t tw elve o th e r towns were o p erated by th e same company and i t was assumed th a t th e same frequency p re v a ile d in these® One town re p o rte d m onthly c o l le c tio n , w hile o th e rs sim ply re p o rte d "when n e c e s s a r y . " ^ In th e m a tte r o f sewage, i t appears t h a t most e a rly camps had r a t h e r poor f a c i l i t i e s , some of them even r e ly in g upon open d itc h e s running through town® Around th e 1920T s , however, when model company towns were beginning to sp rin g up, adequate sewer system s were c a r e f u l ly planned and i n s t a l l e d . R e c re a tio n and S o c ia l A c tiv ity The g r e a t American s p o r t, b a s e b a ll, a ls o seemed to be a g r e a t pastim e in th e company town, e s p e c ia lly in th e e a rly decades o f t h i s century® N early every community had i t s b a s e b a ll diamond, and co m p etitio n w ith o th e r towns in th e v i c i n i t y ra n high® Not only r e g u la r w orkers, but a ls o management became in te r e s te d in th e su ccess of th e lo c a l team s, and i t was not uncommon f o r many companies to p u t a few p r o fe s s io n a l p la y e rs on th e p a y r o ll f o r th e b a l l se aso n . O rd in a rily th e s e p la y e rs did ^ L e i f u r Magnusson, " S a n ita ry A spects of Company H ousing,” M onthly Labor Review. Vol® V III, No® 1 (Jan u a ry , 1919), p . 2 9 ^ 240 l i t t l e work f o r th e company, spending most o f t h e i r tim e im proving th e town team . Many com panies went a lo n g way tow ard p ro v id in g n o t o nly b a l l diam onds, b u t a ls o o th e r r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s , In some c a se s i t to o k a long tim e but most lo n g - liv e d company towns e v e n tu a lly produced e x c e ll e n t community f a c i l i t i e s o Com pany-built r e c r e a tio n h a l l s which could be used f o r community dances as w e ll a s p r iv a te p a r t i e s were s ta n d a rd item s in n e a r ly e v e ry tow n. At M orenci, A rizo n a, a swimming p o o l, p la y g ro u n d s, te n n is c o u r ts , and a new b a s e b a ll diamond have a l l been com pleted s in c e 1940, At McCloud, C a lif o r n i a , th e company has provided a b e a u t i f u l n in e h o le g o lf co u rse f o r i t s em ployees, as w e ll as good s ta b le s to se rv e th e com pany-sponsored r id in g c lu b . At S c o tia , C a lif o r n i a , The P a c if ic Lumber Company p ro v id e s an e la b o r a te summer r e c r e a t i o n a l program f o r y o u n g ste rs i n th e tow n, A s p e c i a l a c t i v i t y i s th e b u ild in g o f a la rg e swimming p ool in th e r i v e r each summer and h i r in g p r o f e s s io n a l l i f e g u ard s to te a c h swimming. I t i s a p o p u la r and w e ll o rg an iz ed program . In a d d itio n to u sin g r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s p rovided by th e company, i t was o n ly n a tu ra l th a t many em ployees sh ou ld fin d t h e ir own form o f r e c r e a tio n , "W e made our own en tertain m ent" i s a common answer when th e q u e stio n o f s o c ia l a c t iv i t y comes up. H ere, o f co u rse, 241 company town d w e lle rs have n o t been so d i f f e r e n t from those o f any o rd in a ry sm all community. Near lumber towns f i s h i n g , swimming, and h u n tin g were u s u a lly enjoyed as much as any o th e r a c t i v i t y . W re s tlin g , boxing, horse r a c e s , and o th e r s p o rts were a ls o a p a r t o f l i f e in many com m unities. Even cock f ig h tin g had i t s p la ce in e a r ly Morenci and, most l i k e l y , in o th e r tow ns. In l a r g e r towns i t was custom ary f o r th e company to encourage v a rio u s f r a t e r n a l and s o c ia l o r g a n iz a tio n s . Lodge h a l l s were u s u a lly p ro v id ed , e i t h e r in co n n ectio n w ith th e community r e c r e a tio n h a l l o r as s e p a ra te b u ild in g s . These o rg a n iz a tio n s a ls o help ed in p ro v id in g much of th e to w n 's e n te rta in m e n t. Boy Scout o rg a n iz a tio n s and o th e r youth groups were a ls o sponsored. The v o lu n te e r f i r e d ep artm en t, which i s n o t p e c u lia r to company tow ns, was a fre q u e n t sou rce of s o c ia l a c t i v i t y . In McCloud, C a lif o r n ia , f o r example, th e company s t i l l p ro v id es a w e ll equipped s o c ia l c e n te r a t th e f i r e s t a t i o n . The f i r e departm ent fre q u e n tly sponsors card p a r t i e s , d in n e rs , and o th e r a c t i v i t i e s and th e r e f o r e becomes a d e f i n i t e p a r t o f th e community r e c r e a tio n program. In Westwood, C a lif o r n ia , a F irem en 's Club was formed and th e club house was fu rn is h e d w ith pool t a b l e s , b a th s , p ia n o , phonograph, e t c . , f o r th e e x c lu siv e use of th e v o lu n te e r fire m e n . **ach month an e n te rta in m e n t and supper was h e ld . 242 The company h elp ed cover th e expense w ith a monthly allow ance to th e f i r e departm ent as w e ll as payment f o r each alarm answ ered, As an a u x i lia r y to th e Firemen T s Club th e Firemen*s Band was organized* A ll members o f th e band were workingmen, except th e d i r e c t o r , who was employed as such by th e company* Both c l a s s i c a l and ja z z music was p la y ed , and th e clu b was in demand in many p la c e s in N orthern C a l i f o r n i a , ^ S e v e ra l companies a p p a re n tly took g r e a t p rid e i n p ro v id in g s p e c ia l community a c t i v i t i e s on n a tio n a l h o lid a y s , M adrid, New Mexico, was w idely n o ted f o r i t s c o lo r f u l C hristm as c e le b r a tio n h eld every y e a r. The Phelps Dodge company s t i l l sponsors annual C hristm as p a r t i e s in Morenci and Ajo where S anta Claus makes h is appearance and a l l c h ild re n re c e iv e g i f t s . Some companies have had t r a d i t i o n a l Independence Day p ic n ic s , and o th e rs have h eld r e g u la r community p a r t i e s on o th e r s p e c ia l d ay s. O rg a n iza tio n of community r e c r e a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s d id n o t n e c e s s a r ily r e s t w ith management a lo n e . O ften a community c o u n c il or an employee*s club would be formed f o r th e purpose of p lan n in g and c o o rd in a tin g community 11 'F rank Graham, "Complete Motor F ir e Department P ro te c ts C a lif o r n ia M ill," The Timberman. V ol, XXII, No, 3 (Jan u a ry , 1921), p, 9#® 243 a c t i v i t i e s * V arious f u n d -r a is in g p r o je c ts might be c a rr ie d o u t, and th e company u s u a lly would donate f i n a n c i a l l y to th e community r e c r e a tio n a l fund® In th e s m a lle s t tow ns, and in th o se which were only tem porary, th e se a c t i v i t i e s were n o t as w e ll developed* Evidence seems to in d ic a t e , however, t h a t r e s id e n ts in th e m a jo rity of th e W est’s company towns were w e ll taken c are o f as f a r as r e c r e a tio n a l o p p o r tu n itie s were concerned* R e lig io n The owners o f company towns were a p p a re n tly w illin g n o t only to perm it r e lig i o u s a c t i v i t y b u t, in many c a s e s , to encourage i t * The e x t e n t, of c o u rse , depended la r g e ly upon the s iz e o f th e town and i t s r e l a t i v e is o la tio n * In some sm all towns which were lo c a te d clo se to o th e r com m unities, r e lig i o u s needs could be ta k en care of in th e s e o th e r communities* In o th e r p la c e s , however, th e companies o fte n b u i l t th e churches and even went so f a r as to pay a t l e a s t one m in is te r* In o th e r in s ta n c e s , when th e town did n o t w a rra n t o r could not a ffo rd th e s e rv ic e s o f a f u ll- tim e m in is te r , p erm issio n was given f o r v i s i t i n g clergymen to hold s e rv ic e s in community h a l l s , s c h o o ls , etc* In a t l e a s t one lumber town the company gave th e m in is te r p a rt-tim e work in th e m ill when h is PLATE XVIII RECREATION HALL, FRONTIER, W YOMING. This h a l l , which has been i d l e f o r many y e a r s , i s ty p ic a l of th e r e c r e a tio n h a l l s p ro v id ed in many e a rly coal m ining communities# 245 246 flo c k was unable f u l l y to su p p o rt him ® ^ There i s l i t t l e evidence to in d ic a te t h a t th e owners of company towns attem pted to d isco u rag e o r p r o h ib it the f r e e e x e rc ise o f r e lig io n * Companies o fte n went a long way to h e lp in the e r e c tio n and su p p o rt o f v a rio u s ch u rch es. At Hanna, Wyoming, the Union P a c if ic Coal Company donated land and m a te r ia l fo r th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a M ethodist E p isco p al Church i n 1&91, At McCloud, C a lif o r n ia , th e McCloud River Lumber Company b u i l t the community ch u rch , which s t i l l f u n c tio n s . In a d d itio n , th e company fu rn is h e d a home f o r the m in is te r and gave him a sm all su b sid y . When th e B a p tis ts wanted to b u ild a church in tow n, the company sold them th e lumber a t a nominal r a te and gave them twelve y ears to pay* The C a th o lic , E p isc o p a l, and Mt, Zion B a p tis t (co lo red ) churches a ls o have b u ild in g s i n McCloud, In the c o a l f i e l d s , the Colorado Fuel and Iro n Company had P r o te s ta n t m in is te rs on i t s p a y r o ll to se rv e many o f i t s f a r - f lu n g camps. Charges have been made t h a t th ese p a s to rs were not p e rm itte d to c r i t i c i z e company a c t i v i t i e s , o r t o speak a g a in s t p o lic ie s sup p o rted by th e company, but l i t t l e evidence i s a v a ila b le t o s u b s ta n tia te ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith Ire n e F* T a l l i s , H i l t , C a lif o r n ia , May 2, 1962, 247 such claim s * Company p u b lic a tio n s , in f a c t , r e p o r t t h a t in s e v e r a l communities church b u ild in g s were e re c te d by th e company and t h a t John D* R o c k e fe lle r, Jr* made i t a. s p e c if ic c o n d itio n t h a t n e i th e r he n or th e company should assume any c o n tro l o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y over t h e i r manage ment • 13 At Dawson, New Mexico, th e Phelps Dodge C o rp o ratio n provided a home and o th e r s u b s id ie s f o r a P r o te s ta n t m in is te r u n t i l n e a rly th e end of th e tow n’ s h is to ry * Here, however, most o f th e people were C a th o lic , and form er r e s id e n ts o f Dawson fo n d ly remember how w e ll th e s e v e r a l p r i e s t s f i t in to th e l i f e of the community* Umpiring a t b a s e b a ll games was one o f t h e i r u su a l ta sk s* A l l - i n - a l l , i t appears t h a t church a c t i v i t y was a normal and h e a lth y p a r t of community l i f e in company towns o f th e Westo D iv e rs ity o f Race and N a tio n a lity Company towns were p a r t i c u l a r l y s u s c e p tib le to th e m ixture of race s and n a t i o n a l i t i e s * In th e c o a l f i e l d s , f o r in s ta n c e , many w orkers im m igrated d i r e c t l y from Europe and t h e i r c h ild re n sta y e d on in th e employ o f th e company* Scandanavian and I t a l i a n w orkers seemed to be h ig h ly prom inent in the lumber f ie ld s * In th e New 13 ^Colorado Fuel and Iro n I n d u s t r i a l B u l l e t i n . Vol* I I , No* 1 (O ctober 31, 1916), p* 6 * ~ 243 Mexico and A rizona copper towns Mexican and In d ia n w orkers made up a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r tio n of th e p o p u la tio n 0 While no d e f i n i t i v e su rv ey of th e problems o f ra c e and n a t io n a l o r ig in has been attem p ted h e re , i t i s deemed im p o rta n t a t l e a s t to m ention some of th e p o lic ie s observed* R acial se g re g a tio n in some form appears to have been common* F acto rs o th e r th a n p re ju d ic e could have accounted f o r t h i s , and no attem p t a t judgment i s made here* I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t to p o in t out th a t even today the N egroes, M exicans, and In d ian s o fte n l iv e in s e p a ra te s e c tio n s of company towns where s u b s t a n t i a l numbers o f t h e i r races a re employed# When th e town o f Gamerco, New Mexico, was b u i l t , th e fo llo w in g comment was made w ith re s p e c t to r a c i a l s e p a r a tio n : One o f th e f e a tu r e s to be co n sid ered in t h i s f i e l d i s th e d i v e r s i t y of race s# In a d d itio n to th e u s u a l n a t i o n a l i t i e s common to th e average mining camp, we f in d the Mexicans in la rg e numbers and th e Navajo In d ia n s ranging in number from 1 to 5 p er c e n t of th e to ta l# The Mexicans p r e f e r to l i v e in more or l e s s se g re g a te d q u a r te r s , and a Mexican v ill a g e h as been s t a r t e d somewhat a p a r t from th e main camp# The Navajos b u ild t h e i r own “hoogans” and the s o lu tio n o f t h e i r housing problems does n o t r e s t on th e mine owner# Gamerco seems to be r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e g e n e ra l p a t te r n in m ining communities# At Ray and Hayden, A rizona, ^ C o o le y , S tory o f a Complete Modem Coal Mine# pc 2 8 0 249 s p e c ia l s e c tio n s o f town were s e t a s id e where Mexican w orkers could b u ild t h e i r own homes. At M orenci, Mexican w orkers s t i l l l iv e in a common s e c tio n of town, very l a r g e ly because o f th e n a tu r a l tendency f o r r a c i a l groups to s ta y to g e th e r . In th e e a rly h is t o r y o f Morenci th e re was s e g re g a tio n i n sch o o ls and s o c ia l a c t v i t y a l s o . The Morenci C lub, f o r example, was n o t open to S p an ish - Americans f o r s e v e r a l y e a rs , alth o u g h a Spanish-A m erican Club e x is te d f o r th e m .15 In r e c e n t y ears t h i s s i t u a t i o n has been changed. At Ajo th e o ld e r s e c tio n o f town n e a r th e mine has become a r e g u la r In d ia n v i l l a g e , housing th e Papagos employed by Phelps Dodge. R esid en ts o f some company towns se p a ra te d n o t only along c o lo r l i n e s , but a ls o acco rd in g to n a tio n a l o r ig in . In iDawson, New Mexico, f o r exam ple, d i f f e r e n t European n a tio n a l groups tended to l iv e in s e p a ra te s e c tio n s o f town. The problems of language and d iv e rs e s o c ia l custom s, e s p e c ia lly among d i r e c t im m igrants and t h e i r c h ild re n , could e a s i l y have accounted f o r t h i s , and i t should be p o in te d out t h a t no g r e a t a n im o s itie s e x is te d between th e v a rio u s g ro u p s. This i s sim ply a s i t u a t i o n which i s seen in any American community w ith d iv e rs e n a tio n a l g ro u p s. An id e a o f th e v a r ie ty o f n a t i o n a l i t i e s i n th e c o a l ^ W a tt, " H isto ry o f M orenci," pp. 104-10$. f i e l d s in th e 1920's i s seen in a r e p o r t o f th e U nited S ta te s Coal Commission. S ix ty p e r c e n t o f a l l w orkers in th e bitum inous f i e l d s was re p o rte d as " n a tiv e born w h ite .” S ig h t p er c e n t was " n a tiv e c o lo re d ," w hile th e rem aining 32 p er c e n t came from o u tsid e th e U nited S ta te s . In o rd e r o f dominance, th e fo llo w in g n a tio n s were re p re s e n te d : I t a l y , A u s tria , Hungary, Poland, R u ssia , S lovakland, B r i t i s h I s l e s , Y ugoslavia, Germany, F rance, Sweden, G reece, B u lg a ria . Mexican and Japanese w orkers were a ls o m entioned, but th e y were numerous m ainly in New Mexico and th e N o r th w e s t.^ While the fo re g o in g survey p e rta in e d to th e U nited S ta te s as a w hole, i t i s assumed t h a t somewhat th e same p a tte r n e x is te d in th e West, ex cep t f o r th e la r g e r p o rtio n o f Mexican and Japanese w orkers. In Wyoming, f o r example, th e Union P a c ific Coal Company re p o rte d in 1.93# t h a t 1,400 o f i t s 2,366 m iners were American. At l e a s t th ir ty - tw o a d d itio n a l n a tio n a l o r r a c i a l groups were r e p o r te d , however, th e most prom inent o f which were E n g lish , I t a l i a n s , A u s tria n s , F in n s, G reeks, and S lo v a k ia n s .^ ? A m ajor problem involved w ith such a m ixing o f n a tio n a l backgrounds was lan g u ag e. Colorado Fuel and Iro n ^ U n ite d S ta te s Coal Commission, Report of th e U nited S ta te s Coal Commission. Vol. I l l , p . 1422. ^ H isto ry o f th e Union P a c ific Coal M ines, pp. 163— 164. 251 C o rp o ratio n was aware o f t h i s problem , and a g la n ce th ro u g h th e pages o f i t s e a rly p u b lic a tio n s w i l l re v e a l i t s e f f o r t to do som ething about i t . Camp and P l a n t , a p e r io d ic a l f o r em ployees, u s u a lly in c lu d ed a s h o r t a r t i c l e in German, S panish, and I t a l i a n . As in d ic a te d in an e a r l i e r c h a p te r, th e company attem p ted to s tim u la te p a tr io tis m and good c i tiz e n s h ip through i t s program of "making Americans” in th e c o a l camps by te a c h in g E n g lish , American h i s t o r y , and governm ent. "America F i r s t S o c ie tie s " were org an ized in v a rio u s camps and th e c o o p e ra tio n o f s t a t e and f e d e r a l a u t h o r i t i e s a id e d g r e a t ly in t h i s move. Schools The owners o f a company town had good re a so n f o r ta k in g p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t in th e p u b lic sc h o o ls, p rim a rily because th ey were th e l a r g e s t ta x p a y e rs in th e county and th e r e f o r e had a v e s te d i n t e r e s t in money going f o r th e su p p o rt of s c h o o ls. As a g e n e ra l ru le th e companies seemed to reco g n ize th e need f o r good e d u c a tio n , and many of them took g r e a t p rid e in t h e i r s c h o o ls . The sch o o ls were im p o rtan t n o t only as e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , b u t a ls o as c e n te rs o f community l i f e . The l o c a l b a s k e t b a l l and f o o t b a l l games were u s u a lly w e ll a tte n d e d and most lo n g -tim e r e s id e n ts took much p rid e in sc h o o l achievem ents. 252 Companies had v a rio u s ways o f prom oting and s u p p o rtin g e d u c a tio n . In e a r ly days some firm s went so f a r as to b u ild th e school and h ir e a te a c h e r. U su ally , however, th e company would work w ith th e county school b o a rd . A company r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o fte n served on th e board, and i t was n o t d i f f i c u l t to g e t company-approved p o lic ie s ad o p ted . School b u ild in g s were o fte n e re c te d by th e company and l a t e r so ld to th e school d i s t r i c t a t a very nom inal p r i c e . In o rd e r to a t t r a c t te a c h e rs to is o l a te d com m unities, some companies s t i l l provide liv i n g q u a rte rs f o r them. In th e Phelps Dodge towns of Morenci and Ajo, f o r example, s in g le te a c h e rs l iv e in s p e c ia l u n its c o n s tru c te d f o r them, and m arried te a c h e rs may r e n t th e lo w -co st company houses a t th e same r a t e as company em ployees. Although Colorado Fuel and Iro n a p p a re n tly had good r e l a t i o n s w ith lo c a l school o f f i c i a l s , t h i s company a ls o sponsored i t s own k in d e rg a rte n s . In n e a rly every camp s p e c ia l f a c i l i t i e s were provided and a te a c h e r was h ir e d by th e company f o r th e b e n e f it of the younger c h ild r e n . Support o f sch o o ls th u s played an im p o rtan t p a r t in th e o v e r - a ll planning o f th e owners o f company tow ns. Community S p i r i t The r e s id e n ts o f many company towns developed a p e c u lia r ly lo y a l a tta c h m e n t to t h e i r com m unities. Even though th e company i t s e l f was n o t always th e o b je c t o f g r e a t a f f e c t i o n , th e re was som ething about th e c lo s e n e s s o f town l i f e which developed an i n t e r e s t i n g and lo n g - l a s t i n g community s p i r i t . R e sid e n ts of Dawson, New Mexico, f o r exam ple, s t i l l look back w ith lo n g in g to th e "Dawson D ays," and whenever p o s s ib le re u n io n s and s o c i a l s are h e ld i n th e many a re a s t o which th e y have s c a tte re d ,. M ention has a lre a d y been made of th e f a c t t h a t when th e mines a t Hanna, Wyoming, c lo se d many w orkers were c o n te n t to s ta y on as homeowners i n an a p p a re n tly dying community, w h ile o th e rs s t i l l l i v e w ith th e f a i t h t h a t someday "Hanna w i l l come b a c k ." In o th e r c a s e s , . however, company town r e s id e n ts showed no p a r t i c u l a r attac h m en t to t h e i r com m unities, and th e c lo s in g of a town brought no n o s ta lg ia o r n o te o f s a d n e s s . I l l u s t r a t i v e of th e kind o f community lo y a lty which sometimes m ight develop i s an i n c id e n t in th e s to r y o f V a ls e tz , Oregon. When a newspaper s to r y co n cern in g V a lse tz came out w ith th e name o f th e town m is s p e lle d , th e sopho more c la s s a t V a lse tz h ig h school composed an in d ig n a n t b u t c o r d ia l l e t t e r to th e e d i t o r . E x p ressin g r e a l p rid e in t h e i r community, th e s tu d e n ts w ro te : S ince we have no chamber o f commerce we have ta k e n i t upon o u rs e lv e s to w r ite t h i s l e t t e r and give our b e a u t i f u l l i t t l e town a b o o s t. W e a re only sophomores and h av en ft le a rn e d much y e t , b u t we do 254 know how to s p e l l VALSETZ, . , . V alsetz i s unique in i t s lo c a ti o n , i t s t r a d i t i o n s , i t s h is t o r y , i t s way o f liv i n g and i t s annual r a i n f a l l . W e a re th e o ld e s t company-owned lo g g in g town in Oregon; have one of th e l a r g e s t m ills and logging o p e ra tio n s in Oregon, have one of th e lo w est c o s t - o f - l i v i n g r a t e s in th e s t a t e , . , , Our town i s a v ery w a m -h e a rte d , c l o s e - k n it community, sometimes is o l a t e d by snow and always h ard to re a c h because o f th e winding m ountain ro a d . W e are d e f i n i t e l y p io n e e r in s p i r i t . Our l o c a l V.F.W ,, v o lu n te e r f i r e departm ent, P.T,A , and o th e r groups are v ery a c t i v e . Our sch o o l i s a c e n te r o f community l i f e and c a r r i e s out a v a rie d a c t i v i t y program t h a t keeps our s tu d e n ts i n t e r e s t e d and happy. , • , V alsetz housewives can keep house alm ost w ith o u t le a v in g t h e i r homes® W e have g ro c e ry , c le a n e r , TV s e r v ic e , b a k e r, o i l and propane gas d e l i v e r i e s a t th e d o o r. In a d d itio n , th e company o p e ra te s a la rg e g e n e ra l s t o r e , a movie t h e a t e r , bowling a l l e y , r e s t u r a n t , b a rb e r shop and pool h a llo There a re no liq u o r s to r e s o r ta v e rn s in our town. W e have a very s ta b le p o p u la tio n and no unemployment0 Does i t sound to o good to be tr u e ? Maybe, b u t we l i k e i t , and th in k th a t O regonians should know th a t such a town e x i s ts V alsetz i s n o t th e only community to have developed such a s p i r i t . Lumber m ill towns in g e n e ra l seemed to have some degree o f community p r id e . In te rv ie w s w ith and l e t t e r s from many r e s id e n ts of now e x t i n c t m ill towns re v e a l a s o r t o f n o s ta lg ia f o r th e old community which in d ic a te s th a t th e y lik e d n o t only th e low r e n t b u t a ls o th e whole atmosphere of company town living® Wrote one man who worked in K orbel, C a lif o r n ia , f o r th ir ty - tw o y e a rs : I lik e d th e town o f Korbel to l i v e and work i n , and I lik e d th e company to work f o r . L ife i n a company town i s very much d i f f e r e n t from c i t y o r la rg e town l i f e . In a company town you g e t to know 1A Edwards, "Typo Scram bles V a ls e tz ," 255 a l l o f th e p e o p le , and l i f e i s more inform al® In a c i t y sometimes you do n o t know your n ex t door n e ig h b o r, and everybody i s in a b ig hurry* In a company town you a re more in th e o u td o o rs, and in th e c i t y you f e e l s h u t i n**9 M ention has a lre a d y been made o f th e f a c t t h a t th e r e i s a w a itin g l i s t f o r moving in to S c o tia , C a lif o r n i a , and t h a t p r e s e n t r e s id e n ts do n o t want to move o u t of th e town* At McCloud, C a lif o r n i a , r e s id e n ts seem th o ro u g h ly to en jo y th e m ountain atm osphere, and w i l l i n g l y su p p o rt community a c t i v i t i e s and p r o j e c t s 0 Town s p i r i t i s f o s te r e d i n th e l o c a l sc h o o l where th e e ig h th g ra d e rs have th e p r o je c t o f making th e wooden s t r e e t m arkers t h a t a re lo c a te d on ev ery corner* At H i l t , C a lif o r n i a , i t was r e p o r te d t h a t th e people seemed t o ta k e a g r e a t d e a l o f p rid e in t h e i r community and f e l t c lo se to i t * The advent o f th e la b o r u n io n , however, seemed to have th e e f f e c t o f le s s e n in g t h i s l o y a l t y , a t l e a s t ac co rd in g to one o b se rv e r who has liv e d th e r e p r a c t i c a l l y a l l h e r l i f e *20 The f e e l in g o f community p rid e would n a t u r a l l y v ary w ith th e in d iv i d u a l, and many of th o se in te rv ie w e d r e p o r te d no p a r t i c u l a r f e e l in g o f lo y a lty to o r i n t e r e s t in th e community as such* In f a r more c a s e s , however, community s p i r i t seemed to be h ig h , e s p e c i a lly in th e ^ L e t t e r from Ed C* M o rriso n , May 27, 1962® ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith Ire n e F® T a l l i s , May 2, 1962® 256 towns which have had lo n g e r h i s t o r i e s as e x c lu siv e company towns® O utstanding have been Hanna, Wyoming; Dawson and M adrid, New Mexico; V a ls e tz , Oregon; Trona, S c o tia , and McCloud, C alifornia® The B usiness Runs th e Town While a l l o f th e fo reg o in g re p r e s e n ts a s o r t of com posite p ic tu re o f th e s o c ia l a s p e c ts of th e company town, i t undoubtedly c r e a te s an image l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t from o th e r w estern communities which were lo c a te d in some what remote a re a s and were la r g e ly dependent upon one type of industry® In the company town, however, th e re i s a somewhat in ta n g ib le o v e r-to n e which seems to run through a l l phases of i t s l i f e and i s d e f i n i t e l y connected w ith th e com plete dominance o f a s in g le company® I t i s a s p i r i t which comes n o t n e c e s s a r ily as a conscious e f f o r t from th e company, and i t i s not im m ediately p e rc e iv a b le o r e x p la in a b le by th e employee® I t i s u s u a lly th e r e , however, and seems only g ra d u a lly to dawn upon th e s tr a n g e r as he v i s i t s th e town, p a r t i c i p a t e s in some of i t s a c t i v i t i e s , and ta lk s w ith i t s resid en ts® I t m ight be d e s c rib e d as th e complete s a tu r a tio n by th e company o f th e town, i t a in h a b ita n ts , and a l l i t s su rro u n d in g s— the com plete dominance o f th e b u sin e ss of th e company in ev e ry th in g t h a t i s seen o r ta lk e d about® This in ta n g ib le and alm ost in e x p re s s ib le s p i r i t can 257 b e s t be f e l t only by a t r i p to s e v e r a l company towns® In th e very approach to th e town one o fte n b egins to sense it® When v i s i t i n g a ty p ic a l copper town, f o r exam ple, a person f i r s t d riv e s through m iles of b arren d e s e r t, knowing t h a t a t th e end of th e narrow highway i s th e s o le reaso n f o r th e r o a d T s e x is te n c e , a copper mine and i t s su p p o rtin g community® U sually th e f i r s t sig n t h a t he i s approaching th e town i s a g ia n t p ile o f over-burden which has been removed from th e o p e n -p it mine® Next th e v i s i t o r d r iv e s p a s t the huge s la g p i l e , composed of w aste from th e sm e lte r, which i s n a t u r a l l y one of th e id e n tif y in g f e a tu r e s o f th e s m e lte r town® Next th e tow ering sta c k s of th e sm e lte r loom in to view and f i n a l l y , snuggled a t th e base of th e s m e lte r o r s c a tte r e d around th e m ine, th e town i s d i s covered® U sually sig n s along th e road w i l l i d e n t i f y th e p ro p e rty as belonging to a p a r t i c u l a r company, and i t slow ly becomes ap p a re n t t h a t one i s no lo n g e r on p u b lic p ro p e rty and th a t company p erm issio n may be re q u ire d f o r alm ost any kind o f p u b lic activity® . The sig n o u tsid e S ilv e r B e ll, A rizona, f o r exam ple, re a d s : Notice® A ll S o l i c i t o r s , Salesmen and Drummers Apply a t O ffic e f o r Perm it Before E n te rin g P la n t o r Townsite® S ilv e r B e ll, Ariz®, ASARCO® The approach to lumber m ill towns o fte n g iv e s th e same sense o f company dominance® D riving toward McCloud, C a lif o r n ia , f o r example, th e v i s i t o r t r a v e l s along a 255 narrow road through many m ile s o f tim b e r la n d . Signs alo n g th e way inform him t h a t t h i s f o r e s t belongs to th e McCloud R iver Lumber Company, t h a t he i s welcome a s a v i s i t o r , and t h a t th e company i s engaged in e x te n s iv e tr e e farm ing o p e r a tio n s . By th e tim e he re a c h e s th e town th e v i s i t o r i s w e ll aware th a t t h i s lum ber company i s e x c lu siv e in th e a r e a , and t h a t th e m ill he se e s dom inating th e town i s t h a t o f th e McCloud R iv er Lumber Companye In th e town a c t i v i t i e s o f th e company seem n a t u r a l l y to become a p a r t o f community l i f e and c o n v e rs a tio n . In com m unities a d ja c e n t to copper m ines, dynam ite b l a s t s from th e p i t a re ta k e n as a m a tte r o f c o u rs e 0 Every new company p r o je c t f in d s i t s way in to e v e ry o n e ^ c o n v e rs a tio n , and when community a c t i v i t i e s a re ta lk e d o f , nth e company” comes j u s t as n a t u r a l l y in to th e d is c u s s io n as a f a t h e r would when a fam ily i s p lan n in g i t s a c t i v i t i e s . School p r o je c ts o f te n c e n te r around company a c t i v i t i e s . In some s m e lte r tow ns, th e p o uring of m olten s la g onto th e s la g p i l e a t n ig h t i s a s p e c ta c u la r and c o lo r f u l s i g h t which can be seen from th e tow n. The company s to r e i s th e shopping c e n te r , and com pany-sponsored s o c ia l and r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s p rovide th e main s o c ia l o u t l e t . In many company towns th e w h is tle a t th e company p la n t i s a r e g u la r p a r t of community l i f e . I t n o t o n ly d eterm in es th e s h i f t s , which in tu r n r e g u la te fa m ily l i f e , but i t a ls o t e l l s tim e and p ro v id es a curfew . Company t r a i n s and company lo g g in g tru c k s become a r e g u la r and accep ted p a r t o f th e community, as d id company sh ip s in th e P a c if ic C oast*s e a rly lo g g in g d ay s. A ll of t h i s i s only n a t u r a l to th e lo n g -tim e r e s id e n t, but th e v i s i t o r cannot h e lp observing th a t t h i s i l l u s i v e b u t v e r ita b le s a tu r a tio n by company b u sin e ss o f e v e rth in g i s a very r e a l and d is tin g u is h in g s o c ia l fe a tu re in th e company town. CHAPTER IX M ANAGEM ENT OF THE CO M PA N Y T O W N Ownership o f a company town brought to to p manage ment a m u ltitu d e o f problems not norm ally a s s o c ia te d w ith r e g u la r p la n t management and employee r e l a t i o n s h i p s . As th e company became a la n d lo rd i t in h e r ite d th e th a n k le ss d u tie s of home m aintenance, s e t t l i n g q u a rre ls between te n a n ts , d ec id in g between a p p lic a n ts fo r p a r t i c u l a r houses, c o lle c tin g r e n t , and so o th in g th e r u f f l e d f e e lin g s of those who had g rie v a n c e s . In a d d itio n , th e company assumed the f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f governm ent, being re q u ire d to f u rn is h a l l s e rv ic e s o r d in a r ily provided by e le c te d c i ty o f f i c i a l s . The company alone was th e town l e g i s l a t i v e and e x e cu tiv e body. I t handed down a l l r u le s and r e g u la tio n s and was re s p o n s ib le f o r p u ttin g them in to e f f e c t . The company was r e s p o n s ib le f o r m aintenance of s t r e e t s , community r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s , and p u b lic u t i l i t i e s . F ire p r o te c tio n a ls o came under i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n , as did a g r e a t d e a l o f th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f m a in ta in in g law and o r d e r . P ro v isio n s f o r a l l th e s e governm ental fu n c tio n s had to be made w ith in th e framework o f company o rg a n i z a tio n . The r o le o f company management as la n d lo rd has 260 261 been d isc u sse d in o th e r c h a p te r s . I t s f u n c tio n as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r c i t y government w i l l be co n sid ered h e r e . The ty p e and e x te n t o f town o r g a n iz a tio n n a t u r a lly d if f e r e d w ith th e v a rio u s companies in v o lv e d . The common elem ent in a l l communities was th e f a c t t h a t th e lo c a l p la n t s u p e rin te n d e n t or manager was in com plete charge o f a l l a s p e c ts o f management. In sm all towns he handled p e r s o n a lly a l l community a d m in is tr a tiv e m a tte r s , and he re q u ir e d l i t t l e a s s is ta n c e in doing s o . M aintenance crews worked d i r e c t l y under him, problem s and com plaints came d i r e c t l y to him, and he made a l l d e c is io n s w ith r e s p e c t to h o u s in g . In la r g e communities th e ch ain of o rg a n iz a tio n became somewhat lo n g e r. An o r g a n iz a tio n a l c h a r t f o r V a ls e tz , Oregon, m ight look som ething lik e th e fo llo w in g : LAI® A N D TIMBER DEPT. ( F o r e s t e r ) (Logging S u p t.) S to re R e c re a tio n H all R esidences MILL (M ill S u p t.) PLY W O O D PLANT (P la n t S u p t•) GENERAL M ANAGER (P o rtla n d o f f i c e ) (Townsite M anager) RESIDENT M ANAGER (V a lse tz o f f i c e ) 262 In t h i s case th e r e s id e n t manager i s s t i l l s o le ly resp o n s ib l e f o r th e town, along w ith a l l o th e r company o p e ra tio n s a t V a ls e tz , but th e s p e c if ic assignm ent p e r ta in in g to community management i s d e le g a te d to a to w n site m anager. Law enforcem ent i s handled by a company employee d ep u tize d 1 by th e county. In th e Phelps Dodge communities of Ajo and M orenci th e lo c a l branch managers a re f u l l y re s p o n s ib le to th e company f o r th e towns as w ell as a l l o th e r o p e r a tio n s . In each case th e branch manager is charged w ith community plan n in g and developm ent, alth o u g h company en g in eers and o th e r in te r e s te d departm ents p a r t i c i p a t e . H ere, i t w i l l be remembered, th e expansion o f th e mine i s a d eterm in in g f a c t o r in community development and th e en g in eers are th e r e f o r e much concerned. The d ay -to -d a y a f f a i r s o f th e community, however, a re o f l i t t l e concern to th e branch m anager, as o th e r departm ents a re d e le g a te d v a rio u s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . A r e n t a l agent i s employed who handles a l l problems p e r ta in in g to h o u sin g . M aintenance is p rovided through th e companyfs r e g u la r m aintenance d e p a rt m ent, although th e r e n t a l agent s e t s up sch ed u les fo r house p a in tin g and o th e r r o u tin e p ro c e d u re s. In each town i In te rv ie w w ith James Bryson, General Manager, V a ls e tz 'D iv is io n , Boise Cascade C o rp o ratio n , P o rtla n d , Oregon, A p ril 25, 1962. 263 th e county p ro v id es deputy s h e r i f f s and th e company a lso h i r e s s e c u r ity p o lic e who a re d e p u tiz e d by th e c o u n ty . Most o f th e s t r e e t s in Ajo a re d e d ic a te d county ro a d s , and th e county th e r e f o r e m a in ta in s them. S ince much of Ajo c o n s is ts o f p r iv a te p ro p e rty , th e re a r e a ls o a few county o f f ic e s in town. Ajo has a county c o u rt house and a county s h e r i f f fs o f f i c e , d ep u ty r e c o r d e r , deputy a s s e s s o r , and j u s t i c e of the p e a ce . Many o f the parks se rv in g th e town a re m a in tain ed by th e co u n ty . This i s an u nusual c a se , t h e r e f o r e , in which th e county and th e company co o p erate in problems o f community management. There has been no s ta n d a rd pro ced u re f o r p ro v id in g p u b lic u t i l i t i e s in company-owned tow ns. F re q u e n tly th e company would fu rn is h e l e c t r i c i t y and f u e l f r e e o f c h a rg e . This was e s p e c ia lly tr u e in e a r ly company tow ns, b e fo re m e terin g became common. Sometimes th e company would allo w p r iv a te firm s to f u r n is h th e s e s e r v i c e s . In o th e r cases s u b s id ia r y companies would be form ed. Such a company is th e M orenci Improvement Company, which is housed a t th e M orenci H otel and p ro v id es w ate r and e l e c t r i c i t y fo r th e town* A problem of human r e l a t i o n s sometimes aro se in co n n ectio n w ith s e r v ic e s p ro v id ed by the company. At Hanna, Wyoming, th e s to r y is to ld o f e a r ly d i f f i c u l t i e s 264 involved in c o lle c tin g charges due on unmetered e l e c t r i c l i g h t s . R esid en ts were b i l l e d on th e b a s is o f th e number and siz e o f globes in the house a t the tim e the company a u d ito r came to check. When the a u d ito r once knocked on th e door o f Mrs. M ille r and announced t h a t he was going to check th e l i g h t s , he could see in s id e t h a t the drop cords were s t i l l sw inging back and f o r t h . ”My God!” sa id M rs. M ille r in dism ay, " I was c le a n in g my house th is morning and I broke every bloody l i g h t ! ” The town had no te le p h o n e s, but somehow everyone had a way of l e t t i n g h i s neighbor know t h a t lig h t s were being checked. The a u d ito r , i t is r e p o r te d , d id not fin d many l i g h t b u lb s, b u t he saw a lo t of sw inging c o r d s The a d m in is tra tio n o f Trona, C a lif o rn ia , i s an i n t e r e s t i n g example o f how one company fu n c tio n e d as com bination la n d lo rd and government s e rv ic e agency. Here p r a c t i c a l l y everyone, in c lu d in g d o c to rs , n u rs e s , b a r b e r s , s to r e c l e r k s , and p o lic e o f f i c e r s , were on th e p a y ro ll of American Potash and Chemical C o rp o ratio n . S erv ices were o p erated under one of two r e g u la r departm ents of the company: the V illa g e S ervice Department and the M e rc a n tile D epartm ent. Housing a t Trona was th e d i r e c t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f th e V illa g e S ervice D epartm ent. In 194$ th e re were ^ In te rv ie w w ith Henry Jo n e s, Ju ly &, 1961. 265 f i f t e e n d o rm ito rie s in th e v i l l a g e , two o f which were s e t a s id e f o r s in g le women* Some e ig h ty people were employed to make beds and do the j a n i t o r i a l work in th e s e b a c h e lo r q u a r te r s . The departm ent also m ain tain ed 3$7 h o u ses, s e v e n ty - s ix fam ily ap a rtm e n ts, and 692 g a ra g e s. The V illa g e S erv ice C ontrol U n it, which handled a l l re c o rd keeping fo r the housing u n i t s , had a deputy county c le rk who a ls o a c te d as r e g i s t r a r o f v i t a l s t a t i s t i c s . This u n it th u s became d i r e c t l y involved w ith county government and fu rn is h e d a com plete reco rd f o r the tow nship. The M aintenance D iv isio n a t Trona, p a r t of the V illa g e S erv ice Depsrm ent, had a d i r e c t e f f e c t upon th e liv e s o f th e tow n’s r e s i d e n t s . I t m ain tain ed a com plete c a rp e n te r shop, plumbing shop, e l e c t r i c a l shop, p a in t shop, and o f f ic e machine r e p a i r sh o p . A te n a n t w ith a broken window, clogged plum bing, o r a broken d o o rste p needed o nly to c a l l V illa g e M aintenance in o rd er to g e t i t r e p a ir e d . In s h o r t, e v e ry th in g around th e home, even a b u rned-out l i g h t b u lb , was ta k e n care o f by th e company. O ther b a sic s e rv ic e s a t Trona in c lu d ed p o lic e and f i r e p r o te c tio n . R esponsible f o r law and order on company-owned p ro p e rty was the P lan t and V illa g e P ro te c tio n S e c tio n . A ll o f f i c e r s , alth o u g h working fo r th e company, were d e p u tiz e d by th e San B ernardino County s h e r i f f ’s o ffic e * The Trona F ire D epartm ent, under d ir e c t 266 su p e rv is io n o f th e company’s E ngineering D epartm ent, in 194& in clu d ed one f u l l y tr a in e d c h ie f and tw en ty -n in e v o lu n te e r firem en* The company provided an e la b o ra te alarm system and placed high p re s s u re w ater h y d ran ts th roughout th e p la n t and v i l l a g e . Community p o lic e and f i r e p ro te c tio n in Trona, as in o th e r company tow ns, was th u s provided through a re g u la r company departm ent which sim ply extended i t s s e rv ic e s to meet community n eed s. Some S p e c ia l Problems Some of th e unusual problems o f town management a re touched on f re q u e n tly in o th e r c h a p te rs , but a b r i e f review a t t h i s p o in t i s a p p ro p ria te * Most problems were sim ply problems in human r e l a t i o n s , such as d eterm in in g who got to liv e in which company house* The company su p e rin te n d e n t n e a rly always was provided w ith the f i n e s t re s id e n c e in to r n . Sometimes o th e r d w ellin g would be graded according to job c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , and i f a man re c e iv e d a prom otion he also had th e o p p o rtu n ity to move in to a b e t t e r h o u se. At Ajo, A rizona, a p o in t system i s c u rr e n tly in u se . Since th e re i s a w a itin g l i s t fo r company h o u ses, th e r e n t a l a g e n t a ssig n s p o in ts based on d a te o f a p p lic a tio n , le n g th o f employment, s iz e o f fa m ily , and job r a t i n g . When a vacancy o c c u rs , the man w ith th e h ig h e s t number of p o in ts g e ts i t . A problem which sometimes occurs in connection w ith 267 housing i s what to do w ith r e t i r e d w orkers and widows o f form er employees * According to th e th e o ry o f company c o n tro l, such people should v a c a te in o rd e r to make room f o r o th e r w o rk e rs. A q u e stio n of p r o p r ie ty a r i s e s , how e v e r, i f som eone.should re fu s e to move. In 1962, f o r in s ta n c e , th r e e r e t i r e d employees s t i l l liv e d in S c o tia , C a lif o r n ia , re fu s in g to abandon th e town in which they had spent most of t h e i r l i v e s . A company r e p r e s e n ta tiv e in d ic a te d t h a t th e y had been g iv en no s p e c if ic p e rio d in which to move but they would e v e n tu a lly have to le a v e , even though th e company had n o t y e t attem pted to fo rc e them o u t.^ That o th e r companies were a ls o c h a r ita b le in t h i s r e s p e c t i s seen in th e h is to r y o f K ennecott Copper’s town of M cG ill, Nevada. In 1950 an acute housing sh o rta g e o ccu rred because of th e f a c t t h a t widows of lo n g -tim e employees had been allow ed to co n tin u e liv i n g in company h o u se s. The custom had begun d u ring th e d e p re ssio n when th e re were p le n ty of v acan t h o u ses. In s te a d o f tu rn in g th e widows o u t, th e company now b u i l t a widow’s apartm ent u n it f o r th o se who had no r e l a t i v e s or no p la ce to go. Twelve moved in to th e new u n it w hile s e v e r a l o th e rs l e f t ■^Interview w ith Alden B a ll, A p ril 1$, 1962. 26$ th e community.^- Labor unions d id n o t p la y a d i r e c t p a r t in the management o f company tow ns, f o r managonent u s u a lly re fu s e d to n e g o tia te on such item s as house r e n t s , m ain ten an ce, e t c . In some c a s e s , however, th e un io n s were i n d i r e c t l y in v o lv e d because of t h e i r o r g a n is a tio n o f the v a rio u s town s e r v ic e em ployees. The McCloud R iv er Lumber Company, f o r exam ple, sig n s t h r e e d i f f e r e n t c o n tr a c ts w ith th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Woodworkers o f Am erica: one fo r the p la n t, one fo r the woods, and one fo r the tow n o f McCloud. A 1953 agreem ent sig n ed w ith th e town sub lo c a l re c o g n iz e d th e union as b a rg a in in g agent fo r employees of th e s t o r e , r e s t a u r a n t , h o te l (in c lu d in g b a k e ry ), g a ra g e , and b i l l i a r d room, as w ell as fo r c a r p e n te r s , p a i n t e r s , plum bers, e l e c t r i c i a n s , and the "town c re w .” 5 The c o n tra c t e s ta b lis h e d hours and c o n d itio n s of work, r a t e s o f pay, s e n i o r i t y r e c o g n i tio n , and a l l o th e r agreem ents norm ally covered by u n io n s. I t a lso e s ta b lis h e d a g riev a n ce com mittee kno-wn as th e Town Committee, In t h i s way unions might have some e f f e c t upon town management, alth o u g h ^ L e tte r from D. K. S ta r k , Indus t r i a l R e la tio n s R e p re s e n ta tiv e , K ennecott Copper C o rp o ra tio n , Nevada Mines D iv is io n , M cG ill, Nevada, June 6 , 1962, ^Working Agreement Between th e McCloud R iver Lumber Company and Town Sub Local Union No. 6-64 I.W .A .-C .I.O . McCloudr C a lif o rn ia (1:953 K P. 4 . 269 b a s ic c o n tro l remains in t h e hands o f the company. Managers o f company towns found them selves in th e p o s itio n o f being re s p o n s ib le for a l l r e c r e a tio n a l and s o c i a l needs of t h e i r communities,, In most cases the company was able to o b ta in th e h elp o f employees in p la n n in g and conducting s p e c i a l a c t i v i t i e s . Community r e c r e a t i o n a l co u n c ils and o th e r employee groups were not in fre q u e n t a id s to management in th is r e s p o n s i b i l i t y Among the many ta sk s assumed by company town managers was t h a t of keeping u n au th o rized p e d d le rs and m erchants o u t o f th e i r com m unities. In most towns where company s to r e s o p e ra te d , few i f any o th e r m erchants were allow ed to e s ta b li s h permanent f a c i l i t i e s , although p erm ission fre q u e n tly was given them to s o l i c i t on c e r t a in d a y s. Since th e demise of th e company s t o r e , i t is s t i l l up to the company to determ ine which b u sin ess men s h a ll be allow ed to i n s t a l l them selves in town. The company u s u a lly li m i t s the number o f firm s which may be e s ta b lis h e d , and provides s p e c if ic lo c a tio n s fo r them. Such c o n tro l is j u s t i f i e d in term s of sp a ce as w ell as a r e a l i s t i c c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e lim ite d o p p o rtu n ity a v a ila b le to th e s e b u s in e s s e s . In a d d i tio n , many companies m a in ta in a firm c o n tro l over t r a n s i e n t p ed d lers and s o l i c i t o r s , ^See Chapter V III f o r a d is c u s s io n of r e c r e a t i o n and o th e r s o c ia l a c t i v i t i e s . 270 r e q u ir in g them to o b ta in p erm its a t th e company o f f ic e b e fo re e n te rin g the town. F in a ll y , i t m ust be observed t h a t a most fre q u e n t problem which came to th o se re s p o n s ib le f o r management of company towns was th e f e a r o f many r e s id e n ts t h a t th ey would not g et ev e ry th in g th a t was coming to them . "When ev er a house was im proved," w rote a form er d ir e c to r of K en n e co ttT s Employee R e la tio n s Department a t M cG ill, "th e neighbor o r one w ith a s im ila r job would be su re to ask f o r th e same r e p a i r . This problem was a c o n stan t h ea d ach e. "7 In summary, i t can be seen th a t to govern a company town was no sim ple ta s k , even though i t was only a minor p a r t o f t o t a l company o p e r a tio n s . The problem o f p ro v id in g community r e g u la tio n s and s e rv ic e s and, above a l l , the p e r p le x itie s of human r e la tio n s h i p s made th e s u c c e s s fu l management of a company town a d i s t i n c t i v e ch a lle n g e to sc o re s o f W estern b u s in e s s e s . ^ L e tte r from D. K. S ta rk , June 6, 19620 CHAPTER X ECONOMICS, POLITICS A N D PATERNALISM Some Economic C o n sid eratio n s C o n sid eratio n o f th e economic a s p e c ts o f th e company town r a i s e s a v a r ie ty o f q u e s tio n s . What was th e c o s t of b u ild in g th e tow n, and how d id t h i s compare w ith o v e r - a l l development e x p e n d itu re s? What p o rtio n o f t o t a l o p e ra tin g c o s ts went in to continued community developm ent and main ten an ce? What p o r tio n o f th e t o t a l working fo rc e o f th e town was engaged in a c t i v i t i e s o th e r th a n th o se d i r e c t l y connected w ith th e company1s prim ary b u s in e s s ? In o rd e r to o b ta in th e f i n a l answer to th e s e q u e s tio n s a more com plete economic survey must be ta k e n th a h could be attem p ted a t t h i s tim e , A s e r i e s o f d e ta ile d s tu d ie s on in d iv id u a l towns would be h ig h ly a p p ro p ria te p r o je c ts f o r s e rio u s research ers® Only a few t e n t a t i v e alth o u g h 1 s i g n i f i c a n t assum ptions may be r e p o r te d here® ^As in d ic a te d in Chapter I , p a r t o f th e problem has been in n o t b ein g a b le to d e lv e in to c o rp o ra te records® Another problem i s sim ply t h a t o f b a la n c e , w ith t h i s work in te n d ed as a g e n e ra l h i s t o r i c a l survey r a t h e r th a n a d e t a il e d work on economic, s o c i a l , o r p o l i t i c a l problems® I t i s hoped t h a t th e problem s suggested h ere w i l l open a re a s o f a d d itio n a l re s e a rc h in th e s e s p e c ia l field s® 271 2?2 The c o s t o f b u ild in g a " t y p i c a l ” company town i s d i f f i c u l t to determ ine because th e re a re so many v a r ia b le s * Towns which evolved slo w ly must be co n sid e re d d i f f e r e n t l y from th o se which were s p e c ia lly planned and e re c te d * The s iz e o f a town n a t u r a lly a f f e c t s th e c o s t, a s w e ll as th e amount o f e x tra community s e r v ic e s p ro v id e d . A v a il a b il ity o f b u ild in g m a te r ia l i s a ls o an im p o rta n t f a c t o r , w ith lumber m il l towns o b v io u sly having a d i s t i n c t ad v a n ta g e . Taking a l l th e s e f a c t o r s in to c o n s id e r a tio n , i t must sim ply be observed th a t th e b u ild in g o f a town re p re s e n te d a s u b s t a n t i a l p o rtio n o f th e company*s o r i g i n a l investm ent in t h a t p ro p e rty . In 1914 th e Phelps Dodge C o rp o ratio n began con s t r u c t i o n o f a new m ining town a t Tyrone, New Mexico® E re c tio n o f h o u se s, company o f f i c e , r a i l r o a d te r m in a l, and community r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s p ro g re sse d sim u lta n e o u s ly , By January 1, 191#, th e company had com pleted and made a v a ila b le 163 d w e llin g s . The fo llo w in g ta b le i l l u s t r a t e s th e amount o f money in v e s te d , th e a d d itio n a l ex p e n d itu re p lan n ed , and th e amount re c e iv e d back from re v e n u e -b e a rin g in v e stm e n ts,* 2 Table on next page i s based on L e ifu r Magnusson, "A Modern Copper M ining Town," p , 2d1* 273 Item s D w ellings, e t c : D w ellings Garages {6} House e n g in e e rin g A m t.invested Ja n . 1, 1913 $215,232 1,035 4,644 E s t .i n v e s t when f i n i s h $250,350 1,200 5,000 Net revenue r e c . in 1917 $17,035 23 T o tal 220,961 256,550 17,063 G eneral B u ild in g s S to re & w are house Schoolhouse P ost O ffic e Bank, shop and s to r e 172,£37 76.532 14,274 39.533 173,500 33.000 15.000 53,200 20,622 1,176 (2) (2) T o tal 303,176 324,700 21,793 Sundry improve ments : W ater system L ig h t & power system Roads & s t r e e t s Sewer system J u s t ic e c o u rt E ngineering o f f i c e expen. P laza im prove. Sundry expenses 50,77S 7,205 37,360 13,693 3,167 13,396 13,019 1,734 51.000 3.000 33.000 16.000 3,200 20,000 14,000 2.000 10,213 2,311 (1) 1,913 (1) (1) (1) (1) T otal 145,407 152,200 14,967 Grand t o t a l 669,541 733,450 53,323 1N onrevenue-bearing in v e stm e n t, ^Not r e p o r te d . In a d d itio n to th e fo re g o in g , a company h o s p it a l had been e re c te d a t a c o s t o f $75,000P I f t h i s i s added to th e " e stim a te d investm ent when fin is h e d ,® i t i s seen t h a t th e company o r i g i n a l l y planned to in v e s t w e ll over 274 $#00,000 in th e to w n site a lo n e , e x c lu siv e o f th e c o s t of th e la n d . S t i l l to be e re c te d a t th e tim e t h i s r e p o r t was made was a club h o u se, l i b r a r y , and o th e r community r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s . A l a t e r sou rce in d ic a te s th a t th e f i n a l c o s t o f th e town was $ 1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 .^ I t i s im p o rtan t to n o te th a t in 1917 $53>$2# had been re tu rn e d from r e n t a l s , s t o r e , e t c . T h is, combined w ith th e f a c t t h a t th e h o s p i t a l undoubtedly was lo s in g money, and w ith f u tu r e expenses involved in town main ten an ce and r e p a i r s , in d ic a te s th a t i t would have tak en a t l e a s t two decades fo r th e o r i g i n a l to w n site investm ent to r e tu r n to th e company th rough th e s e s o u rc e s . The cost ap p ears even h e a v ie r when i t i s r e a l iz e d t h a t th e Tyrone mines c lo sed in 1921 and have o p e ra te d o n ly s p o ra d ic a lly s in c e t h a t tim e . No in d ic a tio n is g iv en o f th e t o t a l c o st o f d ev elo p in g th e Tyrone p ro p e rty , and i t i s th e r e f o r e d i f f i c u l t to e s tim a te th e p o rtio n o f th e c o s t ta k e n up by th e company tow n. A more r e c e n t copper m ining town a t Weed H eig h ts, Nevada, was e re c te d by th e Anaconda Company in th e 1 950's as p a r t o f a t o t a l development ex p en d itu re o f $40 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 . I f i t i s e stim a te d t h a t th e to w n site alo n e c o st $2,000,000 (and t h i s i s undoubtedly v e ry ^Works P ro g ress A d m in is tra tio n , W riter® s Program, New Mexico. A Guide to th e C o lo rfu l S t a t e , p . 41$* 275 c o n s e rv a tiv e in view o f r i s i n g c o s ts and th e f a c t t h a t Weed H eights h as e x c e lle n t houses and community f a c i l i t i e s ) , i t is s e e n th a t a company town could absorb a t l e a s t 5 per c e n t o f the o r i g i n a l c o st o f d ev elo p in g a p a r t i c u l a r m ining p ro p e rty . F ig u res from a few a d d itio n a l towns w ill se rv e to give some id e a o f th e r e l a t i v e economic s ig n if ic a n c e o f a company town in th e o v e r - a l l o p e ra tio n s o f p a r t i c u l a r f ir m s . The 1911 balance sh e e t o f th e Weed Lumber Company, Weed, C a lif o r n ia , l i s t e d t o t a l a s s e ts o f $ 4 ,3 6 2 ,7 5 1 .2 0 . "Tenement b u ild in g s " were valued a t $142,252.30, w hile ranch la n d s and to w n site p ro p e rty to g e th e r were w orth $ 3 6 ,0 3 3 .3 2 .^ I f ranch la n d s a re co n sid ered as p a r t o f th e town*s s u p p o rt, appro x im ately 4 .7 p er c e n t of th e companyT s t o t a l a s s e ts was in v e ste d in th e to w n site and i t s s u p p o rtin g o p e r a tio n s . Weed Lumber Company^ p r o f i t and l o s s sta te m e n t f o r 1911 showed the fo llo w in g f i g u r e s Loss P r o f i t Lumber $ $154,416.63 F acto ry 79,513.99 S to re 57,121.11 Butcher Shop 3,039*66 H o sp ita l 2,563.71 ^Weed Lumber Company, "Annual R e p o rt," 1911* With Weed Lumber Company p ap e rs housed a t B a n cro ft L ib ra ry , B erk ely , C a lif o r n ia . 6Ib id . 276 Loss P r o f i t G r i f f in Ranch 64.37 Lath 407.64 Slabwood 1 ,555.3*$ S ta b le 3,147.73 S h in g les 736.12 Machine Shop 1,560.S3 Bar 135.1^ Boarding House 59#.72 H otel 1.9# Rents 4 ,1 3 6 .1 2 I n t e r e s t and D is count Earned 4,#74*67 M isc. Income ______________________9 .0 5 2 .# 9 Gross Income 64.37 322,917.41 E x penditures I n t e r e s t and D is co u n t, n o te s , e t c . 9 ,6 6 3 .0 4 I n t e r e s t on Expense bonds— is s u e 1905 16,907.53 I n t e r e s t on bonds-- is s u e 1910 69,500.00 Expense Re Bonds 1,442.41 T axes, Timber and P la n t 9 ,9 9 6 .4 # Taxes—p e rso n a l 1,500.00 A ccident In su ran ce 6,0 0 0 .0 0 A ccident In su ran ce {Dorman Case) 3 ,7 ^4 .4 5 A ccident Insurance (1910 premium) 3,620.21 Net Gain 200«43 #.92 322,917.41 322,917.41 Gross income from th e s t o r e , b a rb e r shop, h o s p i t a l , ra n c h , b a r , b o arding h o u se, h o t e l , and r e n t a l s amounted to $67 ,6 4 6 .4 # , o r ap p ro x im ately 20 per cent o f th e g ro ss Income from a l l s o u rc e s . To c o n sid e r th e f ig u r e s an o th e r way, th e b alan ce s h e e t v alu e o f r e n t a l s , ranch la n d s , and 277 o th e r to w n site p ro p e rty was $2 2 3 ,3 4 1 .1 2 . The $67,646*43 income from t h i s same p ro p e rty was ap proxim ately 30 p e r c e n t o f i t s t o t a l value* I f the f ig u r e s f o r 1911 a re r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f Weed Lumber Company’s norm al o p e ra tio n s in th a t p e rio d , i t s investm ent would have been re tu r n e d in le s s th a n fo u r y e a r s . In t h i s case i t does not ap p ear t h a t th e ru n n in g o f a company town was a p a r t i c u l a r lo n g - range l i a b i l i t y . Weed, how ever, seems to be u n u su a l. Although i t was a company town, i t was one o f th o se communities where p r iv a te housing e x is te d a d ja c e n t to company p ro p e rty , and employees were encouraged to b u ild t h e i r own homes o u ts id e o f town when p o s s i b l e .7 T o ta l investm ent in h o u sin g , t h e r e f o r e , d id not r e f l e c t t o t a l number o f em ployees, as in th e case o f such towns as McCloud. In a d d itio n , th e Weed Lumber Company did n o t in v e s t any sub s t a n t i a l amount in upkeep o f company h o u se s, spending o nly a t o t a l o f $259»05 on r e p a i r s in 1911, most o f which in v o lv ed la b o r r a t h e r th a n s u p p l i e s a form er g e n e ra l manager r e a d i ly a d m itte d t h a t th e town had "a l o t o f hay w ire h o u s e s ,” b u t ca n d id ly p o in te d o u t th a t th e company was in t h e lumber b u sin e ss to make money, n o t to p u t money 7In te rv ie w w ith J . M. W hite, A p ril 20, 1962. ^Weed Lumber Company, "Annual R e p o rt," 1911, Schedule Wo. 22^. 273 in to new h o u s e s .9 The f ig u r e s above show t h a t the Weed H otel earned o n ly $1.93 f o r the y e a r in q u e s tio n . I t seems to have been normal f o r company-owned h o te ls , most o f which were v e ry lu x u r io u s , to b reak even o r even to lo s e money. H o sp ita l income was l i s t e d a s $2,563*71* This seems to be h ig h ly u nusual in company tow ns, f o r i t was n o to rio u s f o r h o s p it a ls to lo s e money. At M idwest, Wyoming, fo r exam ple, a 1925 r e p o r t showed a n et lo s s in th e h o s p it a l o f $4,366.39*0 Phelps Dodge c u r r e n tly owns company hos p i t a l s in each o f i t s communities and o p e ra te s them a t a s u b s t a n tia l economic lo s s each y e a r . ^ Weed, t h e r e f o r e , does not n e c e s s a r ily r e p r e s e n t normal company town econom ics. Town improvement was a co n tin u in g o p e ra tin g c o st w ith most com panies, alth o u g h i t did n o t f re q u e n tly seem to be an ex trem ely la r g e p o r tio n o f t h e i r t o t a l ex p en ses. In 1920, th e y ear b efo re Phelps Dodge a c q u ire d h o ld in g s of th e A rizona Copper Company a t M orenci, the l a t t e r company?s c o s t sta tem en t fo r th e year ended September 30 showed a t o t a l o f $5,402.02 s p e n t f o r town im provem ents. ^ In te rv ie w w ith J . M. W hite, A p ril 20, 1962. ^ T h e Midwest Review. V ol. V II,,N o . 1 (Jan u ary , 1926), p .“ 25:----------------------- ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith H. E, Moore, March 12, 1962. 279 Since t o t a l c o s ts were l i s t e d a t $2,294>6 7 6 *93j i t can be seen t h a t only about .2 per cent o f t h i s sum was e a te n up by th e town*12 In l a t e r y e a rs , how ever, Phelps Dodge made heavy e x p e n d itu re s in town development* Between 1936 and 1957 th e company sp e n t o ver t h i r t e e n m illio n d o lla r s on housing a lo n e * 13 In 1957 i t owned and re n te d 2,246 h o u se s, 379 a p a rtm e n ts , and 174 dorm itory u n its i n A jo, B isb ee , and Morenci* The owners o f company towns which e x i s t to d ay have p u t s u b s t a n t i a l amounts in to continued upkeep* S c o tia and McCloud, f o r in s ta n c e , both have r e g u la r m aintenance sc h e d u le s, and the houses a r e kept w e ll p a in te d and in good r e p a i r by the companies* R e la tiv e c o s t f ig u r e s a re not a v a ila b le , but most managers c o n s id e r t h e i r towns an economic lo s s a s f a r as town o p e ra tio n s alo n e are con cerned* They h o ld on to them only o u t o f an assumed n ec es s i t y . The g e n e ra l manager o f th e V a lse tz D iv isio n o f th e Boise Cascade C orporation r e p o r te d t h a t th e company town o f V a ls e tz , Oregon, was a d i s t i n c t economic l o s s , having c o s t th e company $£,000 in th e f i r s t th r e e months o f 1962 *1^ 12A rizona Copper Company, ”Cost S tatem en t” f o r the y e a r ended September 3 0 , 1920, in A rizona Copper Company papers a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f A rizona, Tucson, A rizona* 13phelps Dodge C o rp o ratio n , Annual R e p o rt* 1957» p. 14* 14 ln te rv ie w w ith James Bryson, A p ril 25, 1962* 280 Another a s p e c t o f company town economics i s seen in th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t o t a l employees working in th e company*s prim ary in d u s try to th e number working in o th e r b u s in e s s e s . In o th e r w ords, how many people and how much wage money does i t ta k e to p ro v id e su p p o rtin g eonsnunity s e rv ic e s f o r th e company town? In 1953 and 1954 John W. Leonard made such a stu d y a t A jo, A rizona, under th e d ir e c tio n o f th e Bureau o f B usiness Research a t th e U niver s i t y o f A rizo n a.^ Although h is co n clu sio n s must a p p ly only to one town, th ey are s i g n i f i c a n t enough to m ention b r i e f l y h e re . Leonard used th e term " b a s ic ” to d e s c rib e th e copper in d u s try in A jo, and a l l o th e r a c t i v i t i e s were d e s c rib e d as " n o n -b a s ic ." With r e f e r e n c e to p o p u la tio n grow th, Leonard determ ined t h a t the long-term in c re a s e came a t a r a te much d i f f e r e n t th an th a t ex p erien ced by th e county o r by th e s t a t e as a w hole. I t c lo s e ly approxim ated, r a t h e r , th e r a t e of in c re a s e of copper p ro d u c tio n , which te n d s to show how c lo s e ly th e p o p u la tio n o f a company town i s t i e d to the o p e ra tio n o f i t s b a s ic in d u s tr y . ^ J o h n W » Leonard, "The Economics o f a O ne-Industry Town" (u npublished M aster*s t h e s i s , College o f B usiness and P ublic A d m in is tra tio n , U n iv e rs ity o f A rizo n a, 1954). Reviewed by L, S , Casaday in A rizona B usiness and Economic Review, V ol. I l l , No. 12 (December, 1954). the fo llo w in g m a te r ia l i s ta k e n from th e rev ie w . 261 The r a t i o between b a s ic and n o n -b asic employment in Ajo was i n t e r e s t i n g . I t was found t h a t a t any g iv e n tim e employment in the b a s ic m ining in d u s try was from th r e e to fo u r tim es h ig h e r th an employment in a l l o th e r a c t i v i t i e s . In 1942, fo r example, employment in th e b a sic f i e l d was 1,057» w hile n o n -b asic employment was 257* o r a r a t i o o f 1 to .2 4 . In 1952 b a s ic employment was 1,220 as opposed to 422 in th e n o n -b asic f i e l d s , o r a r a t i o o f 1 to .3 5 . To p u t i t an o th er way, i t took from o n e -q u a rte r to o n e - th ir d o f a worker in n o n -b asic a c t i v i t i e s to su p p o rt one w orker in th e b a s ic i n d u s t r y . ^ With r e s p e c t to wages, Leonard found t h a t th o se employed in n o n -b a sic a c t i v i t i e s re c e iv e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y le s s th an th o se who worked in th e b a s ic in d u s tr y . I t should be remembered h ere th a t in Ajo a number o f p r iv a te b u sin e sse s a re allow ed to o p e r a te , in a d d itio n to th e company s t o r e . In 1942 th e n o n -b a sic w orkers re c e iv e d an average wage o f $1,616, as compared w ith $2,697 in th e b a s ic in d u s tr y . This was a r a t i o o f 1 to . 6 7 . By 1952 th e r e s p e c tiv e s a l a r i e s were up to $3,221 and $5,467* o r a r a t i o o f 1 to .5 9 . ^ T h e w r ite r f o r th e A rizona B usiness and Economic Review tu rn e d t h i s sta te m e n t around," sa y in g t?each w orker in th e b a s ic in d u s try S u p p o rted * only from about one- q u a r te r to a l i t t l e over o n e - th ir d of a w orker in th e non- b a s ic i n d u s t r y .” The r a t i o has more s ig n ific a n c e to t h i s w r i t e r , however when s t a t e d a s above. 2 $2 Although th e fo re g o in g stu d y i s h ig h ly i n t e r e s t i n g and p ro b ab ly r e p r e s e n ts th e tr e n d in most la r g e company tow ns, i t should not be taken a s f in a l* I t s v a l i d i t y has y e t to be dem onstrated th rough a d d itio n a l s tu d ie s * Some P o l i t i c a l A spects P o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y was g e n e ra lly o f l i t t l e im por ta n c e in th e company town, p r im a r ily because v ery few towns were in c o rp o ra te d or had any form o f e le c te d government* The company managed ev e ry th in g and u s u a lly th e re was n e i th e r n e c e s s ity nor o p p o rtu n ity fo r r e s id e n ts to become inv o lv ed in th e problems o f lo c a l government* For purposes o f law enforcem ent, th e company town came under th e county s h e r i f f fs j u r i s d i c t i o n , alth o u g h l o c a l d e p u tie s would be appointed w ith company a p p ro v a l. F re q u e n tly th e company had i t s own s e c u r ity p o lic e who were a ls o d e p u tiz e d by th e s h e r i f f . In term s o f n a tio n a l p o l i t i c s , r e s id e n ts o f company- owned communities showed o n ly averag e i n t e r e s t . In 1960, f o r example, th e r e were 2,2 2 7 r e g is t e r e d v o te rs in th e fo u r M orenci p r e c i n c t s , and 1,331 tu rn e d o u t to v o t e j ? P o l i t i c a l p a rty d iv is io n in company towns seems to have fav o red th e Dem ocrats, a t l e a s t sin c e th e 1930*s, ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith J , A, L en tz , Manager, M orenci Branch, P helps Dodge C o rp o ra tio n , M orenci, A rizo n a, March 14, 1962, Mr, Lentz had a l l r e c e n t v o tin g s t a t i s t i c s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . 2 S3 The 1960 r e g i s t r a t i o n o f Greenlee County, A rizona, in which Morenci provided n e a r ly h a l f th e v o te r s , showed 5,027 Democrats and 2S5 R epublicans* One r e s id e n t of Dawson, New M exico, r e p o r te d th a t in the 1932 e l e c t io n th e company made every e f f o r t to induce i t s employees to v o te f o r Hoover, but in th e f i n a l a n a ly s is m ost of the town had vo ted f o r R o o s e v e l t .^ This seems to in d ic a te t h a t company p re s s u re to in flu e n c e n a tio n a l p o l i t i c s , when e x e rc is e d a t a l l , was n o t u s u a lly s u c c e s s f u l. Although th e re is l i t t l e evidence i n r e c e n t decades to in d ic a te t h a t company p re ssu re was e f f e c t iv e in d e t e r m ining th e way employees voted in n a tio n a l e l e c t io n s , in th e e a r l y p a r t of t h i s cen tu ry some such co ercio n most l i k e l y e x is te d . Top management o f companies which owned towns was u s u a lly R epublican, and sometimes made e f f o r t s to see th a t employees v o te d the same way. A lo n g -tim e , and sy m p a th e tic a lly pro-company, r e s id e n t of Hanna, Wyo m ing, r e p o r ts t h a t in the e a rly days the town s u p e rin te n d e n t was always R epublican, "and t h a t was i t , everyone e ls e w as." He t o ld them how to vote ami they v o ted t h a t w a y . Only a f t e r 191$ d id th in g s begin to change, and by 1924 the two major p a r t i e s held equal power in Hanna. In ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith W illiam Goldman, June 24, 1961. ^ i n t e r v i e w w ith Henry Jo n e s, J u ly $ , 1961. 2BU 1923 th e Democrats to o k th e le a d and rem ained t h e r e a f t e r th e dom inant p a r ty . The owners o f company towns were sometimes v ery e f f e c t i v e in t h e i r c o n tr o l o f lo c a l p o l i t i c a l a f f a i r s . R eference a lr e a d y h as been made to the manner in which Colorado F uel and Iro n was accused o f c o n t r o ll in g e l e c tio n s f o r county s h e r i f f ,20 in o th e r a r e a s companies worked d i r e c t l y w ith county s h e r i f f s in a p p o in tin g d e p u tie s f o r th e tow ns. At Hanna, f o r exam ple, th e d ep u ty s h e r i f f was alw ays a r e g u la r employee of th e company, A form er r e s id e n t of th e company town of .C artag o , C a lif o r n i a , r e p o r ts t h a t he once h e ld th e job o f s h e r i f f t h e r e , "because th e s u p e rin te n d e n t w anted me to have i t , " ^ He se rv e d w ith o u t p ay . Trona, C a lif o r n i a , was a la rg e company town w ith a p la n t and v i l l a g e p r o te c tio n s e c tio n as p a r t o f i t s company o r g a n iz a tio n . A ll o f f i c e r s were on th e company p a y r o ll, but were a ls o d e p u tiz e d by th e San B ernardino County S h e r i f f 's o f f i c e . I t should n o t be assumed t h a t th e r e was any m a lic io u s i n t e n t on th e p a r t o f th e s e companies i n t h e i r c o n tr o l o f d eputy s h e r i f f ap p o in tm e n ts. I t was, r a t h e r , sim ply a p r a c t i c a l method o f ta k in g ca re of such law enforcem ent problem s a s e x i s t e d . In most f u l l y developed ^ S e e C hapter V. In te rv ie w w ith John ¥ . M a rs h a ll, F ebruary 19, 1962. 235 company tow ns, i t should be r e p o r te d , few such problems o c c u rre d . Since th e company had a f i n a n c i a l i n t e r e s t i n p u b lic sch o o ls by v ir tu e of i t s p o s itio n as the o nly ta x payer in th e community, i t was only n a tu r a l f o r owners o f a company town to ta k e s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t in sc h o o l board e l e c t i o n s . I t was common f o r th e company to sponsor ca n d id ates f o r th e county board o f e d u c atio n a s w e ll a s f o r lo c a l b o a rd s. F req u en tly th e company s u p e rin te n d e n t was chairm an o f the lo c a l board and always th e company had much to say about school bond i s s u e s . An extrem e example of company dom ination o f sc h o o l boards is seen in th e e a rly m i l l town of Seabeck, Washing to n . Edward C layson, who v i o l e n t l y d is lik e d th e management o f Seabeck and who liv e d on h i s own p ro p e rty a d ja c e n t to th e company-owned tow n, accused the company of co m p letely c o n tro llin g a l l sch o o l p o lic ie s in i t s own s e l f i s h i n t e r e s t . His memoirs t e l l o f h is u n su c c e ssfu l attem p t to undermine th e company in i t s management o f the sc h o o ls . His e f f o r t s , however, to have a v o ice in th e sch o o l board m eetings were f r u s t r a t e d . 22 In alm o st every company town the managers determ ined th e school board and school p o l i c i e s , alth o u g h a t t i t u d e 22C layson, H is to r ic a l N a rra tiv e of Puget Sound, p . 4 6 . See a ls o Chapter I I I o f th is d i s s e r t a t i o n . 286 toward th e sc h o o ls v a rie d w ith in d iv id u a ls # Most r e s id e n ts o f company towns seemed r a th e r proud o f t h e i r s c h o o ls , and l i t t l e i f any m alevolence seems to have been in v o lv ed in company c o n tr o l. P a te rn a lism The word "p a te rn a lism " appears fre q u e n tly in conver s a tio n s and w r i tte n m a te r ia ls p e r ta in in g to th e company town. I t is a word which management a tte m p ts co n scio u sly to a v o id , f o r i t connotes a type o f company c o n tro l d e s tr u c tiv e o f p e rso n a l l i b e r t y . Talk to any company town manager and he w i l l f lin c h a t th e use o f th e word, em phasising th e g r e a t advantages ac cru in g to employees by v i r t u e of t h e i r l i v i n g in h i s community. N e v e rth e less " p a te rn a lism " is a good word which must be used in d e s c rib in g th e company-owned community. I t is d efin e d by W ebster as a r e l a t i o n between the governed and the governm ent, th e employed and th e em ployer, e t c . , in v o lv in g ca re and c o n tro l su g g e stiv e o f th o se follow ed by a f a t h e r ; a l s o , the p r in c ip l e s o r p r a c tic e s so i n v o l v e d . ^3 From th e company®s p o in t-o f-v ie w , the p r iv ile g e o f l i v i n g in a company town depended upon an in d i v i d u a l 's s p e c if ic v a lu e , e i t h e r as an employee or as a w orker in some b u sin e ss d i r e c t l y c o n trib u tin g to th e su p p o rt o f th e community. The company seldom expected i t s investm ent in 23W e b ster's New C o lle g ia te D ic tio n a ry . 1953 < > housing and o th e r f a c i l i t i e s to be re tu rn e d th rough d i r e c t income® These f e a t u r e s , r a t h e r , were co n sid ered as e x tra s u b s id ie s to th e em ployee. The company th e r e f o r e f e l t th e r i g h t to demand c e r t a in co n cessio n s from i t s town r e s i d e n t s . I f , in th e e a rly decades o f t h i s c e n tu ry , union o rg a n iz e rs were a tte m p tin g to g e t a fo o th o ld in th e town, th e company was n a t u r a lly u n w illin g to allo w i t s p ro p e rty , in c lu d in g i t s h o u se s, s t o r e s , e t c . , to be used f o r purposes which i t co n sid ered in im ic a l to i t s own i n t e r e s t s . I f an employee was d isc h a rg e d from th e company, o r i f he re s ig n e d , th e company claim ed th e r i g h t to ta k e h is house along w ith h is job in o rd e r to make room f o r th e man who would ta k e h is place® On th e o th e r hand, owners o f many company towns have f e l t a p o s itiv e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y tow ard t h e i r em ployees. Speaking o f th e f a c t t h a t h is company r e a l iz e d th e d i r e c t e f f e c t i t could have in th e l i v e s o f w orkers a t V a ls e tz , Oregon, a g e n e ra l manager rem arked: ”W e k een ly and g en u in ely f e e l our r e s p o n s i b i l i t y tow ard t h a t which has been e n tru s te d to u s . W e b e lie v e in th e d ig n ity o f man and th e w orth o f th e i n d i v i d u a l H e noted t h a t company p o lic y attem p ted to e lim in a te r a c i a l p r e ju d ic e . I t a ls o promoted programs d esigned f o r th e m oral and p h y s ic a l improvement o f i t s w o rk ers. When th e company took o v e r, ^ I n te r v ie i v w ith James Bryson, A p ril 25, 1962. 2gg th e r e was no church a t V a ls e tz , The company th e r e f o r e b u i l t a community church and s t i l l c o n trib u te s to i t s s u p p o rt, A community r e c r e a tio n c e n te r was a ls d b u i l t . These and many o th e r th in g s were done, he s a id , n o t o nly to encourage good people to come to work f o r th e company, b u t a ls o out o f a s in c e r e concern f o r th e w e lfa re o f th e workerso S im ila r ex p re ssio n s were made by o f f i c i a l s a t many o f th e W est's p re se n t-d a y company tow ns, such as S c o tia and McCloud, C a lif o r n ia , and Morenci and Ajo, A rizona, I t m ight be argued t h a t th e s e glowing sta te m e n ts o f good in te n t a r e sim ply th e e x p re ssio n o f company o f f i c i a l s tr y in g to co u n ter th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f bad p u b l i c i t y . S e lf is h m o tiv es, i t could be m a in ta in e d , a re behind a l l e f f o r t s to improve th e a t t i t u d e o f th e employee toward th e company. Whatever th e re a so n , i t i s tr u e th a t company town l i v i n g i s a r e l a t i v e l y easy l i f e , and th a t th e v a rio u s p a t e r n a l i s t i c p r o je c ts o f th e companies involved have made i s o l a t i o n not th e handicap one m ight suppose. I t i s not im p o ssib le to b e lie v e t h a t a s in c e r e benevolence was a t. l e a s t p a r t l y inv o lv ed in th e m otives o f some o f th e owners o f th e W est's p a t e r n a l i s t i c com m unities. The degree to which company p a te rn a lis m m ight extend has a lre a d y been i l l u s t r a t e d in th e b r i e f s t o r i e s o f r e p r e s e n ta tiv e company towns in v a rio u s in d u s tr ie s o f th e 239 W est. In most c a s e s , i t w ill be remembered, th e company n o t only owned e v e ry th in g in tow n, b u t a ls o took re s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r m aintenance. House r e p a i r s were accom plished by r e g u la r m aintenance crew s. Community f a c i l i t i e s were k e p t in r e p a i r by th e company, and th e employee had v i r t u a l l y no community r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . In a few in s ta n c e s employee r e c r e a tio n c o u n c ils p a r tic ip a t e d in sp o n so rin g s p e c ia l a c t i v i t i e s , and even r a i s e d money f o r them through s p e c ia l p r o j e c t s . The q u e stio n o f w hether p a te rn a lis m was good o r bad f o r th e in d iv id u a l has c o n s ta n tly been under d eb a te and c e r t a in ly cannot f i n a l l y be answered h e r e . Much o f th e answ er, however, depends upon such f a c to r s a s th e a t t i t u d e o f th e company toward i t s em ployees, th e kind o f in d iv id u a l worker in v o lv e d , and th e degree o f company c o n tro l o r co e rc io n e x e rc is e d . Many companies argue t h a t th e company town can be a p o s itiv e good f o r both th e worker and th e company. At Climax, C olorado, f o r example, th e company once ex p erien ced an e x c e p tio n a lly high employee tu rn o v e r, in d ic a tin g t h a t l i v i n g and working c o n d itio n s were n o t a t t r a c t i n g th e perm anent, s ta b le worker which th e company d e s ir e d . A rthur H. Bunker, p re s id e n t o f Climax Molybdenum Company, o rd ered a program o f m o d ern izatio n and improvement, c a lle d th e "Design f o r Man," in o rd e r to s t a b i l i z e employment. In 290 a d d itio n to b e t t e r pay, th e company provided more com fort a b le homes, p ro v is io n s f o r h e a lth and s a f e ty , a good h o s p i t a l , a modern sc h o o l, and many o th e r com forts o f modern l i f e , in c lu d in g t e l e v i s i o n . By 1954 i t was re p o rte d t h a t employee tu rn o v e r had slowed to a t r i c k l e , in d ic a tin g s a t i s f a c t i o n n o t o n ly f o r th e w orker but a ls o f o r th e 25 company. J A d d itio n a l evidence fo r th e b e n e f its o f th e company town i s seen in th e f a c t t h a t many em ployees, w hile spending what to them was a s a t i s f a c t o r y c a re e r w orking f o r th e company, saved enough money to purchase homes in o th e r communities when th e y r e t i r e d . Cheap h o u sin g , low h o s p ita l b i l l s , la c k o f need o r in c e n tiv e to t r a v e l f a r from home even on w eek-ends, la c k o f need to commute to work, and good pay a l l combined to make l i f e in th e company town n o t only a t t r a c t i v e but o f te n c o n s tru c tiv e . On th e o th e r hand, i t is o f te n observed t h a t th e p a te rn a lis m o f th e company town s t i f l e d th e i n i t i a t i v e of th e in d iv id u a l, was not r e a l l y a p p re c ia te d , and sometimes r e s u lt e d in d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n and an u n s ta b le work f o r c e . Evidence i s seen in th e f a c t t h a t employees f re q u e n tly n e g le c te d t h e i r y ard s and h o u se s, having le a rn e d to depend upon th e company f o r e v e ry th in g . The p rid e o f home S a lu te to Climax Molybdenum,” s p e c ia l su p p le ment to Bnpire* th e magazine o f th e Denver P o s t, Sunday, May 23, T 5 5 5 7 " ------------------- 291 ow nership, i t i s arg u ed , would improve th e appearance o f a community as w ell a s th e m oral s t a t u r e o f th e w orker h im s e lf. When th e town o f Trona, C a lif o r n ia , was s o ld to r e s id e n ts la b o r tu rn o v e r went down, many form er g rie v a n c e s between la b o r and management were e lim in a te d , and r e s id e n ts developed an a c tiv e , wholesome community s p i r i t . In t h i s in s ta n c e th e e lim in a tio n o f th e company town seemed to b e n e f i t a l l concerned. Even a f t e r a l l th e improvements made a t Climax, C olorado, r e s id e n ts s t i l l seemed to a p p r e c ia te th e o p p o rtu n ity to own t h e i r own homes i n t h e i r own community when Climax Molybdenum decided to e lim in a te th e town.. The e f f e c t o f company town l i v i n g upon th e in d iv id u a l seem s, in th e f i n a l a n a ly s is , to depend not upon th e degree o f p a te rn a lis m e x e rc ise d by th e company b u t, r a t h e r , upon th e in n a te c h a ra c te r o f th e in d iv id u a l h im s e lf . F re q u en tly i t is r e p o rte d t h a t homes s ta n d in g s id e " “b y -sid e dem onstrated both extrem es o f care and upkeep. An o u ts id e r who fr e q u e n tly v i s i t e d Westwood, C a lif o r n ia , r e p o r ts t h a t homes w hich, by company p o lic y , were crude and u n painted o u ts id e , were o f te n very n e a t and com fortable in s i d e , w hile a n e ig h b o rT s home m ight be j u s t th e o p p o s ite , 26 i l l u s t r a t i n g th e d if f e re n c e in p e o p le . The same th in g ^ I n t e r v i e w w ith Emanuel F r i t z , P ro fe ss o r B n e ritu s , School o f F o r e s tr y , U n iv e rs ity o f C a lif o r n ia , B erkeley, C a lif o r n ia , A p ril 11, 1961. 292 was tr u e in th e co al f i e l d s , as re p o rte d by a 1947 m edical survey r e p o r t . The fo llo w in g summary sta te m e n t o f co al camps throughout th e country undoubtedly a p p lie s e q u a lly to th e W est, Some houses t h a t from th e o u ts id e appeared to be s q u a lid h o v els were found to have c le a n and n e a t i n t e r i o r s , w ith f r e s h ly p a in te d o r papered w a lls , lin o leu m -co v ered f l o o r s , and o th e r improvements th a t provided a s t a r t l i n g c o n tr a s t w ith th e e x te rn a l ap p e aran c e. . . . On th e o th e r hand, some modern, w e ll-c o n s tr u c te d h o u se s, f r e s h ly p a in te d o u ts id e , were found to be a v i r t u a l shambles w ith in — p l a s t e r knocked out o f th e w a lls , n a i l s d riv e n in to woodwork in d is c r im in a te ly , plumbing f i x t u r e s crack ed , and f l o o r s roughened and f i l t h y . In g e n e r a l, however, th e houses t h a t were k ep t in good c o n d itio n and appearance by th e o p e ra to rs were a ls o th o se t h a t were b e st-m a in ta in e d by t h e i r te n a n ts , ' I t i s im p o ssib le c a te g o r ic a lly to d e c la re th a t company town l i v i n g e i t h e r d e stro y e d o r undermined in d iv id u a l i n i t i a t i v e and p r id e . Those who would c r i t i c i z e th e company town atmos phere have a t l e a s t one s tro n g argument in an alm ost u n iv e r s a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c —th e f a c t t h a t i n n e a rly every company town te n a n ts would ta k e advantage o f th e company in every p o s s ib le way, "Where much i s given more i s e x p e c te d ," could w e ll be a maxim ap p ly in g to a ty p ic a l company-owned v i l l a g e . Since th e company was supposed to ta k e care of house m ain ten an ce, f o r example, many r e s id e n ts re fu s e d even to ca re f o r sm all ite m s, f e e lin g alm ost a s i f ^ A M edical Survey o f th e Bituminous Coal I n d u s tr y , p. 27«. 293 th e y had been cheated i f th e y did some work which th e company ought to have someone e ls e do* D escrib in g th e f e e lin g s o f a t y p i c a l c o a l miner a t th e end o f a working day, a government survey team put i t t h i s way: He wonders a n g rily why th e "boss" doesn’t f i x th e fo u n d a tio n s and th e porch—he has complained ab o u t i t so many tim e s—and th e n he th in k s t h a t maybe, when he g e ts a chance, h e ’l l f i x them h im s e lf, even i f i t i s n ’t r i g h t t h a t he should do s o .28 A form er company c le rk from Hanna, Wyoming, re p o rte d on th e many " g r ip e s ” he had to l i s t e n t o , e s p e c ia lly on h o u sin g . I f we did som ething f o r M rs. Jack so n , we could alm ost b e t our l a s t bottom d o lla r t h a t th e next morning Mrs. T acalon, o r S c a ra p e lli,w o u ld be th e re w anting th e same i d e n t i c a l th in g s , even though th ey d id n ’t need i t . 9 The same p a t te r n seemed to p r e v a il in most towns where th e company d id so much f o r i t s te n a n t s . I t cannot be s ta te d t h a t t h i s was a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c developed alo n e by th e p a t e r n a l i s t i c atm osphere o f th e company-owned community, b u t th e a t t i t u d e was c e r t a in ly enhanced by i t and was one o f the alm ost u n iv e rs a l problems face d by town s u p e rin te n d e n ts . In summary, a g e n e ra l c o n s id e ra tio n o f W estern company towns w i l l show t h a t no one in d u s try can be c re d ite d w ith developing t y p i c a l l y "good" o r "bad” ^% b id . , Supplem ent, p . 18. ^ i n t e r v i e w w ith Henry Jo n e s, J u ly 8, 1961. 294 communities* P atern alism in a l l i t s extrem es e x is te d throughout th e W est. Some companies c o n tr o lle d th e e n tir e l i f e o f th e tow n, even attem p tin g to t e l l t h e ir ten a n ts how to v o te . In most ca ses a l l community s e r v ic e s were provided and paid fo r by th e company, and upkeep, although i t v a ried from company to company, was th e r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f management. The company was th e government and some r e s id e n ts learn ed to ex p ect alm ost ev ery th in g from i t , tak in g l i t t l e i n i t i a t i v e even in m aintain in g th e ir own homes, w h ile o th e rs dem onstrated co n sid era b le in d u stry in t h e ir own b e h a lf. L ivin g in a company town was an advantage to th o se who took advantage o f i t , and even provided fu tu re fin a n c ia l s e c u r ity to some, w h ile i t was d i s t in c t l y a d isadvantage to o th e r s . P aternalism was a n e c e s s it y , and hence an ad vantage, to th e com panies, but one which most would g la d ly e lim in a te when a l l economic fa c to r s perm itted such a move. CHAPTER II THE CO M PA N Y STORE V ir tu a ll y every W estern company town, a t least; b efo re th e t9 4 0 ’s , had i t s company s t o r e . U sually lo c a te d n ear th e c e n te r o f p o p u la tio n , th e s to r e serv ed many f u n c tio n s . F i r s t and fo re m o st, i t was th e community shopping c e n te r , where e v e ry th in g from v i t a l w orking-m en’s to o ls to n o n - e s s e n tia ls f o r th e home m ight be p u rch ased . Here a m iner could buy h is powder and f u s e s , a lo g g e r could buy h is b o o ts , and a housew ife could purchase fo o d , c lo th in g , and la c e c u r t a i n s . Even autom obiles sometimes, could be o b ta in e d . S econdly, th e company s to r e f re q u e n tly se rv e d as a town g a th e rin g p la c e where g o ssip was exchanged, news was d iss e m in a te d , and th e men s a t in f r o n t to t a l k about th e same th in g s th e y had d isc u sse d th e day b e f o r e . The company s to r e o fte n se rv e d a ls o as pay o f f i c e , p o s t o f f i c e , and b i l l c o l le c tio n o f f i c e , f o r i t was in a unique p o s itio n to ta k e c a re o f a l l such tr a n s a c tio n s f o r th e community. F in a ll y , i t sometimes became a to o l f o r company dom ination and c o n tr o l o f th e w orker as employees found t h e i r very jo b s a t sta k e i f th e y were to c o n sid e r tr a d in g e lse w h e re . W hatever i t s f u n c tio n , th e company 295 296 s to r e was once perhaps th e most ty p ic a l f e a t u r e o f the. company town* W hile most companies co n sid ered in t h i s stu d y were th e owners o f a s in g le town, s e v e ra l firm s has such e x te n siv e h o ld in g s t h a t th e y were o b lig e d to e s ta b li s h what m ight be termed a " c h a in ” o f towns* In such cases th e company involved u s u a lly o p e ra te d a ch ain of company s to r e s a l s o . Even one-town companies sometimes had t h e i r own form o f chain s t o r e . In lumber com panies, f o r in s ta n c e , th e s to re which o p erated in a m ill town u s u a lly provided goods a ls o f o r th e companyfs lo g g in g camps* In a la rg e camp a wide v a r ie ty o f goods was a v a ila b le in a permanent b u ild in g . In sm a ll, tem porary camps th e s to r e provided o n ly the e s s e n tia ls * The McCloud R iver Lumber Company has o p e ra te d a la rg e lo g g in g camp c a lle d Pondosa sin c e 1927® The company s to r e is lo c a te d in McCloud, b u t d u rin g the lo g g in g season about 300-500 people l i v e in Pondosa and a re provided w ith s to r e s e rv ic e s a t th e camp. When th e season c lo s e s , of co u rse , th e camp is d eserted * G eneral O perations The a d m in is tra tio n o f th e company s to r e was o fte n handled by a s p e c ia l s to r e departm ent in c lu d ed w ith in th e r e g u la r company o r g a n iz a tio n . In th e case o f la r g e r o rg a n iz a tio n s a s u b s id ia ry company was u s u a lly formed to handle a l l m e rc a n tile problem s. In r a r e cases an o u ts id e 297 firm would become reco g n ized as th e company s t o r e . At Camp E ngle, C olorado, f o r example, th e Tarabino B rothers e a r ly e s ta b lis h e d a g e n e ra l s to r e and e v e n tu a lly came to se rv e a l l th e fu n c tio n s o f th e company s t o r e . Tarabino & Company cashed pay checks and d id a s c r ip b u sin e ss amounting to $6,000 p er month.^ The town o f D avenport, C a lifo rn ia was b u i l t by th e Coast D a irie s and Land Company to house employees o f th e Santa Cruz P o rtla n d Cement Company. In t h i s case th e form er company o p erated the company s t o r e . The Colorado Supply Company i s an example o f a s u b s id ia ry c o rp o ra tio n o rg an ized f o r m e rc a n tile p u rp o ses. In c o rp o ra te d under Colorado law in A ugust, 1888, t h i s company served th e v a rio u s camps of th e Colorado Fuel and Iro n C o rp o ratio n . I t s f i r s t s to r e opened in Septem ber, 1888, and by 1904 th ir ty - tw o s to r e s were in o p e ra tio n . Gross s a le s in 1903 amounted to $ 2 ,6 9 4 ,3 8 6 .6 8 .^ P re sid e n t o f th e Colorado Supply Company was J . C. Osgood, who was a lso chairman o f th e Board of D ire c to rs o f Colorado Pixel and Iro n . Included among th e sto c k h o ld e rs were o f f i c e r s and employees not only o f Colorado Fuel and Iro n , but a ls o o f th e Rocky Mountain Coal and Iro n Company and V ic to r- 1 Camp and P l a n t . V ol. I , No. 2$ (May 31, 1902), p . 460. 2I b i d . . V ol. V, No0 11 (March 26, 1904), pp® 242- 244 ® 29S American Fuel CompanyThis would in d ic a te some e f f o r t on th e p a r t of Colorado Supply to expand in to a re a s o th e r th an th o se s t r i c t l y c o n tro lle d by Colorado Fuel and Iro n , w hich, in f a c t , i t d id . W ithin C. F. & I . camps i t o p e ra te d s t r i c t l y as a company s t o r e , w ith a v i r t u a l monopoly on a l l t r a d e . The Phelps Dodge M e rc an tile Company i s a s u b s id ia ry o f th e Phelps Dodge C o rp o ratio n . The h is to r y of t h i s concern began in Bisbee in th e IBSO’s . The le a d in g g e n e ra l s to r e in t h i s m ining camp was owned by a widow named Crossey and managed by a shrewd Irishm an named B illy Brophy. James Douglas le a rn e d th a t employees of the Copper Queen were d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith th e s to r e and recom mended th a t Phelps Dodge purchase i t , r e ta in in g Brophy as m anager. Through i t s broader c o n ta c ts the company b e lie v e d i t could provide b e tte r and cheaper goods and, not i n c i d e n ta lly , o b ta in a new source o f revenue through th e s to r e «A The v en tu re succeeded adm irably and grew e v e n tu a lly in to th e Phelps Dodge M e rc a n tile Company. This o rg a n iz a tio n e s ta b lis h e d company s to r e s in every town owned by Phelps Dodge t h e r e a f t e r , a s w e ll as o th e r towns not owned by th e company but where e x te n siv e Phelps Dodge a c t i v i t y was conducted. ^ I b i d . t p. 244. ^ C lelan d , H isto ry o f Phelps Dodge, p . 127. 299 In some cases th e company departm ent o p e ra tin g the s to r e expanded i t s o p e ra tio n s w id ely . At Trona, C a lif o r n ia , f o r example, th e M e rc a n tile Department o f th e American P otash and Chemical C orporation handled a v a r ie ty o f company s t o r e s , such as th e Trona Food M arket, th e Trona Drug S to re , and th e Trona Departm ent S to re . I t a lso handled company s c r ip and th e re b a te system . This d e p a rt ment was f u r t h e r re s p o n s ib le f o r o p e ra tio n o f th e Trona Club, th e s o c ia l c e n te r of th e v i l l a g e . Completed in 1937, th e Trona Club in c lu d ed k itc h e n and d in in g f a c i l i t i e s f o r p r iv a te p a r t i e s , bowling a l le y s , pool t a b l e s , a b ar and c o c k ta il lounge, and a card room. The M e rc an tile Department a ls o m ain tain ed a re g u la r pool h a l l , o p e ra te d m ainly f o r th e s in g le men, where sandw iches, d o n u ts, r o l l s , and s o f t d rin k s could be o b ta in e d . An e x ten siv e study o f th e company s to r e in America was p u b lish e d in 1952 by D r. Ole S. Johnson under th e t i t l e , The I n d u s tr ia l S t o r e . ^ The work was o r i g i n a l l y a Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n in th e School o f B usiness A d m in istra tio n a t th e U n iv e rsity o f Georgia in A tla n ta . While Dr. Johnson’s work a p p lie d to America as a whole, and most of h is case s tu d ie s were done in the E a s t, h is co n clu sio n s ^Ole S. Johnson, The I n d u s t r i a l S tore (A tla n ta : Research D iv is io n , School o f B usiness A d m in istra tio n , A tla n ta D iv is io n , U n iv e rsity o f G eorgia, 1952). PLATE XIX PHELPS D O D G E C O M P A N Y STORE, MORENClARIZONA. The Phelps Dodge M ercan tile Company s t i l l o p era tes s e v e r a l company s to r e s in A rizona. O utside th e Phelps Dodge o rg a n iza tio n very few company s to r e s continue to e x is t in the W est. "P. De M erc,," as i t is dubbed by em ployees, i s a p rofit-m ak in g o r g a n iz a tio n , although i t s p r ic e s are co m p etitiv e w ith oth er s t o r e s . Behind the s to r e can be seen part o f the company-owned H otel M orenci. Above the sto re i s the company h o s p it a l. 30t v 302 seem generally to be valid as far as company stores in the West are concerned.0 Since Dr. Johnson's study of company stores in particular was far more exhaustive than anything attempted in this survey, and since his conclusions seem generally to apply, it is deemed advisable to discuss the company store in terms of some of his findings, illus trating with specific examples in the West, and noting any important exceptions. By necessity only a few important features may be considered here, and the interested reader is referred to Dr. Johnson’s excellent work for more details. With respect to the original need for company stores, Dr. Johnson came to the same conclusion frequently alluded to in this study— the fact that geographic isolation of the industries concerned influenced the establishment of these stores, but that the speeding up of all kinds of transportation and communication facilities; has largely eliminated this condition today."'7 It is this very economic change which has eliminated most of the company stores in the West, even though several company towns continue to exist. ^Even before reading Dr. Johnson’s book, this writer had tentatively come to many of the conclusions suggested by him. Exceptions will be noted in the discussion to follow. 7 'Johnson, The Industrial Store, p. 90. 303 Dr. Johnson pointed out that company stores had several advantages over any potential competitors in their respective areas. The fact that the store was located on company property near the mine or mill and had the exclusive privilege of collecting accounts through payroll deductions gave "the company store an unfair and monopo listic advantage over the independent store."^ Whether or not the advantage was "unfair" may be conjectural, especially in the West, for in most cases the privilege of buying in the company store on credit was a luxury independent stores could hardly afford to give, and yet it was this luxury which attracted and held many workers. There is no evidence of any widespread protests on the part of independent merchants, and Johnson records only one such incident in his entire survey. Considerable evidence exists to indicate that in earlier years workers were compelled to trade at the company store. The circumstance of living in an isolated region was naturally one contributing factor. In addition, both direct and indirect pressure was frequently used to enforce this trade. In recent years this practice has not prevailed.^ ^Ibid. 9lbid. 304 Evidence from a few company towns in the West indicates that, in early years, compulsory trading in the company store was a condition of employment. A long-time resident of Sunnyside, Utah reports that a number of stores and saloons existed south of the property of the Utah Fuel Company. The company owned and operated a store in the middle of town. The men employed at Sunnyside were expected to patronize this store in preference to any of the others. Many men lost their jobs for patronizing the other stores for things that could be had at much higher prices in the Company store.^ In later years, the same writer reported, the company said nothing about trading with the stores below town if the men just bought a few things, but she considered this as simply ”a cover-up for the company when a fuss was made about making the people trade with the company store.” Company control extended so far that it had given a monopoly on the milk supply to the Big Spring Ranch, and it was highly difficult to obtain permission even to own a family cow. The practice of compelling trade in the company store, however, seems not to have been as widespread as sometimes suggested. The Union Pacific Coal Company allowed a grocer from Laramie, Wyoming, to come to Hanna, 10 Richins, nA Social History of Sunnyside,” pp. 3-4. 305 solicit business and ship goods in on company trains In the lumber mill town of Caspar, California, the M. A. Nolan store gave effective competition to the company store* The manager of the company store once complained of this to the president of Caspar Lumber Company, who simply replied that he liked competition. It was healthy and, in his opinion, would not hurt the c o m p a n y . ^ It is interesting to note that freight was;, shipped into Caspar on company-owned boats, and this included the freight of the M. A. Nolan store. Residents of many other towns report that, although the company did not allow other stores to operate in town, employees were not afraid to purchase in stores of near-by communities. In Hilt, California, it was customary for at least one family to bring in a month’s supply of food at a time from Ashland, Oregon, during winter months. The mother would have the groceries sent into town on the train, and apparently the company had no objections, even though a company store was operating.^ A former company store manager for Kennecott Copper Corporation declared: 1 1 Interview with Henry Jones, July S, 1961. ^Interview with James W. Lilley, Superintendent, Caspar Lumber Company, Caspar, California, April 13, 1962. ^interview with Irene F. Tallis, May 2, 1962. 306 To my knowledge, through forty years service with Kennecott Copper Corporation, there never was any direct or indirect pressure used to compel workers, to trade with the company store. It was certainly not a condition of employment. ^ The relative price and quality of goods sold in company stores has been a matter of some controversy. With respect to quality, Johnson found that most company stores. had the reputation of carrying only the top grades of meats: and produce, as well as good quality merchandise in all other lines. Average prices, he found, were slightly higher in company stores. The most complete study of this type was made by the N, R, A. and it revealed average food prices in company stores to be from 2.1 per cent to 10,A 1 * 5 per cent higher than in neighboring stores. ' Company stores in the West seemed generally to follow this pattern. Nearly everyone interviewed commented on the fact that items purchased were generally of the highest quality, and company periodicals usually made it a point to mention the top grade goods available. In the matter of pricing, however, it was generally true that the company store was higher. Several factors apparently contributed to this. First, since the company store often had no competition it could charge higher prices without ^Letter from R. E. Andrews, Comptroller’s Depart ment, Kennecott Copper Corporation, Chino Mines Division, Hurley, New Mexico, June 25, 1962. ^Johnson, The Industrial Store, p. 92, 307 losing sales-. Secondly, costs to the company store were usually somewhat higher, because of the costs involved in shipping into isolated areas. Finally, the extension of credit by the company store was considered to warrant a slight increase in price, from the standpoint both of increased bookkeeping costs as well as convenience to the consumer. In other cases, the company store was fully competitive with private merchants. Some towns, such as Caspar, California would have competing stores right in town and would therefore have to meet their prices. In these situations the liberal extension of credit by company stores made slightly higher prices still feasible. The Phelps Dodge Mercantile Company is in competition with other concerns in every town where it operates. The present general manager claims that Phelps Dodge prices are lower in many ways. On furniture, they do not take trade-ins, so their mark-up is not as great in the first place. No interest is charged for contract terms, which is a savings to those buying on credit. Phelps Dodge, said the manager, will not start a price war, but will follow one, so that its prices remain in the competitive bracket.^ ^ ^interview with H. Lee Smith, General Manager, Phelps Dodge Mercantile Company, Douglas, Arizona, March 13? 1962. 303 The question of whether or not the company made unjust profits from company stores is controversial# Critics of the company store system often charge that this was simply another way for the company to exploit the worker* It appears, however, that even though most companies did not lose anything through the operation of stores, such profits as accrued usually were not out of order* In many cases a rebate system operated in con nection with the use of scrip, and employees would thus share in the profits. In Ajo, Arizona, Phelps Dodge still operates such a system as a hold-over from the days of the New Cornilia Copper Company. In other cases the profits were rather substantial. The Weed Lumber Company in California, for example, reported its net gain from the company store in 1911 to be $57,121.11.^7 Scrip and Credit The use of scrip was another controversial feature of the company store. Scrip was not universally used in the West, but where it was used it served a variety of purposes. Primarily it was a method of credit, sometimes on the basis of money earned but not yet received, but frequently extended to future earnings. Scrip was a convenient bookkeeping method for companies which extended ^ ?Weed Lumber Company, "Annual Report," 1911 / 309 credit, for they did not have to keep track of individual items purchased, only of the total amount of scrip issued. Some companies also considered it a safety measure, for the total amount of cash necessary for the payroll was kept at a minimum. It was charged by some that the extension of credit through scrip was used to keep workers in town by inducing them to remain forever in debt to the company store. Finally, the discounting of scrip by other merchants, and sometimes even by the company, for cash was an additional profit-making technique. Johnson found that abuses of the scrip system were prevalent in all areas where it was used and that the practice of the company store of discounting its own scrip for cash was used by some companies for many years.^ The evil of the practice lay in the fact that it resulted in an actual reduction in wages for those who could not wait until the end of the pay period for some cash, but this has been practically eliminated in recent decades. More common was the practice of other merchants and members of the community discounting company scrip in exchange for cash. The rate of the discount varied from 10 to 30 per cent. A long-time resident of Hanna, Wyoming, reported that when private liquor stores operated in town they ^Johnson, The Industrial Store> p. 91. 310 « would take company scrip, but at about 10 per cent 19 discount. It was not an unusual practice in other communities for someone who needed cash to sell his scrip to other persons at a discount. Even though the scrip was sometimes labeled as non-transferable, there seemed to be no practical way to control this practice* The use of scrip was directly connected with the extension of credit, which had the effect, in some cases, of keeping the employee perpetually in debt to the company. The credit system, however, had some advantages in that it served as a control on extravagance, loan sharks, credit peddlers, and others who might exploit the somewhat help- 20 less worker. In defending the scrip system the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company made the following comment: Experience has shown, where the miner procures promiscuous credit from stores not connected with the mine, that quite regularly just before payday, some merchant being in doubt about the minerTs pay being sufficient to cover all his debts, or about his willingness to settle, garnishees the Company for his wages, and by the time the debt and costs are all paid, the entire wages are consumed. At mines where there are no company stores these garnishments are numerous and a fruitful source of unnecessary expense t o t h e m i n e r . 21 Some companies, especially Colorado Fuel and Iron, ^interview with Henry Jones, July 1 9 6 1 . Johnson, The Industrial Store, p. 9 1 . 21 Camp and Plant, Vol. V, Wo. 11 {March 2 6 , 1 9 0 4 ) , pp. 2 4 5 , 2 4 7 . 311 have been accused of intentionally keeping cash away from their employees. It is charged that workers actually saw very little of their earnings. It should be observed, however, that the average resident of a company town needed very little cash so long as he could purchase all his needs on credit or with scrip. To counter the criticism J. F. Welborn, president of Colorado Fuel and Iron, issued the following statement in 1914: Colorado coal miners are paid twice per month. During the fiscal year preceding the strike the employes at the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company coal mines received $0.1 per cent, of their earnings in cash. Of the 19.1 per cent, of all earnings deducted by the company before making payment to the men, 11.73 per cent, represented purchases at our stores; 2.25 per cent, represented rent of houses; and the remaining 5.12 per cent, represented coal, board, hospital, powder and the customary charge of 50 cents per month for sharpening tools .22 A long-time company clerk at Hanna, Wyoming, estimated that only about 2 per cent of the employees- here used up all their wages before they received them.23 The Phelps Dodge Mercantile Company reports that today some people still use up their entire pay check in deductions, but that the total number is insignificant.2^- It seems 22The Struggle in Colorado for Industrial Freedom, Bulletin No. 15 (September 4, 1914), p. 2. ^Interview with Henry Jones, July $, 1961. 24Interview with H. Lee Smith, March 13, 1962. 312 apparent that those who could cry "I owe my soul to the company store” were relatively few in number, at least in the Vfest* A widespread practice in the West was the extension of credit through the company store for emergency relief® Today when a man goes to work for Phelps Dodge he can obtain credit immediately in the company storeMore important has been the practice of most companies in the o A West to extend credit through times of depression* In many cases the company went so far as to extend credit even during a strike* In a recent Phelps Dodge strike, which lasted six months, the company store carried workers on credit for the entire period* A limit was naturally placed on the amount of credit each man could have, depending upon the size of his family, but at the end of the strike approximately one million dollars in credit had accumulated. A special program was then set up for paying it off.^^ One might legitimately inquire into the motives of 2^I b i d * pzl In the course of this survey, a frequent comment by long-time residents in company towns concerned their gratitude to their respective companies for carrying them on the books through the depression of the 1930’s* This was true in all industries and all sections of the country visited by the writer* ^interview with H, Lee Smith, March 13, 1962. 313 the company for extending such credit. "As a social or humanitarian measure," says Johnson, "it is indeed unique— to be able to draw groceries and other supplies from the retail store owned by the same company against which the workers are striking!"*^ A more practical consideration was obviously involved also. In the case of Phelps Dodge it was largely because the company wanted its men to stay, in order to have an available work force when the strike 29 was settled. ^ The company was certainly humanitarian in many ways, but motives of self-interest cannot be ignored. The scrip used in company stores was by no means uniform in design. Most often it was composed of detachable coupons sold in books of various denominations from five to twenty dollars. Each book would contain coupons ranging in value from one cent to one dollar. Sometimes metal tokens would be used, and at other times tokens might be made of cardboard or other materials. They all served the same purpose, however, of replacing cash in transactions between the employee and the company store. Trona, California, once owned by the American Potash Johnson, The Industrial Store, p. 91. ^interview with H. Lee Smith, March 13, 1962. 3 H and Chemical Corporation, provides one example of the operation of the scrip system* Here scrip was used in connection with a profit sharing plan whereby gains of the Mercantile Department were returned to employees. Scrip in Trona consisted of coupons sold in books of $5, $10, and $20 denominations. On a strictly voluntary basis an employee could take any portion of his pay in scrip, or he could receive scrip books as change when dealing with the company store. Users of scrip were required to purchase a full book at a time and coupons would not be accepted by store clerks if they had been detached from the covers. The company encouraged the use of scrip, and it could be spent anywhere in town, including the theater, pool hall, bar, and service station. It is interesting to note that, from 1931 to 1957s the company also used tokens made of brass or aluminum. Since that time these tokens have become a collector^ item, with only two complete sets known to be in existence. Even the company does not now 30 have a complete set. Twice a year the company would declare a rebate. It this time employees would present their empty scrip book covers, with their names written on them, and receive ^Virginia Culver, "Tokens of Trona Bygone Epoch,” Coin World, February 23, 1 962. PLATE XI PHELPS D O D G E C O U P O N B O O K (P h o to sta tic copy)* This i l l u s t r a t e s the kind o f s c r ip s t i l l being used by Phelps Dodge* Employees are n ot requ ired to u se s c r ip , but i t i s a con ven ient system o f c r e d it and bookkeeping* (The h o le s punched in t h is coupon book makes i t v o id .) o 2 a. i P H E L P S DODGE M E R C A N TILE C O . % S U B JE C T T O T E A M S A N D C O N D IT IO N S ™ O F P U R C M A 3 B C O N T w A t t - Vi ’N O T T R A N S F E R A B L E - i 1 PH E L P S O O D S E M E R C A N TILE C O . S U B j i t C T T O T f c H M S A N O C O N D IT I O N S i ( O F P U R C H A S E C O N T R A C T ;j n o t t r a n s f e r a b l e P H ELP S. DOD GE M E R C A N T IL E CO. • J U B i t C T T p f M 9 A N L t , d > N t ) l r i O N S Q F P U R C H A S E C O N T R A C T , N O T T R A N S F E R A B L E ^ T a C ^ ° N ^ VAtiUS' 1 E2SS P H E L P S D O DG E M E R C A N T IL E CO , S U B J C C T T O T E R M S A N O C U N U ir iQ N S : : O * P U R C H A S E C O N T R A C T . : . . N O T T R A N S F E R A B L E : . v O T ,°°Po (JO A rric^IH V PLATE H I M ET A L TO K EN S O N C E USED FO R SCRIP A T KORBEL, CALIFORNIA. (Tokens co u rtesy Simpson Timber Company.) ' > * < "St. .-■w 319 their share of the profits according to the amount of scrip spent. The rebate was paid in cash® Books containing unused scrip had to be presented for validation and they would then be good for use during the next rebate period. Rebates in Trona sometimes were very good. For the period ending November 30, 1938, for example, a rebate of 31 17 per cent was declared. One company representative states that it sometimes went as high as 20 or 30 per cent.^2 It was recognized, however, that certain inequities existed, for employees who lost their scrip book covers or moved out of town before turning them in were unable to participate in the dividend. Shelf prices in Trona were higher than those in Los Angeles, and in the 1940’s employees began to demand an adjustment. A ’ ’daily rebate," or "share-as-you-buy" program was therefore initiated. Shelf prices were adjusted downward and when a sufficient profit existed a special reduced price sale would be held in order to eliminate it. The semi-annual rebate was also continued, but by the end of the second six-month period under the new system it was down to 4.4 per cent .33 in later years 3^ The Trona Potash, December 17, 1938. 32George H. Sturtevant, Public Relations Officer, American Potash and Chemical Corporation, Los Angeles, California, May 19, 1961. 33The Trona Argonaut, June 24, 1948. 320 the rebate vanished as the company sold its mercantile interests to private concerns. The significance of the company store in our present economy was examined by Dr. Johnson9 The trend, he con cluded, is toward a slight overall reduction in the number of industrial stores in the United States, although the total volume of sales is on the increase.^ In the West, however, the company store has almost totally disappeared. Companies which have owned towns for many years have now turned to leasing out their stores, as well as all other town business facilities, to other operators, even though the towns are still company-owned. Scotia, California, is an excellent example of this trend. New company towns, such as Weed Heights, Nevada, are built with no intention of operating company stores and the business sections are immediately leased. Only the Phelps Dodge Corporation continues to operate a chain of company stores. Its gross sales are significant enough to have totaled $12,463,000 in 1961.^5 Individual company stores remain in only a few far-flung towns such as McCloud, California. Except for the Phelps Dodge organization, the company store is no longer a significant institution in the West. ■^Johnson, The Industrial Store, p. 13$. 35phelps Dodge Corporation, Annual Report. 1961. EPILOGUE The story of the company town in Western America is, in large measure, a reflection of the economic development of the West. In the lumber industry, dozens of towns necessarily sprang up as mills were established in the forests miles away from other centers of population,, In these areas lack of highways and other transportation facilities made it essential for companies to provide housing and other community needs. The growth of cities and towns in the West, together with the development of modern roads, highways, and automobiles, has largely eliminated this necessity. In the coal fields, similar needs compelled the creation of company towns, but the expansion of civilization, plus a decline in the demand for coal, has eliminated them. Many towns erected by copper companies at mines and smelters have been eliminated or sold as it becomes desirable for workers either to commute from near-by cities or to purchase their own homes in smelter communities. Other towns simply have been abandoned as ore has given out. Economic necessity dictated the origin of the company town, and economic 321. 322 co n sid eratio n s are la rg e ly resp o n sib le f o r i t s disap pearance* The switch away from company town ownership some times involves the unusual a c t i v i t y o f " s e llin g " an e n tir e community. Of p a r tic u la r i n t e r e s t in t h i s movement is John W. Galbreath & Company, a r e a l e s ta te and land management firm of Columbus, Ohio. Some companies, such as American Potash and Chemical Corporation, have e le cted to s e l l t h e i r towns by them selves. Others have turned the e n tir e o p eratio n over to experienced r e a l e s ta te concerns. The G albreath company has been AmericaT s most prominent broker of company tow ns.1 Galbreath has bought and sold company towns a l l over the country. The normal procedure is to purchase the e n tir e community, including a l l houses, pro p erty , r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s , and company-owned u t i l i t i e s . For the new owner, the town now becomes a money-making p ro p o sitio n . The G albreath company must recover i t s investm ent, make a p r o f i t , and a t the same time convince long-tim e company town r e s id e n ts th a t they a re going to b e n e fit from the o p e ra tio n . ^The follow ing b r i e f d isc u ssio n is based la rg e ly on interview s w ith Gerald H. G albreath, J r . , who handles the company’s Western o p e ra tio n s, and Harold P o tte r , who was p ro je c t manager a t Climax, McGill, and Kearny. The read er i s also re f e r re d to Blank, "He Turned Company Towns in to Home Towns *" The f i r s t Western town to be purchased by G albreath was the coal mining town o f D ragerton, Utah® Dragerton had been constructed during World War II by the fe d e ra l Defense P lan t Corporation and operated by the United S tate s S te e l Corporation® I t was being sold by th e War Surplus A dm inistration. Galbreath took over in 1947, r e h a b i lita te d th e tow nsite and sold th e homes to U* S. S te e l employees® Henderson and Gabbs, Nevada, were also war surplus towns l a t e r handled by G albreath. In 1955 the company took over a l l o f K ennecott’s Western towns. Kennecott had o r ig in a l ly decided to dispose only o f i t s Utah v i l l a g e s , but ev e n tu ally saw the value of g e ttin g completely away from the problems of community ownership. Gerald H. G albreath, J r . , made an o ffe r on a l l r e a l e s ta te and, a f t e r i t was accepted, sim ultaneously took over eig h t company towns in Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah® Galbreath also handled the s a le of Columbia, Utah, Climax, Colorado, and C larkdale, Arizona, making a t l e a s t fo u rteen Western towns sold since T947® Many unusual and challenging problems arise as Galbreath takes over a town. First, residents must be assured that all their interests will be protected. All kinds of questions immediately pour into the company office. ”What*s going to happen to my house?” "How can I get a better house?” ”How long before I have to decide 324 whether or not to buy?" The company makes every effort to keep the interest of the people at heart and to set up an orderly, fair method of sale. Rules and regulations governing sales are posted, residents are given first choice on the houses they occupy, and F. H. A. loans usually are arranged. Community recreational councils are concerned with ball parks, which the company usually donates to the town. The company also becomes involved with community government, making suggestions as to town councils, incorporation procedures, etc. Finally, it is recognized that 20 per cent of America’s population is moving constantly. The company therefore must be prepared to take homes back and re-sell them. Galbreath still has offices at or near most of the Western towns it has sold. To the credit of John W. Galbreath &. Company, it can fairly be said that former company town owners as well as residents are generally well pleased with the firm’s activities.2 Its reputation was well expressed in an editorial comment in a Leadville, Colorado, paper when the company established offices there in order to handle the sale and moving of Climax. O This writer had personal interviews with Kennecott officials, including the manager of the Western Mining Division, as well as several employees in Hayden. All were highly pleased and well satisfied with Galbreath policies and procedures. L ead v ille welcomed a new, big business l a s t week, and one th a t w ill be important lo c a lly fo r th e next q u arte r o f a century, according to p rese n t in d ic a tio n s . The new business is the John W. Galbreath Company which has purchased the fam ily housing u n its form erly owned and operated by the Climax Molybdenum Company. W e know l i t t l e o f th e Galbreath company o th e r than what i t s employees themselves can t e l l u s. However, from th e se re p o rts and from other inform ation we can o b ta in , we a re impressed with the s ta tu r e and i n t e g r i t y of th is community and r e a l e sta te -c o n sc io u s o p e ra tio n . Climax was wise and fo rtu n a te in ob tain in g the Galbreath firm as purchaser of the "company” town. The new owners appear w e ll-q u a lif ie d to handle the many problems which are bound to a r i s e and we f e e l c e rta in th a t a l l who liv e in th i s area w i l l b e n e fit as a r e s u l t of G albreath’s wisdom gained through experience in th e se m a tte rs . The Galbreath company comes to the L eadville area with an impressive l i s t of recommendations and o th e r c r e d e n tia ls . The Kennecott Copper corporation and United S ta te s S tee l corporation are among the more im pressive s a t i s f i e d "custom ers” to be serv iced by G albreath. . . . We honestly feel that, although Galbreath is primarily attempting to operate a successful business, the firm is nonetheless sincere in its attempt to "put families into their own homes in places they are proud to call ’home towns.’ ”3 I t should not be assumed t h a t th e switch away from p aternalism does not create problems f o r some communities, and companies. Kennecott Copper Corporation, fo r example, ran into unexpected d i f f i c u l t y a t Hayden. A fter the community was sold to re s id e n ts i t incorporated i t s e l f , taking into i t s borders not only the r e s i d e n t i a l area but also land where K ennecott’s new sm elter was going up. The Gila County Board of Supervisors had q u ie tly approved ^The Herald Democrat, February 12, 1960. 326 these limits, suggested by the council, before the company realized how far they extended. Kennecott immediately asked the county attorney to act against the new inde pendent community, charging that the petitioners had not been owners of real property and that, contrary to Arizona law, the incorporated area had included large uninhabitable areas. The county attorney held that the incorporation was legal, whereupon the company sought a writ of mandamus asking him to declare the town council illegal. In defense of the town’s position J. Rodney Hastings, a young teacher elected mayor, declared that all towns have industrial areas and that taxes from Kennecott were necessary to provide street improvements, lights, garbage collection and other services. ’ ’Kennecott unloaded the responsibility of the town," he charged, "and now they don’t want to support it."^ The problem was finally settled by a compromise out of court, with Kennecott retaining the smelter land and a section of the tailings dump, but other property around the town being deeded to Hayden.'* In addition to the story of the big "change-over" from paternalism, it should be noted that a new kind of ^"Too Much Town; Kennecott Copper Corp. Balks at Incorporation of Hayden, Arizona," Business Week, April 16, 1957, p. 195. 5 Interview with J, Rodney Hastings, first mayor of Hayden; Tucson, Arizona, March 22, 1962. 327 company town is beginning to spring up. The new company towns, such as San Manuel, Arizona, are well-planned, model communities. Development firms are hired to design and * build the towns, homes are sold to workers, companies operate no local businesses, and shopping centers are leased or sold to local, independent merchants. Finally, notice must be taken of the fact that, in some cases, new and unexpected use is being made of several one-time company towns which normally would have been abandoned. Tennant, California, has been donated to the Veteranfs of Foreign Wars and will probably be developed into such resort or haven as this organization sees fit.^ Starkey, Oregon, has been donated to a youth organization and rehabilitated as a youth camp. The mining town of Holden, Washington, has been donated to the Lutheran Bible Institute and now serves as a summer retreat area for young adult groups sponsored by various Lutheran synods.7 Ryderwood, Washington, was purchased in 1954 by an enter prising real estate firm and converted into a haven for senior citizens. Within a year all homes had been sold 6Clippings with letter from T. H. Mutchler, Public Relations Manager, International Paper Company, Long-Bell Division, Longview, Washington. Flay 21, 1962. ^Seattle Times, October 1$, 1960; June 11, 1961; September 17, 1961; January 27, 1961. 328 and the new residents were actively building a dike and creating their own lake for boating, fishing, and swimming.^ Since many company towns originally were located in ideal resort areas, there is no reason why new use cannot be made of them after their original purpose has been fulfilled. In summary, the story of the company town as a feature of Western American development is a story with many tangents. Created out of necessity, these towns grew in various ways. Some evolved from tent towns, mining camps and other rugged frontier communities. Others were well planned from the beginning. Most were fully paternalistic, although the degree of company control varied widely. Company participation in recre ational and community activities varied with need, location, and attitude of management, as did housing, sanitation facilities, and other community needs. The gradual disappearance of the company town is a reflection of the general economic development of the West, with modern highways and automobiles making formerly remote areas no longer isolated. Most company towns have been eliminated, although many remain as communities of home owners still attached to the original industry. Others ^Ibid., April &, 1954; June 2, 1955; July 6, 1957. 329 have been converted to attractive resorts while still others have been completely abandoned. This study has presented a brief survey of the historical development of the company town. A few economic, social, and political implications have been suggested. It has been shown that the company town has played a signifi cant role in the development of a number of industries, particularly coal, copper, and lumber. While it is recognized that the story presented here is not by any means complete, it is felt that it will give new appreci ation for the company town as a significant feature in the development of the West. It is hoped that those areas only briefly discussed will suggest topics for further research to the economist, sociologist, and political scientist, as well as the historian. APPENDIX APPENDIX A BRIEF STATEMENT O N 133 CO M PA N Y TO W N S IN THE W EST (N ote: A ll o f th e company towns i d e n t i f i e d by th e w r i te r in th e course o f h is re s e a rc h a r e in clu d ed in t h e fo llo w in g appendix. I t should not be assumed t h a t t h i s i s a com plete l i s t o f a l l company towns which may have e x is te d , f o r i t i s reco g n ized t h a t many could have been m issed in every s t a t e . The purpose o f th e fo llo w in g l i s t i s t o give o nly a s h o r t summary sta te m e n t on each town which was found f o r th e b e n e fit o f th o se who may be i n t e r e s t e d in p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e s o r i n d u s t r i e s .) A rizona AJO. (Copper mine and sm e lte r) Developed from an o ld -tim e m ining camp which became th e p ro p e rty o f th e New C o rn elia Copper Company in th e e a rly p a r t o f t h i s c e n tu ry . In 1931 Phelps Dodge C orporation to o k o v e r. Ajo i s s t i l l a Phelps Dodge company town, a lth o u g h a la rg e p r iv a te r e s i d e n t ia l a re a e x i s ts o u ts id e company p r o p e rty . An a t t r a c t i v e p la z a and w e ll k ep t company homes make t h i s a p le a s a n t company town, in s p i t e o f th e d e s e r t h e a t. BAGDAD. (Copper mine and s m e lte r) Bagdad i s a company town o f about 1300 p e o p le , c u r r e n tly owned by th e Bagdad Copper C o rp o ra tio n . I t had i t s beginning about th e tu r n o f th e c e n tu ry . BISBEE. (Copper m ining) B isbee has evolved from a rugged m ining camp o f th e 19th c e n tu ry . I t i s not a f u l l - fle d g e d company tow n. Phelps Dodge owns a l l p r o p e r ty , but most o f th e homes a r e p r iv a te ly owned and most o f th e b u sin e ss i s p r i v a t e . The town i s in c o rp o ra te d and has i t s own governm ent, independent o f th e company. Phelps Dodge M e rc a n tile dom inates th e b u sin e ss o f th e community. CHRISTMAS. (Copper m ining) The town o f Christm as grew slow ly from a sm all m ining camp e s ta b lis h e d in th e l a t e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . The p o st o f f i c e was e s ta b lis h e d in 1905. The camp has passed through th e hands o f s e v e r a l 331 332 ow ners, in c lu d in g American Sm elting and R efining Company, Christm as Copper Company, and Sam K night Mining Lease, In c , Sam Knight o p e ra te d th e p ro p e rty u n t i l i t c lo sed in 1950* At t h a t tim e th e town was abandoned, CLARKDALE. (Copper s m e lte r) A model m ining community, C lark d ale was l a i d out in 1914 by th e U nited Verde Copper Company, Ore came from th e mines a t Jerom e, C lark d ale became th e p ro p e rty of Phelps Dodge i n th e 1930*3, and was o p erated by them u n t i l 1953» when ore a t Jerome gave o u t0 The town was l a t e r so ld * I t i s no lo n g e r a company-owned town, but a cement p la n t i s g iv in g new l i f e to th e community® HAYDEN® (Copper sm e lte r) Hayden was b u i l t in 1.911 as a sm e lte r town f o r th e Ray C o n so lid ated Mining Company, to pro cess o re from th e Ray mine® By 1933 K ennecott Copper had ta k en p o s s e s s io n , and t h i s company o p e ra te d Hayden u n t i l 1955, when th e town was so ld to r e s i d e n t s , Kennecott Copper s t i l l o p e ra te s a sm e lte r a t Hayden, as does American S m elting and R efin in g Company, The l a t t e r company owns a few company houses a t t h i s lo c a tio n , HELVETIA. (Copper m ining) H e lv e tia was an example of th e o ld -tim e mining camp, e x is tin g from the 1$90T s u n t i l 1911* A company s to r e e x is te d , and the company p a r tic ip a t e d in sch o o l a c t i v i t i e s , b u t H e lv e tia never became a f u l l - f l e d g e d company town, INSPIRATION, (Copper m ining) B u ilt in th e 1920T s, I n s p ir a tio n i s s t i l l a company town, although th e company s to r e and o th e r p a t e r n a l i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s no lo n g e r e x i s t . The I n s p ir a tio n C o n so lid ated Copper Company owned the town as a r e s i d e n t i a l a re a f o r key o f f i c i a l s , s u p e rv is o rs , and s k i l l e d em ployees. O ther w orkers liv e d in n ea r-b y Miami, LITCHFIELD PARK. (C otton p la n ta tio n ) This unique community was begun i n 1917 when Goodyear T ire and Rubber Company began r a is i n g lo n g - s ta p le c o tto n in Arizona®. I t i s s t i l l owned by Goodyear Farms and i s one of th e most a t t r a c t i v e company towns in th e West® MARINETTE. (C otton p la n ta tio n ) The M arin ette Ranch was purchased by Goodyear in 1920® I t was l a t e r so ld to th e J , G . Boswell Company and i s th e c e n te r o f an S,000 ac re c o tto n t r a c t . The s e ttle m e n t c o n s is ts o f a s t o r e , p o st o f f i c e , and s e v e r a l la b o r camps, b u t i t may not come f u l l y in to the c a te g o ry o f a company town. 333 MQRENCI. (Copper mine and sm e lte r) Morenci evolved from a l a t e 19th cen tu ry m ining camp0 Phelps Dodge has b u i l t a com pletely new town sin c e assum ing c o n tro l in th e e a r ly p a rt o f t h i s c e n tu ry . The o ld e s t p a r t o f Morenci s t i l l rem inds th e v i s i t o r o f a c lif f - h u n g v i l l a g e , as houses are b u i l t r a th e r h ap h a za rd ly on th e s te e p m ountain s i d e s . Two new developm ents, S targo and P l a n t s i t e , a re b u i l t on w e ll-p la n n e d , te r r a c e d h i l l s i d e s . Morenci i s s t i l l a Phelps Dodge company town. RAY. (Copper m ining) This town grew slow ly from a m ining camp o f th e 1&90’s , and has passed through th e hands of v a rio u s owners. In 1955 th e houses were so ld by K ennecott Copper C o rp o ratio n to th e G albreath company, who so ld them to r e s id e n ts . The p ro p e rty rem ained in the hands of K ennecott and a l l homes e v e n tu a lly w i l l be moved to make way f o r th e expanding m ine. SAM MANUEL. (Copper mine and smelter) This new- type company town was built by Magma Copper Company in 1954. It was not to be a real company town, however, for the homes were built to be sold to residents and the company operates no paternalistic enterprises. SILVER BELL. (Copper mine and m ill) The p re s e n t town and m il l a t S ilv e r B e ll was developed between 1951 and 195L by th e American Sm elting and R efining Company. I t c o n s is ts o f 175 homes, tw e n ty -fo u r ap a rtm en ts, and a t r a i l e r c o u r t, a l l owned by th e company. I t was b u i l t j u s t th re e m iles from the o ld mining camp of S ilv e r B e ll, a ls o o p e ra te d by A.S.& R. u n t i l i t c lo sed in 192$. TWIN BUTTES. (Copper mine) This mining camp was operated from about 1 9 0 3 to 1 9 2 6 . While not a fully developed company town, Twin Buttes is discussed in this dissertation as an example of early camps with some of the markings of the company town. TUBAC. (Copper and o th e r m e ta ls) Tubac was an abandoned Spanish p re s id io ta k en over by th e Sonora E xploring and Mining Company in 1S$6« I t had a s h o r t but c o lo r f u l h is t o r y as C harles D. Poston became p r a c t i c a l l y a one-man r u l e r o f th e e n t i r e area® I t was abandoned in th e 1 6 6 0 ts because o f Apache dan g er. 334 C a lifo rn ia ALBION. (Lumber m il l) A lbion occupies a b e a u tif u l s e t t i n g on th e Mendocino c o a st and was th e s i t e o f a lumber m il l as e a rly a s th e 1^50l s , The company-owned community developed about th e tu rn o f th e ce n tu ry and was o p e ra te d by v a rio u s com panies, b eg in n in g in 1#91 w ith th e A lbion Lumber Company and ending in 192$ when th e m i l l was owned by S outhern P a c i f i c . The m il l sto o d i d l e u n t i l 1940 when i t was d ism an tled and a l l b u ild in g s and m achinery were s o ld . In 1949 th e M asonite C o rp o ratio n purchased m ost o f th e rem aining A lbion Lumber Company p ro p e rty . L i t t l e rem ains a t A lbion today to remind one o f th e once b u s tlin g m i l l town. Fbrmer company-owned houses which rem ain a re a l l p r iv a te ly owned and th e form er m ill s i t e i s a r e s o r t a r e a . CARTAGO. (M ineral pumping and p ro c e ssin g ) This town was b u i l t in 1916 by th e C a lif o rn ia A lk a li Company. I t continued to f u n c tio n , m ainly as a b a c h e lo r T s community, u n t i l th e company went bankrupt in 1936. Cartago s t i l l e x i s t s as a sm all s e ttle m e n t a t Owens Lake, but no lo n g e r as a company tow n. CRANNELL. (Lumber m ill) The L i t t l e R iver Redwood Company s t a r t e d o p e r a tio n o f a saw m ill a t C ran n ell in 1909. The e n t i r e town was b u i l t and m ain tain ed by th e company. I t was an a t t r a c t i v e community w ith about 135 w e ll p a in te d h o u ses, good ro a d s , e t c . In 1931 th e company merged w ith Hammond Lumber Company, which now assumed c o n tr o l. W ithin a y e a r th e C ran n ell saw m ill was sh u t down and su b se q u en tly i t was d ism a n tle d , f o r th e Hammond Lumber Company,had o th e r f a c i l i t i e s on Humboldt Bay. In 1955 G eorgia P a c if ic C o rp o ratio n bought th e Hammond company and soon to r e down most o f th e o ld homes a t C ra n n e ll, alth o u g h a few rem ain. DAVENPORT♦ (Cement p la n t) . Davenport was b u i l t in 1906-07 by th e Coast D a irie s and Land Company to house w orkers employed in th e new Santa Cruz P o rtla n d Cement Company p l a n t . The d a iry company o p e ra te d th e tow n, in c lu d in g th e s t o r e , f o r th e b e n e f it o f th e cement company, but as a money-making p r o p o s itio n . Homes were s o ld to r e s id e n ts in 1921. DELLEKER. (Lumber m ill) D e lle k e r was once a m ill town owned by T a r te r , W ebster & Johnson, a s u b s id ia r y o f American F o re st P roducts C o rp o ra tio n . The town was d i s m antled in 1954. 335 EAGLE MOUNTAIN. (Iro n m ining) Eagle M ountain is w holly owned by th e K aiser S te e l C o rp o ratio n . The camp was f i r s t e s ta b lis h e d in 1947, and has sin c e been b u i l t to a town o f about 300 homes. Located appro x im ately s ix t y m ile s from th e n e a re s t town, i t is an example o f th e co n tin u in g need, even in modern tim e s, f o r company towns sometimes to be e s ta b li s h e d . FALK. (Lumber m ill) The Elk R iver M ill and Lumber Company began o p e ra tio n s ab o u t 1334* The m il l was lo c a te d in a v a lle y and th e town th u s grew a l l over th e h i l l s . The company o p e ra te d a boarding house, cook house and h o t e l , and owned s e v e r a l homes. O perations were d isc o n tin u e d in 1937 and th e town e v e n tu a lly was abandoned. Nothing rem ains to d a y . FEATHER FALLS. (Lumber m ill) F e a th e r F a lls was founded in 1938 by th e F e a th e r R iver Pine M ills Company. This company today i s p a r t o f the G e o rg ia -P a c ific C o rp o ratio n . The town i s s t i l l a company town w ith a p o p u la tio n o f about 500 p e o p le . Average house r e n t a l i s about $30.00 per month. Not a l l employees l i v e in th e community. GIANT. (E xplosives p la n t) G iant was a v ery sm all company town b u i l t only to house a few key p e rso n n e l o f th e G iant Powder Company. I t was t y p ic a l o f o th e r tin y s e ttle m e n ts b u i l t in o rd e r to keep key p erso n n e l c lo se because of th e t r a n s p o r ta tio n d i f f i c u l t i e s o f e a rly y e a r s . The p la n t was clo sed in 1960. GLEN BLAIR. (Lumber m ill) Glen B la ir was a sm all town which grew around a lumber m ill e s ta b lis h e d in th e 19th c e n tu ry . I t continued to o p e ra te under v a rio u s companies u n t i l 1923, when th e tim b er was d e p le te d and th e town was abandoned. GRAEGLE. (Lumber m ill) Graegle was o p e ra te d a s a m il l town by th e G raegle Lumber Company u n t i l th e 1950’s . I t was l a t e r purchased by a r e a l e s t a t e firm and i s being developed in to a r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a . HAM M O N TO N . (Gold dredging) This community was e s ta b lis h e d in 1905 as h e a d q u a rte rs o f Yuba C onsolidated Gold F ie ld s . I t was named f o r W. P. Hammon, founder o f th e company and a le a d e r in th e dredging in d u s tr y . I t was a p le a s a n t town, but has been com pletely abandoned fo r many y e a r s . 336 HILT (or HILTS). (Lumber m ill) Although some s e ttle m e n t had lo n g e x is te d in th e a re a o f H i l t , th e p re s e n t town got i t s s t a r t about 1911-1912. I t i s owned com pletely by th e F r u it Growers Supply Company and has a p o p u la tio n o f app ro x im ately 500 p e o p le . INGOT. (Copper mine and s m e lte r) About 1922 th e A fte rth o u g h t Mining Company b u i l t a mine and sm e lte r a t In g o t. The sm all colony o f company-owned houses was l a t e r abandoned a f t e r e f f o r t s to g e t copper from Copper H ill proved v a in . Today th e r u in s o f th e abandoned m ill s t i l l may be seen from th e highway. J0HNS0NDALE. (Lumber m ill) Johnsondale was founded in 1936-37 by Mt. Whitney Lumber Company, now a d iv is io n o f American F o re s t P roducts C o rp o ratio n . I t is s t i l l a fu lly-ow ned company town w ith a p o p u la tio n o f ap p ro x im ately 500 p e o p le . KORBEL. (Lumber m il l) S e ttle m e n t a t K orbel, once c a lle d North Fork, was begun in th e iSSO’s when th e K rrbel b ro th e rs began m illin g o p e ra tio n s th e r e . In 1913 th e p ro p e rty passed in to th e hands of th e N orthern Redwood Lumber Company, and in 1956 Simpson Timber Company took o v e r. K orbel was once a f u ll- f le d g e d company town o f around 100 homes, w ith company s t o r e , r e c r e a tio n h a l l , e t c . , Simpson has e lim in a te d a l l s e rv ic e s except a few company h o u se s, and th e s e g ra d u a lly a re being done away w ith . McCLOUD. (Lumber m ill) McCloud was founded in the 1 8 9 0 * s by th e McCloud R iver Lumber Company and is s t i l l f u l l y owned by th e f irm . The town c o n s is ts o f a b o u t 600 fam ily d w ellin g s as w e ll as q u a r te rs f o r s in g le men. The company s to r e s t i l l p ro v id es a l l needed goods f o r town r e s i d e n t s . McCloud i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e company community w ith w e ll-p a in te d h o u se s, and n ic e lo o k in g churches and s c h o o ls . MERCED FALLS. (Lumber m ill) Merced F a lls flo u r is h e d in th e l 9 2 0 *s and 1930fs and was f u l l y owned by th e Yosemite Lumber Company. A town o f mixed r a c e s , i t c o n s is te d o f about 100 homes f o r w hite people and about f i f t y houses in a d i f f e r e n t s e c tio n of Mexican and Negro w o rk e rs. I t is r e p o rte d t h a t Merced F a lls was "more liv e ly " th a n some company towns f o r i t was f a i r l y c lo se to o th e r com m unities. A lso, i t was rin g e d on th re e s id e s by p r iv a te p ro p e rty where s i x salo o n s o p e ra te d . S ince th e m ill and town clo sed down every b u ild in g has been removed. 337 METROPOLITAN. (Lumber m ill) This sm all town began w ith th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a m ill by th e M e tro p o lita n Lumber Company ab o u t 1905- The company c lo se d i t s o p e r a tio n s h e re about 1923 and a l l th e houses e v e n tu a lly were moved. NAVARRO. (Lumber m i l l ) Form erly c a lle d W endling, th e t i n y m il l town o f Navarro was begun in 1903 when th e W endling M ill and Lumber Company b u i l t a sa w m ill. In 1905 i t was p u rchased by the S te a rn s Lumber Company and in 1913 th e Navarro Lumber Company took o v e r. The m ill was p u rch ased by th e A lbion Lumber Company in 1920, and ceased o p e ra tio n s in 1927. Today n o th in g rem ains o f th e o r i g i n a l m i l l and s e ttle m e n t . NAVARRO-BY-THE-SEA. (Lumber m il l) This was a n o th e r t i n y s e ttle m e n t o f only ab o u t f i f t e e n h o u se s. The m ill was o p e ra te d by th e Navarro Lumber Company in th e l a t t e r 19th c e n tu ry , c lo s in g in 1$90. Today th e a re a i s an o c e a n sid e r e s o r t . NEW CUYAM A. (O il f i e l d s ) New Cuyama i s n o t a company town w ith in th e d e f i n i t i o n s e t up in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . I t is in c lu d e d h e r e , however, as an example o f th e modern tre n d i n company community b u ild in g . I t was b u i l t in 1950 by th e R ic h f ie ld O il C o rp o ratio n w ith th e ex p ress i n t e n t o f s e l l i n g homes to town r e s i d e n t s . I t s governm ent comes under th e county Board o f S u p e rv is o rs . NEWBURG. (Lumber mill) Newburg was a small company town supporting the mill of the Eel River Valley Lumber Company from the iS&O's until the 1930's. The settlement was abandoned after the depression brought about the closing of the mill. R0CKP0RT. (Lumber m il l) Lumber m il l o p e ra tio n s e x is te d a t R ockport as e a r l y a s th e iG SO 's, and a camp g ra d u a lly aro se in t h a t a r e a . E a rly employees were m ostly s in g le men and liv e d in c a b in s . The f i r s t modern fa m ily d w e llin g s were b u i l t in 1925 by th e F in k b in e-G u ild Lumber Company. The R ockport Redwood Company took over in 193$o The saw m ill was s h u t down in 1957» when th e town had a p o p u la tio n o f about 500 p e o p le . R ockport was once a f u l l - fle d g e d company tow n, but now o n ly a few houses are m a in ta in e d f o r th e b e n e f it o f th e sm all number o f men needed to manage th e com pany's t r e e farm . SAMOA. (Lumber m il l) Located on a p e n in su la in Humboldt Bay, th e town of Samoa was e s ta b lis h e d by th e Vance Lumber Company which b u i l t a m i l l th e r e in th e 335 15901s o In 1901 th e p ro p e rty was ta k e n over by th e Hammond Lumber Company, which o p e ra te d a p le a s a n t, f u lly p a t e r n a l i s t i c company town. G e o rg ia -P a c ific a c q u ire d th e Hammond Company in 1956 and sin c e th e n has e lim in a te d th e company sto re # Homes a re s t i l l company-owned and m a in ta in e d . The bungalow type homes and w e ll-k e p t yards make Samoa one o f th e more a t t r a c t i v e company tow ns. SCOTIA. (Lumber m ill) One o f th e b e s t known company towns in C a lif o r n ia , S c o tia i s s t i l l owned com pletely by th e P a c if ic Lumber Company* Here i s lo c ate d th e companyT s huge redwood m ill and lumber m anufacturing p l a n t . Sawmill o p e ra tio n s began in th e 1550*s , and the s e ttle m e n t was f i r s t c a lle d F o r e s t v l l l e , th e name being changed in 13&5. The P a c ific Lumber Company once owned e v e ry b u sin e ss e n te r p r is e in town, in c lu d in g a s t o r e , t h e a t e r , bank, h o s p i t a l , b u tc h e r shop,and h o t e l . Today o n ly th e h o te l i s o p e ra te d by th e company, w ith o th e r b u sin e sse s le a s e d to p r iv a te f ir m s . The o ld bank b u ild in g now houses a most i n t e r e s t i n g museunw STANDARD. (Lumber m il l) S tandard i s e n t i r e l y owned by P ic k e rin g Lumber C o rp o ratio n . I t was begun about 1910 by th e S tandard Lumber Company, which so ld o u t to P ic k e rin g in 1920. STIRLING CITY. (Lumber m ill) S t i r l i n g C ity was n o t a fu lly-ow ned company town, b u t is m entioned i n th is d i s s e r t a t i o n as one o f th o se towns in which a p a r t i c u l a r company had a s u b s t a n tia l i n t e r e s t in th e town. F or many y e a rs a f t e r about 1930, Diamond N atio n al C o rp o ratio n owned a s u b s t a n t i a l number o f th e homes in th e tow n, a s w ell as some commercial e s ta b lis h m e n ts . DiamondT s s e c tio n o f S t i r l i n g C ity could be co n sid ered as a m odified v e rs io n o f th e company town. TENNANT. (Logging town) Most logging camps were tem porary camps used o n ly d u rin g th e lo g g in g se aso n and th e n not p ro v id in g many fam ily r e s id e n c e s . T ennant, how e v e r, is one o f th e few lo g g in g h e a d q u a rte rs which became permanent tow ns. I t was b u i l t in 1921 by th e Weed Lumber Company, which was l a t e r ac q u ire d by Long-B ell Lumber Company. In 1950 i t was donated to th e V. F. W. TRONA. (M ineral pumping and p ro c e ssin g ) From the e a r l y 1900T s u n t i l 1953 th e town o f Trona was f u l l y owned and c o n tro lle d by American P otash and Chemical C orporation and i t s p re d e c e s s o rs . The company s t i l l o p e ra te s a larg e p la n t a t t h i s S e a rle s Lake s i t e where borax and o th e r m in e ra l p ro d u c ts a re produced. In 1953 th e company decided 339 to s e l l th e town* A ll homes a re now p r iv a te ly owned and a l l b u sin e sse s o p e ra te d by p r iv a te co n cern s, Trona i s a t h r i v i n g , in d e p en d en tly governed community, but s t i l l depends s o le ly upon th e company o p e ra tio n s f o r i t s continued e x iste n c e * WEED. (Lumber m il l) The town o f Weed grew around a lumber m ill e s ta b lis h e d by th e Weed Lumber Company in th e 1&90’s . The company l a t e r merged w ith th e Long-B ell Lumber Company, which o p e ra te d th e m il l and town u n t i l i t s m erger w ith I n te r n a ti o n a l Paper Company in 1956. I n t e r n a tio n a l Paper im m ediately g o t o u t o f th e company town b u sin ess by s e l l i n g a l l homes except a few m ain tain ed f o r to p management. During a l l o f Weed’s h i s t o r y n o t a l l employees liv e d in th e company town, f o r a r e s i d e n t i a l and b u sin e ss a re a e x is te d o u ts id e company p ro p e rty . Weed was th e re fo r e an unusual com bination ty p e community. WESTEND. (M ineral p la n t) Westend was founded in 1919 by th e West End Chemical Company, now a d iv is io n of S ta u f f e r Chemical Company. I t i s th e lo c a tio n o f a p la n t f o r pumping b rin e s from b en eath th e dry bed o f S e a rle s Lake fo r producing p o ta sh , b orax and o th e r chem icals* No b u sin e ss f a c i l i t i e s e x is te d in W estend, most employees going to n e a r-b y Trona to shop* The town is c u r r e n tly in th e p ro cess of d i s s o l u t i o n . W ESTW OOD. (Lumber m il l) Westwood, in Lassen County, was e s ta b lis h e d in 1913 by th e Red R iver Lumber Company and l a t e r ta k e n over by F r u it Growers Supply Company* I t has been s a id t h a t i t s huge m i l l , which was th e c e n te r o f lum bering in a f i f t y m ile r a d iu s , was once th e l a r g e s t lum ber m il l i n th e w o rld . In 1955 th e town was purchased by a Los Angeles r e a l e s t a t e f ir m . I t has sin c e been converted in to a community o f s e n io r c i t i z e n s . Colorado (Note: Colorado Fuel and Iro n C orporation owned s e v e ra l co al m ining camps in th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e 19th ce n tu ry and th e e a r ly decades o f t h i s c e n tu ry . I t has been d i f f i c u l t to determ ine where a l l o f th e s e camps w ere, even in correspondence w ith th e company* The camps l i s t e d below as b elo n g in g to Colorado Fuel and Iro n were compiled from Camp and P l a n t , a company p u b lic a tio n , f o r th e y e a rs 1901 and 1902. Some o f th e camps, such as W alsen, were a c tu a l ly p a r t o f la r g e r non-company-owned com m unities, but th e company s t i l l owned many homes, a company s t o r e , r e c r e a tio n h a l l , e t c . on company p ro p e rty a d ja c e n t to th e 340 tow n. They a re l i s t e d h e re because th e company c o n tin u a lly l i s t e d them as company camps. I t i s n o t assumed t h a t th e camps l i s t e d as belonging to C. F. & I . form a complete l i s t o f t h i s firm *s tow ns, but i t w i l l se rv e a t l e a s t to in d ic a te th e e x te n t o f t h i s company*s o p e ra tio n s in so u th e rn C olorado.) ANTHRACITE. (Coal m ining) This was a sm all C. F. & I . camp in Gunnison County. In 1901 th e mine employed 54 men and th e camp had a s t o r e , sm all p u b lic school and sm all c i r c u l a t i n g l i b r a r y . BALDWIN. (Coal m ining) This was a coal m ining camp once owned by th e Rocky M ountain F uel Company. BERWIND. (Coal m ining) This C. F. & I . camp in Los Animas County su p p o rted a mine w here, in 1901, 398 men were employed. BOETTCHER. (Cement p la n t) This community was founded in 1926 by th e Id e a l Cement Company, which s t i l l owns th e to w n s ite . I t was named a f t e r th e company p r e s id e n t, C harles B o e ttc h e r. BROOKSIDE. (Coal m ining) At t h i s camp o f 700 p e o p le , Colorado Fuel and Iro n Company owned o n ly te n homes in 1902. The company dom inated th e town, however, w ith i t s s o c io lo g ic a l departm ent p ro v id in g many a c t i v i t i e s and w ith a company s to r e in o p e r a tio n . CARDIFF. (Coal m ining) At t h i s C. F. & I . camp 66 men were employed in 1901. CLIMAX. (Molybdenum m ining) Founded in the l a t e 1 9 2 0 's, Climax was th e company-owned town o f th e Climax Molybdenum Company. The mine a t Climax i s th e l a r g e s t Molybdenum mine in th e w o rld . E verything in th e town was company-owned. At an e le v a tio n o f 11,320 f e e t , Climax had th e r e p u ta tio n o f being th e h ig h e s t p o st o f f ic e i n th e U nited S t a t e s . Undoubtedly i t was th e h ig h e s t company tow n. In 1960 th e town was so ld to John W. G albreath and Company. Homes were th en so ld to employees and moved to W estpark, a housing development n ear L e a d v ille . Climax i s now v i r t u a l l y abandoned. COAL CREEK. (Coal m ining) This C. F. & I . camp in Fremont County employed 177 men in 1902. COALBASIN. (Coal m ining) This camp housed 269 m iners f o r C. F. & I . in 1902. 341 COKEDALE» (Coal m ining) This co al m ining community was owned by th e American S m elter and R e fin in g Company, In 1940 i t had a p o p u la tio n o f 500 p e o p le . Coke from ovens a t Cokedale was shipped to th e s m e lte r a t L e a d v ille , CRESTED BUTTE, (Coal m ining) O rig in a lly a gold camp o f th e 1,'880*s, C rested B u tte e v e n tu a lly became a camp o f C. F. & I , The camp h ad , in 1902, a th r e e room sc h o o l, a drug s to r e and a surgeon who a ls o serv ed A n th r a c ite , The mine here employed 370 men, DELAGUA. (Coal m ining) This Los Animas County camp was e s ta b lis h e d in 1903 by th e V ictor-A m erican Fuel Company, DELCARB0N. (Coal m ining) In 1940 t h i s town o f 300 p o p u la tio n was owned j o i n t l y by th e Calumet Fuel Company and Utah F uel Company. I t had once been c a lle d T urner, having been opened by a company by th e same name. EL MORQ. (Coal m ining) This Colorado Fuel and Iro n camp su p p o rted a mine employing 125 men in 1901, ENGLEVILLE. or C A M P ENGLE. (Coal m ining) This C. F. & I . camp i l l u s t r a t e d th e p ro fu se m ixing o f n a tio n a l i t i e s which e x is te d in th e c o a l f i e l d s . In 1902 th e mine h ere employed 140 I t a l i a n s , n in e ty -fo u r M exicans, s ix t y - f o u r S la v s , s ix ty E n g lish and tw elve n a tiv e -b o rn A m ericans. G ULCH MIMES. (Coal m ining) In 1901 the two Gulch mines employed 13$ men. The C. F. & I . camp h ere had a company s t o r e , a one-room sc h o o l, a f i f t y volume l i b r a r y and a surgeon who a lso serv ed S u n lig h t. HASTINGS. (Coal m ining) This v ill a g e was e s ta b lis h e d by th e V ictor-A m erican Fuel Company in 1&93» An ex p lo sio n in 1923 clo sed th e m ine. HERZ0N. (Coal m ining) The mine a t Herzon, lo c a te d in Huerfano County, employed 173 men in 1902. In th a t y e a r a new company s to r e was being e re c te d as w e ll as many new company h o u se s, as p la n s were being l a i d to make Herzon one o f th e l a r g e s t c o a l camps o f C olorado, LOUVIERS. (E xplosives m an u factu rin g ) L ouviers was founded "in 1906-07 by E. I . DuPont DeNemours & Company. I t was th e s i t e o f a p la n t f o r th e m anufacture o f high e x p lo s iv e s . I t was a p a r t o f a chain of company towns owned by DuPont. In 1961 homes were so ld to em ployees. 342 MQRLEY, (Coal m ining) The Colorado Fuel and Iro n town was s e t t l e d in 1875. I t became a model camp o f 600 popu latio n * I t s n eat cement houses were surrounded by a t t r a c t i v e gardens and i t was a p p a re n tly one o f th e b e t t e r C. F. & I* to w n s. The town ceased to e x is t in 1956 when th e M orley mine c lo s e d . I t was one of the l a s t company towns o f C. F. & I , MT. HARRIS* (Coal m ining) This town was founded in 1914 and was a p p a re n tly owned j o i n t l y by th e H arris Coal Company and th e Colorado-Utah Coal Company, The H a rris company was dom inant, and A, B. H a rris was th e f i r s t manager o f th e tow n. The b u ild in g s belonging to one coal company were p a in te d g ray and th o se of i t s r i v a l a b r ig h t y e llo w . The H a rris company owned a s t o r e , boarding house, and many r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s . I t i s re p o rte d to have been an o u ts ta n d in g co al company town. The town ceased to e x i s t in 1955 and no b u ild in g s rem ain on the p ro p e rty a t th e p re s e n t tim e , ORIENT. (Coal m ining) The Colorado Fuel and Iro n camp was opened in 1882, In 1902 th e mine employed 122 men. I t was lo c a te d in Saguache County, PICTOU. (Coal m ining) This C. F. & I , camp, lo c a te d in Huerfano County, was founded in 1887* In 1902 the mine employed 122 men. The town c o n s is te d o f ab o u t sev en ty d w ellin g s plus b o ard in g houses f o r both w hile and co lo red w o rk e rs. I t a ls o had a oompany s t o r e , PRIMERO. (Coal m ining) In 1902 th e C. F. & . I . mine a t Primero employed 420 men, and th e company town b o asted a p o p u la tio n o f 2 ,0 0 0 , In th a t y ea r a la rg e number o f a d d itio n a l model c o tta g e s were being e r e c te d , Primero was a la rg e m ine, producing more th a n 68,000 to n s o f c o a l a- month. The town was abandoned in 1925 and sin c e then a l l b u ild in g s have been to r n down. I t was lo c a te d in Los Animas County, REDSTONE» (Coal m ining) This C. F. & I . town was lo c a te d in P i tk in County and was founded around 1900 by J . C. Osgood, an o f f i c i a l o f th e company. I t was one o f C. F. & I,1s b e t t e r tow ns, b u i l t as a model v i l l a g e . In 1902 th e mine employed 95 men. The town had a company s t o r e , read in g room, club house and a l i b r a r y of 422 books. C ontrary to th e p a tte r n in most company tow ns, th e c o tta g e s a t Redstone were p a in te d d i f f e r e n t c o lo r s , th u s making th e town more a t t r a c t i v e . With th e d e c lin e o f m ining th e workers moved away and th e houses e v e n tu a lly were s o ld as summer re s id e n c e s . 343 ROBINSON. (Coal m ining) Located near W alsenburg, Robinson was a camp belonging to C. F. & I . Eknployed a t th e mine were 109 men® ROCKVALE« (Coal mining) Rockvale was a C ® F. & I® camp in Fremont County® The town had a company s t o r e , s c h o o l, and a surgeon® The mine employed 394 men in 1902® ROUSE. (Coal mining) This C. F. & I . camp c o n siste d o f about 125 homes in 1902, over h a lf o f which were owned by th e m iners th e m selv es. There was a ls o a company boarding house with accommodations fo r f i f t y men® SEGUNDO. (Coal mining) Segundo and Primero were both new C. F® & I . camps in 1902® In th a t y ear many more model dw ellings were being e re c te d to s h e lte r th e men employed a t th e coke ovens a t Segundo and the mines a t Prim ero. A s in g le school d i s t r i c t served both tow ns, as d id a sin g le company su rg eo n . Segundo employed 799 men in 1902® Segundo homes were b u i l t of re d clay b r i c k and th e window frames and doorways were p a in te d a b r ig h t blue® SOMERSET. (Coal mining) Mining a t Somerset was. opened in 1905 by Utah Fuel Company® The p ro p e rty was purchased by U. S. S te e l in 1950, and in 1960 th e houses were sold to individuals® SOPRIS. (Coal mining) S opris was one of Colorado Fuel and I r o n 1s o ld e s t coal camps® The town o r i g in a l ly had been e s ta b lis h e d in the I ^ C ^ s by E. R. S o p ris , but C. F. & I . ’s f i r s t mine was opened in 1S37® The mine and coke ovens a t S opris employed 31# men i n 1902® The mine was once th e la r g e s t producer i n Los Animas County® STARK7ILLE. (Coal m ining) S ta r k v ille was a C. F. & I . camp e s ta b lis h e d i n th e 1S90?s® In 1902 over 600 men were employed in th e mine and coke ovens here® TERCI0® (Coal mining) Although a few s e t t l e r s had p re v io u sly in h a b ite d th e a r e a , Tercio became a C ® F. & I® camp in 1901® Tents and shacks ty p if ie d th e f i r s t s e t t l e m ent, but w ith in a y ea r the company had b u i l t 100 c o tta g e s f o r employees and th e te n ts and shacks were disappearing® T0BASC0. (Coal mining) In 1902 the Tobasco mines and coke ovens employed 4#5 men* The se ttle m e n t was a Co F. & I . camp® 344 VALDEZ. (Coal raining) Valdez was th e camp s u p p o rtin g th e F re d e ric k Mine, one o f th e l a r g e s t c o a l mines in so u th e rn C olorado* The town was d ism an tled in 1961. WALSEK. (Coal m ining) Many C. F. & I . w orkers owned t h e i r own homes a t W alsenburg, b u t th e company a lso owned s e v e r a l houses a t i t s camp here* In 1902 about 300 men were employed in th e two W alsenburg m in e s, re p r e s e n tin g t h i r t e e n d i f f e r e n t n a t i o n a l i t i e s * The company had a s to r e a t th e camp and p rovided r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s f o r employees * WOOTTON. (Coal m ining) In 1911 th e s e ttle m e n t o f Wootton was com pletely owned and managed by the Wootton Land and Fuel Company. I t was p r a c t i c a l l y a l i t t l e c i t y - s t a t e , f o r w hatever was needed was, produced from s u r rounding la n d s 0 Company farm s produced m eat, m ilk and v e g e ta b le s f o r th e 300 employees and t h e i r fa m ilie s * Company h o u se s, which v a r ie d from fo u r to eigfrt rooms in s i z e , were com fortable and sometimes even o rn ate * Idaho COBALT. (C obalt m ining) Cobalt was so named in 1944 when th e C alera M ining Company purchased th e p ro p e rty o f th e B lack b ird Mine* The town was o r i g i n a l l y c a lle d Forney, and was n o t always a company town* C alera owned about 90 per cen t o f th e houses a t Cobalt d u rin g i t s mining o p e ra tio n s th e re * The mines closed in 1953 a f t e r th e company was unable to renew i t s c o n tra c t f o r c o b a lt o res w ith th e f e d e r a l governm ent, who fin a n c e d th e opening - o f Cobalt mines in Cuba in ste a d * The town o f Coba3.t was abandoned© CQNDA* (Phosphate mine) Conda, a sm all model v i l l a g e , was e re c te d in th e 1920*s by Anaconda Copper Mining Company. The company s t o r e was o p e ra te d on a p r o f i t sh a rin g b a s i s , and th e community g e n e ra lly m ain ta in e d a good s p i r i t o f c o o p e ra tio n . In 1950 th e town was so ld to th e J* R. Sim plot Company, which co n tin u es t o mine phosphate and o p e ra te th e company housing* HEADQUARTERS. (Logging camp) H eadquarters was founded in 1928' as a lo g g in g camp and l a t e r became a supply and equipment h e a d q u a rte rs fo r a l l lo g g in g camps o f P o tla tc h F o r e s ts , Inc* Here th e company owns about n in e ty homes and provided a community h a l l a s w e ll as many o th e r r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s . O rig in a lly the 345 company provided a school and a te a c h e r fo r th e f i r s t s i x g ra d e s, but today th e lo c a l school d i s t r i c t pays the te a c h e r w hile the company s t i l l pro v id es th e school b u ild in g » PATTERSON. (Tungsten m ining) Now a ghost town, P a tte rs o n was once a th r iv in g company town where over 300 men were employed in the m ines. The Bradley Mining Company, who took over th e mines in 193&» owned th e houses, s to r e and a l l u t i l i t i e s . POTLATCH. (Lumber m ill) P o tla tc h was founded in 1906 by P o tla tc h Lumber Company, which l a t e r merged w ith two o th e r firm s to form P o tla tc h F o re s ts , In c . The company owned th e e n t ir e to w n s ite , in c lu d in g 270 homes, a s t o r e , h o te l, garage and bank. The garage and bank were l a t e r so ld to p r iv a te firm s . The company a lso provided adequate r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s . In 1952 th e company o ffe re d i t s homes fo r s a le to em ployees, b e lie v in g t h a t home ownership would make f o r b e t te r employee- employer r e l a t i o n s h i p s . The town was in c o rp o ra te d in th a t y e a r. STIBNITE. (Mining fo r gold and o th e r m e tals) The Yellow Pine Mine a t S tib n ite o p erated from 1932 to 1952. I t was th e p ro p e rty o f th e Bradley Mining Company. A fter 1952 a l l f a c i l i t i e s (in c lu d in g m ining, m illin g , and sm eltin g p la n ts as w ell as a l l housing) was so ld fo r removal from th e p rem ises. Montana BONNER. (Lumber m ill) Bonner was founded in th e 1 B B 0 * s by th e B lackfoot M illin g Company. (This company, in c id e n t a lly , was formed by A. B. Hammond and h is b r o th e r, who l a t e r formed th e Hammond Lumber Company which owned some company towns in C a lif o r n ia .) The m ill and to w n site were purchased in 1910 by th e Anaconda Company and i s s t i l l o p erated by t h i s f ir m T s lumber departm ent. I t is a community o f approxim ately 1,000 people and is sa id to be one o f th e o u tsta n d in g sawm ill towns in th e U nited S ta te s . I t s w e ll-k e p t homes, paved s t r e e t s and f in e land scap in g a l l c o n trib u te to making Bonner an a t t r a c t i v e community. COLSTRIP. (Coal m ining) C o ls trip was founded in 1923-24 by th e N orthern P a c if ic R a ilro ad Company, which continued to own th e town u n t i l 1959« The mine and town were o p erated fo r th e r a ilr o a d by Foley B ro th e rs, I n c ., o f S t. P aul, M innesota. In 1959 th e town was purchased by 346 th e Montana Power Company. C o ls tr ip was once a la r g e community, but today o nly about t h i r t y company houses a re r e n te d , due to th e d e c lin e i n coal b u s in e s s . R esid en ts a re lo o k in g forw ard to th e tim e t h a t Montana Power begins to use co al f o r power. The C o ls tr ip mine i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g f o r i t is one o f th e la r g e o p e n -p it, or s t r i p , c o a l mines in th e co u n try . SOMERS. (Lumber m ill) The m i l l and s e ttle m e n t a t Somers were e s ta b lis h e d in 1901 by t h e John OfB rien Lumber Company, sponsored by th e G reat N orthern R a ilro a d . In 1907 G reat N orthern bought out John O’B rien and changed th e name to Somers Lumber Company. Houses were a l l owned by th e company and re n te d f o r $5.00 to $10.00 per m onth. In 194-3 th e town was so ld to th e Alex Shulman Company o f S e a t t l e , and i t i s no lo n g e r a company town. W ARLAND. (Lumber m ill) Warland was founded around 1929 by the B aird-H arper Lumber Company to su p p o rt th e e sta b lish m e n t o f a sa w m ill. I t was a sm all town, w ith a peak p o p u la tio n o f about 300 p e o p le . Few r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s were p rovided by th e company, f o r Warland was lo c a te d in an a re a w ith ample o p p o rtu n ity f o r f is h in g , h u n tin g , and o th e r outdoor s p o r t s . The m ill ceased o p e ra tin g in 1926. Many of th e homes w ere s o ld and moved to o th e r lo c a tio n s , m ostly by sm all ra n c h e rs in th e a r e a . Nevada GABBS. (Magnesium m ining) This community o f about 125 houses was b u i l t d u rin g World War I I by th e Defense P la n t C o rp o ra tio n . I t su p p lie d ore f o r th e magnesium p la n t a t Henderson. A fte r the war two Ohio com panies5 th e S tandard Slag Company and B a sic , I n c . , purchased th e mine and tow n. L ate r John W. G albreath and Company purchased th e to w n site and so ld th e homes to in d iv id u a ls . HENDERSON. (Magnesium p la n t) Henderson was c o n s tru c te d d u rin g World War I I by th e Defense P lan t C orporation to p ro v id e housing f o r employees o f B asic Magnesium, I n c . Although th e government b u i l t th e tow n, th e company p rovided t h e housing a d m in is tra tio n and such government as e x i s te d . A fte r the war th e town was purchased by John W. G alb reath & Company, who so ld th e houses to in d iv id u a ls . I t i s now an in c o rp o ra te d community. 347 McGILL. {Copper sm e lte rJ M cGill was brought in to e x is te n c e about 190$ by the Nevada C on so lid ated Copper Company, which o p e ra te d th e l a r g e s t sm e lte r i n th e s t a t e 0 In l a t e r y ea rs Nevada C onsolidated was ta k e n o v er by K ennecott Copper C o rp o ra tio n . McGill reached a p o p u la tio n o f around 3,000 p e o p le . In 1935 M cGill was s o ld , along w ith o th e r K ennecott tow ns, to r e s id e n ts o f th e community. RUTH. (Copper m ining) Ruth, to o , was founded by Nevada C onsolidated ab o u t 190$ and e v e n tu a lly became one o f Nevadars im portant copper m in e s. Housing was so ld to th e G albreath company by K ennecott in 1955, but th e p ro p e rty rem ains w ith K ennecott because o f th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f mine expansion. W EED HEIGHTS. (Copper mine and c o n c e n tra to r) Weed H eights i s a modern, a t t r a c t i v e company town owned by The Anaconda Company. I t was b u i l t in 1951 and 1952 as p a r t o f a $40,000,000 investm ent by th e company in th e d evelop ment of th e Y errin g to n m ine. Here an $7 per cent pure copper p r e c i p i t a t e i s produced which i s shipped to th e sm e lte r a t Anaconda, M ontana, fo r r e f i n i n g . Weed H eights i s s a id to be one o f th e most w ell c o n s tru c te d and a t t r a c t i v e m ining camps in th e c o u n try . New Mexico CATALPA. (Coal m ining) This was a camp o f the Colorado Fuel and I r o n . C o rp o ratio n . In 1902 th e mine employed about 226 men. I t was lo c a te d in McKinley County. GIBSON. (Coal m ining) This C. F. & I . camp housed employees working a t both the G allup and Weaver m in es. In 1902, 1$7 men were employed a t G allup and 233 a t Weaver. Company housing extended in p r a c t i c a l l y a continuous l i n e between the two m in es. When th e Weaver mine opened th e company b u i l t s i x t y - f i v e new fo u r and six-room model h o u se s. DAW SON. (Coal m ining) In 1905 Phelps Dodge a c q u ire d e x te n siv e c o a l m ining p r o p e r tie s a t Dawson. Coal was needed fo r th e su p p o rt o f r a ilr o a d s b u i l t and o p e ra te d by th e company. A la r g e company-owned community was c re a te d and form er r e s id e n ts expressed complete s a t i s f a c tio n w ith company c o n tro l of th e tow n. A la rg e Phelps Dodge M e rc a n tile s to r e e x is te d which served n o t only Dawson but a ls o surrounding farm ing a r e a s . When Dawson clo sed in th e 1940T s , many employees were tr a n s f e r r e d to 343 o th e r Phelps Dodge tow ns. The town was com pletely d ism an tled and n o th in g rem ains of i t to d a y . GAM ERCO. (Goal m ining) Gamerco was a la rg e coal m ining camp b u i l t by the G allup American Coal Company in 1921. I t was a w e ll planned community designed and c o n s tru c te d by an e n g in e e rin g firm h ire d by th e company. At i t s peak i t had a p o p u la tio n o f about 1,500 p eo p le. Gamerco ceased to be a company town in 1945 when i t was purchased by a group o f b u sin ess men from G allu p , HURLEY. (Copper s m e lte r) H urley began in 1910 when th e Chino Copper Company b u i l t a m ill to p ro cess o re mined a t Santa R i ta . The two company towns were connected by r a i l r o a d . I t l a t e r became th e p ro p e rty o f th e K ennecott Copper C o rp o ratio n . At i t s peak, Hurley b o asted a p o p u la tio n of o ver 2,000 p e o p le . In 1955 i t was so ld along w ith o th e r K ennecott towns, and th e fo llo w in g y e a r i t became an in c o rp o ra te d community. MADRID. (Coal m ining) M ining a c t i v i t y in th e v i c i n i t y o f Madrid goes back to th e 1 3 $ 0 ts and th e 1&90’s when th e government as w e ll as p r iv a te in d iv id u a ls o p e ra te d a number o f sm all mines in th e a r e a . The town of Madrid grew g ra d u a lly i n th e 19th ce n tu ry as coal m ining in c re a s e d . The p ro p e rty e a rly was o p e ra te d by th e Santa Fe R a ilro a d , When S anta Fe d ecid ed to q u it i t s c o a l o p e ra tio n s th e p ro p e rty was le a se d to Colorado Fuel and Iro n who o p e ra te d i t f o r fo u r o r f iv e y ea rs th e n abandoned i t . S h o rtly t h e r e a f t e r Mr. G. A. Kaseraan, an Albuquerque co al d e a le r , took o v er and o p erated i t as th e Albuquerque and C e r r illo s Coal Company. Under t h i s company th e town r a p id ly grew and became one o f th e w ell known company towns o f th e W est. I t was a b e tte r -th a n - a v e ra g e co al tow n, as in d ic a te d by the f a c t t h a t employees owning t h e i r own homes in n ear-b y C e r r illo s p re f e rre d to l iv e in Madrid and pay r e n t because Madrid e a rly had th e conveniences o f e l e c t r i c i t y and w ater in the homes. The annual Christm as c e le b r a tio n was a most c o lo rf u l a f f a i r which re c e iv e d wide p u b l i c i t y . Today th e p ro p e rty is s t i l l owned by th e Albuquerque and C e rr illo s Coal Company, but th e town i s v i r t u a l l y abandoned as th e m arket f o r coal has been l o s t . SANTA RITA. (Copper m ining) Sporadic copper m ining had been done a t S anta R ita th roughout th e 19th c e n tu ry . In 1909, however, i t got i t s s t a r t a s a modern mine w ith th e opening o f a s u c c e s s fu l o p e n -p it mine by th e Chino Copper Company. A company-owned town grew around th e mine which in clu d ed a company s t o r e , h o s p i t a l , sc h o o l, s o c ia l h a l l , and t h e a t e r . Santa R ita e v e n tu a lly 349 became p a r t o f K ennecott Copper C o rp o ratio n . In 1955 th e homes, b u t n o t th e p ro p e rty , were s o ld , along w ith the s a le o f a l l o f K ennecott*s tow ns. The houses w ill be moved as th e mine expands. TYRONE. (Copper m ining) Tyrone was a copper m ining town b u i l t by Phelps Dodge in 1916-1917 a t a c o st o f $1,000,000* I t was a w ell d e sig n e d , model raining camp in ten d ed to su p p o rt th e company's Burrow Mountain m ine. The m ine, however, was never a la rg e producer and th e town was abandoned in 1921. W ALDO. (Coal m ining) Waldo was a sm all coal m ining camp in th e Madrid a r e a , e s ta b lis h e d around the tu rn o f th e c e n tu ry by th e Santa Fe R a ilro a d . Colorado Fuel and Iro n a ls o o p e ra te d th e re f o r a few y e a r s . In 1902 C. F. & I . employed 29 men. Oregon ALGOM Ao (Lumber m il l) Algoma, in Klamath County, was once a community owned by th e Algoma Lumber Company. BROOKINGS. (Lumber m ill) B rookings, e s ta b lis h e d sometime b efo re 1920, was o r i g i n a l l y owned by th e C a lifo rn ia-O reg o n Lumber Company. By 1925 in te r n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s in th e company caused i t to l i q u i d a te i t s h o ld in g s and th e town was so ld to p r iv a te r e s i d e n t s . DEE. (Lumber m ill) For many y e a rs Dee was owned by th e Oregon Lumber Company. I t was so ld in 195# to Hines Lumber Company, which liq u id a te d th e community. A ll houses have been removed. GILCHRIST. (Lumber m il l) G ilc h r is t was e s ta b lis h e d in 193# by th e G ilc h r is t Timber Company and i s s t i l l a company town. G R A N D RONDE. (Logging camp) Grand Ronde was a lo g g in g h e a d q u a rte rs fo r th e Long-B ell Lumber Company. I t had about 150 company houses and a company s t o r e . These were s o ld in th e 1 9 5 0 's. KINZUA. (Lumber m ill) Kinzua was founded in 1927 by th e E. D. Wetmore fam ily to p ro v id e housing f o r employees o f t h e i r lumber m i l l . I t is s t i l l com pletely owned by th e Kinzua C orporation and has a p o p u la tio n o f about $00 p e o p le . Not a l l employees l i v e in town, f o r some now commute from towns tw elve to tw e n ty -fiv e m iles 350 away* R e c re a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s in c lu d e two company-owned la k e s which a re k e p t sto c k ed by th e company w ith rainbow t r o u t * PONDOSA. (Lumber m ill) The m i l l a t Pondosa was b u i l t in 1925-1926 by th e S toddard Lumber Company* The p o s t o f f i c e was e s ta b lis h e d in 1927. The town passed th ro u g h th e hands of th e C o llin s Pine Company to th e M t. Emily Lumber Company, a s u b s id ia r y o f V a lse tz Lumber Company. In 1953 th e tow n’s 53 homes, 11 i n d u s t r i a l b u ild i n g s , g e n e ra l s t o r e , and h o te l were s o ld a t a u c tio n f o r a t o t a l of $3 3 , 92 5 * POWERS. (Logging h e a d q u a rte rs ) Powers was e s ta b li s h e d in 1915 as a lo g g in g h e a d q u a rte rs f o r th e Smith-Powers Logging Company. I t d id n o t rem ain as a company town f o r many y e a r s , how ever, as th e company- b u i l t homes were q u ic k ly so ld to em ployees. Powers e v e n tu a lly grew in to a l a r g e , a c tiv e lum bering community. SHEVLIN. (Logging h e a d q u a rte rs ) S h ev lin was i n t e r e s t i n g because i t was ty p i c a l of th e many m obile lo g g in g camps which once e x i s te d . Belonging to th e S hevlin-H ixon Company, i t was moved s e v e r a l tim e s in th e Klamath and D eschutes County a r e a . The p o s t o f f i c e was d is c o n tin u e d in 1951. STARKEY. (Logging h e a d q u a rte rs ) For many y e a rs S ta rk e y was a lo g g in g h e a d q u a rte rs f o r th e M t. B nily Lumber Company. I t e v e n tu a lly was purchased by V a ls e tz Lumber Company, and was l i q u i d a te d by 1955. VALSETZ. (Lumber m i l l ) V a ls e tz i s s t i l l a f u l l y - owned company town o f th e V a lse tz Lumber Company, which now i s a d iv is io n o f th e Boise Cascade C o rp o ra tio n . I t was purchased in 1946 from th e C obbs-M itchell Lumber Company. I t had been c o n s tru c te d p r i o r to World War I . V a ls e tz i s one o f th e few rem aining com pletely is o l a te d lum ber m i l l to w n s. I t w i l l undoubtedly rem ain a company town u n t i l such tim e a s th e m i l l c lo s e s . VAUGHN. (Lumber m ill) This town w as e s ta b lis h e d in th e 1920*s by S n e llstro m B ro th e rs Lumber Company. I t was purchased by L ong-B ell in 1944 and i s now owned by I n t e r n a t i o n a l P a p e r. I t i s a com bination m il l and lo g g in g tow n. 351 W AUNA. (Lumber m ill) Wauna was e s ta b lis h e d in 1912 and i s s t i l l owned by th e Wauna Lumber Company* I t is b e a u t i f u l l y lo c a te d on a 1,030 a c re t r a c t w ith more th a n two m iles o f w a te r f r o n t on the Columbia R iv e r. Peak po p u latio n -w as about 300 p e o p le . About 1960 th e lumber m ill c lo sed down a n d in 1962 i t was s t i l l in th e p ro cess o f l i q u i d a t i o n . No change y e t had been made in th e town excep t t h a t lumber m anufacturing had been d is c o n tin u e d . WENDLING. (Lumber m ill) This B ooth-K elly Lumber Company town was b u i l t to su p p o rt a m ill e s ta b lis h e d in 1S9S. The m ill clo sed in 1945 and th e town was l i q u i d a t e d . WESTFIR. (Lumber m ill) The m ill a t W e stfir was e s ta b lis h e d about 1925 by Colonel K elly o f th e B ooth- K elly Lumber Company. I t s o r i g i n a l purpose was to produce t i e s and lumber f o r th e Southern P a c if ic R a ilro a d . The town grew from an o r i g i n a l t e n t colony su rro u n d in g th e m i l l . In l a t e r y e a r s , th e p ro p e rty was owned by W estern Lumber Company and, f i n a l l y , by Edward Hines Lumber Company. I t i s s t i l l owned by H ines, alth o u g h homes a re now being s o ld to w o rk ers. WILARK. (Logging o p e ra tio n ) W ilark was th e c e n te r o f lo g g in g o p e ra tio n s f o r th e W ilson and Clark Lumber Company, from which th e town took i t s name. I t c o n s is te d o f over 300 men, m ostly s in g l e , l i v i n g in bunk h o u se s. I t had a commissary, p o st o f f i c e , cook house, machine shop, and a few sm all fam ily h o u se s. About 1929 th e town was- moved as th e company bought in to a n o th e r o p e r a tio n . In 1944 th e company liq u id a te d and W ilark ceased to e x i s t . Utah BACCHUS. (E xplosives p la n t) Bacchus was b u i l t in 1913 to house key p e rso n n e l employed a t th e new H ercules Powder Company p la n t n ear S a lt Lake C ity . I t was an a t t r a c t i v e , w e ll k ep t v i l l a g e o f fo rty -o n e homes. Begin ning in 1941, most o f th e homes were removed from th e p rem ises, and th e company today m a in ta in s o n ly s ix houses a t t h a t s i t e . The p l a n t , however, has expanded to become a m ajor e x p lo siv e s and m issle c e n te r . CASTLE GATE. (Coal m ining) C a stle Gate was an e a rly m ining community, d a tin g from about 18S3© I t passed through th e hands o f s e v e ra l coal com panies, but e v e n tu a lly came under th e ow nership o f th e Utah Fuel Company. In 1960 352 t h i s company so ld a l l company h o u sin g . C a stle Gate has been an in c o rp o ra te d community s in c e 1914. COLUMBIA. (Coal m ining) Columbia was c o n s tru c te d about 1922 by Columbia S te e l Company, a s u b s id ia r y o f U nited S ta te s S te e l C o rp o ratio n . The mine was o p e ra te d fo r th e purpose o f su p p ly in g coking coal to th e company p la n t a t Iro n to n . By 1923 th e community had grown to a popu l a t i o n o f about 650 p e o p le . The to w n site c o n s iste d o f modern company-owned houses, bunk houses f o r sin g le men, a company s t o r e , boarding house, c o n fe c tio n a ry , amusement h a l l , and b arb er shop* About 1947 th e e n t ir e town was purchased by John W. G albreath & Company and homes were so ld to i n d iv i d u a ls . CLEAR CREEK. (Coal m ining) C lear Creek, lo c a te d s i x m iles so u th o f S c o fie ld , was founded about 189& by th e Utah Fuel Company. Like many o th e r e a r ly com m unities, i t was a t e n t v i l l a g e u n t i l b e t t e r housing could be b u i l t by th e company. The company owned ev e ry th in g in town and re n te d houses f o r about $12.50 per m onth. In 1952 th e town was so ld t o th e Independent Coal and Coke Company. C0PPERT0N. (Copper m ining) Copperton was b u i l t in th e 1920’s by Utah Copper Company to house employees from th e famous o p e n -p it mine a t Bingham. Since th e community was lo c a te d on th e main t o u r i s t ro u te to Bingham, th e company made a show p la c e o f Copperton by u sin g copper wherever p o s s ib le in th e c o n s tru c tio n o f th e homes. Copperton was s t r i c t l y a r e s i d e n t i a l community, w ith r e s id e n ts going to Bingham o r o th e r n e a r-b y communities to shop. Utah Copper was e v e n tu a lly absorbed by K ennecott Copper C o rp o ratio n . In 1955 Copperton ceased to be a company town a s houses were s o ld , along w ith th o se o f a l l K ennecott tow ns, to in d iv i d u a ls . DIVIDEND. (Mining) Located in Juab County about f iv e m ile s e a s t o f E ureka, D ividend was a model m ining community b u i l t by T in tic S tandard Mining Company. I t had a modern s t o r e , ic e p la n t, r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s and, from 1924 to 1925, i t s own new spaper. By 1951 o nly a few b u ild in g s and a watchman rem ained a t the lo c a tio n . DRAGERTON. (Coal m ining) D ragerton was c o n stru c te d by th e Defense P la n t C orporation d u rin g World War I I . The town was b u i l t to house c o a l m iners employed a t th e Horse Canyon mine and c o n s is te d o f 721 homes. I t was o p e ra te d by U. S. S t e e l , and th e r e f o r e i s in clu d ed h ere as a company 353 town, although a c tu a lly i t was a government town* In 1947 th e town was purchased by John W. G albreath & Company and so ld to r e s id e n ts * GARFIELD. (Copper sm e lte r) G a rfie ld was founded in 1905 as a j o i n t e f f o r t o f Utah Copper Company and American Sm elting and R e fin in g C o rp o ra tio n . The l a t t e r had a o n e - th ir d i n t e r e s t in th e sm e lte r and community* The town was b u i l t to house w orkers fo r th e new sm e lte r which took i t s o re from the Bingham m ine. The town in c lu d ed 394 company-owned houses, and became th e p ro p e rty o f K ennecott Copper C o rp o ratio n when t h i s firm took over the i n t e r e s t s o f Utah Copper. In 1955 th e town was s o ld , along w ith a l l o th e r K ennecott towns in th e West* Homes were s o ld f o r removal as th e s m e lte r a t G a rfie ld was elim in a ted * Today n o th in g rem ains o f t h i s form er sm e lte r town* GRASS CREEK. (Coal m ining) Grass Creek is p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t h ere because i t was o p e ra te d by the dominant church in U tah, The Church o f Jesus C h ris t of L a tte r-d a y S a in ts* Grass Creek was s e t t l e d in 1S&3 when a number o f Mormons went to work in th e a d ja c e n t m ines. The Union P a c if ic R ailro ad then owned th e mines and h o u se s, but closed th e m ines, to r e down th e h o u ses, and abandoned th e camp in 1&S6 and 13&7* A church-owned com bination m eeting and sch o o l house was l e f t sta n d in g and in 1901 was moved to th e new lo c a ti o n . In th e 1690’s the church began develo p in g i t s own mine in th e Grass Creek a re a and s e v e ra l church members moved th e re to work. The church-owned Grass Creek Coal Company d id n o t own a l l h o u sin g , f o r many men began to b u ild t h e i r own homes a t th e mine* The company jo u rn a l shows, however, th a t Grass Creek had a l l th e elem ents of a company tow n. The company owned homes, c o lle c te d r e n t , so ld c o a l to em ployees, and provided s u p p lie s from the company s t o r e . Church t i t h i n g o rd ers w ere accep ted a t th e mine s to r e in l i e u o f cash . That t h i s town o p e ra te d l i k e most e a rly company towns i s seen in th e f a c t t h a t th e company deducted r e n t , board, c o a l, and o th e r th in g s from th e m in e r’s w ages. HIAWATHA. (Coal m ining) Hiawatha was a company- owned community o f th e U nited S ta te s Fuel Company. I t was an u n u su a lly a t t r a c t i v e m ining town, w ith t r e e s , law ns, flo w er gardens, and w e ll m ain tain ed homes. In 1925 Hiawatha was c i te d by The Mining Congress Jo u rn a l a s one o f th e most modern and w e ll l a i d o u t coal camps o f i t s s iz e in th e United S t a t e s . A company-owned d a iry farm once 354 su p p lie d m ilk , b u t t e r , and o th e r p ro d u cts to Hiawatha and o th e r company camps in Carbon County* Hiawatha i s s t i l l a company town* KENILWORTH. (Coal m ining) K enilw orth was founded as a c o a l m ining town in 190S by th e Independent Coal and Coke Company* I t was a ty p ic a l mining town in which th e company owned a l l h o u ses, a s t o r e , boarding h o u se, r e c r e a tio n h a l l , e t c . , and p a r tic ip a t e d in v a rio u s community r e c r e a tio n a l a c t i v i t i e s . In 1960 th e K enilw orth mine c lo s e d . A ll th e houses w ere so ld to in d iv id u a l occupants and th e company s to r e was so ld to a p r iv a te o p e r a to r . K enilw orth was co n sid ered an u n u su a lly a t t r a c t i v e m ining community and reach ed a peak p o p u la tio n o f ab o u t S00 p e o p le . KEETLEY. (Coal m ining) K eetley was b u i l t s h o r tly a f t e r World War I by th e Park-U tah Mining Company, which l a t e r became th e New Park Mining Company. I t was an o th er model community w ith w e ll c o n s tru c te d h o u se s, w e ll planned s t r e e t s , and a good w ate r su p p ly . An e x c e lle n t boarding house and r e c r e a tio n a l h a l l were m aintained by th e company. In 1947 th e New Park M ining Company began a new to w n site where homes would be so ld to em ployees, th u s e lim in a tin g th e company town atm osphere. MOHRLAND. (Coal m ining) This co al mining com m unity was f i r s t e s ta b lis h e d in 1901 by th e C a stle V alley Coal Company. The fo llo w in g y ear th e s i t e became th e p ro p e rty o f th e Utah Fuel Company and a l l b u ild in g s except the sc h o o l house belonged to t h i s firm . In 1929 th e company employed 1 ,000 men a t M ohrland. The camp was abandoned in 193&e RAINS. (Coal m ining) The mine a t Rains was opened in 1916 by L* F. R ain s. The company was known as the Carbon F uel Company. The H i-Heat Coal Company l a t e r took over* The company owned a l l homes, and a company sto re * The l i v i n g are a c o n s iste d of a few houses on e i t h e r sid e o f a s in g le d i r t ro a d . I t was n o t a model m ining com m unity and form er r e s id e n ts d e s c rib e i t as ty p ic a l of the le s s d e s ir a b le co al tow ns. The town has been abandoned sin c e th e 1940's* SPRING CANYON. (Coal m ining) F i r s t named S t o r r s , S pring Canyon was e s ta b lis h e d by th e Spring Canyon Coal Company about 1912. J e s s e K night, prom inent Utah b u s in e s s man, was owner o f th e company. The town was w e ll b u i l t w ith s u b s t a n t i a l sandstone h o u ses, a good w ate r system , sew erage, and o th e r modern conveniences n o t y e t i n s t a l l e d 355 * , in many co al camps. Knight owned and c o n tro lle d a l l p ro p e rty and would s e l l none o f i t except f o r p urposes approved by him . In 1922 James B. Smith and a s s o c ia te s bought th e S pring Canyon Coal Company. The company s t i l l owns th e p ro p e r ty , b u t m ining ceased in 195$. In 1962 only about 10 men were s t i l l employed, le a v in g Spring Canyon v i r t u a l l y abandoned. At th e h e ig h t ° f i t s a c t i v i t y S pring Canyon reached a p o p u la tio n of about 1,000 p eo p le. STANDARDVILLE. (Coal m ining) The second mine to be opened in th e S pring Canyon a re a was opened by th e S tandard Coal Company in 1913* The town o f S ta n d a rd v ille was w e ll c o n s tru c te d and m ain tain ed good s a n ita r y c o n d itio n s . I t was a planned community, and in 1925 was reco g n ized by The M ining Congress Jo u rn al as f a r above th e a v e ra g e . P o p u la tio n a t one tim e reach ed 1,000 p e o p le, but th e town was abandoned s e v e r a l y e a rs ago when th e company ceased o p e r a tio n s . SUNNYSIDE A N D SUNNYDALE. (Coal m ining) Sunnyside was founded about 1904 by th e Utah Fuel Company. I t was f u l l y p a t e r n a l i s t i c , w ith th e company owning th e s t o r e , a l l homes, amusement h a l l , and a l l o th e r r e c r e a tio n a l f a c i l i t i e s . Even though i t i s s t i l l a company town, i t was in c o rp o ra te d under Utah m u n icip al laws in 1913, and is o p e ra te d w ith a mayor and co u n c il as a m unicipal corpo r a t i o n . By World War I I , Sunnyside had become p r a c t i c a l l y a gh o st town. In t h a t y e a r Utah Fuel Company le a s e d i t s number two mine to th e K aiser Company, In c o rp o ra te d , which is th e p re s e n t K aiser S te e l C o rp o ratio n . F eelin g t h a t th e o ld homes were not adequate fo r modern n eed s, the Utah Fuel Company now e re c te d a new, modern housing a re a one m ile from th e old to w n s ite , c a l l i n g i t S unnydale. Sunnydale became an a t t r a c t i v e , w e ll b u i l t r e s i d e n t i a l a re a w ith a l l modern f a c i l i t i e s . Since shopping and c iv ic f a c i l i t i e s were s t i l l lo c a te d a t Sunnyside, th e company i n s t i t u t e d a bus s e rv ic e which made scheduled t r i p s to th e shopping c e n te r and t h e a t e r . Round t r i p fe e was te n c e n ts . A branch o f th e company s to r e was l a t e r e s ta b lis h e d a t Sunnydale. So a t t r a c t i v e were the new housing f a c i l i t i e s th a t r e s id e n ts o f Sunnyside now put t h e i r names on th e w a itin g l i s t to move in to th e new s e c tio n . In 1950 K aiser purchased a l l th e Utah F uel Company p ro p e rty a t Sunnyside. The a re a s t i l l o p e ra te s a s a company-owned community and a l l comes under th e name o f S unnyside. Coal from the mine is coked and shipped f o r use to K a is e r’s s t e e l p la n t a t F ontana, C a lif o r n ia . 356 WATTIS. (Goal mining) Wattis grew around a coal mine begun in 1916 by the Wattis brothers and a man named Browning* In 1916 the camp and mine were sold to the Lion Coal Company. Housing accommodations were somewhat inadequate for many years. During World War II new apart ment units, called "Wattis Villa," were erected and the old boarding house was later condemned. Lion Coal Company still owns all homes at Wattis, renting them for as low as $29.00 per month. No business facilities exist at the present time. Washington BLACK DIAMOND. (Coal mining) Black Diamond was a company-owned community, but private parties were able to lease ground for $100 per year and build their own homes. Private businesses also operated. Black Diamond was established in the IBBO's by the Black Diamond Mining Company when its operations near Nortonville, California, were being threatened by high-grade coal from Washington. A serious strike in the 1920's, together with a decline in demand for coal in later years, brought Black Diamond virtually to a stand still as far as mining was concerned. The town was incorporated, however, in 1959® BORDEAUX. (Logging camp and lumber mill) This camp was founded by the Bordeaux brothers in the 1$90's. At its peak it employed over 700 men. In 1941 the mill was closed and Bordeaux became a ghost town. CARBONADO. (Coal mining) Carbonado was an old- time company town which, in the 1950's, was given up as a ghost town. Residents, however, bought their own homes from the company, found employment in near-by mines and logging operations, and have created an independent community. DOTY. (Lumber mill) Doty was a company town which was closed in the 1930's because of operating difficulties. DRYAD. (Lumber mill) Dryad was a lumber mill town established in the latter 19th century by Leudinghaus Lumber Company. Most of the houses were owned by the company, although other businesses were also allowed to operate hotels, cafes, saloons, etc. Houses were built in rows and all of the same style. The town was once a lively community of about 1,000 people. In the 1920's it was purchased by March & Duncan. This company sold to 357 Schaeffer Brothers in 1937* The latter firm operated the mill for only a short time then, in 1939, junked the mill and houses. A few houses were sold to residents but most were torn down. DuPONT. (Explosives plant) DuPont was established in 1906-07 by the E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Company to house employees at its Washington powder plant. Properties were sold to occupants in the early 1950’s and the town was incorporated in 1951* F0RTS0N. (Lumber mill) Fortson, seven miles West of Darrington, was once a company-owned mill town. It is now completely abandoned. HOLDEN. (Copper mining) Holden was a company-owned town operated since the 1930's by the Howe Sound Mining Company. Lack of ore caused the mine to cease operating in 1957* In 1960 the entire town was donated to the Seattle Lutheran Bible Institute. LONGVIEW. (Lumber mill) This town was never a real company town* It is mentioned here only as an example of the trend of some companies to build entire towns specifi cally to sell to employees and business people with the idea of making them permanent, independent communities. Longview was such a town, created in the 1920’s. MeCLEARY. (Lumber mill) MeCleary was founded in 1&9& as a logging camp and mill town for the Henry McCleary Timber Company. In 1941 it was sold to Simpson Logging Company which soon sold all the homes and got out of the company town business. McCleary was incorporated in 1942* MALONE. (Lumber mill) Malone was established in the early 1900’s by the Joe Vance Lumber Company. The company did very well and later sold out to the Bordeaux Lumber Company* The mill was closed during the depression and houses were sold for whatever they would bring. MONTEZUMA. (Lumber mill) Montezuma was a full- fledged company town operated by the Manley-Moore Lumber Company from 1910 to 1935* Peak population was 500-600 people, and all employees of the mill were housed at the town. It was forty miles from Tacoma, the closest major center of population. The closing of the mill in 1935 was the end of the town* 358 NATIONAL. (Lumber mill) National was established as a sawmill town by the Pacific National Lumber Company in the first decade of this century. It was a fully-owned company town, although it was only one and one-half miles from Ashford, the nearest village. During World War II the property was sold to Harbor Plywood Company and the mill was dismantled. The town was improved and continued, however, as logging continued. The Weyerhaeuser Company later purchased the town but discontinued it, maintaining only the logging operations. Most of the buildings were sold for removal. NEWCASTLE. (Coal mining) Newcastle was an early coal mining company-owned town which boasted 300 houses, a store, and a hotel. Its original name was Coal Creek but after World War’ I it was changed. By 1947 it had become practically a ghost town, with homes having been sold to residents. ONALASKA. (Lumber mill) Onalaska was a company- owned town of the Carlisle Lumber Company. In the 1940*s it had a population of around 1200 people. By 19b0 it had dwindled to 210. OSTRANDER. (Logging and lumber mill) Ostrander originally was established in the 1 S S 0 ts as a logging operation by Mr. A. B. Root of Pennsylvania, backed by a family named Collins. In later years E. S. Collins took charge and formed the Ostrander Railway & Timber Company, which became a million dollar concern. There were about thirty-four homes in Ostrander, all but two owned by the company. There was also a company store and a Methodist church. It was a quiet little community and Collins quickly removed anyone who drank to excess or became a trouble-maker. In 1939 the lack of timber caused the company to cease operations. The mill was junked and over half the houses were given to long time employees. Other houses were sold at small cost to new employees who were living in them. PORT GAMBLE. (Lumber mill) Port Gamble is probably the longest lived company town in the West. It was established in 1853 by Pope & Talbot. Its excellent location and picturesque New England architecture helped make it a particularly attractive community. The town still exists and, although the company does not need to operate it, it is planned to maintain at least the main street as a landmark. 359 PORT LUDLOW. (Lumber mill) Pope and Talbot purchased the Port Ludlow Mill Company, and with it the small company-owned settlement, in 1S78. The company did not begin operations until 1S54, after which it became another flourishing mill town of the Puget Mill Company, the subsidiary of Pope and Talbot. Port Ludlow continued operating until 1945 when it was decided that, because of the decline of timber, two mills should not be operated in such close proximity. The company still owns the site, but everything is closed at present. PTSHT. (Logging camp) Pysht was a sm all head q u a r te rs camp o f the M e r r ill and Ring Logging Company from 1&7& to 1944, w ith b r i e f p e rio d s o f d is c o n tin u a n c e . I t had o n ly about f i f t e e n houses and a sm all company s t o r e . It is only typical of scores of such camps which existed in the logging country, and are not generally included here. ROSLYN. (Coal mining) Roslyn was founded in the 1$£0’s by the Northern Pacific Coal Company, a subsidiary of the Northern Pacific Railroad. The first businesses were a company store and a company-owned saloon. The latter was operated because of the company’s desire to regulate liquor traffic. In the early days houses built by the company rented very cheaply, but workers could also lease ground and build their own homes. Roslyn eventually expanded to become a large, bustling community of home owners and private businesses, and not a company town in the traditional sense. A few houses are still rented by the company, although the coal mine is no longer active. At the turn of the century Roslyn boasted a population of 4,000. The present population is only about 1 ,000. RYDERWQOD. (Logging camp) Most logging camps were, temporary bachelor-type communities with few facilities for families. Ryderwood was unusual in this respect. This camp was established by the Long-Bell Lumber Company in 1922 as a "family camp”. It was felt that this would bring the company a more stable worker instead of the "boomers" or d?rifters common to logging operations. Ryderwood had 375 houses, a cook house and a twenty-four room school building which included all grades from kindergarten through high school. In 1952 logging was finished in the area and the town was sold to Senior Estates, Inc., who turned it into a community for retired people. SAPPHO. (Logging camp) Sappho was th e logging h e a d q u a rte rs o f Bloedell-D onovan Lumber Company, which e s ta b lis h e d t h e i r camp in 1924. A sm all se ttle m e n t 360 already existed, however, prior to this time. Sappho was a permanent-type logging community consisting of about twenty family houses and bunk houses for 250-300 men, The typical company store provided credit and would deduct from wages. In 1946 Rayonier, Inc., bought the holdings of Bloedel-Donovan, and this firm still operates the camp. SEABECKo (Lumber mill) Seabeck was founded in 1356 by the Washington Mill Company, Edward Clayson, who owned property just outside the mill company property, was a particular thorn in the flesh of the managers of Seabeck, for he was constantly criticizing their alleged ’ 'slave” operation of the town. The mill burned in 1886, which brought an end to the operation. The old houses, church, and hotel building have been restored and the area now serves as a recreational center for church groups during the summer• SNOQUALMIE FALLS. (Lumber mill) Snoqualmie Falls was constructed in 1917-191S by the Snoqualmie Falls Lumber Company, later a branch of the Weyerhaeuser Company,, At one time the town consisted of 225 company-owned dwellings. The company provided a community hall, hospital, water, garbage collection, and electric power. It also ran a company store until 1955, At its peak the settlement had a population of about 900 people, which included approximately 65 per cent of the employees. In 1957 the company houses were sold to employees, who moved them into the town of Snoqualmie. There were only twenty- two company-owned dwellings remaining in Snoqualmie Falls in 1962. THREE LAKES. (Lumber mill) The Three Lakes Lumber Company was founded in 1903• The company-owned town was abandoned in the 1920’s when the surrounding timber had been cut out. T0N0. (Coal mining) In 1907 the Union Pacific Coal Company jumped to Washington and incorporated the Washington Union Coal Company, owners of the site of Tono, as a subsidiary. In 1932 the settlement was taken over by the Bucoda Coal Mining Company. - VAIL. (Logging headquarters) Vail was founded in 1928 by the Weyerhaeuser Company as a center of its logging operations. Several additional camps existed in the woods, but Vail was the central, permanent camp. The company built fifty-two houses and several bunk houses for single men. It also had a company store, which closed in 361 1952. Vail is still owned by the company, although the cook houses, bunk houses, and company store are gone because of the changing economic pattern of the logging business. Wyoming CARBON. (Coal mining) Established in 1868, Carbon was the first coal mining town to be created by the Union Pacific Coal Company. It was not an ordinary company town, for miners owned their own homes. It is mentioned in this dissertation as an example of the early Wyoming mining communities which led eventually to the establishment of company towns. A company store existed in town, and the community also had a company doctor. It was disbanded in 1902. CUMBERLAND» (Coal mining) This mining town was established by Union Pacific Coal Company shortly after 1900. It closed in 1930. FRONTIER. (Coal mining) This coal raining camp was established in 1897 to provide housing for the Kemmerer Coal Company's mine at Frontier. The Uintah Improvement Company, which owned the real estate, the Kemmerer Coal Company, which produced the coal, the Frontier Supply Company, which was the company store, and the Lincoln Service Corporation, which provided utilities, were all part of the same holding corporation. At Frontier the company owned most of the houses, although individuals could lease land and build their own homes if they wished. Frontier is still company-owned, although no store and only a few houses still exist. No coal mining is going on at the present time. Frontier is adjacent to Kemmerer, which was established about a year after Frontier. Frontier was Kemmerer Coal Company's first mine. DIAMONDVILLE. (Coal mining) Diamondville was the site of a mine established by the Diamond Coal & Coke Company about 1892. It operated until about 1940. ELCQ. (Coal mining) The Elco mine of the Kemmerer Coal Company was the scene of a small settlement of about twenty houses and a company store in the early part of this century. DANA. (Coal mining) This small settlement adjacent to a mine of the Union Pacific Coal Company lasted for only three or four years early in this century. 362 HANNA. (Coal mining) Hanna was an outstanding community of the Union Pacific Coal Company. It was established in 1BB9* It was fully paternalistic with the company owning all homes, providing all recreational facilities, assisting in the erection of churches, and operating a company store. About 1950 the last mine at Hanna closed. Homes were then sold to employees who wanted to stay in the town, and many of these workers remain* The property still belongs to the company* MIDWEST. (Oil wells and refinery) Midwest was a large company town of the Midwest Refining Company. It flourished early in this century and consisted of a main settlement and several auxiliary camps. RELIANCE. (Coal mining) Reliance was founded in 1910 by the Union Pacific Coal Company. It consisted of about 145 homes, a company store, three boarding houses, and other community facilities. In 1954 the Reliance mines were closed because the railroad was converting to deisel fuel. The company store was closed and most of the houses were sold to residents. SINCLAIR. (Oil refining) Originally called Parco, this town was begun in 1922 by the Producers and Refiners Corporation, which started a large oil refinery here. In 1934 the refinery and town were purchased by the Sinclair Oil Corporation. The town is fully owned by the company, although business facilities are leased to private operators. The homes are substantial, attractive structures and the whole town gives the appearance of a well planned, pleasant community » SUBLET #5* (Coal mining) Kemmerer Coal Company’s mine called Sublet #5 was supported by a company-owned settlement of about 500 people. It had a company store* SUBLET #6* (Coal mining) Kemmerer Coal Company’s mine called Sublet was supported by a small company- owned settlement of about 200 people. It had perhaps thirty-five houses, and a company store. SUSIE. (Coal mining) The small Susie mine of the Kemmerer Coal Company was the scene of a tiny company- owned settlement of perhaps fifteen houses and a small store * SUNRISE. (Iron mining) Sunrise was the scene of Colorado Fuel and Iron Corporation’s large Wyoming iron 363 mines. The first ore was shipped in 1399. In 1902 the company employed 153 men in the mines. Several new brick homes were in the process of being erected. The town had a school and a branch of the Colorado Supply Company store. SUPERIOR. (Coal mining) Mines at Superior were opened by the Union Pacific Coal Company about 1905* The town was first called Reliance, but the name was changed to Superior in 1906. The mine closed in 1962, which brought to an end the last large coal mining operation in the Rock Springs-Superior area. WINTQN♦ (Coal mining) Winton, near Rock Springs, was established in 1917 by the Megeath Coal Company. It was purchased in 1921 by the Union Pacific Coal Company, although the town and mines had been partly on Union Pacific property anyway. Winton was an unusual mining community in a number of respects. First, it was a model town, well planned and designed from the beginning. Next, the community council, a body made up of representatives of various employee groups, acted almost as a governing agency, even though the town was not incorporated and the company was still in charge. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY United States Government Publications "Adjustment of Labor Difficulties in the Arizona Copper Region,” Monthly Labor Review. Vol. V, No. 6 (December, 1917 J. "Company Stores and the Scrip System,” Monthly Labor Review, Vol. XLI, No. 1 . (July, 19 3 5 ) • "Hours and Earnings of Employees of Oil Wells and Pipe Lines, 1929,” Monthly Labor Review. Vol. XXX, No. 3 (March, 1930). "industrial Necessity* for Political Control: An Incident of the Colorado Miner*s Strike,” Monthly Labor Review, Vol. Ill, No. 2 (August, 1916'). " I n v e s tig a tio n of Wage Payments in S c r i p ,” Monthly Labor Review. Vol. XXXVIII, No. 5 (May, 19JUI "Labor Camps in California,” Monthly Labor Review. Vol. XI, No. 4 (October, 1920). "Legislation Relating to Payment of Wages in Scrip, Protec tion of Employees as Traders, and Company Stores,” Monthly Labor Review, Vol. XLIII, No. 1 (July, 1936). Magnusson, Leifur. "Company Housing in the Bituminous Coal Fields," Monthly Labor Review. Vol. X. No. 4 (April, 1920).---------------------- ________. "Methods of Sale of Company Houses," Monthly Labor Review. Vol. VIII, No. 4 (April, I 9T9 ) . ________. "A Modern Copper Mining Town,” Monthly Labor Review. Vol. VII, No. 3 (September, 191.#). ________o "Sanitary Aspects of Company Housing," Monthly Labor Review. Vol. VIII, No. 1 (January, 1919)o "Reduction of Cost of Living by Company Stores in Arizona," Monthly Labor Review. Vol. XVI, No. 4 (April, 1923). 365 366 "R eport o f th e Colorado Coal Commission," Monthly Labor Reviewf V o l. I I , No* 4 (A p ril, 19161. "R eport o f th e P r e s i d e n t s M ediation Commission," Monthly Labor Review% V ol. VI, No. 3 (March, 191#)» U nited S ta te s Coal Commission (John Hays Hammond, C h air man) o R eport o f th e U nited S ta te s Coal Commission. Dec. 10, 1923. W ashington: Government P rin tin g O ffic e , 1925. U nited S ta te s Coal Mines A d m in is tra tio n . A M edical Survey o f th e Bituminous Coal I n d u s try . 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Pamphlet p u b lish e d by The Anaconda Company, Weed H e ig h ts, Nevada, n .d . Correspondence (Note: In clu d ed i n th e fo llo w in g correspondence are p erso n a l l e t t e r s w r i tte n to James 6 . A llen as w e ll as answers t o q u e s tio n n a ire s s e n t out by James B. A lle n . No d i s t i n c t i o n has been made between th e s e two ite m s .) Abraham, Hank* F o r e s te r , Mt. Whitney Lumber Company (now a d iv is io n o f American F o re st Products C o rp o ra tio n ), Jo h n so n d ale, C a lif o r n ia . F eb ru ary , 1962. Agrons, B0 Z. G eneral Manager, Rockport Redwood Company, R ockport, C a lif o r n i a . May 5, 1962. A llen, H arold T* Logan, U tah. A p ril 11, 1963. Andrews, R* E. C o m p tro lle r’s D epartm ent, K ennecott Copper C o rp o ra tio n , Chino Mines D iv isio n , H urley, New Mexico. June 2$, 1962. Arends, Jerome P. P u b lic ity Departm ent, American F o re st P roducts C o rp o ra tio n , San F ra n c isc o , C a lif o r n ia . 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May 22, 19620 D avis, C arl L® P o rtla n d , Oregon. May 31, 1962<> Eddy, Richard H, E n g in eer, P ic k e rin g Lumber Company, S tan d a rd , C a lif o r n ia . February 13, 1962. Evenson, W illard * P re s id e n t, Wauna Lumber Company, Wauna, Oregon. May 31, 1962. F is c h e r, D ale. Eugene, Oregon. May 2 4 , 19620 F o u n tain , S u s ie . A re a ta , C a lif o r n ia . February 19, 1962c G e r lis h e r, M. C„ A s s is ta n t Manager, The McCloud R iver Lumber Company, McCloud, C a lif o r n i a . F ebruary S, 1: 962. G ibbs, W illiam R. R e lia n c e , Wyoming. May 20, 1962. G ruber, Jack M. P u b lic a tio n s Manager, P o tla tc h F o re s ts , I n c ., L ew iston, Id ah o . May 14, 1962. H a r r is , Ramsay S . Phoenix, A rizo n a. J u ly , 1962. H ausner, E. N ® Manager, S in c la ir R efin in g Company, S i n c l a i r , Wyoming. January 29, 1962. H e ffe rly , Fred K. S e c re ta ry -T re a s u re r, United Mine Workers of America, Denver, C olorado. A p ril 1C, 1962. 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Westend, California* February, 1962* Mickelson, Marie P* Chester, California* May, 1962* Millar, A* E* General Manager, The Anaconda Company, Weed Heights, Nevada* May 14, 1962* Miller, Russell C» Community Manager, Climax Molybdenum Company, Climax, Colorado* April 10, 1962* Morrison, Ed C* Hornitos, California* May 27, 1962. Murdock, K* M* Secretary-Manager, Pacific Northwest Loggers Association, Seattle, Washington* February 7 , 1962* Musso, Frank* Roslyn, Washington* May 29, 1962* Mutchler, Tom* Public Relations Manager, International Paper Company, Long-Bell Division, Longview, Washington* May 21, 1962* 371 N e ils , Georgeo Libby, Montana, June 9, 1962, New ell, A0 T„ C o n su lta n t, S ta u fe r Chemical Company, Henderson, Nevada, A p ril 13, 1962, N ew ell, Mrs, Ted, S unnyside, U tah, F ebruary, 1963, Onn, Harry B. 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P ., J r , D ir e c to r, P u b lic R e la tio n s , K ennecott Copper C o rp o ra tio n , Chino Mines D iv isio n , H urley, New M exico. January 29, 1962; A p ril 3 , 1962. S harp, Selwyn J . S e c re ta ry (now r e t i r e d ) , C a lif o r n ia Redwood A s s o c ia tio n , San F ra n c isc o , C a lif o r n ia . F ebruary 14, 1962. S hipsey, J . E, Manager, Diamond N a tio n a l C o rp o ratio n , Red B lu ff, C a lif o r n i a . May 17, 1962. S n id e r, Mrs. J e n n ie . V a il, W ashington. June, 1962. 372 S ta r k , D0 K* I n d u s t r i a l R e la tio n s R e p re s e n ta tiv e , K ennecott Copper C o rp o ra tio n , Nevada Mines D iv isio n , M cG ill, Nevada. F ebruary 23, 1962; June 6 , 1962. S te w a rt, E. E. S p e c ia l A s s is ta n t to P ro d u ctio n Manager, E* I» du Pont de Nemours & Company, W ilmington, Delaware * June 6 , 1962; June 13, 1962. S tra n d , B e rt 0 . P u b lic R e la tio n s R e p re s e n ta tiv e , K ennecott Copper C o rp o ra tio n , Utah Copper D iv isio n , S a lt Lake C ity , U tah. F ebruary 12, 1962. T ay lo r, Moses C0 Kamas, U tah. J u ly 13, 1962. T eagle, E rn e st C. McCleary, W ashington. June, 1962. Thon, M aurice. C hief A ccountant, Bagdad Copper C orpora t i o n , Bagdad, A rizona. August 17, 19620 W ilson, Hamp. G eneral Manager, G allup Gamerco Coal Company, Gamerco, New Mexico. F ebruary, 1962. Wiseman, J . V. West End Chemical C o., W estend, C a lif o r n ia . F ebruary, 1962. Woods, Jack E. A tto rn ey , R ic h fie ld O il C o rp o ratio n , Los A ngeles, C a lif o r n i a . February 6, 19o2. ’ Woods, Ray. Kearny, A rizona. A p ril, 1962. P erso n al In te rv ie w s Agrons, B. Zc G eneral Manager, Rockport Redwood Company, R ockport, C a lif o r n i a . A p ril 13, 1962. B a ll, A lden. P u b lic r e l a t i o n s r e p r e s e n ta ti v e , The P a c ific Lumber Company, S c o tia , C a lif o r n i a . A p ril 13, 1962. B arron, M * E0 R esident Manager, F r u it Growers Supply Company, H i l t , C a lif o r n ia . May 2, 1962. B e a ll, H. C* Manager, Phelps Dodge M e rcan tile Company, B isbee, A rizona. March 13, 1962. B e lla , C harles J . S anta Cruz, C a lif o r n i a . May 4, 1962. 373 B rig g s, J* A. Manager, New C o rn e lia Branch, Phelps Dodge C o rp o ratio n , A jo, Arizona* March 23, 1962* Bryson, Jam es. G eneral Manager, V a lse tz D iv isio n , Boise Cascade C o rp o ra tio n , P o rtla n d , Oregon* A p ril 25, 1962. B u eh ler, Mr. & Mrs. 0 . C* Hanna, Wyoming. Ju ly 6 , 1961. C ra ig , George A* S ecretary-M anager, W estern Lumber M an u factu rers, I n c ., San F ra n c isc o , C a lif o r n ia . A p ril 10, 1962. D avis, Dave. P erso n n el Manager, Simpson Timber Company, K orbel, C a lif o r n i a . A p ril 16, 1962. F ontana, Dr. Bernard L*. F ie ld H is to r ia n , U n iv e rsity o f A rizona, Tucson, A rizona. March 20, 1962. F r i t z , Emanuel. 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Asset Metadata

Creator Allen, James Brown (author)

Core Title The Company Town As A Feature Of Western American Development

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program History

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag History, modern,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Cutter, Donald C. (committee chair), Anderson, Totton J. (committee member), Boskin, Joseph (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-306282

Unique identifier UC11358927

Identifier 6403089.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-306282 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6403089.pdf

Dmrecord 306282

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Allen, James Brown

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA