Critical Study Of The Nominating Speeches At The Democratic And Republican National Conventions Of 1960

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Content This dissertation has been 65-9983
m icrofilmed exactly as received
SANDERSON, Sarah Elizabeth, 1932-
CRITICAL STUDY OF THE NOMINATING
SPEECHES AT THE DEMOCRATIC AND RE
PUBLICAN NATIONAL CONVENTIONS OF 1960.
University of Southern California, Ph. D ., 1965
Speech- Theater
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
C opyright by
SARAH ELIZABETH SANDERSON
1965
CRITICAL STUDY OF THE NOMINATING SPEECHES AT THE
DEMOCRATIC AND REPUBLICAN NATIONAL
CONVENTIONS OF I9 6 0
by
Sarah E liz a b e t h Sanderson
A D i s s e r t a t io n P r e se n te d t o th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u l f il l m e n t o f th e
R equirem ents f o r t h e D egree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Sp eech )
June 1965
UNIVERSITY OF SOU TH ERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY PARK
LO S ANGELES, CA LIFO RN IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
S ara h ..E li zab eth . Sanderson
under the direction of h..&T..Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by the Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements
for the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
D ate Jun.e...l9.65.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A lthough a d i s s e r t a t i o n b e a r s th e name o f one
w r i t e r , the f i n i s h e d p ro d u ct i s th e s t e p - c h i l d o f many.
T his w r it e r i s p a r t i c u l a r l y in d e b te d to the l a t e D r.
F o r r e s t S e a l who was p a r ty to th e c o n c e p tio n o f th e p rob
lem and who p r o v id e d th e s tim u lu s f o r th e c o n tin u e d grow th
of th e d i s s e r t a t i o n . W ithout D r .* S e a l ’ s gu id an ce t h i s
d i s s e r t a t i o n m ig h t be s t i l l an id e a o n l y . The w r it e r
would l i k e to e x p r e s s h e r a p p r e c ia t io n to D r. M ilto n
D ick en s f o r ta k in g a ta s k h a lf - d o n e and w orking through
w ith i t to c o m p le tio n , a d o p tin g th e p r o j e c t as though i t
was h i s own c h i ld from b i r t h , and to th e members o f the
com m ittee who waded through th e m a n u sc r ip t, D r. McCoard
and D r. C a ld w e ll.
The d e v e lo p in g o f a d i s s e r t a t i o n n e c e s s i t a t e s th e
d e v o tio n o f a c o n s id e r a b le amount o f tim e and l a b o r . T his
would n o t have b een p o s s i b l e w ith o u t th e encouragem ent and
day to day a s s i s t a n c e from th e w r i t e r ’ s husband, D r.
R ichard A. S a n d erson , who has b een i n tu r n , b a b y - s i t t e r ,
cook, a n a l y s t , c r i t i c , t y p i s t , and h a n d -h o ld e r . The
in v a lu a b le a s s i s t a n c e and p a t ie n c e from th e w r i t e r ’ s e n
t i r e f a m ily in c lu d in g her c o u n te r and c r i t i c , L a u r ie , and
her l i t t l e one, L in d a, have b een more than a p p r e c ia te d
and the w r ite r i s now rea d y to go back to b e in g a Mother
and a H ousew ife a g a in .
The w r ite r would l i k e to e x p r e s s h e r a p p r e c ia t io n to
a l l o f th o se who a s s i s t e d her in her r e s e a r c h and w r i t i n g —
to the nom inees and sp e a k e r s who answ ered her i n q u i r i e s so
r e a d il y ; to B e tty B arger who a c te d as c o d e r , and to D r.
Dan T u t t le fo r h i s c r i t i c i s m o f Chapter I I I ; to Joe P o lic e
and Susan Davey fo r t h e i r h e lp in the l a s t few h e c t i c weeks;
to D r. D orothy M ered ith f o r h er encouragem ent and read y
answ ers to q u e s t io n s ; ad i n f i n i t u m .
' «
TABLE OP CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I . THE PROBLEM AND PLAN OP THE STUDY..................................... 1
S ta te m en t or th e problem .................................... 1
S i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e p r o b l e m ............................................... 2
Prom th e h i s t o r i a n ’ s p o in t o f v i e w ..................... 2
Prom th e r h e t o r i c i a n ’ s p o in t o f v ie w • • . . 5
L im it a t io n s o f th e s t u d y ..........................................• . 8
L im ita tio n s im posed upon th e m a t e r ia l . . • . 8
L im ita t io n s o f covera ge .......................................... 8
D e f i n i t i o n o f t e r m s .........................................................................10
P review o f th e c h a p te r s . . . . . . 11
I I . CRITICAL M ETHODOLOGY USED IN THIS STUDY...........................IJ4 .
A r e v ie w o f contem porary c r i t i c i s m .......................... 1 $
The tr e n d s i n contem porary c r i t i c i s m . . . » 15?
The em ergence o f th e c o n c e p ts o f
modern r h e t o r i c ..................... . . . . . . . . . 19
The r o l e of th e r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c in
contem porary c r i t i c i s m ......................... 2lf.
P la c in g the n o m in a tio n sp eech in th e
th e o r y o f p u b lic a d d ress 30
T e x tu a l a n a l y s i s , a u t h e n t i c i t y o f th e
t e x t s , and g h o s t - w r i t i n g ............................................... 3lj.
iii
CHAPTER
PAGE
An e x p l i c a t i o n and a p p l ic a t io n o f Kenneth
Burke and h i s d r a m a t is t ic c r i t i c i s m • • • . • 39
Burke d e f in e d , l i t e r a r y c r i t i c or
r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c ........................................• • . • .
R e c o n c ilin g B urkeian and t r a d i t i o n a l
p r i n c i p l e s o f r h e t o r ic • • • • • • • • • • lj.3
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , the k ey term o f a
B urkeian a n a l y s i s .......................................................... Ij_6
The pentad a s th e g e n e r a tin g p r i n c ip l e
f o r c r i t i c i s m .........................................................................£2
The "naming" o f th in g s and the
s t r a t e g y c o n c e p t ...........................................................f>6
Burke and the a r t i s t i c p r o o fs
a s s t r a t e g i e s • . ...........................................................63
E t h i c a l a p p ea l........................................................................ 6L j _
E m otional a p p e a l ............................................................. 67
L o g ic a l a p p e a l ........................................................ 71
A d apting o f th e th ree p r o o fs to
modern c r i t i c i s m ................................................ 7^.
Arrangement or o r g a n iz a t io n and th e
s t r a t e g y c o n c e p t .............................................. 75!
S t y le a s s t r a t e g y .................................................................. 76
P i t t i n g d e l iv e r y in t o B u rk eian c r i t i c i s m . . 81
iv
CHAPTER PAGE
C on ten t a n a l y s i s and com m unication
r e s e a r c h ...................................................................................83
D e f i n i t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n o f
c o n te n t a n a l y s i s • • • • • • • • • • • * . 83
C on ten t a n a l y s i s and K enneth Burke ..................... 86
The d e s ig n f o r t h i s s t u d y ............................................89
E s t a b l is h i n g th e c a t e g o r i e s ............................... 90
The p r e - t e s t i n g .................................................... 93
Su m m ary............................................................................ 96
I I I . SETTING THE SCENE FOR THE NOMINATION SPEECHES .
OF THE CONVENTIONS.............................. 108
I n tr o d u c tio n to N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l
C o n v e n t i o n s ............................................. 108
The p u rp oses o f N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l
C o n v e n t i o n s .................................................................. 111
The e v o lu t io n o f N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l
C on ven tion s ............................... l l £
H is t o r y o f N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C o n v en tio n s . • l l £
E l e c t o r a l s y s t e m .............................. 116
King C a u c u s ......................... 118
P r e s i d e n t i a l n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n • • • • 122
Growth o f th e n om in a tin g c o n v e n tio n ,
1832-1860 12?
CHAPTER PAGE
P o s t - C i v i l War p e r io d , I 86I 4 .- I 892 • • • • 130
R ep u b lican dom inance, l896-192i^ . . . . 130
The d e p r e s s io n to p r o s p e r it y ,
1 9 2 8 -1 9 6 0 132
The r o le o f mass m edia in th e developm ent
o f th e n om in atin g c o n v e n t i o n ....................................... 138
Radi ................................... lipO
T e le v is io n .............................................................11\ 2
N ew spapers, w ire s e r v i c e s , and
o th er m e d i a ............................. 1I4.7
The r o le o f th e n om in atin g sp eech in the
developm ent o f th e n a tio n a l c o n v e n tio n . • li ^ .9
Procedure f o r nom in ation • • • • • • • • • llj.9
Length o f nom in atin g sp ee ch es . . . . . . l£ 0
R eported s t y l e o f th e nom inating sp eech • 1^1
E v o lu tio n o f the n om in atin g sp eech . . . . l£ 3
A b r i e f lo o k a t some o f the more famous
nom in atin g sp e e c h e s .............................................. l £6
D e m o n s t r a t io n s ................................................................. l 6l
Major p a r t i c i p a t i n g members and o p e r a tin g
p roced u res o f a N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l
C o n v e n t io n ...................................................................................... 166
The n a t io n a l com m ittee . . . . . . 167
vi
CHAPTER PAGE
S u b s id ia r y c o m m i t t e e s ............................................. 170
The c r e d e n t i a l s c o m m i t t e e .....................................172
R u le s com m ittee .....................................176
The ccm m ittee on permanent
o r g a n iz a t io n 177
The r e s o l u t i o n s com m ittee ............................... 179
The d e le g a t e s o f a N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l
C on ven tion • • • ............................... • • • • • 185
S e l e c t i o n o f d e l e g a t e s ................................... 185
A pportionm ent o f th e d e l e g a t e s ...........................188
C om p osition o f the d e l e g a t e s ................................191
I n t e r a c t i o n o f d e le g a t e s • • • • • • ■ • 195
The fo r m a l o p e r a tio n s o f th e
n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n s • • • • • ..................... 199
P r io r arrangem ents ............................................... 201
S e s s io n s o f th e c o n v e n tio n • • • • • . , 203
An o v e r v ie w of., the i 960 N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l
C o n v en tio n s ................................................................... 206
The D em ocratic C on ven tion o f i 9 6 0 ...........................208
The R ep u b lica n C on ven tion o f i 9 6 0 ...........................219
IV, THE NOMINATING SPEAKERS AND THE NOMINEES AT THE
I9 6 0 NATIONAL POLITICAL CONVENTIONS ..................... 229
The n a t io n a l p o l i t i c a l p ic t u r e i n i 9 6 0 • • . . 229
v i i
CHAPTER PAGE
The two p o l i t i c a l p la tfo r m s o f 1 9 & 0 ...........................2 3I 4 .
A lo o k a t th e c a n d id a te s to be
nom inated i n i 960 • • • • • • • • • • • • • 237
C r i t e r i a f o r n o m in a tio n • •. • • . . . • • 238
The c o n te n d e r s f o r th e D em ocratic
n o m in a tio n • • • . • • .................................................... 2I 4 I4 .
The m ajor c o n t e n d e r s ......................................................... 2i[lj_
Lyndon B . Johnson • ...............................................
John F . Kennedy • . .................................................... 252
A d la i S te v e n so n • • • • • 265
S tu a r t S y m in g t o n .............................................• • . 27^4-
The ^ f a v o r it e s o n s ” .......................... • • . . • 282
R oss B a r n e t t ........................................................................ 282
G eorge D ocking .................................... • . • • • 286
H e r sc h e l C. L o v e le s s ............................................... 292
R obert B . Meyner........................ . . . . . . . 296
George A. Sm athers . .............................. 301
The c o n te n d e r s f o r th e R ep u b lican
n o m in a tio n 305
The m ajor c o n ten d e r ......................... 3 05
R ichard M * Nixon . 305
The c o n t e n d e r ........................................................................ 317
Barry M. G o ld w a t e r ................................... 317
viii
CHAPTER PAGE
A lo o k a t th e sp e a k er s and t h e i r
n o m in a tin g sp e e c h e s . • • • • .......................... • 3 2 5
P rocedure f o r n o m in a tio n a t th e i 960
D em ocratic and R ep u b lica n C o n v en tio n s » • 3 25
The sp e a k e r s a t th e D em ocratic
C o n v e n t i o n ............................... . ...............................329
James Thomas B l a i r , J r ........................................329
Thomas P ic k e n s Brady .......................... • • . • 331
Merwin Coad • . ..........................................................333
O r v i l le L . F r e e m a n ............................................... 336
S p essa r d L . H o l l a n d .......................................... 3^0
Eugene J . McCarthy . . . . . . . . . . . 31+2
Sam Rayburn . • • • • • • ......................... 3I +6
Frank G. T h e i s .............................. 352
H a r r iso n A. W illia m s , J r . • • • • • • . 35I 4 .
The sp e a k er s a t th e R ep u b lica n
C on ven tion ................................................... 3 5 6
P aul J • F a n n i n ......................... 3 5 6
Mark 0 . H a t f i e l d ......................... 359
Summary and c o n c l u s i o n s .......................... . < , . . . 36 7
V. A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE NOMINATION
SPEECHES FOR PRESIDENT . . . .......................................... 3 7 6
ix
CHAPTER PAGE
C on trol o ver the le n g th o f the
nom in atin g sp ee ch es ........................................................ 3 7 &
C on tro l over o th e r a s p e c t s o f th e
nom in atin g sp eech .............................................. • • • 381
P r e p a r a tio n and mode o f d e liv e r y
o f th e s p e e c h e s .........................................................3 8 J ?
Comparison o f what was s a id w ith what
was r e p o r te d t o be s a i d .....................................3^7
The r e s u l t s o f th e c o n te n t a n a ly s is . • • • . 399
The i s s u e s c o n ta in e d i n the sp ee ch es . • • • 399
T r a its o f th e nom inees a s p r e se n te d
by th e sp ea k ers .............................. If.10
E lem ents o f s t y l e employed by
the sp eak ers ......................... lj.13
The s t r a t e g i c u se o f s t y l e ......................................... ip.6
The arrangem ents o f th e sp e e c h e s \\?)\
S a l u t a t i o n .............................................................................l|2l(.
I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................I
Body o f th e sp eech . • ...............................................I 4 .3 O
C o n c l u s i o n .............................................................................i|.3£
A r e v ie w o f th e sp ee ch es w ith em phasis on
the s t r a t e g i e s i n th e t e x t and In d e liv e r y . )))|2
James T. B l a i r , J r . . ....................................................)\)\?
CHAPTER PAGE
Thomas P . Brady ....................................................... * I 4 J 43
Merwin Coad ..............................................................lpi|8
O r v ille Freeman ..............................• ij.^0
S p essa r d H o l l a n d ......................................................... ip52
Eugene J . M c C a r th y .............................................. .....
Samuel Rayburn * ............................... ................................... If60
Frank The i s .............................................................................if 63
H a r r iso n A. W illia m s .............................................. I 4 .65!
Paul J , F a n n i n .............................................................. lp67
Mark H a t f i e l d If70
A summary o f th e s t r a t e g i e s • • • • • • . . l|_72
V I. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS
FOR FURTHER STUDY ...................................................Itflf
Summary and c o n c l u s i o n s ................................................... If7lf
M ethodology o f th e stu d y .......................... If7lf
A p p lic a tio n o f the d r a m a t is t ic p entad • • • I 4.76
A c t ..................................................................................................If77
S c e n e .......................................................................................if77
A g e n t s .............................................. If 81
Purpose ............................... ..... If 83
Agency ............................................................................. ..... IfQlf
I m p lic a t io n s f o r f u r th e r stu d y • • • • • . • • If90
APPENDICES............................................................................................................If93
xi
CHAPTER PAGE
APPENDIX A— Sample o f l e t t e r s e n t to
nom inees ( " c h a r a c t e r s " ) ......................................................... ij.95
Sample o f l e t t e r s e n t to sp ea k ers
( " a g e n t s " ) .............................. lj.96
APPENDIX B--Summary o f i s s u e s from the
D em ocratic p la tfo r m o f i 960 ij.98
APPENDIX C— Summary o f i s s u e s from th e
R e p u b lica n p la tfo r m o f i 9 6 0 .............................. $02
APPENDIX D - - R e l i a b i l i t y t e s t i n g : I n s t r u c t io n s
to c o d e r s ............................................................................................. 508
APPENDIX E --D e m o cr a tic C o n v en tio n s 1 8 3 2 -1 9 5 6 . . . . 515
APPENDIX F — R ep u b lica n C on ven tio n s 1 8 5 6 -1 9 5 6 • • • . 517
APPENDIX G— N om ination sp e e c h e s f o r P r e s id e n t
o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s .................................................................. ..... 518
James T. B la ir n om in atin g S tu a r t Sym ington . . • • 519
Thomas P. Brady n om in atin g Ross R. B a r n e tt . . . . 52I 4 .
Merwin Coad n om in atin g H e r sc h e l C. L o v e le s s • • • 533
O r v ille Freeman n o m in atin g John F . Kennedy • • • • 536
S p essa r d L. H o lla n d n om in atin g George A. S m a th ers. 5^ 4-3
Eugene J . McCarthy n om in atin g A d la i E . S te v e n so n . 5^ 4-9
Samuel Rayburn n om in atin g Lyndon B. Johnson . . . 557
Frank T h eis n om in atin g George Docking .. .. . .
H a r r iso n A* W illiam s n om in atin g R obert C* Meyner • 569
xii
CHAPTER PAGE
Paul J . F ann in n o m in a tin g Barry M. G oldw ater • • • £ 7 6
Mark 0 . H a t f ie ld n o m in a tin g R ich ard M. N ixon . . . £82
APPENDIX H --N om in ation s p e e c h e s f o r P r e s id e n t o f
the U n ite d S t a t e s as su b m itte d by th e sp e a k e r s • • £81}.
Thomas P. B r a d y ...................................................................................£8£
Samuel Rayburn ......................................................................................... £98
Frank T h e i s .................................... 608
APPENDIX I--M anner o f s e l e c t i n g d e l e g a t e s . • • . • 6 l£
APPENDIX J— The o f f i c i a l program o f th e i 9 6 0
D em ocratic N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n • • • • • • • • • . 619
APPENDIX K --The o f f i c i a l program o f th e i 960
R ep u b lica n N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n • • • • • • • • • • 62£
APPENDIX L -- P r e p a r a tio n and s p e a k e r ’ s n o te s f o r
n o m in a tio n sp eech f o r A d la i S te v e n so n as
su b m itted by Eugene McCarthy 629
N otes made In h o t e l b e fo r e g o in g to
c o n v e n tio n , J u ly 1 3 , i 960 .................... • .............. 6 30
N otes made b e fo r e g o in g to p la tfo r m and o n es
u sed f o r n o m in a tin g s p e e c h , J u ly 1 3 , i 960 • • • 637
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................6l±2
xiii
LIST OP TABLES
TABLE PAGE
I* V o tin g S t r e n g t h o f S t a t e s a t N a t i o n a l
C o n v e n tio n s and E l e c t o r a l C o l l e g e
i n I 9 6 0 1 9 2
I I • D a i l y T a l l i e s o f D e l e g a t e Com m itm ents
a t th e i 9 6 0 D e m o c r a tic N a t i o n a l
C o n v e n tio n • • • • • ................................................................. 200
I I I * S u r v e y o f th e N om inees ( ''C h a r a c t e r s ,T) • • . . . 3 7 0
IV* S u r v e y o f th e S p e a k e r s ( " A g e n t s " ) ...................................3 7 I4 .
V* R e l a t i o n s h i p B etw een Tim e, W ords, and
S e n t e n c e s o f th e N o m in a tin g S p e e c h e s
a t th e i 9 6 0 N a t io n a l P o l i t i c a l
C o n v e n t i o n s ...................................................................... 3 7 9
VI* F r e q u e n c y o f O cc u r re n c e o f th e I s s u e s o f
th e D e m o c r a tic P la tfo r m i n th e i 9 6 0
N o m in a tin g S p e e c h e s • * • • • • • • • • • • • if 00
V II* F r e q u e n c y o f O c c u r r e n c e o f th e I s s u e s o f
th e R e p u b lic a n P la tf o r m I n th e i 9 6 0
N o m in a tin g S p e e c h e s IfOl
V I I I * T r a i t s A t t r i b u t e d t o th e N om inees b y
th e S p e a k e r s ................................. ........................................... if 11
IX* P o l i t i c a l and War R eco rd o f t h e N om inees
a s P r e s e n t e d b y th e S p e a k e r s ...............................................iflif
xiv
TABLE PAGE
X. Q u a n t it a t iv e A n a ly s is o f S e l e c t e d S t y l i s t i c
D e v ic e s Found i n th e i 960 N om inating
S p e e c h e s .............................................................................................J 4.15
X I . Use o f S e l e c t e d Words by th e
N om inating S p e a k e r s ............................................................ Ip.8
xv
LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS
ILLUSTRATION PAGE
1* "B ig Show i s o n --H e r e 's a View Dem ocrats
Won’ t G e t " ............................................................................................... 21$
2 . "R ep ub lican s Go Wild i n N oisy D em o n stra tio n
f o r N ixon"...................................................................... 226
xvi
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND PLAN O F THE STUDY
I , STATEMENT O F THE PROBLEM
The purpose o f t h i s stu d y was to make a c r i t i c a l
a n a l y s is of th e n om in ation sp ee ch es f o r P r e s id e n t d e liv e r e d
a t th e D em ocratic and R ep u b lican N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l Conven
t io n s o f i 9 6 0 . Q u estio n s asked d u rin g the i n v e s t i g a t i o n
o f th e s e sp e e c h e s w ere:
(1 ) What was the h i s t o r i c a l s e t t i n g f o r th e n om in ation
sp eech es?
(2 ) What was the contem porary s e t t i n g and who were th e
nom inees and the sp ea k ers?
(3 ) What sta n d a rd s o f c r i t i c i s m cou ld b e s t be a p p lie d
to an a n a ly s is o f th e nom in ation sp e e c h e s o f th e
i 960 D em ocratic and R ep u b lican C on ven tion s?
(Ij.) What was th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e n om in atin g
sp e e c h e s d e liv e r e d a t the i 960 N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l
C on ven tion s
(a) as a p a rt of the d e c i s i v e r o le o f nom inating
a ca n d id a te f o r P r e sid e n t?
(b) a s r e la t e d to th e secon dary pu rp oses o f a
nom in atin g co n v en tio n ?
(c ) as a form o f p u b lic ad d ress?
Q u e stio n s asked du rin g the c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is o f the
t e x t s o f the sp e e c h e s w ere:
(1 ) What were the b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e se
nom in ation sp ee ch es fo r P r e sid e n t?
(2 ) With what i s s u e s d id the sp eak ers d e a l and to
what e x te n t?
(3 ) A ccording to the c o n te n t o f the s p e e c h e s , what
t r a i t s were c o n sid e r e d a s m ost im p ortan t to
q u a lif y a man f o r P r e sid e n t?
(I4.) What were the a p p e a ls (" elem en ts o f i d e n t i f i c a
tio n " ) and the m ethods ( " s t r a t e g ie s " ) employed
by th e nom inating sp eak ers?
(5>) What were the " s t r a t e g ie s " m ost o f t e n employed
by th e n om in ation sp ea k ers a t the D em ocratic and
R ep u b lican C on ven tion s o f i 9 6 0 ?
I I . SIGNIFICANCE OP THE PROBLEM
There i s a need f o r s t u d ie s i n p u b lic ad d ress which
d e a l s y s t e m a t ic a lly and c r i t i c a l l y w ith an e v a lu a tio n o f
contem porary sp eak in g as i t e x i s t s in i t s s o c i e t a l fram e
work. This s tu d y , d e sig n e d to d is c o v e r in fo r m a tio n le a d in g
to a b e t t e r u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e n atu re o f nom in ation
s p e e c h e s , sh ou ld prove to be o f v a lu e from th e h i s t o r i a n ’ s
p o in t o f view and from th e r h e t o r i c i a n ’ s p o in t o f v ie w .
From the H is t o r i a n ’ s P o in t o f View
A fte r th e p u b lic a t io n o f th e th ir d volume o f
A History and Criticism of American Public Address.^ Marie
Hochmuth N ic h o ls , the e d i t o r , was asked to p a r t i c i p a t e w ith
two h i s t o r i a n s in a symposium b e fo r e the C on ven tion o f the
Speech A s s o c ia tio n of the E a ste rn S t a te s * The problem b e
fore th e symposium was to d is c u s s th e h i s t o r i a n ' s e v a lu a tio n
o f the book and th e a p p lic a t io n o f such r e se a r c h to th e
w r itin g o f h is t o r y * The two h i s t o r i a n s — Robert J* Raybeck,
S y r a c u se , and Oscar Z e ic h n er , C ity C o lle g e o f New Y o rk --
enumerated se v e n w eak n esses which l i m i t f o r th e h i s t o r i a n
the u se o f c r i t i c a l s t u d ie s in p u b lic add ress*
F i r s t , the h i s t o r i a n s c la im th a t we [ c r i t i c s o f
p u b lic ad d ress ] do n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y e x p l o i t h i s t o r i c a l
and b io g r a p h ic a l m a t e r i a ls , d e sig n e d to i d e n t i f y the
f i g u r e s we work w ith a s p u b lic f ig u r e s *
S econd, th e y c la im t h a t a lth o u g h we s t r u g g le w ith
a se n se o f the tim e s , we do t h i s in no s y s te m a tic way.
T h ird , th ey claim t h a t our ten dency i s to p r e se n t
the tim es in i s o l a t i o n and th e f ig u r e in i s o l a t i o n ,
w ith o u t the s tr u c tu r e o f g iv e -a n d -ta k e betw een the two*
F o u rth , th ey argue t h a t we tend to t r e a t the sp eak er
as s t a t i c by la b e li n g p r o c e s s e s th a t do n o t make
p o s s ib le the n o tio n o f emergence and change*
F i f t h , th ey argue t h a t we ten d to d e f in e th e p o s i
t i o n o f the o ra to r in terms o f p h ilo s o p h ic a l b e l i e f s ,
w ith o u t showing the f i g u r e s u f f i c i e n t l y i n s p e c i f i c
d e c i s i o n s , o f t e n h a vin g l i t t l e r e fe r e n c e to a b a s ic
p h ilosop h y*
S ix t h , th ey cla im th a t we have n ot made an e f f o r t
to s t a b i l i z e the c r i t e r i a f o r e v a lu a t in g sp e e c h e s in
^ l a r ie K* Hochmuth (ed.), A H is to r y and C r itic is m o f
American P u b lic Address (Volume III; New York: Longmans,
Green and Company, 1 9 5 5 )•
k
d i f f e r e n t p e r io d s and to c h a r a c t e r is e the o r a to r y o f
th e p e r io d s ; th a t we do n o t o r d in a r ily se e beyond the
o r a to r y o f th e p a r t i c u la r o ra to r w ith whom we may
be d e a lin g *
S e v e n th , th ey argue th a t we do n o t show th e l i m i t a
t io n s or e x te n s io n o f our f ig u r e by r e f e r e n c e to
o th e r f i g u r e s d o in g the same th in g* This would su g
g e s t th e n e c e s s i t y o f com p arative s t u d i e s *2
Raybeck went fu r th e r to s e t f o r t h th r e e th in g s w hich the
r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c c o u ld do to a id the h is t o r ia n *
"In b r i e f I want the s tu d e n t o f p u b lic a d d ress to do
th r ee th in g s * F i r s t , I w ant a p ic t u r e of th e o ra to r
i n a c tio n * Put h i s image i n my m in d 's eye and make
h i s words r in g i n my e a r s * P la ce me in h i s au d ien ce
and make me hear and see him perform*
Second, w h ile making me i n t o the o r a t o r 's contem porary,
p la n t i n me th a t same con tem p orary's l i s t e n i n g h a b it s
and tr a in e d r e a c tio n s * I want to know why I would
c o n sid e r a sp ee ch a s u c c e s s ; why I would be persuaded
to the s p e a k e r 's p o in t o f v ie w .
T h ird, I would l i k e to have s e t f o r t h , in c le a r
la n g u a g e , the stan d ard s f o r jud ging each e r a ' s
e f f e c t i v e p u b lic sp eak in g so th a t i f the r h e t o r i c i a n
has n ot made h i s e v a lu a tio n o f in d iv id u a l sp ea k ers
the h i s t o r i a n can do i t h i m s e l f *"3
In t h i s stu dy an attem p t has been made t o " s u f f i c i e n t l y
e x p l o it h i s t o r i c a l and b io g r a p h ic a l m a te r ia ls " i n order t o
show th e dynamic r e l a t io n s h ip betw een th e sp ea k er and h i s
tim e s, the speaker and h is a u d ien ce , th e speaker and h i s
O
Marie Hochmuth N ic h o ls , R h eto ric and C r it ic is m
(B aton Rouge: L o u isia n a S ta t e U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 ) ,
p . 2 6 .
^ N ic h o ls , A H is to r y and C r it ic is m o f American P u b lic
A d d ress, p . 2 7 , citin g " R obert J . Raybeck, "What One H is -
t o r ia n E x p ects from R h e to r ic ia n s ," u n p u b lish ed m anu script*
s u b j e c t , the sp eak er and h i s s p e e c h . The stan d ard s f o r
c r i t i c i s m are s e t f o r t h i n as c o n c is e terms as p o s s ib le
and an e v a lu a t io n i s made o f the speaker and o f h i s r e
l a t i o n s h i p to th o s e c o n s t it u e n t s o f the sp eech s i t u a t i o n
which can f a l l w ith in the l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s p ap er— the
p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l s e t t i n g , the background surrounding
th e sp eak er and th e p erso n o f whom he s p e a k s, and th o se
m a t e r ia ls in h e r e n t in th e s p e e c h e s . Homer H o ck ett i n d i
c a te d the need f o r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by c r i t i c s d e a lin g w ith
h i s t o r y .
An i n s t i t u t i o n i s a f a c t ; a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
f a c t s i s a f a c t . Sound g e n e r a l iz a t i o n s or c o n c lu s io n s
are f a c t s o The w r ite r who c o n f in e s h i s p r o d u ctio n to
a sim ple n a r r a tiv e o f e v e n t s , v o id o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
b ased on th e p e r c e p tio n o f r e l a t io n s h ip s , tu rn s out a
barren s t o r y , mere a n n a ls or c h r o n ic le s .^
I t i s hoped th a t t h i s stu d y , the f i r s t to d e a l com
p r e h e n s iv e ly w ith an a n a l y s is and c r i t i c i s m o f a s e l e c t e d
body o f n om in ation s p e e c h e s , w i l l be o f v a lu e to th e h i s
to r ia n i n supplem enting knowledge co n cern in g the p o l i t i c a l
phenomena o f the n a t io n a l p o l i t i c a l c o n v e n tio n s o f the
U n ited S t a t e s .
From the R h e t o r ic ia n 1s P o in t o f View
Ralph R ichardson s u c c i n c t ly s t a t e d th e need and
Corner Carey H o c k e tt, The C r i t i c a l Method in
H i s t o r i c a l R esearch and W ritin g (New York: The M acm illan
Company, 1^55), p« 345*
significance for studies in contemporary public address.
He put i t t h i s way:
. . . th in k o f how our ta s k s in th e h i s t o r i c a l
a n a l y s is o f a p u b lic a d d ress e v e n t co u ld be s i m p l i
f i e d , and our judgments f o r t i f i e d , i f th e re had
b een some P h .D .'s in p u b lic ad d ress and c r i t i c i s m
a t G e tty sb u r g , or a com petent c r i t i c or two who
knew J e ff e r s o n D a v is , or a few a l e r t s tu d e n ts o f^
sp eech i n th e C o lo n ie s when P a tr ic k Henry sp o k e.^
A lthough th ere have been r h e t o r i c o - h i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e s made
i n contem porary p o l i t i c a l a r e a s , th e r e has been no o r
g a n iz e d attem p t to e v a lu a te th e n om in ation sp eech es i n to to
a t th e i 960 D em ocratic and R epu blican C o n v en tio n s. The
c l o s e s t s t u d ie s o f t h i s type can be found in the mimeo
graphed "Symposium'* e d it e d by Paul Boase o f Ohio S ta te ^
from w hich the a r t i c l e s app earing in the O ctober and
Decem ber, i 9 6 0 , i s s u e s o f Q u a rterly Journal o f Speech were
ta k en .^ Only s e l e c t e d nom ination sp e e c h e s were t r e a t e d .
This stu d y sh o u ld p rovid e the fu tu r e c r i t i c o f nom inating
c o n v e n tio n s w ith one contem porary v ie w p o in t and a n a ly s is
£
Ralph R ich ard son , "A S u g g e s tio n f o r a P r o je c t in
Contemporary C r it ic is m ," W estern S p eech , 1 9 :6 , January,
195 5 .
L
Paul H . Boase ( e d . ) , " P r e s id e n t ia l Campaign i 9 6 0 :
A Symposium" (O b e r lin , Ohio: O b erlin C o lle g e , F eb ru ary,
1 9 6 1 ) . (M imeographed.)
7"P r e s id e n t ia l Campaign i 9 6 0 : A Symposium (P a rt
I ) ," Q u a r ter ly Journal o f S p eech , [|.6:239"252, O ctober,
i 9 6 0 .
" P r e s id e n t ia l Campaign i 9 6 0 : A Symposium (P a rt
I I ) , " Q u a r ter ly Journal o f S p eech . I 4 .6 :3£5“3ol4-> December,
I960.
7
o f one segm ent o f th e sp ea k in g done a t th e n a t io n a l p o l i t
i c a l c o n v e n tio n s — the m ajor n o m in ation sp e e c h e s fo r
P r e s id e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s *
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a stu d y d e a lin g w ith contem
porary l i f e r e s t s i n th e e f f e c t s w hich t h i s stu d y has on
Q
an u n d ersta n d in g o f s o c i e t y and o f h i s t o r y . I f the p e r
p e tu a t io n o f the b e s t o f c u l t u r a l m ores and s o c i e t a l
p a tt e r n s depends on a c o n s t a n t r e a p p r a is a l o f th e se m ores
and p a t t e r n s , th e f u n c t io n o f th e c r i t i c o f r h e t o r i c o -
h i s t o r i c a l s t u d i e s ta k e s on new s i g n i f i c a n c e *
He m ust s e r v e h i s s o c i e t y and h im s e lf by r e v e a li n g
and e v a lu a t in g th e p u b lic sp e a k e r ’ s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
o f th e world around him and th e p e c u l ia r means o f
e x p r e s s in g t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n to h i s g e n e r a tio n * ?
L e s te r T honssen and A. C raig B aird d is c u s s e d t h i s i n t e r
p r e t a t io n a s in v o lv in g a c o n s id e r a t io n o f the e f f e c t which
p u b lic sp eak in g p la y s upon s o c ie t y *
R h e to r ic a l c r i t i c i s m can th u s be d e fin e d as a
com p arative stu d y in which sta n d a r d s o f judgment
d e r iv in g from the s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n o f a sp eech
s i t u a t i o n are a p p lie d to p u b lic a d d r e s s e s to d e t e r
mine th e im m ediate or d e la y e d e f f e c t o f th e sp ee ch es
upon s p e c i f i c a u d ie n c e s , and, u l t i m a t e l y , upon
s o c ie t y o
® L ester T h onssen , and A* C raig B a ir d , Speech
C r it ic is m (New York: The Ronald P r e ss Company, 194-9)#
P* 9«
q
N ic h o ls , R h e to r ic and C r i t i c i s m , p. 78*
•^Thonssen and B a ir d , Speech C r i t i c i s m , p . 16*
8
I I I . LIMITATIONS OP THE STUDY
L im ita t io n s Imposed Upon the M a te r ia l
The n a t io n a l p o l i t i c a l c o n v e n tio n s a re s t u d i e s in
p u b lic a d d re ss w ith sp eech -m a k in g, in te r r u p te d by ite m s o f
b u s in e s s and d e m o n s tr a tio n , p r o c ee d in g i n c e s s a n t l y f o r
fo u r to f i v e days a s lo n g as th e r e are o f f i c i a l s e s s i o n s .
’'Speech f o l l o w s sp eech and words pour f o r t h in p r o fu se
q u a n t i t i e s * " ^ In o rd er to a v o id a mere cu rso ry exam ina
t i o n o f what c o u ld be o n ly a s c a t t e r e d p o r tio n o f t h i s
sp e a k in g , i t was n e c e s s a r y to l i m i t the sco p e o f t h i s
paper by f o c u s in g on th e m ajor n om in a tin g sp e e c h e s d e
l i v e r e d a t th e i 960 D em ocratic and R ep u b lican C o n v e n tio n s.
L im ita tio n s o f Coverage
A lthou gh R ichardson s u g g e s te d t h a t the s t u d i e s in
contem porary p u b lic a d d ress m ig h t b e s t be done by a group
12
o f c r i t i c s working to g e th e r to g a th e r in fo r m a tio n , the
n a tu re o f t h i s s tu d y , a D o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , demanded
th e e f f o r t s o f one p e r so n as a r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c .
A com p lete co v era g e o f a l l c o n v e n tio n a c t i v i t i e s , o f
the m o tiv a tio n s b eh in d the n o m in a tio n s, and o f th e in te r p la y
■^W illiam Goodman, The Two-Party System in th e
U n ite d S t a t e s (se co n d e d i t i o n ; P r in c e to n . New J e r s e y ; D*
Van No3trand Company, I n c . , i 9 6 0 ) , p . 2 l4 *
i p
R ich a rd so n , "A S u g g e s tio n f o r a P r o j e c t in
Contemporary C r it ic is m ," p p . 7 - 8 .
betw een nom inees and sp eak ers and d e l e g a t e s can n ot be r e
p o rted i n a paper o f t h i s t y p e . Theodore White commented
th a t " i t i s im p o s s ib le to r e p o r t the t o t a l a c t i v i t y o f a
f r e e c o n v e n tio n * 1 1 ^ In order t o supplem ent seco n d a ry
so u r c e s w hich were a v a i la b l e , in fo r m a tio n co n cern in g the
background o f n o m in ees, s p e a k e r s , and n o m in a tio n sp e e c h e s
was e l i c i t e d by co rresp on d en ce from the sp ea k ers and
nom inees*
The cov era g e o f the c o n v e n tio n s was l im it e d a ls o by
the i n a b i l i t y o f the w r it e r to appear p e r s o n a lly a t both
c o n v e n tio n s* The w r it e r a tte n d e d a l l b u t the f i r s t s e s s i o n
o f th e i 960 D em ocra tic C o n v en tio n , but d id n o t a t t e n d th e
R ep u b lican C o n v e n tio n . This d is a d v a n ta g e was o f f s e t some
what by th e n a t io n a l t e l e v i s i n g o f the p r o c e e d in g s o f b o th
c o n v e n tio n s which p r o v id e d , i n m o st c a s e s , a b e t t e r view
than co u ld be had by a tten d a n ce a t the c o n v e n tio n , and by
r e c o r d in g on m a g n etic tape much o f the c o n v e n tio n sp e a k in g ,
in c lu d in g th e n om in atio n sp e e c h e s in t o t o . These r e c o r d
in g s were l a t e r tr a n s c r ib e d to w r it t e n t e x t s and a ffo r d e d
the w r ite r th e o p p o r tu n ity to p e r u se th e m a t e r ia l a t
l e i s u r e both a u r a lly and in s c r i p t form*
^-3Theodore H. W hite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t .
i 960 (New York: P ock et BooksT, I n c . , l $ 6l ) , ' p . 1 ^ 0 .
10
IV , DEFINITION OF TERM S
In our own c a s e , we have found I t a d v is a b le to
pursue a c a tc h - a s - c a t c h - c a n p o l i c y , in tr o d u c in g our
term s where th e re i s an o p p o r tu n ity to d i s c l o s e a t
th e same tim e som ething o f t h e i r f u n c t i o n . W e hope
to make app arent f i r s t t h e ir g e n e r a l s l a n t or d r i f t ,
and to sharpen t h e i r e x p l i c i t n e s s as we p roceed
(show ing th e ir f u n c tio n by in tr o d u c in g them in to
v a r io u s c o n t e x t s ) , F onnal d e f i n i t i o n s should th u s
be r e le g a t e d to a f i n a l summary where each term can.
draw upon the r e a d e r ’ s knowledge o f a l l th e te r m s ,^4
Thus d id Kennebh Burke s t a t e the ca se f o r the a void an ce o f
a s t r i c t d e f i n i t i o n o f terms b e fo r e the m eaning o f th e words
to be u sed cou ld be made c le a r w ith in the c o n te x t i n which
they would be fo u n d , A word as a symbol i s n o t c o n sta n t
and has no m eaning i n i t s e l f . Language i s sym bolic a c t io n ,
and m ust be view ed In a c tio n b e fo r e any e x p l i c i t meaning
can be drawn from i t , * ^ For th e se r e a s o n s , t h i s stu d y
w i l l n o t a ttem p t a d e f i n i t i o n o f term s a t t h i s p o in t but
w i l l p r e s e n t an e x p l i c a t i o n o f the words u sed in "naming"
a t th e p o in ts a t which they appear In a c t io n in th e c o n te x t
o f th e stu d y .
^"Kenneth Burke, A t t it u d e s Toward H is to r y (Volume
I I ; New York: The New R e p u b lic , 1 9 3 b ), p. 3 0 .
■^Kenneth Burke, The P h ilo so p h y o f L ite r a r y Form:
S tu d ie s i n Sym bolic A c tio n (B aton Rouge, L o u isia n a :
L o u isia n a S t a t e U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 if l) , P*
11
V. PREVIEW O P THE CHAPTERS
C hapter I c o n ta in s the purpose o f th e s tu d y , s i g
n i f i c a n c e o f the s tu d y , l i m i t a t i o n s o f th e s tu d y , and the
p la n o f th e s t u d y ,
A d i s c u s s i o n o f the a r t o f c r i t i c i s m i s c o n ta in e d
In C hapter I I w ith em phasis on contem porary c r i t i c i s m em
p lo y in g th e m ethods o f Kenneth Burke and o f c o n te n t a n a ly
s i s , The em ergence o f the "New C r itic is m ; " th e com bining
o f the t r a d i t i o n a l modes o f c r i t i c i s m w ith th e contem
porary t h e o r i e s (w ith em phasis on th e d r a m a tis t ic t h e o r ie s
o f B u rk e); th e u s e o f c o n te n t a n a l y s is to enhance the
q u a l i t a t i v e t o o l s o f c r i t i c i s m ; and a summary o f m ethods
and p ro ced u res w hich can be d i r e c t l y a p p lie d to the stu d y
o f n om in atin g sp e e c h e s d e liv e r e d a t th e i 960 D em ocratic
and R ep u b lica n C o n v en tio n s are to be found in t h i s c h a p te r .
The s e t t i n g o f the scen e fo r th e n om in ation sp e e c h e s
d e l iv e r e d a t th e R ep u b lican and D em ocratic C o n ven tion s o f
i 960 i s c o n ta in e d i n Chapter I I I , In clu d ed i n t h i s c h a p te r
i s a b r i e f resum e o f the h i s t o r y o f n a t io n a l n om in atin g
c o n v e n tio n s , w ith a lo o k a t the s p e c i a l r o l e s which m ass
m edia and n om in a tin g sp e e c h e s have p la y e d ; a d i s c u s s i o n o f
th e m ajor p a r t i c i p a t i n g members o f the n a t i o n a l n om in atin g
c o n v e n tio n s ; and a c l o s e lo o k a t the s e t t i n g s fo r the
D em ocratic and R ep u b lican C o n v e n tio n s,
C hapter IV in v o lv e s an a n a l y s i s o f th e 1 9 6 0 *s w ith
1 2
em phasis on the I s s u e s o f the day and t h e i r e f f e c t on th e
n o m in a tio n s; a su rvey of th e c a n d id a te s who are nom inated
a t the i 960 N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C o n v en tio n s; and a survey
o f the speakers and th e ir n om in atin g sp ee c h e s#
Chapter V c o n ta in s an a p p lic a t io n o f th e methods and
p roced u res e s t a b lis h e d in Chapter I I i n o rd er to make a
c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is o f each o f the n o m in ation sp eech es# A
com parison o f th e nom inating sp ee ch es and a d is c u s s i o n o f
p o l i t i c a l s t r a t e g i e s u se d , w ith an a tte n d a n t l i s t o f
s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s , i s a ls o c o n ta in e d in Chapter
V#
Chapter VI c o n ta in s an e v a lu a t io n , summary, and
c o n c lu s io n s o f the study w ith im p lic a t io n s f o r fu r th e r
r e s e a r c h .
In the Appendices are found sam ples o f l e t t e r s s e n t
to th e sp eak ers and nom inees r e q u e s tin g in fo r m a tio n con
c er n in g th e ir r o le s in the n om in ation s made f o r P r e s id e n t
a t th e i 960 n a tio n a l c o n v e n tio n s; an o u t lin e o f the i s s u e s
c o n ta in e d in the i 960 D em ocratic and R ep u b lican p a r ty p l a t
form s; I n s t r u c t io n s to the c o d e rs and the m a t e r ia l to be
coded which was u sed to e s t a b l i s h the r e l i a b i l i t y o f c a t e
g o r i e s fo r c o n ten t a n a ly s is as c o n ta in e d i n t h i s stu d y;
c h a r ts g iv in g the y e a r , c i t y , d a t e , p r e s i d e n t i a l nom inee,
and number o f b a l l o t s fo r D em ocratic and R ep u b lican Conven
t io n s from 1832 to 1 9 ^6 ; c o p ie s o f th e n om in ation sp ee ch es
d e liv e r e d a t th e i 96 0 n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n s —n in e a t th e
D em ocratic C onvention and two a t th e R ep u b lican Conven
t i o n — which were tr a n s c r ib e d from m a g n etic ta p e record ed
a t the tim e th e sp e e c h e s were d e liv e r e d ; a copy o f the
nom in atin g sp eech f o r Ross B a r n e tt provid ed b y th e sp ea k er ,
Thomas Brady, a p r e s s r e l e a s e o f th e nom in atin g sp eech
d e liv e r e d by Sam Rayburn f o r Lyndon B . Johnson, and a copy
o f th e nom in atin g sp eech f o r George Docking p r o v id e d by
the sp ea k er , Frank T h e is; an e x p la n a tio n of th e manner o f
s e l e c t i n g d e le g a t e s t o th e i 960 n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n s u sed
b y each o f th e s t a t e s and th e D i s t r i c t o f Colum bia; the
o f f i c i a l programs o f th e i 960 D em ocratic and R ep u b lican
N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n s; and the sp eak in g n o te s u s e d by Eugene
McCarthy i n th e p r e p a r a tio n and d e l iv e r y o f h i s n om in ation
sp eech f o r A d la i S te v e n s o n .
The B ib lio g r a p h y c o n ta in s a l l r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d as
sou rce m a t e r ia l f o r t h i s s tu d y .
C H A P T E R II
CRITICAL METHODOLOGY USED IN THIS STUDY
The method o f r e s e a r c h u se d i n t h i s stu d y may be
d e s c r ib e d as a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s is * The s u b j e c t o f t h i s
stu d y was th e n o m in a tio n s p e e c h e s f o r P r e s id e n t d e l iv e r e d
a t the i 9 6 0 D em o cra tic and R e p u b lica n N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l
C o n v en tio n s* C a r te r V* Good and D o u g la s E* S c a t e s d e s
c r ib e d th e n a tu re o f a n a l y s i s a s th e s e e k in g o f an sw ers to
q u e s t io n s w hich would h e lp d is c o v e r th e n a tu r e o f th in g s* ^
As a c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s t h i s stu d y h a d , as i t s p u r p o se , th e
d is c o v e r y o f in fo r m a tio n l e a d in g to an u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e
n a tu re o f n o m in a tio n s p e e c h e s , i n p a r t i c u la r s p e e c h e s from
th e i 96 0 D em ocratic and R ep u b lica n N a tio n a l C o n v e n tio n s .
The In str u m e n ts f o r the stu d y were ta k e n from the drama
t i s t i c c r i t i c i s m o f K enneth B urke. The m ethods o f c o n t e n t
a n a l y s i s were em ployed a s a handmaiden to th e B u rk eian
scheme In ord er to g i v e as p r e c i s e and o b j e c t i v e a s p o s
s i b l e a t e x t u a l e x a m in a tio n o f th e sp e e c h e s in v o lv e d *
A b r i e f r e v ie w o f contem p orary sp eech c r i t i c i s m ; a
f u l l e r e x p l i c a t i o n o f B u rk e's d r a m a t is t ic c r i t i c i s m and i t s
a p p l ic a t io n to t h i s stu d y ; and a d i s c u s s i o n o f c o n t e n t
■^Carter V* Good and D o u g la s E . S c a t e s , M ethods o f
R esearch (New Y ork; A p p le to n -C e n tu r y -C r o fts , I n c . , 1 9 ^ ) ,
p* 2 6 3 *
15
a n a l y s is w ith an a t te n d a n t d e s ig n f o r i t s u s e a s p a r t o f
the B urkeian a n a l y s i s have b een in c lu d e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r .
I . A REVIEW OF CONTEMPORARY CRITICISM
The Trends i n Contemporary C r it ic is m
P u b lic sp ea k in g h a s a lw ays p la y e d a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e
in th e p o l i t i c a l realm * The n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l c o n v e n tio n s
became t r u ly n a t i o n a l i n scop e in 1 9 2 w ith th e f i r s t
n a tio n -w id e r a d io b r o a d c a s t o f a n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l c o n
v e n t io n . In 1952 s i g h t was added to sound and th rou gh ou t
the U n ite d S t a t e s the c i t i z e n s r e la x e d in t h e i r f a v o r i t e
c h a ir s to view a q u a d r e n n ia lly n a t io n a l s p o r t o f th e
p o l i t i c i a n s — th e p o l i t i c a l c o n v e n t io n s . T e le v is i o n had
come to p o l i t i c s and th e 1 9 5 6 and i 960 n a t io n a l p o l i t i c a l
c o n v e n tio n s made t h i s c l e a r .
The a n a ly s e s o f th e o r a to r y which f o r fo u r or f i v e
days each fo u r y e a r s bombarded th e n a t io n ran th e gamut
from p u r e ly s u p e r f i c i a l to the d ep th p ro b in g s o f th e e x
p e r t s . The n e c e s s i t y f o r th e man a t home to be n o t o n ly
an "arm chair view er" but an "arm chair c r i t i c " became more
a p p a r e n t. The n e c e s s i t y f o r th e p r o f e s s i o n a l c r i t i c , th e
I n t e r p r e t e r o f th e v a lu e s o f s o c i e t y , to m a in ta in a ste a d y
k e e l i n le a d in g th e c r i t i c a l tr e n d s became more im p o r ta n t.
Some way the f i e l d o f r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m r a n g in g from
t r a d i t i o n a l to th e "new" or "modern" c r i t i c i s m must be
16
examined and d i r e c t io n s r e c o n c il e d .
A lb e r t J . C r o ft su g g e s te d th a t th e r e s e a r c h i n th e
f i e l d sh o u ld proceed from an u n d ersta n d in g o f th e r e l a t i o n
s h ip s betw een r h e t o r i c a l th e o r y , r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m , and
the h i s t o r y o f p u b lic a d d r e s s H i s approach would produce
a s e t o f form al te c h n iq u e s fo r c r i t i c i s m grounded in the
p a s t but u n i f i e d in t o a g e n e r a l system which would go b e
yond form al r h e t o r i c a l c o n c e p ts to in c lu d e an e v a lu a tio n
o f the sp eech , n ot o n ly in terms o f i t s s e p a r a te p a r ts b u t
3
o f i t s e t h i c s .
T his g e n e r a l system o f form al te c h n iq u e s would fo llo w
a lo n g w ith L. H. M ouat's p le a f o r a s i n g l e s e t o f p r in
c i p l e s f o r an approach to the m eth odology o f the r h e t o r i c a l
c r i t i c . ^ These p r i n c i p l e s would be b ased on. B u rk e's co n -
c e p t o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
The scope o f th e c r i t i c r e a c h e s p r o p o r tio n s o f such
overwhelm ing m agnitude t h a t , as Marie Hochmuth N ic h o ls
su g g e s te d , th ere are tim es when he m igh t want to throw h i s
2
A lb e r t J . C r o ft, "The F u n ctio n s o f R h e to r ic a l
C r itic is m ," Q u a r ter ly Journal o f S p eech . it2 :2 8 3 . O ctob er.
1 9 #> .
3I b i d . , p . 2 9 1 .
^L. H . Mouat, "An Approach to R h e to r ic a l C r itic is m ,"
The R h e to r ic a l Idiom ; E ssa y s in R h e to r ic , O ra to ry .
Language and Drama, e d . Donald C. B ryant f I t h a c a .N e w York:
C o r n e ll U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 ^ 8 ), p . l 6£ .
%bid., p. 171.
17
hands i n th e a i r i n d e sp a ir * ^ D onald C. B ryan t i n h i s
d i s c u s s i o n of th e f u n c t io n s and scop e o f r h e t o r ic a s s ig n e d
to r h e t o r i c a f o u r - f o l d s t a t u s *
So f a r as i t i s con cern ed w ith th e management o f
d is c o u r s e i n s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n s f o r p r a c t i c a l
p u r p o se s, i t i s an in s tr u m e n ta l d i s c i p l i n e * I t
i s a l i t e r a r y s tu d y , in v o lv in g l i n g u i s t i c s , c r i t i c a l
th e o r y , and se m a n tic s a s i t to u c h e s th e a r t o f i n
form in g i d e a s , and th e f u n c t io n in g o f langu age*
I t I s a p h ilo s o p h ic a l stu d y so f a r as i t i s con
cern ed w ith a method o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n or in q u ir y *
And f i n a l l y , as i t i s a k in to p o l i t i c s , drawing
upon p sy c h o lo g y and s o c i o l o g y , r h e t o r ic i s a s o c i a l
s tu d y , the stu d y o f a m ajor f o r c e i n the b e h a v io r
o f men i n s o c i e t y * '
Anthony H illb r u n e r , by s u g g e s t in g t h a t the job o f th e
c r e a t i v e c r i t i c would be n o t o n ly " * . . to e v a lu a te a l l
or any f a c t o r s d e a lin g w ith th e p u b lic sp ea k in g p r o c e ss
and i t s r e l a t i o n to any f a c e t o f c u r r e n t s o c ie t y * • *u
(w hich would mean f u n c t io n in g in any o f the rea lm s In
which r h e t o r i c o p e r a te s a s d e fin e d by B ryant) but "• • • to
do i t i n an i n d iv i d u a l , a r t i c u l a t e , m oving, and dynamic
g
way," p r e se n te d th e i d e a l c r i t i c a s a man b e in g p e r s u a s iv e
in h i s a n a l y s is o f p e r su a s io n * The q u e s tio n o f "w ith what
e f f e c t " becomes im p o r ta n t a s a p p lie d to the a n a ly s e s which
^Marie Hochmuth N ic h o ls , R h e to r ic and C r it ic is m
(Baton Rouge: L o u is ia n a S t a t e U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 ) ,
p . 6 3 .
n
D onald C. B ry a n t, " R h e to r ic : I t s F u n c tio n s and I t s
S cop e," Q u a r ter ly J o u rn a l o f S p eech , 39:lf2li-, Decem ber,
3 .9 5 3 * ---------
O
Anthony H illb r u n e r , " C r e a t iv it y and Contemporary
C r it ic is m ," W estern S p e e c h , 2l±i7, W in ter, I960*
1 8
the c r i t i c m akes.
F o llo w in g the t r e n d s , th e contem porary c r i t i c would
be c o g n iz a n t o f t r a d i t i o n a l c r i t i c i s m and i t s m ethods, and
a lth o u g h f u l l y a p p r e c ia t iv e o f i t , would be read y to m od ify
or add to th e se m ethods to produce an e v a lu a t io n a d a p tiv e
to and v a lu a b le fo r th e s o c i e t y in which he l i v e s . Burke
f r e q u e n t ly drew upon A r i s t o t l e and th e o th e r p io n e e r s o f
r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m , m olding and m o d ify in g t h e ir t h e o r ie s
i n t o a w orkable p a tt e r n f o r contem porary a p p l i c a t i o n .
N ic h o ls approved t h i s e x te n s io n o f t r a d i t i o n a l modes o f
c r i t i c i s m made by Burke who ” • . • would b r in g w it h in th e
scop e o f r h e t o r i c any and a l l sy m b o lic r e s o u r c e s t h a t f u n c
t i o n to promote s o c i a l c o h e s io n , and a l l sym b olic r e s o u r c e s
t h a t in d u ce a t t i t u d e and a c tio n ." ^ He w ould, s a id V ir g in ia
i
H o lla n d ,
. . . p ro v id e us w ith in str u m e n ts which we can u s e ,
to a n a ly z e la n g u age u sed (a c c o r d in g t o A r i s t o t l e )
l o g i c a l l y , e t h i c a l l y , p a t h e t i c a l l y , and s t y l i s t i c a l l y .
P r o p er ly u s e d , th e y sh o u ld p r o v id e u s w ith i n s t r u
m ents th a t w i l l g iv e u s a more d e t a i l e d and u n d er
sta n d a b le breakdown o f c r e a t i v e works than the modes
p ro v id ed by A r i s t o t l e . 10
By a n a ly z in g h i s te c h n iq u e s o f c r i t i c i s m so c a r e f u l l y ,
Burke made the ’’id e a ” r e a l i t y .
^ N ic h o ls , R h e to r ic and C r i t i c i s m , p.
■ ^ V ir g in ia L . H o lla n d , C o u n te r p o in t; Kenneth Burke
and A r i s t o t l e ' s T h eo r ie s o f R h eto r ic (New York; P h i lo -
s o p h ic a l L ib r a r y , 1959)» P» 105*
19
W ith in the broad c o n c e p t o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a l l th e
t r a d i t i o n a l r h e t o r i c a l c o n c e p ts become m ea n in g fu l#
And a l l o f t h e i r o p e r a tio n s can be se e n as i n t e g r a l
p a r ts o f th e "idea#" Only when “ id e a ” i s u n d e rsto o d
in i t s f u l l r h e t o r i c a l m a n ip u la tio n and r a m i f i c a t i o n
can the term id e a be r e a l l y u s e f u l
The Emergence o f the C oncepts o f Modern R h e to r ic
12
C l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c began as an o b j e c t i v e d i s
c i p l i n e * I t grew out o f the demands o f a s o c i e t y depend en t
on sp ee ch f o r i t s means o f com m unication, i t s means of
b a r t e r in g , i t s means o f g o v ern in g * I t came c l o s e r , perhaps,
to b e in g a s c ie n c e than e i t h e r the l o g i c or grammar o f the
same p e r io d * As i t moved away from b e in g a d i s c i p l i n e to
becom ing l i t t l e more than v e r b a l e x e r c i s e , i t s v a lu e s a s a
pure s c ie n c e fa d e d away. I t s v ery e v o lu t io n , th ou gh , m igh t
be e x p la in e d on the b a s i s o f the n e e d s o f the s o c i e t y in
w hich i t e x is t e d *
The r h e t o r i c a l d e v ic e s can become o b t r u s iv e ,
sh ee r d ecad en t d e c o r a tio n (a s d u rin g the era o f th e
’’ secon d s o p h is t ic " in Rome); but we have o f f e r e d
r e a s o n s f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t even the m ost o s t e n t a t i o u s
o f them a r o se o u t o f g r e a t f u n c t i o n a l u r g e n c y . When
pagan r h e t o r i c grew weak, such v e r b a l e x e r c i s i n g
^^Malcolm 0 . S i l l a r s , " R h eto ric a s A ct," Q u a r te r ly
Jou rn al o f S p e e c h , 50:281f, O ctob er, I 96J 4 ..
12
B ecau se o f th e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s p ap er, no com
pendium o f the h i s t o r y o f r h e t o r ic was a tte m p te d . For th e
p u rp oses o f t h i s s tu d y , the m ost p e r t in e n t d i s c u s s i o n o f
the t r a d i t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s o f r h e t o r i c can be found in
Kenneth Burke, A R h e to r ic o f M o tives (New York: George
B r a z i l l e r , I n c * , 1^5^) » PP* 14-9-180 •
2 0
cou ld be sou gh t f o r I t s e l f a lo n e , f o r i t s ap p eal as
a d is p la y o f v i r t u o s i t y . Thus, i r o n i c a l l y , th e
s p le n d id ly e n t h u s i a s t i c a n a ly s e s o f Longinus
(" en th u siasm 1 1 i s one o f h i s w ords) marked a s t e p
towards t h i s very d e c a y . But A u g u stin e , who had
been tr a in e d in pagan r h e t o r ic p r io r to h i s con
v e r s io n , r e in fu s e d many of the d e c a y in g form s w ith
th e z e a l o f the C h r is t ia n p e r s u a s io n .1 3
Prom o u t o f the t r a d i t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s of r h e t o r ic
emerged a new r h e to r ic which Burke d e s c r ib e d as h avin g
l i t t l e th a t would be " • • • e s s e n t i a l l y o u t s id e th e
t r a d i t io n a l con cern s o f r h e to r ic ." ^ "
S e v e r a l apparent d i f f e r e n c e s betw een modern and
c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c grew out of the corresp on d in g changes
i n th e o p e r a tio n s of th e b a s ic i n s t i t u t i o n s o f s o c i e t y .
F or exam ple, i n the d ays o f A r i s t o t l e and C ic e r o , a u d ien ce s
were c o n sid e r e d as som ething g iv e n , but changes i n "modern
l i f e " brought su b seq u en t changes i n the c o n c e p t o f th e
"audience •"
The extrem e h e t e r o g e n e ity o f modern l i f e . . . com
bin ed w ith the n a tu re o f modern p o s t a l a g e n c ie s , b r in g s
up another kin d o f p o s s i b i l i t y : the s y s te m a tic attem p t
to carve o u t an a u d ie n c e , a s th e com m ercial r h e t o r ic ia n
lo o k s n o t m erely f o r p e r s u a s iv e d e v ic e s in g e n e r a l,
b u t f o r th e t o p ic s t h a t w i l l ap p eal to th e p a r t ic u la r
"income group" most l i k e l y t o be in t e r e s t e d in h i s
p ro d u ct, or a b le to buy i t 0 • • . here to o would be
a c o n s id e r a t io n o f a u d ie n c e s; hence ev en by th e t e s t s
o f the c l a s s i c t r a d i t io n i t would f a l l under th e head
o f r h e t o r i c , though i t n e c e s s a r i l y ex ten d ed th e range
^ B u r k e , A R h eto ric of M o tiv e s , p . 6 6 .
• ^ I b l d . , p . 6 4 •
2 1
1 9
o f the term to c o v e r a s i t u a t i o n e s s e n t i a l l y new* ^
The in f l u e n c e o f I , A* R ich ard s i n the r i s e o f th e new
r h e t o r i c was ap p aren t in t h a t the new r h e t o r i c was a
r h e t o r i c con cern ed w ith th e m ean ings o f s ta te m e n ts in any
typ e o f d i s c o u r s e , r e g a r d le s s o f i t s d e s ir e d end or p u r-
■ j i
p ose* F o llo w in g through w ith t h i s , p e r s u a s io n , a c c o r d in g
t o Burke, ranged from " • • • the b l u n t e s t q u e st o f advan
ta g e • • • " to 1 1 • • • a 'pure* form t h a t d e l i g h t s in th e
17
p r o c e s s o f a p p ea l f o r i t s e l f a lo n e * • •" ' The modern
r h e t o r i c would ta k e in to a c c o u n t a l l m anners o f d is c o u r s e
n o
and method r e g a r d l e s s o f pu rp ose b u t would e v a lu a te as
w e l l as d e s c r ib e * Modern r h e t o r i c would be con cern ed w ith
th e p a r t i a l l y " u n con sciou s" f a c t o r s i n a p p e a l‘ d w hich Burke
c a l l e d 11. • • an in te r m e d ia t e a r e a o f e x p r e s s io n th a t i s
„20
n o t w h o lly d e l i b e r a t e , y e t n o t w h o lly u n c o n sc io u so
B ein g con cern ed w it h th e s e " u n c o n sc io u s” f a c t o r s i n a p p e a l,
^ B u r k e , A R h e to r ic o f M o tiv e s , p* 61^.
■I C.
N ic h o ls , R h e to r ic and C r i t i c i s m , p . 1 0 0 .
17
'B urke, A R h e to r ic o f M o tiv e s . p» x*
i R
B ry a n t, " R h e to r ic : I t s F u n c tio n s and I t s S cop e,"
P* lj.ll*
"^Marie K athryn Hochmuth ( e d * ) , A H is to r y and
C r i t i c is m o f Am erican P u b lic A ddress (Volume I I I ; New
Y ork: Longmans, G reen and Company, 1 9 5 5), P* 1 3 o .
20
Burke, A R h e to r ic o f M o tiv e s , p* ix *
2 2
the r h e t o r i c i a n must be prep ared to a n a ly z e them and to
‘‘name1 1 them as a c c u r a te ly as p o s s i b l e i n order to avoid
21
am bigu ity i n the r e c e p tio n o f them#
With t h i s em ergence o f th e new r h e t o r ic o r th e
modern r h e to r ic came the em ergence o f th e ''new c r i t ic i s m ,"
the " s c i e n t i f i c c r i t i c i s m ," the "working c r i t i c i s m ," or
22
"modern c r itic is m # " D e fin in g o f the p r e c is e n a tu re o f
the new c r i t i c i s m would be d i f f i c u l t in d eed b ecau se o f the
f l u x o f c r i t i c s who took to hew in str u m e n ts in t h e i r
se a rc h fo r new and d i f f e r e n t f a c e t s o f r h e t o r ic i n a c tio n
to add to t r a d i t i o n a l lo r e # The d i r e c t io n of the c r i t i c a l
movement s h i f t e d from "• • . a poet-poem or sp e a k e r -sp e e c h
r e l a t i o n s h i p to a poem -audience or sp e e c h -a u d ie n c e r e l a t i o n -
23
ship#" Another s h i f t in the d i r e c t io n o f a c l o s e t e x t u a l
a n a ly s is o f the m a t e r ia l, moved modern c r i t i c i s m i n the
d i r e c t io n o f s c ie n c e — th a t i s , "• • • toward a form al
m ethodology and system o f p ro ced u res t h a t can be o b j e c t iv e ly
t r a n s m it t e d * " ^ "The s m a lle s t s t r u c t u r a l u n i t s o f
21
Kenneth Burke, A Grammar o f M otives (New York:
P r e n t ic e - H a ll, I n c # , 195^)* PP* x i i , x i i i #
22
S ta n le y Edgar Hyman, The Armed V is io n : A Study
in the Methods o f Modern L ite r a r y C r itic is m (New York:
A lfr e d A. Knopf, l^lpti >, p . 3#
23
■^Wayland M a x field P a r r is h , and Marie Hochmuth,
American S p eech es (New York: Longmans, Green and Company,
1 9 ^ ) , p . 1 1 .
^^Hyman, The Armed V i s i o n , p . 9«
23
23
d isco u rse " became o b je c ts o f concern* The in stru m en ts o f
a n a ly s is s t r e s s e d the i n a r t i s t i c p ro o fs ( e x t r i n s i c ) a s
2 6
w e ll as the a r t i s t i c p ro o fs ( i n t r i n s i c ) * The s t u d ie s
ranged from p s y c h o lo g ic a l d ep th probin gs to s tu d ie s i n
co n te n t a n a l y s i s . The o b j e c t i v e s became more demanding
in d e t a i l and more r i g i d in stan d ard s o f o b j e c t i v i t y ,
r e l i a b i l i t y , and v a l i d i t y , b u t a t the same tim e the s t u d i e s
o ft e n became more d i f f i c u l t to understand as the la n g u a g e
became more te c h n ic a l* Our s a l v a t i o n , acco rd in g to E v e r e tt
Hunt, would be a grounding i n c l a s s i c a l th e o r y even though
we would have to le a r n to " in t e r p r e t the in te r p r e te r s * "
• • • a grounding i n the t r a d it io n s o f c l a s s i c a l
r h e t o r ic w i l l show som ething o f the u n i t y of the
human s p i r i t in a l l o f t h is * I f we can keep as
b a s ic our c o n c e p tio n t h a t th e h u m a n ities embrace
w hatever c o n tr ib u te s to the making o f f r e e and
e n lig h te n e d c h o ic e s , w h eth er i t be knowledge s c i e n
t i f i c , s o c i o l o g i c a l , or p o e t i c , and t h a t i n a d d itio n
to adequate knowledge o f a l l the a l t e r n a t i v e s th e re
m ust be Im agin ation to e n v is a g e a l l the p o s s i b i l i t i e s
and sympathy to make some o f the o p tio n s appeal to
the em otion s and powers o f th e w i l l , we can see t h a t
r h e t o r ic i s an e s s e n t i a l in stru m en t f o r the e n te r
p r i s e s o f th e human s p i r i t * A f a m i l i a r i t y w ith th e
h i s t o r y o f i t s th eory and p r a c tic e can n ot but have
a l i b e r a l i z i n g e f f e c t in th e m id st of te c h n ic a l
s p e c i a l i t i e s .2 7
^ N i c h o l s , R h etoric and C r it ic is m , pp. 1 0 -1 1 .
C harles W. R edding, " E x tr in s ic and I n t r i n s i c
C r itic is m ," W estern S p eech . 2 1 : 9 6 - 1 0 3 , S p r in g , 1937*
27
E v e r e tt L. Hunt, " in tr o d u c tio n : H er b e rt A*
W ichelns and th e C o r n e ll T r a d itio n o f R h eto ric as a Humane
Study," The R h e to r ic a l Idiom : E ssays in R h e to r ic . O ra to r y .
Language, and Drama, ed* Donald C* Bryant ( I t h a c a . Mew
York: C o r n e ll U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1 9 3 8 ), P* i|-*
214-
Changes in the m eth ods and ap p roach es t o c r i t i c i s m
brough t ch a n g es in the a t t i t u d e s tow ards th e en d s o f
c r i t i c i s m .
There i s a ten d en cy among u s , I b e l i e v e , [ s a id
N ic h o ls ] to th in k t h a t now t h a t the s c i e n t i s t s have
come to stu d y la n g u a g e , the humane s c h o la r s may l e a v e .
This i s o b v io u s ly an e g r e g io u s e r r o r . I r e s p e c t
s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s and m eth o d s, in c lu d in g the m ost
r i g i d l y c o n t r o l l e d la b o r a to r y exp erim en t t h a t one
may co n d u ct i n the f i e l d o f r h e t o r i c . I want to
know e v e r y kind o f f a c t I can o b t a in by any kind o f
method t h a t w i l l y i e l d f a c t s . But one ca n n o t l i v e
by f a c t s a lo n e , s t a p l e s th a t t h e y a r e . The r h e t o r i
c ia n i s i n e f f e c t , or ought to b e , a c r i t i c of
s o c i e t y . To be a s o c i a l c r i t i c one n eed s a s e t o f
v a lu e s p e r t a in in g to the ends o f s o c i e t y , th e
c a u se s one may e t h i c a l l y a d v a n ce.^ o
The Role o f th e R h e t o r ic a l C r i t i c
i n Contemporary C r i t i c is m
In the a r t of c r i t i c i s m can be found the same
com ponents w h ich are fou n d i n any a c t o f com m u n ication .
A co m p leted a c t o f com m unication h a s o f t e n been
d e s c r ib e d i n th e se te r m s: Someone sa y s som ething
somehow t o someone w ith some e f f e c t . The fun dam ental
q u e s t io n s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e : Who, says w h at, how, to
whom, w it h what e f f e c t ?2 ?
The q u e s t io n o f "who" c a l l s f o r an e x a m in a tio n o f
2 ® N ic h o ls, R h e to r ic and C r i t i c i s m , p p . l £ - l 6 .
^^Harold D. L a s s w e ll, D a n ie l L ern er, and I t h i e l
de S o la P o o l, The C om parative Study o f S ym b ols, H oover
I n s t i t u t e S t u d ie s S e r ie s C; S ym b ols, No. 1 , January, 1952
(S ta n fo r d , C a l i f o r n ia : S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 5 2 ),
p . 1 2 .
the c r i t i c — i n t h i s c a s e , th e r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c * The
r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c i n contem porary c r i t i c i s m em erges as a
man' who i s a p e r p e tu a to r o f c u l t u r a l mores and v a lu e s who
11. • • c o n t in u a lly r e l a t e s sp ee ch es to th e ir s o c i a l con
se q u en ce s through th e a p p lic a t io n o f p r i n c ip l e s t h a t r e -
30
f l e e t the v a lu e s s o c i e t y se e k s to r e a l i z e . " He w i l l be
"a s e e k e r a f t e r tr u th He w i l l " r e v e a l the way o f a c t
in g and b e l i e v i n g f o s t e r e d by sp e e c h e s and he w i l l d i s c l o s e
th e p o s s i b l e con seq u en ces t h e r e o f . " ^ He w i l l borrow
from " . • « the p o l i t i c a l s c i e n t i s t , from the p s y c h o lo
g i s t , th e l i t e r a r y c r i t i c , the s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g is t , and
33
even from the b i o l o g i s t . " He i s the man who w i l l probe
th e a c t io n s o f th ose who w ish to in f lu e n c e the a c t io n s o f
o th e r s and i n so d o in g w i l l " . . . u s e a l l th a t th e r e i s
t o u s e , " ^
W ithin the v a r io u s components o f the d e f i n i t i o n o f
30
Thomas R. N ils e n , " C r itic is m and S o c ia l C onse
q u en ces," Q u a rterly Jou rn al o f S p e e c h , if2:178, A p r i l , 1 9 5 6 .
■^^Hillbruner, " C r e a tiv ity and Contemporary C r i t i
cism ," p . 1 1 .
32
Thomas R. N ils e n , " I n t e r p r e t iv e F u n ctio n o f the
C r i t i c ," W estern S p ee c h , 2 1 : 7 6 , S p r in g , 1957*
33
JJRalph R ich ard son , "A S u g g e s tio n f o r a P r o je c t in
Contemporary C r itic is m ," W estern S p ee c h , 1 9 :7 . January.
1955.
3k
Kenneth Burke, The P h ilo so p h y o f L ite r a r y Form:
S t u d ie s i n Sym bolic A c tio n (Baton Rouge. L o u isia n a ;
L o u isia n a S t a t e U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1951)* p . 23*
th e c r i t i c o f r h e t o r i c can be found the answer to th e
second q u e s tio n o f co m m u n ic a tio n --1 *says what?" For th e
r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c an a n a l y s i s o f r h e t o r ic can be an
a n a l y s is o f "• • • th e means o f p e r s u a s io n a v a i la b l e f o r
3 d
any g iv e n s i t u a t i o n . " He may f in d h i s in str u m e n ts
d e lv in g in to th e p a s t ("The h i s t o r i a n l i k e the g e o l o g i s t
i n t e r p r e t s p a s t e v e n ts by the t r a c e s th e y have l e f t ; he
d e a ls w ith th e e v id e n c e s o f m an's p a s t a c t s and
th o u g h ts ." ) ; in t o th e p r e s e n t ("Where d o e s th e drama
[ a n a l y s i s ] g e t i t s m a t e r i a ls : From the 'u n en d in g c o n v e r
s a t i o n ' t h a t i s g o in g on a t the p o in t i n h i s t o r y when we
are b o r n ." - ^ ) ; or in t o th e f u tu r e ("G iven a c e r t a i n
s i t u a t i o n , what k in d o f s t r a t e g i e s m igh t we a n t i c i p a t e
th a t a sp ea k er w i l l u se? G iven c e r t a i n s t r a t e g i e s i n a
s p e e c h , what kin d o f a s i t u a t i o n d o es i t appear th e speaker
b e l ie v e d he faced?"^® )*
Two s im ila r v ie w p o in ts o f what the c r i t i c sh ou ld
-‘> a y , one w r itt e n i n 1 9 2 5 and th e o th e r w r it t e n i n 195^ 1 -*
■^Burke, A R h eto r ic o f M o tiv e s , p . J L f . 6 •
^^Homer Carey H o c k e tt, The C r i t i c a l Method in
H i s t o r i c a l R esearch and W r itin g (New York: The M acm illan
Company, 1 9 5 5 ), p . 8 .
•^B urke, The P h ilo so p h y o f L it e r a r y Form, p . 1 1 0 .
38
V ir g in ia L . H o lla n d , "Kenneth B u rk e's D ram atis t i c
Approach in Speech C r it ic is m ," Q u a r te r ly J o u rn a l o f S p e e c h .
ip-:358# Decem ber, 1955*
27
p r e s e n t e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t c o n s t i t u e n t s
o f t h e s p e e c h s i t u a t i o n w h ic h l e a d i n t o t h e n e x t q u e s t i o n
i n th e a c t o f th e c o m m u n ic a tio n o f c r i t i c i s m - - H how?"
R h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m i s n e c e s s a r i l y a n a l y t i c a l .
The sch em e o f a r h e t o r i c a l s t u d y i n c l u d e s th e e le m e n t
o f th e s p e a k e r ' s p e r s o n a l i t y a s a c o n d i t i o n i n g
f a c t o r ; i t i n c l u d e s a l s o t h e p u b l i c c h a r a c t e r o f
th e m a n - - n o t w h a t h e w a s , b u t w hat h e w as th o u g h t t o
b e . I t r e q u i r e s a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s p e a k e r ' s
a u d i e n c e , and o f t h e l e a d i n g i d e a s w it h w h ic h h e
p l i e d h i s h e a r e r s - - h i s t o p i c s , th e m o t i v e s t o w h ic h
h e a p p e a l e d , th e n a t u r e o f th e p r o o f s h e o f f e r e d .
T h e se w i l l r e v e a l h i s own ju d gm en t o f human n a t u r e
i n h i s a u d i e n c e s , and a l s o h i s ju d gm en t on t h e q u e s
t i o n s w h ich h e d i s c u s s e d . A t t e n t i o n m u s t b e p a i d , t o o ,
t o t h e r e l a t i o n o f th e s u r v i v i n g t e x t s to w h a t w as
a c t u a l l y u t t e r e d ; i n c a s e t h e n a t u r e o f th e c h a n g e s
I s know n, t h e r e may b e o c c a s i o n t o c o n s i d e r a d a p t a t i o n
t o two a u d l e n c e s - - t h a t w h ic h h e a r d and t h a t w h ic h r e a d .
Nor can r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m o m it th e s p e a k e r ' s mode
o f a r r a n g e m e n t and h i s mode o f e x p r e s s i o n , n o r h i s
h a b i t o f p r e p a r a t i o n and h i s m ann er o f d e l i v e r y from
t h e p l a t f o r m ; th o u g h th e l a s t tw o a r e p e r h a p s l e s s
s i g n i f i c a n t . 1 1 S t y l e 11— i n th e s e n s e w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s
t o d i c t i o n and s e n t e n c e m o v e m e n t--m u st r e c e i v e a t t e n
t i o n , b u t o n l y a s on e among v a r i o u s m ea n s t t ia t s e c u r e
f o r th e s p e a k e r r e a d y a c c e s s t o th e m in d s o f h i s
a u d i t o r s . F i n a l l y , th e e f f e c t o f th e d i s c o u r s e on i t s
Im m e d ia te h e a r e r s i s n o t to b e i g n o r e d , e i t h e r I n t h e
t e s t i m o n y o f w i t n e s s e s , n o r i n th e r e c o r d o f e v e n t s .
And th r o u g h o u t s u c h a s t u d y on e m u st c o n c e i v e o f th e
^ j . n o:p k £ S Qwn £ J L m es
We a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h th e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s p e e c h e s ,
w it h a n a l y s i s o f t h e i r c o n t e n t , s t r u c t u r e , and m e th o d ;
and we a r e c o n c e r n e d a t t h e same tim e w it h ju d gm en t
o r e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e i r e x c e l l e n c e s and d e f e c t s .
I t w i l l be a p p a r e n t from th e d e f i n i t i o n a b o v e t h a t
^ ^ H e r b e r t A . W i c h e l n s , "The L i t e r a r y C r i t i c i s m o f
O r a to r y ," The R h e t o r i c a l I d io m : E s s a y s i n R h e t o r i c .
O r a t o r y . L a n g u a g e , and D ram a, e d . D o n a ld C . B r y a n t ( I t h a c a ,
New Y o r k ; C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 £ 8 ) , p p . 3 8 - 3 9 .
28
p u t t in g a r e a d e r i n p o s s e s s io n o f a sp eech in v o lv e s
more th an a n a l y s is o f i t s c o n t e n t and form . S in c e
the purpose o f a sp ee ch i s to work p e r s u a s io n upon an
a u d ie n c e , we can n ot p r o p e r ly e x p l a in or e v a lu a t e i t
u n t i l we have le a r n e d a g r e a t d e a l ab ou t th e o c c a s io n
w hich c a l l e d i t f o r t h , the s p e a k e r 's r e l a t i o n to th e
o c c a s io n , th e r e s o u r c e s a v a i la b l e to him , and the
c lim a te o f o p in io n and c u r r e n t o f e v e n ts a m id st which
he o p e r a te d . P a r t i c u la r l y do we need to know th e
n a tu re of th e a u d ien ce f o r whom th e sp eech was i n
ten d ed so t h a t we may u n d e rsta n d why c e r t a i n th in g s
were s a id and c e r t a i n o th e r s o m itte d , and so t h a t we
may judge w hether th e sp eak er has w i s e l y and s k i l l
f u l l y ad ap ted h i s id e a s and m ethods to th o s e f o r whom
th ey are in t e n d e d . I t w i l l h e lp a l s o to know some
th in g o f the s p e a k e r 's c h a r a c t e r , e d u c a tio n and
e x p e r ie n c e , f o r th e s e are im p o rta n t c o n d it io n e r s o f
what he s a y s . And when we have form ed an im p r e s sio n
o f th e sp ee ch we may w ish to t e s t i t s v a l i d i t y by
exam in in g w hatever e v id e n c e i s a v a i la b l e c o n c er n in g
i t s a c tu a l e f f e c t upon th o s e who heard or r e a d it.Q-®
The c r i t i c i s m i s d e fin e d as a n a l y t i c a l i n n a t u r e . I t i s
a ls o e v a l u a t i v e . The employment o f the " d r a m a tis tic p en
tad" o f Burke— a c t , s c e n e , a g e n t, a g e n c y , and pu rp ose —
would se rv e a s a g e n e r a tin g p r i n c i p l e f o r the i n v e s t i g a t i o n
which would g i v e a com prehensive v ie w o f m o tiv e s i n v o l v e d - -
"what was done ( a c t ) , when o r where was i t done ( s c e n e ) ,
who d id i t ( a g e n t ) , how he d id i t (a g e n c y ), and why
( p u r p o se )•
The c r i t i c h as a v a s t a u d ie n c e , f o r j u s t as h i s
m a t e r ia ls can be lo c a t e d in any rea lm so h e , Burke fo r
exam p le, can be found d e lv in g i n t o any realm r a n g in g from
^ P a r r is h and Hochmuth, Am erican S p eech es pp. 5 -6
^ B u r k e , A Grammar o f M o tiv e s , p . x .
29
"Freud— and the A n a ly s is o f P o e t r y ," ^ '’The N egro’ s
P a tte r n o f L i f e , " ^ to "The D i a l e c t i c o f C o n s t i t u t i o n s . " ^
"To whom" i s th e c r i t i c sp ea k in g ? He i s t a lk in g to
s o c i e t y . He i s ta lk in g to whoever m ig h t be l i s t e n i n g .
"With what e f f e c t " i s the n e x t q u e s tio n , and the
answer m ight be found i n the s u c c i n c t l y s t a t e d purpose
which Burke gave f o r h i s a n a l y s is o f "The R h eto r ic o f
H i t l e r ' s 1 B a t t l e 1
Here i s th e testa m e n t [ Mein Kampf or " B a ttle " ] o f
a man [ H it le r ] who swung a g r e a t p e o p le in t o h i s
wake* L et u s watch i t c a r e f u l l y ; and l e t u s watch
i t , n o t m er ely to d is c o v e r some grounds f o r p ro
p h e sy in g w hat p o l i t i c a l move i s t o f o l lo w Munich,
and what move to f o l l o w th a t m ove, e t c . ; l e t us
t r y a ls o to d is c o v e r what kin d o f " m ed icin e” t h i s
m ed icine-m an has c o n c o c te d , t h a t we may know, w ith
g r e a t e r a c c u r a c y , e x a c t l y what to guard a g a in s t ,
i f we are to fo r e sta ll!, th e c o n c o c tin g o f s im ila r
m e d ic in e i n A m erica*4°
Burke i s making a "moral judgment" and " . . . d is c o u r s e i s
b ein g t r e a t e d a s i f tr u th had some r e le v a n c e to the d e s t in y
o f a p e o p le * " ^ The c r i t i c by e v a lu a t in g as w e ll as
d e s c r ib in g i s acknow ledgin g t h a t " r h e t o r ic i s a p r a c t i c a l
292
2 2 0 *
^ B u r k e , The P h ilo so p h y of L it e r a r y Form, pp* 2 £ 8 -
^3 I b i d . , p p . 3 6 1 - 3 6 8 .
^ B u r k e , A Grammar o f M o tiv e s , p p . 323-lfOl*
^ B u r k e , The P h ilo so p h y o f L it e r a r y Form, pp . 1 9 1-
^ I b i d . , p . 1 9 1 .
^ N i c h o l s , R h eto ric and C r i t i c i s m , p . 7 2 .
a r t in which means are adapted to ends."^"® Extremism i s
shown f o r what i t i s and the m oral judgments a tta c h e d to
a c t io n s which a ttem p t to a d v o ca te th a t th e ends j u s t i f y
the means are examined c l o s e l y f o r m o t iv e s .
P la c in g the N om ination Speech in the Theory of P u b lic
Addre s s
. . . I b e l ie v e th a t the stu dy o f p u b lic ad d ress
sh ou ld be concerned w ith th e f r e e man in h i s
moments o f d e c i s i o n , in th o s e moments when he i s
fa c e d w ith many a l t e r n a t i v e s . G reat sp ee ch es r e
v e a l man a t the i n t e l l e c t u a l c r o ss r o a d s o f h i s
p u b lic l i f e . They are r e s p o n s e s to s i t u a t i o n s th a t
man has had to c o n fr o n t r a th e r than to f l e e . The
stu dy o f th e id e a s and form s th a t r e f l e c t the
r h e t o r i c a l o c c a s io n in i t s f u l l scop e and depth r e
q u ir e s b read th and com p reh en siven ess o f l e a r n i n g .4-9
The sp e e c h e s a t the i 960 D em ocratic and R epu blican N ation
a l C on ven tion s which p la c e d in n om in ation c a n d id a te s f o r
the P re sid e n c y o f th e U n ited S t a t e s were made a t a tim e
when the nom in atin g sp ea k ers w ere, in t h e ir hour o f
d e c i s i o n , a ttem p tin g to in f lu e n c e o th e r s in t h e i r hours
o f d e c isio n ® T his d e c is io n may have been the im m ed iate,
apparent one o f nom in atin g a man f o r P r e s id e n t (and h en ce
th e a u d ien ce would be the d e l e g a t e s ) or the lo n g -r a n g e
one o f in f lu e n c in g a forth co m in g e l e c t i o n in th e
^ Jack David Armold, 1 1 The Compromise o f 1850: A
Burkeian A n a ly sis" (u n p u b lish ed D o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n ,
U n iv e r s it y - o f I l l i n o i s , Urbana, I l l i n o i s , 195>9), p . 2 .
^ N i c h o l s , R h eto r ic and C r i t i c i s m , p . 6I 4 ..
31
" h o m e-sta te ” or o f showing p a r ty power (and h e n c e , the
a u d ien ce would be the v ie w in g and l i s t e n i n g "arm chair”
a u d ie n c e ) . The s ta te m e n ts , and in p a r t ic u la r the m o tiv es
o f th e speaker g iv e i n s i g h t in t o t h e ir l i v e s and in t o
t h e i r grou p .
P la c in g th e n om in ation sp eech in to the m ainstream
o f th e th e o ry o f p u b lic ad d ress p r e s e n ts a problem in
c a t e g o r iz in g and c l a s s i f y i n g i t . Even A r i s t o t l e w ith
h i s c a t e g o r ie s o f d e l i b e r a t i v e ( p o l i t i c a l ) , f o r e n s ic
( l e g a l ) , and e p i d e i c t i c (ce re m o n ia l) m ight fin d t h i s
i n i t i a l l y p u z z lin g . C a te g o r iz in g i t as in f o r m a tiv e , p e r
s u a s i v e , or e n t e r t a in in g a cco rd in g to the P o st-R e n a issa n c e
t r a d i t io n p r e s e n ts p ro b lem s. A nom in ation sp eech i s a
p o l i t i c a l sp eech and hence d e l i b e r a t i v e ; b u t Norwood
B rig an ce c a ll e d i t a " c er em o n ia l” nom in atin g speech*^®
A. C raig B aird d e s c r ib e d th e p r o c e s s , "Like the cerem o n ia l
o r a t o r s , th o se who d eclaim ed the v i r t u e s o f * the man
who . • a ls o fo llo w e d an a n c ie n t r i t u a l . • • "
D epending on th e m otive o f the speaker and the nominee in
p e r m ittin g h i s name to be p la c ed i n n o m in a tio n , th e sp eech
dO
^ W illiam Norwood B r ig a n ce , S p eech : I t s T echniques
and D i s c i p l i n e s in a Free S o c ie t y (New York: A p p leto n -
C e n tu r y -C r o fts, I n c . , 1 9 5 2 ), p . 315*
^ A . C raig B a ir d , " P o l i t i c a l Speaking in 1952: A
Symposium," Q u a r ter ly Journal o f Sp eech , 3 8 :2 8 7 , O ctob er.
1 9 5 2 .
c o u ld be in f o r m a t iv e , p e r s u a s iv e , and even e n t e r t a i n i n g .
The c a t e g o r i e s , a lth o u g h sta n d in g th e t e s t s o f tim e, a r e
n o t d e f i n i t i v e enough . H arold L a s s w e ll added an o th er
c a te g o r y w hich he c a l l e d "propaganda” s in c e d e l i b e r a t i o n
” • * . im p lie s th e se a r c h f o r the s o l u t i o n o f a b e s e t t i n g
problem w ith no d e s i r e to p r e ju d ic e a p a r t ic u la r s o l u t i o n
in a d v a n c e ,” w hereas propaganda i s ” . . • v ery much c o n
cern ed ab ou t how a s p e c i f i c s o l u t i o n i s to be evoked and
’ p u t o v e r .' " ' ^ C o n sid e r in g th e d e f i n i t i o n which L a s s w e ll
g i v e s o f propaganda, " . . . th e u se o f sym bols to i n -
f lu e n c e c o n t r o v e r s i a l a t t i t u d e s . • • , the s i t u a t i o n
as to w hether the n o m in atio n sp eech i s d e l i b e r a t i v e or
propaganda becom es a m a tter o f "nam ing." ^
The n o m in a tin g sp e e c h i s t r a d i t i o n a l l y known as
" th e man who . . . " s p e e c h ^ w ith the theme o f " th e se a re
th e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , t h i s i s th e m a n ." ^ C a te g o r iz in g i t
go
^ H arold D . L a s s w e ll, " N a tion s and C la s s e s : The
Sym bols o f I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , " Reader i n P u b lic O pinion and
Com m unication, e d s . Bernard B e r e ls o n and M orris Jan ow itz
(G le n c o e, I l l i n o i s : The F ree P r e s s , 1 9 5 3)> P* 177*
-^H arold D. L a s s w e ll, The A n a ly s is o f P o l i t i c a l
B e h a v io r : An E m p ir ic a l Approach (New York; Oxford
U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , Ityltf ) , p . l75>.
^^Burke, The P h ilo so p h y o f L it e r a r y Form, p . l\.
55
W illia m Goodman, The Two-Party System i n the
U n ite d S t a t e s (se c o n d e d i t i o n ; P r in c e to n , New J e r s e y :
D . Van N ostrand Company, I n c . , 19& 0), p . 209*
^ B r i g a n c e , S p eech : I t s T ech niqu es and D i s c i p l i n e s
i n a F ree S o c i e t y , p . 515*
33
would depend on the m o tiv a tio n behind th e sp ee ch (w hich
i s o f t e n o th e r than n om in atin g a man f o r th e P r e s id e n c y ),
th e e f f e c t o f th e sp e e c h , and the p a r t t h a t the sp eech
p la y s in r e f l e c t i n g and in t e r p r e t in g the v a lu e s o f s o c i e t y .
There may be a r e s o l u t i o n to th e dilemma o f "naming"
by the u se o f the s t r a t e g y c o n c ep t o f Burke as one way o f
c l a s s i f y i n g the sp e e c h e s i n a d e s c r i p t i v e and dynamic way.
The s t r a t e g y c o n c ep t m ight g iv e u s a system f o r
c l a s s i f y i n g the k in d s o f i n f o i m a t iv e , p e r s u a s iv e ,
. or e n t e r t a in in g s p e e c h e s . For exam ple, we m ight
c l a s s i f y a p e r s u a s iv e sp eech as one o f e x h o r t a t io n ,
or s a n c t i f i c a t i o n , or d e f ile m e n t . E v e n t u a lly , we
m ight be a b le to d eterm in e th e k in d s o f s t r a t e g i c
langu age u s e {or s t r a t e g i e s ) m ost o f t e n p r e s e n t in
p e r s u a s iv e , in f o r m a tiv e , and e n t e r t a in in g s p e e c h e s .
I f we cou ld d eterm in e th e se k in d s , we m ight have
a way o f ' a t t a i n i n g a g r e a te r u n d e rsta n d in g o f the
tru e n a tu r e , or s u b s ta n c e , o f p e r s u a s iv e , .e n te r
t a in in g , and in fo r m a tiv e lan gu age per s e .57
U sing the s t r a t e g y c o n c e p t o f Burke, the nom in ation
sp ee ch es co u ld be c l a s s i f i e d under the t r a d i t i o n a l schem e,
the P o st-R e n a issa n c e schem e, and the B urkeian schem e.
The n om in ation sp e e c h , c l a s s i f i e d a s e it h e r " c e r e
m onial" or " p o l i t i c a l " or "propaganda" or a l l th r e e , m ight
be c o n sid e r e d as a type o f p r im it iv e m a g ic a l r i t u a l , a
type o f d is c o u r s e which has a s i t s aim the s o l u t i o n o f a
problem , or i t m ight be c o n sid e r e d as an e x e r c is e i n the
u se o f sym bols to c o n t r o l or m odify b e h a v io r . Burke saw
^ H o lla n d , "Kenneth B u rk e's D r a m a tis tic Approach in
Speech C r itic is m ," p . 35>7*
3k
th e problem a s n o t one o f c h o o sin g betw een " s c ie n c e ”
( " . . • 's e m a n tic ' or ' d e s c r i p t i v e ' term in o lo g y f o r c h a r t
in g the c o n d it io n s o f n a tu re from an 'im p e r so n a l' p o in t o f
58
v ie w , r e g a r d le s s o f o n e ’ s w ish e s o r p r e fe r e n c e s" ) or
"magic" (" . • • the m a g ic a l u se o f sym bolism to a f f e c t
n a tu r a l p r o c e s s e s by r i t u a l s or incantations" ^ 9 ), b u t
in h a n d lin g p o l i t i c a l e x h o r ta tio n in i t s own terms as an
a s p e c t o f r h e t o r i c which h a s as i t s b a s ic f u n c tio n
. the u s e o f words by human a g e n ts to form a t t i t u d e s
or to in d u ce a c t i o n s in o th e r a g e n t s . •
T e x tu a l A n a ly s is , A u t h e n t ic it y o f the T e x ts , and
G h o st-W r itin g
What modern c r i t i c i s m i s co u ld be d e fin e d cru d e ly
and somewhat in a c c u r a t e ly a s th e o r g a n iz e d u s e o f
n o n - l i t e r a r y te c h n iq u e s and b o d ie s o f knowledge £0
o b ta in i n s i g h t s i n t o l i t e r a t u r e . The t o o l s are
th e s e m ethods or " t e c h n iq u e s ,” the n u g g e ts are
" i n s ig h t s ," the o c c u p a tio n i s m in in g , d ig g in g , or
j u s t p l a i n g r u b b in g . . . . And a l l o f th e se r e s u l t
i n a k in d o f c l o s e r e a d in g and d e t a i l e d a t t e n t io n
to th e t e x t th a t can o n ly be u n d e r sto o d on th e
a n a lo g y o f m ic r o s c o p ic a n a l y s i s .62-
T h is a n a l y s i s , "a c lo s e r ea d in g o f the t e x t , through a
tec h n iq u e borrow ed, w ith r e fin e m e n ts , from the F rench,
^®Burke, A B h e to r ic o f M o tiv e s , p . If2•
% b i d .
^° I b i d . . p . I p .
Hyman, The Armed V i s i o n , p . 3*
35
e x p l i c a t i o n de t e x t e ," i s c o n s id e r e d to be one o f th e
m ost s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r ib u t io n s w hich the l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s
have made to c r i t i c i s m .
T h is c lo s e a n a ly s is can be found i n the B urkeian
a n a ly s is and in c o n te n t a n a l y s i s . As u sed i n t h i s stu d y ,
they combine to g i v e as o b j e c t iv e a s p o s s i b l e a p ic t u r e
o f the lan gu age o f p o l i t i c s i n a c t i o n . Burke, w h ile
a d m ittin g th a t th e r e were e x c e s s e s to t h i s " c u lt o f p a t i e n t
t e x t u a l a n a ly s is ," d efen ded i t as a p a r t o f c r i t i c i s m .
T his c u l t of p a t i e n t t e x t u a l a n a ly s is (though i t h as
e x c e s s e s o f i t s own) i s h e l p f u l as a r e a c t i o n a g a in s t
the e x c e s s e s o f extreme h i s t o r i c i s m (a l e f t o v e r o f
the n in e te e n th cen tu ry ) whereby a work became so
su b o rd in a ted to i t s background th a t the stu d en t* s
a p p r e c ia tio n o f f i r s t - r a t e t e x t s was l o s t b eh in d h i s
in v o lv em en t w ith the c o l l a t e r a l docum ents o f f i f t h -
r a te l i t e r a r y h i s t o r i a n s
T h is c lo s e t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s p resu p p o ses t h a t th e
" text" i s an a u th e n t ic t r a n s c r ip t io n o f the sp eech as i t
was d e l i v e r e d . "The on ly a s s u r e d ly a c c u r a te t e x t ,"
a c co r d in g to Loren H eid, " i s one taken from an e l e c t r i c a l
t r a n s c r ip t io n and c a r e f u l l y ch eck ed w ith the o r i g i n a l
r e c o r d in g * " ^ In v ie w o f t h i s need f o r an a c c u r a te
£p
Robert C la r k , "L essons from the L ite r a r y C r i t i c s ,"
W estern S p e e c h , 2 1 : 8 6 , S p rin g , 1957*
^ B u r k e , A R h eto r ic o f M o tiv e s , p . 2 8 .
^ L o r e n D • R e id , "The P e r i l s of R h e to r ic a l C r i t i
cism ," Q u a rterly Jou rn al of S p e e c h , 30:1|20, Decem ber, 19^4*
t r a n s c r ip t io n , th e nom inating sp e e c h e s f o r th e P r e s id e n t
o f the U n ite d S t a t e s which were d e liv e r e d a t the i 960
D em ocratic and R ep u b lican N a tio n a l C on ven tion s were r e
corded e l e c t r o n i c a l l y d i r e c t from t e l e v i s i o n (au d io p ortion)
to tap e r e c o r d e r a t the time o f d e l i v e r y . T yp ew ritten
c o p ie s o f th e se sp e e c h e s were then made and checked w ith
the o r i g i n a l r e c o r d in g f o r a c c u r a c y . (The number o f tim es
each sp eech was l i s t e n e d to and checked v a r ie d a cco rd in g
to the d i f f i c u l t y o f u n d ersta n d in g the sp eak er due to b a ck
ground n o i s e , to in t e r r u p t io n s by the t e l e v i s i o n commen
t a t o r s , or to the id i o s y n c r a s i e s o f the in d iv id u a l
sp eak in g s t y l e s . )
A c o n s id e r a tio n o f what W ichelns s a id about the
r e l a t io n s h ip s o f what was sa id t o what was p r in te d as
6 ^
b ein g s a i d , ^ l e d to the n e x t s t e p to be taken in the a n a ly
s i s . The c o p ie s o f the sp eech es which had been tr a n s c r ib e d
from the r e c o r d in g s were checked a g a in s t c o p ie s o f the
t e x t s w hich had been p r in te d in th e O f f i c i a l R eport o f the
P ro ceed in g s o f the Tw enty-Seventh R epu blican N a tio n a l
C on ven tion (f o r sp e e c h e s d e liv e r e d by Mark H a t f i e l d ^ and
c h e ln s , "The L ite r a r y C r it ic is m o f O ratory,"
p . 3 8 .
66
O f f i c i a l R eport o f the P ro c ee d in g s o f th e Twenty-
S even th R ep u b lica n N a tio n a l C onvention ( n . p . : R epu blican
N a tio n a l Com m ittee, n . d . ) , pp. £ 7 2 - 2 7 3 .
37
P aul F a n n i n ^ ) ; in th e New York Times ( c o n ta in in g th e fo u r
s p e e c h e s f o r th e m ajor c o n te n d e r s f o r the D em ocratic
n o m in a tio n —Lyndon B* John son , John F* Kennedy, S tu a r t
io
Sym ington, and A d la i S te v e n so n ) ; in c o p ie s o f th e
sp e e c h e s which were o b ta in e d d i r e c t l y from th e sp eak ers
(Tom Brady, Mark H a t f i e l d , S p essa r d H o lla n d , Frank T h e is ,
and H a r r iso n A. W illia m s ) , and from th e Samuel Rayburn
L ib ra ry i n Bonham, Texas* The copy made from the r e c o r d in g
was the o n ly t e x t a v a i la b l e f o r the sp e e c h d e l iv e r e d by
Merwin Coad.
A lthou gh the a u t h e n t i c i t y o f th e t e x t s had been
e s t a b l i s h e d , the problem o f the g h o s t - w r it e r had n o t been
r e s o lv e d * The g h o s t - w r it e r h as loom ed m i s t i l y about the
sp ea k in g p la tfo r m f o r many c e n t u r i e s , H. H* B rack en rid ge
in the e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y w rote sp ee ch es f o r o th e r s a t
P r in c e to n and once was rew arded by a "handsome s u i t o f
c lo t h e s and a cocked hat*" Ghost w r it in g came in t o i t s
own as a p u b lic i n s t i t u t i o n when F r a n k lin D. R o o s e v e lt
g a th e r e d h i s " b rain tr u st" about h i m . ^
67
‘O f f i c i a l R eport o f th e P ro c ee d in g s o f th e Twenty-
S even th R ep u b lican N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n , p p . 2 8 2 - 2 8 5 ,
in
News item in th e New York T im es, J u ly lip, i 9 6 0 ,
p* l 6 ,
6Q
'E r n e st G. Bormann, " G h o stw r itin g and th e R h e to r i
c a l C r i t i c ," Q u a r te r ly Jou rn al o f S p eech , ip6 :2 8 7 . O ctob er.
i 9 6 0 .
7 0
N ic h o ls , R h e to r ic and C r i t i c i s m , p. 38*
38
We have lo n g tu rn ed to th e I n d iv id u a l in what we
th o u g h t to be h i s g r e a t moments o f d e c i s i o n , in
order to d is c o v e r in him the marks o f h u m an ity.
We have lo o k e d , a t t im e s , to th e in d iv id u a l a s a
gu id e fo r our own b e h a v io r # But i n d i v i d u a l i t y , i t
a p p e a r s, i s r a p id ly d is a p p e a r in g . The c r y o f th e
contem porary e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s i s th a t tod ay we are
w it n e s s in g and are d e e p ly in v o lv e d in a huge
human tr a n s fo r m a tio n , a p r o c e s s which g o e s on
s i l e n t l y — the i n v a l i d a t i n g o f the i n d i v i d u a l . What
we have th o u g h t to be t h a t m ost in d iv id u a l- th in g
o f a l l — a m an's th o u g h t— i s g iv in g way to the group
m ind, or the F le s h [ s i c . ] form u la o f s p e a k a b i l i t y ,
or r e a d a b i l i t y .7 1
. . . few r e a l l y im p ortan t sp e e c h e s are now th e work
o f one p e r s o n a l i t y . The tren d i s f o r a p a n el o f
g h o s ts to work i n com m ittee f a s h i o n . A f te r members
o f the p a n el have d is c u s s e d th e g o a l s and major
id e a s f o r the sp e e c h , th e y g a th e r m a t e r i a l, prepare
a d r a f t , and su bm it the d r a f t to the com m ittee f o r
f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n and a s e r i e s of r e v i s i o n s . When
the d r a f t r e a c h e s a d eg ree o f p e r f e c t i o n i t i s su b
m itte d to f u r t h e r s c r e e n i n g s . . . . A f t e r th e rough
ed ges t h a t m igh t i r r i t a t e any p o l i t i c a l p r e ssu r e
group have been sanded sm ooth, th e com m ittee
p o l i s h e s th e document and the chairm an r e a d s i t
as h i s o w n .^
N ic h o ls , p on d erin g th e i s s u e o f w hether r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i
cism would be p o s s i b l e under the c ir c u m s ta n c e s , c o n sid e r e d
the sp eech a s r e p r e s e n t in g n o t th e in d iv id u a l b u t th e
73
group o 'J
The answer m ight r e s t i n a change o f p e r s p e c t iv e
on the p a r t o f a c r i t i c who would have to exchange the
" ^ N ic h o ls, R h e to r ic and C r i t i c i s m , p. I}.6 .
72
Bormann, " G h o stw r itin g and th e R h e t o r ic a l C r i
t i c , " p p . 2 8 7 - 2 8 8 .
73
'^ N ic h o ls , R h e to r ic and C r i t i c i s m , pp.
39
a n a l y s is o f the e th o s of th e in d iv id u a l to an. i n v e s t i g a t i o n
o f the e th o s o f a group or th e "c o rp o ra te im age1 ' which th e
spokesman fo r the group i s p r e s e n tin g * In th e c a se o f the
n om in atin g s p e e c h e s , the sp eak er i s th e v o ic e o f a grou p —•
e i t h e r o f h i s s t a t e i n th e c a s e o f n om in atin g a " f a v o r it e
son" or th e v o ic e o f the p a r ty in n o m in atin g th e c h o ic e or
th e v o ic e o f a p a r t ic u la r f a c t i o n w an tin g to make a d e a l .
R h e to r ic a l a n a l y s is i s n o t o n ly p o s s i b l e b u t assum es new
im portance a s an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s o c i e t a l p a t t e r n s .
In an a ttem p t to d is c o v e r more abou t the sp eech
s i t u a t i o n , s p e a k e r s , and s p e e c h e s , than c o u ld be lo c a t e d
in secon d ary s o u r c e s , l e t t e r s were w r itt e n to each o f th e
sp ea k er s and nom inees s t i l l e x ta n t (sam ple c o p ie s are found
in Appendix A)* A d i s c u s s i o n o f the answ ers r e c e iv e d as
they r e l a t e to a u th o r sh ip and th e t e x t u a l a n a l y s i s o f th e
sp eech can be found i n Chapter V, a lo n g w ith the com parison
b etw een t e x t s o f what was s a id and what was r e p o r te d to
have b een s a i d .
I I . AN EXPLICATION AND APPLICATION
OF KENNETH BURKE AND HIS DRAMATISTIC CRITICISM
The m ost im p o rta n t works o f Burke f o r t h i s stu d y are
A t t it u d e s Toward H i s t o r y (two volum es) i n w hich he
'^Kenneth Burke, A t t it u d e s Toward H is t o r y ( V o ls . I
and I I j New York: The New R e p u b lic , 1937)*
em phasized th e a c c u r a te a s s ig n in g o f term s, i. e. "nam ing,"
to form s o f a c t i o n , v e r b a l and n o n e -v e r b a l; C ou n ter-
S ta te m e n t^ i n w hich he gave h i s th e o ry o f form w hich he
s t a t e d was th e " . . . g i s t o f t h i s book, and maybe a l s o
o f th e books by me th a t grew o u t o f i t " ; ^ The P h ilo so p h y
o f L it e r a r y Form^? in w hich he p r e se n te d h i s m o st r e a d a b le
e x p la n a tio n s o f what c r i t i c i s m sh o u ld be and in c lu d e d th e
o u ts ta n d in g exam ple o f th e a p p lic a t io n s o f h i s th e o r y ,
"The R h e to r ic o f H i t l e r ’ s ’B a t t l e * a n d two books o f a
prop osed "Motivorum" p r o j e c t , A Grammar o f M o tiv e s?®
and A R h e to r ic o f M otives (The th ir d book o f th e
s e r i e s , A S ym b olic o f M o tiv e s , i s s t i l l i n process*. Burke
p r e d i c t s th a t the th r ee books which " . . . d e a l w ith
l i n g u i s t i c s t r u c t u r e s in t h e ir l o g i c a l , r h e t o r i c a l , and
p o e t ic d im e n sio n s r e s p e c t i v e l y ," would r e q u ir e a f o u r th
volume p rob ab ly c a ll e d "On Human R e la tio n s" w hich would
"^Kenneth Burke, C o u n ter-S ta tem en t (se co n d e d i t i o n ;
Los A l t o s , C a l i f o r n ia : Hermes P u b lic a t io n s , 19^3)* F i r s t
e d i t i o n was p u b lish e d i n 1 9 3 1 *
^ ^ I b id ., p . x i .
^ K e n n e th Burke, The P h ilo so p h y o f L it e r a r y Form:
S tu d ie s in Sym b olic A c tio n (Baton Rouge, L o u is ia n a :
L o u isia n a S t a t e U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 19ljl-).
"^Kenneth Burke, A Grammar o f M otives (New York:
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 195>1|J •
^ K e n n e th Burke, A R h e to r ic o f M o tiv es (New York:
George B r a z i l l e r , I n c . , 195>5) •
Rn
s t r e s s " • . • th e e t h i c a l dim en sion of la n g u a g e .M )
The Grammar i s th e grounding of the Motivorum
p r o je c t^ f t d e v o lv e s about f i v e key "D ram atist1 1 ,
term s ( t h a t were d is c o v e r e d l a t e i n th e i n v e s t i
g a t io n , though i t seems so o b v io u s t h a t th e auth or
sh ou ld have begun w ith them, as he d o es b e g in , in
the r e v i s e d , p u b lish e d v e r s io n of the o r i g i n a l
m a n u s c r ip t). Here a poor m ath em atician se ek s in
h i s way to a t t a i n th e g e n e r a liz in g ways o f pure
m a th em a tics. That i s , he a s k s : What m ust we be
prepared to lo o k f o r , flwhen anyone i s sa y in g why
anybody d id an y th in g
The R h eto ric d e a ls w ith th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n in i t s p a r t is a n a s p e c t s ; i t c o n s id e r s
th e ways i n which in d iv i d u a l s are a t odds w ith one
a n o th er , or become i d e n t i f i e d w ith groups more or
l e s s a t odds w ith one a n o th e r .®2
The R h e to r ic , w hich would stu d y the " c o m p e titiv e u se
of th e c o o p e r a tiv e ," would be d e sig n e d to h e lp us
take d e l ig h t i n the Human Barnyard, w ith i t s a d d ic
t io n to the Scram ble, an area th a t would cau se us
g r e a t u n h ap p in ess could we n o t tra n scen d i t by
a p p r e c ia t io n , c l a s s i f y i n g and tr a c in g back to t h e ir
b e g in n in g s in E denic s i m p l i c i t y th o se l i n g u i s t i c
modes o f su a sio n th a t o f t e n seem l i t t l e b e t t e r
than m a lic e and the l i e *”3
Burke D e fin e d , L ite r a r y C r i t i c or R h e to r ic a l C r i t i c
In a d i s c u s s i o n o f the b a se s f o r h i s b o o k s, Burke
ended by g iv in g th e r a t io n a le f o r h i s e x te n s io n o f c r i t i
cism beyond t h a t o f the l i t e r a r y c r i t i c .
fio
Burke, C o u n te r-S ta te m en t. p . 2 1 8 .
81ibid.
O p
Burke, A R h eto ric of M o tiv e s , p . 2 2 .
®^Burke, A Grammar o f M o tiv e s , p . i\l\2 .
In sura: The books take t h e i r s t a r t .f r o m a
p r in c ip le o f form t y p i f i e d in drama. T his p r in c ip le
was cap ab le o f d evelop m en t w ith regard to i n t r i n s i c
a n a ly s is o f t e x t s ; a l s o i t le d in t o the stu d y o f
v e r b a l e x p r e s s io n w ith reg a rd to the n o n -v er b a l
s i t u a t i o n s in which such e x p r e s s io n ta k e s p la c e .
S in c e "sym bolic a c t io n ” r e a l l y i s a kin d o f a c t io n
e m p ir ic a lly o b s e r v a b le , the au th o r con ten d s th a t
a term in o lo g y thus d e v e lo p ed i n con form ity w ith
the fo im s o f drama i s n ot the sh eer u s e o f a n a lo g y ,
the exten d ed r a m ify in g o f a m etaphor, but. i s
s t r i c t l y l i t e r a l i n r e f e r e n c e . Man is_ the s p e c i f
i c a l l y sy m b o l-u sin g a n im a l, and a " D ram atistic"
th eo ry o f m o tiv e s i s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y grounded in t h i s
v iew o f human e s s e n c e . W hile such a n a l y s is o f
langu age and o f human m o tiv e s a t some p o in t s o v e r
la p s upon l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m in the s t r i c t sen se
o f th e term , a t many o th e r p o in t s i t le a d s in to
i n q u i r i e s n o t c e n tr a l to l i t e r a r y c r i t ic i s m - - a n d
som etim es l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s have q u a rr e le d w ith th e
author f o r n e g l e c t in g the problem s o f l i t e r a r y
c r i t i c i s m p r o p e r , w hereas no o th e r cou rse was open
to him , in s o f a r as he wanted a ls o to d is c u s s sym-
b o l l c m o tiv a tio n s and l i n g u i s t i c a c t io n in g e n e r a l. 4-
Because o f h i s t h e o r ie s about what a c r i t i c sh ould and
sh ou ld n o t b e, B u rk e's p roced u res had been termed " In
t u i t i v e " and " id io s y n c r a tic ." ® ^ In answer to th e se charges,
Burke employed h i s system o f "naming." (T h is i s an example
o f how i n c r i t i c i s m the term s u sed to d e s c r ib e what a
communicator i s d o in g as he a ttem p ts to communicate h i s
m essage to an au d ien ce can n ot o n ly illu m in a t e the moment
and the in te r c h a n g e b u t can b r in g l i g h t to bear on h i s
m o tiv e and p o s s ib ly h is e f f e c t . I t i s the o ld game o f
^Burke, C o u n te r -S ta te m e n t, p . 2 1 9 .
®^Burke, The P h ilo so p h y o f L it e r a r y Form, p . 68
word p la y which i s th e d e l i g h t o f th e s t u d e n t— he i s p ig
h eaded; you are stu b b orn ; I am firm #)
For I b e l i e v e th a t a c r i t i c should seek to d ev elo p
n o t on ly a m ethod, b u t a m eth o d o lo g y — and th a t t h i s
m ethodology sh ou ld be form ed, a t e v er y tu r n , by
r e f e r e n c e to th e " c o l l e c t i v e r e v e la tio n " o f accumu
l a t e d c r i t i c a l lo r e #
However, as a s tu d e n t o f s t r a t e g i e s , I r e a l i z e
t h a t th e re i s no su re remedy f o r my d is c o m fitu r e #
What i f one d id su cc ee d in p r o v in g , fo r anyone con
c er n e d , t h a t h i s method i s d ev elo p ed in c o o p e r a tio n
w ith th e work o f o th e r c r i t i c s , and th a t he can
deduce from h i s p e r s p e c t iv e a s e t o f p roced u res
f o r a n a ly z in g the s tr u c t u r e o f a work i n d u c t i v e l y ?
An opponent would then need b u t t r a n s u b s t a n tia t e h i s
e p it h e t s # And the charge th a t the c r i t i c i s "too
i n t u i t i v e " or " id io s y n c r a t ic " in h i s m ethods could
be h a p p ily r e v is e d in t o a charge th a t he i s too
" d e r iv a tiv e " and i s f o llo w in g an " o v e r ly m ech a n ica l
r o u tin e ." Our c r i t i c a l v o ca b u la ry i s r ic h i n such
r e s o u r c e fu ln e s s # * ^
R e c o n c ilin g B urkeian and T r a d itio n a l
P r in c ip le s o f R h eto ric
The m ethodology o f Burke c e n te r s around the b a s ic
co n cep t t h a t the p r o v in c e o f th e c r i t i c i s in the stu dy
o f lan gu age i n a c t i o n .
For r h e t o r ic as such i s n o t r o o te d i n any p a s t
c o n d itio n o f human s o c i e t y . I t i s r o o te d i n an
e s s e n t i a l f u n c t io n o f la n g u age i t s e l f , a fu n c tio n
th a t i s w h o lly r e a l i s t i c , and i s c o n t in u a lly born
anew; th e u se o f lan gu age as a sym bolic means of
in d u cin g c o o p e r a tio n i n b e in g s th a t by n atu re
resp on d to s W b o l s .^7
Burke, The P h ilo so p h y o f L ite r a r y Form, p . 6 8 #
^ B u r k e , A R h eto r ic o f M o tiv e s , p . l\.3 •
By more e x p l i c i t nam ing, the m o tiv e s and d r i v e s o f th e
sp ea k er become more a p p a ren t and th e stu d y c o n s e q u e n tly
becomes more th an one b a sed on a p p e a l s . The stu d y i s
one o f sy m b o lic a c t i o n .
D e s p it e the n o v e l t y and s h o c k -v a lu e o f B urke*s
m eth od s, th e stu d y o f l i t e r a t u r e as sy m b o lic a c t i o n
h a s q u it e a r e s p e c t a b l e a n c e s t r y . . . . A r i s t o t l e ,
h ow ever, i s th e tru e f a t h e r o f sy m b o lic a c t i o n , a s
o f so many t h i n g s . In h i s em p h asis on a c t i o n , h i s
i n s i s t e n c e i n The P o e t i c s (Lane Cooper t r a n s l a t i o n )
t h a t " h a p p in ess and m is e r y a r e n o t s t a t e s o f b e in g ,
b u t form s o f a c t i v i t y , " th a t b e in g good i s a c t in g
g o o d , he l a i d the groundwork f o r our r e a d in g " p ity "
and " te r r o r " n o t a s a u d ie n c e s t a t e s b u t as a u d ie n c e
sy m b o lic a c t i o n s , r e sp o n d in g to th e sy m b o lic a c t i o n
i n tra g e d y
A lth ou gh t h i s n o t io n o f la n g u a g e i n a c t i o n i s , a s Hyman
p o in te d o u t , b a s i c a l l y A r i s t o t e l i a n , M arie Hochmuth N ic h o ls
in d ic a t e d t h a t "• . . i t i s a b i t o f A r i s t o t e l i a n i s m t h a t
h a s r a r e l y , i f e v e r , r e c e i v e d th e em p h asis g iv e n i t by
Burke." " i t b ecom es," she c o n tin u e d , "the b a s i s o f h i s
p h ilo s o p h ic a l p o s i t i o n and th e b a s i s o f h i s c r i t i c a l
m e th o d o lo g y . I t p a v e s th e way f o r a s u b s t a n t iv e r h e t o r i c
89
r a th e r th an a r h e t o r i c o f te c h n iq u e s ."
A com parison o f the m ethods o f Burke to th e t r a d i
t i o n a l A r i s t o t e l i a n a n a l y s i s o f r h e t o r i c a l a n a l y s i s shows
a c lo s e r e l a t i o n s h i p . A r i s t o t l e d e f in e d r h e t o r i c
®^Hyman, The Aimed V i s i o n , p . 3 6 5 .
®^Marie Hochmuth, "B urkeian C r i t i c is m ," W estern
S p e e c h , 2 1 : 9 1 , S p r in g , 1957»
" • • . a s th e f a c u l t y o f o b s e r v in g in any g iv e n c a se th e
a v a i l a b l e means o f p e r s u a s i o n . B u r k e , i n one p l a c e ,
d e f in e d r h e t o r i c a s " , • • the a r t o f p e r s u a s io n , or a
stu d y o f th e means o f p e r s u a s io n a v a i l a b l e f o r any g iv e n
91
s i t u a t i o n ." "We have th u s," he s a i d , " d e v io u s ly , come
to th e p o in t a t w h ich A r i s t o t l e b e g in s h i s t r e a t i s e on
r h e t o r i c m n^ Burke d id n o t s to p a t t h i s p o i n t , how ever,
b u t d e v e lo p e d h i s s u b j e c t beyond th e t r a d i t i o n a l bounds o f
r h e t o r i c . There a r e , he s t a t e d , c e r t a i n a r e a s or a s p e c t s
o f p e r s u a s io n i n w h ich the
. • • c l a s s i c a l n o t io n o f c l e a r p e r s u a s iv e i n t e n t
i s n o t an a c c u r a te f i t , fo r d e s c r ib in g the ways
in w hich the members o f a group prom ote s o c i a l
c o h e s io n by a c t in g r h e t o r i c a l l y upon th e m se lv e s and
one a n o th e r . 93
Burke g i v e s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as the key term f o r h i s
9k
p h ilo s o p h y about r h e t o r i c . ^
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , th e key te r n f o r r h e t o r ic i s n o t
" i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , " b u t " p e r su a sio n ." . . . Our
tr e a tm e n t, in term s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , i s d e c id e d ly
n o t m eant as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r th e sound t r a d i t i o n a l
a p p ro a ch . R a th er, a s we tr y to show, i t i s b u t
an a c c e s s o r y to th e sta n d a rd l o r e .
^ A r i s t o t l e , R h e t o r ic , t r a n s . W. Rhys R ob erts (New
York; The Modern L ib r a r y , l95>k) * P*
91B urke, A R h e to r ic o f M o tiv e s , p . k^*
9 2 I b i d .
9^Ibid., p. x.
9^Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, p. x.
A ll t o l d , p e r su a s io n ra n g es from th e b l u n t e s t
q u e st o f a d van tag e, a s in s a l e s prom otion or p rop a
ganda, through c o u r t s h ip , s o c i a l e t i q u e t t e , e d u c a tio n ,
and the serm on, to a "pure" form th a t d e l i g h t s i n
th e p r o c e ss o f appeal fo r i t s e l f a lo n e , w ith o u t u l
t e r i o r p u rp o se . And i d e n t i f i c a t i o n r a n g e s from th e
p o l i t i c i a n who, a d d r e ss in g an a u d ien ce o f fa r m e r s,
s a y s , "I was a farm boy m y s e lf," through the m y s t e r ie s
of s o c i a l s t a t u s , to th e m y s t i c ’ s d e v o u t i d e n t i f i c a
t i o n w ith th e sou rce o f a l l b e i n g .95
W ith the term i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as h i s "instrum ent*" Burke
so u g h t to show th a t o f t e n a r h e t o r i c a l m o tiv e i s p r e s e n t
where i t i s n o t u s u a lly th o u g h t to b e lo n g or i s n o t e a s i l y
r e c o g n iz a b le as to what i t i s . " I t l i e s midway b etw een
a im le s s u t te r a n c e and sp eech d i r e c t l y pu rp osive," 9&
T h is area m ight be found i n the n a t io n a l p o l i t i c a l n om in at
in g speech f o r the P r e s id e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s w hich
would have as i t s u n d e r ly in g m o tiv e the fu rth era n ce o f a
ca u se such as s e g r e g a t io n , or the man who, a lth o u g h
n om in atin g an oth er fo r the P r e s id e n t o f th e U n ited S t a t e s ,
m igh t be f u r t h e r in g h i s own a m b itio n s .
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , th e Key Term
o f a B urkeian A n a ly s is
" I d e n t if ic a t io n " would be the end r e s u l t o f th e
o r a t o r ’ s u se o f r h e t o r i c a l d e v ic e s to a ro u se the f e e l i n g s
o f h i s a u d ien ce and make them one w ith him , h i s i s s u e s ,
^Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, p. x.
^ I b i d . , p. i x#
hi
and his purpose.
As f o r th e r e l a t i o n b etw een ' ' i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " and
" p e r s u a s io n " : we m ig h t w e l l keep i t i n mind t h a t
a sp eak er p e r su a d e s an a u d ie n c e by th e u s e o f s t y l i s
t i c i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s ; h i s a c t o f p e r s u a s io n may be
f o r the purpose o f c a u sin g th e a u d ie n c e to i d e n t i f y
i t s e l f w it h the s p e a k e r 's i n t e r e s t s ; and th e sp eak er
draws on i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t s to e s t a b l i s h
ra p p o rt b etw een h i m s e l f and h i s a u d ie n c e . S o , th e r e
i s no ch an ce o f our k eep in g a p a r t th e m eanings o f
p e r s u a s io n , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ( " c o n s u b s t a n t i a l i t y " ) and
com m unication (th e n a tu re o f r h e t o r i c as " a d d r e s s e d " ).
B ut, in g iv e n i n s t a n c e s , one or a n o th e r o f th e s e
e le m en ts may se r v e b e s t f o r e x te n d in g a l i n e o f
a n a l y s is i n some p a r t i c u la r d i r e c t i o n .
T h is i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p ro d u ces a s t a t e o f " c o n s u b s t a n t ia lit y ,"
or on en ess a s Burke would sa y , b etw een th e sp eak er and th e
a u d ie n c e . B u r k e 's u s e o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s s im ila r to th e
p s y c h o a n a ly t ic a l p o in t o f v iew i n r e g a r d s to t h i s term .
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the c h i l d w ith h i s p a r e n ts i n v o l v e s a
p r o c e s s whereby the c h i l d f i n d s h im s e lf a s a s e p a r a te
human b e in g a p a r t in pu rp ose and d i r e c t i o n from h i s p a r e n ts
and f in d s h i s p la c e i n th e w o r ld . A long w ith t h i s " f in d in g
o f s e l f , " th e c h ild a l s o r e c e i v e s i n th e p r o c e s s o f i d e n t i
f i c a t i o n ( i f i t has b e e n a "normal" s i t u a t i o n ) a s e t o f
sta n d a rd s and v a l u e s — a code o f b e h a v io r and b e l i e f s —w h ich
i s i d e n t i c a l t o th a t o f h i s p a r e n t s . He i s one w ith them
ev en in or b e c a u se o f h i s s e p a r a t e n e s s .
W hile c o n s u b s t a n t ia l w ith i t s p a r e n t s , w ith the
" f i r s t s " from w hich i t i s d e r iv e d , th e o f f s p r i n g i s
n o n e t h e le s s ap art from them . In t h i s s e n s e , th e r e
9?Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, p. I 4. 6.
kB
i s n o th in g a b s tr u s e in th e sta te m e n t t h a t th e o f f
sp r in g b o th i s and i s n o t one w ith i t s p a r e n ta g e .
S i m i l a r l y , two p e r so n s may be i d e n t i f i e d i n terms
o f some p r i n c ip l e th ey sh a re i n common, an " i d e n t i
f i c a t i o n ” th a t d o e s n o t deny t h e ir d i s t i n c t n e s s
In t h i s same s e n s e , th e a u d ie n c e as a p o la r iz e d
group and a s in d iv i d u a l s become one w ith th e sp eak er and
y e t are a p a r t from , b u t th e y a c c e p t c e r t a i n e le m en ts i n
th e sp eak er and the sp eech w hich become f o r them fu tu r e
sta n d a rd s and v a lu e s f o r b e l i e f or a c t i o n . The stu d y o f
" i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ” would be a stu d y o f a u d ie n c e -sp e a k e r
Q Q
r e l a t i o n s h i p s . J The stu d y o f the t o o l s o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
would be a stu d y o f the " s t r a t e g ie s " which the speaker u sed
in a c h ie v in g t h i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith h i s a u d ien ce or in
h i s a ttem p t to " carve out" f o r h im s e lf an a u d ien ce .- ^ 0
In th e c a se o f the n o m in a tio n sp e e c h e s t h i s may
mean an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith " r e fe r e n c e grou p s." A ccordin g
to M. B rew ster Sm ith th e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een
a u d ien ce and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , betw een p e r s o n a l i t y v e r su s
101
th e fo r m a tio n o f o p in io n and m o t i v a t i o n . P o l i t i c a l
b e h a v io r m ig h t be p a r t i a l l y e x p la in e d i n terms o f what
o c cu rs when c e r t a i n in f l u e n c e s a re brough t to p la y on th e
" B u r k e , A R h e to r ic o f M o tiv e s , p . 2 1 .
" i b i d . , pp. 6 3 -6 5 .
1 0 0I b i d . , p . 6J 4 -.
-*-P^M . B rew ster S m ith , " O p in io n s, P e r s o n a li t y , and
P o l i t i c a l B e h a v io r," The Am erican P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e R eview .
5 2 : 1 - 1 7 , March, 1 9 5 8 . ------- ------
k9
in d iv id u a l* The lo o k in g beyond o n e s e l f and o n e 's group t o
" r e fe r e n c e groups" and th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e s e grou p s
by th e sp e a k e r , and through the sp ea k er the a u d ie n c e , may
be a means o f b r in g in g about p e r s u a s io n to bear on fu tu r e
th in k in g or a c t i o n s o f th e au d ien ce*
Of g r e a t p o l i t i c a l r e le v a n c e i s m utual i d e n t i f i
c a t i o n , whose d i s t i n g u i s h i n g mark i s th e i n c lu s i o n
o f p e r so n s w it h in the f i e l d o f r e f e r e n c e o f the
symbol who are beyond the f a c e - t o - f a c e e x p e r ie n c e
o f any one p e r s o n . The term "American" in c lu d e s
p e r so n s who are dead and gone and th o se who are
g e o g r a p h ic a lly rem o te, and th u s beyond the prim ary
e x p e r ie n c e o f th o s e i d e n t i f i e d w ith the word* I n t e r
la p p in g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s among p e r so n s i n r e l a t i o n to
t h i s symbol make such m utual i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s
p o s s i b l e ,1 0 2
T his may h e lp to e x p la in the com p u lsion o f th e c o n -
v e n t io n - g o e r in h i s a c c e p ta n c e o f and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith
the w in n er, w ith v i c t o r y , w ith the h ig h e s t g o a l which
p o l i t i c a l man can a t t a i n —b e in g on the band wagon th a t i s
g o in g to d r i v e , f i g u r a t i v e l y sp e a k in g , up to th e s t e p s o f
the W hite House to d is c h a r g e i t s p a s se n g e r s through the
g a te s * T his band wagon e f f e c t e x i s t s n o t o n ly a t conven
t i o n s when th e scen e o f so many d i g n i t a r i e s h it c h in g a r id e
i s th e e x p e c te d c o n c lu s io n o f the b a l l o t , b u t e x i s t s a t
e l e c t i o n tim eo
U n d ou b ted ly, th e n , a bandwagon e f f e c t d oes e x i s t and
campaign m anagers do w e ll to tak e f u l l advan tage o f i t *
^ •^ L a ss w e ll, " N ation s and C la s s e s : The Symbols o f
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , " p . 33*
5o
There a re u n d e n ia b ly p e o p le , f o r whom d i r e c t a r g u
m e n ta tio n would be l e s s e f f e c t i v e than th e im p r e s s io n
t h a t e v e r y o n e i s s u p p o r tin g one c a n d i d a t e .1 0 3
The e x a m in a tio n o f th e c o n c e p t o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
and th e c o n s u b s t a n t i a l i t y w h ich e x i s t s b etw een th e sp e a k e r
and h i s a u d ie n c e t a k e s on added s i g n i f i c a n c e i n th e a n a l y
s i s and c r i t i c i s m o f th e n o m in a tio n s p e e c h e s f o r P r e s i d e n t .
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n can be n o t o n ly a d e v i c e b u t an e n d , a s
when p e o p le y e a r n to I d e n t i f y th e m s e lv e s w ith some group
or a n o t h e r . In t h i s s i t u a t i o n th e y w ou ld n o t o n ly be
a c te d upon by an e x t e r n a l a g e n t b u t a re a c t i n g upon them
s e l v e s t o t h i s end* H en ce, th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n would n o t be
s im p ly d e l i b e r a t e d e s i g n b u t w ould c o n t a in u n c o n s c io u s
f a c t o r s and m o t iv e s P a r ty I d e n t i f i c a t i o n in th e U n ite d
S t a t e s (w h ich i s th e p e r p e tu a to r o f th e n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l
c o n v e n t io n s ) would be an exam ple o f t h i s .
I n the Am erican s i t u a t i o n , th e m ajor c o h e s iv e f o r c e
w h ich g i v e s th e p a r ty sy ste m s t a b i l i t y and c o n t i n u i t y
i s th e p s y c h o l o g ic a l a tta c h m e n t o f the e l e c t o r a t e to
th e p a r t i e s * In th e a b s e n c e o f s tr o n g c l a s s i d e n t i f i
c a t i o n and c l a s s - a s s o c i a t e d program s o f p o l i t i c a l
a c t i o n , th e p a r t i e s th e m s e lv e s s e r v e a s th e s i g n i f i c a n t
s o u r c e o f p o l i t i c a l d i r e c t i o n f o r th e e l e c t o r a t e . The
p a r t i e s do n o t r e p r e s e n t th e m s e lv e s as spokesm en o f
s p e c i a l s o c i a l c l a s s e s and do n o t d e v e lo p s t r o n g
•^ ^ P au l
F . L a z a r s f e l d , B ernard B e r e ls o n , and H a z e l
G au d et, The P e o p l e d C h o ic e : How th e V o ter Makes Up H is
Mind i n a P r e s i d e n t i a l Campaign (Hew Y ork : Colum bia
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , I 9I 4 .8 ) , p p . 1 0 8 -1 0 9 •
^ - N i c h o l s , R h e to r ic and C r i t i c i s m , p . 8 5 .
5i
I d e o l o g i e s to e x p r e s s s p e c i a l c l a s s i n t e r e s t s # In
t h e i r ap p ea l to th e e l e c t o r a t e , th e y ten d to em phasize
broad p a r ty v i r t u e s , th e r ig h t e o u s n e s s o f p a r ty
h e r o e s , p a s t and p r e s e n t , and the g e n e r a l i n e p t i t u d e ,
i f n o t w ic k e d n e ss , o f th e o p p o s i t i o n . As th e e l e c
t o r a t e ^ major so u rc e o f p o l i t i c a l e d u c a tio n , th ey
c r e a te a p u b lic image o f p o l i t i c s as a c o m p e titio n
betw een p a r t i e s per se r a th e r than a c h o ic e betw een
a l t e r n a t i v e p o l i c i e s . In such a s i t u a t i o n , p o l i t i c s
te n d s to l o s e i t s i d e o l o g i c a l c h a r a c te r : th e p u b lic
i s n o t s tim u la te d to inform i t s e l f r e g a r d in g s p e c i f i c
p o l i c i e s ; i t s p o l i t i c a l r o le becomes one o f d e c id in g
who s h a l l manage the governm ent, n o t what s h a l l the
governm ent d o . For th e b u lk o f th e e l e c t o r a t e , t h i s
d e c i s i o n i s d eterm in ed by l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d p a r ty
l o y a l t i e s , l o y a l t i e s to p a r t i e s w h ich , in t h e i r e f f o r t
to s t a y c l o s e to what th e y take to be the p o l i t i c a l
c e n t e r , have red u ced p o l i c y d i f f e r e n c e s betw een them
s e l v e s to a minimum.1^5
One o f th e major q u e s t io n s a t the i 960 D em ocratic
C on ven tion was: I s th ere a r e l i g i o u s v o te ? The answ er,
a c c o r d in g to Bernard B e r e ls o n and h i s group who made a
X0 &
stu d y o f v o t i n g , was a m ost em p h atic: Y e sl The q u e s
t io n o f the r e l i g i o u s v o t e was in t e r p r e t e d b oth i n 19lj-8
and 195^ 1 - as an a f f ir m a t io n o f m in o r ity i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and
h i s t o r i c a l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
109
^Angus Campbell and Henry V a le n , ” P arty I d e n t i f i
c a t io n i n Norway and th e U n ite d S t a t e s , ” P u b lic O pinion
Q u a r t e r ly , 23:52l|-, W in ter, 1 9 6 1 .
x 06
Bernard R. B e r e ls o n , Paul F . L a z a r s fe ld , and
W illia m N. McPhee, V o tin g : A Study o f O pinion F orm ation
i n a P r e s i d e n t i a l Campaign (C hicago : The U n iv e r s it y o f
C hicago P r e s s , I 95I 4 J » P» 6 6 .
107
'L a z a r s f e ld , B e r e ls o n , and G audet, The P e o p le ’ s
C h o ic e , p . 2 3 •
B e r e ls o n , L a z a r s fe ld , and McPhee, V o t in g , p . 6If.
52
The Pentad as th e G en eratin g
P r in c ip le fo r C r it ic is m
In order to determ ine the s t r a t e g i e s and hence the
l o c i o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , th e c r i t i c m ust f i r s t l o c a t e the
"whatness" or " su b sta n c e ” o f a s i t u a t i o n so th a t he may
show i t to be i d e n t i c a l to the "whatness" or th e "sub-
" 1 O P i
stan ce" o f the i n t e r e s t s o f th e a u d ie n c e . The m ethod
o lo g y i s d r a m a t is tic in n a tu r e , and e n t a i l s the a p p l ic a
t i o n o f a d e v ic e which Burke termed the "pentad."
W e s h a l l u s e f i v e terms a s g e n e r a tin g p r i n c ip l e s
o f our i n v e s t i g a t i o n . They a r e : A c t, S cen e, A gent,
Agency, P u rp ose. In a rounded sta te m en t about m o tiv e s ,
you must have some word th a t names th e a c t (names
what took p la c e , in thou ght or d e e d ), and anoth er th a t
names th e sc en e (th e background o f the a c t , the
s i t u a t i o n in which i t o c c u r r e d ); a l s o , you m ust i n
d ic a t e what p erson or kind o f p erson ( a g e n t) perform ed
the a c t , what means or in str u m e n ts he u sed ( a g e n c y ) ,
and the p u r p o se . Men may v i o l e n t l y d is a g r e e about
the p u rp oses behind a g iv e n a c t , or about th e c h a r a c te r
o f th e person who d id i t , or how he d id i t , or in what
kind o f s i t u a t i o n he a c te d ; or th e y may even i n s i s t
upon t o t a l l y d i f f e r e n t words to name the a c t i t s e l f .
But be th a t a s i t may, any com p lete sta tem en t about
m o tiv e s w i l l o f f e r some k in d o f answ ers to th e s e f i v e
q u e s t io n s : what was done T a c t), when or where i t was
done ( s c e n e ) , who did i t ( a g e n t ) , how he d id i t
(a g e n c y ), and why (p u rp o se ) . 109
There i s a c o n sta n t in t e r a c t io n o f the p a r t s o f the
pentad and they do o v e r la p upon one a n o th e r . T h is o v e r la p
•^°®Holland, C o u n te r p o in t, p . 6l .
■^■^Burke, A Grammar o f M o tiv e s . p 0 x .
53
makes i t p o s s ib le f o r th e c r i t i c to make h i s way c o n tin u
o u s ly from any one area to any o f th e o th e r a r e a s .1 1 ®
The method i n v i t e s the s p e c t a t o r to v iew th e m a tte r o f
m o tiv e s "• . • in a p e r s p e c t iv e t h a t , b e in g d e v e lo p ed from
th e a n a ly s is o f drama, t r e a t s langu age and thou ght p r i
m a r ily as modes o f a c tio n * 1 *11'1 '
The u s e o f th e pentad e n a b le s th e c r i t i c to m a in ta in
a b a la n ce in h i s stu dy in which he d oes n o t end up em phasiz
in g o n ly one a s p e c t o f th e sp eak in g s i t u a t i o n .
For exam p le, the r e c o r d s seem to in d ic a t e th a t
when the sp eech c r i t i c th in k s in term s o f the o ld
fram es o f r e fe r e n c e o f sp e a k e r , sp e e c h , a u d ie n c e ,
and o c c a s io n , he f a l l s r a th e r e a s i l y in t o the sn are
o f th in k in g o f the sp eak er and p r e s e n tin g b io g r a p h ic a l
c r i t i c i s m , or i n th in k in g o f th e sp eech and p r e s e n tin g
l i t e r a r y c r i t i c i s m , or i n th in k in g o f the au d ien ce
and p r e s e n tin g p s y c h o lo g ic a l c r i t i c i s m . In s h o r t ,
he d oes th e se th in g s r a th e r than th in k o f th e i n t e r
r e l a t io n s h ip s o f th e se f a c t o r s and th u s p r e s e n t a
r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c i s m . Any method em p h asizin g the
org a n ic n atu re o f the sp eech i s so much g a i n .
W hile th in k in g o f th e sp ea k er as a sp eak er a llo w s
one to c r i t i c i z e him in terms o f h i s p e r s o n a l i t y ,
th in k in g o f him as an a c to r f o c u s e s a t t e n t io n upon
c r i t i c i z i n g him in term s o f h i s a c tio n s as an a c t o r .
- F u r th e r , i t i s alm ost im p o s s ib le to th in k o f c r i t i
c iz in g an a c to r w ith o u t a t th e same tim e th in k in g o f
the p a r t he i s p la y in g , what h i s a c t s a r e , what h i s
d ia lo g u e i s , th e scen e a g a in s t which h i s a c t io n i s
p la y e d , and th e meaning or purpose o f h i s p a r t in
r e l a t i o n to th e p la y a s a whole
110
Burke, A Grammar o f M o tiv e s , p 0 127*
1 1 1I b i d . , p . x v i .
11% o lla n d , "Kenneth B u rk e's D r a m a tis tic Approach
in Speech C r itic is m ," p . 3 5 6 .
A ccord in g to B urke, a l l th e c o n s t i t u e n t s f o r the
drama or a c t appear w ith in the scen e* He commented t h a t
p o l i t i c a l com m entators u se the word 1 1 s i t u a t i o n ” a s a
synonym fo r scen e w ith o u t any c le a r , c o n c e p t o f th e fu n c -
l l ' i
t i o n o f th e word a s a sta te m e n t about m o tiv e s*
P la c e , o f c o u r s e , i s n o t m er ely a p h y s ic a l c o n d itio n *
I t i s a ls o a m e ta p h y s ic a l c o n d it io n , an i d e o l o g i c a l
environm ent* • • • P la c e c o n d it io n s b oth th e s p e a k e r 's
method and the a u d ie n c e 's r e a c tio n * P eop le do n o t
r e a c t in a s m o k e - f i l le d room th e way th ey do in th e
r e s t r a i n e d atm osphere o f th e S e n a te g a l l e r y
"Thus, when th e c u r t a in r i s e s to d i s c l o s e a g iv e n s t a g e -
s e t ," w rote Burke, " t h i s s t a g e - s e t c o n t a in s , sim u lta n e o u sly ,
i m p l i c i t l y , a l l t h a t th e n a r r a tiv e i s to draw o u t as a
se q u e n c e , e x p l i c i t l y . " 1 1 ^ A lth ou gh the c r i t i c may n o t
be a b le to a s c e r t a i n th e d e t a i l s o f th e a c t io n from the
d e t a i l s o f the s e t t i n g , th e q u a l it y o f th e a c t io n co u ld
be deduced from th e q u a l it y o f th e s e t t i n g *
The p u rp o se , the e f f e c t , and the e v a lu a t io n have
b een c o n fu sed o fte n * The e v a lu a t io n o f the e f f e c t i s an
e v a lu a t io n o f th e a c t u a l e f f e c t o f th e "agent" n o t the
in te n d e d e f f e c t * The e v a lu a t io n i s con cern ed w ith th e
r e s u l t s o f th e a c t , n o t th e a c t i t s e l f * " . . . th e purpose
11^Burke, A Grammar of M o tiv e s , p p . 12-13*
11^Hochmuth, A H is t o r y and C r it ic is m o f American
P u b lic A d d ress, p . lT^ ~~~ .....
11^Burke, A Grammar of Motives, p* 7
1:L^Ibid.
55
o f th e sp ea k er i s to d is c o v e r th e a v a i la b l e means o f p e r
su a sio n and the a p p r o p r ia te q u e s t io n s a r e : Did he d i s
co ver them? What i s t h e ir q u a lity ? "
The a p p l ic a t io n o f th e pentad to t h i s stu d y would
b e :
(1) ACT— The p la c in g o f names in n om in ation f o r the
P r e s id e n t o f the U n ite d S t a t e s ( d e s c r i p t i o n o f
the a c t can be found i n C hapter I I I ; an a n a ly s is
o f th e a c t i t s e l f i s in Chapter V );
(2 ) SCENE--The i 960 D em ocratic and R ep u b lican
N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C o n v en tio n s (C hapter III);
(3) AGENT(S)--The sp e a k e r s (n in e D em ocrats and two
R e p u b lica n s) and th e p e r so n s who se r v e as s u b j e c t s
f o r the e le v e n sp e e c h e s and who w i l l be r e f e r r e d
to i n t h i s stu d y a s th e " c h a r a c te r s ," a d ju n c t to
the term "agents" (C hapter IV);
(Ip) AGENCY— Language in the form o f the p o l i t i c a l
n om in a tin g sp eech (C hapter V );
(5 ) PURPOSE— To p la c e a s p e c i f i c p e r so n in n om in ation
f o r the P r e s id e n t o f the U n ite d S t a t e s (ack n ow l
edged p u rp ose) or p e r s o n a l and p a r ty m o tiv e s of
the sp ea k ers which may be r e v e a le d as the
dram aturgy u n f o l d s .
117
'Hochmuth, A H is to r y and C r it ic is m of American
P u b lic A d d r e ss, p . iZTl
56
The pentad i s i n i t s e l f the backdrop a g a in s t w hich
a l l o f B u rk e's p h ilo so p h y and c r i t i c i s m i s p la c e d . The u se
o f the f i v e term s a s t o o l s of c r i t i c i s m — in str u m e n ts f o r
d ig g in g out the c o n s t i t u e n t s o f the sp ee ch s i t u a t i o n —
le a v e s no a rea u n e x p lo r e d .
A c t, S cen e, A gen t, Agency, P u rp ose. . . . They
need never t o be abandoned, s in c e a l l sta te m e n ts
t h a t a s s ig n m o tiv e s can be shown to a r is e o u t o f
them and to ter m in a te in them . . . . When th ey
m ight become d i f f i c u l t , when we can h a r d ly se e them,
through h avin g s ta r e d a t them too i n t e n s e l y , we can
o f a sudden r e l a x , to lo o k a t them as we alw ays
h a v e , l i g h t l y , g l a n c i n g l y . And h a v in g r e a ss u r e d
o u r s e lv e s , we can s t a r t ou t a g a in , once more d arin g
to l e t them lo o k str a n g e and d i f f i c u l t f o r a tim e.-1 -1®
The “Naming” o f Things and the S tr a te g y Concept
One o f th e k ey s to the p h ilo so p h y and c o n c e p ts o f
Burke i s an u n d e rsta n d in g of the im portance which he p la c e s
on the ’’naming” of t h i n g s . Naming i s im p o r ta n t. ”Naming
i s e s s e n t i a l to t h in k in g . The names we have a t our d i s
p o s a l, and the ways in which we name, a f f e c t what and how
we think.” Burke found som ething ’’m a g ic a l” in nam ing—
a m agic which sh ould n o t be e x o r c is e d b u t c o n t r o l l e d .
The m a g ica l d e c r e e i s i m p l i c i t i n a l l la n g u a g e;
fo r the mere a c t o f naming an o b j e c t or s i t u a t i o n
d e c r e e s t h a t i t i s to be s in g le d o u t as su ch -a n d -
such r a th e r than a s som ething o t h e r . H ence, I th in k
1 1 ®Burke, A Grammar o f M o tiv e s, pp. x - x i .
11C ^ D a v i d k . B e r io , The P ro c ess o f Com m unication:
An I n tr o d u c tio n to Theory and P r a c t ic e (New York; H o lt.
H in eh art and W in sto n ,“T n c .’, I9 6 0 ),' p . J 4 .5 .
57
t h a t an a ttem p t to e lim in a t e m a g ic, in t h i s s e n s e ,
would in v o lv e u s i n the e lim in a t io n o f v o ca b u la ry
i t s e l f a s a way o f s i z i n g up r e a l i t y . R ath er, what
we may need i s c o r r e c t m a g ic , m agic whose d e c r e e s
ab ou t the naming o f r e a l s i t u a t i o n s i s th e c l o s e s t
p o s s i b l e a p p roxim ation to th e s i t u a t i o n named (w ith
the g r e a t e r a ccu ra cy o f ap p ro x im a tio n b e in g su p p lie d
n f *hjao4- -frier o r^ r\
u a . a u u c j a x u x i / •
J u s t a s Burke would s e e k to c o n t r o l th e m agic o f
nam ing, so would he r e a l i s t i c a l l y se e k to c o n t r o l am b igu ity
r a th e r than to f i g h t the l o s i n g b a t t l e o f a tte m p tin g to
e lim in a t e or a v o id i t *
A p e r f e c t i o n i s t m ight se e k to e v o lv e term s f r e e
o f a m b ig u ity and i n c o n s is t e n c y (a s w ith th e t e r m in is -
t i c i d e a l s o f sym b olic l o g i c and l o g i c a l p o s i t i v i s m ) .
But we have a d i f f e r e n t pu rp ose i n v ie w , one th a t
p ro b a b ly r e t a i n s t r a c e s o f i t s ,lcom ic,, o r i g i n . W e
tak e i t f o r g r a n te d t h a t , i n s o f a r a s men c a n n o t them
s e l v e s c r e a t e th e u n i v e r s e , th e r e m ust rem ain som ething
e s s e n t i a l l y e n ig m a tic ab ou t the problem o f m o t iv e s ,
and t h a t t h i s u n d e r ly in g enigm a w i l l m a n if e s t i t s e l f
i n i n e v i t a b l e a m b ig u itie s and i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s among
the term s f o r m o tiv e s* A c c o r d in g ly , what we want
i s n o t term s t h a t a v o id a m b ig u ity , b u t term s th a t
c l e a r l y r e v e a l th e s t r a t e g i c s p o ts a t w hich a m b ig u itie s
The u s e o f th e p entad a s an in str u m e n t o f d i s c i p l i n e
in c r i t i c i s m a s s i s t s th e c r i t i c i n remembering th e im por
tan ce o f words w hich have a s t h e i r b a s ic f u n c t io n the
form ing o f a t t i t u d e s or the in d u c in g o f a c t io n in o th e r
n e c e s s a r i l y a r i s e *^^T
human a g e n ts*
122
These w ords, a s modes o f a c t i o n , have
* 1 pA
■^^Burke, The P h ilo so p h y o f L it e r a r y Form, p . I 4 .,
121
B urke, A Grammar o f M o tiv e s 4 pp. x i i - x i i i *
122
Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, p. 1^.1*
58
a n a tu re a s words in th e m se lv e s b u t a ls o have a n a tu re
d e r iv e d from the n o n -v e r b a l s c e n e s w hich su p p o rt t h e i r
123
a c t s . The words a r e a c t s upon a s c e n e . "Naming" i n
v o lv e s an a ttem p t to g e t th e in d iv id u a l to l a b e l h i s
environm ent a c c u r a t e ly so th a t he m ig h t be i n c o n t r o l o f
i t and o f the a t t i t u d e s and a c t i o n s which r e v o lv e about
him .
"A ction" by a l l m ean s. But i n a com plex w o r ld ,
th e r e are many k in d s o f a c t i o n . A c tio n r e q u ir e s
program s— programs r e q u ir e v o c a b u la r y . To a c t
w i s e l y , in c o n c e r t , we must u s e many w o r d s. I f we
u se th e wrong w ords, words t h a t d iv id e up th e f i e l d
in a d e q u a t e ly , we obey f a l s e c u e s . W e m ust name the
f r i e n d l y or u n f r ie n d ly f u n c t io n s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s
i n .s u c h a way t h a t we a re a b le to do som eth in g about
them . In naming them, we form our c h a r a c t e r s , s in c e
the names embody a t t i t u d e s , and i m p l i c i t i n th e
a t t i t u d e s th e r e are the cu es o f b e h a v io r . I f your
naming i s o f su ch a s o r t , f o r i n s t a n c e , th a t you
p la c e your hope o f s a l v a t i o n i n a ch u rch , even a
c o rr u p t ch u rch , and i f th a t church i s on th e s id e o f
g r e a t w e a lth i n s o c i a l i s s u e s , your v e r y c h a r a c te r
i s e n l i s t e d i n th e ca u se o f w e a lt h . You p e r s o n a lly
may n ev er be c a l l e d upon to " a c t ," in th e b r u te se n se
of th e w ord. You may a c t , a g e n e r a tio n l a t e r , in the
names and a t t i t u d e s you b eq u eath to yo u r c h ild r e n
For the s e n d e r , th e m eaning o f th e word i s w it h in h i m s e l f ,
b u t the word when spoken i s a l t e r e d , e n la r g e d , or aban
doned a c co r d in g to the c o n t e x t , and has no c o n sta n c y o f
i t s own.
The "symbolism" o f a ward c o n s i s t s i n the f a c t
th a t no one q u it e u s e s th e word In i t s mere d i c t io n a r y
s e n s e . And th e o v e r to n e s o f a u sa g e a re r e v e a le d
•^^B urke, The P h ilo so p h y o f L ite r a r y Form, p . v i i
^ ^ B u r k e , A t t it u d e s Toward H i s t o r y , pp . 2 - 3 .
5>9
"by th e company i t keeps" in th e u t t e r a n c e s o f a
g iv e n speaker or w r i t e r . O dets' " p r iz e fig h t" i s n o t
Joe L o u i s ' s . I f you track ed down a l l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s
a s r e v e a le d by the c lu s t e r in which a word has a c t i v e
mem bership, you would d i s s o l v e sym bolism in t o an
i n f i n i t y o f p a r t i c u l a r s . The "sym bolic" a t t r i b u t e
i s l i k e the t i t l e of a c h a p te r; the p a r t i c u la r s are
l ik e th e d e t a i l s th a t f i l l out a c h a p te r . The t i t l e
i s a kind o f " f i r s t app roxim ation"; th e d e t a i l e d
f i l l i n g - o u t a kind o f " c lo s e r a p p ro x im a tio n ."125
"Word magic" has a s i t s a c t i v a t i n g a g en t an eq u a tin g
o f th e meaning o f th e word, w ith a God—be i t a s e c u la r
God or an alm ig h ty God.
When lan gu age i s view ed in i t s r h e t o r i c a l d im en sio n ,
the concern i s w ith becoming aware o f how one i s
u t i l i z i n g h i s "naming" p r o c e ss when one p ersu ad es
a n o th er , or i d e n t i f i e s h im s e lf w ith a n oth er through
the u se o f l i n g u i s t i c s t r u c t u r e . D e sc rib e d i n anoth er
way, th e r h e t o r i c a l dim en sion i s concerned w ith d i s
c o u n tin g or u t i l i z i n g the b ia s or p r e ju d ic e in h e r e n t
w ith in "word m agic." C onsider the word m agic o f
"McCarthyism" v s . " L ib e r a lism ," or "planned economy"
v s . " r e g im e n ta tio n ," or "m u d-slinging" v s . " w h ite
w ashing," or "coward," [ s i c .] v s . " h e r o ."126
These are r e fe r r e d to by Burke as "God terms"^^^ and p o s
s e s s w ith in th e m se lv e s c o n s c io u s and u n co n sc io u s a t t i t u d e s
and a p p e a ls . The q u e s tio n i s n o t a t h e o l o g ic a l o n e .
"Whether th e re are gods or n o t, th ere i s an o b j e c t iv e
d i f f e r e n c e in m o tiv a tio n betw een an a c t c o n c e iv e d i n the
name o f God and an a c t c o n c e iv e d in the name o f g o d le s s
■^^Burke, The P h ilo so p h y o f L ite r a r y Form, p . 3 £ .
■^^H olland, C o u n te r p o in t, p . 15>
^ ^ B u r k e , A R h etoric o f M o tiv e s , pp. 2 9 9 -3 0 0 .
6o
128
Nature*" "For a God term d e s i g n a t e s th e u lt im a t e
m o t i v a t i o n , or s u b s ta n c e , o f a C o n s t i t u t i o n a l frame
These "God term s" c o n s t i t u t e the s t r a t e g i c u s e o f la n g u a g e
i n ord er to produce or d e s t r o y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n * The u s e o f
t h e s e term s o f t e n f o l lo w s an u n d e r ly in g p a t t e r n w hich i s
o b s e r v a b le when what a p p ears to be an a r b it r a r y or i l l o g i
c a l a s s o c i a t i o n o f id e a s can be r e v e a le d as p o s s e s s in g an
e m o tio n a l c o n n o ta tio n *
The u n d e r ly in g p a t t e r n i s b e s t o b s e r v a b le when words
r e f e r to no s p e c i f i c t h i n g - - a s " l i b e r t y , e q u a l i t y ,
f r a t e r n i t y ," - - " m y c o u n tr y " — "th e good o f s o c i e t y . "
In su ch c a s e s , the c o n t e x t s in w hich th e words ap
p ear w i l l g e n e r a l ly be c o n s t a n t s ,^ 3 0
The p l o t t i n g o f th e s e c l u s t e r s or p a t t e r n s i n w hich th e
God term s f a l l i s an a id to s p o t t in g th e a r e a s in w hich
a m b ig u ity e x i s t s *
The se m a n tic i d e a l would a ttem p t to g e t a d e s
c r i p t i o n by the e li m in a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e * The p o e t i c
i d e a l would a ttem p t to a t t a i n a f u l l m oral a c t by
a t t a i n i n g a p e r s p e c t iv e a to p a l l th e c o n f l i c t s ' o f
a t t i t u d e . 3 1
The p o e t i c m eaning i s th e c o n c er n o f th e r h e t o r i c i a n who
i s i n t e r e s t e d i n words n o t i n th e m se lv e s b u t in th e
sy m b o lic a c t i o n s w hich t h e s e words p la y when i n u s e . To
n ^ Q
B urke, A R h e to r ic o f M o tiv e s , p* 60
■^^Burke, a Grammar o f M o tiv e s , p . 3££*
130
B urke, C o u n te r -S ta te m e n tt p . l£ 9
^ •^ B urke, The P h ilo s o p h y o f L it e r a r y F o m , p p . lJj.7-
1I 4 .8 .
Burke, the sy m b o lic a c t i s " . • • th e d an cin g o f an
132
a t t i t u d e • * ." The flo w o f words i s an e x p r e s s io n
o f an a t t i t u d e . The r h e t o r i c i a n as a symbol a n a ly s t
s e l e c t s the words • which b e s t sta n d f o r th e a t t i
tu d es whose p r e se n c e or a b sen ce he w ish e s to d e t e c t and
d e s c r i b e . Sym bols, th u s c o n c e iv e d , s e r v e as h i s 'o p e r a
t i o n a l in d ic e s * o f a ttitu d e ,'* ^ 3 3
The v o c a b u la r ie s which th e r h e t o r i c a l a n a ly s t u s e s
fo r th e c h a r tin g o f human m o tiv e s (or th e naming o f
s t r a t e g i e s ) are drawn from "fram es o f a c c e p ta n c e ."
By "fram es o f a ccep tan ce" we mean th e more or l e s s
o r g a n iz e d system o f m eanings by w hich a th in k in g
man gau ges the h i s t o r i c a l s i t u a t i o n and ad o p ts a
r o l e w ith r e l a t i o n to it.^ 3 /1
"Frames o f a ccep ta n ce" a r e n o t th e same a s p a s s iv e
n e s s . S in c e th ey name both f r i e n d l y and u n f r ie n d ly
f o r c e s , th ey f i x a t t i t u d e s th a t p rep are f o r com bat.
They draw the l i n e s o f b a t t l e - - a n d th ey appear " p a s
siv e " o n ly to one whose frame would persuade him to
draw th e l i n e o f b a t t l e d i f f e r e n t l y .^35
I m p li c it in t h i s th e o r y o f m o tiv e s i s a "program of
a c t io n ," f o r "• • . w e form o u r s e lv e s and judge
•j q Z
o th e r s . . . i n acco rd an ce w ith our a t t i t u d e s ."
These s t r a t e g i e s s i z e up th e s i t u a t i o n s , name th e ir
132gu r ke j The P h ilo so p h y o f L it e r a r y Form, p. 9*
13 3 L a s s w e ll, L ern er, and P o o l, The Com parative
Study o f S y m b o ls, p . 2 9 •
13^Burke, A t t it u d e s Toward H i s t o r y , V o l. I , p . 3 .
•^^Ibid., p. 2 l}_ .
13^Ibid., p. 120.
62
s t r u c t u r e and o u ts ta n d in g i n g r e d i e n t s , and name
them i n a way t h a t c o n t a in s an a t t i t u d e tow ards
them *3-3 7
The c r i t i c i s n o t o n ly p l o t t i n g th e c o u r se o f m o tiv e s
through the a t t i t u d e s o f th e sp ea k er w hich a re i m p l i c i t l y
c o n ta in e d w it h i n h i s s p e e c h , b u t i s r e c e i v i n g a c l e a r e r
p i c t u r e o f " • • • what th e sp ea k er th o u g h t h i s a u d ie n c e
a t t i t u d e s w e r e .”^ ®
H o lla n d i l l u s t r a t e d th e d e s c r i p t i v e naming o f
s t r a t e g i e s .
. . . in a s i t u a t i o n f i l l e d w ith i n t o l e r a n c e , s u s
p i c i o n , and f e a r , a c r i t i c o p e r a tin g a s a sp ea k er
m ig h t f e e l i t incum bent upon him to resp o n d to th e
s i t u a t i o n w ith a sp e e c h o f e x h o r t a t io n in w hich he
s u g g e s t e d c e r t a i n r e m e d ie s to a l l e v i a t e th e s i t u a
t i o n . A lth ou gh h i s o v e r - a l l s t r a t e g y f o r en com p assin g
th e s i t u a t i o n was a sp ee ch o f e x h o r t a t i o n , w it h in
t h i s g e n e r a l s t r a t e g i z i n g , he w i l l have u t i l i z e d
many s p e c i f i c s t r a t e g i e s to a c h ie v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
w ith h i s a u d ie n c e . W ith in su ch a sp e e c h th e r e m igh t
be such s t r a t e g i e s a s t h a t o f " s a t i r i z i n g , 1 1 " f la g
w a v in g ," " w h ite -w a sh in g ," " d eb un king," " t e a r -
j e r k i n g , " " g e t-o n -th e -b a n d w a g o n ," or " s p i r i t u a l i
z a t i o n . " 1^
There a re a s many s t r a t e g i e s f o r en com p assin g a
s i t u a t i o n a s th e r e are ways o f r e a c t in g or r e sp o n d in g
to a s i t u a t i o n , and th e r e are a s many s t r a t e g i e s
w it h in an o v e r - a l l s t r a t e g y o f encom passm ent a s th e r e
a r e ways o f p u t t in g t h i s o v e r - a l l s t r a t e g y a c r o s s
117
'B u rk e, The P h ilo s o p h y o f L it e r a r y Form, p . 1 .
^ ^ H o lla n d , " R h e to r ic a l C r i t i c is m : A B u rk eian
M ethod," p . •
^ ^ H o lla n d , C o u n te r p o in t, p p . 6 9 - 7 0 .
1^°Ibid.. p. 73.
63
The many ad van tages to the r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c o f
th e u se o f the s t r a t e g y c o n c e p t and th e d r a m a tis t ic pentad
are a p p a r e n t.
W e would f i n d the answ ers to such q u e s tio n s a s
th e s e : Do p r e a ch er s a s a group use c e r t a in s t r a
t e g i e s ? does the n a tu r e o f t h e i r s u b j e c t m atter
p red eterm in e th e s t r a t e g i e s th e y u se? how about the
p o l i t i c i a n ? the statesm an ? M ight p o l i t i c i a n s ,
sta te sm e n , and p r e a ch er s be c la s s e d n o t by the group
to which th ey b e lo n g e d , but by th e s t r a t e g i e s they
u sed ? I f , in s te a d o f c l a s s i f y i n g sp ea k ers as
p e r s u a s iv e , in fo r m a tiv e , or e n t e r t a i n i n g , we were
to u s e a s t r a t e g y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , would we n o t be
in d ic a t in g how they p ersu a d ed , how th ey in fo im ed ,
how th ey e n te r ta in e d ? Would n o t t h i s procedure t e l l
u s more than th e o ld c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s ? Would n o t
t h i s approach b rin g u s n ea rer to the d is c o v e r y o f
how sp ea k er s a c h ie v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith a s p e c i f i c .
au d ien ce through the u s e o f lan gu age s y m b o liz a t io n s ? ^
approach t h i s same stu dy o f e f f e c t . The a r t i s t i c p r o o fs
are th e i n t r i n s i c f a c t o r s which can be found i n the
sp e a k e r 's " s e lf " or in h i s a d d r e ss e s to an assem bly or
a u d ie n c e . A r t i s t i c p r o o fs are of th r ee t y p e s — e t h i c a l
a p p e a l, e m o tio n a l a p p e a l, and l o g i c a l a p p e a l.
Of the modes o f p e r su a s io n fu r n is h e d by the spoken
word th e r e a re th r e e k in d s . The f i r s t k in d depends
on the p e r so n a l c h a r a c te r o f the sp eak er; the secon d
on p u ttin g th e a u d ien ce in to a c e r t a i n frame o f mind;
the th ir d on the p r o o f, or apparent p r o o f, p rovid ed
Burke and the A r t i s t i c P ro o fs as S t r a t e g i e s
A r i s t o t l e ' s stu d y o f the th r e e modes o f p ro o f d oes
-’ - ^ H o l l a n d " R h e t o r i c a l C r it ic is m : A B urkeian
M ethod," p p . •
by th e words o f th e sp ee ch i t s e l f
The th r e e a r t i s t i c modes o f p r o o f , Burke would d e s ig n a te
as " s t r a t e g ie s " (or m ethods) o f u s in g la n g u a g e in order
to o b ta in " i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " w ith an a u d ien ce*
lk-3
E t h i c a l Appeal
E t h i c a l a p p ea l (e t h o s ) in c lu d e s the i n t e l l i g e n c e ,
c h a r a c te r , and g o o d - w ill o f th e s p e a k e r " Ethos may
be d e f in e d as th o s e a s p e c t s o f th e sp eak er h im s e lf th a t
l t d
a f f e c t h i s b e lie f - m a k in g pow er." ^ The r o l e o f the
s p e a k e r - -t h e " a g e n t" — in a p e r s u a s iv e s i t u a t i o n i s an
im p o rta n t one b eca u se o f th e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n or la c k o f i t
w hich o ccu rs betw een sp eak er and a u d ien ce* The a u d ien ce
comes to some c o n c lu s io n about the sp ea k er and t h i s con
c lu s i o n p la y s a p a r t i n th e judgm ent o f th e sp ee ch .'* '^
The m eaning o f the e t h i c a l a p p ea l o f th e sp eak er has been
expanded from the day o f A r i s t o t l e ("T his kind o f p e r
s u a s io n . . . sh ou ld be a c h ie v e d by what th e sp eak er s a y s ,
n o t by what p e o p le th in k o f t h i s c h a r a c te r b e fo r e he b e g in s
^ ^ A r i s t o t l e , Book I , Chapter 2 , pp. 2l±-25.
■^^H olland, C o u n te r p o in t, p* 1 0 1 .
^^"Aris to t i e , p .
^ ^ H en ry N e lso n Wieman and O tis M. W a lter , "Toward
an A n a ly s is o f E t h ic s f o r R h e to r ic ," Q u a r ter ly Jou rn al o f
S p e e c h . 10:2 69# O ctob er, 1957*
chmuth, A H is t o r y and C r it ic is m o f American
P u b lic A d d r e ss, p. 9*
to sp e a k .1 ' to in c lu d e the co n cep t or the sp eak er which
the au d ien ce has b e fo r e he b e g in s to sp ea k . Ralph Waldo
Emerson dem onstrated t h i s i n h i s judgment o f D i s r a e l i
(be i t a c c u r a te or n o t ) .
D i s r a e l i , the c h i f f o n i e r , w a ste s a l l h i s t a l e n t on
the House o f Commons, f o r th e want o f c h a r a c t e r . He
makes a smart c u t t in g sp ee ch , r e a l l y in tr o d u c e s new
and im portant d i s t i n c t i o n s . . . . But he makes a t
l a s t no im p r e ssio n , b eca u se the h e a r er a s k s , Who are
you? What i s dear to you? What do you sta n d fo r ?
And the sp eech and the speaker are s i l e n t , and
s i l e n c e i s c o n fe s s io n * A man who h as been a man has
foregrou n d and background. H is sp e e c h , be i t never
so good, i s su b o rd in a te and the l e a s t p a r t o f him,
and as t h i s man has no p la n e t under him , b u t on ly
h i s s h o e s , the h ea rer i n f e r s th a t the ground o f the
p r e s e n t argument may be no wider.3*'-l-8
David Riesm an, Nathan G la z er , and R euel Denney
in d ic a t e d t h a t through e t h i c a l a p p ea l th e sou rce o f
c r i t e r i a fo r th e judgment o f a speech had s h i f t e d from
the c o n te n t o f the perform ance to the p e r s o n a lit y o f the
p erfo rm er. To them the app eal o f many o f the p o l i t i c a l
c a n d id a te s tended to r e s t on th e im p r e ssio n o f s i n c e r i t y
which the aud ien ce r e c e i v e d . I f the au d ien ce was fo r c e d
to choose betw een s k i l l and s i n c e r i t y , many would p r e fe r
■ ^ ^ A r is to tle , p . 2 £ .
■ ^ ^ N ich ols, R h e to r ic and C r i t i c is m , p. l 6 , c i t i n g
Jou rn als o f Ralph Waldo Emerson, e d s . Edward Waldo Emerson
and Waldo Emerson F orb es (V o l. 3 ; B oston : Houghton
M i f f l i n C o ., 1 9 1 2 ), p . £ 0 3 .
66
th e l a t t e r . 1^
An exa m in a tio n o f e th o s or e t h i c a l ap p eal as a
" s t r a t e g y ” o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y im p o rta n t fo r
th e stu d y o f n o m in ation sp ee ch es i n which th e e t h i c a l
app eal o f the sp ea k er and the p e r so n spoken o f must both
be c o n s id e r e d , w ith th e ap p eal o f the l a t t e r b e in g o f
paramount im portance*
Thus, i f a g iv e n a u d ien ce has a stro n g o p in io n t h a t
a c e r t a i n kin d o f con d u ct i s a d m ir a b le, th e o r a to r
can commend a p erso n by u s in g s ig n s th a t i d e n t i f y
him w ith such conduct* "Opinion" in t h i s e t h i c a l
se n se c l e a r l y f a l l s on the b i a s a c r o ss th e m a tter
o f " tru th " in the s t r i c t l y s c i e n t i f i c se n se * Of
c o u r s e , a sp ea k er may be tru e or f a l s e i n i d e n t i f y i n g
a p e r so n by some p a r t ic u la r s i g n o f v ir t u o u s c o n d u c t.
You may say t h a t a p erson so a c te d when th e p e r so n
did n o t so a c t — and i f you su c c e e d in making your
a u d ien ce b e l ie v e y o u , you c o u ld be s a id to be t r a f
f i c k i n g in sh ee r o p in io n as c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e
t r u t h . But we are h ere con cern ed w ith m o tiv e s a
s te p f a r t h e r back than such mere d e c e p tio n * W e are
d is c u s s in g the u n d e r ly in g e t h i c a l a ssu m p tion s on
w hich th e e n t i r e t a c t i c s o f p e r s u a s io n are based*
Here th e im p ortan t f a c t o r i s o p in io n (o p in io n i n the
m oral ord er o f a c t i o n , r a th e r than in th e " scen ic"
order o f t r u t h ) . The r h e t o r i c i a n , as su c h , need
o p e r a te on ly on t h i s p r i n c i p l e . I f , i n th e o p in io n
o f a g iv e n a u d ie n c e , a c e r t a i n kin d o f co n d u ct i s
a d m ir a b le , then a sp eak er m ight persuade th e a u d ien ce
by u s in g id e a s and im ages t h a t i d e n t i f y h i s ca u se
w ith t h a t kind o f c o n d u c t.
^~David Riesman, Nathan G la z e r , and R euel Denney,
The L on ely Crowd; A Study o f the Changing American
Charact e r (Garden C it y , New 'York; D oubleday and Company,
I n c * , l95>3), PP* 22^-226*
■^^Burke, A R h eto r ic o f M o tiv e s , pp.
67
E m otion al A p p eal
E m o tio n a l a p p ea l ( p a t h o s ) r e f e r s to th e a b i l i t y
o f the sp ea k er to work upon th e f e e l i n g s or e m o tio n s o f
h i s l i s t e n e r s .
. . . [A] means o f p e r s u a s io n , and p erh ap s the
most im p o r ta n t o f a l l , i s by a p p e a l to c e r t a i n
m o tiv es t o which an a u d ie n c e can be e x p e c te d to
r esp o n d . The m ost p e r s u a s iv e sp ea k er i s he who
most e f f e c t i v e l y d i r e c t s h i s a p p e a l to th e b a s ic
i n t e r e s t s , d e s i r e s , w an ts, i n s t i n c t s , and em o tio n s
o f h i s h e a r e r s .151
P a r r is h and Hochmuth r e f e r r e d th e c r i t i c to A r i s t o t l e ' s
l i s t o f t o p i c s and e m o tio n a l a p p e a ls Burke r e f e r r e d
t o the ”commonplaces'’ or ’’ t o p i c s ” o f A r i s t o t l e a s a su rv e y
o f th in g s p e r s u a s iv e .
The s o - c a l l e d "com m onplaces1 1 or 1 1 t o p i c s ” in
A r i s t o t l e ’ s Art o f R h e to r ic (and the c o r r e sp o n d in g
l o c i communes in L a t i n m an u als) are a q u ick su rv ey
o f " o p in io n " in t h i s s e n s e . A r i s t o t l e r e v ie w s th e
p u r p o se s, a c t s , t h i n g s , c o n d i t i o n s , s t a t e s o f m ind,
p e r so n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and th e l i k e , w hich
p eop le c o n s id e r p r o m isin g or f o r m id a b le , good or
e v i l , u s e f u l or d a n g e r o u s , ad m irab le or lo a th s o m e ,
and so on* A ll t h e s e o p in io n s or a ssu m p tio n s
(perhaps to d a v th e y would be t r e a t e d u n d er th e head
o f ’’a t t i t u d e s ” or ’’v a l u e s ” ) a r e c a ta lo g u e d as a v a i l a b l e
means o f p e r s u a s io n . But th e im p o r ta n t t h i n g , f o r
our p u r p o s e s , i s t o n o te t h a t su ch ty p e s are d e r iv e d
from th e p r i n c ip l e o f p e r s u a s io n , i n t h a t th e y are
but a s u r v e y of th e th in g s t h a t p e o p le g e n e r a l l y
c o n sid e r p e r s u a s iv e - .and o f m ethods t h a t have
p e r s u a s iv e e f f e c t s
- ^ P a r r is h and Hochm uth, Am erican S p e e c h e s , p . 1 5 .
^ ■ ^ A r is t o t le , Book I , C h a p ters 6 and 7* PP» 1-1-2-
51+, and Book I I , C h ap ters 2 to 1 1 , p p . 9 2 - 1 2 0 .
1 ^ 3
B u rk e, A R h e to r ic o f M o t iv e s , p . 5 6 .
68
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , a c co r d in g to Burke, i s n o t an
in d iv id u a l m a tter o f "He i d e n t i f i e s , but I d o n ' t . 1 '
To sum up: I d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s n o t i n i t s e l f ab
norm al; nor can i t be " s c i e n t i f i c a l l y e r a d ic a te d ,"
O ne's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a c o l l e c t i v e , s o c i a l r o le
can n ot be o b ta in e d in any o th e r way. In f a c t ,
" i d e n t i f i c a t i o n " i s h a r d ly o th e r than a name f o r
the fu n c t io n o f s o c i a l i t y
Jack Armold, in h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n in which he a p p lie d the
B urkeian s t r a t e g y c o n c ep t to a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e Compro
m ise o f l8f?0, c l a s s i f i e d such terms as h i s t o r y , God, and
n a tu r e , as " , , , ways o f in d ic a t in g s o c i a l i t y H e
d em onstrated t h e i r u s e by c i t i n g D a n ie l W ebster in a c t io n .
The em o tio n a l peak o f th e sp eech [o f W ebster] was
rea ch ed when he u sed a barrage o f r h e t o r i c a l q u es
t i o n s c o n ta in in g h ig h ly e m o tio n a l sym b ols, such a s ,
th e " flag" and the " e a g le ," When aim ing to produce
e f f e c t s upon th e a u d ie n c e , the p o l i t i c a l o r a to r may
employ such sym bols to arou se th e e m o tio n s. These
sym bols ares r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f em o tio n a l i d e n t i f i
c a t i o n s ,
L a s s w e ll in c o r p o r a te d th e s e sym bols in to the " id eo log y"
o f th e e s t a b l i s h e d ord er o f s o c i e t y .
Any e l i t e d e fen d s and a s s e r t s i t s e l f in th e name
o f sym bols o f the common d e s t i n y . Such sym bols are
the " id eo lo g y " o f th e e s t a b l i s h e d o rd er, the "utopia"
o f c o u n t e r - e l i t e s . By th e u se o f sa n c tio n e d words
and g e s t u r e s th e e l i t e e l i c i t s b lo o d , work, t a x e s ,
a p p la u s e , from th e m a s s e s . When the p o l i t i c a l order
works sm o o th ly , the m a sses v e n e r a te the sym bols;
u3urke, A t t it u d e s Toward H is t o r y , V o l, i i , p . 11+ 4 .
^ A rm o ld , "The Compromise o f 18^0," p , 2i+3,
^ I b i d . , p . 1 9 6 .
6 9
th e e l i t e , s e l f - r i g h t e o u s and u n a f r a id , s u f f e r s from
no w it h e r in g s e n s e o f im m o r a lity . "G od's i n h i s
h e a v e n — a l l ' s r i g h t w ith th e w o r ld ." ’ i l n u n io n
th e r e i s s t r e n g t h " — n o t e x p l o i t a t i o n . -*-57
W alter Coutu o b se r v e d t h a t th e u s e o f s i g n s as
sym bols ( " u n its o f la n g u a g e " )1 ^® a p p ro ach es th e i n
c r e d i b l e .
He [man] c o n s t a n t ly u s e s s i g n s a s i n d i c a t e r s or s i g
n a l s , b u t he a l s o u s e s th e same s i g n s , n o t to i n
d i c a t e som eth in g b u t to r e p r e s e n t i t , even when i t i s
p e r c e p t u a lly a b s e n t or d o e s n ' t even e x i s t . Through
th e i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y o f l i n g u i s t i c a l l y coded c e n t r a l
r e s p o n s e s , t h a t w h ich i s p e r c e p t u a lly a b s e n t can
s t i l l o p e r a te a s a s t im u lu s — " C h ristm as" — " r e t i r e
ment" - - " 1 7 7 6 "— " j u s t i c e •"
When s i g n s a re u s e d i n t h i s rem ark able manner we
c a l l them sy m b o ls. Both s i g n a l s and sym bols are
u s e d a s u n i t s o f c o d in g sy ste m s to s tr u c t u r e c e n t r a l
r e s p o n s e s s p e c i f y i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een t h e i r
r e f e r e n t s and th e o rgan ism m aking th e r e s p o n s e .3-59
The stu d y o f words and o f sym bols becom es more
im p o rta n t as words th e m s e lv e s become more Im p ortan t In
s o c i e t y "as a means o f e x c h a n g e , d i r e c t i o n , and c o n
t r o l ." 1 60
-^ H arold p . L a s s w e ll, P o l i t i c s : Who G ets W hat.
When, How (New Y ork: W h it t le s e y H ouse, a d i v i s i o n o f th e
M cG raw-H ill Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 3 6 ) , p . 29*
-^® B©rlo, The P r o c e s s o f C om m unication, p . i|i^.
^-^W alter c o u tu , "An O p e r a tio n a l D e f i n i t i o n o f
M eaning," Q u a r te r ly J o u rn a l o f S p e e c h , 1 4 .8 : 6 0 , F eb ru a ry .
1962.
l6 0 p ,iesman , G la z e r , and D enney, The L o n ely Crowd.
p. 6l •
70
E d u c a tio n , l e i s u r e , s e r v i c e s , th e s e go to g e t h e r
w ith an in c r e a s e d consum ption o f words and im ages
from th e new mass m edia o f com m u n ication s. W hile
s o c i e t i e s i n th e phase o f t r a n s i t i o n a l grow th b e g in
th e p r o c e s s o f d i s t r i b u t i n g words from urban c e n t e r s ,
th e f lo w becom es a t o r r e n t in th e s o c i e t i e s o f i n
c i p i e n t p o p u la tio n d e c l i n e . T his p r o c e s s , w h ile
m odu lated by profound n a t io n a l and c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s ,
c o n n e c te d w ith d i f f e r e n c e s i n l i t e r a c y and l o q u a c i t y ,
ta k e s p la c e everyw here i n th e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d l a n d s .
I n c r e a s i n g l y , r e l a t i o n s w ith th e o u te r w orld and w ith
o n e s e l f are m ed ia ted by the f lo w o f m ass communica
t i o n . For the o t h e r - d i r e c t e d ty p e s [ th o s e who are
govern ed In t h e i r a c t i o n s by th e e x p e c t a t io n s and
p r e fe r e n c e s o f o th e r s ] p o l i t i c a l e v e n ts are l ik e w is e
e x p e r ie n c e d through a s c r e e n o f words by which th e
e v e n ts are h a b i t u a l ly atom ized and p e r s o n a liz e d —
or p s e u d o -p e r s o n a liz e d # For th e in n e r - d i r e c t e d
p e r so n [th e p e r so n who a c q u ir e s an i n t e r n a l i z e d s e t
o f g o a ls e a r ly In l i f e ] who rem ain s s t i l l e x ta n t In
t h i s p e r io d th e ten d en cy i s r a th e r to s y s te m a tiz e
and m o r a liz e t h i s flo w o f w ord s.
P e r su a sio n r e p r e s e n t s d e l i b e r a t e u se o f sym bols
to i n f lu e n c e or in d u ce a c t i o n in o t h e r s . Sym bols s e r v e
to c r e a t e and r e l e a s e e m o tio n a l t e n s i o n s .
P e r su a sio n r e c o g n iz e s men to be c r e a tu r e s o f
d e s i r e ; i t a l s o r e c o g n iz e s t h a t d e s i r e p r o v id e s a
b a s i s f o r a c t i o n . H en ce, th e s p e a k e r 's p e r s u a s io n s
r e p r e s e n t te c h n iq u e s f o r awakening and s a t i s f y i n g
d e s i r e .162
Broad p r i n c i p l e s r e l a t e d to th e stu d y o f sym bols
as s u p p o r t, a p p e a l, or p r o o f, came o u t o f the Hoover
I n s t i t u t e S t u d ie s o f tre n d s i n th e key sym bols o f modern
p o l i t i c s .
* * » /L * t
Biesm an, G la z e r , and D enney, The L on ely Crowd,
p . 6l .
^^H ochm uth, A H is t o r y and C r it ic is m o f Am erican
P u b lic A d d r ess, p p . 1 6 -1 7 •
71
Prom the c o m p a ra tiv e stu d y o f i d e o l o g i e s , s e c u la r or
s a c r e d , our b r o a d e s t h y p o t h e s is i s t h i s : Any g e n e r a l
sym bol may be e la b o r a te d i n su p p o rt o f any s p e c i f i c
p r o p o s it io n ; any g e n e r a l or s p e c i f i c symbol may be
a p p lie d or n o n a p p lie d in a c t i o n *
The f o r e g o in g h y p o t h e s is i s s t a t e d fo r a l l con
c e i v a b l e c u l t u r e s and h i s t o r i c a l p h a s e s , and a lth o u g h
i t i s p ro b a b ly tru e in t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , i t i s n o t
l i k e l y to h o ld d u rin g any sh o r t p e r io d of tim e . The
f o l lo w in g h y p o t h e s is i s th e more p r o b a b le : During
s h o r t p e r io d s o f tim e f o r s p e c i f i c g r o u p s, th e lin k i n g
o t g e n e r a l w ith s p e c i f i c sym bols and o f sym bols with~~^
o v e r t a c ts may be s t a b l e . 103
L o g ic a l Appeal
L o g ic a l a p p ea l ( l o g o s ) r e f e r s to p e r s u a s io n dom inated
by argum ent backed up by documented p r o o f and s t a t i s t i c s .
I t i s th e a p p eal through r a t i o n a l r e a s o n in g and the a p p l i
c a tio n o f the s c i e n t i f i c method o f th in k in g c o n ta in e d i n
the sp e e c h i t s e l f . I t i s th e a b i l i t y M to r e a so n l o g i c a l l y
"• • • p e r s u a s io n i s e f f e c t e d through th e sp eech i t s e l f
when we have p roved a tr u th or an ap p a ren t t r u t h by means
o f th e p e r s u a s iv e argum ents s u i t a b l e to the c a se in q u e s -
t i o n . " 161* -
The u lt im a t e o b j e c t i v e o f l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s , a c c o r d
in g to Thonssen and B a ir d , i s to a s c e r t a i n 11. . . the u s e
■ ^ ^ L a ssw e ll, L ern er, and P o o l, The Com parative
Study o f S ym b ols, p . 1 0 .
^ ■ ^ A r is t o t le , Book I , Chapter 2 , p . 2 £ .
of l o g i c a l proof in the achievem ent o f 'T ru th.
The orator who d e a ls w ith s o c i a l problems and hence
w ith m atters in v o lv in g value judgments and v a r ia n t
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , can do no more than e a r n e s t ly
s t r i v e for a l o g i c a l coherence which in the long
run may approximate t r u t h . 166
This in v o lv e s n o t only an a n a ly s is of s u b s t a n c e - - " . . .
gen era l m a te r ia ls o f sp ee ch es and t h e ir c h i e f kin ds,
to g e th e r with l i n e s o f argument . . ." Ik ?— but an a n a ly s i
of s t r u c t u r e —"form .1 1 ^ ^
Some of the most im portant o f Burke's s t r a t e g i e s
are to be found w ith in what he c a lle d "form." Burke
devoted the major p o rtio n o f h is book Counter-Statem ent
to an a n a ly s is of form. He d e fin ed the natu re of form
169
as a concern w ith how e f f e c t s are produced* and p ro
ceeded to give a formal d e f i n i t i o n o f i t .
Form in l i t e r a t u r e i s an a rou sin g and f u l f i l l m e n t
of d e s i r e s . A work h as form in so fa r a s one part
of i t lea d s a reader t o a n t ic ip a t e another part* to
^■^^Lester Thonssen, and A. Craig B aird , Speech
C r it ic is m (New York; The Ronald P ress Company, 19H8).
P . ' 355-
l 6 6 ib ia-
"^Karl ft. W allace, "The Substance o f R h eto ric:
Good Reasons," Q u arterly Journal o f Sp eech, ip9:2lj.0-2!4-l,
October, 1 9 6 3.
■^^Holland, C ou n terp o in t, p. 73*
^•k^Burke, c o u n te r -S ta te m e n t, p . 1 2 3 .
73
be g r a t i f i e d by the sequence .^-70
In t h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f form the emphasis i s the r e l a t i o n
of language to the psychology o f the audience and i t i s
t h is a s p e c t of h i s r h e to r ic which has a t t r a c t e d the a t t e n -
171
t io n o f a growing number of stu d e n ts o f r h e to r ic * 1
That i s , the psychology here i s . . . the psychology
o f the a u d ien ce . And by th a t d i s t i n c t i o n , form
would be the psychology o f the a u d ien ce . Or, seen
from another a n g le , form i s the c r e a tio n o f an appe
t i t e in the mind o f the a u d ito r , and the adequate
s a t i s f y i n g of th a t a p p e t i t e . This s a t i s f a c t i o n —
so com p licated i s the human mechanism— a t tim es
in v o lv e s a temporary s e t of f r u s t r a t i o n s , but in the
end th ese f r u s t r a t io n s prove to be simply a more
in v o lv ed kind of s a t i s f a c t i o n , and furthermore serve
to make the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f f u l f i l l m e n t more i n
t e n s e . I f , In a work o f a r t , the poet says something,
l e t u s say, about a m eetin g, w r ite s in such a way
th a t we d e s ir e to observe th at m eetin g, and then, I f
he p la c e s th at m eeting b efore u s - - t h a t i s form.
While o b v io u sly , th a t i s a ls o the psychology o f the
au d ien ce, sin c e i t in v o lv e s d e s ir e s and th e ir
appeasem ents .1 7 2
The c o n s u b s t a n t ia lit y o f audience and speaker i s Induced
by the e x te n t th a t s t r u c tu r a l elem ents meet the e x p e cta
t io n or needs o f the a u d ien ce. Mouat c l a s s i f i e s t h i s as
"m aterial I d e n t i f i c a t i o n ."
To c r e a t e , str e n g th e n , or s o l i d i f y b e l i e f an e f f e c
t i v e r h e to r ic w i l l d eal w ith the lin k a g e s and the
o p p o sitio n s o f id e a s , i d e n t if y in g the p o s i t i v e w ith
what the audience a c c e p ts and the negative- w ith what i t
■^^Burke, C ou nter-S tatem en t, p . 12 L }..
^^^Clark, "Lessons from the L ite r a r y C r i t i c s ," p. 81}..
■^^Burke, C ou nter-S tatem en t, p . 31*
r e j e c t s * Order i s . e s t a b l i s h e d , c o m p le x itie s are
s i m p l i f ie d , and p o l a r iz a t io n s are e f f e c t e d .
M aterial i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s p rim a rily a m atter of
in v e n tio n : s e l e c t i o n o f t o p ic s and s e l e c t i o n of
developm ental f a c t o r s for p r o o f, c l a r i f i c a t i o n , or
a p p r e c ia tio n . O bviously, d i s p o s i t i o n , s t y l e , e t c . ,
cannot be ignored; but c o n ten t i s paramount. The
audience i s g iv en the m a te r ia l i t wants and n e e d s.^73
Adapting of the Three Proofs to Modern C r itic is m
The three a r t i s t i c p roofs which have t h e ir bases
in the w r itin g s of A r i s t o t l e are e t h i c a l app eal, em otional
a p p ea l, and l o g i c a l a p p ea l.
As i d e a s , they a l l seem no l e s s com pelling now than
they ever were, though in our s o c i e t y a speaker might
o fte n have to in d iv id u a te them in a d i f f e r e n t image
than the Greeks would have chosen, i f he would convey
a maximum sense of a c t u a l i t y .^74-
This ’’maximum sen se o f a c t u a l i t y ” would req u ire a change
o f terms more adaptive to our s o c i e t y f o r g r e a te r e f f i
c ie n c y of understanding by the audience the c r i t i c hoped
to rea ch , and f o r more accu rate "naming” of what language
was r e a l l y d o in g . H olland gave an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f the use
o f the Burkeian s tr a te g y concept in analyzin g language
in a c t i o n .
For example, there i s a p o s s i b i l i t y th a t the s t a t e
ment, "This speaker i s u sin g the s tr a te g y o f ex h o r ta
t io n which he i s carryin g out p rim a rily by u s in g the
s t r a t e g i e s o f fla g -w a v in g and i n v e c t i v e , expressed
■^^Mouat, i i A p p r o a c h to R h e to r ic a l C r itic is m ,"
p. 172.
■*-7^Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, p. £6.
s t y l i s t i c a l l y through the s tr a te g y o f s y l l o g i s t i c
p r o g r e s s io n ,” says more, d e s c r i p t i v e l y , than the
statem en t, "This speaker i s persuading through the
use o f em otional a p p e a l*”175
Arrangement or O rganization
and the S tr a te g y Concept
Arrangement i s the b lu e p r in t or framework o f the
sp eech . The th ree d i v i s i o n s o f a speech are known g e n e r
a l l y as the In tr o d u c tio n , Body or D is c u s s io n , and the Con
e lu s i o n . Burke co n sid ered the arrangement as a type of
p e r su a siv e form.
There i s a lso p e r su a siv e form i n the la r g e r se n s e ,
form ulated as a p r o g r e ssio n o f s te p s th a t b eg in s w ith
an exordium d esign ed to secure the good w i l l o f o n e ’ s
aud ien ce, n e x t s t a t e s o n e 's own p o s i t i o n , then p o in ts
up the nature o f the d is p u te , then b u ild s up o n e's
own case a t le n g t h , then r e f u t e s the claim s of the
adversary, and in a f i n a l p e r o ra tio n expands and
r e in f o r c e s a l l p o in ts in o n e 's fa v o r , while seeking
to d i s c r e d i t whatever had favored the adversary
( v it u p e r a tio n , ir o n y , and appeal to the emotions
a ls o being drawn upon h e r e ) . The g r e a t concern
with the c l a s s i f y i n g and a n alyzin g o f m inute i n
c id e n t a l e f f e c t s has caused w r ite r s on a n c ie n t
r h e to r ic to say th a t th ese la rg e r p r in c ip le s o f
form were s l i g h t e d . Y et they are reco g n ized as
s e t s t a g e s in the stru cu re [s i c . J o f an o r a tio n ,
alm ost as form al as the movement o f a symphony.1 7 6
To Burke the beginn in gs and endings were p a r t ic u la r ly
s t r a t e g i c . "A b eg in n in g , we observed, should ' i m p l i c i t l y
■^■^Holland, "Kenneth Burke’ s D r a m a tistic Approach
in Speech C r i t i c i s m , ” p. 3^7.
■^^Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, p. 69*
76
con tain ' i t s endin g— and an ending should be the e x p l i c i t
cu lm in ation o f a l l th a t had flow ed from the b e g in n in g s ."^77
• • • should we n ot a tta c h p a r t ic u la r s ig n if i c a n c e
to the s i t u a t i o n s on which the work opens and c l o s e s ,
and the v en ts by which the p e r ip e ty , or r e v e r s a l i s
con trived ? Hence, along w ith the d i s t i n c t i o n between
opposing p r in c ip le s we should note the development
from what through what to what* So we p lace g r e a t
s t r e s s upon th ose q u a l i t a t i v e p o in t s : the " layin g
of the corn ersto n e," the "watershed moment," and the
" v a le d ic to r y ," or " fu neral w reath ."178
These q u a l it a t i v e p o in ts to which Burke r e fe r r e d were a ls o
those he con sid ered as the " c r i t i c a l points" of work.
They are the "• . . changes of s lo p e , where some new
q u a lit y e n t e r s . " ^ ^ They are synonymous w ith the c lim a c
t i c p o in ts in a drama.
S ty le as S tr a teg y
Just as Burke found p er su a siv e form in the s t r u c
ture o f the speech and in the su bstance, he found form
in the s t y l i s t i c handling o f the m a te r ia ls in d is c o u r s e .
The in d iv id u a l sen ten ce and the in d iv id u a l fig u r e of
speech have form.^®^
"The sp ea k er's in d iv id u a l s t r a t e g i e s are h is
177
Burke, A Grammar of M otiv es, p. 338.
-^^Burke, The Philosophy of L iter a ry Form, pp. 70-71,
1T9Ibid., p. 78.
* 1 Q A
Burke, Counter-Statement. p. 139*
s t y l i s t i c d e v ic e s f o r encompassing a s i t u a t i o n , and th e
1 R l
o v e r - a l l s tr a te g y o f h i s speech i s per se h i s style,"
The u se o f s t y l e as str a te g y i s the use o f s t y l e as a
mode o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The speaker can a ch iev e i d e n t i
f i c a t i o n and hence c o n s u b s t a n t i a li t y w ith h i s audience
through the use o f the c o r r e c t word at the c o r r e c t tim e .
Burke would c a l l t h i s the use o f the " id e a l word" which
in i t s e l f i s an a c t and i t s v a lu e i s c o n ta in e d in i t s u se
a t the time i t was spoken.1^2
According to Bryant, s t y l e should be con sid ered
". • . a s the order and movements we g iv e to our
t h o u g h t s A n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s t y le i s an i n v e s t i
g a tio n o f the man who employs the s t y le and o f the g r o u p (
f o r which he i s a c t i n g .
I f s t y l e i s the man h im s e lf , then a c l o s e sc r u tin y
o f the d e t a i l s o f s t y l e sh ou ld t e l l u s what manner
of man i s doing the sp eak ing, or the w r itin g , and
in what r e la t io n s h ip , he c o n c e iv e s h im s e lf to be
w ith h i s audience
An a n a l y s is of the s t y l e of a group of sp ee ch es (th o se
of a p o l i t i c a l p a r ty , f o r in s ta n c e ) would r e v e a l much
about the group as a w hole. Such an a n a l y s is might go so
■^^Holland, " R h etorical C r itic is m : A Burkeian
Method," p.
•*-^Burke, The Philosophy o f L ite r a r y Form, p. 1 6 7 .
!83B ryant, "R hetoric: I t s F unctions and I t s Scope
p. 110.
l8i)-jjichols, Rhetoric and Criticism, p. l l ^ . .
78
f a r as to r e v e a l the s o l i d a r i t y of the group or the p r e -
185
d i c t i o n of a us p l i n t e r i n g •"
An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s t y l e i s an i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f
how language i s b e in g u s e d . The study o f s t y l e may encom
p ass the stu d y o f "images" and thus encompass a study of
"imagination."^®® Burke contended th a t there was a d i f
fe r e n c e between an a b s t r a c t term naming an "idea" such as
" s e c u r ity ," and a c o n c r e te image which stands fo r t h i s
id e a and p la c e s i t b e fo r e "our very e y e s."
For one t h in g , i f the image employs the f u l l r e so u r c e s
of im a g in a tio n , i t w i l l n o t r e p r e s e n t m erely one id e a ,
but w i l l c o n ta in a whole bundle o f p r i n c i p l e s , even
ones th a t would be m u tu a lly c o n tr a d ic to r y i f reduced
to t h e i r pu rely i d e a t io n a l e q u i v a l e n t s . I d e a t i o n a l l y ,
a speaker might have to go through much r ea so n in g i f
he wanted to equate a c e r t a i n measure with p u b lic
s e c u r i t y . But i f he could t r a n s la t e i t im a g in a lly
in to terms o f , s a y , the m other, he m ight p r o f i t not
only from t h i s one i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , but from many
kindred p r i n c ip l e s or id e a s which, when approached in
t h is s p i r i t , are a s s o c i a t e d w ith the mother-image
(or mother p r i n c i p l e , or id e a o f the m o th e r ).187
A c o n s id e r a t io n of the nom inating speech as both p o l i t i c a l
and cerem onial n e c e s s i t a t e s a g la n c e at language which i s
elo q u e n t and a t language which i s p o l i t i c a l in n a tu r e .
The method most n a tu ra l to a t t a i n i n g i n t e r e s t to the
psychology o f form i s eloq uence .^-®®
185
Burke, A t t it u d e s T ow ard-H istoryt V o l. I , p . 131.
Burke, A R h eto ric of M o tiv e s, p. 8 1 .
’ L® ^ Ib id ., pp. 8 6- 8 7 •
■*-®®Burke, Counter-Statement, p. 36.
79
" S t y le , in the language of p o l i t i c s , i s the arran ge
ment of the p a rts of which a p o l i t i c a l communication i s
made."1^ L a ssw ell continued h is d is c u s s io n with a b a sic
p r o p o s itio n of the theory o f s t y l e in the language o f
p o l i t i c s — "s t y l e v a r ie s according to the e x p e c ta tio n s of
the communicator about the arrangement of communication
elem ents th a t w i l l most econ o m ically achieve the optimum
power effect. S t y l e i s thus r e l a t e d to the producing
o f e f f e c t upon an au d ien ce. As has been in d ic a t e d , fo r
the r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c s t y l e i s im portant as an in d ic a to r
of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of and the temper of a man or a
group. L a ssw ell in d ic a te d what he con sid ered to be most
important about the study o f s t y l e .
In the long run, however, the study o f s t y le may
make i t s l a r g e s t c o n tr ib u tio n in r e l a t i o n to the
problem of in te r p r e t in g s i g n i f i c a n t p o l i t i c a l tr e n d s.
C erta in changes in s t y l e may in d ic a t e the gradual
d e c lin e o f dem ocratic f e e l i n g , or r e v e a l the ground
s w e ll o f gath erin g c r i s i s . S ty le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may
prove to be d ia g n o s tic c r i t e r i a f o r the d is c lo s u r e of
d e s t r u c t ic e [s i c .] or c r e a tiv e p o l i t i c a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s .
For s t y l e i s not to be d ism issed as ornam entation.
The m ost important th in g to be s a id about s t y l e i s
th a t i t cannot be exhausted, s in c e s t y l e i s an i n
d isp e n sa b le fe a tu r e of every c o n fig u r a tio n o f meaning
in any p rocess o f communication. The a n a ly s is of
what i s communicated—o f c o n t e n t - - c a l l s fo r the
exam ination of purport and s t y l e . Sin ce s t y l e i s
^Harold D. L a ss w e ll, Nathan L e i t e s , and A s s o c i-
a t e s , Language of P o l i t i c s : S tu d ies in Q u a n tita tiv e
Sem antics [New York: George W. S tew art, I n c . , 19i|-9)>
p. 2 0 .
190
Ibid., p . 26.
80
the arrangement of the symbols and sig n s which are
the elem entary u n it s o f communication, s t y l e i s a
s tr u c tu r a l f a c t about any completed sequ en ce.191
For the purpose of t h i s study, s t y l e as a form of
s tr a te g y by which the speakers obtained a sense o f i d e n t i
f i c a t i o n with the audience w i l l be the major concern. For
t h i s rea son , the speeches w i l l be analyzed b r i e f l y accord
ing to the q u a l i t i e s of s t y l e as s e t fo r th by Thonssen
and B a ir d --c o r r e c tn e s s , c le a r n e s s , a p p ro p ria te n e ss, and
o r n a te n e ss--b u t w ith emphasis on speaker-audience r e l a t i o n -
192
s h ip s . 7 An a n a ly s is o f the c o r r e c tn e ss of a speech
would in v o lv e an a n a ly s is o f word choice or u sa g e, ranging
from a study o f the vocabulary used to an e v a lu a tio n o f
the ’’p u r ity and e x c e lle n c e in d i e t i o n . ”^93 C learn ess
would carry the study one ste p fu r th e r to in c lu d e the
arrangement o f the words as w e ll as the ch o ice The
s t y l e would be s c r u tin iz e d to a s c e r ta in i t s a p p ro p ria te
l y
ness to the speaker, the audience, and the o c c a s io n .
O rnateness, as a ’’d i s t i n c t i v e q u a lity that depends upon
the a r t i s t i c handling o f words”^9^ would be con sid ered as
■ ^ 9^Las s w e ll, L e it e s , and A s s o c ia t e s , Language of
P o l i t i c s , p. 38*
192
7 Thonssen and B aird, Speech C r it ic is m , pp.
1 9 3I b id , p. 1 + 1 0 .
^9^ T bid., p. lj.1 2 *
19%bid., p. lp.£. 196lbid.t p. lp.6.
8 1
th e i n d i v i d u a l to u c h o f the o r a t o r t h a t i n v o l v e s f u l l and
i n t e l l i g e n t u s e o f a l l th a t c o n s t i t u t e s s t y l e #
F i t t i n g D e l i v e r y i n t o B u rk eia n C r i t i c i s m
In h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , th e r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c who i s
c o g n iz a n t o f c l a s s i c a l r h e t o r i c w i l l n o t e t h a t th e B u rk eian
m ethods f o r a n a l y s i s c u t a c r o s s the A r i s t o t e l i a n t h r e e
f o l d d i v i s i o n i n t o e t h i c a l , e m o t io n a l, and l o g i c a l p r o o f s ,
and th e f i v e - f o l d Roman d i v i s i o n o f sp ee ch p r e p a r a tio n
i n t o i n v e n t i o n , arran gem en t, s t y l e , d e l i v e r y , and
m em o riza tion * A l l o f t h e s e are a c co u n ted f o r , e x c e p t
d e l i v e r y and memory. ("Memory,1 1 a s su ch , w i l l n o t be
t r e a t e d in t h i s . s t u d y . )
The d r a m a t i s t i c pentad i s c o n s id e r e d by Burke to
be the g e n e r a t in g p r i n c i p l e f o r th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o be
made by the c r i t i c * T h is i n v o l v e s A c t, S c e n e , A g en t,
Agency, and Purpose* In the p r e lim in a r y a n a l y s i s made
f o r t h i s s t u d y , the A ct was i d e n t i f i e d a s the p l a c i n g o f
names In n o m in a tio n f o r the P r e s id e n c y o f the U n ite d
S t a t e s and the Agency was the la n g u a g e i n th e form o f th e
p o l i t i c a l n o m in a tin g s p e e c h . The c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f s t r a
t e g i e s em ployed, as o u t l i n e d i n th e stu d y up to t h i s p o i n t ,
c a r r i e s th e c r i t i c to th e p o i n t o f d e l i v e r y . A lth ou gh
Burke d o e s n o t t r e a t d e l i v e r y a s su ch i n h i s w o rk s, the
f i n a l a c t o f the sp ea k er In t r a n s m i t t in g h i s th o u g h ts t o
the audience co n ta in s so many v a r ia b le s th a t a thorough
c o n s id e r a tio n o f the d r a m a tistic a sp ec ts o f the Act would
be hampered by a n e g le c t of the a sp e c ts o f d e l iv e r y .
D e liv e r y c o n ta in s both c o n scio u s and u n con scious
s t r a t e g i e s - - t h e carryin g o f the a c t beyond d e lib e r a t e
d e s ig n . According to Winston Brembeck and W illiam
H o w e ll:
The bases o f d e liv e r y are v o i c e , b o d ily a c tio n ,
and the p sy c h o lo g ic a l in t e r a c t io n of audience and
speaker known a s c ir c u la r r e sp o n se . Vocal elem ents
i d e a l l y are i n t e l l i g i b l e and f l e x i b l e , « » . P r in c ip l
o f empathy seem to govern c ir c u la r r e s p o n s e .197
L assw ell c o n sid er s d e liv e r y as part of the s t y l e o f the
sp eak er. The en u n cia tio n and g e stu r e s o f a speaker are
as much a p art o f s t y l e as are the word c h o ic e , gram
m a tic a l form s, and sen ten ce le n g th .
. . . in the study o f tren d , as indeed o f every
a sp ec t o f the p r o cess o f communication, s t y l e i s
p a r t ic u la r ly i n t e r e s t i n g s i n c e , f o r the most p a rt,
i t l i e s beyond c o n scio u s c o n t r o l . The m a n ife st con
te n t (purport) of what i s sa id can be subordinated
to d e lib e r a t e management. The su b tle unconscious
p a tte r n in g o f sp eech , han dw riting, p o stu r e , and i n
voluntary movements i s g e n e r a lly r e c o g n iz e d , and has
given r i s e to t e s t i n g procedures invented by psycholo
g i s t s and p s y c h i a t r i s t s , . . . I t i s by the i n v e s t i
g a tio n o f s t y l e th at we may gain more i n s i g h t in to
the c u rren ts o f h is t o r y which are u s u a lly below the
th resh old o f c o n s c io u s n e s s ,1 9 8
l o 7
7 ,Winston Lamont Brembeck, and W illiam Smiley
H ow ell, P ersu a sion ; A Means o f S o c ia l C ontrol (New York:
P r e n t ic e - H a ll, I n c . , l95^)» P« 391,
iqft
7 L a ssw e ll, Lerner, and Pool, The Comparative
Study o f Symbols, p . 2 1 ,
For the purposes o f t h i s stu d y , the tape r e c o r d in g s
of the nom ination sp eech es w i l l be used as the source from
which o b s e r v a tio n s con cern in g the v o c a l d e liv e r y o f the
sp eech es w i l l be made. The r e c o r d in g s a ffo r d the c r i t i c
o p p o rtu n ity f o r s u c c e s s iv e h e a r in g s com plete w ith audience
r e a c t i o n s ,
I I I . CONTENT ANALYSIS AND COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
D e f i n i t i o n and D e s c r ip tio n o f Content A n a ly sis
Content a n a l y s i s , in the sen se th at i t i s used in
t h i s stu dy, i s an o b j e c t i v e , s y s t e m a tic , and q u a n t it a t iv e
method f o r th e a n a ly s is o f communication c o n t e n t ,^99 I t
has as i t s purpose the i n t e n t i o n of d e s c r ib in g with o p t i
mum o b j e c t i v i t y , p r e c i s i o n , and g e n e r a l i t y , i n terms
ap p rop ria te to the problem, what was being sa id in the
major nom ination sp eech es d e liv e r e d a t the i 960 n a tio n a l
p o l i t i c a l c o n v e n tio n s. I t i s then a sy stem a tic study o f
the s y n t a c t i c and sem antic dim ensions o f language in
a c t i o n .
Content a n a l y s i s , as a r e se a r c h tech n iq u e, i s
b a s i c a l l y a c l o s e , se n te n c e -b y -se n te n c e sc r u tin y o f
o r a l or w r itte n d is c o u r s e fo r the purpose o f d e t e r
mining what kin ds o f "meanings" the words may r e p r e
s e n t . I t i s r e a l l y a sem antic a n a ly s is o f sym bols.
I t i s c h a r a c te r iz e d by r a th e r e la b o r a te s y s te m a tiz a
t i o n , w ith or w ith o u t p r e c is e q u a n t it a t iv e u n i t s , and
^ ^ B ern ard B e r e ls o n , Content A n a ly sis in Communica
t i o n Research (Glencoe, I l l i n o i s : The Free Press, 195^)> P* 16,
w ith or w ith o u t m athem atical a n a l y s is * In b r i e f ,
i t i s a tech n iq u e f o r f i n d i n g out how much o f what
i s p r e se n te d how* One way o f lo o k in g a t c o n te n t
a n a l y s i s i s to rega rd i t a s a means o f p u t t in g a wide
v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t word p a tt e r n s i n t o a s i n g l e
c a te g o r y - - o r many c a t e g o r i e s ,2 0 0
One o f the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s o f c o n te n t a n a l y s i s ,
as c o n tr a s te d w ith o th e r te c h n iq u e s o f d e s c r ib in g l a n
gu age, i s i t s q u a n t i t a t i v e a sp e c t* "Content a n a l y s i s
aims a t a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f c o n te n t i n more p r e c i s e ,
n u m erical terms than I s p rovid ed by i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c 'more
20 1
or l e s s 1 judgments of 1e i t h e r - o r 1
As soon as e v a lu a t io n e n t e r s , how ever, the t e c h
nique I s no lo n g e r pure q u a n t i t a t i v e c o n te n t a n a ly s is *
Content a n a l y s i s can d e s c r ib e com m unications b u t
i t ca n n ot, per s e , e v a lu a te them. E v a lu a tio n n e c e s
s i t a t e s the a c cep ta n ce o f a sta n d ard , or sta n d a r d s,
w ith which the communication c o n te n t i s then compared
by means of c o n te n t a n a l y s is * I t i s im portant to
em phasize th a t the a n a l y s i s o f c o n te n t alone I s n o t
s u f f i c i e n t f o r purposes o f e v a lu a t io n , b u t t h a t the
d e s ig n a t io n o f c e r t a i n v a lu e s to be a p p lie d to or
r e a l i z e d through communication c o n te n t i s e s s e n t i a l *
A v a lu e judgment must be made i n s e t t i n g up the
stan d ard ; a n a l y s i s can then measure performance
a g a in s t th e s ta n d a r d .2 0 2
This d o es n o t mean t h a t e v a lu a t io n cannot and should n o t
^ ^ R e d d in g , " E x tr in s ic and I n t r i n s i c C r it ic is m ,"
p* 1 0 2 .
201
Abraham Kaplan and Joseph M. G old sen, "The R e li
b i l i t y o f Content A n a ly s is C a te g o r ie s ," Language o f P o l i
t i c s * comp. Harold D. L a s s w e ll, Nathan L e i t e s , and A s so c i
a t e s (New York: George W * S te w a r t, I n c . , 19^9)* P» 83*
202
B e r e ls o n , C ontent A n a l y s i s , p . ij.6 *
85
b e . a p a r t o f r e s e a r c h i n v o l v i n g c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s . E v a lu
a t i o n m ust be a p a r t o f the stu d y or the r e s u l t s end up as
m ere w o r d -c o u n tin g , busy work, or number p l a y . The
e v a l u a t i o n r e s t s i n th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r e s u l t s , n o t
i n e la b o r a t e a ssu m p tio n s made on th e b a s i s o f what i s
d i s c o v e r e d .
Thus c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s , by making p r e r e q u i s i t e an e x
p l i c i t sta te m e n t o f c r i t e r i a and p r o c ed u r es u se d to
d e s c r ib e the c o n t e n t o f any com m unication, m in im iz e s
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c u n c e r t a i n t i e s w it h w hich " im p r es
s i o n i s t i c 1 1 a n a l y s i s l e a v e s i t s a u d ie n c e ; and in so
doing i t f u l f i l l s the m ain c o n d i t i o n o f o b j e c t i v i t y :
to p r o v id e s u f f i c i e n t in fo r m a tio n to e n a b le o th e r
o b s e r v e r s to r e p l i c a t e th e o b s e r v a t i o n s made on th e
g iv e n body o f d a t a . 203
Up t o t h i s p o i n t , c o n t e n t a n a l y s i s h as been u s e d
to a id in r e s e a r c h o p e r a t i o n s - - a "hand-m aiden a p p l i c a
tio n " - - b u t i t s c o n t r i b u t i o n h a s been l i m i t e d * ^ ^ L a s s w e ll
i s c r e d i t e d w ith in t r o d u c in g a p o l i t i c a l com p lexion to
c o n te n t a n a l y s i s by v ie w in g com m unication problem s w i t h i n
th e framework o f a th e o r y o f p o l i t i c s . C on ten t a n a l y s i s
h a s been a p p lie d l e s s f r e q u e n t l y in the stu d y o f r h e t o r i c a l
and o r a t o r i c a l s t y l e . Most o f th e a p p l i c a t i o n s have been
made i n th e stu d y o f p o l i t i c a l m a t e r i a l s . 20^ Y e t much o f
th e same in fo r m a tio n which i s in c lu d e d i n the more orth od o x
2CH
-'L a ssw e ll, L ern er, and P o o l, The Com parative
Study o f S ym b ols, p. 3 2 .
2 < “ ^ B e r e ls o n , C on ten t A n a l y s i s , pp. 5 3 - 5 8 .
20%bid., p. 7 1.
86
r h e t o r i c a l s t u d i e s in c r i t i c i s m can be fu r n ish e d by c o n te n t
a n a l y s i s - - " t h e sp ea k er ’ s s u b je c t m a tte r , h i s p o s i t i o n on
th a t s u b je c t m atter and the exuent and v a r ie t y o f h is
p Ci A
e v id e n c e •" One o f the major u s e s of c o n ten t a n a ly s is
has been to i d e n t i f y the i n t e n t i o n s and the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of the communicators* The l o g i c i n such an a p p lic a t io n i s
th a t i f the c o n ten t has c e r t a in d e fin a b le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
then the communicator must p o s s e s s th ese same d e fin a b le
207
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s * The same h o ld s true w ith determ ining
the i n t e n t i o n s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a group or perhaps
even o f a c o u n try .
We have seen th a t c o n ten t a n a l y s is o p e r a te s on the
view th a t verb a l behavior i s a form o f human b e h a v io r 9
t h a t the flo w of symbols i s a p a r t o f the flo w of
e v e n t s , and th a t the communication p rocess i s an
a s p e c t o f the h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s . What i s sa id
in the communication channels o f any country a t any
time i s , t h e r e f o r e , p a r t of what i s done in th a t
c o u n try . Content a n a ly s is i s a technique which aims
a t d e s c r ib in g , w ith optimum o b j e c t i v i t y , p r e c i s i o n ,
and g e n e r a l i t y , what i s sa id on a g iv e n s u b je c t in
a g iv e n p la c e at a g iv en time*208
Content A n a ly s is and Kenneth Burke
At f i r s t g la n c e , a wedding o f c o n te n t a n a ly s is and
2 0 ^David W. Shepard, "Henry J . T a y lo r 's Radio T alks:
A Content A n a ly s is," Journalism Q u a rterly , 3 3 :2 0 , W inter,
1956.
207
'B e r e lso n , Content A n a l y s i s , p* 7 2 .
Pnfl
L a s s w e ll, Lerner, and P ool, The Comparative
Study o f Sym bols, p. 3I+.
87
Burkeian methods o f c r i t i c i s m makes f o r strange b e d fe llo w s
and anything but co n ju g a l b l i s s . Although c o n te n t a n a ly s is
does d e a l w ith the q u a n t it a t iv e a s p e c t o f symbols as they
occur in language in a c tio n and the theme o f B urke's p h i
losop hy i s "sym bolic a c tio n ," there seems to be l i t t l e e l s e
th a t the two m ight have in common. I t was Kenneth Burke,
however, who f i r s t in d ic a t e d th a t i n c o n sid e r in g some of
the a sp e c ts o f r h e t o r i c a l a c tio n th a t "symbolic" m ight be
equated w ith "s t a t i s t i c a l
The s t r a t e g y o f imagism s u g g e s ts the reason yrhy,
however d e s ir a b le pure r e a lis m may b e, the " s t a t i s
t i c a l approach" o f c r i t i c i s m n e c e s s a r i l y c a r r ie s us
beyond i t . The world c o n ta in s an i n f i n i t y o f o b j e c t s .
The a r t i s t ' s engrossm ent in v o lv e s a s e l e c t i o n from
among them. As soon as you look f o r the p a tte r n under
ly in g h i s s e l e c t i v i t y , and the p a tt e r n whereby he pro
ceeds from one kind o f e v en t to a n o th er, h i s " s o c ia l
a ttr ib u te s " (as "members" of a c l a s s ) are found to
"transcend" h i s " r e a l i s t i c in d iv i d u a l it y ." The p o e t ' s
s e l e c t i v i t y i s l i k e the s e l e c t i v i t y o f a man w ith a
t i c . He s q u in ts or jerk s when some words are spoken,
otherw ise n o t . You d i s c l o s e the "sym bolic o r g a n iz a
tion" of h i s t i c when you have found the c l a s s of words
th a t provokes i t . S im ila r ly , the p o e t ' s s e l e c t i v i t y
i s t i c - l i k e - - a n d the d is c o v e r y o f i t s o r g a n iz a tio n
i s per se the d is c o v e r y of i t s sym bolic a s p e c t .2 1 0
Burke c a r r ie s h i s " tic" analogy fu r th e r i n a l a t e r work.
This " s t a t i s t i c a l " view o f h i s work, in d i s c l o s i n g
a tr e n d , puts us upon the track o f the ways in which
h i s s e l e c t i o n of r o le i s a "sym bolic a c t." He i s l i k e
a. man w ith a t i c , who sp asm od ica lly b lin k s h i s eyes
when c e r t a in s u b je c ts are m entioned. I f you k e p t a
2 ° 9Burke, The P hilosoph y of L ite r a r y Form, p. 18.
210
Burke, Attitudes Toward History, Vol. II, p. 21.
l i s t o f th e s e s u b j e c t s , n o t in g what was sa id each
time he sp a sm o d ic a lly b lin k e d h i s e y e s , you would
f i n d what the t i c was "symbolic" o f .2 1 1
In o th er w ords, a s t a t i s t i c a l stu dy o f a s s o c i a t i o n s and
c l u s t e r s w i l l show the s t r u c t u r e o f m o tiv a tio n o p e r a tin g .
Now, the work o f every w r ite r c o n ta in s a s e t o f
i m p l i c i t e q u a t i o n s . He u s e s "a s s o c i a t i o n a l c l u s t e r s .
And you may, by exam ining h i s work, f in d "what g o e s
w ith what" in th e s e c l u s t e r s - - w h a t k in d s o f a c t s and
images and p e r s o n a l i t i e s and s i t u a t i o n s go w ith h i s
n o t io n s o f h eroism , v i l l a i n y , c o n s o la t io n , d e s p a ir ,
e t c . And though he be p e r f e c t l y c o n sc io u s o f the
a c t of w r i t i n g , c o n s c io u s o f s e l e c t i n g a c e r t a i n kind
o f im agery to r e i n f o r c e a c e r t a i n kind o f mood, e t c . ,
he cannot p o s s i b l y be c o n s c io u s o f the i n t e r r e l a t i o n
sh ip s among a l l th e s e e q u a t io n s . A fterw ard s, by
in s p e c t i n g h i s work " s t a t i s t i c a l l y , " we or he may
d i s c l o s e by o b j e c t i v e c i t a t i o n the s t r u c tu r e of
m o t iv a tio n o p e r a tin g h e r e . There i s no need to
"supply" m o t iv e s . The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s th em selves
are h i s m o t iv e s . For they are h i s s i t u a t i o n ; and
s i t u a t i o n i s but another word f o r m o t i v e s . The m o ti
v a t io n o u t o f which he w r it e s i s synonymous w ith the
s t r u c t u r a l way in which he p u ts e v e n ts and v a lu e s
to g e th e r when he w r i t e s ; and however c o n s c io u s ly he
may go about such work, th e re i s a kind o f g e n e r a liz a
t io n about th ese i n t e r r e l a t i o n s th a t he co u ld not
have been c o n s c io u s o f , s i n c e the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n
could be made by the kind o f in s p e c t i o n t h a t i s
p o s s i b l e o n ly a f t e r the com p letio n o f the work .^ 12
For though th ere must be p u r e ly t h e o r e t i c a l grounds
f o r s e l e c t i n g some i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s r a t h e r than
o th e rs as more s i g n i f i c a n t , the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s
them selves, can be shown by c i t a t i o n to be t h e r e *213
One o f B urke's most s u c c e s s f u l a n a ly s e s , "The
R h eto r ic of H i t l e r ’ s ’B a t t l e ’ ," was l i s t e d i n the
Pi i
Burke, The P h iloso p h y o f L ite r a r y Form, p. 2 0 .
212Ibid.
213Ibid., p. 77.
b ib lio g r a p h y o f Bernard B e r e ls o n 's book C ontent A n a ly s is
in Communication R esearch as an example o f " q u a lita t iv e "
c o n ten t a n a l y s i s . The purpose of the a n a l y s i s as g i v e n —
to d is c o v e r what H i t l e r did so we can guard a g a in s t i t
happening in A m e r ic a ^ ^ — dem onstrated i t s u s e f u l n e s s f o r
the p r e d i c t i o n o f fu tu r e e v e n t s .
S in c e we are i n t e r e s t e d in the r e g u l a r i t i e s of
sym bolic b e h a v io r in the p a s t , and in the p r e d ic t io n
o f such b eh a v io r under s p e c i f i e d c o n d it io n s in the
f u t u r e , c o n te n t a n a l y s i s aims a t r e s u l t s which are
s u f f i c i e n t l y g e n e r a l to v a l i d a t e in f e r e n c e s beyond
the s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n a n a ly z e d .215
C ontent a n a l y s i s and the c r i t i c a l methods of
Burke do n ot make such stra n g e b e d fe llo w s a f t e r a l l . The
c r i t i c a l a n a l y s is in t h i s study may be c o n sid e r e d as one
of t h e i r l e g i t i m a t e l y c o n c eiv ed c h ild r e n , a lth o u g h n e it h e
method may w ish to cla im i t a s i t s own.
The D esign f o r t h i s Study
Content a n a l y s i s should b e g in where t r a d i t i o n a l
modes o f r e s e a r c h en d . The man who w ish es to u se
c o n te n t a n a l y s i s f o r a stu d y o f the propaganda o f
some p o l i t i c a l p a r ty , f o r example, sh ould s te e p him
s e l f in th a t propaganda. B efore he b e g in s to c o u n t,
he should read i t to d e t e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c mechanisms
and d e v i c e s . He should stu d y the v ocab u lary and f o r
m at. He sh ould know the p a r ty o r g a n iz a t io n and p e r
s o n n e l. Prom t h i s knowledge he should o r g a n ize h i s
h y p o th e se s and p r e d i c t i o n s . At t h i s p o i n t , in a
^"^Burke, The P h ilo sop h y o f L it e r a r y Form, p. 77*
2i g
jLasswell, L ern er, and P o o l, The Comparative
Study o f Sym bols, p . 3 2 .
90
c o n v e n tio n a l study, he would s t a r t w r it in g . At t h is
p o in t, in a conten t a n a l y s i s , he i s , in s t e a d , ready
to s e t up h i s c a t e g o r ie s , to p r e t e s t them, and then
to s t a r t c o u n tin g .^ lo
E s t a b lis h in g the C a te g o ries
Before e s t a b l i s h in g the c a t e g o r ie s , the f i r s t
ste p seemed to be a r e v ie w o f the p u rp ose(s) o f the
a n a l y s i s —What was the s i g n if i c a n c e o f the nom inating
speeches in the r o le o f nominating a candidate fo r P r e s i
dent; as r e l a t e d to the secondary fu n c tio n s o f a p o l i t i c a l
con ven tion (p r esen t p a rty platform , p r esen t party image,
s e t tone o f cam paign); as a form of p u b lic address? What
i s a nom inating speech— i t s b a s ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i t s
s t y l e , i t s fu n ctio n ? With what i s s u e s do the speakers
d eal and to what e x te n t? According to the co n ten t of the
sp eech es, vihat t r a i t s are con sid ered by the speakers as
most important to q u a lif y a man for P resid en t?
The n e x t step was the e sta b lish m e n t o f c a te g o r ie s
fo r t e s t i n g . The c a te g o r ie s fo r t e s t i n g the substance of
the speech in r e l a t i o n to the i s s u e s th a t were d e a l t w ith
could be obtained by a p r e -q u a n tit a tiv e a n a ly s is of
217
speeches or by a symbol l i s t d erived from p u b lic opin ion
L a ss w e ll, Lerner, and Pool, The Comparative
Study of Sym bols, p. 6£.
^■^Berelson, Content A n a ly s i s , p. l l £ .
p o l l s which would g iv e a l i s t o f i s s u e s b e fo r e the p u b lic
i n 1959 an(i 1 9 6 0 . ^ ^ Both o f th ese m ethods, a f t e r con
s i d e r a t io n and r e s e a r c h , were discarded* To o b ta in the
l i s t o f i s s u e s from the sp eech es would not g iv e any i n d i
c a tio n o f the i s s u e s which were not used by the speakers
but which were co n sid ered im portant enough by the p arty
to take a p u b lic stand concerning them in the o f f i c i a l
p a rty p la tfo r m . The c o n s id e r a tio n o f the u se of the
p u b lic o p in io n p o l l s was dropped in favor of the use of
an e x te r n a l source c l o s e r to the nom ination speeches
which would g iv e n o t only the p u b lic i s s u e s o f the day
but the i s s u e s o f the party and the party stand on ea ch .
A p r e - q u a n t it a t i v e a n a ly s is o f the Democratic and Repub
l i c a n p a rty p la tfo rm s was made to determ ine the i s s u e s o f
the day and the p arty p o s i t i o n on each as p resen ted by
the p a r t i e s i n t h e i r p o l i t i c a l p la tfo r m s. The l i s t s o f
i s s u e s which were e x tr a c t e d from the party platform s con
t a i n every i s s u e which i s m en tioned, g e n e ra l as w e ll as
s p e c i f i c , and the a t t i t u d e or in t e n t toward t h i s is s u e
which the party has recorded in i t s p la tfo r m . (The i s s u e s
d e r iv e d from the Dem ocratic and Republican p arty p l a t
forms o f i 9 60 can be found in Appendix B and C.)
^® D avid W. Shepard, " R e l i a b i l i t y in a Content
A n a ly s is ," Western S p eech , 1 9 :1 1 , January, 1955*
92
A s s e r tio n s a n a ly s is w i l l probably be found to be
the most p ro d u ctive type of c o n te n t a n a l y s i s , i n a s
much as the "them atic c o n te n t 1 1 corresponds most
n e a r ly to the o v e r a l l s i g n i f i c a t i o n o f a communica
t i o n . . . . The a s s e r t io n s found i n a communication
are the primary co n ten t i n d ic a t o r s o f the i n t e n t i o n s
and m o tiv e s of the communicator. S i m i la r l y , the
e f f e c t s which a communication produces on an audience
are p rim arily due to the a s s e r t io n s c o n te n t.^ 1 9
The second l i s t o f c a t e g o r ie s was made w ith the
purpose of d eterm ining the su p p ortin g m a te r ia l and the
components of s t y l e used by the s p e a k e r s.
The th ir d l i s t o f c a t e g o r i e s was "word magic" or
"God terms." A com bination of the data r e c e iv e d from the
second l i s t o f c a te g o r ie s and the t h ir d would g iv e a
num erical p ic tu r e o f the types o f proof which the speakers
m ost r e a d il y employed, and would a s s i s t in c h a r tin g
a s s o c i a t i o n a l c l u s t e r s and m o t iv a tio n a l p a t t e r n s . Com
bined w ith the a n a ly s is of s t r a t e g i e s employed in the
sp ee ch es, a complete coverage o f the sp eech substance
could be made— both im p r e s s io n is t ic and q u a n t i t a t i v e .
The fou rth l i s t o f c a t e g o r ie s was one demanded
by the s u b je c t o f the sp e e c h e s . B e re lso n made a c o n ten t
a n a ly s is (unpublished) o f the nom inating sp eech es f o r
V ic e -P r e sid e n t a t the 19i|lp Democratic C on ven tion . H is
a n a ly s is "• . . r e v e a le d the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s plugged most
^ Irv in g L. J a n is , "The Problem o f V a lid a tin g
Content A n a ly s is," Language of P o l i t i c s , comp. Harold D.
L a ss w e ll, Nathan L e i t e s , and A s s o c ia t e s (New York: George
W. S tew a rt, I n c . , 19^4-9) ^ P*
93
P P 0
s t r o n g ly f o r the V i c e - P r e s i d e n t i a l nominee." The
sp eech es in t h i s study which were d e liv e r e d a t the i 960
n a t io n a l p o l i t i c a l c o n v en tio n s were analyzed f o r the
t r a i t s and in fo rm a tio n about the nominees which the
sp eak ers in d ic a t e d were the q u a l i t i e s a ca n d id ate fo r
P r e sid e n t should have.
An a n a ly s is was made a ls o o f the number o f words
u sed , the number o f s e n te n c e s , the le n g th o f the s e n t e n c e s ,
and the ty p e s o f s a l u t a t i o n . By the time the sp eech es had
been tr a n s c r ib e d , checked, and re-ch ec k e d f o r accu rate
wording and an alyzed f o r c a t e g o r i e s , they could be sa id to
have been w e l l read by the a n a l y s t .
The P re -T estin g
Checking the r e l i a b i l i t y and the v a l i d i t y of the
m easuring in stru m en ts are two im portant ste p s i n the de
s ig n o f a stu dy f o r c o n te n t . a n a l y s is . The q u e s tio n s to be
answered are "How s e l f - c o n s i s t e n t i s it? " ( R e l i a b i l i t y )
and "How c l o s e l y does i t measure what i t purports to
measure?" (V a l i d i t y ).^ 2 1
The b e s t method f o r t e s t i n g the c o n s is t e n c y and
hence the r e l i a b i l i t y o f the study was to determ ine the
degree o f c o r r e l a t io n between the fr e q u e n c ie s o b ta in ed
M ilton Sm ith, A S im p lif ie d Guide to S t a t i s -
t i c s {New York: R inehart and Company, i n c . . IQJxb) .
pp. 7 8 -7 9 .
when d i f f e r e n t coders a p p lied the same s e t of c a te g o r ie s
to the same content® For t h i s study, two coders and the
a n a ly st were used in the p r e -te stin g ® One of the co d ers,
a u n i v e r s i t y p r o fe sso r and Ph.D. in communications, was
w e ll acquainted w ith content a n a ly s is , having ap p lied i t s
methods f o r h is d o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n . The o th er coder,
an elem entary sch o o l teacher working fo r her M aster's
degree in ed u cation , was e n r o lle d in a graduate research
course a t the time of coding and had only "book knowledge"
about c o n te n t a n a l y s i s . Both coders were su b jected to a
b r ie fin g in r e l a t i o n to the aims and purposes o f co n ten t
a n a ly s is , the areas of coding, and the methods to fo llo w
in cod in g. A m anila f o ld e r was g iv en to each coder which
contained e x p l i c i t w r itte n in s tr u c t io n s for the a n a ly s is ;
two l i s t s o f i s s u e s — one f o r the Democratic party p l a t
form and one for the Republican party platform ; and the
speeches to .b e a n a ly z e d . These in s tr u c t io n s to the coders
can be found in Appendix D.
According to L a ssw e ll, r e l i a b i l i t i e s i n a content
a n a ly s is seldom run over 90 per cen t and are u s a b le i f
they are between 70 and 80 per cen t as long as the error
222
i s not sy ste m a tic on the to p ic in q u e s tio n . The r e
l i a b i l i t y between the coders and a n a ly s t for the a n a ly s is
222
L a ssw e ll, Lerner, and Pool, The Comparative
Study of Symbols, p. 62.
95
of i s s u e s (S e c tio n I) was 73 per cen t; f o r the a n a ly s is
of substance and s t y l e (S e c tio n I I ) 57 per c e n t; fo r the
lo c a t in g o f ’’word magic '1 or "God terms" (S e c tio n I I I )
if9 per cen t; and fo r the a n a ly s is of t r a i t s which the
nominees were rep orted to p o s se ss (S e c tio n IV) 73 per
c e n t . S e c tio n I and IV were co n sid er ed , t h e r e f o r e ,
as u sa b le fo r the stu d y .
A fter a conference d is c u s s io n w ith the coders of
terms and procedures used in S e c tio n II and I I I , i t was
d ecid ed to run the a n a ly s is f o r S e c tio n II aga in , but the
c o r r e la t io n would be c a lc u la te d s e p a r a te ly f o r s t y l e and
fo r supporting m a t e r i a l. On the second run, the r e l i a
b i l i t y fo r s t y l e was 80 per c e n t; the r e l i a b i l i t y fo r the
supporting m a te r ia l, 50 per c e n t . The co n ten t a n a ly s is
of supporting m a t e r ia l, a t t h is p o in t, was dropped from
the stu d y . The apparent d i f f i c u l t y was in d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g
between ex p la n a tio n and " d e s c r ip tio n ," both of which
seemed to be everywhere according to the d e f i n i t i o n s used
as c r i t e r i a fo r c o d in g . .The a n a ly s t, however, w i l l be
cog n iza n t of and w i l l "name" those types of supporting
m a te r ia l which r eq u ire naming or c a te g o r iz in g f o r t h is
f o r t h i s stu d y . A comparison of the types o f supporting
m a te r ia l used in the speeches can be made w ith ou t coding
and counting every in sta n c e o f u s e . In the p r o c ess of
running the a n a ly s is f o r s t y l i s t i c d e v ic e s u sed , i t was
d isco v e re d th a t the speakers did n ot u se f a b le s or parables.
By d e f i n i t i o n , the synecdoche covered such a wide area in
f i g u r a t iv e language th a t the a n a ly s t could not claim u t t e r
accuracy in i t s c o u n t. For these r e a so n s, the ch a rtin g of
the p arab le, f a b l e , and synecdoche was dropped from the
s tu d y .
S e c tio n I I I was e lim in a te d a ls o but only as a p art
o f the co n ten t a n a ly s is proper. The low r e l i a b i l i t y sc o re s
were due not to the i n e f f i c i e n c y of the coders but to the
form in which the m a te r ia l was p resen ted to them. For
something as nebulous as a study of "God terms," or
"word magic," a d e f i n i t e l i s t of those terms to be coded
should be p resen ted to the c o d e r s. S in ce the u se of
vocabulary terms would be a m atter o f counting how many
tim es a man used a c e r t a in word, the i n c lu s io n o f a con-
s id e r a t io n of vocabulary w ith in the study seemed to be
warranted. Such a count of "God terms" or "word magic"
made fo r each speech could be used f o r in d iv id u a l e v a lu a
t io n s as w e ll as fo r a comparative study of those words
which were the most popular w ith the sp ea k er s.
IV . SU M M A R Y
This study i s a c r i t i c a l a n a ly s is o f the nom ination
sp eech es 'for P re sid en t d e liv e r e d a t the i 960 Democratic
and Republican N atio n al C onventions. The instrum ents f o r
97
the study are to be found in the d r a m a tis tic c r i t i c i s m of
Kenneth Burke and in c o n ten t a n a l y s i s .
The importance o f the c r i t i c o f r h e t o r ic took on
added p r o p o rtio n s as the communication media played a
s t a r r in g r o le in p r e se n tin g to the p u b lic as a whole an
"armchair" view o f p o l i t i c s in a c t i o n - - i . e , , language in
a c tio n b e fo r e , a t , and a f t e r the quadrennial p o l i t i c a l
c o n v e n tio n s. The growing trend in contemporary c r i t i c i s m
was towards a s e t o f formal tech n iq u es f o r c r i t i c i s m which
would have famous a n c e sto r s but would be u n i f i e d in to a
g e n e r a l system going beyond the t r a d i t io n a l r h e to r ic a l
con cep ts to in c lu d e a c lo s e r t e x t u a l a n a ly s is o f the
speech w ith an e v a lu a tio n o f the speech and of i t s e t h i c s .
The c r i t i c who comes the c l o s e s t to r e f l e c t i n g t h i s image
i s Burke.
The new r h e t o r ic which emerged from out o f the old
con ta in ed l i t t l e th a t was e s s e n t i a l l y new. The new
r h e to r ic was concerned w ith any type o f d is c o u r se ;
audiences were not accepted as being j u s t there but were
o fte n "carved out" to f i t the p er su a sio n being used or
the product or s u b j e c t to be "sold"; r h e to r ic was not
co n sid er ed as only d e lib e r a t e d esig n but was concerned
w ith the p a r t i a l l y "unconscious" f a c t o r s in a p p e a l. The
instrum ents fo r c r i t i c i s m were v a r ie d and the s t u d ie s
ranged from group in te r v ie w s to w ord-counting.. The
o b j e c t i v e s became more r i g i d and demanding in d e t a i l*
W ithin the framework of contemporary c r i t i c i s m ,
the c r i t i c o p erates as a watch-dog and in t e r p r e t e r o f
c u lt u r a l mores and v a l u e s . He probes the a c tio n s o f those
who would in flu e n c e o th e r s and u se s a l l there i s to use
fo r h is methods and a n a l y s i s . He d e lv e s in to the p a st
and p resen t and thus g a in s knowledge to h e lp him under
stand and p r e d ic t the f u t u r e . H is c r i t i c i s m i s a n a l y t i c a l
and e v a lu a t iv e . Employing the d r a m a tis tic pentad o f
Burke as h i s o r g a n iz a t io n a l p a tte r n , he c o n sid e r s what
was done ( a c t ) , when or where i t was done ( s c e n e ) , who
did i t ( a g e n t) , how he did i t (a g en cy ), and why (p u r p o se ).
Using the s t r a t e g y concept o f Burke, he would be
able to c l a s s i f y the nom ination speech as p o l i t i c a l ,
cerem o n ia l, propaganda, or a l l three and would add to h i s
d e f i n i t i o n new dim ensions of meaning in h is d e s c r ip t io n
of m o tiv a tio n a l p a tte r n s a t work. The nom ination speech
p la y s a prominent p a rt in the p u b lic speaking o f th . ■
n a tio n a l p o l i t i c a l c o n v en tion s and in the a c t i s a man
in h i s moments o f d e c i s i o n as he seeks to in flu e n c e t h i s
d e c is io n as i t w i l l occur in the l i v e s o f o th e r s .
One of the most s i g n i f i c a n t c o n tr ib u tio n s o f the
new c r i t i c i s m to c r i t i c a l theory i s the preoccu p ation
w ith c lo s e te x tu a l a n a l y s i s . S in ce the only accurate
t e x t i s one taken from an e l e c t r i c a l t r a n s c r ip t io n and
checked and re-ch eck ed fo r accu racy, the sp eech es to be
analyzed in t h is study were recorded e l e c t r o n i c a l l y on a
tape record er a t the time of d e liv e r y and checked c a r e
f u l l y fo r accuracy a f t e r t r a n s c r i b in g . The c o p ie s were
checked a g a in s t th ose r e l e a s e d to the p r e s s , those which
were p r in t e d , and those which were provided by the
speakers upon r e q u e s t , in an attem pt to a s c e r t a in something
about th e types of aud ien ces which were being reached and
to determ ine even more about v;hat was a c t u a lly s a id and
what was rep orted to be s a i d . The problem o f g h o s t - w r it in g
was c o n sid e r e d . S in ce the sp eech es were those in which a
member o f a p a r t ic u la r p a r ty , f a c t i o n , or group p laced the
name of a person in nom ination fo r P r e s id e n t, the speaker
would r ep r e se n t a com posite v o ice as w e ll as the v o ic e of
one man in a time o f d e c is io n and p e r su a sio n . L e tte r s
were w r itte n to the speakers and nominees in order to
d is c o v e r more in form ation than could be obtained from
secondary so u r c e s .
The most im portant works o f Burke fo r t h i s study
were A t tit u d e s Toward H is to r y (two volum es); Counter-
Statem ent ; The P hilosophy of L ite r a r y Form; A Grammar o f
M o tiv e s ; and A R h etoric o f M o tiv e s. Burke i s a l i t e r a r y
c r i t i c b u t he i s a ls o a r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c fo r r h e t o r ic i s
wherever p er su a sio n or i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o c cu rs. The
m ethodology of Burke c e n te r s around the b a sic concept
100
th a t the province of the c r i t i c i s in the study o f la n
guage in a c t io n . The recorded study of symbolic a c tio n
i s as old as A r i s t o t l e . Burke and A r i s t o t le both agree
in th e ir d e f i n i t i o n s o f r h e to r ic as the o b ser v a tio n or
study of the means o f p ersu asion for any g iven c a s e or
s i t u a t i o n . Burke, however, c a r r ie s h i s theory o f r h e to r ic
beyond t h i s d e f i n i t i o n of d e lib e r a t e d e sig n to in clu d e
c e r t a in areas of p a r t i a l l y c o n s c io u s , p a r t i a l l y un con sciou s
behavior in which the c l a s s i c a l n o tio n o f c le a r p e r su a siv e
in t e n t is not an accu rate naming.
The key term fo r the p h ilosoph y o f r h e t o r i c , a l a
Burke, i s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n would be the
end r e s u l t of the o r a to r ’ s use o f r h e t o r ic a l d e v ic e s to
arouse the f e e l i n g s o f h is audience and make them one w ith
him, h is i s s u e s , and h is purpose. A s t a t e of consubstan-
t i a l i t y i s produced between the speaker and h is a u d ie n c e --
they are one with and y e t apart from him. The study of
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s the study o f s t r a t e g i e s which the
speaker u s e s to produce t h is s t a t e of c o n s u b s t a n t i a l i t y *
This same type of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s the c o h e siv e fa c to r
in much o f our s o c i e t y ; through i d e n t i f i c a t i o n our
s o c i e t a l i n s t i t u t i o n s o p e r a te . A study of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
in p o l i t i c s would in clu d e a study of party i d e n t i f i c a t i o n ,
of r eferen ce groups, of the r e l i g i o u s v o t e , o f the band
wagon e f f e c t . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n as the key term emphasizes
101
speaker-audience r e l a t i o n s h i p s , in c lu d e s con sciou s as w e ll
as un con scious f a c to r s in i t s make'-up, and i s r e a l iz e d
through the a p p lic a t io n of s t r a t e g i e s to produce a s t a t e
of c o n s u b s t a n t ia lit y w ith an audience*
In order to tr a c e m o tiv a tio n a l p a tte r n s , lo c a t e
s t r a t e g i e s , and p in -p o in t areas of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , the
c r i t i c a p p lie s the d r a m a tistic pentad which serv es as the
gen era tin g p r in c ip le fo r the i n v e s t ig a t io n * W ithin the
p en ta d --A ct, Scene, Agent, Agency, P u rp ose-~ is a c o n sta n t
in t e r a c t io n o f p a r t s . This i n t e r a c t io n and the overlap
between the p a rts makes i t p o s s ib le fo r the c r i t i c to
make h i s way from any one area to any of the other a r e a s.
Operating w ith in the pentad, the c r i t i c fin d s he has a
balanced o r g a n iz a tio n fo r h is study which w i l l not permit
the em phasizing o f only one a sp e c t o f the speaking s i t u a
t io n . The a p p lic a t io n of the pentad to t h i s study was
A c t--th e p la c in g of names in nom ination for the P r e sid e n t
of the United S ta te s;' S c e n e --th e i 960 Democratic and
Republican n a tio n a l p o l i t i c a l co n ven tio n s; A gent( s ) - - t h e
nine Democrats and two Republicans who p laced names in
nomination at the conventions and the e le v e n persons who
served as the s u b je c ts and who w i l l be r e fe r r e d to in
th is study as the "C haracters11; A gency--language in the
form o f the p o l i t i c a l nominating speech; and Purpose- -
to p la c e a s p e c i f i c person in nom ination fo r P resid en t
102
or a p e r s o n a l , p a r t y , or f a c t i o n a l m o t i v e .
One o f th e m ajor k e y s to the p h ilo s o p h y and c o n c e p ts
o f Burke i s th e "naming" o f t h i n g s . Burke w an ts term s t h a t
do n o t a v o id a m b ig u ity , b u t w h ich r e v e a l th e s t r a t e g i c
s p o t s a t w hich a m b ig u ity e x i s t s . T h is "naming" i s an
a tte m p t on th e p a r t o f th e c r i t i c to l a b e l h i s e n v ir o n
ment a c c u r a t e l y so t h a t he m ig h t be i n c o n t r o l o f i t and
o f th e a t t i t u d e s and a c t i o n w h ich r e v o lv e a b o u t him . The
u s e o f th e p en ta d a id s th e c r i t i c i n k e e p in g h i s p e r s p e c
t i v e a s he v ie w s la n g u a g e i n a c t i o n and a tte m p ts to name
th e a c t i o n s w hich he s e e s . The c r i t i c m ust be c o g n iz a n t
o f th e "word m agic" or "God term s" u se d by th e a c t o r , and
m ust be a b le to c h a r t t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e . The sy m b o lic
a c t i s th e " d an cin g o f an a t t it u d e " and i t i s t h i s a t t i
tude w h ich i n i t i a t e s th e s t r a t e g y o r p la n o f a t t a c k a s a
way o f m e e tin g a problem or s i t u a t i o n . By naming th e
s t r a t e g i e s , th e c r i t i c p l o t s th e c o u r se o f m o tiv e s im
p l i c i t l y c o n ta in e d in th e sp e e c h in th e a t t i t u d e s o f th e
s p e a k e r •
The a d v a n ta g e s o f th e s t r a t e g y c o n c e p t and th e
d r a m a t is t ic p en ta d a r e a p p a ren t i n a c o n s id e r a t io n o f
w hether c e r t a i n g rou p s m ig h t u s e c e r t a i n s t r a t e g i e s ; i f
th e n a tu r e o f th e s u b j e c t m a tte r or o f the grou p *s m o tiv a
t i o n s p r e d e te r m in e s th e s t r a t e g i e s ; w h eth er a s t r a t e g y
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n m ig h t t e l l more abou t a sp ee ch than th e
103
u s u a l p e r s u a s iv e , in fo r m a tiv e , e n t e r t a i n i n g , c l a s s i f i c a
t i o n ; w h eth er t h i s p roced ure m igh t work b e t t e r than any o f
the o ld c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ; and so o n .
The th r e e a r t i s t i c modes o f p r o o f - - e t h i c a l a p p e a l,
e m o tio n a l a p p e a l, and l o g i c a l a p p e a l— f a l l under th e h e a d
in g of th e " o ld c l a s s i f i c a t i o n * n The th r e e a r t i s t i c modes
o f p r o o f, Burke would d e s ig n a t e as s t r a t e g i e s or m ethods o f
u s in g la n g u a g e in order to o b ta in i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith an
a u d ien ce* The modes o f p r o o f a re th e i n t r i n s i c f a c t o r s
w hich can be found in th e s p e a k e r 's " s e l f '1 or i n h i s ad
d r e s s to an assem b ly or au d ien ce* E t h ic a l ap p eal in c lu d e s
th e i n t e l l i g e n c e , c h a r a c t e r , and g o o d - w ill o f th e sp e a k e r .
The m eaning o f e t h i c a l a p p ea l h a s been expanded to in c lu d e
n o t o n ly the p e r s u a s io n in h e r e n t in what th e sp eak er sa y s
b u t in what p e o p le th in k o f him b e fo r e he b e g in s to speak*
A stu d y o f e t h i c a l a p p ea l i s e s p e c i a l l y p e r t in e n t to t h i s
stu d y o f n o m in a tion sp e e c h e s in w hich the. e t h i c a l ap p eal
o f th e sp eak er and o f th e p e r so n spoken o f m ust b oth be
c o n s id e r e d w ith th e a p p eal o f th e nominee b e in g th e m ost
im p ortan t* E m otional a p p ea l r e f e r s to th e a b i l i t y o f the
sp eak er to work upon th e f e e l i n g s and em otion s o f h i s
l i s t e n e r s * T his i s th e p r o c e s s o f prod u cin g a s t a t e o f
c o n s u b s t a n t i a l i t y betw een th e sp ea k er and h i s a u d ien ce
through th e u se o f sym bols c a lc u la t e d f o r th e e m o tio n a l
e f f e c t w hich th ey would have* The c r i t i c must alw ays keep
i n mind t h a t th e sym bols i n th e m s e lv e s do n o t c o n t a in th e
m eaning b u t s e r v e to c r e a t e or t o t r i g g e r e m o tio n s in th e
members o f th e a u d ie n c e in whom th e m eaning o f th e sym bol
i s c o n t a in e d . L o g ic a l a p p ea l r e f e r s to p e r s u a s io n dom in
a te d by argum ent and r e a l i z e d through th e u s e o f r a t i o n a l
r e a s o n in g and a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e s c i e n t i f i c method o f
th in k in g which i s c o n ta in e d i n th e s p e e c h . T h is i n v o l v e s
an a n a l y s i s o f s t r u c t u r e and s u b s t a n c e . Some o f B u rk e’ s
m ost im p o r ta n t s t r a t e g i e s are to be fo u n d i n what he
c a l l e d "form ." A work h a s form i f one p a r t o f i t l e a d s
an a u d ien ce to a n t i c i p a t e a n o th e r p a r t , m e e tin g th e n e e d s
o f th e a u d ien ce each s t e p o f th e way and g r a t i f y i n g t h e s e
n eed s in th e p r o c e s s . The s t a t e o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i s p r o
duced by t h in k in g o f th e s t r u c t u r e in term s o f th e g r a t i
f i c a t i o n o f n e e d s .
Burke found th e t h r e e modes o f p r o o f v e r y c o m p e llin g
as " id e a s ," b u t i n ord er to a c h ie v e a s e n s e o f a c t u a l i t y
and r e a l i t y i n our s o c i e t y , a more a c c u r a te "naming" o f
what la n g u a g e i s r e a l l y d o in g i s n e e d e d . The a n a l y t i c a l
te c h n iq u e s may b e th e same, b u t th e naming o f th e m o t i
v a t i o n a l p a tt e r n may be d i f f e r e n t .
Burke found p e r s u a s iv e form in th e la r g e r se n s e i n
th e arran gem en t o f th e s p e e c h . The arran gem en t or o r
g a n i z a t io n o f a sp e e c h c o n s i s t s o f th r e e d i v i s i o n s — I n t r o -
d u c t io n , Body or D i s c u s s i o n , and th e C o n c lu s io n . The
10$
’• c r i t i c a l ” or c lim a c t ic moments sh ou ld a l s o be noted*
W ithin th e se elem en ts o f arrangem ent, th e c r i t i c can f in d
s t r a t e g i e s which w i l l r e v e a l th e m o t iv a tio n a l p a tte r n o f
th e language as i t p r o g r e s s e s i n i t s a c t*
P e r su a siv e form i s p r e s e n t a l s o in th e s t y l i s t i c
h a n d lin g o f m a t e r ia ls i n d is c o u r s e * The s t y l i s t i c d e v ic e s
f o r encom passing a s i t u a t i o n are the s p e a k e r ’ s in d iv id u a l
s t r a t e g i e s * An a n a ly s is o f s t y l e can r e v e a l much about
the man who i s sp ea k in g , and j u s t as much about the s o c i e
t a l i n s t i t u t i o n s to which he b e lo n g s . An a n a ly s is o f a
body o f sp ee ch es from one group should r e v e a l the temper
o f the group as w e ll a s th a t of the in d iv id u a l sp eak ers*
The stu d y o f s t y l e can in t e r p r e t s i g n i f i c a n t p o l i t i c a l
tr e n d s , f o r a stu d y o f s t y l e i s a stu d y o f s t r u c t u r a l
f a c t s about any com p leted sequence*
The B urkeian methods o f a n a ly s is cu t a c r o ss the
A r i s t o t e l i a n t h r e e - f o ld d i v i s i o n o f the a r t i s t i c p r o o fs
and a c r o s s the f i v e - f o l d Roman d i v i s i o n o f sp eech p rep a ra
t io n o f in v e n tio n , arrangem ent, s t y l e , d e l iv e r y and
memory. Memory and d e liv e r y are th e o n ly two n o t a ccou n ted
fo r and th e former s h a l l n o t be t r e a t e d in t h i s s tu d y .
D e liv e r y , how ever, b ecau se o f i t s very n atu re o f im por
tan ce in a c h ie v in g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith an a u d ie n c e , w i l l
be c o n s id e r e d . The tap e r e c o r d in g s o f the sp e e c h e s to be
an a ly zed p r e se n t the c r i t i c w ith th e o p p o r tu n ity f o r
io 6
r e v ie w o f o r a l d e liv e r y te c h n iq u e s and a u d ien ce r e a c t i o n .
An exa m in a tio n o f th e se v a r io u s ty p e s o f s t r a t e g i e s
and m ethods fo r a c h ie v in g i d e n t i f i c a t i o n means l i t t l e as
in d iv id u a l p a r ts but i t i s th e o v e r - a l l p ic tu r e th a t
em erges from th e o v e r la p and i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p o f the
p a r ts which i s the m ost im p o rta n t.
In t h i s stu d y , c o n te n t a n a ly s is i s a p p lie d as a
handmaiden to th e c r i t i c a l m ethodology o f Burke. C ontent
a n a l y s i s , as a r e s e a r c h te c h n iq u e , i s th e sy s te m a tic stu d y
o f th e s y n t a c t i c and sem antic d im en sion s o f lan gu age in
a c t i o n . C ontent a n a ly s is i s o b j e c t i v e , s y s t e m a t ic , and
q u a n t i t a t i v e . C ontent a n a l y s is can d e s c r ib e communica
t i o n s , but i t cannot in i t s e l f e v a lu a te them. The e v a lu a
t io n i s made i n accordance w ith the d e s ig n a tio n o f c e r t a i n
v a lu e s or stan d a rd s w hich have been e s t a b l i s h e d p r io r to
a n a l y s i s . Burke equated "sym bolic" w ith " s t a t i s t i c . ”
There i s a p a tte r n u n d e r ly in g the s e l e c t i v i t y o f the
a r t i s t ( in t h i s ca se th e s p e a k e r ), and th e d is c o v e r y o f
t h i s p a tte r n may be th e d i s c l o s i n g of a trend which can
pu t the c r i t i c on the tr a c k o f lo c a t i n g th e sym b olic o r
g a n iz a tio n s which the work o f c r e a t i v i t y c o n t a in s . Burke
u sed the t i c a n a lo g y i n which a man who has a t i c b lin k s
h i s e y e s when c e r t a i n s u b je c ts are m en tio n ed . I f th e se
s u b je c ts cou ld be a s c e r t a in e d , then one knows what the t i c
i s sym b olic o f . In o th e r w ords, a s t a t i s t i c a l stu d y o f
107
a s s o c i a t i o n s and c l u s t e r s w i l l show th e s tr u c tu r e o f
m o tiv a tio n o p era tin g *
The o r ig i n a l d e s ig n o f the stu d y in c lu d e d making a
c o n te n t a n a ly s is o f fo u r c a t e g o r i e s — th e speakers* a s s e r
t io n s about i s s u e s and the stan d tak en on them in co n
fo r m ity w ith the p a rty sta n d , S e c tio n I ; the components o f
s t y l e and ty p e s o f su p p o rtin g m a t e r ia l, S e c tio n I I ; th e
u se o f "God terms" and "word m agic," S e c tio n I I I ; and the
lo c a t i n g o f t r a i t s which th e sp eak ers f e l t t h e i r nom inees
p o s s e s s e d which would q u a lif y them fo r P r e s id e n t, S e c tio n
IV* Two cod ers and th e a n a ly s t were u sed in t e s t i n g
r e l i a b i l i t y . The s e c t i o n s in v o lv in g the u se o f su p p o rtin g
m a te r ia l and "word magic" and "God terms" were dropped
from th e c o n te n t a n a ly s is proper b ecau se of the d i f f i c u l t y
o f l o c a t i n g and m easuring* The r e l i a b i l i t y f o r th e study
as o b ta in ed from the p r e - t e s t i n g s was i s s u e s , 73 per cen c;
s t y l e , 80 per c e n t; and t r a i t s , 73 per cen t* The o v e r - a l l
r e l i a b i l i t y sc o r e would be 75> per c en t* A ccording to
L a ss w e ll,.-a sc o re betw een 70 and 80 i s u s a b le i f the e r r o r s
are n o t c o n s i s t e n t on any one to p ic i n q u e s t io n .
C H A P T E R III
SETTING THE SCENE FOR THE NOMINATION SPEECHES
OF THE CONVENTIONS
I . INTRODUCTION T O
NATIONAL POLITICAL CONVENTIONS
For th ere i s som ething about a n a t io n a l co n v en tio n
th a t makes i t as f a s c i n a t i n g as a r e v i v a l or a
h a n g in g . I t i s v u lg a r , i t i s u g ly , i t i s s t u p id ,
i t i s t e d io u s , i t i s hard upon both the h ig h e r
c e r e b r a l c e n te r s and th e g lu t e u s maximus, and y e t
i t i s somehow charm ing. One s i t s through lo n g
s e s s io n s w ish in g h e a r t i l y th a t a l l th e d e le g a t e s
and a l t e r n a t e s were dead and in h e l l — and then
su d d en ly th e r e comes a show so gaudy and h i l a r i o u s ,
so m elod ram atic and o b sc e n e , so u n im agin ably e x
h i l a r a t i n g and p r e p o ste r o u s th a t one l i v e s a
gorgeou s y e a r in an h o u r .l
I f our Founding F a th e r s , th e o r ig i n a l members o f
the c o n v e n tio n th a t framed th e C o n s t it u t io n , co u ld r e tu r n
to e a r th to d a y , th e r e are two a s p e c t s o f our governm ent
w hich would be a source o f amazement to them. One would
be t h a t our " . . . governm ent had n o t o n ly endured, b u t had
rem ained unchanged, so f a r as the w r it t e n C o n s titu tio n was
co n cern ed , e x c e p t in minor and u n im portan t d e t a i l s ." ^
■ ^ H « L. Mencken, A Carnival of Buncombe, ed. Malcolm
M oos (Baltimore: T he Johns Hopkins Press, 19?6),.p. 7 9 .
2
Edward Stanwood, A History of the Presidency from
1789 to 1897 (Boston: Houghton M ifflin Company: lo98)* ’
p. 21 []..
1 0 9
The o th e r would be our N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C o n v en tio n s and
the p a r t w hich th e c i t i z e n s p la y i n d i r e c t p o p u la r c h o ic e
o f th e P r e s id e n t
A ccordin g to the C o n s t it u t io n , the P r e s id e n t o f th e
U n ited S t a t e s was to be ch osen by an e l e c t o r a l system *
The e x e c u t iv e Power s h a l l be v e s t e d in a P r e s id e n t
o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s o f A m erica. He s h a l l h o ld h i s
O f f ic e d u rin g th e term o f fo u r y e a r s , and, to g e th e r
w ith th e V ic e - P r e s id e n t , ch o sen fo r the same Term,
be e l e c t e d , a s f o l l o w s :
Each S t a t e s h a l l a p p o in t, i n such Manner as th e
L e g is la t u r e t h e r e o f may d i r e c t , a Number o f E l e c t o r s ,
eq u a l to th e w hole Number o f S e n a to r s and R e p r e se n ta
t i v e s to w hich th e S t a t e may be e n t i t l e d i n the
C o n g ress: b u t no S en a to r or R e p r e s e n t a t iv e , or
P erson h o ld in g an O ffic e o f T ru st or P r o f i t under
th e U n ite d S t a t e s , s h a l l be a p p o in te d an E l e c t o r .
The C ongress may d eterm in e th e Time o f c h o o sin g
th e E l e c t o r s , and th e Day on which th e y s h a l l g iv e
t h e ir V o te s; which. Day s h a l l be th e same th rou gh ou t
th e U n ite d S t a t e s .4-
In a n a tio n d e v o ted to and c r e a te d by a w r it t e n
C o n s t it u t io n , th e two m ajor p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s and t h e i r
q u a d ren n ia l c o n v e n tio n s to nom inate c a n d id a te s fo r the
P r e sid e n c y r e p r e s e n t a p a ra d o x . When th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
p r o v is io n s fo r s e l e c t i n g th e P r e s id e n t proved unw orkable
^C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r te r ly C on ven tion Guide (W ashing
to n , D . C•: C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r te r ly , I n c .; I 9 6 0 ) , p . 2 .
^ U nited S t a t e s C o n g ress, H ou se, N om ination and
E l e c t io n o f the P r e s id e n t and V ic e P r e s id e n t o f the U n ite d
S t a t e s I n c lu d in g th e Manner ot S e l e c t i n g D e le g a t e s to
N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C o n v e n tio n s, bbth CongressT 2 nd S e s s io n .
House Document No. 3 3 2 , F ebruary 1 5 , i 960 (W ashington,
D . C .: i 9 6 0 ) , p . 1 3 .
110
In th e manner o r i g i n a l l y i n s t i t u t e d , o th e r m ethods and
p ro ced u res were attem p ted and th o s e w hich proved s a t i s
f a c t o r y and te n a b le became th e custom s and u s a g e s which
h e lp e d g iv e b i r t h to th e n a t io n a l n o m in a tin g c o n v e n t io n s .
A lthou gh o f t e n c r i t i c i z e d , op p osed , a n a ly z e d , and o v e r
ly
h a u led v e r b a l l y , th e i n t e r r e l a t e d i n s t i t u t i o n s o f nom ina
t i o n f o r our C h ie f E x e c u tiv e have been p u t to the p u b lic
t e s t e v e r y fo u r y e a r s f o r more th a n a c e n tu ry and a quar
t e r , y e t th e y rem ain am azin gly d u ra b le# "Today th e y are
w ith o u t doubt c e n t r a l to the Am erican p o l i t i c a l system #"
^Mike M a n s fie ld , "More on P o l i t i c a l C o n v e n tio n s—
And What to Do About Them," U . S . News and World R e p o r t,
l|.9 i8 ^ -8 6 , A ugust 2 9 , i 9 6 0 ,
Paul Theodore D a v id , Ralph M # Goldman, and R ichard
C# B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l P arty C o n v e n tio n s,
e d . K a th leen S p ro u l (W ashington, D# C#: The B rook in gs
I n s t i t u t i o n , i 9 6 0 ) , p# 1 .
W illia m Goodman, The Tw o-Party System in the
U n ite d S t a t e s (se co n d e d i t i o n ; P r in c e to n , New J e r s e y :
D. Van N ostrand Company, I n c # , i 9 6 0 ) , p p . £9l4- “6 6 0 .
M # O s tr o g o r s k i, Democracy and th e O r g a n iz a tio n
o f P o l i t i c a l P a r t ie s (New York: The M acm illan Company,
i9o2), v o l. 1 1 , pp. 6 0 7- 7^1 •
E r ic S e v a r e id ( e d . ) , C a n d id a tes i 9 60 (New York:
B a sic B ooks, I n c . , 1 9 5 9) t P* 1'5*
W illia m G, C a r le to n , "The R e v o lu tio n i n the
P r e s i d e n t i a l N om inating C o n v en tio n ," P o l i t i c s I 9 6 0 ,
F r a n c is M. Carney and H . Frank Way, J r . , e d ito r's (San
F r a n c is c o : Wadsworth P u b lis h in g Company, I n c . , i 9 6 0 ) ,
pp. 1 0 6 - 1 1 0 .
R u ss e l R . W indes, J r . , "The i 960 R ep u b lican
C on ven tion ," from " P r e s id e n t ia l Campaign i 9 6 0 : A
Symposium," P aul H. B o a se, e d i t o r (O b e r lin , O hio:
O b erlin C o lle g e , F eb ru a ry , 1 9 6 1 ) , pp . 6 9 - 7 0 . (M imeographed).
^D avid, Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n v e n tio n s, p . 1 .
Ill
T h is e x p o s it o r y ch ap ter c o n c e r n in g th e N a tio n a l
P o l i t i c a l C on ven tion s sh ou ld make the e x a m in a tio n s o f th e
D em ocratic and R ep u b lican C on ven tion s o f i 960 more m ean ing
f u l a s the nsp eech s i t u a t i o n '1 i n w hich the r h e t o r i c o f
th e n o m in a tin g sp e e c h e s was p r e sen ted * ^
A b r i e f a n a l y s is o f the p u rp o ses o f N a tio n a l P o l i t
i c a l C o n v en tio n s; a b r i e f resum^ o f t h e i r h i s t o r i c d e v e lo p
ment and th e p a r t which mass m edia and n o m in a tin g sp e e c h e s
have p la y e d i n i t ; a d i s c u s s i o n o f th e m ajor p a r t i c i p a t i n g
members o f th e n a t io n a l n om in atin g c o n v e n t io n s — the
n a t io n a l co m m ittee, s u b s id ia r y c o m m itte e s, and the d e l e
g a t e s ; a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f o p e r a tin g p r o c e d u r e s; and a
d e s c r i p t io n o f the s e t t i n g s f o r th e D em ocratic and
R ep u b lican C on ven tio n s have been in c lu d e d in t h i s c h a p te r .
I I . THE PURPOSES OF NATIONAL POLITICAL CONVENTIONS
The c u lm in a tin g pu rp ose o f th e n a t io n a l n o m in a tin g
c o n v e n tio n s i s t h a t o f s e l e c t i n g th e P r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te
Q
and h i s ru n n in g m ate, or as Ja ck son Toby p u t i t ,
” • • • f in d in g the b e s t v o t e - g e t t e r th e p a r ty can g e t . 1 *^
7
‘L e s te r T honssen and A. C ra ig B a ir d , Speech C r i t i
c ism (New York: The Ronald P r e ss Company, l ^ b ) , pp. 6 - 8 .
g
C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r te r ly C o n ven tion G uide, p. 1 .
9 Jackson Toby, * * P o ll s v . P r im a r ie s , 1 1 P o l i t i c s 19&0.
F r a n c is M. Carney and H. Frank Way, J r . , e d i t o r s (San
F r a n c is c o : Wadsworth P u b lis h in g Company, I n c . , i 9 6 0 ) ,
p • 111 •
112
The two are synonomous, fo r " . . . when a c o n v e n tio n must
choose betw een th e b e s t man f o r th e job and th e man who
seems m ost l i k e l y to win i t , the l a u r e l o f the n om in ation
in v a r ia b ly g o es to the l a t t e r • r,‘ ^ A lthough n om in atin g the
c a n d id a te s fo r P r e s id e n t and V ic e -P r e s id e n t may be to th e
d e le g a t e s th e main purpose to which a l l o th er f u n c t io n s o f
a c o n v e n tio n , though n e c e s s a r y , are s u b o r d in a te , 11 th e r e
are o th e r f a c t o r s which make Paul D avid , Ralph Goldman, and
R ichard B ain c o n sid e r th e n om in atin g p r o c e s s as h o ld in g
a c e n t r a l p la c e in our governm ent.
I t i s very p o s s i b l e t h a t the d e c is io n s a t th e con ven
t i o n are more c r i t i c a l than th o se l e f t to th e g e n e r a l
e l e c t i o n . . . .
Each s u c c e s s iv e c o n v e n tio n h e lp s to shape th e
f u t u r e e v o lu t io n o f th e p arty i n s t i t u t i o n . I t
a f f e c t s a l s o th e e x te n t to which the p a rty can
b r in g c o h e sio n and c le a r purpose to the work o f
governm ent— or the e x t e n t to which i t w i l l r e t r e a t
from t h i s ta s k , le a v in g a govern m ental vacuum
to be f i l l e d by o th e r mechanisms o f some more
o b scu re and l e s s d e fin a b le s o r t . 12
Avery L e is e r s o n , in h i s d is c u s s io n o f the im portance
and the p u rp oses o f th e N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C o n v en tio n s,
10C h arles Judah and George W inston S m ith , The
Unchosen (New York: Coward-McCann-, I n c . , 1 9 6 2 ) , pp. 9 “10»
Avery L e is e r s o n , P a r t ie s and P o l i t i c s ; An
I n s t i t u t i o n a l and B e h a v io r a l Approach (New York: A lfr e d
X T S S o p f/l^ T , P. 26b.--------- -------
12D a v id , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n v e n tio n s, p . 2I 4 .O.
113
co n sid er ed tbs r o l e o f th e c o n v e n tio n s a s t w o - f o ld . H e,
t o o , p la c e d an em p h asis on th e s t r e n g t h o f th e p a r ty i n
govern m en tal a c tio n #
In a lm o st e v e r y p a r ty sy s te m , th e p r in c ip a l form al
f u n c t i o n o f the n a t i o n a l p a r ty c o n v e n tio n s i s t h a t
o f th e u l t im a t e d i s c u s s i o n and a p p r o v a l o f th e
p a r t y ’ s c o n s t i t u t i o n ( o r g a n iz a t io n and r u l e s ) and
p o l i c y ( p o s i t i o n on g e n e r a l and s p e c i f i c i s s u e s ) #
I t s e f f e c t i v e r o l e i s tw o fo ld # F i r s t , th e n a t io n a l
c o n v e n tio n r e f r e s h e s th e se n s e o f u n it y and e n t h u s i
asm o f the w id e ly d is p e r s e d p a r ty w orkers# I t
e n a b le s l o c a l , r e g i o n a l , and n a t io n a l le a d e r s o f
th e p a r ty to renew p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , to t e s t t h e i r
d i f f e r e n c e s and t h e i r m e t t l e , and to make th e m se lv e s
f e l t In th e power s t r u c t u r e o f th e p a r t y . S econ d ,
th e c o n v e n tio n p r o v id e s th e backdrop a g a in s t which
th e p a r ty le a d e r s h ip and th e f a c t i o n a l components
o f t h e p a r ty d e m o n stra te t h e ir s t r e n g t h and i n d i c a t e ,
f o r the b e n e f i t o f the p a r ty members and th e
e l e c t o r a t e a t l a r g e , th e broad l i n e s o f programmatic
d i r e c t i o n and ten d en cy t h a t may be e x p e c te d from
le a d e r s h ip a lig n m e n ts con firm ed by th e co n v en tio n # ^
These broad l i n e s o f d i r e c t i o n and ten d en cy commit
a p a r ty and i t s c a n d id a te s to a cou rse o f a c t io n f o r the
n e x t fo u r y e a r s# The d e c i s i o n s made d u r in g th e n om in atin g
c o n v e n tio n a re com plex on es b e c a u se o f th e p o s s i b l e a l t e r
n a t i v e s w h ich are p r e s e n t e d , b eca u se o f th e u n c e r t a in t y o f
th e f a c t i o n a l l i n e s , and b e c a u se o f th e human e le m en t o f
th e d e l e g a t e s who a re p a r t i c i p a n t s and a u d ie n c e - - t h e
spoken o f , spoken t o , a s w e ll as th e sp ea k er s# The p o s s i
b i l i t i e s f o r th e u l t im a t e n om in atin g c o a l i t i o n are a lm o st
e n d l e s s . T h is may n o t be t r u e , o f c o u r s e , I f one man or
^ L e i s e r s o n , P a r t i e s and P o l i t i c s , p p . 2 0 5 -2 0 6 .
ii4
c o a l i t i o n c l e a r l y dom inates a p a r ty , 1 1 • • • thus r e d u c in g
the fu n c tio n o f i t s n a tio n a l n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n to one
r a t i f y i n g d e c is io n s made elsew h ere More o f t e n ,
how ever, th e re i s a c o n t e s t e x te n d in g w e ll in t o th e con
v e n tio n , even when a nominee and h is p e r s o n a lly chosen
p la tfo r m seem to be the i n e v it a b le outcome o f a
15
con ven tion *
R u ssel W indes, in h i s a n a ly s is o f the a r e a s o f a
c o n v en tio n in which a sp eech c r i t i c m ig h t be i n t e r e s t e d ,
made a l i s t o f purposes o th er than the ob vio u s o n es o f
"naming a n a t io n a l t i c k e t and w r itin g a p a rty p l a t f o r a . 1 1 ^
(1) The c o n v e n tio n c r e a t e s , s u s t a i n s , and.communi
c a te s im ages o f p a rty c a n d id a te s and the p a r ty i t s e l f *
(2 ) The c o n v e n tio n c r e a t e s , s u s t a i n s , and communi
c a te s cou n terim ages o f op p osin g c a n d id a te s and p a r ty .
(3) The c o n v e n tio n s e t s th e tone and s e t s - u p [ s i c *]
th e i s s u e s fo r th e campaign which f o l l o w s ,
d em on stratin g to p a r ty le a d e r s how th o se i s s u e s
ought to be handled du rin g the cam paign.
(4 ) T^e co n v en tio n se r v e s to e x c i t e the p a r ty
f a i t h f u l to work harder f o r v i c t o r y .3-7
R esp o n sib le p o l i t i c a l p a rty a c tio n in the i s s u e -
fo r m u la tin g f u n c t io n s o f the N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C on ven tion s
^ R ic h a r d C• B a in , C onvention D e c is io n s and V otin g
R ecords (W ashington. D . C*: The B rookings I n s t i t u t i o n .
i 9 6 0 ) , p . 1 .
^^David, Goldman, and B ain , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n v en tio n s, p . 2 .
Theodore H* W hite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t
I960 (New York: P ocket Books, I n c ., l 9 b l ) , p . 1 8 3 *
■'■^Windes, "The i 960 R epublican C on ven tion ," p . 7 0 .
1^ I b id .
115
w hich produce the o r g a n iz a t io n a n d /o r r e - o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
p a r ty s t r u c t u r e , th e fo r m a tio n o f a p a r ty p la tf o r m , and th e
s e l e c t i o n o f nom inees fo r P r e s id e n t and V ic e - P r e s id e n t of
th e U n ite d S t a t e s a re th e o b j e c t i v e s o f the N a tio n a l P o l i t
i c a l C o n v e n tio n s. I t i s t h i s w hich makes p o l i t i c a l c o n v e n
t i o n s such an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f our g o v ern m en t. "They
[c o n v e n tio n s ] are . . . th e l i f e b l o o d o f a p a r t y . They
T A
g iv e new v i t a l i t y to i t s t r a d i t i o n ." And i n so d o in g ,
th e y g iv e l i f e b l o o d and v i t a l i t y to th e g o v e r n in g f u n c t io n s
o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
I I I . THE EVOLUTION OF NATIONAL POLITICAL CONVENTIONS
H is t o r y o f N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C o n v en tio n s
The C o n s t it u t io n a l C on ven tion o f 1787 was made up o f
c o n s e r v a t iv e s who " . . . d e c id e d t h a t the E x e c u tiv e Branch
o f the new governm ent m ust be p e r s o n i f i e d , n o t by a com m it-
..19
t e e , b u t by a s i n g l e head o f s t a t e . " The q u e s t io n b e fo r e
th e C on ven tion was th e m ethod o f c h o o s in g t h i s C h ie f
E x e c u t iv e .
■^^Henry L . S to d d a r d , P r e s i d e n t i a l S w e e p sta k e s: The
S to r y o f P o l i t i c a l C o n v en tio n s and Cam paigns, e d . F r a n c is
W. Leary (New York: G. P. Putnam 's S o n s, 19lj.8), p . 2lf..
19
D a v id , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n v e n tio n s, p . 5*
Electoral System
There were th ree o b v iou s methods a v a i la b l e f o r
s e l e c t i o n — e l e c t i o n by C o n g ress, e l e c t i o n by the g o v ern o rs
o f the S t a t e s , or e l e c t i o n by th e p eop le# S in c e a g u id in g
p r in c ip le f o r the o r g a n iz a tio n o f the new governm ent had
b een the se p a r a tio n o f powers in the governm ent, th e f i r s t
two m ethods, which would make the C h ie f E x e c u tiv e dependent
on C ongress or on the gov ern o rs o f the S t a t e s f o r su p p o rt,
were d is c a r d e d . D ir e c t e l e c t i o n was d is c a r d e d a l s o .
. . . i t was b e lie v e d th a t the e l e c t o r a t e , even
l im i t e d as i t was th e n , would be in c a p a b le o f em
p lo y in g th e "proper" sta n d a rd s f o r sou n d ly ju d gin g 2 o
which one o f th e n a tu r a l a r is t o c r a c y was "the b e s t ."
The i n a b i l i t y o f th e m asses to make th e r ig h t c h o ic e was
n o t the s o l e rea so n e l e c t i o n by popular v o te was n o t con
s id e r e d f e a s i b l e .
One o b j e c t io n to d i r e c t e l e c t i o n was th e advantage i t
would g iv e th e la r g e s t a t e s . Other o b j e c t io n s were
th e b e l i e f th a t b eca u se o f the i n s u l a r i t y o f the
p o p u la tio n th e m e r its o f many men would n o t be
w id e ly known and t h a t " n a tiv e sons" would r e c e iv e
th e b u lk o f th e v o t e s . I m p li c it in t h i s l a s t p o in t
was th e i n a b i l i t y o f the d e le g a t e s to c o n c e iv e o f
n a tio n a l p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s sp r in g in g up a s a
r esp o n se to the c r e a t io n o f n a t io n a l o f f i c e s . 1
The manbers o f the C o n s t it u t io n a l C on ven tion f i n a l l y
s e l e c t e d on th e ad hoc e l e c t o r a l c o l l e g e as th e m ost
20
D avid , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n v en tio n s, p . 5 .
21
Goodman, The Two-Party System in the U n ite d
S t a t e s , p . l ^ o
117
e x p e d ie n t and a d v a n ta g eo u s method f o r c h o o s in g th e C h ie f
E x e c u tiv e # Under t h i s p la n , the e l e c t o r s from a l l th e
S t a t e s s e l e c t e d under the d i r e c t i o n o f the S t a t e l e g i s
l a t u r e s would m eet to c a s t t h e i r v o t e s f o r P r e s id e n t and
V i c e - P r e s i d e n t . Each e l e c t o r would c a s t two v o t e s . The
man who r e c e i v e d th e m ost e l e c t o r a l v o t e s was to be P r e s i
d e n t , and th e r u n n er -u p w ou ld be V i c e - P r e s i d e n t .
The system w orked, b u t o n ly f o r a span o f a p p r o x i
m a te ly f i v e y e a r s .
The s i x t y - n i n e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t o r s who c a s t
t h e i r b a l l o t s i n F eb ru ary 1789 had no tr o u b le making
t h e ir unanim ous c h o ic e o f nth e b e s t . ” G eorge
W ashington was th e a c c la im e d m i l i t a r y g e n iu s o f a
s u c c e s s f u l r e v o l u t i o n , had p r e s id e d o v e r th e
C o n s t i t u t i o n a l C o n v e n tio n , was one o f th e w e a l t h i e s t
men i n the c o u n tr y and th e le a d in g c i t i z e n o f V ir
g i n i a — th e s t a t e w ith th e l a r g e s t e l e c t o r a l v o t e . 22
The c h o ic e fo r V ic e - P r e s i d e n t was John Adams. The p r o c e s s
was r e p e a t e d fo r th e e l e c t i o n i n 1792 w ith the same r e s u l t s .
Both W ashington and Adams were members o f th e same p a r t y ,
th e F e d e r a l i s t P a r ty , and th e governm ent r a n sm o o th ly .
Harmony was b ro k en , h o w ev er, on New Y e a r 's E ve, 1793* f o r
i t was on t h a t d a te t h a t Thomas J e f f e r s o n , an gered a t th e
p e r s i s t e n c e o f f a c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s w ith A lex an d er
H a m ilto n , r e s ig n e d from W a sh in g to n 's c a b i n e t . Some co n ten d
t h a t t h i s was the b i r t h d a te o f th e p a r ty sy stem i n th e
^^D avid, Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P a rty C o n v e n tio n s . p . 6 .
118
U n ite d S t a t e s * 2^
King Caucus
H lv a l p o l i t i c a l f a c t i o n s i n th e n a t io n a l scen e were
a r e a l i t y by 179&* Though th e r e i s n o t s u b s t a n t i a l e v i
dence o f a cau cu s m ee tin g by th e F e d e r a l i s t s , th e i d e n t i t y
o f th e F e d e r a l i s t c a n d id a te s was a c c e p te d w ith o u t q u e s-
t io n - - J o h n Adams fo r P r e s id e n t and Thomas P in ck ney fo r
V ic e - P r e s id e n t * Thomas J e f f e r s o n was th e acknow ledged
le a d e r o f th e A n t i - F e d e r a l i s t s j u s t as W ashington had b een
th e acknow ledged le a d e r o f the n a t io n i n 1 7 8 9 * ^ Through
a m a n ip u la tio n o f e l e c t o r a l v o t e s by b o th p a r t i e s , the
F e d e r a l i s t and A n t i - F e d e r a l i s t , th e o p p o sin g c a n d id a te s
f o r P r e s id e n t were e l e c t e d to th e f i r s t two p la c e s in th e
same A d m in istra tio n --A d a m s a s P r e s id e n t and J e f f e r s o n as
V ic e - P r e s id e n t * ^
There was no s a t i s f a c t o r y means f o r the members o f
a p a r ty to m eet and ch o o se a c a n d id a te to su p p o rt in th e
e l e c t o r a l c o l l e g e , b u t w ith o u t agreem ent th ere would be no
v i c t o r y a t e l e c t i o n tim e* The f i r s t s o l u t i o n to the p rob
lem was to borrow a method o f making n o m in a tio n s which had
^ M a lc o lm Moos and S tep h en H e s s , H ats i n th e R ing
{New York: Random H ou se, i 9 6 0 ) , p* 20*
^G oodm an, The Two-Party System i n the U n ite d
S t a t e s , p* lf?7*
2 % bid *
proved s u c c e s s f u l I n the S t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e s * The p a r ty
members in C ongress would m e e t s e c r e t l y and ch o o se the
c a n d id a te s* The m e e tin g became known o f f i c i a l l y a s the
C o n g r e ss io n a l Caucus* S in c e n o m in a tio n by the cau cu s was
tantam ount t o e l e c t i o n , th e su p p o r te r s o f Andrew Jackson
dubbed i t ’’K ing C au cu s.
In the f o u r th p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n , i n 1 8 0 0 , the
A n t i- F e d e r a l is t s denounced th e s e c r e t F e d e r a l i s t caucus
w hich nom inated Adams and P inckney f o r P r e s id e n t and V ic e -
P r e s id e n t, r e s p e c t i v e l y * T h is d id n o t , h o w ev er, s to p the
A n t i- F e d e r a l is t s from m ee tin g to r e a s s u r e J e f f e r s o n o f
t h e i r su p p o rt and, more im p ortan t to them a t the t im e , to
r e a s s u r e Aaron Burr th a t i n t h i s e l e c t i o n he would be
su p p orted so w e ll t h a t he was sure t o be V ic e -P r e s id e n t *
Burr was su p p o rte d , b u t to o w e l l . Imbued w ith th e s p i r i t
o f th e c o n t e s t and d eterm in ed th a t t h e i r c a n d id a te s would
s e r v e , the e l e c t o r s v o te d so f a i t h f u l l y f o r the s l a t e o f
J e ff e r s o n and Burr t h a t th e two men emerged i n a t i e *
The c h o ic e o f a P r e s id e n t was f o r the f i r s t tim e
p u t up to the House o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s , and t h i r t y -
s i x b a l l o t s were r e q u ir e d to e l e c t J e f f e r s o n , w h ile
e x t e n s i v e i n t r i g u e s w ir le d about th e C on gress and
th e c a n d id a te s* A s i t u a t i o n p e r m ittin g F e d e r a l i s t
members o f C ongress to d e c id e w h ich R ep u b lica n would
f i l l w hich o f f i c e was so in c o m p a tib le w ith p a r ty
^^Moos and H e s s , H ats in th e R in g , p . 20*
2 7
C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r ter ly C on ven tion G u id e, p . 2 .
120
governm ent t h a t th e C o n s t it u t io n was amended b e fo r e
the e l e c t i o n o f l 80lj_.2 °
The f i r s t p a r t o f th e 1 2 th amendment to th e C o n s t it u t io n
read as f o l l o w s :
The e l e c t o r s s h a l l m eet i n t h e ir r e s p e c t i v e s t a t e s
and v o te by b a l l o t fo r P r e s id e n t and V ic e - P r e s id e n t ,
one o f whom, a t l e a s t , s h a l l n o t be an in h a b it a n t o f
the same s t a t e w ith th e m s e lv e s ; th e y s h a l l name in
t h e ir b a l l o t s th e p erson v o te d f o r a s P r e s id e n t , and
in d i s t i n c t b a l l o t s th e p e r so n v o te d f o r a s V i c e -
P r e s id e n t , and th e y s h a l l make d i s t i n c t l i s t s o f a l l
p e r so n s v o ted f o r as P r e s id e n t , and o f a l l p e r s o n s
v o te d f o r as V i c e - P r e s i d e n t , and o f .the number o f
v o t e s f o r e a c h , w hich l i s t s th e y s h a l l s ig n and
c e r t i f y , and tr a n s m it s e a l e d to th e s e a t o f the
governm ent o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , d i r e c t e d to th e
P r e s id e n t of th e S e n a t e ; — The P r e s id e n t o f th e
S e n a te s h a l l , i n p r e se n c e o f the S e n a te and H ouse
o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s , open a l l the c e r t i f i c a t e s and
the v o t e s s h a l l th en be c o u n te d ; — The person h a v in g
th e g r e a t e s t number o f v o t e s f o r P r e s id e n t , s h a l l
be th e P r e s id e n t , i f such a number be a m a jo r ity o f
the w hole number o f E l e c t o r s a p p o in te d ; and i f no
p erso n have such m a jo r ity ; th en from th e p e r so n s h a v in g
the h i g h e s t numbers n o t e x c e e d in g th r e e on th e l i s t
o f th o s e v o te d f o r as P r e s id e n t , th e House o f R epre
s e n t a t i v e s s h a l l ch oose im m e d ia te ly , by b a l l o t ,
the P r e s i d e n t .^9
With th e r a t i f i c a t i o n o f th e 1 2 th Amendment (Septem ber 2 5 ,
l8 0 if ) , e l e c t o r s v o te d s e p a r a t e ly f o r P r e s id e n t and V ic e -
P r e sid e n t and in t h i s way b oth h ead s o f s t a t e c o u ld be
30
members o f one p a r t y .
Q Q
Goodman, The Two-Party System i n the U n ite d
S t a t e s , p . 159*
^ H o u s e Document No. 3 3 2 , p . 1 3 •
• ^ C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r te r ly C on ven tion G u id e, p . 2 .
121
In s p i t e o f o p p o s i t i o n , "King Caucus" r e ig n e d
supreme* One o f th e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s was t h a t th e F e d e r
a l i s t P a rty who had p io n e e r e d th e u s e o f th e c a u cu s u se d
i t o n ly s p o r a d i c a l l y , b u t th e A n t i - F e d e r a l i s t s w ent so f a r
a s to make t h e i r u s e o f i t o f f i c i a l by rem oving th e s e c r e c y
31
from i t o The C o n g r e s s io n a l Caucus was u se d e v e r y e l e c
t i o n y e a r t h e r e a f t e r and i t s recom m end ation s were a c c e p te d
w ith "rem arkable a l a c r i t y " — b e in g nom inated was e q u iv a le n t
32
t o b e in g e l e c t e d .
When th e o p p o r tu n ity p r e s e n te d i t s e l f , th e abandon
m ent o f "King Caucus" was s u r p r i s i n g l y ' s w i f t . In l82lj.,
th e m ach in ery o f th e Caucus was g e a r e d to n om in ate a s
M onroe's s u c c e s s o r a man whom many b e l i e v e d to be u n f i t
to be P r e s i d e n t — W illia m C. Crawford o f G e o r g ia . The
cau cu s sy ste m was In t r o u b l e . Three P r e s i d e n t i a l h o p e
f u l s — Andrew J a c k so n , Henry C la y , and John Q uincy Adams—
e n te r e d th e r a c e a g a i n s t h im . The m easure o f th e p o p u la r
i t y o f th e Caucus and o f Crawford showed i n th e e l e c t i o n
r e t u r n s — Crawford ran t h i r d , b eh in d J ack son and Adams,
and ahead o f C la y . S in c e no one man won a m a j o r it y o f
th e e l e c t o r s , th e e l e c t i o n was thrown i n t o th e House o f
R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s . John Q uincy Adams was c h o se n as
^ O s t r o g o r s k i , Dem ocracy and th e O r g a n iz a tio n o f
P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s , p . 15"•
3 2 I b i d . , p p . 2 5 - 3I 4 ..
122
P r e s id e n t .^3
Once the nominee o f the caucus was n o t a c c e p te d ,
once he was opposed and b e a te n , the cau cu s was
d e a d . I t was d e str o y e d by the r e su r g e n c e o f th e
d em ocratic i n s i s t e n c e upon a governm ent shared
by more p eop le and upon p a r t i e s o r g a n ize d from
the g r a ss r o o t s .34-
When Andrew Jackson , "Old H ic k o r y ,” was nom inated in 1828,
i t was by a com b ination o f " S ta te l e g i s l a t i v e c a u c u se s,
public meetings, and irregular conventions of the people.”35
"King Caucus” was d eth ron ed ; i t s s o v e r e ig n t y was
d ea d .
P r e s id e n t ia l Nom inating C on ven tion
. The moment had a r r iv e d fo r ^ th e in t r o d u c t io n o f the
p r e s i d e n t i a l nom inating c o n v e n tio n .
There had been r e a so n a b le f a c s i m i l e s o f p r e s i d e n t i a l
n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n s b e fo r e the famous one o f th e A n ti-
Masons in 1 8 3 1 . In e s s e n c e , the f i r s t n a t io n a l nom ination
co n v en tio n was th a t o f the F e d e r a l i s t P arty in 1808, but
i t was n o t u s u a lly awarded the d i s t i n c t i o n o f b e in g the
f i r s t b ecau se i t was h e ld w ith o u t n o t ic e to th e p u b lic and
w ith c lo s e d s e s s i o n s .
33
O str o g o r sk i, Democracy and the O r g a n iz a tio n of
P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s , pp. 2 5 -3 4 -
3^}oodman, The Two-Party System in th e U n ited
S t a t e s , p . 1 6 2 .
3^Moos and Hess, Hats in the Ring, p. 20.
123
In th e F e d e r a l i s t p a r t y , "King Caucus" had n ev er
b een f u l l y enthroned* When P in ck ney and King were
nom inated i n 180^. by c a u c u s, str o n g o b j e c t i o n
f o llo w e d from th e s t a t e F e d e r a l i s t le a d e r s i n New
York and M a s s a c h u s e tts , who were more p o w er fu l on
t h e i r home grounds than th e p a r ty m in o r ity was i n
C on gress* In 1 8 0 8 , t h e r e f o r e , a t th e in s t a n c e [ s i c *]
o f a com m ittee o f M a ssa c h u se tts l e g i s l a t o r s , a
F e d e r a l i s t d e le g a t e c o n v e n tio n was h e ld in New Y ork.
The d e l e g a t e s , r e p r e s e n t in g e ig h t o f th e s e v e n te e n
s t a t e s , en d orsed P in ck ney and King *3°
A nother fo r e r u n n e r o f n a t i o n a l c o n v e n tio n s was a
F e d e r a l i s t m ee tin g i n 1812 c o n s i s t i n g o f 70 d e l e g a t e s
87
s e n t by 11 S t a t e s •
About s e v e n ty F e d e r a l i s t s , as s e l f - a p p o i n t e d
members, convened s e c r e t l y i n New York C ity in
1812* The i n t e n t i o n o f some o f th e le a d e r s was
to en d o rse C lin t o n , but a c t i v e o p p o s it io n p r e
v e n te d any o f f i c i a l a c t i o n b e in g ta k e n . N e v e r t h e le s s
th e group r e f l e c t e d a se n tim e n t i n fa v o r o f C lin t o n ,
who r e c e iv e d th e F e d e r a l i s t s ' e l e c t o r a l v o t e s t h a t
y ea r* T h is m e e tin g can h a r d ly be c a l l e d a c o n v e n
t i o n , b u t had some o f th e a t t r i b u t e s o f one* I t
was a b reak w ith th e cau cu s system and was s u g g e s
t i v e o f th e new sy stem w hich would a r i s e in the
1 8 3 0 ' s .3 o
The honor o f h o ld in g th e f i r s t r e c o g n iz e d p r e s i
d e n t i a l n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n b elo n g ed to the s h o r t - l i v e d
p a r t y , the A nti-M ason P arty w hich was . . v ery l i k e l y
our f i r s t t h ir d p a r t y . n^9 i t a l l s t a r t e d w ith the a l le g e d
3^ D avid , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n v e n tio n s, p p . 1 0 - 1 1 .
57John S . Murdoch, "The F i r s t N a tio n a l N om inating
C o n v en tio n ," American H i s t o r i c a l R ev iew . 1 : 6 8 1 , 1 8 9 6 .
-^Goodman, The Two-Party System i n th e U n ite d
S t a t e s , p p . 1 6 7 - 16BT '
39moos and Hess, Hats in the Ring, p. 2 1 *
. 121*.
a b d u c tio n and m y ste r io u s d isa p p ea ra n ce o f W illiam Morgan
in 1826 who was r ep o rted to be w r itin g a book about the
s e c r e t s o f the F reem ason s. The A nti-M asons banded t o
g e th e r and b eca u se o f t h e ir s o l i d a r i t y began to show th e ir
in f lu e n c e in S t a t e e l e c t i o n s . In Septem ber, 1830, a
n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n o f A nti-M asons met in P h ila d e lp h ia to
d i s c u s s how to p roceed fu r th e r
I t was v o te d to h o ld a second n a t io n a l c o n v en tio n
in B a ltim o re on the 2 6 th o f Septem ber, 18 3 1 , to be
composed o f d e le g a t e s eq u a l in number to the
r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s in both H ouses o f C ongress from
each S t a t e , and to be ch osen by the p eop le opposed
to s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s , f o r the purpose o f making
n om in ation s fo r the o f f i c e s o f P r e sid e n t and V ic e -
P r e s id e n t . h-1
Each S t a t e , th e r e f o r e , was a u th o r iz e d to send as many
d e le g a t e s a s i t had e l e c t o r a l v o t e s . The A nti-M asons did
m e e t. A t h r e e - f o u r t h s m a jo r ity was r e q u ir e d f o r nom inating
the n a t io n a l t i c k e t (W illiam W irt o f Maryland was nomina
t e d ) , and an "Address to th e P eople o f the U n ited S ta te s"
was is s u e d which was s u g g e s t iv e o f th e p la tfo r m sta tem en ts
o f l a t e r c o n v e n t i o n s .^ The p a r ty c a r r ie d o n ly Vermont
i n the g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n and as a p a r ty "evaporated in t o
^ S ta n w o o d , A H is to r y o f th e P re sid e n c y from 1789
to 1 8 9 7 . p . 1 5 5 .
^ I b i d . , p . 1 ^6 .
^G oodm an, The Two-party System in the U n ited
S t a t e s , p . 1 6 8 .
1 2 5
h i s t o r y T h e n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n rem ained, how ever,
as a p o l i t i c a l f o r c e in h i s t o r y .
Once th e p a tte r n o f p r e s i d e n t i a l n om in atin g con ven
t io n s had been d e m o n stra te d , the m ajor p a r t i e s adop ted i t *
The s o - c a l l e d "K itch en C abinet" o f Andrew Jack son , working
through the D em ocrats in th e New Hampshire l e g i s l a t u r e ,
e n g in e e r e d a D em ocratic C on ven tion * The purpose s t a t e d in
t h e ir c o n v e n tio n c a l l was to " c o r d ia lly approve o f the
r e p e a te d n o m in a tio n s th a t P r e s id e n t Jackson has r e c e iv e d
in v a r io u s p a r ts o f the c o u n t r y ." ^ What th e y d id ,
h ow ever, was to a ff ir m Van B uren’ s n om in ation f o r V ic e -
P r e s id e n t; to a d o p t a r u l e r e g a r d in g n o m in ation s r e q u ir in g
a tw o -th ir d s v o t e o f the e n t i r e number o f d e le g a t e s in
order to win t h e n o m in a tio n --a r u le th a t p r e c i p i t a t e d b i t
te r f i g h t s u n t i l i t was a b o lis h e d i n 1 9 3 6 ; and to adopt
the u n i t r u le w hich p e r m itte d the m a jo r ity o f a S t a t e ’ s
d e le g a t io n to c a s t the S t a t e ’ s e n t i r e v o t e , p r o v id in g th e
d e le g a t io n had b een so i n s t r u c t e d by i t s S ta t e c o n v e n tio n --
i»5
a r u le s t i l l i n e f f e c t a t D em ocratic C o n v e n tio n s. The
c o n v e n tio n was h e l d in th e same b u ild in g in w hich th e
^ M oo s and H e ss, H a ts i n the R in g , p . 2 1 .
^ S t o d d a r d , P r e s i d e n t i a l S w e e p sta k e s, p . 1^.1*
^G oodm an, The Tw o-Party System i n the U n ited
S t a t e s , pp. 2 1 0 -2 1 5 1
126
A nti-M ason c o n v e n tio n had b een h e l d - - t h e Anthenaeum in
B a ltim o r e . The s e l e c t i o n o f d e l e g a t e s was a c a s u a l a f f a i r .
"Some who came to B a ltim o r e were a p p o in te d by s t a t e p a r ty
c o m m itte e s, sane were c h o se n by m ass m e e tin g s , and a few
d e l e g a t e s a c t u a l l y a p p o in te d them selves."^-® T his tim e th e
c o n v e n tio n produced a w i n n e r .^
The Adams-Clay men, the a n t i-J a c k s o n f a c t i o n o f th e
D e m o c r a tic -R e p u b lic a n s w hich had m et w ith s u c c e s s i n the
I 82I 4 . e l e c t i o n , had fonn ed in t o a se p a r a te p a r ty and were
known d u rin g the cam paigns o f 1828 and 1832 as the
" N a tio n a l R e p u b lic a n s." They h e ld t h e i r f i r s t m a jo r -p a r ty
n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n in D ecem ber, 1 8 3 1 , n om in atin g Henry
C lay fo r P r e s id e n t and John S e r g e a n t fo r V ice-P resid en t.^ -®
The f o llo w in g May, on the recom m endation o f the f i r s t
m a jo r -p a r ty n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n , a n a t io n a l assem b ly o f
young men m et to a c c e p t o f f i c i a l l y the s l a t e o f the
N a tio n a l R e p u b lic a n s, and to adop t a p la tfo r m , the f i r s t
e v er ad op ted by a n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n i n the f a m i li a r s e t
^-®Moos and H e s s, H ats in th e R in g , p p . 2 1 - 2 2 .
^ p o r f a c t u a l in fo r m a tio n c o n c er n in g th e y e a r , c i t y ,
d a t e , p r e s i d e n t i a l nominee and number o f b a l l o t s f o r major
p o l i t i c a l nom in atin g c o n v e n tio n s from 1832 to 195?6 , se e
Appendix E and P .
L l8
^ Goodman, The Two-Party System i n th e U n ited
S t a t e s . p . 1 6 8 .
127
Ji Q
o f r e s o l u t i o n s The u n i t r u l e was adopted a ls o and
rem ained i n f o r c e u n t i l 1 8 7 6 . ^
In the b e g in n in g , N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C on ven tion s
were h a i l e d a s a " g r e a t refo rm ," b u t w it h in a few s h o r t
y e a r s , were s u b j e c t to a tta c k even more v i t r i o l i c than
p r e v io u s form s o f n om in ation i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y T h e e v e n ts
o f 1831 and 1 8 3 2, how ever, had e s t a b l i s h e d th e u s e o f th e
n a t io n a l n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f our
p o l i t i c a l system and "the u n f a i l i n g u s e o f c o n v e n tio n s by
co
th e p a r t i e s began i n l 8li-0 ."^
Growth o f the n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n , 1 8 3 2 -1 8 6 0 *—
The y e a r s from 1832 to i 860 were th e " an te-b ellu m " or
53
pre-w ar y e a r s • The p a r t i e s , n a t io n a l in name and
^ S ta n w o o d , A H is t o r y o f th e P r e sid e n c y from 1 7 89
to 1 8 9 7 > PP* 1 5 7 -1 5 8 .
^ I b i d . , p . Ifl*
51
P aul T. D a v id , M alcolm Moos, and Ralph M * Goldman,
P r e s i d e n t i a l N om inating P o l i t i c s i n 1 9 5 2 . The N a tio n a l
Scene (B a ltim o r e : The Johns H opkins P r e s s , 19524-), V o l. I ,
P- k*
52
Goodman, The Two-Party S ystem i n the U n ite d
S t a t e s , p . 1 6 8 .
53
"^The o r g a n iz a t io n a l p a tt e r n f o r t h i s s e c t i o n o f th e
h i s t o r y o f nom in atin g c o n v e n tio n s s h a l l f o l l o w w ith s l i g h t
m o d if ic a t io n s th e exam ple s e t by Paul D a v id , Ralph M.
Goldman, and R ichard B ain i n The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l P arty
C o n v e n tio n s, pp* 2 1 -3 1 — "The A n te-B ellu m Y e a r s , 1832-1660;"
"The P o s t - C i v i l War P e r io d , 1861^-1892:" " R ep ub lican Domi
n a n c e , I 8 9 6- I 92I 4 .;" "R ecent Tim es, 1 9 2 8 -1 9 5 6 ."
128
m em bership bu t hampered, by a la c k o f a n a t io n a l system o f
com m unication, rem ained 11. . • e s s e n t i a l l y a c o l l e c t i o n o f
in g w ith l i t t l e r e f e r e n c e to r e a l n a t io n a l l e a d e r s h ip .
The p a rty tu r n o v e r i n the W hite House e v e r y fo u r
y e a r s from I 8J 4.O to 18^2 was a s i g n , n o t o f th e
s t r e n g t h o f th e p a r t i e s when in o p p o s it io n , b u t
o f the n a t io n a l in ad eq u acy o f e i t h e r p a r ty when
g iv e n e x e c u t iv e p o w e r .5 5
The D em ocratic C on ven tio n o f I 8if8 e s t a b l i s h e d a c o n tin u in g
com m ittee to s e r v e u n t i l the f o l lo w in g c o n v e n tio n , w ith
Benjam in H a l l e t t , form er A nti-M ason, a s th e ch airm an .
The co m m ittee , d e s ig n a te d "The D em ocratic N a tio n a l Commit
t e e ," s e n t ou t th e c a l l fo r the n e x t c o n v e n t io n . The Whig
C on ven tion o f 18^2 s e t up a s i m i la r c o m m it t e e .^ The
n a t io n a l com m ittee was b o r n .
The R ep u b lica n P a r ty , as su c h , h e ld i t s f i r s t
n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n in 1856 i n P h ila d e lp h ia w ith John
57
C. Fremont as i t s c h o ic e fo r P r e s id e n t .
lo c a lis m s ." '^ ' I t was a town h a l l type o f p o l i t i c a l t h in k -
There was some a ttem p t to r e c t i f y t h i s s i t u a t i o n .
The p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f la r g e numbers o f th e p u b lic
Goldman, and B ain Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P a rty C o n v e n tio n s, p . 23*
^Ibid.
^6I b i d , p p . 1 6 - 1 7 .
57
^ 'C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r te r ly C on ven tion G u id e, p . 2 .
129
a t th e c o n v e n tio n s d id n o t o c cu r u n t i l the c o n v e n tio n in
C hicago in May, i 8 6 0 , which nom inated Abraham L in c o ln f o r
President*-^®
D uring th e c o n v e n tio n o f i 8 6 0 , perhaps due to the
e f f e c t s o f the C i v i l War, c o n fu s io n r e ig n e d * There was a
fo u r -c o r n e r e d e l e c t i o n in which each p a r ty ca n d id a te won
v o t e s i n th e e l e c t o r a l c o l l e g e * There were two c o n v e n tio n s
and two c a n d id a te s f o r the D em ocrats— S tep h en A* D ou glas
o f I l l i n o i s f o r the n o rth ern D em ocrats, John C.
B r e c k in r id g e o f Kentucky f o r th e sou th ern *
The p r e s i d e n t i a l n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n s o f i8 6 0
marked an e p o c h a l tu r n in g p o in t i n Am erican h i s t o r y .
The d e l e g a t e s o f co u rse co u ld n o t know t h a t t h e ir
d e c i s i o n would h e lp p lu n g e th e n a t io n in t o c i v i l war
b e fo r e a n o th er y e a r had p assed * Torn by the s la v e r y
c r i s i s , u n a b le to name a man a c c e p t a b le to both
North and S ou th , the g r e a t D em ocratic p a r ty r u in e d
i t s ch an ces o f w in n in g the P re sid e n c y by n om in atin g
two c a n d id a te s* T his gave the r e l a t i v e l y new,
a n t i s l a v e r y R ep u b lican p a r ty i t s f i r s t g r e a t
o p p o r tu n ity *59
L in c o ln r e c e iv e d o n ly f o r t y per c e n t o f the p op u lar v o te
b ut he won e l e c t i o n w ith p op u lar m a j o r i t i e s i n the S t a t e s
w ith a m a jo r ity o f th e e l e c t o r a l v o te *
Y et when th e war was o v e r , i t was app arent th a t
th e r e would be a r e v e r s io n to a tw o -p a rty system
n o t d i f f e r i n g g r e a t l y , e x c e p t p ro b a b ly i n b e in g
s tr o n g e r , from th e one i n e x is t e n c e from I 8I 4 .O to
1852* I t was a ls o c le a r t h a t the n a t io n a l
^ C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r ter ly C on ven tion G u id e, p . 2.
Judah and Sm ith , The U n ch osen , p* l £ .
130
c o n v e n tio n had d e c i s i v e l y r e p la c e d th e c o n g r e s s io n a l
caucus f o r n e g o t ia t in g and d e c id in g on each p a r t y ’ s
m ost im portant r e c u r r in g co n c er n , th e n om in ation o f
I t s p r e s i d e n t i a l ca n d id a te* T his was probab ly the
m ost l im i t e d a c t i v i t y through which a p o l i t i c a l p arty
cou ld a c h ie v e i d e n t i t y as a n a t io n a l i n s t i t u t i o n ,
but i t was s u f f i c i e n t ; s in c e 1832 the p r e s i d e n t i a l
n om in atin g p r o c e ss has been c e n t r a l to the p a rty
sy ste m *6°
D uring the y e a r s 1 8 3 2 -1 8 6 0 , m ost o f the i n s t i t u
t i o n a l forms of th e p arty system and the nom in atin g con
v e n tio n s t h a t were to su r v iv e the y ea rs were e s t a b l i s h e d . ^
P o s t - C i v i l War p e r io d , 186U .-I892. —During th e f i r s t
tw enty y e a r s o f th e P o s t - C iv il War p e r io d , the R ep u b lican
P arty p la c e d a P r e sid e n t i n the W hite House every fo u r
y e a r s . The b a la n ce o f popular v o t e s , th ou gh , was u s u a lly
c l o s e . At the end o f the p e r io d , the p a r t i e s were
Z.p
a lt e r n a t in g In power a t fo u r y ea r i n t e r v a l s .
R ep u b lican dom inance. 1896-1921].. — The y e a r s I 8 96-
I 92J 4 . were y e a r s o f R ep u b lican dominance in which b o ss r u le
was str o n g and dem anding. I n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n and o p p o s i
t io n to n a t io n a l p a r ty le a d e r s h ip l e d to reform s which
would g iv e th e popular v o te more c h o ic e .
When, f o r a p e r io d o f t h i r t y - f i v e y e a r s , from 186^
to 190 0 , th e c h o ic e o f P r e s id e n t ia l c a n d id a te s was
l e f t to th e b o s s e s in c o n v e n tio n a ssem b led , t h e ir
D a v id , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f R a tio n a l
P arty C o n v en tio n s, p . 1 8 .
6 l I b i d . , p. 1 £ . 62I b i d . , p . 2l|_.
131
s e l e c t i o n s r e su lte d , in such, m ed iocre le a d e r s h ip
o f t h i s country t h a t i t c o u ld be tr u ly w r itt e n
t h a t nNo p erio d so th orou gh ly ord in ary had been
known in American p o l i t i c s s in c e C h ristop h er
Columbus f i r s t d is tu r b e d th e b a la n ce o f American
s o c i e t y •"63
The s t a t e - w id e prim ary e l e c t i o n law was adopted in W iscon- .
s i n in 1 9 0 3 ^ and th e S e v e n te e n th Amendment which p rovid ed
f o r the p op u lar e l e c t i o n o f S e n a to r s was r a t i f i e d in 1913*
P rim a ries became a p a r t o f the scen e and in ap p roxim ately
tw o -th ir d s o f th e S t a t e s , g u b e r n a to r ia l and c o n g r e s s io n a l
c a n d id a te s were b e in g nom inated in p r im a ries by 1 9 1 6 . ^
Many s t a t e s in th e n e x t h a lf - c e n t u r y experim en ted
w ith the P r e s id e n t ia l prim ary--som e making i t a
permanent fe a tu r e o f th e ir p o l i t i c s , some f i n a l l y
a b o lis h in g i t , m ost o f them a l t e r n a t i n g i t s r u le s
from decade to decade* By i 9 6 0 , on ly s i x t e e n s t a t e s
s t i l l r e ta in e d a l e g a l , open prim ary, in which
a l l s e e k e r s fo r th e P re sid e n c y o f th e U n ited S t a t e s ,
o f e i t h e r p a r ty ,,m ig h t o f f e r th e m se lv e s to th e
p eo p le d i r e c t l y .6 6
On June 30» 1 9 2 0 , women took t h e ir p la c e in conven
t io n h i s t o r y . Mrs. George Bass o f C h icago, N a tio n a l
Committeewoman from I l l i n o i s , p r e sid e d b r i e f l y over the
D em ocratic C on ven tion — the f i r s t tim e a woman had ever
^ T h eo d o re H* W hite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t .
i 960 (New York: P o ck et Books’ ^ I n c . , 1 9 6 1 ), p . 91+«
^ I b i d . , p . 95*
6% a v id , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n v en tio n s, p p . 2 7 -2 8 .
^ W h it e , The Making o f th e P r e s id e n t , i 9 6 0 , p . 9^-*
132
done s o . ^ S in ce t h a t tim e women have s t e a d i l y g a in ed
prom inence in the n a t io n a l p o l i t i c a l s c e n e , and by i 960
b o th the Dem ocrats and R epu blican s v o te d to g iv e women
f i f t y per c e n t o f th e s e a t s on the c o n v e n tio n p a n els#
D uring the y e a r s o f R epublican dominance th e re was
a marked r ea lig n m e n t o f p a r ty e l e c t o r a t e s th a t was to
l a s t fo r many y e a rs# This r e a lig n m e n t was the r e s u l t o f
th e e l e c t i o n o f 1896 in which the D em ocrats absorbed the
P o p u lis t s and th e R epu blican s c o n s o lid a t e d p a rty su p p ort
among th e m onetary c o n s e r v a t iv e s # This r ea lig n m en t was
- - i n p a r t i d e o l o g i c a l , in p a r t s e c t i o n a l , and in
p a r t alon g s o c i a l and economic c l a s s l i n e s , w ith a l l
th e d i v i s i o n s c u t t in g a c r o s s each o th e r in a p a tte r n
o f some c o n f u s io n . I d e o l o g i c a l l y , the Dem ocrats
were a g a in i d e n t i f i e d w ith r a d i c a l so ft-m o n ey
a g r a r ia n ism , as in the days o f Andrew J ack son , th e
R epu blican s w ith sound money, h ig h p r o t e c t iv e
t a r i f f s , and an a c t iv e concern f o r the workingm an's
w e lfa r e and p r o s p e r it y — M the f u l l d in n e r -p a il# " ° 9
The D e p r essio n to p r o s p e r it y , 1 9 2 8 -1 9 6 0 . —D uring the
y e a r s , 1 9 2 8- 1 9 6 0 , th e re was a r e sh a p in g o f the p a t t e r n o f
s o c i a l and economic l i n e s betw een the p a r t ie s w hich was
produced by th e accu m u lative r ea lig n m en t o f th e e l e c t o r a t e s
Stod dard, P r e s id e n t ia l S w ee p sta k e s# p# 1 6 3 #
68
News item In the New York T im es. J u ly 2 3 , 19&0,
p# 1 3 , and J u ly 2 7 , i 9 6 0 , p# Lib#
k^David, Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n v en tio n s, p . 2o#
133
du rin g th e e l e c t i o n s o f 1 9 2 8 , 1 9 3 2 , and 1 9 3 6 *
A llo w in g f o r a lw a y s -p r e s e n t o v e r la p , th e R ep u b lican
p a r ty was i n c r e a s i n g l y i d e n t i f i e d w ith th e w h ite -
c o l l a r , p r o p r ie ta r y , p r o f e s s i o n a l , and u p p er-in com e
c l a s s e s , th e D em ocratic p arty w ith manual w ork ers,
o r g a n ize d la b o r , e th n ic and r e l i g i o u s m i n o r i t i e s ,
low er-in com e groups o f v a r io u s k in d s , a s s o r t e d
c a t e g o r ie s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s , and m averick h ig h -
income i n d i v i d u a l s , ' 0
The s o c i a l and econom ic c le a v a g e s betw een the
p a r t i e s became more apparent as the y e a r s p a s s e d .
The g r e a t d e c lin e i n both s e c t io n a lis m and t r a d i
t io n a lis m in v o tin g may . . . be perm anent, in v ie w
o f th e c o n tin u in g im portance o f economic and p o l i t
i c a l i s s u e s th a t c u t a c r o ss the i n t e r e s t s o f a l l
p a r ts o f the n a t i o n . E v e n tu a lly the n a t i o n a li z i n g
te n d e n c ie s th a t have been a t work m ight even erode
th e rem ains o f s e c t i o n a l p o l i t i c s in the South .7-1-
N a tio n a l p o l i t i c s s in c e 19^ 4-0 have r e f l e c t e d the
e v e n ts and a fter m a th o f World War I I . James A. M ichener
in R eport o f the County Chairman d e s c r ib e d the changes
ta k in g p la c e i n one s e c t i o n o f h is c o u n ty , a suburban area
c a l l e d L evittow n in Bucks County, P e n n s y l v a n i a L e v it -
town c o n s is t e d o f 1 7 ,0 0 0 brand-new homes b u i l t i n the s i x
y e a r s betw een 19^2 and 19f?8. By i 9 60 L ev itto w n was a c i t y
o f ap p roxim ately 7 0 ,0 0 0 p eop le who had moved i n from a l l
s e c t i o n s o f th e c o u n tr y .
^°D avid, Goldman, and B ain, The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n y e n tlo n s, p . 2 8 .
^1I b i d . , p p . 3 0 - 3 1 #
72
James A. M ichener, Report o f the County Chairman
(New York: Bantam Books, 1 9 6 1 ) , pp . 9 1 -1 0 6 .
1 3 1 1 -
In th e ir y o u th , m ost o f th e se newcom ers, many from
C a th o lic and Jew ish f a m i l i e s , had been D em ocrats,
and i t was supposed t h a t when th ey s e t t l e d down to
the p le a s a n t r o u t in e s o f Bucks County l i f e th ey
would c o n tin u e to v o te D e m o cr a tic .
But s o c i o l o g i c a l and p o l i t i c a l changes o f c o n
s id e r a b le m agnitude were in p r o g r e s s , and when
f a m i l i e s who had been r ea r ed in th e t i g h t c o n fin e s
o f a c i t y rea ch ed the c o u n tr y sid e th e y expanded in
u n fo r e se e n w ays, a p r in c ip a l one b e in g th a t th e y
no lo n g e r wanted to o b ser v e t h e ir in h e r it e d p a tte r n s
o f s o c i a l or p o l i t i c a l b e h a v io r . . . • " i f we l i v e d
in a n ic e c le a n area l i k e t h i s we were supposed to
v o te R ep u b lican ." And in a l l the n a t i o n 's su b u rb ias
th ey began to do so w ith s t a r t l i n g f o r c e . S o c i o l o g i s t s
d e s c r ib e d th e s e new v o t in g p a tt e r n s as "the r e v o l t
o f the l a c e - c u r t a i n I r i s h ," b u t the e f f e c t was
e q p a lly pronounced in P r o te s ta n t and Jew ish f a m i l i e s
o f s im ila r background. I watched v a r io u s p a r ts o f
th e U n ited S t a t e s undergo t h i s change and i t i s
n o t a c c u r a te to brush i t o f f as m erely "the r e a l -
e s t a t e co m p lex ."73
The e f f e c t s o f th e war were e v id e n t in th e s e changing
v o t in g h a b i t s . Young m arried c o u p le s - - t h e husband an e x -
s e r v i c e man, the w i f e , who s a t a t home and w a ite d — wanted
som ething b e t t e r than the p a s t had g iv e n them.
They no lo n g e r wanted th e s o c i a l r e v o lu t io n r e p
r e s e n t e d by th e D em ocrats; th ey lon ged f o r th e
q u ie t r e s p e c t a b i l i t y o f American m id d le - c la s s
l i f e , and th ey f e l t , in a s t o n is h in g numbers, th a t
t h i s co u ld be o b ta in ed on ly by v o tin g the
R epu blican t i c k e t . 74
By I 9 6 0 , how ever, M ichener found th a t th e young newcomers
to su b u rb ia , who had th ou gh t th a t w ith a new home th ey
7% ic h e n e r , R eport o f the County Chairman, p . 92
7^ I b i d ., p p . 9 2 - 9 3 .
135
must a l s o a l i g n th e m se lv e s w ith a new p a r ty to in s u r e
f u t u r e p r o s p e r i t y , had begun to r e c o n s id e r what t h i s
r e a lig n m e n t had b ro u g h t them and what th ey had l o s t in
th e b a r g a in and th e r e was a g e n e r a l s h i f t back to the
p a r ty o f t h e i r f a t h e r s . T h is tren d to r e c o n s id e r b a s ic
p o l i t i c a l a l l i a n c e s was one which M ichener found i n the
75
su b u rb ia w hich he v i s i t e d , 1^ a tre n d which m igh t a s e a s i l y
be s h i f t e d a g a in w it h in th e n e x t te n y e a r s i f th e r e were
n o t c o n tin u e d p r o s p e r i t y .
The e x p a n sio n o f a u t h o r it y and power o f the U n ite d
S t a t e s th rou gh ou t th e r e s t o f th e w orld had i t s Im pact
d i r e c t l y on th e d o m e stic p o l i t i c a l s y s te m . The p o p u la r it y
o f E isen h ow er b ro u g h t abou t a R ep u b lican r e v i v a l i n the
p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s o f 1952 and 1956* D is c o n te n t w ith
th e p a tt e r n s b e in g e s t a b l i s h e d by th e "peace" p a r ty began
to show i t s e l f i n 195Uj ^ 8. by 195&, the R ep u b lican r e v i v a l
was b e g in n in g to w ane. In 1958 th e re was a r e su r g e n c e o f
c o n fid e n c e in the D em ocratic e l e c t i o n s . T h is r e s t l e s s
s h i f t i n g o f v o t in g b l o c s , th e in c r e a s e i n s p l i t - t i c k e t
v o t i n g , and th e grow ing in d ep en d en t v o t in g r e f l e c t e d the
i n s t a b i l i t y o f a c o n s id e r a b le p a r t o f the e l e c t o r a t e as
f a r a s s t r i c t p a r ty a lig n m e n t was c o n c er n e d .
7 % ic h e n e r , R eport o f th e County C halnnan, p* 9 3 ,
136
T h is i s a m ajor r e a s o n fo r b e l i e v i n g t h a t one
o f the p e r i o d i c a l tu r n in g p o in t s o f p o l i t i c a l
change was i n p r o c e ss a s the c o u n tr y moved from
th e c o n v e n tio n s and e l e c t i o n s o f 1956 to th o se o f
i 9 6 0 , and t h a t the n e x t ten y e a r s w i l l b r in g a
fu r th e r e v o lu t io n o f p a rty i n s t i t u t i o n s , ' ^
A ccord in g to E r ic S e v a r e id , i 960 p o l i t i c s would r e f l e c t
t h i s r e a lig n m e n t o f the e l e c t o r a t e w hich had made b oth
p a r t i e s so much a l i k e .
L ess and l e s s do our p eo p le f e e l p arty i d e n t i f i
c a t io n b e c a u se l e s s and l e s s are the p e o p le d i s
s im ila r i n t h e ir backgrounds and e d u c a tio n and
ways o f l i v i n g ; c l a s s l i n e s have been d i s s o l v i n g ;
th e old im m igrant grou p s have b een ab sorb ed ; and
th e p a r t i e s become fu n d a m e n ta lly more a l i k e as th e
b o u n d a ries betw een d o c t r i n e s b lu r and f a d e , 77
The grow in g n e u t r a l i z a t i o n o f the p a r t i e s cou ld
be compared to th e n e u t r a l i z a t i o n t h a t o ccu rs i n m ix in g th e
c o lo r o f p a i n t s . Take red and g r e e n (th e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f
the D em ocratic P arty) and m ix; an u n d e fin a b le brown a p
p e a r s , Take b lu e and orange (th e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f the
R ep u b lican P a r ty ) and m ix; an u n d e fin a b le brown a p p ea r s.
Take a l i t t l e o f th e s e browns and m ix ; the sh a d es o f
d i f f e r e n c e are v e ry s l i g h t — n o t enough to r e a l l y m atter
u n t i l seme c a t a l y t i c a g e n t i s added w hich m ust be str o n g
enough to combat th e n e u t r a l i t y o f th e m ix tu r e . Such
m ix in g and s t i r r i n g has occu rred s i n c e the members o f th e
76
D a v id , Goldman, and B ain , The P o l i t i c s o f R a tio n a l
P arty C onven11o n s , p. 31*
77$evareid, Candidates i960, p. l6.
137
e le c t o r a t e have proceed ed to m ix and s t i r i n o c c u p a tio n ,
in r e l i g i o n , in incom e, in m a rria g e, and i n e d u c a tio n .
R e g io n a lism h as broken down; the p a r t i e s have become
n a tio n a l i n s c o p e . The sharp c o lo r s have become more
b lu rr ed u n t i l in 19&0 th e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f the D em ocratic
H o ra tio A lger s to r y o f the poor boy making good became th e
R ep u b lican nominee f o r P r e s id e n t , and the p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n
o f th e R ep u b lican w e ll- t o - d o c h ild o f b ig b u s in e s s became
the D em ocratic c a n d id a te fo r P r e s id e n t .
T his growing s i m i l a r i t y o f the p a r t i e s was se e n by
D avid , Goldman, and B ain as a danger to th e fu tu r e o f
American p o l i t i c s and th e p arty sy ste m . These th r e e h i s
to r ia n s s e t up minimum g o a ls which the p a r t i e s m ust a c h ie v e
fo r th e p o l i t i c a l system o f America to be s t r o n g .
1 . A p a r ty system i n which each o f th e major p a r t i e s
i s s u f f i c i e n t l y i n a cco rd w ith the u n d e r ly in g
n a t io n a l co n se n su s to be s a f e l y e n tr u s te d w ith pow er.
2 . A p a r ty system i n which each o f the p a r t i e s i s
s u f f i c i e n t l y str o n g and i n t e r n a l l y c o h e s iv e to
d e v e lo p and carry ou t a governm ental program o f
a t l e a s t minimum adequacy i f i t su c c e e d s i n g a in in g
pow er•
3* A p a rty system i n which th e two major p a r t ie s
are s u f f i c i e n t l y c o m p e titiv e to be a b le to r e p la c e
each o th e r i n power a t i n t e r v a l s o f r e a so n a b le
fr e q u e n c y .7 °
The t h ir d g o a l would be e s s e n t i a l to the o th e r tw o, fo r
an a l t e r n a t io n o f power would be the o n ly means o f
*^D avid, Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f R a tio n a l
P arty C o n v e n tio n s, p . 261^.
138
d e m o n s tr a tin g t h a t th e p a r t i e s c o u ld be t r u s t e d w ith
power and w ould have th e s t r e n g t h to o p e r a te a govern m en t
c o h e s i v e l y
From th e i 9 6 0 c o n v e n tio n came some c o n v e n tio n
'* f i r s t s ' * f o r h i s t o r y . The a d o p tio n o f th e T w en ty -seco n d
Amendment made th e i 960 e l e c t i o n th e f i r s t e l e c t i o n w hich
m u st p rod u ce a new P r e s i d e n t , " • • • d e p r iv in g th e p a r ty
i n power o f th e r i g h t to r e n o m in a te a p o p u la r incum b en t
P r e s id e n t f o r a t h ir d t e r m .”®^ W ith th e i n c l u s i o n o f
A la sk a and H a w a ii, f o r th e f i r s t tim e i n h i s t o r y , f i f t y
S t a t e s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n th e n o m in a tio n .
The R o le o f Mass M edia i n th e D ev elo p m en t
o f th e N om in atin g C o n v e n tio n
D u rin g th e e a r l y y e a r s o f th e d e v e lo p m en t o f th e
n a t i o n a l c o n v e n t io n , th e p a r t i e s w ere v o id o f n a t i o n a l
s c o p e and power w ith o u t rea d y means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and
co m m u n ication to p r o v id e a c o h e s i v e n e s s o f m em bership and
p la tfo r m p o l i c y . W ith th e a d v e n t o f more im proved means
o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and sy ste m s o f d i r e c t com m u n ication ,
th e p a r t i e s were no lo n g e r 1 1 • . • a c o l l e c t i o n o f
^ D a v i d , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a t io n a l
P a rty C o n v e n tio n s , p . 2oij..
ft o
C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r te r ly C o n v e n tio n G u id e , p . 1 .
139
8i
l o c a lis m s " b u t more t r u l y r e f l e c t e d th e p e o p le o f th e
n a t i o n a s th e y became n a t i o n a l i n sc o p e and p o w er.
B en ea th th e t r a p p in g s . . . c a n d i d a t e s 1 h e a d
q u a r te r s had un d ergon e a c e n tu r y o f r a d i c a l c h a n g e .
I n i8 6 0 th e r i v a l s rem a in ed o s t e n t a t i o u s l y a t hom e,
a w a it in g th e c a l l to d u t y . I t was a sham b u t I t
had a d v a n ta g e s# The p r i n c i p a l s th e m s e lv e s a v o id e d
th e p o s t u r e o f q u a r r e lin g f i s h w i v e s ; u n sa v o r y d e a l s
m ig h t be made i n t h e i r names b u t th e y w ere n o t
p e r s o n a l l y i n v o l v e d . By 1952 su ch a l o o f n e s s was a
t h in g o f th e p a s t . The p r e s i d e n t i a l prim ary f o r c e d
c a n d id a t e s t o d e c la r e t h e m s e lv e s and t o ca m p a ig n .
The n a t i o n a l c o n v e n tio n was th e c u lm in a tio n o f th e
c a m p a ig n .82
The t r a d i t i o n o f an a c c e p ta n c e sp e e c h g i v e n p e r
s o n a l l y a t th e c o n v e n tio n by a c a n d id a te r e c e i v i n g th e
n o m in a tio n was i n s t i t u t e d b y F r a n k lin D ela n o R o o s e v e lt
i n 1 9 3 2 when h e f l e w to C h ica g o to a c c e p t th e n o m in a tio n
f o r P r e s i d e n t ( T h e n o t i f i c a t i o n had b e e n by m a il In
1 8 3 1 , .but w ith im proved m ethods o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t h i s
n o t i f i c a t i o n had b e e n made by a p ilg r im a g e to th e r e s i
d en ce o f th e c a n d id a te .)® ^ - The days when th e c a n d id a t e
c o u ld s i t a t home w ere g o n e .
In th e p a s t g e n e r a t i o n , c o n v e n t io n s h a v e , so
sa y th e v e t e r a n s , s lo w ly b e e n c h a n g in g . P a r t l y I t
I s b e c a u se th e e v e r - g r e a t e r c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n
O n
D a v id , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a t io n a l
P a rty C o n v e n t io n s , p . 23*
Judah and S m ith , The U n ch o se n , p . 2 2 8 .
®^Moos and H e s s , H ats i n th e R in g , p . ll^O*
^"Stanw ood, A H is t o r y o f th e P r e s id e n c y from 1789
t o 1 8 9 7 . p . 1 5 7 -
ll * .0
in p o l i t i c s p rodu ces more and more c i t i z e n d e le g a t e s
and few er and few er o f the s h e e p lik e m asses herded
a t w i l l by d e le g a t e b o s s e s . The B la c k sto n e H o tel
in Chicago s t i l l b o a s t s o f th e famous ” s m o k e - f ille d
room” (S u ite If.00-i(-09-l|-10) in which th e b o s s e s chose
Warren G am aliel H arding to be P r e s id e n t o f th e U n ited
S t a t e s ; b u t th e ” s m o k e - f ille d room” as p o l i t i c a l
r e a l i t y i s now as dead as P r o h ib it io n . C on ven tion s
are now l e s s b lu n t ly c o n t r o lle d by b o s s e s , and
more sh a r p ly c o n t r o lle d by te c h n iq u e s and f o r c e s
s e t i n m otion o u ts id e the c o n v e n tio n c i t y i t s e l f . ^
Radio
In th e y e a r 1923 co u ld be se e n an in c r e a s in g ly
w id esp read p u b lic i n t e r e s t i n i n s t r u c t i o n and e n t e r t a i n
ment a ffo r d e d by many b r o a d c a s tin g s t a t i o n s .
In 1924. r a d io r e c e i v in g s e t s had become a p a r t
o f th e u s u a l h o u seh o ld equipm ent throughout the
U n ited S t a t e s and a la r g e p a r t o f Canada, and the
u se o f such s e t s amounted to a n a t io n a l h a b i t .
There were more b r o a d c a stin g s t a t i o n s , e stim a te d to
number $lf.O a t th e end o f th e y e a r , w ith b e t t e r and
more v a r ie d programmes, and th ere was an a u d ie n c e ,
alw ays ready to l i s t e n and eager to "b rin g in"
the d i s t a n t s t a t i o n , t h a t in c r e a s e d i n number every
d a y . R e c e iv in g s e t s co u ld be purchased f o r a
c o m p a ra tiv ely sm all e x p e n d itu r e ; though some o f
cou rse were v ery c o s t l y . In a la r g e number o f
c a s e s home-made s e t s gave h ig h ly s a t i s f a c t o r y
r e s u l t s . I t was e stim a te d t h a t i n th e U n ited S t a t e s
th ere were probab ly 35*000 s e t s r e g u la r ly i n u s e .
Another f e a t u r e o f th e in f lu e n c e o f the developm ent
of r a d io tele p h o n y upon th e h a b it s o f p eo p le in
g e n e r a l was the in c r e a s in g i n t e r e s t s tim u la te d by
i t s u s e . A p erson buying or c o n s tr u c t in g a r e c e iv in g
s e t very f r e q u e n t ly bought a f t e r a few weeks an oth er
more com plete or more p ow erfu l on e, or made a b e t t e r
one i n h i s own workshop. There was a f a s c i n a t i o n
In the e f f o r t to improve th e q u a l it y o f th e a d d r e sse s
^ W h it e , The Making o f the P r e s id e n t , I 9 6 0 , p . 2 2 7 .
or music received.
Perhaps i t was t h i s g r e a t i n t e r e s t in th e r a d io w hich le d
to the f i r s t n a tio n -w id e b r o a d c a st o f a n a t io n a l nom inating
c o n v e n tio n — the D em ocratic C on ven tion a t Madison Square
Garden in 1 9 2 i f .^
A ll over th e cou n try p eo p le were g lu e d to the w ir e
l e s s . Even the s t a i d c a b in e t m eetin g o f P r e s id e n t
C o o lid g e was r u d e ly in te r r u p te d by th e c o n v e n tio n
n o i s e s . Never a g a in c o u ld th e p o l i t i c a l c o n v e n tio n
be a fa m ily a f f a i r . Radio brought th e n a tio n to
the rostrum and onto the. c o n v e n tio n f l o o r
There c o u ld have been no worse c h o ic e f o r th e f i r s t con
v e n tio n to be b rou gh t d i r e c t l y to the p e o p le . The b a t t l e
which occu rred was the l o n g e s t , th e m ost tu r b u le n t, and
th e m ost b i t t e r o f the n a t io n a l nom inating c o n v e n tio n s in
th e h i s t o r y o f A m erica.
I t was n o t a b a t t l e o f maneuver; i t s fundam ental
d e c is io n s were n o t made i n s m o k e - f ille d room s, I t
raged on the co n v en tio n f l o o r i t s e l f . The i s s u e s
were n o t p o l i c i e s bu t c h e r ish e d b e l i e f s and angry
p r e j u d ic e s . They slu g g ed i t out f o r s i x t e e n h o t
n o is y days and an in c r e d ib le one hundred and th r e e
b a l l o t s . Then w ith b oth s i d e s e m b itte r e d and e x
h a u sted and the sta le m a te s t i l l unbroken th ey c a ll e d
i t a draw. P arty le a d e r s made a c h o ic e when i t was
no lo n g e r o f v a lu e to any b u t th o se who valu ed
c o n t r o l o f th e p a r t y . They s e l e c t e d a good man—
one o f the m ost d is t in g u is h e d ever to run fo r the
P re sid e n c y o f the U n ite d S t a t e s . But i t was too
^Frank Moore Colby and H erb ert T read w ell Wade
( e d s . ) , The New I n t e r n a t io n a l Yearbook (New York: Dodd,
Mead and Company, 1 9 2 ^ ), p . 5 2 3 .
fi7
S e v a r e id , C an didates I 9 6 0 , p. 283*
88
M o o s a n d H e ss, H a ts in th e R in g , p p . 5 > 8 “ 5 9
1 * 4 -2
l a t e by a t l e a s t a week and s i x t y or s e v e n ty b a l l o t s *
The c h a n c e s f o r w in n in g I n November had b een d i s - R
s ip a t e d i n th e h e a t o f th e savage midsummer b a t t l e • 9
Theodore W hite r e l a t e d in h i s b ook , The Making o f th e
P r e s id e n t 19& 0, a s t o r y which John P . Kennedy t o l d ab ou t
th e 192i^ D em o cra tic C o n v e n tio n .
He [Kennedy] t o l d them o f th e M a s s a c h u s e tts d e l e g a t i o n
to th e 1924. D em ocratic c o n v e n tio n , w h ich had w atched
th e C o n v en tio n c r e e p upward tow ard i t s lOi^th b a l l o t
w h ile i t s money r a n o u t; th e M a s s a c h u s e tts chairm an
had th e n a ssem b led h i s d e l e g a t e s and s a id ,. "G entlem en,
we a re f a c e d w ith a c h o i c e — e i t h e r we have to move
to a more m o d est h o t e l or t o a more l i b e r a l
c a n d id a te *"90
The n a tio n t o o , f a c e d w ith a c h o i c e , d e c id e d n o t to move
t o an oth er c a n d id a te and John W. D a v is was o v erw h elm in g ly
d e f e a t e d . " C o o lid g e was s a f e i n th e sa d d le f o r a n o th e r
f o u r y e a r s ," 9 1
T e le v is i o n
. .R e c e n t p r o p o s a ls f o r a change i n p r e s i d e n t i a l
n o m in a tin g p roced u re have been a f f e c t e d m a in ly by th e
a d v e n t o f n etw ork t e l e v i s i o n , and th e r o l e i t c o n t in u e s
t o p la y , in fo r m in g th e p u b lic d u rin g th e prim ary e l e c t i o n s ,
th e n o m in a tin g p r o c e d u r e s , and th e cam paign o f a p r e s id e n
t i a l c a n d id a t e . C o n je c tu r e s a s to th e r o l e o f t h i s medium
^ J u d a h and S m ith , The U n ch o sen , p . 193*
^ °W h ite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 . p . 1 7 6 .
9 1 Judah and S m ith , The U n ch o sen , p* 193*
in th e d e v e lo p m en t o f n o m in a tin g c o n v e n t io n s range from
e n t e r t a i n i n g th e p u b lic t o in fo r m in g i t * A cco rd in g t o
F r e d e r ic k G u id ry, " M illio n s o f v o t e r s may r e l y somewhat on
th e c o n v e n tio n im p r e s s io n s to p o in t th e way to c a s t a
November b a llo t # " * ^ " T e l e v i s i o n ’ s u n iq u e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o
th e Am erican p o l i t i c a l s c e n e ," s a i d C ourtney S h e ld o n , "has
b een the s t i m u l a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t i n c o n v e n tio n p r o c e s s e s
and u l t i m a t e l y i n th e b r o a d e r stream o f p o l i t i c a l d e v e lo p -
93
m ents#" M elv in M addocks, a s a drama c r i t i c , answ ered
th e q u e s t io n o f where th e r e a l drama l i e s i n a c o n v e n tio n #
I f th e p u b lic i s , a t l a s t , jad ed on th e s p e c t a c u l a r ,
sp r a w lin g c ir c u s s i d e o f th e c o n v e n t io n s , t h i s i s n o t
a bad th in g # L e t b o th th e p u b lic and th e n e tw o r k s,
f o r o n c e , a g r ee to ig n o r e th e s w e e t t o o t h o f e n t e r
ta in m en t# The n e e d now i s to d i r e c t v ie w e r s a s
c i t i z e n s r a t h e r th a n a s k i b i t z e r s # The c h a lle n g e t o
b r o a d c a s t e r s i s to f o c u s upon th e m eaning o f e v e n t s
a s c l e a r l y a s cam eras have f o c u s e d vp on t h e i r s u r fa c e *
H ere i s where th e r e a l drama h i d e s #94-
The y e a r i 960 b ro u g h t to th e p e o p le t h e i r t h ir d s e t
o f c o n v e n t io n s v i a t e l e v i s i o n . In 195>2 m i l l i o n s o f A m eri
can c i t i z e n s were a b le to r e c e i v e f o r th e f i r s t tim e a
^ F r e d e r i c k H# G u id ry , "TV i s L e a r n in g ," Your
C o n v en tio n G uide (B o sto n : The C h r i s t i a n S c ie n c e M o n ito r,
F r id a y , J u ly 1 , i 9 6 0 ) , p , 8 #
^ C o u r t n e y S h e ld o n , "What Hath TV Wrought?" Your
C o n v en tio n G uide (B o sto n : The C h r is t ia n S c ie n c e M o n ito r ,
F r id a y , J u ly 1 , i 9 6 0 ) , p# 8 #
^ M e lv i n M addocks, "TV: How I t L ooked," Your Con-
v e n t io n G uide (B o sto n : The C h r is t ia n S c ie n c e M o n ito r,
F r id a y , J u ly 1 , i 9 6 0 ) , p . 8 #
I n
c lo s e v ie w o f a n a t i o n a l n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n .
As th e d e l e g a t e s to th e R ep u b lica n p a r t y ’ s tw e n ty -
f i f t h n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n co n v erg ed on C hicago i t i s
p o s s i b l e a few r e c a l l e d t h a t i t was th e t h i r t e e n t h to
be h e ld i n th a t c i t y . . . . The m o st s i g n i f i c a n t
in n o v a t io n was t e l e v i s i o n , f o r t h i s was th e f i r s t
p o l i t i c a l c o n v e n tio n to be n a t i o n a l l y t e l e v i s e d .
There would be s i x t y - s e v e n hou rs o f t e l e v i s i n g a t a
c o s t o f t e n m i l l i o n d o l l a r s . A p p roxim ately s e v e n ty
m i l l i o n p eo p le would view th e p r o c e e d in g s .9 5
Maddocks c a l l e d 1956 t h e year o f the " s a t u r a t io n c o v e r a g e ,"
f o r t h i s was th e year t h a t th e th ree netw orks em ployed to n s
o f e l e c t r o n i c equ ip m en t, s c o r e s o f ca m era s, and arm ies o f
men t o work on th e c o n v e n t io n s .
" C lose in" and " c u t away" was th e theme o f 1 9 5 6 .
The Zoomar le n s o p e r a te d f o r a l l i t was w o rth , l i k e a
new to y i n the sh o w -o ff s t a g e . As cam eras roved
r e s t l e s s l y over th e f l o o r , tr u n d le d down th e h a l l s in
p u r s u it o f a h a s t y w a t e r - c o o le r c a u c u s , or p eered i n t o
h o t e l lo b b ie s from w hich c a n d id a te s were e x p e c te d to
em erge, anchor men and com m entators k e p t up an e q u a lly
f r a n t i c a s s a u l t on a l t e r n a t i n g s t r e t c h e s o f en n u i and
f r e n z y . Background b r i e f i n g , guarded s p e c u l a t i o n s ,
solem n b i t s o f p u n d itr y , d e s p e r a te e f f o r t s , a t whim sey—
e v e r y th in g went t o f i l l th e gapin g h o u r s .9 6
The "new toy" in i 960 was v id e o ta p e — a m a g n e tic ta p e r e
c o r d in g o f b o th audio and v id e o s i g n a l s f o r r ep r o d u c in g a
t e l e v i s i o n b r o a d c a s t. By t h i s m eans, th e netw orks were
a b le t o r e c o r d on tap e a t any tim e and p la y i t back when
the b e s t a u d ien ce was a v a i la b l e or th e b e s t tim e would
p r e s e n t i t s e l f .
9^Judah and S m ith , The U n ch osen, p . 227
^^Maddocks, "TV: How I t Looked," p . 8 .
iij-5
In i 9 6 0 I t was estim ated , t h a t 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 Am ericans
w it n e s s e d on t e l e v i s i o n a l l or p a r t o f b o th n a t io n a l
97
c o n v e n t lo n s •
W ith th e a d v e n t o f "the t e l e v i s i o n camera In to the
c o n v e n tio n h a l l , th e im portance o f th e n o n - t e l e v i s e d
com m ittees In c r e a se d * Away from th e g la r e o f K lie g l i g h t s ,
the c o n v e n tio n com m ittees a c co m p lish ed much o f th e b a s ic
work o f the c o n v e n tio n k e e p in g many o f the in n e r t e n s io n s
and sq u a b b le s o f f th e f l o o r and hence o u t o f v iew o f
th o se a t home* By s h i f t i n g more o f th e r o u tin e work to
the c o m m itte e s, th e p a r t i e s a ttem p ted to red u ce th e d u l l
n e s s o f the c o n v e n tio n and to s tr e a m lin e the fo rm a l p r o
c e d u r e s w hich have b een a p a r t o f th e c o n v e n tio n s in c e
i t s i n c e p t i o n * ^
The C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r te r ly C o n ven tion Guide con
ta in e d th e f o l l o w i n g "check l i s t n o f some o f the e f f e c t s
t h a t t e l e v i s i o n would have upon th e i 960 c o n v e n tio n s :
D e le g a t e s a r e in s t r u c t e d to watch n o t o n ly t h e ir
" p ’ s and q * s ," b u t t h e i r ap p ea ran ces as w e ll* One
s e t o f i n s t r u c t i o n s to d e l e g a t e s r e a d s : "Be on
tim e , s i t q u i e t l y , wear subdued c l o t h i n g , p r e fe r a b ly
n o t w h ite*"
An a l l - o u t e f f o r t i s made by b o th p a r t i e s to h o ld
down th e le n g t h o f t h e i r c o n v e n t io n s . A p u b lic
b ored i n J u ly would be hard to a ro u se i n November*
R e p u b lic a n s hope to h o ld down t h e i r i 9 60 c o n v e n tio n
9^W hite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t I 9 6 0 , p . 227*
98
/ M o o s a n d H e ss, H a ts in th e R in g , p . 1 1 0 *
1 1 4 - 6
to ab o u t 18 h o u r s , b u t , w ith a D em o cra tic P r e s i d e n t i a l
c o n t e s t , a I 4.0 to 5 0 hour b r o a d c a s t sc h e d u le i s
e x p e c te d *
B oth p a r t i e s a r e s c h e d u lin g o n ly one s e s s i o n a
d a y — tim ed to th e e v en in g h o u rs when the a v e r a g e
f a m ily h a s tim e to w atch t e l e v i s i o n * The R e p u b lic a n s
f o r g o t about t e l e v i s i o n when th e y i s s u e d th e o f f i c i a l
c a l l f o r a c o n v e n tio n , so th e y w i l l h o ld a s h o r t
s e s s i o n on the m orning o f th e f i r s t day* A f t e r
t h a t a l l s e s s i o n s o f b oth c o n v e n tio n s w i l l s t a r t
e a r l y i n the e v e n in g E a s te r n D a y lig h t S a v in g Time*
Both p a r t i e s h ave e lim in a t e d th e r o u t in e o f
’’L a d ie s Day” — s p e e c h e s by a s c o r e o f f a i t h f u l women
p a r ty members to show th e p a r t y ’ s g r e a t r e s p e c t
f o r th e d i s t a f f s i d e *99
The a c t i v i t i e s o f a l l c o n v e n tio n o f f i c e r s had b een
p u t under p u b lic s c r u t i n y and i t was p r e d ic te d t h a t
” • • • th e sta n d a r d s o f a p p r o p r ia te b e h a v io r i n th e s e
o f f i c e s a r e p ro b a b ly r i s i n g * " ’ *"^ The b e h a v io r o f the
c o n v e n tio n a s a w h ole m ig h t be p r e d ic t e d to r i s e to more
o r d e r ly sta n d a r d s o f b e h a v io r *
Under th e p r e s s u r e o f so huge a c i t i z e n a u d ie n c e ,
u n d er th e d i s c i p l i n e o f th e cam era, c o n v e n tio n s
a r e h e ld more t i g h t l y to s c h e d u le , t h e ir tim e s
a d j u s t e d fo r maximum v ie w in g o p p o r t u n i t i e s , t h e i r
p ro ced u re s t r e a m lin e d , n o t f o r th e c o n v e n ie n c e or
e n te r ta in m e n t o f tiie d e l e g a t e s , b u t f o r th e c o n
v e n ie n c e o f th e n a t i o n *101
D u rin g th e i 9 6 0 c o n v e n tio n n o t o n ly more v ie w e r s
a t home th a n e v er b e f o r e w atched th e n o m in a tin g p r o c e s s
^ C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r te r ly C o n v en tio n G u id e , p* 5*
1 0 0D a v id , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n v e n tio n s , p* 55*
1 0 ^W hite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , p . 227*
i n o p e r a tio n , but more o f th o s e i n a tte n d a n c e a t th e con
v e n tio n were a b le t o w atch th e p r o c e e d in g s w ith r e l a t i v e
ea se* C lo s e d c i r c u i t t e l e v i s i o n was an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f
b oth th e D em ocratic and R e p u b lica n C o n v en tio n s* From
e x p e r ie n c e , the p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s 1 n a t i o n a l c o m m ittee s
were aware th a t th e hubbub on th e f l o o r w ith d e l e g a t e s
coming and g o in g made s e e i n g th e ro stru m a t r y i n g e x
p e r ie n c e * At the D em o cra tic C o n v en tio n i n Los A n g e le s i n
the M em orial S p o r ts A rena, a g i a n t t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n s i x -
102
te e n by tw e n ty f e e t was i n s t a l l e d * A t C h icago i n th e
I n t e r n a t io n a l A m p h ith e a ter , two 75>0 sq u are f o o t s c r e e n s
were m ounted f la n k in g the r o str u m so t h a t th o s e i n th e
a u d ien ce c o u ld g e t a c l o s e and u n o b s tr u c te d v ie w o f th e
103
p r o c e e d in g s *
N ew spapers. Wire S e r v i c e s , and O ther M edia
C oupled w ith th e co v era g e by t e l e v i s i o n was th e
thorough wctrk done by the n ew sp ap ers and w ire s e r v i c e s f o r
th e c o n v e n tio n s* The c o s t o f s p e c i a l equipm ent f o r th e
cov era g e o f th e D em o cra tic C o n v en tio n a lo n e was s e t a t
l OP
News item i n th e New York T im es. J u ly 1 2 , i 9 6 0 ,
p . 2 0 .
^~°^I b l d . . J u ly 2Ij., i 9 6 0 , p . F13*
ll |_ 8
one m i l l i o n d o l l a r s T h e n a t i o n 's new spapers and o th e r
com m unications media a t the B iltm o re H o tel (p a r ty h ea d
q u a r te r s ) and a t the S p o rts Arena (sc e n e o f the c o n v e n tio n )
made u s e o f "• • • 2 5 sw itc h b o a r d s, 20 te le p h o t o c h a n n e ls ,
ip8 t e l e v i s i o n sen d in g a n te n n a s, 3^0 p u b lic te le p h o n e s , and
7 0 ,0 0 0 f e e t o f ca b le in a d d it io n th e re were a p p r o x i
m a tely 300 t e l e t y p e m ach ines and 1^,000 te le p h o n e s were
i n s t a l l e d . ' 1 '0^ At th e c lo s e o f the c o n v e n tio n , i t was
e stim a te d t h a t th e 300 W estern Union o p e r a to r s and su p er
v i s o r s who worked on th e c o n v e n tio n tr a n sm itte d a t o t a l o f
6 ,8 m i l l i o n words d u rin g th e c o n v e n tio n * " * -^7 T h is same
equipment was lo a d e d on tr u c k s , S a tu rd a y , J u ly l 6 , to
be sh ip p ed to C hicago f o r u se a t the R ep u b lican N a tio n a l
108
C on ven tion opening th e r e J u ly 25*
The coverage o f p o l i t i c a l e v e n ts by n ew spap ers,
m a g a z in e s, m otion p i c t u r e s , r a d io , and t e l e v i s i o n
i s more u b iq u ito u s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s than in
any o th e r country* A dverse c r i t i c i s m o f t h i s has
been o f t e n v o ic e d , e s p e c i a l l y when c e r t a i n a s p e c ts
o f p o l i t i c a l l i f e t h a t are s t i l l c o n sid e r e d p r iv
i l e g e d and p r iv a t e in o th e r d em ocracies are r e g u la r ly
t r e a t e d h ere as i n the p u b lic dom ain. But th ere
1C % e w s item in th e Los A n g eles Tim es, J u ly 1 0 ,
I 9 6 0 , p . 2 .
^ ^ I b i d . , J u ly 1 6 , I 9 6 0 , P art 1 , p . 8 *
1 0 6I b l d . , J u ly 1 0 , i 9 6 0 , p . 2*
1 0 7 I b i d . , J u ly 1 6 , i 9 6 0 , P art 1 , p . 8 .
*1 a O
Ray H e b e r t, uP ress W rites '3 0 ' on C onvention
Show, 1 1 Los A n g eles T im es, J u ly 1 6 , i 9 6 0 , P a rt 1 , p. 8 *
3 4 9
can b© no d en yin g th e im p ortan t f u n c t io n o f the
mass m edia in the nom in atin g p r o c e ss* 1 °9
The R ole o f th e Nom inating Speech i n the D evelopm ent
o f th e N a tio n a l C onvention
The n om in atin g sp eech was c o n sid e r e d by O str o g o rsk i
as "• . . th e a e s t h e t ic t r e a t and the p ie c e de r e s i s t a n c e
o f the e n te r ta in m e n t ." 1 ' 1 '0 The c u lm in a tio n o f the con ven
t i o n i s the p la c in g o f the c a n d id a te s i n nom ination w ith
the accom panying f i r s t and second nom inating sp eech es*
Each nom in ation i s th a t d e c i s i v e s te p to the c lim a x - -t h e
a c tu a l v o t i n g — th a t l i n k s a l l c a n d id a te s f o r the moment
w ith the g r e a t w h ite way which le a d s to the g r e a t White
House .
Procedure f o r Nom ination
In the days o f the c o n g r e s s io n a l caucus and the
e a r ly c o n v e n tio n s , th e n om in a tion s were b r i e f and s p e c i f i c .
In the developm ent o f the n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n as a nom in at
in g t o o l , th ere was a su bseq uent developm ent and em bel
l i s h i n g o f t h i s procedure fo r n o m in a tio n , and i t became
the custom to p r e se n t the c a n d id a te s to the c o n v e n tio n
■ L ^ D a v id , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n
a l P arty C o n v en tio n s, p* X61p»
1 1 0O str o g o r sk i, Democracy and th e O rg a n iza tio n o f
P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s , p • 2 6 3 •
i5 o
through the medium o f nom in atin g s p e e c h e s . The a c tu a l
procedure f o r n om in ation has been t im e - t e s t e d and i s a g e
l e s s i n i t s a p p l i c a t i o n s .
Capable o f v a r i e t y i n sm a ll d e t a i l s , i t s b a s ic p la n
i s im p reg n a b le. The assum ption i s th a t names are
p r e se n te d on b e h a lf o f s t a t e s , so th e s t a t e s are
c a ll e d i n r e g u la r a lp h a b e t ic a l ord er from Alabama to
Wyoming. As each s t a t e ' s name i s c a l l e d , the
chairman o f the d e l e g a t i o n announces which one o f
fo u r p o s s i b l e a c t io n s th e s t a t e w ish es to ta k e :
(1 ) The s t a t e may w ish to make a n o m in a tio n .
(2) I t may w ish to secon d a n o m in ation a lre a d y
made •
(3 ) I t may w ish to g iv e i t s p la c e i n th e r o l l
c a l l to a n o th er s t a t e f a r t h e r down th e a lp h a b e t ic a l
l i s t to p erm it t h i s s t a t e to make a n o m in a tio n .
(Ij.) I t may p a s s , m eaning i t w ish e s to take no
a c t io n f o r th e tim e b e in g and w i l l be c a l l e d ag a in
a t the co m p letio n o f the r o l l . m
Length o f N om inating S p eech es
The s h o r t e s t n om in atin g sp eech on r e c o r d was the
one made in 1916 i n C hicago a t the R ep u b lican (" B u ll
Moose" or P r o g r e s s iv e ) C o n v en tio n . I t was fe a r e d th a t
A s s o c ia t e Supreme Court J u s t ic e C h a rles Evans Hughes would
be nom inated in s te a d o f R o o s e v e lt . B ain b rid ge Colby was
ru sh ed to the p la tfo r m and i n a s i n g le s h o r t se n te n c e
112
nom inated Theodore R o o s e v e lt f o r P r e s id e n t .
The n om in ation o f Abraham L in c o ln in i8 6 0 was made
i n tw e n ty -se v e n words by Norman Judd.
i n
Goodman, The Two-Party System i n the U n ited
S t a t e s , pp. 207-208*
112
S tod d ard , P r e s id e n t ia l S w e e p sta k e s, pp . 1 5 5 ”1 5 6 .
1$1
I d e s i r e on "behalf o f th e d e l e g a t i o n from I l l i n o i s ,
to pu t i n n om in a tion a s a c a n d id a te f o r th e P r e s id e n t
o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s , Abraham L in c o ln o f I l l i n o i s * ^ 3
L in c o ln 's c h i e f r i v a l , W illia m H . Seward o f New Y ork, m igh t
have c o n sid e r e d t h i s a s b e in g v e r b o se f o r h e was p u t i n t o
n o m in a tio n w ith o n ly t w e n t y - s ix words#
S p eech es were s t i l l s h o r t i n 1868 b u t the lan gu ag e
was u n d e rg o in g a change a s e v id e n c e d by t h i s n om in atin g
sp eech f o r U ly s s e s Grant g iv e n by G en eral Logan.
In th e name o f th e l o y a l c i t i z e n s , s o l d i e r s and
s a i l o r s o f t h i s g r e a t R ep u b lic o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s
o f A m erica, i n the name o f l i b e r t y , hum anity and
j u s t i c e , i n th e name o f th e n a t io n a l u n io n o f the
R e p u b lica n P a r ty , I nom inate U ly s s e s S . Grant.^-^4-
For th e i 9 6 0 c o n v e n tio n n om in atin g sp e e c h e s were l im i t e d
to a p p ro x im a tely f i f t e e n m in u te s
R eported S t y l e o f th e N om inating Speech
The n om in atin g s p e e c h , on ce b r i e f and to th e p o i n t ,
grew in t o a l o n g e r , e u l o g i s t i c , p e r s u a s iv e d is c o u r s e more
b e f i t t i n g th e honor o f th e moment u n t i l "an a lm o st ir o n -
- i n /
c la d r i t u a l . . . e n v e lo p ed th e n om in atin g s p e e c h e s ."
^■^Moos and H e s s, H ats i n th e R in g , p . 12i|_.
^ I b i d . , p . 1 2 5 .
•'■•^Clarence Cannon, The O f f i c i a l Manual f o r the
D em ocratic N a tio n a l C o n v en tion o f IQ6I 4 . (W ashington, D. C. :
D em ocratic N a tio n a l C om m ittee, 19bij.;, p . 37*
^"^Goodman, The Two-Party System i n the U n ite d
S t a t e s , p . 2 0 8 .
l£ 2
Some o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s t y l e a t t r i b u t e d to a n d /o r
p e c u l ia r t o the n o m in a tin g s p e e c h e s have become a p a r t o f
t h i s r i t u a l #
(1) The c a n d id a te i s "a man w h o ...........................1 1 T h is
p h ra se h a s becctne so r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e
n o m in a tin g sp e e c h e s t h a t many tim e s th e sp e e c h e s
a r e r e f e r r e d to a s " th e man who • . sp e e c h e s #
As many sp ea k er s e x p l a in i t , th e c a n d id a te i s "a man
who": a man who can win th e e l e c t i o n ; a man who b e
l i e v e s i n a f a i r r e tu r n on in v e s tm e n ts and e n d e a v o r s;
a man who h o n o rs th e w ork in g men and who b e l i e v e s
th ey sh o u ld be f a i r l y p a id f o r a f a i r d a y * s work;
a man who s a l u t e s th e fa rm ers and t h e i r p h y s ic a l
la b o r s i n f e e d in g th e Am erican p u b lic and h e lp in g
them to a h ig h e r sta n d a r d o f l i v i n g ; a man who
commends a l l e n lig h t e n e d e m p lo y er s f o r t h e i r e f f o r t s
i n t h e p u b lic i n t e r e s t to h e l p th e c o u n tr y p r o g r e s s
i n i t s m a t e r ia l w e lfa r e # And so i t g o e s #117
(2 ) There i s no r e s t r i c t i o n i n th e c h o ic e o f term s
and p h r a se s g l o r i f y i n g th e c a n d id a t e , w h eth er
h e be fam ous o r infam ous#
W hatever the r e a l p o s i t i o n and th e n o t o r i e t y o f th e
a s p i r a n t , i f h e be o n ly an o b sc u r e f a v o u r i t e son
in c a p a b le , p e r h a p s , o f a t t a i n i n g the d i g n i t y o f a
dark h o r s e , th e sp eak er who e u l o g i z e s him n ev er
c o n s id e r s h im s e lf under any r e s t r i c t i o n i n th e
c h o ic e o f term s f o r g l o r i f y i n g him ; th e sp ee ch
teem s w ith the m o st e x tr a v a g a n t e p i t h e t s and w ith
m eta p h ors o f e x tr a o r d in a r y b o l d n e s s # H °
1 ^^Goodman, The Tw o-Party System i n th e U n ite d
S t a t e s , p# 209#
" 1 T ft
x x ° 0 s t r o g o r s k i , Democracy and the O r g a n iz a tio n
o f P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s , p# 261{.#
i£ 3
( 3 ) A lt h o u g h t h e name o r t h e p e r s o n b e i n g p l a c e d i n
n o m in a t io n i s n o s u r p r i s e t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n , t h e
name o r t h e c a n d i d a t e i s w i t h h e l d u n t i l t h e very-
l a s t m om en t, h e n c e h e i g h t e n i n g t h e e r r e c t o r t h e
s p e e c h , b u i l d i n g t o a h i g h e r p i t c h t h e a p e x o r
t h e m o m en t, a l l i n o r d e r t o r i n i s h on a c r e s c e n d o
o r e m o t io n w h ic h i s a s i g n a l to t h e c o n v e n t i o n
t h a t t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n may b e g i n * "The a u d i e n c e
i s l u r e d on b y g r a c e r u l p h r a s e s u n t i l , r i n a l l y ,
a s one r e l e a s e s t h e p i g e o n rrom a t r a p , t h e name
o r th e a s p i r i n g on e i s s p r u n g .
E v o l u t i o n o r t h e N o m in a t in g S p e e c h
As e a r l y a s 1 8 1 2 , i n t h e m e e t i n g w h ic h was c o n
s i d e r e d t o be t h e r o r e r u n n e r o r n o m i n a t i n g c o n v e n t i o n s ,
i m p a s s i o n e d p l e a s w e r e made r o r t h e c a n d i d a t e o f t h e h o u r *
A Mr* O t i s t o o k t h e r i o o r to d e r e n d D e W itt C l i n t o n a s t h e
F e d e r a l i s t c a n d i d a t e r o r P r e s i d e n t * M urdoch d e s c r i b e d t h i s
p l e a i n h i s r e p o r t o r t h e m e e t i n g i n H i s t o r i c a l R e v i e w .
S o o n h e warmed w i t h h i s s u b j e c t , h i s h a t r e l l
rrom h i s h a n d , and h e p o u r e d r o r t h a s t r a i n o r
e l o q u e n c e t h a t c h a i n e d a l l p r e s e n t t o t h e i r
s e a t s , and w hen a t a l a t e h o u r , t h e v o t e was
t a k e n i t w a s a l m o s t u n a n im o u s ly r e s o l v e d t o
s u p p o r t C l i n t o n . 3-20
■ ^ ^ S to d d a r d , P r e s i d e n t i a l S w e e p s t a k e s , p* 3 3 *
■^^M urdoch, "The F i r s t N a t i o n a l N o m in a tin g C on
v e n t i o n , " p . 6 8 2 *
O str o g o r sk i e x p r e ss e d amazement th a t th e s t y l e o f
e lo q u e n c e f o r th e n o m in a tio n sp eech had n o t changed f o r
more than s i x t y y e a r s (1835-I88ij.) * As an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f
one o f th e f i r s t sp e e c h e s embodying th e t r a i t s o f a nom ina
t io n s p e e c h , O str o g o r sk i c i t e d a t e x t o f a sp e e c h d e l iv e r e d
a t the D em ocratic C on ven tion o f 1835 i n fa v o r o f R. M.
Johnson f o r V ic e - P r e s id e n t * ("The c a n d id a te f o r the
P r e s id e n c y , M artin Van Buren, was marked out by the a l l -
p o w erfu l w i l l o f J a c k so n , and i t was u s e l e s s to recommend
him by h aran gu es o f th e d e l e g a t e s •" )^ 21 t e x t i s i n
clu d e d h e r e f o r p u rp oses o f com parison w ith th o se which
w i l l f o l l o w in t h i s s e c t i o n and to th o s e d e l iv e r e d a t th e
i 960 D em ocratic and R ep u b lican C on v en tion s which can be
found i n the A p pend ix•
Who i s he? I f , Mr* P r e s id e n t , you c o u ld tr a n s p o r t
y o u r s e l f to th e "Par W est," you would f in d upon one
o f h e r g r ee n and sunny f i e l d s , surrounded by the
im plem ents o f hu sb an d ry, a p erso n a g e whose p l a i n and
sim p le g a r b , whose fran k and c o r d ia l and u n o s t e n t a
t i o u s b e a r in g , would t e l l you t h a t he had sprung from
th e p e o p le — th a t h e was s t i l l one o f them, and th a t
h i s h e a r t , i n a l l i t s r e c o l l e c t i o n s , i t s h o p es and
i t s sy m p a th ie s, was b len d ed w ith th e f o r tu n e s o f
th e t o i l i n g m i l l i o n s * B u t, s i r , h i s se a re d and
s h a t te r e d frame and lim p in g g a i t would t e l l yo u ,
t o o , t h a t the s to r y o f h i s l i f e was n o t c o n fin e d to
a mere r e c i t a l o f h o u se h o ld h o s p i t a l i t i e s or n e ig h
bourhood c h a r i t i e s * That s t o r y i s no le g e n d o f
o b scu re or d o u b tfu l a u t h e n t i c i t y ; I t l i n g e r s n ot
a lo n e In the k in d ly bosoms o f f r i e n d s , b u t e v er y
tongue in the R e p u b lic can g iv e i t u t t e r a n c e , and
121
O s tr o g o r s k i, Democracy and th e O r g a n iz a tio n
o f P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s , pp. 26^-2o5*
155
th e b r i g h t e s t p ages o f you r c o u n t r y 's h i s t o r y h a v e
c a u g h t l u s t r e from i t s g lo w in g r e c o r d # When t h i s
n a t i o n was a g o n iz in g and b le e d in g a t e v e r y p o r e , when
war had d e s o l a t e d w ith f i r e and sw ord your n o r th e r n
f r o n t i e r , and th e b e s t b lo o d i n th e la n d had b een
v a i n l y s p i l t upon i t s p l a i n s , he l e f t th e warm h a l l s
o f C o n g ress f o r th e b le a k w inds o f th e C anadas; and,
w a i t i n g f o r no summons o f th e r e c r u i t i n g o f f i c e r ,
h e r a l l i e d ab ou t him th e c h i v a lr y o f h i s S t a t e ,
and dashed w ith h i s g a l l a n t v o lu n t e e r s to th e
s c e n e o f h o s t i l i t i e s , r e s o l v e d to p e r i s h or to
r e t r i e v e th e n a t i o n a l h o n o u r . W ith d a r in g im p e t u o s it y
he p u rsu ed and o v e r to o k th e en e m y --th re w h i m s e l f
l i k e a th u n d e r b o lt o f war i n t o th e t h i c k e s t o f th e
f i g h t — f o u g h t hand to hand and ey e t o eye w ith th e
B r it o n and h i s sa v a g e m yrm idons— pou red o u t h i s
b lo o d l i k e w a te r — trium phed and r e tu r n e d home w ith
th e r i c h e s t t r o p h ie s o f the ca m p a ig n . S i r , h i s
d e e d s r e l y n o t f o r r e c o l l e c t i o n o r b la z o n r y upon
m u sty r e c o r d s , nor y e t upon c a u c u s or c o n v e n tio n
a d d r e s s e s ; th ey have b een spoken i n th e th u n d er s
o f v i c t o r i o u s b a t t l e s , t h e y have b e e n w r i t t e n upon
th e hacked and b ro k en armour o f h i s c o u n t r y 's i n
v a d e r s# H is l i f e h a s b e e n one o f u n f a l t e r i n g ,
u n sw er v in g d e v o t io n to freed om and to th e p e o p le #
The p e o p le " lo v e him b e c a u se he f i r s t , lo v e d them#”
H is p o p u la r it y r e s t s upon no c a l c u l a t i o n o f p o l i t
i c a l ch a n ces# I t i s n o t s e a t e d i n th e a r i t h m e t i c s ,
b u t i n th e deep and a r d e n t a f f e c t i o n s o f h i s co u n
t r y . . . .
• • • H is fam e, l i k e t h a t o f our v e n e r a te d c h i e f
m a g i s t r a t e , s p r e a d s e v e r y in h e r e - - a lik e i n th e w i l d e r
n e s s and w it h " c i t y f u l l , " p e n e t r a t in g i n t o th e f a r
v a l l e y s , c lim b in g to th e h i l l t o p s , and r e a c h in g i n
i t s k i n d l i n g , a n im a tin g i n f l u e n c e s e v e r y l o g c a b in
beyond the m o u n ta in s . • • • There i s a v o i c e from
th e g r e a t v a l l e y s o f th e W est; from a l l h e r c i t i e s
and c o t t a g e s # There i s a v o i c e from th e E a s t , from
th e N orth , and th e S o u th ; th e r e i s a v o i c e from
th e f i e l d s o f the husbandman, from th e w orkshops
o f th e m e c h a n ic , from the prim ary a s s e m b lie s o f
th e p e o p le , from th e c o n v e n tio n s o f n eig h b o u rh o o d s
and S t a t e s , c a l l i n g a lo u d f o r th e e l e v a t i o n o f th e
w ar-w orn s o l d i e r , t h i s t r i e d and u n c o r r u p t ib le
p a t r i o t , t h i s a d v o c a te o f the d e s t i t u t e and down
tr o d d e n , t h i s f r ie n d to freed om and to man# Su ch ,
i£ 6
12P
s i r , i s R ichard M. Johnson.
A B r ie f Look a t Some o f the More Famous
Nominating; S p eech es
"Our Plumed K n ig h t--o u r Henry o f N avarre," was the
memorable q u o ta tio n from the h i s t o r i c sp eech o f R obert G.
I n g e r s o l l which p la c e d James G. B la in e in n om in ation fo r
the P r e s id e n t o f the U n ite d S t a t e s in 1 8 7 6 * The sp eech
l a s t e d fo r o n ly f i v e m in u tes and was one o f the more
famous o f I n g e r s o l l ’ s s p e e c h e s .
The alchem y o f h i s eloq u en ce tran sform ed James
G. B la in e o f M u lliga n l e t t e r fame in t o the Plumed
K n ig h t. He waved the b lo o d y s h i r t as h ig h and as
e f f e c t i v e l y as i t was e v er waved. R ep u b lican was
made a synonymn f o r p a t r i o t : " . . . I f any man
nom inated f o r t h i s c o n v e n tio n cannot ca rry the s t a t e
o f M a ssa c h u se tts, I am n o t s a t i s f i e d w ith the
l o y a l t y o f M a ssa c h u se tts." And by im p lic a t io n th e
l o y a l t y to th e Union o f a l l S o u th ern ers was s u s p e c t ,
and any S ou th ern er (B r is t o w ), even though he had
fo u g h t and b le d fo r th e N orth, was presum ptuous to
a s p ir e to the P r e s id e n c y . C e r ta in ly such a c a n d i
d a te sh ou ld depend on more than "a c e r t i f i c a t e o f
m oral c h a r a c te r sig n e d by the C on fed erate C on gress."
Then emerged James G. B la in e , the "Plumed K n igh t,"
h i s s h in in g la n c e f i x e d " f u l l and f a i r a g a in s t
th e brazen fo re h e a d o f e v er y t r a i t o r to h i s
cou n try ."***23
The sp eech was d e s c r ib e d as so m a g n ific e n t t h a t had th e
v o te been taken im m ed ia tely , B la in e m ight have been
122
O s tr o g o r s k i, Democracy and th e O rg a n iz a tio n
o f P o l i t i c a l P a r t ie s (New York: The M acm illan Company,
1 9 0 2 ), V o l. I I , pp . 2 6 ^ -2 6 6 , c i t i n g N i l e s , Weekly
R e g i s t e r , ip8 :2lp7, n .d .
1 2 3
-'J u d a h a n d S m ith , T h e U n c h o s e n , p . 72 .
157
nom inated# However, s in c e o t h e r s had to be nom in ated ,
i t was l a t e in th e a fte r n o o n , and the chairm an was i n
form ed i t was n ot s a f e to u se th e g a s l i g h t s i n the h a l l ,
th e c o n v e n tio n ad jo u rn ed .'1 '2^' R u th erford B# H ayes was
nom inated on the s e v e n th b a l l o t # Time e v id e n t ly dims
p e r s u a s iv e q u a l i t i e s o f even the m ost e lo q u e n t o f o r a l
d i s c o u r s e s .
The R ep u b lican C on ven tion o f 1880 produced s e v e r a l
memorable s p e e c h e s , b u t i t i s e q u a lly memorable a s the
c o n v e n tio n which produced the f i r s t d r a f t in th e h i s t o r y
o f p r e s i d e n t i a l n o m in a tio n s. James A, G a r f ie ld , more than
w i l l i n g , was d r a fte d f o r P r e s id e n t . (The secon d d r a f t was
i n 1952 f o r A d lai S te v en so n who was more than r e l u c t a n t . ) -^5
T h is c o n v e n tio n s c e n e , which h as become p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y ,
was opened by G eneral Logan n om in atin g U ly s s e s S . Grant
f o r P r e s id e n t . (T e x t o f . t h a t sp e e c h can be fou n d on
page l £ l . ) The words were b r i e f , b u t the d e m o n str a tio n was
e n t h u s i a s t i c . S en a to r Roscoe C on k lin g fo llo w e d Logan.
W aitin g f o r th e l a s t o f the d e m o n str a tio n , he s to o d on a
r e p o r t e r ' s t a b le i n s t e a d o f on th e s p e a k e r 's p la tfo r m .
H is openin g words were d e sig n e d to s t i r the se n tim e n ts o f
th e a u d ie n c e . He q u oted th e opening l i n e s o f Mike
O ' R e i l l y ' s famous v e r s e .
Judah and Sm ith, The U n ch osen, pp. 7 2-73*
1 2 % b i d ., p . 2 8I 4 ..
l£ 8
I f a3ked what s t a t e he h a i l s from
Our s o l e r e p ly s h a l l he
He h a i l s from Appomattox 2.26
And i t s famous a p p le t r e e I
James A. G a r f i e l d ’ s o p p o r tu n ity f o r g r e a t n e s s f o l l o w e d - -
th e sp eech n om in atin g S e n a to r John Sherman. The b i g g e s t
o b s t a c le f o r G a r fie ld was overcom ing th e e n th u sia sm o f th e
d e le g a t e s f o r G ra n t--a n en th u sia sm which had j u s t c a r r ie d
them through f o r t y - f i v e m in u tes o f d e m o n stra tio n a f t e r
C o n k lin g ’ s s p e e c h . H i s opening words were d ir e c t e d
tow ards th a t p u rp o se .
"Mr. P r e s id e n t : I have w itn e s s e d the e x t r a o r
d in a ry s c e n e s o f t h i s c o n v e n tio n w ith deep s o l i c i t u d e .
N oth in g to u c h e s my h e a r t more q u ic k ly th an a t r i b u t e
o f honor to a g r e a t and n o b le c h a r a c te r , bu t a s I
s a t in my s e a t and w itn e s s e d th e d e m o n str a tio n , t h i s
assem b lage seemed to me a human ocean i n te m p e s t. I
have se e n th e s e a la s h e d in t o fu r y and t o s s e d in t o
sp ra y , and i t s grandeur moves th e s o u l o f the d u l l e s t
man; b u t I remember th a t i t i s n o t the b i l l o w s b u t
the calm l e v e l o f the s e a from which a l l h e i g h t s and
d ep th s a re m easu red .
When th e storm i s p a s t and th e hour o f calm s e t t l e s
on the o c ea n , when th e s u n lig h t b a th e s i t s p e a c e f u l
s u r f a c e , th en the astronom er and su rveyor ta k e th e
l e v e l from which th ey m easure a l l t e r r e s t r i a l
h e ig h t s and d e p t h s .
G entlem en o f th e c o n v e n tio n , your p r e s e n t
temper may n o t mark th e h e a l t h f u l p u lse o f our
p e o p le . • • ." 128
n p Z L
Goodman, The Two-Party System in th e U n ite d
S t a t e s , p . 2I 4 .3 •
"^ ^ S to d d a rd , Presidential S w e e p sta k e s, p . 8 1 .
128Ibid.. p. 8 2 .
l$9
To many o f th o se who l i s t e n e d and to many o f th o s e who
read the sp eech a fte r w a r d s , th e f a s c i n a t i o n o f i t la y i n
the f a c t t h a t i t d e s c r ib e d James A* G a r fie ld as w e ll as
i t d id John S he rm an . A s Goodman rem arked, "• • . a
ID 0
c a n d id a te does n o t want to o e lo q u e n t a spokesm an.” J
The R ep u b lican C on ven tion o f 1880 was so fa v o r a b ly im
p r e s s e d w ith G a r f ie ld th a t he became the dark h o rse
nominee in a t h i r t y - s i x b a l l o t c o n t e s t fo r th e n om in ation
fo r P r e s id e n t .
James G. B la in e was the s u b j e c t o f anoth er h i s t o r i c
nom in atin g sp eech which was d e liv e r e d in 1881). by Judge
W est, the b lin d o r a to r o f O hio. The "w hite plume o f James
G. B la in e , our Henry o f Navarre" waved a g a in a s Judge West
took B la in e to "the f o r e f r o n t o f the b a t t l e ."
Nominate him, and the sh o u ts o f September v ic t o r y
i n Maine w i l l be r e -e c h o e d back by the thunder o f
October v ic t o r y in O h io. Nominate him, and th e camp
f i r e s and beacon l i g h t s w i l l illu m in a t e th e c o n tin e n t
from the Golden Gate to C le o p a tr a 's n e e d l e . Nominate
him , and the m i l l i o n s who are now in w a itin g w i l l
r a l l y to s w e ll th e column o f v ic t o r y th a t i s
sw eeping o n .131
B la in e was nom inated on the fo u r th b a l l o t .
Out o f one o f the b l o o d i e s t c o n v e n tio n s , the 192i|
Judah and Sm ith , The U n ch osen, p . 9&.
180
Goodman, The Two-Party System in th e U n ited
S t a t e s , p • 2 i|3 .
181
J S tod d ard , P r e s id e n t ia l S w e e p sta k e s, p . 9 3 .
D em ocratic C onvention in New York C i t y 1s M adison Square
Garden on June 2I 4 ., came an oth er famous nom in atin g sp e e c h ,
d e liv e r e d by F r a n k lin D elano R o o s e v e lt* This c o n v e n tio n
was the f i r s t t o be b r o a d c a st by r a d i o . Judah and Sm ith
d e s c r ib e d the a fte r n o o n a s "hot and su ltry * " McAdoo was
p la c e d in n om in ation by S en ator James Phelan o f C a lif o r n ia
in a lo n g d u ll sp eech to which few p e o p le p a id a t t e n t i o n ,
In c lu d in g the McAdoo d e le g a te s *
When i t was S m ith ’ s tu rn F r a n k lin D elano R o o s e v e lt
came to the rostru m on c r u tc h e s* I t was h i s f i r s t
m ajor p o l i t i c a l appearance s in c e h i s p o lio a tta c k *
H is sp eech was the m ost e f f e c t i v e o f the c o n v e n tio n .
He ap p ealed fo r p a r ty u n i t y , c i t e d Sm ith ’ s r e c o r d ,
and in one o f th o s e f e l i c i t o u s p h ra ses o f which he
was to become a m a ster he c a ll e d Sm ith the "Happy
Warrior" o f the p o l i t i c a l b a t t l e f i e l d *3-32
One hundred and th r ee b a l l o t s f o llo w e d , w ith John D avis
b e in g nom inated*
The f a t e s o f A lfr e d E* Smith and F r a n k lin D*
R o o s e v e lt seemed to be lin k e d , fo r i t was in 1928 th a t
R o o s e v e lt took to the rostru m to nom inate Sm ith a g a in f o r
P r e sid e n t* T his tim e he was ev en more e lo q u e n t, d e l i v e r
in g what Moos and H ess c o n sid e r e d 1 1 • • • the g r e a t e s t o f
a l l n om in atin g s p e e c h e s . • • ."^33
To stan d upon th e ram parts and d ie f o r our p r i n c i p l e s
i s h e r o ic # To s a l l y f o r t h to b a t t l e and win fo r
our p r i n c ip l e s i s som eth in g more than h e r o ic # W e
Judah and S m ith , The U n ch osen, pp. 215?-2l6*
111
-^Moos and Hess, Hats in the Ring, p. 17.
l6l
o f f e r one who has th e w i l l to w in, who n o t o n ly
d e s e r v e s s u c c e s s , b u t commands i t * V ic to r y i s h i s
h a b it : The Happy W arrior, A lfr e d E* Smith*13q-
A lfr e d E . Smith was nom inated on the f i r s t b a l l o t *
Whether any o f the n in e nom inating sp ee ch es from
the i 960 D em ocratic C onvention or th e two from the i 960
R ep u b lican C on ven tion w i l l go down in h is t o r y a s "memor
able" sp e e c h e s rem ains to be seen* R u s s e ll Baker r e f e r r e d
to the nom inating sp ee ch es a t the D em ocratic C on ven tion
*
a s " , • • hour a f t e r hour o f n in e te e n th -c e n tu r y o r a -
11 * 5
tory* • • I t was r e p o r te d th a t " i t had taken about
s i x and a h a l f hou rs to p la c e th e n in e c a n d id a te s in
n om in ation and to a llo w t h e ir su p p o r te r s to sh o u t and
parade around th e h a l l in w ild but w e ll-o r g a n iz e d demon
s t r a t io n s * * . ," ^ 36
Demons tra ti.o n s
A d is c u s s io n o f the nom inating sp ee ch es would n o t
be com p lete w ith o u t a m en tion o f the d em o n stra tio n s w hich
i n e v i t a b l y f o l lo w the n om in ation sp eech es*
The e lo q u en ce o f the s p e a k e r s, however g r e a t i t
I s or appears to b e , o n ly produces i t s f u l l e f f e c t
J^Moos and H e s s, H ats in the R in g , p . 125*
135
R u s s e ll Baker, news Item in the New York Tim es.
Ju ly l i | , i 9 6 0 , p . 1 8 . --------------------------
^■^^News item in th e New York T im es, J u ly llj., i 9 6 0 ,
p. ll^.
1 6 2
when accom panied by the more or l e s s n o is y m ani
f e s t a t i o n s w ith which th e au d ien ce g r e e t s the
sp eech es and th e names o f th e p r e s i d e n t i a l a s
p ir a n t s who foiro. the s u b j e c t o f them .
I f one c o u ld im agine a crowd o f f i f t e e n thousand
p erso n s a l l a tta c k e d a t once w ith S t . V i t u s 1 d an ce,
one would o b ta in a f a i n t Id ea o f the scen e p r e
se n te d b y th e c o n v e n t!o n .3-37
The m ost e n t h u s i a s t i c "spontaneous" d em o n stra tio n
p o s s ib le i s planned by the b ack ers f o r each c a n d id a te .
A lthough the h i s t o r y o f c o n v e n tio n s does n o t i n d ic a t e
t h a t the d em o n stra tio n has ev er swayed the v o t in g , the
e f f o r t s made by th e c a n d id a t e 's b a ck ers are c a lc u la t e d to
im p ress the d e le g a t e s and th e p u b l i c . Both p a r t i e s In
r e c e n t y e a r s have attem p ted to l i m i t th e tim e f o r demon
s t r a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e th e a d v en t o f t e l e v i s i o n .
"Some e x tr a o r d in a r y r e c o r d s were s e t in the d u r a tio n o f
d em o n stra tio n s fo r A lfr e d E. Smith in 192l|. and 1932» when
h i s su p p o rte rs m a in ta in ed the hubbub f o r over two hours."^^®
Ray H ebert d e s c r ib e d the c a r e f u l hours o f p r e
p la n n in g and p r e p a r a tio n which went in t o the d e m o n stra tio n s
a t th e D em ocratic C onvention in I 9 6 0 . The prepared demon
s t r a t o r s had t h e ir props s e c r e t e d i n a rea s around, i n s i d e ,
^ ^ O s t r o g o r s k i, Democracy and th e O rg a n iza tio n
o f P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s , pp. 2 5 7 -2 o b .
•^^Goodman, The Two-Party System i n the U n ite d
S t a t e s , p . 2 0 9 •
163
b e lo w , and above th e arena h o u rs b e fo r e th e b ig show
s t a r t e d . Two hundred p la c a r d s f o r S en a to r S t u a r t Sym ington
o f M isso u r i f o r P r e s id e n t were h id d en i n a darkened room
under the c o n v e n tio n o f f i c e s . In a c o n v e n ie n t c o rn er n ea r
th e F ig u e r o a S t r e e t ramp o f th e a ren a , th e M a ssa c h u se tts
su p p o r te r s f o r S en a to r John F . Kennedy had s e t up a " c a r
n i v a l - l i k e c o n g lo m era tio n o f r ed b a l l o o n s , c o m p r e sse d -a ir
c y lin d e r s and p la c a r d s . • 0 . ” ^39
The u lt im a te i n management, h ow ever, was r ea c h e d
by the A d la i S te v e n so n s u p p o r te r s . There was much sp e c u
l a t i o n a s to how so many S te v e n so n fa n s had o b ta in e d t i c k e t s
to e n te r the c o n v e n tio n a r e n a . W h ite’ s e x p la n a tio n seemed
th e m ost p l a u s i b l e and a u t h o r i t a t i v e .
The p ack in g o f the g a l l e r i e s by th e S te v e n so n ia n s
was th e r e s u l t o f sh a rp , w e ll- p la n n e d o r g a n iz a t io n .
They had been a l l o t t e d , p r io r to th e C o n v en tio n , on ly
t h i r t y - f i v e t i c k e t s fo r a l l t h e ir c o h o r t s . They had
p roceed ed th u s; f i r s t th e y s o l i c i t e d a l l members o f
the 7$0 Club (a D em ocratic m o n e y -r a is in g d e v ic e which
prom ised two t i c k e t s to ea ch c o n t r ib u t o r o f $ 1 , 0 0 0 )
f o r t h e i r unwanted t i c k e t s and th u s c o l l e c t e d 1 ,0 0 0
f r e e t i c k e t s ; n e x t , th ey p r e s s e d t h e i r f r i e n d s on the
h o s t com m ittee o f the C a l i f o r n ia D em ocratic P a rty to
turn over m ost o f t h e ir 1 ,0 0 0 t i c k e t s to them;
f i n a l l y , le a r n in g t h a t the Kennedy o r g a n iz e r s e x
p e c te d to draw 2 ,5 0 0 t i c k e t s from th e r e g u la r
m ach inery o f the C o n v en tio n , they had l i n e d t h e i r
own p e o p le up a t th e s p e c i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n l i n e s fo r
th e se t i c k e t s , p in n ed on them la r g e KENNEDY b u t t o n s ,
and cla im ed from th e earmarked Kennedy su p p ly an
e s tim a te d 1 ,5 0 0 t i c k e t s a s t h e i r own. The S te v e n so n
^ ^ R a y H eb ert, " F loor R a l l i e s C a r e f u lly S e t a t
C c n v e n tio n ," Los A n g ele s T im es. J u ly 1 5 , i 9 6 0 , P a rt 1 ,
P* 7«
16 11 -
p e o p le t h u s , on th e n ig h t o f th e C o n v e n tio n ’ s
n o m in a tio n , were in p o s s e s s io n o f a lm o st I 4 ., 000
t i c k e t s to pack, the g a l l e r i e s ; w hich th e y d id w ith
l u s t y d e l i g h t
The sc en e o u t s id e the S p o r ts Arena a t f o u r o ’ c lo c k ,
Wednesday a fte r n o o n , J u ly 13, p ro cla im ed S te v e n so n as the
f a v o r i t e o f th e h o u r . M others in s h o r t s w h e e lin g baby
c a r r ia g e s ; boys i n t a t t e r e d jea n s c a r r y in g la r g e W E W ANT
STEVENSON s i g n s ; a l l a g e s , a l l s i z e s , s i x and e i g h t a b r e a s t
ch a n tin g "W E W ANT STEVENSON"— the members o f th e crowd
e x p r e s s e d t h e ir en th u sia sm fo r t h e ir c a n d id a t e . The
d e m o n stra tio n in the aren a e r u p te d , t r ig g e r e d b y Eugene
M cCarthy’ s c o n c lu d in g w ards, " . . . T h is f a v o r i t e son I
subm it to y o u , A d la i S te v e n so n o f I l l i n o i s I " T h e h a l l
was. c o n g e ste d w ith S t e v e n s o n i t e s . They packed th e g a l l e r y
w hich th e n ig h t b e fo r e had seemed b a rren and s p a r s e ly
X J+ 2
p o p u la te d . There was an overw helm ing d i s p l a y o f em otion
p r e s e n t which would have seemed h o n e s t and t r u l y sp o n ta n
eous i f I t were n o t f o r th e young men w ith th e megaphones
bou ncing around th e g a l l e r y le a d in g th e S te v e n so n su p p o rters
much a s c h e e r le a d e r s would le a d th e c h e e r in g s e c t i o n s a t a
■^^White, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t I 9 6 0 , p . 1 9 8 .
^ ^ F o r th e co m p lete t e x t o f Eugene M cCarthy’ s sp eech
se e Appendix G.
^■^The w r ite r a tte n d e d a l l b u t th e f i r s t s e s s i o n
o f the i 960 D em ocratic C on ven tion and was s e a t e d in th e
g a l l e r i e s .
165
f o o t b a l l game. An enormous pap ier-m ach e b a l l (sy m b o lic
o f th e sn o w b a ll, perhaps) r e p o r te d to be f a b r ic a t e d o f
ll±3
p e t i t i o n s on S te v e n s o n ’ s b e h a lf bounced to th e rhythm
o f th e ch a n t, b u t soon proved too cumbersome and was
r o l l e d o f f th e f lo o r *
A co n v en tio n in American p o l i t i c s i s v ery f r e
q u e n tly a p la c e where the naked a c t o f h i s t o r y and
d e c i s i o n ta k e s p la c e in p u b lic * In i8 6 0 , 1 9 1 2 ,
19ll-0 and 19^ 2, American c o n v e n tio n s , both R ep u b lican
and D em o cra tic, had se en such a c t s take p l a c e .
Here now was the g r e a t e s t and m ost a u th e n tic
d em o n stra tio n o f em otion s in c e th e g a l l e r i e s of
P h ila d e lp h ia had overwhelmed th e R epu blican d e l e
g a t e s o f 191+0 w ith t h e ir ch an t o f W E W ANT WILKIE. . . .
To be e f f e c t i v e , su ch a d e m o n stra tio n as th e Los
A n geles C onvention was now w it n e s s in g must cap, n o t
b e g in , a campaign th a t has lon g s in c e p r e v io u s ly
e s t a b lis h e d o th e r b a s e s o f power.^W-
S te v en so n had not responded to the " c a ll" o f h i s su p p o rte rs
u n t i l th a t v ery morning but upon i n v e s t i g a t i o n had found
he had no r e a l power on the f l o o r - - n o t even w ith h i s home
b a s e , I l l i n o i s * The d em o n stra tio n proved m e a n in g le s s —
som ething f o r the h i s t o r i a n s to record *
In a d is p a tc h from the Los A n g ele s c o n v e n tio n , Harry
Ashmore, P u lit z e r P r iz e w in n er, d e s c r ib e d th e im p lic a t io n s
o f th e e x i t o f S te v e n so n , a member o f the "Old Guard,"
as the "New Guard," the younger members o f th e D em ocratic
P a r ty , took o v e r .
*^ N ew s item In th e Los A n g eles Tim es, J u ly lip,
i 9 6 0 , p . B.
•^^White, The Making of the President i960, pp. 199-200.
166
"Old Harry Truman was a b i t t e r v o ic e sounding unheard
o f f s t a g e . E lean or R o o s e v e lt cou ld s t i l l m i s t an
a g in g e y e , b u t she co u ld no lo n g e r quicken th e b lo o d
o f th o se who c a s t th e v o t e s . And th e r e was A d lai
S te v en so n , h im s e lf a b r ig h t and e x c i t i n g new fa c e
o n ly e ig h t y e a r s a g o . Now S tev en so n edged v i s i b l y
in to the r o le o f e ld e r sta te sm a n , le a v in g behin d a
t r a i l o f sp e n t and em o tio n a l f o llo w e r s who s t i l l
found i t hard to b e l i e v e th a t i n t r o s p e c t i v e e lo q u e n c e
cannot s u s t a i n a p o l i t i c a l movement .1-4-5
IV. M AJOR PARTICIPATING M EM BERS AND OPERATING PROCEDURES
O F A NATIONAL POLITICAL CONVENTION
The co n v e n tio n s were c r e a te d to cope s p e c i f i c a l l y
w ith the p r e s i d e n t i a l and v i c e - p r e s i d e n t i a l n om in ation s
and to remove the e a r l y dominance o f C ongress in t h i s
p r o c e s s . In th e ir c en tu ry and a q u arter o f e x is t e n c e
they have u n a v o id a b ly become a c e n t r a l p o l i t i c a l
mechanism w ith a p o t e n t i a l fo r power f a r beyond
a n y th in g t h e i r o r i g i n a l sp o n so rs dr earned. 1-4-°
Along w ith the major r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f nom inating can d id ates
f o r P r e sid e n t and V ic e - P r e s id e n t , the n a tio n a l c o n v e n tio n s
co n tin u e the permanent o r g a n iz a tio n o f the p a rty w ith an
o r g a n iz a t io n an d /or r e - o r g a n iz a t io n o f p a rty s t r u c t u r e ,
prepare a p la tfo rm fo r th e p a rty s e t t i n g p o lic y on major
n a tio n a l i s s u e s , and p r e s e n t an image o f th e p a r ty to
th e p eo p le o f the N ation*
■^^Henry Moscow, " E xit A d la i," L if e I n t e r n a t i o n a l .
2 9 :3 3 , October 1 0 , i 9 6 0 , q u otin g H arry Ashmore.
1-^ D avid , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n
a l P arty C o n v en tio n s, p . 2l|.0.
1 6 7
The N a tio n a l Committee
Prom th e p o l i t i c a l p o in t o f v iew th e problem i n
v o lv e d i n n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n s i s th e c o n t r o l of them .
T his c o n t r o l i s sou gh t through the r e g u la r p a r ty
m ach in ery, e s p e c i a l l y i n the n a t io n a l com m ittee,
and through th e f o r c e o f p a r ty and p u b lic se n tim e n t
g e n e r a te d by the p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a t e s . • • • The
p e r io d o f tim e fo r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h i s c o n t r o l b e g in s
lo n g b e f o r e a c o n v e n tio n m eets and i n m ost c a s e s
c o n tin u e s in t o th e c o n v e n tio n s e s s i o n s and up to .
the moment the d e te r m in a tiv e d e c i s i o n s a re made* h-?
The f i r s t permanent n a t io n a l com m ittee was c r e a te d
in I 8l).8 by the D em ocratic N a tio n a l C o n v e n t io n .^ -®
O r i g i n a l l y , n a t io n a l com m ittees were composed o f one
man, c a l l e d the n a t io n a l com m itteem an, from each s t a t e .
G ra d u a lly , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the D i s t r i c t o f Columbia
and th e t e r r i t o r i e s were a d m itte d . The a d o p tio n o f
th e N in e te e n th Amendment brough t b o th p a r t i e s under
p r e ssu r e to r e c o g n iz e women* In t h e i r 1920 n a t io n a l
c o n v e n tio n th e D em ocrats dou bled th e s i z e o f t h e i r
n a t io n a l com m ittee by p e r m ittin g the a d d it io n o f one
woman, c a l l e d the n a t i o n a l committeewoman, from each
s t a t e and t e r r i t o r y . . . . In 192l|. th e R ep u b lica n s
added women to t h e i r n a t io n a l c o m m ittee, b u t a d d it io n a l
m embership was p r o v id e d f o r i n th e r u l e s adopted a t
the 1952 n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n a t th e i n s t i g a t i o n o f
chairm en from some o f th e M idwest and Rocky M ountain
s t a t e s .14-9
The D em ocratic N a tio n a l Committee in i 960 c o n s is t e d
o f one man and one woman from each S t a t e , d i s t r i c t , and
t e r r i t o r y
■^^Goodman, The Two-Party System in th e U n ite d
S t a t e s . p . 2 1 7 .
^ I b i d . , p . 1 6 9 .
^ I b i d . , p . 1 7 1 .
■^^House Document Number 332, p. 26.
168
The R e p u b lica n N a tio n a l Committee c o n s is t e d o f one
n a t io n a l committeeman and one n a t io n a l committeewoman from
each ’’S t a t e , D i s t r i c t o f Colum bia, and U . S* p o s s e s s io n s ”
as w e l l as th e S t a t e chairm an o f each S t a t e which
A* C a sts i t s e l e c t o r a l v o te s f o r the R ep u b lican
c a n d id a te f o r P r e s id e n t; o r ,
B* Where a m a jo r ity o f th e combined U . S . R e p r e se n ta
t i v e s and U« S . S e n a to r s from th a t S t a te are
R ep u b lica n ; or ^
C* Where th e re i s a R ep u b lica n Governor
T his in c r e a s e d th e R ep u b lica n N a tio n a l Committee in i 960
from 106 members to a t o t a l o f llj.8 . ^ 2
The party* s n a t io n a l com m ittee e x e r c is e d i t s c o n tr o l
o f th e c o n v e n tio n by g iv in g th e c a l l o f th e c o n v e n tio n ,
s e t t i n g the tim e and p la c e ; by drawing up a tem porary r o l l
o f d e l e g a t e s ( t o be r a t i f i e d by th e c r e d e n t i a ls co m m ittee);
by naming the tem porary chairm an and s u g g e s tin g a s l a t e o f
o f f i c e r s f o r th e c o n v e n tio n ; and by recommending th e p e r -
193
so n n e l o f permanent c o m m ittee s.
The e x t e n t o f th e p o s i t i o n o f the n a t io n a l com m ittee
i n th e power scheme has b een the s u b j e c t o f some d i s a g r e e
ment* I t was m ost p ow erfu l un der th e R ep u b lica n s from
^■^House Document Number 3 3 2 , p .
1 ^2 I b i d .
- ^ ^ L e i s e r s o n , P a r t ie s and P o l i t i c s , p . 2J 4.3 •
C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r te r ly C on ven tion G u id e, p . 3 .
169
I 896 to I 90I 4 . under th e regim e o f Marcus A. Hanna* The
secon d h ig h p o in t in i t s develop m en t was from 1932 to
1914-0 i n the D em ocratic P arty under th e ch a irm an sh ip o f
James A* P a r le y . The power o f th e com m ittee had b een one
o f f l u c t u a t i o n — i t fu n c tio n e d fo r p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s
w ith v ig o r and th en sank in t o o b s c u r ity w ith n o th in g e l s e
to do b u t pay o f f e l e c t i o n d e b ts* In o rd er to combat t h i s
" b a t t le f a tig u e " or "let-d ow n " which i n e v i t a b l y fo llo w e d
the c o n v e n tio n , both n a t io n a l com m ittees s in c e th e 1914- 0 * s
have m a in ta in e d h e a d q u a r ter s manned by a perm anent s t a f f
15k
i n W ashington, D. C* ^ B ecau se o f such f l u c t u a t i n g
p e r io d s o f power and d e c l i n e , th e chairm an o f the n a t io n a l
com m ittee has b een c o n s id e r e d an Im portant man f o r the
f u t u r e o f th e p arty*
[The chairman o f a n a t io n a l com m ittee I s som etim es
s a id to be r e s p o n s ib le fo r the fo r tu n e s o f the e n t i r e
p a r t y , though he has v i r t u a l l y no a u t h o r it y ov er th e
thou san ds o f p e o p le in th a t p a r t y ' s o r g a n iz a t io n . An
e x tr e m e ly bad job m igh t s e r i o u s l y damage th e p a r t y ' s
e l e c t o r a l c h a n c e s, b u t even the b e s t p o s s i b l e job a s
chairm an may be f r u s t r a t e d by o th er members o f th e
p a r ty or by e v e n ts beyond a n y o n e 's co n tro l.^ -5 5
^ "^Goodman, The Tw o-Party System i n th e U n ite d
S t a t e s , p* 2 1 8 .
- ^ P h ilip S . W ild e r , J r . , Meade A lco rn and th e
1958 E l e c t io n ( n . p . : Henry H o lt and Cornpany, 1959)»
Subsidiary Committees
There sire many b e h in d - t h e - s c e n e c o m m itte e s, a d ju n c t
to th e n a t i o n a l c o m m itte e , w h ich o p e r a te b o th p r io r t o and
d u r in g th e c o n v e n t io n . The fo u r m ajor co m m ittee s a r e the
C r e d e n t ia ls C om m ittee, th e R u le s C om m ittee, th e Com m ittee
on Perm anent O r g a n iz a tio n , and th e R e s o lu t io n s C om m ittee.
The C r e d e n t ia ls Com m ittee p a s s e s on th e c la im o f d e l e g a t e s
t o be s e a t e d a t th e c o n v e n tio n (w ith th e f i n a l a r b i t e r o f
a l l d i s p u t e s b e in g th e c o n v e n tio n i t s e l f ) . The R u le s
Com m ittee su b m its to th e c o n v e n tio n th e r u l e s to be ad op ted
and f o llo w e d by th e c o n v e n t io n w hich i s in s e s s i o n . The
Com m ittee on Perm anent O r g a n iz a tio n recommends perm anent
c o n v e n tio n o f f i c e r s . The R e s o l u t i o n s Com m ittee d r a f t s
and p r e s e n t s a p la tfo r m to th e c o n v e n tio n
From 19M+ 1956 th e c o m p o s itio n o f t h e s e com m ittees
had b een one d e l e g a t e from ea ch S t a t e and t e r r i t o r y on e a c h
o f th e s e s ta n d in g c o m m itte e s , w ith t h e e x c e p t io n o f R e s o lu
t i o n s w hich had two d e l e g a t e s , one man and one woman, from
e a c h S t a t e . For th e i 960 D e m o cr a tic C o n v e n tio n , th e
n a t i o n a l com m ittee recommended t h a t th e S t a t e d e l e g a t e s
s e l e c t two m em bers, one o f e a c h s e x , to s e r v e on each o f
1^7
th e fo u r c o n v e n tio n c o m m itte e s . The R e p u b lic a n s
• ^ ^ C o n g r e ssio n a l Q u a r te r ly C o n v e n tio n G u id e , pp. 3 —
^ ■ '’^House Document Number 3 3 2 , p . 2 8 .
171
f o llo w e d s u i t w ith women a l s o s e r v in g a s o f f i c e r s —S e c r e
ta r y o f th e Arrangem ents C om m ittee, T rea su rer o f the
A rrangem ents C om m ittee, Chairman o f the Committee on C a l l ,
subcom m ittee ch airm an sh ip s o f C on ven tion Program P lan n in g
1^8
and D e c o r a t io n s .
The R ep u b lican n a t io n a l r u l e s r e q u ir e d t h a t each
d e l e g a t i o n ch oose i t s members f o r th e c r e d e n t i a l s and
r e s o l u t i o n s com m ittees " im m ed iately" a f t e r i t s own s e l e c -
tio n # * ^ 9 These recom m endations f o r members would then be
forw ard ed to th e n a t io n a l com m ittee h e a d q u a r te r s i n
W ash ington, D. C. The R ep u b lican N a tio n a l Chairman,
T hruston M orton, a p p o in ted on May 2 5 , 1959* a 50 member
Committee on A rrangem ents, a lj.5 member R u les Com m ittee, a
ij.5 member Committee on C a l l , and a C o n te s t Committee o f
7 members* These com m ittees met i n C hicago on December 1 0 .
tA q
The f u l l R e p u b lica n N a tio n a l Committee m et on December 11*
The D em ocratic P arty in 1959 p r o v id e d th a t the d e le g a t io n s
f o r i 960 sh ou ld s e l e c t t h e i r members fo r the m ajor commit
t e e s (Perm anent O r g a n iz a tio n , R ules and Order o f B u s in e s s ,
C r e d e n t ia ls , and R e s o lu tio n s and P la tfo r m ) a t l e a s t
" L ^®House Document Number 3 3 2 , p . 35*
^"^David, Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n
a l P arty C o n v e n tio n s, p . 1 8 8 .
"^^House Document Number 3 3 2 , p . 35
172
fo u r te e n days b e fo r e the opening o f the co n v en tio n *
l6l
The C r e d e n tia ls C om m ittee. —In the e a r l i e s t days o f
th e c o n v e n tio n system , a t the f i r s t c o n v e n tio n o f the
N a tio n a l R ep u b lican s h e ld in B a ltim o re on December 12,
1 8 3 1 , "• • • one o f the m ost s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e s o f the
Committee was a p p o in ted a t the c o n v e n tio n , and h e ld i t s
f i r s t m eetin g w h ile the c o n v e n tio n adjourned* A lthough
the number o f d e le g a te s a tte n d in g from each S ta te and the
method by which they were chosen can n ot be r e a d il y a s c e r
ta in e d , c o n te s te d d e le g a t io n s were a r e a l i t y from the very
b e g in n in g s o f the c o n v e n tio n sy stem and th e c h o ic e was made
e it h e r i n fa v o r of the f a c t i o n whose v o t e s were m ost needed
by the m a jo r ity o f th e c o n v e n tio n o r , i f i t were d e s ir a b le
to p le a s e both f a c t i o n s , the two d e le g a t io n s would be ad
m it t e d w ith each member having h a l f a v o t e * ^ ^ I f th e re
was no fo r m a lly d e sig n a te d d e le g a t io n a t the c o n v e n tio n
to r e p r e s e n t a S t a t e , chance v i s i t o r s from the S t a t e m ight
be se a te d as d e le g a t e s and a llo w e d to c a s t the v o t e s fo r
n om in ation was in tr o d u c e d • • •" The C r e d e n tia ls
House Document Number 3 3 2 , p . 27•
Stahwood, A H is to r y o f the P r e sid e n c y from 1789 Stahwood, A Hi
to 1 8 9 7 . p . 1 5 7 .
l63Ibld., p. 172.
th e S ta te
More r e c e n t l y , p r io r to the opening o f the con ven
t i o n , the N a tio n a l Committee working w ith th e in fo r m a tio n
su p p lie d them by th e S t a t e p a r ty o r g a n iz a t io n s , com piled
a temporary r o l l o f d e l e g a t e s . T his r o l l i s r e fe r r e d to
th e Committee on C r e d e n t ia ls , which h o ld s a h e a r in g fo r
the c la im s o f c o n t e s t e d d e le g a t io n s and makes recommenda
t io n s to the f l o o r . The c o n v e n tio n s e r v e s as the f i n a l
a r b it e r o f a l l d is p u te s # B i t t e r b a t t l e s o f t e n have en
sued over the s e a t in g o f c o n t e s t e d d e l e g a t i o n s .
Two o f the m ost b i t t e r o f th e s e b a t t l e s have tak en
p la c e a t R epu blican C o n v en tio n s, In 1912 th e N a tio n a l
Comm ittee, dom inated by su p p o r te r s o f T a ft, ex clu d ed from
the temporary r o l l th e names o f some c e r t i f i e d d e le g a t e s
who had been p led ged to Theodore R o o s e v e lt , T a ft was
v i r t u a l l y g iv e n the n o m in a tio n . Out o f t h i s d is p u te grew
the r u l e th a t r e q u ir e s the N a tio n a l Committee ” . , . t o
in c lu d e on th e temporary r o l l the names o f d e le g a t e s c e r
t i f i e d by a p p r o p r ia te s t a t e o f f i c i a l s h a v in g been d e s i g
n ated in accordan ce w ith s t a t e la w ,1 1 ^ ^
The second b i t t e r c o n t e s t was th e one which occu rred
a t th e R epublican C onvention in 1 9 5 2 , The problems o f
^^ C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a rterly C on ven tion G uide, p , 3
1 ^ I b i d .
173
r i v a l d e le g a t io n s , e s p e c i a l l y from the Sou th, were not new
p ro b lem s•
The problem in v o lv e d i n the Texas c o n t e s t was n o t
new to R epu blican n a tio n a l co n v en tio n s* S in ce 1872
th e p arty i n th e South had been moribund* The only
r e a l reason fo r i t s b ein g was to fe e d on crumbs of
p atronage from R ep u b lican P r e sid e n ts * As a c o n se
q u en ce, in tr a p a r ty r i v a l r y c e n te r e d on c o n t r o llin g
the d e le g a t io n s to n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n s i n ord er to
m e r it r e c o g n it io n and s p o i l s . Pew c o n v e n tio n s had
b een w ith ou t r i v a l Sou th ern d e l e g a t i o n s . These con
t e s t s were g e n e r a lly s e t t l e d to the s a t i s f a c t i o n of
the co n v en tio n by i t s N a tio n a l Committee and Creden
t i a l s Com m ittee, but o c c a s i o n a ll y a m in o r ity r e p o r t
was c a r r ie d to th e f lo o r o f the c o n v e n tio n . In such
c a s e s p arty r u l e s p rovid ed th a t in a v o te on c o n te s te d
d e le g a t io n s a l l d e le g a t e s tem p o ra r ily se a te d cou ld
v o te on a l l c o n t e s t s e x c e p t t h e ir own. N a tu r a lly
th e s e Southern c o n t e s t s caused tr o u b le from tim e to
tim e , but g e n e r a lly a f t e r a pain ed cry o f uWe/
robbed," the storm p a s se d . Not so in 1952* °
When the R ep u b lican N a tio n a l C onvention m et in
1 9 5 2 , i t was the m in o r ity p a rty and had l o s t f i v e s u c c e s
s iv e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s * I t was im p ortan t th a t the
p a r ty f in d the " r ig h t man" to nom in ate— the " righ t" man
b ein g the one who cou ld g e t the m ost v o te s * One wing o f
the p a r ty wanted R obert T a ft; the o th er wanted a r e l a t i v e l y
unknown man in p o l i t i c a l c i r c l e s , G eneral Dwight D.
E isen h ow er. On one hand was the "old guard" and T a ft;
on the o th er the " sta n d p a tte r s" or "m e-tooers" and
- \ L n
Eisenhow er* A s p l i t in the R epu blican P arty c o n v e n tio n s
1 AA
Judah and Sm ith, The U nchosen, p* 2I 4 .9 •
l 6 ? I b l d . , pp. 223-225*
174
o f s i x so u th e rn S t a t e s r e s u l t e d in th e op p osin g f a c t i o n s
from th e se S t a t e s jo u rn ey in g to the n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n
i n C hicago to p r e s e n t t h e i r s e p a r a te s e t s o f c r e d e n t i a l s
w ith hop es o f b e in g l e g a l l y s e a t e d # 1 ^®
The s i t u a t i o n was u n iq u e i n t h a t the p r o c e e d in g s o f
th e C r e d e n tia ls Committee were covered b y television#"*"^
The b a t t l e w as, some b e l i e v e d , th e " l a s t stan d o f th e o ld
guard" and th e l a s t chance fo r T a ft to t r y f o r th e p r e s i -
170
dency# Under the shadow o f the w e ll v e r s e d , youn g-
l o o k in g , e n e r g e t ic e n to u r a g e o f the E isenhow er f o r c e s ,
T a ft was swamped# An amendment to th e r u l e s , th e L a n g lie
F a ir P la y Amendment, o f f e r e d b y G overnor A rthur B. L a n g lie
o f W ashington, was p r e s e n te d to th e convention.'*'71 I t
• • • p ro v id ed th a t no c o n t e s t e d d e le g a t e i f s e a te d
te m p o r a r ily by l e s s th an a t w o - th ir d s m a jo r ity o f th e
N a tio n a l Committee c o u ld v o te on any o th e r c o n t e s t e d
d e le g a t io n u n t i l he h im s e lf was s e a t e d by v o te o f th e
w hole c o n v e n tio n #172
In s p i t e o f the L a n g lie amendment w hich was adopted (and
-* - 6®Robert c. J e f f r e y , " R ep u b lican C r e d e n t ia ls Com
m i t t e e D e b a te s , 19f>2," S p eech M onographs, 2 8 :2 2 6 , November,
1 9 6 1 .
l 6 9I b id # , p . 2 6 7 .
"*"^^Judah and S m ith , The UnchQ3e n , p# 2 2 ^ .
171
D a v id , Moos, and Goldman, P r e s i d e n t i a l N om inating
P o l i t i c s i n 19ii?2, The N a tio n a l S c e n e , p . 71#
•*•72Judah and Smith, The Unchosen, p# 2£4»
175
w hich h e ld tru e o n ly f o r th e 1 9 5 2 c o n v e n tio n ) and i n
s p i t e o f the s tr o n g e r argum ents and e v id e n c e p r e s e n te d by
the p ro-E isen h ow er f a c t i o n s , th e p r o -T a ft d e l e g a t i o n s were-
recommended f o r s e a t i n g to th e c o n v e n tio n by th e C reden
t i a l s Co mmitteeThe d e c i s i o n s were a p p ea led and s i x t y -
e i g h t d e le g a t e s from th r e e S ou th ern S t a t e s — T exas, G eo r g ia ,
and L o u is ia n a --w e r e s e a te d by the c o n v e n tio n , an e a r ly show
o f E isenhow er s t r e n g t h and th u s i n d i c a t i n g which p o t e n t i a l
nom inee was i n c o n t r o l o f th e c o n v e n tio n * ^ 7 5
B e fo re the i 960 D em ocratic C o n v en tio n , th e r e were
r e p o r t s t h a t s e v e r a l S ou th ern S t a t e s were c o n te m p la tin g
w ith h o ld in g t h e i r e l e c t o r a l v o t e s from th e i 960 D em ocratic
nom inee i f he were n o t p le a s in g to th e South i n h i s sta n d
on c i v i l r ig h t s * Ross R, B a r n e tt, who was nom inated in
i 960 as a " f a v o r it e son ," i n h i s v i c t o r y sta te m e n t as
Governor o f M i s s i s s i p p i in 1959# prom ised th a t as a D i x i e -
c r a t i f th e c i v i l r i g h t s p lan k o f th e D em ocratic p la tfo r m
d id n o t s u i t him he would walk o u t o f th e i 960 D em ocratic
C o n v e n t io n .^ ^ Paul B u t le r , N a tio n a l Committee Chairman
i n i 9 6 0 , recommended t h a t " lo y a l" S o u th e r n e r s send r i v a l
■ *■ 73judah and S m ith , The U n ch osen , p . 255*
1 7 ^ -J e ffre y , "R ep ub lican C r e d e n t ia ls Committee De
b a t e s , 1952," pp. 2 7 1 - 2 7 2 .
• ^ ^ C o n g r essio n a l Q u a r te r ly C o n v en tio n G u id e , p . 3 .
176n>phe W in n er--N ot an In ch ," Time, 5ij.:38,
Septem ber 7# 1959*
176
d e l e g a t i o n s . to th e c o n v e n t io n s i f t h e i r S t a t e d e l e g a t e s
were n o t "bona f i d e D em ocrats" w i l l i n g to c a s t t h e i r v o t e s
f o r the D em o cratic n o m in ee . "He [ B u t le r ] r e p e a t e d ly h as
s a id t h a t s t a t e grou p s w h ich do n o t in te n d to su p p o r t th e
nom inee may have t h e i r r i g h t to c o n v e n tio n s e a t i n g q u e s
t io n e d by th e C r e d e n t ia ls Com m ittee ."^-77
R u le s C om m ittee.-- T h e m ain s t a n d a r d iz in g in f l u e n c e
f o r the N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C o n v e n tio n s a re th e n a t i o n a l
p a r ty r u l e s and cu stom s w hich ea ch c o n v e n t io n , when in
s e s s i o n , a d o p ts and m a in ta in s d u rin g th e su c c e e d in g fo u r
y e a r s u n t i l i t m e e ts a g a in .
The D em ocratic n a t io n a l c o n v e n t io n , f i r s t h e ld i n
1 8 3 2 , i s one o f th e o l d e s t p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
i n the w orld t h a t s u r v iv e s i n so m eth in g r e se m b lin g
i t s o r i g i n a l fo r m . I t h a s alw ays r e l i e d g e n e r a l ly
upon th e r u l e s and p r e c e d e n ts o f th e House o f
R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s inhere a p p l i c a b l e . When th e R e p u b lic a n
p a r ty h e ld i t s f i r s t n a t i o n a l c o n v e n tio n i n 1 8 5 6 ,
i t m od eled i t s p r o c e d u r e s upon t h o s e o f th e e x i s t i n g
m ajor p a r t l e s * 1 7 °
The D em ocrats f o l l o w th e r u l e s w hich have "* . . b een
handed down In l o r e q u a d r e n n ia lly c o m p ile d i n C la r e n c e
Cannon’ s D em o cra tic M anual. • • These were r e f e r r e d
to i n th e House Document Number 3 3 2 , N om in ation and E le c tio n
177
C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r te r ly C o n v en tio n G u id e , p . 3*
* 7 ®G-oodman, The T w o-Party S y stem i n th e U n it ed
S t a t e s , p . 1 5 8 .
l79Ibid., p. 8^.
177
o f th e P r e s id e n t • • • , a s th e "good f a it h " r u l e s and sub
m it t e d to th e c o n v e n tio n f o r a d o p tio n by th e R u les Commit-
l 8 0
t e e a lo n g w ith a d d i t io n a l recom m en d ation s.
The c o n v e n tio n c a l l fo r the i 960 D em ocratic Conven
t i o n r e i t e r a t e d the Dem ocrats L o y a lty Rule which had been
approved by the D em ocratic N a tio n a l Committee in 1959*
The r u le was made i n an a ttem p t to in s u r e th e i n c l u s i o n
o f the t i c k e t ch o sen b y th e c o n v e n tio n on th e D em ocratic
b a l l o t i n every S t a t e . The u n i t r u l e was a l s o r e a ffir m e d
t 181
f o r the I 9 6 0 c o n v e n tio n by th e C om m ittee.
The R ep u b lican N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n , upon th e recom
m en d ation o f the R u les Com m ittee, r e g u la r ly a d o p ts a s e t
o f n a t io n a l p a rty r u l e s w ith la r g e p o r t io n s o f the r u le s
b e in g r e g u la r ly r e - e n a c t e d . The r u l e s so adopted are
p u b lis h e d by the N a tio n a l Committee i n the O f f i c i a l R eport
o f the P r o c e e d in g s . . . and rem ain in e f f e c t u n t i l th e
n e x t n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n a c t s upon them and e it h e r p a s s e s
1 O p
them or amends them .
The Committee on Permanent O r g a n iz a tio n . — The
p r in c ip a l f u n c t io n o f t h i s com m ittee i s to recommend
^®^House Document Number 3 3 2 , pp. 2 8 - 2 9 .
•1 O n
C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r te r ly C o n v en tion G uide, p . l £ .
T ftp
O f f i c i a l R eport o f the P ro c e e d in g s o f th e Twenty-
S even th R ep u b lican N a tio n a l C on ven tion ( n . p . : R ep u b lican
N a tio n a l C om m ittee, n . d . ) , p p . 1 6 6 -1 7 7 .
1?8
permanent c o n v e n tio n o f f i c e r s * O c c a s io n a lly , the d e c i s i o n
o f th e permanent chairm an le a d s to s t r i f e a s i n 1932 when
F r a n k lin D . R o o s e v e lt f o r c e s r a l l i e d a m a jo r ity to d e f e a t
the recom m endation o f a chairm an opposed to t h e i r c a n d i
date*^®^ More o f t e n , th ou gh , th e o f f i c e r s a re a c ce p ted
w ith o u t d i f f i c u l t y *
The o n ly man to e v er p r e s id e f i v e c o n s e c u t iv e tim e s
over a N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C on ven tion was R e p r e s e n ta tiv e
Josep h W. M a rtin , J r * , from M a ssa c h u se tts who p r e s id e d o v e r
th e R ep u b lican c o n v e n tio n s from 19^0 to 1958* He was
o u s te d from House L ea d ersh ip i n Janu ary, 19^9» by a r e
b e l l i o n le d by R e p r e s e n ta tiv e C h a r le s A* H a lleck - of
I n d ia n a , and th u s was d e p r iv e d o f s e r v in g as Permanent
Chairman o f th e 1980 R ep u b lican Convention.***®^ R ep resen
t a t i v e H a lle c k se r v e d a s Permanent Chairman i n 1 9 6 0 *
R e p r e s e n ta tiv e Samuel Rayburn from Texas would have
s e r v e d h i s fo u r t h c o n s e c u t iv e term i n i 960 a s Permanent
Chairman o f th e D em ocratic C o n v en tio n s, h a v in g se r v e d i n
19^ 8 , 1 9 5 2, and 1 9 5 6 *^"®^ b u t he c h o se to a l i g n h i s f o r c e s
w ith Senator Lyndon B . Johnson i n hopes o f g e t t i n g fo r him
the n o m in ation fo r P r e s id e n t . R e p r e s e n ta tiv e Rayburn s a t
•^-^C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r te r ly C on ven tion G u id e, p . 3*
^-^News item i n th e Chicago D a ily T r ib u n e , J u ly 21].,
i 9 6 0 , P art 1 , p . 1].*
•* * ® ^0f f i c i a l C o n g r e ss io n a l D i r e c t o r y , 8 6 th C o n g re ss,
2nd S e s s io n B egin n in g January 6 , I 9 6 0 (W ashington, D . C .:
U n ite d S t a t e s Government P r in t in g O f f i c e , i 9 6 0 ) , p . lf>7*
w ith th e Texas d e le g a t io n and p la c e d S en ator J oh n son ’ s
name in n o m in a tio n . Governor LeRoy C o l l in s o f F lo r id a
se rv e d as Permanent Chairman o f the i 960 D em ocratic Con
v e n t io n .
The R e s o lu tio n s C om m ittee.--T h e duty o f the R e so lu
t io n s Committee i s to d r a f t and p r e s e n t a p la tfo r m to the
c o n v e n tio n — a p la tfo rm which " . . . a l l p a rty c a n d id a te s
can ' l i v e w ith ' and u se in t h e i r cam paigns." Much of
the p r e p a r a tio n fo r t h i s p la tfo r m would have begun many
months b e fo r e the c o n v e n tio n w ith h e a r in g s in many p a r ts
o f the c o u n tr y , s p e c i a l d r a f t in g co m m ittees, s t u d i e s ,
w r i t i n g , and r e - w r i t i n g . ’ * ’®^ There was s p e c u la t io n b e fo r e
the D em ocratic C onvention o f i 960 th a t th e c i v i l r i g h t s
plan k would r e s u l t i n an open s p l i t on th e c o n v e n tio n
f l o o r , but t h i s did n o t r e s u l t . There was s p e c u la t io n t h a t
th e p la tfo r m f o r the R epublican C on ven tion would be a
la u d a to r y one for the E lsenhow er a d m in is tr a tio n w ith a
" look in g-fo rw ard " f o r the Nixon camps and th a t th e r e would
be no s t r i f e , b u t t h i s was n o t the r e s u l t .
D e s p ite the b e s t e f f o r t s o f the R e s o lu tio n s
C o n g r e ssio n a l Q u a r ter ly C onvention G uide, p. Ij..
•^ ^ The P o l i t i c a l P arty P la tfo r m s; W hat's Their
S i g n i f i c a n c e ? (G rass 'Roots G uides on Democracy and P rac-
t i c a l P o l i t i c s , B o o k le t No. 3 . C o n n e c tic u t: The C enter
f o r In fo rm a tio n on A m erica, i 9 6 0 ) , p . 7 .
180
Committee to r e s o l v e a n d /o r compromise d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e
p r iv a c y o f p a rty h e a r in g s and i n the c l o i s t e r o f th e com
m it t e e room, o f t e n the s u b j e c t was so c o n t r o v e r s i a l or
th e r e was such a s e r io u s c a n d id a te -p la tfo r m s p l i t th a t
th e re cou ld be no com prom ise.
R a rely i s th e r e a s e r io u s p la tfo r m -c a n d id a te
s p l i t such a s the D em ocrats p r e s e n te d in I 86I 4 .,
when th e y ad op ted a p lan k c a l l i n g f o r an im m ediate
h a l t to the C i v i l War and th en tu rn ed around and
nom inated Union A m y G en eral G eorge McClellan.-*-®”
There were h i s t o r i c a l l y n o ta b le b a t t l e s fo u g h t
by R e s o lu tio n s C om m ittees.
Both p a r t i e s had open f l o o r f i g h t s o v er the s i l v e r
p la n k s i n the 1896 c o n v e n t io n s . In 192lj., th e
D em ocratic c o n v e n tio n was th e sc e n e o f sharp f l o o r
f i g h t s o ver p la n k s d e a lin g w ith th e League o f
N a tio n s and condem nation o f th e Ku K lux K la n . In
1932 b o th p a r t i e s engaged i n lo n g d e b a te s b etw een
w ets and d ry s b e f o r e th ey c o u ld agree on p r o h ib i
t i o n p la n k s fo r th e p la t f o r m s . And a t th e 19^8
D em ocratic c o n v e n tio n , a str o n g c i v i l r i g h t s p lan k
was adopted by a v o te o f 6£ l 1 /2 to $82 1 / 2 ,
sp ark in g the open D i x i e c r a t r e v o l t o f th a t y e a r .
At th e 1958 D em ocratic c o n v e n tio n a m in o r ity o f the
R e s o lu tio n s Committee r e p o r te d a s tr o n g e r c i v i l
r i g h t s p lan k to th e f l o o r than th a t in the m a jo r ity
r e p o r t , but i t was v o te d down by v o i c e v o t e .-*-”9
In 19$9 P r e s id e n t E isen h o w er, d is a p p o in te d a t th e
R ep u b lican d i s a s t e r s o f 19^8, a p p o in te d a Committee on
Program and P r o g r e ss t o exam ine th e p h ilo s o p h y o f Repub
l ic a n i s m . T his com m ittee became th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f
^®®Moos and H e ss, H ats i n th e R in g, p . 12[}..
•^^C o n g r e ssio n a l Q u a r te r ly C on v en tion G u id e, p . l|_.
181
R ichard M. Nixon who in tu rn a p p o in te d C h a rle s H . P e r c y ,
P r e sid e n t o f the B e l l and H ow ell Company, a s i t s h e a d .
H is job was to d e v e lo p "* • . a new credo f o r modern Repub
l i c a n s ." ^ 9 0
The d r a f t p la tfo r m o f Mr. Percy a s i t had d e v e lo p e d
in the weeks b e fo r e th e R ep u b lican C on ven tion was a
harm onious w h o le — a t once la u d a to r y o f th e a d m in is
t r a t i o n o f D w ight D. E isenhow er and fo r w a r d -lo o k in g ,
as b e f i t s modern R e p u b lic a n ism .^-91
The R ep u b lica n s hoped to p r e s e n t i n C hicago a p ic t u r e of
d i g n it y and u n i t y i n sharp c o n t r a s t to th e "• • • sq uab
b lin g c o n fu s io n e x h ib it e d by the D em ocrats d u rin g t h e ir
lop
r e c e n t Los A n g eles m e e tin g ." 7
In the hard l i f e o f p o l i t i c s i t i s w e ll known
iiia t no p la tfo r m nor any program advanced by e i t h e r
m ajor Am erican p a r ty h as any pu rp ose beyond e x
p r e s s in g em o tio n . P la tfo r m s are a r i t u a l w ith a
h i s t o r y o f t h e i r own and, a f t e r b e in g w r i t t e n , th e y
are u s e f u l c h i e f l y to s c h o la r s who d i s s e c t them as
a r c h e o lo g ic a l p o l i t i c a l r e m a in s. The w r i t i n g o f a
p la tfo r m d oes in d ee d f l a t t e r many p e o p le , g i v e s
many p r e s s u r e groups a chance to blow o f f steam in
p u b l i c , p e r m its the le a d e r s o f such p r e ssu r e groups
to r e p o r t back to t h e ir m em bership o f t h e i r v a l i a n t
e f f o r t s to p e r su a d e . But i n a c t u a l f a c t , a l l
p la tfo r m s are m e a n in g le s s : the program o f e it h e r
p a r ty i s what l i e s i n th e v i s i o n and c o n s c ie n c e of
the c a n d id a te the p a rty c h o o se s to le a d i t .3-93
Some con ten d t h a t th e p la tfo r m sh ou ld be p r e se n te d to th e
^ O ^ h i t e , The Making o f the P r e s id e n t I 9 6 0 , pp. 2 3 0 -
1 9 1I b i d . , p . 2 3 0 .
an(j S m ith , The U n ch osen, p . 35>7»
1 9 3 w h ite , The Making o f the P r e s id e n t I 9 6 0 , pp. 2 3 1 -
182
co n v e n tio n a f t e r the n o m in a tio n s so th a t the c a n d id a te s
can have a g r e a te r v o ic e i n i t s f o r m u la tio n * ^ ^ As e a r ly
a s 188[|_, James G. B la in e , the R epublican nominee who l o s t
to Grover C le v e la n d , w rote th a t
"the r e s o l u t io n s o f a c o n v e n tio n have come to
s i g n i f y l i t t l e in d eterm in in g the p o s i t i o n o f a
P r e s id e n t or p a r ty . Form erly the p la tfo r m was
o f f i r s t im p o rta n ce. . . . The P r e s id e n t ia l ca n d id a te
was h e ld c l o s e l y to th e t e x t , and he made no e x c u r
s io n s from i t . Now tiie p o s i t i o n o f th e c a n d id a te ,
as d e fin e d by h im s e lf, i s o f f a r more w eig h t w ith
th e v o t e r s . • • ." 195
A lthough t h i s may be th e c a s e , s in c e the American p e o p le
have come to e x p e c t the r i t u a l o f a p la tfo rm and s in c e th e
ad o p tio n o f a p la tfo rm p r o v id e s fo r an in t e r p la y o f p arty
se n tim en t and u n i t y , b oth R ep u b lican s and Dem ocrats do
p ro v id e p la t fo r m s •
The Dem ocrats u s u a lly have one la r g e gang s e s s io n
in which th e whole p la tfo r m i s d is c u s s e d , and then
the C on ven tion a c c e p ts the d e l i b e r a t i v e c o n c lu s io n
o f th e p l a t f o m com m ittee and approves what was
w r it t e n b e fo r e the w it n e s s e s were h e a r d . The Re
p u b lic a n s u s u a l l y break t h e ir p la tfo rm s e s s io n s in t o
su b com m ittees, each w r itin g one plank o f the whole
(on f o r e ig n a f f a i r s , farm , e d u c a tio n , s c i e n c e ,
d e f e n s e , e t c . ) . Then th e y , to o , r e p o r t to th e Con
v e n t io n , and th e C onvention approves th e d r a f t th a t
would have been w r itte n had no h e a r in g s been h e ld
a t a l l # In the R ep u b lican P a r ty , more than in the
- D em ocratic P a rty , the com m ittees are a c t u a l ly
^^Erwin D . Canham, "How to F ollow A C on ven tion ,"
Your C on ven tion Guide (B o sto n : The C h r is tia n S c ie n c e
M on itor, F r id a y , J u ly 1 , i 9 6 0 ) , p . 3*
195
7^C on gression al Q u a rterly C onvention G uide, p . ij..
183
a llo w ed to p la y w ith p h rases* B ut phrase making
and e d i t i n g are h a r m less e x e r c i s e s in b o th p a r t i e s ,
and f l a t t e r a l l th e p eop le a p p o in te d to p la tfo r m
c o m m ittee s, or p la tfo r m ch a irm a n sh ip s, i n t o the
b e l i e f t h a t th ey a r e im p o r ta n t*3-9°
Im agine th en the shock o f the 103 members o f th e R eso lu
t i o n s Committee o f the R epu blican C on ven tion o f i 960 to
d is c o v e r t h a t th e ir unspoken l e a d e r , Richard M. N ixon,
had made a s e c r e t jou rn ey to New Y ork to c o n f e r with G over
nor N elson R o c k e f e lle r about the p la tfo r m *
The h e a d lin e s on the f r o n t page of th e New York Times
f o r Sunday, J u ly 2lj., 19&0, were b i g , b la c k , and b o ld ,
"SECRET NIXON-ROCKEFELLER TALKS DRAFT A BASIC PLATFORM
ACCORD; . . . " In o rd er to avoid an open s p l i t on the
c o n v e n tio n f l o o r —a s p l i t th r e a te n e d by the R o c k e f e lle r
f o r c e s — and I n ord er to compromise w ith R o c k e f e lle r on h i s
sta n d as a p o t e n t i a l nom in ee, Nixon w ith o u t c o n s u l t a t i o n
w ith h is s t a f f took th e i n i t i a t i v e and went to R o c k e f e lle r
in New Y ork. The r e s u l t was a f o u r t e e n - p o in t program —
th e " F ifth Avenue T r ea ty " — which p r e c i p i t a t e d a storm
branded by Barry G oldw ater as no l e s s than a "M unich."^^7
The R ep u b lican R e s o lu t io n s Committee was n o t p le a s e d , b u t
to R o c k e f e lle r the t r e a t y r e p r e s e n te d " . . . t h e b a s ic
p o s i t i o n s f o r w hich I have been f i g h t i n g . . ." and f o r
196W h ite, The Making o f th e P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , p . 2 3 2 .
■^^Percy Wood, "G oldwater R ip s Pact a s ’Munich o f
G* 0 . P . , 1" C hicago D a ily T rib u n e, J u ly 2J|, 19&0, P* 1*
181*.
Nixon ,T. . • d e f i n e s our a rea s o f agreem ent • •
There were d i s t i n c t rum blings* G oldwater th r e a te n e d to
jo in th e ra ce 11. • . t o t e s t th e s tr e n g th o f the c o n se r v a
t iv e d e le g a te s " a t the convention."*"^ The Committee a t
tempted to h o ld fir m on p a r ts o f the o r i g i n a l p la tfo rm but
R o c k e f e lle r th r e a te n e d to ca rry h i s f i g h t to the f l o o r f o r
str o n g e r c i v i l r i g h t s and d e fe n se p la n k s .^ 00 By J u ly 2 7 ,
how ever, the f r o n t page o f the New York Times r e f l e c t e d
the i n e v i t a b l e — th e v ic t o r y o f R o c k e f e lle r which r e s u l t e d
pm
in an o f f i c i a l w ithdraw al by R o c k e fe lle r from th e r a c e .
By the tim e the c o n v e n tio n m et, the R epu blican P arty was
so com m itted to N ixon , t h a t the d e c is io n s were out o f i t s
202
hands. I t cou ld only r e g i s t e r the w i l l o f i t s ch osen
le a d e r or commit i t s e l f to b lo o d y and ir r e v o c a b le d e
f e a t in g b a t t l e b e fo r e the e y e s o f some te n m i l l i o n members
of the American p u b lic w atching the p r o c ee d in g s on
^*98jjewa item in th e New York Tim es, J u ly 2I 4 ., i 9 6 0 ,
p . 1 .
199
News item In the New York Tim es, J u ly 2f?, i 9 6 0 ,
p. L16.
200
News ite m in the Los A n g eles T im es, J u ly 2 6 ,
i 9 6 0, P a r t 1 , p . 3 .
201
News item in the New York Tim es, J u ly 2 7 .
I 9 6 0, p . 1 . --------------------------
202
Judah and Smith, The Unchosen, p. 35>7*
18$
t e l e v i s i o n * The rum bles and r o a r s became th r o a t mumbles
and th e R o c k e f e lle r p la tfo r m became the R ep u b lican p l a t
form f o r I 9 6 0 *
The D e le g a t e s o f a N a tio n a l
P o l i t i c a l C on ven tion
In ord er to u n d e rsta n d th e g r a n d io se o p e r a tio n s
and m a c h in a tio n s cf th e n a t io n a l n om in a tin g c o n v e n tio n s ,
an e x a m in a tio n o f th e c o n s t i t u e n t p a r ts o f the c o n v e n tio n
m ust be made, in c lu d in g n o t o n ly th e more t a n g ib le o p e r a
t io n s o f th e p a r ty o r g a n iz a t io n b u t the v e r y human e le m en t
o f th e sc e n e — the d e l e g a t e s to th e c o n v e n tio n who a re the
l i n k betw een the p eo p le and the p o l i t i c a l o r g a n iz a t io n s ,
th e im m ediate a u d ien ce f o r a l l th e sp eech -m aking t h a t g o e s
on a t a c o n v e n tio n .
S e l e c t i o n o f D e le g a te s
I t would be d i f f i c u l t to tr a c e the h i s t o r y o f th e
s e l e c t i o n o f d e le g a t e s to c o n v e n tio n s , f o r i n the b e g in
n in g s th e r e were no un iform p r a c t i c e s f o r s e l e c t i n g d e l e
g a t e s ; and c o n v e n tio n s , a lth o u g h p o s s e s s in g c r e d e n t i a l s
c o m m itte e s, were n o t o v e r - p a r t ic u la r about s c r u t i n i z i n g
and q u e s tio n in g c r e d e n t i a l s . * ^ The m ethods fo r th e
203
Stanw ood, A H is t o r y o f the P r e sid e n c y from 1789
to 1 8 9 7 * p . 1 7 2 . ---------------
186
s e l e c t i o n o f d e le g a t e s o f the i 960 nom inating c o n v e n tio n s
were p r in te d in the O f f i c i a l P ro ceed in g s o f b o th p a r t i e s ,
and a l s o in House Document Number 3 3 2 , Nom ination and
E le c t io n o f the P r e s id e n t and V ic e -P r e s id e n t o f the U n ite d
S t a t e s I n c lu d in g th e Manner o f S e l e c t in g D e le g a te s to
N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C o n v e n tio n s. 2 ^ -
The method o f s e l e c t i n g d e le g a t e s to th e n a tio n a l
c o n v e n tio n v a r ie s * Some s t a t e s r e g u la t e the s e l e c t i o n
by s t a t u t e . Methods p r e s e n t ly u sed are e l e c t i o n o f
d e le g a t e s a t the primary e l e c t i o n or s e l e c t i o n by
the S t a t e c o n v e n tio n s or S t a t e com m ittees o f the
p a r t y . In some S t a t e s where th e primary i s u sed to
e l e c t the d e l e g a t e s , the v o te r i s g iv e n a chance
to e x p r e ss h i s c h o ic e as to p r e s i d e n t i a l and v ic e
p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a t e s . In such c a s e s the b a l l o t s
are prepared so th a t the v o te r may in d ic a t e h is
p r e fe r e n c e . This method i s term ed the up r e f e r e n t l a l
p r e s i d e n t i a l p rim ary." 2 0^
The s e l e c t i o n o f d e le g a t e s to th e R epublican C on ven tion
• • • th a t d e le g a t e s may be e l e c t e d by ( 1 ) prim ary
e l e c t i o n , (2) c o n g r e s s io n a l or S t a te c o n v e n tio n , or
(3) R ep u b lican S t a t e co m m ittee s. S ta te la w s in many
S t a t e s r e q u ir e the u se o f one or more o f th e th ree
m eth od s. Where th ere i s no S ta te s t a t u t o r y p ro
v i s i o n , S t a te p a r ty r u le or custom in accordan ce
w ith the n a t i o n a l c o n v e n tio n r u le d eterm in es the
m ethod. Where the c o n v e n tio n method i s u s e d , d i s
t r i c t d e le g a t e s are g e n e r a lly e le c t e d in d i s t r i c t
co n v e n tio n s which are in some c a s e s h e ld I n c o n ju n c
t io n w ith th e S t a t e c o n v e n tio n which s e l e c t s the
s e l e c t e d by the same • •
^See Appendix I f o r manner o f s e l e c t i n g d e le g a t e s
to the c o n v e n tio n s from each S t a t e .
was
d e le g a t e s a t l a r g e .
2 0 ^House DocumentNumber 3 3 2 , p . 2£
2 ° 6I b i d . , p . 3^ .
187
In the b e g in n in g , the method f o r s e l e c t i n g d e le g a t e s was
put i n t o th e hands o f the S t a t e s and tim e had n o t v a r ie d
t h i s . The th r ee m ethods which were u sed s in g ly or t o
g e th e r f o r c h o o sin g d e le g a t e s were by the p arty com m ittee,
by the p a r ty c o n v e n tio n , or by d i r e c t e l e c t i o n by the p a rty
v o t e r s . 2 0 *
Where the p a r t i e s are l e f t to t h e ir own d e v ic e s
i n the s e l e c t i o n o f d e l e g a t e s , the presum ption i s
c l e a r th a t the s e l e c t i o n i s p a r ty b u s in e s s and n ot
p u b lic b u s i n e s s . The p r e s i d e n t i a l nom ination i s the
g r e a t e s t g i f t w ith in the p o s s e s s io n o f e ith e r major
p a r t y . The o p p o rtu n ity to p a r t i c i p a t e i n making
the n om in a tion , even as an in d iv id u a l d e le g a t e w ith
o n ly a s i n g le v o te in th e n a tio n a l c o n v e n tio n , i s
a p o l i t i c a l p r iz e th a t I s n o t g iv e n out l i g h t l y .
P arty l o y a l t y and p arty s e r v ic e are alw ays f a c t o r s
taken in t o a c c o u n t. G e n e r a lly , the whole p r o c e ss
g o es forw ard , w hatever the form al s t e p s , w ith an
enormous amount o f c o n s u lta t io n among th e p a rty
r e g u la r s . The d e le g a t e s s e l e c t e d by such a p r o c e ss
are n o t alw ays r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f the v o te r s adhering
to the r e s p e c t i v e p a r t i e s , but th ey are alm ost alw ays
h ig h ly r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f se n tim en t w ith in the p a r ty
o r g a n iz a tio n s from which th ey c o m e .^ ^
The i n t e r e s t in n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n s shown by S ta te
and l o c a l p o l i t i c a l le a d e r s v a r i e s . The le a d e r s from the
la r g e r S t a t e s which may d e s ir e to p la c e in n om in ation a
ca n d id a te f o r P r e sid e n t or V ic e -P r e s id e n t may be d e e p ly I n
v o lv e d in the i n t e r p la y and I n t e r a c t i o n o f the con ven tion *
Even th o se le a d e r s o f the sm a lle r S t a t e s which may o fte n
^■^Goodman, The Two-Party System in the U n ited
S t a t e s , p. 191*
^ ® D a v id , Moos, and Goldman, P r e s i d e n t i a l Nom inating
P o l i t i c s in 195 2 , The N a tio n a l Scene" p . 16I|_.
188
p la c e " f a v o r it e sons" i n n o m in a tio n , b u t more o f t e n have
sm a lle r r o l e s to p la y , a re i n t e r e s t e d in b e in g p ick ed as
d e le g a t e s or a s a l t e r n a t e s so as to be a t the sc en e o f
a c t i v i t y and to be a b le to d em on strate t h e ir in f lu e n c e
w ith in t h e ir own S t a t e , th u s enh an cin g t h e ir s t a t u s . "The
r e a l o p e r a tio n o f s t a t e m achinery o ccu rs a t th e p o in t o f
d e le g a t e s e l e c t i o n in the s t a t e • • . ”^09 outcome
o f t h i s power s tr u g g le d oes n ot m a n ife s t i t s e l f u n t i l th e
appearance o f the d e le g a t io n (o r d e l e g a t i o n s , as i n the
d is p u te d s e a t in g in 1 9 5 2 ) a t the c o n v e n tio n .
Apportionm ent o f the D e le g a t e s
At th e f i r s t c o n v e n tio n o f the A nti-M asons te n
S t a t e s and the T e r r ito r y o f M ichigan were r e p r e s e n te d by
210
a t o t a l o f 96 d e l e g a t e s . At the i 960 c o n v e n tio n s
S t a t e s , the D i s t r i c t o f Colum bia, and 3 t e r r i t o r i e s were
r e p r e s e n te d w ith a t o t a l o f 1 ,5 2 1 d e le g a t e s f o r the Demo
c r a t s and 1 ,3 3 1 d e le g a t e s fo r the R e p u b lic a n s.
The D em ocratic N a tio n a l Com m ittee, a c tin g w ith
a u th o r ity g ra n ted them by th e 1956 n a t io n a l n om in atin g
c o n v e n tio n , adopted th e f o llo w in g r e s o l u t i o n on September
1 6 , 1 9 5 9 , to r e g u la t e the app ortion m ent o f v o te s and
209
Goodman, The Two-Party System in th e U n ite d
S t a t e s , p . 2 1 7 .
21 0
Stanwood, A H is to r y o f th e P re sid e n c y from 1789
to 1 8 9 7 . PP. 155-1561 ! --------------
189
d e le g a t e s to th e i 960 n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n .
Be I t r e s o lv e d by the D em ocratic N a tio n a l C om m ittee,
That the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v o t e s fo r the 1980 D em ocratic
N a tio n a l C on ven tion s h a l l be on th e f o llo w in g b a s i s :
(1 ) Each s t a t e s h a l l have two and o n e - h a lf (2 1 / 2 )
v o t e s fo r each o f i t s U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a to r s and each
o f i t s Members o f the U n ite d S t a t e s House o f R ep resen
t a t i v e s . Wherever t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e s u l t s i n a
f r a c t i o n a l v o te f o r any s t a t e , th e n e x t h i g h e s t number
s h a l l be u s e d , and th e e x tr a o n e - h a lf v o t e s h a l l be
c l a s s e d as an a t - l a r g e o n e - h a lf v o te fo r th e s t a t e .
(2 ) There s h a l l be 8 v o t e s f o r the D i s t r i c t o f
Colum bia, 6 v o t e s f o r P uerto R ic o , and 3 v o t e s each
f o r the V ir g in I s la n d s and th e Canal Z one.
(3 ) In th e e v e n t th e t o t a l number o f v o t e s had
by any s t a t e un der paragraphs ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) h e r e in a b o v e
i s l e s s than th e number o f v o t e s had by any s t a t e In
th e 1956 D em ocratic N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n , such t o t a l
v o te hereu n d er s h a l l be in c r e a s e d fo r such s t a t e to
the t o t a l number o f v o t e s had by such s t a t e i n the
1956 N a tio n a l C on ven tion and such a d d it io n a l v o te or
v o t e s s h a l l be c la s s e d as an a t - l a r g e v o te or v o t e s
f o r such s t a t e .
([{.) Each s t a t e , th e D i s t r i c t o f Colum bia, and
each t e r r i t o r y s h a l l have one a d d i t io n a l v o te fo r
i t s two members of the D em ocratic N a tio n a l C om m ittee,
each to be a member o f th e s t a t e ' s d e l e g a t i o n and
to have o n e - h a lf v o t e . In the e v e n t th a t any member
o f the N a tio n a l Committee i s u n a b le to a tte n d any
s e s s i o n o f the C o n v en tio n , such N a tio n a l Committee
member s h a l l d e s ig n a te in w r it in g to the chairm an
o f th e d e le g a t io n a p erso n to v o t e and a c t i n s a id
C on ven tion f o r and on b e h a lf o f such member.
(5 ) The s t a t e s may e l e c t e i t h e r one d e le g a t e w ith
one v o te or two d e l e g a t e s each w ith o n e - h a lf v o te
fo r ea ch o f th e v o t e s h e r e in a b o v e p r o v id e d , e x c e p t
the v o t e s o f th e N a tio n a l Committee m embers.
( 6 ) One a l t e r n a t e I s to be e l e c t e d fo r each f u l l
v o t e , e x c e p t th o se o f th e N a tio n a l Committee
mem bers. 211
The Committee on R u les and Order o f B u s in e s s f o r
the R ep u b lica n N a tio n a l C on ven tion o f i 960 p r e s e n te d the
211
■ ‘ ■House Document Number 3 3 2 , p . 31*
190
f o l lo w in g r u le (R ule No* 3 0) g o v e rn in g ap p ortion m en t which
was ad op ted a t th e r e g u la r m e e tin g o f th e c o n v e n tio n on
J u ly 2 6 , 19^ 0.
The mem bership o f the n e x t N a tio n a l C on ven tion
s h a l l c o n s i s t o f :
A* D e le g a t e s a t Large
1 . Pour D e le g a t e s a t Large from each S ta te *
2 . Two a d d it io n a l D e le g a t e s a t Large f o r each
R e p r e s e n ta t iv e a t Large in C ongress from each S ta te *
3* Pour D e le g a t e s a t Large f o r T e r r ito r y o f
A la sk a , e ig h t D e le g a t e s a t Large f o r D i s t r i c t o f
Columbia and s i x D e le g a t e s a t Large f o r the T e r r ito r y
o f H a w a ii, and fo u r a d d it io n a l D e le g a t e s i f th e D e l e
g a te to C on gress e l e c t e d a t th e l a s t p r e c e d in g
e l e c t i o n was th e R ep u b lican nom inee* Three D e le g a t e s
a t Large f o r P u erto R ico and one fo r th e V ir g in Isla n d s*
1^ * S ix a d d i t io n a l D e le g a t e s a t Large from each
S t a t e c a s t in g i t s e l e c t o r a l v o t e , or a m a jo r ity t h e r e
o f f o r th e R ep u b lica n nominee in the l a s t p r e ce d in g
P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n , bu t a t t h a t e l e c t i o n or a t a
su b seq u en t e l e c t i o n h e ld p r io r to the n e x t R ep u b lican
N a tio n a l C on ven tion e l e c t s a R e p u b lica n U n ite d S t a t e s
S e n a to r or a R ep u b lican Governor then i n such ev en t
such S t a t e s h a l l be e n t i t l e d to such a d d it io n a l
D e le g a t e s a t Large*
B« D i s t r i c t D e le g a t e s
1* One D i s t r i c t D e le g a te from each C o n g r e ssio n a l
D i s t r i c t c a s t i n g two thousand (2 ,0 0 0 ) v o t e s or more
f o r th e R ep u b lican nominee f o r P r e s id e n t or f o r any
e l e c t o r p led g ed to v o t e f o r th e R ep u b lican nominee f o r
P r e s id e n t i n th e l a s t p r e c e d in g P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n ,
jor f o r th e R ep u b lican nominee fo r C on gress i n the
l a s t p r e ce d in g C o n g r e ss io n a l e l e c t i o n .
2* One a d d it io n a l D i s t r i c t D e le g a te f o r each
C o n g r e s s io n a l D i s t r i c t c a s t in g te n thousand (1 0 ,0 0 0 )
v o t e s or more f o r th e R ep u b lican nominee f o r P r e s id e n t
or fo r any e l e c t o r p le d g e d to v o t e f o r th e R ep u b lican
nom inee f o r P r e s id e n t in th e l a s t p r e c e d in g P r e s i
d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n , or f o r th e R ep u b lican nominee f o r
C on gress i n th e l a s t p r e c e d in g C o n g r e ss io n a l e l e c t i o n .
C* A lt e r n a t e D e le g a t e s
191
One A lte r n a te D e le g a te to each D e le g a te to the
N a tio n a l C o n v e n tio n .212
Table I p r e s e n ts an o f f i c i a l l i s t i n g o f the v o tin g
s tr e n g th by S t a t e s a t th e n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n s and a t th e
e l e c t o r a l c o l l e g e in i 9 6 0 .
C om position o f the D e le g a t io n s
D avid , Goldman, and B ain in The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C on ven tion s d is c u s s e d the changing c h a r a c te r of the
d e le g a t e s ch osen to a tte n d the n a t io n a l nom in atin g conven
t i o n s . Their c o n c lu s io n s were th a t the d e le g a t e s o f 192+8
(b ased on m a il q u e s tio n n a ir e s t u d i e s , one by C h arles L.
B raucher, the o th e r by D a n ie l W. T u ttle );- o f 1952 (based on
the D a v id , Moos, and Goldman study o f 1 9 5 2 ); and o f 1958
(based on p e r so n a l o b s e r v a tio n o f the 1956 c o n v e n tio n by
D avid , Goldman, and B ain) were ” • • • m easurably b e t t e r
e d u c a te d , l e s s b o s s - r id d e n , b e t t e r a d ju ste d to the r e q u ir e
m ents o f an open p o l i t i c a l system , and g e n e r a lly more
tru stw o rth y in a l l r e s p e c t s than the d e le g a t e s o f 1 9 0 0 . ’*213
S in c e one o f the p u rp oses o f the open nom in atin g c o n v e n tio n
was to g iv e the p eop le a v o ic e i n the n om in ation o f the
heads o f s t a t e , the d e le g a t e s se rv e as the ,r • . . w orking,
v o c a l l i n k betw een the p u b lic and the o p e r a tio n s o f the
^■^House Document Number 3 3 2 , p . 1^2.
Goldman, and B ain , The P o l i t i c s o f
N a tio n a l P arty C o n v en tio n s, p . 1 8 6 .
192
TABLE Ia
VOTING STRENGTH OP STATES AT NATIONAL CONVENTIONS
AND ELECTORAL COLLEGE IN i 960
Population Delegate votes Delegate votes Electoral
State 1950 census at Democratic at Republican College
____________________________________ Convention__________Convention_____ votes
29 22 11 Alabama. . . ......... • 3,061 743
Alaska ................ 128 643
Arizona ............. 749 587
Arkansas ............. 909 511
California ........... 586 223
Canal Zone ........... 52 822
Colorado .............. 325 089
Connecticut . . . . . . 2,007 280
Delaware .............. 318 085
District of Columbia . f 802 178
Florida . ........... . 2,771 305
Georgia .............. 444 578
Hawaii ................ 499 794
Idaho ................ 588 637
Illinois .............. • 8,712 176
Indiana ..............
• 3,934 224
I owa.................. ■ 2,621 073
Kansas ................
. 1,905 299
Kentucky .............. . 2,944 806
Louisiana ........... 683 516
Maine ................ 913 774
Maryland .............. • 2,343 001
Massachusetts . . . .
• 4,
690 514
Michigan . . . . . . . . 6,371 766
Minnesota ........... . 2,982 483
Mississippi ......... . 2,178 914
Missouri .............. • 3, 954 653
Montana .............. 591 024
Nebraska ..............
• 1,325 510
Nevada ................ 160 083
New Hampshire . . . . ,
533 242
New Jersey . . . ; . .
• 4,835 329
New Mexico ........... 681 187
New York .............. . 14,830 192
North Carolina . . . . . 4,061 929
North Dakota ......... 619 636
Ohi o ..................
• 7,
946 627
Oklahoma .............. ■ 2,233 351
Oregon . . . . . . . .
• 1,
521 341
Pennsylvania ......... . 10,498 012
Puerto Rico ......... • 2,210 703
Rhode Island ......... 791 896
South Carolina . . . . 117 027
South Dakota ......... 652 740
Tennessee ...........
• 3,291 718
Texas ................
• 7,711 194
Ut a h .................. 688 862
Vermont .............. 377 747
Virgin Islands . . . . 26 665
Virginia .............
. 3,
318 680
Washington . . . . . . . 2,378 963
West Virginia . . . . . 2,005 552
Wisconsin ........... • 3,434 575
Wyoming ............. 290 529
Total..............153,615,988
9 6 3
17 14 4
27 16 8
81
1
70 32
4
21 18 6
21 22 8
11 12 3
9 8
29 26 10
33 24 12
9 12 3
13 14 4
69 60 27
34 32 13
26 26 10
21 22 8
31 26 10
26 26 10
IS 16 5
24 24 9
41 38 16
51 46 20
31 28 11
23 12 8
39 26 13
17 14 4
16 18 6
15 12 3
11 14 4
41 38 16
17 14 4
114 96 45
37 28 14
11 14 4
64 56 25
29 22 8
17 18 6
81 70 32
7 3
--
17 14 4
21 13
8
11 14 4
33 28 11
61 54 24
13 14 4
9 12 3
4 1
33
30 12
27 24 9
25
22 8
31 30 12
15
12 3
1,521 1,331 537
®House Document Number 332, p. 2 lj . «
193
c o n v e n t l o n B u t how t y p i c a l ware th e y o f t h e ir co n
s t i t u e n t s ? A ccordin g to D avid , Goldman, and B ain , th e y
were n o t t y p i c a l in t h a t th ey were 1 1 • • . w h ite m ales o f
mature a g e , u s u a l l y w ith a c o l l e g e e d u c a tio n , a b u s in e s s
or p r o f e s s i o n a l o c c u p a tio n , and a h ig h e r -th a n -a v e r a g e
income • •
There i s every r e a so n to b e l i e v e , how ever, t h a t
t h i s i s the kin d o f r e p r e s e n t a t iv e t h a t most con
s t i t u e n t s w ish to h av e; c e r t a i n ly i t i s the kind
th ey u s u a l l y e l e c t whenever a c h o ic e i s p r e s e n t e d - -
a p p a r e n tly b eca u se th e y want a r e p r e s e n t a t iv e who
can take c a r e o f t h e ir i n t e r e s t s b e t t e r than th ey
th e m se lv e s co u ld hope to d o , 2 1 o
W hite p r e se n te d a grap h ic p ic t u r e o f d e le g a t e s in
g e n e r a l •
A c o n v e n tio n i s u s u a lly made up o f o ld e r , i f n o t
w is e r , men th an the common v o t e r s who send them th e r e *
In m ost s t a t e s d e le g a t e s are ch osen by p a rty le a d e r
sh ip to honor lo n g -tim e t r u s t e d s e r v a n ts o f the
p a r ty , or from men o f em inence in c u l t u r e , dip lom acy
or th e p r o f e s s i o n s , who can g iv e the l u s t e r o f
t h e ir a ch ievem en t and th e ir names to th e d e le g a t io n ;
o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the o r g a n iz a t io n - c o n t r o lle d
s t a t e s , v ery h e a v ily from th o s e who c o n tr ib u t e th e
b ig money to campaign c h e s t s and now cra v e the
h o n o ra b le symbol o f a n a t io n a l d e le g a t e badge and th e
se n se o f h ig h p a r t ic ip a t io n * Most o f th o se who come
to a c o n v e n tio n have th u s e a r n e d , over many y e a r s o f
ach ievem en t or c o n t r ib u t io n a t some l e v e l , the r i g h t
to be c o n sid e r e d im portant* D e le g a t e s from the
2 ^ D a v id , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n
a l P arty C o n v e n tio n s, p* 17^*
2 1 ^ I b i d ., p . 1 8 6 *
2l6Ibid* . p p . 1 8 6 -1 8 7 .
19^
prim ary s t a t e s are u s u a lly younger and more v ig o r o u s
than th e d e le g a t e s p ick ed by th e b ig m achine s t a t e s ,
but th ey are i n a m in o r ity ; one way or a n o th e r , a
co n v e n tio n i s an assem bly o f o ld e r men, a v e ra g in g in
age ov er f i f t y , some o f whom b o a s t o f unbroken a t t e n
dance a t c o n v e n tio n s th a t r ea c h back to the tim e o f
the n om in ation o f Woodrow W ilson* Alm ost as much
as the n a t io n a l C o n g ress, th e d e le g a t e s ( a t both con
v e n t io n s ) p r e se r v e the c o n t in u it y o f American
p o l i t i c s *2 1 ?
To James R e sto n , th e i 960 D em ocratic C on ven tion
marked th e end o f "the p o l i t i c a l b o ss era" and r e p r e s e n te d
a " s h i f t to th e new g e n e r a t io n ." ^ ® The y o u th fu l ap p ear
ance and calm , p r e c is e e f f i c i e n c y o f the c a n d id a t e s , o f
t h e i r f o llo w e r s and w ork ers, and o f the d e le g a t e s r e p r e
se n te d a s h i f t in purpose and a s h i f t i n te c h n iq u e .
In a m a tter o f days another dom inant n o te was
str u c k b y the m y ste r io u s p r o c e s s o f common p r e s s
o b se r v a tio n * Prom th e sounds and s i g h t s , from the
hundreds o f l o s t and m i l l i n g f a c e s i n th e B iltm o r e ,
the p r e s s d i s t i l l e d a s w if t tr u th th a t was a r e
m arkably a c cu ra te h i s t o r i c a ss e s sm e n t: t h a t t h i s was
the c o n v e n tio n where th e young fa c e d the o l d , t h i s
was th e c o n v e n tio n where one g e n e r a tio n gave way to
a n o th er , t h is was— in James R e s to n 1s f e l i c i t o u s
p h ra se — th e assem bly t h a t w itn e s s e d the Changing
o f th e Guard.
I t was th e se o ld e r men who f i r s t r e f l e c t e d what
was hap penin g; i t was v i s i b l e i n the v a r io u s shades
o f m ela n ch oly on t h e i r c o u n te n a n c e s. One cou ld see
d r i f t i n g through th e lo b b ie s o f the B iltm ore such
^ ^ W h ite , The Making o f the P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , p* 1 8 £ .
^®James Reston, "Convention Marks the End of Polit
ical Boss Era and Shift to New Generation," Los Angeles
Times, July 10, i960, p. C-l*
19S
form er powers a s James P a r le y , Tommy C orcoran, S c o t t
L u ca s, Claude P ep per—b u t th e y were p o w e r le ss now,
g h o s ts a t a ban qu et over which th e y had once p r e
s id e d .21 9
I n t e r a c t i o n o f D e le g a t e s
There has alw ays been th e q u e s tio n o f what happens
to a d e le g a t e when h e /s h e a r r i v e s a t th e c o n v e n tio n c i t y
i n term s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to th e p e o p le back home to r e p
r e s e n t t h e ir c h o ic e f o r the n om in a tion o f P r e s id e n t and
V ic e - P r e s id e n t* The D em ocratic C on ven tion o p e r a te d in
i 9 60 as i t alw ays o p e r a te d , under the u n i t r u le which
1 1 . • • p e r m its th e m a jo r ity o f a s t a t e ’ s d e l e g a t i o n to c a s t
th e s t a t e ' s e n t i r e v o t e , r e g a r d l e s s o f the w ish e s o f th e
m in o r it y , p r o v id in g th e d e l e g a t i o n h as been so in s t r u c t e d
PPO
by i t s s t a t e c o n v e n t io n .H The u n i t r u l e was v o te d down
2 21
by th e R ep u b lican s i n 1 8 7 6 and the i 9 6 0 R ep u b lican Con
v e n tio n did n o t r e c o g n iz e as v a l i d any i n s t r u c t i o n s to the
d e l e g a t e s to v o te a s a u n i t . L e is e r s o n d is c u s s e d what had
been upperm ost i n th e m inds o f many c i t i z e n s - - t h e problem
o f c h o o sin g d e le g a t e s who would a c t a c co r d in g to th e w ish e s
o f th e p eo p le i n r e g a r d to th e s e c a n d id a t e s .
The i s s u e p osed by the p r e s i d e n t i a l prim ary i s
w h eth er th e p a r ty v o t e r s i n each s t a t e , a c t i n g
^ ^ W h ite , The Making o f th e P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , p . 185>.
220
C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r te r ly C on ven tion G u id e, p . L |-.
2 21
Stoddard, Presidential Sweepstakes, p. i j. 1 .
196
s e p a r a t e l y , s h a l l d e c id e on t h e i r p r e fe r e n c e f o r the
p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te and e l e c t d e l e g a t e s p le d g e d
a c c o r d in g ly , o r w hether the p a r ty sh o u ld sim p ly e l e c t
d e l e g a t e s to r e p r e s e n t ( a c t f o r ) them in th e n a t io n a l
c o n v e n tio n as th e s i t u a t i o n d e v e lo p s th e re * The p r e s
e n t s c a t t e r e d p r e s i d e n t i a l prim ary system p r o v id e s no
a ss u r a n c e th a t a l l p o t e n t i a l c a n d id a te s w i l l be p la c e d
b e fo r e th e p a r ty v o t e r s i n any s t a t e ; i t may h ave the
e f f e c t o f p rem atu rely d e s t r o y in g th e ch an ces o f
q u a l i f i e d c a n d id a te s who l o s e one or more s t a t e p r i
m a r ie s w h ile s t i l l h a v in g a good chance in th e c o n
v e n t io n ; i t b in d s th e d e l e g a t e s (when p led g ed to
su p p o rt the w inner o f th e p r e fe r e n c e c o n t e s t ) and r e
d u ces th e f l e x i b i l i t y and in f lu e n c e o f the s t a t e ' s
r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s a t th e c o n v e n tio n ; i t g i v e s th e p a r ty
v o t e r s i n th e s t a t e s th e m is le a d in g Im p re ssio n th a t
t h e i r f u n c t i o n I s and sh o u ld be c o n t r o l l i n g , w hereas
i n tr u t h i t can be no more than a d v is o r y to th e
n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n * As lo n g a s th e n o m in a tio n s are
made by the n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n , th e s t a t e d e l e g a t i o n s
r e t a i n optimum I n flu e n c e and m a n e u v e r a b ility by w it h
h o ld in g announcement o f t h e i r p u b lic p r e fe r e n c e s
u n t i l th e s t r a t e g i c moment* Most o f th e s t a t e s s e l e c t
in g d e l e g a t e s by the c o n v e n tio n m ethod, p lu s s i x o f
th e prim ary s t a t e s , do t h i s e i t h e r by rem a in in g u n
p led g ed or by th e d e v ic e o f p le d g in g to " f a v o r it e son"
c a n d id a te s who g a in n a t io n a l p u b l i c i t y b u t sta n d rea d y
to r e l e a s e th e d e l e g a t i o n a t th e m ost a u s p ic io u s
t im e ,2 2 2
The I n t e r a c t io n o f d e l e g a t e s on th e c o n v e n tio n f l o o r and
th e d i s c u s s i o n o f th e m achinery o f c a j o l e r y , p e r s u a s io n ,
and a l l i a n c e which W hite p r e s e n te d in h i s book d em o n stra tes
th e o th e r s id e o f th e ch arge o f R u ss e l Windes th a t th e
d e l e g a t e s to the i 960 c o n v e n tio n s were "* . . rubber stamp
d e l e g a t e s ch osen by a few p a r ty le a d e r s • • . " ^ 3
N e v e r t h e le s s , the d eg ree o f freedom which a d e le g a t e would
ppp
L e is e r s o n , P a r t ie s and P o l i t i c s , p . 2lp8•
^ ^ W in d e s, "The i 9 6 0 R ep u b lican C o n v en tio n ," p , 69*
197
have would be a m a tte r o f c o n j e c t u r e .
Even when m ajor d e c i s i o n s rem ain to be made by
th e c o n v e n tio n , i t i s f r e e to a c t o n ly i n a r e l a t i v e
s e n s e . I s s u e s have a lr e a d y been drawn. C a n d id a tes
and t h e i r su p p o r te r s have waged t h e i r cam paigns
o p en ly or c o v er tly . The s t a g e h a s b een s e t fo r
c e r t a i n p o s s i b l e c o a l i t i o n s , and o th e r c o a l i t i o n s
have b een made im probable i f n o t im p o s s ib le . The
e m o tio n a l p it c h h as b een e s t a b l i s h e d . The p ie c e s
f o r th e game are a l l t h e r e — what rem ains i s how
s k i l l f u l l y th e p la y e r s w i l l u se them . As i n th e
end game i n c h e s s , the a v a i l a b l e s t r a t e g i e s are
r e s t r i c t e d by th e p i e c e s , t h e i r v a lu e , and t h e i r
p o s i t i o n when th e p la y e r s tak e t h e i r s e a t s . 2 2q.
W hite view ed th e i 960 c o n v e n tio n d e le g a t e s a s p e r p le x e d
and s e r i o u s .
F or th e d e l e g a t e s were p e r p le x e d . I f th e r e was
any mood a t a l l to th e C o n v en tio n , i t was p e r p l e x i t y .
A l l o f them s t r a n g e r s , a l l o f them h a v in g , by
p o l i t i c a l war o r lo n g s e r v i c e i n t h e ir home s t a t e s ,
earn ed th e r i g h t to come to Los A n g ele s to ch oose
a P r e s id e n t , th e d e le g a t e s took th e m se lv e s s e r i o u s l y .
I t was a more sob er C on ven tion th an any o th e r I can
remember a t t e n d i n g . M oreover, i t was a con cern ed
C o n v e n tio n ,2 2 5
The many in f l u e n c e s w hich are p r e s e n t a t a con
v e n tio n can n ot a l l be g r a p h ic a lly and v i v i d l y r e c o u n te d .
I t i s im p o s s ib le to r e p o r t th e t o t a l a c t i v i t y o f
a f r e e c o n v e n tio n . As ea ch s t a t e g a th e r s i t s d e l e
g a t e s f a r from home to c a u c u s, th e i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c s
o f ev er y s t a t e becomes ta n g le d w ith the g r e a te r
n a t io n a l i s s u e s , and w ith the a m b itio n s and p e r so n a l
h op es o f t h e i r l e a d e r s . In e a c h , new wounds a re c u t ,
new e m n it ie s a r e seed ed ; and as th e m ajor P r e s i d e n t i a l
c a n d id a te s r e v o lv e from cau cu s t o c a u c u s, p le a d in g and
e x h o r tin g , u r g in g and s e e k in g , d i s p l a y in g th e m se lv e s
22^D avid, Goldman, and B ain , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n
a l P arty C o n v e n tio n s, p . 2 1 7 .
^2^White, The Making of the President i960. p. 183.
198
f i v e or e ig h t or te n tim es a d a y , tu n in g th e ir
an ten n ae to th e p a r t i c u la r wave le n g t h and con cern
o f each s t a t e ’ s w o r r ie s , w hether i t be w heat s u r p lu s ,
s c h o o l d e s e g r e g a t io n , unemployment in s t e e l m i l l or
c o a l m in e, no u n if y in g theme or purpose i s v e ry
i n s t a n t l y a p p a r e n t.2 2 5
To th e ch a rg es t h a t th e c o n v e n tio n was r ig g e d (th e
m ost p u b lic iz e d b e in g Harry S . Truman's ch arge on J u ly 2
th a t th e c o n v e n tio n was r ig g e d i n a d v a n c e a lo o k a t
the m a ch in a tio n s o f th e Kennedy e n to u ra g e and th e calm
e f f i c i e n c y w ith which th e y w atched over the d e l e g a t e s a t
the i 9 60 D em ocratic C on ven tion would d i s p e l a l l such
i l l u s i o n s t h a t d e c i s i o n s had a lr e a d y been made and were
d e f i n i t e and ir r e v o c a b le *
In a l l , some f o r t y d e le g a te -s h e p h e r d s were a s s ig n e d
each to a p a r t i c u la r s t a t e d e l e g a t i o n t h a t was t h e i r s
to c u l t i v a t e ; each was g iv e n p a c k e ts o f name ca rd s
l i s t i n g th e a s s ig n e d s t a t e d e l e g a t e s b y name, p r o
f e s s i o n , hobby, c h ild r e n , w if e , p e c u l i a r i t y , r e l i g i o n ,
and s e n t o u t to o p e r a te * They were i n s t r u c t e d , a s
th ey found s h i f t s i n any d e l e g a t i o n , to r e p o r t such
changes to a p r iv a t e t a b u la tin g h ea d q u a rters in Room
3308 a t th e B iltm o r e ; and t h e r e , e v e r y hour on th e
hour from F r id a y through b a l l o t i n g day, a new f r e s h
t o t a l , a c c u r a te to the h ou r, was to be p r e p a r e d .2 2 8
The m achine age added new em phasis and new e f f i c i e n c y to
the manner o f o p e r a tio n b u t the w atch over th e i n t e r e s t s
o f th e c a n d id a te and th e o b servan ce o f th e im portance o f
n/l/hite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t I 9 6 0 * p . 1 9 0 .
227
News item i n the Los A n g ele s Tim es, J u ly 1 1 ,
i960, p. 1.
^2®White, The Making of the President I960, p. 188.
199
th e in d iv id u a l d e le g a t e were n o t new to c o n v e n tio n h i s t o r y .
"From 1933 on, James A. F a r le y k ep t a l i s t o f D em ocrats
who had b een FR-BC— 'For R o o s e v e lt B efo re C h ic a g o .1 " ^ 9
Table I I shows the r e p o r te d d a i l y t a l l i e s o f
d e l e g a t e s com m itted and uncom m itted a t th e D em ocratic
C on ven tion w hich r e f l e c t e d the f l u x o f agreem ent and th e
in n e r s t r u g g l e s i n d e l e g a t e s and d e le g a t io n s w hich was
g o in g on a t th e c o n v e n tio n . (The m agic number fo r nom ina
t i o n was 761 o u t of a t o t a l c o n v e n tio n v o t e o f 1,J?21.)
The p r e d ic t io n th a t S e v a r e id made was f u l f i l l e d .
Advance commitments blow down r a th e r e a s i l y . I f
S en a to r Kennedy, l e t u s sa y , a r r iv e s a t th e Los
A n g eles c o n v e n tio n w ith th r ee hundred d e l e g a t e s , some
com m itted to him , some h a v in g in d ic a t e d a p r e fe r e n c e
f o r him , he would c e r t a i n l y be hard to s t o p . But
n o t f o r s t a t i s t i c a l r e a s o n s , though t h a t i s n e a r ly
h a l f th e t o t a l r e q u ir e d . He would be hard to sto p
f o r p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e a s o n s , b eca u se o f the bandwagon
atm osphere the a ch iev em en t o f t h a t many p le d g e s and
q u a s i- p le d g e s would have b u i l t u p . I t i s prob ab ly
tr u e t h a t in d iv i d u a l d e le g a t e s a r e more in d e p e n d e n t
than th e y u se d to b e , b u t a l l o f them s t i l l want to
be w ith the w inn er and w ith him e a r l y .2 3 0
The Formal O p eration s o f th e N a tio n a l C on v en tion s
By th e tim e th e f i r s t n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n s made
t h e ir appearance in the p o l i t i c a l scen e i n the 1830* s ,
c o n v e n tio n p roced ure had become g e n e r a lly e s t a b l i s h e d i n
^ ^ ^ S ev a reid , C an d id ates I 9 6 0 , p . l6 *
23 ° I b i d .
200
TABLE I I
DAILY TALLIES OF DELEGATE COMMITTMENTS AT THE
I960 DEMOCRATIC NATIONAL CONVENTION
J u ly l l a J u ly 12b J u ly 13° F i r s t B a llo t^
F in a l T a lly
S e n a to r Kennedy 620 1 /2 688 1 /2
71+3
806
S en a to r Johnson
273
3 O il. 1 /2
33£ 1+09
S en a to r Sym ington
83
1 /2 90
97
86
S en a to r Humphrey
63
1 /2
51
l / 2 e —
S te v en so n
ko
I 4 I 1 /2
73 79
1 /2
O thers
175
1 /2
17ll
1 /2
131
1 /2 1I 4.0 1 /2
Uncommitted 265 170 1 /2
11+1
1 /2 —
aLos A n geles T im es, J u ly 1 1 , i 9 6 0 , p . 1 .
f Los A n geles Tim es, July
1 2,
1 9 8 0 , p . 1 *
'Los A n geles Tim es, Ju ly
o " \
I — 1
I 9 6 0 , p. 1 .
dW hite, The Making o f th e P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , p . 2 0 3 ,
e S en a to r Humphrey r e le a s e d h i s d e l e g a t e s .
201
the S t a te c o n v e n tio n s and was adopted o u t r ig h t fo r th e
n a t io n a l g a t h e r in g s . T his procedure h as changed l i t t l e
throughout the y e a r s . Stanwood in 1912 r e fe r r e d to the
order o f procedure o f a l l c o n v e n tio n s as b e in g n e a r ly
231
a l i k e . S in c e th a t tim e th e re have been r e l a t i v e l y
few ch a n g es.
P rio r Arrangements
The N a tio n a l Committee g iv e s th e c a l l o f the con ven
t io n a t l e a s t fo u r months b e fo r e the convening o f the con
v e n t io n s . The d a te i s one o f the f i r s t d e c is io n s and the
p r a c tic e has been f o r the c o n v e n tio n s to m eet a week a p a rt
In the months o f June or J u ly .
From 1888 to 195>2 the R ep u b lican s alw ays h e ld t h e i r
c o n v e n tio n f i r s t . In 1956 they u p s e t t r a d i t io n by
d e c id in g to meet in A ugust, in order to reduce the
tim e o f the p o s t-c o n v e n tio n campaign and f o r the
f i r s t tim e in s i x t y - e i g h t y e a r s to m eet a f t e r the
Dem ocrats I n s te a d o f b e f o r e .232
In i 960 th e Democrats met J u ly 11, and the R epu blican s
on Ju ly 2 £ .
The c h o ic e o f the c i t y i s the n e x t d e c i s i o n , and the
problem s are so many and the r eq u irem en ts so c ircu m scrib ed
th a t a s p e c i a l s i t e com m ittee was e s t a b lis h e d by the
^■^Stanwood, A H is to r y o f th e Pre sid e n c y from 1789
to 1 8 9 7 . p . 17^ .
^■^G-oodman, The Two-Party System in the United
States, pp. I86-I87.
202
N a tio n a l C om m ittee. The H a rrisb u rg C on ven tion in 1839 o f
th e Whig P a rty had th e n o ta b le d i s t i n c t i o n o f b e in g th e
o n ly c o n v e n tio n ev er h e ld in a ch u rch . There was no h a l l
i n th e c i t y la r g e enough f o r the 2 5 0 d e l e g a t e s and f r ie n d s
to th e c o n v e n tio n .
. . . so th ey h e ld t h e ir s e s s io n s i n th e Z ion L utheran
Church on F ourth S t r e e t , where a c o n g r e g a tio n o f 1 ,2 0 0
members now w o r s h ip s . No o th e r p o l i t i c a l c o n v e n tio n
has e v er been h e ld in a church and, o f c o u r s e , no
o th e r P r e s id e n t has e v er been nom inated In one
[G eneral W illiam Henry H a r r is o n ] .233
A s p e c i a l c o n s id e r a t io n s in c e 1952 has been th e ad ven t o f
t e l e v i s i o n w hich r e q u ir e s a s p e c i a l f a c i l i t y . In 1952 th e
C hicago I n t e r n a t io n a l A m phitheater was s e l e c t e d over the
Stadium b eca u se o f i t s g r e a te r a d a p t a b i l it y to th e new
medium. The R ep u b lican s h e ld t h e i r i 960 c o n v e n tio n i n th e
A m phitheater i n C h ic a g o . The i n c r e a s i n g l y r a p id means o f
tr a n s p o r t a t io n and th e grow ing c la im s o f th e West have
o f f s e t the " c e n tr a l lo c a t io n " as th e s i t e o f th e c o n v e n tio n .
In 1 9 8 0 the Dem ocrats h e ld t h e i r c o n v e n tio n in the S p o r ts
Arena In E x p o s it io n Park i n Los A n g e le s , C a l i f o r n i a . T h is
was th e t h ir d tim e the West C oast had b een chosen a s a
c o n v e n tio n s i t e . The D em ocrats ch ose San F r a n c is c o i n
1 92 0; th e R ep u b lica n s c h o se San F r a n c is c o in 1956; and the
D em ocrats ch ose Los A n g eles in 1 9 6 0 . ^ ^
^33stoddard, Presidential Sweepstakes. p. IjJ.
^3^Goodman, The Two-Party System in the United
States, p. 187.
203
The R e s o lu t io n s Com m ittees had b een w orking on th e
p la tfo r m s f o r many m onths; th e Arrangem ents C om m ittees had
b een w orking ou t the m in u tia e o f d e t a i l s n e c e s s a r y f o r the
p h y s ic a l c o n d it io n s f o r the c o n v e n tio n s to be i n ru n n in g
o r d e r — even to the a ssig n m e n ts o f h o t e l sp ace f o r S t a t e
d e l e g a t i o n s and the a ssig n m e n ts o f the s e a t i n g o f d e l e g a t e s
and a l t e r n a t e s i n th e c o n v e n tio n h a l l ; th e Committee on
Permanent O r g a n iz a tio n had s e l e c t e d i t s s l a t e o f o f f i c e r s
to recommend; th e N a tio n a l Com m ittees had t e n t a t i v e l y ap
proved the r o l l s o f d e l e g a t e s which would be in e f f e c t
u n t i l th e C r e d e n t ia ls Com m ittees would m e e t; and on and on
through the p r e -c o n v e n tio n d e t a i l s *
S e s s io n s o f th e C on ven tion
The s e s s i o n s o f the n a t io n a l n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n s
are a r h e t o r i c i a n ' s dream or n ig h tm a re, depend ing on th e
p o in t o f v iew ; sp eech -m aking i n one form or o t h e r , by
someone or o th e r , p red om in ates th rou gh ou t the s e s s i o n s ,
in t e r s p e r s e d w ith th e r e g u la r b u s in e s s fo r w hich th e co n
v e n t io n h as m et* Goodman s a id t h a t "a n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n
i s the supreme a u t h o r it y o f a p o l i t i c a l p a r ty .
a t the c o n v e n tio n t h a t th e d e l e g a t e s can make r u l e s g o v e r n
in g a l l a s p e c t s o f th e p a r t y ' s n a t io n a l o r g a n iz a tio n ; and
233
Goodman, The Two-Party System in the United
States, p. 181^*
20l\.
can s e t , by t h e i r n o m in a tio n , th e te n o r o f th e p a r ty s p i r i t
f o r the n e x t fo u r y e a r s .
The s e s s i o n s o f a c o n v e n tio n f o l l o w a f a i r l y e s
t a b lis h e d p a t t e r n . The f i r s t s e s s i o n i s u s u a l l y d ev o ted
m a in ly to th e k ey n o te sp eech which i s , as i t s name su g g ests,
to s t r i k e th e k e y n o te f o r th e c o n v e n tio n .
The g e n e r a l id e a i s to c la im e v er y v i r t u e f o r h i s
p a r ty and a l l e g e e v e r y v i c e fo r th e o th e r p a r ty ; to
parade e v e r y p a s t P r e s id e n t or prom inent le a d e r o f
h is. p a r ty a s a s a i n t i n s p i r i t and a f e a r l e s s w a rrio r
i n a c t io n ; and to denounce th e contem porary le a d e r s
o f the o p p o s it e p a r ty as the m ost in c o m p e te n t,
d a s t a r d ly , and ob n oxiou s i n d iv i d u a l s i n th e h i s t o r y
o f th e human r a c e . I f th e re i s to be a c o n t e s t f o r
the p r e s i d e n t i a l n o m in a tio n , th e k e y n o te r i s c a r e f u l
to g iv e no in t im a t io n o f h i s p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s ,
r e f e r r i n g to a l l o f th e c a n d id a te s a s an e x t r a o r
d in a ry group o f u p r ig h t A m erican s, any one o f whom
the p a r ty would p rou d ly f o l l o w to i n e v i t a b l e v i c t o r y .
I f i t i s th e c o n v e n tio n o f th e p a r ty w hich a lr e a d y
h o ld s th e W hite House and th e incum bent P r e s id e n t
i s g o in g to be ren o m in a ted , th e k e y n o te r i n v a r ia b ly
t a l k s a g r e a t d e a l about him and h i s many a c c o m p lish
m ents and a t t r i b u t e s .2 3 0
The R u les Committee p r e s e n t s i t s recom m endations d u rin g th e
f i r s t s e s s i o n . The secon d s e s s i o n i s ta k en up w ith Commit
t e e r e p o r t s — the C r e d e n t ia ls Committee and the Permanent
O r g a n iz a tio n C om m ittee. The Platform . Committee or R e s o lu
t i o n s Committee i s u s u a l l y saved u n t i l the t h ir d s e s s io n
a f t e r which th e r e i s a c a l l f o r n o m in a tio n s f o r th e P r e s i
d e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s . The n om in atin g sp e e c h e s f o l lo w
and th en b a l l o t i n g i s s t a r t e d . The b a l l o t i n g i s c a r r ie d
23^Goodman, The Two-Party System in the United
States, p. 20J 4. .
2 0 £
I n to th e fo u r th s e s s i o n i f th e r e i s no tim e to f i n i s h on
the t h ir d d a y . A ru n n in g m ate i s th en ch osen f o r th e
P r e s i d e n t i a l n om in ee. On the f i f t h d a y , the. nom inees f o r
V ic e - P r e s id e n t and P r e s id e n t g iv e t h e ir a c c e p ta n c e
sp e e c h e s . ^ 7
. . . the e x p e r ie n c e i s e x h a u s t in g . Speech f o llo w s
sp eech and words pour f o r t h in p r o fu se q u a n t i t i e s .
C o n v en tio n s are alw ays h e ld i n summer m onths i n
c i t i e s w hich are b oth v ery h o t and v e r y humid, and
the u se o f a i r c o n d it io n in g a l l e v i a t e s b u t d o es n o t
e lim in a t e th e sc o u r g e o f the w e a th e r . Added to t h i s
d is c o m fo r t i s the p h y s ic a l s t r a i n o f s l e e p l e s s n ig h t s
and c o n s ta n t a c t i v i t y , p lu s the e m o tio n a l s t r a i n
under w hich m ost p a r t i c i p a n t s l i v e . I t i s n o t to be
wondered t h a t the d e l e g a t e s when th ey le a v e th e h a l l
f o r the l a s t tim e and b e g in ch eck in g ou t o f t h e i r
h o t e l s , a re t i r e d and e n e r v a te d ; b u t i t i s a l l
w orth the e f f o r t , the e x p e n se , and th e broken h e a r ts
i f th e y can be s e n t home w ith v i s i o n s o f November
m a j o r i t i e s d an cin g i n t h e ir h e a d s .2 3 8
There are e s s e n t i a l arrangem ents and p ro ced u res f o r
a c o n v e n tio n b u t much o f what ta k e s p la c e i s ( 1 ) e x t r a
n e o u s; ( 2 ) d e s ig n e d to consume tim e ; or ( 3 ) has a p o l i t i c a l
j u s t i f i c a t i o n .
F i r s t , the work o f a fo u r th c o m m ittee, t h a t on
p la tfo r m and r e s o l u t i o n s , h as a p la c e c o o r d in a te w ith
th e o th e r th r ee co m m ittees b eca u se o f g e n e r a l a g r e e
m ent th a t th e p a r ty sh ou ld d e c la r e i t s p r i n c i p l e s and
i t s p o s i t i o n s on the i s s u e s o f the d a y . S econ d , the
m ost o b v io u s o c cu rr en ce a t c o n v e n tio n s i s th e e n d le s s
s u c c e s s io n o f sp e e c h e s b e g in n in g w ith th e k ey n o te and
2 3 7 s e e Appendix J and K f o r th e program s e s s i o n s
f o r th e i 960 D em ocratic and R ep u b lican C o n v e n tio n s.
^3®Goodman, The Two-Party System in the United
States , p. 2 li |..
206
ru n n in g to th e tim e o f f i n a l adjou rn m en t. The purpose
o f th e se sp e e c h e s i s to im p ress th e g e n e r a l p u b lic
and to m a in ta in th e e n th u sia sm o f th e d e l e g a t e s ; among
p r o f e s s i o n a l p o l i t i c i a n s , sp e e c h e s are th e supreme
means f o r a p e r so n to b r in g h im s e lf to th e a t t e n t i o n
o f the p a r ty and th e p u b lic and to b u ild h im s e lf up
f o r w hatever o b j e c t i v e s he has i n m ind . I n c i d e n t a l l y ,
sp e e c h e s se r v e th e pu rp ose o f s t im u la t in g p a r ty s p i r i t
and o f f i l l i n g i n th o se p e r io d s o f tim e when no o th e r
b u s in e s s i s read y fo r c o n v e n tio n c o n s id e r a t io n ; th e
a l t e r n a t i v e would be to adjou rn th e c o n v e n tio n f o r a
day or lo n g e r , and no one in v o lv e d i n c o n v e n tio n
o p e r a tio n s would be l i k e l y to fa v o r such a p ro ced u re,
f o r p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e a s o n s . T h ird , a l l o f the r i g i d
p r o to c o l o f s p e e c h e s , d e m o n s tr a tio n s , and n o is e i n c i
d e n t to th e p r e s e n t a t io n o f names o f nom inees I s
p a r t ly th e r e s u l t o f m ee tin g c o m p e titio n and i s
d e sig n e d f o r i t s e f f e c t s upon d e l e g a t e s and as means
o f e m o tio n a l p e r s u a s io n , f i n a l l y , much o f t h i s e x t r a
neou s p roced ure i s h a llo w e d by t r a d i t i o n and I s c a r r ie d
o u t b eca u se I t i s the custom ary th in g to d o.^ 39
V. AN OVERVIEW OP THE i 9 6 0 NATIONAL
POLITICAL CONVENTIONS
The c o n v e n tio n s o f the two m ajor p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s
o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s a re convened e v er y fo u r y e a r s to name
a s l a t e o f the ’’b est" who w i l l win th e coming e l e c t i o n f o r
P r e s id e n t and V ic e -P r e s id e n t o f the U n ite d S t a t e s ; to
p r e s e n t a p la tfo r m which a l l d e l e g a t e s can " l i v e with"
and tak e back home w ith o u t f e a r o f c e n su r e ; to p r e s e n t a
p a r ty image o f s o l i d a r i t y and s tr e n g th to th e n a tio n and
a t th e same tim e p r e s e n t an image o f th e "other" p a r ty as
fu m b lin g , bum bling, and weak; and to s e t th e tone o f th e
^•^Goodman, The Two-Party System in the United
States# p. 186.
207
cam paign and th e p r o m ise s f o r th e n e x t f o u r y e a r s . What
i s in d e e d s e r i o u s b u s i n e s s ta k e s p la c e i n somewhat s t r a n g e
s u r r o u n d in g s , i n an a lm o st c a r n iv a l a tm o sp h ere o f g a i e t y
t h a t i s o f t e n near h y s t e r i a . T here h as b e e n l i t t l e change
i n t h i s a tm o sp h ere s i n c e th e l a t e 1 9 0 0 ' s and th e d e s c r i p
t i o n by O s tr o g o r s k i o f th e c o n v e n tio n o f 1 8 9 6 ^ ^ c o u ld be
d i r e c t l y a p p lie d t o th e c o n v e n t io n s o f 19&0 w ith o n ly th e
a d d i t io n o f m ore ad van ced equip m en t and g r e a t e r numbers to
su p p ly more n o i s e , m ore f u r o r , and more j o y . The c o n v e n
t i o n i s t r u l y a l a r g e f a i r . U n d ern eath th e t r a p p in g s ,
h o w ev e r, e x i s t s th e more s e r i o u s b u s i n e s s o f th e c o n v e n
t i o n , th e m ore o r d e r ly m a ch in ery o f ea ch c a n d i d a t e ' s
s u p p o r t e r s , th e m ore i n t e n s e s t r u g g l e s f o r power by th e
v a r io u s f a c t i o n s .
The A m erican p u b l i c t e l e v i s i t e d i t s t h ir d s e t o f
c o n v e n t io n s i n th e summer o f 1 9 & 0 , and i t had th e b e s t s e a t
i n t h e h o u s e . To th e v ie w in g p u b l i c , th e D e m o cr a tic Conven
t i o n , i n s p i t e o f b e s t i n t e n t i o n s and many i n s t r u c t i o n s to
th e d e l e g a t e s , seem ed th e m ost d i s o r d e r l y w ith " . . • t h e i r
u s u a l l a c k o f m o d esty i n k e e p in g f a c t i o n a l d i s p u t e s f a m ily
a f f a i r s and e x h i b i t e d a g r e a t amount o f d is a g r e e m e n t on th e
^ ° 0 s t r o g o r s k i , Dem ocracy and th e O r g a n iz a tio n
o f P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s , ppV
208
c o n v e n tio n f l o o r and r o s t r u m . T h e R e p u b lic a n Conven
t i o n was " stre a m lin e d " to p le a s e th e p u b lic by a N a tio n a l
Com m ittee who changed many p l a n s — " f l u f f " and s id e show
a s p e c t s — q u ic k ly "• • • b e c a u se o f a storm o f p r o t e s t from
w a tc h e r s o f th e D em o cra tic C o n v en tio n i n Los A n g e le s * " ^ ^
The R e p u b lic a n s, more aware o f th e o m n is c ie n t r a d io and
t e l e v i s i o n m ed ia, p r e s e n te d a p a r ty Image o f s o l i d a r i t y and
u n i t y o f purpose by c a r e f u l l y b r i e f i n g each sp ea k er ahead
o f tim e a s to h i s r o l e i n p r e s e n t in g th e i s s u e s and th e
" p a r t y - l i n e , and by k e e p in g th e i n t e n s e b i t t e r s t r u g
g l e s over th e p la tfo r m o f f th e f l o o r o f th e c o n v e n tio n *
The D em o cra tic C o n v en tio n o f i 960
The 33rd D e m o cra tic C o n v en tio n opened Monday e v e n
i n g , J u ly 1 1 , i 9 6 0 , in th e b lu e and s i l v e r , a ir - c o n d it io n e d ,
m u l t i - m i l l i o n d o l l a r b o w l, th e M em orial S p o r ts Arena in
Los A n g e le s , C a lif o r n ia * The Arena was a r e l a t i v e l y new
b u i ld in g h a v in g b e e n d e d ic a t e d J u ly 2 , 19^9 j by R ich ard M.
N ix o n , a n a t iv e so n o f W h i t t i e r , C a l i f o r n i a . I t was e s t i
m ated t h a t the c a s t would in c lu d e ip, ^18 d e l e g a t e s and
^^■Robert C* J e f f r e y , "C on ven tion S p e a k in g , P reface,"
Q u a r te r ly J o u rn a l o f S p e e c h , ip6>;2ij_7, O cto b er , 1950*
2 ^ N e w s ite m i n th e C hicago D a ily T rib u n e. J u ly 2 2 .
I 9 6 0 , P a r t 1 , p . 3 . --------- ----------- -----------------
^•^W indes, "The i 9 6 0 R ep u b lica n C o n v en tio n ," p . 71*
209
a l t e r n a t e s j £ ,£ 0 0 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e mass m ed ia —
new sp ap ers, m a g a zin es, r a d io , and t e l e v i s i o n ; and f r i e n d s ,
r e l a t i v e s , and s i g h t - s e e r s b r in g in g th e grand t o t a l to
[{.5 ,0 0 0 .^ ^ The w eath er was d r y , tem p era tu res were i n th e
mid 8 0 ' s , and th e fam ous Los A n g ele s smog was n o t p r e se n t*
(Smog did n o t appear f o r th e C on ven tion u n t i l J u ly ll{_, and
was r e p o r te d a s "m ild” a lth o u g h th e l o c a l m oun tain s c o u ld
n o t be s e e n . ) ^ £ Los A n g ele s p le d g e d $[{.00,000 to th e
D em ocratic N a tio n a l Committee b u t t h i s f a r from co v ered th e
t o t a l e x p en ses o f the C onvent! o n .
The " c i t y was c lo t h e d in a gay mood f o r th e
s p e c ta c le " and the A n gelen os had b een f l o c k in g a l l day to
the B iltm o re H o te l w ith a l l th e a p p ea ran ces o f m ovie fa n s
eager to g e t a g lim p se o f t h e i r h e r o e s , to appear f o r a
moment th e m se lv e s on t e l e v i s i o n , to d em on strate f o r t h e i r
c a n d id a te s , or a s Gene Sherman pu t i t _ ,?* , » to be brushed
by h i s t o r y . " ^ ? The 15>00 room B iltm o r e H o t e l, the
l a r g e s t h o t e l i n th e W est, was th e h e a d q u a r ter s o f "the
2[4hipr e v ie w c o n v e n tio n s >60," Newsweek, 5>6:25>, J u ly
1 1 , i 9 6 0 . — : ----------
^ ^ N ew s item in th e Los A n g ele s T im es, J u ly 1 5 ,
i 9 6 0 , p . 1 .
^ ^ P r e s i d e n t i a l E l e c t io n Handbook (C h ica go: N a tio n a l
R esearch B u reau, I n c . , I 9 6 0 ) , p . 5*
^^G-ene Sherman, " C ity C lo th ed i n Gay Mood fo r
S p e c t a c le ," Los A n geles T im es, J u ly 1 1 , i 9 6 0 , P a r t 1 , p . 7 .
2 10
D em ocratic N a tio n a l C om m ittee, th e h e a d q u a r te r s o f th e
g r e a t TV n etw o rk s, th e h e a d q u a r ter s o f a l l th e major
c a n d id a te s . • • th e p r e ss bowl and th e rooms o f hundreds
o f c o r r e s p o n d e n ts , o f f i c i a l s and h a n g e r s-o n * u^ ® A cross
th e s t r e e t from th e B iltm o r e was the famous P er sh in g Square,
th e epitom y o f f r e e sp eech i n Am erica where a t any tim e
and fo r any r ea so n any p erso n c o u ld wax e lo q u e n t abou t h i s
f a v o r i t e s u b j e c t . I t seemed a s though many o f th e s e f r e e -
sp eech e n t h u s i a s t s had moved a c r o s s the s t r e e t to the
B iltm o r e , bu t th e y would m eet t h e ir m atch in th e t r a in e d ,
s e a so n e d , sp ea k ers im p orted from o th e r S t a t e s f o r the w eek ’s
a c t i v i t i e s * The crowd in the B iltm o r e moved from b a llro o m
to b a llro o m and i n ea ch , p r e t t y g i r l s i n r e d -w h ite -a n d -
b lu e o f f e r e d sa m p les— Texas t a f f y f o r Lyndon Johnson;
F lo r id a orange j u ic e fo r George Sm athers; P e p si-C o la f o r
Sym ington; c o f f e e and buns f o r John Kennedy; and v o lu n t e e r s
p r e se n te d p e t i t i o n s fo r A d la i S te v e n s o n .
D e le g a t e s found th e m se lv e s s c a t t e r e d i n h o t e l rooms
s t r e t c h i n g over a b e l t o f 35 m ile s o f Los A n g ele s b o u le
v a r d s , som etim es 10 m ile s or more away from c e n t r a l h ea d
q u a r te r s , th e B iltm o r e . T a x is were r e l a t i v e l y sc a r c e
( 1 ,8 0 0 in c o n t r a s t to New Y ork ’ s 1 1 ,7 6 8 ) and c o s t l y ( f a r e
^^®White, The Making of the President I960, p. 181
211
from B e v e r ly H ilt o n to B iltm o r e downtown was $lp*50)
The d e l e g a t e s o f te n foun d th e m se lv e s i s o l a t e d i n t o t h e ir
S t a t e groups and th e p e r s i s t e n t c a j o l e r y o f o th e r d e le g a t e s
and cam paigners was n o t p r e s e n t u n l e s s th ey t r a v e le d to
th e B iltm o r e * 2 -^ In th e s u i t e s u p s t a i r s in the B iltm o r e ,
i n s im ila r s u i t e s and h o t e l rooms s c a t t e r e d a c r o s s Los
A n g e le s , and i n th e A rena, the s e r i o u s b u s in e s s o f the
c o n v e n tio n was ta k in g p la c e *
M eanw hile, the f i n a l to u c h e s were b e in g p u t on th e
Arena by a p p ro x im a te ly 700 t e c h n ic ia n s who had been working
around the c lo c k fo r f i v e weeks c o n v e r tin g the huge show
p ie c e i n t o a p o l i t i c a l arena a t an e s tim a te d c o s t o f
$ 5 0 0 ,OOO. 2 ^1
NBC’ s West C o a st f a c i l i t i e s are b e in g b e e fe d up
by 1 5 to n s o f equipm ent moved c le a r a c r o s s cou n try
from New York* About h a l f o f t h i s em ergency s h ip -
m en t— cam eras, l i g h t s , and power p r o d u c e r s— w i l l l a t e r
have t o be flo w n back to C hicago to m eet th e secon d
c o n v e n tio n d e a d lin e *
Each o f th e n etw ork s w i l l e n ta n g le the c o n v e n tio n
h a l l s w ith enough e l e c t r i c c a b le to keep a sm a ll c i t y
fu n c tio n in g * NBC-TV a lo n e w i l l p u t 2 5 ,0 0 0 f e e t o f
2^9 ',Preview C on ven tion s ’60 ," Newsweek, 5 6 :2 5 ,
J u ly 1 1 , i 9 6 0 .
2 ^ 0ne open cau cu s m ee tin g o f th e Iowa d e l e g a t i o n
a t the B iltm o r e was d e v o te d e n t i r e l y to a d i s c u s s i o n o f
arrangem ents fo r t r a n s p o r t a t io n to and from the Arena*
2 ^ R a y H e b e r t, nB ig Bowl E choes w ith C urtain-T im e
Bedlam," Los A n g eles T im es, J u ly 1 1 , i 9 6 0 , P a r t 1 , p . 7*
camera c a b le and 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 f e e t o f w ire i n t o th e Los
A n g ele s A rena,2 5 2
Im provem ents in t e c h n i c a l equipm ent produced su b seq u en t
im provem ents i n th e p r e s e n t a t io n o f the c o n v e n tio n to the
p u b l i c . The s e n s i t i v i t y o f th e new cameras p e r m ittin g them
to f u n c t io n w e ll w ith o u t so much s p e c i a l l i g h t i n g cu t down -
th e c o n sta n t g la r e i n th e c o n v e n tio n h a l l . A lthough
''w a lk ie - t a lk ie " TV cameras were u sed i n 1 9 5 6 , th e newer
m od els w ith b a t t e r i e s l a s t i n g f i v e or s i x hou rs gave greater
m o b i l i t y , A s p e c t a t o r i n the g a l l e r y , from KVFD i n
P o r t D odge, Iow a, commented, "The ' c r e e p i e - p e e p i e s 1 on th e
f l o o r a re as d i s t r a c t i n g a s a f i s t f i g h t a t a f o o t b a l l
game
The c o s t o f t e l e c a s t i n g and b r o a d c a s tin g the con ven
t io n s ran In to e ig h t e e n m i l l i o n d o l l a r s or m o r e .^ ^
A ll th r ee b r o a d c a s tin g c h a in s are sp en d in g h e a v ily
on men and equip m en t, i n a d d it io n to s a c r i f i c i n g
reven u e from 20 to 30 h ou rs o f r e g u la r program s, to
b u ild an im p r e ssio n o f p u b lic s e r v i c e t h a t w i l l win
and h o ld n o t o n ly a u d ie n c e s b u t a l s o ( h o p e f u lly )
sp o n so rs* A lthou gh CBS, f i r s t netw ork to announce
f u l l s p o n s o r s h ip , presum ably charged what i t f e l t th e
t r a f f i c would b e a r , t h i s fa v o r a b ly s i t u a t e d b road
c a s t e r may recou p o n ly tw o -th ir d s o f i t s e x p e n se s
F r e d e r i c k H. G uidry, "TV i s L e a r n in g ,” Your
C on ven tion Guide (B o sto n : The C h r is t ia n S c ie n c e M on itor,
F r id a y , J u ly 1 , i 9 6 0 ) , p . 8 .
^ ^ I b id ., p , 8 .
25L
"^"Reported In person to this writer at the con
vention,
2
^ Presidential Election Handbook, p. 5*
213
and l o s t Incom e, so a m b itio u s i s i t s plan ned
c o v e r a g e *256
In an e f f o r t to red u ce c o s t s , th e t e l e v i s i o n co v era g e o f
the f l o o r s e s s i o n s was h an d led on a "pool" b a s i s by th e
netw orks* The v id e o - p o o l co v era g e i n Los A n g ele s was
h an d led by ABC; the v id e o - p o o l cov erage i n C h ica g o , by
NBC; and the t e l e v i s i o n and r a d io aud io p o o l co v era g e a t
2 <7
b o th c o n v e n tio n s , by CBS. ^ In t h i s m anner, th e v i s u a l
a s p e c t s o f th e c o n v e n tio n s w ere h an d led by ABC and NBC
and the sound a s p e c t s b y CBS* Each netw ork c o n tin u e d to
u se i t s own men as anchormen and com m en tators*^ ®
The s e a t i n g , a lth o u g h a lr e a d y t h e r e , p r e se n te d
dilem m as to th e workmen. In s p i t e o f th e c lo s e d c i r c u i t
t e l e v i s i o n sy stem , u n o b s tr u c te d v iew s o f the rostrum were
2 dQ
the w ish e s o f many o f the d e l e g a t e s . T h is was not
alw ays p o s s i b l e w ith th e r e s u l t th a t tw enty o f the New
York grou p , t h e ir v ie w b lo c k e d by a tw e lv e f o o t h ig h s t e e l
p la tfo r m u sed a s a camera tow er, saw th e c o n v e n tio n o n ly
v ia c lo s e d c i r c u i t t e l e v i s i o n . M aryland, f r o n t row c e n t e r ,
^ ® G u id r y , "TV i s L earn in g," p . 8 .
297
News item i n th e C hicago D a ily T rib u n e, Ju ly 2 3 ,
i 9 6 0 , P a rt 1 , p . 7 .
^ ^ N ew s item in th e C hicago D a ily T r ib u n e , Ju ly 2 6 ,
i 9 6 0 , S p o r ts -B u s in e s s S e c t i o n , p . 9«
^ ^ H e b e r t , "Big Bowl E choes w ith C u rtain-T im e Bed
lam ," P a rt 1 , p . 2 .
21k
was so c lo s e th a t th e view o f th e rostru m and th e g ia n t
t e l e v i s i o n sc re en ( s i x t e e n b y tw enty f e e t ) was b lo ck ed
by th e s t r u c t u r e . The view s e lse w h e r e were b e a u t i f u l #^60
The rostru m , d e sig n e d by T elep rom p ter1s H. J .
S c h l a f l y , J r . and I r v in g Kahn, had an au tom atic d e v ic e , an
e le v a to r p la tfo r m , which r a i s e d each sp e a k e r ’ s head to a
u n i f o m h e ig h t o f 11 f e e t , J p in c h e s above the f l o o r ; th r ee
prom pting m achines so the sp eak ers co u ld read t h e ir speeches
f a c in g th ree d i r e c t i o n s ; a h a n d - r a il to ste a d y th e speakers;
two c lo c k s which gave th e sp ea k ers E a st C oast and West
C oast tim e; and an a i r c o n d it io n in g o u t l e t which c o o le d a
sp e a k e r ’ s fa c e and h a n d s.
An o v e r -v ie w o f the c o n v e n tio n h a l l w hich g iv e s a
g e n e r a l im p ressio n o f the s e t t i n g can be found in I l l u s
t r a t i o n 1 .
What the s p e c ta t o r s never saw, bu t one o f the m ost
im p ortan t p a r ts o f th e c o n s t r u c tio n g o in g on, was the area
c o n s tr u c te d under the g a l l e r y s e a t s fo r the working p r e s s ,
r a d io , and t e l e v i s i o n . Because o f th e c i t y ’ s s t r i c t b u i l d
in g c o d e s , th e se f a c i l i t i e s were put up to l a s t as lo n g
as th e a ren a , even though th ey would be to rn down soon
2 ^°News item in the New York T im es, J u ly 1 2 , 19&0,
p . 2 0 .
^^Hebert, "Big Bowl Echoes with Curtain-Time Bed
lam," Part 1, p. 2.
2 1 5
ILLUSTRATION 1
"Big Show i s on—H e r e 's a View Dem ocrats Won't G et,,a
(Photograph by R obert C. C lev ela n d taken w ith a
l,f i s h e y e ,t le n s and camera suspended from th e c e i l i n g o f the
Los A n geles Memorial S p o rts Arena du rin g a s e s s io n o f the
i 960 D em ocratic N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C onvention*)
a ,
Appeared in the Los A n g eles T im es. Ju ly 1 2 , i 9 6 0 ,
Part 1, p. B.

217
2 ^2
a f t e r th e l a s t speaker l e f t the rostrum o
Another area which p la y ed an im portant p a r t in the
p r o c e e d in g s was " H ein sch 's F o r t r e s s # ’' "This i s a combina
t i o n p la tfo r m , h o u sin g p r o j e c t h e a d q u a r te r s, House o f
Magic and dungeon-keep c o n str u c te d by the c o n v e n tio n manag
er r ig h t smack in the c en te r o f th e C oliseum s id e o f the
2£o
S p o rts A r en a ,” w rote B i l l H enry. The p a r t seen by the
s p e c ta t o r s c o n ta in e d the p la tfo r m , rostru m , and g o ld e n
s t a ir c a s e # Behind th e f r o n t i s p i e c e was a two s to r y s t r u c
tu re c o n ta in in g th e o f f i c e and c o n fer en ce room o f n a tio n a l
chairm an, Paul B u tle r ; p r iv a t e o f f i c e s ; a tele p h o n e
sw itch b oard through which ev ery in d iv id u a l d e le g a t io n on
the f l o o r co u ld r ea ch any o th e r d e le g a t io n ; and s e v e r a l
caucus rooms#
The s e a t in g c a p a c ity f o r the Memorial S p o rts Arena
was 22,lj.00# I t was d i f f i c u l t f o r the p u b lic to o b ta in
t i c k e t s , b u t once the co n v en tio n s t a r t e d , thousands o f
s e a t s went unused# The c o n v e n tio n o f t e n p layed to sp arse
26Ij.
g a l l e r i e s # The view on the t e l e v i s i o n s e t a t home was
f a r su p e r io r in many ways to the view or to what co u ld be
2 ^2H eb ert, "Big Bowl Echoes w ith Cur tain -T im e Bed
lam," P art 1 , p , 2#
263
B i l l H enry, "By th e Way," Los A n geles T im es,
Ju ly 1 2 , I9 6 0 , P art 3 , p. 1#
2 ^ N ew s item in the Los A n geles T im es, Ju ly 13,
i 9 6 0 , P art 1 , p . 7 *
218
heard i n th e c o n v e n tio n b o w l. Governor LeRoy C o l l i n s ,
perm anent Chairman, seemed to be t a lk in g p a s s i o n a t e l y but
f r u i t l e s s l y to a m i l l i n g th r o n g . The f l o o r was crowded—
r e p o r t e r s weaved t h e i r way around p e r s p ir in g d e l e g a t e s who
were s i t t i n g , s ta n d in g , w a lk in g , or p u sh in g through th e
a i s l e s which were crowded w ith b a n n e rs, s i g n s , b a l l o o n s ,
and s tr e a m e r s . I t was d i f f i c u l t to p ic k o u t the sp ea k er
on th e f l o o r o f the Arena from the g a l l e r i e s . I t was
e q u a lly d i f f i c u l t to hear h im .
As M alcolm S i l l a r s o b s e r v e d , the " • • • e l e c t r o n i c
m ir a c le s o f i 960 co u ld n o t p r o t e c t th e D em ocrats from
t h e i r t r a d i t i o n o f s t a g in g w ild c o n v e n t i o n s A i r .
c o n d it io n in g f a i l e d , and a c o u s t i c s were p o o r . The m a g ic a l
rostru m w ith a l l i t s g a d g e ts c o u ld n o t combat th e a g e - o ld
h a b i t s o f sp ea k er s who when lo o k in g d i r e c t l y a t th e audience
p r o j e c t e d neck and jaw on th e b ig sc r e e n o v erh ea d , or when
lo o k in g a t th e te le p r o m p te r , p r o j e c t e d the top o f th e head
on th e t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n back home.
To m i l l i o n s o f t e l e v i s i o n v ie w e r s i t [the C o n v en tio n ]
appeared d is o r d e r ly from b e g in n in g to e n d . The problem
was n o t th e em otion t h a t d is r u p t e d th e D em ocratic
c o n v e n tio n o f 1 9 1 2 , or d e e p -r o o te d d e v i s i v e i s s u e s such
a s s p l i t th e 192lf Sm ith -Me Ado o f o l l o w e r s . I t was
sim p ly i n a t t e n t i o n , due i n p a r t to poor a c o u s t i c s .
M a lc o lm 0 . S i l l a r s , "The D em ocratic C on ven tion o f
1 9 6 0 , ” from " P r e s i d e n t i a l Campaign i 9 6 0 : A Symposium,"
P aul H. B o a se , e d . (O b e r lin , O hio: O b e r lin C o lle g e , Feb
r u a r y , 1 9 6 1 ) , p .
266Ibid.. p. 5.
219
The d e l e g a t e s m i ll e d around, c o n f e r r in g w ith one
a n o th e r , g i v in g in t e r v i e w s , d o in g a n y th in g b u t p a y in g
a t t e n t i o n to the sp e a k e r s on th e p la tfo r m .
I t was bad manners and in v iew o f the f a c t th a t
m i l l i o n s were w atch in g i t was bad p o l i t i c s . But i t
was n o t q u i t e th e chaos t h a t met th e e y e . D e c is io n s
were b e in g made on the f l o o r where r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f
th e c a n d id a te s were fir m in g up t h e i r d e l e g a t e s ,
r a id in g t h o s e o f t h e i r o p p o n e n ts, w orking on th e u n
com m itted . D is c u s s io n s betw een d e l e g a t e s were n o t
alw a y s i d l e . They were t r y in g to make up t h e ir
m in d s .2 °7
By the tim e the t h ir d s e s s i o n o f the c o n v e n tio n had
a r r iv e d , the s e s s i o n in which th e p la c in g o f names in
n om in ation would o c c u r , the k e y n o te sp eech had b een g iv e n
by S e n a to r Prank Church o f Id aho, th e com m ittee r e p o r t s
and recom m endations had b een r e c e i v e d and a c te d upon, and
on th e f l o o r th e d e l e g a t e s and d e l e g a t i o n s had b een r e
s o lv in g t h e ir p e r p l e x i t y and making t h e i r d e c i s i o n s as to
the man f o r whom they would v o t e .
The R ep u b lica n C on ven tion o f i 960
The 2 7 th R ep u b lica n C on ven tion convened Monday,
Ju ly 2 5 , I9 6 0 , i n one o f the w o r ld 1s l a r g e s t p r iv a t e i n
door a r e n a s , th e I n t e r n a t io n a l A m p hitheatre in th e S to c k
yard s a rea o f th e South S id e o f C h ica g o , I l l i n o i s . T his
was th e c i t y ' s tw e n ty - th ir d n a t io n a l n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n ;
the fo u r te e n t h i n C hicago f o r th e R e p u b lic a n s .
^ 7 Judah and Smith, The Unchosen, p. 328.
220
I f c o n v e n tio n s e p ito m iz e the m ythology and
le g e n d ry o f American n a t io n a l p o l i t i c s , th en C hicago
e p ito m iz e s the c o n v e n tio n c i t y . For one hundred
y e a r s , e v er s in c e th e nom in ation o f Abraham L in c o ln
a t the Wigwam, i t has been the f a v o r i t e c i t y o f
p o l i t i c a l c o n v e n tio n -g o e r s . Counting n o tc h e s fo r
fo u r te e n R ep u b lican and n in e D em ocratic n a t io n a l
c o n v e n tio n s in th e l a s t t w e n ty - fiv e q u a d r e n n ia ls,
Chicago can b o a s t t h a t h ere were f i r s t named a l l the
f o llo w in g P r e s id e n ts o f the U n ited S t a t e s : L in c o ln ,
G rant, G a r f ie ld , C le v ela n d , H a rr iso n , Theodore
R o o s e v e lt, H ard in g, C o o lid g e , F r a n k lin D, R o o s e v e lt,
Truman, and E isen h ow er.2 68
Between 2 3 ,0 0 0 and 3 0 ,0 0 0 p o l i t i c i a n s , newsmen, and
v i s i t o r s were e x p e cted fo r th e c o n v e n t!o n -- 1 ,3 3 1 d e l e g a t e s ;
1 ,3 3 1 a l t e r n a t e s ; about 1 ,3 0 0 co n v en tio n and p a rty o f f i
c i a l s ; £ ,0 0 0 newsmen and 2 ,8 0 0 s p e c ta t o r s . ^ 9
t h ir d time in i 960 the h e a t so ared above the 90 d egree
mark to 93 d e g r e e s w ith 7 per c e n t h u m id ity ,^70 C hicago
p led g ed $ 3 3 0 ,0 0 0 to th e R epu blican s fo r the C on v en t!on .^7^
The Chicago C onvention Bureau e stim a te d th a t th e R e p u b li
can N a tio n a l C on ven tion brought four to f i v e m i l l i o n
d o l l a r s worth o f b u s in e s s to C h icago.
The c i t y had been busy g e t t in g ” s lic k e d up” f o r
o Q
W hite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t I 9 6 0 , p . 2 2 £ .
item in the. New York Tim es, Ju ly 2I 4 ., i 9 6 0 ,
p . E £.
^ °N e w s item in the C hicago D a ily T rib u n e, J u ly 2 6 ,
i 9 6 0 , P art 1 , p . 1 0 ,
^ • ^ P r e s id e n t ia l E le c t io n Handbook, p . 3«
272
News item in the Los A n geles T im es, J u ly 2 9 ,
I 9 6 0 , p . A.
221
th e c o n v e n t io n . A l l s t r e e t s from th e Loop to the Amphi
t h e a t r e had b een in s p e c t e d and c le a n e d and o r d e r s had been
g iv e n f o r them to be c le a n e d t w ic e a day d u r in g th e co n v en
t i o n . No u t i l i t y com panies c o u ld open any h o l e s in th e
s t r e e t a lo n g th e c o n v e n tio n r o u t e w ith o u t s p e c i a l p e r m is
s i o n . B u s in e s s e s t a b lis h m e n t s on th e r o u te from th e Loop
to the A m p hitheatre w ere ask ed to d e c o r a t e t h e ir e s t a b l i s h
m e n ts. The 14.5600 ca b s in C hicago were t o l d to be c le a n
271
and to keep c l e a n . The p o lic e m e n w orking th e r o u t e and
w orking a t th e c o n v e n tio n s i t e were t o l d to s ta y o u t o f
p o l i t i c s , and were warned to have s h o e s , h a t em blem s, and
27 II
s t a r s sh in e d f o r d a i l y in s p e c t i o n * The d e l e g a t e s were
a ss u r e d o f a r o u n d - t h e - c lo c k d e n t a l c a r e by th e C h icago
D e n ta l S o c i e t y w orking i n c o n j u n c t io n w ith th e C o lle g e o f
D e n t i s t r y a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s . 2 "^
W hereas th e "broad sweep o f sid e w a lk b e f o r e th e
l a k e - f r o n t h o t e ls " was " s a f e f o r s t r o l l i n g " on Thursday b e
f o r e th e C o n v e n tio n ,2 ^ by F r id a y the e le p h a n ts had a rriv ed ,
2 ^ E d w ard S c h r e ib e r , " C ity G e t t in g ' S l i c k e d Up1 f o r
G. 0 . P . P a r le y ," C h icago D a ily T r ib u n e . J u ly 2 1 , i 9 6 0 ,
p. 1 .
2 ^ N e w s item i n th e C hicago D a ily T rib u n e, J u ly 2 2 .
I 9 6 0 , P a r t 1 , p . 3 . ----------------
2 ^ I b i d . , p . 2 .
^ ^ N e w s item i n th e New York T im es, J u ly 2 2 , i 9 6 0 ,
S e c t io n I , p . 3*
f o llo w e d by a h i l l b i l l y band and tw enty m odels i n b a th in g
s u i t s j i t te r b u ggin g on Wacker D rive .^77 The c o n v e n tio n was
’’k ic k e d o f f ” on Sunday w ith a parade o f d an cin g g i r l s ,
grandm others i n b la c k t i g h t s , ban ds, a c r o b a ts , e le p h a n t s ,
com ed ian s. J u s t as i n Los A n g eles where th e r e l i g i o u s
c u l t i s t s w a y la id the d e le g a t e s and p r e sse d them w ith l i t e r
a tu r e , i n C hicago o u t s id e th e p a r ty h e a d q u a r te r s, the Con
rad H il t o n H o t e l, a man i d e n t i f y i n g h im s e lf a s " E li, a
se r v a n t o f the Lord," was busy warning th e R ep u b lica n s o f
ap p roach in g c a ta c ly s m .^78 Thus the c o n v e n tio n c i t y f r a n
t i c a l l y prep ared i t s e l f f o r what M cCandlish P h i l l i p s
c a ll e d ”. .. a sc h iz o p h r e n ic c o n v e n tio n , to r n betw een th e
d i g n it y o f w hich the p la n n e r s b o a s t and th e hokum t h a t i s
lu r k in g in th e w i n g s .,,279 "But," s a id W hite, "th e r e a l
C o n v en tio n , th e d e c id in g C on ven tion , had a lr e a d y m et and
a l l b u t co n clu d ed i t s work b e fo r e the g a v e l pounded and
pO A
c a ll e d th e p u b lic C on ven tion to o r d e r .” W hile the c i t y
w atched th e parade a lo n g M ichigan Avenue, th e P latfo rm
^"^McCandlish P h i l l i p s , "N otes from C on ven tion
Land," New York T im es, J u ly 2 3 , i 9 6 0 , p . L8 .
^ ® R u s s e l l B aker, "G. 0 . P . 'K ick s O ff' w ith Parade
o f E lep h a n ts and D ancing G ir ls ," New York T im es, J u ly 2 £ ,
I 9 6 0 , p . L15.
279
P h i l l i p s , "N otes from C on ven tion Land," p . L8 .
2®°White, The Making of the President i960, p. 22£.
2 2 3
Committee su lk e d a t th e S h e r a to n -B la c k sto n e H o t e l 2 ® 1
remem bering th e b low o f the F i f t h Avenue T rea ty which
b eg a n , "The V ice P r e s id e n t and I m et today a t my home i n
New York C i t y . The m ee tin g to o k p la c e a t th e V ice P r e s i -
2 82
d e n t ' s r e q u e s t* * • •" The parade sy m b o lized the mood
o f the p a r ty and o f th e c i t y , b u t W hite saw th e R ep u b lica n
d e l e g a t e s as "subdued and e a r n e s t men and women" who had
come to r a t i f y a c a n d id a te , n o t to ch oose one
A c t i v i t y in th e A m phitheatre on Sunday was as
f r e n z ie d as o u t s id e * With a tem p eratu re i n s id e above 100
d e g r e e s (th e management would n o t tu rn on th e a i r - c o n d i
t i o n i n g ) , the o r a to r s r e h e a r s e d t h e i r sp e e c h e s in th e empty
h a l l * 2 ® ^ - C a rp en ters swarmed through the b u ild in g ,
"• . . n a i l i n g e v e r y th in g i n p la c e w ith hammer blow s t h a t
285
c r a c k le d and r e v e r b e r a te d . . . " ^ The same problem s o f
s e a t in g and v i s i o n which e x i s t e d a t th e D em ocratic Conven
t i o n were p r e s e n t a t th e R ep u b lica n C o n v e n tio n .
2 8l B aker, "G. 0 . P, 'K ic k s O f f w ith Parade o f
E le p h a n ts and D ancing G i r l s ," p . Ll5*
2 ® 2 News item in the C hicago D a ily T rib u n e. J u ly 2lt.
I 9 6 0 , P art 1 , p . 2 . B -----------------------------
2 ®®White, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , pp .
227-2 28.
2 ®^W illard Edwards, "Words F l a i l 1 2 ,0 0 0 Empty S e a ts
i n H a ll," C hicago D a ily T rib u n e. J u ly 2 5 , i 9 6 0 , p . 1*
2®^News item in the New York Times. July 2 [ ( _ , i960,
p. Ll}.0.
221} .
A pproxim ately 120 d e le g a t e s found t h e ir v iew b lo c k e d by
the g r e a t s t e e l s t r u c tu r e f o r p h o to g ra p h e rs, b u t th e y co u ld
see th e two la r g e c lo s e d c i r c u i t t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n s on the
West w a ll o f the A m phitheatre* More than 300 o ccu p a n ts i n
the p u b lic s e a t s a t th e r ea r o f the main f l o o r cou ld n o t
see even v ia t e l e v i s i o n b eca u se o f th e overh anging b a l
cony .2 8 6 Behind the rostru m was a scrim ("a b lu e sc r e e n
as t h in as a s i l k sto c k in g " ) which h id the W hite House
o f f i c i a l s or g u e s ts o f s p e c i a l n o te who wanted to s i t and
v iew the c o n v e n tio n w ith o u t b e in g s e e n . ^ ^ Twenty s im u l
tan eou s t e l e c a s t s co u ld be made from TV s t u d io s on th e
m ezzanine in a d d itio n to th o s e tr a n s m is s io n s l i v e from
the f lo o r * The work rooms f o r p r e s s were a d jo in in g the
c e n te r s e c t i o n and the 2 ,0 0 0 newspapermen c o u ld send out
thou san ds o f words daily*^®®
The f i r s t s e s s io n s o f the c o n v e n tio n were w e ll
a t t e n d e d . The a c o u s t i c s were e x c e l l e n t , u n lik e in
Los A n g e le s .^90 f]_oor 0f ^he h a l l was crow ded.
^ ^ E d w ard s, "Words F l a i l 1 2 ,0 0 0 Empty S e a ts in
H a ll," p . 2 .
^^^News item in th e New York T im es, J u ly 2 6 , i 9 6 0 ,
p . L 18.
^ ^ E d w ard s, "Words F l a i l 1 2 ,0 0 0 Empty S e a ts in
H a ll," p . 2 .
2®9uews item in the Chicago D a ily T rib u n e, Ju ly 2 6 ,
i 9 6 0 , P art 1 , p . 2*
^9^viTindes, "The i960 Republican Convention," p. 75*
225
Whereas some o f the a i s l e s a t th e D em ocratic C onvention
h a l l were te n f e e t w ide, th o se a t th e A m phitheatre were
o n ly fo u r f e e t wide and th e r e was a space o f j u s t s i x f e e t
betw een the rostrum and the f i r s t row o f d e l e g a t e s 1 s e a t s * ^
A view o f th e c o n v e n tio n in s e s s io n a t the A m phitheatre as
seen from the r e a r o f the h a l l lo o k in g toward the podium
can be found in I l l u s t r a t i o n 2*
The TV coverage f o r the f l o o r s e s s io n s was handled
on a '‘pool" b a s is by the n etw o rk s, the same as in Los
A n g eles* The t e l e v i s i o n coverage f o r the R epublican
C onvention had a f a m ilia r lo o k and was l i t t l e changed from
292
th a t o f the coverage fo r the D em ocratic Convention* x
The mood and manners were d i f f e r e n t though, " . • • l e s s
d iv e r s io n a r y te n d e n c ie s . * . l e s s h o o p la and n o n se n s e ."^93
The s ig n s on the m archers o u t s id e the A m phitheatre were n ot
f o r any ca n d id a te bu t had to do w ith the proposed p latform *
llJim Crow Must Go” and s im ila r p h ra ses a d v o ca tin g a stro n g
c i v i l r i g h t s plank were the s u b j e c t s which p r o p e lle d the
^^ N ew s item in the New York Tim es, J u ly 2 5 , I9 6 0 ,
p . L l 6 .
292
News item in th e C hicago D a ily T rib u n e, J u ly 2 6 ,
i 9 6 0 , S p o r ts -B u s in e s s S e c t io n , p . 9*
p q - >
7^News item in the Los A n geles Tim es, J u ly 2 8 ,
i 9 6 0 , P art 1 , p. 7 .
226
ILLUSTRATION 2
" R ep u b lican s Go W ild in N o isy D em o n stration f o r Nixon,,a
(G en eral view from th e r e a r o f the c o n v e n tio n h a l l
o f th e i 960 R ep u b lica n N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C on ven tion a t the
I n t e r n a t io n a l A m p h ith eatre, C h ica g o , I l l i n o i s . )
aAppeared i n the Los A n g e le s T im es. J u ly 2 8 , i 9 6 0 ,
P a rt 1 , p . B . (World Wide P h o to •)

228
ap p roxim ately 5>,000 d em on strators around the A m phitheatre
on Monday n ig h t
By the tim e the fo u r th s e s s io n o f the c o n v e n tio n
had a r r iv e d and the r o l l c a l l fo r p la c in g names in nomina
t io n f o r P r e sid e n t was on the agenda, R e p r e s e n ta tiv e
W alter H. Judd o f M innesota had g iv e n the k e y n o te sp ee ch ,
the com m ittees had g iv e n t h e ir r e p o r ts and recom m endations
which had been a c te d upon by the c o n v e n tio n (in c lu d in g
the a ccep ta n ce o f the "Manhattan Pact" o f R o c k e f e lle r and
Nixon) and th e " sch izo p h ren ic" c o n v e n tio n was p r e s e n tin g
an image o f s o l i d a r i t y and purpose to the v iew in g n a t io n .
^^"News item in the C hicago D a ily T rib u n e, J u ly 2 6 ,
i 9 6 0 , p . 1 *
C H A P T E R I V
THE NOMINATING SPEAKERS AND THE NOMINEES AT THE
I9 6 0 NATIONAL POLITICAL CONVENTIONS
T his c h a p te r c e n t e r s around tw en ty-tw o men— t h e ir
b ack grou n d s, p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and r e a c t io n s to th e
f o r c e s which were brough t to bear on them in t h e i r ’’moments
o f d e c i s i o n ”^ d u rin g th e h e c t i c days o f th e n a t io n a l p o l i t
i c a l c o n v e n tio n s o f 1 9 6 0 , Some o f th e s e f o r c e s were d e s
c r ib e d i n th e p r e c e d in g c h a p te r . Even str o n g e r f o r c e s
were e x e r te d b y th e c o n s t a n t ly s h i f t i n g a t t i t u d e s o f the
e l e c t o r a t e ,
I , THE NATIONAL POLITICAL PICTURE IN i 9 6 0
The a t t i t u d e s o f many American v o t e r s in i 96 0 were
c e r t a i n l y d i f f e r e n t from 1952 and 1 9 5 6 , P o l i t i c a l commen
t a t o r s and s o c i a l c r i t i c s in th e 1 9 5 0 ’ s had d e s c r ib e d the
im pact upon a c o n s id e r a b le number o f v o t e r s which was
e x e r te d by E ise n h o w e r 's l i k e a b l e p e r s o n a l i t y , m i l i t a r y
a c h ie v e m e n ts, and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a s a ’’F a th e r F i g u r e ,”
In i 9 6 0 , how ever, E isenhow er was l e g a l l y i n e l i g i b l e a s a
c a n d id a te ; he was s t i l l a n a t io n a l h ero b u t th ere were
•*-Marie Hochmuth N ic h o ls , R h e to r ic and C r it ic is m
(B aton Rouge, L o u is ia n a : L o u isia n a S t a t e U n iv e r s it y P r e s s ,
1 9 6 3 ), P* oij..
230
s e r io u s q u e s tio n s a s to w hether h i s p e r s o n a l p o p u la r ity
c o u ld be tr a n s f e r r e d to o th er R ep u b lican c a n d id a t e s .
A s u c c in c t r e p o r t on the p o l i t i c a l f a c t s o f l i f e
appeared in th e New York Times i n January, i 9 6 0 . The
D em ocrats were p r e se n te d as h a v in g th r ee a d v a n ta g es:
( 1 ) 3k- 50 g o v e r n o r s h ip s , ( 2 ) v i c t o r y in the p r e c e d in g
th r e e C o n g r e ssio n a l e l e c t i o n s , and (3 ) a v o tin g s t r e n g t h
w hich in 1958 gave them 5 8 .5 par* c e n t o f the C o n g r e ssio n a l
v o t e a g a in s t th e R e p u b lic a n s’ ^3*5 par c e n t . The Repub
l i c a n s were a c c r e d it e d w ith two v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l advan
t a g e s : (1) th e White H ouse, and (2) the l a s t two P r e s i
d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s on t h e i r r e c o r d w ith l a n d s l id e v o t e s in
p
e a c h .
There was c o n tr o v e r s y over w hether th e campaign
would be one o f i s s u e s or o f p e r s o n a l i t i e s . "The Campaign
o f I s s u e s : In i 960 C an d id ates Run A g a in s t Ideas" was th e
t i t l e o f an a r t i c l e i n Time m a g a zin e. The i s s u e s were
l i s t e d in the a r t i c l e a s b e in g d e fe n s e and p e a c e , growth
and i n f l a t i o n , the farm m ess, e d u c a tio n , c i v i l r i g h t s ,
f e d e r a l a id , ta x refo rm , la b o r , and r e l i g i o n . ^ Ray
Tucker b e l ie v e d th e i s s u e s f o r th e D em ocrats were " N a tio n a l
2
News item in th e New York T im es, January 3 , i 9 6 0 ,
p . 1 .
The Campaign o f I s s u e s : In i 960 C an d id ates Run
A g a in s t I d e a s ," Time, 7 5 :2 2 -2 3 , F ebruary 1 £ , i 9 6 0 .
2 3 1
S e c u r it y and S o c i a l S e c u r i t y O t h e r s l i s t e d as i s s u e s
th e R ep u b lican a d m in is t r a t io n i t s e l f or th e S o v i e t c h a l -
l e n g e . A rthur S c h le s in g e r em phasized f o r e i g n p o l i c y over
d o m e stic is s u e s * ^
The i s s u e s seemed t o f a l l n a t u r a l l y in t o la r g e r
c a t e g o r i e s . The th r e e g r e a t i s s u e s b e fo r e th e n a t io n as
r e p o r te d i n the New York Times were the p ea ce i s s u e , the
7
p r o s p e r it y i s s u e , and th e p e r s o n a l i t y is s u e * For th e
p ea ce i s s u e , th e R e p u b lica n s co u ld r e f e r th e p u b lic to th e
tr u c e i n K orea, K hrushchev’ s v i s i t s , E isenhow er and N ix o n ’ s
t r a v e l s * The D em ocrats c o u ld r e f e r to th e d e c li n e o f
American power or ’’le a d e r s h ip " and c o u ld argue f o r more
h e lp to u n d erd ev elo p ed a r e a s in an a ttem p t to b u ild Am eri-
D
can p r e s t i g e in uncom m itted a r e a s . In the realm o f p r o s
p e r i t y the R ep u b lica n s c o u ld c i t e th e in c r e a s e s in g r o s s
n a t io n a l p rod u ct and p e r so n a l incom e* The D em ocrats c o u ld
c i t e th e l e s s e n i n g o f econom ic grow th and th e r i s e i n
^"Ray T ucker, "News Behind th e News," H ollyw ood
C i t i z e n News, January 1 3 , 19&0*
-’"Top Dem ocrats D i f f e r on C h ie f I s s u e s fo r ’ 6 0,"
Los A n g eles T im es, F ebruary lij., i 960.
^Arthur M. S c h l e s i n g e r , J r . , "The Coming Shape o f
Am erican P o l i t i c s , " P r o g r e s s i v e . 2 3 : 2 8 , Sep tem b er, 1959*
•7
'News item in th e New York T im es, January 3 , i 9 6 0 ,
p . 1 *
^E leanor R o o s e v e lt , " Is the U n ite d S t a t e s F a c in g up
to World L e a d e rsh ip ? ," (sp e e c h g iv e n a t Harbor C o lle g e ,
W ilm in gto n , C a l i f o r n i a , March 2 8 , i 9 6 0 ) .
232
g
u n e tn p lo y m e r it• As f o r t h e p e r s o n a l i t y i s s u e , t h e R ep u b
l i c a n P a r t y seem ed s e t t l e d o n on e c a n d i d a t e , R ic h a r d N i x o n .
The D e m o c r a t ic P a r t y h a d a t l e a s t f i v e m a jo r c o n t e n d e r s
n o t c o u n t i n g th e ’’f a v o r i t e s o n s ” and t h e d a r k h o r s e s
s e e k i n g r i d e r s , b u t t h e g a t h e r i n g f o r c e s o f one man seem ed
t o b e c h a l k i n g u p v o t e s , a t l e a s t f o r th e f i r s t b a l l o t .
T h is w as how t h i n g s l o o k e d u p t o M ay, i 9 6 0 .
Prom May t h r o u g h J u n e a s e r i e s o f e v e n t s w ere to
o c c u r w h ic h w o u ld h a v e a tr e m e n d o u s im p a c t on th e A m e rica n
p e o p l e i n te r m s o f t h e i r im a g e o f t h e m s e l v e s and o f t h e i r
l e a d e r s h i p . I t w o u ld b e d i f f i c u l t t o r e m a in i n a n a p a
t h e t i c s t a t e t h r o u g h t h e r e c o r d o f e v e n t s w h ic h o c c u r r e d *
On t h e m o r n in g o f May 1 , i 9 6 0 , F r a n c i s G -• P o w e r s ,
f l y i n g i n a s p e c i a l h i g h - a l t i t u d e p l a n e c a l l e d th e U - 2 ,
w as s h o t dow n o v e r R u s s i a and b ecam e t h e f i r s t a c k n o w l
e d g e d A m e r ic a n sp y e v e r s e i z e d by t h e R u s s i a n s . T h is
i n c i d e n t w as t o h a v e f a r - r e a c h i n g e f f e c t s , f o r fr o m i t
cam e q u e s t i o n s o f P r e s i d e n t i a l command ( E is e n h o w e r s a i d
h e d i d n o t know who h a d o r d e r e d t h e f l i g h t ) , q u e s t i o n s o f
d i p l o m a t i c c o m m o n -se n s e ( t h e i n c i d e n t p r e c e d e d o n l y by
d a y s th e o p e n in g o f a sum m it c o n f e r e n c e ) , q u e s t i o n s o f
h o n o r and t o p - s e c r e t d e p e n d a b i l i t y ( t h e r e w as a r e t r a c t i o n
o f s t o r i e s a n d i t w as r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e A m e r ic a n p e o p l e
Q
News Item in the New York Times. January 3, i9 6 0,
p. 1 •
2 3 3
had n o t been t o l d th e t r u t h ) *
The U-2 in c id e n t r a i s e d th e m a tter o f A m erica*s
honor and p r e stig e ® There was no q u e s tio n th a t
A m erica, a s much as th e S o v ie t U nion, r e q u ir e s co n
s t a n t and c a r e f u l e sp io n a g e to p r o t e c t i t s s e c u r i t y
in an u n ea sy w orld* Concerned men c o u ld s i n c e r e l y
d e b a te w h eth er th e U -2 , w ith i t s t e a s i n g o f S o v i e t
t r i g g e r m echanism s o f r e t a l i a t i o n , was or was n o t a
t e c h n i c a l l y sound m ethod o f e sp io n a g e * But th e r e
c o u ld be no d is p u te o v er th e f a c t t h a t American
spokesmen had, a f t e r th e e v e n t , l i e d to the w orld
and to t h e i r own p e o p le , and th e n compounded the
l i e s w ith c o n t r a d ic t io n , u n c e r t a in t y and c o n f u s io n .
T his in c id e n t was b u t one i n th e s e r i e s *
P r e s id e n t E isenhow er f l e w t o P a r is f o r a summit
c o n fe r e n c e t h a t im m ed ia tely c o lla p s e d ; f o llo w in g the
c o l l a p s e , he was denounced by Mr. K hrushschev as
a "hypocrite'* and a " l i a r ."
R io tin g i n Turkey shook and n e a r ly w iped ou t a
f r i e n d l y governm ent*
S tu d en t r i o t s i n Korea rea ch ed a v i o le n c e so
g r e a t as to overthrow the governm ent o f Syngman R h ee.
Our s lo w ly d e t e r i o r a t i n g r e l a t i o n s w ith F id e l
C a stro o f Cuba a r r iv e d a t a perm anent and t o t a l
h o s t i l i t y as th e bearded m aniac e x p r o p r ia te d American
i n t e r e s t s i n Cuba and welcomed the r o c k e t - r a t t l i n g
su p p o rt o f Mr. K hrushchev from th e K rem lin .
In the Far E a s t , the l a s t g o o d - w ill m is s io n o f
our p e a c e - lo v in g P r e s id e n t {who had flo w n 6 0 ,0 0 0
m ile s around th e w orld in the p r e v io u s e ig h t e e n m on th s,
se e k in g p e a c e) ended in h u m ilia t io n a s he was e x
c lu d e d from Japan.
The c u r r e n t disarm am ent n e g o t i a t io n s betw een R u ssia
and th e U n ite d S t a t e s , a f t e r e a r l i e r h o p e, c o n c lu s i v e l y
broke down and were ended*
And f i n a l l y , Am erican s ta te sm a n sh ip , w hich had
"^Theodore H. W hite, The Making o f th e P r e s id e n t
I9 6 0 (New York: P ock et B ooks, I n c . , 1 9 5 1 ), p . 1I 4 .O.
231}-
h i t h e r t o g iv e n o n ly the m ost p e r fu n c to r y a t t e n t i o n to
the su rg in g d is c o n t e n t o f A f r ic a , became aw are, as
the Congo was f r e e d , o f a developm ent o f anarchy and
sa v a g ery t h a t m ig h t te a r th e e n t i r e U n ited N a tio n s
a p a r t
The tw enty-tw o men who were soon to become the
nom inating sp ea k ers and the nom inees o f t h e i r p a r t i e s were
w e ll aware o f the n a t io n a l and in t e r n a t io n a l e v e n ts d e s
c r ib e d above* Each man had to make an ed u cated g u e ss r e
g a rd in g th e p rob ab le im pact o f th e s e e v e n ts upon the
American e l e c t o r a t e and to comport h im s e lf a c c o r d in g ly .
Each o f the tw enty-tw o men n o t o n ly had to a d ju s t h im s e lf
to the f o r c e s from o u t s id e h i s c o n v e n tio n , but a l s o to
p r e s s u r e s frcm w ith in h i s c o n v e n tio n . These p r e s s u r e s
were e x e r te d through innum erable in fo rm a l c o n v e r sa tio n s
and c o n fe r e n c e s , and a ls o through the o f f i c i a l d e l i b e r a
t io n s o f the v a r io u s c o n v e n tio n c o m m itte e s. Of s p e c i a l
im portance was th e work o f the p la tfo r m c o m m ittee s.
I I . THE T W O POLITICAL PLATFORMS O F I9 6 0 12
In a com parison o f the i 960 D em ocratic and Republican
■^White, The Making o f th e P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , pp. lip l-
ll| 2 .
12
The i s s u e s summarized from the D em ocratic and
R ep u b lican p la tfo r m s can be found in A ppendices B and C.
23S
1 3
p la t f o r m s , b oth were found to c o n t a in s im ila r s ta te m e n ts
o f i s s u e s which d i f f e r e d o n ly in d e t a i l s co n c er n in g th e
approach or typ e o f program recommended f o r the s o l u t i o n
o f the i s s u e s and p r o b le m s. Both p la tfo r m s began w ith the
i s s u e s o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y and n a t io n a l d e fe n s e (w ith th e
em phasis i n the D em ocratic p la tfo r m f i r s t on n a t io n a l
d e f e n s e , the R ep u b lican p la tfo r m c o v e r in g f o r e i g n p o l i c y
th e n n a t io n a l d e f e n s e ) , and b oth p la tfo r m s co n clu d ed w ith
th e i s s u e o f c i v i l r i g h t s . I t app eared t h a t th e r e was a
m utual i n c l u s i o n o f m ost i s s u e s , b o th major and m in or, in
th e p la tfo r m s o f the two p a r t i e s r e p r e s e n t in g s im ila r
sta n d s on the b a s i c i s s u e s but d i f f e r i n g i n the m ethods fo r
im p lem en tin g program s.
The d i f f e r e n c e s o b serv ed i n th e im p lem en ta tio n o f
programs s u g g e s te d i n the p a r ty p la tfo r m s were r e f l e c t i o n s
o f the b a s ic ap p roach es o f th e two p a r t i e s . In the
R ep u b lica n p la tfo r m th e em phasis was on F e d e r a l a id o n ly
through th e s t a t e s , r e a f f ir m a t io n o f S t a t e s R ig h ts , and
l e s s F e d e r a l d o m in a tio n in the govern m en tal p r o c e s s e s .
The D em ocratic P la tfo rm : The R ig h ts o f Man,"
R eport o f th e Committee on R e s o lu tio n s and P la tfo rm a s
Adopted by the D em ocratic N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n , Los A n g e le s ,
J u ly 1 2 , i 96 0 (W ash in gton, D . C .: D em ocratic N a tio n a l
C om m ittee, n . d * ) .
"The i 9 60 R ep u b lican P la tfo r m ," O f f i c i a l R eport
o f th e P r o c e e d in g s o f th e T w en ty-seven th R ep u b lican
N a tio n a l C on ven tion (W ashington. D . C .: R ep u b lican
N a tio n a l C om m ittee, i 9 6 0 ) , pp. 2 3 1 - 2 £ 8 .
236
In the D em ocratic platform the em phasis was s t r o n g ly in
fa v o r o f F e d e r a l a id and F e d e r a l a s s is t a n c e programs which
were a p p a r e n tly to be a p p lie d d i r e c t l y on a n a tio n -w id e
b a s is * Advocated in the R ep u b lican p la tfo rm were F e d e r a l
r e se a r c h programs In c e r t a in d o m estic problem a r e a s; in
the D em ocratic p la tfo r m a c t i v e programs o f a s s is t a n c e and
a c t io n were su g g e ste d In t h e s e problem a r e a s .
Another r e c u r r in g n o te through out th e two p la tfo r m s
was th e r e p e a te d r e f e r e n c e i n th e R ep u b lican p la tfo r m to
p r o g r e ss made d u rin g p a st y e a r s by the incum bent p a r ty and
the r e p e a te d c i t a t i o n o f the d e f i c i e n c i e s o f the incum bent
p a r ty and t h e ir programs i n the D em ocratic p la tfo r m . A lso
m en tioned in th e two p la tfo r m s was the f a c t th a t c e r t a in
needed or proposed programs d id n o t g e t p la c e d in t o law
or in to a c tio n b ecau se o f the Dem ocrats (o r R e p u b lica n s,
depending on the v ie w p o in t) In C o n g re ss.
A lthough the i s s u e s s t r e s s e d i n both p a r ty p la tfo r m s
were b a s i c a l l y s i m i la r , the o r g a n iz a tio n o f th e s e i s s u e s
w ith in th e c o n te n t o f the p la tfo r m s v a r ie d . I s s u e s in the
R epu blican p la tfo rm were c a te g o r iz e d under tw e lv e major
h ea d in g s and a n a r r a tiv e d i s c u s s i o n o f th e se major a rea s
brough t out the s e p a r a te i s s u e s and recom m endations. In
the D em ocratic p latform each major I s su e was p r e se n te d
s e p a r a te ly making a t o t a l o f t h ir t y - n in e h e a d in g s w ith
o c c a s io n a l l i s t i n g s o f s u b - is s u e s under each o f th e se
237
h e a d in g s . These t h i r t y - n i n e m ajor h e a d in g s were th en
l i s t e d under fo u r m ain s e c t i o n s — in t r o d u c t io n , n a t io n a l
d e fe n s e and f o r e i g n p o l i c y , d o m estic i s s u e s , and c i v i l
r i g h t s . The t i t l e of th e D em ocratic p la tfo r m was "The
R ig h ts o f Man," g iv in g a d d i t io n a l em phasis to th e c i v i l
r i g h t s plan k w hich com p rised th e f i n a l s e c t i o n o f the
p la tf o r m . The R ep u b lica n p la tfo r m , as p r e s e n te d in the
o f f i c i a l p r o c e e d in g s , was n o t t i t l e d , and a lth o u g h c i v i l
r i g h t s was a major f i n a l plank i t was n o t s t r e s s e d th ro u g h
o u t th e p la tfo r m a s much a s S t a t e s R ig h t s .
On the w h o le , the same i s s u e s were p r e se n te d i n th e
i 960 D em ocratic and R ep u b lican p la t f o r m s . The m ajor d i f
f e r e n c e s seemed to be i n th e approach to th e se i s s u e s —
S t a t e s R ig h ts w ith no F e d e r a l d o m in a tio n v e r su s a stro n g
F e d e r a l governm ent— and i n th e d e f e n s iv e or o f f e n s i v e
p o s i t i o n s r e g a r d in g th e accom p lish m en ts or d e f i c i e n c i e s
o f th e a d m in is t r a tio n and programs o f the p a r ty i n pow er.
I I I . A LOOK AT THE CANDIDATES TO BE NOMINATED IN i 960
A long th e way to th e f i n a l n om in atin g d e c i s i o n ev ery
le a d in g co n ten d er i s , fo r a tim e a t l e a s t , reg ard ed
as b e in g " a v a ila b le ," in some se n se o f th a t in t a n g ib le
q u a l i t y . In each c a s e c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f a b i l i t y ,
e x p e r ie n c e , and background m ust o b v io u s ly be r e s p o n
s i b l e fo r t h i s e s t im a t e , a lth o u g h th e e x t e n t to w hich
such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in f lu e n c e the c h o ic e as f i n a l l y
made w i l l p ro b a b ly alw ays be as d i f f i c u l t to p in
down a s th e c o n c e p t o f a v a i l a b i l i t y i t s e l f . N ever
t h e l e s s , e v e n meager d e s c r i p t i v e in fo r m a tio n on th e
backgrounds o f the i n d iv i d u a l s who have b een s e r i o u s l y
c o n sid e r e d f o r the P r e sid e n c y and the V ice P re sid e n c y
238
d oes throw some l i g h t on b oth the n om in atin g p r o c e s s
and on v a r io u s a s p e c t s o f governm ent
A stu d y o f th e c a n d id a te s t o be nom inated i n i 960
as th e " c h a r a cte rs" o f the n o m in a tio n sp e e c h e s p r e s e n te d
a t th e n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n s , r e p r e s e n t s an im p o rta n t s te p
i n th e tr a c in g o f th e m o t iv a tio n a l p a tt e r n s w hich appear in
the " d r a m a tis tic pentad" o f t h i s s tu d y . They were th e
f o c a l a g e n ts around w hich th e e n t i r e drama was p la y e d . The
D em ocratic nom inees were the m ajor c o n te n d e r s — Lyndon B*
John son , John P . Kennedy, A d la i S te v e n so n , and S tu a r t
Sym ington; and th e " F a v o r ite S on s," Ross B a r n e tt, George
D o ck in g , R obert B. M eyner, H e r sc h e l C. L o v e le s s , and
G eorge A. S m a th ers. The R ep u b lican nom inees were R ichard
M. N ixon as the main con ten d er and Barry M . G oldw ater as
a " F a v o r ite Son."
C r i t e r i a f o r N om ination
The "Nine T e s ts f o r the P r e s i d e n t i a l H opeful" a s
d e r iv e d by S id n ey Hyman from h i s r e s e a r c h a s a h i s t o r i a n
w ere: ( 1 ) the d e s i r a b i l i t y o f p r io r p u b lic s e r v i c e i n an
a p p o in tiv e or e l e c t i v e p o s t ; (2 ) th e p r e fe r e n c e f o r a
Governor over o th e r o f f i c e r s ; (3 ) th e p r e fe r e n c e fo r a
■^Paul Theodore D a v id , Ralph M. Goldman, and R ichard
C. B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l P arty C o n v e n tio n s,
e d . K a th lee n S p rou l (W ashington, D. C .: The B rook in gs
I n s t i t u t i o n , i 9 6 0 ) , p . 7 9 .
239
candidate from a state with a large electoral vote and
two-party voting record; (i^) the preference for a candi
date from the North over the South; (5) the desirability
for a candidate not too closely identified with any one
particular interest in our society, such as labor or
management; (6 ) the must of a happy family lif e ; (7 ) the
preference for a small town man; (8 ) the preference for a
background of Anglo-Saxon descent; (9) the preference for
Protestants over other religions
Although these traditional rules are cited as the
rules of "availability," few candidates for nomination
have ever fitte d them, most having at lea st one, i f not
more, strikes against them# Considering a ll the Governors
in 1959, Sidney Hym an applied his nine rules or tests to
see who might be elig ib le for the Presidency. Under a
str ic t application of the rules, Governor Meyner of New
Jersey would be the only Democrat who would qualify, other
than Stevenson who would be considered elig ib le by dint of
having previously been nominated# O n the Republican side,
Thomas E# Dewey and Richard M # Nixon, caning under the same
category of a "have-been" as Stevenson, would qualify.
■^Sidney Hyman, "Nine Tests for the Presidential
Hopeful," P olitics I960, eds# Francis M . Carney and H.
Frank W ay, Jr. {San Francisco: Wadsworth Publishing
Company, Inc., i 9 6 0), pp. 88-95#
^-^Eric Sevareid (ed .), Candidates i 960 (New York:
Basic Books, Inc., 1959), P* 20.
t
2 l± 0
Under a s t r i c t u se o f the r u l e s , the o n ly o th e r R ep u b lican
w ould be G o v e r n o r -e le c t o f New York, N e lso n R o c k e f e lle r
The problem , a s seen by D avid , Goldman, and B a in ,
had tak en a somewhat d i f f e r e n t f o m in th e l a s t two decades.
A lthou gh g o v e rn o rs and form er g o v e r n o r s were i n ample
su p p ly , th e grow ing im portance o f the F e d e r a l governm ent,
o f the n a t io n a l i s s u e s , and o f Am erican in v o lv em e n t abroad
had s h i f t e d th e p a t te r n i n such a way t h a t s e n a to r s and
o t h e r s w ith i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e had more p r e s i d e n t i a l
T A
p o t e n t i a l than b e fo r e * L o u is H a r r is d is c u s s e d the odds
a g a in s t a govern or becom ing a P r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te*
P a rt o f the problem i s sim p ly t h a t o f b e in g known.
Today, f o r exam p le, Governor Meyner o f New J e r s e y i s
w ell-k n ow n and r e s p e c t e d i n h i s home s t a t e and in the
im p ortan t p o l i t i c a l a r e a s o f e a s t e r n P e n n sy lv a n ia
and so u th e rn New York S ta te * But when one g e t s ou t
to w e ste rn P en n sy lv a n ia or up to C o n n e c tic u t or down
in t o M aryland, Meyner j u s t i s n ' t known by numbers o f
v o t e r s runn ing in t o the 70 and 80 per c e n t r a n g e s .
Y et Meyner i s one o f the b e tte r -k n o w n G overnors*
S i m i l a r l y , Governor Brown o f C a l i f o r n ia i s w ell-k n ow n
in h i s own s t a t e , b u t when he moves a c r o s s th e border
in to O regon, an im p orta n t prim ary s t a t e , he i s known
by no more than 10 v o t e r s o u t o f e v e r y 100.3-9
A p proxim ately 300 p e r so n s from 1832 to 1956 who
•^Hyman, "Nine T e s ts f o r th e P r e s i d e n t i a l H o p e fu l,"
p . 95*
1 ft
D a v id , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n v e n tio n s, p* 9 6 .
■^Louis H a r r is , "Why th e Odds Are A g a in st a G over
n o r 's Becoming P r e s id e n t," P u b lic O p in ion Q u a r te r ly ,
23:365, F a l l , 1959-
2 Ip.
r e c e i v e d 3 P© *1 c e n t or more o f th e c o n v e n tio n v o t e f o r a
P r e s i d e n t i a l or V i c e - P r e s i d e n t i a l n o m in a tio n were t r e a t e d
b y D a v id , Goldman, and B a in i n a stu d y d e s ig n e d to shed
some l i g h t on th e n o m in a tin g p r o c e s s as i t was i n the p a s t
and m ig h t be in th e f u t u r e .
For each o f the 3 0 0 , b io g r a p h ic a l in fo r m a tio n h as
b een a sse m b le d , when o b t a i n a b l e , on d a te o f b i r t h ;
p la c e o f b i r t h ; e d u c a tio n ; m ajor o c c u p a tio n i n
p r i v a t e l i f e ; age when c o n s id e r e d f o r n o m in a tio n ;
s t a t e o f r e s i d e n c e when c o n s id e r e d ; p u b lic o f f i c e
p r e v io u s ly h e ld a t any tim e; p u b lic o f f i c e , i f a n y ,
when c o n s id e r e d ; age a t d e a t h , 2 0
I n fo r m a tio n as to r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n and p a r e n t a l
o c c u p a tio n was n o t in c lu d e d b e c a u se i t was n o t a v a i l a b l e
f o r many o f the le s s e r -k n o w n a s p i r a n t s . The two item s
w h ich were o f th e g r e a t e s t im p ortan ce and i n t e r e s t a t th e
tim e o f th e i 960 n o m in a tio n s were age and g e o g r a p h ic l o c a
t i o n . The a v e ra g e age f o r f i r s t - t i m e p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d i
d a t e s was y e a r s b e f o r e 1 8 9 6 and $1.2 from 1896 to
1 9 5 6 . Comparing th e geograp h y o f th e i 960 p r e s i d e n t i a l
c a n d id a te s w ith th e c a n d id a te s from 1832 to 1 9 5 6 , th e r e
had b een th r e e D em ocratic p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te s from
I l l i n o i s and t h r e e from New J e r s e y . There had b een two
D em o cra tic v i c e - p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te s from I l l i n o i s and
two from T e x a s. The o th e r s t a t e s o f the D em o cra tic h o p e
f u l s In i 960 were' n o t r e p r e s e n t e d . As f o r th e R e p u b lic a n s ,
20
D a v id , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P a r ty C o n v e n tio n s , p . 79*
2 1 l b i d . , p . 8 0 .
2hfi
th e re had been th ree p r e s i d e n t i a l nom inees and th r ee v i c e -
p r e s i d e n t i a l nom inees from C a l i f o r n ia . A rizon a was not
22
r e p r e se n te d # In answer to th e q u e s t io n , 1 1 I s th ere a type
th a t em erges? ,'1 D avid, Goldman, and B ain s a id :
Popular w r itin g in every p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n year
alw ays in c lu d e s e f f o r t s to d e f in e th e p e r s o n a lit y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and o th er q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f "the
p e r f e c t P re sid e n t" or "the i d e a l nom inee." The d ata
we have p r e se n te d do n o t le n d th e m se lv e s e a s i l y to
t h i s kind o f judgment— e x c e p t to s u g g e s t t h a t there
i s no s i n g le p a tte r n o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th a t the
c o n v e n tio n s w i l l in v a r ia b ly c h o o se . A c o n v e n tio n may
be guided to some e x t e n t by an u n c o n sc io u s i d e a l
th a t has a lre a d y sc re en ed out th o se c l e a r l y u n
a v a i l a b l e , b u t i t i s m ainly se e k in g to choose among
th o se who are s t i l l a v a i l a b l e #^3
A p r e s i d e n t i a l p o l l was conducted fo r L ife by the
firm o f D a n ie l Y a n k elo v ich , I n c ., s p e c i a l i s t s in m o tiv a tio n
s tu d ie s # A ccording to th e d a ta r e c e iv e d from t h i s p o l l ,
the American p e o p le sou g h t th e se q u a l i t i e s in a P r e s id e n t:
Wanted: A man o f c o n v ic t io n who i s w i l l i n g to
f i g h t fo r h i s p r i n c ip l e s b u t who i s a b le , by c o n c i l i a
t i o n and comprom ise, to a v o id such a f i g h t * A man who
i s above p a r tis a n c o n s id e r a t io n s . A man w ith the
common to u c h . A v ig o r o u s , d e c is iv e man who can make
up h i s m ind, g e t th in g s done and n o t be pushed around
by other p e o p le — e s p e c i a l l y R u s s ia n s . A man w ith
e x p e r ie n c e i n f o r e ig n a f f a i r s
T his was in March, i 9 6 0 * By November, th e v ie w s o f the
22D a vid , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f N a tio n a l
P arty C o n v e n tio n s, pp. 8 0 -8 1 .
2 3 I b i d . , p . 9 3 .
^ D a n i e l Y a n k e lo v ic h , "U. S* V o t e r s ’ Image o f Id e a l
P r e s id e n t," L i f e , 1 4 .8 :121}., March 2 1 , i 9 6 0 .
p e o p le had n o t changed much. The fa v o r a b le q u a l i t i e s f o r
a le a d e r , a c c o r d in g to the American p e o p le as p o lle d by-
Elmo R oper, were t h a t he sh o u ld be a v e r y i n t e l l i g e n t man,
t h a t he sh o u ld p o s s e s s an a t t r a c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y , th a t he
sh ou ld be h o n e s t and s i n c e r e , t h a t he sh ou ld have good e x
p e r ie n c e f o r the jo b , t h a t he sh ou ld be ab le to h an d le
p o l i t i c i a n s , th a t he sh ou ld be a r e a l sta te sm a n , and t h a t
he sh o u ld i n s p i r e c o n f id e n c e . These were th e q u a l i t i e s
th a t the p u b lic a t t r i b u t e d to th e two men who were nomi
n ated a t the i 960 D em ocratic and R ep u b lican C o n v e n t io n s .^
The q u a l i t i e s fo r P r e s id e n t which the n om in atin g sp eak ers
a t th e C on ven tion s r e p o r te d t h e ir a s p ir a n t s to p o s s e s s
can be foun d i n C hapter V. No c a n d id a te co u ld be s a id to
p o s s e s s a l l the v i r t u e s which the h i s t o r i a n s , th e p o l i t
i c a l s c i e n t i s t s , th e p o l l s t e r s , or th e American p u b lic
were r e p o r te d to have a s s ig n e d to the men who would be
the f i n a l c h o ic e s o f the c o n v e n t io n s .
For th e n om in atin g c o n v e n tio n , which i s th e
supreme judge o f th e s e m a t t e r s , i s th e m ost pragm atic
p o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n we h a v e . And the know ledge t h a t
i t i s never removed from th e m inds o f a s p ir a n t s f o r
the P r e s i d e n t i a l n o m in a tio n . The l i n e o f t h e i r am
b i t i o n may seem wayward when t e s t e d by th e t r a d i t i o n a l
r u l e s o f a v a i l a b i l i t y . Y e t they h o p e — and a r e r i g h t
2 '’Elmo Roper, " P o llin g Post-M ortem ," S atu rd ay
Review o f L i t e r a t u r e , 1 4 - 3 :1 0 , November 2 6 , i 9 6 0 .
2 1 *
i n d o in g a o - - t h a t somehow, i n th e hour o f d e c i s i o n ,
th e s t a r s w i l l r e - s h u f f l e th e m s e lv e s in t h e i r
f a v o r .2 6
The C o n ten d ers f o r th e D em o cra tic N om ination
The Major C on ten d ers
Lyndon B . Johnson. —
"Mr. P r e s id e n t , I sh o u ld l i k e to e x p r e s s th e hope
t h a t s e n a t o r s w i l l be i n a tte n d a n c e on th e s e s s i o n
o f th e S e n a te to d a y , in order t h a t we may f i n i s h th e
p en d in g l e g i s l a t i o n t h i s e v e n in g , i f a t a l l p o s s i b l e .
I am p rep a red to s t a y a s l a t e a s n e c e s s a r y i f i t
seem s p o s s i b l e to p a s s th e j o i n t r e s o l u t i o n to d a y ." 2 o
And w ith t h i s s e t t i n g o f th e scen e by M a jo r ity L eader
Lyndon Johnson from T e x a s, a n o th e r s e s s i o n o f th e S e n a te
was on i t s w ay.
I f Lyndon Johnson were to be n o m in a ted , he would be
th e f i r s t S o u th e rn er i n o v er a hundred y e a r s to w in th e
n o m in a tio n f o r P r e s i d e n t A s M a jo r ity L eader i n th e
S e n a te (a c a r e e r w hich began f o r him a t f o r t y - f o u r y e a r s
o f a g e ) , Johnson had c o n t r o l o f th e p u ls e o f th e S e n a t e .
fly m a n , "Nine T e s ts f o r the P r e s i d e n t i a l H o p e fu l,"
P . 9£»
27
The n o m in a tio n sp e e c h f o r Lyndon B . Johnson as
d e l i v e r e d by Samuel Rayburn a t th e i 9 6 0 D em ocratic Con
v e n t i o n can be found i n A ppendix G.
? A
R ob ert T. Hartmann, "Johnson D e l i g h t s i n P a t r i o t ’ s
T a lk ," Lps A n g e le s T im es, F eb ru ary l £ , i 9 6 0 , P a r t 1 , p . 2 .
^ S e v a r e i d , Candidates i960, p. 280.
He had managed to s ta y w ith in the good g r a c e s o f th e South
and s t i l l garner v o t e s in th e N orth . H is p o l i t i c a l maneu
v e r in g was a d r o i t ly a c h ie v e d . S e n a to r Kennedy in a p le a
a g a in s t b ig o t r y had s a id he was born a C a th o lic and th a t a
man should n o t be h e ld r e s p o n s ib le f o r h i s b i r t h . Johnson
u sed t h i s p le a f o r h i s own advantage when he s a id , "What
a man b e l i e v e s he can be h e ld r e s p o n s ib le f o r . . . Where
o o
he was born i s n o t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y % n
Lyndon Johnson had come in fo r much c r i t i c i s m from
h i s p a rty b ecause he seemed to fa v o r the a c tio n s o f the
Eisenhow er A d m in is tr a tio n . T his had earn ed f o r him th e
l a b e l o f " C o n se rv a tiv e ." A c tu a lly t h i s " going a lon g w ith
the a d m in istra tio n " was n o t a new move f o r Johnson, and h i s
moves were n ot alw ays c o n s e r v a tiv e o n e s . He came in to
C ongress a s a f r ie n d o f F r a n k lin D. R o o s e v e lt . He v o ted
fo r the "New Deal" p r o p o sa ls o f R o o s e v e lt and l a t e r o f
Truman.^l H is view seemed to be one o f c o o p e r a tio n i n
ste a d o f o p p o s it io n . H is v o t in g r e c o r d as checked by the
u l t r a - l i b e r a l Americans f o r D em ocratic A c tio n gave him
"seven good m arks, f i v e d e m er its and one ab sen ce on i t s
Johnson T o sses P o l i t i c a l Hat In to Far W est,"
Los A n g eles Tim es. A p r il 2 3 , i 9 6 0 , P art 1 ,' p . 5>.
3^"Who?," U . S . News and World R ep o rt, l 6 : £ 2 ,
F ebruary 1$, i 9 6 0 .
2lf6
195>9 s e l e c t i o n o f 13 key r o l l c a l l s # " ^ T h is gave him a
" m id d le -o f-th e -r o a d " ty p e o f a p p ea l r a th e r than e i t h e r
m arkedly r i g h t or l e f t #
H is v ie w p o in ts and v o te s on th e t id e la n d s o i l and
n a tu r a l g a s s i t u a t i o n s c o u ld have won him many v o t e s in-
the s t a t e s where th e re was o i l o f f the c o a s t or n a tu r a l
g a s to be had# Johnson was a t one tim e an oilm an h im s e lf#
W illiam Shannon f e l t t h a t a v o te f o r Johnson would be a
s h i f t to th e r i g h t - - a s h i f t to the i n t e r e s t o f S o u th e r n e r s,
o f Texas and C a lif o r n ia o i l men, and to th e i n t e r e s t s o f
the m id d le c l a s s e s o f sm a ll to w n s#33
In I 9I 4-8 Johnson ran a g a in s t Coke S te v e n so n f o r the
S e n a te . The v o t e narrowed down to a m a j o r ity o f e i g h t y -
sev en v o t e s fo r Johnson o u t o f n e a r ly a m i l l i o n c a s t # - ^
T his won Johnson the name o f " la n d s lid e Johnson" and
ta u g h t him som ething e l s e — to cou n t n o ses# R obert L# R iggs
d e s c r ib e d Joh n son ’ s r e p u t a t io n a s M a jo r ity L eader:
N oth in g i n d ic a t e s so a c c u r a t e ly W ash in gton ’ s
c u r r e n t a p p r a is a l o f th e M a jo r ity L eader as th e
f a c t t h a t whenever th e S en ate makes a move th e
-^Hartmann, "Johnson D e lig h t s in P a t r i o t ’ s T alk,"
p . 3 0 .
33
W illia m V. Shannon, "Lyndon Johnson: C on serva
t i v e , " P r o g r e s s i v e , 2l|.:9, Janu ary, i 9 6 0 .
^^Hartmann, "Johnson D e lig h t s in P a t r i o t ’ s T alk,"
p. 31.
21 4- 7
c a p i t a l s a y s , "Johnson d id t h i s ." or "Johnson d id
t h a t l " 35
There were v ery good r e a so n s f o r such an a ssu r a n c e about
J oh n son --an d th e b i g g e s t r e a so n was J o h n so n 's a ssu r a n c e
about h im s e lf* He n ev er brough t an i s s u e to th e f l o o r
u n l e s s he was su re i t would be p a ssed * He never s u f f e r e d
a s e r io u s d e f e a t on th e f l o o r in seven y e a r s . "His p e r
so n a l le g e n d i s b u i l t around a c u l t o f unbroken s u c c e s s *
h 36
In f a c t , many o f the S e n a to r s c o n f e s s e d w ith awe th a t
Johnson seemed to know t h e i r m inds b e fo r e th ey made them
u p . And w e l l he sh o u ld h a v e . He had e x t e n s iv e f i l e s on
each S en a to r and em ployed a la r g e and l o y a l s t a f f to be
on th e c o n s t a n t " ea r-o u t" f o r in fo r m a tio n f o r him .^?
He may n o t have p o s s e s s e d th e o r a t o r i c a l prow ess and e r u
d i t e n e s s o f S te v e n so n or the p e r s o n a l a p p ea l and charm
o f Jack Kennedy, b u t he knew th e v a lu e o f f i g h t i n g on h i s
own term s and h i s own r u l e s . "His f o r t e i s m a n ip u la tio n .
He's w h at, i n some o th e r walk o f l i f e , would be c a l l e d an
'operator• ' Chance p la y ed o n ly a m inor r o le in
Jo h n so n 's s u c c e s s .
^ S e v a r e i d , C a n d id a tes I 9 6 0 , p . 295*
■^Shannon, "Lyndon Johnson: C o n s e r v a tiv e ," p . 1 3 .
^ H artm an n , "Johnson D e l ig h t s in P a t r i o t ' s T alk,"
p . 31*
- ^ B i l l H enry, "By th e Way: C o n fu sin g , But Not
C on fu sed ," Los A n g eles T im es, February 9* 19&0.
2^8
The McCarthy in c id e n t was an exam ple o f t h i s ,
Johnson was u rged to f l a y McCarthy p u b l i c l y many t im e s ,
Johnson w a ite d u n t i l M cC arthy's p o p u la r ity had fa d e d , and
th en a f t e r c o u n tin g n o s e s became in s tr u m e n ta l i n b r in g in g
up th e r e s o l u t i o n to cen su re M cCarthy, N oses had been
cou n ted so w e l l t h a t n o t a s i n g l e Dem ocrat v o te d a g a in s t
i t x n 1 9 5 7 s w ith o u t a r e a l f i l i b u s t e r , th e f i r s t
major c i v i l r i g h t s l e g i s l a t i o n s in c e the R e c o n s tr u c tio n
Era was p a s s e d . ^ Johnson had cou n ted n o s e s a g a in .
T his d r iv e to s t a y a t th e head o f m ovem ents, to
maneuver o n e 's way through str a ta g e m s and t a c t i c s , seemed
to be th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l f o r c e b eh in d Joh n son , Perhaps h i s
b e s t judgment t o ld him o th e r w is e b u t Johnson f i n a l l y , on
A p r il 2 1 , i 9 6 0 , in d ic a t e d t h a t he would a c c e p t th e nom ina
t io n w ith th e se words: "I have se rv e d my co u n try i n e v er y
c a p a c it y i n which I have been asked to s e r v e , I would n o t
s h ir k my r e s p o n s i b i l i t y H e r e a ffir m e d h i s w i l l i n g n e s s
on May 2 , i 9 6 0 , w ith th e same w o r d s T h i s was one tim e
when he would n o t be a b le to c o u n t n o s e s and w ith h o ld f i r e
^ S e v a r e i d , C an d id ates I 9 6 0 , PP* 3 1 1 -3 1 2 ,
^ S t e w a r t A ls o p , "Lyndon Johnson: How D oes He
Do I t ? ," Satu rd ay E vening P o s t , 2 3 1 :3 8 , January 2ij., 1959*
^ " S e n a t o r Johnson I n d ic a t e s He Would A ccep t,"
Los A n g eles T im es, A p r il 2 2 , i 9 6 0 , P a rt 1 , p , 1 ,
^ " O u t o f the S ou th ," Tim e, 7 slip, May 2 , 1 9 6 0 ,
2k9
u n t i l he was su r e o f v i c t o r y . ^ (I n 1 9 5 6 , Johnson was the
" F a v o r ite Son" p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te from T ex a s.
)W-
. A nother p a r t o f th e Johnson le g e n d was the " t r e a t
m en t." T h is was a method c a lc u l a t e d to le a v e you w ith the
f e e l i n g t h a t Johnson knew a l l and c o u ld do a l l . I t was a
com b in ation o f sw ee t t a l k , fr o w n s, r e p r o a c h e s , and ended
w ith th e " la y in g on o f hands" a t which tim e he l i t e r a l l y
hugged the v i c t i m , p a tte d him , and c a r e s s e d h im . R obert
Hartmann d e s c r ib e d th e u n d erg o in g o f th e " treatm ent" which
he and a n o th er newsman went th r o u g h . Both would have v o ted
f o r Johnson r i g h t th e n i f p o s s i b l e . ^ R obert L . R ig g s,
who d e s c r ib e d th e tre a tm en t in some d e t a i l in C a n d id a tes
i 9 6 0 , gave i t t h i s a c c la im : "But f o r a l l th e s n ic k e r s i t
a r o u s e s , the 't r e a t m e n t 1 c o n tin u e s to be the c a p i t o l ' s
m ost e f f e c t i v e p o l i t i c a l w e a p o n ." ^
Johnson was a id e d i n h i s cam paign and i n h i s
p o l i t i c a l m an eu verin gs by form er S en ator C lem ents o f
K entucky and by Sam Rayburn, Speaker o f th e H ou se. Sam
Rayburn, th r e e tim e chairm an o f th e D em ocratic N a tio n a l
^ S e v a r e i d , C a n d id a tes i 9 6 0 , p . 317*
^ •C on gressio n a l Q u a r te r ly C o n v en tio n Guide
(W ashington, D . C .: C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r te r ly , I n c . , i 9 6 0 ),
p • 21 •
J i £
^ H a rtm an n , "Johnson D e l ig h t s i n P a t r i o t ' s T alk ,"
p. 31.
^Sevareid, Candidates i960, p. 300.
2£0
C on ven tion , "shunned permanent chairm anship in 19&0 to
have a f r e e hand to campaign f o r Johnson, h i s ca n d id a te
f o r the P r e s id e n t ia l n o m in a tio n ." ^ He p la c e d Joh n son 's
name in n om in ation a t the c o n v e n tio n .
Johnson a t $1 was 6 f e e t 3 in c h e s t a l l and w eighed
about 18£ pounds. He was the same h e ig h t and w eig h t as
S en a to r Sym ington but th e r e a l l resem b lan ce en d ed . In
19£5 he s u ffe r e d a s e r io u s h e a r t a tta c k b u t was back as
S en ate M ajority Leader in s ix m o n t h s J o h n s o n m arried
w ea lth In the form o f l i t h e C lau d ia known as "Lady B ird ."
A ll o f the Johnson fa m ily have the same i n i t i a l s (LBJ),
in c lu d in g th e two d a u g h ters and the fa m ily hound, " L i t t l e
B eagle
Johnson a tten d ed a te a c h e r s c o l l e g e (Sou thw est Texas
S t a t e T eachers C o lle g e , San Marcos) and ta u g h t sp eech and
90
d eb a te In Texas fo r a sh o r t time.-^ Teaching was n o t fo r
him so he went to W ashington as s e c r e t a r y to R e p r e s e n ta tiv e
R ichard K le b e rg . He a tten d e d Georgetown Law S c h o o l f o r a
year and th a t ended h i s academ ic c a r e e r . He s t i l l does
n o t care to read b u t p r e fe r s a c t i o n .
^ ' C o n g r e ssio n a l Q u a rterly C on ven tion G u id e, p . 2 2 .
^"W ho?," U. S . News and World R ep o rt, p . £ 2 .
^ H artm ann, "Johnson D e lig h t s i n P a t r i o t ’ s Talk,"
p. 2•
-^Shannon, "Lyndon Johnson: C o n se r v a tiv e ," p . 1 0 .
251
Johnson had an edge on th e o th er c a n d id a te s in th a t
he d id n o t have to b r in g a l l h i s h id d en t a l e n t s to the
f r o n t i n order to prove he c o u ld g e t th in g s done* He
needed o n ly to p o in t to the S e n a te —h i s baby* But t h i s
co u ld n o t d i s p e l f o r the v o t e r s from th e North th e f a c t
th a t Johnson was a Sou thern er*
There was s p e c u la t io n as to w hether Johnson would
a c c e p t the V ic e -P r e s id e n c y i f o f f e r e d . At th e tim e the
C on ven tion opened, Joh n son ’ s managers were vehement in
t h e ir answer o f " n o." 5 Johnson had, r ep o r te d Arthur
Krock, a c a se o f 1 1 the f e v e r o f P r e s i d e n t i a l a m b itio n * " ^
Johnson’ s l a s t p r e -c o n v e n tio n e s tim a te o f h i s
p o s s ib le d e le g a t e v o t in g s t r e n g t h , made two weeks b e fo r e
the n o m in a tio n s, was th a t he had 502 1 /2 v o t e s o f th e 761
53
needed f o r nom ination* A nything co u ld happen, how ever,
d u rin g th o se two weeks* Johnson hoped i t would be a l l in
h i s fav o r*
51
Johnson d id a c c e p t the n om in ation f o r V i c e - P r e s i
d en t and was in a u g u ra ted on January 2 0 , 1 9 6 1 * With the
a s s a s s in a t io n o f P r e s id e n t John F* Kennedy on November 2 2 ,
1 9 6 3 , he became P r e sid e n t o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
-^A rthur Krock, "C onvention Proves A m bition Can
Corrode Man's Judgment," New York T im es, Sunday, J u ly 1 7 ,
i 9 6 0 , S e c tio n C, p* 3*
^White, The Making of the President I9 6 0, p. l6l.
2£2
$h
John F» Kennedy* — " ' I s anyone g o in g to t e l l me
t h a t I l o s t t h i s prim ary l\2 y e a r s ago when I was bap-
t i z e d ? ' 1 1 ^^ With t h i s one q u e s tio n , John F . Kennedy v o ic e d
th e thou ght t h a t e x is t e d i n the minds o f many who were
f o llo w in g the D em ocratic p rim a ries* The n e x t prim ary was
May 10 In West V i r g in ia . Kennedy, a Roman C a t h o lic , and
Humphrey, a C o n g r e g a t io n a lis t , were f i g h t i n g f o r v o t e s in
a s t a t e w hich was n i n e t y - f i v e per c e n t P r o te s ta n t
The c a n d id a te s had t r ie d to keep the r e l i g i o u s
q u e s tio n o u t o f the e l e c t i o n s . The New Hampshire prim ary
in which b oth Kennedy and Nixon " s e t r e c o r d s in the p r e
f e r e n t i a l s e c t i o n o f the s e p a r a te p a rt b a llo t s " was
<7
r e l a t i v e l y c le a n o f the r e l i g i o u s i s s u e . T h e W iscon sin
b a t t l e o f Humphrey v e r su s Kennedy was marred by a n t i -
C a th o lic l i t e r a t u r e which cropped up from an unknown
s o u r c e . D enied by Humphrey, i t was s t i l l a rem inder th a t
th e i s s u e was n o t hidden«r H e a d lin e s f o r the outcome
^ T h e nom in ation sp eech f o r John F . Kennedy as
d e liv e r e d by O r v i l le Freeman a t th e i 960 D em ocratic Con
v e n tio n can be found In Appendix G.
<<
Robert T. Hartmann, "Senator Kennedy W ill Address
E d ito r s on I s s u e o f 'R e lig io n and P o l i t i c s , 1" Los A n geles
T im es, A p r il 2 1 , i 9 6 0 , P a rt 1 , p . 1 3 .
. ^ I b i d . , p . 1 .
57
"N- H. Primary R e su lt H elp s Kennedy Race," Los
A n geles T im es, March 1 1, i 9 6 0 , p . 1 .
•^"Anti-Catholic Issue Hits Demo Contest," Los
Angeles Times, March 11, i960, p* 1.
2 £2
$\l
John F . K ennedy# — " ’ I s anyone g o in g to t e l l me
t h a t I l o s t t h i s prim ary 1 \Z y e a r s ago when I was b a p -
t i z e d ? ' " ^ W ith t h i s one q u e s t io n , John P . Kennedy v o ic e d
th e thou ght t h a t e x i s t e d i n the m inds o f many who were
f o l lo w in g the D em ocratic p r im a ries# The n e x t prim ary was
May 10 in West V i r g i n i a . Kennedy, a Roman C a t h o lic , and
Humphrey, a C o n g r e g a t io n a lis t , were f i g h t i n g f o r v o t e s in
96
a s t a t e w hich was n i n e t y - f i v e per c e n t P rotestant#-^
The c a n d id a te s had t r i e d to keep th e r e l i g i o u s
q u e s tio n o u t o f the e l e c t i o n s # The New Hampshire prim ary
i n w hich both Kennedy and N ixon " s e t r e c o r d s i n th e p r e
f e r e n t i a l s e c t i o n o f ‘ the se p a r a te p a r t b a llo t s " was
t .' j
r e l a t i v e l y c le a n o f th e r e l i g i o u s is s u e # ' The W isco n sin
b a t t l e o f Humphrey v e r s u s Kennedy was m arred by a n t i -
C a th o lic l i t e r a t u r e w hich cropped up from an unknown
sou rce# D en ied by Humphrey, i t was s t i l l a rem ind er th a t
dft
th e i s s u e was n o t hidden# H e a d lin e s fo r th e outcome
^ T h e n o m in ation sp eech f o r John P . Kennedy as
d e l iv e r e d by O r v ille Freeman a t th e i 960 D em ocratic Con
v e n tio n can be found i n Appendix G.
dd
R obert T# Hartmann, "S en ator Kennedy W ill A ddress
E d ito r s on I s s u e o f 'R e lig io n and P o l i t i c s , ' " Los A n g eles
T im es, A p r il 2 1 , 19&0, P a rt 1 , p# 13#
^ I b i d . , p# 1 #
"N. H# Primary R e s u lt H elp s Kennedy R ace," Los
A n g ele s T im es, March 1 1 , i 9 6 0 , p# 1 .
Anti-Catholic Issue Hits Demo Contest," Los
Angeles Times, March 11, 19&0, p. 1#
2^3
o f th e W isc o n sin prim ary r e a d : "Kennedy Wins in W isc o n sin
Prim ary: P i l e s up P opular V ote Lead, Tops Humphrey i n S ix
o f Ten D i s t r i c t s • " Even w ith such a le a d th e h ig h v o t in g
p e r c e n ta g e fo r Kennedy was a c c r e d it e d to W is c o n s in ’ s h ig h
C a th o lic p o p u la t io n . '
West V i r g in ia , s e v e r e l y s t r i c k e n by th e econom ic
r e c e s s i o n , ^ was th e n e x t sc e n e o f b a t t l e . H ubert Humphrey,
/11
the " c a n d id a te o f th e p l a i n p eop le" who was p i t t i n g h i s
" p la in ta lk " a g a in s t th e " d e c id e d ly l a c e c u r t a in B oston
accen t" o f h i s opp onent, John Kennedy, knew t h a t West
V ir g in ia would d e c id e h i s f a t e i n th e r a c e fo r th e Demo
c r a t i c n o m in a tio n . Kennedy was aware a l s o o f the im por
ta n c e o f West V ir g in ia and he was e q u a lly aware o f th e
p e r i l s in v o lv e d . I f he l o s t , he w ould have added more
am m unition to th e a r s e n a i o f th e o p p o s i t i o n . A C a th o lic
would n o t have a chance i f he c o u ld n o t ga rn er P r o t e s t a n t
v o t e s * But i f he won, th e rew ards would be g r e a t* He
would chance i t * In West V i r g in ia , by te n o ’ c lo c k on th a t
w e t, d r i z z l y e v e n in g o f May 1 0 , " . . . th e Kennedy t i d e was
^"K ennedy Wins i n W isc o n sin P rim ary," Los A n g eles
T im es, A p r il 6 , 19&0, P art 1 , p . 1 .
C h a rles Judah and George W inston S m ith , The
Unchosen (New York: Coward-McCann, I n c . , 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 3 2 3 .
^"W ho?," U. S . News and World R e p o r t, p . 5 6 .
62
Iris Coffin, "John Kennedy: Young Man in a
Hurry," Progressive, 23:11, December, 1959*
2Sk
m ovin g, p o w e r fu lly , i r r e s i s t i b l y , a l l a c r o s s th e P r o t e s t a n t
s t a t e , w r it in g i t s m essage f o r e v e r y p o l i t i c i a n in th e
n a t io n to s e e . " ^ qj the tim e a l l th e p r im a r ie s were o v e r ,
Kennedy had n e t t e d some 13k- d e le g a t e v o t e s . "Now the r e s t
o f the h a r v e s t p ro ceed ed ," w rote W h ite, " s t a t e by s t a t e ,
a c r o s s th e n a t i o n , f i t t i n g i t s e l f to the manners and m orals
o f each s t a t e ’ s p o l i t i c s l i k e an e x e r c i s e in the d i v e r s i t y
/L I
o f American l i f e . " On J u ly 1 1 , i 9 6 0 , th e op en in g day o f
the D em ocratic N a tio n a l C on ven tion in Los A n g e le s , John
P . Kennedy was a c c r e d it e d w ith 620 1 /2 o f the n e c e s s a r y
761 v o t e s needed to w in th e n o m i n a t i o n .^
Who was t h i s man who by many m easures d e f i e d and y e t
e x e m p lif ie d p a s t s t a t i s t i c s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a P r e s i
den t? He was the Ju n ior S e n a to r from M a ssa c h u se tts who was
f o r t y - t w o y e a r s o f a g e , a member o f a w e a lth y and p o l i t i c a l
f a m ily , a World War I I n a v a l h e r o , and a P u l i t z e r P r iz e
66
w inner ( P r o f i l e s in C ou rage) . He was c a l l e d "th e wonder
boy o f American p o l i t i c s . " ^ i r i s C o f f in d e s c r ib e d
^ W h it e , The Making o f th e P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , p . 13i|_•
6^ I b i d ., p . 1 6 5 .
6 <
^News ite m in th e Los A n g eles T im es, J u ly 1 1 ,
i 9 6 0 , p . 1 .
66
John P . Kennedy, P r o f i l e s in Courage (New York:
P o ck et B ooks, I n c . , 1 95 9)*
67
C o ffin , " Jo h n K e n n e d y : Y o u n g M a n in a H u rry ,"
p . 1 0 .
255
S en ator Kennedy in r e l a t i o n to th e r e l i g i o u s i s s u e th u s:
He i s a Roman C a th o lic who h as won th e p r a is e o f
f o r t y M eth o d ist B ish op s f o r h i s fr a n k n e ss and com
p e ten ce in answ ering th e ir q u e s t io n s , w h ile C a th o lic
p u b lic a t io n s have a s s a i l e d him f o r h i s 'lukewarm
a t t i t u d e ' toward p u b lic a id to p a r o c h ia l s c h o o ls
and d ip lo m a tic r e c o g n it io n o f the V a tic a n .
When q u e stio n e d i n In d ian a about r e l i g i o n and s t a t e ,
S en ator Kennedy s a id :
"There are a l o t more im p ortan t i s s u e s f a c in g u s
than r e l i g i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s , and I d o n 't th in k the
American p u b lic i s g o in g to be concerned about a
m an's f a i t h in lo o k in g over h i s q u a l i t i e s f o r
o f f i c e . R e lig io n i s a p e r so n a l m a tte r , and we a l l
b e l ie v e in s e p a r a tio n o f church and s t a t e ." ° 9
John P . Kennedy was born in t o a h ou seh old where th e
word "win" was un d ou b ted ly the f i r s t one he heard from h i s
f a t h e r , Joseph P . Kennedy. The c h ild r e n o f Joseph P. were
tau gh t to d o, do, do, and to win, w in, win w h ile doin g
The o ld e r Kennedy was a man d i f f i c u l t to d issu a d e
from any c o u r se to w hich he had once g iv e n h i s a l l e g i a n c e ,
b u t qu ick to le a v e t h i s co u rse once he found i t to be e x
p e d ie n t or a g a in s t h i s b e l i e f s . Joseph P. Kennedy had
been a fr ie n d o f F r a n k lin D. R o o s e v e lt but had broken w ith
him over the th ir d term and o v er f o r e i g n p o l i c y .
^ C o f f i n , "John Kennedy: Young Man in a H urry,"
p . 1 1 .
69
I b i d . . p . 1 2 .
^ S e v a r e id , C an d id ates I 9 6 0 , p . 1 8 8 .
*^"Who?," U. S. News and World Report, p. 5l*
256
John F . Kennedy, the so n , was n o t ed u ca ted in the
C a th o lic s c h o o ls * He a tte n d e d Harvard* F or h i s s e n io r
t h e s i s he w rote a d e s c r i p t io n o f E n g la n d 's u n p rep ared n ess
f o r w a r . F o llo w in g a d v ic e to tu rn the t h e s i s i n t o a book
(Why E ngland S l e p t ) was p ru d en t, f o r i t s o ld 8 5 ,0 0 0 c o p ie s
72
in th e U n ited S t a t e s and i n E n glan d . W hile v i s i t i n g h i s
f a t h e r who was th en Ambassador t o E ngland, Kennedy a tte n d e d
the London S c h o o l o f Econom ics and s t u d ie d under S o c i a l i s t
H arold L a s k i . ^
When war came to th e U n ite d S t a t e s , Kennedy jo in e d
the N avy. L ie u te n a n t Kennedy commanded a Navy torpedo
p a t r o l b o a t in th e Solom ons* The b o a t was k n ife d by a
Japanese d e s t r o y e r . The Commander o f the d e s t r o y e r ,
th in k in g th a t everyo n e was k i l l e d , d id n o t s t o p . Only
two o f th e t h i r t e e n men were dead* The o th e r e le v e n men
l i v e d through a week o f torm ent w ith o u t fo o d , w a te r , or
m e d ic a l a i d . K ennedy, through h e r o ic a tte m p ts a t swimming
and th e " lu ck o f the I r i s h , " was found by n a t i v e s and th e
men w ere f i n a l l y r e s c u e d * ^ As a r e s u l t o f the f a t i g u e
and work o f th e o r d e a l, an in ju r y which Kennedy had s u f
fe r e d i n f o o t b a l l some y e a r s b e fo r e began to tr o u b le him .
^ S e v a r e i d , C an d id ates I 9 6 0 , p . 190*
73
C o f f in , "John Kennedy: Young Man in a H urry,"
pp . llj-— 1 7 .
^^Sevareid, Candidates I960, pp. 191-193*
257
"In 195^ he to o k e i g h t m onths o f f from h i s S en ate work f o r
a hazardous o p e r a tio n ." ^ '’
At th e tim e th a t Kennedy was in th e h o s p i t a l the
v o te f o r c en su r e o f McCarthy was in tr o d u c e d on th e f l o o r
o f th e S en ate* Kennedy was n o t th e r e to v o te e i t h e r way.
T h is damaged Kennedy in the e y e s o f m any. Though he had
v o te d a g a in s t McCarthy on many i s s u e s (su p p o rted Dr* James
Conant fo r ambassador to West G em an y, v o te d fo r C h a rles
B oh len f o r ambassador to R u ss ia , v o te d a g a in s t R obert Lee
f o r F e d e r a l Comm unications Com m ission, and S c o t t McLeod
as ambassador to I r e l a n d ) , b eca u se he d id n o t take a
7 6
vehement p u b lic sta n d a g a in s t him he was q u e stio n e d *
Mrs* E lean or R o o s e v e lt , s t i l l somewhat b i t t e r over th e
w ithd raw al o f the e ld e r K ennedy's su p p o rt from h er husband
d u rin g h i s campaign f o r t h ir d term , was c r i t i c a l o f John
K ennedy's s i l e n c e *77 She s t a t e d :
"I f e e l t h a t I would h e s i t a t e to p la c e the d i f f i c u l t
d e c i s i o n s th a t th e n e x t P r e s id e n t w i l l have to make
w ith someone who u n d e rsta n d s what courage i s and
adm ires i t . b u t h a s n o t q u it e th e in d ep en d en ce to
have it* " 7 o
7-’"Who?," U . S . News and World R e p o r t, p . 5 1 .
7 6
R obert T* Hartmann, "Kennedy C r a ft P ick s up Speed"
Los A n g eles T im es. F ebruary 2 8 , 19&0, P a rt 1 , p . 2 .
*^Richard L* S t r o u t , "The C ool Mr* Kennedy," New
R e p u b lic , l l f 2 : l 6 , January 1 1 , 1 9 6 0 *
^ ® C o ffin , "Jo h n K e n n e d y : Y o u n g M a n In a H u rry ,"
p . Ilf.
2£8
T his s n id e r e f e r e n c e to th e P u l i t z e r P r iz e w in n in g book
o f K en n ed y's d id n o t go u n n o t ic e d , nor d id M rs. R o o s e v e l t ' s
c o n s ta n t r e f e r e n c e s t o K en n ed y's w e a lth * As a su p p o r te r
o f A d la i S te v e n s o n , M rs. R o o s e v e lt in a p r e s s c o n fe r e n c e
a t th e B iltm o r e H o te l on th e eve o f th e c o n v e n tio n s a id
she d o u b ted i f Kennedy c o u ld w in th e e l e c t i o n b e c a u se o f
the " r e l i g i o u s is s u e " and h i s " i n a b i l i t y to g e t th e
Negro v o t e ."79
N eu b erger d e s c r ib e d Kennedy as a man o f c o u r a g e ,
e s p e c i a l l y f o r h i s t a c k l in g o f th e " in flam m ab le i s s u e o f
la b o r r e f o r m * " ^ which b r o u g h t on h i s h ead th e w rath o f
la b o r l e a d e r s . The L a n d ru m -G riffin b i l l was som etim es
Q"t
termed th e K en n ed y-L an d ru m -G riffin b i l l .
Kennedy had b een a c c u se d o f " c a lm ly and d i s p a s s i o n -
Dp
a t e l y e n d o r s in g i n t e g r a t i o n in th e deep S o u th ." Y et
i n a lm o st th e same b r e a th , I r i s C o f f in r e l a t e d th e t a l e
o f a d e b a te i n w hich Kennedy h e a t e d ly p a r t i c i p a t e d t o k eep
th e e l e c t o r a l c o l l e g e from the han ds o f th e S o u th . 83
^^News item in th e Los A n g e le s T im es, J u ly 1 1 ,
i 9 6 0 , P a r t 1 , p . 2 .
p n
R ich ard L . N eu b erg er, " A d la i Eo S te v e n s o n : L a st
Chance," P r o g r e s s i v e , 2 if:1 3 # F e b ru a ry , i 9 6 0 .
0 * 1
C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r te r ly C o n v en tio n G u id e , p . 2 0 .
Op
C o f f in , "John K ennedy: Young Man i n a H urry,"
p. 13.
83Ibid., p. 11.
259
Kennedy went in th e f a l l o f 1959 in t o " th e h e a r t o f th e
so u th la n d to speak up f o r th e d e t e s t e d Supreme Court."®^
He was a c c e p te d by th e NAACP as a f r i e n d . In a G a llu p
P o l l o f the South made in A p r il, i 9 6 0 , Kennedy had cut
i n t o John son’ s l e a d . Johnson had t h i r t y per c e n t o f the
D em ocratic rank and f i l e i n th e S o u th , Kennedy had tw e n ty -
se v e n per c e n t.® '’ Kennedy managed somehow to sta n d f o r
h i s b e l i e f s and y e t to p la c a t e th o se who were a g a in s t them.
He was never j u s t f o r one s id e or the o th e r b u t seemed i n
s t e a d to b a se h i s f i g h t on th e i s s u e a t p o in t no m a tter
w hich s id e I t happened to r e f l e c t * .
Kennedy’ s v o t in g r e c o r d was termed " l i b e r a l ."
The Am ericans fo r D em ocratic A c tio n gave him a grade o f
100 per c e n t f o r v o t in g " r ig h t" on 13 key r o l l c a l l s i n the
Q /
f i r s t s e s s i o n o f t h e . 8 6th C o n g r e ss. Kennedy was n o t a
member o f the Am ericans f o r D em ocratic A c t io n . "I don’ t
se e why we have to I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e l ib e r a l is m ," he said .® ^
He v o te d " rig h t" on f i f t e e n o f s i x t e e n v o t e s on i s s u e s
w hich the AFL-CIO Committee on P o l i t i c a l E d u ca tio n termed
® ^Sevareid, C a n d id a tes I 9 6 0 , p . 2 0 7 .
®-%eorge G a llu p , "Kennedy Cuts Lead o f Johnson,"
Los A n g eles T im es, A p r il 2 2 , i 9 6 0 , P art 1 , p . 8 .
86
C o f f in , "John Kennedy: Young Man in a H urry,"
p. 12.
87
Ibid., p. 11.
260
tii •
as "key is s u e s * "
B e sid e s c i v i l r i g h t s and la b o r reform , Kennedy was
c o n sid e r e d as b e in g fo r h ig h e r w ages, fo r f e d e r a l owner
sh ip o f t id e la n d s o i l , " fo r in c r e a s e d p u b lic - w e lf a r e p r o
grams, fo r p u b lic h o u sin g , f o r f e d e r a l a id to e d u c a tio n ,
fo r in c r e a s e d d e fe n s e fu n d s , and a g a in s t m easures to
r e s t r i c t the Supreme C o u r t* " ^ One o f h i s aims was to take
su r p lu s fo o d s away frcm th e Departm ent o f A g r ic u ltu r e and
put them in the hands o f th e Departm ent o f H e a lth , Educa-
90
t io n and W elfare* He came w ith in a few v o te s o f w inn ing
th e 1956 D em ocratic V ic e - P r e s i d e n t i a l n o m in a tio n * ^
Though a l l f i v e o f the c a n d id a te s were f i g h t i n g
f o r a str o n g e r f o r e i g n p o l i c y and fo r more f o r e ig n a id ,
Kennedy had been one o f the m ost v o c a l* Kennedy was
b ack in g lo n g -te im f o r e ig n lo a n s through the I n t e r n a t io n a l
Developm ent Fund.9^
He c a lle d f o r "more Im a g in a tiv e p ro p o sa ls" to break
th e lo g -ja m in the w o r ld ’ s d e p r e sse d a r e a s — r e la x in g
tra d e b a r r ie r s , e x te n d in g lo n g -te rm c r e d i t s , t e c h n ic a l
a s s i s t a n c e , and su r p lu s fo o d com m od ities, and making
®®Sevareid, C an d id ates I 9 6 0 . p . 2 0 6 .
®9"Who?," U* S* News and World R e p o r t, p . 51*
^ C o f f i n , "John Kennedy: Young Man i n a H urry,"
p . 1 2 .
91
C o n g r e ssio n a l Q u a rterly C on ven tion G uide, p . 2 0 .
92
Coffin, "John Kennedy: Young Man in a Hurry,"
P- 13.
261
American c a p i t a l a v a ila b le on a lo n g -te r m , i n t e r
n a tio n a l b a s i s *93
H is aim was to c l o s e what he c a l l e d th e "econom ic gap"
e x i s t i n g betw een the f o r e i g n c o u n t r ie s and A m erica.
What m ight be termed a s s e t s f o r Kennedy m igh t ju s t
as e a s i l y be term ed l i a b i l i t i e s . John Kennedy e n te r e d the
S en a te a t t h i r t y - f i v e . He was hoping to e n ter th e White
House a t f o r t y - t h r e e . I t was d i f f i c u l t f o r a n a tio n
c o n d itio n e d to a "F ather Image" to r e c o n c il e i t s e l f to the
image o f a 6 f o o t e r , w eig h in g l 6o pounds, w ith tw in k lin g
e y e s , th a t c h -c o lo r e d fly -a w a y h a i r , wide g r in n in g mouth,
who spoke w ith a B oston a c c e n t and p o s s e s s e d a h ig h d egree
o f se x ap p eal and s i n c e r i t y . He was n o t mature enough.
He was to o youn g. The f a c t th a t youth m ight be an a s s e t
was o f t e n o v e r lo o k e d . Kennedy co u ld l a s t the two terms in
th e W hite House and s t i l l be i n the prime o f l i f e in s te a d
o f i t s d o ta g e . He was by no means la c k in g in i n t e l l e c t u a l
prow ess and u n d e rsta n d in g and had the en erg y to expend on
a m an's jo b .
Kennedy*s w ea lth and h i s l o y a l hard-w orking fa m ily
were d e f i n i t e l y a s s e t s b u t b oth were c o n sid e r e d l i a b i l i t i e s
by many. C lev ela n d Armory s a id th e fa m ily was " th e one
th in g th a t i s d o in g m ost to in j u r e th e c a u se " — th e cause
93coffin, "John Kennedy: Young Man in a Hurry,"
P- 13.
262
Q[l
b e in g the c a n d id a cy . 7 M _ Though th e e l d e r Kennedy had s ta y e d
i n F lo r id a away from the c a m p a ig n in g , th e r e s t o f th e fam ily
worked n ig h t and day t o f u r t h e r th e cam p aign . Everyw here
th e r e was a Kennedy in th e p i c t u r e . T h is m ig h ty b u t t r e s s
o f th e K en nedy's backed b y an e q u a lly m ighty b u t t r e s s o f
w e a lth r e p e l l e d some i n d i v i d u a l s and even f r ig h t e n e d them .
One a r t i c l e i n Newsweek p ic t u r e d th e Humphrey-Kennedy
f a m i l i e s w ith t h i s b a n n er: "On th e Stump in W isc o n sin :
E ig h t o f th e Kennedy C lan . . . And Two Humphreys
The name o f John Kennedy was so p o w er fu l t h a t a man in
M a ssa c h u se tts by th e same name (b u t no r e l a t i o n ) had been
ru n n in g f o r p u b lic o f f i c e and w in n in g . He became t r e a s u r e r
and r e c e i v e r - g e n e r a l o f M a s s a c h u s e tt s . He to o had w r i t t e n
a book b u t i t was on W h ist and nobody would buy i t .^ 6
The Kennedy fa m ily was so c l o s e - k n i t t h a t many f e l t th e
p o s i t i o n o f John Kennedy was th e f u l f i l l i n g o f a job m eant
f o r a n o th er Kennedy— J o e , who was k i l l e d i n th e w a r--a n d
was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y th e one t h a t John Kennedy would have
c h o s e n .^
^ C le v e la n d Armory, "Equal Book-Tim e to a V i s - a -
V is ," S atu rd ay R e v ie w . J 4. 3 :1 7 , January 3 0 , i 9 6 0 .
^ " C am p aign ' 6 0 ," Newsweek. 5 5 : 3 0 - 3 1 , March 2 8 , i 9 6 0.
9^Jack Burby, "The O ther John F . K ennedy," The
R e p o r te r , 2 2 : 3 1 , A p r il II4 ., 1 9 6 0 .
^ H a rtm a n n , "Kennedy C r a ft P ic k s up S p eed ," p . 2 .
S e v a r e id , C a n d id a te s I 9 6 0 , p . 195*
263
"Jack" Kennedy’s lovely wife, Jacqueline, though
an asset, might have been seen by many as a lia b ility .
Jacqueline, a raven-haired, cultured beauty with wealth
of her own, would be the youngest f ir s t lady ever in the
White House.
. . . dazzling and youthful beauty in a prospective
fir s t lady is an unknown quantity in modern p o litic s.
There's a feeling that wom en voters would prefer a
kind of middle-aged neutrality in the wife of the
candidate.98
Their two-year old daughter, Caroline, would be
one of the youngest children to live in the White House.
Having a new-born baby in the White House (Mrs. Kennedy
was expecting) would be a novelty for the American people.
Kennedy had two assets which could not be viewed as
lia b ilit ie s . The character and personal popularity of
Kennedy, if anything, grew during the race for the nomina
tion •
Professor Arthur Schlesinger Jr., who used to
write iambic pentameter for the Democratic Presi
dential nominee in 1952 and 1 9 5 6, sum m ed up what
seems to be the predominant feeling here [Harvard] :
"I guess," he said here today, "I'm nostalgically
for Stevenson, ideologically for Humphrey and
re a listic a lly for Kennedy."99
98
Fletcher Knebel, "Mrs. John Kennedy: She Looks
at P olitics with Rare Aplomb," Los Angeles Times. March 8 .
i 9 6 0, Part 2, p. 1.
99»Harvard Professors Slipping Away from Stevenson
Toward Kennedy," Los Angeles Times, March 11, i 960, Part
1 , p . 2 .
Zbh,
K en n ed y's sp eech -m ak in g im proved trem en d o u sly d u rin g th e
cam p aigning* An E con om ist c o r r e sp o n d e n t d e s c r ib e d h i s
sp e e c h e s a s s p a r k lin g w ith "urbane i l l u s i o n s and e r u d it e
q u o t a t i o n s ." ’ 1 '00
B io g r a p h ic a l m a t e r ia l abou t Kennedy p u b lis h e d b e fo r e
th e C o n v en tio n s o f i 9 6 0 seemed t o c o n t a in th e same f a c t u a l
m a t e r ia l* There was one o th e r t r a i t — the p u zzlem en t over
th e " r e a l" John F . Kennedy* And t h i s was how i t would be
i n th e f u t u r e , f o r a s Kennedy s a id i n h i s p r iz e -w in n in g
n o v e l, P r o f i l e s i n C ou rage* "However d e t a i l e d may have
b een our stu d y o f h i s l i f e , each man rem ain s so m eth in g o f
101
an enigma*" There was much to com m end.in I r i s C o f f i n ' s
a n a l y s i s o f Kennedy:
I f th e S e n a to r i s n om in ated , w r i t e r s and p o l i t i c a l
a n a l y s t s w i l l t r y to d is c o v e r " th e r e a l Kennedy."
They w i l l f i n d b a f f l i n g gaps i n th e Kennedy s t o r y .
But th e y w i l l a l s o f i n d , a s I d i d , a young man o f
e x tr a o r d in a r y p e r s o n a l charm who i s r e a p in g a p u b lic
r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t i r e d o ld m en. They w i l l d i s
c o v er a f i r s t - r a t e i n t e l l e c t , a v a s t and v a r ie d
k n ow led ge, a f i e r c e l y c o m p e titiv e d r i v e , and a
s p i r i t t h a t sta n d s r a t h e r a l o o f and a l o n e *102
■ * - 0 0 "John F . Kennedy: An O v ersea s V iew ," C h r is t ia n
C e n tu r y , 77:70# January BO, I 9 6 0 .
1 0 ^Kennedy, P r o f i l e s in C ou rage, p . 2 0 2 .
- ^ ^ C o f f in , "John Kennedy: Young Man in a H urry,"
p. 18*
265
1 C H
A d la i S te v e n s o n . —
Someone asked me, a s I came i n , down on the
s t r e e t , how I f e l t and I was rem inded o f a s to r y
t h a t a fello w -to w n sm a n o f ours u se d to t e l l - -
Abraham L in c o ln , They ask ed him how he f e l t once
a f t e r an u n s u c c e s s f u l e l e c t i o n * He s a id he f e l t
l i k e a l i t t l e boy who had stu b b ed h i s to e in the
d a r k . He s a id t h a t he was top o ld to c r y , but i t
h u r t him to o much to lau gh *1°4-
With th e se words A d la i S te v e n so n bowed o u t a f t e r th e f i r s t
u n s u c c e s s f u l a ttem p t fo r the P r e sid e n c y i n 1952* Four
y e a r s l a t e r he was back a g a in in the mad r a ce f o r the
White H ou se. A gain he had to t e l l a t e a r f u l a u d ien ce the
p la y was over*
"My dear and l o y a l f r i e n d s , take h e a r t - - t h e r e a re
th in g s more p r e c io u s th an p o l i t i c a l v i c t o r y ; th ere i s
th e r ig h t to p o l i t i c a l c o n t e s t . . . Now I b id you
g o o d -n ig h t, w ith a f u l l h e a r t and f e r v e n t prayer
t h a t we w i l l m eet o f t e n a g a in i n the l i b e r a l s ’
e v e r l a s t i n g b a t t l e a g a in s t ig n o r a n c e , p o v e r ty ,
m ise r y and w ar.105
There was l i t t l e doubt in th e m inds o f Dem ocrats
and adm irers o f A d la i E* S te v e n so n t h a t he would make a
g r e a t P r e s i d e n t T h e doubt w as— c o u ld he be e le c t e d ?
103The n om in ation sp eech f o r A d la i S te v e n so n as
d e liv e r e d by Eugene J* McCarthy a t the i 960 D em ocratic
C on ven tion can be found i n Appendix G.
■^^Adlai E . S te v e n so n , Major Campaign S p eech es o f
A d la i E . S te v e n so n . 1952 (New Y ork: Random H ouse, 1 9 5 3 ),
p . 3 2 0 *
^°^R obert T. Hartmann, '’S te v e n so n A b le , Ready and
Wary," Los A n g eles T im es, March 7» 19&0, P a rt 2 , p . 2 8 .
^ ■ ^ S evareid , c a n d id a te s i 9 6 0 , p . 21*
S tev en so n had been d e fe a te d tw ice by la n d s lid e s * The
f i r s t tim e in 195>2 he was d e fe a te d by 6 , £ 0 0 ,0 0 0 v o te s ;
th e second tim e in 19!?6 by 9»5>OQ,000 v o te s More
Americans v o te d f o r S te v en so n than had v o ted f o r any
P r e s i d e n t i a l ca n d id a te o th e r than fo r F r a n k lin D- R o o s e v e lt
i n 1936 and Dwight D* E isen h o w er.^08 T his v o te o f c o n f i
dence was n o t enough o f a v o te t o g e t S te v en so n in t o the
W hite House* Palmer Hoyt o f th e Denver P o st s a id when he
heard the r e s u l t s o f th e e l e c t i o n , "Who could have lic k e d
George W ashington? That was how G eneral Eisenhow er was
p r e se n te d to the American p e o p l e * " ^ 9 C lare Boothe Luce
d e sc r ib e d E isenhow er a s a son t o o ld e r women, a husband to
m id d le-a g ed women, and a f a t h e r to young women, b u t th a t
S te v e n so n rem inded her o f a b r o t h e r - i n - l a w E r i c
S e v a r e id , who seemed to be a S tev en so n man, s a id , " S tev en
son charmed the i n t e l l e c t ; Eisenhow er charmed th e h ea rt*
A ll American v o t e r s have h e a r t s , b u t n o t a l l have i n t e l
l e c t s ; i t was an uneven m atch from the b e g in n in g .
At the tim e the i 960 D em ocratic C onvention opened,
^ ^ N e u b e r g e r , "A dlai E* S te v en so n : L a st Chance,"p* 8.
^ ® R o b ert T* Hartmann, " i t J u st M ight Be S tev en so n
A gain," Los A n geles T im es, March 6 , i 9 6 0 , Part 1 , p . 2*
10< ^Neuberger, "A dlai E . S te v en so n : L ast Chance," p* 8.
■^■^Sevareid, C andidates i 9 6 0 , p . 12*
111
Ibid*
S te v e n so n had n o t d e c la r e d h im s e lf a s a c a n d id a te fo r
c o n s id e r a t io n , b u t n e it h e r had he e lim in a t e d the p o s s i
b i l i t y * uHe i s s t i l l the th in k in g m an's c a n d id a te , 1 1 s a id
112
Mary McGrory. And t h i s was t r u e . A side from Kennedy,
S te v e n so n was th e o n ly o th e r c a n d id a te who seemed to read
or to b e l i e v e in th in k in g d e e p ly about i s s u e s . He had th e
advan tage over Kennedy o f b e in g o ld e r and o f h a v in g done
more i n the way o f t r a v e l . Through h i s cam paigns he had
rea ch ed the p e o p le . S te v e n so n d e f i n i t e l y had a charm,
but i t was n o t th e type which would sweep a n a tio n or g iv e
women the u rg e to run t h e i r f i n g e r s through h i s h a ir as
th ey m igh t want to do to John K ennedy. And i t was n ot
j u s t a m a tte r o f h i s n o t h a v in g enough h a i r . I t was a
m a tte r o f th e unbending a lo o f n e s s which S te v e n so n p o sse sse d .
Some c a l l e d i t s h y n e s s . Some c a l l e d i t p e r s e r v e r a n c e • He
r e f u s e d to do th e hom ely l i t t l e th in g s l i k e r id in g on the
back o f an open c a r , or w a lk in g down the m id d le a i s l e a t
a t e l e v i s e d r a l l y , or c a l l i n g cou n ty chairm en, when he
p a ssed through a tow n. He r e f u s e d to p la y th e game, to
take p a r t i n th e r i t u a l o f p o l i t i c s . He c a l l e d th e
campaigns ua d ia lo g u e o f d e m o c r a c y was an
^ ■ ^ S evareid , C an d id a tes 19&Q, P* 2L |_1 •
113I b i d . , p p . 2 2 2 -2 2 3 *
268
i d e a l i s t *
S tev en so n was w ell-k now n to th e American p eo p le*
During the campaigns th ey became very much aware o f th e
is s u e s f o r which he sto o d and the f a c t th a t he was n o t
a f r a id to stand f o r them r e g a r d le s s o f the time or p la c e *
The v e ry i r o n i c a l touch was t h a t in 199& he ad vocated ban
n in g o f n u c le a r t e s t s and was soundly thumped by b oth
Eisenhow er and N ixon . Both l a t e r were i n fa v o r o f t h i s
ban*"®'^^- He had planned i f e l e c t e d to take a q u ick t r i p
to K orea, Japan, and In d ia to see f o r h im s e lf what th e
s i t u a t i o n was and to m eet th e p eop le th ere* T his p la n was
k e p t s e c r e t so t h a t , as S te v en so n put i t , " I t would n o t be
co n str u e d as a p o l i t i c a l g estu reo " But E isenhow er d id u se
such a plan to t e l l the p eo p le th a t an e a r ly s e tt le m e n t was
in th e o f fin g * T his o f f e r o f peace h e lp e d E isenhow er win
119
the e le c t i o n * ^ S tev en so n d e sc r ib e d h im s e lf a f t e r the
f i r s t nom in ation as a " r e lu c t a n t dragon*" And w e ll he
sh ou ld have b e e n . He had planned to run fo r Governor of
I l l i n o i s and the campaign was b ein g mapped o u t . He had no
p r e ss su pp ort fo r th e P r e s i d e n t i a l campaign, l i t t l e money,
no s t a f f , no m anager, and he was running a g a in s t a n a tio n a l
^"^Neuberger, "A dlai E* S te v e n so n : L a st Chance,"
p . 9*
119
^ S te v e n so n , M a .io r C a m p a ig n S p e e c h e s o f A d la i E .
S te v e n so n , p . xxvii.
269
h e r o o ^ k
The cam paigns o f S te v e n so n p r e s e n te d some i n t e r e s t
in g s i d e l i g h t s * During the 1952 cam paign, S tev en so n wrote
m ost o f h i s own sp ee ch es* In f a c t , "• • • on many occasion s
in 1952 l o c a l b ig w ig s c o u ld n o t se e the c a n d id a te b eca u se
he was busy p o lis h in g h i s sp e e c h e s u n t i l c u r ta in tim e •" '*'■ *'7
To many p e o p le a f a m i li a r p ic t u r e o f S tev en so n i s
t h a t o f a w orried f ig u r e s i t t i n g on a sta g e hunched
over a m a n u sc r ip t, w r itin g i n words, c r o s s in g o u t
w ords, frow ning* He t o l d h i s s o n 's Marine Commis
s io n in g c l a s s th a t th e c a n d id a t e 's w hole con cern i s
" to f in d th e r i g h t w ords, th e tr u e , f a i t h f u l , e x
p l i c i t words which w i l l make the i s s u e s p la in and
h i s p o s i t i o n on th o s e i s s u e s c l e a r * " H 8
S te v en so n ran th e 1952 campaign th e b e s t he could w ith
h i s lim it e d p o l i t i c a l know ledge* T his was n ot enough,
f o r th e R ep u b lican s had the W h ita k er-B a x ter a d v e r tis in g
company as t h e i r m anagers* S t a n le y K e lle y J r . d e s c r ib e d
the d i f f e r e n c e s in p r e p a r a tio n *
The campaign t h a t had ended w ith t h i s r e s u l t had
a l s o r e v e a le d some i n t e r e s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s in th e
p o s i t i o n o ccu p ied by p r o f e s s i o n a l p u b l i c i t y in th e
c o u n c ils o f the o p p o sin g p a r t ie s * The s t r a t e g y ,
tre a tm en t o f i s s u e s , u s e o f m ed ia, b u d g e tin g , and
p acin g o f th e E isenhow er campaign showed the
p e r v a s iv e in f lu e n c e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l p r o p a g a n d ists*
The dem ocrats u sed few er p r o f e s s i o n a l s , were l e s s
a p t to draw upon com m ercial and i n d u s t r i a l p u b lic
•i 1 i
S te v e n s o n , Major Campaign S p eech es o f A d la i E *
S te v e n s o n , pp* x x - x x i i i •
^■^Neuberger, "A dlai E . S te v e n so n : L ast Chance,"
p. 10.
l^sevareid, candidates I960, p. 231.
2?0
r e l a t i o n s e x p e r ie n c e i n t h e i r t h in k in g , and t h e i r
p u b l i c i t y men a p p a r e n t ly had l e s s o f a v o ic e i n th e
p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s o f th e campaign* In t h e i r 1952
o r g a n i z a t i o n , no one p la y e d a r o le q u i t e l i k e t h a t o f
R ob ert Humphreys i n th e R e p u b lica n cam paign or l i k e
t h a t o f C h a r le s M ic h e lso n In e a r l i e r D em ocra tic
e f f o r t s . H 9
A f t e r d e f e a t in 1 9 5 2 , th e p r e p a r a tio n f o r th e 1956
cam paign began im m e d ia te ly . Sem inars were h e ld to d i s c u s s
th e i s s u e s w ith th e to p men in th e d i f f e r e n t a r e a s , a
r e s e a r c h s t a f f was s e t up w hich c o l l e c t e d t r u c k - lo a d s o f
m a t e r i a l , and a s p e c i a l " sp e e c h s t a f f " was s e l e c t e d .'* ' ^
S te v e n s o n , h ow ever, s t i l l p o lis h e d and honed h i s s p e e c h e s
up to th e v e r y l a s t m in u te b e f o r e d e l i v e r y . The p u b lic
r e l a t i o n s p e o p le a g r ee d w h o le - h e a r t e d ly w ith S t e v e n s o n .
They f e l t t h a t " . . . words can shape m en’ s a c t i o n s and
m old m en 's m in d s." They were " . . . s e r i o u s ab o u t t a l k ." " ^
But " ta lk " was n o t en o u g h .
U n fo r t u n a t e ly t h i s p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith th e w r i t t e n
word d id n o t in c lu d e a c o n s i d e r a t io n o f d e l i v e r y .
S t e v e n s o n 's d e l i v e r y was v e ry u n e v e n . He r e f u s e d to l e a r n
th e sim p le l e s s o n s o f e f f e c t i v e t e l e v i s i o n d e l i v e r y .
T IQ
7S t a n le y K e l l e y , J r . , P r o f e s s i o n a l P u b lic R e la
t i o n s and P o l i t i c a l Power { B a ltim o r e : The Johns H opkins
P r e s s , 1 9 5 6 ) , P* 5 0 .
^ ^ R u s s e l W indes, J r . , " A d la i E . S t e v e n s o n 's S p eech
S t a f f i n th e 1 9 5 6 Campaign," Q u a r te r ly J o u r n a l o f S p e e c h ,
I4 .6 :32-I(.3, F e b ru a ry , i 9 6 0 .
1
^ K e l l e y , P r o f e s s i o n a l P u b lic R e la t io n s and
P o l i t i c a l Pow er, pp. 2 1 7 - 2 1 0 .
^Sevareid, Candidates I960, p. 232.
271
He seemed to f a v o r , h ow ever, th e j u d ic io u s u s e o f t e l e
v i s i o n — f o r exam p le, a s a n a tio n -w id e d e b a te b etw een ca n
d i d a t e s .' 1 ' ^ He f e l t th e cam paigns were a l l a l o t o f
" h u lla b a lo o " and t h a t th e Am erican p e o p le sh o u ld g e t
129
th e tr u th i n s t e a d o f a l o t o f empty p r o m is e s .
S te v e n so n a tte n d e d P r in c e to n , H arvard, and f i n i s h e d
up h i s law d eg ree a t N o rth w estern U n i v e r s i t y . He was born
i n Los A n g eles and the fa m ily moved t o I l l i n o i s when he- was
s t i l l a b o y . He d e s c r ib e d h i s e a r ly b e l i e f s a s p a r e n ta l
in o r i g i n .
Sm all wonder, th e n , t h a t as I grew up In B loom in g
to n , I found m y s e lf in M o th er's b e lo v e d U n ita r ia n
Church and F a t h e r 's b e lo v e d D em ocratic P a r ty . I
g u e s s I was a compromise to b e g in w ith , w hich may
have p r e d e s t in e d a p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r f o r w hich I had
no c o n s c io u s stom ach, and, I m ig h t add, no p o s i t i v e
encouragem ent from my f a t h e r a t t h a t tim e .1 2 6
S te v e n so n became Governor o f I l l i n o i s in 19^4-7 and
would have ru n f o r a secon d term i f he had n o t been
d r a f t e d a s a P r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te i n 1 9 ^ 2 .
S te v e n so n la c k e d one v e r y im p o r ta n t item f o r a
P r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a t e - - a w if e to sta n d by h i s s id e and
■^-^Adlai e . S te v e n so n , "P lan f o r a G reat D eb a te,"
T h is Week M agazine. March 6 , i 9 6 0 , p p . lij_-lfJ.
•^ ^ A d la i E . S te v e n s o n , "C hoice by H u lla b a lo o ,"
T h is Week M agazin e, F ebruary 2 8 , 19&0, p p . 8-15*
129
^ S te v e n so n , Major Campaign S p eech es o f A d la i E .
S te v e n s o n , p . x x v i .
•^^Ibid., p. xvi.
272
1 2 7
h e lp him in h i s cam paign. ‘ S te v e n so n m arried l o v e l y
E lle n Bordan when he was 29 and she 20# They had th r ee
s o n s . The p o l i t i c a l tr e a d m ill o f cam paigning and th e
li m e l i g h t seem in g ly s p o t lig h t e d on her husband was more
than E lle n co u ld ta k e and she d iv o r c e d S te v en so n soon a f t e r
he became Governor#. Her remarks about t h e ir r e l a t io n s h ip
d id n o t h e lp S te v en so n fu r th e r h i s ca re er
At s i x t y S te v en so n was s t i l l h e a lt h y , s t i l l on the
move, s t i l l eager to say what he th o u gh t and f e l t was b e s t
f o r the American p e o p le . Newsweek r e p o r te d A d la i would
1 2Q
run i f d r a f t e d . ' R obert Hartmann, Mary McGrory, and
o th er b io g ra p h ers f e l t t h a t S te v en so n m ight be th e "com
prom ise No. 2" as he was c a ll e d in U. S . News and World
4- 130
R ep o rt.
N in e tee n s i x t y would be S te v e n s o n 's l a s t ch a n c e .
I t would a l s o be a tim e o f o p p o rtu n ity f o r the D em ocrats.
One o f the b ig q u e s tio n s was would th ey r i s k i t by g iv in g
a tw o-tim e l o s e r anoth er chance or would th e y be safer* w ith
an u n t r ie d , f r e s h c a n d id a te ?
"^^Kenneth S . D a v is , A P rophet in H is Own Country
(New York: Doubleday and Company, I n c . , 1 9 5 7 ), p . 1 7 0 .
1 2 8I b i d . , pp. 3 1 2 -3 1 7 .
129«would A d la i, G lad ly?," Newsweek, 3 5 :3 0 , A p r il
2 5 , I 9 6 0 .
130,,who?,l t U. S. News and World Report, 1.6:55.
273
As Judah and Sm ith r e p o r te d in r e t r o s p e c t :
There was no f a v o r i t e , A d la i S te v e n so n p rob ab ly
would have b e e n , had h e been w i l l i n g to e n te r * He
was as w e l l known to Am erican v o t e r s a s R ichard Nixon
and c o u ld c la im g r e a te r know ledge o f w orld a f f a i r s
and g r e a te r p r e s t i g e abroad* A lthou gh he was
c l e a r l y a v a i la b l e sh o u ld th e p a r ty c a l l him , he
would make no move w h a tso ev er fo r th e n o m in a tio n .
T h is was h i s s to r y and he s tu c k by i t * H is r o le
i n the p r e -c o n v e n t!o n cam paign was to be l a r g e l y
t h a t o f a s p o i l e r who p r e v e n te d a la r g e number o f
a lm o st f a n a t i c a l l y d e v o te d f o llo w e r s from su p p o r tin g
a n o th er c a n d id a te * They w a ite d and hoped fo r
A d l a i .131
The r e l u c t a n t b u t p o s i t i v e r o l e o f S te v e n so n from
the p o s i t i o n o f a n o n -co n ten d e r t o th a t o f an a c t i v e can
d id a t e d id n o t become a r e a l i z e d f a c t u n t i l th e m orning
o f th e day i n which th e n o m in a tio n s were to be made*
He may have b een lu r e d in t o sh a r in g th e daydreams o f
a s p e c t a c u la r ly a m a teu rish s e t o f v o lu n t e e r m an agers,
or he may have been p ersu ad ed t h a t a H ollyw ood -
plan ned "dem on stration " on th e c o n v e n tio n f l o o r c o u ld
stampede th e d e l e g a t e s ,-*-32
W hatever the c a u s e , a t a p p r o x im a te ly e le v e n o ’ c lo c k on
J u ly llj., Eugene M cCarthy, S en a to r from M in n eso ta , was
asked to g iv e the n o m in a tio n s p e e c h . "^3
S te v e n so n had d e c id e d ,; b u t too l a t e * S te v e n s o n ’ s
r o l e i n th e p la y fo r th e W hite House was t r u ly over*
Judah and Sm ith , The U n ch osen , p , 3 llj-*
•*"3^Krock, "C onvention P roves A m bition Can Corrode
M an's Judgment," p , 3*
133
Eugene McCarthy, Letter to Sarah Sanderson from
Eugene McCarthy, United States Senate, Committee on Agri
culture and Forestry, Washington, D* C., May 8, 1961^•
27b-
nThe D em ocratic C onvention had gambled on th e r i g h t and
b e s t man* I t won i t s gamble on the r i g h t man* The v e r d ic t
on the b e s t man w i l l have to aw ait h is to r y * » ^ ^ '
S tu a r t S y m i n g t o n "You can never le a r n what you
a lr e a d y know*"^® Though t h i s was th e f a v o r i t e sa y in g o f
S en ator S tu a r t Sym ington from M is so u r i, i t d id n o t apply
to th e s e l e c t i o n o f a D em ocratic nom inee fo r P r e s id e n t a t
th e i 960 C onvention* R e g a rd less o f how c e r t a in the outcome
o f the D em ocratic C on ven tion seemed on Ju ly 1 1 , i 9 6 0 , the
n om in ation was s t i l l a moot q u e s tio n In the m inds o f many.
A ccording to Robert Hartmann, Sym ington was
• . • p r e -e m in e n tly a p r a c t i c a l man w ith a m onoto
n o u sly p e r s i s t e n t p u rp ose, perhaps a too se re n e
c e r t a in t y th a t he i s r i g h t , th a t r i g h t makes m ig h t,
and j u s t m ight make him P r e sid e n t*
The b ig q u e s tio n was would th e r e be a compromise
a t th e con ven tion ? "S en ator S tu a r t Sym ington sta n d s ou t
as th e compromise c h o ic e o f a d e a d -lo c k e d Convention*""^®
Judah and Sm ith, The U nchosen, p . 331 *
139
-^The nom ination sp eech fo r S tu a r t Sym ington as
d e liv e r e d by James T. B l a ir , J r . , a t th e i 960 D em ocratic
C onvention can be found in Appendix G.
■^^Sevareid, C an d id ates i 9 6 0 , p . 279*
-^ R obert T* Hartmann, "Sym ington Had Had 3
C a reers," Los A n geles Tim es, February 2 2 , i 9 6 0 , P art 1 ,
p . 1 3 .
^®®"Who?," U. S. Mews and World Report, p. 53*
275
I t was e x p e c te d th a t Sym ington w ould be th e man to whom
th e Los A n g e le s C o n v en tio n would tu r n i f "(a) i t becom es
d e a d lo c k e d , so f a r as f r o n t - r u n n e r s are c o n c e r n e d ,1 1 and
" (b ) th o se who would e n g in e e r a ’ S te v e n so n d r a f t ’ run ou t
o f wind*"1 -^ Sym ington d id n o t d e c la r e h i m s e l f a c a n d i
d a te u n t i l March 2 5 , 19&0, and r e f u s e d to e n t e r the p r i
m a r ie s f o r he b e l ie v e d t h a t the p e o p le would g e t t i r e d o f
th e c a n d id a te s b e fo r e th e C on ven tio n A f t e r h i s d e c l a r
a t i o n o f c a n d id a c y , Sym ington became b e t t e r known b u t d id
n o t become a w id ely -k n o w n pop u lar Am erican f i g u r e u n t i l
r a t h e r l a t e i n th e s e a s o n . In a D a n ie l Y a n k e lo v ic h I n
c o r p o r a te d s u r v e y , Sym ington had th e " v a g u e st p u b lic image"
o f th e c a n d i d a t e s T h e f a c t t h a t he e n te r e d so l a t e and
t h a t he r e f u s e d to cam paign d id n o t h e lp b r in g h i s name
b e f o r e th e p u b lic * He had r e fu s e d to e n te r th e p r im a r ie s
or t o cam paign i n 1 9 5 6 . H is r e f u s a l in 19&0 was what
Judah and Sm ith c a ll e d " s t r a t e g y
S ym in gton , "a sym bol o f r e s p e c t a b i l i t y i n
1 3 9 w iH ia m H. S t r i n g e r , " M is s ile C an d id a te from
M is s o u r i," S atu rd ay R e v ie w , i|.3:1 8 , January 3 0 , i 9 6 0 .
■^•^Don Shannon, "Sen* Sym ington D e c la r e s H e ' l l be
C a n d id a te ," Los A n g ele s T im es. March 2 5 , 1 9 ^ 0 , P a rt 1 ,
p . l , p * l 6 *
^ ^ Y a n k e l o v i c h ,' "U• S* V o te r s ' Image o f I d e a l
P r e s id e n t ," p . 13&.
Judah and Smith, The Unchosen, p. 319*
276
p o l i t i c s w a s known as th e " m is s ile c a n d id a te from
M isso u r i *"'^^‘ He was a man o f th r e e c a r e e r s — a s u c c e s s f u l
b u sin essm a n , a "top l e v e l b u re a u c r a t o f th e Truman a d m in is
t r a t i o n ," and a U n ite d S t a t e s S en a to r
The S e n a to r was a man o f w e a lth b u t he was n o t born
to w ea lth * He am assed t h i s w e a lth (1) by m arrying in t o
w e a lth , and ( 2 ) by a s e r i e s o f shrewd b u s in e s s v e n t u r e s .
Sym ington p r id e d h im s e lf on h i s know ledge o f p e o p le * He
had th e a b i l i t y to walk i n t o a p la n t or i n d u s t r i a l s e t - u p ,
to a s c e r t a i n th e p ro b a b le d i f f i c u l t i e s , to judge the p e o p le
i n v o lv e d , s e t up a s o l u t i o n , and ir o n ou t the d i f f i c u l t i e s .
He was a top-m anagem ent o f f i c i a l who had an i n s t i n c t i v e
tou ch f o r i d e n t i f y i n g break-dow ns i n com m unication and u se d
i n d u s t r i a l p sy c h o lo g y i n ord er to r e s o l v e p ro b lem s. He
bought c o n t r o l o f a f a l t e r i n g r a d io company s h o r t ly a f t e r
th e d e p r e s s io n , p ersu ad ed th e p r e s id e n t o f S e a r s Roebuck
and Company o f th e company’ s w orth , and ended up s e l l i n g
t h i s company to S y lv a n ia making b o th h im s e lf and S ea rs
Roebuck w e a l t h y H e w alked i n t o th e tr o u b le a r e a s
James A. B u rk h art, "Sym ington: The M iddle Man
from the M iddle B order," P r o g r e s s i v e . 23:29* O ctob er, 19^ 9.
t r i n g e r , " M is s ile C an didate from M is so u r i,"
p. 18-19*
^^Hartmann, "Symington Had Had 3 Careers," p. 2.
277
o f th e Emerson E l e c t r i c M an u fa ctu rin g Company and by h i s
judgment o f th e i n d i v i d u a l s in v o lv e d and by h i s own d i l i
g e n t in d u s t r y c le a r e d up th e com m u nication m anagem ent-
u n io n d i f f i c u l t i e s * ^ 7 Other v e n tu r e s fo llo w e d * Each
added to th e many f i g u r e s on S ym in gton *s bank b a la n c e *
Perhaps th e g r e a t e s t com plim ent t h a t c o u ld be p a id h i s
a d m in is t r a t iv e a b i l i t y was t h a t d u r in g th e war, Emerson
was th e o n ly im p o r ta n t f a c t o r y i n S t* L o u is t h a t d id n o t
have labor-m anagem ent d i f f i c u l t i e s i f the o u t - o f - d a t e
c o n c e p t o f th e P r e s id e n t as an A d m in is tr a to r was r e v i v e d ,
Sym ington would be th e l o g i c a l c a n d id a t e *-^9 H ow ever,
S e v a r e id i n h i s p i c t u r e o f th e "i d e a l c a n d id a te 1 1 made i t
c le a r t h a t he f e l t governm ent was n o t a " b u s in e s s 1 1 and
t h a t the tr u e f u n c t i o n o f the C h ie f E x e c u tiv e had l i t t l e
to do w ith " a d m in is tr a tio n
A l l o f t h e s e b u s in e s s v e n tu r e s b ro u g h t Sym ington
to H arry Truman* s a t t e n t i o n . He became known as "Truman* s
tr o u b le - s h o o t e r He headed th e S u r p lu s P ro p er ty
^ ^ S e v a r e i d , C an didates 19&0, p p . 2 ^ 8 -2 6 0 .
^ I b i d . , p . 2 6 1 .
•^ ^ B u rk h art, "Sym ington: The M iddle Man from the
M iddle B ord er," p* 28*
^ S e v a r e i d , C a n d id a te s 19& 0. p . 21*
^ ^ ■ S tr in g e r , " M is s ile C an d id ate from M is s o u r i,"
p* 18*
278
D i s p o s a l , th e N a tio n a l S e c u r it y R eso u rces B oard, the
R esou rce F in a n ce C o r p o r a tio n , and th e A ir F o r c e . He was
the man whom th e h i s t o r i a n s w i l l c r e d i t w ith the c r e a t io n
o f a se p a r a te A ir F orce B ecau se o f h i s work w ith
Truman, Sym ington had th e e ld e r s ta te s m a n ’ s b a c k in g .
The t h ir d phase o f S ym in gton ’ s c a r e e r began i n 1953
when he e n te r e d th e S e n a t e . When q u e s tio n e d by R ob ert
Hartmann a s to th e m ost d i f f i c u l t d e c i s i o n he e v e r made,
he s a id he f e l t i t was le a v i n g p r iv a t e b u s in e s s and d e
c id in g t o run f o r o f f i c e S y m in g to n 's e x p e r ie n c e s a s
a S e n a to r seemed to b e l i m i t e d to a few p r o b le m s -- d e fe n s e ,
a ir pow er, and a g r i c u l t u r e H e su p p orted f o r e i g n a id ,
prop osed the e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a F o r e ig n S e r v ic e Academy
which would p u t th e t r a in in g program on a more s c i e n t i f i c
159
b a s i s , and su p p orted disarm am ent b u t o n ly w ith v i o l a -
156
t io n p r o o f s a fe g u a r d s , v was f o r th e exem p tion o f n a tu r a l
g a s from f e d e r a l r e g u la t i o n s and was a g a in s t tu r n in g th e
^ ■ ^ S ev a reid , C a n d id a tes I 9 6 0 , p . 26J 4 ..
^ H artm ann, "Sym ington Had Had 3 C a r e e r s," p. 1 2 .
1 -^"Burkhart, "Sym ington: The M iddle Man from th e
M iddle B ord er," p . 3 0 .
l55nijwo f o r th e Road," New R e p u b lic , llp 2 ;2 0 ,
F ebruary 1 , I 9 6 0 .
B u rk h art, "Sym ington: The M iddle Man from th e
M iddle B order," p . 29*
^ B u r k h a r t, "Sym ington: The M iddle Man from th e
M iddle B ord er," p . 3 0 .
279
1^7
t i d e la n d s o i l r e s e r v e s over t o th e s t a t e s . He a d v o c a te d
a s i n g l e sp ace a g e n c y , a r i d su p p orted c i v i l r i g h t s l e g i s
l a t i o n b u t n o t to th e p o in t o f a n g e r in g th e S o u t h . ^ 9
He was stam ped 100 p e r c e n t p r o o f by th e A m ericans f o r
D em ocratic A c tio n . W ith a l l h i s a c co m p lish m en ts, th o u g h ,
he had n e v e r " q u ite p a sse d th rou gh th e d o o r in t o the
Sanctum" o f the S e n a te c h a m b e r H e d id n o t appear a t
h i s b e s t in the McCarthy h e a r in g s . He was a member o f
M cC arthy's com m ittee and though he was a g a i n s t M cC arthy's
t a c t i c s he sig n e d a p e t i t i o n a f t e r M cC arthy's d e a th to
commend him fo r h i s c o u r a g e . When ask ed why, he s a id he
- l £ n
d id n o t want to h i t a man when he was down.
Sym ington seem ed to be b a s i c a l l y s h y . He was no
-j
o r a t o r , and he w ould r a th e r s i t a t home and read m ys
t e r i e s th an to t a c k l e a S e n a te p a r t y . H e p r e s e n te d a
■'"^Sevareld, C a n d id a te s 19&0, p . 273*
Sym ington U rges Need o f S in g le Space A gency,"
Los A n g e le s T im es, F ebruary l 6 , i 9 6 0 , P a rt 1 , p . 1 .
” ^% W ho?," u« S . News and World R e p o r t. pp.
■^0S e v a r e id , C a n d id a tes i 9 6 0 , p . 2 7 1 .
l 6l I b i d . , p p . 2 7 0 -2 7 1 .
B u rk h art, "Sym ington: The M iddle Man from the
M iddle B ord er," p . 3 0 .
■^^Hartmann, "Sym ington Had Had 3 C a r e e r s," p . 1 2 .
280
commanding figure* At 59 he . stood 6 fe e t, 3 inches and
weighed approximately 185* His silver-gray hair and wide
grin were irresista b le• There was a faint resemblance to
Harry Truman in Symington's appearance. Symington was
very healthy although he underwent a delicate operation
in 19^7 in which the nerve ends were cut in order to
reduce blood pressure*
Symington's wife, Evelyn, seemed to be of a more
gregarious type and was at one time a night-club singer*
They had two grown sons*
Symington did not have the ostentatious educational
background of some of his opponents (he attended Yale and
the International Correspondence School), but he seemed
to bear a Degree of C om m on Horse Sense which many a m an
seems to lack* Edward P. Morgan called I t "a liv e ly mind .
that is a synthesis of the pragmatic and of decisive
action.
Stuart Symington had been mentioned as early as
1950 as being possible Presidential caliber. He was
Missouri's "favorite son" candidate in 1956, and was rated
in i 960 as one of the top three contenders for that
^^Sevareid, Candidates i960, p* 2 7 9 •
281
p o s i t i o n .
S tu a r t Sym ington, a s p ir a n t f o r th e D em ocratic nom i
n a tio n f o r P r e s id e n t , d id have a chance#
’’There are a l o t o f o b j e c t io n s to Sym ington as
a c a n d id a t e ,” one o f h i s c l o s e r a d v is e r s conceded
even b e fo r e the i 960 p r e lim in a r ie s were r e a d y .
"But th e l o v e l y d i s t i n c t i o n about them i s th a t
th e y can a l l be rem oved. T h a t's n o t so w ith h i s
c o m p e tit io n . Jack Kennedy c a n 't change h i s
r e l i g i o n . Lyndon Johnson c a n ' t change h i s
geograp hy, A d la i S tev en so n h i s d e f e a t s , o r , I
s u s p e c t, H ubert Humphrey h i s g l i b n e s s * ”l o 6
For th e se rea so n s S tu a r t Sym ington d id n o t e n te r the
p r im a r ie s .
L e t them [h is opponents ] b e a t t h e ir b r a in s out
a g a in s t one an oth er and t h e i r own sh o rtc o m in g s.
Then i t would be S tu a r t S ym in gton 's tu r n . He
was a P r o t e s t a n t [E p is c o p a lia n ] ; he was a F a ir
D e a le r who, p a r a d o x ic a lly , was regard ed a s "safe"
by c o n s e r v a t i v e s . Born i n M a ssa c h u se tts, he had
engaged i n b u s in e s s in Maryland and New Y ork. He
was a S en ator from th e border s t a t e o f M is s o u r i.
He had a d m in is t r a tiv e and l e g i s l a t i v e e x p e r ie n c e .
He had proved he could w in e l e c t i o n s . Who p o s
s e s s e d more to recommend him? Who among h i s
m ajor opponents had so few h a n d ic a p s ? !^
And t h e s e f a c t o r s cou ld have won f o r Sym ington th e
n o m in a tio n . He had a t a l e n t f o r accom od ation . "He
i s one o f th e few in d iv id u a ls who m igh t compromise the
•*-^ S t a n l e y r . Fike, Letter to Sarah Sanderson from
Stanley R. Fike, Administrative Assistant to Senator
Stuart Symington, Washington, D. C., June 1, 196]+.
^^Sevareid, Candidates i 960, p. 279.
Judah and Smith, The Unchosen, p. 319*
282
d iv e r g e n t e le m en ts o f th e P arty and m oderate the seem in g ly
i r r e c o n c i l i a b l e i s s u e s which f a c e the n a t i o n *'1 I t was
very a p t th a t the man from M isso u ri was the man o f com
prom ise who m ig h t have been th e C o n v e n t io n s "Compromise
Candidate" had th ere been such an o p p o r tu n ity a t th e
i 960 D em ocratic N a tio n a l C onvention*
The " F a v o rite Sons"
Ross B a r n e tt
" M is s is s ip p i needs a governor who i s n o t a f r a id to
stan d up to the • • • Supreme Court s o c i o l o g i s t s
and the NAACP m ix-m ongers," B a r n e tt thundered from
c o u r t-h o u se ste p s a l l over th e s t a t e [ M is s i s s i p p i ] *
"Ross B a r n e tt i s th a t man* R oss B a r n e tt w i l l r o t
in a F e d e r a l j a i l b e fo r e he w i l l l e t one Negro .
c r o s s the sa c re d th r e s h o ld o f our w h ite s c h o o ls ." '
With t h i s p ro m ise, Ross B a r n e tt, a "* • • cru sa d in g law yer
who has sa id he would r a th e r d ie than se e r a c i a l i n t e
g r a tio n in h i s s t a t e • • . " ^ l was sw ept in t o o f f i c e in
M is s i s s i p p i in a s e g r e g a t i o n i s t la n d s l id e r e p la c in g Gover
nor James P. Coleman* Coleman, a lth o u g h opposed to any
form o f in t e g r a t i o n , fa v o red th e path o f m o d e r a tio n . He
^The n om in ation sp eech f o r Ross B a r n e tt as
d e liv e r e d by Thomas P. Brady a t th e i 960 D em ocratic Con
v e n tio n can be found in Appendix G.
170"The W inner--N ot an In ch ," Time, Sep
tember 7 , 1 9 5 9 *
l 7 l » p e0 p ie o f th e Week: M i s s i s s i p p i ' s B a r n e tt:
Crusader f o r S e g r e g a tio n ," U. S . News and World R ep ort,
lj-7:22, September 7 , 1959*
2 8 3
p la y ed down e x p lo s iv e r a c i a l q u e s tio n s and " . . • warned
w h ite su p r e m a c ists t h a t he would p r e se r v e law and order
in M i s s i s s i p p i T];ie e l e c t i o n o f B a r n e tt d u rin g a t h ir d
tr y fo r the G overnorsh ip dem onstrated a r e p u d ia tio n o f
Coleman*s p h ilo so p h y on the p a r t o f the n a t i v e s o f
M i s s i s s i p p i •
B a r n e tt had won the D em ocratic n om in ation w ith more
than $ 1 + per c e n t o f some 1 |25>,000 v o te s and 62 o f the
s t a t e ’ s 82 c o u n t i e s .^73 w ith the sm a ll R ep u b lican P arty
i n M i s s i s s i p p i , t h i s m eant c e r t a in v i c t o r y in th e November
e l e c t i o n . In h i s v i c t o r y sta tem en t as Governor i n 19^9>
B a r n e tt t o ld h i s p eo p le th a t he would n o t be c o n te n t w ith
b lo c k in g in t e g r a t io n i n M i s s i s s i p p i , b u t he prom ised to
work w ith o th e r Sou thern s e g r e g a t i o n i s t s and t h e ir le a d e r s
to f i g h t any and a l l form s o f r a c i a l in t e g r a t i o n in the
South.^7^- I t was h i s i n t e n t i o n to c r e a te a s o l i d Southern
f r o n t i n the s c h o o ls and e lse w h e r e a g a in s t any form o f
r a c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n . He made t h i s p led g e to h i s c o n s t i
tu e n ts :
"I am g o in g to pu t f o r t h every e f f o r t to o r g a n iz e
Sou thern G overnors, to c r e a t e and c r y s t a l l i z e p u b lic
o p in io n through out t h i s n a tio n w ith r e f e r e n c e to our
t r a d i t i o n s and Sou thern way o f l i f e ."17!?
172 iiT hQ w in n er— Not an In c h ,'1 p . 3 8 .
1 ^ I b i d . 1A r b i d .
l75><*peopie o f th e Week: M i s s i s s i p p i ’ s B a r n e tt:
Crusader f o r S e g r e g a tio n ," p . 2 2 .
281}.
P art o f h i s program in v o lv e d a c l o s e s c r u t in y o f the s c h o o l
programs and th e typ e o f te x tb o o k s u s e d . In May, 19&0*
a t th e u r g in g o f the D au gh ters o f th e Am erican R e v o lu tio n
he took ov er th e s e l e c t i o n o f a l l p u b lic s c h o o l te x tb o o k s
i n M i s s i s s i p p i .
" A ll o f u s ought to be a g a in s t a n y th in g in our
te x tb o o k s t h a t would tea ch su b v e r s io n or in t e g r a t i o n ,"
c r ie d f i e r y R oss B a r n e tt . . .
"C lean up our te x tb o o k s ," u rged B a r n e t t. "Our
c h ild r e n m ust be p r o p e r ly inform ed o f th e Sou th ern
and tru e American way o f l i f e ." 176
B a r n e tt, a c o u r t ly and urbane man, a B a p t is t Sunday
S c h o o l t e a c h e r , a w e a lth y Jack son la w y e r , ^ 7 was born on
a sm all farm in the S ta n d in g P in e Community o f Leake
C ounty, b etw een C arthage and U n ion , M i s s i s s i p p i , 1 ' ' 7® in
I 8 9 8 . He a tte n d e d M i s s i s s i p p i C o lle g e , V a n d e r b ilt, and the
U n iv e r s i t y o f M i s s i s s i p p i . He r e c e iv e d h i s LL. D . from th e
U n iv e r s it y w ith one o f th e h i g h e s t s c h o l a s t i c a v e ra g e s a t
th e U n i v e r s i t y . H e was a d m itted to th e M i s s i s s i p p i bar
■ ^ ^ " M ississip p i Mud," Time, May l 6 , i 9 6 0 .
I77»nphe W inn er--N ot an In ch ," p . 3 8 .
■^^"Stoetch o f R oss R. B a r n e t t ’ s L i f e ," n .d . (Un
p u b lis h e d mimeographed e n c lo s u r e w ith l e t t e r to Sarah
S an derson from R oss R. B a r n e tt, Lawyer in J a ck so n ,
M i s s i s s i p p i , Septem ber 3 0 , 1 9 6q-) •
1^( ^Ibid.
285
in 1 9 2 6 .180
I t was r e p o r te d in th e New York Times th a t B a rn ett
was a new and u n ex p ected " f a v o r it e son" nominee a t the
i 960 D em ocratic C o n v en tio n . He was nom inated by Judge
Thomas Po Brady, n a t io n a l committeeman from M i s s i s s i p p i ,
A ccording to Judge Brady, the sp eech was prepared and
d e liv e r e d in two h o u r s , ." M is s i s s ip p i le a d e r s s a id the
id e a was to g iv e Governor B a r n e tt tw e n ty -th r e e co m p li
m entary v o te s on the f i r s t b a l l o t th en swing in t o l i n e
w ith the r e s t o f th e South behind S en a to r Johnson.
Long b e fo r e the c o n v e n tio n m et, B a r n e tt, a D i x i e -
c r a t , had vowed t h a t he would walk o u t o f the i 960 Demo
c r a t ic C onvention i f the c i v i l r ig h t s plan k did n o t s u i t
him .^8^ A lthough he d id n o t walk o u t, he d e s c r ib e d the
s i t u a t i o n th u s:
"We've g o t to do som ething . . . The p la tfo rm i s so
h o r r ib le , so r e p u l s i v e , so o b n o x io u s, and so con
tr a r y to our form o f governm ent, I d o n 't se e how
the p e o p le o f the so u th can a c c e p t i t , " l 8 ^
l 8Q Who's Who i n A m erica, 1962-1963 (V o l. 32; Chicago:
Marquis Who's Who, I n c . , 1 9 5 3 ) , p . l 6 6 .
- 1 Q " 1
Thomas P. Brady, L e tte r to Sarah Sanderson from
Thomas P. Brady, A s s o c ia t e J u s t i c e , Supreme Court o f
M i s s i s s i p p i , Jack son , M i s s i s s i p p i , A ugust lip, 1961j ..
•1 D o
News item in the New York Tim es, Ju ly lit.
I 9 6 0 , p . lip. ---------------------------
^8^"The W inner--N ot an In ch ," p , 3 8 .
l 8 ^News item in the Chicago D a ily T ribune. July
1 9 , I9 6 0 , P art 1 , p . 1 0 . ----------- -------------
2 8 6
He a d v o ca ted th a t M i s s i s s i p p i withdraw from th e D em ocratic
P a r ty and su p p ort a t h ir d p a r ty c a n d id a te f o r P r e s id e n t# ^ 8^
The n om in ation a t th e c o n v e n tio n o f R oss B a r n e tt as
a " f a v o r it e son" was a p r o t e s t a g a in s t th o se p o r t io n s o f
th e p a r ty p la tfo r m which ad vocated the en forcem en t o f
* * ! L R
e x i s t i n g la w s to p r o t e c t c i v i l r i g h t s # Through h i s
n o m in a tio n , th e v iew s o f the s e g r e g a t i o n i s t s o f the South
were made known v o c a l l y to the d e le g a t e s a t th e c o n v e n tio n
and to th e n a tio n a s a whole through th e medium o f t e l e
v i s i o n •
George D o c k in g .^ 8 ? —
C h ie f l y , • • • th e g o v e r n o r 's r e l a t i v e l y charmed
p o l i t i c a l l i f e i s a t t r i b u t a b l e to h i s p o p u la r it y a t
the p o l l s in th e fa c e o f a l e g i s l a t u r e w hich the
o p p o s it io n c o n t r o ls by a co m fo r ta b le m a jo r ity in
the House and f o u r to one i n th e S e n a t e . T his
a p p r o v a l, in tu r n , i s th e p rod u ct o f an image which
e v er y p o l i t i c a l contem porary m ight p a s te on h i s
sh aving m ir r o r . I t i s th e p ic t u r e o f a man
h o n e s t , d r a s t i c a l l y — a lm o st v i o l e n t l y In depend en t
and, above a l l , t i g h t w ith the ta x d o l l a r .1 8 8
T his charmed p o l i t i c a l l i f e o f George Docking d id
^■^News item in the C hicago D a ily T r ib u n e , J u ly
1 9 , I9 6 0 , P art 1 , p . 1 0 .
l8 6 R e fe r to l i s t o f i s s u e s f o r th e D em ocratic
p la tfo r m found i n Appendix B. See item 3 8 .
^8?The n o m in ation sp eech f o r George D ocking as
d e l iv e r e d by Frank T h eis a t th e i 960 D em ocratic C on ven tion
can be found i n Appendix G*
1 ftft
P e te r Wyden, "The Governor L eaves Them G asping,"
The Saturday E vening P o s t . 2 3 2 : 3 9 , O ctober 3 1 , 1 9 5 9 .
287
n o t b e g in u n t i l 19 ^ 6 . In 19^4 h0 was nom inated f o r G over
nor o f Kansas on the D em ocratic t i c k e t , bu t l o s t the
g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n to Fred Hall * ^ 9 He was e l e c t e d by a wide
m argin i n 19^6 to become K an sas’ f i r s t D em ocratic governor
i n tw enty y e a r s ,-*-90 He was r e - e l e c t e d in 1 9 5 8 * th e f i r s t
Democrat to be e l e c t e d to a second term a s Governor o f
Kansas* "His two m argins o f v i c t o r i e s were the second
and th ir d l a r g e s t m a j o r it ie s in 102 y e a r s in th e S ta te
o f K a n s a s . “^^l ^.t the opening o f th e i 960 D em ocratic
C on ven tion , D ocking was se e k in g an u n p reced en ted th ir d
term a s Governor o f h i s s t a te *
A ccording to P h ilip Wyden, what prompted D o c k in g 's
r e - e l e c t i o n was h i s appointm ent o f a b le men to key jobs
who h e lp e d him run the s t a t e s o l v e n t l y and w ith o u t sc a n -
192
d a i s . 7 D ocking op erated on an open-door p o l i c y which
Frank T h eis d e s c r ib e d as " g o l d - f i s h bowl g o v e r n m e n t . " ^ 3
189
R obert D ock in g, L e tte r to Sarah Sanderson from
R obert D ock in g, P r e s id e n t of th e Union S t a t e Bank, Arkan
s a s C it y , K ansas, May Ip, I 96I 4 .. (W ritten in answer to a
l e t t e r s e n t to h i s f a t h e r , George D ocking*)
■^^Wyden, "The Governor L eaves Them G asping," p. 3 8 .
■^■^Robert D ock in g, L e t t e r , May ip, 1961j ..
!92wyden, "The Governor Leaves Them G asp in g," p. Ip8 *
193
y^Frank T h e is , N om ination sp eech f o r G eorge D ocking
(p r e s e n te d a t the D em ocratic N a tio n a l C on ven tion , Los
A n g e le s, C a l i f o r n ia , July 1 3 , i 9 6 0 ) . (For t e x t o f sp eech
se e Appendix G*)
2 8 8
The inner door to Docking's office was closed only twice
and this was when he was getting clothes fitte d . His
constituents were free to walk in, v is it , and get their
pictures taken to take home. Reporters were invited in
for meetings with disgruntled dignitaries, legislative
committee meetings were open, and two press conferences
were held.daily. Docking had at least one engagement
daily to appear at some public f u n c t i o n •"*•9^-
George Docking was born in Clay Center, Kansas, in
190^..^^^ During his lifetim e he attended Western Military
Academy in Alton, Illin o is. H e received his A. B. degree
from the University of Kansas in 1 9 2 1 ) . . His wife
(Virginia), his two sons, and their wives also were gradu
ated from the University of Kansas. Docking had thought of
becoming an English professor but his father's influence
prompted him to learn banking,^97 H e received his train
ing in banks and bond houses in Kansas City and Topeka.
He started as cashier In 1931 at the First National Bank
19^Wyden, "The Governor Leaves T hem Gasping,"
pp.
iq t L
'-^George Docking passed away In Kansas City,
Kansas, in January, I96J 4 ..
■^^Robert Docking, Letter, M ay [}., I 96I 4 ..
197wyden, "The Governor Leaves T hem Gasping," p. )|)|.
289
in Law rence, K ansas, and ended up as P r e s id e n t in
He was P r e s id e n t o f the bank u n t i l he became Governor in
1 9 5 6 .
In 1936 he was a p p o in te d as a D ir e c to r and as
T rea su rer of the Kansas P u b lic S e r v ic e Company o f Lawrence,
K a n sa s. D uring h i s l i f e t i m e Docking was a c t i v e i n many
a f f a i r s , in c lu d in g b e in g D ir e c to r o f th e Kansas S t a t e
H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , and a member o f th e March o f D i m e s . ^99
He was a P r e s b y t e r ia n .2 ® ®
In 1959 he was d e s c r ib e d as g r a y -h a ir e d , 5 > f e e t
11 I n c h e s , w eig h in g 180 pou nd s, and 11. . • lo o k in g l i k e
som eth in g o f a m o to r iz e d Abraham L i n c o ln .,,2®1 He d i a g
nosed h im s e lf a s shy and a tte n d e d sp eech c o u r se s f o r se v e n
20?
summers. D e s p it e t h is s e lf-a v o w e d sh y n e s s , D ocking was
an outspok en man a g a in s t r ig h t - to - w o r k l e g i s l a t i o n , 2 ®3
the r a i s i n g o f s o c i a l s e c u r i t y paym ents, and c r e e p in g
i n f l a t i o n . He was termed a " sta n d p a t c o n s e r v a t iv e ” by th e
Kansas R ep u b lican n ew sp a p ers. ’ When asked how he co u ld be
^ ^ W ho^ Who in A m erica, 1 9 6 2 -6 3 . p . 813*
■^^Robert D o ck in g, L e t t e r , May i^., I 96I 4 ..
‘^®® Who, s. Who in A m erica. 1 9 6 2 - 6 3 . p . 813 •
^®^Wyden, "The Governor Leaves Them G a sp in g ,” p . l|lj_.
2 0 2 I b id ‘.
2 ^ C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r te r ly C on ven tion G u id e. p . 2 0 .
290
a Democrat a f t e r h a v in g been a R ep u b lican and s t i l l h o ld
such c o n s e r v a tiv e v iew s on so many i s s u e s , D ocking answered
by c i t i n g the c le a v a g e betw een Sou thern s t a t e s r ig h t e r s
and N orthern l i b e r a l s and th en announced, "In t h i s cou n try
anybody can be a Democrat . n2<“ ^- He was j u s t as outspoken
about 1 1 • . • sa c re d cows t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e s p e c t e d by more
season ed c a m p a ig n e r s.1 *2 ^
He has ch a rg ed , fo r exam p le, t h a t the U n iv e r s it y o f
Kansas a t Lawrence, h i s own alma m ater and th a t o f
m ost n a t iv e Kansans who m a tte r , i s a stu n n in g example
o f w a s te fu l management; t h a t d o c to r s have a s tr o n g e r
u n ion than te a m s te r s; t h a t newspaper p u b lis h e r s are
f a t c a t s who d r iv e e x p e n siv e c a r s w h ile d i t c h -
d ig g e r s pay t h e i r ta x e s f o r them; and t h a t Kansas
R epublican lawmakers "can be bought very c h e a p ly ."
He was K an sas’ ’’f a v o r i t e sorf'can d id ate f o r P r e s id e n t
a t the i 960 D em ocratic C on ven tion . He was nom inated by
Prank T h e is, n a t io n a l committeeman fr a n K ansas. He was
c o n sid e r e d as a p o s s i b l e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t i a l ca n d id a te
H is so n , R obert D ock in g, d e s c r ib e d th e s i t u a t i o n as i t
appeared to him in r e t r o s p e c t on May Ip, 196ij_.
Dad was an e a r ly and e n th u a s t ic f s i c .1 su p p o rter o f
P r e sid e n t John P . Kennedy. U n fo r tu n a te ly Kansas
ranks n e x t to the S ta te o f Nebraska as th e S ta t e
th a t gave Kennedy the lo w e s t p e r ce n ta g e o f v o t e s
20^Wyden, "The Governor L eaves Them G asping," p . )|)|.
2 0 % b i d ., p . 3 8 .
2o 6I b i d .
207I b i d .
C o n g r e ssio n a l Q u a r ter ly C on ven tion G uide, p . 2 0 .
291
In th e U n ite d S t a t e s . The Kansas d e l e g a t i o n to the
D em ocratic N a tio n a l C on ven tion was q u ite a m ixed
up a f f a i r . W hile n o t a d e l e g a t e , I d id a tte n d the
C o n ven tion in Los A n g ele s as an o b s e r v e r . In many
o f our d i s t r i c t m e e tin g s the d e l e g a t e s f e l t t h a t
th ey were to v o t e f o r Dad as "a f a v o r i t e son" f o r
P r e s i d e n t . I t i s my p e r so n a l o p in io n t h a t much o f
t h i s " f a v o r it e son" movement was a h e s it a n c y on the
p a r t o f th e K ansas d e l e g a t e s to commit th e m se lv e s
e a r ly to any c a n d id a t e . There was a ls o str o n g
f e e l i n g in the S t a t e o f Kansas a g a in s t th e nom ina
t i o n and e l e c t i o n o f P r e s id e n t K ennedy. Dad t r i e d to
c o n v in c e th e d e l e g a t i o n t h a t th e y sh o u ld go f o r
Kennedy on the f i r s t b a l l o t , and n o t nom inate him
a s a " fa v o r a te [ s i c . 3 so n ” , b u t he was u n s u c c e s s f u l
i n c o n v in c in g them o f h i s p o in t o f v ie w . As soon as
h i s n om in ation and se c o n d in g m o tio n were com p leted ,
he to o k th e c o n v e n tio n p la tfo rm and w ith d rew in
fa v o r o f P r e s id e n t Kennedy.206
A fte r th e n o m in a tin g sp e e c h , Prank T h eis in an a s id e to
Governor L eroy C o l l i n s , Chairman, m en tion ed th a t th e
d e m o n str a tio n would be a sm a ll o n e . But a s a news com
m en tator a t th e c o n v e n tio n rem arked, D ocking was g e t t i n g
p u b l i c i t y o u t o f the d e m o n s tr a tio n , sm a ll a s i t may b e ,
fo r h i s cam paign i n Kansas where he was ru n n in g fo r an
u n p r ec e d e n ted th ir d term In a n orm ally R ep u b lica n s t a t e .
There w ere, th e n , a t l e a s t th r e e acknow ledged
r e a s o n s f o r th e n o m in a tio n o f George Docking f o r the
ca n d id a cy o f P r e s id e n t o f the U n ite d S t a t e s : (1 ) as
K ansas' " f a v o r it e so n ," (2 ) as a p o s s ib le V i c e - P r e s i d e n t i a l
c a n d id a te , and ( 3 ) as p u b l i c i t y f o r h i s coming campaign
f o r a th ir d term a s Governor o f K ansas.
o r\0
R ob ert D ock in g , L e t t e r , May i|_, 1961^.
292
H e r sc h e l C. L o v e le s s .^ ^ - - H e r s c h e l C. L o v e le s s
f ig u r e d p ro m in en tly i n th e n om in a tion p r o c e s s a t th e i 960
D em ocratic C on ven tion b oth as a sp eak er {" agen t" ) and a s
a nominee (" c h a r a c t e r " ) . The name o f H onorable H e r sc h e l
C. L o v e le s s , Governor o f Iow a, was p la c e d i n n om in ation
f o r the P r e sid e n c y as th e " f a v o r it e son" from Iowa;
L o v e le s s secon ded the n om in ation o f John P . Kennedy as th e
210
c a n d id a te fo r P r e s id e n t o f the U n ite d S t a t e s .
There was l i t t l e i n the e a r ly l i f e o f "rough-hew n,
211
farm -bred" L o v e le s s w hich in d ic a t e d th a t he would some
day e n te r th e f i e l d o f p o l i t i c s . He was born i n 1911, in
H ed rick , Iowa, grad u ated from p u b lic h ig h s c h o o l, was
m arried ( w i f e — A m e lia ), and had two c h i l d r e n .2 "^ In a
l e t t e r , Mr. L o v e le s s d e s c r ib e d h i s c a r e e r b e fo r e e n t e r in g
p o l i t i c s .
Upon g r a d u a tin g from p u b lic h ig h s c h o o l in 1927 I
r e c e iv e d employment as a rod man in an e n g in e e r in g
p a rty in v o lv e d i n r a il r o a d c o n s t r u c t io n and m ain
te n a n c e . Throughout th a t p e r io d and up u n t i l 1939
^The n om in ation sp eech f o r H e r sc h e l C. L o v e le s s
as d e liv e r e d by Merwin Coad a t the i 960 D em ocratic Con
v e n tio n can be found i n Appendix G.
210
At the tim e t h i s paper was w r i t t e n , H e r sc h e l
C. L o v e le s s was i n W ashington, D. C ., on a f u l l - t i m e b a s i s
a s a member o f the F e d e r a l R e n e g o t ia t io n Board, a u n i t o f
th e E x e c u tiv e Branch engaged i n the r e c o v e r y o f e x c e s s i v e
p r o f i t s from sp ace and d e fe n s e c o n t r a c t o r s .
Pi i
"The Music Man," Tim e, 7 5 :1 7 , January 1 8 , i 960
212Who's Who i n A m erica, 1962-6.3. p . 1 9 1 0 .
293
I f i l l e d many p o s t s i n v o l v i n g e n g in e e r in g and c o n
s t r u c t i o n in th e r a i l r o a d c a te g o r y * In 1939 I
became I n v o lv e d i n e l e c t r i c a l power p la n t c o n s t r u c
t i o n , rem a in in g as an o p e r a tin g e n g in e e r th rou gh
1944* w h ich tim e I r e tu r n e d t o r a il r o a d c o n s t r u c
t io n * In 19^7 I was borrow ed b y the c i t y a d m in is
t r a t i o n i n my home town o f Ottumwa, Iow a, to e f f e c t
a r e o r g a n iz a t io n o f i t s m a in te n a n c e departm en t* Very
e a r l y In t h i s p e r i o d - - i n f a c t , i n June o f 1 9 4 7 —
r e c u r r in g d i s a s t r o u s f l o o d s s tr u c k t h i s a r e a and
I was c a t a p u lt e d In to a v a s t amount o f p u b lic e x
posu re* As a r e s u l t , and w ith o u t any e f f o r t on
my p a r t , I was e l e c t e d Mayor o f Ottumwa in 1949•
H is c a r e e r in p o l i t i c s had begun* I n . 19^ 2, v i o l a t i n g a l l
p o l i t i c a l p r e c e d e n t , L o v e l e s s , b e c a u se o f a " r a th e r v i o l e n t
d isa g re em e n t" w ith th e incum b en t s t a t e a d m in is t r a t io n , ran
f o r Governor o f Iowa on the D em o cra tic t i c k e t * He won th e
prim ary n o m in a tio n b u t l o s t th e g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n by £ 0 ,0 0 0
v o t e s * P r e s id e n t E isen h o w er c a r r ie d Iowa by an e x c e s s o f
o n e - h a l f m i l l i o n v o te s * L o v e le s s p u lle d o u t o f p o l i t i c s
and went in t o p r i v a t e b u s in e s s w ith th e e s t a b lis h m e n t o f a
sm a ll m a n u fa c tu r in g and s a l e s o r g a n iz a t io n * In 19^6,
f e e l i n g th e c a l l to d u ty to r e p r e s e n t h i s p a r ty e f f e c t i v e l y ,
L o v e le s s e n te r e d the r a c e fo r Governor and won th e Demo
c r a t i c prim ary* In November o f t h a t y e a r he d e f e a t e d th e
incum bent o n e-term R ep u b lican G overnor, i n s p i t e o f th e
f a c t t h a t P r e s id e n t E lsen h o w er c a r r ie d th e s t a t e w ith an
21-^H erschel C* L o v e le s s , L e t t e r to Sarah S an d erson
from H e r s c h e l C. L o v e l e s s , Member o f th e F e d e r a l R en ego
t i a t i o n B oard, W ash in gton , D. C ., May 1 2 , 1 9 6 4 *
29k
excess of 225,000 votes*^^"
D u ring my f i r s t term as Governor o f Iowa (w rote
H r, L o v e le s s ] I was th e o n ly e l e c t e d D em o cra tic
o f f i c i a l i n th e S t a t e H o u se. The L ie u te n a n t
G overnor was a R e p u b lic a n , a s were a l l th e r e s t , and
I had a b ou t o n e - t e n t h o f th e L e g i s l a t u r e . In 1958
I was e l e c t e d by a v e ry s u b s t a n t i a l m a j o r i t y , ta k in g
i n t o o f f i c e fo u r o f th e e ig h t Iowa C ongressm en, a
D em ocratic L ie u te n a n t G overnor, Supreme C ourt
J u s t i c e s , e t c . We were a b le t o make r a t h e r e x
t e n s i v e s t r i d e s forw ard in many f i e l d s o f human
w e l f a r e —m en ta l h e a l t h , r e t a r d a t i o n , e t c . , and
e n t e r e d i n t o the i 960 y e a r w ith th e p o l l s i n d i c a t i n g
75 p e r c e n t f a v o r a b le to the programs i n s t i t u t e d
d u r in g my two te r m s.2 1 5
D uring 1958 and 1959# L o v e le s s s e r v e d as Chairman o f th e
D em ocratic N a tio n a l C om m ittee’ s A d v iso ry C o u n c il on
A g r i c u l t u r e .^ 16 £ e was o u tsp o k en on th e farm program
d u rin g h i s s e n a t o r i a l cam paign i n i 960 a d v o c a tin g a m in i
mum farm income to match, la b o r minimum wage Merwin
Coad, who nom inated L o v e le s s as a " f a v o r it e son ," co n
s id e r e d th e r e c o r d o f L o v e le s s on th e farm program i n Iowa
a s one o f the o u ts ta n d in g q u a l i t i e s to be p r e s e n te d b e fo r e
the c o n v e n t io n . He was d e s c r ib e d a s "the man • . .l e a d in g
th e D em ocratic P arty a s th e spokesman on b e h a lf o f th e
Am erican f a m ily fa rm ." 2 '* '®
2 ^ - L o v e l e s s , L e t t e r , May 1 2 , I 96I 4 ..
2 1 ^ I b id . 2 1 ^ I b id .
2l7"T he M usic Man," p . 1 7 .
p*| Q
Merwin Coad, N om ination sp eech f o r H e r s c h e l C.
L o v e le s s ( p r e s e n te d a t th e D em ocratic N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n ,
Los A n g e le s , C a l i f o r n i a . J u ly 1 3 , I 9 6 0 ) . (F or t e x t o f
sp e e c h , se e Appendix G .)
295
The o f f i c i a l c a p a c ity o f L o v e le s s a t the i 960
D em ocratic C on ven tion was as Chairman o f the R u les Com
m i t t e e . L is t e d in th e C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r te r ly C on ven tion
Guide as a " f a v o r it e son c a n d id a te fo r D em ocratic P r e s i
d e n t i a l n o m in a tio n ; p o s s i b l e V ice P r e s i d e n t i a l nominee,"
Mr. L o v e le s s was s i m i l a r l y d e s c r ib e d in Time m agazine as
"a M eth o d ist who would l i k e to be Roman C a th o lic Jack
220
K ennedy’ s v i c e - p r e s i d e n t i a l runn ing m a te . • • •"
Mr. L o v e le s s d e s c r ib e d th e m o tiv a tio n b eh in d h i s nom ina
t i o n and the n om in ation m an eu verin gs in which he was a
r e l u c t a n t nom inee.
Because o f the wide f i e l d o f p r e s i d e n t i a l a s
p ir a n t s in i 9 6 0 , and inasm uch a s the Iowa P r e s i d e n t i a l
C on ven tion d e l e g a t e s are named a t a S t a t e P r e s i d e n t i a l
C on ven tion h e ld in May, i t was d e c id e d th a t Iowa
would e n te r in t o the N a tio n a l C on ven tion su p p o r tin g
me as a f a v o r i t e son c a n d id a t e .
Q u ite e a r ly i n th e C o n v en tio n p r o c e e d in g s i t was
my judgment t h a t my rem a in in g i n a f a v o r i t e son
c a te g o r y through the f i r s t b a l l o t c o u ld be damaging
to th e s t a t e ’ s p o s i t i o n i n the outcome o f th e nom ina
t i o n , and I a ttem p ted to b r in g about a c e s s a t i o n o f
the f a v o r i t e son m ovem ent. H owever, t h i s was opposed
by th e S te v en so n f o r c e s , w ith t h e i r i n s i s t i n g th a t
the d e le g a t io n was bound to me through the 1 s t b a l l o t .
I cou ld f i n d no p r e c e d e n t o f p r e v io u s c o n v e n tio n s or
i n Iowa s t a t u t e s r e g u la t in g d e le g a t e a c t i v i t i e s .
W hile th e se n e g o t i a t i o n s and d i s c u s s i o n s were g o in g
on, n o m in a tio n s were p r o c e e d in g i n r e g u la r ord er and
my name was p la c e d in n o m in a tio n b y Congressman
Merwin Coad o f th e Iowa 6 th D i s t r i c t and secon d ed
by Congressman N eal Sm ith o f th e th en Iowa 5th
^^ C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r te r ly C on ven tion G u id e , p . 21 •
220
"The Music Man," p . 1 7 .
295
The o f f i c i a l c a p a c ity o f L o v e le s s a t th e i 960
D em ocratic C on ven tion was as Chairman o f the R u les Com
m i t t e e , L is t e d i n ' t h e C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r ter ly C on ven tion
Guide as a " f a v o r it e son c a n d id a te f o r D em ocratic P r e s i
d e n t i a l n o m in a tio n ; p o s s i b l e V ice P r e s i d e n t i a l nominee,"
Mr, L o v e le s s was s i m i l a r l y d e s c r ib e d i n Time m agazine as
"a M eth o d ist who would l i k e to be Roman C a th o lic Jack
220
K ennedy’ s v i c e - p r e s i d e n t i a l runn ing m a te . , • •"
Mr, L o v e le s s d e s c r ib e d the m o t iv a tio n b eh in d h i s nom ina
t i o n and the n o m in a tio n m an eu verin gs i n which he was a
r e l u c t a n t nom in ee.
B ecause o f the wide f i e l d o f p r e s i d e n t i a l a s
p ir a n t s in i 9 6 0 , and inasm uch a s th e Iowa P r e s i d e n t i a l
C on ven tion d e l e g a t e s are named a t a S ta te P r e s i d e n t i a l
C on ven tion h e ld i n May, I t was d e c id e d th a t Iowa
would e n t e r in t o th e N a tio n a l C on ven tion su p p o rtin g
me as a f a v o r i t e son c a n d id a te .
Q u ite e a r ly i n th e C on ven tion p r o c e e d in g s i t was
my- judgment t h a t my rem ain in g i n a f a v o r i t e son
c a te g o r y through th e f i r s t b a l l o t c o u ld be damaging
to th e s t a t e ' s p o s i t i o n i n the outcome o f th e nom ina
t i o n , and I a ttem p ted to b r in g abou t a c e s s a t i o n o f
th e f a v o r i t e son m ovem ent. H owever, t h i s was opposed
by th e S te v e n so n f o r c e s , w ith t h e i r i n s i s t i n g th a t
the d e le g a t io n was bound to me through the 1 s t b a l l o t .
I cou ld f i n d no p r e c e d e n t o f p r e v io u s c o n v e n tio n s or
in Iowa s t a t u t e s r e g u la t i n g d e l e g a t e a c t i v i t i e s .
W hile th e s e n e g o t i a t io n s and d i s c u s s i o n s were g o in g
on, n o m in a tio n s were p r o c e e d in g in r e g u la r o rd er and
my name was p la c e d in n o m in atio n by Congressman
Merwin Coad o f th e Iowa 6 th D i s t r i c t and secon d ed
by Congressman N eal Sm ith o f the th en Iowa 5 th
2 iQ
C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r te r ly C on ven tion G u id e, p . 2 1 .
220
"The Music Man," p . 1 7 .
296
C o n g r e ss io n a l D i s t r i c t . I d id n o t se e th e n o m in a tin g
sp e e c h e s i n advance and can o n ly r e c a l l t h e i r b e in g
p itc h e d toward what th ey c o n sid e r e d to be my r e c o r d
i n the f i e l d s o f t a x a t i o n , w e lfa r e and a g r i c u l t u r e .
Inasmuch as I had secon d ed P r e s id e n t K ennedy's
n o m in a tio n , I d id r e c e i v e acknow ledgm ent from the
C hair w h ile th e d e m o n str a tio n was g o in g on r e l a t i v e
to my n o m in a tio n , and I r e q u e s te d t h a t my name be
withdrawn from n o m in a tio n . T his maneuver was
s u c c e s s f u l and I was a b le to c a s t , as I r e c a l l ,
abou t 20 1 /2 o f the Iowa v o t e s f o r P r e s id e n t
K ennedy's n o m in a tio n . However, as I r e c a l l , 2 1 /2
v o t e s rem ained w ith me, 2 1 /2 fo r G overnor S te v e n so n
and l / 2 f o r the th en S e n a to r John son .
T his i s a v e r y b r i e f resume o f a v ery h e c t i c
p e r io d ,2 2 1
222
R obert B. M eyner. --Prom 19^0 to 1953 no Democrat
in New J e r s e y won any s t a t e - w id e o f f i c e . R obert Baumle
Meyner broke, th e s p e l l by b e in g e l e c t e d Governor in 1953*
Meyner was born in P e n n sy lv a n ia in 1 9 0 8 . H is f a t h e r was
a lo o m fix e r in the s i l k in d u s t r y . He h e lp e d w ith fa m ily
e x p e n se s from e a r ly c h ild h o o d by ta k in g odd jo b s such as
new sboy, g r o c e r y c l e r k , and s i l k w ea v er. Throughout h i s
c o l l e g e c a r e e r , he worked to d e fr a y th e e x p e n se s o f h i s
e d u c a tio n .
M eyner's i n t e r e s t i n p u b lic a f f a i r s was o f e a r ly
o r i g i n . He m ajored i n governm ent and law a t L a fa y e tte
ppT
L o v e le s s , L e t t e r , May 1 2 , 196I 4 ..
222
The n om in a tion sp ee ch f o r R obert B. Meyner as
d e liv e r e d by H a rr iso n W illia m s a t th e i 960 D em ocratic
C on ven tion can be found in Appendix G.
297
C o lle g e and g r a d u a te d w ith an A. B . d e g r e e . He o r g a n iz e d
one o f th e f i r s t p o l i t i c a l c lu b s e v e r s t a r t e d on a campus—
a c lu b fo r A lfr e d E# Sm ith f o r P r e s i d e n t . He r e c e i v e d h i s
LL .B . d e g r e e from Colum bia U n i v e r s i t y Law S c h o o l and p r a c
t i c e d la w i n J e r s e y C ity b e f o r e s e t t l i n g i n P h i l l i p s b u r g ,
New J e r s e y . He s e r v e d i n th e Navy d u r in g th e war and b e
came a commander i n th e N aval R e se rv e i n 1957* Meyner
was m a r r ie d i n 1957 to H e le n Day S t e v e n s o n . ^ 3
Meyner was S t a t e S e n a to r b e f o r e becom ing G overnor
and s e r v e d as m in o r ity le a d e r in 1950* He became G overnor
o f New J e r s e y i n 1953*
As G overnor, Meyner d e v o te d h i m s e l f to c a r r y in g
o u t p le d g e s i n h i s p la tfo r m ; u s e d h i s e x t e n s i v e
a p p o in t iv e pow ers to draw a b le men i n t o th e s t a t e
s e r v i c e ; i n s i s t e d on r i g i d la w e n fo r c e m e n t; guarded
th e s t a t e ' s f i s c a l r e s o u r c e s ; im proved a d m in is t r a t iv e
p r a c t i c e s and p r o c e d u r e s i n th e v a r io u s d e p a r tm e n ts;
cham pioned th e s t a t e ' s b a s i c n e e d s , su ch a s an
a d eq u a te w a ter s u p p ly , a v a s t l y im proved m otor
v e h i c l e l i c e n s i n g and r e g i s t r a t i o n sy ste m , and a
modern approach to m e n ta l h e a l t h and p r is o n p rob lem s;
o f f e r e d f u l l c o o p e r a tio n w ith th e L e g i s l a t u r e ; and,
a t a l l t im e s , g ave th e p u b lic th e f a c t s ab ou t th e
o p e r a tio n o f th e s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t.22q.
He o p e r a te d h i s s t a t e governm ent on an open b a s i s w ith
a t l e a s t two p r e s s c o n fe r e n c e s a w eek, a p r e s s c o n fe r e n c e
f o r e d i t o r s once a m onth , h i s own r a d i o - t e l e v i s i o n program
223
" B io g r a p h ic a l S k e tc h o f R ob ert B. M eyner,"
(u n p u b lish e d X erox e n c lo s u r e w ith l e t t e r to Sarah S an d erson
from R o b ert B. M eyner, Lawyer i n Newark, New J e r s e y , May
1 3 , 19&J-), p p . 1 — !(..
22^Ibid., p. 1.
298
once a week, and fr e q u e n t sp ea k in g en gagem en ts.
R ob ert B . Meyner, who sparked D em ocratic r e su r g e n c e
i n a p r e v io u s ly R e p u b lica n s t a t e , became th e s t a t e ’ s
" f a v o r it e son" c a n d id a te fo r P r e s id e n t — or V i c e - P r e s i -
22 £
d en t* He d e s c r ib e d h i s r o l e a t th e c o n v e n tio n th u s:
In January o f i 960 a t a m e e tin g o f th e p r in c ip a l
p o l i t i c a l le a d e r s o f the D em ocratic p a r ty , I was
ask ed to a c c e p t the r o l e o f f a v o r i t e son* T h is i s
the r o l e I assumed up to and in c lu d in g the Conven-
tio n * ^ 2 o
Meyner and h i s ch an ces f o r V ic e - P r e s id e n t were d e s c r ib e d
as " . • « p o p u la r , l i b e r a l enough f o r the S o u th . H owever,
a s a onetim e C a th o lic who l e f t th e f o l d , he m ight be o f -
227
f e n s i v e to some C a th o lic s* " (Meyner was r a is e d as a
C a t h o lic , l e f t th e church i n h i s y o u th , and rem ained un-
pp Q
a f f i l i a t e d * ) W hite d e s c r ib e d him as a man who had
been r eg a r d e d as a p o s s i b l e dark h o r s e , but h i s d ep a rtu re
from C a th o lic is m l e f t him v u ln e r a b le to "both w atersh ed s
o f b i g o t r y , C a t h o lic and P r o t e s t a n t , " ^ 9
^ ^ C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r te r ly C on ven tion G uide, pp*
2 1 -2 2 .
226
R obert B . M eyner, L e t te r to Sarah Sanderson from
R obert B. M eyner, Lawyer i n Newark, New J e r s e y , May 1 3 ,
1961j.*
227tiprev iew C on ven tion s ’ 6 0 ," Newsweek, £ 6 :3 3 .
J u ly 1 1 , i 9 6 0 .
p p Q
C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r ter ly C on v en tion G u id e, p . 21*
^ ^ W h ite , The Making o f th e P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , p . 1^6.
299
The a c t io n s o f Governor Meyner a t the c o n v e n tio n
rem ained as an enigma n o t o n ly to h is c o lle a g u e s who had
to r id e the same empty wagon b u t to s p e c t a t o r s and new s
men a s w e l l . Arthur Krock in an a r t i c l e "C onvention P roves
Am bition Can Corrode Man* s Judgment" pondered th e r o le
which Meyner chose to p la y .
The f r u s t r a t e d king-miakers were Gov. Meyner o f
New J e r se y and whoever in the M innesota d e le g a t io n
may have t r i e d to persuade h i s c o lle a g u e s to make
sen se in the c o n v e n tio n . M eyner1s perform ance in
m issin g the b o a t when he sto o d a t the e n tra n ce to
the gangplank s t i l l rem ains beyond the c a p a c ity o f
p o l i t i c a l p s y c h o lo g is t s to e x p l a i n .2 3 °
E a r ly in the game the end was a p p a ren t—f o llo w in g through
w ith New York Times r e p o r t s : Ju ly 1 1 , "Meyner r e f u s e s to
abandon ra ce " ; Ju ly 12, "Meyner won’ t j o in parade to
Kennedy"; Ju ly 1 3 , "Meyner r e f u s e s to r e l e a s e v o te s " ;
J u ly l\±, "N. J . r e s t o r e s harmony but f a i l s in maneuver
to g a in a ’K ing-M aking’ r o le " ; J u ly 17, " S ta te sto o d f a s t
behind G overnor, but Meyner never found a n o p p o r tu n ity to
throw h i s su p p ort to Kennedy." A ll Governor Meyner would
say to r e p o r te r s a f t e r what appeared to be a h e a te d
m eetin g o f New J e r se y p o l i t i c a l le a d e r s a t the c o n v e n tio n
was "We had a meeting,"2^1 The same day i t was r e p o r te d
^•^Krock, "C onvention Proves Am bition Can Corrode
Man’ s Judgment," p . 3 .
‘ ^1'News item in the Los Angeles Times. July 13,
i960, Part A, p. 2.
300
in th e Mew York Times t h a t the r e a so n Meyner was n o t
r e l e a s in g the v o te s e a r ly was
• . • a d e s ir e to c a l l the c o n v e n tio n ’ s a t t e n t io n to
the g r e a t D em ocratic g a in s t h a t have taken p la c e in
New J e rse y in the l a s t seven y e a r s and to h i s own
e x p e r ie n c e as an a d m in is tr a to r and e x e c u t i v e .232
A ccordin g to George Cable W right, Meyner fa c e d problem s
on h i s r e tu r n to New J e rse y .
• • . H is tr o u b le s stem from the r o le he p lay ed in
th e dogged, b u t u n s u c c e s s f u l a ttem p t to b lo c k the
nom in ation o f Senator John F* Kennedy a t Los A n g e le s,
and d e te r m in a tio n to have h i s own name p la c e d in
n om in ation f o r P r e sid e n t*
The tw o -fo ld c o u r se o f a c t io n was d e sig n ed above
a l l to a f f o r d him any o p p o rtu n ity th e re m ight have
been f o r a dark h o r se to win th e n om in ation and, i f
t h i s was n o t fo rth co m in g , to p la c e New J erse y in a
p o s i t i o n where i t c o u ld p rovid e the c r u c ia l v o t e s
f o r the v i c t o r i o u s c a n d id a te *^33
W hite, a n a ly z in g the s i t u a t i o n in r e t r o s p e c t , saw
th e h o ld in g o f the New J e r se y d e le g a t io n to i t s " f a v o r it e
son" through th e f i r s t b a l l o t as p a r t o f the' s to p Kennedy
and push S te v en so n movement* The s t r a t e g y was b u i l t
around the prem ise th a t S te v e n so n , as the on ly t r u ly
n a t io n a l f ig u r e in the c o n v e n tio n , would be the v i c t o r in
ca se o f a d ea d lo ck which m ight r e s u l t i f Kennedy co u ld be
^ ^ N ew s item in the New York T im es, Ju ly 1 3 , 19&0,
p . 2 2 •
233
^ George Cable W right, "Meyner’ s R eturn: He Paces
Problem s in J e r se y Caused by H is A c tio n s a t N a tio n a l
C on ven tion ," New York T im es, Ju ly 2 3 , i 9 6 0 , p . L8 *
301
stopped on the fir st and consecutive b a ll o tsT h is
could occur if the favorite sons would hold their dele
gations fast on the fir s t ballot*
N ew Jersey froze first* In this state an in
ternal war meshed with the larger'national picture.
Pledged to its own Governor, Robert Meyner, with
a ll forty-one votes on the fir s t ballot, the N ew
Jersey delegation was sp lit internally and bitterly.
Joseph P. Kennedy had, through the long spring of
i 960, won the loyalties and votes of the north N ew
Jersey political leaders for his son, the Massachu
setts Senator* Yet the quiet operation that had won
them had simultaneously embittered their Governor,
who fe lt himself bypassed and his machinery of state
politics threatened. If Meyner released N ew Jersey,
som e thirty N ew Jersey votes would go to Kennedy and
the balance to Symington and Stevenson.235
Meyner would not release his delegation. H e held firm*
H e leaned toward Stevenson anyway, ^ 6 ancj refused to budge
in his position to be the "favorite son" candidate from
N ew Jersey w ho would receive a ll his state’s votes on the
fir s t ballot.
George A * Smathers,^37—pr 0^ .^ y - gj[ri s T n red-white-
and-blue uniforms passed out favors from the candidates
to the crowds w ho milled around inside the Biltmore Hotel,
23i^ Y h
ite , The Making of the President i 9 6 0, p. 1 )|9*
23%bid., p. 191.
2^6
Judah and Smith, The Unchosen, p. 327*
237ihe nomination speech for George A. Smathers as
delivered by Spessard Holland at the i 960 Democratic
Convention can be found in Appendix G *
302
party headquarters, on the eve of the i 960 Democratic
National Convention in Los Angeles, California—Texas
taffy for Lyndon Johnson; Pepsi-Cola for Stuart Symington;
coffee and buns for John F« Kennedy; and orange juice
from Florida for her “favorite son," George Armistead
Smathers•
The biggest issue to be presented before the
Democratic Convention Rules Committee the next day was not
that of ballot switching or loyalty pledges, but equal
time for a ll candidates on the convention floor and tick
ets to the convention for family and friends» Senator
Smathers made a personal appearance before the committee
urging adoption of a rule that every candidate be given
the same privileges* Although the convention hall was to
be sparsely fille d throughout the remaining days of the
convention, tickets at this point were so scarce that M rs*
Smathers could not get into the convention to see her hus
band nominated* “All we ask is equality, justice, and
fair play," Smathers said*2-^ ®
George Smathers, a Methodist, was born in Atlantic
City, N ew Jersey, in 1913* H e received his A. B. degree
from the University of Florida, and his L L * B. degree
from the College of Law, University of Florida* H e was
^3®News item in the Los Angeles Times. July 12.
i960, Part 1, p* 3.
303
admitted to the Florida bar in 1 9 3 8 , and practiced law
for a year after graduation before being appointed a ssis
tant United States d istrict attorney in Mi ami He
married Rosemary Townley and they had two sons* H e was in
the Marine Corps frcm 19^2 to 19^-5*2^ H e served in the
House of Representatives for two terms, and won the Junior
Chamber of Commerce award in 19^-8 for the 1 1 out-standing
young m an" in governmentHe defeated Senator Claude
Pepper in what he called a "rough, rough campaign" for the
Democratic Senatorial nomination in 1950, and remained as
Senator thereafter.^ 3
H e served on committees for transportation, avia
tion, small business, and financ eh e was considered an
expert on Latin American affairs, and urged strongly that
the Democratic platform carry a plank providing for crea
tion of a Western Hemisphere police force by the Organiza
tion of American States* Smathers called the Cuban
^ ^ Q f f i c i a l C o n g r e ss io n a l D i r e c t o r y , 8 8 th C on gress,
1 s t S e s s io n B eg in n in g January 9 , 19b3 (W ashington, D* C .:
U n ite d S t a t e s Government P r in tin g O f f i c e , 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 29*
^^Tony Simon, "A Senator's Day," Scholastic
Teacher, 7li:19j February 2 7, 1959*
^^P~0 f f i c i a l C o n g r e ss io n a l D i r e c t o r y , 8 8 th C o n g ress,
1 s t Session]^ p. £9 * '
^^Simon, "A Senator's Day," p, 19*
2^ C o n g r e ss io n a l Q u a r ter ly C on ven tion G u id e, p . 2 2 .
2^Simon, "A Senator's Day," p. 1 9 .
3 0 k
s i t u a t i o n " d is g r a c e fu l." ^ - ^
Sm athers went to the c o n v e n tio n as the unopposed
" fa v o r ite son" o f F lo r id a . He was m entioned as a p o s s ib le
V ic e - P r e s i d e n t i a l nominee in the C o n g r e ssio n a l Q u a rterly
C onvention Guide. I t was r e p o r te d i n the New York Times
t h a t h is n om in ation was a cover to throw the F lo r id a d e l e
g a t io n to Lyndon J o h n s o n . M o o s and H ess gave another
p o s s ib le m o tiv a tio n behind the n o m in a tio n .
I t ' s a c a r d in a l r u le i n p o l i t i c s , as th e l a t e
S en ator Claude Swanson once s a id , "never to w a it t i l l
the t r a i n le a v e s the s t a t i o n b e fo r e c lim b in g aboard."
Thus when the D em ocratic members o f F lo r id a ' s con
g r e s s io n a l d e le g a tio n unanim ously v oted to endorse
S en ator George Smathers a s a f a v o r i t e - s o n c a n d id a te ,
th e ir spokesman fr a n k ly s t a t e d t h a t the move was
d e sig n e d to improve the s t a t e ' s b a r g a in in g p o s it io n
a t th e i 960 c o n v e n tio n
W hatever th e m o t iv a t io n - - " f a v o r it e son ," a V i c e - P r e s i
d e n t i a l p o s s i b i l i t y , a cover fo r planned s t r a t e g y fo r
Johnson, or as a t o o l to im prove the s t a t e ' s b a r g a in in g
p o s i t i o n — Smathers was nom inated as a ca n d id a te fo r P r e s i
d e n t by S en a to r S p essard H ollan d a t th e i 960 D em ocratic
N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n .
2k 9
^ N e w s item in the Los A n geles Tim es, J u ly 10,
i 9 6 0 , P art A, p. 9*
^ ^ C o n g r e ssio n a l Q u a rterly C onvention G u id e, p. 2 2 .
^ ^ N ew s item i n the New York T im es, Ju ly llj., i 9 6 0 ,
p . 1 6 .
^^Malcom C. Moos and Stephen Hess, Hats in the
Ring (New York: Random House, i960), p. 51.
305
The C ontenders f o r th e R ep u b lican N om ination
The Major Contender
R ichard M. N ix o n . ^ 9 . .
P o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n s have alw ays came to me b eca u se I
was t h e r e , and i t was the r i g h t tim e and th e r i g h t
p l a c e — t h a t ' s how I g o t in t o p o l i t i c s in th e f i r s t ^
p l a c e . . . . I t depends on what th e tim es c a l l f o r . ^0
Thus d id "Nixon on Nixon" sum up h i s f a t a l i s t i c o u tlo o k on
p o l i t i c s * Men d id n o t shape th e t im e s , b u t the tim es
would d i c t a t e the f u t u r e o f a c o u n t r y 's p o l i t i c a l growth
and o f a m an's p o l i t i c a l d e s t i n y . The l i f e o f R ichard
Nixon seemed to e x em p lify t h i s p h ilo s o p h y .
" I f anybody had any d ou b ts about th e American
dream, th ey ought to lo o k a t u s ," s a id R ichard Nixon
so lem n ly a s h e , f o r the f i r s t tim e s in c e he began to cam
p a ig n f o r p o l i t i c s , t a lk e d a t le n g th about h i s p e r so n a l
background and humble b e g in n in g s . "Ours was n o t one o f
th e g r e a t American f a m i l i e s ," he c o n tin u e d , "But I have
never been ashamed of my background. . . . I alw ays
f ig u r e d i t was t y p i c a l o f America . . . and o n ly hope i t
The n om in a tion sp eech f o r R ich ard M. Nixon as
d e liv e r e d by Mark H a t f i e l d a t the i 960 R ep u b lica n Conven
t io n can be found in Appendix G.
^ -^ S te w a r t A lso p , "Nixon on N ixon," Satu rd ay E ven-
in g P o s t . 2 3 1 :2 7 . J u ly 1 2 , 1 9 5 8 .
306
2 9 l
can c o n tin u e to be a t y p i c a l Am erican fa m ily * "
The "Log c a b in myth"2 ^ becom es l e s s o f a myth and
more o f a r e a l i t y a s the s t o r y o f R ichard N ix o n ’ s l i f e
u n f o l d s . On a "w indy, d u sty day" i n 1913 i n th e m a ster
bedroom o f a two s t o r y frame h o u se on a c i t r u s ran ch i n
Yorba L in d a , C a l i f o r n i a , an e le v e n pound b o y , th e seco n d
o f f i v e s o n s , was b orn to Prank and Hannah N ix o n .2 ^
T his b o y , R ich ard M ilh o u se N ixon , was d e s t i n e d to be V ic e -
P r e s id e n t o f the U n ite d S t a t e s * The r a n c h , how ever, p r o
duced n o th in g b u t scraw n y, u n p r o f it a b le lem on s, and when
R ichard was n in e , th e f a m ily , h o p in g fo r b e t t e r d a y s , moved
to W h i t t i e r , a Quaker community j u s t E a st o f Los A n g e le s .
" A fte r we m oved," w ro te h i s m oth er, Hannah N ixon , f o r an
a r t i c l e i n Good H o u se k e e p in g , " o i l was found under th e
lemon g r o v e - - o i l th a t would have made u s m i l l i o n a i r e s i f
we had rem ained • • " . . . t h a t i s the o n ly r e a s o n
I d id n o t become a R o c k e f e lle r ," quipped Nixon a t a
^ ^ E a r l Mazo, "American Dream Come True: N ixon
P o in ts to Humble Background o f S e l f , W ife," Los A n g e le s
Tim es, J u ly 2 9 , I 9 6 0 , p . 2 .
292
Bernard B e r e ls o n , C o n ten t A n a ly s is i n Communica
t i o n R esea rch (G le n c o e , I l l i n o i s : The F ree P r e s s , 1 9 3 2 ) ,
p . 1 3 6 *
^^H annah M * N ix o n , "R ichard N ixon, a M o th er's
S t o r y , as Told to F lo r a R heta S c h r e ib e r ," Good H ousek eeping.
1 3 0 :2 0 8 , Ju n e, i 9 6 0 . --------------------------
2^Ibid .. p. 212
307
a p o l i t i c a l g a th e r in g i n 1 9 6 0 . ^ ^
B e t t e r days d id n o t come fo r the N ixons in W h it t ie r .
One o f the few m en tio n s -of h i s e a r ly l i f e in the book
S ix C r is e s by R ichard Nixon was o f h i s work a t th e fa m ily
g r o ce ry s to r e #
As a b oy, working in my f a t h e r ’ s s t o r e , I u sed to
d r iv e a p ick u p tru ck to the produce m ark ets in Los
A n g ele s in th e e a r ly m orning h ou rs so t h a t I cou ld
g e t th e f r e s h f r u i t s and v e g e t a b le s back in the
s t o r e read y f o r s a l e when we opened a t 8 :0 0 # 2 5 o
T his was when he was a h ig h s c h o o l j u n io r .
Nixon a tte n d e d W h ittie r C o lle g e , a " sm a ll Quaker
c o l l e g e . A c c o r d i n g to h i s m oth er,
At W h ittie r he had a p a r t s c h o la r s h ip , which came
from a fund my f a t h e r had l e f t i n the c o l l e g e w ith
i n s t r u c t i o n s th a t the fund be u sed fo r s c h o la r s h ip s
fo r h i s c h ild r e n and t h e i r d e sc en d a n ts# W e p a id
the rem ain d er o f R ic h a r d ’ s t u i t i o n . ^58
Prom W h itt ie r C o lle g e , he went on a t u i t i o n s c h o la r s h ip
to Duke U n iv e r s it y Law S ch o o l# P h ilip P o t t e r , term ing
Nixon the " P o l i t i c a l P itchm an," r e l a t e d how the tim es were
good to Nixon i n th a t he had n e v e r , a f t e r h ig h sc h o o l d a y s ,
l o s t an e l e c t i o n i n which he p a r t i c i p a t e d as a c o n t e s t a n t .
S tu d e n t body P r e s id e n t a t W h it t ie r , cham pionship d e b a te r
2 -^Mazo, "American Dream Come True," p . 2#
2 ^ R ic h a r d M. N ix o n , S ix C r is e s (Garden C it y , New
York: Doubleday and Company, I n c . , 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 2J 4 .8 .
2 ^7I b i d . , p . 2 9 6 .
2^®Hannah Nixon, "Richard Nixon," p. 212.
308
s in c e th e f i f t h g r a d e , he was g ra d u a te d se co n d a t W h it t ie r
and t h ir d a t Duke, was ch o sen f o r Law R ev iew , and , a s one
o f th e n a t i o n ' s to p ten per c e n t o f law s c h o o l g r a d u a te s ,
made th e Order o f the C o i f . ^ 9 A f t e r b e in g g r a d u a te d ,
N i x o n - - f a i l i n g to s e c u r e the p o s i t i o n s he d e s ir e d w ith a
W all S t r e e t law firm and w ith the FBI— returned to
'W h ittier to become a member o f th e law firm o f W ingert and
B ew ley , w hich w it h in a y e a r became W in g ert, B ew ley, and
N ix o n *2 ^1
In th e w in te r o f 1 9 3 8 , N ixon met P at Ryan«> The
s t o r y o f t h e i r romance h as been lik e n e d to " lo v e a t f i r s t
o
s ig h t" f o r R ichard N ixon, b u t r e lu c t a n c e by P at Ryan.
P at Ryan, d e s t in e d to become th e secon d la d y o f th e la n d ,
was th e same m odel of s e l f - r e l i a n c e th en t h a t she was
th rou gh ou t her h u sb a n d 's p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r . I n t e l l i g e n t ,
h a r d -w o r k in g , p e r s o n a b le , and s t r i k i n g , sh e , as d e s c r ib e d
by h er husband, e p ito m iz e d what he c a l l e d th e "American
Dream."
^ •^ S e v a r e id , C a n d id a tes i 9 6 0 . p 0 8 2 .
^kOvVilliam C o s t e l l o , The F a c t s About N ixon (New
Y ork: The V ik in g P r e s s , i 9 6 0 ) , p . 2 fa.
2 ^'*'Hannah N ix o n , "R ichard N ixon ," p . 213*
p Zip
Costello, The Facts About Nixon, p. 28.
309
"She was born in a m ining camp. Her mother d ie d o f
cancer when she was 11 and from th a t time on she was
the one who kept the fa m ily t o g e t h e r —her f a t h e r and
fo u r b r o th e r s . . • . t h is g i r l . . . with no money
• • . nothing but energy and s p i r i t . . # worked her
way through c o l l e g e (grad uating w ith high honors)
[U n iv e r sity o f Southern C a l i f o r n i a ] and became a
s c h o o l - t e a c h e r *"263
S ix months a f t e r t h e ir m arriage, Pearl Harbor was bombed.
Nixon went to Washington to o f f e r h is s e r v i c e s a s a lawyer
to h e lp w ith the r e g u la t in g and running o f the r a tio n in g
system ,^^" but w it h in a few months, in s p i t e o f a m i li t a r y
exem ption as a Quaker, Nixon a p p lie d f o r and r e c e iv e d a
commission in the N avy.2 ^ Back i n C a l i f o r n ia , p o l i t i c s
were goin g on as u s u a l . R e p r e se n ta tiv e Jerry V oorhis, i n
o f f i c e fo r ten y e a r s , was s t i l l a sore sp o t for the Re
p u b lic a n s . He seemed to be u n b e a ta b le . A winning c a n d i
date was needed. Recommended by Herman L. Perry, head of
the Bank o f America in W h ittie r , a phone c a l l was p laced
to Richard Nixon: was he a R epublican and was he a v a i l
able? The answer on both counts was "Yesl" The war was
over, d isc h a r g e was imminent, and h is w if e was e x p e c tin g
< p
a baby. The time was r i g h t . Although V o o r h is’ record
showed him as d e f i a n t l y anti-Com m unist, Nixon h i t hard a t
2 ^ M a z o , "American Dream Come True," p . 2* ( D e le
t io n s are Mazo’ s . )
2 ^ " C o s t e llo , The P a c ts About N ixon , p . 29«
2 ^^Hannah N ixon , "R ichard N ixon," p . 21J4..
p zizL
C o s t e l l o , The F a cts About N ixon, pp. 38-39*
310
th e Communist i s s u e , which was l a t e r to become h i s theme*
He won, 6 5 ,5 8 6 to lj.9,99^ -* ^ 7
Nixon e n te r e d C on gress i n 19^-7 • H is f i r s t m ajor
com m ittee was E d u ca tio n and Labor, and i t was th e r e ,
t h i r t e e n y e a r s b e fo r e 1 9 & 0 , t h a t he met fo r the f i r s t
tim e the man who was to be h i s c h i e f p o l i t i c a l opp onent,
p Q
John P . K ennedy. The H is s c a s e , in which Nixon as a
R e p r e s e n ta tiv e d ogged ly pursued th e t h r e a t o f Communism
in governm ent, brough t him n a t io n a l fa m e.2 ^
The n e x t s te p was the U. S . S e n a t e . R e p r e s e n ta tiv e
H elen Gahagan D o u g la s, a Dem ocrat and New D e a le r , was h i s
o p p o n en t. She fa r e d no b e t t e r than V o o r h is . G u ilt by
a s s o c i a t i o n was the them e. N ixon won, 2 , 1 8 3 to
1,^02, 5 0 7 .270
Two y e a r s l a t e r , Nixon was in tr o d u c e d by G eneral
Dw ight D. E isenh ow er to the R ep u b lica n N a tio n a l C onvention
as h i s runn ing m a te — " 1 a man who has a s p e c i a l t a l e n t and
an a b i l i t y to f e r r e t o u t any k in d o f s u b v e r s iv e in f lu e n c e
w herever i t may be found and th e s tr e n g th and p e r s is t e n c e
267^1 cha rd M. N ixon: N e x t, the W hite H o u se ? ,1 1
U . S . News and World R e p o r t, :< L p 3 » January 1 1 , i 9 6 0 .
2 ^®Richard N ixon, S ix C r i s e s , p . 2 9 8 .
2 6 9 I b i d *. p . 6 9 .
^ ^ ''R ic h a r d M. N ixon: N e x t, the W hite H ouse?” p . lj.3.
311
t o g e t r i d o f i t * ,u ^^^ On Septem ber ll+, a f t e r a "Meet th e
P ress" b r o a d c a s t , N ixon was q u e s t io n e d abou t a p o l i t i c a l
e x p e n se fu n d of $ 1 8 ,0 0 0 . Pour days l a t e r , th e s t o r y o f the
s e c r e t fun d was p u b lis h e d i n the New,York P o s t . On S ep
tember 2 3 s th e famous "Checkers" sp e e c h was made from Los
A n g e l e s . ^ 2 In t h i s t e l e c a s t N ixon e x p la in e d t h a t the fun d
was f o r p o l i t i c a l , n o t p e r s o n a l u s e , and d e t a i l e d h i s
f i n a n c i a l p o s i t i o n . He t o l d ab ou t h i s w if e * s " r e s p e c t a b le
R e p u b lica n c lo t h coat" and ab ou t h i s l i t t l e dog C heckers
whom h i s c h ild r e n lo v e d b u t whom he was n o t g o in g to r e
tu r n even though th e dog had been a g i f t from a Texas
a d m ir er . The sp eech was a c r u c i a l one fo r Nixon^?3 and f o r
E lsen h ow er who wanted a ru n n in g m ate who would be " c le a n
a s a hound’ s t o o t h . "^7^-
To N ixon , th e w hole e p is o d e m ight have been th e r e
s u l t o f the a fter m a th o f th e H is s c a se which had l e f t a
" r e s id u e o f h a tr e d and h o s t i l i t y " toward, h im .^ -^
In any e v e n t , one o f th e p e r s o n a l a fte r m a th s o f
the H is s ca se was t h a t fo r the n e x t tw e lv e y e a r s o f
my p u b lic s e r v i c e i n W a sh in gton , I was to b e s u b je c te d
to an u t t e r l y u n p r in c ip le d and v i c i o u s smear cam paign.
Bigam y, f o r g e r y , d ru n k en n ess, i n s a n i t y , t h i e v e r y , a n t i -
S e m itism , p e r ju r y , the w hole gamut o f m isc o n d u c t in
^*^Ri chard N ixon , S ix C r i s e s , p . 6 9 *
^ ^ C o s t e l l o , The F a c ts About N ix o n , p . 2 9 2 .
Richard N ix o n , S ix C r i s e s , pp. 7 3 - 1 2 9 .
2 ^ S e v a r e i d , C andidates i 9 6 0, pp. 88- 8 9 .
312
p u b lic o f f i c e , r a n g in g from u n e t h i c a l to dow nrigh t
c r im in a l a c t i v i t i e s - - a l l th e s e were among th e c h a r g es
t h a t were h u r le d a g a in s t me, same p u b l i c l y and o th e r s
through w h isp e rin g cam paigns which were even more
d i f f i c u l t t o c o u n t e r a c t . ^ Y o
The sp e e c h produced d i f f e r e n t r e a c t io n s in d i f f e r e n t
q u a r t e r s . The r e a c t i o n o f the American p u b lic was i n the
form o f n e a r ly two m i l l i o n te le p h o n e c a l l s , tele g ra m s and
l e t t e r s t e s t i f y i n g to t h e ir f a i t h in the i n t e g r i t y o f
R ichard N ix o n . To them, he was an h o n e s t man.^ 77 To the
R e p u b lic a n s, N ixon proved he m igh t be an a s s e t on th e
t i c k e t a f t e r a l l . 278 To the sp ee ch c r i t i c , " • • • the
sp eech was a stu d y i n a p p earan ces as opposed t o r e a l i t i e s
• . • the r h e t o r i c o f p l a u s i b i l i ty . ,,279 ipQ Leone B a x te r ,
o f the W h ita k er-B a x ter a d v e r t is in g a g en cy , the famous dog
sp eech o f N ix o n 's was th e coming o f age fo r p o l i t i c a l
t e l e v i s i o n . Up to t h a t p o i n t , campaign p r o f e s s i o n a l s had
b een h ig h ly s k e p t i c a l o f th e l i k e l y r e tu r n on the huge
e x p e n d itu r e s i t r e q u ir e d r e l a t i v e to o th e r m edia
278Richard Nixon, S ix C r i s e s , p . 7 0 .
2 7 7 S e v a r e id , C a n d id a tes I 9 6 0 , p . 137*
2 7 8 I b i d . , p . 8 9 .
^ ^ B a r n e t B a s k e r v i l l e , " R h eto ric and the Campaign
o f 1956! The New N ixon," Q u a r te r ly Jo u rn a l o f S p e e c h ,
ip3 il+lL, F eb ru a ry , 1957*
280
Leone B a x te r , I n te r v ie w betw een D r. W allace H.
B e s t , Clem W h itak er, and Leone B a x te r , F airm ont H o t e l,
Nob H i l l , San F r a n c is c o , C a l i f o r n i a , December 15> 19&0,
a s r e l a t e d by D r. W a llace H. B e s t to the w r ite r *
313
Four o th e r c r i s e s f o l lo w e d i n th e y e a r s t h a t N ixon
was to spend i n th e W hite H ouse a s V i c e - P r e s i d e n t . The
2 1
h e a r t a t t a c k , i l e i t u s , and s tr o k e o f P r e s id e n t E isen h ow er;
28"
th e t r i p to C aracas where N ixon was s to n e d and s p a t upon;
th e m e e tin g w ith K hrushchev w hich was t e l e v i s e d t o b o th
n a t i o n s j 2 ® 3 an£ th e cam paign o f 1 9 6 o . 2 8 ^
When G eorge G a llu p was q u e s t io n e d as to th e i 9 60
o u t lo o k on p a r ty v o t e s th r o u g h o u t th e U n ite d S t a t e s , he
a n s w e r e d :
When we ask p e o p le to d a y how th e y would r e g i s t e r
i f th e y were r e q u ir e d to r e - r e g i s t e r a t t h i s t im e , an
e s t im a t e d 5 6 .2 m i l l i o n sa y th e y would r e g i s t e r a s
D em ocrats and 3 7 * 6 m i l l i o n a s R e p u b lic a n s . That
means t h a t the D em ocrats h ave a l e a d o f some 19
m i l l i o n o v e r th e R e p u b lic a n s .2 8 5
The " o u tlo o k ” was n a t i o n a l , n o t : s e c t i o n a l •
The S o u th , o f c o u r s e , i s o v e r w h e lm in g ly Demo
c r a t i c . But th e i n t e r e s t i n g t h in g i s t h a t i n e v e r y
s e c t i o n o f th e c o u n tr y more p e o p le would r e g i s t e r
to d a y a s D em ocrats than would r e g i s t e r a s R e p u b lic a n s .
T h is i s tr u e i n th e E a s t, th e M idw est and th e Far
W e st. And, i f you ta k e th e w h ole a r e a o f th e c o u n tr y
o u t s id e th e S o u th , th e number who w ould r e g i s t e r a s
D em ocrats e x c e e d s th e number who would r e g i s t e r as
2 8 ^R ichard N ix o n , S ix C r i s e s , pp. 1 2 1 - 1 8 1 .
2 8 2 I b i d . , p p . 1 8 3 -2 3 ^ #
2 8 3 I b i d . . pp . 2 3 5 - 2 9 1 .
2 8 ^ I b i d . , p p . 2 9 3 - ^ 2 6 .
285iirjihe * 60 O u tlo o k : L ooking Ahead i n P o l i t i c s - -
F or P r e s id e n t . . . For C o n g r e ss ," U . S . News and World
R e p o r t . 1 4 .8 : 8 0 , January 1 ^ ., i 9 6 0 .
334
R e p u b lic a n s by a m argin o f £l± to L j_ G • So th e Demo
c r a t s have an edge i n a l l s e c t i o n s o f the c o u n tr y
and, o f c o u r s e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e S o u th ,2 8 6
N ixon c o n s id e r e d t h i s a s p a r t o f th e c r i s i s , 2 ®?
V ic e - P r e s id e n t N ixon was c l e a r l y the c h o ic e o f th e
R e p u b lica n s i n th e p r e -c o n v e n tio n m o n th s. N ix o n ’ s a n
nouncem ent t h a t he would be a c a n d id a te f o r th e P r e s id e n c y
p O O
came a s no s u r p r is e to a n y o n e. W ith N e lso n R o c k e f e l l e r
a s an avowed e x - c a n d id a t e f o r the n o m in a tio n , th e road
289
seemed o p e n . 7 There was t a l k o f th e n o m in a tio n o f a
" f a v o r i t e son," Barry M. G o ld w a te r, b u t t h i s was th e v o ic e
o f the c o n s e r v a t iv e f a c t i o n o f th e p a r ty c a l l i n g o u t f o r
r e c o g n i t io n o n l y . What ty p e o f man would th e v o t e r s seek ?
What ty p e was R ich ard N ixon? W hite c o n s id e r e d him a s
" . . • a man o f major t a l e n t - - b u t a man of. s o l i t a r y , u n
c e r t a i n im p u ls e ." 2 9®
Poor from boyhood, a b le , i n t e n s e , dark and w a tc h fu l
as he su r v e y s h i s w orld abou t him , R ich ard M. Nixon
h as b r o u g h t from h i s im p o v e r ish e d m i d d l e - c l a s s you th
many s tr a n g e q u a l i t i e s — th e t h r u s t o f enoim ous i n
t e r n a l d r i v e s , an overw h elm ing d e s i r e to be l i k e d
and , where h e i s r e b u f f e d , a b i t t e r , im p u ls iv e r e f l e x
p . 8 0 .
288,-,
2 ®®"The ’ 60 O u tlook ," U. S . News and World R eport
2 ®?Richard N ixon , S ix C r i s e s , p . 3 0 2 .
Infom nal C andidate," Time, 7 3 :1 7 . January 18.
I960.
2®^White, The Making of the President I960, p. 90.
29°Ibid., p. 78.
315
o f la s h b a c k s . • • • A b r o o d in g , moody man, g iv e n
to lo n g s t r e t c h e s o f i n t r o s p e c t i o n , he t r u s t s on ly
h im s e lf and h i s w ife --a n d a f t e r th a t h i s c o n f id e n c e ,
in any s i t u a t i o n , i s y i e l d e d on ly to the s m a l l e s t
p o s s i b l e number o f p e o p l e *291
P o tte r drew a p ic t u r e o f Nixon a s an i n t r o v e r t , shy and i l l
a t e a se w ith i n d i v i d u a l s . N ix o n 's w ife a t t e s t e d to h i s
sh yn ess .^ 9 2 jje was d e s c r ib e d by h i s m other as " t i g h t -
lip p e d ," n o t much o f a m ix e r , and d e f i n i t e l y n o t a b a c k -
s l a p p e r .2^ Nixon had drawn a candid s e l f - p o r t r a i t when
he s a id : " I f the tim e comes when the R ep u b lican p a r ty and
the v o t e r s are lo o k in g f o r an outw ard ly warn, e a s y g o in g ,
g r e g a r io u s ty p e , then th e y w i l l n o t want th e s o r t o f man
I am."2 ^
In th e campaign o f 1 9 5 &, the n a t io n a l image o f
R ichard Nixon underw ent a change i n an e f f o r t to combat
the a n tip a th y o f so many p eo p le who p r i v a t e l y and p u b l i c l y
s a i d , "I d o n 't know why, b u t I j u s t d o n 't l i k e h im ." 2 ^
"The image o f N ixon , h atch etm an , tran sform ed in t o N ixon,
2 9"Myhite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t 19&Q. p* 77*
2 9 2 s e v a r e id , C an d id ates I 9 6 0 , p . 7 1 .
2 9^Hannah N ixon , "R ichard N ixon," p . 207*
2 9^ A lsop , "Nixon on N ixon," p . 2 7 .
2 < ^ B a s k e r v i l l e , " R h eto ric and th e Campaign o f 195&:
The New N ixon," p . l\2»
316
sta te sm a n , was the m ira c le o f the cam paign."^96 In i 960
th e n a tio n a l image underwent an oth er ch an ge.
There may be more joy in H eaven, b u t w e're bored
by the n ew est N ixon. He r ee k s o f r e s p e c t a b i l i t y ; h e 's
Dwight Eisenhower w ith o u t the charm. . . . Richard
even lo o k s d i f f e r e n t . Where are the jow ls? Why have
the c lo t h e s become more fu n e r e a l? • . . He i s p ic tu r e d
as a man o f the s im p le s t p le a s u r e s : "Give D ick a
sharp p e n c il and a lo n g y e llo w pad and h e ’ s h a p p y ,”
one o f h i s a d v is e r s Inform s u s . Even Norman V in cen t
P ea le never s a id i t was th a t e a s y .
The man has r i s e n above h i m s e l f . Where once he
c o n sid e r e d Harry Truman alm ost a t r a i t o r , now he
speaks o f Harry as h a vin g been a " s tr o n g ” P r e s id e n t .
Jack Kennedy? Nixon l i k e s him , or so the p ap ers say
he to ld Kennedy S e n io r . He w o u ld n 't even take s id e s
In the Rose Bowl game ( c o a s t - t o - c o a s t TV), or r a th er
he took b oth s i d e s : "As V ice P r e s id e n t, I am a
n e u t r a l, as a C a lif o r n ia n I am r o o tin g for the W est."
The o ld Nixon in the b a c k - a lle y was bad enough,
bu t t h i s a ll-A m er ic a n boy who wants to be the a l l -
American F a th e r le a d in g an a ll-A m e r ic a n Team i s
n a u s e a t in g .297
R u s s e ll Baker d e s c r ib e d the s i t u a t i o n a t C h icago,
th e scene o f th e i 960 R epu blican C on ven tion , as more o f
" . • . a c o r o n a tio n in s te a d o f a c o n v e n t io n ,” w ith the
on ly clou d on the h o r iz o n b e in g a "Goldwater fo r P r e s i
d e n t” but t o n . T his may have been the c a se on Ju ly 2 7 ,
^ u 3rn est J . Wrage, "R hetoric and the Campaign o f
1956: The P o l i t i c a l M otif o f ' £ 6 , ” Q u a rterly Journal o f
S p ee c h . l|3 :$ 2 , F ebruary, 1957*
2971'Bring Back N ix o n ,” The New R e p u b lic , ll|.2
February l £ , i 9 6 0 .
298
R u s s e ll B aker, " H ig h lig h ts o f the R epu blican
Nominating S e s s i o n , ” New York T im es. Ju ly 2 8 , i 9 6 0 ,
p. L1 3 .
317
but se v e r a l weeks e a r l i e r w ith the c o lla p s e of the Summit
Meeting a f t e r the U-2 in c id e n t , the cloud on the h o rizon
s p e lle d " R o ck efe ller ." This cloud had been d i s p e l l e d by
a d r o lt maneuvering on the part of Richard Nixon who had
presen ted the convention w ith a platform stamped "Rocke
f e l l e r " in ste a d o f "Percy and the R e so lu tio n s Committee."
The storm had blown over, but the Goldwater button was
s t i l l p resen t and would produce only a s l i g h t d iv e r s io n in
the acceptance of Richard M. Nixon as the Republican ch oice
fo r P re sid en t in i 960.
The Contender
Barry M. Goldwater
The ch allen g e to C on servatives today i s q u ite simply
to demonstrate the bearing of a proven philosophy on
the problems o f our own tim e.
I fin d that America i s fundam entally a C on servative
n a t io n . The preponderant judgment o f the American
p e o p le , i s th a t the r a d i c a l , or L ib e r a l, approach
has not worked and i s not working. Ih§y yearn f o r
a retu rn to C onservative p r i n c i p l e s .300
This was the v o ice of one of the most a r t i c u l a t e spokesmen
299
The nom ination speech fo r Barry M. Goldwater as
d e liv e r e d by Paul J. Fannin at the i 960 Republican Conven
tio n can be found in Appendix G.
•^^Barry Goldwater, The Conscience of a C onservative
(Kentucky: V ictor P ublishing- Company, I n c ., I 9 6 0 ),
foreward (no p a g in a tio n ).
318
f o r the R ep u b lican P a r ty 's Old Guardr-Barry M. G old w ater,
Senator frcm A r i z o n a . A s an ’'a r c h c o n s e r v a t iv e , 1 1
G oldwater spoke f o r th e r i g h t wing o f the R ep u b lican
"302
P a r ty . H is book, The C on scien ce o f a C o n se r v a tiv e
turned up on a b e s t s e l l e r l i s t i n s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t
the book had been p u b lish e d by an obscure p u b lis h in g hou se .
in Kentucky and had been v i r t u a l l y ig n o red by th e book
r e v ie w s e c t i o n o f the New York T i m e s . 3^3
What was th e C o n se r v a tiv e approach a s d e fin e d by
G oldwater?
The C o n se rv a tiv e approach i s n o th in g more or l e s s
than an a ttem p t to ap p ly the wisdom and e x p e r ie n c e
and th e r e v e a le d t r u th s o f th e p a s t to th e problem s
o f to d a y . The c h a lle n g e i s n ot to f in d new or d i f f e r
e n t t r u t h s , b u t to le a r n how to apply e s t a b l i s h e d ,
tr u th s to the problem s o f the contem porary w o r l d .3 0 4
The C o n s t it u t io n o f the U n ite d S t a t e s d i c t a t e s the d i r e c
t i o n s o f C on servatism f o r i t i s 1 1 • • • a system o f r e
s t r a i n t s a g a in s t the n a tu r a l ten d en cy o f governm ent to
expand i n the d i r e c t i o n o f a b s o lu t is m . "305 Under the
3 O lnold G uard's New Spokesman," Time, 75> i 1 5 . May 2 ,
I960.
302
Judah and Sm ith, The UnChosen, p . 339*
303
A lexander H olm es, " S en . G oldw ater*s C on servatism
F in d s Support i n Many Q u a rters," Los A n geles Tim es, J u ly
1 1 , i 9 6 0 , P art 3 ( E d i t o r i a l ) , p . 3*
^ ^ G o ld w a te r , The C on scien ce o f a C o n s e r v a tiv e ,
forew ard (no p a g in a tio n )’.
3°^ibid., p0 18.
head in g o f " C onservatism ," G oldw ater*s v iew s j o l t e d a
n a tio n by t h e ir v ery b o ld n e s s . C i v i l r ig h t s ? "• . • th e
C o n s t it u t io n . . . i s an in str u m e n t, above a l l , f o r
l i m i t i n g the f u n c t io n s o f governm ent, and . . . i s as
*5 C\f~\
b in d in g today as when i t was w r itt e n ." "I th e r e fo r e
support a l l e f f o r t s by the S t a t e s ," he w r o te , " e x c lu d in g
■ »
v io le n c e o f c o u r s e , to p r e se r v e t h e ir r i g h t f u l powers over
307
e d u c a tio n ." P a m p o lic y ? "Farm p r o d u c tio n , l i k e any
o th er p r o d u ctio n i s b e s t c o n t r o lle d by the n a tu r a l o p era
t io n o f th e f r e e m a rk et." 3 ^8 Labor u n io n s? The r e a l e v i l
in la b o r i s " . . . the power o f u n io n s to e n fo r c e in d u s tr y
wide b a r g a in in g ."^09 Taxes? The " . . . governm ent h as a
r ig h t to cla im an eq u al p e r ce n ta g e o f each m an's w e a lt h ,
and no m ore."^^^ F ed e r a l a id to e d u c a tio n ? I t i s "un
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l »The b ig damage . . . i s t h a t the
c h ild grows up th in k in g th a t the o n ly sou rce o f freedom ,
or a n y th in g i s the f e d e r a l govern m ent. . . . Y e s, I fe a r
3 ^ G o ld w a ter , The C on scien ce o f a C o n se rv a tiv e
3 ° 7I b i d . ,
P-
36.
3 ° 8I b i d . ,
P* 39.
3 ° 9 l b i d . ,
P*
3 1 0 I b i d . #
P«
•
1 — 1
v O
3 1 1 I b i d . .
P- 77.
320
W ashington more than I do Moscowo”^ ^ The U n ited N a tio n s?
•'The U n ited N a tio n s , we must remember, i s in p a r t a Com-
313
m u n ist o r g a n iz a tio n ." Senator G oldwater d id n o t h e s i
t a t e to d is c u s s any s u b j e c t — even to th e u s e o f n u c le a r
weapons fo r la n d w arfare in m i l i t a r y o p e r a tio n s a g a in s t
" v u ln era b le communist regim es . ”31^-
D e sc rib e d as " . • . the h a l f - s e r i o u s c h o ice o f
R ep u b lican s i n South C a r o lin a and A rizon a f o r the G. 0 . P.
p r e s i d e n t i a l n o m in a tio n , G oldwater was r e p r e s e n te d as
a "man o f d e stin y " a t the i 960 R ep u b lican C o n v en tio n . The
f i f t y year o ld S en ator w ith h i s s i l v e r h a ir f le c k e d w ith
b la c k , h i s tanned com plexion which p roclaim ed him an o u t-
doorsman, h i s fir m jaw which ju t t e d out as though to sa y ,
"so t h e r e l," was seen by R u s s e ll Baker as the " . . . e x
c i t i n g new i d o l o f th e p a r t y ’ s d is p o s s e s s e d # " ^ ^
Barry M. G oldw ater, grandson o f a P o lis h Jew who
l e f t Poland in 1 8lp8, was born New Y ea r’ s Day i n 1 9 0 9 . He
3X2
" 'Y e s, I Pear W ash in gto n ,'" The New R ep u b lic
lL}2:6, January 4., i 9 6 0 .
313
-'G oldw ater, The C on scien ce o f a C o n s e r v a tiv e .
pp# 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 .
^ I b i d . . p . 1 2 0 .
3-4£"oid G uard's New Spokesman," p . l£ #
■^■^Russell Baker, "R epublican Old Guard R a lly in g to
G oldw ater as I t s L a st Hope," New York T im es. Ju ly 2 3 , i 9 6 0 ,
p. L8 .
321
and h i s b r o th e r and s i s t e r were r e a r e d as E p is c o p a lia n s *
H is f a t h e r was one o f th e le a d in g b u sin essm en in P h eo n ix ,
A rizon a* G oldw ater had h i s e a r ly s c h o o lin g i n A rizon a and
a t a p r iv a t e m i l i t a r y s c h o o l, S tau n ton M ilit a r y Academy,
V i r g i n i a . He a tte n d e d th e U n iv e r s it y o f A rizon a b u t q u it
to go i n t o th e f a m ily b u s in e s s when h i s f a t h e r d ied * He
was tw en ty y e a r s o ld a t th e tim e* At th e age o f tw e n ty -
e i g h t , h e became P r e s id e n t o f G o ld w a ters, I n c o ^ ^ By t h i s
tim e he had m arried M argaret Johnson o f M uncie, I n d ia n a .
They had fou r c h ild r e n - - t w o d a u g h te rs and two s o n s . World
War I I in t e r r u p te d h i s b u s in e s s c a r e e r and G oldw ater se rv e d
as an A ir F orce p i l o t from 19^-1 to 19^5* In 19&0 he was a
A
B r ig a d ie r G eneral i n the R e s e r v e s , and was the o n ly
U n ite d S t a t e s S en a to r to p i l o t j e t p la n e s .
D ab b lin g i n l o c a l p o l i t i c s i n P heonix c o n v in ced
G oldw ater t h a t l i f e c o u ld be e x c i t i n g and t h a t he sh o u ld
t r y f o r th e n a t io n a l s c e n e . In 1952 he ran f o r the U n ite d
S t a t e s S en a te* D em ocratic M a jo r ity Leader E r n e s t W.
M cFarland was h i s opponent*
The campaign saw the G oldw ater p o l i t i c a l p e r so n
a l i t y take shape* He p o s s e s s e d th o se i n t a n g ib le
Judah and S m ith , The U n ch o sen , pp . 3^ 0“3i+l»
a n A
O f f i c i a l C o n g r e ss io n a l D i r e c t o r y , 8 8 th C o n g re ss,
1 s t S e s s io n , -p* 8 *
Judah and Smith, The Unchosen, p. 3i|2*
322
q u a l i t i e s th a t make p o l i t i c i a n s p e r s o n a lly p op u lar
w ith th e v o te r s * He was p l a u s i b l e , e n e r g e t i c , and
e f f e c t i v e - - a n d he was handsome* A lth ou gh few men
have t r i e d h a rd er to s e l l t h e i r p r i n c i p l e s , i t
seems p ro b a b le th a t he i s more s u c c e s s f u l In
s e l l i n g h im s e lf * H is p o l i t i c a l te c h n iq u e s a l s o
emerged i n 1952* He argued in term s o f b la c k and
w h ite . The m ethod i s s im p le . He s t a r t s w ith v a lu e
judgments w hich he p r e s e n ts as i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e f a c t s
and b u i ld s h i s c a se on t h e s e f o u n d a t io n s . I n 1952
he a s s e r t e d th a t he r e p r e s e n te d th e Am erican i d e a —
th a t was one i n c o n t r o v e r t ib le f a c t . M cFarland*s
id e a s were s o c i a l i s t i c I d e a s — t h a t was a n o th er I n
c o n t r o v e r t ib le f a c t . So th e v o te r m ust ch o o se b e
tween Am ericanism and s o c i a l i s m . That was th e f i n a l
I n c o n t r o v e r t ib le f a c t * • . • The te c h n iq u e w orked.
I t was a c l o s e e le c t !o n -- G o ld w a te r needed I k e ’ s
c o a t t a i l s — but he won by 6 ,7 5 2 v o t e s . E lsenh ow er
had a m a jo r ity o f over [(.0 , 0 0 0 .3 2 0
The e l e c t i o n o f th e r e l a t i v e l y p o l i t i c a l unknow n--Barry
G old w ater— l e f t the s e a t o f th e D em ocratic M a jo r ity L eader
va ca n t* When th e 81j.th C on gress convened in Jan u ary, 1953*
th e unanimous c h o ic e o f the Dem ocrats f o r a new le a d e r was
Lyndon B. Joh n son , the y o u n g e st man e v er to be named to
t h a t p o s i t i o n * ^ ^
By 195?» Barry G oldw ater had s e i z e d le a d e r s h ip o f
the r i g h t wing o f th e R ep u b lica n P a rty by h i s denouncem ent
o f modern R ep u b lica n ism as c o n f l i c t i n g w ith sound p a r ty
p h ilo so p h y * G oldw ater d id n o t become a p r e s i d e n t i a l p o s
s i b i l i t y u n t i l th e 1958 e l e c t i o n s * One o f the b r ig h t s p o ts
fo r the R ep u b lican s in th e 1958 e l e c t i o n s was 11. . • th e
320
Judah and Smith, The Unchosen, pp. 3J|3~3V|
321Ibid., p. 308.
323
d e c i s i v e r e - e l e c t i o n o f S e n a to r Barry G oldw ater i n
A r iz o n a ."322 opponent was a g a in M cFarland, b u t t h i s
tim e G oldw ater d id n o t need E isen h o w er*s c o a t t a i l s to win*
White, d is m is s e d G oldw ater as "an odd o n e , o u t th e re
on th e e x trem e, no menace to anyone f o r th e i 9 60 s e a s o n , " ^
Y et G oldw ater made the h e a d lin e s a t th e i 960 R ep u b lica n
N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n . "G oldwater Cheered f o r Plank I d e a s ,"
w rote Hartmann, "but R o c k e f e lle r Drops Dud as He' G ives
H is V iew s."
I t was G oldw ater who s t o l e the show.
The handsome A r iz o n ia n * s a r t i c u l a t e a p p ea l fo r a
r e tu r n to rugged R e p u b lica n d o c t r in e and c o n s t i
t u t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s o f f e d e r a l power won s e v e r a l
warm o v a tio n s from th e I 0I 4 .-member group [R e s o lu tio n s
C om m ittee] w hich had g iv e n R o c k e f e lle r a f r i e n d l y
b u t h a r d ly a r o u s in g r e c e p t i o n .32l|-
The announcem ent by R o c k e f e lle r th a t he and Nixon
had m et and a g reed upon a p a r ty p la tfo r m drew c r i e s o f
" treason " from G oldw ater and h i s f o llo w e r s * Governor
P aul F an n in o f A r izo n a , i n h i s n o m in a tio n s p e e c h , p r e se n te d
G oldw ater to th e C o n ven tion as "a man w ith th e courage o f
^ ^ R ic h a r d N ixon , S ix C r i s e s , p . 2 3I 4 ..
3 ^ W h it e , The Making o f th e P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , p . 75*
^ ^ R o b e r t Hartmann, "G oldwater Cheered f o r Plank
I d e a s , b u t R o c k e f e lle r D rops Dud as He G iv e s H is V iew s,"
Los A n g ele s T im es, J u ly 2 0 , i 9 6 0 , p* 1 .
32!}.
h e r o e s .”3 2£ Whether the n o m in a tio n fo r the P r e sid e n c y
was w ith G o ld w a ter’ s app roval o r n o t , i t se r v e d s e v e r a l
h ig h ly u s e f u l p u rp oses#
G old w ater1s was the o n ly name, o th e r th an N ix o n ’ s ,
to be p la c e d in n om in ation # • • . he im m ed ia tely
withdrew * In d o in g so he g a in e d th e n a t i o n a l t e l e
v i s i o n a u d ien ce th a t was w atch in g th e c o n v e n tio n
p r o c e e d in g s# M illio n s o f A m ericans were s e e in g and
h e a r in g Barry G oldw ater f o r the f i r s t tim e# They
saw a p le a s a n t , I f d e a d ly e a r n e s t , speaker* He was
" p h otogen ic*" They heard what may have been the
b e s t sp eech o f th e c o n v e n t io n .3 2 6
He began w ith "We are c o n s e r v a tiv e s # T h is g r e a t R ep u b lica n
P arty i s our h i s t o r i c house# T h is i s our home." ^ 7 gU£
h i s sp eech was a sp ee ch f o r p a r ty u n i t y - - a p le a to c o n s e r
v a t i v e s th rou gh ou t the n a t io n to j o in w ith Barry M.
G oldw ater i n su p p o r tin g the R ep u b lica n s i n I 9 6 0 . H is
sp eech was a ls o a c la r io n c a l l fo r u n i t y among c o n s e r v a
t i v e s — a c a l l t h a t was to have f o r t u i t o u s m eaning f o r th e
fu tu r e # " L e t’ s grow u p , c o n s e r v a t iv e s * I f we want to
take t h i s p a r ty b a ck , and I th in k we can som eday, l e t ’ s
g e t to work#"328
32^
^Paul J . F a n n in , N om ination sp ee ch fo r Barry M #
G oldw ater (p r e s e n te d a t the i 960 R ep u b lica n N a tio n a l Con
v e n t io n , C h ica g o , I l l i n o i s , J u ly 2 7 , i 9 6 0 ) • (For com p lete
t e x t o f sp eech se e Appendix G#)
3 2 8 Judah ancj Sm ith , The U n ch osen , p . 3^4-8•
-^ ^ O f f i c l a l R eport o f the P r o c e e d in g s o f the Twenty
S ev en th R ep u b lican N a tio n a l C o n v e n tio n , p . 269*
328Ibid., p. 291.
325
IV . A LOOK AT THE SPEAKERS AND THEIR
NOMINATING SPEECHES
The p roced u re f o r n o m in a tio n o f a c a n d id a te f o r
P r e s id e n t a t a N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C on ven tion v a r i e s l i t t l e
i n i t s b a s ic p la n from one year to th e n e x t* Working on
th e assu m p tion t h a t names are p r e s e n te d on b e h a lf o f
s t a t e s , th e s t a t e s are c a l l e d i n a l p h a b e t ic a l o rd er from
Alabama to Wyoming. As the name o f e a ch s t a t e i s c a l l e d ,
th e chairm an o f the d e l e g a t i o n i n d i c a t e s which one o f fo u r
a c t io n s th e s t a t e i s g o in g to ta k e : ( 1 ) make a n o m in a tio n ;
(2 ) secon d a n o m in a tio n a lr e a d y made; ( 3 ) y i e l d to an oth er
s t a t e f a r t h e r down on th e l i s t to p e r m it the s t a t e to make
a n o m in a tio n ; (I}.) p a s s , w hich means i t d o es n ot d e s i r e to
take any im m ediate a c t i o n b u t w i l l be c a l l e d a g a in at the
c o m p le tio n o f th e r o l l * ^ 9
P rocedure f o r N om ination a t th e i 960
D em ocratic and R ep u b lica n C on ven tion s
On J u ly 1 3 , i 9 6 0 , a t 3 ;ip3 P» M*, Los A n g ele s tim e ,
th e n om in atin g r i t u a l a t th e i 960 D em ocratic C on ven tion
o f f i c i a l l y s t a r t e d when Emery F r a z ie r o f K entucky, a
■^^W illiam Gbodman, The Tw o-Party System i n the
U n ite d S t a t e s (se c o n d e d it io n T I^Tncelfon, New J e r s e y :
D . Van N ostrand Company, I n c * , i 9 6 0 ) , p p . 2 0 7 -2 0 8 .
326
S e n a te c le r k step p ed to the rostru m and c a l l e d , "Alabama."
Alabama y i e l d e d to Texas so th a t Samuel Rayburn, Speaker
o f th e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s , cou ld p la c e i n n om in ation
Lyndon B* Johnson, M a jo r ity Leader o f the S e n a t e , S i x t y -
sev en m in u te s l a t e r , Johnson was an a ffir m e d ca n d id a te f o r
the n o m in a tio n , com p lete w ith nom in atin g sp eech , secon d in g
sp e e c h e s , and d e m o n str a tio n . A lask a answered i t s turn i n
th e r o l l - c a l l by y i e l d i n g to M innesota and Governor O r v ille
Freeman who would p la c e th e name of th e S en ator from M assa
c h u s e t t s , John F . Kennedy, in n o m in a tio n . A pproxim ately
f i f t y - s e v e n m in u tes l a t e r th e t h ir d con ten d er was brought
in t o the r in g - - S e n a t o r S p essa rd H ollan d o f F lo r id a nomi
n ated h i s c o lle a g u e , th e Ju n ior S en ator from the Sunshine
S t a t e , George A. Sm ath ers. I t was S en ator S tu a r t Syming
t o n ’ s tu rn n e x t . Governor James T. B l a i r , J r . , o f
M isso u r i p la c e d the name o f h i s s t a t e ’ s famous S en ator i n
n o m in a tio n . At ap p ro x im a tely sev en o ' c l o c k , Merwin Coad,
R e p r e s e n ta tiv e from Iow a, step p ed up to nom inate h i s
s t a t e ’ s " f a v o r it e s o n ," Governor H er sc h e l L o v e le s s . T his
was one o f th e b r i e f e r c a n d id a c ie s o f the e v e n in g . A fte r
b e in g d u ly nom inated and seco n d ed , Governor L o v e le s s
ste p p ed up to withdraw h i s name in fa v o r o f John F .
K ennedy. Governor George Docking o f Kansas was p la c e d in
n om in ation n e x t by Frank T h e is , N a tio n a l Committeeman o f
h i s s t a t e . W ithin a t h i r t y m inute span he had been
327
nom inated, seco n d ed , and had withdrawn i n fa v o r o f Kennedy.
I t was 7*56 P» M. when Kentucky y i e l d e d to S en a to r Eugene
J . McCarthy o f M innesota so th a t he c o u ld p la c e th e name
o f A d la i S te v en so n o f I l l i n o i s in n o m in a tio n . I t was
nin e o ' c l o c k b e fo r e Senator H a rriso n A. W illia m s, J r . ,
o f New J e rse y r o s e to nom inate Governor R obert B. M eyner,
New J e r s e y ’ s " f a v o r it e so n ." The l a s t n om in atin g sp eak er
o f the e v e n in g , Judge Thomas Brady o f M i s s i s s i p p i , p la c ed
in n om in ation th e n in th c a n d id a te of the c o n v e n tio n —
Governor R oss R. B a r n e tt o f M i s s i s s i p p i . Over s i x hours
a f t e r the s e s s io n had s t a r t e d , a t 1 0 :0 8 P. M ., G overnor
LeRoy C o llin s d e c la r e d the tim e had come to v o t e . F o r ty -
two m in u tes l a t e r , a t 10:^ 0 P. M., Wyoming announced f o r .
Kennedy, and i t was over b e fo r e the f i r s t b a l l o t had
ended. Only the f i n a l a m e n itie s and r i t u a l s r e m a i n e d . 3 3 0
The fo u r th s e s s i o n o f the i 960 R ep u b lican C on ven tion
convened on July 2 7 , i 9 6 0 , a t a p p ro x im a tely 7 jllp P . M.,
Chicago tim e , w ith th e H onorable C h a rles A. H a lle c k ,
Permanent Chairman o f the c o n v e n tio n , assum ing h i s c h a i r .
The R ep u b lican s d id n o t seem i n any g r e a t hurry to g e t to
the clim ax o f the e v e n in g — th e b a l l o t i n g - - b u t sp e n t the
f i r s t p o r tio n o f t h e ir s e s s i o n w ith th e a d o p tio n o f the
^ ■ ^ R u ssell Baker, " H ig h lig h ts and C hronology o f
Nom inating S e s s i o n ,o f the D em ocratic C on ven tion ," New York
Tim es. J u ly lip, 19&0, p . 1 8 .
p a rty p la tfo r m ; an a d d ress by Thomas E . Dewey, form er
Governor o f New York; and th e e l e c t i o n o f the R ep u b lican
N a tio n a l C om m ittee, The e v e n in g was more than h a l f over
b e fo re M rs, E liz a b e t h E. H e f f e lf i n g e r o f M in n esota , th e
S e c r e ta r y o f the C o n v en tio n , s ta r t e d the r o l l c a l l o f the
s t a t e s , Alabama conceded I t s p la c e a t th e head o f the
l i s t to y i e l d to Oregon so Governor Mark 0 , H a t f ie ld co u ld
p la c e i n n om in ation th e name o f the V ic e - P r e s id e n t o f the
U n ited S t a t e s , R ichard M, N ixon , b e fo r e any o th e r s t a t e
could p la c e a name In n o m in a tio n . A fte r lou d ch e er s and
a p p la u se , the c a l l i n g o f the r o l l was co n tin u ed b e fo r e any
nom inating sp eech was g i v e n . The s t a t e o f A laska was'
c a ll e d ; A laska p a s s e d , A rizon a was n e x t w ith a d e le g a te
in form in g the c o n v e n tio n t h a t A r izo n a ’ s Governor was on
th e p la tfo rm to p la c e i n n om in ation S en ator Barry M.
G old w ater, The rem ain in g s t a t e s p a ssed as th e r o l l was
c a l l e d , e x c e p t fo r Oregon who announced fo r H a t f i e l d ,
A fte r the c o n c lu s io n o f th e c a l l i n g o f the r o l l o f s t a t e s
and t e r r i t o r i e s , and th e D i s t r i c t o f Colum bia, Mark
H a t f i e l d , In r e c o r d tim e fo r b o th c o n v e n tio n s , p la c e d th e
name o f Richard M. N ixon i n n om in ation fo r the P r e s id e n c y .
A flo o d o f secon d in g sp e e c h e s f o llo w e d . A fte r Nixon had
been n o i s i l y e s t a b l i s h e d as a c a n d id a te f o r n o m in a tio n ,
Paul J . F ann in , Governor o f A r izo n a , ste p p ed forw ard to
p la c e in n om in ation th e name o f Senator Barry M, G old w ater.
329
Pour seco n d in g sp ee ch es l a t e r , S en ator G oldw ater withdrew
h i s name from nom ination* The tim e had come to v o te and
the f i r s t b a l l o t found Nixon w ith a l l the v o t e s b u t ten
from L o u isia n a which were fo r G oldwater* A ll t h a t r e
mained was to make the v o te unanimous and a t 1 1 :3 0 P* M,
the c o n v e n tio n a d j o u r n e d . 3 3 ^
The Speakers a t the D em ocratic C on ven tion
332
James Thomas B l a ir , J r . - - ’’Governor C o l l i n s ,
F e llo w D em ocrats: I a r is e to nom inate a man who i s the
answer to the n a t i o n 's prayer f o r l e a d e r s h i p * 3 3 3 With
th e se w ords, James B l a ir , J r . , Governor o f M is s o u r i, began
h i s n om in ation o f S tu a r t Sym ington a t the i 960 D em ocratic
C onvention in Los A n geles* He had been ch osen to g iv e the
nom inating sp eech b ecau se o f h i s long f r ie n d s h ip and sup
p o r t o f S en ator Sym ington.331}- He macje the e n t ir e
^ ■ ^ •^ O f f i c i a l R eport o f the P ro ceed in g s o f the Twenty-
S even th R ep u b lican N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n , pp. £ l7 -3 0 3 »
■^■^The n om in ation sp eech f o r S tu a r t Sym ington as
d e liv e r e d by James Thomas B l a i r , J r . , a t th e i 960 Demo
c r a t ic C on ven tion can be found in Appendix G.
3 3 3 James Thpmas B l a i r , J r * , Nom ination sp eech fo r
S tu a r t Sym ington (p r e s e n te d a t the D em ocratic N a tio n a l
C on ven tion , Los A n g e le s, C a l i f o r n ia , J u ly 1 3 , i 9 6 0 )•
(For t e x t o f sp e e c h , see Appendix G .)
33 h
^-'uStanley R. Fike, Letter to Sarah Sanderson from
Stanley R. Fike, Administrative Assistant to Senator Stuart
Symington, Washington, D. C., June 1, 1961}.*
330
M isso u r i s t a t e m ach in ery a v a i la b l e fo r th e n a t io n a l o p era
t i o n o f S ym in gton ’ s cam p aign.3 3 ^
B l a i r , f i f t y - e i g h t a t th e tim e , w ith h i s d a r k -
rimmed g l a s s e s and Bob Hope n o s e , made an im p r e s s iv e ap
p e a r a n c e . He was a M isso u r ia n through and th rou gh , h a v in g
b een born i n M is s o u r i, m arried i n M isso u r i ( f a t h e r o f two
c h i l d r e n ) , and p r a c t ic e d law i n M i s s o u r i . 3 3 ^ He was a
P r e s b y t e r ia n . He was L ie u te n a n t G overnor o f M isso u r i from
1914.9 - 1 9 ^6 , and Governor from 1 9 ^6 - 1 9 6 0 . P r io r to t h i s
he had p r a c t ic e d la w , was C ity A tto r n e y , and a member o f
th e M isso u r i House o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s . He had se r v e d as
a d e l e g a t e to th e n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n a s e a r ly a s 1 9 3 6 .
He se r v e d as a L ie u te n a n t C o lo n e l i n th e U. S. Army, r e
c e i v in g th e A ir M edal, Bronze S t a r , L egion o f M e r it, and
P r e s i d e n t i a l U n it C i t a t i o n .
B la ir s tu d ie d a t S ta u n to n V ir g in ia M ilit a r y Academy;
South W est S t a t e C o lle g e , S p r i n g f i e l d M is so u r i; U n iv e r s i t y
o f M is s o u r i; and Cumberland U n i v e r s i t y . He was a d m itted to
th e bar in M isso u r i i n 192lj..3 3 ^
3 33W hite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 . p . !).£.
336B l a ir d ie d i n J u ly , 1 9 6 2 .
3 3 ^Who’ s Who i n A m erica, 1 9 6 2 -6 3 . p . 2 8 0 .
331
Thomas P ic k e n s B rady,3 3 8 — Thomas P# Brady, N a tio n a l
Committeeman and C ir c u it Court Judge from B rookhaven, M is
s i s s i p p i , a c t in g as p a r t o f a p r o t e s t movement a g a in s t th e
c i v i l r i g h t s plank o f the i 960 D em ocratic p la tfo r m , nom i
n a te d f o r P r e s id e n t , Governor Ross B a r n e tt o f M is s i s s i p p i #
B a r n e tt was d e s c r ib e d in th e New York Times as 11. • « a
new and u n ex p ec ted f a v o r i t e s o n .1 1 ^ ^
I was ch o sen to g iv e th e n om in atin g sp eech [w rote
Tom P. Brady] b eca u se I was d e le g a t e d to do so by
th e M i s s i s s i p p i d e le g a t io n a t Los A n g e le s , w ith th e
app roval o f Governor R oss B a r n e tt, and p o s s i b l y
b e c a u se I was e le c t e d D em ocratic N a tio n a l Com m ittee
man from M i s s i s s i p p i . I t i s b a r e ly p o s s i b l e th a t I
have some a b i l i t y as a sp eak er #3^-0
D uring th e l a t t e r p a r t o f th e n om in ation sp eech f o r R oss R.
B a r n e tt, the a u d ien ce n o is e l e v e l was becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y
h ig h e r # The n o is e was m ost ap p aren t a f t e r B ra d y 's s t a t e
ment t h a t "he [B a r n e tt] knows th a t many o f th e s o - c a l l e d
c i v i l r i g h t s b i l l s , j u s t a s you d o , are Communist in s p ir e d
and have th e a s s i s t a n c e o f Communist f r o n t o r g a n iz a tio n s
b eh in d them#"^^* The sp eech was f o u r t e e n m in u te s and
338The n o m in a tio n sp ee ch f o r R oss B a r n e tt as d e
l i v e r e d by Thomas Brady a t th e i 960 D em ocratic C on ven tion
can be found i n Appendix G#
^-^News item i n the New York T im es, J u ly lip, i 9 6 0 ,
p . 1L |_ .
3U.0
B rady, L e t t e r , A ugust lip, 1961j ..
■^"Brady, N om ination sp eech f o r R oss B a r n e tt,
A ppendix G.
332
t w e n t y - fiv e secon ds lon g# The n e x t l o n g e s t n om in atin g
speech was fo u r te e n m in u tes# In h i s l e t t e r , Judge Brady
e x p la in e d the le n g th o f the sp e e c h .
The o n ly o th er in fo r m a tio n w ith r e f e r e n c e to the
nom inating sp eech which m ight be o f i n t e r e s t to you
i s th a t the Permanent Chairman, LeRoy C o l l i n s ,
assu red me th a t I would be p e r m itte d to f i n i s h my
sp ee ch , which exceed ed the f i v e m inute tim e l i m i t a
t i o n , i f M is s is s ip p i would r e l in q u i s h i t s te n m inute
p e r io d a llo c a t e d f o r d e m o n stra tio n s# I r e lin q u is h e d
M i s s i s s i p p i ' s te n m in u tes fo r d e m o n s tr a tio n s , but
b ecause o f p r e ssu r e s brought to b e a r , Chairman
C o llin s fo r c e d me to make a h u r r ie d and u n s a t i s f a c
to ry c o n c lu s io n to th e nom in atin g sp e e c h . The
p r e ssu r e was from th e g a l le r y where hordes o f .
s p e c ta to r s fa v o r in g o th er d e le g a t e s were seated # 3^ 2
Judge Brady, born in New O rlean s in 1903* a tten d e d
Y ale and the U n iv e r s it y o f M i s s i s s i p p i , where he r e c e iv e d
h i s law d e g r e e . He was m arried and had two c h i ld r e n . He
t r ie d h i s hand a t te a c h in g as an in s t r u c t o r in s o c io lo g y
a t the U n iv e r s ity o f M i s s i s s i p p i . Brady was a d m itted to
the M is s is s ip p i bar i n 1930# In 19^8 he was n a t io n a l
chairman o f th e sp ea k ers bureau fo r s t a t e s r i g h t s . He
became a C ir c u it Court Judge in 1 9 5 0 . Brady was the
author o f two b o o k s— South a t Bay ( I 9I 4 .8 ) , and B lack Monday
T) a
(19514-)* He became fam ous, or in fa m o u s, as th e r e s u l t
o f the l a t t e r book which was h ig h ly c r i t i c a l o f th e Supreme
^ ^ B r a d y , L e t t e r , August llf , 1 96If.
^ ^ Who's Who i n A m erica, 1 9 6 2 - 6 3 , p . 3J 4 .9 •
333
31lL
C o u r t's d e c i s i o n on r a c i a l s e g r e g a t io n .
Brady and B a r n e tt were b o th B a p t is t s * Brady was the
o n ly Dem ocrat a t th e i 960 c o n v e n tio n who r e fu s e d to s ig n
th e l o y a l t y o a th t h a t he would support th e nominee o f th e
3k <
p a rty * ^ These v iew s w hich Brady a t t r i b u t e d to B a r n e tt
i n th e n o m in a tio n sp eech were h i s a s w e l l- - n o f e d e r a l
i n t e r v e n t i o n in s t a t e s r i g h t s , e s p e c i a l l y on the c i v i l
r i g h t s i s s u e *
Merwin Coad .-^ ^ --T h e y o u n g e st o f th e sp ea k ers
p la c in g names i n n o m in a tio n fo r P r e s id e n t a t the i 960
D em ocratic C on ven tion was t h i r t y - f i v e year o ld Merwin
Coad, S e n io r S en a to r from Iow a, who ascen d ed the p la tfo r m
to honor H e r sc h e l C. L o v e le s s , Governor o f Iowa*
Coad was one o f th r e e clergym en i n C ongress*
S e r v in g h i s secon d term as R e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f Iow a's s i x t h
d i s t r i c t , he had won h i s s e a t i n th e House by a m argin o f
198 v o t e s i n 1956 to become the f i r s t D em ocratic R epre
s e n t a t i v e to be e l e c t e d from Iowa s in c e 19^0*. In 1 9 5 8 ,
he was r e tu r n e d to o f f i c e by 1 5 ,0 0 0 v o t e s , a la r g e r
^TTews item i n the New York T im es, Ju ly lip, i 9 6 0 ,
p . lip.
3k5
^ News item i n th e C hicago D a ily T rib u n e, J u ly 2 8 .
I 9 6 0 , P a rt 1 , p . 1 0 . ---------- ----------- -----------------
■ ^ T h e n om in a tio n sp eech f o r H e r s c h e l C. L o v e le s s
as d e liv e r e d by Merwin Coad a t th e i 960 D em ocratic Con
v e n t io n can be found in Appendix G.
331+-
m a jo r ity than any o th er Iowa c a n d id a te r e c e i v e d .3^4-7
He was regard ed by Speaker Sam Rayburn as h a vin g the
q u a l i t i e s w ith w hich "he w i l l r i s e to a h ig h p o in t o f
le a d e r s h ip in the H ouse” i f he sh ou ld c o n tin u e t h e r e .3^4-6
He was graduated from Texas C h r is t ia n U n iv e r s it y a t
P o r t Worth in 19^4-5 w ith a B ach elor o f A rts d e g r e e . He
to o k fu r th e r grad u ate s t u d ie s a t Texas C h r is tia n U n iv e r s it y
and a t Drake U n iv e r s it y , Des M oines, Iow a. B efo re e n te r in g
p o l i t i c s , he was a m in is t e r o f the D i s c i p l e s o f C h r is t
Church .3^-9
As a member o f C on gress, he was outspoken In h i s
b e l i e f s on many i s s u e s . He " , • • l a i d h i s p o l i t i c a l
fu t u r e on th e l i n e In the a c t io n he took on the la b o r
3 gO
b i l l . ” (He a ro se and app ealed to a crowded House to
d e f e a t th e L andrum -G riffin b i l l . ) He worked to g e t b i l l s
e n a c te d in t o law which would h e lp sm a ll bu sin essm en g e t
c r e d i t ; remove l i m i t a t i o n s on the amount o f o u ts id e income
an in d iv id u a l cou ld earn w h ile r e c e i v in g S o c ia l S e c u r it y ;
in c r e a s e income tax exem p tion s; and h e lp m a in ta in farm
^ ^ H a r o ld E . F ey , "Mr. Coad on the S p o t ,” C h r is tia n
C en tu ry . 7 6 :9 0 0 , September 2 , 1959-
3^8I b id .
J ^ Q f f i c i a l C o n g r e ssio n a l D i r e c t o r y . 8 6th C on gress,
2nd S e s s io n , p . 514-*
■^°Fey, "Mr. Coad on the S p ot," p . 9 ° 0 .
335
p r ic e s * He was j u s t as outspok en on c i v i l r i g h t s .
" M in iste r s and laymen o f l o c a l churches are
g e n e r a lly n o t i n touch w ith p u b lic i s s u e s ," he
sa id * "They seem to fe a r p o l i t i c s . M in is te r s
f o llo w ; th ey do n o t l e a d . I f th e church were
doin g i t s jo b , c i v i l r i g h t s would n o t be the
s e r io u s n a t io n a l i s s u e i t i s . When th e c i v i l
r i g h t s q u e s tio n was up , I d id n o t h ea r a word from
one church or church o r g a n iz a tio n in d e fe n s e o f
c i v i l r i g h t s . In the p a s t o r a t e a man can duck a
h o t p u b lic i s s u e ; in C ongress he has to fa c e i t and
commit h i s fu tu r e to what he th in k s i s r i g h t ." 3 5 l
Coad was one o f n in e U n ited S t a t e s d e le g a t e s to
the June 1959 NATO C on feren ce in London " . . . and agreed
w ith i t s a c t io n to recommend more econom ic and l e s s m i l i
ta r y a id to u n d erd evelop ed c o u h t r i e s .*'352
L o v e le s s , in answer to an in q u ir y co n cern in g the
r e s id e n c e o f Coad and th e p o s s i b l e r e a so n s Coad was ch osen
to nom inate him a t the c o n v e n tio n , w rote on June l 6 , 196^,
At th e moment, I know o f no way i n which you can
c o n ta c t Merwin Coad. However, I can a d v is e you o f
th e rea so n f o r h i s b e in g s e l e c t e d . He and C o n g ress
man Neal Smith were the o n ly two Iowa D em ocratic
Congressmen a t the C on ven tion , and i t was a d e s ir e
o f our d e le g a t io n to g iv e them a l l the p u b lic e x
posure .p o s s ib le v i a t e l e v i s i o n . Congressman Coad
was the s e n io r Congressman o f the two and, as a
r e s u l t , he was ch osen to make th e n o m in a tio n , w ith
Congressman Sm ith seco n d in g i t . 353
3 5 lp Q y , itjjr. Coad on th e S p ot," p . 9^0*
3 ^2I b i d . t p. 9 9 1 .
353
H e r sc h e l C. L o v e le s s , L e tte r to Sarah Sanderson
from H e r sc h e l C. L o v e le s s , Member o f th e F e d e r a l Re
n e g o t ia t io n Board, W ashington, D, C ., June 1 6 , 19614..
O r v i l l e L . F reem an, ^ - - O r v i l l e L , F reem an, an
a c t i v e su p p o r te r f o r Humphrey f o r P r e s i d e n t , ended up a t
th e i 9 6 0 D e m o c r a tic C o n v e n tio n g i v in g th e n o m in a tio n s p e e c h
f o r John F . Kennedy f o r P r e s i d e n t , He d id n o t f o r g e t
H ub ert Humphrey, h o w ev e r, b u t sp e n t a p p r o x im a te ly o n e -
t h ir d o f h i s s p e e c h i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f h i s c o n s t e r n a t io n
o v e r th e c h o ic e o f th e man whom he c o u ld su p p o r t a t th e
c o n v e n t ! o n .
The dilem m a o f th e M in n eso ta d e l e g a t i o n a f t e r b e in g
r e l e a s e d b y H u b ert Humphrey was d e s c r ib e d by W h ite ,
M in n e so ta had o n ly t h i r t y - o n e v o t e s - - b u t M in n e s o ta 's
i n f l u e n c e i n th e C o n v e n tio n was n a tio n w id e * S t i l l
f l o a t i n g - th ro u g h Los A n g e le s , s t i l l d r i f t i n g and
q u e s t i o n i n g , were p e r h a p s s e v e r a l hundred d e l e g a t e s
and a l t e r n a t e s , h e a v y o f c o n s c ie n c e and bu rd en ed w it h
c i t i z e n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . For su ch p e o p le a s t h e s e ,
th e M in n eso ta d e l e g a t i o n , c o n s c ie n c e - h e a v y i t s e l f ,
c o u ld s e t an e x a m p le , H ubert Humphrey had f r e e d h i s
s t a t e ' s d e l e g a t e s o f a l l p e r s o n a l l o y a l t y to him and
u r g e d them to v o t e t h e i r c o n s c i e n c e . But what d id
c o n s c ie n c e d i c t a t e ? Was i t S te v e n s o n , whose i n t e r
n a t i o n a l e x p e r ie n c e seem ed b e s t to m eet th e c h a l le n g e
o f th e h e a d l i n e s ? Or was i t K ennedy, who had ta k en
h i s c a u se d i r e c t l y to th e p e o p le and won i n se v e n
p r im a r ie s a c r o s s th e c o u n tr y ? Who was th e b e s t man?
S h ou ld th e y l i s t e n to G, Mennen W illia m s , p le a d in g
th e c a u s e o f K ennedy? Or E le a n o r R o o s e v e lt and H e r b e r t
Lehman, so v i v i d l y and e v o c a t i v e l y p le a d in g th e c a u se
o f S te v e n s o n ? 3 5 5
A t th e tim e o f h i s r e l e a s e o f h i s d e l e g a t i o n , Humphrey
^ ^ T h e n o m in a tio n sp e e c h f o r John F , Kennedy as
d e l i v e r e d by O r v i l l e Freem an a t th e i 9 60 D e m o cra tic Con
v e n t io n can b e fo u n d i n A ppendix G,
3^Wh ite, The Making of the President i960, p. 193*
337
en d o rsed Freeman fo r V ic e - P r e s id e n t * The harmony th a t th e
th r e e M innesota le a d e r s--F r e e m a n , McCarthy, and Humphrey—
d is p la y e d on J u ly 11 ^ was to be broken by th e e v e n ts o f
J u ly 13 •
S y m b o lic a lly , the h ig h command o f t h e i r h i t h e r t o
u n ite d p a r ty s p l i t —G overnor O r v ille Freeman [now
S e c r e ta r y o f A g r ic u lt u r e ] would nom inate Kennedy,
Ju n ior S en a to r Eugene McCarthy would nom inate
S te v e n so n ; and t h e i r le a d e r , H ubert Humphrey,
would make no d e c i s i o n a t a l l *357
Freeman, a p e r so n a b le young man w ith a square jaw
o f d e te r m in a tio n , was c o n s id e r e d as a p o s s i b l e V ic e -
P r e s i d e n t i a l nominee b e fo r e th e c o n v en in g o f th e co n ven -
8 98
t i o n . - ^ In th e d i s c u s s i o n i n Newsweek c o n c e r n in g p o s s i b l e
V i c e - P r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a t e s , he was d e s c r ib e d as
• • . an oth er M idw esterner w ith farm a p p e a l, L utheran
[Deacon] , l i b e r a l enough to p le a s e any N o r th e rn er ,
and n o t w ell-k n ow n enough n a t i o n a l l y to be d i s p l e a s in g
to S o u th e r n e r s . But a t 1^2, a y e a r younger than
Kennedy, h i s y ou th m igh t be c o n s id e r e d too much a
l i a b i l i t y *359
O r v ille Lothrop Freeman was born i n M in n e a p o lis i n
1918* He was m arried ( w i f e ' s name— Jane) and th e y had two
c h i ld r e n . G raduated magna cum la u d e from th e U n iv e r s it y
o f M innesota in 19^-0* he w ent on to r e c e i v e h i s LL* B*
896
News item i n th e Los A n g eles T im es, J u ly 12,
i 9 6 0 , P art 1 , p* 9*
•^^W hite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , p . 193*
^ ^ C o n g r e ssio n a l Q u a r t e r l y C on ven tion G u id e , p . 2 .
35>9npreview Conventions *60,” p. 32.
338
, , 360
i n 1 9^-0 • He w as a b r i l l i a n t s t u d e n t and won a Phi B e ta
Kappa k e y . ^ ^ - H u b er t Humphrey and Freem an had m et f i r s t
i n Sto P a u l.
. . . Humphrey was an i n s t r u c t o r i n govern m en t and
Freem an one o f h i s c h e r is h e d p u p i l s , a h u n gry d e
p r e s s i o n la d w ork in g h i s way th r o u g h c o l l e g e . "On
S a tu r d a y n i g h t s , " Freem an once r e c a l l e d p u b l i c l y ,
"I u s e d to go t o H u b e r t 1s •house f o r d in n e r , and
M u r ie l would co o k us w a f f l e s , and i t was th e o n ly
h o t m eal I u s e d to h ave a l l w e ek ." 3 6 2
The c a r e e r s and v i s i o n s o f t h e s e two m en, Humphrey
and F reem an, summed up th e pow er o f t h e " M in n esota Democ
r a c y ."
Poor b oys b o t h , th e y h a d an a lm o s t r o m a n tic f a i t h
i n The P e o p le ; t h i s f a i t h had f l a r e d in th e d e p r e s
s i o n ; w ith t h i s f a i t h a lo n e th ey h ad a c q u ir e d p ow er.
The e s s e n c e o f t h e i r f a i t h was t h a t govern m en t b e
lo n g e d to th e p e o p le , t h a t i t m u st a c t f o r them , a l l
th e w ay, to th e extrem e l i m i t and beyond th e o r t h o
d o x i e s o f l i b e r a l i s m . When Humphrey became Mayor o f
M in n e a p o lis i n 19lf5> a t t h e age o f t h i r t y - f o u r , O rville
F reem an, th e n t w e n t y - s e v e n , became h i s s e c r e t a r y .
T o g e th e r th e y c le a n e d up th e c i t y , r e o r g a n iz e d i t s
p o l i c e , c le a n e d th e com m unists o u t o f i t s u n i o n s .
When Humphrey moved up t o th e S e n a t e i n 19^-8 ( th e
f i r s t D e m o cr a tic S e n a to r e l e c t e d i n M in n e so ta h i s
t o r y ) , b eh in d him on th e e s c a l a t o r was a f i l e o f
young men he h a d t r a i n e d , read y t o ta k e o v e r th e
e n t i r e s t a t e . When Freem an became G overnor i n
195U-> and Eugene M cCarthy U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a to r in
195> 8 , th e y had n o t o n ly g iv e n t h e i r s t a t e one o f
th e f i n e s t , m o s t r e s p o n s i v e , m o st p r a c t i c a l y e t
v i s i o n a r y govern m en ts th e n a t io n kn ow s, b u t h a d a l s o
made t h e i r M in n e so ta D e m o c r a tic P a r ty a m od el o f
c l e a n and p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c s t h a t was s t i m u l a t i n g
3 6 °Who's Who in A m e r ic a , 1 9 6 2 - 6 3 . p • 1 0 6 8 •
^^"W ew 'Team' : B r a in y , Y oung, M id-R oad," U . S .
Hews and W orld R e p o r t . I|_9:36, December 2 6 , i 9 6 0 .
3^2White, The Making of the President i960, pp. 36-37.
339
c i t i z e n groups a l l a c r o s s th e North C e n tr a l b e l t o f
the U n ite d S t a t e s 03°3
Freem an1s jump to Governor from a s s i s t a n t to the
Mayor was n o t made o v e r n ig h t* He was Chairman o f the
M in n e a p o lis C i v i l S e r v ic e Committee in 19^ 6, s e c r e t a r y o f
th e M in nesota D em ocratic Farm Labor P arty 19^ 4 -6 — L j _ 8 , and
chairm an from 19l|-8-50. He was an u n s u c c e s s f u l c a n d id a te
f o r M in nesota a tto r n e y g e n e r a l in 1950* In 1952 he t r i e d
f o r th e G overnorship*-^^- Through h i s a c t i v i t i e s a t the
1952 N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l C o n v en tio n , he became a b e t t e r
known p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e .
Few d e l e g a t e s were a b le to tak e p a r t d i r e c t l y in
th e em o tio n a l la d e n d e b a te s o f the 1 9 5 2 c o n v e n tio n s
w ith o u t a f f e c t i n g t h e i r own p o l i t i c a l f u tu r e s * • • •
O r v ille L* Freeman o f M in n eso ta , a t th e tim e a can
d id a t e fo r govern or b u t young and p o l i t i c a l l y u n
known o u t s id e h i s s t a t e , became c o n sp ic u o u s a t th e
D em ocratic c o n v e n tio n f o r the courage w ith which he
r e p e a t e d ly c h a lle n g e d th e r u l i n g s o f Chairman Sam
Rayburn when b e tte r -k n o w n le a d e r s were unprepared to
a c t* He l o s t th e r a ce f o r governor t h a t y e a r , b u t
was s u c c e s s f u l i n the e l e c t i o n s o f 1951p, 1 9 5 6 , and
1958
I t was Freem an, a 1 1 sto c k y f o m e r M arine o f f i c e r " 3 6 6
who had r e c e iv e d th e Purple H e a r t ,-^ 7 i n s i s t e d a t th e
■^^W hite, The Making o f th e P r e s id e n t I 9 6 0 , p. 37*
3 6W s Who in A m erica. 1 9 6 2 -6 3 . p . 1 0 6 8 .
•^ ^ D av id , Goldman, and B a in , The P o l i t i c s o f
N a tio n a l P a rty C o n v e n tio n s, p . 197*
W h ite, The Making o f th e P r e s id e n t i 9 6 0 , p . 37*
^ ^ Who's Who i n A m erica. 1962- 63. p* 1068.
3 1 4 -0
m e e tin g o f Humphrey and h i s su p p o r te r s in th e summer o f
1959 t h a t the tim e to se e i f th e co u n try would r a l l y b e -
n L O
h in d Humphrey f o r P r e s id e n t was th e n and now* The team
was to be d is a p p o in te d by th e app earance o f a youn g, b r a sh ,
se e m in g ly u n t r ie d man on the s c e n e s , John F . K ennedy,
The f i g h t o f Humphrey and Kennedy through th e p r im a r ie s ,
and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e W est V ir g in ia p rim ary, w i l l make
p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y .
S p essa r d L . H o lla n d . 3^ 9— S p essa r d L. H o lla n d , a s
one v o ic e r e p r e s e n t in g n e a r ly "one and a h a l f m i l l i o n
370
r e g i s t e r e d D em ocrats o f F lo r id a ," p la c e d in n om in ation
th e " f a v o r it e son" from th e S u n sh in e S t a t e , S en a to r George
A. S m a th ers.
H o lla n d , S e n io r U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a to r from F lo r id a ,
was born i n 1892 a t B artow , F l o r i d a . He a tte n d e d Bartow
p u b lic s c h o o l s ; r e c e iv e d h i s P h .B . (magna cum l a u d e ) from
Emory C o lle g e w hich i s now Emory U n iv e r s i t y , A t la n t a ,
G eo r g ia ; and r e c e i v e d h i s LL.B. from th e U n iv e r s it y o f
•^^ W hite, The Making o f the P r e s id e n t I 9 6 0 , p . 37*
369
7The n o m in a tion sp eech f o r George A. Sm athers as
d e l iv e r e d b y S p e ssa r d L . H o lla n d a t th e i 9 60 D em ocratic
C on ven tion can be foun d i n Appendix G.
370
S p essa r d L . H o lla n d , N om ination sp eech f o r George
A. Sm athers (p r e s e n te d a t th e D em ocratic N a tio n a l Conven
t i o n , Los A n g e le s , C a l i f o r n i a , J u ly 1 3 , 19& 0). (For com
p l e t e t e x t o f sp eech se e Appendix G .)
3lp-
F l o r i d a . He se r v e d as th e f i r s t e l e c t e d p r e s id e n t o f the
U n iv e r s i t y o f F lo r id a stu d e n t b o d y . He h e ld m embership
i n Phi B eta Kappa, Phi Kappa P h i, Phi D e lt a P h i, and Alpha
371
Tau Omega.
H is p r o f e s s i o n a l l i f e was v a r ie d - - t e a c h e r i n
G eo rg ia p u b lic s c h o o l s , I 9 1 2 - I 91I 4 .; law yer i n F lo r id a s in c e
191 6 ; p r o s e c u tin g a t t o r n e y , P olk C ou nty, F lo r id a , 1 9 1 9 “20;
P olk County ju d g e, 1 9 2 1 -1 9 2 9 ; member, F lo r id a S t a t e S e n a te ,
two term s, 1932-19^4-0? Governor o f F lo r id a , 19l|-l“l|-5j f i l l e d
u n e x p ir e d S en a te term i n 19^4-6; e l e c t e d to f u l l S e n a te term
i n 1 9^6 , 1 9 3 2 , and a g a in in 1938
He se r v e d on com m ittees f o r a g r ic u l t u r e and f o r e s
t r y , a p p r o p r ia tio n s , sp ace s c i e n c e , p u b lic w orks, j u s t to
m en tion a fe w . He se rv e d w ith the U. S . Army C oast A r t i l
l e r y Corps in World War I , was an a e r i a l o b se r v e r w ith the
U . S . Army A ir Corps in F ra n ce , and was awarded the D i s
t in g u is h e d S e r v ic e C ross in 1 9 1 8 . He was a M eth o d ist and
among many o th e r o r g a n iz a t io n s was a member o f th e M asonS^
37^B iography o f S p essa rd L . H o lla n d , S e n io r U n ite d
S t a t e s S en ator from F l o r i d a , ” A p r i l , 1 9 8 3 * (U n p u b lish ed ,
ty p e w r itt e n e n c lo s u r e w ith l e t t e r to Sarah Sanderson from
S p essa r d L . H o lla n d , U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a te , Committee on
A e r o n a u tic a l and Space S c ie n c e s , W ash ington, D. C ., J u ly
3 0, 1 9 6 4.)
O f f i c i a l C o n g r e ss io n a l D i r e c t o r y . 88 th C o n g ress,
1 s t S e s s io n , p . 29*
3 7 2 I b i d .
373Ibid
3i £
H ollan d d e s c r ib e d th e r o le a s s ig n e d to him a t the
co n v en tio n in a l e t t e r .
As an e l e c t e d d e le g a t e to the i 960 D em ocratic
N a tio n a l C o n v en tion , and as th e S e n io r S en ator from
th e S ta te o f F lo r id a , and a lo n g tim e p e r so n a l fr ie n d
and c o lle a g u e o f S en ator George Sm athers, someone
su g g e s te d I make th e sp eech nom inating, him fo r the
P r e sid e n c y , which I was happy to do .379-
Eugene J . McCarthy,37% --
C e r ta in ly the h ig h p o in t o f drama in the Los
A n g eles C onvention was the p la c in g in nom ination of
A d la i E . S te v en so n by Senator Eugene McCarthy o f
M in n esota. In m a g n ific e n t v o i c e , h o ld in g the
crowd w ith th e rhythm o f h i s c r y , to y in g w ith the
crowd, l e t t i n g i t resp on d when he asked q u e s t io n s ,
McCarthy p lea d ed fo r A d lai S te v e n so n . "Do not
r e j e c t t h i s man," he p le a d e d . "Do n o t r e j e c t t h i s
man who has made u s a l l proud to be D em ocrats. Do
n o t l e a v e , t h i s p rop h et w ith o u t honor in h i s own
p a r t y ."376
I t was n o t s u r p r is in g th a t the sp eech o f McCarthy, Junior
S en ator from M innesota was c o n sid e r e d as the b e s t " te c h
n ic a l" and the m ost" resp on sive" o r a tio n o f the i 960
D em ocratic C o n v en tio n .377 The elem en t o f s u r p r is e was in
th e f a c t th a t McCarthy, co-chairm an o f the Humphrey f o r
3 7^Spessard L, H o lla n d , L e tte r to Sarah Sanderson
from S p essard L. H o lla n d , U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a te , Committee
on A e r o n a u tic a l and Space S c ie n c e s , W ashington. D. C .,
Ju ly 3 0 , 1 9 6 4 .
37£
The n om in ation speech f o r A d lai E . S tev en so n as
d e liv e r e d by Eugene J . McCarthy a t the i 960 D em ocratic Con
v e n tio n can be found in Appendix G.
-^ 7 ^White, The Making of the P r e s id e n t i960, p. 198.
3 7 7 I b i d . . p. 2I 4.7
3k3
President Committee,was nom inating A dlai S tevenson for
P r e s id e n t * As M cCarthy r e c a l l e d :
• • • I was c o n t a c t e d a b o u t 1 1 : 0 0 A M and d id n o t
make my d e c i s i o n u n t i l a f t e r noon o f t h a t d a y . I
was r e q u e s t e d to h a v e th e s p e e c h by 3 * 0 0 EM and I
b e l i e v e t h e a c t u a l p r e p a r a t io n to o k p la c e b e tw e e n
2 : 0 0 and I|_:00 PM*
A t e x t was p r e p a r e d f o r my [s i c *] by a member o f
t h e S te v e n s o n C o m m ittee, b u t I d id n o t u s e i t * The
d r a f t was p r e p a r e d i n answ er to a r e q u e s t f o r a
t e x t from th e p r e s s * The r e m a in d e r o f th e tim e
was s p e n t i n w a i t i n g f o r an o p e n in g to make th e
n o m in a t io n .3 79
The dilem m a o f M in n e so ta had b e e n r e s o l v e d by a s p l i t i n
th e d i r e c t i o n s w h ich th e l e a d e r s to o k --G o v e r n o r O r v i l l e
Freem an n o m in a te d John F* Kennedy f o r P r e s i d e n t and S e n a to r
Eugene J 0 M cCarthy n o m in a ted A d la i S te v e n so n * H u b ert
Humphrey who had r e l e a s e d h i s d e l e g a t i o n to f o l l o w th e
d i c t a t e s o f t h e i r c o n s c ie n c e i n v o t i n g d id n o t p u b l i c l y
b a ck any o f th e c a n d id a t e s d u r in g th e C o n v en tio n *
Eugene J* M cCarthy (" D em o er a tic-F a rm e r-L a b o r P a r ty
o f M in n esota" )3^ 0 wag c o n s i<}ereci a s p r e s i d e n t i a l tim b e r b y
^ ^ C o n g r e s s io n a l Q u a r t e r ly C o n v e n tio n G u id e , p . 21*
379
J f7Eugene J* M cC arthy, L e t t e r to Sarah S a n d e rso n
from Eugene J . M cC arthy, U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a t e , C om m ittee on
A g r i c u l t u r e and F o r e s t r y , W ash in gto n D . C ., May 8 , 196Jq*
A cop y o f th e p r e lim in a r y n o t e s made by Eugene J*
M cCarthy i n th e h o t e l b e f o r e g o in g to th e c o n v e n t io n , and
n o t e s made b e f o r e g o in g to th e p la t f o r m and o n e s u s e d f o r
th e n o m in a tin g s p e e c h can be fo u n d i n A ppendix L*
380»E ugene M cCarthy— A B io g r a p h ic a l S k e tc h ,"
n*d* (U n p u b lis h e d m im eographed e n c lo s u r e w ith l e t t e r to
S arah S a n d e r so n from Eugene J . M cC arthy, U n ite d S t a t e s
S e n a t e , C om m ittee on A g r i c u lt u r e and F o r e s t r y , W a sh in g to n ,
D . C*, May 8 , 1961j.*)
3^4-
Harry Truman. He had b een m en tio n ed by Lyndon Johnson as
a p o s s i b l e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te on a Joh n son -
McCarthy t i c k e t . 3^1 M cCarthy, d e s c r ib e d b y R u s s e ll Baker
as "a s lim , handsom e, tough-m inded egghead"-^0^ was born i n
1916 in M in n e so ta . He was grad u ated from S t . John’ s
U n iv e r s i t y , C o l l e g e v i l l e , M in n esota, in 1935* and r e c e iv e d
h i s M. A. d eg ree from the U n iv e r s i t y o f M innesota i n 1 9 3 8 .
He was a te a c h e r i n p u b lic h ig h s c h o o ls and p r iv a t e c o lle g e s
f o r te n y e a r s . During the second World War, he was a
c i v i l i a n t e c h n ic a l a s s i s t a n t in th e M ilit a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e
D i v i s i o n , War D ep artm en t. He m arried A b ig a il Q u ig ley in
19^5 and they had fo u r c h i ld r e n . At the tim e o f h i s e l e c
t i o n to C on gress in 1914-8 he was a c tin g chairm an o f the
s o c io lo g y departm ent a t th e C o lle g e o f S a in t Thomas i n
S t . P a u l .^ 83
R e - e le c t e d f o r fo u r c o n s e c u tiv e term s, McCarthy
se rv e d in the House o f R e p r e s e n ta t iv e s f o r te n y e a r s* In
November, 195>8, he was e l e c t e d to a s i x - y e a r term In th e
U n ite d S t a t e s S en a te
3 8 l» p p e View C on ven tion s ’ 6 0 , M p . 3 3 .
■^^Baker, " H ig h lig h ts and C hronology o f N om inating
S e s s io n o f D em ocratic C o n v en tio n ," p . 1 8 .
3®3"Eugene j # McCarthy—A B io g r a p h ic a l S k e tc h ."
O f f i c i a l C o n g r e ss io n a l D i r e c t o r y , 8 8th C o n g re ss,
1 s t S e s s io n , p . 8 1 .
30^Ibid.
3k$
McCarthy se r v e d i n the H ouse on co m m ittees i n v o l v i n g
th e P o st O f f ic e and C i v i l S e r v i c e , A g r ic u lt u r e , I n t e r i o r
and I n s u la r A f f a i r s , B anking and C u rren cy, and Ways and
Means* In th e S e n a te h e s e r v e d on co m m ittees f o r F in a n c e
and A g r ic u lt u r e and h ead ed th e s p e c i a l com m ittee s e t up to
i n v e s t i g a t e unem ploym ent problem s i n the U* S* He i s a
member o f th e C o u n c il on R e l ig i o u s Freedom and P u b lic
A f f a i r s o f th e N a tio n a l C o n fer en ce o f C h r is t ia n s and J ew s.
At th e tim e o f th e i 960 c o n v e n t io n , McCarthy had a u th o red
one b o o k , F r o n t ie r s i n Am erican D em ocracy. ^
W ith th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a C a t h o li c , John F* K ennedy,
b e in g nom in ated f o r P r e s id e n t a t th e i 9 6 0 D em ocratic
C o n v e n tio n , Eugene J . M cCarthy, a s a C a t h o li c , was ask ed
o f t e n to e x p r e s s h i s v ie w s a s to th e p la c e o f a man o f h i s
r e l i g i o n i n p o l i t i c s . To McCarthy th e C a t h o lic i n p o l i t i c s
f a c e d the same p rob lem s a s any C h r i s t i a n In p o l i t i c s and
sh o u ld be judged by th e same s t a n d a r d s .3®^
The C h r is t ia n i n p o l i t i c s sh o u ld be judged by th e
sta n d a r d o f w h eth er th rou gh h i s d e c i s i o n s and
a c t i o n s h e h a s advan ced the c a u se o f j u s t i c e , and
^ ^By I 96I 4. h e had a u th o re d D ic t io n a r y o f Am erican
P o l i t i c s (M acM illan Company, 1 9 6 2) ; The C h a lle n g e o f F r e e
dom ( Avon Book Company, 19&2, pap erb ack e d i t i o n o f
F r o n t i e r s i n A m erican D em ocracy); and A L ib e r a l Answer
to "the C o n s e r v a tiv e C h a lle n g e (M a c fa d d e n -B a r te ll C orpor
a t i o n , 1 9 6 L |-) •
" ^ ^ G ilb e r t H a r r is o n , "A C a th o lic i n P o l i t i c s , "
The New R e p u b lic , lIj.O jlO -16, June 8 , 19^9*
3^6
h e lp e d , a t l e a s t , to a c h ie v e th e h i g h e s t d e g r e e
o f p e r f e c t i o n p o s s i b l e i n th e tem p oral o r d e r .3 8 7
Sam R ayburn.3 8 8 — c e r e m o n y Qf c o n g r a t u la t io n f o r
Sp eak er Sam Rayburn opened i n th e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s
on Monday, June 1 2 , 1 9 6 1 , w ith the r o l l c a l l show ing 3kb-
members p r e s e n t . R e p r e s e n t a t iv e John W. McCormack o f
M a s s a c h u s e tt s , t h e M a jo r ity L ea d er, o f f e r e d H ouse R e so lu
t i o n 333 f o r im m ediate c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
R e s o lv e d . That th e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s h ereb y
extencLs' i t s h e a r t i e s t c o n g r a t u la t io n to i t s b e lo v e d
S p ea k er , th e H onorable SAM RAYBURN, who, to d a y , has
se r v e d i n th e h ig h o f f i c e o f Speaker o f the H ouse o f
R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s f o r l 6 y e a r s , 273 d a y s —more than
tw ic e as lo n g a s any o th e r Sp eak er i n th e h i s t o r y o f
th e U n ite d S t a t e s ; and be i t f u r t h e r
R e s o lv e d . That th e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s h ereb y
e x p r e s s e s i t s deep a p p r e c ia t io n to th e H onorable SAM
RAYBURN f o r h i s i m p a r t i a l i t y , i n t e g r i t y , and o u t
s ta n d in g p a r lia m e n ta r y s k i l l i n p r e s id in g o ver t h i s
H ouse; f o r e n h a n cin g th e d i g n i t y and t r a d i t i o n s o f
th e S p e a k e r sh ip ; and f o r h i s c o n t in u in g d e v o t io n to
l e g i s l a t i v e d u ty i n t h i s House f o r more than I 4.8
y e a r s .3 8 9
T h is r e s o l u t i o n opened th e way fo r a s e r i e s o f
c e r e m o n ia l sp e e c h e s f o r Speaker Sam Rayburn from h i s p e e r s
^^^Eugene J . M cCarthy, flThe Duty o f P o l i t i c s , ”
Commonweal. 71:15>3, O ctober 30> 19^9*
oOD
The n o m in a tio n sp ee ch f o r Lyndon B . Johnson as
d e l iv e r e d by Sam Rayburn a t th e i 960 D em o cra tic C on ven tion
can be fou n d i n Appendix G•
389
^ h e L e a d e r sh ip o f Sp eak er Sam Rayburn: C o lle c t e d
T r ib u te s o f H is C o n g r e s s io n a l C o l l e a g u e s . 8 7 th C o n g r e ss.
1 s t S e s s i o n , H ouse Document No. 2l|-7 (W ash in gton , D . C .s
U n ite d S t a t e s Government P r in t in g O f f i c e , 1 9 6 1 ) , p . x v .
3k7
i n th e H ouse of* R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s * "Mr. Sam” a s he was
r e f e r r e d t o b y many o f h i s c o l l e a g u e s , was a c c r e d i t e d b y
John W. McCormack w ith a number o f f i r s t s i n A m erican
h i s t o r y .
F i r s t . He has s e r v e d c o n t in u o u s ly t h e l o n g e s t
i n th e H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s o f any Member i n
our h i s t o r y . I th in k i t i s a l i t t l e more th a n 2
y e a r s lo n g e r s e r v i c e t o d a te th a n any o t h e r Member
who h as s e r v e d th r o u g h o u t th e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l h i s t o r y
o f our c o u n t r y .
S e c o n d . Some y e a r s ago he e s t a b l i s h e d th e r e c o r d
o f s e r v in g a s Speaker t h e l o n g e s t o f any S p ea k er in
our c o u n t r y *s h i s t o r y . T h is r e c o r d was e s t a b l i s h e d
o v e r 8 y e a r s a g o .
T h ir d . Sp eak er RAYBURN h as now s e r v e d tw ic e a s
lo n g a s any o th e r S p e a k e r in th e e n t i r e h i s t o r y o f
our c o u n tr y .3 9 0
R e p r e s e n t a t iv e H a le Boggs o f L o u is ia n a c a l l e d th e
a t t e n t i o n o f h i s c o l l e a g u e s to th e f a c t t h a t n o t o n ly had
Sam Rayburn s e r v e d lo n g e r i n th e H ouse o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
th an any o t h e r man b u t he ran k ed among th e f i r s t f o r
l o n g e v i t y i n any p a r lia m e n ta r y b o d y .
I d is c o v e r e d t h a t in a l l o f th e h i s t o r y o f p a r l i a
m en tary b o d ie s o n ly t h r e e men, G la d s t o n e , B a lf o u r ,
and C h u r c h i l l , had s e r v e d lo n g e r i n any p a r lia m e n t a r y
body th a n h as Sp eak er RAYBURN. When we c o n t r a s t th e
f a c t t h a t some o f th e s e r v i c e o f th e t h r e e men I h ave
m e n tio n e d was in th e H ouse o f L o r d s, w h ich i s n o t
e l e c t i v e , S p eak er RAYBURN ranks a s p r o b a b ly h a v in g
s e r v e d lo n g e r than any i n th e h i s t o r y o f p a r lia m e n t a r y
b o d i e s .
39QThe L e a d e r sh ip o f S p eak er Sam R ayb urn, H ouse
Document N o. 2 I 4 .7 , p . x v .
3^8
As tim e g o e s , ou r N a t io n i s y o u n g . Our n a t i o n
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y i s l e s s th a n 2 0 0 y e a r s o l d , and
y e t i n o v e r 1|.8 y e a r s o f t h o s e y e a r s t h i s man fro m
T e x a s h a s b e e n i n t h i s b o d y . To p u t i t a n o t h e r w ay,
h e h a s s e r v e d l o n g e r t h a n o n e - f o u r t h o f th e e n t i r e
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l h i s t o r y o f th e U n it e d S t a t e s o f
A m e r ic a .3 9 1
Sam R ayb urn w as b o r n i n th e s e m i-m o u n ta in o u s c o u n tr y
o f E a s t T e n n e s s e e , one o f e l e v e n c h i l d r e n . When h e was
f i v e , th e f a m i l y m oved to F a n n in C o u n ty i n N o r th T e x a s to
a f o r t y - a c r e c o t t o n fa r m . He w as g r a d u a t e d fro m P r o f e s s o r
W. L . M a y o 's E a s t T e x a s N orm al C o l l e g e w it h a B . S . d e g r e e ,
c o m p le t in g th e n o r m a l t h r e e y e a r c o l l e g e c o u r s e i n tw o
y e a r s e v e n th o u g h h e had to work h i s way t h r o u g h . He
s t u d i e d la w a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f T e x a s Law S c h o o l and was
a d m it t e d to th e b a r .3 9 2
He t a u g h t s c h o o l f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s b e f o r e r u n n in g
f o r t h e H ou se o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e T e x a s l e g i s l a t u r e .
He r e m a in e d i n p u b l i c o f f i c e a f t e r h i s e l e c t i o n i n 1 9 0 6 .
At th e a g e o f t h i r t y , h e r a n f o r C o n g r e s s and a r r i v e d i n
W a sh in g to n i n tim e f o r Woodrow W i l s o n ' s f i r s t i n a u g u r a t i o n
a s P r e s i d e n t . A t th e tim e o f th e i 9 6 0 D e m o c r a t ic C o n v e n
t i o n he h a d s e r v e d w i t h s e v e n P r e s i d e n t s - - W i l s o n , H a r d in g ,
393-The L e a d e r s h ip o f S p e a k e r Sam R a y b u r n . H ou se
D ocum ent N o . 21^7 > p • x v • 5
3 9 2 " B i 0g r a p h .ic a l S k e t c h o f H o n o r a b le Sam R a y b u r n ,”
n . d . ( U n p u b lis h e d e n c l o s u r e w it h l e t t e r to S a r a h S a n d e r s o n
fro m H . G-. D u la n e y , D i r e c t o r , The Sam R ayburn L i b r a r y ,
Bonham , T e x a s , June 1 7 , I 9 6 I4 J , PP« 1 - 2 .
3k9
C o o lid g e , H oover, F r a n k lin D. R o o s e v e lt , Truman, and
E isen h o w er. Some o f the b i l l s f o r which he was r e s p o n s ib le
e it h e r as sp o n so r or auth or were th e War R isk In su ran ce
A ct; Truth i n S e c u r i t i e s A ct; The S e c u r i t i e s and Exchange
A ct; F e d e r a l Com m unications A ct; P u b lic U t i l i t y H o ld in g
Company A ct; and th e Rural E l e c t r i f i c a t i o n A c t . 3 ^3
Speaker Rayburn won th e $ 1 0 ,0 0 0 C o l l i e r ’ s Award f o r
d is t in g u is h e d s e r v i c e to the n a tio n in 19^9 an(^ a s id e
the money as th e n u c le u s fo r b u ild in g th e Sam Rayburn
L ib rary in Bonham, T e x a s. On O ctober 9* 195>7j " th e o n e -
h a l f m i l l i o n d o l l a r m arble s tr u c t u r e was d e d ic a te d a s a
r e s e a r c h c e n te r f o r s tu d e n ts o f d em o cra tic g ov ern m en t.3 ^
To Rayburn, t h i s l ib r a r y was a dream come t r u e . In i t
were f i l e d a l l h i s pap ers and th e volum es o f h i s t o r y which
he c h o se and w hich he l o v e d . In th o se volum es which he
had r e a d , he in s c r ib e d h i s i n i t i a l s a t th e bottom o f page
99 as h i s own p e r s o n a l b o o k m a r k . 3 * ^ Around the w a lls o f
the L ib r a r y ’ s Main R eading Room were p la c e d th e p u b lis h e d
p r o c e e d in g s o f the C ongress from th e f i r s t C o n tin e n ta l
-^ ^ ’'B io g r a p h ic a l S k etch o f H onorable Sam Rayburn,"
pp. 1 - 2 .
3 9^ I b id .
399
^ The L e a d e rsh ip o f Speaker Sam Rayburn, House
Document No. 2ij.7, p . ^3, c i t i n g R obert C. A lb r ig h t, " ’Mr.
Sam ,’ S to r e k e e p e r , I s a G reat R id e r , Too," W ashington P o s t ,
June 11 (no y e a r or p a g in a tio n c i t e d ) .
3^°
C ongress o f 177^ to d a t e , books o f American h i s t o r y , and
b io g r a p h ie s and w r itin g s of P r e s id e n ts and o th e r American
le a d e r s < » '
Unm arried, Sam Rayburn l i v e d a lo n e , as he had fo r
many y e a r s , in a sm a ll apartm ent i n downtown W ashington.
H is g u e s t s were f a m ilia r companions and p o l i t i c a l c o l
l e a g u e s . T his c o n v e r sa tio n never str a y e d f a r from p o l i t i c s
and l e g i s l a t i o n . 3 9 7 j n 1959 # Rayburn was b e in g d e s c r ib e d
as "A Leader- With T r o u b le s ,”398 who m ight be on the
” s k i d . ” 3 9 9 He and R e p r e s e n ta tiv e C h arles A. H a lle c k , o f
In d ia n a , who had o u ste d R epu blican Leader Joseph W. M artin,
J r . , shared l i t t l e com m unication and c o o p e r a tio n , hence
th e re was l i t t l e compromise A®® For exam p le, Rayburn had
p lea d ed f o r a m oderate b i l l fo r la b o r reform .
L et u s r e fo r m .w ith o u t p u n is h in g . L et u s cure
wi th o u t cru s h in g •
L et u s take th e path o f j u s t i c e and common s e n s e ,
f o r down th a t road l i e s the America o f our dream s,
39 iirpHe 30^ Rayburn L ib r a r y , Bonham, T e x a s,”
(U npublished brochure e n c lo s e d w ith l e t t e r to Sarah Sander
son from H. G. D u lan ey, D ir e c t o r , The Sam Rayburn L ib ra ry ,
Bonham, T exas, June 1 7 , I 9 6I 4 .) •
Leader w ith T r o u b le s: D iv is io n in th e R an k s,”
U. S . Hews and World R ep o rt, l|.7:i|-9» Septem ber 7 , 1959*
3 9 8 i b i d . t p p . J p 8 -lp9 -
399»M xster Sam's S k i d ,” Newsweek, 5>ii:36, Septem ber
7 , 1 9 5 9 .
^"®®”A Leader with Troubles,” p. Ip9 •
w ith peace and p le n ty and j u s t i c e f o r a l l # 4"
The House f l a t l y r e j e c t e d t h i s p l e a , su p p o r tin g i n s t e a d a
b i l l w hich was g e n e r a lly in t e r p r e t e d as b e in g much
n to u g h er
Rayburn had serv ed as Permanent Chairman o f a Demo
c r a t i c N a tio n a l C on ven tion th r e e t im e s — in P h ila d e lp h ia
i n 19lj.8, and a t C hicago i n 1952 and 1956 He c o u ld have
se r v e d h i s fo u r th c o n s e c u tiv e term as Permanent Chairman
i n i 960 b u t he chose to s i t w ith th e Texas d e l e g a t i o n in
ord er to c a p ta in th e campaign f o r Lyndon B, Johnson whose
name he would p la c e in n om in ation f o r P r e s id e n t ,
Rayburn became f r ie n d s w ith th e f a t h e r o f Lyndon
Johnson w h ile th e two o f them se rv e d in th e Texas l e g i s
l a t u r e , T h is was a f r ie n d s h ip which was to have f a r
r e a c h in g e f f e c t s . When Lyndon Johnson was e l e c t e d to Con
g r e s s in 1 9 3 7 t Rayburn to o k him under h i s w in g , Rayburn
rem ained h i s f r ie n d and became one o f h i s m ost e n t h u s i a s
t i c r o o t e r s even when Johnson went on to th e S e n a te to a
l e a d e r s h ip p o s t o f h i s own and to fame a s a l e g i s l a t i v e
Speaker Rayburn S e e s th e Labor I s s u e , ” U . S ,
News and World R e p o r t, L}.7:91» A ugust 2 If., 1959*
^-021 !a L eader w ith T r o u b le s," p . i|8 ,
^ ■ ^ " B iograp h ica l S k etc h o f H onorable Sam Rayburn,"
p, 2,
352
craftsm an
Sam Rayburn l i v e d to se r v e w ith e ig h t P r e s id e n t s —
John P . Kennedy b e in g the e ig h t h —bu t he p a ssed away b e fo r e
he co u ld se rv e w ith th e man he had dreamed and hoped would
be P resid en t--L y n d o n B . Johnson
N a tio n a l Committeeman fo r K ansas, was ch osen to p la c e the
name o f George D ock in g, Governor o f K ansas, in n o m in a tio n .
S en ior member o f the law firm o f T heis and Rock in
Arkansas C it y , K ansas, f o r t y - n in e year o ld T h eis was a
v e ry a c t i v e member o f the D em ocratic P arty in K ansas. He
had been the im m ediate p a st chairman o f the D em ocratic
M idwest C o n fer en ce , a form al fo u r te e n s t a t e o r g a n iz a tio n o f
D em ocratic P arty o f f i c i a l s ; chairman o f th e Kansas Demo
c r a t i c S t a t e C om m ittee, 1955-19& 0; d e le g a t e to th ree Demo
c r a t i c N a tio n a l C on ven tion s; D em ocratic N a tio n a l Com m ittee
man fo r Kansas f o r two term s. These were on ly a few o f h is
Documen „ ^ r i g h t , ,!' Mr. Sam ,’
S to r e k e e p e r , I s A G reat R id e r , T oo.1 '
^^ Sam Rayburn p assed away November l 6 , 19&1, in
Bonham, T exas.
• ^°^The n om in ation sp eech fo r George D ocking as
d e liv e r e d by Prank G. T h eis a t the i 960 D em ocratic Conven
t io n can be found i n Appendix G.
Frank G. T h eis —Frank G. T h e is , as D em ocratic
Rayburn, House
353
p a r ty a c t i v i t i e s . ^ 7 There, was no in d ic a t io n in h i s l e t t e r
or in h i s b io g r a p h ic a l sk etc h as to why he had ch o sen to
become so a c t iv e behind the sc e n e s in p o l i t i c s * H is one
v en tu re from b a ck sta g e in to the n a t io n a l arena was to tr y
f o r th e U . S . S en a te i n 1 9 6 0 .^ ®
T h eis was graduated from Kansas U n iv e r s it y , cum
la u d e , in 1933 and from the U n iv e r s it y o f M ichigan Law
S ch oo l in 1 9 3 6 . He m arried th e form er M arjorie R id d le o f
Emporia, Kansas (whose f a t h e r had been a w ell-k now n Kansas
a tto r n e y ),, and they had two c h ild r e n . He was a P resb y
t e r i a n , and had a t one tim e serv ed as Chairman o f the Board
o f T r u ste es f o r h i s c h u r c h .' He h e ld s e v e r a l p u b lic s t a t e
o f f i c e s - - A t t o r n e y f o r Kansas S t a te Tax Comm ission, Deputy
County A ttorn ey f o r Cowley County, C h ief C ounsel f o r the
O ffic e o f P r ic e S t a b i l i z a t i o n f o r the D i s t r i c t o f K ansas,
and C ity A tto rn ey o f Arkansas C ity .^ ° 9
He was ad m itted to the Kansas bar i n 1937 and in
i 960 had had tw e n ty -fo u r y e a r s o f co n tin u o u s p r a c tic e of
law , p u b lic and p r i v a t e . A Phi B eta Kappa member, he had
^ ■ ^ "B iograp hical and E x p erien ce S k etc h , Frank G.
T h e is , A p p lica n t fo r F ed era l J u d ic ia l Appointm ent," n.d *
(U npublished mimeographed e n c lo s u r e w ith l e t t e r to Sarah
Sanderson from Frank G. T h e is, A tto rn ey a t Law, Arkansas
C it y , K ansas, J u ly 3 0 , I 96I 4 .) , p. 1 .
^Q 6I b i d . , pp. 1 - 3 *
^^Ibid., p. 2.
3$k
authored s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s about law.^P"^
T h is was th e man who was N a tio n a l Committeeman from
Kansas and ca n d id a te f o r the U. S . S e n a te , a str o n g sup
p o r te r o f John P . Kennedy, and an admirer o f George
Docking
H a rriso n A. W illia m s, J r .^~^— In January o f i 9 6 0 ,
Robert Meyner was asked to a ccep t th e r o le o f " f a v o r it e
son" o f New J e r s e y . S en ator H a rriso n A. W illia m s, the
Junior Senator from New J e r se y whom Meyner had supported
i n a c o n te s te d prim ary in A p r il, 1 9 5 8 , was asked by Meyner
to g iv e the n om in ation sp eech a t th e i 960 D em ocratic Con
v e n t i o n .^ ^
Senator H arrison (P e te ) W illia m s, f o r ty - o n e y e a r s
o ld in 1 9 8 0 , was e le c t e d to the U n ite d S t a t e s S en ate in
1 9 5 8 , a f t e r two terms in th e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s . He
won the S en ate e l e c t i o n by more than 8ij.,000 v o t e s , and
became th e f i r s t D em ocratic S en a to r to r e p r e s e n t New J e r se y
^ ^ " B io g r a p h ic a l and E xp erien ce S k etc h , Prank G.
T h eis," p p . 1 -3 •
^P^Robert D ock in g, L e t t e r , May J L |_ , 198) 4 ..
ij-12^he nom in ation sp eech fo r R obert B . Meyner as
d e liv e r e d by H a rriso n A. W illia m s, J r . , a t the i 960 Demo
c r a t i c C on ven tion can be found in Appendix G.
^P-^Meyner, L e t te r s , May 13, I 96I 4 . and May 25, I 96I4 ..
3$$
s in c e I 9 3 6 . W
W illiam s had s p e c i a l i z e d in the S en a te in two m ajor
a r e a s — th e problems o f c i t y and suburban l i v i n g and the
problem s o f th e u n d e r p r iv ile g e d * H is major i n t e r e s t s and
reco rd o f accom plishm ent cou ld be seen in th e a rea s o f
t r a n s i t ; open space la n d fo r park, r e c r e a t io n , c o n se r v a
t io n , and s c e n ic p u rp o ses; h o u sin g fo r the e l d e r l y ;
N a tio n a l S e r v ic e C orps, a Peace Corps f o r the U n ite d
S t a t e s ; m ig ra to ry la b o r ; in v e s t o r p r o t e c t io n ; and f lo o d
in s u r a n c e . In a d d itio n to sp o n so rin g b i l l s in v o lv in g th e
above, W illiam s had been a c t i v e l y i n t e r e s t e d in i n t e r
n a t io n a l a f f a i r s such as t e s t ban t r e a t i e s and s h i f t i n g
d e fe n s e sp en d in g; jobs and econom ic grow th; c i v i l r i g h t s ;
and o t h e r s .^ 1 ^
Born i n New J e r se y in 1 9 1 9 » W illiam s was graduated
from O b e rlin C o lle g e in 19^-1> and un dertook graduate work
a t the Georgetown U n iv e r s it y F o r e ig n S e r v ic e S ch ool* H is
work was in te r r u p te d by h is e n lis tm e n t in the Navy.
H onorably d isch a rg e d i n 19^6, ke worked in a s t e e l m i l l in
^•^•"B iographical Sk etch o f H arrison A. W illia m s,
Jr*," January, 19&4 (U n pu blished mimeographed e n c lo s u r e
w ith l e t t e r to Sarah Sanderson from H arrison A. W illia m s,
J r . , U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a te , Committee on Labor and P u b lic
W e lfa r e, W ashington, D* C ., May 2 $ , I 96I1 J , pp. 1-3*
O f f i c i a l C o n g r e ssio n a l D ir e c t o r y , 8 8 th C on gress,
1 s t S e s s io n , p* 97»
^ I b i d .
356
Ohio and was a member o f th e U n ite d S te e lw o r k e r s o f America.
Resuming h i s e d u c a tio n , he was grad u ated from Columbia
U n iv e r s i t y Law S c h o o l i n 19lj-8. B e fo re e n t e r in g p o l i t i c s ,
W illia m s p r a c t ic e d law f o r a y e a r in New Hampshire and th en
jo in e d a law fir m in Newark, New J e r s e y . W illia m s made
h i s home i n New J e r se y w ith h i s w i f e , Nancy, and f i v e
c h i l d r e n .^ ' k
The S p eak ers a t the R ep u b lica n C on ven tion
Paul J . F a n n in . — Paul J . F an n in , Governor o f
A r iz o n a , had th e d i s t i n c t honor o f b e in g one o f two S t a t e
G overnors to appear b e fo r e the i 960 R ep u b lica n C on ven tion
to p la c e a name i n n om in ation f o r the P r e s id e n t o f the
U n ite d S t a t e s . The n om in ation was r e p o r te d as b ein g made
a g a in s t S e n a to r Barry G o ld w a ter‘ s e x p r e ss e d w ish and i n
s t r u c t i o n s
As to th e r e a s o n s I was s e l e c t e d to d e l i v e r the
n om in atin g sp e e c h , I would f i r s t presume th a t i t was
^ " B io g r a p h ic a l S k etch o f H a r r iso n A. W illia m s,
J r .," p p . 1-3*
O f f i c i a l C o n g r e s s io n a l D i r e c t o r y , 8 8 th C o n g ress,
1 s t S e s s io n , p . 97*
^"^The n o m in a tio n sp eech f o r Barry G oldw ater as
d e l iv e r e d by Paul J . F ann in a t th e i 960 D em ocratic Con
v e n tio n can be found in Appendix G.
^® N ew s item in th e C hicago D a ily T ribu n e , J u ly 2 8 ,
i 9 6 0 , P a rt 1 , p . 2 .
News item in th e Los A n g eles T im es, J u ly 2 8 ,
i 9 6 0 , P a rt 1 , p . 13*
357
b ecau se I have been a l i f e lo n g f r ie n d o f S en ato r
G old w ater, and s e c o n d ly , I was the Governor o f h i s
home s t a t e
Paul J . F an n in , f i f t y - t h r e e , was m arried ( w i f e ’ s
name—E lm a), and had fou r c h ild r e n . He l i s t e d h i s church
a f f i l i a t i o n as M eth od ist* He a tten d e d the U n iv e r s it y o f
A rizon a f o r two y e a r s b u t l e f t th e home s t a t e to go to
S ta n fo r d U n iv e r s it y from which he r e c e iv e d h i s A. B . i n
1 9 3 0 . He r etu r n e d to A rizon a to th e fa m ily e n t e r p r is e s
o f F annin B r o th e r s, I n d u s t r ia l D evelop m ents; F a n n in ’ s
S e r v ic e and Supply Company; and F a n n in 's Gas S e r v ic e * He
was e l e c t e d Governor in 1958* r e - e l e c t e d i n i 960 and
1 9 6 2 . ^ 0 He was d e s c r ib e d as a " P u lliam -sp on sored " c a n d i
d a t e , which meant Eugene P ulliam who owned the " r e a c t io n
ary" tw in P hoenix d a i l i e s which dom inated the A rizona
p r e s s , was on h i s s i d e . ^ ^
In h i s l e t t e r o f May 8, 196L|., Governor Fannin d i s
cu ssed the p la c in g o f G old w ater’ s name i n n o m in a tio n .
Another f a c t about th e n om in atin g sp eech was th a t
i t was prepared in h a s te as i t was n o t d ecid ed u n t i l
f a i r l y l a t e to p la c e S en ator G oldw ater*s name in
^ ^Paul J . F an n in , L e t te r to Sarah Sanderson from
Paul J . F an n in , O f f ic e o f the G overnor, S t a te H ouse,
P h o en ix , A rizo n a , May 8 , 1961]-.
^ 0,1 B io g r a p h ic a l Sk etch o f Paul F an n in , Governor o f
A rizon a," n .d * (U npublished e n c lo s u r e w ith l e t t e r to Sarah
Sanderson from Paul J . F ann in , O ffic e of th e G overnor,
S t a t e H ouse, P h o en ix , A rizo n a , May 8 , 19614.*)
^-21tiiYes5 i Fear Washington,’" p. 5>*
n o m in a tio n , and the u r g in g to do t h i s came l a r g e l y
from o th e r s t a t e s *
A rizon a*s d e l e g a t i o n , w h ile u n d e r sta n d in g ly proud
o f S en a to r G oldw ater, f e l t th a t t h e ir judgment m ight
be c o lo r e d by th e ir a d m ira tio n fo r a n a t iv e s o n . The
d e le g a t e s from o th er s t a t e s were the prime f a c t o r
i n alm ost demanding th a t we p la c e h i s name i n nomina
t i o n . N e e d le ss to say, i t was n o t d i f f i c u l t to t a lk
u s in to t h i s d e c i s i o n .^22
Mark H a t f ie ld , Governor o f Oregon, d e s c r ib e d the
nom in ation o f G oldwater w ith h i s su b seq u en t w ithdraw al in
su p p ort o f R ichard Nixon as "* . . a very em o tio n a l scen e
to w i t n e s s . G o v e r n o r H a t f ie ld went b ack stage to l i s t e n
to th e secon d in g sp e e c h e s a f t e r h i s nom inating sp eech f o r
Nixon fo r P r e s id e n t , and happened to be s i t t i n g on the arm
o f S en a to r G oldw ater*s c h a ir a t the tim e Governor Fannin
p la c e d G o ld w a ter's name in n om in ation f o r the P r e sid e n c y .
They both watched the scen e on th e t e l e v i s i o n m o n ito r .
hi)-
With the p la c in g o f G oldw ater*s name in n om in ation , the
C o n se r v a tiv e v o ic e o f the R epu blican P arty was g iv e n a
n a tio n -w id e h e a r in g in i 960 and the c la r io n c a l l was
sounded fo r su p p ort in th e y e a rs to f o l l o w . Paul J .
F annin was a r e p r e s e n t a t iv e o f t h i s f o r c e which had Barry
G oldw ater as i t s l e a d e r .
^ 2F an n in , L e t t e r , May 8, 196ij..
^ % a r k 0 . H a t f i e l d , L e tte r to Sarah Sanderson from
Mark 0 . H a t f i e l d , O f f ic e o f the G overnor, S ta te C a p it o l,
Salem , Oregon, May 7 , 196^ .
^ I b i d .
359
Mark 0 . H a t f i e l d .M^5— The name o f R ichard M. N ixon
was p la c e d in n om in ation a t the i 960 R ep u b lica n C on ven tion
by one o f the m ost p ro m isin g young men in the R ep u b lica n
P a r t y - -t h e "Golden Boy,"M ?6 Mark 0 . H a t f i e l d , G overnor o f
O regon.
"The word fo r Oregon i s Gol," s a id Mark H a t f i e l d ^ 7—
and the word f o r Mark H a t f ie ld was "Gol" He became the
tw e n ty -n in th C h ie f E x e c u tiv e o f Oregon i n January, 1959*
He had won th e e l e c t i o n f o r Governor in November, 1958* "by
6 5 ,0 0 0 v o t e s over the incum bent D em ocratic G overnor, and
t h i s o ccu rred in a D em ocratic s tr o n g h o ld w ith a r e g i s t r a
t i o n o f a D em ocratic p l u r a l i t y o f 5 2 ,0 0 0 .
H a t f ie ld was born in Oregon i n 1 9 2 2 , th e son o f a
b la c k s m ith . When tim es became hard and r e l a t i v e s moved i n
w ith th e H a t f i e l d s , h i s m other was se n t through c o ll e g e
(Oregon S t a t e C o lle g e a t C o r v a l li s ) by h i s f a t h e r to earn
her t e a c h e r 's c e r t i f i c a t e . She su p p lem en ted th e fa m ily
income by te a c h in g on a ju n io r h ig h f a c u l t y . In i 960 b o th
o f h i s p a r e n ts had r e t i r e d from t h e ir form er j o b s . H is
H ^The n om in ation sp eech f o r R ichard M. N ixon as
d e liv e r e d by Mark 0 . H a t f ie ld a t the i 9 60 R ep u b lica n Con
v e n tio n can be found i n Appendix G.
^ ^ M ilt o n MacKaye, "O regon's G olden Boy," The
Satu rd ay E vening P o s t , 2 3 1 : 3 2 -3 3 , 1 0 3 -1 0 6 , May 9 , 1959*
^ 7 The Mark H a t f i e l d S to r y (O regon: D a ily Journal
OP G-oramerce, n . d . ) , p . 1 .
36o
f a t h e r had a s ig n i n the ya rd "N ight C r a w ler s” and "Saws
P i l e d and Sharpened H ere." H is m other was w orking f o r th e
1 l 28
s t a t e income ta x departm ent*
H a t f i e l d com p leted th e c o u r se a t W illa m e tte U n i
v e r s i t y w ith a m ajor i n p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e i n th r e e y e a r s!^ ^
A f t e r a y ea r o f law s c h o o l a t W illa m e tte , he e n r o lle d a t
S ta n fo r d to earn h i s M a s te r 's d eg ree in p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e
w ith a t h e s i s about the p r e - p r e s i d e n t i a l la b o r p o l i c i e s o f
H erb ert H o o v er. A f a s t f r i e n d s h i p d e v e lo p e d betw een Hoover
and H a t f ie ld who c h r o n o l o g ic a l ly were n e a r ly a h a l f c e n tu ry
a p a r t i n a g e * ^ ^ T r a v is C ross and H a t f i e l d m et a t S ta n
f o r d . They became c lo s e f r i e n d s and C ross became H at
f i e l d ' s p r e s s s e c r e t a r y when he became Governor .^-31
P o l i t i c a l e v e n ts in Oregon which p o in te d to e x t i n c t i o n o f
th e power o f th e R ep u b lican P a rty i n t h a t s t a t e s t i r r e d
H a t f i e l d to abandon h i s d o c t o r a l p la n s and r e tu r n h o m e . ^ 2
In 1 9 6 2 , H a t f i e l d appeared in L if e m agazine a s one o f th e
new b r e e d — one hundred young men and women c a l l e d the
^^VlacK aye, "O regon's G olden Boy," p . 103*
Groomed f o r Government: A B r i e f B iography o f
Mark H a t f ie ld (S alem , O regon: no p u b lis h e r . J u ly 1 5 .
I 9 6 0 ) , no p a g in a tio n *
^^M acK aye, "O regon’ s Golden Boy," p . lOij.*
Groomed f o r G overnm ent.
1 (3 0 ,
^"SviacKaye, "O regon's G olden Boy," p . 10i^,
^^G room ed f o r G overnm ent.
361
’’T ake-over G en era tio n ” — and was d e sc r ib e d as h avin g walked
away from a " b rig h t academ ic career" f o r p o l i t i c s . ^ 3 3
He was an in s t r u c t o r in p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e a t
W illa m ette U n iv e r s it y a t th e tim e he e n te r e d p u b lic l i f e
as a s t a t e l e g i s l a t o r . "His r i s e to dean o f stu d e n ts on
one s id e o f S t a t e S t r e e t in th e c a p i t a l c i t y and h i s move
up to the S ta te S en ate were alm ost c o n c u r r e n t A f t e r
s i x y e a r s o f l e g i s l a t i v e s e r v ic e he became S e c r e ta r y o f
S t a t e - - a b r ig h t sp o t f o r the R ep u b lican s in an o th e r w ise
D em ocratic d om in ation o f s t a t e p o l i t i c s . The n e x t s te p
f o r H a t f ie ld was G overnor. He was d e sc r ib e d in L if e
m agazine as g a in in g ”. . . wide r e s p e c t fo r o r g a n iz a tio n
and p lan n in g and s u c c e s s f u l m ed ia tio n betw een la b o r and
management ,"^-35>
In 195>8 H a t f ie ld m arried A n to in e tte Kuzmanich,
c o u n se lo r f o r women a t P o rtla n d S t a te C o lle g e . By i 960
th e y had two c h ild r e n . H a t f i e l d ’ s r e l i g i o u s p r e fe r e n c e
was l i s t e d as B a p t i s t . R e lig io n p la y ed a prom inent p a rt
in h i s l i f e 0 He had p a r t ic ip a t e d i n church a c t i v i t i e s
ra n g in g from th e " p u lp it o f a sm a ll r u r a l p a r ish to
E a ste r S u n r ise S e r v ic e s i n the Pasadena Rose Bowl*”^ ^
^■33"a Red-Hot Hundred," L i f e , £3 t S e p t e m b e r ll|_, 1962•
^ ^ Groomed f o r Governm ent.
^ ■ 33?'* a Red-Hot Hundred," p . 5*
omea f or Government.
362
In one year a lo n e , he spoke b e fo r e s e v e n te e n d i f f e r e n t
r e l i g i o u s d e n o m in a tio n s.^37 He c o n sid e r e d a d e d ic a te d
C h r is tia n l i f e as one o f "• • • in c r e a s in g c h a lle n g e ,
a d v en tu re, and h a p p in e s s .” In an a r t i c l e t i t l e d "The Truly
S a t i s f y i n g L i f e , ” he c o n tin u e d , "I can say w ith a l l s i n
c e r i t y th a t l i v i n g a comm itted C h r is tia n l i f e i s t r u ly
s a t i s f y i n g b ecau se i t has g iv e n me tru e purpose and d i r e c
t i o n by s e r v in g n o t m y s e lf, b u t Jesu s C h r is t .'1 ^ ®
H a t f ie ld was a w e l l - t r a v e l e d p e r s o n . In th e Navy
du rin g th e war he tr a v e le d through out th e South P a c i f ic
and Far E a s t . He to o k a stu d y group through Europe, and
in i 960 had a p r o je c te d South American t r i p p la n n e d .
He was an a c t i v e p a r t ic ip a n t i n the 1952 and 1956
R ep u b lican N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n s. The p r e d ic t io n was th a t
he would be even more a c t iv e in i 9 6 0 . He had been i d e n t i
f i e d w ith the l i b e r a l wing o f the S ta t e G. 0 . P ., and had
been m en tioned as a p o s s i b l e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t i a l nom inee .^-39
In 1959* M ilto n MacKaye In Saturday E vening P o st d is c u s s e d
th e f u t u r e o f Mark H a t f i e l d .
From a n a tio n a l sta n d p o in t th e governor i s an i n t e r
e s t i n g f i g u r e . As a p o l i t i c i a n h i s shrew dness and
energy are d i f f i c u l t to o v e r e s t im a t e . He I s a ls o
^■37MacKaye, "Oregon1 s G olden Boy," pp. IOI4 .-IO6 .
^ 8Mark 0 . H a t f i e l d , "The Truly S a t i s f y i n g L if e ,"
American M ercury, 9 0 :6 2 , June, i 9 6 0 .
^ ^ Congressional Quarterly Convention Guide, p. 33*
363
b o ld * Even b e f o r e he took o f f i c e he d id n o t h e s i t a t e ,
a t a m e e tin g o f w e ste r n R e p u b lic a n s i n H a w a ii, to
c r i t i c i z e th e way h i s own p a r ty had c o n d u cted l a s t
f a l l ’ s cam p aigns; he in c lu d e d the W hite H ouse i n h i s
c r i t i c i s m * He i s n o t unaware th a t N e lso n R o c k e f e l l e r
and R ich a rd N ixon may be p i t t e d a g a i n s t each o th e r
f o r th e p r e s i d e n t i a l n o m in a tio n in i 9 6 0 — and t h a t
th e g o v e rn o r o f New York and th e g o v ern o r o f Oregon
m ig h t make a p p e a lin g ru n n in g m ates* Hi's f r i e n d ,
e v a n g e l i s t B i l l y Graham, s a i d some m onths a g o , "I
p r e d i c t t h a t i f Mark H a t f i e l d s t a y s humble b e fo r e
th e Lord, he w i l l h o ld p o s i t i o n s o f n a t i o n a l
r e s p o n s l b l l i ty *H 44-0
The V i c e - P r e s i d e n t , R ich a rd M. N ix o n , c h o se Mark
H a t f i e l d , "a 38 y e a r o ld s p e l l b i n d e r , " ^ 1 to p la c e h i s
name i n n o m in a tio n * The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s c h o ic e a re n o t
known; even Mark H a t f i e l d s a id th a t he was n o t g iv e n any
r e a s o n s f o r th e c h o ic e and s u g g e s te d t h a t c o rr esp o n d en ce
w ith Mr. N ixon or w ith h i s a d m in is t r a t iv e a s s i s t a n t m ig h t
c le a r up th e m a tte r *^"^ There was no answ er to i n q u i r i e s
made i n t h i s d i r e c t io n * I t c o u ld be su p p osed t h a t th e
c h o ic e o f H a t f i e l d as a known R o c k e f e l l e r adm irer m ig h t
have b een a f u r t h e r a tte m p t to m o l if y th e R o c k e f e lle r
f o r c e s who prom ised tr o u b le a t th e c o n v e n t io n . Or i t
m ig h t have b een t h a t H a t f i e l d was c h o se n n o t o n ly f o r h i s
p o l i t i c a l c o n n e c tio n s b u t f o r h i s a b i l i t y .
The n o m in a tin g sp e e c h was d r a f t e d some t h r e e weeks
^•°M acKaye, "O regon’ s G olden Boy," p . 1 0 6 .
^Hews item in the Chicago Daily Tribune. July 22,
i960, p. 1*
^^Hatfield, Letter, May 7, 196if.
3 6 1 } .
b e fo r e th e c o n v e n tio n —u n d erg o in g fo u r or f i v e d r a f t s b e
f o r e c o m p le tio n . R ichard N ixon and W illiam R ogers (th en
A tto rn ey G en era l) r ev iew ed i t , making on ly one s l i g h t
change i n one s e n t e n c e . The sp e e c h was the b r i e f e s t
o f a l l th e major n om in ation sp ee ch es a t b oth o f the i 960
c o n v e n t io n s . R u s s e ll Baker o f the New York Times commented
on t h i s i n an a r t i c l e g i v in g the h i g h l i g h t s o f th e Repub
l i c a n C o n v en tio n .
Mr. H a t f i e l d i s a handsome b la c k - h a ir e d gentlem an
in th e y o u t h f u l s t y l e so popular t h i s y ea r i n b oth
p a r t i e s . In th e West h e i s h a i l e d as an o r a to r the
e q u a l o f W illia m J en n in g s Bryan or Senator Frank
Church of Id a h o , who k eyn oted th e D em ocratic Con
v e n t io n .
T h is r e p u t a t io n made a l l th e more p o ig n a n t the
s a c r i f i c e he made t o n i g h t , f o r i n an a c t o f mercy
u n p a r a lle le d in modern p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y , he chose to
l i m i t h is n om in atin g sp eech to 288 w ords.
I t s d e l iv e r y r e q u ir e d only 3 m in u tes t h i r t y - f i v e
seco n d s [ a c t u a l ly th r e e m in u tes and t h i r t y - e i g h t
s e c o n d s ] . Only th ose who have s a t p a r b o ile d on the
c o n v e n tio n f l o o r w h ile l i s t e n i n g to some son o f the
s o i l spend f o r t y - f i v e m in u tes in c a te r w a u lin g about
the sp le n d o r s o f sundry c a n d id a te s can a p p r e c ia te
how d e e p ly Mr. H a t f ie ld put hum anity i n h i s debt
to n ig h t.4 4 4 -
" V e r b o sity was c h a lle n g e d , i f on ly b r i e f l y , by th e Re
p u b lic a n s t o n i g h t , n i t was r e p o r te d i n the New York
^ ■ -% a tfie ld , L e t t e r , May 7 , 1961}...
^ ^ B a k e r , H ig h lig h t s of the R ep u b lican Nom inating
S e s s i o n , M p . L13*
365
Time3 The sp e e c h was d e s c r ib e d in th e Los A n g ele s
Times a s "• • • th e s h o r t e s t GOP speech o f i t s k in d s in c e
L in c o ln was n o m in a ted * " ^ ^ W alter Trohan d e sc r ib e d the
sp eech as " . • • one o f the s h o r t e s t and m ost s t i r r i n g
n o m in a tin g a d d r e ss e s in p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y • " 1,H is s p e e c h ,1 '
he went on, "matched L in c o ln 1s c e le b r a te d G ettysb u rg
ad d ress in le n g th and v ie d w ith th a t o r a t i o n in th e sim
p l i c i t y o f i t s d e d i c a t io n .
When th e sp e e c h was ta k en to th e p r e s s room o f th e
c o n v e n tio n by H a t f i e l d ' s News S e c r e ta r y , th e newsmen were
s t a r t l e d and c o u ld n o t b e l i e v e they were r e c e i v in g th e
e n t i r e sp e e c h and n o t j u s t e x c e r p ts even though the sp eech
was marked "Complete T ext." H a t f ie ld d e s c r ib e d s e v e r a l
oth er i n c id e n t s w hich i n d ic a t e th a t d e l i v e r i n g a n o m in a tio n
sp eech h a s i t s h a r r ie d moments as w e ll as i t s rew ardin g
ones*
I f e l t th a t i t would be in a p p r o p r ia te to put such a
s h o r t sp eech on th e c o n v e n tio n tele p r o m p ter and t h e r e
f o r e had a r e a d in g copy prepared w ith a p p r o p r ia te
u n d e r lin in g s f o r e m p h a sis. I had b een r ea d in g t h i s
over i n our rooms a t th e Drake and had put i t in the
p o c k e t o f my s u i t . Not knowing t h i s M rs. H a t f ie ld
^"^News ite m in the New York T im es, Ju ly 2 8 , I 9 6 0 ,
p. L13-
^■^News item in the Los A ngeles T im es, J u ly 2 8 ,
i 9 6 0 , P a r t 1 , p . 3 .
^-?News item in the Chicago Daily Tribune. July 28.
i960, Part 1, p. 2. ---- ---------
366
s e n t i t ou t f o r c le a n in g and p r e s s in g and th e r e was
a g r e a t r e c o v e r y o p e r a tio n under h e c t i c c ir c u m sta n c e s
b e fo r e i t was r e t r ie v e d #
The r ea d in g copy as we l e f t th e Drake f o r th e co n v en
t i o n h a l l was handed to my News S e c r e t a r y , who accom
p a n ied me in t o the b u ild in g * Even though he had
c r e d e n t i a l s p r o v id e d by Mr. N ix o n 's top S e c r e t S e r v ic e
a g e n t, I was p a sse d on to th e f l o o r by a s e r g e a n t a t
arms and Mr. G ross was h a l t e d . I d id n o t n o t i c e what
had happened to him and took my s e a t in th e d e l e g a t i o n .
He a p p a r e n tly e x p e r ie n c e d a f r a n t i c 13 m in u te s t r y in g
to c o n v in c e th e s e r g e a n t a t arms h e had the n om in ation
a d d re ss r e a d in g copy in h i s hands*
Governor Dewey had been sc h e d u le d to f o l lo w the nom ina
t i o n ad d ress b u t b e c a u se o f program tim in g and netw ork
c o n s id e r a t io n s our p o s i t i o n s were r e v e r s e d and he went
on f i r s t . T h is i s why h i s sp eech sounds a s though the
n o m in a tio n had a lr e a d y b een m ade. You m igh t l i k e to
g e t a copy o f h i s remarks b eca u se th e r e i s ah i n t e r
e s t i n g p a r a l l e l i n approach and a n e a r - d u p lic a t io n
o f w ording i n one area when I u se d a ph rase "Ghana
to Warsaw" and he u se d l i k e la n g u a g e and a lm o st the
same c o u n t r i e s *44-° H owever, I was u n a b le to change
m in e , even as I l i s t e n e d to Governor Dewey b a c k sta g e
b e c a u se o f the f a c t t h a t an advance had been g iv e n
to th e p r e s s and I had to s t i c k w ith i t . W ^
I t was N ixon u n a n im o u sly . The f i r s t a c t o f R ichard
N ixon a f t e r the n om in a tion was to te le p h o n e Governor Mark
^-®Mark H a t f i e l d i s r e f e r r in g to th e words o f Thomas
Dewey: "He h as c a r r ie d o u t h i s m i s s i o n s , and th ey were
m is s io n s o f th e g r e a t e s t d ip lo m a tic d e l i c a c y to f o r t y - f o u r
n a t io n s o f th e w o r ld , from Ghana to P ola n d , and from In d o
c h in a to R u s s ia . He h as se e n th e u g ly fa c e o f Communist
im p e r ia lis m i n th e r i o t s in Peru and V en ezu ela and he h as
fa c e d them w ith a calm b ra v e ry and fo r e b e a r a n c e which
t h r i l l e d the f r e e w o rld ." ( O f f i c i a l R eport o f the P ro
c e e d in g s o f th e T w en ty-S even th R ep u b lica n Na t i o n a l Conven
t i o n , p . 2 6 3 .)
^ - ^ H a t f ie ld , L e t t e r , May 7> 1961p•
*
367
H a t f ie ld of Oregon, and h i s second was to telep h o n e S en ator
Barry G oldw ater o f A r iz o n a .k-% 0
A f r ie n d o f H a tfie ld * s had the e n t i r e t e x t o f the
nom inating sp eech engraved on a s i l v e r p la t e and se n t to
the V i c e - P r e s id e n t 's m other, Mrs. Hannah N ixon , in
W h it tie r , C a lif o r n ia , b e fo r e the e l e c t i o n . ^ 1
V. SUM M ARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The i s s u e s b e fo r e the n a tio n in the f i r s t h a l f o f
i 960 were v a r ie d and s c a t t e r e d b u t c e n te r e d around ( 1 ) the
r o l e o f th e U* S . as a w orld le a d e r , and (2) the nomina
tio n s by the p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s i n Ju ly f o r P r e s id e n t and
V ic e -P r e s id e n t o f th e U. S . The scen e was b e in g s e t f o r
the n a t io n a l e l e c t i o n s which would be h e ld i n November.
In the approaching f i g h t the Dem ocrats had th e advantage
of a preponderance o f g o v e r n o r sh ip s; v i c t o r y i n C on gres
s io n a l e l e c t i o n s ; and str o n g v o t in g s t r e n g t h . The Repub
l ic a n s had th e W hite House and l a n d s lid e v o t e s in the l a s t
two P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s . There was c o n tr o v e r sy over
whether the p o l i t i c a l f i g h t would c e n te r on i s s u e s o r
p e r s o n a l i t i e s . Lined up fo r th e D em ocratic P arty by May
o f i 960 were a t l e a s t f i v e major c o n te n d e r s , n o t co u n tin g
^°News item in the Chicago Daily Tribune. July 28.
i960, Part I, p. 3*
^Hatfield, Letter, May 7, 1961*..
368
th e " f a v o r i t e s o n s." The R e p u b lica n P a rty seem ed to have
s e t t l e d on one man*
In May, i 9 6 0 , th e r e was a change i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
a f f a i r s . The U -2 i n c i d e n t was to have f a r - r e a c h in g e f f e c t s
i n a l l q u a r te r s * r a i s i n g th e m a tte r o f A m erica’ s hon or and
p r e s t i g e a t home and a b r o a d . S u b seq u en t i n c i d e n t s f o l -
l o w e d - - t h e c o l l a p s e o f th e summit c o n fe r e n c e , r i o t i n g i n
T urkey, th e o v erth ro w o f th e governm ent o f Syngman Rhee i n
K orea, th e a c c e p ta n c e o f a id from th e K rem lin by Cuba,
E ise n h o w e r ’ s e x c l u s i o n from Japan, th e breakdown i n d i s
armament n e g o t i a t i o n s b etw een R u ss ia and th e U n ite d S t a t e s ,
and th e t r o u b le s i n th e C ongo. A l l o f t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s
were enough to shake th e a p a t h e t ic s t a t e o f any Am erican
c i t i z e n .
The i s s u e s a s p r e s e n te d i n th e D em ocratic and
R e p u b lic a n p la tfo r m s a t th e i 960 N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l Con
v e n t io n s were found to be v e r y s i m i l a r , d i f f e r i n g m a in ly
i n the recom m endation f o r th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f program s
a d v o c a te d . In th e R e p u b lic a n p l a t f o m th e em p h asis was
on s t a t e s r i g h t s w ith a l e s s e n i n g o f f e d e r a l d o m in a tio n .
In th e D em o cra tic p la tfo r m th e em p h asis was s t r o n g ly i n
f a v o r o f f e d e r a l a id program s w hich c o u ld be a p p lie d on a
n a tio n -w id e b a s i s . The R e p u b lic a n s p r a is e d th e incum bent
and h i s a d m in is t r a t io n ; th e D em ocrats p o in te d o u t th e
d e f i c i e n c i e s o f th e incum bent and h i s program s.
369
E very le a d in g co n ten d er f o r th e n o m in a tio n o f th e
P r e sid e n c y i s c o n sid e r e d a s a v a ila b le * P in n in g down th o se
i n t a n g ib le q u a l i f i c a t i o n s w hich make the man a v a i l a b l e and
d e s ir a b le enough to be nom inated i s a d i f f i c u l t ta sk *
Scann ing th e backgrounds o f th e p e r so n s in v o lv e d m igh t
throw some l i g h t on the n om in atin g p r o c e s s . In s p i t e o f
th e f a c t t h a t much has b een w r it t e n on what a man m ust b e ,
must d o , and m ust prom ise i n ord er to become a P r e s i d e n t i a l
c a n d id a te , D avid , Goldman and B a in , in a stu d y o f 300
c o n ten d e rs r e c e i v in g 3 per c e n t o f the v o te or m ore, found
th a t no one ty p e o f man appeared a s 1 1 th e id e a l* "
On Ju ly 1 3 , I9 6 0 , i n Los A n g e le s, C a l i f o r n i a , a t
the D em ocratic N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n , th e f o llo w in g men were
nom inated fo r the P r e sid e n c y : Lyndon Bo Johnson, John F*
Kennedy, Adlai. S te v e n so n , and S t u a r t Sym ington as th e m ajor
c o n te n d e r s ; R oss R. B a r n e tt, George D ock in g, H e r s c h e l C*
L o v e le s s , R obert B* M eyner, and George A. Sm athers as the
" f a v o r it e s o n s." At the R ep u b lican N a tio n a l C on ven tion i n
C h icago, I l l i n o i s , on J u ly 2 7 , I 9 6 0 , R ichard M. N ixon was
the m ajor co n ten d er w ith h i s o n ly o p p o s it io n b e in g the
n om in ation o f Barry M. G old w ater.
A su rvey o f the nom inees or " c h a r a cte rs" was made
in ord er to o b ta in an o v e r - a l l v ie w o f th e h o p e fu l P r e s i
d e n t i a l c a n d id a te s* The summarized r e s u l t s o f t h i s su rvey
can be found i n Table I I I * Seven o f th e men nom inated
TABLE I I I
SURVEY OF THE NOMINEES ("CHARACTERS")
Candidate Birthplace
"Tear'
Born
Age
in 1960
Residence
in 1960
Religious
Affiliation
Marital Status
in 1960 Education
Position ligbUl
(and Party)
Nominated
by
Johnson Texas 1908 SI Texas Disciples
of Christ
Wife — "Lady Bird"
2 children
B. S.— Southwest Texas
State Teachers College
1 year at Georgetown Univ.
Senator— Major
ity Leader
(Democrat)
Rayburn
Kennedy Massachu
setts
1017 43
Massachu
setts
Catholic Wife--Jacqueline
1 child
Harvard
London School of Economics
Senator
(Democrat)
Freeman
htevenson California 1900 60 Illinois Unitarian Divorced
3 children
Princeton
Harvard Law School
Law Degree--Northwestern
Lawyer
(Democrat)
McCarthy
Symington Massachu
setts
1901 59 Missouri Episcopalian Kife--Evelyn
2 children
Yale
International Corres
pondence School
Senator
(Democrat)
Blair
Barnett Mississippi 1395 62 Mississippi Baptist Wife--Mary Pearl
3 children
Mississippi College--A. B.
Vanderbilt--LL. B.
Univ. of Miss.--LL. D.
Governor of
Mississippi
(Democrat)
Brady
Docking Kansas 1904 56 Kansas Presbyterian Kife--Virginia
2 children
Univ. of Kansas--A. B. Governor of
Kansas
(Democrat)
Theis
Loveless Iowa 1911 49 Iowa Methodist Wife--Amelia
2 children
public high school Governor of
Iowa
(Democrat)
Coad
Meyner Pennsyl
vania
1905 52 New Jersey unaff iliated Wife--Helen Lafayette--A. B.
Columbia--LL. B.
Governor of
New Jersey
(Democrat)
Williams
Smathers New Jersey 1913 47 Florida Methodist Wife--Rosemary
2 children
Univ. of Florida--
A. B. and LL. B.
Senator
(Democrat)
Holland
Go Idwater Arizona 1909 51 Arizona Episcopalian . Rife— Margaret
4 children
Staunton Military
Academy
Univ. of Ariz- (2 years)
Senator
(Republican)
Fannin
Nixon California
1913 47 California Quaker Wife--Pat
2 children
Whittier College— A. B.
Duke Univ.— LL. B.
Vice President
(Republican)
Hatfield
- J
O
371
were born in th e s t a t e i n which th ey r e s id e d i n i 9 6 0 . The
average age o f th e c a n d id a te s was 52*3 y e a r s w ith th e
y o u n g est b e in g John P . Kennedy, I 4 . 3 , and the o ld e s t b e in g
Ross R . B a r n e tt, 6 2 . The range o f r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n s
was: D i s c i p l e s o f C h r is t, C a t h o lic , U n ita r ia n , E p is c o
p a lia n ( 2 ) , B a p t i s t , P r e s b y te r ia n , M eth o d ist ( 2 ) , Quaker,
and one u n a f f i l i a t e d who had been r a is e d as a C a th o lic
b ut had l e f t the ch u rch . One nominee was d iv o r c e d ; th e
o th e r s could a l l p o in t to th e a s s e t o f a f a m ily . The
average number o f c h ild r e n fo r the nom inees was 2 . 1 «
Varying backgrounds in e d u c a tio n were found, ra n g in g from
a p u b lic h ig h s c h o o l e d u c a tio n to com pleted A. B .’ s and
LL. B . ' s . F iv e S e n a to r s, fo u r G overnors, one la w y er, and
the V ic e - P r e s id e n t o f the U n ite d S t a t e s were i n the running.
In t r a c in g the m o tiv a tio n a l p a tte r n s w hich l e d to
the n o m in ation s o f the men a s p ir in g to the P r e sid e n c y ,
only one a c t u a t io n co u ld be s a id to be p r e s e n t in each
c a s e — th e d e s ir e on the p a r t o f the c a n d id a te to be P r e s i
d e n t . The f o llo w in g l i s t o f p o s s ib le pu rp oses f o r a llo w in g
a name to be p la c e d in n om in ation was taken from the e x
p r e sse d r e a so n s by the nom inee or by secon dary s o u r c e s .
(1 ) I f i t w ere n o t p o s s ib le to become th e P r e s id e n t ia l
c a n d id a te by d in t o f b ein g a compromise ca n d id a te
or a dark h o r s e , th en th e re was alw ays the o f f i c e
of th e V ic e - P r e s id e n t .
372
(2 ) B ein g th e " f a v o r it e son" was one r ea so n for,, b e in g
nom inated b u t in each ca se th e re was a t l e a s t one
a d d it io n a l m o tive*
(3 ) B ecause o f a h e s it a n c y on th e p a r t o f some s t a t e s
to commit th e m se lv e s e a r ly to any one c a n d id a te ,
th ey would ch oose a " f a v o r it e son" who would w a it
f o r th e r i g h t moment to throw th e s t a t e ’ s v o t e s to
the winner, and hence put th e s t a t e i n a good
b a r g a in in g p o s itio n *
(ij.) B eing nom inated as a " f a v o r it e son" would be one
way o f b in d in g th e d e le g a t io n to a v o te on the
f i r s t b a l l o t , th u s b lo c k in g any bandwagon f o r a
ca n d id a te*
(5 ) The exp osu re and th e honor o f b e in g nom inated
would h e lp in pending or co n cu rren t p o l i t i c a l
campaigns in the home s t a t e *
( 6 ) The f e e l i n g th a t i t was the w i l l o f the p e o p le - - a
g r a s s - r o o t s a c c la m a tio n , so to speak— would be
a n oth er r e a so n f o r p e r m ittin g o n e ’ s name to be
p la c e d i n nom ination*
(7 ) The r e c o g n it io n o f the v a lu e o f n a tio n -w id e or
s t a t e - w id e p u b l i c i t y v ia t e l e v i s i o n b r o a d c a sts
was the b a s is o f s e v e r a l n om in ation s*
A ccording to the e x p r e s s e d m o t iv e s , th e s t r o n g e s t a c tu a tio n
was to be P r e sid e n t* The secon d c h o ic e was to be
373
V ic e - P r e s id e n t * The t h ir d c h o ic e was an a ttem p t on the
p a r t of s t a t e s to b in d th e d e l e g a t e s to a " f a v o r it e son"
v o te on the f i r s t b a l l o t i n ord er to b lo c k any str o n g
movement f o r any one c a n d id a te .
A su rvey o f th e sp ea k ers or "agents" i n the drama
w hich u n fo ld e d a t th e n a t i o n a l c o n v e n tio n s was made* The
summarized r e s u l t s o f t h i s su r v e y can be found i n Table IV .
As shown, se v e n o f th e sp e a k er s came from th e s t a t e s in
w hich th ey r e s i d e d a t th e tim e o f th e c o n v e n tio n . The
a v era ge age f o r the sp e a k e r s was f i f t y - o n e , w ith the
y o u n g e s t, Merwin Coad, b e in g t h i r t y - f i v e ; and the o l d e s t ,
Sam Rayburn, b e in g s e v e n t y - e i g h t . The r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a
t i o n s ranged as f o l l o w s : P r e s b y te r ia n ( 2 ) , B a p t is t ( 2 ) ,
D i s c i p l e s of C h r is t , L u th eran , M eth o d ist ( 2 ) , C a t h o lic ,
U n it a r ia n , and one unknown. A l l b u t one o f th e sp ea k er s
were m arried w ith th e a verage number o f c h ild r e n b e in g 2 . 8 .
A l l had a tte n d e d a c o l l e g e or u n i v e r s i t y . R ep resen ted
were fo u r G overn ors, th r ee S e n a to r s , two R e p r e s e n t a t iv e s ,
and two N a tio n a l Committeemen.
Much h a s been w r it t e n ab ou t the c r i t e r i a by w hich a
man would be judged a s an " id e a l" P r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te ,
but l i t t l e can be found co n cern in g th e c r i t e r i a by which a
man would be judged a s an " id e a l" n o m in a tio n s p e a k e r .
B a sin g th e c r i t e r i a by which such a man would be judged on
the e x p r e ss e d r e a s o n s f o r th e c h o ic e o f sp ea k ers a t th e
TABLE IT
SURVEY OF THE SPEAKERS ("AGENTS")
Speaker Birthplace
T ear
Born
Age
in 1960
Residence
in 1960
Religious
Affiliation
Marital Status
in 1960 Education
Position (1%U)
(and Party)
Person
Nominated
B lair Missouri 1902 58 Missouri Presbyterian Wife--Emilie
2 children
Staunton Military Academy
S. W. State College, Mo.
Univ. of Miss.; Cumberland
' Univ.
Governor of
Missouri
(Democrat)
Symington
Brady Louisiana 190? 57 Mississippi Baptist Wife-LaVerne
2 children
Yale
Univ. of Miss.--LL.B.
National Com
mitteeman
Circuit Court
Judge (Demo.)
Barnett
Coad Kansas 1°24 3 5
Iowa Disciples
of Christ
Wife--Dolores
4 children
Texas Christian— A. B.
Drake Univ., Iowa
Representative
(Democrat)
Loveless
Freeman Minnesota 1918 11 Minnesota Lu theran Wife--Jane
2 children
Univ. of Minnesota--
A. B. and LL. B.
Governor of
Minnesota
(Democrat)
Kennedy
Hoi land Florida 1592 68 Florida Methodist if if e--Mary
4 children
Emory College--Ph. B.
Univ. of Florida--LL. B.
Senator
(Democrat)
Smatbers
McCarthy Minnesota 1916 44 Minnesota Catholic Wife--Abigail
4 children
St. John's Univ., Minn.
Univ. of Minn.--M. A.
Senator
(Democrat)
Stevenson
Rayburn Tennessee 1SS2 73 Texas Single East Texas College
Univ. of Texas--Law
Representative
(Speaker of
the House)
(Democrat)
Johnson
The is Kansas 1911 49 Kansas Presbyterian Wife--Marjorie
2 children
Kansas Univ.— A. B.
Univ. of Mich.— LL. B.
Lawyer
National Com
mitteeman
(Democrat)
Docking
Williams New Jersey 1919 40 New Jersey Unitarian tfife--Nancy
5 children
Oberlin College— A. B.
Columbia Law School— LL. B.
Senator
(Democrat)
Meyner
Fannin Kentucky 1907 S3
Arizona Methodist tfife--Elma
4 children
Stanford— A. B.
Univ. of Ariz. (2 years)
Governor of
Arizona
(Republican)
Goldwater
Hatfield Oregon 1922 38 Oregon Baptist Vife--Antoinette
2 children
Willia*ette--A. B.
Stanford— A. B.
Governor of
Oregon
(Republican)
Nixon
To
i 960 D em o cra tic and R ep u b lica n C o n v e n tio n s, th e c r i t e r i a
would b e :
(1 ) L i f e - l o n g , l o y a l , or f a s t f r ie n d s h ip betw een
the sp eak er and nom inee;
(2 ) The su p p o rt and p o l i t i c a l a l l e g i a n c e o f the
sp ea k er to th e nominee d u rin g h i s p o l i t i c a l
c a r e e r or i n the c u r r e n t cam paign;
(3 ) The p o s i t i o n o f th e sp ea k er i n 19.60, such as
Governor or N a tio n a l Committeeman;
(I|_) The su p p o rt which th e nom inee had g iv e n to th e
sp ea k er i n th e p a s t;
(5 ) The amount o f n a tio n -w id e exp osu re a ffo r d e d th e
sp eak er as a r e s u l t o f th e sp ee ch o f n o m in a tio n
a n d /o r
( 6 ) The sp ea k er as a p o s s i b l e V i c e - P r e s i d e n t i a l
c a n d id a t e •
The c r i t e r i o n w hich seemed to be the s t r o n g e s t
was t h a t o f f r i e n d s h i p ( f i v e o u t o f th e e le v e n were a c
c r e d it e d w ith t h i s ) , fo llo w e d by th a t o f p o s i t i o n (th r e e
o u t o f e l e v e n ) •
C H A P T E R V
A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OP THE NOMINATION
SPEECHES FOR PRESIDENT
T his ch a p ter i s a stu d y o f lan gu age in a c t i o n . I t
i s a stu d y o f the major n om in atin g sp e e c h e s d e liv e r e d a t
th e i 960 D em ocratic and R epublican N a tio n a l P o l i t i c a l Con
v e n t i o n s . The method in v o lv e d i s t h a t o f c r i t i c a l a n a ly
s i s . The tec h n iq u es u sed are from t r a d i t i o n a l and contem
porary c r i t i c i s m w ith em phasis on the d r a m a t is tic c r i t i c i s m
1
o f Kenneth Burke and on c o n te n t a n a l y s i s .
I . CONTROL OVER THE LENGTH OF THE NOMINATING SPEECHES
In an e f f o r t to str e a m lin e the c o n v e n tio n p r o c ee d
i n g s , the t o t a l time f o r nom inating and secon d in g sp eech es
f o r each D em ocratic can d id ate f o r P r e s id e n t was s e t a t
2
f i f t e e n m in u te s . At the R epublican C on ven tion , the
n om in atin g sp e e c h e s were s e t a t f i f t e e n m in u tes in le n g th
w ith th e s t i p u l a t i o n th a t th e r e should be no more than
fo u r secon d in g sp eech es f o r any one ca n d id a te each o f
•^Refer to Chapter I I fo r a com plete d e s c r ip t io n o f
th e se te c h n iq u e s and the a p p lic a t io n o f them to t h i s stu d y .
2
C laren ce Cannon, The O f f i c i a l Manual f o r the Demo
c r a t i c N a tio n a l C o n v e n tio n 'o f 19bil (W ashington. D. C .:
D em ocratic N a tio n a l Com m ittee, 19ol|.), p . 37*
377
•3
w hich sh o u ld n o t e x c e e d f i v e m in u te s i n l e n g t h . There
were w arn in g l i g h t s f o r th e s p e a k e r s — a g r e e n l i g h t to
i n d i c a t e t h a t tw en ty se c o n d s o f sp e a k in g tim e rem ain ed ;
an amber l i g h t to i n d i c a t e te n se c o n d s w a rn in g; and a r e d
l i g h t to i n d i c a t e e x p i r a t i o n o f t im e .
D a n ie l K. In o u y e , S e n a to r from H aw aii who. d e l i v e r e d
one o f th e se c o n d in g s p e e c h e s f o r Lyndon B . John son ,
d e s c r ib e d th e p r o c e s s by w hich th e N a t io n a l Com m ittee o f
th e D em o cra tic C o n v en tio n hoped to c o n t r o l th e tim e l i m i t s
o f th e s p e e c h e s .
Two d ays b e f o r e th e n o m in a tin g s e s s i o n , a l l o f u s
who had been s e l e c t e d b y th e r e s p e c t i v e c a n d id a te s
to g iv e n o m in a tin g and s e c o n d in g s p e e c h e s were
c a l l e d upon to su b m it c o p ie s o f our s p e e c h e s . At
t h a t tim e , we were a d v is e d o f th e tim e l i m i t a l l o t t e d
f o r each sp ea k er * These t e x t s w ere th e n p la c e d on
te le p r o m p te r r o l l e r s .
I have b e e n in form ed t h a t p r io r to th e i 960 C o n v e n tio n ,
th e te le p r o m p te r was n o t u se d and r u l e s f o r tim e
l i m i t a t i o n were n o t s t r i c t l y o b s e r v e d . H ow ever, w ith
th e a d v e n t o f th e age o f a u tom ation and th e e x t e n s i v e
u s e o f t e l e v i s i o n , i t was c o n c lu d e d by th e N a t io n a l
Com m ittee t h a t s p e e c h e s had to be l i m i t e d i n o rd er to
^O f f i c i a l R ep o rt o f th e P r o c e e d in g s o f th e Tw enty-
S e v e n th R e p u b lica n N a tio n a l C o n v en tio n ( n . p . ; R e p u b lic a n
N a t io n a l C om m ittee, n . d . ) , p . 169*
^ D a n iel K. In o u y e , L e t t e r t o Sarah S an d erson from
D a n ie l K. In o u y e , S e n a t e , W ash in gton , D . C ., June 2 0 ,
196^ .
(S in c e th e w r it e r was one o f S e n a to r In o u y e * s
c o n s t i t u e n t s and he was one o f th e p a r t i c i p a t i n g members
i n th e n o m in a tin g s e s s i o n a t th e i 960 D em o cra tic C onven
t i o n , he was a sk ed to r e c o r d h i s i m p r e s s i o n s .)
378
c o n fin e th e n o m in a tio n p e r io d d u rin g the peak hour
f o r t e l e v i s i o n v ie w e r s* T h e r e fo r e , th e y found i t
n e c e s s a r y to u t i l i z e the tele p r o m p ter sy stem to
a ss u r e t h a t sp e e c h e s would be w it h in th e a l l o t t e d
tim e *4
The s h o r t e s t sp ee ch was g iv e n by Mark H a t f i e l d —
th r e e m in u te s and t h i r t y - e i g h t secon ds* S e v e r a l o f th e
seco n d in g a d d r e ss e s took a lo n g e r p e r io d o f tim e to
d e l iv e r than th e n om in atin g sp eech c a u sin g 1 1 • • • Chairman
« •
Morton to goad S en ator K uchel in t o an e a r l i e r end and to
p u l l Governor D el S e s t o ' s c o a t t a i l s and murmur, 'C ut i t
o f f C h r is ,' d u rin g h i s p r e s e n t s t io n * n^
The l o n g e s t sp e e c h was d e liv e r e d by Tom B ra d y --
fo u r t e e n m in u tes and t w e n t y - f iv e s e c o n d s . A ccord in g to
Brady, he had been a ss u r e d b y Chairman LeRoy C o l l in s t h a t
he would be a b le to f i n i s h h i s sp eech i f M is s i s s i p p i would
r e l in q u i s h i t s d e m o n stra tio n tim e* However, p r e s s u r e s
from the g a l l e r y cau sed C o l l i n s to f o r c e Brady to
,T* * • make a h u r r ie d and u n s a t i s f a c t o r y c o n c lu s io n to the
n om in atin g s p e e c h .1 '^
Table V shows th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e tim e o f
the s p e e c h e s , the number o f words u s e d , and th e number o f
-^Mark 0* H a t f i e l d , L e t t e r t o Sarah Sanderson from
Mark 0* H a t f i e l d , O f f ic e o f th e G overnor, S t a t e C a p it o l,
Salem , O regon, May 7 , l96i|_*
^Thomas P. Brady, L e tte r to Sarah Sanderson from
Thomas P . Brady, A s s o c ia t e J u s t i c e , Supreme C ourt o f
M i s s i s s i p p i , Jack son , M i s s i s s i p p i , A ugust ll^, I 96I 4 ..
379
TABLE V
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TIME, WORDS, AND SENTENCES
OP THE NOMINATING SPEECHES AT THE i 960
NATIONAL POLITICAL CONVENTIONS
D em ocratic Sp eak ers Timea Words* 5 S e n te n c e s 0
B l a ir , , 6 :06 700 38
Brady • •
1 ,7 6 3
Coad • •
8 4 3
9lp.
37
Freeman , • ■ O • • 7 :2 0
897 31
H o lla n d •
9:11+ 1 ,0 5 3
1+0
McCarthy
13 :15 1 ,5 6 3
98
Rayburn • lip : 00
1 , 1 +21+
61
The i s , . 6 ill). 869 1+5
W illia m s 1 0 :0 2 1 ,0 7 3
51+
R ep u b lica n Sp eak ers Time Words S e n te n c e s
F an n in • • • • • • 9 :2 8 1 , 021).
51
H a t f i e l d 3 :3 8
293
18
aTime i s d e s ig n a te d in m in u tes and s e c o n d s ,
^Number o f words i s th e r e s u l t o f th e c o u n tin g o f
each word s e p a r a t e ly by two or th ree c o u n te r s u n t i l agree
m ent had b een r e a c h e d ,
c
The number o f s e n te n c e s was d eterm in ed a c co r d in g
to th e f i n a l w r itt e n t r a n s c r ib e d form o f th e s p e e c h e s .
C op ies o f th e sp e e c h e s can be found in Appendix G.
380
s e n t e n c e s . A ccord in g to th e d a ta c o n ta in e d i n Table V,
th e a verage m ajor n om in atin g sp eech a t the i 960 n a t io n a l
c o n v e n tio n s was 9 m in u te s and 30 secon d s lo n g , c o n ta in e d
1 , 0^5 w ords, and c o n s i s t e d o f 50 s e n te n c e s *
The s e n te n c e s w hich appear i n th e sp e e c h e s in the
app en dix were d eterm in ed by th e spoken s t y l e o f the
s p e a k e r s . A ccord in g to the sp eech t e x t s as t r a n s c r ib e d ,
Mark H a t f ie ld * s sp eech c o n ta in e d e ig h t e e n s e n t e n c e s ; Eugene
M cCarthy’ s sp eech c o n ta in e d n i n e t y - e i g h t . The l o n g e s t
s p e e c h , tim e w is e , c o n ta in e d s e v e n t y - f i v e s e n t e n c e s . The
s h o r t e s t s e n t e n c e , w hich c o n s is t e d o f th r e e w ords, appeared
i n James B l a i r ' s s p e e c h - - ”T ech nology i s s t r e n g t h .”
McCarthy v a r ie d h i s s e n te n c e s t r u c t u r e more than any
s p e a k e r . He em ployed many s h o r t s e n te n c e s as w e ll as lo n g
o n e s . In one paragraph co u ld be found the f o llo w in g
s e r i e s :
What a r e we t o ld ? . . . What have we b een to ld ? • . •
W e've b een t o ld t h a t we can be str o n g w ith o u t s a c r i
f i c e . T h is i s what w e've been to ld o We've been t o l d
we can be good w ith o u t any kin d o f d i s c i p l i n e . . . .
And I sa y to you t h a t the tim e h a s come to r a i s e a g a in
th e cry o f th e A n c ie n t P ro p h e t. And what d id he say?
He s a id th e p r o p h ets p rop h esy f a l s e l y . And the h ig h
p r i e s t s , he s a id , r u le by th e ir w ord. And my p eo p le
lo v e to have i t s o . But what w i l l be th e end th e r e o f?
Tom Brady and Sam Rayburn c o n s i s t e n t l y u sed lo n g
sen ten ces,* b u t th e l o n g e s t s e n t e n c e , n i n e t y - s i x w ords, was
to be found i n H a r r iso n W illia m s' s p e e c h .
P a re n ts who now s e e p ro p er em phasis b e in g pu t on
• e d u c a tio n ; working men and women who know th a t
381
he [Meyner] h a s fo u g h t f o r b e t t e r sta n d a rd s o f wages
and w orking c o n d it io n s ; m i n o r i t i e s who once were
l e f t o u t and who now have eq u al o p p o r tu n ity ; b u s in e s s
men who have been encouraged to expand p la n t s i n a
h e a lt h y econom ic c lim a t e ; ta x p a y e r s who are g e t t i n g
more and b e t t e r s e r v i c e s through e f f i c i e n t m anage
ment and w ith o u t impo . . . im p o s it io n o f e i t h e r a
s t a t e s a l e s ta x or an income ta x ; fa r m e r s, s c i e n t i s t s ,
and a l l p la n n e r s f o r th e f u t u r e who know th a t th e
dynam ics o f l i f e depend on w ater*
O r v ille Freem an, who found h im s e lf c o n fr o n te d w ith a t e l e
prompter w hich would n o t work and no s c r i p t from which to
7
r e a d * ' d e liv e r e d two v e r y lo n g s e n te n c e s in h i s in tr o d u c -
t i o n - - s e v e n t y - n i n e and e ig h t y words r e s p e c t i v e l y .
I t [ le a d e r s h ip ] i s a v i t a l , a c r i t i c a l and im p o rta n t
e s s e n t i a l , so t h a t the d e c i s i o n s th a t m ust be made
can be made and made e f f e c t i v e l y , c l e a r l y and d e
c i s i v e l y w ith o u t h e s i t a t i o n , w ith o u t e q u iv o c a t io n ,
so th a t our g r e a t n a t io n , th e p e o p le o f t h i s la n d
from one end to the o t h e r , and th e p eo p le o f the
w orld w i l l k n o w --w ill know t h a t Am erica m eets i t s
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , w i l l know th a t we can lo o k to th e
f u t u r e , lo o k to i t w ith c o n fid e n c e and w ith a s s u r a n c e .
And I want to sa y h ere t h i s a fte r n o o n th a t th e man
I am p r i v il e g e d to p la c e in n om in ation h ere i s a man
who h a s proven t h a t he can and w i l l , a f t e r c a r e f u l ,
th orou g h , and calm d e l i b e r a t i o n , a f t e r g e t t i n g th e b e s t
a d v ic e from th o s e who, i n t h i s g r e a t la n d o f ours
can g iv e i t t o him , make the d e c i s i o n s t h a t m ust be
made, so t h a t we can dp th e job t h a t has to be done
a t t h i s c r i t i c a l tim e*
I I . CONTROL OVER-OTHER ASPECTS OF THE NOMINATING SPEECH
In s p i t e o f th e c a r e f u l p la n n in g o f th e N a tio n a l
C om m ittees i n i 960 to c o n t r o l th e t e l e v i s e d p o r t io n s o f
7Rodney E . Leonard, L e t te r to Sarah Sanderson from
Rodney E . L eonard, A s s i s t a n t to the S e c r e ta r y , O r v ille
Freem an, D epartm ent o f A g r ic u lt u r e , August 2 1 , 1 9 % .
382
the co n v en tio n p r o c e e d in g s , a l l the e lem en ts o f th e t o t a l
sp eak ing s i t u a t i o n co u ld n o t be p r e d ic te d * In an e f f o r t
to str e a m lin e th e speech-m aking and a s s i s t th e sp ea k ers i n
p r e s e n tin g t h e ir b e s t , a new rostrum was d e sig n e d by H. J*
S c h l a f l y , J r . , and Ir v in g Kahn* T his was how one o f the
sp eak ers d e sc r ib e d i t *
The rostrum u sed a t th e i 960 C onvention was a h ig h ly
m echanized e l e c t r o n i c d e v ic e * The sta n d in g p la tfo r m
was on an e le v a t o r which c o u ld r a i s e or low er each
speaker so th a t a w a is t - h ig h Image o f him would
appear on the screen * For exam ple, In my c a s e , the
p la tfo r m had t o be r a is e d ap p ro x im a tely s ix In ch es;
o th e r w is e , v ie w e r s would have glim p sed o n ly my
sh o u ld er s and my fa c e on the s c r e e n .
The rostrum was a s e m i-c ir c u la r a f f a i r w ith th r e e
telep ro m p ter s c r e e n s — one f a c in g the sp ea k er, and
one each on h i s l e f t and on h i s r ig h t* T h er efo r e,
when sp eak in g to the a u d ie n c e , the speaker was a b le
to lo o k to the l e f t , or to the r i g h t , and s t i l l be
In f u l l v iew o f the telep ro m p ter screen * The t e l e
prompter s c r e e n , i n c i d e n t a l l y , was c o n t r o lle d by
s e v e r a l t e c h n ic ia n s ftIn a sp eech b ooth im m ed iately
behind the ro s trum. °
The speaker would know g e n e r a lly when he would be
g iv in g the sp e e c h — " th a t i s , in the m orning, in th e a f t e r
noon, or in the e v e n in g , and a t a g e n e r a l tim e p erio d *
Of c o u r se , t h i s . . • [was] v ery f l e x i b l e depending on
q
o th er e v e n ts o c cu rr in g a t the C o n v en tio n . 117 He u s u a lly s a t
w ith h is d e le g a t io n u n t i l the g e n e r a l p a r t o f th e program
Q
In ouye, L e t t e r , June 2 0 , I 96I 4 . •
q
7Daniel K. Inouye, Letter to Sarah Sanderson from
Daniel K. Inouye, Senate, Washington, D. C., June 2, 1961]..
383
when he was to g iv e h i s s p e e c h . He would th en go to th e
p la tfo r m and w a it f o r h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n .^ 0 Even w ith a l l
th e c o n t r o ls which in c lu d e d g a th e r in g t e x t s o f sp e e c h e s
two days ahead o f tim e to p u t on th e te le p r o m p te r s," ^
d i f f i c u l t i e s s t i l l a r o s e .
A sp e a k e r , and th e r e were many, who was n a iv e ab ou t
Mr. S c h l a f l y ' s program to c i v i l i z e him and p e r s i s t e d
in lo o k in g up a t th e a u d ien ce p r o j e c te d a p ic t u r e o f
h i s n eck and jaw on the b ig s c r e e n . When the sp ea k er
lo o k e d a t h i s m a g ic a l te le p r o m p te r th e f o l k s back
home g o t a p ic t u r e o f th e top o f h i s head on th e
t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n . In the c o n v e n tio n h a l l even when
t h in g s on th e rostru m were working a s Mr. S c h l a f l y
plan ned i t m ost o f th e members o f th e a u d ien ce d i d n ' t
lo o k a t th e b ig s c r e e n b u t f o llo w e d the u n p r o g r e s s iv e ,
b u t r a th e r t r a d i t i o n a l tec h n iq u e o f lo o k in g a t the
speaker
A lthough the m ost modern equipm ent was a v a i la b l e fo r
a m p lify in g th e v o i c e , the a c o u s t i c s a t the D em ocratic Con
v e n tio n were p o o r . The sp e a k e r s fo r th e m ost p a r t adopted
an o r a t o r i c a l tone whi*ch r a is e d t h e ir volume and p i t c h .
Inouye d e s c r ib e d the c ir c u m sta n c e s su rroun din g th e d e l iv e r y
o f h i s se co n d in g sp eech f o r Joh n son .
B ecau se o f th e i n e v i t a b l e m ix -u p s a t the f i n a l
moment, m ost o f th e sp ea k er s had to Im p rovise and
speak a lm o st im prom ptu. My se co n d in g sp eech was an
Impromptu o n e . In m ost c a s e s , i t was found th a t
10 In o u y e , L e t t e r , June 2 , 1961j..
1 1 I b i d .
■^Malcolm 0 . S I l i a r s , "The D em ocratic C on ven tion o f
i 9 6 0 ," from " P r e s id e n t ia l Campaign i 9 6 0 : A Symposium,"
P aul H. B o a se , e d it o r (O b e r lin , O hio: O b erlin C o lle g e ,
F eb ru a ry, I 96I ) , p . £5*
381*.
th e p e r s o n s e l e c t e d t o g i v e th e n o m in a tin g sp e e c h
w ent h eyon d h i s a l l o t t e d t im e , th e r e b y n e c e s s i t a t i n g
c u t t i n g down th e tim e a l l o t t e d f o r th e s e c o n d in g
s p e e c h e s . F or e x a m p le , i n my c a s e when I p r o c e e d e d
to th e p la t f o r m , I was p r e p a r ed to g i v e a 2 1 / 2 m in u te
s e c o n d in g s p e e c h . B ut a t t h e v e r y l a s t moment, I
was n o t i f i e d by th e p r e s i d i n g o f f i c e r t h a t , b e c a u s e
th e l a t e S p ea k er Sam Rayburn had e x c e e d e d h i s tim e ,
my a l l o t t e d tim e was r e d u c e d t o one m in u t e .1 3
The p e r s o n a l f a c t o r was n o t th e o n ly u n p r e d ic t a b le
f a c t o r . On one o c c a s io n th e te le p r o m p te r b rok e down.
The t e x t o f th e n o m in a tin g sp e e c h had b e e n p la c e d on
th e te le p r o m p te r and G overnor Freem an d id n o t c a r r y
a copy w ith him when he s te p p e d up t o th e podium .
He had b a r e ly la u n c h e d i n t o th e n o m in a tio n when
th e te le p r o m p t e r b rok e down. I d ou b t i f anyone
n o t i c e d h i s r e a c t i o n e x c e p t t h o s e who w ere v e r y
f a m i l i a r w ith F reem a n 's sp e a k in g s t y l e .
He p au sed im p e r c e p t ib ly and th en b eg a n p a r a
p h r a s in g th e t e x t e x te m p o r a n e o u s ly . He m o tio n e d
f r a n t i c a l l y b e h in d h i s back t o h i s a s s i s t a n t who had
a copy o f the t e x t b u t d id n o t a t t h a t tim e r e c o g
n i z e F reem an 's d i f f i c u l t y . G overnor Freem an soon
g a v e t h a t up a s a l o s t c a u se and d e l i v e r e d th e
n o m in a tin g sp e e c h w it h no one aware o f w hat had
h a p p e n e d - - e x c e p t p o s s i b l y f o r th e te le p r o m p te r
t e c h n i c i a n .14-
Even a t t h e R e p u b lic a n C o n v en tio n w h ich had two
n o m in a tin g s p e e c h e s o n l y , t h in g s d id n o t a lw a y s go a s
p la n n e d . H a t f i e l d , whose s p e e c h r e c e i v e d th e m o st t h o r
ough p r e p a r a t io n u n d e r g o in g f o u r or f i v e d r a f t s b e f o r e th e
c o n v e n t io n and p a s s in g th e r e v ie w o f R ich a rd N ixon and th e
th e n A tto r n e y G e n e r a l, W illia m R o g e r s , was s c h e d u le d to
^ I n o u y e , L e t t e r , June 2 0 , 1 9 6 1 * .
■ ^L eonard, L e t t e r , A u g u st 2 1 , I 9 6 I*.
3 Q5
sp eak b e f o r e Thomas D ew ey. But " b ecau se o f program tim in g
and netw ork c o n s id e r a t io n s " th e p o s i t i o n s were r e v e r s e d
and Dewey spoke f i r s t m aking m en tio n o f s e v e r a l ite m s i n
H a t f i e l d ’ s sp e e c h t h a t had n o t y e t b een d e l i v e r e d . ^
P r e p a r a tio n and Mode o f D e liv e r y o f th e S p ee c h e s
The o n ly sp e e c h w hich can be a u t h o r i t a t i v e l y c i t e d
a s b e in g p rep a red b e fo re h a n d was th e sp e e c h w hich H a t f i e l d
■I /I
d e l i v e r e d . No in fo r m a tio n was a v a i l a b l e c o n c e r n in g th e
p r e p a r a tio n o f th e s p e e c h e s o f B l a i r , Coad, Freem an,
H o lla n d , T h e is , and W illia m s . I t c o u ld be assum ed, however*
from th e d e l i v e r y o f th e s p e e c h e s o f B l a i r , Coad, H o lla n d ,
T h e is , and W illia m s t h a t t h e r e was a s c r i p t th e y were
f o l lo w in g (a lth o u g h d e v i a t i o n s were made from i t from tim e
to tim e ) •
The same m ig h t be s a id a b o u t th e sp e e c h w hich P au l
F an n in d e l i v e r e d , a lth o u g h he s a i d t h a t th e sp e e c h "was
p rep a red in h a s t e a s i t was n o t d e c id e d u n t i l f a i r l y l a t e
t o p la c e S e n a to r G o ld w a te r ’ s name i n n o m in a tio n • • •
The s t y l e o f B rady’ s sp e e c h was t h a t o f an extem p oran eou s
^ H a t f i e l d , L e t t e r , May 7» 1 9 ^ «
l 6I b i d .
"^Paul J . F a n n in , L e t t e r to Sarah S an d erson from
P au l J . F a n n in , O f f ic e o f the G overnor, S t a t e H ouse,
P h o e n ix , A r iz o n a , May 8 , 196I|-«
386
s p e e c h . H is n o m in a tin g sp e e c h and M cC arthy’ s sp e e c h would
v i e as th e sp e e c h h a v in g th e s h o r t e s t p r e p a r a tio n tim e o f
any o f th o s e d e l i v e r e d a t th e two c o n v e n tio n s * B ra d y ’ s
sp e e c h was ’'p r e p a r e d and d e l i v e r e d i n l e s s than two
h o u r s , ”1® M cCarthy was c o n t a c t e d i n the m orn in g o f th e
day t h e sp e e c h was t o be g i v e n b u t d id n o t make any d e
c i s i o n u n t i l a f t e r noon o f t h a t day* The a c t u a l p r e p a r a
t i o n to o k p la c e i n th e two h o u rs b etw een 2 : 0 0 and IfiOO
P* M*^9 There was a t e x t w h ich had b een r e l e a s e d to th e
p r e s s and w h ich M alcolm S i l l a r s r e f e r r e d to a s "* • • a
b a r e -b o n e s o u t l i n e o f th e sp e e c h a s a c t u a l l y d e l i v e r e d ." ^ 0
McCarthy e x p la in e d th a t a t e x t had b e e n p r e p a r ed f o r him
b y a member o f th e S te v e n s o n Com m ittee b u t t h a t he d id n o t
u s e i t * I t had b e e n p r e p a r ed p r im a r ily a s an answ er to
2 1
th e p r e s s f o r a t e x t * McCarthy spoke from n o t e s i n s t e a d
PP
o f a s c r i p t .
A n oth er p e r so n who spoke w ith o u t a s c r i p t was
R a y b u r n . R a y b u r n was r e p o r t e d a s ’’r a r e ly " sp e a k in g from
L e t t e r , A u g u st lip , 1961j _*
■^Eugene M cCarthy, L e t t e r to Sarah S an d erson from
Eugene M cC arthy, U n ite d S t a t e s S e n a t e , Com m ittee on A g r i
c u l t u r e and F o r e s t r y , W ash in gton , D* Co, May 8 , 1 9 6/p.
^ S i l l a r s , "The D e m o c r a tic C o n v e n tio n o f 1 9 8 0 ," p. 63*
^ M c C a r th y , L e t t e r , May 8 , 1961p*
2 2 I b i d .
Sam ples o f the n o t e s can be found i n A ppendix L .
^ I n o u y e , L e t t e r , June 2 , 1961^.
a m a n u sc r ip t and a s n e v e r h a v in g h e lp i n p r e p a r in g h i s
s p e e c h e s •
H a t f i e l d was th e o n ly sp ea k er who d e s c r ib e d the
f o r m u la tio n o f h i s t e x t a s a group p r o c e s s # The q u e s t io n
o f g h o s t - w r it i n g h a s n o t b een answ ered a d e q u a te ly i n t h i s
s tu d y and p o s s i b l y c o u ld n o t be answ ered even i f a l l th e
in fo r m a tio n c o n c er n in g th e p r e p a r a tio n o f th e s e s p e e c h e s
w ere a v a ila b le # The sp e a k e r s a t th e c o n v e n tio n , a lth o u g h
c h o se n b y th e c a n d id a te s to g i v e th e n o m in a tin g s p e e c h e s ,
spoke n o t as i n d i v i d u a l s e x p r e s s in g p e r s o n a l b e l i e f s o n ly ,
b u t as i n d iv i d u a l s r e p r e s e n t in g th e p a r t y , th e s t a t e , or
p a r t i c u la r f a c t i o n a l group w ish in g to p la c e in n o m in a tio n
a man f o r the P r e sid e n c y #
Com parison o f What Was S a id w ith
What Was R ep orted to be S a id
H er b e rt W ich eln s c a l l e d th e a t t e n t i o n o f th e c r i t i c
t o the r e l a t i o n o f the s u r v iv in g t e x t s o f s p e e c h e s to what
was a c t u a l l y u t t e r e d a t th e moment o f d e l i v e r y # ^ The
w r i t t e n t r a n s c r i p t i o n s made o f the n o m in a tio n sp e e c h e s
G# D u la n ey , L e t t e r to Sarah S a n d erso n from H.
G, D u la n ey , D i r e c t o r , The Sam Rayburn L ib r a r y , Bonham,
T e x a s, June 1 7 , I 9 6 I 4 ..
^^H erbert A# W ic h e ln s , "The L it e r a r y C r i t i c is m o f
O ra to r y ," The R h e t o r ic a l Id iom : E ssa y s i n R h e t o r ic , Ora
t o r y . L anguage, and Drama, ed» D onald C# B ryan t ( I t h a c a .
New Y ork: C o r n e ll U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 8 )# P* 38#
388
d e liv e r e d a t th e i 960 n a t io n a l c o n v e n tio n s were checked
a g a in s t e x ta n t c o p ie s o f the sp e e c h e s to d eterm in e i f th e re
were any d i f f e r e n c e s betw een p r e s s r e l e a s e s (what was g o in g
to be s a i d ) , newspaper c o p ie s o f the sp e e c h e s and c o p ie s
p rov id ed by the sp ea k ers (what was r e p o r te d to be s a i d ) ,
and the copy made from th e a c tu a l sp eech d e liv e r e d (what
was s a i d ) . Speech t e x t s were a v a ila b le f o r a l l sp ee ch es
e x c e p t th e one g iv e n by Merwin Coad. Only the t r a n s c r i p t
made from the r e c o r d in g was a v a ila b le fo r t h i s one s p e e c h .
T exts o f fo u r o f the n om in atio n sp e e c h e s were
c a r r ie d in th e New York Times the day a f t e r d e l i v e r y .
These fo u r s p e e c h e s — d e liv e r e d by B l a i r , Freeman, Rayburn,
and McCarthy—were r e p o r te d to have been reco rd ed by the
P A
newspaper s t a f f .
B l a i r ' s sp e e c h , as i t appeared in the new spaper,
was an a c c u r a te a cco u n t o f what he d id say w ith th ree
sm a ll d i f f e r e n c e s o n ly --tw o words were d e le t e d ("when”
and " in " ) and " fa m ilie s " was u sed i n p la c e o f " f a m ily .”
There was l i t t l e d if f e r e n c e in F reem an's tr a n s c r ib e d
sp eech and th e news ite m . One d if f e r e n c e which co u ld a f
f e c t th e m eaning o f the th o u g h t was "We stan d in t h i s year
o f d e c i s i o n w ith g r e a t c h a lle n g e s th a t m ust be m et • .
which was r e p o r te d as "We sta n d in t h i s year o f e d u c a tio n
• • •" T h e 'd e le t io n in th e news item o f th e word
^News item in New York Times. July 1I 4. , 19&0, p. 16.
389
"everyw here" from th e s e n te n c e "We f a c e on th e one hand th e
p e r i l s o f t o t a l d e s t r u c t io n and on th e o th e r hand th e po
t e n t i a l o f g r e a t abundance to se rv e th e n eed s o f mankind
everyw here • • • " l im i t e d th e scop e o f Freem an’ s th o u g h t.
In th e new spaper a c c o u n t, one o f Freem an’ s r e f e r e n c e s to
th e p la tfo r m was r e p o r te d a s " I t m ust be b rou gh t to our
p e o p le w ith a tone and w ith a le a n in g which h a s b een so
s a d ly la c k in g • • in s t e a d o f • • a m eaning . • •"
The o th e r changes were m inor o n e s .
M cCarthy’ s s p e e c h , a s r e p o r te d in the n ew spap er,
showed th e m o st ch an ges o f th e fo u r from what was a c t u a l ly
s a i d . D uring M cC arthy's sp ee ch Congressman James R o o s e v e lt
e n te r e d th e h a l l and was accord ed a ck n o w led g in g a p p la u se
w hich in t e r r u p t e d McCarthy i n mid s e n t e n c e . He q u ic k ly
went back and p ic k e d up what he was sa y in g b u t he r e p e a te d
a word and went on to sa y "... • d e c i s i o n s which were made
in a n o th er se a so n o f th e year . • •" T h is s e n te n c e was
o m itte d from th e p r in t e d t e x t . A check o f th e r e c o r d in g
made o f M cC arthy's sp ee ch r e v e a le d t h a t t h i s s e n te n c e was
d i f f i c u l t to u n d e rsta n d b e c a u se o f th e background n o is e *
In h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f "demogaguery" McCarthy became so
e x c i t e d he s a id "dem ocracy." The p r in te d t e x t c o n ta in e d
th e c o r r e c t io n and the word "demogaguery" was r e p o r te d as
h a v in g b een s a i d . The p r in te d v e r s io n c o n ta in e d a r e p e a t
o f a s e c t i o n o f f i v e s e n t e n c e s from^McCarthy’ s sp eech from
390
th e sta te m e n t "And I say to you th a t th e tim e has come • •
to "But what w i l l be th e end th e r e o f? " The o th e r changes
were v ery m in or, in c lu d in g th e a d d it io n o f an "E." to
A d la i S t e v e n s o n 's name in M cC arthy's l a s t s e n t e n c e .
R ayburn's sp eech was check ed a g a in s t two s o u r c e s —
th e news item in th e New York Times and a p r e s s r e l e a s e
copy o f th e sp ee ch s e n t by H. G. D u lan ey, D ir e c t o r o f the
Sam Rayburn L ib rary i n Bonham, T e x a s . ^ The check betw een
th e t r a n s c r ib e d sp eech and news item r e v e a le d few changes
i n the p r in t e d v e r s i o n . The o n ly one o f s l i g h t e s t s i g n i f i
can ce was th e u s e o f the a r t i c l e "a" to r e f e r to " . . . a
lo w ly man walked th e s e sh o r e s many c e n t u r ie s ago and p r e
s e n te d peace" w hich was "the" in th e sp eech a s d e l i v e r e d ,
m aking t h i s " . . . th e Lowly Man walked . . ." The check
b etw een the sp eech a s d e l iv e r e d and th e p r e s s r e l e a s e
co p y , how ever, r e v e a le d v ery l i t t l e s i m i l a r i t y b etw een what
was s a id and what was r e l e a s e d to th e p r e s s b e fo r e the
sp e e c h was d e l i v e r e d . A com parison o f th e in t r o d u c t io n
p o in te d up t h i s d i f f e r e n c e .
^ D u la n e y , E n c lo su r e w ith l e t t e r to Sarah
S a n d e rso n , June 1 7 , 1961}..
(A copy o f th e p r e s s r e l e a s e o f Sam R ayburn's
sp e e c h may be found in Appendix H .)
391
S p eech a s D e l iv e r e d
Mr* C hairm an, my
f e l l o w d e l e g a t e s to t h i s
C o n v e n tio n , my f e l l o w
cou n trym en : I come to
you to d a y a s a D em ocrat.
I come t o you and coun
s e l w ith you i n th e m o st
s e r i o u s tim e t h a t I
t h in k our c o u n tr y and
th e w o rld h a s f a c e d .
T h e r e fo r e , I come to
sp eak to you i n a l l
s e r i o u s n e s s .
I come t o say t h a t I
th in k t h a t th e w o r ld ,
e s p e c i a l l y our p a r t o f
i t t h a t we know and
l o v e , s ta n d s in g r e a t e r
d a n g er to d a y th an i t h a s
i n any tim e i n C h r i s t i a n
c i v i l i z a t i o n . N ot s i n c e
th e Lowly Man w alk ed
t h e s e s h o r e s many c e n
t u r i e s ago and p rea ch ed
p ea ce h a s t h e r e b een a s
u n e a s y and a s d a n g ero u s
a s i t u a t i o n a s we f a c e
t o d a y •
P r e s s R e le a s e Copy
Mr. C hairm an, my f e l l o w
D em o cra ts: I come to you
t o n i g h t a s an o ld f r i e n d who
f o r n e a r ly h a l f a c e n tu r y
h a s wanted n o th in g e x c e p t to
make y o u r b u rd en s a l i t t l e
l i g h t e r and you r p a th a
l i t t l e sm o o th e r .
I am t a l k i n g to you t o
day in one o f th e f a t e f u l l
h o u r s i n th e h i s t o r y o f
human fre ed o m .
T hese sire tim e s o f t e r
r i b l e t r i a l — tim e s o f grave
r i s k — when e v e r y t h in g t h a t
we as f r e e men l o v e and
t r e a s u r e i s t h r e a t e n e d w ith
e x t i n c t i o n . A l l o v e r th e
g lo b e l i b e r t y i s b e in g su b
j e c t e d to n e v e r -e n d in g p r e s
s u r e , b o th p o l i t i c a l and
e co n o m ic , by a form o f g o v
ernm ent w hich p u ts human
freed om and i n d i v i d u a l d i g
n i t y a t th e b ottom o f i t s
s c a l e o f v a l u e s .
We a re e n g a g e d , n o t j u s t
i n a c l a s h o f i d e o l o g i e s or
a d ip lo m a t ic c o n t e s t , b u t
we a r e en g a g ed more and more
e a c h d a y , ea ch w eek, each
m onth , i n a s t r u g g l e to
sa v e the f i n e s t f r u i t s o f
m an 's lo n g clim b upward
from th e d a r k n e ss o f th e
cave toward th e l i g h t o f
c i v i l i z a t i o n and human
fre ed o m .
E v e r y th in g t h a t b r a v e ,
f a r - v i s i o n e d men and women
have s t r u g g l e d f o r th r o u g h
o u t human h i s t o r y i s a t
s ta k e to d a y . I am a r e a l i s t ,
and I m ust t e l l you f r a n k ly
392
t h a t I b e l i e v e th e c i v i l i z a
t i o n we a l l know and l o v e
sta n d s i n g r e a t e r dan ger
to d a y than any tim e i n th e
tw e n ty c e n t u r i e s s in c e th e
Lowly G a li l e a n p r e a c h e d
p e a c e a c r o s s h i s w o r ld .
The p r in t e d t e x t was f u l l o f f i g u r a t i v e la n g u a g e
abundant w ith a d j e c t i v e s - - " t e r r i b l e , u n sp e a k a b le a g e n c ie s
o f d e s t r u c t io n ," "a w onderland o f l i b e r t y and c o m fo r t and
b r o th e rh o o d th e f u tu r e can b e," "d ow n trodd en , d i s t r a u g h t ,
e n s la v e d , ra g g ed and hu ngry p e o p le ," " le a d e r s • . .w hose
names are em blazoned im p e r is h a b ly upon th e h i s t o r y o f t h i s
la n d ," "a t a l l su n -crow n ed man." S e v e r a l o f th e id e a s were
the sam e--m an c r e a te d a g e n c ie s w h ich c o u ld b e u s e d f o r c o n
s t r u c t io n or d e s t r u c t io n ; Am erica was se c o n d i n th e w orld
in s t e a d o f f i r s t as she sh o u ld b e ; th e M a r sh a ll P la n and
P r e s id e n t Truman’ s a id f o r G reece and Turkey r e p r e s e n t e d
r e a l l e a d e r s h ip ; Am erica needed a le a d e r who had proved
h e c o u ld l e a d ; h i s nom inee stemmed from humble b e g in n in g s ;
th e sp ea k er had a lo n g background o f s e r v i c e i n C o n g r e ss;
th e nom inee was a u n i t e r o f a l l s e c t i o n s o f th e c o u n tr y .
A com parison was made b etw een th e t r a n s c r ib e d t e x t
and the copy o f B rady’ s sp e e c h w hich r e p o r t e d what had been
P A
s a i d . The t e x t o f th e sp eech s e n t b y Brady was c l o s e r to
P A
^ B r a d y , E n c lo su r e w ith l e t t e r to Sarah S a n d e rso n ,
A ugust l l | , 1961)..
(A copy o f th e sp eech as su b m itte d by Brady may
be found i n Appendix H .)
393
a w r it t e n s t y l e than an o r a l s t y l e . The s e n te n c e s were
more c o n c is e and d e f i n i t e i n m ean in g.
Speech as D e liv e r e d W r itte n Text
He i s a h ig h ly e d u ca ted He grad u ated w ith d i s t i n c -
man h o ld in g d e g r e e s from tio n from M is s i s s i p p i C o l-
v a r io u s c o l l e g e s and le g e and from th e U n iv e r -
u n i v e r s i t i e s , He u n d er- s i t y o f M is s i s s i p p i Law
sta n d s the problem o f th e S c h o o l, S u b se q u e n tly , as
sc h o o l te a c h e r and th e a t e a c h e r , he o b ta in ed
s c h o o l c h i ld , th e c h i l - f i r s t hand in fo r m a tio n and
dren which i s becom ing so knows th e problem s which
ominous tod ay, b eca u se the te a c h in g p r o f e s s io n and
he d e v o ted y e a r s o f h i s a l l a s s o c i a t e groups fa c e
l i f e to sc h o o l t e a c h in g , which now appear om inous.
The t e x t p rovid ed b y Brady p r e se n te d a f a c e t o f B rad y's
i n t e n t and m o tiv a tio n which was n o t as ap p aren t i n the o r a l
s t y l e o f h i s s p e e c h -- th e c r e a t io n o f a fa v o r a b le p ic t u r e o f
the South a s dependable and m isu n d e r s to o d . The C i v i l War
was d e fin e d as " , « • the S o u th 's f i g h t f o r fre ed o m .”
"Never f o r g e t ," Brady was r e p o r te d to have s a id , "the
m align ed South gave t h i s cou n try fou r o f th e 5 > f i r s t
p r e s id e n t s - ~ 7 o f the 10 f i r s t p r e s id e n t s - - a n d 10 o f the
16 f i r s t p r e s id e n t s ." These p h ra ses and s e n te n c e s were n o t
c o n ta in e d i n the sp e e c h as d e l i v e r e d , "T his man i s a God
f e a r in g f e a r l e s s C h r is tia n ," was r e p o r te d w ith o u t the
" f e a r l e s s ." Brady was r e p o r te d as b e in g more s p e c i f i c in
h i s " n a m e-callin g" than he a c t u a lly was i n h i s sp e e c h —
" . . . Communist in s p ir e d w h irlw in d o f h a te which i s
sw eeping our la n d . . ." and " in s id io u s c r e e p in g s o c ia lis m
which th r e a te n s to e n g u lf A m erica."
3914-
There was no m en tio n in t