University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

A Comparison Of Two Instructional Programs For Severely Retarded Readers At The Junior High School Level

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A Comparison Of Two Instructional Programs For Severely Retarded Readers At The Junior High School Level

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Content T h is d is s e r ta tio n h a s b een 65— 3103 m ic r o film e d e x a c tly a s r e c e iv e d F R IE D M A N , R o b ert, 1 9 2 3 - A CO M PARISON O F TWO IN ST R U C T IO N A L PRO GRAM S F O R SE V E R E L Y R ET A R D E D R EA D ER S AT TH E JUNIO R HIGH SCHOOL L E V E L . U n iv e r s ity o f S ou th ern C a lifo r n ia , P h .D ., 1964 E d u ca tio n , p sy c h o lo g y University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan A COMPARISON OP TWO INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS FOR SEVERELY RETARDED READERS AT THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL by Robert Friedman A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) August 1964 UNIVERSITY O F SO U TH ER N CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCH O O L U NIVERSITY PARK LO S ANGELES. C A L IFO R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by ROBERT FRIEDMAN under the direction of h^?....Dissertation C om mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Dean Date. DISSERTATION COMMITTEE TABLE OP CONTENTS Chapter I. II. III. Page THE PROBLEM........................ 1 Introduction Statement of the Problem Hypotheses Definition of Terms Scope and Limitations Organization of the Remaining Chapters REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE........... 14 Remedial Reading Program Effect of Socioeconomic Status on Reading Achievement The Influence of Attitudes on Reading Achievement Summary DESIGN OP THE STUDY................ 67 Sample Assessment Instruments Methodology Treatment of Data Summary of the Chapter iii Chapter Page IV. THE FINDINGS .. .".................. 118 Comparisons Between Classes Comparisons Between Total Enroll ments of Programs Matched Pairs Comparison w-"* 1 — ' Effects of Socioeconomic Status Summary of the Chapter V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................. 176 Summary Conclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY............................... 190 APPENDIX................................... 210 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction The harmful educational, social, and personality consequences of reading failure have long been recognized as a serious problem in American education. Among the problems which are thought to correlate with the effects of reading retardation are poor school performance (119)» "drop-outs" (98), personality disorders (102), and juvenile delinquency (4-5)* The recognition of the serious implications of reading failure is reflected in the large-scale provision of remedial reading programs at the junior high school level. The results of a national survey in 1954- (149) indicated that remedial classes, most of which were read ing classes, were found in two-thirds of the junior high schools. A recent study in Illinois (81) disclosed that 54 per cent of the respondent schools had remedial read ing courses at the junior high school level. These find ings are not surprising. Since basic reading instruction is generally considered to be concluded by the end of the sixth grade, retarded readers in seventh grade may be considered "failures" In terns of the objectives of the basic reading program. The seventh grade narks the beginning of the student's experience with different teachers for separate subjects, with nost courses pre sented under the assumption that the student has acquired reading ability. Past failures and frustrations of re tarded readers are reinforced as the handicap.of poor reading skills becomes a more glaring weakness. The increased demands of the eighth and ninth grade curricula for enhanced reading and study skills tend to produce in the disabled reader increasingly negative attitudes toward school and reading. Vitty summarized the educational implicatipns of the problem when he stated: The presence of very poor readers in the typical Junior high school Jeopardizes effective learning in every area of the curriculum where reading ability is essential to success. Many school administrators cite reading retardation as the greatest block to successful instruction in the secondary school. (119:2) Statement of the Problem In a recent review, Trailer (125) emphasized the need for improvement of reading Instruction and stated that programs in the Junior high schools for severely retarded readers were not very effective. One of the research needs listed by Trailer was "controlled studies of the relative merits of different remedial methods in particular situations." (125:12) Almost all of the junior high school remedial reading programs described in the literature are centered around techniques of developing reading skills such as independent word attack, vocabulary building, and compre hension. Although there are many variations of the basic theme, the core of the programs currently in operation represents a frontal assault on the learning difficulty, and thus utilizes essentially the same instructional approach that has not been very effective in the past. Another approach, whereby instructional programs are de signed to effect a positive change in the experience of the retarded reader, may hold more promise for increasing the effectiveness of remedial classes. The typical poor reader, approaching the learning task without enthusiasm and very little motivation, seldom finds satisfaction or pleasure in reading activities. Yet it is well known that pleasant and successful reading experiences are highly productive of the motivation neces sary for sustained effort toward growth in this area. Remedial reading programs generally are designed to in clude recreational reading as an important objective which is met as reading skills increase. For retarded readers, however, it seems appropriate to reverse the order of priorities and thus to expect that increased reading ability will develop as an outcome of greater motivation for learning engendered by reading for pleasure. A report of an effort to subject the preceding rationale to experimental validation is presented in the following pages. This research was designed to compare the effectiveness of the reading-for-pleasure program with the skill-oriented program, and to evaluate the con tribution of the former approach to the improvement of the remedial reading curriculum. Improvement of silent and oral reading ability, and positive changes in attitude toward reading and self- concept were chosen as the criteria of reading improve ment. In addition, it was decided to measure the effect of socioeconomic status on the relative effectiveness of the two programs, and on the changes in reading ability and attitude of the students within each program. Hypotheses The hypotheses to be tested in this experiment are grouped below according to comparisons of classes, total enrollments of programs, and matched pairs; and the effects of socioeconomic status on the data. Class Comparisons Hypothesis 1.— There will be no significant 5 differences in gains in test-retest scores in silent read ing ability between students in tbe reading-for-pleasure focused program and students in the shill-oriented pro gram, within their respective classes at each grade level. Silent reading ability is operationally defined by scores obtained from: California Reading Test, Vocabulary Section California Reading Test, Comprehension Section California Reading Test, Total. Hypothesis 2.— There will be no significant dif ferences in gains in test-retest scores in oral reading ability between students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program and students in the skill-oriented pro gram, within their respective classes at each grade level. Oral reading ability is operationally defined by scores obtained from: Gilmore Oral Reading Test, Accuracy Section. Hypothesis 5.— There will be no significant dif ferences in gains in test-retest scores in attitude toward reading between students in the reading-for-pleas- ure focused program and students in the skill-oriented program, within their respective classes at each grade level. Attitude toward reading is operationally defined by scores obtained from: Semantic Differential, "As I See Reading" Section Semantic Differential, "As Others See My Reading" Section Semantic Differential, Attitude toward Reading Total Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Picture 1, "Attitude toward Reading" Section. Hypothesis A.— There will he no significant dif ferences in gains in test-retest scores in self-concept between students in the reading-for-pleasure focused pro gram and students in the skill-oriented program, within their respective classes at each grade level. Self- concept is operationally defined by scores obtained from: Semantic Differential, "As I See Myself" Section Semantic Differential, "As Others See M4* Section Semantic Differential, Self-concept Total Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Picture 1, "Self-concept" Section. Comparisons Between Total Enrollments of Programs tffypotneses 5-8; There will be no significant differences between the total enrollment of the reading-for-pleasure focused program and the total enrollment of the skill-oriented program in gains in test-retest scores in silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self-concept as operationally defined in the Class Comparisons section above. The four hypotheses pertain ing to the comparisons between total enrollments of programs will be individually advanced and discussed in the presentation of the findings in Chapter IV. Comparison of Matched Pairs IHypotheses 9-12) There will be no significant differences between the matched pairs in gains in test-retest scores in silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self-concept as operationally defined in the Class Comparisons section above. The four hypotheses pertaining to the comparisons of the matched pairs will be individually advanced and discussed in the presenta tion of the findings in Chapter IV. Effect of Socioeconomic Status Hypotheses 13-16.— There will be no significant differences between the high, middle, and low socio economic status level students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program (total enrollment) and the high, middle, and low socioeconomic status level students in the skill- oriented program (total enrollment) in gains in test- retest scores in silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self-concept as operationally defined as the Class Comparison section above. Hypotheses 13-16 will be individually advanced and discussed in the presentation of the findings in Chapter IV. Hypotheses 17-20.— There will be no significant differences between the high and low, middle and low, and high and middle socioeconomic status level students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program (total enrollment) in gains to test-retest scores in silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self- concept as operationally defined in the Class Comparisons section above. Hypotheses 14-17 will be individually ad vanced and discussed in the presentation of the findings in Chapter IV. Hypotheses 21-24.— There will be no significant differences between the high and low, middle and low, and high and middle socioeconomic status level students in the skill-oriented program (total enrollment) in gains in test-retest scores in silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self-concept as operationally defined in the Class Comparisons section above. Hypotheses 13-18 will be individually advanced and discussed in the presentation of the findings in Chapter IV. 9 The .05 level of confidence was adopted as the criterion for rejecting the null hypothesis. Definition of Terms The following definitions have applied in this study: Severely retarded reader. A student whose score on the California Reading Test, Total, is more than one and one-half years below grade placement. Silent reading ability. Score obtained on the California Reading Test: Vocabulary, Comprehension, and Total. Oral reading abilty. Score obtained on the Gilmore Oral Reading Test, Accuracy Section. IS- Score obtained on the California Test of Mental Maturity: Short Form. Junior high school level. Grades seven, eight, and nine in the public school system. Socioeconomic status. Rating assigned to stu dent's father, representing placement on the Varner Scale for Rating Occupations: Revised (58:140-141). 10 Attitude toward reading. Scores on the "As I See My Reading" and "As Others See My Reading" sections and the Attitude toward Reading Total of the Semantic Differ ential, and the score on the "Attitude toward Reading" scale used to evaluate student response to Picture 1 of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Self-concept. Scores on the "As I See Myself" and "As Others See Me" sections and Self-concept Total of the Semantic Differential and the score on the "Attitude toward Self" scale used to evaluate student response to Picture 1 of the Thematic Apperception Test. Reading-for-pleasure focused program. An instruc tional program in remedial reading in which the major por tion of the class period is devoted to group-developed activities, such as shits, experience stories, class news papers, and puppet shows. Many of the group activities are conducted in a round-table setting. Most of the read ing material utilized is written by the students as part of the group activities. The teacher's involvement in the planning of and participation in group activities is minimal. Ho direct instruction in reading shills is given by the teacher during group activities. A ten-minute "free time" period is provided during the class hour and students may select reading materials mf an instructional 11 or recreational nature. The teacher gives direct Instruc tion In reading skills during the "free tine" period only upon request. The major goal of the program Is to In crease reading ability through greater motivation and effort developed by pleasant, stimulating reading exper iences. Skill-oriented program. An instructional program in remedial reading in which the major portion of the class period is devoted to direct Instruction by the teacher in techniques for Improving such reading skills as independent word attack, vocabulary building, and compre hension. Most of the reading material utilized is of a published or teacher-made nature. Teacher involvement in planning direct instruction is maximum. A ten-minute "free time" period is provided during the class hour and students may select reading materials of an instructional or recreational nature. The teacher gives direct instruc tion in reading skills during the "free time" period only upon request. The major goal of the program is to in crease reading ability through greater motivation and effort developed by success in learning and improving basic reading skills. Total enrollment of program. All of the students from the three classes involved in an ejq>erimental program 12 (reading-for-pleasure focused of skill-oriented). Scone and Limitations This study was limited to six classes in one coun ty (Los Angeles) of California. The evaluation of program effectiveness was based on the results of one semester of remedial training. In addition, no attempt was made to measure the impact of the remedial program on the stu dent's performance in subject areas other than reading. The general!zability of the findings of this re search was limited by the following considerations: 1. Randomization of the assignment of the stu dents to the two programs was not possible since the study utilized classes in which the students were previously assigned. 2. Differences in motivation for reading are not accounted for in the matching procedure. 3. Ho attempt was made to standardize the selec tion and use of the reading materials utilized by the classes participating in this study. Therefore, the pos sible influence of differences in reading materials is not accounted for. A. The group Intelligence test (CTHH) used in the matching procedures of this study is a reading test to a degree that limits the validity of obtained measures of 13 Intelligence in the case of severely retarded readers. Organization of the Remaining Chapters The remainder of this dissertation is organized as follows: 1. Chapter II presents a review of the litera ture concerning remedial reading programs at the junior high school level, and the influence of both socioeconomic status and attitude on reading achievement. 2. Chapter III describes the population sample, the assessment instruments used, the research methodology, and treatment of data. 5. Chapter IV presents the findings of the study in the framework of the research hypotheses. 4. Chapter V summarizes the dissertation, dis cusses pertinent conclusions, and offers appropriate recommendations. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The nature and effectiveness of remedial reading programs in the junior high school curriculum have long been subjects of discussion and empirical investigation. The review of the literature in this chapter is divided into three sections: (1) remedial reading programs at the Junior high school level, including the history, objec tives, organization, characteristics of such programs and evaluation procedures pertaining to their assessment; (2) the effect of socioeconomic status on reading achievement; the influence of attitudes on reading achievement. Remedial Reading Programs In this section a number of contributions to the literature on remedial reading programs at the junior high school level are reviewed under the topics, History, Objectives, Organization, Characteristics, and Evaluation. History In the last forty years, remedial reading programs 14 have grown considerably in number throughout the school systems of the United States. The following discussion, which addresses itself to the more significant reports which highlight this pattern of growth, is divided into four time periods: initial developments, the period from 1925 to World War II, post-war developments, and contem porary status. Initial Developments One of the earliest studies of differential in struction for retarded readers was conducted by the English Department of University High School, University of Chicago, in 1919 (74:2). The curriculum of the "corrective" English class stressed reading comprehension shills for students "who cannot read very simple expos itory phrases understandingly and economically." In an early review of 436 studies, written in 1925* Gray (155:24) pointed to the need for remedial reading at the junior high school level. He stated that "the importance and possibility of doing effective work in remedial read ing all public school levels has been clearly demon strated," and he recommended that diagnostic and remedial work be an integral part of the school program. 16 1926 - World War II Bobinson (142) reported a definite increase in interest in remedial reading programs between 1926 and 1935i &a a result of the passage of compulsory education laws. Traxler (114:59)* in a 1933 journal article, noted the results of 25 experiments in remedial reading and remarked that "an increasing amount of attention is being directed toward the development of procedures for teaching retarded readers in a group." He found that "considerable permanent benefit" was derived from the corrective pro cedures. Support for this view was given by Monroe and Backus (34) when they declared unequivocally that remedial reading programs for junior high school students were effective. Two later investigations presented additional evi dence concerning the need for remedial reading classes at the secondary level. Witty and Kopel (61) reviewed a study that indicated 2169 of 7380 eighth-grade graduates read at or below norms for the sixth grade. A 1942 H.E.A. survey of 2275 high schools, prepared by Gray (134), found that 45 per cent of the schools had separate reading classes of a remedial or corrective nature. The accelerated development of remedial reading programs was summarized by Harris: 17 The seventh, eighth, end ninth grades are in a somewhat uncertain position in American School sys tems. In many places these three grades are admin istratively and physically separate in a Junior high school* In some places the seventh and eighth grades are part of the elementary school and the ninth grade is the first year of high school. In still ether places a six-year elementary school is followed by a six-year secondary school* The provisions made for the teaching of reading are even more varied. For a long time it was as sumed that if a child got as far as this in school he knew how to read, and reading was assigned rather than taught. Literature was read and ana lysed and textbooks were studied, but reading skills as such were not considered in need of further teaching. During the 1930's and 1940's the growing aware ness that a large number of upper-grade children were not able to do the assigned reading resulted in the development of many remedial programs in these grades. Children with normal i.Q.'s and low reading ability were given special instruction in small groups. (24:110) Post-war Developments Further impetus to the development of remedial reading programs at the secondary level took place as a result of military training experiences in World War II. Smith (108:146) reported "the shocking discovery that at this day and age thousands of young men in the military service could not read well enough to follow the simple printed instructions for camp life." He stated that the impact of the unexpected need for military reading pro grams on the secondary school curriculum was considerable, and resulted in renewed stress on adequate reading skills for all students. The seriousness of the problem was also 18 emphasized by Blair (6), who noted that many junior high schools had organised special reading improvement pro grams. She extent of the post-Vorld War II expansion of remedial reading at the junior high school level was re flected in surveys and program developments in the cities of Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and New York, and in the states of Florida, Illinois, and Pennsylvania. A 1948 project in the New York City Schools, involving twenty seventh-grade teachers was reported by Cohen (69) to be well justified in terms of the time, effort, and money expended. A highly significant step taken by the State of Pennsylvania in 1952 was reported by Strang (110). A law was passed which required all students to take a develop mental or remedial course in reading during the seventh or eighth grades. In 1953> the Philadelphia school system launched an organized attack on the problem by establish ing twenty-six junior high school reading classes, limited to fifteen students, which met daily (69). The Los Angeles City School District has had a continuing increase in the size of its program, and reported in 1958 a total of thirty-two junior high schools which had remedial read ing courses (184). In 1958, a comprehensive study of Florida secondary schools, briefly recapitulated by Jordan (88), revealed that 94 per cent of separate junior 19 high schools offer remedial work in reading. One of the most extensive as well as intensive studies of remedial reading programs was made by Griseon (81) in 1959* He found that, of 557 respondent Junior high schools in Illinois, approximately 20 per cent had remedial classes. In addition, it was discovered that 85 per cent of the schools that did not have programs felt a definite need for them. OrisBon considered the rapid ex pansion of provisions for retarded readers in the 1950's in Illinois to he representative of national trends. Contemporary Status An example of the present extent of provisions for retarded readers in large city school systenswas given by the Los Angeles City School District in a 1963 report which stated that there were remedial reading classes in sixty-two Junior high schools, with a total enrollment for these classes of 5*203 students (184). Recognition of the established position of reme dial reading instruction in the Junior high school cur riculum was given by Sheldon (143) in the Sixtieth Year book of the KBSE and in Conant's I960 text (13:20) on the educational needs of the Junior high school student. Conant pointed out that large numbers of ninth graders were reading at or below the sixth grade level, and 20 stated: Pupils who in grades 7, 8, and 9 are reading a year or more below grade level expectancy should have special provisions made for then. These pro visions should take the form of instructional per iods which are in addition to regularly scheduled classes in English. (13:20) Objectives Three general categories of objectives are to be found in descriptions of remedial reading programs at the junior high school level: (a) acquisition of basic read ing skills, (b) changes in self-concept and attitude toward reading, and (c) reading for pleasure. The review below will focus on these categories. Acquisition of basic reading skills A number of investigators have pointed to the need for improving fundamental reading skills as the pri mary goal of remedial reading programs. Spache, for ex ample, stated: The reading tasks required of a junior high school pupil increase in number and variety as he moves into the secondary-school curriculum. He has more ground to cover in current science and expanded reference reading. More facts, more abstract concepts, and more complex ideas, involv ing higher readability levels, require increased competency in reading skills. (49:75) A similar view was presented by Traxler, who re ported: 21 Host ejqperiments In reading improvement carried on under classroom or group procedures have been concerned with ways to Improve reading rate, vocabu lary, and various aspects of comprehension, such as those skills Involved in study-type reading. (125:6) In his review of Grissom's extensive Illinois sur vey (81), Baughman noted that increased skill in reading comprehension was the most commonly mentioned specific goal. Other objectives presented by the schools which participated in the survey included: ... to remedy faulty habits, to raise general achievement level to permit high school success, to remove deficiencies, to bring subnormal read ers to normal, and to teach reading skills not learned in the lower grades. (65:92) Baughman concluded that remedial reading programs in Illinois schools emphasized comprehension, good study habits, and individual interests and differences. Change in self-concent and attinude toward reading Modifications of both the student's self-concept and hi8 attitude toward reading have also been proposed as goals of remedial reading programs. Concern for these goals has been expressed by two investigators, Gladden and Homze, whose views are separated by a chronological space of thirty years. In 1951, the former writer stated: Besides having an unwholesome attitude toward reading, the pupil is often affected by a loss of zeal, by distaste, by disinclination to exert him self in the task of improving his deficiencies and by an indifference concenning the outcome of train ing. (162:116) 22 In 1962, Homze said: The interdependence of reading and the self- concept has important implications for education. . . . Educators must add a second dimension to all remedial reading programs. This would stress dev eloping the child's attitude toward himself as well as developing reading shills. Such a program would include many successful reading experiences to help build the child's confidence. (86:214) Additional references concerning the importance of both attitude toward reading and self-concept in the remedial process will be given in another section of this review of literature. Reading for pleasure Another type of objective of remedial instruc tional programs discussed in the literature focused upon reading for pleasure. Blair (6: 123-128), for example, pointed to "gaining rich and varied experience," and "permanent interest in reading," along with "acquiring appropriate and effective skills," as the major objec tives of the program in Niles, Michigan. He reported "wide collateral reading" as receiving equal emphasis with skills in the goals of the Newton, Massachusetts program. Similarly, the objectives of the New Tork City remedial plan, according to Cohen (65:59)> included the following: "to overcome the social frustrations which may arise from reading disabilities by providing successful and therefore satisfying experiences in reading,” and "to 23 stimulate reading for pleasure." Heading for enjoyment was considered by Vitt (118:37) to be the "basic consider ation" of all remedial reading instruction. Summary The objectives of remedial reading programs at the junior high school level have been surveyed. Three cate gories of objectives were considered: acquisition of basic reading shills; changes in self-concept and attitude toward reading; and, reading for pleasure. Although the improvement of basic reading shills has been the chief objective of remedial reading at the junior high school level, programs have been designed to reflect several major objectives outlined above. An example is provided in the course outline for reading improvement classes in the Los Angeles City Schools (183). This instructional guide placed the major aim of the course as developing the pupil's ability to read, and stated that teachers can best meet the needs of pupils in reading classes by conducting a definite program of shill building in word recognition, comprehension, vocabulary enlargement, and study shills. It also pointed out, however that the teacher should guide a plan for recreational reading in the classroom, library, and home. The fifteen goals listed in this guide emphasized the acquisition of reading 24 skills but also included the goal of developing enduring habits of reading for pleasure. Organization Organizational provisions for retarded readers at the junior high school level are discussed below. Two types of organizational forms are reviewed— individual in struction and group instruction. Individual instruction can take place within the framework of regular school activities or in special reading clinics or centers. Group instruction may take the form of small groups of various kinds, regular classes, or organizational arrange ments that combine several instructional forms. Individual Instruction The predominance of individual instruction in the early provisions for retarded readers was noted by Traxler (56). Reviewing the available research, in 1932, Traxler found that most of the experimental work in teach ing retarded readers at the secondary level had focused upon individual programs for reading. Although the trend soon swung toward group organisational forms, some individ ual instruction by special teachers in reading centers and clinics has continued, as recorded in reviews by Spache (49) and Stolarz (148). 25 Group Instruction In 1952, Traxler (56) raised questions concerning the feasibility of group reading methods and the perma nence of gains made under group instruction. It is inter esting to note that twenty-eight years later, Traxler and Jungeblatt (150:68) commented, "A recurring question in connection with remedial reading has to do with the extent to which group procedures may effectively be used." Despite Traxler and Jungeblatt*s "recurring question," group instruction became the predominant organizational form, and most of the junior high school remedial reading programs of the past twenty years have been conducted in small group or class settings. Small-group forms.— A diversity of small-group approaches to remedial reading instruction was noted by Strang, McCullough, and Traxler (54:40), including a unique form termed the "guidance approach." Under this approach, small groups of retarded readers were helped by competent pupils supervised by teachers. Activities in cluded trips, organizing class newspapers, and "following directions for making and doing things." The diversity of approach mentioned by Strang, McCullough, and Traxler was illustrated by reports of Center and Persons and the Battle Creek, Michigan schools. 26 Center and Persona (11) consented on a highly individualised "Beading School" program In which the teacher worked with five students at a time in interest- centered activities. A group program devised by the Battle Creek schools (98) involved groups of six retarded readers which met for one-hour sessions, two days per week. This approach allowed considerable individualiza tion of instruction in basic skills, supplemented by group discussions. Class instruction.— One of the earliest statements regarding the need for specific class provisions for re tarded readers at the secondary school level was published by the National Committee on Beading in 1923 (133:72,73)* The committee stated: All junior high schools and most senior high schools should have on their faculties one or more expert teachers qualified to give special training in habits of silent and oral reading. All who fall noticeably below the sixth-grade standards should be given instruction in reading during a special training period until a satisfactory level of accomplishment has been reached. Furthermore, all pupils who encounter unusual difficulties in read ing should be referred to the special teacher for diagnosis and remedial treatment. Unless some such provision is made for correcting fundamental de fects, there is grave danger that the difficulties which these pupils encounter will never be corrected And that they will be seriously handicapped in all school activities that require reading. Tl35:72,73) As discussed above, group instruction soon became the pre dominant organizational form, and most group instruction 27 was provided in classes (124). Grissom (81) found, for example, that the most frequent fora of instruction in Illinois schools was the special reading class, taught bya special teacher for a predetermined period of time. Some classes met every day, while other scheduling arrange ments ranged from once a week to ten periods a week. The 107 schools reporting reading improvement programs were categorized by Grissom into three general groups: schools with special ability-grouped English classes which empha sized reading, schools providing special reading classes, and schools making a variety of provisions, including special classes for reading underachievers and remedial English classes for low-ability students. A flexible approach to program structure, noted by Horan and Holly (95)» involved fluid scheduling of class time and mobility between classes. The number of periods of instructional time provided varied with the needs of the pupils, and as reading skill increased, the student could be shifted to a higher reading class at any time during the semester. In addition, two after-school periods were available to pupils who wanted additional help. Combination of forms.— Illustrations of programs which combined organizational forms were given by Vogel and Grissom. Vogel (117) described an arrangement in 28 which a special class, limited to eighteen students, was supplemented by a redding clinic for the most severely retarded readers, who met in groups of three or four. Grissom (81) reported that some Illinois schools combined special reading classes with reading clinic periods for students with particular skill deficiencies. Characteristics Numerous journal articles (93, 118, 107, 83, 96, 76, 67* 81, 100, 115, 125* 170) and several books (7* 4, 39* 10, 52) have been devoted to the problem of developing effective programs for teaching retarded readers at the secondary level. In his 1958 summary of research Gray (80:126) stated: "Keen interest in the comparative effec tiveness of different methods of teaching reading contin ues. " Clymer and Bobinson (64), in their 1961 literature review, reported a similar concern with methodology. The discussion to follow considers the characteristics of remedial reading programs under two headings: (1) program principles, and (2) types of programs. Program Principles A survey of the literature indicated that a review of remedial reading program principles can be divided into three parts: areas of general agreement, areas of differ 29 ences in emphasis, and relationship of program principles to established practices in regular classes. Areas of consensue.--Although there is consider able variation of emphasis, a number of areas of agreement were found in the many discussions of desirable character istics of remedial reading programs. These included: arousing interest and developing motivation, providing reading material that combines high intrinsic interest value with sufficiently low difficulty level, adapting materials and techniques to individual needs, and offering variety while avoiding monotony. Areas of variation in emphasis.— Illustrations of program principles underlying the design of remedial courses included those described by Harris (25:550) and Bond and Tinker (8:15)* Harris focused primarily on the nature of the retarded reader when he listed the general characteristics of remedial teaching as: (1) basing remedial instruction on diagnosis, (2) starting from what the pupil knows, (5) selecting appropriate material, and (A) securing motivation. Bond and Tinker, on the other hand, placed greater emphasis on the nature of the in struction to be given. They stated the following as basic principles underlying approaches to corrective reading: 1. Treatment must be based on an understanding of the child's instructional needs. 30 2. Remedial programs must be highly individual ized. 3. Remedial instruction must be organized instruction. 4. The reading process must be made meaningful to the learner. 3. Consideration of the child's personal worth is necessary. 6. The reading program must be encouraging to the child. 7. Materials and exercises must be suitable to the child's reading ability and instructional needs. 8. Sound teaching procedures must be employed. Relationship to regular class practices.— The re lationship between remedial teaching methods and general instructional objectives has been clearly defined by Gates (21:122), who maintained that in general, the best remedial instruction is simply the best classroom methods used with unusual care and intensity, and with very exact adjustments to the needs of the individual. (21:122) Gray (22), in his extensive review of research, noted that many investigators have stressed the close correspondence of appropriate remedial techniques with typical practices of competent teachers in regular class rooms. Types of Programs For purposes of this review, studies dealing with 31 specific programs for retarded readers at the junior high school level have been divided Into three categories: those emphasizing the teaching of basic shills, programs with equal stress on basic skills and reading interests and activities, and programs with a strong orientation toward interests, activites, and reading for pleasure as the key aspects of effective remedial work. Programs emphasising basic reading skills.— One of the earliest descriptions of remedial reading programs at the secondary level was given by the English Department of University High School in Chicago (73)* The content of this course consisted of drill on such skills as getting the central ideas of para graphs, preparing outlines, noting principal points and details, following directions, drawing conclusions, and finding facts. This skill-focused curriculum, proposed in 1919, is similar to many course descriptions available in the current literature. Other descriptions of remedial programs that con centrate primarily on teaching reading skills have also been published. Gates (132), Vitt (118), and Miller (93), for example, attached great importance to highly struc tured classroom procedures. Gates pointed out that basic skills are best taught by guided, definite techniques rather than with trlal-and-error learning. Vitt concluded 32 that a highly structured work attack procedure was the essential ingredient of a remedial program, while close teacher supervision of instruction was stressed hy Miller. According to Karlin (89), a program with a heavy concentration on word recognition and basic sight vocab ulary was necessary for retarded readers regardless of intellectual development. A combination of methods of teaching basic skills using varied materials was recom mended by Oarillo (128). The Los Angeles City School District (184), which conducts an extensive reading improvement program at the secondary level, described its skill-oriented remedial reading course as follows: . . . Provides diagnosis of pupil reading problems and a sequential development of essential skills; word recognition, phrase reading, vocabulary build ing through speaking, listening, reading and writ ing, comprehension of central thought and signif icant details, of cause and effect relationships, getting exact meaning from printed page in study and general reading. Uses appropriate multi-level materials and proceeds at a pace suited to the capacities of the pupils to improve ability and increase interest in reading. (184:3) A further indication of the importance attached to teaching basic skills was revealed by Traxler's (151) re view of programs in 217 schools. The most frequently mentioned methods were instruction in finding main ideas and supporting details, drill on enlarging sight vocab ulary, instruction in reading directions, oral reading, skimming, and the study of affixes and roots. 33 Proggans with equal stress on basic skills and reading - inierestb and activities.— A number of reports of remedial programs have indicated that a balance in empha sis between skill acquisition opportunities and less formal reading activities is favored by many authorities. Butherford (172) advised combining accent on skills with considerable recreational reading, including the reading of plays. Smith (144:49) maintained that while the accent in instruction should be placed upon the skills and abil ities which the student lacks, teachers must also provide school time for leisure reading. He stated that "giving the retarded reader class time is an indication of the value the teacher places upon reading for enjoyment." Castle (139) advocated building sight vocabulary by using the student's own compositions as source mater ial. In addition to comprehension and reference skill- building, Castle regarded the writing, producing, and recording of short plays, publishing a class newspaper, and constructing models as essential activities. Mater ials for individual reading skills drills were obtained from personal experience stories dictated, typed, and put into booklets, in the method described by Colyear (67)* Other programs whose major components are teaching of skills and recreational reading have also been reported. 3* Traxler (113) Indicated that development of Interest through "extensive independent reading" and increasing basic reading shills were the major objectives of the class he surveyed. The importance of word recognition training was emphasized in Bulloch's (10) text on the non reading pupil in the secondary school. He suggested a wide variety of exercises for word recognition building, including cards, games, fill-in worhbooh materials, hin- aesthetic tracing, and phonics. In addition to shill drill, Bulloch recommended considerable recreational read ing activities such as reading clubs, reporting on radio shows, reading games, and the use of the tape recorder. Zener (178) maintained that practice on specific shills should be balanced with a great deal of oral reading for pleasure, including choral reading and play dramatiza tions. Programs with strong orientation toware interest. activities. and readlng-for-oleasure as ike hey" to effective remedial wort.— Jjpetus for the de velopment of remedial reading programs that stress recrea tional reading has come from a substantial body of opinion that has questioned the efficacy of the reliance on tradi tional methods of instruction. Typical of the statements in this vein that have appeared in the literature are the following: 35 Nearly all older backward readers have failed for six or seven years with the usual methods of teaching reading as generally used In infant and J unior high school classes. It Is therefore use- ess to continue with the same kind of Instruction now that these pupils have entered a new department or have come under the care of a different teacher. Ve must devise a new approach which will, at least in the Initial stages, have novelty and ensure immediate success. (10:5) The child must find immediate success and pleasure in his work, and that success and pleasure must con tinue for some days or weeks, or he will not change his attitude of fear of reading to one of a desire to attack reading. (73:134-) Methodology and techniques cannot always remove reading failures and concomitant behavior problems. Some reading problems have their roots outside the reading situation and a frontal attack on reading will not solve the problem. (26:381) In choosing methods of teaching retarded readers those most likely to result in successful experiences with reading are most appropriate. (141:370) Too much emphasis in classrooms is placed on the work aspect rather than the fun of doing things. A pupil who is constantly reminded that he has work to do can lose interest and fail-in school activities. Teachers can motivate by making reading a diversion instead of a drudgery. Enthusiasm should pervade each reading lesson. Pleasure derived from books is a learned satisfaction and teachers have an obliga tion to help pupils view reading this way. (109:81) The first step in mass remedial reading is to secure interested reading by every child at his present reading level. (18:172) When providing instructional help to retarded readers, there is a danger of giving them more of the same kind of instruction that failed to teach then to read in their regular classes. (162:17) An early reference to recreational reading is found in Gladden's (162) 1931 national review of remedial 36 programs at the junior high school level. Although almost all of the methods cited were skill-focused, there Is some mention of reading clubs, and activities such as plays and reading games. A more recant description of programs emphasising recreational reading has been given by Strang, McCullough, and Traxler (53:40), who discussed workshops, reading clubs, radio programs, movie reviews, trips, class newspaper, and following directions "for making and doing things." They described a "guidance approach" involving retarded readers working in small groups under"direct leadership of competent pupils supervised by teachers." Extensive use of the tape recorder in a program focused on individual experience stories and plays was reported by Elkins (131:34-)' According to this writer, "The tape recorder has numerous ramifications and unending possibilities for oral reading. Its motivational powers are unquestioned. Children will practice and practice untiringly, without a murmur, in order to perfect a passage for the recorder." Removal of pressures by the elimination of grades and required amounts of work was characteristic of the program cited by Turner (113:137)* He remarked that "it was amazing that when all pressures were taken from these slow, insecure, often emotionally upset children, they quickly got down to reading in their books and started to 37 enjoy reading. The atmosphere of the room was quiet, re laxed, and very orderly." Although much group instruction in phonics, syllabication, word attack, and other reading skills had been planned for the course, pupil resistance to being taken from reading for pleasure convinced teach ers to give specific reading help on an individual basis only, as needed. The free choice of reading experiences featured the program described by Delacato and Delacato (70:31) as the "permissive group approach." A somewhat similar approach, described by Strang (52:140-144) was character ized by a "workshop" class which was planned primarily to create pleasure and interest in everyday reading situa tions. Activities included visits to the library, dramat ic reading, and a quiz program. Strang remarked that "vitality is the keynote of this program— a vitality achieved by setting in motion activities in which these boys and girls could function successfully." Remedial courses in which drill was subordinated to interest were advocated by Strang as more effective than a skill- dominant approach. Another departure from customary remedial class room practice was reported by Ferrerio (76). In imple menting this method, the teacher took the remedial reading class into an industrial arts shop and utilized reading as 38 an incidental aid in exploring the industrial arts curric ulum. Ferrario stated: The industrial arts area provides a relaxed, friendly, cooperative situation closely akin to that found in the playground, involving the satis factions and concomitants of play. Pupils are alert and eager, actively- in search of clues, ready to take advice. Vhen it is possible for the remedial reading teacher to work with children in the industrial arts shop, with its quasi-play setting, these characteristics of play can be used to advantage in helping children to improve in their reading ability. (76:20) Summary This section has reviewed the characteristics of remedial reading programs at the junior high school level under two headings: program principles and types of programs. Program principles:— In examining program prin ciples, areas of agreement as well as areas of variation in emphasis were found. Agreement was noted regarding the desirability of developing motivation, providing high- interest, easy-reading material, adapting to individual needs, and offering varied activities. Several statements of program principles were given to illustrate variation in emphasis. The similarity between principles of reme dial reading instruction and principles underlying typical practices in regular classrooms was also examined. 39 Program types.— Program types ware divided into three categories: those emphasizing the teaching of basic skills; programs with equal stress on basic skills and reading interests and activities; and programs with a strong orientation toward interests, activities, and read ing for pleasure as the key aspects of effective remedial work. Proponents and practitioners of each program type seemed convinced of the merits of the particular type chosen. However, it was the contention of some author ities that no one method of teaching remedial reading was adequate. Smith (144, Carillo (128), and Early (122:22) have expressed the need for eclecticism in methodology. Early stated that "since causation is multiple, remedia tion must also use many approaches. A single method of attack may be detrimental as well as useless." (122:22) Evaluation According to Leavell (123), procedures for the evaluation of reading skills prior to 1935 were limited mainly to subjective teacher judgment, and little use was made of standardized reading tests. The decade from 1935 to 1943, however, saw introduction of varied methods of evaluating reading instruction and widespread use of standardized reading and other achievement tests. 40 Reading assessment techniques Reading tests♦— Standardized reading tests have been the major tools for assessing the effectiveness of the remedial reading program at the junior high school level. In an extensive survey, Traxler (112) noted that 91 par cent of the programs reviewed used standardised tests in the evaluation process, and that this method of appraisal was the one most frequently employed. Reports by Letton (138) and Robinson (141) also emphasized the predominant role of reading tests in the evaluative proc ess. Thus, the baBic reading skills measured by these tests— such as vocabulary, comprehension, study skills, and word analysis— have been the major content of test- appraisal procedures. Some researchers, however, have expressed concern that reading tests are too limited in scope. Strang, McCullough, and Traxler (34:238) expressed this viewpoint when they stated: On the other hand, test results do not show the growth that may have occurred in other reading skills, nor do they reflect increased confidence in one's ability to learn, changed motivation, sharpened interest, improved concentration, or other attitudes that may eventually lead to improvement. These important outcomes of special reading groups can be evaluated only by supplementing standardized tests with informal tests, questionnaires, reading inven tories, reading autobiographies, charts of progress, and day-by-day observation of student's responses. (54:238) 41 Critique of reading teste.— A number of specific reservations have been expressed in regard to standardized written reading tests. The influence of the practice ef fect on test-retest gains was questioned by Strang, McCullough and Traxler (54). The tendency of extreme scores to regress toward the mean in the retest was noted by Sommerfield (146) as a statistical weakness. Chall (129) observed that very retarded readers will not reach their true achievement level if the test used was designed for a range of several grades only. Thus an eighth-grade student reading at the third grade level would be heavily penalized by the vocabulary level of a test planned for grades seven through nine. Traxler (152) stated that standardized written reading tests were limited in value because they did not permit interruption of the reading process during testing. He maintained that oral reading tests were excellent evaluative instruments, but recognized the limited practicality of the individually-administered oral test. General criticism of the use of reading tests has been voiced by a number of researchers. Smith and Dechant (48) expressed overall dissatisfaction with tests measuring reading skills. The adequacy of tests in measuring ability to read for different purposes was questioned by Naslund, Brown, and Hopkins (159). 42 The lack of a standardized nomenclature In reading re search was highlighted by Cronbach (141). In his analysis of reading tests, he observed that at a glance, reading seems to be a clearly defined skill which could readily be measured, but tests having the same name measure quite different behavior. Authors disagree on what reading tests should include and on the most useful definition of rate, comprehension, word knowledge, etc., for testing purposes. (141:389) Cross-validat1onapproaches to assessment.— The need for supplementing reading tests with additional sources of information has also been recognized. Jackson (137:29), for example, stressed the inclusion of teacher appraisal, direct observation, and peer opinion in the assessment process and noted that "test scores are Important, to be sure, but they are only so because they give us information which allows us to compare it with the performance of others.n Other writers, including Witty and Brink (120), have proposed other assessment techniques such as student self-appraisal, pupil conferences, progress charts, parent conferences, and daily informal checks. In her summary of a recent conference on the eval uation of reading, Bobinson (142) declared: Methods recommended for evaluating reading achievement include informal tests of proficiency in the use of increasingly difficult materials, tests constructed by teachers to measure any unit of learning, observation of success and difficulties encountered in completing a given assignment, 4 - 3 records of what is read and reactions to it, rating scales and questionnaires, interviews with parents and children, and finally, standardized tests. Evaluation of Attitudes toward Heading Attitudes toward and interest in reading have also been considered an integral part of assessment. Witty (119) pointed out that standardized test scores were not a complete indication of reading status, and that attitude toward reading, reading pattern, influence of reading on behavior, and self-evaluation were also impor tant. Changes in»attitude toward reading were noted by Traxler (112) as an important factor in teacher reports of reading improvement. Letton (138) summarized the situa tion regarding content of evaluation when he stated: . . . There are two major aspects of reading in which the classroom teacher is most often inter ested. First, he wishes to evaluate the effective ness of teaching reading skills, both oral and silent. Second, he wants to appraise the reading interests and attitudes of his pupils. (138:76) Several approaches to measuring changes in reading interests and attitudes have been suggested. The useful ness of projective devices and other psychometric instru ments for this purpose was reported by Bruck, Bodwin, and Stevens (157* 154-, 174-). Research designs utilizing Q-sort methodology were employed by Butler, Moses, and Lum kin (158, 169, 167). 44 A more subjective approach was presented by Brinkman (155)» who felt that teachers should attempt to appraise such factors as requests for books to take home, carry-over of remedial training into regular classes, number of withdrawn pupils who display greater self- confidence, leBB fear of oral reading among students, less student tension, and fewer absences and truancies. Critique of Evaluation Problems of interpretation, as well as the limita tions of evaluative procedures, have received increased attention in the past decade. Investigator bias as well as the weakness of evaluative devices were considered by Staiger (147) to be major pitfalls in the interpretation of research in remedial reading. Petty (140) cautioned that research design must resolve problems of the "halo* effect, the spelling out of clearly defined and differen tiated methods, and the difficulty of maintaining proce dures constant from classroom to classroom. He also ex pressed the need to limit generalizations resulting from experiments to the specific kind of population studied. Equating for motivation of students in reading was con sidered by Scott (103) to be of primary importance in reading investigations. He also stated that equating teacher effectiveness was necessary in research design. 45 Sommerfield (146) felt that allowances need to be made for the differences in both skill and motivation among teach ers. He further noted that most studies report results in terms of group means, which could obscure variations among the individuals in the group. Becapitulating the influences that could bias the findings of reading research, Sommerfield (146:56) di rected attention to "the subjects involved, the techniques and materials used, the conditions specific to the study, the tests employed, the statistical devices used, and per haps the bias or misrepresentations of the investigator." Precautions for reading researchers were enumer ated by Dolch (17:80): 1. compare equal teachers working equally hard 2. compare pupils of equal natural ability and equal home influences. 3. compare only equal school time and influence 4. watch carefully size of class 5. beware of misleading averages 6. watch for unmeasurea results. The problems found in reading research outlined above suggest strongly that caution is needed in inter preting and assessing studies reported in the literature. Because of the.difficulties involved in controlling all the variables that can affect results of reading experi ments, the possibility that uncontrolled variables may exert considerable influence on the results, Strang, McCullough, and Traxler (54:236) concluded that "we must admit that the results of controlled group experiments are inconclusive." (54:236) 46 Effect of Socioeconomic Status on heading Achievement ~ Among the factors that are considered to he re lated to school achievement in general and reading achievement in particular is the socioeconomic status of the family. There is an extensive body of literature dealing with the relationship between socioeconomic status and education in the United States. The revealing data reported in the sociological classics "Middletown" (33), "Deep South" (16), "Who Shall Be Educated" (59), and "Elmtown's Youth" (28) have raised the question of whether or not social class is an important factor accounting for variations in attitude toward and achievement in school. Numerous journal articles have been written on the pros and cons of this issue. The review below considers (1) the relationship between socioeconomic status and school achievement, and (2) the interrelationship between read ing and socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic Status and School Achievement The position that socioeconomic status and educa tion are positively correlated, that higher academic achievement and more favorable attitude toward the learn- ing process are associated with higher socioeconomic status, was reflected in the following statements: It is a notable fact that academic achieve ment is significantly related to social-class status. (55:16) There is ample evidence from other studies of both pre-school and school-age children in dicating a close relation between language devel opment and socioeconomic level. (1.509) Social class, once more, is significantly related to educational aspiration. (101:58) The social-class background of a child becomes significantly in terms of values and attitudes he is likely to bring to the learning situation at school. Generally speaking, the attitudes and values learned by the middle-class child at home gives him a considerable advantage when he enters school. (32:104-) The educational level reached by a child's parents, their occupational status, and the number of books in the home are significantly related to ess the child is likely to make in reading. Support for the above assertions is to be found in a number of studies. Coster (68) noted that higher in come pupils received higher grades than middle or low income students. Stendler (51) observed a lack of inter est by lower-class families in academic achievement. She found that when parent conferences were substituted for report cards, significantly fewer parents from the lower income brackets attended. Investigations by Deutsch (130), Sewell (104-), and Bosen (101), revealed significant positive relationships between socio-economic status and 48 educational aspiration. Reviews of research by other writers reached simi lar conclusions regarding socioeconomic status and aca demic achievement. Anastasi (1:511) observed that "the evidence does show that school achievement is positively related to social status." Shaw (105:200, reviewing seventeen investigations, found a "fairly substantial” correlation between socioeconomic status and achievement. In his summary of twelve research projects, Stroud (111) noted comparable results, including studies where I.Q. was held constant. Although the weight of research evidence leans heavily in the direction of the position outlined above, contrary findings have also been reported. Dockrell (71) found that when I.Q. was partialed out, socioeconomic status and arithmetic achievement were not significantly correlated. A British study by Fleming (78) found incon sistent results in correlating the socio-economic status and achievement test scores of 4,000 school children between the ages of 8 and 12. Murphy, Murphy, and Newcomb (36:1015) criticized the point of view that attitude to ward school was strongly influenced by social class. They contended that in view of the complicated network of influences responsible for attitude formation, it seems positive ly naive to expect to find simple correlations be tween socioeconomic status and a particular attitude. (36:1015) 4 - 9 The most extensive dissenting opinion was given by Brookover and Gottlieb (9) in their 1963 critique of social class and education. They maintained that: Earlier studies have led to an over-emphasis on social class as a single factor which accounts for variation in aptitudes, achievement, and other behavior relevant to the school system. . . . Var iations in reference group, motivation, self perception, school social climates, teacher's and other adults' expectations of the school, and other factors may account for some differences in educa tional achievement and other school behavior which have been attributed to social class. Much more examination of such intervening variables are needed. . . . The commonly held assumption that social classes differ in the value they attach to education is questioned. In contrast, the demand for equal educa tional opportunities indicates that lower socioecon omic groups place a high premium on education. (9:11) Summary Although considerable research evidence has sup ported the position that socioeconomic status and school achievement are positively correlated, strong dissenting opinion has been voiced. Socioeconomic Status and Reading Examination of the literature revealed that there was considerable disagreement as to whether socioeconomic status and reading interests, attitudes, and achievement are directly related. Conflicting opinions were but tressed by substantial research evident on both sides of the question. 50 The view that socioeconomic status and reading are highly correlated was strongly promulgated by Allison Davis (15,) who is well known for his treatises on social class. This investigator stated that the range and type of vocabulary used by pupils as well as their attitudes toward education was class-determined, and that class dif ferences in these factors affected reading readiness and subsequent reading achievement. It is his contention that negative lower-class attitudes toward learning account for the middle-class superiority in academic achievement, par ticularly in verbal areas such as reading. Evidence for this view was also reported by Robinson (99) and Milner (94) who stated that lower-class children are at a dis advantage in reading because their home background pro vides less verbal stimulation. The relationship of economic factors to reading ability has also been stressed. The greater economic in stability and insecurity of the lower-income home was considered by Monroe and Backus (34) to be a predisposing factor to reading disability. Vitty and Kopel (61) pointed out that reading achievement was influenced by opportunity and motivation, which they contend are clearly related to economic stability and cultural milieu. Three large-scale experiments whose findings corroborated the viewpoint of those who link socioeconomic status and reading are cited. As a result of a study in volving a national sampling of over 5»000 cases, Coleman (66:65) stated that "poor readers, as a group, come with surprising consistency from children of low socioeconomic status." According to Coleman, reliable differences in reading test scores between high, middle and low socioeco nomic groups were obtained at each grade level studied. A similar result was reported by Sexton (46) following an investigation conducted in all the public schools of a large Middle-Vest industrial city. It was observed that achievement scores tended to go up as income levels rose. It was also discovered that the differences became greater as the student progressed through the grades, and that reading test scores showed the greatest discrepancy in the comparisons between socioeconomic group levels. Another extensive research project, reported by Sheldon and Carillo (106), delved into the relationship between parental background and reading achievement of children from eight school systems. It was found that a significant positive correlation existed between the edu cational level and occupational status of the father on one hand, and reading success on the other. Several studies of a more limited nature also found social class and reading retardation significantly related. In studying the home background of good and poor 52 readers, Yokley (177) discovered that good readers usually were members of middle-class families, while poor readers belonged in most cases to lower-class families. He noted that parents in lower-class families were less involved in educational activities. Similar findings were reported by Granzow (163) and Johnston (163). Very high correlations were obtained by Hill and Giammateo (83) in their study of 223 third-grade children. On the Reading Section of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills the correlation between socioeconomic status and the vocabulary and comprehension scores were .838 and .902, respectively. Roster (171) explored the possible link between socioeconomic status and the reading interests of fifth- grade children. Significant differences were found among groups of children categorized by using the Edwards Scale of Occupational Status. The further observation was made that social class status was of greater influence in de termining interests than chronological age, reading grade level, or sex. In contradistinction to the studies reported above, the findings of a substantial number of research projects, utilizing varied experimental designs and in volving both school and clinic populations, have chal lenged the position that reading and social class status 53 are closely related. On the negative side of the ques tion are the investigations of Jackson, Keshian, Schubert, Ladd, Robinson, Bennett, Gough, Almy, Friedhoff, and Vandamant and Thalman. A detailed study of the Dearborn, Indiana public schools, involving 300 advanced and 300 retarded readers, was described by Jackson (87:123)• He stated that "the social and economic status of the home, as roughly meas ured by parent occupation, seems to bear little relation, if any, to differences in reading ability of the two groups.* Keshian (166) explored the common characteristics of successful readers in his study of 72 children from communities with varied socioeconomic backgrounds. Stand ardized reading tests, parent interviews, and question naires yielded results which led Keshian to conclude that "socioeconomic status and reading success are not related? The matched-pair investigation conducted by Schubert (173) did not find statistically significant relationships between socioeconomic status and reading achievement, while the investigation by Ladd (31:83) re sulted in a "slight but not reliable" tendency for social class and reading scores to be correlated. In her classic work on the causes of reading dis ability, Robinson (43:161) had the cooperation of a group of specialists over a five-year period in intensively " i studying thirty severely retarded readers. Each of the children, with a Binet range of 85*137* was examined by a social worker, psychiatrist, pediatrician, neurologist, three opthalmologists, speech correctionist, otolaryngolo gist, endocrinologist, reading specialist, and psychol ogist-reading technician. Anomalies identified through individual examination were evaluated by the specialists, meeting as a group. "Possible causes" of reading retarda tion were identified for each case. An intensive program of appropriate medical, psychological, and educational treatment was initiated. Evidence of the relative con tribution of each of these "possible causes" was analyzed by the specialist group and "probable causes" for each case were proposed from the results of the various meas ures taken to improve reading ability. Among the conclu sions presented by Bobinson from this clinical study was the statement that "seriousness of retardation seemed in no way related to either occupation of the father or socioeconomic status." Other experiments also lend support to the claim that socioeconomic status and readings are not highly correlated. Bennett (127) evaluated 50 matched pairs of retarded and average readers, with sex and I.Q. held constant, and concluded that clear evidence of significant differences did not exist. Gough (79) used the Iowa Silent Beading Test in his investigation of 127 sixth-grade students from six schools. He observed that when I.Q. was held constant only slight positive differences between groups were re vealed. Similar results were reported by Friedhoff (161) for a group of 309 eighth-grade students. One hundred and six children in five first-grade classes were selected by Almy (126) for her research on the relationship between children's backgrounds prior to first grade and subsequent success in beginning reading. She reported that no significant relationship was found between reading achievement and father's occupational status. Vandamant and Thalman (116) explored the reading interests of 1034 pupils in grades six and ten. They de duced from the data obtained by questionnaire that the socioeconomic groups were not significantly different in their choice of reading material. This finding is in opposition to the results of the previously cited investi gation by Boater (171)• Summary The wide disagreement found in the literature re garding the relationship of socioeconomic statuB and read- 56 lug was pinpointed by Smith and Dechant (48:277) in their 1961 textbook, when they stated: "The exact nature of the role of socioeconomic status in determining whether a child will become a 'reader' and his choice of reading matter is not clear." Thus, the issue remained an unset tled one. The Influence of Attitudes on Heading Achievement The broad area of the relationship of attitudes and reading is too extensive to be covered fully in this review of literature. As a result, the discussion to fol low focuses upon the relationships of attitude toward reading and attitude toward self (self-concept) to school achievement in general and reading achievement in particular. Attitude Toward Heading Gray (135)* iu 1924, listed attitudes toward read ing as a major problem in need of study, and suggested two questions for further exploration: (1) to what degree should techniques of reading be stressed as contrasted with development of motivation for reading, and (2) how can desirable attitudes toward work-type reading and study be encouraged. Since Gray's 1924 statement there have been many declarations linking attitude and reading, 57 including the following: Generally it appears there is agreement among authorities in the reading field that attitude and reading are closely related. (182:1-2) Probably more deficiency in reading can be traced to discouragement through failure, and the consequent attitude of antagonism toward reading, than to any other cause. (18:241) One of the first problems, then, in working with the retarded reader is to establish healthy attitudes. (91:586) Nothing is more important in an instructional program in reading then that every lesson and every exercise be so motivated that interest and attention be maintained at a high level. A child must have a desire to read and an interest in increasing his reading ability as a means of sat isfying various practical and emotional needs. (19:98? Investigations by Witty, Groff, and Wade have explored the influence of attitude on reading. Witty surveyed 100 ninth-grade retarded readers and found that lack of interest in, dislike for, or indifference toward reading are indeed conspicuous character istics of these readers. . . . Attention to atti tudes, therefore, is a significant need. (119:515) Testing the hypothesis that attitude toward read ing and reading achievement were significantly related, Groff studied 305 fifth- and sixth-grade children. He compared results of the California Reading Test and the Remmers Scale for Measuring Attitude Toward Any School Subject. In summary, Groff stated that"the evidence sug gests that the relationship between general reading abil 58 ity and attitude toward reading as a school activity approached a substantial level, with correlations ranging from .34 to .45." (82:314) Approaching the issue from a different vantage point, Vade (176) surveyed 150 elementary school teachers in Los Angeles and observed that 38 per cent of these teachers chose attitude toward reading as the most impor tant objective of the reading program. Only mastery of reading skills (43%) ranked higher as a goal. Self-concept In the past decade a developing interest in the self-concept as it relates to school achievement has emerged. This interest has been spurred by the contribu tion of Jersild, Lecky, Combs, and Carl Bogers, among others. (29» 50, 12, 44) These men have applied recent theoretical trends in ego psychology to the learning proc ess and have concluded that perception of self is a key factor in learning efficiency. Their viewpoint was well expressed by Combs when he stated, "Clinical experience has demonstrated frequently how a changed perception of self as a more adequate personality can free children for improved school performance." (12:223) The educational implications of Combs' statement have been clearly spelled out by Wrightstone, Justman, and Robbins: 59 When the teacher realizes that the attitude toward arithmetic affects one's learning of arith metical information and skills, that the attitude toward books affects one's ability to learn to read, and that the attitude toward school and its various phases affects one's ability to learn in school, then the teacher is in a position to appreciate the fundamental importance, of attitudes in education. Since a favorable attitude towards a person, object, or activity connected with school is more likely to motivate a person to do well in school and since negative attitudes toward school serve to hamper maximum learning, the teacher should be aware of the attitudes of pupils toward these factors which figure so significantly in the educational process. The importance of attitudes, therefore, lies in their close relation to the efficiency of the learning process. (62:355) School Achievement and Self-concent Empirical evidence has accumulated to support the position outlined above. In one study Reeder (l?0) used a self-rating scale, teacher's ratings, peer ratings, socio metric processes, mental maturity tests and achievement tests in evaluating 559 fifth-grade pupils. By studying intensively 6? matched pairs from the sample, she deduced that low achievers usually have low self-concept ratings. Similar results were given by Butler (156) in his study of one hundred fifty ninth-grade students. Investi gating differential factors in the self-concepts of "over- achieving," "underachieving," and "expected-achieving" adolescents, Butler discovered that among the boys in the sample, the decreasing gradient of achievement seemed to be related to a decreasing gradient of self-concept. He further noted that the "under-achievers" had the poorest self-concept and that the "over-achievers" and "expected- achievers" had significantly better self-concepts than the "under-achievers." Further support for this finding was reported by Valsh (137)• In her study of bright boys who had learning difficulties, this investigator found that these low achievers had significantly poorer opinions of themselves than a matched group of bright "expected- achieving" boys. The doctoral dissertations of Stevens (1?4-), Moses (168), and Bruck (157)* also provided further substantiation of the position that self-concept and school achievement are significantly related. Self-concent and Reading Achievement In a 1962 journal article on reading and the self- concept Homze (86:210) declared that "one aspect of child development, the self-concept is being explored in terms of motivation and learning, but not specifically in terms of reading." Although there is a paucity of research in this area, one experiment (121) in 1955 8 1 1 1 ( 1 several doctoral dissertations (15^» 167) have dealt with this issue. Volff and Volff (121) have reported an experiment designed to record changes in the self-concept of students by means of drawings of human figures. They indicated 61 that the drawings reflected Increased self-worth and self acceptance as the students made progress in reading. In a study involving the use of the Draw-A-Person Test, Bodwin (154-) noted positive and very significant relation ships between immature self-concept and reading disability. Lumpkin (167) studied the relationships between the self-concepts of 50 selected fifth-grade children and their reading achievement. Evaluative instruments in this investigation included the California Achievement Test, California Test of Tental Maturity, SEA Achievement Test, Gilmore Oral Beading Test, self-rating scales, behavior rating scales, and a sentence completion test. Concluding that self-concept is directly related to achievement in reading, Lumpkin pointed out that over-achievers revealed positive self-concepts, a higher level of adjustment, and saw themselves as liking reading as well as feeling confidence in the learning task. Under-achievers held a predominantly negative self-concept, had feelings of conflict regarding their school experiences, and felt that other people viewed them negatively. (167:325) Hallock (164) evaluated a sample of 926 fourth, sixth, and eighth-grade children with the California Test of Mental Maturity, the California Reading Test, and the California Test of Personality. The hypothesis that read ing achievement and attitudes are closely related was supported by the findings. Peelings of personal worth and 62 attitudes toward school were two attitudes found signifi cantly correlated with reading score. The importance of considering both attitudes toward reading and self-concept in dealing with the re tarded reader was summarized by Vally in her statement that "before we can effect much progress, we must change his feelings about reading and about himself and convince him that improvement is possible and desirable." (155:58) Summary This chapter has presented a review of the liter ature related to the nature and effectiveness of remedial reading programs at the junior high school level. The history, objectives, organization, characteristics of such programs and evaluation procedures pertaining to their assessment were surveyed. In addition, the effects on reading programs of socioeconomic status were discussed. Further, the influence of the attitudinal variables of self-concept and attitudes toward reading and school achievement was considered. Remedial Reading Programs History The past forty years saw a growing awareness of the importance of junior high school remedial reading 63 instruction. Program development was spurred by the passage of compulsory education laws and the great need for literacy training programs in the Second World War. Recent statewide surveys of provisions for instruction of retarded readers have demonstrated the established position of remedial reading in the junior high school curriculum. Objectives It has been noted that improvement of basic read ing skills was the major objective of remedial programs. Another goal was the development of interest in reading for pleasure. Additional aims include improvement of the student's attitude toward reading and the enhancement of the student's self-concept. Organization Individual instruction was the earliest instruc tional arrangement for retarded readers. As the need for remedial services increased, small group and special class settings became the dominant organizational form. An intensive statewide survey found that the special reading class was the most frequently utilized provision. Other types of program structure found in the literature include the special reading teacher, the reading center, homogene 64 ous grouping with the regular class, the reading clinic, various hinds of small group arrangements, and the "reading school." Characteristics It has been generally agreed that desirable characteristics of remedial reading programs include: developing motivation, providing high interest-low difficulty level materials, adapting to individual differ ences, and offering varied activities. Effective teaching methods for retarded readers were considered to be similar to the best instructional techniques used in regular classrooms. Remedial programs were discussed under three head ings: those whose emphasis is on teaching basic reading skills; those with equal stress on skills and reading interests and activities; and those oriented toward inter ests, activites, and reading for pleasure. Support for each of the three categories was given. In addition, it was pointed out that no one method is adequate to handle the needs of retarded readers, and that a combination of methods is essential. Evaluation It was observed that standardized reading tests have played the leading role in the assessment of gains 65 made by students in remedial reading programs. These tests measured basic reading skills such as vocabulary, comprehension, and word analysis. Dependence on reading tests for assessment has been criticised because of limitations of scope, disagreement on terminology, the practice effect, and the regression factor in the test- retest situation. Other devices for measuring reading achievement included teacher-made tests, observations, rating scales and questionnaires, conferences, and inter views. In addition to gains in reading skill, changes in attitude toward reading have also been assessed. Pro jective techniques, Q-sort methodology, and informal teacher appraisal have been recommended as suitable meas urement approaches. Problems of research designs employed to evaluate reading programs were discussed. Limitations of assess ment procedures and problems of interpretation of the results of studies were also reviewed. The difficulties of controlling the many variables that can exert consider able influence on the results of reading research were described. 66 Effect of Socioeconomic Status on Beading Achievement It was pointed out that the findings of studies of the nature of the relationship of socioeconomic status to school achievement and to reading achievement were not consistent. An important area of disagreement centered around the question of whether lower socioeconomic status resulted in lower school achievement. Substantial re search evidence on both sides of this question was found. While considerable support was noted for the position that reading and socioeconomic status were positively cor related, sufficient contrary evidence was found to justify the conclusion that the issue was not resolved. Influence of Attitudes on Beading Achievement The concluding section of this chapter considered the relationship of attitude toward reading and self- concept to reading achievement. Besults of research consistently substantiated the claim that attitudes and reading were highly related. CHAPTER III DESIGH OF THE STUDY This chapter discusses the design of the present research In terns of the sample, the assessment Instru ments, the methodology, and the approach to data analysis. The first section contains a description of the character istics of the sample, while the second section provides an enumeration and characterization of the measurement devices used. The third section elaborates upon the method of selection of classes for the experimental con ditions, the experimental controls employed, the testing procedures followed, and the scoring methods utilized in obtaining the data. The approach to the statistical anal ysis of the data is the concluding section of this chapter. Sample The sample used in this study is described in terms of total enrollments of programs, class, and matched-pairs comparisons. The class comparisons deal with the general characteristics common to all the classes. In addition, specific class characteristics are 67 68 given for the variables of socioeconomic status, sex, IQ, and silent reading ability. Further, the approach to the assessment of the comparability of the classes at the beginning of the experiment is explained. The total en rollments of programs are also discussed in terms of characteristics and comparability. The characteristics of the total enrollments of programs are compared for the variables of socioeconomic status, sex, IQ, and silent reading ability. The comparability of the total enroll ments of programs at the beginning of the experiment is also examined. The matched-pairs description reports the basis for matching, the sample characteristics, and the distribution of the socioeconomic status levels. Comparison by Class The sample consisted of students enrolled in two seventh-grade, two eighth-grade, and two ninth-grade remedial reading classes. One class at each grade level was focused on reading for pleasure and the other class at each grade level was involved in the skill-oriented pro gram. For purposes of identification, the following j' designations applied to the six classes: TP— seventh grade, reading-for-pleasure focused program ?S— seventh grade, skill-oriented program 8P— eighth grade, reading-for-pleasure focused program 69 8S— eighth grade, skill-oriented program 9P— ninth grade, reading-for-pleasure focused program 9S— ninth grade, skill-oriented program The six classes were drawn from the Los Angeles Unified School District and the East Whittier City School District, with three classes from each district participating. Both of these school districts were in Los Angeles County, in the southwestern part of California. The communities served by the schools involved in this study were basic ally residential, with commercial establishments and light industry nearby. The socioeconomic status of the resi- » dents of these urban communities ranged from skilled work ing class to upper middle class. Most of the residents were Caucasians, with some representation of Mexican- Americans. Only a very small percentage of the residents were of Oriental or Negro extraction. General Class Characteristics a. Each class was an on-going part of the school curriculum and was specifically designated as a remedial reading course. b. Each class met daily for a full class period. c. Each class was taught by an instructor who had at least one year of prior experience in teaching remedial reading at the junior high school level. 70 d. The basis for assignment of students to each class included reading retardation of at least one and one-half years, as measured by a standardized silent read ing test. It was originally intended to use retardation of two years as the criterion of "severely retarded reader," but the use of school classes whose students had previously been assigned required the lowering of this level to one and one-half years. e. No student was enrolled who was in a special program for the educable mentally retarded. f. Class size ranged from seventeen to twenty-two students, with a mean of 19*3* Specific Class Characteristics The classes within each of the three grades were compared for the variables of socioeconomic status, sex, IQ, and silent reading ability. Information concerning socioeconomic status and IQ was obtained from the stu dents' cumulative records. Silent reading ability was determined from the California Reading Test,'*' which was ^Although the term "silent reading ability" is defined in Chapter I as the scores on the California Read ing Test, Vocabulary, Comprehension, and Total, it was not considered practical to use three separate scores for matching purposes. The Total score was selected arbitrar ily as the criterion of "silent reading ability" for the matching procedure. Thus, the term "silent reading abili ty," as used in this section of the present chapter, will refer to Total score only. 71 administered at the beginning of the semester, as de scribed in page 101. Socioeconomic status.— The occupation of the student's father, as given in the cumulative school rec ord, was used as the criterion of socioeconomic status. In their text on educational evaluation, Wrightstone, Justman, and Bobbins (62) stated, "Many different studies have revealed that occupational status seems to be the most significant single factor determining social class status." (62:413) The father's occupation was categorized according to its placement on the Varner Scale for Rating Occupa tions: Revised (38:140-141). To facilitate inter-class comparison in terms of socioeconomic status, an arbitrary classification by levels of the categories of the Varner Scale was established. This classification is reported in Table 1. The father's occupation category was then trans lated from the original Varner Scale designation to the appropriate level. Table 2 depicts the distribution of * class enrollments by socioeconomic status levels. Sex. IQ. and Silent Reading ability.— The enroll ment of the classes by sex is given in Table 3. The mean IQ and mean silent reading ability of each class is re ported in Table 4. 72 TABLE 1 CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATION CATEGORIES BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Varner Occupation Socioeconomic Category Status Level 1,2 High 3,4,5 Middle 6,7 Low +An arbitrary classification based on the Varner Scale for Rating Occupations: Revised (58:140_141). 73 * TABLE 2 DISTRIBUTION OF CLASS ENROLMENTS BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Class Socioeconomic Status Level Total High Middle Low Enrollments 7P 0 22 0 22 7S 1 16 1 18 8P 2 15 4 21 8S 0 14 3 17 9P 3 13 4 20 9S 3 9 6 18 Total 9 89 18 116 Based on arbitrary classification of the cate gories of the Varner Scale for Rating Occupations: Revised (58:140 141). (See Table 1.) 74 ENEOLUIENT TABLE 3 OF CLASSES BY SEX Glass i M F Total Enrollment 7P 16 6 22 7S 15 3 18 8P 13 8 21 8S 11 6 17 9P 12 8 20 9S 10 8 18 Total 77 39 116 75 TABTiK 4 HEAR IQ AID HSA1 STLHIT B£AJ)HG ABILITY OF CHS SAMPLE, BY CLASS Class Mean IQ Mean Silent Reading Ability^ 7P 98.3 5.1 7S 97-3 4.8 8P 86.3 5-7 88 93.6 6.6 9P 92.0 7.0 9S 91.2 7.3 +As measured by California Reading feet, Total. 76 Interprogran Class Comparisons In order to determine if the classes paired by program at each grade level (seventh, eighth, and ninth) were drawn from the same population, the Chi-square test for independent samples was employed (25:229). Class 7F was contrasted with Class 78, Class 8F with Class 88, Class 9P with Class 98, on the variables of socioeconomic status, sex, IQ, and silent reading ability. The pro cedures used for obtaining the data for the variables mentioned above were described on page 71 of this chapter. Besults of these Chi-square comparisons are given in Table 5* Examination of the table revealed that there were no significant Chi-squares. Thus, the classes paired by grade level were comparable at the beginning of the experiment on the variables of socioeconomic status, sex, IQ, and silent reading ability. Comparison Between Total Enrollments of Programs The total enrollments of the two programs (7P ♦ 8P + 9P and 78 + 88 + 98) are described in terms of their characteristics and their comparability at the beginning of the experiment. 77 Specific Characteristics The distribution of the total enrollnents of programs by socioeconomic status lsrals is detailed in Table 6. The enrollments of the programs by sex are re ported in Table 7, and the mean IQ and mean silent reading ability of the total enrollments of programs are given in Table 8. Inter-program Total Enrollments Comparison The total enrollments of the two programs were compared by means of Chi-square tests for independent samples, on the variables of socioeconomic status, sex, IQ, and silent reading ability, to determine if these en rollments were drawn from the same population (23:229)* The procedures used for obtaining the data for the vari ables mentioned above were descriped on page 71 of this chapter, with the exception that the scores on the Cali fornia Heading Test, Total were converted to deviations from expected grade placement at time of testing. This conversion was made to permit pooling of students from three grade levels on a variable (silent reading ability) directly related to grade level. The results of these Chi-square comparisons are reported in Table 9* Inspec tion of the table revealed that there were no significant 78 ZABLE 5 IHZEB-PBOGBAM CLASS COMPABISQRB BT HKAHfl OF CHI-SQUAHE* FOB ZHE VARIABLES: SOCIOECQEOHIC SZAZDB, SEX, IQ, AID SILEVZ READIES ABTLIZt5 Int er-progr am Comparison Socio economic Status df»2 Sex df-1 IQ df-2 Silent Beading Ability df-2 7P - 7S 0.058 0.175 0.935 1.072 SP - 8S 0.452 0.052 2.552 5.685 9P - 9S 0.46? 0.077 0.800 1.556 aIncludes Tates Correction for Continuity. bAs measured by California Beading Zest, Total. cdf • degrees of freedom. 79 <PART.W 6 DISTRIBUTION 07 TOTAL ENROLLMENTS 07 PROGRAMS BT SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL* Socioeconomic Status Level Total Enrollment Program High Middle Low Readlng- for- pleasure focused 5 50 8 63 Skill- oriented 4 59 10 53 Total 9 89 18 116 *Based on arbitrary classification of tba cats- f orias of the Varnar Scale for Bating Occupations: Revised. Saa Table 1.) 80 TABLE 7 TOTAL EHBOLUtEHTS OF PROGRAMS BT SEX Program M y Total Enrollment Reading- for- pleaaure focused 41 22 63 Skill- orient sd 36 17 53 Total 77 39 116 81 TABLE 8 MEAJf IQ AID MEAI BTLEIT BKADHCr ABILITY OF TOTAL EHR0LU1ENTS OF PROGRAMS Frogran Mean IQ Mean Silent Reading. Ability Reading- for pleasure focused 92.3 5*9 Skill- oriented 94.1 6.3 +As measured by California Reading Teat, Total. 82 TABLE 9 IHTERPROGRAM TOTAL EEROLUIEHTS COMPARISONS BT MEANS OF CHI-SQUARE FOR THE TART ABLER: SOGIOECQHOHIC STATUS, SEX, IQ, AND SILEHT READING ABILITY1 1 Comparison Socio economic Status df-2® Sex df-1 IQ df-2 Silent Reading Ability df-2 Reading-for- pleasure focused progran (7P+8P+9P) vs. 0.031 0.104 0.800 5*328 Skill- oriented progran (78+8B+9S) aIncludea Tates Correction for Continuity, ^df - degrees of freedom. 83 Chi-squares. Thus, the total enrollments of the two pro grams were comparable on the variables of socioeconomic status, sex, IQ, and silent reading ability. Description of Hatched Fairs From the 116 students vho comprised the total en rollment of the six classes involved in this study, twenty two matched pairs were selected on the basis of socio economic status, age, sex, IQ, and silent reading ability. She limits for the matching criteria were: 1. Socioeconomic status— plus or minus one in the rating categories of the Varner Scale for Bating Occupations: Revised. (38:140-14-1) 2. Age— within twelve months of each other. 3. Identical sex. 4. IQ— within five points of each other. 3. Silent reading ability— within 1.0 grade levels. The procedures for obtaining the data for the matching Criteria listed above were given on page 71 of this chapter. She matching characteristics of the twenty-two matched pairs are reported in Sable 10. She distribution of the matched pairs by socioeconomic status level is detailed in Sable 11. Examination of Sable 11 revealed a lack of variability in the distribution, with a prepon- 84 TABLE 10 CHARACTERISTICS 07 22 HATCHS]) PAIRS Pair Busbar Claaa Aga (months) Varnar Occupation Catagory Sax IQ Silant Raading Ability 7-P 148 5 M 81 4.7 1 7-S 149 4 M 85 5-4 7-P 150 5 n 88 4.6 2 7-S 148 4 n 89 4.7 7-P 148 5 H 90 5.4 3 7-S 145 5 K 89 5-6 7-P 148 5 M 98 5*5 4 7-S 146 5 K 99 5.6 7-P 152 5 H 102 4.5 5 7-S 148 4 H 104 5-4 7-P 149 4 7 90 5.4 6 7-S 145 3 7 85 5-3 7-P 148 3 M 86 5.2 7 7-S 152 4 M 89 4.2 8-P 167 4 M 78 4.4 8 8-S 170 5 M 81 5*4 TABLE 10 (continued) CHARACTERISTICS OF 22 HATCHED PAIRS 85 Pair Humber Class Age (months ) Varner Occupation Category Sex IQ Silent Reading Ability 8-P 165 6 H 93 6.2 9 8-S 164 5 M 94 6.1 8-P 177 3 M 95 5-5 10 8-S 172 4 H 99 5-5 8-P 167 4 H 86 6.6 11 8-S 162 5 M 88 6.5 8-P 166 6 H 95 5.8 12 8-S 160 5 M 94 6.6 8-P 163 6 F 85 5.0 13 8—S 163 5 F 85 5-7 8-P 175 3 F 97 6.4 14 8—S 163 4 F 92 6.5 8-P 172 3 M 86 6.5 15 8—S 170 4 H 90 6.4 9-P 179 4 H 89 6.6 16 9-S 181 5 H 92 7.0 86 TABLE 10 (continued) CHARACTERISTICS Of 22 HATCHED PAIRS Pair Nunber Class Ags (months) Varnsr Occupation Category Sex IQ Silent Reading Ability 9-P 182 1 M 95 6.7 17 9-8 174 2 M 96 6.9 9-P 171 6 M 96 6.4 18 9-S 176 7 M 97 6.9 9-P 174 4 n 98 7-3 19 9-S 170 3 M 103 6.8 9-P 170 5 P 93 7-1 20 9-S 182 4 P 89 6.4 9-P 178 5 P 95 6.3 21 9-S 180 6 P 95 7-3 9-P 178 2 P 97 7.6 22 9-S 179 3 P 92 7-3 87 TABLE 11 DISTRIBUTIQV OP 22 HATCHED PAIHS BT SOCIQECQHOHIC STATUB LEVEL* Socioeconomic status level Humber of pairs High 1 Hiddle 15 Low 1 Total 17b Based on arbitrary- classification of tbs cate gories of tbe Varner Scale for Rating Occupations: Revised. (See Table 1.) ^The remaining five pairs represented an over lapping of levels, with four pairs divided between middle and low socioeconomic status levels and one pair divided between high and middle levels. 88 derance of the matched pairs found within the middle level. Asses***"* Tn«truments This section of the chapter describes the assess ment instruments used in this study. Each instrument is described, and the criterion of reading improvement the instrument was used to measure is specified. In addition, a characterization of the instrument, including a dis cussion of reliability and validity, is given. California Reading Test The California Reading Test, Junior High Level, 1957 edition (179)* used in this experiment to measure silent reading ability consists of two tests: Vocabulary and Comprehension. The Vocabulary Test was composed of sixty items, divided into four sections, requiring the student to select the opposite of a key word from among four choices. The sixty key words were representative of the vocabulary found in the mathematics, science, social science, and literature curricula of the junior high school. The Comprehension Test was subdivided into three sections: Following Directions, Reference Skills, and Interpretation of Material. The following Directions 89 section was designed to measure ability to follow both, general and specific directions, and comprehension of definitions. The items in the Reference Skills section tested dictionary and library skills, the ability to select appropriate references, understanding of forms used to outline reports, and skills in interpreting graphs and maps* The Interpretation of Materials section consisted of five articles on economic history, agriculture, geog raphy, transportation, and developments in technology, as well as test items referring to each article. The student could have looked back in the article to find the answers, since the test was designed to assess comprehension rather than memory. Specific skills measured Include the ability to understand directly stated facts, to select main ideas, to draw inferences from written materials, and to recon struct sequences of ideas. A. summation of silent reading skills measured in the California Reading Test was provided in the Total Score, which averaged the grade placements of the Vocab- lary and Comprehension tests. Thus, silent reading abil ity was reflected in three separate scores: Vocabulary, Comprehension, and Total. The Manual of the California Reading Test, Junior High Level, 1957 edition, provided information regarding the reliability and validity of this test. Coefficients 90 of equivalence given as evidence of reliability were .90, .92 and .95 respectively, for Beading Comprehension, Beading Vocabulary, and Total Beading. Concurrent valid- its was presented in the manual in the form of correla tions between the California Beading Test and two other standardised silent reading tests. For Beading Vocabulary these correlations were .80 and .75 respectively; for Beading Comprehension the correlations were .84 and .77. A review of the literature did not reveal detailed findings concerning the reliability and validity of the California Beading Test. However, the Fifth Mental Measurements Yearbook (20), commenting on the California Achievement Test battery, which included the California Beading Test, stated: Reliability Coefficients are uniformly high for the various levels and item discrimination data are indicative of the efficient functioning of nearly all items. Coefficients of correlation between scores on the new edition and other standardized achievement test scores reflect a high degree of construct validity. ... In summary, the 1957 edi tion of the California Achievement Tests represents a well-constructed achievement test battery designed to measure the basic fundamentals of reading mathe matics, and language from grades 1 through 14. This test battery has many desirable features and can be recommended for the measurement of general achieve ment at the grade levels indicated. (20:2) Gilmore Oral Beading Test The Gilmore Oral Beading Test (180) consists of two alternate forms, with ten paragraphs each. The 91 paragraphs formed a continuous story, and were arranged In order of Increasing difficulty. The vocabulary of the beginning paragraph of each form was at the first grade level. Scores could have been obtained for Accuracy, Com prehension, and Rate of Reading. In the present research, the Accuracy score only was used as the criterion of oral reading ability, since reading comprehension was measured by the California Reading Test, and grade-level norms were not available for Rate of Reading. The Manual of Directions for the test reported reliability for the Accuracy score at the seventh grade level as .84 for altemate-form reliability, and .69 for the Kuder-Rlchardson coefficient. The only evidence of validity given In the manual was concurrent validity of • 78, based on a comparison with two other oral reading tests. However, a review of the Gilmore Oral Reading Test In the Fifth Mental Measurements Yearbook (20:672) stated that the face validity "Is so obvious that the scanty statistical evidence of validity should not be a deterrent to its use." The test was further characterized by Harris (24:199) In his 1962 text as "quite satis factory. " Semantic Differential The Semantic Differential is a technique for 92 measuring meaning. Shis assessment device has haan used in many racant studies in the fields of Education and Psychology, as indicated by the considerable nuaber of entries for the Beaantic Differential in Psychological Abstracts (42) during the past fiye years. She Beaantic Differential technique has been applied to studies of attitudes (175)» personality traits (97)» and progress in psychotherapy (55)* psycholinguistics (160), and aass communications (168) . She characteristics of the Beaantic Differential were described by Osgood, Suci, and Sannenbaua (40), who developed this research tool: Although we often refer to the seaantic differ ential as ir it were soae kind of "test." having soae definite set of itaas and a specific score, this is not the case. So the contrary, it is a very general way of getting at a certain type of inforaa- tion, a highly generalizable technique of aeaaureaent« which aust be adapted to the requirements of each research problea to which it is applied. Share are no standard concepts and no standard scales; rather, the concepts and scales used in a particular study depend upon the purposes of the research. ... It is true, of course, that in soae areas of aeasureaent, e.g., psychotherapy or attitude, a particular fora of the differential, with standardized concepts and scales, nay be developed, but there is no general "seaantic differential test" as such. (40:76-77) Osgood, et al. also pointed out that the Seaantic Differential was essentially a combination of controlled association and scaling procedures (40). In practice, the subject was given a concept to be differentiated by a set of bipolar adjective scales. The subject then 93 evaluated the meaning of the concept to him by indicating the direction of his association and its intensity on a seven-point scale. It was reported by Osgood et al. ( I 4 .O) that factor analysis of a study involving fifty descriptive scales and twenty concepts indicated there were three general factors: evaluation, potency, and activity. The factor accounting for the greatest amount of common variance (70 per cent) was the evaluative one. In the present research, the Semantic Differential (Appendix A) was used as one of the measures of two of the criteria of reading improvement— attitude toward reading and self-concept. The adjective pairs were chosen in accordance with Osgood's finding that attitude for most experiments was best measured by scales which have high loadings on the evaluative factor and negligible loadings on the other factors. Thus, the five bipolar adjectives--fair-unfair, sweet-sour,clean-dirty, happy- sad, and good-bad--were selected as the scales to measure the meaning of the four concepts— "As I See Reading" and "As Others See My Reading"(attitude toward reading), and "As I See Myself" and "As Others See Me" (self-concept). All of the adjective pairs mentioned above had loadings of •75 or more on the evaluative factor and not more than .12 on any of the other factors. Osgood et al., in their text on the Semantic 94 Differential (40), noted the difficulty in establishing statistical validity for this technique due to the absence of a "commonly accepted quantitative criterion of mean ing." (40:140) However, he reported some evidence for test-retest reliability for the Semantic Differential as used to measure attitude. In addition, Osgood described several studies of concurrent validity in which the Semantic Differential was compared with other attitude scales. Reviewing the Osgood, Sucl, and Tannenbaum text, Gulliksen (85) stated that "the studies reported tinder review form an impressive demonstration of the potential value of the measurement of meaning from the point of view of both basic research and practical applications." (85:118) Further evidence of the reliability and valid ity of the Semantic Differential was reported by Howrer (35)» who indicated that test-retest reliability coeffi cient approximated .85, and by Kelly and Levy (90), and Hessick (92), whose findings supported Osgood's claim of both face and concurrent validity for this measurement technique. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Picture 1 The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was a "projec tive" device widely used for the clinical assessment of personality. According to Cronbach (14), this test 95 . . . requires the subject to Interpret a picture by telling a story— what Is happening, what led up to the scene, and what will be the outcome. The responses are dictated by the constructs, experi ences, conflicts, and wishes of the subject. Essentially, the person projects hlnself Into the scene, identifying with a character just as he vicariously takes the place of the actor when he sees a movie. The TAT consists of twenty pictures, different pictures being used for men and women. (14i569) The voluminous literature on the TAT was summarised in a number of texts (5, 37» 27, 50). Picture 1 of the TAT portrays a young boy contem plating a violin which rests on a table. The expression on the boy's face was smbiguous in order to facilitate a wide range of possible interpretations of the boy's thoughts. In commenting on the identification of the per son being tested with the boy in the picture, Stein stated that: the main character in the stories commonly told to this picture is the young boy, who has been forced, usually by his parents, to practice or study the violin. The hero's reactions to their demands (passivity, compliance, counteraction, aggression, escape into fantasy, etc.) are also included. (50: 12) Henry (27) noted that the structure of the stories usually followed two basic plots: first, one in which the boy, obliged to practice by a parent, rebels, and prefers to play or do some other self-directed activity, and, second in which the boy is self-directed and smbitious, dreams of becoming or has become an outstanding violinist. It 96 is interesting to note that Beliak (5:101), a leading authority on the TAT, considered Picture 1 to he the most valuable picture on the teat, and further maintained that it was non-threatening and induced a feeling of "reverie" in adults and adolescents. Murstein (58), in his 1965 text, summarized the studies on the reliability of the TAT as follows: The vast majority of studies show poor or mediocre reliability estimates. . . . There are many more sources of error variance in dealing with projective media than with true-false type tests. Whereas the latter type of test usually involves only random error, reliability estimates of projective techniques must take into considera tion the various stimulus properties within a test, scoring differences, examiner effects, and the motivation of the subject, to mention but four additional sources of error. One solution to this dilemma is to tighten the administration procedure by measuring the stimulus properties, training scorers with a standardized manual, and developing a standard series of pictures and instructions. (58:162-165) The validity of the TAT has also been questioned by a number of investigators. Eron (20), the reviewer in the Fifth Mental Measurements Yearbook, observed that the available evidence, though somewhat contradictory, pointed to low statistical validity for the TAT, a conclusion supported by Murstein (58). Anastasi (2), while noting recent studies tending to support construct validity for the TAT, maintained that published studies of concurrent or predictive validity of the TAT were inconclusive be cause of insufficient controls or faulty statistical 97 analysis. Despite the above-discussed deficiencies in reli ability and validity which would limit the usefulness of the TAT in making individual clinical ddcisions, Murstein (38) considered the TAT to be a valuable research tool. Additional support for this use of the TAT was given by Eron (20), who reported that: A number of scoring schemes of good reliability have been introduced and rating scales have been developed which make TAT productions amenable to sound statistical handling without sacrificing too much in the way of clinical judgment. (20:164) In his text on the TAT, Henry (2?:106) noted the potential of this test in eliciting information regarding "relation to teachers and to school work, acceptance of academic organization and demands." Hesponses to Picture 1 of the TAT were used in the present study as one of the measures of two of the criteria of reading improvement— attitude toward reading and self-concept. Methodology This section reviews the assignment of classes to program, the experimental controls employed in the study, the testing procedures utilized, and the scoring methods applied in processing the data. 98 Assignment of Program to Classes Six classes were available for participation in this study: two classes each at grade levels seven, eight, and nine. The flip of a coin by the Investigator determined which class at each grade level would be in volved in the reading-for-pleasure focused program and which class would be involved in the ski11-oriented program. Experimental Controls The experimental controls of the present study were concentrated in the two areas of teacher variable and differentiation of programs. These controls are re ported below. Teacher Variable In Chapter I it was noted that the equating of teacher effectiveness was an essential element of the re search design. The following procedures were employed in order to minimize the effects of the teacher variable: a. All participating teachers were volunteers who expressed willingness in advance to accept assignment to either program. b. All participating teachers had at least one 99 year of prior teaching experience in remedial reading at the Junior high school level. c. Assignment of teachers to program was random ized through the assignment-of-program-to-classes proce dure described above, since teachers had previously been assigned to the classes. d. An orientation conference was held with each teacher at the beginning of the semester. It was orig inally intended to have Joint orientation conferences with the teachers involved in each program, but this was not feasible. e. The investigator provided equal consultation time during the semester for all teachers. Differentiation of Programs Another important need in reading research dis cussed in Chapter I was for clear definition and differ entiation of programs and maintenance of the uniformity of approach within each program. The following procedures were followed in an attempt to satisfy these requirements: a. A description of each program, including the objectives, characteristics, and teacher's role, was pre pared by the investigator (see Appendices B and C) The program descriptions were given to the teachers in ad vance of the orientation conferences and were thoroughly 100 discussed at that time. b. The investigator visited each class five times during the semester. A conference was held with the teacher after the class observation. c. The investigator was available throughout the semester to answer questions of teachers regarding the conformity of class procedures to program description,and to discuss any problems that arose. d. The principals of the schools involved in the study agreed in advance to the permanent removal from a class of any student whose behavior seriously disrupted the class activities. It was not necessary to remove any students during the experiment. Testing Procedures Information regarding the administration and supervision of the testing relative to the present re search is reported below. The initial testing took place during the third week of the fall semester, 1963* The final testing was conducted during the eighteenth week of the semester. The interval between pretesting and posttesting, there fore, was fifteen weeks. Form V of the California Heading Test, Junior High School Level, 1957 edition, was used in the pre-test, form X in the post-test. Form A of the Gilmore Oral Head- 101 ing Test was employed In the pre-test, form B In the post- test. Identical forms of the Semantic Differential and Picture 1 of the TAT were used in the initial and final testing. The Head Counselor of the schools in the Los Angeles City School District administered the Gilmore Oral Test and Picture 1 of the TAT to each student individually in the counselor's office. In one school, the Head Coun selor was assisted by personnel from the Evaluation and Research Division of the district. In the East Whittier City School District, the district Guidance Counselors administered the Gilmore Oral Beading Test and Picture 1 of the TAT to each student individually in the counselor's office. In both school districts, the teachers admin istered the California Reading Test and the Semantic Dif ferential to each class as a group during regular class periods. Specific directions for administering all assess ment instruments were prepared and copies of these direc tions were provided for the teachers and counselors in volved in test administration (Appendices D, E, F, and G). In addition, all testing was supervised by the investi gator. 102 Methods Utilized for Scoring Assessment Instrument a The California Beading Teat, the Gilmore Oral Beading Teat, and the Semantic Differential were hand- scored by the investigator. The TIT stories were typed and scored by the judging process described below. Spe cific procedures used in processing the data from the four assessment instruments were as follows: California Beading Test The raw score totals for the Vocabulary and Com prehension sections were converted to grade placement scores by reference to the norma provided in the Manual (179)* The two grade placements thus obtained were aver aged into a Total score (179)* Gilmore Oral Beading Test The raw scores for Accuracy were converted to grade placement scores according to the norms provided in the Manual of Directions (180). Semantic Differential The Semantic Differential used in this investi gation consisted of four concepts ("As I See Beading," "As Others See My Beading," "As I See Myself," and "As 103 Others See Me,") which were measured by five bipolar adjective scales (fair-unfair, sweet-sour, clean-dirty, happy-sad, and good-bad). The scoring procedure for the Semantic Differential was adapted from the suggestions made by Osgood (40:191-192) In his discussion of attitude measurement. Osgood stated that an attitude score could be obtained by summing the ratings of the evaluative scales, since the direction and intensity of attitude was indicated by the scale position of the rating. In scoring the Semantic Differential, an arbi trary assignment of numerical value was made for each of the seven scale positions. For scoring purposes, "fair,” "sweet,” "clean,” "happy," and "good" were considered to be "positive" members of the adjective-pairs. "Unfair,” "sour," "dirty," "sad," and "bad" were considered to be the "negative” members of the adjective-pairs. The score values for the seven scale positions are illustrated by the following example: As I See Heading fair +2. ±2 +1 0 ^1 ^2 ^ unfair sour 2 +1+2+2, sweet The score for each of the four concepts was the sum of the five evaluative scale score values for that concept. In addition, it was decided to combine concept scores into two additional categories, "Attitude toward Reading Total" 104 and "Self-Concept Total." Thus, six separate scores were obtained for the Semantic Differential: a. As I See Heading b. As I See Myself c. As Others See My Heading d. As Others See Me e. Attitude toward Heading Total (sum of a and c) f. Self-concept Total (sum of b and d) TAT. Picture 1 The TAT stories given in response to Picture 1 of the TAT were independently rated by three experienced clinical psychologists and the investigator. Two five- point scales, "Attitude Toward Heading" and "Attitude Toward Self1 were prepared. Two scores were obtained for each story, representing placement on these scales. The rationale for this rating process, as well as the deriva tion of the scales and the description of the judging procedure is given below. Rationale.— Cronbach (14) stated that although interpretation of the TAT has been primarily impression istic, it was possible to develop objective scoring sys tems for this test. Similarly, Eron (20) observed in his review of literature on the TAT that "the extension of psychometric scaling to TAT responses has been successful 105 and has been shown to have considerable utility In re search and clinical practice." (20:12?) In consenting on the construction of rating scales for use with the SAT, Eron also noted: It is possible for the ratings to be as subjective and holistic as necessary, but it is essential that the criteria be verbalized so that the method can be communicated and subsequent raters can utilize the scale with comparable with comparable results. Pertinent quotations from protocols mafce communication of the criteria more objective. The scales should be derived empirically from the protocols themselves and not based on predeter mined categories without reference to actual stories. (20:127) Anastasi (2) and Murstein (38) pointed out the need to establish inter-scorer reliability when more than one judge is used to rate TAT responses. Further, Murstein stated that the "halo" effect in scoring could be avoided by not using those who Administered the test as judges. Derivation of scales.— The procedures used in deriving the scales followed the recommendations given in the section above which discussed the rationale for the rating process. A subjective analysis was made of the forty-four stories given in response to Picture 1 during a preliminary investigation conducted by the investigator in 1961, involving severely retarded readers at the junior highs school level. A five-point rating scale was then prepared for each of the two categories, "Attitude Toward Beading" and "Attitude Toward Self," using excerpted ele ments from these stories to illustrate the scale positions (Appendix H). Judging Procedure.— The method employed in obtain ing scores by means of a judging process is outlined below: 1. Three experienced clinical psychologists, none of whom were associated with the schools involved in this study, were selected as judges. A one-hour training session was held with each judge in which the rating scales and Judges Instructions (Appendix 1) were discussed. 2. The method of "blind analysis" was utilized. All of the stories were typed on individual sheets of paper and assigned a code number. No personal identify ing information was attached to the stories, and it was not possible for the rater to determine whether the story was obtained in the initial or final testing. 3* To avoid the possibility that the rating on one category could be influenced by the rating on the other, all stories were rated on one category at a time. A. Ten stories were randomly selected from the responses given in the present study and independently rated by the three judgeB and the investigator. Inter scorer reliability among the four raters was evaluated by 107 means of the Kendall Concordance "V” test. The values for "W" was 16.8079, with a p>.001. According to Siegel, "A high or significant value for V may be interpreted as meaning that the observers or judges are applying the same standard in ranking the N objects under study.M (47:237) The very significant value (.001 level of confidence) for V cited above indicated high inter-scorer reliability among the four raters. 3. The stories given by the matched pairs were randomly assigned to the three judges for rating. The in vestigator rated the remainder of the stories. Treatment of Data This section describes the approach used in ana lysing the data to be presented in Chapter IV. The class, total enrollments of programs, and matched-pairs compari sons that were made of the effectiveness of the reading- for-pleasure program with the skill-oriented program, in terms of the criteria of reading improvement described in Chapter X are outlined. The analysis of the effect of socioeconomic status on the data is also delineated. Comparison by Class For purposes of this study, the assumption that the classes were drawn from a sample of classes that approximated a normal distribution did not appear to be 108 warranted. As a result, nonparanetrlc, "distribution- free" statistical tests were employed in the analysis. Since the comparisons were based on frequency of occurence rather than on measures of central tendency, the Chi- square test for independent samples was considered to be appropriate for testing the hypotheses of no significant differences in class results (23:229). The .05 level of significance was adopted as the criterion for rejecting the null hypothesis. The region of rejection was two- tailed. The classes were compared for each grade level (seventh, eighth, and ninth) on the criteria of reading improvement described in Chapter I. These criteria, and the assessment instruments used to measure them, are listed below: Criterion 1. Silent Reading Ability, measured by: a. California Beading Test, Vocabulary Section b. California Beading Test, Comprehension Section c. California Beading Test, Total Criterion 2. Oral Beading Ability, measured by: d. Gilmore Oral Beading Test, Accuracy Section 109 Criterion 5. Attitude toward Reading, Measured by: e. Semantic Differential, "As I See Beading" Section f. Semantic Differential, "As Others See Hy Beading” Section g. Semantic Differential, Attitude toward Beading Total (e + f) h. TAT, Picture 1, "Attitude toward Self." Criterion 4. Self-concept, measured by: i. Semantic Differential, "As I See Myself" Section j. Semantic Differential, "As Others See Me" Section k. Semantic Differential, Self-Concept Total 1. TAT, Picture 1, "Attitude toward Self" Section Comparison by Total Enrollments of Programs The total enrollments of the two experimental programs were compared for the criteria of reading im provement listed above, as measured by the assessment instruments enumerated. The rationale, the tests em ployed, and the statistical information pertinent to this analysis were given in the Comparison by Class section 110 above, with the exception that the scores on the Gilmore Oral Beading Test, Accuracy Section, and the Vocabulary, Comprehension, and Total scores on the California Beading Test were converted to deviations from expected grade placement at time of testing to permit pooling of students from three grade levels on variables (oral and silent reading ability) related to grade level. Comparison by Matched Fairs Since the assumption that the matched pairs were drawn from a sample with a normal distribution did not appear to be warranted for the present study, the nonpara- metric Vilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test was con sidered to be appropriate for testing the hypotheses of no significant differences in matched-pairs results (47). The .05 level of significance was adopted as the basis for rejecting the null hypothesis. The region of rejection was two-tailed. The Vilcoxon test takes into account the relative magnitude and the direction of the differences within pairs. Siegel (47:83) states that for small samples the Vilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test is nearly 95 per cent as powerful as the parametric _t test. Comparisons of the matched pairs were made on the criteria of reading improvement listed in the Comparison Ill by Class section above, as measured by the assessment Instruments enumerated. Effect of Socioeconomic Status An analysis was made of the effect of socioecon omic status on the data by application of the Chi-square test for two Independent samples (25:229)* The rationale, the tests employed, and the statistical Information pertinent to this analysis was given In the Comparison by class section above, with the exception that the scores on the Gilmore Oral Reading Test, and the Vocabulary, Compre hension, and Total scores on the California Reading Test were converted to deviations from expected grade placement at time of testing to permit pooling of students from three grade levels on variable (oral and silent reading ability) related to grade level. Both inter-progran and intra-program comparisons were made. Interprogram comparisons were made for the three socioeconomic status levels treated seaparately. These comparisons were limited to total enrollments of each program and thus did not include comparisons for the classes separately. Intraprogram comparisons were made between the three socioeconomic status levels. These com parisons were limited to total enrollments and therefore did not include comparisons for the classes separately. 112 The comparisons discussed above were made for the criteria of reading improvement listed in the Comparison by Class section above, as measured by the assessment instruments enumerated. No matched pairs comparisons for the criterion of socioeconomic status were made. Although it was orig- intended to assess the effect of socioeconomic status on the matched-pairs data, the lack of variability in the distribution of socioeconomic status levels among the matched pairs (see page 87) did not permit meaningful statistical analysis. Summary of the Chapter This chapter discussed the design of the present research in terms of the sample, the assessment instru ments, the methodology, and the approach to data analysis. The first section contained a description of the charac teristics of the sample, while the second section pro vided an enumeration and characterization of the measure ment devices used. The third section elaborated upon the method of selection of classes for the experimental con ditions, the experimental controls employed, the testing procedures followed, and the scoring methods utilized in obtaining the data. The approach to the statistical anal ysis of the data was the concluding section of the chapten 115 Sample General Characteristics The sample used In this study was composed of 116 students, enrolled in two seventh-grade, two eighth-grade, and two ninth-grade remedial reading classes. These classes were drawn from the Los Angeles Unified School District and the East Whittier City School District. The mean class size was 19*5* Reading retardation of one and one-half years or more was the criterion of "severely re tarded reader." Each class met daily for a full class period, and was taught by an experienced remedial reading teacher. Specific Characteristics The two classes at each grade level as well as the total enrollments of the two experimental programs were contrasted for the variables of socioeconomic status, sex, IQ, and silent reading ability by means of Chi-square tests for independent samples to determine comparability at the beginning of the experiment. The classes paired by grade level were comparable at the beginning of the exper iment on all the variables tested* The total enrollments of programs were comparable on all the variables tested. 114 Matched Pairs Characteristics Twenty-two matched pairs were selected from the total sample for comparison. The pairs were matched on the basis of socioeconomic status, age, sex, IQ, and silent reading ability. (Group comparisons were also made in this study.) Socioeconomic Status The placement of the father's occupation on the Warner Scale for Rating Occupations: Revised (58:140-141) was the criterion of socioeconomic status. Comparison of the classes and total enrollments of programs on the vari able of socioeconomic status was facilitated by the estab lishment of an arbitrary classification of the occupation categories of the Warner Scale by level (high, Middle, and low.) The lack of variability in the distribution of the matched pairs among the three socioeconomic status levels, however, did not permit meaningful statistical analysis of the matched pairs on this variable. Assessment Instruments California Reading Test The California Reading Test, Vocabulary, Compre hension, and Total was used to measure the relative effec- 115 tiveness of the two experimental programs on the criterion of reading improvement— silent reading ability. Gilmore Oral Heading Test The criterion of oral reading ability was assessed by the Gilmore Oral Reading Test, Accuracy Section. Semantic Differential The meaning oftthe four concepts, "As I See Read ing," "As Others See My Reading," "As I See Myself," and "As Others See Me," was measured by the Semantic Differen tial through the use of five adjectival scales. "As I See Reading" and "As Others See My Reading," separately and in combination, were utilized as partial measures of the criterion— attitude toward reading. "As I See Myself" and "As Others See Me," separately and in combination, were utilized as partial measures of the criterion— self concept. Picture 1. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Two rating scales, "Attitude Toward Reading" and "Attitude Toward Self" were developed to facilitate the assessment of the responses to Picture 1, TAT. "Attitude Toward Reading" constituted a partial measure of the cri- terion— attitude toward reading. "Attitude Toward Self" comprised a partial measure of the criterion— self concept. Three clinical psychologists and the investigator inde pendently rated the responses in accordance with a judging procedure established f or this purpose. 116 Methodology Assignment of Program to Class The flip or a coin by the investigator randomized the assignment of program to class by determining which class at each grade level would be involved in the read- ing-for-pleasure focused program and which class would be involved in the shill-oriented program. Experimental Controls A number of procedures were utilized in order to minimize the effect of the teacher variable, including orientation conferences and consultative supervision throughout the semester. An attempt to establish clear differentiation of programs and to maintain uniformity of classes within programs was made through a number of pro visions, including the publishing of program descriptions and by class visitations by the investigator. Testing Procedures The initial testing took place during the third week of the fall semester, 1963* The final testing was conducted during the eighteenth week of the semester. The California Beading Test and the Semantic Differential 117 were administered by the teachers to the classes as groups. The Gilmore Oral Reading Test and Picture 1, TAT, were administered by school counselors to the stu dents individually. The investigator supervised all testing. Analysis of Data A statistical analysis of the experimental data compared the reading-for-pleasure focused program with the skill-oriented program by class, total enrollments of programs, and matched pairs for the four criteria of read ing improvement: silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitudes toward reading, and self concept. In addition, the effect of socioeconomic status on the data was evaluated by means of interprogram and intraprogram comparisons. Two nonparametric, "distribution-free" statisti cal tests were employed to test significance of differ- ences— the Chi-square test for the class, total enroll ments of programs, and effects of socioeconomic status comparisons; and the Vilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test for the matched-pairs comparisons. The .03 level of significance was adopted as the basis for rejecting the null hypothesis. The findings of these analyses are reported in Chapter IV. CHAPTER IV THE FINDINGS The results of statistical tests applied to the data are presented in this chapter. As previously de scribed in Chapter III, the data, for purposes of anal- sis, were organized and classified into four major cate gories. These categories, comprising the four sections in the present chapter, are (1) comparisons between class es, (2) comparisons between total enrollments of programs, (3) matched pairs comparisons, and (4)the effects of socioeconomic status on the data. The criteria on which comparisons were made and the assessment instruments used to measure the criteria are enumerated in each category. In choosing the most appropriate statistical tests for the analysis of the data, several considera tions were of paramount importance. First, it was not possible in this study to assign students randomly to the two instructional programs. Second, the assumption that the classes and the matched pairs were drawn from popu lation samples that approximated a normal distribution did not appear warranted. Thus, two important conditions 118 119 of a parametric statistical model, namely, Independence of observations and observations drawn from normally dis tributed populations, could not be met. Therefore, two non-parametric statistical tests which do not require these conditions were employed to test significance of differences— the Chi-square test for class, total enroll ments of programs, and effects of socioeconomic status comparisons*, and the Vilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test for the matched-pairs comparisons. The .05 level of significance was adopted as the basis for rejecting the null hypothesis. The region of rejection was two-tailed. Comparison Between Classes In this section are presented comparisons by class between the students involved in the reading-for-pleasure focused program and students involved in the skill- oriented program. Comparisons were made with respect to the following criteria of reading improvement: (1) silent reading ability, (2) oral reading ability, (3) attitude toward reading, and (4) self concept. Silent Reading Ability The instruments for assessing silent reading ability were the Vocabulary and Comprehension sections, and Total of the California Reading Test. The results of testing the following hypotheses are found in Table 12. 120 TABLE 12 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGES8 1 IN CALIFORNIA READING TEST SCORES BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING-FQR-PLEASUBE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND STUDENTS IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED FROGRAN BY GRADE LEVEL California Reading Test Grade level Chi b square P (Two- tailed) Null hypothesis A. Vocabulary 7th 1.112 .62 Accepted Section 8th 0.J64 .84 Accepted 9th 0.285 .87 Accepted B. Comprehension 7th 1.198 .60 Accepted Section 8th 0.436 .81 Accepted 9th 1.781 .42 Accepted C. Total 7th 0.570 • 75 Accepted 8th 0.005 .99 Accepted 9th 0.295 .86 Accepted aDegrees of freedom « 2. ^Includes Yates Corrections for Continuity. 121 Hypothesis 1*— There will be no significant dif ferences in gains in test-retest scores in silent reading ability between students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program and students in the skill-oriented program within their respective classes at each grade level. As can be seen in Table 12, none of the Chi- squares were significant at the .05 level. Consequently, the null hypothesis with respect to silent reading ability was accepted. Oral Heading Ability The instrument used to assess oral reading ability was the Gilmore Oral Beading Test, Accuracy Section. The following hypothesis was advanced: Hypothesis 2.— There will be no significant dif ferences in gains in test-retest scores in oral reading ability between students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program and students in the skill-oriented pro gram, within their respective classes at each grade level. Besults shown in Table 13 revealed that the null hypothesis with respect to oral reading ability must be rejected for the seventh-grade classes, as indicated by a Chi-square of 6.030, which is significant at the .05 level 122 TABLE 13 A CHIrSQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGES® IN GILMORE ORAL READING TEST, ACCURACY SECTION SCORES BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING-FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND STUDENTS IN THE SKILL- ORIENTED PROGRAM, BY GRADE LEVEL Grade level Chi b square P (two-tailed) Null hypothesis 7th 6.030 *05 Rejected 8th 5*94-1 .06 Accepted 9th 0.4-38 .81 Accepted degrees of fredom - 2. ^Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 123 for two degrees of freedom. The data showed that, propor tionately, the seventh-grade reading-for-pleasure class had a significantly greater frequency of gain in oral reading ability than did the seventh-grade skill-oriented class. This finding is further discussed in the chapter summary. For the eighth and ninth-grade classes the null hypothesis was accepted. One finding suggested a possibility for future research. It was noted that there appeared to be a ten dency (.06 level of confidence) for the eighth-grade skill-oriented class to have proportionately out-gained the eighth-grade reading-for-pleasure focused class in oral reading ability. Attitude toward Reading The instruments for assessing attitude toward read ing were the following: The Semantic Differential Sec tions, "As I See Heading" and "As Others See Ity Reading," and Attitude toward Heading Total; and also the Thematic Apperception Test, Picture 1, "Attitude toward Heading” section. The results of testing the following hypothesis are found in Table 14. Hypothesis 3.— There will be no significant dif ferences in gains in test-retest scores in attitude toward 124 TABLE 14 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGES MEASURES OF ATTITUDE TOWARD READING BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING-FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND STUDENTS IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED IN PROGRAM, BY GRADE level Instruments measuring Attitude toward Reading Grade level Chi b square p (Two- tailed) Null hypothesis Semantic Differential A. "As I See 7th 1.556 .49 Accepted Reading" 8th 5.235 .08 Accepted Section 9th 1.681 .44 Accepted B. "As Others 7th 5-304 .06 Accepted See My 8th 3.786 .26 Accepted Reading" 9th 2.191 .34 Accepted Section C. Attitude 7th 1.418 • 50 Accepted toward 8th 6.237 .05 Rejected Reading 9th 0.056 • 98 Accepted Total (A + B) TAT, Picture 1 D. "Attitude 7th 2.095 • 36 Accepted toward 8th 2.144 .36 Accepted Reading" 9th 1.418 • 50 Accepted Section Degrees of freedom ■ 2. Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 125 reading between students In the reading-for-pleasure focused program and students In the skill-oriented pro gram, within their respective classes at each grade level. A reference to Table 14 showed that with one ex ception, the null hypothesis with respect to attitude toward reading was accepted at the three grade levels. The exception was at the eighth-grade level on the Atti tude toward Heading Total of the Semantic Differential. In this Instance a Chi-square of 6.237> significant at the .05 level of confidence, showed that, proportionately, the skill-oriented class had a significantly greater fre quency of gain than did the reading-for-pleasure focused class. This finding is further discussed in the Chapter summary. Some findings suggested possibilities for future research. It was noted that the skill-oriented eighth- grade class had a tendency (.08 level of confidence) toward proportionately greater gains than the eighth-grade reading-for-pleasure class on the "As I See Beading" sec tion of the Semantic Differential. The reading-for- pleasure focused seventh-grade class had a similar tend ency (.08 level of confidence) on the "As Others See My Heading" section of the Semantic Differential. 126 Self Concept The instruments used to assess this criterion were the following: the Semantic Differential sections, "As I See Itself" uid "As Others See Me,? and Self Concept Total; and also the Thematic Apperception Test, Picture 1, "Attitude toward Self" section. The hypothesis with respect to self concept follows, and results of testing the hypothesis are found in Table 15• Hypothesis A.— There will be no significant differences in gains in test-retest scores in self concept between students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program and students in the skill-oriented program, within their respective classes at each grade level. Inspection of Table 15 revealed no significant differences in changes in self-concept between the groups compared. Some findings suggested possibilities for future research. It appeared that the reading-for-pleasure focused seventh-grade class and the skill-oriented eighth- grade class had tendencies (.10 level of confidence) toward greater proportionate frequency of gains than their counterparts in the "As I See Myself" section of the Semantic Differential. 127 TABLE 15 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGESa IN SCORES OF MEASURES OF SELF-CONCEPT BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING-FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND STUDENTS IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED PROGRAM, BY GRADE LEVEL Instruments measuring Self Concept Grade level Chi b square P (Two- tailed) Null hypothesis Semantic Differential A. "As I See 7th 4.640 .10 Accepted Myself" 8th 4.665 .10 Accepted Section 9th 0.167 • 92 Accepted B. "As Others 7th 1.409 .50 Accepted See Me" 8th 1.982 • 39 Accepted Section 9th 1.074 .60 Accepted C. Self Concept 7th 2.033 • 38 Accepted Total 8th 1.901 .40 Accepted (A+B) 9th 0.500 .78 Accepted TAT, Picture 1 D. "Attitude 7th 0.859 .65 Accepted toward 8th 4.326 .12 Accepted Self" 9th 3.091 .22 Accepted Section aDegrees of freedom - 2. ^Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 128 Comparison between Total Enrollments of t^rograaa In this section are presented comparisons between the total enrollment in the reading-for-pleasure focused program and the total enrollment in the skill-oriented program. Comparisons were made on the following criteria of reading improvement: (1) silent reading ability, (2) oral reading ability, (3) attitude toward reading, and (4) self-concept. Silent Reading Ability The instruments for assessing silent reading ability were the Vocabulary and Comprehension sections and Total of the California Reading Test. The following hypothesis was advanced with respect to differences in silent reading ability between total enrollments. Hypothesis 3.— There will be no significant dif ference between the total enrollments of the reading-for- pleasure focused program and the total enrollments of the skill-oriented program in gains in test-retest scores in silent reading ability. An examination of Table 16 revealed support for this hypothesis. None of the three measures of silent reading ability were significantly different(at the .03 129 TABLE 16 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGES® IN CALIFORNIA READING TEST SCORES BETWEEN THE TOTAL ENROLLMENT IN THE READING-FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND THE TOTAL ENROLMENT IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED PROGRAM California Reading Chi b P Null Test square (two-tailed^ hypothesis A. Vocabulary Section 1-573 -48 Accepted B. Comprehension Section 4.901 .09 Accepted C. Total 0.768 .69 Accepted ®Degrees of freedom - 2. bIncludes Yates Correction for Continuity. 130 level of confidence) for the two programs. One finding suggested a possibility for future research. It was noted that the students in the reading- for-pleasure focused program showed a tendency (.09 level of confidence) toward proportionately greater gains in comprehension than did the students in the skill-oriented program. Oral Reading Ability The instrument for assessing oral reading ability was the Gilmore Oral Reading Test, Accuracy Section. The following hypothesis with respect to differences in oral reading ability between total enrollments of programs was advanced: Hypothesis 6.— There will be no significant dif ference between the total enrollment of the reading-for- pleasure focused program and the total enrollment of the skill-oriented program in gains in test-retest scores in oral reading ability. Reference to Table 17 revealed no significant difference between the total enrollments of the two pro grams with respect to oral reading ability. 131 TABLE 17 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OP FREQUENCY OF CHANGES*1 IN ORAL READING TEST ACCURACY SECTION SCORES BETWEEN THE TOTAL ENROLLMENT IN THE READING-FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND THE TOTAL ENROLMENT IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED PROGRAM Test Chi-square1 3 .. P (two-tailed) Null--- hypothesis Gilmore Oral Reading Test, Accuracy Section 0.432 .81 Accepted degrees of freedom - 2. v Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 132 Attitude toward Heading The instruments for assessing attitude toward reading were the following: "As I See Reading” and ”As Others See Ify Reading" sections and the Attitude toward Reading Total of the Semantic Differential; and, in addi tion, the "Attitude toward Reading section of Thematic Apperception Test, Picture 1. The following hypothesis was advanced with respect to attitude toward reading: Hypothesis 7.— There will be no significant dif ferences between the total enrollment of the reading-for- pleasure focused program and the total enrollment of the shill-oriented program in gains in test-retest scores in attitude toward reading. $he results presented in Table 18 indicated that the null-hypothesis with respect to attitude toward read ing was accepted. Self Concept The instruments used for assessing self concept were the following: ”As I See Myself” and ”As Others See Me” sections, and Self Concept Total of the Semantic Differential, and, in addition, the "Attitude toward Self" 133 TABLE 18 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGES® IN SCORES IN MEASURES OF ATTITUDE TOWARD READING BETWEEN THE TOTAL ENROLLMENT IN THE READING- FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND THE TOTAL ENROLLMENT IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED PROGRAM Instruments measuring Attitude toward Reading Chi square P (two-tailed) Null hypothesis Semantic Differential A. "As I See Reading Section 2.211 • 34 Accepted B. "As Others See My Reading" Section 1.459 .49 Accepted C. Attitude toward Reading Total (A+B) 0.2J8 .89 Accepted TAT, Picture 1 D. "Attitude toward Reading" Section 2.190 .34 Accepted degrees of freedom - 2. bIncludes Yates Correction for Continuity. 134 section of the Thematic Apperception Test, Picture 1. The following hypothesis was advanced with respedt to self concept. Hypothesis 8.— There will be no significant dif ferences between the total enrollment of the reading-for- pleasure focused program and the skill-oriented program in gains in test-retest scores of self concept. In Table 19 are presented the results of testing the null-hypothesis with respect to self concept. None of the Chi squares found at the table were significant at the .03 level. Consequently, this null-hypothesis was accepted. Matched-Pairs Comparison In this section are presented comparisons be tween the twenty-two matched-pairs as described in Chapter III. Comparisons were made on the criteria (1) silent reading ability, (2) oral reading ability, (3) attitude toward reading, and (4) self concept. Silent Heading Ability The instruments used for assessing the criterion silent reading ability were the Vocabulary and Comprehen sion sections, and the Total of the California Heading Test. 135 TABLE 19 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGESa IN SCORES IN MEASURES OF SELF CONCEPT BETWEEN THE TOTAL ENROLLMENT IN THE READING-FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND THE TOTAL ENROLLMENT IN THE SKILL- ORIENTED PROGRAM Instruments measuring Self Concept Chi b square P (two-tailed) Null hypothesis Semantic Differential A. "As I See Myself" Section 1.387 .50 Accepted B. "As Others See Me" Section 1.158 .57 Accepted C. Self Concept Total (A+B; 0.150 .93 Accepted TAT, Picture 1 D. "Attitude toward Self" Section 3-516 .18 Accepted degrees of freedom - 2. ^Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 136 The following hypothesis for matched pairs with respect to silent reading ability was advanced: Hypothesis 9.— There will be no significant dif ferences between the twenty-two matched pairs in gains in test-retest scores in silent reading ability. In Tables 20 to 22 are shown the gains, differ ences of gains, ranks of the differences, and the Vilcoxon T's for the twenty-two matched pairs on the Vocabulary and Comprehension sections and Total, respec tively, of the California Reading Test. The Vilcoxon T's were computed for each grade level separately. Hone of the T's Bhown in the tables were signif icant at the .05 level. Therefore, the null-hypothesis with respect to silent reading ability was accepted for the three grade levels. Oral Reading Ability The assessment instrument for this criterion was the Gilmore Oral Reading Test, Accuracy Section. The results of the differences in gains between the matched pairs for the three grade levels arm shown in Table 23. The hypothesis with respect to oral reading was Hypothesis 10.— There will be no significant dif ferences between the matched pairs in gains in test-retest 137 TABLE 20 DIFFERENCES IN GAINS IN TEST-RETEST SCORES ON THE CALIFORNIA READING TEST, VOCABULARY SECTION, FOR TVJENTY-TVO HATCHED FAIRS Reading-for- Skill Ranks with Grade pleasure oriented Rank smaller sum level Pair focused gain* gain* d of d (Vilcoxon) 7th 1 0.8 1.2 -0.4 -1 2 0.0 -2.9 2.9 7 7 3 -0.5 2.2 -2.7 -6 4 1.8 0.1 1.7 3-5 3.5 5 1.6 0.5 1.1 2 2 6 -0.2 1.5 -1.7 -3-5 7 -1.0 1.0 -2.0 -5 8th 8 0.3 -2.0 -1.7 -4 T - 12.5 9 2.1 0.2 1.9 5 5 10 0.4 2.8 -2.4 -7 11 0.6 1.2 -0.6 -1 12 -0.9 1.1 -2.0 -6 13 0.1 1.7 -1.6 -2.5 14 0.3 1.9 -1.6 -2.5 15 -2.1 l.l -3.2 -8 T - 5 9th 16 1.8 —1.5 3.3 6 6 17 -0.3 -0.3 0.0 — 18 1.1 0.3 0.8 2 2 19 0.2 0.0 0.2 1 1 20 0.4 1.4 -1.0 -3 21 -1.0 1.7 -2.7 -5 22 -0.8 0.9 -1.7 -4 Y - 9 +A minus sign indicates a loss. T “ 4 is significant at the .05 level (N ■ 8). T " 2 is significant at the .05 level (N - 7)« T ^ 0 is significant at the .05 level (N * 6). 138 TABLE 21 DIFFERENCES IN GAINS IN TEST-RETEST SCORES ON THE CALIFORNIA READING TEST, COMPREHENSION SECTION, FOR TVENTT-TVO MATCHED PAIRS Grade level Pair Reading-for- pleasure focused gain* Skill oriented gain+ d Rank of d Ranks with smaller sum (Vilcoxon S) 7th 1 0.4 1.8 -1.4 -6.5 2 -0.1 -1.5 -1.4 -6.5 3 0.9 1.7 -0.8 -4 A 0.2 -0.3 -0.5 -3 5 1.0 0.9 0.1 1 1 6 0.2 1.4 -1.2 -5 7 0.5 0.2 0.3 2 2 T - 3 8th 8 -0.5 1.1 -1.6 -8 9 0.2 0.8 -0.6 -3 10 0.7 0.9 -0.2 -1 11 0.2 1.1 -0.9 -4 12 -9-6 0.9 -1.5 -7 13 0.9 -0.4 1.3 6 6 14 -0.6 -Q.l -0.5 -2 15 1.7 0.6 1.1 5 5 T * 11 9th 16 0.1 1.2 -1.1 -3 3 17 1.1 1-7 -0.6 -1 1 18 2.1 0.9 1.2 4 19 0.7 1.6 -0.9 -2 2 20 1.7 0.1 1.6 -5 5 21 1.4 -0.5 1.9 6 22 0.8 -1.2 2.0 7 T * 11 ‘ ' ’ A minus sign indicates a loss. 139 TABLE 22 DIFFERENCES in gains in test-retest scores ON THE CALIFORNIA READING TEST, TOTAL FOR TVENTY-TVO HATCHED FAIRS Grade level Fair Reading-for- pleasure focused gain+ Skill- oriented gain+ d Rank of d Ranks with smaller sum (Vilcoxon T) 7th 1 0.6 1.5 -0.9 -2.5 2 -0.1 -1.8 -1.7 -6.5 3 0.2 1.9 -1.7 -6.5 4 1.0 -0.1 1.1 4 4 5 1.3 0.7 0.6 1 1 6 0.0 1.4 -1.4 -5 7 -0.3 0.6 -0.9 -2.5 T - 5 8th 8 -0.1 -0.5 0.4 1.5 1.5 9 1.2 0.5 0.7 3-5 3.5 10 0.5 1.8 -1.3 -7 11 0.5 1.2 -0.7 -3.5 12 -0.7 0.9 -1.6 -8 13 0.5 0.9 -0.4 -1.5 14 -0.1 0.9 1.0 -6 15 -0.1 0.8 -0.9 -5 T - 5 9th 16 0.9 -0.2 1.1 5 5 17 -1.4 0.2 1.1 -7 18 1.5 0.3 1.2 6 6 19 0.4 0.8 -0.4 -3-5 20 1.1 0.8 0.3 2 2 21 0.2 0.6 -0.4 -3.5 22 0.0 0.1 -0.1 -1 T - 13 +A minus sign indicates a loss. 140 TABLE 25 DIFFERENCES IB GAINS IB TEST-EETEST SCORES OB THE GHHOHE ORAL HEADIBG TEST, ACCURACY SECTION, FOR TVENTY-TVO HATCHED FAIRS Reading-for- Shill- Ranhs with Grade pleasure oriented Ranh smaller sum level Fair focused gain* gain* d of d (Vilcoxon T) 7th 1 0.5 -1.8 2.5 6 2 -1.1 -0.2 -0.9 -3.5 3.5 3 0.2 -0.7 0.9 3-5 4 -0.9 0.5 -1.2 -5 5 5 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 -1 1 6 -0.5 -3.1 2.8 7 7 0.4 -0.1 0.5 2 T - 9.5 8th 8 0.2 1.4 -1.6 -3 3 9 0.8 -1.0 1.8 4.5 10 -0.7 1.1 -1.8 -4.5 4.5 11 -0.2 3-8 -4.0 -7 7 12 1.6 -2.8 4.4 8 13 1.0 1-5 -0.5 "1 1 14 -0.5 -5.6 3.1 6 15 -0.2 1.2 -1.4 -2 2 T - 17-5 9th 16 3.2 1.2 2.0 5 5 17 1.1 0.2 0.9 2 2 18 0.0 0.2 -0.2 -1 19 1.6 -0.6 2.2 6 6 20 -1.4 2.0 -5.4 -7 21 0.0 1.9 -1.9 -4 22 1.0 2.6 -1.6 -3 T - 15 ‘ ' ' A minus sign indicates a loss. scores of oral reading ability. 141 The Vilcoxon T's for all three grade levels as shown in Table 23 were too large to be significant at the .05 level. The null-hypothesis was, therefore, accepted with respect to oral reading ability at all three grade levels. Attitude toward Reading For this criterion, four assessment instruments were used to measure changes in attitude toward reading. These instruments were the following: "As I See Reading*1 and "As Others See My Reading1 1 sections and Attitude Toward Reading Total of the Semantic Differential; and also the Thematic Apperception Test, Picture 1, "Attitude toward Reading1 1 section. The following hypothesis was advanced: Hypothesis 11.— There will be no significant dif ferences between the matched pairs in gains in test-reteBt scores of attitude toward reading. In Tables 24, 25, 26 and 27 it can be seen that none of the Vilcoxon T's were large enough to be signifi cant at the .05 level of confidence. Therefore, the null- hypothesis was accepted with respect bo attitude toward reading at all three grade levels. 142 TABLE 24 DIFFERENCES IN GAINS IN TEST-RETEST SCORES ON THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL, "AS I SEE READING" SECTION FOR TVENTT-TVO MATCHED PAIRS Grade level Reading-for- pleasure Pair focused gain+ Skill- oriented gain* d Rank of d Ranks with smaller sum (Vilcoxon T) 7th 1 10 3 7 4.5 2 6 -1 7 4.5 3 -3 -3 0 - 4 1 -1 2 2.5 5 2 10 -8 -6 6 6 1 3 -2 -2.5 a.5 7 2 3 -1 1 T - 8.5 8th 8 -7 1 -8 -4 9 -9 1 -10 -7 10 7 4 3 1 1 n -6 -1 -5 -2 12 -5 4 -9 -5.5 13 0 7 -7 -3 14 2 -7 9 5*5 5.5 15 -1 11 -12 -8 T - 6.5 9th 16 3 0 3 1-5 17 -3 2 -5 -3 3 18 5 -10 15 6 19 9 9 0 — 20 -5 -13 8 4 21 -13 0 -13 -5 5 22 -3 -6 3 1.5 1 - 3 N 00 ‘ ' ’ A minus sign Indicates a loss. 143 TABLE 23 DIFFERENCES IN GAINS IN TEST-RETEST SCORES ON THE SIMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL, "AS OTHERS SEE NT READING" SECTION FOR TVENTY-TVO HATCHED FAIRS Reading-for- Skill Ranks with Grade Pleasure oriented Rank smaller sum level Pair focused gain* gain+ d of d (Vilcoxon T) 7th 8th 9th 1 1 2 -1 -1 2 16 -4 20 7 3 0 12 -12 -6 4 5 0 5 3 5 0 -4 4 2 6 -14 -5 -9 -5 7 2 -6 8 4 8 1 -7 8 2.5 9 -9 4 -13 -6.5 10 13 2 11 5 11 4 4 0 12 -3 10 -13 -6.5 13 0 8 -8 -2.5 14 4 9 -5 -1 15 -4 6 -10 -4 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 -6 4 4 4 -3 3 -1 -5 -2 12 9 -8 -1 2 -1 6 -8 -5 5 4 -3 -1 6 -7 —4 * 5 4.5 3 -2 1 6 12 2.5 5 7 4.5 T - 13-5 *A minus sign indicates & loss. 144 SABLE 26 DIFFERENCE IN GAINS IN TEST-RETEST SCORES ON THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL, ATTITUDE TOWARD READING TOTAL, FOR TVENTY-TVO MATCHED FAIRS Grade level Reading-for- pleasure Pair focused gain* Skill oriented gain* d Rank of d Ranks with smaller sum (Vilcoxon T) 7th 1 1 2 -1 -1 -1 2 16 «*4 20 7 3 0 12 -12 -6 -6 4 5 0 5 3 5 0 -4 4 2 6 -14 -5 -9 -5 -5 7 2 -6 8 4 * - 12 8th 8 1 -7 8 2.9 2.5 9 -9 4 13 -6.5 10 13 2 11 5-0 5.0 11 4 4 0 12 -3 10 -13 -6?5 13 0 8 -8 -2.5 14 14 4 9 -5 -*.0 15 -4 6 -10 -4.0 T - 7-5 9th 16 -6 -5 -1 -1.0 17 4 -2 6 6.0 6.0 18 4 12 -8 -7.0 19 4 9 -5 -4.5 20 -3 -8 5 4.5 4.5 21 3 -A 4 3.0 3.0 22 -1 2 -3 -2.0 T - 13.5 *A minus sign Indicates a loss. 145 TABLE 27 DIFFERENCES IN GAINS IN TEST-RETEST SCORES ON THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST, PICTURE 1 "ATTITUDE TOWARD READING" SECTION FOR TWENTY-TWO MATCHED PAIRS Grade level Readlng-for- Ski11- pleasure oriented Pair focusAd gains+ gains+ d Rank of d Ranks with smaller sum (Wilcoxon T) 7th 1 -1 0 -1 -2.5 2 -1 -1 0 — 3 0 0 0 — 4 0 1 -1 -2.5 5 -1 0 -1 -2.5 6 2 0 2 5 5 7 0 1 -1 -2.5 T «3 8th 8 -1 1 -2 -2.5 9 2 2 0 10 -1 1 -2 -2.5 11 1 -2 3 5 5 12 2 0 2 2.5 2.5 13 -3 1 -4 -6.5 14 2 -2 4 6.5 6.5 15 -2 0 -2 -2.5 T - 14 9th 16 1 1 0 17 0 0 0 — 18 0 1 -1 -1.5 19 -1 -1 0 20 -2 2 -4 -3.5 21 1 0 1 1-5 1.5 22 1 -3 4 3.5 T - 5 +A minus sign indicates a loss. 146 Self Concept The criterion was measured by the following assessment instruments: The Semantic Differential, Sec tions "As I See Ityself" and "As Others See Me," and Self Concept Total; and, in addition, the Thematic Apperception Test, Picture 1, "Attitude toward Self" section. The test-retest gains and idle Vilcoxon T*s for the three grade levels of matched pairs are shown in Tables 28 to 31* For the self concept criterion the fol lowing hypothesis was advanced: Hypothesis 12.— There will be no significant dif ferences between the matched pairs in gains in test-retest scores in self concept. All of the Vilcoxon T's shown in Tables 28, 29, 30, and 31 were too large to be significant at the .03 level. Therefore, the null-hypothesis with respect to self concept was accepted at all three grade levels. Effects of Socioeconomic Status on the !data The effects of socioeconomic status on the data are presented below under the following three headings: (1) comparison between total enrollments of programs, (2) comparisons between socioeconomic levels within the 14-7 TABLE 28 DIFFERENCES IN GAINS IN TEST-RETEST SCORES ON THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL, "AS I SEE MYSELF" SECTION FOR TVENTY-TVO MATCHED PAIRS Grade level Pair Reading-for- pleasure focused gains* Skill oriented gains* d Rank of d Ranks with smaller sum (Vilcoxon T) 7th 1 2 -1 3 2 2 15 -6 21 6 3 -20 -10 -10 -3 3 4 4 20 -16 -5 5 5 10 -2 12 4 6 2 2 0 — 7 7 6 1 1 00 • 8th 8 -8 -4 -4 -2.5 9 -3 4 -7 -5/5 10 7 -6 13 7-5 7-5 11 0 -6 6 4 4 12 12 5 7 5,5 5.5 13 0 3 -3 -1 14 0 4 -4 -2.5 15 -6 7 -13 -7.5 T - 17 9th 16 1 0 1 1 1 17 -11 0 -11 -6 18 1 -6 7 5 5 19 -6 11 -17 -7 20 3 -2 5 3-5 3-5 21 4 2 2 2 2 22 -1 4 -5 -3/5 T - 11.5 +A minus sign Indicates a loss. 148 TABLE 29 DIFFERENCES IN GAINS IN TEST-RETEST SCORES ON THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL, "AS OTHERS SEE ME" SECTION for TVENTT-TVO MATCHED FAIRS Grade level Pair Re&ding-for- pleasure focused gains* Skill- oriented gains* d Rank of d Ranks with smller sum (Vilcoxon T) 7th 1 -3 -5 2 2.5 2 16 -7 23 7 5 -1 -2 1 1 4 2 0 2 2.5 5 1 -3 4 5 6 5 2 3 4 7 1 6 -5 -6 6 T - 6 8th 8 2 -5 7 3 9 -6 6 -12 -7 10 13 -13 26 8 8 11 -12 -3 -9 -6 12 0 8 -8 -4.5 13 0 -3 3 1.5 1.5 14 0 8 -8 -4,5 15 0 3 -3 1.5 T - 12.5 9th 16 -1 15 -16 -7 17 -5 0 -5 -4 18 4 8 -4 -2 19 4 8 -4 -2 20 -2 -8 6 5 5 21 4 -5 9 6 6 22 -4 0 -4 -2 T - 12.5 +A Minus sign Indicates a loss. 149 TABLE 30 DIFFERENCE IN GAINS IN TEST-RETEST SCORES ON THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL, SELF CONCEPT TOTAL, FOR TVENTT-TVO MATCHED PAIRS Grade level Pair Reading-for- Ski11- pleasure oriented focused gains* gains* d Rank of d Ranks with smaller sum (Vilcoxon T) 7th 1 -1 -6 5 3-5 2 31 2 29 7-0 3 -3 -8 5 3-5 4 6 2 4 2.0 5 2 -5 7 5-0 6 7 4 3 1.0 7 3 12 -9 -6.0 -6.0 T - 6.0 8th 8 -7 -9 2 1-5 9 -9 10 -19 -7-0 10 27 -19 46 8.0 8.0 n -12 -9 -3 -3.0 12 1 13 -12 -4.5 13 0 2 -2 -1-5 14 0 12 ■12 -4.5 15 -7 10 -17 -6.0 T - 9-5 9th 16 0 14 ■14 -4.0 17 -16 0 -16 -5-0 18 9 -14 23 7-0 7-0 19 -2 19 -21 -6.0 20 1 -4 5 2.5 2.5 21 8 3 5 2.5 2.5 22 -5 -4 -1 -1.0 T - 12 *A minus sign Indicates a loss. 150 TABLE 31 DIFFERENCES IN GAINS IN TEST-RETEST SCORES ON THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST, PICTURE 1, "ATTITUDES TOWARD SELF" SECTION FOR TWENTY-TWO MATCHED PAIRS - — a s-a ss a — ^ a a s a s a . ■ s — v t iaaaaaaasaa‘ . .^ .= r Reading-for- Skill- Ranks with Grade pleasure oriented smaller sum level Pair focused gain* gain+ d of d (Wilcoxon T) 7th 1 -1 0 -1 -2.5 2.5 2 -1 -1 0 5 0 0 0 — 4 0 1 -1 -2.5 2.5 5 0 0 0 6 2 1 1 2.5 7 0 -1 1 2.5 T - 5 8th 8 -1 1 -2 -5.5 9 1 2 -1 -2 10 -1 1 -2 -5-5 11 0 -1 1 2 2 12 2 1 1 2 2 15 -5 -1 -2 -5-5 14 1 -2 3 8 8 15 -1 1 -2 -5.5 T - 12 9th 16 1 -1 2 2 2 17 0 0 0 — 18 -1 1 -2 -2 19 -1 -1 0 — 20 -1 2 -3 -4.5 21 1 5 -2 -2 22 2 -1 3 4.5 4.5 T * 6.5 +A minus sign indicates a loss. 151 reading-for-pleasure focused program, and (3) comparison between socioeconomic levels within the skill-oriented program. Comparisons were made on the following four criteria of reading improvement: silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self concept. Socioeconomic status levels (high, middle, and low), as defined in Chapter III, were employed to facili- tage these comparisons. Comparisons between Total Enrollment of Programs by Socioeconomic Status Levels Comparisons on the four criteria of reading im provement between the total enrollment in the reading-for- pleasure focused program and the total enrollment in the ski11-oriented program by socioeconomic status levels are reported below. Silent Reading Ability. The assessment instruments used were the Califor nia Reading Test, Sections "As I See My Reading" and "As Others See My Reading" and Total. The following hypothe sis was advanced: Hypothesis 13.— There will be no significant dif ferences between the high, middle, and low socioeconomic 152 status level students In the reading-for-pleasure focused program (total enrollment) and the high, middle, and low socioeconomic status level students in the shill-oriented program (total enrollment) in gains in test-retest scores in silent reading ability. Reference to Table 52 revealed that none of the Chi squares were significant at the .05 level. The null- hypothesis with respect to silent reading ability was accepted for the three socioeconomic status levels. Oral Beading Ability The assessment instrument used was the Gilmore Oral Reading Test, Accuracy Section. The following hypothesis was advanced: Hypothesis.14.— There will be no significant dif ferences between the high, middle, and low socioeconomic status level students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program (total enrollment) and the high, middle, and low socioeconomic status level students in the skill-oriented program (total enrollment) in gains in test-retest scores in oral reading ability. As can be seen in Table 33* no Chi squares were significant at the .05 level of confidence. Consequently, the null-hypothesis with respect to oral reading ability 153 TABLE 32 A CHI SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGESa IN THE CALIFORNIA READING TEST SCORES BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING IFOR IPLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND STUDENTS IN THE SKILL 1 ORIENTED READING PROGRAM, BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL California Reading Test Socio economic status level Chi square P (Two- tailed Null hypothesis A. Vocabulary High 0.417 .82 Accepted Section Middle 0.160 .93 Accepted Low 0.041 .98 Accepted B. Comprehension High 0.104 .95 Accepted Section Middle 4.054 .14 Accepted Low 0.135 .94 Accepted C. Total High 0.174 .92 Accepted Middle 1.682 .44 Accepted Low 0.193 .91 Accepted aDegrees of fredom ■ 2. V Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 154- TABLE 33 A CHI SQUARE COMPARISON OP FREQUENCY OP CHANGESa IN THE GUftOfiE hpat, READING TEST ACCURACY SECTION SCORES BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING-POR- PIEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND STUDENTS IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED READING PROGRAM, BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Socioeconomic CM . P Null status level square (two-tailed hypothesis High 0.174 .92 Accepted Middle 0.54-9 .77 Accepted Low 0.245 .89 Accepted degrees of freedom - 2. ^Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 155 was accepted for the three socioeconomic status levels. Attitude toward Heading The assessment instruments employed were the following: Semantic Differential, Sections "As I See My Heading" and "As Others See My Reading" and Attitude toward Heading Total; and the Thematic Apperception Test, Picture 1, "Attitude toward Heading" section. The follow ing hypothesis was advanced: Hypothesis 15.--There will be no significant dif ferences between the high, middle, and low socioeconomic status level students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program (total enrollment) and the high, middle, and low socioeconomic status level students in the skill-oriented program (total enrollment) in gains in test-retest scores in attitude toward reading. In Table 3$ are contained the results of testing this hypothesis. Since none of the Chi squares shown were significant at the .05 level of confidence, the null- hypothesis with respect to attitude toward reading was accepted for the three socioeconomic status levels. Self Concept The assessment instruments employed were the 156 TABLE 34 A CHI SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGES8- IN SCORES OF MEASURES OF ATTITUDE TOWARD READING BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING-FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND STUDENTS IN THE SKILL- ORIENTED READING PROGRAM, BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Instruments measuring Attitude toward Reading Socio economic status level Chi b square P (Two- tailed Null hypothesis Semantic Differential A. "As I See Reading" Section High Middle Low 0.179 0.374 1.378 .91 .84 .51 Accepted Accepted Accepted B. "As Others See My Reading" Section High Middle Low 0.174 1.442 0.437 .92 .49 .81 Accepted Accepted Accepted C. "Attitude toward Reading" Total (A&B) High Middle Low 0.417 1.241 0.239 .82 .54 .89 Accepted Accepted Accepted TAT, PICTURE 1 D. "Attitude toward Reading" Section High Middle Low 0.246 1.611 0.276 .89 .46 .88 Accepted Accepted Accepted aDegrees of freedom - 2. i. Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 157 following: Sections "As I See Hyself" amd "As Others See Me" and the Self Concept Total of the Semantic Differ ential; and the Thematic Apperception Test, Picture 1, "Attitude toward Self" section. The following hypothesis was advanced: Hypothesis 16.— There will be no significant differences between the high, middle, and low socioecono mic status level students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program (total enrollment) and the high, middle, and low socioeconomic status level students in the skill- oriented program (total enrollment) in gains in test- retest scores of self concept. As can be seen in Table 35« ther were no signifi cant Chi squares at the .03 level of confidence. The null hypothesis with respect to self concept was accepted for the three socioeconomic status levels. Comparison between Socioeconomic Status Levels within the Reading-for-Pleasure Focused Program Comparisons on the four criteria of reading improvement between the socioeconomic status levels with in the reading-for-pleasure focused program are reported below. The assessment instruments utilized measure the criteria were reported above. 158 TABLE 55 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OP FREQUENCY OF CHANGES* IN SCORES OF MEASURES OF SELF CONCEPT BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING-FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM AND STUDENTS IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED READING PROGRAM, BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Instruments measuring Self Concept Socio economic status level Chi Square P (Two- tailed) Null hypothesis Semantic Differential A. "As I See High 0.174 .91 Accepted Myself” Middle 1.442 .49 Accepted Section Low 0.100 • 96 Accepted B. "As Others High 0.260 .68 Accepted See Me" Middle 1.241 • 54 Accepted Section Low 0.162 .95 Accepted C. "Self High 0.017 .99 Accepted Concept Middle 0.427 .81 Accepted Total (A&B) Low 0.457 .81 Accepted TAT. Picture 1 D. "Attitude High 0.246 .89 Accepted toward Middle 1.226 • 55 Accepted Self" Section Low 0.248 .89 Accepted aDegrees of freedom - 2. ^Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 159 Silent Reading Ability The following hypothesis was advanced: Hypothesis 17*— There will be no significant differences between the high and low, middle and low, and high and middle socioeconomic status level students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program (total ainroll- ment) in gains in test-retest scores in silent reading ability. Inspection of Table 36, which contained results of testing this hypothesis, revealed no Chi squares significant at the .05 level of confidence. Therefore, hypothesis 17 was accepted. Oral Reading Ability. The following hypothesis was advanced: Hypothesis 18.— There will be no significant differences between high and low, middle andlow, and high and middle socioeconomic status level students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program (total enrollment) in gains in test-retest scores in oral reading ability. Table 37 showed the Chi square testing hypothesis 18. Since none of these Chi squares were significant at 160 TABLE 36 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGES8 , IN CALIFORNIA READING TEST SCORES BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING FOR PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM, BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL California Reading Test Socio economic status level comparison Chi . square P (Two- Null tailed)hypothesis A. Vocabulary High-Low 0.048 • 98 Accepted Section Middle-Low 0.179 • 92 Accepted Middle-Low 0.070 • 97 Accepted B. C omprehens i on High-Low 0.006 .99+ Accepted Section High-Middle 0.013 .99+ Accepted Middle-Low 0.140 .94 Accepted C. Total High-Low 0.145 .94 Accepted High-Middle 0.600 .73 Accepted Middle-Low 2.229 • 34 Accepted aDegrees of freedom = 2. kIncludes Yates Correction for Continuity. 161 TABLE 37 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGESa IN GILMORE ORAL READING TEST ACCURACE SECTION SCORES BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING-FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM, BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Socioeconomic status level comparison Chi square P (two-tailed) Null hypothesis High-Low 0.215 .90 Accepted High-Middle 0.543 .77 Accepted Middle-Low 4.246 .13 Accepted aDegrees of freedom - 2. ^Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. f 162 .05 level of confidence, hypothesis 18 was accepted. Attitude toward Reading With respect to this criterion, the following hypothesis was advanced: Hypothesis 19.— There will be no significant differences between high and low, middle and low, and high and middle socioeconomic status level students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program (total enrollment) in gains in test-retest scores in attitude toward reading. Reference to Table 58, which contained the results of testing this hypothesis, revealed that no Chi squares are significant at the .05 level of confidence. Hypothe sis 19i therefore, was accepted. Self Concept With respect to self concept, the fpllowing hypothesis was advanced: * Hypothesis 20.— There will be no significant difference between high and low, middle vand low, and high and middle socioeconomic status level students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program (total enrollment) in gains in test-retest scores in self concept. 163 TABLE 38 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON 0? FREQUENCY OF CHANGESa IN SCORES OF MEASURES OF ATTITUDE TOWARD READING BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING-FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM, BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Instruments measuring Attitude toward Reading Socio economic status level comparison Chi b square P (Two- tailed) Null Hypothesis Semantic Differential A. "As I See Reading" Section High-Low High-Middle Middle-Low 0.375 0.145 0.145 .83 .94 .94 Accepted Accepted Accepted B. "As Others See My Reading" Section High-Low High-Middle Middle-Low 0.145 0.764 0.746 .94 .69 .65 Accepted Accepted Accepted C. "Attitude toward Reading Total" (A&B) High-Low High-Middle Middle-Low 0.077 0.427 0.310 .96 .81 .86 Accepted Accepted Accepted TAT, Picture 1 D. "Attitude toward Reading" Section High-Low High-Middle Middle-Low 0.667 0.084 0.064 • 72 • 96 • 96 Accepted Accepted Accepted degrees of freedom ■ 2. ^Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 164 Table 39 showed the Chi squares that tested hypothesis 20. Since none of these Chi squares were significant at the .03 level of confidence, hypothesis 20 was accepted. Comparisons between Socioeconomic Status Levels within the Skill-oriented Program In this sub-section are reported the comparisons between the socioeconomic status levels within the skill- oriented program on the four criteria of reading improve ment, silent reading abilty, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self concept. The assessment instruments utilized to measure the criteria were reported above. Silent Reading Ability The following hypothesis with respect to silent reading ability was advanced: Hypothesis 21.— There will be no significant differences between the high and low, middle and low, and high and middle socioeconomic status level students in the skill-oriented program (total enrollment) in gains in test-retest scores in silent reading ability. An examination of Table 40, in which are found the results of testing this hypothesis, showed that none 165 TABLE 39 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OP FREQUENCY OF CHANGES® IN SCORES OP MEASURES OF SELF CONCEPT BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE READING-FOR-PLEASURE FOCUSED PROGRAM, BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Instruments Socio measuring economic P Self status Chi . (Two- Null Concept level comparison square tailed) Hypothesis Semantic Differential A. "As I See High-Low 0.187 .91 Accepted Myself" High-Middle 0.427 .81 Accepted Section Middle-Low 0.428 .81 Accepted B. "As Others High-Low 0.187 .91 Accepted See Me? High-Middle Middle-Low 0.427 .81 Accvpted Section 0.898 .65 Accepted C. "Self High-Low 0.145 .94 Accepted Concept ®otal" (A&B) Picture 1 High-Middle 0.596 .73 Accepted TAT Middle-Low 0.310 • 83 Accepted D. "Attitude High-Low 0.250 .89 Accepted toward High-Middle 0.777 .68 Accepted Self" Section Middle-Low 0.783 .68 Accepted aDegrees of Fredom ■ 2. 13‘Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 166 TABLE AO A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGES8 , IN CALIFORNIA READING TEST SCORES BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED PROGRAM BZ SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Socio economic California Reading Test status level comparison Chi b square P (Two- tailed Null hypothesis A. Vocabulary Section High-Los High-Middle Middle-Low 0.066 3.69A 1.330 .97 .17 .52 Accepted Accepted Accepted B. Comprehension High-Low Section High-Middle Miadle-Low 0.29A 0.520 0.630 .87 • 78 • 76 Accepted Aocppted Accepted C. Total High-Low High-Middle Middle-Low 0.58A 0.270 0.165 .85 .88 .93 Accepted Accepted Accepted aDegrees of freedom * 2. ^Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 167 of the Chi squares were significant at the .05 level of confidence. Thus, hypotheses 21 was accepted. Oral Reading Ability The following hypothesis was advanced in regard to oral reading ability: Hypothesis 22.— There will be no significant differences between high and low, middle and low, and high and middle socioeconomic status level students in the skill-oriented program (total enrollment) in gains in test-retest scores in oral reading ability. As can be seen in Table 41, none of the Chi squares testing this hypothesis were significant at the .05 level ofcconfidence. Hypothesis 22 was, therefore, accepted. Attitude toward Reading The following hypothesis was advanced with respect to attitude toward reading: Hypothesis 23.— There will be no significant differences between high and low, middle and low, and high and middle socioeconomic status level students in the skill-oriented program (total enrollment) in gains in test-retest scores in attitude toward reading. 168 TABLE 41 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OP FREQUENCY OP CHANGES* IN GILMORE ORAL READING TEST ACCURACY SECTION SCORES BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED PROGRAM, BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Socioeconomic status level comparison Chi b square P (two-tailed) Null hypothesis High-Low 0.015 .99+ Accepted High-Middle 0.112 • 95 Accepted Middle-Low 3.255 .20 Accepted aDegrees of freedom * 2. Includes Yates Correction for Continuity 169 In Table 42 are found the results of testing this hypothesis. Inspection of this table revealed that none of the Chi squares are significant at the .05 level of confidence. Consequently, hypothesis 23 was accepted. Self Concept With respect to self concept, the following hypoth esis was advanced. Hypothesis 24.— There will be no significant difference between high and low, middle and low, and high and middle socioeconomic status level students in the skill-oriented program (total enrollment) in gains in test-retest scores in self concept. Shown in Table 43 are the Chi squares that tested hypothesis 24. Since none of these Chi squares were significant, hypothesis 24 is accepted at the .05 level of confidence. Summary of the Chapter This chapter presented the results of the statis tical tests applied to the data. The findings were divid ed into four sections. These four sections described (1) comparisons between classes, (2) comparisons between total enrollments of programs, (3) matched-pairs compar isons, and (4) the effects of socioeconomic status on the 170 TABLE 42 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGESa IN SCORES OF MEASURES OF ATTITUDE TOWARD READING BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED PROGRAM, BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Instruments Socio measuring economic Attitude status P toward level Chi ^ (Two- Null Reading comparison square tailed) Hypothesis Semantic Differential A. "As I See High-Low 0.516 .77 Accepted Reading" High-Middle 1.080 ■ 59 Accepted Section Middle-Low 1.190 • 56 Accepted B. "As Others High-Low 0.197 .91 Accepted See My High-Middle 0.164 .93 Accepted Reading" Section Middle-Low 0.209 • 90 Accepted C. "Attitude High-Low 0.384 .83 Accepted toward High-Middle 0.777 .68 Accepted Reading Total" Middle-Low 1.133 .59 Accepted (A&B) TAT, Picture 1 D. "Attitude toward Reading" Section High-Low 1.261 High-Middle 0.201 Middle-Low 1.215 .54 Accepted .91 Accepted •55 Accepted aDegrees of freedom ■ 2. bIncludes Yates Correction for Continuity. 171 TABLE 43 A CHI-SQUARE COMPARISON OF FREQUENCY OF CHANGES8 , IN SCORES OF MEASURES OF SELF CONCEPT BETWEEN STUDENTS IN THE SKILL-ORIENTED PROGRAM, BY SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS LEVEL Instruments measuring Self Concept Socio economic status level comparison Chi b square P (Two- tailed) Null Hypothesis Semantic Differential A. "As I See Myself Section High-Low High-Middle Middle-Low 0.5^0 2.509 5.044 • 76 .29 .09 Accepted Accepted Accepted B. "As Others See Me" Section High-Low High-Middle Middle-Low 0.251 0.347 1.850 .89 .86 .40 Accepted Accepted Accepted C. "Self Concept Total" (A&B) High-Low High-Middle Middle-Low 0.258 0.164 1.097 .88 .95 •59 Accepted Accepted Accepted TAT, Picture 1 D. "Attitude toward Self" Section High-Low High-Middle Middle-Low 0.350 0.111 0.111 .86 •95 .95 Accepted Accepted Accepted aDegrees of freedom « 2. ^Includes Yates Correction for Continuity. 172 data. In each section the criteria on which the compari sons were made as well as the assessment instrument used to measure the criteria were enumerated. The findings summarized below are presented in terms of the rejection or acceptance of the null hypothe sis. The null hypothesis as tested in this experiment states that there will be no significant difference be tween the improvement in reading made by the students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program and the improve ment in reading made by the students involved in the skill oriented program. In terms of the effect of socioeconomic status, the null hypothesis states that socioeconomic status will not significantly affect the data. Comparison Between Classes Silent Heading Ability (Hypothesis 1) The null hypothesis was accepted at all grade levels. Oral Reading Ability (Hypothesis 2) The null hypothesis was rejected at the seventh- grade level in favor of the reading-for-pleasure focused class, but accepted at the eigth- and ninth-grade levels. Attitude Toward Reading (Hypothesis 3) 175 The null-hypothesis was rejected at the eighth- grade level for Attitude toward Beading Total of the Semantic Differential in favor of the skill-oriented class, but was accepted for all other comparisons, at all grade levels. Self Concept (Hypothesis 4) The null-hypothesis was accepted at all three grade levels. Comparisons Between Total Enrollments of Programs (Hypotheses 5-8). For the four criteria, silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self concept, the null-hypothesis was accepted. Matched Pairs Comparisons (Hypotheses 9-12) The null-hypothesis was accepted for the following criteria: silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self concept. 174- Effects of Socioeconomic Status (Hypotheses (13-24-) for both Interprogram and Intraprogram compari sons, the null hypothesis waB accepted for the following criteria: silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self concept. Summation The findings detailed above indicated that the two instructional programs were equally effective in pro ducing reading improvement. The two exceptions to the preceding characterizations are discussed below. Siegel (4-7:9) has stated that there are two types of errors which may be made in arriving at a decision re garding the null hypothesis. The first, or Type I error, is to reject the null hypothesis when in fact it is true. The second, or Type II error, is to accept the null hypothesis when in fact it is false. In this study, the .05 level of significance was adopted as the criterion for rejecting the null hypothesis, and thus, through the laws of chance, the null hypothesis would be rejected five times out of a hundred when in fact it was true. The two significant Chi squares obtained in the class comparisons, as enumerated above, must be evaluated in the context of a total of thirty-six class comparison 175 Chi squares, thirty-four of whom were non-significant. It is reasonable to assume that these two significant Chi squares, which represented approximately 5 per cent of the total, were chance results in terms of Type I error. Thus, the hypothesis that there will be no significant differences between the improvement in reading made by the students in the reading-for-pleasure focused instructional program and the improvement in reading made by the stu dents in the skill-oriented instructional program, was accepted. In addition, the analysis of data clearly showed that socioeconomic status did not significantly affect the data. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The purpose of this chapter is to present a summary of the problem, the procedures, and the findings of the present study, to draw pertinent conclusions from the anal ysis of the data, and to make appropriate recommendations in terms of research needs and educational implications. Summary The Problem The development of more effective instructional programs for retarded readers at the junior high school level has been recognized as an important educational need. Most remedial reading programs have concentrated on tech niques of increasing reading skills such as independent word attack, vocabulary building, and comprehension, as the solution to the reading problem. However, the typical poor reader approaches the learning task with little enthusiasm because of past failures. In order to develop greater motivation for learning, and thus enhance the effectiveness of remedial reading instruction, it would seem desirable to design and carry out an instructional program that could 176 177 effect a positive change in the experience of the retarded reader. Instead of considering recreational reading as only a desired outcome of remedial instruction, reading for pleasure could be utilized to provide pleasant, successful experiences as the cornerstone of the remedial program. The problem of the present study was to evaluate the potential contribution of a reading-for-pleasure focused instructional program to the remedial reading curriculum. It was decided to conduct this evaluation by comparing the effectiveness of the reading-for-pleasure focused instruc tional program with that of the ski 11-oriented instructional, program. The criteria of reading improvement utilized as the basis of comparison were the following: silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitudes toward reading, and self concept. In addition, the effect of socioeconomic status on the data was investigated. Hypotheses were for mulated to facilitate program comparisons, and assessment instruments were chosen to measure the reading improvement criteria. These hypotheses and assessment Instruments are delineated in Chapter I and are also reviewed in other sections of this chapter. Procedures This experiment was conducted during the fall semester, 19&3* The a*x Junior high school remedial reading classes involved in the study were drawn from the 178 Los Angeles Unified School District and the East Whittier City Sohool District, with three classes from each district participating. These school districts were in Los Angeles County. The communities served by the schools involved in the study were basically residential, and the socioeconomic status of the residents of these urban communities ranged from skilled working class to upper middle class. The six participating classes were equally divided among the seventh, eighth, and ninth grade levels, with one class at each grade level involved in the reading-for- pleasure focused instructional program, and the other class at each grade level involved in the skill-oriented instruc tional program. All the classes met daily for a full class period and were taught by experienced remedial reading teachers. The basis for assignment of students to the classes included a reading retardation of at least one and one half years, as measured by a standardized silent read ing test. The mean class size was 19.3. Assignment of class to program was randomized by coin toss by the investigator. Prom the total sample of 116 students, twenty-two matched pairs were selected on the basis of socioeconomic status, sex, IQ, and silent reading ability. To facilitate the analysis of the effect of socio economic status on the data, an arbitrary classification by levels of the categories of the Warner Scale for Rating 179 Occupations: Revised ($7:1^0-114. 1) was established. A number of experimental controls were utilized in this investigation. The effect of the teacher variable was minimized through orientation conferences and consultative supervision throughout the semester. An attempt to estab lish clear differentiation of programs and to maintain uniformity of classes within programs was made by publish ing program descriptions and by arranging for periodic visits by the investigator to the classes. The assessment instruments in the present study are listed below under the criterion of reading improvement they were used to measure: Criterion 1. Silent Reading Ability, measured by: a. California Reading Test, Vocabulary section b. California Reading Test, Comprehension section c. California Reading Test, Total Criterion 2. Oral Reading Ability, measured by: d. Gilmore Oral Reading Test, Accuracy section Criterion 3. Attitude toward Reading, measured by: e. Semantic Differential, "As I See Reading" section f. Semantic Differential, "As Others See My Read ing" section g. Semantic Differential, Attitude toward Reading Total (e + f) h. TAT, Picture 1, "Attitude toward Self" section. 180 Criterion k» Self Concept, measured by: 1. Semantic Differential, "As I See Myself" section J. Semantic Differential, "As Others See Me" section k. Semantic Differential, Self Concept Total (1 + j) 1. TAT, Picture 1, "Attitude toward Self" section. The initial testing of the students took place dur ing the third week of the fall semester, 1963, and the final testing was conducted during the eighteenth week of the semester. The Head Counselor of the schools In the Los Angeles City School District administered the Gilmore Oral Reading Test and Picture 1 of the TAT to each student indi vidually In the counselor's office. In one school, the Head Counselor was assisted by personnel from the Evalua tion and Research Division of the district. In the East Whittier City School District, the district Guidance Coun selors administered the Gilmore Oral Reading Test and Picture 1 of the TAT to each student individually in the counselor's office. In both school districts, the teachers administered the California Reading Test and the Semantic Differential to each class as a group during regular class periods. The California Reading Test and the Gilmore Oral Reading Test were scored in accordance with the Manuals for those tests. The soorlng procedure for the Semantic 181 Differential entailed the summing of the acore values representing the rating positions on five evaluative scales (fair-unfair, sweet-sour, clean-dirty, happy-sad, and good- bad) for each of the four attitude concepts ("As I See Reading," "As Others See My Reading," "As I See Myself," and "As Others See Me"). Two rating scales ("Attitude toward Reading" and "Attitude toward Self") were developed to facilitate the assessment of the responses to picture 1, TAT. The TAT responses were independently rated by three experienced clinical psychologists and the Investigator in accordance with a judging procedure established for this purpose. A statistical analysis of the experimental data compared the reading-for-pleasure focused program with the skill-oriented program by class, total enrollments of pro grams, and matched-pairs for the four criteria of reading improvement: silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self concept. In addition, the effect of socioeconomic status on the data was evalu ated by means of inter program and intra program compari sons. Two non parametric, "distribution-free" statistical tests were employed to test significance of differences-- the chi-square test for the class, total enrollments of programs, and effects of socioeconomic status comparisons, and the tfilooxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test for the *82 matched-pairs comparisons. The .05 level of significance was adopted as the basis for rejecting the null hypothesis. Findings The relative effectiveness of the reading-for- pleasure focused program and the skill-oriented program was evaluated by testing the null hypothesis for the four criteria of reading improvement: (1) silent reading ability, (2) oral reading ability, (3) attitude toward reading, and ( i | . ) self concept. Comparisons were made be/tween classes, total enrollments of programs, and matched - pairs. In addition, the effect of socioeconomic status on the data was analyzed. The results of this analysis are summarized below in terms of the rejection or acceptance of the null hypothesis at the .05 level of confidence: Comparisons between Classes Silent reading ability (Hypothesis 1).— The null hypothesis was accepted at all grade levels. Oral reading ability (Hypothesis 2).— The null hypothesis was rejected at the seventh-grade level in favor of the reading-for-pleasure focused class, but accepted at the eighth and ninth-grade levels. Attitude toward reading (Hypothesis 3).— The null hypothesis was rejected at the eighth-grade level for 183 Attitude toward Heading Total of the Semantic Differential in favor of the skill-oriented class, but was accepted for all other comparisons, at all grade levels. Self concept (Hypothesis h)•— The null hypothesis was accepted at all three grade levels. Comparisons between total enrollments of programs (hypotheses 5-B) For the four criteria: silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self concept, the null hypothesis was accepted. Matched-pairs comparisons (Hypotheses 9-1^) The null hypothesis was accepted for the criteria: silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self concept. Effects of socioeconomic status (Hypothesis 13-21Q For both interprogram and intraprogram comparisons, the null hypothesis was accepted for the criteria: silent reading ability, oral reading ability, attitude toward reading, and self concept. Conclusions As a result of the analysis of the data reported 184 above, the following conclusions are drawn: 1. The reading-for-pleasure focused program and the skill-oriented program were, in general, equally effec tive in producing reading improvement as between the classes at the three grade levels. There were two excep tions to the preceding characterization: (a) the seventh- grade reading-for-pleasure focused class made significantly greater gains in oral reading ability than did its counter part, and (b) the eighth-grade skill-oriented class made significantly greater gains in one of the measures of atti tude toward reading— the Attitude toward Reading Total of the Semantic Differential— than did its counterpart. These two exceptions are considered chance results in terms of a Type 1 error, as discussed on page 174 in Chapter IV. 2. The reading-for-pleasure focused program and the skill-oriented program were equally effective in pro ducing reading improvement as between the total enrollments of programs. 3. The reading-for-pleasure focused program and the skill-oriented program were equally effective in pro ducing reading improvement as between the matched pairs. 4. The two instructional programs were equally effective in producing reading improvement at the three socioeconomic status levels. 3* Socioeconomic status did not significantly influence the improvement in reading of the students in the reading-for-pleasure focused program. 6. Socioeconomic status did not significantly influence the improvement in reading of the students in the skill-oriented program. 7. Generally, the reading-for-pleasure focused program and the skill-oriented program were equally effec tive in producing reading improvement under the conditions of this experiment. This conclusion is reinforced by the close correspondence of the matched-pairs results with the group comparisons findings. The basic goal of this study was to evaluate the possible value of the reading-for-pleasure focused program in the remedial reading curriculum. Although the findings of the study showed that there was no significant differ ence between the effectiveness of the two instructional programs, the reading-for-pleasure focused program would seem to have good potential for the improvement of the remedial reading curriculum. Despite the lack of direct instruction in reading skills, the students in this pro gram made substantially the same gains in reading skills as did the students in the ski11-oriented program. This equivalent gain was made in a classroom setting which was structured for pleasant, stimulating experiences--experi ences which represent a valid educational aim in themselves. Also, it is possible that the fifteen-week interval between 186 pre-testing and post-tasting was not long snough to permit the full impact of the advantages of the reading-for- pleasure focused program to be felt. Since, as is generally accepted, long-standing negative attitudes toward reading do not change quickly, it may be that a longer period of time before retesting would permit a more adequate evaluation of the potential of the reading-for- pleasure focused program to produce positive attitude change. The evaluation of the effect of socioeconomic status on the data was another goal of the study. The findings indicated that the two instructional programs were equally effective in producing reading improvement at the three socioeconomic status levels, and that within each program, equivalent gains in reading improvement were made by the students in the three socioeconomic status levels. It is possible that the less formal, less author ity-centered reading-for-pleasure focused program would tend to represent more of a change in experience for the lower socioeconomic status level students than for the students in the middle and upper levels. One might have expected, therefore, a problem of adjuB tment to change for the lower socioeconomic statuB level studentB who typically come from a more authoritarian home environment. Apparent ly, however, this change-in-experience factor did not have an over-all negative effect on the reading improvement 187 of the lower socioeconomic status level students since they made equivalent gains in respect to both their counterparts in the ski11-oriented program and to the middle and upper socioeconomic status level students within the reading-for- pleasure focused program. One might speculate that a longer Interval between pro and post-testing would more fully compensate for any initial difficulties in adjust ment to the change in experience of the lower socioeconomic status level students involved in the reading-for-pleasure focused program. In addition, it is possible that the relatively small number of lower socioeconomic status level students in the sample may have tended to reduce the pos sibility of significant differences in reading improvement. Recommendations The recommendations of this study are divided into two groups: (1) research needs, and (2) educational impli cations . Research Heeds The potential of the reading-for-pleasure focused program for improving the remedial reading curriculum at the junior high school level should be further studied. In terms of research design, it would be advantageous to randomly assign students to the instructional programs 188 being compared. A full school year should be the Interval between initial and final testing. A longitudinal study in terms of follow-up would be highly desirable. In addition, it would be helpful to assess the impact of the remedial programs on the student's behavior and achievement in cur riculum areas other than reading. Further, an attempt should be made to minimize the possible effects of differ ences in motivation for school achievement. Finally, the possible influence of differences in reading materials should be controlled where possible. Further studies of the effect of socioeconomic status on effectiveness of instructional programs for retarded readers should involve samples with a larger representation of the high and low socioeconomic status groups than their proportional representation in the gen eral student population would tend to produce. A more evenly balanced sample in terms of socioeconomic status would permit increased confidence in the findings regarding this variable. Educational Implications The reading-for-pleasure focused instructional program merits inclusion in the remedial reading curri culum. The results of the study have shown that severely 189 retarded readers at the junior high school level can improve basic reading skills without direct instruction. It would thus appear that some modification of the prevailing skill- oriented remedial reading program may be in order in terms of incorporating more reading-for-pleasure activities. The acquisition and enhancement of basic academic skills for students achieving below grade level may require less direct, formal instruction than current educational practice seems to demand. It is possible that such aca demic skills as arithmetic and spelling can be improved through a program centered around pleasant, stimulating experiences. 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New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World, Inc., 1929. 314-* Monroe, M., and Backus, B. Remedial Reading. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1937. 35. Mowrer, 0. H. Psychotherapy: Theory and Research. New York: The Ronald Press Co., 1953. 36. Murphy, G., Murphy, L. B., and Newcomb, T. M. Experimental Social Psychology. New York: Harper and Bros., 1937. 37. Murray, Henry A. Thematic Apperception Test. Cambridge: riarvard university Press, 1914-3* 38. Murstein, Bernard I. Theory and Research in Projec tiveTechniques^ Emphasizingthe TA*f). New ¥ork: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1963. 194 - 39. McCallister, J. M. Remedial and Corrective Instruc tion in Reading i "A Program for the Upper Grades and High School. New York: D. Apple- ton-Century Co., 1936. ij.0. Osboog, E. 0., Suci, G. J., and Tannenbaum, P. H. The Measurement o f Meaning. Urbana: Univer- sity of Illinois Press, 1*57. lj.1. Penty, R. C. Reading Ability and High School Dropouts. 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"The Relationship of Socio-economic Status to Personality Inventory and Achieve ment Test Scores," Journal of Educational Psychology, XXXVII, No. 9 (December l9i|.6), Gray, William S. "Summary of Reading Investigations, July 1, 1958 to June 30, 1957," Journal of Educational Research, Vol. LI, No. b (February 1950). Grissom, Loren V. "Characteristics of Successful Reading Improvement Programs," English Journal, L (October 1961), 14-61 -(4 . 64., h74. . Groff, P. J. "Children's Attitude toward Reading and Their Critical Reading Abilities in Four Content-Type Materials," Journal of Educa tional Research, LV, No. 7 (April WbSf)'. T T3 -3TS.---------- Gulliksen, Harold. "How to Make Meaning More Mean ingful ," Cc No. 5 (May ingful," Contemporary Psychology, Vol. Ill, Gustafson, M. "A Practical Plan for Helping Retarded Readers in Secondary Schools," California Journal of Secondary Education, XjCx , No . li (April 1955T7 196-199.-------- Hill, Edwin, and Grammatteo, Michael. 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"Social Status and Educational and Occupa tional Aspiration," American Sociological Review, XXII, No. 1 (February l9i>7) , 6?-72. 10$. Shaw, Duane C. "The Relation of Socio-economic Sta tus to Educational Achievement in Grades Four to Eight," Journal of Educational Research, XXXVII, No .“3' (November 19W)197-201. 106. Sheldon, W. D., and Carillo, L. W. "Relation of parents, Home, and Certain Developmental Characteristics to Children's Reading Ability," Elementary School Journal, LII (November T95?),'262-270.---------- 107. Simmons, John S. "The Scope of the Reading Program for Secondary Schools," Reading Teacher, XVII, No. 1 (September 1963), 31-35). 200 108. Smith, N. B. "What Have We Accomplished in Reading? A Review of the Past Fifty Years," Elementary English, XXXVIII, No. 3 (March 1961)7 11*1-150. 109. Stahlecker, L. V. "Motivating the Slow Learner to Read," High School Journal, XLVI, No. 3 (December i962), 7U-U2.--- 110. Strang, R. "Progress in the Teaching of Reading in High School and College," Reading Teacher, XVI, No. 3 (December 1962)7 170-T77. 111. Stroud, J. B. "Predictive Value of Obtained Intel ligence Quotients of Groups Favored and Unfavored in Socio-Economic Status," Elemen- tary School Journal, XLIII (October l9ij-2)» rr ry sc 112. Trailer, A. E. "Current Organization and Procedures in Remedial Teaching," Journal of Experimental Education, XX (March 1952"), 305-312. 113. _________, "An Experiment in Teaching Corrective Reading to Eight Seventh-Grade Pupils," Journal of Educational Research, XXIV, No. h Tffecember 193b), W - 5 W . ------ llh. _________. "Group Corrective Reading in the Seventh Grade: An Experiment," School Review, XLI, No. 7 (September 1933), £19-530. 115. Turner, C. S. "Improving Selection of Pupils for Remedial Reading, a Report of Research," English Journal, L, No. 1 (January 1961), 23-13 • 116. Vandament, William E., and Thalman, W. A. "An Inves tigation into the Reading Interests of Chil dren," Journal of Educational Research, XLIX (February T9U6), M>7-h70.------------- 117. Vogel, F. X. "The Skiles program for Reading Improve ment," Clearing House, XXXV, No. 6 (February i9 6i), t h t o t : -------- 118. Witt, F. "Remedial Reading in the Junior High School: a Practical Report," Elementary English, XLI (January 1959), 37-lj.l. 201 119. Witty, P. "Reading Retardation in the Secondary School," Journal of Experimental Education, XV, No. k ( June 19^7) , 314-317'.----------- 120. Witty, P., and Brink, W. "Remedial Reading practices in the Secondary School," Journal of Educa- tional Psychology, XL, No. h (April 19*4-9), 193-205. 121. Woolf, Maurice D,, and Woolf, Jeanne A. "The Case of the Tired Readers," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXIII, No. 5 ('January 1955). 2W- Government Publications 122. Early, M. J. "What Research Tells the Classroom Teacher about the Basic Causes of Reading Disability and Retardation," Improving Read ing in the Junior High School, Bulletin NoT 10. Washington, D.C . : IT. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1957. Pp. 16-25. 123. Leavell, Ullin W. "How Can Standardized Tests and Other Evaluative Means Be Used to Improve Reading? What New Instruments Are Needed?" Improving Reading in the Junior High School, Bullet in No • lO. Washington, t) .0.: u. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1957. Pp. 13^-139. 121;. Shiffman, Gilbert B. "How to Organize Remedial Read ing Programs," Improving Reading in the Junior High School, Bulletin NoT 10. Wash ington," 15TO'.": UT~S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1957* Pp. 110-117. 125. Traxler, A. E. "What Research Suggests about Ways to Improve Reading Instruction," Improving Reading in the Junior High School,~ Bulletin No. 10” Washington, D.cT: U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1957. Pp. 5-15. 202 Publications of Learned Societies 126. Ali.iy, Millie C. Children1 s Experiences Prior to First Grade and Success in Beginning Reading. Teachers College Contributions to isducaiion7 No. 951*. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1914.9. 127. Bennett, Chester C. An Inquiry into the Genesis of Poor Reading. Teachers College fcontributions to Education, No. 755. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1938. 128. Carillo, L. W. "Methods of Teaching Reading in the Junior High School," Challenge and Experiment in Reading, I.R.A., New York7 Conference Proceedings, Scholastic Magazine, VII (1962), 1*7 -I*9 . ----------------- ------ 129. Chall, J. S. "Interpretation of the Results of Standardized Reading Tests," Evaluation of Reading, Supplementary Educational Monograph Wo. 0tj7 Vol. XX. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 133-138. 130. Deutsch, Martin. "Minority Group and Class Status as Related to Social and Personality Factors in Scholastic Achievement," Monograph No. 2, The Society for Applied Anthropology, New York State School of Indistrial and Labor Relations. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University. 131. Elkins, Deborah. Reading Improvement in the Junior High SchooTI Wew York: Bureau of Publica tions, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1963. 132. Gates, A. I. "What Research Says to the Teacher," Teaching Reading. Department of Classroom Teachers, American Educational Research Association of the NEA, 1953* 133. Gray, w. S. "Summary of Investigations Relating to Reading," Supplementary Educational Monograph No. 28. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925. 203 1314-. ________ . "Nature and Scope of a Sound Reading Pro gram," Reading in the High School and College, Forty-seventh Yearbook or the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 191+8. Pp. 1+6-68. 135-__________ . "Summary of Outstanding Recommendations and Suggested Problems in Urgent Need of Investigation.1 1 Twenty-fourth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa tion, Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925. Pp. 305-307. 136. Harris, A. J. "Reading and Human Development," Development in and Through Reading. Six tieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Pp. 17- 31+. 137. Jackson, P. W. "Determining Expectations for Read ing in Grades Seven Through Nine," in Evalu ation of Reading. Supplementary Educational Monograph No. 68, Vol. XX. Chicago: Univer sity of Chicago Press, 1958. Pp. 28-31. 138. Letton, M. C. "Evaluating the Effectiveness of Teaching Reading," Evaluation of Reading. Supplementary Educational Monograph ITo. 88, Vol. 20. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958. 139. Naslund, R. N., Brown, C. M., and Hopkins, K. D. "Evaluation and the Reading Program." Twenty-fifth Yearbook of the Claremont Col lege Reading Conference, 1961. Pp. 133-11+1. 11+0. Petty, W. C. "A Research Pitfall: Jumping to Con clusions," Challenge and Experiment in Read ing, I.R.A., hew York, Conference proceedings, Scholastic Magazine, Vol. VII (1962). ll+l. Robinson, Helen M. "Corrective and Remedial Instruc tion," Development in and Through Reading. Sixtieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Pp. 357- 375. 204 1 1 4. 2. Robinson, Helen M. "Summary and Conclusions" of Evaluation of Reading. Supplementary Educa- tional Monograph No. 88, Vol. XX. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958* Pp. 199- 202. H|-3. . "Problems of Corrective Reading in Ameri can Schools," Corrective Reading in Classroom and Clinic. Supplementary Educational Mono graph too. 79, Vol. XV. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953* Pp. 11-18. 1144.. Sheldon, W. "Reading Instruction in the Junior High School," Development in and Through Reading. Sixtieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961. Pp. 305- 319. 114 . 5. Smith, H. K. "The Retarded Reader— Corrective and Remedial Instruction," The Underachiever in Reading. Supplementary pjducatlonal Monograph Wo. 927 Vol. XXIV. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. Pp. 14-1-14-9. 114 . 6. Sommerfield, Roy E. "Some Recent Research in College Reading," Techniques and Procedures in Col lege and Adult Reading Programs. Sixth Year book of the Southwest Reading Conference. Port Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 1957. IJ4 . 7. Staiger, R. C. "Organizing Corrective and Remedial Programs in Our Schools," Corrective and Remedial Reading. Report of the Sixteenth Annual Conference and Course on Reading. Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg, I960. Pp. 135-U4.2. II4 . 8. Stolarz, T. "Methods of Correcting Specific Reading Difficulties," Organizing Reading Programs in the Schools, Vol Xl. Eleventh Annual Conference on Reading. Pittsburg: Univer sity of Pittsburg, 1955* Pp. 12I 4 .-I36. 149. . "Organizing a Remedial Program in the Schools," Organizing Reading Programs in the Schools, VolT XI. Eleventn Annual Conference on Weeding. Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg, 1955. Pp. 10f>-ll8. 205 150. Traxler, A. E., and Jungeblatt, Ann. "Research in Reading During Another Pour Years," Educa tional Records Bulletin No. 75* Educational Record Bulletin, Hew York, I960. 151. Traxler, A. E. "Provisions for Reading Instruction in Secondary Schools and Colleges Holding Membership in the Educational Records Bureau," 191+5 Achievement Testing program in Indepen dent Schools and Supplementary Studies, Educational-hecords^Bulletin No. 1+3, Educa- tional Record Bulletin, New York, 191+5• Pp. 55-66. 152. ________. "Values and Limitations of Reading Tests," ""I E valuation of Reading. Supplementary Educa- tional Monograph No. 80. Chicago: Univer sity of Chicago Press, 1951+• Pp. 111-117. 153. Walby, G. S. "Testing and Teaching the Retarded Reader in Grades Pour Through Eight," The Underachiever in Reading. Supplementary Educational Monograph No. 92, Vol. XXIV. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. Pp. 51+-58. Unpublished Materials 151+. Bod win, Raymond P. "The Relation Between Immature Self-Concept and Certain Educational Dis abilities." Unpublished Doctoral disserta tion, Michigan State University, East Lansing; 1957. 155. Brinkman, William A. "An Evaluation of a Remedial Reading program in a Junior High School." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1955. 156. Brown, Charles M. "Acculturation and School Achieve ment." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1956. 157. Bruck, Max. "A Study of Age Differences and Sex Differences in the Relationship between Self- Concept and Grade-Point Average." Unpub lished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1957. 206 158. Butler, J. J. "Differential Factors in the Self- Concepts of Overachieving, Underachieving, and Expected-Achieving Adolescents." Unpub lished Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1957. 159. Castle, M. "An Evaluation of a Reading Improvement Program in a Junior High School." Unpub lished Master1s project, University of South ern California, Los Angeles, 1957. 160. Fingeld, T. E. "An Experimental Study of the Ability to Select Words to Convey Intended Meaning." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1953. 161. Friedhoff, Walter H. "Relationships Among Various Measures of Socioeconomic status, Social Class Identification, Intelligence, and School Achievement." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, 1955. 162. Gladden, A. L. "The Status of Remedial Reading in Junior and Senior High schools of the United States." Unpublished Master's thesis, Uni versity of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1931. 163. Granzow, K. R. "A Comparative Study of Underachiev ers, Normal Achievers, and Overachievers in Reading." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, 19514-. 16^. Hallock, G. A. "Attitudinal Factors Affecting Achievement in Reading." Unpublished Doc toral dissertation, Wayne State University, Michigan, 1958. 165. Johnston, M. P. "Some Possible Factors Related to the Amount of Reading Success of a Selected Group of Ninth Grade Pupils." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Cali fornia at Los Angeles, 1957- 166. Keshian, J. G. "Why Children Succeed in Reading: A Study to Determine, in Three Selected Commu nities, Some of the Common Physical. Social, Emotional, and Environmental Characteristics and Experiences of Children Who Learn to Read Successfully." Unpublished Doctoral disser tation, New York University, New York, I960. 1 207 167. Lumpkin, Donovan D. "The Relationship of Self- Concept to Achievement in Reading." Unpub lished Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1959. 168. Mindok, W. A. "Measuring Advertising Effectiveness from a Communications Point of View." Unpub lished Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1955* 169. Moses, Darrell Lee. "The Relationship of Self-Con cept Discrepancies to Vocational Choice, Intelligence, School Achievement, and Socio economic Status." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern Cali fornia, Los Angeles, 19o0. 170. Reeder, Thelma A. "A Study of Some Relationships between Level of Self-Concept, Academic Achievement, and Classroom Adjustment." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, North Texas State College, Arlington, 1955- 171. Roster, Arlene A. "Investigation of the Relationship between Socioeconomic Status and Reading Interests of Children." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern Cali fornia, Los Angeles, 1955* 172. Rutherford, V. B. "A Study of Remedial Reading on the Secondary Level with Special Emphasis on Reading Disabilities." Unpublished Master’s thesis, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1936. 173. Schubert, Delwyn G. "A Comparative Study of Advanced and Retarded Ninth Grade Readers." Unpub lished Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, 1950. 17i|. Stevens, Peter H. "An Investigation of the Relation ship between Certain Aspects of Self-Concept Behavior and Students’ Academic Achievement." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, New York University, New York, 1956. 175* Suci, G. J. "A Multidimensional Analysis of Social Attitudes with Special Reference to Ethnocen- tricism." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana, 1952. 208 176. Wade, Kenneth A. "A Study of Instructional Proce dures Used to Shape Children's Attitudes toward Reading." Unpublished Master's the sis, University of California at Los Angeles, 1957. 177. Yokley, Areola M. "A Study of the Relationship between Parent-Child interaction and the Reading Achievement of Elementary School Chil dren." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington, 1958. 178. Zener, L. P. "An Evaluation of a Remedial Reading Program in High School." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 19U7. 179. 180. l8l. Educational and Psychological Tests California Reading Test. Devised by Ernest W. Tiegs and Willis W. Clark. Monterey: California Test Bureau, 1957. Gilmore Oral Reading Test. Devised by John V. Gilmore. Yonkers-on-Hudson, N.Y.: World Book Co., 1952. Thematic Apperception Test. University Press. Cambridge: Harvard 182. Miscellaneous "An Inventory of Reading Attitude," Im_ Instruction. Monograph No. ITT" San fcalif.: Superintendent of Schools, San Diego County, 1961. Reading Tego," “ 183. I8I 4 .. Course Outlines for Basic Reading, Reading Improve ment , Power Reading, Junior and Senior High Schools. Los Angeles City Schools, Publica tion No. X-8, 1963. Los Angeles City School Districts, Division of Secondary Education, Report to the Board of Education, "The Corrective Reading Program at the Secondary Level," January 10, 1963. 209 185. "The Reading Program in Junior and Senior High Schools." Los Angeles City School Districts, Office of Special Programs of Education, Division of Secondary Education, 1962. APPENDIX A SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL 211 INSTRUCTIONS This is a word teat. At the top of each page you will see some words. Below the words are a set of scales. Use the scales to show what the words mean to you. Here is how to mark the scales: (Example) AS I SEE THE BEACH If you see the BEACH as: very sweet sour • • • • • • • • • • : X * • sweet very sour sour X • « • • • • • • • • • • • • sweet sweet sour • • « • • • 0 • • • X : • • sweet sour sour : X : : • • • • • • • 0 sweet a little sweet sour • • • • • • • ♦ X : • • • • sweet a little sour sour • • Y * • • A • • * • * • • • • sweet not sweet and not sour sour • • • • * * X : 0 0 • • • • sweet IMPORTANT 1. Pub the X in the middle of the line; please do not put the X in-between the lines: THIS : sour __: X :___ : NOT this: sour X :__: 2. Be sure to put an X for every row on each page. 3. Do not put more than one X on any row. U.. Work quickly, but carefully. Do not take a lot of time on any row. Put down what comes to your mind first-- but be sure to show what the word really means to you. 212 AS I SEE READING fair _____:_____ :_____ :_____:_____:_____:_____ : unfair sour _____:______*_____:_____ :______:_____ :_____ : aweet clean _____:______:_____:_____ :______:_____ :_____ : dirty sad _____:______:_____:_____ :______:_____:_____ : happy good _____:______:_____:_____ :______:_____:_____ : bad AS I SEE MYSELF fair _____:_____:_____:_____:_____:_____ :_____ : unfair sour _____:______:_____:____:______:_____:_____ : aweet clean _____:______:_____ :____:______:_____:_____ : dirty sad _____:______:_____:____:______:_____:_____ : happy good _____:______:_____:____:______:_____ :_____ : bad 213 AS OTHERS SEE MY READING fair _____:_____:_____:_____:_____ :_____:_____ : unfair sour _____:______:_____ :_____:_____:______:_____ : sweet clean _____:______:_____:_____:_____*______:_____ : dirty- sad _____:______:_____:_____:_____:______:_____ : happy- good _____:______:_____:_____:_____:______:_____ : bad AS OTHERS SEE ME fair _____:_____:_____ :_____:_____ :_____:_____ : unfair sour _____:______:_____:______:_____:_____ :_____ : sweet clean _____:______:_____: ______:_____ :_____ :_____ : dirty sad _____:______:_____:______:_____:_____ :_____ : happy good _____:______:_____:______:_____:_____ :_____ : bad APPENDIX B PROGRAM DESCRIPTION Reading-for-Pleasure Focused Program 215 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION Reading-for-Pleasure Focused program The major portion of the class period will be devoted to a program of group-developed activities, such as skits, experience stories, choral reading, class news paper, and others, in a round-table setting. Part of the period (10 minutes) will provide opportunity for inde pendent student selection of and work on reading materials of an instructional or recreational nature. Most of the reading material used by the class will be written by the students as part of the group activities. During the part of the period the students are not involved in group activities, reading materials, such as workbooks, reading texts, SRA Laboratory, word games, library books, and others, will be available. The teacher's role in the group activities will be to help initiate and provide support, rather than manage and direct. It is anticipated that the students will require less assistance in organizing and carrying through group activities as the semester progresses. The teacher will not attempt to utilize group activities or group- produced materials for direct instruction in reading skills. Direct instruction may be provided during that part of the period not devoted to group activities, provided the student requests such help. The goal of the program will be to increase reading ability through greater motivation and effort developed by pleasant, stimulating reading experiences. APPENDIX C PROGRAM DESCRIPTION Skill-Oriented Program 217 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION Skill-Oriented Program The major portion of the class period will be devoted to a program of instructional techniques for improving such reading skills as independent word attack, vocabulary building, and comprehension. Part of the period (10 minutes) will provide opportunity for inde pendent selection of and work on reading materials of an instructional or recreational nature. Most of the reading material used by the class for building reading skills will be of a published or teacher- made nature. During the part of the period the students are not involved in the program of direct instruction, reading materials, such as workbooks, reading texts, SRA Laboratory, word games, library books, and others, will be available. The teacher’s role in the class will be to organize and carry out the program of instructional techniques. Direct instruction may be provided during that part of the period devoted to independent student selection of materi als and work, provided the student requests such help. The goal of the program will be to increase reading ability through greater motivation and effort developed by success in learning basic reading skills. 218 APPENDIX D TEST DIRECTIONS, CALIFORNIA READING TEST DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE CALIFORNIA READING TEST Please follow the manual. The investigator will score the tests. 220 APPENDIX E TEST DIRECTIONS, GILMORE ORAL READING TEST 221 DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING GILMORE ORAL READING TEST, ACCURACY SECTION 1. Form A will be given for the initial testing, Form B for the final testing. 2. please record test form, date, and student's name, grade, teacher, and school on the attached blank. 3. Note that only an Accuracy score will be obtained; Com prehension and Rate will not be considered. Since the test is being used for evaluative rather than diagnos tic purposes, the nature of the errors made will not be recorded. I j . . Please place a check mark for each mistake made by the student; note that ten spaces for each paragraph are provided. It will not be necessary to record more than ten mistakes for the final paragraph read. 5. For simplicity of administration, start each student with the first paragraph (A-l). 6. WITH THE EXCEPTION OF THE ABOVE, please follow "Speci- fic Directions for administering" on pages 7* 8* and 9 of the Manual of Directions. 7. The test will be scored by the experimenter. APPENDIX P TEST DIRECTIONS, SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL 223 DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL 1. Put the following words on the blackboard before the students enter the room: sad, sweet, good, happy, sour, fair, dirty, others, reading, me, myself, see, bad, unfair, clear 2. Before handing out the booklets ask the students not to turn the pages until instructed to do so. 3. After handing out the booklets ask the students to fill in the information at the bottom of the title page. Please ask the students to print their names. I ] . . When the title pages have been filled out, ask the stu dents to turn to the next page. Please see that the students do not turn to the following two pages. 5. Read the directions orally while the students read them silently. Pause at the end of the example and provide an opportu nity for student questions. Ask if there are any questions when finished reading the section, "Important" 6. Explain that there are to be no erasures--first impres sions are what they are to put down. 7. Go over the words on the blackboard. Explain that if anyone does not remember one of the words during the test, he is to raise his hand and you will tell him the word. APPENDIX G TEST DIRECTIONS, TAT, PICTURE 225 DIRECTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING TAT, PICTURE 1 1. Card #1 (boy and violin) will be used for initial and final testing. 2. please record stories on the attached blanks. Indicate your questions or prompts by enclosing them in paren theses. Any significant observations, such as pro nounced hesitation or failure to respond, should be indicated in parentheses. Examples: Thinking of what might happen if he touches it, what it sounds like, if he knows how to play it, is it hard or easy. (feel?) Sad. (pause) (end?) Walks away. (No response to presentation of card) (thinking?) (No response) (feel?) Sad, like he's sad, won't go right. (end?) Could play it good. 3. Please follow the directions on page 3 of the manual. i j . . Card 1 of the T.A.T. shows a young boy looking at a violin that is resting on a flat surface. The boy's facial expression is sufficiently ambiguous to allow different interpretations of his feelings. The purpose of the test is to provide an opportunity for the student to project thoughts and fantasies about a picture whose components are suggestive of reading-practice-school situations. Spon taneous production of thought and fantasy may be reflective of the student's attitude toward reading. It is essential, however, that the student view the test situation as one in which his story-telling ability only is being appraised. Before showing the card to the student, say: "This i3 a test of imagination. I'm going to show you a picture. You are to make up as interesting a story as you can about the picture. (Show card 1 to student) "Tell what has happened, what is happening now, what the boy is thinking or feeling, and how it will turn out." Give the student an opportunity to think about the pic ture. If there is no response, or if the story lags after sufficient response time has been provided, it is 226 permissible to prompt with questions such as: How does the boy feel? What is he thinking? How will it finally turn out? Do not press for detail or amplification of the story. While some encouragement (in the form of the prompts sug gested above) may be offered, it is not necessary to "extract" a fully-rounded story.** Some stories will be longer and more complete than others, and this is to be expected. **If a story omits any references to the thought or feeling of the boy, or does not include some element of how it will turn out, then prompt questions for these factors should be asked. Do not repeat the prompt if no response is given to it. APPENDIX H RATING SCALES FOR PICTURE 1, TAT 228 RATING SCALE FOR PICTURE 1, TAT Category 1. Attitude Toward Reading +2 +1 0 -1 -2 Positive Positive Neutral Negative Negative (strong) 1 (mild) I ____________I (mild) I (strong) Plus 2: - Positive (strong) - Likes reading - a strong feeling learned to play, likes to be great musician, writes lots of music, becomes great musician ......... real nice to play, interested in music, is in music groups, becomes very good player.........looks like wants to play violin a lot, get lessons, becomes great violinist. Plus 1: - Positive (mild) - Mild liking for reading, or, Positive elements outweigh negative elements' likes to play, really wants to try to play,learns how to play.......... boy with nice violin, practices, looks interested .......... wants violin, glad to have lessons, becomes violinist.......... looking at picture, wants to buy it, wants it real bad, probably wants to play it, finally gets to play it. (): - Neutral - Neither likes nor dislikes reading, or, Positive and negative elements cancel each other. Generally, the wish Tor an event to occur, or the probability of the event occurring. probably wants to play, probably could learn .......... has violin, looks sad, doesn't know how to play it, ends up happy, hires somebody to teach him ......... can't play it, takes lessons, learns how to play it . . . . wishes he could play it, wishes he could grow up to be great violinist. Minus 1; - Negative (mild) - Mild dislike for reading, or Negative elements outweigh positive elements'. too noisy, might not know how to play it ........ doesn't like to play violin, wishes he was playing baseball ......... boy looks at violin, frustrated, can't get the 229 n ot e.........wonder3 what strings are for, can he play it, doesn’t know how it works.........thinks what might happen if he touches it, is it hard or easy, walks away .......... he is sad, it won't go right. Minus 2: - Negative (strong) - Dislikes reading - ja strong feeling. doesn’t know how to play, tried and tried, frus trated, tries to get into band but no success, couldn’t get to play at a l l ...........taking lessons, doesn't like it, hates he ever wanted to take i t .......... had to take lessons, doesn't like it, feels mad and s a d.......... sad because he couldn't play it, looks too hard for him, it's breakable, hard to learn and play. 250 RATING SCALE FOR PICTURE 1, TAT Category 2. Attitude Toward Self (Self-concept) +2 +1 0 -1 -2 Positive Positive Neutral Negative Negative (strong) I (mild) ( I (mild) I (strong) Plus 2: - Positive (strong) - Good self-image. Considers self as worthy individual. boy is poor, works for money, gets violin lessons, becomes good player ......... is interested, finds songs to play, becomes good player.......... learns how to play, writes music, becomes great musician. Plus 1: - Positive (mild) - Mild self-approval, or, Positive eTements outweigh negative element's. takes lessons and learns to play in orchestra .........wants to try hard, and succeeds............is interested, practices, learns to play ......... becomes violinist. 0: - Neutral - Self-image neither good nor bad, or, Positive and negative elements cancel each other. Generally, -the wish for an event to occur, or the probability of the event occurring. plays violin, doesn't like it, becomes good player ......... doesn't know how to play it, takes lessons, and learns.......... wants to take lessons, might be able to play.........sad, but could play i t .......... probably wants to play, doesn't know how, wants teacher, can't find anybody, could learn to play ......... maybe he'll become great violinist. Minus 1: - Negative (mild) - Mild self-disapproval, or, Negative elements outweigh positive elements'. doesn't want to practice (or play) ......... won't practice, just sits there.......... wonders what kind of music he will get out of it, could he play it, walks away.........sad, had to get mother's help to play .........wants to pick it up, doesn't know how to play ......... doesn't know how, just looks at it. 231 Minus 2 : - Negative (strong) - Poor self-image. Self- ^precatory,sees self as oT i m ie "worTTH---------- supposed to play hard number, can't play it, goes into bedroom and goes to sleep.......... doesn't want to practice, is punished.........doesn't know how to play, tried and tried, is frustrated, tries to get into band but couldn't, couldn't play violin at all. 252 APPENDIX I JUDGEST INSTRUCTIONS, TAT 233 JUDGES* INSTRUCTIONS FOR RATING RESPONSES TO PICTURE 1, TAT Picture 1 of the TAT was administered according to the directions in the Manual, as supplemented by the attached directions. The sample consisted of junior high school boys and girls who are in remedial reading classes. The TAT card was administered by a counselor to each stu dent, individually, in the counselor’s office. The assump tion was made that the responses to Picture 1 do reflect attitude toward reading and attitude toward self (self- concept). Directions 1. Read and rate all stories on one category at a time. Base your ratings on the scale position definitions as supplemented by the illustrations given. 2. Write the numerical value of the scale position for each category on the paper attached to the story. 3. Each story must be rated on both categories. I * . . In rating stories on the category, "Attitude Toward Reading," the assumption i3 made that the reaction to the boy-violin situation doe3 reflect attitude toward a student-reading situation. In rating stories on the category, "Attitude Toward Self," the assumption is made that stories given for card #1 d£ reflect self- concept . 5. Note that in scale positions Plus 1 and Minus 1, it is possible to obtain this score with a story whose com ponents are consistent in direction or with a story whose components are inconsistent in""cTirection (e.g.. both negative and positive elements are present) but not equivalent in strength. 234 6. Some stories may be difficult to judge after one read ing. Put these stories aside and go back to them after judging all the other stories. Reread the difficult stories and make the appropriate judgment. It may help to refer back to the illustrations in the Rating Scale and compare these to the story in question.

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Creator Friedman, Robert (author)

Core Title A Comparison Of Two Instructional Programs For Severely Retarded Readers At The Junior High School Level

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education, educational psychology,education, special,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Metfessel, Newton S. (committee chair), Brown, Charles M. (committee member), Lovell, Constance (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c18-358650

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Document Type Dissertation

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Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

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