University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Role Expectations Of American Undergraduate College Women In A Western Coeducational Institution

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Role Expectations Of American Undergraduate College Women In A Western Coeducational Institution

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Content T his d is s e rta tio n has been 62— 6068 m ic ro film e d ex actly as rec eiv e d ISTIPHAN, Isis, 1929- ROLE EXPECTATIONS O F AMERICAN UNDER GRADUATE COLLEG E WOMEN IN A W ESTERN COEDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION. U n iv e rsity of Southern C alifo rn ia, P h.D ., 1962 Sociology, g e n e ra l University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan ROLE EXPECTATIONS OP AMERICAN UNDERGRADUATE COLLEGE WOMEN IN A WESTERN COEDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION by I s i s I s t i p h a n A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n t e d to the FACULTY OP THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D egree DOCTOR OP PHILOSOPHY (S o c io lo g y ) Ju n e 1962 UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA GRADUATE SC H O O L U N IV ER SITY PARK LOS A N G E L E S 7. C A L IF O R N IA This dissertation, written by ..Isis..Istiphan.............................. under the direction of hPV.....Dissertation C om mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Dean of the Graduate School, in ^ partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean n Date. DISSERTATION COMM! Chairman ............. ' ■ £,(] y . / T , . v . c . . - A * . . ' . . rj. ‘ J TABLE OP CONTENTS LIST OP TABLES. LIST OP FIGURES C h a p te r I . INTRODUCTIONo . . . o o o o . . . S ta te m e n t o f th e Problem H ypotheses M ethodology O p e r a t i o n a l and A c t u a l D e f i n i t i o n s o f T ool C oncepts Im po rtan ce o f th e S tu dy O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e D i s s e r t a t i o n M a t e r i a l I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON ROLE THEORY. . Summary o f Role T heory and D e f i n i t i o n s H i s t o r i c a l D evelopm ent o f th e Role Theory D e f i n i t i o n s I n Terms o f th e Dynamic P e r s o n a l i t y Developm ent Role as th e b a s i c f a c t o r i n th e p ro c e s s o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n R ole as a c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n F u n c t i o n a l D e f i n i t i o n s i n Terms o f S o c i e t y as a Whole Role as a s o c i a l norm F u n c t i o n a l D e f i n i t i o n s i n Terms o f S p e c i f i c Groups S t a t u s - r o l e c o n t i n u i t y Role d e f in e d as a p a r t i c i p a t i o n In a s p e c i f i c g ro u p M ajor C a te g o r ie s A c c o rd in g to th e D e f i n i t i o n s o f th e Term R ole S e l e c t e d C oncepts i n Role T heory Used i n T h is S tudy lii I I I . STUDIES ON ROLE..................................................................... S e l e c t e d E m p ir ic a l S t u d i e s U sing Role Theory S t o u f f e r ’ s s tu d y S . Ao S t o u f f e r and J • T oby’ s Study M elvin Seeman’ s Study S e l e c t e d S tu d i e s on Women’s R oles A rnold M. Rose M irra Komarovsky P a u l W a llin G. H, Seward H arold T. C h r i s t e n s e n and M a rily n n M. S w ih a rt A lic e K0 Leopold M ervin B. Freedman IV . RESEARCH DESIGN. . . . ....................................... H ypotheses H y p o th e sis I . H y p o th e sis II® H y p o th e sis I I I . H y p o th e sis IV. H y p o th e sis V I. C o n s t r u c ti o n o f th e Q u e s tio n n a ir e P r e - t e s t of th e Q u e s tio n n a ir e The U t i l i z a t i o n o f S t a t i s t i c a l T ools The Sample The I n t e r v i e w V. THE FINDINGS. . . . . ............................................. D e s c r i p t i o n o f th e S u b j e c t s Form o f D ata D i s t r i b u t i o n T e s ti n g o f H ypotheses H y p o th e sis I . H y p o th e sis I I . H y p o th e sis I I I . H y p o th e sis IV. H y p o th e sis V. H y p o th e sis V I. R e s u l ts o f C ross T a b u la tio n s o f V a r ia b l e s F u r t h e r A n a ly s is o f D ata A n a ly s is o f I n t e r v i e w D a ta From Open- end Q u e stio n s I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f D ata Summary o f F in d in g s Page 43 81 101 V I. CONCLUSIONS Page 159 Some I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and I m p lic a tio n s of the Study Some S u g g e stio n s f o r F u r th e r S tu d ie s Summary F in d in g s C onclusion Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY . 0 © o 174 APPENDIXES 0 e 181 LIST OP TABLES T a b le 1. P e rc e n ta g e of 165 Women G iv in g I n d i c a t e d R esponses to Q u e stio n s on P r e te n d e d I n f e r i o r i t y t o Men« ...................................................... 2. P e rc e n ta g e of 163 Women R e p o r tin g C o n f l i c t w i t h Fam ily Members on C o lle g e A c t i v i t i e s and P o s t “C o lle g e P lans e o . o . « o 3. Com parison of Sample A (25$ o f P o p u la tio n ) w i t h Sample B (10$ of P o p u la tio n ) as to E d u c a tio n o f F a th e r s o « ® . » • . o 4. Com parison of Sample A (25$ o f P o p u la tio n ) w i t h Sample B (10$ o f P o p u la tio n ) as to M o th e rs ' E d u c a ti o n » 0 0 0 o ® o » . 5. Com parison o f Sample A (25$ o f P o p u la tio n w ith Sample B (10$ of P o p u la tio n ) as to S o c io “econom ic S tatus® ® ® ® o ® ® ® 6• Com parison of W a l l i n 's S tud y w i t h P r e s e n t S tu d y o f Women G iving I n d i c a t e d R esponses t o Q u e stio n s on P re te n d e d I n f e r i o r i t y t o Men 7 . Com parison of W a l l i n 's S tu dy w i t h P r e s e n t S tu d y on Women R e p o rtin g C o n f l i c t w ith F am ily Members on C o lle g e A c t i v i t i e s and P o s t ”C o lle g e Plans® ® ® ® ® ® 8 . Sample o f O utput D ata C ross T a b u la tio n s ® o 9® F r e q u e n c ie s o f 32 C om binations o f 5 Base V a r ia b l e s S t a r t i n g from H ig h e st t o Lowest 0 10. P e rc e n ta g e of R esponses o f C om binations 7 and 29 as Compared t o T o ta l Response 0 .• « « 11. The F iv e Most Im p o rta n t T hings i n C o lle g e Women's L iv e s, Ranked A cco rd ing to T h e ir P r e f e r e n c e s . . . . 0 . . . . Page 186 187 104 104 104 105 107 189 111 113 139 v LIST OP FIGURES F ig u re 1. S y s te m a tic and S t r a t i f i e d Random Sam ple. . . 2 . Comparison Between S tu d e n ts w ith High and Low Socio-econom ic S t a tu s R e s p e c tiv e ly Who Agreed on the S ta te m en ts i n the Q u e s tio n n a ire 3 . Comparison Between S tu d e n ts lfifho Are I n t e r e s t e d i n R e lig io n and Those Who Are Not I n t e r e s t e d R e s p e c tiv e ly Who Agreed on th e S ta te m e n ts i n th e Q u e s tio n n a ire o . o o o o o o © 4 . Comparison Between S tu d e n ts Who Assumed S u p e ro rd in a te and S u b o rd in a te R oles R espec t i v e l y Who Agreed on the S ta te m e n ts i n the Q u e s tio n n a ir e , o o . o . . . . . . 5 . Comparison Between S tu d e n ts w ith High and Low S c h o l a s t i c Achievement R e s p e c tiv e ly Who Agreed on th e S ta te m e n ts i n the Q u e s tio n n a ire v i Page 97 126 127 128 130 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION S ta te m e n t o f t h e Problem T h is s tu d y e x p lo r e s r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f A m erican u n d e rg r a d u a te c o l l e g e women i n a W e ste rn c o e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n ® I t has been a s s e r t e d t h a t p r e s e n t - d a y c o l l e g e women a r e c h an g in g t h e i r r o l e from th e fem in ism o f e a r l i e r days to a t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e j y e t , h a r d l y any s t u d i e s have been mad© to exam ine t h i s a s s e r tio n ® Women form a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f th e p o p u la tio n s and woman power i s e v e r I n c r e a s i n g i n th e l a b o r market® More women a r e e n t e r i n g c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s th a n e v e r before® I t i s , t h u s , i m p o r t a n t to exam ine w hat t h e i r r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s a r e , and f o r w hat p u rp o s e s th e y a r e s e e k in g h i g h e r e d u c a ti o n and e n t e r i n g c o l l e g e s 0 T h is may throw some l i g h t on w hat s c h o o ls c o u ld b e s t o f f e r to m eet t h e i r needs® I t may a l s o a id i n a n sw e rin g th e s e q u e s t io n s ? Are women's r o l e s becom ing more c l e a r l y d e f i n e d ? Has th e fem in ism o f e a r l i e r y e a r s d is a p p e a r e d o r la a new r o l e e v o lv in g ? 2 Role th e o r y has been f r e q u e n t l y u t i l i z e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s i n r o l e s t u d i e s 0 I t -was deemed a p p r o p r i a t e t o make use o f t h i s a p p ro a c h i n t h i s studyo T h is th e o r y s u p p o r ts th e p r i n c i p l e t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l 's background has b e a r in g upon h i s r o l e b e h a v io r and r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s Q R o les have i n g r e d i e n t s o f c u l t u r a l , p e rso n al,, and s i t u a t i o n a l d e t e r m in a tio n o An I n d i v i d u a l s t a r t s l e a r n i n g h i s r o l e from i n f a n c y as he o b s e rv e s h i s p a r e n t s p la y in g t h e i r r o l e s 0 He l e a r n s xvhat i s e x p e c te d from him by th e way o t h e r s p e r form t h e i r r o l e s i n r e l a t i o n t o h lm 0 A c c o r d in g ly , s t u d e n t s ' backgrounds sh o u ld have some b e a r in g upon t h e i r r o l e b e h a v io r and r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s 0 T h e ir s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a tu s , r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s , t h e i r p a r e n t s ' o c c u p a ti o n a l and e d u c a t i o n a l background sh o u ld be m ajo r f a c t o r s 0 The i n f l u e n c e of c l a s s m em bership on r o l e b e h a v io r i s l i k e l y to be o f im po rtan ceo For exam ple, u p p e r and u p p e r- m id d le - c l a s s c h i l d r e n o b se rv e u pper and u p p e r - m i d d l e - c l a s s p a r e n t s i n p u r s u i t o f t h e i r g o a l s , e d u c a tio n s r e c r e a t i o n s r e l i - g i o u s , and m a r r ia g e p r a c t i c e s , and th e l i k e 0 The same s a y be t r u e w ith c h i l d r e n o f m id d l e - c l a s s o r w o r k in g - c la s s p a r e n t s 0 H ypotheses F or t h i s s tu d y s i x h y p o th e s e s , d e e p ly r o o t e d i n r o l e t h e o r y , were dra?m t o t e s t r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f c o ll e g e women, and th e folloY /ing s i x v a r i a b l e s w ere i n t r o duced; th e s t u d e n t s ' so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , s c h o l a s t i c ach iev em en ts, s u p e r o rd in a te - s u b o r d in a te - r o l e s , r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s , t h e i r m others* e d u c a ti o n a l background and a c t i v i t i e s . Methodology The p rim ary in stru m e n t o f r e s e a r c h i s the i n te r v ie w sc h e d u le , w hich i s d e s ig n a te d i n t h i s stu d y as th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e o C e r ta in p r e l i m i n a r i e s were fo llo w e d b e fo r e th e q u e s tio n n a ir e a pp eared i n i t s p r e s e n t form . These w i l l be d is c u s s e d i n C hap ter IV0 The q u e s t io n n a ir e in c lu d e s e ig h ty q u e s tio n s , p lu s e i g h t open-end q u e s t i o n s 0 The s u b j e c t s a re 130 u n d e rg ra d u a te c o lle g e women, s e l e c t e d th ro u g h th e s y s te m a tic random sample method from a W estern c o e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n . Cross t a b u l a t i o n s and n o n -p a ra m e trie s t a t i s t i c a l te c h n iq u e s are u t i l i z e d to t e s t th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the data® These in c lu d e the use o f Chi Square and th e Kolmogorov-Smirnov T e s t , The l e v e l o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f ic a n c e i s s e t a t th e o05 l e v e l . O p e r a tio n a l and A c tu a l D e f i n i t i o n s o f "™ T o°£ Concepts* R o le o - - sa A p e r s o n 's r o l e i s a p a t t e r n o r type o f s o c i a l b e h a v io r which seems s i t u a t i o n a l l y a p p r o p r i a te to him i n term s of th e demands and e x p e c ta tio n s of th o s e i n h is group o o o R oles have i n g r e d i e n t s o f c u l t u r a l , o f p e r s o n a l , and o f s i t u a t i o n a l d e te r m i n a ti o n * ” ! Role b e h a v io r 0— The a c t u a l p e rfo rm a n c e o f an i n cumbent o f a p o s i t i o n o Role e x p e c t a t i o n *— ”An e v a l u a t i v e s t a n d a r d a p p l i e d to an incum bent o f a p o s i t i o n o ”^ Role co n sen su s 0— The e x t e n t o f u n a n im ity among gro u p s c o n c e rn in g e x p e c ta ti o n s f o r one o f th e s p e c i f i c r o l e s * S u p e r o r d in a te r o l e P— H ig her r a n k o r a u t h o r i t y i n d i c a t i n g th e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f a s t u d e n t a t c o l l e g e 0 The one in v o lv e d i n a number of s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s on campus and who o c c u p ie s a number of o f f i c e s on su c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s assum es a s u p e r o r d in a t e r o l e 0 S u b o r d in a te r o l e 0--Low er r a n k o r a u t h o r i t y i n d i c a t i n g t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f a s t u d e n t a t c o lle g e * The one n o t in v o lv e d i n s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s on campus and who does n o t h o ld o f f i c e s i n such o r g a n i z a t i o n s assum es a s u b o r d i n a te r o l e 0 Upper c l a s s Group I i n H o l l i n g s h e a d 's ” In d ex o f ■^So S a r g e n t , ”C oncepts o f Role and Ego i n Contem p o r a r y P s y c h o lo g y ,” In S o c i a l P sy ch olo gy a t th e C r o s s r o a d s , e d i t e d by J 0 Hc R o h rer and Mo S h e r i f (New Yorks H arper and B r o t h e r s , 1951}P p G 360 o 2W0 So Mason, Na G ro ss, A® W » M cEachern, E x p lo r a t i o n s i n Hole A n a ly s is (New Y ork; Jo hn W iley and S ons, InC e, 1 9 5 8 ), p« 58® S o c i a l P o s i ti o n * ”3 Upper m iddle c l a s s ®--Group I I , Hollingshead® Middle c l a s s o°>-»Group I I I , H olllngahead* Working c l a s s ® —Group IV, H ollingahead* C a u c a s ia n 0“ -Whiteo Im portance of th e Study — ----- -— - ■ -■ ■ - — — — —M T his stu d y has f i v e main v a lu e s ; 1® I t has been a s s e r t e d 4 t h a t th e r e i s a change i n th e p r e s e n t “day c o lle g e woman83 r o l e from th e fem inism of e a r l i e r c o lle g e g e n e r a tio n s to a t r a d i t i o n a l ro le * How» e v e r , h a rd ly any c o lle g e s t u d i e s w hich u t i l i z e th e r o l e th e o ry e x i s t to t e s t t h i s a s s e r t i o n i n a c o e d u c a tio n a l college® 2® Women form a la r g e p r o p o r tio n o f th e p o p u la tio n t h a t sh o u ld n o t be ig n o re d , and they a re a s u b j e c t o f d e l i b e r a t i o n and stu d y as i n d i v i d u a l s and members of society® YJoman power i s e v e r i n c r e a s i n g i n the la b o r m a rk e t, and ways and means sh o u ld be ta k e n to h e lp b e t t e r d e fin e \°;omen8s r o l e s i n o rd e r t h a t th ey may f i n d t h e i r p la c e i n s o c i e t y and f u l f i l l t h e i r f u n c t i o n as u s e f u l 3H ollin gsh © ad89 Two“P a c to r Index o f S o c i a l P o s i t i o n i s based on the I n d i v i d u a l 9s o c c u p a tio n and education® See Appendix I f o r f u r t h e r d e ta ils ® A m .o Komarovsky, Women i n th e Modern World (B oston; L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1953)', p,"94', i n d i v i d u a l s « 3 0 The f i n d i n g s may be u se d to f a c i l i t a t e th e s o c i a l p r o c e s s e s o f in te rc o m m u n ic a tio n betw een s t u d e n t s and c o l l e g e s a as w e l l as to p o i n t th e way tox^ard changes to h e lp women b e t t e r a d j u s t to t h e i r l i f e i n th e i? /id©r commun i t y upon g r a d u a t i o n . 4 0 The d a t a may h e lp to show th e im p a ct o f th e " s t u d e n t c u l t u r e " upon incom ing new s t u d e n t s and th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of th e e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s i n u t i l i z i n g su c h fore© i n th e e d u c a t i o n a l and group p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n th e i n s t i t u t i o n o 5 . The f i n d i n g s may le a d to f u r t h e r s t u d i e s , p r e f e r a b l y l o n g i t u d i n a l and on a l a r g e r s c a l e w i t h i n th e c o u n tr y , t h a t may h e lp throw l i g h t on p rob lem s women f a c e in e d u c a t i o n , i n th e l a b o r m a rk e t, and d e f i n i n g r o l e s i n s o c ie ty ,, O r g a n iz a t i o n o f th e D i s s e r t a t i o n M a t e r i a l A b r i e f re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on r o l e th e o r y and s e l e c t e d d e f i n i t i o n s o f r o l e a r e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p te r I I . C h a p te r I I I has two s e c t i o n s 0 The f i r s t s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s c e r t a i n e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s u t i l i z i n g t h e r o l e t h e o r y , w h ile th e seco n d re v ie w s s e l e c t e d s t u d i e s mad© on women. The r e s e a r c h d e s ig n i s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p te r IV, and th e h y p o th e s e s a re s t a t e d and d isc u sse d ,. Methods u se d i n g a t h e r i n g th© d a t a , s e l e c t i n g th e s u b j e c t s , and p r e p a r i n g th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e a r e g i v e n . S t a t i s t i c a l t o o l s u se d a r e m entio ned , w i t h r e a s o n s f o r s e l e c t i n g them# C h a p te r V g iv e s the r e s u l t s o f th e s tu d y , d e s c r i b e s th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e s u b j e c t s , and d i s c u s s e s th© f i n d in g s w ith t h e i r s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e # I t a ls o d i s c u sse s c e r t a i n u n e x p ec te d f i n d i n g s w hich were a c c i d e n t a l l y d is c o v e r e d , on the b a s i s of w hich f u r t h e r h y p o th eses may be fo rm u lated # The c o n c lu s io n s a re g iv e n i n C hap ter VI, a lo n g w ith th e s u g g e s tio n s f o r f u r t h e r s tu d ie s # CHAPTER II REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE ON ROLE THEORY Role th e o ry i s u sed i n many f i e l d s as a g u id in g theory f o r r e s e a r c h i n t o th e g e n e r a l a re a o f p e r s o n a l i t y , or as a b a s is f o r e m p ir ic a l r e s e a r c h and prediction*, In th© f i e l d of fa m ily r e l a t i o n s , the th e o ry i s used to study th e a d ju s tm e n t, k in s h ip r o l e s , m arriag e c o u n s e llin g , r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d to th e fa m ily , and th e like*, I t i s used In c h i l d development and th e s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n of th© c h i l d , as w e ll as i n the s tu d i e s o f s o c i a l s t a t u s , d e v ia te s o c i a l b e h a v io r, and o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s s A v ery f r e q u e n t use of the th e o ry i s i n th e stu d y of sm a ll groups 0 Moreno and h is a s s o c i a t e s are making good use of th© th e o ry in t h e i r psychodram a» I t Is f r e q u e n t ly used In th© f i e l d of s o c io lo g y and s o c i a l psychology*, Many w r i t e r s have a tte m p te d to d e fin e o r d is c u s s th e concept of r o l e , and have fo llo w e d s e v e r a l methods o f approach*, Some have summarised the l i t e r a t u r e on r o l e th e o ry and fo rm u la te d t h e i r own d e f i n i t i o n s j o th e r s have tr a o e d th e h i s t o r i c a l developm ent o f th© r o l e t h e o r y 5 s t i l l o th e r s have s e l e c t e d th© m ajor r o l e concepts In the s o c i a l science literature and divided them into different main categories a c c o r d i n g to th e d e f i n i t i o n s o f th© term? r o l e 0 F o r p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y , t h i s c h a p t e r i s d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r m ain s e c t i o n s 0 The f i r s t d e a l s w i t h a s e l e c t e d number o f w r i t e r s and th e way th e y have sum m arized th© l i t e r a t u r e o r have g iv e n t h e i r oxrm d e f i n i t i o n s T h e se co n d i n c l u d e s a h i s t o r i c a l d ev elo p m en t o f th e r o l e t h e o r y D Th© third g i v e s m a jo r r o l e f o r m u l a t i o n s , d i v i d e d i n t o m ain c a t e g o r i e s , a c c o r d in g t o th© d e f i n i t i o n s o f th e te rm , role*, The f o u r t h i n c l u d e s th e m ain c o n c e p ts s e l e c t e d fro m th© l i t e r a t u r e on r o l e th e o r y t h a t i s u se d i n t h i s s t u d y 0 I. Summary o f R ole T heory and D e f i n i t i o n s Rol© t h e o r y was o r i g i n a l l y d e v is e d by G eorge EU M eadl f o r d i s c u s s i o n on p e r s o n a l i t y , and e l a b o r a t e d upon by Ralph L i ntono2 At p r e s e n t , i t p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n some s o c i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s r e l a t i n g t o r o l e and s t a t u s o Th© m ain c o n c e p t o f th© t h e o r y o f f e r s a u s e f u l t o o l to th© s tu d y and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p e o p le , their i n t e r a c t i o n , and t h e i r i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r beingso Theodor© Sarbin called his c o n c e p t a n "interaction f o r m u l a t i o n 5 3 and d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b etw een i t and th© \j©org© Ho Mead, Mind, S e l f , and S o c i e t y (C hicago? U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 1 9 3 4 )0 % a l p h L in to n , Th© S tu d y o f Man (New York? A p p le - to n - C e n t u r y , 1 9 3 6 )0 10 c o n v e n tio n a l i n t e r a c t i o n t h e o r i e s w hich p r e d i c t t h a t ’’a c t i o n o c c u r r i n g betw een p e rs o n s i s r e c i p r o c a l and t h a t th e u n i t o f a c t i o n i s th e p e r s o n / ’^ S a r b in e x p la in e d t h a t i n r o l e t h e o r y t h i s c o n c e p t i s m a in ta in e d , b u t two more p o i n t s a re a d d e d „ W hile th e p e rs o n as th e b ro a d s o c i o l o g i c a l u n i t of i n t e r a c t i o n i s r e t a i n e d , a f i n e r u n i t c a l l e d r o l e i s addedo Thus, th e r o l e th e o r y em braces r e c i p r o c a l a c t i o n betw een p e r s o n s , b u t th e s e a c t i o n s a re o r g a n iz e d i n t o r o l e s a A second u n i t o f i n t e r a c t i o n i s added, nam ely, th e i n t e r a c t i o n betw een r o l e and s e l f 0 Role th e o r y shows t h a t t h e r e i s s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n th e organism as w e l l as w i t h i n th e s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n t. I t s m ain o b j e c t i v e i s to s tu d y and i n v e s t i g a t e th e s e s t r u c t u r e s and t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n . Role t h e o r y r e g a r d s human co n d u ct as th e p ro d u c t o f th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f s e l f and r o l e D I n re v ie w in g th e l i t e r a t u r e , S a r b in found t h a t the c o n cep t o f r o l e u n t i l r e c e n t l y was no more th a n "an arm c h a i r " a b s t r a c t i o n . At p r e s e n t , he fo u n d a number o f p s y c h o l o g i s t s who u t i l i z e s e l f , r o l e , and i n t e r a c t i o n as f o c a l c o n c e p ts i n t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n . Among t h e s e S a r b in q u o ted Newcomb, Cameron, S a r g e n t, M c C lellan d , and him self® Among th e s o c i o l o g i s t s he m en tio n ed C o t t r e l l , Newton, Hughes, W a lte r , P a r s o n s , S h i l s , and K. Young, I n a t t e m p t i n g to use a fram ew ork w hich em braces ^Theodore R e S a r b i n , "Role T h e o ry ," i n J , L indzey ( e d „ ) , Handbook o f S o c i a l P sychology (M ass,: W esley Pub lishing Co,, Inc., 1954), I, p. &240 11 c u l t u r e , s o c i e t y , and p e r s o n a l i t y , S a r b i n q u o te d from L in ton o Th© l a t t e r r e g a r d e d c u l t u r e as "an o r g a n i s a t i o n o f l e a r n e d b e h a v io r s and th e p r o d u c ts o f b e h a v io r w hich a re s h a r e d and t r a n s m l t te d o When o r g a n i s e d , th e s e a p p e a r as the o r g a n i s e d a c t i o n s o f persons®"*^ P e rso n s a re alw ays members o f s o c i e t y 0 S o c i e t y i s d e f in e d as an a g g re g a te o f p e rs o n s w i t h common g o a l s 0 The s o c i e t i e s a r e s t r u c t u r e d i n t o p o s i t i o n s , o r s t a t u s e s , o r o f f i c e s 0 The p o s i t i o n s a re c o l l e c t i o n s o f r i g h t s and d u t i e s d e s i g n a t e d by one s i n g l e t e r m G A c tio n s o f p e rs o n s a re o r g a n iz e d aro u n d th e s e p o s i t i o n s and com p rise r o l e s 0 The p e rs o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an i n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f q u a l i t i e s o r d i s p o s i t i o n s , th e r e s i d u e o f w hich i s th e i n d i v i d u a l 5s e x p e r i e n c e s as a p a r t i c i p a n t i n th© c u l t u r e 0 L in to n d e s c r i b e d t h i s as p e r s o n a l i t y and em p h asizes i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s 0 H era, S a r b i n showed t h a t i n th© r o l e th e o r y t h i s i n t e r n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f q u a l i t i e s ( t r a i t s , a t t i t u d e s , and h a b i t s ) i s c o n c e p tu a li z e d as th e s e l f 0 P e r s o n a l i t y i n t h i s r e s p e c t may be r e g a r d e d as th© " a c t i o n s y s te m s . a r i s i n g o u t o f th© i n t e r p l a y of s e l f and r o l © 0"^ I n o t h e r w ords, p e r s o n a l i t y i s r e g a r d e d as h a v in g a b ro a d e r c o n c e p t th a n t h a t g iv e n by L in ton o H a r tl e y and H a r tle y d e f i n e d r o l e as an " o r g a n iz e d 4 S a r b i n , o p 0 c l t 0, p 0 2 2 4 0 5I b i d o , p e 2 24o 12 p a t t e r n o f e x p e c ta n c i e s t h a t r e l a t e t o th e t a s k s , demean o r s , a t t i t u d e s , v a l u e s , and r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o b© m a in ta in e d by p e rs o n s o ccu p y in g s p e c i f i c m em bership p o s i - t i o n s and f u l f i l l i n g d e f i n a b l e f u n c t i o n s i n any g ro u p * ” 6 H a r t l e y and H a r tle y p la c e d more em phasis on e x p e c t a t i o n s th an b e h a v i o r 0 To them , th© r o l e i s d e f i n e d by w hat o t h e r s e x p e c t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l f i l l i n g t h a t r o le * They a g re e d w i t h L in to n and S a r g e n t i n i n c l u d i n g a t t i t u d e s and v a lu e s * S a r b i n d e f in e d r o l e as a " p a t t e r n e d seq uence o f l e a r n e d a c t i o n s o r deeds p e rfo rm ed by a p e rs o n i n an I n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s 5 5 ^ He s t r e s s e d a c t i o n s and i n t e r a c t i o n s i n h i s d e f l n i t i o n 0 T a l c o t t Parsons® d i s c u s s e d th e r o l e c o n c e p t i n r e l a t i o n to th e s o c i a l sy ste m as a whole* He d e s c r i b e d t h r e e d i f f e r e n t u n i t s o f s o c i a l sy ste m s w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e i n d i v i d u a l a c to rs® (1) th e s o c i a l a c t , w hich i s p e r form ed by an a c t o r and o r i e n t e d to one o r more a c t o r s as Eugene L0 H a r t l e y and R u th E* H a r t l e y , Fundamen t a l s o f S o c i a l P sychology (He?/ Yorks A l f r e d A* Knopf, ’ I9E>2) , p© 487* * 7 'S a r b i n , op* c l t og p Q 2 2 6 0 ^ T a l c o t t P a r s o n s , The S o c i a l System (G len co e, 1 1 1 ,: The Fra© P r e s s , 19 5 1 ), p p Q 2 4 -4 0 , 9 I b i d 0 13 o b j e c t s ? (2) th e s t a t u s r o l e , as th e o r g a n iz e d su b sy ste m o f a c t s o f th e a c t o r o r a c t o r s who occupy g iv e n r e c i p r o c a l s t a t u s e s and a c t to w a rd each o t h e r i n term s o f g iv e n r e c i p r o c a l o r i e n t a t i o n s | (3) th e a c t o r h im s e lf as a c o m p o site u n i t , i«e®, th e o r g a n iz e d sy ste m o f a l l th e s t a t u s e s and r o l e s r e f e r a b l e to him as a s o c i a l o b j e c t and as th e a u th o r o f a sy stem o f r o l e a c t i v i t i e s ® P a rso n s m en tio n ed a f o u r t h u n i t w hich c u ts a c r o s s th e i n d i v i d u a l a c t o r as a c o m p o site u n i t 0 T h is he c a l l e d th e c o l l e c t i v i t y a s a c t o r and as o b j e c t 0 H ere, th e p a r t i c u l a r s e c t o r s o f th e a c t i o n sy stem of the r e l e v a n t i n d i v i d u a l a c t o r s a re a b s t r a c t e d from t h e i r o t h e r s t a t u s - r o l e s and t r e a t e d to g eth er® W ith t h i s b ackgrou nd, Parsons* d e f i n i t i o n o f r o l e may be sta te d ® He h e ld t h a t . o o a r o l e i s a s e c t o r o f th e t o t a l o r i e n t a t i o n sy ste m o f an i n d i v i d u a l a c t o r xvhich i s o r g a n iz e d a b o u t e x p e c t a t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n to a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r a c t i o n c o n t e x t , t h a t i s i n t e g r a t e d w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f v a l u e - s t a n d a r d s w h ich g o v e rn i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h one o r more a l t e r s i n th e a p p r o p r i a t e com plem entary roles® These a l t e r s need n o t be a d e f i n e d group o f I n d i v i d u a l s , b u t can in v o lv e any a l t e r i f and when he comes i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r com plem entary i n t e r a c t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith ego w hich in v o lv e s a r e c i p r o c i t y of e x p e c t a t i o n s w i t h r e f e r e n c e to common s t a n d a r d s o r v a lu e o r i e n t a t i o n s o ^ The m ain p o i n t s i n P a r s o n s 8 d e f i n i t i o n a re t h a t the r o l e i s a s e c t o r o f th e t o t a l o r i e n t a t i o n system o f the 10I b i d o, p 6 38® 14 individual, t h a t su c h a sy stem i s o rg a n iz e d about e x p e c ta t i o n s , t h a t a s o t o f v a lu e s ta n d a r d s governs th e i n t e r a c t i o n w ith a l t e r o r a l t e r s 0 He does n o t d e s c r ib e or s p e c i f y th© a l t e r b u t m en tion s sim ply t h a t i t i s any a l t e r t h a t i n t e r a c t s w ith th© ego and r e q u i r e s a co rrespon dence of e x p e c ta tio n s a c c o rd in g to common s ta n d a r d s of v a lu e o rie n ta tio n © F u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n on P a r s o n s 8 d e f i n i t i o n would be g iv e n i n th e t h i r d s e c t i o n o f t h i s chapter© B esides d e f i n i n g r o l e s , some w r i t e r s d i s c u s s r o l e s as a s p e c ts o f s o c i a l b e h a v io r i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s © H a r tle y and H a r tle y sfcateds S o c i a l r o l e s f u r n i s h a b a s i s o f comm unication betw een people© They h e lp th© i n d i v i d u a l to know what t o e x p e c t o f o t h e r members, ho?/ to approach them and to communicate ?/ith them © © © The e x is te n c e o f s o c i a l r o l e s c irc u m s c rib e s human l i f e ? y e t th e y endow i t v /ith order© For s o c i e t y , th e s e r o l e s a re a d e v ic e to g e t work done and to a v o id chaos ©H 1 0 V a r ia t io n s i n s o c i a l r o l e s ; As s o c i a l r o l e s a re r e l a t e d to group mem bership, th e y v ary as group mem b e r s h ip varies© In th e U n ite d S t a t e s a p e rs o n , f o r exam ple, may be e x p e c te d to f i l l r o l e s co n n ected w ith h is membership in f a m ily groups as w e ll as sex and age g ro u p s, o c c u p a tio n g ro u p s, so c io -ec o n o m ic, p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s g ro u p s, s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s g ro u p s, and the like© H a r tle y and H a rtle y found s o c i a l r o l e s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to group m embership, s in c e i t i s o n ly by v irtu © of group membership ■ ^ H a r t l e y and H a r tl e y , op© c i t © , p© 486® 15 t h a t one has any s o c i a l r o l e a t a l l , 2© Group r o l e s and i n d i v i d u a l r o l e s : S o c ie ty i s composed of groups and subgroups x?ithln th e groups © The i n d i v i d u a l r e p r e s e n t s h i s subgroup in r e l a t i o n s h i p to th© whole society© He a ls o p la y s an i n d i v i d u a l r o l e i n h i s subgroup© Thus s when th© i n d i v i d u a l r e p r e s e n t s h i s su b - g ro u p s he p la y s a group role© When he p a r t i c i p a t e s w ith h is subgroups he p la y s an i n d i v i d u a l role© For examples a p h y sic ia n s when he r e p r e s e n t s th© o c c u p a tio n of p h y s ic ia n s p la y s a group role© When he i s w ith a group of p h y s i c i a n s s he p la y s the i n d i v i d u a l r o l e as a member of a group of physicians© 3© P e rv a s iv e r o l e s and l i m i t e d r o l e s ; There a re p e rv a s iv e r o l e s and l im i t e d roles© P e rv a s iv e r o l e s d e t e r mine th© o th e r r o l e s w hich an i n d i v i d u a l may play© For exam ples a v e ry r e l i g i o u s p e rs o n may d e te rm in e a l l o f h i s b e h a v io r on th e b a s is of h i s r e l i g i o u s role© A p e rso n born i n t o a c a s t e i n I n d i a may f i n d h is l i f e l a r g e ly d e term in ed f o r him by th e type o f cast© to w hich he was born© The l i m i t e d r o l e s a re th o s e t h a t a re te rm in a te d i n a s h o r t time© A p a sse n g e r In a s t r e e t c a r may te r m in a te h i s r o l e as soon as he le a v e s th e car© The r o l e of a p u rc h a s e r i n a s t o r e te r m in a te s as soon as he le a v e s th e store© 4© V a r ia t io n s i n c l a r i t y o f r o l e d e f i n i t i o n s R oles d i f f e r i n s p e c i f i c i t y o f d e fin itio n © Some a re 16 c l e a r l y d e fin e d and o th e r s a r e b l u r r e d . The r o l e of a wage e a r n e r and p r o v id e r i s c l e a r l y d e fin e d ; t h a t of th e p a r e n t i s n o t. R oles t h a t a re of c r i t i c a l im po rtance a re c l e a r l y i d e fin e d . Thus, the f a i l u r e to f u l f i l l su c h r o l e s has the g r e a t e r e f f e c t . , 5 0 Imposed and a c h ie v e d r o l e s ; The imposed r o l e s a re a s s ig n e d to an i n d i v i d u a l , w h ile th e o th e r s a re by c h o ic e 0 Being a m other may be a m a tte r of c h o ic e , b u t being a woman i s n o t . H a rtle y and H a rtle y found f i v e p a ra m e te rs of r o l e d e f i n i t i o n in m ost o r g a n i s a t i o n com m unities % the a g e -s e x , o c c u p a tio n , p r e s t i g e , fa m ily c la n o r h o u se h o ld , and a s s o c i a t i o n group, su c h as i n t e r e s t g ro u p s, s p o r ts c lu b s , p r o f e s s i o n a l gro u p s, and the l i k e . They m entioned a stu d y made by A l l i s o n D avis on d i f f e r e n c e s i n r o l e d e f i n i t i o n . He found t h a t c h i l d r e n l e a r n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s and a t t i t u d e s w ith in th e c l a s s s t r u c t u r e of w hich th ey a re members. Thus, a c h i l d o f a m id d le ^ c la s s fa m ily w i l l l e a r n to ,p ursu e g o a ls , to acknowledge n e ed s, and to a c c e p t codes o f r i g h t and wrong which may b© d i f f e r e n t from th o se of a n o th e r c l a s s . 6 0 C ongruent and in c o n g ru e n t r o l e s ? In d a i l y l i f e , a p e rso n may occupy s e v e r a l r o l e s , such as husband, f a t h e r , te a c h e r , c o lle a g u e , and th e l i k e 0 I n s o c i e t y , some c l u s t e r s a re co n g ru en t and o t h e r s a re in c o n g r u e n t. s3I t i s n o t c o n sid e re d p r o p e r , f o r exam ple, f o r th e same i n d i v i d u a l 17 to p la y th e r o l e s of p h y s ic ia n and u n d e r ta k e r , o r m i n i s t e r and t h i e f ; assum ption of some r o l e s a u to m a tic a lly ex clu des o th e r s which are t h e o r e t i c a l l y a v a i la b l e « . 0 The sim u l tan e o u s a v a i l a b i l i t y of in c o n g ru e n t r o l e s can cause g r e a t d isc o m fo rt to the i n d iv i d u a l An i n d i v i d u a l may n o t n e c e s s a r i l y know what to e x p e c t from groups to which he does n o t b e lo n g » Since s o c i a l norms a re group norms, each group d e fin e s i t s own® However, th e re are c e r t a i n core b e h a v io rs which are a c c e p te d as b elo nging to g iv en s o c i a l r o l e s th ro u g h o u t s o c i e t y „ The d e t a i l s of th e s e may d i f f e r from subgroup to subgroup o 7 o A t t i t u d e s and a c t io n s i n s o c i a l r o l e s ; Once s o c i a l r o l e s a re seen as group norms, a c c e p tin g r o l e s f o r o n e ’s s e l f i s p a r t o f th e group membership price® A man who does n o t f e e l l i k e v o tin g , f o r example, may be f o rc e d to vote i n o rd e r to conform w ith th e group memberships This means t h a t th e obvious a s p e c ts o f any s o c i a l r o l e a re the o v e r t a c tio n s t h a t accompany th e role® I t i s ex p ec te d t h a t a p p ro p r ia te a t t i t u d e s w i l l fo llo w the a c t i o n s , b u t t h i s i s n o t sim p le , sin c e a t t i t u d e s cannot b© e n fo rc e d as r e a d i l y as actions® The example of the v o te r g iv en above f i t s i n w ith t h i s point® H a rtle y and H a rtle y s t a t e d t h a t th e job o f le a r n in g 18I b i d 0, p 0 492® 18 about one’s roles consists principally of finding the answers to two questions: (a) What Is required of me?, (b) What c h o ic e do I h a v e? They c a l l e d t h i s p r o c e d u r e p e r c e i v i n g r o l e r e q u i r e m e n t s , and gave th r o e ways by w h ich an i n d i v i d u a l may p e r c e i v e s u c h r e q u i r e m e n ts ® The f i r s t i s an sw ered e a r l y i n l i f e , by th© response h i s b e h a v io r evokes fro m o t h e r s 0 H© learns what is e x p e c te d o f him by th© way o t h e r s p e rfo rm t h e i r r o l e s in relation t o him® H a r t l e y and H a r t l e y c a l l e d t h i s i n t e r a c tion in s o c i a l r o l e a s s i m i l a t i o n 0 A se co n d m ethod i s a s s i m i l a t i o n by o b s e rv a tio n ® An i n d i v i d u a l o b s e rv e s a n o th e r p e r s o n e n a c t i n g th e r o l e he i s e x p e c ti n g to assume and l e a r n s fro m him® I f t h e r e i s no m odel to f o l l o w , th e i n d i v i d u a l has to f o l lo w a p a i n f u l m ethod o f t r i a l and erro r® Th© t h i r d m ethod i s a s s i m i l a t i o n by' i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . T h is i s o f t e n o b s e r v e d i n i n d u s t r y , f i r m s , o r th e l i k e , w here e x p l i c i t t r a i n i n g prog ram s m u st be u n d e r t a k e n to i n duct new members i n t o t h e i r ro le s ® A l l t h r e e m ethods o f l e a r n i n g — a s s i m i l a t i o n t h r o u g h i n t e r a c t i o n , o b s e r v a t i o n , o r I n d o c t r i n a t i o n — go on s i m u l t a n e o u s l y m o st o f th e time® On© may g e t th e i m p r e s s io n from H a r t l e y and H a r t l e y ’s d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t no c o n f l i c t s seem to o c c u r and t h a t p e r c e i v i n g rol© r e q u i r e m e n ts i s an e a s y task® A number of s t u d i e s show t h a t some p a r t o f an i n d i v i d u a l ’ s c o n f l i c t s may b© due to r o l e s t h a t a r e n o t c l e a r l y d e f i n e d . The 19 H a r t l e y 's b a r e l y to u ch ed on t h i s p o i n t when th e y d i s c u s s e d t h e i r se co n d m ethod, a s s i m i l a t i o n by o b s e r v a t i o n . They m en tio n ed t h a t when th e i n d i v i d u a l does n o t have a m odel to f o l lo w he w i l l have to use " th e p a i n f u l ” method o f t r i a l and e r r o r . They d id n o t e x p l a i n w hat th e e f f e c t of su c h a p a i n f u l method would b©0 S a r g e n t fo und t h a t t h e r e a re g r e a t v a r i a t i o n s as t o b r e a d t h and e x t e n s i v e n e s s i n com paring c u l t u r a l , p e r s o n a l , and s i t u a t i o n a l roleso-*-3 A p r e s i d e n t o r a c h i e f m ust co n form to h i s r o l e i n a l l p u b l i c c o n t a c t s . A man may be a bo ss i n h i s o f f i c e , b u t th© s i t u a t i o n may change when he i s a t home w i t h h i s f a m i l y . S a r g e n t found t h a t r o l e s d i f f e r i n c o n t i n u i t y and p erm an en ce. Th© r o l e s o f man and woman, a noblem an and an o u t c a s t a r e g e n e r a l l y p erm anent w i t h i n a s o c i e t y , b u t t h e i r p a t t e r n may change th ro u g h th e y e a r s . Most p e o p le s u c c e e d i n e n a c ti n g r o l e s w ith o u t d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n o r c o n f l i c t . However, r o l e s e n a c tm e n t may a t tim e s cause c o n f l i c t to a p e rs o n , e s p e c i a l l y i f r o l e con f l i c t d e r i v e s from g ro u p s w ith d i f f e r e n t s t a n d a r d s . F o r exam ple, a boy from a s m a ll town w ith s t r i c t m o rals goes t o s c h o o l i n a b ig c i t y where more s o p h i s t i c a t e d b e h a v io r i s - 13S . S . S a r g e n t , " C o n c ep tio n o f R ole and Ego i n C ontem porary P s y c h o lo g y ,5 3 i n J . H. R ohror and M. S h e r i f ( e d s o ) , S o c i a l P sy ch olo gy a t th e C ro ss ro a d s (New Yorks H arper and B r o t h e r s , 19 5 1 ), p . 361. ~ 20 r e q u i r e d . Such a boy may have r o l e c o n f l i c t . I I . H i a t o r i c a l Development o f th e Role Theory Having formed some id e a about d e f i n i t i o n s and d e s c r i p t i o n s of r o l e by a s e l e c t e d group of w r i t e r s , Neiman and Hughes3 su rv e y o f th© l i t e r a t u r e on the developm ent o f the r o l e concept may b© r e v i e w e d T h e y surveyed e ig h ty s o u rc e s , co v erin g a p e rio d o f f i f t y y e a r s , between 1900 and 1950. They found the f i r s t tw enty y e a rs r a t h e r s t e r i l e i n t h i s re s p e c to A ccording to Neiman and Hughes, the concept of s e l f was n o t emphasized by th e p s y c h o lo g is ts u n t i l s h o r t l y a f t e r 1900 as 5 8 th e b a s ic elem ent i n the developm ent of th e p e r s o n a l i t y i n a p ro c e ss o f sym bolic i n t e r a c t i o n . * * Some p s y c h o lo g is ts have a ls o s t r e s s e d the im portance of th e i n d i v i d u a l ^ a t t i t u d e toward h im s e lf as i t i s d eterm ined by th e a t t i t u d e s and e x p e c ta tio n s of o th e r s toward him. The a u th o rs assumed t h a t p o s s ib ly th© e a r l i e s t sta te m e n t of the t h e o r y 5s fo rm u la tio n i s found i n P sychology, by W. Jam es. In th e c h a p te r on th e " S e l f , " h® s t a t e d t h a t th e r e a re f o u r c o n s t i t u e n t elem ents in p e r s o n a l i t y ! th© m a t e r i a l s e l f , the s p i r i t u a l s e l f , and the ego. "A man3s s o c i a l s e l f i s the r e c o g n i ti o n which he g e ts from h is m a te s 05 1 A man can have as many d i f f e r e n t s e lv e s ^•"L0 J . Neiman and J . W. Hughes, "The Problem of th e Concept of R o le—A R e-su rv ey o f th© L ite r a t u r e ,* 9 S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXX (May 1952), p p. 140-150. 21 as the number of individuals or sets of individuals who have an image of him in their minds* Jam es M ® B ald w in , i n M e n ta l D e v elo p m en t, spoke o f the " d i a l e c t i c o f p e r s o n a l g ro w th " o r " t h e d ia l o g u e o f self and o t h e r s , " " t h e g iv e and ta k e b etw een th e i n d i v i d u a l and h i s f e l l o w s Jo h n Dewey m a i n t a i n e d Jam es fs c o n c e p t o f th e s o c i a l s e l f b u t added la n g u a g e a s e sy m b o lic i n t e r a c t i o n ® Dewey i n f l u e n c e d C o o le y , whose i d e a o f t h e l o o k i n g - g l a s s s e l f i s l i k e M ead’s i d e a o f th© s o c i a l role® Georg© Ho Mead com bined J a m e s ’ s i d e a o f th© s o c i a l s e l f a s th© p r o d u c t o f m e n ta l im ages o f a p e r s o n c o n c e iv e d by o t h e r members o f h i s g ro u p , B a ld w in ’s i d e a o f t h e c i r c u l a r r e s p o n s e on th© " d i a l o g u e o f s e l f and o t h e r s , " and Dewey’s em phasis on la n g u a g e as th© b a s i c e le m e n t i n th© p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n ® He added a f o u r t h , " t a k i n g th e r o l e o f th e o t h e r , " t o co m p lete th e fu n d a m e n ta l t h e o r e t i c a l fram ew o rk w i t h i n w h ich a l l s u b s e q u e n t s t u d i e s o f s o c i a l r o l e s have developed® Neiman and Hughes u s e d t h r e e m ain g ro u p s o f defini tions : th o s e (1) i n te rm s o f th e dynam ic p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e lo p m e n t, (2) i n term s o f s o c i e t y as a w h o le, and (3) i n te rm s o f s p e c i f i c g ro u p s w i t h i n a so c ie ty ® E ach o f t h e s e g ro u p s w i l l be t a k e n up s e p a r a t e l y and i n d e ta il® 22 D e f i n i t i o n s i n Terms o f th e Dynamic P e r s o n a l i t y D evelopm ent Role as th e b a s i c f a c t o r i n th e p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l l - z a t i o n 6= —P a rk and B u rg ess sp e ak o f p e r s o n a l i t y as ”th e sum and o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a l l th e r o l e s on© p la y s i n a l l th e groups t o w hich he b e l o n g s SS 5 3 .E > W h i l e Go Hc Mead u se d th e c o n c e p t as th e b a s i c f a c t o r i n th e s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s , C o t t r e l l s t a t e d : P e r s o n a l i t y o r th e m ost p a r t o f i t i s th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the r o l e s th e p e rs o n p la y s i n group l i f e . I n many, th o u g h n o t a l l p e r s o n a l i t i e s , t h e r e i s a p re d o m in a n t o r c e n t r a l r o l e t h a t te n d s to be th e m ost c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th© p e r s o n , w h ile o t h e r r o l e s j w h ile p re s e n t,, a r e o r g a n iz e d i n s u b o r d i n a te r e l a t i o n s h i p s 0 ® » Th© r o l e i s th© o r g a n i z a t i o n o f h a b i t s and a t t i t u d e s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l a p p r o p r i a t e to a g iv e n p o s i t i o n i n a sy ste m o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h ip s C a rr s t a t e d t • . « r o l e i s a s p e c i f i c p a t t e r n o f a t t i t u d e and b e h a v io r w hich on© assum es f o r a s p e c i f i c s i t u a tion® S o c i a l m a t u r a t i o n I n any c u l t u r e i s th© p r o c e s s o f a c q u i r i n g th e p r o p e r b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s - - a knowledge o f th e s o c i a l r o l e s t o b© assum ed In v a r i o u s k in d s o f s i t u a t i o n s Cameron s a i d : W © mean by r o l e , a com p rehensive and c o h e r e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n i n b e h a v io r o f f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d , * ! C uR 6 E o P a rk and Go W ® B u rg e ss, An I n t r o d u c t i o n o f th e S c ie n c e o f S o c io lo g y (Chicago? U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 19 2 1 ), p p 0 1 1 4 -1 1 7 0 ^ L o So C o t t r e l l , fiR o les and M a r i t a l Ad ju s t m e n t ,6 5 P u b l i c a t i o n s o f th e A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y , May 27, 1953, p p 0 1 0 7 -1 2 o ^L® Jo C a r r , S i t u a t i o n a l A n a ly s is (New Y ork: H arp er and B r o t h e r s , 194 8 ), pp® 32-33® 23 inter-locking attitudes and responses* The role is the product of social learning.18 Role as a c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n *°-An example of t h i s pattern i s what S u th e r la n d and Woodward gave as a d e f i n i t i o n : "R oles a r e c u l t u r a l l y d e te rm in e d p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r , c u l t u r e s e t s th e l i m i t s o f 'v a r i a t i o n s or r o l e s , b ut a l t e r n a t i v e r o l e s may be a v a i l a b l e i n a g iv e n c u l t u r e ."1 9 To t h i s p o i n t , L in to n s a i d : . . o th e t h i n g w hich i n f l u e n c e s any g iv e n p e rs o n i 3 n o t c u l t u r e i n g e n e r a l - - b u t a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e » * o The p a t t e r n s of o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a l l s o c i e t i e s b e g in w i t h th e d i v i s i o n o f th© e n t i r e group i n t o c e r t a i n a g e - s e x c a t e g o r i e s and a s s i g n in g o f p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s ( r o l e s ) to eac h o • • The members of e a c h s o c i e t y p e r p e t u a t e t o i t s b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s ( r o l e s ) and v a lu e s F u n c t io n a l D e f i n i t i o n s i n Terms o f S o c ie ty as a Whole Role as a s o c i a l n o r m -M irra Komarovsky used role as meaning c u l t u r a l l y d e f in e d s o c i a l norms w hich d i c t a t e r e c i p r o c a l a c tio n ,, She d i s t i n g u i s h e d two c o n t r a d i c t o r y sex r o l e s p r e s e n te d by th e en v iro n m en t of c o lle g e women: the " fe m in in e " r o l e and th e "modern" r o l e * 2 1 Cameron, The P sychology o f B eh av io r D is o r d e r (New York: Houghton M i M i n , i94V )7 P° 9 0 e ■^Neiman and Hughes, o p 0 c i t a, p . 14 20 ^ R a l p h L in to n , The S tu dy o f Man (New York: A p p le to n -C e n tu ry , 1936 ), p 0 1140 2 ^Mo Komarovsky, " C u l t u r a l C o n t r a d i c t i o n s and Sex R o l e s ," A m erican J o u r n a l of S o c io lo g y , 1946, LII, 184-89. 24 Ruth. B e n ed ict used a s o c i a l norm d e f i n i t i o n o f r o l e w ith an i m p l i c i t r a t h e r th an an e x p l i c i t s t a t u s a s s o c i a t i o n * 2 2 C o n tr a d ic to r y r o l e s can he p la y e d i n se rie s ,, i n sequence, i f r e q u i r e d by s o c ie ty * To h e r (B e n e d ic t), the t r a n s i t i o n o f the s o c i a l norm r o l e s from th e r o l e s of c h i l d r e n to a d u l t r o l e s v a r i e s w ith s o c ie ty * For M arg aret Mead, r o l e s become s o c i a l norm s* She d is c u s s e d d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l norm r o l e s % the m o th e r 's r o l e , th e f a t h e r ' s r o l e , and the l i k e * 2 3 F u n c tio n a l D e f i n i t i o n s in Terms o f S p e c i f i c Groups - S t a t u s - r o l e c o n t i n u i t y *—R alph L in to n u se d a s t a t u s - r o l e c o n t i n u i t y d e f i n i t i o n ; A r o l e i s s o c i a l l y a s s ig n e d to a s t a t u s and occupied i t w ith r e l a t i o n to o t h e r s t a tu s e s * When he p u ts th e r i g h t s and d u t ie s which c o n s t i t u t e the s t a t u s i n t o e f f e c t , he i s p e rfo rm in g a r o l e * Role and s t a t u s a re q u ite in s e p a r a b le ? and th e d i s t i n c t i o n betw een them i s o f only academ ic i n t e r e s t * There a re no r o l e s w ith o u t s t a t u s e s o r s t a t u s e s w ith o u t r o l e s *2^ QO R uth B e n ed ict, " C o n t in u i t ie s and D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n C u l tu r a l C o n t r a d i c t i o n s , " P s y c h i a t r y , I (May 1938), pp« 161-67 * ^^M argaret Mead, And Keep Your Powder Dry (New York: Marrow, 1942)* 24 Linton, op* cit*, p* 114® 25 Young h as a s t a t u s - o r i e n t e d d e f i n i t i o n o f th e co n c e p t rol© „ He d o f in o d i t as • • • th© f u n c t i o n o r a c t i o n o f a p e r s o n i n a p a r t i c u l a r g ro u p , u s u a l l y d i r e c t e d t o some e n d , a c c e p t a b l e t o o t h e r members o f th e g ro u p , ©eg 0, wage e a r n e r , p a r e n t , p a s t o r , e t c . „ „ <,25 Z n a n ie k i s t a t e d : N e a rly ©very i n d i v i d u a l who p a r t i c i p a t e s i n th© a c t i v i t i e s w hich b r i n g a s o c i a l g ro u p i n t o e x i s t e n c e b e comes a l s o a p a r t o f th© p r o d u c t i t s e l f as a gro u p member» 0 0 B eing a gro u p member means a s p e c i f i c k in d o f p e r s o n who p e rfo rm s a s p e c i f i c k in d o f r o l e . E v e ry c o n c r e t e i n d i v i d u a l p e rfo rm s i n t h e c o u rs e o f h i s l i f e a number o f s o c i a l r o l o s 92 6 R ole d e f i n e d as a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a s p e c i f i c g r o u p c --U n der t h i s h e a d in g th e a u th o r s f i n d t h a t w r i t e r s us© th e te rm i n th e l i t e r a l s e n s e to mean th e " i n d i v i d u a l ' s a s s u m p tio n o f o r a s s ig n m e n t to th© p e rfo rm a n c e o f a ' p a r t ' i n a s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n - as on© o f th© members o f a g r o u p 0" They q u o te Moreno as an exam ple o f u s in g th© term r o l e - p l a y to r e f e r t o assu m in g a r o l e i n a s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n c o n s t r u c t e d on p u r p o s e 0 I n s t u d y i n g th e d ev elo p m e n t o f th e r o l e c o n c e p t, th e a u th o r s fo u n d i n th e d e f i n i t i o n s t h r e e common e l e m e n t s :27 25k. Young, S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y (New Y o rk : C r o f t s , 19 4 6 ), p 0 5 6 4 o 2 6 P 0 Z n a n i e k i , " S o c i a l Groups as P r o d u c ts o f P a r t i c i p a t i n g I n d i v i d u a l s , " A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y , XLX (May 1 9 3 9 ), p p B 799-812« 0 7 * Neiman and Hughes, op. cit„, p« 147„ 26 1® I n a l l d e f i n i t i o n s and u sa g e s o f th e c o n c e p t t h e r e i s in v o lv e d e i t h e r an i n d i v i d u a l d e f i n i t i o n o f a s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n o r an i n d i v i d u a l a c c e p ta n c e o f a g r o u p 's d e f i n i t i o n o f a s p e c i f i c s itu a t i o n ® 2o R ole b e h a v io rs i n any way i t I s d e f i n e d , i n v o lv e s th e a s s u m p tio n o f a p r o c e s s o f sy m b o lic i n t e r a c t i o n ® T h is le a d s th e a u t h o r s t o th e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t man i s th© o n ly r o l e - p l a y i n g a n im a l and t h i s Is one o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s him from o t h e r a n im a ls 0 3 0 Human b e h a v io r c a n n o t be e x p la in e d o r d e s c r i b e d by th e us© o f t r a i t s o r o t h e r a to m is e d c o n c e p t s , b u t m ust be view ed from th© fram ew ork o f o r g a n i z e d and i n t e g r a t e d p a t t e r n s o f behavior® Prom t h e i r s tu d y th e a u th o r s fo u n d t h a t more r e s e a r c h was done a f t e r 1940 on th e r o l e concept® T h ere was more c o n se n s u s among w r i t e r s t h a t th© r o l e c o n c e p t was r e l a t e d to th e s t a t u s c o n ce p to The fram e o f r e f e r e n c e was and c o n tin u e d to be t h a t o f sy m b o lic i n te r a c tlo n is m ® The a u th o r s co n clu d e by s t a t i n g a few i n t e r e s t i n g problems® They fo u n d few h y p o th e s e s i n v o l v i n g th© c o n c e p t o f r o l e , and t h e y q u e s t i o n th e u t i l i t y o f th© c o n c e p t i f I t I s n o t p u t t o th e t e s t i n e m p i r i c a l re s e a rc h ® A ls o , th e y fo u n d few p r e d i c t i v e s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g th© concept®, Here a g a i n , t h e y q u e s t i o n th e u t i l i t y o f th© concept® I f p r e d i c t i v e a b i l i t y i s one m easure o f a s c i e n t i f i c con ° s t r u c t , t h i s i s a p o i n t o f c r i t i c i s m o f th e c o n s t r u c t i f n o t u se d f o r p r e d i c t i o n . One may p o i n t o u t h e re t h a t th e a u th o r s t r a c e d th e h i s t o r i c a l developm ent o f th e r o l e th e o r y up t o 1950„ S in c e t h a t p e r i o d , much p r o g r e s s has been made. The c u r - r e n t l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d e s some e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s t h a t have made good us© o f th e r o l e th eo ry o These w i l l be d e a l t w ith i n th e n e x t c h a p t e r . I I I . M ajor C a te g o r ie s A c co rd in g t o th e P e F i n i t i o n s o f th e Term Role In t h e i r s t u d y , E x p l o r a t i o n s i n Role A n a l y s i s , Mason, G ro ss, and McEachern c o n t r i b u t e d some d e f i n i t i o n s o f th e term r o l e w hich w i l l be d i s c u s s e d b e lo w 0 2 8 Prom th e p o s s i b l e c a t e g o r i e s i n t o w hich th e term r o l e m ig h t be p l a c e d , th e y s e l e c t e d and exam ined t h r e e s 1° D e f i n i t i o n s o f r o l e w hich e i t h e r e q u a te i t w i t h o r d e f i n e I t to in c lu d e n o rm a tiv e c u l t u r e p a t t e r n s o°°The a u th o r s q u o te L in to n u n d e r t h e i r f i r s t c a t e g o r y . The t h r e e e le m e n ts fo r. th© e x i s t e n c e o f a s o c i e t y a re ”an a g g re g a te o f i n d i v i d u a l s , an o r g a n iz e d sy stem o f p a t t e r n s by w hich th e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s and a c t i v i t i e s o f th e s e i n d i v i d u a l s a re c o n t r o l l e d , and th e e s p r i t de c o rp s w hich p ro v id e s m otive power f o r th e e x p r e s s io n o f t h e s e p a t t e r n s p or him, th e s o c i a l sy ste m i s !8th e sum t o t a l o f th e i d e a l p a t t e r n s w hich 2 8 W0 S . Mason, M o G ro s s, Ao W0 M cEachern, E x p lo r a t i o n s i n R ole A n a ly s is (Mew Yorks Jo h n W iley and S o ns, I n c . , 1958), p p . l l - 2 0 o 2 9 L in to n , o p . c i t . , p . 107. 28 c o n t r o l th e r e c i p r o c a l b e h a v io r betw een i n d i v i d u a l s and b e tween th e i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i e t y ,,3 0 S t a t u s and r o l e r e p r e s e n t a c o n c e p tu a l e l a b o r a t i o n o f th e " i d e a l p a t t e r n s w hich c o n t r o l r e c i p r o c a l b e h a v io r" « , « „ S t a t u s e s a re " th e p o l a r p o s i t i o n s i n p a t t e r n s o f r e c i p r o c a l b e h a v io r „ „ « A s t a t u s , as d i s t i n c t from th e i n d i v i d u a l who may occupy i t , i s sim ply a c o l l e c t i o n o f r i g h t s and d u t i e s 0 A r o l e r e p r e s e n t s " th e dynamic a s p e c t o f s t a t u s 0 „ » When (th e i n d i v i d u a l ) p u ts th e r i g h t s and d u t i e s which c o n s t i t u t e th e s t a t u s i n t o e f f e c t , he i s p e rfo rm in g a role„ tp^e a u th o r s f i n d l i t t l e to d i s t i n g u i s h betw een th e two con c e p t s , a c c o rd in g to L inton* S t a t u s r e f e r s to th e i d e a l p a t t e r n , w h ile r o l e r e f e r s to b e h a v io r which e x p re s s e s th e p a tte r n ,. E x cept f o r th e l o c a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n a s s ig n e d to s t a t u s b u t n o t r o l e , t h e r e i s l i t t l e t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e s the two c o n cep tso L in to n say s th e d i s t i n c t i o n betw een th e two i s " o f only academ ic i n t e r e s t o"33 The a u th o r s f i n d th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n f u r t h e r s tr e n g th e n e d by what m ight o th e rw is e be i n f e r r e d t o be a- s h i f t i n th e d e f i n i t i o n of r o l e betw een L i n t o n 's two books. The S tu d y o f Man3 4 and The C u l t u r a l 3 ° l b i d 0, p 0 1 05o ^ I b i d 0, p„ 113 o ^ I b i d c, p 0 1 140 33Ib id o , p. 114. 3 ^ L in to n , o p 0 c i t a Background o f P e r s o n a l i t y ,55 I n th e l a t t e r work r o l e d e s i g n a t e s . th e sum t o t a l of c u l t u r e p a t t e r n s a s s o c i a t e d w ith a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t u s I n t h i s tre a tm e n ts th© a u th o r s explain® r o l e i s a l s o viewed as th e dynamic a s p e c t o f status® and t h i s p h ra s e r e f e r s to th© b e h a v io r an i n d i v i d u a l m ust engage i n ” to v a l i d a t e ” Incumbency o f th e s t a t u s . Further® th ey f i n d t h a t r o l e has r e f e r e n c e n o t to a c t u a l b e h a v io r of an o c cu - p a n t o f a p o s i t i o n b u t to b e h a v i o r a l s t a n d a r d s « , I t con s i s t s o f , o a tt i tu d e s ® v a lu e s and b e h a v io r a s c r i b e d by th e s o c i e t y t o any and a l l p e rs o n s occupying t h i s s t a t u s , ”37 The a u th o r s in c lu d e a few o t h e r w r i t e r s und er t h i s category® th e n o rm a tiv e c u l t u r e p a t t e r n . They quote Newcomb as s a y in g i n h i s c o n c e p tu a l scheme t h a t wth e ways of behav ing w hich a re e x p e c te d o f any i n d i v i d u a l who o c cu p i e s a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n c o n s t i t u t e the r o l e , , , a s s o c ia te d w i t h t h a t p o s i t i o n , ”58 From Z n a n ie c k i th e y quote® There i s o b v io u s ly a fu n d a m e n ta l and u n iv e rsa l® th o u g h u n r e f l e c t lv e ® c u l t u r e p a t t e r n i n acc o rd a n c e w ith w hich a l l k in d s o f l a s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s 33R alp h Linton® The C u l t u r a l Background of P e r s o n a l i t y (Nexv Yorks D, A p p le to n -C e n tu ry Co0® 1 9 4 5 )0 “ 5 6 I b i d o® p 0 7 7 o 3 7 Ibido® p G 77 , ^®Theodore M, Newcomb® S o c i a l P sychology (New Y ork: The Dryden Press® 1951)® p e 280, 30 between individuals and their social milieus a re normatively organized and which we denote by the term 8 s o c i a l r o l e 9 Bennett and Tumin d e fin e r o l e as . , , what th e s o c i e t y a s p e c t s o f an individual occupying a g iv e n s t a t u s e T his implies that any s t a t u s i s f u n c t i o n a l l y d e f in e d by the r o l e a tt a c h e d to i t 0^ The a u th o rs f i n d Rose^-l and K o m a r o v s d e f i n i n g r o l e in a p p ro x im ate ly th e same m anner< , P arsons d e f i n e s i t i n a similar f a s h i o n i n one of h is p a p e rs 0 20 D e f i n i t i o n s i n w hich r o l e i s treated as an individual's d e f i n i t i o n o f h i s s i t u a t i o n with reference to his and o t h e r s 8 s o c i a l p o s i t i o n s o°°Sargent s t a t e s t h a t ,sa p e rs o n a s r o l e i s a p a t t e r n o r type o f s o c i a l b e h a v io r which seems s i t u a t i o n a l l y a p p r o p r i a te to him i n term s of th e demands and e x p e c ta ti o n s of th o se i n h i s group <>"44 R oles 3glF l o r I a n Z n a n ie k i, The S o c i a l Role o f th e Man of Knowledge (lew Yorks Columbia U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s 9 1940") 0 Po" 06. “Ojohn W0 B e n n ett and M elvin M0 Tumins Soc i a l L i f e p S t r u c t u r e and F u n c tio n (lew Yorks A lf r e d A« Knopf'7 1948) s " p p . 269-81 o — _ ^ A r n o l d M o Roses "The Adequacy o f Women*s E x p e c ta t i o n s f o r A du lt R o l e s s 6 5 S o c i a l F o r c e s » XXX (1951) s p p e69-77. ^K om arovsky p o p 0 c i t o ^ T a l c o t t Parsons j, "Age and Sex i n th e S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s 3W American S o c i o l o g i c a l Review 9 V II (1942) 9 p p 0 604<=616 0 ^ - S t a n s f a l d S a r g e n t P "C oncepts o f Role and Ego i n Contem porary P sy ch o lo g y , 0 i n John Ho R o hrer and M uzafer S h e r i f (eds < ,) , S o c i a l Psychology a t the C ro ssro a d s (Mew Yorks H arper and B r o th e r s , 1951), p . 360. 31 "have i n g r e d i e n t s of c u l t u r a l , o f p e r s o n a l , and of s i t u a t i o n a l d e te rm in a tio n ., But n e v er i s a r o l e w holly c u l t u r a l , w holly p e r s o n a l, o r w holly s i t u a t i o n a l 0H45 ^he a u th o rs f i n d t h a t P a r s o n s 5 fo r m u la tio n of a d e f i n i t i o n f i t t e d u n der t h e i r th r e e c a t e g o r i e s 0 However, h i s m ajo r f o r m u la tio n i s r e l a t e d to the d e f i n i t i o n s und er th e second c a t e g o r y 0 The meaning is b e s t u n d e rsto o d a g a i n s t th© background o f th e a c t i o n frame of re f e r e n c e s Each a c t i o n i s th e a c t i o n o f an a c t o r , and ta k e s p la c e i n a s i t u a t i o n c o n s i s t i n g o f o b je c ts o Th© o b j e c ts may be o th e r a c t o r s o r p h y s i c a l or c u l t u r a l o b je c ts o Each a c t o r has a system of r e l a t i o n s - t o - o b je c ts ? t h i s i s c a l l e d h i s 's y s te m o f o r i e n t a t i o n s 1. The o b je c ts may b© g o a l o b j e c t s , r e s o u r c e s , means, c o n d it i o n s , o b s t a c l e s , o r sym b ols 0 They may become c a th e c te d (v/anted o r n o t w anted}, and th e y may have d i f f e r e n t s i g n i f i c a n c e s a tt a c h e d to them ( t h a t i s , th e y may mean d i f f e r e n t th in g s to d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e ) e O b je c ts , by the s i g n i f i c a n c e s and c a th e x e s a tt a c h e d to them, become o rg a n iz e d i n t o th© a c t o r ' s system o f o r i e n t a t i o n s In t h i s c o n t e s t , P arsons s t a t e s t h a t A r o l e o o o i s a s e c t o r of th e t o t a l o r i e n t a t i o n system of an i n d i v i d u a l a c t o r w hich i s o rg a n iz e d about e x p e c ta tio n s i n r e l a t i o n to a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r a c t i o n c o n te x t, t h a t i s i n t e g r a t e d w ith a p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f v a lu e - s t a n d a r d s which g o v e rn i n t e r a c t i o n w ith one or more a l t e r s i n th e a p p r o p r i a te complementary r o l e s 4 5 I b i d 0, p 0 359„ 4® T alcott P arsons and E. A. S h i I s , w ith th e a s s i s ta n c e o f James O lds, "V alues, M o tiv es, and Systems o f A c tio n / 1 1 i n T a l c o t t Parsons and E„ A. S h i l s ( e d s . ) , Toward a G e n era l Theory o f A c tio n (Cambridge: H arvard U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1 9 5 l T , p 0 557 ~ ~ P a rso n s, The S o c i a l System , pp . 38 -3 9. 32 The a u th o r s n o te t h a t P a r s o n s ' s t a te m e n t a b o u t th e i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h v a lu e s t a n d a r d s c o rr e s p o n d s w i t h S a r g e n t 's c u l t u r a l e le m e n t; th e a c t o r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n i n c l u d e s a m o t i v a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n , w hich c o rr e s p o n d s to th e p e r s o n a l e le m e n t; and t h a t b o th f o r m u l a t i o n s a r e b a se d on an a c t o r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n t o a s i t u a t i o n , , F u rthers, th e a u th o r s n o te t h a t i n P a r s o n s ' f i n a l p h r a s e , " a l t e r s i n th e a p p r o p r i a t e com p l i m e n t a r y r o l e s , " he u s e s th e te rm r o l e i n a d i f f e r e n t s e n s e , w i t h what a p p e a rs to be a p u r e l y l o c a t i o n a l con no t a t i o n 0 However, i n h i s f i n a l f o r m u l a t i o n , he d i s t i n g u i s h e s b etw een o r i e n t a t i o n - r o l e and o b j e c t - r o l e „ I n an i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n e a c h a c t o r h as an o r i e n t a t i o n to th e o t h e r and i s h i m s e l f an o b j e c t o f o r i e n t a t i o n ; b o th a r e p a r t o f h i s r o l e 0 3 0 D e f i n i t i o n s w hich d e a l w i t h r o l e as th e b e h a v i o r o f a c t o r s o c c u p y in g s o c i a l p o s i t i o n s e--T h e a u th o r s e x p l a i n t h a t a r o l e d e f i n e d i n t h i s way does n o t r e f e r t o n o rm a tiv e p a t t e r n s f o r w hat a c t o r s s h o u ld d o , n o r to an a c t o r ' s o r i e n t a t i o n to h i s s i t u a t i o n , b u t t o w hat a c t o r s a c t u a l l y do as p o s i t i o n o c c u p a n t s 0 They q u o te D a v is ' d e f i n i t i o n as f a l l i n g u n d e r t h i s c a te g o ry ^ How an i n d i v i d u a l a c t u a l l y p e rfo rm s i n a g iv e n p o s i t i o n , as d i s t i n c t from how he i s su p p o sed t o p e rfo rm , we can c a l l h i s r o l e 0 Th© r o l e , th e n , I s t h e manner i n w hich a p e rs o n a c t u a l l y c a r r i e s o u t th e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f h i s p o s i t i o n o I t i s th e dynamic a s p e c t o f s t a t u s o r o f f i c e and as su c h i s alw ays I n f l u e n c e d by f a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n th e s t i p u l a t i o n s o f th e p o s i t i o n i t s e l f „ 4 8 The a u th o r s p o i n t to th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een L in to n and D avis a s to th e m eaning th e y im pute to th e p h r a s e , M th e dynamic a s p e c t o f s t a t u s 0n I n L i n t o n 's p h ra s e th e a u th o r s e x p l a i n t h a t he m eans, w hat th e i n d i v i d u a l h as to do i n o r d e r t o v a l i d a t e th e o c c u p a tio n o f th e s t a t u s 0 They a ls o n o te t h a t D a v i s 8 c o n c e p t o f r o l e i s e q u i v a l e n t t o Newcomb's c o n c e p t o f r o l e b e h a v io r and s i m i l a r t o S a r b i n 's c o n c e p t o f r o l e e n a c tm e n t 0 They q u o te th e fo rm er as sa y in g s S 9 Role b e h a v io r 0 o o does r e f e r t o th© a c t u a l b e h a v io r o f s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u a l s as t h e y ta k e r o l e s They q u o te S a r b i n , s t a t i n g t h a t ° r o l e e n a c tm e n ts a re th e o v e r t p e rfo rm a n c e s o f p e rs o n s ? th e s e p e rfo rm a n c e s v a l i d a t e (o r i n v a l i d a t e ) th e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f th e o t h e r p e rs o n o r p e rs o n s i n a s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n o{ 5 50 T here a re two more k in d s o f f o r m u la ti o n s w hich th e a u th o r s i n c l u d e u n d e r t h i s b e h a v i o r a l c a t e g o r y 0 The f i r s t em ph asizes th e f u n c t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f b e h a v i o r s , e i t h e r i n term s o f g ro up p r o c e s s o r th e a t t a i n m e n t o f grou p ends® The second em phasizes th e M s e l f - o t h e r 5 9 c o n te x t i n w hich th e b e h a v io r o c c u r s , f o c u s i n g on th e r e c i p r o c a l n a tu r e o f 48 K in g sle y D a v is , Human S o c i e t y (New Y ork; The M acm illan Company, 1948 and 1 9 4 9 ), p c 9 0 0 4Q ^Newcom b, o p 0 c i t 0, p 0 330 0 50Sarbin, ope citog p0 232 « - 34 b e h a v io r, o r a c t i o n as i n t e r a c t i o n » Under th© f i r s t k in d th e y in c lu d e the s m a ll group a n a ly s ts ,, Benne and S h e a ts p r e s e n t a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of r o l e s which in c lu d e s group t a s k r o l e s such as o p in io n s e e k e r , c o o r d i n a t o r 5 group b u i l d i n g and m ainten an ce r o l e s such as a g g re s s o r , blocker® 51 They f i n d t h a t S l a t e r has a s i m i l a r c o n c e p tio n of r o l e s We m ight d e fin e r o l e a s a more o r l e s s c o h e re n t and u n i f i e d system o f ite m s of i n t e r p e r s o n a l b eha v i o r „ W ith even t h i s m inim al d e f i n i t i o n i t becomes a p p a re n t t h a t r o l e perform ance In th e sm a ll group s i t u a t i o n w i l l have b o th consequences which a re im p o r t a n t to th e f u n c t i o n in g o f th© group i n w hich th e r o l e i s p e rfo rm ed , and p e r s o n a l consequences of im portance to th© i n d i v i d u a l who perform s i t 052 The a u th o rs comment t h a t i n t h i s f o r m u la tio n , o p e r a t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n s of r o l e a re e i t h e r in term s o f the i n t e r a c t i o n p r o f i l e s of group p a r t i c i p a n t s or i n term s of p o s t a e s s i o n r a t i n g s o They a re n o t based on e x p e c ta ti o n s b u t on s t a n d a rd s which each a c t o r a p p l i e s to a l l members o f th e group® P a r s o n s 8 d e f i n i t i o n s a g a in f a l l under t h i s t h i r d categ o ry o A r o l e i s ” 0 „ » what th e a c t o r does i n h is r e l a t i o n s w ith o t h e r s se en i n th e c o n te x t o f i t s f u n c t i o n a l 51K o Do Benne and P ® S h e a ts , ‘"F u n c tio n a l R oles of Group Members,” J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l I s s u e s , IV, 2 (1948), pp„ 4 1 -4 9 o ^ R o b e r t F® B ales and P h i l i p E 0 S l a t e r , "Role D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n Sm all D e cisio n -m ak in g G roups," i n T a l c o t t Parsons and R o b e rt F 0'B a le s ( e d s 0) , F am ily, S o c i a l i z a t i o n and I n t e r a c t i o n P ro c e ss (G len c o e% The F ree P r e s s , 195S), p . 260o * 35 significance for the social system.53 As example of the second fo rm u la tio n , t h a t which em phasizes th e " s e l f - o t h e r " c o n te x t, the a u th o rs quote from C o t t r e l l s I s h a l l be u s in g th e term r o l e to r e f e r to an i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t s e r i e s of c o n d itio n e d re s p o n s e s by one member of s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n w hich r e p r e s e n t s th e s tim u lu s p a t t e r n f o r a s i m i l a r l y i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t s e r i e s of c o n d itio n e d re s p o n se s of the o t h e r ( s ) i n t h a t s i t u a t i o n . D e al ing w ith human b e h a v io r in term s of r o l e s , t h e r e f o r e , r e q u i r e s t h a t any g iv e n ite m o f b eh av io r must always be p lac ed i n some s p e c i f i e d s e l f - o t h e r con t e x t . 5 4 S a rb in d e fin e s a r o l e as 55. „ . a p a tt e r n e d sequence of le a rn e d a c t io n s o r deeds perform ed by a p e rso n in an i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n . 9555 Th© a u th o rs not© t h a t C o ttre ll® a and Sarbin®s d e f i n i t i o n s d e a l w ith non-norraativ© s t i m u l i and re s p o n s e s : th e a c t io n o f one a c t o r i s a stim u lu s f o r a n o th e r a c t o r , whose resp o n se becomes a s tim u lu s f o r th© f i r s t a c t o r , and so on. On the o th e r hand, they a ls o note t h a t some o th e r a u th o rs who have a b e h a v io r a l d e f i n i t i o n of rol© have a n o th e r concept f o r norms a p p ly in g to p o s i t i o n incum bents, lik e Davis® d e f i n i t i o n , f o r exam ple 0 5 ®Parsons, The S o c i a l System , p 0 25. ®4Leonard S a C o t t r e l l , J r 0, "Th© A djustm ent of th e I n d i v id u a l t o His Age and Sex R o le s ," American S o c io lo g ic a l Review, VII (1942), p 0 6170 — _ cc Sarbin, op. cit., p. 225. 36 A f t e r d i s c u s s i n g th e v a r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s i n th e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s * the a u th o r s g iv e f o u r p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s f o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e f i n i t i o n s 0 F i r s t * th e d e f i n i t i o n s a r e i n f l u e n c e d by the p a r t i c u l a r d i s c i p l i n e o f th e definers® As an a n t h r o p o l o g i s t * L in to n s t r e s s e s c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s * and S a r g e n t as a p s y c h o l o g i s t e m p h a size s i n d i v i d u a l p e r c ep tio n s® S o c i o l o g i s t s em phasize g ro u p p ro c e sse s® P a rs o n s d e v e lo p s h i s c o n c e p tio n as a p a r t o f a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f action ® The s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r P a rso n s and D avis i s th e i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n ® I n t e r a c t i o n i m p l i e s b e h a v i o r and r e q u i r e s a c o n c e p t to r e p r e s e n t how i n d i v i d u a l s do behave i n a d d i t i o n to how th e y sh o u ld behave as in cu m b en ts o f p o s itio n s ® As a s o c i a l p s y c h o lo g is t* Newcomb i s c o n c e rn e d w i t h th e im p a c t o f c u l t u r e and s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e on th e b e h a v io r o f in d iv id u a ls ® He a l s o d i s t i n g u i s h e s betw een r o l e b e h a v io r o r th e a c t u a l b e h a v io r o f p o s i t i o n incum “ b e n ts * and r o l e * th e ways o f b e h a v in g e x p e c te d o f p o s i t i o n in c u m b e n ts 0 The seco n d r e a s o n f o r d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e f i n i t i o n s , a c c o r d in g t o th e a u th o rs * i s th e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e fram e o f r e f e r e n c e w i t h i n w hich th e w r i t e r s p la c e t h e i r r o l e c o n cept® F or L inton* th e p o s i t i o n s a re s i g n i f i c a n t i n a t o t a l s o c i e t y ; f o r S a rg e n t* i t i s r e s t r i c t e d to t h a t o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f a s i n g l e i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n ; f o r C o t t r e l l , i t i s a s u b s o c i a l sy ste m c o m p rise d o f an ego and alter in actual interaction, L in to n i s n o t p r i m a r i l y c o n c e rn e d w ith b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s g o v e rn in g th e r e l a t i o n s betw een i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t betw een i n d i v i d u a l s and c u l t u r e 0 S i m i l a r l y , he i s n o t as c o n cern ed w i t h th e e x p e c t a t i o n s a c t o r s In r e c i p r o c a l p o s i t i o n s h o ld f o r e a c h o t h e r as C o t t r e l l and P a rso n s a r e Q He p u ts l i t t l e em phasis on th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s p e r c e p t i o n of e x p e c t a t i o n s , w hich i s S a r g e n t ’s p rim a ry fo c u s o f i n t e r e s t . The f o u r t h r e a s o n f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i s th e f a c t t h a t m ost w r i t e r s acknow ledge t h e i r in d e b te d n e s s to L in to n , S in c e some base t h e i r w r i t i n g s on h i s c o n c e p tio n i n The S tu d y o f Man, w h ile o t h e r s b a se i t on The C u l t u r a l Back ground o f P e r s o n a l i t y , th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n L i n t o n 's c o n cep t i o n s i n th e two books a re p e r p e t u a t e d among th e w r i t e r s . I n s p i t e o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e f i n i t i o n s , Mason and a s s o c i a t e s found th e a u t h o r s ’ d e f i n i t i o n s were co n ce rn e d w i t h th e same phenomena, T hree b a s i c i d e a s a p p e a rin g i n all d e f i n i t i o n s were t h a t I n d i v i d u a l s (1) i n s o c i a l l o c a t i o n s (2) behave (3) w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o e x p e c t a t i o n s , They found t h a t a lm o s t a l l th e w r i t e r s u se d th e r o l e c o n c e p t t o embrace th e n o rm a tiv e e le m e n t o f s o c i a l b e h a v i o r 0 For exam ple, Mei^comb d e f i n e s a r o l e as ,!th e ways o f b e h a v in g w hich a re e x p e c te d o f any i n d i v i d u a l who o c c u p ie s a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n , o o'356 S a r g e n t sp e a k s o f 13, , , th e demands and 56 Newcomb, S o c i a l P sy c h o lo g y , p , 280, 38 e x p e c ta ti o n s o f th o se i n th e g r o u p ,,!57 an(j the n o tio n o f e x p e c t a t i o n i s c e n t r a l to th e f o r m u la tio n s o f L in to n , P a r s o n s s and D a v is 0 Some o f th e w r i t e r s sp eak o f e x p e c ta t io n s as a s c r i b e d by s o c i e t y , o t h e r s sp e ak of e x p e c ta ti o n s as b ein g h e ld by members of th e group i n which th e a c t o r p a r t i c i p a t e s o R e g a rd le s s o f t h e i r d e r i v a t i o n s , th© a u th o r s s t a t e t h a t e x p e c t a t i o n s a re presum ed by m ost r o l e t h e o r i s t s to be an e s s e n t i a l i n g r e d i e n t i n any fo rm u la f o r p r e d i c t i n g s o c i a l b e h av io ro Human c o n d u ct i s i n p a r t a f u n c t i o n of e x p e c ta tio n s o These e x p e c t a t i o n s a re a s s ig n e d t o i n d i v i d u a ls on th e b a s i s of t h e i r l o c a t i o n s i n s o c i a l s y s te m s „ IV. S e l e c t e d C oncepts i n Role Theory Used i n T h is S tu dy S o c i a l r o l e s a re group o r s o c i a l norms which I n c lu d e two a s p e c t s o f r o l e f u n c t i o n in g s th e demands s o c i e t y makes on th e i n d i v i d u a l and th e ways th e i n d i v i d u a l seek s to m eet th e s e dem ands0 The im pacts of s o c i a l norms a re pro fo u n d upon th e i n d i v i d u a l and th e y Impinge upon him th ro u g h o u t h i s d e v e lo p m e n t 0 Prom th© v e ry b e g in n in g o f l i f e a c h i l d i s s u b j e c t e d to s o c i a l p r e s s u r e and f o r c e d t o re sp o n d i n c e r t a i n ways to th e p a r e n t a l r o l e w hich, i n t u r n , i s d e fin e d by th e group I n t o w hich he was b o r n 0 Thus th© f i r s t d i r e c t i o n s g iv e n to th e i n d i v i d u a l 's p e r s o n a l i t y come d i r e c t l y from th e s o c i a l r o l e s d e f in e d i n h i s g ro u p . The c h i l d ' s f i r s t a s s i m i l a t i o n o f h i s r o l e i s 5 7 S a r g e n t , op. c i t „, p . 3 6 0 e 39 through Interaction with his personal or impersonal environ ment. A nother form of assimilation is by observation. C h ild r e n o bserv e r o l e s of th o s e n e a r e s t to them as th e y grow. I n th e home th e g i r l u s u a l l y o b s e rv e s th e r o l e of her m o th e r. As she grows o l d e r and goes to s c h o o l and c o lle g e p she comes i n t o c o n t a c t w ith o t h e r women who assume a v a r i e t y o f s o c i a l r o l e s . One can examine th e p o s t u l a t e * w h e th er a g i r l a s s i m i l a t e s more i n c h ild h o o d from h e r im m ediate e n v iro n m en t th a n she does l a t e r i n l i f e from h e r w id e r e n v iro n m en t a t c o l l e g e . A number o f s o c i o l o g i s t s and p s y c h o l o g i s t s i n r e c e n t y e a r s have d is c u s s e d ' th e i n f l u e n c e of c l a s s member s h i p upon r o l e b e h a v i o r . They fin d ,, f o r example* m id d le - c l a s s c h i l d r e n o b se rv e m i d d l e - c l a s s p a r e n t s a s f a r as g o a ls i n m a r r i a g e P s e x s e d u c a tio n * o c c u p a tio n s r e c r e a t i o n a re c o n c e rn e d . They assume t h a t a tt e m p t s to ta k e o v e r th© r o l e p r e s c r i p t i o n s of a n o th e r c l a s s g ro u p a re ham pered by d i f f i c u l t y o f f i n d i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s to o b se rv e o t h e r c l a s s g r o u p s . T h is i s a n o th e r p o s t u l a t e t h a t can be exam ined: w h e th er s o c i a l c l a s s h a s an im p act upon c o ll e g e s t u d e n t s as to t h e i r r o l e b e h a v io r and r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s . A t h i r d form o f a s s i m i l a t i o n i s by i n d o c t r i n a t i o n . The r e q u ire m e n ts o f c e r t a i n r o l e s a r e e x ig e n t* and s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g m ust be u n d e r ta k e n t o i n d u c t new members i n t o t h e i r r o l e s . At c o l l e g e , f o r exampl@p a fresh m a n i s t o l d by h e r s u p e r i o r s how t o a c t and ta lk * and w hat t o 40 w ear— e s p e c i a l l y i f she happens to be " p le d g in g ” a s o r o r i t y . T his i s a t h i r d p o s t u l a t e t h a t may be examined: th e im p a c t o f " s tu d e n t c u l t u r e " upon th e b e h a v io r o f an incoming s t u d e n t, For a d e f i n i t i o n of r o l e i n t h i s stu d y , t h a t g iv en by S a rg e n t i s q u ite s u i t a b l e as i t in c lu d e s the c u l t u r a l , p e rs o n a l and s i t u a t i o n a l e le m e n ts. He s t a t e s : A p e r s o n 8s r o l e i s a p a t t e r n o r type of s o c i a l b e h a v io r ?/hich seems s i t u a t i o n a l l y a p p r o p r ia te to him in term s of th e demands and e x p e c ta tio n s of th o se i n h is group , , , r o l e s have in g r e d i e n t s of c u l t u r a l , of p e rs o n a l, and of s i t u a t i o n a l d e te rm i n a t i o n , But never i s a r o l e w holly c u l t u r a l , w holly p e rs o n a l, or w holly s i t u a t i o n a T T ^ - In t h i s stu d y th e r e i s need to e la b o r a t e on th© word "group" i n th e d e f i n i t i o n . What i s th e s t u d e n t 's group? Is I t the " s tu d e n t c u l t u r e , " th e fa m ily , s o c i e t y , a com bination of th e s e , o r i s i t any o th e r f a c t o r ? Taking each s e p a r a t e l y , which has th e g r e a t e r im pact upon th e s tu d e n t? Parsons and S h i l s ’s d e f i n i t i o n i s j u s t as a p p ro p r i a t e as S a r g e n t 's save t h a t i t i s wordy, e la b o r a t e and i s w ith re g a r d to th e s o c i a l system as a w hole. T h e ir d e f i n i t i o n In c lu d e s v a lu e s ta n d a rd s which c o rre sp o n d to S a r g e n t 's c u l t u r a l elem en tj m o ti v a ti o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e °®Main p o in ts of above d i s c u s s i o n ta k e n from E . L, H a rtle y and R, E, H a rtle y , Fundament a l s of S o c ia l Psychology (Nov; Yorks A lf re d A, Knopf, 1 ^ 2 ) , pp, 501-616, 59Sargent, op, cit,, p, 359-360, 41 actor which corresponds to Sargent's personal element; and both base their formulation on the actor's orientation to a situation®®® F o r th e d e f i n i t i o n of r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h a t g iv e n by Mason, G ro s s, and McEachern has been s e le c te d ? "an ex p e c t a t i o n w i l l be d e fin e d as an e v a l u a t i v e s ta n d a r d a p p li e d to an incum bent o f a p o s i t i o n ® "6 1 The a u th o rs d i s t i n g u i s h betw een two d i f f e r e n t ways i n w hich th e term e x p e c t a t i o n has been u se d i n r o l e d e fi n i ti o n s ® One i s u sed i n a p r e d i c t i v e senses, th e o t h e r i n a n o rm ativ e sense® T h e ir d e f i n i t i o n r e f e r s to th e la tte r ® They a ls o e x p la in t h a t the way th e y d e fin e d i t , e x p e c t a t i o n may be a p p li e d to a l l i n cumbents o r to a p a r t i c u l a r incum bent o f a s p e c i f i e d p o s i tion® P a r s o n s 5 d e f i n i t i o n , as th e above d e f i n i t i o n , views r o l e e x p e c ta tio n s as em bracing p a t t e r n s of v aluation® T here i s al?/ays a double a s p e c t o f th e e x p e c t a t i o n system w hich i s I n t e g r a t e d i n r e l a t i o n to ® ® ® a v a lu e p a t t e r n ® ® ® w hich i s alw ays i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d i n an i n t e r a c t i o n c o n te x t 0 ® ® On th e one hand t h e r e a re th e e x p e c t a t i o n s w hich c o n ce rn and i n p a r t s e t s t a n d a rd f o r th e b e h a v io r o f th e a c t o r , ego, \p /ho i s ta k e n as th© p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e ; th e s e a r e h i s 5r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s 5® On th e o t h e r hand, from h is p o i n t o f view t h e r e i s a s e t o f e x p e c ta ti o n s r e l a t i v e to th e con t i n g e n t l y p ro b a b le r e a c t i o n s o f o t h e r s ( a l t e r s ) - - t h e s e w i l l b© c a l l e d ' s a n c t i o n s 5® 6 0 See p® 19 f o r P a r s o n s 8 d e f in itio n ® fi * 1 Mason, opQ cit®, p® 58® 42 He e x p la in s t h a t the r e l a t i o n s between r o l e e x p e c ta tio n s and s a n c tio n s are r e c i p r o c a l ’’What are s a n c tio n s to ego a re r o l e - e x p e c t a t io ns to a l t e r and v ice v e r s a . ” 6 *2 Role consensus i s a n o th e r concept used i n the s tu d y . This i s based on Mason, G ross, and McEachern’s p o s t u l a t e of r o l e c o n sen su s. They f i n d t h a t in ’’most fo rm u la tio n s of the r o l e concept . 0 0 ( th e r e ) is the assum ption t h a t con sensus e x i s t s on the e x p e c ta tio n s a p p lie d to th e incum ben ts of p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n s . ”63 They examined t h i s p o s t u l a t e in d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l sc ie n c e f i e l d s . This stu d y examines r o l e consensus among c o lle g e women as to t h e i r r o l e e x p e c ta ti o n s . In a d d it i o n , th e stu d y w i l l examine the s u p e r o r d i n a te and su b o rd in a te r o l e s among c o lle g e s tu d e n ts w ith r e g a rd to t h e i r r o l e e x p e c ta ti o n s . To make the concept a p p lic a b le to c o lle g e s t u d e n ts , th e term s u p e r o r d in a te has been d e fin e d as h ig h e r ra n k or a u t h o r i t y , i n d i c a t i n g the r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n of a s tu d e n t a t c o ll e g e . Those in v o lv e d in a number of s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n s a re s a i d to assume the s u p e ro rd in a te r o l e . S u b o rd in a te r o l e was d e fin e d as a lower ra n k or a u t h o r i t y i n d i c a t i n g the r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f a s tu d e n t a t c o l l e g e . Those who do n o t occupy o f f i c e s in any s o c i a l o r g a n iz a tio n s on campus nor are members i n any of them a re s a id to assume th e s u b o rd in a te r o l e . CHAPTER III STUDIES ON ROLE The p re v io u s c h a p te r review ed th e l i t e r a t u r e on r o l e th e o ry , w hile t h i s c h a p te r d i s c u s s e s c e r t a i n s t u d i e s on r o l e a The f i r s t s e c t i o n in c lu d e s s e l e c t e d e m p i r ic a l s t u d i e s u t i l i z i n g r o l e th e o r y , and th e second d i s c u s s e s some s t u d i e s made on women8s r o l e s 0 S e l e c te d E m p ir ic a l S tu d ie s Using Role Theory S t o u f f e r 8s s t u d y 0- - S t o u f f e r made a stu d y i n 19491 w hich he fo llo w e d by a n o th e r stu d y made i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w ith Jo Toby i n 1951„2 j n the l a t t e r s tu d y he used th e G uttm an’s s c a l e and P a r s o n s 8 and S h i l s ' s p a t t e r n v a r i a b l e frameworko His f i r s t s tu d y i l l u s t r a t e d ”an e m p i r ic a l pro ced u re f o r stu d y in g r o l e o b l i g a t i o n s , w ith p a r t i c u l a r r e f e r e n c e to 1S . Ao G t o u f f e r , fIAn A n a ly sis of C o n f l i c t i n g S o c i a l Norms, 8 8 Am erican S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, XIV (December 1949), pp« 707 - W T 0 “ " 2So Ao S t o u f f e r and J 0 Toby, 5 3 Role C o n f l i c t and P e r s o n a l i t y , 88 American J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y , LVI (March 1951), p p 0 395=406o ‘ 43 44 sim u lta n eo u s r o l e o b l i g a t i o n s which c o n f l i c t * " 3 S t o u f f e r became p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s q u e s tio n when he o bserved th e problem w hich fa c e d a noncom m issio n e d o f f i c e r i n the army0 The o f f i c e r was c o n fro n te d w ith c o n f l i c t i n g o b l i g a t i o n s ; what h i s s u p e r io r s had o rd e re d him to do and what h is men ex pected him to do* He a ls o had h ia own f e e l i n g s as an e n l i s t e d man toward the commissioned rank* S t o u f f e r gave th e fo llo w in g p r o p o s i t io n s i n s t a t i n g h is view o f th e stu d y ; I* In any s o c i a l group th e r e e x i s t norms and a s t r a i n f o r c o n fo rm ity to th e s e norms* 2* O rd in a rily ^ i f th e norms a re c l e a r and unam biguous s th e i n d i v i d u a l has no choice b u t to conform or ta k e the consequences i n group resen tm ento 3 e I f a p e rso n has sim u ltan eo u s r o l e s i n two or more groups such t h a t sim ultan eo u s con fo rm ity to th e norms of each o f the groups i s in c o m p a tib le 9 he can ta k e one of on ly a l im ite d number of a c tio n s 0 S t o u f f e r ta k e s th e sta n d t h a t "th e range o f approved o r p e r m is s ib le b e h av io r as p e rc e iv e d by a g iv en i n d i v i d u a l i s an Im p o rta n t datum f o r th e a n a l y s i s o f what c o n s t i t u t e s a s o c i a l norm In any g ro u p s and e s p e c i a l l y f o r th e a n a l y s i s o f c o n f l i c t i n g norms 0 5 8 ^Stouffer? op0 cit*s p„ 707„ 45 S t o u f f e r u sed th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e method to i l l u s t r a t e some o f th e above c o n c e p ts and h e lp d e fin e them so t h a t s t a t i s t i c a l o p e r a t io n s c o u ld be p erform ed \ f i t h them* He to o k a sample o f 196 H arvard and R a d c l i f f s t u d e n ts ta k in g a c o u rse i n S o c i a l R e la tio n s ,, He d id n o t a tte m p t to ta k e a random n o r a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ple, s in c e h i s e f f o r t was w h olly m e th o d o lo g ic a l,, S t o u f f e r gave h i s s u b j e c t s th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e on th e f i r s t day o f th e course and a sk ed them t o answ er i t anonym ously 0 The m ain p a r t o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r a n as f o llo w s % Im agine y o u r s e l f p r o c t o r i n g an exam ination,, About h a l f way th ro u g h you see a s t u d e n t c h e a tin g from h i s n o te s o You d o n 't know the s tu d e n ts what would you do? l e E x c e p t f o r y our a c t i o n , a u t h o r i t i e s and s t u d e n ts would n o t know a b o u t it© a a D ism iss him and r e p o r t him f o r c h e a ti n g . b e Take away n o t e s , l e t him f i n i s h , b u t r e p o r t him© Co Have him w ith d raw w ith a n o th e r e x cu se , b u t do n o t r e p o r t h im 0 d 0 Take away n o t e s , l e t him f i n i s h , b u t do n o t r e p o r t him Q @ o A ct as i f n o th in g has happened and do n o t r e p o r t him G 2© E x ce p t f o r y o u r a c t i o n , l i t t l e chance s tu d e n ts would know, b u t a u t h o r i t i e s would,, (Here th e same q u e s tio n s were r e p e a t e d as u n d er p o i n t l,a) I n th e f i r s t p a r t o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , th e s tu d e n t was c o n f r o n te d w ith a dilemma s i t u a t i o n and was a sk ed to 46 answ er th e f o l lo w in g : Suppose th e s t u d e n t was y ou r roommate o r c lo s e f r i e n d and d e s p e r a t e l y needed th e g rad e and he was a h a rd -w o rk in g b u t n o t b r i l l i a n t s t u d e n ts what would you do i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n ? (The same q u e s tio n s were r e p e a t e d as i n p o i n t 1®) S t o u f f e r c l a s s i f i e d th e r e s p o n d e n ts i n t o th r e e t y p e s : 1® Those who th o u g h t th e ran g e o f a p p ro v ed a c t s i d e n t i c a l from th e p o i n t of view o f a u t h o r i t i e s and s t u d e n ts ( 2 1 c a s e s )o 2 0 Those who th o u g h t th e ra n g e of a c t s approved by th e a u t h o r i t i e s d id n o t o v e r la p i n any way w i t h th e ra n g e o f a c t s approved by s t u d e n t s (56 c a s e s ) 0 3® Those who p e r c e iv e d a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r ra n g e o f a u t h o r i t i e s and studen ts® e x p e c t a t i o n s b u t who fo u n d a t l e a s t one a c t w hich would be t o l e r a t e d by b o th ( I I S cases)© F or th e s o l u t i o n o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l c o n f lic ts , 51 o u t of 56 c a se s o f s ty p e 2 n s a i d t h e i r a c t i o n s would conform to stud ents® e x p e c t a t i o n s 0 However9 i n th e p u b l i c s i t u a t i o n 16 o f th e 51 s h i f t e d t o th e n o n - s tu d e n t p o s itio n ,, From “ ty p e 3 P8 S 56 o f th e c a s e s \7o u ld p r i v a t e l y t a k e a c t i o n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y to b o th s t u d e n t s and a iith o rity © I n th e p u b l i c actj 73 o f th e 119 were a b le to f i n d i n an a c t p e r c e i v e d to be m u tu a lly a c c e p t a b l e as th e b a s i s f o r t h e i r own h y p o t h e t i c a l s o l u t i o n 0 Here S t o u f f e r d id n o t a tte m p t to e x p l a i n why t h e r e were such d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s n o r 47 w ith in th e typeso He sim ply m entioned t h a t such an a tte m p t should be the b a s is of a n o th e r r e s e a r c h s t u d y 0 Prom th e f i v e a c tio n s d e s c r ib e d in the s tu d y , he p la c e d the re sp o n se s along a degree of p u n itiv e n e s s i n an o rd e re d sequence from A to E« He found t h a t 95 p e rc e n t of th e re sp o n se s were c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e p e r c e p tio n of th e sequence of a c ts as a continuum 0 In th e above stu d y S t o u f f e r t r i e d to show how, w ith a h y p o t h e t i c a l a c t i o n of an i n d i v i d u a l , r o l e e x p e c ta tio n s can be a p p lie d i n th e stu d y of an i n d i v i d u a l ^ b e h a v io r in t h a t role® In c o n c lu s io n , one can say t h a t S t o u f f e r d id an adequate jo b i n i l l u s t r a t i n g a te c h n iq u e to d e fin e and c l a s s i f y e x p e c ta tio n s in an a tte m p t to stu d y r o l e b e h a v io r of i n d iv i d u a ls e n a c tin g such r o l e s < > Sine© he s t r e s s e d a t the b e g in n in g of th e r e p o r t t h a t h is purpose was co m pletely m e th o d o lo g ic a l, on© cannot c r i t i c i z e th e stu d y from o th e r p o in ts of v iew 0 I n I n s ta n c e s when one u ses h y p o t h e t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s , however, such as he used i n h is q u e s t io n n a ir e , one cannot be su re t h a t th e respo nse o f the subjs c ts would be s i m il a r to t h a t i n an a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n 0 S t o u f f e r was aware o f t h i s f a c t but d id n o t a tte m p t to choose a d i f f e r e n t methodo So Ao S t o u f f e r and J c Toby8s Study S t o u f f e r mad© a stu d y w ith J s Toby i n which th ey e x p lo re d o p e r a t i o n a l p ro ce d u res f o r l in k i n g th e stu d y of 48 s o c i a l norms w i t h p e r s o n a l i t y ®4 A c c o rd in g t o them, A s o c i a l norm can b© i n f e r r e d fro m r e s p o n d e n t s ’ r e p o r t s as to r o l e o b l i g a t i o n s i n a s p e c i f i c s o c i a l s itu a t i o n ® To th e e x t e n t t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l i s con s i s t e n t , i n v a r y in g ty p e s o f s i t u a t i o n s , i n r e p o r t i n g one ty p e o f rol© o b l i g a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a n o t h e r , t h i s te n d e n c y i s c o n s id e r e d a p e r s o n a l i t y d i s p o s i t i o n . W hile th e s tu d y so u g h t a l i n k betw een s o c i a l norms and p e r s o n a l i t y , i t was a l s o c o n c e rn e d w ith r o l e c o n flic t® I n t h e i r s tu d y th e a u th o r s a sk ed th e f o l lo w in g q u e s t i o n ; When t h e r e i s a l a c k o f c o n se n s u s i n a group as t o th e 'p r o p e r t h i n g to d o ’ i n a m o r a l ly co n f l i c t i n g s i t u a t i o n , i s t h e r e a te n d e n c y f o r some i n d i v i d u a l s to have a p r e d i s p o s i t i o n o r a p e r s o n a l i t y b i a s to w ard s on© type o f s o l u t i o n and f o r o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s to have a p r e d i s p o s i t i o n to w ard a n o th e r type o f s o l u t i o n ? I f su c h a p r e d i s p o s i t i o n e x i s t s , t h e r e s h o u ld b© a te n d e n c y t o c a r r y o v e r c e r t a i n ty p e s o f b e h a v io r from on© r o l e c o n f l i c t to a n o th e r w ith some c o n siste n c y ® ^ Her© th e a u th o r s a tte m p te d t o s tu d y a common r o l e c o n f l i c t and u se d P a r s o n s 9 c o n c e p ts , th e ,?p a r t i c u l a r i s t l c w and { 8u n i v e r s a l i s t i c 0t!! T h e ir id e a was t h a t i f i n a v a r i e t y of s i t u a t i o n s an i n d i v i d u a l c h o o ses th e p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c more f r e q u e n t l y th a n o t h e r s , t h e y would be a b le t o d e v is e a s c a l e to m easure su c h a tendency® They would r a n k p e o p le a lo n g a s i n g l e d im e n sio n a c c o rd in g t o t h e i r p r o b a b i l i t y o f p o s s e s s i n g th e a t t r i b u t e o f c h o o s in g one s o l u t i o n r a t h e r th a n a n o th e r i f g iv e n s e v e r a l s i t u a t i o n s i n v o lv i n g th e “S t o u f f e r and Toby, op® c i t ® 5 Ibid® p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c - u n i v e r s a l i 3 t i c o b lig a tio n s ® They u se d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e m ethod, and 648 u n d e r g r a d u a te s t u d e n t s o f a S o c i a l R e l a t i o n s c l a s s a t H arvard and R a d c l l f f were s e l e c te d ,, Her© a g a in , as i n t h e i r p r e v io u s s t u d y , t h e i r sam ple was n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e 0 The a u th o r s p r e s e n t e d to th e s u b j e c t s th e f o l lo w in g f o u r s t o r i e s s (1) You a r e r i d i n g w i t h a c lo s e f r i e n d who h i t a p e d e s tria n ® (a) Your f r i e n d has a r i g h t to e x p e c t you t o t e s t i f y f o r him® (b) Y our f r i e n d has some r i g h t to e x p e c t y o u t o t e s t i f y f o r him® (c) Your f r i e n d has no r i g h t to e x p e c t you t o t e s t i f y f o r him® What do yo u t h i n k you would do i n view o f th e o b l i g a t i o n s o f a sw orn w i t n e s s and y o u r o b l i g a t i o n s t o y o u r f r i e n d ? (a) T e s t i f y f o r him® (b) T e s t i f y a g a i n s t him® (2) You a r e a drama c r i t i c and y our c lo s e f r i e n d w ro te a p oor p l a y 0 (a) Y our f r i e n d has a r i g h t to e x p e c t you t o s i d e w ith him® (b) Y our f r i e n d has some r i g h t to e x p e c t you t o s id e w i t h him® (c) Y our f r i e n d h as no r i g h t t o e x p e c t yo u t o s i d e w i t h him® What do you t h i n k y o u r o b l i g a t i o n s xrould b© to w ard y o u r f r i e n d and tow ard th e p u b l i c ? (a) S id e w i t h y o u r frien d ® (b) S id e w i t h th e public® (3) You a r e a d o c t o r of an in s u r a n c e company and y o u r f r i e n d b e in g exam ined th o u g h i n good h e a l t h has few p o i n t s d i f f i c u l t to diagnose© (Same q u e s t i o n s w ere ask ed as i n q u e s t i o n 2 . ) What do you t h i n k would be y o u r o b l i g a t i o n to w a rd y o u r f r i e n d and to w ard th e company? (a) Sid© w i t h y o u r frie n d © (b) S id e w i t h t h e company0 (4) You a r e a t t e n d i n g a b o a rd m e e tin g w here you l e a r n e d t h a t u n l e s s y o u r f r i e n d s o l d b e f o r e news g o t o u t a b o u t b o a r d 5s d e c i s i o n s y o u r f r i e n d would be ruined© (a) Y our f r i e n d h as a r i g h t to e x p e c t you t o n o t i f y him© (b) Y our f r i e n d h as some r i g h t t o e x p e c t yo u t o n o t i f y him© (c) Y our f r i e n d h as no r i g h t to e x p e c t you t o n o t i f y him© What do you t h i n k would be y o u r o b l i g a t i o n t o ward y o u r f r i e n d and to w a rd t h e b o a rd o f d i r e c t o r s ? (a) N o t i f y y o u r frie n d © (b) Do n o t n o t i f y y o u r frien d © O n e - t h i r d o f t h e s u b j e c t s were g iv e n th e above q u e s t i o n s © O n e - t h i r d w ere g iv e n a v a r i a t i o n o f th e above q u e s t i o n s : ’Y o u r c l o s e f r i e n d i s i n a c a r t h a t you a re d r i v i n g ? you h i t som eone; w hat do you e x p e c t o f y o u r f r i e n d ? 5 8 The r e s t o f t h e q u e s t i o n s were r e p e a t e d i n th e same manner© O n e - t h i r d w ere g i v e n th e f o l l o w i n g : "S m ith and Jo h n w ere r i d i n g i n a c a r and Jo h n h i t som eone; w hat do 51 ©xpect Smith to do?" The above questions were repeated. The p e rc e n ta g e g iv in g p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c r e s p o n s e s were as f o l l o w s : S t o r y 1 ( t h e c a r a c c i d e n t ) - 26 p e r c e n t S t o r y 2 ( th e drama c r i t i c ) - 45 p e r c e n t S t o r y 3 ( th e in s u r a n c e d o c to r ) - 51 p e r c e n t S t o r y 4 (Board o f D i r e c t o r s ) - 70 p e r c e n t The a u th o r s u se d G u ttm an’s sc a lo g ra m m ethod, and th e r e s p o n s e s to a l l ite m s were c r o s s - t a b u l a t e d . They a rr a n g e d th e s c a l e p a t t e r n s a c c o rd in g to th e n e a r e s t t y p e . A lth o u g h th e a u th o r s g o t e n c o u ra g in g r e s u l t s , th e y were c a u t io u s enough t o say th e ite m s were to o few to e n a b le them to sp e a k w i t h c o n f i d e n c e 0 They were le d , how ever, to b e l i e v e t h a t th e y c o u ld d e v elo p good m easures o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s p r e d i s p o s i t i o n tow ard a p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c o r a u n i v e r s a l i s t i c te n d e n c y . The a u th o r s would have l i k e d to compare th e r e s u l t s w ith th o s e o f a n o th e r e x p e rim e n t where t h e r e was a non v e r b a l s i t u a t i o n o f r o l e c o n f l i c t s F in d in g t h a t sy stem e x p e n s iv e , th ey i n v e s t i g a t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e s c a l e and o t h e r v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s r e l a t i v e to r o l e c o n f l i c t . They s e l e c t e d an academ ic s i t u a t i o n c lo s e to th e s t u d e n t ’s e x p e r ie n c e i n an a tte m p t to i n v e s t i g a t e w h e th er th o s e who gave p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c r e s p o n s e s , f o r exam ple, in th e p r e v io u s s tu d y , would do th e same i n t h a t one® 52 The q u e s tio n was as f o llo w s : You a re employed by a p r o f e s s o r to mark exam i n a t i o n p a p e r s „ Your f r i e n d , i f you b o o st him a l i t t l e , would g e t p a s s in g grade® Your f r i e n d needs i t badly® What r i g h t does your f r i e n d have t o e x p ec t? (a) Has a d e f i n i t e right® (b) Has some r i g h t o (c) Has no r i g h t o Your o b l i g a t i o n s tow ards th e u n i v e r s i t y and f r i e n d : (a) Towards f r ie n d o (b) Towards u n iv e rs ity ® The same s c o r in g system was used as i n th e s c a le i t e m s • The a u th o rs found t h a t when the ego was p r o c t o r , t h e r e was some p i c t u r e i r r e s p e c t i v e of th e low and h ig h r i s k s i t u a t i o n s o When ego was the c h e a te r , o r when the a c t o r s were t h i r d p e r s o n s , the r e s u l t s were c h a o t i c 0 Thus th e y con cluded t h a t t h e i r stu d y ,?s u g g e s ts t h a t i t i s p o s s ib l e to c l a s s i f y p eople a c c o rd in g to p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s and s e l e c t one o r the o th e r h o rn o f a dilemma i n r o l e c o n f l i c t 9 ®6 Both S t o u f f e r * s s t u d i e s were en co u rag in g f o r s o c i o l o g i s t s to c o n tin u e i n r e f i n i n g the methods o f mea s u r in g d i f f e r e n t a s p e c ts o f b e h a v io r and r e l a t i n g them to s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l norms 0 6 I b i d 0, p® 408. 53 T h e i r m ain w eak n esses were t h e i r i n a b i l i t y to use r e a l s i t u a t i o n s i n s t e a d o f h y p o t h e t i c a l o n e s, and t h e i r need t o s e l e c t a l a r g e r number o f ite m s i n o r d e r t o d e t e r mine s c a l a b i l i t y w ith c o n f i d e n c e „ ' M elv in Seem an8s S tudy Seeman s t u d i e d i n 1953, "Role C o n f l i c t and Ambiva le n c e i n L e a d e rs h ip o " ^ He was p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n im p lem entin g th e view o f th e " t o t a l c u l t u r a l " s i t u a t i o n i n an e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n , , H© b e l i e v e d t h a t " th e stu d y o f l e a d e r s h i p c a n n o t be a d e q u a te ly c o n d u c te d w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e to th e c u l t u r a l s i t u a t i o n i n w hich t h a t l e a d e r s h i p ta k e s p l a c e T h u s he s e t o u t to i n v e s t i g a t e , " th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r o l e c o n f l i c t i n l e a d e r s h i p , , " 9 F or a d e f i n i t i o n o f r o l e c o n f l i c t he p a r a p h r a s e d Parsons* d e f i n i t i o n s Role c o n f l i c t h e re r e f e r s t o th e e x p o su re o f th e i n d i v i d u a l i n a g iv e n s i t u a t i o n to in c o m p a tib le b e h a v i o r a l e x p e c t a t i o n s e Though an a p p a r e n t incom p a t i b i l i t y may be r e s o l v e d , a v o id e d , o r m inim ized i n v a r io u s ways, th© c o n f l i c t i n g demands c a n n o t be com p l e t e l y and r e a l i s t i c a l l y f u l f i l l e d 0 „ » Rol© con f l i c t h e ro r e f e r s o n ly t o s i t u a t i o n s where th© ob s e r v e r n o te s w hat a p p e a rs t o b© c o n f l i c t o - ^ 7 M elvin Seeman, "Role C o n f l i c t and A m bivalence i n L e a d e r s h i p ," A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l Review, X V III (August 1953), p p 0 3 7 3 -8 0 0 : 8I b i d 0, p 0 3 7 3 o 9I b id „ 10Ibido 54 Seeman o b ta in e d d a t a b e a r in g upon f o u r m ajo r b i p o l a r i t i e s of v a lu e or d im en sio n s o f r o l e c o n f l i c t . These dim ensions aro as f o llo w s : 1. The 3 t a t u s d im e n s io n ; le a d s some p eo p le to honor i n d i v i d u a l l y a c h ie v e d s u c c e s s w ith o u t g iv in g s i g n i f ic a n c e to d i f f e r e n c e s I n s t a t u s . He q u o te s The Am erican S o l d i e r as an example o f t h i s t y p e . 2 0 The a u t h o r i t y d im e n s io n s in v o lv e s c o n f l i c t dependence and in d e p e n d e n c e . E scape From Freedom by E . Fromm i s qu o ted as an example o f t h i s t y p e . 3 . The I n s t i t u t i o n a l d im e n s io n s shows th e c h o ic e betw een th e u n l v e r s a l i s t i c as a g a i n s t th e p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c c r i t e r i a f o r s o c i a l a c t i o n . 4 0 The m eans-enda d im e n s io n ; shows th e em phasis on g e t t i n g th e p r a c t i c a l jo b done as a g a i n s t th e em phasis on th e p ro c e s s o f a c h ie v e m e n t. Seeman gave t h r e e ty p e s o f r o l e c o n f l i c t i n w hich th e above f o u r dim ensio ns were m a n if e s te d and used i n an e m p i r ic a l stu d y on th e s c h o o l system s f o r p u rp o se s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n . The f i r s t ty p e was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by agreem ent w i t h i n th e c r i t e r i o n group w hich was m u tu a lly d i f f i c u l t to a c h ie v e u n d e r th© g iv e n i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s . I n th© stu d y o f th e s c h o o l sy s te m s two t h in g s were so u g h t to I n v e s t i g a t e th e above ty p e of r o l e c o n f l i c t . The t e a c h e r s were ask ed to d e s c r i b e th e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ’s 55 l e a d e r s h i p , th e d e g re e o f " s e p a r a t i s m ” b e in g measured® The second t h in g was to us© a v a r i e t y o f o b j e c t i v e d a t a on f i n a n c i a l t r e n d s i n th© sc h o o ls 0 Seeman found t h a t , w h ile th e t e a c h e r s condemned th e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 9© s e p a r a tis m , th e y w anted a r a i s e In s a l a r y e Here Seeman f e l t t h a t th e t e a c h e r s e x p e c te d two ty p es o f b e h a v io r from th© s u p e r i n te n d e n t w hich d id n o t a g re e 0 H© c o n ceiv ed o f a " l e s s d e g re e of s e p a r a t i s m , ” as h a v in g th e s u p e r i n te n d e n t v i s i t i n g c l a s s e s q u i t e often® I n h e lp in g to i n c r e a s e s a l a r i e s , he had to be w ith I n f l u e n t i a l p e o p le more often© Thus, a s u p e r i n te n d e n t c o u ld n o t v i s i t c l a s s e s f r e q u e n t l y and a t th e same tim e f i n d enough tim e to be w ith i n f l u e n t i a l peo p le as o f t e n as he should© Th© second ty pe o f r o l e c o n f l i c t in v o lv e d s i g n i f i c a n t d is a g re e m e n t w i t h in th e c r i t e r i o n group r e g a r d i n g r o l e d e f in itio n ® In th e stu d y th e t e a c h e r s were asked t e n f o r c e d q u e s tio n s on th e " i d e a l s u p e r in te n d e n t® 5 3 The t h i r d type was the d isa g re e m e n t bet?;een c r i t e r i o n g r o u p s ® Here th© d isa g re e m e n t a ro s e from th e d i f f e r e n t d e f i n i t i o n s of l e a d e r s h i p r o l e g iv e n by t e a c h e r s and l e a d e r s r e s p e c t i v e l y 0 The above p o i n ts had been d i s c u s s e d from th e o b s e r v e r ’s p o i n t o f view , and Seeman w anted to f i n d o u t w h e th er th e a c t o r s th e m se lv e s r e v e a l e d th e c o n flic t® 56 He found from th e I n te r v ie w s t h r e e t h in g s r e v e a l e d : 1® The a c t o r was aware to some e x t e n t o f h i s p o s i t i o n and th e f e e l i n g s o f am bivalence betw een e q u a l i t y and h i e r a r c h y 0 2® E v idence from th e in te r v ie w s showed t h a t t h e r e was a r e a l p roblem on th e u n i v e r s a l i a t i c - p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c dimension® 3 0 I n th e m eans-ends dimensions, i t was r e v e a l e d t h a t th e a c t o r s found d i f f i c u l t y i n d is c o v e r i n g a c l e a r - c u t p a th betw een t h e i r ends i n view and th e p r o c e s s of s t a f f p a r t i c i p a t i o n 0 Seeman co n clu d ed t h a t th e s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s p o in te d tow ard th e need o f a n a ly z in g c o n seq u e n ce s, -for p e rs o n s and i n s t i t u t i o n , o f th e r o l e c o n f l i c t and am bivalence p ro b le m s* I n t h i s s tu d y he found two consequences s u g g e s te d : (1) What d i f f e r e n c e does i t make i n t e a c h e r m o ra le , s c h o o l e f f i c i e n c y , m e n ta l h e a l t h and th e l i k e , i f the l e a d e r i s aware o f th e s e r o l e p r e s s u r e s or a d o p ts p a r t i c u l a r modes o f a d ju s tm e n t and r e s o l u t i o n s o (2) What k in d s o f t r a i n i n g o f l e a d e r and su b o r d i n a t e would be r e q u i r e d to e f f e c t o p tim a l change i n th e sy ste m as now c o n s t i t u t e d ? ^ Seeman u se d an a d e q u a te method t o stu d y c o n f l i c t from th e o b s e r v e r 's p o i n t o f view as w e l l as th e a c t o r ' s p o i n t o f viewo His w eakness, however, was i n th e type o f q u e s tio n s he u se d and th e c o n c lu s io n s he drew from them® For 1:LIbid0, p# 378 57 exam p le, i n t r y i n g to determ in e "agreem ent w i th in th e c r i t e r i o n g ro u p ” under i n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n d it i o n s , Seeman assumed t h a t th© s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 8s s e p a r a tis m and th© t e a c h e rs * d e s i r e f o r i n c r e a s e i n s a l a r i e s were two c o n f l i c t i n g is s u e s o He i n t e r p r e t e d t h a t th e t e a c h e r s 1 co m p lain t of th e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 8s s e p a r a tis m was du© to th e l a t t e r * s l e s s f r e q u e n t v i s i t s to the classroo m s At th© same tim e , in o rd e r to g e t a r a i s e f o r th e t e a c h e r s , i t was e s s e n t i a l t h a t he be in the company of i n f l u e n t i a l p e o p le 0 These two p o i n ts ap p ea re d to Seeman as c a u sin g r o l e c o n f l i c t w ith in th e c r i t e r i o n g ro u p 0 I t was a weak assu m p tio n on h is p a r t 0 The second p o i n t was j u s t as weak. He asked th e te a c h e r s two q u e s tio n s % (1) w hether th e s u p e r in te n d e n t sh o u ld i n v i t e te a c h e r s to h i s home, and (2) w hether he sh o u ld d is c u s s p r i v a t e m a tte r s w ith them . When th© t e a ch ers answered "y es" to the f i r s t and "no" to th e second, Seeman counted such re s p o n se as r o l e c o n f l i c t 0 A nother o b s e rv e r may n o t r e g a r d th e q u e s tio n s i n th e same lig h t * S e l e c te d S tu d ie s on Women*s R oles A rnold M. Ros© Rose made a study^-2 i n w hich he s t a t e d t h a t " s o c i a l changes accompanying th© I n d u s t r i a l R e v o lu tio n l e f t th© ■^Arnold M. Rose, "The Adequacy o f Vifomen's E x p e c ta t i o n s f o r A d ult R o l e s , ” S o c i a l F o r c e s , XXX (1951), p p . 6 9 -7 7 . . ------------------------ 58 m i d d l e - c l a s s u rb a n women's r o l e s r e l a t i v e l y l e s s s p e c i f i c and l e s s d e f i n i t e th a n th o se o f com parable men, and hence h e r p r e - a d u l t e x p e c t a t i o n s a re l e s s a d e q u a te . Rose p o i n t e d o u t t h r e e m ajo r s t a g e s o f change i n th e s o c i a l r o l e o f m i d d l e - c l a s s women0 One came a b o u t slo w ly a f t e r th e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y 0 Women gave up t h e i r work i n th e shops b u t th e y s t i l l had the h o u se k e e p in g and c h i l d - r e a r i n g d u t i e s 0 I n th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , h o u se work became more s i m p l i f i e d 0 However, th e change was g r a d u a l and women had tim e to p la n f o r changes i n r o l e s « The seco n d m ajo r s ta g e was th e r e s u l t o f modern m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f women's s o c i a l r o l e s 0 T here was g e n e r a l o p p o s i t i o n to women's a c q u i r in g new f u n c t i o n s „ T h ir d , women's new s o c i a l r o l e s have n e v e r become c l e a r and d e f i n i t e , , W hile a man i s su re he i s g o in g t o g e t an o c c u p a tio n and f e e l s o b lig e d t o j o i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s to h e lp him i n h i s work, a woman h a s c h o ic e o f a c a r e e r , m a r r ia g e , or a c o m b in a tio n o f b o t h . A lso , she i s f r e e t o j o i n o r n o t j o i n o r g a n i z a t i o n s „ Rose g a th e r e d h i s d a ta th ro u g h th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e methodo He p r e p a r e d f i f t e e n q u e s t io n s a b o u t e x p e c t a t i o n s o f o n e 's a d u l t r o l e s , and gave them to 256 s t u d e n t s i n f o u r s o c io lo g y c l a s s e s a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f M innesota,, His d a t a showed t h a t t h e r e was 5 i,a c e r t a i n i n c o n s i s te n c y , la c k o f d e f i n i t e n e s s , and l a c k o f r e a l i s m a b o u t ^ I b i d . , po 69. 59 e x p e c ta tio n s f o r a d u l t r o l e s among s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r tio n of women c o lle g e s tu d e n ts There were two main l i m i t a t i o n s to the stu d y : th e sample s tu d ie d and th e k in d o f q u e s tio n s asked® Rose was aware of th o se l i m i t a t i o n s ® One m ight add a t h i r d : th e in ad e q u ate number o f questions® M irra Komarovsky Komarovsky made a s t u d y o f c o lle g e women i n an e a s t e r n i n s t i t u t i o n to " s e t i n d e t a i l th e n a tu re o f incom p a t i b l e sex r o l e s imposed by s o c i e t y upon young v/omen®"!® She c o l l e c t e d h e r d a ta from 153 u n d e rg ra d u a te women® S e v e n ty - th r e e were r e g i s t e r e d in a Fam ily c l a s s and w rote t h e i r a u to b io g ra p h ie s f o r two c o n se c u tiv e years® E ig h ty were from a S o c i a l Psychology c la s s who were i n t e r viewed f o r a p e rio d of one hour each® The a u to b io g ra p h ic a l and intervieY / documents ranged from f iv e to t h i r t y t y p e w r i t t e n pages® In h e r r e p o rt* Komarovsky d id n o t in c lu d e th e i n s t r u c t i o n s g iv en to th o se who w rote t h e i r a u to b io g ra p h ie s , nor d id she in c lu d e the q u e s tio n s asked i n th e 14I b i d os p® 76® ■^Mirra Komarovsky* " C u ltu r a l C o n tra d ic tio n s and Sex R o l e s A m e r i c a n J o u r n a l o f S o c io lo g y , L II (November 1946), 184-89;---------- --------- -------------------------- 16Ibid®, p® 184. 60 i n t e r v i e w s . She d i d n o t d e s c r i b e th e so c io -e c o n o m ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the g r o u p . No o t h e r a d d i t i o n a l in fo rm a t i o n was g iv e n on th e s u b j e c t s . Her d a t a showed t h a t t h e r e were s e r i o u s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s em erg ing from two r o l e s w hich she l a b e l e d th e "moderri* and t h e s9f e m i n i n e «5 J The l a t t e r had a 5 5 common co re o f a t t r i b u t e s d e f i n i n g th e p r o p e r a t t i t u d e s to men, f a m ily , w ork, lo v e , e t c . . . < > and a s e t o f p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s o f t e n d e s c r i b e d w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e male sex r o l e s as n o t so dom inant o r a g g r e s s i v e as men, o r more e m o tio n a l, sym p a t h e t i c oW ^ The modern r o l e " p a r t l y o b l i t e r a t e s th e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n i n s e x . I t demands o f th e woman much th e same v i r t u e s , p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v io r and a t t i t u d e s t h a t i t does o f th e men of a c o rr e s p o n d in g a g e 05J-* -8 K om arovsky's d a t a showed t h a t , d u r in g th e c o ll e g e y e a r s , th e c o n f l i c t betw een th e fe m in in e and modern r o l e s Ha p p a r e n t l y c e n t e r s a b o u t academ ic work, s o c i a l l i f e , v o c a t i o n a l p l a n s , e x c e ll e n c e i n s p e c i f i c f i e l d s of e n d e a v o r , and a number o f p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s F o r t y p e r c e n t o f h e r s u b j e c t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y 17 I b i d , , p . 184o ^ I b i d a , p . 1 95a 19 I b i d a 61 had " o c c a s i o n a l l y 'p la y e d dumb* on d a t e s ; t h a t i s , con c e a le d some academic honor, p re te n d e d ig n o ran c e of some s u b j e c t , or allow ed th e man the l a s t word i n an i n t e l l e c t u a l d isc u ssio n ., "20 A nother m a n i f e s t a t i o n which Komarovsky found was th e i n c o n s is te n c y of th e g o a ls s e t f o r th e g i r l by her f ami ly < = A nother was th e bew ilderm ent and c o n fu s io n caused by th e f a i l u r e on the p a r t of the fa m ily to smooth the p assag e from one r o l e to a n o th e r , e s p e c i a l l y when the' r o l e s in v o lv e d were c o n t r a d i c t o r y 0 For i n s t a n c e , Komarovsky r e p o r t e d t h a t , to some of th e young women, i t seemed as though th ey had awakened one m orning to f i n d t h e i r w orld u p sid e down0 What had b ro u g h t p r a i s e p r e v i o u s ly , suddenly became c e n s u r e 0 She gave as an example th e young woman who w rote a l e t t e r to h e r b r o t h e r t e l l i n g him of h e r achievem ents in p in g -p o n g , th in k in g he would be d e l i g h t e d to l e a r n t h a t she had won a l l the games but one s To h e r s u r p r i s e he w rote back sa y in g , "When a re you going to grow up? Give him a l i t t l e c o m p e titio n , b u t lo s e a few games0"21 A nother a s p e c t of the problem was the " c o n f l i c t between the p sy c h o g e n e tic p e r s o n a l i t y " o f the g i r l and th e 20I b i d o 21Ibid 62 " c u l t u r a l r o l e " f o r c e d upon h e r by th e m i l i e u . At o t h e r tim e s i t was th e f a m ily and th e c o l l e g e who t h r u s t upon th e r e l u c t a n t g i r l th e modern r o l e . S o c i e t y o f f e r s th e g i r l p o w e rfu l c h a l le n g e s and s t r o n g p r e s s u r e s t o e x c e l i n c e r t a i n t h i n g s 0 Y e t, th e v e ry s u c c e s s i n m e e tin g th o s e c h a l le n g e s may c au se a n x i e t y 0 A f i f t h p o i n t was t h a t , n o t o n ly th e p a ssa g e from a d o le s c e n c e to young a d u lth o o d , b u t moving from one campus to a n o th e r c r e a t e d s i m i l a r p ro b le m s . The d e g re e o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f sex r o l e s v a r i e d w i t h r e g i o n a l , c l a s s , n a t i v i t y and o t h e r s u b c u l t u r e s c Komarovsky c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e p ro b lem b ro u g h t o u t i n h e r s tu d y o f c o l l e g e women w ould p e r s i s t u n t i l th e a d u l t se x r o l e s o f women were r e d e f i n e d i n g r e a t e r harmony w i t h th e so c io -e c o n o m ic and i d e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r o f modern s o c i e t y . U n t i l th e n , n e i t h e r f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n n o r th© u n v e r b a l i z e d se x r o l e s o f th e young women c o u ld be c l e a r e d on i n t r i n s i c c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a c c o r d in g t o h e r . P a u l W a llin W a l li n made an a p p ro x im a te r e p l i c a t i o n o f K om arovsky's s t u d y . 22 g e g ave two r e a s o n s why he f e l t th e r e p l i c a t i o n was w o r th w h ile . F i r s t , b e c a u se Kom arovsky’ s s u b j e c t s c o n s i s t e d o f s e n i o r s i n a s i n g l e i n s t i t u t i o n ^ ^ P a u l W a l li n , " C u l t u r a l C o n t r a d i c t i o n s and Sex R o le s % A R e p e a t S t u d y ," A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l R eview , XV ( A p r i l 19 5 0 ), p p . 2 8 8 -2 9 3 0 63 t a k i n g c o u rs e s i n Fam ily and S o c i a l P sy ch o lo g y , t h e r e was some q u e s t i o n a b o u t th e f i n d i n g s b e in g g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b le* Second, b e c a u se th e s u b j e c t s d id n o t p a r t i c i p a t e anonym ously i n th e s tu d y , th e y m ight have p r e s e n t e d them s e l v e s i n a p i c t u r e t h a t would show them i n f a v o r a b l e l i g h t * W a llin c o n d u c te d h i s s tu d y In a w e s te r n co ed u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n where th e r a t i o of men to women was t h r e e to one* He drew a random sam ple from th e fem ale u n d e rg r a d u a te p o p u l a t i o n o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n * The 163 women s e l e c t e d w ere g iv e n a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t h a t was answ ered anonymously* They were a l s o i n te r v ie w e d by 54 s t u d e n t s from a F am ily c l a s s as p a r t o f t h e i r t r a i n i n g a ssig n m en t* T h i r t y - t h r e e o f th e i n t e r v i e w e r s were m ales and 21 f e m a le s . W a llin d id n o t i n t e n d to u se th e i n t e r v i e w m a t e r i a l i n h i s s tu d y , as th e s t u d e n t s were u n t r a i n e d 0 However, he found t h a t th e m a t e r i a l p r o v id e d s u g g e s t i v e id e a s f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e d a ta * The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f W a l l i n 's s u b j e c t s were as f o l lo w s : o n e - t h i r d were m a jo rin g o r i n te n d i n g to m a jo r i n th e s o c i a l s c ie n c e s * The re m a in d e r were d i s t r i b u t e d as f o l lo w s : 29 p e r c e n t i n the h u m a n i t ie s , 20 p e r c e n t i n e d u c a t i o n , 12 p e r c e n t i n th e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s , and 6 p e r c e n t i n o t h e r f i e l d s * A l l b u t a n e g l i g i b l e p e rc e n ta g e were betw een 18 and 21, th e m a j o r i t y b e in g betw een 19 and 20. T h e ir p a r e n t s were p re d o m in a n tly n a t i v e b o rn (93 p e r c e n t ) , P r o t e s t a n t (70 p e r c e n t ) , and o f c o l l e g e 64 l e v e l — b o th p a r e n t s w ith one o r more y e a rs o f c o lle g e (70 p e r c e n t) * T h e ir f a t h e r s were l a r g e l y i n th e p r o f e s s i o n s , i n m a n a g e ria l and e x e c u tiv e p o s i t i o n s , or had t h e i r own b u s i n e s s * ^ As Komarovsky d id n o t In c lu d e the q u e s tio n s asked of h e r s u b j e c t s , W a llin had to deduce from th e r e p o r t the type of q u e s tio n s t h a t m ight have been asked* He in c lu d e d i n h is r e p o r t two s e t s o f q u e s tio n s and th e re sp o n se o f th e s u b j e c t s i n p e rc e n ta g e s * These a re shown i n T ables 1 and 2, Appendix II* I n comparing h i s r e s u l t s w ith Komarovsky’ s , h© found th e y a g re e d on two p o i n t s : (1) A s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t io n of c o lle g e women f e e l c a l l e d upon on o c c a s io n to p r e te n d i n f e r i o r i t y to men w hile c o n c e iv in g of th em selves as e q u a l (or s u p e r i o r ) to them, and (2) Many c o lle g e women are exposed to i n c o n s i s t e n t p a r e n t a l e x p e c ta ti o n s o r ( i n term s o f th e r e p e a t stu d y ) have vie?/s c o n t r a d i c t o r y to th o se of e i t h e r or b o th t h e i r p a r e n ts as to how th e y should be spending t h e i r c o lle g e t im e *24 W a llin , however, d id n o t f i n d h is s u b j e c t s v e ry d i s t u r b e d by the in c o m p a tib le e x p e c ta tio n s as Komarovsky’s seemed to be* He co nclud ed t h a t th e I n c o m p a t i b i l i t i e s e i t h e r wore n o t ta k e n s e r i o u s l y or were r e a d i l y re s o lv e d * The c o lle g e women who sometimes p re te n d e d I n f e r i o r i t y did 23I b id * , p* 289* 24I b id * , p . 292. 65 n o t seem a g i t a t e d by i t * T hus, he c o n c lu d e d , th e p ro blem i s l e s s momentous f o r t h e c o ll e g e woman th a n i s s u g g e s te d by Komarovsky’s r e p o r t * T here a p p e a rs t o be a s e l e c t i v e p r o c e s s a t work w hich l e a d s women t o whom t h i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n w ould be u p s e t t i n g to f a v o r the company o f m ale companions w i t h whom th ey f e e l s i m u la t io n i s n o t n e c e s s a ry * W a llin fo u n d some m arked d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een h i s s u b j e c t s and Kom arovsky’ s * His were n o t r a i l i t a n t l y a t t a c h e d to th e modern r o l e and ore a lm o st u nan im ously o r i e n t e d to m a r r i a g e , w h ile h e rs in c l u d e d an a p p r e c i a b l e number o f c a r e e r women whose v e s t e d i n t e r e s t i n th e modern r o l e would have w e ig h te d th e sam ple w ith p e rs o n s f o r whom a c o n f l i c t betw een th e modern and fe m in in e r o l e s was a m a t t e r o f g r e a t consequence* W a llin co n clu d ed t h a t , s i n c e the two m ajo r p o i n t s m e n tio n e d e a r l i e r i n h i s f i n d i n g s a g re e d w ith Komarovsky’ s , he c o u ld g e n e r a l i z e from th e r e s u l t s * He m a in ta in e d t h a t p o s i t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e he u se d d i f f e r e n t m ethods from Komarovsky’s and h i s sam ple came from an i n s t i t u t i o n i n an o p p o s i t e re g io n * T here were s e v e r a l w eaknesses i n W a l l i n ’ s and Komarovsky’s s t u d i e s * F i r s t , n e i t h e r had an a d e q u a te r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ple from w hich t o g e n e r a l i z e t h e i r r e s u l t s * Komarovsky drew h e r sam ple from two c l a s s e s o f one i n s t i t u t i o n * Those who chose s u c h s u b j e c t s c o u ld 25Ibid* 66 r e p r e s e n t only one type of th e i n s t i t u t i o n ’s p o p u la tio n . Her c o n c lu sio n s were based on d a ta g a th e re d th ro u g h the au to b io g rap h y and in te rv ie w m ethods0 H alf h e r s u b je c ts w rote t h e i r a u to b io g r a p h ie s , These may have w r i t t e n what was ex p ec te d o f them r a t h e r th an the a c t u a l f a c t s , The second h a l f of the s u b je c ts were in te rv ie w e d . However, Komarovsky d id n o t in clu d e d e s c r i p t i o n o f the in te r v ie w method in h er r e p o r t , nor d id she d e s c r ib e h e r s u b je c ts as to t h e i r socio-econom ic s t a t u s , s c h o l a s t i c achiev em en ts, p a r e n t s ’ background, and the l i k e — a l l of which m ight have some b e a rin g upon the r e s u l t s a W a llin r e l i e d h e a v ily on the anonymous q u e s t io n n a i r e in i n t e r p r e t i n g h i s r e s u l t s . The in te r v ie w s were conducted by u n tr a in e d s t u d e n t s . M oreover, 33 of them were m ales. Women s tu d e n ts answ ering p e r s o n a l q u e s tio n s , such as “p re te n d in g to p la y dumb” on d a te s , m ight have g iv e n a m is le a d in g resp o n se to th e male s tu d e n t i n t e r view ers 8 W a llin used th e in te r v ie w d a ta to h e lp p ro v id e s u g g e s tiv e le a d s f o r th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of th e r e s u l t s . U n tra in e d in te r v ie w e r s g e n e r a l l y make many m is ta k e s , e s p e c i a l l y when a la r g e number i s u sed , as in W a l li n ’s c a s e 0 On the whole, r e s u l t s of the two s t u d i e s ap p ly only to th e groups in q u e s tio n . G. H. Seward Seward made a stu d y i n 194526 i n v e s t i g a t e th e « a t t i t u d e s tow ard th e fem in in e r o l e h e ld by a s e l e c t e d group o f women s t u d e n t s as th e y f a c e d th e p o s t war w o r ld e Her s u b j e c t s were 147 s t u d e n ts i n an i n t r o d u c t o r y c o u rse i n psy ch o lo g y who were homogeneous i n age, i n t e l l i g e n c e , and so cio -ec o n o m ic s t a t u s ? A t e s t was a d m in is te r e d to the t o t a l group and, on th e b a s i s of the r e s u l t s , th e l i b e r a l and c o n s e r v a tiv e e x trem es were compared w ith r e s p e c t to p e rfo rm an c e , u s in g K i r k p a t r i c k 8s fe m in is m -a n tife m in is m s c a l e , th e T erm an-M iles m a s c u l i n i t y - f e m i n i t y t e s t , Maslow8s in v e n to r y of dominance f e e l i n g th e C o lle g e Board S c h o l a s t i c A p titu d e t e s t . Seward a d a p te d K i r k p a t r i c k 8s s c a l e to the p o s t war p e r i o d and came o ut w ith 40 i t e m s 0 Prom th e r e s u l t s , she s e l e c t e d th e u pper and low er extrem es and d is c a r d e d th e r e s t as b e in g i n s u f f i c i e n t l y d is c r im i n a t in g o B esides th e t e s t s , she s t u d i e d th e s u b j e c t s 8 background by means o f a c o n t r o l l e d in te r v ie w te c h n iq u e , f o r p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s w i t h i n th e a re a s o f fa m ily and sex r e l a t i o n s h i p s and r e l i - giono A s e r i e s o f p i c t u r e s was p r e s e n te d f o r th e m a tic a p p e rc e p tio n ,, The r e s u l t s r e v e a l e d two t r e n d s , th e l i b e r a l and th e t r a d i t i o n a l s u b o r d in a te fem in in e r o l e 0 The s u b j e c t s 26 Georgene Hs Seward, " C u l t u r a l C o n f l i c t and th e Fem inine Roles An E x p e rim e n ta l S tu d y ," J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P sy c h o lo g y , XX (1 9 4 5 ), pp . 177 -194. -------------------------------- 68 emphasized e q u a l i t y between th e sexes i n e d u c a tio n , voca t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s , working c o n d itio n s , community a c t i v i t i e s , and s o c i a l c o n t a c t s e In s p i t e of t h i s tendency, th e s tu d e n ts a d m itte d t h a t m arriag e was based on a need f o r s o c i a l and m a t e r i a l s e c u r i t y as w e ll as on l o v e 0 They d id n o t f e e l f r e e to propose m arriag e and had no d e s i r e to r e t a i n t h e i r maiden names0 They ex pected t h e i r husbands to su p p o rt themc Seward p o in te d o ut t h a t the c u l t u r a l lag was g r e a t e r where the em o tio n al s te r e o ty p e s of home and mother were in v o lv e d . Comparison between th e extreme groups r e v e a le d the fo llo w in g s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s s ^7 lo The l i b e r a l s v/ere more f e m i n i s t i c a c c o rd in g to K ir k p a tr ic k s c a l e , and l e s s " fe m in in e ” a c c o rd in g to the Terman-M iles MF t e s to 2e The home backgrounds o f the l i b e r a l s d e v ia te d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from th e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n , showing l e s s con fo rm ity to e s t a b l i s h e d mores and presum ably o f f e r i n g l e s s e m o tio n al s e c u r i t y to the members9 3 0 Symptomatic o f i n s e c u r i t y and c o n f l i c t was th e g r e a t e r h o s t i l i t y and a n x ie ty p r o j e c te d by the l i b e r a l s i n t h e i r p i c t u r e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s 0 4 0 There was no evidence of r e j e c t i o n of the fem ale b i o l o g i c a l f u n c tio n s on the p a r t of the l i b e r a l s . 27Ibid., p0 194. 69 T h e ir a t t i t u d e s and e x p e rie n c e s w ith r e s p e c t to s e x u a l and m a te rn a l a c t i v i t i e s could n o t be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from th o se of th e c o n s e r v a tiv e < > I n ; c o n c lu s io n , Seward s t a t e d t h a t the stu d y i n d i c a te d c u l t u r a l c o n f l i c t c o n c e rn in g th e fem in in e r o l e , and t h a t e q u a l i t y betw een men and women was p e r m itte d i n c e r t a i n sp h e re s and d is a llo w e d i n o t h e r s 0 She ended h e r r e p o r t by sa y in g ; T his c o n fu s io n i s f r a u g h t w ith r i s k o f p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t f o r i n d i v i d u a l men and women,, S in c e the c o n f l i c t h as a s o c i a l r a t h e r th an a b i o l o g i c a l o r i g i n the remedy can be a c h ie v e d only a f t e r b a s ic s o c i a l refo rm s have been a d o p te d which i n s u r e f u l l employ ment and a f a i r d i s t r i b u t i o n of the r e t u r n s to a l l w o r k e r s 028 H arold T„ C h r is te n s e n and M arily n n Mo Siyihart C h r is te n s e n and S w ih a rt made a s t u d y 29 0n r o l e p r e f e r e n c e s of s e n io r womeno A lthou gh S ew ard' s rem arks i n th e above stu d y were made i n 1945, C h r is te n s e n and S w ih a rt made th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t e le v e n y e a r s l a t e r ; Women's e d u c a tio n i s s t i l l a m a t t e r o f c o n tr o v e r s y . Some w r i t e r s have claim ed t h a t th e em phasis sh ould be upon a g e n e r a l l i b e r a l a r t s c u rr ic u lu m w ith a view tow ard d e v e lo p in g th e i n t e l l e c t as p r e p a r a t i o n f o r l i f e I n a l l of I t s a s p e c t s , and o t h e r s have argued t h a t c o lle g e sh o u ld se e k to t r a i n modern women f o r 28 I b i d 0, p 0 194o. 29 H arold R0 C h r is te n s e n and M a rily n n M, S w ih a rt, "P o st G raduate Role P re fe re n c e o f S e n io r Women i n C o lle g e ," M arriage and F am ily L iv in g , XVIII (1 9 5 6 ), p p , 5 2 -5 7 , 70 the specific roles they can expect to play after graduation, especially homemaking. These two opposing positions are sometimes, referred to as the 'developmental1 and ' f u n c t i o n a l ' „30 T his p u r p o r ts to be an e m p ir ic a l s tu d y to examine a segment of th e above arg u m en t» A l l s e n io r s (282) at Purdue U n i v e r s i ty p r e s e n t i n F e b ru a ry , 1953, f i l l e d In a q u e s t i o n n a i r e j 59 p e r c e n t were i n Home Econom ics, 34 p e r c e n t i n sc h o o ls of s c ie n c e , 5 p e r c e n t i n Pharmacy, 2 p e r c e n t in E n g in e e r in g , A g r i c u l t u r e and F o r e s t r y e They were predom i n a n tl y u rb an , 83 p e rc e n t ivere P r o t e s t a n t s , 50 p e r c e n t o f th e p a r e n ts had a tte n d e d c o l l e g e , 66 p e r c e n t of th e f a t h e r s were i n a p r o f e s s i o n or p r o p r i e t a r y o c c u p a tio n , 16 p e r c e n t o f th e s u b j e c t s were a lr e a d y m a rrie d , and 30 p e r c e n t were engagedo There were 83 p e r c e n t r e t u r n s 0 The re s p o n d e n ts were asked to i n d i c a t e p r e f e r e n c e s re g a r d in g m a rria g e and c a r e e r r o l e s f o r each of nin e p e rio d s e x te n d in g over 25 y e a rs fo llo w in g g r a d u a t i o n The r e s u l t s showed t h a t th e m a j o r it y p r e f e r r e d m arriag e a y e a r a f t e r g r a d u a t i o n Only t h r e e v^anted to postpon e i t beyond f i v e y e a r s a The p e r c en tag e was low f o r th o se w an ting to d evo te f u l l tim e to homemakingp b u t r o s e to 90 p e r c e n t f o r the 6 - 1 0 - y e a r - p e r i o d a f t e r m a rria g e when th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c h i l d r e n would be l i k e l y to be g r e a t « The m a j o r ity would postpone s t a r t i n g a fa m ily f o r a t l e a s t one to two y e a r s from tim e of g r a d u a tio n , w h ile 5QI b i d 9, po 5 2 e 71 o t h e r s p r e f e r r e d a la p s e o f t h r e e t o f o u r y e a r s . The d i f f e r e n c e h e re depended upon th e tim e th e y e x p re s s e d a d e s i r e t o m arry o The w r i t e r s d i v id e d th e s u b j e c t s i n t o t h r e e g r o u p s i ’’th e m arriag e -m in d e d * th e employment-minded* and th e m ixed- minded 0 5 5 The f i r s t group c o n s i s t e d of 58 women who p r e f e r r e d m a r ria g e by th e secon d y e a r and f u l l - t i m e homemaking by th e t h i r d year® The seco n d gro u p c o n s i s t e d o f 72 women who p r e f e r r e d n o n m arriag e f o r a t l e a s t th e f i r s t two y e a rs* d e s i r i n g e i t h e r a f u l l - t i m e jo b or p o s t - g r a d u a t e study* o r a c o m b in a tio n of th e s e d u r in g t h a t t i m e 0 Among th ese* some w anted m a r r ia g e by th e t h i r d y e a r b u t n o t f u l l - t i m e homemaking as y e t . N i n e t y - t h r e e women made up th e l a s t group® These were n o t d is c u s s e d * as th e c o n c e rn was w ith th e two extrem e groupso The g ro u p s were s i m i l a r i n b a ck g ro u n d s i t u a t i o n * r e l i g i o n * s i z e of home community* e d u c a tio n * and m a r i t a l s t a t u s o f p a re n ts o F a c t o r s t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d betw een th e m a rria g e -m in d e d and em ploym ent-m inded were th e f o llo w in g : 1„ More o f th e m a rria g e -m in d e d were a lr e a d y m ated (engaged o r m a r r i e d ) « 2® S l i g h t l y more o f th e m a rria g e -m in d e d had f a t h e r s i n th e p r o f e s s i o n a l and p r o p r i e t a r y o c c u p a t i o n a l c l a s s e s and b r o t h e r s o r s i s t e r s a t college® The w r i t e r s fo u n d t h a t su ch f i n d i n g s s u g g e s te d th e m a rria g e -m in d e d came from th e u p p e r s o c i a l c la s s * th o u g h th e d a ta d id n o t f u l l y j u s t i f y i t . S i m i l a r l y , th e r e were s u g g e s tio n s t h a t th ey had been c l o s e r to t r a d i t i o n a l fa m ily e x p e r ie n c e s . F i n a l l y , th e r e was a s tr o n g i n d i c a t i o n t h a t the m arriage-m in ded were more l i k e l y to be from f a m i li e s w ith a c o lle g e t r a d i t i o n . 3 . The m arriag e -m in d e d were more i n t e r e s t e d i n a g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l e d u c a tio n and went to c o lle g e because i t was th e th in g to do . The employment-minded had more d e s i r e f o r s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g 0 D if f e r e n c e s were « found to be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . 4 0 In th e a c t u a l stu d y program , d i f f e r e n c e s i n ite m 3 (above) were r e i n f o r c e d , and were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e 5 p e r c e n t l e v e l . 5 o The employment-minded came to c o ll e g e f o r p ro f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g and were job o r i e n t e d . To a h ig h d e g re e , th e y or t h e i r p a re n ts would be h ig h ly d i s a p p o in te d i f th ey d id n o t work f o r some tim e a f t e r g r a d u a tio n . 6 . To th e q u e s tio n c o n c e rn in g w hich sex th e y would have p r e f e r r e d to be, more of the m arriag e-m in d ed th an th e o th e r s r e p l i e d ^fem ale.*9 In two i n s t a n c e s , th e w r i t e r s found un ex p ected a n sw ers. More of th e employment-minded b e lie v e d women sh o u ld be h e ld to a s t r i c t e r s e x u a l s ta n d a r d th an men® Second, th e m arriag e-m in ded s a i d women sh o u ld be encouraged to seek p u b l ic office® 73 The w r i t e r s fo u n d th e s tu d y s e r v e d t o em ph asize w h at many e d u c a to r s have b een m a i n t a i n i n g : t h a t a c o l l e g e c u r r i c u lu m s h o u ld s a t i s f y th e i n t e r e s t s and n eed s o f women w i t h v a r i o u s o r i e n t a t i o n s o J u d g in g from th e s a m p le , th e y f e l t t h a t , f u n c t i o n a l l y , a t t e n t i o n s h o u ld be g iv e n t o b o th homemaking and v o c a t i o n a l e ducatio n® The d a t a , how ever, d i d n o t p e r m it th e w r i t e r s to d e te rm in e w h ich a p p ro a c h was b e t t e r , th e f u n c t i o n a l o r developm ental® They c o n c lu d e d t h a t p e rh a p s b o th were n e e d e d . The p r i n c i p a l c r i t i c i s m o f t h i s s tu d y was aim ed a t t h e m ethod th e w r i t e r s u se d i n d i v i d i n g t h e i r sample® They i n c l u d e d a l l th e s t u d e n t s who were e i t h e r engaged o r m arried® N a t u r a l l y , t h e s e would b i a s th e r e s u l t s as f a r as th e m a rria g e -m in d e d g ro u p was concerned® A l i c e K ® L eopold L eopold made a s t u d y 3! j[n 1 9 5 6 on women c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s s i x months a f t e r t h e i r g ra d u a tio n ® She was i n t e r e s t e d i n a s c e r t a i n i n g w h e th e r c o l l e g e h ad p r e p a r e d them f o r work and w h e th e r t h e i r u n d e r g r a d u a te t r a i n i n g was r e l a t e d to su c h jobs® T h is was done to 8 9 s t i m u l a t e more w id e s p r e a d and a d e q u a te p rogram o f v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e and ^ A l i c e K ® L eo p o ld , 9 9 1955 !s Women C o lle g e G ra d u a te s i n 1 9 5 6 ,8 3 P e r s o n n e l and G uidance J o u r n a l , XXXV (F e b ru a ry 1 9 5 7 ), pp® 342-46® 74 c o u n s e lin g th ro u g h th e c o u n t r y ."3 2 Those who worked on th e s tu d y were from th e Women's S e c ti o n o f th e N a t io n a l V o c a tio n a l Guidance A s s o c ia t io n and th e Women's B ureau o f th e U„So D epartm ent o f Labor,, A lic e K0 Leopolds who w ro te th e r e p o r t s was th e A s s i s t a n t t o th e S e c r e t a r y of Labor f o r Women's A f f a i r s and D i r e c t o r o f th e Women's Bureaus UoS 0 D epartm ent o f Labor,, The p a r t i c i p a n t s were s e l e c t e d from 108 c o ll e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s th ro u g h a s t r a t i f i e d random s a m p le „ These i n c lu d e d 3 ,0 0 0 g r a d u a te s o u t o f 81 s000 women who had g r a d u a te d i n June* 1955, from c o e d u c a t io n a l and women's c o ll e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s „ Q u e s tio n n a i r e s were m a ile d to th e s u b j e c t s , and 70 p e r c e n t r e s p o n d e d „ O n e - th ir d o f th e s u b j e c t s were m a r r ie d , 2 p e r c e n t were d iv o r c e d , widowed, or se p a ra te d ,, A lm ost a l l were con c e rn e d w ith p a id employment e i t h e r i n th e p r e s e n t o r th e f u tu r e o Out o f 100, 80 were em ployed, 9 a t t e n d i n g f u l l tim e s c h o o ls , 4 s e e k in g work, and 7 n o t i n th e l a b o r m ark ets Most p a r t i c i p a n t s s p e c i a l i z e d i n s u b j e c t s p o p u la r w ith women, 35 p e r c e n t were i n e d u c a tio n , 20 p e r c e n t i n h u m a n itie s and a r t s » A few p r e p a r e d f o r s h o r ta g e o ccupa t i o n s o t h e r th a n t e a c h i n g ; 5 p e r c e n t m ajo red i n n u r s in g and o t h e r h e a l t h f i e l d s , 3 p e r c e n t i n th e b i o l o g i c a l 'Zp Ibid., pe 342o 75 \ s c i e n c e s and i n m a th e m a tic s — a l l s h o r ta g e a r e a s n e e d in g more t r a i n e d p e o p le * P o u r - f i f t h s o f th e g r a d u a t e s were i n n in e o ccu pa t i o n a l groups* P r o f e s s i o n a l : T e a c h e r s . . . . ............................... 3 9 ,5 5 2 Hurs@s. . . . . . . . . . B i o l o g i c a l T e c h n ic i a n . . Home E co n o m ists . . » . . C o p y w r ite rs , E d i t o r s , R e p o r te r s 0 . . . . . . C h e m is ts . . o . o . o. . M a th e m a tic ia n s , S t a t i s t i c i a n s . . . . . C l e r i c a l : S e c r e t a r i e s and S te n o g r a p h e r s 4 ,9 0 8 T y p i s t s . . . . . ..................... . 1,14 7 A few had u n u s u a l j o b s , su c h a s c i t y p la n n in g t e c h n i c i a n , p a t e n t a b s t r a c t o r , r e s e a r c h e n g in e e r , t e l e v i s i o n program a r r a n g e r , f a b r i c d e s i g n e r , l e g a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r o f e s t a t e s , and program m er f o r com puting m a c h in e s. I t was fo und t h a t f o u r - f i f t h s o f th e g r a d u a te s were i n jobs r e l a t i n g to t h e i r m a jo rs a t c o l l e g e . Leopold c o n clu d ed t h a t . . . i n t h e i r r o l e s as w o rk e rs , homemakers, and c i t i z e n s , th e r e c e n t women g r a d u a t e s were u n d e r t a k i n g t h e i r a d u l t r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . . . I n a n a t i o n fo und ed on f a m ily l i f e , th e w ife -m o th e r r o l e i s o f m ajo r s i g n i f i c a n c e t o women. But t h e r e a re c irc u m s ta n c e s w hich a l s o make i t im p o r ta n t f o r women to w o rk .34 33 i b i d o, p . 3 4 4 . 34I b i d 0, p . 345. . . 2 ,5 8 5 . . 1, 929 . . 887 . o 650 . o 470 » . 449 76 Of th e o n e - t h i r d g r a d u a te s m a r r ie d , 70 p e r c e n t were com b in in g work and m arriag e * Leopold em phasized th e f a c t t h a t th e . * * sum o f th e t r a i n i n g and employment e x p e rie n c e o f th e s e women g r a d u a te s i s a s u b j e c t o f v i t a l i n t e r e s t to th o se a n a ly z in g th e n a t i o n ’s manpower s i t u a t i o n s o r f o r m u la tin g manpower p o l i c i e s * W ith women c o m p risin g o n e - t h i r d o f th e p r e s e n t work f o r c e i n our c o u n try , the e f f e c t i v e use o f our t r a i n e d woman power h as become i n c r e a s i n g l y s i g n i f i c a n t Many of th e g r a d u a t e s , however, found th e t r a n s i t i o n from c o ll e g e to work or m a rria g e to be somewhat d i f f i c u l t , and so th e y showed g r e a t w i l l i n g n e s s to c o o p e ra te i n the q u e s t i o n n a i r e to make i t e a s i e r f o r o t h e r s i n th e f u tu r e * The stu d y h e lp e d to g iv e a p i c t u r e of th e type o f jo b s women occupy as compared to th e e d u c a tio n th ey r e c e i v e , and th e number o f g r a d u a te s t h a t were i n the l a b o r fo rc e * The w eakness c o n s i s t e d i n u s in g a sample o f s t u d e n ts who had r e c e n t l y g ra d u a ted * A sample o f th o se who had been g r a d u a te s f o r t h r e e to f i v e y e a r s would have been more a d e q u a te , s in c e i t ta k e s lo n g e r th a n s i x months f o r p e o p le to a d j u s t to new s i t u a t i o n s * Those who had g r a d u a te d f i v e y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y c o u ld lo o k back and g iv e a c l e a r e r p i c t u r e of what th e y g a in e d from t h e i r c o lle g e e d u c a tio n * ^ I b i d „, p. 546 M ervin B. Freedman Freedman, i n h is stu d y of "The Passage Through C o l l e g e , 1 ’^ gave an a cco u n t of th e m ajor e v en ts and a d j u s t ment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e im p o rta n t s t a g e s .f r o m the tim e th ey e n t e r u n t i l g r a d u a t io n . His r e p o r t was b ased on in te rv ie w s w ith s t u d e n t s , d is c u s s io n s w ith te a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e r s , and g e n e r a l o b s e r v a tio n s o f th e c o lle g e in a c t i o n . F reedm an's stu d y was p a r t of a m ajor r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t made p o s s ib l e a t V a ssar C o llege th ro u g h the Mary Conover M ellon F o u n d a tio n . The s t a f f o f the r e s e a r c h group in c lu d e d p s y c h o l o g is ts , s o c i o l o g i s t s , and a n th r o p o l o g i s t s who were n o t under p r e s s u r e to produce im m ediately u s e f u l r e s u l t s o Freedman d e s c r ib e d each c la s s s e p a ra te ly ,, As freshm en, s tu d e n ts a r r i v e w ith e a g e r e x p e c ta n c y , and w ith prime con cern to be a c c e p te d by f e llo w s tu d e n ts „ They .are of th r e e ty p e s ; Group A has had some knowledge of c o ll e g e , g r e a t academic a d ju s tm e n ts n o t being re q u ir e d ? Group B i s s i m i l a r to Group A i n s o c i a l or g e o g ra p h ic background b u t i s composed of p u b lic s c h o o l graduates® These fa c e a p e r io d o f r e a d ju s tm e n t to d i f f e r e n t w orking h a b i t s . The s o c i a l im pact of c o lle g e , however, i s g r a t i f y i n g and the Mervin Ba Freedman, ,!The Passage Through C o lle g e ,” J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l I s s u e s , X II (1956), 13-27. s t u d e n t c u l t u r e i s f r i e n d l y and a g re e a b le to them . The p r e v a l e n t s t u d e n t s o c i e t y makes few demands upon them . Group C i s s m a ll and a t y p i c a l . They have to a d j u s t to th e s tu d y h a b i t s and th e new s o c i a l demands, and a re f o r c e d to c o n s id e r a l t e r n a t i v e modes of b e h a v io r and v a l u e s . Most o f th e t h r e e group s a d j u s t by th e end of t h e i r s c h o o l y e a r . T here i s a s m a ll group whose g e n e r a l a d ju s tm e n t ru n s c o u n te r to th e p redo m inant s tu d e n t c u l t u r e . These a re f a c u l t y o r i e n t e d or a d u l t o r i e n t e d , and ten d to r e c o n s t r u c t a f a t h e r - d a u g h t e r o r m o th e r“d a u g h te r r e l a t i o n s h i p . They soon l e a r n t h a t th e ro ad to a d u l t a p p ro v a l i s i n r e a l s c h o l a r s h i p . A nother s m a ll group i s u n c o o p e ra tiv e and te n d s to be a s s e r t i v e a n d ' r e b e l l i o u s . They a re v e ry i n d e p e n d e n t, te n d to se e k one another,- and v e ry o f t e n w ithdraw i n s e a r c h f o r a n o th e r c o lle g e w ith l e s s s e v e re r e g u l a t i o n s . The sophomores* l i v e s a re c e n te r e d i n th e c o lle g e community w ith i t s enjoym ent and academ ic demands. Two groups ta k e e x c e p tio n to t h i s ty p e o f l i f e . Both a re i n t e r e s t e d i n men, b u t one group i s r e s i s t e n t to r e a l i n t e l l e c t u a l d evelop m en t. They a re s o c i a l l y o r i e n t e d , want to make a good m a rria g e and a re l i k e l y to w ithdraw from c o l l e g e . The second group in c lu d e s the s u p e r i o r s c h o l a r s . They a re g i r l s who a re engaged o r s e r i o u s l y in v o lv e d , b ut who do n o t f e e l the need to s a c r i f i c e t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i t y or c a r e e r aims i n the p r o c e s s . 79 The j u n i o r s have maximum s o l i d a r i t y i n th e c o ll e g e community, e d u c a t i o n a l l y and s o c i a l l y . The f o r c e s of s o c i a l i z a t i o n w i t h i n th e s t u d e n t c u l t u r e have a c h ie v e d t h e i r maximum e f f e c t , and i t i s th e j u n i o r s who a re th e t r a n s m i t t e r s of t h a t s t u d e n t c u l t u r e . The s e n i o r s t h o u g h s t i l l campus l e a d e r s , a re on t h e i r way o u t . S tu d e n ts i n t h e i r s e n i o r y e a r su d d e n ly f e e l f o r c e d t o re s p o n d to e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s . They a re a b o u t t o lo s e th e f r i e n d s h i p s and f e l l o w s h i p s w hich have b een t h e i r c h i e f e m o tio n a l s u p p o r t 0 They f e e l te n s e and f r u s t r a t e d . Many a r e i n a s i t u a t i o n o f h a v in g t o throw o f f t r a d i t i o n a l v a lu e s w ith o u t h a v in g f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d o t h e r s o f t h e i r own. In h i s s tu d y , Freedman p o i n t e d o u t a new c o n c e p t t h a t was v e ry h e l p f u l i n th e s tu d y o f c o ll e g e s t u d e n t s and th e f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e them, nam ely, th e s t u d e n t c u l t u r e . He sa id ? We b e l i e v e t h a t a d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e s t u d e n t c u l t u r e e x i s t s , one s u p e r o r d i n a t e to th e d i f f e r e n c e s among s t u d e n t s . . . The s t u d e n t body as an e n t i t y may be th o u g h t to p o s s e s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c q u a l i t i e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y , ways o f i n t e r a c t i n g s o c i a l l y , ty p e s o f v a lu e s and b e l i e f s , and th e l i k e , w hich a re p a s s e d on from one '“g e n e r a t i o n 1 3 o f s t u d e n t s to a n o th e r w hich, l i k e any c u l t u r e , p ro v id e a b a s i c c o n te x t i n w hich i n d i v i d u a l t r a i n i n g t a k e s p l a c e , „ . T h is c u l t u r e i s th e prime e d u c a t i o n a l f o r c e a t work i n th e c o l l e g e . . „ The s t u d e n t body i n g e n e r a l can h a r d l y be d e s c r i b e d as i n d i f f e r e n t to academ ic work o r as u n a f f e c t e d by i t . However, e x c e p t f o r a m i n o r i t y , th e fu n d a m e n ta l p h ilo s o p h y o f th e c o l l e g e and i t s academ ic and i n t e l l e c t u a l aims does n o t e n t e r p r i m a r i l y i n t o th e f o r m a tio n o f th e c e n t r a l v a lu e s and h a b i t s o f l i f e o f th e 80 s t u d e n t body* I n s t e a d , f o r m ost s t u d e n t s , ed u ca t i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e s a r e a s s i m i l a t e d t o a c e n t r a l core o f v a lu e s and d i s p o s i t i o n s w hich i s r e l a t i v e l y in d e p e n d e n t o f th e more f o rm a l academ ic in flu e n c e s ® 57 T his c o n c e p t o f s t u d e n t c u l t u r e , w hich seems more p o w e rfu l th a n th e c o ll e g e academ ic and i n t e l l e c t u a l aim s, I s w o rth i n v e s t i g a t i n g fu r th e r® I f i t has more o f an im pact upon th e s t u d e n ts th a n th e s c h o o l ?s p h ilo s o p h y , th e n i t i s w o rth m a n ip u la tin g f o r p u rp o se s o f i n f l u e n c i n g th e s t u d e n t s and d i r e c t i n g them to w ard s p e c i f i c channels® 57Ibid®, p. 13® CHAPTER IV RESEARCH DESIGN C h ap ter I I rev ie w ed the l i t e r a t u r e on r o l e th e o r y , w h ile C hapter I I I d is c u s s e d s t u d i e s u t i l i z i n g such theory* The t a s k o f t h i s c h a p te r i s to r e l a t e r o l e th e o r y to the h y p o th eses s t a t e d , as w e ll as to d e s c r ib e th e p ro c e d u re s , t o o l s and te c h n iq u e s u sed in g a th e r in g th e data* H ypotheses H ypo thesis I *--The f i r s t h y p o th e s is i s t h a t i t i s more l i k e l y t h a t c o lle g e women who assume s u p e r o r d in a te r o l e s a t c o lle g e r a t h e r th a n th o se who assume s u b o r d in a te r o l e s e x p e c t to pursue a c a r e e r a f t e r m a r r i a g e 0 T his hypo t h e s i s i s based on th e e x is te n c e of group s t r u c t u r e where th e r e a re r o l e s and p o s i t i o n s 0 A p e rso n does n o t f u n c t i o n i n a group a t random, b u t h is r o l e b e h a v io r i s p a t t e r n e d by members of h is g r o u p A r o l e perfo rm s two f u n c tio n s f o r the group, a c c o rd in g to Newcomb*2 I t p ro v id e s a 1 Theodore M * Newcomb, S o c i a l Psychology (New York: Dryden P r e s s , 1950), p p 0 293-94* 2I b i d . 81 82 p a t t e r n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r the i n d i v i d u a l , and c h a n n e ls h i s b e h a v io r as he f u n c t i o n s i n th e p o s i t i o n w h ich he o c c u p i e s i n th e g ro u p ; and i t p r o v id e s a b a s i s f o r communica t i o n betw een th e i n t e r a c t i n g members of th e g r o u p s 0 S t o g d i l l s t a t e s t h a t th e " w i l l i n g n e s s of a member to p e rm it a group to s t r u c t u r e h i s e x p e c t a t i o n s i s l i k e l y to be d e te rm in e d by th e e x t e n t t o w hich he p e r c e i v e s th e g o a ls of th e group and th e v a lu e system s of i t s members t o be i n a c c o rd w ith h i s own v a lu e system s and th o se o f th e r e f e r ence gro u p s w ith w hich he m ost s t r o n g l y i d e n t i f i e s him s e l f a,?3 i n d i v i d u a l i s l i k e l y to a c c e p t , o r even to demand, s t r u c t u r e i n a new group i f he p e r c e i v e s a s t a b l e system o f g o a l s , norm s, and r e l a t e d e x p e c t a t i o n s t o r e i n f o r c e h i s own v a lu e system s and to i n c r e a s e th e p r o b a b i l i t y o f e x p e r ie n c in g s a t i s f y i n g outcomes S tu d e n ts who assume s u p e r o r d in a t e r o l e s a t c o ll e g e conform to the group s t r u c t u r e to w hich th e y belongo The p o s i t i o n s th ey h o ld i n th e c o ll e g e group g iv e them a se n se o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and im p o rtan c e w hich th e y may n o t w ish to abandon even when th e y g ra d u a te and g e t m a r r i e d 0 They a re l i k e l y to s e e k g roups t h a t xvill give them s i m i l a r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and f e e l i n g s o f i m p o r ta n c e „ A c a r e e r i s a 3 R alph Mo S t o g d i l l , I n d i v i d u a l B e h av io r and Group A chievem ent (New Yorks Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 9 ), p . 7 6 o 4 I b l d a, p p . 7 6 -7 7 . way o f c o n tin u in g t h i s type o f s t a t u s . H y p o th e sis I I . — I t i s more l i k e l y t h a t c o ll e g e women who assume s u p e r o r d i n a t e r o l e s a t c o ll e g e r a t h e r th a n s u b o r d i n a te r o l e s come from th e u p p e r and u p p e r-m id d le c l a s s e s . Each group has i t s group norm s, and members o f su ch g ro u p s conform to th e s e norm s. The in f lu e n c e ' o f g r o u p ’ m em bership on c l a s s b e h a v io r i s of g r e a t im p o rtan c e .® C h ild r e n o f u p p e r and u p p e r-m id d le c l a s s e s o b se rv e the b e h a v io r o f su ch gro u p s and p a t t e r n t h e i r b e h a v io r a c c o r d i n g l y 0 Those who come p a r t i c u l a r l y from th e u p p e r - m idd le c l a s s a re o f t e n d e s c r i b e d as th e s a l a r i e d b u r e a u c r a t s . They a re a n x io u s a b o u t s c h o o l in g , a n d -p ro m o tio n s a re a d v e r t i s e d . 6 To have b o th an im p o r ta n t and a l e a d e r s h ip p o s i t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l f o r them . The s t u d e n t s who come from such c l a s s e s a r e l i k e l y to c a r r y t h i s r o l e b e h a v io r t o th e c o l l e g e atm o sphere and assume s u p e r o r d i n a t e r o l e s i n s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s . H y p o th e sis I I I o - - I t i s more l i k e l y t h a t c o ll e g e women who p a r t i c i p a t e i n r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s a t c o l l e g e , r a t h e r th a n th o s e who do n o t , e x p e c t to work a f t e r g r a d u a t i o n . Among th e a s p e c ts o f s o c i a l b e h a v io r i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s a re th e p e r v a s iv e r o l e s . Such r o l e s ^Eugene L. H a r tl e y and R u th E. H a r t l e y , Fundamen t a l s o f S o c i a l P sycho log y (New Yorks A l f r e d A. Knopf, 1952), P« 4 9 1 0 J o s e p h S. K ahl, The A m erican C la s s S t r u c t u r e (New Y ork: R in e h a r t and Company, I n c . , 1 9 5 7 ). 84 d e te r m in e th e o th e r r o l e s w h ich an I n d iv id u a l may play® F o r exam ple, a v e ry r e l i g i o u s p e rs o n may d e te rm in e a l l h i s b e h a v io r on th e b a s i s o f h i s r e l i g i o u s r o l e 07 The m a j o r i t y o f s u b j e c t s i n t h i s s tu d y come from a C h r i s t i a n background* A m ajo r p a r t o f th e t e a c h i n g s o f t h i s r e l i g i o n s t r e s s e s lo v e as th e g r e a t e s t p r i n c i p l e o f l i f e 0 T hrough love o f God and m ankind, th e i n d i v i d u a l r e n d e r s s e r v i c e s t o th o se i n n eed , and f e e l s a sens© o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y toi^ard o th e r s * Those who c o n s c i e n t i o u s l y f o l lo w t h e s e te a c h in g s m ost l i k e l y e x p e c t to i^rork a f t e r g r a d u a t i o n , as th e y would v m n t to s e rv e i n d i f f e r e n t c a p a c i t i e s * H y p o th e s is IV 0°-»It i s more l i k e l y t h a t c o l l e g e women w ith h ig h s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n ts r a t h e r th a n th o s e w ith low s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n ts assume s u p e r o r d i n a t e r o l e s a t c o l l e g e * T h is g ro u p , l i k e the p r e c e d in g g ro u p , assum es p e r v a s i v e r o l e s w hich d e te rm in e th e o t h e r r o l e s th e y p lay * They a re l i k e l y to ta k e l e a d e r s h i p r o l e s a t c o l l e g e to m a i n t a i n t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n o f h ig h s ta n d in g * They w i l l b© i n t e r e s t e d i n p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s and assume h ig h p o s i t i o n s o f le a d e r s h ip * H y p o th e sis V0“ - C o lle g e women, whose m o thers have had c o l l e g e e d u c a tio n s and who a r e w o rk ing o r have t’ jo rk ed d u r in g t h e i r m a r r ie d l i f e , e x p e c t to work a f t e r m arriage© C h ild r e n a d o p t s o c i a l r o l e s from e a r l y childhood© They a re 7H artley, op* c i t ©9 p© 486© 85 c l o s e s t t o t h e i r p a r e n t s and are l i k e l y to a s s i m i l a t e th e s o c i a l r o l e s t h e i r p a r e n t s p la y * 8 D a u g h te rs, p a r t i c u l a r l y , a s s i m i l a t e t h e i r m others* roles® Those who o b se rv e m others i n p u r s u i t of h ig h e r e d u c a ti o n and c a r e e r s a re l i k e l y to f o llo w th e same p attern ® H y p o th e sis V I ® — I t i s more l i k e l y t h a t c o lle g e women whose m others have had c o lle g e e d u c a tio n b u t have n o t worked d u rin g t h e i r m a r r ie d l i f e e x p e c t to g e t m a rrie d b u t n o t to fo llo w a c a r e e r a f t e r m arriage® The same r o l e th e o r y of H y p o th e sis V a p p l i e s here® The d a u g h te r s , as th e y observe t h e i r m oth ers i n th e home, a re l i k e l y to fo llo w th e same p a t t e r n a f t e r th ey marry® C o n s tr u c tio n o f th e Q u e s tio n n a ire The q u e s t i o n n a i r e in c lu d e s th e f i v e f o llo w in g d i v i s i o n s : 1® I n f o r m a tio n f o r th e f a c e s h e e t d a ta : S tu d e n ts* age, c l a s s i n s c h o o l, r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n and i n t e r e s t , s c h o o l g ra d e s , p a re n ts * e d u c a t i o n a l background and o ccu p a t i o n , membership i n campus o r g a n i z a t i o n s , and i n t e r e s t i n m a rria g e and work a f t e r g rad uation ® T his in f o r m a tio n h e lp s i n t e s t i n g p a r t s of th e h y p o th e s e s where the em phasis i s on s c h o l a s t i c a ch iev e m e n t, so c io -ec o n o m ic s t a t u s , and r e l i g io u s i n t e r e s t as compared to th e s u p e r o r d i n a t e - s u b o r d i n a t e r o l e s s t u d e n ts assume a t college® A ccording to the 8Ibid® 86 h y p o t h e s e s , th e m a j o r i t y o f s t u d e n t s who assume s u p e r o r d i n a t e r o l e s have c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s more f r e q u e n t l y fo u n d among them t h a n th o s e who assume th e s u b o r d i n a t e r o l e s o The i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r e d on su c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h e lp s t o t e s t t h e s e h y p o th e s e s * 2 0 Q u e s tio n s on s t u d e n t s ’ a t t i t u d e s to w a rd b o y s: T hese a r e m a in ly b a s e d on K om arovsky’s^ and W a l l l n ’s^O s t u d i e s on r o l e c o n f l i c t among c o l l e g e women betw een th e ’’f e m i n i n e ’9 and "m odern” r o l e s 0 The s t u d e n t s a r e a sk e d w h e th e r t h e y f i n d i t n e c e s s a r y w h ile on d a t e s t o p r e t e n d to be i n f e r i o r to t h e i r " d a t e s " i n a r t i s t i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l , and a t h l e t i c a c h ie v e m e n t s 0 M oreover, t h e y a re a sk e d w h e th e r t h e y f i n d c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b etw een t h e i r o p in io n s and t h e i r boy f r i e n d s ! o p in io n s as t o how th e y spend t h e i r tim e a t c o l l e g e and what th e y p l a n t o do a f t e r g r a d u a tio n * T hese q u e s t i o n s h e lp to r e v e a l how s t u d e n t s p e r c e i v e o f t h e i r r o l e s w h ile a t c o l l e g e and l a t e r i n l i f e * 3 G The t h i r d d i v i s i o n i n c l u d e s s t a t e m e n t s on women i n g e n e r a l* The s t u d e n t s a re a sk e d t o comment upon them i n one o f f i v e d i f f e r e n t ways i n an o r d i n a t e f a s h i o n w h e th e r th e y " s t r o n g l y a g r e e , " " a g r e e , " " a r e u n d e c i d e d ," Q M irra Komarovsky, " C u l t u r a l C o n t r a d i c t i o n s and Sex R o l e s , " A m erican J o u r n a l o f S o c i o l o g y , L I I (1 9 4 6 ), 184-89* •^®Paul W a l li n , " C u l t u r a l C o n t r a d i c t i o n s and Sex R o le s : A R e p e a t S t u d y ," A m erican S o c i o l o g i c a l Review , XV (1 9 5 0 ), 2 8 8 -2 9 7 e " d i s a g r e e , " o r " s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e . " The purpose of p u t t i n g th e s ta te m e n ts i n t h i s manner i s to fo llo w S t o u f f e r ' s method i n h is stu d y on "Role C o n f l i c t and P e r s o n a l i t y . " H S t o u f f e r showed how, w ith a h y p o t h e t i c a l a c t i o n o f an i n d i v i d u a l , r o l e e x p e c ta ti o n s can be a p p lie d i n th e stu d y o f an i n d i v i d u a l 's b e h a v io r in t h a t r o l e . In t h i s stu d y s ta te m e n ts I n s t e a d o f h y p o t h e t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s a re p r e s e n te d t o the r e s p o n d e n ts . The con cep t upon which th e s e s t a t e ments a re b ased i s t h a t " th e range of approved o r p e r - m is s i b l e b e h av io r as p e r c e iv e d by a g iv en i n d i v i d u a l i s an im p o rta n t datum f o r th e a n a l y s i s o f what c o n s t i t u t e s a s o c i a l norm In any g ro u p 0"^S 4 0 The f o u r t h p a r t o f the q u e s t io n n a ir e in c lu d e s s ta te m e n ts a d d re ss e d d i r e c t l y to the s tu d e n t c o n c e rn in g h e r r o l e e x p e c ta ti o n s to which she may giv e a "yes" or "no" a n sw er. These a re b ased on Sew ard's f o r t y - i t e m s c a le w hich she a d a p te d from K i r k p a t r i c k 's fe m in is m -^ a n ti-fe m in is m 1 s c a l e . Seward s e l e c t e d th e upper and lower extrem es o f th e s c a l e f o r co m parison. T his stu d y u ses th e two ex trem es o f h e r s c a l e , w ith c e r t a i n m o d if i c a t io n s . The f i f t h p a r t in c lu d e s open-end q u e s tio n s a s k in g th e s t u d e n ts to give t h e i r re a so n s f o r coming to c o ll e g e , ■^(See C hap ter I I I . ) •^ (S ee C h ap ter I I I . ) ^3 (See C h ap ter I I I . ) 88 t h e i r e x p e c ta tio n s of c o lle g e e d u c a tio n , and w hether th o se e x p e c ta tio n s a re b eing m et, what s u b je c ts th e y ta k e , and w hether any a d d it i o n s o r om issions a re needed, t h e i r p ro b lems of d a tin g , t h e i r s o c i a l a c t i v i t i e s , and t h e i r i d e a l s i n l i f e 0 These q u e s tio n s are meant to h e lp i n t e r p r e t th e s t a t i s t i c a l d a ta g a th e re d i n the f i r s t fo u r sections® P r e - t e s t o f the Q u e stio n n a ire The q u e s tio n n a ir e was p r e - t e s t e d on a group o f s tu d e n ts p ick e d a t random from the c o e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n where the q u e s tio n n a ir e was l a t e r a d m in is te re d , as w e ll as from a c o lle g e departm ent o f one of the churches® The s tu d e n ts were asked to ansiver th e q u e s tio n s and w r i t e down t h e i r remarks® T w enty-five u n d e rg ra d u ate s tu d e n ts were g iv en the q u e s t io n n a ir e , e ig h te e n o f \?hora responded® The r e s u l t s had an im p o rta n t fu n c tio n --n a m e ly , to se rv e as a check on the ite m sta te m e n ts and show tho se n o t ad e q u a te ly comprehended® The rem arks made by the re sp o n d e n ts h e lp e d to improve th e fo rm at of th e q u estio n n aire® The U t i l i z a t i o n of S t a t i s t i c a l Tools To stu d y th e d i s t r i b u t i o n of d a ta f o r f u r t h e r s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s , a computer program f o r c ro s s t a b u l a t i o n of v a r i a b l e s i s u s e d 0^ T his program has a number o f •^“See BIMD 22, i n BIMD Computer Programs Manual, D iv is io n o f B i o s t a t i s t i c s . D epartm ent o f P re v e n tiv e Medi- c in e and P u b lic H e a lth , U n iv e r s ity of C a l i f o r n i a , Los A ng eles, 1961® 89 a d v a n ta g e s . B e sid e s fo rm in g c r o s s t a b u l a t i o n s o f in p u t d a t a to show th e form o f t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n , i t computes th e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f e a c h o f th e two v a r i a b l e s t a b u l a t e d , th u s m aking s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s p o s s i b l e . D i f f e r e n t fo rm u la s may b© u se d u n d e r t h i s program f o r exam ining th e d a t a . One s p e c i f i c fo rm u la i s u se d i n w hich f i v e base v a r i a b l e s a re c ro s s t a b u l a t e d w ith th e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s © T h ir t y - tw o d i f f e r e n t c o m b in a tio n s o f th e b a se v a r i a b l e a re form ed and e a c h c o m b in a tio n i s c r o s s t a b u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y w i t h th e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s © In t h i s s tu d y th e f i v e base v a r i a b l e s a re c ro s s t a b u l a t e d w ith 47 v a r i a b l e s . The base v a r i a b l e s a re on students® s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t, so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , s u p e r o r d i n a t e - s u b o r d i n a t e r o l e s , I n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o n , and home o r c a r e e r p r e f e r e n c e s 0*^ B e sid e s th e c r o s s t a b u l a t i o n s , two n o n p a ra m e tric t e s t s a re u t i l i z e d , th e Ghi S quare and th e Kolmogorov- Sm irnov t e s t s . The 5 !!X2 te c h n iq u e can be c l a s s i f i e d as d i s t r i b u t i o n - f r e e - - n o a ssu m p tio n s a re made a b o u t th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e v a r i a b l e o r v a r i a b l e s u n d e r ly in g th e c a t e g o r i e s © 5 9 By d e f i n i t i o n , a c h i s q u a re i s th e sum o f r a t i o s (any number can be summed). Each r a t i o i s t h a t ■^There a r e two m ain l i m i t a t i o n s to t h i s program© The number o f v a r i a b l e s s h o u ld n o t ex ceed 100 and th e - number o f c a s e s s h o u ld n o t ex ceed 1 ,5 0 0 . Such l i m i t a t i o n s do n o t a f f e c t t h i s s tu d y , as th e numbers a re 52 and 130 r e s p e c tiv e ly © ■*-®Quin McKemar, P s y c h o l o g i c a l S t a t i s t i c s (New Y ork: Jo h n W iley & S on s, Inc©, 19 5 5 ), p e 357® 9 0 betw een a s q u a re d d i s c r e p a n c y or d i f f e r e n c e and an e x p e c te d freq u e n cy * The d i s c r e p a n c y i s betw een an o b ta in e d f re q u e n c y and a f r e q u e n c y e x p e c te d on the b a s i s o f th e h y p o th e s is we a r e t e s t i n g T here a re a few r e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e u se o f c h i sq u a re * Two im p o r ta n t p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r the use o f c h i s q u a re a re t h a t " th e tw o v a r i a b l e s be c o n tin u o u s * * © and t h a t no t h e o r e t i c a l f r e q u e n c y be l e s s th a n 5* (Some s t a t i s t i c i a n s demand a minimum t h e o r e t i c a l f r e q u e n c y o f 10 a ) ” -* -® G u i l f o r d s u g g e s ts t h a t Y a t e 's c o r r e c t i o n f o r c o n t i n u i t y be a p p l i e d f o r m o d i f i c a t i o n when a p p ly in g c h i s q u a re to a p ro b lem w ith one d e g re e o f freedom (1 d f) and when any c e l l f r e q u e n c y i s l e s s th a n 1 0 o19 T h is method r e d u c e s th e amount o f e a c h d is c r e p a n c y betw een o b t a i n e d and e x p e c te d f r e q u e n c y to th e e x t e n t o f *5* "The c o r r e c t i o n i s need ed b e ca u se o f th e f a c t t h a t c h i sq u a re v a r i e s i n d i s c r e t e jumps w hereas com p u t a t i o n by fo rm u la g iv e s more c o n tin u o u s v a r i a t i o n s 01 8 I n t h i s s tu d y th e tw o r e q u ir e m e n ts a re f u l f i l l e d f o r th e u se o f c h i sq u a re * The two v a r i a b l e s In e ac h c a se a re 17Jo P* G u i l f o r d , F u n d am en tal S t a t i s t i c s i n P sycho log y and E d u c a tio n (Mew Yorks M cG raw -H ill Book Com pany, I n c o , 1 9 5 6 )s p p 0 228-229 * ■^Sanford M* D ornbusch and C a lv in F* Schm id, A P rim er o f S o c i a l S t a t i s t i c s (lew Yorks M cG raw -H ill Book Company, In c * , 1955I , p Q 208„ ^Guilford, op0 cit*, p, 234® 20Ibido 91 c o n tin u o u s and th e r e a re no t h e o r e t i c a l f r e q u e n c ie s l e s s th a n 5 0 A nother r e a s o n f o r u s in g th e c h i sq u are t e s t o c cu rs when th e number o f c a se s i s sm all* In t h i s stu d y th e number i s 1300 The second t e s t u sed i n t h i s stu d y i s the Kolmogorov-Smirnov t e s t * I t i s concern ed w ith th e d eg ree o f agreem ent betw een th e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a s e t of sample v a lu e s (o b s e rv e d s c o re s ) and some s p e c i f i e d t h e o r e t i c a l d i s t r i b u tio n * I t d e te rm in e s w h eth er th e s c o re s i n th e sample can r e a s o n a b ly be th o u g h t to have come from a p o p u la tio n h av ing th e t h e o r e t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n * * . B r i e f l y th e t e s t in v o lv e s s p e c i f y i n g th e cu m u lativ e d i s t r i b u t i o n w hich would o c cu r u nder th e t h e o r e t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n and comparing t h a t w ith the o b se rv ed c u m u lativ e fre q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n * The t h e o r e t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n r e p r e s e n t s what would be e x p e c te d under Ho* The p o i n t a t which th e s e two d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t h e o r e t i c a l and o b se rv e d , show th e g r e a t e s t d i v e r gence i s determ ined* R e feren c e to th e sam pling d i s t r i b u t i o n i n d i c a t e s w heth er su c h a la r g e d iv e rg e n c e i s l i k e l y on th e b a s i s of chance* T hat I s , the sam plin g d i s t r i b u t i o n i n d i c a t e s w heth er a d iv e rg e n c e o f th e o bserved m agnitude would p ro b a b ly o c cu r i f th e o b s e r v a tio n s were ,r e a l l y a random sample from the t h e o r e t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n * The Kolmogorov-Smirnov t e s t has a number of ad v an ta g e s over th e c h i sq u a re t e s t * When sam ples a re sm a ll, I t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y to combine a d ja c e n t c a t e g o r i e s , as i n th e case o f th e c h i sq u a re t e s t , b e fo re co m p u tatio n i s p o s s ib le * When sam ples a re so s m a ll t h a t c h i sq u a re i s n o t a p p l i c a b l e , Kolmogorov-Smirnov t e s t may s t i l l be used* These f a c t s su g g e s t t h a t i n a l l c a se s the Kolmogorov- Smirnov t e s t may b© more p o w e rfu l th a n i t s a l t e r n a t i v e , th e 21 Siegel, op* cit», p* 48* 92 c h i s q u a re t e s t * 22 I n t h i s s t u d y , th e Kolmogorov-Smirnov t e s t prov ed p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l In th e t h i r d s e c t i o n o f the q u e s t i o n n a i r e where th e s t u d e n ts ivere a sk ed to g ive one of f i v e d i f f e r e n t answ ers t o th e q u e s t i o n s . The method o f s p e c i f y i n g the c u m u lativ e fre q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n proved h e lp f u l* The l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e s as p r e v i o u s ly m entio n ed , was s e t a t *05* "The c h o ic e o f a s ta n d a r d l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e depends v e ry much on th e r i s k we tak e o f b e in g wrong I n making a s t a t i s t i c a l i n f e r e n c e o " 2^ There a re two s t a t i s t i c a l e r r o r s p o s s ib l e s E r r o r Type I i s r e j e c t i n g th e h y p o th e s is when i t i s t r u e , and E r r o r Type I I i s a c c e p tin g th e h y p o th e s is when i t i s f a l s e 0 Common v a lu e s f o r a t w o - t a i l t e s t a re *10, *05, *02, .0 1 ; and f o r th e o n e - t a i l t e s t th e v a lu e s a re *05, *025, *01, *005, and *0025 r e s p e c t i v e l y * The s m a lle r th e l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e , th e l e s s th e r i s k of b e in g wrong in r e j e c t i n g th e n u l l h y p o t h e s is ; th e l e s s th e r i s k o f making an e r r o r o f Type I* A c a u tio u s s c i e n t i s t does n o t l i k e to make th e form er e r r o r * He w ants to make su re t h a t h i s f i n d in g s a re n o t due t o chance* T h is Is \^hy th e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i s u s u a l l y sm all* However, he has to be 2SI b l d op p . 51* 23G u i l f o r d , op* c i t *, p* 216* 93 c a u tio u s n o t to overdo i t and draw a few nonchance c o n clu s i o n s . Some kind of b a la n ce must be re a c h e d . C o n sid e ra t i o n e x t e r n a l to th e d a ta them selves sho uld be given w e ig h t. There may be s e r io u s t h e o r e t i c a l or p r a c t i c a l re a so n s why i t would be c o s t l y to make one k ind of e r r o r or th e o t h e r 0 Thus., th e odds* u l t i m a t e l y , can not be decid ed on s t a t i s t i c a l g ro u n d s0 Once the non- s t a t i s t i c a l is s u e s have been e v a lu a te d , however, the s t a t i s t i c a l sta n d a rd s can be more e a s i l y a d o p te d ,24 McNemar has a n o th e r s u g g e s tio n to add to th e above; One m ight fo llo w th e r u l e of r e j e c t i n g th e n u l l h y p o th e s is when P i s l e s s th an ,01 ( s a y ) , a c c e p tin g i t when P i s g r e a t e r th a n o10, and r e s e r v i n g judgment when P i s between ,10 and ,0 1 , T h is , i n e f f e c t , i n tro d u c e s a r e g io n o f i n d e c is io n , or c a l l s f o r a p o s t ponement o f d e c i s i o n u n t i l the exp erim ent i s r e p e a te d or more d a ta a re c o l l e c t e d , 25 I n t h i s study i t i s not deemed n e c e ssa ry to s e t the l e v e l of s i g n i f ic a n c e as sm a ll as ,01 because th e r e i s no h ig h ly im p o rta n t t h e o r e t i c a l is s u e in v o lv e d . I f i t be a q u e s tio n of s e l e c t i n g the most e f f e c t i v e a n e s t h e t i c , f o r example, or th e b e s t drug f o r th e cure of a c e r t a i n d is e a s e , th e h ig h l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n c e w i l l be j u s t i f i a b l e , In the case o f stu d y in g th e r o l e e x p e c ta tio n s o f c o lle g e women, i t i s q u i te s u f f i c i e n t to s e t the l e v e l of s i g n i f ic a n c e a t ,0 5 , 24Ibid, 2^Quinn McNemar, P s y c h o lo g ic a l S t a t i s t i c s (New York: John W iley and Sons, I n c , , 1955), p , 70, The Sample, S e l e c t i n g th e sample i s of g r e a t im p o rtan c e to a r e s e a r c h e r . A cco rd in g to Cochran The pu rp o se o f sam pling th e o ry i s to make sam pling more e f f i c i e n t . I t a tte m p ts to d e v elo p m ethods o f sample s e l e c t i o n and o f e s t i m a t i o n t h a t p r o v id e , a t th e lo w e st p o s s i b l e c o s t , e s t i m a t e s t h a t a re p r e c i s e enough f o r our p u r p o s e „ T h is p r i n c i p l e o f s p e c i f i e d p r e c i s i o n a t minimum c o s t r e c u r s r e p e a t e d l y i n th e p r e s e n t a t i o n of th e o r y o 2^ Cochran g iv e s f o u r p r i n c i p a l a d v a n ta g e s o f samp l i n g .,27 F i r s t , th e r e s e a r c h c o s t i s reduced., When d a ta a r e s e c u re d from a- s m a ll f r a c t i o n o f the a g g re g a te , the e x p e n d itu r e s a re s m a l l e r . Second, th e r e i s g r e a t e r sp e e d . The d a ta can be c o l l e c t e d and summarized w ith g r e a t sp e e d , a f a c t o r of v i t a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n when th e in fo rm a t i o n i s u r g e n t l y n e ed e d . T h ir d , t h e r e i s g r e a t e r sc o p e . I n c e r t a i n ty p e s o f i n q u i r y , t h e r e i s need f o r h i g h ly t r a i n e d w orkers or s p e c i a l i z e d equipm ent t h a t a re l i m i t e d In a v a i l a b i l i t y . I t i s e a s i e r to o b t a i n su c h f a c i l i t i e s f o r a sample th a n f o r a com plete c e n s u s . F o u r th , t h e r e i s g r e a t e r a c c u ra c y . P e rs o n n e l o f h ig h e r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s can be employed and g iv e n s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g f o r h ig h e r a c c u ra c y i n r e s u l t s . 26W Illiam Go Cochran, Sam pling T ech n iq u es (Ne?/ York: Jo hn W iley and Sons, I n c . , 1953)',' p. 5 . 27Ibid., p. 2. 95 There a re d i f f e r e n t methods o f sam pling which th e r e s e a r c h e r may u s e e In t h i s stu d y th e s y s te m a tic sam pling method was s e l e c t e d . Cochran g iv e s two p r i n c i p a l advan- ta g e s to t h i s ty pe o f sam p lin g o 28 F i r s t , i t i s e a s i e r to draw and e a s i e r to e x ec u te w ith o u t m i s t a k e s « Second, i t i s more p r e c i s e th a n sim ple random s a m p lin g „ 5 JTh© s y s te m a tic sample i s sp re a d more e v en ly over th e p o p u la tio n , and t h i s f a c t has sometimes made s y s te m a tic sam pling c o n s id e r a b ly more p r e c i s e th a n s t r a t i f i e d random sam pling One way of ch oosing a s y s te m a tic random sample i s to s e l e c t a sample of n u n i t s , and ta k e a u n i t a t random from th e f i r s t u n i t s , and e v ery k t h su b se q u e n t u n ito F or exam ple, i f k i s 12 and the f i r s t u n i t drawn i s 10, th e su b se q u e n t u n i t s a re 22, 34, 46, and so o n e T his type i s c a l l e d an e v ery k t h s y s te m a tic sa m p le „ T his method was used i n th e p r e s e n t s t u d y s An a l p h a b e t i c a l l i s t o f a l l u n d e rg ra d u a te f u l l - t i m e women of a w e s te rn c o e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n was o b t a i n e d 0 Those who were m a rr ie d , non- C a u c a sia n , o r non-A m erican were l e f t o u t, in o r d e r to e l i m inate any b ia s d e r i v i n g from any n a t i o n a l i t y o r ra c e d i f f e r e n c e s 0 Out o f the 1,823 s tu d e n ts on th e l i s t , 1,594 f i t t e d th e r e q u ire m e n ts , and were d iv id e d i n t o f o u r groups 28I b l d 0, po 160o 29Ib id * 96 a c c o rd in g to c l a s s e s : fre s h m a n , sophom ore, j u n i o r , and s e n io r * A s y s t e m a t i c sam ple o f 25 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u la t i o n was s e l e c te d * These were a sk ed t o answ er a s h o r t q u e s t i o n n a i r e a b o u t t h e i r p a r e n t s ’ e d u c a ti o n and o c c u p a t i o n s , t h e i r s o c i a l c l a s s and m a jo r a t c o l l e g e , and t h e i r r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n , i n o r d e r t h a t a g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n o f the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n may be a t t a i n e d * Many o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were m a ile d to th e s t u d e n t s w i t h a r e t u r n , s e l f - a d d r e s s e d e n v e lo p e , w h ile o t h e r s were d e l i v e r e d by hand t o th e dorms and s o r o r i t i e s * A f t e r a th o ro u g h f o llo w - u p , m a in ly by phone, 68 p e r c e n t o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were r e tu r n e d * About 25 p e r c e n t o f th e s u b j e c t s l e f t s c h o o l, were m a r r i e d , o r moved from th e c i t y * The r e s t c o u ld n o t be r e a c h e d b e c a u se th e y d id n o t have a te l e p h o n e , moved in / i t h o u t g i v in g a f o r w a r d in g a d d r e s s , and th e l i k e * A second s y s te m a t i c random sam ple (10 p e r c e n t ) was drawn from th e same p o p u l a t i o n t o be interviexnred th r o u g h th e 8 8 - ite m q u e s t i o n n a i r e d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r * T here were two ways to choose t h a t sample* One was to choose a 10 p e r c e n t s y s t e m a t i c sam ple from th e p o p u l a t i o n , th e o t h e r was to s e l e c t 10 p e r c e n t o u t o f th e above 25 p e r c e n t th r o u g h a s t r a t i f i e d random sample* I n the l a t t e r method th e s u b j e c t s would have been d iv id e d a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , a g e, c l a s s , m a jo r, p a r e n t s ’ e d u c a t i o n , and o c c u p a tio n s * The s y s te m a t i c sam ple i s 97 . . . a b o u t as p r e c i s e as th e c o r r e s p o n d in g s t r a t i f i e d random sam ple w i t h one u n i t p e r s t r a t u m . The d i f f e r ence i s t h a t w ith th e s y s te m a t i c th e u n i t s a l l o c c u r a t th e same r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n i n th e s t r a tu m , w h ereas w i t h th e s t r a t i f i e d random sam ple th e p o s i t i o n i n th e s t r a tu m i s d e te rm in e d s e p a r a t e l y by r a n d o m iz a tio n w i t h i n e a c h s t r a t u m . . . The s y s te m a t i c sam ple i s s p r e a d more e v e n ly o ver th e p o p u l a t i o n , and t h i s f a c t has som etim es made s y s te m a t i c sam p lin g c o n s i d e r a b l y more p r e c i s e t h a n s t r a t i f i e d random s a m p lin g .30 (See F ig u re 1 .) T aking su c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n m ind, x « S y s te m a tic sam ple o » S t r a t i f i e d random sam ple F i g . 1 . - - S y s t e m a t i c and s t r a t i f i e d random s a m p lin g ^ l th e s y s te m a t i c random sam ple m ethod was u se d b e c a u se i t was a ls o s im p le r to draw . The 10 p e r c e n t s e l e c t e d , num bering 150, were u n d e r g r a d u a t e , A m erican, C a u c a s ia n , u n m a rrie d , c o l l e g e women. E ig h ty - s e v e n p e r c e n t , t o t a l i n g 130, were re a c h e d and i n t e r v iew ed . From th e re m a in in g 13 p e r c e n t , f o u r g o t m a r r i e d , t h i r t e e n l e f t s c h o o l , one r e f u s e d to be in te r v ie w e d , and two were too busy w ith f i n a l s and c o u ld n o t g iv e th e tim e . * Q i x o h r * t k k 50I b i d o, p p . 1 6 0 -6 1 . ^ I b i d . , p . 161. 98 The In te r v ie w A l l th e s tu d e n ts in th e sample were f i r s t approached by th e t e l e p h o n e „ The r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t was e x p la in e d to them b r i e f l y and th e y were asked to f i x an appoin tm en t f o r an i n t e r v i e w 0 A number of them asked d e t a i l e d q u e s tio n s as to th e purpose o f th e r e s e a r c h , w h ile o th e r s ag reed v e ry r e a d i l y , f e e l i n g q u i te f l a t t e r e d to be s e l e c t e d f o r such a p r o j e c t « Some of them wanted to know how th e y were s e l e c t e d , and i t was e x p la in e d to them t h a t th ro u g h a s t a t i s t i c a l p ro ced u re t h e i r names were drawn o u t of th e com plete s tu d e n t l i s t found a t th e i n s t i tu tio n ,, A l l th e m eetin gs were a rra n g e d on campus0 In a few c a s e s , where a number o f s t u d e n ts liv e d i n one dorm or s o r o r i t y , th e m eetin g p la c e was a rra n g e d i n th e s e d w e llin g s and the s tu d e n ts were ta k e n one a f t e r a n o th e r to save tim eo Most of th e tim e, however, the m eetin g p la c e was i n f r o n t o f the A d m in is tr a tio n B u ild in g , a w ell-know n s p o t to a l l s tu d e n ts 0 The s t u d e n ts d e s c r ib e d th em selv es to th e i n t e r v i e w e r who i n t u r n d e s c r ib e d h e r s e l f to them and always managed to c a r r y an a r t i c l e f o r rea d y i d e n t i f i c a - t i o n e When th e s tu d e n t rea ch e d th e m eeting p l a c e , she was d i r e c t e d to th e g ra d u a te lounge where th e i n te r v ie w to o k 99 p l a c e . 52 The te le p h o n e c a l l managed t o e s t a b l i s h th e f i r s t c o n t a c t w ith th e s t u d e n t , w h ile th e w alk from th e A dm ini s t r a t i o n B u ild in g to th e g r a d u a te lounge p ro v id e d an o c c a s io n f o r g e t t i n g a c q u a i n t e d . By th e tim e th e s t u d e n t r e a c h e d th e lounge she was r e a d y f o r th e more s e r i o u s p a r t o f th e I n te r v ie w o V a rio u s m ethods were u se d t o p u t h e r a t e a s e . She was a s s u r e d c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y o f h e r answ ers and was t o l d t h a t th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e would c a r r y a number t o i d e n t i f y h e r r a t h e r th a n h e r name. D urin g th e i n t e r v i e w , w hich l a s t e d betw een one to o n e - a n d - a - h a l f h o u rs , th e s t u d e n t s were e n co u rag e d t o a sk q u e s tio n s and e x p l a i n t h e i r a n s w e rs . Very few were r e s e r v e d a t the b e g in n in g , b u t none m a in ta in e d t h a t a t t i tu d e t o th e en d . By th e tim e th e e i g h t y - e i g h t q u e s t io n s were a s k e d , th e s t u d e n t s s a i d t h e y had gone th r o u g h q u i t e an e x p e r i e n c e . Many e x c la im e d t h a t f o r the f i r s t tim e th e y were p u t to th e t e s t o f t h i n k i n g so d e e p ly a b o u t th e m se lv e s and th e f u t u r e . Some were c o n fu s e d and b e w ild e r e d and c o u ld n o t make up t h e i r m in d s. Some were i n t e a r s by the end o f th e i n t e r v i e w and e x p la in e d t h a t i t was th e f i r s t tim e someone c a re d enough t o t a l k to them and a s k them a b o u t th e m s e lv e s . A few were v e ry te n s e and n e rv o u s and 32 The u n d e r g r a d u a te s t u d e n t s were n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h the l o c a t i o n o f th e g r a d u a te lo u n g e . Thus i t was found more c o n v e n ie n t to m eet a t a w ell-know n p la c e n e a r the g ra d u a te lounge and co n d u ct th e s t u d e n t from t h e r e to the lo u n g e . 100 were l a t e r d isc o v e re d to be p s y c h o lo g ic a l c a s e s . Through th e in te r v ie w i t was d isc o v e re d t h a t th ey had been going th ro u g h se v ere em o tio n al s t r e s s * m ainly due to p a r e n t a l problem s. As i t i s n o t th e purpose of t h i s stu d y to deal w ith such cases* th e p o in ts th ey m entioned were n o t th o ro u g h ly c o v ered . Most o f them wanted to t a l k so much t h a t i t was h a rd to end th e in te r v ie w . On th e w hole, they were v e ry c o o p e ra tiv e and e v er ready to c o n tr i b u te any in fo rm a tio n needed. They were even i n t e r e s t e d enough to ask when th e stu d y would be re a d y f o r them to r e a d . CHAPTER V THE FINDINGS The p re v io u s c h a p te r s gave th e purpo se and im por ta n c e of th e s tu d y , a b r i e f re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on r o l e t h e o r y , a s e l e c t i o n o f e m p i r ic a l s t u d i e s u t i l i z i n g r o l e th e o r y , and a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the r e s e a r c h d e s ig n s as w e l l as m ethods u sed i n g a t h e r i n g and a n a ly z in g data® T his c h a p t e r g iv e s r e s u l t s of th e s tu d y and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of data® F in d in g s were q u i t e c o n t r a r y to e x p e c ta ti o n s and th u s d i r e c t e d th e a t t e n t i o n to im p o rta n t f a c t o r s w orthy o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n f u t u r e s t u d i e s 0 D e s c r i p t i o n o f th e S u b je c ts The s u b j e c t s 8 ages v a r i e d betw een 17 and 22j th e m a j o r i t y were betw een 18 and 21 years® There were 31 fresh m e n , 29 sophom ores, 37 j u n i o r s , and 33 s e n i o r s ; 80 P r o t e s t a n t s , 26 C a t h o l i c s , 14 Jew s, and 10 o f m i s c e l l a n eous b e lie f s ® T h e i r m ajo rs were as f o llo w s ; A r t s , D e sig n , M usic, and Drama; H i s t o r y , L i t e r a t u r e , and Language; P sychology and S o cio lo g y ? E d u c a tio n and P h y s i c a l E d u ca tio n ? D e n ta l H ygiene, P re -N u rsin g ? O c c u p a tio n a l 101 1 0 2 T herapy and P h y s i c a l T h e ra p y ; M a th e m a tic s , A c c o u n tin g , Commerce, and B u sin e ss A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ; I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e la t i o n s and P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e ; T elec o m m u n ica tio n and J o u r n a lis m ; B a c t e r i o l o g y , B i o l o g i c a l S c ie n c e , and Pharmacy., T h e i r a v erag e g ra d e s were as fo llo w s? 6 had nA ’ s , 1 5 54 had ”B ’s , ' 8 55 had "C’s , 5 8 and 4 had nDss®t8 A cco rd in g to H o l l in g s h e a d ’s S o c i a l P o s i t i o n In d e x , 36 came from Group I , 38 from Group I I , 49 from Group I I I , and 6 from Group IV; o r , a c c o rd in g t o o u r a r b i t r a r y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , th e y were th e u p p e r, u p p e r m id d le , m id d le , and w o rk ing c l a s s e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y o T h e ir f a t h e r s ’ e d u c a t i o n a l back groun ds were as f o l lo w s ; 37 had M»A»' s and PhoDo’s ; 23 had BoAe’ s ; 36 had had 1 t o 3 y e a rs o f c o l l e g e ; 25 w ere h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s ; 9 had r e c e i v e d 7 t o 11 y e a r s o f schooling® T h e i r m o t h e r s ’ e d u c a t i o n a l backgrounds in c l u d e d 6 w ith M * A ®8 s and Ph»D0’ s , 27 w ith B o A .'s, 50 w i t h 1 t o 3 y e a r s o f c o l l e g e , 39 w i t h a h ig h s c h o o l e d u c a ti o n , and 8 w i t h 7 t o 11 y e a r s o f s c h o o l in g I n a n a l y z i n g t h e i r m o t h e r s ’ a c t i v i t i e s , i t was found t h a t 22 w orked a f t e r m a r r ia g e b u t sto p p e d when th e y had children® One had worked b e fo r e h e r c h i l d r e n w ent to s c h o o l and 23 a f t e r t h e i r c h i l d r e n went to s c h o o l 0 Seven worked m ost o f t h e i r m a r r ie d l i f e , w h ile 72 d e v o te d t h e i r f u l l tim e to home and family® F iv e h ad been employed u n t i l 1 0 3 c h i l d r e n were b o rn and l a t e r on a f t e r t h e i r c h i l d r e n went to s c h o o ls F o r p u rp o s e s o f comparisons, th e r e s u l t s o f th e two sam ples w ere compared w i t h r e f e r e n c e to th e f a t h e r s 8 and m o t h e r s 8 backgrounds and s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s (se e T a b le s 3, 4 S and 5 ) 0 These r e s u l t s made i t c l e a r t h a t t h e r e were s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een Sample A, w hich showed th e o v e r - a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e p o p u l a t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o e d u c a ti o n and so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s j and Sample B, w h ich was th© gro u p in te r v ie w e d i n th© s t u d y 0 As b o t h sam ples were drawn from th© same p o p u l a t i o n , on© c o u ld sa y w i t h c o n f i dence t h a t r e s u l t s from d a t a o f t h i s s tu d y r e p r e s e n t e d th© p o p u l a t i o n from w hich Sample B was drawno Thus , from her© on, t h i s s tu d y w i l l c o n c e rn i t s e l f w i t h r e s u l t s from Sample Bo To s tu d y t h e s u b j e c t s 8 a t t i t u d e s tow ard boys and p a r e n t s , th© s t u d e n t s were a sk ed q u e s t io n s b a se d on Kom arovsky8s and W a l l i n 8a s t u d i e s on r o l e c o n f l i c t among c o ll e g e women x il t h r e g a r d t o th© 5 Jf e m in in e S J and nm oderntt r o l e s (s e e T ab le 6 ) 0 A com p arison o f th© two s t u d i e s showed t h a t a h ig h e r p e rc e n ta g e o f the s u b j e c t s from t h i s s tu d y d id n o t p r e t e n d i n f e r i o r i t y t o meno T here was a d i f f e r e n c e o f 11 p e r c e n t betw een th e two i n th e f i r s t q u e s t i o n , o f 7 p e r c e n t i n th© se c o n d , and 19 p e r c e n t i n th© th ird s , The r e s u l t s showed t h a t p r e s e n t - d a y s t u d e n t s had 104 TABLE 3 COMPARISON OF SAMPLE A (25$ OF POPULATION) WITH SAMPLE B (10$ OF POPULATION) AS TO EDUCATION OF FATHERS E d u c a t i o n a l B ackground P e r c e n ta g e Sample A I P e r c e n ta g e Sample B MoAeiMoSofPhoDoiLLoDo j 22 28 BsAoj BoSo j 22 18 1 -3 y e a r s o f c o l l e g e ( a l s o B u s in e s s S c h o o l) 24 28 H igh S c h o o l G ra d u a te s 19 . 19 7 -1 1 y e a r s o f s c h o o l 13 j 7 T o ta l 100 j 100 TABLE 4 COMPARISON OF SAMPLE A (25$ OF POPULATION) WITH SAMPLE B (10$ OF POPULATION) AS TO MOTHERS* EDUCATION E d u c a t i o n a l B ackground P e r c e n ta g e Sam ple A P e rc e n ta g e Sample B M®Ao 2 M oS oI PhoDo J LLoDo 5 5 BoAe 3 BoSo 17 21 1 -3 y e a r s o f c o l l e g e ( a l s o B u s in e s s S c h o o l) 40 38 High S c h o o l G ra d u a te s 20 30 7 -1 1 y e a r s o f s c h o o l in g 10 6 T o t a l 100 100 TABLE 5 COMPARISON OF SAMPLE A (25$ OF POPULATION WITH SAMPLE B (10$ OF POPULATION) AS TO SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS S ocio-E con om ic S t a t u s ' P e r c e n ta g e j P e r c e n ta g e Sam ple A 1 Sample B Upper and U pper-M iddle C l a s s e s M iddle and W orking C l a s s e s 68 I 57 32 j 43 100 | 100 105 TABLE 6* COMPARISON OP WALLIN'S STUDY WITH PRESENT STUDY OP WOMEN, GIVING INDICATED RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS ON PRETENDED INFERIORITY TO MEN Frequency i n P e rcen tag e Q u estions Very O ften, O ften ,S ev e r a l Times Once or Twice, Never NO Answer T o ta l I* When on d a te s how o f te n have you p re te n d e d to be I n f e r i o r in a r t i s t i c knowledge or t a s t e ( in m usic, a r t , l i t e r a t u r e , e t c 0) ? W a l l i n 's Study 24 75 1 100 P re s e n t Study 12 88 - 100 2. How o f t e n have you p re te n d e d to be i n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n f e r i o r to th e man? W a l li n 's Study 31 68 1 100 P re s e n t Study 13 87 - 100 3® Hoi1 ? o f te n have you p re te n d e d to be a t h l e t i c a l l y i n f e r i o r when p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n some s p o r t w ith a man? W a l l i n 's Study 15 85 100 P r e s e n t Study 8 92 ...............-— 100 — - — _____ ’ “C e r ta in item s from W a l li n 's t a b l e were combined to f i t th e com parisons See copy o f h i s o r i g i n a l t a b l e in Appendix II« more ten d en cy th a n th o s e o f 1950 to be th em se lv e s and n o t p r e te n d i n f e r i o r i t y t o men. More s t u d e n ts o f the p r e s e n t s tu d y th a n th o s e o f W a l l i n 's chose to go o u t w ith boys who were t h e i r e q u a l or b e t t e r « However., i f th e y knew a s u b j e c t . b e t t e r th a n t h e i r boy f r i e n d s o r i f th e y p la y e d a game b e t t e r th a n the f e l l o w s , th e y d id n o t f e e l th e y s h o u ld p r e te n d i n f e r i o r i t y 0 In c o n tr a s t y 40 p e r c e n t o f K om arovsky's s t u d e n t s , i n h e r stu d y o f c o lle g e women i n 1946, p r e te n d e d ig n o ra n c e o f some s u b j e c t s when t a l k i n g w ith men, th e y a llo w e d them th e l a s t word I n a d i s c u s s i o n , and c o n c e a le d some academ ic honor from them® Com parison o f th e th r e e s t u d i e s on th e a t t i t u d e o f c o ll e g e women tow ard men showed t h a t p r e s e n t - d a y c o lle g e women seemed to be s h i f t i n g t h e i r ideas® I n s t e a d o f p r e t e n d in g to be i n f e r i o r to men, e i t h e r th e y chose men who were s u p e r i o r o r r e v e a l s d t h e i r a b i l i t i e s , w ith o u t f e a r i n g t h a t such an a t t i t u d e m ight d r i v e men away® They seemed to be moving tow ard a new r o l e , which may be c a l l e d a p a r t n e r s h i p r o l e r a t h e r th a n th e s u b o r d in a te r o l e i n t h e i r d e a l in g w ith men. In s tu d y in g ab o u t th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , r e g a r d i n g p a r e n t s and boy f r i e n d s , th e y were ask ed a number o f q u e s t i o n s , shown i n T able 7® There were o n ly s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een r e s u l t s of the two s t u d i e s on t h a t q u e s t io n v/hich I n d i c a t e d t h a t s t u d e n ts s t i l l needed p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e i r f u t u r e r o l e s a f t e r gradu ation® 10? TABLE 7* COMPARISON OP WALLIN’S STUDY WITH PRESENT STUDY ON W OM EN REPORTING CONFLICT WITH FAMILY MEMBERS ON COLLEGE ACTIVITIES AND POST-COLLEGE PLANS ^ w i n W M M iiiM iM iin iiT iiiiiiiiii i * i p n » u i i i i n i M i M i i » i L W n m u n i f iniiiMimiiiLiT ~rr i« n m ir T r r n m i r m m r n r i i ~ r r ■ m ~ n w n " w r u r m u r ■ i i t m m h i ■ ■ ■ w n — n la te n t of C o n tr a d ic tio n i n P e rcen tag e yues iiiutja Non© j A L i t t l e C o n sid e ra b le T o ta l 1« How much c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s t h e r e b e tween what you and what th© fo llo w in g t h in k abo ut how you sh ould be spend ing your time i n c o lle g e ? P a re n ts s W a l li n ’s Study 68 27 5 100 P r e s e n t Study 71 27 2 100 Boy F rie n d o r F ia n ce ; W a l li n ’s Study 84 15 1 100 P r e s e n t Study 76 24 - 100 2 , How much c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s th e r e b e tween what you would l i k e to do and what th© fo llo w in g would l i k e you to do when you f i n i s h c o lle g e ? P a re n ts % W a l li n ’s Study 81 16 3 100 P re s e n t Study 85 12 3 100 Boy F r ie n d o r F i a n c e ; W a l li n 's Study 88 9 3 100 P re s e n t Study 89 8 3 100 ^■Certain item s from W a l li n ’s t a b l e were combined to f i t the comparison© See copy of h is o r i g i n a l t a b l e In Appendix II© 108 Form o f D ata D i s t r i b u t i o n To s tu d y th e form of d a t a d i s t r i b u t i o n , f i v e b a se v a r i a b l e s were c r o s s t a b u l a t e d w i t h 47 o t h e r v a r i a b l e s * The b ase v a r i a b l e s were th o s e on s t u d e n t s ’ s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t, s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t , s u p e r o r d i n a t e - s u b o r d i n a t e r o l e s , c a r e e r or home p r e f e r e n c e s . (See C h a p te r IV f o r d e s c r ip tio n * , F u r t h e r d e t a i l s on c h o ic e of v a r i a b l e s would be g iv e n l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . ) The fo rm u la u se d was as f o l l o w s ;3- x ’ - l * (E2-E1* l ) ^ ( D 2~D1< a )* (C 2-C1« l ) * ( B 2-B;L *l)tt(X A-A1) * (Eg-E-^ol) (Dg— D-^ol) (Cg~C-j^l) (Xg— B -j^ ) * (E2-E1 ^ 1)^ (D 2-D14.1)-:KXc-C 1 ) * ( E g — E-^‘ 3 ’1 ) ^ (X p — D-^) * V = i A,B,C,D ,E s base v a r i a b l e s A c co rd in g t o th e f o r m u la , 32 d i f f e r e n t c o m b in a tio n s o f th e f i v e b ase v a r i a b l e s were form ed and c r o s s t a b u l a t e d w i t h 47 o t h e r v a r i a b l e s . To r e a c h th e 32 c o m b in a tio n s , th e fo rm u la perfo rm ed th e f o l lo w in g ta s k s • “BIMD Computer Program s M anual, I n t r o d u c t i o n , S e c t i o n VT ( D i v is io n o f B i o s t a t i s t i c s , D ep artm en t of P r e v e n tiv e M edicine and P u b lic H e a lth , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s , 1 9 6 1 ). 109 The group was f i r s t d i v i d e d i n t o two, a c c o rd in g to th e f i r s t v a r i a b l e , s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t, th o s e w i t h h ig h and low r e c o r d , r e s p e c tiv e ly ® Low R ecord High R ecord S c h o l a s t i c A chievem ent The second base v a r i a b l e , on so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , was th e n added to e a c h o f th e su b g ro u p s and once more su b d i v id e d i n t o h ig h and low s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s re s p e c tiv e ly , th u s making f o u r d i f f e r e n t c o m b i n a t i o n s „ Low R ecord H igh R ecord H igh S o c io economic Low S o c io economic Low S o c io economic H igh S o c io econom ic S c h o l a s t i c A chievem ent The t h i r d base v a r i a b l e , on s u b o r d i n a t e - s u p e r o r d i n a t e r o l e s , was th e n added t o th e f o u r s u b d i v i s i o n s and i n t u r n was s u b d iv id e d t o s u p e r o r d i n a t e and s u b o r d i n a te r o l e s , th u s fo rm in g e i g h t d i f f e r e n t c o m b in a tio n s « 110 Super o r d i n a te Super o r d i n a te Sub- o r d i n a te Sub o r d i n a te Sub- o r d i n a te Low Record High Record Super o r d i n a te Low S o c io economic Low S o c io economic High Socio economic High Socio economic S c h o l a s t i c Achievement The f o u r t h and f i f t h base v a r i a b l e s were added, r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n th e same f a s h i o n u n t i l 32 co m b in atio n s were f i n a l l y formed© Each o f th e 32 c om b inations was c ro s s t a b u l a t e d w ith each of the 47 v a r i a b l e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , and answ ers of "Yes" o r "Ho" were r e c o r d e d e T able 8 i s an example o f th e 47 d i f f e r e n t t a b l e s form ed a c c o rd in g to th e 47 v a ria b le s © 2 T able 9 shows th e f r e q u e n c i e s of th e 32 corabina-> t i o n s , s t a r t i n g from th e h ig h e s t to th e l o w e s t „ In s p i t e of th e f a c t t h a t no c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t was h ig h e r th a n ©1, some g e n e r a l o b s e r v a tio n s were made on the 47 v a r i a b l e s , as fo llo?/ss 2 See Appendix III© I l l C om b ination s 7 and 29 had th e h i g h e s t f r e q u e n c i e s o f 17 and 15 r e s p e c t i v e l y * The fo r m e r showed s t u d e n t s w i t h h ig h s c h o l a s t i c records, h ig h so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , i n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o n , s u b o r d i n a te r o l e s , and c a r e e r p r e f e r e n c e a None of th e s u b j e c t s f i t t e d u n d e r c o m b in a tio n s 19 and 32, w hich were d e s c r i b e d r e s p e c t i v e l y as f o l lo w s ; low s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d , h ig h s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , no r e l i g io u s i n t e r e s t , s u p e r o r d i n a t e r o l e s , c a r e e r p r e f e r e n c e s ! and low s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d , low s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , I n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o n , s u p e r o r d i n a t e r o l e s , home p r e fe r e n c e ,, As c o m b in a tio n s 7 and 29 had th e h i g h e s t f r e q u e n c i e s , r e s u l t s o f t h e i r c ro s s t a b u l a t i o n w ith th e 47 v a r i a b l e s were e x am in ed » T ab le 10 was p r e p a r e d t o show th e p e r c e n ta g e s o f "Yes" and "No" r e s p o n s e s to th e 47 v a r i a b l e s c r o s s t a b u l a t e d w i t h c o m b in a tio n s 7 and 29, r e s p e c t i v e l y , as compared to th e re s p o n s e s i n th e t o t a l , p o p u l a t i o n o f th e sampleo A number o f v a r i a b l e s had a t o t a l r e s p o n s e o f 98 p e r c e n t or o v e r i n b o th c o m b in a tio n s and th u s were n o t i n c l u d e d , as th e i n t e r e s t was i n th e d i f f e r e n c e s , n o t th e s i m i l a r i t i e s 0 E ig h te e n v a r i a b l e s c o m p rised s t a te m e n t s a d d r e s s e d t o th e s u b j e c t s who ‘ were a sk ed t o g iv e one o f f i v e - d i f f e r e n t r e s p o n s e s ; " s t r o n g l y a g r e e , " " a g r e e , " " u n d e c id e d ," " d i s a g r e e , " " s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e o " ( F u r t h e r d e t a i l s on th e s e l e c t i o n o f s ta te m e n t s a re g iv e n l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r 0) Because th e sample was s m a ll, answ ers to e a c h o f th e f i v e TABLE 9 FREQUENCIES OF 32 COMBINATIONS OF 5 BASE VARIABLES STARTING FR O M HIGHEST TO LO W EST f 1 " ■ ■ " 1 n — -'-—I Low Low Fre~ Combi S ubo r S u p e r- No I n I n t e High High q u e n cies n a tio n s d in a te o r d i t e r e s t r e s t S o c io - S o c io - Scho- Scho- C a re e r Home n a te R e l i g io n i n Re l i g i o n econo mic econo mic - l a s — t i c l a s — t i c 17 7 1 1 1 1 1 15 29 1 1 1 1 1 10 17 1 1 1 1 1 9 15 1 1 1 1 1 8 21 1 1 1 1 1 8 23 1 1 1 1 1 6 13 1 1 1 1 1 6 25 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 5 22 1 1 1 1 1 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 4 31 1 1 1 1 1 3 6 1 1 1 1 1 3 9 1 1 1 1 1 3 18 1 1 1 1 1 3 24 1 1 1 1 1 3 30 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 2 8 1 1 1 1 1 2 14 1 1 1 1 1 2 27 1 1 1 1 1 2 28 1 1 1 1 1 Not©: C om b in ation s 1 , 10* 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 6 , 2 0 , and 26 had 1 fr e q u e n c y , 19 and 32 had 0 frequ en cy® C om b in ation s to 11$ TABLE 10 PERCENTAGE OP RESPONSES OP COMBINATIONS 7 AND 29 AS COMPARED TO TOTAL RESPONSE Statem ent*5 - C om bination 7 | C om bination 29 j T o ta l Response No® Yes No Yes Mo Yes No 6 35 65 67 33 47 53 7 24 76 37 67 31 69 8 23 23 77 22 88 9 65 35 53 47 47 53 10 41 59 35 77 35 65 11 65 35 80 20 69 31 18 23 77 13 87 25 75 19 41 59 60 40 51 49 20 65 35 76 24 72 28 21 65 55 73 27 73 27 22 77 23 60 40 81 19 24 65 35 67 33 55 45 25 53 47 20 80 40 60 27 77 25 53 47 56 34 28 88 12 73 27 91 9 29 00 100 7 93 10 90 30 00 100 27 73 22 88 31 94 6 87 13 88 22 32 59 41 67 33 66 34 33 35 65 27 73 31 69 34 24 76 40 60 31 69 35 47 53 40 60 53 47 36 77 25 100 00 87 13 37 59 41 73 27 66 34 38 35 65 60 40 38 62 39 83 17 80 20 88 12 40 77 23 75 27 72 28 41 23 75 53 47 32 68 42 100 00 87 13 90 10 43 100 00 87 13 91 9 44 77 23 87 13 88 12 45 53 47 73 27 72 28 46 77 25 80 20 77 23 48 77 23 93 7 73 27 51 12 88 33 67 20 80 %S©@ Appendix IV for complete statements * 114 re sp o n se s were too sm all to be examined s e p a r a t e l y so th e f i r s t two and l a s t two were combined, r e s p e c t i v e l y < > The t h i r d was n o t in c lu d e d , as n o th in g was re c o rd e d under it® The o th e r 29 v a r i a b le s in c lu d e d sta te m e n ts r e q u i r ing ’’Y es” and !3 No" answers® R e s u lts o f the c ro s s t a b u l a ti o n o f com binations 7 and 29 w ith th e 4-7 v a r i a b le s showed c e r t a i n marked d i f f e r e n c e s when compared to the t o t a l response® The fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts p a r t i c u l a r l y showed g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s : S ta tem en t 6 : ”An i d e a l d a u g h te r of c o lle g e age s ta y s home and l e t s her b r o th e r go to c o lle g e when th e re i s n ’t enough money f o r both®” S tatem en t 1 9 : ”A husband sh o u ld be the c e n t e r o f h is w i f e ’s universe® n S tatem ent 2 7 : ”1 s h a l l want to acknowledge my h u s band as my s u p e r io r in p r o f e s s i o n a l and c i v i c lif e ® ’* S tatem ent 5 0 : ” 1 s h a l l be s a t i s f i e d i n my work w ith a job a t the s e c r e t a r i a l level® ” S ta tem en t 41; ” 1 s h a l l want to advance in my chosen v o c a tio n to p o s i t i o n s o f e x e c u tiv e rank®” S ta te m en t 4 5 : !,I s h a l l want my husband to be the head o f the fam ily so t h a t my c h i l d r e n w i l l l e a r n r e s p e c t f o r a u t h o r i t y ® f? S tatem en t 5 1 : " I s h a l l e x p e c t my husband to enjoy more freedom of conduct th an I . " The percentages of those who agreed to the above statements were as follows? Statement No0 Combination 7 Combination 29 Total Response 6 35 67 47 19 41 60 51 27 77 53 56 30 00 27 22 41 23 53 32 45 53. 72 73 51 12 33 20 T akin g e a c h o f th e s t a te m e n t s s e p a r a t e l y , a number o f ob s e r v a t i o n s were mad©o I n number 6, c o m b in a tio n 7 (C7) d id n o t a g re e as r e a d i l y as th o s e o f c o m b in a tio n 29 (C29}, t h a t a g i r l s h o u ld s t a y home I f h e r p a r e n t s d id n o t have money t o send h e r and h e r b r o t h e r t o c o l l e g e 0 T here was a d i f f e r e n c e o f 32 p e r c e n t betw een th em 0 Compared to th e t o t a l r e s p o n s e , C7 was 12 p e r c e n t l e s s , w h ile G29 was 20 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r th a n th e t o t a l response© T hree c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b etw een th e two c o m b in a tio n so C7 i n c lu d e d th o s e w i t h h ig h s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d , h ig h so c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , and i?ho assum ed s u p e ro rd in a t© r o l e s 0 The o t h e r two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r e l i g i o u s and c a r e e r p r e f e r e n c e s appeared i n th e two c o m b in a tio n s 0 I t was p o s t u l a t e d t h a t th o s e w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s I n C7 would n o t a g re e so r e a d i l y to s t a y home and l e t t h e i r b r o t h e r s go to c o l l e g e „ However, f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s i?as deemed n e c e s s a r y 0 T here was a d i f f e r e n c e o f 19 p e r c e n t betw een 07 and C29 u n d e r s t a t e m e n t 19® Here a g a i n , th e t h r e e characteristics which differentiated between the two combi nations co u ld have a f f e c t e d th e r e s u l t s # The d i f f e r e n c e s might a l s o have been c au se d by th e d o m in a tio n of one c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o ver the o t h e r s 0 Such a q u e s t io n c o u ld not be answ ered u n t i l e a c h v a r i a b l e was c r o s s t a b u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y i n s t e a d o f i n c o m b in a tio n s , as i s shown l a t e r in t h i s c h a p te ro Compared to th e t o t a l r e s p o n s e , 07 was 10 p e r c e n t l e s s , and C29 was 9 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r 0 D i f f e r e n c e s i n r e s p o n s e t o s ta te m e n t 27 were con t r a r y to e x p e c t a t i o n s c Those w ith c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C7 ag re ed more r e a d i l y th a n th o s e o f C290 M oreover, th e y a g re e d more r e a d i l y th a n th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n ,, I t was e x p e c te d t h a t th o se w ith h ig h s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d who assumed s u p e r o r d in a t a r o l e s would n o t want to acknot’ /led g e t h e i r husbands as s u p e r i o r i n p r o f e s s i o n a l and c i v i c l i f e # I t was n o t p o s s i b l e , however, t o p o s t u l a t e t h a t th o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were th e m ajor f a c t o r s , as a l l th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s u n d e r th e c o m b in a tio n had t o b© ta k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a tio n # There was a 27 p e r c e n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een re s p o n s e s i n C7 and 029 t o s ta te m e n t 30© Under the fo rm er com bina t i o n non© a g re e d t h a t th e y would b© s a t i s f i e d w i t h a job a t th© s e c r e t a r i a l l e v e l « There was more o f a p o s s i b i l i t y h e re t h a t th© c h a r a e t e r i s t i c s o f h i g h s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d and a su p e ro rd in a t© rol© c o u ld b© f a c t o r s c a u s in g th e d i f f e r ences# Y e t, f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s was needed b e f o r e su ch a statement could be made® R espo nses t o s t a te m e n t 41 were a l s o c o n t r a r y t o e x p e c t a t i o n s • R esp o n ses u n d e r 07 were 30 p e r c e n t l e s s t h a n th o s e u n d e r G29, and 9 p e r c e n t l e s s t h a n r e s p o n s e s i n th© t o t a l p o p u latio n ® Those o f 07 d i d n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y c a r e to advance to p o s i t i o n s o f e x e c u ti v e ranko I t was e x p e c te d t h a t a t l e a s t th o s e w ith h i g h s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d , and who assum ed s u p e ro rd in a t© r o l e s would a l s o w ish t o advance t o p o s i t i o n s o f e x e c u ti v e ranko Sine© a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s had t o b© I n c lu d e d i n th e c o m b in a tio n s I t was o n ly p o s s i b l e to e n co u rag e f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s 0 S u b j e c t s u n d e r 07 d i d n o t a g re e a s r e a d i l y as th e o t h e r s to s t a te m e n t 45«, T h e i r r e s p o n s e s w ere 19 p e r c e n t l e s s th a n th o s e o f 029 and 20 p e r c e n t l e s s t h a n th e t o t a l r e s p o n s e o A lth o u g h r e s p o n s e s w ere h i g h i n g e n e r a l , th o s e o f 07 were n o t as r e a d y as th© o t h e r s t o a c c e p t t h e husband as head o f th© f a m i l y 0 R esponses were low u n d e r a l l c o m b in a tio n s , b u t t h o s e o f 07 w ere 21 p e r c e n t lo w er th a n 029 and 8 p e r c e n t lo w er th a n th e t o t a l p o p u latio n ® Only v e ry few a g re e d t h a t th e husband s h o u ld e n jo y more freedom o f c o n d u c t & A f t e r a n a l y s i n g th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f d a t a and d i s c o v e r in g some m arked d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t needed f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s , th e h y p o th e s e s were th e n t e s t e d , and e a c h b ase v a r i a b l e was c r o s s t a b u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y w ith th© r e s t o f th© v a ria b le s ® x2 and K olm ogorov-Sm irnov were u se d f o r t e s t s 1 X 8 of significance« Testing of Hypotheses H ypotheses I.— wIt i s more l i k e l y that c o lle g e women who assume s u p e ro r d in a te r o l e s a t c o ll e g e , r a t h e r th a n th o se who assume su b o rd in a te r o l e s , e x p e c t to g e t m a rrie d and p ursue a c a r e e r a f t e r g r a d u a tio n 0 5 3 To d e t e r mine the number of th o se assum ing a s u p e r o r d in a te r o l e , th r e e q u e s tio n s were asked, two w ith r e f e r e n c e to member s h ip i n campus o r g a n i s a t io n s and the t h i r d w ith re g a r d to m a in ta in in g o f f i c e i n such o r g a n i z a t i o n s < > The s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s showed t h a t from th e 130 s tu d e n ts in te rv ie w e d , 74 assumed su b o rd in a te r o l e s and 56 s u p e r o r d i n a t e S e v e n t y - n in e p e r c e n t of the s u p e r o r d in a te group and 73 p e r c e n t o f th e s u b o rd in a te group s a id th ey wanted to pursue c a r e e r s a f t e r m a r r ia g e 0 The was 1,696 and Kolmogorov“Smirnov t e s t was l l a52 w ith l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e above 02 0 o- R e s u lts showed d i f f e r e n c e s m ight have been due to chance, and, th u s , the h y p o th e s is was n o t supported., Many s u b j e c t s , however, e x p re ss e d d e s ir e to work only u n t i l a baby was b o rn 0 S ix ty - n in e p e rc e n t p r e f e r r e d to have t h e i r baby d u rin g th e f i r s t or second y e a r a f t e r m arriag e o ®See Appendix Vo ^Se© Appendix VI for all calculations of Chi Square and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests. 119 R e s u l ts on th e q u e s t io n o f c a r e e r a f t e r m a rria g e showed t h a t m ost s t u d e n t s , w heth er th e y assumed s u p e r o r d i n a te o r s u b o r d in a te r o l e s a t c o lle g e * would l i k e t o p u rs u e a c a r e e r a f t e r m a rria g e ev en i f i t were f o r a s h o r t time,, When q u e s tio n e d as t o th e purpose o f a c a r e e r f o r su c h s h o r t p e r i o d s , t h e i r answ ers u s u a l l y were % husbands would p ro b a b ly be s t u d e n ts who needed to c o n tin u e t h e i r e d u c a ti o n a f t e r m a rria g e and s u b j e c t s would need to work f o r econom ic re a so n s o O th e rs wanted c h i l d r e n a f t e r a y e a r o r two o f m a rria g e and would r a t h e r occupy tim e w ith o u t s i d e career*, Thus t h e r e was consensus o f o p in io n among s u b j e c t s con c e r n in g c a r e e r s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r su p e ro rd in a t© o r su b o r d i n a t e ro le s o H y p o th e sis I I 0- - t8I t i s more l i k e l y t h a t c o l l e g e women who assume su p e ro rd in a t© r o l e s a t c o ll e g e r a t h e r th a n th o s e who assume s u b o r d in a te r o l e s come from th e u p p e r and u p p e r-m id d le c l a s s e s r a t h e r th a n th o s e from the m id dle and w orking c l a s s e s , , 5 3 In d i s c u s s i n g th e p re v io u s h y p o th e s is i t was i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e were 74 s t u d e n t s who assumed s u b o r d in a te r o l e s and 56, s u p e r o r d in a t© 0 To d e s i g n a t e th e c l a s s s t a t u s of th e s u b j e c t s , H o ll ln g s h e a d ’ s Two^Factor Index o f S o c i a l P o s i t i o n ^ was folloxTred, w hich was b a sed on th e o c c u p a tio n and e d u c a ti o n o f th e in d iv id u a l,. The o c c u p a ti o n a l p o s i t i o n ^See copy In Appendix I® 120 had a factor weight of 7 and that of education, a weight of 4* By following Hollingshead's occupational scale, th e factor w e ig h t o f th e s u b j e c t s 1 f a t h e r s 5 o c c u p a tio n was determinedo The same was done w i t h th e f a t h e r s 8 e d u c a t i o n a l backgroundo The two numbers were m u l t i p l i e d and th e c a l c u l a t e d w e ig h te d sc o re gave th e a p p ro x im ate d p o s i t i o n o f th e family on th e o v e r f a l l s c a l e 0 F or exam ple, i f th e su b ject's f a t h e r was an e n g in e e r , and had a d o c t o r a t e d e g re e , his o c c u p a tio n s c a l e sc o re would b© 1, and h i s e d u c a tio n score would be lo M u l t ip l y i n g th e s c o r e s by th e r e s p e c t i v e f a c t o r w e ig h ts , th e r e s u l t s would be as fo llo w s s F a c to r S c a le S co re F a c t o r W eight S core W eight Occupation 1 7 7 Education 1 4 4 then s t r a t i f i e d i n t o a S?c l a s s I n th e above exam ple, the f a t h e r would b e lo n g to c l a s s I 0 The ra n g e o f s c o r e s , a c c o rd in g to H o llin g s h e a d , a re as fo llo w s? Once th e above was c a l c u l a t e d , th e i n d i v i d u a l was Class IaPaSe Scores I II III IV V 11-17 18-31 32-47 48-63 64-77 In this study Hollingshead*s four classes were arbitrarily le i given the names upper, upper-middle, middle, and working classes, r e s p e c t i v e l y , to f a c i l i t a t e a n a l y s i s and d i s cussion A ccording to t h i s s c o r in g system , th e f a t h e r in the above example would b elong t o th e upper c la s s o I t was found t h a t 57 p e rc e n t o f the s u b j e c t s came from th e upper and up p er-m id d le c l a s s e s , w hile 43 p e r c e n t came from the middle and w orking c l a s s e s 0 In t e s t i n g H ypoth esis I I , i t was found t h a t 66 p e rc e n t o f th o s e who assumed s u p e r o r d in a te r o l e s came from th e upp er and u p p er-m id d le c l a s s e s and 34 p e r c e n t from th e m iddle and w orking c l a s s e s , w hile 49 p e rc e n t and 51 p e r c e n t came from th o se c la s s e s r e s p e c t i v e l y among th e ones who assumed su b o rd in a te r o l e s A l t h o u g h d i f f e r e n c e s bet?/e©n th e two groups appeared h ig h , X® was 3 0559 and Kolmogorov- Smirnov was ° 1 6 076, w ith l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e above 02® Thus, one c o u ld not speak w ith c o n fid en ce t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e s were n o t due to chance < , H y pothesis I I I 0^ - 8 8 I t I s more l i k e l y t h a t c o lle g e women who p a r t i c i p a t e i n r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s r a t h e r than those who do n o t, e x p e c t to work a f t e r g r a d u a t io n 0H To determ in e th e i n t e r e s t o f s tu d e n ts i n r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s , th e y were asked ho?; f r e q u e n t ly th ey went to church and w h ether th ey belonged to r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i s a t i o n s 0 The 6 See Appendix VI on Socio-economic status, item 7„ 122 level of significance for the differences between the two groups was 05 w ith a X 2 o f 1 06 4 9 0 K olm ogorov-Sm irnov was -1 3 * 0 7 o Thus, th e h y p o t h e s is was n o t su p p o rt© d c ..Hypothesis IVo ^ - ^ I t i s more l i k e l y t h a t c o l l e g e women w i t h h ig h s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n ts , r a t h e r th a n th o s e with loiv s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n ts , assume s u p e ro rd in a t© r o l e s a t c o l l e g e To d e te rm in e s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t, th e s t u d e n t s were a sk e d to g iv e t h e i r a v e ra g e g ra d e a t c o l l e g e a t th e tim e o f th e in te rv ie w ® Prom th o s e who had grades o f A, B, C, D, t h e f i r s t two were ta k e n as h a v in g h ig h s c h o l a s t i c record® T hus, 47 p e r c e n t came u n d e r t h a t gro u p , w h ile 53 p e r c e n t came u n d e r th e o t h e r F r o m th o s e who had h ig h s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d s , 63 p e r c e n t assum ed s u p e r - o r d i n a t e r o l e s a t c o l l e g e , and 37 p e r c e n t assumed s u b o r d i n a te r o l e s o Among th o s e who had low s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d s , there were 27 p e r c e n t and 72 p e rc e n t, r e s p e c t iv e ly ® Th© l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e was o0005® On© c o u ld say w i t h g r e a t c o n fid e n c e t h a t th e r e s u l t s were n o t du© to chance® T hus, th e h y p o th e s is was h i g h ly supported® H y p o th e sis V0- - n I t i s more l i k e l y t h a t c o l l e g e women whose m o th e rs have had c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n and who worked o r ar© w orking d u r i n g t h e i r m a r r ie d l i f e e x p e c t to g e t m a r r ie d and f o l lo w a c a r e e r a f t e r m a r ria g e 0t! B e fo re testing t h i s h y p o th e s is two t h in g s had t o be founds th e * 7 8©e Appendix V© p e r c e n ta g e o f m o th e rs w i t h c o ll e g e e d u c a ti o n and the per® c e n ta g e o f th o s e -who worked o r had w orked d u r in g t h e i r m a r r ie d l i f e among t h a t g r o u p 0 The d a t a showed t h a t 63 p e r c e n t o f th e m o th ers had c o l l e g e e d u c a ti o n r a n g in g from 1 t o 3 y e a r s up t o th e PhoDo l e v e lo The p e rc e n ta g e of m o th e rs i*7ho worked from th e t o t a l sam ple was 45 p e r c e n t , 30 p e r c e n t o f whom had c o l l e g e e d u c a tio n ,. D a u g h ters o f th o s e 30 p e r c e n t were s t u d i e d , and i t was fo u n d t h a t 83 p e r c e n t e x p e c te d t o work a f t e r m a r r i a g e „ The o t h e r 70 p e r c e n t o f th e m o th ers had 72 p e r c e n t o f t h e d a u g h te r s who e x p e c te d to work a f t e r m a r r i a g e 08 The l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th o s e two groups was low er th a n *2, w hich was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t t o s u p p o r t th e h y p o t h e s i s e H y p o th e sis V Io®°;8I t i s more l i k e l y t h a t c o ll e g e women whose m o th ers have had c o l l e g e e d u c a tio n s b u t have n o t worked d u r in g t h e i r m a r r ie d l i f e , e x p e c t t o g e t m a r r ie d xirithout f o l lo w in g a c a r e e r a f t e r m a r r ia g e „5 5 To t e s t t h i s h y p o t h e s is i t was n e c e s s a r y f i r s t to f i n d th e p e r c e n ta g e o f m o th ers w i t h c o ll e g e e d u c a ti o n who d e v o te d f u l l tim e t o t h e home a f t e r m arriag e ,, T here were 55 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l number o f m others who d e v o te d f u l l tim e to home? from t h o s e , 33 p e r c e n t had c o ll e g e e d u c a tio n ,. The 33 p e r c e n t had 35 p e r c e n t o f th e d a u g h te r s e x p e c tin g to d e v o te f u l l tim e t o th e home, and 65 p e r c e n t e x p r e s s in g an Q See Appendix V & 124 i n t e r e s t t o work a f t e r m arriage® The re m a in in g 77 p e r c e n t o f t h e m o th ers had 80 p e r c e n t o f th e d a u g h te rs e x p e c tin g t o work a f t e r m a r r i a g e s and 20 p e r c e n t e x p e c tin g t o d e v o te f u l l tim e t o th e homeo T h is h y p o th e s is was n o t s u p p o r te d , a lt h o u g h th e l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e was c lo s e to ©05® was 3 o650 i n s t e a d o f 3 0841, th e r e q u i r e d f i g u r e f o r t h a t level o f s i g n i f i c a n c e 0 I n th e secon d s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r , 32 com bina t i o n s o f f i v e base v a r i a b l e s were c ro s s t a b u l a t e d w i t h 47 v a r i a b l e s o I n t h i s s e c t i o n , e a c h b a se v a r i a b l e was c r o s s t a b u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y w ith th e r e s t o f t h e v a ria b le s® The p u rp o se was t o d e t e c t any d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een c r o s s t a b u l a t i n g v a r i a b l e s s i n g l y and i n c o m b in a tio n s 0 R e s u l t s o f C ro ss T a b u la tio n s o f V a r ia b le s The s t u d e n t s were a sk ed two s e t s o f q u e s t i o n s , one b a s e d on S t o u f f e r *s m ethod i n h is stu d y o f !tRole C o n f l i c t and P e r s o n a l i t y , '8® and th e o t h e r on S e w a rd ’ s 4 0 -ite m seal© w h ich she a d a p te d from K i r k p a t r i c k ’s f e m in is m - a n ti- f e m in is m s c a l e o -® -® S t o u f f e r showed how, w ith a h y p o t h e t i c a l a c t i o n o f an I n d i v i d u a l , r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s can be a p p l i e d to stu d y th e i n d i v i d u a l ’s b e h a v io r i n t h a t r o l e 0 I n t h i s s tu d y s u b j e c t s were p r e s e n t e d w i t h s ta te m e n t s s i m i l a r t o ®See C h a p te r III® ^*°See C h a p te r I I I * 12$ Stouffer's hypothetical situations, and were asked to com ment on them whether they "strongly agreed," "agreed," were " u n d e c id e d ," " d i s a g r e e d , " or " s t r o n g l y d isa g re e d ,," In th e second s e t o f q u e s t io n s , based m ain ly on Sew ard’s s tu d y , th e s u b j e c t s were asked \7hat th e y e x p e c te d to do In t h e i r f u t u r e X ife 0 The s tu d e n ts gave "y es" o r "no" answers and e x p la in e d t h e i r r e s p o n s e 0 The ansivers were s t u d i e d i n l i g h t o f s u b j e c t s ’ socio -eco n o m ic s t a t u s , r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s and p a r t i c i p a t i o n , s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n ts, and s u p e r o r d in a t e - s u b o r d i n a te r o le s o A ccording to t h e i r so c io -eco n o m ic s t a t u s , no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were found betw een th e two groupso Those i n th e up per and u p p er-m id d le c l a s s e s gave s i m i l a r answ ers to th o se i n th e m iddle and w orking c l a s s e s (see F ig u re 2 )0 The same was tr u e w ith th e groups d iv id e d a c c o rd in g to r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s and p a r t i c i p a t i o n (see F ig u re 3)« When s u b j e c t s were d iv id e d a c c o rd in g to s u p e r o r d in a t e - s u b o r d i n a te r o l e s (see F ig u re 4 ) , d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r answers to one s ta te m e n t were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a t the o05 l e v e l 0 T hat same s ta te m e n t sho?/ed marked d i f f e r e n c e s o f re sp o n se when c ro s s t a b u l a t e d w ith C7 In S e c tio n 2, th u s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t th e s u p e r o r d in a te r o l e was p o s s i b l y a d e te rm in in g f a c t o r „ I t went as f o llo w s ; "An i d e a l d a u g h te r o f c o lle g e age s t a y s home and l e t s h er b r o t h e r go to c o lle g e when th e r e i s n ’t enough money f o r b o th ( c o n s id e r in g b o th have th e same 93T 100- x - H igh s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s 0 - low s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s 9 0 - 80- 60- Uo- 3 0 - 20 10- 0- I 2 3 8 9 10 11 12 13 1U 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 2h 2$ 26 27 28 29 3 0 31 32 33 F ig u r e 2» C om parison b etw een s tu d e n ts w ith h ig h and low s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s r e s p e c t i v e l y who a g reed on th e s ta te m e n ts i n t h e q u e s tio n n a ir e * r~ 03 x - No i n t e r e s t in r e l i g i o n I n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o n G — 9 0 - 60- 20- 10- 0- F ig u r e 3* C om parison b e tw e e n s tu d e n ts who a r e i n t e r e s t e d in r e l i g i o n and t h o s e who a r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d r e s p e c t i v e l y who a g r e e d on th e s ta te m e n ts i n t h e q u e s tio n n a ir e # 09 & > *"100- x - S u b o r d in a te r o le s o - S u p e r o r d in a te r o l e s 80- 7 0 - 60- U0- 3 0 - 20- 10- 0- F ig u r e 4 . C om parison b etw een s tu d e n ts who assum ed s u p e r o r d in a te and s u b o r d in a te r o le s r e s p e c t i v e l y who a g r e e d on th e s ta te m e n ts i n t h e q u e s t io n n a ir e . I J S 9 scholastic abilities and interest)®" The general comment was that nowadays a g i r l c o u ld pay h e r way t h r o u g h c o l l e g e either by w o rk in g o r o b t a i n i n g a s c h o la r s h ip ® I n t e r e s tingly enough., none o f them m e n tio n e d t h a t th e boy s h o u ld work® I n s t e a d , t h e y d e fe n d e d t h e i r woman®s r i g h t s by sayings "a g i r l s h o u ld n o t s t a y a t home on a c c o u n t o f lack of money as sh e can alw ays work o r f i n d a way o u t t o h e lp her go to c o lle g e ® " Such an answ er i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y might have h a d I n n e r c o n v i c t i o n s t h a t boys h ad a r i g h t to use t h e i r p a r e n t s 8 money t o go t o c o l l e g e „ However, they did n o t a c c e p t d e f e a t and th o u g h t a girl s h o u ld find a way out to h e lp h e r s e l f o When g ro u p s were d i v i d e d a c c o r d in g t o s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t, a n sw ers t o f o u r s t a t e m e n t s had d i f f e r e n c e s which were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t (se e F ig u r e 5 ) 0 The one im m e d ia te ly above had a X 2 o f 4 <,231 w i t h a l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e betw een o05 and o0 2 o I n S e c t i o n 2, th e same s t a t e m e n t showed s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w h ich I n d i c a t e d t h a t b e s i d e s th e f a c t o r o f s u p e r o r d i n a t e r o l e , th e s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d was a n o th e r m a jo r one i n d e te r m in in g th e d i f f e r e n c e s betw een 07 and th e o t h e r c o m b in a tio n s 0 The s e c o n d , h a v in g th e same l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e , w en t as f o llo w s % "An i d e a l woman i n th e employment w o rld d o e s n 't mind m aking more money t h a n h e r husban do" S in c e th o s e who assum ed s u p e ro r d in a t© r o l e s a l s o had h ig h s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t, I t was n o t d i f f i c u l t t o s e e why d i f f e r e n c e s in © 89 rlLOO- x - H igh s c h o l a s t i c a c h iev e m en t 0 - Low s c h o l a s t i c a ch iev em en t 80- 7 0 - 60- q 30- 20 - 10- 0- F ig u r e 5. Com parison b etw een s tu d e n ts w it h h ig h and low s c h o l a s t i c a c h iev e m en t r e s p e c t i v e l y who a g r e e d on t h e s ta te m e n ts in th e q u e s t io n n a ir e . th o s e two s ta te m e n ts would be s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t The o t h e r two s ta te m e n ts were th e fo llo w in g s ” 1 e x p e c t to m arry f o r s o c i a l and m a t e r i a l s e c u r i t y as w e ll as f o r love®1 ’ ” 1 s h a l l want to advance i n my chosen v o c a tio n to p o s i t i o n s o f e x e c u tiv e ra n k * ” D if f e r e n c e s i n th e answers showed s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a t the *05 le v e lo A la rg e p e rc e n ta g e of th o se w ith low s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d s a id ’’y e s ” to the l a s t two s t a t e m e n t s „ I n S e c tio n 2, 0 29 had the h i g h e s t a f f i r m a t i v e re sp o n se t o the s ta te m e n t on advancing to e x e c u tiv e ranko S ince the com b in atio n in c lu d e d th o se w ith low s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d , i t i n d i c a t e d t h a t such a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c was a f a c t o r i n d e te rm in in g the d i f f e r e n c e s I n respo nseo The d a ta d id n o t in c lu d e any c lu e s as to why th o s e s ta te m e n ts had such s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s nor why th o se w ith low s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d would f a v o r such sta te m e n ts* On© could look a t o th e r s t u d i e s as to what was meant by s e c u r i t y i n the t h i r d sta te m e n t* D r, B inger w rotes S e c u r i t y to th e s e g i r l s i s v e ry im p o rtan t* How e v e r , t h i s i s n o t found i n a jo b , income, s o c i a l s t a t u s * To have the a f f e c t i o n and esteem o f a young man whom th e y admire seems to many th e s a f e s t bulw ark a g a i n s t t h e i r s e l f doubt and t h e i r f e e l i n g o f i n s u f f i c ie n cy This m a y 'o f f e r an e x p la n a tio n why th o se w ith low r a t h e r th a n h ig h s c h o l a s t i c re c o rd needed t h a t type o f s e c u r i t y o f ■^Carl B in g er, ”The P re s s u re on C olleg e G ir ls T oday,” The A tla n tic * CCVII: 40* 132 love and a f f e c t i o n t o make up f o r t h e i r s e l f doubt and f e e l i n g s of i n s u f f ic ie n c y ,, Answers to th e l a s t s ta te m e n t m ight be s i g n i f i c a n t f o r th e same r e a s o n s „ Those w ith low s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d s m ig h t have been e n t e r t a i n i n g some w ish f u l th in k in g o f r e a c h in g to e x e c u tiv e jobs t o cover up f o r t h e i r f e e l i n g s o f in a d e q u a c y 0 These e x p l a n a t i o n s , how ever, were only s p e c u l a ti v e as th e d a ta d id n o t le n d th em se lv e s t o f u r t h e r s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s 0 F u r t h e r A n a ly s is o f D ata S ince s u b j e c t s o f t h i s study,, w ith few e x c e p tio n s , gave s i m i l a r answ ers r e g a r d l e s s o f how th ey were grouped, i t was found im p o rta n t t o stu d y t h e i r re s p o n se s i n g e n e r a l w ith o u t d iv id i n g th e s u b j e c t s a c c o rd in g to background or d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 0 To f a c i l i t a t e th e a n a l y s i s , th e re s p o n s e s are d iv id e d a c c o rd in g to s e t s o f s t a te m e n ts : th e ng e n e r a l ” and th e ” d i r e c t „5 3 1© G e n era l s t a t e m e n t s : These fo llo w e d S t o u f f e r ' s method i n which he showed how w ith a h y p o t h e t i c a l a c t i o n of an i n d i v i d u a l r o l e e x p e c ta ti o n s c o u ld be a p p li e d t o stu d y th e in d iv i d u a l* s b e h a v io r i n t h a t r o l e 0 2 0 D i r e c t s t a t e m e n t s : These showed what s u b j e c t s p e r s o n a l l y e x p e c te d to do in t h e i r f u t u r e l i f e 0 There were th r e e d i f f e r e n t r e s p o n s e s to th e above two ty p e s o f s ta te m e n ts : (a) Complete agreem ent among s u b j e c t s on c e r t a i n s t a te m e n t s , th u s showing r o l e s c l e a r l y d e fin e d i n -153 sub j ects1 m in d s• (b) F i f t y - f i f t y agreem ent on o t h e r s t a t e m e n t s , w hich showed alm o st two s c h o o ls o f th o u g h t on d e f i n i t i o n s o f th o s e r o l e s 0 (c) P a r t i a l ag reem en ts o r d is a g r e e m e n ts , w hich showed some r o l e s on th e way o f b e in g d e fin e d b u t n o t q u i t e c l e a r l y as y e t 0 Examples o f th e t h r e e ty p e s o f r e s p o n s e s u n d e r s ta te m e n ts Type I were as fo llo w s s (a) S u b je c ts were i n co m plete agreem ent t h a t m a rria g e was n o t i n f e r i o r t o a jo b , and a w ife was n o t a p a r a s i t e on h e r husband < > They f u l l y d i s a g r e e d t h a t " a w ife had n o th in g to do i f she o n ly to o k car© o f h e r husband and c h i l d r e n 0S I They were i n com plete a g r e e ment t h a t M to be a w ife was a d e l i g h t f u l c a r e e r «5 8 A lso , a w ife was n o t c o n s id e r e d " u n s o c i a l 5 8 i f she l e f t a jo b f o r h u s b a n d 's s a k e Q None of them a g re e d t h a t a w ife sh o u ld m a in ta in h e r m aiden name a f t e r m a r r i a g e „ (b) T here was a d i v i s i o n o f o p in io n as to w h e th er a d a u g h te r sh o u ld s t a y home and l e t th e son go t o c o ll e g e i f th e r e was n o t enough money f o r both® Those w i t h low s c h o l a s t i c ach iev em en t a g re e d more r e a d i l y th a n th e o t h e r s t h a t a g i r l sh o u ld s t a y home, th u s i d e n t i f y i n g th em se lv e s w i t h th e s itu a tio n ^ , B oth groups c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i e d th e m se lv e s a c c o rd in g to t h e i r s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t i e s e On th e o t h e r hand, i t was shown that such a role was not quite clearly defined by society whether or not both girls and boys should be equally t r e a t e d w i t h r e g a r d t o education*, The s t a t e m e n t ?/heth©r or n o t an i d e a l w ife should e x p e c t h e r h usban d to h e l p w i t h h o u s e h o ld d u t i e s and child c a r e b ro u g h t e q u a l r e s p o n s e on e i t h e r side0 Again i n t h a t a r e a , th e r o l e was n o t c l e a r l y defined a s t o w h e th e r one o r b o t h p a r t n e r s s h o u ld assume h o u s e hold r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s © I n an age where b o th men and women w ork, s t u d e n t s w ere n o t a g r e e d as t o u l t i m a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s I n t h a t area® S u r p r i s i n g l y enoughs, t h e r e w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n th o s e who e x p r e s s e d an i n t e r e s t to work o u t s i d e th e home and t h o s e who d i d not® T h ere were e q u a l d i v i s i o n s i n b o th g ro u p s on t h a t s t a t e m e n t 0 To th e s t a t e m e n t ”a h u sb a n d s h o u ld b© th e c e n t e r o f the w i f e ' s u n i v e r s e g5 5 h a l f a g r e e d and h a l f disagreed*. They gave t h r e e m ain r e a s o n s f o r d i s a g r e e i n g ; t h a t the w hole f a m i l y s h o u ld be i n c l u d e d i n th e w i f e ’ s universe, that h u sb a n d and w ife s h o u ld have e q u a l s h a r e , t h a t God s h o u ld be th e c e n t e r o f a p e r s o n ’s u n i v e r s e « (c) The t h i r d ty p e o f r e s p o n s e s i n c l u d e d th o s e whose a g re e m e n ts o r d i s a g r e e m e n ts © e n te re d on one side more th a n th e o t h e r b u t w h ich were n o t l a r g e enough for a m a jo rity ® Many a g r e e d t h a t o n ly few women were successful in combining marriage and a career® A larger number agreed that the pleasure a woman got from b e in g s u c c e s s f u l I n a c a r e e r was n o th in g compared to th e jo y o f s h a r i n g t h e s u c c e s s o f h e r h u s b a n d 0 They d i d n o t a g r e e g h o w e v er, t h a t women s h o u ld le a v e p o l i t i c a l o f f i c e ^ s e e k i n g t o m©n0 Many a g re e d t h a t a woman s h o u ld make h e r h u s b a n d s s c a r e e r h e r ownc Exam ples o f th e t h r e e ty p e s o f r e s p o n s e s u n d e r s t a t e m e n t s Type I I w ere as fo llo ? ;s s (a) S u b j e c t s d e f i n i t e l y a g r e e d t h a t th e y d id n o t e x p e c t t o be r e l i e v e d o f th e r o u t i n e car© o f t h e i r b a b ie s t h r o u g h c o o p e r a t i v e n u r s e r i e s o They e x p e c te d hu sb an d s to p r o v id e f o r them f i n a n c i a l l y 9 b u t i n c a se o f d iv o r c e th e y e x p e c te d t o c o n t r i b u t e to w ard c h i l d r e n 8s c a r e 0 (b) They wore n o t i n a g re em e n t a s t o w h e th e r b o t h so n and d a u g h te r s h o u ld be e x p e c te d t o ta k e t r a i n i n g i n c o o k in g and home e c o n o m ic s « > T h a t q u e s t i o n a g a i n showed t h e i r c o n f u s io n i n d e f i n i n g r o l e s i n su c h an a r e a as t h e y d i d i n th e above s t a t e m e n t when t h e y c o u ld n o t a g re e Y/hether h u sband s and w ives s h o u ld b o th h e lp i n c h i l d c a r e and h o u s e h o ld r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o (c) Most o f s u b j e c t s 8 answ ers u n d e r t h a t s e c t i o n showed th e y were h e a d in g to w a rd a new r o l e s a " p a r t n e r s h i p 5 3 r o l e o They would acknow ledge th e husband as s u p e r i o r i n p r o f e s s i o n a l and c i v i c l i f e * b u t would w an t t o be e q u a l l y a c t i v e and e n jo y e q u a l p r i v i l e g e s 136 and p r e s t i g e in th e community« They would n o t e x p e c t t o p la y a p a s s i v e r o l e and le a v e the man to make a l l i n v i t a t i o n s and a d v a n c e s s b u t would n o t w is h to f e e l so f r e e i n s o c i a l m a t t e r s even as to p ro p o se m a rria g e * They would l i k e husbands to c o o p e ra te w i t h them i n b r i n g i n g up th e c h i l d r e n and d e v e lo p in g t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y * They w ould e x p e c t t o s h a re w i t h husbands i n j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r f a m ily p r o p e r t y b u t w ould concede t o them th e r i g h t to i n v e s t j o i n t e a r n i n g s 0 I f th e y w o rk ed ? th e y irould e x p e c t same h o urs o f pay and c o n d i t i o n s o f work as men do* However9 th e y w ould p u t husband and c h i l d r e n f i r s t above any d e s i r e f o r worko They would n o t be s a t i s f i e d \? ith a job on th e s e c r e t a r i a l le v e l,, b u t would n o t c a r e t o advance to p o s i t i o n s o f e x e c u ti v e ranko They would e x p e c t to m arry f o r m a t e r i a l and s o c i a l s e c u r i t y as w e l l a s f o r love* They would p ro m ise to love and honor t h e i r husbands b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y to obey them as th e y would e x p e c t agreem en t betw een th em Q They would e x p e c t to e n jo y e q u a l freed o m o f c o n d u ct as husbands and sarne s o c i a l c o n ta c ts ^ same econom ic p r i v i l e g e s b u t n o t same e c o nomic r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s 0 B oth so n s and d a u g h te r s would be e x p e c te d to e n jo y same p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g and be a m b itio u s and e n t e r p r i s i n g i n making t h e i r own way* 137 Analysis of Interview Data From Open-end Questions' The l a s t p a r t o f the i n t e r v i e w , w hich in c lu d e d open-end q u e s t i o n s , f u r t h e r r e v e a l e d th e s u b je c ts * c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 0 They were c o n f o r m i s t s , g r e a t l y in f lu e n c e d by eac h o t h e r s 8 opinion® About 70 p e r c e n t d is c u s s e d , p roblem s and p e r s o n a l m a t t e r s w ith f r l e n d s , 38 p e r c e n t w ith s p e c i f i c a l l y boy f r i e n d s o r f i a n c e s , and 18 p e r c e n t w ith b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s o T o p ics d is c u s s e d were m o stly on boy f r i e n d s and d a t i n g , © m otional p ro b lem s, and o c c a s i o n a l l y on s o c i a l , s p i r i t u a l , and e d u c a t i o n a l m atters® At tim e s , m i n i s t e r s and c o u n s e lo rs were a p proached on s p i r i t u a l and e d u c a t i o n a l q uestion s® However, o n ly a b o u t 28 p e r c e n t w ent to m in i s t e r s and 25 p e r c e n t to c o u n s e lo r s 0 Those i n s o r o r i t i e s and d o r m ito r ie s u s u a l l y \¥©nt to s o r o r i t y o r dorm s i s t e r s Only v ery few went to housem others 0 At tim es th e y were co n fu sed as to whom to d a te and how to behave on such occasions® They were keen to g a in p e e r group a p p ro v a l and f e l t p r e s s u r e d , a t tim e s , to d a te even when th e y d id n o t want to® On o c c a s io n s th e y ware even o b lig e d to g iv e more th a n th e y w anted to keep up a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a b o y 0 A s o r o r i t y g i r l , f o r exam ple, d a te d a f o o t b a l l s t a r who was q u i t e demanding due to h i s p o p u la rity ® She was f o r c e d to g iv e more th a n she w anted to keep up h is f r i e n d s h i p and pleas© h e r s o r o r i t y s i s t e r s who were e a g e r to i n c r e a s e th e s o r o r i t y p r e s t i g e by h e r d a t i n g a f o o t b a l l star® 123 When subjects were asked to name the five most important things in their lives, they mentioned religion first, fo llo w ed by p a r e n t s , f i a n c e s o r boy f r i e n d s , family, and friendse S tra n g e enough, e d u c a tio n ran k ed e i g h t h , marriage e le v e n th , and c a r e e r t h i r t e e n t h ® On the o th e r hand, m ost of them e x p re s s e d a g r e a t d e s i r e to m arry, and 20 p e r c e n t were a lr e a d y engaged, 22 p e r c e n t p in n ed , and 18 p e r c e n t were f r e q u e n t l y d a ti n g one p e r s o n 0 When asked to e x p la in what th e y meant by r e l i g i o n and t h e i r id e a o f God, many r e v e a le d an u n c le a r and co n fu s e d perception® Examples o f t h e i r answers a re as f o llo w s ; ”X don®t have a p a r t i c u l a r p i c t u r e , h a rd f o r me to say 0 ° © Have M ichaelan g elo i n mind as the c r e a t o r 0 © o I d o n 't know, i t i s j u s t a f e e l i n g , I guess o © o I b e lie v e i n som ething b u t I d o n 't know what . . A few s t u d e n t s , however, had a deep e o n v ic tio n and gave le n g th y d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e i r c o n c e p tio n o f God« S ince r e l i g i o n ran k e d f i r s t on th e l i s t , i t was hard to e x p la in why th e y claim ed such a p r e f e r e n c e w ith o u t giving enough ev idence to s u p p o rt such a claim® On© m ight conclude th e y named what th ey f e l t was p ro p e r f o r them to say w ith o u t b e in g f u l l y c o n v in c e d 0 ^•%©e T able 11® TABLE 11 THE FIVE MOST IMPORTANT THINGS IN COLLEGE WOMEN'S LIVES, RANKED ACCORDING TO THEIR PREFERENCES P re fe re n c e s 1 Rank I n P e rc e n ta g e Mean S o c i a l Rank 1 s t 2nd 3 rd 4 t h 5 th R e lig io n 28 I * ? 7 3 0 4 o 400 P a re n ts 14 9 4 3 0 4 o 333 F ia n c e , Hus- bands, and Boy F rie n d s 12 14 6 2 1 3«,971 Fam ily 20 19 11 5 6 3o68Q F rie n d s 4 8 14 10 10 3 o490 H e a lth 3 3 7 5 2 5 o000 C h ild re n 2 4 2 6 2 2 0875 E d u c a tio n 12 11 12 22 14 2 S788 S uccess and A cceptance 4 5 6 rj 6 2«,785 S e l f - S a t i s f a c t i o n and S e l f - F u l f i l l m e n t 1 4 2 3 3 2®769 M arriage 13 14 12 9 3 2 0695 S e c u r i t y 7 7 10 12 9 2 e642 C areer 1 5 3 7 ty | 2 © 391 Country S o c i a l A c t i v i t i e s 0 1 2 2 2 2o285 0 1 0 5 10 l o500 140 Extracurricular activities took a great deal of s t u d e n ts * tim e* p a r t i c u l a r l y o f th o s e i n s o r o r i t i e s « Some e n jo y e d th e a c t i v i t i e s * o t h e r s were aware o f p r e s s u r e s b u t w ere f o r c e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e * and a few r e b e l l e d and j o i n e d * a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e i r own l i k i n g o Those p r e s s u r e d made t h e f o l lo w in g commentss b e lo n g in g t o a s o r o r i t y * th e y had t o keep up i t s p r e s t i g e by p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s o n g f e s t s * c lu b s* and th e l i k e ? w ould r a t h e r j o i n o u t s i d e a c t i v i t i e s b u t c o u ld n o t | e n jo y e d p r e s t i g e and p o p u l a r i t y b u t g r i p e d a b o u t th e many a c t i v i t i e s ; to o many a c t i v i t i e s * w ould r a t h e r d e v o te more tim e t o s t u d i e s ? w ere p r e s s u r e d a t t h e b e g in n in g b u t fo u n d i t h a r d t o stop® Those who r e b e l l e d gave th e f o l lo w in g comments; had to g iv e up s o r o r i t y t o a v o id p r e s s u r e ; f e l t g i r l s w ere s t e r e o t y p e d and so c o u ld n o t s t a n d i t ; w ould r a t h e r a s s o c i a t e w i t h p e o p le o f s i m i l a r i n t e r e s t s r a t h e r t h a n f e e l f o r c e d to co nform ; had to le a v e s o r o r i t y b e e a u se o f i t s ” snobbish*s and c l a s s l e v e l d i f f e r e n c e s 6 S t u d e n ts gave a number o f r e a s o n s f o r g o in g t o c o ll e g e o Many w anted to g e t a w w e l l- r o u n d e d e d u c a t i o n . ” O th e rs w an ted to g e t a c q u a i n t e d w i t h p e o p le o f own age* m eet t h e r i g h t man and go to many p a r t i e s 0 Some w an ted a s p e c i a l i z e d o r p r o f e s s i o n a l ty p e o f e d u c a t i o n to e n a b le them to make use o f t r a i n i n g when n e c e s s a r y 0 S t i l l o t h e r s came t o c o l l e g e b e ca u se p a r e n ts * t e a c h e r s * o r some o t h e r a d u l t s f e l t i t was good f o r them* b u t t h e y th e m s e lv e s d i d 141 n o t f e e l p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n s tu d ie s ,, None showed i n t e r e s t i n e d u c a tio n as means to g e t c a r e e r s f o r l i f e * I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of D ata R e s u lts of th e stu d y were somewhat c o n tr a r y to e x p e c ta tio n * While i t was h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u b j e c t s 8 background as to socio -eco n o m ic s t a t u s , s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n ts, r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s , p a r e n t s 8 e d u c a ti o n a l and o c c u p a tio n a l background would make a d i f f e r e n c e i n s u b j e c t s 1 re s p o n se and r o l e e x p e c ta ti o n s , r e s u l t s from d a ta d id n o t s u p p o rt such a s u p p o s itio n * C o n sid e rin g t h a t o n ly one h y p o th e s is o u t o f s i x was s u p p o rte d , many q u e s tio n s needed t o be r a i s e d ; 1* Was th e method o f drawing th e sample s t a t i s t i c a l l y sound? 2® Was th e sample adeq u ate and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n ? 3 0 What type o f q u e s tio n s were the s t u d e n ts asked and u n d er what c o n d itio n s were th ey asked? Could they have p o s s ib l y le d to any b ia s ? 4 0 Were the h y p o th eses s t a t e d i n acco rdan ce to r o l e th e o ry ? 5* Were th e s t a t i s t i c a l t o o l s u se d sound? Once the above q u e s tio n s were answ ered i n the a f f i r m a t i v e , f u r t h e r q u e s tio n s needed to be asked; 6* Are t h e r e o u ts id e f a c t o r s t h a t could have a f f e c t e d th e r e s u l t s ? 142 7* Are t h e r e p o w erfu l elem en ts i n s o c i e t y today t h a t have a s t r o n g e r i n f lu e n c e upon i n d i v i d u a l s th a n the w ell-know n i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f a m i l y , school^ and church? The above q u e s tio n s w i l l be ta k e n one a t a tim e and d is c u s s e d i n d e t a i l as fo llo w s? 1 0 To answer th e f i r s t q u e s tio n one needed to rev iew th e s e c t i o n on sam pling i n C h a p te r IVo The. sample was s e l e c t e d th ro u g h the s y s te m a tic random sample method f o r two im p o rta n t s t a t i s t i c a l r e a s o n s 0 I t had an advan- ta b e o v e r th e sim ple random sample method i n t h a t i t d e c re a s e d the s i z e o f t h e s ta n d a r d e r r o r » Compared to the o n e -s ta g e s t r a t i f i e d random sam p les i t sp re a d more ev en ly over th e p o p u latio n ., T husP th e method used i n draw ing the sample was s t a t i s t i c a l l y sound and* moreover,, had advan ta g e s over th e two o th e r methodso 2 < > The sample in te rv ie w e d was 10 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n Most s t a t i s t i c a l a u t h o r i t i e s a g ree t h a t a sample o f such a s i z e s drawn a c c o rd in g to th e s t a t i s t i c a l methods d e s c r ib e d i n C hapter IV p i s c o n s id e re d a d e q u ate o C hap ter V, T ab les 3 P 4 P and the d i s c u s s i o n which fo llo w e d showed th e sample to be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n 3© Q u e stio n s asked of s tu d e n ts were m ainly ta k e n from a number of s t u d i e s d is c u s s e d i n C h a p te rs I I I and IVo I n each o f the s t u d i e s th e r e were d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u b j e c t s 1 answers a c c o rd in g to th e way s u b j e c t s were divided.. By 14® using the same questions in this study, differences in sub jects* responses should be expected; yet no differences were apparent® The s tu d e n ts were in te rv ie w e d by one p e rso n only, w hich was advantageous i n t h a t i t red u ced th e r e g u l a r bias u s u a l l y found when a number o f i n te r v ie w e r s a re used® The s tu d e n ts were a ls o asked to comment on t h e i r answ ers,, which gave them a chance to e x p re ss them selves freely® 4® Th© hy potheses were d eep ly ro o te d i n r o l e theory® C h ap ter IV s t a t e d a number o f t h e o r i e s from which th e hy potheses were derived® Th© f i r s t h y p o th e s is was based on th© e x is te n c e o f group s t r u c t u r e where th e re a re r o l e s and p o sitio n s® Newcomb has s t a t e d t h a t a r o l e p e r formed two f u n c tio n s f o r the g ro u p 0 I t p ro v id e d a p a t t e r n o f e x p e c ta tio n s f o r the i n d i v i d u a l and channeled h is beha v i o r as he fu n c tio n e d i n th e p o s i t i o n he o ccu p ied i n th e group; and i t p ro v id e d a basis f o r communication between th e i n t e r a c t i n g members of th© group® A ccording to such a c o n ce p t, the s tu d e n ts who assumed s u p e r o r d in a te r o l e s a t c o lle g e would e x p e c t to keep up w ith sim ila r, r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s upon le a v in g c o l l e g e 0 They would e x p e c t to seek c a r e e r s and m a in ta in t h a t f e e l i n g of independence and s u p e r i o r i t y which th ey had a t college® On the o th e r hand, th o se who assumed s u b o rd in a te r o l e s a t c o lle g e would a ls o be e x p ec te d to assume s i m i l a r r o l e s a f t e r c o ll e g e , a c c o rd in g to r o l e theory® In t h i s study b o th groups s a i d they expected to work a f t e r college® Thus, one ?/ould suspect 144 other factors that might have influenced students' expecta tions o The second h y p o th e s is was d e riv e d from th© th e o ry which s t a t e d t h a t each group had i t s group norms to which. its members conformed,, I t was h y p o th e siz e d t h a t th e s o c io economic s t a t u s of the i n d i v i d u a l would make a d i f f e r e n c e in his behavioro C h ild re n of th e upper and upper-middl© c la s s e s would observe th e b e h a v io r o f such g ro u p s, w hile th o se of the m iddle and w orking c la s s e s would p a t t e r n t h e i r b e h av io r a c c o rd in g to t h e i r g ro u p s 0 In t h i s stu d y the two groups were q u ite s i m i l a r as f a r as le a d e r s h ip was assumed a t co lleg e o Those who assumed s u p e r o r d in a te r o l e s a t c o lle g e came from the two g ro u p s , and th e r e was no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between them® The t h i r d h y p o th e s is d e a l t w ith one of the old and w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d i n s t i t u t i o n s , the c h u rc h « As th e m a jo rity of the s u b je c ts came from a C h r i s t i a n background th© p r i n c i p a l te a c h in g s o f t h a t r e l i g i o n were used as b a s is o A m ajor p a r t o f the te a c h in g s s t r e s s e d love as th e g r e a t e s t p r i n c i p l e in l i f e 0 Through love of God and mankind the i n d i v i d u a l m ight be e x p ec te d to re n d e r s e r v i c e s „ Thus, s u b je c ts who fo llo w ed c o n s c ie n tio u s ly th o se te a c h in g s would e x p e c t to work a f t e r g ra d u a tio n s in c e they would f e e l a sense of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to?/ard o t h e r s 0 In t h i s stu d y b o th tho se who p a r t i c i p a t e d In r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s and th o se who d id n o t s a id th e y expected to work a f t e r 145 c o l l e g e . The f o u r t h h y p o th e s is was d e r iv e d from th e th e o ry w hich s t a t e d t h a t p e rv a s iv e r o l e s d e te rm in e d the o th e r r o l e s w hich th e i n d i v i d u a l played® Thus, s t u d e n ts w ith h ig h s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d were e x p e c te d t o assume s u p e r o r d in a t e r o l e s a t c o l l e g e 0 T here was a b ig d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e two g ro u p s , a c c o rd in g to t h i s h y p o th e s is e The l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e was above one p e r c e n t 0 S in ce t h a t h y p o th e s is was th e o n ly one s u p p o r te d , f u r t h e r I n v e s t i g a t i o n was made® I t was d is c o v e r e d t h a t i n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r c o e d u c a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n in v o lv e d , t h e r e was a g e n e r a l r u l e t h a t o n ly th o se w ith h ig h s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d s co uld h o ld o f f i c e i n th e v a r io u s s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s c Such a d is c o v e r y had a s tr o n g b e a r i n g , i n t h a t i t i n c r e a s e d c o n fid e n c e in the r e s u lts ® When d a ta were g a th e r e d and t a b u l a t e d t h e r e was no p r e v io u s knowledge o f t h a t g e n e r a l r u l e a t th e u n iv e rs ity ® The very f a c t t h a t H y p o th esis IV was h i g h ly s u p p o rte d would s u g g e s t t h a t d a ta o f th e o th e r f i v e h y p o th e se s were r e l i a b le b ecause H y p o th e sis IV was found to be t r u e by d e f i n i tion® The f i f t h and s i x t h d e a l t w ith a n o th e r w ell-know n i n s t i t u t i o n , th e family® A cco rd in g to r o l e th e o r y , c h i l d r e n l e a r n s o c i a l r o l e s from e a r l y childhood® As th ey a re c lo s e to t h e i r p a r e n t s , th e y l e a r n t h e i r p ro p e r roles® D a u g h ters p a r t i c u l a r l y o b serv e mothers® roles® I t was h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t d a u g h te rs would e x p e c t to work a f t e r 146 g r a d u a t i o n I f t h e i r m oth ers p u rsu e d c a r e e r s , and would n o t e x p e c t t o work i f t h e i r m o th ers were n o t c a r e e r women® I n t h i s s tu d y th e m a j o r i t y o f th e s u b j e c t s e x p e c te d to work a f t e r c o l l e g e , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f what th e m o th e rs dido 5 0 The s t a t i s t i c a l t o o l s u se d i n t h i s stu d y were and K olm ogorov-Sm irnov t e s t s 0 C h a p te r IV gave d e t a i l s o f b o th t o o l s and how e f f e c t i v e th e y were i n s m a ll sample s t u d i e s o Having d e fe n d e d th e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n , d i s c u s s i o n o f th e l a s t two q u e s t io n s followed® 6 0 Are t h e r e o u t s i d e f a c t o r s , n o t a c c o u n te d f o r , t h a t c o u ld have i n f l u e n c e d th e r e s u l t s ? Q u e stio n s o f t h i s s tu d y were t a k e n m o s tly from s t u d i e s made by Komarovsky, W a llin , and Se?«rard0 I t was p o s s i b l e t o compare s t u d e n t s ’ c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h i s s tu d y w i t h t h e s e t h r e e stu d ies® Komarovsky u se d u n d e rg r a d u a te s t u d e n t s from c l a s s e s i n F am ily R e l a t i o n s and S o c i a l Psychology® No f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n s were g iv e n o f h e r su b je cts® W a l l i n ’ s s tu d y , how ever, w hich was b a se d on h e r s , d e s c r i b e d h i s s u b j e c t s as u n d e rg r a d u a te c o l l e g e women from a w e s te r n c o e d u c a t io n a l u n i v e r s i t y , th e m a j o r i t y o f whom were betw een th e ages of 18-21, A m ericans, p r e d o m in a n tly C h ris tia n s ® T h e ir p a r e n t s had one o r more y e a r s o f c o l l e g e , and t h e i r f a t h e r s were l a r g e l y i n th e p r o f e s s i o n s , i n m a n a g e r ia l and e x e c u tiv e p o s i t i o n s , or had t h e i r own business® S ew ard ’s s u b j e c t s , t a k e n from an i n t r o d u c t o r y c o u rs e In p sy c h o lo g y , were 147 homogeneous i n ag e, i n t e l l i g e n c e , and socio-econom ic s t a t u s 0 A lthough s u b j e c t s of th o se s t u d i e s and th e ones of th e p r e s e n t stu d y c o u ld n o t be e a s i l y m atched f o r a c c u ra te com parison, t h e r e were s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een them as to age, e d u c a tio n , and so cio -eco n o m ic s t a t u s 0 I n o th e r words, th e r e were no m ajor d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e s u b j e c t s 5 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to w a rra n t the r e s u l t s found i n th e p r e s e n t studyo One m ajor f a c t o r t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d between them, however, was th e elem en t of t i m e 0 While s u b j e c t s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y were in te rv ie w e d I n 1960, th o se o f Komarovsky's were s t u d i e d i n 1943, S ew ard 's In 1945, and W a l l i n 5s i n 1950, r e p r e s e n t i n g a t e n to s e v e n te e n y e a r s d i f f e r e n c e betw een the time th e p r e s e n t stu d y was made and t h a t o f th e o t h e r s 0 Were th e s tu d e n ts who went to c o lle g e to n t o se v e n te e n y e a r s ago d i f f e r e n t in t h e i r sen se o f v a lu e s and e x p e c ta ti o n s from th o s e o f the p r e s e n t day? Time was re g a rd e d as a p o s s i b l e f a c t o r i n i n f l u e n c i n g r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y 0 7 o Are t h e r e p o w e rfu l elem ents i n s o c i e t y and on campus today t h a t m ight have had a s t r o n g e r i n f lu e n c e upon s tu d e n ts th a n the w ell-know n I n s t i t u t i o n s of fa m ily , sc h o o l, and church? From th e in te r v ie w s , i t was c l e a r s t u d e n ts seemed aware o f c e r t a i n p r e s s u r e s upon them which I n flu e n c e d t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s , d e c i s i o n s , and e x p e c t a t i o n s 6 To b e g in w ith , th ey e n te r e d c o lle g e because th ey f e l t I t 148 was e x p e c te d o f them . Once on campus, the problem s o f p r e s s u r e s became m a g n i f ie d . I n a s t u d y made a t V a s s a r C o lle g e i t was fou nd t h a t " S tu d e n t C u l t u r e ” had a g r e a t I n f l u e n c e upon s t u d e n t s . I n t h a t s tu d y , Freedm an w ro te ; We b e l i e v e t h a t a d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e s t u d e n t c u l t u r e e x i s t s , on© s u p e r o r d i n a t e to th e d i f f e r e n c e s among s t u d e n t s . . . Th© s t u d e n t body as an e n t i t y may be th o u g h t to p o s s e s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c q u a l i t i e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y , ways o f i n t e r a c t i n g s o c i a l l y , ty p e s o f v a lu e s and b e l i e f s , and th e l i k e , w hich a r e p a s s e d on from one g e n e r a t i o n 8 o f s t u d e n t s to a n o th e r w hich l i k e any c u l t u r e p ro v id e a b a s i c c o n t e x t i n w hich i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n i n g ta k e s p l a c e . . . T h is c u l t u r e i s th e prim e e d u c a t i o n a l f o r c e a t work i n th© C o lle g e . . o The s c h o l a s t i c and academ ic aim s and p r o c e s s e s o f th e c o l l e g e a re i n l a r g e m easure t r a n s m i t t e d to incom ing s t u d e n t s by th e p re d o m in a n t s t u d e n t c u l t u r e . . o The s t u d e n t body I n g e n e r a l , can h a r d l y be d e s c r i b e d as I n d i f f e r e n t to academ ic work o r as u n a f f e c t e d by i t . However, e x c e p t f o r a m i n o r i t y , th© fu n d a m e n ta l p h ilo s o p h y o f the c o l l e g e and i t s academ ic and i n t e l l e c t u a l aims do n o t e n t e r p r i m a r i l y I n t o th e f o r m a t io n o f th e c e n t r a l v a lu e s an a h a b i t s o f l i f e o f th© s t u d e n t b o d y 0 I n s t e a d f o r m ost s t u d e n t s , e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e s a re a s s i m i l a t e d to a c e n t r a l cor© o f v a lu e s and d i s p o s i t i o n s w hich i s r e l a t i v e l y in d e p e n d e n t o f th e more f o r m a l academ ic I n f l u e n c e F reed m an 8s s t a te m e n t m ig h t be c o n s i d e r e a a key w h ich may h e lp to e x p l a i n why th e h y p o th e s e s i n t h i s s tu d y were n o t s u p p o r te d i n s p i t e o f t h e i r b e in g d e e p ly r o o t e d i n r o l e t h e o r y 0 Some s t r o n g f a c t o r seemed to p la y a v e ry Im p o r ta n t p a r t i n i n f l u e n c i n g s t u d e n t s 8 o p i n io n s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r b a c k g ro u n d 0 I t may p o s s i b l y have been th e " s t u d e n t c u l t u r e , " as i t c o n tin u e d to be t r a n s m i t t e d to ■^*%ervin B. Freedm an, "The P a ssag e Through C o lleg e," J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l I s s u e s , X I I , No. 4 (1 9 5 6 ), 1 4 -1 5 . th e incom ing s t u d e n t s , w hich p ro v id e d th e prim e e d u c a t i o n a l f o r c e a t work i n th e college® The e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e s seemed to emerge i n t o a c e r t a i n co re o f v a lu e s in d e p e n d e n t o f the fo rm a l academ ic in flu e n ce s® S tu d e n ts* f a m i l i e s , s o c i a l s t a t u s , s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t i e s , r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s , and sch o o ls* g o a ls d id n o t seem to i n f l u e n c e so much t h e i r se n se o f v a lu e s and e x p e c ta tio n s ® On th© o t h e r hand, m ost s t u d e n ts seemed e a g e r to b© a c c e p te d by t h e i r p e e r g ro u p , w i l l i n g to conform a t any cost® The f o r c e s of s o c i a l i z a t i o n w i t h i n th e s t u d e n t c u l t u r e a p p e a re d as the dom inant in f lu e n c e upon them® Freedman found t h a t a c c e p ta n c e by f e llo w s t u d e n ts was th e prim e con cern o f freshm en as th ey were f i r s t admitted® The j u n i o r y e a r was o f maximum s o l i d a r i t y in th e c o lle g e community, e d u c a ti o n a l l y and so c ia lly ® I t was th e j u n i o r s who seemed to be th e c h i e f h e i r s and t r a n s m i t t e r s o f s t u d e n t culture® S e n i o r s , though s t i l l campus l e a d e r s , were moving away from th e c e n t e r o f s t u d e n t cultu re® S u b je c ts o f t h i s stu d y a d m itte d to r e a l s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s s in c e th e y came to college® D a tin g , g e t t i n g p le d g e d , b e lo n g in g to a s o r o r i t y , j o in i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s on campus, ru n n in g f o r o f f i c e , moving w ith the a c c e p te d crowd were some o f th e p r e s s u r e s s t u d e n ts faced® Such p r e s s u r e s were c o n firm ed by a number o f s o c i o l o g i s t s and w rite rs® Dr® James Ae P e te r s o n , a u th o r and a s s o c i a t e p r o f e s s o r o f s o c io lo g y a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn 150 C a l i f o r n i a , t o l d t h i s s t o r y as he t a l k e d about th e c o lle g e g i r l s i n m id - tw e n tie th c e n tu ry A m erica0 So many of them a re t e r r i b l y c o nfused as to what r o l e i n l i f e th ey a re supposed to be playing® Are th e y supposed to b© i n t e r e s t i n g , w e ll- e d u c a te d women? T h a t ’s a new role® Are th e y supposed to be f r a g i l e , sw eet and s o f t ? T h a t 's the o ld role® Are th e y su p posed to be c a r e e r women, com peting w ith men, claw ing t h e i r way to th© to p i n b u s in e s s ? Or a re th ey j u s t supposed to be a v a i l a b l e when needed? The whole th in g i s confusing® I t ’s no wonder many b r i g h t i n t e l l i g e n t . g i r l s t u r n to o u r p s y c h i a t r i s t s f o r help® -^ In t h i s s tu d y , i t was e v id e n t t h a t s tu d e n ts had an e a r n e s t d e s i r e , from th e moment th ey e n te r e d c o l l e g e , to be a c c e p te d by t h e i r p e e r g ro u p s 0 To a ch iev e t h e i r p u rp o se , most of them were fo r c e d to pay th e p r i c e , no m a tte r how c o s t l y i t m ight have been® S u p p o rtin g t h i s p o i n t , M u e lle r has w r i t t e n ; Th© l o y a l t y o f a l l y o u th to t h e i r p e e r s ta n d a rd s i s su p e rb , and th e need to conform to each o t h e r 's t a s t e i n d r e s s , speech , and a t t i t u d e s seems a lm o st a s o c i a l p a th o lo g y ® ® . I n d i v i d u a l i z a t i o n , s t r a n g e l y enough, i s n o t so much a c o m p e titio n to sta n d out from th e mass, b u t r a t h e r a c o m p e titio n to b e lo n g , to be one w ith e v er h ig h e r , s m a lle r , and more p r e s t i g e f u l groupso The most a c u te f r u s t r a t i o n l i e s n o t i n f a i l i n g to be i n d i v i d u a l i z e d b u t i n f a i l i n g to belong to the e s p e c i a l l y chosen group, or f a l l i n g to ach iev e the s e lf-im a g e i n the group to which one i s f o rc e d to belo n g o o o Th© s e l f Image can be m easured o nly by i t s r e f l e c t i o n from the eyes of o t h e r s , and i t i s , t h e r e f o r e , very s u b j e c t i v e and u n s t a b le •■ k 'forhe Log A ngeles Timies, March 28, 1961, P a r t I I , p p 0 1,3® ©marks 'conFXrmecTTjy P e te rs o n i n a p e r s o n a l interview ® ) ■^Kate H ® M u e lle r, "The C u l t u r a l P re s s u r e s on W o m e n , I n Opal D ® David (e d 0). The E d u c a tio n o f Women-- Signs For t h e F u tu re (W ashington, thC®: American C o u n cil on E d u c a tio n , 1 9 ^ 7 7 P® 49« 3J1 C onform ing a l s o i n c l u d e d th e u rg e n c y t o m arry a t an e a r l y a g e . M u e lle r d e c l a r e d t h a t , . . . th e m ost i n s i s t e n t p r e s s u r e f o r th e young woman i n c o l l e g e to d a y i s t o g e t m a r r ie d young . . . The woman's e v e r p r e s e n t p r e s s u r e to a t t r a c t and p l e a s e men i s n e v e r more s e l f c o n s c io u s th a n i n h e r campus y e a r s , and i t v e ry much a f f e c t s h e r c la s s r o o m and e x tr a c l a s s b e h a v i o r . 16 B r in g e r has add ed , Today a young l a d y o f tw e n ty -o n e who i s s t i l l s i n g l e i s a p t to t h i n k o f h e r s e l f as an o ld m aid . . . To t h e s e g i r l s s e c u r i t y i s v e ry i m p o r t a n t . However, t h i s i s n o t fo u n d i n a jo b , incom e, s o c i a l s t a t u s . To have th e a f f e c t i o n and e ste e m o f a young man whom th e y adm ire seems t o many the s a f e s t b u lw a rk a g a i n s t s e l f d o u b t and t h e i r f e e l i n g o f i n s u f f i c i e n c y o 17 M u e lle r has a sk e d % "What i s i t t h a t makes th e young woman a f r a i d t h a t she m ig h t n o t m a rry , t h a t i f she p u ts o f f m a r ria g e beyond one c e r t a i n age she w o n 't w in any husband a t a l l ? ’1® The s t u d e n t c u l t u r e c o u ld be a f a c t o r i n i n f l u e n c i n g s t u d e n t s ’ t h i n k i n g w i t h r e g a r d t o m a r r ia g e and d a t i n g . Some s t u d e n t s , how ever, t r i e d t o f i n d o u t l e t s to a v o id th e p r e s s u r e . Freedm an r e p o r t e d i n h i s s tu d y t h a t . . . f o r the m a j o r i t y o f s t u d e n t s , i n t e r e s t i n men, d e s p i t e a p p e a ra n c e , i s l i m i t e d . D a tin g i s m a in ly f o r a d e s i r e t o m a i n t a i n p r e s t i g e . Sophomores and j u n i o r s 16I b id ., p0 50. ^ C a r l B in g e r , M .D ., "The P r e s s u r e s on C o lle g e G irls T o d a y ," The A t l a n t i c , C C V II:41. ^ M u eller, op. c i t ., p. 53. 158 u s u a l l y r e p o r t t h a t th e y d a te d more f r e q u e n t l y as freshm en, as th ey f e l t i t was e x p e c te d o f th e m .19 S a n fo rd added s t i l l a n o th e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the s tu d e n t c u l t u r e . He s a i d , . . , we m ight as w e ll f a c e the f a c t t h a t to be a s e r i o u s s c h o l a r a t the s tu d e n t l e v e l . . . i s to be e x c e p t i o n a l . One may, i f he i s f o r t u n a t e , belong to o r f i n d membership i n an e x c e p ti o n a l s u b c u l tu r e ; but u s u a l l y he must be p re p a re d to be an e x c e p tio n in th e group i n w hich he l i v e s . 9® The above d i s c u s s i o n p o in te d toward th e p re se n c e of a s tr o n g f o r c e working upon s tu d e n ts and i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i r ways of b e h a v io r , t h in k i n g , and r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s . Lack o f su p p o rt o f the h y p o th eses in t h i s s tu d y seemed to i n d i c a t e t h a t such a fo r c e was n o t found i n th e f a m ily , chu rch, o r s c h o o l a u t h o r i t i e s . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t , no m a t t e r how the s u b j e c t s were d iv id e d , i n comparing t h e i r answers no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were fo u n d . As f a r as fa m ily influence was concerned, s u b je c ts ’ ro le e x p e c ta tio n s r e g a r d in g work d id n o t seem much a f f e c t e d i n s p i t e of m o th e r s ’ d i f f e r e n c e s o f i n t e r e s t s . T his q u e s tio n may be w o rth i n v e s t i g a t i n g . How c l e a r l y does the fa m ily d e fin e i t s members’ r o l e s a t p r e s e n t , and how much do c o lle g e women p e rc e iv e o f such r o l e s ? Are fa m ily t i e s weakening and g iv in g way to o th e r f o r c e s ? Do the 19 Freedman, op. e i t . , p 0 28. ^®Sanford N e v i t t , ’’M o tiv a tio n o f High A c h i e v e r s ,” i n Opal D. David ( e d . ) , op. c i t . , p . 56. 153 d a u g h te rs and t h e i r p a r e n ts b elong to two d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s , the form er b e in g th e "p ee r group c u l t u r e ? ” The church i s a second i n s t i t u t i o n w orthy o f i n v e s t i g a t i n g from a s t a n d p o in t o f i t s power i n h e lp in g to d eterm in e s o c i a l r o l e s 0 I t was h y p o th e s iz e d t h a t th o se p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s would have p e rv a s iv e r o l e s which would in f lu e n c e th e o th e r r o l e s th ey play® I n t h i s stu d y th e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between answers o f th o se who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s and tho se who d id n o t 0 M oreover, when s t u d e n ts were asked t o name th e f i v e most im p o rta n t th in g s i n t h e i r l i v e s , th e m a jo r ity named r e l i g i o n f i r s t on the l i s t o ^ l How much in f lu e n c e does th e church have upon y o u th to d ay ? I s i t lo s in g i t s g r i p upon them? Is i t f e e d in g them w ith th e r e l i g i o u s m a t e r i a l t h a t would in f lu e n c e t h e i r th o u g h ts , b e h a v io r, and r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s ; o r is the ch u rch g e t t i n g more in v o lv e d i n s o c i a l r a t h e r th a n r e l i gious f u n c t i o n s ? T h ird , a re the s c h o o l ’s aim s, g o a ls , and p h i l o s o phy l o s i n g t h e i r power upon s tu d e n ts ? Are th e r e o th e r s t r o n g e r f o r c e s , such as th e ’’s tu d e n t c u l t u r e , ” w hich h e lp s tu d e n ts to d eterm in e t h e i r r o l e e x p e c ta tio n s ? In Freedm an’s stu d y i t i s a s s e r t e d t h a t th e s tu d e n t c u lt u r e 2lSee Table 11, 154 p r o v id e s a b a s i c c o n te x t i n w hich i n d i v i d u a l l e a r n i n g ta k e s p l a c e . E x ce p t f o r a m i n o r i t y , th e fu n d a m e n ta l p h ilo s o p h y o f th e c o l l e g e and i t s academ ic and i n t e l l e c t u a l aims do n o t e n t e r p r i m a r i l y i n t o th e f o r m a tio n o f th e c e n t r a l v a lu e s and h a b i t s of l i f e o f th e s t u d e n t b ody. A v e ry s e r i o u s q u e s t io n may be r a i s e d a t t h i s p o i n t 0 S in c e th e s t u d e n t c u l t u r e a p p e a re d to have su c h a p o w e rfu l i n f l u e n c e upon s t u d e n t s , i s i t p o s s i b l e t h a t i t c o u ld be u t i l i z e d by s u b v e r s iv e g roups to a f f e c t th e group p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n th e i n s t i t u t i o n ? Are t h e r e d a n g e rs from su c h g ro u p s? Can th e s c h o o l i t s e l f make u se o f t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y i n c h an g in g th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e ? S a n fo rd commented on t h i s t o p i c from th e s c h o l a s t i c p o i n t o f view : C o lle g e s t h a t have b een a b le l a r g e l y th r o u g h v ig o r o u s r e c r u i t m e n t and s e l e c t i o n to c r e a t e a campus s o c i e t y i n w hich th e h i g h e s t p r e s t i g e a t t a c h e s t o th e h i g h e s t s c h o l a r s h i p , can c o u n t h e a v i l y upon s o c i a l p r e s s u r e to keep m o t i v a t i o n a t a h ig h l e v e l 022 B in g e r has added, T here i s much t o be s a i d f o r c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith more m atu re p e r s o n s , n o t o n ly i n th e f a c u l t y b u t i n th e s t u d e n t body, to o , where th e i n c l u s i o n o f some o l d e r men and women, who a re c o m p le tin g u n f i n i s h e d c o l l e g e work, can add to m e a n in g fu ln e s s o f s t u d y 0 And th e c h o ic e o f new members o f f a c u l t y s h o u ld be made w i t h an eye t o t h e i r c o n c e rn f o r s t u d e n t s as w e l l as f o r t h e i r c r e a t i v e s c h o l a r s h i p 0 . o T here i s a s a l u t a r y e f f e c t a ls o i n good t a l k , n o t o n ly o f t h e b u ll-» s e s s io n k in d , b u t t a l k w i t h s o p h i s t i c a t e d , c r i t i c a l p e rs o n s who a re c o n c e rn e d w ith th e human 22 Sanford, ope cite , , p. 550 155 s i t u a t i o n • • • Out o f t h i s can come c o m p e llin g and c h a r i s m a t i c id e a s , w hich may l a s t a l i f e t i m e *23 Summary o f F in d in g s S u b je c ts o f t h i s s tu d y were s e l e c t e d th ro u g h th e s y s te m a tic random sample method from a c o e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n on th e w est c o a s t 0 They were A m erican, C a u c a sia n , u n d e rg r a d u a te , s i n g l e women w ith ages v a ry in g betw een 17 and 22 y e a r s 0 T h e ir so c io -ec o n o m ic s t a t u s rang ed from u p p e r to w orking c l a s s 0 S e v e n ty - f o u r p e r c e n t o f th e f a t h e r s and 63 p e r c e n t o f th e m o thers had c o lle g e e d u c a tio n , s t a r t i n g from one to th r e e y e a r s o f c o ll e g e up to th e Ph0D® level® F o r t y - s i x p e r c e n t o f th e f a t h e r s and 25 p e r c e n t o f th e m others had c o lle g e degrees® F i f t y - f i v e p e r c e n t of th e m others d e v o te d f u l l tim e t o th e fa m ily and th e r e s t worked o u t s i d e th e home® Twelve p e r c e n t of th e s t u d e n ts e x p e c te d to g e t m a rrie d b e fo r e g r a d u a tio n , 72 p e r c e n t i n the f i r s t o r second y e a r a f t e r g r a d u a t io n , and 16 p e r c e n t a f t e r th e t h i r d t o f i f t h year® F i f t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t e x p e c te d to work u n t i l t h e y had t h e i r f i r s t c h i l d , and 25 p e r c e n t were p la n n in g on d e v o tin g f u l l tim e to home® E ig h t p e r c e n t e x p e c te d to work d u rin g most of t h e i r m a rrie d life ® The r e s t w anted t o work d u rin g some p a r t o f m a rr ie d life ® Bringer, op® cit®, p® 44® 156 A lth o u g h s t u d e n t s were d i v id e d a c c o rd in g to s o c i o econom ic status*, r e l i g i o u s I n t e r e s t s * s c h o l a s t i c a c h i e v e ment* s u p o r o r d in a te - s u b o r d in a t© r o le s * p a r e n t s 1 e d u c a t i o n a l and w orking background* t h e r e was no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een th e groups® a n s w e r s 0 S u b je c ts were ask ed t o comment on s ta te m e n ts w hich would r e v e a l t h e i r r o l e e x p e c ta tio n s ,, T here vms r o l e co n sen su s among th e su b j e c t s r e g a r d l e s s o f how th e y were d ivided,, I n t e s t i n g th e h ypo theses* o n ly one o u t of s i x was su p p o rted * th e one b e in g s ,9I t i s more l i k e l y t h a t c o ll e g e women w ith h ig h s c h o l a s t i c a ch iev e m e n ts assume s u p e r o r d i n a t e r o l e s a t c o l l e g e o 5 3 On f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n * i t was fo und t h a t a g e n e r a l r u l e o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n a llo w e d o n ly th o s e w i t h h ig h s c h o l a s t i c r e c o r d to h o ld o f f i c e * a m ain f a c t o r i n d e f i n i n g th e s u p e r o r d i n a t e r o l e 0 Thus the h y p o th e s is pro v ed t o be t r u e by d e f i n i ti o n ® Such d i s c o v e r y added g r e a t im p o rtan c e t o th e r e s u l t s o f the s t u d y 0 F i r s t * th e d a ta were r e l i a b l e and r e s u l t s were n o t due to chance® Second* th e r e c o u ld be a s t r o n g f a c t o r o r f a c t o r s * n o t a c c o u n te d f o r i n th e study* w hich c o u ld have i n f l u e n c e d s t u d e n t s 1 answers® I t was n e c e ssa ry * however* to re v ie w the r e s e a r c h design® Methods u se d i n s e l e c t i n g th e sam ple and the t o o l s f o r t e s t i n g the d a ta were found to be sound® The h y p o th e se s were d e r iv e d from r o l e theory® Most q u e s t io n s were t a k e n from p r e v io u s s t u d i e s where t h e r e were s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n s u b j e c t s 1 r e s p o n s e s . I t was n e c e s s a r y t o se e k f u r t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t m ight have a f f e c t e d th e r e s u l t s . One a p p e a re d to b© th e e le m e n t o f tim e . S tu d ie s from w hich q u e s tio n s were ta k e n were made t e n to s e v e n te e n y e a r s e a r l i e r th a n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . The q u e s t io n r a i s e d was w hether s t u d e n t s of t h a t tim e d i f f e r e d from th o s e o f the p r e s e n t tim e i n t h e i r sen se o f v a lu e s and e x p e c t a t i o n s . Second, s t u d e n t c u l t u r e a p p ea re d to be a s tr o n g power upon s t u d e n t s . They seemed t o be more in f lu e n c e d by i t th a n by t h e i r parents® backgrounds, so c io -ec o n o m ic s t a t u s , s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n ts, s u p e r o r d i n a t e - s u b o r d i n a t e r o l e s , and r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s . P re s s u re a p p ea re d to be p u t upon them th ro u g h t h a t p o w e rfu l s t u d e n t c u l t u r e . R e g a rd le s s of d e s i r e , s t u d e n ts found th em selv es f o r c e d to j o i n c e r t a i n o r g a n i 2 a t i o n s on campus*, a t t e n d s p e c i f i c p a r t i e s , fo llo w th e g r o u p ss a c c e p te d system o f d a t i n g , and wear th© g r o u p 's p ro p e r " s t y l e " of d r e s s . T h e ir h o p es, a s p i r a t i o n s , f u t u r e r o l e s i n l i f e - - a l l seemed to be governed by t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s t u d e n t c u l t u r e . What th e s c h o o l a u t h o r i t i e s , p a r e n t s , o r r e l i g i o u s le a d e r s r e q u i r e d d id n o t seem to m a t t e r to them as much as t h e i r s t u d e n t c u l t u r e a p p r o v a l. As f a r as p a r e n t s were co n ce rn e d , s t u d e n ts s a i d the form er d id n o t u s u a l l y I n t e r f e r e w ith t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s . In o t h e r w o rd s, p a r e n ts d id n o t seem to have much o f an im pact upon daughters® d e c i s i o n s . To th e q u e s t io n , "How much c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s th e r e betw een what you t h i n k and what yo u r p a r e n t s t h i n k ab out how you sh o u ld be sp e n d in g y o u r tim e a t c o lle g e ? " S eventy-one p e r c e n t s a i d t h e r e were "no c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a n d 27 p e r c e n t s a i d t h e r e were " l i t t l e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s , " To th e q u e stio n ? "How much c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s th e r e betw een what you would l i k e to do and what y ou r p a re n ts would l i k e you t o do when you f i n i s h c o lle g e ? " E ig h t y - f iv e p e r c e n t s a i d "Hone?" and 12 p e r c e n t s a i d "a l i t t l e 0" A lthou gh p a re n ts d i f f e r e d from e a c h o t h e r i n e d u c a ti o n a l and socio -econo m ic background? and i n t h e i r i n t e r e s t s i n c a r e e rs ? t h e r e were no c o n t r a d i c t i o n s between them and t h e i r d a u g h te rs? w h ile a t th e same tim e the d a u g h te rs a g re ed w ith eac h o t h e r , Such r e s u l t s m ight be i n t e r p r e t e d i n a v a r i e t y o f w ays0 P a re n ts were n o t con ce rn e d a b o u t d a u g h t e r s 5 d e c i s i o n s . Or? th e y were so f a r removed from such p e e r group c u l t u r e t h a t p a r e n t s s i n f l u ence upon d a u g h te rs was weak. T hird? fa m ily t i e s m ight be weakening and d a u g h te rs were more s t r o n g l y in f lu e n c e d by p r e s s u r e s o f s tu d e n t culture® CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS Some I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s and I m p li c a t io n s o f th e S tu d y I n m ost s o c i a l r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s , h y p o th e se s a re u s u a l l y dravra, t e s t e d , and i n many c a s e s a number o f them a re su ppo rted ,, I n t h i s stu d y th e r e g u l a r p ro c e d u re s were fo llo w e d , b u t o n ly one o u t of s i x h y p o th e se s was supported*, Such u n u s u a l r e s u l t s made i t n e c e s s a r y to ta k e two im p or t a n t s te p s ? f i r s t , to examine the r e s e a r c h d e s ig n f o r soundness? se co n d , to lo o k f o r o t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t m igh t have a f f e c t e d th e r e s u l t s * When th e f i r s t s t e p proved s a t i s f a c t o r y , th e second was th e n taken* C e r ta in f a c t o r s ap p eared t o have s t r o n g i n f lu e n c e upon s tu d e n ts * ways of b e h a v io r and th in k in g * Such a s h i f t gave th e stu d y a p la c e o f g r e a t e r im p o rtan c e as i t h e lp e d to fo rm u la te f u r t h e r h y p o th e s e s f o r t e s t i n g and p o i n te d tow ard a r e a s of w eaknesses i n th e w ell-know n i n s t i t u t i o n s of f a m ily , sc h o o l, and c h u rc h t h a t needed c a r e f u l study*, A cco rd in g to r o l e t h e o r y , i t was e x p e c te d t h a t s t u d e n ts * fa m ily background and e d u c a tio n , t h e i r 159 160 s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n t, s u p e r o r d i n a te - s u b o r d i n a t e r o l e s , and r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s would i n f l u e n c e t h e i r r e s p o n s e s , I n t h i s s tu d y i t was n o t th e c a s e , as o n ly one o u t o f th e s i s h y p o th e s e s was s u p p o r te d , and i t ‘was l a t e r fo u n d t o be t r u e by d e f i n i t i o n . S u ch a c o in c id e n c e gave f u r t h e r c o n fid e n c e i n th e r e s u l t s , s i n c e a l l th e d a t a were g a th e r e d a t th e same tim e and th e f i g u r e s were c a l c u l a t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . I n i n t e r p r e t i n g th e r e s u l t s , th e f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s may be made % 1 , S t u d e n ts a p p e a re d to have a c o n sen su s o f o p i n io n w hich showed t h e y h ad common s t a n d a r d s drawn from s o u r c e s o u t s i d e th e f a m ily , c h u rc h , o r s c h o o l a u t h o r i t i e s , 2 , They c o n s u l t e d t h e i r p e e r g ro up I n any p r o b lems th e y f a c e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s o c i a l and e m o tio n a l m a t t e r s . Such c o n d u c t showed a g r e a t e r t r u s t p u t i n p e e r group r a t h e r th a n i n a d u l t s , 3 , I n s p i r i t u a l m a t t e r s , many seemed c o n f u s e d . T h ere was a te n d e n c y t o b r e a k away fro m the t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s th e y f o llo w e d w h ile i n h i g h s c h o o l . T h e ir e x p l a n a t i o n was t h a t , a t c o l l e g e , th e y w anted to f o l lo w th e s c i e n t i f i c m ethods w h ich, i n t h e i r o p i n io n , were c o n t r a r y t o r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . A lth o u g h a number o f them f r e q u e n t e d c h u r c h e s , a s m a ll m i n o r i t y had c l e a r id e a s a b o u t t h e i r f a i t h . Only v e ry few s a i d th ey would go to r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s t o c o n s u l t them on s p i r i t u a l m a t t e r s . 161 Some d id n o t know what to b e l i e v e . T h e ir e a r l y u p b rin g in g seemed a t tim es s tr o n g enough to swing th e pendulum tow ard some r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s but soon t h e i r e a g e rn e ss to belong to t h e i r p e er group p r o p e lle d i t tow ard the o t h e r ex tre m e . A sm a ll m in o r ity h e ld to some r e l i g i o u s f a i t h which th ey were a b le to defend and abide by, in s p i t e of th e seeming tu r m o il around them. Those s tu d e n ts belonged to C h r i s t i a n o r g a n iz a tio n s on campus or o th e r r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n t h e i r own churches* to w hich th ey rem ained f a i t h f u l s Here again* i t was obvious t h a t churches were losing t h e i r in f lu e n c e upon th o se c o lle g e y o u th e x c e p t in case s where s tr o n g r e l i g i o u s groups were o rg a n iz e d e s p e c i a l l y f o r them i n o r th ro u g h th e c h u rc h e s 0 I t was c l e a r t h a t th o se who were i n such o r g a n i z a t i o n s f e l t a s p i r i t o f b e lo n g in g n e ss and* s tr e n g th e n e d i n c o n fid en ce by th o se of t h e i r own age i n the group* th ey were a b le to i? ith s ta n d s t u d e n t c u l t u r e p r e s s u r e when i t c o n f l i c t e d w ith t h e i r own id e a ls o Those s tu d e n ts o f t e n commented th at* even though o th e r s tu d e n ts on campus d id or s a i d c e r t a i n thing s* th ey d id n o t choose to be lik e them. 5 0 The sc h o o l p o l i c i e s and g o a ls d id n o t ap p ear to In f lu e n c e s tu d e n ts as e x p e c te d . T h e ir d e c i s i o n s seemed to be based on p e er group o p in io n . Those in s o r o r i t i e s f e l t p r e s s u r e d to a c t as e x p e c te d by s o r o r i t y " s i s t e r s . ” Those n o t i n s o r o r i t i e s u p h e ld th o se i n s o r o r i t i e s as exam ples. A few r e s e n t e d the p r e s s u r e and went t h e i r own 162 way, r e a l i z i n g th e c o s t of such a s t a n d . D uring th e i n t e r views s t u d e n t s ' co m p lain ts about the sc h o o l c e n te r e d m ainly around c o u rs e s r e q u i r e d and n o t about r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s . F or exam ple, a number of them wanted to om it a r e q u i r e d co urse on h e a lth .p ro b le m s because i t was ”too e le m e n t a r y ,” and r e p l a c e i t w ith a co u rse on m a rria g e coun s e l i n g . Two o th e r c o u rse s th ey w ished to om it were Man and C i v i l i z a t i o n and P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n . They s a id the form er was too c o n c e n tr a te d f o r a o n e -s e m e ste r co urse and they cou ld n o t r e t a i n i t s c o n t e n t s . Many wanted c o u rse s o u ts id e t h e i r own f i e l d s u b s t i t u t e d f o r some o f the r e q u i r e d o n e s. I t was th u s e v id e n t t h a t p r e s s u r e from s tu d e n ts came from o t h e r so u rc e s o u ts id e th e s c h o o l a u t h o r i t i e s . Some S u g g e stio n s f o r F u r t h e r S tu d ie s From the above o b s e r v a tio n s one could a sk c e r t a i n q u e s tio n s f o r f u r t h e r stu d y and i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 1. What a re th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h a t g r e a t power c a l l e d ^ s tu d e n t c u l t u r e , ” and what i s i t s r o l e in an i n s t i t u t i o n ? I s s t u d e n t c u lt u r e a n o th e r name f o r p e e r group c u l t u r e or a re th e r e d i f f e r e n c e s ? 2. Does the s tu d e n t c u lt u r e d i f f e r from one i n s t i t u t i o n to a n o th e r? I f so, what makes i t d i f f e r ? 3 . I s th e s tu d e n t c u lt u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of American s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l? I f so , i s i t p o s s i b l e , th e n , f o r s t u d e n t c u lt u r e to d i f f e r from one sc h o o l to a n o th e r? 163 4 . I s th e s t u d e n t c u l t u r e th e o n ly form o f power o r p r e s s u r e i n an i n s t i t u t i o n ? 5 , I f s t u d e n t s a r e s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r p e e r g ro u p , can c e r t a i n y o u th group s be d e l i b e r a t e l y o rg a n iz e d t o w in s t u d e n t s t o t h e i r own k in d o f p h ilo s o p h y ? I f 30, would t h i s be a c h a n n e l f o r s u b v e r s iv e e le m e n ts to p e n e t r a t e th e s t u d e n t body? Could c o n s t r u c t i v e y o u th o r g a n i z a t i o n s make use o f t h e same c h a n n e ls ? T hree more b a s i c and v i t a l q u e s t io n s c o u ld be a sk e d : lo What i s th e u n i v e r s i t y ’ s r o l e tow ard p r e p a r i n g s t u d e n t s f o r f u t u r e l i f e ? A number o f w r i t e r s d i s c u s s e d t h i s t o p i c , Reism an w r o t e : I do n o t t h i n k i t i s th e p rim a ry t a s k o f e d u c a ti o n to p r e p a r e s t u d e n t s f o r t h e i r l a t e r o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e s , o r in d e e d , any n a rro w ly s p e c i a l i z e d r o l e s , n o r to t e a c h them to e n jo y work r e g a r d l e s s o f i t s q u a l i t y and m eanings R a th e r th e r e l a t i o n o f e d u c a ti o n to l a t e r l i f e sh o u ld be a d i a l e c t i c a l and c r i t i c a l o n e . I f , how ever, one r e s u l t o f g o in g to c o l l e g e i s to become a l i e n a t e d from work p e r se and d e f e a t i s t a b o u t th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a l t e r i n g o n e ’s r e l a t i o n to i t , th e n i t seems to me one o u g h t to re -e x a m in e academ ic I n s t i t u t i o n s th e m se lv e s and see w h e th er a n y th in g i n them, o r i n o n e 's own a t t i t u d e s , o r i n b o th m ig h t be changed S a n fo rd w ro te : The l i b e r a l a r t s c o l l e g e , o f c o u rs e , can n o t u n d e r ta k e to e d u c a te women f o r any p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l ^•David Reism an, ’’Where Is th e C o lle g e G e n e ra tio n Headed?” The A t l a n t i c , CCVII, Ho, 4 ( A p r il 19 6 1 ), 39* 164 d ev elo p m e n t i n g e n e r a l — an aim t h a t a p p e a rs a l l th e more sou n d , th e more d i v e r s i f i e d become th e r o l e s and f u n c t i o n s o f women » . . T h is i s where th e s t u d e n t s o c i e t y and c u l t u r e p l a y an im p o r ta n t p a r t . „ 0 We know t h a t th o s e o f our own c o l l e g e s t h a t have b e en a b le l a r g e l y th r o u g h v ig o r o u s r e c r u i t ment and s e l e c t i o n , t o c r e a t e a campus s o c i e t y i n w hich th e h i g h e s t p r e s t i g e a t t a c h e s to th e h i g h e s t s c h o l a r s h i p , can c o u n t h e a v i l y upon s o c i a l p r e s s u r e t o keep m o t i v a t i o n a t a h i g h l e v e l o ^ On th e same t o p i c , M u e lle r s t a t e d ? H ig h e r e d u c a t i o n « o . m ust a t l e a s t a tt e m p t t o p ro v id e c a p a c i t y g ro w th f o r „ « o women i n a l l th e p r o f e s s i o n a l c a r e e r s w hich s o c i e t y n e e d s 0 S h a l l i t a l s o , s i n c e o t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e no lo n g e r m e e tin g t h i s n e e d , ta k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r te a c h i n g th e woman s t u d e n t how t o a c h ie v e s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r s o n a l g ro w th ? S h a l l i t n o t o n ly h e lp h e r to mold h e r own s e l f - i m a g e , b u t a l s o u n d e rta k e t o m o tiv a te and t r a i n good l e a d e r s f o r th e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n o u r s o c i e t y th ro u g h w hich more d i s c r i m i n a t i n g demands f o r s e l f - g ro w th may be a c c o m p lis h e d ? I f th e answ er i s y e s , i t may mean more a t t e n t i o n to t h e s o - c a l l e d ' a c t i v i t i e s 1 o f th e t y p i c a l e d u c a t i o n a l campus where n i n e - t e n t h s o f th e p r e s e n t g e n e r a t i o n of c o l l e g e women a r e to be f o u n d 0 ^ I n a s tu d y by C h r i s t e n s e n and S w ih a r t, th e y w ro te : Women's e d u c a t i o n i s s t i l l a c o n t r o v e r s y „ Some w r i t e r s have c la im e d t h a t th e em ph asis s h o u ld be upon a g e n e r a l l i b e r a l a r t s c u r r i c u lu m w i t h a view to w ard d e v e lo p in g th e i n t e l l e c t as p r e p a r a t i o n f o r l i f e i n a l l o f i t s a s p e c t s ? and o t h e r s have u rg e d t h a t c o l l e g e s s h o u ld s e e k t o t r a i n modern women f o r th e s p e c i f i c r o l e s th e y can e x p e c t to p l a y a f t e r g r a d u a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y homemakingo These two o p p o sin g p o s i t i o n s a re som etim es r e f e r r e d to as the N e v i t t S a n f o r d , " M o tiv a tio n o f High A c h i e v e r s , ” i n O pal Do D avid ( e d 0) , The E d u c a tio n o f W omen--Signs f o r th e F u tu r e (W ashington, DTcTI A m erican C o u n c il on E d u c a tio n , 19 5 9 ), po 5 5 o 3K ate Ho M u e l le r , "The C u ltu ra l- P r e s s u r e s on Women,” i n O pal Do D avid ( e d c) , o p , c i t o, p e 5 3 e 166 " d e v e lo p m e n ta l” and " f u n c t i o n a l . " . . . F u n c t i o n a l l y c o n s id e re d th e r e sh o u ld be a t t e n t i o n g iv e n to b o th homemaking and v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a ti o n — f o r m ost g i r l s (ju d g in g from sam ple) w ant to be homemakers, and l a r g e numbers want v o c a t i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e s as w e l l . T his l a t t e r i s p la n n e d to come a t two p e r io d s in t h e i r l i f e e y e le s s b r i e f l y a f t e r g r a d u a t io n , and f o r a la r g e number o f y e a r s . 4 The s tu d y s e r v e d to em phasize what many e d u c a to r s m a in ta in e d ; t h a t a c o lle g e c u rr ic u lu m sh o u ld s a t i s f y th e i n t e r e s t s and needs of ?/omen w ith v a rio u s o r i e n t a t i o n s . D ata d id n o t p e rm it the r e s e a r c h e r s to d e te rm in e w h eth er th o s e needs o f c o ll e g e women c o u ld be met b e s t by the f u n c t i o n a l or d e v elo p m e n tal approach^ They conclu ded t h a t p e rh ap s s c h o o ls needed b o th . A lic e Leopold made a s tu d y on ” 1955 8s Women C o lleg e G rad u ates in 1 9 5 6 ,” which was s i x months a f t e r t h e i r g r a d u a t i o n . Some o f th e c o m p la in ts th e y made were as fo llo w s s C o lle g e work would have been more v a lu a b le i f I had been g iv e n b e t t e r p r e p a r a t i o n on what to e x p e c t i n openin g p o s i t i o n s a f t e r g r a d u a t io n . 0 . More v a lu a b le i f i t had t r a i n e d me f o r a s p e c i f i c job r a t h e r th a n b e in g q u i t e so g e n e r a l • » ® More v a lu a b le i f each s t u d e n t could se c u re a s e m e s te r o f o u t s i d e p lacem en t i n h e r f i e l d o f stu d y to a c q u ir e a l l im por t a n t e x p e rie n c e and c o n fid e n c e . . . I do b e l i e v e i t i s th© r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f the c o lle g e to l e t i t s s t u d e n ts know what th e y w i l l be f a c i n g when th e y g r a r d u ate . . . C o lle g e f o s t e r s many dreams and a m b itio n s w hich can n o t s u r v iv e d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t i n th e com m ercial w orld o » o At no time d id I f e e l I had a d eq u a te in f o r m a tio n on what th e r e q u ir e m e n ts and job " ‘H arold To C h r is te n s e n and M a rily n n M » S w i h a r t , "P o st G ra d u a tio n Role P r e f e r e n c e s o f S e n io r Women i n C o l l e g e , ” M arriage and Fam ily L iv in g , XVIII (19 56), 52. 1 6 6 p o s s i b i l i t i e s were f o r each • • • Thus I d r i f t e d i n t o elem en tary sc h o o l e d u c a tio n r a t h e r th an choosing a f t e r knowing what a l l th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s were e < > » One of ray p e t peeves i s th e la c k o f h e lp t h a t c o lle g e placem ent o f f i c e s seem to p ro v id e f o r women * „ « I f e e l my in d e c is io n now i n d i c a t e s la c k of c a r e f u l tho u g h t and q u e s tio n in g i n c o lle g e , p a r t i c u l a r l y on my p a r t » o o My p le a would be f o r v o c a tio n a l g u id ance o f a more p e rs o n a l n a tu r e o ° Three im p o rta n t p o in ts may be made from th e above w r i t e r s 1 rem arks; 1© The r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t th e d i a l e c t i c a l and c r i t i c a l emphasis i n e d u c a tio n i s no lo n g e r s u f f i c i e n t in p r e p a rin g s tu d e n ts f o r t h e i r f u t u r e l i f e 0 2o The impact o f sc h o o l a c t i v i t i e s and s tu d e n t c u l t u r e upon s tu d e n ts and t h e i r im portance r e g a rd in g th e s t u d e n t s ' b e h a v io r, th in k in g s and r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s « 3o The u rg e n t need f o r s e l f - s t u d y o f e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s 0 From th e s e may emerge a number o f s t u d i e s ; lo A r e s e a r c h on p ro c e s s e s and e f f e c t s of h ig h er ed u ca tio n s w ith s p e c i a l emphasis on women's e d u c a tio n and t h e i r p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e i r f u t u r e r o l e s 0 2 0 S tu d ie s of c o lle g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s as s o c i a l system s 6 3 0 A l o n g i t u d i n a l study of women's s o c i a l r o le s * A com parison could be made o f women's r o l e e x p e c ta tio n s w hile th ey a re s t i l l a t c o lle g e and ?jhat th e s e women ^A lice K* Leopold, "19 55 's Women C ollege G raduates i n 1956," P e rso n n e l and Guidance J o u r n a l, XXXV (February 1957), 344';------------------------------------------------------ 167 a c t u a l l y d id many y e a r s a f t e r g r a d u a t i o n . I n C h r i s t e n s e n ’ s and S w l h a r t ’s stu d y ,® th e y fo llo w e d s t u d e n t s o n ly s i x m onths a f t e r g ra d u a tio n ,. C o n s id e r in g th e p e r i o d o f o r i e n t a t i o n and a d ju s tm e n t an i n d i v i d u a l goes th r o u g h i n chang in g from one e x p e r ie n c e to a n o th e r , i t would be more e f f e c t i v e t o s tu d y c o l l e g e women f i v e t o t e n y e a r s a f t e r g r a d u a tio n ,, Having d i s c u s s e d one b a s i c and v i t a l q u e s t i o n , w hich i s th e r o l e o f e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s i n p r e p a r in g s t u d e n t s f o r f u t u r e l i f e , i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e h e re to d i s cu ss th e seco nd o f th e t h r e e w ell-k n o w n i n s t i t u t i o n s : the c h u rc h , and i t s r o l e tow ard c o l l e g e women. Prom t h i s s tu d y , th e c h u rc h a p p e a re d to be l o s i n g i t s i n f l u e n c e upon youth,, I s i t tim e c h u rc h es e n co u rag e d s e l f - s t u d y and e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e i r work? I s t h e r e need f o r change of m ethod s? A few r e l i g i o u s groups work w i t h s t u d e n ts on cam pus„ Should su c h work b© i n c r e a s e d and e n co u rag e d by th e c h u rc h ? I s t h i s a p o s i t i v e method to h e lp s t u d e n t s c l a r i f y t h e i r t h i n k i n g i n r e l i g i o u s q u e s t i o n s ? I s t h e r e need t o e v a l u a t e th e work o f su c h r e l i g io u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s on campus and s tu d y t h e i r i n f l u e n c e upon s t u d e n t s ? The t h i r d im p o r ta n t I n s t i t u t i o n to be d is c u s s e d is th e fa m ily o What i s th e r o l e o f the f a m ily to d a y and what £ Christensen and Swihart, ope cito 168 i s i t s i n f lu e n c e upon y o u th ? Are th e r e ways to narrow th e gap betw een th e p e e r group c u l t u r e and t h a t o f the a d u l t s ? Do th e p a r e n t s c o n t r i b u t e enough and g iv e enough tim e to th e s o c i a l , m e n ta l, and s p i r i t u a l gro w th and developm ent o f t h e i r c h il d r e n ? W ith th e w eakening o f the w ell-know n i n s t i t u t i o n s of f a m ily , c h u rc h , and s c h o o l, th e r e are d a n g ers t h a t o th e r powers m igh t ta k e o ver and c o n t r o l y o u t h s 8 th o u g h ts and a c tio n s o I n t h i s stu d y i t a p p ea re d t h a t s t u d e n t s gave s t e r e o t y p e answ ers a c c o rd in g to the d i c t a t e s o f some o u t s id e power, p o s s ib l y named th e s t u d e n t c u l t u r e 0 Thus any groups o r i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t c o u ld m a n ip u la te such power m igh t c o n t r o l s t u d e n t s 0 As Freedman p u t i t , " I n f lu e n c e o f s t u d e n t c u l t u r e would n o t be g r e a t or p e rv a s iv e were i t n o t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Am erican s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l, o f a d o le sc e n c e i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h a t s t a t u s and s e c u r i t y depend i n la r g e m easure upon r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith o n e 1s p e e r s 0"^ T h e r e f o r e , i t would a p p ea r t h a t the way to win y o u th to c e r t a i n id e a s o r i d e a l s would be th ro u g h o t h e r members of t h e i r own age group who would be o rg a n iz e d and t r a i n e d by a d u l t s to sp re a d t h e i r p h i lo s o p h y 0 S u b v e rsiv e groups und er su ch a t t r a c t i v e and assumed names could a ls o win s t u d e n ts ^M ervin B0 Freedman, "The P assage Through C o l l e g e , ” J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l I s s u e s , X II, No. 4 (1956), 28. 169 to t h e i r ran k s by u sin g such means. A stu d y on the r o l e of o rg a n iz e d groups and t h e i r in flu e n c e upon s tu d e n ts would be very h e l p f u l . In c o n c lu s io n , i t i s e v id e n t th e re i s u rg e n t need f o r s e l f - s t u d y and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of each of the well-known i n s t i t u t i o n s , o f fa m ily , ch urch, and s c h o o l. The gap i s ev er in c r e a s in g between th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s and to d a y ’s y o u th . I t ap p ears as i f the yo uth l i v e in one c u lt u r e and the a d u lt s in a n o th e r. The dangers could be g r e a t i n t h i s r e s p e c t because whoever c o n tr o ls y o u th w i l l c o n tr o l t h e i r f u tu r e . As t h i s study in d ic a t e d , women seemed to move from th e fem inism of e a r l i e r tim es and t i e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e s on to a t h i r d and a new r o l e - - t h a t of p a r t n e r s h i p . Hence, i t i s a problem of y o u th i n g e n e r a l . Summary T his study e x p lo re d r o l e e x p e c ta tio n s of American u n d e rg ra d u ate c o lle g e women in a w e ste rn c o e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n . Role th e o ry , as u t i l i z e d i n t h i s stu d y , s u p p o rts the id e a t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l ’s background has b e a rin g upon h is r o l e b e h av io r and r o l e e x p e c ta ti o n s . I t was h y p o th e siz e d t h a t s tu d e n ts would d i f f e r In t h e i r r o l e e x p e c ta tio n s a c c o rd in g to d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e i r background. The m ajor v a r i a b l e s in tro d u c e d ivere the s t u d e n t s ’ s o c i o economic s t a t u s , s c h o l a s t i c achievem ents, s u p e r o r d in a t e - s u b o rd in a te r o l e s , r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s , m o th e r s ’ 170 e d u c a t i o n a l background, and c a r e e r o r home p r e f e r e n c e s . P e r s o n a l 'in te r v ie w s were con d u cted w ith 130 women s tu d e n ts o T h e ir names were drawn th ro u g h th e s y s te m a tic random sample method from the i n s t i t u t i o n ' s t o t a l women e n ro llm e n to The q u e s t io n n a ir e u t i l i z e d had f i v e s e c t i o n s . The f i r s t two in c lu d e d q u e s tio n s on th e background o f th e s t u d e n ts and t h e i r a t t i t u d e tow ard b o y s. Two o th e r s i n c lu d e d s ta te m e n ts h a v in g two or f i v e r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s . The f i f t h s e c t i o n had open-end q u e s t i o n s . To a n a ly z e the r e s u l t s , th r e e m ajor s t a t i s t i c a l p ro c e d u re s were u s e d . F i r s t , v a r i a b l e s were c r o s s t a b u l a t e d , u s in g a com puter program fo rm u la w hich form ed 32 d i f f e r e n t co m b in atio n s o f f i v e m ajo r v a r i a b l e s and c o r r e l a t e d eac h w ith 47 o t h e r v a r i a b l e s , g iv in g th e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f e a c h . The Kolmogorov-Smirnov t e s t was used as a t h i r d p ro c e d u re to stu d y th e d a ta . F in d in g s F iv e o u t o f s i x h y p o th e s e s were n o t s u p p o r te d . The s i x t h was h ig h ly s u p p o rte d b u t was l a t e r found to be t r u e by d e f i n i t i o n . Such f i n d i n g s gave g r e a t e r im portance to the s tu d y , as t h e y p o in te d tow ard c e r t a i n a r e a s w hich needed f u r t h e r s t u d y . A f t e r th o ro u g h e x a m in a tio n o f the r e s e a r c h d e s ig n , th e d a ta were found to be r e l i a b l e . The m ajor f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g th e s t u d e n t s ' answ ers ap p ea re d to be th e s t u d e n t c u l t u r e , w hich seemed to c o n t r o l s t u d e n t s ' id e a s , b e h a v io r , and r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s . A ccording t o th e W I d a t a : (1) s t u d e n t s ’ s o c io -e c o n o m ic b a ck g ro u n d d i d n o t a f f e c t t h e i r r e s p o n s e ; (2) t h e i r s u p e r o r d i n a t e o r s u b o r d i n a te r o l e s d id n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een t h e i r a n sw e rs; (S) t h e i r r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s had l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e i r r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s | (4) t h e i r s c h o l a s t i c a c h ie v e m e n ts d i f f e r e n t i a t e d g r e a t l y b©tween th o s e who assum ed s u p e r o r d i n a t e r o l e s as opposed to th o s e o f s u b o r d i n a t e r o l e s ( t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e s how ever, betw een th e two gro u p s i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e to th e r e s t o f th e q u e s t i o n s ) ; and, (5) th e s t u d e n t s ’ answ ers were n o t a f f e c t e d by t h e i r m o t h e r s ’ c h o ic e w h e th e r m o th e rs f o llo w e d c a r e e r s a f t e r m a r r ia g e o r d e v o te d f u l l tim e to t h e home o G e n e ra l o b s e r v a t i o n s on s t u d e n t s were as f o l l o w s : (1) They had a c o n se n s u s o f o p i n i o n w hich showed th e y had common s t a n d a r d s draw n from s o u r c e s o u t s i d e th e f a m ily , c h u rc h , o r sc h o o lo (2) They c o n s u l t e d t h e i r p e e r group i n any problem s th e y f a c e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n s o c i a l and emo t i o n a l problem so (3) I n r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s many seemed co n- fu se d o A lth o u g h a number f r e q u e n t e d c h u rc h e s , o n ly a s m a ll m i n o r i t y had c l e a r i d e a s a b o u t t h e i r f a i t h o (4) As f a r as p a r e n t s were c o n c e rn e d , s t u d e n t s s t a t e d t h a t t h e i r p a r e n t s d i d n o t u s u a l l y i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s 0 T h is m ig h t be i n t e r p r e t e d i n t h r e e w a y s„ E i t h e r p a r e n t s were n o t c o n ce rn e d a b o u t t h e i r d a u g h t e r s ’ a c t i v i t i e s , o r t h e i r c u l t u r e was to o f a r removed from t h e i r d a u g h t e r s ' c u l t u r e , o r t h a t f a m ily t i e s w ere w eaken ing and p a r e n t s d id n o t have 17B much i n f lu e n c e ov er t h e i r d a u g h te r s . (5) S cho ol p o l i c i e s and g o a ls d id n o t a p p e a r t o i n f l u e n c e s t u d e n ts as much as th e s t u d e n t c u l t u r e . The s tu d e n ts * m ajor c o m p la in ts were concern ed w ith c o u rse r e q u ire m e n ts and n o t w ith laws and r e g u l a t i o n s . C o n c lu sio n The s tu d y showed t h a t th e t h r e e m ajor i n s t i t u t i o n s - - f a m ily , s c h o o l, and c h u rc h --w e re w eakening i n c o n tro l* w h ile th e s t u d e n t c u l t u r e loomed as a g r e a t power i n f l u en cin g th e s tu d e n ts * ideas* b e h a v io r , and r o l e e x p e c ta t i o n s 0 Recommendations Some recom m endations f o r f u r t h e r s tu d y a re i n d i c a te d as a r e s u l t o f t h i s s tu d y . These a re as f o llo w s : 1. F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h on th e r o l e of s t u d e n t c u l t u r e i n an i n s t i t u t i o n and i t s i n f lu e n c e upon s t u d e n t s . 2. S e l f - s t u d y of e d u c a t i o n a l and r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s to d e t e c t w eaknesses w hich may e x i s t in t h e i r s tr u e t u r e . 3 . A stu d y on the fa m ily as a u n i t to d i s c o v e r cau ses f o r the gap betw een p a re n ts * and c h i l d r e n ’s " c u l t u r e , " and to make s u g g e s tio n s f o r p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s to d e c re a s e t h i s g a p . 4. A l o n g i t u d i n a l stu d y to compare r o l e e x p e c ta t i o n s o f women w h ile s t i l l a t c o ll e g e and the r o l e s th e y 173 w ould a c t u a l l y be p l a y in g f i v e y e a r s a f t e r g r a d u a t io n . 5 . A r e s e a r c h on th e p r o c e s s e s o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n and t h e i r e f f e c t s on woman’ s e d u c a tio n as a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r h e r f u t u r e l i f e a f t e r g r a d u a t i o n . BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books B e n n e tt, Jo h n W ® and Tum in, M e lv in M o S o c i a l L i f e , S t r u c t u r e , and F u n c t i o n 9 New Y orks A l f r e d A ® itn o p r, X94"8"I B e rn a rd , Jo S o c i a l P ro b lem s a t M id c e n tu r y o New Y orks The D ryden P r e s s , '19 £>7e B o g a rd u s, Emory So The D evelopm ent o f S o c i a l T h o u g h t® New Y orks O x fo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , X9S50 B ry so n , Lyman ( e d 0) 0 F a c in g th e F u t u r e ° s R i s k s 0 Now Y o rk H a rp er and B r o t h e r s , 19£ jS7~”~ ™ Cam eron, No T h e^ P sy ch o Io g y o f B e h a v io r D i s o r d e r 0 New C a r r , L0 Jo S i t u a t i o n a l A n a l y s i s o Hew Y orks H a rp e r and B r o th e r s ” ” D a v id , O p al D» (ed o ) The E d u c a tio n o f Women, S ig n s f o r th e F u t u r e o W a sh in g to n , DoCoS A m erican C o u n c il on E d u c a tio n , 195 8 « 5 9 0 D a v is , K i n g s l y 0 Human S o c i e t y 0 Hew Y orks The M a cm illa n Company, 1949® F i r k e l , Eva® Woman i n th e Moder n W o rld 0 ( T r a n s l a t e d by H ild a De G r a e f ) C h icag o s h id e 's 'P u B lis h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n 19560 H a re , P a u l, e t al® ( e d 0) S m a ll G roupss S t u d i e s i n S o c i a l I n t e r a c t i o n ,, Hew £or'EF*AH;reB” A0 K nopf, rsss'o H a r t l e y , Eugene L e and R u th E 0 F u n d a m e n ta ls o f S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y o Hew Y orks A l f r e d A0 Knopf," 1952 0 J a c o b , P h i l i p Eo C hanging V a lu e s i n C o l l e g e 0 New Y orks H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s , X957cT K a h l, J o s e p h S« The A m erican C la s s S t r u c t u r e Q New Y ork : 176 R in e h a r t and Company* I n c . , 1957• K lin e b e r g , O t t o . S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y . 2nd e d . r e v i s e d . New York? Henry H o lt and Company, 1954. Kom arovsky, M. Women i n th e M odern W o rld . B o sto n : L i t t l e , Brown and Company, X9S1JI —— L in to n , R a lp h . The S tu d y o f Man. New Y orks A p p le to n - C e n tu ry , 1936 . L in to n , R a lp h . The C u l t u r a l B ackground o f P e r s o n a l i t y . New Y orks D. A p p le to n -C e n tu ry C o ., 19^57” L in d s e y , G a rd n er ( e d . ) 0 Handbook o f S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , V o l. I . C am bridge, MassoS A d d iso n We~sley P u b lis h in g Company, I n c . , 1954. M ason, W. S o g e t a l o E x p l o r a t i o n s i n R ole A n a l y s i s . New Y orks Jo h n W i l e y a n c P S o n s , ~Tnc . ’ 7 T 9 5 S 7 Mead, G eorge H. M ind, S e l f , and S o c i e t y . C h ic a g o : U n iv e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1954. Mead, M a r g a r e t. And Keep Your Powder D ry . New Y o rk : M arrow, 1942. M ethony, E le a n o r and P e t e r s o n , Jam es A. The T ro u b le w ith Women. New Y orks V an tag e P r e s s , I n c . , 1957. M u e lle r , K ate R e v n e r. E d u c a tin g Women f o r a C hanging W o rld . M lnn eap olila! U n i v e r s i t y o f 'M in n e so ta ? r e s s , T 9 5 T : Newcomb, Theodor© M. S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y . New Y orks The Dry den P r e s s , 195T7"""”~ ~ P a c e , C. R o b e r t. They Went to C o lle g e . M in n e a p o lis : The U n i v e r s i t y o f M in n e so ta P r e s s , 1941. P a rk , R. E . and B u rg e s s , E . W. An I n t r o d u c t i o n o f th e S c ie n c e S o c io lo g y . C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1921. ' P a r s o n s , T a l c o t t . Tho S o c i a l S y s te m . G le n c o e , 1 1 1 .: The F re e P r e s s , 1951. P a r s o n s , T a l c o t t and S h i l s , E . A. (eda.) Tow ards a G e n e r a l T h eo ry o f A c t i o n . C am bridg e: H a rv a rd U n i v e r s i t y “ P r e s s , 1951. 1*?7 R o h re r, J . H. and. S h e r i f , M. ( e d s .) 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Knopf, 1955, pp. 498-515. " Wallin, Paul. "Cultural Contradictions and Sex Roles: A Repeat Study," American Sociological Review, XV (April, 1950), 288-93. " ; APPENDIXES APPENDIX I TWO-FACTOR INDEX OF SOCIAL POSITION 133 TWO-FACTOR INDEX OF SOCIAL POSITION A u g u st D» H o ilin g s h e a d Y a le U n i v e r s i t y B r i e f I n s t r u c t i o n s The t w o - f a c t o r In d e x u t i l i z e d o c c u p a tio n an d e d u c a tio n * T hese f a c t o r s a re s c a l e d and w e ig h te d i n d i v i d u a l l y , and a s i n g l e s c o r e i s o b tain ed ® The e d u c a t i o n a l s c a l e i s b a s e d upon th e y e a r s o f s c h o o l c o m p le te d by t h e head o f th e household® The s c a l e v a lu e s a r e a s f o llo w s % Y e a rs o f S c h o o l C o m p leted S c a le V alue P r o f e s s i o n a l (MoAoJ MoS*? HUE*I MoD0| PhoDo? LLoBo) 1 F o u r - y e a r c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e (AoBoj BoS © ?BoMo) 2 1 -3 y e a r s c o l l e g e ( a l s o b u s i n e s s s c h o o l s ) 3 H igh s c h o o l g r a d u a te 4 1 0 -1 1 y e a r s o f s c h o o l ( p a r t h l g h - s c h o o l ) 5 7 -9 y e a r s o f s c h o o l 6 U nder 7 y e a r s o f s c h o o l 7 The o c c u p a t i o n a l s c a l e i s a t t a c h e d on a s e p a r a t e s h e e t* I t s e f f e c t i v e us© i s d e p e n d e n t on th e p r e c i s e know le d g e o f t h e head o f t h e h o u s e h o ld *s o c c u p a tio n * O ccupa t i o n a l p o s i t i o n h a s a f a c t o r w e ig h t o f 7 and e d u c a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n a f a c t o r w e ig h t o f 4* T hese w e ig h ts a re m u l t i p l i e d by th e s c a l e v a lu e f o r ”e d u c a t i o n and o c c u p a ti o n o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l o r h e ad o f a household® The c a l c u l a t e d w e ig h te d s c o r e g iv e s th e a p p ro x im a te p o s i t i o n o f th© f a m ily on th© o v e r - a l l s c a l e * F o r e x a m p le , J o h n S m ith i s th© m anager o f t h e S afew ay S t o r e , he c o m p le te d h i g h s c h o o l and one y e a r o f b u s i n e s s c o lle g e * I x^ould s c o r e him as f o llo w s % S e o re x F a c t o r S c a le S c o re F a c t o r W eig h t W eight O c c u p a tio n 3 7 21 E d u c a tio n 3 4 12 In d e x o f S o c i a l P o s i t i o n S c o re • 0 0 33” When th© In d e x o f S o c i a l P o s i t i o n s c o r e i s c a l c u l a t e d , th e I n d i v i d u a l may be s t r a t i f i e d e i t h e r on th© c o n tin u u m o f s c o r e s o r i n t o a ’’c l a s s *6 8 I n th e c a s e o f J o h n S m ith , I w ould r a t e him a c l a s s I I I on th e b a s i s o f th e p o s i t i o n he 184 o c c u p ie s on th e c o n tin u u m o f s c o r e s , and th e way t h e s c o r e s a r e g ro u p e d i n t o c l a s s e s „ The r a n g e o f s c o r e s i n e a c h c l a s s on t h e t w o - f a c t o r in d e x f o llo w s % The v a r i o u s c o m b in a tio n s o f s c a l e s c o r e s f o r o c c u p a - t i o n and e d u c a t i o n a r e r e p r o d u c i b l e i n th e G uttm an s e n s e f o r t h e r e i s no o v e r l a p b e tw ee n e d u c a t i o n - o c c u p a t i o n com b i n a t i o n s , I f an I n d i v i d u a l ’s e d u c a t i o n and o c c u p a tio n a r e known one can c a l c u l a t e h i s s c o r e 0 C o n v e r s e ly , i f one knows an I n d i v i d u a l ’s s c o r e , he c a n c a l c u l a t e b o th o c c u p a t i o n a l p o s i t i o n and e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l o W e h av e made e x t e n s i v e s t u d i e s o f th© r e l i a b i l i t y o f s c o r i n g , and th© v a l i d i t y o f th© In d e x on o v e r one h u n d re d v a r i a b l e s I n o u r S o c i a l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n and P s y c h i a t r i c D i s o r d e r s Study® We h av e a l s o made s t u d i e s o f l o s s o f p r e c i s i o n I n u s i n g th e t w o - f a c t o r In d e x r a t h e r th a n th e t h r e e - f a c t o r one o f o c c u p a ti o n , e d u c a t i o n , and e c o l o g i c a l a r e a o f re s id e n c e ® We recommend th e t w o - f a c t o r one I n a r e a s w here e c o l o g i c a l maps do n o t e x ists, C la s s L»S«P, S c o re s I I I I I I IV V 11-17 18-31 32-47 48-63 64-77 APPENDIX II PERCENTAGES OF 163 W OM EN GIVING INDICATED RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS ON PRETENDED INFERIORITY TO MEN PERCENTAGES OF 163 W OM EN REPORTING CONFLICT WITH FAMILY MEMBERS ON COLLEGE ACTIVITIES AND POST-COLLEGE PLANS 186 TABLE 1 PERCENTAGE OP 163 W OM EN GIVING INDICATED RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS ON PRETENDED INFERIORITY TO M EN** P re qu en cy Q u e s tio n s Very O fte n o r O fte n S e v e r a l T im es One© o r Tw ice N ev er No A nsw er .......' T o t a l 1* When on d a t e s how o f t e n have y o u p r e t e n d e d t o be in® f e r i o r I n a r t i s t i c know ledge o r ta s t© (Ln m u s ic , a r t , l i t e r a t u r e , e tc ® ) ? 8©1 15 © 6 23®2 51®9 1 © 2 100®0 2® How o f t e n have y o u p r e t e n d e d to be I n t e l l e c t u a l l y i n f e r i o r t o th© man? 1 4 ,3 16 ® 9 26 o 3 4 1 ,9 O08 100*0 3 , How o f t e n have y o u *p la y e d dumb8 on d a t e s b e c a u se y o u th o u g h t th e man p r e f e r r e d y o u t h a t way? 7®5 11 ® 2 22®6 58®7 1 0 0 ,0 4® How o f t e n have y o u p r e t e n d e d to be a t h l e t i c a l l y I n f e r i o r when p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n some s p o r t w i t h a man? 6 09 8 q 1 29 © 4 - 55 06 1 0 0 ,0 * P a u l W a l l i n , f,C u l t u r a l C o n t r a d i c t i o n s a n d Sex R o le s ; A R e p e a t S t u d y , 5 3 A m e ric a n S o c i o l o g i c a l R e v ie w ,XV ( A p r i l , 1 9 5 0 ), p , 289® 287 TABLE 2 PERCENTAGES OF 163 W OM EN REPORTING CONFLICT WITH FAMILY MEMBERS ON COLLEGE ACTIVITIES AND POST-COLLEGE PLANS*5 - Q u e s tio n s E x t e n t o f C o n t r a d i c t i o n None A L i t t l e C o n s i d e r a b l e T o t a l 1 , How m uch c o n t r a d i c t i o n i s t h e r e b e tw e e n w h a t y o u and w h a t th e f o l l o w i n g t h i n k a b o u t how y o u s h o u ld be s p e n d in g y o u r tim e i n c o l l e g e ? F a t h e r 66 05 27 0 4 6 03 100*0 M o th er 7 0 ol 25 o 5 4*4 100*0 O th e r f a m i l y members w hose o p i n i o n y o u r e s p e c t 8 5 06 13 o 2 1 © 2 100*0 Boy f r i e n d o r f i a n c e 83 o 2 15*6 lo 2 100 *0 2o How much c o n t r a d i c t i o n I s t h e r e b e tw e e n ?/hat y o u w ould l i k e to do and w h at t h e f o l l o w i n g w ould l i k e y o u t o do when y o u f i n i s h c o l l e g e ? F a t h e r 83 0 8 13 o l 3 © 1 100*0 M o th er 77 05 2 0 o0 2o5 100©0 O th e r f a m i l y mem b e r s whose o p i n io n y o u r e s p e c t 8 9 03 8 08 1©9 100 o0 Boy f r i e n d o r f i a n c e 87 05 8 o 8 3 07 100 o0 ^ P a u l W a l l i n s 8 !C u l t u r a l C o n t r a d i c t i o n s and Sex R o le s i A R e p e a t S tu d y s 5 5 A m e ric an S o c i o l o g i c a l R e v ie w sXV ( A p r i l s 1 9 5 0 ), po 191© ~ ------ -------------- APPENDIX III SAMPLE OF OUTPUT DATA CROSS TABULATIONS AND INSTRUCTIONS ON H O W TO READ TABLE TABLE 8 SAMPLE OF OUTPUT DATA CROSS TABULATIONS BIMD 22 UCLA M ED CENTER VARIABLE 6 IS CROSS TABULATED WITH VARIABLE 53 NUM BER OF REPLICATIONS= 130 VARIABLE M AXIM UM MINIMUM. 6 1 0 53 32 1 (6) (EXTREME RIGHT VALUE IS R O W TOTAL) RANGE 1 * 1 2 2 2 1 11 1 2 1 13 7 3 41 : 2* 22 3 2 6 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 7 3 1 4 4 5 (53) 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 22 RANGE 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 COLUM N 1 4 5 17 3 1 6 9 10 0 .8 6 TOTAL 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 1 3 1 5 GRAND TOTAL= 130 CORRELATION COEFFICIENT= -0.1159 VARIABLE 6 = One o f th e f o r ty - s e v e n v a r i a b l e s c ro s s ta b u la te to a sta te m e n t number i n th e q u e s tio n n a ir e VARIABLE 53 = The t h i r t y - t w o co m b in atio n s c ro s s t a b u la te d wit COLUM N T0TAL= The "No” and "Yes" answ ers o f v a r i a b l e 6 1= "No" answ ers 0= "Yes" answ ers GRAND TOTAL = Number o f c a se s T A B L E 8 189 SAMPLE OF OUTPUT DATA CROSS TABULATIONS VARIABLE 53 VALUE IS ROW TOTAL) 2 1 1 3 7 3 4 1 3 2 3 1 1 1 5 1 2 61 1 1 3 2 2 1 7 3 1 4 4 5 1 3 11 10 21 69 ***************************************************************************** 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 3 1 6 9 10 0 .8 8 6 2 15 3 1 1 2 1 3 1 5 3 1 2 3 0 of the forty-seven variables cross tabulated, and it corresponds statement number in the questionnaire thirty-two combinations cross tabulated with variable 6 "No" and "Yes" answers of variable 6 answers " answers er of cases APPENDIX IV STATEMENTS FROM QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN TABLE 8 191 STATEMENTS PROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN TABLE 8 6 , An i d e a l d a u g h te r o f c o lle g e age o r o l d e r s ta y s home and l e t s h e r b r o t h e r go to c o ll e g e when t h e r e i s n ' t enough money f o r b o t h 0 7 • An I d e a l woman i n th e em ploym ent w orld d o e s n 't m ind m aking more money th a n h e r h u s b a n d 0 8 , An I d e a l w ife i s 1 on© xrtio w ants t o combine a c a r e e r w ith h e r f a m ily and h o u se h o ld d u t i e s o 9® An i d e a l w ife e x p e c ts h e r husband to h e lp w ith th e h o u se h o ld and c h i l d care® 10® An i d e a l w ife le a v e s th e m ajo r d e c i s i o n s (su c h as w here to liv e ,, k in d o f c a r to b uys etc® ) up to h e r husband® lie An I d e a l woman c i t i z e n i s w i l l i n g to go o u t and r in g d o o r b e l l s to e n co u rag e v o tin g i n e l e c t i o n s 0 12® An i d e a l woman c i t i z e n le a v e s p o l i t i c a l o f f i c e - s e e k i n g to men® 13® M a rria g e as a p r o f e s s i o n i s i n f e r i o r to a j o b c 14® The mere w ife i s a p a r a s i t e com pared to a w orking wife® 1 5 e A m a rrie d woman does n o t r e a l l y do an ything;, s in c e she m e re ly ta k e s c a r e o f h e r hu sb an d and ch ild ren ® 16® A woman who g iv e s up a s u c c e s s f u l c a r e e r to d e v o te h e r s e l f to h e r husband commits an u n s o c i a l act® 17® To be a w ife i s a d e l i g h t f u l c a r e e r w hich o u g h t n o t to b© ta k e n c asu a lly ® 18© A g i r l does n o t have to p u t up w ith h e r husband as she can e a r n h e r own liv in g ® 19® A husband s h o u ld be th e c e n t e r o f h i s w i f e 's un iv erse® 20© A woman s h o u ld make h e r h u s b a n d 's l i f e and c a r e e r h e r own ® 21® The p l e a s u r e a woman g e ts from b e in g s u c c e s s f u l i n h e r c a r e e r i s n o th in g to th e jo y o f s h a r in g the s u c c e s s 192 of her husband. 2 2 . O nly v e ry few e x c e p t i o n a l women manage to com bine m a r r ia g e w i t h a c a r e e r and make a r e a l s u c c e s s o f b o t h . 2 3 . Women s h o u ld be c a l l e d by t h e i r m aid en names a f t e r they have been m a r r i e d 0 2 4 . I s h a l l w ant t o f o llo w a v o c a t i o n f o r m y s e lf w h e th e r m a r r ie d o r s i n g l e . 2 5 . I n c a s e o f d iv o r c e I w ould l i k e to s e c u r e a lim o n y fro m my h u s b a n d . 2 6 o I s h a l l w an t t o be r e l i e v e d o f th e r o u t i n e c a r e o f my b a b ie s th r o u g h c o o p e r a t i v e n u r s e r i e s . 2 7 o I s h a l l w ant t o ackno w led ge my h u sb an d a s my s u p e r i o r I n p r o f e s s i o n a l and c i v i c l i f e . 2 8 . I s h a l l w ant my h u sb an d to g iv e as much tim e as I do t o th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f o u r c h i l d r e n 8s p e r s o n a l i t y . 2 9 . I s h a l l f e e l f r e e t o ta k e t h e i n i t i a t i v e I n s o c i a l m a t t e r s e v en t o p ro p o se m a r r i a g e . 3 0 . I s h a l l be s a t i s f i e d i n my T/ork w ith a jo b a t th e s e c r e t a r i a l l e v e l . 3 1 . I s h a l l ' w an t my c h i l d r e n t o grow up i n a f a m i ly 7/here a l l members c o o p e r a te on an e q u a l p l a n e . 3 2 . I e x p e c t to m a rry f o r s o c i a l and m a t e r i a l s e c u r i t y a s 7/ell a s f o r l o v e . 3 3 . As a m o th e r I s h a l l 7/a n t to be th e c h i e f i n f l u e n c e i n my c h i l d r e n 8s f o r m a tiv e y e a r s . 3 4 . I s h a l l p r e f e r to p la y a p a s s i v e r o l e and w a i t f o r t h e man t o make a l l i n v i t a t i o n s and a d v a n c e s 0 3 5 . I s h a l l w ant my d a u g h te r b u t n o t my so n t o have s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g i n c o o k in g and Home E co n o m ic s. 3 6 . I s h a l l e x p e c t t o be a llo w e d th e same s o c i a l c o n t a c t s a s my h u s b a n d . 3 7 . I s h a l l e x p e c t my d a u g h te r t o be a s e n t e r p r i s i n g and 38. 39, 40® 41a 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 133 ambitious as my son in making her way. I s h a l l w ant to be my h u s b a n d 's p a r t n e r w ith th e same kinds o f econom ic p r i v i l e g e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s as he h a s . I s h a l l e x e r c i s e th e c h o ic e to rem a in s i n g l e o r to m a rry , in d e p e n d e n tly o f econom ic and s o c i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . I s h a l l 4 5 lo v e , h o n o r, and obey4 5 my husband i n th e f u l l s e n s e o f t h e p h r a s e . I s h a l l w ant to advance i n my ch o sen v o c a tio n to p o s i t i o n s o f e x e c u tiv e r a n k . I s h a l l e x p e c t th e same w ork in g c o n d i t i o n s , pay and h o u rs as men i n th e same j o b s 0 I s h a l l p u t my husband and my c h i l d r e n f i r s t and s h a l l make them my f u l l - t i m e jo b and c a r e e r . I s h a l l e x p e c t to s h a r e w ith my husband i n th e j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r f a m ily p r o p e r t y . I s h a l l w ant my husband to be th e head o f th e fa m ily so t h a t my c h i l d r e n w i l l l e a r n r e s p e c t f o r a u th o rity ® I s h a l l w ant to be e q u a l ly a c t i v e and to e n jo y e q u a l p r e s t i g e w ith my husband i n t h e community® I s h a l l e x p e c t my husband to p r o v id e f o r me f i n a n c ia lly ® I s h a l l concede my husband th e r i g h t to i n v e s t j o i n t e a r n in g s a s he s e e s f i t . I s h a l l w ant to be f u l l y s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g w h e th e r I m arry o r n o t . I s h a l l w ant my d a u g h te r to e n jo y th e same e d u c a t i o n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g as my son® I s h a l l e x p e c t my husband to e n jo y more freed o m o f c o n d u c t th a n I . APPENDIX V SUMMARY OP SUBJECTS* CHARACTERISTICS AND BACKGROUND MOTHERS* EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND AND ACTIVITIES AS COMPARED TO DAUGHTERS' EXPECTATIONS 105 S U M M A R Y OP SUBJECTS* CHARACTERISTICS AND BACKGROUND A ge: 17-22 C l a s s : Freshm an, 3 1 j Sophom ore, 2 9; J u n i o r , 37; S e n io r , 33 N a t i o n a l i t y : A m erican R a c e : C a u c a sia n Ma.lor i n S c h o o l: A rts D e sig n and M usic - 19 H is to r y , L i t e r a t u r e , and Language - 14 P sy chology and S o c io lo g y - 7 E d u c a tio n , P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n - 49 D e n ta l H ygiene, P re -N u rs in g , O c c u p a tio n a l and P h y s ic a l T herapy - 19 M a th e m a tic s, A c c o u n tin g , Commerce, B u sin e ss A d m in is tr a tio n - 8 I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e - 5 T eleco m m u n icatio n - 6 B a c te r io lo g y , B io lo g y , Pharmacy - 9 A verage G ra d e : A, 6; B, 5 4; G, 65; D, 4 S o cio -eco n o m ic S t a t u s : Upper and u p p e r-m id d le c l a s s - 74 M iddle and w orking c l a s s - 56 F a th e rs * E d u c a tio n a l B ackground: P r o f e s s i o n a l (MoA.; M .S .; M.E«j Ph<,D©| LLoBo) - 37 F o u r- y e a r c o lle g e g ra d u a te (A»B«; B0S 0) - 23 1-3 y e a r s c o lle g e ( a ls o b u s in e s s s c h o o l) - 36 High s c h o o l g r a d u a te - 25 1 0 -1 1 y e a r s o f s c h o o l ( p a r t h ig h s c h o o l) - 3 7 -9 y e a r s o f s c h o o l - 4 Under 7 y e a r s o f s c h o o l - 2 M others* E d u c a tio n a l B ackground: P r o f e s s i o n a l (M.AoJ M.S©; M .E .; P h .D .; L L .B .) - 6 F o u r- y e a r c o lle g e g ra d u a te (A .B .; B .S .) - 27 1-3 y e a r s o f c o ll e g e ( a ls o b u s in e s s sc h o o l) - 50 H igh s c h o o l g ra d u a te - 39 1 0 -1 1 y e a r s o f s c h o o l ( p a r t h ig h s c h o o l) - 5 7-9 y e a r s o f s c h o o l - 3 Under 7 y e a r s o f s c h o o l - o 193 M o th e rs 1 A c t i v i t i e s : D evoted f u l l - t i m e to hom e and fa m ily Worked d u r in g m a r rie d y e a r s R e lig io u s I n t e r e s t s I n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s No i n t e r e s t i n r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s S u p e r o r d in a te - S u b o r d in a te R o l e s s - 72 - 58 - 91 - 39 S u p e r o r d in a te - 56 S u b o r d in a te - 74 197 MOTHERS* EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND AND ACTIVITIES COMPARED TO DAUGHTERS' EXPECTATIONS M o th e rs w i t h c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n - 63$ M o th e rs w i t h no c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n - 37$ M o th e rs who w o rk ed 45$ W ith o u t c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n 70$ D a u g h te rs who e x p e c te d to w ork«83$ D a u g h te rs who d i d n o t e x p e c t t o w o rk ” 17$ D a u g h te rs who d i d n o t e x - p e c t t o w o rk ” 28$ D a u g h te rs who e x p e c te d t o w or k < = > 7 2 $ W ith o u t c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n D a u g h te r s who d id n o t e x p e c t t o w o rk - 3 5 $ D a u g h te rs who e x p e c te d t o w o rk ” 80$ D a u g h te r s who d i d n o t e x p e c t to w o r k - 20$ D a u g h te rs who e x p e c te d t o w o rk -6 5$ W ith c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n 33$ W ith c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n 30$ M o th e rs who d e v o te d f u l l tim e t o home 55$ APPENDIX VI EXPLANATION ON H OW TO READ DATA I - SCHOLASTIC ACHIEVEMENTS I I - SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS I I I - RELIGIOUS INTEREST IV - SUPERORDINATE-SUBORDINATE ROLES 199 EXPLANATION ON H O W TO READ DATA Ite m num bers c o rre s p o n d t o th e f o l lo w in g : 07 - S tu d en ts® S c h o l a s t i c R eco rd 08 - S tu d en ts® S o c io -e c o n o m ic S t a t u s 09 - Mothers® A c t i v i t i e s 10 - R e li g i o u s I n t e r e s t 11 - S u p e r o r d i n a t e - S u b o r d in a te R o le s 12 - S u p e r o r d i n a t e - S u b o r d in a te R o le s 13 - S u p e r o r d i n a t e - S u b o r d in a te R o le s 14 - M a rria g e E x p e c ta t io n s 15 - E x p e c ta t io n s a f t e r M a rria g e 16-6 1 - S ta te m e n ts a d d r e s s e d to s t u d e n t s . T h e i r num bers c o rre s p o n d t o s t a t e m e n t s 6 -5 1 , r e s p e c t i v e l y , i n T a b le 8 , A ppendix IV « As d a t a w ere p r o c e s s e d a c c o rd in g to QUAP 4 Program (W e ste rn D a ta P r o c e s s in g C e n t e r ) , C hi S q u a re i s o n ly an a p p ro x im a tio n and th e s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l i s lo w e r th a n w hat may be fo u n d i n a t a b l e o f C hi S q u are* CURRENT CJUflSS.lFICfiT.ietl GRfl.UF. = C0JL72 COLUMN 7 $44 SCH6LPSTIC PREV10US CLASSIFICATION GROUP = C0L71 COLUMN 7 1+2 SCHOLASTIC SOO r Zf o . •f'» 0 5 C 'Q « '-(N t0 ^ m T O f'* C tiC r\0 * -(N tO * k n T O f,^CQ<7'0 — TOO' O — C 4 *0 + If) TOr- m ( T > O " ® 1 * 11 1 * I I I I I I I I I I I I I | | | | | | | | | || I I I | | | || I I | I | | i in o ► o o i o o I O O ' 0 0 0 0 i n o000000;0 00000000000'00000 0;000000 O O O O O O O O O O O O lo O O O O 0:0 o o o o o l o O O OO 0(0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o l o o o o o o ' o o o o o o l o o o o o o j o o o o o o ( N t n c o w o O'jC' <n (sir^\DPor-oiO\D(r'0'|'<, <T'<N'jor^o'tP^ooc'a'o,'0'C'<'ico(NCtco o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o to O' cr> r- cr> T O - N f o t - i n v O N c o a . o - m in in m in « j m mm to to > i i i i i ii i i i o o o o o o o o o o o c o o o o o o cy o' C' to O' oo O O O o Q o o o o o a o o o a o c ................. a i f*-h* r— r~- r- r~ - r— r— r totototototototototototototo to to to to to to to * o to i > tO tO tO tO tO fv > T v > t+ j t* ) i i n & o — . O to ■ a n (N ch o) — a. m *•] — ■ * i a. . .i . • o c r c d | — C - T O — f- C O — in in u "i to to ■ + •+ in © <n imr- — in in csiCN o r- o r-!r- co - m — r - cy m — ; m Cn Q — i o C 'l — (40' O ' f ' j < m c> i o to - <•; t f- — <f TO .N O ' If) — TOO — TO > < * ■ O < N T O ■+ •+ * - (M. — t m t o o to to in + o N - O ® O M I t o t o t o t o t o t* i t o r*> t») r- c i o TO — <y co i a o — • — — — - j y- \ o i /i + + + l l I I I + I r- f-> O' ■ + N T O —O N ' t N I I I I I - I N O ( ' i n - s ► T O C O C I I • : in to r- m c N V 5 < fo •» H to T O I O r- T O < T O to ( M co ■ 4 4 1 4 4 4-1 141 I I 4 I 4 I c o r-> t o c y to •- m o h- in i' co — to *- *o in h- ro ^ to in T O T O T O —(> 4 0 O C Q — o oo U i O Q (N O TO O T O If C 4 W — I— z: i 4 + i a • :> t o t o cy t o o to —(NCD'J- inr^coo — > » o > in t o o > — « .•< * » t o U.Q. — o m o — inT O O O T O tO — *- ro IN (y — O O ' - O ’f N f ' l O la. .......................................................................................................................................................... — i — co t o o - h- in y r4 ro r- to co in o >r rj co o o r- to u' o in h* — O O O O O O — O — OO — OOOO — — o o — u,i- — * o M ci OQ OO O O—C l I I I I 4 I + I I I I I z t r o c o i n t o c D ^ c o m i n r ^ t o T O m f ^ o r - i N o r ^ f o c y i n i r / C D O i N o c y ^ u - i r y c a i N c o c o f o f y — cNiairNf^oiror'-fyinh'-r^in — fyr-r^u. • 1 C I TO — TO —• If) — TO O T O I N C N T O O If* TO + if) KO I'- < r CO — f O U i C y i n <f TO Gx «0 d o C O O — t o TO — t ^ f - o — t o f 4 o t o TO o co N ( M t O t O t ' t > ) N > I N n 4 4 V ' T - t o t o OJ r y IN ' a z : T O ,« “ f '- < 4 T O — r ^ t O f ^ r < ; T O f * - t o - - T O f O O t o — f--. *o TO O ' O T-- — T O T O T O T O Q T O — • T T O f ' - « r - - a d o N - o it - o o o n ^ in co r.t (><fo a n -t n tora co>o •- c m o ffin c« 'o -• co r ^ n 'H \a in U J E t n ( V ^ r > ) ( \ |^ ^ (N N f-i fO fO l* > N to ^ <r ^ - f ' C 'i f J (•! f> l ^ — — — — — — — — ttc* — tflT O T O O r-T O O ' — t o i n — N i n a — o n f i c a . o 0 t - ‘ 1 O O O O O O ' _j . T O T O T O T O T O I CJ VI I Ui ' O O O O T O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O a O O O O )TOTOTOTOlOTOTOTOTOTOTOTOTOiTOTOTOTOTOTO'l>TOTOTOTO,4TOTOTO'TO _* OC>OOTOOOOC-OTOOCDaO<XiOOO_J TO i n TO TO i n TO TO TO TO TO lO T O i n T O T O l O T O T O T O O r » 52: r - r - uj a _j _i _j to _j a z: o o o o © a . o o u o <_) r — r— i— r — r— r— r^ - f— (— r^ - r — r^ - r* - r^ - r^ - r— r — r— r ^ * r — r^ - t — f-- r^ - f~ - f~ - r * - * r-- r— f — r^ - r* - f~ - f— r^ - r — r ~ w t— —i j i t i i i ^ a j i i _ i t _ i i i i i i r _ » i _ I _ j _ j —i _ j _ j —i _ j _j _ i —i —i —} —i —i —i —i —i —i __ i _ j c r o c i o o o o o o o o e j o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o a o c t o o o o o o o o o a o o o o o o c ' o o o o o O UO OO OO U t T O U C j O O U U U ' - i O O O L j O O O O U C J O O t - J C . ' O i T O U O O O T O O O O O O T O O O O O O T O U J in UJ Q i n u i JE 4- O © 2 : r > . a. => in o ui o O O O O O O O O O O 1 7 « 0 o o o o o _ r-t^r^4-TOt^i^r~r^h-TO4-r*r~f^r-f'-r-f^ o o o o a o o c T ' O o o o c io a o Q o a o o o a o c rt o a o o o t r— |-^ r — r- r- i~- r* - TOf'-f^-f^r^TOf^f‘ *f'wr^ t^ r^ f^ -f'-r^ n -f^ T O T O N h -h -h -f e • r - » ■ c?' o — i n t o m t o a > C ' o — cm ' o m to c o c> o — « n * o < m to n c o c> o — < n t o i t i l © O O O - — — — — — — — — <N (>l <N M <N <N IN (N <N t o t o r o t o t o t o fv> t o t*1 K ) - r I- E I I I l l l I I I I l l l l I I I l I l I l I I l l l I l l I I I I I I I I I I I — GUAP-4 FORMAT 24 PROJECT HO. 4?2B ONE COLUMN OATA CURRENT CLASS IF ICAT ICM GROUP =........COL62 COLUMN 3 3+4 PREUI0US CLASSIFICATION GROUP = C0L81 COLUMN 8 1+2 TEW RESPONSES PREVIOUS-CL-Gp. CU*R. PREU. DIFF. NO. COUNTED NAME RES.CTD MEAN MEAN CR. - PUR. -0 7 . 55 .. .. -C J3.L 81 74 4 • m -03 55 C0L81 74 3. 1 1 1 .51 4 \ .60 -0 9 55 C0L81 74 4. 1 1 3.81 4 .30 - 1 0 55 C0L81 74 3. 09 3 .0 7 4 . 0 2 -1 55 C0L81 7-, 2. 15 2 .8 4 - .69 -1 2 55 C0L81 72 1 . 49 2. 14 - .6 5 " 1 3 55 COL 81 73 _ 1 *33 1.63 - .30 -1 4 55 C0L81 74 1 . 98 2 .0 7 - .0 9 -15 55 C0L81 74 2 .6 7 2 . 6 8 - . 0 0 -16 55 C0L81 74 3. 02 2 . 8 6 4 . 15 -1 7 55 C0L81 74 3 .2 2 3 .5 5 - .34 -13 53 C0L81 74 3. 68 3 .6 9 - . 2 1 - 1 2 . 55_____ £flLS 1-. .......74. . .. ... .. 3*15 4 . 0 1 . - 2 0 55 C0L81 74 3 .5 8 3. 18 4 .41 - 2 1 55 C0L81 74 2.51 2 .4 7 4 .04 - 2 2 55 C0L81 74 3 .3 5 3 .3 2 4 . 0 2 -23 55 C0L81 74 4. 65 4 .5 9 4 . 0 6 -24 55 C0L81 74 4. 58 4 .4 6 4 . 12 -25 55 LQ.LSI . ..... 74. ......4*80 4*. 6.9 4 . 1 1 -26 55 C0L81 74 4. 44 4 .3 8 4 .0 6 -27 55 C0L81 74 1.31 1 .31 - . 0 0 -28 55 C0L81 74 3. 84 3 .6 6 - .0 3 -2 9 55 C0L81 74 3. 1 1 2 .7 6 4 .35 -30 55 C0L81 74 2 .3 3 2 . 1 6 4 . 1 7 55 CQL8.1 ... ____7.4.. . .. . 2* .40. . .2*34.. ♦ ■ 06 - 3 2 55 C0L81 74 2 . 22 2 . 22 + . 0 0 - 3 3 55 C0L81 7 3 4. 5S 4 .5 5 4 .03 -34 55 C0L81 74 1 . 45 1 . 45 4 .0 1 -35 55 C0L81 74 1 .6 7 1 .5 5 4 . 1 2 -36 55 C0L81 74 1 . 98 1 .96 4 . 0 2 -37 55 C0L8J .. .. 7.4_ L-.4.4 ... . U 2 I. 4 * JZ . -36 54 C0L81 74 1 . 1 1 1 . os 4 .0 3 -39 55 COLS 1 74 1 . 85 1 .93 ~ .08 -40 55 COLS 1 74 1 . 78 1 . 80 - . 0 2 -41 55 C0L81 74 1.09 1.14 - .04 -42 55 C0L81 74 1 . 33 1 . 34 - .0 1 - 4 3 55. COLS I . .7 4 . ... 1*65_____1_*72 . . .. -44 54 C0L81 74 1 . 63 1.70 - .0 7 -45 55 C0L81 74 1 .53 1.42 4 . 1 1 - h G 55 C0L81 74 1 . 1 1 1. 15 - .04 -4 7 55 C0L81 7 3 1 . 25 1.38 - . 13 -48 55 C0L81 74 1 .56 1 . 6 6 - . 10 -4 9. . ...S5.____ CQL81 ____24.____ . _ -L J5 .. UQ9 . 4 .0 5 -5 0 55 C0L81 73 1 .3 5 1 . 2 2 4 . 13 -51 55 C0L81 73 1 . 60 1 .74 .14 -5 2 55 C0L81 74 1 .1 3 1 .08 4 .0 5 -5 3 55 C0L81 73 1 . 09 1.07 4 . 0 2 -54 55 CCL81 74 1 . 1 1 1 . 1 2 - . 0 1 -55 54 C0L81 73 1 .2 6 1.30 - .04 -56 55 C0L81 74 1 . 2 0 1 .24 - .0 4 -57 55 C0L81 74 1 .0 9 1 .03 4 . 0 6 -58 54 C0L81 72 1 .2 4 1.26 - . 0 2 -5 9 55 C0L81 . .74. .. . . 1 . 2 5 4 .tO j.. -6 0 55 C0L81 74 1 .0 4 1 .0 9 - • 06 -61 55 C0L81 74 1 .7 8 1.81 - .0 3 >ARTICIPflNT COUNT = 55 56 ITEMS 1 3 S0CI0EC0N0MIC • - ' - ' ------------ 7 S0CI0EC0NOMIC K0L-SW[RN0V CHI.SO. NO. OF SIGNIFICANCE item STATISTIC APPR0X. CELLS LEUEL N0. + 5.01 .3 1 ? 7 ,9000 1 ~07 + /0 0 . 0 0 126.201 7 .0005 1-08 + 10.71 1 . 448 7 .5000 1-09 e + 3 .2 2 . 1 30 7 .9000 1-10 - 2 2 .5 3 6 .4 0 6 i .0 5 0 0 1-1 1 - 1 7 .6 0 3 .8 6 3 7 . 2000 1 -12 - !6J _L‘L . .7... .. __:_2000 1-13 . _ • ‘ H - 6 .9 0 . 601 7 . 8000 1-14 + 7 .3 2 . 676 7 .8000 1-15 + 6. 31 . 503 7 .8000 1-16 - 13.44 2 .2 7 9 6 . 4000 1-17 *1 - 1 0 .2 0 1.284 6 . 6000 1-18 - 7 .5 9 _ -727 .6 .7000 1-19 + 13.71 2. 372 6 . 4000 1-20 - 6 .9 0 .601 6 .8000 1-21 - 8 .0 6 . 819 6 .7000 1-22 . + 6 .9 3 . 605 6 .8000 1-23 _ + 5 .4 8 . 378 6 .9000 1-24 + . 12^0J____ ____1.821 .5000 1-25 + 8 .1 3 . 834 6 . 7000 1-26 - 1.11 .015 6 .9000 1-27 - 2 .9 5 . 109 6 .9000 1-28 + 14.94 2 .8 1 6 6 .3000 1-29 + 9.71 1 . 1 88 6 .6000 1-30 + 3 .6 4 . 1 66 6 .9000 1-31 - 1 . 97 . 048 6 .9000 1-32 + 1 .37 .023 6 .9000 1-33 + .8 6 .009 3 .9 0 0 0 ' 1-34 4 1 1 . §7 1 .7 7 ? 3 .5000 1-35 4 2 .2 4 .062 3 .9000 1-36 + 16.61 3 . 4 0 1 3 .2000 1-37 ♦ 3 .0 0 .112 3 .9 0 0 0 1-38 - 7 .7 9 . 765 3 .7000 I -3 9 - 1 .5 5 .030 3 .9000 1-40 - 4 .4 2 .246 3 .9000 1-41 1 .0 6 .013 3 .9000 1-42 - 6 .1 7 . 479 •3 .8000 1-43 - 7.31 . 666 3 .8 0 0 0 1-44 + 1 0 ,8 4 1 .481 3 .5000 1-45 - 3 .9 6 . 197 3 .9 0 0 0 1-46 - 1 2 .9 0 2.08.8 3 .4Q00 1-47 - 9 .8 5 1 .224 3 .6 0 0 0 1-48 + 5 .0 9 .326 3 .9000 1-49 + 1 2 .6 3 2 .0 0 0 3 .4 0 0 0 1-50 - 1 3 .?7 2 .4 4 9 3 .3000 1-51 4 4 .6 2 . 269 3 .9000 1-52 4 2 .2 4 .062 3 .9 0 0 0 1-53 - 1 .2 5 .019 3 .9 0 0 0 1-54 - 4.21 .2 2 0 3 .9000 1-55 - 4 .3 2 .2 3 5 vS .9000 1-56 + 6 .3 9 .514 3 .8000 1-57 - 2.31 .066 3 .9 0 0 0 1-58 ♦ U 3 0 - - • 021 _____ 3 ____ . 9QOO 1-59 - 5 .8 2 . 427 3 19000 1-60 - 2.90 . ,1 0 5 . 3 ,9000. 1-61 201 QURP-4 FORMAT 24 PROJECT MO. 472C OME COLUMN OATA PARTICIPANT COUNT = 83 56 ITEMS H I CURRENT CLASSIFICATION GRBU£ =___ CL 102 COLUMN 10 3*4________RELIGIOUS PREVIOUS CLASSIFICATION GROUP = CL101 COLUMN 10 1+2 RELIGIOUS ITEM responses PREVIOUS-CL-GP. CURR. PREU. DIFF. K0L-SBIRN8V CHI.SO. NO. OF SIGNIFICANCE ITEM NO. counted NAME RES.CTO MEAN REAN CR - PVR. STATISTIC APPRO*. CELLS LEVEL N0. i -o? 83 CL101 40 2.43 2.70 - .27 - 13. 10 1 .853 7 .4000 -07 1 -08 8L3 CL 1 01 4Q_ 2. 95 2. 10 + .15___ 4 13.40 1 .939 7 ,4000 -05. . 1 -09 83 cl i o i 4C 3.99 4.02 V .04 - 8.46 .773 7 .7000 -09 1-10 83 CL 1 01 40 3.64 1.60 ♦ 2.04 4/00.00 107.967 7 .0005 - 1 0 1-11 83 cl 1 o 1 40 2.80 2.13 ♦ .67 4 17.53 3. 317 7 .2000 -11 1-12 82 CHOI 39 2. 02 1.62 + .41 4 19.61 4. 063 7 .2000 -12 1-13 82 CL 1 01 40 1.67 1 22 .45 4 17.50 3- 293 7 .2000. -13 1-14 83 CL1 01 40_. . 2.02 2 05 - .03 -_ 9.25 . 923 7 .7000 -14 i -is • 83 CL 101 40 2.28 3.90 - 1.12 - 27.47 8« 147 7 .0250 '-15 1-16 83 CL 1 01 40 2.96 2.88 + .09 4 4.07 . 178 7 .9000 -16 1-17 83 CL1 01 40 3.47 3.38 + .09 4 4.64 .232 6 .9000 -17 1-18 82 CL 1 01 39 3. 84 3.72 + . 12 4 4.78 .241 6 .9000 -18 1-19 83 CL101 40 3.04 3.38 - .34 - 14.31 2*210 6 .4000 -19 L r2 9 .. _____8S_____ QLJ.Q]___ - AQ....... .itAQ . ■ f ,02 __- 5.84 . 368 6 . 9000 -20 1-21 83 CL 101 40 2.43 2.67 - . 24 - 8.58 - 795 6 . 7000 -21 1 -22 83 CL 101 40 3.25 3. 50 - .25 - 8.55 . 790 6 .7000 -22 1 -23 83 CL 1 01 40 4. 63 4. 57 . 05 4 9.97 1 .073 6 .6000 -23 1 -24 83 CL 1 01 40 4.51 4.52 - .02 4 4.13 . 183 6 . 9000 -24 1-25 83 CL101 40 4. 76 4. 70 ♦ .06 4 3.31 .118 6 .9000 -25 J — 26 83 CL 101 40 4.41 4.38 ♦ .03 4 1 1 .81 1 .505 6 . 5000 -26 T-27 83 CL 1 01 40 1 . 29 1 35 .06 - 3.49 .131 6 .9000 -27 1 -28 83 CL 1 01 40 3.87 3.88 - .01 - 2.80 .084 6 .9000 -28 1 -29 83 CL101 40 2. 78 3.07 - .29 - 9.22 .91? 6 .7000 -29 1 -30 83 CL 1 01 40 2. 13 2.35 - .22 - 7,89 .672 6 .8000 -30 1 -31 83 CL 1 01 40 2.41 2. 38 * .03 4 2.41 .062 6 .9000 -31 1-32 8 7 CL 1 01__ -&£L ?. 1 2 2. 75 . 23 ... - .929 6 .7000 -32 1-33 83 CL 1 01 39 4.63 4.41 ♦ .22 4 16.50 2 • 888 6 .3000 -33 1-34 83 CL 101 40 1 .40 1,55 - ■ 15 - 15.24 2.507 3' .3000 -34 1-35 83 CL 1 01 40 1 . 58 1 63 - .05 - 4.67 .235 3 .9000 -35 1-36 83 CL 101 40 ! ,98 1,95 + .03 4 2.59 .072 3 .9000 -36 1 -37 83 CL 1 01 40 t. 33 1 40 - .07 - 7.47 .602 3 .8000 —37 1--IS. . 82- CLiai . 2S _ . .U.G5 * . . 0 7 . 4 _ - -5Q5__ __3__ .8000 -38 1 -39 83 CL 1 01 40 1 .93 1.85 . 08 4 7.77 .652 3 .8000 -39 1-4Q 83 CL 101 40 1 .80 1 77 + .02 4 2.02 .043 3 .9000 -40 1 -41 83 CL 1 01 40 1 . 10 1.17 - .OS - 7.86 . 667 3 .8000 -41 1 -42 83 CL 1 01 40 1.39 1 27 + . 1 1 4 1 1.05 1.319 3 .6000 -42 1 -43 83 CL 1 01 40 1 .69 1.70 - .01 - 1.33 .018 3 . 9000 -43 _&2- CLI01 - 40 . 1 L* 7C - *.Q4 - 4 * 1 5 ...... „*184 ......- ___3____ *9000. -44 1 -45 83 CL 1 01 40 1 .45 1.52 - .OS - 7.92 .677 3 .8 0 0 0 -45 1 -46 83 CL 1 01 40 1 . 12 1 .15 - .03 - 2,95 .094 3 .9000 -46 1 -47 82 cl i oi 40 1 . 30 1 40 - . lo - 9.51 .972 3 .7000 -47 1 -48 83 CLlOl 40 1 .59 1 .70 - . 11 - 10.96 1 .297 3 .6000 -48 1 -49 83 CL 1 01 40 1.10 1.15 - .05 - 5.36 .310 3 .9000 -49 1 -SO _22 n tm____ C | 1 _ 24 1 7." _ . 09 _ 9.24 .905 3 .7000 -50 1 -51 83 CL 1 01 39 1 .70 1 69 + .01 4 .65 .004 3 .9000 -51 1 -52 83 CL 1 01 40 1. Q7 1.15 - . 08 - 7.77 3 .8000 -52 1 -53 82 CL 1 01 40 1 .07 1 . 07 - . 00 - . 1 8 . 000 3 . 9000 -53 1 -54 83 CL 1 01 40 1.12 1.10 + .02 4 2.05 . 045 3 . 9000 -54 1 -55 81 CL101 40 1 .25 1 35 - . 10 - 10.31 1 . 1 36 3 . 6000 -55 1-56 83 -CLiQl - . 40 1 -. 2 - 7 - 1..17 + .02 4 ■SL.O.L... . _8X5____ Z___ .7000 -5 6 1 -57 83 cl 1 o i 40 1 .04 1 . 02 4 .01 4 1.11 .013 3 . 9000 -57 1-58 8 i CLlOl 39 1.21 1 .36 - . 15 - 14.91 2.340 3 .4000 ‘ J8 1 -59 83 CL 1 0 I 40 1 .92 2. 00 - .08 - 8.43 .767 3 .7Q00 -59 1-60 83 CLlOl 40 1.05 1. 13 - .08 - 7.68 . 636 3 *8000 -6 0 1-61 83 CL 101 40 1.82 1.80 4 .02 4 1.93 . 040 3 .9000 -61 DIVISION BV ZERO BECAUSE A COLUMN THAT UAS blank for ALL PARTICIPANTS UAS N0T MADE ZERO ON THE INDICATOR CARD<S> b 0 7 o 0 203 > H k • f- co C' o — fn ♦ in , UI © O O O ---------------------— . h* z: i » >i i i i i i a — <N ^ ♦ i P l v j I - 00 t? ' O - , < N r*3 * m y j m o o < 7 > o - p j m ♦ j p g h - co C ' iO - m m ^ J I-. CO c> D - m m n m n (n | n n < r i P i p t o i p £ > £-> i n « n £> tr . • n ■ . i « i * i i.i i ill ill ii ii ii t i ii i < i ii || i;i ii i i i i ii i i T * U J ip o . o o o ’ U J o o O O O b • i O Q IP G I O O O O i C f o o o < } O < _ > o ■ ' O Q O > o o o o o o o r- c % o o o o o o l o o o o o o o o o o o o j o o o o o o o o o o o d o o o o o o t'-ff'OO0 < y '< N C T '< r,o<r'Ooo' o o o o o O o OOOO OiO o o o o o o o o o o o jo o o o o o io o o o o o O O O O O OO OO OO O'OOOOOO o 00 r * * - r* - o 0 |c- cr' c- o h- o lo oo < ? « h- co • f- f-- Mf- r-- r- g g o jo o g > o o 'S’ v a o f f'^IP rp I« 1 tp IP r*V‘ > *p Ip Ip »P I' i T p Ip rp » < > T P T p T p IP K . IP Ip f - 1 c l c l u j u j C l cl 0 0 in m 1 i CL (L o © I C O C D 'O o in in IP f-- O -jj '.'J U J I- O' 'J • . in « * - ^ u j o r^'« ? i> ip < ry - o Dj •- ip r - f- > .o o r —! — — (.o l- 'V 1 '^ f— I- p lo w H "bin t . w _ . - w - w . - . . — ip !--< • < i ^ r j) u » - r- v t > 'T — 1 r- ■ _ > ip -a o o; o o o o * r c ij — < * r- o j - o| o o o r \ I - G t u ■ T ‘ . j l»J O ' \ y G> W u ' u i — < T — i_j C J — O ' * . 4 < T — 0 ' | . t IP I - \ 0 < IP O ^ O !■ ) p'i M03 C O — — !•» fprf- f ui — 03 M l IP C O IP O O i * 1 * •J f-* I’V v N* o C O CL t - rp ( <£, (J\ fv. rv) i- ; q <t l~- N r p * — I *» >0 C O CH ip IT)i •» r*~ 00 CH f-J CJ] i p C ? -. 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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

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Asset Metadata

Creator Istiphan, Isis (author)

Core Title Role Expectations Of American Undergraduate College Women In A Western Coeducational Institution

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Sociology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Sociology, general

Format dissertations (aat)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Vincent, Melvin J. (committee chair), Sabagh, Georges (committee member), Seward, Georgene H. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-271517

Unique identifier UC11358853

Identifier 6206068.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-271517 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6206068.pdf

Dmrecord 271517

Document Type Dissertation

Format dissertations (aat)

Rights Istiphan, Isis

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA