University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

An Analysis Of Contemporary Poetic Structure, 1930-1955

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An Analysis Of Contemporary Poetic Structure, 1930-1955

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Content This dissertation has been 64-2583 microfilmed exactly as received KAPLAN, Robert Boris, 1928- AN ANALYSIS OF CONTEMPORARY POETIC STRUCTURE, 1930-1955. University of Southern California, Ph. D ., 1963 Language and literature, modern University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan C o p y r ig h t^ ) by R obert B o ris Kaplan 1964 A N ANALYSIS OP CONTEM PORARY POETIC STRUCTURE 1930 - 1955 by R o b ert B o ris K aplan A D is s e r ta tio n P re se n te d to th e FACULTY OF THE G RADU ATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e R eq u irem en ts f o r th e Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (E n g lis h ) June 1963 UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES 7 . CALIFORNIA This dissertation, written by ......................... R » b .e .r.t..B G c ia .i£ a p lA n ............................ under the direction of hi&....Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y Dean . DISSERTATION COMMITTEE TABLE OP CONTENTS C h a p te r Page I . INTRODUCTION...................................................................... 1 I I . SURVEY OP HISTORY A N D BACKGROUND...................... 24 I | I I I . T H E POETS OF THE N E W PURITANISM............................. 37 j j IV . TH E POETS OP THE N E W PAGANISM.................................. 80 J V. OSCILLOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS................................................ 129 l i V I. CONCLUSIONS........................................................................... 148 APPENDIX O s c illo g ra p h ic r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f poems . . 164 1. e e cummings, "S pring i s l i k e a p e rh a p s h a n d ," re a d by th e a u th o r 2. T. S . E l io t , "B urnt N o rto n ," read by th e a u th o r 3. R o b e rt Penn W arren, " T e r r o r ," read by R obert B. Kaplan 4. A lle n T a te , Emblems I , r e a d by th e a u th o r 5. Jo h n C ia rd i, "To Ju d ith A sle ep ," r e a d by R o b e rt B. Kaplan 6 . Jo h n Crowe Ransom, " B e lls f o r John W h ite sid e * s D au g h ter," r e a d by R obert B. Kaplan 7 . W. H. Auden, "Law, Say th e G ard en ers, i s th e Sun, re a d by th e a u th o r 8 . S tep h e n S p en d er, "The L andscape N ear an A erodrom e," re a d by R o b ert B, K aplan 9 . C. Day Lew is, "In Heaven, I Suppose, L ie Down T o g e th e r," read by R o b ert B. K aplan i i 10. Edwin M uir, "Hie R e c u rre n c e ," re a d by R obert B. K aplan 11. Henry Jam es, "Hie B e a s t in th e J u n g le ," re a d by R obert B. K aplan 12. W allace S tev e n s, "Sunday M orning," re a d by R obert B. K aplan 13. Delmore S chw artz, " I n Hie Naked Bed i n P l a t o 's C ave," re a d by R o b ert B. Kaplan 14. M arianne Moore, " In D is tr u s t o f M e rits ," re a d by th e a u th o r 15. W illiam C a rlo s W illia m s, "H ie B u ll," re a d by th e a u th o r 1 6. Dylan Thomas, "F ern H i l l ," re a d by th e a u th o r 17. Lawrence D u rr e ll, "To A rgos," re a d by R obert B. K aplan 18. R o b e rt G raves, "To Ju an a t S o l s t i c e ," re a d by R obert B. K aplan 19. R ich ard E b e rh a rt, " I Walked Out I n to th e G raveyard to See th e D ead," re a d by R obert B. K aplan 20. R o b ert F r o s t, "Two Tramps in Mud Tim e," re a d by th e a u th o r BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION I t i s th e purpose o f t h i s stud y to examine a body o f ;contemporary lit e r a t u r e In ord er to d isc o v e r whether any g e n e r a liz a tio n s can be made concerning th e str u c tu r e o f | p o e tr y , p a r tic u la r ly s in c e 1930. In th e exam ination, th e |p o e tr y w i l l be d isc u sse d both In terms o f th e r e l a t i v e l y j i new l in g u i s t i c tech n iq u es fo r the str u c tu r a l a n a ly s is o f i poetry# and in terms o f th e p o e t 's own’pronouncements con - i 1 cera ln g the n atu re o f p o e tr y . Such an ord er o f d lso u sslo n | seems d e s ir a b le because o f th e com p lexity o f th e lin g u i s t ic * term in ology, which should be understood b efo re th e more co n v en tio n a l stu d y I s undertaken. I t I s f i r s t n ece ssa r y , however, to g iv e b r ie f p relim in a ry d is c u s s io n s o f contem porary p o etry In g e n e r a l, and o f th e new l in g u i s t i c te c h n iq u e s In p a r tic u la r . I Contemporary P oetry I In the cen tu ry s in c e th e f i r s t p u b lic a tio n o f Leaves I o f Q rass. th e a r t o f w r itin g p o etry has undergone s e v e r a l r e v o lu tio n s ; between 1930 and 1955 Anglo-American p o etry jhas produced a crop o f p o e t - c r it ic a who are p e c u lia r ly co n scio u s o f t h e ir a r t and t h e ir tech n iq u es* I n ord er to attem pt an a n a ly s is o f th e e x te n t and d ir e c tio n o f th e change which h as taken p la c e . I t I s n ecessa ry to examine th e p o etry and th e c r it ic is m , and to compare them. Ob v io u s ly , th e p erio d h as produced more p o e ts than can p o s- i jslb ly be ev a lu a ted o r examined I n d iv id u a lly . Of n e c e s s it y , o n ly p o e ts w ith e s ta b lis h e d r e p u ta tio n s , and o n ly p o e ts |who have ex p ressed th em selves a t some le n g th about t h e ir work, can be co n sid ered . As A rchibald A. H i l l , a prom inent l i n g u i s t , has so I {convenien tly s ta te d : . . . w ith in th e corpus o f permanent u tte r a n c e s w i l l be found a c l a s s o r c la s s e s o f u tte r a n c e s which d i f f e r from ca su a l sp eech . The d iffe r e n c e s can be ex p ected to be o f two s o r t s , l i n g u i s t i c and s t y l i s t i c . For th e se p u rp oses, lln g u ls t lo c h a r a c te r is tic s are th o se which can be f u l l y I llu s t r a t e d w ith in th e borders o f a se n te n c e , o r o f se v e r a l sen ten oea con sid ered w ith ou t r e la t io n to each o th e r . I The In ven tory o f phonemes I s a t y p ic a l l i n g u i s t i c s e t o f i Item s. G en era lly , permanent u tte r a n c e s are n o t charac t e r is e d by s p e c ia l phonemic Item s, though [C .F .] V o eg elln h as been a b le to show th a t on o co a slo n songs and ch an ts may d if f e r In t h e ir phonemic Inventory from th e In ven tory ; o f ca su a l u tte r a n c e s . More c h a r a c t e r is t ic a lly , permanent u tte r a n c e s are ch a r a c te r iz e d by Item s which may be co n sid ered s t y l i s t i c a l l y . • . . S t y l i s t i c s I s h ere d efin e d a s • • . ch a ra c te r i s t i c s which cannot be t a l l y ill u s t r a t e d In a s in g le se n te n c e , o r in sep arate se n te n c e s w ith o u t co n sid er in g r e la t io n s betw een th em .l Thus, lit e r a t u r e has I t s b ein g In s t y l i s t i c s , and th e " d ef- j l n l t i o n o f lit e r a t u r e must be sought In s t y l i s t i c s " (p . 5 2 ). 1m A Program fo r a D e fin itio n o f L ite r a tu r e ," Texas S tu d ie s in E n g lish . 3 7 :5 0 , 1958. L e t ub g r a n t t h a t t h i s I s a r e l a t i v e l y lo o se d e f i n i t i o n o f l i t e r a t u r e , e s p e c i a l l y modem l i t e r a t u r e . Modern l i t e r a t u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y modern p o e try , I s th e h e i r o f many B chools and t r a d i t i o n s . I t i s g e n e r a lly a g re e d , how e v e r , t h a t th e m odem Idiom o f p o e try dep en d s p r im a r ily on two t r a d i t i o n s — th e m e ta p h y s ic a l, stem m ing from Jo h n Donne, and th e s y m b o lis t, stemming from M allarm e. The m etaphys i c a l p o e ts p u rsu e d I n t e g r i t y by a n a ly s is ; th e sy m b o list p o e ts Invoked I t b y I n t u i t i o n and s u g g e s tio n . The sym bol i s t s t r i e d to h a s te n th e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f th e modem w orld by a derangem ent o f th e s e n s e s In o r d e r t h a t , by recom bin in g th e exploded e le m e n ts w ith l i t t l e o r no r e l a t i o n to t h e i r form er s t r u c t u r e s , th e y m ight c o n s tr u c t a t r u e r w orld o f I n n e r r e a l i t y . S in ce grammar, s y n ta x , and s t r u c t u r e a re a ls o l o g i c a l e n t i t l e s r e l a t e d to s e m a n tic s , th e s y m b o lis ts d is c a r d e d o r e x a g g e ra te d t r a d i t i o n a l u s a g e . Hie m etaphys i c a l p o e t s , on th e o th e r h an d , u sed a l l ' t h e i r I n t e l l e c t u a l a s w e ll as t h e i r I n t u i t i v e and s u g g e s tiv e r e s o u rc e s to b rin g c o n g ru lty to d is c o rd a n t Id e a s and im ag es. C a te g o riz in g i s alw ays s u p e r f i c i a l , y e t f o r th e p u rp o se s o f any s tu d y , some c o n v e n ie n t h a n d le s a re n e c e s s a ry by w hich to graB p th e trem endous b u lk o f m a te r ia l . S in c e th e term s m e ta p h y s ic a l and sy m b o lis t im p ly n o t o n ly p h ilo s o p h ic a l p o s i t i o n s , b u t a ls o a t t i t u d e s tow ard se m a n tic s and s t r u c t u r e , th e y w i l l s e r v e . L in g u is tic 'Techniqueb Seymour Chatman w r ite s t h a t a poem I s ". . . a n Ideo l e c t r e f l e c t i n g , y e t su b tly d if f e r e n t from contem porary |s p e e c h .” For a c o n sid e r a b le len g th o f tim e t h i s s u b tle {d iffe r e n c e h as concerned p r o s o d ls t s , p h o n e tic ia n s , seman- I j t l c l s t s , and l i n g u i s t s . The m e tr ic a l p a tte r n s o f m ost E n g lish v e r s e are made o f th e fe a tu r e s o f sound c a l le d s t r e s s . The lan gu age o f t h i s v e r se I s ch osen and arranged so th a t I t s str o n g e r and | weaker s t r e s s e s f a l l more o r l e s s accord in g to th e d esig n I I o f th e m e tr ic a l p a tte r n . S t r e s s means "a g r e a te r volume o f i I ! sound, o r an In crea sed I n t e n s it y In a r t ic u la t io n , o r both, | brought to bear on one s y ll a b le In c o n tr a s t t o I t s n eig h b o rs." ^ Sometimes th e se s t r e s s e s o ccu r In e x a c t a lte r n a - t ; t lo n , som etim es more f r e e ly . Other fe a tu r e s o f sound a lso form p a tte r n s fo r v e r se : number o f s y ll a b le s , sh o r t and ; lon g q u a l i t i e s . B u t, as I t I s g e n e r a lly r e c o g n iz e d , there I s In any lin e o f v e r se a d eg re e o f d iff e r e n c e betw een th e p a tte r n o f s t r e s s which th e words and p hrases would have as th ey m ight occur i n th e lan gu age o f sp eech , and th e p a t- j | te r n s o f s t r e s s e s In the m eter. The language o f v e r s e i s j 2 " L in g u is tic s , P o e t ic s , and I n te r p r e ta tio n : The Pho- ; nemic D im ension," Q u arterly Journal o f Speech. 4 3 :2 3 9 , i 1957. An id e o le c t i s . . tn e p erso n a l d i a l e c t o f a i s in g le sp eak er." A rchibald A. H i l l , In tr o d u c tio n to j l i n g u i s t i c S tr u c tu r e s (Hew Y ork, 1 9 5 8 ), p . 13* ^Margaret S ch lau ch , Modern E n g lish and American I P o etry (London. 1 9 5 8 ), p. 1 5 6 . o rd ered by p a t t e r n s made o f la n g u ag e f e a t u r e s , and th e s e p a t te r n s e x i s t as a b s t r a c t i o n s , s e p a ra te from th e lan g u ag e o f any p a r t i c u l a r l i n e . What I s th e p u rp o se o f t h i s m e t r i c a l p a t te r n ? Why sh o u ld language be s u b je c t to th e d i s t o r tio n I t I s l i k e l y to I n c u r when I t I s p la c e d I n t o t h i s p a t te rn ? Any answ er to th e s e two q u e s tio n s m ust b e d e f i n i t i v e f o r a l l v e r s e . I t s h o u ld e x p la in what makes th e p a r t i c u l a r u s e o f la n g u a g e c a lle d v e rs e d i f f e r e n t from a l l o th e r u s e s o f lan g u ag e. I t sh o u ld a ls o p e rm it d i s t i n c t i o n s betw een th e s u c c e s s f u l and th e u n s u c c e s s f u l. The m e tr ic a l p a t t e r n c o n ta in s In. I t s e l f th e re a s o n f o r I t s use in m aking v e r s e , "lh e m e tr ic a l p a t t e r n I s a co p y , a m im icry, a c o u n t e r f e it w ith o u t I n te n tio n to d e c e iv e , o f th e b a s ic e le m e n ts o f th e lan g u ag e and o f t h e i r o rd e r. When t h i s m e tr ic a l p a t t e r n i s p la c e d In c o n ju n c tio n w ith words o r p h r a s e s , a te n s io n e x i s t s betw een them . V erse I s d is tin g u is h e d from a l l o th e r u s e s o f language p r e c i s e l y by I t s use o f m e te r. The m e tr ic a l p a t t e r n , o r any o th e r s tr o n g rh y th m ic a l d e v ic e , h a s th e e s s e n t i a l fh n c tlo n " to make th e language . . . I m ita tiv e o f I t s own s tr u c tu r e " (Thompson, p . 10) . Die f e a t u r e s o f sound o f lan g u ag e t h a t a r e e s s e n t i a l to I t s I n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e are c a l l e d phonem es.^ In E n g lis h ^John Thompson, The Founding o f E n g lish M etre (New Y ork, 1 9 6 1 ), p . 9• *V b/ f o r exam ple. 6 th e y c o n s is t o f th e seg m en tal phonem es, w hich a re th o s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f sound u s u a lly c a l l e d vow els and co n so n a n ts , and th e su p ra se g m e n ta l phonemes o f s t r e s s , p i t c h , | land ju n c tu r e . These l a t t e r phonemes a re n o t e n t i r e sounds i in th e m s e lv e s , b u t r a t h e r f e a t u r e s o f sound, w hich th e i | s p e a k e rs o f a lan g u ag e have been t r a in e d to re c o g n iz e and to p ro d u ce a s s i g n a ls . S tr e s s i s an e s s e n t i a l s ig n a l in th e sy stem . I t s e rv e s to d is t in g u is h betw een w ords; i t s e rv e s to form p h ra s e s and c la u s e s ; i t s e rv e s to d i s t l n - ig u ls h nouns from a d j e c t iv e s , s u b je c ts from v e rb s . The word g ro u p s o f E n g lis h s e n te n c e s a re d is tin g u is h e d by p a t t e r n s o f s t r e s s and J u n c tu re . In a d d itio n to o rd e rin g th e e l e - i jm ents o f a s e n te n c e , th e phonemes o f s t r e s s , p i t c h , and I J u n c tu re work to p ro v id e i n o u r sp eech th e s u b tle ln d lc a - t t i o n s o f a t t i t u d e known a s to n e . The I n to n a tio n p a t t e r n s o f s t r e s s , p i t c h , and J u n c tu re to g e th e r w ith th e seg m en tal phonemes p ro v id e th e s ig n a ls o f sound t h a t a re la n g u a g e . W ithout a l l o f them th e s ig n a l i s In c o m p le te , and th e r e can |b e no com plete m eaning, no com m unication. . . . E n g lish m e te r, a b s t r a c t l y co n c eiv e d and f o r w h at- | e v e r h i s t o r i c a l c a u s e , c o n s is ts o f a tw o -v alu e d p a t t e r n ! o f a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s . U n lik e F rench m e te r, i t h a s l i t t l e i n c l i n a t i o n to co u n t s y l l a b l e s , and u n lik e c l a s s i c a l m e te rs , le n g th o f s y l l a b l e i s I r r e l e v a n t . . . . Beyond s tr e s B , one m ust a c co u n t f o r th e r o l e o f ju n c tu re and p i t c h . (C hatm an, p . 2 5 2) I N e te r I s made by a b s tr a c ti n g from sp eech one o f th e s e j e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s and o rd e rin g t h i s in to a p a t t e r n . Such ! |a p a t t e r n i s , th e n , an im ita tio n o f th e p a t t e r n t h a t t h a t f e a tu r e makes I n sp e e c h . A c tu a lly th e m e tr ic a l p a t t e r n 'r e p r e s e n ts n o t o n ly th e one f e a tu r e I t I s b ased o n , b u t a l l 'th e e s s e n t i a l f e a tu r e s o f th e la n g u a g e . I n o rg a n iz in g th e s e I n to a b s t r a c t p a t t e r n s , m e ter fo llo w s th e p r i n c i p l e s o f th e lan g u ag e w ith th e u tm o st p r e c is io n , n o t o n ly In term s o f th e e le m e n ts th e m se lv e s, b u t a ls o In term s o f t h e i r o r d e r . The rhythm s o f v e r s e , l i k e I t s o th e r f e a t u r e s , a re an im l- ! i j t a t l o n o f sp e e c h . When th e sounds o f th e lan g u ag e a re ja u r a lly e x p e rie n c e d , I t I s th e rh y th m ic p a t t e r n o f s t r e s s e s and J u n c tu re s t h a t I llu m in a te s th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e g ro u p in g and o rd e rin g o f th e s e so u n d s. ! i S tr e s s and ju n c tu re work to g e th e r In s ig n a lli n g th e g ram m atical s t r u c t u r e o f s ta te m e n ts . What happens when we u se them to d is c rim in a te g ram m atic al f u n c tio n I s t h a t we resp o n d to v a rio u s c o n t r a s tiv e rh y th m ic a l p a t t e r n s b ased upon v a rio u s arran g em en ts o f th e two f a c t o r s . I t i i s s t r e s s - j u n c t u r e rhythm w hich g iv e s u s o u r m ost d i r e c t c lu e to g ram m atical arran g em en t and p e rm its u s to su b d iv id e s ta te m e n ts In to t h e i r c o n s titu e n t w ords and w ord- ; g ro u p s. Rhythm I s th e f i r s t e s s e n t i a l o f th e s t r u c t u r a l e s s e n t i a l s o f E n g lis h — th e f i r s t and b a s ic d e v ic e o f modern E n g lis h grammar. 6 T here I s In E n g lis h a ten d en cy f o r th e s t r e s s e s to o c c u r a t j ls o c h ro n ic I n t e r v a l s . ! j The tim in g o f rhythm u n i t s p ro d u ces a rh y th m ic s u c c e s - ! s lo n w hich I s an e x tre m e ly Im p o rta n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f E n g lis h p h o n o lo g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . The u n i t s te n d to fo llo w one a n o th e r I n i ] ^H aro ld W h ite h a ll, S t r u c t u r a l E s s e n tia l s o f E n g lis h |(New Y ork, 1 9 5 6 ), p . 28. such a way t h a t th e la p s e o f tim e b etw een th e b e g in n in g o f t h e i r p ro m in en t s y l l a b l e s i s somewhat u n ifo rm .7 The te n s io n b etw een m e tr ic a l p a t t e r n an d lan g u ag e can , be s e v e re o r m ild . I t may be re d u c e d e i t h e r by u s in g a | m e tr i c a l p a t t e r n w hich I s lo o se an d f r e e ( a t an e x tre m e , | such a re d u c tio n o f te n s io n may c a u se th e m e tr ic a l p a t t e r n i to b e so c lo s e ly a s s im ila te d to th e n a t u r a l rhythm o f th e | lan g u ag e t h a t th e te n s io n I s v e ry s l i g h t , a s In F r o s t 's ' p o e trjJ , o r by u s in g lan g u ag e t h a t does n o t I t B e l f c a r r y any j s tro n g s u g g e s tio n o f a p a t te r n o f sound from sp eech . T h is k in d o f language can e a s i l y be accom m odated to an a b s t r a c t ! p a t t e r n o f sound a s In E d ith S i t w e l l 's w ork. The te n s io n i s g r e a t e s t when th e m e tr ic a l p a t t e r n i s s t r i c t and th e I ; 1 lan g u ag e I s c o l l o q u i a l . Wien th e m utual r e l a t i o n s h i p I s i ! ! s tr o n g ly I n d ic a te d by a re c o g n iz a b le c o n v e n tio n f o r a l l th ej I ; more Im p o rta n t I n d iv id u a l sound r e l a t i o n s , th e te n s io n I s j a ls o g r e a t . I t I s p r im a r ily th e s h i f t s from one o f theBe d e g re e s ; o f te n s io n to a n o th e r t h a t form th e h i s t o r y o f m e te r. A j r e l a t i v e l y la r g e num ber o f s c h o la r s have a tte m p te d t o sy n - ! th e s i z e th e s t r u c t u r e and com ponents o f m e te r. P e rh a p s a b r i e f summary o f th e m ore im p o rta n t work I n th e f i e l d w i l l i be h e l p f u l . j j ^K enneth L. P ik e , The I n to n a tio n o f Am erican E n g lis h (Ann A rbor, M ich ig an , 19^5J* P . " " P r o s o d ls ts have a c c e p te d th e l l n e - d l v is io n o f p o e try a s g iv e n i n s t i n c t i v e l y , o r c a p r i c io u s l y , by in d iv id u a l p o e ts , w ith o u t in q u ir in g w h eth e r th e p o e ts were g u id e d , un c o n s c io u s ly o r o th e r w is e , by some law w hich demands t h a t jevery v a r i a t i o n conform to a fu n d am en tal p r i n c i p l e . Ac c e p tin g th e l i n e a s w r i tte n b y p o e ts , o r as s e t u p by o p r i n t e r s . D r. Q uest a tte m p te d to d iv id e B r i t i s h p o e try i n t o u n i t s a c c o rd in g to th e f a l l o f th e p au ses t h a t d iv id e a l i n e I n to two o r m ore s e p a r a b le , th ough n o t s e p a r a te , i p a r ts . n i l s d iv i s i o n , how ever, i s s y n ta c ti c a l r a t h e r th an m e tr i c a l . A somewhat d i f f e r e n t d i v i s i o n was p ro p o se d by R o b e rt B r id g e s .^ He would g ro u p to g e th e r s y l l a b l e s t h a t a p p e a r to b e lo n g n a t u r a l l y to a c e r t a i n s t r e s s , so t h a t in th e same l i n e th e v a r io u s s t r e s s e s may c o n tro l a v a ry in g number o f s y l l a b l e s , which m a tte r s l i t t l e , and t h e i r tlm e -v a lu e s may be q u i t e u n e q u a l, w hich m a tte rs a g r e a t d e a l. Thus th e l i n e B r ig h te s t and b e s t o f th e so n s o f th e m orning h e c o n s id e r s to be composed o f th e f o u r u n i t s : i B r ig h te s t / and b e s t / o f th e so n s / o f th e m orning. (P . 92) Q B. Q u e st, H is to r y o f E n g lis h Rhythm s, e d . W. W. S k eat (London, 1 8 8 2 ). ^ M ilto n 1 s P ro so d y (O x fo rd , 1 9 0 1 ). TCils th e o ry a p p e a rs to be s i m i l a r to th e Law o f M ano-pres s u r e s , ad o p ted by P ro fe sso r S k e a t . 10 The th e o ry I s r e a l l y i no more th an a f u r t h e r s u b d iv is io n o f Q u e s t's sy stem , and I t I s e q u a lly a p p lic a b le to p r o s e . P ro fe s s o r S a ln ts b u ry 11 ! j r e j e c t s b o th Q u e s t's s e c tio n s . and B r id g e s 's u n i t s . I n | f a c t , h e r e j e c t s a l l p re v io u s sy stem s and p ro p o se s a n o th e r, i ! w hich h e c a llB e q u iv a le n c e : t h a t I s t h a t a tr o c h e e , a sp o n d ee, a p y r r h l c , o r an a n a p e s t may ta k e th e p la c e o f an lam b. C e rta in " f e e t" are I n te r c h a n g e a b le , T hese I n t e r c h a n g e a b le f e e t m ust be o f t h e same "proB odlc v a lu e ," b u t P ro f e s s o r S a ln ts b u ry does n o t e x p la in th e p r e c i s e n a tu re o f p ro s o d ic v a lu e , n o r the way i n w hich i t may b e d e te r - i | m ined. He a p p e a rs to c o n s id e r th e q u e s tio n o f w hat co n - i s t i t u t e s a f o o t to be beyond th e sco p e o f h is s tu d y . A l- i ; though he n e v e r s p e c i f i c a l l y sa y s s o , one i s l e d to b e - j lie v e t h a t t h i s p ro so d ic v a lu e I s a v alu e o f e la p s e d tim e ! d u r a tio n . S a ln ts b u ry m en tio n s a p a r t i a l fo o t w hich h a s 12 " th e e q u iv a le n t o f s ile n c e ." S peaking o f Patm ore > | S a ln ts b u ry s a y s : t h a t h e a ls o I n s i s t e d on, I f h e d id n o t I n v e n t, th e " is o chronous I n t e r v a l , " I s none o f my o b je c tio n to him . I 10W. W . S k e a t, Oxford C h au cer (O xford, 1 8 9 ^ -1 8 9 7 ). See e s p e c i a l ly V I, lx x x -lx x x v i. 11Qeorge S a ln ts b u ry , A H is to r y o f E n g lish P ro so d y (London, 1906 -1 9 1 0 ). See a l s o a H is to ry o r E n g lis h P ro se (London, 1912). ^ C o v e n tr y Patm ore. Poems (L ondon. 1886), s e e Appendix I e n t i t l e d - " E n g l is h M e tr ic S n a w . ”^ ___________ 11 b e lie v e I n I t m y se lf; th ough a s I fo rm e rly p o in t o u t ( I , 82) I p r e f e r to econom ise l e t t e r s and c a l l I t a 1 1 f o o t / ' ( H I , 439-440) * The n e x t w r i t e r who d e a l t w ith and a tte m p te d to e x p la in : th e te m p o ra l u n i t was T. S . Omond. Omond m a in ta in e d t h a t i f s y l l a b l e s do n o t r e c u r w ith any r e g u l a r i t y , th e n one m ust f a l l b a c k on th e th in g t h a t u n d e r lie s th e s y l l a b l e s ; 1 t h a t i s , on th e " tim e -s p a c e s " o r p erlo d B o f d u r a tio n i n w hich th e s y l l a b l e s a re "em bedded." A ll v e r s e , he m ain ta in e d , i s c o n d itio n e d by tim e . He p r e f e r s th e term p e r io d to th e te rm f o o t to d e n o te th e u n i t o f tim e . He p o s i t s th e f a c t t h a t i f tim e g o v ern s m e te r, th e r e m ust be u n i t s o f t 1 j tim e , and th e s e u n i t s m ust be e q u a l. Omond d e m o n s tra te s | t h a t th e s e u n i t s a r e n o t p e r f e c t l y e q u a l, b u t r a t h e r t h a t ■ { an av e ra g e may be o b s e rv e d . The supposed a b s o lu te e q u a lity j I 24 i ; had m is le d S id n ey L a n ie r i n t o h i s m u sic a l s c a n s io n . He .transposed th e temporal units into actual bars of muBic. | What a l l o f th e s e c r i t i c s d id se e was t h a t m e te r i s d e p e n d e n t on th e e s s e n t i a l law s o f la n g u a g e . P e rh a p s, i t h a s alw ays b ee n a p p a re n t t h a t th e e le m e n ts o f m e te r a r e ^ drawn from la n g u a g e . G asco ig n e1* ’ had o b se rv e d t h i s a s j ' I I ! I I j I „ ! -*A S tu d y o f M etre (London, 1 9 0 3 ). • ^ T h e S c ie n c e o f E n g lis h VerBe (New Y ork, 1 8 8 0 ). | ^ " C e r t a i n N otes on I n s t r u c t i o n C oncerning th e Making | o f V erse o r Ryme i n E n g lis h ," The Com plete W orks, e d . John IW. C u n llf f e (C am bridge, 1 9 0 7 ). e a r l y a s 1575* In 1603/ Samuel D a n ie l, g o in g s t r a i g h t to I th e p o in t, co n ten d ed t h a t th e E n g lish lan g u ag e h a s i t s own * p e c u lia r la w s. E very lan g u ag e h a th h e r p ro p e r number o r m easure f i t t e d to u s e and d e l i g h t , w hich, Custome l n t e r t a l n l n g by th e allo w an ce o f th e E a re , d o th ln d e n lz e , and make n a t u r a l l . A ll v e rs e I s b u t a fram e o f w ordes c o n fin d e w ith in c e r t a ln e m easure; d i f f e r i n g from o r d ln a r ie sp e e c h , and In tro d u c e d , th e b e t t e r to e x p re s s mens co n - c e l p t s , b o th f o r d e l ig h t and m em orie. Which fram e o f i w ordes c o n s is tin g o f Rlthm us o r Metrum, Number o r N eas- \ u r e , a re d is p o s e d In to d iv e r s fa s h io n s , a c c o rd in g to th e ! humour o f th e Composer and th e s e t o f th e tim e ; and th e s e Rhythml a s A r i s t o t l e s a l t h a r e f a m il ia r am ongst a l l Na t i o n s , a n d fe n a t u r a l l & sp o n te fu s a c o m p o sltlo n e : And | th e y f a l l a s n a t u r a l l y a lre a d y i n o u r language a s e v e r | A rt can make them ; b e in g such a s th e E are o f I t s e l f e ! d o th m a rs h a ll I n t h e i r p ro p e r room es, and th e y o f them - i s e lv e s w i l l n o t w illi n g ly be p u t o u t o f t h e i r ra n k e ; and t h a t I n Buch a v e rs e as beB t com portes w ith th e N atu re o f o u r la n g u a g e .16 1 i i P a u l V e r r i e r , w ritin g on E n g lis h m e te r, s a id t h a t b o th ! j p o e try and song d e riv e t h e i r rhythm s and t h e i r m elody from th e l a n g u a g e A n d H e rb e rt Read s t a t e s t h a t : A l i v i n g language a n a ly s e s I n to ldlom B. . . . Now t h i s o rg a n ic u n i t , t h i s Id io m , I s I n s t i n c t w ith rhythm ; I t h a s I r r e f r a n g i b l e in to n a tio n , and p o e tic rhythm I s j b u t th e e x te n s io n and th e a g g re g a tio n o f th e s e p rim a ry ! rh y th m s. Even m easured, r e g u la r ly a c c e n te d v e rs e 1 b s u c c e s s f u l o n ly i n so f a r a s i t makes u se o f o r accom- i | m odates i t s e l f to th e s e Id io m s . 3 - 8 | ! A D efence o f Rhyme, The B odley Head Q u a rto s, No. XIV [ (London, 1 9 2 5 ): ------- | I ^ E s s a i s u r l e s p r ln c ip e s de l a m e tria u e a n g la is ! i ( P a r i s , 1 9 0 9) , I I I , 3^b. ''La p o e s ie e t l a c h a n t o n t p r i s ! d an s l e la n g a g e o r d in a ir e leB form es fondam entaleB de le u r | rhythm e e t de l e u r m e lo d le . I l s n ’o n t g u e re f a i t que I r e g u l a r i s e r l e rhythm e e t l a m elo d le de l a p ro se p a r d es ! s im p lif ic a tio n s de to u te s o r t e s ." •^The N atu re o f _ L lte r a tu r e (New Y ork,_ 1956)/ p . 5 5 .. 13 Roman Jakobson h a s p o in te d o u t t h a t th e elem en ts o f prosody a re n o t j u s t p h o n e tic q u a l i t i e s o f th e language* b u t t r u l y ! phonem ic. 19 S ig n if ic a n t c o n te m p o ra ry w ork In t h i s f i e l d h a s been 1 20 done by George L. T ra g e r an d H enry Lee Smith* J r . They re g a rd a s e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts o f E n g lis h n o t o n ly th e se g - m ental phonemes (v o w els and c o n s o n a n ts )* b u t th e elem en ts jo f s tr e s s * p itc h * and ju n c tu r e * o th e rw is e known a s th e 1 jsu p raseg m en tal phonem es. "T he l i t e r a r y Im p lic a tio n s o f su p raseg m en tal phonem ics . . . a r e much more e x c itin g 21 and . . . germane to p r o s o d y ." The s im p lic ity * in c lu s iv e - iness* and symmetry o f t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e E n g lish i i I language make I t I n e f f e c t a r e v o lu ti o n a r y concept* w ith j ! i pro found Im p lic a tio n s f o r t h e s tu d y o f a l l l i t e r a t u r e In 1 19"Uber den V ersb au d e r S e rb o k ro a tls c h e n V olksepen," I j P ro ceed in g s o f th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n g ress o f P h o n etic s c ie n c e s , (Am erstdam , 1 9 3 2 ). P . 4 5 : "desw egen fo rm u lle re n ; |w lr d ie G rundfrage d e r V e r s le h r e fo lg en d e rm a sse n : w elche iw ort-und s a tz p h o n o lo g ls c h e n E lem en te machen e ln e n gegebenen V ers zum V erse und w le w e rd en s l e v erw en d et? Es mdssen d ie G e s e tz e d e r B eziehungen zw lschen dem V ersbau und dem p h o n o lo g ls c h e n System d e r en tsp rech en d en Sprache e r f o r s c h t w e rd e n . S o m lt w ird d i e v e rg le lc h e n d e V e rs le h re a u f g e s t e l l t . E ln b e stim m t^ s B undel d e r p ro s o d ls - chen K o rre la tlo n e n e i n e r S p ra c h e b e g u n s tlg t bestlm m te V ers- bausystem e and s c h l l e s s t a n d e re a u s ." [The term phonology I s c u r r e n tly em ployed I n E u ro p e to mean th e same th in g a s th e term phonem ics I n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . ] 20 An O u tlin e o f E n g lis h S t r u c t u r e . S tu d ie s i n L in g u is t i c s , O cc asio n a l P a p e r s , 3 1 Norman* Oklahoma* 1951). 21Chatman, p . 252; s e e a l s o Seymour Chatman, "R obert iF ro s t'B 'M ow ing': An I n q u i r y I n to P ro so d ic S tr u c tu r e ," and ;"Mr. S te in on Donne," b o th i n Kenyon R eview , 18:421-438, 1 4 4 3 ^ 4 5 0 , - 1 9 5 6 ___________________________________________________ - -- 14 E n g lis h . Among o th e r f i n d i n g s , t h e i r c o n c lu s io n t h a t th e re a r e fo u r b a s ic and d i s t i n c t i v e d e g re e s o f s t r e s s in E n g lish I s e x tre m e ly s i g n i f i c a n t . These fin d in g s have been p a r a l - 22 l e le d to some e x te n t by o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s . A ll t h i s I s to Bay n o th in g ab o u t th e ex tre m e ly I n v o lv ed q u e s tio n o f rhythm I n f r e e v e r s e . To su rv ey b r i e f l y th e a n a ly s is In t h i s f i e l d I s l i t e r a l l y Im p o ssib le . I t I s f i r s t n e c e s s a ry to e s t a b l i s h th e f a c t t h a t " f r e e v e rse " I s n o t a s in g le th in g . As E l i o t h as rem ark ed , i t i s . . a r e v o l t a g a in s t a dead fo rm , and a p r e p a r a tio n f o r new form o r fo r th e ren ew al o f th e o ld . . . . V ers L ib re I s a b a ttle ! c ry o f a freedom . . . . " 2^ Many o f th e f i n e s t achievem ents! i n w orld p o e try a re c r e a te d in fre e rhythm B. The g r e a t e s t j d i v e r s i t y o f rh y th m ic e x p r e s s io n e v e r se en was t r i e d o u t j i alm o st i n one g e n e r a tio n . A ll o f t h i s I s u s u a lly co v ered by a s in g le term , f r e e v e rB e . I t I s m e an in g less as a s in g le d e s c r ip tio n o f th e g r e a t d i v e r s i t y o f p o e ts who have w r itte n n o n - f o r m a lis tic v e r s e . T here d o es n o t seem to be a s y s te m a tic c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f th e problem . A r e c e n t i 22See J . R. R. T o lk ie n , " P re fa to ry R em arks," B eow ulf, ! e d , 0 . L. Wrenn (London, 1 9 5 0 ), xxx; G eorge S te w a rt, The T echnique o f E n g lish V e rs e (New Y ork, 1930)# p . 13°5 John Crowe Ransom, "'m e s tr a n g e Music o f E n g lis h V e rs e ," Kenyon Review , 18:460-477# 1956; M arg aret S ch la u ch , Modern E n g lish and A m erican P o e try (London# 1956)# p p . 150-17*+; John ; Thompson. The Pounding o f E n g lis h M etre (New Y ork, 1961), p p . 5 -1 4 . 23 " R e fle c tio n s on V e rs L ib r e ," The New S tatesm an , 8:518-519# 1917. 15 German book on th e su b je c t i s c h ie f ly a d e s c r ip tio n o f oil p o e ts who have happened to w r ite In f r e e rhythm s. The prom inent "New C r it ic s ," ex c e p t Yvor W in te rs,2 ^ both In England and In America, did n o t go in to t h is problem . i i I Even W inters' stu d y i s somewhat lim ite d . The most d e ta ile d I , 2 6 j s tu d ie s in fr e e v e r se were w r itte n in French, but th e re j the problem i s somewhat d if f e r e n t b ecau se o f Im portant d i f fe r e n c e s in th e s y lla b ic str u c tu r e o f th e lan guage. The R ussian fo r m a lis t sc h o la r s have made some c o n tr ib u tio n s , but p rim a rily In term s o f m e tr ic a l v e r s e .2^ A very r e c e n t and im portant work I s one by Benjamin H rushovskl. A ll I o f th e s e r e v e a l the com p lexity o f n o n -m etrlca l v e r s e , and i , the e x te n t o f th e gap between c r it ic is m and s c h o la r s h ip , ! j th e m istr u st o f "exact" measurement, and th e la c k o f c o n t i- ! ! n u ity o f accum ulated o b se r v a tio n s. i ! W ith t h is b r ie f background in mind, i t i s n e cessa ry to : 1 d e fin e a few o f th e more s p e c ia liz e d term s b efo r e co n tln u - oii A .C lo ss, D ie f r e le n Rhythmen in d er d eu tsch en Iarrlk I(Bern, 19^7). s e e fa. F a ls e ." C lo s e , a . : h ie r r e fe n I ! Rhythmen" . . . , Modem Language N otes 657127-1357 1950, fo r a c a r e fu l c r it ic is m . j ^Primitivism and Decadence (New York, 1 9 3 7 ). 26 See e s p e c ia lly L. P. Thomas, l e v e r s moderae (B r u x e lle s , 1 9^ 3). 2^See e s p e c ia lly V. E r lic h , R ussian Formalism (»a Oravenhage, 1955)* ofl "On F re e Rhythms I n Modern P o e tr y : P re lim in a ry Remarks itow ard a C r i t i c a l T heory o f t h e i r S tr u c tu r e s and F u n ctio n s,": ! S ty le i n L anguage. ed,_ Thomas A. Sebeok (Ntew Y ork,, i 960.)., i 16 in g w ith th e more d i r e c t I n t e r e s t s o f t h i s s tu d y . The e l e m ent o f v o ic e q u a l i t y can be remove?, from c o n s id e r a tio n , i I t h a s b een d e m o n stra te d t h a t v o ic e q u a l i t y d o es n o t c r e a te any p a r t i c u l a r c h a n g es. A s e r i e s o f e x p e rim e n ts was con d u c te d by th e B e ll T elephone L a b o r a to r ie s , In w hich a sound s p e c tro g ra p h was em ployed. As a re c o rd in g o f sp eech made on a m ag n etic ta p e was re p la y e d s u c c e s s iv e tim e s , tu n ed e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s ca u se d a s t y l u s to p ic k o u t and r e c o r d , one above a n o th e r , th e com ponent fre q u e n c ie s c o n ta in e d In th e com plex waves o f sp eech so u n d s. Bands o f d a rk t r a c i n g on th e re c o rd show th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o v e rto n e s In v a ry in g p o s i t i o n s f o r I n d iv id u a l sp eech so u n d s. V oice q u a l i t y may change th e ap p earan c e o f th e re so n a n c e | b a r s , b u t i t d o es n o t te n d to a l t e r t h e i r r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s . • . . F or th e s e re a s o n s d if f e r e n c e s betw een m ale and fem ale v o ic e s do n o t g r e a t l y change th e p a t t e r n s . I t d o es n o t m a tte r w h eth e r th e B peaker be a te n o r , b a s s , s o p ra n o , o r c o n t r a l t o . The r e l a t i v e [ p a tt e r n s ] o f th e sounds a re n o t changed enough by th e p i t c h o r th e q u a l i t y j ; o f th e v o ic e to ca u se d i f f i c u l t y I n r e a d in g .2 9 S tr e s s I s much more d i f f i c u l t to d e f in e . I t h a s b een j ; ! Is a ld t h a t : - i T here I s In th e f i e l d o f E n g lis h p h o n o lo g ic a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n no g e n e r a l agreem ent o n th e te rm in o lo g y , c o n c e p ts , and m ethodology to b e u se d In th e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e | m odern E n g lis h s tr e s B s y s te m .30 i ^R alph P o t t e r , e t a l , , V lB lb le Speech (New Y ork, 1947 b p . 4 5 . See a ls o P ie r r e D e l a t t r e , e t a l . , ''An E x p e rim e n ta l ! S tu d y o f th e A co u stic D e te rm in a n ts o f Vowel C o lo u r," Word, j 8 :1 9 5 -2 1 0 , 1952. ^ M a r s h a ll D. B e rg e r, "Vowel D is tr ib u ti o n and A c c en tu a l Prom inence I n Modern E n g lis h ," Word, 1 1 :3 6 1 , December 1955. 17 T ra g e r and Sm ith sim p ly c a l l s t r e s s lo u d n e s s . A p p aren tly 't h i s r e f e r s to w hat th e a u d ito r u s u a lly h e a rs a s lo u d n e s s , lo r e m p h asis, r a t h e r th a n w hat th e p h y s i c i s t would d e s c r ib e ja s an a c t u a l v a r i a t i o n I n th e sound w ave. ! I n f u n c tio n a l l i n g u i s t i c te rm s . . . a Bound may be I more p ro m in en t th a n a n o th e r by tim b re , le n g th , o r a r t i c u l a t o r y e n e rg y w ith o u t b e in g lo u d e r I n a p h y s ic a l se n se ( i . e . , w ith a sound wave o f g r e a t e r a m p litu d e o r o f g r e a t e r i n t e n s i t y ) . 31 j J u n c tu r e ^2 means th e t r a n s i t i o n betw een sp eech so u n d s. jThe te r m in a l J u n c tu re s a r e ways o f I n t e r r u p t i n g t h i s t r a n s i t i o n ; th e y a re em ployed i n sp e e c h , i n c o n n e c tio n w ith s t r e s s and p i t c h , to m ark th e l i m i t s o f phraseB and c la u s e s , e i t h e r i n g o in g from one p a r t o f an u tte r a n c e to a n o th e r o r i n te rm in a tin g th e u tt e r a n c e . "Betw een any two s u c c e s s iv e ; ;p rim ary s t r e s s e s th e r e i s alw ays one o f th e te rm in a l Ju n e - j | | i t u r e s , and e v e ry p rim ary s t r e s s i s fo llo w e d by one te r m in a l I j ! I J u n c tu re a t some p o in t su b se q u e n t to i t . "33 P itc h i s a ls o d i f f i c u l t to i d e n t i f y . I t can be i j 'd e f in e d a s I j \ . . . an i n e v it a b l e q u a l i t y o f sounds t h a t have to n e , a s ; j d i s t i n c t from n o is e . . . . The v o ic e d segm ents o f sp e e c h , j S’ Hf. F . T w ad d ell, " S t e t s o n 's Model and th e 'S u p raB eg - m e n tal P h o n em es,'" L anguage. 2 9 :4 2 0 , 1953. 32F o r exam ple: The c h i l d r e n , A / who w ere s i t t i n g i n th e f r o n t row , / I / r e c e iv e d i c e / + / cream . / # / The sym bols f o r J u n c tu re a re s ta n d a rd I n l i n g u i s t s c a n s io n . See th e d is c u s s io n on p . 131 b elo w . ^ S m ith and T hager, p . 4 9 . 18 w hich a re accom panied by g l o t t a l to n e , a re alw ays spoken on one o r a n o th e r p i t c h , w h i l e th e v o ic e le s s sounds n e v e r have any p i t c h a t a l l . 3^ I I t I s Im p o rta n t to rem em ber t h a t — l i k e th e l i n e and i ic o lo r o f a p a in tin g , o r th e rh y th m and, m elody o f a m u sica l jco m p o sltlo n — s t r e s s , p i t c h , a n d J u n c tu re a re I n e x tr ic a b ly 1 bound up to g e th e r . Obey may b e t r e a t e d s e p a r a te ly sim ply a s a m a tte r o f co n v e n ien c e, b u t u n le s s one I s to g r o s s ly m is re p re s e n t th e f a c t s , one m u s t c o n s ta n tly keep I n mind t h a t th e y a re n o t t r u l y s e p a r a b l e . A nother c a u tio n w hich m u s t b e B ta te d a t once I s th e c a u tio n re g a rd in g th e s t a t e o f th e poem. I t I s t r u e , o f c o u rs e , t h a t th e poem e x i s t s o n th e p r in te d p ag e, and th a t f o r m a tte rs o f co n v e n ien c e, I t i s c o n v e n tio n a l to r e f e r to i 1 ; p r in te d v e r s io n s o f a poem. B u t I n any such d is c u s s io n , i ) th e s tu d e n t m ust be e x c l u s i v e l y co n cern ed w ith th e a u r a l ! j _ i ipoem. The w r i tte n v e r s io n i s m e re ly a handy r e f e r e n c e . ‘P itc h , B treB S, and J u n c tu re d o n o t e x i s t on th e p r in te d f p ag e. Rhythm doeB n o t e x lB t o n th e p r in te d page e i t h e r ; i : j i t i s a m a n if e s ta tio n o f th e v o i c e . Hie poem, f o r th e i |p u rp o se s o f t h i s s tu d y , w i l l b e c o n s id e re d p r im a r ily I n I t s a u r a l form . F in a ll y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d is p e l one fre q u e n t l l l u - j t s io n co n n e c te d w ith p o e try I n p a r t i c u l a r and w ith l i t e r a t u r e I ^ W , N elson F ra n c is , H ie S t r u c t u r e o f American E n g lish j(New Y ork, 1 9 5 8 ), p . 152. 19 i n g e n e r a l. D e sp ite th e c o n te n tio n s o f O tto J e s p e r s o n ,- ^ and Edward S a p ir and S ta n le y N ew m an,^ i t i s p ro b a b ly tr u e : t h a t sound sym bolism does n o t e x i s t i n any u n iv e r s a l : s e n s e . ^ P ro b ab ly th e m ost g e n ero u s sta te m e n t o f th e c a se ! was made by Roger Brown: The f a i l u r e to f in d any e f f e c t s o f p h o n e tic sym bolism i n s i t u a t i o n s where i t i s n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y c a lle d f o r by th e e x p e rim e n te r s u g g e s ts t h a t we do n o t u s u a lly e x p e c t speech to " r e p r e s e n t1 ' o r I m ita te . I t s dom inant f u n c tio n i s c o n v e n tio n a l r e f e r e n c e , and t h a t i s what we e x p e c t u n le s s we a re d ir e c te d to lo o k f o r som ething e l s e . 38 G odfrey Dewey h a s i l l u s t r a t e d t h a t c e r t a i n sounds I o c c u r more fre q u e n tly i n poems th a n i n norm al sp e e c h . 39 j I But I am convinced t h a t sound sym bolism a s Buch does n o t i ; e x i s t in E n g lis h . I t h a s , f o r exam ple, been co n ten d ed t h a t p a r t o f th e | e f f e c t o f th e opening p a ra g ra p h o f P o e 's s to r y "The P a ll o f The House o f U sher" i s d e riv e d from th e fre q u e n t r e p e titio n ! ^ " S y m b o lic V alue o f th e Vowel I , " L in g u is tic a (Copenhagen, 1933). ^ " A S tudy i n P h o n etic Sym bolism ," J o u rn a l o f E x p e ri- I m en tal P sy ch o lo g y , 1 2 :2 2 5 -2 3 9 , 1929. j 3 ?see a ls o Chapman, B e n tle y , and V aron [no i n i t i a l s g iv e n ] , "An A ccessory Study o f 'Phonem ic S ym bolism ,'" Am erican J o u rn a l o f P sy ch o lo g y , 4 5 :7 6 -8 6 , 1933; John Crowe Ransom. l,Tne P o et as Woman.1 ' S o u th e rn Review . 2 : 793- 7 9 7 , 1937# and o t h e r s . ^ R e v ie w o f H einz W lssem ann, U ntersuchungen zu r I O nom atoplle I T e ll: Die S p ra ch p sy ch o lo g lsch en V ersuche j (H e id e lb e rg . 1954) m lLanguageT 3 l : 90, 19^5. ^ R e l a t i v e F reauencv o f E n g lis h Speech Sounds (C am bridge, 1523)'. ------- ------------------- 20 o f "D" and "DR1 1 so u n d s. T h is argum ent seems to s u g g e s t |t h a t "D" and "DR" sounds h av e an In d e p e n d e n t sym bolism ; i ith a t th e y a re c a p a b le by th e m selv es o f c r e a tin g a " d re a ry " re s p o n s e In th e r e a d e r . However, by a c tu a l c o u n t, I n a p a ra g ra p h o f ap p ro x im a te ly 400 w ords, f i f t e e n words have an I n i t i a l "D" sound, f iv e have an i n i t i a l "DR" sound, and tw e n ty -n in e c o n ta in I n t e r n a l "D" so u n d s. By com parison, tw e n ty -e ig h t w ords have an i n i t i a l "S" sound, and s ix ty - o n e c o n ta in i n t e r n a l "S" so u n d s. F u rth erm o re, th e r e a r e an abundance o f "L ," "M," "B ," "H ," and "0" so u n d s. I t would be d i f f i c u l t to i n s i s t t h a t even th e "S" so u n d s, w hich a re ; i by f a r th e m ost ab u n d a n t, dom inate th e p a s s a g e . S t a t i s t i c a l l y , th e e ig h ty - n in e "S" sounds would form o n ly a v ery | ! sm a ll p e rc e n ta g e o f th e t o t a l number o f sounds in t h i s 400 i word p a s s a g e . F u rth e rm o re , a l l o f th e "D" and "DR" words >do n o t have th e same o r s i m il a r l e x i c a l m eanings. I t i s | itru e t h a t su ch w ords aB d u l l , d a rk , d r e a r y , d re a ry n e s s . i i d e s o l a t e , d ecay ed , and d e p re s s io n do s u g g e s t th e g e n e ra l | I to n e o f th e p a s s a g e . But w ords l i k e day, down, dream . d o u b t, d u rin g , d i f f e r e n t , drew , d ro p p in g , an d de p th do n o t | have " d re a ry " m eanings and do n o t g e n e r a lly c o n tr ib u te to j th e to n e o f th e p a s s a g e . I n a g iv e n s i t u a t i o n , in w hich a j l i t e r a r y a r t i s t c a l l s th e r e a d e r 's a t t e n t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y ; to an a l l i t e r a t i v e p a t t e r n b y m aking i t r e l a t i v e l y o b v io u s , | th e a l l i t e r a t i v e p a t t e r n may g e n e r a lly i n t e n s i f y th e to n e o f a s h o r t p a s s a g e . F or exam ple, i n th e fo llo w in g p a ssa g e 21 from B eow ulf, th e o b v io u s "S" sound a l l i t e r a t i o n doeB con t r i b u t e to th e Id e a o f a sp e ed in g s h ip c u t tin g th e s e a . Over b re a k in g b illo w s , w ith b e lly in g s a i l And foamy b e a k , l i k e a f ly in g b ir d The s h ip sped o n , t i l l th e n e x t day*s sun Showed s e a - c l i f f s s h in in g , to w erin g K lT ls Jnd s tr e t c h i n g h e a d la n d s .^ 0 ~ Hie a l l i t e r a t i v e p a t t e r n e x i s t s I n th e o r i g i n a l e x a c tly a s I t do es In th e t r a n s l a t i o n . Hie p o in t I s , how ever, t h a t th e "S" sound, i n th e a b s t r a c t , rem oved from th e c o n te x t o f t h i s p a s s a g e , does n o t convey th e same I d e a . I do n o t deny t h a t a p o e t can c r e a t e sound e f f e c t s by a l l i t e r a t i o n and th e o th e r c o n v e n tio n a l d e v ic e s - o f sound r e p e t i t i o n , b u t X do deny th e e x is te n c e o f sym bolic v a lu e s a tta c h e d to I n d iv id u a l soundB o u t o f c o n te x t. S in ce th e p u b lic a t io n o f Sm ith and T r a g e r 's Im p o rta n t w ork, a c o n tro v e rs y h a s ra g e d betw een th e c o n v e n tio n a l p r o s - o d lB ts and th e l i n g u i s t s . An I n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t o f t h i s c o n tro v e rs y can b e found I n th e s e r i e s o f a r t i c l e s r e p r e s e n tin g b o th s id e s o f th e q u e s tio n w hich ap p eared i n th e Summer 1956 is s u e o f th e Kenyon R eview . L in g u is ts l i k e Chatman a p p e a r, In f a c t , to be a lm o st f a n a t i c a l l y d ev o ted to t h e i r new s c ie n c e , A serlo u B c r i t i c i s m can be made o f t h e i r p o s i t io n , and t h a t I s t h a t s in c e th e y a r e co n cern ed w ith a u r a l v e r s io n s o f th e poemB th e y exam ine, th e y ca n n o t ^ °H » a n sla te d b y C h a rle s W. Kennedy (New Y ork, 1959)* p . 1 0. ill a r r i v e a t any s o r t o f u n iv e r s a l a n a ly s is , b u t o n ly a t an !a n a ly s is o f a s in g le i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a poem. Even C h a t- man I s w illi n g to adm it t h a t : i j lSie w r i tt e n poem . . . i s open to a v a r i e t y o f p e rfo rm - ! a n c e s , s ig n a lin g a v a r i e t y o f m eanings; . . . s u p ra - | seg m en ta l f e a t u r e s u s u a lly r e f l e c t th e a e s t h e t i c and sem an tic judgm ents o f th e i n t e r p r e t e r s , (p . 2 5 2 ) i j On th e o th e r h an d , th e l i n g u i s t s te n d to s c o f f a t th e more t r a d i t i o n a l ap p ro ac h es to p o e tr y . They c la im to have c o m p le te ly d i s q u a l i f i e d th o s e a tte m p ts a t p ro s o d ic in v e s t i g a t i o n w hich em ploy s y l l a b l e c o u n tin g , m u sic a l s c a n s io n , ho and o s c illo g r a p h y . R onald S u th e rla n d , a n o n - l i n g u is t , w r itin g i n C o lle g e E n g llB h , c o n c lu d e s t h a t i l l F o r much o f th e work t h a t h a s been done in l i n g u i s t i c a n a ly s is o f l i t e r a t u r e , th e sound s p e c tro g ra p h h a s been em p lo y e d to p ro d u ce p erm anent " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s '1 o f a g iv e n r e a d in g . A lthough th e s tu d i e s co n d u cted on th e s p e c tro g ra p h a t th e B e ll L a b o r a to r ie s (d e s c rib e d on p ag e 16 above) c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e th e v o ic e q u a l i t y makes no d if f e r e n c e in s p e c tr o g ra p h lc a n a ly s i s , a r e c e n t a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "V oice • P r i n t s '" ( P ie Hew Y ork Times M agazine, O cto b er 2 8 , 1962, p p . 74 f f . } m a in ta in s t h a t s p e c tro g ra p h lc v o ic e r e c o r d in g s may u lt i m a t e l y b e u se d a s a means o f p e rs o n a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n f a r s u p e r io r to th e p r e s e n t m ethod o f f i n g e r p r i n t i n g . However, th e I m p lic a tio n s h e re a re t h a t each human v o ic e h a s c e r t a i n d i s t i n c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w hich can b e c h a rte d by th e s p e c tro g ra p h . The c la im s made above on page 16 a re s t i l l v a l i d w ith in th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s . The p o in t i s t h a t th e s p e c tro g ra p h can p ro v id e o n ly a p i c tu r e o f a s in g le a n a ly s is o f a poem. The o s c illo g r a p h i s s u b je c t to th e same c h a rg e , b u t th e r e l a t i v e d if f e r e n c e s betw een in d iv i d u a l a n a ly s e s a r e more a p p a re n t and le n d th e m se lv e s more e a s i l y to th e fo rm a tio n o f g e n e r a liz a ti o n s a p p lic a b le to many I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n o s c illo g r a p h ic th a n i s s p e c tro g ra p h lc form . 42 A good summary o f th e v a r io u s p o in ts o f view i s p ro v id e d i n W. K. W im satt, J r . and M . C. B e a rd s le y , "The Con- | c e n t o f M eter: An E x e rc is e i n A b s tr a c tio n ," PMLA, 7 4 :5 8 5 - '5 9 8 , 1 9 5 9 ......................— ...- - i 23 . . . much o f th e in fo rm a tio n accum ulated by t h i s new B d e n c e [ l i n g u i s t i c s ] i s In c o n s e q u e n tia l to E n g lish Prosody. . . . The a p p lic a tio n o f l i n g u i s t i c p r in c ip l e s does n o t have to I n t e r f e r e w ith th e p u rp o se s, g e n e ra l m ethodology, o r c o n c lu sio n s o f th e p r o s o d ls t, b u t can h e lp f u l f i l l h i s p u rp o se s. c l a r i f y h i s m ethology and j f o r t i f y hlB c o n c lu s io n s .4 3 W ith much o f w hat he sa y s I f in d m y self In agreem ent. iOne o f th e g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t i e s I d is c o v e r In th e new l l n - ! I g u i s t i c method i s t h a t th e l i n g u i s t s seem to depend e x c lu - s iv e ly on t h e i r a b i l i t y to h e a r su p ra -se g m en ta l v a r ia tio n s . ‘ Now, a s S u th e rla n d h as d em o n strate d , l i n g u i s t i c fin d in g s m erely r e in f o r c e c o n v e n tio n a l f in d in g s . In f a c t , l i n g u i s t i c s should p la y a guarded r o l e in l i t e r a r y a n a ly s is . B ut i f I t were p o s s ib le n o t o n ly to h e a r, b u t a ls o to s e e , jsu p ra-seg m en tal v a r ia tio n s , I t would remove l i n g u i s t i c scan-! isio n from th e hands o f h ig h ly tr a in e d l i n g u i s t s and make I j j i t a v a ila b le to any s tu d e n t o f p o e try . I b e lie v e t h a t o sclllo g rap h y ^-* can p ro v id e th e v is u a l q u a l ity n e c e ss a ry ito th e s im p lif ic a tio n o f l i n g u i s t i c p ro so d y . I t i s a secondary purpose o f t h i s stu d y to d em o n strate t h i s t h e s i s , j ! s t r u c t u r a l L in g u is tic s and E n g lish P ro so d y ," C o lleg e I E n g lish (O cto b er, 195 8 ), 12-1 7 . I ^ S e e Chatman, p p . 255-256. ^ O s c illo g r a p h ic sc a n sio n I s a p ro c e s s whereby a w r itte n l i n e o f v e r s e , re a d alo u d e i t h e r by an i n t e r p r e t e r o r by the! p o e t, I s red u ced to I t s sound wave com ponents. The wave com ponents a re p re se rv e d on p h o to g ra p h ic p a p e r. These wave com ponents may th e n be a n a ly se d . The o s c illo g r a p h ic r e p r e - i s e n ta tlo n w i l l c l e a r l y in d ic a te ju n c tu re and s t r e s s . I t I s n o t c e r t a i n w hether p itc h can be so d em o n strate d . For f u r th e r d is c u s s io n o f o s c illo g r a p h ic s c a n s io n , see th e su b se q u e n t -c h a p te r which d e a ls w ith th e s u b je c t a t l e n g t h .------- — ■ CHAPTER I I SURVEY OF HISTORY AND BACKGROUND I t h a s been p re v io u s ly s ta te d t h a t modern p o e try may be a r b i t r a r i l y d iv id e d In to two g ro u p s , th e m e ta p h y sic a l d e r iv in g from Donne, and th e sy m b o list stemming In p a r t a t l e a s t from M allarm ^. The f i r s t o f th e s e two sc h o o ls has b een s ty le d "The New P u rita n is m . " 1 In I t b elo n g such p o e ts a s E l i o t , Pound, and L ow ell. The second sc h o o l may be s a id to c o n ta in th e " P o e ts o f th e Cosmos" (p . 3 ) , p o e ts lik e Law rence, C rane, S tev en s, W illia m s, R oethke, and Thomas. The f i r s t o f th e two sc h o o ls i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l co m p lex ity , i t s w astelan d d e ro g a tio n o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s , and I t s la c k o f p h y s ic a l jo y . I t la c k s th e q u a l i t i e s o f song, o f in c a n ta tio n , o f p a s s io n w hich c h a r a c te r iz e d E n g lis h p o e try . R a th e r, I t h as c o n n o ta tio n s o f h a rs h n e s s , o b s c u r ity , and dogma, and i t I s c o lo re d by I n t e l l e c t u a l p r id e and wry d e s p a ir . I t I s c h a r a c te r iz e d by m e tr ic a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n o f a p a r t i c u l a r k in d , Hie m e tr ic a l e x p e ri m e n ta tio n t r i e s to ach iev e w hat A rn o ld S te in p o in ts o u t to ^ B ern ice S lo te , "The Whitman T r a d itio n ," In Jam es E. M ille r , J r . , K arl S h ap iro , and B e rn ic e S lo te , S t a r t With The Sun: S tu d ie s In Cosmic P o etry (L in c o ln , N ebraska, 1 9 0 0) , p . 3 . z r 25 have been acco m p lish ed by D onne. In D o n n e's p o e try , S te in m a in ta in s , " th e m e tr ic a l s t r u c t u r e . . . I s a kind o f key m etaphor w ith in a la r g e r m etap h o r th a t d e a ls w ith p ro b lem s I j p In r e a l i t y . " I t I s d i f f i c u l t to a c ce p t m e tr ic a l s t r u c t u r e as a m etap h o r. O bvlouBly, m e t r i c a l s t r u c t u r e has a f u n c tio n In m eaning. I t c o n tr ib u te s t o meaning I n a poem In th e | same way t h a t th e le x ic a l c o n te n t o f w ords and th e su g g e s t i v e c o n te n t o f o rd in a ry m e tap h o rs c o n t r ib u te s , b u t I t I s d i f f i c u l t to a c c e p t th e f a c t t h a t sound, rh y th m , s t r e s s , p i tc h , ju n c tu r e , m echanical fu n c tio n s o f la n g u a g e , ca n c o n tr ib u te m e ta p h o ric a l m ean in g . S t e i n 's s ta te m e n t p u ts ! : him i n th e p o s i t i o n o f b e l ie v i n g th a t sound can have some k in d o f u n iv e r s a l sym bolism . H is p o s itio n I s p erh ap s e x trem e r a t h e r th a n ty p ic a l o f th e p r a c t ic in g p o e ts o f t h i s ; g ro u p . N e v e rth e le s s , th e p o e ts o f t h i s g ro u p seem to b e i j ! co n cern ed w ith g iv in g m e tr i c a l s tr u c tu r e e x tr a o r d in a r y I Im p o rtan ce i n th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e poem p r o p e r . j j More Im m ed iately th a n from Donne, th e co n tem p o rary I n - j i ! f lu e nee h as b ee n d e riv e d from th e Im a g ls t S ch o o l, l h l s I s | | a group o f p o e ts who h e ld th e l i t e r a r y a t t e n t i o n ro u g h ly Ifrom 1909 to 1 9 1 7 . P robably th e most im p o rta n t and I n f o r m ative summary o f th e im a g ls t p o s itio n w as s u p p lie d I n th e | credo o f t h a t g ro u p , p u b lis h e d I n Some I m a g ls t P o e ts . In p .9 1 5. The cred o in c lu d e d th e u s e o f th e lan g u ag e o f common . i ! I 2,1 D onne's P ro so d y ," Kenyon Review. 1 8 s442, 1956. sp eech , p r e c is io n , th e c r e a tio n o r new rh y th m s, a b s o lu te freedom In ch o ice o f s u b je c t m a tte r , th e e v o c a tio n o f Im ages In h a rd , c l e a r p o e try , and c o n c e n tr a tio n . In gen e r a l , th e credo had I t s o r ig in In th e l i t e r a r y p h ilo so p h y o f th e B r i t i s h c r i t i c , T. E. Hulme. The p o in ts w hich a r e o f I n t e r e s t h e re a re th e I n s i s te n c e on th e use o f th e language o f common sp eech , and th e c r e a tio n o f new rh y th m s. Hie I n s is te n c e on th e language o f common Bpeech I s b a se d la rg e ly on H ulm e's d i s t i n c t i o n s b e tw een c l a s s i c and ro m a n tic p o e try . Hulme w ro te: The d ry h ard n ess w hich you g e t I n th e c l a s s i c s i s ab so l u t e l y rep u g n an t to [th e ro m a n tic s ]. P o e try t h a t I s n 't damp I s n 't p o e try a t a l l . They can n o t see t h a t a c c u ra te d e s c r ip tio n I s a le g itim a te o b j e c t o f v e r s e . . . . In th e c l a s s i c I t I s alw ay s th e l i g h t o f o rd in a ry d ay , n ev er th e l i g h t th a t n e v e r was on la n d o r s e a . . . . Hie g r e a t aim [o f p o e try ] I s a c c u r a te , p r e c i s e and d e f i n i t e d e s c r i p t i o n . 3 I t i s p e r f e c t ly o b v io u s th a t th e lan g u ag e o f common speech I s n e c e ssa ry to t h i s s o r t o f d e s c r ip tio n . The c r e a tio n o f new rhythms w as In a sense a ls o a r e b e l l i o n a g a in s t ro m a n tic ism . W ordsworth had r e je c te d th e a r t i f i c i a l language o f th e o ld e r p o e tic c o n v e n tio n . He had b een c o rre c te d in h i s com plete r e j e c t i o n by C o le rid g e . B ut b o th o f them r a th e r I n c o n s is te n tl y ac ce p ted th e m e tric a l c o n v e n tio n s. I t I s t r u e th a t th e y b o th p r e f e r r e d th e sim p le r m e tric a l Bchemes. N e v e rth e le s s , th e y were b o th ^"Rom anticism and C la s s ic is m ," in E ssay s o f Modern L it e r a r y C r itic is m , e d . Ray B. West (New Y ork, 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 125. 27 bound by m e tr ic a l c o n v e n tio n . The modern p o e ts have r e b e l le d a g a in s t t h i s m e tr ic a l c o n v e n tio n aB th e y d id a g a in s t a r t i f i c i a l d i c t io n and la n g u a g e . I n th e m a tte r o f la n g u a g e , th e y h ad th e m is ta k e s o f W ordsworth and th e c o r r e c t io n s o f C o le rid g e to s e rv e a s g u id e s , so t h a t ex tre m es d id n o t li o c c u r a t o n c e . The e x p e rim e n ta tio n I n m e tr ic s , how ever, q u ic k ly became c h a o tic and h ig h ly d i v e r s i f i e d . The m e tr ic a l e x p e rim e n ts o f w r i te r s such a s e e cummlngs and E d ith S i t w e ll I l l u s t r a t e th e d i v e r s i t y and c o m p lex ity o f th e e x p e r i m e n ta tio n . I t was w ith th e sc h o o l w hich Hulme s t a r t e d and Pound e s t a b lis h e d t h a t th e r e v o lu tio n begun by W ordsworth was f i n a l l y co m p leted . D ic tio n , rhythm , and m e tre w ere f t i l l y em an cip ated from fo rm al a r t i f i c e , and th e p o e t was f r e e to a c t c r e a t i v e l y u n d e r law s o f h i s own o r i g i n a t i o n . I t waB n o t alw ays u n d e rs to o d t h a t , h a v in g c a s t o f f th e t y ra n n y o f o b s o le te la w s, th e p o e t was u n d e r th e n e c e s s ity o f o r i g i n a t i n g h i s own, and much o f th e f r e e v e rs e t h a t I h a s b ee n p r a c t ic e d B lnce 1914 com prom ises th e th e o ry by ItB f e e b le n e s s . N e v e rth e le s s , th e th e o ry I s r i g h t , and a l l tr u e p o e try o f to -d a y , a s a l l t r u e p o e try o f th e p a s t , conform s to I t . F o r, p r o p e r ly u n d e rs to o d , t h i s th e o ry I s n o t th e th e o ry o f a p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l; i t I s th e th e o ry o f a l l e s s e n t i a l E n g lis h p o e tr y .5 These e x p e rim e n ts In m etrlcB o f te n to o k on p e c u lia r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . E l i o t , f o r exam ple, h a s d ev elo p ed a m e tr i - i c a l d e v ic e w hich p e rm its him to p la y w ith lan g u ag e f o r comic e f f e c t s . Pound c a n n o t be c o n s id e re d i n th iB c a te g o ry , b e l t rem ain ed f o r th e " b e a t" p o e ts to move once a g a in to w ard ex tre m es In th e u se o f common la n g u a g e ; a s Alan G inBberg I n h i s poem "H ow l." ^ H e rb e rt Read, The N ature o f L i t e r a t u r e (New Y ork, 1 9 5 6 ), PP. 4 8 -4 9 . 2 8 cau se h lo o b s c u r ity h as d i s t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n from o th e r c o n s id e r a tio n s . I t I s o f c o u rse p o s s ib le to an a ly ze th e I supra-B egm ental phonemeb w ith o u t r e f e r e n c e to m eaning, b u t •th a t seems to be a p u rp o s e le s s e x e r c is e , s in c e th e u se o f l i n g u i s t i c e f f e c t s In a poem m ust u ltim a t e ly form p a r t o f th e m eaning o f th e poem. The s p e c if ic n a tu re o f th e e x p e rim e n ta tio n w i l l be e a s i e r to d is c u s s when I n d iv id u a l p o e ts a re c o n s id e re d l a t e r i n t h i s s tu d y . F o r th e p r e s e n t, I t I s n e c e s s a ry o n ly to o b se rv e t h a t m e tr ic a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n d e r iv in g from th e Im aglB t sc h o o l h as form ed one o f th e b a s e s o f contem porary p o e try . I | The em phasis on common language a ls o i s im p o rta n t to c o n s id e r . The same em phasis e x i s t s In th e o th e r sc h o o l a s j w e ll, b u t from d i f f e r e n t m o tiv a tio n . The m o tiv a tio n , how- j e v e r , I s l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t th a n th e f a c t o f th e I n s is te n c e ; I on a co n tem p o rary , o rd in a ry la n g u a g e . T h is I n s is te n c e I s i i p r a c t i c a l l y u n iv e r s a l among modern p o e ts , and i t do es con- i s t l t u t e an im p o rta n t l i n g u i s t i c c o n s id e r a tio n . j C e rta in ly th e im a g is ts and t h e i r s u c c e s s o rs have co n - j i B titu te d th e more v o c a l b ran ch o f contem porary p o e tr y . ! H ie ir v a r ie ty o f p o e try le n d s i t s e l f to e x p lic a tio n and | a n a ly s is v ery r e a d i l y , and th u s n o t o n ly have th e poetB th e m selv es been more v o c a l, b u t th e y have a t t r a c t e d a g r e a t d e a l o f c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n , and t h e i r work haB become th e s ta n d a rd f a r e o f academ ic d is c u s s io n s . T h is phenomenon* how ever, I s a m a tte r o f s u b je c t and p h ilo s o p h y , n o t o f l i n g u i s t i c s t r u c t u r e . The second ty p e o f modern p o e tr y , c a lle d th e "New Paganism " by B e rn ic e S lo te (p . 3 ) , h a s In I t e le m e n ts o f Joy land w onder I n th e n a tu r a l w o rld . I t c e le b r a t e s th e body a s w e ll a s th e s o u l, b o th In a u n if ie d d u a l ity com bining w ith in I t s e l f em otion and I n t e l l e c t , good and e v i l . I t I s o f te n ln c a n ta to r y and p a s s io n a te . I t i s a f f ir m a tiv e In I t s se n se o f l i f e . I t h as been s ta te d t h a t t h i s sc h o o l stem s In p a r t jfrom M allarm e', whose p o e try h as b een d e s c rib e d by P au l i / 5 V a le ry , among o th e r s , as p r im itiv e and ln c a n ta to r y . The "New Paganism " a ls o h a s a n o th e r p o in t o f o r i g i n , p e rh a p s more Im p o rta n t I n th e Am erican b ra n c h , and t h a t f o c a l p o in t I s W hitman. Whitman d id n o t f a l l " r ip e In to l i t e r a t u r e . " As h a s been d e m o n stra te d , Whitman was v e ry much a c o n s c io u s a r - t i s t . 1 He u n ite d In h i s work a number o f p ro s o d ic Id e a s c u r r e n t In h i s tim e . On th e one s id e , he borrow ed l i b e r a l l y 1 from th e th e o r ie s o f Em erson. Em erson, p a r t i c u l a r l y I n h i s | ^"M allarm e," N ouvelle Revue F ra n c a le e (May, 1 9 3 2 ). ^ R o b e rt B. K aplan, "A S tudy o f W hitm an's Prosody by Means o f O s c illo g ra p h ic S c a n s io n ," u n p u b lis h e d m a s te r 's t h e s i s , U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n i a , 1957. See e s p e c i a l l y p p . 38- 5 1 . See a ls o O scar L o v e ll T * lg g s, "The Growth o f Leaves o f G ra s s ." Com plete W ritin g s o f W alt W hit man (New Y ork, 1 9 0 2 ), X; P redson B ow ers. W hitm an's h an u - s c r i p t s (C h icag o , 1955)S e t c . 30 esB ay The P o e t, f u rn is h e d Whitman w ith th e s ta n d a rd s f o r m e tr i c a l s t r u c t u r e : A rhyme In one o f o u r s o n n e ts sh o u ld n o t be l e s s p le a s in g th a n th e I t e r a t e d n o d es o f a s e a s h e l l , o r th e re se m b lin g d if f e r e n c e o f a group o f f l o w e r s . 8 |And even T horeau e x p re s s e d s im ila r s e n tim e n ts I n h i s Week on 'th e Concord and M errim ack R iv e r s : The e x p re s s io n o f th e p o e t ca n n o t b e a n a ly z e d ; h i s j s e n te n c e i s one w ord, whose s y l l a b l e s a r e w o rd s. . • . B u t w hat m a tte r I f we do n o t h e a r th e w ords alw ay s, I f 1 we h e a r th e m usic? . . . [The p o e t] w i l l I n d i f f e r e n t l y s e l e c t h i s rhym es, and w ith a l i b e r a l t a s t e weave in to h i s v e rs e th e p la n e t and th e s t u b b l e .9 T hese id e a s w ere In t u r n borrow ed from C o le rid g e . The s p i r i t o f p o e tr y , l i k e a l l o th e r l i v i n g pow ers, t | m ust o f n e c e s s ity c irc u m s c rib e I t s e l f b y r u l e s , were i t o n ly to u n i t e power w ith b e a u ty . I t m ust embody In o r d e r ! to r e v e a l I t s e l f ; b u t a liv i n g body I s o f n e c e s s ity an i 1 o rg a n iz e d o n e ; and w hat i s o r g a n iz a tio n b u t th e r e l a t i o n o f p a r t s i n and f o r a w hole, so t h a t ea c h p a r t I s a t o n ce | en d and m eans?—T h is i s no d is c o v e ry o f c r i t i c i s m ; — I t ' I s a n e c e s s ity o f th e human m ind; and a l l n a tio n s have f e l t and obeyed i t , i n th e In v e n tio n o f m e te r, and m eas u r e o f so u n d s, as th e v e h ic le and in v o lu c ru m o f p o e tr y — 1 j i t s e l f a fe llo w -g ro w th from th e same l i f e , — even a s th e ! b a rk I s to th e t r e e I 10 1 Thus, Whitman tu r n e d to th e p a s t to r e s u r r e c t a r h y t h - j m ic a l p r i n c i p l e ig n o re d b y p o e ts o f h i s c e n tu r y . At th e sam e tim e , h e h a s com bined th e s e a n c ie n t e le m e n ts In a new ! i ®Ralph Waldo Em erson, R e p re s e n ta tiv e S e le c tlo n s . e d . F r e d e r ic I . C a rp e n te r (New Y ork, 1 ^ 3 4 ), p . j % e n ry D avid T h o reau , R e p re s e n ta tiv e S e le c tio n s , e d . B arth o lo w V. C raw ford (New Y ork, p p . 35 0 -^6 3 . , i 10"S h a k e sp e a re , A P o e t G e n e ra lly ," EsBays and L e c tu re s on S h ak esp eare and Some O th er Old P o e ts and D ra m a tis ts |(L ondon, l b i ^ j , p p . 4^-afe. and d i f f e r e n t way. W hitman w rote a s I f h e w ere t h e w o rld 's f i r s t p o e t. He to o k E m erso n 's s ta n d a rd s s e r i o u s l y , and a t tem p ted to answ er B n e rs o n 's c a l l f o r a new A m erican p o e t. In o r d e r to a c h ie v e t h i s new p o s i t i o n . Whitman had to b e come a r e s e a r c h e r i n la n g u ag e and i n m e tr ic s . He once con f id e d to H orace T rau b el t h a t L eaves o f Q ra ss was o n ly " a lan g u ag e e x p e rim e n t." R e je c tin g many o f th e o ld e r p r i n c i p le s o f m e tr ic a l o r g a n iz a tio n , he found new o n e s . U nfor t u n a t e l y , he d id n o t f u l l y u n d e rsta n d Borne o f th o s e he fo u n d . He o f t e n in v e ig h e d a g a in s t fo rm alism , b u t when he d id so he was n o t o p p o sin g th e n e c e s s ity o f some k in d o f form ; he was opposed o n ly to th e n arro w i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f form which w ould have co m p elled him to sq u eeze h im s.elf in to a s ta n z a . As David D alc h es h as p o in te d o u t: Homer and O sslan an d th e B ib le c l e a r l y had t h e i r i n f lu e n c e on Whitman. Prom th e f i r s t h e g o t th e s e n se o f e p ic b ackground. • . . From th e se c o n d , he may h av e g o t s u g g e s tio n s fo r a f r e e rhythm ic p r o s e . . . . From th e t h i r d he g o t th e a c c e n t o f p ro p h e sy . . . , B ut h i s method o f com bining th e s e q u a l i t i e s i s h i s own. 11 T here a r e , th e n , tw o elem en ts u n d e rly in g W hitm an's v e r s e . The f i r s t i s th e f la s h o f r e v e l a t i o n in th e i n d i v id u a l word o r p h ra s e . The second i s th e p r o p u ls iv e rhythm w hich u n d e r lie s a l l o f W hitm an's v e r s e . There h av e been many a tte m p ts to a n a ly z e t h i s rh y th m , b u t as Whitman p re - c i c t e d , i t h a s proved e l u s i v e . Whitman t r i e d to a c h ie v e ■^"W hitman, I m p r e s s io n is t P ro p h e t," LEAVES OF GRASS One Hundred Y ears A f te r (S ta n fo rd , 1955)# P. 120. w hat he h im s e lf c a lle d "an Im p alp a b le s u b t l e t y o f fo rm ." I n order to achieve Buch a form , he had to subject h is p o - • e t r y to c o n s ta n t r e v i s i o n . Die c a re w ith w hich Whitman r e v is e d h a s lo n g b een known. As e a r l y a s 1902, o n ly te n y e a rs j a f t e r W hitm an's d e a th , O scar L o v e ll T rlg g s had c a lle d a t - i 12 t e n t i o n to W hitm an's r e v i s i o n s . More r e c e n t l y , FredBon 1 Bowers h a s added to th e g e n e ra l In fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e grow th o f W hitm an's v e rs e I n h i s stu d y o f th e m a n u sc rip ts o f th e i 860 e d i t i o n o f L eave b o f G r a s s . 3-^ Bowers I l l u s t r a t e s t h a t W hitm an's a p p a re n t c a r e le s s n e s s o f e x p re s s io n I s th e c a lc u la te d r e s u l t o f a r t f u l ex p e rim e n t to a c h ie v e p r e c i s io n o f rhythm and m eaning. 1 1 Whitman w ent o v e r th e m a jo rity o f th e m a n u s c rip ts o f th e s e poems [o f th e i 860 e d i t i o n ] on a number o f o c c a - j s lo n s . One o r two r e v is i n g In k s c a n n o t be I d e n t i f i e d ; w ith c e r t a i n t y , b u t a t a minimum fo u r r e s p e c tiv e s ta g e s can be tr a c e d . . . . (p . x x v l l l ) T here w ere many r e v i s i o n s o f th e poems i n Leaves o f G rass betw een 1855 and I 889 when th e d e f i n i t i v e e d i tio n waB pub l i s h e d . I n g e n e r a l, th e r e v is io n s c o n s is te d p r im a r ily o f ch an g es in p u n c tu a tio n to a l t e r th e s tr e n g th o f ju n c tu r e s , 'and o f i n s e r t i o n s o f c o n tr a c te d s y l l a b l e s to fo rc e th e r e a d e r to em ploy th e th e n co n tem p o rary p ro n u n c ia tio n o f i 1 0 ! i " ttie Growth o f L eaves o f G ra s s ," Com plete W ritin g s o f W alt W hitman. X (New Y ork, 1 9 0 2 ), 99-13 •^ ^W hitm an's M a n u sc rip ts: Leaves o f G ra ss ( i8 6 0 ) , e d . F re d so n Bowers ^C hicago, 19^ ] . 33 w ords r a t h e r th a n th e s t i l t e d a rc h a ic p r o n u n c ia tio n e l i c i t e d by some o f th e p o e try o f th e p e r io d . Whitman a c h ie v e d : an autonom ous mode o f e x p re s s io n endued w ith e t e r n a l | c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and b rin g in g i n t o c o n ta c t . . . two th in g s i w h ich , i n a l l l i t e r a t u r e s , te n d to e v o lv e s e p a r a te ly , th e o r a l lan g u ag e (• . . r h e t o r i c ) and v e r s i f i c a t i o n . . . . I h l s c o n ta c t betw een lan g u ag e and p o e try w i l l be renew ed th ro u g h . . . " a v i s i b l e s t r u c t u r e , a f l u e n t to n e , an e x a c t s y n ta x , m uscled rh y th m s, and w hat one sh o u ld n o t I le a v e to o r a to r y a lo n e : b r e a t h ." I t i s n o te w o rth y t h a t ■ Whitman r e - d is c o v e r e d a l l t h i s i n 1855 a t a tim e when . . . ■ p o e try a s p ir e d to come to l i f e a g a in th a n k s to w hat de Souza c a l l s " th e d i r e c t a c tio n o f th e v o ic e . . . . " By t h i s he m eant th e abandonm ent o f th e c o n q u e sts made by ! p ro so d y a t th e ex p en se o f th e v o c a l s p o n ta n e ity o f la n g u ag e . . . . S id e by s id e w ith th e fu ll-g ro w n la n g u a g e , t h a t i s to sa y th e w r i tte n lan g u ag e (w ith th e g ram m atical lo g ic and th e m a th e m a tic a l a b s t r a c t i o n w hich i t dem ands), ; Whitman c o n c e iv e s and recommends an o r a l la n g u a g e , o r a l l y tr a n s m itte d , w hich he c a l l s p o e t r y .34 I • W hitman’ s ach iev e m en t, th e n , h a s become s i g n i f i c a n t i n co n - j i ♦ tem p o rary p o e tr y b ec au se a good many m odern p o e ts b e lo n g in g | ; i to th e sc h o o l c a l l e d '"Die New Paganism " have a tte m p te d to j fo llo w i n h i s f o o t s te p s . P o e try o f t h i s k in d , in sta n ta n e o u s! | j and sp o n ta n e o u s, m ust n e c e s s a r ily be w r i t t e n i n f r e e v e r s e . At th e same tim e , i t te n d s to be s tr o n g ly rh y th m ic a l, though i ! { th is rhythm i s a ls o u n c o n sc io u s and i n s t i n c t i v e , b e in g i ila rg e ly d e riv e d from th e i n t e r v a l s o f n a t u r a l u tte r a n c e . i I n f r e e v e r s e we lo o k f o r th e in s u r g e n t naked th ro b o f th e i n s t a n t moment. To b re a k th e lo v e ly form o f m e tr ic a l ! Je a n C a te l, "Rhythm and Language i n th e F i r s t E d itio n b f L eaves o f GraBB," W alt W h itm an A broad, e d . Gay W ilson j 'A llen (S y ra c u se ',“ 1955J, p p . bB-8 $ . t E F d e Souza r e f e r r e d Ito i n th e t e x t i s R o b e rt de S ouza, a F ren ch p r o s o d l s t , a u th o r o f L 'H eure nous t i e n t ( P a r i s , 1 9 2 6 ), from w hich p a s s a g e s <of tne ln tS G f f lW w r r a r e . q u o te d by C a te l. : 3^ v e r s e , and to d is h up th e frag m en ts a s a new su b sta n c e , c a lle d v e r s l l b r e , t h i s I s w hat m ost f r e e - v e r s l f l e r s a c - com plisFu ’ IKejTcTo n o t know t h a t f r e e v e rs e h as I t s own n a t u r e . t h a t I t I s n e i t h e r s t a r n o r p e a r l , b u t I n s ta n - ta n e o u s l i k e plasm. 3-5 The more modern p o e ts , b e n e f itin g from V lhltm an's m is ta k e s , I i and In many c a s e s h av in g a much b ro a d e r knowledge o f th e m echanics o f lan g u ag e, b ased on contem porary s tu d ie s In l i n - g u l s t i c s , have a tte m p te d to combine th e law s o f p rosody w ith ! th e o r a l la n g u a g e . The d e g re e s o f su c c e ss o f th e s e w r ite r s h av e, o b v io u s ly , b een v a r ie d , and have been f u r th e r a f f e c te d jby th e g e n e ra l contem porary ten d en cy to o b s c u r ity , w hich I s jnot lim ite d to th e p o e ts o f th e sc h o o l o f th e New P u rita n s I a lo n e . ; At a p p ro x im a te ly th e same tim e t h a t Whitman was e x p e r l- i m enting w ith rhythm i n A m erica, G erard Manley Hopkins was c r e a tin g a new co n cep t o f rhythm in E ngland. In a l e t t e r to R ich ard W atson (Canon) D ixon, he e x p la in e d : I t s p r i n c i p l e I s t h a t a l l rhythm and a l l v e rs e con s i s t s o f f e e t and each fo o t m ust c o n ta in one s t r e s s o f v e r s e - a c c e n t: so f a r i s common to i t [sprung rhythm ] and Common Rhythm; to t h i s I t adds t h a t th e s t r e s s alo n e i s • e s s e n t i a l to a fo d t and t h a t th e r e f o r e even one s tr e s s e d j s y l l a b l e may make a fo o t and c o n se q u e n tly two o r more ! s t r e s s e s may come ru n n in g , w hich In common rhythm can , r e g u l a r l y sp e a k in g , n e v e r happen. But th e r e may and m o stly th e r e d o es b elo n g to a fo o t an u n a c ce n ted p o r tio n o r " s la c k " : now In common rhythm , In w hich l e s s I s made o f s t r e s s , I n w hich l e s s s t r e s s i s l a i d , th e s la c k m ust be alw ays one o r e l s e two s y l l a b l e s , n e v e r le s s th a n one j and n e v e r more th a n tw o, and i n m ost m easures f ix e d ly one o r f ix e d ly tw o; b u t I n sprung rhythm , th e s t r e s s b ein g ! more o f a s t r e s s , b e in g more im p o rta n t, a llo w s o f g r e a t e r ■^D. H. Law rence, " P re fa c e ," New Poems (New Y ork, 192 0 ), i l l . ............................... 35 v a r i a t i o n In th e s la c k and th lB l a t t e r may ra n g e from , th r e e s y l l a b l e s to none a t a l l —r e g u la r l y , so t h a t p aeo n s ( th r e e s h o r t s y l l a b l e s and one lo n g o r th r e e s la c k s and i one s t r e s s y [ s i c ] ) a r e r e g u la r I n sprung rh y th m , b u t I n 1 common rh y th m , can o c c u r o n ly by lic e n c e ; m oreover may : In th e Bame m easure have t h i s ra n g e . i Ihe co ntem porary re s p o n s e to H o p k in s 1 th e o ry o f rhythm was le g a tlv e . R o b ert B rid g e s c a lle d I t "presum ptuous J u g g le ry ." 3ut H opkins defended h i s th e o ry on th e g ro u n d s t h a t I t w as: TO ie n e a r e s t to th e rhythm s o f p ro Be, t h a t I s th e n a tiv e and n a t u r a l rhythm o f sp eech , th e l e a s t f o rc e d , th e m ost r h e t o r i c a l and em p h atic o f a l l p o s s ib le rh y th m s, com bin in g , a s I t seems to me, o p p o s ite and, one would have th o u g h t, in c o m p a tib le e x c e lle n c e s , m arkedness o f rhythm — t h a t i s rhythm 1 s s e l f —and n a tu r a ln e s s o f e x p re s s io n . ( L e tte r X II) ifopklns h a s had an Im p o rta n t in f lu e n c e on p o e ts who have succeeded him . T h is I s p a r t i c u l a r l y tr u e s in c e h is academ ic 're d is c o v e ry " in r e c e n t y e a r s . H e rb e rt Read h a s c a lle d fopkins 'b rh y th m : ! . . . th e rhythm o f a l l b u t th e m ost m onotonously r e g u la r < m u sic, so t h a t I t a r i s e s i n th e w ords o f c h o ru se s and r e - I f r a i n s and In so n g s w r itte n c l o s e ly to m u sic. I t I s ! found In n u rs e ry rhym es, w e a th e r saw s, and so on; and I t ; a r i s e s I n common verB e when r e v e r s e d o r c o u n te rp o in te d , i And I w ould add, I t I s th e rhythm o f a l l g en u in e v e rs ! l i b r e o r f r e e v e r s e which h a s a r i s e n s in c e H o p k in s's j H m eT ( 3^ 5 ) These a re th e b ack g ro u n d s, i n g e n e ra l, o f th e e x p e r i m ents i n m e tric s common In th e contem p o rary p o e tr y . I t i s im p o s s ib le , o f c o u r s e , to l i m i t b ack g ro u n d s. Each o f th e co n tem p o rary p o e ts s ta n d s a t th e end o f a lo n g t r a d i t i o n o f 1 ^ The C orrespondence o f G erard Manley H opkins a n d R lc h - a rd WatBon Dixon, e d . Claude t o 1l e e r A bbott 1 O xford, 1 9 3 ^J, L e tte r m T v o T T I , p . _50. ........ ........................... 3 6 E n g lis h p o e try . Nor a re t h e fo re ru n n e rs o f th e co n tem p o rary p o e tr y I s o la te d i n h i s t o r y . A ll a r e p a r t o f th e much lo n g e r t r a d i t i o n . To make a c a r e f u l and th o ro u g h a n a ly s is o f any developm ent, one would have to r e t u r n to B eow ulf and to e x - i am ine th e b u lk o f m e tr ic a l o r g a n iz a tio n ac h ie v e d s in c e th e w r itin g o f t h a t poem. Such an i n v e s t i g a t i o n would b e p r a c - I t i c a l l y Im p o s s ib le . I t I s a ls o Im p o s s ib le to make v a s t g e n e r a liz a tio n s to cover g r e a t p e r io d s o f tim e . One m u st, o f n e c e s s ity , r e s t r i c t I n v e s t i g a t i o n o n ly to th e p ro x im al i c a u s e s o f a p a r t i c u l a r d ev e lo p m en t. In my o p in io n , Whitman and th e Im a g ls ts have g iv e n th e im p e tu s to much o f th e e x p e rim e n ta tio n i n co n tem p o rary v e rs e m e tr ic s . H iey a r e th e I i p ro x im a l c a u s e s . C ontem porary know ledge o f th e l i n g u i s t i c ! s t r u c t u r e o f th e la n g u ag e, and th e k in d o f a n a ly s is th u s j made p o s s ib le , I th in k , w i l l b e a r o u t th e s e a ssu m p tio n s. 4 ; TOiere a r e , th e n , two dom inant te n d e n c ie s i n co n tem p o r- i a ry l i t e r a t u r e : th e a tte m p t to u se th e lan g u ag e o f common I sp e e c h , and th e I n s is te n c e o n m e tr ic a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n . The j j ! te n d e n c ie s d e riv e from d i f f e r e n t s o u rc e s and from d i f f e r e n t I I m o tiv a tio n s , b u t th e y f u n c tio n in th e co n tem p o rary p o e tr y \ r e g a r d le s s o f t h e i r o r i g i n s . Both g ro u p s o f p o e ts who form i ;he g e n e ra l fo u n d a tio n o f m odem p o e tr y w ere i n t e r e s t e d I n i i e s ta b lis h in g an o r a l p o e try c lo s e ly a l l i e d to common sp e e c h , 1 i ; in rhythm and i n la n g u ag e, b u t g overned to a c e r t a i n e x te n t ; lj> y th e law s o f p ro so d y . The r e s u l t s , i n m odern p o e tr y , and th e degree o f su c c e ss a r e th e s u b je c t o f t h i s s tu d y . i CHAPTER I I I TOE POETS OP THE N E W PURITANISM H aving exam ined th e backgrounds o f th e r e v o lu tio n In i jtheory o f rhythm , I t I s n e x t n e c e s s a ry to tu r n to th e co n tem p o rary p r a c t i c i n g p o e ts to exam ine t h e i r th e o r ie s and p r a c t i c e s . As h a s been s t a te d e a r l i e r , i t I s n e c e s s a ry to j r e s t r l c t th e number o f p o e ts s tu d ie d I n th e i n t e r e s t o f p ro d u cin g a m anageable w ork; th e r e f o r e , o n ly p o e ts who have je s ta b lls h e d im p o rta n t c r i t i c a l r e p u ta tio n s have b een con s id e r e d . F u rth e rm o re , i t h as been n e c e s s a ry to s e l e c t o n ly jthose p o e ts who h av e e x p re s se d th e m selv e s a t some le n g th i n 'a v a ila b le p r in te d so u rc e s co n c ern in g t h e i r t h e o r i e s . Many i ^contem porary p o e ts a re a ls o p r a c t ic in g c r i t i c s , and t h i s would seem to s im p lify th e ta s k . On th e c o n tr a r y , how ever, i |l t h a s co m p lic a te d I t . A d i s t i n c t i o n has. b een made betw een |the p o e ts b e lo n g in g to a sc h o o l w hich m ight b e c a lle d " th e f New P u rita n ism " and p o e ts b elo n g in g to a sc h o o l w hich m ig h t be term ed " th e New P aganism ." Hie p o e t - c r i t i c s o f th e fo rm er sc h o o l a re by f a r th e more v o c a l. I t haB been q u ite d i f f i c u l t to f in d any s ta te m e n ts o f th e o ry d e liv e r e d by p o e ts o f th e l a t t e r s c h o o l. TOis I s to be e x p e c te d , s in c e p o e ts who w rite "sp o n tan eo u s" p o e tr y , a lth o u g h th e y a re L............................................... .37..................................................... ........... 38 c o n s c io u s ly co n cern ed w ith te c h n iq u e , a r e sim p ly n o t g iv e n i to m aking s ta te m e n ts about te c h n iq u e . I S in ce th e w r i te r s o f th e "New P u rita n ism " have b een ithe more v o c a l, and p e rh a p s th e more num erous, i t i s t h e r e f o re b e s t to s t a r t w ith t h a t g ro u p . And s in c e le a d e r s h ip i n th e g roup i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y a s s ig n e d to T. S. E l i o t , I t I s p ro b a b ly w ise to s t a r t w ith h im . C e r ta in ly he h a s e x p re s s e d jh is t h e o r i e s o f t e n . 1 As e a r l y a s 1933, i n The Use o f P o e try and th e Use o f C r itic is m , E l i o t rem arked t h a t " th e i d e a l medium f o r p o e try . . . i s th e th e a t r e ." I n 1936, a f t e r th e m o d erate s u c c e s s I j o f M urder i n th e C a th e d r a l, he g e n e r a liz e d f u r t h e r by s a y - i i _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i jing, i n a r a d io t a l k , t h a t he b e lie v e d p o e try to b e " th e j n a t u r a l and com plete medium f o r d ram a." T hat t a l k r e v e a le d t h a t E l i o t c o n s id e re d p o e try p r e f e r a b le to p ro s e i n dram a i b e c a u se i t p ro v id e d , u n d e r th e a c tio n , th e ad v an tag e o f "a j m u s ic a l p a t t e r n w hich i n t e n s i f i e s o u r e x c ite m e n t by r e l n - j fo rc in g i t w ith f e e l i n g from a d e e p e r and l e s s a r t i c u l a t e I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te , how ever, t h a t i n th e vaB t l i t e r a t u r e o f T. S. E l i o t th e r e seems to b e no r e a l l y c lo s e { an a ly sis o f th e rhythm s o f h i s v e rs e and th e developm ent o f h i s c o n c e p t o f rhythm . T here i s a c h a p te r i n H elen G ard n er, The A rt o f T . S. E l i o t (New Y ork, 1959)* and th e r e i s a m e c h a n is tic and r e l a t i v e l y u n c r i t i c a l B et o f s t a t i s t i c s on [ f if te e n poems in S i s t e r M. M. B a rry , "An A n a ly s is o f th e (Prosodic S tr u c tu r e o f S e le c te d Poems o f T. S. E l i o t , " u n p u b lis h e d d o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , C a th o lic U n iv e r s ity o f A m erica (W ashington, 19*18). ! 2 (London, 1933)* P . 153 • 39 l e v e l . I n more r e c e n t y e a rs E l i o t h a s r e tu r n e d s t r o n g l y !to t h i s argum ent. At tim e s I n h i s h a n d lin g o f v e r s e I n h i s i p la y s , a s In c e r t a i n o f h i s poem s, E l i o t h a s r e c r e a t e d th e i jln c a n ta to ry rhythm s o f l i t u r g y . I n g e n e r a l, h o w ev er, h i s v e rse h a s a modern v o c a b u la ry and cad en ce, and I t " p r e - ii s e rv e s th e mean betw een l i t u r g y and common s p e e c h ." i I | In "The R ock," a work o f 193*1# E l i o t m ixed se v e n o r jeig h t d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f v e r s e , ra n g in g from th e K l p l l n g - esq u e comic song th ro u g h an I m ita tio n o f th e clum sy u n m u si- c a l f r e e v e rs e (w hich E l i o t d i s l i k e d ) In th e l i n e s b e lo n g in g j jto th e R e d s h lr ts ; th ro u g h th e heavy, r e g u la r , f o o ts ta m p ln g b e a t o f th e l i n e s b e lo n g in g to th e B la c k s h ir ts ; to th e lln e s j ] , ! o f th e f i n a l c h o ru s , w hich have a d i s t i n c t l y S w ln b u rn ean | q u a l i t y . I n g e n e r a l, th e s ta n d a rd m easure I s Iam b ic p e n t a m e te r, b u t t h i s g iv e s way r e p e a te d ly in p a s s a g e s o f e x c i t e - i m ent o r in c a n ta tio n to a k in d o f p o e tic p ro se o f h i g h l y i r - i r e g u la r s t r e s s e s In v o lv in g a n a p e s tlc s u b s t i t u t i o n s . ; In M urder i n th e C a th e d ra l (1935)# th e v e rs e I s n o t so m is c e lla n e o u s a s I n "The R ock": th e r e f o r e , th e f e e l i n g o f s t r u c t u r a l o r d e r lin e s s i s g r e a t e r . I n " P o e try and Drama" (1950) E l i o t e x p la in e d t h a t i n h i s s e a rc h f o r a n e u t r a l B ty le , n e i t h e r to o modern n o r in th e wrong way a r c h a i c , he ^ ''ih e Need f o r P o e tic Drama," L is te n e r . 1 6 :9 9 4 -9 9 5 , November 2 5, 1935. tl G rover Smith# J r . , T. S . E l i o t 's P o e try and P l a y s : A S tudy In S o u rces and Meaning (C h icag o , l9 5 b ) , p . 1 1 1 . 4 0 had "k e p t I n mind th e v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f Everym an, h o p in g t h a t 'an y th in g u n u s u a l In th e sound o f i t would b e , on th e w hole, j c ad v a n tag e o u s. A nd,in f a c t , one can lo o k a t th e rhym ing [passages o f th e T em pters' d ia lo g u e s w ith B ecket to se e th e [sharp, I r r e g u l a r l y a s s o r te d s t r e s s e s , fo u r to th e l i n e , w hich c lo s e ly mimic th e m eter o f th e o ld e r p la y . E l i o t even In tro d u c e s a l l i t e r a t i o n to b rin g h i s lin e c l o s e r to h i s jmodel. 'Hie f o u r - b e a t m easure, one o f E l i o t 's f a v o r i t e s i n th e o th e r p la y s and in th e Q u a rte ts a s w e ll, he had a lre a d y u sed I n Sweeney A g o n lste a l A fte r Murder i n th e C a th e d ra l he c u l t i v a t e d s im p lif ic a tio n , r e ta in in g few o f th e me- c h a n lc a l b a r r i e r s t h a t h e re [In M urder] somewhat I n s u la te • th e d ia lo g u e from o rd in a ry speecHT For c h o rlc p u rp o s e s , ! h i s v e rs e te n d s to be more d a c ty li c in th e p la y s th a n e lse w h e re . O bviously I t I s a l l i e d to th e Old and M iddle j E n g lis h a l l i t e r a t i v e v e r s e . (S m ith , p . 194) j i Speaking a g a in i n " P o e try and Drama," E l i o t d e s c r ib e s h i s p ro so d y a s c a lli n g f o r "a l i n e o f v a ry in g le n g th and v a ry in g number o f s y l l a b l e s , w ith a c a e s u ra and th r e e s t r e s s e s , " (p . 3 5 ) e x c e p t in th e tw o - s tr e s s l i n e s o f what j jhe term s " l y r i c a l d u e ts ." U n lik e th e t r a d i t i o n a l m e tric j p r in c ip l e norm al to M urder in th e C a th e d ra l, where s t r e s s means a l l s y l l a b i c a c c e n tu a tio n , t h i s scheme c o n s id e rs o n ly th e dom inant s t r e s s e s i n each speech p h ra s e , le a v in g u n - 1 n o tic e d any i n f e r i o r a c c e n ts n o t ra n k in g a s m ain s t r e s s e s , j i t T h is p r i n c i p l e , along w ith a number o f l i n e s h av in g an u n d e rly in g f r e e b la n k -v e rs e m easure o r th e f o u r - s t r e s s 5A tla n tic M onthly, 187:34* rhythm p r e v io u s ly d e s c r ib e d , c o n s t i t u t e s th e v e r s e p a t t e r n o f The F am ily R eunion and The C o c k ta il P a r ty . I n g e n e r a l, th e v e r s e I s more a r t i f i c i a l and l e s s In te n s e th a n th e v e r s e o f M urder I n th e C a th e d ra l, and "The R o ck ." E l i o t h im s e lf acknow ledges t h a t th e p o e try In The F am ily R eunion I s "rem o te from th e n e c e s s ity o f th e a c tio n " ( p . 3 5) . More o r lesB sim u lta n e o u s ly w ith th e above summarized [developm ents In h i s d ra m a tic v e rs e m ethods, E l i o t produced [a s e r i e s o f poems c a l l e d L andscapes (1 9 3 4 ). T hese poemB | jin d ic a te E l i o t 's r e a d in e s s f o r c e r t a i n " m u s ic a l" e x p e rim e n ts I n th e fo llo w in g F our Q u a r te ts . As e a r ly as " P o r t r a i t o f a jLady" ( 1 9 1 0 ) he had ex p erim en ted w ith th e m u sic o f sp eech 1 I ; c a d e n c e s. "M usic" I n th e Four Q u a rte ts goes beyond d e n o tin g sp e e c h a lo n e ; I t Im p lie s th e sound and rhythm o f 1 i spoken w o rd s, b u t I t a ls o s i g n i f i e s th e s t r u c t u r e o f I n t e r - j I j r e l a t l o n s among d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f speech and o th e r p o e tic . 1 jm a te r ia ls . The m usic e x te n d s from th e c o l l o q u ia l to th e o r a t o r i c a l . I t was E l i o t 's c o n te n tio n t h a t , a f t e r p o e t ic ] I : idiom h a s been s t a b i l i z e d by a r e t u r n to s p e e c h , th e tim e i s r ip e f o r m u sic a l e la b o r a tio n to b e g in . The L andscapes 1 ; I n d ic a te t h a t r ip e n e s s . i In th e Four Q u a r te ts , th e norm o f th e v e r s e i s th e f o u r - s t r e s s l i n e w ith s tro n g m ed ial p a u s e s. B u rn t N o rto n , th e f i r s t s e c tio n o f th e w ork, op en s w ith such a rh y th m ic p a t t e r n : | ^The Music o f P o e try (G lasgow , 1942), p . 2 7 . _____ b 2 9 * 9 9 Time p r e s e n t / and tim e p a s t Are b o th p e rh a p s p r e s e n t / in tim e f u tu r e / / / / / And tim e f u tu r e / c o n ta in e d i n tim e p a s t . T here a re v a r i a t i o n s o f f i v e - s t r e s s e d l i n e s , a s in d ic a te d i i n th e above p a s s a g e , and o f t h r e e - s t r e s s e d l i n e s a s i n th e fo llo w in g , w hich i s th e c lo s in g p a ssa g e o f t h e . f i r s t s e c - I Itio n : i / / / j Sudden i n a s h a f t o f s u n lig h t 9 * $ Even w h ile th e d u s t moves / / / j There r i s e s th e h id d e n la u g h te r t \ / ; Of c h ild r e n in th e f o lia g e I / f t Q uick now, h e r e , now, alw ays / t t t | R id ic u lo u s th e w aste sad tim e / / t S tr e tc h in g b e fo re and a f t e r . [Another fre q u e n t v a r i a t i o n o c c u rs in th e long l i n e o f s ix s t r e s s e s , li k e th e o p en in g p a ssa g e o f th e second movement o f B u rn t N o rto n : / / / / / At th e s t i l l , p o in t o f th e tu r n in g w o r ld ./N e ith e r f le s h n o r f l e s h l e s s ; | N e ith e r from n o r to w a r d s ;/a t th e s t i l l p o in t, th e r e th e dance i s , B ut n e i t h e r a r r e s t n o r m ovem ent./. . . T here a r e , o f c o u rs e , s p e c ia l s e c tio n s i n w hich s p e c ia l rh y th m ic a l e f f e c t s a re em ployed, l i k e th e "c a n to " s e c tio n i n L i t t l e G ld d in g . E l i o t h as e x p la in e d h i s s t y l e h e re by sa y in g t h a t h e In te n d e d t h i s p a ssa g e to be " th e n e a r e s t 43 e q u iv a le n t to a c a n to o f th e In fe rn o o r P u rg a to rio " ^ t h a t he c o u ld a c h ie v e . The v e r s i f i c a t i o n , a c c o rd in g to h i s own I d e s c r i p t i o n , I s a m o d ifie d t e r z a rlm a la c k in g rhym e. B ut jthe l i n e s , had th e y b een p r i n t e d f lu s h w ith th e m arg in , m ig h t lo o k more l i k e th e b la n k v e rs e th e y r e a l l y a r e . | In The Use o f P o e try , E l i o t em ployed th e term " a u d i- jto ry Im a g in a tio n ," and d e fin e d i t a s : | th e f e e l in g f o r s y l l a b l e and rhythm , p e n e tr a tin g f a r b e - I low th e c o n s c io u s l e v e l s o f th o u g h t and f e e l i n g , I n v ig o r a tin g e v e ry w ork; s in k in g to th e m ost p r im itiv e and f o r g o tte n , r e tu r n in g to th e o r i g i n and b r in g in g som ething b a c k , s e e k in g th e b e g in n in g and th e en d . I t w orks th ro u g h m ean in g s, c e r t a i n l y , o r n o t w ith o u t meanlngB In th e o rd in -; a ry s e n s e , and f u s e s th e o ld and th e o b l i t e r a t e d and th e t r i t e , th e c u r r e n t, and th e new and s u r p r i s i n g , th e m ost a n c ie n t and th e m ost c i v i l i z e d m e n ta lity , ( p . JO) In g e n e r a l, up to th e p e rio d betw een The W aste Land jand The H ollow Men (1 9 2 1 -1 9 2 5 ). E l i o t s v e rs e co u ld b e | scan n ed In th e same m anner t h a t m ost p o s t- S p e n s e ria n v e rs e ; ! I n E n g lis h can be scan n ed . In th e l a t e r p o e try t h i s I s n o t i s o .- T h is new form m arks a b re a k w ith th e t r a d i t i o n o f i E n g lis h n o n - l y r l c a l v e r s e . Up to t h i s tim e , E l i o t was t r y - ! in g to p u t new c o n te n t i n t o o ld fo rm s, and to r e v iv e th e ■forms by r e tu r n in g to e a r l i e r m eth o d s. B ut by 1942, when ! he w ro te The Music o f P o e try , n e a r ly te n yearB a f t e r The Use o f P o e try , and a f t e r th e e x p e rie n c e o f "The R ock," M urder i n j;he C a th e d ra l, and The F am ily R eunion, he waB a b le to sa y : ^"A T a lk on D an te ," Kenyon R eview . l 4 : l 8 l , S p rin g 1952. 44 I b e lie v e t h a t any la n g u ag e, so long a s I t rem ain s th e same la n g u a g e . Im poses I t s law s and r e s t r i c t i o n s and p e r m its I t s own l i c e n s e , d i c t a t e s I t s own speech rhythm s and Bound p a t t e r n s . And a language I s alw ays ch an g in g ; I t s developm ents I n v o c a b u la ry , I n sy n ta x , p ro n u n c ia tio n and I n to n a tio n — ev en , I n th e lo n g ru n , ltB d e t e r i o r a t i o n — I m ust be a c c e p te d by th e p o e t and made th e b e s t o f . j (P . 27) | E l i o t 's e x p e rim e n ts In th e w r itin g o f d ra m a tic v e rse le d him to th e c r e a tio n o f th e m e ter he haB em ployed f o r i jnon-dram atlc p u rp o se s I n th e Four Q u a rte ts , w hich i s c e r - I jta in ly th e m ature achievem ent o f a p o e t who h a s lo n g e x p e r i m ented w ith th e E ngllB h la n g u a g e . H is new v e rs e h as u n d o u b te d ly had a s i g n i f i c a n t in flu e n c e on h i s c o n te m p o ra rie s jand h i s fo llo w e rs . | The suprem e m e rit o f h i s new v e r s e , how ever, i s th e I l i b e r t y i t h a s g iv e n him to In c lu d e e v e ry v a r i e t y o f i d i c t i o n , and to u se th e p o e tic a s b o ld ly as th e p r o s a ic . . . . I t h as e n a b le d him a ls o to e x p re s s h i s own v is io n | o f l i f e In a form In w hich t h a t v iB lo n can be p e r f e c t ly I em bodied: th e Q u a rte t form , w hich depends on th e k in d i o f rh y th m ic v a r i a ti o n w hich th e new v e rs e h a s made p o s s i b l e . ° j I t i s in tere stin g t h a t th is new verBe I s r e a lly a return to j I M iddle E n g lis h a c c e n tu a l m e te r, b u t c o n ta in s g r e a t e r f r e e - 1 dom w ith in th e l i n e In number o f s y l l a b le s and th e re b y I ^ elim in a te s th e monotony o f th e r i g i d e a r l y l i n e . In th e I n t e r e s t s o f c o n s is te n c y , s ta y in g f o r th e tim e b ein g on t h i s s id e o f th e A tla n tic , I t a p p e a rs n e c e s s a ry to d is c u s s R o b ert Penn W arren n e x t. Like E l i o t , W arren haB ® Gardner, The A rt o f T. S. E l i o t , p . 35. 4 5 o f te n e x p re sse d h im s e lf in p r i n t . H is th e o r ie s , In f a c t , have h elp ed to form a te x tb o o k w hich f o r a number o f y e a r s iwas a sta n d a rd te x tb o o k In I n tr o d u c to r y co u rse s In modern i p o e tr y . W arren, th e r e f o r e , h a s h e lp ed to shape th e c o n c e p ts jof rhythm o f many contem porary r e a d e r s and te a c h e rs . In th e I n f l u e n t i a l te x tb o o k , U n d erstan d in g P o e try . I J w r itte n w ith C lean th B rooks, th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n t o c c u r s : E v id e n tly th e re a re d eg re e s . . . o f r e g u la r iz a ti o n o f rhythm , and th e d i s t i n c t i o n betw een verB e, w ith I t s r e g u la r iz e d rhythm , and proB e, w ith I t s f r e e r rhythm , i s n o t j an a b s o lu te one. In E n g lish v e rs e t h i s o rd e rin g I s r e - I la te d to a p a t te r n o f a c c e n te d and u n acce n ted s y ll a b le s Then a t t h i s p o in t In th e t e x t a p p e a rs a fo o tn o te which d i s c r e d i t s a l l a tte m p ts to m easure E n g lish v e rse i n term s o f tim e . Hie t e x t goes on to make th e s ta n d a rd d i s t i n c t i o n s ^between th e v a rio u s commonly re c o g n iz e d ty p e s o f m e tr ic a l I 'f e e t. In a re c o rd e d c o n v e rs a tio n w ith R obert F r o s t, W arren I ; i rem ark s: " I gueBs i t ' s [Yvor] W in ters who s a id th a t b e h in d a l l good fre e verB e—I may b e m is in te r p r e tin g him , b u t I j th in k t h a t 's what he sa y s—b e h in d a l l good f re e v e rse t h e r e 's 1 lo ' a shadow o f form al v e rs e ." A gain, i n U n d erstan d in g P o- 1 j e tr jr , W arren co n ten d s th a t f r e e v e rse i s m erely a " s h a d in g | j o f f from a sc ru p u lo u s m eter" tow ard r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r i n - i f o rm a lity . In s h o r t, he c o n te n d s t h a t modern " f r e e v erB e" I d i f f e r s from more c o n v e n tio n a l p o e try o n ly in d e g re e , a t | 93 rd e d . (New York, i 9 6 0) , p . 122. 10C lean th Brooks and R o b ert Penn W arren, C o n v e rs a tio n s bn th e C raft, o f P o e try ..(New Y ork. 1 9 6 1).... p . _ . 6 . ------------- ------- 4 6 l e a s t I n so f a r a s th e m e tr ic a l m echanics a re co n c e rn e d . F u rth e r, I n a c o n v e rs a tio n w ith R o b ert L o w ell, W arren sa y s: ! M eter I s . . . a m easure, I s a c o u n t, lh e rhythm I s w hat you e x p e rie n c e ; you n e v e r e x p e rie n c e th e m e te r; j th e rhythm I s w hat you g e t , what you e x p e rie n c e In th e v e rs e l i n e . . . . The m e te r . . . I s alw ays an a b s tr a c tio n ; th e rhythm I s a c o n c re te th in g . . . .1 1 (p . 3 3 ) Now, I n t h i s sta te m e n t he seems to be I n d ic a tin g t h a t m eter I i s a d e v ic e th ro u g h which rhythm can be a c h ie v e d , and t h a t jthe rhythm which I s ac h iev e d I s w hat becomes com m unicated to th e au d ien ce o f a g iv e n poem. T his rhythm a p p e a rs to be i jan I n t r i n s i c p a r t o f th e poem, and n o t an amendment p ro v id e d by a g iv e n I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e poem. F u rth e r, he seems to b e lie v e th a t th e rhythm I s , a t l e a s t In one s e n s e , gov ern ed n o t o n ly b y th e m e te r, b u t by th e s y n ta x . I t I s p e r - ■ haps p r o f i t a b l e a t t h i s p o in t to exam ine th e c o n c lu s io n s he i j < re a c h e s c o n c ern in g fre e v e r s e : | ! (1 ) I n fre e v e rse th e s y l l a b l e co u n t I s s c a r c e ly r e l e - 1 i v a n t to th e l i n e ; a number o f s y l l a b l e s .may c l u s t e r a - I ro u n d , and be c a r r ie d b y , th e a c c e n t. The a c c e n ts t h a t : a re to be co u n ted a r e , by and la r g e , th e m ain r h e t o r i c a l . on©s• • • ■ (2 ) The co u n t o f th e m ain a c c e n ts may be v a r i a b l e , ! v a r ia t i o n b e in g d eterm in ed by r h e t o r i c a l and rh y th m ic a l | c o n s id e r a tio n s ta k en I n c o n ju n c tio n . j ! ( 3 ) Around th e a c c e n ts , a number o f se c o n d ary a c c e n ts may a p p e a r—and u s u a lly do a p p e a r. 111686 seco n d ary a c c e n ts a r e th e g r e a t d e te rm in a n ts o f th e w e ig h t, sp eed , and f l e x i b i l i t y o f th e v e r s e . T h is i s n o t a new id e a . As long ago a s 1935* i n a * tfork e n t i t l e d Rhythm in E n g lis h P o e try [London], S i r S ta n le y L eath es o b se rv e d : "M etre can be re c k o n e d , rhythm can o n ly b e ! f e l t . " W arren I s making w hat John H o lla n d e r h as c a lle d J 1. . . th e o ld and by now outmoded d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een »me t e r 1 and »rhythm . . . In S ty le i n L anguage, e d . Thomas A. _SebeoEL (NevLYork, „ 19o u ), p ._ auj?. — -------- 47 ( 4 ) Bie r e l a t i o n o f th e v e r s e l i n e to th e s e n te n c e l i n e — th e d e g re e o f a r b i t r a r i n e s s i n r e l a t i o n to th e r h e t o r i c a l , s y n t a c t i c a l , and g ram m a tic al o r d e r - - i s more im p o r t a n t in f r e e v e rse th a n i n fo rm a l v e rs e . I n fo rm a l v e r s e th e m ost Im p o rtan t i n t e r p l a y 1 b between th e m e te r and th e r h e t o r i c a l c o n s id e r a tio n w ith in th e l i n e ; i n f r e e v e r s e th e m ost im p o rta n t I n t e r p l a y — th e b a s is o f th e v i t a l te n s io n — i s p rim a rily betw een th e v erse l i n e and th e s e n te n c e l i n e . T h is, o f c o u r s e , i s s u b je c t to m o d ific a t i o n and e n ric h m en t by th e I n t e r p l a y betw een t h e a c c e n ts ! o f th e lin e and th e seco n d ary a c c e n ts , p lu s th e tim e o f | th e v a ry in g number o f u n a c c e n te d s y l l a b l e s . 12 j I f th e se v a rio u s s ta te m e n ts , la r g e ly from th e same te x t- [ book s o u rc e , a re to be ta k e n to mean w hat th ey s a y , th e n i t i a p p e a rs th a t th e r e i s a b i t o f c o n fu sio n in th e m ind o f th e w r i t e r . He sa y s t h a t E n g lish v e rs e c a n n o t be m easured i n te rm s o f tim e , b u t sim u lta n e o u sly he sa y s th a t tim e o f u n - i 'a c c e n te d s y l l a b l e s e n ric h e s th e te n s io n betw een v e r s e l i n e j • i and se n te n c e l i n e . There a p p e a r s , f u r t h e r , to b e a co n - j ; j |fu s io n in te rm in o lo g y which r e s u l t s i n c i r c u la r argum ent; \ ith u s , a c c e n t i s ta k e n to e s t a b l i s h rh y th m , b u t th e c o u n t o f I ' a c c e n ts may b e v a r ie d by " rh y th m ic a l c o n s id e r a tio n s ." O v erlo o k in g th e c o n fu sio n a r i s i n g from th e u s e o f u n - ! d e f in e d te rm s, a s w ell as th e uBe o f c i r c u l a r arg u m en t, one ! j may come to th e co n c lu sio n t h a t W arren i n t e r p r e t s th e r o l e o f m e te r and rhythm i n verBe i n a r a t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l ^ J n d e rs ta n d in g P o etry , p . 179. I t i s I n t e r e s t i n g to lo te t h a t w arren a p p a re n tly c o n s id e r s " f r e e v e rs e " to b e a s in g l e e n t i t y ( s e e p . 15 a b o v e ). ♦ 1 48 m a n n e r.1^ B a b e tte D eu tsch c l a s s i f i e s W arren a s an im a g is t, and p o i n t s o u t t h a t h i s " . . . m e tr ic s a re th o s e lo n g f a - i m i l i a r to E n g lish p o e tr y . . ." and t h a t o n ly t h e ” . . . p ro p r i e t y o f th e to n e redeem s them from s t a l e n e s s . " 1^ i | L ik e E l i o t , th e n , W arren I s a p o e t whose e x p e rim e n ta t i o n w ith th e E n g lis h lan g u ag e h a s le d him to r e t u r n to c o n v e n tio n a l m e tr i c a l fo rm s; t h a t I s , a s he h im s e lf p o in te d i o u t, th e v ery deep shadow o f fo rm a l v e rs e l i e s b e n e a th a l l f r e e v e r s e . j A nother i n f l u e n t i a l p o e t - c r l t i c o f th e same g ro u p i s A llen T a te . T a t e 's a l l i a n c e w ith E l i o t and th e Im a g ls ts i s ; ?l a i n . H is s c h o la r s h ip i s g r e a t , and h i s v e r s e h a s th e p ack ed i n t e n s i t y and th e wry ir o n y t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c j o f E l i o t and h i s f o llo w e r s . T a te , sa y s L o u ise Bogan, i s K . . a p u p il o f Pound, E l i o t , and V a le ry , a b e l i e v e r in th e c l a s s i c w i l l . . . But T ate h a s , a c c o rd in g to Bab e t t e D eu tsch , " . . . a weak g ra s p o f th e m elo d ic l i n e t h a t m arks hlB d is ta n c e from E l i o t and g iv e s h i s v e rs e a s t i f f - | .g le s s w hich though alw ay s d i g n if i e d I s som etim es aw kw ard." i 1^A number o f f o o tn o te s i n U n d e rsta n d in g P o e try c i t e t h e o r i e s em ployed by Jaco b S c h lp p e r. A H is to ry o f E n g lis h V e r s i f i c a t i o n (L ondon, 1 9 1 0 ). T liis w ork, though u n d o u b te d ly im p o rta n t m th e h i s t o r y o f th e s tu d y o f m e te r, i s no lo n g e r c o n s id e re d a u t h o r i t a t i v e by m ost m odern B tu d en ts o f p o e try . | ^ P o e try I n Our Time (Hew Y ork, 1 9 5 2 ), p p . 2 0 2 , 204. ^ S e l e c t e d C r itic is m (New Y ork, 1955)# P . 6 6 . ^ P o e t r y In Our T im es, p . 197. 49 One o f h i s b e s t poems i s "S easons o f th e S o u l." T ate had ! em ployed th e same m e tr ic a l and th e same rh y th m ic schemes e a r l i e r i n h i s w ork, b u t n e v e r b e t t e r th a n i n t h i s poem. i Hie g e n e ra l u se o f th e s h o r t l i n e , and th e s u r p r is e s a f fo rd e d by th e rhym es, work to c r e a te th e p r e v a ilin g mood o f p a in f u l u n r e s t . At th e same tim e , th e co n clu d in g lin e B , |w ith t h e i r g r a d u a lly le n g th e n in g c a d en c es, in d ic a t e what t M iss D eutsch c o n s id e rs to be "som ething c lo s e to r e c o n c i l i a t i o n ." T ate a ls o commonly em ploys th e so n n e t form , a v e ry c o n v e n tio n a l form , b u t h i s u se o f i t i s n o t e n t i r e l y con v e n tio n a l. T a te , l i k e W arren, t r i e s to c r e a te a te n s io n betw een h i s v e rs e l i n e s and h i s se n te n c e l i n e s , and in t h i s l i e s th e p r i n c i p a l d if f e r e n c e betw een h is u se o f th e so n n e t Iform and th e t r a d i t i o n a l u se o f th e so n n e t form . I n h i s j i m ost famous w ork, "Ode to th e C o n fed erate D ead," th e l i n e s i i a re i r r e g u l a r i n le n g th and rhythm , and th e rhymes a re f r e q u e n t b u t th e y do n o t fo llo w a r i g i d p a t t e r n . M argaret j {schlauch, how ever, b e lie v e s t h a t " . . . th e m essage o f th e j i 117 poem i s obBcured u n d er a b u rd en o f s t y l i s t i c t r a p p i n g s . . . " ' and t h a t th e p o e tic te c h n iq u e i s n o t co n co rd an t w ith th e them e. V iv ien n e Koch w r ite s t h a t she b e lie v e B " . . . t h a t T ate i s a p o e t o f ro m an tic s e n s i b i l i t y who h a s t r i e d w ith j i i ^ Modern E n g lish and Am erican P o e try (London, 1956), p . 98. .................. 50 v a ry in g su c c e ss to com press h i s t a l e n t s In to a c h a s t e l y | -jo c l a s s i c a l form . . . . " i I n h i s own c r i t i c a l w r itin g , T ate h a s been le sB con- jcerned w ith th e q u e s tio n o f rhythm a s such th a n o t h e r w ri t e r s . U nlike W arren, he does n o t have a g r e a t d e a l to say ab o u t m eter p e r s e . T h is la c k o f co n cern w ith m e te r I s p ro b a b ly th e r e s u l t o f h i s b e l i e f t h a t ”. . . good p o e tr y i s ja u n ity o f a l l th e m eanings from th e f u r t h e s t e x tre m e s o f in te n s io n and e x te n s io n ." 1^ He c o n s id e rs rhythm I n a poem to be " , . . o f th e e s s e n t i a l m eaning." I t i s n o t, i n h is view , cap ab le o f v io le n t I s o l a t i o n . ! I n B h o rt, n e i th e r T a te 's p r a c t i c e s in th e w r i t i n g o f p o e tr y , n o r h i s c r i t i c a l rem ark s in d ic a te any g r e a t i n t e r e s t Ln rhythm and m e te r. H is b e l i e f seems to be t h a t rh y th m L annot be exam ined. He a p p e a rs to a g re e w ith W arren in th e b e l i e f t h a t m e ter c r e a te s rhythm , and t h a t m e te r i s no more j ! n o r l e s s th a n f a i r l y r e g u la r r e p e t i t i o n o f s t r e s s e s o f ■ j v a rio u s d e g re e s . He a ls o seems to co n cu r i n th e i d e a t h a t j i m eter can be c a lc u la te d , b u t rhythm m ust be e x p e rie n c e d . In h i s own work he shows a d e c id e d ten d en cy to em ploy con v e n tio n a l form s. A lthough he doeB ex p erim en t to a c e r t a i n i e x te n t w ith m e tr ic a l d e v ia tio n s , lik e W arren, he seem s i ^ " © le P o e try o f A lle n T a te ," Kenyon Review . 11:355* I ummer 19^ 9 . i ■ * ■ 9 " T ension in P o e try ," On th e L im its o f P o e try (New |fo rk , 19^ 8 ) , p . 179. ..............................51 alw ays to have t h e h e a v y shadow o f fo rm al v e rse n o t f a r b e low th e s u rfa c e o f h i s v a r i a t i o n . W ritin g "To t h e R e a d e r o f (Some) G eneral C u ltu re ," John C la r d l, a n o t h e r m em ber o f t h i s group o f p o e ts , s e t s | * flown same p r i n c i p l e s f o r t h i s r e a d e r . He s p e c i f i c a l l y I s t a t e s t h a t th e y a r e a " . . . b a s ic s im p lif ic a tio n o f th e g e n e ra l o u tlo o k a n d t e c h n i q u e s from which I t r y to w r ite poem s." A number o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s have to do w ith th e |c o n te n t8 o f p o e t r y , a n d s o can be o m itte d In t h i s d lB cu s- I s lo n . But s e v e r a l o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s d e a l d i r e c t l y w ith I rhythm and m e te r. ! . . . 7 . In a s u c c e s s f u l poem th e s u b je c t m ust c r e a te i t s j own form , (rhe s t r u c t u r e o f p o e try e x i s t s In th e same wav | a s th e s t r u c t u r e o f m u s ic i • • • • • • • • • • • • » • • • • * * * » • • • • • • • • ! i 10. A li n e o f p o e t r y I s a co n ceiv ed u n i t , n o t a ty p o g rap h - I l e a l frag m en t. I t s h o u l d have w h o len ess. A pause I s i n o rm ally a n t i c i p a t e d a t th e end o f a lin e 1 3. P ie norm o f E n g l i s h m e tr ic s I s th e Iam bic p e n tam e ter ; l i n e , b u t th e b e s t p o e t r y I s w r itte n le s s o u t o f a s t r i c t o b serv an ce o f t h a t l i n e , th a n o u t o f a s e n s itiv e ly 1 tr a in e d memory o f i t w i t h w ide v a r ia tio n s i n th e number • o f l i g b t b e a ts i n a f o o t . | P o e try h as tw o s t r e s s e s : th e m ech an ical and th e mean- ‘ l n g f u l. When t h e s e tw o s t r e s s e s f a l l to g e th e r to o o f te n , | th e v e rs e becom es s o p o r i f i c . . . . M echanical s t r e s s th en : I s th e a l t e r a t i o n o f l i g h t and heavy s y ll a b le s , and mean- i ln g f u l s t r e s s i s t h e f a l l o f a c c e n t on th o se words which demand s t r e s s a c c o r d i n g to th e spoken meaning o f th e l i n e . . . . The I n t e r p l a y o f th e s e two s tr e s s e s I s th e so u rce o f a l l m e t r i c a l e f f e c t . 20 T h is I s sim ply a n o t h e r s ta te m e n t o f what has a lre a d y been 1 1 i a t t r i b u t e d to W a rre n a n d T a te , and a b a s is f o r what w i l l j l 1 1 ' 20 / M id-C entury A m e ric a n P o e ts , e d ., John C la rd l (New Y o r k P P . 2 5 6 ? '2 5 1 . ' _ _______ s h o r t l y be m entioned In r e f e r e n c e to Ransom. T h is th e o ry o f rhythm I s n o t new. Ih e o n ly new f e a tu r e In v o lv e d h e re ils th e am ount o f f l e x i b i l i t y . T h is Id e a s h a l l be d is c u s s e d j m ore f u l l y somewhat l a t e r . H is own v e rs e b e a rs o u t h i s a t t i t u d e to w ard m e tr ic s . In an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "The S tra n g e M islc o f E n g lish V e rs e ," Jo h n Crowe Ransom I d e n t i f i e s h im s e lf a s a "conven- 21 t i o n a l " and " t r a d i t i o n a l " p r o s o d ls t. I n t h a t same a r - j t l c l e , he d efen d s w hat he c o n s id e rs th e c o n v e n tio n a l p o s i- i t l o n a g a in s t th e a t ta c k s o f th e l i n g u i s t s . He s u p p o rts a c o n v e n tio n a l tw o - s tr e s s c o n c e p tio n o f p o e tic la n g u a g e . He t r i e s to e s t a b l i s h d i s t i n c t i o n s betw een a lan g u ag e o f po e t r y and a language o f p ro s e , o r a t l e a s t betw een th e > 1 m ethods o f re a d in g theB e v a rio u s la n g u a g e s. S e v e ra l y e a rs j l a t e r , in a s e r i e s o f re c o rd e d In te rv ie w s p re p a re d to a c - j 22 company U n d e rsta n d in g P o e try . Ransom r e i t e r a t e s th e p o s i- j t l o n e x p la in e d in th e e a r l i e r s ta te m e n t. He s a y s : " I 'v e ; b e e n in tim id a te d by th e l i n g u i s t s . . . by t h e i r r e a d in g s , j 2 w h ich a re in v a r ia b ly p ro se re a d in g s " (p . 2 3 ) . E a r l i e r in th e same s ta te m e n t he e x p la in s , " . . . when I w ro te m ost o f i my poems I was u n c o n sc io u s o f th e p r i n c i p l e s o f p o e tic com- I ! | 21Kenyon Review . 1 8 :3 :4 6 0 , 1956. j 22C le a n th Brooks and R o b ert Penn W arren, C o n v e rs a tio n s ; on th e C r a f t o f P o e tr y ; A t r a n s c r i p t o f th e ta p e re c o rd in g made to accompany U n d ersta n d in g P o e try . 3rd e d . (New Y ork, ; 1 9 6 1 ). 53 p o s i t i o n —u n c o n sc io u s o f m e te rs . . . ." (p . 1 9 ). F i n a l l y , he g iv e s a r e l a t i v e l y f u l l s ta te m e n t o f h i s m e tr ic a l view s lalong w ith a m e tr ic a l e x p l ic a tio n o f th e poem " B e lls f o r •John W h ite sid e » s D a u g h te r." The s ta te m e n t I s r e l a t i v e l y I lo n g , y e t I t I s so Im p o rta n t I n m aking e x a c tly c l e a r th e p o s i t i o n h e ld t h a t I t I s n e c e s s a ry to q u o te i t a lm o st com p l e t e l y . I n t h i s poem, he s a y s , • . . I'm u s in g now th e o ld t r a d i t i o n o f m e te r. H ie mod e r n s have ta k e n many l i b e r t i e s w ith m e te r and th e y have found t h a t p o e try d o e s n 't n e c e s s a r i l y le a v e u s when we abandon th e s t r i c t m eterB , o r when we abandon a l l th e m e te rs . . . . B ut I would th in k th e m e te rs a re v e ry u s e f u l to u s . And I n th e o ld and s t r i c t tim e s i n th e m e te rs we had a l l s y l l a b l e s v a lu e d two w ays: s t r e s s e d o r u n - i s t r e s s e d . T h at I s to sa y , m ore s tr e s s e d o r l e s s s tr e s s e d .! . . . And th e r e was an agreem ent t h a t a l i n e would con s i s t i n a f ix e d number o f f e e t - - a f o o t b e in g a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e w ith I t s s h a re o f th e u n s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e s to go w ith I t ; and t h a t a s ta n z a would b e an arran g em en t o f l i n e s which was u n ifo rm from one s ta n z a to th e o th e r . And b o I h av e h e re [In " B e lls . . . " ] a s ta n z a o f fo u r l i n e s — th e l a s t one h a s o n ly two f e e t , o r th r e e f e e t , i P erh ap s two f e e t i n th e f i r s t one and a f t e r t h a t th r e e f e e t . B ut th e f i r s t th r e e l i n e s a l l have fo u r f e e t - - j t h a t i s , th e r e a re f o u r s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e s . . . . T h e re ’ s ! a q u e s tio n w h eth er th e r e s h a l l b e one u n s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e | g o in g w ith one s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e to make a f o o t. Or som etim es two u n s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e s g oing w ith a s t r e s s e d | s y l l a b l e to make th e f o o t. H i e r e 's a l i t t l e v a ria n c e h e r e . And I would c a l l i t , p e rh a p s , a c c e n tu a l m e te r; j t h a t I s to s a y , we j u s t co u n t th e number o f a c c e n te d o r ! s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s I n th e l i n e and l e t th e u n s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e s ta k e c a re o f th e m s e lv e s . So t h a t som etim es you g e t two s t r e s s e s com ing to g e th e r , and som etim es you ru n o v e r two o r t h r e e , o r maybe ev en f o u r , u n s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e s a t o n ce --w h lc h was a g a in s t th e r u l e o f th e o ld p o e t s - - b u t th e m oderns have done t h a t a good d e a l. And I w ould Im agine a s to w hat u s e t h a t i s , t h a t a good d e a l ! o f m u sic a l r e g u l a r i t y comes I n to th e poem. I t ' s l i k e l y j to c o n s tru e th e m usic o f p o e try b e s t . W e 'll have to ad m it t h a t I t ' s a low g ra d e o f m u sic, b u t th e tim e s ig n a tu re ! i s t h a t p a r t o f i t w hich i s m ost im p o rta n t and f u r t h e r more t h a t a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e d e n o te s a h ig h p it c h and a lo u d to n e , a s w e ll a s , m ost l i k e l y , a l i t t l e lo n g e r d u ra - j t l o n . .................... ! 5^ And we sh o u ld th in k o f th e way t h a t th e b a lla d m eas u r e s , t h a t a re r e g u la r ly Iam bic f o r th e m ost p a r t —t h a t I s , c o u n tin g th e u n s tr e s s e s a s w e ll as th e s t r e s s e s — th e b a l la d m easu res o f th e tu n e w r i t e r s , such a s W atson and W esley and som etim es even g r e a t e r p o e ts , have been p u t to m uslc--w o u ld show t h a t where you have a s tr e s s e d s y l la b le th e y h av e , l e t ' s sa y , a h a l f - n o t e —and where you have an u n s tr e s s e d s y ll a b l e th e y have a q u a r te r - n o te . Where you have two u n s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e s g o in g w ith a 8tr e s s e d s y lla b le t h e y 'l l have two e ig h th - n o te s , and so o n . And t h e r e 's a te n d en cy f o r th e lo n g o r s tr e s s e d s y l l a b le s to be h ig h e r In p i t c h — to s to p on c r i t i c a l p la c e s i n th e m u sic a l Bystem. (p p . 21-23) U n fo rtu n a te ly , much o f w hat Mr. Hansom sa y s h e re i s n o t sound. One can n o t h e lp w ish in g t h a t he had I d e n t i f i e d hlB " o ld p o e ts" and h i s "m oderns." Bie th e o ry o f a sim ple two- s tr e s s e d m e tric was d ev elo p ed i n th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ry , and was b ased on French m odels. I t i s p e rh ap s an o v ersim p l i f i c a t i o n to Bay t h a t m e tric v a r ia tio n was " a g a in s t th e r u l e s o f th e o ld p o e ts ," j u s t a s I t I s u n ju s t to Bay t h a t " th e m oderns have done t h a t a good d e a l." The s u g g e s tio n • o f m u sic a l s c a n sio n added to a b a s ic tw o - s tr e s s system ap p e a rs to b e c o n tr a d ic to r y . G ran ted t h a t th e sta te m e n t b ein g made h e re I s an u n re h e a rs e d s ta te m e n t ( th e k in d o f s t a t e m ent t h a t m ig h t be made I n th e c la ssro o m ), i t ap p ears a t b e s t co n fu sed and o v e r s im p lif ie d . H arold W h ite h a ll, i n j a n o th e r c o n v e rs a tio n ab o u t p o e try , s a id , Ransom i n s i s t s , f o r in s ta n c e , on th e In flu e n c e o f th e " m e te rs ." And y e t , c u r io u s ly enough, Ransom c o u n ts s y l l a b le s and l e t s th e B tresB es f a l l where th e y may. He 5 5 once to ld me t h a t G erard Manley H opkins sounded l i k e j p ro s e to h lm .23 ! j R ansom 's p e rs o n a l th e o ry o f m e tr ic s seems to c o n ta in i two p a r t s ; f i r s t t h a t m e te r I s n o t a means o f e x p re s s in g In |any way th e m eaning o r f e e l in g o f a poem, and seco n d t h a t n e te r o ffe rB an In d ep en d e n t a e s t h e t i c e x p e rie n c e o f I t s own and I t I s t h a t In d ep en d e n t e x p e rie n c e w hich I n t e r f e r e s w ith th e m eaning o f a poem. Ransom h a s B ta te d th e two p a r t s o f tils th e o ry q u ite c l e a r l y . As e a r l y a s 19^1 he s t a t e d : And f i n a l l y we m ust ta k e a c c o u n t o f a b e l i e f t h a t I s a l l b u t u n iv e r s a l among u n p h llo s o p h lc a l c r i t i c s , and f lo u r i s h e s a t I t s r a n k e s t w ith th e l e a s t p h ilo s o p h ic a l. I t I s : t h a t th e p h o n e tic e f f e c t I n a poem n o t o n ly I s (a ) m e tr i c a l and (b ) eu p h o n io u s, b u t p r e f e r a b ly , and i v e ry o f te n I s (c ) " e x p re s s iv e 1 1 ; t h a t 1 b, o ffe rB a s o r t | o f sound w hich "re se m b le s" o r p a r t l y " 1 b" o r at, l e a s t " s u g g e s ts " th e o b je c t t h a t I t m eans. I t i s n e c e s s a ry to ; say r a t h e r f l a t l y t h a t th e b e l i e f I s a lm o st c o m p le te ly f a l l a c i o u s ; b o th t h e o r e t i c a l l y , o r on th e w h o le, and s p e c i f i c a l l y , o r In d e t a i l f o r m ost o f th e c a s e s t h a t a r e c i t e d to p ro v e I t . 2* * 1 Ihe second p a r t o f th e th e o ry i s s t a t e d w ith e q u a l c l a r i t y . At once a q u e s tio n o r two sh o u ld p r e s e n t th e m se lv e s 1 j v e ry v e x in g ly to th e n eb u lo u s a e s t h e t i c i a n : What s o r t I o f l i b e r t i e s does th e p o e t ta k e w ith a d is c o u r s e when he | j s e t s I t to m eter? And w hat s o r t o f d is c o u rs e I s p r e - j I p a re d to p e rm it th o s e l i b e r t i e s ? I An argum ent w hich ad m its o f a l t e r a t i o n I n o r d e r t h a t j ! i t may r e c e iv e a m e te r m ust be p a r t l y in d e te r m in a te . The ! i I ^"Comments to P a r t F iv e [M e tric s ]" S ty le i n Language, j 2d . Thomas A. Sebeok (New Y ork, i 9 6 0 ), p . 201. I t 1b n e c e s -| aary to s t a t e , how ever, t h a t W. K. WimBatt im m ed ia tely d e fended Ransom, and c i t e d R ansom 's own a r t i c l e " Ih e S tra n g e ftis ic o f E n g lis h V erse" i n h i s d e fe n s e . 2^John Crowe Ransom, The New C r itic is m (N o rfo lk , C onn., I 19^1 ), p . 326. 56 argum ent can n o t be m a in ta in ed e x a c tly a s d eterm in ed by I t s own la w s, f o r I t I s g o in g to be u n d eterm in ed by th e m e te r. C o n v ersely , a m e tr ic a l form m ust be p a r t l y I n d e te r m in a te , I f I t p ro p o ses to embody an argum ent, (p . 2 9 8) 25 Yvor W in ters in h i s d is c u s s io n o f R ansom 's th e o ry o f m eter ^ p o in ts o u t t h a t Ransom . . i s a b le , a s f a r aB th e e v i dence a p p e a rs , to mark th e sc a n sio n o f a l i n e o f p o e try c o r r e c t ly . B ut th e th e o ry o f m e ter which he e r e c t s upon t h i s a b i l i t y i s le s s ad m irab le th a n th e a b i l i t y i t s e l f " (p . 1 0 8 ). The sim p le f a c t seems to be t h a t Mr. Ransom, lik e a good many o th e r s , h as n o t a v e ry c l e a r id e a ab o u t th e n a tu re o f m e ter o r th e n a tu re o f rhythm . Much o f th e d i s c u s s io n c i te d above i s co n fu sed by th e u se o f a p e c u lia r and u n d e fin e d ja rg o n commonly in u se in contem porary d i s c u s s io n s o f p ro so d y . In any c a s e , Ransom can c e r t a i n l y be c l a s s i f i e d a s c o n v e n tio n a l in h is approach to rhythm . T h is i s c l e a r ly d em o n strated i n h i s own p o e try a s w e ll as in h is c r i t i c a l d is c u s s io n s o f m e tric s . He h a s in f a c t b e - 26 come th e spokesman o f th e c o n v e n tio n a l approach to prosody, and th e d e fe n d e r o f th e academ ic view o f m e tr ic s . I t i s John Crowe Ransom, o r Thunder W ithout God," On Modern P o e ts (New Y ork, 1959). ^R ansom w r i te s , in "The S tra n g e Music o f E n g lish V e rs e ," " in t h i s my own p ap e r I am tr y in g th e r o le o f mod e r a t o r , and co n clu d in g th e d is c u s s io n ." H is p a p e r i s l a s t in th e s e r i e s in th e Kenyon Review, and i n th e f i r s t p a r a g rap h s he i d e n t i f i e s h im s e lf a s a c o n v e n tio n a l and t r a d i t i o n a l p r o s o d ls t. He i s th u s made th e spokesman o f con v e n tio n a l p ro so d y . 57 I n t e r e s t i n g to observe th a t he a ls o I n s is ts on the o ld d is - i t i n c t i o n between m eter and rhythm , and th a t he co n sid ers j ;f r e e v e rse to be a s in g le e n t ity . j Thus f a r , th e n , i t can be g e n e ra liz e d t h a t , although i I jth e s e "modern" p o ets have been re sp o n sib le fo r a g r e a t d eal i i o f in n o v a tio n in contem porary p o e try , and although th ey jia v e c o n trib u te d h e a v ily to th e shaping o f both p u b lic and academ ic thought about th e n a tu re and fu n c tio n o f p o e try , t th e y have not moved v ery f a r away from con v en tio n al p ra c t i c e e i th e r in th e use o r th e u n d erstan d in g o f m eter and i ! i t s re la tio n s h ip to rhythm . A ll o f them co n sid er m eter and i i ;rhythm to be in some r a th e r m y sterious way c le a r ly se p ar- | i ja b le . In the numerous d isc u ssio n s re c e n tly reco rd ed on th e ! n a tu r e o f m eter and th e n atu re o f rhythm, one i s c o n s ta n tly i s tr u c k by the Jargon in u se . The word "ten sio n " appears 'c o n s ta n tly . I t s meaning i s n ev er discussed (although i t s i . s p e c ia l use i s commonly a ttr ib u te d to A llen T ate), and y e t j i .. j o n e fin d s such sta tem e n ts as, " . . . the te n sio n , th e rh e - t o r i c a l p u ll-b a c k a g a in s t th e a n a p e stic movement. . . . t|2^ ! ' I t can be p o site d th a t such a statem en t, even in c o n te x t, i h a s no meaning. What i s th is r h e to r ic a l p u ll-b ac k ? Close a n a ly s is w ill re v e a l th a t what th e speaker may mean i s th e r e l a t i v e d u ra tio n o f vowel sounds in given s y n ta c tic a l ip o s itio n s . L in g u is tic laws fu n c tio n to e x p la in re ta rd a tio n .: | f j : 2^The statem ent I s by Warren in "C o n v ersatio n s," p . 29. I T e n sio n , perhapB , does n o t e x i s t e x c e p t f o r th e in d iv id u a l r e a d e r i n a p u r e ly s u b je c tiv e s e n s e . I n s h o r t, w hat c l e a r l y hiarks th e m a jo rity o f d is c u s s io n s o f p ro so d y a s i t i s r e p - i r e s e n te d by t h i s group o f p o e ts i s a r a t h e r w o o lly u s e o f f ,term inology; a n in s i s te n c e on th e s e p a r a tio n o f rhythm and * j m e ter a t the same tim e t h a t th e r e i s an i n s i s t e n c e on th e j i n s e p a r a b i l i t y o f e i t h e r m eter o r rhythm from m eaning and jan in s is te n c e o n s y l l a b le c o u n tin g w ith a r e l a t i v e d is r e g a r d |fo r d u ra tio n an d p a u se . Ransom, o f c o u rs e , would a c c e p t th e s e p a r a tio n o f m e ter and m eaning. I n a d d itio n , th e ma j o r i t y o f the p o e ts i n t h i s g ro u p re g a rd f r e e verBe a s th e name o f a l i t e r a r y ty p e , lik e s o n n e t o r b a l l a d , r a t h e r th a n ! —— ——— , as a g e n e ric name f o r a wide v a r i e t y o f rh y th m ic e x p e r l- i * m e n ts. In a l l J u s t i c e , how ever, one n eed s to say t h a t , in j s p i t e o f the f a c t t h a t th e re i s a c o n fu sio n i n te rm in o lo g y j ! ! land a la c k o f c l a r i t y i n d is c u s s io n o f th e t h e o r ie s o f j p ro s o d y , the g ro u p h a s produced v e rs e w hich b e lo n g s i n th e j m odern e x p e rim e n ta l c a te g o ry , a lth o u g h th e rh y th m ic v a r i a - i 1 itio n i n th is v e r s e i s composed la r g e ly o f v a r i a t i o n on o ld e r co n c e p ts r a t h e r th a n a f r e e r e x p e rim e n ta tio n . T h is c o n s e rv a tis m i s n o t lim ite d to th e U n ite d S t a t e s . A lthough the te rm "New P u rita n " i s p e rh a p s n o t so e a sy to I ap p ly to the B r i t i s h w r i t e r s , th e same s o r t o f c o n s e rv a tiv e ; i a t t i t u d e tow ard p ro so d y and p a r t i c u l a r l y tow ard m e tr ic s and ; j rhythm i s a p p a re n t among c e r t a i n contem p o rary B r i t i s h I jw r ite r s as i t i s among co n tem p o rary A m erican w r i t e r s . As E l i o t may b e c o n s id e re d to be th e head o f th e "New P u rita n " group i n America a lth o u g h he h im s e lf l i v e s i n E ngland, so I W. H. Auden may be c o n s id e re d th e le a d e r o f th e B r i t i s h c o n s e rv a tiv e group alth o u g h he l i v e s i n th e U n ite d S ta te s . i L ike th e Am erican "New P u r ita n s ," t h i s group i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by a f a i r l y c o n s ta n t flo w o f c r i t i c a l m a te r ia ls e x p la in in g t h e i r r e l a t i v e p o s itio n s in re g a rd to m a tte rs * i I p o e t i c . L ike th e American g ro u p , t h i s group h a s been la rg e ly re s p o n s ib le f o r th e fo rm a tio n o f th e o p in io n s o f b o th te a c h e r s and g e n e ra l r e a d e r s . Hie p o e ts o f t h i s group a re g iv e n jto le c tu r in g on th e c r a f t o f p o e try and to w r itin g c r i t i c a l l y b o th o f t h e i r own and o f o th e r p o ets* w ork. | E liz a b e th Drew, d e s c r ib in g th e p o e ts o f th e n in e te e n - t h i r t i e s , w r i te s : ! Many o f th e s e young p o e ts a re s k i l l e d m e t r l s t s [ s i c ] i . and c ra fts m e n , who w rite m ost m e lo d io u s, complex an3 ' > h ig h ly fa s h io n e d v e r s e . The m ost co m p ellin g in d iv id u a l | v o ic e 1b t h a t o f Auden. . . .28 i i Auden i s u n d o u b te d ly a s k i l l e d m e t r l s t . He h as em ployed i i b o th c o n v e n tio n a l m e tr ic s , b ased on a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e s s e s , i i land a c c e n tu a l s t r e s s e s drawn from th e e a r l i e s t E n g lish I i ' i p o e tr y . He h a s em ployed v a r i a t io n s on th e o ld b a lla d j i ! I i s ta n z a . He h a s b een in flu e n c e d by th e rh y th m ic a l e x p e r i m e n ta tio n o f Y e a ts2^ and E l i o t . He haB a ls o been in flu e n c e d ! I ! D ire c tio n i n Modern P o e try (New Y ork, 1 9 ^ 0 ), p . 103. I 2^Auden w r i te s , "Y eats r e le a s e d r e g u la r s ta n z a ic p o e try , w h eth er r e f l e c t i v e o r l y r i c a l , from iam bic m onotony. . . ." "Y eats a s an E xam ple," Kenyon Review , 1 0 :1 8 ? , S p rin g IS M ,__ by h i s b ro a d know ledge o f m u sic. H is ra n g e I s g r e a t , ra n g in g from r e l a t i v e l y sim p le b a lla d and " b lu e s " form s to i n t r i c a t e I m ita tio n s o f fu g u es and c h o r a le s . He h a s a ls o r e v iv e d I n t e r e s t i n th e freedom s o f th e n u rs e ry rhyme and th e f o lk so n g . He h a s ex p e rim en te d w ith th e r i g i d d i s c i p l i n e o f such form s a s th e v l l l a n e l l a and th e t e r z a rim a , and th e b a l l a d e . and th e s e s t l n a . As B a b e tte DeutBch p o in ts o u t, j"he h a s fo llo w e d th e le a d o f HopkinB in th e d i r e c t i o n o f jthe m u sc u lar rhythm s and ru g g ed c o n s o n a n ta l s t y l e o f A nglo- jSaxon verse."3° K arl S h a p iro , i n h i s E ssay on Rime. 31 p o i n t s o u t Auden1s d e f t u se o f " p r o s e lik e form s" to b ra c e jthe o ld e r m e a su re s. As e a r l y as 1937, w h ile re v ie w in g h i s [L e tte rs from I c e la n d . L o u ise Bogan s t a t e d t h a t th e " L e t te r to Lord Byron" was " a rem a rk a b le to u r de fo rc e " em ploying, w ith " l i g h t - v e r s e freedom " B y ro n 's Don Ju a n s ta n z a . 32 She Icomments a t le n g th on h i s m e tr ic a l s k i l l . Y et i n s p i t e o f i h i s s k i l l , and i n s p i t e o f h i s trem endous o u tp o u rin g o f j c r i t i c a l and l i t e r a r y m a t e r i a l s , Auden i s n o t a le a d in g Ip o et. He i s a s a t e l l i t e sp in n in g around E l i o t . "The f a c t L s ," w r ite s K arl S h a p iro , " t h a t Auden n e v e r d id d ev elo p a p o e t ic s o f h i s own, a s one would e x p e c t th e a u th o r o f so 3 °P o e try in Our Times (New Y ork, 1 9 5 2 ), p . 392. 31(New Y ork, 1 9 ^ 5 ), PP. 1 8 -1 9 . 32S e le c te d C r itic is m ; P o e try and P ro se (New Y ork, 1 9 5 5 ), PP. 4 9 -5 0 . much c r i t i c i s m to d o . "33 And l a t e r In th e same e s s a y S h ap iro sa y s, " . . . Auden h a s no p o e tic d ir e c tio n ; h is th e o ry a s w e ll as h i s p r a c t i c e o f p o e try r e v e r t s to p la y . . . (p . 1 2 4 ). S t i l l , In a g e n e ra l e v a lu a tio n o f r e c e n t B r i t i s h p o e tr y , W illiam York T in d a ll w r i te s , "The b e s t p o e t o f th e Auden g e n e ra tio n I s Auden. H is Poems ! ( 1930) r e v e a l new s o c i a l aw aren ess by c o llo q u ia l d ic tio n |[and] c o n v e r s a tio n a l rh y th m s ."3^ A number o f s ta te m e n ts on th e n a tu re o f rhythm have jbeen made by Auden. I n "The A nglo-A m erican D iffe re n c e " he . . . Even th e m ost fo rm al and e le v a te d s t y l e s o f p o e try are more c o n d itio n e d by th e spoken to n g u e , th e language r e a l l y u sed by th e men o f t h a t c o u n try , th a n by an y th in g j e l s e . . • . W illia m C a rlo s W illiam s who h a s th o u g h t more th an m ost ab o u t t h i s p ro b lem , sa y s t h a t "Pace I s one o f i I t s m ost Im p o rta n t m a n lf e s tlo n s , and to t h i s one m ight add a n o th e r, P it c h . I f u n d e f ln a b le , th e d if f e r e n c e I s , how ever, Im m ed iate ly re c o g n iz a b le by th e e a r , even In v e rse where th e fo rm a l c o n v e n tio n s a r e th e sam e.35 'C o n sid erin g t h a t Auden I s a tr a n s p la n te d p o e t, t h i s I s an e x tre m e ly s i g n i f i c a n t s ta te m e n t. I t p ro v id e s a b a s i s , 'c e r t a in l y , f o r In c lu d in g him among th e B r i t i s h p o e ts In I t h i s s tu d y . More I m p o rta n tly , I t s u g g e s ts t h a t Auden him s e l f I s aware o f th e f a c t t h a t , r e g a r d le s s o f re s id e n c e and to p ic , he I s a B r i t i s h p o e t. And f u r t h e r , I t s u g g e s ts t h a t 33 in D efense o f Ig n o ra n c e (New Y ork, 195 2 ), p . 119. i 3^po rc e s Modern B r i t i s h L i t e r a t u r e : 1885-1956 (New Y ork, 1 9 5 b ), p . |M ». 3^The D y e r'a H and (New Y ork, 1 9 6 2 ), p p . 356-357. 62 he l a co n scio u s o f rhythm as a p o e tic fu n c tio n In a way t h a t ap p ears to be Ignored by many p o e ts and c r i t i c s ; t h a t I s , th a t I t I s aB much a m a tte r o f In d iv id u a l a u ra l and o r a l aw areness as I t I s a m a tte r o f m echanical te ch n iq u e . In th e same a r t i c l e he makes a sta tem en t concerning d if f e r e n c e s betw een B r iti s h and American p o e ts which i s s i g n i f i c a n t n o t o n ly in term s o f c o n te n t, as he In te n d s I t , b u t alBo i n term s o f th e u n d e rsta n d in g and use o f p rosody. "Every European p o e t," he sa y s, " in s t i n c t i v e l y th in k s o f h im s e lf as . . . a member o f a p r o fe s s io n a l b ro th erh o o d . . . ta k in g h is p la c e In an unbroken h i s t o r i c a l su c c e s sio n ." In th e U n ited S ta te s , on th e o th e r hand, "p o e ts have never had . . . such a s ta tu s , and I t I s up to each In d iv id u a l p o e t to J u s t i f y h is e x is te n c e by o f f e r in g a unique p ro d u c t. " • He fin d s t h a t t h i s d iffe re n c e I s b o th advantageous and d i s - j ad v an tag eo u s. A B r it i s h p o e t can ta k e w ritin g more f o r g ra n te d and so w rite w ith a lack, o f s t r a i n and o v e re a rn e stn e sB . Amerl- 1 can p o e try h a s many to n e s , a man ta lk in g to h im se lf o r one in tim a te f rie n d , a p ro p h e t c ry in g in th e w ild e rn e s s , i b u t th e easy -g o in g to n e o f a man ta lk in g to a group o f h i s p e e rs i s r a r e . . . . (p . 366) j Having a lre a d y m entioned th e absence o f a t r a d i t i o n in ! American p o e try , he p o in ts o u t t h a t : j Americans l i k e E lio t and Pound, f o r exam ple, co u ld be a s i c u rio u s ab o u t French o r I t a l i a n p o e try as about EngllBh and could h e a r th e p o e try o f th e p a s t, lik e th e v erse o f W ebster, fre s h ly i n a way t h a t f o r an Englishm an, tram m eled by t r a d i t i o n a l n o tio n s o f E liz a b e th a n b lan k v e rs e , would have been d i f f i c u l t , (p . 367) © iu s, he sa y s, th e B r i t i s h p o e t i s much more c lo s e ly t i e d to i th e u s e o f co n v e n tio n th a n i s th e A m erican p o e t. The B r i t - i j i s h p o e t a p p e a rs to sta n d i n a t r a d i t i o n , in te rm s o f th e t c o n c e p tio n o f rhythm a s w e ll a s in te rm s o f o th e r conven t i o n s , and t h a t t r a d i t i o n i s based upon an id e a o f s y ll a b ic 3t r e s s . Auden co n ten d s t h a t m e tric a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n i s more d i f f i c u l t , i f i t i s p o s s ib le a t a l l , fo r th e B r i t i s h th a n f o r th e American p o e t. Thus, o n ly v a r ia tio n w ith in e s ta b lis h e d modes i s a v a ila b le to the B r i t i s h p o e t. T h is o o s i t io n i s c e r t a in l y s u b s ta n tia te d by much o f Auden* s fo rk , ^ On th e o th e r hand, i n a B. B, C. b a l k e n t i t l e d "The P o e tic P ro c e s s ," Auden s a id : 1 1 { lh e tem poral re c u rr e n c e s o f rhythm a r e never i d e n t i c a l , [ a s th e m e tr ic a l n o ta tio n would seem t o s u g g e s t. Rhythm | i s to tim e w hat symmetry i s to sp a c e. Seen from a c e r - i t a i n d is ta n c e , th e f e a t u r e s o f a human face seem sym- j 1 m e tr ic a lly a rra n g e d and c o n s ta n t in s i z e and p o s it io n , • . . i C lo se u p , how ever, th e r e g u l a r i t y d is a p p e a r s ; th e s iz e I and p o s itio n o f th e f e a t u r e s v a rie s s l i g h t l y from fa c e i and [ s ic ] fa c e and, In d e e d , i f a f a c e could e x i s t i n j i w hich symmetry was m a th e m a tic a lly p e r f e c t , i t would a p - I p e a r n o t a f a c e , b u t a l i f e l e s s m a s k . 37 j T h is s ta te m e n t, w hile i t do es n o t c o n t r a d ic t th e b a s ic p o sl ;io n Im plied i n th e s ta te m e n ts quoted e a r l i e r , c e r t a in l y ^ I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te th a t i n h er g lo s s a r y o f j serms fo r th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f p o etry M a rg a re t S chlauch fo u r; ;lm es u se s A uden's p o e try f o r exam ples o f c o n v e n tio n a l form s: i d e n t i c a l rhyme ("C an zo n e"), Feminine rhyme ( L e tte r to Lord B v ro n ), A l l i t e r a t i o n (The Age o f A n x ie ty ), and I n t e r n a l : Rhyme ("E p ilo g u e'1) . Modern E n g lish a n d American P o e try ( London, 1956) , pp. 135, 13$. M l . { 37^ P o e t's Tongue ( London, 19 3 5 ), x x ii. __ a p p e a rs to a llo w a good d e a l more th a n v a r i a t io n on th e e s ta b lis h e d c o n v e n tio n s o f B r i t i s h m e tr ic s . T his p erh ap s I s a c l e a r e r view o f A uden's p o s it io n th a n th e fo rm e r. A uden's v e rs e I s m ost o f te n sp o n tan eo u s so u n d in g , c o l- i llo q u ia l, and m em orable. B ut th e r e I s o f te n som ething u n - j { fin ish e d ab o u t h i s w ork. I t h a s an alm o st o c c a s io n a l to n e . i O ften a s in g le l i n e B tands o u t i n a poem w h ile th e poem i t - I s e lf re c e d e s from th e memory. t i "The Decoys" i s a poem t h a t g iv e s a good i l l u s t r a t i o n o f A uden's l y r i c a l t a l e n t . T h is poem em ploys a l l i t e r a t i o n and u s e s approxim ate rhym es to g a in freedom w h ile m a in ta in i n g a p a tte r n e d e f f e c t . F or in s ta n c e , v a lle y s 1b rhymed {with c a r e le s s , and co m p letely w ith s e r e n e ly . But th e poem j I h as a t i g h t e r s t r u c t u r e th a n th e s e rhymes s u g g e s t. Each {stanza h a s an aab aa rhyme scheme and a r e g u la r (though j s l i g h tl y v a r ie d ) l i n e le n g th . The w hole poem d e m o n stra te s I ■ iA uden's tr u e v i r t u o s i t y a s a p r o s o d ls t. H is "New Y ear {L etter" I s a lo n g e x p o s ito ry poem d e a lin g w ith th e s p i r i t u a l jand p s y c h o lo g ic a l s i t u a t i o n o f o u r tim e s . Jo sep h W arren ! Beach c a l l s i t " . . . a d e v i l i s h l y c le v e r p ie c e o f w r itin g — i Igood t a l k , i t would b e , on th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f th e p o e t. . . ."3® I t i s in g e n io u s ly m etered and rhymed in f o u r- a c c e n t c o u p le ts . B ut th e poem "Doom i s Dark" p ro b a b ly c o n ta in s th e b e s t exam ple o f A uden's u se o f th e Old E n g lish ; ^ O b sessiv e Im ages (M in n ea p o lis, M inn., i 9 6 0) , p . 28. iThe i t a l i c s a re .m in e ..._________________ _________ a l l i t e r a t i v e m e asu re s, a s w e ll a s th e Old E n g lis h k en n ln g s i w hich do n o t f a r e so w e ll i n some o f th e l a t e r poem s. B ut to r e t u r n to th e "New Y ear L e t t e r ," th e c o u p le ts a re dlB - » jtin c tly re m in is c e n t o f th e Age o f R eason. I t I s , sa y s i B each, " . . . th e k in d o f p o e try o f d i r e c t s ta te m e n t fa v o re d by Pope and G ray. . . ." (p . 2 6 9) . One m ig h t c o n c lu d e , 1 th e n , t h a t Auden tu rn e d from th e "ro m a n tic " i r r e g u l a r i t i e s j o f h i s more y o u th f u l p o e try to th e c l a s s i c a l form and s t y l e a p p r o p r ia te to h i s c o n fo rm is t m a tu r ity . T h is i s p ro b a b ly an o v e r s im p lif ic a tio n . H is own e x p l ic a t io n o f h i s p o s i t i o n , a t ■least in te rm s o f p ro so d y , seems to o f f e r a more l i k e l y S ta te m e n t o f th e f a c t s . Auden c o n s id e r s h im s e lf , l i k e a l l 1 I ! 1 o th e r B r i t i s h p o etB , t i e d w ith in th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f p ro s o d ic j t r a d i t i o n . He h a s s a id t h a t m e tr ic a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n i s n o t r e a l l y p o s s ib le beyond v a r i a t i o n o f th e e x i s ti n g s t r u c t u r e s . B u t he h a s tem pered h i s l i m i t a t i o n s by a llo w in g t h a t rhythm i m ust n o t be sy m m e tric a l. T hat he i s e x tre m e ly s k i l l f u l in h a n d lin g a g r e a t many m e tr i c a l fo rm s, no one w i l l q u e s tio n . j ! H ere, th e n , i s a m odern p o e t who h a s w r i t te n w hat •passes f o r f r e e v e r s e , b u t who h a s r e s t r a i n e d h im s e lf to e x i s t i n g c o n v e n tio n i n m e tr ic a l v a r i a t i o n . L ik e E l i o t , he I p roduced a v e rs e w hich i s c o l lo q u i a l , b u t w hich depends e n t i r e l y , f o r i t s rh y th m ic a l b a s i s , on e x i s t in g c o n v e n tio n s . ! U s u a lly lin k e d w ith Auden, a t l e a s t in d is c u s s io n s o f ■ B r i t i s h p o e try o f th e n in e te e n t h i r t i e s , i s S tep h en S p en d er,i I ; Ispender i s u n d o u b te d ly more l y r i c a l th a n Auden, and i t i s 66 somewhat u n ju s t t h a t h e , alo n g w ith C. Day Lewis and L ouis MacNeice, sh o u ld be fro z e n In to th e Auden c o n s te l l a ti o n as a s t a r o f much l e s s e r m ag n itu d e. In one s e n s e , how ever, he :ls c lo s e ly lin k e d w ith Auden, and t h a t I s In h i s u se o f w hat m ig h t be c a lle d " s p ru n g -s y n ta x .” H is poem "The E x ile s " was r e p u b lis h e d In h i s volume The S t i l l C en tre In 1939* In a g r e a t ly r e v is e d and expanded form , and w ith a new t i t l e , ;" E x ile s from T h e ir Land, H is to ry T h e ir D o m icile." The r e - | v is e d form I s a v a s t Im provem ent o v e r th e o r i g i n a l , b u t i t jls s t i l l n o t w hat can be c a lle d a s u c c e s s fu l o r s a tis f y in g jpoem. The poem had b een f i r s t p u b lis h e d in an is s u e o f th e i ! M ercury d ev o ted to th e c e le b r a tio n o f th e tw e n ty - f if th an n iv e r s a r y o f th e r e ig n o f George V. Thus, i t was w hat , t I m ight be c a lle d an " o c c a s io n a l poem ." .ih e p o e tic s ta n d a rd s iof poems w r i tte n f o r p u b lic o c c a s io n s a re somewhat d i f f e r e n t from th e u s u a l s ta n d a rd s ; w itn e s s Tennyson o r M a se fie ld . B ut in s p i t e o f t h a t ap o lo g y , th e poem I s s t i l l n o t a s a tis - ! ; I ! f a c to r y o n e, and th e t r u t h o f th e m a tte r i s t h a t th e f a u l t s j o f t h i s poem a re th e f a u l t s which g e n e r a lly c h a r a c te r iz e h i s p o e try . S pender was tr y in g f o r modernism in h i s 1 i p o e try w ith o u t b e in g h im s e lf q u ite m o d e rn ist i n tem peram ent.! Some o f th e f a i l u r e s In com m unication r e s u l t from h i s ex - ! I ic e ssiv e e f f o r t s a t b r e v ity and c r is p n e s s . The r e s u l t i s i o f te n e l l i p t i c a l s ta te m e n t. Beach cla im s t h a t S p e n d e r's p o e try I s c h a r a c te r iz e d by a " , . . messy co n fu sio n o f m eta p h o rs u n e q u a lly yoked to g e th e r [and a ] clum sy m is a llia n c e 6 7 o f th e p o e tic f ig u r e w ith th e b a l d e s t proBe sta te m e n t" ( p . 1 5 0 ). P r o f e s s o r Tillyard^ h a s c a lle d S pender a p o e t o f p l a i n s ta te m e n t. T hat seems to be a r a t h e r good a n a ly - i s i s o f him a t hlB b e s t . B ut one h a s th e f e e l in g , o f te n , jth a t S pender I s tr y in g to b e som ething e l s e , a sy m b o list p e rh a p s . He a p p e a rs to have f a l l e n u n d er th e in f lu e n c e o f i s u r re a lis m , d ad aism , a b s tr a c tio n is m , and o th e r s im ila r f movements In l i t e r a t u r e and th e a r t s , and a s a r e s u l t he I I seems to be tr y in g to m odernize h i s v e rs e w ith e x p e rim e n ta l 1 jte ch n lq u es w hich a re n o t a l to g e t h e r n a t u r a l o r f a m ilia r to jhlm. In s h o r t, much o f h i s work h as th e q u a l i t y o f e x p e r i m e n tal f in g e r e x e r c is e . H is dram a, T r i a l o f a Ju d g e , a p - ipeared In 1938. When L ouise Bogan rev iew ed I t a t I t s a p p e a ra n c e , sh e w ro te t h a t I t was " f r i g h t f u l p o e tr y ."**0 In I ;1939 Spender c o lla b o r a te d w ith J . B. Lelshm an to b rin g o u t i a t r a n s l a t i o n o f R i lk e 's Dulno E le g i e s . Commenting on th e I tr a n s la tlo n , M iss Bogan w r i te s : . . . w h atev er S p e n d e r's g i f t s may b e , th e y a re n o t e x c e p tio n a lly d is c ip li n e d o r a u s te r e ; th e y o f te n s u f f e r 1 from v ag u en ess and a d e l i g h t In th ro w in g lan g u ag e aro u n d , i H is t a s t e , m o reo v er, i s n o t s u r e . (p . 79) s And I n 19^2, S p e n d e r's R uins and V is io n s , h i s f i r s t c o l l e c tio n o f s h o r te r poems s in c e 193^* was p u b lis h e d In th e U n ite d S ta te s . H ere, MIsb Bogan f in d s t h a t " . . . Spender ^ P o e t r y D ir e c t and O blique (London, 1 9 ^ 8 ), p . 100. ^ S e l e c t e d C r itic is m , p . 109. I s not re a lly "modem” at a l l ; he writeB In a sty le clogged w ith rh etoric. . . (p . 110). I n h is own c r i t i c a l w r i tin g . Spender h a s a tte m p te d to make a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n betw een p ro s e and p o e tr y . . . . Hie d if f e r e n c e betw een p o e try and p ro s e I s d e c id e d by th e d ir e c tio n o f la n g u ag e, more th a n by a n a ly s in g th e p ro s e In to I t s p o e t i c e le m e n ts . P rose I s lan g u ag e u s e d I n such a way t h a t th e Id e a s and e v e n ts o r sceneB w ith in th e language a r e r e f e r r e d to a s o b je c ts e x i s t in g a p a r t from th e la n g u a g e , so th a t th e r e I s an u n d e rs ta n d in g b e tw een th e w r i te r and th e r e a d e r t h a t th e s e th in g s c o u ld b e d isc u sse d I n q u i t e o th e r w ords th a n th o s e u s e d , b e ca u se th ey e x i s t In d e p e n d e n tly o f th e w ords. But d i r e c t l y th e la n g u a g e te n d s to c r e a t e , a s i t w ere, v e r b a l o b je c ts I n s e p a ra b le from th e w ords u se d , th e n th e d i r e c t i o n o f th e la n g u a g e I s p o e t i c . I t I s moving to w a rd s a c o n d itio n w here, a s i n p o e tr y , th e words a p p e a r to b e come o b je c ts , so t h a t th ey c a n n o t be re p la c e d by o t h e r ^ \ w ords th an th e o n e s used to convey th e same e x p e r ie n c e . T h is sta te m e n t I s n o t very c l e a r , b u t i f i t doeB mean w hat j I t seem s to im p ly , th e n i t becom es ap p a re n t t h a t S p e n d e r j c o u ld n o t e x p e rim e n t w ith v e r s e form s o r m e tric s to a n y | i g r e a t e x te n t, f o r th e p o s itio n im p lie d h e re s u g g e s ts a r i g i d i t y in c o m p a tib le w ith m e t r i c a l v a r ie ty . S p en d er has b een compared w ith S h e lle y , n o t o n ly in h is ro m a n tic is m , b u t i n h i s p o e tic s t y l e as w e ll . L ike Auden, then*, h e r e - ! b e l le d a g a in s t th e co n v e n tio n s o f p ro so d y , b u t h i s r e b e l l i o n to o k him o n ly a s f a r a s v a r i a t i o n on e x i s tin g p a t t e r n s j I n L if e and th e P o e t Spender w ro te , ! " i Hie attem p t to make p o e try s e rv e a cause o r i n t e r e s t i s l i k e l y to d e p riv e i t o f th e freedom w ith o u t w hich i t can- | ^•Hforld W ith in World (London, 1951 )> PP. 14 8 -1 4 9 . 69 n o t a r r i v e a t I t s p a r t i c u l a r k in d o f t r u t h . For I n t e r e s t s and c a u s e s se e e x is te n c e th ro u g h b lin k e r s ; th e y d i s t o r t b e in g i n o r d e r to a c h ie v e t h e i r e n d s .**2 S p e n d e r's work i s f ra n k ly and h e a v ily p r o p a g a n d i s t s . He h a s p e rh a p s e x p la in e d h i s own I n a b i l i t y to a c h ie v e . C e c il Day L ew is, a t h i r d member o f th e g ro u p , and th e one who u lti m a t e ly became I t s academ ic spokesm an and cham p io n o f th e g ro u p , i s t e c h n ic a ll y a p o o re r p o e t th a n S p e n d er. In A Hope f o r P o e try (193*0* Lewis e x p la in e d th e te c h n ic a l a n c e s tr y o f th e g ro u p , and i n R e v o lu tio n In W rit in g (1935)* Lew is w ro te th e d e fe n s e o f p o e tr y . He h a s a number o f tim e s e x p re s s e d q u ite c l e a r l y h i s p o s it io n In r e g a rd to rh y th m ic a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n and m e tr ic a l s t r u c t u r e . I n The P o e t 's Task (1951) he s t a t e d t h a t : The p o e t, from th e s t a r t . I s a man p la y in g w ith w ords. . . . As he g a in s m a ste ry o v e r them , he makes th e game I n c r e a s in g ly more d i f f i c u l t f o r h im s e lf , p a r t l y by i n v e n tin g new ru le B , b re a k in g away from th e t r a d i t i o n a l te c h n iq u e s , . • . a tte m p tin g more s u b tle o r d a rin g com b in a tio n s o f w o rd s, p a r t l y b ec au se h i s e x p e rie n c e h as b e come r i c h e r and more com plex, th u s dem anding o f him g r e a t e r v e r b a l e f f o r t s to g e t a t th e t r u t h o f i t . . . . W e sim p ly c a n n o t o v e re s tim a te th e Im p o rtan ce o f. w ords to a p o e t—t h e i r lo o k , sound, sh a p e , c o n n o ta tio n s .^3 L e w is 's I n t e r e s t I s l e s s I n m e tric s th a n I t i s In im ag ery . He c o n s id e r s m e tr ic s to b e m e re ly a m eans; a s u p e r f i c i a l and m e c h a n ic a l p a r t o f a poem. I n E n jo y in g P o e try , he w r i t e s . ^ gL lfe and th e P o et (London, 19^2 )* P* 8 . ^ ( O x f o r d , E n g la n d ), p . 8 . 70 Hie f i r s t s te p in a p p r e c ia tin g p o e try i s to le a r n th e th r e e R1s —Rhythm, Rhyme, R e p e titio n — f o r a l l p o e try i s b ased upon them . They a re th e in s tru m e n ts w hich communi c a te th e m agic o f p o e try ; th e movements and I n to n a tio n s ! o f th e h y p n o tis t. For p o e try i s , among o th e r th in g s , a k in d o f h y p n o sis ; i t p u ts one p a r t o f u s a s le e p in o r d e r I t h a t a n o th e r, p a r t may become more aw are, more r e c e p tiv e , | more a c t i v e . ^ i He say s t h a t th e b a s ic p r in c ip l e " . . . t h a t o p e r a te s i n a l l th e te c h n ic a l f e a tu r e s o f v e r s e —i n m e tre , rhym e, a l l i t e r a - i t i o n , r e f r a i n . . . " i s " th e p r in c ip l e o f r e p e t i t i o n . " Hie e f f e c t o f r e p e t i t i o n i s t h a t " . . . th e mind i s d e lig h te d 'tflth th e r e c o g n itio n o f som ething f a m ilia r r e c u r r in g i n a new g u i B e ." ^ And i n an e a r l i e r work he sa y s: P o e try sh o u ld speak d i r e c t l y to th e em o tio n s, and any S i a tte m p t to h o ld i t up f o r in te r r o g a t io n on th e th r e s h o ld j o f s e lf- c o n s c io u s n e s s w i l l be f a t a l . T h is i s e s p e c i a lly ; tr u e f o r modern p o e try . . . . I n s te a d o f re a d in g i t alo u d ! and l e t t i n g th e rhythm and Im ages s in k in to h i s uncon- I s c io u s , he [th e r e a d e r ] w o rrie s i t l i k e a t e r r i e r , d e t e r - | m ined to e x t r a c t a m eaning o u t o f i t o r d i e . i As f a r a s th e d e f i n i t i o n o f rhythm and th e f u n c tio n o f rhythm i s co n cern ed , Lewis h as a ls o e x p re sse d b o th h is and I i h i s g ro u p ’ s p o s it io n . j 1 I I From C haucer to Hiomas H ardy, th e r e h as s c a r c e ly been a i ! s in g le g r e a t E n g lish p o e t o f whom we can n o t su rm ise t h a t j ^ (C a m b rid g e , 19^7)* p . 199. i ^ " H i e P a tte r n o f Im ag es," Hie P o e tic Image (London, 1 96 1 ), P . 7*. i 1 "H ie N u rtu re o f th e Im a g in a tio n ," A dult E d u catio n (December, 1936) , p . 2 3 6. » i 1 71 h i s s t y l e was to some d eg ree In flu e n c e d by th e common speech he h e a rd In f i e l d o r s t r e e t : S p e n se r and M ilto n a re th e o n ly p o s s ib le e x c e p tio n s .^7 And a g a in In a ra d io t a l k on "T echniques I n Modern P o e tr y ,1 ' h e s a y s : , J u s t a s , from W utherlng H e ig h ts and Moby D ick to th e work o f Jam es Jo y ce and V ir g in ia W oolf, n o v e l i s t s can b e seen e n r ic h in g f i c t i o n w ith th e sym bolism and th e h e ig h te n e d lan g u ag e w hich u se d to b e c o n s id e re d th e p re s e rv e o f po e t r y , so I n th e l a s t t h i r t y y e a rs p o e try h a s te n d e d t o w ards th e lan g u ag e o f p ro s e and o f e v e ry -d a y c o n v e rs a tio n ; ten d ed to become more c o llo q u ia l In e x p re s s io n , and. to fo llo w more c lo s e ly th e rhythm s o f o rd in a ry sp e ech . And s t i l l a g a in he w r ite s : W e p e r c e iv e , lo o k in g b ack o v e r th e p o e try o f th e p a s t , how th e p o e t 's idiom d i f f e r s from t h a t o f h i s p re d e c e s - j s o rs and w hat i t h as i n common w ith t h a t o f h is contem - i ! p o r a r i e s , and we may d e t e c t i n th e g e n e ra l p o e tic idiom j o f any g iv e n p e rio d a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r ap p ro x im atio n to j th e contem porary rhythm s and c h a r a c te r o f common s p e e c h .^9 The number o f in s ta n c e s , and th e number o f y e a rs co v e red by i ith e se in s ta n c e s , i s s i g n i f i c a n t in showing t h a t th e p o in t I i s b a s ic w ith t h i s p o e t and w ith th e o th e r members o f th e . j i •school to which he b e lo n g s . j | One o f th e th in g s t h a t p le a s e th e e a r when we l i s t e n to . a poem b e in g re a d alo u d i s th e c o n t r a s t , th e s o r t o f f r ie n d ly w r e s tle betw een i t s m etre and i t s sp eech -rh y th m ; I th e m e tre i s l i k e a t i d e p u ls in g r e g u la r ly u n d e rn e a th , th e sp eech -rh y th m i s a l e s s r e g u la r movement, l i k e r i p p le s on th e s u r f a c e .50 j ^ T h e C o llo q u ia l E lem ent in E n g lis h P o e try (N e w ca stle. E ngland, 1 $ 4 7 ). tfQ m .“ ------------------------------- 2t8B. B. C. (1 9 5 3 ). F ilm . ^9 "The L iv in g Im age," The P o e tic Im age, p . 100. • ^ P o e try f o r You (London, 19*^0* P* 6 5 . ..................... 72 H i s t o r i c a l l y , i n Day Lewis* p o in t o f view , t h e developm ent i s p e r f e c t l y c l e a r . "The d iv o rc e o f l y r i c p o e tr y from m u sic ," he w r i t e s , "was p e rh a p s th e g r e a t e s t r e v o lu tio n t h a t h as e v e r o c c u rre d i n E n g lis h p o e tr y ."-*1 The im p lic a tio n s j o f t h i s r e v o lu tio n w ere sw eep in g . I t was . . . th e r e v o lu tio n w hich, b re a k in g th e c h a in s o f m u sic, shook up th e l y r i c form and began t o c o n v e rt i t I n to th e k in d o f p o e try . . . which f i n a l l y came to su - | prem e power w ith th e R om antics and has n e v e r s in c e been j d e th ro n e d , (p . 51) •As a r e s u l t , i . . . no p o e t can become modern by an a c t o f w i l l . He | may, o f c o u rs e , d e l i b e r a t e l y s i t down to w r i t e i n th e ; co n tem p o rary id io m . B u t to u se assonance to -d a y , f o r i exam ple, o r to c u t p ro s e up in to more o r l e s s i r r e g u l a r i le n g th s . . . —none o f t h i s can make a p o e t m o d e r n . 52 j | . . . T o-day o u r E n g lis h p o e ts a re com m itted to th e b e - j l i e f t h a t ev e ry id e a and ev e ry o b je c t o f s e n s e i s po t e n t i a l l y m a te r ia l f o r p o e tr y . . . . C le a r ly a s t r a i n i s | p la c e d upon te c h n iq u e when such a w ealth o f p o s s ib le im ages h a s to b e accommodated w ith in one fo rm —th e sem l- l y r i c a l , B em i-co n tem p lativ e medium in w hich th e b u lk o f m odern v e rs e i s w r i t t e n . T h is s t r a i n i s a g g ra v a te d by j th e modern p o e t* s d i s t r u s t o f r h e t o r i c , h i s d i s l i k e o f t an a r t i f i c i a l l y o r u n ifo rm ly p o e tic d i c t i o n . . . . : ( p . 9 5 ) ^These argum ents make f a i r l y c l e a r th e p o s i t i o n o f a l l th r e e j Jof th e p o e ts i n t h i s g ro u p . On th e w hole, th e r e v o l t ! a g a in s t th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f c o n v e n tio n a l p ro so d y was l e s s a r e v o l t th a n th e e a r l y s ta te m e n ts o f th e g ro u p announced. I t seem s to be lim ite d by s e v e r a l f a c to r s : 1 . th e e x i s - i te n c e o f a t r a d i t i o n , 2 . th e im p o s s ib ility o f e sc a p in g from •^"T he F ie ld o f Im ag e ry ," The P o e tic Im ag e, p . 49. 52 " ih e L iv in g Im ag e," p . 101. 73 t h a t t r a d i t i o n , a t l e a s t as f a r as B r i t i s h a u th o rs a r e con c e rn e d , and 3 . th e b e l i e f t h a t p ro so d y i s th e " in to n a tio n j o f th e h y p n o tis t." On th e o th e r h an d , th e a s s o c ia tio n o f 1 Rhythm in p o e try w ith rhythm i n sp eech does c o n tr ib u te to I a change from th e o ld e r c o n v e n tio n , a t l e a s t f o r th e re a s o n jth a t th e c o n v e n tio n s o f sp eech have changed c o n s id e ra b ly . 1 T h is r e v o lu tio n , th e n , i s m arked l e s s by a d e v ia tio n from c o n v e n tio n a l s y ll a b ic m e tric s th a n by a r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r V a r ia tio n w ith in th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th o se m e tr ic s . These 1 jth ree w r i t e r s m ig h t be grou p ed a s th e th r e e who d id n o t make a r e v o lu ti o n . ; | L ouis M acNeice, a n o th e r member o f t h i s g ro u p , rem ark ed ,! i n 1935, when t h i s group was j u s t b e g in n in g to dom inate th e j p o e tic s c e n e , t h a t " p o e ts do n o t know ( e x a c tly ) w hat th e y a r e d o in g , f o r i f th e y d id , th e r e w ould be no need to do i t . "53 T h is s ta te m e n t may p e rh a p s b e s t s e rv e to e x e m p lify | f I th e p o s it io n o f th e e n t i r e g ro u p i n r e f e r e n c e to th e q u e s- j | t i o n s o f m e tr ic s and p ro so d y . i i ; | In p o e tic te c h n iq u e MacNeice i s a ls o c lo s e to Auden, a lth o u g h h i s lan g u ag e i s more s p e c i f ic and c l o s e r to th e v e r n a c u la r . In d ic t i o n he c o n s c io u s ly a tte m p ts a p r o l e t a r i a n s i m p l i c i t y . The g e n e ra l to n e o f h i s v e rs e s u g g e s ts I | i jjo th T. S. E l i o t and E d ith S itw e ll . L ike b o th Auden and S p en d er, h e o f te n u s e s h a lf-rh y m e s and d is s o n a n c e s . Many of; I ! 1 53 p o e try To-day (London, 1935). h i s l i n e s a re made d e l i b e r a t e ly uneven and rough-edged w ith Ju x ta p o se d c o n so n a n ts. Y et he does n o t go f a r in h i s m e tri- i c a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n , b e in g l e s s in c lin e d to s tr a y from con v e n tio n a l s y ll a b ic v e rs e th a n i s Auden. A nother p o e t who b e lo n g s to t h i s c a te g o ry , n o t a s a member o f th e same s c h o o l, b u t a s a p r a c t i t i o n e r o f more o r l e s s th e same k in d o f m e tr ic a l and p ro s o d ic e x p e rim e n ta tio n , t jls Edwin M uir. T e c h n ic a lly , Muir b e lo n g s to th e g e n e ra tio n o f E l i o t and Pound, b u t i t was o n ly upon th e ap p earan ce o f ! h i s C o lle c te d Poems i n 1953 t h a t he re c e iv e d th e ac c la im which he had long d e s e rv e d . M uir b e lo n g s to no f a c t io n o f i p o e ts . He ca n n o t even p ro p e rly be p la c e d w ith M acDiarmid, j i ! I h i s fe llo w S c o t. He i s , i n a s e n s e , w hat T in d a ll h a s c a lle d j j i a n eo -ro m an tic and a p re d e c e s s o r o f th e s u r r e a l i s t in p o - je tr y .” ^ I n te c h n iq u e and form , how ever, Muir i s n o t w hat i jone co u ld term t r u l y e x p e rim e n ta l. He does n o t e x p re s s h is o r i g i n a l i t y th ro u g h th e e x te r n a l e lem en ts o f form and te c h - j ! n iq u e . H is language and h i s to n e a re i n t e r e s t i n g . I t i s | ; i n o t an a c c id e n t t h a t he h a s a ls o become one o f th e fo rem o st |t r a n s l a t o r s o f K afka, f o r h i s p o e try i s v e ry much l i k e I ! K a fk a 's p ro s e . He p r e s e n ts a kind o f n ig h tm are w orld i n J which h i s p r o ta g o n is ts f e e l g u i l t b ecau se th e y a re p a r t o f j an In e x o ra b le f a t a l i t y f o r w hich th e y a re I r r a t i o n a l l y : jre s p o n s ib le . Muir i s " . . . a t r a g i c spokesman f o r h is f ^ Ptorces i n Modern B r i t i s h P o e try , p p . 232 f f . 75 f o i l e d h u m an ist id e a lis m and f o r th e e r a i n w hich t h a t id e a lis m began to low er i t s f la g i n u t t e r d is c o u ra g e m e n t.1 1 ^ M uir h as s t a t e d h i s own p o s i t i o n i n r e f e r e n c e to po e t r y q u ite c l e a r l y . I | T here i s a v a s t a r e a o f l i f e w hich s c ie n c e le a v e s in j i t s o r i g i n a l m y ste ry ; and t h i s 1 b th e a r e a w ith w hich | p o e try d e a ls , o r sh o u ld d e a l. S c ie n c e t r i e s to d is c o v e r | th o s e th in g s w hich c a n n o t be d e f in e d ; p o e try d e a ls w ith I th o s e th in g s w hich c a n n o t b e d e f in e d . I t d e a ls w ith l i f e w here l i f e i s m ost i t s e l f , m ost in d iv i d u a l , and m ost u n i v e r s a l ; and In d o in g so i t becom es a bond u n itin g m ankind in tim e and s p a c e . . . . The rem edy i s n o t to w r ite popu l a r p o e tr y , f o r t h a t would o n ly c o n firm an e r r o r w hich seems to be s p re a d in g — t h a t l i f e can be e x p la in e d , t h a t i t i s " n o th in g b u t" t h i s o r th e o th e r th in g ; and t h a t a l l tr u e p o e try d e n ie s t h a t e r r o r . P erh ap s p o e ts a re p a r t l y to blam e f o r th e c o n tr a s tin g i n t e r e s t i n p o e tr y , I n s o f a r j a s th e y have become a n a l y t i c a l l i k e th e s c i e n t i s t s . But th e e v i l i s o b v io u s ly a w id e r o n e , and i s due to th e f a c t j t h a t we a re becom ing a more and more m e ch an ical c i v i l i z a - | t l o n , and do n o t seem to know how to s to p . The i d e a l po e t r y f o r o u r n eed s to d a y ( i f we c o u ld a t t a i n i t ) w ouldcg j be a p o e try t h a t was b o th sim p le and u n e x p e c te d . . . P C o n sid e rin g t h a t t h i s s ta te m e n t was w r i t t e n w ith in th e l a s t jlozen y e a r s , i t i s a r e l a t i v e l y c o n s e r v a tiv e s ta te m e n t. The p o e try I t s e l f c l e a r l y d e m o n s tra te s th e f a c t t h a t M iir does p r a c t ic e w hat he b e l ie v e s . "The R e c u rren ce" i s a f a i r l y ! ty p ic a l poem. S peaking o f t h i s poem, M uir w r i t e s , I In one o f h i s l a t e r books . • • N ie tz sc h e e la b o r a te s th e id e a o f th e E te r n a l R e c u rre n c e . He d e r iv e s i t from th e assu m p tio n t h a t w h ile M a tte r i s f i n i t e Time i s i n f i n i t e ; th e r e f o r e e v e ry p o s s ib le co m b in atio n and perm u- | t a t i o n on M a tte r m ust r e c u r in Time an e n d le s s number -^M. L. R o s e n th a l. The Modern P o e ts : A C r i t i c a l I n t r o d u c tio n (New Y ork, i 9 6 0 ; , p . 13$ . ~ j ^ E s p e c i a l l y composed f o r Mbdern P o e try : A m erican and [B ritis h , e d . Kimon F r i a r and John M alcolm B rin n m iNew Y ork, 1 9 5 1 ), P . 524. _............... ! 76 o f times. . . . I n this poem I adopt the idea f o r pur poses o f illustration, and then reject it in the laBt verse, (p p . 524-525) T e c h n ic a lly , th e poem i s d o m in an tly iam bic te tr a m e te r , w ith an i r r e g u l a r rhyme schem e, b u t th e v a r i a t i o n s and th e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s o f th e rhyme a re re p e a te d a c c o rd in g to a p a t - I te r n w hich su p p o rts th e theme o f th e poem. T h is i s ab o u t 'as f a r i n m e tr ic a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n , o r r a t h e r i n m e tr ic a l jv a ria tio n , a s M uir e v e r w ent. j Muir i s u n d o u b te d ly a "m o d ern"poet, J u s t as much a s any o f th e o th e r s m entioned above. I t i s u s u a lly assumed t h a t j"modern p o e try " i s alw ays c h a r a c te r iz e d by extrem e m e tr ic a l ; fre e d o m .-^ Y et M uir, a lth o u g h c l e a r l y "m odern," and i n j ■fact one o f th e fo u n d e rs o f a c e r t a i n k in d o f m o d e rn ity , i s j ! i n o t c h a r a c te r iz e d i n h i s p o e try by extrem e m e tr ic a l freedom .j tan th e b a s is o f th e i l l u s t r a t i o n s u se d th ro u g h o u t t h i s I ! I c h a p te r , i t i s p o s s ib le to p o in t o u t t h a t a good d e a l o f ’ t r u l y "modern" p o e try i s n o t c h a r a c te r iz e d by freedom from ; j I m e tr ic a l r e g u l a r i t y o r freedom from th e r u l e s o f conven- j ’ t t i o n a l p ro so d y . I t i s p e rh a p s an o v e r s im p lif ic a tio n on th e ■part o f te a c h e rs and a n th o lo g lz e rs to s u g g e s t t h a t one o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f modern p o e try i s such a freedom from th e co n v e n tio n s o f t r a d i t i o n a l p o e tr y . I t would seem t h a t j many s c h o la r s re c o g n iz e t h a t some d i s t i n c t i o n e x i s t s b etw een ; •^'See f o r exam ple M arg aret S ch la u ch , Modern E n g lis h and j Am erican P o e try ; B a b e tte D eu tsch , P o e try in o u r Timel Donald W . H einey, E s s e n tia ls o f C ontem porary L it e r a t u r e [(New Y ork, 1954}. ______________ _______ _________ _____________ t h e p o e try o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry and th e p o e try o f th e tw e n tie t h c e n t u r y . I t h a s been p o in te d o u t s e v e r a l tim es ab o v e t h a t t h e s ty le o f th e m a jo rity o f g re a t E n g lish p o e ts h a s been I n f lu e n c e d by common speech.**® Perhaps th e problem i | l i e s in th e d e g re e o f t h a t in flu e n c e and in th e f a c t t h a t i 't h e s p e a k e rs o f a contem porary idiom a re n o t r e a l l y con s c i o u s l y a w a re th a t any o th e r idiom was ev er spoken in th e i p a s t . One n e e d s o n ly to l i s t e n to even a good American i { a c to r re a d S h a k e s p e a re . What c h a r a c te r iz e s '’modern" p o - l l e t r y th e n m ay be le s s a g e n e ra l e x p e rim e n ta tio n w ith m e tric s | th a n i t may b e an a tte m p t to adhere to th e q u ite d i f f e r e n t [rh y th m ic a l p a t t e r n s o f th e common sp eech . Or p erh ap s one |may say t h a t th e rhythm o f p o e try n e c e s s a r ily changes as i {the speech p a t t e r n s o f th e p eo p le re a d in g th a t p o e try [ch an g e. T h e r e has been som ething o f a re v o lu tio n in speech p a t t e r n s , e s p e c i a l l y in th e U n ited S ta te s , d u rin g th e p a s t 1 f i f t y o r bo y e a r s . T h is re v o lu tio n i s r e f le c te d i n th e •co n tem p o rary p o e tr y , a t l e a s t in p a r t . These changes in {the rh y th m ic s t r u c t u r e have g iv en th e im p ressio n o f a g r e a t e r m e t r i c a l freedom . But th e f a c t s , as s t a te d by th e p o e t s and a s d e m o n strate d by th e poems th em selv es, show t h a t among a good many "modern" p o e ts th e re i s r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e m e t r i c a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n , b u t th e re i s a c o n s ta n t * i I \ : I i • i -*®This i d e a has been v ery w e ll e x p ressed by C. Day L e w is, The C o llo q u ia l Elem ent in E n g lish P o e try . 19^7. F ilm . i 78 s t r i v i n g to a d h e re as c lo s e ly a s p o s s ib le to th e rhythm s o f i o r d in a r y sp e e c h . I H iis i s n o t to deny t h a t c e r t a i n m odern p o e ts have i n d u lg e d i n v a s t and im p o rta n t e x p e rim e n ta tio n in m e tr ic s and p ro so d y . B ut on th e o th e r h an d , i t does n o t seem r a t i o n a l l |to m a in ta in , a s so many co n tem p o rary c r i t i c s h a v e , t h a t one I o f th e key d if f e r e n c e s betw een "m odern1 1 and " c l a s s i c a l " p o - Jetry i s th e m odern p o e t* s p e n c h a n t f o r tam p erin g w ith con v e n tio n a l m e te r. One i s somehow rem inded o f s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ry c r i t i c i s m o f C haucer, c r i t i c i s m b ased on a m is u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e spoken lan g u ag e t h a t C haucer was f o l - I I Slowing. I t becom es, r a t h e r , a q u e s tio n o f d e g re e . At w hat Ip o in t does c lo s e im i ta t io n o f th e rhythm o f o r d in a r y speech i become ta m p erin g w ith m e te r. T h is i s v e ry much l i k e a sk in g i a t w hat p o in t do es a man who n e e d s a shave become a man w ith a b e a rd . T here i s no a b s o lu te l i n e o f d i s t i n c t i o n . f ! One can d is c u s s th e d if f e r e n c e s o n ly by s e le c tin g r e l a - t t . I I tiv e ly ex trem e exam ples a t b o th en d s o f th e s c a l e . Hie j p o e ts d is c u s s e d so f a r r e p r e s e n t r e l a t i v e ex tre m es a t one ! end o f th e s c a l e . O b v io u sly , many p o s s ib le c h o ic e s have i i b e e n o m itte d . Some, l i k e R o b e rt F r o s t, have b ee n o m itte d • b e c a u se th e y seem to f a l l in th e g ray a r e a betw een th e two j e x tre m e s; o t h e r s , l i k e Howard Moss o r S idney Keyes o r Jam es | 'M e r r ill b e c a u se th e y a re to o young ( in term s o f q u a n tity o f I 79 w ork p u b lis h e d ) to p la c e them anyw here. S t i l l o t h e r s , ob v i o u s l y , do n o t f i t in to th e a r b i t r a r y ch ro n o lo g y o f t h i s I s tu d y . j | K arl S h a p iro once w ro te , i I t was o n ly ab o u t te n y e a r s ago [ c . 1946] t h a t i t began t o dawn on me t h a t th e p o e try c a l l e d Modern i s l i t t l e m ore th a n a fa c a d e f o r v a r io u s p h ilo s o p h ie s o f c r i t i c i s m , | l i t e r a r y m aneuvers and c u l t u r a l p ro p ag an d a f o r one o r a n o th e r p e r s u a s io n .59 T h is too i s som ething o f a g e n e r a liz a tio n . And i t i s d i f f i c u l t to a g re e w ith th e s ta te m e n t a s I t s ta n d s , b u t i t i s a l s o d i f f i c u l t to deny t h a t i t c o n ta in s a g r e a t d e a l o f t r u t h . S h a p iro h im s e lf c l a r i f i e s th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e i i s ta te m e n t l a t e r in th e same e s s a y when he sa y s, On one o th e r o c c a s io n . . . I Jumped on R o b ert G raves f o r j lum ping to g e th e r a l l modern p o e ts and th ro w in g them in to lim b o . . . . T h is was b e fo re I had re a d The W hite God- j I d e s s . . . . G raves h a s a w o rld -v ie w , w hich I s p a r t o f a t r a d i t i o n o ld e r and d e e p e r th a n any t r a d i t i o n em ployed b y th e M o d e rn is ts. . . . (p p . 266- 2 6 7) 1 : jA gain, i t i s d i f f i c u l t to a g re e c o m p le te ly w ith S h a p iro ’ s i 1 ^exuberance. B ut th e r e i s a n o th e r gro u p o f p o e ts w ith a i 4 i t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n to th e m a tte r o f rhythm . The j j 1 n e x t c h a p te r t r i e s to d e l in e a te t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n . \ *^"What is Not P o e try ? " I n D efense o f Ig n o ra n c e , p . 2 6 5. CHAPTER X V THE POETS OF THE N EW PAGANISM The p re v io u s c h a p te r h a s a tte m p te d to exam ine th e p o s l- i tlo n o f th e p o e ts who b e lo n g to '"Hie New P u rita n is m ." T h is c h a p te r w i l l u n d e rta k e to make c l e a r th e p o s i t i o n i n re g a rd l o rhythm and m e tr ic s o f th o s e p o e ts who a r e in c lu d e d In ’"Hie New P aganism ." U iis i s a much more d i f f i c u l t g roup to ; i d e a l w ith , b e c au se p o e ts whose v e rs e i s in c a n ta to r y and p a s - j itlo n a te a re n o t g iv e n to making i n t e l l i g i b l e s ta te m e n ts | ■about how t h a t q u a l i t y i s a c h ie v e d . P o e ts in t h i s g ro u p bend i n g e n e ra l to t a l k i n g e n e r a l i t i e s , o r to ta k e wing in p a s s io n a te f l i g h t s o f fa n c y . T h is s ta te m e n t i s n o t i n - j te n d e d a s a c r i t i c i s m . A c e r t a i n amount o f m yBtery i s a p - | I p r o p r ia te to "p ag an ism ." R a th e r, th e s ta te m e n t i s m erely I I I In te n d e d to e x p la in th e d i f f i c u l t i e s to be e n c o u n te re d i n i * { jiny s e r io u s a tte m p t to exam ine c o ld ly and s c i e n t i f i c a l l y th e d e v ic e s and t h e o r i e s w hich have p ro d u ced th e p e c u l i a r ! q u a l i t i e s o f t h i s p o e tr y . "S ch o o ls" o f p o e ts a re l e s s common in t h i s g e n e ra l c a te g o ry th a n th e y a re i n " Ih e New P u rita n is m ." P o e ts i n j i ;h is g e n e ra l c a te g o ry a re more l i k e l y to be h ig h ly I n d iv id - ; j u a l i s t i c and n o t to a s s o c ia te th e m se lv e s w ith l i t e r a r y move ___________ 80 ; 81 m ents a s su c h . I n s te a d o f ta k in g them by s c h o o ls , th e n , I t w i l l b e n e c e s s a ry to a rra n g e them sim p ly I n te rm s o f Im p o rta n c e . Not o n ly a r e th e p o e ts o f "The New Paganism " I n d iv id u a l i s t i c and I n d e f i n i t e , b u t a ls o th e y a re f r e q u e n tly I n t e n t i o n a l l y o b s c u re . T h is o b s c u r ity h a s c r e a te d g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r c r i t i c s I n th e g e n e ra l e v a lu a tio n o f th e work o f th e s e p o e ts . Commonly, th e s e p o e ts em ploy sym bols o r even w hole sy stem s w hich a r e e n t i r e l y p e r s o n a l, and t h i s p e r s o n a l and h ig h ly s u b je c tiv e q u a l i t y makes o b je c tiv e d i s c u s s io n p r a c t i c a l l y Im p o s s ib le . S t i l l , I t i s th e aim o f t h i s stu d y to a tte m p t some g e n e r a liz a ti o n s ab o u t th e n a tu r e o f th e s t r u c t u r e o f con tem p o rary p o e tr y , and I n o r d e r to do t h a t i t I s n e c e s s a ry to d is c u s s b o th d iv is io n s o f th e new p o e tr y . W herever p o s s i b l e , th e p o e t* s own s ta te m e n ts w i l l b e q u o te d to e s t a b l i s h h i s p o s i t i o n , b u t I n some I n s ta n c e s , b e c a u se o f th e n a tu r e o f th lB g ro u p , c e r t a i n p e rh a p s q u e s tio n a b le e v id e n c e w i l l need to b e s u b m itte d . To b e g in th e d is c u s s io n , i t i s p ro b a b ly b e s t to r e t u r n to th e U n ite d S t a t e s , and to th e m ost Im p o rta n t o f th e A m erican p o e ts i n t h i s g ro u p . Most c r i t i c s Beem to b e i n g e n e r a l ag reem en t t h a t th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t f ig u r e I n th e s e te rm s w ould b e W allace S te v e n s , w ith whom th e d is c u s s io n o f "The New Paganism " w i l l b e g in . To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t, S tev en s i s th e a n t i t h e s i s o f i E l i o t . He i s n o t i n t e r e s t e d in th e s e a rc h f o r myth t h a t i' | c h a r a c te r iz e s th e work o f E l i o t and h i s s c h o o l. S tev en s p ro p o se s t h a t th e p o e t 's im a g in a tio n m ust somehow c r e a te (a "non-geography" in th e m ind. The p o e tic mind m ust in v e n t [its w o rld . He sp o k e, in h i s P rin c e to n l e c t u r e s , o f " th e |acute i n t e l l i g e n c e o f th e im a g in a tio n ," e n a b lin g th e p o e t jto c r e a te th e " u n re a l" o u t o f what i s " r e a l , " endowing ob j e c t s w ith " li g h t" and com prehending " th e o p p o s ite o f chaos i n c h a o s ." For S te v e n s, th e im a g in a tio n i s n o t a r a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y b u t, r a t h e r , ta k e s i t s dom inance i n m usi- i leal form . In d eed h i s p la y w ith w ords i s o f te n a f ig u r e in j .(pure sound. T h is q u a l i t y o f h is work h as le d to c e r t a i n j m is u n d e rsta n d in g s o f w hat he was tr y in g to acco m p lish . j iB a b e tte D e u ts c h , f o r e x a m p le , was l e d o n t h i s b a s i s t o com - J I I p a re him w ith E d ith S itw e ll . I 1 ‘ ; i What may f i r s t s t r i k e th e unaccustom ed r e a d e r in th e e a r l i e r w orks o f such p o e ts as E d ith S itw e ll and W allace S tev en s i s t h e i r u se o f to n e - c o lo r . The r e l a t i o n o f ! co n so n an ts and vow els i s s tu d ie d w ith a c a re t h a t th e y ! show f o r no o th e r elem en t o f th e poem 's te x tu r e . They i have been la r g e ly c o n te n t w ith th e t r a d i t i o n a l m e tre s ‘ and s ta n z a ic form s. The e f f e c t s to be g o t o u t oi; th e m a n ip u la tio n o f sound v a lu e s , how ever, le a d s them f a r from th e a c c e p te d lan g u ag e o f p o e tr y . They w i l l demote I th e p ro s e se n se o f w ords i n th e I n t e r e s t s o f a b s t r a c t sound . 1 There i s no d o u b t t h a t S tev e n s " . . . d is p la y s an a c u te a p - p r e c i a tio n o f a u r a l v a lu e s . . . " (p . 2 4 1 ), b u t i t i s ^ P o e try i n Our Time (Mew Y ork, 1 9 5 2 ), p p . 220-221. 83 e x a c tly t h i s a c u te a p p r e c ia tio n o f th e a u r a l t h a t h a s le d j to a g e n e ra l m isu n d e rsta n d in g o f h is w ork. H is c o n c e rn w ith Bound h a s n o t o n ly le d M iss D eutsch to compare him w ith i E d ith S i t w e l l , b u t a ls o to make c e r t a i n judgm ents co n c e rn - ! Ing h i s c o n c e p t o f m e tric s w hich a re n o t e n t i r e l y J u s t o r c o r r e c t . A lthough he h a n d le s v e r s l l b r e w ith r e q u i s i t e s k i l l , he p r e f e r s t r a d i t i o n a l m e tr i c s , and w hat d is t in g u is h e s h i s v e rs e i s r a t h e r th e f in g e r in g o f th e v o c a b le s , th e c a r e f u l p la c in g o f rhymes and h a l f rhym es, th e I n d iv id u a l tu r n t h a t he g iv e s iam b ic p e n ta m e te r by h i s p h ra s in g . So w e ll d o es he manage h i s d e v ic e s t h a t th e r e a d e r m ust stu d y c a r e f u l l y such a poem a s "Sea S u rfa c e F u ll o f C louds" b e fo re he r e a l i z e s th e v a r io u s ways In w hich . . . th e m a g ic a l r e p e t i t i o n and e q u a lly m a g ic a l changes I n Im agery and a u r a l v a lu e s a r e a l l em ployed to p ro d u ce | an e f f e c t o f so v e re ig n c o n ju r a tio n . . . . (p . 2 5 2 ) In f a c t , i t h a s le d even so a c u te a c r i t i c as Yvor W in ters i i : to make an assu m p tio n a b o u t h i s p ro so d y w hich I s p e rh a p s | a t b e s t an o v e r s im p lif ic a tio n . | 1 i The poem ["Sunday M o rn in g ") c o n s is ts o f e ig h t s ta n z a s > In b la n k v e r s e , each c o n ta in in g f i f t e e n l i n e s , and I t ! p r e s e n ts a c l e a r and f a i r l y c o h e re n t arg u m en t. 2 S tev e n s d o es som etim es u se w hat m ig h t be c a lle d c o n v e n tio n a l; i i m e te rs I n h i s v e r s e , b u t ev en th e n he u s e s them i n somewhat j u n u su a l c o m b in a tio n s, and a lth o u g h th e m e te rs may be co n - j / e n tio n a l, th e co m b in a tio n s a re by no means o r d in a r y . j " P e te r Q uince a t th e C la v ie r" . . . p ro v id e s fo u r k in d s ! o f m elo d ic e f f e c t —th e e r o t i c a l l y c o lo re d o c to s y lla b ic t r i p l e t s o f P a r t I ; th e ev en more se n su o u sly e r o t i c , w av erin g e f f e c t s o f th e v a r ie d , b u t u s u a lly s h o r t e r , i l i n e s and i r r e g u l a r s ta n z a s o f P a r t I I ; th e tr ip p in g c o u p le ts , speeded up by a n a p e s ts , w hich g iv e P a r t I I I i t s : g0n Modern P o e ts (New Y ork, 1959)* p . 11. 84 f l u t t e r i n g fem in in e q u a l i t y ; th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l c a s t o f P a r t IV , w ith I t s lo n g e r l i n e s and calm er e f f e c t s . P ie s e e f f e c t s a lo n e w ould g iv e th e poem g r e a t a p p e a l s in c e th e y a re woven to g e th e r In g e n io u s ly , each s e c tio n h av in g c e r t a i n e c h o ln g s o f th e o t h e r s , a l l b u ild in g up I n a t r u l y ; m u sic a l se q u en ce .3 I jA ctu ally , th e p ro so d y em ployed b y S tev en s I s much more com p le x th a n th e s e o b s e rv a tio n s would le a d one to s u s p e c t. H is jsty le I s h ig h ly d ev elo p ed and h ig h ly r h e t o r i c a l . I S te v e n s 1 p o e try I s d is tin g u is h e d by a m a ste ry o f two q u a l i t i e s I n w hich he rem ain s la r g e ly u n r iv a lle d among j h i s c o n te m p o ra rie s — th e r ic h n e s s o f h i s Im agery and th e s u s ta in e d a u t h o r ity o f h i s r h e t o r i c . P ie two e lem e n ts | a re m u tu a lly , d ep e n d en t; one s u p p o rts and s u b s ta n c e s th e H is form , a s a r e s u l t I s h ig h ly o r i g i n a l . i P ie form he [S te v e n s] u se d I s a s much hlB own and a s ad e- ! q u a te , aB th e form o f P a r a d is e _ L o st I s M ilto n * s o r th e form o f P ie W aste Land i s E l i o t 's . And as M ilto n * s form f i l l e d th e s e n s i b i l i t y o f one a s p e c t o f h i s ag e, Mr. j Stevens* form f i t s p a r t o f th e s e n s i b i l i t y — a p a r t w hich I E l i o t o r Pound o r YeatB do l i t t l e to to u c h —o f o u r own I a g e .5 S tev e n s s a y B t h a t th e Im a g in a tio n m ust c r e a te a "Su preme F ic tio n " w hich m ust be a b s t r a c t , w hich m ust ch an g e, i i and w hich m ust g iv e p le a s u r e . Im a g in a tio n , he s a y s , I s th e I j 1 s a t i s f a c t i o n o f th e m ind. i ! P ie c e n t r a l poem i s th e poem o f th e whole P ie poem o f th e c o m p o sitio n o f th e w hole, ^M. L. R o s e n th a l, P ie Modern P o e ts ; A C r i t i c a l I n t r o d u c tio n (New Y ork, 1 9 6 0 ), p . l£ 6 . S fo rto n Z a b e l, "W allace S tev e n s and th e Image o f Man," ,Pie H arvard A dvocate (1 9 4 0 ), p . 137. I ^R. P. B lackm ur, "Exam ples o f W allace S te v e n s ," Form and V alue In Modern P o e try (New Y ork, 1957)# p . 211, 85 The c o m p o sitio n o f b lu e s e a and o f g re e n , Of b lu e l i g h t and o f g re e n , as le s B e r poems, And the miraculous m ultiplex o f le s s e r poemB, Not m ere ly in to a w hole, b u t a poem o f Hie w hole, th e e s s e n t i a l com pact o f th e p a r t s ,g Hie ro u n d n e ss t h a t p u l l s t i g h t th e f a t a l r i n g . i jEhe im a g in a tio n i s an o rg a n by w hich i t i s p o s s ib le to ac h iev e th o s e suprem e f i c t i o n s n e c e s s a ry to c le a n s e ro m an tic k e s l r e s . S tev e n s r e p u d ia te s th e ro m an tic ism i n sym bolic j a r t . B ut th e g r e a t problem w ith S tev e n s was to know w ith what to r e p la c e th e mere o b j e c t . 1 1 . . . f o r S te v e n s th e c o n c re te o b je c t i s mere p ro v o c a tio n f o r m u sic. . . ." ^ He | i jfound, however, that the im agination must prey upon ob jects j b u t f i n a l l y r e le a s e i t s e l f from them i n to p u re f i c t i o n s . | ! One i s o f te n tem pted to say o f S te v e n s t h a t he i s o u r j p u r e s t ex p o n en t o f "p u re p o e tr y ." B ut one m ust b e v e ry c a r e f u l n o t to be m isu n d e rsto o d . He i s c e r t a i n l y n o t a ! r e a l i s t i n any l i t e r a r y s e n s e , though i t i s c l e a r enough t h a t he w i l l adm it th e o b je c tiv e r e a l i t y o f th e o u ts id e w orld to anyone who w i l l ad m it w ith him th e s u b je c tiv e i r e a l i t y o f o u r c o n s c io u s n e s s . He do es n o t l i v e i n any | f a m il ia r w o rld . . . . He does n o t f e a t u r e c i t i e s o r ma- I ch in eb o r slu m s. He d o es n o t w r ite poems ab o u t p e o p le i o r re n d e r t h e i r speech w ith m e tic u lo u s f a i t h f u l n e s s . He | i s n o t a m o r a li s t, and h e makes no pro p ag an d a f o r p o l i t l - j c a l o r s o c i a l d o c t r in e s . . . Hie f i c t i o n , th e n , i s im p e rs o n a l, g e t t i n g a t r e a l i t y w ith - l u t ro m an tic g e s tu r e s . To g e t a t th e th in g as id e a 1 b what S tev en s c a lle d " P r o je c tio n C," th e t r a j e c t o r y o f th e ^W allace S te v e n s . "A P rim itiv e L ik e an O rb," C o lle c te d Poems (New Y ork, 195^)> P- ^ 0 . ^D eutBch, P o e try i n Our Time, p . 95. ^ Jo sep h W arren B each, O b sessiv e Im ages (New Y ork, jl9 6 0) , p . 2 1 1 . 86 mind tow ard r e a l i t y . TSie f i c t i o n i s i n t e l l e c t u a l w ith o u t 'b ein g l o g i c a l . I t i s a "poem o f th e m in d ," im posing i t s o r d e r , i t s d e s ig n , on th e w o rld o f th in g s , w hich a ls o have !t h e i r own t e x t u r e s . i The poem o f th e mind i n th e a c t o f fin d in g What w i l l s u f f i c e . I t h a s n o t alw ays had ] To f in d : th e sc en e was s e t ; i t r e p e a te d w hat j Was i n th e s c r i p t , i Then th e t h e a t r e was changed To som ething e l s e . I t s p a s t was a s o u v e n ir. I t h a s to be l i v i n g , to le a r n th e sp eech o f th e p la c e . I t h as to fa c e th e men o f th e tim e and to m eet The women o f th e tim e . I t h a s to th in k ab o u t war And i t h a s to f in d w hat w i l l s u f f i c e . I t h as To c o n s tr u c t a new s ta g e . I t h a s to b e on t h a t s ta g e And, l i k e an I n s a t i a b l e a c t o r , slo w ly and W ith m e d ita tio n , sp eak w ords t h a t i n th e e a r , I n th e d e l i c a t e e a r o f th e m ind, r e p e a t , Q E x a c tly , t h a t w hich I t w ants to h e a r . . , j ! Stevens* e x p la n a tio n s o f h i s own work a r e so v e ile d t h a t he | ■has b een accu sed o f b e in g co y . Many o f th e c l e a r e s t e x p la n a ti o n s a re h id d e n i n poems, f o r S te v e n s was n o t a | i '" c r i t i c " In th e se n se t h a t th e p o e ts d is c u s s e d In th e l a s t 1 ! 1 i ; 'c h a p te r a re c r i t i c s . I t was Naum Oabo who w ro te t h a t i ! . . w h atev er e x i s t s i n n a tu r e , e x i s t s i n u s i n th e form I 1A I 'o f o u r aw aren ess o f I t s e x i s te n c e ." l h i s , th e mind i n |th e a c t o f fin d in g i t s e l f i n a w orld o f th in g s , i s th e theme o f much o f StevenB* w ork. Now i t i s tr u e t h a t theme ^ S te v e n s, "Of Modern P o e try ," C o lle c te d Poems, p . 239. 10"A rt and S c ie n c e ," q u o te d i n Qyorgy K epes, The New L andscape (New Y ork, 1 9 5 6 ;, P . ^ 3 . 87 i s n o t th e co n cern o f t h i s s tu d y , b u t i n S tev en s theme i s i so c e n t r a l t h a t n o th in g may be d is c u s s e d w ith o u t an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h a t them e. j . . . P o e try i s a p a r t o f th e s tr u c t u r e o f r e a l i t y . . . . The s tr u c t u r e o f p o e try and th e s tr u c t u r e o f r e a l i t y a re one o r , i n e f f e c t , . . . p o e try and r e a l i t y a re o n e, o r sh o u ld b e . 11 As h a s b een p o in te d o u t, S tev en s was concerned w ith th e 'm a n ip u la tio n o f sound v a lu e s , and t h i s m a n ip u la tio n h a s had an im p o rta n t e f f e c t on h is c o n c e p ts o f p ro so d y . I t i s r e a l l y w ith th e m usic o f p o e try t h a t he was co n cern ed . S t i l l a n o th e r mode o f an alo g y i s to be found i n th e m usic o f p o e try . I t i s a b i t o ld h a t and ro m an tic and, no ! doubt a t a l l , th e d a te d form s a re i n t o l e r a b l e . In r e c e n t y e a r s , p o e try began to change c h a r a c te r about th e tim e when p a in tin g began to change c h a r a c te r . . Each l o s t a c e r t a i n e u p h ra sy . B u t, a f t e r a l l , th e m usic o f p o e try has n o t come to an en d . . . . [Today] i t c o n ta in s rhym es a t ! i r r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s and i t 1b I n te n s e ly cad en ced . B ut j y e s te r d a y , o r th e day b e f o r e , th e tim e from w hich th e u se I o f th e word "m usic1 1 i n r e l a t i o n to p o e try h as come down j to u s , m usic m eant som ething e l s e . I t meant m e tr ic a l p o e try w ith r e g u la r rhyme schem es re p e a te d s ta n z a a f t e r I s ta n z a . A ll o f th e s ta n z a s were a lik e i n form . As a i r e s u l t o f t h i s , w hat w ith th e r e p e t i t i o n s o f th e b e a ts i o f th e l i n e s , and th e c o n s ta n t and r e c u r r in g harm onious ' so u n d s, th e re a c tu a l ly was a m u sic. B ut w ith th e d is a p - i p e a ra n ce o f a l l t h i s , th e u se o f th e word "m usic" i n r e - j l a t i o n to p o e try i s as I s a id a moment ago a b i t o ld j h a t . . . . I t i s sim ply t h a t th e r e h as been a change in j th e n a tu re o f what we mean by m u sic. . . . I n s te a d o f a m u sicia n we have an o r a to r whose speech som etim es r e sem bles m u sic . 12 11W allace S te v e n s, "T hree Academic P ie c e s : I , " The N ecessary Angel (New Y ork, 1951)$ p . 8 1 . 12S te v e n s, " E f fe c ts o f A nalogy," The N ecessary A ngel. i ip. 124-126. The word an alo g y I s u se d in a s p e c ia l se n se h e r e . S tev en s e x p la in s t h a t , "commonly, an alo g y i s a term ; !in lo g ic . Susan S teb b in g In h e r Logic i n P r a c tic e s a y s : 8 8 Not o n ly was he o b v io u s ly co n cern ed w ith th e m usic o f po- i e t r y , b u t he was a ls o co n cern ed d e e p ly w ith la n g u a g e , w ith th e w ords t h a t make p o s s ib le n o t o n ly th e m usic b u t th e se n se o f p o e try . I do n o t know o f a n y th in g t h a t w ill ap p e ar to have s u f f e r e d more from th e p a ssa g e o f tim e th a n th e muBic o f p o e try and t h a t h a s s u f f e r e d l e s s . The d eep en in g need f o r w ords to e x p re s s o u r th o u g h ts and f e e lin g s w hich, we a re s u r e , a re a l l th e t r u t h t h a t we s h a l l e v e r e x p e rie n c e , h av in g no i l l u s i o n s , makes u s l i s t e n to w ords when we h e a r them , lo v in g them and f e e l in g them , makes u s s e a rc h th e sound o f them , f o r a f i n a l i t y , a p e r f e c t io n , an u n a l t e r a b l e v i b r a ti o n , w hich i t i s o n ly w ith in th e power o f th e a c u te s t p o e t to g iv e them . Those o f u s who may have been th in k in g o f th e p a th o f p o e tr y , th o se who u n d e rs ta n d j t h a t words a re th o u g h ts and n o t o n ly o u r own th o u g h ts b u t th e th o u g h ts o f men and women ig n o r a n t o f w hat i t i s t h a t th e y sire th in k in g , m ust be c o n s c io u s o f t h i s : t h a t , above e v e ry th in g e l s e , p o e try i s w ords; and t h a t w ords, above | e v e ry th in g e l s e , a r e , i n p o e tr y , s o u n d s .!3 T h is co n cern w ith lan g u ag e le d him to B e v eral c o n c lu s io n s j i jabout th e a u r a l e f f e c t s o f la n g u ag e. I The in d iv id u a l d i a l e c t o f a p o e t who happens to have o n e, | an alo g o u s to th e sp eech common to h i s tim e and p la c e and i y e t n o t t h a t common sp e e c h , i s in th e same p o s it io n as 'I n f e r e n c e by an alo g y c o n s i s t s i n r e f e r r i n g t h a t , s in c e two c a s e s a re a l i k e i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s , th e y w i l l a ls o be a - l i k e i n some o th e r r e s p e c t . F o r exam ple, s in c e Mars r e sem bles th e E a rth i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s , we i n f e r t h a t Mars a ls o i s in h a b ite d . T h is may b e a v e ry r i s k y in f e r e n c e , f o r Mars d i f f e r s from th e E a rth i n some r e s p e c t s , and th e s e d i f f e re n c e s may be r e l e v a n t to th e p r o p e r ty o f b e in g i n h a b i t e d .' Now we a r e n o t th in k in g , h e r e , o f an a lo g y i n t h i s narrow s e n s e . W e a r e th in k in g o f i t a s lik e n e s s , a s resem b lan ce betw een p a r a l l e l s o n ly i n th e im a g in a tio n , and we a r e th in k in g o f i t i n i t s r e l a t i o n to p o e tr y . F in a lly we a r e th in k in g o f i t from th e p o in t o f view o f th e e f f e c t j i t p ro d u c e s ." (p . 1 1 0 ) i j •^Stevens, "H ie N oble R id e r and the Sound o f W ords," The N ecessary A ngel, p . 32. 8 9 th e lan g u ag e o f p o e try g e n e r a lly when th e language o f po e t r y g e n e r a lly I s n o t th e common sp eech . Both p roduce I e f f e c t s s in g u l a r to a n a lo g y . 14 t The a u r a l e f f e c t s o f lan g u ag e co n cern n o t o n ly th e in d iv i d u a l , b u t a ls o th e e r a , th e s o c ie ty , th e c u ltu r e a s w e ll. j I A v a r i a t i o n betw een th e sound o f w ords I s one age and j th e sound o f w ords In a n o th e r age I s an I n s ta n c e o f th e I p r e s s u r e o f r e a l i t y . . . . The p r e s s u re o f r e a l i t y I s , I th in k , th e d e te rm in in g f a c t o r in th e a r t i s t i c c h a r a c te r I o f an e r a an d , a s w e ll, th e d e te rm in in g f a c t o r i n th e a r t i s t i c c h a r a c te r o f an i n d i v i d u a l .1? P a r t i c u l a r l y th e l a t e r work o f S te v e n s h as d em o n strated th e s e c o n c e rn s . I n f a c t , R. P. Blackm ur h a s made a number o f o b s e rv a tio n s w hich seem q u ite v a l i d in t h i s r e g a r d . Looking a t th e l a t e poems o f W allace S tev e n s , . . th e fo llo w in g o b s e rv a tio n s seem p l a u s ib le . • . . This i s a j p o e try w hich p u r p o r ts to w ear a p ro s e s y n ta x . I f you w r ite y o u r v e rs e w ith a p ro s e s y n ta x , th e s ta te m e n t i t - I s e l f m ust have a fo rc e o f p h ra s in g ( in th e m u sic a l se n se ) beyond th e s y n ta x . The l i n e - s t r u c t u r e m ust g u id e , and conform t o , th e movement o f p h r a s e . T h is i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y sound r u l e I f i t happens t h a t y o u r lin e a v e ra g e s I th e norm o f b la n k v e r s e . F or b la n k v e rs e to be a s w e ll- w r i tte n a s p ro se i t m ust be v ery d i f f e r e n t from p ro s e ; j p r e c i s e ly i n th e p h r a s in g . 16 * |Tb a c e r t a i n e x t e n t, S te v e n s ’ co n c ern has been w ith th e t compounding o f th e l i t e r a r y lan g u ag e w ith th e v e r n a c u la r , b u t a t th e same tim e , i t h a s been w ith th e c r e a tio n o f j som ething d i f f e r e n t . Two exam ples from th e p o e try may d e m o n stra te th e s e two d iv e r s e e le m e n ts . The f i r s t is s ^ " E f f e c t o f A nalogy," p . 1 23. Note th e same u se o f 1 th e word an a lo g y a s e x p la in e d in f n . 12. ^ " T h e Noble R id e r and th e Sound o f W ords," p p . 13, 2 3 . • I ^ " O n H e rb e rt Read and W allace S te v e n s ," Form and V alue ; ( i n Modern P o etry .,- pp-._220-2 2 1 .. _ _ _ ----------------------- i 90 The poem go es from th e p o e t 's g ib b e ris h to th e G ib b e rish o f th e v u lg a te and back a g a in . . . I s th e re a poem t h a t n ev e r re a c h e s words 17 And one t h a t c h a f f e r s th e tim e away? . . . ' t I t i s th e g ib b e ris h o f th e v u lg a te t h a t he s e e k s . Rie i second q u o ta tio n i s : I I s th e fu n c tio n o f th e p o e t h e re m ere sound, S u b tle r th a n th e o r n a te s t p ro p h ecy , ! To s t u f f th e e a r? . . . But l e t th e p o e t on h is b alco n y j Speak and th e s le e p e r s in t h e i r s le e p s h a l l move, ! Waken, and w atch th e m o o n lig h t on t h e i r f l o o r s . ! T h is may be b e n e d ic tio n , s e p u lc h e r, ! And e p ita p h . I t may, how ever, be I An in c a n ta tio n t h a t th e moon d e f in e s By mere exam ple o p u le n tly c l e a r . 18 S te v e n s, th e n , o c c a s io n a lly u se s c o n v e n tio n a l m e te rs , i b u t when he does he m ixes them in m ost u n c o n v e n tio n a l p a t - i jte rn s and c o m b in atio n s. More commonly, he w r ite s in a rhythm w hich c o n s c io u s ly a tte m p ts to approxim ate p ro s e , d i f f e r in g from i t la r g e ly i n p h ra s in g . H is g r e a t e s t co n cern ! i s w ith th e m usic o f p o e tr y , and t h i s he t r i e s to e x p re s s n o t o n ly th ro u g h m etaphor and th ro u g h a somewhat te c h n ic a l i I v o c a b u la ry , b u t th ro u g h an a tte m p t to c r e a te a p o e try w hich can be in t e r p r e t e d n o t by a m u sicia n b u t by " . . . a n o r a t o r whose speech som etim es rese m b les m u sic," The e f f e c t i s e n t i r e l y n o v e l. U ndoubtedly, o th e r p o e ts have a tte m p te d to im ita te S te v e n s, b u t he was p ro b a b ly th e f i r s t American i i ^ " N o te s Toward a Supreme F ic tio n ," C o lle c te d Poems. ; p . 3 8 0 . ^ "A cad em ic D isco u rse a t H avana," C o lle c te d Poems, p . 142. 91 p o e t to c r e a te an e n t i r e l y new p ro s o d ic e f f e c t . Uie n o v e lty o f i t d id co n fu se some o f h i s c r i t i c s , f o r i t i s u n q u e s tio n a b ly a c o n fu s io n and an o v e r s im p lif ic a tio n to say t h a t he em ployed c o n v e n tio n a l m e te rs . | M arianne Moore i s o f te n com pared w ith S te v e n s i n term s i o f te c h n iq u e , and s h e , th e r e f o r e , i s l o g i c a l l y n e x t to be c o n s id e re d . By way o f r e t r o g r e s s i o n , and i n a s e n se sum m ary, a lo n g comment by B enjam in H ru sh o v sk i i s i n s e r t e d h e re ;o c l e a r up any a m b ig u itie s ab o u t rhythm t h a t may have iir is e n . G e n e ra tio n s o f p o e ts e v id e n c e th e c e n t r a l , p o e tr y - m aking, s ig n if ic a n c e o f rhythm . I t i s an i l l u s i o n t h a t p o e tic lan g u ag e a lo n e --m e ta p h o ric , am biguous, o r o th e r w ise —w ith o u t i t s p e c u l i a r rh y th m ic em bodim ent In th e s t r u c t u r e o f a poem, can a c c o u n t f o r th e se m a n tic o r " o n to l o g ic a l1 ' s p e c if ic n e s s o f p o e tr y . The q u e s tio n i s how to t r a n s l a t e th e f e e l i n g s o f p o e ts and c r i t i c s i n to p r e c i s e , m a n y -sid ed , and d i s t in g u is h a b le o b s e r v a tio n s . When so s u b tle a c r i t i c a s R. B lackm ur f e e l s t h a t " . . . i t i s when w ords s in g t h a t th e y g iv e t h a t a b s o lu te moving a t t e n t i o n w hich i s beyond t h e i r p ro s e p o w ers"; t h a t " S ty le i s th e q u a l i t y o f th e a c t o f p e r c e p tio n b u t i t i s m ere p la y and c a n n o t move u s much u n le s s m a rrie d i n rhythm to | th e u rg e n cy o f th e th in g p e rc e iv e d " ; when he Ju d g es a c - l c o rd in g to th e s e p r i n c i p l e s , s a y in g , f o r exam ple, ab o u t W allace S te v e n s and M arianne Moore (a s com pared to Y e a ts , E l i o t , and F ound), t h a t "none o f them c o u ld e v e r so p en e t r a t e e i t h e r t h e i r p ro so d y o r t h e i r w ords t h a t t h e i r poems become t h e i r own m usic o r t h e i r own m ean in g ," s in c e " i t i s by p ro so d y a lo n e —by th e lo v in g c a re f o r th e m o tio n o f m eaning i n la n g u a g e — t h a t a p o e t may p ro v e t h a t he 'w as b le s s e d and c o u ld b l e s s , 1" he h i t s a t th e c e n t r a l p o in t o f o u r p ro b lem , a lth o u g h he doeB n o t s u p p o rt h i s m eta p h o ric s ta te m e n ts by th e k in d o f c o n c re te a n a ly s is he em ploys i n th e c a s e o f p o e tic la n g u a g e . I f m etaphor 1 b " in e v i t a b l e i n p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m , " we have to adm it a ls o t h a t i t I s d i f f e r e n t from m etap h o r i n p o e tr y , a t l e a s t i n i t s o b je c tiv e o f co n v ey in g a lesB r e l a t i v e o r d e r o f t r u t h . And I n t h i s o b je c ti v e I t muBt b a s e i t s e l f on a body o f c a r e f u l l y a n a ly z e d fa c tB w ith in th e s t r u c t u r e s o f poem s, w hich a re r e s p o n s ib le f o r th e 92 i gamut o f d i f f e r e n t rh y th m ic a l im p acts and fu n c tio n s in i p o e try , even when we f e e l t h a t a m ere d e s c r ip tio n o f a j s t r u c t u r e does n o t convey th e u n iq u e im p act o f an i n - | d iv id u a l poem .19 These comments may h e lp to j u s t i f y , a t l e a s t to a c e r t a i n je x ten t, th e academ ic f a l l a c y o f w orking from th e p o e ts to phe poems. More im p o rta n tly , a t t h i s p o in t, i s th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t Blackm ur i s m istak e n in h i s Judgm ent, and in f a c t t h a t th e ch arg e he le v e ls f a l l s a t th e door o f Pound and E l i o t r a t h e r th a n a t th e door o f S tev en s and Moore. A num ber o f c r i t i c s h a v e s a i d t h a t MIsb Moore i s n o t a p o e t a t a l l , t h a t sh e i s m e re ly a n a r r a n g e r o f p r o s e . I i W illia m K. W im s a tt, J r . , i n an o r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f m e t r i c s , i s ta te d a n o th e r common m isc o n c e p tio n . Now t h i n k i n g o f th e p o e t r y o f M a ria n n e M oore: t h i s seem s t o me m e t r i c a l o n ly i n t h a t t h e r e i s an a p p ro x im a te c o u n t o f s y l l a b l e s , t h a t i s w h ere h e r m e te r i s , a n d i t com es o f f b e c a u s e sh e s t u d i o u s l y d i s r u p t s i t b y en ja m b m e n t, c u r i o u s en ja m b m e n t, l a r g e l y o c u l a r . 20 On F ree Rhythms in Modern P o e try ," S ty le in Language, e d . Tftomas A. Sebeok (New Y ork, i 9 6 0 ) , p p . 17^-175. Wie q u o ta tio n s a t t r i b u t e d to R. P. Blackm ur a re from "L ord Tennyson*s S c is s o r s ," Form and V alue i n Modern P o e try , pp. 371, 383. E, S ta lg e r . G ru n d b e rg rlffe d e r P o e t l k (Z u ric h . 1951)* P . 16, how ever, a s s e r t s t h a t a l y r i c poem i s an ab s o lu te u n ity o f th e m eaning o f th e w ords and t h e i r so u n d s. He does n o t s p e c if y how th e r e a d e r may know when such a u n ity e x i s t s and when i t does n o t. W. K ayser, Das S p rach - llc h e K unstw erk. 2nd e d . (B ern, 1951)* P . 262 w r ite s : " E s is t 8ch#n h e u te n ic h ts s a g e n d , e ln e n Rhythmus le d l g l lc h a ls o sch o n , angenehm, k r a f t i g , w eich , m arkant und w le auch immer zu b e z e ic h n e n , ohne d a s s man d ie o b je k tiv e n Gegeben- j h e ite n e r f a s s t und d a r B t e l l t ." i 20l,Comments to P a r t F iv e [ M e t r i c s ] ," S t y l e i n L an g u a g e , j p . 205. 93 M r .W im s a tt w ould g r a n t M iss Moore c r e d i t a s a good p o e t, i b u t he d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o u n d e r s ta n d o n w h at b a s i s s h e i s a good p o e t . E ven R. P . B lack m u r h a s c a l l e d h e r p o e tr y l ['h e ig h te n e d s p e e c h ." B u t, l i k e S te v e n s , sh e i s much m ore ! com plex th a n t h e s e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s w ould le a d one t o b e l i e v e . T h e re i s a s u r f a c e b r i l l i a n c e i n h e r p o e t r y w hich i h a s c r e a t e d d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r r e a d e r s and c r i t i c s a l i k e . L ik e S te v e n s , sh e i s e x p e r im e n tin g w ith th e rh y th m s o f i p r o s e to a r r i v e a t a new and s p e c i a l k in d o f p o e t i c m u s ic . t I I n a n I n t r o d u c t i o n to h e r S e l e c te d Poem s, T. S . E l i o t I re m a rk e d t h a t ". . . many o f th e poem s a r e i n e x a c t , and so m e tim e s c o m p lic a te d fo rm a l p a t t e r n s , an d move w ith th e i 21 e le g a n c e o f a m in u e t." * E l i o t s p e a k s o f h e r s e r v i c e to I t jbhe l i v i n g la n g u a g e i n m a in ta in in g i t s s t r e n g t h an d s u b t l e t y an d i n p r e s e r v i n g i t s q u a l i t y o f f r e s h n e s s ; h e s p e a k s o f h e r i a p p r e c i a t i o n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l w o rd , o f h e r s u c c e s s i n j s t a r t l i n g h e r r e a d e r s i n t o an u n u s u a l a w a re n e s s o f v i s u a l j i i p a t t e r n s . He a l s o p o i n t s o u t two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h e r i j w o rk — h e r l a c k o f p o e t i c "m u sic" b e c a u s e h e r rh y th m s a r e b a s i c a l l y th e rh y th m s o f good p r o s e , and h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l d e ta c h m e n t. W hat E l i o t h a s s a i d a p p e a rs e n t i r e l y a c c u r a t e . En th e poem "The M onkeys" f o r e x a m p le , o n e d i s c o v e r s t h a t t h e c o m p o s itio n i s o r g a n iz e d a c c o r d in g to a r i g i d s y l l a b i c a s w e l l a s a rhym ed p a t t e r n . The f i r s t l i n e o f e a c h s t a n z a ; i i ! 2 1 (New Y o rk , 193 5 ), i v . 94 c o n ta in s f i f t e e n s y l l a b l e s , and th e second s ix te e n ; th e |t h i r d l i n e s h av e t e n and th e l a s t , w ith which th e y b a la n c e , te n ; and th e f i f t h l i n e s , e x c e p t I n th e t h i r d s ta n z a (w ith t h i r t e e n s y l l a b l e s ) a l l have f i f t e e n s y l l a b l e s . In "Cam el l i a S a b in a ," a g a in , one can o b se rv e th e s u b tle lacew ork o f ! sound, rhym e, and rh y th m . C a m e llia S a b in a w ith a m a n ita -w h ite p e t a l s ; th e r e a re s e v e r a l o f h e r p a le p in w h e e ls , and p a le s t r i p e t h a t lo o k s as I f on a mushroom the s l i v e r from a b e e t - r o o t ca rv e d i n to a ro s e w ere la i d . 'D ry th e w indow s w ith a c lo th fa s te n e d to a s t a f f . I n th e c a m e llla -h o u s e th e r e m ust be no smoke from t h e s to v e , o r dew on th e w indow s, l e s t th e p la n ts a l l , ' th e am ateu r I s t o l d ; 22 'm is ta k e s a r e I r r e p a r a b le and n o th in g w i l l a v a i l . ' L ike a l l th e o t h e r s ta n z a s o f t h i s poem, th e s ta n z a b e g in n in g " p a le p in w h e e ls . . . " form s an o rd e re d sequence o f t h r e e - l i n e u n i t s . The f i r s t u n i t expands In le n g th w ith each l i n e . H ie se c o n d u n i t c o n tr a c ts th e l i n e le n g th s l i g h t l y , and th e t h i r d c o n t r a c ts s h a rp ly and th e n expands a g a in . M. L. R o s e n th a l p o in ts o u t t h a t : t h i s d e s ig n p e r m its th e h a n d lin g o f th e c o llo q u ia l and i n t e l l e c t u a l m a t e r i a l s i n a fo rm a lly s tr u c te d way t h a t a llo w s f o r c o n t in u ity and e a s e from s ta n z a to s ta n z a , and w ith in s t a n z a s , w ith o u t becom ing too lo o s e . Ihe p a in s t h a t go i n t o m a in ta in in g such a p a t t e r n In s ta n z a s o f some le n g th a r e o b v io u s ly v e ry g r e a t and demand a v i r t u o s o ' b a lm o s t com pulsive p r id e o f c ra fts m a n s h ip . The rhym es to o m a in ta in a c e r t a i n o rd e r, u n o b tru s iv e a s th e y a r e . M iss Moore em ploys e x a c t rhymes ( 'p a l e , ' 'a l l , * ' a v a i l ' ) , i n e x a c t rhym es ( f o r in s ta n c e , 'd r y ' and 'b e ' — 22C o lle c te d Poems (New Y ork, 1951)* P* 2 2 . th e o p e n vow elB o f w h ic h , a s I n A n g lo -S a x o n v e r s e , a r e f e l t t o m atch o n e a n o th e r I n th e k i n d o f so u n d t h e y m a k e ), an d l i g h t rh y m es ( t h e m a tc h in g o f s t r e s s e d a n d u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s , a s I n 'b e * an d 't h e ' ) * A l a r g e num ber o f l ' s i a r e w o rk e d I n t o th e e n t i r e p a s s a g e , a s o f t e n a s p o s s i b l e co m b in ed w ith a ' s a n d e ' s ( 'p a l e p l n w h e e l s , ' 'l a i d , * e t c . ) b u t n o t so o f t e n a s t o w e ig h to o h e a v i l y o n t h e g e n e r a l m o v em en t.23 The above s ta n z a a ls o d e m o n stra te s a n o th e r o f Miss M oore's c o n tr ib u tio n s to th e la n g u a g e : h e r u s e o f s in g le q u o ta tio n m arks. (See f o r exam ple th e l i n e s on p . 94 a b o v e .) Be s id e s th e norm al u s e s to d eterm in e q u o ta tio n o r to in d ic a t e iro n y , th e y a re u se d a s b o u n d a rie s f o r u n i t s o f a s s o c ia tio n which c a n n o t be e x p re s s e d by grammar o r s y n ta x . They a r e u s e d so m e tim e s to im p a le t h e i r c o n t e n t s f o r c l o s e e x a m in a tio n , so m e tim e s to t a k e t h e i r c o n t e n t s a s i n a p a i r o f to n g s f o r g i n g e r l y o r d e r i s i v e i n s p e c t i o n , so m e tim e s t o g a in t h e I s o l a t i o n o f s u p e r i o r i t y o r v i c e v e r s a — i n s h o r t f o r a l l t h e v a l u e s o f s e t t i n g m a t t e r o f f , w h e th e r i n e u lo g y o r d e n i g r a t i o n . As t h e s e a r e none o f th em a r b i t r a r y b u t a r e a l l e x t e n s i o n s a n d r e f i n e m e n ts o f t h e common u s e s , t h e r e a d e r w i l l f i n d h i m s e l f c a r r i e d a lo n g , a s b y rh y m e, t o f u l l a p p r e c i a t i o n . 2^ ^The Modern P o e ts , p . 242. Much o f w hat R o se n th a l say s ab o u t rhyme in th e above q u o ta tio n i s s u s p e c t and p e rh a p s 'g e n e ra liz e d . Blackm ur sp eak s more to th e p o in t when he w r ite s , " in th e s ta n z a from "The H e ro ' [ c ite d in th e t e x t ] th e re i s th e paradigm f o r a rhym e-sound r e f r a i n w hich th e w ell-m em oried e a r can c a tc h . The f i r s t and la B t two l in e s o f t h i s and e v e ry o th e r s ta n z a rhyme on th e sound o f long ' o , ' some l i g h t and some h eav y . I t i s a q u e s tio n w h eth er d e v ic e s o f t h i s o rd e r i n t e g r a l l y a f f e c t th e poem i n w hich th e y o c c u r. I f th e y do a f f e c t i t , i t must b e in a m anner t h a t can n e i t h e r be named n o r u n d e rs to o d . . . . I t i s enough f o r a p p r e c ia tio n t h a t t h i s exam ple sh o u ld s e t up . . . a p a r a l l e l m usic to th e s t r i c t m usic o f th e poem . . . . " [In f lf te Method o f M arianne M oore," Form and V alu e o f Modern Po e t r y . p . 244.1 B ut ev en Blackm ur i s n o t a s s p e c i n c a s one co u ld w ish . [See a ls o E liz a b e th Drew, D ir e c tio n i n Modern | P o e try (New Y ork, 1 9 4 0 ), p . 2 3 3 .] P. B la c k m u r, "The Meth o d o f M a ria n n e M o o re ," p . 227.’ 9 6 . B a b e tte D eutsch w r ite s t h a t M bs M oore's l . . . m e tric I s p r e c i s e - - i t h a s been compared to a m in- j u e t — and h a s e le g a n c e , even when h e r s u b je c t m a tte r i s an i e le p h a n t o r a s te a m r o lle r . Her rhymes a re p a r t o f a d e s ig n t h a t does n o t alw ays conform to th e m eaning o f h e r s ta te m e n ts .25 *. P. Blackm ur h a s a s s e r te d t h a t no poem o f h e r s i s " . . . e n t i r e l y f a i t h f u l to th e sim p le q u a t r a in , h e r o ic , o r c o u p le t s t r u c t u r e . . . ." F u rth e r on i n th e same p a ra g ra p h he goes on to sa y , what m ust be remembered i s t h a t anyone can a rra n g e s y l l a b le s , th e th in g i s to a rra n g e s y l l a b l e s a t th e same tim e you w rite a poem, and to a rra n g e them a s M iss Moore d o es, on fo u r o r f iv e d i f f e r e n t p la n e s a t o n c e . 26 R a n d a ll J a r r e l l , in an e s s a y e n t i t l e d "Her S h ie ld ," la s c a te g o r ic a lly s ta te d t h a t " . . . M iss Moore h as d i s covered b o th a new s o r t o f s u b je c t . . . and a new s o r t o f c o n n e c tio n and s tr u c tu r e f o r i t , so t h a t she h a s w idened th e scope o f p o e tr y ." In th e same s e l e c t i o n , he h a s p o in te d o u t what i t i s ab o u t h e r v e rs e t h a t makes h e r so d i f f i c u l t to ■read. • I M iss M oore's p ro se -se e m in g , m a tte r o f f a c t l y rhythm ed s y ll a b ic v e r s e , th e odd lo o k m ost o f h e r poems have on th e page ( t h e i r u n u su a l s ta n z a lc p a t t e r n s , t h e i r words d iv id e d a t th e ends o f l i n e s , g iv in g many o f them a con s c io u s ly , som etim es m is le a d in g ly e x p e rim e n ta l o r m odern i s t lo o k ), t h e i r alm o st o s t e n ta t io u s la c k o f t r a n s i t i o n s and e x p la n a tio n s , th e ab sen ce o f rom ance and r h e t o r i c , o f a c c e p te d ly P o e tic a i r s and p r o p e r t i e s , d id m ost to keep c o n s e rv a tiv e r e a d e r s from l ik i n g h e r p o e t r y .2 ' 2^P o e try in Our Time, p . 92. 26"The Method o f M arianne M oore," p . 2^5. i p * 7 L ' P o e try and th e Age (New Y o rk ,.1 9 5 5 ) , P P .. 168-16 9 . 97 J a r r e l l I n s i s t s on th e p r o s e - l i k e q u a l i t y o f h e r v e r s e , and h e c o n s i d e r s i t to b e o n e o f t h e f a c t o r s w h ich i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h e r e x c e l l e n c e a s a p o e t . He c o n s i d e r s h e r to b e o n e o f t h e m o st I m p o r ta n t and o n e o f t h e f i n e s t p o e t s o f t h e c e n t u r y . H er p o e t r y , n o t s a t i s f i e d w ith th e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f v e r s e , haB a d d e d t o th em th o s e o f p r o s e . H e r poem s h a v e th e v i r t u e s - - f o r m , c o n c e n t r a t i o n , e m o tio n , o b s e r v a t i o n , im ag i n a t i o n , a n d so o n - - t h a t o n e e x p e c tB o f p o e t r y ; b u t o n e a l s o f i n d s i n th em , i n s u p e r s a t u r a t e d s o l u t i o n , some o f th e v i r t u e s o f g o o d p r o s e . 2° I n a n o t e w r i t t e n s p e c i a l l y f o r The O x fo rd A n th o lo g y o f A m erican L i t e r a t u r e . M iss M oore e x p la in e d h e r own p o s i t i o n i n r e f e r e n c e t o h e r m e t r i c s and p r o s o d y . I t e n d to w r i t e i n a p a t t e r n e d a rra n g e m e n t, w ith rh y m e s; s t a n z a a s i t f o llo w s s t a n z a b e in g I d e n t i c a l i n num ber o f s y l l a b l e s an d rh y m e - p la n , w ith th e f i r s t s t a n z a . (R e g a r d in g t h e s t a n z a a s a u n i t , r a t h e r th a n th e l i n e , 1 so m e tim es d i v i d e a w ord a t t h e en d o f a l i n e , r e l y i n g o n a g e n e r a l s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d n e s s o f t r e a tm e n t to c o u n t e r a c t t h e m an n e red e f f e c t . ) I h a v e a l i k i n g f o r th e lo n g s y l l a b l e fo llo w e d b y t h r e e ( o r m o re) s h o r t s y l l a b l e s , " l y i n g on t h e a i r t h e r e i s a b i r d , " an d f o r t h e I n c o n s p ic u o u s o r ! l i g h t r h y m e ,— " l e t " i n f l a g e o l e t , f o r I n s t a n c e , b e in g j rhym ed w ith " s e t " i n t h e l i n e s , " I tB l e a p s h o u ld b e s e t / t o , th e f l a g e o l e t . " I t r y t o s e c u r e an e f f e c t o f f lo w in g c o n t i n u i t y an d am m ore an d m ore Im p re s s e d b y t h e c o r r e s - ; p o n d e n c e s b e tw e e n v e r s e an d i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s ic . I am ' a g a i n s t t h e s t o c k p h ra B e an d a n e a s i e r uBe o f w o rd s i n . v e r s e th a n w o u ld b e t o l e r a t e d i n p r o s e . I f e e l t h a t t h e | fo rm i s t h e o u tw a rd e q u i v a l e n t o f a d e te r m in in g i n n e r j c o n v i c t i o n , an d t h a t t h e rh y th m i s t h e p e r s o n .2 9 j T h u s, M iss M oore a c c e n tB d e l i c a c y o f c a d e n c e an d n e a t n e s s j i of finish with a n emphasiB on the precision and patina of i I j 2®"The Humble A n im a l," P o e tr y and t h e Age, p p . 162- 1 6 3. 1 2 ^ E d . B e n n e t an d P e a rs o n (O x fo rd , i 9 6 0) , I I , 1319. 98 la n g u a g e r a t h e r t h a n o n i t s s u g g e s t i v e n e s s . L ik e S te v e n s , s h e commonly w r i t e s i n a rh y th m w h ic h c o n s c i o u s ly a tt e m p t s | t o a p p ro x im a te p r o s e , d i f f e r i n g fro m i t l a r g e l y i n p h r a s i n g . i i }She to o i s an " o r a t o r w hose s p e e c h so m e tim e s r e s e m b le s m u s ic ." And w h a t sh e h a s c r e a t e d i s e n t i r e l y n o v e l, U ie n o v e lt y o f h e r w ork c o n fu s e d h e r c r i t i c s , J u s t a s th e n o v e l t y o f S te v e n s ' w ork c o n fu s e d h i s , f o r i t i s s u r e l y i n a c c u r a t e to m a i n t a i n t h a t s h e i s n o t a p o e t a t a l l . A n o th e r p o e t who seem s to b e lo n g to t h i s g ro u p i s W illia m C a r lo s W illia m s . " W illia m s s h a r e s w ith M a rian n e C o o re a n d W a lla c e S te v e n s a f e e l i n g t h a t a lm o s t n o th in g i s ^ o re i m p o r t a n t , m ore o f a t r u e d e l i g h t , th a n t h e way t h i n g s l o o k . H e i s a n o th e r o n e w hose q u e s t a f t e r so m e th in g new i n p ro s o d y h a s l e d t o h i s b e in g m is u n d e r s to o d b y h i s c r i t i c a l , B e c a u se o f h i s e a r l y a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th em , h e h a s o f t e n t £ e e n c o u p le d w ith t h e I m a g i s t s . B a b e tte D e u tsc h c la im s t h a t ■ * ^ 1 h e h a s re m a in e d t r u e to t h e t e n e t s o f t h e g r o u p .- 1 B u t n e a r l y e v e ry o n e r e c o g n i z e s h i s c o n c e rn w ith p r o s e rh y th m , w ith t h e c l i p p e d s p e e c h rh y th m s w h ic h h a v e becom e h i s t r a d e m ark . 1 * H is s t a c c a t o rh y th m s a r e th o s e o f A m erican s p e e c h . . . . [H e] b e l i e v e s t h a t th e p o e t 's Jo b i s to p e r f e c t th e ^ R a n d a l l J a r r e l l , "An I n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e S e l e c te d toem s o f W illia m C a r lo s W illia m s ," P o e tr y an d t h e Age. o p . 216-217. ^ P o e try i n Our Time, p . 84 99 la n g u a g e so a s to make I t e x p r e s s h i s own tim e , an d h o ld s I t h i s t o b e a s e x a c t i n g , a s s i g n i f i c a n t , a s a n y t a s k o f i s c i e n c e , ( p p . 9 9 -1 0 0 ; ;In h i s a t t e m p t , h e h a s a t tim e s gone to o f a r I n s t r i p p i n g h i s poem s; so f a r t h a t W a lla c e S te v e n s o n c e c a l l e d h im " a k in d o f D io g e n e s o f c o n te m p o ra ry p o e t r y . " B u t h i s c o n c e rn h a s a lw a y s b e e n w ith t h e la n g u a g e . D r. W illia m s , la m e n tin g th o s e who d i e In co m m u n icad o , e i t h e r b e c a u s e " t h e k n o w le d g e a b le i d i o t s " o f th e u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e r e d u c e d la n g u a g e t o s a p l e s s a b s t r a c t i o n , o r b e c a u s e common s p e e c h h a s b e e n so d e b a s e d t h a t th e u n l e a r n e d a r e i n a r t i c u l a t e , c r i e s o u ts " t h e la n g u a g e , th e j la n g u a g e ." ( p . 105) K a r l S h a p ir o , i n an e s s a y e n t i t l e d "The T ru e C ontem - I p o r a r y , " h a s w r i t t e n t h a t " h i s k in d o f poem may b e th e c h i e f j d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e A m erican poem s i n c e L e a v e s o f G r a s s . j j W illia m s may n o t b e t h a t I m p o r ta n t a p o e t , b u t t h e r e i s no d p u b t t h a t W illia m s h a s h a d an im p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e i n e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r s e i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . He h a s a t h e o r y o f [la n g u a g e w h ic h h e r e f e r s t o a s h i s " p r o s o d y ," and t h i s p ro s -, o d y i s c e n t r a l to h i s own p o e t i c c r e a t i o n ; I t I s n e c e s s a r y | t o ex am in e i t c a r e f u l l y . A t f i r s t g l a n c e , h i s re m a rk s j i a b o u t p o e t i c fo rm seem s u p e r f i c i a l . 'H iis d i f f i c u l t y i s i n | i p a r t c r e a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t W illia m s d o e s n o t c h o o s e to u s e t h e s t a n d a r d te r m in o lo g y o f c r i t i c i s m . As a r e s u l t he i s so m e tim e s o n ly h a l f i n t e l l i g i b l e a t b e s t . By p r o s o d y , . i W illia m s d o e s n o t m ean , e x a c t l y , v e r s i f i c a t i o n . I f o n e j ^ JameB E . M i l l e r , J r . , K a r l S h a p ir o , an d B e r n ic e S lo te ,; S t a r t W ith t h e S u n : S t u d i e s i n CoBmic P o e tr y ( L in c o ln , N e b r a s k a , _ I9 b 0 ; , p , 2 1 4 ___ __________ ____________ 100 exam ines h i s rem ark s ab o u t w hat h e c a l l s " th e l i n e , " I t b e comes a p p a re n t t h a t he n e i t h e r p r a c t i c e s n o r expounds s y l - 1 l a b i c p ro so d y , m e tr ic s , a c c e n tu a l p ro so d y , n o r w hat h as been .termed th e s y l l a b ic v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f M arianne M oore, n o r th e " s p a t i a l , " o r " ty p o g ra p h ic a l" form s o f a p o e t l i k e e e summings. He does n o t a p p e a r to b a s e h is v e r s i f i c a t i o n on rhyme n o r on th e i n t e r n a l f ig u r e s which rhyme may p ro d u c e , jas H opkins d o e s . S h ap iro makes an i n t e r e s t i n g c o n t r a s t b e tw een W illiam s on th e one h an d , and Pound and E l i o t on th e o th e r . T5ie p ro so d y o f Pound i s b ased on cadence w hich r u n s c lo s e j to fo o t p ro so d y — an im i ta tio n o f Homeric and E n g lis h t r y - i s y l l a b i c . E l i o t 's p ro so d y i s e x tre m e ly c o n s e r v a tiv e , ' e i t h e r a copy o f L a fo rg u e , a t i t s most d a r in g , o r o f M il- | t o n 's Samson A g o n lste s, . . . and i t d e g e n e ra te s e a s i l y i n t o m o d ifie d " ia m b ic ," W illia m s 1 p ro so d y i s m ore ad - 1 vanced th a n any o f th e s e : i t c o n s c io u s ly d e p a r ts from e v e ry in to n a tio n o f th e p a s t . ( p . 211) W illia m s 1 l i n e i s n o t a fo rm a lly p ro s o d ic l i n e a t a l l . She i ! .word p r o s o d y f o r W illla m B a p p e a r s t o be o n l y a m e ta p h o r f o r ; th e whole c o n te x t o f th e poem. He m a in ta in s t h a t iam bic v e rs e i s n o t a lan g u ag e f o r th e A m erican p o e t. Our lan g u ag e i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s b ein g somewhat anony m ous, i t s d e s ig n a tio n a s " E n g lis h " in common p a rla n c e b u t e s p e c i a l l y i n o u r u n i v e r s i t i e s , i s m is le a d in g . P o e try b e in g p u r e ly a m a tte r o f form , i t would b e w e ll fo rm a lly to d e s ig n a te w hat la n g u ag e we a r e u s in g f o r i t h e r e . . • . H aving surm ounted t h a t d i f f i c u l t y we must n e x t l i s t e n to th e la n g u ag e i n o rd e r to d is c o v e r what fo rm a l e le m e n ts i n i t a r e s u i t a b l e to o u r p u rp o s e s . I n v e n tio n would seem to b e th e n e x t s te p . Many a tte m p ts w i l l b e made b e f o r e o u r in v e n tio n s w i l l b e f r u i t f u l . F in a lly som ething w orthy o f o u r la n g u a g e , o u r h i s t o r y and o u r s e lv e s may em erge. I n th e in te r im e v e ry a v a ila b le i re s o u r c e open to u s m ust be i n v e s t i g a t e d — even th o s e e le m e n ts , t r a d i t i o n a l to E n g lis h , which i n th e p a s t have 1 0 1 I m ost le d u s a s t r a y . Am erican p o e ts s in c e Whitman h av e, l g e n e r a lly sp e a k in g , r e t r e a t e d s t e a d i l y from h i s advanced i p o s i t i o n . I t I s to b e hoped t h a t w ith a b e t t e r u n d e r- i s ta n d in g o f o u r p o s it io n and o p p o r tu n iti e s we may do I b e t t e r .33 i I n s p i t e o f h i s c l e a r d e c la r a t io n to t h i s e f f e c t , so a s t u t e a c r i t i c a s R. P. B lackm ur I s a b le to say t h a t h i s poem 'H ie A, B, and C o f I t " I s a r e g u la r poem. I t may b e o b se rv e d . . . t h a t to th e accustom ed e a r W il lia m s ' . . . l i n e s te n d to re a r r a n g e th e m se lv e s a s th r e e Iam bic p e n ta m e te rs , w ith th e second and t h i r d rhym ing.3 ^ 3ut th e l i n e s do n o t r e a r r a n g e th e m s e lv e s . They a re what bhey a r e . P erh ap s a good p o in t to b e g in w ith in o r d e r to come to : i an u n d e rs ta n d in g o f W illiam s* c o n c e p t o f p ro so d y i n h i s co n -| i ! jbempt f o r th e s o n n e t. The v i r t u e o f th e s o n n e t, sa y s W il- i jliam s, I s t h a t i t p r e s c r ib e s a k in d o f s y llo g is m . A so n n e t i n i t s s im p le s t form makes a s ta te m e n t, d e v e lo p s o r con t r a d i c t s I t , th e n r e s o lv e s i t . H iis i s a game, W illiam s i j seems to r e s e n t th e game and th e n e a tn e s s o f th e form . The i i i so n n e t l i n e b u ild s up to a t h r u s t , and t h i s I s a t r i c k o r a j j i fo rm a l e x e r c is e . A poem, a c c o rd in g to W illia m s, sh o u ld r e - j m ain o p en . A ll th e a p p u rte n a n c e s o f th e c lo s e d poem, e s - ! o e c i a l l y th e s ta n z a , w ere r e j e c t e d by W illia m s. Rhyme I t - 3^a s p e c ia l s ta te m e n t p re p a re d by W illiam s f o r in c lu s io n In Modern Poet r y ; A m erican and B r i t i s h , e d . Kimon F r i a r and ' Malcolm B rln n in (New $Tork, 1951 J, p . *5^5. 3^»N otes on Seven P o e ts , 1 1 Form and V alue i n Modern Po e t r y , p . 327 . 10 2 s e l f seems to him m e r e tr ic io u s . When he u s e s i t , i t i s > w ith a s l u r . The poem m ust n o t be g o v ern ed , W illiam s m ain- i 't a i n s , by m e te rs , n o r by p e r io d s , n o r by s ta n z a s , n o r by f ig u r e s o f s p e e c h .^ As R a n d a ll J a r r e l l p o in ts o u t, W illiam s re se m b le s Whitman r a t h e r c l o s e ly . One h as ab o u t him th e am used, a d m irin g , and a f f e c t i o n a t e c e r t a i n t y t h a t one h a s ab o u t W hitman: W hy , h e 'd say any th in g —c r e d i t a b l e o r d i s c r e d i t a b l e , sa y a o le o r u n s a y a b le , so lo n g a s he b e lie v e s i t . . . . There a r e c o n tin u a lly a p p a re n t i n W illiam s t h a t d e lic a c y and s u b t l e ty w hich a re som etim es so e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y p r e s e n t, and som etim es so e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y a b s e n t, I n Whitman; and th e h a l r - r a l s l n g o r i g i n a l i t y o f some o f Whitman*s lan g u ag e i s a n o th e r bond ! betw een th e tw o. . . .36 i He re se m b le s Whitman to o in th e s t r u c t u r e o f h i s l i n e , even though he say s t h a t he h a s r e j e c t e d W hitm an's l i n e . 3? W il lia m s grew up i n a p e rio d when Whitman p ro b a b ly seemed i n - l o r r i g i b l y n in e te e n th c e n tu ry and E m ersonian. W illiam s m issed th e le s s o n o f Whitman and s t a r t e d o v e r a g a in f o r him - l js e lf , r e j e c t i n g m e te rs , fo rm s, d e c o r a tio n s . "No id e a s b u t jl.n th in g s ," he w ro te . He became an o b J e c t l v l 3t , b u t he 3-*In a stu d y o f th e p h o n o lo g ic a l a s p e c ts o f s t y l e , D e ll i. Ifymes d is c o v e re d , w h ile c o n d u c tin g an a n a ly s is o f th e p o e try o f W illia m s, t h a t h i s a n a ly s is " . . . d ire c tB a t t e n t i o n to th e u n o b tru s iv e s k i l l and p a t t e r n by w hich W illiam s composes a 'm ach in e made o f w o rd s' b u t does n o t p o in t to pummative o r key w o rd s." "P h o n o lo g ic a l A sp ects o f S ty le : Some E n g lis h S o n n e ts ," S ty le i n Language, p . 127. ^ " A n I n tr o d u c tio n to th e S e le c te d Poems o f W illiam S a rlo s W illia m s ," p p . 216, 221. ^ W illia m s a p p e a rs to u s e th e word l i n e i n b o th a m e tr ic a l and a l i n g u i s t i c se n se a t th e same tim e . 103 l a t e r d ro p p e d t h e s e a r c h f o r o b j e c t s i n s t e a d o f t h o u g h t s , j u s t a s h e d ro p p e d t h e i d e a o f th e a n t i p o e t i c , T h is i s t h e ‘p o i n t a t w h ic h h e p a r t e d com pany w i t h t h e I m a g i s t s . Tfrese ihe c o n s i d e r e d t o b e h a rm f u l o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s . i j As f o r W illia m s ' v e r s i f i c a t i o n , i t g o e s e n t i r e l y b y ! e a r , a n d l u c k i l y f o r him h e h a s a good e a r m o st o f t h e | tim e . I t i s n o t c a d e n c e d , n o t a c c e n t u a l i z e d , n o t s y l l a b i f i e d , n o t m e te r e d . I t may o r may n o t h a v e a " t y p o g r a p h i c a l ” fo rm : so m e tim e s i t h a s , so m e tim e s i t h a s n 't , i F o r c e r t a i n p e r i o d s W illia m s p r i n t e d i n " c o u p l e t s " ; a t o t h e r tim e s i n t e r c e t s ; h e i s n o t a v e r s e to t h e s i n g l e ! w ord p e r l i n e n o r t h e lo n g l i n e . G e n e r a ll y . . . h e a c - i com m odates t h e " l i n e " . . . to t h e s e n s e o f t h e w h o le j poem . T hus h e i s d o in g a p p r o x im a te ly w h a t H o p k in s d id ! i n s p ru n g rh y th m , c r e a t i n g a t o t a l fo rm r a t h e r th a n a I u n i t f o r m .38 I I The s e c r e t o f t h a t fo rm , W illia m s e x p l a i n s , i s to make : I p o e t r y n a t u r a l , n o t l i t e r a r y ; i t i s th e e r a d i c a t i o n o f th e I j i I l i n e b e tw e e n p o e t r y an d p r o s e , b e tw e e n l i f e a n d a r t . E l i o t i c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to w h a t h e I d e n t i f i e s a s an a r t e m o tio n , a n j |e m o tio n r e s e r v e d f o r t h e m om ents w hen o n e t u r n s on t h e a e s - ; t h e t i c f a u c e t , a s i t w e re . I t i s p r e c i s e l y t h i s a t t i t u d e ' ‘to w a rd p o e t r y t h a t W illia m s condem ns and a v o id s . A t t h e p r e s e n t , a t th e e n d o f h i s lo n g s t r u g g l e w ith ] p r o s o d y , W illia m s t u r n s to s o m e th in g v e r y l i k e a "fo rm " j b u t so lo o s e t h a t o n e c a n h a r d l y c a l l i t a fo rm . P e r h a p s i t b e g a n w ith an a d m i r a t i o n o f a l i t t l e q u a t r a i n b y B y ro n V a z a k a s . . . . W illia m s h i t u p o n a s te p -d o w n k in d o f ty p o g r a p h y w h ic h h e h a s u s e d c o n s t a n t l y i n r e c e n t y e a r s . B u t i t i s n o t a b e - a l l a n d e n d - a l l ; h e may d ro p i t a n y tim e h e l i k e s . . . . T h is s t y l e d i f f e r s fro m W illia m s ' e a r l i e r s t y l e o n l y i n t h a t i t a p p e a r s to c o n - ! fo rm to a c e r t a i n r e g u l a r i t y . B u t t h e r e i s n o n e . . . . (P . 214) 3 K arl S h a p iro , "The True C o n tem p o rary ," p . 213 ~ 104 R. P. B lackm ur, w ritin g o f W illia m s’ p ro so d y , sa y s: I Dr. W illiam s w r ite s e x c lu s iv e ly i n f re e v e rs e o f an e x tr a - j o r d i n a r i l y s o lid and f l e x i b l e s p e c ie s . F u rth e r he d e- ! s p ls e s t r a d i t i o n a l E n g lish m e te rs; th e so n n e t he th in k s i good o n ly f o r d o g g e re l. . . . The d ep th and r ig h tn e s s o f h i s i n s t i n c t f o r h im s e lf i s shown by th e m astery i n a t l e a s t tw enty poems o f v a ry in g le n g th o f a form ad eq u ate in e v e ry r e s p e c t to h i s p o e tic purpose,39 Yvor W in ters says t h a t t h i s form i s a fre e v e rs e form , t h a t | ilQ i t s c a n s , t h a t i t h a s o u te r r u l e s and an in n e r scheme. R andall J a r r e l l , sp eak in g o f W illia m s’ poems, sa y s: . . . th e rhythm s and dynam ics o f t h e i r speech a re b ein g i n s i s t e d upon a s th e y co u ld n o t be i n any p ro s e . I t i s t h i s in s i s te n c e upon dynam ics th a t i s fundam ental i n W illiam s* re a d in g o f h is own poems: th e l i s t e n e r r e a l i z e s w ith a s to n is h e d Joy t h a t he i s h e a rin g a method o f re a d in g p o e try t h a t i s b o th e x c e ll e n t—f o r th e se p a r tic u - j l a r poems— and co m p letely u n lik e a n y th in g he has e v e r h e a rd b e f o r e . . . . No one h as w r itte n more accom plished ! f r e e v e r s e .41 j W illiam s o f te n demands th e c r e a tio n o f a new language th a t American p o e ts can w rite i n , one t h a t w ill r e a d ily e x p re s s {America. He i s a lre a d y w ritin g In i t , b u t a t th e same tim e , he r e f u s e s to im prove th e lan g u ag e, and t h i s i s th e ex p la n a - i Lion o f h i s f l a t n e s s o f s t y l e . He w r i te s , a s i t w ere, in l i s sp e ak in g v o ic e , and i n th e spoken lan g u ag e. I n P rim itiv is m and D ecadence. W illiam s h im s e lf i s quoted as sa y in g : 39"John W heelw right and Dr. W illia m s," Form and V alue in flodern P o e try , p . 320. ^°Kenyon Review (Ja n u a ry , 1939)# I# 187# I n tro d u c tio n to th e S e le c te d Poems," p . 224. 105 A poem I s a sm a ll (o r la r g e ) m achine made o f w ords. : When I say t h e r e 's n o th in g s e n tim e n ta l ab o u t a poem I | mean t h a t th e r e can b e no p a r t , as In any o th e r m achine, t h a t I s re d u n d a n t. . . . I t s movement I s I n t r i n s i c , u n - d u la n t, a p h y s ic a l more th a n a l i t e r a r y c h a r a c te r . T h ere fo re ea ch sp eech h a v in g i t s own c h a r a c te r , th e p o e try I t e n g e n d ers w i l l be p e c u lia r to th a t sp e e c h a ls o In I t s I n t r i n s i c form . Hie e f f e c t i s b e a u ty , w hat in a s in g le o b j e c t r e s o lv e s o u r com plex f e e lin g s o f p r o p r i e t y . . . . When a man makes a poem, m akes i t , m ind you, h e ta k e s words a s he f in d s them i n t e r r e l a t e d a b o u t him and com p o ses them —w ith o u t d i s t o r t i o n which w ould mar t h e i r e x a c t s ig n i f ic a n c e s — in to an in te n s e e x p re s s io n o f h i s p e rc e p t io n s and a rd o rs t h a t th e y may c o n s t it u t e a r e v e l a t i o n i n th e Bpeech t h a t he u s e s . I t i s n ' t w hat he s a y s t h a t c o u n ts a s a work o f a r t , i t ' s what he m akes, w ith such i n t e n s i t y o f p e r c e p tio n t h a t i t liveB w ith an i n t r i n s i c movement o f i t s own to v e r i f y i t s a u t h e n t i c i t y . 42 Somewhat l a t e r , i n I W anted to W rite a Poem, he e x p la in s h i s an tag o n ism f o r E l i o t : j I ; j I had a v i o l e n t f e e l i n g t h a t E l i o t had b e tra y e d w hat I b e lie v e d i n . He was lo o k in g backw ard; I was lo o k in g f o r w ard. He was a c o n fo rm is t, w ith w it, le a r n in g t h a t I d id n o t p o s s e s s . . . . B u t I f e l t he had r e j e c t e d A m erica and I r e f u s e d to b e r e j e c t e d . . . . I r e a l i z e d th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y I m ust a c c e p t. I knew he would in f lu e n c e a l l su b se q u e n t Am erican p o e ts and ta k e them o u t o f my s p h e re . I had e n v isa g e d a new form o f p o e tic - c o m p o s itio n , a form f o r th e f u t u r e . I t was a sh o ck to me t h a t he was so trem en d o u sly s u c c e s s f u l. . . .4 3 W illiam s r e j e c t e d f r e e v e rs e a t th e same tim e t h a t he r e - ! jje c ted m e tered v e r s e . He th e n c o n fe s s e s t h a t " . . . th e g r e a t e s t problem was t h a t I d i d n 't know how to d iv id e a poem in to w hat p e rh a p s my l y r i c a l sense w an te d ." P a te rs o n seemed to be th e an sw er. In i t he p e r s o n if ie s a c i ty and I l o i (New Y ork, 1 9 3 7 ), PP. 7 7 -7 8 . ^ E d . E d ith H eal (B o sto n , 195 8 ), p . 7 0 . The same id e a nad e s s e n t i a l l y been s t a t e d e a r l i e r in W illiam C a rlo s W il lia m s, A utobiography (New Y ork, 1951), P P . 146, 150, 106 fo llo w s I t s r i v e r down to th e s e a . The r e a l s u b je c t o f i 'P a te rso n i s : How can one t e l l th e t r u t h ab o u t th in g s ? O r, I i n o th e r w ords, how can one f in d a lan g u ag e so c lo s e to th e i w orld t h a t th e w orld can be r e p r e s e n te d and u n d e rs to o d i n i t ? I n t h i s poem, W illia m s i n s e r t s docum entary p ro s e in to th e flo w o f th e p o e try , th e re b y c r e a tin g a c o m p le te ly form l e s s form . I n P a te rs o n Two he h i t upon th e step -d o w n form i n which a l l h i s su b se q u en t poems a re w r i t t e n . T h is i s what he now r e f e r s to a s th e " v a r ia b le f o o t." What th e n i s th e "proBody" o f th e W illiam s poem? I f we can b e lie v e t h a t e v e ry good poem e v e r w r i t te n i n form i s good d e s p ite th e form , and t h a t e v e ry fo rm le s s ( f r e e v e rs e ) poem t h a t su cceed ed h a s su cceed ed d e s p ite i t s fo rm le s s n e s s , th e n we w i l l be g e t t i n g c lo s e to th e Id e a j o f W illiam s* form . I t i s th e p u r e s t th e o ry o f p o e try I | have e v e r h e a rd o f and I ta k e i t to be th e id e a o f a l l p o e ts f f o r m a lis ts o r v e r s l i b r l s t s . For m e te r h a s n o th in g to do w ith i t ; m e ter i s an a f t e r e f f e c t . . . . S tr u c tu r e h a s n o th in g to do w ith i t : you ca n n o t remove th e p a r t s from th e w hole; o r r a t h e r you ca n n o t fin d th e | s t r u c t u r e . . . . ; I am n o t s u re I u n d e rs ta n d a l l t h i s . . . . B ut I know in my bones i t i s r i g h t . I t i s n o t th e o ry ; I t I s th e la b o rio u s e x p la n a tio n o f an a r t i s t stam m ering o u t th e i j re a s o n s why h i s poem came o u t th e way i t d id . Each poem j i s I t s own form , a s i t m ust b e . The poem i s u n iq u e and I I u n r e p e a ta b le : i t I s when you r e p e a t t h a t form a r is e s ^ f o r form i s i m i t a t i o n . . . .44 i W ritin g o f W illia m s, R a n d a ll J a r r e l l sa y s t h a t e x p e r i- t m e n ta tio n in v e rs e i s more common and more r a d i c a l among Am erican p o e ts th a n I t i s among B r i t i s h p o e t s . B ut he goes on to sa y t h a t . . . no one b u t an a n tiq u a r ia n lo n g in g f o r th e e x p e r i- | m en talism o f th e day s o f th e f i r s t W orld War would j ^ S h a p i r o , p p . 223.-224._ com p lain t h a t Am erican p o e try i s n ' t modern enough; and j o u r p o e try h a s b een so A m erican, f o r so long now, t h a t ! E n g lis h c r i t i c s and r e a d e r s re g a rd i t alm o st a s a f o re ig n j p o e try i n a f o r e ig n la n g u a g e , and r e g r e t i t s in f lu e n c e ! on t h e i r ow n.^5 ! C e r ta in ly th e r e have been i n r e c e n t y e a rs a g roup o f B r i t i s h p o e ts a s much co n cern ed w ith v e rs e e x p e rim e n ta tio n a s thoBe ! jAmerican p o e ts d is c u s s e d ab o v e. P ro b ab ly th e b e s t known p o e t o f th e h ig h ly e x p e rim e n ta l group i s Dylan Thomas, and j it i s p e rh a p s m ost l o g i c a l to b e g in w ith him , f o r a lth o u g h th e s e B r i t i s h p o e ts do n o t b elo n g to a p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l, t h e i r e x p e rim e n ta tio n does i n a sen se l i n k them . Thomas, though c e r t a i n l y n o t th e e a r l i e s t o f th e e x p e rim e n ta l p o e ts , h a s p ro b a b ly a c h ie v e d th e w id e s t c r i t i c a l a t t e n t i o n . H e rb e rt Read, re v ie w in g Thomas' poems, w ro te , " th e s e poems ca n n o t be rev ie w e d ; th e y can o n ly be a c c la im e d ." iThis comment h a s s e t th e to n e f o r much o f th e su b se q u en t i ic r ltic is m o f th e w orks o f D ylan Thomas. Two s c h o o ls o f ! ic r lt ic i s m have em erged; one w hich fo llo w s S ir H e r b e r t's t jle a d , and one w hich damns Thomas. The tra g e d y l i e s i n th e I f a c t t h a t b o th sc h o o ls have a p p a re n tly a g ree d n o t to a n a l yze th e poem s, b u t m erely to e i t h e r a c c la im o r damn. To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , th e problem was c r e a te d by Thomas h im s e lf , f o r h i s p o e try i s u n d o u b te d ly o b sc u re i n m eaning and g iv e s th e im p re s s io n o f b e in g co n fu sed in s t y l e . Some o f th e t r u t h , how ever, can be d is c o v e re d . ^ " T h e S itu a t io n o f a P o e t," P o e try and th e Age, p . 244. 108 For one th in g , Thomas h as much i n common w ith Whitman. On th e w a lls o f h is stu d y a t L augharne, Thomas ta c k e d up a hg l a r g e p h o to g rap h o f W alt Whitman. Hie re a s o n s f o r th e p h o to g rap h a re many, b u t b a s i c a l l y , Whitman and Thomas I p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e same p o e tic t r a d i t i o n . In an a r t i c l e J e n title d "Whitman and Thomas," B e rn ic e S lo te and James E. M ille r , J r . , p o in t o u t t h a t | . . . when one re a d s b o th [Whitman and Thomas] a l t e r n a t e l y i he i s s tr u c k in n u m erab le tim es w ith th e B ta r tlin g s im ila r - | i t y o f in d iv id u a l l i n e s and p a s s a g e s .47 A ccording to th e s e two c r i t i c s , Thomas i s c l e a r l y a t home in th e movement o f modern E n g lish p o e try tow ard s y n t a c t i c a l : i i ,'d is in te g r a tio n . 1 : i Thomas r e l i e s p r im a r ily on th e c o n n o ta tiv e o r s u g g e s tiv e I q u a l ity o f w ords and l i t t l e on th e d e n o ta tiv e m eanings i d e riv e d from p ro p e r placem en t in th e o rd e r o f th e se n - | te n c e . B ut Thomas, li k e W alt Whitman b e fo re him , a c h ie v e s j u n iq u e e f f e c t s by v i o la tin g th e law s and b u r s tin g th e ! bonds o f la n g u a g e . Thomas and Whitman, th ro u g h t h e i r seem ingly " c a r e le s s " o r " fre n z ie d " e r u p tio n in w ords, j a c h ie v e t h a t q u a l i t y o f b a rd ic c h a n t w hich i s p e c u lia r to i ! b o th and w hich c o n s t i t u t e s a s i g n i f i c a n t elem en t i n th e t r a d i t i o n o f w hich th e y a re a p a r t . . . . T here 1b d i s r u p tio n o f sy n ta x i n Whitman and Thomas, n o t b ecau se th e y a re Ig n o ra n t o f lan g u ag e o r c a r e le s s o f i t s u s e , b u t b e - i cau se th ro u g h a " c o n tr o lle d abandon" th e y a c h ie v e p r e - j c iB e ly th e " p r im itiv e " e f f e c t s th e y d e s i r e . . . . Both ! Whitman and Thomas rem ind u s t h a t p o e try needB to be h e a rd to be f u l l y a p p r e c ia te d . . . . (p p . 179- 1 8 0) h g S lo te and M ille r , "Of Monkeys, Nudes, and th e Good Gray P o e t," S t a r t W ith th e Sun, p . 1 6 9. See a ls o John Mal colm B rin n in , "D ylan ‘ Thomas I n W ales," A tla n tic M onthly. 1 9 6 :3 7 -4 4 , O ctober 1955, and B i l l Read, "A V iB it to Laugh- a r n e ." A r e v is e d t r a n s c r i p t o f a r a d io b ro a d c a s t o v er B oston U n iv e r s it y 's s t a t i o n W BUR, in O ctober 1957, r e p r in te d in A Casebook on D ylan Thomas, ed . John Malcolm B rin n in i (New Y ork, 19&0), p . 2 7 0. ^ S t a r t W ith th e Sun, p . 171. ; ........... 109 G i l b e r t H ig h e t a ls o c o n s id e rs t h i s p o in t Im p o rta n t. !"D ylan Thom as i s a sin g in g p o e t. H is poems a re a l l l y r - !ics . . . a r r a n g e d in a complex p a t t e r n lik e a c h o ra l dance /.o :or th e p a r t s o f a n i n t r i c a t e a n tip h o n a l c h o r u s .u S lo te and M i l l e r b e l i e v e t h a t th iB p e c u lia r q u a l ity i n b o th p o e ts , |th o u g h i t may b e d i f f i c u l t to d e fin e o r e x p la in , s e rv e s to I ip ro v id e t h e b a s i c re a s o n f o r th e p o p u la r ity o f b o th . ” . • . H ie rh y th m ic p u ls e , th e b e a t o r th ro b w hich i s so e a s i l y r e c o g n i z a b l e in th e l i n e s o f b o th Thomas and W hit man, i s i t s e l f a r e p e t i t i o n o f th e h y p n o tic , p r im itiv e d an ce w h ic h m akes man a p a r t i c i p a n t in th e e le m e n ta l r i t e s " (p . 1 9 0 ) . S e c o n d ly , Thomas h as much in common w ith G erard Manley H o p k in s . D y la n Thomas i s th e o n ly p o e t I have y e t re a d who h as | l e a r n t i n any m e n tlo n a b le d e g re e , b o th from th e manner an d t h e m a tte r o f G erard Manley HopkinB, how to ta c k le j h i s own in d e p e n d e n t te c h n ic a l and s p i r i t u a l p ro b le m s .^9 i jHenry T r e e c e h a s n o t b een th e o n ly c r i t i c to p o in t o u t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een Thomas and H opkins. F ra n c is S c a rfe , i jw r ltin g a s e a r l y a s 19^0, when Thomas was c o n sid e re d o n ly a p r o m is in g young p o e t, p o in te d o u t th a t t e c h n i c a l l y , D ylan Thomas h as ac h iev e d n o th in g new. H is a l l i t e r a t i v e an d in v e n tiv e t r i c k s a re a s o ld a s p o e try . * * ^ T h e Pow ers o f P o e try (New Y ork, i 9 6 0) , p . 153. ^ H e n r y T re e c e , How I See A p o lcaly p se (London, 19^6 ), jp. 1 3 2 . 1 1 0 H is p e rs o n a l rhythm s a re n o t u n u su a l when com pared w ith i th o se o f H o p k in s.50 i B ut S c a rfe go es on to s t a t e t h a t Thomas I s th e ’’m ost m odern” 1 o f th e young p o e ts th e n w r i tin g . He b a s e s t h i s Judgment on th e fo llo w in g c r i t e r i a : H is o u ts ta n d in g m e r it, when compared w ith o th e r young p o e t s , i s h is r i c h v o c a b u la ry , h i s s e n s u a l a p p r e c ia tio n o f 1 w ords, h i s in te n s e p e r s u a s iv e idiom w hich r e v e a ls him a s one who i s re a c h in g to w ard s a l l t h a t i s m ost l i v i n g in o u r la n g u a g e . In t h a t r e s p e c t he i s an an ach ro n ism , f o r he h as n o t abandoned th e w e a lth o f th e p a s t f o r th e some what t h i n idiom o f H ollyw ood and th e m id d lesex [ s i c l su b u rb s a s many p o e ts a r e d o in g , (p . 1 0 6 ) L ike many o f th e o th e r m e tr ic a l e x p e rim e n te rs , he h a s ( been m isu n d ersto o d and damned b ecau se o f h i s d iv e rg e n c e fromj I I t jthe c o n v e n tio n s o f p ro so d y . G eo ffrey G rig so n , f o r exam ple, i jwrote t h a t i n h i s poems " . . . rhyme schem es b e g in and | b re a k . Rhythms s t a r t o f f and f a l t e r , i n t o in c o h e re n t p r o s e . ”'’1 I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h i s i s th e same kind o f I c r ltic is m t h a t h a s b een le v e le d a t W illia m s and M arianne jwoore. I n r e a l i t y , how ever, Thomas' m e tr ic s a r e more com- j p le x and more c o h e re n t th a n G rig so n 1s c r i t i c i s m would le a d j jone to b e l ie v e . In rem a rk in g how a poem by Thomas p r e c i p i t a t e s th e r e a d e r in to th e th ic k o f a g iv e n s i t u a t i o n I cp I which t h a t poem e x p r e s s e s , M. A sse lin e a u ^ le a d s one to j c o n s id e r th e a u t o t e l i c m ethod o f Thomas' c o m p o sitio n . By I t 5°Auden and A fte r (London, 19**2), p . 106, . ^ The Harp o f A eolus and O ther E ssa y s on A rt, L i t e r a t u r e aH5 N atu re [London, p . 1 5 0. L ^2”D ylan Thom as,” E tu d e s A n g la ise s (J a n u a ry , 195*0- ___0 I l l s e v e r i n g t h e r o p e s o f I n t e l l e c t u a l r e l a t i v i t y , w h ic h t e t h e r i m o st poem s to a s e t o f c ir c u m s ta n c e s n o t im m e d ia te ly p o e t i c , j Thomas h a s l a r g e l y f a s h i o n e d a s t y l e in te n d e d t o b e im p e n e - I t r a b l e to t h e " p r o s e " m in d . I n th e e a r l y p o em s, t h i B r e s i s t a n c e to r e a s o n i s e m b o d ie d i n a s t y l e w hose s u a s i o n s a r e r h e t o r i c a l an d i n c a n t a t o r y . I n th e l a t e r poem s, th e c h i e f d e v ic e a g a i n s t r a t i o n a l th o u g h t i s a c l o s e l y p a c k e d s e n s u o u s im a g e ry . P a r t o f h i s m e t r i c i s a n c i e n t a n d n o t o r i g i n a l . R e v ie w in g t h e f i r s t a p p e a ra n c e o f h i s I n C o u n try S le e p . L o u is e Bogan w r i t e s : T hom as’ b a r d i c s i d e i s s t r o n g l y e v i d e n t i n h i s new c o l l e c t i o n . . . . I n s p i t e o f h lB o f f rh y m es a n d h i s d e - \ v lo u s s y n t a x , an d h i s h a b i t o f p a r a d o x i c a l e p i t h e t , . . . j t h e t e c h n iq u e s o f a n c i e n t b a l l a d r y s h in e t h r o u g h . F o r | h e i s c l e v e r w ith f u l l rhym e a s h e i s w i t h a s s o n a n c e ; he i s a m a s te r o f e f f e c t i v e a l l i t e r a t i o n , a n d h e c a n m a n ip u l a t e r e f r a i n t o u n d e r l i n e an d c l i n c h h i s m ean in g o r to p ro d u c e t h a t I n c a n t a t o r y q u a l i t y o n w h ic h a l l b a l l a d r y j t h r i v e s . 53 j i G i l b e r t H ig h e t t r a c e s t h i s u s e o f t r a d i t i o n a l q u a l i t i e s to ; j I jh is W elsh a n c e s t r y . He e x p l a i n s t h a t : ! W elsh p o e t r y , f o r a l l th e s u b t l e t y an d f r a i l t y o f i t s e m o tio n s , w as n e v e r a f o r m le s s g u s h o f e x c i te m e n t . . . . • I t s d i s c i p l i n e i s t h e s t r i c t e s t i n t h e known w o rld o f l i t e r a t u r e , a n d i t i s b e y o n d hum an a b i l i t y to r a v e i n an e c s t a s y w h ile o b s e r v in g t h e r e q u i r e m e n ts o f a c o m p lic a te d a l l i t e r a t i v e s y s te m , w ith e n d rh y m es a n d i n t e r n a l rh y m es to f i n d , w h i l s t p a y in g d u e a t t e n t i o n t o s t r e s s e s an d th e e x a c t num ber o f s y l l a b l e s . ’ D y la n T hom as, th o u g h w r i t i n g i n E n g l i s h , w o rk s i n t h a t t r a d i t i o n . He w r i t e s poem s w h ic h form a r e g u l a r p a t t e r n on t h e p r i n t e d p a g e . . . h e p l a y s m a g i c a l ly w ith in te r w o v e n rh y m e s an d a s s o n a n c e s . | ^ S e l e c t e d c r i t i c i s m , p p . 37^-375• 112 . . . P a r t o f h i s power comes from th e c o m p e titio n b e - ch tw een h i s w ild em otions and h i s firm a e s t h e t i c c o n t r o lP i I j B ut a n o th e r p a r t o f h i s m e tric I s n o t a t a l l conven t i o n a l . John M alcolm B r in n in , h i s f r ie n d and b io g ra p h e r, ip o ln ts o u t th e d i r e c t io n o f t h i s o th e r p a r t . | I t i s my own Im p re ssio n t h a t Thomas1 r e a l In flu e n c e I s e v id e n t In w hat Am erican p o e ts do n o t do, o r i n w hat th ey have g iv e n u p . S in ce h i s a r r i v a l on th e l i t e r a r y scene th e re h as been . . . a new ly re c o v e re d aw areness o f th e p l a s t i c i t y o f th e E n g lish la n g u a g e . . . .55 K arl S h ap iro c a r r i e s th e th o u g h t o u t s t i l l f u r t h e r i n h is a r t i c l e on "D ylan Thomas." Thomas' te c h n iq u e i s d e c e p tiv e . When you lo o k a t i t c a s u a lly you th in k i t i s n o th in g . . . . I t I s no b e t t e r and no w orse th a n t h a t o f dozens o f o th e r p o e ts o f h i s a g e . There i s . . . a g r e a t d e a l o f I m ita tio n . There i s no th e o ry . Y ea ts and Auden and Pound have d ev elo p ed t h i s a s p e c t o f E n g lis h p o e try alm o st s in g le h a n d e d , each f o r h i s f o llo w e r s . B u t, . . . th e im p re ss o f Thomas’ id io m on p re s e n t-d a y E n g lis h p o e try i s i n c a l c u l a b l e . One c r i t i c s a id n o t many y e a rs ago t h a t Thomas had v i s i t e d a m ajor a f f l i c t i o n on E n g lish p o e tr y . T h is was an u n f r ie n d ly way o f sa y in g t h a t Thomas had c a p tu re d th e young p o e ts , w hich he c e r t a i n l y h ad . How d id Thomas do t h i s ? He d id i t th ro u g h th e fo rc e o f em o tio n . He d id i t w ith th e p e rs o n a l id io m , th e t w is t s o f la n g u a g e , th e b ending o f th e ir o n o f E n g lis h . Once he had b e n t t h i s i r o n h is way everybody e l s e t r i e d i t . Thomas h a s more im i t a t o r s to d ay th a n any p o e t in th e l i t e r a t u r e .5® ^ The Powers o f P o e try , p p . 156-157 and n o te . F o r f u r th e r d is c u s s io n o f t h i s p o in t and f o r a r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith H opkins see Lawrence D u r r e ll. A Key to Modern B r i t i s h Po e t r y (Norman, Oklahoma, 1 9 5 2 ), p p . 17b-1 7 7 , 19& f f . D ylan Thomas i n A m erica (B o sto n , 1 9 5 5 ), P . 122. ^ I n D efense o f Ig n o ra n c e , p . 175. 113 P erh ap s a g la n c e a t an exam ple In a s p e c if ic poem i m ig h t h e lp to c l a r i f y Thomas* m ethod. "The C o n v e rsa tio n ! o f P ray er" i s an e x c e ll e n t i l l u s t r a t i o n o f h i s v i r t u o s i t y . The c o n v e rs a tio n o f p ra y e rs ab o u t to be s a id By th e c h i ld g o in g to bed and th e man on th e s t a i r s Who clim b s to h i s dying lo v e i n h e r h ig h room, The one n o t c a rin g to whom in h i s s le e p he w ill move, i And th e o th e r f u l l o f t e a r s t h a t she w i l l be dead, ! | Turns i n th e d a rk on th e sound th e y know w i l l a r i s e I n to th e answ ering s k ie s from th e g re e n ground, From th e man on th e s t a i r s and th e c h ild by h i s b ed . The sound ab o u t to be s a id i n th e two p ra y e rs For s le e p i n a s a fe la n d and th e lo v e who d ie s W ill be th e same g r i e f f ly in g . Whom s h a l l th ey calm ? S h a ll th e c h ild s le e p unharm ed o r th e man be c ry in g ? The conversation o f prayers about to be Bald T\irnB on the quick and the dead, and the man on the s ta ir s T o n ig h t s h a l l f in d no d ying b u t a liv e and warm In th e f i r e o f h i s c a re h is lo v e in th e h ig h room . 1 And th e c h ild n o t c a rin g to whom he clim b s h is p ra y e r I S h a ll drown i n a g r i e f as deep as h i s tr u e g ra v e , | And mark th e d ark eyed wave, th ro u g h th e ey es o f s le e p , ! D ragging him up th e s t a i r s to one who l i e s d e a d .57 I jThe co m p lex ity o f th e rhyme scheme can p e rh a p s b e s t be 11- j jlu s tr a te d by a k in d o f sch em atic a n a ly s is , rem oving th e jrhymes from th e t o t a l s t r u c t u r e o f th e poem. ^ C o lle c te d Poems: 193*1-1952 (N o rfo lk , C onn., 1953) j. p. 111. 114 l i n e 1 . . . p r a y e r s . . . s a id a l b l 2 • # .toed . . • s t a i r s b2 a2 3- (H) • . . l o v e . . * room c l d l 4 • • • whom••» move d2 c 2 5 « * . . dead e l( b 4 ) b3 S ta n z a I 6 . . . so u n d *«. a r i s e f l g l 7 (G) • • . s i d e s . . * ground g2 f 2 8 . . . s t a i r s . . . bed a2 b 2 9 (S) . . . s a i d . . . p ra y e rs b l a l 10 (S-L ) . . . la n d . . . d ie s h i B3 _ S ta n z a I I 11 . . . f l y i n g . . . calm j l k l 12 • . .u n h a rm e d ..• c ry in g (k2 ) J 2 13 . . . p r a y e r s . . . s a id a l b l 14 . . . d e a d . . . s t a i r s b3 a 2 15 . . .d y i n g .. . warm J3 (k3) S ta n z a I I I 16 (H) • . . c a r e «*. room a3 d l 17 (C-CH) . • .whom .. . p ra y e rs d2 a l 18 (D-G) . . . d e e p . . . g rav e ml n l H VO . . .w a v e .. . s le e p n2 m 2 (m ark- d a rk ) 2 0 . . . s t a i r s . . . dead a2 * 3 S ta n z a IV In th e sc h e m a tic r e p r e s e n ta ti o n ab o v e, th e rhym ing w ords a r e ta k e n o u t o f c o n te x t, and a re g iv e n num bers to in d ic a t e t h e i r r e p e t i t i o n , a s w e ll a s l e t t e r s to r e p r e s e n t th e con t i n u a t i o n o f a g iv e n rhym ing p a t t e r n . The dom inant p a t te r n 115 ;in th e poem i s t h a t o f th e [£hZ] rhym e, h u t th e p a t t e r n i s ac h ie v e d by th e r e p e t i t i o n o f th e w ords p r a y e r s and s t a i r s Jfour tim es each (once i n each s ta n z a ) . J u s t a f t e r th e l i n e num bers i n each l i n e , th e dom inant a l l i t e r a t i v e p a t t e r n o f th e l i n e i s in d ic a te d by a c a p i t a l l e t t e r i n p a r e n t h e s is . The poem as a w hole, how ever, i s dom inated by an (S-SH) a l l i t e r a t i v e p a t t e r n . I n a d d itio n , l i n e 19 c o n ta in s an e x t r a I n t e r n a l rhyme o u ts id e th e p a t t e r n o f th e poem. Thus, i n a g e n e ra l s e n s e , th e c o m p le x ity o f th e rhyme scheme ap p ro ach es th e co m p lex ity o f such a form a s th e s e s t i n a . The i n t e r n a l rhym es a ls o in d ic a t e th e p re se n c e o f a vague c a e s u ra w ith in th e l i n e s . T hese c a e su ra e a r e most commonly c r e a te d by th e k in d o f J u n c tu re w hich o c c u rs betw een u n s tr e s s e d c lo s in g c o n so n a n ts and s tr e s s e d o p en in g v o w els. In s h o r t , much o f th e te x tu r e o f th e poem I s c r e a te d by th e com plex rhyme schem e. I n a d d itio n to th e co m p lex ity o f th e rhyme schem e, I t i s n e c e s s a ry to p o in t o u t t h a t most o f th e w ords In th e poem a re m o n o s y lla b le s . The n o ta b le e x c e p tio n s a re th e p a r t i c i p l e s . Only one word i n th e e n t i r e poem, c o n v e rs a t i o n , I s more th a n d i s y l l a b i c ; and I t i s a ls o th e m ost a b s t r a c t word i n th e poem. G. S. F r a s e r , w r itin g o f t h i s poem, p o in ts o u t t h a t no d o u b t, any s k i l l f u l c ra ftsm a n m ig h t in v e n t and c a r r y th ro u g h a form l i k e t h i s a s a m e tr ic a l e x e r c is e . B ut 1 Tftom as's poem does n o t re a d a t a l l l i k e an e x e r c is e ; m ost r e a d e r s , i n f a c t , do n o t n o tic e th e rhym e-schem e t i l l i t I s p o in te d o u t to them . A g ain , m ost p o e ts w ould 116 f in d i t h a rd to c o n s tr u c t a s e r i e s o f s ta n z a s m ain ly in l m o n o sy lla b le s w ith o u t g iv in g th e e f f e c t o f m onotony. I T hom as's l i n e I s so s u b tly v a r ie d as to d e fy an a tte m p t i a t ru le -o f-th u m b B can slo n . I t i s a f o u r s t r e s s l i n e , t w ith f e e t v e ry f r e e l y s u b s t i t u t e d . . . . Uiomas h a s been j acc u se d by some c r i t i c s , such a s Mr. O e o ffre y G rig so n , o f c a r e l e s s and s la p d a s h w r i ti n g . [H ere i s l . . . a d e m o n s tra tio n o f h i s m a ste ry o f h i s c r a f t . 5 ° Thomas h a s a ls o been acc u se d o f b e in g i n t e r e s t e d o n ly i n th e m usic o f h i s v e r s e , and some c r i t i c s have i n s i s t e d t h a t th e flo w o f t h i s m usic h a s b een alm o st u n c o n sc io u s w ith Thomas. I n a l e t t e r to V ernon W atk in s, w r i tt e n from Laug- h arn e p ro b a b ly in May o r Ju n e o f 1939, Thomas p ro v id e s e v i dence o f h i s c ra fts m a n s h ip . I th in k you a re l i a b l e , in y o u r c r i t i c i s m s o f me, to u n d e r r a te th e v a l u e - - o r , r a t h e r , th e i n t e g r i t y , th e w hole n e s s —o f w hat I am sa y in g o r tr y in g to make c l e a r t h a t I am s a y in g , and o f te n to s u g g e s t a l t e r a t i o n s o r amendments f o r p u r e ly m uB ical m o tiv e s . F o r in s t a n c e , "C aught in a s o m e rs a u lt o f tum bled mantim e" may (and I d o u b t i t ) sound more a g r e e a b le - - w e '11 le a v e o u t any s u g g e s tio n o f i t so u n d in g i n e v i t a b l e b e c au se i t i s , how ever good th e im p l i e d c r i t i c i s m , a group o f w ords o u ts id e th e poem— to th e "p ro p h e sy in g e a r" th a n " In an im a g in in g o f tum bled m antim e," a l i n e I worked o u t f o r i t s sounds & n o t in s p i t e o f them . M y c r i t i c i s m o f y o u r c r i t i c a l s u g g e s tio n in t h i s c a se i s t h a t y o u r 'e a r* i s d e a f to th e lo g ic o f my poem; "C aught i n a s o m e rs a u lt e t c e tc S uddenly c o ld a s f is h " i s an am biguous ta n g le , v e ry l i k e n o n se n se . ( I know y o u r s u g g e s tio n was n o t m eant to be th e l a s t B u b s tltu tiv e word f o r my f i r s t wordB, b u t was m eant m a in ly to s u g g e s t f u r t h e r th in g s , a llw a y p o i n t e r s , to me m y s e lf; b u t th e su g g e s tio n s t i l l d o e s , I b e l ie v e , show th e way y o u r c r i t i cism o f te n w orks: tow ard th e a u r a l b e tte rm e n t (u g h ) o f 5^ V isio n and R h e to ric (London, 1959)* V* 237. 117 d e t a i l s , w ith o u t re g a rd f o r t h e i r s ig n if ic a n c e i n a ,-Q w o rk ed -o u t, i f n o t a p r e m e d ita t e d - in - d e ta il, w hole, p-* i I John Malcolm B r in n in , w r itin g a f t e r Thomas' d e a th , su b s t a n t i a t e s Thomas' c o n sc io u s a t t e n t i o n to p o e tic d e t a i l . Ve began to speak o f w orking m ethods. I had n o tic e d t h a t on many o f h is m a n u s c rip ts D ylan would add a s in g le word o r a p h r a s e , o r a new p u n c tu a tio n , th e n reco p y th e whole poem i n lo n g h an d . When a n o th e r a d d itio n o r r e v i s io n was m ade, no m a tte r how m inor o r m a jo r, he would j th e n copy th e w hole poem a g a in . When I ask ed him ab o u t t h i s la b o rio u s r e p e t i t i o n , he showed me h i s d r a f t s o f "P ern H i l l . " There w ere more th a n two hundred s e p a r a te and d i s t i n c t v e r s io n s o f th e poem. I t w as, he e x p la in e d , h is way o f "k eep in g th e poem to g e th e r ," so t h a t i t s p ro c e s s o f grow th was l i k e t h a t o f an organism .® 0 Thomas h im s e lf was n o t g iv e n to c a r e f u l e x p la n a tio n o f tL s th e o r ie s and p r o c e s s e s . In an ac co u n t o f a c o n v e rs a tio n ! le ld by D ylan Thomas w ith s tu d e n ts a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f Utahj I i n 1952, th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n and answ er o c c u rss S tu d e n t: Do you l i s t e n to th e sound o f y o u r own w ords? I s t h a t as im p o rta n t to you as th e rhyme and m e tre ? Thomas: Oh, God, t h a t 's a h a rd one to o . Y es—you can s tr u g g le w ith rhyme and m etre and s t y l e and ; s t i l l n o t have a poem. I'm s o r ry I'm n o t j an sw erin g th e way you would lik e .® l i ! i i s own pronouncem ents ab o u t th e n a tu re o f p o e try and ab o u t i l s own p o e try a re r e a l l y n o t much c l e a r e r . The e d i t o r o f few V erse su b m itte d a number o f q u e s tio n s to Thomas, and h i s * ^ T h e L e t t e r s o f D ylan Thomas (N o rfo lk , C onn., 1957)* ;>p. 6 6 -b 7 . ^ ° D ylan Thomas i n A m erica, p . 127. ^ M a r j o r i e A dix, "D ylan Thomas: Memories and A p p re cia t i o n s ," E n co u n ter (L ondon), Ja n u a ry 195^* P- 13. 118 answ ers w ere f i r s t p r in te d in t h a t J o u rn a l in O cto b er o f 193^• Among th e v a rio u s s ta te m e n ts i n th o s e r e p l i e s a re th e 'fo llo w in g d e f i n i t i o n s : P o e try i s th e rh y th m ic , in e v ita b ly n a r r a t i v e , movement from an o v e r c lo th e s b lin d n e s s to a naked v is io n t h a t depends i n i t s i n t e n s i t y on th e s tr e n g th o f th e la b o u r p u t i n to th e c r e a tio n o f th e p o e try TSie w r itin g o f a poem i s , to me, th e p h y s ic a l and m e n tal ta s k o f c o n s tr u c tin g a fo rm a lly w a te r t ig h t com partm ent o f w ords, p r e f e r a b ly w ith a m ain moving column to h o ld a l i t t l e o f_ th e r e a l c a u se s and f o r c e s o f th e c r e a tiv e b r a in and b o d y .62 In summary, th e n , Thomas i s ro m a n tic , in c a n ta to r y , b a r d ic , c o n s c io u s ly p r i m i t i v i s t i c , b u t n o t p r im it iv e . He i s n o t r e a l l y n o n i n t e l l e c t u a l . Few p o e ts c o u ld be l e s s like* Auden o r E l i o t . U n lik e them , he i s rh a p s o d ic and m y s tic a l. j jLike Whitman and l i k e H opkins, he e x p e rim e n ts w ith lan g u ag e {to a c h ie v e a new k in d o f e x p re s s io n w hich i s c a p a b le o f (carrying t h a t " . . . rh y th m ic p u ls e " w hich i s i t s e l f " a j i ! r e p e t i t i o n o f th e h y p n o tic , p r im itiv e dance w hich makes man ; I ' ! a p a r t i c i p a n t i n th e e le m e n ta l r i t e s . " As John Berrym an h a s s a id , "Thomas h a s ex ten d ed th e lan g u ag e and . . . th e m eth ods o f l y r i c p o e tr y ." * ^ Thomas h im s e lf made th e p o in t. 1 In my c r a f t o r s u ll e n a r t E x e rc is e d i n th e s t i l l n ig h t When o n ly th e moon ra g e s And th e lo v e r s l i e abed W ith a l l t h e i r g r i e f s i n t h e i r arm s, ^ 2 D vlan Thomas, Q u ite E a rly One M orning (N o rfo lk , C onn., 195*0, p p . 1 88-189. --------------- -------------------- j ^ " T h e Loud 0 f W ales," Kenyon Review , 2 :^ 8 1 , /Vutumn. 19*f0.____ _ _ ___ _____________________ _ _____________ 119 I la b o u r by s in g in g l i g h t Not f o r a m b itio n o r b re a d Or th e s t r u t and tr a d e o f charm s j On th e iv o r y s ta g e s I B ut f o r th e common wages gj. Of t h e i r m ost s e c r e t h e a r t . . . . j | Lawrence D u r r e ll, though p e rh a p s b e t t e r known a s a n o v e l i s t , i s one o f th o s e B r i t i s h p o e ts who, in th e w ords j o f W illia m Y ork T in d a ll, h e lp e d to a t l a s t f r e e E n g lis h p o e try " . . . from a l l th e V ic to r ia n s b u t H o p k in s ." ^ D ur- I r e l l, w orking th ro u g h th e l i t e r a r y in f lu e n c e s o f th e s u r - i 1 r e a l i s t s , b e lo n g s w ith D ylan TOiomas i n t h a t p e r ip h e r a l group jwhich h a s p ro d u ced some o f th e b e s t p o e try and p ro s e o f th e p ld - tw e n ti e th c e n tu r y . A ccording to T in d a ll, th e " a rr a n g e - i m ents o f th o u g h t and f e e l i n g , in s e p a r a b le from t h e i r odd [ f a s tid io u s e x p r e s s io n ," w hich a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f D ur- j j r e l l 's p o e tr y , c l e a r l y b r in g W allace S te v e n s in m ind. j H is so n g s and e l e g i e s o f G reece u se th e Aegean p a s t n o t j so much a s a re fu g e from th e u n m en tio n ab le p r e s e n t b u t a s a medium th ro u g h w hich to p a s s i t . P ris m a tic r e f r a c - j t i o n s compose h i s c o u n try and i t s c lim a te , (p . 286) 'His s ta te m e n ts ab o u t p o e tr y a r e o f such a n a tu re t h a t th e y c l e a r l y s u g g e s t h i s a f f i n i t y w ith D ylan Thomas, n o t o n ly in th e a t t i t u d e tow ard p o e try in g e n e r a l, b u t i n th e v e ry n a tu r e o f th e e x p re s s io n i t s e l f . Why do I w r ite ? I n w r itin g I can be m ost in tim a te ly my s e l f ; p o e try r e f i n e s t a s t e , l i k e a m ag n ify in g g la s s e n l a r g e s o b j e c t s ; when you a re th o ro u g h ly r e f in e d away ^ C o l l e c t e d Poems, p . 142. ^ F o r c e s i n Modern B r i t i s h L i t e r a t u r e : 1885-1956 (New York, i^y ,;-p V 5 B 5 . .......................- ................................................ ................... you u n d e rs ta n d more a b o u t th e w o rld and i t s p e n a l t i e s th a n you would i f you J u s t hoed b ea n s a l l day and s l e p t a l l n i g h t. A lso , p e o p le j u s t d o n 't w r ite p o e try u n le s s | th e y h a te b e in g h e re i n t h i s u g ly , t r i v i a l and common ! s e t- u p w hich we c a l l r e a l i t y and w hich i s a f a b r i c a t i o n , I In te n d e d to s h u t o u t th e R e a lly R e a l. I a ls o w r ite b e c a u se a p a r t from making lo v e th e r e i s n ' t any o c c u p a tio n l e f t w hich h e lp s one to b e m o re.66 [Speaking o f th e poems "To Argos" and "At E p id a u ru s ," he p o in ts o u t t h a t th e y a re t r a v e l p ie c e s . . . . r e f l e c t i o n s on a n c ie n t G reece com pared to u s modern E u ro p ean s: sim p le l i n e draw ings o f G reek sc e n e ry from th e lo n e ly e y e -p le c e o f th e co ntem porary t r a v e l l e r who h as no s p i r i t u a l b ag g ag e. C o n seq u en tly , th e ache and p a in . . . . Our h e ro e s , i d e a l i s t s , p o e ts , have b een b e tr a y e d as th e G reek o n es w ere, b u t n o t by t h e i r d y in g ; t h a t i s , th e y d i d n 't b e tr a y u s , b u t we them . Our d e a th ( s p i r i t u a l ; was th e b e t r a y a l. . . . (p . 458) i I n h i s book A Key to Modern B r i t i s h P o e tr y , w hich i s a s e r i e s o f l e c t u r e s on th e b ackgrounds o f modern B r i t i s h po e t r y , he makes a g e n e r a liz a tio n ab o u t th e w hole o f t h a t po le t r y . I . . . s u g g e s t t h a t i t [modern p o e try ] u n c o n s c io u s ly r e p ro d u c e s som ething l i k e th e B pace-tlm e continuum i n th e way t h a t i t u s e s w ords and p h r a s e s : and th e way i n w hich | i t s formB a r e c y c lic r a t h e r th a n e x te n d e d .° 7 He seem s to b e lie v e t h a t th e new c o n c e p ts o f tim e and sp a c e , d e riv e d from E in s te in , a s w e ll a s from p sy c h o lo g y , m athe m a tic s , p h y s ic s , and o th e r co ntem porary s c ie n c e s , a re th e c o n c e p ts w hich have shaped modern p o e try b o th in i t s con t e n t and i n i t s form . S peaking i n th e same book o f i I i 66 ! A s p e c ia l s ta te m e n t p re p a re d by IX irre ll f o r in c lu s io n ; in Modern P o e try : A m erican and B r i t i s h , p . 457. | ^ (N o rm a n , Oklahoma, 1 9 5 2 ), p . 26. 121 T. S. E l i o t , he w r ite s t h a t E l i o t 's p o e tr y i s . . a n a t tem p t to p r e s e n t th e m a te r ia l s o f human . . . a f f a i r s i n th e form o f p o e tic co n tin u u m ," and he g o es on to p o in t o u t t h a t i " . . . th e lan g u ag e no l e s s th a n th e o b je c ts o b se rv e d a re [im pregnated w ith th e new tim e" (p . 3 1 ). At th e same tim e , h e b e lie v e s t h a t a p o e t m ust d e a l w ith th e m u ltip le s t a t e o f b l r t h - d e a t h - l i f e a s a t o t a l i t y and t h a t t h i s com plex o f jid eas m ust fa s h io n th e p o e t 's form a s w e ll as h i s th o u g h t. The " l i n g u i s t i c equipm ent" w hich th e p o e t h as ta k e n o v er " i s in a d e q u a te to th e t a s k ." As a r e s u l t , th e p o e t i s ! fo rc e d " to r e f a s h io n i t , to tra n s fo rm i t in to a weapon c a p ab le o f re n d e rin g im m ediacy" (p . 3 6 ) . T h is s ta te m e n t n ig h t have been made by D ylan Thomas. The b a s ic th e o r ie s o f th e two p o e ts a re n e a r ly i d e n t i c a l , a lth o u g h th e y d i f f e r |s l l g h t l y in te c h n iq u e . The te c h n ic a l d if f e r e n c e s a re c r e a te d by Thomas' W elsh background and h i s know ledge o f Ithe s p e c ia l W elsh fo rm s. B ut th e s i m i l a r i t i e s betw een th e two p o e ts a re s t r i k i n g . Not o n ly a re t h e i r th e o r ie s o f •form s i m i l a r , b u t t h e i r t h e o r i e s o f lan g u ag e a re a ls o s i - j n i l a r . D u r r e ll s t a t e s t h a t " th e v a lu e s o f th e in d iv id u a l word have more th a n d o u b led t h e i r s ig n i f ic a n c e ," and he I n a in ta in s t h a t t h i s in c r e a s e i n th e v a lu e o f w ords i n co n - I l temporary English i s " en tirely due to the researches o f j jpsycho-analysts among the data o f anthropology" (p. 6 1 ) . j D urrell provides a kind o f summary statement to h is d iscu s- | Lion in h is le c tu r e s. This summary statem ent, although he I 1 i a p p lie s i t to modern p o e try in g e n e r a l, i s p e rh a p s a f a i r l y 'c le a r e x p o s itio n o f h i s own p o e tic p o s it io n s a s w e ll. Po- i le try , he s a y s , . . . i s d is tin g u is h e d by two s o r t s o f co m p ressio n w hich r e f l e c t b o th th e changes i n th e id e a o f tim e —w hich makes ; a p o e t p r e s e n t h i s m a te r ia l n o t a s argum ent b u t a s d i r e c t and in s ta n ta n e o u s s ta te m e n t, i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c a l l y — and a ls o th e change i n o u r a t t i t u d e to th e p sy c h e . Thus you , f in d n o t o n ly th e id e a s o f a poem com pressed b u t th e so u n d -v a lu e s as w e ll, w ith th e rhyme o f te n coming in th e m iddle o f th e l i n e in s te a d o f b e in g s e t l i k e a m ile s to n e a t th e end o f e v e ry f iv e s t r e s s e s , (p . 6 5 ) I t i s in te r e stin g that these th eories o f language and sty le carry over, in the case o f Lawrence D urrell, Into h is j prose as w ell as in to h is poetry. A future study may w ell Jexamine the rela tio n sh ip between h is lin g u is tic th eo ries as em ployed in h i s p o e try and th o s e same th e o r ie s as em ployed I I n h i s p r o s e . In any c a s e , h i s th e o r ie s c o n c e rn in g v e rs e Jare e x tre m e ly c lo s e to th o se o f D ylan Thomas. He d i f f e r s : from Thomas in t h a t he la c k s th e b a r d ic q u a l i t y w hich i s i 'so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Thomas, b u t th e u n d e rly in g th e o ry i s jquite s im ila r to th e one h e ld by Thomas. E s s e n t i a l l y , p e r h a p s , th e d if f e r e n c e s betw een th e two p o e ts can b e s t be' e x p la in e d i n term s o f t h e i r background; Thomas was a W elsh man, w h ile D u rr e ll was b o rn i n I n d ia . T hus, th e d if f e r e n c e c e n te r s in th e d i a l e c t , n o t i n th e th e o ry o r th e p r a c t i c e . R o b e rt G raves i s a n o th e r p o e t who b e lo n g s i n t h i s group. He i s c e r t a i n l y n o t d i r e c t l y co n n e cted w ith Thomas or D u r r e ll, s in c e he i s o ld e r , and s in c e h i s comments on i 6 8 Thomas have been r e l a t i v e l y u n fa v o ra b le . P erh ap s G ilb e r t H Ig h et h a s b e s t e x p re s se d G rav es' p o s it io n when he r e f e r r e d ito him a s " th e e c c e n tr ic E n g lish p o e t . " ^ i t j.8 not th e j jword e c c e n tr ic w hich makes th e c h a r a c te r iz a tio n so a p t as i t I s th e u se o f th e d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e ; th u s , th e re have been many e c c e n tr ic E n g lish p o e ts , b u t t h i s i s th e e c c e n tr ic one. O pinion c e r t a i n l y v a r ie s c o n c ern in g G rav es' p o s it io n i n th e p o e tic canon o f th e tw e n tie th c e n tu ry . Many c r i t i c s ■relegate him to th e G eorgian g ro u p , as he h im s e lf h a s ex p la in e d . Even I have my n ic h e in th e p o p u la r te x t-b o o k s j I am j b r i e f l y m entioned w ith th e G eorgian War P o ets o f 1914- | 1918, . . . s u c c e s s o rs to th e X m agists . . . and them s e lv e s su p e rse d ed . . . by th e M o d ern ist Movement o f th e tw e n tie s ; w hich merged . . . in to th e L e f t Wing Movement o f th e t h i r t i e s ; w hich was s u ffo c a te d . . . by th e 1939- 45 War; w hich gave a pause f o r r e f l e c t i o n , th e new p o e ts j b e in g few and I n h i b i t e d .70 B u t h e h a s a m ore I m p o r ta n t p o s i t i o n t h a n t h i s w ould seem jto i n d i c a t e . O ther c r i t i c s have re c o g n iz e d h i s Im p o rtan ce . K arl S h a p iro , f o r exam ple, w r ite s : On o n e o t h e r o c c a s io n . . . I jum ped o n R o b e rt G ra v e s f o r lu m p in g t o g e t h e r a l l m odern p o e ts an d th ro w in g them i n t o lim b o . . . . T h is w as b e f o r e I h a d r e a d The W h ite G o d d e ss. w h ich im m e d ia te ly becam e o n e o f my f a v o r i t e b o o k s , one ^ Tfae Crowning P r iv ile g e (London, 1955)* PP* 138-142, fo r exam ple. ^ T h e Powers o f P o e try , p . 2 7 5. ^ ° The Crowning P r i v i l e g e , pp. 120-121. t w hich can sta n d in p la c e o f a l l th e New C r itic is m e v e r , w r i tte n . G raves h a s a w orld view , which i s p a r t o f a t r a d i t i o n o ld e r and d ee p er th a n any t r a d i t i o n em ployed by : th e M o d e rn ists. . . .71 i i I n The W h ite G o d d ess G ra v e s e x p r e s s e s a r a t h e r p e c u l i a r p o s i t i o n . HiB w ork i s b a s e d o n th e b e l i e f t h a t t r u e p o e tr y i s a m a g ic a l la n g u a g e b o u n d u p w ith p o p u la r r e l i g i o u s c e r e m on ies i n h o n o r o f th e moon g o d d e s s o r m use. T h is m a g ic a l p o e t r y , G ra v e s m a i n t a i n s , was r e j e c t e d b y th e e a r l y G re ek p h i l o s o p h e r s , who s u b s t i t u t e d th e r e l i g i o n o f l o g i c and a I r a t i o n a l p o e tic f o r th e p o e try o f p o e tic m yth. A ccording jto G rav es, n in e te e n th c e n tu ry p o e try i s m elan c h o lic and jdegenerate on th e w hole, w ith n o ta b le e x c e p tio n s . B ut tr u e p o e try , where i t h as o c c u rre d , he s a y s , r e s u l t s o n ly from [in sp ire d o r even p a th o lo g ic a l s t a t e s . He se e s no re a s o n to r e j e c t th e s c r i p t u r e s a s i r r e l e v a n t to th e theme o f th e [white G oddess, even though he se e s th e h i s t o r y o f p o e try as a s tr u g g le o f th e p o e t betw een w o rship o f th e goddess and w o rsh ip o f th e o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o n s . Pure m y sticism he r e j e c t s f o r p o e ts . . . s i n c e p o e t r y i s r o o t e d i n l o v e , and lo v e i n d e s i r e , an d d e s i r e i n h o p e o f c o n tin u e d e x i s t e n c e . H ow ever, to t h i n k w ith p e r f e c t c l a r i t y i n a p o e t i c B ense o n e m u st f i r s t r i d o n e s e l f o f a g r e a t d e a l o f I n t e l l e c t u a l e n c u m b ra n c e , i n c l u d i n g a l l d o g m a tic d o c t r i n a l p r e p o s s e s s i o n s : m em b ersh ip o f any p o l i t i c a l p a r t y o r r e l i g i o u s 72 s e c t o r l i t e r a r y s c h o o l d e fo rm s th e p o e t i c s e n s e . . . . ' *^I n D efense o f Ig n o ra n c e , pp. 268- 2 6 9 . 7 ^ e W hite Goddess (New Y ork, 1958)# p . ^55- ....................................................... 125 I ' I n th e S urvey o f M o d ern ist P o etry . ( 1 9 2 8) w r i tte n w ith i L aura R id in g , G raves s u p p o rts th e p o s i t i o n t h a t " th e w hole jtrend o f m odern p o e try i s tow ard t r e a t i n g p o e try l i k e a v ery s e n s itiv e s u b sta n c e which su cceed s b e t t e r when allo w ed to p r y s t a l l i z e by i t s e l f th a n when p u t in to p re p a re d m o u ld s ." ^ . In s h o r t, he i n s i s t s on i r r e g u l a r i t y in v e r s e ; and i r r e g u l a r i t y w hich i l l u s t r a t e s n o t c a r e le s s n e s s , b u t n a t u r a l v i - b a l l t y . And he g o es on to say t h a t : M etre c o n s id e re d a s a s e t p a t t e r n approved by c o n v e n tio n w i l l s ta n d f o r th e c la im s o f s o c ie ty as a t p r e s e n t o r g a n iz e d : th e v a r i a t i o n s on m etre w i l l s ta n d f o r th e c la im s o f th e in d i v i d u a l , (p . 24) i More r e c e n t l y , in a s e r i e s o f l e c t u r e s on p o e try g iv e n a t O xford, h e makes a v e ry im p o rta n t d i s t i n c t i o n o f two jbypes o f p o e tr y . I t i s th e same d i s t i n c t i o n w hich he made le a r ly f i f t e e n y e a rs e a r l i e r in The W hite G oddess. (1948) ju t th e s ta te m e n t i s p e rh a p s c l e a r e r and more s u c c in c t in the l e c t u r e . H ere I m ust d i s t i n g u i s h , a s I h av e done b e f o r e , betw een d e v o te e s o f A pollo and th o s e o f th e Muse. A p o llo n ia n p o e try i s composed in th e f o r e p a r t o f th e mLnd: w i t t i l y , sh o u ld th e o c c a s io n s e r v e , alw ays re a s o n a b ly , alw ays on a p re c o n c e iv e d p la n , and d e riv e d from a c lo s e know ledge o f r h e t o r i c , p ro so d y , C la s s i c a l exam ple, and co ntem porary f a s h io n . I t may, o f c o u rs e , d isg u iB e sim p le s ta te m e n t in m asquerade d r e s s , b u t i f s o , o b s e rv e s a l l m asquerade con v e n tio n s ; w h eth er th e d r e s s ch o sen be m e d iae v al d o u b le t and h o se , p a s t o r a l smock, Roman to g a , o r pseudo-H om eric a m o u r. The A p o llo n ia n a llo w s no p e r s o n a l em o tio n s to o b tru d e , and no u n e x p e c te d in c id e n t to b re a k th e smooth m u sic a l flo w o f h i s v e r s e . The p le a s u r e he o f f e r s 1 b c o n s c io u s ly a e s t h e t i c . "^(New Y o rk ), p . 20. 126 Muse p o e t r y I s com posed a t th e b a c k o f t h e m in d : a n u n a c c o u n ta b le p r o d u c t o f a t r a n c e I n w h ic h th e e m o tio n s o f l o v e , f e a r , a n g e r , o r g r i e f a r e p r o f o u n d ly e n g a g e d , th o u g h a t th e sam e tim e p o w e r f u lly d i s c i p l i n e d ; i n w h ic h i n t u i t i v e th o u g h t r e ig n B s u p r a l o g i c a l l y , a n d p e r s o n a l rh y th m s u b d u e s m e tre t o i t s own p u r p o s e s . The e f f e c t o n r e a d e r s o f Muse p o e t r y , w ith i t s o p p o s i t e p o l e s o f e c s t a s y a n d m e l a n c h o l ia , i s w h a t th e F re n c h c a l l a f r i s s o n . and t h e S c o ts c a l l a ' g r u e ' — m e a n in g th e s h u d d e r p ro v o k e d b y f e a r f u l o r s u p e r n a t u r a l e x p e r i e n c e . 74 I n a n u n c o m p ro m isin g s h o r t fo re w o rd to h i s Poem s, 1 9 3 8 -1 9 4 5 , G ra v e s w r i t e s : I w r i t e poem s f o r p o e t s an d s a t i r e s o r g r o t e s q u e s f o r w i t s . F o r p e o p le i n g e n e r a l I w r i t e p r o s e and am c o n te n t t h a t t h e y s h o u ld b e u n a w a re t h a t I do a n y th in g e l s e ................ To w r i t e poem s f o r o t h e r th a n p o e t s i s w a s t e f u l . 75 T h u s, G ra v e s c o n s i d e r s h i m s e l f a p o e t 's p o e t . He i s , a s h e s t a t e s , n o t c o n c e rn e d w ith p ro b le m s o f o b s c u r i t y . He i s op-, j p o s e d to a n y s o r t o f r e g u l a r i t y i n p o e t r y . I G ra v e s i s . . . u s i n g a t r a i n e d e a r and e y e an d a m a tu re !-. s e t o f e m o tio n s to n o t e c e r t a i n s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s i n t h e 1 s t r a n g e s e t o f c ir c u m s ta n c e s i n w h ic h he h a s fo u n d h im - J s e l f ; t o s e t down i n m u s ic a l la n g u a g e th e u n u s u a l t u r n s 1 o f th o u g h t t h a t com e, i n c r i s i s , i n t o a s a r d o n i c mind.76 ! G ra v e s i s a p a r t o f w h a t B a b e t te D e u ts c h h a s c a l l e d i " t h e r e n a i s s a n c e t h a t b e g a n b y b r i n g i n g p o e t r y b a c k to ! common t a l k . . . . " 77 He i s n o t a s r a d i c a l a n e x p e r im e n te r j a s W illia m s , b u t h i s e x p e r im e n ts re m in d o n e o f W illia m s . | 1 i He h a s a f f i n i t i e s w ith T hom as, e v e n th o u g h h e d i s l i k e s h im | ^ O xford A d d resses on P o e try (London, 1 9 6 2 ), p . 10. 7 5 (New Y ork, 1 9 ^ 6 ), i v . 7^L o u is Bogan, S e le c te d C r itic is m , p . 318. These comments a re from a re v ie w o f G ra v e s' Poems. 1938-1945. 77P o e try i n Our Time, p . 3^8 . ____ 127 a s a p o e t. The d i f f i c u l t y w ith G rav es, a s i t i s w ith W il- i 1 lia m s , i s t h a t he h a s liv e d so lo n g . H is l i f e and h i s a c t i v e c a r e e r a s a p o e t spans th e p e r io d s o f E l i o t , o f Auden, and o f th e more modern p o e ts . D uring h i s l i f e t i m e , a v a s t number o f m e tr ic a l ex p e rim e n ts have been a tte m p te d ; some have su cceed ed and o th e r s have f a i l e d , b u t G raves h as r e m ained. B ecause he i s so much a f i x t u r e on th e sc e n e , one h a s a ten d en cy to ta k e him f o r g r a n te d . B ecause he i s an e c c e n tr i c , one h a s a ten d en cy to ig n o re him . B ut h i s im p o r ta n c e , l i k e th e o th e r p o e ts d is c u s s e d in t h i s s e c tio n , I ca n n o t be d is m is s e d . I t i s tr u e t h a t th e m e tr ic a l e x p e rim e n ta tio n in E ngland h a s n o t b een as g r e a t a s i t h as been i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . As Auden h a s s e v e r a l tim e s p o in te d o u t, i t i s im p o s s ib le f o r th e B r i t i s h p o e ts to be a s f r e e a s th e American ip o e ts , The B r i t i s h p o e ts a re by e d u c a tio n and c u l tu r e more t i g h t l y lin k e d to th e long t r a d i t i o n s o f E n g lis h p o e try and E n g lis h la n g u a g e . A m ericans a re f r e e r to ex p e rim e n t b e cau se th e y a re o u ts id e , o r p e rh a p s a lo n g s id e , o f th a t t r a d i t i o n . But th e e x p e rim e n ta tio n stem s from two m ajo r s o u rc e s , one B r i t i s h and one A m erican, from H opkins and from W hitman. T here a re o th e r B r i t i s h p o e ts who b elo n g i n t h i s g ro u p , w hich m ight be c a l l e d th e group o f th e "Muse p o e t s ," a f t e r G rav es, b u t enough exam ples have been f u rn is h e d to i l l u s - t r a t e th e p o in t; t h a t i s , t h a t in E ngland, as in th e U n ited 'S ta te s , th e re a re p o e ts whose r e c e n t m e tr ic a l ex p e rim en ts | 'are q u ite d i f f e r e n t from th e A u d en -E lio t g ro u p s. CHAPTER V OSCILLOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS I n th e l a s t two c h a p te r s , a t t e n t i o n h as b een g iv e n to i jthe p o e ts o f two r a t h e r g e n e ra l d iv is io n s o f co ntem porary p o e try , th e "New Paganism " and th e "New P u rita n is m ." The m a te r ia l in th o se c h a p te rs was p r im a r ily co n cern ed w ith th e c r i t i c a l s ta te m e n ts o f th e p o e ts th e m selv es and w ith e v a lu - ; a tio n s o f t h e i r work by o th e r c r i t i c s . R e la tiv e ly l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n h as so f a r been d ev o ted to th e w orks th e m se lv e s. ! i i I t i s th e p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p te r to lo o k more c lo s e ly a t jthe w ork. I I I t w ould, o f c o u rs e , b e l i t e r a l l y im p o s s ib le to exam- j I jLne c l o s e ly a l l th e works o f a l l th e w r i te r s d is c u s s e d in jthe p re c e d in g c h a p te r s . I n d iv id u a l poems have been chosen j b e c a u se th e y a re commonly ta k e n by c r i t i c s to be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w orks o f th e a u th o rs co n c ern ed . The s e l e c t i o n i s ! jsomewhat lim ite d by th e f a c t t h a t o n ly poems w r i tte n d u rin g bhe p e rio d from 1930 to 1950 have been u s e d . I n c e r t a i n c a s e s , w here, f o r exam ple, a w r i t e r h a s p a s s e d th ro u g h a s e r ie s o f " p e rio d s " w hich tra n s c e n d th e li m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s i i stu d y , poems have s t i l l b ee n ta k e n from th e in c lu s iv e y e a rs .! to a tte m p t w i l l be made i n th e su b se q u en t d is c u s s io n to 129 130 j u s t i f y th e c h o ic e o f poem beyond th e fo re g o in g s ta te m e n t. Such a c h o ic e m ust n e c e s s a r ily be s u b je c t to q u e s tio n and d is a g re e m e n t, no m a tte r how much e v id e n c e may be o f f e r e d I I n s u b s t a n t i a t i o n , f o r any such c h o ic e m ust be u lti m a t e ly s u b je c ti v e , and i n so f a r as i t i s s u b je c ti v e , in d e f e n s ib le . 3 u t, f o r exam ple, th e poem "To Ju an a t th e W in ter S o l s t i c e ," ay R o b e rt G ra v es, h as b een chosen b e c a u se G raves h im s e lf Oas s t a t e d t h a t th e poem i s m ost c o n so n a n t w ith th e id e a s w ith w hich he was p r im a r ily c o n c e rn e d . I n a n o te to th e ooem he w r i te s : T h is was begun J u s t b e f o r e , and com pleted j u s t a f t e r , th e ! b i r t h o f my se v e n th c h i ld on December 21, 19^5. w in- | t e r s o l s t i c e i s th e t r a d i t i o n a l b ir th d a y o f a l l th e " S o la r * H eroes" o r "Demons o f th e Y ear" o f a n t i q u i t y . . . . I n j C e lti c p o p u la r m ythology th e y a r e som etim es r e p r e s e n te d j a s p o e t i c a l l y g i f t e d i n f a n t s who confound th e b a rd s o r j m a g ic ia n s o f th e c o u r t where th e y f i r s t a p p e a r. T h e ir f a t e i s bound up w ith t h a t o f th e Moon G oddess who a p p e a rs to them in h e r d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c te r s a t d i f f e r e n t se a so n s o f th e y e a r , t h a t i s to say a t d i f f e r e n t y e a rs o f t h e i r l i f e , a s s u c c e s s iv e ly m o th e r,c lo v e r, and la y e r - o u t . T h is j poem e p ito m iz e s th e them e o f th e S o la r H ero*s in v a r ia b le f a t e , w ith c irc u m s ta n c e s deduced from a l l th e r e le v a n t ! m y th o lo g ie s . T h at t h i s one s to r y and one s to r y o n ly i s th e c e n t r a l i n f i n i t e l y v a r ia b le theme o f a l l p o e try i s th e t r u e , firm c o n te n tio n o f my The W hite G oddess: A H is t o r i c a l Grammar o f .P o e t i c Myth. l Ih e f a c t t h a t th e poem i s co n so n an t w ith th e c e n t r a l id e a s co n c e rn in g th e p o e t a s p o e t seems to J u s t i f y th e c h o ic e . O ther poems exam ined have been chosen on s im ila r g ro u n d s. ^-R eprinted i n Modern P o e try . B r i t i s h and A m erican, ed . Klmon F r i a r and John Malcolm B rln n in (taw Y ork, 1^51 £>p. 500 -5 0 1 . 131 I n th e ap p en d ix a tta c h e d to t h i s s tu d y , th e r e a r e n in e - I iteen o s c illo g r a p h ic film s t r i p s o f th e poem s. A tw e n tie th I 2 ifilm s t r i p c o n ta in s a p ro s e p a s s a g e . These film s t r i p s I r e p r e s e n t o r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e poem s, i n a number o f c a s e s by th e a u th o rs th e m se lv e s. As h as been s t a t e d e a r l i e r , s tu d i e s o f rhythm and m e te r can r e a l l y be conducted o n ly on o r a l sam ples o f a poem, s in c e w ith th e e x c e p tio n s o f p o e ts l i k e H opkins who a n n o ta te th e p r i n te d t e x t o f a poem, rhythm and m e ter can be more e a s i l y d is c o v e re d in an o r a l v e r s io n . Appended to each f ilm s t r i p i s th e e x a c t t e x t o f th e poem i n i t B p r i n t e d form . S o u rces f o r re a d in g s j and t e x t s a re s u p p lie d in f o o tn o te s to each film s t r i p . j i F u rth e rm o re , in each c a s e , th e f i r s t l i n e s o f th e p r in te d ! i t e x t s h av e been a n n o ta te d w ith su p ra se g m e n ta l a n a ly s e s o f th e o r a l t e x t s . 3 Most o f th e s e l e c t io n s a re n o t r e p r e s e n ta - | 1 2 T hese f ilm s t r i p s w ere p re p a re d a t E le c tr o n ic s fo r M ed icin e, I n c . , W hite P l a i n s , New Y ork, on L in o -W rit 2, Ttype B, 12 cm. p a p e r. They were d u p lic a te d a t B e v e rly H ills B lue P r i n t & R e p ro d u c tio n C o ., B e v erly H i l l s , C a lif o r n ia , on b la c k lin e p a p e r. ^The same ta p e re c o rd in g was u se d to p re p a re b o th th e film s t r i p s and th e su p ra se g m e n ta l a n a l y s i s . The a n a ly s is was p erfo rm ed by Mr. C h a rle s W illiam Gay w ith th e s u p e r v is io n o f Dr. V la d im ir H onsa, A s s is ta n t P ro f e s s o r o f Span is h and L in g u is t ic s a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia . The m ark in g s em ployed a re s ta n d a rd l i n g u i s t i c mark in g s . S tr e s s i s in d ic a te d by [ / ] f o r p rim a ry s t r e s s , [a ] f o r se co n d ary s t r e s s , [ \ ] f o r t e r t i a r y s t r e s s , and no mark f o r weak s tr e s B . J u n c tu re i s in d ic a te d by s in g le b a r [ j ] and d o u b le b a r [ ||] m a rk in g s. S in g le b a r r e p r e s e n ts i n t e r n a l ju n c tu re and d ouble b a r r e p r e s e n ts te rm in a l ju n c tu r e . No a tte m p t h a s b ee n made to i n d ic a t e p i t c h , s in c e th e o s c i l lo g ra p h do es n o t m easure i t . j 132 t i o n s o f c o m p le te poem s. The l i m i t a t i o n o n t h e l e n g t h o f i jth e p a s s a g e u s e d I s a m e c h a n ic a l o n e , s i n c e th e p o s s i b l e lle n g th o f t h e f i l m s t r i p s i s l i m i t e d to t h e l e n g t h o f f i lm a s i t i s c o m m e rc ia lly p ro d u c e d . A f u r t h e r l i m i t a t i o n i s im p o sed b y th e f a c t t h a t t h e s e p a g e s m u st b e p r e s e n t e d i n f o l d o u t f a s h i o n . S t r i p s o f g r e a t e r l e n g t h w o u ld becom e u n g a i n l y , e v e n i f i t w ere p o s s i b l e t o s p l i c e l e n g t h s o f f ilm t o g e t h e r a c c u r a t e l y . T h ese f i l m s t r i p s w e re c r e a t e d b y f e e d in g i n t o a n o s - c l l l o s c o p e th e p r e v i o u s l y r e c o r d e d v e r s i o n s o f t h e poem s. C o n n e c te d w ith t h e o s c i l l o s c o p e i s a s p e c i a l c a m e ra w h ic h J p a s s e s th e f ilm a c r o s s t h e sc o p e a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e ( 25m m ./ s e c . ) e x a c t l y c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e r a t e a t w h ich a n o rm a l s i n e c u rv e w ould b e p ro d u c e d b y t h e o s c i l l o s c o p e w e re i t to [ r e p r e s e n t v i s u a l l y th e p a t t e r n o f th e m u s ic a l n o te C. The ja m p litu d e o f th e wave p a t t e r n s r e p r e s e n t s lo u d n e s s . G roups jo f w aves i n t i g h t p a t t e r n s r e p r e s e n t wave e n v e lo p e s , w h ich a r e u n b ro k e n s e r i e s o f p h o n e m e s. A bsence o f a n y w ave p a t t e r n , o r e x tr e m e ly low w ave e n v e lo p e s , r e p r e s e n t J u n c t u r e s , e i t h e r i n t e r n a l o r t e r m i n a l . The v e r t i c a l l i n e s o c c u r r i n g a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s on t h e f i l m p a p e r i t s e l f a r e c o n s t a n t m e a s u re s o f tim e d u r a t i o n . E ach sp a c e r e p r e s e n t s a n e l a p s e ^ tim e o f o n e - t e n t h o f a s e c o n d . j j ii The r e c o r d i n g waB m ade fro m r e c o r d s and fro m r e a d i n g s , i n o n e lo n g s e s s i o n , u n d e r s t a n d a r d r e c o r d i n g c o n d i t i o n s . S o u rc e s f o r i n d i v i d u a l r e c o r d s a r e s u p p l i e d i n t h e f o o t n o t e s A c c o m p a n y in g .th e i n d i v i d u a l . A ^ r ip s * j .................. 133 C e rta in in fo rm a tio n i s n e c e s s a ry to f a c i l i t a t e th e i u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e film s t r i p s . The m ost o b v io u s f a c t ith a t comes to o n e 's a t t e n t i o n a s one re a d s th e s e s t r i p s i s th e r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r m agnitude o f th e v e r t i c a l movement away from th e c e n t r a l l i n e . T h is i s m erely a jphenom enoncreated by v a ry in g volum e. I t i s o f no o th e r s i g n i f i c a n c e . The d eg re e o f v a r i a t i o n i n a m p litu d e from s t r i p to s t r i p i s o f no im p o rta n ce in t h i s s tu d y . I t i s p e r f e c t l y o b v io u s t h a t c e r t a i n p e rs o n s have lo u d e r v o ic e s th a n o th e r s . D iffe re n c e from v o ic e to v o ic e i s u n im p o rta n t (s e e p . 17 ; a b o v e ). For exam ple, th e am p litu d e in s t r i p e le v e n below i s much g r e a t e r th a n th e am p litu d e in s t r i p s ix t e e n . The o n ly p o in t i l l u s t r a t e d by t h i s d if f e r e n c e i s t h a t th e r e a d e r i n s t r i p e le v e n had a lo u d e r v o ic e th a n th e r e a d e r i n s t r i p s ix t e e n . T here a r e , how ever, d if f e r e n c e s w ith in in d iv id u a l s t r i p s w hich r e q u ir e p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n . ! Rhythm i n g e n e ra l i s a fu n c tio n o f th e r e p e t i t i o n o f any g iv e n m a n if e s ta tio n a t f a i r l y r e g u la r tim e i n t e r v a l s . ThuB, th e r e p e t i t i o n o f ju n c tu r e s ( i . e . , s il e n c e s ) o r o f s t r e s s e s , o r o f p a r t i a l s t r e s s e s , a t i n t e r v a l s w hich would seem e q u a l to th e norm al l i s t e n e r , would c o n s t i t u t e f o r t h a t l i s t e n e r a rh y th m ic p a t t e r n , a s th e s y s t o le and d i a s t o l e o f th e h e a r t c o n s t i t u t e a rhythm by t h e i r r e g u l a r i t y , i A poem may be s a id to h av e a r e g u l a r rh y th m ic p a t t e r n , th e n , i f any p a r t i c u l a r f u n c tio n i s r e p e a te d a t r e g u la r i n t e r v a l s . On th e film s t r i p s b elow , i n t e r v a l s o f tim e a re m easured by j 13^ * t h e v e r t i c a l l i n e s p r i n t e d on t h e f i l m . I n l i n e o n e o f I S p e n d e r ’ s poem i n s t r i p e i g h t b e lo w , f o r e x a m p le , o n e c a n se e t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t a m p litu d e s f a l l a t a lm o s t e x a c t l y s i m i l a r i n t e r v a l s . More b e a u t i f u l an d s o f t th a n a n y m oth W ith b u r r i n g f u r r e d a n te n n a e f e e l i n g i t s h u g e p a t h . . . . Cf o n e b e g i n s c o u n tin g w i t h th e v e r t i c a l l i n e w h ic h d i v i d e s bhe f i r s t wave e n v e lo p e , th e n I t I s a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t a m p litu d e s f a l l on e v e r y o t h e r v e r t i c a l l i n e . T h ese l i n e s r e p r e s e n t o n e - t e n t h o f a s e c o n d ; t h u s , s t r e s s seem s to T a ll e v e r y o n e - f i f t h o f a s e c o n d , a t l e a s t a s f a r a s th e f i r s t j u n c t u r e . The p a t t e r n i s i n t e r r u p t e d b y t h e J u n c tu r e j a f t e r s o f t , b u t i t i s r e p e a t e d i n th e l a s t p h r a s e o f th e l i n e . I n t h e n e x t l i n e , t h e f i r s t I n t e r n a l j u n c t u r e , b e tw een w ith a n d b u r r i n g , i s o n e - f i f t h o f a s e c o n d I n d u r a t i o n . The s e c o n d J u n c t u r e , b e tw e e n b u r r i n g an d f u r r e d , I s a l s o o n e - f i f t h o f a se c o n d i n d u r a t i o n . O th e r J u n c t u r e s i n th e l i n e a r e o f e x a c t l y t h e same d u r a t i o n . The r e g u l a r r e p e t i t i o n o f s t r e s s e s a n d J u n c t u r e s c o n s t i t u t e s a d e f i n i t e L hythm . T h is p a r t i c u l a r poem h a s b e e n u s e d a s a n ex am p le l e r e b e c a u s e i t i s a h i g h l y r e g u l a r poem , r e l a t i v e l y s p e a k in g . I n t h e poem b y J o h n Crowe Ransom , s t r i p s i x , a l s o a r e l a t i v e l y r e g u l a r poem , th e d u r a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t t h r e e l i n e s i s a lm o s t e x a c t l y t h e sam e. I n f a c t , t h i r t e e n o f th e tw e n ty l i n e s c i t e d a r e a lm o s t i d e n t i c a l i n d u r a t i o n . F u r - j th e r m o r e , t h e J u n c t u r e s b e tw e e n l i n e s i n m ore t h a n h a l f o f 3.35 th e l i n e s a r e i d e n t i c a l i n d u r a t i o n . T h is r e g u l a r i t y a l s o c o n s t i t u t e s a rh y th m . A t th e o t h e r e x tr e m e , th e p r o s e p a s s a g e i n s t r i p e le v e n i s h i g h l y i r r e g u l a r . W hat d e te r m in e d t h e s p e e c h t h a t s t a r t l e d him i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i r e n c o u n t e r s c a r c e l y m a t t e r s , b e in g p r o b a b ly b u t some w o rd s sp o k e n b y h i m s e l f q u i t e w ith o u t i n t e n t i o n — s p o k e aB t h e y l i n g e r e d and s lo w ly m oved t o g e t h e r a f t e r t h e i r r e n e w a l o f a c q u a in t a n c e . S r e a t a m p litu d e s do n o t f a l l a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s ; n e i t h e r J u n c t u r e s n o r wave e n v e lo p e s a r e o f t h e same d u r a t i o n . I n a p r o s e s e l e c t i o n , th e d u r a t i o n a l v a lu e o f p u n c t u a t i o n seem s; to b e m ore e l a s t i c . For e x a m p le , t h e d u r a t i o n a l v a lu e s o f I i th e comma a f t e r m a t t e r s , th e d a s h a f t e r I n t e n t i o n , an d th e j jse m ico lo n a f t e r s t a y i n g , a r e a l l e q u a l . T h is p r o s e p a s s a g e l a c k s r e g u l a r rh y th m . H ie p a t t e r n i n i r r e g u l a r v e r s e i s n e i t h e r a s r e g u l a r a s t h a t i n s t r i p e i g h t n o r a s i r r e g u l a r a s t h a t i n s t r i p ; I ' s e l e v e n . One may s e e , f o r e x a m p le , i n s t r i p f i f t e e n , t h a t t h e f i r s t l i n e o f W illia m s ' poem h a s o n ly a b o u t o n e - t h i r d L f t h e d u r a t i o n o f th e s e c o n d , and a b o u t o n e - h a l f o f t h e ( d u r a tio n o f t h e t h i r d . One may s e e t h a t b o th a m p litu d e and (ju n c tu r e o c c u r a t i r r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s . B u t a t th e same tim e , t h e s t r i p d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t a s g r e a t i r r e g u l a r i t y aB waB o b s e r v e d i n t h e p r o s e p a s s a g e . The h i g h e s t a m p litu d e , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s t r e s s on t h e w o rd s ' t l s , u n l i k e , h e , s ta y s , f o r e x a m p le , o c c u r s a t r e g u l a r tim e i n t e r v a l s , r e g a r d l e s s of! t h e i n t e r v e n i n g num ber o f s y l l a b l e s . I ! 136 The fu n c tio n s t h a t a r e o f Im p o rtan ce , th e n , a re th e r e l a t i v e am p litu d e w ith in a s in g le s t r i p , r a t h e r th a n th e jam p litu d e o f one s t r i p com pared w ith a n o th e r , th e r e g u l a r i t y o f d u r a tio n betw een a m p litu d e s i n a s in g le ta p e , and th e r e g u l a r i t y o f d u r a tio n b o th betw een and w ith in J u n c tu re s i n a s in g le ta p e . t I W ith t h i s g e n e ra l in fo rm a tio n i n m ind, i t i s p o s s ib le to r e t u r n to th e d is c u s s io n , and to se e w hat s p e c ia l i n f o r m ation th e o s c illo g r a p h ic s t r i p s may y i e l d . In th e f i r s t c h a p te r o f t h i s s tu d y i t was p o in te d o u t t h a t Sm ith and T ra eg e r sim p ly c a l l s t r e s s lo u d n e s s .-’ A i c a s u a l ex a m in a tio n o f th e in c lu d e d film s t r i p s c l e a r l y i n - j i d ic a te s t h a t t h a t sim p ly i s n o t th e c a s e . Only r a r e l y in th e exam ples does w id e s t a m p litu d e c o rre sp o n d w ith s t r e s s a s m arked i n th e m e tr ic a l a n a ly s is . F u rth e rm o re , a c a s u a l ex a m in a tio n a ls o c l e a r l y r e v e a ls t h a t th e d eg re e o f a m p li tu d e i s n o t a t a l l c o n s is te n t w ith th e f o u r d e g re e s o f s t r e s s a s in d ic a te d i n th e a n a ly s is . F or in s ta n c e , in e x ample n in e b elow , th e o pening l i n e i s m arked as b e g in n in g w ith a t e r t i a r y s t r e s s im m ed iately fo llo w e d by a p rim ary s t r e s s , b u t th e o s c illo g r a p h shows no d i s t i n c t i o n betw een th e a m p litu d e o f th e t e r t i a r y and th e p rim ary s t r e s s . I t i s th e r e f o r e s a fe to assum e t h a t s t r e s s i s n o t acco m p lish ed i i j 5An o u tli n e o f E n g lis h S tr u c tu r e . S tu d ie s i n L in g u is - 1 t i c s , O c c a sio n a l P a p e rs , 3 (tforman, Oklahoma, 1 9 5 1 ). See p . 16 above. ........................... 1 3 7 b y lo u d n e s s a l o n e . W. F . T w a d d e ll h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t : t I n f u n c t i o n a l l i n g u i s t i c te r m s . . . a sound m ay be m ore p ro m in e n t th a n a n o th e r b y tim b r e , l e n g t h , o r a r t i c u l a t o r y e n e rg y w ith o u t b e in g lo u d e r i n a p h y s i c a l s e n s e i ( i . e . . w ith a so u n d -w av e o f g r e a t e r a m p litu d e o r o f g r e a t e r i n t e n s i t y ) . ° B u t again a cursory examination o f the film stripB reveals t h a t d u r a t i o n , o r l e n g t h , i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h : s t r e s s . E x a c tl y w h a t T w a d d e ll m eans b y tim b r e i s n o t c l e a r . ; I h e te rm i s u s u a l l y i n t e r p r e t e d to m ean t h e q u a l i t y o f r e s o n a n c e o f a v o ic e d sp e e c h s o u n d , b u t t h i s q u a l i t y I s n o t a t th e p r e s e n t tim e m e a s u ra b le I n any w ay. A r t i c u l a t o r y e n e rg y i s a n o th e r m a t t e r . I t i s th e v o c a l f o r c e , l i t e r a l l y j i t h e am ount o f a i r e x p e n d e d , i n m ak in g a s o u n d , v o ic e d o r j i u n v o ic e d . D i f f e r e n c e s i n a r t i c u l a t o r y e n e r g y may a c c o u n t j i f o r t h e o c c u r r e n c e c i t e d a b o v e fro m e x am p le n i n e , a s i t may a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t i n a l m o s t e v e r y i n s t a n c e j i n i t l a l w o rd s h a v e g r e a t a m p litu d e o n th e f i l m s t r i p s . B u t i f t h i s i s s o , i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t a r t i c u l a t o r y e n e r g y i s r e c o rd e d i n e x a c t l y th e same way b y t h e o s c i l l o g r a p h a s lo u d n e s s . A s t r a n g e I d e a r e s u l t s fro m t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . M ost c r i t i c s w i l l a g r e e t h a t a c e r t a i n w ord i n a g i v e n p a s s a g e c a r r i e s some s o r t o f s t r e s s , a lth o u g h th e y w i l l p r o b a b ly d i s a g r e e o n t h e d e g re e o f s t r e s s , w hen th e y a r e p r e s e n t e d w ith a g iv e n a u r a l v e r s i o n o f a poem . I t m ay be t h a t l i i ^ " S t e t s o n 's Model and th e 'S u p ra se g m e n ta l PhonemeB,,,l I L anguage. 2 9 :42Q,. 1953. S e e _ p 17..above. ............... j ~ 138 a n y c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e d e g r e e o f s t r e s s may r e s u l t from ^ d if f e r e n c e s i n th e p h y s i c a l a b i l i t y to p e r c e i v e s o u n d , and i jfrom th e p h y s i c a l l o c a t i o n o f th e l i s t e n e r i n r e l a t i o n to t h e o r i g i n o f th e s o u n d . I t may a l s o d e p e n d o n th e l i s t e n e r 's f a m i l i a r i t y w ith th e t e x t t h a t i s s p o k e n . I t i s a g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d f a c t i n c o m m u n ic a tio n t h e o r y t h a t th e m in d , a c t i n g a s a k in d o f e d i t i n g m a c h in e , s u p p l i e s o r a u g m e n ts w h a t i s r e c e i v e d b y t h e a u d i t o r y s e n s e t o b r i n g t h a t • r e c e p tio n i n t o a c c o rd w i t h w h a t i s e x p e c te d . T h u s, a p e r so n a c c u s to m e d to h e a r i n g n o n - n a t i v e s s p e a k h i s la n g u a g e becom es a b l e to u n d e r s t a n d them e a s i l y b e c a u s e h i s m ind sup-! p l i e s t h e i r d e f l c i e n c e s , and h e may e a s i l y becom e c o n v in c e d t h a t th e s p e a k e r s a r e much m ore a c c u r a t e th a n t h e y r e a l l y a r e . I n t h e sam e w ay, a c r i t i c c o n v in c e d o f a p a r t i c u l a r s e n s e r e a d i n g o f a g iv e n l i n e may i n t e r p r e t a l l a u r a l v e r s i o n s ( i . e . , p o s i t i o n s o f s t r e s s ) t o a g r e e w ith th e s e n s e r e a d i n g . I n g e n e r a l , t r a i n e d l i s t e n e r s w i l l a g r e e t h a t some s o r t o f s t r e s s h a s o c c u r r e d a t a g iv e n p o i n t . B u t no tw o l i s t e n e r s w i l l a g r e e o n w h a t p h y s i c a l phenom ena c a u s e d t h e s t r e s s . S t r e s s i s n o t l o u d n e s s ; i t i s n o t d u r a t i o n ; i t may b e t i m b r e , o r i t may b e a r t i c u l a t o r y e n e r g y , o r i t may b e some c o m b in a tio n o f t h e s e t h i n g s . The p o i n t , h o w e v e r, i s t h a t a t t h e moment no a c c e p t a b l e d e f i n i t i o n e x i s t s . Most e x istin g d e fin itio n s are predicated on the sim ila rities! t I b e tw e e n v e r s e and m u s ic , b u t t h e s e t h e o r i e s c a n n o t b e to o 1 c l o s e l y e x a m in e d . j 139, On th e o th e r hand, m ost p r o s o d is ts have ig n o re d th e I p roblem o f d u r a tio n , A g iv e n poem i s a c o n te x tu a l e n t i t y . flhe p r a c t i c e o f rem oving in d iv id u a l l i n e s from th e c o n te x t i to exam ine t h e i r m e tr ic a l s t r u c t u r e i s a f a l l a c y , b ec au se a m e tric a l s t r u c t u r e b e lo n g s to th e w hole. I t i s a p a r t o f a continuum . F u rth e rm o re , rem oving a l i n e from th e c o n te x t, o r even m arking th e w hole c o n te x t a c c o rd in g to th e conven t i o n a l m ethods o f s c a n s io n , Ig n o re s th e p u n c tu a tio n a s jforming p a r t o f th e w hole p a t t e r n . Hie o s c illo g r a p h ic b apes, b e in g v i s u a l r e p r e s e n ta ti o n s o f sound, show e x a c tly I iow im p o rta n t a p a r t o f th e p a t t e r n i s c r e a te d by th e ab sen ce o f sound a s w e ll a s by th e p re se n c e o f sound g iv e n in v a rio u s d e g re e s o f s t r e s s . I n f a c t , a g la n c e a t th e ta p e s shows t h a t a d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n In m ost c a s e s i s e s ta b lis h e d by th e a l t e r n a t i o n n o t o f s tr e s s e d and l e s s s tr e s s e d so u n d s, b u t o f sounds and s i l e n c e s . And t h i s p a t t e r n I s much more r e g u la r i n co n tem p o rary p o e try th a n th e p a t t e r n s c r e a te d by s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e s . I t i s u s u a lly conceded t h a t d u r a tio n Ls la r g e ly a fu n c tio n o f v o w els, and t h a t c o n so n an ts have r e l a t i v e l y c o n s ta n t d u r a tio n . S ile n c e s a ls o have v a ry in g d u r a tio n s . T hus, a rh y th m ic a l p a t t e r n can b e c l e a r l y e s ta b lis h e d by a l t e r n a t i n g v a r ia b le vowel sounds w ith v a ry in g 3i l e n c e s . Sense can b e added to such a p a t t e r n by su p p ly in g bhe n e c e s s a ry c o n so n a n ts o f r e l a t i v e l y c o n s ta n t d u r a tio n to s r e a te s y l l a b l e s around th e v o w els. The e x is te n c e o f th e i4 o rh y th m o f d u r a t i o n h a s b e e n p r e v i o u s l y r e c o g n iz e d , a lth o u g h I t h a s b e e n d i s c u s s e d i n t h e m o st am biguous te r m s . C r i t i c s o f t e n s p e a k o f l i n e s w h ich move a t some p a r t i c u l a r p a c e , » o f t e n m e t a p h o r i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d . The p a c e o f a l i n e i s p r o b a b ly l a r g e l y d e te rm in e d b y th e d u r a t i o n o f v o w e ls a n d J u n c t u r e s . I f en o u g h e x a m p le s w ere s t u d i e d , i t m ig h t b e p o s s i b l e to s e t f a i r l y d e te rm in e d tim e l i m i t s on lo n g , i n t e r m e d ia te , a n d s h o r t d u r a t i o n s . The te rm u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e h a s c r e a t e d a g r e a t d e a l o f d i f f i c u l t y . Any so u n d u t t e r e d m u st n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e some| d e g re e o f s t r e s s . The o s c i l l o g r a p h c l e a r l y r e v e a l s t h i s j f a c t . The o n ly t r u l y u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e i s no s y l l a b l e a t a l l . The w ork o f th e l i n g u i s t s h a s in d e e d b e e n v a l u a b l e , s i n c e th e y h a v e e li m i n a t e d th e c o n c e p t o f th e u n s t r e s s e d j s y l l a b l e fro m t h e i r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . I f o n e w is h e s t o r e t a i n jth e te r m , th e n i t w ould b e n e c e s s a r y to h a v e an o s c i l l o g r a p h i c p i c t u r e i n w h ich t h e v a r i o u s s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s j w o u ld a p p e a r o n ly ab o v e t h e m i d - l i n e , an d th e u n s t r e s s e d L y l l a b l e s b e lo w i t . B u t b e c a u s e a l l so u n d i s s t r e s s e d i n Isome d e g r e e , t h i s s o l u t i o n i s l i t e r a l l y im p o s s i b l e . C o m p ariso n o f t h e o s c i l l o g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f s e l e c t e d c o n te m p o ra ry p o e t r y w ith r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f w h at i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d r e g u l a r p o e t r y , h o w e v e r, r e v e a l t h a t t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n c l e a r d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e two fo rm s . The r e p e t i t i o n o f r e l a t i v e l y w id e r a m p litu d e and o f j u n c t u r e s I l 4 l o f r e l a t i v e l y e q u a l d u r a t i o n i s much m ore r e g u l a r and common jin o l d e r p o e t r y t h a n i n th e l a r g e s t p a r t o f th e m odern p o - I 7 l e t r y . 1 P o e tr y w ith a m ore r e g u l a r s t r u c t u r e , a s h a s b e e n I demonstrated in the d iscu ssion on pp. 132-137 above, pre sen ts a more regular p ictu re on the o scillo g ra p h . B allad s, conventional sonnets, heroic cou p lets, and in fa c t most h ig h ly regular forms containing strong rhyme and therefore Jm ore stron gly end-stopped lin e s , produce patterns o f sim i- la r in te r v a ls between s tr e sse s and between junctures. Verse which may be broadly defined as free verse i s le s s regular, and although patterns may be d etected in the o scillo g ra p h ic ; s tr ip s , such p atterns are le s s r ig id , more open, and more e r r a tic . A t t h e p r e s e n t t im e , t h e s e a r e th e o n l y f i n d i n g s w h ich i t i s s a f e t o d e d u c e fro m t h e o s c i l l o g r a p h i c m a t e r i a l s . The p e c u l i a r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f a m p litu d e s an d j u n c t u r e s l e a d s j jone t o a l l s o r t s o f s p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f l a n - jguage i n t h e b r o a d e r s e n s e , b u t u n t i l s u b s e q u e n t and m ore e x te n d e d s t u d i e s a r e c o n d u c te d , i t i s n o t s a f e to d raw any f u r t h e r c o n c l u s i o n s . M e re ly a s an e x am p le o f t h e k in d o f s p e c u l a t i o n im p l i e d ab o v e i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c i t e th e p ro b lem o f la n g u a g e t e a c h i n g . I f t h e o s c i l l o g r a p h a c t u a l l y g i v e s an a c c u r a t e p i c t u r e o f la n g u a g e rh y th m , i t c o u ld b e p o s s i b l e 1 7 ! 'S e e R o b e rt B . K a p la n , "A S tu d y o f W h itm a n 's P ro s o d y b y M eans o f O s c i l l o g r a p h i c S c a n s io n ," u n p u b lis h e d m a s t e r 's t h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a , 1957* A p p e n d ix . ” 142 ! t to r e v o l u t i o n i z e th e o r a l t e a c h i n g o f la n g u a g e b y im p le m e n t- jin g t h a t t e a c h i n g w ith v i s u a l m a t e r i a l s a s w e ll a s m e r e ly ja u r a l o n e s . B u t su c h s p e c u l a t i o n i s n o t i n a n y way c o n g r u e n t t o t h e s u b j e c t o f t h i s s t u d y . The l i n g u i s t i c s c a n s i o n , o r s u p r a s e g m e n ta l a n a l y s i s , i t s e l f p r o v i d e s c e r t a i n I n t e r e s t i n g i n s i g h t s i n t o th e s t r u c - i t u r e o f c o n te m p o ra ry p o e t r y an d i t s d i f f e r e n c e s fro m a l l o l d e r p o e t r y . To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , th e l i n g u i s t i c s c a n s io n r e i n f o r c e s t h e f i n d i n g s o f th e o s c i l l o g r a p h i c e x a m in a tio n , a t l e a s t i n so f a r t h a t i t show s c l e a r l y t h a t t h e r e p e t i t i o n 1 o f p r im a r y s t r e s s e s i s f a r m ore i r r e g u l a r i n c o n te m p o ra ry p o e t r y t h a n i t w as i n th e p a s t . I t a l s o show s t h a t t h e u s e o f j u n c t u r e s 1 b l e s s r e g u l a r ; t h a t c a e s u r a e f a l l a t i r r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s an d t h a t t h e te n d e n c y to w a rd e n d - s to p p e d l i n e s i s n o t common i n c o n te m p o ra ry p o e t r y . B u t t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e n o t new , and m ig h t w e ll h a v e b e e n m ade w ith o u t th e a i d o f l i n g u i s t i c s c a n s i o n . i ! The d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e two g e n e r a l l y s e p a r a t e ! jty p e s o f c o n te m p o ra ry p o e t s a r e m ore i n t e r e s t i n g . The p o e t s who h a v e b e e n p l a c e d i n t h e g ro u p c a l l e d t h e "New P u r i t a n s , " an d who h a v e b e e n q u o te d o n a num ber o f o c c a s io n s ab o v e a s b e l i e v i n g t h e i r m e t r i c s to b e o n ly v a r i a t i o n s o n lo n g e s t a b l i s h e d s y l l a b i c p a t t e r n s , t h e s e p o e t s w r i t e l i n e s w h ich m ore r e g u l a r l y a l t e r n a t e e i t h e r p r im a r y o r s e c o n d a ry s t r e s s e s w ith w eak s t r e s s e s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e i r l i n e s a r e l o n g e r , r u n n in g t o a b o u t n in e s y l l a b l e s a s an a v e ra g e a n d | 143 te n d in g to c o n t a i n odd n u m b ers o f s y l l a b l e s . T h e i r l i n e s [ten d t o c o n t a i n f e w e r I n t e r n a l J u n c t u r e s an d t o b e m ore com m only e n d - s to p p e d . S te p h e n S p e n d e r 's o p e n in g l i n e , I n e x am p le e i g h t b e lo w , f o r I n s t a n c e , I s a lm o s t p e r f e c t l y r e g u l a r i n i t s a l t e r n a t i o n o f s t r o n g an d w eak s t r e s s e s . I t i s e n d - s to p p e d , and I t c o n t a i n s no i n t e r n a l J u n c t u r e s . I t c o n t a i n s t h r e e p r im a r y s t r e s s e s , two s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s e s , and o n e t e r t i a r y s t r e s s ; t h u s , i f o n e d i s c o u n t s t h e r e l a t i v e l y w eak t e r t i a r y s t r e s s , th e l i n e c o n t a i n s f i v e s t r e s s e s i n t h e c o n v e n t io n a l s e n s e . I t a l s o c o n t a i n s f o u r w eak I s t r e s s e s . I f o n e c o m b in e s t h e s e w ith t h e t e r t i a r y s t r e s s , | one h a s f i v e q u i t e w eak a n d f i v e q u i t e s t r o n g s y l l a b l e s e x a c t l y a l t e r n a t e d , a n d t h e l i n e b ecom es a lm o s t p e r f e c t l y ia m b ic . T h e re i s , h o w e v e r, s u f f i c i e n t s u b t l e t y i n th e h a n d lin g o f th e l i n e to p r e v e n t i t s rh y th m fro m b e co m in g o b t r u s i v e . The p o e t s o f t h e "New P a g a n is m ," who a r e e x p e r im e n tin g w ith r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e s fro m c o n v e n t io n a l m e t e r , w r i t e l i n e s w hich a r e g e n e r a l l y s h o r t e r , r u n n in g t o a b o u t s i x s y l l a b l e s a s an a v e r a g e and te n d in g to c o n t a i n e v e n n u m b ers o f s y l l a b l e s . The a l t e r n a t i o n o f w eak and s t r o n g s t r e s s i n t h e s e l i n e s i s h i g h l y I r r e g u l a r , b y c o m p a ris o n w ith t h e o t h e r g ro u p . The l i n e s t e n d t o I n c l u d e g r e a t e r n u m b ers o f J u n c t u r e s , b u t n o t to b e e n d - s to p p e d a s com m only. W illia m C a r lo s W illia m s ' o p e n in g l i n e , I n ex am p le f i f t e e n b e lo w , i c o n t a i n s no w eak s y l l a b l e s . I t c o n t a i n s t h r e e p r im a r y 3M s t r e s s e s , two s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s e s , and o n e t e r t i a r y s t r e s s . E v en i f o n e d i s r e g a r d s th e t e r t i a r y s t r e s s , f i v e o f th e s i x 's y l l a b l e s i n t h e l i n e r e c e i v e r e l a t i v e l y h e a v y s t r e s s , and o n ly o n e s y l l a b l e r e c e i v e s r e l a t i v e l y w eak s t r e s s . M ore o v e r , t h e t e r t i a r y s t r e s s o c c u r s o n t h e f i f t h s y l l a b l e . The f i r s t two s t r e s s e s a r e o f e q u a l w e ig h t, so t h e r e c a n n o t b e s a i d t o b e any a l t e r n a t i o n o f s t r e s s a s s u c h . The r e a d - , I in g i s b y W illia m s , a n d h e r e a d s i n t e n t i o n a l l y w ith a c o n v e r s a t i o n a l f l a t n e s s w h ic h m akes d i s t i n c t i o n o f s t r e s s q u i t e • d i f f i c u l t . ! i The l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s , th e n , m e r e ly r e i n f o r c e s w h at ■might h a v e b e e n d is c o v e r e d b y c o n v e n t io n a l m e t r i c a l a n a l y s i s , e x c e p t t h a t i t m akes s l i g h t l y m ore s p e c i f i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e g r e e o f s t r e s s . More i m p o r t a n t l y , l i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s , b y r e c o g n i z i n g th e e x i s t e n c e o f j u n c t u r e a s a s u p r a s e g m e n ta l jphonem e, p o i n t s th e d i r e c t i o n f o r a f u l l e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f (the v a lu e o f p a u s e a n d d u r a t i o n i n e s t a b l i s h i n g r h y th m ic p a t t e r n s . The l i n g u i s t s an d t h e n o n - l i n g u i s t s a l i k e r e c o g n i z e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f s t r e s s , a lth o u g h n e i t h e r g ro u p h a s Ibeen a b l e to d e f i n e w h a t i t i s n o r to a g r e e o n i t s r e l a t i v e v a l u e . The l i n g u i s t s , h o w e v e r, b y i n s i s t i n g t h a t o n ly o r a l v e r s i o n s o f poem s may b e a n a l y s e d , h a v e f o r c e d p r o s o d i s t s t o r e c o g n i z e t h e a u r a l e x i s t e n c e o f a poem a s an e n t i t y c o n t a i n i n g n o t s t r e s s e d and u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s b u t p h o nem es i n a v a r i e t y o f s t r e s s l e v e l s a l t e r n a t e d w ith J u n e - j t u r e s a n d p a r t i a l l y p a t t e r n e d b y p i t c h i n c o n n e c tio n w ith ' 145 th e s e J u n c tu r e s . J u n c tu re and p itc h a re q u a l i t i e s w hich 8 iwere s tu b b o rn ly Ig n o re d by a g r e a t many e a r l i e r p r o s o d is ts . P erh ap s R onald S u th e rla n d h a s made th e saneB t s ta te m e n t !c o n c e rn in g th e two camps o f l i n g u i s t i c and c o n v e n tio n a l t p r o s o d is ts : I . . . much o f th e in fo rm a tio n ac cu m u lated by t h i s new j B cience [ l i n g u i s t i c s ] i s in c o n s e q u e n tia l to E n g lis h P ro s ody. . . . The a p p lic a tio n o f l i n g u i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s does | n o t have to i n t e r f e r e w ith th e p u rp o s e s , g e n e ra l m ethod- 1 o lo g y , o r c o n c lu s io n s o f th e p r o s o d is t, b u t can h e lp f u l - j f i l l h i s p u rp o s e s , c l a r i f y h i s m ethodology and f o r t i f y | h i s c o n c lu s io n s .9 In th e same way, c o n v e n tio n a l p ro so d y can c o n tr ib u te to th e j | m ethodology o f th e l i n g u i s t s . And, th e u se o f th e o s c l l l o - | scope can h e lp to overcom e th e one g r e a t o b je c tio n r a i s e d I a g a in s t th e l i n g u i s t s . T hat o b je c tio n h a s been m entioned I * > j e a r l i e r in t h i s p a p e r. The o b je c tio n i s t h a t th e l i n g u i s t s t ih e a r th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e su p ra se g m e n ta l phonem es. The i itwo tr a in e d l i n g u i s t s who p erfo rm ed th e l i n g u i s t i c a n a ly s is iwhich a p p e a rs in th e appendix o f t h i s stu d y w ere n o t a b le , ^o ften , to a g re e on w hat th e y w ere h e a rin g , a lth o u g h th e y iboth l i s t e n e d to e x a c tly th e same m a te r ia l u n d er e x a c tly th e same c irc u m s ta n c e s . The m a te r ia l in q u e s tio n h e re was ta p e re c o rd e d , and i t co u ld be re p la y e d i n d e f i n i t e l y . A spoken i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , ep h em eral a t b e s t , would p ro v e a much more d i f f i c u l t ta s k . I t i s m ost u n lik e ly t h a t a tr a in e d group o See th e h i s t o r i c a l d is c u s s io n , p p . 9-15 above. i ^ " S tr u c tu r a l L in g u is tic s and E n g lis h P ro so d y ," C o lle g e j iE n g lish , O c to b e r , _ 1958, pp. 12, 1 7 .......................................... j 146 would be a b le to a g re e In such a case.**’ 0 B ut th e v is u a l r e p r e s e n ta ti o n p ro v id e d by an o s c illo g r a p h co u ld remove some o f th e a r e a s o f d is p u t e . T h is i s n o t to s u g g e s t t h a t an o s c illo g r a p h 1b i n f a l l i b l e . The m achine t r a n s c r i b e s o n ly w hat i t h e a r s . I t w i l l g iv e an a c c u ra te wave p ic tu r e o f any s in g le re a d in g o f a poem. The o s c illo g r a p h h a s n o th in g to do d i r e c t l y w ith th e w r i t t e n poem a s i t a p p e a rs on th e page o f a book. Only when th e sounds o f th e poem have been a c tu a liz e d in to a re a d in g can th e o s c illo g r a p h be made o f any u s e . F u r th e r , an o s c illo g r a p h ca n n o t d is t in g u is h betw een an i n t e l l i g e n t and a f o o lis h re a d in g o f a g iv e n \ poem. T h ere I s no q u e s tio n t h a t th e s e n s e , th e l i t e r a l m eaning, o f c o n s titu e n t p a r t s m ust be ta k e n i n to a c co u n t i n any a n a ly s is o f any p a r t o f a poem. F i n a l l y , an o s c i l l o g rap h w i l l n o t p ro v id e a co m p lete a n a ly s is o f a poem. The ^machine p ro v id e s o n ly a wave p ic tu r e o f th e sound, and th e Isound I s o n ly one p a r t o f th e w h o le. The o s c illo g r a p h , a lo n g w ith o th e r a c c e p te d m ethods o f p ro s o d ic a n a ly s is , can p ro v id e I n s i g h t I n to th e rh y th m ic s t r u c t u r e o f a g iv e n poem and in to th e r e l a t i v e p la c e o f t h a t rh y th m ic s t r u c t u r e in th e t o t a l rh y th m ic s t r u c t u r e o f th e lan g u ag e a s a w hole. In so f a r a s i t can do t h a t , th e m achine can h e lp in th e f i n a l u n d e rs ta n d in g o f a poem. B ut th e n , n e i t h e r conven- 10Bor an I l l u s t r a t i o n o f th e co m p lex ity o f th e problem jof ag reem en t among I n t e r p r e t e r s , se e Seymour Chatman, ("R obert F r o s t 's 'M ow ing's An I n q u iry i n t o P ro so d ic S tru c t u r e ,.!L.K enyonJtevlew ^ . l 8 : .421-438,. .1956. i ____ i t l o n a l n o r l i n g u i s t i c s c a n s io n a re en d s i n th e m se lv e s. A ll jth re e te c h n iq u e s , c o n v e n tio n a l, l i n g u i s t i c , and o s c i l l o g r a p h ic a re m erely te c h n ic a l d e v ic e s in te n d e d to a s s i s t in th e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f a h ig h ly com plex a r t i s t i c e n t i t y . A ll ' th r e e w orking to g e th e r may be o f g r e a t e r s e r v ic e i n p erfo rm in g t h a t fu n c tio n th a n any one m ig h t be s e p a r a te ly , s in c e a l l th r e e c o n tr ib u te to th e g e n e ra l know ledge o f th e s t r u c tu r e o f la n g u a g e, and p o e try i s an a r t form e x i s t i n g w ith in th e s t r u c t u r e o f a g iv e n la n g u ag e. I t was a seco n d ary in t e n t i o n i n t h i s s tu d y to demon s t r a t e th e u s e f u ln e s s o f th e o s c illo g r a p h i n u n d e rs ta n d in g j th e m e tr ic a l s tr u c t u r e o f a poem. I n summary, th e o s c i l l o - j graph alo n e h as no such u s e f u ln e s s , b u t p u t In th e s e r v ic e Df b o th ( o r e i t h e r ) c o n v e n tio n a l o r l i n g u i s t i c p ro so d y , th e nachine can c o n tr ib u te by p ro v id in g a perm anent v is u a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f w hat m ust o th e rw is e be ephem eral b ec au se o f • ithe v e ry n a tu re o f sound. In t h i s s tu d y , th e o s c illo g r a p h h a s se rv e d e x a c tly t h a t p u rp o se ; nam ely to p ro v id e a p e r - i m anent p ic tu r e o f th e sound, and by means o f th e p ic tu r e to supplem ent b o th th e c o n v e n tio n a l and th e l i n g u i s t i c exam ina- bion o f th e rhythm i n s e le c te d co n tem p o rary v e r s e . CHAPTER V I CONCLUSIONS # • * a U C l / J L j r dm O D p C w v i l J i l l w h ic h t h e i n s t r u m e n t c o u n ts . P o e t r y i s s p e e c h i n a s w e l l a s t h e m ea n in g p o e t r y i s s p e e c h f o r i t s own s a k e an d f o r i t s own s w e e t n e s s .! I t h a s b e e n t h e p u rp o s e o f t h i s s t u d y to I n v e s t i g a t e c o n te m p o ra ry t h e o r i e s o f rh y th m an d m e te r , t o t r y to d i s - L o v er w h e th e r an y g e n e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s may b e draw n fro m th e d i s o r g a n i z e d an d d i v e r s e b u lk o f a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l b o th I n th e poem s th e m s e lv e s an d i n th e c r i t i c a l p ro n o u n c e m e n ts o f ;the p o e t s . A g r e a t d e a l o f m a t e r i a l h a s b e e n s i f t e d and ! t h e s e e m in g ly v a l u a b l e com m ents h a v e b e e n d raw n t o g e t h e r I n th e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s . I t r e m a in s now to t r y to e x t r a c t fro m t h e s e com m ents some c o n c e p t o f w h a t i s h a p p e n in g , m e t r i c a l l y s p e a k in g , i n c o n te m p o ra ry p o e t r y . © l i s s tu d y s u f f e r s fro m a t l e a s t tw o s e r i o u s f a l l a c i e s . Che f i r s t o f t h e s e m ig h t b e c a l l e d t h e a c a d e m ic f a l l a c y ; Jh a t i s , ta k i n g p o e t s a t t h e i r w o rd . Two lo n g c h a p t e r s h a v e je e n d e v o te d t o t h e c o l l a t i o n o f t h e c r i t i c a l s t a te m e n t s o f ■^George S a n ta y a n a , "T he E le m e n ts an d F u n c tio n o f P o - i ' “ “ ‘ s t a t i o n s o f P o e tr y and R e l i g i o n (New Y o rk , t h e p o e t s r e g a r d i n g t h e i r t h e o r i e s . P o e ts a r e i n g e n e r a l a I p e c u l i a r g r o u p . T hey a r e g iv e n to b e l i e f i n t h e m yth o f j p o e t i c c r e a t i o n , a n d t h e y a r e o f t e n a r d e n t s u p p o r t e r s o f Jth a t m y th ; so much so t h a t th e y i n t e n t i o n a l l y make s t a t e m e n ts w h ich a r e o r a c u l a r an d a m b ig u o u s. I t i s a ls o a com mon p o p u l a r b e l i e f t h a t p o e t s do n o t a s a r u l e make good |C r itic B , an d t h a t t h e y a r e l e a s t c a p a b le o f e x p l a i n i n g w h a t th e y th e m s e lv e s h a v e d o n e . T h is i s t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e myth o f p o e t i c c r e a t i o n , t h e p u b l i c s i d e . B o th s i d e s c o n s p i r e t o p l a c e th e p o e t o u tB id e th e c o m p re h e n s io n o f m ere p e o p le , and t o endow him w ith a p e c u l i a r a i r so t h a t e v e n I f h e d o e s t e l l t h e t r u t h a b o u t h i s a r t no o n e w i l l b e l i e v e I jhlm. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s s tu d y h a s q u o te d p o e t s a t l e n g t h , jon th e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t b e in g a p o e t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m ake a man a l i a r , and o n th e f u r t h e r s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e |id e a f o r a poem may a r r i v e i n a b l i n d i n g i n s p i r a t i o n a l j i f l i g h t , b u t t h e w r i t i n g o f a poem i s w o rk w h ic h r e q u i r e s i c o n s c io u s a w a re n e s s o f t e c h n i q u e . I n th e c o n te m p o ra ry j s o c i e t y , m any p o e t s a r e a l s o t e a c h e r s , a n d a s te a c h e r B t h e y h a v e p r a c t i c e i n v e r b a l i z i n g a te c h n iq u e a n d t h e t h e o r y b e h in d i t . T h e re i s a re n e w e d I n t e r e s t i n p r o s o d y , r e s u l t i n g p r o b a b ly fro m t h e new a p p ro a c h t o p r o s o d y o p e n e d th r o u g h l i n g u i s t i c c o n c e p ts . I n t h e r e c e n t p a s t t h e r e w as a l a c k o f j I n t e r e s t i n p r o s o d y b e c a u s e I t w as c o r r e c t l y f e l t t h a t t h e m ere n am ing o f a m e te r I s a s i n s i g n i f i c a n t t o th e u n d e r - 150 s ta n d in g o f a poem a s th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f a work acc o rd in g I |to th e 250 r h e t o r i c a l f ig u r e s would b e . B ut p ro so d y can n o t 1 I b e dlBmlBsed a s I r r e l e v a n t , o r a s m erely fo rm a l, o r as a seco n d ary q u e s tio n . G e n e ra tio n s o f p o e ts have shown th e c e n t r a l s ig n if ic a n c e o f rhythm . I f a c r i t i c , In d e s p a ir o f g iv in g a s e rio u s d e f i n i t i o n o f p o e try , sh o u ld be s a t i s f i e d w ith sa y in g t h a t p o e try I s m e tr ic a l d is c o u rs e , he would no doubt be g iv in g an In a d e q u a te acco u n t o f th e m a tte r , y e t n o t one o f w hich he need be ashamed o r which he sh o u ld re g a rd as s u p e r f i c i a l . Al though a poem be n o t made by c o u n tin g o f s y ll a b le s upon th e f in g e r s , y e t "num bers" i s th e m ost p o e t ic a l synonym we have f o r v e r s e , and "m easure” th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t e q u iv a le n t f o r b e a u ty , f o r g o o d n ess, and p erh ap s even f o r t r u t h . Those e a r ly and p ro fo u n d p h ilo s o p h e rs , th e f o l lo w ers o f P y th a g o ra s, saw th e e sse n c e o f a l l th in g s in j num ber, and I t was by w e ig h t, m easure, and number, as we re a d in th e B ib le , t h a t th e C re a to r f i r s t b ro u g h t N ature j o u t o f th e v o id . Every human a r c h i t e c t m ust do lik e w is e w ith h i s e d i f i c e ; he m ust mould h i s b r ic k s o r hew h is s to n e s In to sy m m etrical s o li d s and la y them o y e r one an o th e r In r e g u la r s t r a t a , l i k e a p o e t 's l i n e s . 2 The second, and p e rh a p s more s e rio u s f a l l a c y , i s th e I scope o f th e w ork. As i t s ta n d s , t h i s work p r e s e n ts l i t t l e more th a n a su rv e y , an o v e r-v ie w , o f th e f i e l d . L ike any i 1 su rv e y , i t s f in d in g s m ust n e c e s s a r ily be g e n e r a l. T his i s n o t to d is p a ra g e what h as been done. T here seems to be a n eed f o r some such su rv ey a s t h i s p u r p o rts to b e . But i t i s more im p o rta n t to g e t a t th e in d iv id u a l p o e ts th e m se lv e s. Each o f th e p o e ts d is c u s s e d h e re i s w orthy o f c o n s id e ra b le stu d y in h i s own r i g h t . Wiese p o e ts have been chosen i la r g e ly b ecau se th e y have been i n f l u e n t i a l , as w e ll as f o r o c _ 2S an tay an a, "The E lem ents and F u n ctio n o f P o e try ," p . i??!.*--------- ------------ . ---- -------------- ------ ---- ................................................ ■ ............................... 151 I re a s o n s o u tlin e d I n e a r l i e r c h a p te r s . These p o e ts have s e t jthe l i t e r a r y s t y l e s o f th e ag e . Ih e y a r e , e v e ry one o f jthem, w id e ly I m ita te d by y o u n g er p o e ts . The te c h n iq u e s which have b ee n d ev e lo p ed and p r e s e n te d i n t h i s s tu d y a re te c h n iq u e s w hich now o u g h t to be i n t e n s i v e l y a p p lie d to i n - jd iv id u a l p o e ts . I t i s u n f a i r to Judge a p o e t on th e b a s is o f th e e v id e n c e g a th e re d from one o r two poem s, and i t i s u n f a ir to Judge an age from e v id e n c e g a th e re d from so sm a ll a sam p le. T here i s no a tte m p t to Judge h e r e , o n ly to draw g e n e r a liz a ti o n s , and p e rh a p s to p o in t a d i r e c t i o n . B ut th e age and th e men w i l l have to be Judged. T h is work may be c o n s id e re d a s a k in d o f p r e lim in a r y s tu d y le a d in g to a j c r i t i c a l th e o ry o f th e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c tio n o f rh y th m . I t may le a d to a means f o r Judgm ent; I t i s n o t in te n d e d to Judge p r e s e n t l y . The b e s t s t a r t f o r f u r t h e r stu d y would l i e in a s e r i e s o f th o ro u g h a n a ly s e s o f s p e c i f i c poem s, j f i r s t by th e same a u th o r , and su b s e q u e n tly i n com parison vd.th o th e r a u th o r s . The p o in t, th e n , I s t h a t t h i s Btudy i s ay no means th e l a s t w ord; i t I s o n ly th e b a r e s t b e g in n in g . K a rl S h a p iro , who I s u s u a lly c r e d i te d w ith knowing th e w ritin g s In th e f i e l d o f p ro so d y b e t t e r th a n m ost contem po ra ry c r i t i c s , w r i t e s ; One o f th e m ost d i s t r e s s i n g a s p e c ts o f th e stu d y o f Eng l i s h p ro so d y , w h e th e r a s th e o ry o f form s o r a s v e r s i f i c a t i o n , i s th e n e c e s s ity o f b e g in n in g w ith a b s o lu te fu n d a m e n ta ls and w orking up th ro u g h an enorm ous c o p la o f u n - i s c i e n t i f i c s c h o la r s h ip , a n a ly s e s w hich have n o t even ; p re m is e s i n common, and th e p r e ju d ic e s o f th e p o etB , c r i t i c s and s tu d e n ts o f th e p a s t th r e e and a h a l f c e n - 1 5 2 t u r i e s . I do n o t mean to say t h a t I have done t h i s , o r in te n d t o , e x c e p t a s an am ateu r, b u t I w ant to p o in t o u t . . . t h a t i f th e re i s any one c e r t a i n t y i n t h i s f i e l d o f s tu d y i t i s t h a t d is s e n s io n h as been th e r u l e from b e - ! g in n in g to e n d .3 C e rta in th in g s , how ever, may be ta k e n f o r g r a n te d . To make a good poem, m eter i s n o t enough. T h is was one o f th e c h ie f o b je c tio n s o f th e f r e e - v e r s e p o e ts o f th e e a r l y tw e n tie th c e n tu ry to th e p r a c t ic e s o f t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o rs . As R. P. [Blackmur p o in ts o u t: T h is i s th e c h ie f in d ic tm e n t a g a in s t t h a t a s p e c t o f o u r p o e try w hich we c a l l v e r s e . S y lla b le and s t r e s s a r e n o t enough to make a m e tric in to a s t y l e , a lth o u g h th e y a re q u ite enough to make a doggerel.4 i Most contem porary w r i te r s have em barked on a s e a rc h fo r| ! a more s p e e c h - lik e , p ro s a ic e x p re s s io n h av in g c o n c re te s y l- I la b le r e l a t i o n s , word g ro u p in g s, and in to n a tio n s . TOiese j were so u g h t i n th e contem porary speech h a b i ts as w e ll a s in jthe r e v is e d p o e tic t r a d i t i o n s . Some o f th e e x p e rim e n ts have i gone even f u r th e r , in an e f f o r t to c r e a te in d iv id u a l s t r u c - l |tu re s rh y th m ic a lly more o rg a n iz e d th a n i s p o s s ib le i n m e tr i- • c a l v e r s e . The phenom enological ev id en ce i s t h a t f r e e rh y thms may have a more rh y th m ic a l and l e s s p r o s a ic im p act th a n many m e tr ic a l t e x t s . They a re o f te n h ig h ly o rg a n iz e d and a re n o t n e c e s s a r ily in a b o rd e r a r e a betw een p ro se and po e t r y . I ^ " E n g lis h Prosody and Modern P o e try ," ELH, 1 4 :7 7 , 1947.1 ^"L ord T en n y so n 's S c is s o r s ," Form and V alue in Modern P o e try (New Y ork, 1 9 5 7 )^ p . 373* 1 5 3 T h ere i s a m is u n d e r s ta n d in g -g o in g b ack to th e G reek s— j w hich r e q u ir e s s t r i c t num bers a s th e o n ly d i f f e r e n t i a o f j p o e tr y . S t r i c t num bers a re n o t o n ly i n s u f f i c i e n t b u t j a l s o u n n e c e s s a ry . They can e a s i l y l i m i t th e f l e x i b i l i t y i and v a r i e t y o f e x p r e s s io n . M oreover, a lth o u g h th e num eri c a l r e l a t i o n s in f r e e rhythm s a r e a d i s t i n c t i v e rh y th m ic a l f a c t o r , i t rem ain s a f a l l a c y to say t h a t th e l e s s s t r i c t th e num bers a re th e c l o s e r we a re to p r o s e . As s tu d ie s i n p ro se rhythm show, i t i s p o s s ib le to f in d p ro s e t h a t i s n u m e ric a lly more ''r e g u la r 1 ' —on a l l l e v e l s — th a n a re many poems. F u rth e rm o re , p ro se ap p ro ach in g r e g u l a r i t y so u n d s more "m u sic a l" and o f te n more m onotonous th a n many poems ap p ro ach in g p r o s e .5 Iam bic p e n ta m e te r may sound p r o s e - l i k e , a s i t does f o r ex ample i n th e S h ak esp earean s o l i l o q u i e s , w hereas i r r e g u l a r n u m e ric al r e l a t i o n s can become a rh y th m ic a l elem e n t m erely by d i f f e r i n g from r e g u la r p r o s e . Modern p o e try u s e s a s a co n sp icu o u s rh y th m ic d e v ic e la rg e num bers o f w eakly s tr e s s e d s y l l a b le s on th e one h an d , and f re q u e n t a d ja c e n t s t r e s s on th e o th e r . S im ila r ly , a common rh y th m ic d e v ic e in modern p o e try i s th e ju x ta p o s it io n o f a lo n g l i n e and a v e ry s h o r t b n e, a lth o u g h o f c o u rse th e e f f e c t c r e a te d h e re i s n o t th e r e s u l t o f n u m e ric a l r e g u l a r i t y o r i r r e g u l a r i t y . i M ajor rh y th m ic d if f e r e n c e s betw een poems o f te n depend l a r g e l y on th e r e s p e c tiv e le n g th o f l i n e . I t i s a g e n e ra l te n d en cy in m odern v e rs e to w r ite s h o r t l i n e s . M arianne Moore and W hitman, o b v io u s ly , s in c e th e y w r ite th e lo n g e s t l i n e s in E n g lis h p o e tr y , m ust be e x c e p tio n s . T h e ir l i n e s , how ever, a p p e a r to be made up o f sim p le c o r r e la te d g ro u p s ^B enjam in H ru sh o v sk l, "On F ree Rhythms in Modern Po e t r y . " S ty le i n Language, e d . Thomas A. Sebeok (New Y ork, I 9 6 0 ) , p . 185. 154. o f s t r e s s e s , two o r more to th e l i n e . Hie number o f s t r e s s e s I n ea ch o f th e c o r r e la t e d g ro u p s i s s m a ll, and t h e r e f o r e c o n s p ic u o u s, w hich b r in g s th e s e l o c a l s t r e s s e s L nto prom inence and r e l a t i v e , te m p o ra ry in d ep en d en ce and [ is o la tio n from th e lo n g e r l i n e a r o r s y n t a c t i c a l flo w . i ! j T hus, in summary, m ost co n tem p o rary p o e tr y may be c h a r a c te r iz e d a s some k in d o f f r e e v e rs e s t r i v i n g a f t e r rh y th m ic e f f e c t s w hich w i l l a p p ro x im a te co n tem p o rary sp e ech . Tree v e r s e , how ever, i s n o t a t r u l y i d e n t i f i a b l e th in g ; L a th e r i t i s a g e n e r a l term c o v e rin g a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f m et-j r i c a l e x p e rim e n ts co n d u cted b etw een ro u g h ly 1900 and th e p re s e n t tim e . H ie e x p re s s io n f r e e v e rs e p ro b a b ly came i n to Deing o n ly as a common c ry f o r freedom from th e more r i g i d form s o f much n in e te e n th c e n tu ry p o e tr y . Hie rh y th m ic a l e f f e c t s have b ee n a c h ie v e d i n two s e p a r a te ways by d i f f e r e n t p o e t s . On th e one h an d , c e r t a i n p o e ts have d e riv e d b h e ir rh y th m ic e f f e c t s from th e h a b i t s o f co n tem p o rary speech co u p led w ith a r e v is e d p o e tic t r a d i t i o n . H iese a re th e p o e ts who m ig h t be g ro u p ed u n d e r th e h e a d in g "H ie New P u r i t a n s ," as th e y have been i n e a r l i e r c h a p te r s , o r u n d e r bhe h e a d in g "A p o llo n ia n P o e ts ," a f t e r R o b e rt G ra v es. H ie work o f th e s e poetB i s c h a r a c te r iz e d n o t by a freedom from c o n v e n tio n a l m e te r, b u t o n ly by a r e v is e d and f r e e r u s e o f c o n v e n tio n a l m e te r. H iese a re th e p o e ts who su rro u n d E l i o t and Auden. T hese a re th e p o e ts who have v o ic e d th e m ost j common and th e m ost ab u n d an t c r i t i c a l s ta te m e n ts . One m ightj ;............................. ”” ......... 155: s a y , t h e s e a r e th e c la s s r o o m p o e t s . T hey a r e e a s i e r to j t e a c h t o u n d e r g r a d u a t e s , b e c a u s e t h e i r m e t r i c s a r e n o t r e a l l y f a r rem o v ed o u t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n . And i t I s p e r h a p s J e x a c tly h e r e t h a t t h e i r d a n g e r l i e s . I t I s t r u e t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n a g e n e r a l te n d e n c y i n c o n te m p o ra ry p o e t r y to w a rd s y n t a c t i c a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , b u t t h a t te n d e n c y d o e s n o t go so f a r i n t h e p o e t s o f t h i s g r o u p , b e c a u s e i t i s h e l d i n c h e c k jby t h e m e t r i c a l fo rm s th e m s e lv e s . T h ese p o e t s may becom e d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e t h e i r r e f e r e n c e s a r e o b s c u r e , o r b e c a u s e t h e i r sy m b o ls a r e p e r s o n a l , o r b e c a u s e th e y em ploy f o r e i g n w o rd s , b u t r a r e l y b e c a u s e s y n t a c t i c a l s e n s e c a n n o t b e m ade j i o f w h a t t h e y s a y . T h e i r w o rk s c a n b e p a r a p h r a s e d , an d th e p a r a p h r a s a b l e c o n te n t c a n b e t a u g h t i n s t e a d o f t h e poem i n th e u n d e r g r a d u a t e c la s s r o o m . B u t th e v e r y r i s e o f t h e h u g e f r e e - v e r s e m ovem ent, o n b o th s i d e s o f t h e A t l a n t i c , w o u ld seem t o b e a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e o l d e r fo rm s w i l l no jlo n g e r s e r v e t h e p u r p o s e s o f new p o e t s . As h a s b e e n s t a t e d e a r l i e r , new p o e t s a r e g r o p in g to w a rd new i d e a s , a n d th e e x i s t i n g form B an d m e t e r s , w h ic h a r e n e a t an d fo rm e d , c a n n o t c o n t a i n t h e f e r m e n t, t h e c o n f u s i o n , t h e c o n t r a d i c t o r y n o t i o n s o f r e a l i t y w h ic h a r e t h e s u b j e c t s o f t h e c o n te m p o r a r y p o e t . I n e v e r y a g e , t h e p o e t b r i n g s h i s rh y th m i n t o r e a s o n a b l e a p p r o x im a tio n to t h e s p e e c h rh y th m o f h i s tim e . S o m etim es h e p l a y s a f o r m a l rh y th m a g a i n s t th e s p e e c h rhythn^ to c r e a t e a t e n s i o n o f a s o r t . S o m etim es h e m akes h i s \ rh y th m c o p y t h e p r o s e s p e e c h i n o n ly s l i g h t l y h e ig h t e n e d 156 fo rm . B u t s t u d i e s I n p r o s e rh y th m show t h a t e v e n t h e s p e e c h j rh y th m s h a v e c h a n g e d r a d i c a l l y , an d t h a t th e t r a d i t i o n w hich i i s e r v e d E n g lis h m e n c a n no l o n g e r s e r v e A m ericans b e c a u s e th e i rh y th m s o f t h e tw o la n g u a g e s h a v e m oved to o f a r a p a r t . E ng- p o e t s a r e n o t a s f r e e to e x p e r im e n t a s A m e ric a n s , b e c a u s e a s A uden p o i n t e d o u t t h e E n g li s h p o e t I s to o c l o s e to she t r a d i t i o n . T h is m ovem ent I s q u i t e c o n s o n a n t w ith th e 3 e a rc h f o r new m y th . E l i o t an d h i s f o l l o w e r s t u r n e d t o th e p a s t f o r m y th , a n d so t h e y a l s o t u r n e d t o th e p a s t f o r new r h y th m s . T h is g r o u p , a n d i t s n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p r e d e c e s - j 3 o rs , w e n t t o A n g lo -S a x o n an d to M id d le - E n g lis h f o r i t s r h y th m s . E l i o t h a s s t a t e d t h a t h e so m e tim e s s t r i v e s a f t e r ih e rh y th m s o f M id d le E n g li s h a c c e n t u a l m e t e r . Auden h a s e x p e r im e n te d w ith A n g lo -S a x o n a l l i t e r a t i v e m e t e r . On the other hand, certain poetB have tr ie d to create I i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r e s w h ic h a r e r h y t h m i c a l l y m ore o r g a n iz e d lh a n i s u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e i n m e t r i c a l v e r s e . T h e se a r e th e p o e t s who m ig h t b e g ro u p e d u n d e r t h e h e a d in g "T he New P a g - i n s ," a s t h e y h a v e b e e n i n t h e e a r l i e r c h a p t e r s o f t h i s s tu d y , o r u n d e r t h e h e a d in g "Moon P o e t s ," a f t e r R o b e r t r a v e s . The w o rk o f t h e s e p o e t s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a f r e e - om fro m c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t e r . I h i s g ro u p i n c l u d e s men l i k e W illia m s a n d S t e v e n s . T h ese p o e t s , a s a g e n e r a l r u l e , a re l o t g i v e n t o m ak in g c r i t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e i r fo rm . j V e ry fe w , i f a n y , o f t h e s e p o e t s h a v e d o n e a n y c o n s i s t e n t b e a c h in g , a lth o u g h a l l h a v e , a t o n e tim e o r a n o t h e r , d e - j liv e r e d o c c a s io n a l l e c t u r e s o r r e a d in g s . B ecause th e y a re i m ore d i f f i c u l t to u n d e r s t a n d , t h e s e p o e t s a r e o f t e n s l i g h t e d | i n t h e c la s s r o o m . The g r e a t e r fre e d o m o f t h e m e t r i c a l i [form s em p lo y ed b y them g i v e s them a g r e a t e r s y n t a c t i c a l fre e d o m , an d t o g e t h e r t h e s e tw o f a c t o r s make i t d i f f i c u l t |to t e a c h them t o u n d e r g r a d u a t e s . L ik e W illia m s , t h e y a r e o f t e n c o m p le te ly o u t s i d e th e t r a d i t i o n s o f E n g lis h v e r s e , o r , l i k e T hom as, t h e y p u t vrords t o g e t h e r i n s u c h s t r a n g e c o m b in a tio n s t h a t i t b eco m es l i t e r a l l y im p o s s ib le to p a r a p h r a s e w h at t h e y a r e s a y in g . As a r e s u l t , th e t e a c h e r i s ! poems n o n s e n s e and r e f u s e to te a c h th e m . I h e s e p o e t s , a l th o u g h n o t a lw a y s w ith g r e a t s u c c e s s , a r e g r o p in g f o r new jways t o e x p r e s s th e new and c o n t r a d i c t o r y i d e a s o f r e l a t i v i t y an d c o n tin u u m . L ik e W illia m s , t h e y a r e o f t e n t r y i n g to [fo r i t . I n t h e same w ay, th e y a r e n o t t u r n i n g to th e p a s t f o r r h y th m ic fo rm s , b u t a r e t r y i n g t o c r e a t e new r h y th m ic fo rm s o u t o f t h e fu n d a m e n ta l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e l a n g u a g e . L ik e W hitm an, th e y a r e s e e k in g w h a t i s " o r g a n i c 1 1 i n th e la n g u a g e r a t h e r t h a n w h a t h a s b e e n im p o sed u p o n i t fro m w i t h o u t. T h e re a r e m ore A m e ric an s i n t h i s g ro u p th a n t h e r e a r e E n g lis h m e n , p r o b a b ly b e c a u s e A m e ric a n s a r e f u r t h e r r e moved o u t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f E n g lis h p o e t r y a n d E n g li s h T hey to o a r e t r y i n g t o a p p ro x im a te th e p r o s e ! f o r c e d e i t h e r to r e a l l y te a c h th e poem , o r to d e c l a r e t h e s e c r e a t e a new m y th o lo g y , r a t h e r th a n r e t u r n i n g to t h e p a s t o f c o n te m p o ra ry s p e e c h , b u t th e y seem t o r e c o g n i z e 158 t h a t th e s e p ro se rhythm s a re somehow d i f f e r e n t from w hat h a s been th o u g h t. I h i s group I s le s s I n te g r a te d th a n th e jform er g ro u p . A lthough each o f th e m ajo r f ig u r e s h a s a c q u ire d many i m i t a t o r s , th e le a d e r s th e m se lv es c a n n o t be p u t in to s c h o o ls . Each seems to h av e approached th e problem i n d iv i d u a ll y and to have a r r iv e d a t in d iv id u a l r e s u l t s . I t i s p ro b a b ly w ith t h i s g ro u p t h a t th e r e a l f u tu r e o f Ameri can p o e try l i e s , f o r a lth o u g h t h e i r th e o r i e s a r e num erous and d i s p a r a te , th e s tu d i e s o f l i n g u i s t i c p r o s o d is ts may u l tim a te ly b e a b le to d e r iv e a c o n s is te n t and u n if ie d co n cep t o f th e s t r u c t u r e o f co n tem p o rary m e tr ic a l la n g u a g e . j C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a re n o t alw ays u s e f u l . Ih ey become ends in th e m s e lv e s . I t i s n o t th e p u rp o se o f t h i s stu d y to c r e a te r i g i d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o r to i n s i s t t h a t th e s e two g ro u p s have n o th in g in common. R a th e r, th e p o in t i s t h a t i n co n tem p o rary p o e try th e r e a p p e a r to b e a t l e a s t two d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f ap p ro ac h es to th e problem o f m e te r and j rhythm . One o f th e s e ap p ro a c h es i s more o r l e s s conven t i o n a l . I t a c c e p ts w hat a lre a d y e x i s t s and m erely t r i e s to a r r i v e a t a new way o f t r e a t i n g th e e x i s t i n g form . The o th e r o f th e s e two k in d s o f ap p ro ac h es i s much b ig g e r . For th e p u rp o se o f c r e a tin g t h i s d iv is io n , a l l s o r t s o f h ig h ly I n d iv id u a l e x p e rim e n ts have b een a r b i t r a r i l y lumped to - ; g e th e r to form th e second g ro u p . Hie f i r s t g roup i s r e a l l y j i I n t e g r a l . Ih e second gro u p i s n o t a gro u p a t a l l , e x c e p t t h a t i t I n c lu d e s a l l ap p ro ach es o u ts id e o f t h a t one w hich 159 c h a r a c t e r i z e s th e f i r s t g r o u p . I f o n e p l a c e s a s o l i d m e ta l b l o c k o n o n e s i d e o f a p a i r o f s c a l e s an d b a l a n c e s i t w ith a h a n d f u l o f m e ta l s h o t , o n e h a s two m a s s e s o f t h e same jw e ig h t, b u t o n e m ass i s s o l i d , an d th e o t h e r i s m ade up o f jin d e p e n d e n t i n d i v i d u a l s . T h a t I s m ore o r l e s s t h e s i t u a t i o n h e r e . The two g r o u p s , "New P u r i t a n s " an d "New P a g a n s ," m ore o r l e s s c o u n te r b a l a n c e e a c h o t h e r i n m a s s, b u t th e j g ro u p o f th e "New P u r i t a n s " p r e s e n t s a u n i t e d t h e o r e t i c and a c a d e m ic f r o n t , w h ile th e g ro u p o f th e "New P a g a n s" i s com p o s e d o f a l a r g e num ber o f h i g h l y in d e p e n d e n t i n d i v i d u a l s . T h e se a r e n o t c a t e g o r i e s ; t h e y a r e m e re ly h a n d le s t o g r a s p I jth e m a t e r i a l . i 1 | C e r t a i n t h i n g s becom e a p p a r e n t , t h e n . M ost c o n te m p o - | j r a r y v e r s e i s w r i t t e n i n a fo rm w h ic h may b e c a l l e d f r e e - 'v e r s e , f r e e o n l y i n t h e s e n s e t h a t I t i s n o t r i g i d l y r e - !s t r i c t e d b y t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l m e t r i c a l fo rm . | M ost p o e t s h a v e e s c a p e d m ere m e t r i c a l r e g u l a r i t y , o r e v e n , j m ere m e t r i c a l r e g u l a r i t y w ith s u b s t i t u t i o n . B u t f r e e - v e r s e | i j i s a lm o s t l i m i t l e s s . T h e re i s a s p e c i f i c s c h o o l o f p o e t s , i n c l u d i n g E l i o t and Auden a s d o m in a n t f i g u r e s , w hose f r e e - t v e r s e i s l a r g e l y a fre e d o m fro m r i g i d m e t r i c a l r e g u l a r i t y . T hey s t i l l u s e c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t r i c s , b u t s u b s t i t u t i o n , m ix i n g , an d I r r e g u l a r i t y i n c o u n t a r e v e r y common. I n g e n e r a l , t h e y h a v e r e a c h e d i n t o th e h i s t o r y o f t h e la n g u a g e to j u s - j 1 t i f y t h e i r I r r e g u l a r i t y an d to r e s u r r e c t o l d e r fo rm s . T h e re a r e a l s o m any o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l p o e t s , n o t co m p o sin g a c o n - t r a r y s c h o o l, who s t r i v e f o r com plete freedom from e x is tin g i m e t r i c a l fo rm s . TCiese p o e t s a r e s e e k in g f o r an " o r g a n ic " rh y th m i n h e r e n t i n c o n te m p o ra ry sp o k e n E n g li s h . N ot enough i s known p r e s e n t l y a b o u t th e s t r u c t u r e o f jE n g lish i n g e n e r a l , n o r a b o u t p ro s o d y i n p a r t i c u l a r , to e n - jab le one to s a y much a b o u t th e n a t u r e o f c o n te m p o ra ry m e te r . J jOne c a n s a y t h a t b e s i d e s t h e s y l l a b l e s o f w o rd s th e m s e lv e s , o t h e r q u a l i t i e s a f f e c t rh y th m . L i n g u i s t i c r e s e a r c h h a s i n d i c a t e d t h a t i n a d d i t i o n to th e s e g m e n ta l phonem es o f E ng l i s h , th e s u p r a s e g m e n ta l phonem es o f p i t c h , s t r e s s , and J u n c tu r e a l s o p la y a r o l e i n p r o s o d y . H ow ever, s t r e s s a t ! I l e a s t h a s n o t b e e n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d e f i n e d . F u r t h e r l l n - i g u i s t i c s t u d i e s , a cc o m p a n ie d b y c o n tin u in g s t u d i e s b y c o n - j jv e n tio n a l p r o s o d ic m e th o d s, may r e s u l t i n a g r e a t e r u n d e r - j s t a n d in g o f th e n a t u r e o f rh y th m . B u t e v e n w ith a l i m i t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g , i t i s o b v io u s t h a t c o n te m p o ra ry p o e ts a r e | ! 's e e k in g i n d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o se d d i r e c t i o n s f o r s o l u t i o n s j |to m e t r i c a l p ro b le m s r a i s e d b y t h e c o m p le x ity o f co n tem p o r a r y i d e a s and c o n te m p o ra ry la n g u a g e . A poem , h o w e v e r, c a n n o t b e e x h a u s t i v e l y decom posed i n t o s e p a r a t e e le m e n ts , r h y th m ic , s e m a n tic , m e t a p h o r i c a l . To d e s c r i b e a poem , o n e m u st s e e i t a s a w hole and lo o k a t i t fro m d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s . E ach o f t h e s e a s p e c t s i s o n ly a i f u n c t i o n o f th e t o t a l i t y o f th e poem . j M e te r, s t r e s s , an d any o t h e r c o l l e c t i o n o f r e c u r r e n t i e le m e n ts i n p o e tr y f u n c t i o n , p e r h a p s , i n th e same way an d to t h e same e n d , b e c a u s e m e te r , a l l i t e r a t i o n , rh y m e, l 6 l a sso n a n c e , and even m etaphor a l l have a common c h a r a c te r - I l s t l c — e q u iv a le n c e . I f we c o u ld f in d a fo rm u la b a se d on some g e n e r a l p r in c ip l e o f e q u iv a le n c e In p o e tr y , we m ight a r r i v e a t a b ro a d e r v is io n o f o u r s u b je c t, r a t h e r th a n a t t h i s n arro w Id e a o f s t y l e b a se d on an e x a m in a tio n o f m e ter o r s t r e s s a lo n e , w hich seem s, In th e end, to become p r e - j B c r ip tiv e w ith o u t t h e o r e t i c a l s u p p o rt and w hich makes ! p o e try seem to be n o t much more th a n a s o p h is tic a te d game i o f tl c k t a c k t o e .o I I f t h i s stu d y h a s su cceed ed In i t s p u rp o se , i t I s o n ly jbecause th e p u rp o se was so b ro a d ly s t a t e d . T liis i s a f i e l d I in w hich c o n fu sio n i s ram pant and th e l i t e r a t u r e I s e n o r- imous. To do j u s t i c e to i t r e q u ir e s n o t one man, b u t th e i |s o r t o f g ro u p assem bled f o r th e i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y C o n fer- i ience on V e rb a l S ty le and L ite r a r y P ro c e ss h e ld a t th e Mas- i ! j s a c h u s e tts I n s t i t u t e o f T echnology i n i 960; and ev en th a t j group was n o t a b le to a r r i v e a t any c o n c lu s io n s . When I i ;came to t h i s s tu d y , some f iv e y e a rs ago, I was co n v in ced j I I !t h a t th e r e was a p r i n c ip l e o f la n g u a g e , n e a t and e a s i l y j 1 d e f in a b le , w hich la y b eh in d a l l th e c o n fu sio n co n c ern in g I ; p ro so d y . I th o u g h t t h a t b ecau se contem p o rary p o e ts had i i gone f a r alo n g th e ro a d o f e x p e rim e n ta tio n i n m e tr ic s and ! i » |h a d , a t l e a s t in- some c a s e s , esc ap e d from th e l i m i t a t i o n s ; io f c o n v e n tio n a l m e te r, th e answ er la y in an a n a ly s is o f j w hat th e y had d one. Now I am no lo n g e r c o n v in ced . I t i s | p ro b a b le t h a t when more i s known o f th e s t r u c t u r e o f la n guage and th e n a tu re o f sp e e c h , some s o r t o f g e n e ra l p r l n - j c i p l e w i l l become d e f in a b le . I n th e I n te r im , w h ile t h i s ! Mac Hammon.. "Comment to P a r t F iv e [ M e tr ic s ] ," S ty le I i n L anguage, p . 2 0 7 .____ _ . ~ 162 k n o w led g e i s “ b e in g s o u g h t, b y l i n g u i s t s a n d b y o t h e r s , p e r h a p s l i t t l e b y l i t t l e th e u n s c i e n t i f i c c l u t t e r o f p r e j u d i c e land ig n o r a n c e c a n b e c l e a r e d . B u t i n t h e m e a n w h ile , o n e s h o u ld n o t f o r g e t w h a t M a c a u la y s a i d : " P e r h a p s no p e r s o n ;can b e a p o e t , o r c a n e v e n e n jo y p o e t r y , w ith o u t a c e r t a i n f iu n so u n d n e ss o f m in d ." And o n e c e r t a i n l y s h o u ld n o t f o r g e t i ■what W hitm an s a i d t o th e c r i t i c s : E ven w h ile y o u s h o u ld t h i n k y o u h a d u n q u e s t io n a b ly c a u g h t me, b e h o ld I j A lre a d y y ou s e e I h a v e e s c a p e d fro m y o u . ^"W hoever You Are H o ld in g Me Now i n H a n d ," l e a v e s o f I G r a s s . A P P E N D I X j F o llo w in g a r e a s e r i e s o f o s c i l l o g r a p h i c f i l m s . T h ese (are d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l i n C h a p te r V a b o v e . T h e re a r e , how e v e r , p o e t s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e r i e s who a r e n o t d i s c u s s e d k n th e t e x t . E . E . Cummings and R o b e rt F r o s t a r e in c lu d e d jfo r p u r p o s e s o f c o n t r a s t s i n c e t h e y a r e i m p o r ta n t p o e ts who i ido n o t e x a c t l y f i t i n e i t h e r o f th e m a jo r c a t e g o r i e s d i s c u s s e d . A p r o s e s e l e c t i o n , fro m H enry Ja m e s, i s a l s o i n - i e lu d e d a s a c o n t r a s t to th e p o e t i c rh y th m . F i n a l l y , an e x - I j am p le i s i n c lu d e d fro m th e w ork o f D elm ore S c h w a rtz . I t | i W as o r ig in a lly intended to include him in th is study. I f ne were included, h is work would have been discussed in phapter III above. However, during the Summer o f 1961, w hen M r. S c h w a rtz w as V i s i t i n g P r o f e s s o r a t th e U n i v e r s i t y ! jof S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , h e d i s c u s s e d t h i s s tu d y w ith me i 'and expressed a s p e c ific d esire not to be included. Un- Ifortunately the film str ip s had already been prepared. I jhave abstained from discussin g h is work, but I have included the film str ip without comment as a further illu s tr a tio n . APPENDIX 1 cummings, "Spring i s lik e a perhaps hand, read by th e author Spring lo lit# o porhopo |fcaa4 || (ofclefc n u i eorofollr out of M O o k o ro ) o o o u tin g s, f c o» a n o FlooouroD— ’Spring lo Ilk# o poxfeapo tan A ," In i (V o w York, IBM) $ p. 100. r • • OoloakM M L 4SS1 to.fro* o roaord aatitlad iMt ear*follr out w t ) arranciBf a window. Into whink yoofla look (vhlla paopla atava (whilt ptopia start am aglac tad plaolag oarafullj tb trt a rtrta ft ehaaslig th iac 5“T O . (•*•* vm o m u m ftrt . afttruia » u i ^ lxxnj«m trjort* •p rin t i s llk » * ptrhtpc m ) u A o to a tlB t •▼ •rjth iB t « trtfu H y (e a r a fu llj to and fro Boring Now and Old thlnga a a pirhipc 9 and fro Boring Ntv and Old thing#( uhil# pfopla #tara ca r efu lly norlng a pa; star* oarefully Korlnt a parbapa fraction of flowar hart placing an lneh p ltc ln * an inch o f t l r thara) APPENDIX 2 T. S. E lio t , "Burnt Norton," read by the author • • .aira in the blood/ A n d raoon«llaa fergottai Tba denae along Singe below intate- ware. rtt« to am 2T. 8 . U io t, "Burnt Norton,” four Quarteta. In T . 3* Bliot: The Coanlete Poena and Plara: IeOB-19do IN av T orJc. lT O T /p . 11S>" fU raoorllng la E f T T T n g ot fro* a raoord ant it lad t . S. Bliot Baade Hie Four Qnartote (Angel sttem T O b dance nlong the artery The circulation Are figured in the Ascend to of the lym ph drift of stare the tre« it s , in T> a. rrfiw i 5 r E T ot fro* t artets (Angel jurod in tho Atooad to eumor In W o b o t o obo?o tho In light upon tho A n d hot] f c of otoro tho troo noring trot flgurod loaf floor i i f i i In lig h t upon tho flgurod lo a f tho In light u p on tho A n d hoar u p on tho aoddon Boloo, tho hoar- P urou o their flgurod loaf floor h ou n d an d tho beforo boar the hoar , an d the Puraua their pattera as before But reoonoiled asong the stars. APPENDIX 3 Robert Penn Warren, "Terror, read by Robert B. Kaplan f A y \ i / \ wot pioaiea or pocoonta|or tho iaprobablo Foaora of a ir 1 dominion Poo 3gQ b ortP oaa Warran, "Torror," i n , I M I ^ T Kiaon P r io r onV John Holoo: ■ S t f f i V I * is r w w 7 * m ) | p . 29*. Tho rooorA ina ia by Bobort B» JU pian o « j U m o t I a o t a a tio raftordlng top# U A l < H » . H on J ia t o iy 7 , IU 2* A ll M ta tto o th t o odiago ■ . by ftobort Kaplan voro rooordod undor th o oom alraunatonoaa and a t tho aoao tlm o . Pow aia of air w h oaa tonguaa axolala. lad full tba groat mb doaialon to follow hit tarribla I !• b y bapo 1 d a d uaiar fbo i t Ac*» o b i oh M an so ai tho I f t n U i i S ta r, a u fflo a ; not tho irinAow-boz, or tb s bird oc th e l e d f e , e h le h M tn s o eu th e i n n 114, S t t r ( c u ff le a { n ot th e vin& oe-box, o r th e fclrft oa H or tbs joy you Uu»4 •• b y tht traekt la th« m thi ir iii UgbUd In tha aaptinaaa aftar tha lightad Pullaana flad, tha traeka Sufflaaai aor fa«aa, which, Ilka j In tho oap tla o o o o f to r th o S tifflo o o : aor fo c o o , v h lo h , llg h to d Pullm ans f lo d , sj nor facas, wfcloh, Ilka Alatraetloa, paaa Undar tha atraat-laaps, taaainf to faith or plaaauvti traoWoapo, titila i to plotauxo, M tlffo jott» b o n to ao U tv u to daflm itioa o f l i m i t ' * ' * ‘ ' ■ f. APPENDIX A lle n T a t e , Emblems I , r e a d b y th e a u th o r Maryland T ir g in i a ,||0 a ro U n e || Pent image i In a ltep Clay v a lle y o f pine A lla n T a te, fn b le n e -I . in Poe— t 192£-1947 (Hew Topic, 1 9 4 6 ), p» 163, The. recording i e by A llen Tate from a record e n t it le d Oontenporary Poeta S e r ie s ^54 (N ation al C ouncil o f Teaehera o f i n g l l a h ,1 9 3 7 J . I ) •Imp Clay v a lla y s rooky h i l l * old fla ld a Unapaakabla and d**p o f plot i Out o f tbat tourot of tin* u j Jfcun atrangoly to thla fartboat blood . KHKV*. 1 aitabla and daap Oat o f tb a t iouroo o f tin * * 7 fa rtb a a t blood Aunt at] m »y J fc u ia atraagaly to thla day UnkoBpt tha fathara vaata in so lltu d a Undar t t l thara vaate in U ndar tha hill* of olaj Par fro* lhair ooa flad to lta thlthar alda V O th* b i l l * o f olay Far fro * t h a lr wo* fla d to lt a th ith e r aid* To a rlw ar la Tiooaiai* to a rlvar In Tannaaaaa In nn allan houaa I w ill ataj Tat find thalr braafch to ba All that m y i t u i b a Ail tfett m y ittri l a t i l i - T horo mm tlao to ofcllo Took wifo tiA ofclld vitk a o < APPENDIX 5 Jo h n C ia r d i, "To J u d it h A sle ep , re a d by R o b e rt B. K aplan I # * . T “ I l 1 ' j I ■ ’ i I i . : ; I *1 r i* ? t i i i < * ¥ i i * 1 > i ! ; ! ; : M i i ! : ! i ' ! i ‘ - : \ • • • / • i ✓ . • ' / „ / / M y d o A r,jd a rk # n sd i n s l s s p ,j| tu rn ed from t h s moon T h at r i o t s on au rt w ith t v t r y b rssz *John O is r d i, "To JM dith A s ls s p ," i n M ld -g sn tu r y A m trioan P o s t s , s d . John a ie r d l (Now Y ork, 1 9 8 0 ), p~* 254. Ths r s e o r d ln c i s hjr B o b srt Kaplan* That r i o t s on e u r t a in - s t ir w ith a vary b rssza Leaping in no th s o f lig h t sero sa your bank. . . Fa: 4 of light serosa Far o ff, than toft and auddan os petals Doan froi shower ones— t nd sudden as p eta ls Down from wired ro ses—s ile n t ly , a ll at o n e # — ^ • I • I ’ 1 s ile n tly , a ll at Y ou turn, abandoned and naked, a ll le t down e ll let d ow n In ferny streams of sleep and petaled thigh* Hlppling into ay flesh's buning garden. APPENDIX 6 Jo h n C row e R ansom , " B e l l s f o r J o h n W h i t e s i d e 's D a u g h te r, r e a d b y R o b e rt B . K a p la n A / A A fhora.vaa juoh apaad la hor llt t la A nd snob lifhtnas* 1b m i , / ktr f M t f ill, *JohB arovo Banjo*, "Bolit for John Whltooldo'o D W t* f ^ M ?.ton f y ° w n « u y tg » Od. Loolj UBtOX*oyor Tort, 1955), p. 291 • TOO rooordlns is by Bobort Capita. tneaa la It la no w ondar that bar Aatoniahaa ua a ll. Bar vara vara brultad in oar 1 X * brow n atadj vlndoto. tr z i taq *«nt»lv ) "pnoiaq i n (00) a w Mtqj| • • • * ) pivqoio lo o m ptqooT • ! *^OPQ^A qtjq ino tr - p paqfiuq oia* mv* ! • f t n u n ilu to o k u b i Or k a rrlo d unto Tko l t s j €••*•» lik o i snow ac a la a t hm t abadov, tk o pond aloud i Dripping tfcair snsv oa tho Tricking and stopping grata grass, sad proud, Trlekinc tad a topping, alaapy tad proud, W U o orlad iu gooaa, Alia, F o x t f cl kauri 11% % ] W fe o orltd la gooaa, Alta, * Par tfea tlraloaa Lady oltli rod that aada kiirt tltb li tki thtM rlaa llttla L ady with rod that aada thaa riaa Froa thalr b o o b appla-draaai, Qooaa-faahioa aadar tha and aeattla aklaa! iM-fMhlon un& tr tht But ttov «o tbt b«Uf, u d v t i n Im on how* «• axi lkital rtaAj; sttnX? ttoppad f r o m t h # i r b oob a p p lo ~ 4 r « a a a , O o o a a -fa a h io a oa&ov th o and t e u t t l i tfcloaS •x* 9a 9«noq mao wi S lpiM •xv m pwv *tTT9^ on* of m om % v q I Z ' \ ■ APPENDIX 7 W . H. Auden, "Law, Say th e G a rd e n e rs, i s th e Sun," re a d by th e a u th o r Law,)aay tha aardanereJl L aw la tba oaa/Ail la tba aunJI tardanara obay tomorrow, yaatarday, 7«, H. Audan, "Law, Say tba Gardanara, la tba •on/' A n o th er Tima (London, 1M0), p. 17* Tba raoordlac !• & F (TnTTSiaa from a moor* antltlad OfftaT O oraff P p m aarlaa (latlonal Gouaoll of Taanbara or U fiia b , 1937j. E S a raoordlai tba poam la tltla d -Law Uka lore." 1 to*, yaatarday, today. taw la tha aladom Th# laipotant graudfatHai * # o f th « o ld *1111117 s o o ld ; 7). t lotent grandfather* The grangahlldren put out a treble tongue, Lee i* the seneei .ly eoold; 4 * e w Is the senses of the younn. Law, says the prieet with Expounding • priestly look, people, i f •at with i Impounding to on unprioatly L ow is tho words in m y pooplo, priootly book, L ow is V * L a w is m y pulpit and 107 ataapla* L aw 1 aajra tha judga aa ba looka dow n bla noaa, 1 I L t and m y ataapla* Law, aaya tha Judga aa ha spaaklng alaarly looks dow n hia noaa, moat aa?araly, * i I La w i t at you know I auppoaa, spoaklng elaarly and ■ost ••rarely, i r i l i U i u ; Is aa 7 0 a know auppoav. Lav la but la t aa azplala It oaoa aorii Lav la fba Lav. APPENDIX 8 S te p h e n S p e n d e r, "The L an d sca p e N e ar an A erodrom e, r e a d by R o b e rt B. K a p lan A / \ / / A i| M ora beautiful and aoft than aajr lothll e 8tapbaa Spaadar, "Tba Lanlaoapa Baar an Aarodroaa,” in iiodayii A r t a a a ^ M odern B r ltla h F o etry . ad. Loula UnUrmeyer (Baw York, lttbd), p. 649. Tba recording la by Bobert la p la a. ih burring fu rred u t i n a u f e e l in g Through duek. th e e i r - l i n e r w ith Lte huge path s h u t - o ff to g la t e Hildas o n r suburbs u d tbs alaafaa set trailing t a ll To p oint tba wind, (ta r tly , broadly, aba f a l l * , Saaraaly dlaturbln* currant* o f air* I lt« 9*8 9 1 )) 990299 9J9'{9A9J) *2^ 9 J O 9)Ut**ttO i p r r w 9 1 )) *)Q9099P A q P 9T T W I P9)l9qu 9apq2ft)9TP iT9V>294»8 A nd across feclnina land Indulging it s In m is s of •offenssii w ar n ssa aaay liabs trtilasd by *atabla* . ’ < i I tcroM ftniaiM land lnduUla* itf i t i j l l a b i In ■ !!•» of toft am* , worn lot tb tlr aye* tnilAid by watohio* Po&otnto through dusk tho outskirts ■ of this tow* Jftr* * « n iiUufltrr «ho« 0 a APPENDIX 9 C. Day L e w is, " I n H eaven, I S u p p o se, L ie Down T o g e th e r ," r e a d by R o b e rt B. K aplan ^ / / A I ^ / A la bearon, 1 suppose, jilt d ow n together Agonised Pilate and the boa-eonstrietor 9 ■ Haaseo, I Suppose, Lie D o w n £ a y i..1 u t a man Bam a p. 286. The renordlng la by Robert Kaplan. I ilate and tha trietor mat avallowa anything: but w a ■uit aalza O n e horn or the other of our tntltheoos. O n e horn or the other of our W h en I consider eioh . flooring lit world ol antitheses. independent star like a fur tearing ita world of darknaaa dad rubbing ahouldora with 1 a m eoatant azparianea llha a fur iafia itj, ahould b a I a m eoatant axparlanoa M ora diaeontinuouf O u t by tha m azy pouraa of m ahoulA b a than tha polnta daxallot. prlokaA Icaba tha tht aazj oourM of « H o t, Ieoborg, or Firing D utchm an, tad tb« hoirt S liU ou rj Ml putiT« i DutofcM n, nod Stationary and paaaiva aa % a it art. In auah atar-franxy I oould ko sutfe lU r -fr tu j I oould k o a it, betwixt M y yeeter ead ay mor row self are All the b fixed e ll the i All th* Airis oarolllng aaA All III M A S t i l IH lfM ii APPENDIX 10 Edwin M uir, "The R e c u rre n c e , r e a d by R o b e rt B. K aplan All things raturat|llatsaoha tald,!! T ha umlaut vheal ravolvaa Rise. W i n , 10 Idvla Muir, "tha ttaourranoa," la M odarn Poetry: A —rltan and Jrltlah. ad. Klaon Friar and John M alaolm MUnnio (lav Tark, lo& lj, p. lit . T ha raftordlnc la by lobart K aplan* i . ' at ahaal ravolvaa Rlsa, take up jour num bered fata; T h a f t rad la and tha Ufa bridal bad, '] T h a nradit and tha bridal btd, Lift and tht noffin wait. AH hit baan that avar taa ba, Life and the noffln wait. All he* bean that ever oan be, A n d thle • eternity that «T«r A n d thia tola eternltj O an not otuicel, cannot add u n a to your delight* or taara, iot add une to your dolighta O r a . aIIII o u million Taar tha alghtnaro froa or taara, yaara tha aid. APPENDIX 11 James, "The B east In the Ju n gle, read by Robert B. Kaplan / ho *our§0 of bolng probably but oom word* spotcoo Hoad* an hour or two bo for* to the without intention— itaylng; end* an hour or tw o bofora to the aylng; tha party of rialtore at tht other houaa, of w ho* h o was oao and thank* I that h* w i a / / V • / A ' I / W hatN dataralnad tha apaaah that atartlad himlln tha *ouraa of thair anoounter aoaroaly aattara, T ^ an iy Jaaaa, " T h a Baaat in tha Juagla,” in T h a Tradition la Utaiataya. ad. aoullay Bradlty, B iahao& d O rooa Baatty, and I. H udson L on* (N an York, 1961), II, 678. T h a raeordlng la by Bobart B. Kaplan. balnc P*°l without 1 > u r or tw o before to the the party of visitor* at tbs other bouse * of w h o m be was one and thanks to w hoa 1 1 that ba w as loit li ♦ and thank* to «hoa It va* bla t! that ha na* lotft In tha orovd of vhon ha w aa ona art# of balng probably but aom w orda apokan Uuada an hour or two bafora to tha without lntantioa— it ay log; APPENDIX 12 Wallace Stevens, "Sunday Morning, read by Robert B. Kaplan A ad tht fm n frta&o* of t U p on «. rug m lng la to T h a holy hush eookatoo dlaaipata niant aaorl; rug mlngla to T ha holy hush of an* Sha draa& a a littla , and'aha X aoroaafcaa *P«te ftlaat aaorlflot. faala tha dark oataatto > A ' A i ✓ O o ^ U o tn o iti.o f tltt p alfaolr,|an d lata o o f fu aad oraat«« 1 & • aunny c h a ir . I f Vallaaa Staanaa. "faadaj Moraine," la Madam mmewwKMm^vvEbr Ktplaa. A ad tha ert( eoofcatoo 8ht draau a l i t tit , end aha Kamo aofcaa i t of that old l i a calm darkana am ong faala tha dark eataatropha, i f • etl& A arktna aaong latar^lighta T h a pungant orangaa tad bright, graan wings winding aoroaa wldo »a1 8aan thin** in aoaa pro osaaion of tha daad. Sant oran*aa and bright, groan j i 8 ssn thing* in * o b * pro nsasion of tha da ad, W inding anroas vlda v&tsr, without sound. T h a day la ilka vlda water, without aound, Stilled for tha pete* lac of her dream ing feat 1 ■ ' APPENDIX 13 Delmore Schwartz, "In The Naked Bed In P la to ’ s Cave," read by Robert B. Kaplan £ tbs nslcsd'bsdjin Plato's e a V t,|| Bsflsotsd bsadlicbts slovly •lid tbs vaili Dtlaort Sobvarts, " In , tbs laksd lsd 1a Plato's O aW |" in Mld-Caata«r lasrisaa Posts. sd» Join Oiardi (Vsv Tort, Irao), p. NT. A» zvtordint is by febsrt Kaplan, I I Llgbte ■ lowly Oarpentere haanerad under the ihadad w indow ! W in d troubled tbe ell night long, I id window, W in d troubled the w indow ourtwin* all night long, A fla a t o f truck* atrainad u p h ill grinding, ▲ flirt of trucks strains* uphill, fhsir frslchta oovsrsd, Ths ssiliaf ll®i frlndlnt, •• usual. diagram Tht sailing lightansd again, ths slant lot Slid slowly diagram forts. Bsarl oho Slid slowly fortb. HssrlBf tbs bIUoma' s Sis stiirln* up tbs stslr, tbs bott] flbop, oblnk, u p % h » otair, tha bottla'a j ff0B llt a iAd w alkad to tha w indow , eifaiatta, atony atreat W T T ^ And walked to the window. The •tony street felflplnytl th« •tllln * * # la wnlon buildings stand, i Hit ■tvlTlac up tba a ta ir, tha bottla' okinJc, Haarlnc tka uilkmaii’a ohop, Slid alowljr fortk. ftlsplajad tha atllln aaa 1a wbloh buildings «tand, Tha strea t-la a p 's v ig il and tha I o n a 's patiauea* Tha aiiitar cap ital T h a aiiitar aky’a pura Turnad at teak % o ted wltk capital axhauatad ayaa. fto a bod, l i t « And walked to th« window. Th« ftiaplftyftd th« ttilln ftfts 1 wttft, atony atrea t wnioh building* atand, APPENDIX Ik Marianne Moore, "In D istru st o f M erits, read by the author Thay'ra fightinf, fighting, fighting tha blind atn w h o think* ha aeaa,— w h o nannot tea that tha anslawar la I I I IS who nannot sea that tha aoalavar la analarad; tha hatar, haraad. 0 ahl&iug 0 firm atai / A StrsoitAanad Strsnctbsnsd for m adala an d positlonad to lira J| to dlo| rletoriaa? \a rltB B * Moors» "In D istrust of M srit," in Modara Msdarn B ritish Post nr. ad. Louis Uatamayar (la s Tor*, Ito*yrPP- lw -M t• # • raeordlo* i s ty Mariaass Moors f r o m a rssord ant It lad piaasurs V o m (Oolustia M L 4S09)* 0 tumultuous onsen laahtd. t i l l small things go as thay mill. mountainous wave maxes ’ know the mountainous wave muxas ua who look know depth. Lost at sen before they fc i 1 • I ; ! i U w It analavad; tha hatar, barm ad * 0 shining 0 firm star, 0 tumultuous onann laahad I 1 ! : ! Ijj I! ilJ I . 1 l i . i ■ ! I II'! ' ... I 0 star or Darid, star of Bethlehem, 0 b la^ .k imparl a 1 lion of the Lord— ea iperlal lion of the Lord enblea of & risen world-- be Joined at la st, be JoljMd# 0 star of David, star o depth. Loat at sen before they fought APPENDIX 15 William Carloe W illiam s, "The B ull," read by the author 1 o a drag the Unlike the «ow a ha Urea nozzles the sweet grass gingerly to alone, pass tha tine aw ay H a Jcnaala, lies d o w n and atrat«hing oat a foralag lielca hlaaalf about tha hoof * / a / > A , i Tla la aaptivity~l ringed, haltered, chained to a drag tha Unlike t bull It godlike aIona, 18 William Carloe Willlama. " T h a Bull." la H o darn 7erae la lafllah:_ 1900-1960. ad. David Caall tad AllaarBEe (■a« Tort, 1980J( p. £38. T h a renordlag la by lillla a Carloe *11 llama from a record entitled Plaaaara {Colum bia M L 4£59). and atratehing oat a foralag than stay* with half- O lym pian ^om m antary on tl t tha hoof *loaad ayea, bright peaaaga of daya. r - O lym pian *a*mentary on the bright passage of days. — The round sun smooths his lacquer through the glossy pine tress lozzlea tha sweet graaa gingerly to past tha tins aw ay H a kaaala, Hat d ow n and atratnhing oat a foral< links himself about tha hoof through his subsists hard as ivory or g la ss- through shioh tha Kind mllklsss ha nods yat plays— hi oh tha wind nlUclaaa h« noda tha hair batwaen hia horna and ayaa aattad with ya— hyaelnthlna nurla. ■ > lian < * 0M»atttry on tha — T h a round sun taootha hit lacquer through hit tubi £t peatatft of daya. tht glotty pint traaa APPENDIX 16 Ity-lan T h o m as, " P e r n H i l l , r e a d b y t h e a u t h o r Nothing 1 eared, in tho lamb white day*, that t i n would take a t lft Dylan T h an e, "fern H ill," in Modern American and Modern B ritiah Poetry. aft. Louie Untemayor I M ew York, 'W o i, pp. M - f b . Tha recording la by Dylan Thonaa from a raoord a n tltla d Dylan Ihoe^e needia* Vol. 1 (daadmon TC 100ft). I aye, that tine would take Up to the awallov-thronged lo ft by i a the ahadov of ay bend, I t i»S2£S^556£l2SfiLSfi4 mayor (free York, ly Dylan Thonae from I Vol. I (Oaedaon to tha awallov-throngad lo ft by l a tha boob that is Kor that ri< ha abadov of ay hand, alwaja pislag, «laap Nor th at rid in g to alaap I should hear him f lj with tha high fields And make to tha land. A nd waka to tha farm foraTar flad from the uhlldlas* land. i farm forever fled froa the uhlldleae O b as I was yonog end easy in the eu leee O b ea I young end easy in the aarey of hie neaaa, Tla* held « j o f h i t n t a n t, T in t k tld m * c r t t n ta d d y ln f Though 1 ta • • • * «ITT *ir|*^o l m ttj t n « i q tn o iu t n j iv P** * * * 2 f t 961 APPENDIX 17 Law rence D u r r e l l, "To A rgos, re a d by R o b e rt B. K aplan ✓ ✓ \ |, ✓ T ha roads lead southward i|| blus Along ones IT, Lawrtnsa D o rra il, "To Argos," in juewrtnss m r r a U , "To Argos," in Modern Postrr: Aaarloan sag B r itis h , s i . iClaon F ria r s a l John M sloola w i a u n (Raw Tom , l » 5 i ) , p. 360. Ths raaoriin g Is by Bobert Kaplan i eirounfer- o f snow, I Along a e lr o u n fe r - I d e n t if ie d now by th a As a home f o r 1 anew o f anow, a*holara a h a b it a t io n n Modern P oatrr: and"'John U a la o la i re co r d in g la by i s n t i f l a d now by t h s s c h o la r s As a bona f o r tb s C y clo p s, a h a b it a t io n F o r nyspha and anej appsaranoas. I te ftjrelopa, For ny&phs and ancient appearanoea. Only the ahepherd In h is now I Mio walk* upon than r a e lly know* is shepherd l a Who w alk s upon Tha n a tu r a l h is t o r y In a sa cred Takes »owl th an r e a l l y p la o e ; sto i knows n atural h i s t o r y in a sac ro d Taksa liKo a t e x t o f A < . < ri _ p l«*i . t o - 4 f S j J i" The natural h iito ry in a sacred Takes lik e a text of plaea; stona A . famlllur fortress* 3 t«lt Of a fa m ilia r sloud-ahape or f o r t re a*. i'o l n t l a g a t what m u tu a lly »a«n , id-sh ap e or F o ln t lo g a t what la m u tu a lly aaan , Hla dark ayaa waarlng tha nroaafoot. Tha uataral history in a sacred place; Takes like a text of stoaa \ favillltir e fo r tr e ss, I 1 i ' ; i i ' 1 i ;j 3 ! i :;; I iJce a t e x t o f A , faaiilittr sloud-shape or fo r tr e s s. i 'o ln t in g a t v h a t Is m u tu a lly s s s n , ud-shape or F a in t in g a t » h a t Is m u tu a lly M a n , His dark ays a araaring tbs orowafoot. APPENDIX 18 Robert G raves, "To Juan a t S o l s t i c e , read by Robert B. Kaplan Thara la oaa atorjland om atory only|| That w ill prora worth your talllac, 10 Bobart Qr*Tta, " T o J uba at Solatloa,” la M o d a rm MfrMNfrWlkft £“B * r i x.,2 a . la by Bobart Kaplan* I I I That w i l l proTt worth Whothor • • loarned bord or g i f tod o h lld ; you r t o l l i n g . l o o , ” l a Modorm > n P r io r aST JSSu 42* Tho rooordlng t To i t a l l lin e * o r le a s e r gaude be Whether as lea rn ed bard or g if t e d o b iId I l a * a or la tte r gauda beloag That sta rt la with thalr suafc oonon atorlaa at they ahialag atray l it o . h a ir Snob ttowDB a to r la a aa thay a tra y la t o . Ia I t o f tra a a you t a l l , t h e ir monthi ▼ lrtuaa, I f I t o f t r f f f you t a l l , t h e ir month• and v ir tu e s , 3 f strange b ea sts th a t b sse t you, Of strange beast* that baaat you, Of blrda that aroak at you the Tripla w ill? O r of tha 2o I t turna croak a t you tha Or o f tha Zodiac and how alow I t turna Balow tha Boraal Crown, and how alow Balov tha Boraal Crown, Prlaon o f a l l trua fclaga th a t arar ralcaadr APPENDIX 19 R i c h a r d E b e r h a r t , " I W alked O ut I n t o t h e G r a v e y a r d to S ee t h e D e a d ," r e a d b y R o b e r t B. K a p la n A / a / \ / I v a lk a ^ o u t to tha cravs yard to aaa Tha iron gataa vara loo lead, tha daad ©ouldn’t gat ln # 19 Richard Kbarhart, "I Walkad Out Into tha Orarayard to 9aa tha band," in Mld-aanlury Aaarloan Poata. ad* John Olardl (lav Torfc, 195&J, p. S50* Tha rasorting la by Bobart Kaplan* I Yhs ir o n g a te s war* lo o k ed , I A g o ld en pheasant on tha c o u ld n 't g et l a # dark f i r boughs In to th e Graveyard loan P o f t a . ad* John reco rd in g i s by » A gold an pheasant on th a dark f i r bought Lookad w ith fa e r f u l method a t tha a u n a a t» S aaat * Said I , S ir bird, wink no aora at a t I bava bad aaough o f ay darl aya-aaartiag, 1 a* I have had ftnou&h o f ay darfc aya-aaartiag, I aannot tdora you, nor do l praiaft you. I aannot adora you, n o r do 1 p r a la a you, But a s s ig n you to tha r a f t e r s o f M ontsigns. tha r a f te r s of M ho talics w ith tha Absolute ■alutaa a Shadow, W h o seek# himself himselfj baoluta Who aaaka h ia s a l f a h e ll lo a a h lm a a lfj And tha gold an phaaaanta are no h e lp a l l lo t* And th e goIdan phaaaanta And a c tio n auat ba la a m a d f r o m ara no h a lp lo ra o f aan« APPENDIX 20 R o b e r t F r o s t , "Two Tram ps i n Mud Tim e, r e a d b y t h e a u t h o r I Out o f tha w idjtvo strangars auw ll And caught a s s p lit t in g wood in tha yard. ^Hobart f r o s t , "Two Traaps in Mud T ia a ,” in Tha Poa»a Of Hobart f r o s t (Has York, 1944), p. 312. Tha raeording i s by Hobart fr o s t fro » a raaord a n tltla d Hobart fr o s t raads tha dooms o f Hobart fr o s t (Dacca D L »65i7. And cauaht a e s p l i t t i n g And ana o f th e n put m » B y h a ilin g wood in th e yard* o f f ay a ia 'H it them Mud T i m , ” in The Poaae 31 2 . The re co r d in g i t l e d iaa DL s / / t id one o f thorn put m o o f f m y aim By h a ilin g c h e e r ily •H it them h a rd * ' I kaom p r a tty m a ll mhy h i behind t I k u i pretty w«ll why he dropped behind And le t the other go on a way. I knew p retty w ell what he had In mind: lie oth er y« I fcnew p r e tty w e ll what lie wanted t o take m y ha had In mind: Job fo r p a y . Jood bionics o f bee*? wanted t o take my job f o r p ay . ^ood b locks o f beesix I t was 1 s p l i t , Aa Large aroun chopping bio As large around aa the every pie*e I squarely / e l l a p llu ts r le s s as a chopping blortk; h it roek. I 1 sq u a r e ly / e l l a p lla t o r ie s e a s a clo v en rock. The blow s th a t a l i f e o f a e lf - e o n t r o l sloven The blow s th a t a l i f e Spares to s t r ik e fo r th e o f a e if - n o n t r o l romacn good That a 1c sou] id every p le* e I sq u a rely h it y e l l a p lia t o r ie s s as a cloven roeic. The blows th a t a o f I f -c o n t r o l a Q lo ro n Tha blows th a t a U f a o f a e if - a o n t r o l Spares to s t r ik e fo r tb s nomaoa g o o d Thai a s< Spares to s t r ik e f o r th e comaca good That day, g iv in g I sp e n t on the nnln* a lo o ee t o ny p o r te n t wood, s o u l, B I B L I O G R A P H Y BIBLIOGRAPHY Abercrombie, L a s c e lle s . P r in c ip le s o f L itera ry C r itic is m . London, i 9 6 0 . Adix, M arjorie. "Dylan Thomas: Memories and A pp reciation s." Encounter, 1954. A llen Gay W ilson. American Prosody. Chicago, 1935. , ed. Walt Whitman Abroad. Syracuse, 1955. Anderson, Johannes C. The Laws o f V er se. London, 1928. A sselin ea u , M . "Dylan Thomas." Etudes A n g la lse s, 1954. Auden, V /. H. "The Anglo-American D iffe ren ce ." Anchor Review, 1955. The D yer's Hand and Other E ssays. New York, 1555- « ------------------------------------------- _____________ . The P o e t's Tongue. London, 1935. 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Creator Kaplan, Robert Boris (author)

Core Title An Analysis Of Contemporary Poetic Structure, 1930-1955

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program English

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Literature, Modern,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor McElderry, Bruce R. (committee chair), Crittenden, Walter M. (committee member), Werkmeister, William H. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-308502

Unique identifier UC11358716

Identifier 6402583.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-308502 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier 6402583.pdf

Dmrecord 308502

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Kaplan, Robert Boris

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Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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