University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conflict And Generalized Conflict In Verbal And Motor Responses

(USC Thesis Other)

Conflict And Generalized Conflict In Verbal And Motor Responses

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Content T h is d is s e r ta tio n h as b een 65— 3112
m ic r o film e d e x a c tly a s r e c e iv e d
LEV ITA N , S eym ou r, 1 9 3 0 -
CO NFLIC T AND G ENERA LIZED CO NFLIC T IN
V E R B A L AND MOTOR RESPO NSES.
U n iv e r sity of Southern C a lifo rn ia , P h .D ., 1964
P sy c h o lo g y , c lin ic a l
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
Copyright by
Seymour Levitan
1965
C O N F L IC T A N D G E N E R A L IZ E D C O N F L IC T
IN V E R B A L A N D M OTOR R E S P O N S E S
by
S e y m o u r L e v ita n
A D is s e r t a t io n P r e s e n t e d to the
F A C U L T Y O F T H E G R A D U A T E SC H O O L
U N IV E R SIT Y O F S O U T H E R N C A L IF O R N IA
In P a r t ia l F u lf illm e n t of th e
R e q u ir e m e n ts fo r the D e g r e e
D O C T O R O F PH IL O SO P H Y
P s y c h o lo g y
A u g u st 1964
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N CALIFORNIA
TH E G R A D U A T E SC H O O L
U N IV E R SIT Y PARK
L O S A N G E L E S, C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
under the direction of hXs....Dissertation C o m
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
Seymour.. Levi .tan.
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
A C K N O W LED G M EN T
A s w ith m o s t m il e s t o n e s , th is p r o je c t m a r k s both a
b egin n in g and an end. L ook in g b a ck on th is p r o je c t and m y g rad u ate
w ork I am g r a tifie d at how p le a sa n t a r e m y fe e lin g s and m e m o r ie s of
th e s e y e a r s . With th e co m p le tio n of th is p r o je c t, I w ould lik e to take
the op p ortunity to thank the m any p e o p l e - - c i a s s m a t e s and fr ie n d s ,
p r o f e s s o r s and s u p e r v is o r s - - w h o co n trib u ted to th e s e f e e lin g s .
M uch o f the w o rk on w h ich th is stud y is b a s e d w a s c a r r ie d
out u n d er a r e s e a r c h gran t fr o m the D e p a r tm e n t o f M en ta l H y g ie n e of
the S tate of C a lifo r n ia (R e s e a r c h P r o je c t # 6 0 - 1 4 - 2 6 ) . A t v a r io u s
tim e s M r s . N an cy B o r d e n , M r s . M a rio n M cC ra d y , M r. R ich a rd
Sk u tlin , and M r . P h ilip M ohan w o rk ed on the p r o je c t a s r e s e a r c h
a s s is t a n t s in th e g a th er in g and a n a ly s is of the data; M r s . B i l l i e J ea n
S te in e r w as the s e c r e t a r y for the p r o j e c t - - a l l put m u ch of th e ir own
e ffo r t and s p ir it into th e ir w o rk . D r . A rth u r S ilv e r s t e in , R e s e a r c h
P s y c h o lo g is t at P a c if ic S ta te H o sp ita l w h e r e m u ch of th is r e s e a r c h
w a s d on e, w a s e x c e e d in g ly h elp fu l in w o rk in g out s o m e o f the c o m
p le x it ie s and s e e m in g ly in tr a c ta b le p r o b le m s in a n a ly zin g th e d a ta .
H is h elp and fr ie n d s h ip w e r e a lw a y s g iv en u n gru d gin gly and with
g r e a t p e r s o n a l w a rm th .
O th er s that I w ou ld lik e to thank, who know th e ir own
co n trib u tio n to th is stu d y, a r e G ale H o o p er, B ill L ib aw , "M ac"
C o ffey , P a u l W itten b erg , and the sta ff at B re n tw o o d V . A . H o sp ita l
and P a c if ic S tate H o s p ita l. I w ould e s p e c ia lly lik e to thank the
P s y c h o lo g y fa c u lty and stu d en ts at C a lifo r n ia State C o lle g e for th eir
i n t e r e s t and e n c o u r a g e m e n t.
S p e c ia l a c k n o w le d g m en t, h o w e v e r , g o e s to m y D i s s e r t a
tion C o m m itte e ; P r o f e s s o r A lfr e d J a c o b s , C h a ir m a n o f the C o m m it
tee; and P r o f e s s o r s L an gd on L o n g str e th and M a u r ic e Van A r s d o l.
E v e n b eyon d the s c o p e of th is in v e s tig a tio n and h is c h a ir m a n sh ip
o f the D is s e r t a t io n C o m m itte e , D r . J a c o b s ' s c h o la r s h ip , e n c o u r a g e
m e n t, and fr ie n d s h ip h a v e s e r v e d a s m o d e ls and in s p ir a tio n th ro u g h
out m y tr a in in g at U . S . C . So m an y o f the e x c itin g e x p e r ie n c e s
and p le a s a n t s u r p r is e s and m e m o r ie s a r e d ir e c t ly a s s o c ia t e d
w ith h im and w e r e often the r e s u lt o f h is e ffo r ts; 1 f e e l e s p e c ia lly
fo r tu n a te to h a v e w o r k e d u n d er h is g u id a n c e. My a p p r e c ia tio n
a ls o g o e s to the P s y c h o lo g y fa c u lty at the U n iv e r s ity of
S ou th ern C a lif o r n i a - - e s p e c ia lly the c lin ic a l sta ff in clu d in g
P r o f e s s o r s D. B . K le in , G e o r g e n e S ew ard , and H erm an H a r v e y - -
who h elp ed m ak e m y g r a d u a t e w ork stim u la tin g and fun.
T h e re a r e m a n y o th er p eo p le w h o se frien d sh ip and support
w e r e w e lc o m e d and e v e n c r u c i a l at t im e s - - t o o m any to inclu de
in d ivid u al m en tio n of e a c h . To a ll of th em I o ffer m y s in c e r e g r a t i
tu d e.
My g r e a t e s t d e b t , h o w e v e r , is to m y w ife, S y lvia, and
m y ch ild ren , L a u r ie , D i a n e , and J e ff. T h e tim e and attention that
th is study r e p r e s e n t s c a m e a ll too often at th eir e x p e n se . S y lv ia 's
p a tien ce and e n c o u r a g e m e n t th rou gh the m any y e a r s , d e sp ite m y p r e
o ccu p a tio n and the d ays a n d e v en in g s without m y p r e s e n c e at h o m e ,
w e r e c o m fo r t and g r a t i f i c a t i o n b ey o n d e x p r e ssio n ; in a m a jcr s e n s e ,
this is h e r d is s e r t a t io n , t o o . Of the ch ild ren , 1 hope that they m a y in
tim e u n d ersta n d and s e e t h e i r s h a r e in this v en tu re.
T A B L E O F C O N T EN T S
P a g e
LIST O F T A B L E S .................................................................................................... ix
LIST O F FIG U R E S ................................................................................................. x iii
C h ap ter
I. TH E P R O B L E M 1
P u r p o se o f the Study
T h e o r e tic a l B a ck g ro u n d
R a tio n a le of the Study and S ta tem en t
of H y p o th e se s
H y p o th e sis A: con d ition in g
H y p o th e sis B: str en g th of r e s p o n s e
H y p o th e sis C: r.onflict
H y p o th e sis D: red u ctio n of r e s p o n s e
H y p o th e sis E: v e r b a l- m o t o r c o n flic t
S u m m a ry of H y p o th e se s
H . SU R V E Y O F THE L IT E R A T U R E ..................................... 24
S tim u lu s G e n e r a liz a tio n
S u m m a ry : s tim u lu s g e n e r a liz a tio n
T ra in in g and S tren g th o f R e s p o n s e
R e sp o n se S tren gth and C o n flict
v
C hap ter P a g e
ILL.
IV .
A p p ro a c h -a p p r o a ch b eh a v io r
O ther ty p es o f co n flict
S u m m ary of S u rvey of L ite r a tu r e
M E T H O D .............................................................................. 42
S u b jects
M a te r ia ls
S tim u li
A d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t
R e co r d sh e e t
A p p aratu s
R e sp o n se M e a s u r e s
The d ir e ctio n of le v e r m o v e m e n t
R ea ctio n tim e
T he le ft- r ig h t a d jec tiv e s c a le
T h e a d jec tiv e c h e c k lis t
P r o c e d u r e
O rien tin g p ro c ed u r e
E x p e r im e n ta l p ro ced u re
S u m m a ry of E x p e r im e n ta l P r o c e d u r e
A s s ig n m e n t of S u b jects to E x p e r im e n ta l
C on d ition s
R E S U L T S .............................................................................. 64
In trod u ction
T e s t of H y p o th e sis A: C ond itioning
vi
C h a p ter P a g e
L e v e r m o v e m e n t
L e f t - r ig h t s c a le
S u m m a r y : H y p o th e sis A
T e s t o f H y p o th e sis B: S tre n g th of
R e s p o n s e
L e v e r m o v e m e n t
S u m m a r y : l e v e r m o v e m e n t
R e a c tio n tim e
L e f t - r ig h t s c a le
S u m m a r y : H y p o th e sis B
T e s t o f H y p o th e sis C: C o n flic t
L e v e r m o v e m e n t
L e f t - r ig h t s c a l e , H y p o th e sis C
S u m m a r y : H y p o th e sis C
T e 3 t o f H y p o th e sis D: R ed u ctio n in
R e s p o n s e
L e v e r m o v e m e n t
R e a c tio n t im e
L e f t - r ig h t s c a l e , H y p o th e sis D
S u m m a r y : H y p o th e sis D
T e s t of H y p o th e sis E: V e r b a l M otor
C o n flic t
V . D I S C U S S I O N ................................................................
In tr o d u ctio n
T h e o r e t ic a l I m p lic a tio n s
M o to r r e s p o n s e s : a p p lic a b ility
o f the m o d e ls
128
v ii
C h a p ter
T h e le f t - r ig h t s c a le : the p r o b le m
o f tr a n sitio n
T h e a d je c tiv e c h e c k list: fu rth er
im p lic a tio n s fo r the p r o b le m
of tr a n sitio n
Im p lic a tio n s and S u g g e stio n s F o r
F u r th e r R e s e a r c h
VI. S U M M A R Y ....................................................................
T h e P r o b le m
M eth od
R e s u lt s
C o n c lu s io n s
A P P E N D IX E S ..................................................................................
B I B L I O G R A P H Y ...............................................................................
v iii
LIST O F T A B L E S
T ab le P a g e
1. S eq u en ce o f E x p e r im e n ta l P r o c e d u r e s ....................... 60
2. N u m b er of S u b jects F o llo w in g E a c h E x p e r i
m e n ta l S e q u e n c e , as D iv id e d on the B a s i s
o f C o r r e c t D ir e c tio n of L e v e r M o v em en t
and G r e a te r N u m b er of R e in fo r c e d T r ia ls
on 1A or 2 A .................................................................................. 62
3. C h i-S q u a r e F o r the N u m b er of S u b jects M oving
the L e v e r in the R e in fo r c e d D ir e c tio n (+) o r
O p p o site to the R e in fo r c e d D ir e c tio n (**)
A fte r T r a in in g , by D ir e c tio n of R e sp o n se . . 67
2
4. X F o r the Numb' r of S u b jects R esp o n d in g in
the R e in fo r c e d D ir e c tio n (+) and O p p o site to
the R e in fo r c e d D ir e c tio n (-) F o r T h o se
S u b je c ts W h ere O c c u r r e n c e and R e in f o r c e
m en t A r e Not C o n f o u n d e d ............................................ 71
5. M ea n s o f R e s p o n s e s on the L e ft-R ig h t S c a le
B e f o r e and A fte r T ra in in g F o r the
G e n e ra liza tio n S tim u li ................................................... 77
6. C h i-S q u a r e F o r the N u m b er of S u b je c ts M ovin g
the L e v e r in the R e in fo r c e d D ir e c tio n (+)
and O p p o site to th e R e in fo r c e d D ir e c tio n (-)
F o llo w in g R e la tiv e ly M o re and R e la tiv e ly
L e s s R e in fo r c e d T ra in in g T r i a l s .......................... 81
7. D iffe r e n c e in the N u m b er of S u b jects R esp on d in g
C o r r e c t ly (+) and I n c o r r e c tly ( - ) in the F o u r
P o s s ib le P a t te r n s to the M o r e and L e s s
R e in fo r c e d S tim u li .......................................................... 85
ix
\
T a b le
8. Sign T e s t of th e D iffe r e n c e B e tw e e n R e a c tio n
T im e s to th e G e n e r a liz a tio n S tim u li A fter
M o re or L e s s R e in fo r c e d T ra in in g T r ia ls .
9. S u m m a r y of A n a ly s is of V a r ia n c e , T r e a tm e n ts
X T r e a tm e n ts X S u b jects D e s ig n . D if f e r
e n c e in R e a ctio n T im e B e tw e e n R e s p o n s e to
the M o re and L e s s R e in fo r c e d G e n e r a liz a
tion S tim u li .................................... ...........................
10. M ea n s of R e a c tio n T im e s of R e s p o n s e s to
G e n e r a liz a tio n S tim u li A fte r M o re or L e s s
R e in fo r c e d T ra in in g T r i a l s ................................
11. M ea n s o f C h an ges in R e s p o n s e on L e ft-R ig h t
S c a le fr o m B e f o r e to A fte r T ra in in g , A fte r
R e la tiv e ly M ore or R e la tiv e ly L e s s
R e in fo r c e d T ra in in g T r ia ls . ................. . .
12. S u m m a r y o f A n a ly s is of V a r ia n c e , T w o -F a c to r
E x p e r im e n t w ith One R e p e a te d M e a s u r e .
D iff e r e n c e in C han ge o f R e s p o n s e to the
G e n e r a liz a tio n S tim u li on th e L e ft-R ig h t S c a le
F o llo w in g R e la tiv e ly M o re and R e la tiv e ly
L e s s R e in fo r c e d T r ia ls on th e T ra in in g
S tim u li .................................................. ...................................
13. M ea n s o f C h a n g es in R e s p o n s e on the L e f t-
R igh t S c a le F o r E a ch T ra in in g and G e n e r a l
iz a tio n S tim u lu s F o llo w in g T r a i n i n g ..................
14. S u m m a r y o f A n a ly s is of V a r ia n c e , T w o -F a c to r
E x p e r im e n t w ith O ne R e p e a te d M e a s u r e .
D iff e r e n c e in C hange of R e s p o n s e to the
S tim u li a s a F u n ctio n o f T h e ir S im ila r ity to
th e T r a in in g S tim u li ......................................................
P a g e
92
94
95
96
100
102
103
x
T a b le P a g e
15. C h i-S q u a r e F o r the N u m b er of S u b jects
M ovin g the L e v e r in the D ir e c tio n C o r r e c t
(+) F o r the M o re R e in fo r c e d of S tim u lu s
1A o r 2A in R e s p o n s e to S tim u lu s P a ir s . . . . 106
16. M ea n s o f R e s p o n s e s to the F o u r P a i r s of
S tim u li on the L e ft-R ig h t S c a le B e fo r e
and A fte r T ra in in g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
17. S u b je c ts R esp o n d in g C o r r e c t ly (+) and
I n c o r r e c tly (-) to the S tr o n g e r o f the
In d ivid u al S tim u li and the R e s p e c tiv e
S tim u lu s P a i r ............................................................. 113
18. S ign T e s t of th e D iff e r e n c e B e t w e e n R e a c tio n
T im e s to th e S tr o n g e r of the In d ivid u al
G e n e r a liz a tio n S tim u li and th e P a i r s of
G e n e r a liz a tio n S tim u li . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
19. M ea n s o f R e a c tio n T im e s of R e s p o n s e s to the
G e n e r a liz a tio n S tim u li of the M o re
R e in fo r c e d S tim u lu s and th e P a i r s of
G e n e r a liz a tio n S t i m u l i ................................................... 119
20. C h an ge in R e s p o n s e to the G e n e r a liz a tio n
S tim u li on the L e ft-R ig h t S c a le
F o llo w in g T r a i n in g .................................................................... 121
21 . S u m m a r y of A n a ly s is of V a r ia n c e , L atin
S q u a re D e s ig n w ith R e p e a te d M e a s u r e s on
T h r e e F a c t o r s . R e s p o n s e s to S tim u li 1A
and 2A on the A d je c tiv e C h e c k l i s t ................................ 123
x i
T a b le P a g e
2 2 . S u m m a r y of A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e , T h r e e -
F a c t o r E x p e r im e n t w ith R ep ea ted
M e a s u r e s on T w o F a c t o r s . R e s p o n s e s
to S tim u li IB , 1C and ID on the
A d je c tiv e C h e c k l i s t .................................................................. 124
2 3 . S u m m a r y of A n a ly s is o f V a r ia n c e , T h r e e -
F a c t o r E x p e r im e n t w ith R ep ea ted
M e a s u r e s on Tw o F a c t o r s . R e s p o n s e s
to S tim u li 2B , 2C and 2D on the
A d je c tiv e C h e c k lis t ........................................ 125
xii
LIST O F FIG U R E S
F ig u r e P a g e
1. G ra p h ic r e p r e s e n ta tio n of the d is p la c e m e n t
m o d e l.............................................................................................. 9
2 . G ra p h ic r e p r e s e n ta tio n o f the r e s p o n s e
c o n flict m o d e l.......................................................... 12
3. M a jo r e x p e r im e n ta l a p p a r a tu s ........................................... 47
4 . T h e m o d ifie d m e m o r y d ru m u s e d for
p r e se n ta tio n of s t im u li...................................................... 50
5. T h e d r iv e m e c h a n is m for th e m e m o r y d r u m . . . 156
x iii
C H A P T E R I
THE P R O B L E M
P u r p o s e of the Study
T h e study o r ig in a t e s in the e ffo r ts of p s y c h o lo g is t s to
apply b a s ic fin d in g s and c o n c e p ts fr o m the e x p e r im e n ta l la b o r a to r y
to e x p la in and p r e d ic t m o r e c o m p le x b e h a v io r . G u th rie (1938),
M ille r (1 9 4 4 ), D o lla r d and M ille r (1 9 5 0 ), M o w r e r (I 9 6 0 ), and
B a n d u ra (1 9 6 2 , a m o n g o t h e r s , h a v e p u b lish e d su ch ex p la n a to ry
s y s t e m s . Such m o d e ls u s u a lly con tain c o n c e p ts or r e la te d s e t s of
c o n c e p ts w e ll su p p o rted in the r e s e a r c h lit e r a tu r e and a r e b a s e d on
r e s e a r c h th at often in v o lv e s s im p le t a s k s , o v e r t m o to r r e s p o n s e s ,
a n im a l b e h a v io r , or c o m b in a tio n s o f t h e s e . D ed u ctio n s about
s p e c if ic in s ta n c e s of the c o m p le x b e h a v io r a r e then p r e d ic te d fr o m
the m o d e l.
T h e i s s u e s r e la t iv e to su c h a tte m p ts at tr a n s la tio n a s
d e s c r ib e d a b o v e h a v e b een w id e ly d is c u s s e d . H a rlo w (1959) c o m
m en ted :
1
2
We a r e u n in te r e s te d in any s y s t e m that cannot in an
o r d e r ly w ay a tta ck the p r o b le m s o f c o m p le x b e h a v io r s
b e c a u s e our p aram ou n t c o n c e r n tr a n s c e n d s the study of the
c o m p a r a tiv e p sy c h o lo g y of the su b p r im a te f o r m s . F u r t h e r
m o r e , w e a r e fir m ly c o n v in c e d that the a n a ly s is of s im p le
b e h a v io r g iv e s r e la t iv e ly lit tle in fo rm a tio n about the n atu re
of c o m p le x b e h a v io r .
H e p r e s e n t s e v id e n c e that the e ffic ie n c y of le a rn in g s e t s
is r e la te d to p h y lo g e n e tic p o s itio n . O ne m ig h t th e r e fo r e a n ticip a te
m an y d iffic u ltie s and d is c o n tin u itie s in attem p tin g to p r e d ic t the
p r o b le m - s o lv in g p r o c e s s e s of su b je c ts that h a v e d e v e lo p e d le a r n in g
s e t s fr o m o b s e r v a t io n s o f su b je c ts that a r e u n ab le to do th is . C o m
p le x h u m an b e h a v io r can a ls o in v o lv e p r o c e s s e s of a b s tr a c tin g ,
s y m b o liz in g , and c a te g o r iz in g w h ich m a y be m in im iz e d or a b se n t
u n d er s im p le s p e c if ic e x p e r im e n ta l c ir c u m s t a n c e s . F o r e x a m p le ,
v e r b a l c u e -p r o d u c in g r e s p o n s e s m a y s e r v e to m e d ia te g e n e r a li z a
tio n s and d is c r im in a t io n s b ey o n d th o se o f p r im a r y s tim u lu s g e n e r a l
iz a tio n . On the o th er hand, te c h n iq u e s of co n d ition in g h a v e s e e n
m an y fr u itfu l a p p lic a tio n s to v ita l a r e a s of hum an b e h a v io r (B an d u ra,
1961).
A s e c o n d p r o b le m a r i s e s in that the a s s u m e d , u n d e rly in g
co m p o n en ts of the c o m p le x s y s t e m m a y not o c c u r in any s p e c if ic
situ a tio n in the w ay p o s ite d by the m o d e l, e v en though the p r e d ic tio n s
in r e g a r d to the c o m p le x b e h a v io r a r e c o n fir m e d . T he r e le v a n c e of
any m o d e l to any s p e c if ic c o m p le x b e h a v io r is en h a n ced if th e
3
p r e s e n c e of th e c o m p o n en ts of the m o d e l can be d e m o n str a te d in
r e la tio n to the c o m p le x b e h a v io r . T he r e le v a n c e o f m o d e l to c o m
p le x b e h a v io r w ou ld h old w h eth er or not th e p r e d ic tio n s in r e g a r d to
the c o m p le x b e h a v io r a r e c o n fir m e d . An a n a ly s is of the la c k of
p o s itiv e fin d in g s m ig h t then s u g g e st m o d ific a tio n s of the c o m p o n en ts
o f th e s y s t e m and im p r o v e the o v e r a ll u tility of the p a r tic u la r
a p p ro a ch .
A n a r t ic le by M u rra y and B erk u n (1955) illu s t r a t e s both
i s s u e s . In th is a r t ic le s p e c if ic d ed u ctio n s about n e a r n e s s of ap p roach
to a g o a l, by ra ts fed and la t e r sh o c k e d at the g o a l, w e r e m a d e on the
b a s is of m o d e ls fo r c o n flic t and d is p la c e d b e h a v io r to be d e s c r ib e d
la t e r . T h e p r e d ic tio n s w e r e su p p o rted . An e x c e r p t fr o m a th era p y
h ou r w a s th en quoted and a n a ly z e d in t e r m s of th e s a m e m o d e l.
D e s p ite th e c o n g r u e n c e o f d ed u ctio n s b a s e d on th e m o d e l and the
c o m p le x b e h a v io r e x e m p lifie d by the e x c e r p t o th er m o d e ls and s y s
t e m s fo r in te r p r e tin g the tr a n s a c tio n a r e a v a ila b le . It w o u ld b e m o r e
co n v in c in g to h a v e d ir e c t su p p o rt for th e a s s u m p tio n that th e p r e se n c e ,
n a tu r e, and in te r a c tio n of th e s t im u lu s - g e n e r a liz a t io n g r a d ie n ts , the
m a jo r v a r ia b le s fr o m w h ich the d ed u ctio n s w e r e m a d e , a r e c o m p a r a
b le in th e r a ts and the p a tien t.
O ne of th e m a jo r p u r p o se s o f th is study is to p r o v id e the
b e g in n in g s of an e x p e r im e n ta l b a s is fo r su ch a tr a n s itio n , fo r the
4
m o d e l fo r d is p la c e m e n t d e s c r ib e d by M ille r (1 9 4 4 , 1948). T h e
p r e s e n t study a ttem p te d to d e m o n s tr a te that the b a s ic p r in c ip le s
rela tin g to s tim u lu s g e n e r a liz a tio n , r e la tiv e r e s p o n s e str e n g th , and
c o n flic t b e h a v io r do apply to m o to r b e h a v io r , the hu m an b e h a v io r
m o s t s im ila r to that fr o m w h ich the p r in c ip le s w e r e m a in ly d e r iv e d .
T he s e c o n d ste p w a s to t e s t if the p r in c ip le s a ls o a p p lied to v e r b a l
b e h a v io r . To th is end th e e x p e r im e n t stu d ied th r e e s e t s of r e s p o n s e s
a s th ey o c c u r r e d in e a c h s u b je c t. T h e s e s e t s of r e s p o n s e s - -o n e
p r im a r ily m o to r , one that c o m b in e s v e r b a l and m o to r a s p e c t s , and
one that is p r im a r ily v e r b a l - - w e r e m a d e b y a ll su b je c ts in r e s p o n s e
to the s a m e s tim u li.
A s e c o n d r e a so n fo r the study w a s in t e r e s t in a s p e c t s of
the c o n flic t m o d e l p e r s e , the m o d e l havin g b e e n a p p lied to m an y
f a c e ts of hum an b e h a v io r . A m on g t h e s e a p p lic a tio n s a r e the v e r b a l
iz a tio n s o f a p atien t during p sy c h o th er a p y (M u rra y , 1954), the
e ffe c ts of in c r e a s e d a n x ie ty on g e n e r a liz a tio n (F a g e r and Knopf,
1958), the e ffe c ts of c h ild -r e a r in g p r a c t ic e s on adult p e r s o n a lity
(W hiting and C h ild , 1953), ch ild ren *s p r e f e r e n c e s in p r o b le m so lv in g
(G e w ir tz , 1956, 1959a, 1959b), and th e e ffe c t s of fr u s tr a tio n on
a g g r e s s i v e d o ll-p la y (H o llen b e rg and S p e r r y , 1951). A t h e o r e tic a l
su p p lem en t to the m o d e l has b e e n p u b lish e d by M u rra y and B erk u n
(1 9 5 5 ), who d e s c r ib e a c o m b in ed d is p la c e m e n t - c o n f lic t m o d e l.
5
I llu str a tin g the con tin u ed in t e r e s t in th is p r o b le m i s H e iliz e r 's (19&4)
d e s c r ip t io n of a s im ila r m o d e l o f c o n flic t, but one in w h ich a s p e c t s of
the c o n flic t a r e b a se d on the c o m p a tib ility o r in c o m p a tib ility o f d r iv e s
a s w e ll a s th e in c o m p a tib ility o f g o a l r e s p o n s e s .
Spe c if ic a lly , the study b ein g r e p o r te d in v e s t ig a t e s the
e ffe c t of the n u m b er o f v e r b a lly r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls on the str en g th of an
in s tr u m e n ta lly con d itio n ed r e s p o n s e . O ne a s p e c t of the study d e r iv e s
d ir e c t ly fr o m p r im a r y c o n c e p ts of r e in fo r c e m e n t th e o r y w h ich fo r m
the b a s is of the h y p o th e s e s that a r e s p o n s e , o n c e co n d itio n ed to a
s tim u lu s , w ill a ls o b e m a d e to o th er s im ila r s tim u li; that th e
str e n g th of a r e s p o n s e i n c r e a s e s if r e in fo r c e d m o r e often; and that
the r e la tiv e stren g th of two in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s that a r e e lic it e d
sim u lta n e o u s ly can b e u s e d to p r e d ic t the n a tu re o f r e s p o n s e s in su ch
c o n flic t s itu a tio n s . A s e c o n d a s p e c t of the stu d y in v e s t ig a t e s the
d e g r e e to w h ich th e s e c o n c ep ts apply to v e r b a l r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s .
T h e o r e t ic a l B a ck g ro u n d
M ille r (1948) d e s c r ib e d in d e ta il a m o d e l of d is p la c e d
b e h a v io r a s d ed u ced fr o m le a r n in g th eo r y p r in c ip le s . T h e a s s u m p
tio n s o f th e d is p la c e m e n t m o d e l a r e a s fo llo w s:
F iv e a s s u m p tio n s a r e n e e d e d to d ed u ce the ten d en cy
fo r d is p la c e m e n t to o c c u r in s itu a tio n s in w h ich the d ir e c t
r e s p o n s e to the o r ig in a l s tim u lu s i s p r e v e n te d by c o n flic t.
6
T h e s e a r e : (1) that th e d ir e c t r e s p o n s e to th e o r ig in a l
s tim u lu s g e n e r a liz e s to oth er s im ila r s tim u li, w ith the
am ou n t of g e n e r a liz a tio n b e c o m in g s m a lle r the l e s s
s im ila r th e s tim u li; (2) that the r e s p o n s e w h ich c o n flic ts
w ith the o c c u r r e n c e of the d ir e c t r e s p o n s e to the o r ig in a l
s tim u lu s a ls o g e n e r a liz e s to o th er s im ila r s tim u li, b e c o m
ing w e a k e r the l e s s s im ila r th e s tim u li; (3) that the g r a d ien t
of g e n e r a liz a tio n of th e c o n flictin g r e s p o n s e fa lls o ff m o r e
s te e p ly w ith d is s im ila r it y than d o e s that o f th e o r ig in a l
r e s p o n s e w h ich it in h ib its; (4) that w hen tw o o r m o r e
in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s a r e s im u lta n e o u s ly e x c ite d , the
one w ith the g r e a t e s t n et str e n g th w ill be the one w h ich
w ill o c cu r; and (5) that th e n et str e n g th of a r e s p o n s e w ill
b e its str en g th m in u s that of any r e s p o n s e in c o m p a tib le
w ith it w hich is e x c it e d a t the s a m e t im e .
In a r e v is e d fo r m (M ille r , 1959), the a s s u m p tio n s a r e
p h r a s e d in t e r m s o f a p p r o a c h -a v o id a n c e c o n flic t, in w h ich the
d im e n sio n of n e a r n e s s to a p o s itiv e or a n e g a tiv e ly r e in fo r c e d go a l
o b jec t r e p la c e s the d im e n s io n of s tim u lu s s im ila r it y , and the sp a tia l
d im e n sio n can b e s e e n a s a s p e c ia l c a s e o f a s tim u lu s g e n e r a liz a tio n
g r a d ie n t. O th er c h a n g e s a s w e ll h a v e m a d e the m o d e l m o r e s p e c if ic
to a p p r o a c h -a v o id a n c e c o n flic t, p a r tic u la r ly the u s e of h u n ger v e r s u s
fe a r m o tiv a te d c o n flic t, in b e h a v io r . T he r o le of d r iv e and the
e ffe c t s of the n u m b er of r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls in r e s p o n s e str en g th a r e
s p e c if ie d . T h e s e new a s s u m p tio n s a r e then u s e d a s th e b a s is of tw o
s e t s o f m o r e c o m p le x d e d u c tio n s . *
T h e r e v is e d a s s u m p tio n s , now c a lle d p o s tu la te s a r e :
(A) T h e te n d en cy to a p p ro a ch a g o a l is s tr o n g e r the n e a r e r the
su b je c t i s to it.
(B ) T h e te n d en cy to a v o id a fe a r e d s tim u lu s i s s tr o n g e r th e n e a r e r
7
In a s im ila r m a n n e r , M ille r and D o lla r d (1950) d e s c r ib e d
an a p p r o a c h -a p p r o a c h m o d e l o f the c o n flic t b e tw e en tw o d e s ir a b le but
in c o m p a tib le g o a ls , u sin g n e a r n e s s to the g o a l on the a b s c i s s a . In an
a n a lo g o u s w ay, a r e s p o n s e - c o n f lic t m o d e l can b e d e s c r ib e d fo r the
c h o ic e b e tw e en two d e s ir a b le but in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s co n d itio n ed
(o r cued) to a p a r tic u la r s tim u lu s .
the su b je c t is to it.
(C) T h e str en g th of a v o id a n c e i n c r e a s e s m o r e rap id ly w ith n ea rn ess
than d o es that o f a p p ro a c h .
(D) T h e str en g th of te n d e n c ie s to a p p ro a ch or a v o id v a r ie s d ir e c tly
w ith the str e n g th of th e d r iv e upon w h ich th ey a r e b a se d .
(E) B e lo w th e a s y m p to te of le a r n in g , in c r e a s in g the n u m b er of
r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls w ill in c r e a s e the str en g th of the r e s p o n s e
ten d en cy that is r e in fo r c e d .
(F) W hen two in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s a r e in c o n flic t, the s tr o n g e r
on e w ill o c c u r .
(G) In the c o n flic t situ a tio n (a n tic ip a to r y to sh ock ) fe a r i s a le a r n e d
d r iv e e lic it e d p r im a r ily by situ a tio n a l c u e s but h u n ger is m o r e
d ep en d en t on in te r n a l p h y s io lo g ic a l f a c t o r s .
(H) T h e str e n g th of le a r n e d d r iv e s , lik e that of o th er le a r n e d
r e s p o n s e s , v a r ie s in v e r s e ly w ith d is ta n c e fr o m the point of
r e in fo r c e m e n t.
A s s u m p tio n s (1 ), (2), and (4) a r e r e ta in e d , but in the a p p r o a c h -
a v o id a n c e fo r m . A ss u m p tio n (3) i s at f i r s t a ls o r e p e a te d a s p o s tu
la te C, but i s la t e r m a d e a d ed u ction o f p o s tu la te s G and H, in w h ich
the in v a r ia n c e o f the in te r n a l cu e s of h u n g er r e s u lt s in a fla tte r
r e s p o n s e g e n e r a liz a tio n g r a d ie n t than d o e s the v a r y in g c l o s e n e s s of
th e p a r tly e x te r n a l situ a tio n a l c u e s of f e a r . A ssu m p tio n (5) is not
m e n tio n e d s p e c if ic a lly , but is in f e r r e d by tw o s p e c if ic c o m p le x
d e d u c tio n s. (A d is p la c e d r e s p o n s e i s w e a k e r than the o r ig in a l
r e s p o n s e , and i s w e a k e r the g r e a t e r th e str e n g th of the in h ib itio n
in v o lv e d .) T w o new p o s tu la te s s p e c ify that in c r e a s in g d r iv e and
in c r e a s in g th e n u m b er o f r e in fo r c e d tr ia ls w ill in c r e a s e r e s p o n s e
str e n g th .
8
T h e r e la tio n s h ip of th e fou r m o d e ls d e s c r ib e d a b o v e can
b e s u m m a r iz e d as fo llo w s:
T y p e of C o n flict
A p p r o a c h -A p p r o a c h A p p r o a c h -A v o id a n c e
C o n flic t C o n flict
T y p e o f G e n e r a liz a tio n :
S tim u lu s R e s p o n s e - C o n f lic t D is p la c e m e n t
G e n e r a liz a tio n M o d el M od el
S p a tia l A p p ro a ch A p p ro a c h -A p p r o a ch A p p r o c a h -A v o id a n c e
or A v o id a n ce M o d el M o d el
T h e a p p r o a c h -a p p r o a c h and a p p r o a c h -a v o id a n c e m o d e ls
can be in te r p r e te d a s s p e c ia l c a s e s of th e r e s p o n s e - c o n f lic t and
d is p la c e m e n t m o d e ls , r e s p e c t iv e ly .
A n e x a m p le of the situ a tio n d e s c r ib e d by th e o r ig in a l
d is p la c e m e n t m o d e l is illu s t r a t e d in F ig u r e 1. T h e o rd in a te sh o w s
in c r e a s in g r e s p o n s e str e n g th a s m e a s u r e d by any of th e sta n d a rd
te c h n iq u e s , i . e . , d e c r e a s e in la te n c y , in c r e a s e in fr e q u e n c y or
p r o b a b ility o f r e s p o n s e , or in c r e a s e of m a g n itu d e of r e s p o n s e . T he
a b s c i s s a sh o w s the d im e n sio n of s tim u lu s d i s s i m i l a r i t y - - s t i m u l u s 2
9
S tren g th of
a p p ro a ch
(a ct A) or
a v o id a n ce
(a ct B)
r e s p o n s e
G ra d ien t of act B
A r e a
G ra d ien t
a ct A
A r ea
1 2 3 4
S tim u lu s d is s im ila r it y
F ig . 1. - -G ra p h ic r e p r e s e n ta tio n of th e d is p la c e m e n t m o d e l.
10
i s the m o s t s im ila r to s tim u lu s 1, and s tim u lu s 4 is l e a s t s im ila r to
s tim u lu s 1. T he g r a d ie n ts a r e fo r two h y p o th e tic a l c o n flic tin g a c ts
(a c t A and a c t B) both le a r n e d a s a r e s p o n s e to s tim u lu s 1. A c t B ,
th e " a v o id a n c e ” r e s p o n s e , d o e s n ot g e n e r a liz e a s w id e ly a s a c t A; it
h a s the " ste e p e r " g ra d ien t of g e n e r a liz a tio n . T he e ffe c t iv e r e s p o n s e
s tr e n g th of a c t A is in d ic a te d by A r e a 1; that of a c t B is in d ic a te d by
A r e a II. T h u s, a c t A o c c u r s to s tim u lu s 3, but not to 1 or 2.
T he stud y b ein g r e p o r te d in v o lv e s the r e s p o n s e - c o n f l ic t
m o d e l r a th e r than the sp a tia l a p p r o a c h -a v o id a n c e p a r a d ig m . T he
c o n flic t in the r e s p o n s e - c o n f lic t m o d e l is b e tw e e n tw o in c o m p a tib le
r e s p o n s e s r e in fo r c e d during tr a in in g w ith r e w a r d , u n lik e the d i s
p la c e m e n t m o d e l in w h ich the c o n flic t is b e tw e e n r e w a r d e d and
p u n ish e d r e s p o n s e s . T h e p r im a r y a d v a n ta g e s of u s in g th e s a m e
ty p e o f r e in fo r c e m e n t in th e tr a in in g of the tw o c o n flic tin g r e s p o n s e s
is th at it i s e a s ie r to e v a lu a te r e la tiv e r e s p o n s e str e n g th a s r e la t e d
to n u m b e r o f r e in fo r c e d t r i a l s . M any o th er p r o c e d u r a l c o m p le x it ie s
a r e a v o id e d . One of the p r im a r y d isa d v a n ta g e s in not u sin g
a p p r o a c h -a v o id a n c e or r e w a r d -p u n ish m e n t c o n flic t i s th e p o s s ib ilit y
o f h a v in g g e n e r a liz a tio n g r a d ie n ts o f d iffe r e n t s lo p e and o b s e r v in g
th e in te r a c tio n of th e s e g r a d ie n ts . H o w e v e r , a p ilo t stu d y in w h ich
b o th r e w a r d and p u n ish m en t w e r e u s e d a s r e in fo r c e m e n t did not
in d ic a te a h igh p ro b a b ility that sig n ific a n t d if fe r e n c e s in s lo p e o f
11
g r a d ie n ts w ou ld a p p ea r on the e x p e r im e n ta l r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s .
The r e s p o n s e - c o n f l ic t m o d e l i s illu s t r a t e d in F ig u r e 2.
T h e o rd in a te and a b s c i s s a a r e the s a m e a s in F ig u r e 1. A ct A h a s
r e c e iv e d m o r e r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls and is the s tr o n g e r of the tw o . The
g r a d ie n ts a r e c o n c e iv e d a s h avin g a p p r o x im a te ly eq u al s lo p e . T he
e ffe c t iv e r e s p o n s e str en g th of a ct A is a g a in in d ic a te d by A r e a I; it
w o u ld o c c u r , r ed u c ed to s o m e d e g r e e by th e c o m p e tin g r e s p o n s e , to
th e o r ig in a l and a ll th e g e n e r a liz a tio n s t im u li. A lth o u g h th e r e is
s o m e e v id e n c e that a la r g e r n u m b er o f r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls m ay
in c r e a s e g e n e r a liz a tio n (S h e rm a n and K nopf, I9 6 0 ), th is w ould not
ch a n g e the p r e d ic tio n s . U n d er such c ir c u m s t a n c e s the g r a d ie n ts
a ls o do n ot c r o s s , ra th er the s tr o n g e r r e s p o n s e i n c r e a s e s its
r e la t iv e str e n g th on the g e n e r a liz a tio n s t im u li.
B a s ic to the r e s p o n s e - c o n f l ic t m o d e l is the in te r a c tio n of
r e s p o n s e str e n g th s of in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s m a d e to a s p e c if ic
s tim u lu s . If in h ib itin g a r e s p o n s e is c o n c e p tu a liz e d a s su b stitu tin g
a r e s p o n s e fo r th e in h ib ited o n e , and if a p p ro a ch and a v o id a n c e
r e s p o n s e s a r e s e e n a s in s t a n c e s of in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s , th e
c o n flic t o f r e s p o n s e s to a s p e c if ic s tim u lu s i s r e le v a n t to the d i s
p la c e m e n t and th e tw o s p a tia l c o n flic t m o d e ls a s w e ll. In r e g a r d to
a s p e c if ic s tim u lu s th e slo p e o r n a tu re of the g e n e r a liz a tio n
g r a d ie n ts w ou ld n ot b e p e r tin e n t. T h e q u e s tio n s r e la t iv e to any on e
12
Strength of
act A or
act B
G radient of
act A
A r e a I
A r e a II
G radient of
a c t B
3 4 2 1
Stim ulus d is s im ila r ity
F ig . 2. --G r a p h ic rep resen ta tio n of the resp o n se conflict m od el.
13
stim u lu s on the g en era liza tio n gradient a re in relation to the rela tiv e
stren gth s of the conflicting r e s p o n se , and the influence of the relative
r e s p o n se stren gth s on the ch oice and stren gth of the resulting
r e s p o n s e . The four m o d els thus differ p r im a r ily a s to the nature of
the g en era liza tio n gradients h yp oth esized . A ssu m p tio n s (1), (2),
(4), and (5) above, a r e adequate for the p rediction of the conseq u en ces
of the elicita tio n of in co m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s by a s p ecific stim u lu s.
The findings of this study a r e thus pertinent to any m o d el that
in clu d es con flict b etw een r e s p o n s e s or g e n e r a liz e d r e s p o n s e s , w hat
e v er the r e la tiv e slo p e s of the gra d ien ts.
T he in teraction of two in co m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s with
different r e sp o n se stren gth s m ight be d ifferent when the conflict is
b etw een r e s p o n s e s to the o rig in a l stim u li than if the conflict is
b etw een r e s p o n s e s to stim u li to which the r e s p o n s e s have g e n e r a l
iz e d . F o r ex a m p le , the reduction in the r e s p o n se strength of the
stro n g er r e s p o n se in a con flict situation m igh t be different in
g e n e r a liz e d r e s p o n s e s than in r e s p o n s e s to the o rig in a l s tim u li. It
is a lso p o s s ib le that the str o n g e r of two r e s p o n s e s at each point on a
stim u lu s d im en sio n when m e a s u r e d individually m ight be su b
ordinated for the sake of n ovelty or a s the r esu lt of planning and
sy m b o lic tr ia l and e r r o r . Separate t e s t s of the h y p o th eses in
relation to the o r ig in a l and g en era liza tio n stim u li w e r e th e r e fo r e
14
m ad e for each of the h y p o th eses.
In keeping with one of the p u rp o ses d e sc r ib e d above,
sep arate te s ts of the h yp o th eses w e r e a ls o m ad e for the m otor and
the com bination of v erb al and m otor r esp o n se m e a s u r e s in order to
d eterm in e w hether m ed iation al cu e-p ro d u cin g r e s p o n s e s m ight m ake
r e s p o n s e s involving verb al a s p e c ts m o r e co m p lex and sophisticated,
and l e s s p red ictab le in te r m s of th ese a s su m p tio n s .
R ationale of the Study and
Statem ent of H yp oth eses
Two of the a ssu m p tio n s d e s c r ib e d above a r e con cern ed
only with the c h a r a cter of the r e s p o n s e s in a n o n -co n flict situation,
and two d eal only with r ela tiv e r e s p o n se stren gth in a conflict situ a
tion. One of the a ssu m p tio n s sp e c ifie s the r e la tiv e slo p e of stim u lu s
g e n e ra liza tio n gradients of two r e s p o n s e s and is not in volved in the
p red ictio n s.
H yp oth esis A: conditioning
A ssu m p tio n s (1) and (2) a r e e s s e n tia lly the s a m e , s p e c if y
ing that stim u lu s g en era liza tio n does o ccu r in each of the two in d i
vidual in com p atib le r e s p o n s e s . Stim ulus g en era liza tio n is trea ted by
H u ll in postu late X:
15
P o stu la te X: stim u lu s g e n e r a liz a tio n . - -
A. In the c a se of qualitative stim u li, and S^, the
effective habit stren gth (SHR) g e n e r a te s a
stim u lu s g e n era liza tio n gradient on the qualitative
continuum fr o m the sim p le le a rn ed attach m en t of
Sj to R. (Hull, 1952)
A ssu m p tio n s (1) and (2) a re the b a s is of H y p o th esis A,
w hich a lso in clu d es the sta tem en t that a r e sp o n se can be conditioned
to the stim u li.
H yp oth esis A: P a r t 1. - - A r ein fo r ce d r e sp o n se to a
stim u lu s w ill o c c u r on subsequent
p resen ta tio n s of the stim u lu s.
P a r t 2. - - A rein fo rced r e s p o n s e to
stim u lus w ill a ls o o ccu r in r e sp o n se
to other s im ila r stim u li.
H y p o t h e s is B: stren gth of r es p o n se
It is im p lic it in the m o d e l that a conditioned r e s p o n se can
be esta b lish e d through the u s e of r ein fo r c e m e n t. (The additional
sp e cifica tio n that this can be done for d ir e ctly com p etin g r e s p o n s e s ,
w hile not included in the o rigin al five a ssu m p tio n s , w as sp e cifica lly
m en tion ed by M ille r in the 1959 p o s tu la te s .) The relation of
stren gth of habit to r ein fo r c e m e n t w a s d e s c r ib e d and quantified by
H u ll (1952) in postu late IV,
16
P o stu la te IV: the law of habit form ation . - -
If r e in fo r c e m e n ts follow each other at evenly-
d istrib u ted in te r v a ls, everything e ls e constant,
the resulting habit w ill in c r e a s e in stren gth as
a p o sitiv e grow th function of the n u m ber of
tr ia ls a ccord in g to the equation H = 1-10 .
(Hull, 1952)
P o stu la te IV w as the s o u r c e of H yp oth esis B ,
H y p o th esis B: P a r t 1. - - T h e stren gth of the r esp o n se
to the training stim u li in c r e a s e s as a
function of nu m b er of rein forced
t r ia ls .
P a r t 2. - - T h e stren gth of the r e s p o n se s
to the g en era liza tio n stim u li in c r e a s e s
a s the n u m ber of r ein fo r ce d r e s p o n s e s
to the o rig in a l stim u li i n c r e a s e s .
P a r t 3. - - T h e stren gth of the r e s p o n se s
to the g en era liza tio n stim u li in c r e a s e s
a s a function of their s im ila r ity to the
o r ig in a l training stim u lu s.
H y p o th esis C: conflict
A ssu m p tio n (4) is b a sed d irectly on c o r o lla r y x iv of Hull.
C o r o lla ry xiv. The com p etition of in com p atible
rea ctio n p oten tials ( E ).
S R
17
W here the net reaction potentials (g® ^) t° two or
m o r e in com p atib le rea ctio n s (R) occu r in an
o r g a n ism at the s a m e instant, each in a m agnitude
g r e a te r than , only that rea ctio n w h o se m o m e n
tary rea ctio n potential g r e a te r w ill be
evoked. (Hull, 1952)
C o ro lla ry x iv d ea ls only with the ch oice am on g a lte r n a
tiv e s, provided all a lte r n a tiv e s a r e above th resh old strength; nothing
is im p lie d about the stren gth of the r e s p o n se that r e s u lt s .
A ssu m p tio n (4) w as the so u r c e of H ypothesis C.
H y p o th esis C: P a r t i . - - T h e m o r e frequently rein fo rced
r e s p o n se w ill b e rela tiv ely stro n g er and
is the r e sp o n se that w ill occu r when
th e r e is conflict b etw een in com p atib le
r e s p o n s e s in a sim u ltan eou s p resen ta tio n
of two of the o rigin al training stim u li.
P a r t 2. - - T h e m o r e frequently rein fo rced
r e sp o n se w ill be rela tiv ely stro n g er and
is the one that w ill o c cu r when th er e is
con flict b etw een in com p atib le r e s p o n s e s
in a sim u ltan eou s p resen ta tio n of two of
the g e n e ra liza tio n stim u li.
H yp oth esis D; reduction of r e s p o n se
F a c to r s affecting the stren gth of the r e sp o n se that occu r
18
in a conflict situation a re m en tion ed in d irectly by Hull in co ro lla ry
vii and th e o r e m s 63 and 64. C o ro lla ry vii g iv e s an equation for the
resulting reaction potential if a s m a lle r reaction potential is to be
withdrawn fr o m a la r g e r on e. In th e o r e m s 63 and 64, w hich deal
with spatial ap p ro a ch -a p p ro a ch conflict, the ch oice of r e s p o n se s is
h y p o th esized to be proportion al to the rela tiv e d ista n ce betw een
equally d e s ir a b le goal o b je c ts . In both sta tem en ts the stro n g er
r e sp o n se stren gth is r e f e r r e d to as red u ced in m agnitude when in a
d ir e ct conflict situation. A ssu m p tio n (5) is b a s e d on th ese s ta te
m en ts and se r v e d , in turn, as the s o u r ce of H y p o th esis D.
H y p o th esis D: P a r t 1. - - T h e stren gth of the resulting
r e s p o n se w ill be l e s s than that of the
stro n g er of the o rig in a l r e s p o n se s
when th ere is conflict betw een in c o m
patible r e s p o n s e s to two of the training
stim u li.
P art 2. - - T h e stren gth of the resulting
r e s p o n se w ill be l e s s than that of the
str o n g e r of the o rig in a l r e s p o n se s
when th ere is conflict b etw een in c o m
patible r e s p o n s e s to two of the
g e n e ra liza tio n s tim u li.
19
H y p o th e sis E: v e r b a l-m o t o r conflict
The te s ts of the above h y p o th e ses in clu d ed v e r b a l and
m o to r r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s . A c o m p a r iso n of r e s u lts on th e s e
m e a s u r e s p ro v id es in d ir ec t in fo rm a tio n of the r ela tio n b etw een th e s e
ty p es of r e s p o n s e s . The t e s t of this h y p o th esis in v o lv es the r e su lt of
d ir e c t conflict b e tw e en v erb a l and m o to r a s p e c t s of a r e s p o n s e .
O ne of the pilot stu d ies is d ir e c tly r ele v a n t to H y p o th esis
E . The p r o c ed u r e w as quite s im ila r to that of part of the p r e s e n t
e x p e r im e n t. A le v e r m o v e m e n t w as tra in ed in r e s p o n s e to the s a m e
stim u li a s w e r e u s e d in this e x p e r im e n t being r ep o rted . The w ord s
"good" and "bad" w e r e u s e d for r e in fo r c e m e n t for two d ifferen t
groups of su b je c ts . One of the r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s w as a c h e c k lis t in
the fo rm a t of a se m a n tic d iffe re n tia l (O sgood , S u ci, and T annenbaum ,
1957) by w hich ea ch stim u lu s w a s rated b e fo r e and a fter train in g.
T he change in p la c e m e n t of c h e ck m a r k fr o m b e fo r e to a fter training
w a s the m e a s u r e of r e s p o n s e . P la cin g a check m a r k on the page
w h ile m aking a rating o f a stim u lu s can be c o n s id e r e d b eh avior
involving v e rb a l and m o to r a s p e c t s . T h e m o to r a s p e c t is the m o v e
m e n t of the hand in the d ir e ctio n c o r r e c t w hen resp on d in g to that
stim u lu s with the le v e r during training; the v e r b a l a s p e c t is placing a
ch eck m a r k n e a r an adjer ‘ ve a s s o c ia t e d with that stim u lu s follow ing
the r ein fo rcin g situ ation . On the a d jec tiv e c h e c k lis t "good" w a s on
20
the e x tr e m e left and "bad" on the e x tr e m e right. If, for ex a m p le,
the d irection c o r r e c t for the le v e r m o v e m e n t w as left and the
r e in fo r ce m e n t w as the w ord "good, " verb al and m otor a s p e c ts of the
r e s p o n s e would supp lem en t each oth er. If the d ir e ctio n c o r r e c t for
the le v e r w as to the right, th ese two a s p e c ts of the r e s p o n se would be
in con flict. The r e s u lts of the pilot study ind icated that if verb al and
m otor a s p e c t s coincided, the change in p la cem en t of ch eck m a r k in
the rein fo rced d irectio n w as sign ifican tly la r g e r than if they w e r e in
con flict. It s e e m e d p o ssib le that this d ifferen ce w as the resu lt of
the in teraction of the two a s p e c t s of the r e s p o n s e . This assu m p tion
b e c a m e the s o u r c e of H yp oth esis E.
H y p o th esis E: P a r t 1. - - T h e stren gth of the r e s p o n s e to
the o rig in a l training stim u li w ill be l e s s
when verb a l and m o to r a s p e c ts conflict
than when they supp lem en t each oth er.
P a r t 2. - - T h e stren gth of the r e s p o n s e s
to the g en era liza tio n stim u li w ill be l e s s
w hen v erb a l and m o to r a s p e c t s conflict
than when they su pp lem en t each oth er.
S u m m ary of H yp oth eses
H y p o th e sis A
P a rt 1. - - T h e r e a r e r e s p o n s e s in stru m en ta lly conditioned
to the stim u li.
P a r t 2. - - R e s p o n s e s conditioned to o ccu r in resp o n se to
a stim u lu s w ill a lso o ccu r in r es p o n se to other s im ila r stim u li.
H y p o th esis B
P a rt 1. - - T h e stren gth of the r e s p o n se to the training
stim u li in c r e a s e s as a function of nu m ber of rein fo rced t r ia ls .
P a r t 2. - - T h e stren g th of the r e s p o n s e s to the g e n e r a l
ization stim u li in c r e a s e s a s the num ber of rein fo rced r e s p o n se s to
the o rigin al stim u li i n c r e a s e s .
P a r t 3. - - T h e stren gth of the r e s p o n s e s to the g e n e r a l
ization stim u li in c r e a s e s a s a function of th eir s im ila r ity to the
o rig in a l training stim u lu s.
H y p o t h e s is C
P a r t 1. - - T h e m o r e frequently rein fo rced r e sp o n se w ill
be rela tiv ely str o n g e r and is the resp o n se that w ill occu r when th ere
i s conflict b etw een in co m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s in a sim u lta n eo u s
p resen tation of two of the o r ig in a l training stim u li.
22
P a r t 2. - - T h e m o r e frequently rein fo rced r e sp o n se w ill
be rela tiv ely str o n g e r and is the one that w ill o c c u r when th er e is
con flict b etw een in co m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s in a sim u ltan eou s p r e s e n t a
tion of two of the g e n e ra liza tio n s tim u li.
H y p o th esis D
P a r t 1. - - T h e stren gth of the resu ltin g r es p o n se w ill be
l e s s than that of the str o n g e r of the o rig in a l r e s p o n s e s to two of the
training stim u li.
P a r t 2. - - T h e stren gth of the resu ltin g r e s p o n s e w ill be
l e s s than that of the str o n g e r o f the o rig in a l r e s p o n s e s when th er e is
con flict b etw een in com p atib le r e s p o n s e s to two of the g en era liza tio n
s tim u li.
H y p o th esis E
P a r t 1. - - T h e stren gth of the r e s p o n se to the original
training stim u li w ill be l e s s when v e rb a l and m otor a s p e c ts conflict
than when they su pp lem en t each oth er.
P a r t 2. - - T h e stren gth of the r e s p o n se s to the g e n e r a l
ization stim u li w ill be l e s s when verb a l and m o to r a s p e c ts conflict
than when they su p p lem en t each other.
23
F o r ev ery h y p o th e sis, P a rt 1 sta tes the prediction for
the o rigin al training stim u li, and Part 2 sta te s the p rediction for the
g en e ra liza tio n stim u li. The only hyp othesis that has m o r e than two
p arts is H yp oth esis B - - t h e stren gth of r esp o n se h y p o t h e s is - - in which
the additional pred iction that sim ila r ity of stim u lu s to training
stim u lu s w ill in fluence stren gth of r e sp o n se is m a d e.
CHAPTER H
SURVEY OF THE L IT E R A TU R E
The s e c tio n s of this chapter rev ie w litera tu re relevan t to
the following a r e a s : the esta b lish m en t and g en era liza tio n of the
r esp o n se on the variou s r es p o n se m e a s u r e s , the effect of rein fo rced
tria ls on r esp o n se stren gth and g en era liza tio n , and the effect of
r ela tiv e r e s p o n se stren gth on r esp o n se in a conflict situation. This
organization roughly p a r a lle ls the content of the h y p o th e ses.
Stim ulu s G e n era liza tio n
The e m p ir ic a l e x iste n c e of stim u lu s g en era liza tio n
phenom ena a re la r g ely a ccep ted , although L a sh ley and Wade (1946),
G u ttm an (19 56), and o th e r s , have q u estion ed the a s s e r t io n that
underlying gradients of habit stren gth a r e r efle c te d in such r e s u lt s .
H is t o r ic a lly , stim u lu s g e n e ra liza tio n (r e fe r r e d to in this chapter as
SG) w as apparently fir s t rep orted by A n rep (1920) and P a v lo v (1927)
who rep orted d e c r e a s in g saliv a tio n in dogs as the point o f stim u lation
of the skin w as further r e m o v ed fr o m the spot stim u la ted during
24
25
conditioning.
The lite r a tu r e on stim u lu s g en era liza tio n is e x te n siv e .
Only th ose stud ies m o st d irectly relevan t to the p ro ced u res of the
p r e se n t study, the g e n era liza tio n of voluntary m otor r e s p o n se s of
human su b jects, the tr a n sfe r of such g e n e r a liz e d r e s p o n se s to other
r e sp o n se m e a s u r e s , and the e ffe c tiv e n e s s of verb al rein fo rcem en t
w ill b e d is c u s s e d .
A recen t a r tic le rev iew in g the e m p ir ic a l findings on SG
(M ednick and F r e e d m a n , I960) rep orts that g en era liza tio n of
voluntary m otor r e s p o n s e s of hum ans a s m e a s u r e d by frequency of
r e s p o n se (the p ro ced u re u se d in the study being reported) o c cu rs
along the stim u lu s d im en sio n s of sp ace (G ibson, 1939; Brow n,
B ilad eau , and B aron , 1951; and M ednick, 1955); s iz e (G ullikson,
1932; M cK inney, 1933; and B u ss 1950, 1955); and tone (K alish,
1958; and H onig, 1958). A n d rea s (1954) rep orts obtaining g e n e r a l
ization in a study s p e c ific a lly d esig n ed to e lim in a te p o s s ib le
d isc rim in a tio n training effe cts of p u n ish m e n t--a study that is of
p a rticu la r p ertin en ce sin c e only v e rb a l rew a rd w as u se d in the
p r e se n t study.
In arguing ag a in st a s p e c ia l concept of SG, P r o k a sy and
H all (1963) question the lo g ic of saying that b e c a u s e a subject
resp on d ed s im ila r ly to two stim u li that he d is c r im in a te d betw een
26
t h e m — and then g e n e r a liz e d . A study that rep orts lack of SG is that
o f E van s (1961). U sing a p ro ced u re introduced by B row n , C lark, and
Stein (1958), sub jects a r e a sk e d to p red ict which "horse" of a row of
h o r s e s - - s y m b o l i z e d by l a m p s - - w i l l win (be lit). The cen ter h o r se
w in s 80 per cent of the tim e; the oth ers win the other 20 per cent of
the tim e with equal freq u en cy . E van s rep orts that if all the lights
could not be seen at one tim e, an SG gradient is fo rm ed only when
the lights a r e p laced so c lo s e togeth er that it is e x tr e m e ly difficult to
d isc r im in a te th em ind ividu ally. H o w ev er, if a ll the stim u li a r e
p r e se n te d sim u lta n e o u sly during early t r ia ls , a gradient is fo rm ed
on la te r tr ia ls even if a ll the stim u li could not be s e e n at one tim e .
S in ce su b jects in the p r e se n t study w ill se e all of the stim u li p rior to
training, g en era liza tio n should o c c u r .
A ls o am ong the few stu d ies reporting fa ilu re of SG is in a
p artial rep lication of a study by M urray and Berkun (1955) by E ld er,
N oblin, and M a sh er (1961). The f o r m e r authors d e s c r ib e d a study
b a se d on the com bin ed con flict and d isp la c e m e n t m o d els d e s c r ib e d
e a r li e r . In this study, rats fed and then sh ocked in a goal box at the
end of a white a lley , tr a v e led fu rth est down the le a s t s im ila r and
m o s t distant of three d is s im ila r (w hite, g r ey , and black) p a ra llel
a lle y s . The sp atial a r ra n g em en t of th ese a lle y s w a s such that the
m o s t s im ila r a lley w as a lso the n e a r e s t a lle y . E ld er e t a l . v a r ied
27
the n e a r n e ss of w hite, g r ey , and black a lle y s to the white training
a lle y in all p o s s ib le com b in ation s, and found that n e a r n e s s , but not
s im ila r ity of a lle y had an effect on d istan ce tr a v e r s e d to the goal
box. A p o s s ib le explanation of th ese r e s u lts is that d isc r im in a tio n of
n e a r n e s s so far o v ersh a d o w ed d isc r im in a tio n of co lo r of a lle y that no
c o lo r effe cts w e r e significan t. In a further study Noblin and M aher
(1962), h o w ev er, found that there w as no d ifferen ce in num ber of
tr ia ls to extinction for a black or white a lle y , for a conflict c o n d i
tioned in a w hite a lley .
The r ein fo r ce m e n t u sed in the p r e se n t study, the
ex a m in er saying "good, " has b een found to be effectiv e in in c r e a sin g
se lf-a c c e p ta n c e " types of r e s p o n se s on a t r u e - f a ls e p erso n a lity te s t
(Nutham, 1957) and in c r e a sin g the probability of se le c tin g a w ord of
a p articu lar length to u se in a sen ten ce (Sim kins, 1963). In a m o r e
sy ste m a tic a n a ly sis of v erb a l r e in fo r c e r s Hall (I960) found that the
w ord "good" w a s m o r e effectiv e in producing c erta in c r itic a l
pronouns a s r e s p o n s e s than "hmm" or no r ein fo r ce m e n t.
T hree stu d ies, using the w o rd s "right" in stead of "good"
a re th ose of Jones (1961), who r ep o rts an in c r e a s e in p r e fe r e n c e for
placin g ca rd s in stack num ber four after one rein fo rced trial;
F e r g u s o n and B u ss (1959) who found "right" not as effectiv e a s
"wrong" in esta b lish in g a r e s p o n s e , but m o r e effectiv e in in c r e a sin g
28
the r e s is ta n c e of that r e s p o n s e to extinction; and B u ss and W einer
(1954) who rep ort that using only the w ord "wrong" or the co m b in a
tion of "right" and "wrong" a s r e in fo r c e m e n t for c o r r e c t and
in co rrect r e s p o n se s w a s m o r e effectiv e than using only the w ord
" right." In a l e s s d irectly rela ted study Staats and Staats (1958)
found that they could condition an attitude of accep tan ce or rejectio n
of n a m es or w ord s (Tom , B ill, Dutch, Sw edish) by pairing th em with
w ords such as "pretty" that have a ffectiv e connotation.
The stud ies d is c u s s e d in th is sectio n are th ose in which
m o r e than one a sp e ct of the r e s p o n se , or d ifferent r e sp o n se
m e a s u r e s , are in volved . In a study quite related to the one being
reported Staats, Staats, and C raw ford (1962), u sin g n o ise and shock
as unconditioned stim u li (UCS), conditioned a GSR to the w ord "large"
a s the conditioned stim u lu s (CS). U sing the sem an tic d ifferen tial
they found that the w ord "large" had a cq u ired negative m ean in g,
p resu m ab ly b eca u se of its a s s o c ia tio n with noxious stim u lation .
N either the GSR nor the change in m eaning tr a n s fe r r e d to the w ord
"big." B o n sfield and Cowan (1963) found that conditioned hand
rem oval, using a light a s the CS and a golf ball falling tow ard the
hand as the UCS, g e n e ra lize d , a s te sted by a fo r c ed ch oice te st of
verb al a s s o c ia tio n using w o rd s such a s "light, " fla sh , " blink, "
"drop, " "ball, " and "fall. " In a study in w h ich the tr a n sfe r b etw een
29
r e s p o n se m e a s u r e s w a s fr o m oral to w ritten e x p r e s s io n rather than
m o to r to v erb a l, D ren n en (1963) using v erb a l rein fo rcem en t found
that a conditioned p r e fe r e n c e for com p letin g sen te n c es in the future
te n se orally show ed SG b a se d on sim ila r ity of sen ten ce ste m . A
c o m p a ra b le gradient of SG w a s found on com p letin g the sen te n c es in
w ritten fo r m . T h e se stu d ies a r e am on g the v ery few that have
d ir e ctly tested the tr a n s fe r of r e s p o n se ten d en cies and g en era lized
r e sp o n se te n d en cie s am ong r e s p o n se m e a s u r e s . Two of th ese
stu d ies, w hich rep ort g e n e ra lly p o sitiv e r e s u lts, involve large
tr a n sitio n s, GSR and hand m o v e m e n t to verb al m eaning and verb al
a s so c ia tio n ; one study in v o lv es a m in or tran sition from oral to
w ritten e x p r e s s io n . The p r e se n t study d iffers fro m the studies
d is c u s s e d above in that th ree r e s p o n se m e a s u r e s w e re u sed , as w e ll
a s in other r e s p e c t s such a s the c o m p a r iso n of the effect of resp o n se
stren gth on the th ree m e a s u r e s in a con flict situation.
The follow ing four stu d ies, a ll of th em particip ated in by
A rn old H. B u s s, focu s on d ifferent a s p e c t s of the relation of
r e s p o n se te n d e n c ie s. In the fir s t of th ese stud ies (B u ss, 1961)
165 w o rd s w e r e sc a le d by sixty c o lle g e m e n and sev e n ty -eig h t
c o lle g e w o m e n for a g g r e s s i v e connotation. The r esu lts indicate the
p r e s e n c e of a m atch ing p r in c ip le, m o re a g g r e s s iv e w ords tend to be
shouted, l e s s a g g r e s s iv e w o r d s w h isp ered ; inten sity of e x p r e s s io n
30
m a tch es inten sity of the w o r d s. A second finding w a s that SG fro m
m ild to in ten se is l e s s than SG fr o m inten se to m ild w o r d s. In a
later study (Geer and B u ss, 1962) the m atching p rin cip le w as found
to hold for inten sity of pull on the handle of a parking brake and
intensity of h o stile w o rd s. Using the d im en sio n of elated and
d e p r e s s e d w ord s (Murray and B u s s, 1963), training contrary to the
m atching p rin cip le (w hisper elated and shout d e p r e s s e d w o rd s) w as
found to d im in ish on w ord s l e s s and l e s s s im ila r to the training
w o r d s. F in ally (B u ss, 1962) d em o n stra ted that training on the c la s s
of a g g r e s s io n connotating w o rd s resu lted in g e n e ra liza tio n being
shown on a new c l a s s of w o rd s. A ll four of th ese stu d ies found
evid en ce supporting the in teraction of e ffects of training on different
typ es of r e s p o n se m e a s u r e s .
Sum m ary: stim u lu s g e n era liza tio n
The im p ort of the stu d ies cited above a r e in support of
SG a s an e m p ir ic a l finding, although th ere is s o m e indication that SG
m ay not occu r or be m in im a l under sp ecia l conditions such as lack of
fa m ilia r ity or opportunity to o b s e r v e the stim u lu s d im en sio n .
"Good" is an effective verb al r e in fo r c e r in the stu d ies rep orted ,
although either n egative v erb a l rein fo rcem en t or d isc r im in a to r y
r ein fo r ce m e n t is m o r e efficien t. T here a re r ela tiv ely few stud ies
that deal d ir e ctly with SG r e s p o n s e s on m o r e than one r e s p o n s e
31
m e a s u r e . R elated stud ies are la rg ely supportive of such a
tendency, but indicate d e c r e a s e in strength of r e sp o n se a s the
m e a s u r e is l e s s d irectly rela ted to the r e sp o n se first conditioned.
T h ere is one study that in d icates definite lim its beyond which such
g e n e ra liza tio n does not o ccu r.
Training and Strength of R esp o n se
The following four stud ies in vestigated the role of tra in
ing on SG and r e s p o n se stren gth in voluntary r e s p o n se .
A study sp e cifica lly d esign ed to te st the effects of num ber
of rein fo rced tr ia ls and stim u lu s sep aration on strength and slope of
SG is that of S h erm an and Knopf (I960). The tw en ty-fou r sub jects in
this study w e r e trained (fifteen tr ia ls ) to respon d to the cen ter of one
of two s e t s of se v e n lights a rra n g ed with two different am ounts of
sep aration betw een the lig h ts. E ith er 32 or 104 additional rein fo rced
tr ia ls w e r e giv en during the te st s e r i e s . Both v a r ia b le s affected
r e sp o n se probability in the exp ected m an ner; m o r e sep aration
resu lted in ste e p e r SG gradients; m o r e b o o ste r tr ia ls during testin g
resu lted in a high er proportion of c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s . The SG
a s p e c ts as w e ll a s the am ount of training a sp e c ts a re in a g r e e m e n t
with the p red ictio n of one of the h y p o th eses of the p r e se n t study.
M a rg o u lies (1955) m e a s u r e d stren gth of r e sp o n se and SG
32
follow ing 4, 16, 64, or 104 rein fo rced tr ia ls by th ree m e a s u r e s ;
laten cy, total num ber of r e s p o n s e s , and num ber of r e s p o n s e s in
sixty sec o n d s. The 163 albino rats in his sa m p le w e r e trained to get
food by opening a door in the m iddle of a la rg e white c ir c le . They
w e r e te ste d on the o rigin al and s m a lle r c i r c l e s . M ore training
resu lted in g r ea ter r esp o n se strength and higher SG g rad ien ts, all of
w hich w e r e negatively a c c e le r a t e d functions of r e s p o n se to log of the
a r e a of the stim u lu s. Unfortunately, d irectio n of g en era liza tio n ,
fr o m la r g e r to s m a lle r or s m a lle r to la r g e r , w as not co u n ter
b alan ced. The resu ltin g grad ien ts and findings have l e s s applicability
sin c e co m p a ra b le un iform grad ien ts m ight not r esu lt in g e n e ra lizin g
to a la r g e r , p erh ap s m o r e potent, stim u lu s.
U sing sch o o l ch ild ren a s su b jects, G ew irtz (1959a) found
that s u c c e s s fu l, rew ard ed attem p ts to r e a s s e m b le a cut-up w ooden
diam ond figure resu lted in a p r e fe r e n c e for that figu re,th e p r e fe r e n c e
then g en era lizin g to s im ila r d iam on d s. H ow ever, an avoidance
r e s p o n s e (esta b lish ed through u n su c c e ss fu l, un rew ard ed a ttem p ts)
w a s m o r e c le a r ly in e v id e n c e. A dditional a n a ly s is indicated that
so m e of the m o r e in telligen t ch ild ren p r e fe r r e d the m o r e difficult
p u zzle sin ce it r e p r e s e n te d a c h a lle n g e . The latter finding is a ls o an
indication of the p r o b le m s involved in applying con cep ts to different
b eh a v io ra l data, and the n e c e s s it y for tra n sitio n a l r e s e a r c h .
33
The e ffe c tiv e n e s s of training on r es p o n se strength is a lso
rep orted by Staats and Staats (1958) for conditioning m eaning; m o r e
r ein fo rced tr ia ls r e s u lts in m o r e effect on m eanin g. T h ese r esu lts
a re quite m eaningful for the p resen t study; although the r e in fo r c e
m ent in the p re se n t study is on the m otor r e s p o n se , the effe cts of
being rew ard ed a different num ber of tim e s for responding left or
right is p red icted to affect r e s p o n s e s on rela ted verb al m e a s u r e s .
While the p rep on d eran ce of related findings are in k eep
ing with the above r e s u lt s , E s t e s (I960) p r o p o s e s that additional
rein fo rced tr ia ls have no effect on probability of r e sp o n se if
extran eou s stim u lu s or m otivational v a r ia b le s are ca refu lly co n
tro lled . In just such a study, under v e ry sim p le conditions, he
found no in c r e a s e in probability of r e s p o n se with additional tr ia ls .
The c ir c u m s t a n c e s of the p r e se n t study do not control th ese
extran eou s v a r ia b le s , but do m e a s u r e probability of r e s p o n se in a
v e ry s e n sitiv e m anner; that is , in a conflict situation w h ere d iffe r
e n c e s in r e s p o n se stren gth a r e often quite s m a ll. It is p o s s ib le that
the in c r e a s e in rela tiv e probability p er additional rein fo rced
r e sp o n se is s m a lle r in conflict than if there is no r e a s o n to ch o o se
the n o n -r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n se . A p roced u re incorporatin g con flict yet
excluding the extran eou s v a r ia b le s co m m e n te d on by E s t e s m igh t be
a m o r e sen sitiv e te st of E s t e s ' contention than that cited (E ste s,
34
1961).
Not all the recent m ath em atical m o d els challenge the
role of training in resp o n se strength. Shepard (1958) deduces the
function of an SG gradient from a trace m od el w hich includes a change
in function of slope with in crea sin g training. A nd erson (1962)
d e sc r ib e s a m odel and a proposed exp erim en tal proced ure to test the
r esp o n se strengths of differentially rein forced incom patible
r e s p o n s e s.
R esp on se Strength and Conflict
The studies in this sectio n are con cern ed with the effects
of d ifferen ces in r esp o n se strength in a conflict situation.
A pproach—approach behavior
A study by Hull (1939), the m ajor purpose of w hich w as to
in vestigate alternation betw een com peting r e s p o n s e s, a lso produced
resu lts indicating that the m o re rein forced resp o n se o c cu rs when
stim u li to which incom patible r e s p o n se s have been conditioned are
p resen ted sim u ltan eou sly. Trained to p r e s s a horizontal bar (H)
and a v e rtica l bar (V) (with sixty-fou r and fifteen tr ia ls, r esp e c tiv e ly )
tne fir s t resp o n se of eighty of the eig h ty -th ree rats w as H, and a
m ed ian of tw elve H r e s p o n se s o ccu rred before the first V. The
35
a v e ra g e num ber of r e s p o n se s to extinction w as 58. 2 to H and 28, 8 to
V. While the r esu lts strongly support the e ffe c tiv e n e ss of amount of
training, it should be noted that the la s t four training tr ia ls w ere H,
confounding training with r ec e n c y .
The follow ing three stud ies s p e c ific a lly involve resp o n se
b etw een in com p atible voluntary r e s p o n s e s . In a stra ig h tfo rw a rd
ex p erim en t d esig n ed to te s t the effect of m agnitude and frequency of
rew ard on choosing betw een two lig h ts, Taub and M y er s (1961) found
m o r e tria ls and m o r e rew ard to in c r e a s e ch oice probability for th eir
subject group of co lle g e stu d en ts. R evusky (1961) found a s im ila r
effect, in term itten t rein fo r ce m e n t of a resp o n se to one sid e res u lts in
in c r e a s e d probability of choosing that sid e . Klebanoff (1939, cited
in Underw ood, 1949) d em o n stra ted that rats fed equally often at both
ends of a straight a lle y v a sc ilia te d when p la ced in the m id d le of the
runway and ran tow ard the n e a r e r sid e if not placed in the m id d le.
In a m o s t carefu lly r ea s o n e d a r tic le Honig (1962)
p r e se n ts one of the few stud ies in w hich individual resp o n se stren gth s
w e r e m e a s u r e d sep a ra tely and u se d to p red ict r e s p o n s e s during
con flict. P ig eo n s w e re train ed to respon d to a c o lo re d light and then
te s te d on individual stim u li and on p a irs of stim u li of varying
d e g r e e s of d ifferen ce in frequency of the w ave length of the light.
The n u m ber of r e s p o n se s e sta b lish e d an SG grad ien t of r e s p o n se
36
stren gth to the individual stim u li that s u c c e s s fu lly p red icted the total
nu m b er of r e s p o n s e s and the r e la tiv e freq u en cy with w hich each
stim u lu s in the double p re se n ta tio n w as picked. (It w as a lso p o ssib le
to p red ict tra n sp o sitio n and tra n sp o sitio n r e v e r s a l in this sa m e
m a n n e r .) H onig's study is an e x c e lle n t exam p le of testing the b a sic
concep ts and fir s t order deductions in a c o r r e la te d m an n er. U sing
s im ila r stra teg y , Hoffman and F l e s h i e r (1963) (working with
a p p ro a ch -a v o id a n ce conflict, h ow ever), u se d th ree sep a ra te groups
of r a t s - - o n e group train ed on approach, one on avoid an ce, and one on
both approach and avoidan ce to the s a m e le v e l as the n o n -co n flict
g ro u p s. R ather s u r p r isin g ly , they found that d isp la ce m e n t o c cu rr e d
even though approach stren gth w as g r e a te r , m e a s u r e d individually
to e v e r y stim u lu s. A so m ew h a t different approach was that of
B ilodeau and B row n (1956) who te s te d r e s p o n se stren gth su m m a tio n
and rep orted that su b jects who w e r e told to resp on d only to la m p s 3
o r 5, m ad e significan tly m o r e r e s p o n s e s to the m id d le lam p than did
th o se who w e r e told to resp on d only to 2 and 6, of a row of sev en
stim u lu s la m p s.
Two recen t th e o r e tic a l a r tic le s have attem p ted to
quantify the relation b etw een r e sp o n se ch o ice and training. That of
M o s t e lle r and T atsuoka (I960) d ev elo p ed an equation for such a
pred iction b a s e d on learn in g ra tes and in itial r e s p o n se p rob ab ilities
37
that w as related to an e a r lie r ex p erim en t on the ch oice behavior of
p a ra d ise fish (Bush and W ilson, 1956). The a r tic le by G reenfeld
(I960) p r e se n ts form u lae to quantify the relationship betw een resp o n se
strength and v a r ia b le s such as d eg ree of incom p atibility, strength of
individual r e s p o n s e s , and variou s r esp o n se m e a s u r e s .
Other typ es of conflict
C o m p a riso n of typ es of c o n flic t. - - Three stud ies within
the context of com paring the variou s typ es of conflict (approach-
approach, ap p ro a ch -a v o id a n ce, etc.) p r e se n t data on rela tiv e r esp o n se
strength in ap p roach -ap p roach con flict. Hovland and S ears (1941)
used a conflict board, in w hich four ligh ts, two at each of two
c o r n e r s , sign als for approach or avoidance; A n d reas (1958) u sed a
s e m ic ir c u la r panel of th irteen lights and, unlike the fo r m e r , exp ected
rather than unexpected sim u ltan eou s cue p resentation; and B ark er
(1942) u sed choice b etw een v a rio u s p leasan t and unpleasant liquids.
A m ong their other data A n d rea s and B a rk er rep ort g r ea ter conflict
when individual r e s p o n s e s a r e a b so lu tely stro n g er, and B ark er and
S ea rs report m o r e conflict if r e s p o n se stren gth s a re m o r e n early
equal. A rela ted o b serv a tio n is that of G ew irtz (1959b) who found a
d e c r e a s e in r e sp o n se strength that resu lted in d isp la cem en t,
ch o o sin g a m id d le p u zzle, w hen both end p u zz le s in the m a te r ia ls
38
d e s c r ib e d e a r lie r w e re punished; a situation w h ere the com peting
r e s p o n s e s are avoidan ce r e s p o n s e s . (The Hovland and S e a r s,
B a rk er, and A n d rea s stu d ies a ls o rep ort g r e a te r blocking in avoid -
a n c e -a v o id a n ce conflict than in ap p roach -ap p roach con flict. )
V erbal and m otor con flict. -- O th e r than the stud ies in the
m atching p rin cip le cited above, th ere ap p ea rs to be only one study
that d ir e ctly t e s ts con flict b etw een v erb a l and m o to r r e s p o n s e s .
Solartz (I960) a sk ed c o lle g e students to point tow ards th eir body or
aw ay fro m th eir body a s they said p o sitiv e ly or n egatively valued
w o r d s. On the a ssu m p tio n that th ere is l e s s conflict in pointing at
o n e s e lf w h ile saying w o rd s such a s "sm art" rather than "stupid, "
they rep ort sh orter la te n c ie s and few er e r r o r s for com patible rather
than incom p atible r e sp o n se co m b in a tio n s. While quite sim ila r to one
a s p e c t of the p r e se n t study, it d iffers in that the individual r e s p o n s e s
are not e x p e rim en ta lly esta b lish e d nor a re the r e s p o n se stren gths
m e a s u r e d individually.
R eduction in r e sp o n se stren gth. - - F o u r stu d ies te st the
exp ected reduction in stren gth of the r e s p o n se during con flict fr o m
the stren gth of the n o n -co n flict r e s p o n se . (Many of the above stud ies
provide evid en ce in this reg a rd a ls o , a s do stu d ies that rep ort d i s
p la c e m e n t or th ose that e sta b lish the p r e s e n c e of con flict. ) A rkoff
(1957) p a ired sever, d e s ir a b le p e r so n a l c h a r a c t e r is tic s and found
39
lo n g e r r e s p o n s e t im e , s u g g e stin g c o n flic t, than cou ld be e x p e c te d
fr o m s im p ly a c c e p tin g the c a r d { e s p e c ia lly if the c h o ic e s a r e d ifficu lt
o n e s ). H ovland and S e a r s (1938) and A n d r e a s (1950) both r ep o rt
fe w e r c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s on double s tim u lu s p r e s e n ta tio n a fte r tr a in
ing than on s in g le p r e se n ta tio n . A study by G ordon and Cohn (1963) is
r e p r e s e n ta tiv e of th o se that h a v e a p p lied th is m o d e l to v a r io u s a r e a s
of h u m an b e h a v io r . A ss u m in g that a ffilia tiv e b eh a v io r is in c o m p a tib le
w ith a g g r e s s iv e b e h a v io r , th ey found a r ed u c tio n in a g g r e s s iv e
b e h a v io r in d o ll in t e r v ie w s w ith n u rsery sc h o o l c h ild r e n if a ff ilia tiv e
d r iv e is a r o u s e d .
A p p r o a c h -a v o id a n c e c o n flic t. - - T h e n u m e ro u s and often
in g e n io u s s tu d ie s in th is a r e a have b een s u m m a r iz e d in m an y s o u r c e s :
(M ille r , 1944; D o lla r d and M ille r , 1950; M ille r , 1959; K im b le , 1961;
Y a te s , 1962; and e v e n in B e r e ls o n and S te in e r , 1964). One that m a y
s e r v e a s a r e p r e s e n ta tiv e e x p e r im e n t is that of K aufm an and M ille r
(1949) w ho r e p o r t sh o r te r running tim e , c l o s e r a p p ro a ch , and
g r e a t e r fr e q u e n c y of r e s p o n s e to a p p ro a ch fo r food a f t e r sh o c k in the
g o a l box if the ra ts had r e c e iv e d m o r e a p p ro a c h tr a in in g p r io r to the
sh o c k . T h e re w e r e 1, 3, 9, 2 7 , o r 81 a p p ro a c h tr a in in g t r ia ls
r e in fo r c e d w ith food in the g o a l b ox.
The fo llo w in g a r e tw o r e p r e s e n ta tiv e stu d ie s of b a s ic
a s s u m p tio n s o f the m o d e l w h o s e r e s u lt s a r e not a s e x p e c te d . S m ith
40
(I9 6 0 ) r e p lic a te d B r o w n 's (1942) w ork and did not find lin e a r
g r a d ie n ts in d im lig h t, nor w ith hood ed ra ts ra th er than a lb in o ra ts;
T ra p o ld , M ille r , and C oons (I9 6 0 ) found that r a ts m ad e an in itia l
a p p ro a ch r e s p o n s e w h en p la c e d in the a p p r o a c h -a v o id a n c e runw ay at
a poin t w h e r e the a v o id a n ce g ra d ien t is h ig h er .
On a th e o r e tic a l le v e l M ah er (1961, c ite d in Y a te s, 1962)
p r e s e n t s an a lte r n a tiv e m o d e l, in w h ich he s u g g e s ts that a p p ro a ch
and a v o id a n ce g r a d ie n ts v a r y a s a fu n ctio n of m an y v a r ia b le s and can ,
on an e x p e r im e n ta l b a s is , be m o r e e a s ily a s s u m e d to be p a r a lle l than
d iffe r e n t in s lo p e . He s u g g e s ts that c o n flic t r e s u lt s w h en the a b so lu te
r e s p o n s e str en g th of the w e a k e r is not c o n s id e r a b ly la r g e r than the
r e la tiv e d if fe r e n c e in r e s p o n s e str e n g th , and that the s tr o n g e r
r e s p o n s e d e te r m in e s b e h a v io r only w hen it e x c e e d s the w e a k e r by an
am ou n t w h ich m u st be la r g e r w h en the a b so lu te str en g th of the
c o m p e tin g r e s p o n s e s is la r g e r .
S u m m a r y o f S u rv e y of L ite r a tu r e
W ith r e la t iv e ly few e x c e p tio n s the a v a ila b le r e s e a r c h
s u g g e s ts th at v o lu n ta r y m o to r r e s p o n s e s do show SG w h ich is r e
f le c te d , but w e a k e r , on c lo s e ly r e la te d r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s . T ra in in g
i n c r e a s e s r e s p o n s e s tr e n g th , e x c e p t u n d er v e r y r e s t r ic t e d c o n d itio n s,
and e ffe c ts r e s p o n s e in c o n flic t s itu a t io n s . T h e re a r e fe w s tu d ie s ,
41
h o w e v e r , that d iffe r e n tia lly tr a in and s im u lta n e o u s ly e lic it in c o m p a t
ib le a p p ro a ch r e s p o n s e s or r e s p o n s e s le a r n e d to r e w a r d . V ery few
e x p e r im e n ts have a ttem p te d to m e a s u r e in d iv id u a l r e s p o n s e str e n g th s
p r io r to t e s t during c o n flic t, and alth ough the SG a s p e c t w as in clu d ed
in one stu d y, in none of th e s e w a s th e r e a c o m p a r is o n m ad e of
r e s u lt s on a v a r ie ty of s y s t e m a t ic a l ly r e la te d r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s .
C H A PT E R HI
M ETH O D
S u b jects
The su b je c ts w e r e fo r ty -e ig h t stu d en ts fr o m u n d e r
g rad u ate p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s who v o lu n te e r e d for th e stud y in
r e s p o n s e to r e q u e sts to in d iv id u a l c l a s s e s . O nly in d iv id u a ls w ith
l e s s than two s e m e s t e r s of p sy c h o lo g y w e r e a c c e p te d . T h ir ty -o n e of
the su b je c ts w e r e fr o m fou r s m a ll c l a s s e s at C a lifo r n ia S tate C o lle g e
at L o s A n g e le s: s u m m e r s e s s i o n c o u r s e s in M en ta l D e fic ie n c y and
M en ta l H y g ie n e , and a c a d e m ic y e a r s e s s i o n s of the f ir s t and s e c o n d
s e m e s t e r s of the in tro d u c to r y c o u r s e . T he r em a in in g s e v e n t e e n
s u b je c ts w e r e fr o m th e in tro d u c to r y p sy c h o lo g y c o u r s e at C a lifo r n ia
P o ly te c h n ic C o lle g e .
A s p a rt o f the e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u r e , the s u b je c ts w e r e
r eq u ir ed to le a r n e ith e r le ft o r righ t le v e r m o v e m e n ts in r e s p o n s e to
tw o s p e c if ic s t i m u l i - - r e f e r r e d to a s 1A and 2A . In o r d e r to p r o v id e
p r o p e r c o n tr o ls tw e n ty -fo u r o f the s u b je c ts w e r e to le a r n to m o v e the
l e v e r le ft for 1A and rig h t fo r 2A, and tw e n ty -fo u r of the su b jec ts
w e r e to le a r n to m o v e th e le v e r righ t fo r 1A and le f t fo r 2A . The
s tim u li w e r e p r e s e n te d , and r e in fo r c e d , in a fix ed o r d e r; and,
42
43
th e r e f o r e , if th e c r it e r io n for le a r n in g one stim u lu s w a s r ea ch ed
f ir s t , it w ould be r e in fo r c e d m o r e o fte n . It w a s , of c o u r s e , i m
p o s s ib le to p r e d ic t w h ich o f th e tw o r e s p o n s e s w ou ld b e le a r n e d to
c r it e r io n f ir s t by any p a r tic u la r s u b je c t. The a n a ly s e s of v a r ia n c e
te c h n iq u e s u se d to a n a ly z e the data r e q u ir e that an eq u al n u m b er or
an eq u al p ro p o rtio n o f su b je c ts in the lA - l e f t , 2 A -r ig h t; and lA - r ig h t ,
2 A -le ft grou p s rea c h c r ite r io n f i r s t on s tim u li 1A and 2A . Tw o
s u b je c ts in ea ch of th e tw o g ro u p s of tw e n ty -fo u r r e a c h e d c r it e r io n
on both s tim u li s im u lt a n e o u s ly . O f the tw e n ty -tw o su b je c ts in the 1A
le f t - 2 A righ t g ro u p , th ir te e n r e a c h e d c r it e r io n on 1A f i r s t - - n i n e on
2A f i r s t . In the o th er g ro u p , fifte e n su b je c ts r e a c h e d c r it e r io n f ir s t
in r e s p o n se to 1A b e fo r e n in e r e a c h e d c r it e r io n f ir s t on 2A . T h u s,
in clu d in g the tw o su b je c ts who r e a c h e d c r it e r io n on both s tim u li
s im u lta n e o u s ly , a to ta l o f t w e n t y - s ix s u b je c ts w e r e t e s t e d in th e 1A
r ig h t-2 A le ft g r o u p . T he data of tw o o f the s u b je c ts in th e la tte r
group w e r e not u s e d , in o r d e r to m a in ta in p r o p o r tio n a lity .
M a te r ia ls
S tim u li
T h e s tim u li w e r e p h o to g ra p h ic p r in ts of th r e e s e t s of
g e o m e t r ic f ig u r e s . T he s i z e of the o r ig in a l d ra w in g s w as r e d u c e d
44
in p rin tin g to m in im iz e s m a ll ir r e g u l a r it ie s . The m a x im u m h e ig h t
o f the la r g e s t of the r e su ltin g fig u r e s in any s e r i e s w as o n e -h a lf
in ch , the o th e r s w e r e r ed u ced p ro p o rtio n a tely ; the m a x im u m h e ig h ts
of the o r ig in a l ink d ra w in g s w e r e fro m th r e e and a q u a rter to fiv e
in c h e s .
E a c h of the th r e e s e r i e s of s tim u li co n ta in ed fou r
in d iv id u a l s tim u li w h ich d iffe r e d s y s t e m a t ic a lly in one r e s p e c t , a s
fo llo w s: a d ia m o n d w ith v a ry in g h eig h t to width ratio (s tim u li 1A,
IB , 1C, ID ), an e q u ila te r a l tr ia n g le w ith in c r e a s in g ly m o r e rounded
s id e s (s tim u li 2A, 2B , 2C, 2D), and a c ir c le w ith w e d g e -s h a p e d
s e g m e n ts of d iffe r e n t s i z e s m is s in g (s tim u li 3A, 3B , 3C, 3D)
(A p p en d ix A ). The s tim u li w e r e c o n s tr u c te d so that each s u c c e s s i v e
d iffe r e n c e w a s the s a m e r e la tiv e change: the ch a n g e in h eig h t to
w idth ra tio o f e a ch d iam on d , the ra tio of s u c c e s s i v e ra d ii o f th e
c u r v e d s id e s o f the tr ia n g le , and the ra tio of s u c c e s s i v e a r c s of the
m is s in g s e g m e n t of th e c ir c le w e r e c o n s ta n ts . F o u r p a ir s of s tim u lu s
p ic tu r e s w e r e a ls o u s e d . T h e s e p a ir s c o n s is t e d o f stim u li 1A -2A
(p a ir A ), 1 B -2 B (p a ir B ), 1C -2C (p air C ), and 1 D -2 D (p air D ).
D uring tr a in in g s tim u li 1A, 2A , 3A, and 3D (the n a r r o w
e s t d iam on d , th e tr ia n g le w ith the s t r a ig h t e s t s i d e s , and the c ir c l e s
w ith the s m a l l e s t and la r g e s t s e g m e n ts m is s in g ) w e r e p r e s e n t e d on a
tap e in s e v e n d iffe r e n t ran d om s e q u e n c e s by a m e m o r y d r u m .
45
B e f o r e and a fte r tr a in in g a ll tw e lv e s tim u li and the fou r p a ir s of
s tim u li w e r e p r e s e n t e d - - o n c e on a tap e in a fix e d ran d om o r d e r
(A p p en d ix A); and o n c e on 5 x 8 c a r d s in a d iffe r e n t ran d om o r d e r
fo r e a c h s u b je c t.
A d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t
The a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t c o n s is t e d of n in e b ip o la r a d je c tiv e
s c a le s in the m a n n e r of the s e m a n tic d iffe r e n tia l, in clu d in g one s c a le
d e fin ed by th e w o r d s "left" and " r ig h t." E a ch s c a l e w as la b e le d at
s e v e n p oin ts and d efin ed at the e x t r e m e s by a d je c tiv a l a n to n y m s, as
illu s t r a t e d b e lo w (A pp en dix A ).
M o d e r - L it - N e u - L it - M o d e r -
V ery a tely tie t r a l tie a te ly V ery
L eft :________:________ :_______ :________ :________ :_______ :_________: R igh t
M e a n -_______________________________________________________________ M e a n
ingful:________:________ :_______ :________ :________ :_______ : : in g le s s
T h e c h e c k lis t w a s su p p lied in pads of s ix te e n p a g e s , one
to be c o m p le te d fo r e a c h o f the fo u r s tim u li and one fo r e a ch of the
fo u r p a ir s of s t im u li. A copy of th e in s tr u c tio n s fo r c o m p le tin g th e
c h e c k lis t (A p p en d ix B ) w a s handed e a ch s u b je c t, and he w a s a sk e d to
r ea d the in s tr u c tio n s as th ey w e r e r ea d to h im by the e x a m in e r . The
e x p e r im e n te r then p r e s e n te d the s tim u li in the p r e v io u s ly d e te r m in e d
ran d om o r d e r , and a fte r e a ch p a g e w a s fin ish e d , r e m o v e d the
46
s tim u lu s c a r d and th e c o m p le te d p age o f the c h e c k lis t.
R e c o r d s h e e t
T h e r e c o r d sh e^ t (A p p en d ix A) in clu d ed s p a c e for n a m e ,
a g e , s e x , d a te, tim e of day, le ft or righ t h a n d e d n e ss, and n u m b er of
p s y c h o lo g y c o u r s e s c o m p le te d . On th is s h e e t w as a lis t of the fou r
tr a in in g s tim u li in the v a r io u s o r d e r s of p r e se n ta tio n , and the
d ir e c tio n of le v e r m o v e m e n t to b e r e in fo r c e d . S p ace w as p ro v id ed to
in d ic a te the o b s e r v e d d ir e c t io n o f le v e r m o v e m e n t. The two s tim u li
to b e tr a in e d to c r it e r io n w e r e p la c e d on the r e c o r d sh e e t in an
in d en ted fa sh io n s o that the n u m b e r of c o n s e c u tiv e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s
w a s m o r e r e a d ily n o t ic e a b le .
A p p a ra tu s
T h e m a jo r a p p a ra tu s w a s a la r g e plyw ood b ox t h ir t y - s ix
in c h e s w id e , tw en ty in c h e s d e e p , and e ig h te e n in c h e s high, show n in
F ig u r e 3. In the fr o n t of the b o x , at e y e le v e l, w as a 1 5 /1 6 x 2 - 3 / 1 6
in ch o p en in g th rou gh w h ich th e s tim u li w e r e e x p o s e d by the m e m o r y
d r u m . T he op en in g w as s h ie ld e d so th at on ly one s tim u lu s co u ld b e
s e e n at any t im e . T h rou gh a s e c o n d h o r iz o n ta l slo t at w a is t le v e l
p r o tr u d ed a le v e r that c o u ld b e m o v e d le ft or righ t. A co m b in a tio n of
c o il and c o n s ta n t- lo a d s p r in g s fa c ilit a te d the retu rn o f th e le v e r to
th e c e n te r p o s itio n . T he e x a c t c e n te r sta r tin g p o sitio n w as m ad e
47
F IG . 3. - -M A JO R E X P E R IM E N T A L A P P A R A T U S
T h e s tim u li a r e p r e s e n te d th rou gh the s m a lle r o p en in g at
the top . R e s p o n s e s a r e m ad e w ith the le v e r s e e n at the b o tto m of the
a p p a r a tu s.

49
k in e s th e tic a lly p e r c e p tib le by an in d en ta tio n on the r o lle r - b a r that
su p p o rted th e b a ck of the l e v e r .
I n c o r p o r a te d w ith in th e a p p aratu s w as a m e m o r y d r u m ,
show n in F ig u r e 4, the c y lin d e r o f w h ich w as m o d ifie d so that it
p r e s e n te d a h ig h -fr ic tio n , r u b b e r -fa c e d s u r fa c e , tw e n ty -o n e in c h e s
in c ir c u m f e r e n c e . T w e n ty -e ig h t s u c c e s s i v e , t h r e e -q u a r te r in ch
w idth a r e a s w e r e p r e s e n t e d in one c o m p le te ro ta tio n o f the c y lin d e r .
T he c y lin d e r ro ta ted , e x p o sin g a n ew s u r fa c e , or s tim u lu s , e v e r y
th r e e s e c o n d s . T h e d r iv e m e c h a n is m o f the m e m o r y d ru m is show n
in A p p en d ix A . An e le c t r ic m o to r tu rn ed a la r g e w h e e l th rou gh a
s e r i e s of g e a r s o n ce e v e r y th r e e s e c o n d s . P r o je c tin g fr o m the w h e e l
w as a peg that c o n ta c te d and m o v e d a le v e r s lig h tly e v e r y tim e it
rotated ; the le v e r in tu rn m o v e d a p aw l a g a in st one of a s e r i e s of
n o tch es of a r a tc h e t-w h e e l on the a x is of the m e m o r y d ru m , thus
tu rn in g the d ru m one n o tch . H avin g m o v e d th e d ru m , the paw l w as
r etu rn ed to p o s itio n by a s p r in g . T he e le c t r ic m o to r that e n e r g iz e d
the d r iv e m e c h a n is m w as a h y s t e r e s is ty p e m o to r , the s p e e d o f w h ich
is d e te r m in e d b y lin e fr e q u e n c y . T h e s p e e d of su ch m o to r s is quite
co n sta n t and not in flu e n c e d by the s m a ll v a r ia tio n s in lin e v o lta g e
w hich o c c u r in m an y ty p ic a l b u ild in g e le c t r ic a l s o u r c e s .
An E s t e r lin e - A n g u s , M od el AW , DC M illia m m e t e r
R e c o r d e r w ith a c h ro n o g ra p h p en a tta ch m en t w a s a ls o u s e d . A
50
FIG . 4 . — THE M O D IFIE D M EM ORY DRUM U SED FO R
P R E S E N T A T IO N O F ST IM U L I.

52
d e ta ile d d e s c r ip tio n of th e r e c o r d e r and a tta ch m en ts is g iv e n in the
b o o k let, ‘'In stru ctio n s F o r the U s e of E s t e r lin e - A n g u s M o d el AW
G rap h ic In s tr u m e n ts , " d istr ib u te d by the co m p a n y . T he r e c o r d in g is
done by a pen a c tu a ted b y a m a g n et w ork in g a g a in st a sp r in g . When
the c ir c u it to th e m a g n et is c o m p le te d the pen m o v e s about o n e -te n th
o f an in ch to w a rd the ed g e of the c h a rt, and. r etu r n s to p o sitio n when
the c ir c u it i s b r o k e n . T he pen m a r k s a con tin u ou s lin e on the ed ge of
the r e c o r d in g p a p er, w ith ou tw ard and in w a rd s tr o k e s a s v o lta g e is
a p p lied o r in te r r u p te d . V o lta g e w a s a p p lied to the pen a s a m i c r o
sw itc h w a s a c tiv a te d by the tu rn in g o f the r a tc h e t-w h e e l of the
m e m o r y d r u m . The c ir c u it w as in te r r u p te d as a s e c o n d m i c r o
sw itc h , a tta ch ed to the r e s p o n s e le v e r d e s c r ib e d a b o v e, w a s a c tiv a te d
e a ch tim e the l e v e r w a s m o v e d fr o m th e c e n te r p o sitio n a d is ta n c e
of o n e -e ig h th of an in c h . A n e x te r n a l m o to r a tta ch m en t (S ty le 24,
T yp e N) in c r e a s e d the s p e e d o f th e r e c o r d in g p ap er p a st the pen to
one in c h p er se c o n d .
R e s p o n s e M e a s u r e s
T h e d ir e c t io n of le v e r m o v e m e n t
T h e m e a s u r e of th is r e s p o n s e in r e la tio n to a s p e c if ic
s tim u lu s i s b a s e d on the su b je c t m o v in g the le v e r in th e d ir e c tio n
r e in fo r c e d a s c o r r e c t du rin g tr a in in g . T he d ir e c tio n of le v e r
53
m o v e m e n t w as o b s e r v e d by the e x p e r im e n te r look in g into th e op en
sid e of the a p p a ra tu s, and n oted on the r e c o r d s h e e t d e s c r ib e d
e a r li e r .
R e a ctio n tim e
R e a ctio n tim e w a s r e c o r d e d a u to m a tic a lly by the s tr o k e s
o f the ch ro n o g ra p h p en a tta ch m en t d e s c r ib e d a b o v e. A s the c y lin d e r
o f the m e m o r y d ru m tu rn ed p r e se n tin g a new s tim u lu s th e pen m a d e
an o u tw ard str o k e ; w hen the su b je c t m o v e d th e le v e r aw ay fr o m th e
c e n te r p o sitio n the pen m a d e an in w a rd s tr o k e . T he d is ta n c e b e tw e e n
the ou tw ard and in w a r d m a r k s , r e p r e s e n tin g the p r e se n ta tio n of th e
s tim u lu s and o c c u r r e n c e of r e s p o n s e , r e s p e c t iv e ly , w a s m e a s u r e d
to the n e a r e s t o n e - t h ir t y - s e c o n d of an in c h . S in ce the s p e e d :> f th e
p a p er p a st the pen w a s c o n sta n t in c h - p e r - s e c o n d , the d e c im a l
eq u iv a len t of the m e a s u r e d d is ta n c e g a v e r e a c tio n tim e in s e c o n d s .
A lth ough th e b ack of the lever w a s h in ged to a llo w fo r th e
slig h t up and down m o v e m e n t of the r o lle r into the in d en ta tio n that
m a r k e d th e e x a c t c e n te r p o sitio n , the le v e r w as r ig id in a h o r iz o n ta l
p la n e . S in c e th e c e n te r p o sitio n w a s an e x a c t o n e, the l e v e r r ig id ,
and the r id g e s that a c tiv a te d the m ic r o s w it c h an eq u al d is ta n c e fr o m
the c e n te r in e ith e r d ir e c tio n , no b ia s r e s u ltin g in lo n g e r o r s h o r te r
r e a c tio n t im e s fo r le ft o r rig h t r e s p o n s e s sh o u ld h a v e r e s u lt e d .
54
A d d itio n a lly , th e co u n ter b a la n cin g o f s tim u li and d ir e c tio n of
r e s p o n s e w ould d im in ish the p o s s ib ilit y of s y s t e m a t ic b ia s in r e a c tio n
t i m e s .
S u b jects who had r e m o v e d th e ir hand fr o m th e l e v e r d u r
ing tra in in g or who kept the l e v e r aw ay fr o m the c e n te r p o sitio n w e r e
in s tr u c te d a c c o r d in g ly . No in te r r u p tio n s w e r e m a d e o n c e the p o s t
tra in in g s e s s i o n w ith the a p p a ra tu s b e g a n . S in c e a s e c o n d e x p e r i
m e n te r w a s p r e s e n t only w h ile th ir ty -o n e of the su b je c ts w e r e b ein g
t e s t e d , and s in c e it w a s d iffic u lt for a s in g le e x p e r im e n te r to o b s e r v e
i f a su b jec t r e m o v e d h is hand fr o m the l e v e r , it is not know n if any
of the r e m a in in g s u b je c ts r e m o v e d th e ir hands fr o m th e le v e r and
thus p o s s ib ly a ffe c te d r e a c tio n t im e . H o w e v e r , none of the th ir ty -o n e
su b je c ts who w e r e o b s e r v e d b y a s e c o n d e x p e r im e n te r r e m o v e d th e ir
hand fr o m the le v e r o r fa ile d to retu rn it to the c e n te r p o sitio n during
the s ix te e n r e s p o n s e s of the p o s t-t r a in in g p e r io d . No sig n ific a n t
d if fe r e n c e s in the m e a n s o f r e a c tio n t im e s to the p a ir s of s tim u li of
th o s e s u b je c ts who w e r e o b s e r v e d and th o s e who w e r e not o b s e r v e d
o c c u r r e d (P a ir A , _t = .3 9 ; P a ir B , _t = .7 7 ; P a ir C, _t = 1 .0 4 ;
and P a ir D, t = . 1 0 ) . T h e s e _ t-te s ts r e f le c t the d if fe r e n c e s in th e
m e a n s of .0 6 2 , . 115, . 171, and .0 5 8 s e c o n d s , r e s p e c t iv e ly , the
o b s e r v e d su b je c ts havin g th e lo n g e r r e a c tio n tim e in e a c h c a s e .
55
In o r d e r to e s t im a t e the r e lia b ility of th e m e a s u r e m e n t
to the n e a r e s t o n e - t h ir t y - s e c o n d of an in c h , 200 r e s p o n s e s w e r e
m e a s u r e d a se c o n d t i m e - - 100 by ea ch o f two in d iv id u a ls. P e r f e c t
a g r e e m e n t w as ob ta in ed in 83 and 86 p e r cen t of the m e a s u r e m e n t s ,
and only one s e t of m e a s u r e m e n t s w as as m u ch as o n e - s ix t e e n t h of
an in ch a p a rt.
T h is r e p r e s e n t s an a v e r a g e of l e s s than . 005 se c o n d s
1
e r r o r in m e a s u r e m e n t p e r r e s p o n s e .
T he le f t - r ig h t a d je c tiv e s c a le
T h is r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e is b a s e d on the s c a le of the
a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t d e fin ed by the w o rd s "left" and " righ t, " p la c e d
on the le ft and rig h t s id e s o f the p a g e, r e s p e c t iv e ly . T he s e v e n
poin ts of th is s c a le w e r e n u m b e r e d 1 th rou gh 7, sta r tin g fr o m the
w o rd "left" o r the w o rd " righ t, " that a p p r o p r ia te ly d e s c r ib e d the
d ir e c tio n r e in fo r c e d a s c o r r e c t fo r that p a r tic u la r r e s p o n s e . T h e
M agn itu d e o f r e s p o n s e w as a ls o r e c o r d e d fo r m o s t
s u b j e c ts . H o w e v e r , s in c e r e in fo r c e m e n t w a s g iv e n fo r e v e r y
c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e o f any m a g n itu d e, la r g e o r s m a ll, there s e e m s no
b a s is fo r p r e d ic tin g la r g e r or s m a lle r r e s p o n s e s w ith in the co n tex t
o f the m o d e ls that fo r m the th e o r e tic a l b a s is of th is stu d y . A c c o r d
in g ly , th e s e data w e r e not u s e d to t e s t the h y p o th e s e s .
56
m e a s u r e of r e s p o n s e is the am ou nt o f change in p la c e m e n t of c h e ck
m a r k , ob tain ed by su b tra ctin g the n u m b er of the p la c e c h e ck ed a fter
tr a in in g fr o m the n u m b er o f the p la c e c h e c k e d b e fo r e tr a in in g . In
th is e x a m p le , in w hich le ft w as th e d ir e c tio n r e in fo r c e d a s c o r r e c t ,
L e f t :_________: 0 :_________ :_________ : X :_________ :_________: R ig h t,
X and 0 in d ic a te the p la c e m e n t of the c h e c k m a r k b e fo r e and a fter
tr a in in g , r e s p e c t iv e ly . T he s c o r e fo r th is r e s p o n s e , in w hich the
ch a n g e w a s to the le ft, is 3 ( 5 - 2 ) . If the m e a n in g of X and 0 w e r e
r e v e r s e d (a fter and b e fo r e tr a in in g , r e s p e c t iv e ly ) , the ch a n g e w ould
b e to the righ t and the s c o r e -3 ( 2 - 5 ) . In th is w a y , a ll p lu s s c o r e s
a re ch a n g es in the r e in fo r c e d d ir e c tio n , and a ll m in u s s c o r e s are
ch a n g es aw ay fr o m the r e in fo r c e d d ir e c tio n .
T h e a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t
T h is r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e i s b a s e d on tLe rem a in in g n in e
s c a l e s of the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t (e x c lu d in g th e le f t - r ig h t s c a le ) . T he
m e a s u r e of r e s p o n s e to any s p e c if ic s tim u lu s is the a lg e b r a ic su m
o f th e s c o r e s fo r the eig h t in d iv id u a l s c a l e s . T h e co m p u ta tio n of the
in d iv id u a l s c o r e s i s the s a m e as d e s c r ib e d fo r the le f t - r ig h t a d je c tiv e
s c a l e a b o v e , e x c e p t that the s e v e n p o in ts o f the s c a le w e r e a lw a y s
n u m b e r e d 1 th rou gh 7 fr o m le ft to rig h t.
57
P r o c e d u r e
O rien tin g p r o c ed u r e
E a c h su b ject w a s te s te d in d iv id u a lly . The e x p e r im e n ta l
p r o c e d u r e s w e r e c a r r ie d ou t by the author who te s te d s ix te e n
su b je c ts and two r e s e a r c h a s s is t a n t s , g rad u ate stu d en ts in
p s y c h o lo g y , em p lo y ed fo r that p u rp o se who t e s t e d the r e m a in d e r of
the s u b j e c ts . T he su b jec ts w e r e ra n d o m ly a s s ig n e d to co n d itio n s
and e x p e r im e n t e r s . Tw o e x p e r im e n te r s w e r e p r e s e n t during that
p h a se o f the p r o c e d u r e s th at in v o lv e d th e a p p a ra tu s fo r th ir ty -o n e
of the s u b je c ts . (S in ce su b je c ts w e r e a s s ig n e d ra n d o m ly to
c o n d itio n s, t h e s e th ir ty -o n e w e r e a ls o ra n d o m ly r e p r e s e n te d in the
v a r io u s c o n d it io n s .) T h e r e s e a r c h a s s is t a n t s w e r e tr a in e d and
in s tr u c te d to fo llo w the p r o c e d u r e s d e s c r ib e d b e lo w .
The su b ject w a s told that th is w as an e x p e r im e n t in the
le a r n in g p r o c e s s , and that the e x a m in e r w as c o n c e r n e d w ith the
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f the tr a in in g p r o c e d u r e ra th er than the s p e e d w ith
w h ich he o r d iffe r e n t g ro u p s le a r n e d th e ta s k . H e w a s in s tr u c te d
that the e x p e r im e n t w ould tak e fr o m th irty to s ix ty m in u te s , th at no
sh o c k or oth er u n p le a sa n t s tim u la tio n w ou ld b e in v o lv e d , and h e w a s
58
a sk e d not to d is c u s s the p r o c e d u r e s in v o lv ed w ith h is s c h o o lm a te s
fo r tw o or th r e e w e e k s .
E x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u r e
T he p r o c e d u r e fo llo w e d a t e s t - t r a m i n g - r e t e s t seq u e n c e:
B e f o r e tr a in in g . - - B e f o r e tra in in g e a ch su b ject r esp o n d e d
to the s ix te e n s tim u li by c o m p le tin g the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t in the
m a n n e r d e s c r ib e d e a r li e r and by v ie w in g , but not resp o n d in g to , the
s tim u li p r e s e n t e d by the m e m o r y d r u m . H alf o f the su b je c ts v ie w e d
the s tim u li fir s t; h a lf c o m p le te d th e c h e c k lis t f i r s t .
T ra in in g p r o c e d u r e . - - T h e su b je c ts w e r e a sk e d to s it in
fro n t o f th e a p p a ra tu s, g et c o m fo r ta b le , m o v e th e le v e r b a c k and
fo rth , b e c o m e f a m ilia r w ith the f e e l of the c e n te r p o sitio n , e tc .
T h ey w e r e then rea d a sta n d a rd s e t of in s tr u c tio n s (A p p en d ix B )
w h ich in fo r m e d th em that th ey w ou ld b e show n s o m e of the s tim u li
th ey had s e e n b e f o r e , and that th ey w e r e to le a r n to m o v e th e le v e r
in the c o r r e c t d ir e c tio n in r e s p o n s e to e a ch s tim u lu s . E a c h tim e
th ey m o v e d the le v e r c o r r e c t ly the e x p e r im e n te r w ou ld sa y "good";
if th ey m o v e d th e le v e r in c o r r e c t ly the e x a m in e r w ou ld r e m a in q u iet.
T hey w e r e to r e sp o n d q u ick ly to ea ch s tim u lu s and retu rn th e l e v e r
to the c e n te r p o s itio n b e fo r e th e n e x t s tim u lu s a p p e a r e d . T h ey w e r e
a s s u r e d that the e x a m in e r u n d e r s to o d that th ey w ould b e g u e s s in g as
59
to th e c o r r e c t d ir e c tio n at f ir s t , but th ey w ould so o n le a r n the
c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e .
A s d e s c r ib e d a b o v e, the tra in in g tape c o n s is t e d of
s tim u li 1A, 2A, 3A, and 3D . T he c o r r e c t d ir e c t io n o f le v e r m o v e
m e n t w as th e s a m e fo r s tim u li 1A and 3A , w h ile th e o p p o site
d ir e c tio n w a s c o r r e c t fo r s tim u li 2A and 3D. T he c o r r e c t d ir e c tio n
fo r 1A and 3A w a s le ft for h alf the su b je c ts and r ig h t fo r the o th er
h a lf o f the s u b j e c ts . S tim u li 1A and 2A , w hich c o n sititu te p a ir A ,
w e r e a lw a y s r e in fo r c e d in d iffe re n t d ir e c t io n s .
T h e s tim u li w e r e p r e s e n t e d u n til a c r it e r io n of th r e e
c o n s e c u tiv e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s had b e e n r e a c h e d on 1A and 2A . O nly
fou r o f the fo r t y - e ig h t s u b je c ts le a r n e d 1A and 2A to c r it e r io n
fo llo w in g an equal n u m b er of r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls .
A fte r tr a in in g . - -F o llo w in g tra in in g the c h e c k lis t and
le v e r m o v e m e n t to the fu ll s e t of tw e lv e stim u li and fou r p a ir s of
s tim u li w e r e c o m p le te d . H a lf of the s u b je c ts c o m p le te d the c h e c k
l i s t fir s t; the o th er h a lf r esp o n d e d f i r s t w ith the le v e r m o v e m e n t.
S u m m a r y o f E x p e r im e n ta l P r o c e d u r e
T h e s e q u e n c e of e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u r e s fo r the four
gro u p s of tw e lv e su b je c ts is s u m m a r iz e d in T a b le 1.
60
T A B L E 1
SEQUENCE OF E X P E R IM E N T A L PR O C ED U R ES
S eq u en ce 1
A d je c tiv e ____ T ap e ____ T ra in in g t o A d je c tiv e R e s p o n s e
c h e c k lis t p r e s e n - c r it e r io n on c h e c k lis t w ith le v e r
ta tio n 1A and 2A
S eq u en ce 2
A d je c tiv e ____ T a p e ____ T ra in in g t o R e s p o n s e A d je c tiv e
c h e c k lis t p r e s e n - c r it e r io n on w ith le v e r c h e c k lis t
tation 1A and 2A
S e q u e n c e 3
T ap e ____ A d j e c t iv e ___ T ra in in g t o A d je c tiv e R e s p o n s e
p r e se n ta tio n c h e c k lis t c r it e r io n on c h e c k lis t w ith le v e r
1A and 2A
S e q u en ce 4
T ap e A d j e c t iv e ____T ra in in g t o _____ R e s p o n s e___ A d je c tiv e
p r e se n ta tio n c h e c k lis t c r it e r io n on w ith l e v e r c h e c k lis t
1A and 2A
A s s ig n m e n t o f S u b jects to E x p e r im e n ta l C o n d itio n s
T h e s u b je c ts w e r e in itia lly a s s ig n e d to e x p e r im e n ta l
co n d itio n s in a fa c to r ia l d e s ig n w ith 1A le f t - 2 A rig h t, 1A righ t -
2A left; s e q u e n c e of c h e c k lis t and v ie w in g s tim u li b e fo r e tra in in g ;
61
and s e q u e n c e of c h e c k lis t and le v e r r e s p o n s e a fter tra in in g ; as
v a r ia b le s . T h is r e s u lt e d in eig h t tr e a tm e n t v a r ia tio n s w ith s ix
su b je c ts for e a c h tr e a tm e n t. It b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y to u s e s e q u e n c e
o f c h e c k lis t and tape p r e se n ta tio n of stim u li b e fo r e tra in in g and
s e q u e n c e of c h e c k lis t and le v e r r e s p o n s e a fte r tra in in g a s c o n tr o ls
b e c a u s e it w as not p o s s ib le to p r e d ic t w h eth er th e r e s p o n s e to
stim u lu s 1A or 2A w ould r e a c h c r it e r io n f ir s t and b e r e in fo r c e d m o r e
o ften . T h e e ffe c ts o f the n u m b er of r e in fo r c e m e n ts is one of the
m a jo r i s s u e s in th is stud y, and th e r e fo r e w as u s e d as a b a s is for
reg ro u p in g the s u b j e c ts . T h is r e s u lte d in d iffe re n t n u m b e r s of
su b je c ts w ith th e four v a r ia tio n s of s e q u e n c e b e fo r e and a fte r te s tin g
in the n ew g ro u p s of s u b j e c ts . A ll the e ffe c ts cou ld not b e s t a t i s t i
c a lly e v a lu a te d , and it w a s d e c id e d to u s e s e q u e n c e only a s a c o n tr o l
v a r ia b le .
The n ew groupin g o f s u b je c ts w a s done on the b a s is of:
(1) the c o r r e c t le v e r m o v e m e n t b ein g 1A le ft» 2 A rig h t, o r 1A r ig h t-
2A left; and (2) 1A or 2A h avin g r e c e iv e d m o r e r e in fo r c e d t r i a l s .
T a b le 2 sh o w s th e n u m b er o f su b je c ts fo llo w in g ea ch o f th e four
e x p e r im e n ta l s e q u e n c e s , fo r the g ro u p s of su b je c ts d iv id ed in the
m a n n e r d e s c r ib e d a b o v e. S tim u lu s 1A w a s le a r n e d to c r it e r io n
b e fo r e 2A by t w e n t y - s ix su b je c ts; e ig h te e n r e a c h e d c r it e r io n f i r s t on
s tim u lu s 2A . A c h i- s q u a r e t e s t of th is d iffe r e n c e in e a s e of le a r n in g
62
TA BL E 2
N U M B E R OF SU B JE C T S FO LLO W IN G E A C H E X P E R IM E N T A L
S E Q U E N C E , A S D IV ID ED ON THE BASIS OF C O R R EC T
D IR E C T IO N OF L E V E R M O V E M E N T A N D G R E A T E R
N U M B E R OF R E IN F O R C E D T R IA L S ON 1A OR 2A
S u b jects R e in fo r c e d L eft S u b jects R e in fo r c e d R ight
on 1A and Right on 2A on 1A and L eft on 2A
{N=24)a (N =24)a
Ss w /M o r e S s w /M o r e Ss w /M o r e Ss w /M o r e
R e in f. T rials R e in f.T r ia ls R e in f.T r ia ls R e in f.T r ia ls
on 1A(N=13) on 2A (N =9) o n lA (N = 1 3 ) on 2A{N=9)
N o. of Ss w ith
E x p e r im e n ta l
S eq u en ce 1^
N o. of S s w ith
E x p e r im e n ta l
S eq u en ce 2^
N o. of S s w ith
E xp e r im e n ta l
S eq u en ce 3^
N o. of Ss w ith
E xp e r im e n ta l
S eq u en ce 4^
a Tw o s u b j e c t s in e a c h of th e s e g ro u p s r e a c h e d c r it e r io n on
1A and 2A in the s a m e n u m b er of r e in fo r c e d t r i a l s .
^T he four e x p e r im e n ta l s e q u e n c e s a r e d e s c r ib e d in d e ta il in
the tex t in the e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u r e s e c t io n . T h e s e " s e q u e n c e s "
a r e the fou r p o s s ib le v a r ia tio n s in the o r d e r of r esp o n d in g on the
c h e c k lis t or w ith the le v e r b e fo r e and a fte r tr a in in g .
63
2
the r e s p o n s e to the tw o s tim u li (x = 1. 114, df = 1, < .2 )
in d ic a te s that th is d istr ib u tio n of fr e q u e n c ie s is not s ig n ific a n tly
d iffe re n t than cou ld b e e x p e c te d b y ch a n c e .
C H A P T E R IV
R E SU L T S
In trod u ction
A b r ie f r e v ie w o f s o m e of the fo r m a l a s p e c t s of the stud y
is p r e s e n t e d at th is p o in t, s in c e t h e s e a r e in v o lv e d in the m a n n e r of
p r e se n ta tio n of the r e s u l t s . P a r t 1 of e a c h h y p o th e s is in v o lv e s
p r e d ic tio n s fo r the tr a in in g s tim u li; P a r t 2 in v o lv e s p r e d ic tio n s fo r
the g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li. E a c h s e r i e s o f s tim u li c o n s is t e d o f four
in d iv id u a l fig u r e s id e n tifie d as 1A, IB , 1C, ID , and 2A , 2B , 2C , 2D .
T h e p a ir s of s tim u li a r e fo r m e d by co m b in in g th e a p p r o p r ia te in d i
v id u al f ig u r e s , e . g . , s tim u li 1A and 2A co m b in e a s P a i r A . T he
t e s t s o f a ll the h y p o th e s e s e x c e p t the la s t w e r e c a r r ie d out s e p a r a t e ly
(1) for the data b a s e d on the d if fe r e n c e in p la c e m e n t of c h e c k m a r k on
the le f t - r ig h t s c a l e o f the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t, and (2) fo r the data
b a s e d on the d ir e c tio n o f l e v e r m o v e m e n t in r e s p o n s e to the s in g le
p r e se n ta tio n of the tw e lv e s tim u li and four p a ir s of s tim u li a fte r
tr a in in g . A d d itio n a l p r e d ic tio n s b a s e d on H y p o th e sis B ( g r e a t e r
r e s p o n s e str e n g th fo llo w in g m o r e r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls ); and H y p o th e sis
64
65
D ( l e s s r e s p o n s e str e n g th in c o n flic t situ a tio n s) w e r e te s te d w ith the
r e a c tio n tim e m e a s u r e . T he t e s t o f H y p o th e sis E , the v e r b a l- m o t o r
c o n flic t h y p o th e s is , w as b a s e d on the ch an ge in p la c e m e n t o f c h e ck
m a r k fo llo w in g tra in in g on the n in e r em a in in g s c a l e s o f the a d je c tiv e
c h e c k lis t .
In s o m e c a s e s the data r e le v a n t to a h y p o th e sis or part
o f a h y p o th e sis w e r e a n a ly s e d in m o r e than one m a n n e r . Such
m u ltip le a n a ly s e s a r e in d ic a te d by su b h e a d in g s. T h e r e is a su m m a r y
o f the r e s u lt s fo r ea ch h y p o t h e s is . The data b a s e d on the le f t - r ig h t
s c a l e and the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t w e r e su b je c te d to as c o m p le te an
a n a ly s is a s p o s s ib le in o r d e r to p a r tia l out s o u r c e s o f v a r ia tio n
w h ich w ould o th e r w is e co n trib u te to e r r o r v a r ia n c e s . T h e s e s o u r c e s
o f v a r ia tio n a r e g e n e r a lly th o se a s s o c ia t e d w ith the c o n tr o l
p r o c e d u r e s d e s c r ib e d e a r li e r .
T e s t o f H y p o th e sis A; C on d ition in g
L e v e r m o v e m e n t
P a r t 1, H y p o th e sis A . - - P a r t 1 o f th e h y p o th e sis
p r e d ic ts that a r e s p o n s e r e in fo r c e d in r e la tio n to a s tim u lu s w ill
o c c u r on a su b se q u e n t p r e se n ta tio n of the s t im u lu s . T he data fo r the
t e s t o f the h y p o th e s is a r e b a s e d on the r e s p o n s e to s tim u li 1A and 2A
d u rin g the s in g le p r e s e n ta tio n of a ll s ix te e n s tim u li that c o n stitu te
66
the te st t r ia ls . The num ber of su b jects m oving the le v e r in the
rein fo rced d irection (+) and away fro m the rein fo rced d irection (-)
after the training p r o c ed u r es is given in T able 3. The fr e q u e n c ie s
are given sep a ra tely for stim u li 1A and 2A . Since the th eory and the
hyp oth eses p red icted a sp e c ific r e s p o n se , a o n e -ta il te st of s ig n if i
cance w as u se d . The d ifferen ce betw een the obtained freq u en cies
of su b jects responding + or - and the ex p ected chance freq u en cies
w e r e te s te d by c h i-s q u a re with Y ates' c o r r e c tio n for continuity
(M cN em a r, 1962). The exp ected fr eq u en cies for the fo rty -eig h t
su b jects responding at random to any stim u lu s are 24 + and 2 4 - ; in
r e sp o n se to stim u lu s 1A the obtained fr eq u en cies w e r e 44 + and 4
This d ifferen ce in fr e q u e n c ie s, as in d icated on Table 3, r esu lts in a
2
x = 3 1 .6 9 , w hich with df = 1 is sign ifican t at the . 001 le v e l . The
37 + and 11 - r e s p o n se s to stim u lu s 2A are a lso sign ifican tly d iffe r
ent than a chance distribution of c o r r e c t and in c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s .
T h ere is l e s s than one chance in a thousand that this n u m ber of
sub jects would resp on d to eith er stim u lu s as they did as the r e su lt of
chance alone.
The d irectio n of r e sp o n se was cou n terb alan ced by having
each subject respond left to one e x p e rim en ta l stim u lu s and right to
the other e x p e rim en ta l stim u lu s. The a sso c ia tio n of a d irectio n of
r e sp o n se to a stim u lu s, e . g . , a left r e sp o n se to 1A and a right
67
T A B L E 3
CHI-SQUARE FOR THE N U M BER OF SU BJEC TS MOVING THE
L EV E R IN THE R EIN FO RC ED DIRECTION (+) OR O PPO SITE
TO THE REIN FO RC ED DIRECTION (-) A F T E R TRAINING,
BY DIRECTION OF R E SPO N SE.
Stim ulus
No. of
Subjects
+ - X 2
P
S tim
ulus
No. of
Subjects
+ - X 2
P
1A
Left C o rrect 23 1 18. 38 . 001a
2A
20 4 9. 38 . 005
Right C o rrect 21 3 12. 04 . 001 17 7 3. 38 . 05
Total 44 4 31. 69 . 001 37 11 13. 02 . 001
IB
Left C o rrect 24 0 22. 04 . 001
2B
17 7 3. 38 . 05
Right C o rrect 20 4 9. 38 . 005 20 4 9. 38 . 005
T otal 44 4 31. 68 . 001 37 11 13. 02 . 001
1C
Left C o r re ct 23 1 18. 38 . 001
2C
18 6 5. 04 . 02
Right C o r re ct 19 5 7. 04 . 005 21 3 12. 04 . 001
Total 42 6 25. 52 . 001 39 9 17. 52 . 001
ID
Left C o rrect 20 4 9. 38 . 005
2D
18 6 5. 04 . 02
Right C o r re ct 19 5 7. 04 . 005 18 6 5. 04 . 02
Total 39 9 17. 52 . 001 36 12 11. 02 . 001
aA ll probability le v e l s a r e b a sed on d f= l, o n e -ta il te s t of
sig n ifica n ce.
68
resp o n se to 2A, w as counterbalanced by having half of the subjects
respon d 1A left and 2A right and half the sub jects 1A right and 2A
left. An initial resp o n se bias could account for the re. alts rep orted
above only if this bias c o n s is te d of a left p r e fe r e n c e for 1A and a
right p r e fe re n c e for 2A for tw enty-four of the su b jects, and v ic e
v e r s a for the oth er tw en ty-fou r su b jec ts. Such a r e s p o n se bias
would have resu lted in a g r e a te r num ber of su b jects responding to
sp e cific stim u li in the d irectio n to be r ein fo r ce d during training.
Inspection of the fir s t r e s p o n se to stim u lu s 1A during training show s
that tw e n ty -th r e e respon ded in the d irectio n to be rein fo rced and
tw en ty -fiv e in the opposite d irectio n . In relation to stim u lu s 2A the
num ber of su b jects responding in the rein fo rced and opp osite to the
rein fo rced d irectio n are tw e n ty -six and tw en ty-tw o, r e s p e c tiv e ly .
N eith er of th e se deviations fro m a chance distribution are significan t
2 2
(x = . 0208, df = 1 for stim u lu s 1A, and x = . 88, df = 1 for
2A \ indicating that this type of r esp o n se b ia s w as not involved.
Although rein fo rcem en t as the m ean s of esta b lish in g
r e s p o n s e s is not c r u c ia l to the m o d e ls , w hich d ea l with r e s p o n s e s of
different stren gth h ow ever esta b lish ed , rein fo r ce m e n t w as the
m an n er ch o sen to e sta b lish r e s p o n s e s . In this light, the data
a n a ly se s d e s c r ib e d above do not te s t the h yp oth esis that r e in f o r c e
m en t w as the c ru c ia l variab le in the learn ing p r o c e s s . The d e c isio n
69
to term in a te training after th ree p a rticu la r c o n s e c u tiv e r e s p o n s e s
o c c u r r e d would in c r e a s e the probability of that r e s p o n se o ccu rrin g
m o r e often during training, even if r e in fo r ce m e n t had no effect. As
a r e su lt, o c c u r r e n c e of a r e s p o n se and rein fo rcem en t of that r e sp o n se
are confounded; the data a n a ly sis above does not te st the hyp othesis
that r e in fo r c e m e n t is the fa cto r c r itic a l in esta b lish in g a r e sp o n se
ten d en cy.
A cco rd in g ly , the data w e r e a n alyzed in a different
m a n n e r. R e sp o n se s during training to stim u lu s 1A, and sep a ra tely
to 2A, w e re ex a m in ed and su b jects w e r e c la s s if ie d in four w ays:
F ir s t , th ose sub jects who resp on d ed c o r r e c tly to ev er y stim u lu s
p resen ta tio n , r esu lted in confounding of o c c u r r e n c e and r e in f o r c e
m en t. The data of the six te e n sub jects who resp on d ed in this m a n n er
to stim u lu s 1A, and the nine c o m p a r a b le su b jects in relation to 2A
w e r e not u s e d in this a n a ly s is . Second, th ose su b jects who resp on d ed
c o r r e c tly to 1A or 2A m o r e often at ev er y point in th eir training,
a lso resu lted in confounding of o c c u r r e n c e and r e in fo r c e m e n t. The
data of the two sub jects in relation to 1A and the five to 2A who
resp on d ed in th is m a n n er w e r e a lso elim in a ted fr o m the a n a ly s is .
The la st two grou p s, c o n sistin g of th o se su b jects who had resp on d ed
in c o r r e c tly (-) m o r e often than c o r r e c tly (+) b e fo r e reachin g
criter io n , and th o se who had resp on d ed - and + an equal n u m ber of
70
tim e s at so m e point in their training, yield ed data on which r e in f o r c e
m en t and o c c u r r e n c e w ere not confounded, (F or the latter group of
su b jects the point of equal - and + r e s p o n s e s following the g r e a t e s t
num ber of rein fo rced tria ls w as d eterm in ed , and the r esp o n se to the
next p resen ta tio n of the stim u lu s included in the a n a ly se s d e s c r ib e d
b e lo w .) The data for th ese subjects a r e su m m a r iz e d in Table 4.
S ev en teen of the tw en ty-on e su b jects with equal + and - r es p o n se s to
1A resp on d ed in the rein fo rced d irectio n on the next p resen tation of
1A. This d ifferen ce in freq u en cies is sign ifican t of the . 005 le v e l
2
for a o n e -ta il te st of sig n ifica n ce (x = 6 .8 6 , df = 1). Of the nine
su b jects with m o r e in c o r r e c t than c o r r e c t r e s p o n se s to 1A after
reaching criterio n , se v e n resp on d ed + and two - on the subsequent
te st tricil. T his d ifferen ce in the p red icted d irectio n is not s ig n ifi
cant. Com bining the data of th e se two groups of su b jects r e su lts in
a ratio of 24 + and 6 - , a d ifferen ce in fr eq u en cies significan t at the
2
. 005 le v e l (x = 9 .6 3 , df = 1, o n e -ta il te s t of sig n ifica n ce). The
analogous fr e q u e n c ie s for r e s p o n s e s to stim u lu s 2A, shown in
T ab le 4, are a lso sign ifican tly in the p red icted d irectio n .
Of additional in te r e st is the finding, a lso shown in Table
4, that after only one rein fo rced and one n o n -r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n se ,
the rein fo rced r e s p o n se o c c u r r e d sign ifican tly m o r e frequently. F o r
fou rteen of the tw en ty-on e su b jects with an equal n u m ber of + and -
71
TA BLE 4
X 2 FOR THE N U M BER OF SU B JE C TS RESPONDING IN THE
REIN FO RC ED DIRECTION (+) AN D O PPO SITE TO THE
REIN FO RC ED DIRECTION (-) FOR THOSE SU BJEC TS
WHERE OCCURRENCE A N D R E IN FO R C E M EN T
A RE NOT CO NFO UNDED
No. + No. - X 2
~ a.
P
R e sp o n se s to Stim ulus 1A:
Ss W / Sam e N um ber O c c u r r e n c e s 17b 4b 6. 86 . 005
Ss W /M o re - O c c u r r e n c e s 7C 2C 1. 78
Total 24 6 9. 63 . 005
Ss W /O ne + and One - R esp o n se 12 2 5. 79 . 01
No. + No. - X 2
Pa
R e sp o n se s to Stim ulus 2A:
Ss W / Sam e N um b er O c c u r r e n c e s 25b 3b 15. 75 . 001
Ss W /M o re - O c c u r r e n c e s 4 C l c 1. 60
Total 29 4 17. 45 . 001
Ss W /O ne + and One - R esp o n se 13 2 6. 66 . 005
O n e-ta il te st of sig n ifica n ce. d f= l.
The fr e q u e n c ie s a r e for the r e s p o n se follow ing an equal
num ber of o c c u r r e n c e s .
Q
The fr e q u e n c ie s a re for the p o st-tra in in g r e s p o n s e s .
72
r e s p o n s e s to 1A the point of equal o c c u r r e n c e was rea ch ed after one
r e sp o n se in eith er d irectio n . T w elve of th ese respon ded in the
r ein fo r ce d d irectio n on the secon d p resen tation of the stim u lu s, only
two in the opp osite d irectio n . A com p arab le nu m ber of the fifteen
su b jects with one 4 and one - r esp o n se rea cted in this m anner to
stim u lu s 2A, su g g estin g that even a sin g le r ein fo r ce m e n t is effective
in influencing r e s p o n se p r e fe r e n c e .
The r e s u lts b a se d on r e s p o n s e s of sub jects for whom
r ein fo r ce m e n t and o c c u r r e n c e are not confounded supports the
h yp oth esis and lends additional im p ort to the findings b a se d on all
su b jects.
P a r t 2, H yp oth esis A: conditioning, le v e r m o v e m e n t s . - -
P a rt 2 of the h yp oth esis p red icts that a rein fo rced resp o n se to a
stim u lu s w ill a lso be m ad e to stim u li s im ila r to the training stim u lu s.
The data for the te s t of the h y p o th esis is b a se d on r e s p o n se s to
stim u li IB, 1C, ID, and 2B, 2C, 2D, s im ila r , r e s p e c tiv e ly , to
stim u li 1A and 2A. Table 3 a lso g iv es the num ber of subjects
m ovin g the le v e r in the p red icted d irectio n during the te s t tr ia ls in
r e s p o n se to th ese g e n era liza tio n stim u li. The c h i-sq u a r e a n a ly se s
of th e se fr e q u e n c ie s are id en tical in logic and p ro ced u re to that
d e s c r ib e d in the fir s t a n a ly sis above. A significan tly g r ea ter
p roportion (£ .0 0 1 ) of sub jects resp on d ed as p red icted to each of
73
the th ree g en era liza tio n stim u li of the two rein fo rced s tim u li. As
d e s c r ib e d above, h o w ev er, this type of a n a ly sis confounds n u m b er of
o c c u r r e n c e s with r ein fo r ce m e n t.
The g en e ra liza tio n stim u li w e r e not p re se n ted during
training so that r e s p o n s e s at different sta g e s of training w e re not
a v a ila b le. H ov/ever, it was p o s s ib le to identify tw elve su b jects who
m ad e few er rein fo rced (+) than n o n -r e in fo r c e d (-) r e sp o n se s during
training to 1A, and se v e n who respon ded in this m an n er to 2A. F o r
th o se su b jects the two v a r ia b le s of o c c u r r e n c e and rein fo rcem en t
ex er te d p resu m a b ly o p p o site e ffe c ts . The r e s p o n se s of th e s e n in e
teen su b jects to the r e s p e c tiv e g e n e ra liza tio n stim u li w e r e 3 = 16 +,
3 - j C = 15 + 4 and D = 11 +, 8 - . T h e se relative fr eq u en cies
differ fro m a chance d istribu tion , for a o n e -t a il te st of sig n ifica n ce ,
beyond the .0 0 5 , .0 2 5 , and at a n o n sign ifican t le v e l (as d e term in ed
fro m the table of c r itic a l valu es of the exact bin om in al for the sign
te st, D iam ond, 1959:281). The im p lica tio n s of th ese r e su lts a r e
s im ila r to th ose of the a n a ly s e s that included a ll su b jec ts, ex cep t for
the m o r e d ra m a tic drop in r e la tiv e fr e q u e n c ie s in r esp o n se to the D
stim u li in the seco n d a n a ly s is .
The co rr e la tio n of the resu lts of the two typ es of
a n a ly se s in both p arts of this h y p o th e sis, and the sign ifican t findings
for th ose su b jects for w hom only r e in fo r c e m e n t differen tially
74
p reced ed the c o rr e ct and in c o r re c t r esp o n se support the predictions
of the h y p oth esis. It s e e m s reason ab le to a ccep t the h yp oth eses that
the exp erim en t p roced u res did e sta b lish a resp o n se to the rein forced
stim u li, and that this r esp o n se g e n e ra lize d to stim u li s im ila r to the
training stim u li.
L eft-r ig h t s c a le
P art 1, H ypothesis A, conditioning. --T h e prediction
b a sed on this hyp othesis is that change in p lacem en t of check m ark
on the le ft-rig h t s c a le in r es p o n se to stim u li 1A and 2A w ill be in the
rein forced d irection of le v e r m o v e m e n t. Inspection of the data did
not indicate m ark ed d ifferen ces in v a ria n ces or shapes of the d i s
tributions of the s c o r e s involved . (S im ilar in sp ection s w ere m ade in
each c a s e b efo re analyzing the data.) The data w e re then subjected
to an a n a ly sis of v arian ce using a latin square d esign of four factors
with rep eated m e a s u r e s on three factors (W iner, 1962:571) shown in
Table A of Appendix C. This m eth od of a n a ly sis w as n e c e s s a r y
b e c a u se two of the control v a r ia b le s, r es p o n se s to stim u lu s 1A or 2A
and left and right as c o r r e c t d irection of r e sp o n se , w e r e co u n ter
b alan ced within subjects and betw een groups; ev ery subject did not
respon d left and right to both s tim u li. The a n a ly sis of this type of
data constitu tes a latin square d esign . Such d esign s are un desirable
75
for s o m e p u rp oses s in c e the a ssu m p tio n that certa in in tera ctio n s a r e
not sig n ifica n t m u st be m ade. S in ce the latin square a s p e c ts of the
d esig n are lim ite d to the control v a r ia b le s, this a ssu m p tio n is not a
d ir e c t p rob lem in the test of the h y p o th esis. The n o n -rep ea ted
factor in this d esig n , a lso a control v a ria b le, is the two groups of
sub jects responding le ft-rig h t or rig h t-left to the two stim u li. The
te s t of the hyp oth esis is the fourth factor, ind icated in the a n a ly sis as
"before training v e r s u s after training. " The F ratio for this change
in r e sp o n se is 11. 707, sign ifican t at the . 005 le v e l for a o n e -ta il te s t.
S in ce the d ifferen ce in the v a ria n ce e s t im a te s is not the r esu lt of
g r o ss d ifferen ces in shape or v a ria n ce of the distribution of s c o r e s ,
they m ay be attributed to the d ifferen ce in m e a n s . A c o m p a r iso n of
th e s e m ean s for r e s p o n s e s b e fo r e and a fter training to stim u li 1A
(3. 77 - 2. 93 = .8 5 ) and 2A (4. 04 - 3. 44 = . 60), and th e r e fo r e the
com bin ed m ea n s ( 3 . 9 1 - 3 . 18 = .7 3) show s that the change in
r esp o n se is in the p red icted d irectio n . A lthough th ere is a sign ifican t
d iffe re n c e in r e s p o n se if left or right is the d irectio n rein fo r ce d as
c o r r e c t, this d iffe re n c e is b a se d on the su m of the s c o r e s b e fo r e and
a fter training. This is a lso true of the sign ifican t d iffe re n c e in
r e s p o n s e to stim u li 1A and 2A. M o r e o v e r , the AC and BC in t e r
action s a re not significan t, indicating that the effects of training
w e re not different for left or right as tl'3 r ein fo r ce d d irectio n s of
76
r e s p o n se , nor for 1A or 2A as the training stim u lu s.
The p ro b lem o c c a s io n e d by the training p ro ced u re
confounding o c c u r r e n c e and r ein fo r c e m e n t of r e s p o n se a ls o app lies
to this a n a ly s is . H o w ev er, the sign ifican t r e s u lts of the a n a ly sis of
le v e r m o v e m e n ts for subjects for w hom th ese v a r ia b le s w e re not
confounded as w e ll as for th o se for all su b jects s u g g e st that r e in fo r c e
m en t w as involved in influencing subsequent r e s p o n s e s with the le v e r .
The significan t resu lts of the a n a ly sis of r e s p o n s e s on the le ft-r ig h t
s c a le s u g g e st in d irect support for the r ein fo r c e m e n t a sp e ct of the
h y p o th e sis. A s in d icated e a r lie r , the m ajor co n cern was in e s ta b lis h
ing in com p atible r e s p o n s e s by so m e m e a n s, and the r esu lts c le a r ly
indicate that this did o c cu r. It is again p o s s ib le to lim it the te st of
the h y p o th esis to th o se n in eteen su b jects who respon ded l e s s often in
the n o n -r e in fo r c e d or the s a m e nu m b er of tim e s in rein fo rced and
n o n -r e in fo r c e d d ir e c tio n s. A t - t e s t of th ese c o r r e la te d r e s p o n se s
r e s u lts in a D of 1 .2 and a_t = 1 .7 7 . F o r df = 9 (nine subjects
sh ow ed no change in r e sp o n se after training) the d iffe re n c e ju st
m i s s e s s ig n ifica n ce . 1 > ^ . 05.
P a rt 2, H yp oth esis A: le ft- r ig h t s c a l e . - - T a b le 5 sh ow s
the m ea n s fo r r e s p o n s e s to the th re e g e n e ra liza tio n stim u li of each
training stim u lu s, and the s u m s of the th ree r e s p o n s e s , b e fo r e and
after training. A s p red icted by the h y p o th esis, the change in each
77
T A B L E 5
M EANS OF RESPO NSES ON THE L E F T -R IG H T SCALE
B EF O R E AND A F T E R TRAINING FOR
THE GENERALIZATION
STIMULI
Stim ulus
Mean R esp o n se
B efore Training
M ean R esp o n se
A fter Training
IB 3. 687 3. 145
1C 3. 979 2. 895
ID 3. 791 3. 020
A ll th ree stim u li 3. 819 3. 020
Stim ulus
M ean R esp o n se
B efore Training
M ean R e sp o n se
A fter Training
2B 4. 020 3. 708
2C 3. 854 3. 333
2D 3. 895 3. 291
A ll th ree stim u li 3. 923 3. 444
78
c a s e is in the d irectio n rein fo r ce d as c o r r e c t for the l e v e r resp o n se
to the appropriate training stim u lu s. The s u m m a r ie s of the a n a ly se s
of v a ria n ce, T ables B and C in Appendix C, show F ratios of 16. 613
and 8 .6 6 for the "before training v e r s u s after training" change in
r e s p o n se for the g en era liza tio n stim u li of 1A and 2A, resp e c tiv e ly ;
th ese F ratios are significan t at the .0 0 1 and .0 0 5 le v e ls , for o n e -
ta il te sts of sig n ifica n ce . In th ese a n a ly s e s, which a re th r e e -fa c to r
d e sig n s with repeated m e a s u r e s on two fa cto rs (W iner, 1962:319),
the other rep eated m e a s u r e te s ts the d ifferen ce in r e s p o n s e s to the
th r e e g en era liza tio n stim u li, and is not rela ted to the te st of the
h y p o th e sis. The n o n -r e p e a te d m e a s u r e in each of th ese two a n a ly se s
is left or right as the rein fo r ce d d irectio n of r e s p o n se to each
stim u lu s . T his d iffe re n c e is sig n ifica n t at the .0 5 le v e l for resp on ses
IB, 1C, ID and in d ica tes that the d ifferen ce in r e s p o n s e s to stim u lu s
1A if left or right is the d irectio n rein fo r ce d a lso o c c u r s to the
g en e ra liza tio n stim u li of 1A. Since this is b a se d on the su m of
r e s p o n s e s b e fo r e and after training, and s in c e the AB in teraction is
not significan t, this d iffe re n c e in r e s p o n se to the stim u li did not
r e f le c t different e ffects of training if left or right w as the c o r r e c t
d irectio n of r es p o n se for the g en e ra liza tio n s tim u li. In o rd er to
m e e t the p ro b lem of the confounding of rein fo r ce m e n t and o ccu rr e n c e,
a t - t e s t for the su m of the d iffe re n c e s b etw een the r e s p o n s e s to the
79
g en e ra liza tio n stim u li b e fo r e and after training was co m p le te d for the
nin eteen su b jects for w hom o c c u r r e n c e and r e in fo r c e m e n t w e r e not
confounded. T his resu lted in a D of 2, 19 and a_t of 1 .9 3 6 , sign ifican t
of the .0 5 le v e l for df = 15 (th ree sub jects show ed no change in
resp o n se) and a o n e -t a il te s t. A gain the r e s u lts of the two a n a ly se s
are s im ila r and support the h y p o th esis.
The d iffe re n c e s b e fo r e and after training for r e s p o n s e s to
all four stim u li w e r e com bin ed resu ltin g in a D = 2 .9 4 and t = 2 .2 8
sign ifican t at the . 025 le v e l for df = 15, o n e -t a il te st. This
a n a ly s e s, w hich c o m b in es r e s p o n se s to all four stim u li, lends addi
tional support to both parts of H yp oth esis A.
Su m m ary: H y p o th esis A
The r esu lts support the conditioning h yp oth esis; the
training p r o c ed u r es did e sta b lish a r e s p o n se tendency and the
r e s p o n se ten d en cies g e n e r a liz e d to s im ila r s tim u li. The analogous
r esu lts fo r the le ft-r ig h t s c a le s u g g e st that the resu lts of the
training tr a n s fe r r e d to a r e s p o n s e s im ila r to that train ed , but one
involving v e rb a l a s p e c t s .
80
T e s t of H yp oth esis B: Strength of R e sp o n se
L e v e r m o v em en t
P a rts i and 2, H yp oth esis B, fir s t a n a ly s is . - - P a r t s 1 and
2 of H yp oth esis B predict that the stren gth of r e s p o n se s to training
and g e n era liza tio n stim u li in c r e a s e s as the nu m b er of rein forced
tr ia ls i n c r e a s e s . Table 6 g iv e s the num ber of su b jects m oving the
le v e r in the r ein fo r ce d d irectio n during the t e s t trial in r e sp o n se to
all eight stim u li, after rela tiv ely m o r e or l e s s rein fo rced t r ia ls . The
proportions a re p r e se n te d sep a ra tely for 1A and 2A as the m o r e
rein fo rced stim u lu s. A s in d icated above, the fo r ty -fo u r subjects who
r e c e iv e d an unequal nu m ber of rein fo rced tr ia ls on the two stim u li,
tw e n ty - s ix r e c e iv e d m o r e r ein fo r ce d tr ia ls to stim u lu s 1A and eighteen
r e c e iv e d m o r e rein fo rced tr ia ls to stim u lu s 2A . (F o r tw enty-tw o
su b jects the rein forced d irectio n w as to the right and for tw enty-tw o
su b jects the rein fo rced d irectio n w as to the left. E ach of th ese
groups of tw enty-tw o su b jects c o n s iste d of th irteen subjects for w hom
1A w as m o r e rein fo rced and nine subjects for w hom 2A w as m o r e re -
i n f o r c e d .)
The im p lica tio n s of this h y p o th esis are that m o r e
su b jects should respond c o r r e c tly after m o r e r ein fo r ce d tr ia ls than
after l e s s rein fo rced t r ia ls . In each te st of sig n ifica n ce the nu m ber
81
T A B L E 6
CHI-SQUARE FO R THE N U M B E R OF S U B J E C T S MOVING THE
L EV E R IN THE R E IN F O R C E D D IR EC TIO N (+) A N D O PPO SITE
TO THE R E IN FO R C E D D IR EC TIO N {-) FO LLO W ING
R E L A T IV E L Y MORE A N D R E L A T IV E L Y LESS
R E IN F O R C E D TRAINING TRIALS
No. of
Subjects
+
No.
Subj
+
of
e c ts
Stim ulus 1A: S tim u lu s 2A:
LA M ore 2A M ore
R e in fo r c ed c 26 0
x 2 = 3 . 95
R ein forced ^ 13 5
x 2 = .0 9 b
1A L e s s 2A Le s s
- J
R ein forced 14 4
p <£ . 03a
R e in fo r c e d 0 21 5
Stim ulus IB: S tim ulu s 2B:
1A M ore 2A M o re
R e in fo r c ed 0 25 1
x 2 - .8 5
Reinforced*^ 14 4
x 2 = .0 9 b
1A L e s s
2A L e s s
R einforced ^ 15 3 R e in fo r c e d 0 20 6
Stim ulus 1C: S tim u lu s 2C:
1A M ore 2A M o re
R ein fo rced 25 1
x2 = 3 . 34
R ein fo rc ed 12 6
x 2 = l . 9 1 b
1A L e s s 2A L e s s
R ein forced 13 5 R e in fo r c e d 23 3
p < . 05
Stim ulus ID: S tim u lu s 2D:
1A M ore 2A M ore
R ein fo rced 24 2
x 2 = 4 . 60
R e in fo r c e d 10 8
x 2 = 3 . 18b
1A L e s s 2A L e s s
R ein forced 11 7
p < . 025a
R e in fo r c e d 22 4
aA ll probability l e v e l s a r e b a se d on d f= l, o n e -t a il te s t.
b The d ifferen ce in the p r o p o r tio n s is not in the p red icted
d irectio n .
c Subjects for w h om 1A w a s r e in fo r c e d m o r e often than w as 2A.
^Subjects for w h om 2A w a s r e in fo r c e d m o r e often than w as 1A.
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responding c o r r e c tly (+) and in c o r r e c tly (-) after m o r e training w as
co m p a red to the nu m ber + and - after l e s s train in g. A s shown in
Table 6, all tw e n ty - s ix su b jects respon ded + and none responded - to
stim u lu s 1A after m o r e training on 1A than on 2A, while for the
eigh teen su b jects with l e s s training on 1A and m o r e on 2A, fourteen
w e r e + and four w e r e The d ifferen ce in th ese rela tiv e fr eq u en cies
w as te sted by c h i-s q u a r e (M cN em a r, 1962) * as w e re the other
r ela tiv e fr e q u e n c ie s in T able 6. A sign ifican tly grea ter proportion
of th o se su b jects who r e c e iv e d m o r e rein fo rced tria ls to stim u lu s 1A
m o v ed the le v e r in the c o r r e c t d irectio n in r e s p o n se to stim u lu s 1A
than did th o se who r e c e iv e d fe w e r rein fo rced t r ia ls . This w as not
true in r e s p o n s e to stim u lu s 2A; there w as a slight and not significan t
d ifferen ce in the proportion of subjects responding c o r r e c tly in favor
of the l e s s rein fo rced s tim u lu s.
The d iffe re n c e s in the proportion s of sub jects with m o r e
or l e s s training tr ia ls respon ding as p red icted in r esp o n se to the
g e n e ra liza tio n stim u li of 1A (I B , 1C, ID) and 2A (2B , 2C, 2D) are
a lso show n in T able 6. The d iffe re n c e s in the proportion s a re as
2 N ( |B C - A D l- ^ ) 2
The form u la is x = (A + B )(C + £))(A + c)(B + D)
83
p red icted in regard to stim u li IB, 1C, and ID, and sign ifican tly so
for stim u li 1C and ID. The d iffe re n c e s in the proportion s in r e s p o n se
to stim u li 2B , 2C, and 2D a re not in the p red icted d irection .
To s u m m a r iz e , a sign ifican tly g r e a te r proportion of the
tw e n ty - s ix sub jects for whom 1A w as rein fo rced m o r e often, than of
the eighteen subjects for whom 1A w as l e s s rein fo rced , m oved the
le v e r in the r ein fo r ce d d irectio n for stim u lu s 1A, as w e ll as for two
of the th ree g en era liza tio n stim u li o f 1A. H o w ev er, a s m a lle r
proportion of the eighteen su b jects for w hom 2A w as rein fo r ce d m o r e
often, than of the tw e n ty - s ix su b jects fo r w hom 1A w as l e s s r e in
fo rced , m o v e d the le v e r as p red icted in r e sp o n se to stim u li 2A, and
the three g en era liza tio n stim u li: 2B, 2C, and 2D.
P a r ts 1 and 2, H y p o th esis B , stren gth of r e s p o n se ,
secon d a n a ly sis of le v e r m o v e m e n t s . - - T h e data m ay a ls o be a n a ly zed
in another m a n n er. T h ere a re four p o s s ib le ways in which any
subject can resp on d to the m o r e and l e s s r ein fo r ce d stim u li: (1) c o r
rectly to both (++); (2) in c o r r e c tly to both ( - -); (3) c o r r e c tly to the
m o r e rein fo rced , and in c o r r e c tly to the l e s s r ein fo r ce d (+-); and
(4) in c o r r e c tly to the m o re rein forced ,an d c o r r e c tly to the l e s s
rein fo r ce d {-+)• Only the th ird and fourth patterns provide in fo r m a
tion as to relative r e s p o n se strength; the fir s t and sec o n d do not.
F o r each individual subject the h yp oth esis p red icts that the m o r e
84
r ein fo r ce d r e s p o n s e is m o r e lik ely to o ccu r, so that m o r e subjects
should show pattern 3 than pattern 4, above.
T h e s e data, as analyzed by m ean s of c h i-s q u a r e for the
sig n ifica n ce of changes (M cN em a r, 1962) are p r e se n te d in Table 7
for stim u li 1A and 2A. The e n tries in the table are n u m ber of s u b
j e c t s . F o r each a n a ly sis the subject w as c a te g o riz e d as c o r r e c t (+)
or in c o r r e c t (-) in reg a rd to r e s p o n s e s to both the m o r e rein fo r ce d
and l e s s rein fo r ce d s tim u li. In respon ding to stim u li 1A and 2A, for
ex a m p le, tw en ty -o n e of the tw e n ty -six sub jects for w hom 1A w as
r ein fo r ce d m o r e often than 2A resp on d ed + to both stim u li; and five
resp on d ed + to the m o r e rein fo rced (in this c a s e , stim u lu s 1A) and -
to the l e s s rein fo r ce d (2A). None resp on d ed - to both stim u li or - to
the m o r e r ein fo r ce d and + ■ to the l e s s r ein fo r ce d . The five subjects
with pattern 3 v e r s u s the z e r o sub jects with pattern 4 r e s u lts in a
2
x = 3. 2, significan t at the . 05 le v e l for df = 1, o n e -ta il te st of
sig n ifica n ce .
M ore su b jects show pattern 3 than pattern 4 in r esp o n d
ing to 1A -2A , 1 B -2 B , 1C -2C , and 1D-2D; and this d iffe re n c e in
pattern is sign ifican t for stim u li 1A -2A as in d icated ab ove. When
the sub jects are s ep a ra ted as to 1A or 2A having m o r e rein fo r ce d
tr ia ls m o r e su b jects show pattern 3 than pattern 4 for all eight
c o m p a r is o n s , and the d iffe re n c e in the n u m ber of sub jects showing
85
TA B L E 7
D IF F E R E N C E IN THE NUM BER OF SU B JE C TS RESPONDING
CO RRECTLY {+) AN D INCORRECTLY {-) IN THE FOUR
POSSIBLE P A T T E R N S TO THE MORE A N D LESS
R EIN FO RC ED STIMULI
Ss for Whom 1A Ss for Whom 2A A ll Ss, 1A /2A
Was M ore Reinf. W as M ore R einf. M ore R einf.
(N=26) (N= 18) (N=44)
R e sp o n se s L e s s Reinf. L e s s R einf. L e s s R einf.
to Stim uli Stim ulus Stim ulus Stim ulus
1A and 2A - + + +
M ore + 5 21 + 2 12 4 7 33
R ein f.
S tim u lu s'3 - 0 0 - 3 1 - 3 1
x 2 =3. 2 , a p .0 5 ^ x 2 = 0 .0 x 2 = 3 .1 3 , p .0 5
1 B and 2B
M ore + 5 20 + 3 12 + 8 32
R einf.
Stim ulus - 1 0 - 1 2 - 2 2
x 2 = 3 .2 , p .0 5 x 2 =0. 0 x 2 =2. 5
1C and 2C
M ore + 2 23 + 4 9 + 6 32
R ein f.
Stim ulus - 1 0 - 2 3 - 3 3
x 2 = .5 0 x 2 =0. 0 x 2 =. 44
ID and 2D
M ore + 3 21 + 5 6 + 8 27
Reinf.
Stim ulus - 1 1 - 3 4 - 4 5
x 2 = .5 3 x 2 = 0 . 0 x 2= . 33
2
a The form u la is x 2 = (|A-D|--1) (M cN em a r, 1962).
A + D
b The m o r e rein fo rced of stim u li 1A and 2A.
c The l e s s rein forced of stim u li LA and 2A.
Aa H probability le v e ls a r e b a sed on d f= l, o n e -ta il te st.
86
this pattern is sign ifican t in r e s p o n se to 1A -2A and 1 B -2B if
stim u lu s 1A is the one m o r e frequently rein fo rced .
P a r ts 1 and 2, H yp oth esis B, strength of resp o n se) third
a n a ly s is of le v e r m o v e m e n ts . - -T h e a n a ly sis of the data by r e s p o n se s
to individual stim u li is not as s e n s itiv e as one that com b in es the
r e s p o n s e s to a ll eight stim u li by com p arin g the r e s p o n se s of each
subject on the four m o r e rein fo r ce d to his r e s p o n s e s on the four l e s s
rein fo r ce d s tim u li. This can be done by co n sid erin g the n u m ber of
c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s to the four stim u li as a s c o r e (0, 1, 2, 3, or 4).
T h is p ro ced u re co m b in es P a r ts 1 and 2 of the h yp oth esis in a sin g le
te s t of the stren gth of r esp o n se as a function of rela tiv e nu m ber of
r ein fo r ce d training t r ia ls . The d iffe re n c e b etw een the two se ts of
s c o r e s for the fo rty -fo u r su b jects is sign ifican tly in the p red icted
d irectio n (D = .3 1 8 , s— = . 186, _t = 1. 71, £ < . . 05) for a o n e -ta il
te s t of sig n ifica n ce .
P a r t 3, H yp oth esis B , stren gth of r e s p o n se , f i r s t
a n a ly sis of le v e r m o v e m e n ts . --S u p p o rt for P a r t 3 of this h yp oth esis
i s contingent on m o r e su b jects m ovin g the le v er in the rein fo rced
d irectio n in r e s p o n se to stim u li m o r e s im ila r than to stim u li l e s s
s im ila r to that rein fo rced . The n u m b er of su b jects responding in the
r ein fo r ce d d irectio n are: stim u lu s 1 A --4 4 , 1 B - - 4 4 , 1 C --4 2 , 1 D --
39; and stim u lu s 2 A - - 3 7 , 2 B - - 3 7 , 2 C - - 3 9 , 2 D - - 3 6 . The tren d is as
87
p red icted for stim u lu s s e r i e s 1. The d iffe re n c e in the proportion of
c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s of all fo rty -eig h t subjects for the g e n e ra liza tio n
stim u li of s e r i e s 1, as a n a ly zed by the significar-ce of the d ifferen ce
b e tw e en c o r r e la te d proportion s (M cN em a r, 1962), ju st m i s s e s
s ig n ifica n ce (Q = 5 .4 3 , df = 2, j d ^ . 0 7 ) , and is not significant
(Q = 5, 43, df = 3) if r e s p o n s e s to a ll four stim u li a r e c o n sid ered .
The tren d of proportions of c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s to stim u lu s s e r i e s 2 is
not as p red icted and does not support the h y p o th esis.
P a r t 3, H yp oth esis B , stren g th of r e s p o n se , secon d
a n a ly sis of le v e r m o v e m e n ts . - - T h e r e s p o n s e s of each subject to
stim u li 1A and IB can be co m p a red to his r e s p o n s e s to 1C and ID,
co n sid erin g the nu m ber of c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s (0, 1, or 2) as a s c o r e ,
s im ila r to the m an n er d e s c r ib e d above. The a v e ra g e d ifferen ce of
1 .4 6 in the p red icted d irectio n resu lts in a_t of 1 .8 5 5 5 , j> < C . . 05
{s” = . 0787, N = 48) for a o n e -ta il te s t of sig n ifica n ce . Inspection
of the r e s u lts fo r stim u lu s s e r i e s 2 sh o w s that the d ifferen ce is not in
the p r e d ic te d d irectio n .
Su m m ary: le v e r m o v e m e n t
P a r ts 1 and 2 of H yp oth esis B p red ict that a r e s p o n se
rein fo r ce d rela tiv ely m o r e often w ill be s tr o n g e r in rea ctio n to the
training stim u lu s or to g e n era liza tio n stim u li, than one rein fo r ce d
88
l e s s often. A sign ifican tly g r ea ter proportion of subjects responded
in this m an n er to stim u lu s s e r i e s 1, but not to stim u lu s s e r i e s 2.
The a n a ly sis of r e s p o n s e s a s changes in r e s p o n se indicate that
sign ifican tly m o r e subjects respon ded c o rr e c tly to the str o n g e r and
in c o r r e c tly to the w eak er than vice v e r s a in relation to both training
stim u li, 1A and 2A, but to the g en era liza tio n stim u li of 1A only.
C o n sid erin g the n u m ber of c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s to the four stim u li of
each s e r ie s as a s c o r e r esu lted in significan tly high er s c o r e s for
r e s p o n s e s to the m o r e rein fo rced stim u li. P a r t 3 of the h y p o th esis,
w hich p red icts g r e a te r r e sp o n se stren gth for stim u li m o r e s im ila r to
the training stim u lu s, is supported only in the finding that the a v era g e
nu m ber of c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s per subject to stim u li 1A and IB is
sign ifican tly g r ea ter than the a v era g e n u m ber of r e s p o n se s per su b
je c t to stim u li 1C and ID .
T able 7 show s the m ajority of r e s p o n se s to b e in the
r ein fo r ce d d irectio n . S m a ll d iffe re n c e s in r e s p o n s e stren gth are
th er e fo re unlikely to r esu lt in significant d iffe re n c e s in prop ortion s of
c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s . The rein fo rced r e s p o n se would only have to b e
r ela tiv ely s tr o n g e r than the u n rein fo rced r e s p o n se in ord er to o c c u r .
The resu lts do not p reclu d e the e ffects of r ela tiv e r e s p o n se stren gth
b ein g m o r e d r a m a tica lly in ev id en ce in a situation providing a m o r e
se n sitiv e te s t of rela tiv e stren g th s.
89
The c r itic a l ratios on w hich the sta te m e n ts of s ig n if i
cance a re b a s e d a re m in im a l ones and attain sig n ifica n ce only
b e c a u s e o n e -t a il te s ts a r e u s e d . T h ere s e e m s to be s o m e lo g ic a l
b a sis for using a o n e -t a il te s t when such s p e c ific p red ictio n s follow
fro m the th eo r e tic a l m o d el. On the other hand, the p o s s ib ility of
fa ls e ly rejectin g the null h yp oth esis of no d iffe re n c e m u s t be c o n
s id e r e d m o r e s e r io u s ly than if the resu lts in relation to this
h yp oth esis had been m o r e c le a r ly in the p red icted d irectio n .
R eaction tim e
P a r ts 1 and 2, H y p o th esis B, stren gth of r e s p o n s e . - - T h e
pred iction b a s e d on this h yp oth esis is that r e s p o n se s have sh o r te r
rea ctio n tim es after m o r e training than after l e s s training. E ach
subject resp on d ed after both m o r e or l e s s training. A subject*s
rea ctio n tim e to stim u li under th ese two conditions w ere co m p a red
and s c o r e d + if as p red icted and - if the r e s p o n se with l e s s training
had the sh o r te r reaction tim e . The ratio of + and - s c o r e s b etw een
reaction tim es of r e s p o n s e s with m o r e and l e s s training w e r e 31 +
and 21 - with one tie s c o r e . A s ig n - t e s t , u sin g the n o r m a l p ro b a
bility cu rve ap p roxim ation of the ex a ct b in om in al, was com puted,
resu ltin g in a z = 2. 74, sign ifican t at the . 005 le v e l for a o n e -t a il
te s t.
90
It is poss ible to have e x tr e m e ly long but not e x tr e m e ly
sh ort rea ctio n tim e s , and other d ep artu res fro m a n o r m a l probability
cu rve distribution m ay o ccu r. In o rd er to p rep are for m o r e s e n s i
tive a n a ly se s of the data, distributions of the s c o r e s w e r e p rep ared .
In sp ection of the s c o r e s sh ow ed the d istribu tion s to be l e s s peaked
and l e s s s y m m e t r ic a l than m o s t n o rm a l-p ro b a b ility cu rv es; h o w ev er,
the distribu tion s are quite s im ila r to each other. The N orton study
(cited by Lindquist, 1953) and Boneau, I960, both in d icate that even
m a r k e d s k e w n e s s , d ep artu res from n o r m a l k u rto sis, and e x tr e m e
d iffe r e n c e s in v a r ia n c e s do not greatly disrupt the utility of the F te st
in a n a ly sis o f v a ria n ce, e sp e c ia lly if s a m p le s are r ela tiv ely la r g e
(o v er twenty) and the distribution of s c o r e s are s im ila r for different
groups or conditions.
On this b a sis it w as d ecid ed to subject the data to an
a n a ly sis of v a ria n ce u sin g a sim p le tr e a tm e n t (m o re v e r s u s le s s
training) by subject d e sig n . The a n a ly sis p resen ted in T able D of
A ppendix C show s an F ralio, reflectin g the effects of m o r e or l e s s
training, of 5 .0 1 6 significan t at the .0 2 5 le v e l for a o n e -ta il te st.
(T h is F ratio would be sign ifican t even under the m o r e c o n s e r v a tiv e
lim its often u s e d in analyzing e x tr e m e ly sk ew ed data.) The d iffe r
ence in the m e a n s te s te d by th is a n a ly sis are .9 2 sec o n d s for
r e s p o n se s with m o r e training and 1 .0 9 seco n d s for r e s p o n s e s with
91
l e s s training.
An analogous c o m p a r iso n of rea ctio n t im e s follow ing
m o r e o r l e s s training w a s c o m p le te d for the g e n e r a liz a tio n stim u li.
The rela tiv e fr eq u en cies and z s c o r e s involved in the sign test are
p r e se n ted in Table 8. Although r e s p o n s e s to the B , C, and D
stim u li have sh o rter reaction tim e s r ela tiv ely m o r e frequently after
m o r e training, this d ifferen ce in reaction tim es ju st m i s s e s s ig n ifi
cance for the B and C stim u li.
The a n a ly sis of v a r ia n c e of the s a m e data, show n in
Table 9, is a trea tm en ts by tr e a tm e n ts by sub jects d esig n (L indquist,
1953:237). The m o r e v e r s u s l e s s rein fo rced trea tm en t F ratio, the
te s t of the h y p o th esis, is .6 5 8 , and is not sign ifican t. T able 10,
w hich show s the m e a n s for the a n a ly sis of Table 9, in d ica tes that the
m e a n s are in the p red icted d irection for the B and C stim u li; h o w
e v er, the d ifferen ce is not sig n ifica n t in this a n a ly s is . The oth er
tr e a tm e n t, the r e s p o n se s to all th re e stim u li, w ill be d is c u s s e d
la te r .
The res u lts of the a n a ly se s of reaction t im e s c le a r ly
support only P a r t 1 of H y p o th esis B . R ela tiv e rea ctio n t im e s of
r e s p o n s e s follow ing m o r e training on a stim u lu s a r e fa s te r than after
l e s s training, but this d ifferen ce in r e s p o n se la ten cy w as not c le a r ly
d em o n stra ted for r e s p o n se s to the g en e ra liza tio n stim u li.
92
TA BL E 8
SIGN TEST OF THE D IF F E R E N C E B E T W E E N REACTION TIMES
TO THE GENERALIZATIO N STIMULI A F T E R MORE OR
LESS REINFO RCED TRAINING TRIALS.
No. of Ss w /S h orter
R eact. T im e s for
M ore R ein fo rced
R e sp o n se s
No. of Ss w/Longer
R eact. T im e s for
M ore R einforced
Re sp o n se s
No. of Ss
w /E q u a l
R eaction
T im e s 2
Pa
B Stim uli 27 16 1 1. 53 . 07
C Stim uli 27 17 0 1. 36 . 09
D Stim uli 22 19 3 . 31 N. S.
a O n e-ta il te s t of sig n ifica n ce.
93
P a r t 3, H y p o th e sis B t s tr e n g th of r e s p o n s e , r e a c tio n
t i m e . - - T h e p r e d ic tio n o f th is p art o f th e h y p o th e s is i s that r e a c tio n
t im e s a r e f a s t e r fo r r e s p o n s e s to g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li that m o r e
c lo s e ly r e s e m b le the tr a in in g s t im u lu s . T h e t e s t o f th is p art of th e
h y p o th e s is is b a s e d on th e s a m e data a s fo r P a r ts 1 and 2, and is
a ls o in d ic a te d in T a b le s 9 and 10. T he s e c o n d tr e a tm e n t v a r ia b le in
th e a n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e of T a b le 9, d iffe r e n c e in r e a c tio n tim e to the
th r e e s tim u li, r e s u lt s in an F ratio o f 1 1 .9 3 1 sig n ific a n t at the .0 1
l e v e l . T h is F ra tio r e f le c t s the d if fe r e n c e s in th e m e a n s o f the
th ird co lu m n o f T a b le 10, w h ich g iv e s m e a n s for a ll r e s p o n s e s ,
fo llo w in g m o r e o r l e s s tr a in in g , to the B , C, and D s t im u li. The
m e a n r e a c tio n tim e i n c r e a s e s w ith d e c r e a s in g s tim u lu s s im ila r it y ;
the r e s u lt s su p p o rt P a r t 3 of the h y p o th e s is .
L e f t - r ig h t s c a le
P a r ts 1 and 2, H y p o th e sis B , s tr e n g th of r e s p o n s e . - -
T h e f ir s t p art of th is h y p o th e s is p r e d ic t s , in r e la tio n to the le f t - r ig h t
s c a le , that the sh ift in r e s p o n s e in the r e in fo r c e d d ir e c tio n fr o m
b e fo r e to a fter tr a in in g w ill b e g r e a t e r in r e s p o n s e to th e s tim u li w ith
m o r e r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls du rin g tr a in in g th an fo r s tim u li w ith l e s s
r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls during tr a in in g . T a b le 11 g iv e s the m e a n s and the
d if f e r e n c e s in the m e a n s fo r th is sh ift in r e s p o n s e , for a ll eig h t
94
TABLE 9
SUM M ARY OF A N A L Y S IS O F V A R IA N C E , T R E A T M E N T S X
T R E A T M E N T S X S U B J E C T S D E SIG N . D IF F E R E N C E
IN R E A C T IO N TIME B E T W E E N R E SP O N S E TO
THE M ORE A N D L E SS R E IN F O R C E D
G E N E R A L IZ A T IO N S T IM U L I.
S o u r c e o f V a ria n ce df m s F
P
A M o re v s . l e s s r e in fo r c e d
g e n e r a liz a tio n s t im u lia
A X S u b jects w ith in G rou p s
1
43
9 4 .2 6 1
1 4 3 .1 9 5
. b58
B 3 S tim u li
BX S u b jects w ith in Groups*5
2
86
1 2 9 9 .8 9 0
108. 948
1 1 .9 3 1 .01
A B
A B X S u b jects w ith in G roups
(re sid u a l)
2
86
38. 367
1 0 9 .0 3 0 . 352
S u b jects 43 3 8 0 .8 5 9
T o ta l 263
a T e s t of H y p o th e sis B , P a r t 2.
^ T e s t of H y p o th e sis B , P a r t 3.
95
T A B L E 10
M EA N S OF R E A C T IO N TIM ES OF R E SP O N SE S TO
G E N E R A L IZ A T IO N STIM ULI A F T E R M ORE OR
LESS R E IN F O R C E D TRAINING TRIALS
M eans of R espon ses M eans of R espon ses M eans of Responses
to G e n e r a liz a tio n to G e n e r a liz a tio n to a ll
S tim u li of S tim u lu s S tim u li of S tim u lu s G e n e r a liz a tio n
w /M o r e T ra in in g w / L e s s T ra in in g S tim u li
B S tim u li 1. 00a 1 .0 2 1 .0 1
C S tim u li 1. 02 1 .1 0 1. 06
D S tim u li 1 .2 4 1 .2 4 1 .2 4
R e a c tio n - tim e in s e c o n d s .
96
TABLE 11
M EA N S O F C H ANG ES IN R E SP O N S E ON L E F T -R IG H T SC A L E
FR O M B E F O R E TO A F T E R TR AIN ING , A F T E R
R E L A T IV E L Y MORE OR R E L A T IV E L Y LESS
R E IN F O R C E D TRAINING TRIALS
A fte r A fte r
M o re R e in fo r c e d L e s s R e in fo r c e d
T r ia ls T r ia ls D iffe r e n c e
S tim u lu s 1A . 577 . 944 - . 3 6 7
S tim u lu s IB . 346 . 667 - .3 2 1
S tim u lu s 1C 1. 000 1. 000 . 000
S tim u lu s ID . 500 . 944 - . 4 4 4
A fte r
M o re R e in fo r c e d
T r ia ls
A fte r
L e s s R e in fo r c e d
T r ia ls D iffe r e n c e
S tim u lu s 2A 1. 000 . 292 . 708 a
S tim u lu s 2B . 333 . 3 84 - .0 5 1
S tim u lu s 2C 1. 000 - . 0 7 7 1. 0 7 7 b
S tim u lu s 2D . 667 . 423 . 244
a t = 1. 60 df = 126, N .S .
kf = 2. 43 df = 126, p < . 0 1 , o n e - t a il t e s t of s ig n ific a n c e .
97
s t im u li. T h e s c o r e s in v o lv ed a r e d iffe r e n c e s c o r e s , b e fo r e and
a fte r tr a in in g . The m ea n ch an ge in r e s p o n s e to s tim u lu s 1A fo r th o se
s u b je c ts w ith m o r e r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls i s l e s s than fo r the su b je c ts w ith
r e la t iv e ly fe w e r t r ia ls on s tim u lu s 1A, c o n tr a r y to the p r e d ic tio n of
th e h y p o th e s is . T h e d iffe r e n c e in sh ift of r e s p o n s e in r ela tio n to
s tim u lu s 2A is a s p r e d ic te d . B e f o r e a n a ly z in g the data fu r th e r , it
w a s in s p e c te d fo r m a r k e d d e v ia tio n s fr o m a n o r m a l d istr ib u tio n s in c e
2
m a n y o f the d if fe r e n c e s c o r e s ten d ed to be v e r y s m a ll or z e r o .
A g a in , the r e s u lt s of the N o r to n (c ite d by L in d q u ist, 1953) and the
B o n e a u (I9 6 0 ) stu d ie s c ite d p r e v io u s ly and th e o b s e r v e d s im ila r it y o f
th e d istr ib u tio n s in v o lv e d in th e t e s t s of th e h y p o th e s e s , w e r e u s e d as
ju s tific a tio n s in su b jec tin g the data to a n a ly s is of v a r ia n c e . T h e tw o
a n a ly s e s of v a r ia n c e s u m m a r ie s sh ow n in T a b le E of A p p en d ix C a r e
t w o -f a c t o r d e s ig n s w ith no r e p e a te d m e a s u r e s . T he data in the
a n a ly s e s a r e ch an ge in r e s p o n s e on the l e f t - r ig h t s c a le to s tim u li 1A
o r 2A fo llo w in g tr a in in g . T he fa c to r s a r e le ft o r rig h t a s th e c o r r e c t
d ir e c tio n of r e s p o n s e , a c o n tr o l v a r ia b le ; and m o r e v e r s u s l e s s
r e in fo r c e d tr a in in g t r ia ls , the t e s t o f P a rt 1 o f th is h y p o th e s is .
N e ith e r o f t h e s e c o m p a r is o n s a r e s ig n ific a n t. T he la c k of a
2
D is tr ib u tio n s of a ll d iffe r e n c e s c o r e s w e r e e x a m in e d
and a p p ea r e d to h a v e s im ila r d istr ib u tio n s fo r th e c o m p a r is o n s
in v o lv e d in the t e s t s o f the h y p o th e s is .
98
s ig n ific a n t in te r a c tio n e ffe c t in d ic a te s that th e n u m b e r o f tr a in in g
t r ia ls did not a ffe c t le ft and rig h t r e s p o n s e s d if fe r e n t ly . T h e r e s u lt s
do not su p p o rt P a r t 1 of th is h y p o th e s is .
T he data can a ls o b e a n a ly z e d fr o m the v ie w p o in t of the
n u m b er o f s u b je c ts who sh ift th e ir r e s p o n s e in the r e in f o r c e d d i r e c
tio n . T h is can be d on e by c o m p a r in g th e n u m b e r o f s u b j e c ts r e s p o n d
ing c o r r e c t ly or in c o r r e c t ly to th e m o r e r e in f o r c e d s tim u lu s to th e
n u m b er o f s u b je c ts r esp o n d in g c o r r e c t ly o r in c o r r e c t ly to th e l e s s
r e in fo r c e d s tim u lu s . In r e la tio n to s tim u lu s 1A, te n o f the th ir te e n
s u b je c ts w ith m o r e tr a in in g r e sp o n d e d c o r r e c t ly ; th r e e in c o r r e c t ly .
T h e fr e q u e n c ie s fo r the l e s s r e in fo r c e d s u b je c ts a r e n in e an d o n e,
r e s p e c t iv e ly (o m ittin g the s u b je c ts who sh o w e d no sh ift of r e s p o n s e
fo llo w in g tr a in in g ). T he p r o p o r tio n s a r e not a s p r e d ic t e d . In
r ela ticn to s tim u lu s 2A the d if fe r e n c e in the p r o p o r tio n o f s u b je c ts
fa v o r s the m o r e r e in fo r c e d s tim u lu s 10:3 to 6 :5 , but th is d if fe r e n c e
2
is not s ig n ific a n t ( x = .5 2 4 5 ) .
T he d if fe r e n c e in sh ift o f r e s p o n s e s fo llo w in g tr a in in g
fo r the g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li of 1A and 2A are a ls o g iv e n in T a b le 11.
T h e d if f e r e n c e s a r e not as p r e d ic te d in r e la tio n to the g e n e r a liz a t io n
s tim u li of 1A, and sh o w a d is o r d in a l in t e r a c tio n (a ll th e d if f e r e n c e s
in the m e a n s a r e n o t in the p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n ) in r e la tio n to th e
g e n e r a liz a t io n s tim u li o f s tim u lu s 2A .
99
The s u m m a r y o f the a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e for th e s e data
g iv e n in T a b le 12 i s a t w o -f a c t o r d e sig n w ith one r e p e a te d m e a s u r e
(W in er , 1 9 6 2 :3 0 2 ). T he m a in e ffe c ts in th is a n a ly s is a r e the r e
s p o n s e s to the th r e e s tim u li (the r e p e a te d m e a s u r e ) and the e ffe c t of
m o r e v e r s u s l e s s r e in fo r c e d tra in in g t r ia ls (the t e s t of th e h y p o th
e s i s ) . S in c e the d is o r d in a l in te r a c tio n is s ig n ific a n t, the s ig n ific a n c e
of the m a in e ffe c ts is not d ir e c t ly in t e r p r e ta b le . A t - t e s t of the
d if fe r e n c e in the in d iv id u a l m e a n s o f s tim u li 2B , 2C, and 2D r e s u lt s
in a sig n ific a n t d if fe r e n c e in the m e a n s of the ch a n g e in r e s p o n s e s to
2C fo llo w in g m o r e or l e s s r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls (T a b le 11). T h is s ig n if i
cant d iffe r e n c e in r e s p o n s e to one s tim u lu s in th e d ir e c tio n p r e d ic te d
by th e h y p o th e s e s cannot b e u n q u e stio n a b ly in te r p r e te d as su p p o rtin g
th e h y p o th e s is , s in c e the p r e d ic tio n is fo r a g r e a t e r d iffe r e n c e in
r e s p o n s e in r e la tio n to e a c h s tim u lu s . O nly r e s u lt s that in d ic a te an
o v e r a ll d if fe r e n c e or a ll in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s in th e p r e d ic te d
d ir e c tio n cou ld be u s e d in th is w ay.
T he a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e d e s ig n of T a b le 14, w h ich p r o
v id e s a d d itio n a l in fo r m a tio n , is id e n t ic a l to that of T a b le 12, and the
fa c to r s a r e the s a m e e x c e p t fo r one ch an ge: r e s p o n s e s to th e tr a in
ing s tim u lu s as w e ll a s the th r e e g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li a r e in clu d ed
in the a n a ly s is . T h e m o r e v e r s u s l e s s r e in fo r c e d c o m p a r is o n again
in v o lv e s s e p a r a t e g r o u p s , w h ile a ll s u b je c ts r e sp o n d e d to a ll fou r
100
TABLE 12
SUM M ARY OF A N A L Y SIS OF V A R IA N C E , T W O -F A C T O R E X P E R IM E N T
WITH ONE R E P E A T E D M E A S U R E . D IF F E R E N C E IN CHANGE
O F R E SP O N S E TO THE G E N E R A L IZ A T IO N STIM ULI
ON THE L E F T -R IG H T SC A L E FO LLO W IN G
R E L A T IV E L Y MORE A N D R E L A T IV E L Y
L E SS R E IN F O R C E D TR IA LS ON THE
TRAINING STIM ULI
A n a ly s is of R e s p o n s e s to S tim u li I B , 1C, ID
S o u r c e s of V a ria n ce df m s F
P
B e tw e e n S u b jects
A M o re R ein f. T r ia ls vs. L e s s 1 2. 074 . 372
R e in f. T r ia ls a
S u b jects w / i n G roups 42 5. 569
W ithin S u b jects
B 3 S tim u li 2 3. 053 2. 261
A B 2 . 560 .4 1 5
BX S u b jects w / i n G roups 84 1. 350
T otal 131
A n a ly s is of R e s p o n s e s to S tim u li 2 B , 2C, 2D
S o u r c e s of V a r ia n c e df m s F
P
B e tw e e n S u b jects
A M o re R ein f. T r ia ls v s . L e s s 1 5. 711 1 .4 1 9
R e in f. T r ia ls a
S u b jects w / i n G roups 42 4 . 025
W ithin S u b jects
B 3 S tim u li 2 . 371 . 334
A B
2
3. 642 3. 278 .0 5
BX S u b jects w / i n G roups 84 1 .1 1 1
T otal 131
T e s t of H y p o th e sis B , p art 2.
101
s tim u li (the r e p e a te d m e a s u r e ) . In th is a n a ly s is , a ls o , the in t e r
a ctio n of the two fa c to r s w ould in d ic a te d if fe r e n c e s in th e e ffe c t s of
m o r e tr a in in g on the fou r s tim u li but is not s ig n ific a n t. T he "A" m a in
e ffe c t t e s t s the s ig n ific a n c e o f m o r e or l e s s tr a in in g . (T h e ’’fou r
stim u li" c o m p a r is o n is p e r tin e n t to P a r t 3 of th is h y p o t h e s is .) T h e
d if fe r e n c e in ch a n g e fo llo w in g m o r e or l e s s r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls fo r the
four s tim u li of s e r i e s 2 c o m b in e d , a p p r o a c h e s , but i s not sig n ific a n t
(F = 2 .4 2 8 , df = 1 /4 2 , |> < , 1 , o n e - t a il t e s t ) . T h e r e s u lt s of the
a n a ly s is o f r e s p o n s e s on th e le f t - r ig h t s c a le do not su p p ort P a r ts 1
and 2 of th is h y p o th e s is .
P a r t 3, H y p o th e sis B , s tr e n g th of r e s p o n s e , le f t - r ig h t
s c a l e . - - T h e t e s t of th is p a rt of the h y p o th e s is is b a s e d on the c o m
p a r is o n of th e ch an ge in r e s p o n s e fo r th e fou r s tim u li of ea ch s e r i e s ;
the h y p o th e s is p r e d ic ts that am ou n t of ch a n g e i s a m o n o to n ic fu n c
tio n o f s im ila r it y to the tr a in in g s t im u lu s . T h e m e a n s o f the
c h a n g e s to s tim u lu s s e r i e s 1 and 2 a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b le 13.
I n sp e c tio n o f T a b le 13 sh o w s that am ou n t o f ch an ge is not a m o n o to n ic
fu n ctio n o f s tim u lu s s im ila r it y fo r e ith e r s tim u lu s s e r i e s . T a b le 14,
d is c u s s e d p r e v io u s ly , p r e s e n t s th e s u m m a r y of th e a n a ly s is of
v a r ia n c e of the ch a n g e in p la c e m e n t of c h e c k m a r k fo llo w in g tr a in in g .
T he d if fe r e n c e in ch a n g e o f r e s p o n s e to the fo u r s tim u li, in d ic a te d in
the ta b le as "four s tim u li, " i s n o t s ig n ific a n t fo r e ith e r s tim u lu s
s e r i e s . T he r e s u lt s do not su p p o rt P a r t 3 of th is h y p o th e s is .
102
TABLE 13
M EANS O F CHANGES IN R E SPO N SE ON TH E L E F T -R IG H T
SC A L E FO R E A C H TRAINING A N D G E N E R A L IZ A T IO N
STIM ULUS FO LLO W ING TRAINING
M ean C han ge M ean C hange
S tim u lu s 1A . 7273 S tim u lu s 2A . 5682
S tim u lu s IB .4 7 7 3 S tim u lu s 2B . 3636
S tim u lu s 1C 1 .0 0 0 0 S tim u lu s 2C . 3636
S tim u lu s ID .6 8 1 8 S tim u lu s 2D . 5227
T e s t o f H y p o th e sis B , P a r t 3.
S u m m a ry : H y p o th e sis B
T he r e s u lt s b a s e d on the l e v e r m o v e m e n t r e s p o n s e s
su p p o rt P a r t 1 of H y p o th e sis B , that r e s p o n s e s havin g m o r e
r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls h a v e a g r e a t e r p r o b a b ility o f o c c u r r in g , m o s t of
th is e ffe c t b ein g e v id e n c e d if s tim u lu s 1A is the one w ith m o r e r e in
fo r c e d t r ia ls . P a r t 2 of th is h y p o th e s is , that the str en g th o f r e
s p o n s e s to the g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li i s r e la te d to the n u m b er of
r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls , s im ila r ly r e c e iv e s m o s t of it s su p p ort in r e la tio n
to s tim u lu s s e r i e s 1. P a r t 3 of the h y p o th e s is , that r e s p o n s e
s tr e n g th i s d ir e c t ly r e la te d to the d e g r e e o f s im ila r it y o f g e n e r a li z a
tion s tim u lu s to tra in in g s tim u lu s , is su p p o rted only in r e la tio n to
s tim u lu s s e r i e s 1.
R e s p o n s e s w ith m o r e train in g h a v e f a s t e r r e a c tio n
103
TABLE 14
SUM M ARY OF A N A L Y SIS O F V A R IA N C E , TW O-FACTOR E X P E R IM E N T
WITH ONE R E P E A T E D M E A S U R E , D IF F E R E N C E IN CHANGE
O F R E SP O N S E TO THE STIM U LI A S A F U N C T IO N OF THEIR
SIM ILARITY TO THE TRAINING STIM ULI
A n a ly s is of R e s p o n s e s to S tim u li 1A, IB , 1C, ID
S o u rce of V a r ia n c e df m s F p
B e tw e e n S u b jects
A M o re R e in f. T r ia ls v s . L e s s i 3 .4 1 0 .4 3 8
R e in f. T r ia ls
S u b jects w / i n G roups 42 7. 779
W ithin S u b jects
B 4 S tim u li 3 2. 036 1 .6 6 6
A B 3 .4 0 7 . 333
BX S u b jects w / i n G roups 126 1. 222
T otal 175
A n a ly s is of R e s p o n s e s to S tim u li 2A , 2 B , 2C, 2D
S o u rce of V a ria n ce df m s F p
B e tw e e n S u b jects
A M o re R e in fo r c e d T r ia ls v s . 1 10. 636 2 .4 2 8
L e s s R e in f. T r ia ls
S u b je c ts w / i n G roups 42 4 . 381
W ithin S u b jects
B 4 S tim u li 3 . 500 .3 1 3
A B 3 2 .6 8 0 1. 676
B X S u b jects w / i n G roups 126 1. 599
Total 175
104
t im e s , but th is ten d en cy is not c le a r ly p r e s e n t in th e g e n e r a liz a tio n
s t im u li. H o w e v e r , th e m o r e a g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u lu s r e s e m b le s
the tra in in g s tim u lu s , the f a s t e r the r e a c tio n tim e .
T he r e s u lt s of the a n a ly s e s of ch a n g es of r e s p o n s e s on
the le ft-r ig h t s c a le do n o t su p p o rt th is h y p o th e s is . The r e su lc s a r e
in the p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n only in r e g a r d to on e s tim u lu s s e r i e s , and
a r e n o w h er e c le a r ly s ig n ific a n t.
T he r e s u lt s b a s e d on the m o to r r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s of
l e v e r m o v e m e n t and r e a c tio n tim e a r e m o r e c le a r ly in lin e w ith the
p r e d ic tio n s o f the h y p o th e s e s than the r e s u lt s b a s e d on the p a r tia lly
v e r b a l r e s p o n s e on the le f t - r ig h t s c a le of the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t .
T e s t of H y p o th e sis C: C o n flict
L e v e r m o v e m e n t
P a r ts 1 and 2, H y p o th e sis C, f i r s t a n a ly s is . - - P a r t 1
o f H y p o th e sis C p r e d ic ts that m o r e su b je c ts w ill m o v e the l e v e r in
the d ir e c tio n c o r r e c t fo r the m o r e r e in fo r c e d of s tim u li 1A or 2A
w hen th ey a r e p r e s e n t e d s im u lta n e o u s ly a s P a i r A . T a b le 15
p r e s e n t s the n u m b er of s u b je c ts r esp o n d in g as p r e d ic te d and n o t as
p r e d ic te d . M o re su b je c ts r e sp o n d in the p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n in ea ch
c a s e , and s ig n ific a n tly s o ( £ < . 005) w hen t e s t e d by c h i- s q u a r e
105
a g a in st a h y p o th e tic a l 50 p e r c e n t - - 5 0 p e r cen t ran d om r e s p o n s e to
th e s tim u lu s p a ir s .
P a r t 2 of th is h y p o th e s is p r e d ic ts that the e ffe c t of a
d iffe re n t n u m b er o f r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls on s tim u li 1A and 2A w ill s p r e a d
to the g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li, and w ill b e m a n ife s t in r e s p o n s e to
ea ch of th e s tim u lu s p a ir s . A d iffe re n t p r e d ic tio n , b a s e d on a d e
c r e a s e in d if fe r e n c e in r e s p o n s e str e n g th to the end g e n e r a liz a tio n
s tim u li, w ou ld h a v e to be m a d e if th e s e s tim u li w e r e at a p oin t in the
stim u lu s s im ila r it y d im e n sio n for w h ich the e ffe c t of tra in in g on the
w e a k e r o f th e r e s p o n s e s w a s no lo n g e r in e v id e n c e . T h is w as not the
c a s e . The n u m b er of s u b je c ts resp o n d in g in the c o r r e c t d ir e c tio n
fo r the l e s s r e in fo r c e d s tim u lu s w e r e : P a ir A , 3 8 -6 ; P a ir B , 3 7 -7 ;
P a i r C , 3 7 -7 ; and P a ir D, 3 5 - 9 . T he d if fe r e n c e in the n u m b e r of
r e s p o n s e s in th e r e in fo r c e d and n o n -r e in fo r e e d d ir e c tio n s is s ig n if i-
2
can t ev en fo r r e s p o n s e s to P a ir D (x = 14. 2, df = 1, p . 001).
T he n u m b e r of s u b je c ts resp on d in g to th e p a ir s of
g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li in th e d ir e c t io n c o r r e c t fo r th e m o r e r e in fo r c e d
s tim u lu s a r e a ls o p r e s e n t e d in T a b le 15. M o re su b jec ts r e sp o n d e d
in the p r e d ic te d d ir e c t io n to P a i r s B , C, and D . H o w e v e r , the
106
TABLE 15
C H I-SQ U A R E FO R TH E N U M B E R OF S U B J E C T S M OVING THE
L E V E R IN T H E D IR E C T IO N C O R R E C T (+) FO R TH E M ORE
R E IN F O R C E D O F ST IM U L U S 1A OR 2A IN
R E S P O N S E TO ST IM U L U S P A IR S
N o. of S u b je c ts Not
N o . of S u b je c ts R e sp o n d - R esp o n d in g in the
in g in the D ir e c tio n of the D ir e c tio n of the M ore
M o re R e in fo r c e d S tim u lu s R e in fo r c e d S tim u lu s
+
•
In R e s p o n s e to
P a ir A ^ 32 12
x 2 = 8. 2 p < . 005 a
+
_
In R e s p o n s e to
P a ir B c 30 14
x2 = 5. 1 1 4 < . 025
+
_
In R e s p o n s e to
P a ir C c 25 19
x^ = . 568
+
-
In R e s p o n s e to
P a ir D c 25 19
x 2 = . 568
aA ll p r o b a b ility l e v e l s a r e b a se d on d f = l, o n e - t a il t e s t .
^ T e s t of H y p o th e sis C, P a r t 1.
c T e s t of H y p o th e s is C, P a r t 2.
107
p r o p o r tio n i s s ig n ific a n tly d iffe r e n t than a ran d om d istr ib u tio n of
2
su b je c ts only in r e la tio n to P a ir B ( x = 5. 114, df = 1, J j > ^ . 025,
o n e - t a il t e s t of s ig n ific a n c e ).
P a r t s 1 and 2, H y p o th e sis C, c o n flic t, s e c o n d a n a ly s is
o f le v e r m o v e m e n ts . - - T h e r e s p o n s e s to e a c h stim u lu s p a ir a r e c o n
s id e r e d s e p a r a t e ly in the a b o v e a n a ly s e s , a p r o c e d u r e th at is not as
s e n s it iv e as on e in w h ich th e r e s p o n s e s to the th r e e g e n e r a liz a tio n
s tim u li (o r a ll fou r s tim u li) c o u ld b e c o m b in ed in on e a n a ly s is . T h is
can b e done by a g a in c o n s id e r in g the r e s p o n s e s to the th r e e s tim u li
a s s c o r e s (0, 1, 2 , o r 3 c o r r e c t ) . T h e m e a n o f th e d if fe r e n c e s
b e tw e en t h e s e s c o r e s and th e m e a n o f the h y p o th e tic a l s c o r e s o f 1 .5
r e p r e s e n tin g ra n d o m r e s p o n s e s is .4 5 4 5 , sig n ific a n t b ey o n d the .0 0 5
l e v e l ( t = 3 .3 9 9 , df = 43, o n e - t a il t e s t of s ig n if ic a n c e ) . A s im ila r
t e s t , o f the d iffe r e n c e of the m e a n o f the s c o r e s to a ll fou r s tim u li
(0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 c o r r e c t) a g a in s t the h y p o th e tic a l m e a n o f ran d om
r e s p o n s e s o f 2, p r o v id in g a d d itio n a l in fo r m a tio n r e le v a n t to both
p a rts o f H y p o th e sis C , r e s u lt s in D = . 52 2 7 , s ig n ific a n t at the .0 1
le v e l (_t = 2 .5 9 4 , d f = 43, o n e - t a il t e s t ) .
The r e s u lt s a r e in th e d ir e c tio n p r e d ic te d by H y p o th e sis
C, the m o r e r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e is the o n e that is m a d e in a
c o n flic t situ a tio n ; th ey a r e s t a t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n t in r e la tio n to the
tra in in g s tim u li; fo r P a ir B o f the g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li; and w hen
108
r e s p o n s e s to the th r e e g e n e r a liz a tio n o r to a ll fou r p a ir s of s tim u li
a r e co m b in ed a s s c o r e s .
L e f t-r ig h t s c a l e , H y p o th e sis C
The p r e d ic tio n of H y p o th e sis C, c o n flic t, in r e la tio n to
the le f t - r ig h t s c a le i s that the ch an ge in r e s p o n s e to th e s tim u lu s
p a ir s fo llo w in g tra in in g w ill b e in the d ir e c t io n of the m o r e r e in
fo r c e d s tim u lu s . T he data in r e la tio n to P a r t 1 of the h y p o th e sis a r e
a g a in in the fo r m o f a t w o -f a c t o r d e s ig n w ith r e p e a te d m e a s u r e s on
on e fa c to r (W in er, 1 9 6 2 :3 0 2 ). T h e s u m m a r y of th is a n a ly s is o f
v a r ia n c e i s show n in T a b le F o f A p p en d ix C . T h e "A" e ffe c t , 1A
v e r s u s 2A a s the m o r e r e in fo r c e d s tim u lu s i s the n o n -r e p e a te d
m e a s u r e and id e n t ifie s th e m a n n e r in w h ich th e s e gro u p s r e sp o n d e d
to the s tim u li. T h e r e p e a te d m e a s u r e , b e fo r e v e r s u s a fter tr a in in g ,
is the t e s t o f th e h y p o t h e s is . T h e F ratio fo r th e la tt e r c o m p a r is o n
is 1 .9 8 3 , df = 1 /4 2 , and is n o t s ig n ific a n t. T he d iffe r e n c e in the
m e a n s b e fo r e and a fte r tr a in in g , g iv e n in T a b le 16, is in the
d ir e c tio n c o r r e c t fo r the m o r e r e in fo r c e d s tim u lu s but a s in d ic a te d
a b o v e , is w ith in th e lim it s of c h a n ce d if f e r e n c e s .
T ab le G of A p p en d ix C g iv e s th e a n a ly s is fo r th e
g e n e r a liz a tio n s t im u li. In th is a n a ly s is both m a in e ffe c ts c o m p a r e
s c o r e s m a d e by the s a m e in d iv id u a ls . T h e t e s t o f the h y p o th e s is is
109
T A B L E 16
M E A N S O F R E S P O N S E S TO T H E F O U R P A IR S OF
ST IM U L I ON T H E L E F T -R IG H T S C A L E
B E F O R E A N D A F T E R T R A IN IN G
B e f o r e T r a in in g A f t e r T r a in in g
S tim u lu s P a ir A a 3. 773 3. 386
S tim u lu s P a ir B b 3. 818 3. 591
S tim u lu s P a ir C b 3 .9 7 7 3. 614
S tim u lu s P a ir D b 3. 9 09 3. 500
a T e s t of H y p o t h e s is C , P a r t 1.
b T e s t of H y p o t h e s is C , P a r t 2.
110
a g a in in th e b e f o r e v e r s u s a ft e r tr a in in g c o m p a r is o n , the "A" e f f e c t ,
and a g a in t e s t s th e s ig n if i c a n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e in th e m e a n s o f
r e s p o n s e s on th e l e f t - r i g h t s c a l e a s g iv e n in T a b le 16. T h e o th er
m a in e ffe c t i s th e r e s p o n s e s to th e t h r e e s t i m u l i . T h e d if f e r e n c e s in
th e m e a n s b e f o r e and a fte r tr a in in g i s in th e d ir e c t io n c o r r e c t fo r th e
s t r o n g e r s t im u lu s , and a s in d ic a te d by th e F r a tio o f 2 . 6 1 4 fo r th e A
e f f e c t , a p p r o a c h e s s ig n if ic a n c e ( .1 > £ ^ . 0 5 ) fo r 1 and 43 d f. T h e
la c k o f s ig n if ic a n t in t e r a c t io n an d th e r e la t io n s h ip a m o n g th e m e a n s in
T a b le 16 in d ic a t e th a t th is r e la t io n s h ip h o ld s fo r th e m e a n s of
r e s p o n s e s to a l l t h r e e s t im u li.
T h e a n a ly s is o f v a r ia n c e s u m m a r y o f T a b le H o f
A p p e n d ix C i s id e n t ic a l to th e a n a ly s is o f T a b le F e x c e p t th a t r e
s p o n s e s on th e le f t - r i g h t s c a l e to a ll fo u r s t im u li a r e in c lu d e d . T a b le
H s h o w s th e t e s t o f s ig n if i c a n c e o f th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e m e a n s
fo r th e c o m b in e d r e s p o n s e s to th e fo u r p a ir s o f s t im u li p r o v id in g
in f o r m a tio n r e le v a n t to b o th p a r t s of th e c o n f lic t h y p o t h e s is . T h e
d if f e r e n c e in th e m e a n s a g a in a p p r o a c h e s s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e ^ r a tio
o f 2 . 7 67 fo r 1 and 43 d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m i s a t th e . 10 .> ]j> • 05
l e v e l , fo r a o n e - t a i l t e s t . (T h e • 05 and . 1 l e v e l s fo r 1 and 40 df,
o n e - t a i l t e s t , r e q u ir e F r a tio s o f 2 . 8 4 and 1 . 7 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . )
It i s a ls o p o s s ib le to a n a ly z e th e d a ta a s th e n u m b e r of
s u b j e c t s w ho ch a n g e d t h e ir r e s p o n s e to th e s t im u lu s p a ir on th e l e f t -
I l l
rig h t s c a le in the p r e d ic te d d ir e c t io n . T w e n ty -fiv e o f the fo r ty -fo u r
s u b je c ts r e c e iv in g a d iffe r e n t n u m b er of r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls on 1A and
2A ch a n g ed th e ir r e s p o n s e s a fte r tr a in in g . E ig h te e n o f th e s e tw e n ty -
fiv e ch a n g ed th eir r e s p o n s e s in th e p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n ; s e v e n o p p o
s ite to the p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n , a d if fe r e n c e as te s te d by c h i- s q u a r e
2
s ig n ific a n t at th e .0 5 l e v e l ( x = 3 .3 3 , df = 1, o n e - t a il t e s t of
s ig n if ic a n c e ) . T he r a tio of ch a n g es (p r e d ic te d to o p p o s it e - t o -
p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n ) fo r P a ir s B , C, and D a r e 13:10, 19:11, and 17:
10, r e s p e c t iv e ly . A lth ou gh a ll of t h e s e r a tio s a r e in the p r e d ic te d
d ir e c tio n , th e d if f e r e n c e s a r e not s ig n ific a n t.
S u m m a r y : H y p o th e sis C
T h e r e s u lt s of the r e s p o n s e o f le v e r m o v e m e n t su p p ort
P a r t s 1 and 2 o f H y p o th e sis C , the c o n flic t h y p o th e s e s ; if s tim u li that
s e r v e as c u e s fo r in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s a r e p r e s e n t e d s im u lt a n e
o u s ly the m o r e r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e is the one that o c c u r s , and
a n a lo g o u s r e s p o n s e s o c c u r if p a ir s o f g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li a r e
p r e s e n t e d . T he r e s u lt s o f r e s p o n s e s on th e l e f t - r ig h t s c a le a r e a ll
in th e d ir e c tio n p r e d ic te d b y th e h y p o th e s is , but a r e not s t a t is t ic a lly
s ig n ific a n t fo r P a r t 1 (in r e la tio n to the tr a in in g s tim u li), a p p ro a ch
s ig n ific a n c e fo r P a r t 2 (in r e la tio n to th e g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li) and
a p p ro a ch s ig n ific a n c e in a c o m b in e d t e s t of P a r t s 1 and 2 . T he
112
n u m b er of su b je c ts resp o n d in g as p r e d ic te d on th e le f t - r ig h t s c a le
fa v o r s the h y p o th e sis but is sig n ific a n t o n ly in r e la tio n to the tr a in in g
s tim u li.
T e s t of H y p o th e sis D: R ed u ctio n in R e sp o n se
L e v e r m o v e m e n t
T he p r e d ic tio n b a se d on H y p o th e sis D is that the str e n g th
o f a r e s p o n s e in a c o n flic t situ a tio n w ill b e l e s s than the str e n g th of
th e s tr o n g e r of the tw o c o m p e tin g r e s p o n s e s .
T h is d if fe r e n c e in r e s p o n s e s tr e n g th w a s te s te d by
c o m p a r in g the p r o p o r tio n of su b je c ts w ho r esp o n d e d in the r e in fo r c e d
d ir e c tio n to the s tr o n g e r o f the in d iv id u a l s tim u li, to the p r o p o r tio n
resp o n d in g in th e d ir e c tio n of the m o r e r e in fo r c e d s tim u lu s when the
stim u lu s p a ir s w e r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e s e p r o p o r tio n s a r e in d ic a te d in
T a b le 17. T h ir ty -n in e of the fo r ty -fo u r su b je c ts r esp o n d e d c o r r e c t ly
to th e s tr o n g e r of the in d iv id u a l tr a in in g s tim u li, w h ile th ir ty -tw o out
o f the fo r ty -fo u r r esp o n d e d in the d ir e c tio n c o r r e c t fo r th e s tr o n g e r
stim u lu s w hen th e p a ir s o f s tim u li w e r e p r e s e n t e d . T he d if fe r e n c e
b e tw e e n t h e s e c o r r e la t e d p r o p o r tio n s w a s te s t e d b y the n o r m a l
c u r v e a p p ro x im a tio n of the b in o m in a l d istr ib u tio n (M c N e m a r , 1962:
5 4). T he d iffe r e n c e b e tw e e n the c o r r e la t e d p r o p o r tio n s of 3 9 /4 4 and
3 2 /4 4 r e s u lt s in a z = 2 .0 0 s ig n ific a n t at the . 0 3 l e v e l fo r a o n e -
113
TABLE 17
S U B J E C T S R E SPO N D IN G C O R R E C T L Y (+) A N D
IN C O R R E C T L Y (-) TO TH E ST R O N G E R OF
THE IN D IV ID U A L ST IM U L I A N D THE
R E S P E C T IV E ST IM U L U S PAIR
R e s p o n s e to the S tro n g er of 1A or 2A
+
R e sp o n se to P a ir A ^ + 1 31 32
- 4 8 12
5 39
R e s p o n s e to the S tro n g er of IB or 2B
+
R e s p o n s e to P a ir B c + 2 28 30
- 3 1 1 14
5 39
R e s p o n s e to th e S tro n g er of 1C or 2C
-
+
R e s p o n s e to P a ir C c + 3 22 25
- 4 15 19
7 37
R e s p o n s e to th e S tro n g er of ID or 2D
_
+
R e s p o n s e to P a ir D c + 3 22 25
- 7 12 19
10 34
a df = 1, o n e - t a il t e s t of s ig n ific a n c e .
^ T e s t of H y p o th e sis D, P a r t 1.
c T e s t of H y p o th e sis D, P a r t 2.
114
ta il t e s t . T h e r e s u lt s su p p o rt P a r t 1 of th is h y p o th e s is .
S im ila r te s ts o f s ig n ific a n c e w e r e m a d e fo r the r e s p o n s e s
to th e s tr o n g e r of the g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li and the p a ir s of g e n e r a l
iz a tio n s tim u li. T he p ro p o rtio n s of r e s p o n s e s to th e s tr o n g e r of the
B s tim u li and P a ir B w e r e 3 9 /4 4 and 3 0 /4 4 , r e su ltin g in a z = 2 . 22,
sig n ific a n t b eyon d the . 02 le v e l fo r a o n e - t a il t e s t . T he c o m p a r a b le
p ro p o rtio n s for the C stim u li and p a ir s a re 3 7 /4 4 and 2 5 /4 4 , z =
2 .5 9 sig n ific a n t b ey o n d the .0 0 5 l e v e l fo r a o n e - t a il t e s t . F o r the D
s tim u li and p a ir s the p r o p o r tio n s a re 3 4 /4 4 and 2 5 /4 4 , z = 2 .0 7
s ig n ific a n t at the . 03 le v e l for o n e - t a il t e s t o f s ig n ific a n c e . T he t e s t
o f su c h c o r r e la te d p r o p o r tio n s a lw a y s in v o lv e s the data of th o se
s u b je c ts who r esp o n d d iffe r e n tly in the two c o n d itio n s . T h e s e subjects
a r e a ls o in d ic a te d in T a b le 17. T he d if fe r e n c e in the o v e r a ll p r o
p o r tio n s 3 9 /4 4 v e r s u s 3 2 /4 4 is 7 / 4 4 - - t h e s a m e a s the d if fe r e n c e in
8 / 4 4 and 1 /4 4 fo r the su b je c ts who h a v e d iffe r e n t r e s p o n s e s u n d er the
tw o c o n d itio n s.
T h e r e a r e tw o d iffic u ltie s in ev a lu a tin g th e s e d ata in
r e la tio n to th e h y p o th e sis: F i r s t , th e r e m a y b e o r d e r e ffe c ts s in c e
th e s tim u li w e r e p r e s e n t e d in a fix e d o r d e r a fte r tr a in in g . S e c o n d ,
th e r e is a confounding of dou ble s tim u lu s p r e se n ta tio n w ith the t e s t
of r e s p o n s e in c o n flic t. T h e r e s e e m s lit tle b a s is to a s s u m e that the
la tt e r is a c r it ic a l p r o b le m . T h e r e s p o n s e o f le ft o r rig h t le v e r
115
m o v e m e n t sh ou ld not be s y s t e m a t ic a lly r e la te d to s in g le or double
s tim u lu s p r e se n ta tio n , e s p e c ia lly s in c e s tim u lu s and d ir e c tio n of
r e s p o n s e w e r e c o u n te r b a la n c e d , (T h is is a ls o tru e o f the s im ila r
p r o b le m in rela tio n to the le v e r m o v e m e n t data in r ela tio n to the o th er
h y p o t h e s e s ,) A lth ough the p r e se n ta tio n of a s in g le o r dou ble s tim u lu s
m a y h ave in flu e n c e d r e s p o n s e s , su ch an e ffe c t w ou ld be m o r e lik e ly
on r e a c tio n tim e s than on d ir e c tio n of le v e r m o v e m e n t. It is a ls o
p o s s ib le that the o r d in a l p o sitio n of the s tim u lu s e a r ly o r la te in the
r e s p o n s e s e q u e n c e m a y h a v e in flu e n c e d the d ir e c tio n of r e s p o n s e .
Such an e ffe c t w ould b e d iffic u lt to d e te c t. T he c o u n ter b a la n cin g p r o
c e d u r e s and 1A or 2A r e c e iv in g m o r e r e in fo r c e d tr a in in g t r ia ls
sh ou ld so m e w h a t m itig a te s y s t e m a t ic le ft or right r e s p o n s e s as
the r e s u lt o f o r d e r o f s tim u lu s p r e se n ta tio n . In sp e c tio n of the
n u m b e r of su b je c ts resp o n d in g c o r r e c t ly to th e s tr o n g e r s tim u lu s
o r stim u lu s p a ir s sh o w s that th ey v a ry a s a fu n ctio n of s im ila r it y
and not a s a function of the o r d e r o f p r e s e n ta tio n a s g iv e n in
A p p en d ix A . A c o m p a r is o n o f s u b je c ts responding c o r r e c t ly to th e
stim u lu s p a ir s on the b a s is of b ein g p r e c e d e d b y both in d iv id u a l
s tim u li, having one p r e c e d e and the oth er fo llo w , and b e in g fo llo w e d
b y both in d iv id u a l s tim u li in the o r d e r o f p r e s e n t a t io n - - a s i s the c a s e
fo r P a ir D , P a ir A and P a ir B , and P a ir C, r e s p e c t iv e ly — sh o w s
no c o n s is t e n t tr e n d . N e v e r t h e le s s , th e r e m a y h a v e b e e n o r d e r
116
e f f e c t s n ot a p p a ren t in su c h in s p e c tio n or an in te r a c tio n of o r d e r
e ffe c t s w ith th o se of tr a in in g w h ich cannot be s e p a r a te ly e v a lu a ted
fo r t h e s e data.
W ithin the lim it s im p o s e d by t h e s e p o s s ib le o r d e r e ffe c ts
and s in g le v e r s u s dou ble s tim u lu s e ffe c t s the data b a se d on the
dir e c tio n of le v e r m o v e m e n t su p p o r ts the p r e d ic tio n s of both p a rts of
H y p o th e sis D .
R e a c tio n tim e
In t e r m s of r e a c tio n t im e , the p r e d ic tio n of the h y p o th e
s is is th at r e s p o n s e s to the s tr o n g e r o f the in d iv id u a l s tim u li w ill be
f a s t e r than th o s e to the s tim u lu s p a ir s . T he t e s t o f the h y p o th e sis
w a s lim it e d to th o s e s\ib je c ts who r e sp o n d e d to the stim u lu s p a ir s by
m o v in g th e l e v e r in th e d ir e c tio n r e in fo r c e d fo r the s tr o n g e r s t im u
lu s; th e o th e r s u b je c ts did n ot r e sp o n d w ith the s tr o n g e r r e s p o n s e so
that th e r e a c tio n tim e of that r e s p o n s e co u ld not be d e te r m in e d . T he
r e a c tio n t im e s of th e s e s u b je c ts to the s tim u lu s p a ir s w e re c o m p a r e d
to th e ir r e a c tio n t im e s to th e s tr o n g e r of th e in d iv id u a l s t im u li. T he
r e s p o n s e w a s c la s s i f i e d + if the r e a c tio n t im e to th e p a ir w as lo n g e r
than th e r e a c tio n tim e to the in d iv id u a l s tim u lu s and - if the r e v e r s e
w a s t r u e . T h e n u m b e r of + and - s c o r e s to the s tr o n g e r of stim u lu s
1A o r 2A v e r s u s P a ir A w a s 28 + and 2 - (w ith tw o su b je c ts havin g
117
id e n tic a l r e a c tio n t im e s ) , a d if fe r e n c e in fr e q u e n c ie s r e su ltin g in a
z o f 4 .9 3 sig n ific a n t w e ll b ey o n d the .0 0 1 le v e l fo r a o n e - t a il t e s t .
A n a lo g o u s fr e q u e n c ie s and z r a tio s for the r e s p o n s e s to the g e n e r a l
iz a tio n stim u li and p a ir s a r e g iv e n in T a b le 18. T h e fr e q u e n c ie s a re
a ll in the p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n and th e s e d iffe r e n c e s a r e sig n ific a n t
fo r the B and C s tim u li.
P a r a m e t r ic a n a ly s e s of th e s e r e a c tio n tim e s w e r e
c a r r ie d out w ith th e ju s tific a tio n d e s c r ib e d in r e la tio n to H y p o th e sis
B . A t - t e s t of the d iffe r e n c e b e tw e en c o r r e la t e d m e a n s fo r the
r e a c tio n t im e s to the s tr o n g e r of 1A or 2A and P a ir A r e s u lte d in a
t^ = 5 .8 0 , w h ich w ith df = 29 is s ig n ific a n t b eyon d the .0 0 1 le v e l
fo r a o n e - t a il t e s t . T h is t ra tio r e f le c t s the s ig n ific a n c e of the .4 8
s e c o n d s lo n g e r r e a c tio n tim e to P a ir A .
T h e data of the r e s p o n s e s to th e g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li
that c o n stitu te the t e s t o f P a r t 2 o f H y p o th e sis D a r e g iv e n in T a b le
19. T h e m ea n d if fe r e n c e s a r e a ll in th e p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n and a r e
s ig n ific a n t fo r the B and C s tim u li, but the d iffe r e n c e is quite s m a ll
and not s ig n ific a n t fo r th e D s t im u li.
T he p r o b le m s of o r d e r e ffe c ts and o f th e confou ndin g of
dou ble s tim u lu s p r e se n ta tio n w ith c o n flic t m e n tio n e d in r e la tio n to the
le v e r m o v e m e n t r e s p o n s e a r e e s p e c ia lly tr o u b le s o m e in r e g a r d to
r e a c tio n t im e . T he dou b le s tim u lu s can e a s ily b e c o n s id e r e d m o r e
118
TABLE 18
SIGN T E S T O F THE D IF F E R E N C E B E T W E E N R E A C T IO N
TIM ES TO TH E STR O N G ER O F THE IND IV ID U A L
G E N E R A L IZ A T IO N ST IM U L I A N D THE
PAIRS O F G E N E R A L IZ A T IO N
ST IM U L I
N o , of S s w /
S h o r te r R e a c t.
T im e s to the
In d ivid u al
S tim u lu s
N o . o f S s w /
S h o r te r R e a c t.
T im e s to the
P a ir s of
S tim u li
N o . of S s
w /E q u a l
R e a ctio n
T im e s Z
a
P
B S tim u li 28 2 0 4 .9 3 . 001
C S tim u li 21 4 0 3. 20 . 001
D S tim u li 14 11 0 .4 0 N .S .
O n e -ta il t e s t o f s ig n ific a n c e .
c o m p le x o r u n u su a l than a s in g le s tim u lu s and lo n g e r r e a c tio n t im e s
on s u c h b a s is a lo n e cou ld r e s u lt . T h e r e i s no w ay to se p a r a te th e s e
con fou n d ed a s p e c t s fo r t h e s e d ata, and th e r e s u lts can only be u s e d
in r e g a r d to th is h y p o th e s is in a v e r y te n ta tiv e m a n n e r .
T he p r o b le m o f o r d e r e ffe c ts cannot be c le a r ly r e s o lv e d ,
alth ou gh s o m e in d ir e c t in fo r m a tio n is a v a ila b le . T h e r e a r e th re e
p o s s ib le o r d e r e ffe c ts that m ig h t in flu e n c e r e s p o n s e s : o v e r a ll
o r d in a l p o s itio n of s tim u li, o rd in a l p o s itio n w ith in a s tim u lu s s e r i e s ,
and the p r e se n ta tio n o f the in d iv id u a l s tim u li b e fo r e o r a fte r th e
s tim u lu s p a ir . T he m e a n r e a c tio n t im e s to the s tim u li in th e o r d e r
119
TABLE 19
T E S T O F TH E D IF F E R E N C E B E T W E E N R E A C T IO N TIM ES
TO TH E ST R O N G E R O F TH E IN D IV ID U A L
G E N E R A L IZ A T IO N ST IM U L I A N D T H E
PA IR S OF G E N E R A L IZ A T IO N ST IM U L I
N D t
P
P a ir B 30 . 30 4 .2 7 . 001
P a ir C 25 . 55 4 .6 8 . 001
P a ir D 25 . 07 .6 9 N .S .
p r e s e n te d a r e g iv e n in A p p en d ix D . I n sp e c tio n o f the ta b le s u g g e s t s
that th e r e a r e no o v e r a ll o r d in a l effe cts* T h e r e is a ten d en cy for
the f ir s t s tim u lu s p a ir , P a ir C ---w h ich is a ls o th e p a ir that is not
p r e c e d e d by at l e a s t one of its c o n stitu tin g s t i m u l i - - t o h a v e a lo n g e r
r e a c tio n tim e than th e o t h e r s . P a ir B w h ich fo llo w s P a ir C v e r y
c lo s e ly h a s the s h o r te s t r e a c tio n tim e . It is p o s s ib le that th e lon g
r e a c tio n tim e to th e f ir s t p a ir p r e s e n t e d and sh o r t r e a c tio n tim e to
the v e r y n e x t one a r e the r e s u lt of an o r d e r e ffe c t, p o s s ib ly in itia l
s u r p r is e fo llo w e d by r e a d in e s s to a c t. R e a c tio n t im e s to s tim u li
fo llo w a m o n o tc n ic s e q u e n c e m o r e on th e b a s is o f s im ila r it y than
o r d in a l p o s itio n , o r o r d in a l p o s itio n w ith in a s e r i e s . O r d e r e ffe c t s
m a y a ls o h a v e in t e r a c te d w ith o th er d e te r m in a n ts o f the r e s p o n s e
and m a y not be r e a d ily o b s e r v e d .
120
A s a r e s u lt of the confou ndin g of s tim u lu s p a ir s w ith
c o n flic t and p o s s ib le o r d e r e ffe c ts t h e s e r e s u lt s can on ly p ro v id e the
m o s t te n ta tiv e su p p o rt fo r H y p o th e sis D .
L e f t - r ig h t s c a le , H y p o th e sis D
In r e la tio n to H y p o th e sis D , r ed u ctio n in r e s p o n s e , th e
p e r tin e n t m e a s u r e on the le f t - r ig h t s c a l e is ch a n g e , fo llo w in g t r a in
in g , in th e d ir e c tio n c o r r e c t fo r the m o r e r e in fo r c e d s tim u lu s . T he
p r e d ic tio n b a s e d on the h y p o th e s is is fo r a g r e a t e r ch an ge in r e s p o n s e
to the s tr o n g e r of the in d iv id u a l s tim u li than in r e s p o n s e to the p a ir of
s t im u li. S in ce d iffe r e n t ran d om o r d e r s of s tim u lu s p r e se n ta tio n
w e r e u s e d fo r ea ch su b jec t and b e fo r e and a fter tr a in in g , no o r d e r
e ffe c t s w ou ld b e e x p e c te d . T he t e s t of the h y p o th e sis w a s a gain
lim it e d to th o se su b je c ts w ho r e sp o n d e d to the p a ir s by ch an gin g
th e ir r e s p o n s e in the d ir e c tio n r e in fo r c e d for th e s tr o n g e r of th e
in d iv id u a l s t im u li. T he m e a n d iffe r e n c e for the A s tim u li is - . 77,
not in the p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n ; P a r t 1 o f th is h y p o th e s is is not
su p p o rted . T he m e a n d if fe r e n c e s fo r the g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li a r e
g iv e n in T a b le 20. N one o f the m ea n d if f e r e n c e s a r e in the p r e d ic te d
d ir e c tio n , and the r e s u lt s do not su p p o rt P a r t 2 o f H y p o th e sis D .
S u m m a ry : H y p o th e sis D
T he data o f the r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e o f le v e r m o v e m e n t
121
TA BL E 20
CHANGE IN R E SP O N S E TO THE G E N E R A L IZ A T IO N
ST IM U L I ON TH E L E F T -R IG H T SC A L E
FO LLO W ING TRAINING
N D t
P
P a ir B 10 -2 . 20 a -
P a i r C 19
- 0 . 89 a -
P a ir D 14 - 1 . 71
a
m
a T he d iffe r e n c e is not in the p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n .
su p p o rt the h y p o th e sis that the s tr e n g th o f a r e s p o n s e in a c o n flic t
situ a tio n w ill b e l e s s than the s tr o n g e r of the o r ig in a l r e s p o n s e s , for
tr a in in g and fo r g e n e r a liz a tio n s t im u li. T h e r e a c tio n tim e data is
h ig h ly s ig n ific a n tly in the d ir e c tio n p r e d ic te d by the h y p o th e s is , but
a s the r e s u lt o f confou ndin g dou ble s tim u lu s p r e se n ta tio n w ith the
t e s t of c o n flict and b e c a u s e of p o s s ib le o r d e r e ffe c ts the data o ffe r
o n ly te n ta tiv e su p p o rt fo r th e h y p o th e s is .
T e s t o f H y p o th e sis E: V e r b a l-M o to r C o n flict
T h e data for the t e s t of th is h y p o th e s is is b a s e d on the
eig h t a d je c tiv e s c a le s o f th e a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t . T h e h y p o th e sis
p r e d ic ts d iffe r e n t r e s p o n s e str en g th s w h en v e r b a l and m o to r a s p e c t s
o f a r e s p o n s e su p p le m e n t ea ch o th er than w h en th ey c o n flic t. S in c e
a ll the p o s itiv e v a lu ed a d je c tiv e s a r e on th e le ft on th e c h e c k lis t , and
122
the r e in fo r c e m e n t w a s p o s it iv e , v e r b a l and m o to r a s p e c t s w e r e
a s s u m e d s u p p le m e n ta l i f le ft w as the c o r r e c t le v e r m o v e m e n t, and
c o n flic tu a l if righ t w as the c o r r e c t le v e r m o v e m e n t. S p e c ific a lly ,
th en , th e p r e d ic tio n is th at th e d iffe r e n c e in the w ay the a d je c tiv e s
a r e c h e ck ed b e fo r e and a fter tra in in g w ill d iffer for le ft o r righ t as
the r e in fo r c e d d ir e c t io n s o f r e s p o n s e . T he data in r ela tio n to P a r t 1
o f the h y p o th e s is , r e s p o n s e s to s tim u li 1A and 2A, w e r e a n a ly z e d in
a la tin sq u a r e d e sig n w ith r e p e a te d m e a s u r e s on th r e e f a c t o r s ,
s im ila r to the a n a ly s is o f T a b le A of A p p en d ix C . The p r io r d i s
c u s s io n o f th e u s e of th is d e s ig n on p a g e s 74 and 7 5 , and th e w ay its
lim ita tio n s are la r g e ly a v o id ed ^.lso apply at th is t im e . T he "B"
e ffe c t in T a b le 21, r e s p o n s e s to s tim u li 1A or 2A , is not p e r tin e n t to
the h y p o th e s is; the "A" and "C" e ffe c ts a r e d is c u s s e d la t e r . The
t e s t o f th e p r e d ic tio n of th is h y p o th e sis is r e p o r te d as the "AC"
in te r a c tio n , that i s , that the r e s p o n s e on the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t
b e fo r e and a fte r tr a in in g is d iffe re n t fo r le ft o r righ t a s the c o r r e c t
r e s p o n s e d ir e c tio n . T a b le 21 p r e s e n t s the a n a ly s is of r e s p o n s e s to
stim u li 1A and 2A . T h e la c k of the sig n ific a n t "AC" in te r a c tio n
o ff e r s no su p p o rt fo r P a r t 1 of H y p o th e sis E for r e s p o n s e s to the
tr a in in g s t im u li.
T h e a n a ly s e s of v a r ia n c e fo r r e s p o n s e s to IB , 1C, and
ID; and 2 B , 2C , and 2D , sh ow n in T a b le s 22 and 2 3 , r e s p e c t iv e ly ,
123
T A B L E 21
SUM M ARY OF A N A LY SIS O F V A R IA N C E ,L A T IN SQ U A R E
DESIG N WITH R E P E A T E D M EA SU R E S ON T H R E E
F A C T O R S . R E SP O N S E S TO STIM ULI 1A AND 2A
ON TH E A D JE C T IV E C H EC K LIST
S o u r c e of V a r ia n c e
df
m s F p
B e tw e e n S u b jects
G rou p s
S u b jects w ith in G rou p s
1
46
234. 083
90. 541
2. 585
W ithin S u b jects
A L e ft C o r r e c t v s . R ight
C o r r e c t
B S tim u lu s 1A v s . S tim u lu s 2A
R e sid u a l (1)
1
1
46
7. 521
140. 083
40. 802
. 184
3 .4 3 3 . 1
C B e fo r e T ra in in g v s . A fter
T ra in in g
CX G roups
R e sid u a l (2)
1
1
46
48. 000
. 188
455. 503
. 105
. 0004
A C a
BC
R e sid u a l (3)
1
1
46
30. 083
105. 021
385. 303
. 078
.2 7 3
T o ta l 191
a T e s t of H y p o th esis E , P a r t 1.
124
T A B L E 22
SUM M ARY OF A N A L Y S IS OF V A R IA N C E , T H R E E -F A C T O R
E X P E R IM E N T WITH R E P E A T E D M EA SU R E S ON
TWO F A C T O R S . R E S P O N S E S TO S T IM U L I
IB , 1C A N D ID ON THE A D JE C T IV E
C H EC K LIST
S o u rc e of V a ria n ce df m s F
P
B e tw e e n S u b jects
A L eft C o r r e c t v s . R ight C o r r e c t 1 1 9 8.3 3 7 . 953
S u b jects w / i n G roups 46 2 0 8 . 163
W ithin S u b jects
B B e fo r e T ra in in g v s . A fte r 1 8 5 .5 8 7 1. 692
T rain in g
A B
a
1 1 1 .2 8 1 . 223
BX S u b jects w / i n G roups 46 5 0 .5 7 2
C 3 S tim u li 2 4 7 .7 1 2 3 .0 9 0
AC 2 8 . 022 . 520
CX S u b jects w / i n G roups 92 15. 440
BC 2 6 . 170 .3 9 9
A B C 2 9 . 888 . 639
BCX S u b jects w / i n G rou p s 92 1 5 .4 9 1
T o ta l 287
a T est of H yp oth esis E , Part 2.
125
T A 3 L E 23
SUM M ARY OF A N A L Y SIS OF V A R IA N C E , T H R E E -F A C T O R
E X P E R IM E N T WITH R E P E A T E D M E A SU R E S ON
TWO F A C T O R S . R E SP O N S E S TO STIM ULI
2 B , 2C A N D 2D ON TH E A D JE C T IV E
C H E C K LIST
S o u rce of V a ria n ce df m s F
P
B e tw e e n S u b jects
A L eft C o r r e c t v s . R ight C o r r e c t 1 675. 281 3. 385
S u b jects w / i n G roups 46 1 9 9 .4 7 4
W ithin S u b jects
B B e fo r e T ra in in g v s . A fte r
T rain in g
1 17. 504 . 499
A B
a
1 4. 253 . 121
BX S u b jects w / i n G roups 46 35. 103
C 3 S tim u li 2 1,5 0 6 .1 9 1 27. 100
AC 2 5 7 .8 8 6 1. 041
CX S u b jects w / i n G roups 92 5 5 .5 8 5
BC 2 16. 503 . 782
A B C 2 1 3 .1 2 9 . 622
BCX S u b jects w / i n G rou p s 92 21. 117
T otal 287
a T est of H yp oth esis E, P a r t 2.
126
p r e s e n t th e t e s t of P a r t 2 o f th is h y p o th e s is . T h e a n a ly s e s of t h e s e
ta b le s is that of a t h r e e - f a c t o r e x p e r im e n t w ith r ep ea ted m e a s u r e s
on two fa c to r s (W in er, 1962:319)* d e s c r ib e d e a r li e r in r e la tio n to
T a b le C o f A p p en d ix C . In th is a n a ly s is the p r e d ic te d d iffe r e n c e in
ch an ge fo llo w in g tr a in in g fo r le ft or righ t as the r e in fo r c e d d ir e c tio n s
i s r e p o r te d a s the "AB" in te r a c tio n . T h e s e in te r a c tio n te r m s a r e
a ls o not s ig n ific a n t, and do not su p p o rt th e h y p o th e sis for r e s p o n s e s
to the g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li.
F u rth e r e x a m in a tio n o f t h e s e ta b le s sh o w s that the
" b efo re tr a in in g v e r s u s a fte r tra in in g " v a r ia b le is not sig n ific a n t in
any a n a ly s is , in d ica tin g that tra in in g had no c o n s is t e n t e ffe c t on th e
s u b je c tiv e m e a n in g o f the s t im u li. " L eft c o r r e c t v e r s u s rig h t
c o r r e c t" is a ls o n o t sig n ific a n t in d ic a tin g that tr a in in g had no e ffe c t
in te r m s of a sh ift in the p le a c e m e n t o f the c h e ck m a r k on th e
a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t in the le ft o r righ t d ir e c t io n . S in c e n on e of th e s e
e ffe c ts a r e s ig n ific a n t, the e f f e c t iv e n e s s of th e r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e and
its r e lia b ility i s op en to q u e stio n . P e r h a p s the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t
can n ot m e a n in g fu lly be u s e d to d iffe r e n tia te respon ses to the s tim u li
on any b a s i s . T a b le 23 sh o w s a h igh ly sig n ific a n t F_ r a tio for the
d iffe r e n c e in r e s p o n s e to the th r e e s tim u li (m a in e ffe c t "C "). T h is
F r a tio in d ic a te s the s ig n ific a n c e o f the d if fe r e n c e s in th e m e a n o f
r e s p o n s e s to s tim u li 2B , 2C , and 2D o f 3. 34, 3 .7 8 , and 4 . 34,
127
r e s p e c t iv e ly . T he m e a n o f r e s p o n s e s to 2A is 3 .2 1 , in lin e w ith the
tr e n d a b o v e . S tim u lu s s e r i e s 2 d iffe r s m o r e fr o m 2A to 2D than
s tim u lu s s e r i e s 1, v a ry in g fr o m a n e a r tr ia n g le to a n e a r c i r c l e . The
d if fe r e n c e in r e s p o n s e to the fig u r e s of s tim u lu s s e r i e s 2 (and s e r i e s
1 to a l e s s e r d e g r e e , the a n a lo g o u s F ra tio fo r T a b le 22 a p p ro a ch es
s ig n ific a n c e ) str o n g ly s u g g e s t s that the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t can m e a n
in g fu lly b e u s e d to ev a lu a te d iffe r e n c e s in r ela tio n to the s tim u li u s e d
in th is stu d y . T he la c k of s ig n ific a n t e ffe c ts of tr a in in g o r e ffe c ts
p r e d ic te d by the h y p o th e s is , in d ic a te s that th e r e a r e no su ch e f f e c t s ,
o r if th e r e a r e , th ey a r e g r o s s ly l e s s p oten t in in flu en cin g r e s p o n s e
on th is m e a s u r e than s u b je c tiv e d if fe r e n c e s b e tw e e n s tim u li.
C H APTER V
DISCUSSION
In trod u ction
F o r c o n v e n ie n c e , the h y p o th e s e s and s u m m a r y of r e s u lt s
a r e r e p e a te d b e lo w .
H y p o th e sis A
P a r t 1. - - A r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e to a stim u lu s w ill o c c u r
on su b se q u e n t p r e se n ta tio n s of the s t im u lu s .
P a r t 2 . - - A r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e to a s tim u lu s w ill a ls o
o c c u r in r e s p o n s e to o th er s im ila r s t im u li.
R e s u lt s . - - T h e r e s u lt s su p p o rt the h y p o th e s e s that the
tr a in in g p r o c e d u r e s did e s t a b lis h a r e s p o n s e and that the r e s p o n s e
g e n e r a liz e s to s im ila r s tim u li. T he a n a lo g o u s r e s u lt s fo r th e l e f t -
rig h t s c a le s u g g e s t that the r e s u lt s of th e tr a in in g t r a n s f e r r e d to a
r e s p o n s e s i m i l a r to that tr a in e d , but on e in v o lv in g v e r b a l a s p e c t s .
H y p o th e sis B
P a r t 1. - - T h e s tr e n g th of the r e s p o n s e to the train in g
s tim u li i n c r e a s e s a s a fu n ction o f th e n u m b e r of r e in fo r c e d t r i a l s .
128
129
P a r t 2 . — T he str e n g th of th e r e s p o n s e s to the g e n e r a l
iz a tio n s tim u li i n c r e a s e s as the n u m b er of r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e s to
th e o r ig in a l s tim u li i n c r e a s e s .
P a r t 3. - -T h e s tr e n g th of the r e s p o n s e s to the g e n e r a l
iz a tio n s tim u li in c r e a s e s as a fu n ction of th e ir s im ila r it y to the
o r ig in a l tra in in g s tim u lu s .
R e s u l t s . - - T h e r e s u lt s b a s e d on the le v e r m o v e m e n t
r e s p o n s e su p p o rt P a r t 1 o f H y p o th e sis B , th at r e s p o n s e s having m o r e
r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls h a v e a g r e a t e r p r o b a b ility o f o c c u r r in g , m o s t of
th is e ffe c t b ein g e v id e n c e d if s tim u lu s 1A i s the one w ith m o r e
r e in fo r c e d t r i a l s . P a r t 2 o f th is h y p o th e s is , that the str e n g th of
r e s p o n s e s to the g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li is r e la te d to th e n u m b er of
r e in fo r c e d t r i a l s , s im ila r ly r e c e iv e s m o s t o f its su p p o rt in r ela tio n
to s tim u lu s s e r i e s 1. P a r t 3 o f the h y p o th e s is , that r e s p o n s e
str e n g th i s d ir e c t ly r e la te d to the d e g r e e of s im ila r it y o f g e n e r a l
iz a tio n stim u lu s to tra in in g s tim u lu s , i s su p p o rted only in r e la tio n to
s tim u lu s s e r i e s 1.
R e s p o n s e s h a v e s h o r te r r e a c tio n t im e s a fter m o r e
tr a in in g than a fte r l e s s tr a in in g , but th is d if fe r e n c e in r e a c tio n tim e
o n ly a p p r o a c h e s s ig n ific a n c e fo r r e s p o n s e s to g e n e r a liz a tio n s t im u li.
H o w e v e r , the g r e a t e r th e s im ila r it y b e tw e e n a g e n e r a liz a tio n
s tim u lu s and th e tr a in in g s tim u lu s , the s h o r te r the r e a c tio n t im e .
130
T h e r e s u lt s of the a n a ly s e s of ch a n g es of r e s p o n s e s on
the le f t - r ig h t s c a l e do n ot su p p ort th is h y p o th e s is . T h e r e s u lt s a r e
in the p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n on ly in r e g a r d to on e s tim u lu s s e r i e s and
a r e n o w h ere c le a r ly s ig n ific a n t.
H y p o th e sis C
P a r t 1. - - T h e m o r e freq u en tly r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e w ill
b e r e la t iv e ly s tr o n g e r and i s the r e s p o n s e that w ill o c c u r w hen th ere
i s c o n flic t b e tw e e n in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s in a s im u lta n e o u s p r e s e n
ta tio n of two of the o r ig in a l tra in in g s tim u li.
P a r t 2 . - - T h e m o r e fr e q u e n tly r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e w ill
b e r e la t iv e ly s tr o n g e r and is the on e that w ill o c c u r w hen th e r e is
c o n flic t b e tw e e n in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s in a sim u lta n e o u s p r e s e n
ta tio n of tw o of the g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li.
R e s u lt s . - - T h e r e s u lt s a r e in the d ir e c tio n p r e d ic te d by
H y p o th e sis C; th ey a r e s t a t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n tly so in relation to
P a r t 1; fo r P a ir B in r e la tio n to P a r t 2; and w hen r e s p o n s e s to th e
th r e e g e n e r a liz a tio n o r to a ll fou r p a ir s of s tim u li a r e c o m b in e d as
s c o r e s ; if s tim u li th at s e r v e a s c u e s fo r in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s a r e
p r e s e n t e d s im u lta n e o u s ly th e m o r e r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e i s the on e
that o c c u r s , and a n a lo g o u s r e s p o n s e s o c c u r if p a ir s o f g e n e r a liz a tio n
s tim u li a r e p r e s e n t e d .
131
T he r e s u lt s o f r e s p o n s e s on the le f t - r ig h t s c a le a r e a ll
in the d ir e c tio n p r e d ic te d by the h y p o th e s is , but a r e not s t a t is t ic a lly
sig n ific a n t fo r P a r t 1; a p p ro a ch s ig n ific a n c e for P a r t 2, or in a c o m
b in ed t e s t o f P a r ts 1 and 2; and a r e sig n ific a n t in te r m s of n u m b er of
s u b je c ts for P a r t 1.
H y p o th e sis D
P a r t 1. - - T h e str e n g th o f th e r e s u ltin g r e s p o n s e w ill b e
l e s s than that of the s tr o n g e r of the o r ig in a l r e s p o n s e s w hen th e r e is
c o n flic t b e tw e e n in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s to tw o of the tra in in g s t im u li.
P a r t 2 . - -T h e str e n g th o f th e r e s u ltin g r e s p o n s e w ill be
l e s s than that of the s tr o n g e r o f the o r ig in a l r e s p o n s e s w hen th e r e is
c o n flic t b e tw e e n in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s to tw o o f the g e n e r a liz a tio n
s t im u li.
R e s u l t s . - -T h e data su p p o rt th e h y p o th e s is in r ela tio n to
the r e s p o n s e o f le v e r m o v e m e n t; the str e n g th of a r e s p o n s e in a
c o n flic t situ a tio n i s l e s s than the s tr o n g e r of the o r ig in a l r e s p o n s e s ,
for tr a in in g and fo r g e n e r a liz a tio n s t im u li.
R e a c tio n t im e s fo r r e s p o n s e s in c o n flic t s itu a tio n s a r e
lo n g e r than fo r r e s p o n s e s to the s tr o n g e r of the in d iv id u a l s t im u li. A
c o m p a r a b le h ig h ly s ig n ific a n t in c r e a s e in r e a c tio n tim e is found w hen
the c o n flic t is b e tw e e n r e s p o n s e te n d e n c ie s to a ll but the le a s t s im ila r
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o f g e n e r a liz a tio n s t im u li. H o w e v e r , the confounding o f double
s tim u lu s p r e se n ta tio n w ith the t e s t of c o n flic t and the p o s s ib ilit y of
o r d e r e ffe c t s s u g g e s t that t h e s e r e s u lt s m u st be in te r p r e te d w ith
ca u tio n .
T he r e s u lt s b a s e d on th e r e s p o n s e s on the le f t - r ig h t s c a le
do not su p p o rt P a r t 1 or P a r t 2 o f th is h y p o th e s is .
H y p o th e sis E
P a r t 1. - - T h e s tr e n g th o f th e r e s p o n s e to the o r ig in a l
tr a in in g s tim u li w ill b e l e s s w h en v e r b a l and m o to r a s p e c t s c o n flict
than w hen th ey s u p p le m e n t e a c h o th e r .
P a r t 2 . - - T h e s tr e n g th of th e r e s p o n s e s to the g e n e r a li z a
tio n s tim u li w ill be l e s s w hen v e r b a l and m o to r a s p e c t s c o n flic t than
w hen th ey s u p p le m e n t e a ch o th e r .
R e s u l t s . - - T h e r e s u lt s do n ot su p p o rt H y p o th e sis E .
T h e r e is no d if fe r e n c e in r e s p o n s e w h en v e r b a l and m o to r a s p e c t s
su p p le m e n t o r i f th ey c o n flic t; th at i s , th e r e is no d iffe r e n c e fr o m
b e fo r e to a fte r tr a in in g if le ft or rig h t i s the c o r r e c t d ir e c tio n of
r e s p o n s e to b e le a r n e d . M o r e o v e r , th e r e is no sig n ific a n t d iffe r e n c e
in r e s p o n s e b e fo r e o r a fte r tr a in in g , o r b e tw e e n r e s p o n s e s of
s u b je c ts tr a in e d to r e s p o n d to th e le f t o r the rig h t. H o w e v e r , th er e
i s a h ig h ly s ig n ific a n t d if fe r e n c e in r e s p o n s e to the in d iv id u a l
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s tim u li o f s e r i e s 2, and th is d iffe r e n c e a p p r o a c h e s s ig n ific a n c e fo r
s e r i e s 1. T he la t t e r r e s u lt s s u g g e s t that the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t is a
u s e f u l r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e fo r s o m e a s p e c t s of th e s t im u li. It s e e m s ,
t h e r e f o r e , that if th e r e a r e e ffe c ts o r d if fe r e n t ia l e ffe c ts o f tr a in in g
th ey a r e l e s s ev id e n t than the s u b je c tiv e d if f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n s t im u li.
T h e o r e tic a l I m p lic a tio n s
M o to r r e s p o n s e s : a p p lic a b ility
of the m o d e ls
In the p r e s e n ta tio n of the t h e o r e t ic a l b a c k g r o u n d it w as
n o ted th at fou r a s s u m p tio n s a r e n e c e s s a r y to p r e d ic t the r e s p o n s e to
a s p e c i f i c s tim u lu s in a c o n flic t s itu a tio n if th e m a n ip u la b le in d e p e n d
ent v a r ia b le s a r e p r e se n ta tio n of s tim u lu s and r e in f o r c e m e n t . If the
a s s u m p tio n s a r e t r u e , it w ou ld b e p o s s ib le to in flu e n c e c h o ic e and
p r o b a b ility o f r e s p o n s e w ith ou t p r e v io u s p r e s e n t a tio n of the c o n flic t
s itu a tio n , o r in d ee d , w ithout p r e v io u s p r e s e n ta tio n of the s p e c if ic
s t im u li. T h e s e fo u r a s s u m p tio n s a r e the b a s is o f th e f ir s t fo u r
h y p o th e s e s o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y . T h e r e s u lt s in r e la tio n to t h r e e of
the a s s u m p tio n s a r e fa ir ly c le a r : T w o in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e s can
b e c o n d itio n e d and b oth r e s p o n s e s g e n e r a li z e , th e c h o ic e in a c o n flic t
b e tw e e n t h e s e r e s p o n s e s i s p a r tia lly d e te r m in e d b y the r e la t iv e
n u m b e r o f p r io r r e in fo r c e d tr ia ls fo r e a c h r e s p o n s e , and th e p r o b a
b ilit y o f the s t r o n g e r r e s p o n s e is d im in is h e d w h en an in c o m p a tib le
134
r e s p o n s e is e lic it e d s im u lt a n e o u s ly . It d o e s not s e e m to o lik e ly that
o r d e r e ffe c t s o r s in g le or double s tim u lu s p r e se n ta tio n a ffe c te d
d ir e c tio n of le v e r m o v e m e n t s y s t e m a t ic a lly w ithin the c o u n te r b a la n c
ing p r o c e d u r e s u s e d .
In r e g a r d to the th ird a s su m p tio n , it is not c le a r if the
in c r e a s e in r e a c tio n tim e w hen the s tim u lu s p a ir s a r e p r e s e n te d i s a
fu n ction o f th e dou b le s tim u lu s , the tr a in in g of in c o m p a tib le
r e s p o n s e s , o r b o th . It w ould be p o s s ib le in fu tu re s tu d ie s to p r e s e n t
s im u lt a n e o u s ly tw o d iffe r e n t s tim u li for w h ich on ly one r e s p o n s e has
b e e n r e in f o r c e d . A c o m p a r is o n of r e a c tio n t im e s to the double
s tim u lu s u n d er t h e s e d iffe r e n t co n d itio n s w ould h e lp is o la t e the e ffe c t
o f the c o n flic t tr a in in g . S im ila r ly , the p o s s ib le o r d e r e ffe c ts that a r e
c o n se q u e n t on th e fix e d p r e se n ta tio n of s tim u li c o u ld b e o v e r c o m e by
u s in g a m o r e f le x ib le m eth o d of s tim u lu s p r e se n ta tio n , su c h a s
s l i d e s , r a th e r than a ta p e.
T h e r e s u lt s in r ela tio n to th e fou rth of th e s e a s s u m p tio n s ,
H y p o th e sis B , th e str e n g th of r e s p o n s e h y p o th e s is , is not a s c l e a r - -
the e f f e c t iv e n e s s of a d d itio n a l tra in in g r e s u ltin g in g r e a t e r p r o b a
b ility o f r e s p o n s e w a s c le a r ly d e m o n str a te d on ly in th e m o s t s e n s it iv e
a n a ly s e s th at c o m b in e d r e s p o n s e s to a ll s tim u li in on e m e a s u r e ; in
th e o th er a n a ly s e s the r e s u lt s s e e m e d su p p o r tiv e on ly fo r r e s p o n s e s
to s t im u lu s s e r i e s 1, and fo r th is s e r i e s w as m o s t e v id e n t for
135
r e s p o n s e s to stim u lu s 1A. W hile it s e e m s lik e ly on a lo g ic a l b a s is
that th e high p e r c e n ta g e of c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s to the m o r e and l e s s
r e in fo r c e d s tim u lu s con trib u ted to th e la c k of s ig n ific a n t d if f e r e n c e s ,
the r e s u lt s s u g g e s t that the e ffe c ts of am ou nt of tra in in g is m o s t
ev id en t on the tra in in g s tim u li. T h e c o n c lu s io n that the e ffe c ts of
tr a in in g a r e m o s t ev id en t in r e s p o n s e s to the tra in in g s tim u li is a ls o
w a r r a n te d by the r e a c tio n tim e data; r e a c tio n t im e s a r e sig n ific a n tly
f a s t e r a fte r m o r e r e in fo r c e m e n t only fo r tra in in g s tim u li; th is
d if fe r e n c e a p p ro a c h e s s ig n ific a n c e in one a n a ly s is fo r the B and C
s tim u li, and is not s ig n ific a n t fo r th e D s tim u li or for the s u m of the
g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li. T h is i s a ls o in d ic a te d , a lb e it in a so m e w h a t
e q u iv o c a b le m a n n e r, by the a n a ly s is of le v e r m o v e m e n t r e s p o n s e s in
r e la tio n to P a r t 3 of H y p o th e sis B (that r e s p o n s e str en g th d e c r e a s e s
w ith d is s im ila r it y fo r stim u lu s s e r i e s 2), and i s c le a r ly su p p o rted by
the r e a c tio n tim e data and b y th e r e s u lt s in r e la tio n to P a r t s 1 and 2
o f H y p o th e sis B; th e e ffe c ts o f tra in in g a r e m o s t p r o m in en t in the
r e s p o n s e s to the tra in in g s t im u li. T he g r e a t e r s u b je c tiv e d i s
s im ila r it y o f the s tim u li of s e r i e s 2 a ls o h ig h lig h ts th is e ffe c t, as the
d e c r e a s e of r e s p o n s e str en g th to the g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li i s m o r e
d r a m a tic fo r th is s e r i e s of s tim u li than fo r s tim u lu s s e r i e s 1. T h e r e
is s o m e in d ica tio n that th is e ffe c t is a ls o p r e s e n t in th e r e s p o n s e s to
the s tim u lu s p a ir s . F o r e x a m p le , the ratio of r e s p o n s e s in the
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d ir e c tio n of th e s tr o n g e r fr o m the tr a in in g s tim u lu s p a ir to the le a s t
s im ila r s tim u lu s p a ir w e re : P a ir A , 3 2 -1 2 ; P a ir B f 3 0 -1 4 ; P a ir C,
2 5 -1 9 ; and P a ir D, 2 5 - 1 9 .
In m an y w a y s H y p o th e sis C is th e c r u c ia l one o f the
p r e s e n t stu d y. T he e x is t e n c e of co n d ition in g and to a l e s s e r d e g r e e
stim u lu s g e n e r a liz a tio n u n d er s u c h e x p e r im e n ta l co n d itio n s a r e fa ir ly
w e ll a c c e p te d . The lim it of r e s p o n s e a lt e r n a t iv e s , fo r e x a m p le ,
s e r v e s to in c r e a s e th e p o s s ib ilit y of d e m o n str a tin g g e n e r a liz a tio n .
H o w e v e r , both r e s p o n s e s had o c c u r r e d and had b e e n r e in fo r c e d to
a s p e c t s of th e c o n flic t s tim u lu s , and e ith e r r e s p o n s e co u ld b e m a d e .
T h e r e g u la r ity w ith w h ich the r e s p o n s e m o r e fr e q u e n tly r e in fo r c e d
w a s m a d e le n d s c o n s id e r a b le su p p ort to the m an y m o d e ls p r e v io u s ly
d is c u s s e d , that u s e d iffe r e n c e in r e s p o n s e s tr e n g th a s a d e te r m in a n t
in r e s p o n s e during c o n flic t a s a m a jo r a s su m p tio n .
O th er r e s u lt s g iv e in d ir e c t in fo rm a tio n in r ela tio n to th is
fin d in g . T he d if fe r e n c e in r e s p o n s e str en g th a fte r d iffe r e n tia l r e in
fo r c e m e n t , a s sh ow n in T ab le 4, fo r e x a m p le , w a s s ig n ific a n tly in
th e p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n for th r e e of the fo u r s tim u li o f s e r i e s 1, but is
not in the p r e d ic te d d ir e c tio n fo r any o f th e s tim u li of s e r i e s 2. A
c o m p a r is o n of r e s p o n s e str e n g th fo r r e s p o n s e s to th e p a ir s of s tim u li
fo r 1A and 2A s tr o n g e r , sh o w s a fa r g r e a t e r p ro p o rtio n o f p r e d ic te d
r e s p o n s e s w h en 1A w a s th e s t r o n g e r . W hile th is d if fe r e n c e in e ffe c t
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for the tw o s tim u li w a s not p r e d ic te d , it w a s ev id e n t in th e in d iv id u a l
r e s p o n s e s tr e n g th s . T he e x p e c te d e ffe c t of su ch a d is p a r ity in
in d iv id u a l r e s p o n s e str e n g th d if fe r e n c e s i s ju st w hat did h a p p e n --a
m o r e c le a r ly d e fin ed r e s p o n s e p r e fe r e n c e if 1A w as th e m o r e r e in
fo r c e d s tim u lu s . T h e finding that m e a s u r e d r e s p o n s e stren g th
d if fe r e n c e s b ey o n d that r e s u ltin g fr o m d iffe r e n tia l tr a in in g e ffe c ts
r e s p o n s e s in c o n flic t situ a tio n s le n d s ad d itio n a l c r e d e n c e to the
p o s s ib ilit y of p r e d ic tin g b e h a v io r in c o n flic t s itu a tio n s fr o m the
in d iv id u a l r e s p o n s e s tr e n g th s .
A s a ca u tio n in in te r p r e tin g the a b o v e, in f e r r e d r e s p o n s e
str e n g th fr o m tra in in g h is to r y is not a lw a y s m a n ife s t in d ir e c t
m e a s u r e m e n t ( s e e r e s u lt s r e g a r d in g H y p o th e sis B ). M o r e o v e r ,
m e a s u r e d d if fe r e n c e s in r e s p o n s e s tr e n g th a r e not a lw a y s m a n ife s t in
c o n flic t s itu a t io n s . O ne e x a m p le of th is is that the sig n ific a n t d if f e r
e n c e s in r e s p o n s e str en g th s b e tw e e n the s tr o n g e r and w e a k e r of the
in d iv id u a l s tim u li C and D (T a b le 4) did n ot r e s u lt in a sig n ific a n t
p r e f e r e n c e fo r the m o r e r e in fo r c e d o r l e s s r e in fo r c e d d u rin g the
p r e se n ta tio n of P a i r C o r D .
T he le f t - r ig h t s c a le : th e
p r o b le m o f tr a n s itio n
The co n d itio n in g p r o c e d u r e in v o lv in g l e v e r r e s p o n s e did
s u c c e e d in e s ta b lis h in g an a n a lo g o u s r e s p o n s e on th e le f t - r ig h t s c a le ,
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and the r e s p o n s e g e n e r a liz e d . H o w e v e r , the r e s p o n s e s to the
s tr o n g e r of the in d iv id u a l s tim u li w e r e not o f g r e a t e r m a g n itu d e than
r e s p o n s e s in the d ir e c tio n o f the s tr o n g e r during c o n flic t, n o r w a s the
m o r e r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e s ig n ific a n tly s tr o n g e r than the r e la t iv e ly
l e s s r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e .
D e sp ite th e c le a r ly m o r e fr e q u en t r e s p o n s e w ith th e le v e r
in the d ir e c tio n of the s t r o n g e r , the r e s u lt s on the le f t - r ig h t s c a le in
r e la tio n to H y p o th e sis C a r e ta n ta liz in g ly on the b o r d e r lin e of s ig n if i
c a n c e . T he ch a n g es in the m e a n s of r e s p o n s e s to a ll four p a ir s of
s tim u li a r e in the d ir e c tio n of the m o r e r e in fo r c e d of the s t im u li.
T h e d iffe r e n c e is not sig n ific a n t fo r P a ir A; a p p ro a c h e s s ig n ific a n c e
fo r the s u m of P a ir s B , C, and D; and for the su m of a ll fo u r p a ir s
of s t im u li. H o w e v e r , if the n u m b er of su b je c ts sh ow in g the p r e d ic te d
r e s p o n s e a r e c o m p a r e d to the n u m b er sh o w in g the o p p o site r e s p o n s e ,
the d if fe r e n c e ju st r e a c h e s s ig n if ic a n c e . T y p ic a lly , a c o m p a r is o n o f
s c o r e s is m o r e s e n s it iv e to s m a ll d if fe r e n c e s than counting su b je c ts;
h e r e th e r e v e r s e is t r u e . W hile th is d if fe r e n c e is not p rofou n d , th is
fin d in g is in k e ep in g w ith an a s su m p tio n that an in c r e a s e in r e s p o n s e
v a r ia b ility r e s u lt s w hen hum an s u b je c ts a p p ro a ch m o r e c o m p le x or
m o r e v e r b a l ta s k s .
T h e o v e r a ll r e s u lt s on th e le f t - r ig h t s c a le a r e n ot a s
m u ch in a c c o r d w ith the h y p o th e se s and the a s s u m p tio n s of the
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v a r io u s m o d e ls as th o se of the l e v e r r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e or ev en
r e a c tio n t im e . S in ce the tr a in in g o c c u r r e d w ith the le v e r - m o v e m e n t
r e s p o n s e , th e m o s t d ir e c t ex p la n a tio n o f t h e s e fin d in gs is that the
r e s p o n s e str en g th d im in is h e d w hen te s te d in a m a n n e r d is s im ila r to
the tra in in g situ a tio n . M any in s ta n c e s that a r e u s e d to e x e m p lify the
m e c h a n is m o f d is p la c e m e n t, fo r e x a m p le , a ls o fo llo w th is p a tte rn .
T h e in h ib ited a g g r e s s io n , the d e s ir e to p h y s ic a lly a tta ck , m a y be
d is p la c e d not only fr o m the o r ig in a l o b ject but in th e m a n n e r o f
e x p r e s s io n a s w e ll; the d is p la c e d o b jec t m a y be the fo c u s o f v e r b a l
a b u se ra th e r than a tta ck .
A m o r e c o m p le x but p o s s ib le a s su m p tio n i s that r e s p o n s e
on m o r e v e r b a l r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s a r e n ot a s lik e ly to b e p r e d ic ta b le
fr o m su c h m o d e ls as s im p le m o t o r b e h a v io r .
T h e a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t; fu r th e r
im p lic a tio n s fo r th e p r o b le m
o f tr a n s itio n
T h e r e a r e m a n y im p lic a tio n s o f the c o m p le te la c k of
p o s it iv e fin d in g s, d e s p ite th e s e n s it iv it y o f th is m e a s u r e to o th er
a s p e c t s o f th e s tim u lu s and the p o s itiv e r e s u lt s of the p ilo t stu d y . A s
m e n tio n e d p r e v io u s ly , in on e s e n s e the r e s p o n s e s on th is m e a s u r e
w e r e g e n e r a liz e d fr o m the tr a in in g r e s p o n s e of le v e r m o v e m e n t as
w e ll a s b e in g g e n e r a liz e d on th e s tim u lu s d im e n sio n . On th e o th er
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hand th e r e w a s a d ir e c t a s s o c ia t io n o f the w ord "good" w ith the
s tim u li that cou ld h ave b een e x p e c te d to in flu e n c e the attitu d e
to w a rd s th o se stim u li d ir e c t ly . It i s d iffic u lt to a s c r ib e the fu ll
la c k of r e s u lt s to th is r e s p o n s e g e n e r a liz a tio n e ffe c t.
A sec o n d p o s s ib ilit y is th at for s o m e r e a s o n the c o n c ep ts
that w e r e ad eq u ate fo r m an y p r e d ic tio n s on the o th er r e s p o n s e
m e a s u r e s w e r e in ad eq u ate for th is m o s t v e r b a l and s y m b o lic o n e .
In v ie w of th e e a r lie r p o s itiv e fin d in gs on the p ilo t s tu d ie s , th e r e
is a p o s s ib ilit y that th e p r e s e n c e of a d d itio n a l fa c to r s b eyon d th o se
im p o s e d k n ow in gly by the e x p e r im e n te r co n tr ib u te d to th e la c k of
p o s itiv e r e s u lt s .
O r, a g a in , it m ay be p o s s ib le that th e r e e x is t s a
d isc o n tin u ity o f p r o c e s s e s (a n a lo g o u s, p e r h a p s, to H a r lo w 's f o r m u
la tio n of the a p p ea r a n c e of le a r n in g s e t s at c e r ta in a g e s and
p h y lo g e n e tic le v e ls ) su c h that the a s su m p tio n s of th e m o d e ls a r e
not in any w a y a p p lic a b le to r e s p o n s e s at the le v e l of the a d je c tiv e
c h e c k lis t . W h ile the stud y o ff e r s no d ir e c t e v id e n c e in r e g a r d to
th is q u estio n , th e r e i s s o m e e v id e n c e to le a d to c o n je c tu r a l su p p ort
o f the fo r m e r p o s itio n .
T h e p ilo t stud y r e f e r r e d to in C h ap ter I g a v e p o s itiv e
r e s u lt s . A m a jo r e x p e r im e n ta l d iffe r e n c e in the tw o stu d ie s w a s
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th e u s e of n e g a tiv e r e in fo r c e m e n t ("bad") w ith h a lf the s u b je c ts in the
p ilo t stu d y . Y et p o s itiv e r e s u lt s w e r e found in the r ew a r d as w e ll as
the p u n ish m en t g ro u p s o f th e p ilo t study. T h e r e w e r e , h o w e v e r ,
m a jo r n o n -e x p e "im ental d iffe r e n c e s in the p r o c e d u r e . T he p ilot study
w as co n d u cted with v o lu n te e r s who got tim e off fr o m th e ir w o rk
a s s ig n m e n t and w o rk ed in an a ir -c o n d itio n e d o ffic e ; th e stud y under
d is c u s s io n w a s done w ith stu d en t v o lu n te e r s , who w o rk ed on th eir
" free" t im e , in a ra th e r hot te m p o r a r y b u ild in g . A n o th er d if fe r e n c e ,
one of e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u r e , w a s that the p ilo t stud y r e q u ir e d
m u ch l e s s tim e for e a ch su b jec t, s in c e the c o n flic t situ a tio n or
s tim u li w e r e not p r e s e n t e d b e f o r e , d u rin g , o r a fte r tr a in in g .
T he p ilo t study su b je c ts ten d ed to sh o w p o s itiv e or
n e g a tiv e r e a c tio n s to the s tim u li on th e a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t in flu e n c e d
in p a rt by th e typ e of r e in fo r c e m e n t th ey r e c e iv e d . The su b je c ts of
the p r e s e n t stu d y sh o w ed a s m a ll but c o n s is t e n t ch an ge in r e s p o n s e
in th e d ir e c tio n aw ay fr o m the p o s itiv e a d j e c tiv e s , alth ough only
p o s it iv e r e in fo r c e m e n t w as u s e d . (F o r s tim u lu s s e r i e s 1, th is
d if fe r e n c e --th o u g h in s ig n if ic a n t - - w a s fr o m a m ea n r e s p o n s e o f 2 .8 9
b e fo r e tra in in g to 3. 03 a fte r tra in in g ; for s tim u lu s s e r i e s 2 the
ch a n g e w a s fr o m 3 .7 9 to 3 . 8 5 . ) T h e r e is s o m e p o s s ib ilit y that th e
len g th y and at t im e s d iffic u lt e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u r e c o u ld le a d to
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n e g a tiv e f e e lin g s about the w h ole p r o c e s s , in clu d in g th e s t im u li.
Such an a ttitu d e, of c o u r s e , w ou ld b e in c o n flic t (a fa m ilia r w o rd by
now ) w ith the e x p e c te d e ffe c t of th e p o s itiv e r e in fo r c e m e n t and could
r e s u lt in a la c k of o v e r a ll ch a n g e, in the s a m e w ay that d ir e c tio n and
m e a n in g w e r e show n to in t e r a c t in the p ilo t stu d y , and p o stu la te d to
in te r a c t in H y p o th e sis E .
In o p p o sitio n to th is c o n je c tu r e i s the la c k of e ffe c t of
r e in fo r c in g a d ir e c tio n of r e s p o n s e ev en if the e ffe c ts of r e in f o r c e
m e n t o f m e a n in g o r attitu d e and in c r e a s in g d is c o m f o r t c a n c e l ea ch
o th e r .
A c o m p a r is o n of th e r e s u lt s on th e fou r r e s p o n s e
m e a s u r e s is in k eep in g w ith th e h y p o th e sis that m o d e ls b a s e d on one
typ e of data l o s e u t ility in p r e d ic tin g b e h a v io r l e s s and l e s s s im ila r
to th e ir s o u r c e data o r that the e ffe c ts of tr a in in g d im in is h a s r e
s p o n s e s a r e l e s s lik e th o se d ir e c tly in v o lv e d in tr a in in g . A s in d ic a te d
a b o v e , th e r e i s s o m e s p e c u la tiv e in d ica tio n that th is l o s s o f u tility in
r e la tio n to the d iffe r e n t r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s of th is study is the e ffe c t
o f a d d itio n a l v a r ia b le s , s o m e of w h ich co u ld be c o n tr o lle d in fu rth er
s t u d ie s . If th is is tr u e , the q u estio n in d ea lin g w ith c o m p le x and
s y m b o lic b e h a v io r m a y d e v e lo p to b e o n e o f d e te r m in in g the p e r tin e n t
fa c to r s at w o rk in any s p e c if ic s it u a t io n - - e x p e r im e n t a l o r c lin ic a l.
143
T h e in te r a c tio n of th e s e fa c to r s m a y w e ll be in a m a n n e r quite s im ila r
to th at o c c u r r in g if s im p le r m o to r b e h a v io r is in v o lv e d .
Im p lic a tio n s and S u g g e stio n s
F o r F u r th e r R e s e a r c h
It i s p o s s ib le to d e lin e a te tw o d ir e c tio n s a lon g w h ic h to
p r o c e e d w ith s p e c if ic fu rth er r e s e a r c h as s u g g e s te d by th is study,
b eyon d th o s e of e lim in a tin g or m in im iz in g the confou ndin g d e s c r ib e d
p r e v io u s ly . T h e s e a r e the e ffe c t of v a r ia tio n s in o th er b a s ic le a r n in g
th eo r y p a r a m e te r s (su c h a s r ew a r d v e r s u s p u n ish m en t) and a fu rth e r
o r m o r e d e ta ile d a n a ly s is o f th e p r o b le m o f tr a n s itio n am on g d iffe r e n t
ty p e s of d ata.
T h e n a tu ra l n e x t ste p in m an y w ays i s to in v e s tig a te the
la c k o f e ffe c t o f tra in in g on the r e s p o n s e s to the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t .
T h is co u ld b e done by f ir s t a n a ly zin g th e r e s p o n s e s to the in d iv id u a l
s c a l e s . If no in fo r m a tiv e c o n s is t e n c ie s a r e found, the stud y co u ld b e
p a r tia lly r e p lic a t e d - - o m it t in g th e c o n flic t a s p e c t s , e x c e p t the in h eren t
o n e s o f d ir e c tio n and m e a n in g on th e c h e c k lis t fo r one g ro u p , and
o m ittin g m e a s u r e m e n t s of in d iv id u a l r e s p o n s e s tr e n g th s fo r a
m a tc h e d g ro u p . T h is p r o c e d u r e , and p o s s ib ly e v en su c h fa c to r s a s
p r o p e r s e ttin g , ju d ic io u s su p p o rt fr o m the e x p e r im e n t e r s , and the
u s e of a m o r e m e a n in g fu l r ew a r d su ch a s m o n e y , w ou ld sh o r te n and
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fo c u s the e x p e r im e n t, le a d to l e s s r e s e n tm e n t and fa tig u e , and allow
the e ffe c ts o f tra in in g to be m a n ife s t in ch an ge o f r e s p o n s e in e ith e r
s itu a tio n . W h ile it is p o s s ib le to r e p lic a te th e e x p e r im e n t u s in g only
n e g a tiv e r e in fo r c e m e n t w hich w ould be e x p e c te d to a u gm en t the d i s
t r e s s in g e ffe c t s o f b ein g a s u b je c t, the r e s u lt s of th is stu d y s u g g e s t
that it w ould be d ifficu lt to a s s ig n s p e c if ic e ffe c t s to th e n e g a tiv e
r e in fo r c e m e n t o r the co n te x t. It w ould be f e a s ib le la te r to p r o c e e d
w ith an a d d itio n a l tw o e x p e r im e n ta l grou p s u s in g only p u n ish m e n t as
r e in fo r c e m e n t and k eep in g the e x p e r im e n ta l p r o c e d u r e s h o r t to s e e if
the e ffe c ts o f n e g a tiv e r e in fo r c e m e n t on th e fo u r ty p es o f r e s p o n s e
m e a s u r e a r e c o m p a r a b le to th o se o f rew a r d .
A t any point that the e ffe c ts o f r e w a r d and p u n ish m en t
a r e d e m o n str a te d it w ould b e a p p ro p ria te to p la c e a r e s p o n s e le a r n e d
to r ew a r d in c o n flict w ith one le a r n e d to p u n ish m en t; for e x a m p le ,
a s tim u lu s fo r w h ich a r e s p o n s e to the righ t is rew a r d e d cou ld be
p la c e d in c o n flic t w ith a s tim u lu s fo r w h ich a r e s p o n s e to the le f t has
b e e n p u n ish e d . If the a s s u m p tio n o f th e d is p la c e m e n t m o d e l about th e
r e la t iv e ly s t e e p e r g r a d ien t of s tim u lu s g e n e r a liz a tio n fo llo w in g
p u n ish m en t a r e c o n fir m e d by th e ab ove data, v e r y s p e c if ic and
p e r h a p s e v en q u a n tita tiv e in fo r m a tio n about d is p la c e m e n t on th e four
ty p e s of r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s sh o u ld b e a v a ila b le . If no d if f e r e n c e s in
s lo p e o f g r a d ie n t a r e found, d is c r im in a t io n tr a in in g su ch as w a s u s e d
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in r e la tio n to s tim u lu s s e r i e s 3 (the "buffer" s tim u lu s in the p r e s e n t
e x p e r im e n t), w ould w ith n e a r c e r ta in ty d e c r e a s e g e n e r a liz a tio n . A
c o n flic t p a irin g of the s tim u li of two s e r i e s r e in fo r c e d in t h e s e two
w a y s w ou ld g iv e in fo rm a tio n about d is p la c e m e n t as w e ll as the e ffe c t s
o f adding r a th e r than o p p o sin g r e s p o n s e s te n d e n c ie s . (T he d i s c r i m i
nation tra in in g w ould in v o lv e r e in fo r c in g the s a m e o p p o sin g r e s p o n s e
to s tim u lu s D o f th e d is c r im in a t io n s tim u lu s s e r i e s a s is r e in fo r c e d
fo r s tim u lu s A for the g e n e r a liz a tio n s e r i e s . )
T h e s e c o n d a p p ro a ch to fu r th e r r e s e a r c h c o u ld tak e th r e e
fo r m s : ad d itio n a l r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s , m o r e m ea n in g fu l s tim u li, and
m o r e r e a lis t ic or lif e - l ik e r e in fo r c e m e n ts o r a ttitu d e s . R e sp o n se
m e a s u r e s su c h as f r e e d e s c r ip t iv e s ta te m e n ts o r p h y s io lo g ic a l
m e a s u r e s w ou ld add a d d itio n a l d im e n s io n s of data s p e c if ic a lly i n v e s t i
g a te d u n d er the e x p e r im e n ta l co n d itio n s of d if fe r e n tia l r e in fo r c e m e n t
and c o n flic t.
W o rd s, d r a w in g s , d o lls , p ic t u r e s , o r liv in g p eo p le cou ld
b e u s e d a s th e s tim u li to whi 'h r e s p o n s e s - - m o t o r and v e r b a l- - a r e
c o n d itio n ed . T h e s e cou ld be in tro d u c ed into the s p e c if ic s tu d ie s
d e s c r ib e d a b o v e . T h e s im ila r it y of th is p r o c e d u r e to th e u s e of
p r o je c tiv e t e s t s h a s b e e n d e s c r ib e d by M ille r (1 9 5 9 ). The s tim u li o f
p r o je c tiv e t e s t s r e s e m b le p e o p le , the r e in fo r c e d s tim u li of our
s o c ia l- e m o t io n a l w o r ld , to g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r d e g r e e . T h e e x p e c te d
146
in te r a c tio n o f c o n flictin g r e s p o n s e te n d e n c ie s that d iffer in the d e g r e e
to w h ich th ey g e n e r a liz e a r e m u ch lik e the a s s u m p tio n s o ften m a d e by
c lin ic ia n s in in te r p r e tin g su ch t e s t s .
F in a lly , it w ou ld be p o s s ib le to u s e e x p e r im e n ta l s o c ia l
s itu a tio n s (an a r r o g a n t p u n itiv e e x p e r im e n te r , for e x a m p le , w ho is
s e e m in g ly in co m m a n d of a study in w hich su b je c ts a r e a s k e d to
r e sp o n d to e m o tio n a l s tim u li) as a cu e for r e s p o n s e s . One grou p
m ig h t then e x p e r ie n c e s e e in g one h o s t ile e x p e r im e n te r b e e ffe c t iv e ly
r e p r im a n d e d by h is s u p e r v is o r ; the o th er g rou p w ou ld be w itn e s s to
the e x p e r im e n te r fir in g an a s s is t a n t who t r i e s to ta lk b a ck , thus
d iffe r e n tia lly r e in fo r c in g a s p e c t o f the c o n flic tin g a ttitu d es a r o u s e d
b y the s tim u lu s situ a tio n . Such p r o c e d u r e s a ls o w o u ld not in v o lv e
the r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e g e n e r a liz a tio n of th is stu d y by tr a in in g m o r e
d ir e c t ly on the v e r b a l and s y m b o lic r e s p o n s e s .
T h u s, w h ile th e fin d in gs of th is stud y h a v e s o m e r e l e
v a n c e to th e a n a ly s is of c o n flic t b e h a v io r and to the p r o b le m on
t r a n s p o s in g c o n c e p ts to d iffe r e n t ty p e s of data p e r s e , th e study
w ou ld p e r h a p s b e m o s t m e a n in g fu l in a s y s t e m a t ic c o n te x t su c h a s
s u g g e s t e d in th is s e c t io n . T he r e s u lt s of the study len d a d d itio n a l
su p p o rt to th e u s e f u ln e s s o f a p p lyin g co n c ep tu a l m o d e ls to m an y
d iffe r e n t a r e a s of b e h a v io r , alth ou gh th e p r e d ic tiv e r ig o r o f the
m o d e ls b e c o m e s m o r e d iffu se fo r m o r e d i s s i m i l a r b e h a v io r . A s
s u g g e s te d in the f ir s t c h a p ter, one a p p ro p ria te w ay of in c r e a s in g the
c o n fid e n c e in u s in g c o n c e p tu a l m o d e ls in th is m a n n er is r e s e a r c h ,
that m a y h ig h lig h t p a r tic u la r a p p ro p ria te o r in a p p r o p r ia te a r e a s in
w hich the c o n c ep ts ap p ly.
C H A PT E R VI
SUM M ARY
T h e P r o b le m
One of the m o s t s y s t e m a t ic of the a tte m p ts to app ly th e
c o n c ep ts and fin d in gs fr o m the e x p e r im e n ta l la b o r a to r y to m o r e
c o m p le x b e h a v io r h as b e e n that o f M ille r and h is c o - w o r k e r s . T hey
h a v e d e s c r ib e d a m o d e l to p r e d ic t the c h o ic e and str e n g th of r e s p o n s e s
in c o n flic t s itu a tio n s . M uch of the e m p ir ic a l su p p o rt fo r th e co n ep ts
o f th e m o d e l r e s t s on a n im a l or s im p le m o to r b e h a v io r qu ite u n lik e
the v e r b a l and s y m b o lic b e h a v io r , or c lin ic a l and c lin ic a lly r e la te d
s itu a tio n s , to w h ich the m o d e l h a s b e e n e x te n d e d .
T he p r e s e n t study a ttem p te d to p r o v id e a d d itio n a l e x p e r i
m e n ta l su p p o rt for exten d in g the m o d e l to m o r e v e r b a l o r c o m p le x
b e h a v io r , by u sin g v e r b a l and m o to r r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s w ith in the
s a m e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n te x t. A s e c o n d p u r p o se o f th is study w a s to
t e s t s o m e o f th o se a s su m p tio n s o f th is and r e la te d m o d e ls th at s e e m
r e le v a n t to a w id e ran ge of c o n flict b e h a v io r .
148
149
T h e m a jo r h y p o th e se s te s t e d in th is study a r e : (1) a
r e s p o n s e co n d itio n ed to a s tim u lu s w ill g e n e r a liz e to s im ila r
s tim u li; (2) ad d itio n a l r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls in c r e a s e the str en g th of
r e s p o n s e te n d e n c ie s ; (3) the m o r e r e in fo r c e d of tw o in c o m p a tib le
r e s p o n s e s o c c u r s i f both a r e e lic it e d sim u lta n e o u s ly ; (4) the str en g th
of a r e s p o n s e is r e d u c e d by an in c o m p a tib le c o n flictin g r e s p o n s e ; and
(5) v e r b a l and m o to r a s p e c t s of a r e s p o n s e in te r a c t in a m a n n er
s im ila r to o th er r e s p o n s e te n d e n c ie s .
M ethod
T h e fo r ty -e ig h t su b je c ts w e r e v o lu n te e r s fr o m u n d e r
g ra d u a te p s y c h o lo g y c l a s s e s .
Two s e t s o f g e o m e t r ic f ig u r e s , r e p r e s e n tin g a stim u lu s
g e n e r a liz a tio n d im e n sio n , w e r e u s e d a s e x p e r im e n ta l s tim u li. L eft
o r rig h t le v e r m o v e m e n ts in r e s p o n s e to one of ea ch s e t of s tim u li
w e r e r e in fo r c e d by the e x p e r im e n te r sa y in g "good" u n til both
r e s p o n s e s w e r e le a r n e d . D ir e c tly c o n flictin g r e s p o n s e s w e r e
r e in fo r c e d fo r the tw o s tim u li in su c h m a n n e r that fo r ty -f o u r of the
su b je c ts r e c e iv e d r e la t iv e ly m o r e r e in fo r c e d t r ia ls on one s tim u lu s .
P a i r s o f s tim u li c o n s is t in g o f the two e x p e r im e n ta l
s tim u li and th e a n a lo g o u s g e n e r a liz a tio n s tim u li w e r e c o n s tr u c te d .
A fte r tr a in in g , th e s u b je c ts r e sp o n d e d to a ll th e s tim u li and p a ir s
150
o f s tim u li w ith the le v e r . T h e d ir e c t io n s and r e a c tio n t im e s fo r
t h e s e r e s p o n s e s w e r e r e c o r d e d and c o n stitu te d the m o to r r e s p o n s e
m e a s u r e s . B e f o r e and a fte r tra in in g the su b je c ts c o m p le te d a
d im e n s io n a liz e d nin e s c a le a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t that in c lu d e d the
a d je c tiv e s c a le " le ft- r ig h t. " T h e r e w e r e tw o m o r e v e r b a l r e s p o n s e
m e a s u r e s - - o n e w a s the le f t - r ig h t s c a l e o f the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t ,
th e oth er w as th e su m o f the r e m a in in g eight a d je c tiv e s c a l e s .
R e s u lts
1. M o to r r e s p o n s e s co n d itio n ed and g e n e r a liz e d ;
s im ila r e ffe c ts o f tr a in in g w e r e m a n ife s t on
the le f t - r ig h t s c a l e .
2. D iff e r e n c e s in in d iv id u a l r e s p o n s e s tr e n g th s
a s the r e s u lt o f d iffe r e n tia l tr a in in g (o r d if f e r
e n c e s in s im ila r it y to tra in in g stim u lu s) w e r e
p r e s e n t only on m o to r r e s p o n s e s and p r im a r ily
on r e s p o n s e to th e tr a in in g s t im u li.
3. T h e m o r e r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e p r e v a ile d w hen
in c o m p a tib le r e s p o n s e te n d e n c ie s w e r e
e lic it e d s im u lt a n e o u s ly . T h is e ffe c t d e c r e a s e d
w hen the s tim u lu s p a ir s w e r e l e s s lik e th e
tr a in in g s tim u li, and w a s not a s d r a m a tic on
151
th e l e f t - r ig h t s c a le *
4 . T h e r e s p o n s e in a c o n flic t situ a tio n o c c u r s
l e s s fr e q u e n tly and h a s a lo n g e r r e a c tio n
tim e than the s tr o n g e r of the two in c o m p a tib le
r e s p o n s e s w hen the s tim u lu s for that r e s p o n s e
i s p r e s e n t e d in a c o n f lic t - f r e e c o n te x t.
5. T ra in in g d id not a ffe c t v e r b a l o r m o to r a s p e c t s
of r e s p o n s e s on the a d je c tiv e c h e c k lis t , c o n
tr a r y to the fin d in g s on a p ilo t study and d e s p ite
s e n s it iv it y of th is r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e to o th er
a s p e c t s of the s tim u li.
C o n c lu sio n s
T h e fin d in g s su p p o rt the b a s ic c o n c e p ts t e s t e d a s th ey
r e la t e to c o n flic t s itu a tio n s that in v o lv e hu m an m o to r b e h a v io r , but
b e c o m e l e s s c o n s is t e n t w ith t h e s e c o n c e p ts as th e b e h a v io r m e a s u r e d
b e c o m e s m o r e and m o r e v e r b a l. D e sp ite the p o s itiv e fin d in g s, th e
tr e n d o f th e r e s u lt s on th e v a r io u s r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s s u g g e s t s s o m e
ca u tion in ap p lyin g the m o d e l, o r o th er m o d e ls b a s e d on t h e s e c o n
c e p ts , to m o r e a b s tr a c t, v e r b a l, or c lin ic a l b e h a v io r , w ith ou t
a d d itio n a l r e s e a r c h o r m o d ific a tio n .
A P P E N D I X E S
A P P E N D IX A
E X P E R IM E N T A L M A T E R IA L S A N D P R O C E D U R E S
1. S tim u li and S tim u lu s P a ir s
2. F ig u r e 5 - - T h e D r iv e M e c h a n ism F o r
the M e m o r y D ru m
3. O rd er of T a p e P r e s e n t a tio n o f S tim u li
D u rin g T ra in in g and A fte r T ra in in g
4 . A d je c tiv e C h e c k lis t
5. S u b ject R e c o r d S h eet
S tim u li and S tim u lu s P a i
Q D
F i g . 5. - - T h e D r iv e M e c h a n ism for the M em o ry D rum
(D e sc r ib e d in d eta il on page 4 9 .)
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157
ORDER O F T A P E P R E S E N T A T IO N O F STIM ULI
D uring T ra in in g A fte r T ra in in g
1A 2B
2A 1A
3D 3D
3A P a ir
1A ID
3A P a ir
2A 3A
3D 2D
3A 3B
1A 1C
3D P a ir
2A 2A
3D 3C
3A P a ir
2A 2C
1A IB
2A
1A
3D
3A
1A
3A
2A
3D
3A
1A
3D
2A
A D JEC TIV E CHECKLIST
Very Mod. L it t l e Neutral L it t le
E ffe c tiv e : ________:________:_________ :________ :_______
D esirable: ________:________ :_________:________ :_______
Strong : _________:________:_________ :________ :_______
A ctive : _________:________ :_________ :________ :_______
Kind : ________:_________ :________:________
Meaningful: ________:________:_________ :________ :_______
L eft : _________:________:_________ :________ :_______
Good : :________:_________ :________ :_______
Important: _______ :________:_________ :________ :_______
Mod. Very
-----------: I n e f f e c t iv e
' • __________ U n d esira b le
-------------------------- : Weak
— .. • ' — P a s s iv e
--------------- : C ruel
.•________ ; M ean in gless
-----------:_________ : R igh t
________ : Bad
.— ________ : Unim portant
5. S u b ject R e c o r d S h eet
Subject N o .______ N a m e :_________________________ A g e:_____ S ex:_____
Day:________T im e :_______N o. o f P s y c h . C o u r s e s :___ H a n d ed n ess:
R e in fo r c e m e n t: L eft
1A L 1A L 1A L
2A R 2A R 2A R
3D R 3D R 3D R
3A L 3A L 3A L
1A L 1A L 1A L
3A L 3A L 3A L
2A R 2A R 2A R
3D R 3D R 3D R
3A L 3A L 3A L
1A L 1A L 1A L
3D R 3D R 3D R
2A R 2A R 2A R
3D R 3D R 3D R
3A L 3A L 3A L
2A R 2A R 2A R
1A L 1A L 1A L
2A R 2A R 2A R
1A L 1A L 1A L
3D R 3D R 3D R
3A L 3A L 3A L
1A L 1A L 1A L
3A L 3A L 3A L
2A R 2A R 2A R
3D R 3D R 3D R
3A L 3A L 3A L
1A L 1A L 1A L
3D R 3D R 3D R
2A R 2A R 2A R
A P P E N D IX B
IN ST R U C T IO N S TO S U B JE C T S
In tro d u cto ry In str u c tio n s
I n s tr u c t io n s , A d je c tiv e C h e c k lis t
I n s tr u c tio n s , A p p a ra tu s
162
IN T R O D U C T O R Y INSTRU C TIO N S
A s you know , m u ch of the w o rk in p sy c h o lo g y o f how
le a r n in g ta k e s p la c e h a s b e e n done w ith a n im a ls . W hen the p r in c ip le s
d e v e lo p e d in th is way a r e a p p lied to th e w ay p e o p le le a r n , th ey often
h a v e to be m o d ifie d . T he p u rp o se of th is study on h u m an le a r n in g is
to t e s t so m e of th e s e m o d ific a tio n s . Y our p a r tic ip a tio n in th is
e x p e r im e n t in v o lv e s th r e e o r fou r d iffe r e n t t a s k s . O ne of us w ill
g iv e you d ir e c t io n s for ea ch p art a s you c o m e to it. A ll o f th e s e
ta s k s a r e p art of the s a m e e x p e r im e n t. T he a v e r a g e tim e in v o lv ed
fo r a ll th e p a rts i s about t h ir t y to s ix ty m in u te s .
T he p u rp o se of w hat w e a s k you to do m a y not be r e a d ily
a p p a ren t, but w e w ould p refer n ot to e x p la in th is u n til a fte r y o u 'v e
c o m p le te d the w h ole p r o c e d u r e . A s w ith m o s t s im p le le a r n in g
e x p e r im e n ts , you w ill p rob ab ly do b e tt e r if y o u r e la x and c o n c e n tr a te
only on w h at you a r e doing at th e m o m e n t. O ur in t e r e s t i s in the
e ffe c t o f ou r p r o c e d u r e s r a th er than in how q u ick ly yo u , a s a s p e c if ic
in d iv id u a l, le a r n th e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s . We h a v e no e le c t r ic sh o c k
o r any o th er p ain fu l or u n p le a sa n t s u r p r is e s in s t o r e fo r y o u .
Is th e r e anything you'd lik e to a s k about b e fo r e w e
s ta r t ?
163
IN ST R U C T IO N S, A D JE C T IV E CH ECK LIST
F o r th is p a rt of the e x p e r im e n t w e w ould lik e you to g iv e
u s y o u r r e a c tio n s to a n u m b e r o f g e o m e t r ic f ig u r e s . You do th is by
ju d gin g th e s e g e o m e t r ic fig u r e s a g a in st a s e r i e s of d e s c r ip t iv e
s c a l e s . On e a ch of th e s e p a g e s you w ill find a d iffe re n t g e o m e tr ic
fig u r e to b e ju d ged , and b e n e a th it a s e t of s c a l e s . You a r e to ra te
th e g e o m e t r ic fig u r e s in th e m a n n e r d e s c r ib e d in the in s tr u c tio n s
b e lo w . You m a y fin d it d iffic u lt at f ir s t to d e s c r ib e the fig u r e s in
t e r m s o f t h e s e a d j e c t iv e s . H o w e v e r , if you u s e y o u r im a g in a tio n ,
y o u 'll find that it is e a s i e r than you thought at f ir s t . T he a d je c tiv e s
that y o u 'll s e e h a v e b e e n s e le c t e d by an e a r li e r g rou p o f su b je c ts a s
o n e s that cou ld b e a p p lied to the f ig u r e s . In s o m e c a s e s th e r e w ill be
tw o f ig u r e s p r e s e n t e d at th e s a m e t im e . In th at c a s e , m a r k the
a d j e c tiv e s e ith e r in t e r m s of the su m or to ta l q u ality that th e p a ir of
f ig u r e s m e a n s to yo u , o r in t e r m s of an a v e r a g e o f the q u a lity that
th e p a ir o f fig u r e s m e a n s to y o u .
H e r e is how you a r e to u s e t h e s e s c a le s :
If y ou f e e l th at the fig u r e at the top o f the p a g e is v e r y
c lo s e ly r e la te d to on e end of the s c a l e , yo u sh ou ld p la c e y o u r m a r k
a s fo llo w s :
B e au tifu l X : :_______:_______: : •______ U g ly
or
164
B ea u tifu l______ :_______:_______:_______:_______: : X U gly
If you f e e l that th e fig u re i s quite c lo s e ly r e la te d to one
o r th e o th e r end of the s c a le (but n ot e x tr e m e ly ), you sh ou ld p la c e
you r c h e ck m a rk as fo llo w s:
B e a u tifu l : X :_______:_______:______ : : U gly
o r
B e a u tifu l_______ :______: : : : X : U gly
If the fig u re s e e m s only s lig h tly r e la te d to one s id e a s
o p p o se d to the o th er (but i s not r e a lly n eu tra l), th en yo u sh o u ld c h e c k
a s fo llo w s:
B e a u tifu l :______: X :_______ : : : U gly
or
B e a u tifu l_______:______:_______ : : X :_______ :_______U gly
If you c o n s id e r the fig u r e to be n e u tr a l on the s c a le , both
s id e s o f the s c a le eq u a lly a s s o c ia t e d w ith the fig u r e , o r if the s c a le
is c o m p le te ly ir r e le v a n t, u n r e la te d to the fig u r e , then you sh ou ld
p la c e y o u r ch e ck m a r k in the m id d le sp a c e:
B e a u tifu l_______ :______:_______ : X : : :_______U gly
Im p o rta n t
1 . P la c e y o u r c h e ck m a r k s in the m id d le o f s p a c e s ,
not on the b o u n d a r ie s:
THIS N o t T h is
« v i • • Y • •
• A • • • A « •
2 . B e s u r e you c h e c k e v e r y s c a le fo r e v e r y f i g u r e - -
Do not o m it a n y .
3. Do not put m o r e than one c h e c k m a r k on a s in g le
s c a le .
Do not try to r e m e m b e r how you c h e c k e d s im ila r i t e m s
b e f o r e . M ake e a c h ite m a s e p a r a t e and in d ep en d en t ju d g m e n t. W ork
at fa ir ly high s p e e d th rou gh ou t. It is y o u r f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n s - - t h e
im m e d ia te " fe e lin g s" about th e ite m s that w e w a n t. On the o th e r
hand, p le a s e do n ot be c a r e l e s s - - b e c a u s e w e w ant y o u r tru e
i m p r e s s io n s .
166
IN ST R U C T IO N S, A P P A R A T U S
B e f o r e T ra in in g (H ave T e s t T a p e In P la c e )
W hat w e a r e goin g to do now w ill in v o lv e th is eq u ip m en t.
T h e han d le in fro n t o f you can be m o v e d le ft o r rig h t. Y o u 'll n o tic e
that th e r e is a ten d en cy for the le v e r to retu r n to the m id d le , and that
you can f e e l a lit tle c lic k w h en the l e v e r is in th e e x a c t c e n t e r . You
m ig h t w ant to m o v e th e le v e r b ack and fo rth now to b e c o m e fa m ilia r
w ith how it f e e ls and how fa r you can m o v e i t . N ow , throu gh th is
w indow w e a r e going to sh o w you the fig u r e s you sa w e a r l i e r . At th is
tim e , in o r d e r for yo u to b e c o m e f a m ilia r w ith how fa s t th ey m o v e ,
w hat they lo o k lik e , and so on, w ou ld yo u ju st w atch th e fig u r e s as
th ey a p p ea r . (Run ta p e o n c e .)
(R e m o v e ta p e and r e p la c e w ith tra in in g t a p e .)
T ra in in g
N ow you a r e g oin g to le a r n to m o v e the le v e r in the c o r
r e c t d ir e c tio n fo r a fe w of the p ic tu r e s you sa w e a r l i e r . A s ea ch
p ic tu r e a p p e a r s , m o v e the le v e r to the le ft o r to the rig h t and then
retu rn it to the m id d le p o sitio n b e f o r e the n e x t one a p p e a r s . M ove
the le v e r a s fa r a s yo u lik e each t im e . In the b eg in n in g , of c o u r s e ,
you w ill o n ly b e g u e s s in g as to the c o r r e c t d ir e c tio n .
W h en ev er yo u m o v e the le v e r c o r r e c t ly I w ill sa y "Good!"
If you m o v e the le v e r in the w ro n g d ir e c tio n , nothing w ill b e s a id . In
th is w a y , you w ill g r a d u a lly le a r n th e c o r r e c t d ir e c tio n fo r e a ch
p ic tu r e . P l e a s e k e e p on resp o n d in g to e a c h p ic tu r e u n til w e t e l l you
to sto p . R e m e m b e r , m o v e the le v e r a fte r ea ch p ic tu r e and b e su r e
to retu rn the l e v e r to the m id d le b e fo r e the n e x t one a p p e a r s .
W hen y o u 'r e rea d y , le t u s know and w e can s t a r t .
(Run tape to c r it e r io n o f th r e e c o n s e c u tiv e c o r r e c t fo r 1A.)
(R e m o v e tr a in in g t a p e .)
(R e p la c e t e s t t a p e .)
A fte r T ra in in g
We a r e now goin g to sh o w you the w h o le s e r i e s o f
p ic t u r e s . A s y ou s e e ea ch p ic tu r e o r s e t of p ic tu r e s , m o v e the
l e v e r in th e d ir e c tio n yo u th ink i s c o r r e c t . T h is tim e I w ill n ot sa y
an ything at any tim e w h en you m o v e th e l e v e r .
A r e yo u r e a d y ? (Run ta p e o n c e . )
A P P E N D IX C
U P P L E M E N T A R Y T A B L E S
168
T A B L E A
SU M M AR Y O F A N A L Y SIS O F V A R IA N C E , L A TIN SQ UARE
DESIG N WITH R E P E A T E D M E A SU R E S ON T H R E E
F A C T O R S . c C H A N G E O F R E S P O N S E TO TH E
TR A IN IN G ST IM U L I ON TH E L E F T -R IG H T
S C A L E B E F O R E A N D A F T E R TRAINING
S o u rce of V a r ia n c e df m s F
P
B e tw e e n S u b jects
G ro u p s (1A L eft v s . 1A R ight) 1 6 . 751 3. 124
S u b je c ts w ith in G ro u p s 46 2 . 161
W ithin S u b je c ts
A L e f t C o r r e c t v s . R ight
C o r r e c t 1 4. 687 4. 418 . 05
B S tim u lu s 1A v s . S tim u lu s
2A 1 7. 521 4. 671 . 05
R e s id u a l (1) 46 1. 061
C B e f o r e T r a in in g v s .
A fte r Training^" 1 25. 521 11. 707 . 005a
CX G ro u p s 1 4. 693 2. 153
R e sid u a l (2) 46 2 . 180
AC 1 . 334 . 307
BC 1 . 757 . 695
R e s id u a l (3) 46 1. 089
T o ta l 191
a O n e— ta il t e s t of s ig n if ic a n c e .
^ T e s t of H y p o th e s is A, P a r t 1.
c W in er, 1962, p . 571.
169
T A B L E B
SUM M ARY OF A N A LY SIS OF V A R IA N C E , T H R E E -F A C T O R
E X P E R IM E N T WITH R E P E A T E D M EA SU R E S ON TW O
FA C T O R S. CHANGE OF R E SP O N S E T O STIM U LI
IB , 1C, AND ID ON THE L E F T -R IG H T
A D JE C T IV E SC A L E B E F O R E A N D
A F T E R TRAINING
S o u rce of V a r ia n c e df m s F
P
B e tw e e n S u b jects
A L e ft C o r r e c t v s . R ight
C o r r e c t 1 2 2 .7 8 1 4 .4 0 0 . 05
S u b jects w ith in G rou p s 46 5. 178
W ithin S u b jects
B B e fo r e T ra in in g v s . A fter
Training*1 1 4 5 .9 1 9 16. 613 . 0 01a
A B 1 4. 755 1. 720
B X S u b je c ts w ith in
G rou p s 46 2. 764
C 3 S tim u li 2 . 024 . 036
AC 2 . 094 . 141
CX S u b je c ts w ith in
G rou p s 92 . 668
BC 2 1. 775 2 . 569
ABC 2 . 274 . 397
B C X S u b je c ts w ith in
G rou p s 92 . 691
T otal 287
a O n e-tail te s t of sig n ifica n ce.
^ T e st of H yp oth esis A, P a r t 2.
170
T A B L E C
SUM M ARY OF A N A LY SIS O F V A R IA N C E , T H R E E -F A C T O R
E X P E R IM E N T WITH R E P E A T E D M EA SU R ES ON TW O
F A C T O R S. CH ANG E O F R E SP O N S E TO STIM U LI
2B , 2C , A N D 2D ON TH E L E F T -R IG H T
A D JE C T IV E SC A L E B E F O R E AND
A F T E R TRAINING
S o u rce of V a r ia n c e df m s F
P
B etw ee n S u b jects
A L e ft C o r r e c t v s . R igh t
C o r r e c t 1 1. 254 . 373
S u b jects w ith in G roups 46 3. 362
W ithin S u b jects
B B e fo r e T ra in in g v s . A fter
Training** 1 16.532 8. 660 . 005a
A B 1 2 . 169 1. 145
BX S u b jects w ith in
G rou p s 46 1. 909
C 3 S tim u li 2 2. 348 2. 635
AC 2 . 680 . 762
CX S u b je c ts w ith in
G rou p s 92 . 891
BC 2 . 542 . 835
ABC 2 1. 514 2. 333
BC X S u b jects w ith in
G rou p s 92 . 649
T otal 287
a One-tail te st of sig n ifica n ce.
^ T est of H ypothesis A, P a rt 2.
171
T A B L E D
SUM M ARY O F A N A L Y S IS OF V A R IA N C E , T R E A T M E N T S
BY S U B J E C T S D E SIG N S, D IF F E R E N C E IN R E A C T IO N
TIME B E T W E E N M O RE R E IN F O R C E D A N D
L E SS R E IN F O R C E D R E S P O N S E S TO
STIM U LI 1A A N D 2A
S o u rc e of V a r ia n c e df m s F
P
A M o re r e in fo r c e d v s . less
r e in fo r c e d r e s p o n s e s * 3 1 6 60. O il 5. 016 . 0 2 5 a
S u b je c ts 43 191.707
AXS 43 131.570
T otal 87
O n e -ta il test of s ig n ific a n c e .
^ T e s t of H y p o th e sis B , P a r t 1.
172
T A B L E E
SU M M AR Y O F A N A L Y S IS O F V A R IA N C E , T W O -F A C T O R
E X P E R IM E N T WITH NO R E P E A T E D M E A S U R E S O F
R E S P O N S E TO ST IM U L I 1A A N D 2A ON THE
L E F T -R IG H T SC A L E FO L L O W IN G
R E L A T IV E L Y M O RE OR
R E L A T IV E L Y L E SS
R E IN F O R C E D
TR IA LS
A n a ly s is of R e s p o n s e s to S tim u lu s 1A
S o u r c e of V a r ia n c e df m s F
P
A L e f t - C o r r e c t v s . R ig h t-
C o r r e c t 1 4 . 455 1.3837
B M o re R e in fo r c e d T r i a ls v s .
L e s s R e in fo r c e d T r ia ls a 1 1. 437 . 4463
A B 1 . 049 . 0152
W ithin C e lls 40 3.2196
T o ta l 43
A n a ly s is of R e s p o n s e s to S tim u lu s 2A
S o u r c e of V a r ia n c e df m s F
P
A L e f t - C o r r e c t v s . R ig h t
C o r r e c t 1 8.204 2. 899
B M o re R e in fo r c e d T r i a ls v s .
L e s s R e in fo r c e d T r i a ls a 1 5 . 680 2. 007
A B 1 1. 680 . 5936
W ithin C e lls 40 2. 830
T o ta l 43
a T e s t of H y p o th e sis B , P a r t 1.
173
T A BL E F
SUM M ARY OF A N A L Y SIS OF V A R IA N C E , T W O -F A C T O R
E X P E R IM E N T WITH ONE R E P E A T E D M EA SUR E
D IF F E R E N C E IN R E SP O N S E TO PA IR A ON
TH E L E F T -R IG H T SC A L E B E F O R E
A N D AFTER TRAINING
S o u r c e of V a r ia n c e df m s F p
B e tw e e n S u b jects
A 1A the M ore R e in fo r c e d
S tim u lu s v s , 2A the M ore
R e in fo r c e d S tim u lu s 1 9.394 3.885 .1
S u b jects w ith in G roups 42 2,418
W ithin S u b jects
B B e fo r e T ra in in g v s . A fte r
T ra in in g a 1 3. 284 1. 983
A B 1 1. 667 1.007
BX S u b jects w ith in G roups 42 1, 656
T otal 87
a T e s t of H ypothesis C, P a rt 1.
I'M
TABLE G
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, TW O -FACTO R
E X PE R IM E N T WITH R E P E A T E D M EASURES ON
BOTH FA C TO R S. D IF FE R E N C E IN RESPONSE
TO PAIRS B , C, AND D ON THE L E F T -R IG H T
SCALE BEFO R E AND A F T E R TRAINING
Source of V ariance df m s F
P
A B efore Training v s. A fter
T raining k 1 7. 334 2. 614
AX Subjects within
Groups 43 2 . 806
B 3 Stim uli 2 . 243 . 187
BX Subjects within
Groups 43 2 . 806
A B 2 . 202 . 164
A B X Subjects within
Groups (residual) 86 1. 228
Subjects 43 3. 754
Total 263
a O n e-ta il te st of sig n ifica n ce.
^ T est of H ypothesis C, P art 2.
175
T A B L E H
SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, T W O -F A C T O R
E X P E R IM E N T WITH R E P E A T E D M EASURES ON
BOTH FA C TO R S, D IF F E R E N C E IN R ESPO NSE
TO A L L FOUR PAIRS OF STIMULI ON THE
L E F T -R IG H T SCALE B EFO R E AND
A F T E R TRAINING
Source of V ariance df m s F
P
A B efo re Training v s . A fter
T raining b 1 10. 572 2. 767
A X Subjects within
Groups 43 3. 821
B 4 Stim uli 3 . 696 . 509
BX Subjects within
Groups 129 1. 368
A B 3 . 147 . 142
A B X Subjects within
Groups (resid ual) 129 1. 032
Subjects 43 4. 822
Total 351
a O n e-ta il te s t of sig n ifica n ce.
^ T est of H yp oth esis C, P a r ts 1 and 2.
A P P E N D IX D
SU B JE C T INFORMATION
177
M EANS O F REACTION TIMES TO STIMULI IN THE ORDER
P R E S E N T E D A F T E R TRAINING. Ss 1 THROUGH 24,
1A A N D 2A REIN FO RC ED L E F T , 2A A N D 3D
R E IN FO R C E D RIGHT. S s 25 THROUGH 48,
1A A N D 2A R E IN FO R C E D RIGHT, 2A
AN D 3D R E IN FO R C E D L E F T .
A ll Ss
2B 36, 1
1A 2 9 . 0
3D 35. 3
P a ir C 4 8 .5
ID 3 8 .0
P a ir B 3 9 .6
3A 3 8 .6
2D 4 1 .9
3B 37. 1
1C 3 0 .9
P a ir A 4 2 .0
2A 3 4 .6
3C 3 6 .7
P a ir D 4 2 .2
2C 3 6 .5
IB
2 7 .8
178
DIRECTION OF L EV ER M OVEM ENT L E F T (L) OR RIGHT (R)
IN RESPO NSE TO THE STIMULI FOLLOW ING TRAINING.
SU B JE C TS 1 THROUGH 24, 1A REINFO RCED L E F T ,
2A R EIN FO RC ED RIGHT.
Ss 1A IB 1C ID 2A 2B 2C 2D PA P B PC P D a
l b L L L L L L R R L L R R
2 L L L L R R R R L L L L
3 L L L L R R R R R R R R
4 L L L L R R R R L L R L
5 L L L L R R R R L L L L
6 L L L L R R R R R R R R
7 L L L L R R L R L R R L
8 L L L L R R R L L L L L
9 L L L L L L R R L R R R
10 L L L L R L R R L L L L
11 L L L L R R R R L L L R
12 L L L L R R R R R L L L
13 L L L L R R R R L L L L
14c L L L L L L L L L L L L
15 L L L R R R R R R R R R
16 L L L R R R R L R R R R
17 L L L L R R R L R R R L
18 L L L L R R R R R R R R
19 L L L L L R R R L R R R
20 L L R R R R R L L R L L
21 L L L L R R R R R R R R
22 R L L L R R L L R L L L
23d L L L L R R R R L L L L
24 L L L L R R R R R R R R
a PA = P a ir A, P B ~ P a ir B, PC = P air C, PD = P a ir D.
b lA rein fo rced m o r e often.
C2A rein fo rced m o r e often.
^1A and 2A rein fo rced an equal num ber of tim e s .
179
DIRECTION OF LEVER M OVEM ENT L E F T (L) OR RIGHT (R)
IN RESPONSE TO THE STIMULI FOLLOWING TRAINING.
SU BJEC TS 25 THROUGH 48, 1A R EINFO RCED RIGHT,
2A R EINFO RCED L E F T .
Ss 1A IB 1C ID 2A 2B 2C 2D PA P B PC P D a
25b R R R R R R L L R R R L
26 R L L L R R R R R R R R
27 R R R R L L L R R L L L
28 R R R R L R L L R R L R
29 R R R R L L L R R R L R
30 R R R R L L L L L R R R
31 R R R R L L L L R R R R
32 R R R R L L L L R R R R
33 R R R R L L L L R L L R
34 R R R R L L L L R R R R
35 R R R R L L R L R R R L
36 R R R R L L L L L R R R
37 R R R R R L L L R R R L
38c R R R R L L L L R R R L
39 L R R R R R R L R R R R
40 L L L L R R R L L R L R
41 R L L R L L R R L R L R
42 R R R R L L L L R R R R
43 L R R L R R L R R L R R
44 R R L L L L L L L R L L
45 R R R R L L R R L L R R
46 R L L L L L L L L L R L
47d
R R R R R L L L R L L L
48 R R R R L R L L R R L R
a P A - P a ir A, P B
ii
* 0
(U
M *
B, PC - P a ir C, PD -P a ir D
b lA rein forced m o re often.
C2A rein fo rced m o r e often.
dlA and 2A rein fo rced an equal num ber of tim e s .
180
REACTIONS TIMES OF R ESPO N SES TO THE STIMULI
FOLLOW ING TRAINING, SU B JE C T S 1 THROUGH 24,
LA REIN FO RC ED L E F T , 2A R EIN FO RC ED RIGHT
Ss 1A IB 1C ID 2A 2B 2C 2D PA P B PC P D a
i b 23e 27 25 28 30 34 34 28 31 32 46 41
2 18 24 22 22 29 33 42
39 36 28 30 37
3 22 22 24 26 37 33 30
39 22 26 52 28
4 18 17 28 18 22 32 19 24 22 22 25 22
5 28 30 34 45 30 28 24 38 29 45 26 30
6 20 16 19 34 22 19 23 22 24 28 41 32
7 25 29 27 29 51 38 54 38 33 27 41 39
8 28 25 22 40
29 48 31 35 29 26 45 24
9
24 20 24 33 34 28 24 25 44 31 32 22
10 16 24 24 35 30 14 36 46 31 35 34 30
11 35 24 58 41 70 36 55 48 74 57 63 84
12 26 42 34 35 34 46 46 45 51 46 52 48
13 26 22 24 30 26 34 28 26 45 40 42 32
14 C 24 20 24 23 21 28 22 28 24 36 30 28
15 31 38 38 68 35 33 37 57 53 76 85 49
16 22 23 30 23 25 36 46 41 41 56 44 33
17 22 24 30 36 20 62 29 60 54 32 44 88
18 32 29 26 54 27 34 44 46 40 42 48 64
19 35 41 44 39 60 43 50 45 50
39 61 54
20 30 32 44 50 37 42 64 74 94 55 51 96
21 20 21 20 32 28 29 23 46 30 30 34 25
22 25 29 30 27 24 41 22 42 42 25 62 35
23 d 18 22 22 30 25 27 28 46 42 42 50 3 6
24 38 27 32 95 28 38 32
39
53 83 90 55
a PA = P a ir A, P B = P a ir B, PC = P a ir C, P D = P a ir D.
b lA rein fo rced m o r e often.
C2A rein fo rced m o r e often.
d lA and 2A r ein fo r ce d an equal num ber of t im e s .
R eaction t im e s are given in m u ltip les of 1/32 s e c o n d s .
181
REACTION TIMES OF RESPO NSES TO THE STIMULI
FOLLOWING TRAINING, SU BJEC TS 25 THROUGH 48
1A REINFO RCED RIGHT, 2A REINFO RCED L E F T
Ss 1A IB 1C ID 2A 2B 2C 2D PA PB PC P D a
25 b 2 5 e 25 44 22 26 38 19 25 33 35 34 33
26 38 28 32 40 29 26 29 44 44
29
40
29
27 25 43 41 61 61 24 72 54 80 53 91 66
28 28 24 35 43 36 36 39 39 26 31 48 40
29 33 30 36 31 29 25 35 50 46 50 62 62
30 20 23 26 26 35 31 36 26 36 33 44 30
31 28 24 26 25 29 72 30 52 31 30 58 62
32 17 24 22 25 24 40 26 22 24 27 32 28
33 29
28 24 29 32 33 34 28 29 26 32 33
34 20 26 20 22 32 30 25 39 52 41 51 46
35 23 26 24 27 44 34 37 40 31 37 46 22
36 31 29 32 37 35 40 48 48 27 34 45 38
37 22 31 20 46 46 3 6 48 44 66 54 74 45
38 c 26 39 32 26 50 26 38 49 38 25 38 42
39 23 37 31 29 31 37 36 34 31 25 29 39
40 51 44 54 70 64 38 58 63 68 68 55 70
41 94 30 30 94 26 95 24 44 35 84 96 26
42 40 26 44 38 36 46 36 72 68 25 49 36
43 54 25 42 49 31 24 36 36
39 33 38 28
44 23 28 50 58 37 25 25 60 70 37 44 36
45 49 34 32 33 59
41 36 41 44
59 63 48
46 35 31 27 32 33 30 62 53 30 35 44
49
4 7 d
27 25 28 36 36 33 29 31 30 36 39 37
48 22 27 26 30 24 27 44 40 42 34 46 39
a PA = P a ir A , P B = P a ir B, PC = P a ir C, P D - P a ir D.
1A rein fo rced m o re often.
C2A rein fo rced m o re often.
^1A and 2A rein fo rced an equal num ber of tim e s .
R eaction t im e s a r e in m u ltip les of 1 /3 2 s e c o n d s.
182
RESPONSES TO STIMULUS SERIES ONE ON THE LEFT-R IG H T
ADJECTIVE SCALE BEFO R E AND A F T E R TRAINING.
SUBJECT NOS. 1 THROUGH 24
REINFORCED L E F T ON 1A
B efore Training After Training
Ss 1A IB 1C ID 1A IB 1C ID
1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
2 5 4 4 4 2 1 1 2
3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 6 3 6 3 5 3 4 2
6 2 2 6 3 2 1 2 3
7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
9 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
10 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
11 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1
12 4 2 5 4 2 3 1 2
13 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 4
14 4 4 4 4 3 2 3 3
15 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
16 4 4 4 4 1 7 1 1
17 4 7 5 5 1 1 1 1
18 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 1
19 2 3 3 3 2 1 5 3
20 4 4 4 4 1 1 2 3
21 4 4 4 4 3 3 6 7
22 4 4 4 7 4 7 4 6
23 4 4 4 4 1 2 1 1
24 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
183
RESPONSES TO STIMULUS SERIES ONE ON THE L E F T -R IG H T
ADJECTIVE SCALE BEFORE AND A F T E R TRAINING.
SUBJECT NOS. 25 THROUGH 48
REINFORCED RIGHT ON 1A
B efore Training After Training
Ss 1A IB 1C ID 1A IB 1C ID
25 4 4 4 4 1 2 2 2
26 4 4 4 4 1 1 7 7
27 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
28 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
29 1 4 4 4 7 7 1 4
30 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
31 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
32 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
33 4 4 4 4 2 5 6 6
34 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
35 6 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
36 4 4 4 4 6 7 6 6
37 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
38 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
39
4 4 5 5 5 5 4 5
40 5 4 5 4 3 5 4 3
41 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
42 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
43 4 4 4 4 3 3 2 2
44 4 5 4 4 4 3 5 4
45 4 4 4 4 3 3 5 3
46 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5
47 4 1 3 2 1 1 1 1
48 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
184
RESPONSES TO STIMULUS SERIES TWO ON THE L E F T -R IG H T
A D JEC TIV E S C A L E B E F O R E AN D A F T E R TRAINING.
SU B JE C T NOS. 1 THROUGH 24
R E IN FO R C E D RIGHT ON 2A.
B efore T raining A fter Training
Ss 2A 2B 2C 2D 2A 2B 2C 2D
1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
2 5 4 4 4 3 1 1 2
3 3 3 4 3 7 3 4 7
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
5 6 3 6 3 5 3 4 2
6 4 7 5 6 4 6 3 7
7 1 1 7 4 4 1 1 4
8 4 4 5 4 5 3 4 4
9
4 4 4 3 4 4 4 3
10 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
11 3 2 2 5 1 7 7 7
12 4 5 4 4 5 6 5 5
13 4 4 5 4 4 3 4 4
14 4 4 4 4 3 3 5 3
15 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5
16 4 4 4 4 7 4 4 7
17 2 5 5 6 7 6 6 7
18 4 7 4 4 7 7 7 7
19
5 3 3 4 5 5 5 5
20 4 4 4 4 7 6 5 5
21 4 4 4 4 5 5 4 4
22 4 4 4 4 4 2 7 7
23 5 4 4 4 7 5 6 7
24 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
185
RESPONSES TO STIMULUS SERIES TWO ON THE L E F T -R IG H T
ADJECTIVE SCALE BEFO RE AND A F T E R TRAINING.
SUBJECT NOS. 25 THROUGH 48
REINFO RCED L E F T ON 2A
B efore Training A fter Training
Ss 2A 2B 2C 2D 2A 2B 2C 2D
25 4 4 4 4 7 7 7 7
26 4 4 4 4 1 3 1 2
27 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
28 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
29 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1
30 4 4 4 4 7 4 6 4
31 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
32 4 4 4 4 2 3 3 5
33 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 4
34 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
35 5 3 3 3 5 5 5 5
36 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 2
37 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
38 4 4 4 4 7 4 4 4
- 9 4 4 4 6 4 4 4 5
40 4 4 4 4 5 3 5 3
41 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
42 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
43 4 4 5 4 2 3 5 3
44 4 5 4 4 5 8 7 7
45 6 4 4 4 4 5 5 4
46 4 4 4 4 6 6 5 4
47 4 5 7 7 3 6 7 7
48 4 4 4 4 7 1 7 7
186
RESPONSES TO STIMULUS PAIRS ON THE L E F T -R IG H T
ADJECTIVE SCALE B EF O R E AND A F T E R TRAINING.
SUBJECT NOS. 1 THROUGH 24.
B efore Training A fter Training
Ss PA PB PC
P D *
PA PB PC PD
1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
2 5 4 4 3 4 4 3 3
3 4 3 3 3 3 1 1 2
4 6 6 6 4 4 4 4 4
5 4 2 4 2 3 3 3 2
6 4 3 4 5 3 3 6 4
7 1 7 7 1 1 7 5 1
8 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 3
9 4 4 7 4 4 4 4 4
10 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
11 5 3 5 6 2 3 5 1
12 4 4 5 4 3 3 3 4
13 2 2 4 3 5 2 2 5
14 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
15 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4
16 4 4 4 5 4 3 5 6
17 2 4 4 5 7 7 7 6
18 7 7 6 1 7 7 7 7
19 5 5 4 5 5 3 4 5
20 6 5 5 3 4 4 4 4
21 5 5 6 6 5 6 3 2
22 4 4 4 4 7 7 4 7
23 5 5 5 5 1 1 3 1
24 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
a PA r e fe r s to P a ir A; P B to P a ir B; PC to P a ir C; PD to P a ir D.
187
R ESPO N SES TO STIMULUS PAIRS ON THE L E F T -R IG H T
A D JEC T IV E SCALE B EFO R E AND A F T E R TRAINING.
SUBJEC T NOS. 25 THROUGH 48.
B efore Training A fter Training
Ss PA PB PC PD PA PB PC PD
25 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1
26 2 . 3 4 2 1 3 1 7
27 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
28 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
29 4 4 2 4 3 4 7 1
30 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
31 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
32 4 4 4 3 4 4 5 4
33 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 5
34 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
35 3 4 1 2 2 2 2 6
36 4 6 6 7 1 4 4 3
37 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3
38 7 7 7 7 1 4 5 4
39
4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4
40 4 7 5 5 3 3 5 4
41 1 1 1 1 3 4 3 5
42 2 4 4 3 3 3 3 4
43 4 4 4 4 1 1 3 3
44 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4
45 1 1 1 3 4 3 3 4
46 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
47 1 7 6 7 2 5 3 7
48 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
188
RESPO NSES TO STIMULUS SERIES ONE ON THE AD JEC TIV E
CHECKLIST B EF O R E AND A F T E R TRAINING.
SU BJEC T NOS. 1 THROUGH 24
REINFO RCED L E F T ON 1A
B efore Training A fter Training
Ss 1A IB 1C ID 1A IB 1C ID
1 10 12 10 12 10 10 15 10
2 23 25 25 35 22 16 17 25
3 20 22 19 25 12 12 12 13
4 30 29 32 30 30 30 30 31
5 17 22 22 22 24 17 17 15
6 29
25 23 35 27 23 22 23
7 11 8 11 8 8 8 10 8
8 17 29 21 19 21 21 23 22
9 28 37 28 30 31 35 30 31
10 25 25 25 25 23 23 23 23
11 16 18 17 17 14 14 13 17
12 14 20 34 19 15 35 20 39
13 25 26 26 33 17 22 29 35
14 28 43 25 27 22 26 23 23
15 29
28 28 28 30 31 37 32
16 14 26 20 18 33 33 36 38
17 17 25 24 16 24
19 19 21
18 16 18 16 16 32 32 23 20
19 18 17 17 17 18 18 18 18
20 24 20 25 20 18 20 25 32
21 28 29 31 30 29 31 25 26
22 34 15 15 8 34 40 25 23
23 27 26 24 24 25 27 24 26
24 30 31 28 31 31 31 31 31
189
RESPO NSES TO STIMULUS SERIES ONE ON THE AD JEC TIV E
CHECKLIST BEFO R E AND A F T E R TRAINING.
SU BJEC T NOS. 25 THROUGH 48
REINFO RCED RIGHT ON 1A.
B efore Training A fter Training
Ss 1A IB 1C ID 1A IB 1C ID
25 24 28 27 24 27 26 26 27
26 30 31 35 26 26 27 27 27
27 27 27 27 27 26 26 29 26
28 30 30 29 30 31
29
24 25
29 30 28 30 30 30 30 30 30
30 30 37 30 29 31 32 33 36
31 30 28 30 32 29 28 27 28
32 25 27 19
25 37 36 34 37
33 32 21 25 27 26 23 27 24
34 26 28 27 31 26
29 27 26
35 22 19 19 23 27 27 28 28
36 16 18 17 20 18 17 15 18
37 28 26 25 26 21 21 21 21
38 13 25 14 18 14 14 16 15
39
25 28 26 25 28 27 26 28
40 13 12 13 9 28 38 22 25
41 41 20 22 24 34 34 23 25
42 14 15 15 17 14 14 14 14
43 23 24 26 15 26 24 27 23
44 42 11 11 18 10 22 21 13
45 25 26 23 23 20
19 19 17
46 28 27 30 20
29 29 26 26
47 14 14 20 17 16 14 16 17
48 29 32 30 29 31 30 32 34
190
RESPONSES TO STIMULUS SERIES TWO ON THE AD JEC TIV E
CHECKLIST B EFO R E AND A F T E R TRAINING.
SU BJEC T NOS. 1 THROUGH 24
REINFO RCED RIGHT ON 2A
B efore Training A fter T raining
Ss 2A 2B 2C 2D 2A 2B 2C 2D
1 21 16 30 20 10 14 18 20
2 19
25 38 32 27 23 33 37
3 22 26 38 28 35
29 29 31
4 26 23 23 24 26 26 26 26
5 24 16 24
19
20 16 12 14
6 28 39 33 38 30 34 35 42
7 8 8 8 16 16 8 8 1 3
8 26 29 27 27 30 30 30 32
9 36 39 37 56 35 37 38 43
10 24 25 22 40 24 25 24 40
11 20 15 15 47 18 22 19 26
12 19 24 39 49 18 44 42 46
13 20 27 45 50 14 13 42 50
14 34 18 40 26 18 21 21 34
15 26 27 27 32 27 27 26 28
16 13 26 21 37 30 29
41 46
17 22 28 37 36 27 24 29 36
18 32 12 11 37 24
19 32 32
19 25 31 38 31 23 22 29 32
20 22 20 21 38 21 23 31 37
21 38 22 36 38 31 34 37 42
22 20 25
19 30 21 26 37 30
23 18 24 25 21 29 22 22 26
24 30
29 31 31 31 31 31 31
191
RESPONSES TO STIMULUS SERIES TWO ON THE ADJECTIVE
CHECKLIST B EFO R E AN D A F T E R TRAINING.
SU BJEC T NOS. 25 THROUGH 48
REINFO RCED L E F T ON 2A
B efore Training A fter Training
Ss 2A 2B 2C 2D 2A 2B 2C 2D
25 36 24 29 29 30 32 28 33
26 16 18 22 24 27 28 25 27
27 27 42 41 41 26 41 41 41
28 28 32 32 32 32 32 32 32
29 26 27 30 28 46 29 23 12
30 28 29 29 40 29 36 37 35
31 29 31 28 30 28 30 34 31
32 13 17 24 30 34 36 38 35
33 24 36 35 42 39 29 28 42
34 27 28 29 35 27 27 26 27
35 39 34 38 37 38 36 37 35
36 22
29
20
39 24 31 22 38
37 31 33 35 37 31 30 35 35
38 32 25 24 48 21 29 43 48
39 26 30 31 30 23 27 24 27
40 14 26 32 39 37 29
31 27
41 23 31 25 39 25 26 32 41
42 17 23 47 41 13 21 33 44
43 21 40 32 24 28 25 25 26
44 21 23 48 51 23 24 45 50
45 23 14 32 44 15 28 30 45
46 28
19
26 28 25 26 26 28
47 20 33 37 43 25 35 41 47
48 28 31 35 33 30 31 30 28
Ss
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
192
R ESPO N SES TO STIM ULUS PAIRS ON THE A D JE C T IV E
CHECKLIST B E F O R E A N D A F T E R TRAINING.
SU B JE C T NOS. 1 THROUGH 24.
B efo re Training A fter Training
PA P B PC PD
10 17 15 20
30 22 40 44
33 25 32 28
25 25 26 27
9 17 22 8
28 31 36 36
23 14 18 39
26 28 29 30
34 36 51 47
26 32 32 22
22 27 43 42
18 32 41 46
14 26 24 41
21 31 36 33
30 37 35
29
31 31 37 36
17 33 37 32
39 24 17 32
19 28 19 25
24 28 27 36
33 34 32 28
30 18 31 16
25 24 21 24
30 30 29 32
PA P B PC PD
10 15 15 20
30 31 30 34
25 23 21 24
23 25 25 23
8 10 11 8
27 34 30 29
31 26 20 39
29 29 29 28
37 40 39 46
32 32 32 21
28 32 34 31
15 32 35 52
10 20 22 51
19 22 26 26
32 32 35 27
30 42 30 41
19 24 31 37
32 32 32 32
19
24 20 22
22 22 35 37
35 32 29 39
20 8 30 24
31 29 22 25
31 31 31 31
Ss
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
193
RESPONSES TO STIMULUS PAIRS ON THE AD JEC TIV E
CHECKLIST B EFO R E AND A F T E R TRAINING.
SUBJECT NOS. 25 THROUGH 48.
B efore Training A fter Training
PA PB PC PD
27 28 28 32
38 30 18 37
27 34 32 41
32 32 32 32
40 20 43 44
29 31 31 35
26 27 28 31
16 17 27 41
24 23 45 43
31 30 35 35
44 41 50
29
25 26 25 31
29 34 32 29
29
41 48 43
28 26 22 28
24 31 37 35
23 29 37 16
15 25 32 25
26 26 38 42
10 31 34 29
45
19 26 23
28 25 28 26
14 46 41 42
33 35 31 29
PA PB PC PD
26 28 30 33
27 24 27 27
26 41 41 41
32 32 32 32
42 26 44 41
27 27 24 30
27 29 31 32
37 39 33 36
26 39 40 44
27 28 29 37
31 37 38 42
19 25 27 30
32 33 34 34
21 43 39 43
25 28 25 30
22 21 33 36
24 24 22 27
14 24 24 34
23 28 26 43
18 13 25 41
18 24 32 30
26 28 27 29
22 36 46 42
32 32 31 30
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
1 9 5
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Creator Levitan, Seymour (author)

Core Title Conflict And Generalized Conflict In Verbal And Motor Responses

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Psychology

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Jacobs, Alfred (committee chair), Longstreth, Langdon E. (committee member), Van Arsdol, Maurice D., Jr. (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-361050

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Legacy Identifier 6503112.pdf

Dmrecord 361050

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Levitan, Seymour

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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