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A Study Of The Relationship Of Temperament Variables To The Ability To Make Certain Judgments Of Emotional Behavior
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A Study Of The Relationship Of Temperament Variables To The Ability To Make Certain Judgments Of Emotional Behavior
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T his d isse r ta tio n has been 64— 3107
m icro film ed ex a ctly a s r ec eiv ed
SCHINDLER, M ary Du Pont, 1 922-
A STUDY O F THE RELATIONSHIP O F TEM PER
AMENT VARIABLES TO THE ABILITY TO MAKE
CERTAIN JUDGMENTS O F EMOTIONAL BE
HAVIOR.
U n iv ersity of Southern C aliforn ia, P h .D ., 1963
P sych ology, c lin ic a l
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
A STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF TEMPERAMENT VARIABLES
TO THE ABILITY TO M AKE CERTAIN JUDGMENTS
OF EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR
by
Mary Du Pont S c h in d le r
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P re se n te d t o th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf illm e n t o f th e
R equirem ents f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Psychology)
August 1963
UNIVERSITY O F S O U T H E R N C A LIFO R N IA
GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES 7, CALIFORNIA
This dissertation, written by
Jlary..I)u..Piant...Schindler...............
under the direction of h.fZT...Dissertation C om
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfilhnent of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
Date.... August^....l9.63...................
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
Chairman
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
A p r o je c t such as th e one re p o r te d h e re cannot be
ex ecu ted w ith o u t th e h e lp o f many people and o r g a n iz a tio n s .
The a u th o r w ishes t o e x p re ss h e r g r a tit u d e to Dr.
A lfre d Ja c o b s, who h e lp e d in fo rm u la tin g th e stu d y and
whose p e r s i s t e n t re in fo rc e m e n t and encouragem ent le d to i t s
f i n a l c o m p le tio n ; t o Dr. L e s te r Beck, who o b ta in e d th e f ilm
from C h u r c h ill W exler f o r u se in th e stu d y ; and t o Dr.
C h a rle s Von H orn, f o r h i s a s s i s t a n c e in c u t t i n g and e d i t i n g
th e film .
S p e c ia l th an k s a r e due to L t. C ol. H. Johnson and
h i s s t a f f a t th e A ir C orps, R eserve O ff ic e r s T ra in in g
C orps, a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A ngeles fo r
t h e i r b e y o n d - th e - c a ll- o f - d u ty c o o p e ra tio n in a d m in is te rin g
th e t e s t s . M ention sh o u ld , o f c o u rs e , be made o f th e 306
unnamed c a d e ts who p a r t i c i p a t e d as s u b je c ts .
Acknowledgment is a ls o made to th e S h erid an Supply
Company f o r p e rm is sio n t o r e p r i n t sample item s from th e
Guilford-Zimm erm an Temperament S c a le .
W ithout th e h e lp o f th e com puter a t th e W estern
Data P ro c e ssin g C e n ter a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a lif o r n ia a t
Los A n g eles, th e h a n d lin g o f th e d a ta f o r s t a t i s t i c a l
p ro c e s s in g would have been an im p o ssib le ta s k .
F i n a l l y , th e a u th o r w ishes to e x p re ss h e r a p p r e c ia
t i o n t o th e many c o lle a g u e s who have a s s i s t e d w ith en c o u r
agement and w ith whom, th ro u g h d is c u s s io n , th e co n cep ts
h e r e - - b o th s t a t i s t i c a l and th e o r e tic a l- - w e r e e n la rg e d .
TABLE O F C O N TEN TS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...............................................................................................i i
LIST OF T A B L E S .............................................................................................. v i
C hapter
I . INTRODUCTION.................................................................................... 1
I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE..................................................... 3
Judgments o f Emotions
S o c ia l P e rc e p tio n
Empathy
Empathy and Psychotherapy
D iffe re n c e s among Judges
I I I . HYPOTHESES.........................................................................................38
IV. METHOD..................................................................................................43
The Sample
The M easuring Devices
V. RESULTS..................................................................................................56
The F a c to r A nalysis
VI. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS..................................................................83
V II. SU M M A R Y AN D CONCLUSIONS.............................................................94
iv
Page
REFERENCES............................................................................................... 98
APPENDIXES................................................................................................... 110
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Number o f C o rre c t R esponses to
F ilm I t e m s ............................................................................ 57
2. Order o f D i f f i c u l t y and Mean S cores o f F ilm Item s 58
3. Mean Score fo r 32 Temperament S cale V a ria b le s . . 60
4. C o r r e la tio n M a trix .................................................................... 62
5. R o ta te d F a c to r M a trix --N in e te e n F ilm and T h ir ty -
Two Temperament V a ria b le s ........................................... 64
6. Second R o tated F a c to r M a trix --N in e te e n F ilm V a ri
a b le s and T hirty-T w o Temperament S cale
V a r i a b l e s ................................................................................. 114
v i
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The stu d y to be r e p o r te d examines some o f th e
b a se s on w hich judgm ents o f em o tio n a l b e h a v io r in o th e rs
a re made. I t s p o in t o f d e p a rtu re i s p re v io u s r e s e a r c h con
d u cted by Dr. L e s te r F. Beck and Dr. A lfre d Jacobs (1953)
a t th e U n iv e rs ity o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n i a . The o r i g i n a l
stu d y used a f ilm , Ju d g in g E m otional B e h a v io r, produced by
Dr. Beck, w hich was d esig n ed to a s s e s s th e a b i l i t y o f peo
p le t o p e rc e iv e th e s u rfa c e f e e lin g s o f o th e rs .
The problem o f a b i l i t y to p e rc e iv e th e b e h a v io r o f
o th e rs is a co re problem in th e f i e l d of psychology and h as
been under i n v e s t i g a t i o n s in c e b e fo re th e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 's , by
such people as T itc h e n e r (1923), B oring (1923), A llp o r t
(1924, 1937, 1962), G u ilfo rd (1929, 1959), and Goodenough
(1 9 3 2 ), to m ention a few. More r e c e n tly we fin d Arnold
(I9 6 0 ), and rev iew s in th e P s y c h o lo g ic a l B u l le t in by T a ft
(1955) and Cronbach (1955) where th e y r e s t a t e th e e ssen c e
and s ig n if ic a n c e of th e problem . Cronbach s t a t e s , "How
one p erso n ju d g es a n o th e r i s a problem im p o rtan t f o r i t s
t h e o r e t i c a l im p lic a tio n s and fo r i t s p r a c t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e
in group psychology, a sse ssm e n t, te a c h in g , e t c . " In th e
model o f th e s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e l l e c t , G u ilfo rd c l a s s i f i e s
t h i s as an a s p e c t o f s o c i a l i n t e l l i g e n c e .
In th e o r i g i n a l stu d y , i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s o f th e
sc o re s d e riv e d from re sp o n se s o f s u b je c ts to th e film
s tr o n g ly su g g e sted th e e x is te n c e o f u n ify in g f a c t o r s , a l
though none emerged from a f a c t o r a n a ly s is which was p e r
form ed. The r e s u l t s were s u f f i c i e n t l y p ro v o c a tiv e , how
e v e r, to su g g e st th a t w ith a d d i tio n a l d a ta a more m eaning
f u l a n a ly s is o f th e sc o re s m ight be a c h ie v e d . To t h i s end
b o th th e f ilm and th e Guilford-Zim m erm an Temperament S cale
were a d m in iste re d to a group o f th r e e hundred and s i x A ir
Force c a d e ts . The re sp o n se s to th e Temperament S c a le were
sc o re d in accordance w ith a s p e c ia l te c h n iq u e su g g e ste d by
Dr. G u ilfo rd as used in h i s a n a ly s is o f th e f o u rte e n dim en
sio n s o f temperament (1956).
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
In t h i s c h a p te r i s a review o f th e d i f f e r i n g
ap proaches to th e judgm ents o f em otions w ith th e focus on
how th e em otions a re d e fin e d , how th e s ti m u li have been
c l a r i f i e d , and what a r e th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e good
judge o f s p e c if ic em o tio n a l b e h a v io r. The d is c u s s io n of
th e l a t t e r w i l l in c lu d e s tu d ie s r e l a t i n g t o tem p eram en tal,
i n t e r e s t , and ty p o lo g ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e ju d g e s.
T h e o r e tic a l c o n s tr u c ts r e l a t i n g to s o c i a l p e rc e p tio n and
empathy w i l l be summarized a t th e end of th e c h a p te r .
What cues h e lp us c o r r e c t l y a s s e s s em o tio n a l e x p e r
ie n c e s in o th e r s , and w h at, in th e o b s e rv e r, lends g r e a t e r
a c c u ra c y to h i s o b s e rv a tio n s ? These q u e s tio n s have accom
pan ied q u e s tio n s even more b a s i c , such a s , what i s em otion,
and w hat a re i t s e f f e c t s .
Emotions have b een p o s tu la te d to be th e prime mov
e rs o f human a c tio n ; ex p erim en ts have shown t h a t em otions
3
d i s t u r b s k i l l e d f u n c tio n in g , t h a t th e y i n t e r r u p t and even
d is o rg a n iz e we1 1 -in te g r a te d b e h a v io r. Cannon (1925) f u r
th e r su g g e sts t h a t em otions have an emergency f u n c tio n and
a r e u s e f u l f o r s u r v iv a l. W arren (1939, in h i s D ic tio n a ry
o f P sychology, g iv e s e ig h t d e f i n i t i o n s o f em otions. P sy
c h o lo g is ts g e n e r a lly have ag ree d t h a t b o th th e f e l t e x p e r i
ence and th e b o d ily u p se t n e c e s s a r ily belo n g to g e th e r in
th e t o t a l em o tio n a l p a t te r n . I t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e
f o r e , t h a t a tte m p ts t o a s s e s s em o tio n a l e x p e rie n c e in o th e rs
have c e n te re d around m otor e x p re s s io n s .
Judgments o f Emotions
C h a rle s Darwin (1894), th e f i r s t to d e a l w ith th e
r e l a t i o n s o f em otion to b o d ily changes on th e b a s is o f a
la rg e c o l l e c t i o n o f f a c t u a l (though a n e c d o ta l) e v id e n c e ,
was i n t e r e s t e d in showing t h a t th e s e b o d ily changes a r e
r e s i d u a l s o f g r o s s e r p h y s io lo g ic a l movements in h e re n t in
s u r v iv a l of th e organism under s t r e s s c o n d itio n s . In a
somewhat s im ila r v e in P i d e r i t th e o r iz e d t h a t th e f a c i a l
e x p re s s io n s o c c u rrin g in em o tio n a l s i t u a t i o n s th em selv es
were p r a c t i c a l movements to f a c i l i t a t e se n so ry f u n c tio n in g .
Both th e Darwin and P i d e r i t h y p o th e ses in v o lv ed an u n su p
p o rte d assum ption t h a t em otions do e l i c i t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
movements. Numerous d e s c r i p t i v e s tu d ie s made by p h ilo s o
p h ers such as H ip p o c ra te s , P la to , A r i s t o t l e , and Thomas
A quinas, and a r t i s t s in c lu d in g Leonardo Da V in c i, P e te r
Camper, and S ir C h a rle s B e ll preced ed th e e x p e rim e n ta l i n
v e s t i g a t i o n s . O u tsta n d in g among c o n tr ib u tio n s o f th e
R e n a is sa n c e , ac c o rd in g to M cA lister (1 1 th ed. B r ita n n ic a ’ }
was t h a t o f Leonardo Da V in c i. As an a r t i s t he was i n t e r
e s te d in th e ’’ m uscles o f e x p r e s s io n .” He diagrammed se v -
:e r a l f a c i a l m uscles and gave them s p e c ia l names t o in d ic a te
|th e e x p re s s io n in which th e y were presum ably a c t i v e : th e
f r o n t a l i s was named th e "m uscle o f d o lo r* ” and th e c o r r u -
g a to r s u p e r c e l l i was term ed "m uscle o f a n g e r ." Leonardo
Da V in c i a ls o p re s c rib e d c e r t a i n ways o f draw ing th e fa c e
to p o r tra y em o tio n al c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . He rem arked p a r t i c u -
; l a r l y in h i s T r e a ti s e on P a in tin g in 1551 on th e v a r i e t y o f
e x p re s s io n s , and h e ld t h a t th e y co rresp o n d ed t o ev ery
v a r i e t y o f id e a and f e e l in g . P e te r Camper, a Dutch a r t i s t ,
evolved a u s e f u l system o f r e p r e s e n tin g th e v a rio u s emo
ti o n s by v a ry in g th e a n g le s o f th e p r o f i l e .
!
!
| The work o f S i r C h a rle s B e ll, \rtiose e s s a y , "The
!Anatomy and P hilosophy o f E x p re ssio n as Connected w ith th e
!
|F in e A r t s ," f i r s t app eared in 1806, was o f te n r e f e r r e d to
i
and h ig h ly p ra ised by C harles Darwin, who f e l t i t r e p r e -
6
se n te d a landm ark in th e stu d y o f f a c i a l e x p re s s io n s o f
em otion.
Duchenne (1862) was one o f th e f i r s t to u se pho
to g rap h y t o r e p r e s e n t th e r o le s o f th e d i f f e r e n t m uscles in
f a c i a l e x p re s s io n .
P i d e r i t , a contem porary o f Duchenne, s tu d ie d what
may be c a lle d a "geom etry of e x p r e s s io n ." He used a p la s -
t e r - o f - p a r i s h ead , d iv id e d in to fo u r p a r t s : mouth, n o se ,
e y e s , and brow. He produced v a r io u s em o tio n a l e x p re s s io n s
by in te rc h a n g in g a sm a ll number o f m ouths, e y e s , n o s e s , and
brows (1886).
B oring and T itc h e n e r (1923) produced a wooden model
o f th e P i d e r i t fa c e s by means o f which 360 e x p re s s io n s
co u ld be o b ta in e d . Because o f e x p re s s iv e l i m i t a t i o n s
in h e re n t in th e p r o f i l e view o f th e P i d e r i t - t y p e model,
G u ilfo rd and W ilke (1930) developed an a d d i t i o n a l model
showing th e fa c e in f r o n t view . In th e c o n s tr u c tio n of
t h i s model th e most " ty p i c a l " e y e s, brow s, n o s e s , and
mouths were ta k e n from th e Rudolph sk e tc h e s and Ruckmick
p h o to g rap h s. P ro v is io n was a ls o made f o r c o n s tr u c tio n o f
s ix groups o f f a c i a l e x p re s s io n s su g g e sted as fundam ental
by A llp o r t.
A lte r n a tiv e s t o th e th re e -d im e n s io n a l models a re
s k e tc h e s , d raw ings, and photographs which have been used
f o r d e m o n stra tin g f a c i a l e x p re s s io n s of em otion. The most
e x te n s iv e r e p e r to r y was p re s e n te d by Rudolph (J e n n e s s ,
1932). His a t l a s c o n ta in e d some 680 sk e tc h e s o f f a c i a l
c o n f ig u r a tio n s m odified from poses by a German a c to r .
Wundt a ls o c o n trib u te d a c o n s id e ra b le number of s k e tc h e s in
an e f f o r t t o d em o n strate h i s m im etic th e o ry of e x p re s s io n .
F elek y (1914) made s e v e r a l hundred photographs o f h e r s e l f ,
each p o r tra y in g a d e l i b e r a t e a tte m p t to r e p r e s e n t a d i f f e r
e n t em otion. The Ruckmick photographs (1921) r e p r e s e n t
s im ila r poses by an e x p e rie n c e d a c t r e s s . F ro is-W ittm an
to o k some 50 photographs o f f a c i a l e x p re s s io n s posed by
h im s e lf (1930). He supplem ented th e s e photos by sk e tc h e s
and draw ings showing th e involvem ent and c o n f ig u r a tio n s o f
f a c i a l m u sc u la tu re . A llp o r t (1924) a ls o developed a f a c i a l
e x p re s s io n t e s t which c o n s is te d o f 14 Rudolph p ic t u r e s .
Wedeck (1949) used a r t i s t s ' sk e tc h e s and p ic tu r e s o f f ilm
s t a r s . L an g feld (1918) had h i s judges u se a r t i s t s ' sketches
o f posed em otions. S ch lo sb e rg (1957) developed a s e t o f 53
photographs posed by an a c t r e s s to re p la c e F e le k y 's p i c
tu r e s of a fem ale s u b je c t, s in c e he f e l t th e ran g e o f poses
in h e r s e r i e s was i n s u f f i c i e n t . Mere r e c e n t l y S te in g a r t
(1962) had h is s u b je c ts judge a s e r i e s o f sk e tc h e s by th e
a r t i s t , Lynd Ward.
Other in v e s t ig a to r s who have co n trib u ted draw ings,
p h o to s, or m otion p ic tu r e s i l l u s t r a t i n g f a c i a l e x p r e ssio n s
o f em otion are: C r ile (1916), Dunlap (1927), Dusenbury and
Knowles (1938), K line (1927), Landis (1924), Moore (1 9 2 6 ),
Moss (1929), Munn (1 9 4 0 ), Sherman (1927), Watson (1917,
1921), and Yerkes (1925).
S tu d ie s in th e f i e l d w ere p io n e ered by Darwin
(1894) who showed Duchenne1s photographs to groups o f
a d u lts and asked them t o d e s ig n a te th e ty p e o f em otion
re p r e s e n te d . H is judges agreed on a few b u t d isa g re e d on
many o th e rs . L angfeld (1918) and G u ilfo rd (1929) follow ed
a s im ila r procedure. They o b ta in e d r e s u l t s o f a p p ro x i
m ately 33 per c e n t accu racy . A llp o r t (1924) gave th e aver
age sc o re as 45 or 50 p er c e n t. Kanner (1 9 3 1 ), u sin g a
s e r i e s of th e F eleky p h o to g rap h s, found 50 p er cen t were
guessed c o r r e c t ly . Buzby, J a rd e n , and F e rn b e rg e r (1924)
and F e rn b e rg e r (1928) u sin g th e B o rin g -T itc h e n e r model
o b ta in e d s im ila r r e s u l t s . Dusenbury and Knowles (1938)
o b ta in e d average r e s u l t s o f 65 p e r ce n t ac cu racy u sin g
s t i l l s o f posed e x p re s s io n s . G e n e ra lly , th e o rd e r o f d i f
f i c u l t y in re c o g n itio n has been t h a t la u g h te r , sc o rn , and
f e a r a r e more e a s i l y re c o g n iz e d and t h a t a n g e r, p a in , and
s u r p r is e a re most d i f f i c u l t . There were g e n e ra lly no d i f
fe re n c e s in making judgm ents a c c o rd in g to sex ex cep t f o r
judgm ents o f f e a r . G ates r e p o r ts a c o n s is te n t sex d i f f e r
ence, even w ith young c h i ld r e n , in t h a t boys more r e a d i l y
judge f e a r .
Woodworth (1928), u s in g F e le k y 's d a ta , found th e
’’ wrong” judgm ents were o f te n n e a r m is s e s , and was a b le to
d e v ise a s c a le o f em otions w hich form a c i r c u l a r continuum
of d i s c r e e t c a te g o r ie s . S ch lo sb e rg (1941) v e r i f i e d and
r e f in e d W oodworth's s c a l e , and c r o s s - v a lid a te d i t u s in g
F ro is -W ittm a n 's p h o to g rap h s. He found th a t judgm ents
e v a lu a te d on th e s c a le w ere h ig h ly c o n s is te n t w ith in th e
in d iv id u a l and t h a t c e r t a i n judgm ents were easy f o r a la rg e
p r o p o rtio n o f th e ju d g e s. He l a t e r , in c o n ju n c tio n w ith
Engen and Levy (1 9 5 7 ), developed th e new s e t o f p h o to
graphs m entioned e a r l i e r . A gain, th e s e i n v e s t i g a t o r s ,
u sin g th e newer p h o to g ra p h s, found th e judgm ents t o be
h ig h ly c o n s is te n t and s u r p r i s i n g l y r e l i a b l e even f o r s in g le
ju d g e s.
One m ajor d i f f i c u l t y w ith many o f th e s e e a r l y e x
p erim e n ts seemed t o r e s t in naming th e em otion. To o v e r
come t h i s , S ch lo sb e rg had h i s s u b je c ts r a t e th e photographs
10
i n term s o f th r e e dim ensions r a t h e r th a n t r y i n g t o i d e n t i f y
th e em otions by name. H is dim ensions w ere (1) P le a s a n t-
n e s s -U n p le a s a n tn e s s , (2) A tte n tio n - R e je c tio n , and (3)
S le e p -T e n sio n . He and h i s c o l la b o r a to r s (1958), u sin g
t h e i r improved s e t o f p h o to g ra p h s, o b ta in e d r e s u l t s p ro v id
in g e x c e lle n t r e l i a b i l i t y in judgm ent and c o n firm a tio n of
th e s e d im e n sio n a l v a lu e s . F r i j d a and E h ilip sz o o n (1963)
f u r t h e r s u b s t a n tia te d th e f in d in g s by u s in g f a c t o r a n a ly s is
t o v a l i d a t e th e s e dim ensions o f e x p re s s io n .
O ther in v e s tig a to r s have p e r s i s t e d in t r y i n g to
i d e n t i f y th e em otions more c l o s e l y . Ja rd e n and F e rn b e rg e r
(1 9 2 6 ), u s in g e x p re s s io n s b u i l t from th e P i d e r i t m odel,
have named th e em otion and asked f o r a judgment i f i t w ere:
(1 ) n o t th e em otion named, (2) a p o o r, (3) a f a i r , o r (4)
a good r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e em otion named. A f u r t h e r
s te p was to have th e s u b je c t assume th e b o d ily p o s it io n
h im s e lf and th e n to b u ild th e P i d e r i t model. When a n a l
y ze d , p e rc e n ta g e s o f s u c c e s s f u l re a d in g o f th e named emo
tio n s improved c o n s id e ra b ly .
I n t e r e s t in a n a ly z in g and t r a i n i n g in a n a ly z in g
th e e x p re s s io n s sparked v a rio u s e x p e rim e n ts. A llp o r t
(1924) and G u ilfo rd (1929) coached t h e i r s u b je c ts on nam
in g th e Rudolph p ic tu r e s and r e q u ir e d s u b je c ts to stu d y a
11
c h a r t o f th e sy n o p sis o f f a c i a l e x p re s s io n . Both e x p e r i
m enters r e p o r te d a g a in in th e a b i l i t y to i d e n t i f y f a c i a l
e x p re s s io n s o f em otion as th e r e s u l t o f t r a i n i n g . A llp o r t,
G u ilf o rd , and a l a t e r stu d y by Je n n ess (1 9 3 2 ), w hich used
th e A llp o r t F a c i a l E x p re ssio n T e s t, a l l r e p o r te d n e g a tiv e
c o r r e l a t i o n s betw een i n i t i a l a b i l i t y and improvement in
t h a t a b i l i t y due t o t r a i n i n g . A llp o r t a t t r i b u t e d th e nega
t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n to th e f a c t t h a t th e e s ta b lis h e d h a b i t s
o f th e i n i t i a l l y s u p e rio r were d is r u p te d by t r a i n i n g ;
Jen n ess a t t r i b u t e d i t to th e low r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e t e s t .
L a n d is, who co n tin u ed to c r i t i c i z e th e use o f
s t i l l photographs (1929), a ro u se d em otions in s tu d e n ts by
h av in g them l i s t e n to m usic, re a d th e B ib le , sm ell ammonia,
h e a r a loud n o is e , look a t p ic tu r e s o f s k in d is e a s e s or
p o rn o g rap h ic m a t e r i a l , h an d le l i v e f r o g s , and see a r a t
d e c a p ita te d . He photographed t h e i r e x p re s s io n s and t r i e d
t o d is t in g u is h em otions by th e amount o f movements o f
f a c i a l m uscles. He found t h a t th e r e were wide in d iv id u a l
d if f e r e n c e s ; no f a c i a l movement made by a s in g le m uscle
group could be c o n s id e re d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r an em otion.
There was most movement of f a c i a l m uscles i n e x p re s s io n s
o f p a in , le s s in s u r p r i s e , s t i l l le s s in a n g e r, g r a d u a lly
d e c re a s in g th ro u g h e x a s p e r a tio n , c r y in g , d i s g u s t , u n t i l
l e a s t was found in r e v u ls io n and se x u a l e x c ite m e n t. L andis
a l s o found t h a t each p e rso n had two or th r e e f a c i a l p a t
t e r n s which he used in a l l s i t u a t i o n s . He p r o je c te d th e
photographs on a s c re e n f o r h i s c o lle g e s tu d e n ts and asked
them to t e l l (1) what em otion was d e p ic te d , (2) in what
s i t u a t i o n th e p ic tu r e m ight have been o b ta in e d , and (3) th e
p e rc e n ta g e of c e r t a i n t y w ith which the judgm ent was made.
H is r e s u l t s w ere n o t b e t t e r th a n chance, and he concluded
t h a t i t was im p o ssib le to ju d g e a c c u r a te ly when p re se n te d
o n ly w ith th e p ic tu r e o f th e f a c e s .
These and th e r e s u lt s o f o th e rs (A rnold, 1960) sug
g e s t th a t em otions cannot be r e lia b ly re co g n ize d when on ly
p ic tu r e s o f th e f a c i a l e x p r e ssio n are shown, p a r tic u la r ly
when th e p ic tu r e s are posed . In a d d itio n , th e p ic tu r e s and
sk e tc h e s tend to be sc h e m a tic, t h e o r e t ic a l, a r t i f i c i a l , and
in many c a se s awkward. Other w r ite r s to q u e stio n th e ade
quacy o f s in g le photographs a s a b a s is fo r judgm ents were
G. S ta n le y H a ll (1899), Jen n ess (1932), Kanner (1 9 3 1 ), and
Dusenbury and Knower (1938). However, th e s tu d ie s p r e v i
o u sly c ite d are a ls o in g e n e r a l agreem ent th a t p lea sa n t
em otions can alw ays be d is tin g u is h e d from u n p lea sa n t emo
t io n s and, g e n e r a lly , th a t la u g h ter and sco rn are a ccu
r a t e l y re c o g n iz e d .
Most o f th e e x p e rim e n te rs have e i t h e r assumed o r
a tte m p te d t o d em o n strate th e e x is te n c e o f unique p a tte r n s
o f m uscular involvem ent and c o n se q u e n tly o f f a c i a l e x p r e s
sio n s f o r th e v a rio u s s o - c a lle d em otions. F ro is-W ittm an
found m uscular movements were p re s e n t in p r a c t i c a l l y a l l
e x p r e s s io n s , b u t t h a t th e r e were unique and d i s t i n c t i v e
p a t te r n s o f th e s e m uscular involvem ents f o r each i n d i v i d
u a l . Dusenbury and Knower concluded t h a t th e i n t e r p r e t a
t i o n o f f a c i a l e x p re s s io n s co u ld be made w ith a h ig h degree
o f r e l i a b i l i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y when m otion p ic tu r e s were
u se d . Both ex p erim en ts tended t o su p p o rt th e a s s e r t i o n
t h a t th e r e a re d e f i n i t e f a c i a l p a tte r n s f o r th e v a rio u s so-
c a lle d em otions.
G id ro -F ran k and B u ll (1950), in t h e i r ex p erim en ts
w ith h y p n o tic a lly -in d u c e d em o tio n s, s tu d ie d r e a c tio n s
i n t e n s i v e l y . They re p o r te d s p e c i f i c p h y s io lo g ic a l p a tte r n s
o f re sp o n se fo r th e em otions s tu d ie d : d i s g u s t , f e a r , a n g e r,
d e p r e s s io n , triu m p h , and jo y .
O ther a tte m p ts to g e t away from a r t i f i c i a l poses
a r e th e s tu d ie s o f Sherman (1928), Coleman (1949), and a
l a t e r stu d y by B u ll (1951). The two e a r l i e r s tu d ie s used
m otion p ic tu r e r e c o r d s .’
Sherman*s stu d y sought to t e s t th e r e c o g n itio n of
14
em otion in in fa n t s , and thus a v o id th e c o n v e n tio n a l o v e r la y
o f e x p r e ssio n th a t i s presumed t o occur w ith a d u lts . He
t r ie d ex p e r im e n ta lly to produce hunger, f e a r , an ger, and
pain in in fa n t s , a l l o f \diom were under tw elv e days in a g e.
H is ju d g es were u n ab le to d if f e r e n t i a t e th e e x p r e ssio n s
u n le s s th e stim u lu s was shown. F u rth er, i f g iv e n a f a l s e
stim u lu s th e judgment was based on th e stim u lu s ra th er
than th e f a c ia l e x p r e ssio n . He concluded th a t th e ju d g
ments were made on th e b a s is o f th e ju d g es' p erc ep tio n o f
th e stim u lu s. From t h is he g e n e r a liz e d th a t our judgments
o f em o tio n a l s t a t e s in o th ers a re in th e main dependent
more upon th e stim u lu s s it u a t io n than an yth in g e l s e .
One major c r it ic is m o f t h is study i s th e fa c t th a t
th e in fa n t o f t h is age may have n e ith e r th e co n v en tio n a l
o v e r la y o f e x p r e ssio n nor resp o n se d if f e r e n t ia t io n fo r a
r e p e r to r y o f em o tio n a l resp o n ses (A rnold, I9 6 0 ).
E ight s it u a t io n s o f a n a tu re d esig n ed to evoke
em o tio n a l e x p r e ssio n s were p resen ted to th e su b je c ts in
Colem an's (1949) experim ent and m otion p ic tu r e record s were
o b tain ed o f t h e ir r e a c tio n s . The e n t ir e s e r ie s was r e
peated w ith ou t th e stim u lu s but w ith th e in s tr u c tio n s to
th e s u b je c t to a c t out such b eh avior as he thought appro
p r ia te should he a g a in be in th e s it u a t io n . Thus he used
15
b o th r e a l s i t u a t i o n s and a c te d ones. The r e a c tio n s he
judged as b e s t o f th e s e were th e n p re s e n te d t o ju d g e s , who,
in s te a d o f names f o r th e em otions d is p la y e d , w ere su p p lie d
w ith a l i s t o f stim u lu s s i t u a t i o n s u n d er w hich th e film s
w ere o b ta in e d and w ere r e q u ire d t o m atch th e p ic tu r e t o th e
s i t u a t i o n . This e x p e rim e n ta l framework i s s im ila r to th a t
o f L andis and avoids th e problem o f naming.
Coleman found, as had A llp o r t and L an g feld in
e a r l i e r s t u d i e s , t h a t th e e a s i e s t s i t u a t i o n t o i d e n t i f y
was t h a t in vrtiich th e s u b je c t t o l d a jo k e . R e a c tio n to
t h r e a t o f e l e c t r i c shock im m ediately a f t e r th e a d m in is tr a
t i o n o f one was th e most d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n t o i d e n t i f y .
O ther d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n s were re sp o n se to a sudden unex
p e c te d loud n o is e , c ru s h in g a s n a i l betw een two f i n g e r s ,
and b e in g c o n fro n te d w ith a l i v e snake when a b lin d f o ld was
removed from th e s u b j e c t 's e y e s. D iffe re n c e s w ere found in
th e a b i l i t y t o judge d i f f e r e n t p e rs o n s , b u t th e i d e n t i f i -
a b i l i t y o f a c te d e m o tio n s, in g e n e r a l, was b e t t e r th a n in
g enuine o n es.
C olem an's s tu d y resem bled t h a t o f th e R esearch
D iv is io n o f th e D epartm ent of Cinema a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f
S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a ( h e r e a f te r r e f e r r e d t o a s RDDC a t USC)
(1953) in t h a t b o th used m otion p i c t u r e s as stim u lu s
16
m a t e r i a l s , n e i t h e r depended only on f a c i a l e x p r e s s io n fo r
judgm ent, and n e i t h e r used p r o f e s s io n a l a c to r s t o p re se n t
th e r e a c t io n s .
G id ro -F ran k and B u ll h y p n o tiz e d th e s u b je c ts and
i n s t r u c te d them t h a t "when th ey w ere g iv en a word to den o te
an em otion o r s t a t e o f mind th ey w ere t o f e e l t h i s em otion,
e x p e rie n c e t h i s s t a t e o f mind s t r o n g ly , and show t h i s in
t h e i r outward b e h a v io r i n a n a t u r a l m anner." The s u b je c ts
were p e rm itte d t o do a n y th in g th e y lik e d in te rm s o f move
ment .
B u ll d id n o t use th e " h a llu c i n a to r y e x p e rie n c e "
w hich had been used by e a r l i e r e x p e rim e n te rs who s tu d ie d
em otions under h y p n o sis and which was used by Beck (1953).
She f e l t , " I t was im p o ssib le to d is t i n g u i s h betw een th e
e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c te r o f th e em otions produced i n t h i s way
and th o se produced in re sp o n se to f a b r ic a te d s i t u a t i o n s , "
A lthough a f a i r number o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s have
induced em otions in a h y p n o tic s t a t e in o rd e r t o reco rd
p h y s io lo g ic a l ch an g es, i t would seem t h a t , p r i o r to B u l l 's
or B e ck 's i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , only V ogt, S o l l i e r , and Lehman,
a l l o f them x v ritin g in th e n i n e t i e s ( B u ll, 1951, p. 137),
made any in q u ir y in to th e n a tu re o f em otions i n hypnosis
and t h e i r i n q u i r i e s amounted to l i t t l e more th a n s c a tte r e d
17
rem arks based on a few o b s e rv a tio n s . Vogt was in te r e s te d
m o stly in f e e l in g to n e . S o l l i e r a tte m p te d to prove th e
James-Lange th e o ry by producing a n e s th e s ia and th e n in d u c
in g em otions in two h y s t e r i c s . Lehmann perform ed p h y sio
l o g ic a l experim ents and m entioned o nly in p a ssin g t h a t he
th o u g h t h y p n o tic a lly -p ro d u c e d em otions were i d e n t i c a l w ith
th o se o c c u rrin g in a waking s t a t e . A ll th r e e au th o rs
induced em otions by d e p ic tin g , v e r b a l ly , s i t u a t i o n s or
ev e n ts to t h e i r s u b je c ts and su g g e stin g to them th a t th e y
w ere a f f e c te d by th e s i t u a t i o n s o r ta k in g p a r t i n th e
e v e n ts .
The same approach was used by th e RDDC a t USC to
produce B eck's film , Judging Em otional B eh av io r. This film
p o rtra y e d th e r e a c tio n s o f a man and woman as th e y l i s
ten ed to a s e r i e s of a n e c d o te s, some o f which concerned
in c id e n ts which had a c t u a l l y happened to one or th e o th e r
of th e a c to r s and some which were p u re ly c o n triv e d i n c i
d e n ts which n e i th e r had ex p erien ced . The a c t o r s , a man and
a woman ( c o lle g e s tu d e n ts ) were p rep ared fo r th e experim ent
by im p lan tin g a p o st-h y p n o tic su g g e s tio n th a t when a s to r y
was to ld th e y would f e e l as though th e y were a c tu a l ly p a r
t i c i p a t i n g i n th e s i t u a t i o n . By t h i s te ch n iq u e i t was
hoped t o avoid th e c o n v e n tio n a l s te re o ty p e s o f beh av io r
18
and to have more n a t u r a l r e a c t i o n s .
The em o tio n al r e a c tio n s w ere l a t e r g iv e n names
th ro u g h a f r e e ch o ice i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ex p e rim e n t. Re
sp o n se s, u s in g th e s e names, were made on a m u ltip le c h o ic e
answer s h e e t. H alf o f th e 400 s u b je c ts w ere shown th e
f ilm w h ile h e a rin g th e s to r y ( s tim u lu s ) , and th e o th e r
h a l f were shown th e s i l e n t v e r s io n o f th e film . As m ight
be ex p e c te d , th e ta s k o f ju d g in g u s in g th e s i l e n t v e r s io n
was f a r more d i f f i c u l t .
One i n t e r e s t i n g f in d in g was t h a t th e fem ale su b
j e c t ' s r e a c t i o n s were more d i f f i c u l t f o r th e male ju d g e s
t o i d e n t i f y . This may have been a r e f l e c t i o n o f male
ju d g es b e in g b e t t e r a b le to judge a male s u b je c t in c e r
t a i n a r e a s . I t may a l s o r e f l e c t d if f e r e n c e s in em o tio n a l
r e a c t i v i t y o f th e s u b je c ts , or a r e a l d if f e r e n c e betw een
th e judgm ents o f men and women.
An a tte m p t to e x p lo re th e d a ta from th e male a c t o r
by f a c t o r i a l a n a ly s is o f th e item s o f th e w ith o u t- s to r y
v e r s io n f a i l e d to a c h ie v e any sim ple m ean in g fu l s t r u c t u r e .
I s a b e l Beck (1 9 5 8 ), one o f th e members of th e
r e s e a r c h team , did a f u r t h e r e v a lu a tio n o f th e m otion p i c
t u r e film a s a t e s t . She found r e l i a b i l i t y f o r th e e x i s t
in g form to ran g e from .30 to .45 f o r th e v a rio u s groups
t e s t e d , p r im a r ily u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n ts , and th a t r e l i a b i l i t y
te n d e d to be h ig h e r w ith fem ale groups th a n w ith male
g ro u p s .
She c o n s tru c te d and used a v e r s io n t r a n s c r i b e d on
a u d io ta p e and e d ite d t o d e l e te v o c a l resp o n se s o f th e
s u b je c t in th e f ilm in o rd e r t h a t some of h e r s u b je c ts
m ight be p re s e n te d only w ith th e circ u m sta n ces ( th a t i s ,
th e v e r b a l s t i m u l i p re se n te d to th e a c t o r s ) .
She concluded t h a t th e " b e s t" (te s tw o rth y ) item s
w ere th o se w hich e l i c i t e d th e same resp o n se on a l l t h r e e
v e r s io n s : th e w i t h - s t o r y , th e w ith o u t- s to r y , and th e w ith
o u t- v is io n . T his is n o t c o n s is te n t w ith o th e r i n v e s t i g a
t o r s who have found judgm ents were s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o o re r
when th e s t i m u l i were n o t p re s e n te d . G en e ra lly th e f i n d
in g s have b een t h a t i f a stim u lu s s i t u a t i o n was d e s c r ib e d ,
th e em o tio n a l s t a t e was judged more a c c u ra te ly w ith th e
s i t u a t i o n known r a t h e r th a n when j u s t th e f a c i a l e x p re s s io n
was shown. Judgment was made c o r r e c t l y w ith a h ig h p ro b a
b i l i t y i f th e stim u lu s s i t u a t i o n was c o r r e c t ly in d ic a te d or
c o r r e c t l y p e rc e iv e d , and i t was made in c o r r e c tly i f th e
stim u lu s was f a l s e l y in d ic a te d or f a l s e l y p e rc e iv e d (Ja rd e n
and F e r n b e r g e r ) .
S o c ia l P e rc e p tio n
Much o f th e re c e n t l i t e r a t u r e in s o c i a l psychology
i n d i c a t e s in c r e a s in g p re o c c u p a tio n w ith p e r c e p tio n and
s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s among p e o p le . These a r t i c l e s d is c u s s
c o n c e p ts o r r e p o r t r e s e a r c h on s u b je c ts such a s " s o c i a l
p e r c e p t i o n ," " s o c i a l s e n s i t i v i t y , " " in t e r p e r s o n a l p e rc e p
t i o n , " "em p ath y ," " p r o j e c t i o n ," " i n s i g h t , " " d ia g n o s tic
com petence" (Gage and C ronbach, 1955), " p e rso n p e rc e p tio n "
( T a i g i u r i and P e t r u l l o , 1958), and "m ote-beam -m echanism ,"
( I c h h e i s e r , 1946). Two g e n e ra l a r e a s o f s tu d y e x i s t : (1)
s o c i a l d e te rm in a n ts of p e r c e p tio n , and (2) d if f e r e n c e s in
a b i l i t y to p e r c e iv e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . B runer and Good
m a n 's (1947) s tu d y o f c o in e v a lu a tio n by c h ild r e n from d i f
f e r e n t so cio eco n o m ic le v e ls i s an example o f th e form er.
T h is stu d y i s concerned w ith th e l a t t e r .
E n g lis h and E n g lish (1958) d e fin e d s o c i a l p e rc e p
t i o n a s : " (1 ) th e p e rc e iv in g of s o c i a l o b j e c t s , w hether
p e rso n s or s o c i a l g ro u p s; (2) th e p e rc e iv in g o f th o se b e
h a v io r s o f a n o th e r p erso n t h a t r e v e a l h i s a t t i t u d e s , f e e l
in g s or i n t e n t i o n s . Very o f te n th e b e h a v io rs th u s p e r
c e iv e d a r e m inim al cues t o which o n ly s l i g h t d i r e c t
a t t e n t i o n is g iv e n " (p. 378).
B runer and Postman used th e term " s o c i a l p e rc e p -
21
t i o n " in t h e i r s tu d ie s t o cover s o c ia l d e te rm in a n ts o f
p e r c e p tio n and p o in te d o u t t h a t " a l l p e r c e p tio n has a
s o c i a l component" (p. 114). They added, " P e rc e p tio n . . .
i s se en as a compromise betw een what th e organism is g iv e n
t o s e e - - e x c i t a t i o n induced by th e s tim u lu s --a n d what th e
organism is s e t to s e e , o r even what th e organism wants to
a v o id se e in g " (B runer and Postman, p. 85).
H e id e r 's (1958) usage was more r e s t r i c t e d : "We
s h a l l speak o f 't h i n g p e r c e p tio n ' o r 'n o n so c ia l p e r c e p tio n '
when we mean p e rc e p tio n o f in an im ate o b je c ts , and o f
'p e rs o n p e r c e p tio n ' or 's o c i a l p e r c e p tio n ' when we mean
p e rc e p tio n o f a n o th e r p e rso n " (p. 2 1 ). Brunswik (1956)
a g ree d w ith t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n : "The s i t u a t i o n p e c u lia r to
s o c i a l p e r c e p tio n as compared w ith sim ple p h y s ic a l- o b je c t
p e rc e p tio n i s t h a t n o t o n ly th e s u b je c ts , b u t a ls o th e
o b je c ts i n th e e x p e rim e n ta l s e tu p , a r e p e rso n s" (p. 2 6 ).
E n g lish and E n g lis h in c lu d ed some elem en ts of
B runer and P ostm an's usage in t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n o f p e rc e p
t i o n in g e n e r a l:
1. An ev en t in th e perso n or organism , p r im a rily
c o n tr o lle d by th e e x c i t a t i o n o f sen so ry r e c e p t o r s , y e t
a l s o in flu e n c e d by o th e r f a c t o r s o f a kind t h a t can be
22
shown to have o r ig in a t e d in th e l i f e h i s t o r y of th e organ
ism . . .
2, The aw areness or th e p ro cess o f becoming aware,
o f e x tra o rg a n ic o r in tr a o r g a n ic o b je c ts or r e l e a t i o n s or
q u a l i t i e s , by means o f sen so ry p ro c e ss and under th e i n
flu e n c e o f s e t and o f p r io r e x p e rie n c e s .
Gage and Cronbach (1955) tended to fa v o r th e term
" in tr a p e r s o n a l p e rc e p tio n " in d e s c r ib in g " th e p ro c e ss
g iv e n such names as 'em p a th y ,1 's o c i a l s e n s i t i v i t y , '
'a c c u ra c y of s o c i a l p e r c e p tio n ,' 'i n s i g h t , ' and 'd ia g n o s tic
co m p eten ce'" (p . 4 1 1 ). In t h e i r r e p o r t s , how ever, th ey
seemed to use " s o c i a l p e rc e p tio n " as a s u i t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e
te rm t o give v a r i a t i o n in l i t e r a r y s t y l e .
While E n g lis h and E n g lis h , H e id e r, and Brunswik a l l
s p e c if ie d " s o c ia l o b je c ts " o r " p e rso n s" as th e s t i m u l i in
s o c i a l p e rc e p tio n , th e y did n o t exclude th e n e e d s, v a lu e s ,
and s e t system s w hich a re a ls o d e te rm in a n ts o f an in d iv id
u a l 's p e rc e p tio n . Brunswik w ro te o f th e " h a lo " e f f e c t in
h i s s u b je c ts ' judgm ents and H eid e r used th e p h rase " p e r
c e p tu a l s ty le s " - - w h a t th e p e rso n e x t r a c t s from h i s w orld
b ec au se of h is manner of p e r c e iv in g .
An i n t e r e s t i n g example o f d if f e r e n c e s in p e rc e p
t i o n o f s tim u li a s r e l a t e d t o th e p re s e n t stu d y would be
Andrew's (1943) f a c t o r a n a ly s is o f v a r i e t i e s o f humor. He
found s i x ty p e s of jo k e s o r lau g h -p ro d u cin g s i t u a t i o n s :
d e ris iv e humor, immoral humor, in s ig h t humor, pun humor,
risque* hum or, and in c o n g ru ity humor. A th e o ry based on
p e rc e p tu a l s t y l e co u ld e x p la in th e d i f f e r i n g i n t e r p r e t a
tio n s as to what was funny in term s of s e l e c t i v e a p p r e c ia
tio n f o r te n s io n r e d u c tio n as fo llo w s: we make s tu p id m is
ta k e s; h e n c e , when we see o th e rs doing th e same, we lau g h ;
or we want to commit c e r t a i n immoral a c t s , b u t do n o t p e r
mit o u rs e lv e s to do s o ; or we have committed th e a c ts and
fe e l g u i l t y about them , hence we laugh a t m oral la p se s o f
o th e rs , e t c . Thus th e person p e rc e iv e s as humorous t h a t
which most r e l i e v e s h i s own k in d s o f te n s io n s .
A d i s t i n c t i o n a ls o can be made among kinds o f
s o c ia l p e rc e p tio n on th e b a s is o f th e kind o f s tim u li which
the judges p e rc e iv e . For exam ple, th e p re s e n t study i n
volves judgm ents of em otions based on o b s e rv a tio n o f behav
io r of in d iv id u a ls in a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n , and i s term ed
S o cial P e rc e p tio n -b e h a v io r; d a ta on an o th e r kind o f s o c ia l
p e rc e p tio n involve judgm ents o f em otional re sp o n se s of
persons i n g e n e ra l t o a s e t o f known c irc u m s ta n c e s , and i s
termed S o c ia l P e rc e p tio n -c irc u m s ta n c e s .
Empathy
E n g lish and E n g lish (1958) d e fin e d empathy as
"a p p re h e n sio n o f th e s t a t e o f mind o f an o th e r p e rso n w ith
out f e e l in g (as in sym pathy) what th e o th e r f e e l s " (p.
178).
Dymond (1948) used th e term to "denote th e im agi
n a tiv e tr a n s p o s in g o f o n e s e lf in to th e th in k in g , f e e l i n g ,
and a c tin g o f a n o th e r and so s t r u c t u r i n g th e w orld as he
does" (p. 127). Thus, empathy was used to e x p re ss a kind
o f r o le - p la y in g in which an in d iv id u a l p la c e s h im s e lf in
th e p o s it io n o f a perso n and i n f e r s th e o th e r p e r s o n 's
f e e lin g s from t h a t p o in t o f view . An em pathic resp o n se
may be to p erso n s in g e n e ra l from a knowledge o f circum
s ta n c e s o n ly , or to a s p e c i f i c in d iv id u a l.
P r o je c tio n is d is tin g u is h e d from empathy by th e
o p p o site p o in t o f view o f th e ju d g e . H ere, th e judge
assumes th e o th e r in d iv id u a l t o be l i k e h im s e lf in a g iv e n
s i t u a t i o n and a s c r ib e s h i s own f e e lin g s t o th e o th e r .
E n g lish and E n g lish (1958) d e fin e d i t a s , "The p ro c e ss of
u n w ittin g ly a t t r i b u t i n g o n e 's own t r a i t s , a t t i t u d e s o r
s u b je c tiv e p ro c e s se s to o th e r s " (p . 178).
H a s to rf and Bender (1952) d e fin e d p r o je c tio n as
" th e a t t r i b u t i o n t o o th e rs o f o n e 's p e rs o n a l n e e d s, i n t e r
25
e s t s , and a t t i t u d e s . . . . P r o je c tio n is more a u t i s t i c and
p e rs o n a l t h a n empathy. . . . Empathic a b i l i t y seems more
o b j e c t i v e , m ore c o g n itiv e , and t r u l y p e rc e p tiv e o f th e
p s y c h o lo g ic a l s tr u c t u r e o f th e o th e r p e rso n " (p. 574).
Em pathy and p r o je c tio n may b o th be e f f e c t i v e t e c h
n iq u es f o r a r r i v i n g a t judgm ents o f o th e r p e r s o n s ' emo-
t io n s .
Empathy and P sychotherapy
D e f i n i t i o n s o f empathy as used in th e th e r a p e u tic
p ro cess a r e u s u a lly sk e tc h y o r vag u e, o f te n re g a rd e d as
synonymous w ith i n t u i t i o n , o f te n s h i f t i n g in r e f e r e n c e
from a com plex s e t o f p sy ch ic o r g a n iz a tio n s , or a judgm ent
o f v a lu e r a t h e r th a n a r e a l c o n c e p t. T his i s i n t e r e s t i n g
in view o f t h e c e n t r a l concept t h a t one must u n d e rsta n d th e
p a t i e n t 's f e e l i n g s i n o rd e r to r e f l e c t them or t o h e lp him
to u n d e r s ta n d them. F e re n c z i (1 9 2 8 ), Sharpe (1 9 5 0 ), R eik
(1 9 4 8 ), F e n ic h e l (1 9 4 5 ), Rogers (1945) commented only
b r i e f l y on t h e to p ic , te n d in g to ta k e i t f o r g ra n te d .
D o lla rd and M ille r (1950) in c lu d e d a lim ite d d is c u s s io n o f
i t : "C opying th e o th e r p e r s o n 's f e e lin g s o r re sp o n d in g w ith
th e a p p r o p r i a t e sig n s o f em otion i s c a lle d empathy o r sym
p a th y ."
26
There a re r e l a t i v e l y few so u rces i n th e psycho
a n a ly tic l i t e r a t u r e t h a t d isc u sse d th e p ro cess t h e o r e t i
c a l l y o r s y s te m a tic a lly . The em phasis was u s u a lly in term s
o f d e s c r ip tio n , b u t a ls o one en c o u n ters th e o p in io n th a t
empathy cannot be le a rn e d or ta u g h t; one e i t h e r has i t or
does not have i t .
F e n ic h e l (1945, p. 511) d e fin e d i t as th e i n t u i t i v e
g ra sp o f th e r e a l psychic s t a t e s o f an o th e r p e r s o n - -c lo s e ly
r e l a t e d to i d e n t i f i c a t i o n b u t not i d e n t i c a l w ith i t . He
r e l a t e d i t t h e o r e t i c a l l y to t r a i t s to be found more w idely
in women th a n in men.
Olden (1956) follow ed F e n ic h e l: "Empathy i s th e
c a p a c ity o f th e s u b je c t i n s t i n c t i v e l y and i n t u i t i v e l y to
f e e l as th e o b je c t d o e s ." She r e l a t e d i t as a process
where th e ego te m p o ra rily g iv e s up i t s own i d e n t i t y fo r
t h a t o f th e o b je c t.
E rik se n (1956) r e l a t e d empathy to th e a e s th e tic
ex p e rie n c e in t h a t th e r e was no u n c o n tro lla b le c a l l in to
a c tio n or p a r t i c i p a t i o n b u t r a t h e r an ex p e rien ce o f th e
mind t h a t is c o n f l i c t - f r e e . He coined th e term , g e n e ra tiv e
empathy—th e ex p e rien ce of sh a rin g in and comprehending th e
momentary p sy c h o lo g ic a l s t a t e o f a n o th e r p erso n . S p e c i f i
c a l l y what is to be shared and comprehended i s a h ie r a r c h ic
27
o r g a n iz a tio n o f d r iv e s , f e e l i n g s , th o u g h ts , d e fe n s e s , co n
t r o l s , superego p r e s s u r e s , c a p a c i t i e s , s e l f - r e p r e s e n t a
t i o n s , and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f r e a l and f a n ta s ie d p e r s o n a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T his was q u i t e s im ila r to Wedeck*s form ula
t i o n .
G reenson (1960) d e fin e d th e em pathic com m unication as
a su b lim a te d c r e a t i v e a c t in p e rs o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s which
combined u n ion w ith th e o b je c t and a l s o re c o g n iz e d th e
s e p a ra te n e s s o f th e in d iv id u a ls in v o lv e d . T his was s im i
l a r t o th e fo rm u la tio n o f E n g lis h and E n g lish who f e l t
t h a t empathy was th e ap p re h e n sio n o f th e s t a t e o f mind
w ith o u t th e f e e l in g as i n sympathy.
G reenson c l a r i f i e d i t f u r t h e r . Empathy i s d i f f e r e n t
from sympathy i n t h a t i t does not c o n ta in th e elem ent o f
co n d o len ce , agreem ent, or p i t y ; from im i ta t io n and mim icry
in t h a t th e y a r e co n scio u s phenomena and a r e lim ite d t o
e x t e r n a l b e h a v io r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; from i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
b ecau se i t i s an u nconscious and perm anent phenomenon
w hereas empathy i s p re c o n sc io u s and tem p o ra ry , and b ecau se
empathy i s p r im a r ily f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g r a t h e r th a n to
overcome a n x ie ty , g u i l t , o r o b je c t l o s s .
He made one f u r t h e r p o i n t : t h a t empathy a ls o depends
on th e p e rso n b e in g u n d e rs to o d , t h a t he can r e s i s t o r
28
f a c i l i t a t e th e u n d e rs ta n d in g . An example o f th e f a c i l i t a
t i o n would b e , o f c o u rs e , among a c to r s i n th e t h e a t e r .
D iffe re n c e s among Judges
So f a r in th e d is c u s s io n th e focus has b een on
judgm ents, how to d e fin e them, how to c l a r i f y th e s t i m u l i ,
and th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een stim u lu s and r e c o g n itio n o f
re s p o n s e . One o th e r im p o rta n t a s p e c t t h a t has been e x
p lo re d is th e ju d g e s. I t has b ee n c o n s i s t e n t l y r e p o r te d
t h a t in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s in a b i l i t y t o judge em o tio n a l
e x p re s s io n a r e g r e a te r th a n group d if f e r e n c e s .
Most o f th e s tu d i e s have sought e x p la n a tio n in
term s o f r e l a t i v e l y s t a t i c v a r i a b l e s , such as a g e , sex ,
amount o f t r a i n i n g , e t c . , and th e fin d in g s have b e e n :
1. I n v e s ti g a ti o n s in r e l a t i o n t o age r e p o r te d
t h a t o ld e r c h i ld r e n w ere s u p e rio r to younger in th e a b i l i t y
(G a te s, 1923). A llp o rt (1937) a s s e r te d t h a t a d u lts p a s t
th e age of t h i r t y were s u p e r io r t o th o se who a re yo u n g er.
L e i t e r (1948), in h i s perform ance s c a le , p la c e d a sim p le
t e s t o f m atching e x p re s s io n s a t th e XII y e a r l e v e l .
2. Most i n v e s tig a to r s r e p o r te d no m ajor sex d i f
fe re n c e s in e i t h e r e x p re s s io n o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f em otions
ex c ep t G a te s 's fin d in g t h a t men and boys i d e n t i f i e d f e a r
29
more r e a d i l y th a n d id women and g i r l s .
3. A b i l i t y t o re a d fa c e s improved w ith s h o r t- te r m
t r a i n i n g b u t a n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n e x is te d betw een im
provem ent and o r i g i n a l a b i l i t y (B uzby, 1924; G u ilfo rd ,
1929; Hanks, 1936).
4. Poorer ju d g es improved more w ith lon ger p erio d s
o f tr a in in g th a n did good judges (G u ilfo r d , 1929). The
good judges ten ded to make th e ir judgm ents more q u ic k ly ,
but d id not improve w ith long ex p o su re to th e s t im u li.
A rnold (I9 6 0 ), how ever, su ggested th a t g r e a te r f a m ilia r it y
improved th e a b i l i t y o f a l l ju d g e s .
O th ers have looked for m ore g e n e ra l v a r i a b l e s .
F ie ld s (1933) was one o f th e f i r s t to e x p lo re w hether th e
p e r c e p tio n o f f a c i a l e x p re s sio n s c o r r e l a t e d w ith e i t h e r
e m o tio n a l o r s o c i a l ad ju stm en t ( a s measured by th e B e ll
A djustm ent I n v e n to r y ) . Using a m atching te c h n iq u e w ith
p i c t u r e s , he found a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n w ith s o c i a l
a d ju stm e n t b u t n o t w ith em otional a d ju stm e n t.
E s te s (1938) found no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s
betw een number o f c o r r e c t judgm ents and s c o re s f o r n e u r o tic
te n d en cy on th e B e rn re u te r . He d i d fin d t h a t h is b e s t
ju d g e s were c o n s i s t e n t l y b e t te r th a n h is p o o re r ju d g e s.
T here was no d if f e r e n c e in r a t i n g accuracy a t t r i b u t a b l e to
30
a g e , s i b l i n g s t a t u s , le n g th o f e x p e rie n c e as s o c i a l w ork
e r s , n o r w h eth er or n o t th e ju d g es had been p sy choanalyzed.
He d id f i n d , how ever, t h a t judges w ith an a c t i v e i n t e r e s t
i n p a in tin g and d ra m a tic s w ere s u p e r io r . The b e t t e r ju d g es
had i n t e r e s t s i n th e c o n c re te as opposed t o th e t h e o r e t i
c a l , r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e i n t e r e s t in c o n c e p tu a l u n d e rs ta n d
in g , and ran k ed h ig h i n a e s t h e t i c i n t e r e s t , w ith a la r g e
i n t e r e s t i n d ra m a tic s and p a in tin g .
V ernon (1933) a l s o r e p o r te d t h a t good ju d g es made
h ig h e r s c o re s in a r t judgm ent t e s t s and were more s o c ia b le .
G u ilfo rd (1 9 2 9 ), to o , found t h a t h i s b e s t ju d g e s had a le s s
a n a l y t i c a l a t t i t u d e . E stes* s u b je c ts who w ere judged
p o o rly w ere i n tr o v e r te d in th e se n se o f h av in g a l i k i n g and i
c a p a c ity f o r c o n te m p la tiv e o b s e rv a tio n and f o r a n a ly s is
and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f e x p e rie n c e s . H is more i n t r o v e r te d
ju d g e s d id n o t do b e t t e r w ith th e s e s u b je c ts th a n w ith th e
o t h e r s .
Wedeck (1947), u s in g Spearman*s te c h n iq u e s , found,
th ro u g h f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , a f a c t o r w hich he named "psycho
l o g i c a l a b i l i t y " and d e fin e d a s th e a b i l i t y to judge c o r
r e c t l y th e f e e l i n g s , moods, and m o tiv a tio n s o f o th e r i n d i
v i d u a l s . The e x a c t meanings o f h i s f in d in g s a r e u n c le a r
b ecau se he perform ed no r o t a t i o n s on h i s f a c t o r s . He
31
d em o n strated t h a t t h i s a b i l i t y was r e l a t i v e l y independent
o f v e r b a l and o f th e "g" f a c t o r in i n t e l l i g e n c e . W hatever
th e f a c t o r may b e , h is good ju d g es were d e s c rib e d as b ein g
o f " th e s e n s i t i v e ty p e " in t h a t th e y had a "freedom o f
s e n s i b i l i t y . . . t o im p r e s s io n s ." T his s e n s i t i v i t y m ight
w e ll im ply a n o n a n a ly tic ap proach.
S te in g a r t (1962) more r e c e n t l y a tte m p te d to show
t h a t t h i s f a c t o r d e s c rib e d by Wedeck, o r em pathy, a s S t e i n
g a r t c a l l s i t , i s a k in d o f com m unication s im ila r to th e
a r t v ie w e r 's e x p e rie n c e o f com m unication w ith th e a r t i s t .
He h y p o th e siz e d t h a t th e h ig jily em pathic in d iv id u a l would
be c a p a b le o f g r e a t e r amounts o f r e g r e s s i o n in th in k in g
th a n th e le s s em pathic in d iv id u a l. H is s u b je c ts were drawn
from a norm al and m e n tal h o s p i t a l environm ent. The m easure
o f r e g r e s s i o n t h a t d is tin g u is h e d h is good, norm al em p ath iz-
e r s was th e manner o f c o m p letin g th e s to r y of a dream. In
e v a lu a tin g th e s e s t o r i e s , h i s ju d g es w ere i n s t r u c t e d to
g iv e a h ig h sc o re t o "c o m p le te ly u n u s u a l, u nexpected s i t u a
ti o n s and p o s s i b i l i t i e s . . . th e d eg ree t o w hich th e sub
j e c t ' s th in k in g shows a d is ta n c e from o rd in a ry s i t u a t i o n s
. . . from ex p e cte d k in d s o f o c c u rre n c e s . . . " T his kind
o f e v a lu a tio n i s c e r t a i n l y s im ila r to c r i t e r i a used f o r
ju d g in g d iv e rg e n t perform ance.
32
S ch afer (1952, p. 2 7 ), in d is c u s s in g th e dynamics
o f th e t e s t e r , p o s tu la te d t h a t th e in d iv id u a l w ith an u n
c e r t a i n sen se o f p e rs o n a l i d e n t i t y in h i s s e a rc h f o r an
i t e n t i t y may in c re a s e h is p e rc e p tiv e n e s s o f j u s t how a
p a t i e n t i s t r y in g to so lv e h i s problem s, j u s t how he c o n
c e iv e s o f h im s e lf. This u n c e r ta in ty about o n e 's s e l f may
c o n t r ib u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o th e c a p a c ity to se e th e g r e a t e r
v a r i e t y of s o lu tio n s a v a ila b le to o th e r s , and to th e su b
t l e r a s p e c ts of th e way o th e rs flo u n d e r around among th e s e
s o lu t io n s . I t may, t h e r e f o r e , f o s t e r a f e e l f o r u n iq u e
n e s s , a to le ra n c e f o r a c o n s tr u c tiv e use of am b ig u ity .
In a l a t e r a r t i c l e (1959), S c h a fe r re v e rs e d h is
sta n d and quoted K ris to th e e f f e c t t h a t r e g r e s s io n s f o r
th e sake o f u n d e rs ta n d in g may be r e s i s t e d out o f a n x ie ty ,
t h a t one may n o t be a b le to fin d o n e ’s way b a c k from th e
le s s s t a b l e s ta g e s or o r g a n iz a tio n t o h ig h e r and more
; s t a b l e o r g a n iz a tio n , th a t th e r e i s a f e a r of lo s in g o n e’ s
own ego b o u n d a r ie s , and t h a t one does not chance t h i s u n-
; le s s one i s su re o f a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e ego and sense o f
; s e l f . ’’The tem porary d e -c a th e x is o f o n e 's s e l f image \tfiich
I i s n e c e s s a ry f o r empathy w i l l be r e a d i l y u n d e rta k e n o nly by
th o s e who a re s e c u re in t h e i r sen se o f i d e n t i t y . " A n a ly sts
w ith to o r e s t r i c t e d an i d e n t i t y or w ith amorphous m u ltip le
33
i d e n t i t i e s were p ro b ab ly i n h ib i te d o r u n r e l i a b l e em pathiz-
e r s .
G reenson r e l a t e d empathy to th e c r e a tiv e ex p e rien ce
i n t h a t i t r e q u ire d th e " c a p a c ity f o r c o n t r o ll e d and r e
v e r s i b l e r e g r e s s io n i n ego f u n c tio n s . T his c o n c e p t is
s im ila r t o th e p r i m i t i v i z a t i o n and p ro g re s s io n o f ego fu n c
tio n i n g fo rm u late d by K ris (1956) in d e s c r ib in g th e c r e a
t i v e e x p e r ie n c e ." He f u r th e r r e l a t e d i t to d e p re s s io n in
t h a t th e "u n u n d e rsto o d " p a t i e n t r e p r e s e n ts a k in d of l o s t
n e e d - f u l f i l l i n g love o b je c t. Empathy would be an attem p t
a t r e s t i t u t i o n fo r th e lo ss o f c o n ta c t and com m unications.
T h e re fo re , people w ith a ten d en cy to d e p r e s s io n would make
t h e b e s t e m p a th iz e rs .
He a ls o p o in te d Out t h a t in d iv id u a ls w ith a deep
m is tr u s t o f t h e i r f e e lin g s and im pulses are th e more i n h i b
i t e d e m p a th iz e rs. T hese peo p le o fte n proved t o be r i g i d ,
s e v e re , com pulsive o b s e s s iv e s , or e l s e s c h iz o id p e r s o n a l
i t i e s s tr u g g lin g to m a in ta in t h e i r h o ld on r e a l i t y .
P erhaps th e p s y c h o a n a ly tic a l c o n s id e r a tio n s a r e
s im ila r i n meaning t o th e fo rm u la tio n s o f G u ilfo rd w ith
r e s p e c t t o th e c r e a t i v e in d iv id u a l (1 9 6 2 ). He c h a r a c t e r
iz e d him a s b e in g a b le to suspend judgm ent, and t o b r in g i t
t o b ea r a f t e r an e a r l y p e rio d o f th in k in g d u rin g which
34
th e r e was r e l a t i v e freedom from e v a lu a tio n . There must be
good s to r a g e o f in fo rm a tio n . The o r i g i n a l person had a
lo n g e r m e n tal re a c h th a n o th e r s . There was more f l u e n t
flow o f id e a s and ea se w ith which th e in fo rm a tio n c o u ld be
c a l l e d from s to r a g e . C onnections w i l l f u n c tio n f o r him
t h a t work fo r o th e r in d iv id u a ls w ith only a v e ry , v e ry
sm a ll p r o b a b i l i t y .
Being a b le to suspend judgment and t o th in k w ith o u t
e v a lu a tio n is s im ila r to K ris* s concept o f p r i m i t i v i z a t i o n
o f th e ego. B rin g in g judgm ent to b e a r a g a in is s i m i l a r to
th e p ro g re s s io n a g a in o f th e ego. The more f lu e n t flow o f
id e a s would be p a r t o f th e r e g r e s s i v e p ro c e ss and th e con
n e c tio n s th a t f u n c tio n w ith only a v ery s m a ll p r o b a b i l i t y
c o in c id e w ith S t e i n g a r t 's measure o f r e g r e s s io n .
S ince th e r e was th e fre q u e n tly -s u g g e s te d c lo s e t i e
betw een empathy and th e c r e a t i v e p ro c e s s , i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g
t o view th e p sy c h o a n a ly tic p o in t o f view tow ard c r e a t i v i t y
as r e p r e s e n te d by Wenhart (1953) in h e r p ap e r t i t l e d "A rt
and th e C re a tiv e P e r s o n a l i t y ." I f an a r t i s t is t o put
f o r t h h is most a c u te s e n s i t i v i t y , i t must be combined w ith
open m indedness and freedom to look a t e v e ry th in g . He has
t o be s tro n g enough to w ith s ta n d p a in and t o liv e w ith i t .
O therw ise he may w ithdraw from th e environm ent in o rd e r to
35
exclude Im p re ssio n s t h a t may t h r e a t e n t o h u r t o r d is a p p o in t
h im ."
"The a r t i s t ' s c u r i o s i t y , to o , must be p e r s i s t e n t ,
r e g a r d le s s o f th e outcome. He must be s tro n g enough to
t o l e r a t e a v a r i e t y o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s w ith o u t becoming anx
io u s . T here is a h e a lth y s t a t e o f u n c e r t a in ty t h a t le a d s
t o c u r i o s i t y and e x p e rim e n ta tio n and p e rm its f r e e p la y of
h i s i n t u i t i v e p e r c e p tio n . Genuine s e n s i t i v i t y and c u r i o s
i t y a r e based on an h o n e s t d e s ir e t o be inv o lv ed in l i v i n g ,
t o h e a r , s e e , and e x p e rie n c e as much a s p o s s i b l e ."
"N e u ro tic h y p e r s e n s i t i v i t y on th e o th e r hand i s th e
outcome o f a n x ie ty . I t i s s e n s i t i v i t y to danger and th e
a n x ie ty -p ro d u c in g s i t u a t i o n . I t s s o le purpose i s to ward
o f f th r e a te n in g e x p e rie n c e ."
T his c a p a c ity t o t o l e r a t e a v a r i e t y o f p o s s i b i l i
t i e s i s s im ila r t o F re n k e l-B ru n sw ik 's (1949) fo rm u la tio n s
c o n c e rn in g the " in t o le r a n c e o f a m b ig u ity ." In th e o r iz in g
about t h i s t r a i t she s p e c u la te d t h a t i t depended la r g e ly
upon how c h ild r e n were h an d led by t h e i r p a r e n ts . Some
c h ild r e n were a b le to se e b oth th e good and bad f e a tu r e s
o f t h e i r p a r e n ts , w h ile o th e r c h i ld r e n could n o t do t h i s .
The l a t t e r must r e p r e s s one o f th e two view s o f t h e i r p a r
e n ts , f o r such c h i ld r e n tended t o see t h e i r p a r e n ts as a l l
36
good or a l l bad. The kin d s o f p a re n ts who were l i k e l y to
f o s t e r t h i s outcome a p p lie d v ery s t r i c t , th r e a te n in g , and
u n e n lig h te n in g d i s c i p l i n e which imposed e x te r n a l c o n tr o ls
and th e r o u tin e le a rn in g o f r u le s o f conduct. C h ild re n who
developed under t h i s regim en g e n e ra liz e d t h e i r tendency to
d ic h o to m iz e. O ther th in g s , to o , were reg ard ed as e i t h e r
a l l good or a l l bad, in c lu d in g people in g e n e ra l.
A f a c t o r a n a ly s is o f in v e n to ry sc o re s has le n t
some su p p o rt to th e concept o f to le r a n c e fo r am biguity
(G u ilfo rd , C h ris te n s e n , F ric k , and M e r r if ie ld , 1957). The
f a c to r was n e g a tiv e ly c o r r e la te d w ith s e lf- c o n f id e n c e , and
p o s i t i v e l y w ith d e p re s s io n . The perso n who d is l ik e d am
b ig u ity was a ls o found to be le s s i n t e l l i g e n t and le s s
c r e a tiv e . V ernon's f in d in g on a r t i s t s ' s e n s i t i v i t y has
a lre a d y been m entioned. G u ilfo rd sug g ested t h a t t h i s might
be because o f h i s i n t e r e s t s in o b s e rv a tio n s .
A number of p o s tu la te s emerge h e re . The good judge
o f em o tio n al b e h a v io r has a s p e c ia l a b i l i t y (Wedeck, A l l
p o rt) w hich can be p ro p e rly u t i l i z e d only when th e r e i s a
r e l a t i v e l y s ta b le sense o f s e l f (S c h a fe r, S te in g a r t ,
G u ilf o r d , e t a l . ) which can perm it " to le ra n c e o f ambigu
i t y " (S c h a fe r, F ren k e1-B runsw ik), " f r e e p la y o f i n t u i t i v e
p e rc e p tio n " (W en h art), o r " r e g r e s s io n in th e s e rv ic e o f th e
37
ego" (K ris , S c h a fe r, S t e i n g a r t ) , w ith o u t a n x ie ty o f being
o v erin v o lv e d or o f lo s in g o n e 's ego b o u n d aries (S c h a fe r,
G reen so n ). This a b i l i t y appears to be r e l a t i v e l y independ
e n t of c o n v e n tio n a lly d e fin e d in d u c tiv e re a so n in g c a p a c i
t i e s (Wedeck, S t e i n g a r t ) , but occu rs more o fte n i n i n d i
v id u a ls w ith a le s s a n a l y t i c a l a t t i t u d e (Vernon, E s te s ,
G reenson, G u ilf o r d ) ; th o se who a re more s o c ia b le (V ernon);
and th o se who a re a e s t h e t i c a l l y more s e n s itiv e (Wedeck,
S te in g a r t , Vernon, J e n n e s s ). There i s some evidence th a t
d e p re s s io n is a ls o c o r r e la te d w ith t h i s a b i l i t y (G u ilfo rd ,
e t _ a l . , G reenson, F e n ic h e l) , and a ls o a c a p a c ity f o r d iv e r
g en t th in k in g ( S te in g a r t) .
In d iv id u a ls w ith a le s s s ta b le sense o f s e l f may
have empathy f o r s p e c if ic s i t u a t i o n s in o rd er e i t h e r to
ward o ff dangers (W enhart) or to seek out a r o le f o r them
s e lv e s (S c h a fe r). I t i s h e re t h a t th e n e e d s - v a lu e s -s e ts
o f s o c i a l p e rc e p tio n come most in to p la y .
Empathy would te n d to be in h ib ite d in th e more
r i g i d l y - c o n t r o l l e d , s e v e re , com pulsive o b se ssiv e s and in
s c h iz o id p e r s o n a l i t i e s s tr u g g lin g to m a in ta in t h e i r con
t r o l on r e a l i t y (G reenson).
CHAPTER I I I
HYPOTHESES
S ince th e ju d g in g o f em o tio n al b eh a v io r i s a p ro b
lem in s o c i a l p e rc e p tio n i t i s a p p r o p r ia te t o assume t h a t
p e rc e p tio n s h e re a re a ls o r e l a t e d to f a c t o r s i n th e l i f e
h i s t o r y of th e in d iv id u a l and a re governed by h i s p e rc e p
t u a l s t y l e s o r what h e is s e t to see o r to avoid s e e in g .
The answer t o why some em otions a re d i f f i c u l t t o re c o g n iz e
and o th e rs e a s y , or why some in d iv id u a ls do b e t t e r in g en
e r a l and some on c e r t a i n item s o n ly , may l i e i n an a n a ly s is
o f d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f p e rc e p tu a l s t y l e s .
C e rta in a s p e c ts o f tem peram ent o r judgm ent have
been d is c u s s e d as f a c to r s c o n t r ib u t in g to th e a b i l i t y to
make judgm ents s u c c e s s f u lly . These f a l l in to th r e e m ajor
g ro u p in g s :
1. S p e c if ic temperament t r a i t s have been suggested
a s g e n e ra l f a c t o r s in making ju d g m e n ts:
a . A tendency to d e p re s s io n , s o c i a b i l i t y , and
38
39
em o tio n a l s t a b i l i t y te n d to f a c i l i t a t e th e
m aking of ju d g m e n ts.
b . A tendency t o th o u g h tf u ln e s s , o b j e c t i v i t y ,
and s e rio u s n e s s te n d to impede th e p ro c e s s .
2. D e fe n s iv e p e rc e p tio n s have been su g g ested as
d e te rm in a n ts o f s p e c i f i c e m o tio n a l judgm ents.
3. S e l f - i n s i g h t h a s b e e n su g g ested as a f a c to r i n
f a c i l i t a t i n g th e c a p a c ity to make c e r t a i n
ju d g m e n ts; th a t i s , th e a b i l i t y t o judge c e r
t a i n t r a i t s i s sh arp en ed i f one i s a ls o aware
o f s i m i l a r t r a i t s in o n e 's s e l f .
These a s p e c t s of tem peram ent presum ably can h e lp
t o d efin e a p a r t o f th e background which th e in d iv id u a l
b r in g s to h i s m aking o f judgm ents.
S ince t h e p e r s o n a lity in v e n to ry i s one o f th e m ost
w id ely used a p p ro a c h e s to th e assessm en t o f tem peram ent, in
t h a t i t r e v e a ls h a b i t s , l i k e s and d i s l i k e s , and o p in io n s
w hich are e m p i r i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o p s y c h o lo g ic a l t r a i t s , i t
seems proper t o stu d y in d e t a i l th e answ ers t o a m easure
o f judgments o f em otions, and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to a w e ll -
: d efin e d tem peram ent s c a le . The Guilford-Zimm erm an Tempera
ment Survey (1949) was s e le c te d inasmuch a s i t has been
d efin e d th ro u g h f a c t o r a n a ly s is and i t s component p a r ts
a re re a so n a b ly u n d e rsto o d .
The d ata i n th e p re se n t study a re judgm ents ab o u t
n in e te e n em otional resp o n se s it u a ti o n s made by 255 su b
j e c t s . The s u b je c ts have a ls o been scored on 32 te m p era
ment v a r ia b le s s e l e c t e d as th e b e s t m arkers fo r th e 10
f a c to r s defin ed in G u ilfo rd and Zimmerman's (1956) F o u r
te e n Dimensions o f Temperament. The stu d y a tte m p ts to
e x p lo re th e problem o f w hether o r not temperament v a r ia b le s
do u n d e rly and d e te rm in e judgm ents, and i f th e y do in what
way does th is o c c u r.
F acto r a n a l y s i s was chosen as a prom ising means
fo r e x p lo ra tio n o f th e hypotheses in t h a t i t is a kind o f
summ arizing d ev ice (Guilford-Zimmerman, 1956). "When
a p p lie d to a la rg e number o f i n t e r c o r r e l a t io n s i t i s a
method o f a n a ly z in g to determ ine i f th e v a r i a t i o n s r e p r e
se n te d can be e x p la in e d in term s o f a sm a ll number of
re f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e s . . . . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a re done
by o b serving which t e s t s f a l l on a given dim ension and i n
f e r r i n g what th e s e t e s t s have in common t h a t is a b se n t from
t e s t s n o t f a l l i n g on t h a t dim ension. T e s ts c o r r e la te to
th e e x te n t th a t th e y measure common t r a i t s . By o b se rv in g
and an a ly z in g th e p a t t e r n o f i n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s , th e o p e r a
t i o n o f one or more u n d e rly in g t r a i t s o r o th e r source o f
41
common v a r ia n c e i s in f e r r e d " ( F r u c h te r, 1954).
The assu m p tio n here i s t h a t th e sc o res from th e
temperament s c a le w i l l , under f a c t o r a n a ly s is , f a l l on
t h e i r ex p ected d im e n sio n s, th e re b y c r e a tin g a s e r i e s of
re fe re n c e v a r i a b l e s . With th e s e p o in ts o f r e f e r e n c e ,
sources o f common v a ria n c e in th e film t e s t can be in f e r r e d
by o b serving w hich resp o n ses f a l l on th e se same d im e n sio n s.
Through t h i s tech n iq u e i t is hoped to b r in g about
more o rd e r and u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e p ro cess of m aking ju d g
ments about e m o tio n a l b eh a v io r.
A r e c a p i t u l a t i o n of th e h y p o th eses summarized a t
th e end o f th e p re v io u s c h a p te r which may be p e r t i n e n t to
th e d a ta a t hand f o llo w s :
1. The good judge o f em o tio n al b eh av io r h a s a
s p e c ia l a b i l i t y .
2. Empathy can be p r o p e r ly u t i l i z e d only when
th e re is a r e l a t i v e l y s ta b le se n se of s e l f .
3. The a b i l i t y to make judgments appears r e l a
ti v e l y in d ep en d en t o f c o n v e n tio n a lly -d e fin e d in d u c tiv e -
reaso n in g c a p a c i t i e s , but o ccu rs more o f te n in in d iv i d u a ls
w ith a le s s a n a l y t i c a l a t t i t u d e .
4. The a b i l i t y to make judgm ents appears more
o fte n in th o s e who a r e more s o c ia b le .
42
5. D e p re ssio n i s r e l a t e d to th e a b i l i t y to make
judgm ents.
6. I n d iv id u a ls w ith a le s s s t a b l e sen se o f s e l f
may have empathy f o r s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s in o rd e r to ward
o f f d an g ers or to se ek out a r o l e f o r th e m selv es.
These p o s tu l a te s w i l l be examined in term s o f th e
f a c t o r s t h a t emerge from th e a n a l y s i s . This i s e s s e n t i a l l y
an e x p lo ra to ry stu d y to se e k out prom ising le a d s to e x p la in
th e b a s is on w hich th e judgm ents a re made.
CHAPTER IV
M ETH O D
The Sample
The f ilm item s ( v i s u a l s ti m u li and know ledge o f
s to r y (a s p ro d u ced by B e c k ), and th e Temperam ent S urvey
w ere a d m in is te re d to 306 o f th e fresh m an and sophom ore
c a d e ts e n r o lle d in th e A ir F o rc e ROTC program a t th e U n i
v e r s i t y o f C a lif o r n ia a t Los A n g e le s. A f te r e l im in a tin g
th o s e who f a i l e d to c o m p lete e i t h e r th e f ilm ite m s o r th e
S u rv ey , 255 s u b je c ts re m a in e d . F iv e o f th e c a d e ts had to
le a v e b e f o r e th e f ilm was c o m p le ted . The o th e rs w orked
o v e r ly lo n g on th e tem peram ent s c a le and w ere u n a b le to
co m p lete i t in th e a l l o t t e d tim e .
The breakdow n o f th e g ro u p i s a s fo llo w s :
Age r a n g e : 17 t o 25. M edian a g e : 19. Mean age
1 9 .2 .
A ll s u b je c ts w ere m ale and had q u a l i f i e d f o r
43
44
en tra n ce t o th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a lifo r n ia a t Los A n g eles.
A f u r t h e r s e l e c t i v e f a c t o r e x i s te d in t h a t s c h o l a s t i c r e
q u ire m e n ts in th e a i r ROTC program w ere more s t r i n g e n t th a n
i n o th e r b ra n c h e s o f th e ROTC u n i t s on cam pus. B ecause o f
t h i s , th e gro u p a s a w hole was above th e a v e ra g e i n t e l l i
gence o f s tu d e n ts a t U .C.L.A . At t h a t tim e , a l l e l i g i b l e
m ale s tu d e n ts a t th e U n iv e r s ity w ere r e q u ir e d to ta k e ROTC
t r a i n i n g .
The b a t t e r y was a d m in is te re d w ith in th e h o u r p e rio d
a s s ig n e d f o r ROTC t r a i n i n g , th u s a llo w in g f i v e m in u tes f o r
o r i e n t a t i o n and i n s t r u c t i o n s , 60 seco n d s f o r v ie w in g and
ju d g in g e a c h item o f th e f ilm , and 40 m in u te s to co m p lete
th e Temperament S u rv e y .
The groups w ere a l t e r n a t e d so t h a t h a l f saw th e
f ilm f i r s t and h a l f w ere g iv e n th e Tem peram ent Survey
f i r s t .
The a v e ra g e s c o re f o r t h i s sam ple on th e F a l s i f i c a
t i o n S c a le i s 1 1 .4 , w hich com pares fa v o ra b ly w ith th e
norms f o r a s im ila r p o p u la tio n . Ja c o b s (1962 u n p u b lis h e d
norm s) r e p o r t s t h a t 55 p e r c e n t o f h i s s u b je c ts a c h ie v e d
s c o re s o f 10 o r g r e a t e r . T h e r e f o re , we can assum e t h a t th e
g ro u p was n o t more d e fe n s iv e th a n n o rm al.
45
The M easuring D e v ic e s
The f i lm
The f ilm , Ju d g in g E m o tio n a l B e h a v io r, p o r tr a y s two
a c t o r s , a man and a woman, who h av e been i n s t r u c t e d \d iile
u n d er h y p n o sis t o r o le p la y a s e r i e s o f s i t u a t i o n s w hich
w ere s e le c te d by th e e x p e rim e n te r (L e s te r B eck) in o rd e r
to p ro d u ce e m o tio n a l r e a c t i o n s . Some were d e r iv e d from
a c t u a l e x p e rie n c e s o f th e s u b j e c t s , o th e rs w ere p re p a re d
f o r th e ex p e rim e n t by a p o s t h y p n o tic s u g g e s tio n t h a t when
a s t o r y was to ld th e y w ould f e e l a s though th e y w ere a c t u
a l l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e a c t i o n . The film shows them
s e a te d b eh in d th e ta b le l i s t e n i n g t o th e s e r i e s o f a n e c
d o te s .
For th e p r e s e n t e x p e rim e n t, th e p o r tio n o f th e f ilm
in v o lv in g only t h e male a c t o r was u s e d . T h is c h o ic e was
made i n o rd e r t o av o id a n o v e rly lo n g t e s t , an d a ls o to
keep c o n s is te n t t h e f a c t o r o f m ales ju d g in g a m ale s u b je c t.
There w e re a t o t a l o f 19 s i n g l e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , c u t
to a p p ro x im a te ly u n ifo rm le n g th , w hich in v o lv e d : ( 1 ) th e
v i s u a l component and ( 2 ) t h e a n e c d o te which ev o k ed th e
o b se rv e d b e h a v io r.
A m u ltip le c h o ic e answ er s h e e t, s i m i l a r t o th e one
46
u se d by th e RDDC a t USC, was em ployed. The a l t e r n a t i v e s
on th e answ er s h e e t had b ee n c o n s tr u c te d by o b ta in in g
f r e e re s p o n s e d e s c r i p t io n s o f th e em o tio n s e x p re s s e d by th e
m ale a c t o r from an a u d ie n c e o f 50 s tu d e n ts a t USC. A m ul
t i p l e c h o ic e q u e s tio n n a ir e was d e v is e d from th e f r e e
re s p o n s e d a t a , u s in g th e m odal re s p o n s e as th e c o r r e c t
a n sw e r, and fo u r a l t e r n a t i v e s w ere s e le c te d to r e p r e s e n t a
ra n g e o f fre q u e n c y . T hese re s p o n s e s had b een b a se d on th e
v i s u a l com ponent o n ly .
The s to r y c o n te n t, w ith th e keyed r e s p o n s e s , f o l
lows .
S tory co n ten t used as stim u lu s m a te r ia l. - -
1. You a r e ru n n in g and you jump o v er a fe n c e .
When you come down you la n d on a t r e e r o o t and s p r a in y o u r
a n k l e . (P a in )
2. You a r e a c h ild a t b ed tim e and y o u r m o th er
h o ld s you in h e r arras. She h o ld s you c l o s e ly and t e l l s you
how good you a r e . (T e n d e rn e ss)
3 . You a r e h e a tin g honey i n a j a r on th e s to v e .
When you a tte m p t t o move i t to th e t a b l e , i t s l i p s and
b r e a k s , ru n n in g in to y o u r sh o e . (Amusement)
4 . You a r e a young c h i l d . A f r ie n d a s k s to go to
47
Sunday S ch o o l w ith you. You d o n 't w ant t o ta k e him b e c a u se
you d o n 't f e e l h e i s d re s s e d w e ll enough. (Shame)
5 . You a r e in th e f o u r th g ra d e . The te a c h e r t r i e s
t o h u m ilia te you and moves you to th e r e a r o f th e room b e
c a u se h e i s t i r e d o f lo o k in g a t you. (A ngry)
6 . You a r e d ream in g . In y o u r dream you a r e b e in g
show ered w ith k is s e s from someone you lo v e . You t r y to
p u l l away o n ly t o be draw n c l o s e r to th e p e rs o n and k is s e d
some m ore. ( P le a s u re )
7. You a r e in a b o o th in a c a fe and you o v e rh e a r
a c o n v e rs a tio n in th e n e x t b o o th . One p e rs o n i s sa y in g
th in g s a b o u t you t h a t a r e n e i t h e r n ic e n o r t r u e . (R e s e n t
m ent)
8 . You a r e swimming in th e ocean a tte m p tin g to
h o ld o n to a r a f t when y o u r b a th in g s u i t f a l l s o f f . (Em bar
ra s s m e n t)
9. You a r e w o rk in g in a h o s p i t a l . A p a t i e n t you
do n o t l i k e comes up b e h in d you and h i t s you. (A nger)
10. You a r e r e tu r n in g from a l a t e movie a lo n g a
d a r k , ro c k y ro a d . You p a s s a h o u se w here you know a la r g e
mean dog i s c h a in e d . The dog b e g in s to b a r k ; he seems
r i g h t a t y o u r h e e l s . ( D i s tr e s s )
11. Your f a t h e r i s c r u e l . He b e a ts you and f o rc e s
48
you to do th in g s t h a t you d o n 't w ant to d o . He w hips you
and when you do n o t c r y , h e w hips you some m ore. (P u z z le d )
12. You a r e g iv e n an o p p o r tu n ity t o re a d some
p o e try t h a t you h av e w r i t t e n . Your te a c h e r p r a is e s i t .
You a r e advanced two c l a s s e s . ( P r id e )
13. You a r e a j u n i o r in h ig h s c h o o l. You a r e
p la y in g on an a t h l e t i c team . At th e s t a r t o f th e game you
make a good p la y . The n e x t day th e p ap e r c a r r i e s y our
name and sa y s you a r e an o u ts ta n d in g p la y e r . (Proud)
14. You a r e a t a n ig h t c lu b . A p e rs o n in y o u r
p a r ty g e ts d ru n k and o b n o x io u s. He t r i e s t o g e t up and
f a l l s on th e f l o o r . (D is g u s t)
15. You a r e s i t t i n g on a p o rch w ith young fe llo w s
who have b een h u n tin g . A h e a rs e p u l l s up and th e u n d e r
ta k e r s te p s o u t w ith a d ead duck in h i s h a n d . You s a y ,
"T here goes a dead d u c k ." (Amusement)
16. You a r e a t a b e a ch h a l f a s le e p on th e sand
when someone slo w ly p r e s s e s h i s l i p s on y o u rs . You open
y o u r e y e s and s e e i t i s y o u r b r o t h e r . (Amusement)
17. You a r e m a rrie d and you fin d t h a t you m ust
choose b etw een a m a rria g e and a c a r e e r . You say t h a t you
p r e f e r y o u r m a rria g e b u t you f in d t h a t y o u r sp o u se i s g o in g
to le a v e you and you f in d t h a t he d i d n 't m arry you f o r
lo v e in th e f i r s t p la c e . (B ew ild erm en t)
18. The te le p h o n e r i n g s . You answ er i t to f in d
i t i s a q u iz program . They a s k : "What i s th e food o f th e
G ods?" You sa y : "A m b ro sia," and h e s a y s : "W onderful. You
h a v e j u s t won $ 6 ,2 0 0 ." ( E la tio n )
19. You a r e in a sm a ll h o t e l room a l l by y o u r s e l f .
You ca n th in k o n ly o f how to g e t away from h e r e b u t you can
t h in k o f no way. You a r e a lo n e w ith y o u r s e lf f o r e v e r .
(P u z z le d )
A lte r n a tiv e re s p o n s e s to th e f ilm p r e s e n t a t i o n s . - -
1. C oncern F e a r * P a in Sympathy Ange?*
2 . * T en d ern ess Love H u m ilia te d P le a s u re P r a is e
3 . P le a s u re D is g u s t F r u s t r a te d I r r i t a t i o n *Arause-
ment
4 . R e g re t G r ie f E m barrassm ent P a in ★Shame
5 . I r r i t a b l e S u s p ic io u s A p p reh en siv e I n f e r i o r i t y
★Angry
6 . A n tic ip a tio n ^ P le a s u re B l i s s A n x ie ty C o n te n t
7 . A nger P le a s u re ^R esentm ent Doubt D is g u s t
8 . H o r r if ie d A n x ie ty Amused D is tr e s s ★ Em barrass
m ent
9 . E m barrassm ent T en d ern e ss R esentm ent C oncern
★Anger
10. ^ D is tr e s s F e a r Sympathy Amusement Em barrassm ent
11. *Puzzled Anger Pain P ity D efian ce
12. E la te d P le a s u re C on fid en ce C o n c eit * P rid e
13. C onfidence P le a s u re C ontentm ent *Proud E la te d
14. G u ilt Embarrassment Fear *D isgu st P ity
15. T enseness H ap p in ess C ontentm ent E m barrassm ent
★Amusement
16. P le a s u re A stonishm ent E m barrassm ent Shock
★Amusement
17. D is b e lie f Sorrow S corn A nger *B ew ilderm ent
18. * E la tio n H appiness Shocked D is b e lie f S a t is f a c
tio n
19. Thoughtful *Puzzled Fear Sad D is lik e
★ represents keyed resp onse
The Guilford-Zimmerman
|
; Temperament Survey
i
: The G uilford-Zim m erm an Temperament S urvey was co n -
|s t r u c t e d to com bine th e b e s t f e a tu r e s o f a lo n g e r G u ilfo rd
t
t
j s e r i e s o f p e r s o n a lity in v e n to r ie s . The t e s t m easures te n
; t r a i t s w hich have been i d e n t i f i e d by f a c t o r a n a ly s is p ro -
i
| ced u re s. The t r a i t s are as f o llo w s :
51
G G e n e ra l A c ti v ity
R R e s tr a i n t
A A scendance
S S o c i a b i l i t y
E E m o tio n al S t a b i l i t y
0 O b je c tiv i ty
F F r ie n d lin e s s
T Thought f u ln e s s
P P e rs o n a l R e la tio n s
M M a s c u lin ity
The f a c t o r s o f th e Temperament S urvey w ere b ro k en
i n to s m a ll hom ogeneous g ro u p s b ased on th e b e s t m ark ers o f
th e c a te g o r ie s d e s c r ib e d i n th e F o u rte e n D im ensions o f
Tem peram ent (G u ilfo rd and Zimmerman, 1 9 5 6 ). The r e s u l t i n g
s c o re v a r i a b l e s a r e l i s t e d b elow .
Each s c o re v a r i a b l e , o r t e s t , i s in d ic a te d by th e
i f a c t o r l e t t e r sym bol w ith a s u b s c r ip t fo llo w e d by a d e
s c r i p t i v e t i t l e . A sam ple ite m i s g iv e n f o r e a c h v a r i a b l e .
|The keyed s c o re f o r th e ite m i s g iv e n i n th e f i r s t s e t o f
|
|p a r e n th e s e s fo llo w in g th e sam p le. The number in th e p a re n -
!th e s e s fo llo w in g t h i s i n d i c a t e s th e number o f ite m s in th e
!t e s t .
R apid F a c e : When you e a t a m eal w ith o th e r s
you a r e u s u a lly one o f th e l a s t to f i n i s h . (no)
(9 )
D riv e f o r A c t i v i t y : You f in d y o u r s e lf h u r ry in g
to g e t p la c e s ev en when th e r e i s p le n ty o f tim e ,
(y e s ) (5)
L ik in g f o r A c tio n : You l i k e to do th in g s slo w ly
and d e l i b e r a t e l y . (no) (3 )
C a re fre e n e s s v s . R e s t r a i n t : You b e lie v e i n th e
id e a t h a t we sh o u ld e a t , d r in k , and be m erry
f o r tom orrow we may d i e . (no) (4 )
L ik in g f o r A c tio n and E x c ite m e n t: You l i k e th e
p a r t i e s you a tte n d to be l i v e l y . (no) (3)
S e rio u s n e s s v s . U n co n cern : O th er p eo p le th in k
o f you as b e in g v e ry s e r io u s m inded. (y e s ) ( 6 )
M a in ta in in g O n e 's R i g h t s : When you f in d t h a t
so m eth in g you have b o u g h t i s d e f e c tiv e you h e s i
t a t e to demand a n exchange o r a re fu n d . (no)
(6 )
B eing C on sp icu ou s: The thought o f making a
sp eech fr ig h te n s you. (no) (6 )
S e lf - D e f e n s e ; You f in d i t somewhat d i f f i c u l t
to sa y no t o a sa lesm an who t r i e s to s e l l you
so m eth in g you do n o t r e a l l y w a n t. (no) (3 )
L ik in g f o r S o c ia l A f f a i r s : You l i k e to e n t e r
t a i n g u e s ts , (y e s ) (5 )
L ik in g f o r F rie n d s and A c q u a in ta n c e s ; You fin d
i t e a sy to make new a c q u a in ta n c e s , (y e s ) (9 )
G re g a r io u s n e s s : I t b o th e rs you to have p e o p le
w atch you a t y o u r w ork, (no) (5 )
E m otional D ep re ssio n ; You have u s u a lly been
o p tim is t ic about your fu tu r e . (no) (8)
P h y s ic a l D e p le tio n : You a lm o st alw ays f e e l
w e ll and s tr o n g . (y e s ) ( 2 )
W orry A n x ie ty : You o f te n f in d i t d i f f i c u l t to
go to s le e p a t n ig h t b e c a u se you k eep th in k in g
o f w hat happened d u rin g th e d a y . (no) (4 )
F lu c tu a tio n o f Mood: Your i n t e r e s t s change
q u ic k ly from one th in g to a n o th e r , (no) (7 )
E m o tio n al E x c i t a b i l i t y ; I t ta k e s a l o t to g e t
you e m o tio n a lly s t i r r e d up o r e x c ite d . (y e s)
(2)
E m otional Im m aturity: D isap pointm ents a f f e c t
you so l i t t l e th a t you seldom th in k about them
t w ic e , (y e s) (1 )
D aydream ing: You daydream a g r e a t d e a l. (no)
(3 )
Id e a s o f R e fe re n c e ; A lm ost e v e ry th in g t h a t h a p
p en s seems to have some r e l a t i o n s h i p to you.
(n o ) ( 6 )
H y p e r s e n s it iv it y : You a re touchy about some
th in g s . (no) (11)
R e s i s t a n c e : You r e s e n t h a v in g f r ie n d s o r mem
b e r s o f y o u r fa m ily g iv e you o r d e r s . (n o ) (4 )
H o s t i l i t y : You w ould l i k e to t e l l c e r t a i n p eo
p le a th in g o r tw o. (no) (7)
L ik in g f o r S e rio u s T h in k in g : You a r e more
i n t e r e s t e d in a t h l e t i c s th a n in i n t e l l e c t u a l
th in g s . (no) (5 )
A n a ly s is o f S e l f and O th e r s : You o f te n t r y to
a n a ly z e th e m o tiv e s o f o th e r s . (y e s) ( 1 0 )
M e d ita tiv e n e s s : You a r e u s u a lly to o busy to
spend tim e in r e f l e c t i v e th o u g h t. (no) ( 8 )
F a u ltf in d in g w ith Human N a tu r e : You would
change a l o t o f th in g s a b o u t human n a tu r e i f you
c o u ld h a v e y o u r way ab o u t i t . (n o ) (1 3 )
F a u ltf in d i n g w ith I n s t i t u t i o n s : Most p eo p le
a r e p a id a s w e ll a s th e y sh o u ld be f o r w hat
'.............................. 55
th e y c o n t r i b u t e t o s o c i e t y . (y e s ) ( 8 )
M a scu lin e V o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t s ; You w ould
r a t h e r s tu d y m ath and s c ie n c e th a n l i t e r a t u r e
and m u sic. (y e s) ( 6 )
M a scu lin e A v o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t s : You w ould
l i k e t o go h u n tin g w ith a r i f l e f o r w ild game,
(y e s) ( 6 )
F e a r f u l n e s s : You can lo o k a t sn a k es w ith o u t
s h u d d e rin g . (y e s ) (4 )
Sym pathy f o r A n im a ls: You f e e l d e e p ly s o r r y f o r
a b ir d w ith a b ro k e n w in g , (n o ) (4)
CHAPTER V
RESULTS
The ra n g e o f s c o re s o f number o f c o r r e c t re s p o n s e s
t o th e f ilm ite m s i s p re s e n te d in T ab le 1. Most p re v io u s
in v e s t ig a t o r s h av e r e p o r te d a c c u ra c y o f judgm ents o f emo
t i o n a l e x p re s s io n to f a l l in th e ra n g e o f f i f t y to s i x t y
p e r c e n t. F or th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , a mean c o r r e c t s c o re o f
1 0 .3 was o b ta in e d out o f 19 ju d g m e n ts, o r s l i g h t l y b e t t e r
th a n f i f t y p e r c e n t a c c u ra c y .
The d i f f i c u l t y o f r e c o g n itio n o f su p p o se d ly d i f
f e r e n t e m o tio n a l s t a t e s i n th e p r e s e n t stu d y (se e T ab le 2)
i s com parable w ith p re v io u s i n v e s t i g a t io n s . L a u g h te r h a s ,
in a l l th e s t u d i e s , been r e p o r te d as th e m ost re c o g n iz a b le .
S im ila r ly , a n g er h as b ee n c o n s i s te n t l y th e em o tio n most
d i f f i c u l t to name and i t o cc u rs in th e same o rd e r o f d i f
f i c u l t y h e r e . These two item s a re c l e a r l y a t e i t h e r end
o f th e e x tre m e s , w ith no o th e r ite m s n e a r them . I t i s
a p p r o p r ia te t o n o te h e re t h a t th e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een th e s e
57
TABLE 1
DISTRIBUTION OF NUM BER OF CORRECT RESPONSES
TO FILM ITEMS
S co re * F req u en cy
15 2
14 7
13 2 1
1 2 35
1 1 43
1 0 49
9 33
8 29
7 26
6 6
5 4
4 1
3 1
2 0
1 1
Mean s c o re i s 1 0 .0 3 .
N = 255
*S core e q u a ls number o f ite m s resp o n d e d t o in
th e keyed d i r e c t i o n .
j
!
58
TABLE 2
ORDER OF DIFFICULTY A N D M EA N SCORES
OF FILM ITEMS
No F ilm Item s
Number o f
C o rre c t R esponses
Mean
S co re
15 Amusement 238 .93
3 Amusement 235 .92
14 D is g u s t 166 .65
4 Shame 165 .65
13 Proud 158 .6 2
9 Anger 157 .62
16 Amusement 156 .6 1
8 Emb a r r a s sm ent 155 .6 1
1 0 D is tr e s s 141 .55
1 2 P rid e 124 .49
1 P a in 118 .46
18 E la tio n 117 .46
7 R esentm ent 1 0 0 .39
1 1 P u zzled 99 .39
19
P u zzled 98 .3 8
17 B ew ild ered 95 .37
6 P le a s u re 8 6 .33
2 T en d ern ess 78 .3 1
5 Angry 55 . 2 2
N - 255
3
59
two item s i s n ot e s p e c ia lly h ig h . O ther d i f f i c u l t item s
are th o se th a t m ight be c l a s s i f i e d as le a s t l i k e l y t o be
adm itted t o by th e young m ale— te n d e r n e s s , p lea su re a t
b ein g showered by k i s s e s , b ew ild erm en t, and p uzzlem ent.
At th e o th er end o f th e continuum are judgm ents th a t
s tr o n g ly re p r e se n t superego v a lu e s —d is g u s t , shame, p r id e ,
In th e e a r lie r s t u d ie s , a f t e r la u g h te r came scorn and f e a r ,
r '
w h ile fo llo w in g anger w ere p ain and stir p r is e . P a in , an*
o th e r d i f f i c u l t item , i s not a h ig h ly a c c e p ta b le em otion
in men. Note th e oft-m ade com p lain t o f d o cto rs th a t men
pay l e s s a t te n t io n t o t h e ir m inor i l l s and o n ly come fo r
h e lp a t a fa r advanced sta g e o f t h e ir i l l n e s s e s . There i s
some b a s is h ere fo r c o n sid e r in g th a t th e ord er o f d i f f i
c u lt y o f th e item s depends to some e x te n t on th e p erso n a l
v a lu e s o f th e p o p u la tio n sam ple u sed .
The mean sc o r e s fo r th e temperament v a r ia b le s are
g iv e n in Table 3 .
The F actor A n a ly sis
S in ce most o f th e sc o re v a r ia b le s w ere d eriv ed from
sm a ll numbers o f ite m s, som etim es as sm a ll a s on e, each
sc o re d is t r ib u t io n was d ich o to m ized . The d a ta were k ey
punched on cards and su bm itted to th e W estern Data P r o c e ss-
60
TABLE 3
M EAN SCORE FOR 32 TEMPERAMENT SCALE VARIABLES
V a ria b le Mean S core
G - j^ R apid Pace .54
G 2 D riv e f o r A ctio n .46
G^ L ik in g f o r A ctio n .3 4
R^ C a re fre e n e s s .5 8
R2 L ik in g f o r A ctio n .57
Rg S e rio u s n e s s v s . U nconcern .49
A^ M a in ta in in g R ig h ts .51
A 2 B eing C onspicuous .62
Ao S e lf D efen se .6 0
S^ L ik in g f o r S o c ia l A f f a ir s .59
5 2 L ik in g f o r F rie n d s .64
5 3 G re g a rio u sn e ss .5 0
E-^ E m o tio n al D e p re s s io n .42
E2 P h y s ic a l D e p le tio n .62
E^ Worry A n x ie ty .53
E^ Mood F lu c tu a tio n s .5 1
E^ E m o tio n al E x c i t a b i l i t y .53
Eg E m o tio n al Im m a tu rity .16
Ey D aydream ing .55
0-^ Id e a s o f R e fe re n c e .57
° 2 H y p e r s e n s itiv ity .53
F^ R e s is ta n c e to C o n tro ls .62
F 2 H o s t i l i t y .47
L ik in g f o r S e rio u s T h in k in g .49
T2 A n a ly s is , S e lf and O th ers .62
T3 M e d ita tiv e n e s s .5 4
P^ F a u ltf in d in g Human N atu re .57
p2 F a u ltf in d in g I n d u s t r i a l S itu a t io n s .44
M - j^ M ascu lin e V o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t s .53
M 2 M ascu lin e A v o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t s .42
M 3 F e a r f u ln e s s .82
M ^ Sympathy f o r A nim als .39
61
in g C e n te r i n th e G rad u ate S ch o o l o f B u sin e ss A d m in is tra
t i o n a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a l i f o r n i a a t Los A n g ele s.
K a i s e r 's (1959) com puter program f o r v arim a x r o t a t i o n (se e
BIMD m an u al, BIMD 17 program , 1962) was u se d .
T h is program s t a r t s w ith raw d a t a , com putes p h i
c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s , and c o n tin u e s th ro u g h a r o t a t e d
f a c t o r a n a ly s is and ch eck on c o m m u n a litie s.
The c o r r e l a t i o n m a trix o f p h i c o e f f i c i e n t s i s p r e
s e n te d in T ab le 4 . A ch eck o f T a b le s 2 and 3 w i l l show
t h a t th e r e a r e o n ly fo u r v a r i a b le s w h ich d e v ia te s e r i o u s l y
from a 5 0 -5 0 s p l i t . None o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among th e s e
fo u r i s h ig h . W hile i t i s re c o g n iz e d t h a t th e s e ite m s
w i l l th ro w e r r o r in to th e t a b l e s , in t h a t th e maximum p h i !
w i l l be lim ite d ( G u ilfo r d , 1 9 5 6 ), i t happened in so few
c a s e s t h a t no c o r r e c t io n s w ere made f o r them .
T h ere a r e o n ly t h i r t e e n c o e f f i c i e n t s t h a t a r e s i g
n i f i c a n t beyond th e .0 1 o r .05 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e , w h ereas
two m ig h t be e x p e c te d by chance among th e f ilm v a r i a b l e s .
S in c e t h i s i s an e x p lo r a to r y s tu d y , a s e a rc h f o r
S i
id e a s , th e com puter was i n s t r u c t e d t o c o n tin u e r o t a t i n g as
I lo n g a s th e r e w ere f a c t o r lo a d in g s g r e a t e r th a n .1 5 . O r,
t o s t a t e i t d i f f e r e n t l y , n o t to r o t a t e any f a c t o r on w hich
; th e h ig h e s t lo a d in g was le s s th a n .1 5 . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s
62
TA BLE 4
C O R R E L A TIO N M ATRIX*
I * rai
2. TMterMM
3 . ta M B A t
A . A m
; 3 . M in
fii n « M « ra
7. iNMtwoe
; a, U m a u M W
: 9. A «lr
10. autNM
t t . h u M
1 1 . r tlM
U .h M i
14. B I k h c
17. b a lM in iflt
18. fUCiM
19. PuBiIad
3 4 5 4 7 8 9 10 . 11 12 13 U 15 14 17 18 19
Cl 2 3 ■l 2 3 2 3
13 13 -03 04 04 12 -08 00 *01 07 - 01 01 00 -04 -15 14 •02 -03 *03 ‘*10 -13 04 -01 15 13 04
•04 -01 •09 02 04 -02 •02 •04 01 •03 08 -04 -44 00 •02 00 00 10 08 04 •04 04 •04 04 •04 •OS
09 -04 05 00 04 07 04 11 05 •02 15 14 10 07 01 08 -04 •09 -13 03 to 0$ 12 •02 04
-03 02 •04 03 07 00 07 -07 00 •01 •03 12 03 17 01 01 04 -04 03 02 -01 04 04 12
01 •01 03 10 03 •14 02 04 01 03 07 •09 03 -04 00 •08 05 -04 05 00 18 04 07
-02 07 01 05 •09 04 •03 14 09 05 •01 -07 *03 •07 •04 00 02 03 •04 07 08 10
05 07 00 •14 01 03 07 02 00 -09 02 09 03 -04 10 •01 -01 08 02 02 04
08 *11 -10 -04 08 -07 11 04 00 08 *03 -01 -09 04 14 05 04 -01 -02 02
•09 •03 11
i 0 1
-01 14 03 •01 -02 -07 •21 -12 08 10 01 00 *01 04 12
15* ♦07 “03 -04 -03 04 •07 04 ••04 -10 •14 •12 01 12 •08 04 00 •03
-07 01 -03 -11 01 •03 07 •03 • U -07 •05 •08 13 01 -03 *07 04
-09 •02 10 10 -05 02 02 *14 -03 04 07 -07 02 04 04 •01
04 08 -03 07 07 •23 01 12 •05 04 IB 04 -05 05 -07
10 12 01 -01 -01 -02 -07 05 -02 02 •10 01 07 12
01 01 03 03 -03 -04 •01 04 -04 -18 •08 -05 01
•07 10 03 03 •03 03 00 01 -01 03 10 10
01 17 04 18 08 •02 -10 04 05 -02 -01
-10 04 03 •02 09 04 09 01 02 -04
04 02 13 •05 -04 02 04 09 04
*1
t
3
*1
2
3
*1
2
3
31
17
-15
-14
• 0 3
-17
-05
•09 •
23
-03
19
-01
32
11
1 4
07
05
-10
•14
01
11
-09
04
-14
03
-11
24
19
05
1 8
•04
•04
-15
24
18
*1
3
3
>1
2
3
4
5
4
7
°1
2
'1
2
*1
2
3
*1
2
“ l
2
3
4
M k ImI point* bm b**a oaltt*4.
/
3 « l 2 3
**
2 3 *1 2 3 *1 2 3 * 4 5 6 7 °1 2 h 2 t l 2 3 *1 2 “ t 2 3 4 ■
‘-10 -13 06 -01 IS IS 06 IS 11 02 10 -07 17 04 -05 -01 *02 16 06 02 -06 07 *04 -OS 01 03 07 06 •OS 09
04 •06 06 •06 04 -04 -OS 09 11 00 09 •04 06 02 09 09 •04 -07 12 01 09 •OS -01 01 07 17 -02 02 -09 -OS
•IS O S 10 03 12 -02 06 00 02 03 -02 •OS OS -02 -01 -13 06 08 -01 01 -OS 02 00 -03 04 O S 08 -08 OS 00
-06 O S 02 •OS 04 04 12 07 01 •04 12 10 09 10 05 06 •03 •09 s07 02 O S •04 -02 *02 -01 02 06 00 -OS 12
03 -04 03 00 19 06 02 01 -10 03 -14 •10 -06 •06 •06 00 *02 01 •07 -20 -20 •03 03 -01 *09 -17 07 -06 -01 -OS
00 02 03 •06 07 09 10 -04 03 •06 •03 01 -02 02 •04 -08 06 08 -0 2 10 04 14 14 -03 14 09 •03 -06 10 0 5
10 -01 -01 09 02 02 06 •02 07 -OS 06 O S 03 04 14 02 02 O S -06 -04 *09 04 02 06 -02 12 11 O S O S • -02
04 14 O S 06 -01 •02 02 02 10 06 07 •02 00 02 •02 -02 02 06 01 12 -0? - 09 09 00 09 -02 06 03 *01 02
09 to 01 00 -01 06 12 02 06 -04 04 10 02 09 14 -OS IS -OS 07 *05 01 - 06 03 •08 07 01 06 -OS 06 04
-12 01 12 •09 04 00 •OS •04 -07 -04 • O S •04 04 -09 -05 *01 -09 00 05 -01 -03
-T o i
•01 04 07 11 -03 06 01 •13
-05 -09 13 01 -OS -07 . 04 -01 -07 •09 *02 01 01 •OL -OS -06 02 03 02 09 09 * -02 O S 01 -01 OS -07 01 •02 02
06 07 -07 02 04 06 -01 O S 09 -07 04 09. 12 04 *03 *02 05 IS 04 -09 10 - 04 -04 •09 11 13 -07 O S 00 -03
-05 06 IB 06 -05 OS -07 •04 O S -04 00 00 -03 O S -03 -01 -OS 02 •OS 06 •09 05 02 12 -01 -OS •01 -07 *02 07
05 -02 02 •10 01 07 12 04 03 11 -06 11 -04 00 • - o t -01 IS os -04 02 •10 01 *04 •04 11 09 . 06 08 •03 -01
-01 06 -04 -19 -09 -OS 01 07 19 14 04 09 09 05 06 -01 10 10 03 08 03 . *02 01- •06 09 04 00 *09 *01 09
03 00 01 •01 os 10 10 04 02 01 06 IS 06 -02 O S 00 06 07 00 •04 07 OS -0 3 . 04 04 O S 09 -04 02 -07
09 -02 -10 04 03 •02 -01 -14 -09 01 -07 07 -09 -03 03 -07 ■ *09 -10 -10 03 -02 •04 04- 03 •10 -04 13 00 09 03
-02 09 04 09 01 02 -06 04 -03 00 13 07 10 -02 -01 OS •09 02 -02 00 01 14 06;. 11 •03 00 -03 -OS •01 00
IS •OS -04 02 06 09 06 -03 -01 07 -11 -01 -01 -09 • -14 •IS 01 os -04 -03 -12 •04 01 -02 •OS 01 07 -01 02 -06
31 -IS -17 -OS 16 11 19 19 IB 26 17 20 09 10 . 01 09 03 01 02 03 -01 •06 -09 -12 •1 3 ' •10 09 00 -13 -07
17 -14 •05 19 07 -09 O S 07 *5 10 -09 03 -15 -09 03 05 *04 -12 -OS -09 -13 •09 04 01 •21 -13 •02 -03 -07 -02
-OS -09 • -01 O S 04 19 16 11 13 *01 07 -01 01 -06 -09 11 os -01 00 -04 •10 •09 -IS -03 -01 02 03 -02 os
23 32 -10 -14 •06 -09 -20 -IB -09 09 •14 06 01 -04 04 14 -15 08 09 12 06 12 09 . 03 00 -01 07 07
11 •16 OS -04 -22 •09 •09 06 07 04 13 04 -03 05 04 06 07 16 06 10 07 11 11 -12 00 *05 03
01 -11 -IS O S •21 -11 *16 -10 •29 -10 00 -09 -16 -09 •29 -08 -10 14 37 27 •IK •16 00 *02 06 03
24 24 19 25 17 03 09 00 01 00 -02 01 02 03 -06 -16 •04 -02 -12 00 O S 03 -10 -11 02
19 23 SB 23 16 IS 10 IB 04 06 10 17 20 08 06 06 09 00 13 09 01 -01 00 01
16 29 IS 11 14 15 14 15 09 19 10 IS IS 02 03 •01 -07 19 14 12 ' -09 01 04
29 35 O B -OS O S 02 -05 04 09 02 -01 13 04 *02 09 -01 -0 1 ' 07 •05 -10 -07 OS
32 21 12 16 IB 17 09 ' 19 14 20 14 IB •06 02 -14 19 20 00 -07 •06 05
04 07 06 01 05 -01 06 07 IB 14 06 *07 OS -14 O S 11 -07 -13* *07 *06
S3 41 31 19 16 16 22 39 14 29 09 -01 -09 27 .24 14 04. 10 09
20 37 23 09 4 IB 17 16 14 23 -OS *03 •14 14 12 09 01 07 00
21 10 20 10 22 41 19 25 *01 -23 -24 22 19 09 OS . 06 02
27 11 S B 21 21 20 31 10 *09 16 10 IS 09 OS 10 11
20 19 19 29 01 24 03 02 04 10 03 14 09 . 16 02
10 04 20 01 IS -04 •02 IQ 09 09 -02' 04 01 02
20 17 12 13 04 -11 -26 17 19 09 12 14 07
16
23
24
29
05
01
0 9
O S
• 0 7
•10
•09
• 1 0
20
•09
•10
•OS
•OS
25
49
24
22
10
94
94
21
20
S3
06 -OS
•01 01
•06 -06
37
04
10
01
• 0 9
02
02
00
01
•01
11
14
-01
02
•1 0
-12
-09
O S
O S
16
07
14
O S
»
10
10
15
19
•OS
24
0 9
00
01
•0 2.
04-
-02
-10
- 0 5
-07
•04
07
-02
-01
■ " 63
a n a ly s is are found in Table 5 .
W ith t h i s c r i t e r i o n 22 f a c t o r s w ere e x t r a c te d .
T h is a c c o u n ts f o r 9 5 .7 p e r c e n t o f th e v a r ia n c e , w hich is
a maximum amount and p ro b a b ly in c lu d e s some f i c t i t i o u s
f a c t o r s . A b re a k o c c u rs on th e g rap h o f v a lu e s b etw een th e
t h i r t e e n t h and f o u r te e n th e ig e n v e c to r s .
U sin g t h i s a s a c u e , th e d a ta w ere r e s u b m itte d to
th e com puter w ith i n s t r u c t i o n s to r o t a t e o n ly 13 f a c t o r s .
The r o t a t io n fo r t h ir t e e n fa c to r s appears in th e Appendix
I
;as T able 6 . T his s o lu t io n crowds th e Temperament S c a le
; in to l e s s fa c to r space than o p tim a l. The r e s t o f th e data
conform s rea so n a b ly w e ll to th e in te r p r e ta tio n s made on
th e b a s is o f tw enty-tw o f a c t o r s . There are no major d i s
agreem ents and s e v e r a l o f th e agreem ents appear w ith g r e a t- i
er s t a t i s t i c a l s ig n if ic a n c e than in th e lon ger s o lu t io n .
S in ce t h i s i s an e x p lo r a to r y s tu d y and i t was f e l t
t h a t i t was d e s i r a b l e to p u l l o u t a l l o f th e p o s s ib le v a r i - ;
an ce in th e m a tr ix , th e c h o ic e was made to exam ine in d e
t a i l th e la r g e r s o l u t i o n . The t h i r t e e n f a c t o r s o lu t io n s
se rv e d a s a c h e c k . The r e s u l t s o f th e r o ta te d f a c t o r a n a l
y s is o f tw en ty -tw o f a c t o r s a p p e a rs a s T ab le 5.
D e sp ite p r e v io u sly rep o rted r e l i a b i l i t y , th e film
t e s t was e v id e n tly to o complex to y ie ld e a s ily to a n a ly s is
T A B L E 5
R O T A T E D FA C T O R M A T R IX —NINETEEN FILM
A N D TH IRTY -TW O T E M P E R A M E N T V A RIA BLES
A B C D E ~ P G R I J K L M H 0
. 1. Pain 07 14 -03 07 18 13 15 -08 -25 -16 -05 02 20 00 -07
2. Tenderness 07 04 -04 -16 -06 09 01 -07 05 -08 -15 -08 -01 -10 04
- 3. Amusement 04 03 -02 07 -04 03 10 09 -51 05 -01 -02 : 03 08 -06
; ■ > 4. Shaste -06 02 -02 -03 -09 -06 39 -01 -08 -03 06 -03 03 01 00
S. Angry 08 0A -03 08 -09 -01 02 -05 07 04 -07 53 03 00 -04
6. Pleasure -03 00 08 05 01 -06 -05 -03 -04 -02 02 01 09 14 -49
7. Resentment -05 00 06 03 -02 50 -03 03 -01 01 -03 04 04 05 05
• 8. Embarrassment 02 05 04 02 -06 06 05 -01 -02 11 -06 -01 46 -05 -08
- 9. Anger -10 01 00 09 -51 02 03 -03 -03 04 01 10 „ 07 -01 00
.10. D istress 01 -06 03 28 16 -09 05 -05 -15 -03 06 13 -11 -01 02
11. Fussled -02 -07 06 10 01 -26 07 -01 -27 -04 00 -14 -19 -02 11
12. Pride -03 01 -05 04 -08 01 04 04 -01 05 10 03 -02 -02 -06
13. Proud -01 -02 07 -07 02 04 03 00 00 02 -48 . 02 05 04 01
1A. Disgust -03 06 -05 03 01 07 04 02 -07 -01 -05 01 -05 51 -13
15. Amusement -05 07 -04 02 -10 02 . -02 01 -08 -01 -06 -02 11 09 -03
16. Amusement -06 05 00 01 -11 02 33 04 -04 04 02 05 -07 17 -06
17. Bewilderment -03 -07 01 -21 -01 -12 -01 28 -03 01 -05 -08 -05 -04 -01
18. E lation -05 01 11 -01 11 -02 39 -10 -04 04 -10 03 09 -05 08
19. Puaaled 05 04 -01 -04 03 06 -05 49 -07 -02 01 00 -01 02 03
h -21 28 -14 -45 23 06 11 11 16 -05 02 05 04 -05 -03
2 03 05 05 -61 07 -04 02 02 02 -04 -05 01 -07 -02 06
3 -06 17 -15 -31 -08 -19 -03 22 17 - 07 04 . 08 09 05 00
R1 -09 -20 11 10 -06 00 04 -02 -01 60 -05 -04 14 01 -03
2 -19 -23 13 13 -06 -09 00 -03 -19 15 -33 01 09 04 -01
3 07 -07 36 -21 02 09 02 -04 -12 41 -04
01
07 -11 11
*1 -03 41 -10 -08 05 08 06 07 -17 00 08 31 -07 -09 -15
2 -19 48 09 15 -oj -01 04 15 06 -13 -12 09 01 08 -09
3 -12 31 -05 -08 -16 06 11. 16 -05 00 14 05 -07 08 -26
Si 06 59 04 -06 02 -02 10 -12 03 01 09 -07 03 02 08
2 -16 56 -04 -07 -11 09 -06 00 -01 -17 -06 -06 05 -01 -08
3 -05 54 -03 -10 04 -08 -05 06 -03 -08 04 -06 09 08 07
El -42 10 -01 08 08 07 24 -10 04 -15 00 -10 10 -17 03
i 2 -57 05 -08 -07 -03 00 20 06 00 06 02 -05 -06 08 -02
I 3 • -19 05 -27 14 07 06 23 00 -01 -22 -02 -11 04 -14 -03
I A -57 08 -08 04 -10 07 -03 -08 02 03 -08 -12 . 01 -01 -05 .
t 5
-28 01 08 -14 -23 16 -03 -17 -03 03 04 -08 -08 02 07
6 -05 03 04 -05 00 10 09 -18 24 -04 04 01 -12 -02 06
7 -35 10 -13 01 -19 01 -17 -06 -06 03 06 -03 02 24 -04
°1 -21 10 -05 11 17 01 -05 08 -10 15 -02 -02 08 11 -06
2 -18 11 -09 07 -03 -09 01 -03 -01 -20 01 -08 07 -07 02
Fi
-14 17 -08 12 06 -11 00 -01 -03 •11 -09 -39 14 -03 -14
2 -30 04 -06 11 -06 -15 03 -15 09 13 00 -40 -09 -11 -05
T1 -06 -02 31 09 -01 09 09 -07 -04 05 -09 -10 08 -06 -24
2 02 07 69 -03 -03 -02 -02 01 -03 02 01 05 07 -02 -06
3 20 -07 64 03 05 08 10 -01 10 11 -13 -04 -10 -03 01
*1 -12 10 -03 26 -05 -04 -01 -04 01 11 -02 -13 05 07 -24
2 -13 11 -02 17 03 06 00 05 -06 02 06 -14 -03 13 -05
M i
-08 -03 -02 -02 -04 15 09 10 -05 -04 05 08 10 07 02
2 -04 -17 -12 -01 09 01 -08 -02 04 -04 09 -02 13 19 17
3 -09 -09 16 08 -07 -03 -07 00 -01 04 01 -07 -03 -01 -07
• A’
-06 01 -06 -02 -05 -03 01 -04 -01 04 -07 -03 02 -02 -01
★Decimal points have been omitted.
64
R I J K L M H 0 P
Q
R S T 0 V
*1
-08 -25 -16 -05 02 20 00
0
1
04 -14 04 -12 -11 -23 03 35:
-07 05 -08 -15 -08 -01 -10 04 -35 03 00 -09 -04 08 05 24:
09 -51 05 -01 -02 03 08 -06 00 -02 -03 12 01 -01 -05 32
-01 -08 -03 06 -03 03 01 00 -01 12 -10 -07 -03 -22 03 27
-05 07 04 -07 53 03 00 -04 16 00 04 02 -01 09 -01 36
-03 -04 -02 02 01 09 14 -49 -05 -07 -02 04 03 -02 -01 30
03 -01 01 -03 04 04 05 05 -07 -01 02 00 00 03 -06 28
-01 -02 11 -06 -01 46 -05 -08 01 04 02 09 -01 -04 -04 26
-03 -03 04 01 . 10 „ 07 -01 00 -02 -09 02 10 02 -07 -07 32
-05 -15
< 0
0
1
06 13 -11 -01 02 -13 12 01 -07 -02 17 01 26
-01 -27 -04 00 -14 -19 -02 11 -07 11 -15 -13 -01 -04 06 29
04 -01 05 10 03 -02 -02 -06 -06 -51 02 06 -04 00 03 36
00 00 02 -48 , 02 05 04 01 -02 07 -02 07 03 -09 02 26
02 -07 -01 -05 01 -05 51 -13 -02 03 01 08 05 03 -03 31
01 -08 -01 -06 -02 11 09 -03 01 -08 -01 53 -05 -05 01 \ 34
04 -04 04 02 05 -07 17 -06 01 -09 O S -01 -04 18 -0 3 : 21
28 -03 01 -05 -08 -05 -04 -01 02 08 -29 07 12 -04 -23 32
-10 -04 04 -10 03 09 -05 08 01 -06 04 03 02 -01 01 23:
49 -07 -02 01 00 -01 02 03 02 -04 00 01 04 05 -04 , 27
11 16 -05
92
05 04 -05 -03 03 20 14 00 01 14 -01 54
02 02 -04 -05 01 -07 -02 06 02 05 -06 -03 04 -03 04 41;
22 17 - 07 04 08 09 O S 00 05 -06 24 -01 07 03 -06 37
-02 -01 60 -05 -04 14 01 -03 -02 -06 01 04 05 -07 01 47
-03 -19 15 -33 01 09 04 -01 -13 09 02 -13 -14 02 25 43
-04 -12 -04
91
07 -11 11 12 -09 -02 -20 19 -01 -03 51
07 -17 00 08 31 -07 -09 -15 -06 01 -11 -11 03 -06 00 40
15 06 -13 -12 09 01 08 -09 02 -09 -06 -16 -16 -02 02 4 2
16 -05 00 14 05 -07 08 -26 -11 18 15 -01 -18 -10 -05 40
-12 03 01 09 -07 03 02 08 -03 -04 17 04 06 -06 02 44
00 -01 -17 -06 -06 05 -01 -08 -20 -05 -01 12 -16 -08 06 50
06 -03 -08 04 -06 09 08 07 .00 09 -06 18 -09 17 10 44
-10 04 -15 00 -10 10 -17 03 -25 -03 08 05 -25 -03 -16 51
06 00 06 02 -05 -06 08 -02 -06 -02 -08 08 -09 05 -05 43
00 -01 -22 -02 -11 04 -14 -03 -14 -08 13 10 -36 -01 -08 46
-08 02 03 -08 -12 . 01 -01 -05 . 03 00 05 -05 -18 -16 -06 46
-17 -03 03 04 -08 -08 02 07 -03 06 -15 01 -37 00 -17 42
-18 24 -04 04 01 -12 -02 06 -10 08 -01 03 -32 -08 01 26
-06 -06 03 06 -03 02 24 -04 -05 -04 23 02 -15 -10 -11 39
08 -10 15 -02 -02 08 11 -06 -05 -22 11 04 -44 01 -06 42
-03 -01 -20 01 -08 07 -07 02 -14 -01 00 -02 -61 04 -12 54
-01 -03 •11 -09 -39 14 -03 . -14 00 17 06 05 -16 -02 -03 36
-15 09 13 00 -40 -09 -11 -05 -15 -11 -05 02 -32 07 01 51'!
-07 -04 05 -09 -10 08 -06 -24 -13 -07 12 -03 -01 03 08 27
01 -03 02 01 05 07 -02 -06 -04 03 -03 02 08 06 -02 50
-01 10 11 -13 -04 -10 -03 01 04 08 -04 -02 -03 04 -07 55
-04 01 11 -02 -13 05 07 -24 -39 -08 02 08 -23 11 -11 43
05 -06 02 06 -14 -03 13 -05 -52 -11 02 03 -16 01 06 42
10 -05 -04 05 08 10 07 02 02 10 -01 -04 -06 -07 -47 32:
-02 04 -04 09 -02 13 19 17 -09 -07 00 -22 -13 -04 -19 271
00 -01 04 01 -07 -03 -01 -07 02 -05 00 01 -12 04 -48 32i
-04 -01 04 -07 -03 02 -02 -01 05 -01 01 04 01 -42 -02 20;
. . L I . .IL U L JH ,.
......"....'.................................................. " 65
u n d er th e p r e s e n t te c h n iq u e s . The r e s u l t s a r e , to say th e
l e a s t , d is a p p o in tin g . I s a b e l B eck, u s in g t h i s t e s t , r e -
l p o rte d r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f ,35 to .4 0 f o r h e r v a r io u s g ro u p s
b u t f a i l e d to g iv e s u f f i c i e n t in fo rm a tio n t o in d i c a t e p r e
c i s e l y how th e s e f ig u r e s w ere o b ta in e d . The RDDC a t USC
! in t h e i r p r e lim in a r y t r i a l s found th e r e l i a b i l i t y to be
! o n ly .1 1 f o r th e m ale t e s t , u s in g th e K uder R ic h a rd so n
| fo rm u la . H ow ever, when th e p a p e rs w ere r e s c o re d t o a c c o u n t
f o r ch an ce and th e ra n g e o f d i f f i c u l t y o f th e ite m s
i
i
(S = R - W /4), th e r e l i a b i l i t y r o s e to .5 4 . The marked j
i
| in c r e a s e i n r e l i a b i l i t y i s p ro b a b ly e v id e n c e o f a la r g e j
I I
| p ro p o rtio n o f random v a ria n c e in th e raw s c o r e s . From j
j t h i s i t m ig h t be in f e r r e d t h a t th e s u b je c ts found th e t e s t j
i
! v e ry d i f f i c u l t and a g r e a t many re s p o n s e s w ere g u e s s e s .
: i
I
The c o r r e la tio n s o b ta in ed by th e RDDC a t USC tended!
to be s l i g h t l y h ig h er than th o se rep o rted h e r e . I t may be
!
j t h a t t h i s may be e x p la in e d by th e d if f e r e n c e i n b i - s e r i a l
| j
c o e f f i c i e n t s and p h i c o e f f i c i e n t s . N e v e r th e le ss th e RDDC j
i
fa c to r a n a ly s is o f th e item s led to no m ean in gfu l s t r u c
tu r e . T his i s why th e r e se a r c h b e in g rep o rted h ere was
I
t i e d t o th e tem peram ent s c a le v a r i a b l e s . ;
On ex am in in g th e 22 f a c t o r s t h a t em erged from th e
|f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , th e G u ilfo rd Zimmerman s c o re s f e l l ro u g h ly ;
66
on t e n o r e le v e n a x e s , as h y p o th e s iz e d . How ever, d is a p
p o in tin g ly few f ilm item s a r e d e fin e d in te rm s o f th e tem
peram ent s c a l e .
I n d is c u s s in g th e f a c t o r s , i n t u r n , f i r s t a r e
l i s t e d th e t e s t s t h a t h av e s i g n i f i c a n t lo a d in g s on t h a t
f a c t o r . A s i g n i f i c a n t lo a d in g f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p u rp o ses
i s a r b i t r a r i l y d e f in e d as b e in g .3 0 o r g r e a t e r , p o s i t i v e o r
n e g a tiv e . F o r ea ch t e s t v a r i a b l e i s g iv e n i t s name and i t s
; lo a d in g on th e f a c t o r u n d er d is c u s s io n . L e s s e r lo a d in g s
a r e in c lu d e d t o h e lp in d i c a t e p ro m isin g b u t n o t s i g n i f i
c a n t t r e n d s . L o ad in g s o f any s t r e n g t h f o r o th e r f a c t o r s
on t h a t t e s t a r e a l s o g iv e n .
To f a c i l i t a t e co m p reh en sio n , s c o re s o f c e r t a i n v a r i
a b le s on GZTS w i l l be changed so t h a t th e y a r e sc o re d in
th e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i r nam es. Thus R2 , a l l E, 0 , F , and
P v a r i a b l e s , and and a re r e f l e c t e d . Thus th e y show
d i f f e r e n t s ig n s in th e fo llo w in g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f th e
f a c t o r s th a n th e y do in T ab le 5.
IF a c to r A—E m o tio n al i n s t a b i l i t y
|
IE2 P h y s ic a l D e p le tio n (F re e o f) .5 7 * (G .2 0 )
* T e sts so m arked do n o t h av e a h ig h e r lo a d in g on
a n o th e r f a c t o r .
67
E^ F lu ctu a tio n o f Mood .57*
E-^ E m otional D ep ressio n .42* (G -.2 4 ) (T -.2 4 ) (P .2 5 )
Ey Daydream ing .35* (N -.24) (R -.2 3 )
No film item s were p re s e n t w ith lo a d in g s over .1 0 .
H ere we h av e th e e m o tio n a lly u n s ta b le in d iv id u a l who
i s d e p re s s e d , d e p le te d , r e s o r t s to daydream ing, and
h as mood f lu c t u a t i o n s . These s u b je c ts ten d ed to r e
spond o n ly in a random manner to th e cues p re se n te d by
th e film ite m s. T here is l i t t l e ev id en ce t h a t th e
g e n e ra l t r a i t o f e m o tio n al i n s t a b i l i t y a f f e c t s ju d g
m ents.
F a c to r G—Freedom from d e p re s s io n and a n x ie ty
E 1
E m otional D ep ressio n -.2 4 (T -.2 4 ) (P .2 5 )
E3
Worry A nxiety -.2 3 (T .3 6 ) (C .2 7 )
E 2
R iy s ic a l D e p le tio n - . 2 0 (A .5 7 )
18 E la tio n .39*
16 Amusement .33*
1 P ain .15
H ere th e c h e e r f u l, a n x ie ty - f r e e in d iv id u a l te n d s to be
more s e n s i t i v e to cu es r e l a t i n g to amusement and e l a
t i o n . The in d iv id u a l w ith a la c k of em o tio n al d e p re s -
6 8
s i o n , p h y s ic a l d e p le tio n , and w o rry a n x ie ty i s a b le to
r e c o g n iz e em otions t h a t go w ith h ig h s p i r i t s , w h ile th e
more g e n e r a lly d e p re sse d in d iv id u a l b lo c k s th e s e o u t.
They a r e n o t p re s e n t in h im s e lf and th e r e f o r e n o t v i s
i b l e in o th e r s .
F a c to r B - - S o c ia b ility and ascen d an ce
S-^ L ik in g f o r S o c ia l A f f a ir s .59*
S2 L ik in g f o r F rie n d s .56*
Sg G re g a rio u s n e s s .54*
A2 B ein g C onspicuous .48*
A^ M a in ta in in g O ne's R ig h ts .4 1 * (L .3 1 )
A3 S e l f D efense .3 1 * (0 - .26)
T h is c o rre sp o n d s to G u ilfo rd and Zimmerman's A and S
f a c t o r s w hich a re h ig h ly c o r r e la te d w ith each o th e r.
One f ilm item is p re s e n te d w ith a lo a d in g o f .14 ( r e c
o g n iti o n o f p a in ), o th e rw is e th e r e w ere none w ith
lo a d in g s over .0 7 .
F a c to r C --R e fle c tiv e n e s s
T2 A n a ly s is o f S e lf and O th ers .6 9 *
T3 M e d ita tiv e n e s s .64*
69
R3 S e rio u s n e s s v s . U nconcern .3 6 * ( J .4 1 ) (D“ »24)
(S -.2 0 )
L ik in g f o r S e rio u s T h in k in g .3 1 * ( 0 - .2 4 )
One f ilm ite m a p p e a re d w ith a f a c t o r lo a d in g o f .1 1
( e l a t i o n o v er a n sw e rin g a q u e s tio n on a q u iz show
s u c c e s s f u l l y ) . T h ere m ig h t be a p r e t t y te n u o u s o r
p o s s ib le c o n n e c tio n w ith t h i s ite m in t h a t th e r e i s
g r a t i f i c a t i o n f o r a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a tta in m e n t- - p e r h a p s
v a g u e ly r e l a t e d t o th e th in k e r g e t t i n g an A on a t e s t .
O th erw ise no ju d g m en ts came e a s i e r to t h i s gro u p o f
i n d i v i d u a l s .
iF a c to r D—C o n tr o lle d v s . a c tio n te n d e d in d iv id u a l
G£ D riv e f o r A c tio n - .6 1 *
Gx R ap id P ace - .4 5 * (E .2 3 ) (Q .2 0 )
G 3 L ik in g f o r A c tio n - .3 1 * (H .2 2 ) (R .2 4 )
j 10 D is tr e s s (a lo n e
a t n i g h t , dog
b a rk in g a t h e e ls ) .2 8 *
17 B ew ild erm en t
(Spouse le a v e s d e
s p i t e g r e a t s a c r i
f i c e s made to in d u c e
him to s ta y ) - .2 1 (H .2 8 ) (R -.2 9 ) (V -.2 3 )
H ere we have th e d e l i b e r a t e , slow a c t i n g , n o n h u rry in g
in d iv id u a l who d i s l i k e s a c t io n , who p e rc e iv e s th e d i s
t r e s s in a d an g ero u s s i t u a t i o n in v o lv in g p h y s ic a l
t h r e a t (one w hich c a n p erh ap s be d e a l t w ith by p h y s ic a l
a c t i o n ) ; b u t who i s u n a b le to re c o g n iz e th e b e w ild e r
ment w hich i s a co nsequence o f f in d in g no a p p r o p r ia te
p a th o f a c tio n a v a i la b l e . The a c tiv e in d iv i d u a l, on
th e o th e r h an d , i s n o t re s p o n s iv e to d i s t r e s s in a
s i t u a t i o n w here p h y s ic a l d an g e r m ig h t be h a n d le d by
a c t i o n , b u t u n d e rs ta n d s th e b ew ild erm en t o f a s i t u a t i o n
w here p h y s ic a l a c tio n i s n o t a s o lu tio n .
I n o th e r w o rd s, th e c o n tr o lle d in d iv id u a l i s more
c o m fo rta b le when he w eighs and m easures and makes
c h o ic e s , and th e more a c tio n ten d ed i s c o m fo rta b le when
he ca n resp o n d w ith p h y s ic a l a c tio n . I t i s d i f f i c u l t
f o r them to re c o g n iz e D is tr e s s o r B ew ilderm ent in a
s i t u a t i o n w here th e y would be c o m fo rta b le .
|F a c to r H—H e lp le s s n e s s
19 P u zzled .4 9 *
17 B ew ild ered .2 8 (D -.2 1 ) (R -.2 9 ) (V -.2 1 )
G3 D riv e f o r A c tiv ity .22 (D -.3 1 ) (R +.24)
A gain th e in d iv i d u a l who c a n n o t t o l e r a t e in a c ti o n i s
more p ro n e to p ic k up cu e s o f b e w ild erm e n t and p u z z le
m ent in a s i t u a t i o n w here no a c t i o n i s p o s s i b le . Or
t o p h ra s e i t d i f f e r e n t l y th e a c tio n o r ie n te d in d iv i d u a l
who i s in a s i t u a t i o n w here a c t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t o r
im p o s s ib le f o r him (he i s re n d e re d h e l p le s s ) w i l l be
e s p e c i a ll y s e n s i t i v e t o b e in g p u z z le d and b e w ild e re d .
F a c to r V—F e a r f u ln e s s and n o n -M ascu lin e V o c a tio n a l
I n t e r e s t s
M 3 F e a r f u ln e s s .4 8 *
Mi M ascu lin e V o c a tio n a l I n t e r e s t s - .4 7 *
17 B ew ilderm ent - .2 3 (D -.2 1 ) (R -.2 9 )
(H .2 8 )
The f e a r f u l m ale who s e e s h im s e lf in th e l e s s m a sc u lin e
s te r e o ty p e f a i l s to re c o g n iz e b ew ild erm en t in t h i s
s i t u a t i o n . The f a c t o r i s d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t in a
m e a n in g fu l way.
72
F a c to r E --N o n re c o g n itio n o r D e n ia l o f A nger
9 A nger -.5 1 *
1 P a in .1 8 (B .1 4 ) (G .1 5 ) ( I - .2 5 ) ( J - .1 6 )
(M .2 0 ) (U -.2 3 )
10 D i s t r e s s .16 (U .1 7 ) (D .2 8 )
G1 R apid Pace .23 (D .2 5 ) (Q .2 0 )
E m o tio n al
E x c i t a b i l i t y .23 (A .27) (T .3 7 )
P eo p le who sa y i t ta k e s a l o t to g e t them s t i r r e d up
have v e ry l i t t l e o f t h i s f a c t o r . P eo p le who re c o g n iz e
a n g e r have v e r y l i t t l e o f t h i s f a c t o r . T h is a p p e a rs
t o r e p r e s e n t a c tio n -m in d e d in d iv id u a ls who d is c h a r g e
te n s io n s m o to r ic a lly and b e h a v io r a lly r a t h e r th a n on a
sy m b o lic l e v e l , and who te n d to b e d e l i b e r a t e in o u t
w ard b e h a v io r. They te n d t o deny a n g e r and to t u r n in
te n s io n s and e x c ite m e n ts , w ith a te n d e n c y to so m a tiz e
f e e l i n g s . T h e re fo re we w ould e x p e c t r e p r e s s i o n o f
h o s t i l i t y and a s tr o n g s e n s i t i v i t y t o p a in .
F a cto r F --D ir e c tio n o f Anger
4 Shame .3 9 *
7 R esen tm en t .5 0 *
11 P u zz led - .2 6 *
T h is f a c t o r i s d e f in e d by no tem peram ent v a r i a b l e s and
th e r e f o r e do es n o t m eet th e c r i t e r i o n f o r d e f i n i t i o n .
An h y p o th e s is i s , how ever, t h a t i t w ould r e p r e s e n t
a d i r e c t i o n o f a n g e r. The in d iv id u a l who r e a c t s by
i n t e r n a l i z i n g ( f e e l i n g shame) o r e x t e r n a l i z i n g ( f e e l in g
re s e n tm e n t) h i s a n g e r d i r e c t s them i n a c e r t a i n way.
T h is i s in c o n t r a s t to th e in d iv i d u a l who s u f f e r s a
p a i n f u l i n t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n b u t does n o t a s s i g n an g er
in w a rd ly o r o u tw a rd ly to a f r u s t r a t i n g s i t u a t i o n . I t
m ight r e p r e s e n t a c o n t r a s t betw een in d iv i d u a ls who te n d
to be e x t r a p u n i t i v e o r i n t r a p u n i t i v e and th o s e whose
te n d e n c y i s t o be im p u n itiv e .
F a c to r I - - D e n ia l o f o r Lack o f R e sp o n siv e n e ss to
F e e lin g s
3 Amusement - .5 1 *
11 P u zzled - .2 7 (F - .2 6 )
74
1 P a in - .2 5 (B .1 4 ) (E .1 8 ) (G .1 5 ) ( J .1 6 )
(M .20)
S- 2 L ik in g f o r
A c tio n and
E x citem e n t .1 9 (B .2 3 ) (K .3 3 ) (V -.2 5 )
Eg E m o tio n al
Im m a tu rity - .2 4 (T .3 2 )
T h is f a c t o r i s n o t c l e a r b u t m ig h t r e p r e s e n t a d e n i a l
o f o r la c k o f re s p o n s iv e n e s s t o f e e l i n g s . T h is i n d i
v id u a l se e k s out a c t i o n and e x c ite m e n t, y e t d e n ie s
f e e l in g s w h eth er p le a s a n t (A m usem ent), o f p a i n f u l
i n t e r n a l e x p e rie n c e s ( P u z z le d ) , o r o f u n p le a s a n t e x
t e r n a l e x p e rie n c e s ( P a in ) . I n f a c t , o n ly t h r e e o f th e |
n in e te e n f ilm v a r i a b l e s h av e a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n
w ith t h i s f a c t o r . The a b s e n c e o f E m o tio n al Im m a tu rity
in t h i s in d iv id u a l i s h a rd t o r a t i o n a l i z e . H ow ever,
e x a m in a tio n o f t h e s c a le on t h e GZTS r e v e a ls t h a t i t
i s m arked by o n ly o n e ite m , an d t h a t d e n i a l o f d i s a p
p o in tm e n t. T h is , o f c o u rs e , t i e s in w ith th e d e n i a l
a s p e c t and a l t e r s t h e m eaning o f im m a tu rity on th e
v a r i a b l e . I t m ig h t be t h a t we have a n in d iv i d u a l who
i s u n m in d fu l o f f e e l i n g s i n o th e r s o r h im s e lf and y e t
se ek s o u t e x c ite m e n ts .
F a cto r K--Lack o f Achievem ent
75
R L ik in g f o r A c tio n
and E x c item e n t .3 3 * (B .2 3 ) (T -.1 9 ) (V -.2 5 )
13 Proud (o f a c h ie v e
m ent in s p o r t s ) - .4 8 *
2 T en d ern ess - .1 5 (D -.1 6 ) (P -.3 5 )
H ere th e fo c u s a p p e a rs t o be on a k in d o f p re d e lin q u e n t
in d iv i d u a l. He l i k e s l i v e l y p a r t i e s , c ra v e s e x c i t e
m en t, and d is p la y s w ild e n th u sia s m s a t s p o r ts e v e n ts .
I t f i t s a s te r e o ty p e o f th e boy who e x p re s s e s h i s m as
c u lin e s t r i v i n g s in m ild ly a n t i s o c i a l ways r a t h e r th a n
c h a n n e ls them in to s p o r t s . He w ould r a t h e r r a i s e h e l l
th a n a c h ie v e in an a r e a t h a t ta k e s g o a l d ir e c t e d s u s
ta in e d e f f o r t and s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . To mask h i s d is a p
p o in tm en t i n h im s e lf h e w ould re sp o n d to ach iev em en t
w ith c y n ic is m , and w o u ld , o f c o u r s e , be la c k in g in
s e n s i t i v i t y t o te n d e r n e s s . H ere a g a in a la r g e p ro p o r
t i o n o f th e f ilm ite m s , 12 o u t o f 19, h av e n e g a tiv e
c o r r e l a t i o n s on th e f a c t o r . I t i s p o s s ib le t h a t th e s e
2 f a c t o r s r e p r e s e n t th e k in d o f d e lin q u e n t t h a t Gough
and P e te rs o n (1952) d e s c r ib e who la c k s r o l e p la y in g
a b i l i t y and c a n n o t s e n se how o th e r s f e e l a b o u t th in g s
o r ab o u t h im . ........................................... . .
76
F actor J --R e s tr a in t
R -^ C a re fre e n e s s v s .
R e s t r a i n t .60* (B -.2 0 )
R3 U nconcern v s .
S e rio u s n e s s .41* (C .3 6 ) ( S - .2 0 )
.22 (C .2 7 ) (T .3 6 ) (G -.2 3 ) E3 W orry A nxiety ,22
H y p e r s e n s itiv it y .20 (T - .6 1 )
1 P a in -.1 6 (B .1 4 ) (E .1 8 ) (G .1 5 ) (M .2 0 )
T h is i s th e more s e r io u s , r e s t r a i n e d , th o u g h tf u l i n d i
v id u a l who may be s e r io u s , s o b e r, m o r a l, and c e r t a i n l y
n o t g iv e n t o in d u lg in g th e f l e s h . He would n o t be
s e n s i t i v e t o pam pering o r b ab y in g h im s e lf and th e r e f o r e
w ould be le s s s e n s itiv e t o p r im itiv e e m o tio n s.
F a c to r L --R e c o g n itio n o f Anger
F2 H o s t i l i t y
F^ R e s is ta n c e
A -£ M a in ta in in g
.40* (A .3 0 ) (T .3 2 )
.39*
O n e's R ig h ts .31 (B .4 1 )
.53 (P .1 6 )
-.1 4 ( F - .2 6 ) ( I - . 2 7 ) (M -.19) (R .1 5 )
5 Angry
11 P u zzled
77
T h ese a re n e g a tiv e , h o s t i l e p eo p le who have d ev elo p ed
a d e f e n s iv e k in d o f r e s i s t a n c e to c o n t r o ls and a u th o r
i t y f i g u r e s . I t i s n o t a t a l l s u r p r i s i n g t h a t th e y
r e c o g n iz e an g ry f e e l i n g s ev en in a s i t u a t i o n t h a t could
c a l l f o r a r e a l c o n f l i c t o f e m o tio n s - - in view o f th e
f a c t t h a t th e te a c h e r in th e s i t u a t i o n i s an a u t h o r it y
f i g u r e . The p a t t e r n i s c o n s i s t e n t , ev en th o u g h n o t as
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t th e s e p eo p le f a i l to
ch e c k th e re s p o n s e , P u z z le d , in ite m 11 (C ru e lty o f
F a t h e r ) . T hese p e o p le w ould be mad, n o t p u z z le d .
F a c to r P --R e b e llio u s F a u lt F in d e r
(T oughness)
P2 F a u ltf in d i n g in
I n s t i t u t i o n s .5 2 *
P -^ F a u ltf in d in g w ith
Human N atu re .3 9 *
2 T e n d e rn e ss - .3 5 * (D -.1 6 ) (K -.1 5 )
5 Angry .1 6 (L .5 3 )
T h is i s th e c r i t i c a l , a n g ry , to u g h in d iv id u a l who fin d s
f a u l t w ith p eo p le and i n s t i t u t i o n s . I t t i e s i n w ith
F a c to r L e x c e p t t h a t h e r e th e an g e r i s d is p la c e d onto
i n s t i t u t i o n s r a t h e r th a n b e in g fo c u se d on a u t h o r i t y .
78
These p eo p le a r e u n ab le to re c o g n iz e o r a s s ig n T en d e r
n e s s , b u t do r e c o g n iz e A nger. Note th e lo a d in g o f .16
on ite m 5.
F a c to r M
T h is i s a s i n g l e t , E m barrassm ent, s u p p o rte d by no
v a r i a b l e s from th e Temperament s c a le , and p ro b a b ly
r e p r e s e n ts one o f th e f i c t i t i o u s f a c t o r s g e n e ra te d by
o v e r r o ta ti n g .
F a c to r N
14 D is g u s t .51*
E7 D aydream ing -.2 4 (A -.3 5 ) (R .2 3 )
The m eaning o f t h i s f a c t o r i s r a t h e r u n c le a r . E v i
d e n tly p eo p le who do n o t te n d to daydream a re re s p o n
s iv e t o cues le a d in g to an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f D is g u s t.
T h is may r e p r e s e n t an i n a b i l i t y to a c c e p t s e l f - i n d u l
g e n c e . I t may b e sim ply a n o th e r f i c t i t i o u s f a c t o r .
79
F a c to r 0—L ack o f In v o lv em en t
( F e a r o f C lo s e n e s s )
6 P le a s u re - .4 9 * (N .1 4 )
S e lf D efen se - .2 6 (B .3 1 )
T-^ L ik in g f o r
S e rio u s T h in k in g - . 2 4 (C .3 1 )
P-^ F a u ltf in d in g w ith
Human N a tu re .2 4 (D .2 6 ) (P -.3 9 ) ( T - .2 3 )
T his i s th e in d iv i d u a l who does n o t re c o g n iz e P le a s u re
in a s i t u a t i o n o f in tim a c y (b e in g show ered w ith
k i s s e s ) . He is low o n s e l f - d e f e n s e - - i , e . , u n a b le to
say n o , o r to p u ll aw ay; te n d s t o be more s u p e r f i c i a l
and u n r e f l e c t i v e i n h i s th in k in g ; and is c y n i c a l ab o u t
p e o p le 's m otives and i d e a l s . I n o th e r w o rd s , he d i s
t r u s t s , i s u n w illin g t o th in k o n more th a n a s u p e r
f i c i a l l e v e l , and i s u n a b le to s ta n d up f o r h im s e lf .
T his i s p o s s ib ly a n im m ature p e r s o n who i s u n a b le to
t o l e r a t e o r to exam ine c lo s e n e s s o r in tim a c y . Con
v e r s e ly , th e in d i v i d u a l who is t o l e r a n t , a s s e r t i v e , and;
r e f l e c t i v e is a b le t o re c o g n iz e th e em o tio n o f p le a s u r e
in an in tim a te s i t u a t i o n .
80
F actor Q --Ideas o f R eference
12 P rid e -.5 1 *
0 ^ Id e a s o f
Gi R apid Pace
R e fe re n ce .22 (T -.4 4 )
.2 0 (D -.4 5 ) (B .2 8 ) (E .2 3 )
T h is seems t o r e p r e s e n t th e p a ra n o id in d iv id u a l w ith
no te n s io n to le r a n c e . The r e l a t i o n s h i p to b e in g u n re
sp o n siv e t o a s i t u a t i o n o f P rid e i s h a rd to co n c e iv e
o f , e s p e c i a lly when i t in v o lv e s h ig h p r a i s e , and b ein g
made th e c e n te r o f a t t e n t i o n , and d o u b le prom oted. The
key t o f a i l u r e o f th e s e in d iv id u a ls to resp o n d c o r
r e c t l y may l i e in th e re s p o n s e a l t e r n a t i v e s . T h is
in d iv id u a l i s f a r more l i k e l y to resp o n d w ith E la tio n
th a n P rid e . P rid e m ig h t b e more r e a l i s t i c , b u t t h i s
in d iv id u a l, a s c o n s tru e d , w ould te n d to be ex p a n siv e
r a t h e r th a n r e a l i s t i c .
F a c to r R
No v a r ia b le s ap p ear w ith a s tr e n g t h o f .3 0 o r m ore.
81
F actor S--Amusement
15 Amusement 53* (M .1 1 )
M 3 F e a rfu ln e s s - .2 2 ( V -.4 8 )
Rg S e rio u s n e s s vs
U nconcern - .2 0 (C .3 6 ) ( J .4 1 )
T h is Amusement ite m i s th e e a s i e s t i n th e b a t t e r y o f
judgm ents and i s m issed b y o n ly 17 o f th e 255 s u b je c ts .
From th e fo re g o in g i t i s m issed o n ly by th e f e a r f u l ,
s e r i o u s , s o b e r, r e s t r a i n e d in d iv id u a ls who ta k e l i f e
s e r io u s ly and c a n n o t u n d e rs ta n d how some p eo p le c a n be
so u n co n cern ed a b o u t th e f u t u r e .
F a c to r T --L ack o f O b je c tiv i ty
O2 H y p e r s e n s itiv it y .6 1 *
Id e a s o f R e fe re n c e .4 4 * (Q -.2 2 )
Eg Emot io n a l
E x c i t a b i l i t y .3 7 *
Eg W orry A n x iety .3 6 * (G .2 3 )
F a c to r T p r im a r ily d e f in e s th e h y p e r s e n s itiv e i n d i v i d
u a l who la c k s o b j e c t i v i t y i n h is a s s e s s m e n t o f s i t u a
| E/- E m o tio n al
; b
Im m atu rity 32
t i o n s , i s h i g h l y e x c ita b le , w o r r ie s , i s a n x io u s , and
s u f f e r s o v er d is a p p o in tm e n ts . T his d e f in e s most c l e a r
ly th e 0 f a c t o r found by G u ilfo rd and Zimmerman. In
t h e i r a n a l y s i s , Worry A n x iety , E^, h ad a lo a d in g o f
.3 0 . The f i g u r e s .36 and .37 found h e re a r e , t h e r e
f o r e , c o n s i s t e n t w ith t h e i r f in d in g s .
The o n ly f ilm ite m w ith a n even m odest lo a d in g is
P a in a t .1 1 .
F a c to r U—Sym pathy fo r A nim als
Sympathy f o r Anim als .42*
1 P a in - .2 3 *
4 Shame - .2 2 (F .3 9 )
16 Amusement .1 8
10 D is tr e s s .1 7 (B .1 4 ) (E .1 8 ) (C .1 5 ) (T -.2 5 )
(J .1 6 ) (M .2 0 )
The i n d i v i d u a l \dio a d m its to f e e lin g d e e p ly s o r ry fo r
wounded o r m is tr e a t e d an im als is le s s a b le to re c o g n iz e
P ain o r Shame in p e o p le . He i s d is t r e s s e d a t th e b a rk
in g dog s i t u a t i o n b u t can la u g h a t th e man g e t t i n g
honey in h i s sh o e. T h is seems to be th e k in d o f p e rso n
who i s le s s a b l e to r e l a t e t o f e e lin g s in p e o p le , b u t
can r e l a t e t o them i n a n im a ls.
CHAPTER VI
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
T here a re s e v e r a l s tr o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t e n t
among th e Temperam ent S c a le v a r i a b l e s and th o s e o f th e
I f ilm . Of th e 22 f a c t o r s t h a t em erged from th e a n a ly s is
a p p ro x im a te ly 1 1 o r 1 2 f e l l , as p r e d ic te d , i n t o a f a c t o r i a l
s t r u c t u r e s im i l a r to t h a t found by G u ilfo rd and Zimmerman.
The f ilm item s a l i g n th e m se lv e s w ith th e tem peram ent
s c a le s in r a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g w ays. U n fo rtu n a te ly th e r e l i
a b i l i t y o f th e t e s t i s n o t h ig h enough to g iv e s tr o n g
s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e ; n e v e r th e le s s th e c u m u la tio n o f
e v id e n c e in a c o n s i s t e n t d i r e c t i o n g iv e s c re d e n c e t o c e r
t a i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f th e d a t a , and i s s u g g e s tiv e o f
tr e n d s .
O r ig in a lly c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f f ilm and tem
peram ent v a r i a b l e s w ere p o s tu l a te d , based on th e re v ie w o f
th e l i t e r a t u r e .
1. The good ju d g e o f e m o tio n a l b e h a v io r h a s a
s p e c i a l a b i l i t y .
No e v id e n c e o f a u n i t a r y judgm ent f a c t o r em erges
h e r e .
2 . Empathy can b e p r o p e r ly u t i l i z e d only when
t h e r e i s a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e se n se o f s e l f .
F a c to r A, Lack o f E m o tio n al S t a b i l i t y , i s n o ta b ly
la c k in g in f ilm v a r i a b l e s w ith any s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e n g t h .
F a c to r G, Lack o f E m o tio n a l D e p re s s io n , show s a
r e l a t i o n s h i p to r e c o g n i tio n o f em o tio n s h a v in g to do w ith
h ig h s p i r i t s .
F a c to r T , Lack o f O b j e c t i v i t y , h a s no f ilm item s
o f s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e n g t h .
T here i s l i t t l e s u p p o rt f o r th e above h y p o th e s is .
A s t a b l e sen se o f s e l f a s m easured h e re do es n o t p la y any
p a r t i c u l a r r o le in r e c o g n i tio n o f f ilm ite m s g e n e r a lly .
3 . The a b i l i t y t o make judgm ents o f em o tio n s
a p p e a rs to b e r e l a t i v e l y in d ep en d en t o f co n
v e n t i o n a l l y d e fin e d in d u c tiv e re a s o n in g c a p a c
i t i e s , b u t o c c u rs more o f te n in in d iv id u a ls
w ith a le s s a n a l y t i c a l a t t i t u d e .
F a c to r C, T h o u g h tfu ln e s s , h as no f ilm v a r i a b l e s o f
even m odest lo a d in g s .
F a c to r S , Amusement. i s re c o g n iz e d overw helm ingly
ex c ep t by th e m ost s e r io u s , s o b e r, r e s t r a i n e d in d iv i d u a ls .
The g e n e ra l h y p o th e s is i s g iv e n l i t t l e s u p p o rt.
4 . The a b i l i t y to make judgm ents a p p e a rs more
o f te n in th o s e who a r e more s o c ia b le .
F a c to r B, A scendance and S o c i a b i l i t y , a p p e a rs w ith
o n ly one f ilm ite m w ith a lo a d in g o f more th a n .1 0 . I n d i
v id u a ls h ig h in t h i s f a c t o r w ere n o t n o ta b ly more p e rc e p
t i v e .
F a c to rs I and K, D e n ia l o f F e e lin g s and Lack o f
A ch iev em en t. b o th seem to c h a r a c te r iz e a p re d e lin q u e n t o r
a n t i s o c i a l in d iv id u a l. In b o th o f th e s e f a c t o r s th e r e i s
a c o n s is te n t tr e n d tow ard la c k o f s e n s i t i v i t y t o th e f ilm
ite m s . The form er h as o n ly th r e e p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s to
th e f ilm item s and th e l a t t e r f o u r . A c lu e f o r f u r t h e r
in v e s t i g a t i o n i s su g g e ste d h e r e : t h a t th e a n t i s o c i a l i n d i
v id u a l, though h i s b e h a v io r may a p p e a r s o c ia b le (n o te c o r
r e l a t i o n o f - . 2 2 betw een R£ and S ^ ), i s u n ab le t o se n se how
o th e rs f e e l . In f a c t , th e r e may b e a c lo s in g o f f o f s e n
s i t i v i t y t o f e e l in g s .
5 . D e p re ssio n i s r e l a t e d t o th e a b i l i t y to make
ju d g m e n ts.
See r e f e r e n c e s to F a c to rs A and G ab o v e. D epressed
: in d iv id u a ls in g e n e ra l w ere le s s s e n s i t i v e to em otions
86
in v o lv in g h ig h s p i r i t s th a n w ere n o n d e p ressed in d iv i d u a ls .
O th erw ise th e y showed no more s e n s i t i v i t y to th e f ilm ite m s
a s th e y s ta n d .
6 . I n d iv id u a ls w ith a le s s s t a b l e s e n s e o f s e l f
may h av e em pathy f o r s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s in
o rd e r t o ward o f f d a n g e rs o r to s e e k o u t a
r o l e f o r th e m s e lv e s .
T h ere a r e c e r t a i n second o rd e r in f e r e n c e s , c u lle d
from an a n a ly s is o f th e GZTS c l u s t e r s w hich th ro w some
l i g h t on t h i s h y p o th e s is . E x cep t f o r f a c t o r s L and P, th e
lo a d in g s in most o f th e s e do n o t o ccu r a t a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l .
F a c to r E, N o n -re c o g n itio n o r D e n ia l o f A n g er,
i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e p e rso n who r e p r e s s e s h o s t i l i t y , te n d in g
t o t u r n i t in w a rd , i s u n a b le t o re c o g n iz e a n g e r.
F a c to r K, L ack o f A ch iev em en t, in d ic a t e s t h a t th e
in d iv i d u a l who s e e k s t o mask h i s d is a p p o in tm e n t in h im s e lf
f o r n o t a c c o m p lis h in g f a i l s to be s e n s i t i v e to a f e e l i n g
jo f p r id e in someone e l s e who a c c o m p lish e s so m eth in g .
F a c to r L , R e c o g n itio n o f A nger, in d ic a t e s t h a t th e
in d iv i d u a l who h a s d ev e lo p ed a d e fe n s iv e k in d o f r e s i s t
ance t o c o n tr o ls and a u t h o r it y f ig u r e s more e a s i l y
r e c o g n iz e s an g ry f e e l i n g s , b u t n o t T e n d e rn e ss.
F a c to r P, R e b e llio u s F a u lt F in d e r (T o u g h n e ss),
i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e to u g h , c r i t i c a l f a u l t f in d e r i s u n a b le
t o r e c o g n iz e and a s s ig n T e n d e rn e ss.
F a c to r 0 , L ack o f In v o lv e m e n t, in d ic a t e s t h a t th e
im m ature p e rs o n who i s u n a b le to t o l e r a t e o r t o exam ine
c lo s e n e s s o r in tim a c y f a i l s t o re c o g n iz e P le a s u re in a
s i t u a t i o n o f in tim a c y .
I n m ost o f t h e s e , p e r c e p tio n s do n o t a p p e a r t o be
sh a rp e n e d f o r d e f e n s iv e n e e d s , b u t r a t h e r t o be i n h i b i t e d ,
a s th o u g h th e in d iv i d u a l h as a need t o be le s s r e s p o n s iv e
i n o th e r s t o w hat he m ust a l s o deny in h i m s e l f - - i . e . ,
an g ry f e e l i n g s , p r id e in a c h ie v e m e n t, f e e l in g s o f t e n d e r
n e s s , and c a p a c ity f o r in tim a c y . Two f a c t o r s , I and K, as
d is c u s s e d a b o v e , seem t o b e m arked by a la c k o f s e n s i t i v i t y
to o th e r p e o p le 's em o tio n s in g e n e r a l. A c a se f o r f a i l u r e
t o d e v e lo p s e n s i t i v i t i e s b ased on t h e i r own dynam ic n eed s
m ig h t be made.
I n o n ly a few f a c t o r s i s th e r e h e ig h te n e d p e rc e p
t i o n ; F a c to rs M and F a r e u n d e fin e d by th e tem peram ent
s c a l e s . M i s p ro b a b ly a f i c t i t i o u s f a c t o r , \d iile F a p p e a rs
to r e p r e s e n t so m eth in g n o t tap p ed by th e tem peram ent s c a le .
F a c to r L , R e c o g n itio n o f A n g er, o c c u rs in th e in d iv i d u a l
88
who i s a t home w ith h is own h o s t i l e f e e l i n g s .
T hus, w h ile l i t t l e e v id e n c e i s found to s u p p o rt
th e h y p o th e s is t h a t p e r c e p tio n s may b e h e ig h te n e d f o r d e
f e n s iv e n e e d s , we do f in d an i n h i b i t i o n o f p e r c e p tio n b a se d
p o s s ib ly on d e f e n s iv e n e e d s . The c a s e m ig h t be arg u ed t h a t
p e o p le w ith r e s t r i c t e d i d e n t i t i e s d e fe n d th e m se lv e s a g a in s t
p e r c e p tio n o f f e e l in g s t h a t a r e c o n tr a r y to th e s e i d e n t i
t i e s .
The r e s u l t s w ould a l s o s u g g e s t an a l t e r n a t i v e
h y p o th e s is w hich w ould b e t h a t in d iv id u a ls who have s tr o n g
te n d e n c ie s to d e s c r ib e th e m se lv e s w ith a d j e c t i v e s , a s in
th e GZTS, a r e m ore l i k e l y to g e n e r a liz e th e s e same a d j e c
t i v e s t o am biguous s i t u a t i o n s in w hich th e y a r e ask ed to
d e s c r ib e th e r e a c t i o n s o f o th e r s - - a s in th e f ilm ite m s .
Most o f th e o th e r f a c t o r s s u p p o rt t h i s c o n te n tio n .
F a c to r G, Lack o f E m o tio n al D e p re s s io n , shows a
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o r e c o g n i tio n o f em o tio n s h a v in g t o do w ith
h ig h s p i r i t s .
F a c to rs D, H, and V, C o n tro lle d v s . A c tio n Tended
I I n d i v i d u a l , H e lp le s s n e s s , and F e a r f u l n e s s , a l l seem to
Ire v o lv e aro u n d th e c o n c e p t o f a p h y s ic a l t h r e a t w hich m ight
b e coped w ith by p h y s ic a l a c t i o n o r a s i t u a t i o n in w hich
d i r e c t a c tio n c a n n o t s o lv e th e p ro b lem . The a c t io n
89
o r ie n te d in d iv i d u a l i s c o m fo rta b le w here he can a c t and th e
more c o n t r o l l e d in d iv i d u a l i s c o m fo rta b le w here he has to
w eigh an d m easure and make c h o ic e s . The fo rm er i s u n a b le
t o se e why one w ould be d i s t r e s s e d when p h y s ic a l a c tio n
w ould s o lv e th e p ro b lem . The c o n t r o ll e d in d iv id u a ls do
n o t r e c o g n iz e d is c o m fo rt w here m aking c h o ic e s is im p o rta n t.
F a c to r N, N o n -a cc ep ta n ce o f S e lf In d u lg e n c e , i n d i
c a te s t h a t th e in d iv i d u a l who does n o t p e rm it h im s e lf
j in d u lg e n c e in daydream s re c o g n iz e s D is g u s t f o r th e p e rso n
who p e rm its h im s e lf to in d u lg e n c e in d ru n k e n n e ss.
F a c to r S , Amusement. i s th e m ost e a s i l y re c o g n iz e d
ite m in th e t e s t e x c e p t by th e s e r io u s , s o b e r, m o ral i n d i
v id u a l . W hile th e more u n co n cern ed in d iv i d u a l, who i s n o t
a f r a i d , i s a b le f r e e l y t o re c o g n iz e humor in a funny jo k e .
T h is l a t t e r h y p o th e s is would f a l l u n d er th e c l a s s i
f i c a t i o n o f p r o j e c t i o n , " th e p ro c e s s o f u n w ittin g ly a t t r i b
u tin g o n e 's own t r a i t s , a t t i t u d e s o r s u b je c tiv e p ro c e s s e s
i to o t h e r s . "
G oing b ac k to d e fe n s iv e p e r c e p tio n , judgm ents r e -
i
i
I l a t i n g t o Anger a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y r e v e a lin g . T h is h a s b e e n ,
|b o th i n th e l i t e r a t u r e and i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y , th e m ost
!d i f f i c u l t em o tio n t o r e c o g n iz e . Ruckm ick c l a s s i f i e d e a s i e r
i
: ite m s a s b e in g b i o l o g i c a l l y o ld e r and le s s s u b tle w ith
c e r t a i n n o ta b le e x c e p tio n s . L a u g h te r i s e a sy and a n g e r
d i f f i c u l t b e c a u se o f th e r e s u l t s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . L a u g h te r
i s s o c i a l l y a c c e p ta b le , w h ereas f e r o c io u s a n g e r i s n o t .
F o llo w in g R uckm ick’ s l i n e o f r e l a t i n g i t to th e c i v i l i z i n g
p r o c e s s , w hich r e q u ir e s a c o n t r o l o f v e ry a n g ry f e e l i n g s ,
p e o p le a r e l e s s p ro n e to ad m it t o a n g e r and s i m i l a r l y to
a c c e p t o u tw a rd ly i t s p rese n ce in o t h e r s . T h ere i s a l s o a
d i f f e r e n c e in two k in d s o f a n g e r h e r e . Ite m 9 , w hich
r e p r e s e n ts a n g e r \rtien one i s in a p o s i t io n o f a u t h o r i t y , i s
f a r more f r e q u e n tly re c o g n iz e d th a n a n g e r in ite m 5 . H ere
th e c h i l d e x p re s s e s a n g er a t an im p o rta n t a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e .
I t i s p r im a r ily th e to u g h -m in d ed in d iv id u a ls who re c o g n iz e
;t h e i r own h o s t i l e f e e lin g s and a r e n o t c o n c e rn e d a b o u t
e x p re s s in g them who g e t th e l a t t e r ite m c o r r e c t .
The argum ent t h a t p e o p le w ith r e s t r i c t e d i d e n t i t i e s
d e fe n d th e m se lv e s a g a in s t p e r c e p tio n o f f e e l i n g s t h a t a r e
c o n t r a r y t o th e s e i d e n t i t i e s and c o n s e q u e n tly make p o o re r
e m p a th iz e rs ta k e s u s back t o th e d is c u s s io n a b o u t em pathy
and c r e a t i v i t y .
MacKinnon (1961) d e s c r ib e d th e c r e a t i v e p e rs o n as
more open t o e x p e rie n c e from w ith in and w ith o u t. He i s
p e r c e p tiv e r a t h e r th a n ju d g m e n ta l; i . e . , more w i l l i n g t o be
aw are o f th a n to form a c o n c lu s io n a b o u t, and t o p e r c e iv e
91
i n t u i t i v e l y . A lso he i s more aware o f th e d i f f e r e n t
f a c e t s o f h im s e lf . Or, a g a in t o r e t u r n t o W en h art's co n
t e n t i o n t h a t to be t r u l y s e n s i t i v e one must be f r e e to
look a t e v e ry th in g , t o w ith s ta n d p a in and to l i v e w ith i t ,
o th e rw ise he may w ithdraw from th e environm ent so as to
ex clu d e im p re ssio n s t h a t would h u r t o r d is a p p o in t him , i t
m ight be p o s tu la te d t h a t t h i s i s n e c e s s a ry f o r th e p erso n
who i s t r u l y p e r c e p tiv e o f em otions in o th e rs a l s o . W hile
th e r e i s no p o s i t i v e ev id en ce f o r t h i s c o n te n tio n in th e
p re s e n t s tu d y , th e r e i s a s u g g e s tio n t h a t more r e s t r i c t e d
p e r c e p tio n s o ccu r in in d iv id u a ls w ith s p e c i f i c p e r c e p tu a l
s t y l e s .
In g e n e r a l, th e f ilm v a r i a b l e s a r e to o complex to
s e p a r a te out p r e c i s e l y what we w ish t o m easure. Once th e
v e r b a l component i s in tro d u c e d we en c o u n te r a sem antic
d i f f i c u l t y t h a t d e s tro y s th e u n i f a c t o r s i m p l i c i t y d e s i r a b l e
f o r good ite m s. S c h lo s b e rg f s d im e n sio n a l approach a tte m p ts ;
to overcome t h i s d i f f i c u l t y r a t h e r s u c c e s s f u lly . A lso ,
|some o f G u ilfo rd , e t a l . 1s newer t e s t s (1962) a tte m p t to
| ;
|s im p lif y th e item s b e in g m easured.
i
I
In th e p re s e n t t e s t th e r e a r e to o many c o n n o ta tio n s
I
ito th e d i f f e r e n t em otions named. Thus, anger i s r e a c te d
i
ito d i f f e r e n t l y depending on th e r o l e of th e angry p e rso n .
The t h r e e amusement item s ca n be b ro k en down in to th r e e o f
th e c l a s s e s d e s ig n a te d by Andrews, and th e y su p p o rt th e
n o tio n t h a t a sen se o f humor in v o lv e s a d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n
o f humor a p p r e c ia tio n in d i f f e r e n t in d iv i d u a ls .
S eeing humor in th e man g e t t i n g honey in h i s shoe
m ight be c l a s s i f i e d a s p e rs o n a l humor (G u ilfo rd , 1959, p.
452) and is p e rc e iv e d in t h i s c a se by th e more e m o tio n a lly
imm ature in d iv id u a l. The s u c c e s s f u l pun s i t u a t i o n i s mod
e r a t e l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith one o f th e rh ath y m ia v a r i a b l e s
found by C a t t e l and Luborsky ( G u i lf o r d ) , I t i s f u r t h e r
r e l a t e d h e re t o th e in d iv id u a l w ith a tendency to m ascu lin e
i n t e r e s t s and w ith a l ik i n g f o r p e o p le . The more m ature
p e rso n se es amusement in th e s i t u a t i o n o f b e in g k is s e d by
h is b r o th e r in r e a l i t y , w h ile he i s dream ing of a more
p le a s u r a b le o c c a sio n .
E v id e n tly two k in d s o f p rid e a ls o em erge: one f o r
work o f a th o u g h tf u l n a t u r e , and th e o th e r f o r p h y s ic a l
pro w ess.
Because th e f ilm needs r e f i n i n g and le n g th e n in g ,
th e p r e s e n t stu d y must be c o n s id e re d p r im a r ily as e x p lo r a
t o r y . The f a c t o r a n a l y s i s , a l s o , inasmuch as i t was done
as a s e a rc h f o r id e a s , i s n o t th o ro u g h ly r e f i n e d , and many
o f th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a re based on cues t h a t la c k s t a t i s
' 93
t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . N e v e rth e le s s th e r e s u l t s s tr o n g ly
su g g e st t h a t th e e f f e c t s o f tem peram ent and freedom from
r e s t r i c t i o n s in i d e n t i t y a re f a c t o r s in th e p e r c e p tio n of
em o tio n a l b e h a v io r i n o th e r s .
CHAPTER V II
SU M M A RY A N D CONCLUSIONS
The stu d y r e p o rte d h e re i s a f a c t o r a n a ly s is of
judgment o f em o tio n al b e h a v io r i n o th e r s .
The v a r ia b le s were based on:
1. Responses t o p o rtio n s o f t h e film , Judgment of
Em otional B eh av io r, which had been produced by
L e s te r Beck.
The film p o rtra y s th e r e a c t i o n s of a man and a
woman who have been h y p n o tiz ed and t o l d to r e a c t as though
th e y were r e l i v i n g c e r t a i n em o tio n al e x p e rie n c e s.
2. Scores of c e r t a i n s u b v a ria b le s d e s c rib e d as
th e b e s t ty p e s o f m arkers f o r f a c to r s o f th e
G u ilfo rd Zimmerman Temperament S c a le .
The two t e s t s were a d m in is te re d to a group o f 306
A ir ROTC freshm an and sophomore c a d e ts e n ro lle d a t th e
U n iv e rs ity of C a lif o r n ia a t Los A n g ele s. Of th e 306 only
255 were a b le t o com plete b o th t e s t s . The sc o re s w ere
- 95
d ic h o to m iz ed , punched on IBM c a r d s , and su b m itte d f o r a
f a c t o r a n a ly s is u s in g th e BI-Med 17 program a t th e W estern
D ata P ro c e ssin g C e n te r a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f C a l i f o r n i a a t
Los A ngeles. T h is program c a r r i e s th ro u g h from i n t e r c o r
r e l a t i o n s , p h i c o e f f i c i e n t s , to a r o t a t e d f a c t o r a n a ly s is
u sin g K a i s e r 's varim ax method.
The i n t e r e o r r e l a t i o n s o f th e f ilm item s were d is a p
p o in tin g ly low. There w ere only t h i r t e e n r ' s t h a t were
s i g n i f i c a n t a t .0 1 or .05 le v e ls o f co n fid e n ce i n th e f ilm
t e s t . T his was due la r g e ly to u n r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e t e s t
where th e item s w ere e v id e n tly to o complex t o i s o l a t e
c l e a r l y th e f a c t o r s so u g h t. A nother d e t e r r e n t to good
r e l i a b i l i t y was th e s h o rt le n g th o f th e t e s t .
D e sp ite th e low r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e f ilm t e s t , th e
G u ilfo rd Zimmerman Temperament S c a le v a r i a b l e s f e l l ro u g h ly
on t h e i r ex p ected 10 dim ensions and d id h e lp to c l a r i f y
some b a se s on which th e f ilm judgm ents were made.
Twenty-two f a c t o r s emerged from th e a n a l y s i s ,
i S e v e ra l o f th e s e dim ensions were i d e n t i f i e d as m e an in g fu l
j
|p e r s o n a l i t y c o m p o sitio n s. Through th e s e , v a r io u s h y p o th -
; e se s were examined w ith r e s p e c t t o making judgm ents ab o u t
th e em o tio n al b e h a v io r o b se rv e d .
96
H ypotheses r e l a t i n g to th e o b s e rv a tio n s t h a t more
t h o u g h tf u l, a n a l y t i c , c o n s t r i c t e d , and u n s ta b le in d iv id u a ls
w ere u n ab le to i d e n t i f y th e judgm ent a c c u r a te ly were g iv en
l i t t l e s u p p o rt. L i t t l e ev id en ce was found t o su p p o rt th e
c o n te n tio n t h a t p e rc e p tio n s a r e h e ig h te n e d by d e fe n s iv e
n e e d s, b u t r a t h e r t h a t th e y a re r e s t r i c t e d o r i n h ib i te d
b ec au se o f d e fe n s iv e n e e d s. The s u g g e s tio n was made th a t
p eo p le w ith r e s t r i c t e d i d e n t i t i e s defend them selv es a g a in s t
p e r c e p tio n o f f e e l in g s t h a t a r e c o n tr a r y to th e s e i d e n t i
t i e s . The more u n a c c e p ta b le em otions t h a t w ere reco g n ized
w ere re c o g n iz e d by people who re c o g n iz e d them in them
s e lv e s .
The r e s u l t s would a ls o su g g e st an a l t e r n a t i v e
h y p o th e s is , w hich would be t h a t in d iv id u a ls *rtio have
s tr o n g te n d e n c ie s to d e s c r ib e th em selv es w ith a d j e c t i v e s ,
a s in th e GZTS, a r e more l i k e l y to g e n e r a liz e th e s e same
a d j e c t i v e s to ambiguous s i t u a t i o n s in which th e y a re asked
t o d e s c r ib e th e r e a c t i o n s o f o th e r s —as in th e film ite m s.
The m easuring in stru m e n t f o r ju d g in g em o tio n a l
| b e h a v io r needs f u r t h e r r e f i n i n g and le n g th e n in g ; t h e r e f o r e ,
th e p r e s e n t stu d y must be c o n s id e re d p r im a r ily as e x p lo ra
t o r y . N e v e rth e le s s , th e r e s u l t s u n d e r lin e th e e f f e c t s
o f tem peram ent and freedom from r e s t r i c t i o n s in i d e n t i t y
as f a c t o r s in th e p e r c e p tio n o f e m o tio n a l b e h a v io r in
o t h e r s .
R E F E R E N C E S
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i
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108
R e ik , Theodor. L is te n in g w ith th e t h i r d e a r . New York:
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Chs. 7 and 8.
A P P E N D I X E S
APPENDIX A
INSTRUCTIONS TO SUBJECTS
APPENDIX A
INSTRUCTIONS TO SUBJECTS FOR MAKING JUDGMENTS
OF EMOTIONAL BEHAVIOR
Today, we would lik e you to h e lp us by p a r t i c i p a t
in g in an in v e s tig a tio n in v o lv in g th e p e rc e p tio n and id e n
t i f i c a t i o n of e x p re s s io n of em otion in o th e rs .
In a l i t t l e w h ile , you w i l l see on f ilm a s e r i e s of
ep iso d es which show in d iv id u a ls r e a c tin g to s t o r i e s which
a r e b e in g to ld to them. Your ta s k w i l l be to choose th e
b e s t d e s c r ip tio n on your answer sh e et o f th e em otion b ein g
ex p ressed by th e s u b je c ts . The p r o je c to r w i l l sto p a f t e r
each f ilm ep iso d e . While th e p r o je c to r i s sto p p ed , choose
from among th e f iv e a l t e r n a t i v e s fo r t h i s f ilm item on
your q u e s tio n sh e e t th e one t h a t you f e e l b e s t re p r e s e n ts
th e predom inant or m ajor em otion b ein g e x p re sse d . Do not
imark th e q u e s tio n s h e e t b u t f i l l in betw een th e lin e s under
|th e number on th e answer sh e e t c o rresp o n d in g to th e number
of your c h o ic e . There w i l l be a t o t a l o f 19 ite m s.
Are th e re any q u e stio n s?
112 .
APPENDIX B
SECOND ROTATED FACTOR MATRIX
TA BLE 6
SEC O N D R O TA TED FA CTO R MATRIX-NINETEEN FILM VARIABLES A N D THIRTY-TW O T E M PE R A M E N T SCA LE VARIABLES*
114
A B C D E F G H I J K L M h2
1. Pain -05 12 -02 02 06 06 06 -09 00 -02 -01 01 54 33
2.
Tenderness -06 05 -01 -12 04 08 -01 -03 -03 -05 -07 -36 -03 17
3.
Amusement 06 -01 01 34 -09 -06 14 18 03 01 02 -05 27 26
4 . Shame -04 04 -02 -06 -21 -12 32 07 -07 -06 -06 -01 17 21
5. Angry 18 07 -02 07 00 27 11 -25 -02 -06 -01 33 -09 31
6. Pleasure -03 06 10 32 00 -03 -05 -02 08 04 02 08 01 14
7. Resentment -05 -01 07 03 -03 40 -01 02 05 02 -03 -13 08 20
8. Embarrassment -05 02 09 04 -01 06 00 -01 31 14 06 08 19 18
9. Anger -02 -01 02 13 -42 09 08 -06 14 01 14 04 -08 27
10. D istre ss -02 -11 05 18 19 -06 11 -13 -24 -15 02 -01 03 20
11. Puzzled -01 08 01 07 -03 -34 07 01 -29 03 -05 -08 09 24
12. Pride -05 00 -07 08 -04 08 08 -11 10 15 39 -08 02 23
13. Proud 03 -04 07 01 -01 07 04 -02 16 06 -38 -06 05 20
14. D isgust 02 10 -09 36 00 10 02 08 03 -01 -11 01 -06 18
15. Amusement -05 03 -06 19 -12 01 03 03 47 -07 00 -04 -03 28
' 16. Amusement -06 07 02 15 01 06 33 01 -03 02 10 04 -08 16
17. Bewilderment 08 -05 03 -02 -04 -06 02 47 04
CM
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1
-07 01 -10 25
18. E la tio n -03 -01 • 12 -11 06
CM
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37 -06 07 07 -05 01 15 20
19. Puzzled 10 08 -06 13 16 08 -02 31 -01 03 05 -01 02 17
Gl -10 43 19 -30 22 09 13 22 01 06 -19 07 -14 50
2 17 21 -03 -34 00 03 02 27 -04 09 -19 -11 -11 33
- 3 02 30 -22 -07 06 01 -02 06 05 21 08 09 -20 28
Rl -03 -27 15 12 -10 -04 08 -07 12 51 01 02 -05 41
2 -13 -21 07 21 -04 -07 08 -22 -11 22 -37 -14 03 39
3 25
eo
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•
37 -17 -04 06 04 08 -09 47 -01 00 07 49
Al
09 45 -06 08 -04. 13 14 02 -15 -03 06 02 14 31
2 -21 47 09 15 01 07 02 -11 -06 -06 -03 07 06 33
3 -18 41 -03 19 -16 04 09 12 *07
i f t
O
1
02 02 -Ol- 29
SI 01 53 06 -11 -01 •11 02 -09 11 03 14 -05 IO 37
2 -23 55 -03 06 -14 03 -06 -05 18 -11 00 -22 05 49
3 -06 52
1
o
u
04 11 -11 -05 05 18 -10 -05 -07 -06 36
El -58 08 00 -10 -02 05 25 -02 05 -08 01 -10 10 46
2 -40 10 -13 04 -13 01 31 13 01 12 -08 00 -21 39
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4 -50 10 -10 00 -29 -01 02 -04 -01 15 -15 07 -02 41
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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Schindler, Mary Du Pont
(author)
Core Title
A Study Of The Relationship Of Temperament Variables To The Ability To Make Certain Judgments Of Emotional Behavior
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Psychology
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
OAI-PMH Harvest,psychology, clinical
Format
dissertations
(aat)
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Advisor
Jacobs, Alfred (
committee chair
), Guilford, Joy P. (
committee member
), Meyers, Charles Edward (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-310822
Unique identifier
UC11358996
Identifier
6403107.pdf (filename),usctheses-c18-310822 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
6403107.pdf
Dmrecord
310822
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
dissertations (aat)
Rights
Schindler, Mary Du Pont
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
psychology, clinical